Britannica Book of the Year 1960

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Hawaii, The Island State
Dating the Past
BOOK OF THE YEAR
Table of Contents
Introduction
Editors and Contributors
Calendar of Events, 1959
BOOK OF THE YEAR
ABYSSINIA
AMERICAN LITERATURE
ARMIES OF THE WORLD
AVIATION, CIVIL
BASUTOLAND
BRITISH BORNEO
CANALS
CHIROPODY
COMMUNITY CHEST
DEBT, NATIONAL
EDUCATION
EXCHANGE CONTROL
FLORIDA
FUTURE FARMERS OF AMERICA
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS, US
HORSES
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
IRAN
KHRUSHCHEV
LIVESTOCK SHOWS
MEDICINE
MISSILES
MUSEUMS
NEW HEBRIDES
NORWAY
OLD-AGE INSURANCE
PHILIPPINES
POULTRY
RADIO AND TELEVISION
ROCKEFELLER
SHOWS
SOUTH AFRICA
SUDANESE REPUBLIC
TIBET
UNITED KINGDOM
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
WALES
ZOOLOGY
INDEX
A
B
C
D-E
F
G
H-I
J-K-L
M
N
O-P
Q-R-S
T-U
V-W
X-Y-Z

Citation preview

1960 BRITANNICA

BOOK OF

THE YEAR

FEATURE ARTICLES

©I960, BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA,

COPYRIGHT RESERVED PRINTED

IN U.S.A.

INC.

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4\

HAWAII, The

Island State

By JAN JABULKA

IT

was the year 1849. Zachary Taylor, gurated as the

1

a

Whig, had been inau-

2th president of the United States. In Califor-

nia, a

paramilitary republic soon to be admitted as the 31st state

in the

American union, gold had been discovered.

A

pell-mell mi-

perity followed in Hawaii.

In the island kingdom of Hawaii in the Pacific ocean the

United States the exclusive right to enter and establish at Pearl

Kamehameha

New York, William Oland Bourne, Whig, was editor of the weekly newspaper the

Northern Journal. The masthead of the publication proclaimed it to be "a family newspaper devoted to politics, agriculture, science, literature, education, religion and general intelligence." On May i, 1849, Bourne picked up his pen to begin a long and prophetic editorial. In type it overflowed two standard-size newspaper columns. the American

Its title:

Union

One hundred and

its

vessels.

For the United

Other significant events transpired. Revolt, directed at

effect-

ing union with the United States, flared in the once-tranquil tropi-

III.

In Lewis county, in upstate a thoughtful

and repair station for

a coaling

States this was the entering wedge.

youthful and progressive Kauikeaouli, in the 25th year of his fruitful reign, ruled as

was any other power

of the treaty

any harbour or other territory of Hawaii. Another gave the

in

Harbor

gration westward, of unprecedented proportions, was on.

One major provision

that no special privilege should be granted to

"Admission of the Sandwich Islands

in

—The State of Hawaii."

cal

as well.

ten years later, on July 28, 1959, the citizens

Hawaii voted in their first state-wide general elections. Appearing on the Hawaii ballot for the first time were the names of aspirants to the United States senate and house of representa-

The abrogation

of the

monarchy was another

link in the

chain of circumstances which led inevitably to annexation and

eventual statehood.

For the mid-Pacific Polynesian community

was a century of

it

kaleidoscopic movement, a variegated exchange of pattern and

scene up to the

moment

of

integration into the

its full

body

poli-

of the United States.

tic

of

kingdom. The insurrection dethroned a queen, bringing to a and stormy reign, but the monarchial era

close not only her brief

As

Hawaii has been historically unique among the 49

a state,

others in

its

progressive development toward permanent and

ir-

revocable status as a sovereign component in the American federation.

and the new state's candidates for the now elective offices of governor and lieutenant governor. Much had happened since Bourne's 19th-century allusion to

provisional government was established.

statehood for the Pacific island realm.

which abolished the monarchy, became a prime advocate for

tives,

During the intervening century, in the year 1854, the annexaHawaii to the United States had been proposed by a treaty

tion of

which would have admitted Hawaii "on a perfect equality with other States of the Union." Although negotiations collapsed with the unexpected death of the 41-year-old relations

King Kamehameha

between the two governments continued

Prince Alexander Liholiho,

under the gotiations.

title

Kamehameha

who succeeded Kamehameha

III

IV, did not pursue the treaty ne-

more than a year after the accession to 1874 of King Kalakaua, this monarch, upon con-

But a

the throne in

III,

to be friendly.

little

sultations with Pres. Ulysses S. Grant, promulgated a reciprocity

treaty with the United States.

The decree

established duty-free

trade between the two nations, and an unparalleled era of pros-

First

it

proclaimed. Its

Hawaii for thirty years, was for eight years executive director of the Hawaii Statehood Commission in Washington, D.C., until the passage of the statehood bill in 1959. Prior to this he had worked as reporter, managing editor and business manager for the two major daily newspapers in Honolulu. Mr. Jabulka was born and educated in Chicago. a resident of

first

When

and only president,

this

was overthrown a a republic was

Then

a leader in the rebellion

annexation to the United States and subsequently the

first

gov-

For a brief time Hawaii occupied the role of a possession. This status was altered by an act of congress, cited as the Organic act of Hawaii, which in speernor of the

cific

new

territory of Hawaii.

language extended the constitution and

new

States to the

territory.

all

Under the terms

laws of the United of United States

supreme court rulings and dicta Hawaii had been "incorporated into the United States as an inchoate state."

The newest

state in the union

of reasons. It It is

is

the

first

island

is

a distinctive one for a

number

and wholly noncontiguous

state.

the only state whose inhabitants are preponderantly of Asi-

atic origin. It

is

the

first

semitropical state, with the mildest

climate and narrowest extremes in temperatures in the United States. It

JAN JABULKA,

was an island autocracy.

Mauna

is

the state with the world's largest active volcano,

Loa, and the world's largest inactive volcano, Haleakala.

Hawaii brings into the union the newest "wettest spot on earth," near Kokee on the island of Kauai, with an average annual rainfall of 471.68 inches; it relocates the most southerly point in the United States from Key West, Fla., to Ka Lae on the island of

Hawaii. It shares, with Texas, a further distinction as the only

The

Editors of the Brilannica Book of the Year welcome in the feature articles the expression of the personal views of men qualified to write on matters of great current importance. Their views, of course, are not necessarily those of the Editors.

unit in the

American union

to enter, not

by purchase or conquest,

nor by discovery or occupation, but voluntarily.

The Aloha

state, so

nicknamed

officially

by the 1959 Hawaiian

HAWAII. The

Island State and pineapple

to sugar

in dollar

revenue and

it

gives promise of

overtaking both as Hawaii's major civilian income producer.

Exceeding the state

all

three as the greatest single source of income within

However, despite

the huge military establishment.

is

these computable sources of wealth in terms of income, property

and products, Hawaii's major resource its enterprising and vigorous people.

is still

considered to be

The People of Hawaii Hawaii has often been described as a showcase of democracy whose people, of diverse ethnic origins, live together in an extraordinary degree of is

harmony and

racial amity.

Blended here

a unique mixture of the cultures of East and West.

According to 1958 census estimates, the largest racial group 37% who were Americans of Japanese ancestry. The haole (Caucasian; group comprised 23% of the 613.000 civilian

was the

population.

The Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian population was

ex-

panding at a more rapid rate than any other, and accounted for 18% of the total. Resident Filipinos (many of whom have taken out United States citizenship)

made up 12%

accounted for

Ricans comprised a

little

more

of Hawaii's popu-

6% and Koreans than 1% each.

lation; the Chinese

and Puerto

Hawaii boasts not only one of the fastest growing populations the states but also one of the youngest. Bureau of census

among

estimates in 1958 revealed a gain of approximately 113.000 inhabitants since 1950, or 22.6%, exceeding that of most of the

HAPPY NEWSBOY OF HONOLULU Iha Hawaii statehood

c«rryino papers an by congress March 12, 1959

bill

;ina the

passage

of

other states.

The proportion

of the total population under 24

years of age was shown to be 52.7%.

Extensive interracial marriages and participation of

and

legislature (the 30th

form of government),

is

last to

convene under the

more than

territorial

a land of /ci-bedecked hula

maidens, native grass shacks and moonlit, white sanded beaches.

whose situation

It is a military bastion

in the

Pacific

strategically vital to the security of the United States. It

and prosperous community tradition.

It

in the best,

ocean is

a

is

busy

hard-working .American

populated by a blend of heterogeneous races

is

whose descent is largely oriental. The leavening influence of the generous and gentle Hawaiian people has, over the decades, fused the 613,000 citizen-whole into the world's most engaging human laboratory. Created there was the melting pot of the Pacific.

THE ISLAND STATE What It

is,

is

the state of Hawaii?

geographically, the longest chain of islands in the world,

extending

more than

in the Pacific for

1,600 nautical miles from

the island of Hawaii in the southeast to the island of

(Ocean)

The

Kure

was formed by the summits of a range of lofty volcanic mountains and by coral built up from great depths. The eight main islands stretch over a radius in the

northwest.

island chain

They are, in order of size, Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Xiihau and Kahoolawe. Their world-famous climate is an equable one, the mean monthly temperature at Honolulu varying from 70° F, in February to 78° in of about 400 miles.

August, The northeast trade winds prevail throughout the year

but are often interrupted

in

the winter by variable winds or

konas, which occur usually between September and .April and are

attended by

rain.

The

islands

west of San Francisco, a

by propeller-driven

little

plane,

about ;.ioo nautical miles southmore than eight hours flying time

lie

and perhaps one-half

as long

by

jet

in

the political and social

life

W. Lind, noted social scientist of the 13% of the marriages of 191 2-13 were inBy 1931-32 the ratio had climbed to 32% of World War II (1942-44) the marriages

.According to .Andrew

University of Hawaii, terracial in character.

and during the period

across 12 racial lines constituted

38.5%

of

all

of the marriages in

Hawaii.

The Land is limited. Much of its area is taken up by mounand by ancient and modern lava flows that render it temporarily useless. Its most unusual feature, however, is the pattern of its ownership. Of Hawaii's total land area. 57.9% is in the hands of private owners, and comparatively little of it is available

Hawaii's land

tains

in fee simple.

the state

more;

is

30%

A

little

more than

of the total land area

with 30.000 acres or more acres each,

46%

of the total land area of

held by 60 landowners, each holding 5,000 acres or

own

a

little

—

is

controlled

4 of these 12, with

more than 34%

of

by 12 owners, each more than 100.000

all

the private lands.

government controls 7.7% of Hawaii's land and the state government 34.4%. The largest private landowner in Hawaii, controlling 368,700 acres (or more than 8^) of its total area, is the Bishop estate

The

federal

on Oahu. This estate holds the lands inherited by Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop, granddaughter and last direct heir of Kame-

hameha

the Great, the original king of Hawaii. These holdings

the Princess Pauahi, trust to

upon her death

found and maintain the

in 18S4, left in perpetual

Kamehameha

schools for boys

Hawaiian ancestry. The schools, started in 1887. today are educating more than 1.700 young Hawaiians. The will of and

girls of

nation's newest state contains 6,435 square miles or 4,118,-

any

real estate, cattle ranches or other

opinion a sale

acreage devoted to commercial agriculture produces

The second largest landowner in Hawaii owner of the famed Parker cattle ranch on

world's pineapple crop and

grown sugar

crop.

The

25%

75*^^ of

the

of the United States domesti-

tourist industry is a close runner-up

and

may

sell

property unless in their

400 acres, exceeding among the states only Rhode Island, Connecticut and Delaware. The relatively small portion of this

cally

all racial

characterize the community.

the princess stipulated that trustees of her estate "shall not

plane.

The

groups

be necessar>'." Net income from estate leases

sales goes to the

maintenance of the two schools. is Richard

Second largest Hereford

cattle

ranch

S.

Smart,

the island of Hawaii.

in the world, its

herds graze

HA WAII, on a

are held in

from the

largely

Ireland as a lad in the early 1850s and

Hawaiian Islands.

tually to the

the island of Maui, and in time

Later he

estate.

moved

He

made

his

way

who

even-

started a small plantation on

went

into stock raising

to the island of

and

real

Oahu. With an eye toward

developing his properties on the arid side of the island. Campbell sent for a well driller from California

water supply.

island's vast artesian his estate

was valued

ten times that figure heirs (one of

and

it

Today

it

is

its

least

principal

Kawananakoa) derived from the leases

a

sum

which is of its 81.000 acres in sugar and pasture lands. The pressure of a growing population on restricted land resources is felt most severely on the island of Oahu. Already there is on Oahu a greater density of population per square mile than

Japan or in the United Kingdom. The total area of the island is 604 square miles, much of it being mountainous or semimountainous. Of its total land mass, 29% is controlled by the federal and state governments; the remaining 71^^ is privately owned and of that, 499c is controlled by landowners holding 5.000 or more acres and 22% by landowners with less than 5.000 is

in

acres each. In 1958, the population of

Oahu was estimated

at

great

demand

for homesites. and spiraling prices, brought

about a land reform act

The

in the last territorial legislature of 1959.

Oahu a land development authority with condemn areas of not less than 25 acres each for resi-

act created for

power

to

the islands, only certain coastal lowlands are tillable because of the rugged terrain and the character of the soil. The remainder is forest, pasture and wasteland. The area under culti-

dential purposes,

and

to sell or lease lots to individual buyers in

the event of a housing shortage.

all

vation

is

cultural

8%

slightly less than

330.000 acres.

On

of Hawaii's total area, or about

Hawaii

this small surface of

is

based

its agri-

economy.

AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY Sugar has been the cornerstone of the Hawaiian economy for nearly a century. Sugar cane, a giant bunch grass, was growing in

Hawaii when Capt. James Cook discovered the islands in 1778. Cook observed that it was planted in hedge rows about the thatched huts of the Polynesians.

The Sugar Industry As an industry, sugar obtained island of Kauai,

&

The authority may contract with

when

three

Co.. signed a lease with

They plowed

its

New

12 acres and

Two

Koloa on the

Ladd

III for 980 acres of land.

sowed it to sugar cane; they built a with iron rollers imported from the

United States. Thus began Hawaii's tion.

start in 1835 at

Englanders, operating as

Kamehameha

mill, extracting the juice

first

successful sugar planta-

years later they exported their

first

crop, 2.1 tons of

raw sugar and 2.700 gallons of molasses.

By

449.910.

The

more than 15%.

On

died in igoo

worth at

pays out annually to

Princess Abigail

in excess of $1,000,000,

there

the authority setting retail prices and allowing developers a profit

discovered the

When Campbell

at $3,000,000.

whom was

who soon

State

private developers for financing and acquisition of lands, with of not

state.

Hawaii's third largest estate was built by James Campbell, left

The Island

more than 300,000 acres, of which 185,774 acres fee simple by the owner and the remainder are leased

total of

i960, the sugar industr>' led

all

others in the 50th state.

Annually. 27 separate plantations produce

in excess of i. 000.000

tons of raw-value sugar, worth $150,000,000 and providing 17,-

000

men and women

with year-round employment and a payroll

of about S57.ooo.ooo. In 1959, one out of every twelve persons

employed daily cash

Hawaii was in the sugar industry. With an average wage of more than $12 plus fringe benefits of more

in

than S4 daily. Hawaii's hourly rated sugar workers were the high-

NEW STATE, showing location of cities and geograohic features. Inset at bottom siiows Hawaii's relationshio to the coasts of east Asia and the U.S. Pacific states PRINCIPAL ISLANDS OF THE

est

paid in the world. About 221,000 acres of land on four of the

ll.tU'.Ul.

major

islands (Kauai,

tional

of the stale's total acreaRe,

asset.

cane Rrowing. This represents

and

is

it

5.5''^

one of the most highly mechanized agricultural areas

Machines are used

the world.

The Island

Oahu, Maui and Hawaii) are devoted to

planting and harvesting.

The

in

for preparing the soil, fertilizing,

mills require only

minimum

super-

and centrifuge the sugar into the California & Hawaiian Sugar

vision as they wash, crush, grind

raw state

its

shipment to

for

Refining Corp.

(

C & H).

the Hawaiian sugar crop

at

Crockett, Calif., where the bulk of

is

refined.

Pineapple

The

origin of this exotic fruit, once

grown in the royal hotis unknown. Some be-

houses of Europe as the "fruit of kings," lieve

grew

first

it

mention of

de Paula y Marin, tury and

in

the Caribbean; others, in Brazil.

Hawaii was made by

in

it

who came

who recorded

in his

a Spaniard.

Don

The

first

Francisco

to the islands late in the iSth cen-

diary on Jan. 11, 1813, that he had

sundry times planted "some pineapples and an orange tree."

at

The Kona

coast of the island of Hawaii

was the

site of the first

commercial plantings, a variety known as Wild Kailua. Capt. John Kidwell, an English horticulturist, laid the foundation of the present industry with the importation of 1,000 plants of the

Smooth Cayenne pineapple from Jamaica. In 1892

Slate

fair to become the state's major economic Tourism, already ranking as Hawaii's third basic industry,

facilities bid

was experiencing in the late 1950s its greatest era of growth. Between 1946 and 1959 the number of visitors who stayed two days or longer in the islands rose from 15,000 to more than 200,000 annually and their expenditures from about $6,000,000 to more than $96,000,000. To meet the growing needs of this "constant boom." new recreational and hotel sites were being opened up, each month disclosing new investments by mainland capital in this phase of the islands' economy. Among prominent mainland financiers who had invested fortunes in Hawaii's tourist industry were Clint Murchison, Jr.. Paul Trousdale and Henry J. Kaiser. The latter had already by late 1959 launched the first phase of a tourist development that would eventually cost in excess of $50,000,000.

The

known

internationally

hotel operator

Conrad Hilton planned a i.ooo-room hotel near Kaiser's Hawaiian Village. With the addition of this project and Kaiser's projected I.ooo-room addition. Waikiki alone would have tourist accommodations of more than 6.0CO rooms. The Sheraton Hotel corporation of America had also recently acquired from the Matson Navigation Co. its four Waikiki beach hotels for $18,000,000, and was studying an improvement program to cost $10,000,000. Hawaii Visitor's bureau statisticians envisioned the day as not

when

would surpass the annual

Kidwell and a partner started a pineapple cannery at Wahiawa,

far off

Oahu. but

revenues from sugar and pineapple. Next to the expenditures by

a

this

venture did not succeed. In iSgq James D. Dole,

Harvard graduate, arrived

in

the islands.

He homesteaded some

land at Wahiawa. 14 miles from Honolulu, and the Hawaiian Pineapple Co, In 1903 this first

igoi launched

in

company turned out

its

canned pineapple products.

In 1922 Dole's

island of Lanai

for

brought in competitors, including Libby. McNeill

& Libby and

the California Packing Corp., which with the Hawaiian Pineapple

now form

the big three of the industry. Altogether there are

nine pineapple companies

Hawaii, their combined crop provid-

in

new

state with its second largest industry. As in sugar, the toward mechanization on the 77.000 acres devoted to pineapple cultivation, and a decline in plantation and cannery

ing the

make

the military establishment, this would

Hawaii's foremost money-maker.

000

visitors

and $110,000,000

in

The

economy. "Holoholo Hawaii!" That

is

the tourist industry

forecast for i960

was

250,-

revenue, increasing by 1969 to

much

643,000 visitors bringing as

company purchased the

$1,100,000 and planted 16,000 acres to pineapple. Dole's success

Co..

the receipts from tourism

as $233,000,000 to the island

how

the islanders say they are

"seeing the sights," or getting about in Hawaii. Visitors have an

unequaled opportunity to holoholo, from snow-capped mountain peaks to underground lava tubes and palm-lined beaches. Miles of fine highways on

all

the islands, dozens of hiking trails through

personnel. .About 10.000 persons find steady emplo>'ment in the

from snakes and poisonous insects, horseback trails to dormant volcanoes and into lush valleys, lead the visitor into a scenic paradise. Each of the islands differs in some natural respects from the others and all are easily accessible by interisland

pineapple industry, which employs an additional 12.000 during

planes.

summer canning season. Annual payroll is $36,000,000. The pineapple pack in 1959 reached an

Polynesian panoramas of breath-taking beauty remain, unob-

trend

is

the peak

in excess of

all-time rec-

forests free

From

all

of

them the

little

grass shacks are gone, but the

ord of 3S.396.000 cases of fruit and juice, worth about $120,000.-

structed by the billboards so familiar to the American mainland

000 to the Hawaiian economy.

vacationer. This

form of advertising made its appearance in Hawaii soon after the turn of the century, and was immediately protested by a group of clubwomen as a blot on the natural land-

Other Products Diversified crop and livestock production

economy

is

also important to

scapes of the islands.

When

good-natured appeals to the adver-

annual income. About one-half of the islands' needs in meat, fresh fruits and vegetables are locally produced. The largest live-

agency sponsoring the billboards failed, the women formed an organization, the Outdoor Circle, which organized a boycott of all merchants subscribing to this form of advertising, and of the

stock industry in Hawaii

products so advertised.

the

cattle

of Hawaii, accounting for nearly $50,000,000 in

marketed

in 1959.

is

the beef business, with about 47.000

Most of

these products

come from

all

The 15.000.000-pound annual coffee crop, valued at about $7,000,000. comes chiefly from the island of Hawaii, as does the new and growing macadamia nut crop. islands.

A new

economic potential

is

timber. At present native hard-

woods such as koa and monkeypod. both termite-proof, are used in the manufacture of decorative furniture and souvenirs. The United States forestry service, joining

Hawaii in 1959. agreed that large-scale commercial timber growing in Hawaii was possible and should be developed. Already standing, ready for industrial exploitation, are 100,000,000 board feet of lumber, most of it eucalyptus. in a

conference

in

tising

The

Hawaii's mild and uniform climate, scenic beautv and recrea-

The advertising agency soon gave up. women, generous to their fallen foe. raised a sum

it out and shut up the shop. The billboards came down and have never reap-

equal to the advertising agency's losses, bought

peared.

On each

of the

major islands the

visitor

is

presented with some

of the world's finest scenery and with examples of Hawaii's inits growing future. At the southeast beginning of the chain

teresting past and

waii or the Big Island, as

it is

lies

the island of

popularly know-n.

On

Ha-

this island

is

located the Hawaii National park, a lava-formed area of great

beauty. There the visitor canoes. feet,

Tourism

victorious

Mauna

is

afforded the sight of two active vol-

Loa. whose crater

and Kilauea. whose main

is

at

firepit

an elevation of 13.680 is

easily accessible.

Ad-

joining the volcanic slopes are the groves of giant tree ferns

(some towering

to

40 feet) and rare plant and bird

life

that

make

TERRACED AND CONTOURED PINEAPPLE FIELDS of the fruit

juice of

is

the second ranking industry of Hawaii. cases in 1959

Hawaiian Pineapple comoany. Pro About 77,000 ac. produced a pack of fri

of Ihe

more than 38,000,000

WASHING CANE

in a

Hawaii sugar

the leading industry of the state, its ino to about $150,000,000 in 1959

\

AGRICULTURE

AND LIVESTOCK

OF HAWAII

CHINESE FARMER second

1959

it

in

setting out importance, rice productioi

was grown only

HEREFORD CALVES Comprising 300,000 its

kind

in

the worl(

ly til

by

for local cons'

Parker ranch, island of Ha the ranch is one of the largest of

RAKING COFFEE BEANS

on a drying deck, Napoopoo, island of Hawaii, Coffee is the third

important agricultural commodity of Hawaii

HAWAII, The

*

the park one of the nation's loveliest. Hilo, the principal city

and business centre on the Big Island,

is

Island State from 77°

in the

morning

swimming

Besides

a city of orchids; its

to 82° in the afternoon.)

surfboard riding

in reef-protected waters,

and next

and body surfing are "musts" for the visitor. Swift outrigger canoes, manned by expert Hawaiian steersmen and paddlers, pro-

io,o:5-foot Haleakala, the

vide exciting water fare for the sports-minded. In ancient times

famed "house of the sun," the world's largest dormant volcano, whose crater floor measures about 25 square miles. The summit and crater form the smaller section of Hawaii National park,

the Hawaiians lashed two outriggers together, with a platform

make

22,000 varieties

The

it

the orchid capital of America.

island of Maui, the Valley Isle,

along the chain.

It

home

the

is

lao valley, across the island, In the centre

is

is

in size

mass of stone

floor of the rich valley.

as Needle Point,

second

a tropical glen lush with foliage.

the lao Needle, a solid

is

above the

feel

is

of

The

rising 1,200

general area,

known

2,250 feet above sea level.

Molokai, the Friendly

Isle,

is

fifth in size

and

near the

lies

centre of the group of islands, about 40 miles east of Honolulu.

by steep Kalaupapa leper colony, flanked by ocean and accessible only by boat or plane, .\ncient churches and homesteads encountered on the island lour bring back the days of the

On

a low peninsula separated from the rest of the island

2,000-foot

Hawaii of

By

cliffs, is

the

old.

crossing the Kaiwi channel, the visitor finds himself on

Oahu. third largest of the islands. Oahu means the "gathering place" and it is just that. There, on the most highly developed island in the chain, live nearly three-quarters of the state's population.

The

tradition

capital city of

with

Honolulu combines old Polynesian

metropolitan

conveniences,

a

"paradise

with

plumbing" as one well-known novelist called it. The mecca of the tourist at Honolulu is Waikiki beach. There the visitor to the beach has a choice of about 60 hotels. These range

from

streamlined

skyscrapers

to

quaint

cottage-style

from $24 a day at the plush oceanside day at the smaller, off-beach hotels.

dwellings. Rates vary hostelries to $7. 50 a

Service and facilities for visitors are uniformly good. Fea-

tured are Hawaiian entertainment, bridge games and free hula

and ukulele

instructions. Well-patronized hotel lobby shops are

between to carry cargo and passengers on long voyages of the native catamaran are twin-hulled sail-

built

Modern adaptations

—

ing craft

sleek,

speedy and seaworthy.

but

Chinatown

interesting

filled

or disporting in

some

and Polynesian kaukaii (food). Rural Oahu

offers the visitor

warmest ocean waters. (The

average temperature of the water at Waikiki during

from 75°

in the

morning

to 77° in the afternoon

March

and

in

varies

August

comparable scenery

may

Orchids are shicDed the yellow ginger

shore lines.

In-

be viewed from the famous Nuuanu

Pali (precipice) lookout, a 2,000-foot

gap

in the

Koolau moun-

tains.

Kauai

is

the last large island in the northwestward extension

Garden

of the chain. Properly called the

Island,

it is

the greenest

most beautiful. On the shore at Waimea bay the visitor may stand on the spot where Captain Cook made his first landing, and a stone's throw away are the remains of an old Russian fort, A short drive up Waimea valley takes one to the fish ponds at Niumalu. said to have been and

is

considered by

many

visitors as the

by the hard-working menehunes, a

built

who laboured only

at night.

Grand canyon

quisite

and

pixielike little people

Hanalei valley, with

visit,

its

sheer beauty,

Waimea

the rainbow.

in island lore the birthplace of

canyon,

though lacking the spread of

chasm

of Arizona, rivals that great

in its ex-

brilliant colouring.

The other

three of the eight largest islands of Hawaii are

owned West Maui

Lanai. Niihau and Kahoolawe. Lanai. since 1922 wholly

by the Hawaiian Pineapple Island,

its

is

Co., lies on the lee side of

nearest point being eight miles distant. Its principal

Kaumalapau.

port.

area

FLOWER-GROWING

pineapple and sugar plantations,

picturesque plantation villages and beautiful

not touring or shopping, Waikiki's trip-

of the world's

and

jade

served everywhere,

from hole-in-the-wall hot dog stands to the swank beach hostelThe gourmet will also find a variety of Chinese, Japanese and Hawaiian restaurants, featuring Cantonese cooking, sukiyaki

the

When

is

ries.

scrolls.

pers are stretched out on the sands soaking up the perpetual sun,

apothecary,

with

other small shops. American style food

climaxing the Garden Island

vacationers alike.

day-

thrills in

Other tourist attractions in and about Honolulu are lolani mausoleum, the Mormon tabernacle, the worldfamous Bishop museum, colourful fish markets, and a small

items for the gourmet and from coconut leaf hats to Japanese

Hawaii, with islanders and

the fast "cats'

new

palace, the royal

is

in

fleet of

time and moonlight cruises.

stocked with a wide variety of wares, from island sportswear to

Sea sports are the most popular

A

operates from Waikiki beach, offering visitors

is

60 nautical miles from Honolulu. The land

141 square miles or 90,240 acres, of which 15.500 acres

are devoted to pineapple culture. Its population of 2.300

is

made

d

up largely of pineapple company employees and their families: the employees numbering about 500 regular and 400 seasonal. Residents of the island enjoy good fishing, hunting and hiking; they attend their own churches and belong to up-to-date community associations. State schools furnish education up to the high school level.

Niihau Island, often called the Forbidden Isle, is also priThe island is seventh in size in the main Hawaiian

vately owned.

Kauai Island. It Hawaii where no tourist, not even a resident, may visit. It consists of an area of 72 square miles and may be visited only by permission of the Robinson family, owners of the island. Permission to land there is given only rarely even group and is

is

situated 18 miles southwest of

the one spot in

to friends.

Law enforcement and

to the island's

manager weeks

appointments. Resident there

education

in is

raise cattle, sheep, bees

must apply

official visitation

probably the largest colony of

pure-blooded Hawaiians (about 200)

hauans

officials

advance for left in

Hawaii. The Nii-

and some of the

finest

breeds of

Arabian horses.

Kahoolawe, the smallest island of the group, low and parsheltered by Maui Island, has very little rain or vege-

tially

SURFBOARD RIDERS GLIDING TOWARD SHORE Formerly inhabited by herders who cared for a few head of cattle and sheep which pastured there at times, it is now uninhabited. Its 45-mile-square area, subleased from a private estate, is used as a target site by ships of the United States fleet and navy and air force planes. In monarchial days it was tation.

Festivals and pageants, which portray the spirit and the cul-

mixed races of the

islands,

afford the visitor

to

Hawaii a year-round series of colourful and authentic spectator events. These include the Japanese Girls' day (March 3) and the Japanese Boys' day (May 5) when special kimono and flower displays are held and giant paper carp fly from bamboo

fete

is

by the Chinese community occurs in Vn April the Japanese Cherry Blossom

festival

January or Februarj'. held. Lei day,

May

i, is

on the cresl o kinds are enjoyed by most citizens of Hawaii and are

dedicated to the flower

lei

as a

symbol of Hawaiian aloha. All races participate as they do on Kamehameha day, June 11, which is dedicated to the memory of the first monarch of Hawaii. Aloha week, held in October, is celebrated on all the islands. It is one of the highlights of the state's festive season and attracts annually thousands of main-

a

of the tourist trade

squid or baby octopus baked in coconut milk, fruit and other delicacies.

Water

sports, deep-sea

and

and shore

fishing,

hunting on

all

the

cruising, year-round golfing, picture taking

and shopping, all in an atmosphere of tropical allure and native friendliness, round out the tourist's Hawaiian holiday. Mark Twain, the humorist, visited Hawaii in 1866 during the reign of Kamehameha V. He was among the first to bring to the attention of the world the poetry of the Hawaiian setting. His greatest tribute to the islands is contained in his prose poem, which appeared several years after

poles outside Japanese homes.

The Narcissus

many

of

major attraction

islands, sailing

used as a penal colony. ture of the

Water sports

his return to the mainland.

Wrote Twain:

"No alien me but that

land in

ingly haunt

me

all

the world has any deep, strong

things change but

it

are always blowing, its

its

surf-beat

summer is

in

my

abides; other

balmy

airs

the

its

ear; I can see its garlanded

plumy palms drowsing by the remote summits floating like islands above the cloudcan feel the spirit of its woodland solitude; I can hear

crags, its leaping cascades, its

Throughout the islands all celebrations are climaxed by the Hawaiian luau, a combination feast and entertainment. The luati has for its piece de resistance a whole pig baked in a pit by preheated rocks. The menu includes raw and cooked fish, poi,

shore; rack; I

it

me

seas flashing in the sun;

remains the same. For

land visitors.

the

for

sleeping and waking, through half a lifetime, as

that one has done. Other things leave me, but

pulsing of

charm

one; no other land could so longingly and beseech-

its

plash

of

its

brooks;

in

my

nostrils

flowers that perished twenty years ago."

lives

the breath of

II

WVlll.

I'he Island Stale

The Military M.iw.iiis

position

in

the

has always offered unique

Pacific

United States defense planners. in Honolulu harbour in

straleuic

advantages

The

United States marines landed

first

the

to

came during the

1814, and the navy's bluejackets

and from Alaska to the south Halawa heights, Honolulu.

ment

bered nearly 50,000 and the defense establishment spent more

stale

in the islands in military

than $400,000,000

and

civilian

work-

family allowances, retired pay and local purchases. command is the largest military

ers' pay,

Geographically, the Pacific

command

in the world. It

is

comprised of more than 85.000.000

square miles of land and water,

Throughout this vast area, all United States and ashore, on United States and foreign

earth's surface.

armed

forces, afloat

under

are

soil,

the

almost one-half of

or

the

(CIXCPAC), who The mission

in

commander in chief Pacific command 1959 was Adm. Harry D. Felt.

of the Pacific

command

is

to "maintain the se-

and defend the United States against attack through the Pacific ocean; to support and advance the national policies and interest of the United States and discharge

co-ordinate activities of the forces of the Pacific

The

Pacific

sistance

command

program

visory groups

in

in

also administers the

the

Pacific

area.

in hand with the developmethods of transportation. From the time of the double

and steam, Hawaii's past has been closely linked Much of the future of this maritime

fast clippers

with the ships of the sea.

still lies in the sea lanes that converge there from every major port of the Pacific. But Hawaii is a world airport as well. Eleven domestic and foreign airlines operating out of Honolulu International airport connect the islands with each other and

North American continent. Japan, the Philippines, New Zealand and the South Pacific. Commercial flights out of Honolulu on the eight-hour run to

with

the

Australia,

the mainland west coast depart 72 times weekly. Aircraft op-

and military, in 1958 totaled 280.000 take-offs and landings, or one every three minutes around the clock. In that year Honolulu's airfield was the eighth busiest in the nation. erations, civilian

Passengers flying between islands during 1958 totaled 648.000, while overseas passengers airlines serve

80

numbered 412,000. Two

interisland

Hawaii, both with accident-free records, operating

flights daily.

Hawaiian Airlines has been

flying the interisland

routes for 30 years without a passenger or crew fatality.

The

longest flight between the major inhabited islands takes an hour;

command,"

mutual defense

of

outrigger canoes of the ancient Polynesians, to the eras of the

curity of the Pacific

United States military responsibilities in the Pacific, far east and southeast .\sia; to prepare plans, conduct operations and

H. M. Smith on

Hawaii's progress has gone hand

have played an important role in the growing-up process of the 50th state. As a result, Hawaii has become the largest permanent United States military base in the Pacific. In 1959 armed forces personnel on duty in Hawaii numAll military services

Camp

at

is

Transportation

War.

Civil

pole,

as-

Military assistance ad-

Japan, Korea, Formosa (Taiwan V the Republic

the Philippines, South Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand carry out the program. Through multilateral agreements, such

of

the shortest. 20 minutes.

Despite the great growth in air travel, given fresh impetus

in

1959 by the start of commercial jet flights to the islands, luxury liner ocean travel has increased substantially. From a postwar low of 14.000 ship passengers arriving

Honolulu

in

in 1947, the

Sixteen major steam-

command

number

Zealand,

Pakistan,

ship lines call regularly at Honolulu, their passenger liners and

Thailand, the Philippines, France and the United

Kingdom.

as

SEATO

is

also

Some

(Southeast Asia Treaty organization*, the

associated

of these

with

Australia,

New

rose to

freighters

more than 50.000

making about 1,300

in 195S.

to 1,400 calls annually.

countries are also involved in other military

agreements with the United States such as the bilateral agreements with the Republic of China, the Philippines, South Korea

and Japan. Headquarters for the

The Economy The base

of the

economy

of

Hawaii

A

widening steadily.

is

quarter of a century ago the islands were largely dependent on

from the

sugar and pineapple exports. In the intervening period, serv'ice

west coast of the United States mainland to the Indian ocean

industries have increased dramatically. Today, services for tour-

Pacific

command,

stretching

ists,

U.S.

NAVY RADAR PICKET PLANE,

which patrols the

Pacific

attached to the Early Warnino ocean from Midway Island to Alaska. Oahu

headouarters for the U.S. Pacific

command

wing is

the

for shipping

and

armed forces and for local combined dollar volume of sugar and pineapple. Additionally, there has been development in minor exports, in industrial plants and in diversified agri-

airlines, for the

residents exceed in value the

culture.

Plantation industries led the

way, but mechanization and

automation have now spread to

island

all

activities,

pro-

viding the high man-hour pro-

ductivitywhich supports rising family incomes and high standards of living. In short, the

economy

of Hawaii

broadening, but

is

is

not only

becoming

more stable. The size of the economy of the new state and its rate of growth best

in

the past decade

illustrated

companying

The in

in

the

is

ac-

table.

gross territorial product

195S amounted to $1,400,-

000,000, while total business

HAWAII, The Island Economic Growth of Ho

1950 Total populolion (Ircluding

ormed

499,000 187,770 $689,000,000 $430,500,000 $219,900,000 $229,000,000 $338,000,000 $449,000,000 $ 64,900,000 $124,000,000 $ 97,400,000 $ 24,200,000 $147,000,000 i 67,700,000 99.310 522,325,000 140,600

fore.s)

Labour force Personal income Retailing.

..;;:::.:::;

Wholejoling

Commodity exports Commodity imports Deposits of flnoncial institutions

Manufacturing

Sugar Pineapple trode

Tourist

...

''''.'.'....'.

Armed

forces expenditures Construction

Telephones Electricity Ikw.hr.l,

Oohu

only

Motor vehicle registration tReduced by the •Estimote Source; Bonk of Hawaii

958 sugar

1

strike

{Not oyailable

transactions totaled $1,544,000,000. In that

same year Hawaii

had a favourable trade balance of $35,000,000, achieved with an income from the mainland of $857,000,000 against expenditures of $822,000,000.

According to the Bank of Hawaii's 1959 mid-year report. Hawaii's 1958 mainland dollars were earned in the following

manner: income from exports of sugar, pineapple, coffee. Hawaiian sportswear, wallboard, canned fish, scrap metal and flowers and foliage. $251,000,000. The federal government made expenditures in Hawaii amounting to $421,000,000 for the armed forces, civilian agency purchases of goods and services, and federal grants, transfer pa\'ments and tax refunds. Mainland firms and individuals purchased goods and services from Hawaii for a total of $136,000,000. This included sales to tourists and transients

(including steamer crews'), to shipping and airlines,

to national advertisers

and to other mainland businesses. Ha-

waii earned $33,000,000 in the form of dividends, interest and profits

workers

from

overseas

in the

investments,

while

from

remittances

forward areas and other personal

gifts

came

to

$16,000,000.

Expenditures were for these purposes: from the mainland Hawaii purchased food, raw materials, construction materials, clothing, household appliances, automobiles and trucks, machinePi' and equipment, drugs, tobacco and many other items amounting

to

$426,000,000.

From

foreign

purchases

countries,

of

newsprint, lumber, feed and other products totaled $34,000,000. Payments to the federal government on account of fertilizer,

income and corporate to $191,000,000.

taxes, postal

and other serxnces amounted

Services obtained from mainland or foreign

concerns for ocean and air freight, travel and transportation of Hawaii residents (including students) overseas and for other services, such as net cost of insurance, entertainment, advertis-

and miscellaneous business expense, totaled $118,000,000. money taken out by outmigrants were $13,000,000, while $40,000,000 was paid out to ing

Personal remittances sent abroad and

overseas investors in interest, dividends and profits.

Mineral Discovery Because of the volcanic composition of

its soil,

minerals were

believed, until lately, to be nonexistent in Hawaii.

uncovering

The

recent

raw making the United

in the islands of large deposits of bauxite, the

material for aluminum, offered

some hope

of

States independent of foreign sources for this strategic mineral.

The Big Island

of

Hawaii alone was believed

to contain

more

than 300 square miles of ore, enough to supply the United States for 100 years.

This was the

gist of a report

by Paul L. Magill, chemist and

senior scientist of Stanford Research Associates.

His report

gave Hawaii reserve of bauxite as 60,000.000 tons, or ten times

known mainland reserve. Titanium has also been found

the

in large quantities

on three of the

State

l\\\

NEW HOMES ON MAUI

ISLAND,

pari of a postwar bulldino

construction an annual $175,000,000 industry by

boom wh

1958

In the construction field there are from 50° to 1,000 openings

This development, planned for the southeast corner of Oahu,

Approximately 300 new jobs open each

available each year.

envisioned hotels, apartments and homes for 50,000 persons on

year in existing manufacturing firms, with about 200 new manu-

more than 6,000 acres leased from the Bishop estate. The community was to be known as Hawaii-Kai. Homes to be built in the new city would range through the medium, upper-medium and luxury brackets. There were plans for a marina and water sports and facilities for a completely rounded out island com-

facturing positions created annually.-

In

new

Many more

millions of dollars in construction projects were

either already at

diate future

—

work or were firmly projected

for the

imme-

plus additional millions in planning in anticipa-

about 4,000 to

utilities,

jobs were expected to open up in the early 1960s.

retail trade,

employment was expected

to rise

by about 4,000

within two years. Details on jobs were lacking, since require-

ments varied considerably from

munity.

late

field to field,

but there was in

1959, for example, a severe shortage of accountants and

engineers. It

is

interesting to note, however, that there are far

more beginning or

entry-level job opportunities for females than

Although the shortage of librarians has not been large in terms of numbers, the vacancies each year have been extremely hard to fill. On the other hand, there appears to be no for males.

tion of expected needs.

A

In transportation, communication and 5,000

few examples of construction recently completed,

in progress

or projected were:

shortage of veterinarians, practical nurses or physicians. Construction in military housing, more than 6,000 units under the Capehart act, in being and projected through to 1962, amounted to more than

Completed in 195S was the $30,000,000, s3-acre Dillingham Ala Moana shopping centre. On two major Bishop estate subdivisions on Oahu, 300 homes were expected to be completed during 1959. .^ $57,000,000 Standard Oil refinery was in progress in Ewa. Oahu, as well as a S50.000.000 long-range development to expand Foster village in Halawa-Kai. and the second phase of the i.ooo-acre development of homes by Loyalty Enterprises in the Moanalua-Salt Lake

sector.

The Bishop estate was planning lor 6,000 homes around Waialae and Koko Head and for another 6,000 homes in Heeia. Kaneohe Ranch Co. and the Campbell estate had similar plans and work in progress.

Job Opportunities

What

acute need existed in 1959 for schoolteachers, since 500

teachers for

newcomers to find work in Hawaii? According to George Mason, director of the state's Economic Planning and Coordination authority, the greatest need for workers up to the end of 1961 would be in the clerical and sales fields, and for semiskilled, skilled and professional employees.

year.

Hawaii needed qualified

136,000 public-school students in 208 schools,

which were increasing

in

enrollment at the rate of 5.500 a year.

All residence requirements

had been waived for

demand

for

farm labour of all kinds. While about 48 ' is that

of self-preservation. ... I think this decrease in our numbers may be stayed ... I would commend to your special considera-

in protest to the attrition of the prerogatives of the

demanded

in successive con-

issued a proclamation for a

which opened on July

all

7.

1864.

new conThe king,

had been feared. Although Kamehameha V's con-

strictive than

stitution

was

to remain in force for 23 years the ineluctable "tide

of events," as foreseen by Wyllie in 1849. was beginning to swell.

In 1865 William Hillebrand. head physician at Queen's hos-

The legislature took no such action, however, until 1S59, when it gave $5,000 toward a native hospital provided the community would match the grant. King Kamehameha IV and queen

Kamehameha V

—

crown by yet

accompanied by Foreign Minister Wyllie, stumped the islands in explanation and in defense of the changes he sought in the new constitution. When the convention bogged down in a lengthy discussion of a proposed property qualification for the electorate, the impatient king prorogued it. abrogating at the same time the constitution of 1S52. On .Aug. 20 the king promulgated upon his own authority a new constitution, which was. however, less re-

tion the subject of establishing public hospitals."

his

They were tumul-

V's initial act as king

several such royal revolts

within one generation the population of the nine missionary families had increased 175%. The report of the minister of pubof the islands as 73!i34. and seven years later the official enu-

Kame-

V.

uphold the liberalized constitu-

000 given as a more probable figure. The first census of the kingdom, taken in 1832, sjiowed a population of 130.313. Four

lic

Kamehameha

Thirty more years of uneasy rule over Hawaii remained to

Kamehameha V and

tuous and predestined years.

feared.

400.000. Later estimates

succeeded to the throne as

END OF AN ERA: THE LAST MONARCH OF HAWAII

kingdom

the great gifts of civilized Christendom. But the haole had also

now

line,

faith

Emma,

after a door-to-door solicitation, raised an adand by 1S60 Queen's hospital was completed. The cultivation of wheat and coffee was started at this time,

pital,

was appointed by the immigration bureau

to

proceed to

China for the recruitment of coolie labour. More than 500 Chinese labourers arrived under contract from the government,

among them

ditional $14,000

22 Chinese

women.

In 1867 a treaty of reciprocity failed in the United States senate

when opposed by

the southern sugar states' senators.

Dur-

as an experiment, but neither crop flourished. Rice culture, with

ing the discussions between the two countries, the secretary of

seed imported from South Carolina in 1858, was a decided success. By 1862 nearly i. 000.000 pounds of rice and paddy were available for export but the whaling fleet was still the main

state.

source of the islands' income. During 1859 alone, 197 whaling ships visited Hawaii.

to the United States with the consent of the people of the Sand-

In Dec. 1859, the British consul at Honolulu was informed of the desires of

Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma

for the

William Seward, wrote to the United States minister at is proper that you should know, for your own in-

Honolulu: "It

formation, that a lawful and peaceful annexation of the islands

wich Islands, if

is

deemed

desirable

by

this

government, and

that,

the policy of annexation should really conflict with the policy

of reciprocity, annexation

is

in

every case to be preferred."

HA WAII,

The Island

In 187 1 only 47 whalers called at Hawaiian ports, and the number decreased rapidly thereafter. By 1872 rising sugar production

amounted

to 11,000 tons.

The census

of the

same year gave a

State

25

the rioters and arrested the ringleaders. British marines from the

"Tenedos" formed a guard around the palace and barracks

until

quiet prevailed.

Kalakaua, who had inveighed against Americans and their

population total of 56,897, a decline of 12,900 in a dozen years. Kamehameha V died suddenly on Dec. 11, 1872, thus ending

growing influence in the commercial and governmental

the dynastic line, since he left no heir, nor

Hawaii, now, ironically, owed his crown and probably the safety

empowered

successor as he had been

had he designated a

affairs of

Under the protection of American armed Queen Emma publicly acknowledged Kalakaua as her sovereign and commended her of his person to them.

to do.

forces he was enthroned on Feb. 13, 1874.

The Elected King month

In less than a

new

met

a newly-elected legislature

to

name

a

supporters to do the same.

To

forestall future complications over

king. Prince William C. Lunalilo, a popular chief of liberal

the succession, Kalakaua at once proclaimed as heir apparent his

views, regarded as the ranking high chief of the kingdom, pub-

younger brother Prince William Pitt Leleiohoku. Three years later the young prince died and Kalakaua's sister Princess Lydia

which declared

lished a proclamation

his willingness

to

serve

and appealed directly to the electorate to vote for legislators who would support his candidacy. It was an innovation in island politics, and it found quick favour among the people. Lunalilo's opponent was David Kalakaua, also a high chief. In the legislative election held on New Year's day 1873, a majority of seats went to Lunalilo adherents,

who

common

pliance with the

Lunalilo's tenure

was

elected

him king the next day

in

com-

Kamakaeha

Liliuokalani, 38,

Brother and

sister

Reciprocity

The most

was proclaimed heir

were fated to be the

to the throne.

last rulers of

Hawaii.

and Rebellion significant event of Kalakaua's

1

7-year reign was the

conclusion of a reciprocity treaty with the United States. Soon after his accession, a triumphal tour of the United States, as the

will.

brief, lasting

only 13 months. In that pe-

riod another attempt to enter into a commercial

guest of the republic, took the king to Washington where he was

compact with

received with honours and where he addressed a joint meeting of

was due to the disclosure that, as an inducement, the North American republic had been offered

the United States house and senate. Upon Kalakaua's return to Hawaii negotiations for a reciprocal trade treaty were immedi-

the exclusive use of the harbour at Pearl river as a coaling

ately renewed.

the United States failed. This

repair base for its men-of-war. this

The

and

agitation and suspicion that

proposal caused intensified and spilled over into another in-

cident which

marred the Lunalilo

reign.

On

Sept.

1873, restive

7,

household troops quartered at the royal barracks mutinied and assaulted their Austrian drillmaster, a Captain Jajczay.

They

The

opposed by foreign diplomats as assuring the in the islands, went into effect

treaty,

United States a dominating role

brought to Hawaii an unprecedented period of pros-

in 1876. It

perity and created a pressing need for labour in

hauled two cannons from the palace yard to the barracks and

exports- to the United States increased steadily

loaded them with grapeshot. Lunalilo, from his sick bed in Wai-

in

kiki, sent a

message to the mutineers asking them

Thirteen complied, leaving 24 rebels

to surrender.

who gave up

new and

in ex-

panding industries. The production of sugar boomed. Duty-free 1876 to 130,000 tons

eighth

in 1890.

among cane-growing

from 13,000 tons

In the latter year Hawaii placed

countries of the world.

sponse to a second message from the king offering them pardon.

In 1877, as a side effect of the treaty, arrangements were made for the immigration of Portuguese workers from Madeira and the

The

Azores.

no

later in re-

;

the only casualties were government au-

Lunalilo died on Feb.

3, 1874, at the age of 41. Like his prede-

A

company

summoned to fill a vacant throne. Kalakaua, chamberlain in the Kamehameha V regime, announced his candidacy, as did Dowager Queen Emma, widow of Kamehameha IV. United States interests were said to favour

of 180 arrived at Honolulu in Sept. by agreement with the imperial government, 956 Japanese emigrants arrived, the vanguard of tens of thousands of compatriots who followed until they were checked by the convention of 1908. Unquestionably the treaty marked a turning point in the history of the little kingdom, giving it an economic impetus and conferring benefits of lasting importance. Unhappily, few of

Kalakaua, believing his election would insure the success of

Kalakaua's royal deeds turned out as illustriously. Scandals

pending reciprocity treaty negotiations;

volving the person of the king and charges of royal extravagance

affair cost

thority

and

lives

prestige.

cessor he had nominated no one to follow

him and

for the second

time the Hawaiian legislature was

treaty was held

if

pioneer

1878. Six years later,

the pro-British

little

Emma

prospect for the

were to ascend the

soon clouded

his regime.

Power

in-

struggles erupted. Racial an-

throne.

tagonisms were revived under the banner of "Hawaii for the

The contest for the royal position was lively and often bitter. Kalakaua promised much, including repeal of the poll tax, amendment of the 1864 constitution, and restoration of native Hawaiians to government ofiice posts. He cautioned native voters to "beware of the constitution of 1852 and the false teachings of

Hawaiians!" which culminated

foreigners

who

are

now

supported the dowager queen.

met

mid-February and by a vote of 39 to 6 elected Kalakaua as the new king. Almost immediately, however, infuriated mobs, formed by Hawaiian supporters of Queen Emma, stormed the courthouse, breaking through a rear door and a cordon of guards. Legislators were roughhoused and several lawmakers were flung unceremoniously out of windows. The interior of the parliamentary hall was wrecked. The government appealed to the representatives of the United States and Great Britain for aid in restoring civil order. Commodore George Belknap of the United States navy landed detachments of bluejackets from two vessels; they quickly dispersed legislature

in

him

in

revolutionary

amendments upon

actions

and

the king. These divested

of nearly all his direct personal powers as sovereign,

and

placed them in the hands of a reform ministry subject only to the legislature.

Two

seeking to obtain direction of the gov-

ernment." Native Hawaiians on Oahu, however, almost solidly

The

forced constitutional

who had wormed their way into the much to bring his regime into disthem was Walter Murray Gibson, a Mormon who

foreign adventurers,

confidence of Kalakaua, did repute.

One

of

had been expelled from the church after expropriating its Hawaiian assets. He remained in the kingdom to become the head of the Kalakaua cabinet. The other was Celso Caesar Moreno, an Italian, a professional lobbyist of

dubious reputation,

who won

the king's approval of a scheme to subsidize a Hawaii-China

steamship

line.

In the 1880 legislature Kalakaua supported a series of

bills

proposed by Moreno. These were for a $10,000,000 loan, the unrestricted sale of liquor to Hawaiians, the licensing of the sale

opium in the kingdom, and the China mail line subsidy. With Gibson voting for them in the legislature, all these measures ex-

of

hA^ ''i^^^^^^^H

ORIENTAL CONSTRUCTION WORKER

of

Honolulu

SCHOOLBOY ARTIST one of

his

of

mixed blood standing

in

front of

paintings

I

ELDERLY CHINESE MAN smoking

PURE HAWAIIAN YOUTH, and wavy black hair

a

bamboo water

typically Polynesian with light

brown

skir

;

HAWAII. The

28 bill

were defeated. Despite the passage of the

latter, after a lavish

expenditure of funds, no subsidy was ever

cept the subsidy

paid.

Kalakaua then adjourned the legislature, dismissed for the and appointed Moreno as premier and

third time his cabinet

minister for foreign affairs.

A

storm of protests broke over the

Mass meetings were held in remonstrance. Dowager Queen Emma, Princess Ruth Koelikolani and I'rincess Bernice I'auahi Bishop publicly condemned the king's action. The repreking's head.

sentatives of the (.'niled States, England and France hauled

down

and declared they would not deal with the government of Hawaii so long as Moreno remained in it. Four days later Kalakaua, giving way to public sensibility, withdrew the appointment. In 1881 the king started out on a trip around the world, the first monarch in history to make such a journey. His itinerary inthe flags over their legations

cluded the United States, Japan, China, Siam, India, Egypt,

Germany, Austria, France, Spain, Portugal and Great Everywhere he was met with courtesy and respect. After a triumphal homecoming Kalakaua, egged on by Gibson and Moreno, resolved after eight years of rule upon a formal coronation. Kalakaua and his queen Kapiolani were crowned in a costly ceremony before lolani palace, newly completed at a cost of $350,000. The palace, whose cornerstone was laid in Dec. 1879, thereafter remained the seat of the government as Hawaii became successively a republic, a territory and the 50th state of the American union. Italy,

Britain.

Island Stale

who were coming to combat this with the slogan "Hawaii for the Hawaiians." Under the constitutions of 1840, 1852 and 1864, the king had an absolute veto power as to laws passed by the legislature. No legislative act, under these constitutions, could become law unless approved by the king. Under the constitution of 1887, which Kalakaua was forced to sign and proclaim, the king's veto could be overridden by a twothirds' vote of the legislature. Under the early constitutions the the Caucasians of local birth and citizenship the front politically, and they sought to

members

of the upper branch of the legislature Cthe house of

nobles) were appointed by the king, but under the constitution of 1887 they were elected by the voters, and the right to vote

was no longer limited to Hawaiian subjects but was extended to male residents of American and European birth. These constitutional modifications irked King Kalakaua, as they were later to irritate his sister-successor Queen Liliuokalani. Both yearned for the power their predecessors had exercised both were displeased with the developing influence of the Caucasian population in public affairs; and both resented the independence now being displayed by the legislators. The resulting condition of unrest and instability restrained trade, discouraged investment and created a feeling of insecurity.

Kalakaua, who was a diabetic, departed in Nov. 1890 on a voyage to California in quest of his health, aboard the United States cruiser "Charleston." The king was royally received in southern California and in San Francisco, where his condition took a sudden turn and he died on Jan.

20, 1891. Liliuokalani, his

regent and sister, was proclaimed queen on Jan. 29.

The "Bayonet Constitution"

THE REPUBLIC OF HAWAII

In 1886, under the legislative whip of the notorious Gibson, the

opium

bill

was

to sell to a Chinese syndicate for in the drug.

government the right $30,000 a monopoly to traffic

More than any

other this deplorable act brought on

the crisis of 1887 and the "bayonet constitution" of that year.

A

IS

PROCLAIMED

finally passed, giving the

its vicissitudes and the many vices imputed to King Kalakaua was a notable one. Giant strides

Despite reign of

terial progress,

under the

momentum

it,

in

the

ma-

of the reciprocity treaty

was organized, called the Hawaiian league, whose membership became divided over its aims. One faction advocated the dissolution of the monarchy and annexation to the United

with the United States, were

States: the other favoured continuation of the royal

1876. Government revenues tripled in the same period while Hawaiian exports to the .American mainland soared to six times their pretreaty values. Private investors, encouraged by the signs of the times, launched many new and worthwhile ventures. Public improvements multiplied. .Appropriations for schools and public health more than doubled. lolani palace, which houses today the executive and legislative chambers of the newest state, was

secret society

government

with stricter curbs on the powers of the king and broadened authority for the elected legislature. On June 30. aroused and exasperated citizens thronged to a meeting held under the chairman-

ship of the Hawaiian-born lawyer, Sanford Ballard Dole. During the meeting they denounced the regime and passed resolutions, offered

by Lorrin A. Thurston,

upon Kalakaua to effect Both Dole and Thurston were committee was named to wait upon calling

radical reforms in his government. to be

heard from later on.

A

the king.

a

Production of sugar and

built.

In 1887 the treaty of reciprocity with the United States was extended for seven years, giving the United States exclusive rights at Pearl Harbor. This

tion of the posture of the

porting to show that the

monarch had benefited

to the extent of

French and Portuguese governments, and offered to assign to jointly his sovereign powers. The tender was rejected. The king, sensing the frayed tempers and impatience of his people and fearful of open revolt, then agreed to a new constitution. It was signed on July 7, 1SS7. and Kalakaua became king in name

them

was another step in the consolidaAmerican republic in the Pacific and it drew a protest from the British government as a violation of the neutrality of Hawaii.

Indicators in every category of business in Hawaii were

pointing upward and the outlook was bright when, with

in.

In the United States a radically rexased in the

tariff bill was offered house of representatives. The measure was enacted and

became the McKinley

tariff

law,

and

it

brought immediate and

disastrous consequences to Hawaii.

Worsening conditions in the kingdom now assumed a foreboding aspect. While the early monarchs had gladly availed them-

to sugar imports. This provision not only gave a

and assistance of competent were not so readily disposed. They viewed with some alarm the growing influence of the conservative forhaoles, the later rulers

eign element. They noticed, too, that some of the more intelligent and independent Hawaiians were inclined to cast their lots with

still

little

warning, the economic roof of the insular community suddenly

caved

only.

selves of the advice, experience

more

than a decade after the signing of the commercial convention of

This committee demanded of the king the recall of Gibson and

$74,000 from the grant of the opium franchise, was submitted to him. The harried king, deserted by his royal guard, conferred with the diplomatic representatives of the United States, British,

his administration.

rice increased eightfold in little

new

constitution, to replace the one of 1864. Evidence, pur-

made during

One

section of the

bill

related

bonus of 2 cents per pound to all domestic sugar growers, a political acknowledgement to the struggling beet farmers of the west and the cane planters of the south, but it eliminated entirely the duty on all foreign imports of raw sugar into the country. With a single stroke of the presidential pen Hawaii had lost sition in the

American sugar market. The

its

preferred po-

effect in the islands

HAWAII, The

Island State

was calamitous. Sugar production was curtailed and plantation labour rolls were reduced. Small cane plantations were

abandoned and larger ones barely produced an operating profit. Island

property values

sagged by an estimated $12,000,000. Depression set in with its

attendant evils of declining

wages and rising unemployment, creating all the classic ingredients for civil strife.

This was the disordered economic situation inherited

by Liliuokalani, the strongwilled queen who had vowed a return to the personal govern-

ment of the ancient rulers of her land. Hotheads revived

among

threats of revolution;

thoughtful citizens annexation to

United

the

came

States

again to be regarded as the

only practicable solution. Se-

an annexation club, with

cretly

ties to the

goal,

United States as

its

was organized.

The Queen

Is

Deposed

The queen took Jan.

29,

office

on

1891, unheeding

or

not recognizing the darkening

storm clouds.

A supreme

lOLANI PALACE,

Kalakaua cabinet had expired upon

name

the king's death gave Liliuokalani the opportunity to ministry.

From

concessions for

The

a

new

membership she obtained preappointment new appointive powers, a maneuver which added its

legislature of 1892

was deadlocked

for eight

months

in a

The queen during this period forced the resignation of recalcitrant individual members of her cabinet and named four completely new ministries. The last of these, composed of members of the queen's party, took office two days becontest for control.

fore the

adjournment of the

nounced her intention meaningful straints

legislature. Liliuokalani then an-

new constitution, the most which would have removed various re-

to proclaim a

articles of

upon the sovereign, eliminated the guaranty of the

in-

dependence of the supreme court and permitted only native subjects to vote.

The

cabinet balked and refused to sign the docu-

ment, and when news of the queen's proposals became generally

known mass

protests began.

A Committee

of Safety

ized to study the formation of a provisional

On

was organ-

government.

Jan. 16, 1893 the United States navy cruiser "Boston" ar-

rived from Hilo and landed troops, ostensibly for the protection of

American

lives

and property. The queen, alarmed by mountcrowd of citizens from lolani

ing public reaction, addressed a palace,

announcing the postponement of promulgation of the new

constitution.

On

But

it

was too

late.

from lolani palace.

streets of the capital.

A

A

members

of the

Committee

government building across the

hastily organized guard patrolled the

proclamation was issued from the com-

mittee's headquarters dissolving the

a provisional

By

nightfall the

the troubled and colourful

queen capitulated. And so ended

kingdom

of Hawaii, after a half-

century's struggle for survival.

now assumed charge of the Hawaiian nation, was declared to be established "to exist until terms of union with the United States have been negotiated and agreed upon." It was hoped and expected that annexation would be speedily accomplished. To this end, on The

provisional government, which

government

to

Jan. 19, five commissioners departed for Washington amid great

The men were L. A. Thurston, W. R. Castle, Joseph Marsden, W. C. Wilder and C. L. Carter. In San Francisco they gave out the astonishing news of the subversion of the Hawaiian monarchy and then proceeded to Washington, where they were secrecy.

cordially received

by

Pres.

Benjamin Harrison. They

laid before

the president and his cabinet their desire for a treaty with the

United States government "by the terms of which plete political union

may

full

and com-

be secured between the United States

and the Hawaiian Islands." Harrison approved of the principle of annexation and designated his secretary of state, John W. Foster, to act for the United States. Conferring with Foster, the five Hawaiian commissioners asked for admission to the union as a state. Foster replied that this

government would involve many details which would take much time to work out; that bringing Hawaii into the union was the main object in view that he was not averse to statehood but that a treaty providing for it would occasion debate and delay; that by 3eeking annexation Hawaii had demonprecise form of

;

the morning of Jan. 17, 1893,

of Safety took possession of the street

Justice Dole.

affairs of the

her popularity.

little to

HONOLULU

court

ruling that the tenures of the

monarchy and

establishing

be presided over by Supreme Court

strated

its

confidence in the United States and that,

such confidence would not be misplaced.

He

if

annexed,

then proposed that

the treaty should provide for the annexation of Hawaii as a territory.

This proposal was accepted by the commissioners

who

HAWAII, The

JO

Island Slate It was comprised of government and 18 delegates

Republic of Hawaii.

thereupon made formal written request for "full and complete political union" as a territory of the United States. Foster then

a constitution for the

suggested omission of the provision concerning territorial government, substituting for it the provision that Hawaii be "incor-

chosen at large by qualified voters. Of the latter 18 delegates, 13 were Hawaiian born and s were native Hawaiians. On July 3,

porated into the L'nited Slates as an integral part thereof."

The

Hawaiian commissioners were reluctant to accede to the change but finally did so after looking up the definition of the word "integral." Several days later the treaty was drafted, signed by the secretary of state and the five commissioners and transmitted

by the president to the senate for ratification. The background of the treaty was pointedly and concisely summed up in its preamble. This recited the natural dependence upon the United

of the islands

imity, the intimate part taken

of the provisional

the convention ended

labours and on the following day, July

its

4,

1894, the Republic of Hawaii was proclaimed with Sanford Dole as

its first

The

president.

was promptly recognized by

fledgling republic

whom Hawaii had

powers with

all

foreign

diplomatic relations. All had de-

sired the independence of the islands. Germany, France, England and Japan were especially anxious that Hawaii should not become a part of the United States,

States, their geographical prox-

by

citizens of the

United States

The Coup That Failed The calm

implanting there the seeds of Christian civilization and the

in

members

18

that followed the birth of the republic

was a

brief

long continuance of the exclusive reciprocal commercial relations

and deceptive one. Liliuokalani, waging

whereby the mutual interests of both nations were developed. However, President Harrison's term of office was nearing its end and the congressional session was about to adjourn. It expired without any action on the treaty having been taken by the senate. Pres, Grover Cleveland, who was inaugurated on March 4, 1803. did not share the enthusiasm for Hawaiian annexation

her throne, sent commissioners to Washington to plead for sup-

which had characterized the office.

On March

9,

five

last

actions of his predecessor in

days after taking his

office,

President

meantime

Hawaiian Islands Hawaii and the United States flag, on

a provisional protectorate of the

had been proclaimed in Feb. I, had been raised over the government building in Honolulu. On March 31, following the withdrawal of the treaty from

senate consideration, the American flag in Hawaii was hauled

down.

to to

On Aug. 15, 1894, President Cleveland, by letreminded the queen's emissaries that he had once attempted effect her restoration and had failed, thus committing the en-

ter,

to

tire

subject to the congress.

"The Congress," wrote

of the queen."

When word

of the failure of the queen's mission reached

lulu royalists they

Arms and ammunition were

scattered and fled into the valleys and the uprising collapsed.

hunt began for the leaders and soon

Evidence linking Liliuokalani

to warrant her detention

ficient

all

were

in

to the intrigue

on Jan.

16.

queen formally renounced

1895. Eight days

after her arrest the

States minister, and his forceful display of United States troops.

throne and pleaded for clemency for the plotters.

new minister to who made a formal

demand on

the provisional government that

posed queen to her throne.

ment Dole firmly rejected ing, the

The

On this

restore the de-

it

among them

spent nine months in eral

victory of the antiannexationists in the early 1890s was

little part to diplomatic pressures from Great France and Germany. The old-world colonial powers were determined that the Hawaiian Islands should not come into

Britain,

the possession of the United States.

The United

States, on the

other hand, was equally determined that Hawaii should not

fall

into the hands of any power which in some future turn of world events might use the islands in a manner contrary to the security

of America's west coast.

Thus, toward the close of the iqth century the people of the islands found themselves in the middle of a situation in the Pa-

which could scarcely be called good. .As an independent nation they were too weak to survive for long. Their wealth and strategic location made them a highly desirable prize for inclucific

any one of several colonial empires. They wanted to cast their national lot with the United States, their largest customer and the homeland of a substantial part of the Hawaiian population, but the United States seemed reluctant to receive them. A majority of the people of Hawaii were determined, however, despite the shattered hope of annexation, that they had had enough of monarchy, and they proceeded with the steps necessary to establish a republican form of government. A constitutional convention was called and met on May 30, 1894, to frame

claims to the

More than 190

David Kawananakoa and Jonah Kuhio

months

Upon

President Dole's

meted out were light. The deposed queen custody in a room in her former palace. Sev-

demand, ending,

after her release the remainder of her partisans were

also set free.

News

attributable in no

sion in

the princes

Kalanianaole, nephews of Liliuokalani. insistence the penalties

for the time be-

all

persons were eventually held to face treason and other charges,

behalf of his provisional govern-

promise of annexation.

custody.

was deemed suf-

been accomplished mainly through the intervention of the United

Ky.,

Diamond

Head, in Waikiki. News of the conspiracy had become known to government forces, how-ever, and they precipitated the coup by a raid on a house occupied by a rebel group. The insurrection-

A

S. Willis of Louisville,

secretly im-

ported from San Francisco and landed at a point near

ists

President Cleveland promptly dispatched as

Hono-

began to execute their delayed plot for the

assault on the republic.

James Blount of Macon, Ga., to investigate and to report the president on Hawaiian affairs. The report, when submitted the secretary of state, concluded that Liliuokalani's upset had

Hawaii, Albert

the president,

"both by its action and its omission to act, signified that nothing need be done touching American interference with the overthrow

Cleveland then sent to Hawaii as his special representative Col.

stubborn fight to regain

port in her behalf.

Cleveland withdrew the annexation treaty from the senate. In the

a

of the aborted coup d'etat reverberated in the United

States congress and provoked heated debates in the house and senate.

The

president was assailed by critics for lending moral

support to the royalists, and for the withdrawal of naval forces

from Hawaii. The cruiser "Philadelphia" was ordered to Honoand her commander was instructed to extend no aid or support to any of the parties to the disturbance. There was. President Cleveland emphasized, no cause for alarm and no change lulu

in

United States policy.

One young

shift in

2-cents a

that policy, however, conferred a

The Wilson-Gorman

boon on the

withdrew the pound subsidy to domestic sugar growers and rein-

republic.

act of 1894

stated the import duty on foreign sugars.

By

the terms of

its

reciprocity treaty with the United States, the Hawaiian sugar

industry regained

its

the need for labour

duty-free export status. Again, in Hawaii,

became important.

In 1896 an official census of the islands was taken. The count showed a total population of 109.020. Of these. 39.504 were Hawaiians and part-Hawaiians. Portuguese numbered 15.191; other Europeans.

4. 161.

.Americans listed were 3.086; Japanese,

24.407. Chinese. 21.616, others. 1.055.

The Japanese now com-

prised nearly one-quarter of the islands' population.

— HAWAII, The ANNEXATION ... "A CONSUMMATION" In 1896-97

it

came

to the attention of the

that fraud had been resorted to

among

Hawaiian republic

the several Japanese com-

panies chartered to handle the emigration of labourers to the

March

islands. In

1897, Hawaiian government officials prohibited

the landing of several hundreds of Japanese contract labourers,

and subsequently several other boatloads were denied entry and compelled to return to Japan, The Japanese government protested vigorously to Honolulu. In

May,

a Japanese warship ar-

rived with a cargo of government representatives, immigration

company

and members of the Japanese press. After and correspondence a compromise was

officials

lengthy negotiations

reached, stipulating the

payment of

a $75,000 indemnity to Ja-

pan.

The amicable

to this touchy affair had been unHawaiian republic by a significant turn of events which were transpiring on the American mainland. In March 1897, William McKinley had been inducted into office as United States president. The Hawaiian republic immediately drew to his attention the fact that the Hawaiian legislature, on May 27, 1896, by resolution had indicated its earnest desire for action in the matter of annexation. On June 16, 1897, a new annexation treaty was signed in Washington and was on the same day transmitted to the senate by President McKinley. The treaty was approved by the Hawaiian senate and signed by Hawaii's President Dole on Sept. 10, 1897. Action lagged, however, in the

solution

doubtedly hastened

in the

United States senate. 1897, stated that: "Hawaii has

shown her

6,

ability as a sovereign

contractant to enter upon a conventional union with the United States, thus realizing a purpose held

by the Hawaiian people and

proclaimed by successive Hawaiian governments through some 70 years of their virtual dependence

31

upon the benevolent protec-

United States. Under such circumstances, annexation

to the ultimate granting of state-

hood.

For more than 100 years Hawaii's historical background had it under constantly expanding American influence and to this was due, to a considerable extent, the passage of the longpending annexation resolution of 1898. But there were other and possibly more compelling reasons. United States military and administration leaders had long been aware of the growing strategic value of the mid-Pacific archipelago. This became forcefully evident at the turn of the century when the United States found itself engaged in combat, in both the Atlantic and the Pacific, with a great imperialistic power. The speedy annexation of Hawaii during this emergency was unquestionably a defense measure, taken by the United States in the interests of its own national security and to prevent the islands becoming subordinate to some brought

other power. First Territorial Elections

The Organic

act which incorporated

Hawaii

as a territory of

the United States, and defined the form of government under

which

it was to live for nearly six decades, was signed into law on June 14, 1900. The constitution and the laws of the United States were then extended to Hawaii, whose bona fide citizens became automatically citizens of the United States.

McKinley named Sanford Dole

President

new in

President McKinley. in a message to the senate on Dec.

tion of the

Island State committed the United States

territory.

Hawaii, but they got

elections. Elected to

fill

weak

off to a

first

in the

delegate was Robert

the part-Hawaiian insurrectionist and

Home

start in the first territorial

an incomplete term

States congress as Hawaii's

the

as governor of the

Republican and Democratic parties were organized

now

56th United

W.

Wilcox,

the standard bearer of

Rule party whose campaign slogan was "Hawaii for swamped his Republican and Democratic

the Hawaiians." Wilcox

rivals in the special election

and repeated

his victory over

them

in the regular fall election of 1900.

was fearful that the

In igo2 Wilcox was opposed for re-election by Prince Jonah Kuhio Kalanianaole. a nephew of former Queen Liliuokalani, who was popularly known as Prince Cupid. A former Home Ruler, Kuhio now ran as a Republican and was elected, launching an

annexation of Hawaii would endanger the status quo in the Pa-

uninterrupted 20-year career as Hawaii's sole and nonvoting rep-

it is a consummation." Immediately upon the signing of the treaty in Washington the government of Japan, which had recently emerged victorious

not a change;

is

from the Sino-Japanese war. protested.

The United

cific.

It

States denied that Japan's interests would be

resentative in the United States congress.

On

jeopardized and gave assurances that Japan's rights in Hawaii

would be respected. The expressed their

French and the Germans also concern for the continued independence of the British.

islands.

Then,

came

in 189S,

came

the Spanish-American war. Honolulu be-

a mid-Pacific food

and fuel stopover for United States ships on their way to the Philippines. American "boys in blue'' were welcomed in Hawaii. Hawaii's first Red Cross group was founded, to entertain

and give service

to the

American

troops. Thus, at the

turn of the century, the value of the Hawaiian Islands to the

Feb. 20, 1901. the

first territorial legislature

The

convened, but

was marked by angry disputes among inexperienced legislators and by the introduction of trivial and illegal measures. An example of the former was a bill to lower the tax on female dogs from $3 to $1 a year. So much time was taken up in the bitter disputes on this bill that it

did

little to

the session bill,

distinguish itself.

session

became known as the "Lady Dog legislature." The was passed over the governor's veto.

incidentally,

In 1903, with complete faith in Sen. John Tyler Morgan's earlier assurance that "the

road to statehood cannot be

a

long

United States became apparent even to the most rabid anti-

one," the territorial legislature,

annexationist.

the congress of the United States for admission into the union

On June by

15, 1898, the

United States house of representatives,

a vote of 209 to 91. passed a joint resolution for the

annexa-

On July 6, by a vote of 42 to 21, the resolution passed the senate and on the next day the. so-called Newlands tion of Hawaii.

resolution

was signed by President McKinley. On Aug. 12, 1898, was once more raised in Hawaii

by

joint resolution, petitioned

Nothing happened. Similar petitions were repeated in War I. In Washington, save for the acts of introduction, no official notice was ever taken of these petitions. But in Hawaii the movement for statehood as an organized process was getting under way. as a state.

191 1 and biennially thereafter until World

the flag of the United States

time to stay.

this

The Newlands

resolution annexing Hawaii, and the joint reso-

lution annexing Texas, constitute the only examples of annexa-

American territory by such measures. When the congress, Newlands resolution, accepted the cession on the terms Hawaii should be incorporated in the United States as an in-

tion of

by

the

that

tegral part thereof

gress then

and

and should be granted

territorial status, con-

there, in the opinion of later statehood advocates,

THE AMERICAN TERRITORY OF HAWAII now an integral part

Hawaii, the offshore territory, was

of the

United States. Nearly 60 eventful years were to pass before Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower could proclaim it the 50th state of the

American union. Despite the insecurity of its new status, which was to be demonstrated again and again, they w-ere good years for Hawaii, years of progress

The census

and prosperity and achievement.

of 1900 gave the territorj- a population of 154,001,

HAWAII, The

J3

over the previous decennial enumeration. Transportation between islands, via modern freight and passenger vessels,

up

yo'^f.

developed.

The new

began to

territory, with federal assistance,

construct wharves and buildings and other utilities on

all

its

Island Slate lations

between the United States and Japan began to worsen.

Many members

and foes

of congress, statehood friends

mindful of the rising numbers of Japanese

alike,

in the critical Pacific

and aware that some of them were dual at least a nominal allegiance to the

territory of Hawaii,

who presumably owed

major islands. In igoS congress approved a bill for the establishment of a giant naval base at I'carl Harbor, Oahu, where one day, upon the completion of the Panama canal, the United States Pacific battle fleet would ride at anchor. As the huge construction job began a Honolulu newspaper predicted, with grim ac-

citizens

curacy: "Pearl Harbor

going to settle the destiny of the

comprised 15.2% of this total; Caucasians, 24. 59^; Japanese, ili%- Alarmists on the mainland and in Hawaii pointed to

growth during the pe-

these statistics as proof that the loyalty of a major segment of

second civilian income producer, pine-

Hawaii's inhabitants was divided and could not be relied upon

is

world!"

The sugar

industr\' continued its steady

riod, as did the islands'

apple processing. Hawaii had

grower of the tropical civil

and military

fruit.

now become the world's largest The advent in the mid- 1930s of

air transport across the Pacific

was

a

tremen-

economy. The United States, which had been spending millions of dollars annually for ground defenses in Hawaii, budgeted additional millions for air bases on Oahu; and Hickam Field became the United States' largest military airdrome. Civilian labour rolls soared and so did statehood hopes. Hawaii was by then only 17 hours removed, by airplane, from the American mainland. The territory' was coming of age politically. One sign of maturity was the dispersion of the race-baiting Home Rule party early

dous boost

in the

to the sprouting

new century,

leaving the political field to the

and Republicans. The Republican party scored election of Prince

Kuhio

as delegate to congress

—

ning control of the legislature

a hold on that

Democrats

first

with the

and with win-

body

it

retained

more than three decades

of probation

and accomplishment had qualified it fully for self-government, Hawaii renewed its attempt to gain entry into the union. In that year Samuel Wilder King, then delegate to congress, succeeded bringing to the islands a subcommittee of the house committee on interior and insular affairs, to hold the first public hearings on the issue of statehood. The subcommittee heard scores of in

witnesses, a majority of

whom

testified to their

wish for imme-

and exhibits were compiled during the hearings, which were conducted on Oahu. Hawaii. Maui. Molokai and Kauai islands, attesting to the desire and diate statehood. Pages of testimony

readiness of the people for admission into the union.

In 1937 congress appointed a joint committee of 24 senators and representatives for an authoritative, on-the-spot study of the statehood question.

The

the political, social, racial,

For statehood opponents the 1940 census was another opportunity to question the Americanism of Hawaii.

The

territory

then had a population of 423,330. Hawaiians and part-Hawaiians

the event of a war with Japan. Overlooked or deliberately

in

80%

ignored was the fact that

of Hawaii's Japanese were nisei

(second generation) and sansei

by virtue of

citizens

Cthird generation),

their birth in the territory.

would turn against

of statehood in congress held that even these

the United States in a national emergency.

The answer

grave question came on Sunday morning, Dec. all

American

Some opponents

7,

to this

1941.

when

doubts as to the fidelity of Hawaii's people were dispelled

in a rain of

enemy bombs on Oahu. and

w^hich rose

from the burning vessels along battleship row

the oily black clouds

in

in

Pearl Harbor.

Hawaii at War The next

on Oahu opened at 7:55 a.m. Within the

aerial attack

100 deadly minutes

three waves

of

low-flying

imperial

Japanese dive bombers and torpedo planes knocked out the Pacific battle fleet and smashed the United States army, navy and marine installations at Pearl Harbor. Ford Island. Kaneohe Naval .Mr station, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field and the Marine

for the next 50 years.

The Statehood Drive Opens In 19,55. confident that

country of their descent, grew seriously concerned.

committee probed deeply into economic, labour, cultural and adjoint

ministrative standards in the islands. In

Corps station

Ewa.

at

The navy, whose attack, counted

were also

its

killed.

capital ships bore the brunt of the surprise

dead

at 2.008:

218

army men and 109 marines in dead, wounded

Total United States casualties

and missing were placed at 3.478. A total of 19 .American warships were sunk or badly damaged; more than 200 planes were lost, most of them riddled by enemy strafers while parked row on row on military airfields. Japan lost 41 planes and 3 submarines; personnel losses were estimated to be fewer than 100.

Of the civilians on Oahu. 57 were killed, nearly all in Honolulu, and 300 injured. Civilian casualties, it was learned later, resulted largely from defective United States antiaircraft shells, which exploded only upon contact with the ground. Property losses, to private

homes and

public buildings, were in excess of

$500,000.

Shortly before noon of the fateful Sunday, Gov. Joseph B.

report to the con-

Poindexter. in an islands-wide broadcast, announced a territorial

gress the committee suggested a poll of the electorate of the

emergency. That afternoon he issued a proclamation invoking

its

territory to determine actual sentiment on statehood. Regarding

the martial law provision of the Hawaii Organic act and suspend-

the recommendation as a virtual mandate from congress. Hawaii's

ing the writ of habeas corpus, an action the

1939 legislature passed act 243 to provide for a plebiscite at the general election on Nov. 5. 1940. To the question on the ballot:

the United States

tions of the Organic act. Lieut.

"Do you

manding the Hawaiian department, took over

favor statehood for Hawaii?." 46.174 voters or answered "Yes." The negative vote was 22.428 or 33%.

67%

The expert

scrutiny to which Hawaii had been subjected durand 1937 congressional investigations had enhanced rather than retarded the territory's statehood chances. Both committee reports commented favourably on the progressive development of American ideals and institutions in the islands, whose burgeoning economy already qualified them as a responsiing the 1935

ble business partner in the union of states. Hawaii, the investi-

gators had noted, was

now

the United States' best customer

except for Great Britain, Canada. Japan, France and Germany.

Then World War

II engulfed Europe, the already impaired re-

was

later to rule as

supreme court of

having exceeded the limita-

Gen. Walter C. Short, comas

"military

governor."

The

community

Hawaii had long been preparing on the "day of infamy." Within a few minutes of the crash of the first bomb on Pearl Harbor, teams of civilian doctors, nurses and blood donors were speeding to military and civilian hospitals and casualty centres. That night block wardens in Honolulu and on all the islands, in total blackout, began their well-rehearsed patrols. The long-expected crisis was at hand and in Hawaii all people, of all races, colours and creeds, worked together to meet it as Americans. cixilian

of

for a disaster such as befell

Lieut.

Gen. Delos C.

it

Emmons, who succeeded

to

General

*

?^llvi4

»mi,0mrim-mi

command

Short's

Dec. 1941, was faced immediately with a very real dilemma. What to do with the 35,000 aliens residing within his

late in

command, with whose native country

the

United

was now

at war? On the mainland west coast, within hours after the declaration of war upon Japan, American au-

States

thorities started a roundup of nisei. More than 72,000 of them were eventually taken forcibly from their homes and sent to

relocation centres, a hasty and illegal act for which the federal government, as late as May 1959, was publicly to ask forgiveness through its attorney general.

The

war workers who poured into Hawaii all the 48 states for the rebuilding of broken defenses and the erection of new ones were not enough. More were despertens of thousands of

from

ately needed.

Among

Hawaii's aliens were

penters, plumbers, shipfitters

were urgently

in

and

demand. General

its

best artisans

electricians,

:

car-

craftsmen that

Emmons made

his difficult

THE ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOR,

Dec.

burning ships frame an explosion

ammuni

U.S.S.

now

joined in the

common war

investigation into the Pearl

effort. Later,

when

Harbor holocaust was

the

official

in progress, tes-

timony revealed not a single instance of espionage or sabotage attributable to any Japanese resident in Hawaii. On the mainland and in Hawaii, open distrust of the young A.J.A.s (Americans of Japanese ancestry) prevented many of

of

gazine on the destroye

clared.

The response of Hawaii's A.J.A.s was overwhelming. Nearly 10,000 of them answered the summons. Joining with fellow A.J.A.s from the mainland to form the 442nd combat team and the looth infantry battalion, they wrote one of the

chapters in the annals of

commanding

The

Gen.

II.

most heroic

Mark

Clark,

them

as "the

unit in the entire military history of the United

battle honours of the A.J.A.s,

"Go For Broke" works'"),

World War

the United States sth army, described

States."

workers among them

1941. Clouds

men will establish as fighting soldiers will be one of the best answers to those who question the loyalty of American citizens of Japanese ancestry in Hawaii," Emmons de-

most decorated

skilled

7,

the record these

Japanese to coast internment camps or into Oahu concentration

They would remain. The

the

them from entering the armed forces. Early in 1943 General Emmons announced a war department proposal to call up a relatively small number of them as army combat volunteers. Hawaii's quota was fixed at 1,500. "The manner of response and

decision, turning aside suggestions for the sending of the alien

centres.

of

"Shaw"

whose slogan was was "shoot the

(the mainland slang equivalent

included

seven presidential

Heart medals with 500 oak legion of merit me'dals,

i

citations,

leaf clusters,

4,500

342 silver

Purple

stars,

distinguished service medal and

i

17

con-

medal of honour. The French and Italian governments more awards. In the French and Italian campaigns, 650 A.J.A. officers and men were killed and more than gressional

added

a score or

33

HAWAII. The

34 4,500 wounded.

A

great proportion of these were from Hawaii.

More than 40.000 Hawaiians served

War

the colours during

806 of them died

in action

and admiration for the A.J. As. Settled for all time, in the light of the harshly impressive statistics they compiled on the battlefields of Europe, was the question of their loyqlty.

veterans returned to the islands with their edly altered, their morale high and with

war sense of

own

The

attitudes

little left

A.J

Hawaii, having performed

mark-

of their pre-

its

remarkable and

the war, assumed a

new importance

vital role as the

the Pacific theatres of

all

in the

eyes of the nation.

This was perhaps best expressed by the senate interior and sular

affairs

.A.

inferiority.

giant staging base and supply centre for

committee, which,

Hawaii statehood

bill

"Pearl Harbor, for

on all

May its

8,

recommending passage

of

in-

a

1951, concluded:

tragedy, served one grimly useful

It made the United States aware that its western front was not the coast of California, but a group of islands some 2,000 miles southwestward in the Pacific."

purpose.

Growth

IN

HAWAII

new and drastically changed Hawaii emerged from World War II. The war had created a new and articulate middle class which was now to find less insurmountable many of the prewar social and racial barriers. The descendants of the early alien labourers were coming into their own. and were taking their new .\

places in the industrial, professional and political fields of the

community.

With the new

era there

began

a steady

and

significant transfer

of Labour Unions

The organizing of lab(jur was conducted mainly under the aegis of the International Longshoremen's

(I.L.W.U,), which was headed Its

1939, was halted by the war and the imposition of martial law.

Jan. 1, 1944, the I.L.W.U. claimed only 900 members, but by 1946 a majority of workers in Hawaii's basic industries, sugar and pineapple, were represented by this union. More than 33,000 employees, of all races and creeds, were employed in I.L.W.U. bargaining units or those for which the union had

pending requests for recognition.

year the

the preceding

National Labor Relations board, the National Mediation board or by mutual agreement and cross-checks of union

company

against

The

membership

payrolls.

union's antagonists were principally the "Big Five," the

missionary-founded industrialist firms that functioned as factors

and agents for

owned still

majority of Hawaii's sugar plantations and

a

substantial

numbers of shares

remain incontestably

ment

economy, but

of

new

them. (The Big Five

in

in control of a large part of the

this has

new

served neither to bar the establish-

much

businesses nor to prevent the enactment of

and subsequent hearings on the subject before congressional committees no evidence was ever adduced to the effect that the Big Five, or any other group, had engaged in restraint of trade. In 1946 the I.L.W.U. called its first major strike against the sugar industry. It involved 28.000 workers and lasted 74 days, at a cost of more than $30,000,000 in lost wages and damage to unirrigated sugar fields. It was finally settled for an hourly raise progressive social legislation.; In

of i8i cents, a figure

month

earlier.

The

all

prior

upon which management had agreed a

strike resulted in the abolition of the per-

system under which plantations had provided and medical service to workers.

quisite

ing

free hous-

important consequence of the cessation of hostilities was

the resurgence of labour unionization in the islands, whose ready

acceptance by workers was motivated, in part, by resentment

POSTWAR BUILDING

IN HAWAII included many new hotels to accommodate the tourists. The architecture of this hotel lobby near Waikiki beach, Honolulu. I«

In

I.L.W.U. had won 138 separate elections conducted by either the

the "Big Five'') into the hands of the

An

by Harry Bridges.

On

of trade and wealth from the long-dominant haoles (including

Americans of oriental ancestry. Competing with the Chinese huis (companies') were numerous and well-tinanced Japanese tanomoshis (syndicates).

and Warehousemen's union

in California

penetration into the ranks of island labour, well underway by

state's

POSTWAR CHANGES

rule.

World

and 3,200 became permanently disabled. Of the more than 32,000 men from Hawaii inducted into the armed forces through selective service, 49.9% were of Jaiwinese ancestry. Out of the conflict, at home and abroad, came a new respect II;

liland State over the freezing of jobs during the army's four-year

« mlKture of modern and ancient Polynesian styles

Statehood Drive Unvaried island

in

the

Is

Resumed

otherwise

community was

changing times of the postwar

The

the profound desire for statehood.

war had exposed many of the inadequacies of territorial status. and statehood appeared to Hawaii's business and political leaders as the

only remedy.

In pursuit of this goal the 1947 territorial legislature created

commisand appropriated to it S200.000 to organize its campaign in Hawaii and in the continental United States. the Hawaii Statehood sion,

Since

the

1942

delegate

to

congress had been Joseph R.

Honolulu

Farrington.

news-

paper owner, a dedicated and forceful

statehood

On June

30. 1947. the

States

house

of

advocate.

United

representa-

tives, for the first time,

passed

admit Hawaii into the union. The vote was 197 to 133. The the Farrington

bill

to

rrieasure died in the following

year

when

the

senate

com-

mittee voted to defer action

HAWAII, The on

until

it

Island State

1

^^

another investigation in

still

35

members could hold

A move

on the senate Hawaii. floor to lift the bill out of committee for a vote was also defeated.

Undismayed by this setback Hawaii in 1950

the people of

elected 63 delegates to a con-

vention which framed a modern state constitution. Despite

vigorous objection to

by the

it

I.L.W.U., the constitution was ratified

by voters by more than 3

jority of

a to

mai.

Early in 1950 the house of representatives voted to call

and Hawaii Both were passed, that pertaining to Haup

Alaska

the

statehood

bills.

waii receiving a vote of 262 to

no. Again the measure senate .action

of

failed

and MEETING OF COMBINED TERRITORIAL LEGISLATURE

thus expired with the 8ist con-

of

the lolani

palace before the statehood enactment

in

1959

gress.

Opponents of Hawaiian statehood in the house and senate had charged that communists were in control of the I.L.W.U. and that through this powerful union they had a specifically

stranglehold on the

economy

of the islands. In April 1950. at

the invitation of the territorial legislature, a subcommittee of the

house un-American activities committee arrived in Hawaii to probe these charges. The subcommittee had full access to the files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and local army and

navy

intelligence reports.

bill

57 to 28, but the

amended measure was

house rules committee from which

it

referred back to the

did not emerge as the con-

gress adjourned in Aug, 1954, Statehood for

Hawaii was again

dormant. In June 1954, Farrington, the six-term delegate and great

statehood champion, died at his desk in Washington.

He was

succeeded by his widow Elizabeth P. Farrington.

ACROSS THE THRESHOLD: THE 50TH STATE

At the conclusion of the investigation

Rep. Francis E. Walter (Dam., Pa.), appeared before a United States senate committee in hearings on the Hawaii bill. He found

Despite unyielding opposition from a small coterie of lawmakers, largely from below the Mason-Dixon line, the next

no reason whatever, he reported, for withholding statehood from Hawaii. Such communism as existed there, he testified, was no

hood

in

A year

Edgar Hoover, an interview, stated that only 36 known communists resided

bar to

its

admission into the union.

later J.

in the islands.

The answer in

to the extravagant charges of

Hawaii was again supplied valiantly by

communist leanings young men, begin-

its

ning in June 1950, in fighting the forces of

communism

in the

Korean War. The Hawaiian casualty rate, based on population, was four and one half times that of the remainder of the country. This astounding ratio was explained by Gen. J. Lawton Collins, then chief of staff, as due to the high proportion of Hawaii which included the 5th regimental combat team, and the 25th division. At the time of its deployment to the far east command nearly one-half the combat team were Hawaii-born men. Substantial percentages of Hawaiians were also in the 24th and 25th divisions, then on duty in Japan, the first to be committed in the Korean conflict. Among the 1.370 men of Hawaii who were killed and wounded in the Korean fighting were many sons of the I.L.W.U. rank and file members. soldiers in the 24th division,

A In

flurry of statehood activity took place in the 83rd congress.

March

1953, the house for the third time,

by

a vote of 247 to

and sent it to the senate. There, the was reported out favourably in committee. On March 11, 1954, earnest but misguided proponents voted to combine the Hawaii and Alaska statehood bills. On April i, the senate voted down successively an amendment 13S, passed the

Hawaii

bill

following January, the measure

to give

Hawaii

a

commonwealth

plebiscite in

status similar to that of Puerto

commonwealth question to a Hawaii, The senate passed the combined statehood

Rico, and another to refer the

congress

made every

bills

effort to dispose successfully of the state-

for Alaska

and Hawaii. Both had been before conTwenty-four hearings

gress for a long time, Hawaii's since 1903.

had been held on Hawaii's claims for admission, seven of them in Hawaii and the remainder in Washington. Hundreds of witnesses had been heard, a majority of them journeying to Washington

at

the

statehood

commission's

expense.

printed house and senate hearings and reports had

Thirty-four

come from

these investigations, totaling nearly 7,000 pages of testimony

and

exhibits.

In 1956 John A. Burns, Democratic candidate for delegate to congress, defeated Mrs. Farrington for re-election, the first mem-

ber of his party to win that

office in

24 years. In the latter part

of his first term Burns publicly agreed that Alaska's chances for

admission during the 85th congress were superior to those of Hawaii, and he offered to withhold his efforts in Hawaii's behalf in order to ensure

enactment of the Alaska bill. said, that if one of the two remaining

His premise was, he ritories

became

a state the other

would very shortly follow

it

ter-

into

the union.

The big breakthrough occurred in the spring of 1958 when both houses of congress passed the Alaska bill and sent it to the president for signature.

The

reaction in Hawaii was two-fold.

Elated statehood proponents hailed the admission of Alaska as resolving the issue of noncontiguity which had long plagued

both

territories. Politically, at

for inactivity on Hawaii's bill

home. Burns came under attack and for letting Alaska precede

Hawaii.

Statehood leaders from Hawaii, immediately upon the passage of the Alaska

bill,

converged upon the nation's capital to press for

HAWAII. The

)6

the admission of Hawaii in the six weeks remaining to the congressional session. They were led by Lorrin 1'. Thurston, ener-

Hawaii Statehood commission chairman and Honolulu newspaper publisher, the son of Lorrin A. Thurston, who had helped form the Republic of Hawaii, and direct descendant of the Rev. Asa and Lucy Thurston, New England missionaries who had arrived in Hawaii in 1820. Congressional leaders however were adamant; no time was left

getic

to debate the highly controversial

Hawaii

bill

before the

summer

adjournment. In Nov. 1958, as if to make amends for the sidetracking of the Hawaii bill, five members of the congress arrived in Hawaii on what was to be the final field study of the

much

deliberated issue of Hawaiian statehood.

The house con-

Island State the

names

of 55 colleagues as co-sponsors,

majority rec|uired for passage. The the

with

11,

speed, the senate overwhelmingly passed the Hawaii

vote was 76 to

Now,

15.

On Thursday, March

The ciingressmen held no formal hearings

in

Hawaii.

No

wit-

nesses were subpoenaed. Instead the lawmakers went to the people.

They appeared unexpectedly on

street corners

and on

sugar and pineapple plantations where they conversed with

field

hands; they called on leading military commanders, the F.B.I.,

I.L.W.U.

officials

and

at the University of

conclusions, as reported

congress, were

the

to

Hawaii.

Some that

of their

approxi-

3.

On

12, a

bill.

The

formal terminology of the con-

body."

few drops of rain

on Honolulu,

fell

by the vagrant trades blowing in from the mauka (mountain ward) sections of Oahu. This was an unfailing good omen. When rain falls on any auspicious occasion in the islands, it is solemnly regarded by the old Hawaiians as a special carried over the city

blessing of the gods. In Washington, the house convened at the usual

and history making

Red Threat Discounted

in the

gress, the fate of the bill rested with the "other

senate-passed

led

March

debate and with wholly unprecedented

little

Carroll of Colorado.

was

more than the senate

committee reported out

measure, appropriately numbered 8.50, on

March

by Rep. Leo O'Brien (Ucm.. N.Y. ), chairman of the territories subcommittee. Accompanying them were Democratic senators Frank Church of Idaho and John A. tingent of three

full

noon hour.

Parliamentary preliminaries dispensed with, the debate on the bill

began. Less than three hours roll call

later,

the last

of the "yeas" and "nays" was de-

manded and ordered. Sitting tensely in the house gallery was William F. Quinn, the youthful and last presidentially appointed governor of Hawaii, nervously and mentally (even to "VTPs" pencil and paper are forbidden in congressional galleries) adding up the aflirmative votes. ticked

When

the magic 218 "yeas" had been

signifying a bare majority and victory, the governor

off,

rushed to the

the speaker where a telephone line to

office of

Honolulu had been kept open. In seconds the joyous news was flashed to the islands.

On

the floor of the house the stentorian

"percentage-wise

voice of the tally clerk droned on. and at 3:04 p.m. E.S.T. (10:04

or Alaska"; that such economic damage wreak would be just as harmful whether Hawaii was a state or a territory; that no evidence linking Hawaii's subversives with Soviet espionage had been found; and that no

was over. The vote was anHawaii had been admitted to the union. In the house chamber the end to the half-century old quest came with a quiet, dramatic abruptness that left even its most optimistic supporters breathless and a little unbelieving. In Hawaii the years of pent-up emotions, years of expectation, doubt and

mately

communists

2$

fewer than

in

resided

in

Hawaii,

New York

as these could

communist had ever been elected to public office in the territory. The subcommittee unanimously recommended passage of the statehood

bill in

A.M. H.S.T.)

nounced

the long roll call

as 323 to 89.

Within minutes the wail of

frustration, exploded.

the next session of the congress.

informed Honolulans that statehood had

sirens

Victory

Church

For decades the exhaustive and concentrated campaign for statehood for Hawaii had provided interested observers with a classic example of congressional processes lagging far behind the

ships' whistles blasted

popular

will.

Public sentiment for Hawaii's admission, strongly

communiand resolutions by

prevalent throughout the nation, regularly had been

cated to the congress by countless petitions

news: in the harbour and along the highways grinning motor-

impromptu hulas. The next day. members of the last territorial

sombre and grateful attitudes, government officials the ancient Hawaiian Kawaiahao church legislature,

for interdenominational thanksgiving services.

and

counted

in

the millions. Country-wide public opinion surveys,

The the law. First

undivided

in its editorial support.

and sometimes cruel struggle was ended and now

On March 18. in a ceremony at White House. President Eisenhower signed S.fo into public

statehood for the Pacific islands. The press of the nation,

play of unanimity rarely achieved on national issues, was virtually

fierce

to

only the formalities remained.

and those conducted in their own constituencies by members of the congress, had disclosed favour amounting to insistence for in a dis-

and

in

and others proceeded

other organizations, whose combined memberships were

classes

muumuii-dad

wahines and a/oAu-shirted kanes thronging into the streets for

were scores of national bodies, representing business and professional, religious, labour, veterans, service club, educational

all

business offices quickly closed, with holokii- and

organized groups and individuals. So recording their approval

many

defense

bells pealed out the heart-stirrine

leaned on their horns. Schools dismissed

ists

civil

finally arrived.

State Elections

Hawaii's

first

state-wide primary, held on June 27. 1959. gave

President Eisenhower, in his

ultimate and convincing proof of the deeply rooted desire of

and budget messages to the congress, repeatedly had urged immediate action on current Hawaii statehood bills, as had his predecessor. Frequent and informal polls taken

Hawaii's citizens for complete integration into the American

state of the union

of

members

of

the

congress had shown a majority in both

many

branches as favouring passage for

legislative sessions past.

Nominally Democratic Alaska had been admitted, and nominally Republican Hawaii's turn was next. What would the new and Democratic-controlled 86th congress do?

The answer was not long

left in

resentative O'Brien introduced a

doubt.

On

Jan.

7,

1959,

new statehood proposal

Rep-

in the

on Feb.

On

4. Jan. 9. Sen. James E. Murray, chairman of the senate interior and insular affairs committee, had introduced his statehood bill bearing his own and

bill

The

tunity

it

congress, acutely conscious of the historic oppor-

was tendering them, had asked Hawaii's people

for a

and conclusive referendum on the question of statehood. On June 27 voters were handed a separate ballot requiring a simple "yes'' or "no" vote on the question. The result was 132.938 to final

7.854. a landslide ratio of 17 to

On

house, whose interior and insular affairs committee then re-

ported favourably on a

union.

voted

i.

July 28. proudly and again in record numbers, citizens in the general election.

The

results, generally favourable to

comment from the mainland and from abroad. Elected as Hawaii's first delegation to the United States congress were: Sen. Hiram L. Fong (51 Rethe Republicans, drew widespread

1

publican,

son of an indentured Chinese plantation labourer.

Fong, a self-made millionaire, was a former

territorial legisla-

HAWAII, The and a Harvard law school graduate. Rep. Daniel K. Inouye (34) Democrat, of Japanese ancestry, an attorney with a distinguished war record with the famed "Go For Broke" combat team, had lost an arm in the Italian campaign. Sen. Oren E. Long (70) Democrat, a Kansan by birth, with a long record of public service in Hawaii, including a term as territorial governor. tor

The record turnout of ernor of the new state

voters

named

as the first elective gov-

the appointive incumbent, William F. Quinn (40) an attorney and a native of New York state; and as lieutenant governor, James K. Kealoha, of Hawaiian-Chinese ancestry. Both men were Republicans. After five years of Democratic control, a revitalized G.O.P.

took a majority of the seats in the state senate, r4 to

11,

while

Democrats retained control of the 51-seat house. The most strenuously contested office was the governorship. To oppose Quinn the Democrats prevailed upon John A. Burns, their best vote-getter and last territorial delegate to congress, to switch his candidacy from the United States senate to the gubernatorial post. At stake, as leaders of both parties were well aware, was the power of appointment by the first governor of the entire slate of officials of the newly constituted state. These appointments, nearly 500 in number, included 5 supreme court justices, 11 state judges, 28 district court magistrates, tax

appeal judges, a score of state department heads,

commissioners, the attorney general

(who

in

civil service

turn names

23

aides) and hundreds of others.

The

interest generated

a record for Hawaii, or

by

this race

93%

brought out 170,119 voters,

of those registered, a national rec-

Governor Quinn won by a majority of 4,139 votes. The Neisi York Times, among other leading mainland journals, lauded the outcome as final proof that the I.L.W.U.. as heretofore alleged by statehood opponents, was not a dominant factor in Hawaii's elections. The Bridges union endorsed and was active ord.

in its

support of Burns. The A.F. of L.-C.I.O. union ranks

in their

split

endorsement of Quinn.

& Times Herald stated editorially that was "a healthy refutation of the canard that the people of Hawaii are prisoners of the I.L.W.U." The final and irrevocable act in the entire statehood drama came quietly at 4 p.m. (E.D.T.) on Aug. 21, 1959. In the White House on that day, President Eisenhower signed a proclamation which declared, in part, that "admission of the State of Hawaii The Washington Post

the election

into the

Union on an equal footing with the other States

Union is now accomplished." The ceremony ended with the display States

new United

of

the

flag

—on

the

field

of

rows of six stars were staggered with four rows blue,

five

of five

stars

to

include

the

Soth star for Hawaii.

Statehood

Was

Necessary

had often been remarked government territorial that had been adequate to the It

needs of Hawaii.

The

terri-

tory matured and prospered

under

this political

then abandon

it?

form.

Why

The

short

drive from Honolulu's inter-

national airport or docks to

Waikiki's

luxury

vealed on

all

hotels

re-

sides the indis-

putable evidence of Hawaii's accelerated advancement since

of the

Island State

31

annexation. Puzzled visitors, viewing

all

this,

posed the usual

question: "Since you have done so well as a territory,

now

seek statehood?"

At the outset,

The answer was

let it

a

why

do you

many-sided one.

be said that Hawaii's progress came not

as a result of its territorial structure, but despite the handicap

had been designed for unarrived, undeveloped American commonwealth. On the islands it had become a strait jacket, hindering their development and depriving the people of rights for which they had long qualified, and failing completely to meet the complex political, economic and social requirements in government which characterize modern Hawaii. During the period of its greatest growth Hawaii, through its delegate, had only a voice in the United States house of representatives; it had neither voice nor vote in the senate. Not only did this condition make it impossible to obtain due consideration from congress for Hawaii's proper needs, but it made equally difficult the prevention of much harmful and discriminatory legof

it.

Territoriality

units of the

islation.

As

early as 1907.

when

the territory established a college of

agriculture and mechanic arts,

now

the University of Hawaii,

monies under the Morrill was refused. When Hawaii sought its portion of federal appropriations for needed topographic and hydrographic surveys, it was rebuffed. The federal aid road act. passed in 1916, excluded Hawaii. Not until 1924, by a particular amendment, was this omission rectified. The territory again was ig-

and applied

for its share of federal

act of 1S90, the grant

nored when funds were voted for vocational education by the

Smith-Hughes law, and not act

der

make amends. control

of

until

seven years later did another

In 1935 the potato industry was brought unthe Agricultural Adjustment administration

(A.A.A.), which placed a virtual embargo on Hawaii-grown

new

potato shipments to the mainland. This discrimination restrained

Hawaii's potato growing until the A, A. A. was subsequently declared unconstitutional

by the United States supreme

court.

The worst blow, sharply accenting the disparity between states and territories, came in 1934. In that year congress passed the Jones-Costigan

act.

This provided a system of sugar quotas un-

der which consumptive requirements of the continental United States were allotted to various sugar producing areas. Its effect on Hawaii was three-fold. The act created for the first time a new governmental conception of "continental" United States as

distinguished from the United States

itself.

Because Hawaii was

HAWAII. The

Islntid State the

foregoing examples, had

to be overcome there came the rudest shock of all.

begun

Hawaii, relying on

statehood the

its

right to

by

established

as

150-year-old premises of

and by the

territoriality,

tory of

its

his-

relationship to the

government

United

the

of

States since 1854. learned with

amazement and

incredulity of

by a small

counteroffer

the

group of senators who were opposed to Hawaiian statehood. This was the commonwealth

amendment

of

to

1953-54,

create for Hawaii the

anoma-

lous identity once devised for

the Philippine Islands and for the

semi-independent

"asso-

state" of

Puerto

free

ciated

The enticement, tempt-

Rico.

ingly dangled before the people of

Hawaii

they would

if

accept demotion to a status

which could conceivably lead to eventual independence,

remission

the

SIGNING OF THE HAWAII STATEHOOD PROCLAMATION by

vice-

amounting

outside the "continental" United States geographically,

was

rejected this

act relegated

Hawaii

to

Cuba and

the Philippines. It reduced the shipments

of Hawaiian raw sugar to the mainland restricted the refining of sugar to

Other areas were without

3%

by 76,000 tons a year and sugar production

of territories in the department of the interior, testifying before

embodied

new geography.

committee of agriculture, said; "Our

in the fact

.

.

that the bill perpetuates a

.

two kinds of territory for America. It creates a continental and an offshore America. We cannot recognize such a division and such a distinction. We think it is just as unwarranted to make this division, as to make a similar division based on any physical or historical factor such as the Mississippi river, and to say Americans living west of the river are entitled to some kind of consideration and Americans east of

it

It creates

without having a voice in their

The men

of

augmented pride

into battle.

The

attainment of

citizenship

full

and

politi-

with their fellow Americans on the mainland.

Statehood

EfFects of United States interest in the far Pacific ocean

areas had broadened vastly as a result of

even at the risk of

World W'ar

full-scale hostilities,

it

II.

There,

had attempted

among The effect

to

establish the rights of self-determination

the underde-

veloped and developing Asian nations.

of the denial

to

Hawaii of

rights

directly to the

it

sought for mankind elsewhere contributed

propaganda of those who branded the United

States a colonial power.

can islands

The grant

in the Pacific

of states' rights to the Ameri-

resolved this paradox, demolishing for

Hawaiian people as

already had far-flung peacetime responsibilities in the adminis-

of the

all

mandated

tration of the Pacific islands

the citizens of the states,

centre of the nation's Pacific affairs, brought for the

disbursement. in

World War II

passage of the draft law that

Hawaii could cast no vote any amendment to the con-

citizens of

for president nor could they vote on

in the

cal equality

paid taxes, in war and in

lex^y or

in the

was not independence from the United

injustice did not, however,

Hawaii were inducted into service

without having had a voice

them

goal of Hawaiians

time the U.S.S.R. and Communist Chinese arguments that Hawaii had been held as a colony under imperialistic rule. Morally and psychologically, the position of the United States in this sensitive far east arena was strengthened by giving Hawaii full membership in the American union. The United States

to another kind."

These and many other instances of reduce the duties and responsibilities citizens of the United States. They peace, on exactly the same basis as

sent

The

The range

a subcommittee of the

as did the great

States nor financial gain; the desired end was statehood, and the

limit.

is

unwholesome proposal out of hand,

of total island production.

left free to increase refined

Sen. Ernest Gruening of .\laska. then director of the division

protest

to about $175,000,000 yearly.

majority of Hawaii's people.

an "offshore"' position com-

parable with that of other insular possessions and such foreign nations as

was

federal

Delegate Farrington. before the senate committee, angrily

placed in the position of being outside the country politically.

The sugar

all

taxation in Hawaii, currently

President Elsen-

hower Aug. 21. 1959. Seated with him are (left) Richard M. Nixon, president, and Sam Rayburn, speaker of the house of representatives it

of

they became increasingly aware, was "government without the consent of the governed," contrary to the principle and repugnant to the spirit of democracy in the United

stitution. This,

States.

In latter years when discrimination by legislation, typified in

to the congress a state's full

to

it.

Hawaii, as the first

time

quota of representatives with an

intimate understanding of American needs in

this

vital

and

delicately poised Asian area. It

was recognized that the national scene would

effect of the

also feel the

admission of Hawaii. The quickening growth in

American population and

its

gradual spread to the west had

already played important roles in the division of strength in the

house of representatives. This cleavage was expected to become more sharply defined when the results of the i960 United States census became

official.

On

the basis of preliminary population

"

HAWAII, The

Island State

39

Florida, which

Kawaiahao church on March 12 and 13, 1959. The first service was a spontaneous one, the second one was planned. His statehood sermon is now a historical document. It was entered in the Congressional Record and was broadcast over the "Voice of America'' program. In his sermon the Hawaiian pastor called Hawaii to self-affirmation and expounded on the meaning of

ships. It

aloha, saying in part:

estimates for i960 of the entire country (180,000.000 compared with 151,000.000 in 1950), 7 states would gain seats in the house

and 13 were expected to lose seats. California was calculated to new house members. Estimated losses would occur

gain seven

largely in states east of the Mississippi, with the exception of

was reckoned as gaining four new house memberappeared that Michigan and Texas might gain two seats

"I feel especially grateful that the discovery and develop-

each.

The reapportionment

to follow the

i960 enumeration was ex-

pected to be the broadest in decades. It would give Hawaii a

There is a deep correlation between the charter under which the missionaries came namely, 'To preach the Gospel

Alaska's case, this legislation stipulated that the increase

of Jesus Christ, to cover these islands with productive green

member

instead of the single seat agreed upon

congressional committees handling the Hawaiian statehood in

islands long ago was not couched in the context of an imperialistic and exploitive power, but in this context of

bill.

second house

As

ment of our

by

house membership occasioned by the admission of Hawaii was temporary, permissible only until the succeeding decennial census. Then the house membership, by law, would revert to its legal limit of 435. Thus the admission of the two territories

in

would mean an additional cutback of three house seats, to be yielded up by states, probably in the east, midwest or the south, where population losses would have occurred.

ALOHA The

foregoing, despite

its

length, has been an

too hurried

all

aloha.

—

—

and to lift the people to a high state of civilization' corbetween this fact, and the world today. Aloha does not exploit a people and keep them in ignorance and subservience. Rather it shares the sorrows and joys of people; it seeks to proToday, one of the deepest mote the true good of others. needs of mankind is the need to feel a sense of kinship one with another. Truly all mankind belongs together; for from the beginning all mankind has been called into being, nourished, fields,

relation

.

at

work

on

this

The word aloha means and welcome.

'hiany things. It It

is

a greeting

means compassion and

pity,

mercy and kindness. It remained for a young Hawaiian minister, Rev. Abraham Kahikina Akaka. of the Kawaiahao church, to give this eloquent and gracious word a new and historical interpretation. Reverend

Akaka

conducted

statehood

day

thanksgiving

services

at

—

we really are for Aloha is the spirit of God you and in me and in the world, uniting what is separated, overcoming darkness and death, bringing new light and life to all who sit in the darkness of fear, guiding the feet of mankind into the way of peace. Thus, may our becoming a state mean to our nation and the world, and may it reaffirm that which was planted in us one hundred and thirty nine years ago us affirm ever what

and intense "Aloha state." The nickname itself is formed in part by one of the most expressive words in the Hawaiian or any other of love and farewell

.

watched over by the love of God who is Aloha. So that the real Golden Rule is Aloha. This is the way of life we must affirm. Let

view of the nation's newest partner, the enchanting and w'id

language.

.

in

ground: Tear not, for behold

of great joy. which shall be to

This

is

the state of Hawaii.

all

I

bring to you good tidings

people."

*

.

-

^

•«e

'•i^v-i

ft-

7

)i

\

s

^^~

w,.

t

rV i;i:

>.

'•*'^i

110;

;rfe;

«.,-^^.

>^ '

.'i^^JB^

'M"**.

a

DATING

THE PAST By

RUTH MOORE

happy and J had together at The University of Chicago working on some of the developments which she mentions. There was a convergence of interest on the problem of dating the past and describing its characteristics as a cue to what the underlying principles of geophysics are, and these developments led to

The

many

imagine until a few years ago.

Miss Moore's article "Dating the Past"

time that Harold Urey, his students, and

recalls the

my

students

excursions into fascinating fields of archaeology. have loo pounds of seal blubber for you; what shall

"We

we

had asked the Byrd Expedition to bring this to me and the above words ushered in one of the beginning experiments in attempting to prove the reliability of the carbonic dating technique. At that time, early 1^46, my then graduate student, E. C. Anderson, and I were in the process of studying the concentration of cosmic rays at the poles and trydo with

it?" I

ing to find out the world

and

if

carbon-i.f were evenly distributed throughout

in all things.

As I look back over the years since

the beginning of the work, I come and amused by recalling

am

impressed by the final out-

some

of the incongruous events

between then and now.

from the American Chemical Society Sewage Division for one of the initial works with A. V. Grosse, which just happened to be fulfilled by using sewage. 2. At a party given in my laboratory in the Jones Chemical Laboratory at The University of Chicago by some graduate students, led by James Arnold, a plaque was unveiled which quoted from a newspaper headline. The headline read, "IV. F. Libby, ^o, stumbles on new dating technique." The plaque read, "Here is where Willard F. Libby, ^o, stumbled." These and many other lighter facts of the carbon-i^ research I find great pleasure in recalling. However, Miss Moore's comprehensive review covers the years of hard work and the meaningful implications of its role in the pattern of how the past can talk and tell.-W. F. LIBBY 1.

A

citation

tales

tell

." .

.

—

—

Atomic science has brought about

this

important, almost eerie

achievement. With new understandings of the structure of the

atom and new supersensitive instruments,

scientists in

many parts

of the world have been able to measure the telltale particles, and thus, as Lucretius said, ".

.

.

to gaze into the hidden heart of

things."

Even now. within a decade of the beginning of this work, enough measurements have been made of radioactive uranium, potassium, rubidium and carbon, and of the stable isotopes or twins of o.xygen, to give convincing answers to some of the most fundamental questions about the earth:

How

old

is

was the earth

the earth?

as creatures able to

When When

earth?

scene?

When man

like before

did did

did

it

come

inhabited

walk upright on two

into existence?

it?

When

legs, first

What

did humans,

appear on the

men essentially like ourselves first enter the ice move down from the poles to engulf and

When

mold

a large part of the continents?

make when

the skillfully chipped stone tools that

did our forebears

we unearth today;

did they paint the graceful lifeUke animals that ornament

the walls of

some of

their caves;

when

did they

come

to

America?

These and hundreds of other questions are now for the time being answered with precision. From new fixed points past,

first

in a

where there had been none before, a revolutionary history

of time

Early

is

being fashioned.

Ways

of Establishing Past Periods of

new

Time

— — the exact timing of the

science of dating

Rl'th Moore is a reporter for the Chicago Sun-Times. She is the author of several books, including .Man, Time and Fossils, which has been translated into nine languages, The Earth We Live On and Charles Darwin— .4 Great Life in Brief, as well as numerous magazine articles, chiefly in the fields of archaeology, anthropology

probably be known as geochronometry

and evolution.

tablet,

Editors of the Britannica Book of the Year welcome in the feature articles the expression of the personal views of men and women qualified to write on matters of great current importance. Their views, of course, are not necessarily those of the Editors.

could

it

past now has found tongue. Invisible particles emitted by some of the most anonymous remains of the past bit of mud from the depths of the seas or a scrap of charcoal from the fire of prehistoric man are counting out a new history of time and the earth. And already that count has shown that the earth is far older, and man far younger, than even the boldest of us dared to

Until the development of the

The

had tongue,

"// the past

what

it

will

past was essentially an impossibility. If an event occurred before the

first

records were written by men, before the

tamian or Eg>'ptian scribe scratched the its

first

first

Mesopo-

date into a clay

time and period could only be estimated. And the we now have go back no more than 5.000

earliest written records

or 6,000 years. It is true that there

that had passed. It

is

were

many

excellent estimates of the time

also true that the order

and sequence of

Dating the Past

^3

and happenings were well established. But

prehistoric epochs

exact dales and times could not be assigned.

The

lack of a reliable lime record of the past did not stem

their questioning

about how their earth had come

to be.

In the 17th century Archbishop

James Usher attempted

to re-

By adding

place this uncertainty about the past with certainty.

together the time of the generations of the Old Testament, he

concluded that the earth had been created

many

in

4004

B.C.

The Usher

many

— they

warm

lived in the clear

from any absence of interest on the part of men. Men had always speculated about the age of the earth, the mountains and the seas, and of the events and times that had gone before them. It

was part of

these chalk deposits

were the bones of animals that had washed over the

sea that at one lime

Paris basin and part of England

—

differed decidedly

other rock that lay above or below the chalk.

fossils in

from the

When

the

and Dover areas and had left their bones in the mud of the lakes and streams. Cuvier and Smith could tell from the fossils to what period any particular layer of rock might belong. seas receded, land animals had lived in the Paris

"It

is

a

method of recognition that up

to the present has never

deceived us," said Cuvier,

A new and and the

By

reliable

way of determining the order some of its periods had been

relative time of

of the past

discovered.

But with the development of the scientific method and the process of examining the earth itself, those who were putting "their questions to Nature" soon saw strong indications that

and the layering of the earth, geologists subsequently were able to establish the major periods in the history of the earth. These were named the Archeozoic, the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic or modem period. Within these grand divisions many lesser periods also were

the earth was far older.

established.

date was printed it

in

the margin of

became the conclusive age of the

In

Bibles,

who gave

found whole beds of tains.

He

for

earth.

the latter part of the 18th century,

Scottish physician

and

his time to the

James Hutton, the study of the earth,

shells in the higher parts of Scotland's

moun-

argued that the shells could never have come to rest

in that unlikely place unless the

substance of the mountains had

sea. Hutton advanced had been uplifted over a vast period of time, and that in another great length of time the mountains would be worn down by the action of the elements and would once again be covered by the seas. He did not attempt to say how long a time it had taken for this infinitely slow building up and wearing down, but he did make the point that it proved the earth at

one time been a part of the floor of the

the theory that the sea floor

the study of fossils

Sir Charles Lyell piled

up additional evidence of the gradual-

ness and hence the slowness of the changes that had brought about

and the other remakings of the circling the earth on the voyage of the "Beagle," confirmed these findings. Darwin also demonstrated that millions upon millions of years must have been required for life to have spread around the world as he saw it the rise

and

fall

of the land

earth's crust. Charles

had, and for

it

to

Darwin,

have evolved from the simplest beginnings up

to the fish, the reptiles

The had old

and

its fossils

indicated that this planet

be millions rather than thousands of years old. But

to it

and the mammals, including man.

earth's formations

how

was remained a question.

to be very old.

Soon afterward, in the early years of the 19th century, the scientist Georges Leopold Cuvier and the English surveyor William Smith made the surprising discovery that any one kind of fossil shell, or the fossilized bones of any particular kind of animal, always were to be found in the same kind of French

strata.

In the thick beds of chalk that underlay

around

much

of the area

famous white cliffs of Dover, England, for example, Cuvier and Smith dug out the bones of the same extinct lizard and tortoise. The other fossils found in Paris. France,

and

in the

these chalk beds also were of the

same

kinds.

But the

fossils of

Early Estimates of the Earth's

As science continued to find

Age

advance,

many

investigators

an exact way of measuring the earth's age.

19th-century scientists held that

it

Some

worked of the

should be possible to arrive

by calculating the thickness of the sedimentary or water-formed rocks that lie like a thick pad over

at the age of the earth

many

of the older rocks. If their rate of accumulation could be

determined, they reasoned,

it

would show how much time had

gone into their formation. Experiments indicated that under some circumstances it takes about 450 years for enough sand

up to make one foot of sandstone, and about 2,250 years enough lime and shells to drift down to the bottom of a body of water to form one foot of limestone. Assuming such rates of accumulation, it was calculated that the earth was about 100,to pile

for

EVIDENCE OF THE EARTH'S CHANGING FEATURES. Left: Guadalupe mountains, Texas. On a base of sandstone 3,000 ft. thick, sheer cliffs of reef limestone fise another 1,300 ft. Trapped in the limestone are fossils of algae, sponges, corals and other sea-dwelling life of the Permian period. Right: Fossil crinoids found in Iowa. This is another warm sea invertebrate, from the Mississippian period

its

000,000 years

old.

This attempt at measurement was an interesting one. but it had to be recognized in the end that the rate at which sand, mud and lime are deposited unquestionably differs from time to time and place to place. The age figure based on the thickness of the sedimentary rocks could not be finally accepted. Measurements based on the salt in the seas also proved faulty. Assuming that salt had been steadily washing down into the seas since the early years of this planet, some workers estimated that the seas' present salinity reflected an age of So.ooo.ooo or 90.-

000.000

The

again was that the rate of acmust have varied in wet and dr>Spray from the ocean waves also carried considerable j-ears.

difficulty

cumulation was not steady; periods. salt

back

it

to the land.

Measuring Great Age By Radioactive Decay There was no certainty about the time of the remote past when Antoine Henri Becquerel laid a piece of uranium ore on a sheet of photographic paper and found that it left a blurred,

in 1896

He deduced that some kind of radiaby the seemingly inert lump of ore. Shortly afterward Pierre and Marie Curie showed that even stronger radiation came from a substance they had laboriously separated from raw uranium ore and named radium. Becquerel and the Curies shared a Xobel prize (1903) for the discovery of a new phenomenon, which they called radioactivity. All around the world scientists went to work on this exciting new discovery. By 1903 Ernest Rutherford, a young British splotchy image of tion

itself.

was being given

off

working at McGill university

scientist then

in

Montreal, and

Frederick Soddy were able to announce that radioactivity was nothing

than the spontaneous disintegration of the radioits conversion into another element. Ruther-

less

active substance and

ford found that the particles were being given off at a fixed and

unvaried

and he realized that from

rate,

sible to calculate the

this

it

should be pos-

age of the radioactive material.

as Rutherford was walking across the campus tosshand a piece of pitchblende (the natural ore of uranium) he met one of his geologist colleagues. Rutherford stopped

One day

ing in his

him.

"How The

old

is

the earth supposed to be?" he asked.

geologist told

him

that the weight of opinion favoured an

age of about 100.000.000 years. 'T know," said Rutherford quietly but with pointed emphasis,

"that this piece of pitchblende

is

700,000,000 years old."

Obviously a piece of rock dug from the earth could not be older than the earth itself; it was an integral part of the earth. What Rutherford was saying, and other findings were soon to substantiate him, was that the earth was at least seven times

had ventured was an almost inconceivable lengthening of time,

older than the greatest age any scientist of the time to estimate. It

was

but

it

the

new

to

be only the

first

of

many

staggering extensions as

science grew and unfolded.

It was soon established that uranium decays into lead at an extremely slow but fixed rate. After 4.500,000.000 years half of

any given quantity of uranium

will

have turned into a special

kind of lead, called radiogenic lead. At the end of another like period half of the remaining half will have disintegrated, and so on.

Thus

scientists say

uranium has a half hfe of 4,500,000,000

years.

Whenever any of this radiogenic lead unweathered and unaltered uranium ore,

is

found

in a piece of

can be accepted as the product of the uranium's decay, for there is no other reason why it should be there. Therefore, by measuring the ratio of the it

radiogenic lead to the uranium, the age of the uranium can be calculated. If half of

it

has decayed to lead,

its

age would be

4,500.000.000 years.

However, continuing research revealed that uranium has

at

^K^9»l|H

Datine. the Past the proportion of carbon

14

any organic remains and comparing it with the proportion in living things it would in

be possible to

tell

how many

years had gone by since the

The

material had been alive. past could be dated.

"Once you asked where the carbon 14

is,"

said Libby, "it

was like one, two, three; you had dating." Again the theory with all of its promise had to be tested. Could the method correctly give known ages? That was the most rigorous of tests. III. now in the Chicago Natural History muleum. wai (ound buried in the sand near a pyramid at Dahshur. Eoy. Historical years ago. A piece of wood cut from the boat boat at 3.750 dated the rtcords «nd subjected to carbon 14 testing revealed an age of 3,621 years, plus or

One

FUNERAL BOAT OF SESOSTRIS

minus 180 years

ordinary carbon dio.xide and should thus become radioactive. Animals which eat plants, and man who eats both plants and

become radioactive

animals, should then in their turn

Do

they?

The

best

be radioactive.

to test this interesting theory

seemed

to

be to

What was more

was that the amount was almost should be. And so it was

significant

of carbon 14 (radioactive carbon) present in the gas

exactly what Libby had predicted

it

shown from gas from Baltimore sewage lisions in the outer

atmosphere make

that cosmic ray col-

all living

things radioactive.

Libby announced the discovery of carbon 14 in nature. But the gas had been collected in Baltimore, which is at sea level. Would the same amount of carbon 14 be found in living things at other elevations and at other latitudes and longitudes? Would there be a greater concentration in living material from the mountain tops where cosmic ray

bombardment

is

at a

maxi-

mum?

Samples then were collected by Libby 's colleague. E. C. Anderson, from all around the world: spruce from the Yukon, honeysuckle leaves from Oak Ridge, Tennessee, briar from north .Africa, Sterciilia excelsa from a 9.000-foot peak in Bolivia, ironwood from the Marshall Islands, beech from Tierra del Fuego and seal oil from Antarctica. Anderson found all of them to be radioactive and

same number

From

all set

the Geiger counters to clicking with the

of disintegrations per minute as had the Baltimore

this

it

was concluded that carbon 14 was evenly disall living things. This means

tributed throughout the world and in

that a certain fixed proportion of the carbon in is

carbon

when

all

living things

14.

Another question raised 14

living things died,

radioactive carbon?

itself.

What happened

when they ceased

to the

carbon

to take in additional

The obvious answer was

that the carbon 14

decay and gradually turn back into the nonradioactive nitrogen from which the cosmic rays had made it in the first place. Libby, by special laboratory measurements, estab-

would begin

to

lished that carbon 14 has a half life of 5,568 years.

Thus

half of

the carbon 14 present in organic material at the time of death would be gone at the end of 5,568 years, but the other half would still

be present in any remains. After that lesser amounts would

persist.

The

his

implications

came

to the scientist in a flash.

By measuring

of

the

curators

of

cut a few ounces of

the

wood

journey into the afterworld.

The wood

cut

from the Egyptian boat was reduced

carbon and spread

way

museum

from the deck planking of the museum's big crescent-shaped mortuary boat of Sesostris IIL It was known that the craft had been built about 3,750 years before to carry the pharaoh on

too.

examine the gases given off by decomposing organic matter. Samples of such a gas, methane, were obtained from a Baltimore sewage plant. Libby, who was then professor of chemistry at The University of Chicago, ran them through a Geiger counter (a device which measures radioactivity) and they were found to

gas.

Chicago Natural History

in a special supersensitive

pure

to

Geiger counter that

Libby had developed. The counter began to click. The carbon in the pharaoh 's boat had lost enough radioactivity to show that it was 3,621 years old, plus or minus a possible error of 180 years.

(The plus or minus method of counting. would

lie,

is

the scientist's allowance for error in his

It indicates

that the true age of the

wood

between 3.801 and 3.441 years.) colleague. J. R. .Arnold, similarly tested some

in this instance,

Libby and his corewood from the Centennial sequoia, a forest giant felled in 1874. Its 2,905 annual rings were a lasting record of its lifetime. On three runs in the Geiger counter the wood showed an average age of 2,710 years, plus or minus the usual error. Thus the counter checked also against a record of nature.

Could carbon 14 measurements as accurately reveal the dates unknown age? At this point Libby asked the assistance of the American Anthropological association and the Geological Society of America, and the two groups appointed a special com-

of relics of

mittee of experts to assemble materials for dating in order to

check the new method.

Soon a strange

collection of objects

was flowing

into

University of Chicago's Institute for Nuclear Studies

from the tomb of Hemaka, a

dynasty of Egypt;

ISAIAH, fragments of one of the Dead Sea scrolls. A carbon 14 date 1.917 years was obtained from a piece of linen that had wrapped this scroll

BOOK OF of

vizier of the first

The

—wood

a bit of linen that

the

Dead Sea

had wrapped the Book of Isaiah manuscript of

scroDs; charcoal from a hearth in the Lascaux

cave in France; mud from Lake Knocknacran, an Irish lake gouged out by the glaciers; dung of the great sloth from G>'psum cave near Las Vegas, Nevada; and hundreds of others. Carbon 14 testing bespoke the age of them all. The wood from

tomb was 4,883 years

the vizier's

old; the linen, 1,917 years; the

Lascaux hearth charcoal, 15,516; the Irish glacial mud, 11,310; and the dung of the great sloth, 10,455.

As enthraUing as

mammoths,

was

it

mummies and

to discover the age of

more serious mission. The problem committee was to determine how the new

science has a

before the special

method could be used

man

to solve important questions about

environment, historical problems that had always defied scholars. When, for example, did the ice recede from the northern

and

his

part of the United States and Europe?

What were

these regions? their cultures?

How

When

did

man

arrive in

the dates of the early Indians and

could the mystic

ordinated with the Christian calendar?

Mayan calendar be Was the Babylonian

cocal-

endar properly correlated with our own? Last Ice

Age

in

North America and Europe

In one of the last advances of the ice on the North American continent a glacial tongue overran a spruce forest in what

known

Two

as the

Creeks area of Wisconsin. The trees

ing to the southwest, the direction of the glacier's

fell

is

now

point-

movement. In

time they were covered by other deposits, and for centuries lay

hidden until they were finally re-exposed along the shores of a lake.

Libby measured a number of samples of carbon from the wellpreserved spruce

In his Geiger counter the

logs.

wood

clicked out

an age of 11,404 years, an age later confirmed by other measurements of the same forest, using difi'erent trees and even the soil in

14 LABORATORY at the University museum, Philadelphia. The man on the left is pointing to the combustion tube where testing samples are burned under controlled conditions, the first step in the reduction of a sample to pure carbon

CARBON

which the forest had grown. The finding was a startling one.

An

Geologists generally had estimated the last stand of the ice in

greenness forested America.

the northern part of the United States at about 25,000 years ago.

of our time began to emerge.

The knowledge

that the ice

had held sway instead

until 10.000

or 11,000 years ago changed the whole time scale of the area.

Time of Early

in

the

WeMern Hemisphere

the United States imtil a brief 10,000 years ago, for he

have gone there while the country lay

been traced with any accuracy; no coherent story could be told

meant

is

now

that

certainly

man had

could not

not

moved

buried under hundreds of feet of

And when

into the northern part of

what

ice.

did the ice pull back in

When was

Europe?

the

way

opened for the development of the postglacial civilization out of which grew the Europe of today? Into the counters were fed peat that had accumulated in the glacial lakes and other organic materials that had been left behind in Europe by the great ice sheets. Dates of 10.000 and 11,000 years were registered by the glacial debris from England to Denmark. Some German birches bowled over by the ice showed, for example, an age of lo.Soo

Edward

of our past. As man's history stood it was beset with uncertainties and contradictions. It was not surprising that scientists eagerly took up the first sure probe ever available to them for penetrating the great murky range of man's prehistory. Step by step, from the nearer past to the most remote, the story was carried back. Several feet below the present surface of Bat cave in New Mexico, excavators had come upon some small primitive corn cobs. In higher layers the cobs

S.

Deevey,

Jr.,

director of the geochronometric lab-

in the

oratory of Yale university, pointed out that "the de-glaciation

Europe was contemporaneous with that of North there had been only the geological evidence for guidance, it was believed to have been earlier. The carbon 14 glacial dates were confirmed by two other methods of measuring the time of that era. The varves or annual layers left by the melting and freezing of the glaciers, and the deposits of pollen built up in glacial lakes, pointed to the same

When

timing of the Ice Age. In 1957 a national conference on radiocarbon dating was able to conclude: "the major climatic events the northern hemisphere (since the last interglacial period)

have been broadly contemporaneous."

When

it

had been cold

Europe it had been cold in North America when pine forests had clothed the northern European plains, so had their dark ;

larger;

they had been

set the time for material

The

from each of the layers

cave floor: material

of northern

America.''

became

better filled with grain. In the top layers were the cobs of today.

Carbon 14

years.

in

Man

The important and engrossing problem of man remained. The development and prehistoric movements of our ancestors had not

It

in

accurate environmental history

depth in feet

age in years

cobs

o-i

1,752

wood wood wood and corn wood

1-2

1,907

2-3

2,239

3-4 4-5

2,249 2,862

man's progress as a farmer stood revealed. Between 2.862 and 1,752 years ago man had learned how to improve stor\' of

He had become a skillful farmer. But man had been present in that part of the country long before the first residents of Bat cave ground up their primitive corn. In 1927 a peculiar kind of fluted stone arrowhead had been found near Folsom, New Mexico. Nearby lay the charred bones the grain he ate.

.

45

At about this time, the early 19505, archaeologists were making remarkable discoveries about some of our earlier ancestors in the caves of north Africa and the middle east. In these natural shelters

man had

taken refuge from the earliest times until today;

move

often present occupants had to be persuaded to

way

evitably left

many

evidences of

the bones of the animals

it

ate,

In the cave of the Heifer's

Caspian

sea,

University

Carleton

make

there, including its

and often

own

its

Outwash on

in-

looN

bones.

the shores of the

Coon, professor of anthropology at the

S.

museum and

down, layer by

its life

to

Each generation

the archaeologists' excavations.

for

the University of Pennsylvania, dug

through more than 20 feet of debris that

layer,

had accumulated on the natural rock

floor of the cave. In

layer alone he recovered 35,312 pieces of

many

flint,

one

of which

had been worked into highly usable tools. In the bottom layer lay one of the earliest kinds of stone hand axes, and under it, to the anthropologist's great rejoicing, was some charcoal. Carbon samples from all levels of the Heifer's Outwash were rushed to the United States for dating. They arrived

in

delphia just as the United States began a series of atomic

The

tests in the Pacific.

increased radioactivity

in

Phila-

bomb

the air caused

by the atomic bomb explosions interfered so seriously with the counting of the Stone Age charcoal that it was sent on to New Zealand, where the carbon 14 determinations were made. Because New Zealand lay southwest of the Pacific testing site, and of an extinct kind of bison. Libby dated

some

of the charred

bone, and discovered that about 9,883 years had passed since the bison had been killed and presumably roasted by the man

who made

the fatal arrowhead.

Thus Folsom man was placed

southern part of North .America about 10.000 years ago.

in the

Other'arrowheads of the same design, other bones of the same odd bison, and remnants of other fires have shown that the bison hunter had spread widely through the south and southwest, and had even pushed up the valley of the Mississippi river, where he had taken shelter under a great overhanging rock along the banks of the river in Illinois. The edge of the glacier was only a few hundred miles to the north, and the winters

been long and bitter

in that part of the country,

must have

but carbon 14

has dated the hunter's sheltering under the great rock at nearly 10,000 years ago.

the prevailing winds blew^ from the southwest to the northeast,

New

Zealand was unaffected by the radioactivity of the ex-

plosions.

By

devious route the date of the

this

fire

that had

burned at the hand axe level of the Heifer's Outwash was It was 43.000 years ago. .\nd so carbon 14 outlined the history of valley of Asia where his civilization had

man

its rise,

fixed.

the ancient

in

and

in

the New-

World where he came long afterward. Only a beginning has been made, but an important part of the framework has been put into place. It testifies that a

very brief time. Only a

man moved

men who

edged, separates the

lived in

what is essentially must now be acknowlcaves and made stone tools

live

skyscrapers and

fast in

flicker of time,

and the men of today who

atom their tool. Carbon 14, it should be

said,

is

in

it

make

the

not an infallible measurement.

example, for modern roots that grew down into

At about the same time man also lived on the west coast. In Fort Rock cave on the Oregon coast, buried many years ago by tons of pumice from a volcanic eruption, scientists found 300

It is possible, for

They were as handsomely knotted and made as any beach sandals of today, and they were found through carbon 14 dating to be 9,053 (± 350)

short of such accidents, against which science carefully guards,

years old.

that will

pairs of perfectly preserved rope sandals.

The counters have

also placed man in Mexico and at the Magellan 9.000 and 10.000 years ago. Whenever man first came to the American continents, carbon 14 tests have demonstrated that he was well spread out from north to south as

Straits of

early as

Earlier

the evaluating committee appointed

Improvements

Asia

method

make

by the learned

societies has

"valid ... an invaluable tool ... a

is

possible to

it

are at last becoming a readable book.

tainty about time.

in the techniques of radioactive

to

method compare the course of events on all continents ... to establish badly needed time scales." The last 70.000 years, through the measurements of carbon 14, held that the

Thermometer

But beyond, farther back in

more radioactive materials

older organic stuff, and for other contamination to occur. But

Urey's Geologic

10.000 years ago.

Man

older strata to add younger and

A

in the past, there still

was no

cer-

chance, though informed, remark was to

than 25.000 years old. The minute amounts of radioactive car-

up another long-hidden stretch of the past. At a scientific meeting in Switzerland shortly after the end of World War II, Harold Clayton Urey, the chemist who had won the Xobel prize in 1934 for his discovery of hea\-y hydrogen or deuterium as it is called, was telling about his work with other isotopes. Urey pointed out that more of the rare isotope of

bon

oxygen fo.xygen iSi

made

it

carbon dating

possible to probe even farther back into man's obscure

past.

With

the original

method

of reducing the samples to pure

carbon, the laboratories had difficulty in dating material left in older

solid

more

samples could not be detected by spreading the

carbon on the

w^alls of a

counter. Several laboratories, how-

worked out a way of converting the radioactive carbon into Much smaller amounts could then be measured, and suddenly science found itself able to use the carbon 14 dating method

light

is

found

in the seas

than in fresh water.

In the discussion that followed. Paul Niggli, a distinguished

would be true then that the

ever,

crystallographer. asked

a gas.

creatures w'hich take their oxygen from sea water and use

with matter as old as 70,000 years.

and skeletons would accumulate more oxygen 18 than animals living in fresh water, and if this would offer a way to

46

their shells

if it

living it

in

Dating the Past distinguish between

them? Urey

said that this certainly should

home Urey,

his return

then of The University of Chicago,

kept thinking about the interesting point Niggli had raised.

decided to test

it

He

out.

He

soon found that not only does more

bony parts of the creatures of the it in their bodies when the water temperatures are colder than when they are warmer. Urey saw that by working out how much oxygen i8 would be deposited oxygen i8 accumulate sea,

little

fluctuations are lost.

He

selected three cores

brought up from more than 10,000-foot depths

be the case.

On

47

the depths the

but that they

fix

in the

more

of

Pacific.

To

find out

in the equatorial

what the bottom temperatures had been he

had to sort out the shells of animals that during their lifetime had lived on or near the floor of the sea. When this tedious task was done and the little shells were analyzed, Emiliani found that the temperature had been about 51 degrees at a period which the layers of the core indicated had been 32,000,000 years ago.

By

22,000,000 years ago the temperature had fallen to about

and measuring how much oxygen 18 was present, he could determine what past temperatures had

44 degrees. Then the layers of the core and the shells indicated the world grew colder still. By 1,000,000 years ago the water was

been.

so cold

at each degree of temperature

thermometer

"I suddenly found myself with a geologic

in

my

Actually four years of hard work were necessary to practical thermometer.

Urey calculated that

make

a difference of

it

one

oxygen 18 to oxygen 16 (ordinary oxygen) in the shells of marine animals. But no existing mass spectrometer (the instrument used for the

hundredths of one per cent of difference

in the ratio of

oxygen 18 and oxygen 16 measurements) could detect differences so small. Urey and his colleagues had to improve the instrument

and they did. had to make sure that the calculations of how much oxygen 18 would be deposited for each degree of temperature were correct. The only way to be certain was to check his figures with shells whose growth temperatures were known. To help solve this problem, the Scripps Institute of Oceanography grew tenfold,

also

number

of marine mollusks at controlled temperatures. Their

to contain the amount of oxygen 18 that Urey had calculated they should. Thus the proposed thermometer was shown to be an accurate one. Urey was then ready to test fossil shells, and shells were collected from many places. The most useful proved to be those of belemnites that had grown about 150,000,000 years ago in a warm shallow sea that covered what is now Scotland. Each year of their growth was marked by the formation of a ring in their shells, exactly as rings form in trees. The rings were shaved off and analyzed one by one for oxygen 18 content. They showed shells

were found

what the ocean temperatures had been belemnites'

in

each year of the

life.

Earth's Climate

Charted

At about the time these experiments were under way, deepsea expeditions from Sweden and from the Lamont Geological observatory of Columbia university were cutting cores from the

bottom of the seas. The scientists took out sections, some them 60 feet long, much as a cook might core an apple.

The layered sediments

of

of the cores constituted a record of the

and other sediments that had settled down to the bottom of the seas through thousands and sometimes millions of years. Cesare Emiliani, who had been working with Urey on paleoshells

temperatures, saw that

if

the temperatures of the various layers

could be analyzed an accurate record could be compiled of what the temperatures of the seas had been at the time each layer wa-

down. A deep core would mirror the temperatures of the ocean over a very long period, and this would reveal the climati laid

of the earth during that time. Emiliani decided to study cores

formed during the last 65,000,000 years, the age of mammals, the age of man, the ice ages and the age of the younger mountains.

"Clearly," said Emiliani, "a picture of

its

climatic trends would

illuminate and clarify the record."

Emiliani wanted to begin with a study of what the temperatures had been at the ocean bottom, for they would give a' better picture of the long-term changes in the earth's climate.

Down

set for the

At such temperamust have had its icecap,

freezing.

beginning of the Ice Age.

a

degree in the temperature of the water would produce only two-

a

was only three degrees above

and the stage was

hands," he said.

He

it

tures, Emiliani recognized, Antarctica

in

Pattern of Recurrent Glacial Periods But it was not an uninterrupted cold that was to grip the earth. As geologists had long since established, the Ice Age was broken by periods of warmth when steamy jungles replaced the snow and ice. The geologists had also traced out four major periods of cold. They could see how far south and in what directions the glaciers had extended, for the glaciers had left behind them miles of scattered boulders, scratched rocks and depressions that had filled

with lakes. But to try to correlate the time of the glaciers posed great difficulties. Emiliani

in the various parts of the land

MEASURING A TRENCH

in the cave of the Heifer's Outwasli, near the C excavated by Carlelon S. Coon. Finding charcoai in the bottom he was able to have the age of the earliest inhabitants of the cave deteri The carbon 14 method set the date at 43.000 years ago

sea,

Dating the Fast According to Milankovitch's figures the cool summers

earth.

would occur about every 40,000 years.

"Our analysis of

the fossils in the cores indicates that the low

points in ocean temperatures did indeed occur at 40,000-year intervals" said Emiliani, pointing to the strange joining of the

evidence of celestial mechanics and the

One

fossils of the seas.

point barred easy acceptance of the Milankovitch

difficult

Why,

theory and of Emiliani's similar findings.

there were

if

recurrent periods of cold, was there no evidence of ice

Why

ages?

did the markings of the ice begin to

300,000 years ago?

Why

earlier

still

show only

did older rocks not bear the incisings of

glaciation?

may

Emiliani has suggested that the answer

raphy of the earth cold,

warm

huge

in

lie in

the topog-

those earlier days. Before the earth turned

seas in which reptiles lived

washed over the

centre part of the North American continent and covered

other parts of the earth that are

Then came of

many

dry.

"young" mountains, the Rockies, the As the land rose the seas and millions of square miles of flat sea bottom turned the rise of the

Alps, the Andes and the Himalayas.

OCEANOQRAPHER RECOVERING A NANSEN BOTTLE. iMt temperature reedings and samples

now

deep »ca watvr

retreated,

into dry level plains. Because dry land absorbs less solar radia-

hoped that the sea cores with their clear, continuous sequences would straighten out the discontinuity and confusion of the land

tion than does water, the climate slowly

evidence.

and the polar icecaps formed. The land became covered with snow and ice, which, being highly reflective, absorbed still less

For a close reconstruction of the earth's climate during the ice ages, Emiliani had to have a record of the surface tempera-

To

tures as well as of the deep temperatures of the oceans.

get

he sorted out the Foraminifera shells from a number of cores taken from the Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Caribbean

it,

seas.

The

animals with the delicately molded shells had

little

lived within a few

time.

At

hundred

their death they

feet of the surface during their life-

had drifted down

to the

bottom

to

form

part of the soft thick carpet of ooze that covered the ocean's floor.

But analysis of their oxygen i8 content told how warm or cold the surface had been during their lifetime.

When

Emiliani's analyses were finished, the four periods of

cold and the intervening periods of charts like so

many mountains and

warmth stood out on

the

downward

slide in

grew colder; the long

temperatures shown by the sea cores began,

of the sun's heat.

By 300,000

years ago, Emiliani estimates, the climate was so

cold that even the

summer sun

did not completely melt the

that lay deep over the continents.

The

from the north. With so much of the land locked temperatures of the ocean dropped, as Emiliani's

in

ice.

fossil

the

shells

testified.

And

then, the theory holds, a gradual reversal began. As the became colder evaporation decreased and the air became drier. Snow fell more lightly across the face of the earth, until eventually the winter's fall did not make up for the summer's shrinkage. The ice began to pull back. A period of hot summers

seas

increased the shrinkage and the ice melted back until

valleys.

snow

shoved farther down

ice

it

covered

The next step was to date the Foraminifera shells by carbon 14. Hans E. Suess and Meyer Rubin of the United States geological

only Greenland and the polar regions as

survey thus established that the last great period of glaciation reached its peak 18,000 years ago. This coincided almost exactly

other major periods of glaciation. as well as several lesser periods,

with the

many carbon

14

measurements of

glacial materials in

the United States and Europe,

The carbon

pattern, as Emiliani sees

and seems If the

to

be repeating

theory

is

correct

by

will

once again begin to

improved techniques they were out of reach; they had occurred too long ago for carbon 14 measurement. But with firm carbon 14 dates for the last advance of the ice, and a knowledge of the relative times of each of the other

sites of

ice ages, dates could

been weathered down

14.

the

be set for them too.

It

was a

fairly

easy

application of what the scientist calls extrapolation or projection

from the known In this

to the

way Emiliani

unknown. calculated that the

it,

does today.

was repeated through three

itself again.

we

are

moving toward

a

new

ice age.

Emiliani predicts in fact that in another 10.000 years the glaciers

three earlier ice periods could not be directly dated

Even with

The

it

Chicago. Berlin,

move southward and will again bury the Moscow and other cities of the northern

hemisphere.

"Indeed," said the scientist, "we can expect periodic glaciations to continue until the earth's great

Not

until the

mountain chains have

to hills."

mountains are worn low,

until the seas

again rolled in over the flatter land and there first ice

period began

about 300,000 years ago, instead of the 500,000 years that had long been accepted. It was an upsetting finding. And after that,

is

have

more water

sur-

face to absorb the sun's heat, does Emiliani expect the glacial cycle to end.

Time

Man

periods of greater or lesser cold

Setting the

years, for there

As the new geologic thermometer outlined the time of the ice ages, it also, almost parenthetically, outlined the time of man's

came along about every 40,000 were sometimes several peaks of cold within one

glaciation.

The 40.000

years, however,

had a strangely familiar and

signif-

icant sound. In the 1920s the Serbian physicist Milutin Milan-

earliest years, the

for Earliest

unknown years before our ancestors moved

into the caves of southeast Asia

and Europe.

kovitch had suggested that the fluctuations in the earth's orbit

In those earlier times, our forebears must have lived in places

and in its axis of rotation would periodically change the pattern in which the heat of the sun falls on the earth. The result, he

and climates that were relatively warm and hospitable to men who had little protection against the weather. Certainly when the

would be long periods of cool summers and mild winters. During such cool summers the snow of the winter would melt less than usual and gradually ice would cover a large part of the

ern portion of Africa

said,

South African ape men, Australopithecinae occupied the southit was nearly as warm and dry as it is today. The animals associated with them leave no doubt about that .

Dating the Past point.

They were animals

of the temperate or tropic zones.

Thou-

^fg

from the South African ape man, with

own

sands of their bones have been found in the rocks that hold the

to our

and humanlike body bones of the ape men. The Australopithecinae had brains no larger than those of the apes, or about 600 cubic centimetres, but they walked upright on two legs and knew how to make simple tools by striking chips from

must have moved

pieces of bone.

quite rapid.

apelike skulls

his anthropoidlike brain,

large-brained kind in about 400,000 years, evolution

contemplated.

A

far faster than Charles Darwin dilemma would have been created if about the same time had not established by at a pace

difficult

anthropologists at

lived before the start of the Ice Age, Emiliani postulates that

this evolution may in fact have been few genetic changes, it has been shown, could have produced many of the secondary changes, such as the smooth skull and small eyebrow ridges, that make us look differ-

they inhabited their semidesert section of South Africa from

ent from the cave

Since

the evidence indicates that the Australopithecinae

all

experiment and study that

No

400.000 up to about 200.000 years ago.

who had been studying

Geologists and anthropologists

these

strange half-human, half-anthropoid creatures had hesitated to

grave

men

difficulties

bones had been found were not

stratified.

As a rough working

approximation they had spoken of them as of 1,000,000 years ago. If Emiliani's estimates prove to be correct first to

—and

they are

be based on evidence derived, even though indirectly,

from precise measurements

— the

tenure of humankind on this

earth becomes very short indeed.

Well before the

Australopithecinae skull was found in

first

The proper placement the dates for

man had been

later his

little

at first believed to be the

counterpart was found near

man and human company;

Peking, China. It was later established that both Java

man were

Peking

their brains

man had

were

definitely

members

at about

900 cubic centimetre range and Peking over the Hopei valley. from the most primitive human types,

in the

250,000 or 200,000

years ago.

On

the Emiliani oxygen 18

time scale the Early Stone Age of the southwestern Asia

—Neanderthal men with approaching modern —would have been

caves

brains

alive

By

about 100,000 years ago.

about 50,000 years ago they

were gone. The

mains of

men

earliest

now dated

re-

ourselves

like

at about 100,-

000 years, although some authorities

convinced

are

the

time will be reduced again by

more exact

Even

dating.

100,000 years

at

Age-

Ice

the

based dates check strikingly with the carbon 14 dates for

men who

lived in the cave

Outwash and

of the Heifer's

with a host of carbon 14 dates fit

quence.

man

into

time

that

Whether are

set

the

se-

dates

by moving

forward from the time of the last

ice

period,

or

whether

they are set by moving back-

ward from the edge of history with the help of carbon

14

measurements, the agreement is

remarkable. Man's time

at last

But

is

being worked out. if

of the

built fires in his caves looking out

They had developed far and Emiliani now dates them

of

comer on

modern man evolved

of

man, and even the working out of only the last few chapters in

the long history of the earth.

How

long had the earth existed before men, or even the

new

its

surface?

How

old

is

first

the earth

Until this primary tantalizing problem was solved the

itself?

findings could be only dangling bits of evidence.

was

A

"missing link."

that

a late

life itself, still filled in

was the famed Pithecanthropus erectus,

the

of the conclusion

is

Determining the Age of the Earth

outline and the master

are

man

this planet earth.

discovered (1891-92) in the banks of a small Java river. This

size

way

stand in the

which the new dating points, that

to

speck of algae, appeared on

1934, the bones of another very primitive type, of

men

of the Stone Age.

now

time for them, for the deposits of the caves in which their

set a

the

A

to

framework were

requisite

if

A

grand

the present

be satisfactorily understood.

The discovery of radioactivity and of the isotopes in the years preceding World War II had made possible an approach to this GLACIATION

IN

THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

Arrows indicate generalized direction

in

former g North Ame ica published by

of flow of

Map

the ntevs. Gerasimov and Geological Society of America; Great Soviet Atlas; E. Markov; and other sources. Polar Equidistant proieclii n; base from Hydrographic and Map service, Canada tion

is

available.

Sources:

Glacial

of

/

Dating the Past

JO

v.

M

^l^ COMPARISON OF SKULLS

of (left)

aorilla.

(centre) ttriy man,

Sinanthropui

pekinensis, and (fight) modern man. All tkulls are shown In the tame plane and at the tame reduction from life tize. As the size of the jaw decreases, the head becomes higher and the heavy eyebrow ridges disappear

age of the rocks alone

Some most resistant of problems. As soon as the war ended research was resumed on lead-uranium dating. While success was achieved with carbon 14 and with the oxygen 18 thermometer, Nier, who had been the

first

to develop dating with the lead-uranium iso-

and others progressed with many of the formidable technical problems that were involved in dating by radioactivity. In lead-uranium dating the scientists were working with minute amounts of materials formed when the earth took shape. Methods topes,

uranium had

of separating the lead and

more

to be

improved; half

decay times of the various materials had to be made

lives or the

exact;

ways had

to be

developed to detect any leakage of

radioactive materials or any changes in

the ores that

would

The prewar work had indicated that the earth millions of years old. Under such circumstances

upset calculations.

was hundreds of

an error of even one per cent could bulk first,

too, separating the materials

contained. It could also give the ratio between them.

The dating

of the earth's rocks and hence of the earth itself could

move

forward with a new speed.

The

began their search with rock known to be very from the ancient hearts of the continents. Most of this

scientists

old, rock

rock lay near the surface, for the original nucleus areas of the

they had no thick overlay of sedimentary rock. of the first lead-uranium ores to be studied

came from is

known. In the mass spectrometer they were found to be an imposing 2,650.000,000 years old. Years before, Rutherford had estimated that a piece of pitchblende was 700,000,000 years old, and before the war Xier had dated some leads in the 240.000.000s. Here was rock tremendously older. And soon lead-uranium ores from the world's other continental shield areas, the African, Australian and Asian, were revealing the same vast age. The earth, which had to be at least as old as its oldest rocks, was older than anyone had seriously estimated. But nearly all of the uranium ores measured w^ere what the

They occurred

in

once-molten rocks

had intruded into still older rocks. Obviously the rocks into which they had pushed their way had been there before; they were older still. Since the surrounding rocks contained no lead-uranium ores there was at first no way to date them. Once again science was stopped short of its goal. By measuring the that

not possible to determine the

other

method had

to be found.

The English

scientist

to form, he arrived at an age of 3.300,000,000 years for the earth.

But there were serious doubts about it. It was virtually certain that lead 207 was not evenly distributed throughout the 20- to 30-mile-thick crust and an estimate based on its surface occurrence probably would not

The search

for

tell

the whole story.

an accurate way of obtaining the age of the

earth had to continue.

Technology and saw that if they could determine the composition of the lead present when the earth was formed and compare it w-ith the composition of the earth's lead today, simple subtraction would show exactly how much lead had been added to C. C. Patterson of the California Institute of

a

group of

his associates

by the decay of uranium. But how could anyone determine what the composition of the earth's lead had been at the time the earth was formed out of the dusts of space? If a sample of lead had been taken at that time of birth how much lead 206 and 207 would have been in it. and how much ordinary lead, lead not derived from uranium decay and with the atomic weight of 204? Certainly no part of the original complement of lead had been preserved as such, for the earth's constant wearing down, regeneration and change would have altered

its

pristine state.

Meteorites Offer a Clue

The

task might have been an impossible one except for one

strange clue from outside the earth. In 1947 Harrison

the Canadian Shield, as the North American nucleus area

geologists call pegmatites.

still

Arthur Holmes tried to calculate the amount of lead 207 present in the crust of the earth. By estimating how long it had taken it

continents had never been covered by invading seas and thus

Some

was

the earth

large.

and counting their ages took weeks. Soon after the war, however, the mass spectrometer, the instrument that sorts ions, was improved until on one runthrough of a sample of lead it could supply all the data necessary for computing the ages of both the lead 206 and lead 207 it At

it

age of the earth.

suggested (bodies of

how

it

heaw

Brown

might be used. Not infrequently, meteorites metal, stone or a mixture of both) rain

down

on the earth from outer space. Many astronomers believe that they are the debris from one or

more small planets which came

as the earth

into existence at the

and the other planets, but were

same time by

later shattered

collisions.

The black, metal meteorites contain no uranium or thorium. Thus during the millions of years they were orbiting in space no lead 206 or 207 could have been added to them by the decay of these minerals. Any lead that they do contain must have been there at the time their parent body was formed. It is lead unchanged since the very beginning of things. The great chunks of metal, the meteorites, offered the scientists a duplicate of what the earth's lead must have been Uke at the time of our planet's birth, and of the earth's lead as it was before it underwent any change or was enriched by the decay of uranium. Patterson measured the lead in some of the most famous iron

Dating the Past meteorites that have fallen on the earth. hard, scratched boulders of metal, are analysis of their lead content, he

had

Most of the larger ones, in museums. With the

in his

hands the

first

neces-

sary item of information in his search for a true age for the earth.

Another problem had

to be solved

— the average

composition

was necessary to know how much of the earth's present lead is common lead and how much is radiogenic lead. Samples from any one lead district, or even from several of them, would not do. They would not fully reflect the composition of all the lead everywhere in the world. of the earth's lead today. It

The earth, however, has one By the time the sediments of the

great mixing bowl, the oceans.

land

come

to rest in the greatest

depths of the Pacific a complete mixing has taken place.

The

ground "rock flour" of the ocean's floor is t>pical of the rock of all the continents, and of the lead of all of them. By extracting the lead from the rock flour and analyzing its proportions of common and radiogenic lead, Patterson developed an

jx

The

was profoundly impressive. It had taken 4,500,000,000 years of uranium disintegration to produce the earth's present complement of radiogenic lead, and that meant that 4,500,000,000 years had passed since the earth came into being. The earth then was 4,500,000,000 years old. For the first time in man's long effort to find the age of the earth, the age arrived at was no estimate, but a positive, verifiable, repeatable measurement. It has since been confirmed in other laboratories. Only one question beclouds its certainty. This is the initial assumption that the meteorites are from planetary bodies tliat consohdated at the same time as the earth. There is no 207.

result

present

way

for

strong and science preponderantly accepts

it is

of proving this assumption although the evidence it.

1

finely

accurate picture of the average composition of the earth's lead today.

One additional computation was necessary. Information also had to be obtained about the composition of the lead in the deeper parts of the earth's crust, for it would differ from that of the surface.

For a sample of the deeper lead the California

scientists

turned to some of the undisturbed lava flows along the Snake river in Oregon.

deep

These great outpourings of lava had come from and could be accepted as typical of the ma-

in the crust

and lead of lower parts of the crust. all of the analyses were complete, the ing and revealing. The ocean terial

When

much

But further confirmation was soon orites that fall

more frequently on

were

strik-

come. The stony mete-

— they

—

make up about 90 per cent of them all contain both uranium and its end product, lead. Patterson, Brown and Mark Inghram, all then of The University of Chicago, and George Tilton of the Carnegie institution separated enough of the radiogenic lead to obtain a 206/207 ratio. And the same significant figure cropped up again. The stony meteorites, which had come from the mantle or crust of the shattered planet and which in composition were unhke any stone on the earth, also disclosed an age of 4,500,000,000 years. meteorites

results

to

the earth than the metal ones

in a

alst

body of pla

ve

existed.

almost

rock flour contained twice as

Other Calculations Confirmed the Result

lead 206 and

207 as did the meteorites.

The

from the decay of uranium and thorium was remarkably demonstrated. It was the same with the lead from the lava flows. The gra> metal brought up by the molten rock from deep in the earth also had been enriched by the decay of uranium and thorium. It had about a third more lead 206 and 207 than earth's gain

the unenriched meteorites.

These were representative measurements; they could be taken to present an average for the earth's surface

crustal depths.

its

and for

The

scien-

compute how much radiogenic lead had been added to the earth since tists

could

at

last

its birth.

Earth's

Age

Set at

4,500,000,000 Years

^,^«K,-^--:.

In addition they could cross

check their results by comparing the ratio of lead 206 to

HISTORY OF A FOSSIL: A is trapped in mud or a tar dies.

a

era

dinosaur pit and

area is covered by a sea, and sediments are deposited on the siteieton. After olhe laye built river begins to cut through the n Eventually a deep valley is cut, posing the layer containing the fossilized remains of the dinosaur In

iaier

tl^e

i

Dating the Past

«a

And

still

more proof

piled up.

Among

isotopes of the earth are those of

the principal radioactive

rubidium and potassium.

the date of the solidification of the earth and the meteorites at

4,500,000,000 years.

agreement, and

was an astounding and overwhelming

It

mean

and potassium to argon, a gas. Here were two other timepieces whose running down could be measured, and both were important because they were widely distributed through the earth's rocks. Measurements with these produced dates for some of the earth's oldest rocks, dates which were found to be in close accord with

from which the meteorites came were among them. So strong was this converging of proof that the age of the earth is now generally considered fixed at about 4,500,000,000 years. Refinements in dating methods may establish the figure

those previously established by lead-uranium dating.

more exactly

But there was another possibility. Tiny traces of rubidium and strontium are found in meteorites. By measuring the stron-

certain that the final figure will be of the present order.

tium content of the metal meteorites and the rubidium and stron-

6,000 years, the 100.000.000 years of the

tium quotas of the .stony meteorites, Ernst Schumacher was able

000.000 of recent

Rubidium decays over

to

billions of years to strontium,

compute their age with this new time tool. By this totally difmeasurement, the meteorites again registered an age of

it

could only

years ago worlds were in the making.

The

or extend

it

that about

4,500,000,000

Our planet and the body

somewhat, but science now

is

virtually

old estimates of the age of the earth, the archbishop's

any but

scientific estimates, all

salt

count, the 3,300,-

have ceased to be of

historical interest. After centuries of speculation, the

made

ferent

discoveries of the atomic age have

4.500.000,000 years.

through nearly incomprehensible lengths of time and say, "that

G.

J.

Wasserburg and R.

J.

Hayden then discovered

that stony

meteorites contain argon, produced by the decay of potassium.

and calculated how many years had gone into slow accumulation. The answer was 4,600,000.000 years. Once

They measured its

it

again the same, or nearly the same, figure had appeared.

Three entirely

different

possible to reach back

was the birthday of the earth."

The discovery

of the true age of the earth and of the time of

our world's major events and of man's own time perspective. far

methods of measuring time thus placed

it

The

earth,

we have

learned,

is

is

opening a new

far older

younger than even the most daring had thought.

veriest ol

newcomers on

a very old planet.

\C(^N

TOTAL 4,500.000,000 YEARS CAMBR/AM

TIME BEFORE.

and man

We

are the

1960

BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR

A

BRITAN ....

Record of the March of Events of 1959

BOOK OF THE YEAR

1960 WILLIAM BENTON,

Publisher

JOHN DODGE, Executive Editor HOWARD E. KASCH, Managing Editor V.

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, CHICAGO

•

TORONTO

•

LONDON

INC.

o

i960

BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

COPYRIGHT UNDER INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT UNION ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER PAN AMERICAN AND UNIVERSAL COPYRIGHT CONVENTIONS BY ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

Britannica Book of the Year (Trade Mark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.)

PRI.NTED IN

U.S..\.

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

The Britannica Book of is

of

The

editor of the

privilege of using

the faculties

Britannic.\ 29

the

Year

published with the editorial advice

of The University of Chicago

Book of the Year

illustrations from

ownership of all illustrations

may

acknowledges with gratitude the

Time, Inc. Acknowledgments of

be found on the following three pages,

the copyright

the editor

—

..

.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Feature Articles

HAWAII, The

Island State, 3

DATING THE PAST,

List of Illustrations

40

and Acknowledgment

of Copyright,

v

Introduction, viii Editors

and Contributors, ix

Calendar, 1960, xxii

Calendar of Events, 1959,

1

Britannica Book of the Year, 17 Index, 761

OF ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST

(Acknowledgment

Accident victim clutching

at rope (United Press International) 18 19 Adrian, Gilbert (UPI) 506 Advertising pose for dog food (UPI) 20 Agricultural Research Service Experimental wheat (Courtesy. U.S. Agricultural Research Service) 22 Agriculture New spraying rig (UPI) 24 Locust control, Jordan (UPI) 27 Aircraft Industry X-15 (Cornell Capa Magnum) 29 Flying crane (UPI) 30 Akihito (Wide World) 6 Alaska statehood medallion (UPI) 33 Algerian offensive {Paris-Match from Pictorial Parade) 36

...

Adenauer and Erhard (James Whitmore*)

—

Ambassadors and Envoys Resignation of Mrs. Luce (UPI) American Literature

37

Atomic Energy

Continued Locating fall-out (UPI) Playwright for disarmament (European) Pipes for waste (European) Australian crowd (Courtesy, The Herald & Weekly Times Ltd., Melbourne) Automobile Industry 1960 Corvair (Courtesy, General Motors Corp,) 1960 Falcon (Cornell Capa— Magnum) ... 1960 Valiant (Courtesy, Chrysler Corp.) 1960 Bluebird (HJA from Pictorial Parade) 1960 American (Courtesy. American Motors Corp.) 1960 Lark (Courtesy, Studebaker-Packard .

.

74 75

78 78 78 78

.

.

Corp.)

Automobile racing car from Publix)

in Italy (Publifoto

Beatnik poet (Burt Glinn— Magnum) (Elliott Erwitt .

.

.

,

— Mag-

num)

40 41

Anderson, Maxwell (Wide World) Angling lures (Joe Clark) Antarctic rescue (Courtesy, U.S. Coast Guard) Archaeology

506 43 45

— Pix

(Barratt's Photo Press Ltd,, London) . in pit (Courtesy, Attica. Athens) Queen examining statues (London Daily Express from Pictorial Parade) Herma in pit (Courtesy. Attica, Athens) . .

.

....... ,

Golden bowl (Loomis Dean*) Street in Herculaneum (Anthony Mann, Rome) Water bowl in portico (Anthony Mann, Rome) Mesa Verde excavation (Courtesy, National Park Service)

48 48

48 48 48 48 48 51

Yale hockey rink (Ezra Stoller) Frank Lloyd Wright funeral ( Michael Rougier*) Arctic research team (The Times, London, from

53 54

Pictorial Parade) Arkansas segregationists (Francis Miller*) Armies of the World

55 58

...

Panama (UPI)

61

Battalion's last trooping (Central Press from Pictorial Parade) "Invasion" (Courtesy. U.S. Marine Corps) Laotian troops (John Launois— Black Star*) Soviet troop review (UPI) "Metrac" truck (Loomis Dean*) Art Exhibitions .

,

"Welcome Home" (Wide World)

61 61 61 61 62

Astronomy

.

.

80

Canada Queen

83

,

85 85

.

Precision flying at Farnborough (Wide World) Talon trainer (UPI) Hovercraft (Central Press, London) .

.

Mold spores (Grey Villet*) Bank of England's new quarters (European)

.

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85 85 85 85 85

94

Banks, Ernie (Wide World) 14 Barrymore, Ethel (Wide World) 506 Baseball Comiskey park (UPI) 97 97 Series catch (UPI) Haddix' no-hitter (UPI) 98 Baudouin at tomb (Burt Glinn— Magnum) 100 Bechet. Sidney (European) 506 Belaunde, Victor (Leo Rosenthal— Pix from .

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Publix)

11

Berenson, Bernard (Wide World) Blind student lecturing (UPI) Bloch. Ernest (UPI) cell

506 108 507 110

exhibit (UPI)

Bohlen, Charles (Wide World)

,

.

.

69

11

of Chaucer sold in London {The Times. London, from Pictorial Parade) 112

Book

Encyclopedia Britannica pirated in Formosa, Boxing champion floored (George Silk*)

2

....

113 116

Brazil

... AEC)

71 71 71

.

132

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.

Political rhinoceros (Waldir Braga) 118 Bridge opened near Le Havre {Paris-Match from Pictorial Parade) 120

.

6

,

in Toronto (Federal Newsphotos of Canada) 137 Highway development (UPI) 138 Canal improvement (Courtesy, T.V.A.) 141 Cartoons in

.

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,

"And No Fairy Godmother

.

Sight" (Cour-

The Evening

Bulletin,

562

Philadelphia)

"Another Surplus Problem" (Courtesy, F. O. .Mexander. The Evening Bulletin. Philadelphia)

102

"Around the World in Four Hats" (Courtesy, Newton Pratt, McClatchy Newspapers) 407 .

89

'

.

...

.

students (Joe Munroe*) ... 134 Press from Pictorial Parade) 135

tesy, F. O. .Alexander,

83 83

Book Publishing

Navy

Atomic Energy Hopkins laboratory (UPI) Radiated plants (Courtesy, U.S, .A.EC) Operating reactor core (Courtesy. U.S.

.

Cambodian monarchs (Central

121

126 126 126 126 126

.

.

78

83 83 83

YHC-IA (Courtesy, Vertol Aircraft Corp.) Victor bomber (Central Press from Pictorial Parade) F4H-1 (Courtesy, McDonnell Aircraft Corp,)

Blood 65 66 67

"Ecce Homo" (Wide World) Art masterpiece sold (Wide World)

.

....

....

Cabot, John (UPI)

Bacteriology

Architecture

Ultraviolet photograph of sun (U.S. photo, courtesy Dept. of Defense) .

(Wide World)

by Duke of Edinburgh

78

Aviation, Military

Buckeye trainer (Courtesy. U.S. Navy)

Mask

Statues

jets

visited

(Central Press from Pictorial Parade) Building and Construction Industry Workers posing for photograph (UPI) Television for sidewalk viewers (UPI) "Octet Truss" (Pictorial Parade) Water tower in Finland (UP!) Dedication of Time-Life building (UPI) Business Review Big shareholders' meeting (Yale Joel*)

California

Aviation, Civil Flash landing system (UPI) Jet crew training (UPI) Vertol 107 (Courtesy, Vertol Aircraft Corp.) Convair 880 (Courtesy, Convair Div., General Dynamics Corp,) London heliport (Central Press from Pictorial

Parade) Boarding platform for

Borneo

British

71 72

.

,

Sandburg and Steichen

Paratroops over

is to be found in the Parentheses. from Time, Inc.)

of Copyright

Asterisks denote Illustrations

.

"Busted Bubble" (Courtesy, Jerry Costello. The Knickerbocker News) 430 "Don't You Harm a Hair of This Little Lady's Head" (Courtesy, Bill Mauldin and the SI. Louis Post-Dispatch)

363

"Dream Come True" (Courtesy, Reg Manning, McNaught Syndicate, Inc.) "Finally Waking Up" (Courtesy, Daniel Holland, The Chicago Tribune)

179

474

(Courtesy, Tom Ellinwood, The Arizona Dailv Star) 222 "... I Represent the Dark Side of the Bright ." (George Business Picture, Mr. Truffle! Lichty, Chicago Sun-Times Syndicate) 182 "I Want a Thought-Provoking Speech, Figby! One That'll Require Plenty of Thinking on the Part of the Voters if They Want to

"Humpty Dumpty"

.

.

.

.

.

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.

Know Where

I

Stand on an Issue!" (George

Lichty, C/n'cago 5H«-r(m£5 Syndicate) "Let's Face It, Pop" (Courtesy, Reg Manning, McNaught Syndicate, Inc.) "Let's Look at the Brighter Side of Each Other for a Change" (Courtesy, Richard Yardley, The Baltimore Sun) "'Massive' Is in the Cold, Cold Ground" (Courtesy, Newton Pratt, McClatchy Newspapers) "Monty Opens a Second Front" (Courtesy. James J. Dobbins, The Boston Traveler) "No, Just Our Farm Program" (Courtesy, Daniel Ho\Und, The Chicago Tribune) "Oklahoma Sunset" (Courtesy. Fred O. Seibel, The Richmond Times-Dispatch) .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

553

200 351

166

304 25

520

— LI

vt .

.

.

.

OB"

.

C.unl

.

.

.

.

.

569 Lichty. Cloioto Sun-T>m,< Syndicate) "The Flam Were Still There" (Courtesy. Rich103 ord Yardley. Thr Baltimore iiiii) .. •'The Postman .\lways Ring« at Least Twice (Courtesy. Eldon Pletcher. Sio.i.t City Jou.

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Foot printing (Courtesy. Bob Doty) Diaz Lanz. Pedro (Hank Walker*) Diefenbaker. John (Wide World)

.

.

.

All

WomenI

'

(Courtesy. Interlandl

from the Toronto Daily Star. ©Register & Tribune Syndicate) •'This Is Supposed to be Friendly Territory (Courtesy. James J. Dobbins. The Boilon

'"

,-.

206 10 3

fire. Georgia (Savannah Morning News 209 photo by Andrew Hickman) 210 Nile excursion boat sinking (UPI) Airliner crash in New York city (UPI) ... 211 507 Donovan. William (U'Pl) 510 Douglas. Paul (European) 510 Duplessis. Maurice (UPI)

"There Must Be Something WrongI This Say» World Population by 1990 Will be 600 BiU lion

....

Disasters Trestle

559

al)

*' ''

507 507 205

Dermatology

.

.

.

.

Education

.

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.

.

.

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.

17

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223

Entertaining in London (UPI) Electrical Industries

New

^ , ,,^ ceramic (Courtesy. General Electric Co.) 226

Electronics

Miniature radio unit (Courtesy. U.S. Army) .Antisubmarine plotting device (UPI) Elizabeth 11 (European)

''

227 228

.

....

,-,

••You Know What Curiosity Did to the Cat (Courtesy. Daniel Holland. The Chicago

10

US

iv Advertising, dollar expenditure. 25 Agriculture, gross farm income. U.S j3U Business aspects. U.S 131 inventories Business: sales and Glass-making process , ,„-• ;„I 298. 299 Gold. 2 (Courtesy. Miroslav A. Kriz) Petroleum production (Courtesy. American

231 Waiting for surplus food (Paul Schutzer*) Epstein. Sir Jacob (Central Press from Pictorial ^'O Parade) Ethiopian emperor on vacation (Paris-Match 236 from Pictorial Parade) .•

.

.

•

;

•

Petroleum Institute) Prices: wholesale and consumer's Stocks and Bonds: yearly averages Standard and Poor's Corp.) Stocks and Bonds: sales and prices Standard and Poor's Corp.) Chicago museum visited by Queen (UPl) Chinese anniversary celebrations. .

\^' 564

.

(Courtesy.

654 654

'"

•

(Brian

159

Brake— Magnum)

^^* 164

Commerce)

Civil Rights Southern protest (UPI) Coast Guard training centre

'°'

;

(Courtesy.

U.S. I'l

Coast Guard) Cohen. Octavus

507

Rov (UPI) Colombia disaster victims (UPI) Colorado forest fire (Wide World)

ip 1"4

Communism Kerala procession (London Daily Express from 178 Pictorial Parade) 14 Couve de Murville. Maurice (Wide World) 189 Crime committee witness (UPI) .

Cuba

—

.

Castro speech (Bob Henriques Magnum). Guarded Prisoners (Burt Glinn— Magnum) Tank in Havana (Burt Glinn— Magnum) Revolutionary forces in Havana (Paris-Match from Pictorial Parade) Hand-to-hand fighting (Paris-Match from Pictorial Parade) Cypriots celebrating (Rene Burri— Magnum) .

.

.

.

.

Erwitt— Magnum) in Moscow (Owen .

Nixon opening U.S. exhibit from Black Star)

245

furnishings exhibit (Franz Goess from

245 245

Black Star)

exhibit (Wide World) Rock-and-Roll dancers (Franz Goess from 245 Black Star) Cosmetics exhibit (Franz Goess from Black

245

190 190 190 190

190 193

15 Farah Diba (European) Fashion and Dress 249 Brocade tunic (UPI) White suit, fur-lined coat. Chanel-inspired suit and wool dress. 4 (Courtesy. Eleanor Lambert. Inc.)

Pouf tunic (UPI) Beaver-trimmed suit (Central Press from Pictorial Parade) Fencing championships match (UPI) Fire and rescue tower in Chicago (UPI) Fisliery in India (Courtesy I.C.A.) Floods and Flood Control Meadville freight yard (Clyde Hare*) Wabash river (Wide World) Plaving in Karachi street (UPI) Coffins of victims (Paris-Match from Pictorial

....

....

Dam across the Zambesi (Camera

3

Press— Pix 196

from Publix)

Dance

....

197 Bolshoi ballet (Authenticated News) Dating the Past Prehistoric cave painter (Courtesy. Chicago 40 Natural History Museum) Egvptian head. 5th Dvnasty (Courtesy. The 41 University Museum. Philadelphia) Guadalupe mountains (Courtesy. Carl O. 42 Dunbar) Carboniferous crinoids (Courtesy. Walker Mu42 seum. University of Chicago) Self-photographing uranium (Courtesy. American Museum of Natural History, photo by 43 Coles) Funeral boat of Sesostris III (Courtesy. Chi44 cago Natural History Museum) 44 Scroll of Book of Isaiah (.Authenticated News) C-14 laboratory (Courtesy. The University Museum. Philadelphia, photo by Reuben 45 Goldberg)

....

249 249 249 254 256 257

259 259 259

259 Parade) 259 Awaiting rescue (UPI) 259 High and dry cow (Wide World) 510 Worid) Errol (Wide Flynn. Pix Fonleyn. Dame Margot (Camera Press— 6 from Pubhx) Football

Northwestern

303 303 511

308

511 Halsey. William. Jr. (UPI) 311 Hawaiian star added to U.S. flag (UPI) Hawaii. The Island State 2 Honolulu (Courtesy. Hawaii Viiitori Bureau) 4 Statehood announced (Wide World) 5 Map of the major islands Terraced pineapple fields (Courtesy. Hawaiian 7 Pineapple Co.) Sugar Hawaiian Washing sugarcane (Courtesy. .

....

7

Planting rice (Victor

J.

Jurgens from Black

Star)

v.

Wisconsin (UPI)

....

Foreign aid for India (Courtesy. I.C.A.) Formosa visited by King Hussein (UPI) France Debre addressing assembly (Dalmas— Pix from .

.

262 264 270

272 Publix) Eisenhowerin Paris (Dalmas— Pixfrom Publix) 272 Dollluss balloon. 2 (Dalmas— Pix from Publix) 272 Bicycle race (Paris-Match from Pictorial Pa272 rade) Elephant (PubUfoto— Pix from Publix) ... 272 De Gaulle in .Algeria (Paris-Match from Pic272 torial Parade) French Community 275 Women of Madagascar (UPI) 279 Fur-trimmed coat (Milton H. Greene*)

....

Gates. Thomas.

Jr.

(UPI)

I

(Rosenberg from Black Star) Cattle on Parker ranch (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by Fritz Henle). (Courtesy. Hawaiian pineapples Harvesting Pineapple Co.) Flowering ginger (Werner Stoy from Black

Raking

coffee

7

.

7

.

7

*

Star)

Surf riders (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency,

photo by Hawaii Visitors Bureau)

...

C

15

Genetics 282 Test-tube babies (UPI) Geneva Foreign Ministers' Conference Foreign ministers in Washington (Wide World) 283 C»erniany

Adenauer congratulates new president (Pans293 Match from Pictorial Parade)

10

Agency, photo by Ansel Adams) New homes (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by R. Wenkham) Grade school (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by R. Wenkham) Buddhist cemetery (Courtesy. U.S. Information .Agency, photo by Ansel Adams) Tourist luau (Werner Stoy from Black Star) Shore of Kauai (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by Hawaii Visitors Bureau) Waikiki beach (Courtesy. U.S. Information .Agency, photo by Ray Atkeson) Haleakala volcano (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by Hawaii Visitors Bu.

'2 13

.

14 IS

.

H

.

16

'0

reau) forest (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by Werner Stoy) Wailua river. Kauai (Courtesy. Hawaii Visitors

Fern

1*^

•'7

Bureau)

Rugged

coastline

(Bob Brooks from Black '7

Star)

Nuuanu Pali (Werner Stoy from Black Star) Haleakala volcano. Hawaii (Courtesy. Hawaii Visitors Bureau) Oahu valley (John H. Gerard from Black Star) Statue of Kamehameha (Courtesy. Hawaii \'isitors Bureau) Cook monument Bob Brooks from Black Star) Population chart

Waterfalls near

'7 ^7 77 ^**

20 ^4

(

women of mixed descent (Courtesy. U.S. Information .Agency, photos by Fritz Henle and Werner Stoy) cowboy and elderly lady (Courtesy. U.S. Information .Agency, photos by Fritz

Six

26

Little girl,

Henle) Construction worker and young artist. 2 (Robert Goodman from Black Star) Japanese newspaper boys (John H. (ierard from Black Star) Old Chinese man and pipe (Victor J. Jurgens from Black Star) Fisherman (Bob Brooks from Black Star) .

.

.

Dalai Lama (Wide World)

245 245

.

Star)

City and Regional Planning Coventry mall (Central Press from Pictorial Parade) ^ Kalamazoo mall (Courtesy. Kalamazoo Chamber of

2 (Elliott

.

Book

Elizabeth :

Soviet exhibit.

Home

(Courtesy,

5

Fairs and Exhibitions Soviet fashion models (Walter Sanders')

303

....

.

.

.

303 303

Air force plane (Courtesy. U.S. Information

288

Tribune)

303

Planters^ .Assoc.)

H

Porirait (Wide-World) In Turkey (Camera Press— Pix from Publix)

Car Field We Want It to be the GIANT of the Small Car Field!" ((Seorge Lichty,

Charts

221

With Khrushchev at Washington airport (Wide Frontispiece World)

.

....

.

.

....

.

•Where There's a Lot of Smoke^^ (Courtesy. 143 James J. Dobbins. The Boston Traveler) •You Better Make It Longer. Lower and Wider ... If We're Going into the Small C*Kif parliament (Central PrcM Irom Pictorial Parade) Sir Winiton Churchill (London Doily Exprtu from Pictorial Parade) Hugh Gaitskell (UPI) Door-to-d«x>r campaign (The Tiirus. London. from Pictorial Parade) Aneurin Bevan (London Daily Exprtis from Pictorial Parade) Harold Macmillan (Central Preu from Pictorial Parade) Grosz. (Jcorge (UPI) Gymnastic exhibition in Switzerland (London Daily Express from Pictorial Parade)

.

Trmlir) ^ „ . "This Stock Market Craie Is Getting Out of People Are Buying Hand. GentlemenI Our Stock Instead of Our Products! (George Lichty. Chicago Sun-Times Syndi°^3 Q^c) ••We Cant Tolerate Sloppy IntclliRcnce ReThey ports from Latin .America. Truffle are There Than Revolutions Indicate More Countries' (George Lichty. Chicago Sun523 Times Syndicate)

293 293 293 293

.

....

SO

Cn'ologic lime chart DcMille. Cecil (Euronean) De Nicola. Enrico (UPI) Dental students in Malaya (UPI)

Got Hold

Henriquet-

—

Ma(num) Plea to Eisenhower (Rent Burrl Delay of truck convoy. 2 (UPI) Klitu.hcl.ev in E. Berlin (UPI) Golf U.S. Open tournament (Wide World)

47 4> *»

•

Comparative skulls (Courtesy. American Museum of Natural History) Formation of a fossil

the Opening

all Set (or

We

Magnum)

.

map

(Bob

welcomed

Einenhower ^^

....

o( a Prominent Child Psycholokist to Make a Speech ." (George and Throw Out the Pint Balll

Game

Germany— CoM/i«u*rf

the

Glacial

(Courtety. Richard Yardley. r*
^

'tri|(i

vm^tx-

-nrituHBrrt'

for

WKae

hMiae Hid maM. t» «&c

eaao-aaJ

adann

atiaaMer.

^-

C.E.»M«t-C4' X.SSSL.

004 cm4

•f fakovr. atade

n

.

pwUk Icnen i»

24

MS

U^

uoued SKmn eUel s4 9ta£. aoMKseed C«B. Maaewdi Taylor «lB» «a» iifni'-'-t 10 IsKigjai aortasaB ia ^Kal IMO,

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faaet

hadb sbmf:

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«4 S2MljSMiJ0K aife ai VA- heat i.

loidiia

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19 Matr

1

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tar

enKsnwv aartM, JIl riott wfeieh «ecan«d cavfcr iM tke MsmkL

Emato D, Ohris«i««

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Shmct Jfjiftr. was "^ \-fir^— *r^

tir."

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25

•

APRIL

Vtime Vmaees , . 14

J»liai DieieathatUer a:^-

feaae x^Keaa.

osnaoBd ater a caUaet

dnt dw stxc had iiy a twyal jftMW jinmaK ' aia'ini TT --J—TSewfeaarfbariL strife

Na(««N* t

'-^«»-«9dk:

Mdk

ia iCi

CtMKT•e J*

vislaradTiU: .

|C UASJLdtdaMi jimuiiinwiiiii

Geaeaa oe

se» •!»«* »!«>— wed far J •«
. laaiiiiaifnil

thai

Sew-

wcadd becoMied aa

,iii

U.S.

>

CALENDAR Of EVENTS •'s

aUinsannuum:»t Fi viuJfr pr-A-ans inM>escneit ia Htidslt in-

Daiiumev

Cin>i"~rir7iTir.

'"

Lvimhni.

v.iP

Heate

* eimes or

«r-iiistc "Snniir*'

Ci

^^w ^* *»«•*''

-"MSB

;t

lit

OWanams ~

;

-

Duiltas

af3s- lis

ifhn;

2*?

-ns^cicxnui C.:rn:Ti It

->

-\naiitirs

.ind

icnci-

•.c

called on U.S. govt, to establish a "more definite" policy on international ontrol and use of

outer

IJ vr. slate of »iege.

Sir

Luce

9

i

1959

•

house committee on

U.S.

prizes,

Cnluinhia

awarded

his verse

announced

university,

to .-Xrchibald

play J-

were

MacLcish B. and to

in

Population of U.S.S.R., lU according to 1st Soviet census in 20 yr., totaled 208,800,000.

nKing gium

arrived

ton, D.C.,

on

Baudouin

a state visit.

stateil in a coMiniuni' of Traffic Safety Activities, administered by the National Safety council. Forty-eight states

and Puerto Rico reported

their ac-

complishments. Under an award program based on inventory

won the top award. Lesser awards went to 262 and 14 states. Farm Safety. Accidents to farm residents in 195S claimed 11.300 lives and caused approximately 950.000 injuries. Farm work accidents alone resulted in 3.300 deaths and 300,000 inscores. Detroit cities

was

the lowest on record. In manufacturing, the total of i,Soo deaths

was the lowest since 1939. Compared with the averages of the live years preceding World War II, the 1958 injury frequency

—

juries.

Three more

states organized state

farm safety commit-

17

ADEN

18

with 1,569 deaths. Other leading causes were: drowning, 1,230; hums, 637, railroad, 338, and poison gases, 149.

Birth and Death Statistics; Disasters. (M. E. Hr.)

SVc also

—

Anyone At All (1954); Casually SCVCI.OP/EDIA Bbitannica Films. (1954); Drive Dejensivelyl (1959); Insurance Against Fire

iiraiK-i-

.\den

J

•

nUCM.

name

the

is

of a British colony

and

a protectorate

on the south coast of Arabia,

—

Colony. Area: 75 sq.mi. Pop,: (19SS census) 138,441, inArabs 40.4%; Yemeni 34,8%; Indians and Pakistanis

hilling

1

I

•vj

__

wet

clinoing to a rope after bein.] an excavation at Long Island City, N.Y., Aug. 17. had to be rerrioved to free him

iq-.S>.

.1

.

sand

IS torn

number of

brinRiiiK to 44 the

states with

farm ac-

The Farm Safety institute was held in Illinois in 1959. The emphasis was on agricultural chemical safety and recreational For the i6th consecutive year, the president of the Tnitcd States proclaimed a National Farm Safety week, in July.

safety.

—

School and Child Safety. Ninety-five deaths in a tragic Chicago school fire brought public clamour in 1959 for a closer examination of school plants and stimulated interest in other areas of school safety. Driver education in high schools con-

tinued to advance, with 51^^ of the schools

— 30 hours of of behind-the-wheel instruction — recommended course

now

to 39'", of the eligible students.

program.

—The

1958 death

toll

in

home

accidents was

end of eight months the 1959 toll was running about the same level. The majority of the deaths were among

and

at the

the very- young and elderly persons. Falls were the chief cause.

The problem was expected

to

grow more acute with the growing

proportions of young people and elderly people in the total popu-

— In

Canada there were 9,655 accidental deaths in 1957 (the latest year for which complete figures were available as of late 19591. This was an increase in number, but resulted in the same rate, with 57.7 deaths per 100,000 population. Motor vehicle accidents

5,694, or about

38%

were the most important type, causing of

all

accidental deaths. Falls were second

Principal Types of Accidental Deaths in U.S.,

Molor Year

1903-1912 1913-1922 1923-1932 1933-1942 1943-1947 1948-1952 (6lh rev,)

Vehicle av. ov. ov. ov. Qv. ov. .

1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

1,200

9,600 26.300 34,931 28,458

34,703 37,955 35.586 38,426 39,628 38,702 37,000

I

Drownfoils

Burns*

t

*

13,500 16,700 22,250 23,820

9,200 8,300 7,210 8,192

21,482 20,631 19,771

20,192 20,282 20,545 18,500

6,579 6,579 6,083 6,352 6,405 6,269 6,700

903-1 958 Fire-

Poisons Poison lExcepI

arms

Goses

9,000 10,700 7,900 8,900 7,600 6,700 6,750 5,303 6,708 4,882

2,100 2,600 3,000 2,724 2,477

2.700

3,572 3,187 2,616 2,834 2,696 2,614 2,500

2,257 2,277

ingsf Roilroad

6,481

6,770 6,334 6,344 6,263 6,613 6,400

2,281

2,120 2.202 2,369 2,400

t t

est.) 350,000. Headquarters of adand British agent: Lahej (pop. about 15,000). British agent, G. K. N. Trevaskis. Eastern .Area. Five sultanates and two sheikhdoms ("includ-

sheikhdoms. Total pop. (1958 viser

—

Hadhramautl. Total pop. (1958 est.) 300.000 (Socotra Island, about 15,000 1. Chief towns: Mukalla (port, headquarters of resident adviser and British agent; pop. about 40,000) Saiun; and Hadibu (Socotra). British agent, A. J. Mcintosh. ing the

;

Kamaran ran Island

is

Kamaran

of

Island.

— Area Red

1,571

1,978 1,686 1,223 1,223 1,163 1,213 1,143 1,250

GosI

KamaThe governor

22 sq.mi.; pop. about 2,500.

the

is

the gov-ernor of .Aden ex officio; commissioner,

Lieut.-Col. R. G.

W.

—On Jan.

sea off the

Yemen

in

coast.

E. Alban.

1959, elections were held for 12 of the

4,

There were 31 canand 27% of the electorate voted. Nine of the successful candidates were Arabs, two were Somalis and one an Indian. None of them claimed allegiance to any political party. 23 seats in the colony's legislative council.

didates,

On

Feb. 11 the chiefs of 6 of the 18 states comprising the

Western .Aden protectorate formally inaugurated the new Fed-

By

the terms of a treaty

between the United Kingdom and the new federation, Britain undertook to provide financial and military aid to assist the federation toward ultimate independence. this

development since

it

Yemen

did not

welcome

appeared to place a further obstacle

imam

in

Yemen's claim to the protectorate and colony. Nevertheless, in May a Yemeni delegation took part in discussions with the .Aden government concerning the .Aden-A'emeni frontier, but no positive conclusions were reached. The .Aden Trade Union congress refused to recognize the federation, which was further strengthened in October by the

the

way

of the realization of the

of

X

3,000 2,700 1,990 1,879

admission of the sultanate of Lahej.

1,551 1,391

Concessions Ltd.

1,339

Workers union went on

way for a Aden protectorate by Petroleum In October the members of the General Port

Discussions took place in September to prepare the search for

oil in

the Eastern

strike in the colony in

an attempt to ob-

1,431

1,422 1,390 1,400

•Includes burns by fire ond deoths resulling (,om confiogrolion, regardless of nature of by chemicals, steom, hot subslonces in yeors prior to 1 949. fincludes drownings in water tronsport accidents. {Comparable data not ovailable Source: National Office of Vital Statistics, except that railroad estimates prior to 1933

injury; also burns

ore based on dota from Interstate Commerce Commission. From 1903 to 1932 the other figures ore estimates based on data for states in the official regislrolion area. From 1933 to 948 the figures o-e those published by N.O.V.S. plus National Safely Council estimates of falls in agricultural accidents and drownings in woter transport accidents. 1 949 to 1 957 figures are N.O.V.S. totols. 1958 figures ore N.S.C. estimates. 1

Religion:

— —

eration of .Arab .Amirates of the South.

lation.

Canada.

150,000. Lan-

Somali.

The governor of .Aden is also the governor of Kamaran dependency of the United Kingdom. Profecforate. Area: about 112,000 sq.mi., including Socotra Island (1.200 sq.mi. I. Language: Arabic. Religion: Moslem. Wfslirn .Area. Eight sultanates, two amirates and eight

History.

Honne Safety.

est.)

residency.

offering the

classroom work and 6 hours

Fourteen states were giving financial aid to the driver education

at

Somalis 7.7%; others 5.7%; (1958 also Indian languages and

.Arabic;

Island, a

cident prevention organizations.

27.000,

:

Moslem. Chief towns Cpop. 1955): Aden CCrater, etc) 09.285; Sheikh Othman 29.879. Governor in 1959, Sir William I.uce. Also forming part of the colony is Perim Island (16 sq.mi.) •iiul the Kuria Muria Islands Cabout 28 sq.mi.). The Kuria Murias are administered for Aden by the British Persian Gulf

of sand

tees in

4';'^

90'"^^

BUHIED WORKMAN in

1

guage:

tain redress for the workers" alleged grievances.

—Colony:

(K.

I.)

Schools (1957): primary 35. pupils 6,790; secondary (incl. intermediate) 21, pupils 4,520: technical i, pupils 29; tfiifhcr-lrainins 2. students 50. There are 5 recoenized private schin-N Schools l'nilir:,iral' 1956. excl. private): 113. pupils 11.03S. There i^ a teacher-training centre in the eastern protectorate. Finance and Trade. Monelar>' unit: East .African shilling valued at 14 cents L'.S. Budget (colony, 1957-58): revenue £3,891,591, expenditure £3.957. 280. Foreign trade (1957): imports £71,923,378; exports £65,300,543. Principal products: salt (197,836 metric tons in 1957), salted fish, entrepot trade. Education.

:

I

—

a

ADENAUER — ADVERTISING —up

000,000,000

19

7%

about

from the previous high point of

$10,300,000,000 reached in 1957. Thus advertising continued the substantial year-to-year increases in dollar volume which the business had

marked up

since the end of

1%

than In

from the 1957

many

World War IL with

when

there was a decline of less

was a

relatively quiet one for ad-

the single exception of 1958, totals.

respects the year

vertising, although the broadcasting business (an

important seg-

ment of advertising continued to make news with a congressional furor over quiz programs and the coaching of contestants condition which was quickly reflected in advertising by the disappearance of most quiz shows with substantial prizes. Another aspect of the investigation by congress of quiz shows was the feeling in many quarters that the move toward what is known as the "magazine concept" in broadcast advertising would be hastened. The magazine concept means that radio and tele\'ision stations and networks would assume full and complete control over program content in the same manner that magazines control their editorial content, and advertisers would buy commercial announcements "adjacent to" or in connection with these program features. But no advertiser would have any direct connection with any particular program and. under the magazine concept, an advertiser would simply contract for so many commercial messages per week or per month. The actual placing of these messages might varv- from day to day or week to week, and would be only incidentally associated with particular programs 1

—

POLITICAL ANTAGONISTS Ludwig Erhard (left foreground). West German minister of economics, and Konrad Adenauer, chancellor (right foreground), during a debate in the Bundestag following Adenauer's decision to remain as chancellor in 1959. He had previously announced his intention to accept the presidency, and Erhard would have been a leading candidate for chancellor

being broadcast.

(1S76-

Adenauer, Konrad

born

),

Gennan statesman, was

in Cologne. Jan.

5.

He was

edu-

Munich and councilor and deputy mayor of

cated at the universities of Freiburg-im-Breisgau.

Bonn. In 1906 he was elected Cologne, becoming lord

mayor

in 191 7.

Catholic Centre party, he was a

A

leading

member

member

of the

of the Prussian Her-

renhaus during 1917-18 and Prussian Staatsrat during 1918-33

He was

(president 1928-33).

mayor

position of lord

dismissed by the Nazis from the

in July 1933.

A

foundation

Christian Democratic union in Sept.

member

of the

1943- he was president

(194S-49) of the parliamentary council of the three western zones which drafted the constitution of the public.

He became

German Federal

Although this tjpe of broadcast advertising and complete divorcement of advertisers from specific programs was by no means universally applauded within the advertising business, it was gaining favour as a needed corrective to some of the program ills

with which television was

afflicted.

—

Advertising Agencies. One important trend which was emphasized during the year was that toward U.S. agency expansion into foreign countries, as advertising acquired greater stature

and more widespread use

in countries

annual tabulation of advertising agency reported that

J.

world, had billed

around the world. In billings.

Walter Thompson Co., largest agency

more than $300,000,000

in 1958, of

re-

000.000 was outside the U.S. Other leading U.S. agencies with large foreign billings included Grant, with an estimated $60,000,-

000

nomic recovery of the republic and by renewed German

agency, with $58,000,000 foreign business; and

partici-

pation in international affairs.

tarj'

Bonn by the U.S. secreOn March 4 he had a long

Feb. 7-8, 1959, he was visited at of state, John Foster Dulles.

talk with

Gen. Charles de Gaulle at Marly-le-Roi, near Paris,

which created a close personal understanding between the two

On

Ludwig Erhard ha\-ing refused to stand for the presidential election. Adenauer announced that he would resign as chancellor so that he could succeed Theodor statesmen.

Heuss

.April

7.

1939.

as president of the

German Federal

republic.

On June

also

DOLLAR EXPENDITURE data for

11

10

^

9

1

8

Paris.

t i

'^^'^"^

new

records.

faltering sUghtly in 1958. advertising ex-

The U.S.

moved upward

total for the

again in 1959 to set year was estimated at $11,-

largest U.S.

Young & Rubi-

Although 1958 than in 1957. the

billings report. less,

a

over

all.

U.S. and Canadian agencies

each billing $25,000,000 or more in 1958, compared with 32 in

chancellor. On Aug. 26-27 he received Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower at Bonn. He visited Harold Macmillan in London on Nov. 17-19 and Gen. Charles de Gaulle in Paris on Dec. 1-2. On Dec. 19 he attended the western four-power conference in

penditures

demonstrated by the annual

Advertising Age report showed

5,

see Education.

McCann-Erickson, second

advertising billings were slightly

would remain as chancellor. This change of mind was explained by his opposition to the probable choice of Ludwig Erhard as

Adult Education:

in overseas billings;

cam. third largest agency, with $32,000,000 in foreign billings. The trend toward bigness in the advertising agency field was

however, he renounced his candidature and announced that he

AriVPrti^inir nUVGI Uolllg.

in the

which $88,-

chancellor of the republic on Sept. 15. 1949.

Adenauer's chancellorship was marked by the substantial eco-

On

its

Advertising Age

2

5

' * 5

1959

for all

are estimated.

mediums

of U.S.

advertising,

(Source: Printers' Ink)

1935-59. The

ADVERTISING

20 the previous year. Their

combined

billing

was $2,700,000,000

compared with $2,600,000,000 the year before. The same general trend toward bigness a reflection of the was evident in the general economic trend in U.S. business in 1958,

— —

on advertising expenditures for the 100 largest U.S. advertisers compiled by Advertising Age. Although total 1958 advertising was off fractionally from the year before, 67 of the 100 leaders increased their expenilitures in 1958, 5 held even and 28, figures

including the "Big 3" automobile manufacturers, cut back.

As a

as a reasonable business expense for tax purposes, but cifically

still

spe-

excluded advertising designed to influence legislation

in

any way. Statistics.

— As

1959 drew to a close,

media would share

all

in

became apparent

it

many

although not necessarily at equal rates. In

was relatively slow not

much

better,

in starting,

if

that

the increased advertising for the year,

and

cases the year

figures for the first half

were

any, than in the previous year. But as the

year wore on, volume rose sharply, reaching all-time peaks

in

100 leaders invested a total of $2,300,000,000 in ad4.6% more than during the vertising and promotion in 1958 preceding year. The largest advertiser, despite a drop for the

the third quarter and promising to carry on through the fourth

was General Motors, with a 1958 investSecond was Procter & Gamble, estimated at $115,900,000. Others in the top ten were General Foods Corp., $96,000,000; Lever Bros. Co., $88,000,000; Ford

by Media Records, months of 1959 was up 6.9% over the previous year, a sharp reversal from 1958, when in the same period linage was down 6.6% from 1957. Since the

Co.. $87,900,000; Colgate-Palmolive Co., $68,000,000; General Electric Co.. $66,000,000; American Home Products

principal gains were in various general advertising categories,

result, the

—

third successive year,

ment estimated

at $137,500,000.

Motor Corp.,

$60,000,000;

and R.

Chrysler Corp., $58,000,000;

J.

Reynolds Tobacco Co., $44,000,000.

Regional Morketing.

— One notable

ing trend during the year

quarter and into i960 unless labour

Newspapers.

was an increased

interest in regional

notably the

steel

the 52 cities measured

total advertising linage for the first eight

rather than in retail advertising, the indicated newspaper gain in advertising

In advertising and market-

— In

difficulties,

manufacturing and marketing plans.

strike, forced cancellation of

revenue was

vious year during the figure

in the

nature of 10%.

1958 automotive advertising was

was

a healthy

first

eight

29.2%

off

months:

23% from

in 1959, the

plus, reflecting a

much

the pre-

comparable

better selling

marketing.

year. Hea\'y introductory advertising in the final quarter, bol-

Special editions covering the western states had been supplied by several magazines for years; in 1959 McCall's became the first national women's magazine to have a special western edition. But attempts to secure regional advertising by magazines in 1959 took a much more drastic form. Among the most startling developments was the Look "Magazone" plan, dividing its circulation for advertising sales purposes into seven standard market zones, and The Saturday Evening Post "Select-a-Market" plan, a complicated system under which an advertiser could buy all of the

stered by the introduction of

edition nationally or one-third or two-thirds of the national cir-

any segment or combination of geographic 25 national magazines, plus farm publications, business papers and others, offered split runs or regional buys of one form or another. Advertising's Tax Status. A serious legal and legislative situation faced advertising during the year when the U.S. supreme court upheld the reasonableness of a treasury department ruling culation, or almost

areas. In

all,

more than

—

disallowing advertising designed to influence legislative action as a "necessary business expense,"

of the advertiser's business

treasury revised

its

was

even though the very existence at stake. Later in the year, the

regulations on advertising which

is

acceptable

new small

motion on behalf of many foreign

lines and greater prowas expected to show

cars,

even higher percentage increases. Financial advertising, a tively small

newspaper

30.2% above tising,

the

first

was

classification,

up

months of 1958, while

eight

which held up well

also

in

1958

('off

only

3%

rela-

substantially, retail

adver-

from 1957), eight months.

showed a satisfactory gain of 5.2% during the first One segment of the newspaper business, however, completely reversed itself. Sunday supplements, which had shown remarkable strength with a gain of 14% for the first eight months of 1958 compared with the previous year, were off 7.9% during the eight months of 1959. Their dollar volume during that period

first

was $74,280,000; the previous year it was $80,485,000. General Magazines. For the first nine months of 1959. general and farm magazines measured by Publishers Information bureau carried $549,524,000 in advertising, up 11.5% from the $492,644,000 carried during the same period of 1958. The figure

—

for the year

was expected

ALMOST 100 DOGS

to

approach

a

12%

increase.

The

$57.-

photograph which was used in national advertising and a television commert al to introduce a new dog food in 1959. Fere still enough for a satisfactory photoIt took seven hours before the dogs assembled for

i

AERONAUTICS — AFGHANISTAN Annual Advertising Expenditures lin

in the U.S.

Films. (1952); Industrial Purchasing (1952).

$000,0001 1958

1957

$3,192.8

$3,283.3 809.7 2,473.6

$3,235.6 788.9 2,446.7

814.3 451.4 164.4 160.9 37.6 33.7

794.7 439.5

150.5 157.7 33,2 34.2 1,354.2 709.1

1,265.3 670.1

397.0 248.1

351.6 243.6

1,206.7 625.1 329.0 252.6

615.7 189.6 368.2

617.9 63.5 186.9 367.5

567.0 60.5 161.0 345.5

1,588.6

1,470.9

1,419.2

540.0

567.6

496.0

768.7

National

2,424.1

Local

Aeronautics:

766.8 425.4

Weeklies

Women's Generol Farm, National

Farm publications (Regional) Television Total

.

.

.

Network Spot Local

165.6 152.5 37.1

36.0

Radio Total

57.9

Network Spot Local Direct mail Business papers

AfirhQnictQn HTglldniSldn.

191.7 129.4 62.3

134.4 64.7

2,017.8 1,183.9 833.9 6,331.0 3,970.8 $10,301.8

2,058.5 1,184.2 874.3 6,253.2 4,057.4 $10,310.6

Local

201.3 135.9

199.1

65.4

Miscellaneous Total

National Local Total national Total locol

Grand

total

'Includes preporotion

and program

1,948.2 1,115.3

832.9 5,925.6 3,979.1

$9,904.7

costs.

Source: Printer's Ink.

Television.

— For eight months,

the Television Bureau of Ad-

network television time

sales at $408,046,000,

up 10.2% from $365,700,000 in 1958. The same source reported spot (nonnetwork) television at $315,323,000 for the first six months of 1959, up sharply from $249,415,000 the previous year. For the year 1959, the Television bureau estimated a total of $1,150,000,000 in net charges for time and talent, a 12% gain over 1958. The total, said the bureau, would consist of $773,000,000 of network business (up g%), $464,000,000 in spot (up

17%) and $273,000,000 Radio.

—Radio

was

in local business

also expected

(up id%).

to continue its

comeback

during the year, but over-all gains were expected to be relatively small. Total radio revenue for 1958

of

1,8% over 1957, according

was $541,000,000, an increase Communications

to the Federal

commission. Sales to local advertisers accounted for almost of the total,

60%

amounting to $323,200,000. National and regional

spot advertising totaled $171,900,000,

Network

radio advertising,

becoming increasingly less important, was off 8% during the year and accounted for only $46,500,000 of the total. For the year 1959, estimates were that spot radio advertising would total about $185,000,000, up 8% to 10% from 1958, despite a slow start.

substantially, nor

hoping

its total

Local advertising was not expected to change was network advertising, but the industry was

for the year might approach $560,000,000.

Business Papers.

—A

relatively slow fourth quarter in

caused business paper advertising volume to

below estimates made early

fall

in the year, the revised

estimate for

However, advertising volume in 1959 was up, to an estimated $503,500,000 and 1,183,000 pages. This was an increase of 7% in dollars and 3"^ in pages, over 1958. of $519,000,000.

— Estimates of the Direct Mail Advertising asso-

ciation for the first six

months of 1959 were $857,529,000, up

about 4.5% from the $818,037,000 figure of the preceding year. Higher postal rates which went into effect Aug. i, 1958, were in large

Af-

(cap.) 209,478 (pop, 1954); Kandahar 60,000; Herat 50,000; Mazar-i-Sharif 30,000, King, Mohammed Zahir Shah; prime

Kabul

minister in 1959,

Mohammed Daud

Khan,

—There was no change during 1959

in the traditional

Afghan policy of neutrality. On Aug. 24, speaking at Kabul on the Afghan national day. King Mohammed Zahir Shah commented, also traditionally, on the problem of Pashtunistan, "still awaiting a peaceful and just solution," Mohammed Daud Khan, the prime minister, explained to the correspondent of a Japanese

had existed for and arose when part of Afghanistan had been annexed press agency that the Pashtun problem

—

a century to British

the Pakistan of today.

New Delhi and September Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian prime minister, paid a return visit to Kabul. In May the Afghan prime minister was on an official visit in Moscow, where he conferred with Nikita Khrushchev, An agreement on the expansion of Soviet-Afghan economic and technical co-operation was signed on May 28. In February the Afghan prime minister visited

measure accountable for the increase.

steady during 1959.

—

Volume of outdoor The 1958 volume was put

Outdoor Advertising.

Among

other things,

it

provided for Soviet assistance in the con-

Kushka-Herat-Kandahar motor road, more than In September Mohammed Nairn, Afghan foreign

struction of the

460 mi. long.

minister, paid an official visit to Peking.

The budget estimates for Sept. 23, 1958-Sept, 22, 1959 (133738 in the Afghan calendar), amounted to a revenue of .\ghs. 1,455,122,000 (including Aghs. 521,192,000 from foreign loans) and to an expenditure of Aghs. 1,455,107,962, (The afghani is worth about five U,S, cents.) Between the fiscal years 1955-56 and 1957-58 the amounts of Afghan exports rose from Aghs, 1,527,000,000 to Aghs, 1,984,000,000, the main destinations being India, U,S,S,R,, the United States. Great Britain and Poland, The Ariana Afghan airlines in September extended their services from Kabul to Frankfurt, Ger., through Ankara, Turk., and

Prague, Czech.

The reconstruction May.

of the

Kabul

airport, with

Soviet help, started in

—

Education. Schools (1957): primary 7S8, pupils 112,234: secondary 28, pupils 22,632; vocational 24, pupils 4,168: teacher-training 4, students 1,549. Students at the University of Kabul (10 constituent colleges) r,i04. Finance. Monetary iinit: afghani, with a principal export exchange rate (March 1958) of 21.60 and a free rate of 52.00 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (,1958-59 draft est.): revenue 1.455,112,000 afghanis, expenditure 1,455,107,962 afghanis. Currency circulation: (March 195S) 1,851,000.000 afghanis. Deposit money; (March 1958) 844,000,000 afghanis. Foreign Trade. (March 1956-57): imports 1.624.000,000 afghanis. exports 1,500.000,000 afghanis. Principal imports (chiefly from the U.S.S.R., India, Pakistan and Japan): cotton and rayon textiles, sugar, tea, motor vehicles, gasoline, building materials, glass and china, tobacco and tobacco products. Principal exports (chiefly to India, U.S.S.R., U.S., U.K., Pakistan): karakul (Persian lamb) skins (1,874,161), dried and fresh fruits, raw cotton, wool. Transport and Communications. Roads (1957): (motorable) 4.31 1 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 2,473, commercial 3,723. Telephones (1957) 3,375. Radio receiving sets (1957): 23,094. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1958: r957 in parentheses): cottonseed 39,000 (39.000); cotton, lint 20,000 (20,000): raw beet sugar 6,000 (5,000): wool (greasy, 1957) 60,000 (60,000 in 1956); rice (195556) 250,000 (270,000 in 1954-55): wheat (1955-56) 2,100,000 (2,090,000 in 1954-55): maize (1955-56) 175,000 (664,000 in 1954-55) barley

—

1958

substantially

the year being $470,600,000, sharply below the earlier estimate

Direct Mail.

in central Asia,

is

in

publishing history.

vertising reported

ghanistan

30,7%, Uzbek s'^c. Hazara (Mongoloid) 3'pe of personnel

—a greater percentage of gineers in the over-all

Agriculture, U.S. Department of: partments and Bureaus, U.S.

for space explora-

employed by the industry and en-

skilled technicians, scientists

work

force, with an attendant rise in pay-

roll costs. 2.

Increased emphasis on missiles and space

flight

demanded

and development, which was markedly evident in 1959. Such research was required not only for the end items and their major components, but for new types of tools and equipment with which to build them. 3. Low-volume production and the fact that the military' services were buying fewer t>'pes of aircraft and missiles, as well as fewer numbers of each, increased the competition for the limited defense business and caused most major companies to start

a greater effort in research

Aircraft Industry.

The year 1959 was one

of considerable

activity in the aircraft

and missile

in-

dustry in the United States; a year marked by further increases in the rate of technological effects

change with attendant widespread

on every phase of the manufacturing operation, from the

type of product being built to the

needed

to build

facilities

and equipment

it.

This technological change was a continuation of a trend which had been under way for several years and which was becoming

more noticeable each logical evolution sile;

(2) military

manned

year.

The

principal reasons for the techno-

were: (i) greater emphasis on the guided mis-

demand

for

more and more performance

in

aircraft of a far greater order of complexity than their

predecessors; and (3) assumption of a

new

role

by the industry

SPACE RESEARCH PLANE, secured under the wing of a B-52 bomber, being readied for a captive test flight in the spring of 1959. Clouds of smoke on the ground are nitrogen which has been used to chill helium, the pressurizing agent which feeds the X-15s fuels anhydrous ammonia and liquid oxygen to the engine. On June 8 the X-15 made Its first free flight, released from the B-52 at an altitude of 38,000 ft. X-15

—

—

diversification

programs. Companies known for years as

air

frame manufacturers branched out into propulsion, guidance and other areas.

A

earlier, reached new The need for new construction was brought about by the new types of products being built. For instance, the complex electronic and mechanical systems in new aircraft 4.

facilities

expansion program, started

heights in 1959.

and missiles dictated their assembly in air-conditioned, dust-free manufacturing areas. Industry found that it was usually cheaper to build

new

facilities,

especially designed

for such products,

than to attempt to modify old aircraft manufacturing plants.

AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY

30 Hence, Ihc industry found

the paradoxical position of

itself in

spending hundreds of millions of dollars on new facilities while closing down older ones. Although some of this expansion was

government financed, the major portion of it was financed by company money, with attendant effects on profits. Production. The manufacture of manned aircraft continued to constitute the major portion of the aerospace industr>''s work load during iqso. although the production of guided weapons

—

again increased in proportion. Hccau.sc of the differences in operational use of missiles and aircraft, with corresponding differ-

ences in numbers procured,

it

was

ditTicult to

proportion of the production "mix."

ume, missile production amounted

On

to roughly one-third of all

military aviation production, which included craft (transports, search

estimate the exact

the basis of dollar vol-

noncombatant aircom-

etc.) as well as

and rescue planes,

bat aircraft. For security reasons, the military services did not release numbers of missiles built, but by the end of the year

FLYING CHANE. a cargo helicopter wnicn came.. Uy meani of 1 hoilt impended from the fuselage directly under the main rotor, loads up to tlx tons for about 100 ml. Designed by Sikorsky, It was being tested In 1959

there were 45 missile projects involving production in varying

formance

numbers.

The Aerospace

Industries association estimated the total U.S.

production of aircraft for the calendar year 1959 at 11,000 units, including 8,000 civil aircraft and 3,000 military planes. This

was approximately the same as that for 1958, when 10,860 aircraft of all types were produced, but the civil-military ratio had changed. Military plane production dropped appro.ximately 1,000 units in 1959 (again because of increasing emphasis on missiles), while civil aircraft production gained by more than figure

1,000 units.

fighter; the

T-34, Cessna T-37 and North American T-39 trainers.

Navy.—The Chance Vought F8U, Douglas F4D, Grumman FiiF, McDonnell F3H and F4H, all carrier-based fighter aircraft; the Douglas .•\4D, Grumman .\2F and North American A3 J attack planes; the Grumman \VF-2 and WjF patrol aircraft; the Grumman S2F antisubmarine plane; and the Lockheed WV-2, a Super Constellation converted to use as a submarine

The bulk of civil aircraft production was, as usual, in the category called "general aviation," which included all types of light aircraft and utility and executive transports other than airline-

patrol aircraft.

type equipment.

observation craft.

Production of airline transports during 1959 was e.xpected to be between 250 and 300 units, an increase over the previous

difficult

year, as commercial plane builders

moved

into high gear in the

manufacture of the new, turbine-powered airliners. Five turbine types were being built: the Boeing 707. Douglas DC-8 and Convair 8S0. all turbojet types; and the Lockheed Electra and Fairchild F-27. turbftprop airplanes.

By Dec.

types were in scheduled airline service; the

1959. four of the five fifth,

the Convair 880,

was scheduled for early service introduction. Engine production in 1959 was expected to drop considerably below the 18.733 units turned out in 1958 because of the decline in military airplane production.

Sales in

and

Profits.

—Despite technological changes and

military production emphasis, total sales

remained

at

approximately the previous year's

for the level.

shifts

industry

The Aero-

space Industries association estimated 1959 sales at $11,300,000.000. a decrease from $11,500,000,000 in 1958 and $11,800,-

000.000

in 1957.

Missile sales continued to take up the slack in declining military aircraft production, amounting to $3,500,000,000 in 1959.

.Army.

to the aircraft sales

volume, while military aircraft sales dropped

more than $1,000,000,000 from $8,400,000,000 in 195S. The profit margin for the industry in 1959 was expected to drop to about 2.3% of sales, compared with approximately 3%

Missiles

Aircraft Types

in

Production.

—Major

aircraft types in pro-

duction during 1958 included (in addition to the commercial

air-

mentioned previously) the following military aircraft: The Boeing B-52F bomber and its tanker counter-

Air Force.

—

KC-135; the supersonic Convair B-58; the Douglas B-66 bomber and the RB-66 reconnaissance plane; the McDonnell F-ioi interceptor; the Lockheed F-104 high-per-

part,

in

liaison aircraft;

.Aero

and the Cessna L-19E Bird Dog

Production.— Production

status

for missiles

is

to define, since evaluation of test missiles requires at

The following missiles were being built more than test numbers, were no longer

least limited production. in quantities

built

involving

(requiring manufacture of

but were in operational use

extra parts) or were planned for early quantity production: Surjace-lo-Surjace: .^tlas

(Convair).

ICBM

(intercontinental

ballistic

missile). 5.500 nautical mile range: Titan (Martin), ICBM, s.500 n.m. range: Polaris (Lockheed), navy fleet ballistic missile, 2.000 n.m. range; pilotless bomber: Thor (Douglas) and Jupi(Chrysler), intermediate-range ballistic missiles of 1.500 n.m. range; pilotless bomber; Redstone (Chrysler), medium-range army ballistic missile: Sergeant (Sperry-Rand). Honest John (Douglas), Little John (Emerson Electric) and Lacrosse (Martin), all short-range army battleJield weapons.

Snark (Northrop), long-range ter

Mace (Martin), medium-range

Surface-lo-.-iir: Xike-Hercules (Douglas), antiaircraft missile: Hawk (Raytheon), low-altitude antiaircraft weapon; Talos (Bendix) and Terrier (Convair). ship-launched interceptor missiles; and Bomarc (Boeing), longrange defense weapon. .iir-to-Surjace: Bullpup (Martin), short-range missile for navy attackaircraft: Zuni (naval ordnance), unguided rocket: Hound Dog (North American), designed for use with long-range bombers: and Quail (McDon-

nell), a diversionary missile designed to confuse (Hughes): Sparrow III .iir-to-.iir: Falcon

enemy

radar.

(Raytheon): Sidewinder (Phiico): Genie (Douglas). The Genie carried an atomic warhead for use against enemy bomber formations; the others were small weapons which replaced machine guns on fighter aircraft.

Employment.— The

industry's changing status brought about

a further reduction in the total

work

force.

From 757,600

at the

end of 195S, industry employment declined to 736,500 during the first half of 1959. It was expected to level off at about 700,000.

Outlook.

—-Although

it

was expected that production of

mili-

tary aircraft would continue to decline, manned-plane produc-

in 195S.

liners

—The Beech L-23D Seminole command plane; the

Design RL-26D

Increased costs of commercial airline transports, which ran as high as $6,000,000 per unit for a large turbojet, also contributed

Republic F-i05 supersonic fighter-bomber;

Lockheed C-130 and D(5uglas C-133 transports and a reconnaissance version of the C-130, the RC-130A; and the Beech the

the Boeing

tion

promised to be the major

acti\'ity of the

industry for at least

several years. Missile sales were expected to continue their climb as a

number

of

status. Sales of at

new developmental commercial

approximately the same

projects reached production

airliners

level,

were expected to remain

while the world's airlines con-

tinued their large-scale turbine re-equipment programs; production of light aircraft in the general aviation category was

AIR CRASHES The combination promised

ejcpected to climb again.

for

sales

i960 at a level close to that for 1959. Space research projects, little in the way of production, were ex-

although amounting to

— ALABAMA

31

Aeronautics federation was the 1,404 m.p.h. attained by Maj. Walter W. Irwin in the Lockheed, the Collier award winner.

See also Gliding.

(T. V. H.)

pected to account for more dollar volume and probably to help

maintain total industry employment at about the 700,000 since emphasis on research

level,

and development would counterbal-

Air Travel: see Aviation, Civil. A.L.A.: see American Library Association.

ance the decline in manned-aircraft production. See also Aviation, Civil; Aviation, Military; Missiles. (J- J.

Hy.)

Air Crashes: see Disasters. Air Force, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments AND Bureaus, U.S. Air Forces of the World: see Aviation, Military. Airmail: see Post Office. Air Pollution: see Public Health Engineering.

Alabama was a part of the Mississippi territory • |_L___ nidUdlllda when it was admitted to the union on Dec. 14, 1819, as the 22nd state. Located in the southeastern part of the United States, it is bounded by Tennessee on the north, Georgia on the east, the Gulf of Mexico and Florida on the south and Mississippi on the west. Known as the "Cotton state" or "Yellowhammer state" (from the state bird, the yel-

lowhammer

Races and Records.

Air

won top prize in 1959. The victors

fomians, race in

judged on a handicap

Aileen

Saunders

Mrs.

Jerelyn

Cassell,

and Cali-

the 13th all-woman transcontinental

Powder Puff derby, which

in the

is

Cessna 172 of 145 h.p. Second place went to Mrs. Juanita Newell and Mrs. Jimmye Lou Shel-

who

ton, Phoenix, AYiz., h.p.

basis, flew a

flew in a Piper

Miss Margo Callaway and her

way, of Wilmington,

Comanche P-24

sister co-pilot,

of 180

Sandra Calla-

a Cessna 140 of 90 h.p., were

0., flying

third in the final standing. Sixty-three planes started the race

on

July 4 from Lawrence, Mass., the deadline for the finish at Spo-

noon July

kane, Wash., being

Entries were handicapped on

8.

The 1950 census showed

the popuwhich 2,079,591 were white and-982,152 nonwhite, 1,340,937 urban and 1,720,806 rural. The 1959 estimated population was 3,193,000. The state capital, Montgomery, had a population of 106,525 in 1950. Other major lation of

Mrs.

or flicker), Alabama's area includes 51,078 sq.mi. of

land and 531 sq.mi. of water.

Alabama

as 3,061,743, of

and their population (1950 census): Birmingham 326,037, Mobile 129,009, Gadsden 55,725, Tuscaloosa 46.396, Anniston 31,066, Bessemer 28,445, Florence 23,879, Phenix City 23,305, Selma 22,840, Dothan 21,584, Decatur 19,974 and Huntsville cities

i6,437-

History.

— Gov.

John Patterson

called

into special session on Feb. 3, 1959,

and

weeks authorized the issuance of $60,000,000 in revenue bonds for highway construction. This allowed an early start on a four-

par speeds based on manufacturing and performance data of the

year, $670,000,000 road program.

The

planes.

regular biennial session beginning

May

In the absence of military racing in 1959, roles in the news. air

Mme.

women

played major

Jacqueline Auriol of France, women's

speed record holder, flew a French jet twice the speed of

sound, touching 1,350 m.p.h. Jerry Cobb, in an Aero

Commander

680E, set a mark for business planes when she sped over a 2,ooo-km. course at 226 m.p.h.

The National

Pilots association chose

pilot, as "Pilot of the

Max

Conrad, U.S. ferry

Year," citing him for pioneering in safe

the state legislature

legislators within three

ited

by law

to a

maximum

legislature 5,

met again

in

but this session (lim-

of six legislative days)

was

inter-

rupted June 24, when the governor called a second special session to take

up the pressing needs of the

state's

education system.

The legislature levied an additional two-cents tax on cigarettes, removed most of the exemptions from the state's 3% sales tax (estimated to bring in about $32,000,000 more annually) and authorized a $100,000,000 revenue bond issue for classroom construction. In regular session, the legislature passed the state's

10%

transoceanic flights in light single-engine and twin-engine craft.

first

In his s6th transoceanic

increase in whisky taxes to benefit mental health and old-age

ended June 4, Conrad covered 7,683 mi. nonstop from Casablanca, Morocco, to Los Angeles, Calif., in a single-engine Piper Comanche. Conrad also flew 4,806 mi. from Chicago to Rome in 34 hr. 3 min. on March 6.

A Lockheed F-104A

flight that

was winner of the Collier

Starfighter

trophy given by the National Aeronautics association. Air force Lt. Col.

Howard

record of 91,243

C. Johnson, ft.,

and

who

set a

air force

world landplane altitude

Maj, Walter W. Irwin, who

established a world straightaway speed standard of

engine.

An F-ios Thunderchief from Alaska

jet

to Florida

min. The plane was piloted by Capt. Billy White,

Texan, and was refueled in air force veterans,

flight.

Robert

Timm

of Las Vegas, Nev., and

John Cook, Los Angeles, established a world's mark for sustained flight by keeping their single-engine Cessna 172 aloft 64 days 22 hr. ig min. 49 sec. over Nevada. They refueled from a speeding truck while flying just above the ground. Five Voodoo fighter bombers of the U.S. air force flew the South Atlantic in the record time of 6 hr. 41 min., covering 3,683 nautical mi. from the

Shaw Air Force base

Morocco,

at

Numerous

Among

War

Centennial commission to plan Alabama's

cies or colour

not specified) as the state flower in place of the

goldenrod. Legislative committees were appointed to consider

ways

to

draft legislation benefiting the small farmer, and to study the

its jet

a record 3,850-mi. nonstop flight

Two

the State Civil

part in the 1961-65 observance, and adopted the camellia (spe-

along with the Lockheed's designer and en-

were

who developed

in 5 hr. 27

more

annually for each program). The legislature also established

enlarge state parks' facilities and outdoor recreation areas, to

gineers

made

assistance programs (expected to yield about $2,500,000

1,404.19

m.p.h.,

cited,

strong small-loan regulatory measure and approved a

in South Carolina to Nouasseur, an average of 634 m.p.h. in January. claims were made for new jet standards_ in 1959.

these was one by a Soviet pilot who reportedly attained an average of 1,493 m.p.h. The mark recognized by the World

feasibility

of

razing Kilby prison in

Montgomery and

using

funds from the sale of the prison's valuable real estate to build

an entirely new prison system.

Survey work began on a proposed 27-mi. canal linking the Warrior river near Birmingham with the Tennessee river at

would give Birmingham industries access to waterway system. The world's highest (loo-ft.) lock was opened Nov. 10 at Muscle Shoals on the

Guntersville, which

the U.S. inland single

lift

Tennessee

river.

The missile-producing Redstone the state's largest industry,

its

arsenal at Huntsville

became

payroll exceeding that of Bir-

mingham's Tennessee Coal and Iron division of the U.S. Steel Corp. during the Principal state

were:

first

quarter of the year.

officials, all of

whom

governor, John Patterson;

Boutwell; attorney general,

took

office Jan. 20,

lieutenant governor,

MacDonald

1959, Albert

Gallion; state auditor,

— —

—

ISLANDS — ALASKA

ALAND

32 Mrs.

Mary Texas Garner;

secretary

of

stale,

Mrs.

Betlye

Frink; state treasurer, Mrs. Agnes Baggett; commissioner of agriculture and industries, R. C.

Bamberg; and sui)crinlendent

of education, Frank Stewart. Education. In the 1958-59 school year Alabama npcralcd a total ot >,40i school centres in the public school system. There were 1.099 elementary schools, but 1,117 o( all schools had some elementary grades. There were 474.777 elementary pupils taught by 14.469 teachers, plus J45 supervising principals. There were 301, .'04 junior and senior high school pupils and J teachers, plus 6j6 supervising principals. Stale pro-rated ,4

—

1

i

1

appropriations for education (elementary, secondary, colleges, trade schools, ending Sept. }0, 1959, amounted to approximately $135,000,000. Social Iniuronc*, Public Walfar* and Rvlottd Programs During the fiscal year ended Sept. 30, 1959, total expenditures for the department of pensions and security were $72,943,453.51. Expenditures for public assistance, with the average number of persons receiving assistance in parentheses, were as follows: old-aije assistance $54,237,053.19 (101.402); aid to the blind $696,298.22 ii.656): aid to dependent children $7,559.09503 (12,643); Old to the permanently and totally disabled $5,029,182.63 (12,729); aid to children in foster care $560,499.74 (1,418); temporary aid $16,426.37 ( 103). Alabama in 1959 operated 4 prisons and 33 road camps. The total number ot prisoners on Sept. 30, 1959, was 5,444. Total expenditures (or the prisoner system during the fiscal year were $3,757,903.18. Public health expenditures for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1959, totaled $12,111,051.43. This figure included $4,805,433.45 in state funds, $6,040,122.67 in federal funds and $1,265,495.31 in local funds. Maternal and child services included 2,718 maternity clinic sessions in 49 counties with 38,373 patient-visits to clinics; 1,853 well-baby clinic sessions in 30 counties with 29.253 patient-visits; and 1,352 dental clinic sessions in 34 counties with 31,076 treatments. Communicoiioni. All highways and roads in the state, as of Sept. 30, 1959 (federal, local and stale combined), totaled 63,583 mi. Slate and federal disbursements for highways and roads totaled $144,593,000. New road and highway construction completed in the 1958-59 fiscal year was '.350 mi. There were 782.373 telephones in the slate of Alabama. Alabama bad 122 airports, of which 68 were commercial airports. Construction was begun on a $11,000,000 interstate project west of Mobile connecting U.S. Highway 90 and U.S. Highway 45. Banking and Finonc*. As of June 10, 1959, there were 169 state banks and s branches with deposits of $534,939,000 and resources of $593,789,000; 69 national banks and 58 branches with deposits of $1,369,177,000 and resources of $1,520,421,000; 6 state savings and loan associations with total resources of $46.7.^9.000; 30 federal savings and loan associations with total resources of $318,096,000; 130 state credit unions with total resources of $39,874,000; 112 federal credit unions with total resources of $18,682,000. Total slate government receipts in the fiscal year ended Sept. 30, 1959, were $501,023,648.25. The gross debt was $131,678,000 and the net debt was $128,790,000. Agriculture. In 1954 Alabama had 176,956 farms covering 20.810.492 ac, of which 4,812,086 ac. were cropland from which crops were harvested. Cash income in 1958 from crops and livestock totaled $477,379,000 with government payments contributing an additional $43,435,000. Receipts from livestock and livestock products were the highest of record and exceeded income from crops for the second year. On Jan. i, 1959. livestock comprised i. 816. 000 cattle and calves, of which 376,000 were milch cows; 930.000 swine; 70,000 sheep; 117,000 horses and mules. Industry. From Jan. i through Sept. 30. 1959, 89 new plants with capital investment of $17,619,500 and 3,881 new employees began operaetc.) in the fiscal year

—

—

lions in .Mabama. In addition, 135 existing industries expanded, adding $60,384,500 of capital investment and 6,075 new employees. In the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1959, there were 326 oil wells in production; 62 were put into production from (Jet. 1, 1958, to Sept. 30, 1959. Estimates of primary and secondary oil reserves in Alabama totaled 118,500,000 bbl. (J. M. Pn.) Mineral Production Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Alabama in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or more. In 1958 Alabama was first among the states in the output of bituminous limestone; second in bauxite, cement and slag; third in asphalt, china clay, crude iron ore, and scrap and flake mica; fourth in aluminum capacity, oven coke output; fifth in pig iron; and sixth in lime. A new

—

dome was discovered among the states in 1.14% of the U.S. total.

salt

Table

—

Table

Production of Leading Crops

I.

1958

720,000 60,345,000 160,800,000 896,000

439,000 66,848,000 221,540,000 898,000 2,661,000 715,000 2,976,000 2,300,000 2,970,000 912,000 960,000 37,600,000

1,908,000

660,000 3,360,000 1,430,000 3,289,000 660,000 1,000,000 8,000,000

Sorghum, gn Peachet, bu. Pecans, lb.

t

of Agriculture;

Table

II.

Alobomo Crop and

Principal Industries of

884,000 49,947,000 225,593,000 687,000 2,359,000* 927,000* 3,461,000 707,000 1,646,000 559,000 508,000 16,688,000

Livestock Reporting Service.

Alabama odded by

added by

Salaries

All

and wages ployees 1957

Food ond kindred products Textile mill products

Apparel and related products Lumber and wood products P,

pope

Fabricated metal products

Machinery {except electric. Transportation equipment Sourcei U.S. Department of

18,182 42,984 20,000 27,581 9,462 8,110 5,387 8,265 43,178 9,875 7,169 17,494

1958

1957

Volue

1,316,000 13,260,000 5,919,000 147,000 4,223,000 4,693,000 554,000

Cloy. Coal

Coket

Iron, pig

t

Petroleum (bbl.) Sand ond gravel Stone Other minerols

.

1957

(occurs

1956

lin

OOOsl

56,880

{ 1

9,785 43,942 I

56,292 49,104 36,673 31,053 30,915 232,234 44,595 31,690 83,367

lin

OOOsl

$109,273 189,887 75,600 93,303 76,853 1 27,047 80,630 73,093 463,815 84,567 51,825 121,036

Commerce, Annual Survmf of Manufactures,

1

13,588,000 1.348,000 11.182,000 4,257,000 8,400 3,459,000 3,412,000 520,000 5,887,000 4,128,000 11,080,000

1,504,000 86,114,000 110,808,000 32,435,000 40,518,000 253,000,000 6,271,000

.

....

4,883,000 1,972,000 23,344,000

5,065.00 9,519.00

1

*The total hos been odiusled to elin tValues for processed materials on tVolue included with other minerols. Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.

e duplication

included

Encvclop^edia Britannica Films.

Aland Islands:

in

in the voli the totals.

— Southeastern

$187,747,000 42,930,000 1,787,000

72,360,000 84,672,000 17,705,000 23,393,000 168,150,000 4,440,000 s

4,210,000 17.048,000 24,538,000 cloyi ond stone.

States (1956).

see Finland.

Alaska, with an area of 586,400 sq.mi.,

Aloci^O

""'"'*''•

Volue

Quonlity

$209,549,000 40,279,000

emmost and

largest of the

is

United States.

the north-

was the

It

49th state to be admitted into the union (in 1959). Alaska is separated from Siberian U.S.S.R. by the Bering strait. The

boundary

follows the international date line between Big

line

Diomede

which is Soviet and in the eastern hemisphere, and Little Diomede Island, which is part of Alaska and in the western hemisphere. The distance between the two islands is apIsland,

proximately 2^ mi. Alaska's population in 1950 was 128,643, including military personnel. The 1959 official estimate was 191,000, of which 34,000 were military personnel and 157,000 were civilians.

The

included

native population

approximately

5.000 Aleuts.

The

amounted

17,000

largest city

is

to

Eskimos,

about 38,000, which and

16,000 Indians

Anchorage (1958 pop.

include Juneau, Ketchikan, Kodiak,

Indicoiod 1959

Crop Cotton, bola

short tons, except oi nofedt

est. 35,-

000), with Fairbanks (12,500), second. Other population centres

Alabama

in

Mintrol Production of Alabama

III.

(In

—

—

1958, the third for the slate. Alabama was the value of its mineral output in 1958, wilb

in

2ist

957.

$

98,736 193,571

75,500 99,782

124^840 72,152 78,385 460,442 73,091

50,676 80,726

Nome, Palmer,

Petersburg,

Seward. Sitka and Wrangell. The Aleutian Islands, which extend over 1,000 mi. westward from Alaska, are part of the state.

—

Birth pangs for the new state of Alaska were sharp History. and dramatic. Sworn into office moments after Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower signed his formal proclamation admitting Alaska on Jan. 3, 1959, Gov. William A. Egan was hospitalized that afternoon and later fJown to Seattle where his life hung in the balance for several weeks. Until his return in full health in midyear, the reins of government were largely in the hands of Secretary

of

elected

official.

Hugh

State

through April

The

16,

J.

Wade,

the

state's

only

other

meeting from Jan. 26 created an executive branch of 12 departments first

state legislature,

responsible to the governor in line with the constitution's con-

cept of a strong executive; balanced the budget at $27,500,000

fund expenditures without any general tax increases; implemented constitutional provisions for a court system comprising a state supreme court, superior courts and district magistrates; enacted fish and game legislation meeting requirements in general

of the Statehood Enabling act to assure state control of fish

and game on Jan. i, i960; and took preparatory steps toward a state building program, utility and transportation regulation and other needed programs.

ALBANIA

33 10.24%

sented a

ki^fV/l^

"tW

.^UStir^^.'

-—

-T'WK..^

-

V^^'^aSf^ r'M'fi^iMwi , .>_

.

(I

,

j^

^^^58k'

*

'

•JSJ^ iV-^

STATEHOOD MEDALLION the 49lh state Jan. 3, /-

if^

xk

«4 JtM ;^f^^-'^2^Skirw '^jS^S^^jrr ^^Sa^BSBB^fLST ^iJ'^fSSB^m^ii^ '^SJ^S

commemorate

struck to

if

the admission of Alaska as

1959 J

1

xi_

Congress enacted the

ii»i

i_Mii. bill

•!_

/-v

1

Alaska Omnibus

11

Ai

ii-

1

allotting Alaska

$28,500,000 over a five-year period and transferring certain fed....

,

,

,

and property

buildings

eral

,

to the state.

_,.,,,,

These included the

Fairbanks and Anchorage international airports, important links

m

„ transpolar air routes to the orient and U.S. from Europe. '

.

On

,

.

the U.S. court of claims held about 7,000 Tlingit 7, '' " ° and Haida Indians in southeast Alaska entitled to payment for Oct.

.

.

about 20,000,000 ac, including Tongass National forest lands, taken from their ancestors by the U.S. government. It was esti™nf=J „ „ J „,' i,» I, a> mated fl,n(that tV,n the ™„n„t„_,. monetary award might reach $40,000,000.

One of Governor Egan's first official acts, in compliance with 1 J. r i 1 i-i 1L r an ordinance of the state constitution, was to ban issuance of licences for the operation of commercial fish traps in Alaskan c 11. J waters. Secretary Ot Interior I'red A. beaton also banned trap •

i.1.

,

TTi-T^jAOi

.

operations but excepted those operated by native villages. His ,,?, ,,, , J J. order was challenged by the fishing industry and upheld by the

,.,:.,

A

federal courts.

,

'

Metlakatla, but Justice William

preme court granted

Jr.,

a temporary restraining order against the

on

its

,

.

I

1

1

1

•'

r,

.

.

,

,

,

harbour at Cape Thompson, on the Arctic ocean. rin April Anri'l -yr, the tVio U.S. TT Q Distant njotont Early T7o,-l,, U7o,„;n™ Kna „,v.;,-i, ko On Warmng Ime, which be30, artificial

_

gins at Baffin

Land

Canada and guards North America was extended westward the Aleutian Islands. Construction went ahead in arctic

against air attack over the polar regions, to the

fs^^^y^^f^^J^^'

—

Agriculture. Farm production in 1958 rose to $4,675,989, a .4% increase over 1957. Dairy products amounted to $2,090,399. Potato produetion totaled $694,558 Cropland production in the state totaled

approximately $1,056,628. Timber.

—

Timber sales in Alaska's national forests totaled 122,974.000 valued at $356,478. Sales from public lands amounting to 8,173,000 were valued at $22,686. Alaska's fishing industry in 1959 showed a 3.5% increase in monetary value compared with the previous year. Production was 215.301,904 lb., with a wholesale value of $83,742,931. The state's salmon fisheries experienced another poor year in 1959. The total pack was 1,770,797 cases, compared with 2,971,537 cases in 1958. (W. A. E.) bd.ft.

bd

ft

Fisheries.

—

end of on the Alaska

where the second of two U.S. missile-detection sites was located. The other was at Thule in Greenland. The cost of the installation would be $250,000,000. Intensified interest in Alaska's oil and gas resources continued throughout the year. Swanson river on the Kenai peninsula, where new oil and gas discoveries in commercial quantities had been made, continued to hold the major interest. Union Oil company announced plans to pipe gas from their No. i well at Kenai to Anchorage with eventual extension as far north as Fairat Clear,

'?*™

.™

''"°" °

railroad,

banks

in the rail belt. Standard Oil company interests, with wells on the Kenai peninsula, which when augmented by a new well brought in during October, was expected to produce approxi-

°'

°

short tons, except as noted)

(In

of the U.S. su-

Shipment of construction materials to Alaska to be used for , ^ .1 an atomic reactor power planti at1 T-x Ft. Greely, Alaska, was begun on June 3. -^ As the year ended, studies were under way by the Atomic Energy commission regarding proposed nuclear blast to Vcreate "i-"o a f f an

The federally owned Alaska railroad operated more than 470 mi. of main-line track and 67 mi. of branch lines between Seward on the coast and Fairbanks. The White Pass & Yukon railway operating between Skag"^y. Alaska, and Whitehorse, Yukon Territory, had 20 mi. of track in Alaska. Alaska's highway and road system totaled 5,3S6 mi. of which ^-'.'S "11; "^"^ '" '•'' deliveries of crops were doubled and in some cases trebled. The compulsory delivery system was modified, deliveries from privately owned plots being abolished and a large proportion of arrears being wiped out. It was stated that, at the end of 1958, 63% of the peasants had been brought into collective farms, which accounted for 72ador

American Academy of Arts and Letters:

who

of applicants

Fewer applicants listed their ( — 11% ) and housewife ( — 6%). Females comprised

f.

J.

'Ourbrow. Elbrldge Hare, Roymond A.tt

Yemen

number

cupation increased

Hare,

Edward

study of the applications received during that period revealed

that the

Wolmil.y, Waller N. • Worr.n, Fl.tch.r 'Thompton. lUw.llyn t.

*

Tunlilo

*

A

From Iha United Statel

Country

lh« United Statvt

see

and

Societies

Associations, U.S.

American Federation of Labor: see LABotn? Unions. American Geographical Society: see Societies and

tions, U.S.

As-

sociations. U.S.

American Citizens Abroad.

?rrS.r'Cllm

of state from consular representatives of the United States foreign service showed that 610.968 civilian American citizens

were residing

in various foreign countries

an increase of 57,456 since the same time

on March 31, 1959, in 1958.

American Historical Association:

American

Abroad

Societies

and

American Hotel Association: see Hotels, U.S. American Indians: see Indians, American American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters:

Eifimofe of U.S. CHizens Residing

see

Associations. U.S.

see Societies

and .Associations, U.S.

Institute of Architects: see Societies and

Associations. U.S. Morch Et'oP' Mexico ond Centrol Americo South America Australia and New Zeolond **''" Phplippinoj *f,'°

,

West Indies ond Bermuda Canada, Newfoundland ond Icelond Tolol

.

.

31,

1958 March 31, 1959

115,378 59,050 48,729 7,673 16,889 27,309 59,377 19,648 199.459 553,512

142,169 55,119 58,150 8,639 20,915 20,935 83,205 16,629

205,207 610,968

Change -|-26,79

-

-|-

+ + -

3,931 9,421

966 4,026 6,374

-|-23,828

-

-|-

3,019 5,748

-|-57,456

The passport oflfice of the United States department of state reported another record peak in requests for passport services during 1958 when 676.898 passports were issued or renewed. This was an increase of 16% over the 585.994 passports processed

in

American

Institute of Certified Public and Associations, U.S.

Accountants:

see Societies

American

Institute of

Chemical Engineers:

see

Soa-

ETIES A.ND Associations, U.S.

American

institute of Electrical Engineers: see SociAND ASSOCIATIO-NS. U.S. American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers: see Societies and Associations. U.S. American Institute of Physics: see Societies and Associaeties

tions, U.S.

American iron and Steel

1957-

Associations, U.S.

During the first si.x months of 1959, a total of 463.028 passports were issued or renewed, an increase of 5^^ over the 440,884 passports issued or renewed during the first half of 1958.

American Law

institute: see Societies and

Institute: see Societies and Associations,

U.S.

American Legion:

see

Veterans' Organizations, U.S.

AMERICAN LITERATURE

39

in the United States.

American Library Association.

^::^.:::SZ

Both these projects were supported by

foundation funds.

(A.L.A.) had a membership of more than 23,000 libraries, librar-

During the year the A.L.A. published: College Teaching and

and friends of libraries. The 78th annual conference, held at Washington, D.C., June 21-27, was the

the College Library; Cooperative Centralized Processing; Plans

ians, librarj- trustees

largest in the history of the organization,

with a registered

at-

tendance of 5,346. OflBcers inaugurated at the conference were:

Benjamin E. Powell, librarian, Duke university. Durham. N.C., president; Mrs. Frances Lander Spain, co-ordinator of children's

New York

Public library, first vice-president and and John T. Eastlick, librarian, Denver Public librar>', second vice-president. Richard B. Sealock, hbrarian, Kansas City, Mo., Public library, continued his four-year term as treasurer. A new headquarters building on the same site was planned to replace the one at 50 East Huron St., Chicago, and was to be ready for occupancy in 1961. services.

president-elect;

The A.L.A. adopted

a

number

of

new

policy and standards

statements during 1959. During the midwinter meeting, on Jan. 29, "Goals for Action," a broad statement of the aims of

modem

and of the means by which library service by the council. At the same federal legislative policy statement was adopted to assist librarj' service

for Six Public Library Buildings; and

The Status of American

College and University Librarians.

Awards, citations and scholarships were announced at the Washington conference. The Lippincott award ($500 and a medal) for distinguished service to librarianship was presented to Essae Martha Culver, Louisiana state librarian. The Melvil Dewey medal for creative professional achievement of a high order was awarded to Benjamin E. Custer for his work as editor of the 1 6th edition of the Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. Elizabeth George Speare won the 38th Newbery medal for her Witch of Blackbird Pond (Houghton Mifflin), judged to be the most distinguished contribution to children's literature of 1958. Barbara Cooney won the 22nd Caldecott medal for Chanticleer and the Fox (Crowell), judged to be the outstanding picture book of 1958. The Dutton-Macrae award ($1,000) was won by Richard L.

could be improved, were adopted

Dariing. assistant professor of library service,

time a

university. Missoula, to enable

in interpreting library

and

needs as they relate to federal legislation

notable progress was

made

in the

development of standards for During

to

Sickels,

Montana

in public libraries.

former co-ordinator of children's services

her work at that library.

Mann

sity of

1959 new standards for college libraries were published; standards for school libraries were completed for publication in i960;

for outstanding professional achievement in cataloguing

The

A.L..\.

and the

Librar>' of Congress, in developing a

new

cataloguing code, worked with the International Federation of Librar>' associations to see

loguing

principles

if

reached.

A.L.A. 's

ography for promoting east-west understanding,

in

support of the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organiza-

program

in this area.

The

publication and the di\isional

its message throughout the United States and Canada were assisted by a grant from the Asia foundation.

project for carrying

Adult Services division compiled a

A.L..\.'s

Latin-American university foundation.

The books,

list

of books for

libraries at the request of the Sears

written and published in the United

libraries which would make them available for loan. Many other co-operative projects similar to these were being carried out by the A.L.A. and other groups mth common interests.

States,

were

to

be presented by the foundation to

The Library Technology library'

project, a standardization

equipment and supplies, was established

in

program

in

1959 under

a two-year grant of $136,395 from the Council on Library' Resources.

The

compilation,

editing

and publishing of present

standards for equipment widely used by libraries was the project's first task.

The second National Library week, sponsored by the National Book committee in association with the A.L.A.. was celebrated April 12-18. The objective of the week was to encourage the spread of reading and the active use and enlightened support of

A

sification.

nially

for

citation

and

clas-

The Oberly Memorial award ($100), presented bienthe best agricultural bibliography, was won by J,

Richard Blanchard, librarian. University of California. Davis,

and Harald Ostvold. Public

librar\',

for

chief,

reference department.

their Literature

New York

of Agricultural Research

(University of California Press, 1958).

See also Libraries; Literary Prizes.

Young Adult

Services division compiled and published Richer by Asia, a bibli-

tion's

Sydney. Australia, received the Margaret

(S.

Sh.)

international agreement on cata-

be

could

at the

won the Grolier Society award for Andrew D. Osbom, librarian, Univer-

Indianapolis Public hbrar>',

the several tj-pes of Hbraries and for library education.

and standards for undergraduate librarj' education were adopted and published. Under the A.L..\.'s program of accrediting graduate library' schools, the Western Michigan university library school was added to the list of 31 schools already accredited.

State

hold a series of workshops

on storytelling and other children's services

Eveh-n

to federal agencies, including libraries.

In addition to goals for library service on a nationwide basis,

him

AmPripfln nillCllbail critical. .K

MtPMtlirP LIlClulUIC.

^^' American

literary

mood

of

1959 was retrospective and selfperennial subject, the Civil War, attracted even more

writers than usual as

its

centennial approached. Although

of the books, swelling a Civil

totaled about 30.000

titles,

War

many

bibliography which already

appealed only to the specialist or

monomaniac, the general reader could find new studies which gave information and insight into the causes, events and personalities of the conflict. Some, which contributed little that was new, had merit as literature or as syntheses of existing scholarship, and some pointed the way to new areas of research or the

analysis.

In fiction the impulse to self-criticism was strong, and novelists, even those

world they lived

in.

too there was an undercurrent of self-criticism, strongest the "beatniks." whose stock in trade in less

many

whose chief purpose was not to attack the observed and recorded its follies. In poetry it

among

was, but also discernible

widely publicized verse.

A

major source of reading matter for the American public was the local newsstand's endless ranks of paper-bound books, whose phenomenal sale seemed not to have undercut the hard-cover market.

The Foreign Scene. United States

—Although

analysts of the role of the

in international affairs differed in their

approaches

commitments undertaken by the

were almost unanimous in condemning the current foreign policy of the government. Walter Lippmann, in The Communist World and Ours, dissected Nikita Khrushchev's

A.L.A. were administrative supervision of the development of a

poUtical thinking and urged that the L'nited States reappraise

libraries.

third

National Library week was scheduled for

April 3-9, i960.

Among Iibrar\- at field

the

new

international

the University of

Mandalay and

responsibility for a

seminar for Japanese librarians on library reference services

and

solutions, they

aims and needs. C. L. Sulzberger's What's Wrong With U.S. Foreign Policy described United States diplomatic

its political

tient and doctor and proposed group health plans as a solution.

The .sis

passion for self-analy-

continued to produce books

both interesting and valuable.

Vance Packard's The Status Seekers pointed out the hidden barriers and the visible signs of class consciousness in

a theoretically classless sociSociologist

ety.

Warner completed

W.

Lloyd

his

Yankee

City series with The Living

and the Dead, a study of the symbolic life of a New Eng-

Thomas

land town.

Griffith, in

Waist-High Culture, searched out the reasons for America's

BEATNIK POET TED JOANS reading from his workj lo a New York city coffeehotiie In 1959. Younoer poets found

waning popularity abroad and found American society ma-

(

a

readings during the year, and stories of the "beat generation" were published In many national magazines and periodicals, together with excerpts from their verse

of such outlets for public

and something

terialistic

Leisure, edited

the "threat of leisure," contrasting

pectancy, work week, etc.

on a wide front, while William Appleman Williams' The Tragedy of American Diplomacy surveyed the course of 20thcentury foreign policy in an equally critical vein. Charles Wright Mills, in The Causes of World War Three, studied U.S. political failures

forces

from

a sociological point of

view and concluded that war,

than

less

egalitarian.

ideally

Mass

by Eric Larrabee and Rolf Meyersohn, presented

modem

conditions

—with those of the

—

life ex-

1900s. Carl Bode's

The Anatomy of American Popular Culture, 1840-1861 surveyed the architecture and art of the time as well as literature.

Jacques Barzun,

in

The House of

its

music and

Intellect, distin-

guishing intelligence from intellect, found that art, science and

philanthropy were the enemies of contemporary

intellect.

Less portentous pictures of certain aspects of American

not the U.S.S.R., was the real menace and that the "power eHte"

life

of the U.S. talked peace but practised war. Adlai Stevenson

included Allen Churchill's The Improper Bohemians, a portrait

wrote an informal report of his recent observations of the

heyday drawn from the reminiscences The Way It Was, Harold Loeb relived the days when he edited a little magazine in the Paris of Gertrude Stein, Hemingway and the expatriates. Venice, Calif., hot-bed of the disaffiliated "beatniks," was the subject of The Holy Barbarians by Lawrence Lipton, who combined anecdotes of life among the "hipsters" with an evaluation of their prose and poetry. Life and art on a far different scale provided material for Aline Saarinen's lively The Proud Possessors, a history of America's great art collectors. The Book of Negro

Two important books concerned more general world views. Crane Brinton's A History of Western Morals surveyed the sources of, and changes in, concepts of morality from the ancient near east to the contemporary United States.

The

Hannah Arendt,

in

Human

Modem

Condition: a Study of the Central Dilemmas Facing Man, presented a thoughtful and sometimes pessimistic

analysis of cultural change.

—

The American Scene. The United States, with all its facets and problems, exerted its usual fascination on writers and on the reading public. The major facet was the educational system. A small book which seemed likely to have a profound effect on the future of the U.S. public-school system

of

Greenwich Village

in its

of former inhabitants. In his memoirs.

U.S.S.R. in Friends and Enemies.

was James Bryant

Folklore, edited

scended

its

by Langston Hughes and became an

stated purpose and

The Years With Ross,

account of the career of the

Hyman

United States, which defined and evaluated the humanities and asked support for humanistic scholarship. Personal liberty in the United States and the damage

it had from attacks on constitutional rights was the subject of Benjamin Ginzburg's Rededication to Freedom, and certain specific rights were the subject of William Peters' report on the progress of desegregation, The Southern Temper. Another problem attracting national attention was that of the latest immigrant group, the Puerto Ricans. Elena Padilla, using a socioanthropological approach in Up From Puerto Rico, studied how the group had adapted to its new situation, while Dan Wake-

suffered in recent years

field,

writing

more informally

in Island in the City: the

World

Harlem, gave a vi\'idly detailed picture of the group. Richard Carter, in The Doctor Business, analyzing the business of Spanish

practices of the medical profession, found the fee-for-service system of medical care the source of many injustices to both pa-

40

tran-

Outstanding among books on single figures was James Thurber's

A more

George Rickover's Education and Freedom. Howard Mumford Jones's One Great Society was a report on humane learning in the

Bontemps,

the whole culture.

Conant's report to the public. The American High School Today. opinionated attack on current practices was

Ama

excellent anthology of

a fond, if not

New

always dispassionate,

Thomson, by Kathleen O'Donnell Hoover and John Cage, was an account Yorker

editor. Virgil

and a critique of his works. A rounded emerged from the personal journals, correspondence and nonanthropological writings of Ruth Benedict in An Anthropologist at Work, edited by her colleague, Margaret Mead. Moss Hart demonstrated his comic and satiric gifts in an autobiography, Act One, which was also a document in modem stage history. The free and intensely personal comments of newspaper editor Harry Golden on the contemporary scene in his second collection of essays, For 2d Plain, charmed the public as much as his first collection had. And Agee on Film of the composer's

life

portrait of a striking personality

was a posthumous collection of James Agee's perceptive critical reviews and essays on motion pictures. Several excellent historical works treated Historical Works. large segments of the American past. Carl N. Degler, in Out of Our Past: the Forces That Shaped Modern America, found that there had been two basically conservative revolutions since that of 1776, namely, the Civil War and the depression of the 1930s.

—

AMERICAN LITERATURE Daniel Boorstin theorized in The Americans: the Colonial Experience that the American environment had always been unfriendly

to

the

development of

rigid

political

Two

systems.

books probed the backgrounds of contemporary southern thinking:

Henry Savage,

in

Seeds of Time, studied the roots of southfirst white settlers, while

ern solidarity from the time of the

Hodding Carter, in The Angry Scar, focused on the Reconstruction and its effect on the present. In The Coming of the Xew Deal, volume ii of his monumental The Age of Roosevelt, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., described and analyzed the domestic developments of the years 1933 and 1934. The normal flow of scholarship on personahties or smaller segments of the past continued. Volume xv of The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, edited by Julian P. Boyd, with William H. Gaines, Jr., as associate editor, covered the time from March 27, 17S9. to Nov. 30, 1789. A well-documented, well-balanced life of Thomas Paine, Man of Reason, by Alfred -Owen Aldridge,

comment on

included

the patriot's writings as well as his life;

and Samuel Eliot Morison's biography, John Paul Jones, paid special attention to Jones the sailor and to the naval engagements in which he took part. Shelby Foote, writing with the

skill

of a novelist and the

41

and the reactions of a small mountain community, and of the wide world as exemplified by television and radio newshawks. Saul Bellow moved completely out of the world of the realistic novel into a world of fantasy built out of wonderfully concrete and often funny details. The millionaire hero of Henderson the Rain King bulls his way through a mad imaginary in a cave

Africa, blowing up wells and fighting lions in his search for him-

The changes

John O'Hara's approach to the world, as bulky From the Terrace, marked a real fall from grace; the sharp observation of small town Pennsylvania society which distinguished his earlier work became a mere amassing of details of manners and mores, a job better done by self.

demonstrated

in

in his

the social anthropologist.

The humorous novel rarely achieves complete success, but some writers managed to come close to the mark. Peter DeVries, already established as a ready man with a pun, seemed to be working too hard in The Tents of Wickedness, notable chiefly for

its

fine

DeVries.

20th-century writers from Joyce to

parodies of

Mark

Wake Up,

Harris, in

Stupid, used the difficult old

device of letters (and telegrams) to portray the yearning for

academic promotion of a

mad Mormon

also writes successful television

college professor

who

dramas and Broadway shows

conscience of a historian, created The Civil War: a Narrative. The first of three projected volumes presenting a view of the war from both sides, it covered the time from Fort Sumter to Perryville. Burke Davis' excellent To Appomattox: Nine April Days, 1865 drew on contemporary diaries and maps for its

and who owns a 63^^ interest in a prize fighter. Truman Capote's Breakfast at Tiffany's, a short novel, focuses on a somewhat

civilian life and military action. Although Glenn Tucker gave adequate coverage to the Northern side of the Pennsylvania campaign in High Tide at Gettysburg, he viewed it chiefly from the Southern side. The Lincohi Nobody Knows set forth the fallacies and enigmas in the president's life which led the author, Richard Nelson Current, to claim that Lincoln

he used

picture of

still

remains, in spite of the mass of research, a contradictory

figure.

Richard B. Harwell edited the excellent Union Reader,

a collection of contemporary writings and source materials and a

companion volume

Raymond

to his

Confederate Reader.

Changing Realities was

a solidly

documented regional and

social

Jane Addams, Potter Palmer and Louis Sullivan as well as the

Edward Charles Wagenknecht caught

controversial governor.

his subject's personality as

private actions in

it

appeared

in

all

his public

and

The Seven Worlds of Theodore Roosevelt.

Three of the many books dealing with the recent past deserved An account of what its author called the greatest naval

attention.

battle of all time

was Leyte, June iQ44-January 1Q45, volume

of Samuel Eliot Morison's History of the United States Naval

Operations in World

War

II.

Michael Amrine.

in

The Great

Decision, described the conditions and events leading up to Pres S. Truman's decision to drop the atom bomb. And John Brooks brought alive the personalities and history of the stock market in the 19SOS in The Seven Fat Years.

Harry

Fiction.

—The

charge

American creand therefore books repeat the emotions and actions

is

sometimes leveled

at

ative writers that they are incapable of change

of growth, that their final of their

first

special

Civil

in earlier writings,

War romance

settings. Hamilton same Carolina setting

problems or

Basso's The Light Infantry Ball, using the

had many of the trappings of the

but was basically an attempt to show the

roots of the southern tradition. Lillian Smith, in

One Hour,

further light on one aspect of southern

her story of a

life in

cast

community's reaction to a man whom a child has accused of rape, a story marred by long, needless flash backs and some impossibly literate characters. John Hersey, in The War Lover,

up a powerful drama of a Flying Fortress crew, its final Germany and its struggle to get back to its base; the focus of the drama, though, was on the attitudes of the crew built

mission over

Ginger's Altgeld's .America: the Lincoln Ideal Versus

study of an era which included such figures as Theodore Dreiser,

xii

mad female Bohemian. Many novels analyzed

ones, for, ha\ang found a successful formula, they

are either reluctant or unable to abandon

it.

The year 1959 found

major writers who at least moved out of previous positions, some to advance, some to retreat. Robert Penn Warren found a mood and a situation in The Cave which allowed full play to his talents. Abandoning the devices of narrator, journal or italicized musings, which someseveral

times fogged his earlier writing, he returned to the directness of Night Rider, portraying with humour and savagery the actions and interactions of the family and friends of a "hillbilly" trapped

U.S. POET AND HISTORIAN CARL SANDBURG (left) and Edward Steichen, photograpljer, traveling to Moscow where they lectured at the U.S. fair and exposition in 1959

AMERICAN MATHE MATICAL SOCIETY

42

and death. The Brown's Trumbull Park lay not so much

members toward as in the sense

life

Franic

brought the fragments into orderly sequence but gave the reader

excellence of writing

no adequate clues by which to separate Mark Twain's facts from his fancies. Mark Twain: Social Critic, by Philip S. Fon^

chief in

virtue

of

gave of being a firsthand, though limited, ac-

it

count of the tensions and tragedies of a Negro family's search for

A

theme was treated more effectively and more dramatically by Lorraine Hansherry in her enormously successful play, A Raisin in the Sun. Richard Wright demonstrated much of his old vigour and controlled savagery in The Long Dream, which concerns the agonies of a young southern Negro as he watches his father achieve material success by a smiling subjection to the whites. A novel which was widely popular bea place to live.

cause

similar

revealed at great length the inner workings of the senate

it

and Washington, D.C., was Allen Drury's Advise and Consent. Many new or almost new writers worthy of serious consideration emerged during the year. George P. Elliott's Parktilden Village was a quietly effective story about a young sociologist invading an academic family. The Poorhouse Fair, by John Updike, was a loosely connected series of vignettes, some of them powerfully re-created, of the inhabitants of a New Jersey poor farm getting ready for a fair. In The Cool World Warren Miller, capturing the speech rhythms of teen-age Harlem, revealed the relationship between the "cool" kids and the outside world. Bianca Van Orden's Water Music, a first novel, dealt with troubled young Americans in left-bank Florence. The Daughters of Necessity, by Peter S. Feibleman, was a character study of a man, in a southern setting, whose possessiveness ruins himself and his daughter. Several collections of short stories were distinguished. Philip

Roth's Goodbye, Columbus was a novella and five short stories

with Jewish protagonists.

Dreams ranged

in

Howard Nemerov's A Commodity

of

subject matter through dreams, family rela-

and anti-Semitism. The Same Door, a collection of fine by John Updike, analyzed the tensions of young people in urban settings. And Blackberry Wilderness, by Sylvia Berkman, was notable for the leisurely delicacy of her treatment of trautionships

stories

matic experiences. Scholarship.

— Perhaps

the

most outstanding contribution of

the year for both scholarly originality and general literary ap-

volume

peal was

Henry Adams:

ii

of Ernest Samuels'

life

of

Henry Adams,

the Middle Years, treating the emotional reper-

came out of these years. The dramatic life of Edgar Allan Poe was retold in a suitably dramatic biography. The Haunted Palace by Frances Winwar, which added little to a scholarly understanding of Poe. Oscar Sherwin, in Prophet of Liberty: the Life and Times of cussions of his wife's death and the writing which

Wendell Phillips, examined at length the life of the great abolitionist and the moral fervour of his times. Another intensive study of a classic writer was Sherman Paul's The Shores of America: Thoreau's Inward Exploration, a detailed re-creation of the writer's mind and thought. In George W. Cable: the

Northampton Years,

Philip Butcher studied his subject both as and as a social reformer. The revi\'ing academic interest in William Dean Howells continued with volume ii of Edwin Harrison Cady's biography. The Realist at War: the a novelist

Mature Years, 1885-1920, which treated the years of his daughter's death and of his establishment as a champion of realism in literature. Frederick George Bracher, in The Novels of James Gould Cozzens, tried to arrive at a more balanced criticism of a

who has been accused

bad writing and of status quo morality but also has been judged a major figure. There were some important editions of letters and writings. Walter Harding and Carl Bode edited The Correspondence of Henry David Thoreau, the first attempt to print, with introduction and notes, every available letter written or received by the novelist

writer.

An

edition

Mark Twain,

of

by Charles Neider of The Autobiography of

including chapters

now

published for the

first

time,

gave excerpts from Twain's writings on such contemporary

and the exploitation of labour, and the

as slavery

praisal of his opinions

Humor and Humanity

topi

editor's

ap

on social issues of the day. The Art,

of

Mark Twain,

edited with

commentary

and notes by Minnie M. Brashear and Robert M. Rodney and with an introduction by Edward Wagenknecht, was an anthology arranged

in

chronological order.

A monumental

Letters of Theodore Dreiser: a Selection,

in

edition of the

three volumes cover-

from 1897 to 1945, was edited with preface and notes by Robert H. Elias, and consulting editors Sculley Bradley

ing the years

and Robert E. Spiller. Poetry. Poetry continued to pour off the "little presses" and out of the universities. Those serious new Bohemians, the "beat-

—

niks,"

occupied with reading their deliberately undisciplined,

more Meanwhile back on the campus, the "square" poets were turning more and more to a controlled verse, much of it good enough to survive the pointed charge of academicism. Among off-campus "squares," simple competence in the handling of complex forms was almost routine, but less tangible qualities of mind and imagination made some poets stand

protesting verse in night clubs and hotel ballrooms, created publicity

than poetry.

out.

Writing from a campus, but not falling easily into any category was Theodore Roethke. whose Words for the Wind consisted of freely handled lyrics expressing the poet's response to his own complex private world. Robert Lowell's Life Studies, poetic observations of his own life and his family's, included a prose sketch of his Brahmin boyhood. Langston Hughes's vigorous and perceptive verse appeared in Selected Poems. Two collections which demonstrated exceptional skill and eflittle spontaneity were David Wagoner's A Place Stand and Michael Hamburger's The Dual Site. The Country of a Thousand Years of Peace, and Other Poems by James

fectiveness but to

Merrill conveyed, beneath a conservative surface, his awareness of the larger issues confronting man.

James Wright,

in Saint

new growth in his grasp and use of plain speech purposes. The poems of Light and Dark, by Bar-

Judas, showed a for his poetic

bara Howes, were the fine poetic observations of a civilized

woman in a ci\'ilized world. Donald Hall's Dark Houses offered many insights into small-town life and people, while Louis 0. Coxe used northern New England materials for the sober lyrics collected in The Wilderness, and Other Poems. Other books of poems included A Cage of Spines by May Swenson; The Green Ch-apel by Barbara Gibbs; The Night of the Hammer by Ned O'Gorman; Testament, and Other Poems by John Fandel; Apples From Shinar by Hyam Plutzik; Laughter in the Mind by to Be a Dragon by Marianne Moore. Irving Layton; and See also Book Publishing and Book Sales; Children's Books; English Literature; Literary Prizes. ("H. M. H.)

—

Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Robert Frost (The Wisdom Se1958); Carl Sandburg (The Wisdom Series); John Hall Wheelock

ries,

(The Wisdom

Series,

1958).

American Mathematical Society:

see Societies

and As-

sociations, U.S.

American Medical Association:

see Societies

and Asso-

ciations. U.S.

American Optometric Association:

see Societies

and

Associations. U.S.

American Pharmaceutical

Ass.ociation: see Societies

AND Associations. U.S. American Physical Society:

see Societies

and Associa-

tions. U.S.

American Society of Agricultural Engineers:

see So-

1

ANGLING

43

AND ASSOCIATIONS, U.S. American Society of Civil Engineers: see Societies AND Associations, U.S. American Society of Composers, Autliors and Publisliers: see Societies and Associations, U.S. American Society of Mechanical Engineers: see Societies AND Associations, U.S. American Sunday-School Union: see Societies and Asso-

moved to Andorra since Tangier had lost its international status. The principality was prosperous, and in 1959 its 6,000 inhabit-

ciations, U.S.

Forces Hydro-electriques d'Andorre S.A. (Fhasa), Cigarette factory with yearly turnover of about 50,000,000 pesetas. Monetary units: French

CIETIES

American Veterans' Committee:

see

Veterans' Organi-

ants had frontier,

In spite of the closing of the Spanish

1,700 cars. the

number

of tourists

who

visited

Andorra during

the year was estimated at 660,000, or 50,000 1958.

more than

in

—

Education Primary schools (i9S4-55) 25. pupils 875, teachers 48. Economy. No budget or taxes. Telephone system built and maintained by Radio Andorra (1958, about 100 subscribers). Roads maintained by

—

franc and Spanish peseta.

zations, U.S.

War

American Veterans of World vets)

:

II

and Korea CAm-

Anemia:

see Blood, Diseases of the.

see Veterans' Organizations, U.S.

In

> Anderson, Robert Bernerd I'emL, wi n^me/sere! tary of the treasury May 29, 1957, to succeed George M. Humphrey.

Bom

at Burleson, Tex.,

June

4,

he took a law degree from

the University of Texas in 1932, began practice in Fort

Worth

and was elected to the Texas state legislature the same year. He was appointed to various state administrative positions and in 1933 became professor of law at the University of Texas. From 1937 to 19S3 he was general counsel, then general manager of the Waggoner petroleum and agricultural estate in Texas. Although a Democrat, Anderson was a leading Eisenhower supporter in 1952 and later turned Republican. President Eisenhower named him secretary of the navy in Dec. 1952; then in 1954, deputy secretary of defense. He resigned the latter office in 1955 to become president of Ventures, Ltd., a Canadian mining holding company. Upon his nomination as secretary of the treasury, Anderson announced his intention to continue the fiscal policies of his predecessor "in the firm belief that [they] are basic to the

continued security and strength of our nation both economically and militarily." Humphrey's key policies had been tight money and checks on federal spending, and these policies Anderson continued. In the tight

had

recommend

to

ceiling

money

"crisis" of 1959,

however, Anderson

the removal or raising of the

on long-term federal bonds,

4^%

in effect since 1918.

interest

Congress,

despite the urging of President Eisenhower, did not act on this

proposal in 1959 although Anderson pointed out that long-term refinancing the

4i%

by the U.S. treasury would be

virtually impossible at

rate.

In the fall of 1959 Anderson declared that U.S. foreign aid might be curtailed for nations that discriminated against U.S. products.

An autonomous

principality between

France and

Andorra Spain, Andorra is bounded north by the French departements of Ariege and Pyrenees-Orientales and south by the Spanish province of Lerida. Area: 175 sq.mi. Pop. (1954 census)

5,664; (1959 est.) 6,000, excluding about 1,400 formainly Spaniards and Frenchmen. Language: Catalan. Rehgion: Roman Catholic. Capital: Andorra-la-Vella (Catalan) eigners,

or Andorra-la-Vieja (Spanish), pop.

(1959 parish

est.)

2,000.

Co-princes: the president of the French republic and the bishop of Urgel, Spain, respectively, represented uties).

of

its

An

elected general council of 24

members

by

their viguiers (dep-

members appoints one

as the syndic general des vallees

(from 1946,

Francisco Cayrat).

History.

—The main event of 1959 was the

of the Spanish-Andorran frontier

No

by

closing,

on Jan.

23,

the Spanish government.

explanation was given, but it was generally believed were two reasons for this measure illegal exports of Spanish currency and the smuggling of consumer goods '(mainly official

that there

:

cars) into Spain.

There was

rency traflSckers

who formerly

httle

doubt that

many

of the cur-

operated from Tangiers had

than in

fiscal

1958 there were 20,177,605 fishing licences

sold in the United States, nearly 1,000,000

more

Anglers paid a record-breaking $45,410,462 for all categories of state licences, permits, tags and stamps. Minnesota, with a total of 1,409,751, had the most paid licence fiscal 1957.

holders, followed

by

California, Wisconsin and Michigan, each

exceeding 1,000,000.

The National Association

of Angling and Casting clubs held 1959 national tournament at Columbus, 0., Aug. 18-23. The trout-fly distance event was won by Jon Tarantino with a long cast of 167 ft. and an average cast of 160 ft. Tarantino also won

its

the salmon-fly distance event, setting a cast of 227

ft.

and average of 211

the |-oz. bait distance event with a

average of 357^

HANDMADE

ft.

new record with

a long

Marion Garber won in long cast of 364 ft. and

ft.

In the |-oz. bait distance event. Sib Liotta

FISHING LURES, called "Go-Gettums" by their creator, Pele of Utica, Mich. The one-inch lures were extremely successful with bass and pike In 1959, and Sturman was urged to place his device on the market. He refused, preferring Instead to continue making them by hand for his

Sturman

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SU DAN — ANT ARCTIC A

44

average of 4-^oi ft. Terry a long cast of 43^^ ft. and juniors' J-oz. bait accuracy Schneider set a new record in the

won with

all

programs

in

these scientific fields were

U.S. stations which were operated during

IGY meteorological studies revealed a warming trend of about 5° F. in annual temperature in the antarctic. This was less than Spitzbfcrgen and one-half the warming trend observed in the

in

accuracy spinning, i-oz. Tarantino, scoring 78 points in the Skish the ladies' Skish acevent; Mel Gavin, scoring 64 points in Fontaine, scoring 58 curacy spinning, i-oz. event; and Benjie spinning, i-oz. event. points in the intermediates' Skish accuracy championships The other six records were in the combined all-distance event, 1,885 ft., events: Marion Garber in the Skish Casper Rigamer in and in the Skish distance baits, 1,480 ft.; Mel Gavin in the the Skish all-accuracy event. 252 points; and Skish accuracy ladies' Skish all-accuracy event, 249 PO'"ts, the intermediates' Skish baits, 152 points; Benjie Fontaine in

Fish association listed eight new allThe International taken (Rockport, tackle records on their 1959 chart: 72-lb. cod dolphin taken Mass.. Aug. 22, 1958) by E. E. Belek; 76-lb. 911-lb. (Acapulco. Mex.. Sept. 24, 1957) by R. G. Stotsbery;

Game

taken (Kona, Hawaii, Nov. 16,

1957) by Dale

Aug. 18, 1958) Scott; 40-lb. pollack taken (Rockport, Mass., shark taken (Cape Moreton, H. Robinson; 1,002-lb. Pacific blue

Jr.; 1,422-lb. tiger

Austr., July 20, 1958)

by

J.

In the middle Greenland arctic areas during the same season. jet wind classic polar cyclone exists with a strong

stratosphere a

west around the 150 m.p.h. which blows from the heating occurs periphery of the continent. During October rapid complete reversal of the circulain the stratosphere, with a weak anticyclonic or light easteriy winds by the end of

as fast as

tion to

November. gravity techGlaciologists discovered through seismic and greatly exceeds niques that the volume of ice on the continent

Old figures for the volume of ice on the crust may be as much as 50% of the earth were 3.200,000 cu.mi. This throughout Antarctica, it too low. On the basis of seismic data two-thirds of now appears that east Antarctica, which comprises

eariier estimates.

the whole, arctica

all-accuracy event, 185 points.

by W.' F. Church,

Full

1959.

Casper Rigamer won In the Skish distance bait, J-oz. event, of 259J ft. Marion Garber with a long cast of 362 ft. and average Skish diswon two events in the single-event championships: average 237* ft.; Skish tance spinning, j-oz., long cast 242 ft., ft. There were new distance fly, long cast 137 ft-, average 135 of the Skish events. Three records established in nine categories set by: Jon the single-event championships were

silver marlin

period.

being continued at

event with 08 points.

of these

IGY

the

George S. marlin taken (Honolulu. Hawaii, Nov. 13, 1954) by Aug. 27, Parker, Jr.; 334-lb. blue shark taken (Montauk. N.Y., tied for the record 1958) by J. Duciewicz; and a summer flounder N.Y., weight of 20 lb. 2 oz., taken by G. F. Schwinzer (Montauk. (A-

Sept. 20, 1958).

J-

Me.)

may

Little

Anta true continental land mass, whereas west

is

be an archipelago smothered by glacial

America.— In

Jan,

1959. the

ice.

IGY Weather

Central,

was other scientific activities at Little America, the Special Comdiscontinued. On Feb. 2, 1959. at the request of established and committee on Antarctic Research, Australia centre menced operation of an International Antarctic Analysis hemiMelbourne to continue the analysis of the southern

along with

all

at

sphere weather conditions.

deputy chief During the 1958-59 season, Albert P. Crary. U.S.-IGY antarctic program, led an over-snow America on Oct. 15, 1958, traverse which departed from Little Skelton glacier, crossed the Ross ice shell, proceeded up the about 350 mi. and thence due west on the Victoria Land plateau after returned to McMurdo sound, arriving on Jan. 31, i9S9. the distance of 1.639 mi. A month was spent on

scientist of the

traveling a total

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: see Sudan, Republic of the. Angola: see Portuguese 0%-erseas Provinces. Animal Fats: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats. Animal Industry, Bureau of: see Veterinary Medicine. i960, Anniversaries and Centennials: see Calendar, page

xxii.

Ant«ritt!it4

AnidlCllCd.

of the InternaJ"'y ^' ^957- the beginning hundred tional Geophysical year (IGY), several

°"

stations comat more than 50 antarctic scientific earth intensive geophysical obsen'ations to study the alen\-ironment from the southernmost part of the world

scientists

menced

and its throughmost without exception, these investigations continued At out the 18 months of the IGY which ended Dec. 31, igsS;

that the scientific the close of the IGY. it became quite evident laboratory at possibilities of this vast 6,000.000-sq.mi. frozen touched. Under the the bottom of the world had barely been

of the

auspices

International

Geophysical Co-operation,

full

programs were operated throughout 1959 at most of operations at the these stations. The United States continued and at McHallett (N.Z.-U.S.). Byrd and South Pole stations

scientific

Murdo grams

prosound. U.S. scientists also participated in research (Arg.-U.S.) at Wilkes (Austr.-U.S.) and Ellsworth

and at the New Zealand Scott base. findings of This article reports primarily on operations and

stations,

the

IGY

antarctic scientific

program

that were available late

programs, inUnited States.— In general, the U.S. scientific cosmic rays (Wilkes and Ellsworth only), aurora, and seisgeomagnetism, glaciology, gravity, ionospheric physics cluding

mology, were carried out at

of the glacier ice,

glaciological studies.

six U.S.

IGY

stations throughout

On

the icecap seismic reflecUon shooting gra\-imetric,

with was carried out at inter%-als of about 30 mi., mi. A second magnetic and altimetric measurements every 3 McMurdo sound in Oct. Victoria Land traverse departed from at Hallett station. 1959 and planned to terminate America An air-borne traverse was also operated from Little approximately during the 1958-59 season. This traverse covered the Harold B)Td moun300 mi. along meridian 130° W. between in a naN^y the Executive Committee range. Traveling

tains

and

made three-man scientific team led by Edward Thiel obtained; surface eleseven landings. Geographic positions were aircraft, the

soundings, and vations by altimetry and ice thickness by seismic on underlying rock, gravity measurements to provide information

were made at each station. dnllmg The deep core-driUing project again was successful in from a depth through the shelf ice and retrieving a 4-in. core matter were observed of more than 800 ft. Layers of foreign and 732-7-ftLittle America core at S^S-S-ft-, 722.5-ft. in the

was identified at the site as volcanic were shipped back to the U.S. Army Snow, for analysis and Ice and Permafrost Research establishment

levels.

The

565.5-ft. layer

ash. All ice cores

study.

Bentley, Byrd Station.— During the 1958-59 season Charles glaciologist,

led an over-snow traverse party on

a

triangular

station south to the unexplored Horlick Horlicks, mountains, traveling a distance of 917 mi. While in the strike members of the party climbed 4.000 ft. of sediments whose

route from the

in 1959.

movement and thickness snow accumulation and density and associated

Skelton glacier determining elevation,

Byrd

was generally east-west, parallel to the trend of the Here they found sandstone-shale coal beds containing

mountains. leaf fossils

•

and i2-ft.-long petrified tree remains. The coal beds varied in thickness from a few inches to a few feet and continued in alternate layers with sandstone and shale for nearly 2,000 ft. of the section explored. Fossil bivalve shells were also found in the basal sands.

Another over-snow traverse departed from Byrd station in Oct. 1959 for a i,2oo-mi. journey to the coast near the Amundsen sea and returned to Byrd station. The Executive Committee and

Hal Flood mountain ranges were Ellsworth Station.

—On Oct.

visited

29, 1958,

by

this party.

an over-snow traverse

departed from Ellsworth station en route to the Byrd station. This group was led by John Pirritt and arrived at Byrd station

on Feb. 20, 1959, after traveling about 1,250 mi. The traverse route between Ellsworth and Byrd stations completed a 2,700-mi. continuous scientific traverse observations which crosses west Antarctica and extends approximately 400 mi. into east line of

Antarctica.

On

Jan. 19, 1959, the U.S. party turned over custody

of the Ellsworth station to the Argentine scientific party.

—

South Pole Station. A new low temperature of — 110° F. was recorded at the South Pole station on Sept. 13, 1959. Although this

was

the

-124°

a record for the

F. recorded

South Pole station,

by U.S.S.R.

did not

it

match

Vostok station

scientists at

(over 12,000 it.) in eastern Antarctica, about 400 mi. from the south pole.

—

Wilkes Station. During the 1958-59 season, Tressler carried out an oceanographic program at Wilkes station. Tentative mean sea levels were calculated from the tide-gauge records, and extensive ice-movement studies using a time-lapse

16-mm. motion

picture camera with an electronically controlled diaphragm, were

completed. Other phases of this program included studies of sea ice and bottom samples taken from the ocean floor.

On

Feb.

4,

1959, custody of the Wilkes station was turned

over to the Australian scientific party. Hallett Station.

—This

was established by the United by the U.S. and New Zealand. In program was carried out on the Tucker glacier to extend the work of previous New Zealand expeditions in this area. Hallett station was first to report a new twilight phenomenon, the presence of a line at wave length States but

is

station

jointly operated

1959 a Ne^^' Zealand geological survey

6,700 A, discovered in spectra taken in Antarctica during the last

few months

in 1958.

The

radiation

stations except Little America.

A

new manifestarions could be related during the same period as the IGY.

McMurdo

Sound.

was observed

plain inference

is

at all U.S.

that these

to nuclear tests carried out

— Paleomagnetic observations were made

Knobhead mountain and

at

at a small

dry valley at the Upper Taylor glacier. Paragneiss bedrock collected on the west side of McMurdo was dated at 520,000,000 years by analysis of the ratio of

A«

to K**' isotope in biotite separate

from the

gneiss.

Numerous mummified

carcasses of "Crabeater" seals were found scattered over the land surface i to 30 mi. from the sea and up

to 3,000 ft. above sea level in the ice-free areas of McMurdo sound. Radiocarbon analysis of one carcass showed it to be between 1,600 and 2,600 years old.

Data.— More than

27 tons of scientific data were collected by U.S. scientists in the antarctic during the 18-month IGY period.

Ranging from mummified seal carcasses and huge ice cores to computer punch cards and microfilm, all these data were

digital

transported to the various research institutions for study, analand reduction and thence were to be sent to the 11 U.S. IGY data centres for future distribution and publication. These data would be studied and co-ordinated with scientific information ysis

from the starions of 11 other participating nations. Data for the post-IGY program would be handled in the same arriving

fashion as during the

IGY. Activities of Other Nations.

—In

mid-December

a Soviet

U.S. NAVY AND COAST GUARD ICEBREAKERS. "Edisto" clearing a path through Antarctic ice for the British "John Biscoe," which became trapped in Feb. 1959 w and personnel to a British scientific station in Antarctic

"Northwind," vessel tring

R.R.S. supplies

traverse party was successful in reaching the pole of relative inaccessibility (geographic centre of the continent). The elevation at this farthest inland base in the antarctic exceeds

12,000

ft. The Soviets established a new coastal station about 1,900 mi. west of Mirny. This base was located on the coast of Queen Maud land and was occupied during the 1959-60 winter season and named Lazarev after the Russian explorer Mikhail Lazarev.

Plans for the 1959-60 summer season included a complex transcontinental over-snow traverse from Komsomolskaya via three poles south geomagnetic, south geographic and the pole of rela:

45

ANTHROPOLOGY

46

original

for its and examine the man most responsible fully in these events. formulation. Anthropologists participated United major commemorative symposia were held in the

lation

to Lazarev. live inaccMsibility, thence all a three-ship convoy to visit Sir Vivian Fuchs was leading season. United KinRdom bases in the 1959-60 at ten Argentine Continued geophysical research programs the IGY period and all bases bases were conducted throughout continuing program. The were successfully resupplicd for the March antarctic was completed in early first tourist cruise to the State fleet 11,540-ton liner "Yapeyu.' 1959 by the Argentine Americans, were Two-hundred and sixty passengers, including 16

on board. station set up at An unattended Australian automatic weather months and continuous Lewis Island operated satisfactorily for 4 version operation was expected from the overhauled

Two

of the American PhiloStates the first at the general meeting in April and the second sophical society in Philadelphia, Pa., November. Papers sponsored by The University of Chicago in by the society and included for the April meeting were published Wilfred Le Gros Clark on "The the Penrose Memorial lecture by Three of the five topics Crucial Evidence for Human Evolution." dealt largely with anthropological in the Chicago symposium Origin and Naas a Biological Organism," "The

ij-month

every six hours. All This device broadcasts weather information (U.S.-Austr.), were IGY Australian stations, plus Wilkes station to be operated in the

post-IGY program. geological 1958 a two-man Belgian

latter part of

During the

approximately 600 mi. reconnaissance party traveled by dog sled Sor Rondane mountains. south of the Roi Baudouin base to the to be retreatAn investigation revealed the glaciers in the area base conducted 11 photographic missions

from the base. A new mountain over the mountain areas south of the 4°' E- and 72° 30' S. range was discovered between 30° 45' E.-3i° mountains after the vessel of the It was named the Belgica ing Aircraft

Gerlache expedition of 1897. during 1959 at the six Scientific observations were continued biochemistry and Chilean bases. Investigations in chemistry, other geophysical bioclimatology were planned in addition to observations.

program was to be continued at the French but the IGY d'Urville station beyond the IGY period, the icecap was Charcot station located about 270 mi. inland on

A full Dumont

scientific

discontinued.

During the

first

IGY

season scientists reported finding pitch-

area 24 to 49 mi. blende with a purity of 40^:0 to 50% in an In 1959 an unsouth of the Japanese base on Ongul Island. mi. southattended automatic weather station was established 58 east of the station.

a

A network of New Zealand

by nine important control points was established survey expedition for the purpose of providing

U.S. air photographs taken of the area. topographical program was carried out during Dec. party and aerial photography 1957 and Jan. 1958 by a Norwegian 0° eastward to the Sor Rondane of the mountain area from mountains, 30° 30' E.. was completed. continued inInternational Relations.— The importance of had been ternational co-operation for future antarctic research

full

ground

fixes for

A major

recognized by

many governments. On May

3.

1958. Pres.

Dwight

governments of all D. Eisenhower addressed an invitation to the at antarctic nations which had conducted scientific programs during the IGY to attend a conference in Washington. stations

would reserve future D.C., looking to a treaty agreement which acti\nties in Antarctica for peaceful purposes. Representatives of these nations (Argentina, Australia. Belthe Union of gium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand. Norivay. Washington on South Africa, United Kingdom. U.S.S.R.) met in the antarcdc for Oct. 15, 1959 and drafted a treaty resen.-ing representatives, peaceful purposes. The 12 nations, through their

unanimously approved the treaty and signed See

also

OPER.\TION

Geography;

Intern-.^tional

— 1959.

AnthrnnnlOPV

it

on Dec. (L-

^^""^^ '^^^

i.

Geophysical

Co-

M. Gd.)

"^^^ ^^^ centennial of the

pub-

Darwin's The Origin of year to reSpecies, numerous efforts were made during the examine evolutionary theory, take stock of its current formulication of Charles

matters;

"Man

"Social and Cultural Evolution." A sympowas held in London, sium, sponsored by the Linnaean society, area from which and a special meeting was held in Singapore— an obtained. much of the original evidence for evolution was theories of growing interest in reformulating evolutionary

ture of

Mind" and

A

years, and two works were culture had been apparent in recent Leslie A. White's The published in this centennial year. One was projected trilogy on Evolution of Culture, the first volume of a in primitive cultures; subsethe subject. It deals with evolution in to deal with the evolutionary process

quent volumes were White was awarded history and with projections into the future. anthropology for 1959. the the Viking Fund medal in general highest honour which

Human

Society by

American anthropology has

to offer.

The

a Preface to the Understanding of Walter Goldschmidt, which shows the relalevels and social systems, and the

other book was Man's

Way:

tionship between evolutionary

mechanisms of evolutionary change in society. the history of There was evidence of increasing interest in

historical survey. From anthropology. In addition to a popular of more speApe to Angel bv H. R. Hays, there were a number at Work: the document's, notably An Anthropologist cific

Mead, and the Writings of Ruth Fulton Benedict by Margaret a Personal autobiographical Robert H. Louie, Ethnologist: commissioned Record. The American Anthropological association in the files of American the republication of important essays entitled The Anthropologist and published as a memoir a volume Centennial of Ets Anthropology of Franz Boas: Essays on the

Birth (Walter Goldschmidt, ed.). In 1957

Raymond

Firth edited

Bronislaw and Culture: an Evaluation of the Work of contribution of a Malinowski. which was an investigation of the In addition, two volumes crucial figure in anthropological history. The essays of important scholars in the field:

Man

republished eariier

Cora Du Bois; Selected Essays of Robert H. Lowie, edited by essays of A. R. and Method in Social Anthropology (reproducing Radcliffe-Brown), edited by Anthropologists from

all

M. N.

Srinivas.

countries continued to investigate

native cultures and culture history in

all

parts of the globe, but

decade or more perhaps the greatest emphasis, culminating a sub-Saharan Africa. Invesof increased activity, was devoted to tool-using hominids to tigations ranged from the eariiest known Continuing cultural aspects of modem political development. the

work on

the .\ustralopithecines (African ape

men

of the

Lower

Union and their association with crude tools in the Raymond Dart. Ronald of South Africa engaged the attention of many others. Evidence Singer. J. T. Robinson, C. K. Brain and had been using among these early and apelike hominids Pleistocene

)

for tool

heavily debated.

from

A find made on July 17, i959- of a fossil skull fragment had important bearOlduvai. Tanganyika, in British East Africa, of the Coryndon museum, ing on this debate. L. S. B. Leakey first presented Nairobi, Kenva, whose wife made the discovery, Congress of Prehistory the material to the fourth Pan-African broken but virtually held at Leopoldville, Belgian Congo. The all the teeth, skull, including the upper jaw. palate and complete

was found on the

floor of

Olduvai (pre-Chellean) culture. Leakey

ANTIBIOTICS — ARCHAEOLOGY dated the large and powerful jaw as Lower Pleistocene

000 years old), and considered age 16 to 18 years,

who

to be that of a

it

lived partly on vegetables

(c. 600,-

young male, and nuts and

competed for food with the giant baboons and pigs in the Olduvai of the same period. Leakey named it Zinjanthropus boisei (zinj the ancient

is

name

for East Africa) and said, "It

is

the oldest

well-established toolmaker ever found anywhere."

Leakey gave evidence that Zinjanthropus was intermediate between earlier Australopithecines and modern man, and undoubtedly was larger than these ancestral forms.

had been found at the

A

full

child's

molar tooth of giant

site in 1958.

by Leakey

in

The

London

Illustrated

(Sept. 19, 1959) left no doubt that the discovery

important gap

in the record of

human development

fills

an

as foreseen

by Darwin. {See also Tanganyika.)

Much

and ethnological data, reconstructed the movement of peoples and cultural elements throughout Africa. Still more recent history, summarizing the evidence for highly developed cultures in cal

sub-Saharan Africa, was presented by Basil Davidson Cities in Africa. Ethnological studies too

were beginning to

fill

numerous

to

in

Lost

mention

the gap in the understanding of aboriginal

social sciences in studying current

developments on that con-

tinent.

more popular level, the Peabody museum of Harvard uniThe Hunters, the first of a series of featurefilms, describing the life of the Bushmen, a pygmoid

some degree in Turkey (where modern research-oriented favourable), was a direct result of the to

to discover

what archaeological progress was being made

The outstanding events

of the archaeological year included

the accidental discovery of an extremely fine cache of Greek statues near Athens, the occurrence of an exceptional golden

bowl

Hasanlu

at

in Iran, the

beginning of full-scale clearance

of the Natufian settlement at Mallaha in Israel and the discovery of a well-preserved skull of Paranthropus type within the archae-

bed

I at

Pleistocene Prehistory. sic

—

Olduvai

in east Africa.

Prehistorians were active in the clasarea in France, as well as throughout western Europe and in

England.

An

exceptionally fine "Venus" figurine, of calcite and

about 8 cm. high, was found in Perigordian context by M. Delaporte at Tursac. Francois Bordes began work at the important

Mousterian site of Combe-Grenale, where a sequence of 26 levels was established. Bordes also continued his work at Laugerie Haut, as did H. L. Movius at the Abri Pataud; both increasing comprehension of the complexity of the

sequence of the Dordogne area. Dorothy Garrod was invited by the Lebanese government

prehistoric activity in

Morocco, where the coastal

worked north of Rabat.

Desmond Clark continued his clearances at Kolombo Falls site in Northern Rhodesia. The

mate glimpse of their mode of life was provided in The Harmless People by Elizabeth Marshall Thomas, a member of the photo-

logged condidon of the

graphic expedition.

wooden

Jean Rouch's prize-winning Moi, un Noir ("I, a Negro") deals with cultural adjustment to urban life. Rouch was with the Musee de I'Homme in Paris and had been general secretary of

lean industry.

Committee on Ethnographic Film. See also Archaeology; National Geographic Society.

the International

(W. G.)

—

Encyclop.«dia Beitannica Films. The Amazon (People and Resources of Northern BraziO (1957); Backward CiviUzalion (1937): A Giant People (The Watussi) (1939): Indians of Earh America (1957)Man and His Culture (1954); People oj the Congo (The Mangbetu) (1939); Pygmies of Africa (1939); Remnants of a Race (1955).

to

conduct salvage excavations in an important Mousterian cave, about to be destroyed by a new road cut. There was considerable

Abdurahman was reopened, and where a new pebble

inti-

yielded

lithic

length

An

sites

Upper Paleo-

versity released

people living on the Kalahari desert in Bechuanaland.

in the

various communist countries.

while anthropologists were collaborating with related

Africa,

a

investigations were not so

ological context of

analyzed the culture history of the continent in his Africa: Its Peoples and Culture History and, by examination of archaeologi-

and

pohtical stability of those countries, almost the lone exceptions in the great near-eastern focus. And it continued to be difiicult

later African historical

developments were discussed in two books published during the year. George Peter Murdock

On

ological activity in Iran,

the legal circumstances for conducting

size

description of the 1959 find had not yet been made, but

the preHminary report

News

A

47

sumption of the French work at Ras Shamra, and for the start of new Danish excavations at Tell Sukas. The increase in archae-

site of Sidi

tool site

was

the important peculiar water-

site had favoured the preservation of and other organic traces in context with an Acheu-

tools

Only brief reports were available of the positive occurrence of a well-preserved Paranthropus-type skull within a context with the crude pebble tools of the basal bed of the long Olduvai sequence. This find, made by Mary and L. S. B. Leakey, greatly strengthened the case that beings of the' general Australopithecine group were toolmakers.

Near cal

—

East. As indicated above, there was little archaeologinews from the Arab lands. In Turkey, the work of the British

institute at

the important

2nd-3rd millennium

Beyce was continued. At Kiiltepe, Tahsin Ozguc of the University of Ankara found a cache of cuneiform tablets on the citadel mound; he also expanded his soundings on the rich 3rd-4th millennium site of Horoztepe which yielded bronzes of the Alaca "royal tomb" type. site

of

Sultan, and at the earlier prehistoric village at Hacilar,

Antibiotics: see Chemotherapy. Antigua: see West Indies, The.

Antimony:

see Mineral and Metal Production and Prices. Apples: see Fruit. Apricots: see Fruit. Arabia: see Aden; Bahrain; Kuwait; Muscat and Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Trucial States; Yemen. Arab League: see Iraq; Jordan; Lebanon; Middle Eastern Affairs Morocco Saudi Arabia United Arab Republic. ;

Arrh/IPnlniTV CUIUgJ.

;

;

^°^'''®''" jjjg

jggg

Hemisphere. jjj

—In

The University

of Pennsylvania

tinued, and arrangements were

of the royal Phrygian tion in 1957,

was

to be

tomb

museum's work

made whereby

at

Gordion con-

a loan exhibition

materials, discovered

by the expedi-

brought to the United States.

In Israel, where national interest in archaeology remained high, there was considerable small-scale and salvage activity, although

1959, as had been

previous years, the orderiy progress

of archaeological research in certain important regions was interrupted by political events. In Iraq, following the revolution of July 1958 only the German institute's work at Warka was

able to be continued,

and at a reduced scale. Hitherto flourishand Japanese expeditions in ancient Mesopotamia were not able to resume work. On the other hand, ing United States, British

the political situation in Syria cleared sufi5ciently for the re-

the grand-scale excavations at Hazor were terminated. A very important contribution to an understanding of the formative Natufian culture, in its open-air settlement aspect rather than as a

terminal cave-dwelling manifestation, was made by Jean Perrot. With support from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, the American Philosophical society and the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. Perrot was able to clear a large area, which included the remains of circular stonewalled houses, storage pits and a variety of characteristic Natu-

DISCOVERIES AT PIRAEUS. GREECE

tnoltnl Qr—k An ImporUnt And o( eight plec.i of workmen r»iculplum W.I m.de In July 1959 by

wwig. lyiUm of Plr.eui. Included In the d.te from the group moit of which wai believed to Far left: 4lh century B.C.. were .everei bronie workl. Greek Bronze meik of the type uied by ectorl In piiring Ih.

tragedy.

bronze of the Left: Marble italue of • maiden and a where they goddoii Athena ihown In the e«cavaled pit

were found.

examining the left: 0"e«n Frederlka of Greece muieum. bronjei of Artemii and Athena In the Atheni

Below

were Below: One of the two marble hermae which bulU. found. Hermae, columni lurmounted by portrait of porchei the on decoration! at were often uied buildings

THE GOLDEN BOWL OF HASANLU,

decorated with,

that scenes depicting life In an unknown civilization ended in the 9th century B.C. in northern Iran. The was uncovered in a mound excavated by Iranian

bowl

scientists and of

Pennsyi

'

U.S. archaeologists

f

EXCAVATION OF HERCULANEUfrfl,

a

town near the

during Naples, llaiy, which was buried In mud which also of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D. 79 of the town section Above: A Pompeii. destroyed It

the eruption

which has been uncovered. bowl Bust of a goddess or nymph and water volcanic rock from which in a columned portico. The seen In the the excavations have been made may be area surrounding the bust Left:

ARCHAEOLOGY ground stone and of bone and shell. Mallaha, near Lake Huleh, has important bearing

fian artifacts of chipped or

Perrot's

site,

on theories of how food production was

first

achieved in the gen-

increase in archaeological acti\'ity in Iran directly re-

flected the political stability

and the

intelligent interpretation

of the country's antiquities law for scientific purposes. In 1959

and Swedish-German expeditions and a British expedition were about

U.S., French, Italian. Japanese

worked

For

in Iran; another U.S.

were not so

Italy, the reports of archaeological acti\aty

complete.

The urns

of a Tusculan family, the gens Rabiria of

Roman

the time of the

eral near-eastern area.

The

49

on the seacoast adjacent to Corinth.

were recovered, and yielded and some pottery. A portion

republic,

several remarkable bronze mirrors

by the em-

of the remains of an imperial private circus, built

peror Heliogabalus (reigned

218-222), was cleared in the

a.d.

city of Rome, near the Basilica of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem. The Princeton university excavations at Serra Orlando, in Sicily,

to begin work. In the closing days of his 1958 season at Hasanlu,

yielded a fine 6th century B.C. wine vessel and a series of

near Lake Urmia, Robert H. Dyson,

size

Pennsylvania museum, working

Jr.,

of the University of

in collaboration

with the Iranian

Antiquities service, recovered a magnificent golden bowl with

human

A

busts.

life-

systematic underwater survey of the coasts

and ancient harbours of

Sicily

was under way by British archae-

ologists.

relief decoration representing an attack by charioteers. The bowl was found in the fire-destroyed ruins of a building of about 800 B.C. During the summer of 1959, Dyson expanded his clearance of the Hasanlu fortifications, and also made test excavations in' nearby prehistoric mounds. Roman Ghirshman, of the French

Henry Detweiler,

Archaeological mission, exposed a group of royal buildings and

spectively,

temples adjacent to the great Elamite ziggurat at Tchoga-Zanbil.

the city, and recovered a fine series of bronzes, the remains of

In Asia Minor, the sites of Aphrodisias and Sardis were under

Ahmet Donmez's

excavation: At the former site

clearances for

the Turkish Antiquities service netted a series of Hellenistic b.c. At Sardis, George Hanfmann and Harvard and Cornell universities reLydian, Roman and Byzantine levels of

2nd century

reliefs of the

worked

of in

Roman gymnasium and Greek

An

The Swedish-German excavations, under H. H. von der Osten of fire temple at Takh-

a large

Uppsala university, worked on a Sassanian

Early Christian mosaic appeared in the clearance of the remains

i-Suliman, in Iranian Azerbaijan.

of a church at

On Bahrain

Danish expedition continued to search for evidence of Mesopotamian-Indus' valley contacts. In Egypt, one or two old established foreign expeditions continued their work quietly, but other Egyptologists transferred their work to the Sudan. An Italian-French expedition underIsland, in the Persian gulf, a

took the excavation of several monumental tombs at Soleb, south of

Wadi

Rome and

the Provinces.

—The year saw considerable

of St. Sophia in Trebizond.

In Pakistan, Sir Mortimer Wheeler began excavations on the

mound of Charsada, near Peshawar. The city was besieged and taken by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C.; its ruins yielded traces of both the pre-Greek and the Hellenistic periods. large

in the Belgian

ceramic villages to Early Christian basilicas. However, the great

the area was

was

accidental. In excavations for a street in the

made in the late 4th cenThe cache contained five bronze and

Piraeus (the port of Athens) a cache

tury B.C. was encountered.

three marble statues, of which both a greater than life-size

archaic Kouros and an Athena were particularly remarkable.

The

was particularly fortunate. Detailed description of the cache was yet to come. A variety of rich Neolithic sites were under excavation; by John Papadimitriou in the cave of Pan at Marathon by Saul S. Weinberg at old Corinth and at Elatia; by John Evans at Knossos and by John L. Caskey at Eutresis. Under Doro Lcnt the Italian work in the earlier levels of Phaestos was continued, the Swedish school began work on a promising prehistoric site at Berbati, and the French school worked at Kerra (the port of Delphi) where prehistoric materials occurred. V. Milojcic of excellence of the preservation of the bronze

;

;

Heidelberg university continued his important clearance in the

The Danish school There were

in

Athens was reopened during the year.

and Greek excavations at Mycenae. At Olympia, the German school had a rich yield of fine bronzes from the stadium area, and, in the area of the workshop of the British, U.S.

sculptor Phidias, they recovered a potsherd bearing the inscription "I belong to Phidias."

comer of

The American

school worked in the

the agora at old Corinth, and also extended

its

exca-

vations in the Athenian agora upwards on the north slope of the acropolis, exposing portions of the sacred w-ay. Oscar Broneer's

work

in the

sanctuary at Isthmia yielded votive bronzes and

marbles; John Papadimitriou recovered several fine votive reliefs

from the temple

at

Congo.

still

It is

Brauron.

In Hellenistic Pella, in Macedonia, a fine series of pebble

and Katanga province

series of graves, with pottery in the

an assemblage of rich character, but

known

so little

archaeologically that the finds

could not yet be precisely dated.

In India, H. D. Sankalia

mound complex

made

at Xavadatoli,

extensive clearances on the

on the Narbada

river.

There were

suggestions of ceramic similarity to central Iranian pottery of the centuries immediately following 1000 B.C.;

it

was believed that

discoveries there would contribute to an understanding of the linguistic linkage (.Aryan)

Reports from

between Iran and India.

Hong Kong

described the recovery of the treas-

ures of the hitherto untouched

Wang

Li, of the

Ming

d>Tiasty.

tomb of the Chinese emperor The rock-cut tomb enclosed a

chamber with jade doors, the gilt coffins of the emperor two empresses and an amazing treasure of gold, silver, precious stones, brocade and porcelain. Two tombs of the much burial

and

his

earlier

Han

d>'nasty were also reported; they were of interest

for their architecture

and mural painting, but there was no report

of their content.

(R.

Western Hemisphere.

preceramic levels of Gremnos-Argissa in Thessaly.

—A

copper and iron objects, was opened

archaeological activ'ity in Greece, with interest ranging from pre-

find of the year

excellent

Dag Pazari, on the southern coast of Asia Minor, and important Byzantine paintings were revealed in the cathedral

Africa and Further Asia.

Haifa.

Greece,

inscriptions.

—The

J.

B.)

University of Utah, Salt Lake

City, was host to the 24th annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, April 30-May 2, 1959. From the faculty of the same university, Jesse Da%ad Jennings had been chosen by the society to receive the Viking fund medal and award in archaeology for 1958 from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for

Anthropological Research.

As in recent years, archaeologists were busy over much of Xorth America salvaging sites in the path of highway and reservoir construction. The Committee for the Recovery of Archaeological Remains issued a booklet entitled. The Inter-Agency Archaeological Salvage Program After Twelve Years (Sept. 1958), which outlined this work. Arctic.

—The coast

line of

Kotzebue sound

was explored from a small boat by

mains of a glass factory on the south coast of Crete. Greek

versity.

archaeologists cleared a remarkably fine Early Christian basilica

ridges with archaeological inclusions, that

He

J.

in

western Alaska

L. Giddings of

mosaics was uncovered. Gladys D. Weinberg excavated the re-

Brown

uni-

concluded, after studying the correlation of beach

no appreciable change

'

ARCHAE OLOGY

50

had occurred in the last few thousand years. On Choris peninsula two large oval houses of the Choris culture, believed to be more than 3,000 years old, were excavated. Lengthy cultural setjuenccs were discovered at Cape Espenberg, Alaska and at Cape Krusenstern. Northwest Territories. At the in sea

level

sequence ranged from recent Eskimo house

latter place the fuller sites

est

on the outer beach to a Denbigh

and

earliest beach,

mediate strand

flint

complex on the high-

with several old Eskimo cultures on inter-

lines.

Reconnaissance on the Barren Grounds

the

in

vicinity

of

Northwest Territories, by Elmer Harp. Jr., Dartmouth college, and Robert A. McKennan, resulted in the discovery of seven new sites and the excavation of Baker

Kccwatin

lake,

an eighth

district.

Several of these sites showed

site.

Dorset Eskimo influence.

On

a 300-mi.

some

river

and through Schultz, Aberdeen and Beverly

sites

were found,

all

indication of

canoe trip up the Thelon lakes,

30 more

situated at advantageous points along cari-

bou migration routes and having cultural affinities, not with the Eskimo, but with the early boreal forest Artillery Lake complex to the west, and the Agate Basin plains complex in Wyoming. No cultural correlation was discerned with the extensive system of postglacial raised beaches in the area. In the eastern arctis. excavations were undertaken in 11 Dorset Eskimo sites on Sugluk and Mansel islands, and near Ivugivik, Ungava peninsula, by Walter E. Taylor, National Museum of Canada, aided by Mrs. Taylor, Charles A. Martijn and ten Eskimos. House ruins, artifacts and some

human

skeletal material

contributing to knowledge of several stages of Dorset culture

were uncovered. continued

its

—The

University of Washington

archaeological salvage program in the Priest Rapids

area on the Columbia river, which involves two

A

reservoirs,

field

excavating on four

dams and

their

school group, directed by Robert Greengo, sites,

established a cultural sequence extend-

ing from protohistoric times well back into the prehistoric past.

At the Ice Harbor Reservoir area of the lower Snake river, from the State College of Washington, led by Richard D.

a party

Daugherty. discovered,

new and apparently

in

the lowest levels of their trenches, a

early

stone industry consisting of side-

notched projectile points and

crude scrapers and choppers.

large,

Another evidently ancient stone industry, comprising pgly-

project of the Smithsonian institution and

the national park service continued in

i'man-alpha photograph of the sun from a rocket flown about 100 mi. above the earth's surface. The photograph showed that the Lymanalpha radiation was more intense over the plage areas. They also obtained the spectrum of the sun down to 500 A; the lines of helium, the hydrogen-L\Tnan series, and those of highly ionized oxygen and magnesium were present. Flares continue to be the most exciting of solar phenomena. tails

of the solar spots

They always occur in and in some respects

plages (usually within a sunspot group), a plage

may

be considered a large, low-

contrast, long-lived flare. Flares are often

accompanied by an

increased solar radio emission which comes from the direction of a small area above the bright solar surface (photosphere)

near a

flare.

Interferometer studies show that the solar radio

noise emission

is

associated with the plage areas;

the

radio

waves of highest frequency originate near the bottom of the chromosphere, whereas those of lower frequency come from high in the corona. The bursts studied by the frequency scan tech-

•

ASTRONOMY nique seem to belong to five fairly well-defined categories.

The Russian astronomer, A. B. Sevemy, found that the magnetic fields in a sunspot

are different before

group

and after

a flare, but this obser\'ation

had not been confirmed elsewhere, Leighton and his as-

Mount Wilson

sociates at

ob-

servatory, Calif., found that the entire plage area

acterized

by

a

Ordinarily,

char-

is

magnetic

field.

num-

sunspot

bers are used as indexes of

Vassy found

solar activity. E.

that not only such things as

the magnetic fluctuations but the

also

atmospheric

earth's

and

refraction, density

polari-

zation change in sjTichronism

with solar activity as meas-

ured by the sunspots. Flares,

however, constitute the strong-

between solar activ-

est link

and

ity

terrestrial

effects,

although the relation

by the

plicated

fact that the

enveloped

earth

is

part

of

the

com-

is

in the outer

envelope.

sun's

Righnini found that the direct

measurement of the brightest part of a flare gives a better

quantity

for

solar-terrestrial

correlations than

employed index. usually rated in

its

normally

Flares

are

"importance";

one of importance

i

barely

May lo. 1959, had was accompanied by a host of attendant phenomena. There was a sudden enhancement of atmospheric radio noise due to the improved reflection of the atmospheric radio-frequency from the ionized layer formed be-

FIRST ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPH OF THE SUN, taken by a camera mounted in the nose cone of a U.S. navy Aerobee rocket launched March 13, 1959. The picture was taken at an altitude of 123 mi.

qualifies as a flare, while the great flare of

an importance rated as

D

3

+ This ,

flare

There was a sudden cosmic noise absorption (SCNA), i.e., the absorption by the earth's atmosphere of radiofrequency radiation from cosmic sources; a sudden short-wave fade-out (SSWF) of distant radio stations; and a sudden phase anomaly (SPA), i.e., shift in phase difference between a ground wave and one reflected from the ionosphere. Major bursts of radio noise from the sun were obsers'ed. Also, an intense aurora appeared on the evening of May 11, while on this same date there was an abrupt commencement of a magnetic storm. Most spectacular of all, however, was a sharp increase in X-ray intensity to such a level that living organisms in a satellite or any low the

layer.

by the weakness of the

light sources,

which require very long

e.xposures on the photographic plate. Hence, great interest

is

at-

tached to the development of any technique to intensify images

Such

electronically before they are photographed.

was employed by L'AUemand difficult

in France,

but

a

procedure

required very

it

experimental techniques impractical in a typical ob-

cosmic-ray enhancements. For example, during the International

Of particular interest were the promising experiments W. Baum, M, A, Tuve and their associates with a cascaded image converter that intensified an optical image received at one end (by a two-stage amplification into a bright image on a phosphor screen. The electrons were focused electrostatically, but there was difficulty in obtaining high resolution. Although the image tube was not yet satisfactory- for long exposures (because of background noise) nor for wide field work, it proved useful for double-star measurements where it is important to take advantage of moments of good seeing, and it was expected that it would be useful for planetary photography. Among developments in optical astronomy must be mentioned

Geophysical year, which had been planned to coincide with maxi-

the completion of the i9c-cm. reflector of the observatory in

of the presently suggested space ships

Only

lated.

mum

a

would have been annihiflares actually produce

few of the most intense

sunspot activity, no cosmic-ray-enhancing flares appeared.

The output

from the sun was monitored by measuring the light reflected from Uranus and Neptune, and the solar activity was correlated with auroras and fluctuations in the brightness of comet tails. F. X. Eigensson in the Soviet Union found correlations between the shape of the solar corona and of energ\'

the earth's atmospheric circulation

able

if

—

a result that

is

understand-

the corona of the sun envelopes the earth.

Instruments.^-The greatest

difficulty in

astronomy

is

imposed

servatory.

by

\V. A. Hitner,

)

Haute Provence, France, with a splendid

new coude

its

auxiliary equipment including

spectrograph.

The

greatest instrumental

progress continued to be in radio astronomy. Several very large

instruments were under construction Australia.

The

in the

85-ft. radio telescope of the

United States and Xational Radio As-

tronomy observatory. Green Bank. W.Va., was dedicated on Oct. 16, 1958. A 140-ft, dish was under construction at the obser\-atory. At Owens Valley. Calif,, a California Institute of Technology group, under the leadership of J. G. Bolton, built a

A

ATHLETICS — TOMiC ENERGY

70

unique interferometer consisting of twin 90-ft. steerable parab40 tons and mounted on tracks so that they

oloids, each weighing

could he set 200, 400, 800 and i,6oo ft. apart. One of the main programs of this installation, which utilized wave lengths between 5 and 100 cm., was to determine the accurate positions

and identifications of as many as possible of the 1,500 discrete radio sources.

At Stanford, in

Calif.,

R. N. Bracewell and his associates put

operation a high-resolution interferometer consisting of two

(each of

perpendicularly placed rows

16

parabolic

mirrors)

which gave a resolution of four seconds of arc, equivalent to a parabola of 375 ft. diameter. At Boulder, Colo., the national

The

was a difference of opinUnion and the western powers as to the size, nature and modus operandi of the inspection and control system that would be established to prevent violation of the agreement. In general, the United Kingdom and the United States favoured a more stringent system than the Soviet Union was willing to accept. This issue was especially sharply drawn in regard to the testing of weapons underground because of a contention by the western powers that such activity often would be indistinguishable from natural earth tremors unless the inspection system were more elaborate than initially envisioned. In principal cause of disagreement

ion between the Soviet

support of this contention the United States offered to

make

.'Xt

Geneva negotiators certain data produced by underground tests held in Nevada in Oct. 1958. After at first

Delaware, 0., a unique paraboloid-section fixed antenna, 360 ft. long and 70 ft. high, was under construction. It was designed to

refusing to do so, the Soviet Union toward the end of 1959 agreed to participate in an examination of this information, an

study galactic sources with wave lengths from 15 cm. to 15 m. The 85-ft. steerable paraboloid of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, was dedicated Oct. 7, 1959. A number of steerable radio telescopes, e.g., the 85-ft. dish

action which avoided the apparently imminent collapse of the

bureau of standards was developing a

60-ft.

telescope for the

study of scintillation, discrete radio sources and Jupiter,

of the Jet Propulsion laboratory and the 84-ft. dish at Westford, Mass.,

were for tracking

satellites

and probes.

Galacfic S+rucfure, S+ellar Astronomy and Externoi GalThe problems of the structure of the galaxy, the disaxies. tances of external galaxies and stellar evolution continued to occupy the attention of many astronomers. As the observation of stellar brightness and colours become more accurate, the effects of stellar ages and differences in chemical composition become more manifest. Hence, the interpretation of colourmagnitude arrays for star clusters, in terms of stellar ages and evolution hypotheses, becomes more difficult. For example, it had been widely assumed that the absolute magnitudes of clustertype variables was 0, i.e., that the stars were about 80 times as

—

bright as the sun. It

is

now

believed that they are only about

50 times as bright as the sun. Hence, the distances of clusters established

by using the cluster-type variables might have

be revised.

to

—

See also International Geophysical Co-operation 1959; Space Explor.>\tion. (L. H. A.) Encvclop.tdh Britaxn-ica Films, Earth in Motion (1936); Energy

—

Irom the Sun (1955); Exploring the Universe (1937); The The Solar Family (1936).

Moon

(1936);

Athletics: see Track and Field Sports; etc. Atlantic Treaty: see North Atlantic Treaty Organiza-

available to the

negotiations and tended to revive hopes that an agreement might

eventually be forthcoming.

At the start of the Geneva talks in 1958, the Soviet Union had proposed that an agreement be entered into which, in essence, would specify simply that no further nuclear weapons tests would be held by any of the signatorj' powers. The United Kingdom and the United States, on the other hand, proposed that such an agreement be signed, but only if it also provided for the simultaneous establishment of an inspection and control system in

which they could have confidence. Thus the situation which

prevailed throughout 1959, i.e., no known tests and no inspection and control system, was more analagous to the declared objective of the Soviet Union than

to

the western

that of

powers.

Considering this fact,

it should probably not be surprising end of 1959 there was increasing pressure in the United States for testing to be resumed in i960 if no agreement had been reached by that time at Geneva. This pressure involved primarily the resumption of underground testing, where the problems of detection and control w^ere believed to be least susceptible to solution, and the problems of contamination of the earth's atmosphere and surface by radioactive fall-out were be-

that toward the

The principal argument was only by such means that atomic warheads could be perfected for use in defensive and tactical weapons as distinguished from the weapons of massive lieved to be minimal or nonexistent. for resuming tests

was that

it

retaliation.

During 1959 it became increasingly apparent that the world's next nuclear weapons test might very well involve a nation not

AtnmiP HlUlllib first

^"^^ ^^^"^ ^^^^ ^^^ notaWe in regard to atomic energ>' chiefly because it was the

FnPrVV LllClgJ.

year since 1950

known

to

in which no nuclear weapons tests were have taken place an>'where in the world. This apparent

was not attributable

any international agreement, but to the declared desire of the world's three principal atomic powers the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States not to affect adversely the chance that such an agreement might be negotiated. inactivity

to

— —

The year

saw increased international co-operation in the field of atomic energy, increased progress in the development and construction of nuclear-propelled ships and a general lessening in the sense of urgency of the various national programs to utilize

also

atomic energy

in the generation of electric

Test Negotiations.

power.

— Discussions leading toward the possible

conclusion of an agreement banning nuclear weapons tests were

begun

in Geneva, Switz., on Oct. 31. 1958, between British, Soviet and United States representatives. The talks, except for

an eight-week recess

in September and October, proceeded Uy throughout 1959 without agreement.

stead-

represented in the Geneva talks and therefore not bound by any agreement that might be reached there. This nation was France, which in the fall of 1959 officially declared its intention to test its first

atomic weapon in the French Sahara early

in i960.

intention encountered very strong opposition, particularly

This

among

African and Asian nations, and in Nov. 1959 the political committee of the United Nations voted 46 to 26 to recommend that the general assembly request France to refrain from test.

France, however, continued to indicate

its

its

proposed

intention to pro-

its announced plans. Although no known nuclear weapons

ceed with

tests took place in 1959. three hitherto secret e.xplosions detonated in Aug. and Sept.

1958 were disclosed for the

first

time in

relatively small explosions (the equivalent of

tons of

TNT),

March

1959. These

from 1,000

to 2,000

collectively knowTi as Project "Argus,"

were set off by the United States in space approximately 300 mi. above the South Atlantic ocean. For a while it appeared that the inability of conventional equipment and techniques to detect such distant explosions might prove to be as troublesome to the

Geneva negotiations as explosions detonated underground.

It

JOHN JAY HOPKINS RESEARCH LABORATORY, which was

dedicated June 25, 1959. Located near San Diego. Calif., the $10,000,000 building was to be used by the atomic division of the General Dynamics corporation. The laboratory is equipped with a "Triga" atomic reactor capable of developing power of 1.500,000 kw.

PLANT STUDY AT BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY,

Up-

Long

Island, N.Y. Rows of plants surrounded a pipe carrying rays from a cobalt-60 source located beneath the greenhouse floor. The experiment was part of a continuing study of the effects of radiation on plants ton.

gamma

ATOMIC ENERGY

REACTOR CORE PHOTOGRAPHED FOR THE FIRST TIME reactor was operating.

A camera was

while placed above a glass plate Inwas created by the radia-

stalled at the top of the core, and the light tion of the core in operation

PIN-POINTING RADIOACTIVE FALL-OUT on

a transparent

map

In

an

underground test station at Ongar, Eng. The test. In which Denmark, Belgium, France and the Netherlands also took part, was designed to provide centralized information about fall-out in the event of an atomic attack

*;*

ATOMIC ENERGY

72

was rather quickly agreed, however, that nuclear tests in space could be effectively monitored by means of specially launched and equipped earth satellites. This is made easier because of the fact, demonstrated by Project "Argus," that nuclear explosions at very high altitudes may produce readily detectable electron around the earth that follow the

shields

magnetic

of the earth's

lines

field.

—

The Fall-ouf Problem. One of the principal reasons given by the negotiating nations for striving to arrive at an agreement to cease atomic weapons tests was that such an agreement would halt the production of the radioactive residue of atomic explosions called fall-out. The other reasons most frequently given for ceasing weapons tests were that such an action would aid the cause of general disarmament and also tend to prevent the establishment of nuclear weapons programs in nations then without them, such as France.

The most hazardous

ingredient in atomic fall-out

was generally

considered to be the radioactive substance strontium go, which retains a substantial proportion of its radioactivity

more

for

than 100 years. This material, when ingested by humans, exhibits bone-seeking properties similar to those of calcium. Further-

more,

it

can be retained

in the

body

for decades, causing such

diseases as bone cancer and leukemia. Other fall-out products,

including the relatively long-lived cesium 137, are generally not

body

retained in the

can cause harmful

mans who

ingest

as long as strontium go, but nevertheless

effects,

including hereditary effects, in hu-

them or who

them

are exposed to

in too great

in the

of fall-out

United States both

came under in a

intensive review in ig5g

study conducted by the general

advisory committee of the United States Atomic Energy commission

and

in public

hearings before the special subcommittee on

radiation of the joint committee on atomic energy of the United

States congress. With respect to the hazard from fall-out produced by nuclear weapons tests that had already taken place, the Atomic Energj- commission's general advisory committee stated the following in the report summarizing its investigations;

"The present

state of

knowledge does not permit a full evaluHowever, in order to

ation of the biological effects of fall-out.

place the hazard of fall-out in

its

Strontium units populations

proper perspective,

it

as the average exposure to

that a hazard to the world's population could result during this

The United

should

and other background radiation; and (b)

less

than

cosmic rays 5

per cent

strontium units). Thus for testing already

period.''

ical

much

do

to fall-out radiation is and will be compared to the 'normal background' radiation or the standard recommended by the ICRP." The report went on to say, however: ".Assuming successive cycles of testing over the next two generations or less, following the same pattern as the past five years, the predicted average concentration in bone will be about 48 strontium units. This is close enough to the maximum permissible body burden of 67 strontium units recommended by the ICRP to suggest

resulting from fall-out to date, together with future fall-out in any part of the world from previous weapons tests, is: (a) less

per cent as

higher than for average Western

relatively small

energy

5

slightly

is

strontium units) and lower than the average for

conducted man's exposure

be pointed out that the amount of total body external radiation

than

( $

Eastern peoples

quantities for too long periods of time.

The question

PLAYWRIGHT JOHN OSBORNE and hii wife, actreii Mary Ur«, carrying posters during a week-long nationwide campaign for nuclear disarmament in Britain in 1959. Osborne is the author of Look Back in Anger, which was being performed in U.S. theatres during the year BRITISH

States congressional joint committee on atomic

igsg also studied the possible effects of a hypothetattack with 263 nuclear weapons on 224 prime metropolitan in

and industrial targets

in the

United States. The committee con-

cluded, as a result of the study, that 50,000.000 people could

be killed and 20,000,000 injured by such an attack, with

and

of the estimated average radiation exposure of the American

of

public to X-rays for medical purposes.

including primarily radioactive fall-out.

"In regard to internal

effects of

.

.

.

amount of strontium 90 which has been found in food and water is less of a hazard than the amount of radium norinally present in public drinking water supply in certain places in the

The

United States, and in public use for

many

decades."

report of the special subcommittee on radiation of the

fatalities

injuries

to

report said that, with proper

3%. in+erna+iona! Co-operation.

among

25%

being attributable to radiation,

ci\'il

defense preparedness,

the radiation casualties could be significantly reduced

tion

congressional joint committee on atomic energ\' summarized the

from strontium

The

strontium 90 due to inges-

tion, the

the

from 25"^

—There was increased co-opera-

nations in igsg in regard to both the militan.' and

peaceful applications of atomic energy. Co-operation in the militar\' field

was marked by the signing of agreements between the

com-

United States and seven of its North Atlantic Treaty organizaCanada. France. Greece, the Netherlands, tion (NATO) allies

"The standard recommended by the International Commission for Radiological Protection for occupational exposure of

Turkey, the United Kingdom and West Germany. The agreement with the United Kingdom provided for the

workers corresponds

transfer of both nuclear materials and information useful in the

status of the hazard

oo, as described at the

—

mittee's hearings on the problem, in this way:

individual units,

industrial

whereas the

ICRP recommends

2.000 strontium

to

a value corresponding to

manufacture and

utilization of

weapons and the propulsion of

The agreement with France provided only

67 strontium units as a standard for application to the general

submarines.

population.

furnishing of nuclear fuel for use in the prototj^pe of a land-

.

.

.

"It was forecast [by expert witnesses at the hearings]

the average concentration of strontium go in

past weapons tests will reach

its

maximum

that

human bone from

value in the period

1962-1965. The predicted United States average value of 6

for the

based submarine. The other five agreements provided for the transfer of nonnuclear information and equipment pertinent to the training of troops in the use of nuclear weapons. The agreements, however, stopped short of the transfer of the weapons

ATOMIC ENERGY themselves.

Under United

States law these

must remain

in the

custody of United States troops.

The reason

for the

NATO

Dwight D. Eisenhower to the

agreements was explained by Pres. words, which referred specifically

"This agreement with the Kingdom of Greece will enable the in

ning with Greece and in training of Greek

an attack on

Supreme

of the

NATO

Allied

mutual defense plan-

NATO

forces in order

should occur, under the direction

Commander

Greek forces

for Europe,

could effectively use nuclear weapons in their defense." In regard to peaceful applications, the most striking development was the signing in November of an agreement between the Soviet Union and the United States calling for a co-operative program of nuclear research. The agreement, which was part of a general cultural exchange program between the two

and nonsecret information in such fields as high energy physics, power reactor development, controlled thermonuclear research and the production and utilization of radioisotopes. It also envisioned such nations, covered the exchange of scientists

joint

research projects as the construction and operation of

nuclear particle accelerators.

Jhe agreement furthermore

collaboration

in

Energy agency

with

the

Vienna, Aus., with reports

in

pro-

would be acInternational Atomic

vided that the co-operation carried out under

complished

it

made

available to

During 1959, in steps leading toward the signing of the agreement, a team of U.S. officials and scientists, headed by John A. McCone, chairman of the United States Atomic Energy commission, visited the Soviet Union, and a team of Soviet officials and scientists, headed by Vasily S. Yemelyanov, director of the Soviet Union's Main Administrainterested nations.

Uses of Atomic Energy, visited the United

tion for the Peaceful

Sir

John went on

to say,

however, that he foresaw substantial

power in the future as well as a drop in the world price of uranium from $12 to $8 per pound, "If we combine these favourable factors," Sir John said, "with the undoubted fact that electricity demands of the world are still rising exponentially with a doubling time of ten years, we must agree with the chairman of Euratom [Etienne Hirsch, who also in 1959 publicly noted the deceleration in regard to power] that the recession in nuclear power construction can only be a temcost reductions in atomic

United States to cooperate effectively that, if

24 million tons."

in these

agreement with Greece:

73

by the equivalent of 20 million tons of coal per annum while total energy requirements have only increased by eight years

porary phase,"

—

Other Developnnen+$. ^Among the more noteworthy other developments in atomic, energy during 1959 were the following: Ships.

—The

world's

first

nuclear-propelled surface ship, the

Soviet icebreaker "Lenin," performed successfully on

voyage

in the Baltic sea in

nuclear merchant ship, the "Savannah," and the cruiser, the

maiden

its

September, In July the world's

"Long Beach," had been launched

U,S,S.

United States. They were expected to be completed

and 1961, respectively. During 1959 the United States the keels of five nuclear submarines, including the

first

nuclear

first

the

in

i960

in

also laid

two

first

designed to carry ballistic missiles, and completed four sub-

marines

in addition to five already

United Kingdom

with the

fleet.

In

May

the

Royal Navy's first nuclear submarine, H.M.S. "Dreadnought," which was being built under a co-operative agreement with the United States. Fusion.— The Los Alamos, N.M., scientific laboratory of the United States Atomic Energy commission announced in September that "we find no evidence discordant with a thermonuclear reaction having been obtained'' in an experimental thermonuclear laid the keel of the

fusion machine called "Scylla-I." This was the strongest sug-

States.

Another important development

in regard to international co-

made by

gestion yet

a U.S. laboratory that

thermonuclear fu-

operation in 1959 was the establishment by the Organization of

sion,

American States (O.A.S.) of an Inter- American Nuclear Energy commission to promote co-operation in nuclear training and re-

hydrogen bomb, might have been achieved. Scientists were careful to emphasize, however, that, even if thermonuclear fusion

search

among

the

members

of the O.A.S.

Guillermo Sevilla-

which

is

had occurred,

the process

it

employed

to release energy in the

would be many years before useful power for

Sacasa, Nicaraguan ambassador to the United States, was elected

peaceful purposes could be produced by the fusion process,

chairman of the new commission. Meanwhile, the coprograms of the previously established European

which promised a virtually limitless future supply of energy. Space. The United States Atomic Energy commission began in June to operate the first ground-based experimental reactor in its nuclear-powered space propulsion program, called Project "Rover," The reactor, named "Kiwi-A," was in operation by the Los Alamos scientific laboratory at the commission's experimental test site at Jackass Flats, Nev. Atomic Power. The French Atomic Energy commission in

the

first

operative

Atomic Energy community (Euratom), the Organization for European Economic Cooperation and the International Atomic Energy agency continued to go forward.

Power Deceleration.

—The year 1959 was characterized by a

general diminution in the sense of urgency with which various national and international programs for the development

and

—

—

construction of atomic power plants had been pursued. In the

April produced the

United Kingdom, there were about 2,000,000 kw. of atomic

generated in France from atomic energy.

power capacity

on order in was about

plished in a 25,000-kw. reactor called "G-2" at the commission's

1,000,000 kw., and for the Soviet Union about 600,000 kw. All

In the United States the nation's second full-scale atomic power

1959.

either built, under construction or

The equivalent

figure

for the United States

of these were considerably less than earlier estimates for the year. In addition, the forecasts for the

Euratom nations

(Bel-

first

atomic experimental centre at Marcoule, plant, a privately

produced

its

first

commercial use

electricity for

owned i8o,ooo-kw.

The

feat

to

be

was accom-

in southeastern France.

station near Chicago,

self-sustaining nuclear reaction in

111.,

October.

gium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West

The

Germany) were reduced from an initial by 1967 to 3,000,000 kw. by 1966.

In India the government announced a plan to construct a large

goal of 15,000,000 kw.

Discussing this situation in an address to the 1959 general conference of the International Atomic Energy agency in Vienna

September, the United Kingdom's leading atomic

in

Sir

John Cockcroft,

scientist.

power program

is

partly due to

the changing picture of fuel supply in the world. This appears to

be mainly due to a large-scale switch of industry from coal

to oil resulting in a

United Kingdom

oil

full

power

in i960.

atomic power station by 1964. Food Preservation. The United States army quartermaster

—

corps in

November canceled

Food Irradiation centre

its

plans to construct a $7,500,000

at Stockton, Calif.,

on grounds that the

funds could be better utilized for other purposes. The action

said:

"The' recession in the nuclear

plant was expected to be brought up to

temporary surplus of

Thus

in

the

consumption has increased during the

last

coal.

eliminated the only substantial program then to

develop methods

for

preserving

foods

known

to

exist

through radiation

sterilization or pasteurization techniques.

The Law.

—The United States congress

in

September modified

the nation's basic atomic energy law to permit the transfer of

—

. ;

:

AUDIOVISUAL

EDUCATION — AUSTRALIA I^H ^^5

Auttnlaa

tory and

km.

Capital Territory are

gmn

ia tbe table b»-

from tbe larger state capitab) vitk pop. of moretliaa iooxx» in 1959: Newcastle, N.5.W. c^T^o Greater WoUongoog. X5.W. (195A est; 1 12 J90. Territor.- lAniniit ration of tbe Oxmaoawcalth of Amtratia b Cities (apart

3M/M3 i^ZXJt* VM* i/tS7a*1 tnSOO tJ1tJ5« jnat* uttpn

.QjaAKUm |l,72«.IOa|

liiiJMOt

{uaimm Mj064|

3«jMII

27»1.»S»

H%Ai*

uy*99 •*7*7

tA7»0

JOJIS

93«:

tjtt

>

jonrii i«>6*

24.2IS sryjtio

(10S.II0I

i7'ii:

.... 7Jr7*Jt^ t.»«*,Jio la^Mt'." » tt ^^9t7\ M.AM', brt rl rn 1 1« f ': ni J nn 2» —JM. d» ttnkt Wr t««*»>^ pan. »•. -

r

thdt^fcufii

Z7.179.

iiai.

I

i

tM£. air mtimfi4.

it comprise: Papua and the trust territory of New Papi:a-New GtnjrcA; T«cst TEncrronEs;; N^'

not inchided in -^.

r.

.

.,f

Nauru

::'

[1957 esc] 1,060); the island tr.

sqjni., pop.

: ''13.3 -,

(8.2

sqmi, pop. [1954 census] 3^73,

[i;

4,308;; Christinas Island (62 sqjnL, pop. [1959 er :z^: .\sfainore and Cartier islands. Heard and Macdoci^ [

sqmi

7:3

600

1

:

-

regulatoiy authority over ra4fioisotopes and noocritical quantities

of nnckar fuels from the federal

govemment

A:.

to the state;

Tbe new

);

Cocos (Keeling^ Islands (5 sqmi

and the Australian antarctic territory ^about Language: Fjiglish. Religion ^1954 census Roman Catholic 2,o6ov986; Methodist 9-': :42; Baptist 127444; Lutheran 116,17s: ^4: Greek Orthodox 74,760; Coogrcga-

modificatioa in the law also established a Federi Radiatioo comdl, icsponable to the president, to co-ordinate the radiation protection acti%-ities of the agendes of tbe federal

Christian 6.3;:

igion 42,140;

government.

819. (^ueen. EIix;

general in 1959. Field

United States' first plant to produce New phitooiom fuel dements for nuclear reactors was [rfaced in operation in May at the Atomic Energy commission's Argoime National laboratory near Giicago. HL In Canada the govcin-

shal Sir William

PacaitUs.—^Tbe

ment announced

in

October that

it

planned to establish a nudear

-;-.-

,;r; Jewish 48,439; other non-

minister, Robert

no reply

S--

M;-

(kmlon Menz::

session of the year

1

;,

was notable for controversy over increased salaries for memt-: and for the passage of the hanking legislation first proposed 1957.

The hanking

Chalk River, OnL Vrammm. ^Tbe United Stales Atomic Energy commissian annoanced in Aprfl that it was committed to purchase about 9,000 excess tons of nraniom per jrear for the succeeding three jrears. The surplos uraninm, the commission said, would be stock-

the Reserve

—

.-

—The early parliamentary

bank from

in operation at

Sum; prune

.

History.

research centre in Manitoba to sapptement the centre already

its

legislation separated the country's

of Australia.

The

-

cent-

other hanking institutions and reconstituted

Bank

.

pTnpathy and help. Austria

difl5cult

after

were forced to leave Czechoslovakia, held their tenth annual conference in V'ienna. A resolution demanding an-

poleon, the Tiroleans in Austria assured their brothers in the

was issued

won

states.

who

II

was required by the constitution. In the elections the Socialists gained four seats and the Christian Democrats (Volkspartei) lost three seats. The Com-

The

in

The industrial production index stood at 162 in April 1959 (1953= ioo>, while the cost-of-living index rose only to 115 (1953=100). Unemployment fell to its the

had decided that they could not satisfactorily

was the elections for the parliament on

istische Partei,

Partei

for

i960, but Reinhard Kamitz, the Christian Democratic minister

The

Austrian

In March the two ruling parties, the Volkspartei and the Sozial-

elections

Oc

important questions, and therefore the writ for

in

followed by complicated negotiations to form the government.

settle various

its

German-speaking population of South Tirol during the year. Italy had not fulfilled its obligation to grant them a certain autonomy in the province Alto Adige but had, on the contrary, fostered immigration with the aim of Italianizing the province. At the 150th anniversary of the Tirolean fight for independence against Na-

;

—The most important event during 1959

affairs

Bruno Pittermann, as

chancellor,

lober showed even a greater loss for the Christian Democratic

As

all

bound

to

remind

government called on international Europe was September the foreign minister asked

in vain, the

to the matter,

and

in

the United Nations for help. Educoiion.

felt

Austria's approaches to the Italian

— Schools

(F. P.

M.)

primary 5.236, pupils 716,032, teachers 25,165; secondary 193, pupils 84.200, teachers (1954) 4,485: vocational (excl. compulsory part-time) 186, pupils 45,300, teachers 4,395; teacher(1957):

training 52, students 5,473. Institutions of higher education 14, students 27,296, teaching staff 2,759. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: schilling, exchange rate 26 to the

—

U.S. dollar. Budget (1959 est.): revenue 36.500.000.000 schillings; expenditure 40.500.000.000 schillings. Total public debt (195S) 16.167.300,000 schillings. Gold and foreign-exchange holdings, central bank (.April 1958) U.S. $507,000,000; (.\pril 1959) U.S. $691,000,000. Currency cirMarch 1959 in parentheses) 15,260,000,000 culation (March 1958; schillings (16,050,000,000 schillings). Deposit money (March 195S: March 1959 in parentheses) 16,790.000.000 schillings (19,780,000.000 schillings). Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports 27.912.000,000 Schillings; exports 23,864,000,000 schillings. Main destination of exports: Germany 25%; Italy 17%: other continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries iS%; sterling area 8%: U.S. and Canada 5%; Latin America i%. Main sources of imports: Germany 39%; Italy "8%; other continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 15%; U.S. and Canada ir%; U.K. 4%; other sterling area 4%; Latin America 3%. Transport and Communicotions Roads (1958) 31,800 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 233,200; commercial 69,900. Federal railways

—

—

I

AUTOMATION — AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

77

(1958): route length 5,900 km.; passenger-km. (igs?) S.902, 000,000; freight (1957) 7,596,000,000 ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 592,197. Licensed radio receivers (1957) 1,838,000. Licensed television receivers 16,000.

—

Agriculture Production (metric tons, 1958; i957 in parentheses): wheat 549,000 (574,000); rye 397,000 (400,000); barley 335,ooo (392,000); oats 333,000 (340,000); maize 155,000 (149,000); potatoes 3.341,000 (4,034,000); beet sugar (raw) 278,000 (276,000); wine 121,000 (35,000). Livestock (Dec. 1958): cattle 2,297,000; sheep 207,000; pigs

2,917,000; horses 200,000; goats 209.000. Industry. Fuel and power (195S); coal 141,600 metric tons; lignite 6,492,000 metric tons; electricity (excl. industrial generation) 10,992,000,000 kw.hr.; manufactured gas (Vienna only) 324,000,000 cu.-m.; crude oil 2,832,000 metric tons. Production (metric tons, 1958); iron ore, 30% metal content, 3.408,000; pig iron 1,824,000; crude steel 2,388,200; magnesite (1957) 1,172,600; aluminum 74,280; copper (electrolytic) 9.600; cement 2,154.000; paper (1957) 433,000; nitrogenous fertilizers (N content, 1957-58) 157,100; cotton yarn 26,520; woven cotton fabrics 17,520; wool yarn 10.440; rayon staple fibre 46,320; sawed softwood (1957) 3,926,000 cu.m.; sawed hardwood (1957) 172,000 cu.m.

—

Automation:

see

Electronics; Machinery and Machine

Tools; Telegraphy. see Accidents.

Automobile Accidents:

Passenger car production in the

Automobile Industry.

United

States,

having

fallen

abruptly during the 1958 model year, underwent a sharp recovery

1959 model cycle, which began in late Sept. 1958 and earlier than usual, mostly by mid-Aug. 1959. The

in the

ended somewhat

1959 model year output total was estimated at 5,568,055 passenger cars by the Automobile Manufacturers Assn., which reflected gain over the 4,256,002 computed as the 1958 model This headlong advance began in the spring of 1959, though there were clear signs of it earlier, and it carried through with

a

30.9%

total.

expanding

momentum

in fact, into the

The

during the balance of the model year and,

i960 model announcement period in the

greatest gain in the industry

Packard Corp., whose Lark

series

industry output to 2.4% from 1.2% in 1958. American Motors Corp., the pioneer in the "compact" size car race, also registered

enormous advance, improving its output to 374,240 130.4% more than the 1958 model run, enough to expand its share of the industry to 6.7% from 3.8% in the preceding year. The other major components of the industry also gained in varying degrees, their share of the total 1958 model production being; General Motors, 48.0%; Ford, 30.2%; and Chrysler, 12.6%. By makes the production rankings were led by Chevrolet,

a relatively cars, or

Oldsmobile, Rambler,

IT

into the small car field

we want it to be the GIANT of the small of the Chicago Sun-Times syndicate

1959 cartoon by Lichty

.

car field!" a

fall.

was registered by Studebakerbroadly dominated its model

year total of 131,508 cars, reflecting an advance of 155.4% over the 1958 model year total and doubling the company's share of

then Ford, Pl>Tnouth, Pontiac,

LONGER, LOWER AND WIDER

"YOU BETTER MAKE

Buick,

Dodge, Mercury, Cadillac, Studebaker, Chrysler, DeSoto, Edsel, Lincoln and Imperial.

The year 1959 was again one in which a notable aspect of the market was an increasing preference of the motoring public for

American Deluxe Six) to $12,000 (for the Cadillac 60 Special Brougham), these prices being factory retail recommended, without taxes, delivery and handling charges. One compilation reflected an average price increase of 2.6% on all 1959 models as compared with the 1958 models, which in turn had been 3.5% above the 1957 average. The 4-door station wagon was for the second successive year the most popular individual model, with 64 such offerings; there were 62 variants of the 4-door sedan, single type until 1958.

most popular

Perhaps the most notable mechanical attribute of the 1958 was that they ended the horsepower race of the postwar

cars

Power outputs were changed barely, if at all. Actually, a few compression ratios and power outputs were quietly reduced

years.

1959 models. mechanical innovations introduced

in the

Two

in earlier

years almost

disappeared in 1958. Air suspensions were purchased in smaller and smaller quantity as the year went on. Fuel injection, optional in 1958. was not available in most of Both seemingly cost too much for the virtues they offered. But increasing acceptance was evident of automatic transmissions, power steering, power brakes and air conditioning. Most 1959 automobiles developed more sweeping lines than previous models. Fenders were broader, and on some the fins edged higher. "Gull wing" treatments were more extended. More

in a

broad range of cars

them

in

eral of those

glass

was employed, the tops of many cars being reduced

of total registrations. Best sellers during that period were, in

length under the encroachment of higher windshields and rear

order, Volkswagen, Renault,

1958. Their range of prices

"picture windows." Some beltlines were lowered modestly. There was an interesting turn here and there toward more restrained use of bright metal garnish molding and trim. Beauty was enhanced on all cars by the application of new finishes with deeper lustre and more permanence. Two manufacturers came to market with distinct new price lines. Studebaker-Packard's Lark was one example, built in two series of four models apiece. Edsel, whose 1958 model debut was less than successful, eliminated the highest-priced two of its four

tion

series,

smaller automobiles. This not only accounted for the success of

American Motors and Studebaker-Packard, but

it

also served

Domesmonths of 1959 were compared with 262,823

to enlarge the total of imports brought into the country. tic sales

of foreign cars during the first nine

preliminarily estimated at 450,000 units, in the

same 1958 period and with 373,189 in all of 1958. In sevmonths imported cars accounted for 11% or more British Ford,

Opel,

Fiat,

Simca,

Hillman, Triumph, Vauxhall and Volvo. There were estimated no

fewer than 13,000 dealers marketing foreign makes, or more than

36%

of the national total of approximately 36,000 retail

auto agencies at the end of the 1958 model cycle.

The 1959 Models. senger car

industry

—For

offered

1959 year the domestic pascustomers 305 different models,

the

320 announced for was somewhat broader, with producfrom $1,675 (for the 2 -door Rambler

slightly less than the previous record total of

cars

available

1959.

and

later in

1959 the Edsel was dropped completely.

in

AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

Top. left: 1960 CORVAIR, Chevrolet division. General Motors Corp. Top. right: 1960 FALCON, Ford iviotor Co. Centre, left: I960 VALIANT, Chrysler Corp. Centre, right: 1960 BLUEBIRD. Nissan Motor Co.. Japan Bottom, left: 1960 RAMBLER AMERICAN American Motors Corp. Bottom, right: 1960 LARK convertible, Studebaker-Packard Corp.

agency was a factor

5jlg5 pg^

^ ., ., profitless period

of

—

in their ability

.

to earn

,

,

,

what the dealers

—after a

relatively ,,

,

association called

"slight" profit in 1958. largely o of busi-jj o j attributable to the Surge •

in the last quarter of that year. Another aspect of this market was a steadily rising level of installment purchases; automobile credit by June of 1959 had risen for seven consecutive riess

In general, the Chrysler

Dodge and Plymouth

An

ical ones.

seats

models—Imperial,

—confined

Chrysler, DeSoto,

their changes to

interesting innovation

was the

modest mechan'^°^^^

availability of swivel

egress easier.

The

lines

made

available an optional combination

of pneumatic springing o D at the rear wheels I-

and torsion bars

at the

""I"?"' '^'ooa'ajo Subtotal Araentino

tront.

Australia

The General Motors

offerings

—Buick,

Cadillac,

Chevrolet,

Oldsmobile and Pontiac—offered varying degrees of restyling.

The Chevrolet was completely new. with

its

construction verging

—

toward the integrated body-and-frame treatment two oval.„ ,-,,.. . u 1. J . shapedJ grilles, split at the centre by a hood extension. ,

From

Ford, builder of the Edsel, Ford, Lincoln and Mercury,

came

the year's most notable

much

as six inches longer in

body enlargements. Ford was as some models, while Mercury measured from 2 to 4i inches longer. Mercury and Lincoln lengthened , ^, ,, J their wheel bases. Mercury had an interesting front seat com•• »u » »l. J uu J J J 1. partment innovation, m that the dashboard was advanced well forward, creating about six inches of new knee room. The auto.

-^

•

,

.

.

•

J

1

.

,

matic transmissions by Ford, hitherto push-button operated, became actuated by lever ih 1959, leaving button controls on only the Chrysler-built cars. ,

,

..•»». its start

'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.

i.sis'jvi 12,499

225,308* ^*'*'*^ .

c"cLiovakia

.

Finland

Germany, East Germany, We.t

.'.'.'....

India

japon'

'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.

.u f -ji they were falling rapidly, and by 11-

,

T_

toioi

^ao'bsI 93i!66o

''57^

^'359777

3,610

5,48i!o46 22,601 24 1,364

'''''.''.'.

''332

58:556

924 23I 38^422

2oo'453

1,180,738 8,113

307,5 11 14,578

7,007 4,097

1,495,256

228:962t

7:594

287;i99

—

Svritzerland u.s.s.r

122,400

United Kingdom Yugoslavia Subtotal

worid

291 i,069

22,150 68,896

Sweden

1,051,551

2,936 4,139,948 8,685,724

totoi

— —

10.102 16,056

^-^W

^5o!643

spl^°''°"'''

958

uiwa

.

:::::::

J

Buses

43;J39

'.

Beig'ii™

'

e!900 19,000

650 389,ooo 303,010 4,o89 1,628,479 2,560,139

077

3

I5,'74i

—

^^t 2,414 150

i27'76°

1 '

54j63 26,788

31,050 '°'2n2< OOOJ

—

511,400

9,846 671 39,563 43,173

11, 289,036

1,364,407

7,696 5,807,990

Note: the dota shown above for some countries represent ossemblles rather that; production. To the extent thot some of these osiemblies were portly or wholly produced another country, the world total includes some duplication,

in

tinciudel 98,'89rtii're"-wheeied

v°e"hicies.

|R:g",;"ahonr1,f"'neJ^SwLproduc.d vehicles

Refail Activi+y.^Car field stocks gyrated wildly during the

1959 model year. At

in

T™cb

United states

^

.

I.— World Mofor Vehicle Produciion

which could be swung toward the doors to make entry and

in lieu

of octuol production, which

was

"=' """iiobie.

Source: Compiled by Automobile Monufacturers Association, from vorious sources.

Nov. I, 1958, it was estimated that there were fewer than 265,000 cars, a 5-year low. But the surging production rates of the

months

following spring swelled this thin inventory to almost i,ooo,oob

by the ending of the model year in Aug. 1959 an alltime record high. This level was particularly notable because

Labour Affairs. Completion of the 3-year industr>' agreements with the United Automobile Workers union in Sept. 1958 brought with it an initial wave of localized strikes which grew to

the total of passenger car retail dealers, declining for seven

painful proportions before they finally flickered out. Thereafter

consecutive years, then stood at a low point unreached since

the labour picture in the auto industry was generally

—

vehicles

the immediate postwar period.

The

larger average

number

of

to $15,419,000,000, or

in 1958.

than for

$828,000 more than at that date

—

many

years.

One outbreak

of note

was

more

quiet

a strike of office

—

1

AUTOMOBILE NSU RANGE — AUTOMOBI LE RACING

79

I

workers at Chrysler Corp. late

Table

Imports and Exports

III.

,f

Motor Vehicle

By Producing Countries During

i

958

Chrysler was also di-

in 195S.

Imports Tfucl;s

rectly affected

by a long

strike

Cars

at Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.

*;;||;
'mbol of world International Cup Play. supremacy in the men's sport, held by Indonesia, was not brought into competition in 1959. There was also no competition for the Uber cup, women's team championship prize. (T. V. H.) All-England

—

see

Armies of

Tire

World; Middle Eastern

Affairs. ^"''^'' colony; a 760-mi. chain (N.W.IdldllUO. S.E.) comprising 21 inhabited and about

Rohamo Ddlldllld

Ichnrfc

680 uninhabited islands Pop.:

83%

off the Florida coast. Area: 4,404 sq.mi. (1953 census) 84.841; (1958 est) 136.229 with about Negro. Language: English. Religion; Christian. Capital:

Nassau (pop.: [1958] 50,405), on ernor in 1959, Sir Ra>Tior Arthur. History.

—During

New

Providence Island. Gov-

1959 the legislature passed a General As-

sembly Election act implementing reforms agreed in 1958 with the secretary of state for the colonies. These provided for unrestricted adult

male suffrage, four additional seats in the house boundary changes and other altera-

of assembly, constituency

tions in electoral procedure.

An

electricity generation

to

produce 1.000,000

and water gal.

distillation in

New

for

Pro\'idence

major e.xNassau and the building

of drinking water a day, a

tension to the Prince George dock in of a

combined project

new government high (secondary)

school. In the private

economy, the construction and reconstruction of several luxury hotels and other tourist facilities went some way to meet the ever-growing demands of the tourist trade. The year was again a record one for tourism. On Grand Bahama Island, approximately 60 mi. off the Florida coast, the Freeport authority constructed major bunkering facilisector of the

ties to

provide the only sterling bunkering in the area north of

Trinidad for ocean-going vessels.

(K.

—

—

(1958);

(1957): primary 182, pupils 20,927: secondary 7, teacher-training college with so students; pupils in voca-

revenue

— Monetary

£5.178.769,

unit:

pound

expenditure

sterling

= U.S.

£5,225,618.

S2.80. Budget trade exports:

Foreign

O957): imports £15,262,526, domestic exports £793,359. Main timber, crawfish, pit props, salt, tomatoes, sponges, shells.

^" ^^^^ '^^ Associated Retail Bakers of

Iniliictru

IllUUoUy. America again sponsored a nationwide promotion of National Retail Bakers week, May 17-23, which was designed to promote the use of baked foods throughout the L'nited States.

The Minnesota experiment

station of the U.S. department of

agriculture in August 1959 released the results of lengthy tests

on the storing of frozen bread that was commercially baked,

and wrapped. The

showed that, up to six months, and fresh flavour as well with ordinary commercial wrap as with overwrapping. Bread tested after ten months storage showed loaves in overivrap were in much better condition than those in ordinary wrap. For the test, the bread was stored at 8° F. for four, six and ten months. The Associated Retail Bakers of America sponsored another national "Little Miss Muffin" contest among the retail bakers of the country. Twelve finalists were selected to attend the national convention in Washington. D.C.. on April 12. 1959, where the winner, Martha Brunner of Pittsburgh. Pa., who was sponsored by the Retail Master Bakers of western Pennsylvania, was named "Little Miss Muffin for 1959." According to the U.S. department of agriculture, bakers sold to pubhc schools in the United States $46,000,000 worth of bakery foods in a 12-month period with a per pupil cost of $2.13. Bread accounted for half the total value of the baked items. bread kept

The

its

tests

freshness, soft texture

results of a

survey made by Baking Industry magazine

March

1959. The survey covered the wholesale segment of the baking industr\- and indicated that in 195S gross dollar sales for the wholesale group had shown a definite increase over the previous year, with the exception of cake and pie. Based on the survey, figures for the national wholesale poundage of

were released

in

baked foods sold

in 1958

were: Pounds sold

Item

White breod Other breod Sweet Boods

Coke Pie

Doughnuts (doz.l

1956

1957

7,412,832,000 1,754,772,000 407,314,000 803,792,000 570,751,000 284,737,000

7,352,132,344 1,743.735,027 397,952,585 814,724,492 584,423,114 275,153,814

M. Wy.)

— Schools

pupils qSS: I tional classes 40. Finance and Trade.

to houses inland.

Bahrain and his British adviser.

The survey Education.

and

20 a court in St. Helena dismissed a writ of habeas

Production. Oil production in 1958 was 2,028,000 metric tons (1,596,000 metric tons in 1957I. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Indian rupee valued at 21 cents U.S. Foreign trade (195S): imports from U.K. £7,265.617; exports to U.K. £10.472,786; re-exports from U.K. £37.924. Chief exports: petroleum products, rice, pearls. Chief imports: textiles, foodstuffs, machinery, motor vehicles.

extensive program of public works set in hand or com-

pleted during the year included a large

March 1959 extremely high winds caused some

corpus for the release of Abd-ul-Rahman el-Baker, the Bahrain nationahst leader imprisoned on the island since 1956. He had been tried and sentenced for plotting to murder the ruler of

sliced

Baghdad Pact:

— In

to shipping off the coast

also indicated that the gross dollar sales for the

baking industry during 1958 were up nationally 3.2% and that gross profits were up 0.39c. This national average profile was a composite picture and did not reflect individual local situations. According to the U.S. bureau of labour statistics, the total

number

of

employees

in the

baking industry in

May

1959 was

BALANCE OF PAY MENTS — BANKING

92

in May 1958. However, the June 1959. The average weekly earnings for all employees in the baking industry amounted to $83.43 '" May 1959, as compared with $78.79 in May 1958. The bureau of the census, U.S. department of commerce, re-

381,800 as compared with 383,200

rose to 196,700, an increase of

figure rose to 384,200 in

The employment

ported that sales of bakery products

during

in stores in the U.S.

the first six months of 1959 amounted to $507,000,000 as compared with $493,000,000 for the comparable period of 1958.

See also Wheat.

(M. M. Bd.)

EncycloP/BDIa Britannica Films. Baking (IQ43); Principles of Cooking

Balance of Payments:

see

— Bread

in

4.5% over June

of the prior year.

the ten leading industry groups in June 1959

was: primary metals 44,700; transportation equipment 33,400; food and kindred products 33,800; apparel 14,000; fabricated metal products

3,000; chemicals 10,400; electrical equipment

1

10,300; printing and publishing 9,700; nonelectrical machinery 7.900; and stone, clay and glass products 6,100.

The Baltimore area continued duction

facilities in

its

notable growth in

new

pro-

1958 with an announced investment of $89,-

in new plants and expansions. During the first seven months of 1959, the announced investment in new industries and expansions amounted to approximately $120,244,000, repre-

950,000

(1945);

Principles

0/

(1943).

Exchange Control and Ex-

riiwi.K RAfhs; Child; International Trade.

senting an increase of nearly

54%

over the $78,082,700 reported

for the corresponding period in 1958.

Balearic Islands: .ue Spain. Balkan States: see Albania; Bulgaria; Greece; mania; Turkey; Yucoslavla. Ballet: see Dance: Ballel. Baltic States: see Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania.

ENCYCLOPyCDiA Britannica Films.

—

(C. N. E.;

TItc

Baltimore Plan (1953).

Ru-

Bananas:

see Fruit.

Recovery and prosperity, affected in magnitude and timing by the steel strike, were the important foundations for banking developments in the United States in 1959. Tight money was once again the dominant characteristic of the monetary situation. in

Doltimnra

DdllllllUICi

Baltimore, the metropolis of Maryland, had 949,708 inhabitants according to the 1950 census,

when it was the sixth largest city in the U.S. In July 1959 its estimated population was 985,000. The land area of the city is Grady, Democrat.

Demands for funds were high. Savings available for lending and investing by the major institutional investors showed some slowing down. Competition for the saver's dollar was greatly

Budget appropriations for 1959 were $253,828,632; for 1958 they were $231,818,660. The city tax rate for 1959 was $3.34

etary restraint.

per $100 of assessed valuation, and the rate for 1958 was $2.98. The taxable basis for 1959 was $3,550,248,778. and for 1958 it

size of the

78.73 sq.mi.,the water area 13.21 sq.mi.

Mayor

in 1959, J.

Harold

was $3,604,409,008. The gross funded debt as of June 30, 1959, was $337,648,900; the sinking funds amounted to $22,963,863, leaving a net debt on that date of $314,685,337, not including accrued income. The percentage of net debt to the taxable basis

The

intensified.

difficulties in

mon-

federal reserve system followed a policy of

The United

States treasury encountered serious

debt'management. not from further growth

debt but rather from

ments together brought higher

in the

composition. These develop-

its

interest rates

and lessened

avail-

ability of funds.

Consumer Demands

for Funds.

—New records were

set dur-

(excluding self-supporting indebtedness) was 5.7 as of June 30,

demands for funds actually satisfied from the mortgage area and consumer credit area. This was in sharp

1959-

contrast to the situation in 1958.

The

ing 1959 for the net

net enrollment on Oct. 31, 1958, in the public schools of

the city was 85.931 white students and 77.611 Negro students; in addition,

more than 24.000 students were enrolled

in

home

and hospital and adult education

The

nonfarm one-

increase in total mortgage debt on

to four-

family houses during the year ended Sept. 1959 was $13,800,000,000. well above the increase of $10,300,000,000 in 1958.

The

classes. George B. Brain became superintendent of the Baltimore city schools on Jan. i, i960. The public schools of Baltimore are a separate and distinct unit

previous record growth of such indebtedness had been $12,500,-

and are not under the jurisdiction of the

ducing

department of education. The integration of schools for white and Negro students was carried into effect in Sept. 1954. As a result, 51% of the schools fall

state

had both white and Negro students enrolled

000.000

in

1959 lessened availability of mortgage money market, was re-

funds, particularly restrained in a tight

home

building activity. Mortgage financing continued,

however, to be the largest single use for long-term funds in the credit

and

capital markets.

Consumer

in the

of 1958.

Late

in 1955.

credit, including

both installment credit and non-

installment credit, showed the largest relative increase in de-

Ranking as the second United States port in foreign trade tonnage, the combined volume of exports and imports at the port of

mands

Baltimore during the year 1958 amounted to 25.106,907 tons, compared with 31.895.950 tons in the all-time record year of

months ended Oct. up $6,180,000,000.

1957. Diminished shipments of coal and grain, brought about

for funds

between 1958 and 1959. In the calendar year

1958. total consumer credit rose only $300,000,000. In the 12

by

31, 1959,

however, total consumer credit went

—

Commercial and

changing world market conditions, coupled with a drop in im-

prises

portations of metallic ores during the year, were largely responsible for the foreign tonnage decline. For the third consecutive

six

Loans to business enterindustrial Loans. by commercial banks increased during 1959. In the first months of the year, total commercial and industrial loans at

all

weekly reporting member banks rose $760,000,000.

year, the value of merchandise mo\'ing through the port in for-

trast to a decrease of $1,085,000,000 during the corresponding

eign

commerce exceeded $1,000,000,000. Total export and import

trade in 1958 was valued at $1,048,300,000 as against $1,337,600.000 the previous year. The 5.615 ocean-going vessel arrivals at

Baltimore in 1958 were exceeded only by those

in the

two

previous record high years of 1956 and 1957, when 5,735 and 6.089 vessels, respectively, visited the port. New port records during

195S were

established

in

customs collections, which

reached $27,041,915.78. Industrial employTnent in the 1,900 plants in the Baltimore metropolitan area averaged 189,200 in 1958. In June 1959 it

period of 1958.

mainly due

The

increase during the

to increases in loans to

first

in con-

half of 1959

manufacturers

was

in the field

of metals and metal products, probably to finance inventory ac-

cumulation

in anticipation of the steel strike.

From

July through Nov. 1959, total commercial and industrial loans rose $1,530,000,000, as compared with an increase of $700.-

000.000 in the same months in 1958 and a decrease of $190,000.000 in the second half of 1957. Loans to trade firms, commodity dealers

and public

utilities

second half of 1959.

were important

in the rise

during the

I

BAN KING The bank prime commercial loan

May

18, 1959, after

5%

further rise to tight

money

rate

having been at

became

period of 1957,

4%

effective

4j%

was increased

to

4^%

since Sept. 11, 1958.

on Sept.

i,

on

A

1959. In the

had been the high prime com-

mercial loan rate.

Corporate Security Offerings. were

securities

at a relatively

— Corporate

offerings of

low level in 1959. In the

new first

eight months of 1959 they totaled $6,300,000,000, as compared with $7,990,000,000 in the corresponding period the year before.

Such

offerings

had amounted to $11,560,000,000

down from

year 1958,

in the calendar

the record level of $12,890,000,000 in

came from a lower volume of offerings of bonds, w'hich amounted to $4,580,000,000 from January through August, as compared with $6,780,000,000 in the same months in 1958. Corporate offerings of common stock in 1959. 1957.

The

decline in 1959

on the other hand, while not at the high levels for recent years which had been reached in 1956 and 1957, were considerably above those of 1958. Corporate offerings of common stock in the first

eight

months

of 1959

were $1,350,000,000, as compared with

$800,000,000 in the same period the year before. Similarly, the net change, that

is,

new

93

volume of loans and investments. Hence commercial banks met loan demands, in part, by running off and selling U.S. government securities. In somewhat similar fashion, 1955, 1956 and 1957 had been years of net decline in the total portfolio of U.S. government securities. Commercial bankers continued to note the decline in their over-all liquidity, as evidenced by new highs for the post-World War II period in the ratio of loans to total loans and investments and in the ratio of loans to deposits. On Nov. 11, 1959, total loans comprised 57.8% of total loans and investments of total

commercial banks,

all

above the previous high

a ratio

in 1957.

Correspondingly, the ratio of U.S. government securities to total loans and investments of

commercial banks stood

all

at a

new

low ratio since 1945 of 31.3% in mid-November 1959. On June 10, 1959, national banks, which numbered 4,559, held $112,659,000,000 of total deposits. State banks, which numbered 8,914, held $94,962,000,000 of total deposits.

Money Supply and

Turnover.

—The

privately held

money

supply reached a new record peak on Nov. 25, 1959, at $242,500,000,000, including

demand

deposits adjusted, $113,100,000,000;

issues less retirements,

time deposits at commercial banks, mutual savings banks and the

outstanding corporate securities was less in 1959 than in 1958. in outstanding corporate securities, including

postal savings system, $100,300,000,000; and currency outside

The net increase

banks, $29,100,000,000.

bonds and notes and stocks, was $4,030,000,000 in the first half of 1959, down from $5,180,000,000 in the first half of 1958 and $4,420,000,000 in the second half of 1958. The increase in stocks

before was $5,000,000,000, with $3,500,000,000 coming in time

in

outstanding exceeded that in bonds and notes during the

first

half of 1959 for the first time in several years.

Commercial Banks.

—Total loans and investments of

mercial banks reached another

new peak

in the

all

com-

second half of

The

money supply, that is, demand deposits adjusted and currency outside banks. From late spring on, however, there was yery little change in the money supply. The active money supply, on a seasonally adjusted basis, was exactly the same at the end of November as deposits and $1,500,000,000 in the active

it

was

at the

end of March. This reflected the federal reserve

1959, amounting to $188,200,000,000 on

Nov. u, 1959, This represented an increase of $5,700,000,000 since the middle of Nov.

policy of monetary restraint.

1958. Largely reflecting the effect of the change in federal reserve

of

policy

from monetary ease

in the first half of

1958 to monetary

increase over the figure of a year

The volume of bank debits demand deposit turnover

at

the recovery in business after the recession of 195S.

restraint during 1959, the increase in earning assets during 1959

rate of turnover or velocity of

was very much

the rate at which people

less

than the $15,100,000,000 increase which had

commercial banks and the rate

generally rose in 1959, reflecting

demand

"checkbook money," rose to the highest

000,000 in 1957.

ing the second half of 1959.

increase in total loans and investments of

all

commercial

The annual

which indicates

and business enterprises spend

occurred during 1958. Corresponding increases had been $5,000,-

The

deposits,

Mutual Savings Banks.

many

in all

their

years dur-

(J.

— Gains

ings banking in the United States

level in

K. L.)

phases of mutual sav-

were recorded during the 12-

banks during 1959 was due to a substantial rise in bank loans, offset in part by a considerable reduction in commercial bank

month period ended June

holdings of governpient securities. After rising to a record peak

totaled $1,642,000,000, bringing total deposit liabilities to $34,-

late in 1958,

commercial bank holdings of other

30, 1959. Deposit gains for the period

securities, chiefly

624,000,000. Although this gain was not so great at that in the

showed very

comparable 1958 period, it compared favourably with other years and represented a 5% rate of growth.

holdings of state and local government obligations,

change during 1959. Total loans of all commercial banks amounted to $108,900,000,000 on Nov. II, 1959, up $12,700,000,000 during the preced-

little

months. This loan increase during 1959 was greater than even the large increases of $12,000,000,000 in 1955 and $7,700,ing 12

Assets for the period also increased

by nearly $2,000,000,000, number of accounts by

surplus funds by $112,000,000 and the

106,000. Assets as of June 30, 1959, totaled $38,560,000,000;

surplus funds totaled $3,294,000,000, representing

000,000 in 1956. Thus business recovery gave a market lift to loan expansion. Previously, the business recession of 1957-58 had markedly restrained the growth of loans. Total loans of all

amount due depositors; and the number

commercial banks had gone up $2,400,000,000

of the net flow of investment funds

in

1957

and

9.5%

of the

of accounts totaled 22,-

i6S,ooo.

There were

volume and composition from mutual savings banks.

significant changes in the

$4,300,000,000 in 1958.

Net mortgage acquisitions during the

Commercial bank holdings of U.S. government securities declined almost $7,000,000,000 during 1959, and on Nov. 11, 1959, these amounted to slightly less than $59,000,000,000. During 1958 the U.S. government securities portfolio of commercial banks had risen $8,100,000,000. This contrasting situation was due to the underlying developments in the economy. In the recession year 1958 banks were provided with sufficient reserves by the federal reserve system so that they could expand loans and also acquire government securities in financing

$1,080,000,000, compared with $691,000,000 in the corresponding

part of the federal deficit. In the prosperous year 1959- banks

were not provided with sufficient reserves to be able to meet

demands

for credit placed

upon them through expansion

all

in their

latter half of 1958 totaled

1957 period. During the first half of 1959 mutual savings banks continued to invest in mortgages, but at a lesser rate than in the 30,

first

half of 1958.

During the 12-month period ended June to their mortgage

1959, the banks added $1,921,000,000

holdings, bringing their total investment in this area to $23,900,-

000,000. At mid-1959 total mortgage loans, two-thirds of which were FHA-insured or VA-guaranteed, represented 61. g% of the total assets of mutual savings banks. Holdings of U.S. government securities continued to decline,

but at a lesser rate than in the comparable 1957-58 period. At

mid-igsg savings banks held a

total of $7,301,000,000 in govern-

BANKING the rise in the status of

some

currencies,

shown on

gains were

capital

investment

many

substantial

holdings,

provid-

ing funds for rebuilding the re-

serves that had been severely

depleted earlier in the 1950s

by capital losses sustained when interest rates rose -leeply.

United Kingdom. thorities

early

satisfied

year

the

in

measures

—The au-

themselves

they

that

had

the

already

taken to stimulate spending on

consumption and capital development would be sufficient to

keep re-expansion proceed-

ing at an

adequate pace. Thus

no important new measures to reduce the cost of

NEW OFFICES FOR THE BANK OF ENGLAND,

London, ooened

In

1959

January of almost

ment

securities,

representing

banks added $50,000,000

ig%

of their

to their holdings of

total

assets.

The

corporate securities,

as well as $: 1,000,000 to their holdings of state

and municipal

Combined, these securities totaling $5,712,000,000 represented 14.8TC of total assets on June 30, 1959, At mid-i95q there were 519 mutual savings banks located in

securities.

17 states and the Virgin Islands. There were 420 branch offices in operation.

ings

More than

program

half of the banks were conducting a sav-

for school

children. Deposits in school

savings

totaled $112,000,000 on June 30, 1959.

The average rate of interest credited to accounts rose from 3.16% to 3.22%, with 365 of the banks paying interest, as of June 30, 1950, at the rate of 3.25% or more. During the 12-month period ended June 30, 1959, a total of $751,000,000 in interest was paid by mutual savings banks to their depositors.

Savings bank life insurance, a legal reserve life insurance sold over the counter at low cost by nearly 300 savings banks in Connecticut, Massachusetts and New York, continued to expand. The

combined

total of life insurance in force in the three states as of

June 30, 1959, was $1,110,707,291 covering 768,836 poHcies. This was a gain for the year of more than $80,000,000 and nearly 18,000 policies.

W.

(G.

—

Ey.)

all

remaining restrictions on borrowing by

financing capital outlays at home.

The advances

of the

accounted for about turnover

London

95%

The bank

rate

clearing banks

of the country's commercial banking

£464.000,000 or about one-fifth, in the period mentioned. The net

and other small changes in assets was to raise by £464.000.000 to £7.208.000.000 a record figure. The rise in the international standing of sterling and the further relaxation of exchange restrictions brought about a marked increase in foreign exchange and other business reaching British banks from abroad. The report of the Radcliffe committee on the working of the U.K. monetary system found little to criticize in the functioning of the commercial banking system. It recommended that the effect of these

deposits

traditional requirement that the clearing banks' ratio of liquid

fluence the banks' credit creation activities

ing

new

fields

materially

enlarging

traditional

continued the process of explor-

which they had been encouraged

to enter

by

relaxa-

vices to raise the proportion of resources assets

In most countries banks continued to enjoy, until late in the

of headlong inflation there could be

much

greater freedom from governmental interference with

30%

and suggested

by the use of deemployed in liquid

beyond 30%. though on the condition that other lending

institutions

the development of their activities than in the 1945-57 period.

below

that the authorities should be prepared at times of stress to in-

tions of official restrictions on banking operations during 1958.

year,

in

months to mid-October. In spite of increased government borrowings from the banks against treasury bills, most banks found that they had to counter the impact on their liquidity ratios of the rise in advances in part by reducing the amount of their resources employed in other nonliquid assets. Thus the clearing banks' holdings of government securities contracted by the 12

banking institutions.

Besides

remained at 4%.

—which together

— increased by £723.000.000. or more than one-third,

assets to deposits should never fall

many banks

or

business concerns in the capital market and from the banks for

Other Countries. With economic re-expansion well under way almost everywhere, 1959 was a year of progress for most types of business,

money

expand the supply of it were taken after the removal in

were similarly controlled. In the event of a threat more precise restrictions on

bank lending,

hire purchase

and capital

issues.

—

that their earnings were no longer being eroded in terms of pur-

Commonwealth. Since economic recovery proceeded fairly slowly in most primary producing countries in 1959 because of the absence of any marked recovery in the prices of many leading commodities, the increase in banking activity was of a more modest character in most Commonwealth countries than in the more industrialized regions of the world. Although the Australian, New Zealand and South African governments were all pursuing easier money policies, the rise in both bank deposits and bank advances was limited to a few per cent in the year to mid-1959. The increase in banking acti\ity was of a larger order

chasing power by the decline in the value of money. Moreover,

in India

But here and there

official

monetary controls

w-ere tightened be-

fore the close of the year because of fears that the fast pace

of re-expansion would lead to renewed inflationary stresses. Interest rate levels being generally

money

much lower

than when

were being widely applied in 1955-58, many classes of banking work were less remunerative in 1959. but most institutions were fully compensated for this by the expansion in the volume of business handled. They also benefited from the fact

dear

policies

with security values rising in response to easier

money

trends and

British

official

and Pakistan, the impact on deposits and advances of development programs and economic re-expansion being

BAPTIST reinforced

by

inflationary stresses.

was deprived of

its

However,

this latter factor

force in Pakistan in the later

year as a result of the

initial

months of the

success of the extensive overhaul

of economic policies undertaken early in 1959. In ficial

fears

about a hardening of monetary policy

and

this

Canada

of-

that re-expansion would lead to inflation brought

slowed down the steep

in the first half of the year,

rise in

bank advances.

In South Africa and the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasa-

new discount houses were

set up, usuaOy with U.K. aspromote the plan for the creation of a domestic money market. Further steps taken for the same purpose in Australia included the inauguration of an arrangement whereby

land

CHURCH July

3,

95

The theme of the congress, announced by Pres. Adams, was "Jesus Is Lord." World Baptists num-

i960.

Theodore

F.

bered about 23,000.000. Baptists of the Netherlands celebrated in May 1959. in Amsterdam, the 3S0th anniversary of the founding of the first Englishspeaking Baptist church by John Smyth, English Separatist. Ernest A. Pa>Tie, general secretary of the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland, speaking on "The Event, the Man. the Con-

sequences." stated that these

e.xiled

English Separatists disbanded

church (formed by covenant) and reconstituted

sistance, to

their existing

selected discount houses could rediscount

on the basis of baptism on profession of personal faith. Plans were projected to erect a John Smyth memorial church in Amsterdam, costing $115,000, to honour this pioneer of the modem

central

bank within certain

having at

last

securities

with the

The Australian govenmient,

limits.

it

Baptist

reintroduced the

previously rejected on several occasions

bill,

by the senate, for completing the separation of the central banking and trading banking departments of the Commonwealth bank and gi\ing the authorities power to impose a variable liquidity ratios system on the commercial banks. The central bank set up by the Federation of Malaya to take over responsibility for the currency issue and supervise the acti\-ities of the commercial banks came into operation in January. An immediate result was the closing down of Bank of China branches in the countrj', the authorities exercising their

new

right to refuse licences to govern-

banks.

foreign

ment-controlled

India

introduced

a

special

il-

—

Louisville, Ky.,

of the meeting of the Southern Baptist convention,

1959. Approximately 12.000 representatives

wasthe

May

site

19-22,

who attended

re-

ported a constituency of 31,498 churches with 9.206,758 members, and 407. S92 baptisms in 1958-59; contributions by the churches during that year totaled $419,619,438, of which $74,750,699 were for missions and benevolences; the present number of missionaries

was

1,283.

A

goal was set of 2,000 missionaries

and the organization of 30.000 new churches by 1964. the close of the Baptist Jubilee Advance. Seventy-one schools of higher education supported by the Southern Baptist convention enrolled a record of 61.086 students with 10.218 graduates in 1958-59.

The i960

"external" rupee note, to replace existing supplies of Indian cur-

rency circulating in the Persian gulf area, in order to curb

movement.

Southern Baptist Convention.

obtained a majority in both houses of parliament,

session

was

Miami,

to be held in

with

Fla.,

Ramsey

Pollard. Knoxville. Tenn.. presiding.

—

New institutions to finance development up in Nigeria with U.K. help. In South Africa a number of leading banks extended their direct participation in hire purchase finance by acquiring substantial interests in finance houses

The 52nd annual meeting American Baptist convention, held in Des Moines. la., June 4-9, 1959, with more than 7.500 delegates and visitors attending, reported a membership exceeding 1.550,000. Gifts for

specializing in this field.

all

licit

capital exports.

were

set

Continental Europe.

—Re-expansion

led to a considerable in-

all the main commercial Europe during 1959. Only in the German

crease in banking activity in nearly

countries of western

Federal Republic had the

movement met with

official

resistance

Anfierican Baptist Convention.

of the

purposes during 1958-59 reached Sio.746.383, the Christian Higher Education program receiving $1,200,000 on its goal of $7,500,000. Thirty-six missionaries were dedicated, 20 to home

and 16

to overseas fields.

Services were held at Valley Forge, Pa., July

through a tightening of monetar\' policy before the close of the

ing the 55-acre site of the convention's

year. In France restrictions

mated

imposed on banking

con-

acti\-ity in

nection with the end-1958 currency stabilization plan were progressively rela.xed.

With

as the trading position

the franc enjo>'ing a striking recovery

improved and

capital flowed

back into

the country, the authorities discontinued the practice of peri-

com-

odically borrowing the foreign exchange holdings of the

mercial banks. There was an extensive overhaul of the Spanish financial

system

economic stabilization

in connection with the

plan which the authorities put into operation in July.

The Portu-

guese government set up a development bank to promote industrialization.

countries of the

The development bank established by European Economic Community to help the

developed regions within their territories

made

its first

the less-

advances.

There was an extensive reorganization of the banking system of the U.S.S.R., a

number

of specialized institutions handing over

and Industrial banks. See also Business Review; Conslmer Credit; Debt, N.v Tio.vAL; Export-Import Bank of Washington; Farm Credit System; Federal Reserve System; Foreign Investments; Gold; Houslsg; International Bank for Reconstruction their functions to the State

and Development; Savings and Loan Associations; Stocks AND Bonds. (C. H. G. T.) EncycloP-«dia Britannica Films. (1950); Vsing the Bank (1947).

— The

Federal

Reserve

System

to cost

from $5,000,000

5,

1959, dedicat-

new headquarters,

to $6,000,000.

esti-

Occupancy was

expected to take place late in 1961 or early in 1962.

The convention was i960,

to

meet

in

Rochester, N.Y., June 2-7,

under the presidency of Herbert

Newton Theological

School.

Baptist Federation of

Newton

Canada.

J.

Gezork, Andover

Centre, Mass.

—This

federation, compris-

Maritime provinces, Ontario-Quebec and the Union of Western Canada, numbered 150,000 members in 1959. During the year the federation established new churches in Newfoundland and projected a vigorous extension program in Ontario-Quebec and western Canada. Per capita benevolence contributions were reported to place Baptists weir in the fore among Canadian denominations. A staff of 150 missionaries was ing 3 conventions of the

maintained.

—

National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc. This convencomprising 4,000,000 members, held its annual meeting in San Francisco in Sept. 1959, Philadelphia was chosen as the tion,

H. Jackson. Chicago, president of the 14, 1959, on a month's tour of "Citizen Diplomacy" through the middle east. Sponsors of the mission were the American Friends of the Middle East. Gardner C. Taylor, pastor of the 10,000-member Concord Baptist Church, Brookl>Ti, N.Y., began a 6-weeks preaching i960 convention

city. J.

convention, entered

campaign

in

May

Sydney,

.\ustr., .^.ug. 18, 1959, at the invitation

of

the Australian Baptist union.

The Baptist World

Baptist Church

during 1959 for

its

alliance

made

plans

tenth congress, which

was scheduled to be held in Rio de Janeiro, Braz., June

26-

American Baptist Association.

—Numbering 3.045 churches

and 630,000 members, the .\merican Baptist association met in Shreveport, La., June 23-25, 1959. Five missionaries were ac-

—

BARBADOS— BASEBALL

96 ceptcd for foreign

fields

and 3 for home. Mission receipts were

reported to be $86,377, representing an increase of $19,383 over those of 1958. Resolutions were passed, labeling forced integration an effort to foist

new

government

election to

Sunday

units using

The

any person under private or power, and objecting to military

office of

association was to meet in i960 at

Kansas City, Kan.,

with Hoyt Chastain, Malvern, Ark., presiding.

See also

Church Membership.

league

in

a

for the

play-off

American

just finished winning their first

40 years. The pattern of change continued in

title

off

the playing field as well.

Veeck bought controlling interest {54%) of the Chicago White Sox in March from Mrs. Dorothy Comiskey Rigney. Mrs. Rigney's brother, Charles Comiskey, resyndicate headed by

tained his holdings

(R. E. E. H.)

games

straight

series.

The White Sox had

A

for meetings.

world

to two, in the

on the nation, opfwsing

social patterns

public loyalty oath to an alien

Milwaukee Braves two

pennant, and then whipped the Chicago White Sox, four games

Bill

(46%).

Joe Cronin succeeded the retiring Will Harridge as president

Barbados:

see

West

Indies,

The.

of the

A The 1959 U.S. barley crop was

U

indicated at 408,442,-

American league.

proposed third major league, named the Continental, gained

momentum

in

formative stages with the appointment of

its

I

Ddllt/J.

000

of 1958, but

bu.,

28%

the record high 470,449,000 bu.

Branch Rickey as

to seed 17,093,000 ac, a

5%

increase over

champions, the

57 of 11,513,000 ac. Hot weather intervened, especially in the northern plains, during the critical heading and filling period;

margin of

compared with

31.6 bu. per acre in 1958 and 27.5 bu. per acre for the previous

decade. North Dakota was particularly hard

hit,

Montana (46,098,000

five

August for third, 15

18

their first

games

Table

Los Angeles*

.

.

000 of

...

Son Francisco

.

lost

8S

68 70 71 76

Stonding at close ol season, Sept. 2?

86

74 74

80 80 71 83 Philadelphia 90 ... 64 'Los Angeles defeated Milwaukee

Chicago

Cincinnati St. Louis

Pet.

Amencor leogue

.564 .551 .539 .506

Chicago Cleveland

.481 .481 .461 .416

Boston Baltimore Konioi City

2

games

New

1958

1950-54

1945-49

470,449 440,000

273,306 272,000 322,244

260,000 228,589 228,000

235,000 244,764 178,750 147,930

283,026 350,000 325,000 215,000 228,400 89,372 100,326 128,380 82,320 118,280 89,450

52,500 91,895 68,675 43,740 106,255 64,345

U.S.S.R

Chino

.

179,200 140,000 131,000 123,200 105,360

.

130,000 111,300 104,400 114,180

14 1,171

York

....

Washington to

in

... ...

Won

lost

94 89

79 76 75 74

60 63 75 78 79 80

66 63

88 91

ploy-off of regular season

Pel.

.610 .578 .513 .494 .487 .481 .429 .409 lie.

Source: The Sporting News. The Notional Baseball Weekly.

The Los Angeles Dodgers won

13 of their last 18 regular sea-

whom

they defeated by scores of 3 to 2 and 6 to 5. finished third, four games back, and

World

Series.

—Larry

Sherry,

who was in June,

saved the second and third games of the world series for Walt Alston's Dodgers, and gained credit for the wins in the fourth

and sixth games in one of the great in world series history.

relief pitching

performances

The Dodgers' lost the first game to Al Lopez' White Sox, 11 Comiskey park in Chicago. Ted Kluszewski, obtained by the Sox from Pittsburgh late in the year, pounded two home runs and a

an average for 1949-58 of 90,398,000 bu. Barley stocks on July i in principal exporting countries totaled

seven-run outburst in the third.

396.000,000 bu.. as compared with 347.000.000 bu. a year earlier

2

and were nearly double the 1950-54 average. World production was indicated at 3,240,000.000 bu. from 136,560,000 ac, 2%

run on Charley Neal's fifth-inning

smaller than the 1958 crop but one-fifth larger than the average (J.

K. R.)

single for five runs-batted-in, to tie a series record

ease things for Sox pitcher Early to six hits until

the state of California

its first

world baseball championship. The Dodgers, who had placed seventh in the National league in 1958 (their first season on the west coast following a franchise shift from Brooklyn), beat the

he retired

The Sox jumped on runs in the

first

in the

Wynn, who

and

held the Dodgers

eighth inning with a

stiff

elbow.

Roger Craig, for two and then broke the game open with a

the losing pitcher

inning,

The Dodgers, however, won

3.

to o after four innings,

first series

the second game, 4 to Los Angeles collected its

home run

off

Trailing

pitcher

Bob

Shaw. In the seventh inning. Chuck Essegian, pinch hitting for

Johnny Podres, homered to tie the and following a walk to Junior Gilliam, Neal second home run to put the Dodgers ahead, 4 to 2. The

the ultimate winning pitcher,

score at

2

socked his

Wholesale changes came to major league baseball

The Los Angeles Dodgers gave

pitcher

brought up by Los Angeles from the minor leagues late

Canada decreased acreage devoted to barley to 8,289,000 ac, compared with 9,548,000 ac. in 1958 and an average of 7,958,000 ac. for 1948-57. Production was indicated at 227,000,000 bu., down 18,000,000 bu. from 1958. Carry-over on Aug. i was 127.132.000 bu. as compared with 118,165.000 bu. in 1958 and as

for 1950-54.

games behind.

24-yr.-old

to o, at

'Preliminary estimate.

Docohqll

.... ....

Detroit

the Pittsburgh Pirates were fourth, nine

1959*

408,442

Dmrnark

Major league Standingt, 1959

Final

I,

Won

.83 78

.... ....

Pillsburgh

Average

Averoge Counlry

India

with fourth-place Detroit

first place,

The San Francisco Giants

bu.)

Unitod SlalBi

West Germany

.

Milwaukee'.

Milwaukee,

United Kingdom

pennant since 1919. The Yankees finished

son games to qualify for a National league pennant play-off with

(in

Turkey

a

the persistent Indians late in

off

Stonding al close ol season, Sept. 29

Barley Production of the Principal Producing Countries

France

The White Sox won out by

affair.

out.

National league

Europe.

Canada

Chicago White Sox and the

Yankees, and turned the American

games, beating

games back of

by

the 1958 crop year were a record high 118,000,000 bu., largely

Eailem europs

New York

league race into a two-team

bu.).

Farmers in August received an average of 83 cents per bushel, down from 88 cents at the same time in 1958. The official average support price on the 1959 crop was reduced to 77 cents per bushel (60% of parity price) as compared with 93 cents (70% of parity) on the 1958 crop. Carry-over stocks on July i were a record large 193,000,000 bu., 15% above the previous record set in 1958. Imports were estimated at 20.000,000 bu.; exports in to western

— The

but continued

as the leading producing state with 75,259,000 bu., followed

California (69,225,000 bu.) and

president.

Cleveland Indians took the play away from the defending world

1958; 15,089,000 ac. were indicated for harvest as compared with 14,876,000 ac. harvested in 1958 and an average for 1948-

the average yield dropped to 27.1 bu. per acre as

its

Major League Races.

above average for the decade 1948-57. Farmers

March intended

in

14% below

to 2,

Sox threatened to pull the game out of the fire in the eighth inning. With runners on first and second and no one out, Al Smith lined a double to left. Pinch-runner Earl Torgeson scored easily from second, but Sherm LoUar, hesitating as he rounded second to determine whether left-fielder Wally Moon might make the catch, was thrown out at home with room to spare. The rally

WORLD

died shortly thereafter and the Dodgers were victorious, thereby tying the series at one

The

game

apiece.

games

Los Angeles Coliseum, with its celebrated short left-field foul line (251 ft.), for the third game, and the first of three record crowds (in excess of 92,000) watched the Dodgers win, 3 to i. The first six innings were scoreless. Dick Donovan of the Sox yielded only one hit in that stretch,

Don

Dr>'sdale of the Dodgers

worked

his

way

in

Wynn

and Craig picked up where they

left off in

the series

opener, as they took over the pitching assignments in the fourth

Wynn lasted only until the third inning when, with two Los Angeles spurted for four runs to take a commanding 4 to o lead. However, Chicago bounced back in the seventh inning against Craig. Three singles produced one run, and Sox

game. out,

catcher Lollar then arched a three-run screen to tie the score 4 to

4.

homer over

home run

in

the

the left-field

Sherry came on to check the White

in the eighth inning to set the stage for Gil

walloped a

Dodger

Hodges, who

half of the inning to break

the deadlock and provide a 5 to 4 Los Angeles victory. The Dodgers then held the upper hand in the series, three games

fifth

unequaled

game, the

last at the

in earlier contests as

Coliseum, brought dramatics

the Sox won,

i

to o,

on a com-

bined shutout by Shaw, Billy Pierce and Donovan.

Chicago scored with a single single,

eighth. In that inning, a spectacular one,

off

at bay until the Los Angeles loaded

the bases with one out, but finally, following a series of pinch-

by

hitters

the

Dodgers and two pitching changes by the White

Sox, the Chicago club emerged without surrendering a run, and

victory was assured.

The

Comiskey park in Chicago for what game. Los Angeles, still protecting a 3 to 2 advantage in games, made quick work of Wynn. A home run by Duke Snider with one on gave the Dodgers and Podres a series returned to

turned out to be the

2 to

final

o margin in the third, and a six-run splash in the fourth ran

o. Kluszewski's three-run homer glimmer of hope for Chicago, but it only forced the Dodgers to bring in the reliable Sherry. He was again equal to the situation, halting the Sox on three hits and no runs over the last 53 innings. The final Dodger run was

the Los Angeles lead to 8 to

when Essegian slapped his second pinch homer of the series to the left-field seats. The final score was Dodgers 9, White Sox 3. Individually, the rival first basemen, Hodges and Kluszewski, led the series batting averages with identical marks of .391. Each scored in the ninth

made

its

Fox .led off on Jim Landis'

lone run in the fourth. Nellie

Sandy Koufax, moved

to third

and came home as Lollar bounced into a double play.

9 hits in 23 at-bats, although Kluszewski

hammered

in

a total of 10 runs, tying the series record.

Total attendance at this richest of

all

series

was a record

420,874, with the net receipts $5,626,973.44, including $3,000,000

and radio receipts. The Dodgers voted 29 full worth $11,231.18 each, to its players; the White Sox, 31 shares at $7,275.17 each. Both were record amounts.

from

to one.

The

2

Shaw, the starter and winner, held the Dodgers

in the fourth served as a

the eighth inning.

Sox

to

series shifted to the vast

and out of trouble repeatedly. Donovan was replaced by Gerry Staley when Los Angeles loaded the bases on Neal's single and two walks in the bottom of the seventh. Carl Furillo of the Dodgers, pinch hitting with two out, drilled a grounder which skipped over shortstop Luis Aparicio's glove and into centre field. Two runs scored on the single and the issue was settled, even though Sherry was forced to save Drysdale when the Sox threatened in while

1959 SERIES. Left, aerial view of Comiskey park, Chaago, home of the White Sox, Oct. 1, the first day of the series. Right, Los Angeles Dodgers outfielders Duke Snider (left) and Norm Larker converging on a fly ball in the first game. The White Sox won the game, but the Dodgers won the series, 4

television

shares,

—

Individual Performances. The highlight of the regular season came when Harvey Haddix of Pittsburgh pitched a hitherto unparalleled 12 perfect innings against Milwaukee. a bizarre turn in the 13th as

Haddix

lost

The

feat took

both his no-hitter and

97

BASEBALL

98

I

The American league evened

the score almost four weeks later

Los Angeles Coliseum. The Americans won

at the

5 to 3, with

Jerry Walker of Baltimore gaining the decision over

Don

Drys-

dale of Los Angeles,

Managerial Changes.

— Six managerial

posts changed hands

The Detroit Tigers fired Bill Norman in favour of Jimmy Dykes early in the year after a poor start in the season. The Boston Red Sox later replaced .Mike Higgins with Billy Jurges, and the Cincinnati Red Legs in

1959, three during the season.

(lUSted

Mayo Smith and

Upon conclusion

installed

Fred Hutchinson.

of the season, Fred

Haney

resigned at Mil-

waukee, and Charley Dressen replaced him. The Chicago Cubs released Bob Scheffing and named club Vice-Pres. Charley Grimm to the post; Grimm had previously served two different terms as Cubs' manager. Scheffing signed on as a coach at Milwaukee. The Kansas City Athletics dismissed Harry Craft. The job went to

Bob Elliott. Attendance.

—

The Chicago White Sox-Cleveland Indians pennant race helped boost American league attendance by 27% in

HARVEY HADDIX,

pitcher with the Plttsburflh Pirates, )reparlng to throw Eddie Mathews, IVIilwaukee Braves, May 26, 1959. Haddix pitched 12 innings of hitlets baseball longer than any other pitcher In ba eball history but loit the gama In the 13th Inning, 2-0 to

—

—

by The Sporting News, Both clubs drew almost 1,500,000 show substantial increases. However, the New York

1959, according to figures published

the national baseball weekly. fans,

to

Yankees, although shorn of their championship, nevertheless led the league with 1,552,030 paid admissions.

Lew Burdette and Warren Spahn

the game.

of Milwaukee, along

with Jones, topped the league in wins with 21.

The earned-run

attracted 9,149,174 spectators as

The league

as a whole

compared with 7,296,034

in

1958-

Sam Jones of San Francisco with 2.82. Relief pitcher Elroy Face of Pittsburgh won 17 straight and finished with an

but the Los Angeles Dodgers led both leagues with 2,073,812

18 to

attendants.

leader was

record.

I

Sandy Koufax of Los Angeles broke the National league strikeout record and equaled Bob Feller's major league mark of 18 against the San Francisco Giants.

Two

abbreviated no-hit games, rained out before completion,

were effected by San Francisco pitchers Sam Jones (seven nings) and Mike McCormick (five innings).

Hank Aaron won

Milwaukee's

in-

the National league batting

with .355. His teammate, Eddie Mathews, barely beat the Chicago Cubs' Ernie Banks, 46 to 45, for home run honours.

National league attendance dropped 1.7% from a year

earlier,

—

The Minor Leagues. Table III indicates the 1959 pennant and play-off winners in minor baseball leagues. (J. Be.)

—

Boys Baseball. Hamtramck (Mich.) won the 1959 Little League championship laurels by routing the Auburn (Calif.) team 12 to o, in the final round of the play-offs at Williamsport, Pa., on Aug. 29. Arthur Deras, the winning pitcher, struck out 14 batters and aided his own cause with a three-run homer.

title

Banks

led in runs-batted-in with 143.

In the .American league, batting honours went to the Detroit Tigers' Har\'ey

Kuenn, who finished with a .353 average. Rocky Harmon Killebrew of the Washington

Colavito of Cleveland and

home run leadership with 42. Jackie Jensen Red Sox drove in the most runs, 112.

Senators tied for the of the Boston

The

biggest winner in pitching

cago White Sox with

22.

The

Baltimore Orioles' Hoyt Wil-

helm led earned-run with

Aparicio

figures

Shortstop

2.19.

of

the

Luis

White Sox

stole 56 bases.

All-Star

Games.

— For the

time in major league his-

first

tory,

two All-Star games were

played instead of the custo-

mary

one, for the benefit of

the players' pension fund.

The National

league beat

the .American league 5 to 4 in

game

the

first

in

Pittsburgh,

at

Forbes

with

field

Johnny

San Franwinning pitcher, and Whitey Ford of the New York Yankees the Antonelli

cisco

loser.

of

Giants

the

the

was veteran

Table

II.

— Attendance

National league

Wynn

of the Chi-

al

Major League Baseball Parks, 1958 and 1959

—

:

—

BASKE TBALL Schenectady (N.Y.) won the consolation piize by defeating Kailua of Hawaii i to o, in the play-off for third place. Monterrey of Mexico, winner for two straight years, was dropped from

the tournament for a violation of rules, being charged with ignoring the rule requiring all players to reside within the boundaries

the league prescribed.

One of came

to an end on March 21 when Kentucky defeated Auburn, which had won 30 consecutive contests.

series at Stockton, Cahf.,

i

Babe

in the

on Aug.

20.

Table

American Legion junior championship by defeating Hampton (Va.) II to 4, at Hastings, Neb. Uniontown (Pa.) won the national tourney sponsored by the Veterans of Foreign Wars with a I

victory over Endicott (N.Y.) at Hershey, Pa., Aug. 21.

Dearborn (Mich.) beat San Antonio (Tex.) 4

American Amateur Baseball congress final at Battle Creek, Mich. Long Beach (Cahf.) defeated Green county (Pa.) 8 to o for Pony league honours at Washington, Pa. In the Pony Grads league world series for the

won two

J.

to 3 in the

G. Taylor Spink trophy, Lufkin (Tex.)

games from Springfield (111.), the tournament host, to triumph. Detroit and Cincinnati were declared cochampions of the National Amateur Baseball federation junior tournament when their final meeting at Altoona, Pa., was halted by rain on two successive days. College Baseball. Oklahoma State gained the National Collegiate Athletic association title by defeating Arizona 5 to 3 in straight

—

the final round of the 1959 tourney at

Omaha

(Neb.) June

18.

Other major college champions of the year included the

fol-

lo^^ing

Table

Mason-Dixon

Central A. &

— — Hampden-Sydney — — — Western (Big Ten) — Minnesota Mid-.\merican —Ohio U. and Southeast Mississippi Southern George Washington Atlantic Coast Clemson

Western Michigan (tied) Missouri Valley conference Bradley "

(Big Eight)

Oklahoma State Rocky Mountain Greeley Midwest

I..\.C.

— —North Carolina

State

T.

—Coe —

Ohio Valley Eastern Kentucky, Middle Tennessee, Murray State (tied)

—Utah Border— Arizona Coast — Southern Southwest— Texas Pacific

A.

—Cof/ege league Champions,

in

Yank.e

....

Middle Atlonlic (Univerjity div.l Middle Atlantic INortliern college Middle Atlantic (Soutliern collese

dlv.| div.)

Atlontic

Southeasterti

Mid-American

(T. V. H.)

—

Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Catching in Baseball (1947); Fence Buster (Babe Ruth) (1956): Bitting in Baseball (1947); King oj Diamonds (Lou Gehrig) (1956); Mr. Baseball (Connie Mack) (1956); Throwing in Baseball (1947).

.

ir,

Connecticut St. Joseph'j Hofstro West Chester North Carolina Sta Mississippi State

Midwest Ohio Valley Western (Big Ten)

Philodelphio, Pa.

Hempstead, N.Y. West Chester, Pa. Roleigh, N.C. State College. Miss.

Bowling Green, O. Oxford, O. Galesburg, III. Richmond, Ky.

Eastern Kentucky Michigan State Konsos Stole Utah

Big Eight

Mountain States (Skyline) Border Rocky Mountain Pocif)c Coast West Coast

Eost tansing, Mich.

Monhotlon, Kon. Salt Loke City, Utah Albuquerque, N.M.

New Mexico Idaho State California St.

Missouri Valley

Pocotello, Ida.

Berkeley, Calif. Marys College, Colif.

Mary's

St.

Cincinnati Texos Christian West Virginio

Southwest Southern

N.H.

Storri

Miami Knox

Cincinnati, O. Fort Worth, Tex. Morgontown, W.Vo.

Evansville (Ind.) 'became champion of the small-college division of the N.C.A.A.

by defeating Southwest Missouri State

March

(Springfield) 83-67, at Evansville on

and

13.

Tennessee A.

(Nashville) subdued Pacific Lutheran (Parkland, Wash.)

I.

97-87, at Kansas City on in

March

14 to carry off

its

third straight

the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. college (Ogden,

Utah) took national junior honours, top-

ping Bethany Lutheran (Mankato, Minn.) S7-47> at Hutchinson, Kan., March 21. St. John's (Brooklyn, N.Y.) won the 22nd

annual National Invitation tourney at New York's Madison Square Garden, becoming the first team to gain the title three times. St. John's, victor in the 1943

game sweep

and 1944 events, beat Brad-

76-71 in overtime.

111.)

—The Boston

Celtics scored a four-

against the Minneapolis Lakers in the final play-offs

to capture the National

Basketball association championship.

With Bill Sharman accounting for 29 points, the Celtics, coached by Red Auerbach, came from behind to win the concluding battle 118-113 the first team in the circuit's history to take the title

—

in four consecutive

n..L_xi..|| California won the National Collegiate Athletic DdolvClUdll. association basketball title by edging West Vir-

.

Bowling Green

(tied)

Professional Basketball. California

& M.

1959

Dartmouth

ley (Peoria,

Mountain States

I.

|lvy)

Weber

—

Missouri Valley

—

champions of 1959 are shown

teogu.

Easlem

title

Eastern (Ivy) Navy Yankee Connecticut Big Three Princeton

college league

I.

Stam-

ford (Conn.) beat Palo Alto (Calif.) s to 4 for third place. The of Detroit won the annual national

Thomas A. Edison post

4 to

the longest winning streaks in intercollegiate basket-

ball

The major

Tulsa (Okla.) defeated Sikeston (Mo.) 3 to

Ruth league world

99

Boozer (Kansas State), Bailey Howell (Mississippi State), and Johnny Cox (Kentucky).

games. (See Table II.)

The West defeated

the East 124-108 in the annual all-star

battle at Detroit's 01>'mpia stadium, Jan. 23.

ginia 71-70, in the final

round of the 1959 tournament in Louisville, Ky., on March 21. The Golden Bears gave the Pacific Coast conference its first N.C.A.A. crown since 1942. Denny Fitzpatrick, with 20 points, led the victors' scoring, while Jerry

West

talhed 28 for the losers. In the play-off for third place, Cincin-

came from behind to conquer Louis^'ille 98-85. California had advanced to the ultimate round by subduing Cincinnati 64nati

West Virginia had gained at the expense of Louisville 94-79. The last two rounds at Louisville capped a series of elimination play-offs that had attracted a field of 23 league and 58, while

Toble II.— N.B.A. Championship Play-offs, 1959 Eostern semifinals

Syracuse 129, Syrocuse 131,

New New

York 123 York 1 IS

Minneapolis 92, Detroit 89 Detroit 1 17, Minneapolis 103 Minneapolis 129. Detroit 102

Eastern finols

Boston 131, Syracuse Syracuse 1 20, Boston Boston 133, Syrocuse Syrocuse 119, Boston Boston 129, Syracuse Syracuse 133, Boston Boston 130, Syracuse

1 1

09 1

11

Western

8

finals

90 98 97 98 97

St.touis 124, Minneapolis Minneapolis 106, St.touis St.Louis 127, Minneapolis Minneapolis 108, St.touis

1

107 108 121

Minneapolis 98, St.Louis Minneapolis 106. Sl.Louis 104

125 All-chompionship Unols

sectional champions.

Kansas State was ranked first in the season's concluding poll by United Press International. Others in the top ten were Kentucky, Michigan State, Cincinnati, North Carolina State, North Carolina and Mississippi State (tied for sixth), Bradley, Cahfomia and Auburn. The order of teams in the

Vickers routed the Phillips 66 Oilers of Bartlesville, Okla., 105-

Associated Press poll of writers was Kansas State, Kentucky,

winning the men's A.A.U.

of coaches

Amateur

83 in the last round of the 1959 tournament at Denver, Colo. the first team to go over the 100 mark in

The Vickers became

Bradley, Cincinnati, North Carolina State,

The Army

Michigan State, Auburn, North Carolina and West Virginia. Chosen on the Associated Press first All-America team were Oscar Robertson (Cincinnati), Jerry West (West Virginia), Bob

tional league

Mississippi State,

Athletic Union Basketball.—The Wichita (Kan.)

title final.

All-Stars subdued the San Francisco 01>Tnpic club

102-79 to gain third place. The Denver Truckers clinched Na-

honours by halting Peoria,

The Flying Queens

of

Wayland (Tex.)

111.,

102-100, at Denver.

Baptist college dethroned

1 )

BASUTOLAND — BELGIAN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES

100

the Nashville (I'cnn.)

business college team as women's

title-

holder in the annual tournament at St. Joseph, Mo. Toledo (O. set back Lexington (Ky.) 93-82 for the national Y.M.C.A.

crown

at Franklin, Pa.

World Amateur Championship. Santiago, Chile, late

in

— Sixteen

Jan. 1959, in the third

teams battled title

at

event super-

The won five consecutive final-round title when it refused to meet Taiwan

vised by the International .Xmateur Basketball federation.

Soviet Union quintet, which had

games,

lost its points

and the

(Nationalist China's representative) in the competition. Brazil,

by beating Chile 73-49, gained top honours. The U.S., represented by an improvised air force team, drew sharp criticism for the weakness of its entry, which was crushed by the Russians (T. V. H.) 62-37, and by Brazil 81-67, in the last round.

—

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Ball Handling in (1946); Drjensive Footwork in Basketball (1946); Mr. (George Mikan) (1956); Shooting in Basketball (1946).

Basketball Basketball

British South African Territories.

Basutoland:

see

Q

(Baudouin Albert Charles Leopold Axel Marie Gustave) (1930), King of the Bel-

•

I

I

DdUOOUin

I

was born on Sept. 7 at Stuyvenberg castle, Brussels, the elder son of King Leopold III and Queen Astrid. He accompanied his father during his internment in Germany (June 1944-May gians,

1945) and his subsequent voluntary exile in Switzerland. He was for the most part privately educated but during his father's stay

KING BAUDOUIN AND

U.S.

GEN. ALBERT PIERSON approaching the Tomb May 11, 1959. The king

Unknowns. Arlington National cemetery, Va., placed a wreath on the tomb

of the

925,907 sq.mi. Total pop. (1958 est.) 18,259,000. Areas, poputown, status and governors of the separate terri-

lations, capital

tories are given in the table.

Geneva (1945-50), he attended a state college at Geneva. On Aug. 11, 1950, he was informed that parliament had granted him power to exercise the royal prerogatives, and he at Pregny, near

Anos Under Aroo Country.

acted as head of state until Leopold's abdication on July 16, 1951. as

The

following day he took the oath before the parliament

King Baudouin

On May week

visit.

(In

Belgian

Africani

Congo

904,991

Belgian Control

Populolion 11958

sq.mi.l

1

est.) *

3,559,000

Nonindigenoui 109,457

Copilol

Slolus

liopoldville (pop.: 350,000

Colony

incl.

nelii,

govemar-

about

20,000

I.

general

Euro-

peoni)

10, 1959,

He was

Sullan-

he arrived in Washington, D.C., for a three-

received by Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower and

Governor Henri Cor-

Ruanda

Truit

J

the following day addressed a joint session of the U.S. congress.

On June

16 he paid an

official visit to

Luxembourg and on July

*1

958 Ceniul

fPrincipol

of Europeani.

town of Ruanda,

Kigolij principal

town of Urundi, Kitego.

8-12 to the Netherlands.

XII, was born

dinal Bea, personal confessor to

May

Pope Pius

28 in Riedbohringen, Baden, Ger. Entering

the Society of Jesus on April

was ordained

His Eminence Agostino Car-

).

to the priesthood

8,

1902, at Blyenbeek, Neth., he

on Aug.

25, 191 2.

From

191 7 to

— Important events occurred

in the Belgian Congo in by degrees toward self-government was disturbed on several occasions by the repercussions of the new situation in the neighbouring Congo republic, part of the former French

History.

(is

Dcd, n^UbllllO

1959. Progress

Equatorial Africa.

Reforms had already been introduced and

local elections took

The name

1921 he served as prefect of studies at the Jesuit philosophical

place in several centres in 1957 and 1958.

and theological

was changed to the ministry of the Belgian Congo and of Ruanda-Urundi. A government statement about the future of the Congo was announced when, on Jan. 4. rioting started in Leopoldville, the capital, after the police had dispersed a meeting for which no permission had been asked. On that tragic Sunday police vans were set on fire, cars belonging to Europeans were attacked and damaged, shops, schools and missions were raided. The following day looting continued, 49 Europeans and 74 Africans were taken to hospitals and Afri-

institute at Valkenburg, Neth.,

to 1924 as Jesuit prov-incial of

upper Germany.

and from 192

Named

director

of the Jesuit Fathers' Institute of Higher Ecclesiastical Studies in

Rome

in 1924,

he was transferred to the Pontifical Biblical

1928 and served as rector of that institute from 1930 to 1949. A noted biblical scholar, he presided over the commission which produced new translations of the Psalms in

institute in

1945.

He was

Commission and director of the periodical Biblica. Pope

also a consultant to the Pontifical

for Biblical Studies

John XXIII elevated him Nov. 16, 1959.

to the

Sacred College of Cardinals on

can troops fired on the crowds to restore order. According to reports 37 Africans were killed and 12 died afterward. parliamentary commission of inquiry reported on March 28

official

A Bechuanaland Protectorate:

of the minis-

try of the colonies

British South African

see

human

had not kept pace with the evolution of was resented and Africans had developed oversensitiveness. Other causes were the economic recession, the influx of natives into overcrowded Leopold^^lle, large-scale unemployment and young people remaining idle. The effect of Communist propaganda should not be that

some

Territories.

Beef: see Meat. Beer: see Brewing and Beer. Belgian Congo: see Belgian 0\'erseas Territories.

relations

of the African population. Segregation

exaggerated but the influence of the independence given to the

Belgian Overseas Territories.

Snto'Sc'lZ'S:

Congo in central Africa and the adjacent trust territories of Ruanda and Urundi administered with the Congo. Total area:

former territories of French Equatorial Africa and the directive givea to the Pan-African congress

On

in

Accra was important.

Jan. 13 King Baudouin in a broadcast and the government

BELGIUM in

parliament announced reforms leading to independence.

rice

Mau-

van Hemelrijck, minister of the Congo, paid several visits and introduced reforms aS a prelude to general

to the territory

Freedom of

elections.

meetings was granted.

and of public

the press, of association

When

the minister announced his inten-

up a provisional government several of his colleagues and he resigned on Sept. 3. He was succeeded by Auguste de Schrijver, a minister of state and the

101

per, smelter 237,562; zinc, smelter 53,438; tin concentrates, metal content 9,500; tin, smelter 2,684; cobalt ore 4,342; manganese ore 338,145;

tungsten, WO3 content (1957) 1.423; gold 10,957 kg.; diamonds, gem and industrial 16,673.474 metric carats. Encvclop/Edia Beiiannica Films. A Giant People (the Watussi) (1939); People 0/ the Congo (the Mangbetu) (1939); Pygmies of Africa

—

(1939).

tion to set

in the cabinet disagreed

experienced "wise man'' of the Christian Social party.

De

Schrijver said he intended to adopt an economic policy

^ kingdom of western Europe, Belgium is bounded RDlffilim DCIglUIII. southwest by France, north by the Netherlands and east by Germany and Luxembourg. Area 11,779 sq.mi. Pop.: (1947 census) 8,512,195; (1958 est.) 9,078,635. Language: Flem41.8%; French 34.2%; Flemish and French 15.6%; German

running parallel with the political evolution because the eco-

ish

nomic aspect had not been sufficiently taken into account. A new timetable for reforms was outlined by the minister on Oct. 16 providing for direct elections for district and rural councils in December by an electorate estimated at more than 3,000,000 male African and Belgian inhabitants of the Congo aged 21 and over. Contrary to the Belgian system, voting was not compulsory. The next stage was the granting to the six provinces of extensive powers over education, public works and other matters and the setting up in March i960 of provincial councils. Six-tenths of

0.7%. Rehgion: mainly

members

of provincial councils were to be elected

bers of district and rural these

councils,

three-tenths

by the memco-opted by

members and one-tenth nominated among representative The third step was also to be made in i960, namely the

people.

of two legislative assemblies, a chamber elected by the district and rural councilors, and a senate elected partly by the provincial councils, the other members being co-opted or chosen by the king. Both houses would be competent to pass bills. A central government would be presided over by the governor-general, representative of the king. The competence of the government and of the assemblies would not include foreign and monetary policies. The task of the assemblies would be to draft a constitution to be submitted to the people for approval. Afterward Belgium and the Congo, each acting in full independence, would be able to decide through their legislative and executive organs about installation

directly or

their

common

institutions.

Pending the elections further clashes resulting from

tribal

Roman Catholic. Chief towns (pop. 1958 est): Brussels (capital) 170,568; Antwerp 261,666; Ghent 160,669; Liege 156,599; Bruges 52,535; Hasselt 35,019; commune

Namur

33,062; Charleroi 25,962. Ruler, King Baudouin

I.

Prime

minister in 1959, Gaston Eyskens.

History.

— King Baudouin made during

the United States,

1959

official visits to

Luxembourg and the Netherlands. He

also

Queen Elizabeth II at Balmoral and Pres. Heinrich Liibke Bonn, when he inspected Belgian mihtary units in western

visited in

Germany. The nation rejoiced when Prince Albert, brother of the king and heir to the throne, married Donna Paola Ruffo di Calabria. ELing Leopold, father of King Baudouin, who was president of the Belgian National Commission for the Promotion of Science and Research, delivered the report of the commission on the need for a reform of higher education, easier access to and to scientific careers. The 83-year-old Queen

universities

Elisabeth, the king's grandmother, visited Israel and Yugoslavia.

Rejoicing alternated with grave concern, mainly about troubles in the Belgian rift in

Congo and

the cabinet over the

in the resignation of

in the trust territory of

Congo reforms

Ruanda.

A

resulted in September

Maurice van Hemelrijck and

his succession

by Auguste de Schrijver as minister for the affairs of Congo, Ruanda and Urundi. The country also faced the problem of a coal surplus (7,000,000 tons in stock) and of uneconomic coal mines. Working days were reduced to four, and when some pits were closed strikes occurred in the Borinage area and spread through the province of Hainault.

Baluba. Meanwhile the economic situation improved. Total value

At the end of February an agreement was reached between the government, the employers and the unions over the timing of

first six months of 1959 increased by 12.5%. The government decided to grant the Congo in i960 an

miners.

hatred occurred, mainly in the Kasai district between Lulua and of the exports during the

exceptional

aid

amounting

to

$40,000,000 and to contribute

$60,000,000 to a special fund for underdeveloped areas, mainly the

Ruanda and (M. H. St.)

Belgian Congo and the trust territories of

Urundi. Education.

— Schools:

Congo (1957-58): primary (ind. intermediate)

28,485, pupils 1,576,014; secondary 131, pupils 9,470: vocational 457, pupils 20,547; teacher-training 213, students 16,091. The University of the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi had 133 students and Lovanium university 177 students. Ruanda-Urundi (1956—57): primary (incl. preprimary) 2,703, pupils 236,922; secondary 5, pupils 594; teacher-training 25, students 2.003. Finance.

— Monetary

unit:

Congolese franc, nominally an independent

currency, actually at par with the Belgian franc. Budgets (1958): Congo: revenue (ordinar>*) 12,471,570,000 fr., (extraordinary) 263,000,000 fr.; expenditure (ordinary) 12,438,686,000 fr., (extraordinary) 5,953,000,000 fr. Ruanda-Urundi: revenue (ordinary) 1,024,000,000 fr., (extraordinarj-) 486,000,000 fr.; expenditure (ordinary) 1,018,000,000 fr., (extraordinary)

508,000,000 Foreign

fr.

— (1958)

Imports 17,986,000,000 fr.; exports 20,581,000,000 fr.; gold exports (1958) 580,063,000 fr. Transport and Communications. Roads (1957) 150.000 km. Motor vehicles (1957): passenger 36,400, commercial (incl. buses) 25.450. Railways (1957) 5,133 km. Waterways (1957) 15,000 km. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 22,370. Agriculture. Production: Congo (metric tons, 1958: 1957 in parentheses): palm oil 225,115 (231,850); palm kernels 143,824 (144,530); cottonseed 142.578 (129,829); rubber 37,422 (35,089); cotton, lint S4,ooo (46,000); coffee 53,790 (43,055); peanuts 168,722 (176,988); sweet potatoes and yams 319,411 (345,124); cassava 7,560,765 (7,793,800); sawn hardwood 316,470 cu.m. (1956: 321.000 cu.m.). RuandaUrundi (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): coffee 25.334 (29.969); peanuts 6,669 (5.637); sweet potatoes and yams 1,268,710 (1,411,660); cassava 1,361,396 (1,501,560); dry beans 294,886 (268,185), Industry. J*roduction: Congo (metric tons, 1958): coal 294,323; copTracJe.

—

—

—

mine closures and arrangements for re-employment of A total of 34 pits were to be closed over a period of three years. In the Ghent area there were demonstrations when textile factories were closed. The general economic recession affected Belgium later than other countries because of considerable works coal

executed for the Brussels exhibition of 1958, but the improvement in 1959 was slower than in other countries. However, the general index of industrial production (1953

mated

=

100) was

esti-

at 128.5 for Oct.

1959 against 120.7 in Oct. 1958. Steel production reached record figures (587,000 tons in October). House-building was again in progress and there was a recovery in all textile branches.

A

railways, roads, canals

index (1953 Oct. 1958.

=

long-term program of improvements to and ports was drafted. The cost of hving

100) rose to 110.4 in Oct. 1959 against 108.2 in

As a

wages of civil servants and of workers and pensions had to be adjusted.

result

in various industries

Increasing state expenditure forced the government in

ber to increase postal rates. There was

much

Novem-

opposition against

other intended taxation increases, and severe cuts in the i960

budget expenditure were advocated. Reforms

in education, the

program for scientific research and especially aid to the Belgian Congo meant an exceptional financial burden only to be eased by reducing mihtary expenditure. In September the period of military service was reduced to one year. A border dispute dating from the middle ages was settled after the Belgian and Dutch governments decided to submit the case

BENEFACTIONS — BERLIN

102 to the International

Belgian enclaves

in

Court of Justice. The dispute concerned the the Baarle Nassau and Baarle Hcrtog region

where an area of about 30

by 10 votes to

ac.

was contested. On June

jo, 1959,

court found that the sovereignty belonged

4, the

to Belgium, i'tv also

European Unity.

(M. H.

St.)

—

Education. Schools (1956-57): primary (including prcprimary) 13,S86. pupils 1,398.237. teachers (19SS) 43.696; secondary 891, pupils 161,878. teachers (official only) 8,204; vocational (i955-s6) 2,532, pupils (1956-57) 147. 117; tcacher-lraininR 175, students 20,463. Institutions of higher education 30 (including 5 universities), students (i957-s8) 30,143. Financ* and Banking. Monetary unit: Belgian franc, with an exchange rale of 50 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959 est.): revenue 101,900,000,000 fr.; expenditure 106,900,000.000 fr. Total public debt (Dec. 1957) 305,300.000,000 fr.; external debt (Dec. 1958) 29,500,000,000 fr. Gold and foreign exchange holdings (central bank, U.S. dollars, April 1958; 1,259,000,000 (1,475,000,000). Currency April 1959 in parentheses): circulation (Belgium-Luxembourg economic union, Feb. 1958; Feb. 1959 in parentheses) 113,900,000,000 fr. (118,900,000,000 fr.). Deposit money (Feb. 1958; Feb. 1959 in parentheses) 79,200,000,000 fr. (86,100,000,-

—

000

fr.).

— (Belgium-Luxembourg exports

economic union, 1958): imports 152,267,000,000 fr. Main sources of imports: Netherlands 16%; France 12%; other E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 9%; U.K. 7%; other sterling area 8%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin America 5%. Main destination of exports: Netherlands 21%; Germany 12%; France 11%; other E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 12%; U.K. 6%; other sterling area 6%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin Foreign Trad*.

156,447.000,000

Germany

fr.;

17%;

America 6%. Transport and Communicafions. hicles in use (.Vug.

—

Roads (1958) 93,000 km. Motor ve1956): passenger 532,771; commercial 148,506. Rail-

"ANOTHER SURPLUS PROBLEM,"

1959 cartoon by Alexmder

a

of

The

Evening Bulletin, Philadelphia

ways (S.N.C.B. and S.N.C.V., 1957) 6.703 km.; passenger-km. (S.N.C.B. only, 1958) 9,024.000.000; freight, ton-km. (S.N.C.B. only, 1938) 5,772,000,000. Shipping: merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over (July 1958): 199; total tonnage 601,000. Navigable inland waterways (1956): 1,583 km. .^ir transport (1958); passenger-km. 1,198.056,000; freicht, ton-km. 34.596.000. Telephones (Jan. 1958): 986,953. Radio receiving sets (1957) 2.307.000. Television receivers (1957) 250,000. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 794.000 (766.000); oats 443,000 (454.000); barley 318,000 (296,000): rye 200,000 (190.000); potatoes 1,956,000 (2,043,000); flax fibre 28,100 (29,800); beet sugar (raw) 415.000 (388.000); meat 344,400

—

catches (1957) 62.900 (69.100

in 1956). 27,060,000 metric tons; manufactured gas 2,256,000,000 cu.m.; electricity 12,516,000,000' kw.hr. Production (metric tons, 1958): pig iron 5.520,000; crude steel 6.012,000; copper, refined 155.160; lead, refined 95,880: zinc, smelter 214.800; tin, smelter 8.8S0; aluminum 2,760: cement 4.056,000; cotton yarn 82,280; cotton fabrics 67.200; wool yarn 38,040; woolen fabrics (1957) 30,000; rayon filament yarn 10,320; rayon staple fibre 16,680.

(362,400); Industry.

fish

— Fuel

and

power

(1958):

areas. In

September of that year he began a "good-will" tour

of

the U.S.S.R.

Rpntnn UCIIIUII, Minn.

William llllliaill

He was

in partnership

^'^°°" was

ficial,

),U.S. publisher and public of-

bom

on April

i

graduated from Yale university

Minneapohs,

in

in 1921. In 1929,

with Chester Bowles, he founded the advertising

agency of Benton and Bowles.

coal

Benton retired from the agency

The University

vice-president of

1936 and

in 1937 became where he served

on a part-time basis until 1945. In 1942, in collaboration with Paul G. Hoffman, he helped to found the Committee for Eco-

nomic Development. At

Benefactions: see Donations and Bequests. Benelux: see Belgium; European Unity; Luxembourg; Netherlands.

in

of Chicago,

his instance

The University

acquired Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., the company,

shared

its

in

became publisher and chairman of

of Chicago

He

1943.

its

financed

board and

ownership with the university. Within a year he

or-

ganized Encyclopaedia Britannica Films Inc., to produce and

^^

^'^^^~

government oAR

^ Rpn'. Ward was third on the A. B.C. records list of perfect games, having been credited with ten. Young set a mark in the 1958 A. B.C. championship toumey when he posted a nine-game all-events singles \ictor while city')

The Cellular Slime Molds by John Tyler BonFungi by Vincent W. Cochrane; Comparative Morphology of Vascular Plants by Adriance S. Foster and Ernest M. Giff'ord, Jr.; Taxonomy and Genetics of Oenothera by R. Ruggles Gates; Agricultural Botany by N. T. Gill and K. C. Vear; Natural History of the Phlox Family by Veme Grant; Systematics of Today ed. by Olov Hedberg; The Families of Flonering Plants, 2nd ed.. by J. Hutchinson; Men, Molds and History by Felix Marti Ibanez The Coconut Palm by K. P. V. Menon and K. M. Pandalali; Taschenbuch der Botanik (2 vol.) by Walter Me\ius Plant Life by Lorus J. MUne and Margery Milne; Methods of Vegetation Study by Edwin Allen Phillips; Circumpolar Arctic Flora by Nicholas Polunin Index Kewensis Books.

ner; Physiology of

;

;

;

total of

over 1,800 for the ninth straight time.

Women's

International Bowling Congress.

ing records were set in the

42d annual

title

—Two new

meeting

scor-

at Buffalo,

i6-May 31. The toumey attracted 4,491 teams from Canada and the United States. The Bill Snethkamp-Chrysler quintet of Detroit triumphed with 3.030. a new high for the tournament, April

whOe Pat McBride

of

Grand Rapids

tallied 1,927 to

win the

all-

events crown, breaking a standard that had stood since 1934.

BOWLS — BOXING

116 Wcnc and

Sylvia

World Championship Mofches.

Adele Ishpording of Philadelphia stored 1,263

and Mae I'loegnian Uolt of Chicago triwith a 664. Marion Ladewig and LaVerne

two

— Fifteen

world-title bouto

The champion-

to lead the doubles,

were

umphed

ship matches were well scattered, with 12 decided in the United

singles

in

Carter of

Louis won the women's national doubles at Rego

St.

Duck

Pins.

—

Bill

Bursey of Washington, D.C., scored 1,301 to

lake all-events honours in the 1959 championships of the

Duck

tional

Pin Bowling congress held at Baltimore.

A

Naof

list

in

I

title

Montreal, Que., and bouts were held,

473 8S0

universally

recognized.

evenl.-' Fionce. Wil.on, Woihinglon leom- Corou.el-Eo.twoy, Bollimore MIsed double.— Ann Bofford'Lou Koye, Bolllmore

1,190 1,882

oil.

Women,

810

(T. V. H.)

as follows:

Floyd Patterson knocked out Brian London, of England,

nth round

May

at Indianapolis, Ind.,

On June

weight championship.

2,0B1

432 774

in

2

in certain states. The middleweight NaBoxing association championship bout likewise was not

tional

Scon

M«n'i ilngl«i- Hilmar Sperichneider, Balllinore Man'i doublet- Varrton Morich-Fronli Hugelmgyer, Balllinore Chevy CKo.e Chevrolel, Woihinglon Men', loom Women, lingle. Dorothy Cridlin, Richmond, Vo Women', double.- Rulh Freemon-Audrey Alkin.on, Bolllmore

I

Tokyo. In addition, two but those were recognized as cham-

The championship bouts were

W.r

class.

pionship matches only

other winners follows:

Women',

heavyweight

in iht

'

Stales,

junior

May.

Park, N.V., in

.staged in 1959,

26, at

Yankee stadium. New York

however, Patterson was knocked out

city,

in the

to retain the heavy-

i,

in

the third round,

Ingemar Johansson of Sweden. .\rchie Moore retained the light-heavyweight championship by stopping Yvon Durelle of Canada in the third round at Montreal, losing his title to

Que., on Aug. 12.

Bowls:

.M'c

Gene Fullmer won

Lawn Howling.

the National Boxing association's recogni-

tion as world middleweight

'boxing in the United States suffered a setback in 1959

Rnvinn'

IIUAIIIg> 35

\yas

evidenced by investigations by the Kefauver

crime committee, grand jury hearings indictments

The

in

in

New York

and federal

won

its

antitrust case against

San Francisco,

Calif.

On

Dec. 4 Fullmer won a unanimous 15-round decision over "Spider" Webb at Logan, Utah.

Don Jordan

California based on extortion plots.

U.S. department of justice

champion when he stopped Carmen

Basilio in the 14th round, Aug. 28, at

Akins

gil

in 15

retained his welterweight

rounds at

St. Louis,

by outpointing

title

Mo., on

Vir-

Jordan again

.April 24.

the International Boxing club and the dissolution of that organi-

successfully defended his crown on July 10 at Portland, Ore., by

by James D. Norris and .-Xrthur Wirtz, was ordered. The sale of their stock broke up an empire that had ruled the sport for many years. It resulted in the forming of two new clubs, the Garden club in New York to handle the Friday night television shows and National Boxing Enterprises, Inc., to

outpointing

zation, controlled

Wednesday The year was one of

care for the

night programs.

small attendances and low receipts, and saw the replacement of New York city as a world boxing centre by Los Angeles. Calif. Boxing became more popular in other parts of the United States, particularly in California and Te.xas where Mexican boxers were coming into prominence. The United States lost its most precious boxing title when it

Ingemar Johansson of Sweden dethroned Floyd Patterson of New York at the Yankee stadium. In accomplishing the feat, Johansson scored seven knockdowns, the fight ending in the third round.

A

scandal followed the Johansson-Patterson bout because

of charges of irregularities in the promotion of the fight that

brought about investigations in

New

heavyweight Floyd Patterson struggling to rise after being knocked down by challenger Ingemar Johansson in their fight June 26, 1959. Johansson knocked out Patterson in the third round to win the title

on three

;

Davey Moore stopped Hogan "Kid" Bassey of Nigeria at the end of the 13th round to win the world featherweight championMarch

ship at Los .Angeles on

18.

Moore won

the rematch on

Aug. 19 at Los Angeles when Bassey quit at the end of the nth round.

On July 8 at Los Angeles Joe Becerra of Mexico knocked out Alphonse Halimi of France in the eighth round to win the world bantamweight crown. Pascual Perez of Argentina outpointed Kenji Yonekura of Jain 15 rounds to retain the flyweight championship at Tokyo,

pan

Aug.

FALLEN CHAMPION,

title

rounds at Houston,

6th-round technical knockout.

Nov.

fight.

in 15

on Feb. 1 1 on June 3, at Washington, D.C., he stopped Paolo Rosi in the 9th round; and on Dec. 2, in a bout with Dave Charnley of England, at Houston, Tex., Brown was awarded a Tex.,

York, senate rackets com-

promoted the

Johnny Busso

occasions: he outpointed

mittee hearings and the collapse of Rosensohn Enterprises, Inc., ivhich

Denny Moyer.

Joe Brown, lightweight champion, defended his

10.

Perez successfully defended his

title

at

Tokyo on

knocking out Sadao Yaoita of Japan in the 13th round. Carlos Ortiz stopped Kenny Lane at the end of the second round in their junior welterweight bout at New York city, 5,

June I :. In a junior lightweight bout at Providence, R.I., July Harold Gomes outpointed Paul Jorgensen in 15 rounds.

Amateur

Boxing.

— In the 71st annual national Amateur Ath-

union championships held at Toledo. 0..

letic

champions were: 112 fin.

Toledo; 125

lb..

20,

lb..

Roy Houpe, Columbus.

Daniels, Seattle, Wash.;

in April, individual

Gil Yanez, Toledo; 119

139

lb..

lb.,

0.; 132

Fred Griflb..

Quincy

Brian O'Shea, Chicago,

111.;

Vernon Vinson. Cleveland. 0.; 156 lb.. Wilbert McClure, Toledo; 165 lb.. Jimmy McQueen, Elyria. O. 178 lb., Cassius 147

lb..

;

Clay,

Louisville.

Ky.;

heavj-weight,

James Blythe, Hartford,

Conn. In the 32nd annual intercity Golden Gloves championship, held at the Chicago stadium, Chicago, dividual champions were:

118

lb.,

112

lb.,

111.,

March

Angel Morales,

Luis Figueroa, Puerto Rico; 126

lb.,

Don

25,

the in-

New

York;

Eddington,

St.

New

York; 147 lb., Ossie Marcano. New York; 160 lb., Wilbert McClure, Toledo; 175 lb,, Cassius Clay, Louisville, Ky. heavyweight, Sylvester Banks, Louis. Mo.; 135

lb..

Vincent Shomo.

;

New

York.

In the third Pan-.\merican boxing tournament, held in Chicago

:

BOY SCOUTS — BRAZIL in

September, the United States entrants won four of the ten gold

medals.

winners

Individual

119

tina;

were:

112

Waldo Claudiano,

lb.,

Argentina; 132

lb.,

Miguel

Brazil;

125

Abel Laudonio, Argentina; 140

lb.,

Argen-

Botta, lb.,

Carlos Aro,

Vincent

lb.,

Shomo, U.S.; 147 lb., Alfredo Comejo, Chile; 156 lb., Wilbert McClure, U.S.; 165 lb., Abrad de Souza, Brazil; 178 lb., Amos Johnson, U.S.; heavyweight, Allen Hudson, U.S. The United States won the team trophy. College Boxing. San Jose State college won the 1959 National Collegiate Athletic association team championship in the tournament held at Sacramento, Calif., in April. Individual win-

—

ners were: 112

Ron

lb.,

Heigi Shimabakro, College of Idaho; 119

lb.,

lb., Bobby Cornwall, WashingNick Akana, San Jose State; 139 lb., Joe Bliss, University of Nevada; 147 lb.. Buddy Rausch, Idaho State; 156 lb., Terry Smith, Sacramento State; 165 lb., Charles Mohr, University of Wisconsin; 178 lb., John Home, Michigan State; heavyweight, Hal Espy, Idaho State. (N. Fl.) Great Britain and Commonwealth. The two most successful British champions in 1959 were Dave Chamley (lightweight) from Dartford, Kent, and Freddie Gilroy (bantam) from Belfast, N.Ire. Both these young southpaw champions won Empire titles and Chamley made a bid for the world lightweight crown of the U.S. champion Joe Brown at Houston, Tex. Gilroy won the British and Empire bantamweight championships from Peter Keenan whom he stopped in 11 rounds at Belfast. He then became Britain's only European titleholder, outpointing Piero Rollo (Italy) over 15 rounds at Wembley,

Nichols, San Jose State; 125

ton State; 132

lb.,

—

Although

all

gency steps

20%

365%

since 1948, rose an-

months of 1959. executive departments were ordered to take emer-

to cut expenses, the

increase in the try

which had risen

during 1958 and

minimum

in the first six

government sanctiond

a

new

salary for workers throughout the coun-

and granted a pay increase for the armed

forces. In Dec.

1958, the labour unions presented to the president a petition

requesting the freezing of prices and other measures to avoid a

more

serious increase in the cost of living. Although the adminis-

tration did not act on this request,

it

did take steps to increase

food supplies and to co-ordinate transportation of staples from

main cities along the coast. However, there and food riots in various cities, particularly in the northeastem area where a serious drought curtailed still more the interior to the

were

strikes

the food supply.

The continued

flow of rural workers to the industrial cities,

the decrease in exports of coffee and cacao, the increase in gov-

attempts to increase trade with the far eastern nations, and on Dec. 10

Gilroy kept intact his un-

in three

rounds at

money and

it

was announced that a trade agreement had been signed

Porthcawl, Glamorganshire.

with the U.S.S.R. for the exchange over a three-year period of

was John (Cowboy) McCorThe Scotsman won the British middleweight title from Terry Downes on an eighth-round disqualification at Wembley, but lost it back to Downes 49 days later when Downes stopped

$200,000,000 worth of goods.

The

him

shortest championship reign

DroTil DldLll. in

(F. Br.)

in eight rounds.

Boy Scouts:

^

see Societies

and Associations, U.S.

federal republic in eastern

and central South Amer-

with an area of 3,287,195 sq.mi., Brazil is second size only to Canada in the western hemisphere. Population ica,

(1950 census) 51.976.357; (July i, 1959 est.) 64,678.709. mostly concentrated along the coast. Language: Portuguese. Religion:

predominantly

Roman

Catholic with about 2.000.000 Protestants

of various denominations, including Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists, Lutherans

Chief

cities

and

others,

and about 800,000

Spiritualists.

(pop. 1950 census, 1958 est. in parentheses)

Janeiro, the federal capital, 2,303,063

I

cost of living,

25%

by the heavyweight champion Henry Cooper

this third title

mack's.

I

The other

Another South African, Gawie de Klerk, made

in ten rounds.

!

of Brasilia.

an unsuccessful Empire championship bid when he was defeated

By winning

Middlesex.

I

Sul. President Kubitschek declared that his administration would be impartial in the electoral campaign; he promised that he would transfer the insignia of the presidency to the legally elected new president on Jan. 31, 1961, at the new federal capital

do

ernment expenditures which brought about new issues of paper the heavy financial obligations of the govemment abroad, were among the important factors which contributed to the situation. Brazil's foreign trade had fallen from a favourable balance of $248,100,000 in 1956, to an unfavourable balance of $97,200,000 in 1957 and of $166,000,000 in 1958. There were

beaten record after 19 professional fights. Chamley won the Empire lightweight title knocking out Willie Toweel (South Africa)

[

117

chamber of deputies, besides seven state govemorships and other state and municipal positions. The majority party, the Social Democratic party, emerged somewhat weakened by internal strife and some defeats, particularly in the key states of Pemambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande union, in the federal

:

Rio de

(3,030,619); Sao Paulo

The

financial situation of the country

failure of the

government

to secure

was aggravated by the

needed loans from foreign

banking

institutions. Brazil had hoped to get a $300,000,000 loan from the U.S. govemment to ease the balance of trade situation. However, the U.S. authorities indicated that further credits would depend upon Brazil's willingness to adopt a stabilization program to be worked out between the Brazilian govemment and the International Monetary fund.

In 1958, the U.S. Export-Import bank granted Brazil credits more than $140,000,000 (a total of $1,300,000,000 since

totaling

1934). During the same year, the Intemational Monetary fund had loaned Brazil $37,500,000 with the understanding that Brazil would take certain measures to stabilize its currency, including (i) cutting down on the multiple exchange rate system; (2) curtailing excessive

govemment

expenditures; (3) limiting the issu-

ance of paper money; and (4) tightening the currency situation. During the new negotiations the Intemational Monetary fund indicated that they felt Brazil had not done enough to

2,017,025 (3,315,553); Recife 512,370 (733,870); Salvador 389,-

officials

422 (551.525); Porto Alegre 375.049 (532,624); Belo Horizonte

carry out these recommendations. In early June, the negotiations

338.585 (527.270).

between the Brazilian delegates and the fund in Washington, D.C.. were interrupted. It was generally felt that President Kubitschek feared to impose austerity measures that would increase

I

Pres. I

j

'

Juscelino

Kubitschek

de

Oliveira

was

inaugurated

Jan. 31. 1956, his term to expire Jan. 31, 1961.

—

History. The political life of the country was considerably enhvened during 1959 by the approach of the presidential elections which were scheduled for Oct. i960. There were negotiations

among

the leaders of the various parties and jockeying for

position on the part of the potential candidates.

The

general elections of Oct.

3,

1958, had resulted in sub-

stantial gains for the opposition party, the

National Democratic

more the cost of living at a time when the i960 presidential campaign was getting under way. still

Despite these financial

difficulties,

the country's

economy con-

tinued to expand at a rapid pace. In his report to the nation (Jan. 29, 1959), the president pointed out

among

other things

that production of the government-controlled Volta steel plant

had increased from 800,000 tons a year

Redonda

to 1,250,000

:

BREAD AND BAKERY PRODUCTS

118

Sao I'aulu, Viloria and other im|K)rtant cities to the south. See also Architecture; Foreign Investments. (R. d'E.

—

Education In 1955 there were 72.584 elementary KhooU with 4.(>4i,pupils; 2.589 secondary schools, 573,764 pupils: 1,908 technical schools (1954), 151,001 pupils; 1,146 normal schools, 70,655 students; and 644 hiKhcr schooU incl. 7 state, i federal and 3 private universities) with 6H,j27 students. AccordinR to the 1950 census, 51.4% of those 10 yr. of anc and over were illiterate. Financ*. The monetary unit is ihi- cruzeiro (C"r$), valued at 5.44 cenU I'S. currency, official rate, during 1959. The free rate ranged between hiuh of 0.78 cents (June 2) and a low of 0.62 cents (Sept. 30J durinf iIh- first nine months of 1959. The I9S9 budxet as approved by the congress called for revenue of Cr$ 4 7, 6 7 1, 000. 000 and expenditure of Cr$ 156,226,000,000. Actual revenue in 1958 (preliminary) was 117,816,000,000; expenditure Cr$ 148.478,000,000. The consolidaterl federal external debt on Dec. 31, 1958, was £6,263,620 and I'.S. $38,791,845; funded internal debt Cr$ 10,900,000,000: floating debt (excl. debt to social security institutes) Cr$ 124.800,000,000. Currency in circulation (May 31, I959;,was Cr$ 107.400,000,000; demand deposits Cr$ 272,900,000,000. National income in 1958 was estimated at Cr$ 976,500,000,000. The cost-of-living index (Sao Paulo) stood at 320 in July 1959 (i9S3 = 100). Trode and Communicotioni. Exports in 1958 totaled U.S. $1,242,985,000; imports $1,352,881,000. Leading exports were; coffee (55%); cacao (7%); sugar (57c); pine wood (4%); and iron ore (3%). Leading import groups were: machinery and vehicles (38%); raw materials (29%); foodstuffs and beverages ( 12% ) and chemicals and drugs (10% ). Leading customers were the U.S. (43%), Argentina (9%), Germany (6%), the I '.K. (4%) and the Netherlands (4%): leading suppliers, the U.S. (j6%), Ctrmany (10%), Venezuela {10%), Argentina (7%) and the Netherlands .
'.

include: the conversion of

Brunei:

see

British Borneo.

the Basuto national council into a legislative council with powers

on everything except external

to legislate

affairs,

defense, inter-

and certain other matters; the establishment of an executive council; the strengthening of local government; and the creation of a house of chiefs. Bechuanaland. In April 1959 the secretary of state for commonwealth relations informed the high commissioner that he would be happy to consider proposals for the establishment of a nal security

—

For this purpose the was requested, after consultation with the joint advisor>' council, to submit proposals to the high commissioner, who would then make recommendations to the secretary council for the protectorate.

legislative

resident commissioner

of state.

in

Consignments of Bechuanaland beef were exported Europe for the first time during 1959. Swaziland.

—A

markets

to

special exclusive prospecting licence to prospect

for iron ore near

Mbabane was

issued under the

proclamation,

—

lldllUlldl. DUUgCl, Motinnal RllrilTOt

a report issued in

reviewed the budget of the United States for the year ending

The

30,

fiscal

i960 estimates contained

i960.

report presented revisions of the original in the Jan.

1959 budget document,

together with actual expenditures and receipts data (instead of

The revised budget new recommendations by

estimates) for the fiscal year 1959.

estimates

for i960 took into account

the presi-

dent, congressional actions, and economic

and other developments which had occurred since January. Budget receipts for the fiscal year i960 were expected to total $79,000,000,000, up sharply from the previous year's total of $68,158,000,000 because of the higher levels of economic acti%'ity. (See Table I.) Budget expenditures in fiscal i960 were estimated

at

new mining

lower than

in 1959.

nonrecurrence

vocational 38, pupils 1,087. teachers 65; teacher-training 7, students 514, teachers 31. Bechuanaland (.\frican, European and Eurafricanl primary 183. pupils 31.193, teachers 911; secondary 5, pupils 385, teachers 24: vocational i, pupils 26. teachers 2: teacher-training i, students 74, teachers It. S-iVaziland f.\frican, European and Eurafrican): all grades 296: primary pupils 9.895: secondary pupils 1,624; vocational pupils 15S; teachers, all grades, 938. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: South .\frican pound (£[S..\.]i ft sterling U.S. $2.80).

S+a+es.— in

1959. the bureau of the budget

Sept.

June

(Ay. Sv.)

Education. (1958): Basutoland (.African, European and Eurafrican): primary 997. pupils 119,478, teachers 2,338: secondary 20 (incl. i postsecondary Catholic college), pupils 1,435, teachers 103; technical and

'-'"i^^'^

$78,900,000,000,

in

approximately

$1,800,000,000

This decline was accounted for by: (a) the

i960 of certain special expenditures

made

in

1959, such as the additional United States subscription to the

and the retroactive government employees; and (b') the

capital of the International Monetan.- fund

pay increase

for federal

:

—

=

=

Budget 11957-58! Basutoland

.... ....

Bechuanaland Swoiilond

.

.

.

'Including colonial

Revenue

Expenditure

£1,506,785* £1,886,972* £1,684,507*

£1,601,899 (1957) £2,086,1 92*(1 958) £ 1,636,452*(1957)

development and welfare grants.

Foreign Trode Imports Exports

£3,012,954 £3,503,657 £3,208,859

£2,173,331 £2,585,400 £4,115,903

termination of several large temporan,- programs, including both antirecession measures and the acreage reser\'e portion of the soil

bank.

The budget review thus envisaged

a

balanced budget for i960,

with revenues exceeding expenditures by about $100,000,000.

It

also reported a deficit of $12,541,000,000 for 1959. This deficit,

due largely to influences associated with the general recession in business activity, was the largest in the nation's peacetime history.

—

BUDGET, NATIONAL

124

The public debt at the close of the fiscal year i960 was expected to amount to $284,700,000,000. This was about the same as the actual debt total as of

June

i960 was

$1,900,000,000 higher than the original estimate which had been in the January budget document. The change reflected

presented

economic recovery and expansion than had been anticipated. At the same time, the estimate of i960 budget expenditures was also raised by $1,900,000,000. This upward rea

more rapid

fense.

Of the $45,713,000,000

30, 1959.

revised estimate of budget receipts for fiscal

The

quent continuing emphasis on a strong and effective national de-

rale of

was attributed to several influences, including among them higher interest costs on the public debt; a larger postal deficit than had been allowed for, because congress had not implemented

vision

estimated for

total of national security expenditures

year i960, $40,945,000,000, or 90%, was

fiscal

allocated for military functions of the department of defense.

These functions include maintenance and training of members of the armed forces; the procurement, operation and repair of missiles, planes, ships and radar; construction and facilities; training of reserve forces; and research and development for new weapons. Estimated changes in most major categories of department of defense spending for i960 were relatively small, with the total down $272,000,000

equipment such as of military bases

the president's recommendation for a postal rate increase; and congressional enactment of increases in spending for health and

from

welfare programs, housing loans to veterans and certain other

assigned $1,800,000,000 in the i960 budget, or $535,000,000 less

fiscal

year 1959.

Military assistance under the Mutual Security program was

The change was due

items.

than

Of the $79,000,000,000 which the government expected to collect in the fiscal year i960, approximately four-fifths was accounted for by income taxes on individuals and corporations. Collections of individual income taxes (net of refunds) were

deliveries of military

estimated at $41,000,000,000, while taxes on corporations' income were anticipated to yield $22,500,000,000. Excise taxes on

in history,

the manufacture or sale of goods

and services

—were

—

also

on a net

placed at $9,100,000,000; and various other taxes and miscellaneous sources of revenue were expected to bring in basis

an additional $6,400,000,000 during the

A summary is

year 1960.

of the principal categories of budget expenditures

given in Table

I.

Major National

—Expenditures the four major — the military functions of the departfor

Security.

national security programs

ment

fiscal

of defense, military assistance under the

Mutual Security

program, atomic energy, and stockpiling and defense production expansion were estimated at $45,713,000,000 for fiscal year

—

i960, or about $700,000,000 less than the actual in

1959. Outlays for these programs,

absorb

58%

amount spent

which were scheduled to had risen from

of total budget expenditures in i960,

$13,000,000,000, or

32%

of the total budget, in fiscal year 1950,

the last full year before the outbreak of aggression in Korea,

68%

in

1959.

principally to a decline in

equipment resulting from decreasing ap-

propriations in recent prior years.

Atomic Energy commission outlays $2,705,000,000

in the

for i960 were recorded at

budget report. This would be the highest

and $159,000,000 above 1959. Expenditures under the fourth major national security pro-

gram were estimated

show

to

decrease of $50,000,000

a

$263,000,000), reflecting mainly the fulfillment of

many

(to

stock-

and reduced deliveries under contracts. Budget expenditures for international programs of the government in fiscal year i960 were estimated at $2,050,000,000, down $1,700,000,000 from 1959. The drop reflected mostly the inclusion in the 1959 total

pile objectives

International Affairs and Finance.

—

of $1,375,000,000 for the additional United States subscription to the International

Monetary fund; was a decrease

item. In addition, there

net receipts of $6,000,000) result of:

this

was a nonrecurring

of about $400,000,000 (to

Export-Import bank, as a from collections on outstanding

for the

(a) higher receipts

loans and from sales to private investors of loans in the bank's portfolio; and (b) a lower estimate of disbursements for emer-

gency loans.

Commerce and Housing.

—Net expenditures

for

commerce and

of the budget, in 1953.

housing programs in i960 were placed in the i960 budget at

National security outlays declined to a level of about $40,600,-

$2,925,000,000, or approximately $500,000,000 less than in the

years 1955 and 1956, and then rose to $46,400,-

previous year. The major change was a decrease of $805,000,000

000.000 by 1959. The expansion in major national security programs from 1950

Housing and Home Finance agency, chiefly because of reduced purchases of mortgages on low-cost housing by the Federal National Mortgage association under an antirecession pro-

to a

peak of $50,400,000,000, or

000.000

to

in fiscal

i960 accounted for more than four-fifths of the increase of

for the

about $39,000,000,000 in total budget expenditures over the period. This comparison further points up the tremendous influence

gram.

on U.S. government budgets of the Korean

conflict

cline in the expenditures of the post office

"OUR OWN COLD WAR,"

Tbe Minneapolis S

and subse-

Other noteworthy developments included an expected de-

department and

in-

creases for the programs of the National Aeronautics and Space a

1959 cartoon by

Justus of

Table

Summary

I.

of Budget Receipts and Expenditures, United States

Fiscal

Years

958,

1

lin

Budget

I

959 and

1

960

$000,000)

1958 octuol

Description

1959 aclual

1960 oslimolo

$36,716

receipts:

Corporation income taxes Excise taxes All other receipts

Total

Budget expenditures: Moiornational security Internotional afFoirs and finance Veterans' services and benefits labour and welfore Agriculture ond ogriculturol resources .

.

.

.

.

.

General government Allowance for contingencies Total

Budget surplus Budget deficit Detail

moY

not

add

17,309 8,506 5,628

$41,000 22,500 9,100 6,400

69,117

68,158

79,000

2,109 1,356 7,689

46,411 3,750 5,175 4,422 6,562 1,670 3,423 1,600 7,686

$71,936

$80,699

$2,8lT

—

44,142 2,234 5,026 3,447 4,389 1,543

Noturol resources Commerce and housing Interest

8,612 5,708

$34,724 20,074

Individuol income taxes

....

—

—

to totals

shown because of rounding.

—

$12,541

45,713 2,051

5,133 4,407 6,052 1,792 2,925 1,678 9,079

75 $78,905

—$95

—

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Table

II.

Government Receipts and Expenditures (in

Receipts,

1958-59 Income tax

2,322

Surtox

Death duties Stamps Profits

tax and excess

proflti

Other inlond revenue duties Total inland revenue Customs Excise

Total customs

and exci

Motor vehicle duties . . . Total receipts from taxes Broadcost receiving licences

£000,000)

§

— Great Britain

BUILDING

AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Above:

FUNNEL-SHAPED WATER TOWER

suburb of Helsinki, Finland, with a diameter at the top

Left:

HENRY

Time-Life

R.

LUCE,

office building, building cost $70,000,000

In

of

being built

1959. The tower

137

is

114

ft.

In

«

high,

ft.

edltor-ln-ohlef,

New York

city,

dedicating the new June 23, 1959. The

—

1

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

127

important contributing factor to the high level of activity was the big volume of residential building, the largest item being new

the wholesale prices of building materials, revealed a definite up-

dwelling units which had a value of $12,735,000,000, representing

the index stood at 135.8

over the value in the same period of 1958.

34%

an increase of

significant item in residential construction

ward movement during the

A

the figure it had reached in June of the preceding year. This was an all-time high, exceeding the previous record set in Aug. 1956. In July and August, however, the index declined slightly. Despite

was the $3,363,000,-

000 outlay for additions and alterations. Nonresidential building activity was down slightly from the 1958 level. For the period

new high

the

fleet the

mercial buildings was up

over-all index

into the third quarter of 1959.

other types of nonresidential

building activity, the construction picture was mixed: expendi-

wood

and recreational buildings were higher than in 1958, while those for educational, hospital and institutional buildings were lower. Public construction expenditures in 1959 showed substantial

low.

tures for religious, social

The

gains over 1958. first

13%. Again,

during the

as in 1958, this

set

down 13%,

ment of commerce, are equal

new

to

from one-third

,

,

Value of

fiiriirp timatps tor frvr I95» Tnr« set spt tne thp figure tmiateS

and

at $18,500,000,000 ^

ap'^

it

-^

peared likely that the annual ,

,

.

during

rate

^

,,

the

r

Construction Costs— ^ ,. „ , During 1957-58 the L.S. de, . partment of commerce comconstruction

had remained at approximately the same level, but in ^ , ,, the first six months of 1959 ;, „ It movedJ from 139 ^to 142 (1947-49= ioo).The percentage change in the index from June 1958 to June 1959 was costs

.

,

,

r,,

3%Ti, Ine

„ matenals J

•

,

.

.

.

,

,

,

Commercial Office bidas

component,

of 01 rnnstnirtinn construction rrvst meaScost, ac as mpas

ured by the U.S. department i\i UK,^, ...',. «..«, «11 i^Ar^^ «f Of labours over-aU mdex of

ond worehouses

St^etrelta^rantand ga"',"., Other nonresidential buildings

.

,

Religious

Educational Hospital and institutionol Social ond recreational Miscellaneous

,

/

index of

.

Nonhousekeeping

i.

annrnrimafplv tms fhis IpvpI approximate!) le\el.

posite

.

.

Nonresidential buildings

quarters of 1959 would be at

,

.

.

Form

... ,

.

,

construction

^^'X'^'''" T^eiephon„nd

mark for the first time since 1957. Starting in Aug. employment in the industry declined each month until Feb. 1959, when it stood at 2,256,000; however, beginning in March it moved up successively each month through July, when 1958,

it stood at 3,032,000, This represented a gain of 150,000 over July 1958, an increase of about 5%, The detailed employment figures for June 1959 revealed highly uniform increases by t>TDe

of construction over the preceding 12-month period.

lin

.

in

,-

•

,

1

Confinentol

$000,0001 •

,,53

•. j n Umfed

Sept.

Aug.

July

Sept.

$5,291 3,642 2,135 i;614

$5,243 3,633

$4,745 3,157

2,151 1,625

1,746 1,327

440 70 773

450

458

71 81

soi

166 352

-

251 80

-

25 174

175 369 178 i,? 267 89 46 50 55 27 189

366 53 736 167 318 170 148

'\\

2,100 i;590

171 Y»\

255 84 44 48 52

68

167 379 172

207 255 85

e. • Stales,

Per cent change Sept. 1959 from ^^^ 5^p, 1959 1958

$5,097 3,533

20

-4 3 -2

-

-1

-

-

2 1

5

5 5 4 5 4

+7 -1-12 -1-20

J-20

+20 +32

+

5

+11

+^ +.

770

139 11,104 586

+31

-11

3,430

3,471

-10

-19

263

302

-13

'f^.

'itl

Til

«6

V\

"2°7

~

^84

^75

-.

19 1,649

19 1,610

is 1,588

+5 -

+11

142

2

12403

77 407 30

79 427

-10

-22

-

32

5

+11

+7 +1,

-

53 130 673 135

M

-l +1 - 5 -3

+'?

627 130

7

52-4 -5 4

-

5

J92

"I

-

6

-

7

+31 165-2

-1-2

+\3

-

1

+18 +20 4-5

1,121

954

+5 +6 +4 +25 +3

4,642 1,091

3,862 1,038

675 4i6 422 854

620 4i8 340 748

+

+18

173

105

+65

-12

80-2+8 -

so

101 17

9

- 3 +26

^686

'Z

^84

+21

8

?s 135 695 142

!

1

+

''2"

*\\

138 84 88 86 5i 54 52 water 65 68 63 Public service enterprises 104 109 105 Con.ervotlon and development 21 20 20 aii other public •Ertlmotes of the U.S, Deportment of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. tchano. o« i.n than 0.5%.

-1-30

+34 +18 +22 -23

''1'°

157

155

+\t

1,226

687 393 422

185

tl 136

657

-t-15

391 161 1,363

e

+'3

!

2,054

1958-59

+10

+

-19

1^8

:

12,792 9,486 2,847

+22

+2

51-4-6 43-5 23-7+9 4

^6

^thtri^rd^nlrBrifding.

$35,678 24,574

623 416 456 299

3

54

^8

Highways Sewer and water system. Sewer

3,363

44 49 54 23

To

Military fadlltl..

$40,995 28,492 16,660 12,735

459

'l^

'

JOOO.OOOI 9 momhs 1958 1959

6,452 1,877 2,526 1,506 1,120 1,959

382 26

^;T:L..,..,>o../-

Percent change ist9n.o.,

Voluo

562

Nonresidential bidgs '

(in

r.rst

2,871 1,456 i:415

69 410 29

62

loco* 959

6,377 1,452

1

+n +1

1,564

'

excep-

7

+5 -

Public construction Residential buildings industrial

An

was the sizable increase of almost 21 'yc that took place in painting and decorating trades. In June 1959, building contractors employed 2,298,000 workers, in comparison with the tion to this

J3

.^^^^^^^^^^^

ah other private

1956. In each successive

3,000,000

„j, Type ot conslniction

and lacquer, up 24.3% over the same month The April output of iron and steel prod-

paint, varnish

.„.-„, .. „ New Consfruciion Put in Place

Industrial

,

three ij u

first

by

Volue

Total new coralruclion Private coostructioo Residenliol bidgs. (nonform) New dwelling .nits Addition, and alteration.

in April set

—

1957 the cost of maintenance and rpnair totaiea tntalpH 5117,730,^n7in ana repair

000,000 or about 38% of new », ,«r,ot«,^t,V,„ T>,ol™; , construction. Prelmamary es-

The output

proximately 200 (1947-49 = 100). Employment and Earnings. A slight seasonal increase in July brought emplojTnent in all contract construction up over the

to one-half of the

„

year.

ucts equaled the record set in Feb.

for maintenance

construction. In

months of the

month, from March through June, portland cement shipments set new records. In June the portland cement index stood at ap-

and repair of existing facilities is difficult to determine because there is no regular reporting of these outlays. Expenditures, however, according to estimates prepared by the U.S. departvalue of

first six

of the preceding year.

and for educational buildings, down 6%. In addition to value, another important measure of residential construction was the number of housing units placed under construction. A total of 843,700 new private and public dwelling units had been put under construction by the end of July 1959 ahnost equal to the record total of 850,100 set during the comparable period of 1950, and an advance of 30^ over the first seven months of 1958. The seasonally adjusted annual rate for private housing starts for the first seven months of 1959 was 1,385,000, compared with a rate of 1,015,000 for the same pe-

made each year

other contributing factors were increased prices of

an all-time high after allowance for seasonal variation. The composite index of the department of commerce at 146.0 (194749 = 100) was 23.6% over April 1958. A new output record was

highway construction figure of $4,642,000,000 was 20% above the former record expenditure in the first nine months of 1958. Notable contrasts to these increases in public construction were

of expenditures

Among

The output of construction materials in 1959 ran considerably ahead of 1958, and many new records for output were broken

spending for highways and by the public housing program. The

nod in 1958. The amount

significant factor pushing the

in

asphalt roofing.

category of construction was stimulated greatly by increased

the decreases in expenditures for industrial buildings,

A

1959 was the price recovery in lumber and products, especially douglas fir, from the 1958 depression

up

building wire, nonmetallic sheathed cable, plumbing fixtures and

dollar outlay of $12,503,000,000 during the

nine months was an increase of

continued to re-

levels, over-all materials prices

general price stability that had prevailed from 1956

extending through Sept. 1959 the expenditure for the construedon of industrial buildings was down 23%, while that for com-

9%. For

first six months of 1959. In June 1959 (1947-49= 100), and was 5% above

9 t

-1-24 -1-14

BULGARIA

128 681,000 employed by nonbuilding contractors.

Among

the latter

group, contractors engaged in highway and street construction

employed 335,800. Average weekly earnings of construction workers continued upward to new record levels at mid-year 1959. The increases in the average hourly earnings, as well as the seasonal increase in

new

the hours of work, were contributing factors to the

The

highway and

street

May

earnings between their

high.

weekly earnings was achieved by the construction workers. Their gain in average

largest gain in average

June

year earlier.

and June 1959, was $7.00. This brought 10% above that of a

approximately $114

level to

Among

—

the workers in contract construction, those

work enjoyed the highest average weekly amounted to $142.78. The next highest earnings ($129.16) were received by those employed by plumbing and heating contractors. As in former years, employed

in electrical

earnings. In June their weekly earnings

workers

the construction industry were

in

employees

among

the best paid

United States. During the second quarter of

in the

moved up The highest

two out of every three conwas 11.9 cents for carpenters, and the lowest increase was 4.2 cents for painters. In June the average hourly earnings of workers in all types of construction amounted to $3.07. The highest earnings, $3.68, were received by those employed in electrical work while the lowest, 1959 the pay scale

struction workers.

$2.63, were received

for

increase

by those engaged

in

highway and

street con-

census): Sofia (cap.) 725,756; Plovdiv 162,518; Varna 119,769; Ruse 83,472; Burgas 72,795; Dimitrovo 59,721; Pleven 57,758;

Communist Todor Zhivkov; chairman of the presidium of the national assembly, Dimiter Ganev; chairman of the council of ministers, Anton Yugov. Hisfory. The year 1959 was chiefly remarkable for the considerable raising of the country's economic aims and the major reorganization of the administration designed to attain the new objectives. The Bulgarian Communist leaders planned a "big leap forward" on the Chinese Communist model, accompanied by many reforms based on the Soviet pattern. The new plan, proposed on Jan. 20 by Todor Zhivkov, first secretary of the Communist party, and approved by the national assembly in March, included the following aims: The output of steel, which was 211,000 metric tons in 1958, was to be raised to 400,000 tons by 1962 and 900,000 tons by 1965. The output of electric power was to be more than doubled by 1962, when it would be nearly Stara Zagora 55,322. First secretary of the Bulgarian

party

in

U.S. department of labour's index of aggregate weekly

1959,

—

7,000,000,000 kw.hr.

was

to

double

its

Compared with

1957, industry as a whole

output by 1962 and more than treble

it

by 1965. was to

Similarly ambitious goals were set for agriculture, which treble

struction.

The

88%; Turkish 9.8%. Religion (1947 est.): Orthodox 84%; M^ lem 11.5% (of which one-sixth Pomaks, or Moslem Bulgars, imainder Turks); Roman Catholic 0.9%; Gregorian Armenian 0.4%; Jewish 0.3%; Protestant 0.2%. Chief towns (pop., 1956

its

The

total

output by 1965.

existing territorial administrative division of the coun-

levels of

was abolished. In its place 30 administrative economic diswere set up, each responsible for "the whole political, state, economic and cultural life" in its area. This devolution of

1958 for each month through July. In June the average number of hours worked by construction workers was 38. o.

ministries of an economic nature. In April elections were held

man-hours worked by workers 138.4 (1947-49

=

100)

in

in

contract construction stood at

July 1959. Except for Januar>', the

monthly index was above the corresponding monthly

—

Consfruc+ion Legislafion. In 1958 the Emergency Housing was approved in early April to stimulate the homebuilding industry and the general economy of the nation. The legislation

act

try

tricts

authority w-as accompanied by the dissolution of seven national

to appoint officials of the in a 99.82

(1958

est.)

7,722,000.

Language (1947

est.):

Bulgarian

the system of compulsory deliveries

on the free market.

number

below those paid for farm produce

still

By

from farmers replaced by

a process of

amalgamation the

total

of collective farms was reduced from 3.450 to 625, and

it

was planned that they should take over local commercial and manufacturing enterprises associated with agriculture. A fundamental reform of the educational system had as its declared object "the closer linking of education and the training of

youth for productive labour." The plan envisaged school children spending as much as a third of their time in active production.

Diplomatic relations between Bulgaria and the United States

were resumed on March 1950,

27.

when Donald R. Heath,

said to be implicated in the

They were broken

on Feb.

21,

the then U.S. minister in Sofia,

was

show

trial

public withdrawal of these charges

—

off

of Traicho Rostov.

was made.

No

(D. Fd.)

Education. Schools (1956-57): nurserj' 6.376. teachers 10,199: pri6.444. pupils 965.766. teachers 39,563: secondary 359. pupils 163,363, teachers 7,450; vocational 278. pupils 79,369, teachers 4,722; teachers' training colleges 22, students 8.989. teachers 544: institutions of higher education (including the Sofia university) 20, students 36,705, teaching staff 3,026. Finance. Monetary unit: lev (pi. leva) with an official exchange rate, high and fictitious, of 6.80 leva to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959 est.): revenue 27,068.523,000 leva: expenditure 26,914.523,000 leva (incl. 17.468,100.000 leva allotted for capital investments). Foreign Trade. (1956; 1938 in parentheses). Imports U.S. $248,000,000 ($60,000,000); exports U.S. $339,000,000 ($68,000,000). Chief sources of imports (1956): U.S.S.R.. Czechoslovakia, German Democratic Republic. Chief destination of exports: U.S.S.R.. German Democratic Republic; Czechoslovakia. Transport and Communications. Highways (1956): 25.4IO km., incl. 1. 9 78 km. first-class motor roads. Licensed motor vehicles (Dec. 1957 est.): cars 7,000: trucks 25,000; buses 1,800. Railways (1957): 5,536 km., incl. 443 km. of narrow-gauge track; passenger traffic 2,707,000,000 passengerkm.; freight traffic 4,928,000,000 ton-km. Freight traffic in the seaports

mary

—

—

—

BURMA — BUSINESS REVIEW of Burgas and Varna (1956): 1,473,000 tons. Freight traffic in the Danube ports (1956) 2,022,000 tons. Air transport (1956^: 2,331,000 km. flown; passenger-km. 27,821,000; freight 450,000 ton-km. Telephones (1956): 120,287. Radio receiving sets (1956): 399,176; community loudspeakers

354,725.

—

Agriculture Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1934-39 in parentheses): wheat 2,352,000 (1,860,770); maize 910,000 (921,587); barley 416,000 (361.473); rye 117,000 1281.707); oats (1957) 199.000 (146,027); sun flower 192,742 (148,789); cotton, unginned (195?) 39,579 (22,124) sugar beet 1,415,000 (137,303); tomatoes (1957) 372, i75 (41,689) potatoes (1957) 212.250 (108,256); paprika (195?) 150.996 (69,825) tobacco (1957) 50,828 (33,128). Livestock (1957; 1939 in parentheses) sheep 7,596,000 (10,262,000); cattle 1,529,000 (1,532,000); pigs 1,468, 000 (807,000); horses 460,000 (593,000): chickens 14,117,000. Wine production (1957; 1939 in parentheses): 118,976.000 (5,880,000) litres. Industry. Industrial production index: 1957 = 772 (1939 = 100). Employed outside agriculture (1957) 1,329.000. Production (metric tons if not otherwise stated, 1958; 1939 in parentheses): coal (including brown coal and lignite) 12,700,000 (2,214,400); crude petroleum (1957) 2S5,000; electricity 3,024,000,000 (266,100,000) kw.hr.; iron ore (46% metal content) 293,000 (20,000); manganese ore (1957) 81,000 (2,200); copper ore (1957) 562.000 (3,500); lead and zinc ore (1957) 1,953,000 (24.000); pig iron (1957) 55.739; steel 210,600 (5,540); copper (1957) S,o6i; lead (1957) 19,030; zinc (i9S7) 7,513; cement 934,000 (225,300); sulfuric acid 64,000; nitrogenous fertilizers (1957) 122,561: cotton fabrics (1957) 152,400.000 (34,100,000) metres; woolen fabrics (1957) 13,300,000 (5,300,000); sugar 129,000 (25,100) tons.

—

number

of foreign firms and advisers who were considered to have been responsible for ill-founded and extravagant ventures.

A number

of new economic imdertakings were launched, particby the Defense Services institute, an army organization

ularly

designed to by-pass corrupt or politician-ridden departments. These included shallow-water sea fishing, a shipping service to the far east, and the taking over of banking operations from A.

Scott

&

Co. Ltd. Further foreign aid was promised, including

$37,000,000 in the next four years, from the U.S. government for the construction of a modern highway between Rangoon and

Mandalay and

''^^

independent federal republic on the eastern side

DUIIIId. of the Bay of Bengal, Burma lies between Pakistan and India on the northwest, China on the north and China, Laos

and Thailand on the east. The republic comprises Burma proper, the Karen, Shan, Kachin and Kayah states, and the Chin special division.

Area; 261,789 sq.mi. Pop.: (1941 census) 16,823,798;

(1959 est.) 20,457,000. Racially, the peoples of Burma are Mongoloid. Religion: Buddhist (84%), Animists (5%), Moslem (4%), Hindu (3.9%), Christian (2.3%). Language: Burmese

(66%). Largest indigenous minorities: Karens, Shans, Kachins, Chins. Largest immigrant minorities (1955 est.)

:

Indian 600,000,

Moslems and Hindus; Chinese 350,000. Chief towns (pop., 1953 census): Rangoon (cap.) 737,079; Mandalay 185,867; Moulmein 102,777. President of the Union of Burma: U Win Maung; prime minister in 1959, General Ne divided equally between

Win. History.

—General

Ne Win

took

office as

prime minister on

avowed intention to hold an early general election. During Jan. 1959 a number of organizations voiced the desire that his government continue in power, because the country was still too disturbed for the holding of elections. This Oct. 29, 1958. It was his

would require suspension of the constitutional requirement that a member of the government who for any period of six months was not a member of parliament must resign. On Feb. 13 Ne Win resigned on the grounds that conditions were impossible for free

and if

fair elections,

and said he would accept

office

again only

the constitution were amended.

the the

Under threat of reversion to deadlock from which his assumption of power had delivered countr\', parliament amended the constitution as required

and unanimously re-elected Ne Win as prime minister. Preparations began for the holding of elections in April 1960.

The process

of appointing military officers to the charge of

departments and of eliminating political bosses continued, and further steps were taken to combat corruption and inefficiency.

Committees were appointed

to investigate alleged corruption and

of

modern dormitories and classrooms

for the

intermediate colleges of the University of Rangoon, and $515,000 from the Ford foundation for various purposes. Price control, relaxation of import licensing and vigorous action against profiteers

and hoarders brought down the cost of

March was 12% lower than Education.

Diirm4

129

government. The Cattle Slaughter act was repealed to allow revival of the export of hides and skins. Notice was served upon a

a year before.

living,

which by

(F. S. V. D.)

—

Schools (state only, 1958): primary 10,751, pupils 1,374,056, teachers (1957) 32,983: secondary and middle 693, pupils 228,023, teachers (1957) 6,374. Pupils in private schools (1954) 82,200; vocational schools and institutes 9, pupils 1,763 (vocational classes also held in 129 secondary schools). Teacher-training institutes 6, students 2,418. University of Rangoon, students (1957-58) 10,790, University of Mandalay, students (1957-58) 1,922. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: kyat with an exchange rate (1959) of 4.762 to the U.S. dollar. Budget: (1958-59 est.) revenue 1,024,800,000 kyats; e.xpenditure 1,317,200,000 kyats. Currency circulation: (Feb. 1958) 878,000,000 kyats, (Feb. 1959) 1,045,000,000 kyats. Deposit money: (Feb. 1958) 375,000,000 kyats, (Feb. 1959) 465,000,000 kyats. Gold and foreign exchange holdings: (Feb. 1958) U.S. $86,700,000, (Feb. 1959) U.S. $121,200,000. Foreign Trade. (1958): Imports 969,100,000 kyats, exports 907,900,000 kyats. Main sources of imports (1958): Japan 24%; U.K. 18%; India 10%: other sterling area 11%; continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 14%; U.S. and Canada 4%. Main destinations of exports (1958): India 22%; Ceylon 12%; U.K. 7%; other sterling area 24%; Indonesia 13%; Japan 5%. Chief exports (1958): rice 727o; teak; cotton. Transport and Communications. Roads (1955): 41,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 17,500; commercial 17,600. Railways (1958) 2,969 km.; passenger-km. (Sept. 1956-57) 936,000,000; freight, ton-km. (Sept. 1957-58) 614,400,000. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 8,000. Radio sets (1952) 15,000. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): rice 6,397,000 (5,883,000); rubber (exports) 12,400 (12,800); sesame (1957) 35.000 (55.600 in 1956); peanuts 256,000 (235,000): cottonseed 28,000 (24,000); cotton, lint 14,000 (12,000); tobacco (1957) 48,600 (48,900 in 1956); sugar, raw value (1957-58) 32.000 (32,000 in 1956-57); chick peas (1956) 30,000. Livestock (excl. Putao, Chin Hills, Shan states and Karenni, March 1957): cattle 4,837.000; sheep 37,000: buffaloes 876,000; pigs 544.000; goats 2 5 7.ooc#Timber (round logs, 1957-58): 837,950 cubic tons (incl. 264,488 cubic tons of teak). Industry. Electricity consumption (1957) 170,000,000 kw.hr. Production (metric tons): tin concentrates (metal content, 1957) 840; crude oil (1958) 452,400; cement (1958) 35.880; other minerals (metal content. 1957), lead 27,400, zinc 16,600, tungsten 385, silver 47.5. Encvclop.«dia Britannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: South-East Asia and Its Peace Jul Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture in the series, "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958); Burma, People

—

—

—

—

—

—

of the

River (1957).

Buses:

see

Urban Transportation,

RlKinPCQ RpUiPU/ UUdlllCdd nCVICW. cession since the end of

U.S.

^'^^^ '958 was

a year of

major eco-

noniic contrasts, with the sharpest re-

World War

II

and one of the most rapid

business recoveries on record, 1959 was a year of general U.S. expansion, marred only by a slow-down in the third quarter. The

maladministration, pressure was applied to recover advances

last

overdue to be repaid to the state agricultural marketing board and hours of work in government offices were extended and en-

prerecession levels of 1957, and the first two quarters of 1959 carried the economy to rates of output and spending well above

forced. A drive was instituted to clean up Rangoon, 2,000 government employees being turned out on Sunday mornings to help sweep pavements and streets. The paddy crop was 1,300,000 tons greater than in 1958. Nego-

any previous peaks. Largely because of the nation's longest strike, the second half of 1959 saw little change in the of economic activity.

tiations

the peak level in the second quarter of

government of buy more cheaply from Communist China. But

for export to India failed because the

India planned to

Chinese intervention in Tibet so inflamed Indian opinion that the government of India abandoned its plans and placed its orders in

Burma

at the price originally

demanded by

the

Burmese

two quarters of 1958 brought business activity back

From

to the

steel

level

the recession levels in the second quarter of 1958 to

1959, gross national

product rose $50,000,000,000. The change in inventory investment accounted for one-third of this change. Just as the 195758 decline was mainly an inventory liquidation recession, the

1958-59 recovery was largely an inventory-building expansion.

BUSINESS REVIEW

130 iNOusniiAi (

ijoionolly

nooucnoN

QdHUd IikI.i

1

947- 49- 1 00)

MOO

I

1,300

^l§i^l^illiiil *

1938

1958

1939

*

1959

< 1939

t«5fl

ASPECTS OF

f: Personal U.S. BUSINESS. Aug. 1958-Sep(. 1959. Note: P Income (or Aug. 19S8 Inoludei lun retroactive lalary pay nti to federal em-

ployeei: dliburiementt (at leaionally adjusted rate) amounted to $0.2 billion. (Sources: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System: Office of Business Economics, U.S. Department of Commerce; Oun and Bradstreet. Inc.; Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor)

Next

to inventory accumulation, the

most vigorous 1959 stimby easy credit

ulant was the residential housing industry. Spurred

and favourable Federal Housing administration loan residential construction rose sharply in

policies,

1959 in spite of rising interest rates. The seasonally adjusted annual rate of new nonfarm housing starts was above 1,300,000 in every month, and 1959 equaled the record housing year of 1950. Consequently new housing expenditures, which

counted for

12%

to

13%

4%

of gross national product, ac-

of the expansion in the four quarters

ending with the second quarter of 1959.

As

most periods of business recovery, consumer spending more slowly than investment spending. However, as recovery continued in late 1958 and in 1959, fears and uncertainties subsided and consumers reduced their savings rate to finance a rate of increase in consumer spending greater than the rate of rise in disposable income, This was especially true in the third quarter of 1959, during which disposable income declined but consumer spending continued to rise. The many in

steel strike

In spite of the

obviously continued to consume

vigorous economy. With a major industry shut business and consumers, with the

6%

export surplus running at an annual rate of $1,200,000,-

000 in the second quarter of 1958, the United States shifted to an import surplus at an annual rate of $1,800,000,000 in the second quarter of 1959. This constituted a net drag of $3,000,000,000 against the 1958-59 recovery. What made this disturbing were the many signs that the change was not temporary or accidental but a more or less permanent change of affairs growing out of European resurgence and United States inflation.

Each employed worker (and

his helping

machinery) produced

about $6,500 of gross national product. Thus the $3,000,000,000 net reversal in international trade balance accounted for about 500,000 of United States unemployed; i.e., one out of six or seven of the unemployed during 1959 was explainable in terms of international trade developments.

Behind all the economic indicators for 1959 and underlying any explanation of the course of business events lies the historymaking steel strike. Never had a major U.S. industry been

down

by a labour dispute. Almost perfect anticipation of the strike prompted most of the inventory accumulation which dominated the expansion in the first half of

totally shut

1959.

and

The

its

for so long

strike itself, along with its effects

forcing of inventory liquidation

by

on related industries steel users, explained

and with

unemployment

rate averaging

a significant reversal in international trade,

capita gross national product (corrected for price change) to

the highest levels in history.

National Product.

—Gross

at a seasonally adjusted

third quarter of 1958,

quarter of 1958.

first

national product or expenditure,

annual rate of ,$444,000,0x56,000 in the

was

4%

From

above the recession low of the it climbed sharply and con-

there

sistently to an all-time high annual rate of $484,500,000,000 in

the second quarter of 1959.

rate

From an

for a whole

the nation nevertheless raised gross national product and per

strike, the

was the turn of events in internaFor the first time since 1953, which was influenced by the Korean war, and for only the second time since World War II, the United States had an international trade deficit.

down

calendar quarter, with strong anti-inflation policies restraining

Although of relatively minor importance when compared with gross national product, one of the most interesting, and perhaps tional trade.

crosscurrents that confused the interpre-

and economic trends, one fact stood out. Although institutions and policies somehow failed to permit the United States to make its best effort, still it was a strong and

while rapidly liquidating their savings.

disturbing, aspects of 1959

many

tation of 1959 business

near

rose, but

workers idled by the

out the strike.

1958 and continued to

rise in

normally accounted for about

Had 1959 not been a year labour-management contract in the steel industry, the expansion in the first half of 1959 would have been much slower, and the last half would not have been one of stagnation. The end of the year totals, however, probably would have been about the same in either case, perhaps a little higher withthe stagnation in the last half of 1959.

for the negotiation of a

Under

the influence of the steel

annual rate dropped to $481,000,000,000 in the third

quarter of 1959, but was still 8.3% above a year earlier. The of increase in gross national product was near record

throughout the latter half of 1958 and the first half of 1959. Although increased consumer spending contributed more than half of the rise in gross national product, private domestic in-

vestment was by far the most rapidly expanding sector of the economy, the annual rate of. investment spending increasing 12.7% from the third quarter of 1958 to the corresponding quarter in 1959. The expansion in investment was broad based and balanced, investment in inventories, new construction and producers' durable equipment each accounting for about onethird of the increase.

As

in

most recent years,

and

state

local

government purchases

by increasing 10% new high annual rate of $45,000,000,000 in the third quarof 1959. The federal government, however, stopped the rapid

contributed to the rise in total expenditures to a ter

rise in its

expenditures w-hich had prevailed in 1958. At an an-

nual rate of $54,000,000,000 federal purchases of goods

in

the

third

quarter of

19S9,

and services were only 1.7% above

a year earlier.

The only drag on an expanding gross national product in 1959 was net foreign investment. After reaching a postwar high in the

fourth quarter of

continually throughout

1957, net

foreign investment declined

1958 and the

first

half

of

the second quarter of 1959 net foreign investment to a substantial disinvestment at

1959.

By

had shifted

the annual rate of $1,800,-

War II, had begun to consistently purchase from abroad more than they sold 000,000. Americans, for the

first

time since World

BUSINESS REVIEW National Income.

—National income,

the aggregate earnings

of persons and firms, ended its recession decline in

the first

quarter of 1958 and rose steadily thereafter throughout 1958 and the first half of 1959. At an annual rate of $403,900,000,000 in the second quarter of 1959, national tial

income was a very substan-

$45,000,000,000 or 12.5% above a year earlier.

The income flowing to employees as reported by the department of commerce rose throughout the first three quarters of 1959, even rising during the steel strike. At an annual rate of $279,300,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, employee earnings were at an all-time high and 8% above the same quarter

income before taxes was well sustained in the 1958 recession by transfer payments, especially unemployment benefits, social security benefits and various cash payments to farmers. Consequently, unlike other economic indicators, personal income was not recovering from recession lows during 1959. Secondly, as earned income replaced transfer payments in 1959, personal taxes rose more sharply than income, thus retarding the growth disposable income. Nevertheless, total personal income, at

in

an annual rate of $381,000,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, was 5% above a year earlier, and in spite of the steel strike was only $100,000,000 below the all-time high established in the

second quarter of 1959.

of 1958.

Corporate

slowly at

first

1957 and the and then very

rapidly in the last quarter of 1958 and the

first

half of 1959.

first

131

slowly than output. This was so for two reasons. First, personal

abroad.

profits, after

declining throughout

quarter of 1958, began to

rise,

New

records in consumer spending were established in every

quarter of 1959. At an annual rate of $313,500,000,000 in the

The heavy investments of 1955, 1956 and 1957 began to pay off handsomely in the 1959 recovery. At a seasonally adjusted

third quarter of 1959, consumer expenditures were $19,100,000,000 above the third quarter of 1958. The most striking increases were in consumer durable goods, which suffered the brunt of

annual rate of $52,600,000,000 in the second quarter of 1959, corporate profits before taxes were up 56% from a year earlier.

rate of $43,800,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959,

The

profits data,

when compared with

relatively stable prices,

recession cutbacks in 1958. Spending for durables, at an annual

above

a

year

earlier.

was 18.1%

This rate of increase was almost triple the

the low increase in employee earnings and the nagging unemployment proved conclusively that the rate of man-hour productivity, which in recent years had shown little increase, was once

rate of increase in total

again rising rapidly.

quarter of 1959, ordy 3.6% above a year earlier. Spending for services continued its uninterrupted postwar climb. At a new

and the professions were by the 1958 recession and shared less than propor-

Proprietors' incomes in business httle affected

At an annual rate of $34,800,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, they were only 7% above a year earlier. Rental income of persons remained virtually unchanged throughout 1958 and 1959. Although establishing a new high of $12,000,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959. it was only $100,000,000 above the same quarter of 1958. Net income from tionally in the 1959 expansion.

consumer spending and four times the Spending for nondurables

rate of increase in disposable income.

rose to a

new high annual

rate of $148,200,000,000 in the third

high of $121,500,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, services were absorbing a record 39% of all consumer expenditures, and

spending on services was almost triple the spending for durable goods.

Partly because of the special circumstances confronting 500,-

000

to 1,000,000

workers affected by the

steel strike

and partly

because of heavy spending for goods and housing, personal sav-

The percentage

interest, reflecting the highest interest rates in a quarter of a

ings declined in

century, rose to a record high of $15,800,000,000 in the third

income saved dropped from 8.1% in the third quarter of 1958 to 6.5% in the same quarter of 1959. Personal savings, at an

quarter of 1959. Farm income, stimulated by federal price supports and conservation payments under

reached

its

the Acreage

in

annual

rate

of

$21,700,000,000

in

of disposable personal

third-quarter

$4,300,000,000 lower than a year earlier and $1,600,000,000

With these

lower than in the same quarter of 1957, even though disposable income was more than $24,000,000,000 higher than in 1957.

farm income

fell

persistently

every quarter. At a seasonally adjusted annual rate of $10,-

300,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, farm income was at its lowest level in a decade and 27% below a year earlier. Farm-

who escaped the 1958 recession, also missed the 1959 boom. (See also Income and Product, U.S.) Personal Income, Spending and Savings. Both personal

ers,

—

income before taxes and disposable personal income, or personal income after personal taxes, rose in 1959, but they rose more

—

Industrial production, as measured Induslrial Production. by the Federal Reserve board index, had been stagnant at around

143%

of the

1947-49 average for three years when the 1957-58

recession began. This situation reflected the long-term relative decline in manufacturing as a part of the United States economy.

After a sharp recession decline to

U.S.

SALES AND INVENTORIES,

month: inventories month. (Source: Office of Business totals for each

126%

in April 1958, industrial

1958-Aug. 1959.

1959

1958

1959

1958

Sales

are

shown

ihown as book value at the end lomics, U.S. Department of

MANUFACTURERS'

1958

were

1959,

Reserve program,

highest level in six years during 1958.

stimuli sharply reduced in 1959,

soil

1959.

1959

of

as

each

Commerce) MILUONS OF DOLLARS

rm

LARGEST STOCKHOLDERS' MEETING,

a wide-angle view of part of the crowd 12.000 persons who attended the 1959 meelino of the American Telephone and Telegraph company In an armory, Bronx, N.Y. A three-for-one stock split was voted at the meeting, biggest of Its kind ever held In the U.S.

durables and large-scale stockpiling of steel, the industrial pro-

The all-items consumer price index in Aug. 1959 was 124.8% of the 1947-49 average, only i.i percentage points or less than 0.8% above a year earlier. As might be expected from the decline in farm income, it was a decline in food prices that gave the all-items index its stability. Every other major category of consumer prices rose, particularly medical care and transporta-

duction index reached

tion.

of

production climbed rapidly and reached the prerecession level of

143% by

Jan. 1959. Then, spurred by heavy sales of consumer

148%

declined to

plained

in

155%

in

June 1959. Thereafter the index

September, the decline being largely ex-

by the primary metals industries and mining, both

strongly influenced by the steel industry.

— From

a seasonal low of 62,706,000 in Jan. rose steadily to a high of 67,594,000 in

July 1959; thereafter seasonal trends in several industries plus the steel strike pulled employment down to 66,347,000 in Sept. 1959.

Even

at the

reduced

level,

however, employment

in Sept.

1959 was 1,718,000 higher than in the same month of 1958. Although substantial, the employment increases were not adequate to absorb the heavy unemployment caused by the 1958 recession and the growth in the labour force. At its lowest 1959 level,

the seasonally adjusted rate of

unemployment was

still

4.9%

of the labour force, with 3,982,000 workers unemployed.

A

ditions, the

in

output. It was

to near

boom

con-

emplo>Tnent problem would be cured. Such was not

the case, however.

151.4% in Aug. 1959, and had shown a all consumer items com-

price index, at

50% above

a decade earlier

rate of price increase double that for

New

—

and Equipment. In 1958 business expenditures and equipment experienced their sharpest and largest decline since World War II, and, like the rest of the economy, Plant

for plant

made one

of history's fastest recoveries in

estimates by the department of

1959. Preliminary

commerce and

the Securities and Exchange commission indicated that plant and equipment expenditures for the full year of 1959 would be $33,260,000,000, up 9% from 1958. Investment in plant and equipment always lags

behind the rest of the economy

most of the

rise

in e.xpenditures

in a recovery.

Consequently,

was concentrated

in

the last

half of 1959. Estimated investment in the fourth quarter of

disturbing aspect of the 1958 recovery was the failure of

employment to rise in proportion to the rise hoped that, as 1959 brought the economy back

The medical-care

was more than

bined. (See also Prices.)

employment

Employnnent. 1959, total

average.

From

second-quarter 1958 to second-quarter 1959 gross national product rose 11.5%. In the 12 months end-

June 1959, industrial production increased by 15.9%. Yet same 12 months employment rose only 3.6%. These facts underlie the growing tension during 1959 between labour and management. They help explain the surprising length and bittering

in the

The truth was that the current rates of in the labour force, combined with the substantial gains man-hour productivity brought about by new machinery and technology, would require e.xpansion of the economy at rates

ness of the steel strike.

1959. at an annual rate of $35,340,000,000, was

18%

above the

fourth quarter of 1958 and near the record levels of the 1956-57

investment boom. All major industry groups participated in the rise in plant and equipment expenditures with the exception of public utilities. For the first time in five years and only the second time since

World War II, expenditures in declined. At an estimated annual

the public utilities industries rate of $5,930,000,000 in the

fourth quarter of 1959, they were

The two

industry- groups

5.3% below

a year earlier.

hardest hit by the

1958 recession, manufacturing and railroads, made the strongest recovery in

growth

1959. Railroad plant and equipment expenditures were estimated

in

to

higher than those of recent years,

above their recession low in the fourth quarter of 1958. In spite of what appeared on the surface to be adequate capacity, manufacturing plant and equipment expenditures for

substantially reduced. {See also

—

if

unemplo>Tnent were

to

be

Employment.)

Prices. One of the surprising and encouraging developments of 1959 was the stability of prices. Prices usually rise with a major e.xpansion. But in Aug. 1959 the wholesale price index was 119.1'^ of the 1947-49 average, exactly where it had been

a year earlier.

The wholesale

1959 to a high of

Consumer

132

120%

prices

at

price index rose slightly in early

in April, retail

but declined thereafter.

showed similar

stability

be at an annual rate of $1,120,000,000

i959i 93-

in the fourth quarter of

%

the full year of 1959 were estimated to be $12,440,000,000. the third highest level in history. Obviously, investment

was geared

change and e.\pectations more than to current sales. Construction. Stimulated by federal government monetary

to technical

—

and

fiscal policies to

state

on the

1

and

local

combat recession and pressing needs

levels,

new construction

e.xpenditures in

ran counter to the cycle and rose as the rest of the

at the

1958

economy

BUSINES S REVIEW

133

government stimuli were reduced or converted to restraints. Construction expenditures by the federal, state and local governments declined from their recession high

ments were

of a seasonally adjusted annual rate of $18,100,000,000 in Feb.

spending and the large internal cash flow from depreciation

1959 to a low annual rate of $15,100,000,000 in Sept. 1959. Interest rates increased throughout 1959, and in September short-

charges against the heavy investments of 1955, 1956 and 1957 enabled corporations to maintain normal dividend payments,

term rates were almost double what they had been a year earlier. Long-term interest rates in Aug. 1959, as reflected in the yields on corporate Aaa bonds, were up 0.58 of a percentage point

ment

declined. In 1959 all

from Aug. 1958. Such restraints notwithstanding, total new construction expenditures were at an average annual rate of $55,600,000,000

months of 1959. This was the highest level in by a wide margin and $6,500,000,000 above the rate of

for the first nine

history

changed from the levels of the recession quar-

little

1957 and 1958. This dividend policy, however, was a

ters of

return to the pattern of earlier years. In 1958 reduced capital

even though earnings were reduced. In 1959 corporate investin plant, equipment and inventories once again absorbed

The

substantial funds.

which reached

51%

ratio of dividends to after-tax profits,

66%

a high of

in the first half of 1959.

were the highest 000,000 for the

first

returned to a more normal

at the

reduced

rate,

dividends

averaging an annual rate of $13,070,-

in history,

Business Failures.

in 1958,

Even

three quarters of 1959.

—A

sensitive indicator of business condi-

the rate of industrial and commercial failures as re-

spending for 1958. Total private construction expenditures ac-

tions

counted for most of the increase. At an annual rate of $38,611,-

ported by

nine months of 1959, private construction ran 14.2% ahead of the previous record year of 1958. Nonfarm

the brevity of the 1957-58 recession and the strength of the

000,000 for the

first

residential housing expenditures,

$22,656,000,000 for the

first

averaging an annual rate of

nine months of 1959, far surpassed

any previous year and accounted for 96.8% of the expansion

in

Next to inventory building by business, was the most vigorous driving force in the 1959 recovery. (See also Architecture; Building and Construction Industry; Housing.)

is

Dun and

Bradstreet, Inc. This measure showed clearly

1958-59 recovery. Failures reached a recession high in March 1958 when there were 1,495. Contrary to the behaviour in longer recessions,

both the number of failures and the

size of the failing

firms declined immediately after recovery began in 1958. Total

averaged 1,277

rnonth for the

three quarters of

private construction.

failures

residential housing

1958 and only 1,191 per month for the same period in 1959. Because of the continual growth in the number of firms doing

and

Sales

— Beginning

in April 1958 sales at all

manufacturing and trade turned upward, and by the end

levels of

of

Inventories.

year prerecession levels were attained. The recovery

the

continued through June 1959, when total manufacturing and trade sales were at a record-high seasonally adjusted level of $62,000,000,000. After June

ward

slightly.

all

categories of sales turned

down-

business, a

first

measure of business

significant

failures

was

the seasonally adjusted annual rate of failures per 10,000 firms in operation.

This rate reached a recession high of 57.4

second quarter of 1958 and then declined rapidly to 51.4

in

the

in the

second quarter of 1959. For the first nine months of 1959 the rate 51. 1, a significant 5.4 below the rate for the same period of

was

1958-

Average dollar

Total sales for manufacturing and trade were

$59,500,000,000 in Aug. 1959, seasonally adjusted, which was $5,100,000,000 or 9.4% above a year earlier. Because of at-

more

P^""

liabilities of

of the severity of a decline.

failing firms is a

Many

good measure

small firms are always going

out of business in good times and bad, but in a severe recession

tempts to rebuild inventories throughout the economy, manu-

larger firms begin to

facturing

and wholesale sales rose more than retail sales, the former two each rising 11% and the latter rising 7.1% in the year

firm rises. Also there

ending in Aug. 1959. The inventory liquidations of the 1958 recession left all levels of business with inadequate stocks for the 1959 expansion. Con-

able to withstand economic strain longer than smaller firms.

sequently 1959 was a year of inventory building. During the second quarter of 1959, nonfarm inventories (to a large extent in

brevity of the 1958 recession and the vigour of the 1959 re-

an annual rate of $9,800,000,000. The sales pace was too brisk to allow such rates to continue, however, and by steel)

grew

at

Aug. 1959 total manufacturing and trade inventories were only $4,000,000,000 above the recession low levels of a year earKer. Retail inventories rose relatively least of

4.2% above Aug. 1958. The ratio of inventories to

all,

ending Aug. 1959

only

sales for all

manufacturing and

fail,

and the average

liability

data to lag behind other indicators because the larger firms are

Consequently the highest early part of a recovery.

liability figures usually

The

liability

The average liability per failure in the fourth quarter of when the recession began, was $43,000. The highest average for the recession came in the first quarter of 1959, when the rate was only $53,300, very modestly above the 1957 figure. Even covery. 1957,

though prices had risen substantially, the dollar

firms, except in special cases.

and even farther below the higher rates of the six preceding years. U.S. business headed into the typically heavy-

dustrial Conference board, business consolidations,

Korean war. This condition promised a high level of economic activity well into i960. since the

Corporate sharply in the

Profits. first

—-Corporate

profits

before

taxes

fell

quarters of the 1957-58 recession, reaching a

Mergers and Acquisitions. on the

rise for three or

89 per

month

for the 12

months ending with

total of 1,069 consolidations for the

tions doing business in the

the

were

in the first half of 1959,

same period

in 1958.

profits after taxes

at an annual rate of $49,550,-

up $16,750,000,000 or

The seasonally adjusted annual

averaged $25,400,000,000

1959, establishing a

51%

new record

in

from

rate of

in the first half of

corporate earnings.

Although profits were at record levels in 1959, dividend pay-

to the National In-

which were

declined slightly in 195S. But the aftermath of the recession

firms or only

of 1958. Before-tax profits

—According

brought an increase, consolidations averaging slightly more than

quarter of 1958. Thereafter profits rose steadily with the recovery, regaining their prerecession levels by the fourth quarter

000,000

per

four years prior to the 1958 recession,

low seasonally adjusted annual rate of $32,000,000,000 in the first

liability

was about the same in 1958-59 as in the recessions of 1948-49 and 1953-54. The most recent recession was too short to affect seriously the fortunes of large or even medium-sized failure

of Aug. 1958

fourth quarter with the lowest inventory-to-sales ratio

occur in the

data clearly highlighted the

trade was at 1.503 in Aug. 1959, well below the low 1.570 ratio

sales

per failing

a tendency for the liability-per-firm

is

rate

of

0.25%

1959.

The

of the approximately 1,000,000 corpora-

consolidations

monthly

May

year involved about 2,500

had

United States, Although small, the risen considerably. The average

months of 1959 was 99, up from same period of 1958. Most mergers and acquisitions involve relatively small firms and have little broad meaning for the economy. The typical 87

rate for the first five

in the

consolidation does posite

is

more

little

likely. It is

to lessen competition; in fact the op-

mainly a means of diversifying product

—

BUTTER — CALIFORNIA

134

increasing efficiency, integrating production processes or

lines,

4^

adjusting to changing technology. There arc nevertheless dispatterns

cernible

in

which highlight trends

consolidations

in

One of the most notable of these patterns is the subnumber of acquisitions by some of the large, nationally

business. stantial

known paper products companies. In 1958 and again in kjso half a dozen or more of these firms acquired the assets of smalkr firms in lines of production in which the larger company was only beginning. One firm made five purchases in 1958 and three more in the first four months of 1959. Another interesting acquisition development of 1959 was the petroleum industry. Four well-known

known

oil

in

companies, chiefly

as integrated producers of petroleum, ventured further

by purchasand independent-brand gasoline service station

into the distribution of finished petroleum products

ing distributors chains.

The

highly competitive food distribution business,

the

so-

market chains, continued the mergers that had been prominent in that industry in recent years. There were more called super

than a dozen acquisitions in the

and

distributors

field

involving food processors,

retailers.

See also Banking; Budget, National; Census Data, U.S.;

Consumer Credit; Federal Reserve System; Law; Wages AND Hours. Butter:

(P. G. C.)

Dairy Products; Vegetable Oils and Animal

see

Fats.

Cacao:

see Cocoa.

Cadmium:

Mineral and Metal Production and

see

Calendar of Events, 1959:

Prices.

twenty-two students

of St. Mary's college. Moraga, Calif., Iryino to beat a "record" of 25 establlthed by Union of South Africa. The fad was practised on a number campuses in 1959

a

see pages 1-16.

in

lelepfione boolti,

the

ed into school U.S.

of

Southernmost of the Pacific coast states of the

California.

United States, California was admitted to the

union on Sept.

9,

1850.

Nicknamed

of the importance of gold in third in area

and second

area of the state area.

The

lation

Chief

in

its

the "Golden state" because

early history, California ranks

population

among

the states. Total

158,693 sq.mi., including 1,953 sq.mi. of water 1959 provisional estimate calculated California's popuis

14,639,000

at

inhabitants

(1950

census,

10,586,223).

pop. with 1950 census figures in parentheses") were Los Angeles, 2,397,000 (1,970.358); San Francisco, cities

(1959

est.

821,000 (775.357'*; 405,200 (384,575)

;

(the state capital),

San Diego, 501,719 (334,387); Oakland, Long Beach, 324,822 (250,767) Sacramento 170.949 (137,572); San Jose, 160,719 (95,;

280); Fresno, 123,238 (91,669); Pasadena, 123,000 (104,577); Berkeley, 115,374 (1:3,805); and Glendale, 114,460 (95,702). History.

— The

1959 remained Edmund G. Glenn M. Anderson, lieutenant

state ofi&cers in

Brown, governor; Frank M. Jordan, secretary of state; Bert Betts, treasurer; Stanley Mosk, attorney general; Alan Cranston, controller; Roy E. Simpson, state superintendent of public instruc("Pat")

governor;

tion.

During the year 1959 emplojTnent in California reached an and the year reflected continued growth and development in most fields. Particularly important was the passage by the legislature of an extensive state water program to provide all-time high

irrigation

which would

entail expenditure of

about $1,750,000,-

000. California's Indians obtained a favourable verdict

from the

U.S. Indian claims commission in their struggle to receive com-

pensation for about 70,000.000 ac. of land taken at the time of

American conquest of the area. As of Jan. i, i960, the state maximum speed limit on California highways was set at 65 m.p.h.. replacing a flexible speed limit based on "reasonable and prudent" operation of motor vehicles.

Unusual dryness throughout the year, though not particularly harmful

to agriculture,

and extensive brush

Much

caused costly forest

fires in

fires

in the north

southern California.

was centred about the construction of San Francisco completed a new baseball park; the national champion Los Angeles baseball team broke ground for its new park in Chavez ravine; and a local interest

major sports

facilities in the state.

multimillion dollar sports arena was constructed in Los Angeles'

Exposition park. In an effort to plan for future expansion as well as to meet

present needs the legislature passed a long-term highway construction program, the Collier

bill,

calling for a $10,000,000,000

expenditure for state highways.

—

Education. .Average daily attendance for budgetary purposes for 195758 was calculated at 2,118,641 for elementary schools, at 688,210 for high school districts and at 151,305 for junior college districts. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. As of July 1959 there were 260,631 recipients of old-age security payments with average monthly payments being $78.18 (July 1958. 265.838 persons at $78.21 per recipient). .\id to the needy blind program supported 13,769 persons with average payments of $97.17. Support was provided for 208,026 needy children with average monthly payments of $53.99 to children in family groups, while general home relief was provided for 28,798 cases involving 59,539 persons. For the month of July 1959 the five California-administered social insurance programs compensated 136,270 unemployed or disabled claimants per week in a total amount of $14,604,533 for the month. Total operating expenses for the state department of corrections for the year 1958-59 were estimated at $32,259,337. Total population of California correctional institutions as of July 31, 1959, numbered 19,264 including 798 women. .As of Jan. 31, 1959, inmates of youth authority institutions totaled 4,039, of which 512 were girls; 2,779 were in youth authority institutions, 1,188 in department of corrections facilities and 72 in other institutions. Communications. Estimated total e.xpenditures by the state division of highways for reconditioning, resurfacing and construction of highways for 1958-59 were $444,081,713, including $196,719,249 in federal aid contributions (1957^58. $366,761,439 including $146,759,409 in federal assistance). State highway mileage in 1957 was 128,909 mi., including 26,496 miles of city streets, .\utomobile registrations in 1958 totaled 6.238.765. Railway mileage statistics of 1950 indicated 7,518 mi. of steam and 702 mi. of electric railways in California. .As of .\pril i. 1958, there were 369 airfields, including 224 public and 14s limited airports, with 9.705 planes based in California airports. As of Jan. i, 1959, there were 6,826,182 telephone stations within the state. Banking and ' Finance. Total assets of the 171 State-licensed savings

—

—

—

CAMBODIA Table

I.

—

Leading Agricultural Products of Coliforni Indicaled 1959

Crop CoHon, bol

Hay

Ions

Potaloei, cwl

Orana.i, boxes boxes

Umom

bu Wheal, bu

Barley,

Com

bu

Floxseed, bu

Sorohum grain, bu Beans, bags (100 lb.) Rice, bogs (100 Ib.l Sugor beeli. Ions Hops, lb Apples, bu PeacKes, bu Peors, Ion Grapes, Ion Apricols, tons Prunes, Ions Plums, Ion Walnuls, Ions Almonds, Ions

Sweel potatoes, cwl •1949-57. Source: U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.

Table

II.

1,920,000 4,168,000 25,788,000 35,000,000 18,000,000 69,225,000 8,162,000 18,250,000 1,755,000 17,700,000 3,891,000 12,169,000 4,568,000 9,280,000 9,400,000 37,545,000 422,000 2,980,000 210,000 150,000 103,400 57,000 70,000 1,014,000

1958

1948-57

1,604,000 6,963,000 29,598,000 40,200,000 17,000,000 67,488,000 8,162,000 17,374,000 1,642,000 15,390,000 4,091,000 11,730,000 3,628,000 9,027,000 9,650,000 32,502,000 345,000 2,741,000 90,000 96,000 68,800 82,200 9,800 1,020,000

1,424,000 6,796,000 26,535,000' 37,781,000 13,669,000 60,693,000 10,305,000 7,696,000 1,928,000 6,344,000 4,270,000 10,529,000 3,364,000 11,421,000 8,349,000 33,152,000 355,700 2,680,800 190,300 I 60,800 86,730 66,820 41,280 817,000*

1

Principal Industries of California

135

Nov. 30, I9S8) was $1,407,548,028. Per capita income for 1958 was $2,467 and per capita tax was $116.48, while state tax collections in • 958-59 amounted to $1,748,891,000 (1957-58, $1,642,299,000). Agriculture. California's gross cash farm income again led the nation in 1958, being $2,840,000,000 (i9S7. $2,764,000,000). Cash receipts from livestock and poultry products aggregated $1,171,000,000 (1957, $1,018,000,000), and crop returns brought $1,705,000,000 (1957, $1,715,000,-

—

000).

—

Manufacturing. .\s of July 1959, 1,311,300 wage and salary workers were employed in California manufacturing industries. Approximately 427,500 were employed in production of nondurable goods and 883.800 in the manufacture of durable goods, .^s of May 1959 total civilian employment was 6.074.000 while unemployment figures indicated 255,000 not working. Preliminary estimates of 1958 retail trade indicated $19,302,000.000 spent, approximately equal to 1957. (D. C. Cr.) Minerol Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in California in 1957 and 1958 whose value exceeded $100,000. In 1958 California was the only state producing boron. It was first among the states in natural calcium chloride, dialomite. gypsum, mercury (59% of U.S. total) sand and gravel and natural soda; second in cement, chromite, feldspar, pumice, potash, talc and soapstone; third in ball clay, perlite and pyrites; fourth in bromine, china clay, gold, molybdenum, peat and stone; sLxth in marketed natural gas produced and salt (6% of U.S. total); and seventh in crushed and broken slate. Iodine was extracted from oil brine, and there was some uranium output. California ranked third among the states in the value of its mineral output in 1958, with 9.09% of the U.S. total.

—

EncycloP/EDIA Yosemite (1954).

Britannica

Films.

—Far

Western

States

(195s);

—

CAMERAS— CANADA

136 samak narrowly escaped death from

Norodom Vakrivan,

but Prince

bomb

a

Tab!* I.— Ar«i and Population of Canada

sent in a parcel,

assistant director of the royal

household, and a servant were killed.

Toiol ar«o

Provlncoi ond Terrllorlei

(n.'r

$100,000,000 was expended in

United

the

States during 1959 to support the research on cancer

being conducted by about 6.000 scientists.

The magnitude

the cancer problem

that:

is

shown by the

facts

cases of the disease were discovered in 1959 of the United States alone,

and

it

of

475.000 new-

among

the citizens

caused the deaths of 259.000

and

of these persons; almost 13.000.000 days of hospitalization \vere

economic surveys to assess the prospective value of making the

required to treat patients with this disease; and nearly 1,500,-

Grand Union canal navigable by wide barges between Birmingham and the port of London. Continental Europe. During 1958 river na\'igation between Kaliningrad (formerly Konigsberg), Frankfurt-on-Oder and Magdeburg was opened for transit across Poland. In connection with the Rhine development programs between Basel and Strasbourg, the Vogelgrun-Fourth canal of the Grand Canal d'Alsace was opened for Rhine traffic in March 1959. Development of the Rhine-Main-Danube canal as far as Niirnberg to enable it to take large vessels continued and was expected to be completed by 1970. By the construction of a series of locks the Neckar river had been made navigable as far as Stuttgart, thus joining the capital of Baden-Wiirttemberg by waterway with the Ruhr and the North sea. Deepening of the Dortmund-Ems canal was com-

000 man-years of work were

lost.

of every six deaths from

causes resulted from cancer.

The commission

Yorkshire waterways.

initiated engineering

—

In connection with the development of the port of Rotterdam

new

Smoking and Lung Cancer.

In the United States, one out

—The age-standardized —

New

canal to relieve the

earlier to bj-pass the river, w-as to

waterway, constructed 80 years

tortuous and silted

mouth

of the

Maas

be buOt to take inland craft and would involve the

construction of a

number

of the lung during 1959 in the United States.

Twenty-three independent studies carried out

Negotiations were opened between Finland and the U.S.S.R.

concerning the reopening of the Saimaa canal. 6 of the 11 locks of which were in So\aet territory.

Under

U.S.S.R. was to repair the canal on

a draft agreement the

in eight different

countries since 1939 had demonstrated a positive relationship

between the smoking of cigarettes and the occurrence of lung cancer, i.e., the greater the number of cigarettes smoked by the subjects studied, the greater was the incidence of cancer

of the lung. In addition to this epidemiological e\-idence.

are capable of inducing cancer

when

many

smoke condensates

applied to the skin of cer-

tain animals.

Since the over-all rate of sur\nval from cancer of the lung treated creasing

of locks.

death

from cancer of the lung in male subjects in the L'nited States had increased by 1.150'^c since 1930 the rate in 1930 being 2.5 per 100.000 males, while in 1959 it was estimated to be 31.0 per 100.000. -Approximately 35,000 deaths occurred from cancer rate

investigators had demonstrated that cigarette

pleted.

a

all

by surgical means had been disappointingly low, an innumber of investigators began to search for methods

capable of detecting the disease at earlier stages in

its

develop-

ment. Examinations through the microscope of specimens of

"deep-cough" sputum obtained after inhalation of a weak solution in the form of an aerosol revealed in a

number

salt

of in-

and Finland was to be granted a 50-yr. lease on the canal facilities and also on storage and reloading space in the harbour of Vysotsk, outside Vyborg. Plans were made to broaden the canal, which was

was detectable by X-ray examination. Studies were under way to determine whether this discovery could be utilized to improve

only about 25

the cure-rate of lung cancer through earlier treatment of the

ft.

its

territory

wide.

on the possibilities of connecting the Danube and the Sava by the construction of a canal, nearly 40 mi. in length, from Vukovar on the Danube to Samac on the Sava. b>-passing Belgrade. Construction was expected to take four years and. when finished, the route from Croatia and BosniaHerzego\-ina via the Danube to Hungary and Austria would be Studies were begun

shortened by about 250 mi.

—

Africa and Asia. In 1959 work started in Madagascar on the Pangalanes canal which was to run parallel to the coast and connect the rivers serving the coastline with the port of Ta-

stances the presence of cancer of the lung before the disease

by

disease

surgical means.

Chemotherapy. ical

—Two developments

compounds capable

in the

search for chem-

of destroying cancers in

man

are

worthy

of note.

The

was described in preliminary reports which suggested and certain related compounds are capable of adversely a variety of spontaneous cancers in man;

first

that 5-fluorouracil

affecting e.g.,

primary cancers of the colon and rectum, breast, bladder,

ovarj',

stomach,

liver, etc.

The second development

related to a procedure being de-

—

—

CANDY — CANNING INDUSTRY

142

punwsf of circumventing the harmful effects on bone marrow and the lining of the alimentary tract so fre-

vi'loped for the

the

quently encountered after use of most of the chemical compounds that arc effective against cancer. These adverse side effects severely limit the amounts of drugs that can be administered and the duration of treatment, oftentimes to a point where the

drug

is

just barely effective against the cancer.

Attempts were being made

to

circumvent

this

limitation

through isolating the cancerous organ by surgical means from the circulation to the remainder of the body. The cells of the temporarily isolated organ are kept alive by perfusing

it

with

blood from an outside source to which has been added a far

amount of drug than could be tolerated by the subject's bone marrow and the lining of his alimentary tract. It had been known for some time Viruses and Genetics. greater

—

that the process traits

from parent to offspring is centred within the genes of the body. These small units of protoplasm, the genes, are

arranged

I.alcnl

in

Kickcltsial Infcclion, llurxess Publication Co., p. 43 (1958); R. F. Ryan, a/.. "Treatment o( Maliitnant Neoplasms With Chcmotherapeulic AKcnts lIlilizinK a I'ump-Oxygcnalor; Technics and Early Results," Hull. Tulane Med. Fac, 17:133-143 (Feb. 1958); A. R. Curreri, el at., "Clinical Studies With 5-Fluorouracil," Cancer Rei., 18:478-484 (May 1958). (H. M. W».) ENtYCLOP,«DiA Bkitannica Filus. Cttticer (1953).

el

—

The year 1959 was the third consecutive year in p udliUy* w'hich U.S. candy manufacturers showed gains in sales, both in dollar value and poundage. More than 1,500 wholesale confectionery manufacturers and almost 2,000 retail candy manufacturers sold more than 2,943,200,000 lb. of candy with a J

wholesale value of $1,161,680,000. This represented a gain of

4%

over the 1958 output of 2,830,000,000 000,000 wholesale.

which controls the transmission of individual

cells of the

in a specific

order along the chromosomes (small rod-

like bodies located in the nuclei of cells).

Acting together, the

—

Joshua Lcderbcrg, "Grnclic Transduction," Amer. 44:264-280 (i9$6b): Rcnato Dulbccco, "Virus-Ctll Intrractioni Infections," Symposium on Latency and MasltinK in Viral and

IliiiLiouiiAniv. Scirnl.,

lb.

valued at $1,117,-

Retail sales approximated $2,000,000,000 in 1959.

000,000 confectionery outlets

in the

About

2,-

United States, ranging from

supermarkets to small retail candy stores, sold confectionery products. Per capita consumption of candy in the United States 1959 was 17.1 lb., compared with 16.4 lb. in 1958 and an alltime high per capita candy consumption of 20.5 lb. in 1944. The most important development in 1959 was the unprecein

genes serve to control the various forces that enable a mature

and functioning organism to develop from one fertilized egg cell. It had been widely held that the mechanism of heredity operi.e., at the time of cell diviates by perpetuation from within each chromosome elaborates an exact duplicate of itself, with one going to each of the two daughter cells formed. In this sion,

way, each newly formed genes of

its

cell

receives a full

complement

of the

parent.

Recent experiments suggested that certain virus particles are able to penetrate the cells of the body and to add their own substance- to that of the genes. This added substance also appears to enable the modified gene to induce the

cell in

which

be able to divide at time of cell division, along with the remainder of the gene, to thus perpetuate a continuous line of modified characteristics. The discovery that viruses can

permanently the hereditarj' potential of cells, and that this altered potential can be transmitted through succeeding genera-

alter

new dimension to research on cancer. Resistance to Cancer. Most persons are aware of the fact that the human body has great capacity to defend itself against added

a

—

from the Of the various mechanisms employed by the body to

certain foreign agents, such as bacteria, that invade outside.

resist foreign agents, the

ment of its

immune

response

i.e.,

the develop-

antibodies, antitoxins, etc., that inactivate the agent or

harmful products

—appears

to

tissues can "recognize" differences

For example, man

between "self" and "not

almost never develops antibodies against his own blood cells. A cancer cell, arising as it apparently does from a pre-existing

may

not often be different enough from the other

cell,

the host to rally the

immune

forces of the

Candy

body against

That such a response does occur on occasion, however, is suggested by the very rare, but real, disappearance of cancer in the absence of any conceivably effective treatment. Although it appeared that spontaneous cancers do not often an effective immune response, an increasing number of workers were finding a variety of substances apparently proelicit

—

duced by neoplastic cells that are capable of inhibiting the growth of some cancer cells. It was hoped that future work along these lines might yield some means capable of interfering effectively with the continued growth of certain tumours. See also Blood, Diseases of the; Stomach and Intestines,

a

(3%);

new high

in 1959, while the

25%. Total bar goods

of

60%

of total bar

proportion of lo-cent bars reached sales

45%

account for

of

candy tonnage. Sales of packaged candy increased generally except for packages retailing at $1.50 to $1.99 per lb., which declined 2% in total

5% in poundage. Bulk confectionery production showed a slight decline. The same was true of solid chocolate in bulk. Penny goods increased (D. Gw.) about 5% in value and 3% in poundage.

value and

Cane Sugar:

see Sugar.

^^^ Ponninrr InrillCtrU IllUUOliy. bdlllllllg

juices,

^'•^- ^^^^ (including the states of Hawaii and Alaska) of canned fruits, specialties, milk, meat and fish amounted

1958-59 season. This quantity was 13,000.000 cases larger than the pack for the previous year and the second highest on record. The pack in each of the seven major groups of canned foods, in selected years from 1938 through 1958. is shown in Table i. In 1958 canned tomatoes and canned peaches were the tof)to 675,000,000 cases during the

Table

I.

—Production of Various Canned Foods lln

Yeor

Fruit!

1938 1940 1945 1950

40 49 52 77 83

1951

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958t

77

....

80 83 92 99 91

92

Juices

39 55 111

109 104 109 114 99

99 123 104 105

in Ihe U.S.

000,000 of standord cases!

Vegetables Speciolties*

122 133 177 164

209 194 189 183 197 235 209 221

67 79 83 113 118 120 127 125 128 130 132 132

Milk

Rsii

Meatt

49 58 90 68 67 66

17 19 19 30 25 26 26 28 26

7 12

60 59 60 59 58 54

31 31

34

43 27 33 30 32 32 33 38 37 37

Total

341

405 575 590 639 622 628 609 635 715 662 67i

and without tomoto sauce), spaghetti, hommushrooms, Chinese foods and other specialties. fExcludins meol soups. {1 958 flgurel

'Includes iny,

Diseases of the; Surgery.

a decline in exports

;

bars selling for 5 cents accounted for

goods sales

it.

—

18%)

and increased use of confectionery (hard fat) coatings, which cost an average of 10 cents per pound less than chocolate coatings. There was also continued emphasis on the sale of candy to supermarkets, and a new impetus in the trend toward self-service candy selling in variety stores, drug stores and retail candy manu-

vegetables, self."

cells of an animal that have been injected into his body, but he

cells of

in-

first

Other major developments included sharp

gains in candy imports (about

be effective only when the

quickly develops antibodies against the blood

normal

1958.

facturers' stores.

to

tions,

troduced in

it

and behave differently than its parent. Moreover, the substance of the virus thus added to the gene appears resides to develop

cells of

dented sales gain enjoyed by the 15-cent candy bar,

baby food,

are preliminary.

soup,

baked beans

(with

—

CAPE VERDE ranking canned vegetable and canned total

lb.

first

lb.

(net

1958-

for canned tomatoes.

The

time since 1942 that the pack of canned tomatoes exall other canned vegetables. Peaches had for many

ceeded that of years ranked

volume among canned

fruits. The volume of canned annually, however, frequently exceeds the volume of any canned fruit or vegetable. In the 195859 season the pack of canned tomato juice was 32,600,000 cases. first in

tomato juice that

is

In terms of weight this was the equivalent of

more than

1,100,-

000,000 lb. The 1958-59 pack of canned tomatoes was followed by canned peas, sweet corn, green beans and tomato catsup. Each of these canned vegetables had a pack exceeding 20,000,000 cases for the year. In volume of pack, peaches were followed by pineapple, fruit cocktail, applesauce and pears.

at the beginning of the

were about

11%

195S-59 marketing season

below the stocks carried over

at the

beginning

Because of the relatively large packs some products, however, the total supply available for dis-

of the previous season. of

tribution during the 1958-59 marketing season

with

tical

the

supply

available

for

the

was almost idenmarketing

1957-58

season.

9%

of canned foods exported from the U.S. in 1958

than that exported during 1957. Exports during 19% less than the exports during the same

less

Jan.-July 1959 were

period in 1958. Exports of canned fruits, vegetables and juices

down about 25%

seven months of 1959 were from the previous year.

during the

first

Preliminary figures placed the total per capita consumption

canned foods at 136.1

of the seven groups of

lb.

per person. The

per capita consumption of canned fruits was slightly above 1957 and at a record high of 26.2 pounds. Slight increases in per capita

consumption were also registered

in 1958 for canned vegetables, and canned meat. Compared with the previous year, the per capita consumption of specialties was about the same, and for canned juices and milk slightly less in 1958.

canned

II.

Apparenl Annual

Civilian Per Capita Consumption of Various Canned Foods, U.S.* {In

pounds)

Vege. Yoor

Fruits

Juices

1938 1940 1945 1950

15.4

7.4 10.2 17.9 18.4 19.6 18.9 19.0 18.3 17.7 17.6 17.5 16.5

19.1

14.4 22.0 19.5 21.0 21.3

1951

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958

21.1

22.6 21.8 22.4 22.6

tables Speciollies

Milk

fish

Meol

Tolol

28.3 31.4 36.2

17.2 19.3 18.3

4.9 4.2 2.6 4.5 4.0

3.1

91.4 106.2 112.8 134.8 132.3 133.4 136.0 133.7 136.2

37.1

37.5 36.9 37.9 36.8 38.7 39.4 38.6 39.5

15.1

17.7 18.5 24.0 24.5 25.5 26.2 26.7 27.1

27.5 28.0 28.0

20.1 18.3

17.6 17.4 16.8 16.2 15.9 15.5 14.6

4.1

4.2 4.2 3.7 3.9 3.9 4.2

4.3 4.9 8.7 8.9 9.4

10.0 9.8

10.2 11.0 10.6 10.7

137.1

136.5 136.1

•Derived by the U.S. Deportment of Agriculture from data on production ond utilization. From the annual supply of each food (production plus carry-over stocks plus imports) ore deducted exports, government purchases and carry-over stocks. The residual is considered to be civilion consumption. This is divided by estimated population to determine per capita Estimates

components

by Notional Canners Association with the exception of baby food and soup are by U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.

v/hich

retail

value of the 1958 U.S. consumption of the canned I reached a new high estimated at more Canned vegetables accounted for the largest

foods included in Table

than $4,800,000,000.

value of any canned-food group, with a retail value estimated at $1,100,000,000.

The

Islands: see Portuguese Overseas

Prov-

Carnegie Trusts: see Societies and Associations, U.S. Carnivals: see Shows. Caroline Islands: see Marshall, Caroline and Mariana Islands.

roctrn riHoi UdoUU, riUCI

^^"9*7"

)>

Cuban

revolutionary

leader,

launched his armed rebellion against the government of Pres. Fulgencio Batista in Dec. 1956 and within

more than two years had gained complete mastery of the On Jan. i, 1959, Batista fled Cuba and Castro's bearded forces entered Havana. Castro became premier on Feb. 16. He

little

country.

Manuel Urrutia Lleo. For the events of Castro's months in office, see Cuba. Born at Mayari, a small town of eastern Cuba, on Aug. 13, 1927, Castro studied law at the University of Havana, receiving his doctorate in 1950. Meanwhile he had become attracted to revolutionary activities. Setting up law practice in Havana, he tion of Pres.

first difficult

specialized in defending poor litigants without fee. His candidacy

came to a swift end with the Batista coup of 1952. Castro, with about 180 followers, then began a campaign against the Batista regime by attacking an army barracks at Santiago de Cuba, July 26, 1953. Although half the small

band was killed and Castro and his brother Raul were arrested and imprisoned, this event started the "July 26 movement." Castro was amnestied in 1955. In exile, first in New York and then in Mexico, he organized and trained a group of fellow exiles in the latter country and returned with a small body of

armed

insurrectionaries to his native Oriente province in

Cuba

Dec. 1956. His guerrilla talents baffled the regular Cuban army, which tried vainly to capture him and disperse his force in

fish

Table

The

Cape Verde inces.

for the national legislature

The tonnage was

(H. L. Sr.)

resigned briefly in July 1959 but resumed office after the resigna-

Stocks of canned fruits, vegetables and juices carried over

by canners

143

index for canned foods as a group also showed an increase in

1958-59 pack of canned tomatoes amounted to 29,600,000 cases, and the pack of canned peaches was 28,400,000 cases. This was the

— CASTRO

The

volume of canned peaches was about 1,100,000,000

content) and about 900,000,000

ISL ANDS

respectively.

fruit,

retail prices of

canned foods

in

1958 averaged 110.8% of

the 1947-49 average. This represented an increase of about

over the retail price level in 1957. During the retail prices

first

4%

half of 1959

of canned foods continued to rise. In July they

stood at 118.7% of the 1947-49 average.

The wholesale

price

"WHERE THERE'S A LOT OF SMOKE Boston Traveler

1959 cartoon by Dobbins

of

The

CATASTROPHES—

144

of several thousand volunteer irregulars.

From headquarters

in

the Sierra Maestra, Castro directed a surprisingly effective cam-

paign of harassment and

terrorism that led finally to com-

civil

plete victory over Batista.

Catastrophes: see Disasters. Catholic Church: s^e Roman Catholic Church. Catholic Community Service, National: see Societies AND ASSDCIATIO.NS,

U.S.

Catholic Organizations for Youth:

see

Societies and

Associations, U.S.

Catholic Welfare Conference, National:

see Societies

AND Associations, U.S. Cattle: see Livestock. cement output of the world was 1,541,as compared with 1,447,912,000 bbl. in n)57. As in 1957, Europe supplied more than half the total in 1958, with North America next. The greatest increase in 1958 was also in Europe. ^" "'^^ '^^

Pomont

UwlilCilL

bbl.

()c)6,ooo

United States.

—The domestic output of cement

21%

of world output, about the

1957.

The

principal output

same

in

came from Pennsylvania,

n

Texas and Michigan, with

1958 was

as the revised figure for California,

other states supplying the re-

mainder. Cemenf

Industry in the U.S.

(Millloni of barrels, 376

Produclion Portland c«menl Other varleliej Shipments Portland cement

Other varieties Slocks Portlond cement Clinker*

Other varieties

1954

19SS

1956

267.7 264.2

275.9 272.4

314.9 297.4

333.5 316.5

3.4

3.5

3.5

17.5

17.0

254.8 251.4

264.2 260.9

278.4 274.9

310.2 292.8

325.7 308.7

1958

19S7

313.7 326.4 298.4 311.5 14.9

15.3

304.7 317.3 289.7 302.3

3.4

3.5

3.5

17.4

17.0

15.0

15.0

16.0

19.3

16.5

5.3

5.3

17.5 7.0

22.4

5.3

28.6 14.9

30.4 15.0

0.1

0.5

Available supply

eoch)

1953

252.7 249.3

0.1

Imports E«P="-'s

lb.

1952

0.4

0.1

0.5

9.4

0.1

0.1

3.2

2.6

1,9

5.2 1.8

4.5 2.0

251.1

262.2

277.0

318.3

336.0

0.1

0.1

4.4

3.4 0.6

1.3

316.8 329.2

•Clinker figures for 1955 and loter are not strictly comporable with those of 1954 and earlier yeors because producers are now osked to report clinker in terms of the number of 376-lb. borrels of finished portlond cement that could be produced from the quonlity of clinker in question, whereos previously the unit of measure wos the 376-lb. barrel of clinker.

The in

U.S. bureau of mines reported 167 active cement plants

1958 (163 in 1957)

000

bbl. or

6%

;

at the year's end, capacity

was 402,786,-

greater than 1957 capacity (380,386,000 bbl.)

The capacity used

in

1958 was 77.3%, compared with 78.5% in

1957-

In the

first

eight

months of 1959, output of cement totaled

224.599.000 bbl. (from 38 states and Puerto Rico), compared with 195,254,000 bbl. in the first eight months of 1958, a 15% increase.

(F. E. H.)

^^^

^'^'

^ PpnCIK Rata UCildUd UdLd, II U.O. mated States including

Oct.

I,

newest

On

armed

''"''^^"

°^

^^^

census

esti-

that the population of the United

forces overseas reached 178.500,000

by

1959. This estimate included the population of the two states,

July

I,

Alaska and Hawaii. 1959. the population of the United States (includ-

ing Alaska, which was admitted to the union in Jan. 1959, but excluding Hawaii, which was admitted in Aug. 1959) was esti-

Table

1.-

CENSUS DATA. more

and an additional 18,000,000 or twofifths, had incomes ranging between $5,000 and $10,000. At the other end of the income scale, 10,500,000, or about one-fourth, had incomes under $3,000, The remaining 11,000,000 families were in the $3,000 to $5,000 bracket. of $10,000 or

in 1958,

U.S.

145

—

School Enrollment. At the beginning of the 1958-59 school year there were an estimated 42,900,000 persons 5 to 34 years old enrolled in public, private or parochial schools in the regular school system. This enrollment total exceeded that of Oct. 1950, eight years earlier, by about 13,000.000, due in part to the in-

number of persons in school ages, especially of persons ages for which school attendance is compulsory. However, a

creased Toble

IL

—

Proviiiona/ fsft'mofes of (he Toial Population of Stafes: July I,

Illy

Segion, division,

ond

....

West

New

England ««ddle Atlantic

I.

IProvisionall

UNITED STATIS Nonlteast North Central South

Total Population Increose or Decrease April I, April 1, 1950 to 1950 July) 1959 ICensusI Amount Per cent

1959

stole

.

.

.

.

East North Centrol.

.

.

.

.

'

t176,365,000

;150,697,361

525,668,000

43,903,000 51,888,000 54,531,000 t26,043,000

39,477,986 44,460,762 47,197,088 {19,561,525

4,425 000

1

7427000

167

7'334'o00 §6,481,000

155

10,155,000 33,748,000

9,314,453 30,163,533

3 585'000 o, oj.uuo

119

36,513,000 15,375,000

30,399,368

6 114 000

20

14,061394

1313000

93

25,828,000 12,004,000 16,700,000

21,182,335 11,477,181 14,537,572

4646000

219

6,624,000 9,4 19,000

5,074,998 4,486,527

1,549 000 §4,932,000

913,774 533,242 377,747

35 000 59 000 -5,000

-1.4

4,690,514

261000

56

NORTH CENTRAL: Wert North Central SOUTH:

....

South Allontic Eort South Central Wert South Central .

.

.

.

.

WEST: **ountoin

NEW°ENGLANb:

'

'

'

J1

.

.

.

.

....

Mossaehusetts Islond

Connecticut

MDDLE ATLANTIC: New York New Jersey Pennsylvania

949,000 592,000 372,000 4,951,000 875,000 2,415,000

Ohio •"d'ono "'no'i

Midiigan Wisconsin AAinnesolo '

*'' Villarejo's The Tiger Hunt, in which a small boy and a maharaja go tiger hunting with cameras; in Denise and

—

Alain Trez's Fiji, in which two French children take their pet goldfish. Fifi, for a

swim

in the Seine

because she was looking

Mary

maturity of writing and depth of understanding for teen-age

those of 1958. Although there were no spectacularly original

New

I

Some Merry-Go-Round Music provided

Stolz's

title,

works, in the total output from picture books to books for

the future. I

155 awkward

his father, and, in spite of its rather

had

eight about India.

of individual

and

the migra-

between these countries of about 3,000,000 Kurds. WHO, since 1957. had been helping the wandering tribes of Kurdistan

Motion pictures depicting the dramatic fight against illness and its causes, especially in the interests of children, were widely used throughout the world in 1959, marking the tenth anniversary (1958) of the founding of

WHO.

People Like Maria, in

English, French, Russian and Spanish editions,

tells

the stor>' of

Maria, a young Bolivian nurse, and her successful struggle in

Andes mountain area of her country

to

establish a

a retired magician surprises the neighbourhood children on Hal-

maternal and child health centre. Other sequences

in this film

loween by responding to their cry of "Trick or Treat" with

show

a

magic

man

in

pale;

and

in

Louis Slobodkin's delightful Trick or Treat,

in -s^hich

tricks.

I

For older readers, Joseph Krumgold's Onion John gave real the growing understanding between a young boy

insight into

the high

WHO

team in Nigeria combating malaria and a young Burma, trained as a rural health assistant, bringing the first medical care to a remote village where there was an epidemic of the plague. Open Your Eyes, a documentary film beginning

CHILE

156 in

the Atlas mountains of southern Morocco, tells the story of

a youn(?

boy who took

blinded by trachoma, to a city

his father,

for treatment, only to find that he could not be cured. It a teacher applying the antibiotic

WHO.

Juvenile delinquency continued to attract foremost attention in the general public's

much

In 1958, and again in 1959, the representatives of state youth

delinquency and

pedic services. Eighteen orthopedists, each taking a one-month

federal

among the 600,000 Palestine refugees The orthopedic equipment was donated by U.S. sup-

tour as a volunteer, worked

Jordan.

concern about child welfare and received

attention of federal, state and local governments.

official

Another specialized agency of the UN, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees, included in its ig59 activities a program in behalf of children in need of ortho-

in

commissions from the 14 states having such commissions met to consider their

common

concerns

bureau's

children's

in the

division

service prepared a 1959 bureau publication. Administration

was recognized

prompt demand

of the country.

the refugee problem, (2) to encourage additional financial con-

available, continued the alarming increase

ment prepared by

UN

w^ith the International

ture organization,

bureau of social

Labour

office,

the

UNESCO and WHO.

co-operating

affairs,

UN Food and AgriculUN publication told

This

and various

of the extension of systems of family allowances

forms of social insurance.

—

United States. A 50th anniversary White House conference on children and youth, to be convened in Washington, D.C.,

March

27, i960,

was to confront a more complex array of prob-

lems than any of

its five

predecessor conferences.

problems was the explosive increase

in the child

Among

of live births increased each year

these

1950.

The

from the 3,554,149

1950 to the 4,254,000 (approximate) born in 1957. A drop in 1958 to about 4.248,000 may have marked a leveling off, but there still remained a challenge to all responsible for developing and operating facilities and services in the fields

born

in

slight

of health, education, welfare, recreation and religion

commensu-

need

in

for

it

youth

overcrowded and

administrators

their

parts

were operating

The appearance

in

many

poorly

of delinquent

begun 10 years

Children in

Need

earlier.

foster care, a project of the Child

Welfare League of America, were published in the

all

juvenile courts, according to such statistics as were

in

Findings of research

title

from

in

1959 under the

of Parents. This study examined practice

use of adoptive and boarding homes and institutions in

nine communities. It used teams of sociologists and child welfare

workers

in identifying

and appraising factors conducive to use

of one tNTDe of foster care or another.

Among the many observers of social and cultural developments in the U.S.S.R. were Herschel Alt and Edith Alt, whose book Russia's Children was published in 1959. A rich background of service in the fields of health, mental health and child welfare in the United States and of experience as international consultwas reflected in their discerning observameet the needs of Russian children with

ants on child welfare tions of efforts

to

mental, physical and social handicaps.

See also Birth and

venile

Death

Delinquency;

Statistics;

Social

United Nations.

Child Labour; Ju-

Security;

Tuberculosis; W. Hk.)

(H.

Films. — Food and People

(1956); Mental

Encyclop.'Edia Britannica Health (1952); Schoolhouse in the Red (1959).

Philo ^ republic extending along the southern UMIIC. of South America for about 2,600 mi.,

Pacific coast

Chile has an

no mi. It is bounded on the north by Peru, on by Bolivia and Argentina and on the south and west by

average width of

rate with this enlarged population.

The strengthening

in a

training schools for delinquent youth were

qualified or untrained workers.

population of

the United States during the decade beginning in

number

badly

Most

under serious handicaps, including reliance upon

solution

the

and

Stafl Training in Institutions for Juvenile Delinquents, the value

of which

from governments, voluntary agencies and the general public and (3) to provide additional opportunities for permanent solutions for the problems of refugees. The welfare of children throughout the world and the status of family life were given comprehensive attention in a 1959 report of the international survey of programs of social develop-

The

delinquency

juvenile

of

The general assembly of the United Nations designated as World Refugee year the 12 months beginning in June 1959. More than 15,000,000 children were among the 47,000,000 persons whose only homes were in barracks or makeshift refugee shelters. The objectives in this year were: (i) to focus attention on its

prevention of juvenile

the treatment of youthful offenders.

in

ply houses and equipment companies.

tributions toward

UNICEF

from $11,000,000 (1959) to $12,000,000.

for i960

shows

which cures trachoma to the

children in his classroom. Arabic, English and French versions

were available from

delinquency; and increasing the U.S. contribution to

of family life

is

an important and basic

preparing children and youth for participation in a

world of change, which was an avowed goal of the 1960 White House conference. Other subjects already featured in preconference meetings of planning committees in

all

of the states

the east

the Pacific ocean. Area:

5.932,995;

(Dec. 1958

286,396 sq.mi.

est.)

pop.

;

(1952 census)

7.384.403. Capital, Santiago, pop.

(1952 census) 666,679; (1958 est.) 830,897. Other leading cities (1952 census. 1958 estimate in parentheses) Valparaiso, 218.829 :

Mar,

Concepcion,

included juvenile delinquency, mental retardation, mobility of

(271,431);

population, emotional disturbance and numerous health prob-

120,099 (163.798); Antofagasta, 62,272 (77,240); Talca, 55.059

lems.

The employment

Vifia

del

85,281

(105,779);

(68,293); Temuco, 51,497 (63,877); Chilian, 52,576 (65,215); mainly Christian, 54.782 (67,950). Religion:

young children complicates family life and for many of these children imposes health and moral hazards. The federal children's bureau, assisted by the

Talcahuano,

bureau of the census, estimated

1958. submitted his austerity program to the Chilean congress

of mothers of

1958 that of 5,073.000

in

dren under 12 years of age with mothers working

full time,

chil-

about

400.000 were caring for themselves while their mothers were

away from home. The congress gave

Roman

Catholic. President in 1959: Jorge Alessandri.

History. in

Jan.

—

Pres. Jorge Alessandri,

1959. In general,

it

more businesslike procedures plan called for general wage

who took

increases even though, soon after

Alessandri had expressed the view that in-

congenital heart disease, in recognition of recent progress in

tion.

the diagnosis and treatment of this disease;

both of Chile's large labour confederations

for several services in

funds

which

state funds are

increasing grants

matched by federal

maternal and child health services, crippled children's and child welfare services) continuing inquiries through

(e.g.,

services

;

congressional hearings on the causes and prevention of juvenile

Nov.

aimed at economic stability and government administration. The

his inauguration,

creases should be granted only

The program,

in

in

1959 to several aspects of child welfare, appropriating $1,500,000 for care of children with

attention in

office

when justified by higher producmet w'ith strong opposition from

nevertheless,

—the

Single Centre

Workers (C.U.T.C.H.) and the National Labour conand by the Socialist-Communist Popular federation (C.N.T.) Action Front (F.R.A.P.) and two of the centrist parties, namely, the Christian Democrats and the National Popular party. of Chilean

—

CHINA Both labour bodies demanded wage increases substantially in excess of those provided for in the president's proposed legislation. Although both houses of the congress supported the bill it was weighted down, upon passage, by a large number of amendments which weakened the provisions that Alessandri considered essential. He found it necessary to veto most of these amendments and later requested special powers for one year to under-

1

take specific steps necessary to assure operational

!

economy and

administrative efficiency in the offices of government and state-

}

owned

enterprises.

i

was strongly opposed by C.U.T.C.H. and by three political groups F.R.A.P., the Christian Democrats and the National Popular party all of Alessandri's request for special powers

—

I

—

which represented large segments of the opposition to the president's program for economic stabilization. On the ground that

I

!

strikes

;

should not be called for purely political reasons, the

strongly anticommunist labour confederation, C.N.T., repudiated

!

its rival

,

C.U.T.C.H.'s

24-hour strike in protest against

call for a

the austerity program.

With the support

of the Conservative,

I

Liberal and Radical parties,

the president was voted special

powers enabling him to reorganize the public services without parliamentary interference. The

Law

for

Economic Consolida-

which embodied the program as approved, was put into effect on April 2. tion,

One of the

first

acts of the Alessandri administration

devaluation of the peso.

The

was the

president's contention that de-

valuation would attract foreign capital and improve the trade

balance met with considerable opposition in congress on the

ground that a greatly cheapened peso would lead to In

March

the International

peso, thus reflecting confidence in the president's stabilization

program which had as one of its broad purposes the control of inflation. The average wage increase of about 32%, granted early in 1959 to lessen the burden on agricultural and other lowpaid workers during the inevitable rising-cost stage after the initiation of the austerity program, exerted strong inflationary

As

a result, the cost of living during the first seven

months of the year rose 27.8^, or more than

in the

correspond-

ing period of 1958.

In line with the second broad objective of the program, that of encouraging foreign capital investment to engage in Chilean enterprise, the minister of finance,

Roberto Vergara, succeeded

and financial assistance from the International Monetary fund, and from both public and private sources in the United States. In addition to $132,000,000 received from these sources, European banks and investors provided total loans of in securing credits

i

1

'

$150,000,000.

The

inflow of foreign private capital into Chilean

industry gradually increased

!

Industrial production

I

cline

I

its

momentum

moved upward,

over the previous two years. The

throughout the year.

as contrasted with a derise in

copper prices was

a favourable element in Chile's 1959 exchange position. See also Foreign Investments. (A. E. Tr.) Education

—

1956 there were 6,SS6 primary schools with 1,011,429 pupils and 389 secondary schools with 125,445 pupils and (1954) 112 ^technical schools with 30.988 pupils and 15 norinal schools with 6.284 In

1

pupils. University education

was available

at the state university of Chile (8,329 students), the Catholic university of Santiago (2,753), 'be University of Concepcion (1,846), the Catholic university of V'alparaiso (1,219) iand the .\ustral university (founded 1954). Finance. The monetary unit is the peso with a par value of 0.91 cents U.S. currency. Under the unified exchange system instituted Jan. 27, 1959, the peso was valued at 0.0952 cents. The 1959 budget, as approved by congress in Dec. 1958, estimated revenue at 389,666,329,000 pesos and U.S. $71,492,400 and expenditure at 407,491,254,000 pesos and $53,667,475. The i960 budget, as submitted to congress, totaled 644.744.000.000 pesos and $80,500,000. The external debt on March 31. 195S. totaled

:

(41%), Germany (17%). the U.K. (14%), the Netherlands (6%) and (6%); chief suppliers, the U.S. (si%). Germany (11%), the

Argentina

U.K. (7%), Argentina (4%) and Brazil (3%).

The railway system totaled 5.2S4 mi. in 1950. of which 3.899 mi. were owned by the government. In 1954 there were 30.203 mi. of highways, of which 10.895 were surfaced. On Jan. i. 1958. there were 60.960 automobiles and 66.810 trucks and buses. According to Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the merchant marine had 102 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating 230. 8S3 gross tons on June 30, 1958. Telephones (Jan. i, 1958) numbered 160.343. of which 67.4% were automatic and 58% of which vfere located in

Santiago.

—

Agriculture Production of the principal crops in the 1958-59 crop year was estimated as follows (in metric tons): wheat 1,007,000; barley 98.000: oats 115.000: potatoes (1957-5S) 858.000; rice (rough) (195758) 91.000. Livestock estimates included: cattle (1958) 2.590.000: sheep (195(5) 5.874.000; pigs (195S) 800.000; horses (1955) 500.000. Wool production in 1958 was estimated at 50.700.000 lb., greasy basis. The fish catch (1957) totaled 157,413 metric tons. Timber production (1957) totaled 5,400.000 cu.m. Manufactures. In 1953 there were 4.109 manufacturing establishments (S or more employees) employing 186.600 persons and with gross value of production totaling 91.464,000,000 pesos. Production estimates included: pig iron (1958) 304,800 metric tons; steel (1958) 348,000 tons; wheat flour (1957) 726.000 tons; cement (1958) 727.200 tons; woven cotton fabrics (195S) about 48.300,000 yd.; manufactured gas (1958) 151,200,000 cu.m. The index of manufacturing industries stood at 102 in 1958 (1953 = too). Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1957) was 1,006,100 kw.; production (1958, public use only) totaled 2,568,000,000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production in 1958 included: copper 467,211 metric tons; nitrate of soda 1,280,065 tons; iodine 1.329 tons; iron ore (average metal content 60%) 3,633,355 tons; coal 1.999,397 tons; gold 70.858 fine oz.; silver 1,775,709 oz. Petroleum production on Tierra del Fuego totaled 885.198 cu.m. (about s,57S,ooo bbl.). (J. W. Mw.)

—

—

Encyclopedia Britan,nica Films.

—Chile

(People

of

the

Country

Estates) (1940).

inflation.

Monetary fund approved the exten-

sion for a year of a $30,000,000 stand-by credit to strengthen the

influences.

157

—

Trade and Communicalians. Exports in I9S8 amounted to $388,461,000; imports, $414,813,000. Leading exports were copper (59%), nitrate of soda (10%), iron ore (6%), iron and steel products (3%) and wool (24>l-igsi published lor the East Europe Institute (1959); Vaclav L. Benes el aJ The Second Soviet-Yugoslav Dispute (1959); Richard C. Hottelf "Khrushchev's German Gambit," Orbis (spring 1959); Ralph Talcot Fisher. Jr., Pattern for Soviet Youth (1959); Ferdinand A. Hermeni "Totalitarian Power Structure and Russian ForciKn Policy," The Jourm oj Polilirs (Auk. 1959): William Benton, This Is a Challenge (1958) M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party oj Poland (1959); Walu Z. I.aciueur. The Soviet Union and the Middle East (1959); John i Badeau. "The .Soviet Approach to the .Arab World," Orbis (spring 1959) Frank N. Tragcr (cd.), Marxism in Southeast Asia (1959): Gene I Ovcrstrcet and Marshall Windmiller, Communism in India (1959); Choi Ming Li, Economic Development of Communist China (1959); Richar Walker, "Letters From the [Chinese] Communes," The New Leadt (June IS, 1959); Clarence B. Randall, The Communist Challenge I American Business (1959); Hans Kohn "United States Policy in tb Cold War," Current History (Oct. 1959). (H. Ko.) Encvclop/edia Britannica Films.—CAma Under Communism (1959) Arnold Toynbee: Nationalism, Democracy, Communism (i4lh lecture c the series, "A Changing World in the Light of World History") (1958). .S.

in the

Membership of fhe Communitf Parlies*

munists as

IFifsl

date, the yeor of porty's foundatior; second dole, yeor o( lolejt 01 party's metnbershipl

developed Latin-.\merican countries.

A. Courlries o( the Commu^^ist bloc

—

Free World-Communist Intercourse. The non-Stalinist period brought after 1954 a gradual relaxation of the "iron curtain" attitude, of the almost insuperable barriers with which Stalin sought to protect his communist empire from any contact with the free world. Since that time the intercourse between the two

worlds had been steadily growing. In 1959 artists from the Soviet Union visited the United States and were received with as much

New York

acclaim as the

Philharmonic S>Tnphony orchestra

Soviet Union during the summer. its

cow, and Vice-Pres. Richard

The United States arranged a and way of life, in Mos-

M. Nixon went

Soviet exhibition was arranged in

New

L Mikoyan and

there to inaugurate

A

similar

York, and the prominent

F. R.

12,500,000 Rumonio |1 921 ; 1958) 8,239,000 Bulgorio (1 919; 19581 1,422,199 Hongory (1 91 8; 9581 North Vietnam (1930; 1957). 1,427,000 Albania (1 941 957) 1,181,195 Mongolia (1 921; 958). 1,052,809

.

.

.

1

(1946; 1956) .

.

.

(1918; 1958).

.

Belgium (1921; 1958)

.

.

Finland (1918; 1958),

.

.

.

Denmark (1921; 1958)

.

.

.

.

.

France (1920; 19581 Germon Fed. Rep. (1948;

.

.

c.

50,000 12,000 10,000 30,000 200,000

c.

10,000 26,749 20,000

c.

1,000

c. .

.

.

.

.

C. Countries of the For

Burma (1939; 1957)

.

.

.

.c.

.

.

.

Combodio (1950; 1957) Ceylon (1943; 1958) India (1921; 1959) Indonesio (1920; 1959) Jopon (1922; 1958)

.

.

.

.

the fact that Pres.

c.

Irelond ( » ; 1959) Italy (1 921 1957) Luxembourg (1 921

Harold Macmillan had suggested after

his \nsit to

Moscow

.

Netherlands

Norwoy

(1

;

1

.

.

.

.

.

91 8;

1

.

(1

.

1

1

1

;

.

;

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

1

E:!s'

8,000 1,000 2,000

a-

loos

1958)

.

.

.

957,

1

958)

.

Molayo 930; 957)t 957) t Nepal 95 (

(

.

1

1

1

1

1

;

.

1 9571« 930; 958)t 957)

Pakistan (1948; Philippines

(1

Thoiland

»;

(

1

1

.

.

.

.

.

Bolivia (1949; 1957) Brazil (1921; 1958)t Chile (1921; 1958)

.

.

.

.

-

.

,

.

5,000

.

.

•Including candidate

.

.

.

.

.

.

members,

.

.

.

5,00 9,00 5,00

25,00 6,00

.

.

.

755,06

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

1

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

latin

5,00 5,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 5,00

.

America

75,000 Haiti (1 930; 958) t 5,000 Honduros (1 920; 1 958)t 60,000 Mexico (1 91 9; 958). »; 1 9581* 45,000 Nicoroguo 5,000 Panom6 (1 930; 1 959)t 300 Poroguoy (1 928; 1 959)t 12,000 Peru (1 928; 957)f 1,000 Uruguay (1 920; 958) 500 Venezuela (1 931 1 959) .

1

.

.

(

.c.

... .

.

.

New Zealand (1924; 1958) 1

.

...

Colombia (1926; 1959)t Costa Rico (1930; 1959)t Cuba (1925; 1959) Ecuador (1928; 1957) El Salvador (1925; 1958) Guolemala (1924; 1958)t

.

1,700,00 50 15,00

Countries of Austrolasio

G. Countries of Argentina (1920; 1957).

.

Stu-heasl Asia

3

(1

1

;

,

.

Countries of the Middle East

F.

Australia (1920;

50,00 42,8«

.

.

.

1

.

.

.

5,000 Sudan (1 956; 959) 2,000 Turkey (1920; 1957)t 2,000 United Arab Republic: Egypt (1 920; 1958)t. 8,000 Syria (1 930; 1 958) t c. 8,000 Countries of North Amer :3 E. Stales (1921; 1958)t. 7,000 Canada (1 922; 1958)

Iroq (1932; 1958) Israel (1921; 1957) Jordan (1951; 1958) Lebanon (1930; 1958)t Persio (1920; 1958) f.

.

.

958). 959).

922; 1 959) Portugal 92 958) t. Spoin (1921; 19581* Sweden (1 92! 1 959) Switzerland (1 92 958) Yugoslavia (1 91 9; 1 957)

1,500,000 50,000

.

D.

.

.

;

300,000

.

....

LJniled

.

.

.

865.00 484,23 403,ig 460,00

.

.

.

Other Europeon countries

(

t958)t Greot Britain (1920; 1959) Greece (1920?; 1958)t Iceland (1930; 1958)

.

.

1

.

.

B.

Austria

1

;

North Korea (1925; 1958). Polond (1918; 1958)

....

Dwight D. Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to visit the United States in September and promised to return the visit. It was an unprecedented measure and its unique character was enhanced by the fact that the Soviet leader was accompanied by his wife and family. Eisenhower's in\'itation was occasioned by the deadlock over Berlin, an issue raised by Khrushchev in Nov. 195S and not settled by the foreign ministers conference which met for several weeks in Geneva, Switz., during the early part of the summer of 1959. Khrushchev's visit to the United States was regarded as a step in preparation for a summit conference, which British Prime Minister

.

Kozlov, visited the

United States during the year.

More important was

92 1; 1958) (1903; 1959)

Czechoslo.akio (1921; 1958) German Dem. Rep.

industries

the fair and then to travel through the Soviet Union.

Soviet leaders, A.

II

U.S.S.R.

.

which, under the leadership of Leonard Bernstein, visited the large exhibition, showing

China

1

,

1

is

.

.

;

1,000 tThe Communist party

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

6,00 4,00

.

.

20,00

.

.

banned.

early in the year.

Khrushchev's visit to the United States made it clear that though the communist leader emphasized in general terms his desire for peace, he reacted negatively to any proposal for a compromise on the concrete issues dividing the free world and

Community Chest: see United Funds-Community Chests Community Planning: see City and Regional Planning Municipal Go\-ernment; Urban Transportation, U.S. Compensation, Veterans': see Veterans Administratioi

the United Nations on Sept. 18, he proposed general total disarmament within four years, but

Confectionery:

confined himself to generalities, as the Soviet Union had done

Congo, Belgian:

communism. Appearing before

in

two previous proposals of

of Nations by

Maxim

The increased

a similar nature

made

to the

see see

'Republique du Congo, Daniihiin nf bOngO, KcpUUllL Dl Moyen-Congo), a member state

formerl;

PnnfTn

intercourse between the

way

communist and the

free

for solving or reducing

tensions and dispelling the mutual distrust which

Candy. Belgl\n Overseas Territories.

League

Litvinov.

worlds had so far not opened the

(U.S.).

was founded

of th

bounded west by the Republic of Gabon north by Cameroun and the Central African Republic, east ant French Community,

is

CONNE CTICUT southeast by the Belgian Congo, south

by the Portuguese Congo

(Cabinda) and southwest by the Atlantic ocean. Area 134.749 (1959 est.) 765,000; mainly Bantu Negroes; Europeans (1956 census) 10,429. Language:

sq.mi. Pop. (1950 census) 684,450

dialects. Religion:

Bantu

animist with a strong Christian mi-

towns (pop. 1957 est.): Bra2za\alle (capital 99,000); Pointe-Xoire (38.000); Franceville; Dolisie. Prime minis-

443 (168,500); Bridgeport, 158,709 (169,300); Waterbury, 104,477 (114,800); Stamford, 74,293 (89,300); New Britain, 73.726 (88.100).

nority. Chief

1959, Fulbert Youlou. French high commissioner,

ter in

Georg>'.

History.

by

1958,

Guy

History.

Congo was proclaimed on Nov.

of

28,

Fulbert Youlou. appointed

Noire

The

to

constitution

was adopted by

The

supporters on Feb. 23. the opposition having retired.

its

consti-

tution pro\ided for an assembly which

The power

minister. the

to initiate

would invest the prime legislation was shared between

assembly and the government.

During

on Feb.

a riot

16.

members

of the

M'Boshi

tribe, sup-

the Balali. supporters of Youlou. attacked one another.

There

were 120 killed and 200 wounded. Opangault was arrested.

sect,

some followers of

which refused to pay

the

taxes,

Andre Matsoua

(d.

On

1942)

were being moved to a new

35 died from suffocation. At the elections held on June 14. the supporters of Youlou obtained 64'yc of the votes cast and 49 seats out of a total of 61. Youlou was re-elected prime minister, and Opangault was (Hu. De.) set free. locality.

Congregational

Congregational Christian Churches Christian at

Plymouth

in

life in

America

to the landing of the Pilgrims

1620 and to the arrival of the Puritans

at

Salem

The united life of these two streams of spiritual concerns had grown by 1959 into a fellowship of 5.506 local churches with more than 1.400.000 members, and a Sunday School enroll-

in 1629.

ment of appro.ximately 770.000. During 195S. 103.663 members were added to the membership of the local churches. Gifts of benevolences during that year totaled $10,155,582

$57-333-522.

The

and

church expenditures amounted to

local

total value of local

church property of the

denomination was $606,294,174. Congregational Christians completed and dedicated 41 newchurch buildings during 1958 and began a two-year campaign to raise $7,500,000 for Christian higher education a fund to pro-

—

vide a Christian ministr>' in the interest of higher education both in the

United States and throughout their foreign mission

The General Council

and adjourned June

time allowed by the state constitution. For the

in 82 years the

3,

1959.

time

first

Democrats controlled both the senate and the

house of representatives as well as

elective offices.

all

Several resolutions were passed by the house of representatives as the first step

toward amending the state constitution.

Among

these resolutions were the requirement that the election of gover-

nor and lieutenant-governor be paired occasional occurrence

to delegate

when

in

the two top

order to eliminate the oflficials

belong to dif-

fields.

of the Congregational Christian Churches

"Home-rule" powers; the necessity of

a three-fifths

majority in the general assembly to override a governor's veto; the preservation of voting privilege six

one town to another within the

months after moving from

state.

Two

laws of major importance would abolish the county form government and the minor court system, both of which had existed since colonial times. The county govermnents would cease existence on Oct. i, i960, at which time the necessary county functions would be transferred to the state government. of

Traditional local court systems, the municipal court judges and

would be replaced on Jan. i, 1961, by The circuit court would be composed of 44 full-time judges, one of whom would be chief judge. Other measures of state-wide interest included the prohibition of discrimination by any person in renting or selling housing consisting of five or more units; discrimination was also prohibited in employment because of age, defined as between 40 and 65 years of age; the Greater Hartford Bridge authority was abolished and its responsibilities transferred to the state highway department; employers were prohibited from discharging or discriminating against employees who were elected to the general assembly; the Merritt Parkway commission was abolished and its functions were placed in the state highway department; tax exemptions to farmers on poultry, livestock and farm machinery which had been on a temporary basis were made permanent the rental of rooms in hotels and motels became subject to the education, welfare and public health tax, commonly known as the sales and use tax. the justices of the peace

a

Churches trace their

7,

ferent political parties; the authorization to the general assembly

porters of Jacques Opangault, the leader of the opposition, and

Sept. 28. while

biennial session of Connecticut's gen-

Following the usual practice, the session consumed the maxi-

head of the government, transferred the capital from PointeBrazzaville.

—The regular

assembly convened Jan.

eral

mum

—The Republic

the territorial assembly.

181

and their population (1950 census and July 1959 est.) are: Hartford (the capital), 177,397 (185,600); New Haven, 164,cities

new

circuit court system.

;

In other important actions the General .Assembly revised the

Workmen's Compensation

act;

increased

unemployment com-

acted with the Evangelical and

pensation from $40 to $45 weekly; a uniform commercial code was compiled from the various laws dealing with commercial

the United

transactions;

Reformed Church (q.v.) to form Church of Christ (g.v.) in Cleveland. 0.. June 25, 1957. The United Church of Christ was in process of preparing and adopting a constitution and of co-ordinating and unifying the programs of the uniting communions. (F. Ho.)

Congress, U.S.: see United States Congress. Congressional Investigations: see Ad\t;rtising Federal Communications Commissio.n; L.abour Unions. Congress of Industrial Organizations: see Labour ;

Unions.

stocks and non-stock corporation laws were re-

vised; spending authorization reached $716,347,514 with an addi-

approved for borrowing; the biennial salary was increased from $600 to $2,000 effective in

tional $375,010,000

of each legislator

The the

elective state officers,

all

Democrats, holding

Abraham

office

for

were:

governor,

A. Ribicoff; lieutenant-governor. John N.

Dempsey;

four-year term beginning Jan.

7.

1959,

secretarj- of state. Ella T. Grasso; treasurer,

comptroller.

Raymond

S.

John A. Speziale;

Thatcher; attorney general, Albert L.

Coles.

Pnnnoptipilt

liUlincCllCUl.

"Nutmeg

named the "Constitution state" and nicknamed "Land of Steady Habits' and Officially

one of the original 13 states, is situated in the southwestern part of New England. It has an state." Connecticut,

area of 5.009 sq.mi. of which

(1950)

2,007.280;

July

I,

no

1959

sq.mi. are water; population est.,

2,415.000.

The

largest

—

Education. For the school year 1958-59 there were 774 elementary schools with 10.652 teachers and 274,907 students: 69 junior high schools with 1.S99 teachers and 63,339 students; iii high schools with 4,679 teachers and 102,586 students; 23 colleges and professional schools with 37.900 students: 4 state colleges with 6,210 students; 4 junior colleges with 2,727 students; 15 state vocational-technical and state-aided schools with S.963 students. In 1957-58 there were 255 parochial, ecclesiastical and private schools with 3,245 teachers and 88,463 students. The commis-

——

CONSERVATION, SOI L — CONSU MER CREDIT

182

sioiuT o( education was William J. Samlcrs. Sociol Aitlttonca and Public W«1far«. During the year ending June 30, 1959. $10,517,139 was paid to 17,533 persons for old-age assistance; $13,383,336 to 38,631 depelident children; $410,563 to 370 blind persons; $3,403,053 to 3,768 disabled persons. On Jan. i, I9S9. the State Veterans hospital had 1,084 patients; in the four slate hospitals for the mentally ill there were 10,663 patients as of June 30, 1959; in the two state institutions tor mental defectives there were 4,373 patients as of Jan. i, 1959; in the five state chronic disease hospitals there were 780 patients on Jan. i, 1959. There arc two U.S. veterans hospitals in the slate. Communicotioni. For the year ending June 30, 1959, there were 1,130,709 motor vehicles registered; motor vehicle fees for the year ending June 30, 1959, amounted to $17,416,979 and the gasoline tax and special motor fuel receipts for the year ending June 30, I9S9, amounted to $44,800,083. .^5 of June 30, 1959, there were 1,191,941 telephone outlets; 38 stations; and 6 television stations. standard broadcasting stations; 8 As of Nov. I, 1959. there were 36 daily newspapers published in the state, 7 Sunday papers and 63 weeklies. There were 3,371 mi. in the stale highw.iy system, of which 338 mi. were of divided-lane type. Banking and Finonc«.--For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, the slate treasurer and office of the comptroller reported; receipts, $364,446,338; disbursements, $490,930,517; bonded indebtedness, $574,363,000; limited liability, $397,000,000; self-liquidating obligations, $439,881,000; shortterm notes, $368,950,000. The bank commissioner reported the following as of Dec. i, 1958; 43 state banks and trust companies had assets of $1,375,889,753; trust departments of stale banks and trust companies had assets of $1,319,847,605; 71 savings banks had assets of $3,515,754,309, and 37 building or savings and loan associations had assets of $164,985,351. All corporations, associations, firms and individuals under the jurisdiction of the office of the bank commissioner had aggregate assets of

—

$100,000 or more. In 1958 Connecticut was the only producer among tb« states of calcium metal. Sand, gravel and stone constituted of the total value of mineral commodities. Connecticut ranked 4 5tb amonft the states in the value of its mineral output in 1958, with .08% of the VS.

94%

total.

Kni vcLoi'/KuiA Hrita.vnica Filus.

— Norlheastern

Stalei (1955).

Conservation, Soil: see Soil Conservation. Construction Industry: see Architecture;

Bridges;

buildlnc and construction industry; housing; riveks and Harbours.

Consumer Co-operatives:

see Co-operatives.

FM

$5,346,201,930.

Table

Crops of Connecticut

Principal

I.

Indlcoted 1959

Crop

Hay, all, loni Tobocco, lb Apples, bu Peochei, bu Peon, bu Potaloei, cwl

1948-57

1958

2,040,000 38,000 386,000 13,217,000 18,800,000 150,000 55,000 1,320,000

Corn, bu Ooli, bu

2,120,000 39,000 419,000 11,459,000 22,000,000 170,000 60,000 1,374,000

1

,802,000 65,000

403,000 22 ,684,000 16 ,469,000

131,000 51,000 1 ,361,000*

•1949-57.

During 1959 the use of consumer

Consumer

Credit.

growth

the United States reached

consumer

credit during the year brought about a sigon the demand side in the credit and capital markets and was a major factor underlying consumer demand. Amount Outstanding. Total consumer credit reached a new record peak of well over $50,000,000,000 late in 1959. By Oct. 31, 1959, two months before the usual seasonal high on Dec. 31, total consumer credit stood at $49,872,000,000, $6,176,in

nificant increase

—

000,000 more than the total amount outstanding a year

This compared with increases

from $300,000,000

in

in 1958, a recession year,

Total installment credit, which

from farm marketing for the year 1958 were $166,708,000. from sale of livestock and livestock products was $111,331,000. and the income from sale of crops was $55,487,000. There were 13.754 farms upon which were raised the principal crops of tobacco ($30,170,000); greenhouse and nursery products ($30,171,000); apples ($3,913,000); potatoes ($2,967,000); and tomatoes ($1,887,000). receipts

total

Table

is

by

employees

Food ond kindred products

.

.

.

.

Textile mill products

Apporel and reloted products Pulp, paper and products Printing ond publistiing Ctiemicals and products Rubber products Stone, clay and glass products.

.

Primary metol industries FobricQted metol products Machinery, except electrical.

.

.

.

.

.... .

.... .

lin

1957

1956

11,855 24,081 15,972 8,167 15,414 11,709 12,752 5,642 27,822 43,901

54,561

133,325 137,416 79,819 65,474 132,605 157,718 110,765 49,693 250,920 325,918 682,316 306,701 654,433 91,700

124,841 164,031 82,719 61,663 121,642 153,562

94,137 34,418 40,133 78,630 60,570 61,170 27,831 142,784 201,806 391,454 158,594 434,004 66,889

103,157

268,389 320,888 678,196 303,316 539,392

Source; Annua/ Survey of Manufacturet, 1957.

Manufacturing.

September 1959

— The

department

labour

State

total nonagricultural

reported

that

in

mid-

employment was 896.100. an increase

1958, with manufacturing employment 403.620 and nonmanufacturing employment at 492,480. The average weekly wage of production workers was $92.93 for an average of 41.3 hours per week, as contrasted with $87.23 for Sept. 195S for an average of 40.2 hours per week. Construction workers received the highest average wage of $117.69 per week. In manufacturing, those engaged in transportation equipment accounted for the largest group, being 74.190, while the largest group in nonmanufacturing were those engaged in trade, numbering 154. S30. (R. C. Se.) Mineral Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Connecticut in 1957 and 1958 whose value was of 23.470 over

—

Table

III.

Mineral Production of Connecticut lonsl

lin sliort

1957

Mineral

Quontity

Totol'

Clays Feldspor time

Sand and grovel Stone Oilier minerols

308,000 t .

.

.

.

30,000 4,777,000 6,199,000

...

1

Value

Quantity

$16,055,000 409,000

199,000 »

t

503,000

29,000 5,019,000 4,223,000

5.042,000 10,040,000 130,000

'Total has been adjusted to eliminate value of duplication tVolue included with other minerals. Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.

.

in

.

stone.

.

of $38,-

changes

in

recent years which had ranged from a decline of

$100,000,000 in 1958, a recession year, and an increase of $560,-

"...

000s)

1957

14,543

.

000s)

1957

76,005 35,674 79,766

.

.

Electrical mactiinery Tronsportotion equipment Instruments and related products

lin

component

new record high

420,000,000 on Oct. 31, 1959, up $5,190,000,000 over the amount of such credit outstanding a year earlier. This compared with

Value added by manufoctur©

Salaries

and wages

All

Group

Industry

far the largest

000,000 in 1954, the previous recession year, to $5,390,000,000 in 195s, the record automobile year. At the end of Oct. 1959,

Principal Industries of Connecticut

II.

and $1,070,000,000

previous recession year, to $6,400,000,000 in 1955, the record year for total increase in consumer credit. of consumer credit, likewise rose to a

— The The income

earlier.

recent years which had ranged

in 1954, the

Source: U.S. Deporlment of Agriculture.

Agriculture

credit

new peaks. After some tendency to decline during most months in 1958, all types of consumer credit showed marked increases in extensions and in amounts outstanding during 1959. The substantial in

464,000 5,479,000 6,863,000 103,000

I

REPRESENT THE DARK SIDE OF THE BRIGHT BUSINESS PICTURE,

MR. TRUFFLE! ..." syndicate

a

1959 cartoon by Lichty

of Ihe

Chicago Sua-Timet

CONTRAC T BRIDGE amount of installment credit outstanding, $16,660,000,000, or 43.4%, was automobile paper, $9,530,000,000 was other consumer goods paper, $2,650,000,000 was repair and modernization loans and $9,580,000,000 was personal loans. of the total

Total noninstallment credit, including single-payment loans, charge accounts and service credit, totaled $11,450,000,000 at 1959, an increase of $99o',ooo.ooo during the

the end of Oct.

previous 12-month period.

Of

amount

the total

of noninstallment

charge accounts constituted the largest part, with $4,525,000,000 outstanding, followed by single-payment loans, $4,050,credit,

000,000, and

by service

Changing Patterns.

credit, $2,876,000,000.

—Commercial banks forged ahead

as the

measured by dollar amounts outstanding, in the installment credit field. On balance, commercial banks were the largest participants in the consumer installment most important

institutions, as

credit business during the year.

On

amount

Oct. 31, 1959, the

outstanding at the commercial banks was $14,820,000,000 of the over-all total installment credit outstanding of $38,420,000,000. Sales finance as their

companies were second, with $10,070,000,000

amount outstanding, while

retail

outlets

were

third,

with $5,100,000,000 installment credit outstanding. Sales finance

by commercial banks, with holdings of $7,330,000,000. Commercial banks outstripped the sales finance companies in net growth paper held during the year with an increase of $1,180,000,000

as against $930,000,000 for the sales finance companies.

in

During 1959 automobile paper was definitely less important the consumer credit picture than in 1955, the previous high

year. In the

12

months ended Oct.

31,

1959, the increase in

automobile installment credit paper outstanding was 46.4% of the increase in total installment credit outstanding and 38.9% of the increase in total trast, in

68%

consumer

credit outstanding.

By

con-

1955 the increase in automobile paper outstanding was

of the increase in total installment credit outstanding and

57.1% of the increase in total consumer credit outstanding. Personal loans and noninstallment credit became more important in the consumer credit picture during 1959. During the 12 months ending Oct. 31, 1959, increases in these two forms of consumer credit constituted 36.1% of the increase in total consumer credit, compared with 28% in 1955. Noninstallment credit extended through credit cards, while still

small in relation to the total consumer credit picture, was

growing at a very rapid rate. The amount of consumer credit

was about $6,100,000,000. This was

about 1.8% of the seasonally adjusted annual rate of disposable

income

in the nation at that time.

In the

fall

of 1959, the ratio of installment credit repa>Tnents

to disposable personal income,

both taken at seasonally ad-

justed annual rates, was about 13.2%. This was a

new record

above the corresponding percentages of 12.2% in 1955, 13.1% in 1957 and 12.9% in 1958. See also Federal Reserve: System. (J. K. L.) Canada. Traditionally the chartered banks in Canada had not extended consumer credit on the security of finance paper. Their entry into the field in the second half of 1958 while they high,

—

enjoyed excess cash reserves resulting from the credit ex-

still

pansion of the 1957-58 recession was therefore the outstanding ev-ent of the 1958-59 period. Separate figures showing the credit extended by the banks for the purchase of durable consumer goods (notably cars) were not available late in 1959. A gain of

50%

almost

in the

amount of "personal loans mainly

to indi-

viduals for nonbusiness purposes" from $525,000,000 to $777,000,000 in the period from June 1958 to June 1959 can,

however, be assumed to

companies continued to hold the largest portion on Oct. 31, 1959, followed

of automobile paper, $7,400,000,000

in

183

credit in the fall of 1959

reflect

12-month period

vious

creased by only

Consumer dealers rose

this

mainly

this activity.

In the pre-

category of bank loans had in-

12%.

by finance companies and retail by 3.4% from £1,941,000,000 to £2.008,000,000. credit extended

This was about in line with the increase registered in the previous year but well below the increases of 6.7% and iS.5% for the 12month periods through June 1957 and June 1956. Competition

from the banks was probably the reason for the relative stability consumer credit extended by installment finance companies which stood at $788,000,000 in June 1959, as compared of the

with $796,000,000 a year

earlier.

The outstanding

credit of the

small loan companies increased from $384,000,000 to $429,000,000. Department stores had outstandings of $249,000,000 on their

books, as against $231,000,000, and "other retail dealers" $542.-

The

000,000, as against $530,000,000.

greater half of consumer

indebtedness to department stores and other retailers represented installment debt (58%), the remainder charge accounts.

The 1958-59 period was marked by a sharp reversal in moneThe tightening of credit and the consequent rise in the cost of money are illustrated by the rediscount rate of the Bank of Canada which is set every week at 0.25% above the tary policy.

average tender rate at which three-months treasury

From

bills

are

a low of

totaled

1.12% in late July 1958 this rate rose steadily to a high of 6.13% in mid-September 1959 and fluctuated around 5% in late October. The extent to which the char-

$387,000,000 at the end of Oct. 1959. up $40,000,000, or 10,3%, over the corresponding figure 12 months earlier. The amount

tered banks might be able to continue the financing of consumer goods purchases under conditions of continued monetar>' re-

of credit outstanding through credit cards

straint

outstanding through credit service stations and miscellaneous credit-card

at the

and home-heating

accounts

accounts

had been $216,000,000 end of 1955 and $119,000,000 at the end of 1952.

Extensions

and

sions, at seasonally

Repayments.

the calendar year 1958 in the

—Installment

credit

exten-

adjusted annual rates, were running about

$50,300,000,000 in the

000

oil

fall

up from $40,800,000,000 in above the total of $39,040,000,-

of 1959,

and far

calendar year 1955. Installment credit extensions on

sold.

was open to question.

PnntrjJPt RririO'O UUIIUdll DllUgi:.

(R. Rr.)

^'^'y^ ^^^

winner of the 195S champion-

ship of the

European Bridge league, won

the world contract bridge team-championship in

1959 for the

third consecutive year (the fifth consecutive victory for Euro-

automobile paper were running at a seasonally adjusted annual

pean teams), defeating both the United States and Argentina in matches held in New York city, Feb. 7 to 15. Again Italy was

rate of

represented

about $18,800,000,000 in the

were about

37%

fall

of 1959. Such extensions

of total installment credit extended.

by Massimo DAlelio, Walter Avarelli, Giorgio Belladonna, Eugenio Chiaradia, Pietro Forquet and Guglielmo

Installment credit was being repaid at a seasonally adjusted annual rate of $44,200,000,000 in the fall of 1959. The volume

U.S. team, whose nonplaying captain was Charles Solomon of

of such repa>Tnents

Philadelphia, Pa,, consisted of the five

had been $40,900,000,000

in the calendar

year 1958 and $33,650,000,000 in the calendar year 1955. Thus, while installment credit repayments late in 1959 were well above

had not yet risen as much extensions. As a result, the

the levels of a year previously, they relatively as

had installment credit annual rate seasonally adjusted of increase in total installment

Siniscalco, with Carl Alberto Perroux as nonplaying captain.

American Contract Bridge pionship: Harr>' Fishbein,

Lee Hazen

men who had won

The the

team chamLeonard Harmon and

league's 1958 Vanderbilt

Sam Fry

New York

Jr.,

and Ivar Stakgold of Washington, D.C., with the addition of Sidney Lazard of New Orleans, La.

The

(all

of

city),

U.S. defeated Argentina in the third match.

CO-OPE RATIVES

184 In Sept.

won

Palermo,

at

i duction of mined copper in 1958 was 3.930,000 short

compared with 4,050,000 tons in 1957, a decline of 4%. from a reduced output in the United States and decreased production in Canada, Chile, Belgian Congo and tons,

The

loss resulted

Northern Rhodesia, the principal copper-producing countries. The U.S. was first atfd Chile second in world copper output. Table

I.

— World Mine Production of Copper (In

1953

211.6 270.0 419.6

226.8 258.0 450.4

243.4 302.7 400.9

29.6 59.0 64.4 33.6

236.1 253.3 400.3 23.9 64.9 66.3 39.0

363.2

410.3

438.7

25.1 47.1

Peru . . . No. Rhodesia South Africa . United States

280? 928.3

Total.

lonsi

1952

74.2 35.6 352.0 37.2

.

000 short

1951

1954

30.1 73.1

1956

1957

275.5 354.9 539.8

267.0

262.1

359.1

346.8 509.5

46.6

445.5 51.3

3S5?

325?

334?

352?

925.4

926.4

835.5

35.3

36.2

34.4

33.4

2,900

3,020

3,050

3,110

1958

535.3 43.7

39.5 86.5 60.5 51.0

80.5 60.3 47.8 395.3 49.2

60.4 42.4

39.8

38.7

1955

259.2 326.0 477,9 26.2

36.6

90.1

89.1

66.8 63.0 480.3 51.0

71.6 54.9 441.1 54.6 470. 977.3

450?

430?

1,086.9 37.2

3,410

3,780

37.1

3,880

3,730

—

In 1958 the U.S. still led by a wide margin production and consumption of world copper. The U.S.

United States. in the

output was

27%

of the world total.

The domestic output (10%

lower than 1957) was at the lowest level since 1954. Consumption dropped 8% and was the smallest since 1949. Stocks of refined

copper at the end of 1958 were 56% lower and unrefined copper 6% less than in 1957.

stocks were

Table

Data of Copper Industry

II,

lln

Mine output

926.4 943.4

835.5 945.9

Foreign ore

1,293.1

1,211.9

.

Secondary reco> From old sera From new scrt Imports

.

.

.

the U.

407.1

525.1 677.1

432.8 594.8

274.8

215.1 312.4 1,521.7

1956

1957

1,104.2' 1,231.4 1,442.6 1,080.2 362.4

1,086.9"

979.3

'

1,069.1 1,352.5 1,001.6

1955

998.6 1,106.5 1,342.5

841.7 370.2 839.9

932.2 360.9 953.5 429.4

171.3 1,826.0

in

short lonsl

1954

.

.

Smelter output . ReBriery output

000

1953

997.5 345.0 989.0 514.6 474.4

930.7' 468.5 462.2 595.7 191.7 280.6

594.1

202.3 259.9 1,991.2

1,822.2

1,178.1

1958

1,454.2' 1,050.5

403.7' 841.9' 444.5' 397.4' 594.0 162.3 430.4 1,630.6'

350.9 797.4 411.4 386.0 496.3 124.6 428.0 1,460.5

'Revised. tAvailable for use includes total refinery efinery output, secondary from old and refined imports less exports; secondary from new scrap is only a turnover of metal process and does not odd to the supply available for use, ond other imports hove been covered in refined output from foreign ores. i

Imports were smaller, exports larger

in

1958 than in 1957. The

U.S. excise on copper imports (after two years' suspension) was

resumed July i, 1958. Total imports from most major sources dropped markedly. U.S. exports of refined copper rose 11% and were the largest since 1929. Most of the copper exported was

in refined

form. Export controls were relaxed in 1958.

Table

III.

— Mine Production

of

Copper

in the U.S.

California

Colorado Michigan Missouri

.

Montana

Utoh

.

'.

.

.

.

.

Washington

.

Others

.

.

.

•Revised,

In the

tin

1

958

first

nine months of 1959, recoverable copper output 747,180 short tons as compared with 698,551

in the U.S. totaled

tons in the

first

nine months of 1958.

to continue suspension of duties

On

July 28, 1959, a

on metal scrap

to

June

bill

30, i960,

was signed by Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower. Belgian Congo. As had been forecast, Miniere du Haut Katanga, the only producer, restricted copper output in 1958.

—

CORPORATION INC OME TAX — COTTON

186 Table

II.

— Corn Production ol

Iht Principal Producing Counlrlti

election.

Much optimism

IThouiandi of buiholil

Av«foo»

Avoroge

1958

1950-M

1935-39

4,402,474

3,799,844

3,112,091

2,319,334

265,000 214,500

400,000 300,000 215,000 155,500 202,744 144,000 142,000 140,000 120,000

410,000 1 90,000 247,000 120,098 130,000 141,390 125,000 112,232 115,450 99,892

242,000 70,000 215,153 301,964 174,400 47,423 172,000 113,000 80,132 67,240

Country

Unlud SlolM

IndlcoXid 1959

Chino

USSR '

(io'.ll

Arganllna Yuooilovlo

M»lco Rumanio

130,000

llolv

Union ol South Africa

.

.

124,000

India

5°%

the previous year and at least

above average.

1

It

was

in-

1959 crop would seek shelter under the support program and be added ultimately to the already unwieldy CCC stocks, for which no that

dicated

a

substantial

record

of the

fraction

major commercial outlet appeared available. The 1959 popcorn crop of 17 commercial producing states was planted on 152,000 ac, only 6i% of the 250.250 ac. of 1958, which produced a big crop of 493,000,000 lb. Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Ohio were leading states, accounting for about three-fifths of the total. World corn production in 1959 was estimated at a new record level of 7,710,000,000 bu. from 250,680,000 ac, about

5%

above the previous record crop of

7,335.000,000 bu. harvested from 243,050,000 ac. in 1958. Not only the U.S., but Mexico, Yugoslavia and Rumania reported record high level production. Encyclop,«dia Britannica Films.

K. R.)

(J. —Com Farmer (1939); The Middle

States (1955)-

Corporation Income Tax:

Cosmic Roys:

see

see

Taxation.

Astronomy; International Geophysical

C0-OPERAT10N-19S9; Space Exploration.

developed from Costa Rica's success

and international trade increased slightly, while the dangers inflation seemed to have moderated.

Pnota Dino ^ uUSld nILdi located

Costa Rica

between Nicaragua and Panama. Area:

The

19,695 sq.mi.; pop.: (1950) 800,875, (1958 est.) 1.076,337.

population

about 8oTf white,

is

others. Capital:

102,297;

other

Alajuela

13,903

is

17%

mixed,

2%

Negro and

San Jose, (1950 census) 86,909, (1958

1%

est.)

parentheses):

(1958 est. in Cartago 12,944 (16,336); Heredia 11,907 (16,081); Limon 11,310 (14,815); Puntarenas 13,272 (17,069). Language: Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman principal

cities

(16,702);

Catholic. President elected in 1958,

—

Mario Echandi Jimenez.

History. Costa Rican political events in 1959 indicated a moderating of the party divisions caused by the presidential election of the previous year. Pres. Mario Echandi's National

Union party held only 10 of the 45 seats in the legislative assembly and had to rely upon the varying support of third and fourth parties to offset some of the strength of former Pres. Figueres'

Jose

National Liberation party with

its

20 seats.

Echandi vetoed 18 bills passed since his election in Feb. 1958, while the assembly succeeded in overriding the veto only once. That body accused Echandi of being too neutral over the matter of dictatorship in Latin America and by a narrow vote censured him for attending formal ceremonies with the president of Nicaragua, Luis Somoza. There were occasional anti-Somoza demonstrations in San

of

Costa Rica extended diplomatic recognition to the revolutionary government of Fidel Castro in

Cuba

in Jan. 1959. Later,

however, Castro attacked Figueres for declaring that there was

Communist

influence in Cuba.

Coffee prices slumped while production rose for the third (T. L. K.)

straight year.

Education.- -In 1957 students enrolled included 168,000 primary and 15,68; secondary. The University of Costa Rica had 2,247 students in 1955. .According to the 1950 census, 21.2% of those 10 yr. of age and over

were

illiterate.

—

Finance. The monetary unit is the colon, valued in 1959 at 17.64 cents U.S. currency, official rate, and at 15.04 cents, controlled free rate. The national budget for 1959 balanced ordinary revenue and expenditure initially at 339,707,000 colones. Actual revenue in 1958 was 320,338,000 colones; expenditure 321,330,000 colones. The public debt on June 30, 1959. was 377,297,000 colones, of which 152,926,000 colones represented the external debt. Currency in circulation (July 31, 1959) totaled 162,300.000 colones; demand deposits, 243,200,000 colones. National income in 1957 was estimated at 1,885,000,000 colones. The cost-of-living index 100). (San Jose) stood at 112 in .\ug. i9S9 (i9S3 Trade and Communications. Exports in 1958 amounted to $91,900,000 (subject to final adjustment for revaluation of banana exports). Imports were $99,325,000. Chief exports were coffee (55%), bananas (29%), cacao (6%) and abaca (1%). Leading customers were the U.S. (51%). West Germany (26%), Canada (8%) and the Netherlands (2%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (52%), West Germany (io%), the U.K. (6%) and the Netherlands .Antilles (4%). Railway lines include 176 mi. of public-service railway and 329 mi. of plantation lines. In 1958 there were 6,067 mi. of roads, of which 1,707 mi. were all-weather and 611 mi. paved. Motor vehicle registration (Jan. I, 195S) included 11,295 automobiles, 7.009 trucks and 1,568 buses. According to Lloyd's Register oj Shipping, the merchant marine had 144 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating 510,307 gross tons. Telephones of which were automatic. (Jan. I, 1958) numbered 12,354, only Agriculture. Coffee production in the 1958-59 season (preliminary figures) totaled 865,000 bags of 132 lb. each. Exports in 1958 included: coffee 650.000 bags; bananas 8. 579. 125 stems; cacao 7.685 metric tons; abaca 2.095 tons. Sugar production in 1958-59 (estimated): 76,000 short tons, including 30,000 tons of panela. Livestock (1958): 981,000 cattle and 132.000 hogs; in 1958, 3,500 head of cattle were exported.

=

—

Central American republic.

in obtain-

and diversification of its economy. The Export-Import Bank of Washington granted $5,540,000 to help complete the last 90 mi. of the Inter-American highway in southern Costa Rica. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development authorized $3,500,000 for the importation of capital goods to aid the government's loan program in agriculture and light industry. The Bank of America planned to invest $10,000,000 in the growing beef cattle industry. The national budget was balanced, exchange rates were stable and there was marked improvement in the acre productivity of many crops over that of previous years. Both domestic ing international loans for the expansion

2%

—

—

Manufactures. The first census of manufactures (1950-51) showed 3.247 manufacturing establishments with 18,491 employees, total annual payroll of 32,584.000 colones and gross value of production aggregating 420,800,000 colones. Most important were 1,445 foodstuffs plants with 8,955 employees. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, I9S8) totaled 107.000 kw.; production (1957, public use only) was about 312,000,000 kw.hr. (J. W. Mw.)

Encyclop,edia Britannica Films.

Cost of Living: Pnttnn

uUllUII.

'-'"'^®aeld of 474 lb. per acre (against a record of 466 lb. in 1958 and a 1948-57 average of only 329 lb.), to provide a moderate

Jose,

especially favourable to labour; considered

he nevertheless sponsored a program of his own which would substantially increase social security coverage in the nation.

He

urged a plan of penal reform and private control of

vision

as

concession

opposed to the assembly's project of a to

the

National

that Echandi's position

university.

was stronger than

Many at

tele-

ten-year

observers

any time since

felt

his

1948-57 decade of 14,046,000 bales. More or less favourable weather, in spite of heavy rain damage, combined with the larger acreage permitted by 1958 legislation, and a new record

addition to existing surplus stocks.

Acreage was not so large as some had forecast; early year there was

much

uncertainty as to

how many

in the

cotton growers

would make the permissible choice (B) of planting

40%

more

than their base acreage allotments in return for price support

COTTONSEED OrL — COUVE reduced to an average of 24.7 cents per pound, basis middling |-in. staple,

of parity, instead of the (A) choice of continunormal allotment and receiving support at 80% of

parity or 30.4 cents per pound, basis middling J-in. cotton.

Approximately 69,138 farms, representing 7.2% of the

total

farms having 1959 cotton allotments and 2,544,573 ac. or about 20.6% of total allotment acres, selected the choice (B) program.

Thus the cotton acres for those farms were increased to 3,562,403 ac, and the total acreage available for all cotton farm allotments was 17,327,830 ac. More than 500,000 ac. of this was placed in the conservation reserve, and underplanting of allotments was comparatively large, especially in the southeast; 390,000 ac. were planted or

28% more

much below

15,-

lin

boles)

Averoge

Average

1959*

1958

1957

1950-54

1935-39

United States China (including Manchuria)

14,801

11,512 8,500 6,800 4,100 2,048 2,345 1,260 1,400

10,964 7,000 6,600 4,425

13,149 2,855 3,430 5,348t

1,861

14,093 4,520 5,880 3,382 1,705

2,085 1,360 1,350

1,333 1,320 1,665

1,954

825 573 460 505 443 320 330

600 225 783 505 492 280 292

624 383 557 450

249 248 289 379

8,000 6,900 4,000 2,074 1,710 1,375

U.S.S.R India

Egypt Mexico Pakistan Brazil

...

Turkey

825 625

Sudan Argentino Peru

...

Iran

493 400 330

Uganda

...

Syria

1,893

334

231

28

186

171

291

281

•Preliminory. flncludes Pakistan.

the free world (not including the United States) produced i6,-

A total 14,991,000 ac. were indicated for and the yield almost reached the magic goal of one bale

904,000 bales and the Communist countries 14,984,000 bales, both slightly below the previous year but above the 1950-54 averages.

Marketing quotas, approved by 92.2% of the farmers voting, were in effect for both upland and extra-long staple cotton in

yields,

The American-Egyptian extra-long

staple type, produced

jnder irrigation in the southwest, was indicated at 73,300 bales,

compared with 83,600 bales

in

1958 and an average crop of

49,700 bales during the previous decade.

September averaged 33.12 cents per pound, as compared with 34.54 cents per pound a year earlier. The price for extra-long staple was 55 cents per pound (65% of parity), unchanged from a year earlier. The i960 cotton acreage allotment in October was set at the legal minimum of 16,000,000 ac, conditional upon the probable approval by two-thirds of the growers voting in referendum on Dec. 15. The choice of exceeding individual farm allotments by 40% in return for lower federal price supports was extended. The national acreage allotment for extra-long staple cotton was 5et at 64,776 ac, down from 70,822 ac. in 1959. price to farmers for upland cotton in

From

a total U.S. supply for 1959-60 of 23,800,000 bales

(3,900,000 bales larger than the 1958-59 supply but well below

was anticipated that disappearance would be at least 14,500,000 bales as compared with 11,500,000 bales in 1958-59. Domestic consumption was the record 27,600,000 bales of

1956-57),

it

forecast at 9,000,000 bales against 8,700,000 bales in the preced-

much above the would leave a carry-over on Aug. i, i960, of about 9,300,000 bales, moderately above a year earlier. Most of it would be, as before, in Commodity Credit corporation stocks. U.S. imports of cotton for consumption, mostly under exports of at least 5,500,000 bales,

ing year;

2,790,000 bales of 1958-59,

quota, were 137,000 bales, capita

000 500-lb.

Covjntry

per acre.

The

187

(he Principal Producing Countries

than the 12,379,000 ac.

the average

planted in 1948-57.

IS

DE MURVILLE — Coffon Production of

22,444,000 ac.

planted in 1958, but

1959.

II.

65%

ing within the

harvest

Table

3%

lowest in 20 years.

lower than in 1957-58. U.S. per

1958 declined to 22.1 lb., the Complaints were heard that trading in major

consumption of cotton

commercial markets, as at

in

New

Orleans, had practically ceased

World Cotton Production and Trade.—World cotton new record high of

duction in 1959-60 was estimated at a

I.

—

U.S. Cotton Production lin

46,-

Of the

total.

by Leading Stales

000 SOO-lb. bales)

Average

Indicated

State 'enGi :alifornia >Misissippi

.

^rkonsos

.

.

.

Wizona

.

.

.

Mobamo

.

.

ennessee. 3eor9ia

.

.

•(iisouri

ouisiona raulh Carolina

Dklohoma •tew Mexico

.

lorlh Corolina

JlKerslotej

.

.

1959

1958

1957

4,570 1,950 1,600 1,540

4,308 1,604 961

3,632 1,537

925 734 439 419 352 275 297 299 313

981

760 725 640 520 510 485 415 375 343 325 43

World stocks increased

as trade in cotton declined

301

256 29

179 348 344 263 236 231

28

12,-

and 15,800,000 bales a year earlier. Importers bought only immediate needs because of declining prices; they awaited pansion, after Aug.

gram

i,

for ex-

of the U.S. payment-in-kind export pro-

payment pound was announced. The direct sales program to exporters was canceled. Cottonseed. It was indicated, on the usual ratio of lint to cottonseed, that U.S. 1959 production would total 6,142,000 tons, as compared with 4,798,000 tons in 1958, thus offsetting in major degree the smaller 1959 soybean crop. The average price to farmers in September was $37.90 per ton, as compared with $45.50 per ton a year earlier. The official support price was $38 (57% of parity), as compared with $45 per ton (65% of for upland cotton, for which an initial subsidy

of 8 cents per

—

parity) a year earlier.

Linters.— Production of cotton basis of outturn in recent years

linters

when

was estimated, on the

linters

production averaged

about 11.7% of cotton output, at 1,700,000 bales in 1959; 1958 production was 1,300,000 bales. Domestic consumption was expected to continue at the 1958-59 rate of 1,200,000 bales; imports in 1958-59 were 181,000 bales,- an increase of

26%

over

the previous year; exports for 1959-60 were estimated at 200,-

000 bales against 243,000 bales in 1958-59. Carry-over stocks as of Aug. i960 were anticipated at about 1,000,000 bales, up from 575,000 bales in 1959. Prices for felting grade (grade 3, staple 3) declined from 7.33 cents per pound in March to about 7 cents late in the year; chemical grade declined from 2 cents per pound early in the year to about

See also Textile Industry.

1.8 cents

—Cotton

per pound later. (J.

K. R.)

(1946).

Oil: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats. Counterfeiting: see Secret Service, U.S. Countries of the World, Areas and Populations of the: see Populations and Areas of the Countries of the World. Courts: see Law.

Cottonseed

1948-57

1,081

763 530 415 396

below

500,000 bales, as compared with 14,000,000 bales in 1957-58

pro-

610,000 bales, as compared with 44,215,000 bales in the previous year and a 1950-54 average of 38,180,000 bales.

direct result of higher

81,845,000 ac. average for 1950-54.

Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films.

because of government competition.

Table

The increased production was a

the 82,175,000 ac. used being only slightly above the

•

3,956 1,424 1,710 1,429

740 844 572 655 386 624 598 367 275 419 48

Couve de Murville, Maurice bom at Reims,

^Sr

of

"tJ'tT,

on Jan. 24. He graduated as doctor of law at the University of Paris and also received a diploma from the £cole des Services Politiques. He joined the ministry of finance in 1930 and ten years later was director of its foreign department. In 1943 he was a member of the French Committee of National Liberation in Algiers, and in 1944 was French republic, was

CRANBERRIES — CRIME.

188 for

becoming the following year French ambassador

Italy,

Rome. He was appointed

ing purposes into

to

1945 director of political affairs at

in

U.S.

two categories, urban and rural. The growth of unincorporated suburban areas populated by city folk and marked by the characteristics of city rather than rural life re-

of the Allied Advisory committee

member

appointed as French

From 1950 to 1954 he served as ambassador 1954-55 as French permanent delegate on the Atlancouncil, in 1955-56 as ambassador to Washington and from

the Quai d'Orsay.

suited in the inclusion in rural crime statistics of crimes cora-

to Cairo, in

mitted by and against the city people. The statistics were for

tic

reason not precisely representative of rural crime.

July 1956 to June 1958 as ambassador to the

German Federal

communities or areas based on present and future definitions by the bureau of the census:

Republic.

On June i, 1958, he became minister of foreign affairs in the De Gaulle cabinet and retained his portfolio in the Debr6 cabinet formed on Jan. 8, 1959. .. He led the French delegation

,,,,.,„',,, May

Big Four,

Il-Aug.

.

.L

at the

/-.

general assembly on Sept. 30, he said that France would grant Algeria self-determination but only within J

,

the

V^'Other cities" are communities with more than 2.500 inhabitants not included in the metropolitan areas. They comprise 15% of the population. 3. Rural areas include the total rural popuJation except for the small part which is included in the Standard Metropolitan Areas. It comprise! 24% of the population of the country.

framework of

.

Pres. Charles de Gaulle S declaration Oi Sept. 16.

Cranberries:

into three types of

, standard Metropolitan Areas. A .Standard Metropolitan Area (SMA) '^ generally a county which contains at least one city of 50.000 population, plus any contiguous counties essentially metropolitan in character and sufficiently integrated with the central city. The 1958 crime statistics are reported for 174 of these areas. They comprise 61% of the population of

c r »i. of the Geneva conference

1959. Addressing the United Nations

5,

this

correct

population of the United States has

this misrepresentation, the

now been divided

To

see Fruit.

This division of the inhabitants provides crime statistics for sec-

Credit, Consumer: see Consumer Credit. Credit Unions: see Co-operatives; Farm Credit System.

tions of the population that are truly rural.

Population Base.

—Crime

rates were formeriy based on the

decennial census figures. Since crime

^ ^" '^^^ fundamental changes in the tabulation of Primp II liMIIIC, U.O. Uniform Crime Reports were designed by the

as an area increased in population

is

a function of population,

between the decennial censuses

Federal Bureau of Investigation to improve the quality of the

crime rate became increasingly disproportionately high, and when new census figures became avaOable its crime rate dropped

crime index, to sharpen the distinction between rural and urban

disproportionately.

crime, to provide a

and

rates

to

more up-to-date population base

its

To correct this situation, crime now based on estimates of the current population, Crime Estimates for Nonreporting Areas. In

for crime

—

improve the accuracy of crime estimates for non-

reporting areas.

Crime

Index.

—A crime index

is

intended to serve as a conthe country.

known

from state to state and from area to area The new system bases such esrimates on the crime

the crime rate varies

within a state.

and that are committed which had served up to this point as the crime index, had defects which were somewhat correeled by the exclusion from the new index of manslaughter by negligence, statutory rape and larcenies involving the theft of likely to be

the past,

rate of the country as a whole, an unsatisfactory basis because

The

index should be composed of only those major crimes that are to the police

with criminal intent. Part

are

crime estimates for nonreporting areas were based on the crime

venient measure of the crime situation in

most

rates

rate of nearby areas.

I crimes,

—

The Crime Situation. Table I compares the 1958 crime based on the new crime index, of Standard Metropolitan

rates,

Areas, "other cities" and rural areas in the country as a whole,

The

The crime index, often referred to as major crimes, should not be composed of crimes that are not major. Approximately 75%

was nearly three times as great it was half again as great as the rural rate. The rural area crime rate was not so markedly favourable however in crimes against persons. Its murder and

larcenies involve thefts of property of less value than $50.

nonnegligent manslaughter rate was higher than those of either

property of value

of

all

many

In

less

than $50.

and cannot be under $50 were in-

jurisdictions these are petty larcenies

classified as

major crimes. Also, when thefts

eluded

the

in

crime

of the other two areas;

this petty larceny , ^i_J category. This resulted in an . 1 iL , , evaluation Olf tne total crime

Jab\e\.—195S Index Ofher

^°'°'

•

situation based inrlpT MLUauuil Udseu on an inaex

....

disproportionate ,

weight to the frequency of a .• „„,, ,^ff,,„ 1 petty Onense. a. relatively 1

inrrpasp increase

?rml1 small

npHv lar petty lar-

in

Ceny could mask a SUbstan..

l'

tial

Pop. 0001

lln

•

.

1

f

i_

decrease of such serious

standard MetropolHon Area. Rote per 100,000 mhabilanls o,f,„ ,;,;,, Rote per 100,000 Inhabllanls Rural oreos Rate per 100,000 inhabitonii United Slates total— 1958 United States lolal— 1957

1958 1957

105,734 25,490

....

Percentage change from

1

957

Table

i^

number

.

of crimes

m

the

For these reasons thefts S^io m in value VdiUC were e.\ ex.piU eluded from the new index. 1.^. 1/ ,, L n Urban Versus Kurol Orim-

under u uci

—in Tr,

the r,,,.* past, *U the tl,,.

cities."

•

m-

hahitanf": naoitants nf the TTnifprI united c:t:.fp= btates 01 flip

were divided for crime-report-

in

Standard Metropolitan Areat. the United Slates

^o^pored With 1957 Aggrovoted ossauU

Murder and Total crimes nonnegllgeni Forcible In Index manslaughter rope Robbery 1,221,208

4,800

10,390

1,155.0

4.5

9.8

161,238 632.6 171,476 407.9

3.4

4.2

15.9

2,539

3,116

5,222

6.0

7.4

12.4

84,471 79.9 10,613 41.6 18,446 43.9

843

1,055

66,071 62.5 4,054

Lorcetiy

Auto

Burglary

over $50

ttielt

514,201 486.3 79,410 311.5 86,176 205.0 679,787

313,231 296.2 40,055

228,044

157.1

38,264

215.7 25,20(

98.S

17,713

91.0

42.1

1,553,922 1,422,285 896.9 835.2

8,182 8,027

75,347 66,843

113,530 110,672

603,707

4.7 4.7

7.6

43.5 39.3

65.5 65.0

392.4 354.5

391,550 354,972 228.0 208.4

270,96! 265,17J

+7.4

0.0

+10.5

+10.7

+.8

+10.7

+8.4

+.4

rote

II.

— Percentage Change

14,561

12,886 8.4

156.4 155.7

in

Frequency of Crimes

in Cifies,

7

957- J 958

^^^^^^ ^^^ fopPop. group

.

index.

r..-|-4„ inolity.

rape and aggravated assault rates

Source: Uniform Crime Reports, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Annual Bulletin, 1958, Tables 3 and 4.

,.1. u- 1. robbery which together comprised less than 4% of the to-

tal

42,035 173,260 170,293 173,260 170,293

rate rate

crimes as murder, rape and ,,

of Crime

and Rural Areas, With

Cities,

fell in

which gave

its

were higher than those for "other

index,

more than 40% of the total number of crimes in the index

rate in the metropolitan areas

as in the rural areas; in other cities

39

ciHes over

lln

250,000

l''""%7''£°°'°°° Cities /iO.UOU to o 1,000,000

9^1,1,^500,00010750,000 19 cuies 250,000 to 500,000 78 cities 100,00010 250,000 1 65 cities 50,000 to 00,000 337 cities 25,000 to 50,000. 741 cities 10,0001025,000. 1

1,448 cities under 10,000 riiai 2,808 cities

.

....

0001

Totol

35,437 ''•'^°

+7.6

5,133

+4.0 +12.3 +5.8 +10.0 +8.6 +9.0

5,311

7,082 11,655 11,227 11,824 ii,694 8,085 89,922

+"

+12.1

+12.5 +8.9

nonnegligent manslaughter

•

Aggrovaled

Forcible

larceny over $50

AulO

rape

Robbery

ossault

Burglary

+5.0 +*-°

+10.4

+4.3

+10.0 +*•'

+9.3

+0.3

+'•='

+12.9 +'^-'

+"

+*-^

+3.6 +7.4 +6.8 +1.7 +9.6 -0.6 -18.1 +18.4 +3.2

+2.9 +6.9 +21.9 +17.9 +20.9 +14.0 +21.1 +17.9 +13.0

+4.2 +22.4 +13.8 +17.0 +17.2 +12.6 +20.7 +8.9 +13.7

+12.7

+5.7 +17.5 +7.6 +9.7 +12.6

+" 0.0

+27.3 +3.3 +4.1

+s.3 -5.5 +1.5 +1.4 +3.5

Source: uniform crime Repor/i, Federal Bureou of Investigation, Annual Bulletin, 1958, Table 5.

+17.1

+7.9 +12.8 +13.1

+12.5 +17.0 +14.0 +11.8

+12.1 +10.1

+16.0 +10.3

Ihefl

-Si

+U -4.« +6.8 +5.3 +!.< +1.! -|-0..'

+i.(

.

CRUDE OIL — CUBA The

189

You+h-ful Offenders.

—Table III shows the percentage

of

1958 arrests in the various crime categories that involved persons under i8, under 21 and under 25 years of age. Two-thirds of those arrested for auto theft were under 18; nearly half of

those arrested for burglary and for larceny were under this age.

Nearly a third of

all

persons arrested for

all

offenses

were

under 25 years of age. The number of persons under 18 years of age who were arrested increased

8.1%

in 1958,

whereas the

total of arrests for all

ages increased only 2.5%. Arrests of persons under 18 years of

age increased 12.6% in 908 cities under 25.000 population as

compared wath only 7.1%

in

330 larger

cities.

The proportional

increase in the arrests of youths was greater than the increase in the

number

of youths in the population.

Bureau of Investigation; Juvenile Delinquency; Police; Prisons; Selective Service, U.S. See also Federal

(0.

ACCUSED RACKETEER,

Vincent Rao, walking away from newspaper photographers after appearing before the New York State Investigation commission, May 11, 1959. Rao pleaded the 5th constitutional amendment 20 times to

questions asked by the investigators

Table

I also

shows the percentage change

the country as a whole between 1957 and 1958. in all crime categories except

slaughter,

in

crime rates for

The

rate increased

murder and nonnegligent man-

which remained unchanged.

Table II shows the percentage change

in

frequency of crimes

between 1957 and 1958 in cities of various population groups. Cities with populations between 750,000 and 1,000,000 had the crime;

least increase in

cities

with populations between 250,000

and 500,000 were next most fortunate in this respect. The cities of a size between these two, and cities under 25,000'population,

had the most marked increases est

in crime.

—

the Crime Occurred. The nine states with the highcrime rates, listed in the descending order of the rates, were

Where

Nevada, Florida, Colorado, New Mexico, Michigan and Texas. The nine states with the

California, Arizona,

Rhode

Island,

lowest crime rates, arranged in the ascending order of the rates,

were North Dakota, Mississippi,

New

Hampshire, West Virginia,

Nebraska, Iowa, Wisconsin, Vermont and Maine.

—

Toble III. Percenfoge of 7958 Arrests of Persons Under 78, Under 27, ond Under 25 Years of Age* and Percentage Change, I 957 to 7 958, in Number of Arresfs of Persons Under 1 8 Years of Age and in the Number of Arrests of All Personsf Pel

Tolol

Murder and nonnegligent

i

Monsloughter by negligenc

Robbery Aggrav Othe

oulls

— —

.

Burglory breaking or ©nl< Larceny theft Aufo theft

....

Embezzlement and fraud. Stolen property; buying, r« f^orgery end counterfeiting Forcible rape

;ing

Prostitution end commerciolized vice Other sex offenses Norcotic drug laws

Weapons; carrying, possessing, etc. Offenses against family and children Liquor lows Dri g while intoxicated Disorderly conduct . .

.

.

.

Drunitenness

Vogroncy Gambling All

other offenses.

.

'Dato from 1,586 cities »er 2,500 cont. tOolo from 1,238 cities »er 2,500 cont Jkope ond other sex off. se figures for 1957 since beginning in 1958 st utory rope f offenses. Combining th.

W. W.)

THE CUBAN REVOLUTION «n by rebel forces Jan. 1, 1959. Led by Fidel of Gen. Fulgencio Batista was o was senth an unsuccessful plot for which Castro 1953 amnesty for nd 30 of his followers were released in a general tenced to 15 years' imprisonment. H remained until the end where he Mexico for country left the Cai political prisoners May 15, 1955. mountains of he invaded the island. Hiding themselves in the of 1956 when, with a force of 100 m until late in 1958 when they cap. Is conducted Intermittent guerrilla raids Oriente province, th its climax with the takmg of Santiago reached drive rebel The Cuba. eastern in il port cities cond largest city of the nation. Castro entered Havana Jan. 8, 1959 ernment with Manuel Urritia as president, himself as premi who resigned and was replaced by Osvaldo Dorticos of 500,000 persons celet Above Castro addressing a press conference after speaking to a rally that because of the "will of the 6th anniversary of the July 26 uprising. He announced had resigned July 17 when he attacked Urritla's government,

The government

Castro, the revolution had begun July 26, I

are held at gunpoint in a Ha Right, scenes of the revolution. At top, Batista supporters executed an estimated 600 persons. Centn before being jailed. By May 15 Castro's war courts had tanks and troops entering Havana in January Havana street fighting between a policeman and a rebel sympathizer on a

hand-to-hand

CURACAO^CURLING make him

born Cuban, so as to

any post, including

During 1959 Guevara presided over military

the presidency. prisons,

eligible for

made

directed courts-martial, and

extensive tours of

Asia, North Africa and the U.S.S.R., ostensibly to negotiate the sale of sugar and secure credits for the Cuban government. Although the program repeatedly announced by Castro had

emphasized the urgency of an immediate, honest election of a congress and executive, as soon as he was in power he indicated could wait

elections

that

—

Triumphant

indefinitely.

neighbouring countries were improvised.

of

realization

to

visits

flew to

Caracas,

and made sweeping prophecies of the

Venez.. for a few days early

He

proletarian

a

throughout

revolution

the

Americas. The United States was becoming critical of the Castro

from a group of newspaper men, Castro proceeded to Washington, D.C., where he called on the secretary of state and congressional committees and made lengthy speeches. When asked whether he had been accurately quoted as having said that Cuba would be neutral in any contest between east and west, he replied evasively to the effect that Cuba was poor, and had neither troops nor arms. When financial help from the United States was not forthcoming, Castro turned to expropriation, forced lending, new and heavier taxation and exchange control. A program of expropriaregime, so, on the strength of a contrived invitation

exceeding 1,000 acres, regardless of the

tion of all landholdings

owner's nationality, was written into an "agrarian reform" decree

promulgated on June

Cuban

1959. as part of the

4,

The National Agrarian Reform

tion.

institute

constitu-

was placed under

the direction of a geographer long associated with Latin-Ameri-

can

communism, Antonio Nufiez Jimenez;

pay for lands taken over

it

was authorized

to

20-yr. bonds, inconvertible until

in

42% interest and using only tax valuations as payment. The United States protested on June 11.

maturity, paying the basis for

Five

members

Cuban

of the

replied that the

law was a

Cuba

cabinet resigned the next day. final

and sovereign decision and

its

conditions would not be modified.

Dissension in his administration because of the clash with

1

the United States led Castro to tender his resignation as

prime

I

minister on July 17; he declared that he could not

i

President Urrutia,

whom

he characterized as a

work with

traitor.

A

prole-

I

tarian

demonstration to demand Castro's return had the intended

effect of giving

I

him

a popular endorsement in his resistance to

was forced to resign and being replaced the same day by Osvaldo

alleged "foreign imperialism.'' Urrutia I

was placed under arrest,

'

Dorticos Torrado as president.

1

Many

I

defections occurred during the year, including the chief

Major Pedro Luis Diaz Lanz. Each of these was by an alleged "attack" from abroad, or the alleged dis-

of the air force. I

offset I

covery of a

I

new "conspiracy." By October, genuine

uprisings

191

deadline on accepting bids for the Nicaro nickel mines and refinery, in eastern ofiicially.

Cuba, so that the matter could be discussed plant, in which the U.S. had invested many

The Nicaro

millions of dollars, was acquired originally under formal treaty

between the two governments. Ernesto Guevara was appointed president of the National Bank of Cuba on Nov. 26. Widespread withdrawal of savings from many banks took place at once. On Dec. 9, Guevara decreed a sweeping program for the control of foreign exchange. This

was followed by a request to all industrial firms to receive army officers who would be assigned to them for training in the conduct of their respective businesses.

On Nov. 22, the Cuban labour federation withdrew from the Inter-American Regional Organization of Labor, avowedly antiCommunist, and announced the formation

of the Latin

Ameri-

can Confederation of Revolutionary Workers.

See also Dominican Republic; Foreign Investments; Organization OF American States. (C. E. Mc.)

—

Education. In 1953 there were 7,560 primary schools with enrollment of 669,610 and 18.419 full-time and 6,736 part-time teachers; 129 secondary schools, 30,076 students; 4S technical schools, 17,553 students; 38 teacher-training schools, 10.230 students. The 4 universities had 19.842 students and 711 faculty members, .\ccording to the 1953 census, 23.6% of those 10 yr. of age and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the peso, officially pegged at par with the U.S. dollar but sold at a discount in the free market during most of 1959. Government revenue in the fiscal year 1958-59 (July i-June 30) totaled $403,647,027. According to official figures, the public debt totaled $788,138,500 on Dec. 31, 1958: in addition, bond issues of quasi-government totaled $450,000,000. Currency in circulation (.Vpril 30, 1959) was $433,000,000; demand deposits, $585,000,000. National income in 1958 was estimated at $2,140,000,000. The cost-of-living index (Havana) stood at 100 in July 1958 (1953 100).

—

=

Trade and Communications.

—

Exports in 1958 totaled $733, 518,578; imLeading exports were raw and refined sugar (76%), tobacco and products (7%), molasses (4%) and minerals (4%). Leading customers were the U.S. (67%), Japan (6%). the U.K. (s%), Spain (2%) and the Netherlands (27o): leading suppliers, the U.S. (70%), the U.K. (3 7o), Canada (2%), Spain (2%) and India (2%), Railroads (1956) included 3,677 mi. of public service lines and 7,579 mi. of industrial lines. Roads (1956) included 5,083 mi. of all-weather roads and 3,208 mi. of other roads. On June 30, 1959, there were 171,560 privately owned automobiles, 53.739 trucks and 4.348 buses. Telephones (Jan. I, 1959) numbered 170,092, 74% of which were located in Havana. Agriculture. Production of sugar in the 1958-59 season, limited by government decree, was about 6,478,000 short tons; that of blackstrap molasses, 306,160,000 gal. Production estimates for other crops in 1958-59 included rice (rough) 500,000,000 lb.; coffee 600,000 bags of 132 lb. each; cacao 5,300,000 lb.; oranges 2,250.000 boxes of 70 lb. each; grapefruit 200,000 boxes of 80 lb. each; tobacco (1958) 91,527,245 lb.; henequen 19.800.000 lb. Livestock estimates (1959) included cattle 5,850,000, hogs ports, $777,093,989.

—

1,780,000, sheep 210,000. Manufactures. Production in 1958 included beer 123,240,701 1., alcohol 119.012,824 1., cement (i9S7) 651,000 metric tons, rolled steel products (1957) 15,000 tons, paper (1957) 36,000 tons, rayon (1957) 9.786 tons, tires (1957) 156,233. Sales of electric energy by the one large company (representing about 90% of total production for public use) were 1,462,980.000 kw.hr.: total installed capacity (Dec. 31, 1957) was about 700,000 kw. Minerols. Copper production totaled 13,992 short tons in 1958. Exports included nickel 20.341 metric tons, manganese ore 68,709 tons and chrome ore 55.218 tons. Petroleum production totaled 343,532 bbl. (J. W. Mw.) Encyclop.«dia Briunnica Films. The West Indies (1944).

—

—

—

were occurring sporadically in Pinar del Rio, the westernmost

I

Curacao:

province of Cuba, as well as in the central provinces.

I

Throughout 1959, the economic condition of Cuba rapidly deteriorated. Unemployment rose and construction under private 'auspices declined steeply. The fall in world prices of sugar,

see

Netherlands Antilles.

I

I

tobacco, cacao and other

Cuban products made matters

still

worse. j

The

seizure of property in the

of the law on agrarian

name

of 1959. After the ambassador of the U.S. returned to Washington in September for

Ireform continued throughout the

|an indefinite stay,

and

it

autumn

became evident

that there might be con-

working out an extension of the arrangeIment under the U.S. Sugar act (due to expire on Jan. i, 1961)

isiderable difficulty in

jwhereby

Cuba had been

sugar market through

its

in

the

virtually assured of one-third of the

U.S.,

Cuban government indicated Raiil Roa. that Cuba would be

the

foreign secretary.

Coming back from defeat in its opening contest, the Hibbing (Minn.) Kleffman four swept past eight rivals to win the third annual United States championship bonspiel at Green Bay, Wis., March 31-April 4, 1959. The Hibbing entry, which carried home the Marshall Field trophy, symbol of national supremacy in the sport, was composed of Terry Kleffman, Dick Brown, Nick Jerulle and Francis Kleffman, skip. Hibbing's lone setback was to the Grafton Curling Club of North Dakota. The two-time North Dakota state champions Glenn Gilleshammer, Wilmer Collette, Donald La Bonte and Orvil

—

Gilleshammer, skip 6 victories

and

Wisconsin (tied

3 at

—

finished second in the final standing with

defeats.

5-4)

;

Following were Massachusetts and .Alaska,

Illinois,

Michigan and

New

willing to discuss the

for expropriated

York (each with 4-5); Washington (3-6) and Connecticut

land.

to postpone the

(2-7).

amount of compensation Simultaneously, Cuba requested the U.S.

,

—

CURRENCY— CYPRUS

192

Thirty-two rinks from the midwest and eastern sections of the country competed in the nth annual national championship of the U.S.

Women's

association at VVausau, Wis., Feb. 12-15. Mrs.

David L. Wilson and her Skokie Country Club Thistles from Glencoe, III., captured the big prize, the Wauwatosa Granites trophy. The favoured Wauwatosa (Wis.) Granites, led by Mrs. Erwin

Appleton trophy for second place. The

Nell, gained the

Indian Hill prize went to Mrs. Frank Pollen's Chicago club

Exmoor award was won by Bemice

Heathers, the rink;

Yeski's Hibbing

and the Skokie trophy was taken by Mrs. D. C. Evans and bonspiel for the Gordon.

Emmet and Mohawk

medals took place at the Schenectady (N.Y.) Curling club Feb. 5-8. Grand National competition for the famous Gordon medal

Roy

resulted in victory for

Reid's Utica (N.Y.) no.

"Lefty" Hutton's Schenectady no.

Emmet

series.

1

quartet.

i

team triumphed

Two New York Caledonian Curling club Mohawk medal. Bill Terry's no.

battled in the final for the

turning back Jack Henderson's no.

i

team gained victory

Utica's no. 3

the

in

teams 2

rink

players, 10-8, for the prize. in the traditional

Mitchell

The Allen medal went to the Utica men; Schenectady's no. i rink took the Country Club cup; and a Hawkesbury (Ont.) rink won the Dewar medal. Top prize in the 26th annual Northwest title meet at Superior, Wis., went to a home town rink, Pat Donahue, John Horst, Jon Orstad and Bud Somer\dlle, skip. The Superior four defeated Hibbing, led by Sig Oland, in the main event of the finals for the Grand Rapids trophy. Fred Dailey's Bemidji (Minn.) club four triumphed in a field of 56 Canadian and U.S. rinks at the play at Utica, Jan. 22-25. no. 5

Duluth (Minn.) bonspiel Jan. 22-25. A Toronto rink, with Stewart Graham as skip, was first in the 73d international bonMichigan trophy at Detroit. Curling in Canada. Macdonald's Brier Tankard, Canada's most coveted prize, went to Saskatchewan's Richardson brothers, spiel for the

—

Wes and

Tom

sades,

Calif.

O'Rourke, Detroit; and Mike Hiltner, Pacific Allen

Somerville,

Bell,

the Eastern

honours

in

13. Bell

had broken

his

when he was timed

in

Tour

May

title

meet

at

won

N.J.,

Pali-

senior men's

Highland Park, N.J., Sept.

own world mark

for the i,ooo-m. dash

min. 12.6 sec. at Chicago, July 30. Rupert Waltl, Brooklyn, N.Y., captured the i6lh annual 50-mi. of Somerville,

i

New

30. Simes,

Jersey state junior

champion, won the lo-mi. preliminary.

World Champions.

—Antonio

Maspes of

victor

Italy,

in

1955-56. dethroned Michel Rousseau, France, as professional

her Appleton (Wis.) Tarn O'Shanters.

The g3rd annual

59 starters. The next three finishers were Bernard Dodd, Quincy,

Mass.;

Amsterdam Aug.

sprint titleholder, at

amateur sprint

retained

Italy,

9.

Valentino Gasparella,

Andre

honours.

Darrigarde,

France, gained the international road racing crown at Zandvoort, the Netherlands, Aug. 16, finishing the i8ii-mi. grind only a half length ahead of Michele Gismondi, Italy.

Tour de France. triumphed

in

— Federico

Bahamontes of Toledo, Spain,

Europe's blue-ribbon cycling event. Only 65 of the

120 starting riders remained when the 1959 race ended

in Paris,

July 18, after 22 days and 2,700 mi.

Six-day Racing. returned to

—After an absence since 1950, six-day racing

New York

in

March when

14 teams

competed

at the

io2d Engineers Armory. Fernando Terruzzi and Leandro Faggin of Italy finished

first.

See also Pan-American Games. see Societies

C.Y.O.:

(T. V. H.)

and Associations,

U.S.: Catholic Or-

ganizations for Youth.

PunrilC bJ|JIUOi

former British island colony and strategic base

'^^^^ jj,

eastern Mediterranean

jjjg

lies

about 40 mi. south

of the coast of Turkey. Area: 3,572 sq.mi. Pop.: (1946 census)

450,114; (1958 est.) 549,000 (Greeks, 78.8%; Turks, 17.5%). More than 10% of pop. can speak English; knowledge of Eng-

The cham-

lish is

pionship in the Quebec Coliseum was decided in a sudden-death

(cap.)

50,900;

Saskatchewan finishing with 10 wins and i loss. Alberta being second with 9 and 2. Manitoba took third with 7-3. Winnipeg, Man., played host to 458 rinks for six days in the 71st Manitoba bonspiel the world's largest.

18,500.

Governor

Feb. 1959 a conference was held at Ziirich between the Greek and Turkish prime ministers and foreign min-

The

on Cyprus.

Arnold, Garnet,

Ernie, skip, from Regina.

playoff for the second straight year,

—

British Consols event, carrying the right to represent the

won by Dick Bird's Winnipeg Granite club took the An Edmonton rink, skipped by John

province in the Brier championship, was

Elmwood

four. Bill Sharpe's

Grand Aggregate Trout, defeated

prize.

New

Brunswick's entry to give Alberta province

the title in the Canadian high school championship bonspiel at

Calgary, Alta.

International Competition.

—^The

spreading rapidly. Chief towns (pop., 1958 est.): Nicosia

History.

isters,

Limassol 38.000; in

—In

which led

A

1959, Sir

Famagusta 27,900; Lamaca

Hugh

Foot.

to the conclusion of a

same month and was attended by all parties to the dispute representatives of the Greek and Turkish communities in the island being invited to share in the negotiations

Cyprus was

to

become

a republic under a

Richardsons, after win-

suffrage for periods of five years.

A

games

Greek and three Turkish) would

assist

all five

Canada defeated the United States, 519-336. in competition Gordon International gold medal at Montreal on March

the

for 14.

(T. V. H.)

presi-

council of ministers (seven

Coinage; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates. See also under various countries. see

national championships of the

Amateur

Bicycle League of America were held at Kenosha,

James Rossi, Chicago,

111.,

them

in the exercise of

house of representatives chosen by universal suffrage and drawn in the proportion of 70% from the Greek C>T3riot and 30%

from the Turkish C>'priot communities. The London agreement also enxisaged the creation of separate

Wis., Aug. 21-24.

Greek Cypriot

the executive power. Legislative authority was to reside in a

with the champion Airth rink, skipped by Willie Young.

The 1959

—confirmed and

elaborated the solution outlined at Ziirich.

dent and a Turkish Cypriot vice-president elected by universal

ning the Brier Tankard, xasited Scotland and swept

Currency:

compromise agreement in London the

second conference w'hich took place

gained the men's

communal chambers,

one

two dominant communities in the island, these chambers having the right to impose on their respective populations taxes intended to meet the cost of communal projects and needs. Other clauses in the agreement concerned the structure and for each of the

composition of the

civil service, the

armed

forces, the judicial

one of the season's consistent winners, took home the men's junior open crown. Joanne Speckin of. Detroit, Mich., was the

system and, in addition, the separate municipalities which, as an experiment for a period of six years, the Turkish Cypriots would be allowed to establish in five of the chief towns in

women's open

victor.

Cyprus.

Chicago, Aug.

i,

senior open

title

while Jackie Simes, III, of Westwood, N.J.,

The

first

were named

four to finish a loo-mi. race at

Pan-American Games was victor in a field of

to the U.S.

team. Bob Tezlaff, Los Angeles, Calif.,

It

was

laid

down

in the

London agreement

that in the

future CyTJrus should not be united either wholly or in part with another state nor be subject to partition. A pact guaranteeing

the independence, the territorial integrity and the constitution

of Cyprus was to be signed between

Great Britain, Greece,

Turkey and Cyprus. The Cypriot and Turkish republics, together with Greece, would also enter into a joint military alliance. It was further enjoined that both these treaties should have in relation to Cyprus a constitutional status and force. Great Britain retained full sovereignty over two areas in Cyprus, and the Republic of Cyprus was to provide facilities which would permit Great Britain to develop and use these areas as military bases.

The London conference

power

in

also agreed that the transfer of

Cyprus should be completed not

later than Feb.

19,

i960.

On March

27, 1959,

Archbishop Makarios and Fazil Kiicuk,

announced the formation of

the leader of the Turkish Cypriots,

a council of ministers, which, acting in conjunction with the British governor,

would constitute

ernment of Cyprus

until the

in effect a provisional gov-

attainment of

independence.

full

Joint committees for the preparation of the basic treaties and for the drafting of a constitution met, the

March

one

in

23 and the other in Nicosia on April 13.

government stated

in

June that over

contribute a substantial measure public of Cyprus. Makarios

and

London on The British

a period of years

of financial

Kiiciik,

aid

to

it

would Re-

the

with the approval of the

Cyprus intended

council of ministers, declared in July that

to

remain within the sterling area (for at least ten years after the achievement of independence).

Gen. Georgios Grivas, the former head of Eoka, after talks held at Rhodes in Oct. 1959 to resolve certain differences of

opinion between himself and Makarios in regard to the imple-

mentation of the London-Ziirich agreement, gave a pledge of full support for the archbishop. On Dec. 13 a national election was held to choose a president for the Republic of Cyprus. Archbishop Makarios was elected to the presidency for a five-year term, by a margin of about two-to-one. Kiiciik was named vice-

president.

See also Greece; MrooLE Eastern Affairs.

(V.

P.)

J.

— Schools

(1958): elementary 744, pupils 80,000; secondary 54, pupils 25,600; technical and agricultural 6; teacher-training colleges 2, Education.

students 360. Finonce and Trade.

—

Monetary unit: pound sterling, with local coinage ;£ I (1,000 mils 357.14 mils^U.S. $1). Budget (1958): revenue £2 3,034, 597, expenditure £21,825,517. Foreign trade (1958): imports £36,700,000, exports £17,600,000. Main products and exports (1958, in long Ions); iron pyrites 820,000, copper pyrites 229.000, copper concentrates 115,125, gypsum 28,808, asbestos 13,118; also citrus fruits, carobs, potatoes, wine,

=

;

olives.

UlCliuUolUVdMd. Czechoslovakia is bounded west by Germany, north by Poland, east by the U.S.S.R., south by Hungary and Austria. Area: 49,366 sq.mi. (incl. autonomous Slovakia, 18,918 sq.mi.). Pop.: est.)

(1950 census)

12,338,450;

(April

1958

13,437,493 (incl. Slovakia 3,881,816). Nationality (1957):

Czech 66.5%; Slovak 27.8%; German 1.2%; Hungarian 3.0%; Ukrainian 0.6%; Polish 0.6%. Religion (1930 census): Roman Catholic

(Latin rite)

73.5%; Protestant

(all

denominations)

7.7%; Czechoslovak Church 5.4%; Greek Catholic 4.0%; Greek Orthodox 1.0%; Jewish 2.4%; atheist 5.8%. Chief towns (pop., Jan. 1958): Prague (cap.) 984,722; Brno 309,313; Bratislava 252,046; Ostrava 227,287; Plzen 135,282; Kosice 81,047. First secretary of the

Communist party

of Czechoslovakia and

president of the republic in 1958, Antonin of the council of ministers,

History.

Novotny; chairman

Vilem Siroky.

— Economic rather than

political

problems were fore-

.most in 1959. Industrial output continued to expand, and in

February

WOMEN OF

it

was announced that

had

NICOSIA GAZING UP AT FLAGS

come Archbishop Makarios on three years

it

his return

to

risen

by more than

held by a

Cyprus

In

crowd waiting

1959

after an

1 1

%

to wel-

exile of

DAHOMEY — DAIRY PRODUCTS

194 in

1058, bringing that year's production of bituminous coal to

25,812,000 metric tons, steel to 5,510,000 metric tons, and machine tools to 22,000 metric tons. Cash wages rose by only 2,2% but the situation of the wage earners was improved in

March by

io%-2o%

on certain essential foodstuffs and and some manufactured goods. Family allowances were raised for the admitted purpose of increasing the birth rate. The lower rates of pensions for old and disabled

price reductions of

articles of clothing

people were raised, though "fornier entrepreneurs and representatives of the capitalist system" were expressly excluded from

The need for even greater production in industry was repeatedly stressed, and in February a special Technical Development committee was set up under the direction of Vaclav Ouzky, former minister of precision engineering. Agricultural production increased by only 3.4*^ in 1958, and these benefits.

was given as the reason for continuing high food prices. In January it was decided to follow the Soviet example and sell off most of the machinery in the machine-tractor stations to the farming co-operatives, though the stations themselves were not dissolved. At a co-operative farming congress in March, this

Antonin Novotny,

first

cast that agriculture

secretary of the

Communist

party, fore-

would be completely collectivized by 1961. it was said that only 143 new co-operatives

At the end of May had been formed in the

first

quarter of the year, bringing the

embracing 74.7% of the country's arable land. With other forms of state-owned farms included, this meant that 79*^^ of the land was in the "socialist sector." In June the party central committee announced that compulsory deliveries of farm total

up

to 12,283,

revenue 96,100,000,000 Koruny, expenditure 95,900,000,000

e^t.);

Ko-

runy, including 45,700,000,000 Koruny (45.7%) allotted (or capital investments. Foriign Trad*. (1957) Imports U.S. $1,385,000,000; exporti U.S. $i,356,000,000. Main imports (in metric tons): iron ore 4,923,000: crude petroleum and products 1,609,000; bread grain 1,036,000. Main exports (units); metal-working machinery 8,481; trucks 2,602; passenger cars 15,858; motorcycles 80,119; tractors 14,445; coke 1,159,000 tons; plate glass 11.715,000 sq.m. The U.S.S.R. was the chief source of imports and main (irstination of exports (34% of the trade turnover); next came the German Democratic Republic (10%), the Chinese People's Republic (5.4%) and

—

Poland (5%).

—

Transport ond Communication!. Highways (l9s6) 120,889 km., incl.: main road 71,207 km. Licensed motor vehicles (Dec. 1957): cars 115,000; trucks 76,000; buses 3,600. Railways (1957): 13,446 km., incl. 446 km. electrified; passenger traffic (1957) 19,048,000,000 passengcr-km.; passengers transported 541,316,000; freight traffic (1958) 42,672,000,000

ton-km.; freight carried 174,360,000 tons. Air transport (1957): 293.500 persons carried; 135.000,000 passcngcr-km.; 4,612.000 ton-km. of cargo and mail. Telephones (1957): 743,172. Radio receiving sets (i9S7) 2,970,720. Television receiving sets (mid-1959): 420.000. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1934-38 in parentheses): wheat 1,350,000 (1,513,000); barley 1,215,000 (1,109,000); oats 905,000 (i. 212. 000); rye 921,000 (1,568,000); potatoes 7,149,000 (9,145,700); sugar beets (1957) 6,77S,ooo (4,664,000). Livestock (1958; 1934-38 in parentheses): cattle 4,091,000 (4,296,000); pigs 5,435,000 (3,144,000); sheep 889,000 (458,000); horses 517,000 (656,000); chickens 22,848.000. Industry. Employed in industry (1957): 2,028.000. Production (metric tons if not otherwise stated, 1958; 1937 in parentheses): coal 25,812.000 (16.672,000); brown coal and lignite 56.832,000 (17.895,000); coke (1957) 7,485,000 (3,280,000); electricity 19,620,000,000 (4,115,000,000) kw.hr.; iron ore (30% metal content) 2,796,000 (2,100,000); pi( iron 3,768,000 (1,675.000); steel 5,508,000 (2.301,000); cement 4.104,000 (1.273.000): sulfuric acid (1957) 445.000 (166.000); nitrogenous fertilizers 74,403 (24,500): phosphatic fertilizers 110,368; passenger cars (units) 43,440; trucks and buses 15,120; tractors (1957) 21,236; leather shoes 28,056,000 pairs: cotton fabrics 420,000,000 m.; silk fabrics (1957) 51,832,000 m.; woolen fabrics (1957) 38,241,000 m.; sugar 881,000 tons.

—

—

15% above the 1958 level. The cost of machinery and other services sold to farms was reduced but taxes

du Dahomey), a Community, is bounded west by Togo, north by the republics of Upper Volta and Niger, east by the Federation of Nigeria and south by the Atlantic ocean. Area 44,696 sq.mi. Pop. (1951 est.)

were expected

were raised and some state subsidies reduced. These measures to bring about the planned 40% increase of farm

many

output by 1965.

in the

produce would be abolished and a new unified system of prices introduced at about

The

private practice of medicine was reported to have been

brought to an end by the beginning of the year. In April a

re-

form of the education system on Soviet lines introduced a compulsory nine-year secondary system and provided for more practical training in industry and agriculture in later school life. The conference of the Writers' union in March and the Congress of Socialist Culture in June were both occasions for the reaffirmation of political control over creative artists.

ary journals,

Novy

Two

liter-

Zivot and Kveten, which had show-n signs of

independence, were

suspended.

A

successful

novel by Josef

Skvorecky, The Cowards, which dealt with postwar events

in

an

unheroic manner, w-as banned by the state. There were numerous trials,

with heavy sentences imposed, of priests, private traders,

suspected spies, thieves and embezzlers of "socialist property,"

and of many critics of the communist system. Czechoslovak foreign trade continued to expand, primarily with the Soviet Union and allied countries. Nearly half of the exports were of machinery and nearly half the imports were of

raw materials. Czechoslovakia's position

as the

main supplier

engineering products in the Soviet bloc was confirmed in at

the meeting of the Council for

Mutual Economic Aid

Albania. But the government also showed

much

of

May in

interest in trade

with countries of the middle east and Africa. Agreements were

concluded with the United Arab Republic, Iraq, Ethiopia, Ghana

and Guinea.

A

Czechoslovak cultural institute was established

—

Education. Schools (1957-58): nursery 6.262, pupils 255.309; primary (5-yr.) 9. 259, pupils 517.252; higher primary (8-yr.) 2,833, pupils i,i53,026; secondary (ii-yr.) 413, pupils 340,953; special 610, pupils 35.064: state apprentice training schools 246, pupils 79,351; factory apprentice schools 671. pupils 88,172; vocational 717. pupils 196.904; institutions of higher education, including four universities (Prague, Olomouc, Brno,

Bratislava) 40, students 77.555. Finance.

(1958

1.570,000;

est.)

nf 01

1,725,000, mainly

also Peul

allied tribes;

'^Rep^^blique

member state

of the French

Dahomi Negroes and

(Fula) and Hausa communities

north and Yoruba in the south; Europeans (1956) 2.767. Language: many local dialects. Religion: animist, with Moslem

and Christian minorities. Chief towns (pop. 1955 est.): Porto Novo (capital, 30,500), Cotonou (28,000), Abomey (18,900), Ouidah (14,000). Prime minister in 1959, Hubert Maga. French high commissioner,

History.

—The

mously by the

The

official

Rene

Tirant.

Republican constitution was passed unani-

territorial

assembly

at

Cotonou on Feb.

14, 1959.

language was to be French. The prime minister,

by the assembly, had executive power; he was responsible A tribunal of state was instituted.

elected

to the assembly.

At the general April

2

election

to

the

the Parti Republicain du

first

national

Dahomey,

assembly on

the party of the

prime minister Sourou Migan Apithy, won 37 out of a total of 70 seats. The Union D^mocratique Dahomeenne (leader Justin

Ahomadegbe") obtained 11 seats and the Rassemblement Demo-

Dahomeen

Maga. representing the tribes As the two opposition parties polled 234,311 votes and the government party only 144,038. disorders followed. On May 22 Maga became prime minister. Ahomadegbe had been elected president of the assembly. In September Apithy cratique

(leader Hubert

of the interior) 22 seats.

declared himself in favour of independence. to the

An agreement was

adhered

concluded with France for the construction

in four years of the port of traffic

Dahomey

Sahel-Benin entente.

Cotonou, providing for a yearly (Hu. De.)

of up to 300,000 metric tons.

(D. Fd.)

in Cairo.

rate, high

nohnmou Doniihlin UdlllllllBy, ncpUDIIU

— Monetary and

unit;

koruna ceskoslovenska with

fictitious, of 7.20

Koruny

exchange Budget (1959

United States milk production in 1959 declined by about i^ from the 125.200,000,000 lb. of 1958; the total for the period January through September was 96.655,000.000 lb., as compared with 97,521,000,000 lb. for the same period of 1958. Milk production per cow, which n' 1959, but

work was held up by

a strike for higher

wages commencing on July 6, 1959. At Navajo dam, on the San Juan river in New Mexico, the 383-ft,-high embankment was well ahead of schedule in 1959

20% of the 26,000,000 cu.yd. of earth fill placed than a year, at a rate of 600,000 cu.yd. per month.

with more than in 'ess

On n-i.j Udldl

the Snake river, major Columbia tributary.

second of three Hell's Canyon projects being constructed by Idaho Power company, was nearing completion during 1959.

river through

exported.

cipal dairj' countries,

See also

In the United States, on the Columbia river, Priest Rapids dam, 16 months ahead of schedule, was approximately 85% complete in mid-October 1959 when generation of commercial power commenced. At John Day dam, dowTistream, difficulty of sealing and anchoring the steel sheet piling of the cofferdam cells against the bare bedrock was overcome during 1959 by having divers place bags of concrete against the base of the sheet piling.

U.S. production of nonfat dry milk declined

062,000

Table I on page 196 lists 15 of the important dams of the world completed or under construction during 1959.

Oahe dam, earth fill on the world's embankment was being placed at a high rate, largest dump truck. The truck has a capacity

the Missouri river, at

largest rolled

fill

using the world's

—

DANCE

196 Table

Domt Compltlid

Chimf

I.

or Undtr Conilmclion During

1959

Mointun lislutM

Nam* Bhakfo

of

dam

.

.

.

.

Grond Dl«an» Karlbo

Sull«|

Angora .

Gl«n Canyon

Helmi Craah Colorado Dl«»nc»

.

....

North Forh

Typo

RIvar

....

Bralih Courtrlghl

.

.

.

.

.

Oohe Pilml Ropldi

Punlob, India Slb.rio, U.S.S.R. Colifornia Arlii U.S.

«lty

Ro«"

Drugilor. Oihar raiaii iiorci

The eardrum

Carried out durine the course of the operation.

Phyiitiooi' pr.icripiioni

new family

enabled the identification and

of viruses with the generic

classi-

name

adenoviruses. These viruses cause a grippelike illness with

of in-

flammation of the mucous membranes of the respiratory and ocular systems. At least 25 serologically distinct human and simian viruses in the adenovirus group had been isolated,

2,

Recently two new distinct hemadsorption viruses, types i and which were unrelated to the group of adenoviruses, were re-

covered from infants and children with acute febrile respiratory illness.

Less than

10%

of

all

respiratory illnesses are caused by rec-

ognized bacteria. The streptococcus sore throat

from moving freely in the oval window, thereby impeding transmission of sound waves to the inner ear and thence to the auditory centres in the brain. These conditions are approached surgically through the

more common illnesses of the upper respiratory tract. The symptoms of this condition are often similar to those associated

outer ear canal.

the constitutional

plate of the stapes (the stirruplike bone)

Julius Lempert,

who

193S opened new vistas in ear surgery,

in

reviewed the development of modern ear surgery from

its earliest

beginnings in the iSth century. Lempert's procedure of fenestration created a

window in by the

the one occupied

with a virus infection of the upper respiratory tract except that

symptoms

are

more

Physicians effectively control cold

severe.

symptoms due

to allergy

by elimination or avoidance of the offending substances, and by specific immunotherapy and antihistamine therapy: they

the lateral semicircular canal, replacing

control bacterial infections with chemotherapeutic agents. ever, there appears to be no specific

),

permitting

the affected ear to hear ordinary conversational voice.

The

re-

were reported as approximately 80% good. The chief drawbacks are that the operation leaves a large surgical cavity which sults

requires a lifetime of periodic rechecks and attention; the patient

disabled for several weeks; and there

is

considerable disturb-

ance of the balance system (dizziness or vertigo) during the convalescence, which

one of the

footplate of the stirrup, through which

air-borne sound could pass to the inner ear (cochlea

is

is

may

Stapes mobilization, like fenestration,

is

How-

will aft'ect

the course of the nonfebrile running-nose type of simple cold

or the febrile grippelike viral colds, except possibly

by the promo-

good health habits, increasing general resistance to infection and symptomatic management. An effective vaccine against serotypes 3. 4 and 7 of the adenoviruses was developed, tion of

and much

effort

was being expended

to develop a polyvalent

vaccine for the entire group of adenoviruses which were

re-

sponsible for a large segment of febrile respiratory illnesses.

persist occasionally for years.

used in the surgical

treatment of otosclerosis. The stapes mobilization operation

method which

is

Nosebleeding and High Blood Pressure.

made

—

J.

R. A. Mitchell

a survey of the frequency of nosebleeding in patients with

EARNINGS,

COMPANY— EAS TERN ORTHODOX CHURCHES

high blood pressure, and the blood pressure levels in patients

with nosebleeding.

Many

persons

who develop

epistaxis (nose-

On

of opinion strongly favoured prohibiting operation during the

bleed) have no knowledge of their hypertension and the nose

polio season even in children

when

ber of injections of the vaccine.

bleeds serves as the

it

may

bleeding

ment which

warning. In some instances,

first

occur simultaneously

is

in

is

disorders

as

coexisting influencing

factors

the prevention of paralysis.

must be

prove only of incidental significance as far as epistaxis

it

is

cerned.

Of

In Mitchell's study, 17 patients (4.5TJ) from a group of 374 who had high blood pressure had bled from the nose, and in 8

was the presenting symptom. According to Mitchell, these findings were probably an underestimate of the true frequency of epistaxis in these patients. Attention was drawn to of these this

the occurrence

of intestinal bleeding, in

gastrointestinal

coverable

disease,

in

the

this

absence of

group.

hospital because of nosebleeding

who were admitted

showed

a

to the

normal distribution of

age- and sex-adjusted diastolic scores. Eighty-nine patients with-

out local nasal disease had an age- and sex-adjusted score distribution

totally

different

from the general population.

He

concluded that in the absence of local nasal disease high blood pressure

is

not necessarily ruled out.

comment expressed

Editorial

II

prominent workers

polio season.

One

Three did not

gamma

or even

nate the

risk.

globulin before tonsillectomy might well elimi."

.

.

See also Hearing.

—

Bibliography. Julius Lempert, "Evolutionary Progress in the Surgical Treatment of Jliddle Ear Deafness of Otosclerotic Origin," J. Int. Coll. 31:464-474 (.\pril 1959), and "Principles Used in the Development of Modern Temporal Bone Surgery," Arch. Otolaryng., 69:515-528 (May 1959): .\bner M. Fuchs, "Differential Diagnosis of the Common Cold," Eye. Ear, .Xose and Throat Monthly, 38:129-136 (Feb. 1959); J. R. A. Mitchell, "Nosebleeding and High Blood Pressure," Brit. Med. /., 1:25-27 Surg.,

(Jan. 3, 1959); Editorial, "Epistaxis in Relation to Hypertension," Eye, Ear. ^'ose and Throat Monthly, 38:308-309 (.-^pril 1959); .\lbert B. Sabin, "Consideration of Change in Present Policy of Performing Tonsillectomies and .Adenoidectomies During Summer Months," Laryngoscope, 69:398-407 (.\pril 1959): Morris Greenberg, "Tonsillectomy During the Poliomyelitis Season," /. Pediat., 54: 722-724 (May 1959). (F. L. Lr.)

was

Company:

Earnings,

Earthquakes:

though

asters; Seismology.

high percentage of patients nosebleeding in the abis

associated with high blood pressure,

by Mitchell and others, various known factors ma)' play a prominent role and these cannot be completely disregarded. as held

It is

sound thinking at

quently

is

all

specifically object to the operations.

indicated that he tended not to object because "vaccination

doubt whether his unqualified conclusion was acceptable. Alin a

United States, and adenoidectomy during the

the thought that the results of

Mitchell's investigation were illuminating, but that there

sence of local nasal disease

It

in poliomyelitis in the

eight objected to tonsillectomy

dis-

In summarizing the results of his investigation. Mitchell found that 32 patients with nasal disease

see

see Business Review. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S.; Dis-

Earth Satellites: see Astronomy; Space Exploration. East Africa, British: see Kenya; Somaliland Protectorate; Tanganyika; Uganda; Zanzibar.

times to realize that nosebleeding fre-

a warning sign of an underlying systemic disorder

which must be sought and dealt with. Available diagnostic tests should be utilized to prevent error which

may

prove of serious

hazard to the patient. As a general experience, epistaxis

is

a

benign process. Polionnyelitis

num-

con-

Apart from the h>TDertension, the likelihood of blood and other kept in mind. Although the hvpertension must be treated,

received an adequate

may

con-

centrated on the visible svTnptom.

systemic

who had

was noted that even successful immunization with the Salk vaccine had not prevented significant dissemination of the virus, which had been observed in the feces and had also been recovered from the pharynx of children who had received one or two, or even three, doses of Salk vaccine. Moreover, Greenberg stressed, the commercially prepared Salk vaccine is not of uniform potency. It is about 70% effective in

other organs, a develop-

frequently overlooked because attention

215

the other hand, Morris Greenberg believed that the weight

The Ecumenical Patriarch-

Eastern Orthodox Churches.

—A question posed by

in

Istanbul,

Turkey,

elected in February

1959 lakovos Koukouzes as successor to Michael Constantinides, Archbishop of the Greek Archdiocese

North and South America; Archbishop lakovos was enthroned the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity in New York city on

of

and Throat Operations.

ate

at

Albert B. Sabin was whether the widespread use of Salk vaccine

April

and the resulting diminution

His Grace Bishop Ezekiel of the Greek Archdiocese serving the midwestern states was promoted to archbishop and trans-

in the incidence of paralytic polio-

myelitis justifies a change in the policy of prohibiting the per-

formance of elective tonsillectomies and adenoidectomies during the

summer months,

operative

or so-called "poliomyelitis season." Such

work on the throat was condemned because of

in-

I,

1959.

ferred in

and

New

March 1959

to Australia as

Archbishop of Australia

Zealand.

His Eminence Metropolitan Antony Bashir of the Syrian

creased dissemination of the viruses during this period and the

Antiochian Orthodox Church with jurisdiction over

possible contamination of the severed nerves in the throat with

Orthodox

the viruses already present at the time of operation or localizing

vicar-generals.

in the

wound from blood

shortly after surgery.

in

The first two vicars named were Archimandrite Kazan, formerly of St. Elias Syrian church in Toledo, and Archimandrite Michael Shaheen, formerly of St. George's

0.,

the virus.

eastern sections of the archdiocese, visiting the

was shown that the immunity produced by the four doses of the vaccine had no effect on the duration or the amount of virus excretion, and that immune children were capable of infecting other fully vaccinated children who were in contact with

it

them

in

an institution under conditions particularly

suitable for fecal contamination.

Sabin

felt that

the conclusion appeared warranted that

Salk vaccine of sufficient potency and dosage

an adequate antibody response, one zation of virus in the throat either

may

when

given to produce

expect to prevent locali-

by prevention of deposition

from the blood stream, or by neutralization

mary implantation.

is

Syrian

V'asilios

Data gathered thus far indicated that the antibody produced by the Salk vaccine does not prevent extensive multiplication of Furthermore,

all

North America announced the appointment of three

at the time of pri-

Syrian church in Montreal, Que. They took over the western and personal representatives of MetropoHtan Bashir.

unnamed

A

churches as third vicar-

would be stationed at the archdiocese in Brooklyn. N.Y., and would represent the metropolitan during his absence from Brooklyn. Two new convents were opened by the Eastern Orthodox Church in the United States during 1959. The Russians opened a convent in Connecticut and the Serbians one in Ohio. The Holy Cross Greek Orthodox Theological school of Brookline. Mass., bought a 25-ac. site adjoining its own 35-ac. grounds. It was intended to serve as the nucleus of the projected Hellenic general

in 1959,

University of America.

See also

Church Membership.

(T. As.)

EAST INDIES. DUTC H — ED UC ATION

216 East Indies, Dutch:

see

Indonesia;

Netherlands New

countries to disrupt the proceedings.

In the economic

CiVlStlA.

and Moon, 1960:

Eclipses of the Sun (page

sec

Calendar, i960

Ecuador continued

field,

to a greater degree than in

xxii).

to

make

proKress.

foreign business and investment in 1959, possibly

It attracted

any previous period. Foreign

rcscrvei

remained at satisfactory levels and the export of bananas,

A Ecuador.

tX

ng the equator, after which it was named, bounded on the north and east by Colombia, on the and south by Peru and on the west by the Pacific ocean.

Ecuador east

republic on the west coast of South America,

is

Area 105,685 sq.mi. (including the Galapagos Islands, a dependency of 3,028 sq. mi.). Pop. (1950 census) 3,202,757; (1959 est.)

About i()% of the population is Indian, 41% mestizo, Caucasian and 10% Negro, mulatto and others. Quito (pop.

4,116,451.

10%

1950 census 209,932; 1959 est. 267,700) is the capital; other major cities (with 1950 census, 1959 est. in parentheses) are: Guayaquil, the main port, 258,966 (410,000); Cuenca 39,983 (66,800);

Riobamba 29,830 (38.900); Ambato 31,312 (44,300);

Loja 15,399 (26,000); and Latacunga 10,389 (23,000). Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1959: Camilo Ponce Enriquez.

—

History. During the closing months of 1958 a conflict developed between the municipal government of the port city of

Guayaquil and the provincial council of Guayas. There were charges of inefficiency and there was physical evidence that nicipal services

men were

had

suffered.

The mayor and some

mu-

of the council-

considered "disqualified" from service, but they re-

fused to relinquish their posts. Meanwhile, city workers went

on

strike.

poverty

General unrest, which stemmed from conditions of

in parts of the city, unsettled

labour conditions along

the coastal area, and poor health conditions, provided an at-

mosphere

and tenseness. Soon after the council mayor to resume his office, the city found itself in the midst of a dock strike. The national government intervened by calling the strike illegal and moving armed forces into the customs buildings. The strikers were then joined by the banana and petroleum workers who called the intervention unconstitutional, and sympathy strikes followed in of state

other

An

of uncertainty

made

possible for the

it

principal export

the

commodity, increased during the year. (A. E. Tr.)

—

Education. In 1955 there were 4.338 primary schools with 10,891 teachers and 461,847 pupils; secondary schools, 26,611 pupils; >i normal schools, 4,558 students; 64 technical schools, i},ioi students; ) institutions of higher learning, 5,859 students. According to the 1950 census. 43.7% of those 10 yr. of age and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the Sucre, valued during 1959 at 6.< cents U.S. currency, official rate, and since Sept. 30, 1959. at 5.6 cents,

w6

—

free rate.

The

total

1958 budget amounted to 1,570.000.000 sucres. Th«

1958) was $63,345,168; internal, 664,592,15] circulation (July 31, 1959) totaled 706,000,000 sucres; demand deposits, 798,000,000 sucres. National income in 1957 was eslimated at 9,733,000,000 sucres. The cost-of-living index (Quito) stood foreign sucres.

at

(Dec. 31,

debt

Currency

104

in

in

March 1959 (1953

=

—

100).

Trade and Communicoiions. Exports in 1958 (Ecuadorian seaports) totaled $141,800,000; imports through the port of Guayaquil, $98,800,000. Leading exports were bananas (56%), coffee (19%), cacao (15%). rict (3%) and balsa wood (1%). Important import groups were machinery, instruments and vehicles (34%), manufactured articles (26%), chemicals and products (13%) and food, beverages and tobacco (10%). Leading customers were the U.S. ( s 7 western Germany (12%), Belgium ( s ) ), Colombia (s%) and Italy (4%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (49%), western Germany (13%), Belgium (8%), the U.K. (5%) and Sweden

%

%

.

(4%).

Railway mileage (1957) was 832. Mileage of roads suitable for motor was estimated in 1955 at 6,000-6,500. On Jan. i, 1959, there were 5,000 automobiles and 18,000 trucks and buses. Telephones (Jan, i, 1958) numbered 22,000, 95% of which were automatic. Agriculture, Production estimates for the 1958-59 crop year included coffee 500.000 bags of 132 lb, each; cotton 14,000 bales of 500 lb, gross weight: cacao 64,000,000 lb.; rice (rough) 250,000,000 lb. Exports in 1958 included bananas 28,945,550 stems; coffee 503,000 bags; cacao 22,150 metric tons; rice 37.121 tons. In 1957 there were an estimated 1.363.300 cattle. Forest exports in 1958 included tagua nuts 3,832 metric tons and balsa wood 4.905 tons: no rubber was exported. vehicles

—

—

Manufactures, ,\ccording to the industrial census of 1955, there were 1.085 establishments, 995 of which reported 30,370 employees and gross value of production amounting to 1,766.126.525 sucres. Most important by value of production were foodstuffs (41*?^), textiles (14%) and beverages (11%). Production estimates in 1958 included sugar 87,359 metric tons: cement 159.831 tons; beer 66.428,000 bottles. In 1958 exports of toquilta (Panama) hats totaled 1,248,200. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1956) was 74,000 kw.; production (1958) totaled 310,525,000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production in 1958 included gold 20,025 troy oz.; silver 84,500 oz.; crude petroleum 3,108,470 bbl. (J. W. Mw.)

—

cities.

unusual incident at Portoviejo late in

May

led to riots in

30 or more deaths. An army recruit, provoked by what he considered improper treatment by his

Guayaquil that resulted

in

captain, opened fire on the officer.

ground unhurt, but the

wounded

The captain dropped

soldier, thinking that he

the captain, committed suicide.

and when, as a the police

result,

moved

A mob

had

to the

killed or

demonstrations broke out

in

Guayaquil,

After five hours of bloody fighting had occurred. President Ponce declared martial law to restore order.

The following day

violence broke out again,

number

Dermatology.

1959. were as follows:

in

education

15,

1958, to Oct. 15,

the

in

(i) the continuing lack of sufficient

nancial support for school

construction;

(2)

fi-

the increase in

many

stores were

Through condemned by communist

school attendance for the 15th consecutive year; (3) the steadily increasing enrollment in higher education; (4) the rising tuition

and maintehance costs of colleges and universities and

was restored by the national authorities. The immediate cause of a strike in .\pril by textile workers in Quito was a reduction of the daily working hours from eight to six. But behind the strike lay a long-standing complaint against the smuggling of low-priced Colombian goods into the country, an operation apparently encouraged by the high costs of Ecuadorian manufactures, resulting from inefficient and antiquated equipment. The walkout ended when assurance was given the workers that the six-hour day would be temporary. In planning for the meeting of the nth Inter-American conleaders, order

the

shortage of qualified professors; (5) the continuing shortage of properly qualified teachers for the elementary and high schools; (6) the growing federal participation in and concern for educa-

of deaths resulted.

stern measures, which were strongly

see

rj. ._-!•_ The outstanding events LDUCdUOn. United States from Oct.

killed the officer,

in.

looted or destroyed and a

Eczema:

tion,

and the arousing of opposition to governmental

control;

(7) the sustained national interest in enriching the education of the academically gifted pupils;

(8)

the publication of the

Conant report on secondary school curriculum and administration; (9) the increased awareness of juvenile delinquency and crime as a social and educational problem of great importance; and (10) the persistent, if decelerated, progress in the racial integration of the public schools despite

southern opposi-

tion.

Statistics.

—The

of health, education

U.S. office of education of the department

and welfare estimated

in

August that

total

student enrollment for the year 1959-60 would reach a new

ference of the Organization of .American States to be held in

Quito early in i960, the government was watching the activities of the country's small but aggressive

Communist

party. In

the authorities reported the discovery of detailed plans

by party members

of

May made

Ecuador and of other Latin-American

Kindergorten through grade 8* High school, grades 9 through 12* Higher education institution Total

'Public

ond nonpublic.

1959-60

1958-59

33,460,000 9,240,000 3,780,000 46,480,000

32,010,000 8.940,000 3,590,000 44,540,000

EDUCATION

217

all-time high of 46,480,000.

rather than as a "universal panacea." Also in April, the Ford

all

The office of education stated that in Oct. 1958. 89.2% of young persons aged 14 through 17 were studying in high schools and colleges, as compared with 81.8% a decade earlier;

National Educational Television and Radio centre.

and that there was an anticipated shortage of 195.000 qualified

higher learning increased during the year. According to the of-

teachers in 1959-60.

fice of

—

Federal Participation in Education. When congress adjourned on Sept. 15. 1959. it had two federal aid bills under

The Metcalf

foundation announced a terminal grant of $5,000,000 to the

Higher Education.

in

—-Enrollments

almost

in

all

branches of

education report in Nov. 1959, 3.258.556 students were fall term, with the freshman

attendance at the beginning of the

showing an increase of

class

-%

over the 1958

fall

enrollment.

(H.R. 22) for the support of

In contrast, freshmen in engineering colleges dropped by 11.1%,

school construction over a period of four years and teachers'

marking the first decline in eight years. The Council of Medical Education of the American Medical association reported that

consideration.

bill

had been passed by the committee on labour and educabut had remained bottled up in the rules committee. The

salaries tion,

Murray

(S.

bill

2),

pro\nding for only a two-year emergency

school construction grant had passed the committee on labour

and public welfare.

Among

the other bills concerned with gov-

ernmental participation in educational work was one establishing

program on juvenile delinquency. Commissioner Lawrence G. Derthick of the office of education reported on Sept. i that the National Defense Education act of 1958 was accomplishing its purposes of directing gifted high

a five-year research

school

seniors

increasing

college,

the

supply of college

and promoting the teaching of the sciences and

teachers

guages.

into

On

the other hand, a

number

lan-

of influential colleges re-

fused to apply for aid under this act on account of

its

loyalty-

oath provision.

—

Elementary and Secondary Education. In Jan. 1959 the made an award of $480,000 to 12 colleges and universities to improve the teaching of arithmetic and science in the grade schools. The secondar>' curriculum also seemed to move in the direction of greater stress than in previous years on science, mathematics and the foreign languages. A report by Helen B. Yakobson in August stated that 400 high schools would be teaching Russian in the fall, in comparison with 16 offering it in the fall of 1957, when the Soviet Union sent up the first sputnik. Many efforts were made, both under governmental auspices and by private bodies, to encourage science study in the summer months and in other ways to raise the level of scientific knowledge among the nation's high school students. The National Science foundation allocated Si. 600.000 in federal funds toward the summer training programs. But the frequent attention to science and mathematics called forth, from time to time, warnings by some educators. Probably the most widely read report on the U.S. high school curriculum was the one issued in January by James B. Conant, president emeritus of Harvard university, under the title. The American High School Today. After vnsiting high schools in 18 states, Conant concluded that "the academically talented student, as a rule, is not being sufficiently challenged, does not work hard enough, and his or her program of academic subjects is not National Science foundation

of sufficient range." to help

overcome

that "the

suggested a blueprint of subject matter

weakness. Another recommendation was

number of small high

duced through that

He

this

district

"no radical alteration

education

Much

is

schools

must be

drastically re-

reorganization." However, he believed in

the basic pattern of American

necessarj'."

attention was given during the year to teaching through

medium

of television. As of Sept. 1959, there were 34 edutele\ision stations, about two-thirds of which were showing programs exclusively for elementary and secondary

the

cational

The Fund for the Advancement of Education reported in February that its experiments indicated that televised teaching was superior to conventional procedures in saving classroom space and teaching positions. The progress report in April of the 30-month use of tele\'ision in the regular instruction of the schools.

Washington county. Md., public schools revealed that the superintendent and his staff regarded television as an aid to education,

the

1957-58 enrollment

A

record total.

in

medical colleges reached 29.473. a

serious shortage of astronomers

Leo Goldberg, chairman of the department

was forecast by

of astronomy. Uni-

versity of Michigan.

Large sities

gifts

were made during the year

to colleges

and univer-

by various foundations, corporations and private donors.

The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable 000,000 to the University of Pittsburgh

to

trust gave S12.advance teaching and

research in the humanities, natural sciences and social sciences.

The Ford foundation announced

in April a grant of Si 1.444,010,

would go to nine higher institutions to attempt "a breakthrough in teacher education" that is, new programs combining liberal education with a teaching internship in place of courses in methods of teaching. Henry Krumb, a former trustee, left Columbia university more than $6,000,000 to help its engineering program. An anon>Tnous donor presented Har^'ard of which $9,161,210

The United States number of develop "new frontiers of

university with $2,000,000 for scholarships. Steel foundation divided $2,350,000

colleges to aid higher education

basic knowledge."

On

Sept.

i,

and

among

to

a large

the Council for Financial Aid to

Education reported that business and industry had given $136,000.000 to higher institutions, a 23.5%

rise

over the amount

given in 1956.

A plan

w^as offered

by Beardsley Ruml

in the

book.

Memo

to a

College Trustee to provide for the doubling of faculty salaries,

by reducing

the

number

of college courses, raising the student-

professor ratio and setting aside the tuition fees for salaries.

This plan was widely discussed, but some university adminisan attempt to make the public believe that was not a critical problem in higher education. The National Defense Education act of 1958 provided funds to students in colleges and universities in the form of loans and trators

saw

in it

financial support

CHICAGO TEACHERS MARCHING TO PROTEST

a $150 annual increase voted them by the board of education for 1959. About 6,000 teachers joined the January parade against what they termed an inadequate increase. With an additional $500 annual increase granted in September, Chicago was reported to have the highest pay scale of any major city in the U.S.. with a starting salary of $5,000 annually for a teacher with a bachelor's degree

some ia

Professorial salaries were increased appreciably in slitutions. In general, the picture of faculty

regarded as improved, but

still

compensation wai

not very favourable.

On

Oct. 19

announced an annual salary increas* of $1,000 for professors and of $500 for associate professors This was made possible in part by higher tuition fees. In Apri 1959 the American Association of University Professors releasee 1958, Princeton university

the results of a study of the salary schedules of 200 colleges ant universities,

the

A

in

which only Harvard university was placed

ii

category, for an average salary range of $5,450 for in

structors to $14,300 for full professors, as well as for

minimum

figures.

The average

salary in

hig]

its

these institutions

all

wa

$7,329 including fringe benefits. A total of 28 schools were grade* F or below. The office of education reported in June that tin

average salaries of

professors in private colleges and uni

full

went up 15.6%

versities

in

1958-59 over 1957-58, or fron

$7,360 to $8,510. In collegiate curriculum discussions during the year, scienc

played a significant

was

that there

a

role.

The

31%

college juniors majoring in

mathematics

with the year before. In

despite

in the biological

all,

and physical

in Jum number

education stated

office of

"sharp increase" of

in

much

the

in

1958-59 as compare*

slower rates of progres

sciences, the total percentage

junior year majors in mathematics and the sciences was 10.4?

more than during 1957-58.

Among

the

many

significant events in higher education durin,

Am

the year were the following: the experiment introduced at

herst college granting "leaves of absence" of a year to student

not performing to their

full

capacity in academic ability; tb

The

reorganization of the undergraduate college of of Chicago

course;

from the two-year plan

the revelation

that

the

to

Universit;

the original four-yea

California Institute of

i%-2%

nology, which selected freshmen from the top

high school graduates of the country, lost

20%

of

its

Ted

of th

freshma

each year; the results of a Harvard study in Dec. 195 indicating that it was not at all necessary for premedical student class

to concentrate

on such subjects as chemistry, biology and

bic

chemistry in their undergraduate work; the increase of educj courses

television

tional

by various

offered

institutions

i

language, literature, the social sciences and physics; the stud

LEARNING WITH GAMES

of

Roma

Is

nooga, Tenn., learned in

Saint Elmo elementary by playing hopscotch In a

1959

grants, but also required of

or membership

in,

them an

affida\at disclaiming belief

or support of, subversive organizations. This

provision was accepted by

some

institutions, while others raised

objections and refused to undertake this program. institutions

Harvard

in

latter

Among

the

category were Princeton, Yale and

universities, the University of

herst college. tional

the

The Association

Education association

for

Pennsylvania and

Am-

Higher Education of the Na-

at its 14th national conference in

March, passed a resolution urging an amendment to section looi (f of the National Defense Education act to discontinue )

the requirement of a disclaimer oath.

Robert E.

Iffert, specialist for

in the office of education,

faculty and student services

pointed out that from

50%

to

60%

who had been accepted by institutions of higher education but who had failed to enroll were forced away beof the students

A

report by the office of education in July had increased 33.5% during the preceding four years, and that it was expected to go up by the same percentage in the succeeding four years. During 1958-59 tuition in these institutions rose 8.8% from the figure for the preceding

cause^of high tuition.

disclosed that tuition

year. Student fees in the private colleges

up 10.1%

218

in the year,

and

34%

Dec. 1958 that the equivalent of free public junior colleges woul be desirable in an effort to extend the American education) system; the appeal by a committee of the American Council

Education

and universities went

over a four-year period.

in

March 1959

among

for unity

the colleges and un

and small, public and private; the decision b the board of higher education of New York city to admit out-ol town students "to the city colleges; the first conferment of grac uate degrees by the Rockefeller institute, formerly the Rocki

versities, large

feller Institute for

in

Tuition costs in colleges and universities rose during 195859.

by Hans Rosenhaupt of the Woodrow Wilson National Fellow ship foundation showing the critical shortage of college teachei with doctorates, and pleading for the "financial support of grac uate study"; the suggestion by Pres. D wight D. Eisenhower i

November by

of the

Medical Research; and the recommendatio

the Council on Medical Education and Hospital

American Medical association that medical

colleges expan

their facilities in order to provide adequate medical resourc*

for the growing population.

The Teacher Situation. tion's

1

—The

National Education

2th annual teacher supply and

in April, predicted a net shortage of

teachers, but also stated that there

demand

associi

report, publishe

135,000 elementary scbo(

would be more science an

mathematics teachers. The report anticipated an increase c 4.8% in new elementary teachers, of 13.2% in new secondar teachers, 27.7% in new science teachers and 32.1% in ne'

mathematics teachers. According to the director of this surve; Ray C. Maul, "The 1957 sputnik scare is less a factor in th

EDUC ATION math

boost in the science and

fields

than an aggressive campaign

by teachers and counselors over the last five years to bolster heavy losses in teachers of these two subjects between 1950 and

219

schools was unconstitutional.

department started

study to find out

parochial school enrollments were

The Ford foundation granted $9,161,210 to nine higher instiimprove teacher-training programs. In June, the sec-

tutions to

the past ten years.

Teacher Education and Professional Standards of the National Education association, proposed a number of reforms

tional

including the extension of the college training

The members

teachers to five years.

work

of future

of the conference agreed

that all students, without regard to their future professional

should have a firm grounding in the liberal arts while

interests,

in college.

The experiment

in television to

provide an advanced course

atomic-age physics for high school teachers of science was

adjudged a success by

sponsor, the American Association of

its

Colleges for Teacher Education at the conclusion of a survey of teachers. In

November, a report by a co-operative project and the public schools of Fairfield, Conn.,

communities with large

more

likely than others

to

survey by the American Association for Jewish Education disclosed in June that attendance in Jewish religious schools of all types had risen 131% during

ond annual conference of liberal arts professors and professors of education, held under the auspices of the National Commission on

if

state education

A

defeat public school budgets.

I9S5-"

in

a

The New York

—

and Crime. The social and educaproblem of delinquent and criminal action by children and

Juvenile Delinquency

youths continued to plague the nation during 1958-59.

Bills

were introduced into congress to aid the states to combat juvenile delinquency and to set up a youth conservation corps under federal auspices to give unemployed young persons healthy, constructive work in outdoor camps. The latter measure, proposed by Sen. Hubert H. Humphrey, was passed by the senate on Aug. 13 by a vote of 47-45, but it was still in the house educa-

and labour committee by the time congress adjourned. The Race Problem.— As of Oct. 1959, according to a survey by the Southern Education Reporting service, there were 762 integrated school districts among 2.880 biracial districts in 17 tion

A

of Yale university

southern states and the District of Columbia.

revealed that the use of teacher aides in the classroom could

Negro children were attending elementary and secondary schools with 2,486,988 white children in what were described as "integrated situations." This meant that one out of every six Negro children attending a Southern school was in a desegregated atmosphere, although only about 211,000 Negroes were in the

help instruction

if

the basic aim of this practice

to relieve the

is

teacher of his routine tasks.

Adult Education.

—A study by the

education showed

forms of adult education, mainly

participating in various

courses in civic

office of

approximately 9,000,000 Americans were

that, as of Oct. 1957,

and public

affairs.

In June, 1959 the

Fund

in

for

same

classes with white pupils.

in biracial classes

were enrolled

total of 518,357

More than

half of the Negroes

in schools

located in Maryland

Adult Education, an independent group set up by the Ford

and the District of Columbia,

foundation in 1951, launched a national campaign to increase educational opportunities for leaders and potential leaders in

1958 a total of 402,402 Negro children were going to school in integrated situations, and there was still complete segregation

public

in

life.

—

Acadennic Freedom. The court of appeals of the state of New York upheld in May the decision by the commissioner of education who had forbidden the dismissal of New York city teachers for having refused to testify on the past Communist activities of colleagues.

In June, the

New

Jersey commissioner

of education supported the dismissal of a high school teacher in

Newark

nist

answer questions on alleged

for refusing to

Commu-

party membership put to him by his superintendent of

schools.

The American Association

University Professors

of

would furnish funds and help to find new positions for four professors dismissed from the University of Arkansas for having refused to comply with a new state law requiring a list of all organizations to which they (A.A.U.P.) announced in August that

it

belonged or contributed during the past five years. Earlier, in April,

the A.A.U.P.

university

censured

(Nashville, Tenn.)

New York

university and Fisk

for violating

academic freedom

removed the University of Nevada, Ohio State university, West Chester (Pa.) State Teachers college and the University of Michigan from the list of censured or professorial tenure, and

institutions.

Church and State

in

Education.

—The voters

of California

defeated in the Nov. 1958 elections an amendment to reinstate a property tax on private and parochial schools. In Dec. 1958 the

New York supreme

school board

court refused to prevent the Ossining

from displaying the Nativity scene on the high

school grounds. In Aug. 1959 it upheld the constitutionality of the noncompulsory, nondenominational prayers in the public schools of the Herricks school district.

On May

25, the

Maine

supreme court overturned Augusta's law permitting public transportation for parochial school pupils, while on the following day the

New

children

Canaan, Conn., school board voted to allow parochial

who paid

fares to ride on public school buses.

A

federal

Philadelphia ruled in September that a state law requiring Bible reading and the Lord's Prayer in the public district court in

It is

worthy of note that

in Oct.

Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and South Carolina. During 1959, the process of school integration began in Virginia and Florida. Pubhc higher education was still segregated in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi and South Carolina. There were

some

signs that

tion

were

of the southern strongholds of school segrega-

but at the were prepared

to be subjected to a siege in the courts,

same time,

it

was

clear that the segregationists

to maintain separate schools

by court actions and by

legisla-

tion.

The matter

was also of significance. As by the American Friends Service

of violent resistance

a report issued in the spring

FIFTH GRADE STUDENTS USING TYPEWRITERS In an elementary school New Rochelle, N.Y., in 1959. Three university organizations were seeking determine the usefulness fifth grade levels

of the

at to

typewriter (or classroom work at the fourth and

— 220

E

D U C A TiON

committee, the National Council of Churches and the Southern Regional council disclosed, there were 530 incidents of arson,

bombing and other forms from

U.S. supreme court decision on

first

school integration, until 1958. In general, the process of integration, while slowing

or so, was

and intimidation

of violence, reprisal

the date of the

i()54,

was evident that

it

down

year

in the last

going on and would continue in the face of op-

still

position and pressure.

Roman

Church

made

Catholic bishops of the U.S. separately

Charlottesville,

Edward county, however,

Front Royal and

closed

all its

Norfolk.

Prince

public schools "with pro-

found regret." However, in September there were private schools for 1,500 white children in churches, civic buildings, stores and clubrooms, while no provisions at all were made for the county's

Negro

1,750

pupils.

A

federal district court on Sept. 10 ordered

the admission of Negroes to three high schools in Floyd county in

In Nov. 1958, the council of bishops of the Methodist

and the

Arlington,

southwest Virginia, the

first

such decision affecting that part

of the state.

National and international attention continued to be con-

On Nov.

appeals for the integration of the public schools. Also in No-

centrated on Little Rock, Ark., during the year.

vember, 250 faculty members of Emory university, Atlanta, Ga., appealed to the south to keep the public schools open. A survey concluded by the Southern Regional council in Aug. 1959 ques-

1958, the U.S. court of appeals for the eighth circuit ordered grate the public high schools which had been closed to avoid

tioned the legality of closing public schools and paying public

compliance with the U.S. supreme court decisions. In

funds for tuition S.

in private

white schools. In January, Arthur

Flemming, secretary of the U.S. department of health, edu-

cation and welfare, announced that public schools which had

been transformed into private institutions in order to maintain segregation would receive no federal money under the provisions of the National Defense Education act.

The U.S. supreme court handed down two Alabama

1958, upheld an

decisions on the

The

segregation issue during the year under review. stated that the state's pupil placement law

Nov. which

first, in

federal district court's decision

was constitutional

the Little

Rock

jo,

school board to take "affirmative steps" to inte-

May

1959,

removed 44 teachers Rock recalled the school

after the pro-segregationist school board

and principals, the citizens of Little board and elected a new one more favourably disposed to opening the public high schools. The Committee to Stop the Outrageous Purge (S.T.O.P.) led the battle to defeat the Committee to Retain Our Segregated Schools (C.R.O.S.S.). Gov. Orval E. Faubus of Arkansas did not change his policy of total resistance to all efforts at integration. Public sentiment was in favour of public high schools, and the privately supported T. J. Raney high school in Little

Rock had

to be closed for lack of funds.

a basis of individual merit with-

In August the Central and Hall high schools reopened, with

race or color." On Oct. 12, 1959, the court out regard to refused to review decisions which afi&nned the school place-

two and three Negro students respectively, as integrated institutions in the midst of some tension and a little violence. Even the three djoiamite explosions in Little Rock on Sept. 7, 1959,

provided

it

was .

apjplied .

"upon

.

ment law of North Carolina, and also turned down an appeal by Prince Edward county, Va., for additional time to desegreNegroes were elected in Nov. 1958 to the school boards of Houston, Tex., and Louisville, Ky., for the first time in the history of these

cities.

Negro scholar first

as

The University

chairman of

such instance

at a

its

of Louisville appointed a

department of sociology, the

southern integrated university.

enrollment in the Louisiana State university, in

failed to stop the process of integration in the city.

In

gate.

New

The Negro

Orleans, rose

one year (1958) from 78 in a student body of 1,450 to 417 in On the elementary and secondary level, New Orleans

2,200.

officials

were ordered by a federal

plan of school desegregation by

Memphis

State university admitted

court to submit a

district

March

i960. In Tennessee,

i,

its first

Negro students

in

New York

city, a

boycott by Negro parents in the Harlem

what they termed inferior school conup of tutoring classes in a church. An effort by the New York city school board to transfer 350 Negro and Puerto Rican pupils from overcrowded Brooklyn section in protest against

ditions resulted in the setting

away

schools to Queens schools three miles

led to angry protests

and a parental boycott. International Educational Relations. The annual census by the Institute of International Education showed that 47.245 students from 131 foreign nations and areas were enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities during 1958-59, an increase of almost 4,000 from the previous year; and 10,213 U.S. students

—

1957-58, a decrease of

during

Sept. 1959, while the Nashville schools reported the satisfac-

attended foreign

tory conclusion of two years of "stairstep" integration

(one

2,600 from 1956-57. At the tenth general conference of the

schools of Delaware began

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO) during Nov.-Dec. 1958 in Paris, a new director

new grade per on Sept. 9

A

year).

The elementary

to integrate according to the "stairstep" plan.

decision

by

a federal district court in

January enjoined

Georgia State college from barring Negroes on the basis of race, but the state reacted at once by suspending acceptance of new applications in

its

19 colleges. In July, the court ordered the

Atlanta school board to prepare a plan for desegregation by

Dec.

I.

In the meantime, a group of citizens formed a

new

or-

Help Our Public Education (H.O.P.E.), with the motto, "public schools under any circumstance," to prevent the

ganization,

closing of schools to circumvent integration.

Jan. 19, 1959,

segregation

when

was a key date in the Virginia struggle over the state supreme court ruled that the state

laws of "massive resistance" to desegregation

—school

closings,

private tuition grants and fund cutoffs from integrated schools violated art. 129 of the state constitution. eral district court

some

The same day, a

fed-

handed down a decision that the closing of

public schools to prevent integration constituted a viola-

tion of the 14th

amendment

by Gov.

to the U.S. constitution. In spite

Lindsay Almond,

and others favouring the continuation of the segregation policy, a limited form of integration took place in the pubUc schools of Alexandria, of efforts

J.

Jr.,

universities

general, Vittorino Veronese of Italy,

was inaugurated.

UNESCO

voted a budget of $25,907,463 for the years 1959 and i960, the highest budget in its history, and received a mandate from the 81 member nations to concentrate on such priority needs as the elimination of world illiteracy. significance of three in Latin

major projects

The

delegates reaffirmed the

—the expansion

America, the application of

of education

scientific research

to the

problem of arid lands and the promotion of the mutual appreciation of the cultural values of the east and west. UNESCO published during the year the second volume of its World Survey of Education, dealing with primary education, and concluded that nearly half of the world's children did not attend school

often because of the lack of school

facilities.

Another

UNESCO

80%6o%-65%; North and South America, 20%-2i%; and Europe, 7%-9%. World Developments. The International Labour organizareport estimated world illiteracy at

85%;

43^-45%

:

Africa,

Asia,

—

tion revealed that the world-wide teacher shortage

had become

more acute and was not confined to any particular area. Another world educational problem was juvenile delinquency, which

EDUCATION reared

head

its

221

France,

in

Denmark, the Nether-

Italy,

the

lands,

U.S.S.R.,

Japan,

the United States and in

many

other countries on every con-

In most areas, strong

tinent.

measures were undertaken to alleviate the problem.

Great

In

Britain,

O.xford

Cambridge universities voted to remove the compuland

sory

requirement

Latin

reversed

Dec.

for

but Oxford later

admission,

its

On

decision.

1958, the ministry of

3,

announced in a White Paper, "Secondary Education for All," a plan for education

spending

$1,120,000,000

build and

to

improve schools for

a five-year period starting in

ANGRY STUDENT FACING SCHOOL PRINCIPAL

i960.

Educational events in France included strikes by Paris students and professors for a

more

flexible school

Roman

more government

aid, the

adoption of

reform, the granting of emergency funds

Catholic schools and the inauguration of the

fall term was concerned with reducing delinquency, debates on the values of Latin and

to

two weeks

earlier

ousting of the

Communists

in July.

In Communist China, more

educational law in Bel-

and more children were put into boarding schools located in the new system of communes. Japan's most spectacular problem was the bitter battle between the Japan Teachers' union and the

right of parents to request state-subsidized

ministry of education over the question of the rating of teachers.

on Sept.

15.

Education

considerations of school reform.

gium recognized the

(second from right) who paddled the boy (and others shown at right) as a disciplinary measure. The boys, supported by parents (left), sought to have the principal arrested. After hearing the arguments in his chambers, a Memphis, Tenn., judge (lower left) refused to issue a warrant, and the school superintendent (far right) also supported the principal's actions

A new

in Italy

church schools. In West Germany, higher educational attend-

The South Korean government banned separate

ance rose by 18.4% to 186.000.

discriminatory

The new school plan

of Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev of the combine industrial work with study in the secondary school, was endorsed by the supreme soviet in Dec. 1958. This program, which changed the primary Soviet school system from seven to eight years, was inaugurated on Sept. i, 1959. Another change was the decree on the decentralization of higher education issued in June. All universities and specialized high schools would henceforth be under newly established ministries U.S.S.R., to

of higher education in each of the

15

Soviet republics.

The

treatment

children

for

schools

mixed,

of

and

generally

American-Korean, blood.

down three Roman Catholic schools in January improper teaching of Arab history, Egypt returned the schools to their owners the following month. The Sudan government closed down the Sudanese Workers' Educational association, founded in 1957 with UNESCO and other international After closing

for alleged

help.

In Latin America, Mexico started a campaign to enroll

its

The Castro

re-

entire school population in classes on Feb.

Cuba

i.

resulted in the reopening of the University of

union ministry of higher education became the ministry of higher

volt in

and special high school education, and was concerned with

search, defining standards, co-ordinating plans for textbooks, etc.,

Havana, after being closed 2+ years, and a plan to inculcate in education the revolutionary ideals from the kindergarten to uni-

while the republic ministries would perform

versity.

all

re-

other functions.

In March, the Soviet government called upon the

Communist

party to "inculcate in pupils, students and youths stable habits for the

preservation of discipline and rules of behavior" in

schools, at

home and on

the streets in order to prevent juvenile

delinquency and crime. Another problem was the rising opposi-

rise in tuition fees

salaries.

Canada.

Kazakhistan Republic to the expansion of the Russian-

tion in

language schools in the area.

first

Germany once more made

foreign language in

its

schools,

and announced its inability to fill the universities, technical colleges and vocational schools in the fall. Under new laws similar

new

oslovakia,

Soviet program, the high school students of Czech-

Hungary and Bulgaria were required

to

combine

productive labour with their studies. In Oct. 1958, a Bulgarian newspaper charged that the school teachers were sabotaging the

communist indoctrination of the youth of Bulgaria. Rumania reported the elimination of illiteracy, increase of student population and improvement of school facilities since 1948. process of the

Educational problems in India included school strikes and

Kerala state in protest against the Communist government's school law, an issue which seemed to be settled by the riots in

of Toronto, Can., approved in all

because of increased costs for higher faculty (W. W. Bn.)

— Figures

released

by the dominion bureau of

sta-

May

1959 showed an over-all enrollment in 1957-58 in elementary and secondary schools of approximately 3,600,000, tistics in

In the satellite countries. East

Russian compulsory as the

to the

Nov. 195S a honour students in the province of Ontario. In March 1959 this university announced a 10%

The University

proposal to give free tuition to

of which about 43,000 pupils were in Indian, fense department schools operated

The number

of teachers rose

by the

from 130,000

138,000 in 1957-58, roughly one

new

Eskimo and

de-

federal government. in

1956-57 to about

teacher to everj' 25 addi-

tional pupils.

University enrollment of full-time students, as of Dec. 1958,

was estimated by the dominion bureau of statistics at 94,000, an increase of 9.1% over Dec. 1957. Developments during the year 1959 were mainly on a provincial rather than a national level. In Manitoba the publication of the Interim Report of a royal commission which had been carrying out a comprehensive survey of the educational system of

that province led,

in

Nov. 1958, to

legislation involving

EDUCATION, RE LIGIOUS — EGGS

222

major reorganization of the structure of

local

administration

of education. It provided for the formation of 46 large units of administration, to be

known

These

as school divisions.

divi-

sions differed from large administrative units in other provinces in that

they were to be responsible only for the operation and

administration of secondary schools. Elementary schools were to

remain under the jurisdiction of local school

made

each division. The legislation

districts within

possible the establishment

in rural areas of large centralized high schools to

Education, Religious: see Religious Education. Education, U.S. Office of: see Education.

which students

Chicken egg production for the U.S. through Sept. 1955

rffffC

^ob"" was

47,391,000,000 eggs, as compared with 45,671,000,-

000 for the first nine months of 1958, and 14% above average; it was indicated that the total for the year might be a new record.

Though

layer

numbers

level.

secondary education. Seven large urban

tential laying flock for

though

re-

named divisions, continued to function The administrative structure of the

provincial departments

New

Brunswick and Nova

of education Scotia,

was reorganized

in

giving greater responsibility

directors

of

branches

(departmental divisions) and reducing the administrative detail formerly handled by the deputy minister. In

new

New

Brunswick

body known as the board of education which, for 112 years, had been the major administrative organization supervising educational policy in the province, was dissolved. Authority for action in educational matters was vested in the lieutenant governor in council and the minister of education; legislation was a

chickens raised on farms for laying flock replacement diminished

compared with 432,000,000 in 1958; the po1959-60 was about 4% smaller than a

to 401,000,000 as

Egg

prices in late spring

time lows of

less

and early summer reached new

long-

than 25 cents per dozen to producers, and

September prices averaged only 32.8 cents per dozen to

Consumption was only slightly responsive to stepped-up eg{ promotion and lower farm prices; 1959 use per capita was 354 eggs as compared with 349 in 1958, but only 92% as high as th« average 3S5 consumed

in

1947-49.

A

controlled quality egg grad-

ing program was inaugurated in September, involving govern-

ment

certification of production

and marketing under

specified

controlled conditions, such eggs to bear the label U.S. Grade

with the minister and deputy minister of education as chairman

or Fresh

and secretary, and including from 15 to 25 other members appointed by the lieutenant governor. The most noteworthy development of the year was a widespread extension of provincial schemes providing scholarships, bursaries and loans for students at both the university and secondary school levels. British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Newfoundland all either introduced new plans or substantially widened the coverage of existing ones. largest of the

new schemes was

that authorized in

Quebec

early in 1959, which provided a $10,000,000 scholarship fund to assist

needy students attending universities and specialized

schools in the province, and those pursuing advanced studies in foreign countries;

a portion of each scholarship w'ould con-

stitute a loan to be repaid after the student

The

legislation

was the

first

completed

to regulate formally the

Quebec

The National Conference of Canadian

Universities

(N.C.-

of federal grants to universities (about $25,000,000 annually),

was reorganized. Originally designed

as a

forum

for the expres-

sion of academic opinion, the N.C.C.U. reconstituted itself into:

body more money and for

(i) the Canadian Universities foundation, a small

appropriate for the handling of large sums of

other administrative functions; and (2) the National Confer-

ence of Canadian Universities and Colleges, which continued the earlier function of the conference.

Following a practice established by the U.S. National commission for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization

(UNESCO) more

than ten years

earlier, the

Canadian National commission held its first biennial national conference on UNESCO in Montreal in March. (F. K. S.) See also Blind, Education of the; Census Data, U.S.;

Child Welfare; Home Economics; Libraries; Motion Pictures; Religious Education; Scholarships and Student Am. For statistics of institutions see Universities and Colleges

;

see also under various states

and countries.

—

Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Bring the World to the Classroom (i9j8); Horace Mann (1951); Making Films That Teach (1954); Mental Health (Keeping Mentally Fit) (1952); New Tools for Learning (1952); Democracy in the Classroom (1953); Schoolhouse in the Red (•949); Using the Classroom Film (194s); Why Vandalism? (1955).

Practicing

Egg production

in

30 major producing countries from nearly

1,500,000,000 chickens reached a eggs in 195S,

2%

new high

of 152,000,000.00c

above 1957. World trade was indicated as hav-

ing exceeded 600,000,000 dozen.

Canada

in

under which

October replaced the egg purchase support program a large surplus

had been acquired, with a

deficiency

payment scheme under which each farmer who sells eggs througl official grading stations would in essence receive returns on the basis of 44 cents a dozen for Grade A Large eggs delivered tc Montreal, but would be limited in such support to a maximum of 4,000 doz. of qualifying grade in

any 12-month period.

The United Kingdom, with production up 50%

in the last foul

years, faced a glut costing £30,000,000 per year in subsidies,

"HUMPTY dumpty," Star (Tui

C.U.), which in 1956 assumed responsibility for the distribution

A^

Fancy Quality.

his studies.

scholarship system.

pro-

ducers as compared with 41.8 cents a year earlier.

passed which authorized the setting-up of an advisory council

The

th«

record

year earlier and included a larger percentage of older hens.

as before.

to

September of 294,061,000 were

Culling of flocks was heavy as the egg price declined;

would be transported; previously the province was divided into numerous school districts varying greatly in size (and fmancial resources) with each being responsible for both elementary and districts,

in

lowest since 1941, the rate of lay per hen was at a

ii

EGYPT — EISENHOWER I

spite of three successive cuts in the

]

maximum amount

223

guaranteed price by the

permissible.

(J.

K. R.)

I

Egypt:

Middle Eastern Atfairs United Arab Republic.

see

;

Eire: see Ireland, Republic of.

Eisenhower, Dwigtit

V,;,X.„A£.lTtZi moved

Denison, Tex., Oct. 14; his parents

to Abilene, Kan.,

when he was a year old. He w-as graduated from the U.S. Military academy at West Point, N.Y., in 1915 {see also his biography in EncydopcBdia Britamiica) In June 1942 during World War II he was made Allied commander of the European theatre of operations and headed the invasions of north Africa and western Europe that led to the defeat of Italy and Germany.

j

'

!

.

j

After serving as chief of staff at the war's end, he resigned from active service on Feb. 7, 1948, to become president of Columbia university. He was recalled to active duty in Dec. 1950 as head of the North Atlantic Treaty forces in Europe.

'

j

He

resigned that post as of June

1952, to campaign for the

i,

I

He was nominated

Republican presidential nomination.

I

II and, with his running fornia, elected

on Nov.

on Nov.

on July mate. Sen. Richard M. Nixon of Cali-

4.

He was

Nixon

re-elected along with

An

President Eisenhower took a far greater interest and role in

!

political,

DWIGHT

1956.

6,

AND TWO

OF THE GUESTS he entertained PRES. D. EISENHOWER at a stag dinner in London, Sept. 1, 1959. At left, former British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill; at rear, Field Marshal Viscount Montflomery

congressional and foreign affairs in 1959. Abandoning

extremely important piece of legislation was the labour

reform

bill,

designed to check on the use of union funds and

to democratize these organizations. Presidential pressure forced

I

his earlier attitude of aloofness,

I

he engaged

in several

ous exchanges with the Democratic opposition.

[

White House door more frequently urged them to work hard for victory

I

acrimoni-

He opened

the

Republican leaders and

to

in the

a coalition of Republicans and southern

Democrats

to enact a

stronger measure than the Democratic leadership and labour leaders preferred.

In his review, Eisenhower expressed regret over the foreign

i960 elections.

I

He

!

consulted .-Mlied statesmen in Bonn, Paris and London, and

welcomed Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet premier, House, promising to return the visits

in

December

to

the

visit in

capitals

of

i960.

He

to the

White

also planned

Afghanistan,

many

foreign dignitaries

from almost

and

and

bill,

the lack of agricul-

failure to increase postal rates

on

first-class

reduce the postal deficit by $350,000,000.

air mail so as to

He

reserved his principal criticism for the refusal to remove

He

the

4.25%

ever>' friendly

ties.

He

ceiling

on interest

rates

described this statutory

made

on long-term federal securi-

maximum

as a

"major domestic

or neutral nation. In short, he took charge of the Republican

problem" because

party as he had not done before and assumed leadership of the

noninflationary borrowings except at an extremely high interest

iwestern bloc in the "cold war." I

tural legislation

France,

Greece, India, Iran, Italy, Morocco, Pakistan and Turkey. entertained

aid cut, passage of the "pork barrel"

legislation,

served him well in his dealings with an overwhelm-

Democratic congress. Although expressing some disappointment when the legislators recessed in September, he said that "by and large a great deal of good has been accomplished." He

lingly

was aided by the 1958-59 economic recovery, which blunted the liberal Democrats' demand for huge governmental expenditures. Obviously concerned over the veto threats, the RaybumJohnson leadership in congress pursued a cautious course. Al-

it

difficult for the

treasury to obtain

rate.

Eisenhower's increased participation in political and congres-

His aggressiveness, including threats of vetoes on unwanted

I

it

from the departure in 195S of Sherman Adams from the White House. As presidential chief of

sional matters derived, in part,

staff,

Adams had handled

all

party and political problems. An-

"new Eisenhower" was Former Sen. William F. Knowland was supplanted in the upper chamber by Sen. Everett McKinley Dirksen, and Rep. Joseph W. Martin, Jr., gave way to Rep, Charles A, Halleck in the house. As more

other factor in creating the image of a

the change of Republican leadership in house and senate.

and hard-riding

politicians, they

persuaded the presi-

though the $81,975,368,352 appropriation was the largest in peacetime, it was $1,881,000,000 below the budget bureau's re-

practical

reduction was $1,197,706,000 for mutual which the president deplored but accepted. A public works bill, the so-called pork barrel measure, was passed over his veto, the first time he had suffered an overriding. Other-

status.

wise, he fared rather well.

him almost a free hand in that field. But when Christian A. Herter succeeded Dulles, Herter's comparative lack of background imposed new responsibilities upon

quests.

The

hea\'iest

dent to show more concern for the party's current and future In a similar manner, the death in April of John Foster Dulles,

security funds,

Congress provided for a $1,000,000,000 housing program after two vetoes forced a $375,000,000 reduction. It extended the life of the civil rights

commission for two years and agreed to constronger proposals on this question

sider the administration's at the

i960 session.

It

extended the military draft for four years.

Congress compromised on a one-cent increase in the gasoline tax to finance highway construction, as against the 1.5-cent boost

wanted by the White House. It passed bills revising price supjports and acreage allotments for wheat and tobacco, but made no attempt to override a presidential veto. In a bipartisan acition,

congress granted statehood to Hawaii.

secretary of state, forced Eisenhower to devote himself to the foreign scene. In view of Dulles' long experience as a diplomat, the president had permitted

the president.

The change was most marked in relations with the U.S.S.R. Whereas Dulles' attitude had been condemned as "too rigid" in the United States and Europe, Eisenhower decided to try to improve Soviet relations. Other pressures contributed to an attempt

rapprochement between the two nations. first was the statement on Nov. 15, 1958, by Khrushchev that "the time has come to end the [western] regime in Berlin."

at

The

The Soviet premier

fixed six

months

as the time limit for

mak-

ELECTIO NS,

224

U.S.

Germany, which might have made untenable continued Allied occupation of West Berlin. When a foreign ministers' conference at Geneva in the spring and summer failed to solve the question, Eisenhower took direct action. the White House announced that the president had On Aug. invited Khrushchev to the United States. Eisenhower took cognizance of widespread opposition by saying that "any president who refused flatly to use the last atom of prestige or the last ought to be conatom of his energy in the quest for peace demned by the American people." At the end of July Eisenhower visited West Germany, France and England to assure allied leaders that he would make no agreement with Khrushchev detrimental to their national interests. His tour was described in the European press as a "triumph," in view of the large and friendly crowds which turned out to greet him. The British press referred to him as "Uncle Ike" and the newspaper Le Monde of Paris said: "One likes this great and simple man." Eisenhower wound up his trip by spend-

year, an Oct. 31

ing several days with the British royal family at Castle Balmoral.

rays of hope in the 1959 voting that their party might be on the

ing a separate treaty with East

,?

.

.

.

Khrushchev arrived on Sept. 15 and was welcomed in a manner by the president. Their exchanges

checkup at Walter Reed hospital showed that he However, he looked well, carried a heavy work load and played golf regularly. He attended the opening of the new St. Lawrence seaway in company with Queen Elizabeth II of England in June and paid an oflTicial visit to Mexico City. He made a two-day trip to Abilene, his boyhood home, in early October to dedicate the Eisenhower Memorial library. Although he took no extended vacation, he spent ten days at his Gettysburg, Pa., farm in July, a week at Palm Springs, Calif., in early October and five days at the Atlanta National Golf club in late October. He also spent numerous weekends at Gettysburg and Camp David, enjoying leisure hours at bridge and golf. See also Elections, U.S.; Political Parties, U.S.; United suffered from "mild but chronic bronchitis."

States.

rinnt'n

need

to ease tensions so as to pre-

comeback

"It would be sheer madness," said Khrushchev, "to allow a to

come

to a head.

War must

be averted, and peace

must be assured." "This is one thing," commented Eisenhower, "that he does agree with us fully the fact that there is room for a lot of misunderstanding and a lot of miscalculation which could be .

.

110

Struggling back from their smashing defeats

U.w.

in

1958 elections. Republicans found some

trail.

In Hawaii's

first state election,

July 28, 1959, the Republican offices, and regained control

party captured three of five major

of the state senate which had been Democratic in the last ter-

vent misunderstandings that might lead to war.

new war

»»

LlbLllUllo,

friendly but formal

reflected their feelings on the

(R. Tu.;

ritorial

regime. Although he had been cast in an underdog

role.

Republican William F. Quinn won the governorship over Democrat John \. Burns. Quinn's running mate, James K. Kealoha, was an overwhelming victor in the lieutenant governor race.

Democrats won two of the

.

They

state's three seats in congress.

also kept control of the state's house of representatives by

a 33-18 margin. Republicans controlled the senate, 13-12.

ver>' serious."

After a hurried tour of the United States. Khrushchev con-

In Connecticut, where they lost heavily in the 1958 elections,

weekend at Camp David, Md. Their subsequent communique showed no settlement of basic differences, but it relieved the immediate threat to Berlin and

nonpartisan election, Republicans

the allied occupation. It resulted in an agreement for a confer-

Democrats

ence of the western powers in Paris on Dec. 19 preparatory' to a summit meeting with Khrushchev early in i960. It also had

and

ferred with the president for a

Republicans

in

1959 took 15 towns away from Democrats while

had controlled, for a net gain of

losing nine they

the state's

six.

With one

and the However, Democrats gained or retained control of five largest cities, taking over Waterbury, Stamford carried

86

towTis

40.

Fairfield

from the Republicans. The Republicans,

in turn,

welcom-

defeated the Democrats in Meriden and took Norwalk away

sincere in

from an independent incumbent. In upstate New York. Republicans regained control of a ma-

Eisenhower had hardly disposed of the foreign crisis when he was confronted by difficulties on the labour front. The United Steel Workers' union had struck major plants on July 15, and

jority of the 45 city administrations involved in contests with

negotiations for settlement collapsed in October. In that

In New Jersey, where their losses had been large in 1958. the Republicans turned back a Democratic bid for control of the

certain intangible benefits, for the Soviet premier told

ing crowds in

Moscow

that "President Eisenhower

is

his efforts for peace."

same month, the International Longshoremen's association called a strike on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, paralyzing shipping for a few days. Eisenhower refused to intervene, insisting that such disputes be settled by collective bargaining under the Taftact. The longshoremen returned to work within a fewdays when the president invoked that law, but he did not apply for an injunction against the steel workers until late in October, when the walkout was cited as threatening general welfare and

Hartley

the opposition party.

They ousted nine Democratic mayors

would have permitted Gov. Robert B. Me>'ner Democratic presidential nomination, or for the U.S. senate seat held by Republican Sen. Clifford P. Case.

state senate v^hich

to prospect for the

If

Meyner chose

to resign to accept another nomination, the Re-

publican president of the state senate would succeed him as governor.

Elsewhere the local elections appeared to bear out the con-

national security. Eisenhower conceded that the Taft-Hartley

tention of the Democratic national chairman, Paul

which forces a return to work for only 80 days, pro\'ided no machinery for settling nationwide strikes amicably. But he

that the results

act,

expressed great reluctance to support legislation for compulsory

government inter\-ention. On Dec. 3 Eisenhower embarked on a 19-day, 22,000-mi. "peace and good will" tour of 1 1 countries, including Italy, Tur-

arbitration or

key, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India. Iran. Greece. Tunisia, France,

Spain and Morocco. In Paris he joined in talks with British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and French President Charles de Gaulle, regarding summit meetings, Germany and Berlin and various other mutual problems.

Although Eisenhower was variously described as in "good" and "excellent" health by White House spokesmen throughout the

while

losing six of their owti.

M.

Butler,

had reaffirmed the 1958 verdict and showed

his

party in healthy condition for the i960 political contests. Philadelphia's Democratic mayor, Richardson

DUworth,

de-

feated by a two-to-one margin the challenge of Harold E. Stassen.

Republican former governor of Minnesota and a former

member

of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration. Democrats elected state Sen. Joseph Barr. a political protege of Gov. David L. Lawrence, as mayor of Pittsburgh, Pa. Elsewhere in that state, they won 1 2 and the Republicans 1 1 mayoralty contests. In neighbouring Ohio, the municipal contests be-

tween the parties added up Celebrezze became the third

win a fourth term as mayor.

to a draw.

man

Democrat Anthony

J.

in the history of Cleveland to

:

—

:

-

ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES In Indiaiia. oote strons Republican added Fort Wayne ;-- I ---.^--- - -^ cky hall contiol in Three widdy se; :

-

-

~

-

-

-

In Saii L.ike Ciiy. L c-^ Lee. wfeo quiz tbe Reryj^icanj t" rjle-eievtio-

Xew Jersey voteis dedded against usng funds from the 5late"s

^

5

turned

:-.r:^

county hospitaL

political fillips.

the nisTOr

225

down an amendmait to the state constibitian to illci-x New Yoik dry to borrow $500,000,000 for its sdjools. Chicago and Co(A county voteis rolled op big maxgins for $75.fco.ooo in bond issaes for dty improvement and the Cook

territor>-.

mpi^e

'

to help financially struggling

cMnmoter

railroads.

.cky vtKers opposed a state veterans bonus to be financed tax. St. Louis, dty and county, defeated a metro-

;"

~ct government plan.

_-;

^..

ST.4TES iiate of thenrat

-•

f,

DEiiocR.*CY;

CosGBESS -^

-

Political Pakties, U.S.; Uxhed states. (J. L. Be.)

and under various

:

rjiTASSicA FlLiis. PtIUical Parties (1931): Presi;z); PressmreGnrnfi ixgsz); PuNicOpaufm Ii9i6'i.

-,

Bert T.

— over Re:

2long with

:r

bs" victory r

base

ntial

by

Sales of energy

Industries.

Electrical

ms

in the

electric utilities

United States rose

dur-

ic^-:

105a to 2 total of 026.oco.ooo.ooo kwJu-. This was in con-

with only a

trast

2%

growth

in igsS, the

anaOest increase in

a decade, which had resulted from a general decline in industrial actriity. ':•:

Industry was the largest user of electrical energy in

and 1959. In 1959 industry constnned 396.000.000.000 thi^ amount 307.occ.ooc.occ kwJir. was purchased electric utiUties. .Another S^.cco.000.000 fcwJir. was gen-

\h 1953 r

Of

:::dustrial plants

was

'

rtr

De

own

for their

use.

-

:

;

-^ =--

pur-

c«Hitrast,

195S

-*-;i?€d 3.7- to 794,000.000,000 kwJir. rther sources indudes that of power (Jants il

establishments, mines and railroads. It does

::!: of isolated plants in institutions, hotels,

amise-

—

—

ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES

226

included 17 major units, and construction was well under wa)

on

five of these units by the end of 1959. Although atomic generation received the major share of attention during 1959, there was evidence that conventional cnerg) sources (coal, oil and gasj would continue to supply electric power needs in the United States for many years.

Appliance Sales.

— Sales of

generally well above those of first

electrical appliances in 1959 wer(

1958. For example, during th«

seven months of 1959, manufacturers of refrigerators

sold

2,237,100 units, which was 26.8% above 1958 sales of 1,764,70c units.

Dishwasher

291,200 units in the

sales,

of 1959, were up 34.1%. During the

seven monthi

first

same period

sales of stand-

ard electric ranges were up 23.0% to 562,700 units; automatic Table

Generafing Capacity Shipmtnit

III.

IKIIowotls— units of 4,000 kw. and lorgerl

HEAT RESISTANT CERAMIC

developed by General Electric company In 1959 shown underoolng tests. Called "Lucalox," the new material remained rlflid while supporting a 50-oram weight (top) at a temperature of 2.350t> F., while a bar of fused quartz, with no additional weight, bent under the same heat. The new material was Intended for use in place of ordinary ceramics In electrical

7,826,100 471,800 830,300 9,128,200

Foreign Total

Source: Edison Electric Institute

fittings

1957

19S8

1959

11,982,800 1,453,900 819,700 14,256,400

16,219,475 216,125 1,397,800 17,833,400

12,418,622 141. 25C 1,707,55C 14,267,42J

1956 U.S. Electric power systems U.S. Industrials

(1956-1958

actual shipmenlij

1959 scheduled

ship,

ments).

To meet utilities

demand

this

To do

700.000,000,000 kw.hr. generating

of

systems)

capacity.

this

showed an extremely

As a

large

result, these sys-

11.

lev-el

(In billions

Other sources Net imports Total

(excess

of or

storage water heater production rose

margin

load growth experienced since

of kilowarf-hoursl

seven months of 1959 production of television This was 28.3% above the 2,443,929 units

sets totaled 3,133,075.

produced during the same period of 1958. See also Atomic Energy; Federal Power Commission; (Ar. Mo.) Public Utilities.

1957

1958

1959

631.4

644.8

706

79.3 3.3

4

727.4

790

1958 to 18,628,000 kw. The official forecast anticipated a further rise of 28.8% over the next four years to a net capacity

electric utilities placed

Thermal generation amounted to 14.8% of 14.1% in 1957, and was expected to rise sharply to 22.9% by 1962. Firm energy requirements in 1958 rose by only 1% to 87,173,000,000 kw.hr. A rise of 8%, however, was forecast for 1959 and one of 33.7% by 1962. No decisive progress was achieved toward realization of the two giant hydro power projects on the Hamilton river (Labrador) and on the Columbia river (British Columbia), the latter of which was contingent on conclusion of an international agreement between Canada and the United States. On the other hand. Peace River Power Development Company Ltd., a group representing Swedish, British and Canadian interests, announced plans to start, in the spring of i960, construction of its power project

4.1

4.5

84.3 3.7

633.1

689.4

719.4

80

1959. This added nearly

A study released about mid-1959 showed that were building or planning to build 361 new generating plants with a total capacity of nearly 42,000,000 kw. utilities

operated approximately

80%

of the nation's generating capacity. Ownership of the remaining

among

electric

84.2

utility systems.

power

and

to 498,600 units.

1956

utilities

divided

4.6%

600.7

14,000.000 kw. of generating capacity. Of this, 12,700,000 kw. was thermal, and the remainder hydro. In addition, 97 units whose operation was scheduled for i960 were being constructed, which would add another 11,000.000 kw. to the nation's electric

20% was

to 777,600 units

82.0

World War II the nation's new generating units into service in

palities, public

rural electric

co-operatives, munici-

districts, state agencies

and the federal

government.

—

manufacturers Electric Manufacturing. During 1959 shipped 14,000,000 kw. of turbine generators. Of this about 12,400,000 kw. was delivered to U.S. electric power systems. The

Canada.

—Total

accounting for

13%

net generating capacity of 130 companies,

99%

of total

power generation

in

Canada,

of 23,990,000 kw.

total capacity as against

in northern British

Columbia. Plans called for e.xpenditure

12,400,000 kw. of the units shipped during 1959, the remainder being hydraulic turbines.

reported readying a project to harness the Manicouagan

first

commercial generation of

nuclear sources took place during 1957.

energy through

By mid-1959 more

than

new atomic generation was under construction The list of commercial atomic power reactors

1,400,000 kw. of or in planning.

electric

of

$375,000,000 with a view to producing 805,000 kw. by 1966 and for an additional $250,000,000 to generate 3,145,000 kw.

by 1973.

Shipments of power transformers reached a record 72,078,000 kva. during 1957. Shipments during 1958, amounting to 47,199,000 kva., were only 60% as much. Shipments during 1959 showed a further decline to 34,000,000 kva.

rose

in

remainder was delivered to U.S. industrial plants and to foreign companies. Steam turbine generators accounted for more than

The

ros«

seven months of 1959.

1955

the end of

Investor-owned electric

first

first

547.0

Source: Edison Electric Institute (except 1959).

136

Manufacturers' production of "built-in" electric ranges

of 33,000,000 kw.,

gross

Totat Supply of Etectric Energy, U.S.

generation

washers were up 16.5% to 1,621,539 units; non-

automatic washers were up 9.5% to 506,709 units; washer-dryei combination sales rose 33.3% to 96,914 units.

During the

with the high

Table

electric clothes

45.8% to 415,400 units during the Food freezer production rose 26.8%

load.

To keep pace

Electric ulility

electric

available

they used 158,000,000 kw.

generating capability over peak load)

26.4% of peak

made

This equipment experienced a non-

coincident peak load of 125,000,000 kw.

tems

major

for energy the nation's

(classified as class I electric

The publicly-owned Quebec Hydro at a cost of several

hundred million

In addition to a 20,000

kw-.

Electric commission was river

dollars.

nuclear power demonstration plant

under construction near Rolphton, Ont., which was expected

to

be in operation by 1961, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. announced plans to spend $60,000,000 on a full scale nuclear power plant,

capable of generating 200,000 kw.

Great

Britain.

— Major manufacturing

efforts

(R. Rr.)

were devoted

in

1959 to the British nuclear power program. Nevertheless, the absence of any world-wide demand for large and costly nuclear

ELECTRIC POWE generating stations tended to deflect

some

of the development

I

'toward smaller nuclear plants suited to underdeveloped areas land to ship propulsion. Other forms of 1

power plant

for isolated

areas were also receiving attention.

A

conference on thermonuclear fission was held in London in

I

April. Fifteen British

companies were engaged

in design

and

re-

I

i

;

'

:

Under the international project Dragon, initiated by the European Nuclear Energ>' agency of the Organization for European Economic Cosearch work on nuclear power plant for ships.

operation, an experimental high-temperature reactor at Winfrith

Heath, Eng., generating several megawatts of power, was to form

program for Great BritEuratom (the European Atomic Energy community), AusItria, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. In Britain the [Central Electricity Generating board announced the establishIment of a new £1,000,000 nuclear research centre near its Berkeley nuclear station. A chair of nuclear engineering was founded the basis of the five-year joint research

lain,

at

Manchester university. Table

IV.

— WorW Production of

(E. Electric

Energy'

W.

G.)

ELECTR ONICS

228 When

it is

exposed to

light in a

camera, electrons are driven

of electrical charges which lasts for weeks. to be sent to the

ground from a

before an electron scanning

satellite, the

beam which

When

the image

is

exposed tape passes

reads off the electrical

charge pattern and produces television signals.

A

i8o-ft. length of tape

would carry a continuous

strip of

pictures showing cloud formations completely around the globe. It

could be read

off in

5

to 10 minutes, while the satellite

was

within the range of a ground station. Old images could be com-

removed and the tape re-used for a new series of pictures. Radar is generally used to detect large objects such as ships and airplanes, but a new supersensitive radar detector, developed jointly by the U.S. army signal research and development laboratory and the Hazeltine corporation, can detect a crawling soldier pletely

two miles away.

It is

necessary only that some part of his body

be moving with a speed of at least one mile per hour.

The on a

entire installation

special

S-ft. plastic

trols

two-wheeled in

trailer.

The antenna

is

mounted

in a

25-ft. pole

and an experienced operator can tell the difference between a jeep or a walking soldier, and even distinguish between a man and a woman. Physicians and engineers alike were expected to benefit by a new device which shows, on a television screen, the internal structure of parts of the human body and engineering components. It was developed in England by C. N. Smyth, of London University, College Hospital Medical school.

but with ultrasonic waves. These are like sound waves, but of

They resemble

light rays in that

they can be focused with lenses and reflected from objects on

which they fall. The usual light-sensitive surface, on which the optical image is formed in a television camera, is replaced by one sensitive to sound waves. In a manner similar to that of ordinary television, the image

produce an electrical

is

scanned by an electron beam

produces a visible image of the internal structure on a television receiver. to

and of some medical specimens immersed in a tank also showed internal flaws in blocks of aluminim clearly revealing their size and shape. Another electronic aid to medicine, announced during the yeai was an attachment for a microscope for making visible th magnified image of a specimen illuminated with invisible ultra

radiation. This is the ultrascope, designed by R. G Stoudenheimer of the electron tube division of the Radio Corpc ration of America at Lancaster, Pa. It is based on the wartim

violet

"snooperscope," for seeing

in the dark.

The ultrascope replaces the regular eyepiece of a microscop* The ultraviolet rays pass through the object being examined an are focused

by the objective

scope tube.

On

on the faceplate of the

lens

inner surface

its

signal. This, in turn,

a plotting device being tested In U.S. navy aircraft 1959. Special electronic equipment translates signals of underwater craft to a position chart. Using additional eauipment the pilot can make a more refined plot, determining the exact position of his target in

ultra

a photosensitive materia

is

tron pattern.

When

this

is

cent viewing screen at the other end of the tube, to a visible

image

with another

in

yellow-green

The

it is

convert©

user views this imag

the debut of another

tunnel diode, which performs transistor. In addition,

the transistor in

light.

lens.

The year 1959 marked power

elec

focused by electron lenses on a fluores

is

incapable.

new

device, th

all

the functions of a standard low

it

can handle other tasks of whid

Many

applications were foreseen-

high-speed computers, television receivers, controls for nuclea

reactors and communication equipment in satellites and spac vehicles.

The tunnel diode

even smaller than the transistor

is

dwarfed by the head of a

pow-er requirements.

A

common

pin) and has

(in facl

still

lowe

conventional three-element radio tub

needs about i/io w. and a transistor about 1/1,000 w., but th tunnel diode operates on as

b

as 1/1,000,000 w. It can

little

made of silicon or a variety of other materials. The tunnel diode was first announced in 1958 by

a Japanes

Leo Esaki, and was further developed by United State laboratories, particularly by the General Electric company aiu the Radio Corporation of America. The name comes from the physical phenomenon involved which is called "quantum-mechanical tunneling." By this effec scientist,

a particle (obeying the laws of the

SUBMARINE DETECTOR,

to the Institutio

visible the internal parts of

He

water.

it is

that views the object operates not with light

too high a pitch to be heard.

making

goldfish

tance away. Each type of target produces a characteristic sound,

The "camera,"

London

his device in

of Electrical Engineers,

which converts the ultraviolet image into a corresponding

be transported by helicopter or

and connected to the cona special shelter, which may be some dis-

bubble on a

and displays

may

Smyth demonstrated

off in

proportion to the light intensity. This leaves an invisible image

quantum theory) can

disap

pear from one side of a barrier and reappear instantaneously the other side, as though

ment

is

it

effected at the speed of light; in contrast, the carrier

of electrical charge in transistors limits the frequency at

tions to a cies

01

had tunneled underneath. The move

maximum

move much more

which they can produce

slowly. Thi;

electrical \ibra

of about 2,000,000,000 per second. Frequen

10 or even 100 times as great were anticipated with

thi

tunnel diode.

One

of

its

important features

electricity flows in a

is

negative resistance. Whei

copper wire, an increase

in

the voltagi

causes an increase in the current. But in a tunnel diode an

creased voltage

may

in-

decrease the current. Because of this

il

not absorbed, but

ii

can act as an amplifier, for the signal

is

increased.

Another new development, that might lead to "transistorized' announced at the Westinghouse Research laboratoriei Pittsburgh, Pa. W. J. Choyke and Lyle Patrick found that

tubes, w-as in

silicon carbide,

which

is

used (under the trade name of Car-

borundum) as an abrasive in grinding wheels, emits electrons when it is excited electrically. These electrons come from tiny spots that glow with blue light and are unaccompanied by heat.

In the usual electron tube, a filament is heated to redness with an electrical current, and electrons are "boiled" out. Most

of the power consumed is used to heat the filament, and it is often a problem to dissipate the heat from a large bank of such

much

ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION — EL SALVADOR and History. —Although no urgent

The

tubes.

less

transistor operates without heating,

thus uses

power.

Westinghouse engineers suggested that a highly efficient tube might be made by replacing the hot filament with a cool silicon carbide cathode or electron emitter. By thus removing one of

most serious limitations of conventional tubes, they might better be able to compete with transistors in future applications. the

(J.

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Vacuum Tubes (1943).

—Sound

Sto.)

of coffee and cotton normally account

Early

were imposed on various imports, and competitive items.

Lemus appealed

buy local government undercarry out its development program with a view to asthose adversely affected by the difficult economic

President

whenever

products

to all Salvadoreans to

possible,

while

the

Elementary Education: see Education. Elementary Particles: see Physics.

sisting

(Elizabeth Alexandra Mary) (1926), queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and head of the commonwealth, was bom in London on April 21. She succeeded to the throne in 1952 following the death of her father, King George VI, and was crowned on June 2, 1953. The queen's earliest years were spent principally at her father's London home, 145 Piccadilly, and also at Royal lodge, Windsor, and at Balmoral and Glamis, the Scottish home of her maternal grandfather, the earl of Strathmore. She was educated by her governess, Marion Crawford, and by Sir Henry

were favourable. In order to

Marten.

firms interested in establishing themselves in El Salvador. Be-

Toward

situation.

World War

the end of

II she joined the Auxiliary Ter-

difficulties,

the economic prospects

unemployment Urban Housing was carrying forward a broad

the Institute of

assist in reducing

housing program. Plans were in progress to improve the Ilopango airport,

and a major project of harbour development was under

way at Acajutla. The expansion

of electric power facilities was under way, made by a loan from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. With the return of President Lemus from the United States late in March there was an increase in the requests from foreign

possible

fore the end of the year, plans under

way

or in execution included

and learned to drive and service army vehicles. In July 1947 her betrothal to Prince Philip of Greece (later the duke of Edinburgh) was announced and they were married in Westminster abbey on Nov. 20. Prince Charles (later prince of Wales) was born on Nov. 14, 1948; Princess Anne on Aug. 15, 1950. In 1957 the queen and the duke toured Canada and also visited Washington, D.C., and in 1958 they made a state visit to

near Apopa, a paint factor>' near the Ilopango airport and a dried milk plant to supply the eastern part of the country. Studies were under way on the costs of a milk-processing plant, a petroleum refinery and an additional factory for the production of soluble coffee. Textile production facilities were being expanded, partly through an agreement in June by the Interna-

the Netherlands.

tional Finance corporation to invest $140,000 in the enterprise.

ritorial service

On June

queen and the duke began a six-week tour of Canada which took them from St. John's, Newfoundland, across the dominion to Vancouver on the Pacific coast. On 18, 1959, the

'June 26, at Montreal, the queen, jointly with Pres.

Dwight D.

Lawrence seaway. On July i, Dominion day, the queen addressed the Canadian people on radio and television and on July 6 she and her husband paid a Eisenhower, opened the

new

St.

|short visit to Chicago. Shortly after their return to the

Kingdom

United

was announced from Buckingham palace that the queen was expecting a baby early in i960 and would be unable to lundertake any further public engagements. :

two-thirds

in 1959, tariff increases

especially nonessential

Apart from the immediate

I

for about

of the country's foreign exchange, the gold reserves went down.

took to

I

problems confronted

El Salvador at the beginning of 1959, the country's economy had been seriously affected during 1958 by the marked decline in coffee prices and some weakness in cotton prices. Since exports

Recording and Reproduc-

tion (1943);

229

political

it

the establishment of a fertilizer plant near Acajutla, a sugar refiner>'

By

its

ratification of the Multilateral

ican Free Trade and

of El Salvador

Economic

made

it

became

Treaty of Central Amer-

Integration, the national assembly

possible in January for the treaty to go

upon ratification by three countries two of which were Guatemala and Nicaragua. In line with the mutual advantages to the five member countries of reducing trade barriers among themselves, a combination plant of flour mill and laboratory, animal-feeds plant, grain-discharging and other equipment, were to be constructed near La Union, a into effect. It

the

valid

first

convenient location for supplying not only El Salvador, but also

I

the other countries concerned.

The ministry I

Elks, eties

Benevolent and Protective Order of:

see Soci-

AND Associations, U.S.

of

economy reported

at the beginning of the year

that the rate of economic growth in El Salvador

had been

faster

than the population growth during the preceding ten years.

new

highway construction up a large section of land that had heretofore not been developed In September three

Ellice Islands: see Pacific Islands, British.

stretches of

totaling 94 mi. along the coast were dedicated, thus opening

on the Pacific coast of Central most densely popcountry on the isthmus. El Salvador has an area of 8,260 |Sq.mi. (of which 8,165 sq.mi. are land) and a population (1950 jcensus) of 1,855,917 (1958 est., 2,434,430). The capital is San PI LI

Qolworinr

"^

republic

OdIVduUI. America,

the smallest but

Salvador, pop. (1950 census) 161,951; (1958 est.) 221.708.

The

1950 populations of other principal cities are (1958 estimates in parentheses): Ahuachapan 10,294 (12,629), Chalchuapa 9,855 (12,335), Cojutpeque 10,015

(12,832), Mejicanos 9,389

524), San Miguel 26,702 (33,063), Santa

Ana

(12,-

51,702 (70,769),

Neuva San Salvador or Santa Tecla 18,313

(24,539), San Vicente 10,950 (13.618), Sonsonate 17.949 (22.088), Usulutan

9481 (12,276), 9.190

Delgado 13.331 (18,110) and Zacatecoluca Language: Spanish. Religion: predominantly Catholic. President in 1958: Lieut. Col. Jose Maria

(11,388).

Roman Lemus.

Villa

(A. E. Tr.)

for lack of transportation.

|ulated

—

In 1957 there were 2,291 primar>' schools with 7,868 teachers and 245,178 pupils; 119 kindergartens, 387 teachers and 13,713 pupils; 313 secondary schools, 26,323 students. In 1956 the national university had 1.525 students and 272 faculty members. According to the 1950 census, 5 7-7% of those 10 years of a^e and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the colon, valued at 40 cents U.S. currencj' in 1959. The 1959 budget balanced revenue and expenditure at 181,000,000 colones. Revenue in 1958 (preliminary figures) was 168,683,922 colones; expenditure, 169,892.948 colones. On July 31, 1958, the internal debt was 11,731,000 colones; external, 30,035.000 colones. Currency in circulation (.^ug. 31, 1959) totaled 84,700,000 colones; demand deposits, 106,700.000 colones. The cost-of-living Education.

—

=

index (July 1959) stood at 106 (1953 100). Trade and Communications. Exports in 1958 totaled $116,357,000; im$107,873,000. Leading exports were green coffee (72%). cotton (16'rc). coffee preparations (3%), vegetable oils and sugar. Leading customers were the U.S. (40%), Germany (32%), Japan (11%), Honduras (3%) and Guatemala (3%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (49%). Ger-

—

ports,

many (9%), The two

the Netherlands (7%), Honduras (6%) and Japan (5%). principal railroads have 385 mi. of main-line track, all narrow

EMIGRATION — EMPLOYMENT

230

gauge. Total road mileage (i9SS) was 4,785, about 1,000 ml. o( which were all-weather and 375 mi. were paved. On Jan. i, 1959, there were 9,5J5 automobiles. 10,31 j trucks and 957 buses. Telephones (Jan. i, 1958) numbered 11.158. Tl.>% of which were autom.itic. Agriculture. - Production estimates (or the 1958-59 season (preliminary figures) Included coffee 1,500.000 bags of ijj lb. each; cotton 177,000 bales of 500 lb. gross weight; cottonseed 85,000 short tons; sugar 59,000 tons; rice (rough) 44,500,000 lb.; maize (1957-58) 193,000 tons. In 1956 there were an estimated 985,000 cattle and 301,000 hogs. Production of balsam (i957) totaled 230,000 lb. Manulociuras. In 1953 there were 600 manufacturing establishments employing 5 or more persons, with a total of 15,050 employees and annual gross value of production amounting to 85,510,000 colones. Cement production in 1958 was 87,600 metric tons. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1956) totaled 76,000 kw.; production in 1957 was 178,000,000

kw.hr. Min*roli.

— In

I95g, 3,37J troy oj. of gold and 197,629 oz. of silver

were produced.

Britannica Films.

E.NcvcLoP/iDiA

—Central

(J.

America

W. Mw.)

(1944).

and transportation and decline in employment was registered in the mining industries and was only 12,000. Almost all industries within the manufacturing sector showed gains in employment, a notable exception being the food and and

real estate registered a rise of 54,000

public utilities a rise of 31,000.

The only

kindred products industry. The distribution of gains among

manufacturing industries was as follows. In the durable goods

primary metals (-f 220,100;, transportation equipmachinery (except electrical) ( + 154,600),

industries,

ment

(

+ 158,400),

machinery ( + 144,900;, fabricated metal products (+95,100), lumber and wood products ( + 53,300;, stone, clay and glass products ( + 52,100;, furniture and fixtures (+37,800), miscellaneous manufacturing ( + 29,900;, instruments and related products ( + 27,400;, ordnance and accessories ( 15,100); in the nondurable goods industries, apparel and other finished electrical

+

Emigration:

see

Immigration and Naturalization.

products

textile

FmnlnVniPnt

^"'^^'^ states.

—comparing midyear

statistics

and

chemicals

^'"r'^j'"""l- between 1958 and

(

of

leather products

1959, the total labour force U.S. registered an increase of 813,000, from 73,049,000

tiie

June 1959. The civilian labour force in this same period increased by 906,000, from 70,418,000 (June 1958) to 71,324,000 (June 19.59). Total emplo>Tnent increased by 2,361,000, from 64,981,000 in June 1958 to 67,342,000 in June 1959. On the other hand, unemployment declined by 1,455.000, from 5,437,000 (June 1958) to 3,982,000 (June 1959). The peak of unemployment during the recent decline in economic activity was reached in June 1958, when unemployment was June 1958

in

to 73,862,000 in

7.7% of the labour

+ 28,500),

tobacco

The

male emplo>Tnent increased by 1,354,000, from

38,-

588,000 to 39,942,000. Female emplovTnent increased from 21,096,000 to 21,866.000, an increase of 770,000. This increase was distributed as follows: to 1,696,000)

93,000 in agriculture (from 1,603,000 in nonagricultural industries (from

— fmp/oyeei

In

Nonagricultural Establishment$f

Industry, United Sfofes thousondlJ

omployoot

June 1959

Jun« 1951

S2,5I«

50,413

705

717

2,971

2,804 15,204

16,413

Primary metal Industrie! Fabricated metal product!

Machinery (except electrical) Electricol machinery Transportation equipment Instruments ond reloted product! Miscelloneous monufocturing industria!

Nondurable goods Food and kindred product! Tobocco manufocluring Textile-mill product!

Apparel and other finished textile product! Paper ond allied products Printing, publishing and allied induslrioi Chemicols and allied products Products o( petroleum ond cool Rubber products Leolher and leother product! Transportation and public utilities Wholesale and retail trade Finance, insuronce and reol estate Service! and miscelloneoui Government

140.5 494.4 384.2 545.5

125.4 643.3 344.4 513.4

1,290.4 1,099.5 1,426.5 1,224.8 1,704.2

1,070J

336.0 482.7

308.4 452.8

1,441.4 80.2

1,484.3

1,004.4 1,471.9 1,079.9 1, 547.8

80.1

975.0

930.4

1,193.0

1,122.5

543.9 844.3

542.0 847.2 809.0

847.1

Stote and local

238.3 262.0 874.4 3,935 11,317 2,445 4,418 8,112 2,149 5,943

Source: United State! Deportment of Lobor, Bureou of Lobor

Slati!lic!,

Federal

239.1

233.5 853.3 3,904

11,035 2,391

6,488 7,864 2,184 5,682

Cmphymtnl and

and 677,000

19,493,000 to 20,170,000). During the same period, June 1958June 1959, male unemployment declined by 1,118,000, from 3,521,000 to 2,403,000 and female unemploNTnent declined by 336,000, from 1,915,000 to 1,579,000. All these changes accounted for a growth in the total civilian labour force of 906,-

000 of which 433,000 were females (from 23.012,000 to 23,445,000) and 473,000 were males (from 47,406,000 to 47,879,000).

Changes

I.

(

Products of petroleum and coal registered a

Ordnance ond acceiiorio. Lumber and wood product! Furniture and fixture! Stone, clay and slo!! product!

cultural

535,000, an increase of 239,000, whereas in nonagricultural in-

+ 100).

(

Mining Conlfoci conilruclion Monufocluring Durable goodi

increase in emplojTnent was distributed as follows: Agri-

dustries,

+ 21,900;, leather and + 21,300;, printing and publishing + 17,100),

lln

activity.

employment increased by 331,000 (from 6,900,000 to 7,231,000) and nonagricultural emplo>'ment by 2,030,000 (from 58,081,000 to 60,111,000) between June 1958 and June 1959. Male participation in the increase in employment was greater than female participation. Total male employment increased from 43,884,000 to 45,476,000, an increase of 1,592,000. In agriculture, male employment increased from 5.296,000 to 5,-

(

products (+44,400), rubber products

(+38,100;,

Industry,

Totol

force, seasonally unadjusted. In

economic

textile-mill

products

by

percentage of unemplo>Tnent

half of 1959. indicating a revival of

+ 70,500;,

paper and allied products

Table

June 1959 was 5.6. Employment had increased steadily and unemplo>Tnent declined during the first the

(

(

allied

in the distribution of

employment among the non-

agricultural industries during the period

small decline

(

able decline

(

— 800), and — 22,700),

United Kingdom.

working population

in

Great

May 1958 (24,090,000) and May 1959 (23,897,000). The male working population declined by 129,000 (from 16,179.000 to 16,050,000) and the female working population also declined by 64,000 (from 7,911,000 to 7,847.000) during this period. The

number

emplo>Tnent

the

Within the manufacturing

568.000). Between

employment in durable goods industries increased by 989,000, from 8.564,000 to 9,553,000, and in nondurable goods industries emplo>Tnent increased by 218.000 from 7,142,000 to 7,560.000. Emplo\Tnent in wholesale and retail trade increased by rS2.ooo. Total government employment increased by 246,000, but federal government employment declined by 15,000 whereas state and local government employment increased by 261,000. Employment in contractual construction increased by 165,000; in services and miscellaneous industries, employment increased by 130.000. Finance, insurance,

total

Britain (excluding Northern Ireland) declined 193,000 between

June ig58-June 1959 were as follows. Employment in manufacturing industries registered an increase of 1,207,000 from 15,206,000 to 16,413,000. sector,

—The

food and kindred products a notice-

May

in

in civil

number

in the

armed

by 151,000 (from 23,065.000 1959). In the same period fell by 51,000 (from 619.000 to

fell

May

1958 to 22,914,000 in forces

May

1958 and May 1959, total registered unemploNTnent declined by 18,000 (from 460.000 to 442.000). This was mainly because of the decline of the temporarily unemployed from 60,000 to 32,000 w'hereas the wholly unemployed increased by 10,000 during the same period.

On June

15, 1959,

there were 413,311 persons registered as unemployed, of

whom

385,460 were wholly unemployed and 27,851 temporarily stopped from work.

The

decline in the

demand

for labour which started at the

end of 1957 continued during the

first

half of 1958

and

there-

— Table

Distribulion of Civil

II.

Employment During 1958,

United Kingdom llr fhoujondi) Dec. 1957 Dec. 1958

Induilr, or Service

Agriculture, foreitry

ond

948 848

flitiino

Mixing and quarrying, total Cool mining Ottier mining and quarrying

Te.liles

Clothing (including lootweorl Food, drink ond lobocco

Other monufoctures

and contracting Cos, electricity and woter Tronspon and communicotion. Building

ond oiiscellaneouiiervicet

.

employment,

total

538

535

4,484

4,542

919 443 909

854 433

1,595

1,571

1,472

1,448

911

1958

—

1

— —

23 22 ]

—242

-

—

3 I

22 45 30

+2 24

— -

4 4 31

+

4

374

1,294

1,474 2,945 4,217 1,297

534 758

527 770

+43 + 3 - 9 + 12

23,128

22,875

-253

.

LcKol government service Civil

9,044

In

380

Nalionol government service

j

9,308

Change

1,705 2,959 4,174

trades

Professional, financial Public administroHoo

77

84S 749 74

791

Monufacturing Industries, total Chemicals and allied trades Metals, engineering ond vohldei

Distributive

947

Sovrce: Miniitry of Labour Gazette. I

tafter

it

gradually leveled

off.

Civil

employment

fell

during the

by 253.000, the manufacturing industries registering ithe greatest decline. The net decline in the total working popula;tion was greater in 1958 than in 1957. During the year 1958 manufacturing industries accounted for jyear of 1958

j

employment. Within the manuand vehicles showed the greatest decline ("with — 122,000;, textiles were next (^with —65,looo) and clothing Cwith —30,000;. In the other sectors, coal mining and transport and communications lost employment iwhereas professional, financial and miscellaneous services gained

jthe greatest part of the decline in

facturing sector, metals, engineering

isubstantially.

Canada.

i

—The

total civilian labour force of

Canada increased

ifrom 6,203,000 in June 1958 to 6,287,000 in June 1959, an infcrease of

about 84,000. The agricultural labour force changed

UNEMPLOYED MINEWORKERS OF NORTON, a fire

ifrom 748.000 to 738,000, a loss of 10,000.

The

labour force changed from 5,455,000 to 5.549,000, a gain of 194.000. The total civilian labour force with jobs increased from 5.879.000 to 6,053,000, a gain of 174.000. Agriculture jobs de-

from 740.000

and in the nonfrom 5,139,000 to 5,322,000, !a gain of 183,000. Paid workers with jobs changed from 4,702,looo to 4,899,000, an increase of about 197,000 Hn agriculture: |from 107,000 to 133,000 and in nonagricultural sectors from clined

to 731,000. a loss of 9,000,

'agricultural sectors jobs increased

4,595.000 to 4,766,000;.

The

civilian labour force

without jobs

and seeking work changed from 324,000 to 234,000, a decrease of about 90,000. The peak of joblessness was reached in May 1958 when 597.000 were reported without jobs and seeking work, a ratio of 10% of the civilian labour force. By May 1959 this jiatio was reduced to 5.4%.

The index of

!i959.

industrial employment ("1949=100; increased monthly average of 114.6 in April 1958 to 115.6 in April In mining the employment index changed from 121.9 t"

1120.6.

In manufacturing the

I

(from a

employment index showed

ifrom 108.8 in April 1958 to

109.4 in April

while waiting for a lurplut food handout

1959.

a change

In durable

well as in Jan. 1959, but

it

—

1959 and from 114 in March 1958 to 117 in March 1959. The manufacturing employment index, with the same base year and including mining and quarrying, declined from 122 in Jan. 1958 to 120 in Jan. 1959,

1959-

and from 121

public utility operations from

136.3 to

from 129.0 to 131. 4; finance, etc., from 148.3 to 151.3; and service from 130.6 to 134.4 (^1949=100;. Average hours worked per week in manufacturing increased from 40.4 to 40.7 between April 1958 and April 1959. 135.8; trade

=

in

March 1958

to 119 in

March

—

Belgium. The general employment index ("1953 = 100), excluding agriculture, dropped from 107 in 1957 to 106 in 1958 and from 102 in Jan. 1958 to 96 in Dec. 1958. The manufacturing index dropped from 104 in Jan. 1958 to 97 in Dec. 1958. France. The general employment index ("1953 = 100;, ex-

—

cluding agriculture and certain services, dropped from 107 in

March 1958

to 105 in March 1959. Using the same base, the index manufacturing employment, including wage earners and salaried employees, dropped from 108 in March 1958 to 104 in

of

March

1959.

Poland.

—The

general

employment index

ing and electricity, remained the

transportation, etc.,

—The general employment index

1959

Austria. The general 100), excluding agriculture, rose from 114 in Jan. 1958 to 115 in Jan.

The manufacturing employment

tfrom 73.26 to 78.24;

April

by April 1959. employment index ("1953 =

ployment changed from 115.9

118.7;

VA., warming ttierrrielvM with

rose to 114

goods the change was from 115. 5 to 114.9 and in nondurables from 103.0 to 104.8 Call based on 1949=100;. Construction em''

Compton

Fuller's

—

it

Burnett's

afforded

to the public, either in separate

Few

of the well-known poets produced a collection during 1959. a surprising number of poets who had their first vol-

Among

local outbreaks

was the

largest single cause of these respiratory out-

breaks, but there was a scattering of outbreaks due to influenza

Beginning in March and continuing into early May. mortality from pneumonia and influenza in the L'nited States showed a distinct increase over normal, chiefly in New York. New Jersey and Pennsylvania. This seemed to indicate that influenza was attack-

umes published were Laurence Lerner, Rex Taylor. James Harrison. James Michie and Patricia Beer. In his Domestic Interior Lerner seemed to have made a too deliberate attempt to conform

ing older age groups in these states.

to the fashionable trend

of respiratory disease

work often lacked

toward excessive

restraint, so that his

tension, but when his material was taken difrom personal experience, he displayed an individual talent. Taylor failed to make the most of his gifts for accurate observation in his pastoral Poems. Harrison {Catchment Area) rectly

A

and the adenoviruses.

By

early

summer, outbreaks

had largely subsided throughout the world. In summary, the winter of 1958-59 was marked by a consider-

amount of illness caused by respiratory viruses, but it was when the variety of respiratory viruses characterized the period rather than any sweeping epidemic due to a single

able

also a year

EPIDEM lOLOGY had been the case

virus, as

Diseases.) Riclceftsial Diseases.

Respiratory

in 1957-58. (See also

—Diseases

which rickettsiae are

for

sponsible include louse-bome typhus, flea-borne typhus.

Mountain

spotted fever,

Q

and scrub

fever, rickettsialpox

phus. These diseases are not usually transmissible from

man

re-

Rocky ty-

The

to

by the

man

but are spread by arthropod vectors, such as lice, and mites. Although the various rickettsial diseases

is

illustrated

During the

first

gust, a preliminary total of 87 laboratory-confirmed cases of fox

frequently associated with some of the rickettsial

had been reported in New York state in 1959, compared with only 39 cases for the same time period in 1958. The increase in rabid foxes caused an increase in the number of rabies cases

is

and

in their specific s>Tnptoraatology

diseases, especially scrub

typhus and

among

thing of a maverick

Q

Q

fever.

its

fever

severity,

is

because

rickettsial diseases

not depend on an arthropod vector for

some-

it

does

transmission and does

not produce a rash.

Man is

the only natural reservoir of typhus infection and

is

man

spread from

been deloused there to

someone

to

man by

the

human

no danger that he

is

else as long as

rabies

among

it

other animals, chiefly cows and dogs.

he

is

will transmit the disease

kept free of

DDT powder

lice.

is

fective in the treatment of

typhus and mortality can be greatly

reduced by their use. There it

an effective vaccine against louse-

is

must be administered

at least annually to

this rabies epizootic

in

The area

of the state

an agricultural and

chiefly

is

dairy region.

louse (Pediculus hu-

frequently used for delousing. Certain of the antibiotics are ef-

borne typhus, but

half of 1959, rabies

involved

manus). Mortality from louse-bome typhus during epidemics may exceed 40%. When a person who has louse-bome typhus has

Poliomyelitis.

— Paralytic

poliomyelitis in the United States

during 1959 showed an increase in incidence as compared with 1958 and 1957. In the first eight months of 1959, 1958 and 1957 there were 2,791, 1,206 and 1,477 cases, respectively, of paralytic poliomyelitis.

Some

of the increase in 1959

an increase

in the

amount

to

may

however, that the majority of

It is also true,

be attributable

of virus over the other recent years.

paralytic poliomyelitis occur in persons

who

clinical cases of

are either not vac-

cinated or are incompletely vaccinated against the disease. Ade-

maintain protection in chronically affected areas or during epi-

quate poliomyelitis immunization

demies.

with other vaccines, such as diphtheria, tetanus and smallpox,

j

!

wildlife

state during 1959.

headache, body pains, chills and usually a rash. Inflammation of

somewhat

the lungs

'

New York

they are generally characterized by the sudden onset of fever,

differ

!

among

explosive potential of rabies situation in

showed an explosive increase among wildlife in the western part of the state. Foxes, which are the reser\'oir of rabies in that state, accounted for most of the increase among species of wildlife. From the beginning of the year through Au-

directly,

ticks, fleas

I

235

Four of the cases had received no antirabies treatment following exposure. Two cases resulted from bites from rabid dogs, one from a rabid fox and one from a rabid bat, and in two cases the sources were unknown. cases.

Sporadic cases and outbreaks of typhus occur annually in vari-

not a one-time

is

repeated doses of poliomyelitis vaccine

may be

affair.

As

necessary to main-

I

ous areas of the world, such as Africa and parts of Asia and South

tain

adequate levels of immunity.

I

America.

It is difficult to

number

estimate the actual

Live poliomyelitis vaccine designed to be administered orally

of louse-

I

bome typhus

cases that occur annually.

certainly result in thousands of cases

.

"average" year would

and probably tens of thou-

For e.xample, Ethiopia reported more than 500 t>'phus one-month period in the spring of 1959. Mexico

sands.

1

An

leases during a

reported 74 cases during the second quarter of 1959.

Rocky Mountain spotted fever sial diseases.

I

one of the tick-borne rickett-

regions,

tick-bite

fe-

fever in Africa

With a mortality about 20"^. Rocky Mountain spotted fever

land Queensland and tick typhus in Australia. jin lis

untreated cases of

normally a milder disease than louse-borne typhus. Like louse-

bome ,

typhus,

it

some

also responds to treatment with

of the

newer antibiotics, such as the tetracyclines and chloramphenicol. The vaccine against Rocky Mountain spotted fever must be ad-

jministered annually to maintain protection.

600 cases of 'in

it

had been reported annually

recent years.

New York

state, for

Between 240 and

in the

United States

example, averaged ten

re-

—In

1958 the

|from a rabid bat to a

first

human

clear-cut transmission of rabies

occurred in the United States. It

jwas discovered several years previously that ibats

nonbloodsucking

could ser\'e as asjTnptomatic carriers of rabies. Since then,

several cases of itracted plete.

A

from

human

rabies were suspected of having been con-

bats, but the histories in these cases

were incom-

detailed account of a case in California seems to leave

no doubt that a rabid bat was the source of the infection. A 53woman received a puncture wound on the hand from la bat {Lasionycteris noctivayans) which was found to have been

jyear-old

of

immunity had yet

of the vaccine to large

to

questions re-

of persons, such as

had been done

U.S.S.R. and the Belgian Congo, can provide

information

if

such

trials are

much

useful

properly conducted. Unfortunately,

the data available from the mass immunization programs which

had so

far

been undertaken were inadequate

sw-ers to the questions. Until those

\vra& vaccine

to

permit sound an-

answers were provided,

live

would not be available for general use by the

population.

—

Smallpox. India and east Pakistan experienced large epidemics of smallpox in 1958. Provisional figures of reported cases 1958 were 159,000 in India and 47.210 in east Pakistan. Africa was second only to Asia in its high rate of chronic smallpox infection. Smallpox also continued to be endemic in scattered areas of South America. An outbreak of several hundred cases in

summer

of 1959.

While smallpox is not endemic in Europe, it is periodically introduced there by persons returning from travel in areas where smallpox is prevalent. In December of 1958. smallpox was diagnosed in a German physician who had just returned to Heidelberg from India. By late Jan. 1959. 18 confirmed cases and two deaths from smallpox had occurred in the Heidelberg area. Most of the cases occurred among hospital personnel who were in contact with the original case

or subsequent ones. This outbreak

graphically illustrates the ease with which smallpox can be re-

introduced into a country prexdously free of the disease. The

problem can be further compounded

|bitten

and died of rabies 11 days after onset of her illness. Six cases of human rabies were recorded during 195S in the iUnited States. One case each was reported from South Dakota,

diagnosis

I

and there are plentiful opportunities

and South Carolina, and Ohio reported two

Many

be completely answered. Administration

numbers

Three days later, the woman was started on a course of ihyperimmune antirabies serum and vaccine, completing 14 doses of the latter. The patient became ill 55 days after having been

irabid.

California, Georgia

1959.

occurred in a province of Brazil during the

Iported cases a year during 1955-59.

Rabies.

in

garding the level of protection achieved, safety and the duration

in the

Others include tick-bome typhus (boutonneuse

of the Mediterranean

|ver)

is

was under intensive investigation

is

in

such regions because there

frequently a delay in diagnosing the disease since medical per-

sonnel have rarely or never seen a case of smallpox. Until the is

realized, strict isolation procedures are not

begun

for the initial smallpox vic-

tim to infect others. Vaccination against smallpox and periodic revaccination at least at three-year intervals offers the best pro-

EPISCOPAL CHU RCH — ETHIOPIA

236

Eritrea 45,946 sq.mi. Pop. (1957

teclion against such occurrences.

Other Diseases. ported the

Guatemala

in

south of the Mexican border.

For

spread of the disease occurred. There was no major

No

change

just

fever activity continued to be re-

time since 1954, several cases of jungle yellow fever in a localized sector on the island of Trinidad early in

first

occurred 1959.

— Yellow

other internationally quarantinable diseases, such as

in

and plague. Public Health Service, U.S.;

cholera, louse-borne relapsing fever

Poliomyelitis;

See also

(H. E. Hi.)

Tropical Diseases; Ve.nereal Diseases.

—

—

ENCvcLop.tDiA Britannica Films. Antibiotics (1952); Bacteria Friend and Foe (1954); City Water Supply (1941); Health in Our Community (1959); Immuniiation (i9SS).

Episcopal Church:

see

Protestant Episcopal Church.

This country' on the Baltic sea, an independent public from 19 1 8 to 1940,

language;

also

Galla, Tigrinya, Tigre, Somali,

Christian monophysite (in

communion with

re-

was forcibly incorporated

the Egyptian Coptic

Church); also Moslem. Chief towns (1956

est.): Addis Ababa Asmara 123,083; Dessie 50,000; Harar 40,000; Dire-Dawa 30,000. Ruler, Emperor Haile Selassie I; prime minister in 1959, Ras Abebe Aragai.

(cap.) 400,000;

History.

— Ethiopia remained prominent

in

African affairs dur-

ing 1959. President (Josip Broz) Tito of Yugoslavia paid a sec-

ond

visit in

February, and the king and queen of Greece made a

March, but the most important event politically was the extensive tour made abroad by the emperor. During June, July and August he visited the United Arab Republic, the state visit in

(including a low-interest loan of 400,000,000 rubles)

slovakia and Yugoslavia.

ministers, Aleksey Miiiirisepp.

an independent arbiter.

—

In the middle of 1959 Soviet authorities opened the History. Estonian capital Tallinn (and Vilnius in Lithuania) for selected

Germany

and Yugoslavia. In consequence, agreements providing for financial and economic assistance were signed with the U.S.S.R,

Union in 1940 as a Soviet Socialist republic. Estonia is bounded north by the Gulf of Finland, east by the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, south by Latvia and west by the Baltic sea. Area: 17,375 sq.mi. Pop. (1959 census): 1,196,000. Nationalities (1939 census): Estonians 88.2%; Russians 8.2%; Germans 1.5%. Religion (1939): Lutheran 78%; Orthodox 19%. Chief towns (pop., 1959 census): Tallinn 280,000; Tartu 74,000. First secretary of the Estonian Communist party in 1959, Ivan Kabin; chairman of the presidium of the supreme soviet, August Jakobson; chairman of the council of into the Soviet

official

Religion:

etc.

U.S.S.R., Czechoslovakia, Belgium, France, Portugal,

Eritrea: see Ethiopia.

Estonia.

no census ever taken):

est.,

20.000,000, incl. Eritrea 1,040,404. Language: Amharic,

nomic co-operation was

An agreement

for technical

also signed with the

German

Czecho-

and

eco-

Federal

Republic.

Diplomatic storms blew up over the Somali territories aod

sharp notes were sent to the United Kingdom, the United States

and Italy protesting against

their alleged support of the con-

ception of Greater Somalia which would embrace an area of

Ethiopian territory.

No

progress was

made toward

settling the

Ethiopia-Somalia boundary dispute. Trygve Lie, former U.N. secretary-general,

was appointed under U.N. arrangements

The long-standing

rift

between the Coptic Churches of

opia and Egypt was healed in June. After

official

visits

as

Ethi-

were

was opened two years earlier). Tallinn had been on the list of closed cities since World War II. Osgood Caruthers, one of the first United States' newsmen to visit Estonia and Lithuania in 15 years, reported that workers and artisans were restoring Tallinn's churches and historical

exchanged the head of the former (Archbishop Basilios) was

World War Riga and Vilnius)

tons) and the U.S.S.R. (2,000 tons) and local relief services

foreign tourists (Riga, Latvia,

monuments which had been destroyed II.

or

damaged

In spite of Russian influences, Tallinn (like

in

had managed to retain its traditional character. Reports from various sources indicated that Tallinn was under an intensive process of further industrialization and Russification during 1959. Volta, the first highly mechanized and was designed to supply the entire Union with electrical machinery. Tallinn dockyards, protected with barbed wire fences and guarded by troops, were being used for the construction of warships. They employed 8.000 workers with a "clean political past." Most of them were imported Russians. automated plant

in Estonia,

territory of the northern Soviet

See also Latvla; Lithuania.

(Jo. Ps.)

— Schools

(1957-58): primary (4-year), higher primary (5-7 years) and secondary (8-10 years), all pupils i6S,ooo; vocational 44, Education.

pupils 13.700: institutions of higher education 6, students 12,000. Finance. Budget (i9S9 est.) balanced at 2,612.267.000 rubles.

—

—

Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1936-38 average): r>'e 184.000: wheat 75.800; barley 88, 100: oats 143.100: potatoes i.oot.ooo. Livestock (1939; 1957 in parentheses): cattle 706,000 (439,000); pigs 442,000 (408.000); sheep and goats 694,700 (246,000). Fisheries (1940; 1957 in parentheses): 22,800 (57,100) tons. Industry. Industrial production (1940; 1957 in parentheses) electricity 190,000,000 (1,094,000,000) kw.hr.; oil shale 1,892,000 (8,349.000) metric tons: gas, natural, 1,700,000 (408,000,000) cu.m.: peat 283.000 (371,000) tons; cement 70,900 (98,000) tons; cotton fabrics 22,800,000 (100,000,000) m.; leather shoes 600,000 (2,300,000) pairs.

—

:

An

independent empire of northeastern Africa,

in-

cluding (from Sept. 15, 1952) the autonomous state

bounded west by Sudan, and French Somaliland and (British) Somaliland Protectorate, and southeast and south by (Italian) Somalia trust territory and Kenya. Area: 455,212 sq.mi., incl.

of Eritrea, federated with Ethiopia,

northeast by the

Red

sea

elevated to the status of patriarch.

Because of locusts and drought, near-famine conditions

pre-

vailed in parts of Eritrea and the northern provinces. Gifts of

grain for distribution were

made by

the United States (46.500

were organized.

EMPEROR HAILE SELASSIE OF ETHIOPIA cooling his feet In the Bay of Bit cay near Biarritz, France. He was vacationing there in 1959 after a state visit with Pres. Charles de Gaulle of France

—

—

ETHNOLOGY— EUROPEAN UNITY The Eritrean

legislature abolished

the state flag in favour

of the Ethiopian flag and also adopted the Ethiopian penal code. (F. E. St.)

!

Education. Ethiopia, Schools (1953-54): government primary 431, pupils 69,081, teachers 2,372; government secondary and vocational 11, pupils 2,155, teachers 117; private (all levels) 79. pupils 8,675. Teachertraining colleges 2, students 533. Institutions of higher education 3 (incl. (incl. 200 at university college extenI university college), students 475 sion classes) teaching staff 34. Eritrea. Schools (1952): primary 100, pupils 13,500; secondary and technical 16, pupils 1,367. i teacher-training college with So students. finance and Banking. Monetary Unit: Ethiopian dollar, with an exchange Irate of Eth. $2,484 to the U.S. dollar. Budget. Ethiopia (1955-56 est.): revenue Eth. $115,010,000, expenditure Eth. $130,410,341. Eritrea (1956I

I

—

1

I

57 est.): revenue Eth. $12,978,102, expenditure Eth. $12,952,456. Currency circulation (March 1958) Eth. $155,500,000 (March 1959) Eth.

l

I

$153,700,000. Deposit money 1959) Eth. $50,800,000.

I

Foreign

TracJe.

(March 1958) Eth. $44,800,000 (March

— Imports

(1958) Eth. $193,600,000, exports (1958) Eth. $153,800,000. Main exports (1957): coffee 64%, oilseeds 9%, hides

I

I

cereals 6%. Transport and

8%, I

Communications. Ethiopia. Roads (1955): first-claSS 4,075 km.; others 10.622 km. Motor vehicles in use (incl. Eritrea, 1957): passenger cars 16,700. commercial vehicles 6,200. Railways (1956) 784 km. Air transport (1958): passenger-km. 75,480,000; freight, ton-km. 3,120,000. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 8,422. Eritrea. Roads (1955): firstclass 8S9 km.; others 2,240 km. Railways (1956): 306 km. Agriculture. JIain crops (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): barley 600,000 (510,000); rapeseed (1957) 19,000 (20,000 in 1956); sunflower seed (1957) 10.000 (10.000 in 1956); sesame (1957) 33,600 (35.000 in 1956) dry beans (1957) 64,000 75,000 in 1956) millet and sorghum (Ethiopia, 1957) 1,680,000; coffee (1956) 51,900; bananas (1956) 25,000; wheat (1956) 181,000; maize (1956) 158,000; chick peas (1956) 155,000.

I

i

—

(

;

;

Anthropology. Atomic Energy; European Unity. European Atomic Community: see European Unity. European Coal and Steel Community: see European

^Ethnology:

iEuratom:

i

see

see

Unity.

European

Common

Market:

European Unity; Tar-

;European Defense Community:

see

North Atlantic

see

European Unity;

JTreaty Organization.

European Economic Community: International Trade.

European Free Trade Area:

see

Denmark; European

Unity; International Trade.

European Payments Union: see European Unity; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates. The development of the movement for unity made some definite prog-

lEuropean Unity. European

was progress foreseen and arranged in preitself brought no new encouraging idevelopments, but witnessed a deepening of the rift in Europe about further steps and even about the whole program of European unification. In principle, most Europeans agreed with the goal, but there was no unanimity regarding the concrete form ress in 1959,

but

jceding years.

The year 1959

it

which was expected to take 15 years. The six nations also planned up a common external tariff on goods from nations outside

To facilitate freedom of movement within the community, the whole range of the fiscal, economic and social policies of the six nations were to be progressively harmonized. The process would demand much readaptation of the economic and social systems in the various countries, and provisions were being worked out to smooth the difficult path of these adaptathe community.

tions.

—

European Economic Community. The European Economic Community, better known as the Common Market, consists of France, West Germany, Italy and the three Benelux countries (Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands). During 1958 the various institutions of the E.E.C. had been set up, but by the end of 1959 no decision had even been taken as to where the E.E.C. and the two co-operating agencies, the European Coal and Steel Community and Euratom (the European Atomic Energy their

permanent headquarters. In 1959

most of the institutions of the E.E.C. were concentrated

in

Brus-

Dec.

Common

dinavian countries

—

By

Market, Great Britain and the three Scanto

free or ease external convertibility of

European Payments union, a came to an end. It was supplanted by the European Fund and Multilateral Clearing system, which was established in 1953 by the 17 members of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (O.E.E.C). France accompanied this step toward freer convertibility with a currency reform which devalued the official exchange rate of the franc. It would be a mistake, however, to view the convertibility of European currencies as a basic step toward European unity. It was. only a step toward re-establishing the full convertibility of currencies which, without any plans for European unity, existed throughout Europe before World War II. The their currencies.

that step the

multilateral clearinghouse for intra-European trade,

real

importance of

this step lay in the recognition of the

growing

and health of the European economies after the

disloca-

by World War II. The Free-Trade Area. As of 1959 the E.E.C. represented only 6 of the 17 European nations, or what was sometimes called "Little Europe." The 11 members of the O.E.E.C. which did not join the E.E.C. were Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Switzerland, Austria, Greece and "Turkey. It was strongly felt that some form of association of the six nations with the rest of Europe was needed. Nondiscrimination in trade was a cardinal principle of the O.E.E.C, a body which, in the years after World War II, made possible much of the co-operation among European countries and of which the Common Market was an extension. The tariff regulations envisaged in the Common Market would counteract this principle and would introduce an element of discrimination on the part of the tion caused

six

nations against the rest of free Europe.

To prevent the

this discrimination,

Common Market

Jan. i, 1959, the first step toward creating a common marwas taken. Tariffs of the participating nations were cut 10%, and import quotas within the market were raised 20^^ above the imounts previously allowed. The gradual elimination of custom

member

Great Britain proposed that

should form part of a wider free-trade area,

thus avoiding discrimination within Europe. Negotiations for a free-trade area proceeded for two years until finally, in the

of the six

Common Market

fall

nations hardened. This deadlock was

confirmed when representatives of the 17 nations met on Dec.

nations was considered a chief in-

15,

overcome the split. The result was great bitterness, especially between France and Great Britain, the leaders of the 195S, to

two opposing camps.

To

10% all

alleviate the tension, the E.E.C. decided that the reciprocal tariff cut,

members

tariff.

i, 1959, would be extended to Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

introduced on Jan.

of the General

(G.A.T.T.), except cuts of

common The

On

ket

the

re-

E.E.C. was the agreement of

on the part of ten European

27, 1958,

tries of the

The E.E.C.

tariffs

then below the prospective

also extended the

ket import quota increase to all

Belg.

among

— One of the nations — the coun-

The End of the European Payments Union. sults of the establishment of the

of 1958, they broke down, and under French leadership the front

which the realization of the goal should take.

barriers

Market, a gradual process

—

iffs.

Community), would have

237

Common

to set

stability

see

I

sels,

strument for forming the

free-trade area envisaged

members

20% Common Mar-

of the O.E.E.C.

by Great Britain was formed by

group of countries which eliminated restrictions on trade within the group, but which allowed member countries to maintain their own individual tariffs on imports from outside, whereas the Com-

a

mon Market imposed

a

uniform

tariff

on outsiders. Such a free-

EUROPEAN UNITY

238

trade arrangement would give Great Britain the right to continue

the

Common Market

granting preference to

commonwealth products over goods from other non-European countries, while admitting European goods

No

decision

free of duty.

mon Market.

The hope

sion representing the E.E.C. rejected a British proposal that each

cut

and import quota increase within the

Common Market

should be extended by negotiation to other western European nations. But

Market

it

should be emphasized that several of the

Common

the other hand,

Common Market. Thus by the middle of 1959 Europe found itself in disarray, and European unity seemed much more a slogan than any sort of a reality. Under these conditions, early in June a conference was held at Saltsjoebaden, Swed., in which representatives of seven European countries Austria. Great Britain. Denmark, Norway,

—

Sweden and Switzerland

Portugal,

— met

to discuss a plan for

free-trade area outside the E.E.C.

decided to introduce free trade it

was not possible

The

among

The seven

countries

themselves, by stages, as

to arrive at a

wider association with

from tariffs and quantiwas to be supplemented by common rules of competition and antidumping provisions. The little free-trade area, as it was called, wished to move in the same direction as the E.E.C, toward a progressive tariff reduction that would not widen the gap between the two systems, and thereby force an the E.E.C.

liberation of foreign trade

tative restrictions

abandonment

of the idea of future synchronization

O. E.E.C. countries. In the future

it

among

the

all

might be easier to create a

between two existing multilateral institutions than an asso-

ciation

between the E.E.C. and individual nations by many

bi-

lateral treaties.

Of the two organizations the Common Market was the stronger embraced a population of 165,000,000 and had an internal trade volume of about $560,000,000 per month. The little freetrade area of seven nations had a population of So.ooo.ooo and an average monthly internal trade volume of about $230,000,000, one. It

was accountable

of which one-third

to

Great Britain. Because of

the relatively small scope of this free-trade area, the effects of the reduction of trade barriers were, on the whole, less far-reaching than those in the

On

Common

Market.

July 12, 1959, the premiers of Denmark.

Sweden announced

officially that their

to join the free-trade area of the seven.

Norway and

countries were prepared

The premier

of Finland

also affirmed his country's intention to consider participation.

Representatives of the seven nations met in Stockholm at the

end of July and worked out an agreement which was to be approved by the various countries by the end of 1959, so that they could start with a 20'y'c tariff reduction on July i, i960. A special agreement was to be concluded regarding agricultural products in

which Denmark and Great Britain were especially interested.

The

Strasbourg. France, on

May

14,

France,

Germany and

ii

Italy op.

able for the fact that the European assembly, a parliamentarj

On

ain's joining the

link

of ministers voted to reject the proposal. In this vote taken

posed the Benelux countries. This attitude was the more remart

there was a group of British industrialists favouring Great Brit-

long as

oldest

favourable to concessions to Great Britain and other

western European nations than did France.

little

—This

European community effort received a serious setback in 1959, It was faced with the problem of rising stockpiles; and when th« high authority proposed a European solution to the problem b) establishing production quotas and limiting imports, the council

nations, especially the Benelux nations, took an attitude

much more

a

The European Coal and Sfeel Community.

of resuming the unsuccessful negotiations for the

European free-trade area, which were carried on during 1958, appeared doomed in March 1959 when a nine-member commistariff

nations, and Turkey took a similar step, was reached about the concrete form, but the idei of such an association was welcomed by the members of the Com-

representatives of the four Scandinavian countries,

who

body acting for the three European economic communities, hac supported by a vote of 44 to 12 the pleas of the high authorit] of the E.C.S.C. for action to alleviate the

a

new

of the Christian

end of the meeting of the seven on July 21 stressed that the ultimate aim was a free-trade area which would embrace not only the little free-trade area and the Common Market countries but all members of the Organization for European

at the

Economic Cooperation. On the other

hand, Greece applied in July for a loose form of association with

1

—

Organization tor European Economic Cooperation. Dur membership of the 0. E.E.C. was increaset from 17 to 18 by the admission of Spain. The Spanish governmea signified its intention to liberalize its economic policies in ordei to bring them into line with western countries. At the same time ing the year 1959, the

the 0. E.E.C. granted to Spain a credit of $100,000,000 to ease

thi

Under the sponsorship of thi 0. E.E.C. financial assistance by a number of European countrie was also granted to the hard-pressed economy of Turkey. Euratom. The European Atomic Energy Community signo an agreement in Nov. 1958 with the United States to stimulati nuclear power production on the continent and to share the re suiting technical experience. Under the agreement Euratom wa to receive a loan of $135,000,000 at 4^% interest and enough en country's economic difficulties.

—

riched uranium to provide for the operation of six or eight reac tors capable of producing a total of

1963.

A

i. 000.

000 kw. of power

b;

$100,000,000 research program, to be jointly finance!

and administered by Euratom and the United States, was to usi the reactors to seek ways to lower the cost of atomic power. Bu the original enthusiasm for Euratom in Europe waned in 1951 because changing economic conditions large surpluses of coa and new large reserves of oil and natural gas in the Saharaseemed to make atomic energy less attractive for the immediat

—

future.

Looking back

at the events of 1959.

it

could be said that

al

though the free European nations made further progress in thei economic and political consolidation, the idea of European unit; made little reaf headway, and the great hopes aroused a few year earlier did not

come nearer

fulfillment.

On

the contrary, the

covery of the European nations strengthened

in

some

re

of them

especially in France, a spirit of self-centred nationalism whid

shifted the emphasis on national sovereignty

away from Europeai

or supranational co-operation.

See also Armies of the World; Foreign Aid Programs International Trade; North Atlantic Treaty Of

GANIZATION.

The communique published

Democratic party, who had been

strong proponent of European integration.

work but adapt

plans to the new'ly created free-trade

ol

president, Piero Malvestiti, an Italian representative ant

member

U.S.;

their

but the vote

ters. The E.C.S.C. thus proved unable to solve the coal crisis which was especially acute in Belgium. At the end of July the high authority of the E.C.S.C. receive*

had been working for several years preparing a common market for Scandinavia, declared that they would continue with their area.

crisis,

the assembly, a purely advisory body, did not influence the minis-

Bibliography.— William Diebold. Jr., The Schuman Plan: Study « Economic Cooperation. iQso-igsg (1959): Miriam Camps, Center of In ternational Studies. Princeton. The Free Trade Area Negotiations (195?) E. Strauss. Common Sense About the Common Market (1959); .^Rostin Soldati. "Economic Disintegration in Europe." Foreign Affairs (Ocl 1959): Picter Geyl. "The Mvth of European Unity.'' The \cw Leade I'nity. f.'VuK. 31, 1959); Hans Kohn. "The Difficult Road to Western Orbis (Oct. 1959); Renato Giordano, La Nuova Frontiera (1959); WiU: Bretscher. "On European Integration," Swiss Review oj World Aflatr (H. Ko.) (Oct. I9S9).

EXCHANGE CONTROL AND EXCHANGE RATES IL'tot

Evangelical and Reformed Cliurcli. merger consummated June

i

j

j

tions with a total

communicant membership of more than 800,were at work in Japan, Hong Kong, India, Honduras, Ecuador, Ghana and French Togoland, and were awaiting readmission into Iraq. Its government is a modified

Events of the Year:

000. Its missionaries

1-16.

(form of presbyterianism. Like other Protestant churches, it acicepts baptism and the Lord's Supper as the two sacraments au-

1

New

by the

ithorized 1

Mueller, Indianapolis, Ind. In each of these ecclesiastical bodies

was

I

1

"a

1934, between the former Re-

formed Church in the United States and the former EvangeHcal Synod of North America. On Dec. 31, 1958, the denomination included 2,742 congrega-

,

!

26,

Testament, while

it

regards and practises

set forth the

1959 denominational emphasis: "Unity with

Christ in Personal Christian Living."

of

Heidelberg Catechism, Luther's Catechism and the

[Augsburg Confession, but is

the

Word

in

matters of doctrine "the

final

norm

God."

of

In 1957 the Evangelical and Reformed Church took initial action entering into union with the General Council of

official

the Congregational Christian Churches

to establish the

(q.v.)

United Church of Christ (q.v.).

(Js. E.

W.)

1959, pages

last quarter of 1958 and the first three quarters of 1959 the terms of trade remained favourable to the more highly

industrialized countries,

lards are the

Calendar of Events,

Ss.)

Exchange Control and Exchange Rates.

confirmation, ordination, consecration (of full-time lay workers),

Recognized doctrinal stand-

see

(W. M.

During the

marriage and burial as holy

rites.

239

European annual conferences met during the summer months of the year under the leadership of the senior bishop, Reuben H.

and the international financial position showed further marked improvement. By contrast, most of the raw material producing countries continued to experience difficulties, brought on by the low prices obtainable for their products abroad and often aggravated by inflation at home. Throughout 1958 Europe's gold and dollar reserves increased, reflecting in part the return of confidence in its currencies, and

Europe

in particular

exchange controls were gradually relaxed. This movement toward liberal trading conditions reached its climax on Dec. 27,

more

Kingdom and most of the leading trading Europe declared their currencies freely convertible for current transactions by nonresidents. On the same day the European Payments union was tenninated and was replaced by a looser linking defined in the European Monetary agreement. The old E.P.U. procedure whereby outstanding balances between member countries could be settled up to 25% by credit was replaced by a multilateral clearing system in which all such settlements were made in gold or dollars. At the same time, however, a European fund was established with a capital of $600,000,000 195S,

Evangelical United Brethren Church. .Brethren Church, numbering

L'r'3"d

more than 760,000 members

in

United States and Canada, observed 1959 as the bicentennial of jthe birth of one of its founders, Jacob Albright.

During the period 1955-59, Sunday morning worship attendan average figure of 402,794. Sunday school

lance increased to

jenroUment was up from 687,719 to 710,580, with average attend:ance increasing jper

were

lvalues |leftt

from 407,074

capita during

to 441,039.

Giving averaged $63

Property and benevo-

1959, for a total of $46,479,676.

listed at $269,911,245, including schools

At the 39th session of the General conference, Oct. 9-17, 1958,

new annual missions and benevolence budget was set at $1,750,000. In addition, the quadrennial Mission Advance program oba

Ijective totaled

July

the United

make short-term

to

credits to

I,

in

such a

way

as to avoid imposing restrictions

Coming

as

it

1959, ground was broken in Dayton, 0., for the

as

its

Aug. 30, 1959, a missionary furlough residence located at Naperyille. 111., was dedicated in honour of Bishop Emeritus George

capital trol

—was

Edward Epp.

the

major European currencies.

The

During 1958-59 the following denomination-wide meetings

Women's

Society of

World

most countries movements were in

in the ability of

from the fund.

During 1959 the following publications were placed in circuJacob Albright (a translation) by Bishop Emeritus

Edward Epp; The Evangelical Church

in

Ohio by Roy B.

eedy; Proceedings of the 39th session of the General confer-

The Discipline of the Evangelical United Brethren Church,

|i959 ed.

;

Personal Christian Living, the annual denominational

ptudy book

member

countries to purchase foreign exchange

—

United States. As Europe's reserve position improved, there was a continued outflow of gold from the United States. U.S. reserves fell from $20,870,000,000 in Sept. 1958 to $19,670,000,000 in July 1959 and from the end of 1957 the drop amounted to

more than $3,000,000,000.

It reflected a fall in U.S.

;

and That They

May Know Him, a

pictorial brochure

level

Thirty-four annual conference sessions, concerned with opera-

tions in 4.450

organized churches in 43 states and provinces, United States and Canada during 1959. Four

)were held in the

— —and

exports

larger in fact than the surplus in current commercial trans-

actions

raised doubts in

economy was

still

some quarters whether the U.S.

fully competitive with the rest of the world.

Although U.S. reserves

still

represented about 18 months' im-

ports, the continuing gold outflow also led to

ously denied by U.S. authorities

— that

rumours

—vigor-

the U.S. might increase

the dollar price of gold.

Canada.

prepared by the board of missions. j

subject to a varying degree of con-

while imports were stable and foreign aid remained at a high

1959-

ation:

nce;

still

was further reinforced in by a general 50% increase in quotas in the InternaMonetary fund, that resulted in a corresponding increase

Education, Omaha, Neb., Feb. 7-8, 1959; Consultation meeting, ConIference E.U.B. Men's Presidents, Westmar college. Le Mars, la., ^pril 17-18, 1959; second Group Leadership institute, Camp Mi[ami, Germantown, 0., Sept. 14-17, 1959; and the quadrennial

eorge

— even

did not extend to residents and though

international liquidity position

tional

United Brethren Men, Wichita, Kan., Oct.

it

Sept. 1959

the General conference, Harrisburg, Pa., Oct. 9-17, 1958; first

icongress. Evangelical

as great

widely considered to signal the regained strength of

Service, Harrisonburg, Va., Sept. 17-21, 1958; 39th session of

jConsultation conference. Conference Directors of Christian

was not

psychological effect since the return to convertibility

though

Iwere held: quadrennial convention.

on trade and pay-

did at the end of a long series of small changes,

On

J9-11.

basis to

ments. the immediate technical result of this change

$5,150,000, or $1,287,500 annually.

(Evangelical United Brethren administrative office building.

I

members on an ad hoc

help them overcome temporary balance of payments difficulties

homes.

On

when

countries of

mained

— Except

for brief periods the

Canadian dollar

the end of the business recession. In Sept. 1959 a

re-

strong, despite an increase in imports, associated with

premium

of

5%

it

commanded

over the U.S. dollar. This strength reflected

EXCHANGE CONTROL AND EXCHANGE RATES

240

exchange position showed some improvement

the continued inflow of foreign capital, both short- and long-

term, partly

more steeply the treasury later

response to higher interest rates which rose even

in

in bill

Canada than

the United States.

in

from 1.54%

rate

was particularly

The

rise in

1958 to 5.64% a year

in Sept.

striking.

— In

Jan. 1959 Argentina introduced a new exchange system as part of a program to halt inflation and cor-

Latin America.

payments deficit. The program was asby credits from the U.S. government and a stand-by arrangement with the International Monetary fund. The previous combination of official and free exchange markets was replaced by a single fluctuating rate for all transactions. New taxes were applied to certain exports, and imports of all but essential goods were subject to levies ranging from 20% to 300%. At the same time Argentina abolished bilateral payments arrangements and the so-called "Paris club," in which Argentina's debit and credit balances with certain western European countries were offset one against the other. When the new exchange market opened on Jan. 12, 1959, a rate of about 65 pesos per U.S. dollar prevailed, compared with the previous official and free rates of 18 and about 70 pesos per dollar respectively. During rect a large balance of

sisted

the following months, the peso in

May

and recovering

The government

fell

recovery

end of July.

After the serious

difficulties of the

in June,

compared with

5.02 in Sept. 1958. In Jan. 1959 minoi

exports were accorded a preferential rate based on the free rate

but subject to an exchange tax of

2%

15%. The

or

result of the removal, in

The

May

which applied and was optional

free rate,

invisibles

The

prevailing at the end

tax was levied, as a revenue

sales of foreign exchange.

A

July 1959. On each occasion the range of goods exported or imported at the official rate of 18.36 cruzeiros per U.S. dollar (plus

was reduced and the surcharge increased.

From

July 1959 the effective rate for coffee and cocoa exports was 76 cruzeiros per U.S. dollar and for certain other exports 100

to nonregistered capital

for import pa>'ments,

The remaining exports and most imports were handled which then stood at 151.90, compared with 156.25 but government payments and certain imports re-

inflation continued in Chile, the country's

authorities to introduce exchange controls for the

ints

per

unit of foreign

quoted and

type of exctiange

of 50 pesos was placed on the

amount

Pound

Austri Belgru

Schiiiing

......'.'.

'.

.

.!.'.'

Ausln

nd

.

1938

limr

thai

Faced with

falling foreign

exchange reserves, the Uruguayai

authorities sought to discourage imports. In Dec. 1958 they im

posed a surcharge on the

exchange

selling rate for foreign

per U.S. dollar, two categories classified as less essential wen subject to rates of

4. 11

and

16.62.

The

principal export rate re

was provided that 42% of the for eign exchange proceeds of meat exports might be sold on thi free market, resulting in an effective rate, initially about 6.1

mained

at 3.46, but in July

it

currency)

Morkira

2.51

389.55

...

'.

'.

2.88

nany

Deutschemark Rxpee .


n

some years refused most

for

aid,

announced

its

willingness to

kccept a grant. Spain, in addition to recei%'ing increased

amounts

U.S. aid, was able to get assistance

from the International Monetary fund, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation and private U.S. banks as part of a general program to 'tabilize its currency and liberalize its foreign trade. Argentina, '00, benefited from a similar transaction, but negotiations with l>f

broke down because that country found the conditions

Brazil

by the fund too onerous.

'ailed for

The Future. just

'or

— In

his

budget for

fiscal i960, the

president asked

over $3,900,000,000 in foreign aid funds, of which

61,600,000.000 was to go for military aid, $835,000,000 in defense support. |he rest in

$700,000,000 to the Development Loan fund, and

various other forms of aid, including special and con-

ingency funds and technical assistance. )Oth

houses on July

authorized aid

22

53,600.000.000 (of which $1,400,000,000

5751.000,000

for

The

restraint than in earlier tries

international capital flows in 1959 ^-ere subject to less

governmental postwar years, as major European coun-

moved toward currency

convertibility, so that changes in

and other market forces had a growing influence on the direction and size of such flows. In addition, the scope

interest rates

for trading in equity securities of foreign corporations was widened, and the financing of direct investments also became

more

flexible.

In the United States there was a rapid recovery of economic

which continued into 1959. Inthe United States rose sharply in this period,

activity in the last half of 1958 terest rates in

largely as a

measure

to

dampen

excess

creases, but also as a reaction to a

demand and

price in-

marked deterioration

in the

foreign trade position of the United States resulting in large

gold sales and rapidly increasing short-term liabilities to foreigners. Rising interest rates

were effective

in cutting off

much

of

the flow of portfolio capital and

bank loans to foreign countries from mid-1958 through mid-1959, and also reduced gold sales to foreigners by making the holding of treasury bills and other dollar assets more attractive. In the same period, moreover, most European countries were pursuing less stringent monetary policies as their

economies were expanding relatively slowly.

By

the

middle of 1959, however, the pace of economic activity was rising in Europe, and interest rates there were also going higher. Euro-

pean investors considerably expanded the rate of their investments in the United States and other countries in 1958 and 1959,

and with the growth of economic strength and international serves in Europe this trend was expected to continue.

re-

—

under

U.S. Investments Abroad. After reaching a peak of $3,175,000,000 in 1957, private capital outflows from the United States

for miUtary aid,

declined to $2,844,000,000 in 1958, and a further decline in the

bill

totaling

was

that passed

FnrPiffn rUICIgll InVP^tmPnt? IllVCdllllCIIU.

just

defense support, and $700,000,000

for

the

half of 1959 indicated that the annual rate would be less than $2,500,000,000. Whereas in 1958 a sharp cutback in direct investment flows was offset by larger portfolio investments, espe-

first

Loan fund). The appropriation bill passed in midJeptember reduced this sum by $330,000,000, of which $150,!ioo,ooo was cut from the Development Loan fund, $100,000,000 ;rom military aid, $56,000,000 from defense support and $30,-

cially in the first half of the year, in 1959 direct investments were expanding more rapidly while purchases of foreign bonds and

^0,000 from technical assistance.

lending by banks declined because of the relatively high interest

Defense

The

total

appropriated for

fiscal

i960 was $3,226,000,000,

rates prevailing in the

United States. Nevertheless, the combined by a substantial margin the

ompared with $3,298,000,000 for fiscal 1959. The main reducwas in military assistance and defense support, while the

rate of outflow continued to exceed

ion

rates of the years prior to the

)evelopment Loan fund received an amount equal to the pre\i'us year's appropriation of $400,000,000 plus the supplementary

gether with reinvested foreign earnings and

5150,000.000 pro\'ided in the spring of 1959. In the course of fiscal 1959 the United States committed itself

more than during The Development Loan fund and loans from

lend nearly $2,000,000,000, one-third previous year.

the the

market values of foreign

sudden upsurge

securities,

in 1956, and. to-

some

gains in the

brought the value of United

States private foreign investments to $40,800,000,000

by the

beginning of 1959. Earnings of U.S. private foreign investments declined by about

10%

in

1958 to $3,370,000,000, with most of the drop attributable

)roceeds of agriculture sales each pro\'ided about one-quarter

to lower earnings of petroleum enterprises. Earnings of these

form of Export-Import bank United States was stressing the need for

enterprises, which accounted for about one-third of the total, remained under pressure in 1959 as growing supplies depressed petroleum prices, but other industries showed gains as economic activity expanded in many countries. Dividends and interest paid to U.S. investors on jjortfolio investments were also tending up-

vhile

most of the

rest took the

oans. Increasingly the ither

advanced countries

)rocess.

to participate

more

actively in the aid

These overtures found a certain response abroad where

he concept of aid to underdeveloped coimtries was increasingly

L

—

. ,

FOREIGN INVESTMENTS

266 Tab(«

I.

Valut of Unll»d Slalmi InnilmmnU Abroad, Jan.

1,

195S, and Jan.

"" '"""'"• °' "''"'"" ,„„

I9M Tolol

Tolol

W.il.rn Europ*

34.2 34.8 33.6

39.J 40.8 37.3

17.7 7.8 4.7

"J 3.3

"•'

**

3.9

.2

3.7

lona-i.'m

2.7 2.4 3.2 17.4 15.4

2.4 3.5 18.3 14.2

Shori.i.tm

1.8

2.1

InvttitmanI

Toial P'l.oi.

long i.rn

?"«•

•

„•

•

•

Po'alan dollor bofidi

OHtar •oiciiiait Oth.r Shori.i.rin U.S. gov.roni.nl

',;;;'•

lonn.

Amarkon

Olh»r

cl«i

Conodo

rvpubllct

counlrUi

1.1

14.3 14.2 13.8

i?.» 9.8

7.9 4.8 4.2

'-^

''

1.1 1.1

'0

•»

1.0

—

2.1

1.1

•

1.1

*

—

10.0

•

9.1

•

11.1

S.3 1.8 1.8

.3

.9

Direct investments.

— In

the

in 1958. first

half of 1959 thc net out-

tlow of direct investment capital from the United States

was

about $630,000,000, and the total for the year seemed likely to exceed the $1,094,000,000 recorded in 1958. Investments out of undistributed profits were $750,000,000 in 1958 and

many com-

panics appeared to be making increased use of this source of

funds

in

1959 as dividends to the United States were somewhat

reduced while earnings seemed to

Much

rise.

of the fluctuation in U.S. direct investments results

from

the year-to-year variation in the experience of the petroleum in-

—..,-., —

.3

by Chryslcr ^ Corp. and j Ai„„:„:.,^ ILtd. . „f a Aluminium of joint company to make aluminum ,' ^ ,. allOyS, i HeW DUlIding prodtioH

1.4

.4

1.7 1.4

3.2 2.1

3.3 3.5

•

.1

1.1

•

.

expanding refineries and pipelines

in Europe, appeared certain keep investment expenditures high. By the beginning of 1959 this industry had foreign holdings with a book value of $9,681,-

to

000,000, an increase of about $700,000,000 over the previous year.

U.S. manufacturing companies continued to expand their foreign production facilities, spurred

by strong competition from European companies. Investments in this industry increased by

about $600,000,000

in 1958, bringing the total to $8,485,000,000.

Mining companies

also

new sources

Canada.

were planning large outlays and other minerals.

to

develop

for iron ore, bauxite

— The pace of investment by U.S. companies

ada slackened somewhat

in

Can-

in 195S. after a long period of rapid ex-

some reduction in general economic activity About $600,000,000 were added to direct investments in 1957; petroleum and manufacturing investments were lower than in the previous year, but mining investments were beginning to move up as new projects were in the development in that country.

stage.

Major

interest in the petroleum industry- in

new

Canada

in

1959

or expanded reserves in Alberta and in the North-

west Territories. U.S. companies were actively exploring in both areas.

However,

existing

Canadian production

^

^

i_

.

.

facilities

were

operating at only about half capacity in 1959, and in .\ugust the

Borden commission on energy recommended that the international oil companies develop more markets for this production in the United States, where quotas on Canadian oil had been removed. Under consideration were proposals to build a. pipeline from .\lberta to Montreal, coupled with an imposition of restric-

|

many problems

political turmoil, presenting

.

,

tors. U.S.

companies had increased

their holdings in the area

by

.

a record of $1,266,000,000 in 1957, but the increase in 1958 was

down

;

and the outlook in 1959 did not indicate any substantial rise from this rate. However, much of the decline to lower, but still substantial, levels was accounted for by the marketing difficulties of the petroleum industry, and investor to $405,000,000

number

;

1

of countries remained strong.

In Argentina a growing number of U.S.

sums

oil

j

companies were en-

1

in exploration, drilling

and pipeline construction, although the capital to be invested from abroad would apparently be much less than was originally contemplated. Manufacturing investments centred in the automotive industry, with Ford Motor Co, building a $12,000,000 plant to produce trucks. General Motors Corp. requesting permission to expand truck production with a $20,000,000 investment and Chrj'sler Corp. also planning to invest $15,000,000. The .\rgentine government agreed to a S40.000.000 investment by Texas Butadiene & Chemical Corp. in a chemical and carbon black plant, and Pfizer .Argentina. S.A.. had an $8,500,000

1

j

[

1

!

J

,

pharmaceuticals plant ready for production. Under consideration w-as a proposal

by

a U.S.

group

to

.

spend $150,000,000 to develop

iron ore deposits in northern Patagonia. Late in 1958 the Argen-

,

government took over ownership of the major properties of the American and Foreign Power Co., but the amount to be paid for the properties was not determined, Brazil remained a focal point for U.S. direct investments in 1959 despite severe economic difficulties and continued attacks by various groups against foreign investors. At the beginning, of 1959. U.S. direct investments in Brazil were valued at $1,345,000.000, with more than half in manufacturing. During 1959 there were further investments in the automotive industry, ineluding a joint investment by Willys Motors, Inc. and Renault;

,

of France in a

company

to

produce a French-designed passenger

Other manufacturing projects were under way for the production of automobile axles and gears, major automobile parts, appliance controls and a wide range of chemicals. There were also car.

aluminum plant in Minas about $200,000,000 was under con-

reports that the construction of an

Gerais involving an outlay of

plan to allow participation of private foreign capital in the development of petroleum resources was blocked at least tempo-

Canada appeared

in

•'

for potential inve»-

to be expand-

in

somewhat more vigorously

I

—

1959 than in 1958, but there were probably fewer new ventures than in earlier years. An in-

Canada from Venezuela and the middle In Toronto, the Cities Service Co. completed a new $27,000,000 refinery, tions on imports into

east.

Manufacturing investments

'

Plywood Corp., and purchase of an existing lighting fixture business by Thomas Industries, Inc. Many countries in Latin America were in Latin America. economic difficulties in 1958 and 1959, or were in the midst of

by a U.S. group. more favourable for private investments developied in Chile in 1958 and 1959. Rate increases were granted to the U.S.-owned telephone company, enabling a $75,000,000 expansion program to continue. The Bethlehem Steel Corp. reported plans to expand its iron ore operations, and other mining properties were being expanded as prices improved somewhat. However, a

ing

.

i.

tine

pansion, in line with

centred on

i

^ Subsidiary of United StateS

tering into contracts to spend large

for

.

UCtS pISHt tO be COHStrUCtcd by

and other costs in producing areas. These factors reduced earnings and also brought some rescheduling of investment programs. However, significant new discoveries of

major programs

•

.,

mod*

interest in a

reserves in north Africa and Canada, and

•

,

dustrv'. In both 1958 and 1959 this industr>' found that it was developing available supplies at a faster rate than demand, and

also faced rising taxes

Other manufacturing

• vcrrturcs included the forma-

*

—

.4

where.

•»! .9

.2

*

•

—

locotad

.5

.1

2.3

oiKfunol.

•l.ii Ihan $50,000,000. tll«pr«i«nli lh» •illmalad lnv«ilm«nl bi ihlpplng componlai r»glil«r«d lit Ponarnd end LIbarlo. tConiltti prlmorllv of lacuriliat payabU in foreign curranclet. but includai torn* dollar obligalloni, Inclwdlng porrklpalionfl In loan« by Ih. Inl.rnolionol Bonk for R.con.trucllon ond D.v.lopm.nl. Scrc. U.S. D.por.m.nl of Comm.rc, S.rr,.y of Curr.nl 8.„ln..., Aug. I 959. D.loll moy not odd lo lolol. b.cou.. of ro-ndta«.

ward and exceeded $400,000,000

Canada of about SlOOin July when the Ford Motor Co. purchased mOSt of thc Slock of hi Ca"adian Subsidiary held by the oublic Canada and ana '

aircraft.

forest service reported that forest fire losses in

fire

Canada Forestry

more than $15,000,000

The government

year i960.

Tree planting

and national resources, continued during 1959

ventory, reforestation, forest

early 1959.

of wildlife habitats. 5.

affairs

1958

were the lowest on record. Area burned in the United States

the formation of an independent, nonprofit Canadian Tree

Farm-

—

F

;:

FORMOSA — OUR-H CLUBS

270 open

ers' association,

to all

wood

lot

owners, with a Quebec unit

already active. (J. L. V. C.) ENCVCLOP/tDiA BuiTANNicA FiLMS. Artfritt ol Life (1948); Forest Consfrvttlion (1940); The ForrsI Grows (1949); The Forest Produces (1949); Forest Ranter (1954); The Livinf Forest (1950); Look to the Land (1954); Seeds 0/ Destruction (1948); Vours Is the Land (1949)-

Induttrial

Output

fowar ond min«ral prodwclloni Pow.r (1,000 kw.h..) Cool (1.000 n«trlclo«l| Crud. oil (HI Nalu'ol goi (1,000

cu.nt.l

In

l»S7

l»M

},249,tlO 2,329 3,337 27,1 S«

2,333,1»7 2.914 2,771 21,733

2.II0.1J2

773,794 391,204

917.794 403.933

ia,03a 9,322 142,713 24,434 49,337

19.738 9,9a0 184,331 27.898 39,434

Marircll. Ilan>' situation.

importance

:

to

On

Sept. 16 he

made

a declara-

he recognized the right of the Algerians

and announced that a referendum would take place four years after the country had been pacified. This declaration had repercussions in Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. There was a possibility that Habib Bourguiba, the president of Tunisia, might act as mediator between France and the "pro%'isional government of the Algerian republic" which issued its reply oh Sept. 28, noting the promise of self-determination and to self-determination

asking implicitly to be recognized as the political organization of the F.L.X.

Parliament began work again on Oct. 6 and on Oct. 13 Debre made a statement of general policy. He commented upon the declaration of Sept. 16 on Algeria. He was received rather coldly in both the assembly and the senate. Many deputies from Algeria did not take part in the debating. Finally

on Oct.

16, the

govern-

ment obtained 441 votes against 23 with 28 abstentions; 56 deputies did not record their vote. There was some dissension within the U.X.R. and nine so-called "May 13" deputies were expelled from the party by its political committee. While on Oct. 30 the national assembly was voting on the plan for fiscal reform and at the beginning of November was examining the budget for 1960, there was an attempt at political subversion

aimed at removing Debre from ofiice, and oflttcial investigations were made in "activist" circles in Paris and in the provinces.

On

Oct. 28

De

Gaulle addressed a message to the

civil

servants

and armed forces in Algeria, reminding them that the Debre

government had his complete confidence in carrj'ing out the definite steps in policy laid down on Sept. 16. Moreover, Marshal Alphonse Juin was requested not to take part in any political discussions.

On

— During 1959 France displayed intense

an indication of

its

new

position in

the other hand, while agreeing to Dec. 19 as the date

of the meeting of the heads of to prepare for the future

government of the western powers

meeting with Khrushchev, he endeav-

oured to postpone the summit conference which Macmillan had

wanted

to hold as

soon as possible after the Eisenhower-Khru-

shchev conversations at

Camp

David, Md.

—

The Economic and Social Position. During the year there was an improvement in the French economic situation. Industrj' was expanding, the deficit in overseas trade was being reduced and the franc was consolidating its standing internationally. The reports issued by Antoine Pinay. the minister of finance, and by the governor of the Bank of France (at the end of July) were relatively optimistic. This was also the case with a parliamentary report on the budget estimates for i960, which spoke of "the austere road to prosperity" and of the necessity of which could bring about the

fighting "inflation, the only thing failure of the

govenmient's economic policy."

Drought, however, caused some shortage the country. chiefly at the

among

The

price of

in

many commodities

food supplies

in

increased and,

end of the year, there was considerable unrest

trade unions. Several unions demonstrated in support of

The guaranteed minimum wage had to be and the price of bread went up by one franc from Aug. 3. In November the government endeavoured, by importing foodstuffs and cutting down manufactured products, to forestall fresh rises in prices and to check any attempt at a strike in the an increase

in wages.

raised twice

countrj'.

See also Algeria; Armies of the World; Atomic Energy; European Unity; Foreign Inxtstments; French Community; French Equatorial Africa; French Literature; Geneva Foreign Ministers' Conference of 1959; North Atlantic Treaty Org.\niz.4tion Paris; United Nations. ;

(A. PR.) Education.

Foreign Policy. matic activity,

a stay in Italy on the occasion of the centenary of Solferino and the war of 1859. Then during Sept. 2-3 he received Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower in Paris at the time of a crisis in the relations with Great Britain and the United States, mainly caused by a speech by Debre on Aug. 16. During the latter six months of the year the various disputes between Paris. London and Washington continued. In opposition to British-U.S. opinion, France kept to its decision to explode an atomic bomb in the Sahara. After Khrushchev's \isit to the United States in October De Gaulle invited the head of the government of the U.S.S.R. to visit France at the beginning of

— Schools

(1956-57, state and private): primary

(incl.

pre-

diplo-

primary) 88,038, pupils 6,861.400, teachers (state only) 192,273: secondary 2.484, pupils 1,064,500, teachers 43,059; vocational (state only),

Europe and in

pupils 327,900, teachers 22,676; state teacher- training, students 21,303.

FRANKE — FRENCH COMMUNITY

274

Inilitulioni ol higher education (1956. eicludin( private) 134. t'nivertilirs

(957)

17. students

170,000. unit: franc, with a par value (from Dec. ig, 1958) Budget: (1958 est.) revenue 4,78>,ooo,ooo.ooo (r., 49J.7 expenditure 4,853,000,000,000 (r. Internal debt (Dec. 1958) 6,590,000,000,000 (r., external debt 1,383,000,000,000 Ir. Currency circulation (March 1958) 3,360,000,000,000 (r., (March 1959) 3,460,000,000,000 (March 1958) 3,651,000,000,000 fr., (March 1959) fr. Deposit money: 4,101,000,000,000 (r. Gold and lorcign exchange, official (April 1958) U.S. $609,000,000, (April 1959) U.S. $624,000,000. Foreign Trod*. (1958) Imports 1,353,830,000,000 (r.; exports J,I49,610,000,000 fr. Main sources of imports: conlincnial E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 39%; continental E.P.U./E.F. overseas territories j8%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin America 4%; U.K. 4%; other sterling area 14%. Main destinations of exports: continental E.P.U./E,F. overseas territories 38%; continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 31%; U.S. and Canada 7%; U.K. $%: other sterling area 4%; Latin America 4%. Traniporl and Communicallont. Slate railways (1957) 39,600 km.; passengcr-lim, (1957) 32,600,000,000; freight (1958) 52,884,000,000 ton-km. Roads (1957) 1,156,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957); passenger 3,972,000, commercial 1,421,400. Navigable inland waterways (1957) 7,887 km. Shipping (July 1958): merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over 1,307; gross tonnage 4,338,000. Civil aviation (1958) 4,123,372,000 passenger-km.; freight 118,404,000 ton-km. Telephones (Jan. '958) 3,498,900. Licensed radio receivers (1957) 10,881,000; licensed television receivers (1958) 683.000. Agrlcullur*. Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 9,577,000 (11,082,400); rye 454,000 (481,000); barley 3,904,000 (3,626,000); oats 2,611,000 (2,579,000); maize 1,625,000 (1,392,000); broad beans 67,000 (66.000); dry beans 99,000 (110,000); rice 145,000 (114,000); potatoes 13,716,000 (15,114,000): flax fibre 26,700 (29,600); tobacco (1957) 61,305 (58,000 in 1956); olives (19SS) 20,000 (35,000 in 1954); dessert grapes (1957) 156,000 (210,000 in 1956). Livestock (Oct. 1958): cattle 17,924,000; sheep 8,573,000; horses 1,982,000; pigs 8,131,000; chickens (laying hens, Oct. 1957) 85.000,000. Food production (metric tons, 1958): beef and veal 972,100; pork 664,100; mutton and lamb 80,100; milk (1957) 20,600,000; butter (1956) 300,000; cheese (1956) 350,000; olive oil (1957) 1,000; beet sugar, raw value 1.567,000; wine (1957) 3,122,000. Fish catch (including Algeria, 1957) S14.S00. Industry. Fuel and power (1958): electricity 61.800,000,000 kw.hr.; manufactured gas (available for sale, about 36% of total production) 2,892,000,000 cu.m.; coke (1957) 12,564,000 metric tons: coal 57.720.000 metric tons; crude oil 1,389,600 metric tons. Production (metric tons, 1958): iron ore (35% metal content) 59,460,000: bauxite (i9S7) 1.684,000; pig iron 12,144.000; crude steel 14,604,000; zinc 180.720: aluminum 209,760; copper 4,920: lead, refined 93.120; cement 13.644,000; cotton yarn 308,400; cotton fabrics 220,000; wool yarn 134.400; wool fabrics (1957) 81.400; rayon filament yam 56,280; rayon staple fibre 69.720; sulfuric acid (1957) 1.600,000; superphosphates (1957) 1,248.000; passenger motor vehicles 924.240 units; commercial motor vehicles 203,520 units. Petroleum treated in refineries (1957) 21,318.000 metric tons. Merchant shipping launched (100 gross tons and over. 1958) 450.800 gross tons. Index ol production (general, excl. construction, Feb. 1959; 1953 = 100) 159. En"cyclop.«dia Bsitannica Films. France (1955); France and Its People (195s); Vacances En Normandie (1956).

— Monetary

hnanc:lr.

= U.S.

$1.

—

—

—

—

—

FrSnke, William Birrell naval

officials

marines and surface full

gcer,

was

in

the

forefront

of

developing nuclear-powered, missile-firing subcraft.

Before entering government service

time in 1954 as assistant secretary of the na\'y for financial

management, Franke had been

a

consultant and di-

financial

rector of several corporations. In 1957 Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed him undersecretary of the U.S. navy. Upon

the resignation of

navy Feb.

3,

Thomas

S.

Gates,

Jr.,

as secretary of the

1959, Eisenhower announced that Franke would

Frpnrh rnmmiinitu ^CoMMUNAUTiFRANQAWE). With the riBIILII bUllimUllliy promulgation on Oct.

5,

Community com(i) the French republic including the 21 overseas diparlemenis (Algeria [15], Sahara [2], Martinique, Guadeloupe, Reunion and French Guiana), 5 overseas territories; (2)12 other prises:

member

The organs of the Community are; who is also the president

states.

of the French republic

the president

of the

Com-

munity; an executive council consisting of the heads of government of each member state and the ministers responsible to the

Community

common

Community, excluding France Hebrides (Dec. 1959 est.) 4,055,665 sq.mi.; total population (1958-59 est.;: 39,213,579. (See also separate

arbitration court. Total area of the

proper and the

New

History.

—On

Dec.

21,

1958, Gen. Charles de Gaulle was

elected president of the republic. In France he obtained

78.5%

of the votes cast, in the overseas departements

Sahara

81%,

in

97%, in the overseas territories 95% and in the states of the Community 96.7%. In the Michel Debre government (Jan. 8, 1959) Jacques Soustelle became minister delegate for the overseas dipartements, the overseas territories

and Sahara; Robert

Lecourt became minister of state responsible for the trusteeship territories.

seas

The other functions

of the former ministry for over-

France were shared among the technical ministries. An

Algerian affairs.

woman,

Raymond

Sid Cara, Janot, a

became secretary of

member

state for

Moslem

of the Conseil d'Etat, was

appointed secretary-general of the Community.

The former French West Africa (with the exception of Guinea which had become independent) was divided up into the following states: Mauritania, Sudanese Republic, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Dahomey and Niger iqq.v.). The former French Equatorial Africa was split up into four states: the Central African Republic (formerly Ubangi-Shari), Gabon, Congo (formerly Middle Congo) and Chad (qq.v.). Madagascar iq.v.) became the Malgache Republic. Each of the republics adopted a constitution, and some of them created national flags. The other (Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, French Somaliland, territories Comoro Islands, New Caledonia and French Polynesia) chose to retain the status quo.

The executive

Community, composed of the and ministers dealing met several times. First, in Parii

council of the

president, the prime ministers of the states

with joint

Community

affairs,

on Feb. 4-5, 1959. it decided that the senate of the Communit); would have one member for every 300,000 people, or 284 mem-' bers, of which 186 would represent the French republic with its overseas departements and territories, and 98 the other states

Four committees were created

to deal with

common

technica

senior partner of this firm until his appointment as assistant

secretary of the navy in 1954.

presided over by General de Gaulle, decided that the state

Free Europe Committee:

firm in 1929.

see Societies

He remained

as

and Associations,

U.S.

Freemasonry: see Societies and Associations, U.S. Freer Gallery of Art: see Smithsonian Institution. Free Trade Association: see Denmark; European Unity; International Trade.

,

articles.)

motto "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," its nationa anthem the 'Marseillaise," its flag the red, white and blue tri colour. There would be one army for the whole Community Second, in Paris on March 2-3 agreement was reached about thi posts to be allocated in the French diplomatic service to oflScial from the various states. Third, in Paris on May 4-5 decision were taken about the handing over of overseas radio stations Fourth, at Tananarive (Malgache) on July 7-8 the council

own

I

:

The formal nomination was made on May 5 and was confirmed by the U.S. senate on June 2. Franke was sworn into

firms before organizing his

'

affairs; a senate

matters.

on June 8, 1959. Born in Troy, N.Y., on April 15, 1894, Franke graduated from Pace institute (later college) in New York city, became a certified public accountant and worked with several accounting

j

formed of delegates of the national assemblies of the other member states; and an for

succeed Gates.

office

I

1958. of the

constitution of the fifth republic, the French

French,

The

official

language of the

Community was

to

b


tinued to prosper throughout the year. However, the announ'

ment of the second five-year development plan, to begin on July I, was an act of faith in foreign investment, since it in-

'

volved a total expenditure of ^242, 386,000 on general devrl. ment and £100,000,000 on the construction of hydroelei works, at a time when the government's easily realizable serves were about £90,000.000. In spite of protests from

farmers, the United til

Ghana Farmers'

re-

many

council announced that

't"

the completion of the development plan they would at

from the Cocoa Marketing board a price of £3 a load (60

II

instead of the previous fixed price of £3 12s. As a result, drastic

Gerontology:

Phono

'^

action had to be taken to prevent the smuggling of cocoa into

see Geriatrics.

parliamentary state on the Guinean coast of Africa,

Ulldlld. Ghana

is

bounded west, north and

east

by the republics

of Ivory Coast and Upper Volta and by Togo. Total area: 91,843 sq.mi. Total pop.: (1948 census) 4,118,450; (mid-1959 est.)

French territories. The final estimate for the 1958-59 cocoa crop was 245,000 tons. Opening his fifth budget on July 2, the minister of finance, K. A. Gbedemah, announced that he was budgeting for a surplus of £440,000 on a recurrent expenditure of £53,000,000. T^"-'

recurrent and development expenditure for 1959-60 was

4,911,000. Cap.: Accra. Areas and populations of regions:

mated Chief town

Eotlern.WMlern and Troni- Volta /Togolond.

.

Area

Population

IjQ.mi.l

Imld.l959e!l.l

[with est.

1959pop.l

29,781

2,700,000

Accro 210,000

24,379 37,483

1,024,000 1,187,000

Kumaii 100,000 Tomole 9,000

|.«cl..uburbs)

Aihontl Northern

1

at

Official

language: English.

More than 60 Sudanic tongues are Moslem and Christian minorities.

Other important towns, with 1959 pop. est.: Sekondi-Takoradi 55,000; Cape Coast 26,550; Koforidua 20,500; Ho 7,000. Queen, Elizabeth II; governor general, the Earl of Listowel; prime min-

Kwame Nkrumah. History.— During 1959 the government's

ister in 1959,

chief domestic tasks

continued to be the process of nation building and the establish-

ment of itself as the sole source of authority. On Jan. 23, the government appointed a three-man commission of inquiry under

1

more than £90,000,000. Budgetary changes included

.:.

creased postage and electricity charges, and increased duties on

'

equipment and roofing

'

beer, wines, timber, jewelry, tires, sports

materials.

Gbedemah

also

announced a favourable trade balance

59 of £10,800,000. and an increase in Ghana's also spoken. Religion: pagan;

Monetary fund quota from $15,000,000

On Aug.

16 the

German

to $35,000,000.

Federal Republic offered to invest

£16,500,000 in development in Ghana. Education.

in i- arteries was decreased and the removal of oxj-gen by the heart muscle was diminished. Other investigations suggested that patients with coronarj' heart disease did not remove fatty substances from the blood as rapidly as normal persons did; arteries

level of fats in the blood

foUowing a fatty meal, the fatty substances in the blood rose and more sustained level than in normal persons. StUl other studies indicated that epinephrine and norepinephrine,

to a higher

in the fall of 1958.

The attack on congenital cardiovascular defects continued to make increasing use of some type of pump which allowed an attack on the heart and adjacent vessels with the heart open

!

and under direct

j

\-ision.

As noted by Robert E. Gross,

in general

the techniques were simpler and the equipment needed to achieve

j

and monitor the resulting body changes complex than at first seemed necessary. It was found that too long a period of standstill of the heart was accompanied by irreversible metabolic changes invoh-ing particularly the storage and use of glycogen, a sugar, and that the heart, while the bypass of the heart

I

was

,

I,

'

.

less

capable of resuming

pairment

if

its

beat,

might function with decided im-

arrested too long.

One area of

particular concern in congenital heart disease

had

been the presence, in some patients with an increased flow of I

blood to the lungs, of an increase in pressure in the blood vessel

'

(pulmonary

arterj-) leading

to the limgs. In to a

ing

some

from the

right side of the heart

cases where this increased flow

was due

shunt of blood through a defect between the two receiv-

chambers (atria) of the heart, closure of the defect was months by a significant drop in pressure

followed in a period of !

in the

pulmonary

arter>-.

However,

this e\-idence of reversibility

of high blood pressure in the lung did not necessarily apply to all cases with this finding. In some, this elevation in pressure had been shown to be independent of blood flow, and attack by

surger\' often

proved

difficult

or disastrous.

The surgery of rheumatic valvular disease was

also being in-

DOG EQUIPPED WITH HEART BOOSTER, phragm which controls the contraction The dog. first given the heart booster

embedded in the diameans of electric signals.

radio receiver

of the aorta by

July 1958, is shown with one of the Inventors of the device, Adrian Kantrowilz, in a New York city hospital In 1959. The booster was planned for eventual human use on persons whose hearts had been damaged by hypertension or coronary thrombosis attacks in

'

HEBREW LITERATUR E_HOCKEY.

314

which are released by a portion of the adrenal glands in response to urRcnt demand by the body, also tend to cause an elevation of the fat levels in the blood as does acute emotion itself. The conclusion that "stress" was the cause of coronary heart disease did not yet receive widespread support despite these findings, and

no quantitative measure of

stress

was yet

available.

possible connection between

the use of cigarettes

tween cigarette smoking and deaths from all causes, with the largest number of excess deaths being from causes affecting the cardiovascular system.

He

and nonsmokers, and the concept of Raymond Pearl that each person is endowed at birth with a limited store of energy which is more rapidly exhausted in the sjnoker than in the nonsmoker. These statistical and philosophic reflections served to point up the different conclusions which could be the

far

drawn by

intelligent

data, and emphasized that the riddle of and coronary heart disease in particular, was

same

arteriosclerosis,

(1953-57)In 1956 Herter rejected a proposal by Harold E. Stasseh that

M. Nixon as the Republican vice-presidennamed Herter undersecretary of state

he replace Richard

candidate. Eisenhower

tial

in

1957 to succeed Herbert Hoover,

Jr.

Czechoslovak chemist ^'^^'^ ), and director of the Polarographic institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, was born at Prague, Dec. 20. He won the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1959

HpVrnU.

I

have

to

Jersey

tionals.

I

^n alien

Some

to

aliens

the aliens reporting in the southwest region

I

of a declaration of intention

pioyers, particularly those doing national defense work, require

tention were

California and north from Texas and Arkansas west _,,.,, Wyoming, had 923,439 who reported. About

.

good moral character or lacked

region, consisting of

,

'

filing

receipts continued to be high.

north-

York, accounted for 977,628

The southwest

reported.

the states to

same

the southwest, the

establish

to

which the petitioner withdrew the it. Others were denied because the

knowledge of English or for various other statutory reasons.

the United States.— The Immigration and Nationact requires that every alien in the United States on Jan. i

lation

government farm controls,

U.S.

Table IV shows the principal countries of former allegiance

While the ality

to

1959

of those naturalized during the years ended June 30, 1955-1959.

figure included 1,831 cases in

Source: Immigration and Naturalization Service, United States Department of

Aliens

In

30 667

Petitions for naturalization were denied in 2.208 cases. This

statements public charges

STANLEY YANKUS (LEFT) INSPECTING AN AUSTRALIAN HEN HOUSE.

1957

126 130 78 332

.

become

959

I

5,082 12

.

Likely to

(o

1958

7,142

... .

955

I

1959

7,988

Conado Czechoslovakia France

Germany Greece. ^"2l°i ifiy

''.'.'.'''

Latvia

Netherlands Polond u.s.s.r

;::::::

1958

103,931 10,990 10,324 1,474 1,920 18,442 2,457

119,866 12,428

s^us

3!259 8,462 i.,/ So

10,211 2,271

2,130 20,486 3,370

to

7959 1957

1956

1955

145,885 13,600 11,539 3,174 2,406 16,230 2,550

209,526 22,974

31624 9,056

4',832

l,oo\

4,zJ

138,043 13,210 io,89i

2,739 2,357 17,445 4,791

I8,i5i

5,890 3,320 17,842 3,785

2,511

4,482

4,988

9;?'! I6,i28 /,jyj 3,057

2,078 7,603 3^205

2,000 11,038 4,582

2,060 16,582 6,993

2,229 17,256

2,979 27,777

7,771

8,627

ii^sk

-nWs

iifiZ

z^'^\

Ai^o

8,079 o,uy4 1,634

Jopan

^Xr""'°

1959

9,549 I

Sourcei Immierolion and Naturalization Service, United Stales Department of Justice.

,

IMPORTS — INCOME

332

throuKh marriage. As evidence of citizenship, 18,255 derivative certiticatcs were issued. Citizenship may also be acquired through

and 6,907

birth abroad to citizen parents,

certificates

were

is-

who thus acquired citizenship. The citizenship of 154 persons was revoked during the year. Ground for revocation in 149 cases was the establishment of permanent residence abroad within 5 years after naturalization. sued to those

A

United States citizens

total of 2,912

by expatriating themselves. Residence voting

in

lost their citizenship

Legislation.

—A

number

fiscal

year ended June 30,

1959act of July 25, 1958 (P.L. 85-559), authorized the crea-

permanent residence in the case of Hungarian refugees paroled into the United States who had been in the United States for at least two years. The act of Aug. 21, 1958 (P.L. 85-700), amended and completely revised section 245 of the Immigration and Nationality act, having to do with adjustment of status of nonimmigrant to tion of a record of admission for

immigrant. Section

amended

of this act

2

the act of Sept. 11,

1957 (P.L. 85-316), by declaring that any alien eligible for a first preference quota visa on the basis of a visa petition ap-

proved by the attorney general prior to July i, 1958, should be held to be a nonquota immigrant and should be issued a nonquota visa.

The

1958 (P.L. 85-697), amended section 323(c) of the Immigration and Nationality act as added by secact of Aug.

20,

tion II of the act of Sept. 11, 1957 (P.L. 85-316),

by permitting

the expeditious naturalization of adopted children of missionaries or other

the general price level increased relatively

The quantity States in the ing that of

the

United States citizens going abroad to perform

ministerial or priestly duties. Section 2 of this act

amended

1

first full

little

and services produced

of goods

1

over the pri the

in

L'r,

nine months of 1959 was at a rate exi

first

any other year.

was one-half higher than in II, and was one-and-one-ilmu

It

year after World

1

War

times larger than in 1929.

On

a per capita basis (that

is,

after allowance for populaiion

increase over the period), real national output in 1959 was thi

than

in 1929.

National income increased from $366,000,000,000

of acts affecting immigration

were passed by congress during the

The

of the rise in gross national product from 1958 to

fifths greater

cipal grounds.

New

Most

U.S.

represented an expansion in the physical volume of product

a foreign state and

a foreign political election or plebiscite were the prin-

in

AND PRODUCT.

19;-

in

an annual rate of about $397,000,000,000 in the first hal: 1959. While complete data for the third quarter were not

become

available until early i960,

it

to

appeared that the annual

'

income for the first nine months of 1959 would also show an increase of about 8% over the full year 1958. The flow of personal income in the Jan.-Sept. 1959 period aggregated $378,000,000,000 on an annual rate basis, 5% above the 1958 calendar-year total of $359,000,000,000. Although the percentage increase was less than that in gross national product, it should be noted that personal income had expanded further from 1957 to 1958 despite the slowdown in national outrate of national

Over the whole period from 1957

put.

!

'

to 1959, the relative in-

creases in personal income and gross national product were quite similar.

—

Meaning of Income and Product Meosurei. National income, as defined by the U.S. department of commerce, measures the nation's output of the aggregate earnini:^ of goods and services in terms of its factor cost labour and property which arise from current production. Earnings arc measured in the forms in which they accrue to residents of the nation, before deduction of taxes on those earnings. .\s such, they consist of the compensation of employees, the profits of corporate and unincorporated business enterprises, net interest and rental income of persons. Personal income is the current income received by persons from all sources, including transfers from government and business but excluding transfers among persons. It differs from national income by the inclusion of transfers (such as relief, veterans' pensions and government interest, disbursements) which are not in return for current productive services, and by the exclusion of earnings (social insurance contributions and undistributed corporate income) which are not actually received by persons'

—

i

sec-

|

and permitted the expeditious naturalization of alien spouses of United States citizens who were missionaries or who were going abroad to perform ministerial or priestly duties. tion 319(b)

The

act of Sept.

2,

195S (P.L. 85-892), authorized the

Azores subsequent of

abode

in

were out of their usual place

to Sept. i, 1957,

such islands. It also authorized the issuance of special

nonquota immigrant

exceed in number one year's

visas, not to

annual quota of the Netherlands, to aliens or citizens of the Netherlands,

abode

their usual place of

1949, and

who were

who were

who had been

in Indonesia

nationals

displaced from

subsequent to Jan.

residing in the continental Netherlands

i,

on

the date of the enactment of this act.

See also International Law; Law. Encyclopaedia Britannica Films.

(J.

—Immigration

M.

current period.

in the

is-

suance of 1,500 special nonquota immigrant visas to nationals or citizens of Portugal who, because of natural calamity in the

Sg.)

Gross national product or expenditure measures the nation's output goods and services in terms of market value. It is "gross" in the sense that no deduction is made for depreciation charges and other allowances for durable capital goods used up in the productive process. Other business' products used up by business in the accounting period are excluded. Gross national product comprises the purchases of goods and services by con-' sumers and government, gross private domestic investment (including the; change in business inventories) and net exports of goods and services. of

'

—

Broad Patterns of Change. The expansion in level of national income and product in 1959 reflected a recovery from the economic recession which extended from the fall of 1957 to the, spring of 1958. However, part of the gain achieved through the second quarter was offset by the setback to the economy result-, ing from the prolonged steel strike that began in mid-July. In the second quarter of 1959. gross national product

(1947).

tained a record annual rate of $484.500.000,000

—about

at-

$54,000,-

1958 recession low

Imports: see Agriculture; Automobile Industry; Census Data, U.S.; International Trade; Tariffs. See also under

000.000, or

various countries.

portion of the increase represented real growth in the volume

Income, Distribution of: tribution

see

Wealth and Income,

Dis-

With

12%, above

tional product

was

at

U.S.

of°'9S9,^th1ur^oslM-

an annual rate (seasonally adjusted) of

$478,000,000,000. This comprehensive measure of the value of national output was at a record high,

8%

above the

total for

From

but thf

first

quarter of 1958, total production declined

and

5

9b in

volume

—

4%

in

valuf

the difference between these percentage;

reflecting the further edging

up of prices during the period

0:

business downturn.

In real terms (that

calendar year 1958.

gross national product

(The annual rate data for 1959 represent the average of estimates for the first three quarters which have been adjusted for seasonal influences and multiplied by four to facilitate com-

economy's turnaround

parison with previous annual totals.)

product followed a brief

the third quarter of 1957 to

in gross national

relatively sharp decline.

Income and Product,

0)

goods and services.

The upswing

OF.

the first-quarter

the prices showing only moderate change, a verj' large pro-

is,

after allowance for price

was in

essentially

changes)

unchanged during

the second quarter of

1958.

thi

Gain

were large thereafter as the slack which had developed durini the business decline was absorbed rapidly. By the fourth quarte of the year, real national output was back to the prereces

» >

:

INCOME AND sion high

and expansion continued unabated

in

the

first

half

I

of 1959-

'

For perspective, the changes

in over-all

during the 1957-59 cycle in business

may

production and prices

be compared with those

recorded for corresponding periods of the two earlier postwar swings in economic activity.

The

following generalizations

may

prove of interest I. Based on the movement of real gross national product, the 1957-58 recession was the sharpest oi the postwar period. It was also the shortest, the first substantial stride in recovery came after three quarters (two of decline and one of leveling out), as against four quarters in the 1948-49 recession and five quarters in the 1953-54 downturn. 2. >iore broadly, all three recessions may be characterized as relatively mild, with the declines serving to check only briefly the underlying forward motion of the national economy. 3. The first five quarters of business recovery brought roughly equal expansions of total national output in the three postwar cycles. 4. Real gross national product was not so much above its prerecession peak in the second quarter of 1959 as it had been at comparable points of the earlier recoveries. This distinguishing feature was directly attributable to the somewhat greater severitj- of the latest downturn; it did not reflect any relative lack of strength in the recovery which got under way in the spring of 1958. 5. The phenomenon of rising prices during a recession was not unique to the 1957-58 period. Taken together, the movements of prices in the three postwar business cycles were symptomatic of an almost total absence of downward pressure on the United States price level throughout the postwar period.

since

I

j

!

I

I

j

I !

I

'

j

i

1

1

momentum was work stoppage in

At mid-1959 the economic This was checked by the

clearly steel,

still

upward.

which lasted

116 days until the 500,000 workers out on strike returned to the mills in

November under

a Taft-Hartley act injunction

is-

sued by the U.S. supreme court. For the third quarter of 1959, gross national product dropped to an annual rate of $478,600,000,000, which was $6,000,000,000 below the peak attained in I

the previous three

Demands

months.

for National Output.

—As shown

1958

in

Table

I,

the

—

TAX — INDIA

INCOME

334 Amonu

used for

all official

changes from 1957 to 1959 were registered by cor])orate profits. On a bcfore-tax basis, these profits fell from an annual

Hindi

the Dcvanagari script. Religion:

rate of $44,000,000,000 in the third quarter of 1957 to $32,000,-

Jewish, etc. Union capital,

the distributive shares of national income, the prin-

cipal

000,000

quarter of 1958. Corporate profits then

in the first

re-

bounded strongly and by the second quarter of 1959 had reached a record rate of $52,600,000,000.

Wages and

in

.salaries

industry

private

also

reflected

the

in

do'';!), Christian

purposes but

(2%) and

is

Sikh

New

eventually to be replaco!

Delhi; pop. (1951 census)

Chief towns other than provincial capitals fpop., 1951 censu

:

were much

3'°,859-

in

the typically volatile profits

item.

—

personal income less personal taxes

Table

IV.

1958 to

in

—advanced

lln

Modros

000,000,0001 ol dollorsi*

....

1959t

1958

1957

1956

378.0

3J9.0

350.6

332.9

i

'

dliburi«menti

239.4

256.6

.

Other laboui

9.9

9.3

Proprielon' < DIvldendl . Parsonal inle

58.2

58.4

13.1

12.4

22.0 26.5

20.4

•til

Pefional

238.5

227.6

56.0 12.5 19.5 21.7

54.6

W.il Bengal

.... ....

.

Total

26.1

'

Shillong (53,7561

Poena (283.4791

Bombay

(2,839,27'.-

SrlnoBor (207,7e7Trivondrum (1B6.9'J Bhopoi (102.333)

Modros

(1,416,0:^'

Bangalore (788,977 Cutlaek (102.5051 Chandigorh Jaipur (291,130) lucbnow (444.711) (

|

Calcutta (4,578.071.)

Centrally administered

17.5

and Nicobor

3,215

10,922

30,971 1,744,072 1,109,466

42 8,629 4,022 27,403

21,035 577,635 639,029 4,122,208

Islands

573

and nontax payir

316.5 293.0

307.9 284.8

292.9 269.9

23.5

23.1

23.0

1,259,797

add to lotoll bocous tOata cover flrsi three quarter! and represent teriy totals expressed at onnuol rotes. Source: U.S. Deportment of Commerce.

13.549,1 18

26.071,637 29.974,936 19.401,193 14,645,946 16.134,890 15,970.774 63,215,742 26,302,386 357,029,461

Iwllh pop., 19'

Hyderobad (1.08:

12.1

cc

332.6 309.5 23.2

31,260,133 9.043,707 38,783,778 48,265,221 4,410,000:

85,861

14,937 171.300 50.174 74.861 60,250 47.062 132,098 113.423 33,885 1,232,394

Modhyo

ol Income

Ultor Prodeiti

Wos< and

Imi'

Copitol Populotion

105.700 85.062 67,113 190,668

simi-

an annual rate of $332,-

— Pcrfono/ Income and Ditpotition

Ham Psnonol Incom*

Amritsar 325,747;

Contlitutnt Slolti of India

—

As already noted, personal Disposition of Personal Income. income was hijther in Kjsg than in the previous year. Disposable income larly, from $316,500,000,000

.

Ahmadabad 793,813; Kanpur 705,383; Poona 480,982; Nat' 449.099; Howrah 433.63°; Agra 333.53°; Madura 361,781 nares 355,777; Allahabad 302,706;

marked than

•Mo-

Jain, Buddhist, Par

314-

impact of the recession, but the decline and ensuing recovery less

Hindu (&$%},

(3%);

Port Bloir (8,014) Delhi (914,790)

Simla (46,150)

361,151,6691!

*D«tail will not neceisarlly

Ily


', because of the emergence of new legal transactions and because of the shift in the intellectual outlook of international jurists arising from these circumstances. This shift

is

illustrated in such

Common Law a

books as that by C. W. Jenks (The

of Mankind, 1958), foreseeing the development of

universal law applicable to individuals as well as to states

through comparison of the legal systems in that

tional

all

parts of the world;

Hersch Lauterpacht (The Development of Interna' Law by the International Court, rev. ed., 1958), emphasiz-

by

Sir

ing the constructive activity of the court in giving practical effect to generally

accepted legal maxims, in applying treaties

attributing jural status to individuals and international organizations as well as states,

and

in reconciling states' sovereignty tol

INTERNATI ONAL LAW the rule of law

(Law

Corbett

by in

accommodations; that by Percy E. Diplomacy, 1959), indicating the practical practical

accommodations of international law to the political interests of governments; and that of Alejandro Alvarez (Le Droit International Nouveau, 1959), emphasizing the development of "a social international law" to regulate the increasing interdependence of states. International lawyers are, according to Howard, increasingly departing from the positivism of the 19th century and recognizing that, while natural scientists must conceive of an order which is to be discovered, jurists in a dynamic society must conceive of an order which is continuously created. Thus a sharp distinction between law-as-it-is and law-as-itoueht-to-be appears impossible. Law, as Justice Benjamin Cardozo pointed out, is

is

a continuous process of becoming, and this

especially true of international law in the rapidly changing in-

ternational society of the 20th century.

and Duties of States.

Rights

of lords reversed

comLondon to sue the Westminster bank for money given to him in trust by the Nizam of Hyderawould

be, in effect, against

the principal of sovereign im-

munities in national courts, but the house of lords held that the action for

money

to

which Pakistan and

its

agent had

title

was

not directly against the Nizam, although the latter might have

new

Age Studies

at

consequences-

—

A

—

legal,

Year Book of International

amount to a Hyderabad and an-

the interest of the foreign sovereign as to

him (Rahimtoola

v.

Nizam

of

The problem rivers attracted

of the distribution of the waters of international

much

govemsome principle of equitable among states in an international

attention during 1959. Jurists and

;ments have generally agreed that jdistribution

of such w-aters

jriver basin is

required by international law. but the extent to

jwhich the interests of prior users and the interests of those with Igreat future

needs should be reconciled

is

The duty

uncertain.

to

negotiate in good faith and the value of international procedures

balance such interests

ito

Journal of International ti.

The

award

is

Law

generally

recognized

'and

arbitral

I

—

Rights and Duties of Individuals. The supreme court of the United States held, over the dissent of Chief Justice Earl Warren

Hugo

L. Black, William 0. Douglas and Charles E.

iWhittaker. that congress can deprive a native-born citizen of his nationality in a

without his consent because of

his participation

foreign election (Perez v. Broufiell, 356 U.S. 44, 1958) and,

ov^r the dissent of Justices Felix Frankfurter, Harold H. Burton,

Tom in

C. Clark and John

M. Harlan, who were with

the

was called for the spring of i960 problem on which agreement failed

the majority

the Perez case that congress cannot deprive a citizen of his

Treaties.

—A convention on the Recognition and Enforcement

of Foreign Arbitral awards adopted

ence

among

by a United Nations confer-

representatives of 45 states went into effect on

June 7, 1939. having been ratified by Israel, Morocco and the United Arab Republic. This convention contributed to the solution of the important problem of maintaining arbitral clauses in concession-contracts

made by

corporations with foreign govern-

especially countries with underdeveloped legal systems. While the United States did not participate in the making of this convention, it appeared that it might relax the opposition it had maintained since 1953 toward international legislation by general treaty, at least in this case (G. W. Haight, The Arbitration tries,

Journal, 1959. pp. 73

War

ff.).

and Aggression.

agreement on

—The United Nations had not reached

a definition of aggression, but jurists continued to

discuss the question.

Some

believed that

the

The court

severely limited the discreiion

department of state to refuse passports on grounds of

to

they therefore questioned the desirability of defining aggression (Julius Stone, Aggression

and World Order, 19581. Others be-

lieved, with Charles de Visscher, that

under present conditions

"peace will serve justice better than justice

will serve

peace"

(Theory and Reality in Public International Law, 1957. p. 328) and that consequently a realization of the charter policy of preventing aggression by collective security should be pursued, with its

implication that the concept of aggression should be clearly

ward such

majority in both cases.

would be unjust

assuring just settlement of disputes were firmly established, and

US.

wartime desertion (Trop v. Dulles, 356 1958). Justice William J. Brennan alone was with the

it

prevent forcible self-help unless international procedures for

defined (Leo Gross, B.Y.B., 1958, pp. 421

'Jt

in

Geneva conference of 1958.

nationality because of 86,

to

of the extensive activities of U.S. corporations in foreign coun-

ff.,

in its territory flowing into Spain if due considerawas given to Spanish interests either by supplying waters or paying compensation (A.J., Jan. 1959, pp. 157 ff.). India and Pakistan accepted an apportionment of the Indus river system proposed by the International Bank for Reconstrucjtion and Development. The general subject of international irivers was actively considered by the International Law associaItion and the Institute of International Law.

Justices

international conference

650

[A.J.], Jan. 1959, pp. 30

in the

tion

and

some

ments, a subject of great interest to the United States in view

waters

|ing

to their internationalization in

form (Robert D. Hayton, A.J., Oct. 1958, pp. 746 ff.). Equally insistent was the demand for adequate international regulation of the high seas and the bed of the sea beyond national domain, and a clear definition of the limits of the national domain. An

{American

Lake Lanoux case between France Spain held that France could not be prevented from utiliz-

1.

in the legal regulation of the polar areas

deal with aspects of this

\other [1958] A.C. 379.).

1958, p.

especially the United States, to operate through bilateral agreements and thus to restrict expected scope and effectiveness of the agency's operations (Commission to Study the Organization of Peace, nth Report 1959, pp. 17, 217). Juristic discussion and diplomatic initiatives manifested both

an increased interest

against

[B.V.B.~\,

of the states providing fissionable materials and atomic isotopes,

and an opinion favourable

|suit

Law

recent study of this agency's acti\'ities indicated a policy

which a foreign sovereign is sought to be made a party and a proceeding in which the subject matter is property in which the foreign sovereign claims an interest. In the latter case, the iaffects

—The

scientific

an equitable interest. It distinguished between a proceeding in

'immunity depends upon whether the prosecution of the claim so

v.

Columbia university, designed to examine the economic and social of such scientific and technological developments as the use of atomic energy, the exploration of outer space and the increasing utilization of the polar regions and the bed of the sea. The International Atomic Energ>' agency established its headquarters at Vienna and entered into an agreement with Austria in 1958 establishing immunities from local jurisdiction. The agreement in general followed that of other specialized agencies with the governments in whose territory they had their headquarters but went further in extending privileges and immunities to nongovernmental organizations accredited to the agency (British

a suit

Dayton

developments for international law was emphasized by the establishment of the Council for Atomic

391).

sum of The bank claimed that such the Xizam and was barred by

Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 1958;

v.

Nuclear Energy, Outer Space and Polar Regions. significance of

missioner of Pakistan in

bad.

347

(Kent

Dulles, 357 U.S. 134, 195S).

the decision of the court of appeals in allowing the high

a i

—The house

political opinion

a definition

ff.).

accepted justifications for the use of force lations

—self-defense

Contributions to-

were made by studies of the generally

(D.

W.

in

international re-

Bowett. B.Y.B., 1958), invitation

.'' ' '

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

348 by the country Jan.

.'17.,

used (Q. WrJKht, '•nd the authority of the United

whose territory force

in

igso. PP-

"3

ff-^

is

On

the latter point. Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice,

commentinR on the

lefjal

adviser of

international law-

applied by the International Court of Justice, asserted

may

"an Assembly resolution

that

sometimes, irrespective of

strict

operate indirectly to authorize, or at any rate to per-

legality,

Law

through

The

11

Committee on World Pearc

Special

American Bar association supported

of the

position and during the year held conferences on

Nations as manifested by Rencral assembly resolutions. the British forciRn office,

reservation.

nally

mit certain things to occur with impunity" (B.V.B., 1958.

p. 5).

Law Among N.C.

(April

(March

Nations, in Boston, Mass. lo),

Chicago (April

17),

The

il"-

Ruli

j8), Charh.'

San Francisco, Cahi

(April 24) and Dallas, Tex. (April 28).

A

was introduced

resolution

Senator Hubert

Humphrey

the United States senati-

in

of Minnesota to eliminate the

'

nally reservation.

— At

Geneva from

tenth meeting at

pursuance of

Codification.

a general assembly resolution should not itself be regarded as

to July 1958 the

aggression. This appro.ich to a definition suggested that

draft convention on arbitral procedure and discussed a prelimi-

This seemed to imply that military intervention

all

uses

force in international relations in which these justifi-

armed

of

in

cations could not be successfully urged were to be regarded as aggression.

Kelsen

The

issue

was placed

1957, pp. 58

1954;

proper perspective by Hans

ff.)

which distinguished the

legal

(/I./.,

(Navns Corporation v. The Ulysses II, 161 F. Supp. 932, igsS). International Adjudication.— The European Court of Human Rights was established during the year with Lord McNair,

its

nth

it

Harvard Research

Jan. 1959, pp. 230

Law met

Law

on the latter topic

—The American Society

Washington, D.C., April 30-May

in

of In

2,

1959.

and discussed the broad problems of reconciling diverse systems of public order. .Attention was given to the need of universality, and the peculiarities of the Islamic, Latin American and other regional systems.

The

allocation of resources,

human

human

year regional meetings of the society were held in Chicago;

the

Rome

by the Council of Europe at 1953. when the European Human Rights

Europe

conference

in

initiated

covenant was signed by r;

states.

Besides defining

human

rights

on individual petition or petition by states, and for adjudication of the legal issues on the initiation of the commission or a state. Individuals do not have direct acviolations of

human

rights

cess to the court.

The International Court of that Sweden did not violate a

Justice during the year decided

treaty with the Netherlands in

providing for the protective custody of a Dutch child in

its

territory in accordance with its national law. In the Interhandel

case between Switzerland and the United States, concerning the

taking by the United States of assets of this Swiss corporation

on the grounds that they were enemy (German) property,

it

held

was not competent because local remedies had not been exhausted. The court also began hearings on the merits of the Portuguese claim of access to the enclaves of Dadra and Nagarthat

it

Aveli, north of

Bombay

in India {A.J., April 1959, pp.

301

ff.,

April

of international law.

Miami,

Fla.,

tional

its

;

general

law.

The

Law met

Institute of International

in Neuchatel, Switz.,

1959 and passed resolutions on the strengthening of the International Court of Justice and the enforcement of foreign

Sept.

arbitral awards.

The law

of war. with a special reference to the '

influence

was

upon

it

of general treaties

making aggressive war

illegal,

deferred for further study.

The

International Commission of Jurists

met

at Delhi, India,

1959 and examined the meaning of the rule of law in' '

various civilizations.

The

International

Law

London

in

association at a meeting of the execu-

May

1959 elected Lord McNair

See also United Nations.

(Q.

'

•

chair-

W.)

domestic jurisdiction.

The problem of reservations to such declarations was the submuch comment during the year. The American Society of

ject of

in April,

;

rights, rights of states, the Interna-

bank and the competence of the United Nations

man.

with a reservation on the United States model, excluding cases

human

assembly, as well as on several questions of private international

vations and the right of termination on notice, and Sudan did so

Law

j

!

in

The Academy of International Law met at The Hague. July and Aug. 1959 with more than 500 students from 44 nationalities. Lectures were given on fisheries, space law, the strengthening

tive council in

International

.

Orleans; and

10-19. giving especial attention to legal aspects of eco-

statute for five years. Great Britain did so with extensive reser-

considered within

1

nomic development.

in Jan.

it

New

York; Columbus, 0.;

Coral Gables, Fla. (A.J., July 1959, p. 668). The Inter-American Bar association met

319 ff.. 436 ff.; July 1959, pp. 671 ff.) Belgium, Finland, Turkey and Japan renewed declarations under the optional clause of the International Court of Justice

which

New

'

j

covenant provided for a commission to investigate alleged

this

Madison, Wis.;

!

\

rights, in-

ternational trade, the expropriation of concession, treaties and

intervention during civil strife were also discussed. During the

rights in western

:

'

ff.).

Law Meetings.

International ternational

International

in

former president of the International Court of Justice, as president, thus completing the structure for the protection of

,

a

bility of states for injuries to aliens. It listened to a report of

the

from the technical and political usages of the term. War was said to exist against a N.-XTO (North Atlantic Treaty organization) state within the meaning of a charter party during the Suez invasion by Great Britain and France in 1956

April

Law commission completed

gave preliminary consideration to draft consular intercourse and immunities, treaties and the respci

Law

College,

its

International

nary draft on diplomatic intercourse and immunities. At session in 1959

International

Law (Naval War

International Studies,

in

study of Collective Security under

in his authoritative

UN

the Institute of International

Law

International Monetary existence on Dec. 27, 1945.

FundJta^'Tu^tmel^o

when

its articles

of agreement (for-

September and the Committee on International and Comparative Law of the American Bar association in October, passed

mulated by the United Nations Monetary and Financial conference. Bretton Woods. N.H.. in July 1944) were signed by 29'

resolutions urging withdrawal of destructive reser\'ations such as

governments. .After an inaugural meeting

the Connally reservation, approved

Savannah, Ga., the fund

in

providing for self interpretation of domestic jurisdic-

in 1946, tion.

by the United States senate

announced

As of

own

and

its

Court questioned the validity of such reservations because

of the provision of the statute authorizing the court to decide its

1946, at

In the Interhandel case certain members of the Interna-

tional

jurisdiction. U.S.

Pres.

Attorney General William P. Rogers

Dwight D. Eisenhower urged withdrawal

of the

Con-

in

March 1946

in |

officially

began operations on

seat in Washington, D.C.,

its

readiness to

and on March

May i,

6,

: j

1947,!

commence exchange transactions. members with aggregate

Sept. 30, 1959. there were 68

quotas of $12,662,050,000.

The applications for membership of Laos and Portugal were approved during the 14th annual meeting in Sept. 1959, but the

'

NTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND Infernational Afohaniitan

Bank and Monetary Fund, Member Countries, Sept. 30,

7

959

349

INTERNATIONA

350

mcnts. Inflationary pressures had been largely eliminated and the western European countries were able to achieve the

tary conditions necessary

For the

position.

first

time since World

production was lower than

world trade

fell

strong

for a

War

world industrial

II,

The volume of by much the same propor-

previous year.

in the

from igsy

mone-

balance of payments

to 1958

tion as world industrial production.

The value

of world exports

than in 1957, and more than half of this decline reflected a fall in prices. While primary producing counin

1958 was

tries



%$were able

less

to avoid

their exports, there

any

significant decline in the

were declines

in the

volume of

average price and value

of their exports.

See also Exchange Control and Exchange Rates; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. (F.A.Sd.)

International Propaganda.

IhLcrtoSe^tZTZ

derstanding. was substantially breached during 1959.

The most

sensational development of the year was the visit of the Soviet

premier. Nikita Khrushchev, to the United States. That visit

brought about

Americans

at least

two major

results:

it

caused millions of

to re-examine their picture of the Soviet

Union and

had crystallized in the Stalin era; and it swept aside some of the barriers to communication, including, at least temporarily, Soviet jamming of Russian lanits

leadership, a picture that

guage broadcasts of the "Voice of America." Many of the important developments of 1959 had their beginnings in an agreement signed on Jan. 27, 1958, calling for ex-

changes between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. in the dustr>-. agriculture,

and the to be

like.

fields of in-

medicine, culture, science, sports, education

Exhibits, publications and motion pictures were

exchanged. Tourism was to be encouraged;

legislative

delegations were to be exchanged; limited exchanges of radio and

were agreed upon. During 1957 a small number of exchanges, involving about 121 Americans and 149 Russians, had taken place. The figure grew in 1958 to 953 U.S. citizens and 516 Soviet citizens involved television broadcasts

in official

exchange projects. In that year,

propaganda billboard

also, the first Soviet

between the German Democratic Republic (East) and the German Federal Republic (West) near Lubeck. Erected by the Communists in 1959 to replace a barbed wire fence, the sign says, "West German Brothers! If You Want Peace Fight For It Against the Militarists"

—

L

INTERNATIONA L PROPAGANDA

351

resolution had any connection with the

reacted vigorously:

AnTi- SOVIET

Nixon

trip.

Khrushchev

"The only enslaved peoples are

in capitalist

countries," he retorted. Three days later, at the formal opening

famous Khrushchev-Nixon "debate" took Written accounts of the incident seemed to bristle with recriminations over ultimatums, threats and which country's of

the exhibit, the

place.

weapons were

better. First impressions of the exchange

altered, however, television.

The

were

when a video-taped account was shown on

visual account

showed the exchange

to

have been

hard-hitting but relatively good natured, illustrating that television could give

new dimension

to the reportage of

important

events.

Even more unusual was the coverage given the Nixon visit by The newspaper Izvestia, organ of the

Soviet news mediums.

presidium of the supreme soviet, carried in

full both Nixon's opening talk and his farewell radio and television speech. The newspaper was published in eight cities and had a circulation of

more than

1,500,000. Rarely had vigorous expression of Ameri-

The Moscow,

can policy had such wide dissemination in the Soviet Union.

communist

press,

however, attacked the U.S. exhibit

in

it as nothing but propaganda, exaggeration and attempted deception. Krokodil, the Soviet humour magazine, had warned that the displays would mention nothing about the 5,000,-

characterizing

000 unemployed persons in the U.S. {i2>% above the actual ure), and the newspaper Pravda reflected a typical Russian action

when

it

•LET'S

LOOK AT THE BRIGHTER SIDE OF EACH OTHER FOR A CHANGE,"

1959 cartoon by Yard ley

of

The Baltimore Sun

had brought no results. They realized that in past meetings Moscow had stood unmovable on a set of maximum demands while democratic gov]emments had to face their constituents who were anxious for iresults. While communist propaganda agitated the "foam of surjface controversy," the allies had to depend on basic unity of interest to maintain a common position. The Geneva meeting jadjourned with little apparent effect on world opinion, which still hoped that a summit meeting would find a way of breaking

'of

negotiation over the suspension of nuclear tests

jthe

deadlock on the questions of Berlin,

jdisarmament and other problems. Neither to

German

reunification,

however, seemed

side,

gain advantage in the propaganda byplay.

During the Geneva meeting, one of the questions of was the charge that

West Berlin had been "a

conflict

centre of disruptive

subversive activity and hostile propaganda" against East Ger-

many and other satellite states, a charge repeated in the SovietjEast German communique issued late in June. It was granted

re-

expressed disappointment at the lack of heavy

machinery, a feature which dominated the Soviet exhibit

a

fig-

in

New

York city. But 50,000 to 75,000 visitors a day saw an unaccustomed abundance of consumer goods, the economic strength of private economy and something of American life. The exchange of exhibits was not as noteworthy as the amount of personal top-level consultation which

went on during 1959.

Late

visit to the U.S., Pres.

August, and before Khrushchev's

in

Dwight D. Eisenhower

flew to Bonn, Paris

himself and the major European

among

and London

allies of basic

to assure

understanding

the western nations. In Paris the president even took

time for a meeting with the

NATO

council. Reports

attested to the success of his visits.

unanimously

Crowds reacted

to his per-

sonal vigour. His appearance on British television with Prime

Minister Harold Macmillan was carried over the large Eurovi-

much of Europe. Press reports indicated much popular response to his statement, "I think people want peace so much that one of these days governments had better get out of their way and let them have it." President Eisenhower made it very clear that U.S. policy would be co-ordinated with that of its allies. In November Eisenhower announced that he would make a 20,000-mi. tour of nine counsion network, covering that the president got

Asia and the middle east before convening a "presummit"

tries in

ithat

meeting of "big four" leaders in Paris just before Christmas. He noted that no U.S. president had ever before visited Asia

jm the

while in office and added his hope that his trip would help to

West Berlin had served as the location for R.I.A.S, (Radio American Sector) which played an important part in iGerman language anticommunist broadcasting to central Europe and that Berlin serv'ed as an important escape route for

pundreds of thousands of refugees from communist countries. jThe conferees agreed that iaight usefully fn the

be studied;

Berlin dispute and

tention in

propaganda and espionage this it

was

however, the central issue

received relatively

what was essentially

jFoREiGN Ministers'

not,

a

power

Conference of

in the area

issue.

little

serious at-

(See also

Geneva

1959.)

satellite empire was by an incident which coincided with the opening of ;he U.S. exhibition in Moscow. Vice-Pres. Richard M. Nixon left iVashington to open officially the exhibition just after congress lad unanimously passed a resolution calling for "Captive Nations

Soviet sensitivity to attacks

upon the

llustrated

veek" to remind the U.S. of continued Soviet domination of east-

;m Europe.

It

is

doubtful that the timing of the congressional

foster "a better understanding of the United States

and good

will

for us."

The unprecedented

presidential trip climaxed a year of equally

unprecedented personal diplomacy among the world leaders.

Queen Elizabeth

II visited the United States in connection with

her extensive tour of Canada. Deputy Soviet premiers Anastas

I.

Mikoyan and Frol R. Kozlov also made trips to the United States but it was the Khrushchev visit in September that at-

in 1959,

tracted world attention and raised hopes for better understand-

ing between the two

The

So\'iet

moon

major powers.

rocket, which landed

somewhere between the

Sea of Vapours and the Sea of Serenity on the eve of his

trip,

was a spectacular gesture of strength, and Khrushchev made the most of this colossal demonstration of Soviet prowess. In Washington, New York, Pittsburgh, Los Angeles, San Francisco and

' !;

INTERNATIONAL RED CROS S — INTERNATIONAL TRADE

352 the

com

fields of

Iowa, the Soviet premier offered variations

on a theme which he had

magazine

fairs

just before

set

forth in an article in Foreign Af-

hij*

arrival: co-existence

was imposed

on the two great powers by technical progress and the destructive

power of modern weapons. But, he kept

insisting, as capi-

communism would emerge as Khrushchev was impatient, even angry, with

tember gave evidence that Nasser's leadership was not ui. Iraq and Tunisia did not send delegatcTnents surpluses, the first time in recent years that

had occurred. Trade with the United

that with Japan

States, the Philippine

downward

showed a corresponding

trend, while

increase.

Following the pattern of other far eastern countries, Indo-

was able in the first half of 1959 to increase its exports, while at the same time, limiting imports. The six-month export nesia

was 4,910,000,000 rupiahs compared with 3,680,000,000 The substantial improvement was primarily attributable to a reduction in Olegal trade, brought about by lessened rebel activity in Sumatra, The upward trend was total

Japan in the first half of 1959 was booma year of comparative stagnation. Exports in January-

foreign trade of

197 364 1,879

3,033

Japan's trade with the United States in the

Republic's major market, continued a

I

2,131

208 373 701 1,613

the level of Jan.-June 1958, and were

this

jvery satisfactorily.

1,990

20^1

724 895

balances in the

half of 1959

lonnual rolos)

195

ieastem area generally first

1959

Jan,-March April-Juno

359 524

1,862

c.i.f.

1958

valued at $1,542,000,000. Imports totaled $1,736,000,000, about 10% more than in the previous year. The resulting trade deficit

amounted

exception of India, countries in the far

Impofis,

1959 Joo;

Shiites

in

1958 numbered about 35,000,000. The main

rose

the

lion textbooks titles.

were specially printed abroad under 25 different the medical school

One hundred doctors graduated from

See also Religion.

(G. H. N. B.)

EncycloP/EDIa BriianNica Films. Asia dsth lecture of the series, History") (1958).

—Arnold Toynbee:

"A Changing World

the Religions oj the Light of

in

;.

ISLE

366

OF MAN — ISRAEL

Ida of Man: sec Great Britain and Nurthern Ireland, KlM.DOM OF. L'nIII I)

II

The state of

loldbL

1948,

is

Israel, a republic

at the eastern

proclaimed on

May

14,

end of the Mediterranean

sea,

with Lebanon to the north, Jordan to the east, and the United Arab Republic to the northeast and southwest. Area: 7,993 sq.mi. Pop.: (Nov. 1948 census) 834,317, incl. 716,678 Jews; (May, 1959 est.) 2,062,002, incl. 1,836.886 Jews. Religion (1957 est.): mainly Jewish but there were 146,844 Moslems, 20,543 Druses and 45,826 Christians. Chief towns (pop., 1957 est.);

Jerusalem (cap.,

Israeli section only)

152,500; Tel Aviv-Jaffa

President of the republic in 1959, Isaac Ben-Zvi; prime min-

—After the excitement of the

loth anniversary cele-

was not surprising that 1959 appeared at first as something of an anticlimax. In many ways, however, it turned out to be possibly the most significant year in domestic affairs since the state was established in 1948. In the course of brations of 1958,

it

the year there emerged the successor generation to the leaders of 1948; at the

same time the

oriental Jewish communities,

which

comprise more than half the population, appeared for the time as a powerful political factor

ment

was

It

this

in

first

deciding the future govern-

this silent struggle of the successor generation politics

struggle

which

on the home front, and as the year wore on

became increasingly less silent. This trend from new was concentrated on three men:

old political thinking to the

who commanded

the successful Sinai

operations against Egypt in 1956, General

Moshe Dayan, who

the former chief-of-staff

had

left

the

army

in

1958

in

order to devote himself to politics;

the former Israeli ambassador in Washington,

Abba Eban, who

May

1959 in order to contest a seat in parliament; and the former director-general of the minleft the

diplomatic service in

istry of defense,

Shimon

Peres, one of the principal architects

of Israel's close collaboration with France,

who

resigned from

the civil service in June 1959 to contest the elections. All three

enjoyed the support of David Ben-Gurion, the prime minister

and leader of Mapai, the Thus, when the party

Israeli

lists

Labour party. all

newcomers figured prominently among the candidates

for

the safe seats.

However, the old guard of Mapai did not take kindly to this and a severe tussle inside the party followed in an

intrusion,

attempt to restrain the consolidation of these new forces. The elections for the Israeli Federation of Labour, the Histadrut,

body of the trades unions, were conducted and both Ben-Gurion and the so-called new thinkers remained largely in the background. The result was not reassuring for Mapai. Its proportion of votes declined from 57.7% to 55.7% while that of all other left-wing parties (except the Communists) increased by 3.5%. The pendulum continued to swing against Mapai as the general election, scheduled for later in the year, came nearer. When the prospects of the party were at their lowest and even optimists expected a considerable loss of seats, if not the party's dominant position, the prime minister intervened. A tremendous nationwide campaign was organized for a period of ten weeks, designed to give a new image to Israel's Labour party. The new men, together with Ben-Gurion, Mrs. Golda Meir, the foreign minister, and her predecessor, Moshe Sharett, took over the campaign, addressing themselves to the nation. The test was the attempt the over-all governing

largely

by the

German

old guard,

to break into the oriental Jewish quarters, to capture the float-

ing vote and to turn

by

restitution to victims of Naziism. Agriculall

the needs of the

could be met from domestic sources while

new

home market

1

categories of ex-

up such as melons and tropical fruits. hung over the country and it affected the workers, merchants and industrialists alike. Israel was more prosperous than it had ever been. When the country went to the polls on Nov. 3, the unexpected

An

air of well-being

Mapai from a purely

class party into a

f

happened. In terms of proportional representation, there was a landslide toward Mapai.

votes from

all

sections

'

The party gained almost 100.000 more of the population; some of the largest

gains were in the well-to-do quarters of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv.

The

final results

(in parentheses the number of Mapai 47 (40); Mapai Arab lists sj

were as follows

(5); Herut (Nationalists) 17 (15); Religious parties 18 (17);; General Zionists 8 (13); Progressives 6 (5); Mapam, a centre; Socialist party, 9 (9); Ahdut Ha'avoda, a left-wing Socialist party,

7

(10); Communists 3 (6).

showed that the trend was toward away from extremes. On Dec. 16, after six weeks of negotiations, Ben-Gurion presented his new government to the knesset. Mapai was the dominating partner in the five-party coalition. Ben-Gurion remained defense minister and Mrs. Meir foreign minister. Eban, was appointed minister without portfolio and Dayan ministerl

The

result

was

significant. It

1

the clearly defined parties of the centre and

1

of agriculture.

I

Peres became deputy minister of defense.

On Dec.

Gurion won a vote of confidence by 78 to 33. See also Religious Education; United Nations.

were prepared for knesset member-

ship (elections are based on proportional representation), three

of western

seats obtained in 1955):

of the country.

dominated

this

showed itself after the sudden cabinet crisis at the end of June over the publication of news that the ministry of defense bad sold arms and munitions to the government of the German Federal Republic. The public shared the premier's satisfaction and not the critics' disgust. But yet another factor was beginning to make itself felt in the country. The economy was booming. Inflation (except in property) had been kept within bounds, the shops were full, unemployment had been reduced to relatively unimportant sectors, huge sums had come into the country as part

ports were being of)ened

David Ben-Gurion.

History.

in

the unexpectedly popular reaction which

ture had reached a point where

380,000; Haifa 166,000.

ister,

The party was considerably helped

national party.

17 Ben-

(J.

K.)

—

Education. Schools (1956-37): primary 1,157. pupils 310,585, teacben 13,178; secondary (incl. continuation and evening classes) 184, pupils 24.299, teachers 2,418; vocational and agricultural 82. pupils I3,34i teachers 1,116: teacher-training colleges 24, students 4,174. teachers 573 Universities (1957-58) 4, students 7,824. teaching staff 1,250. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: Israeli pound, divided into i.ooc prutoth with a par exchange rate of IL.1.80 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959-60 est.): balanced at IL. 1,471.800.000. Currency circulation (.Apri; 1958) IL. 245. 400,000, (.\pril 1959) IL. 269, 400, 000. Deposit money (April 1958) IL.394, 700,000, (.\pril 1959) IL. 448. 900, 000. Gold anc foreign e-tchange (April 1958) U.S. $87,700,000, (April 1959) U.S. $130, 900,000. Israeli pound Foreign Trade 1 (1958) Valued at U.S. dollar 0.56 Imports IL. 780,400, 000, exports IL. 259. 800, 000. Main sources of imports continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) coun tries 34%; U.S. and Canada 30%; U.K. 12%; other sterling area 3% Main destinations of exports: continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 40% U.K. 22%; other sterling area 7%; U.S. and Canada 15%. Main exporU

—

=

citrus fruits 3

7 '7c;

diamonds

22"^^.

—

Roads (1958) 3,525 km. Motor vehicle (1956): passenger 17,400; commercial (incl. buses) 22,091. Rail ways (1958): 430 km.; passenger-km. (i957) 335.332.ooo; freight, ton km. (1958) 202,800,000. Shipping: merchant vessels of 100 gross ton and over (July 1958) 44; total tonnage 206,000. Air transport (1958) passenger-km. 278,076,000; freight, ton-km. 5,592,000. Telephones (Jan 1958) 79,998. Radio receiving sets (i957) 354.ooo. Agriculture. Cereal production (metric tons, 195 7): barley 74,200 wheat 83,000; maize and durra 38,000; sorghum 37,700; oats 1,05", Miscellaneous production (metric tons, 1958; I957 in parentheses): olivei 20,000 (7,000); bananas (1957) 21,000 (24,000 in 1956); figs, dates am avocados (1957) 9.500 (8.900 in 1956); olive oil 4.000 (i.ooo); orangei tangerines and Clementines 357,000 (368,000); grapefruit 63.000 (58. 000); lemons (1957) 16,000 (12.000 in 1956): peanuts (1956) •4.00' (19.000 in 1955); wine (1957) 16,000 (10,000 in 1956). Livestock (SepI 1958): cattle 15-2,000; sheep 168,000; poultry 5,500,000; goats 140,00c Fish landings {1957) 11,600 metric tons. Industry. Production (metric tons, 1957): salt 31,600; superphosphal 108,000; potash (K2O content, 1956) 45,000; cement (1958) TuM" Transport and Communications.

in use

—

—

ITALIAN LITERATURE (1958) 1,764,000,000 kw.hr. Index of production (Jan. 1959; 123. New buildings completed (1957) 1,776,000 sq.m. floor area; value of cut and polished diamond exports (1958): IL. 61, 776, 000. Encyclopaedia Bkitannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: Why Prompt Peace-Settlements in Algeria and Palestine Are in Everybody's Interest; Suggestions for Peace-Settlements in Algeria and Palestine (12th and 13th lectures of the series, "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958); David Ben-Gurion (The Wisdom Series) (1958); Jerusalem The Holy City (1951); Major Religions oj the World (Development and Rituals) (1954); Planning Our Foreign Policy (Problems of the Middle East)

electricity

1923

= 100)

—

—

(I9SS)-

Italian

lldliail for his

^'^ ^^Sg. Salvatore Quasimodo was I itOratlirO LllCiaiUIC. awarded the Nobel prize in literature poetry; Alberto Moravia was elected president of the

P.E.N, club (the International Writers' organization)

major literary prizes went

;

the three

brutal realities

of

367 modern

daily

reported verbatim

life,

The major

dialect, slang or jargon of their characters.

nent of

the

expo-

"dictaphone" or "tape recorder" technique

this so-called

was P. P. Pasolini whose novel, Una vita violenta (Garzanti) on juvenile delinquency in Rome's suburban slums, appeared with a glossary. In

less abstruse

form, yet on the same gen-

theme, were La Capitale mancata (Feltrinelli), a plainspoken novel about a Roman call-girl who invades Milan and eral

plumbs the depths of

La Gilda

del

corruption

its

Mac Mahon

;

//

ponte della Ghisolfa and

by G.

Puccini prize)

(Feltrinelli,

Testoni, two volumes of short stories set in the periphery of

Milan, which depicted the baser instincts of

its

lower classes,

promising new

acting without moral or religious restraints and incapable of dif-

and neorealism, which had seemed to lease on life, intensified its exploration of the lower depths of society, and forged a new "spoken style" which was a compromise between the national idiom and that used by peasants and workers. The year's most astonishing find was // gattopardo (Feltrinelli, Strega prize), an often brilliant novel relating the hopes, disil-

and generosity and Una settimana ecby A. De Jaco, three novellas focusing on the slums of Naples and the passions, anger and despair of its hapless dwellers, irrepressibly spurred on by an indestructible hope of a better morrow.

lusionments and ultimate ruin of a Sicilian noble family during

tive

the Risorgimento.

Running through 40 printings in ten months, was the posthumous work of a one-book author, Giuseppe Tomasi, Prince of Lampedusa. Three other historical novels

hopeless infatuation

it

Fratelli's

writers

came

to

older writers;

to the fore;

be on the wane, took a

new

were acclaimed by both public and schiavi di Giulio Cesare

R. Bacchelli's / tre

critics:

(Mondadori, Marzotto prize), which

recreated the assassination of Julius Caesar through the story of the three slaves

(Vallecchi),

\tutti

ground of Italy's fellow

who remained faithful to him La terra t di by M. Puccini, which tells, against a backunification, how a youth learns to love his ;

man; and La signora

di Belfronte (Carucci,

Alvaro prize),

the dramatic annals of a middle-class Sicilian family over the

span of a century, written by Teresa Carpinteri. Neorealist writers uncovered a rich and hitherto untapped

human

inspirational vein in the

The by

S.

condition of factory workers.

between responsibility

conflict

to self

and society was probed

Micheli in his story of an irresolute industrial worker

who

ferentiating between vice

In the presentation of a chaotic, decadent society, love be-

comes not so much a source of joy and pure delight

Ottieri described the struggle of their

In two novels, 0.

northern workers to safeguard

moral and social integrity, threatened by the pressures of stretti, Einaudi), and the plight of southern

automation {Tempi

ipeasants in the initial stages of industrialization

Bompiani).

all'assalto,

G.

Arpino,

Gli

in

(Einaudi), delineated the clash between

(Dommarumma

anni

del

giudizio

Communist workers

and conservative peasants, party allegiance and family loyalties. Social conditions in the south inspired di rossore

(Mondadori)

(Sodalizio)

L.

;

;

Sciascia's

G. Bonaviri's

D. Rea's Una vampata La contrada degli ulivi

Gli Zii di Sicilia

(Einaudi, Libera

jStampa prize), three novelettes about America, Stalin and Gari-

Calabria's

of Sicily; and G. Strati's Tibi e Tascia which a powerful picture of the stoic life of hard-working, poverty-stricken peasants emerges

through the

medium

baldi's

liberation

(Mondadori),

The

in

of the

games and chatter of several

children.

feckless decadence of a large section of Italy's

bour-

was the target of M. Franciosa's La finta sorella (Valpazzo del casamento (Mondadori) and F. Perri's L'amante di zia Amalietta (Ceschina, Villa San Giovanni prize). R. Crovi's first novel, Carnevale a Milano (Feltri-

whirlwind in Lidia

De

as a destruc-

Stefani's rueful tale of a teen-ager's

{Passione di Rosa, Mondadori) in A. Nebbia bassa (Bompiani), an ill-fated romance between an old professor and one of his former students; in R. Nives'

Amore

;

e fervore

involving an American

(Quattrucci), a disastrous love affair

girl

on a

visit to

Sicily;

and

in

Fuoco

grande (Einaudi), the tense and tragic record of an impossible

attachment and a family secret, reported

in alternate chapters

by Cesare Pavese and Bianca Garufi. The animal urge which induces men and women to sin was dissected in S. Antonelli's novel Un cane e u uomo in piii (Parent!) and in M. Agatoni's short stories, La peccatrice di Lucca (Vallecchi). Conversely, P. A. Quarantotti Gambini's La calda estate (Einaudi) combined morality, symbolism and sexual love in a historical and psychological novel centring on the experience of two boys and a girl during three days spent on a remote islet of the Gulf of ,

Trieste.

ends up as a misfit and a symbol of the hardships and disorientation of his generation (// jacilone, Vallecchi).

;

cezionale (Mondadori)

Interest in

war novels ran low. Outstanding among the few

published were N. Modica's

//

cuore di pietra (Vallecchi, Cas-

Le italiane juriose (Vallecchi), and G. Palladino's Pace a El Alamein (Ejnaudi, Pozzale prize). Surfeited with the mediocrity of the contemporary scene, P. Monelli and E. Flaiano sought temporary refuge in widely divergent spheres the former by living as a young Roman during the 1st century a.d. (Avventura net primo secolo, Mondadori) and the latter by taking off into space on a flying saucer (Una e una notte, Bompiani). The spate of novels and novelettes did not prove detrimental to the short story which during the year yielded one of its richest harvests. The most distinguished collections included Moravia's Nuovi racconti romani (Bompiani), I. Calvino's / racsino prize), D. Paolella's

:

conti (Einaudi, the

first

Bagutta prize), M. Moretti's Tutte

Novelle (Mondadori, Viareggio prize), villeggianti

M.

Soldati's

La mesa

le

dei

(Mondadori), R. Bilenchi's Racconti (Vallecchi),

L. Berti's Storie di Rio (Vallecchi), C. Cassola's // taglio del

geoisie

bosco (Einaudi, Marzotto prize), and Grazia Livi's Gli scapoli

lecchi), L. Repaci's //

di

Qelli),

was an expose of the

sterile

life

of

Milan's

"beat

generation."

The subhuman liferate in

destitution, depravity

and about metropolitan

and loneliness that pro-

cities

became the object of

Londra (Sansoni). Literary critics began compiling selections from the best fiction

and poetry of the 15 years following World War II, thus taking stock of past accomplishments and assessing promises for the future. The most significant were Racconti italiani (Lerici) edited by G. Carocci and prefaced by Moravia, Narrativa nuova (Villar), La nuova narrativa italiana (Guanda) edited by G.

Nuovi

by U. Fasolo, and

growing concern to social-minded writers, particularly those of

Spagnoletti,

ivant-guard groups who, in an effort to invigorate the Italian

Poesia italiana del dopoguerra (Schwarz) edited by Quasimodo.

language and

make

it

convey without

literary contamination the

poeti (Vallecchi) edited

The avant-guard experimental movement found

a

new

outlet

ITALY

368

menabd, "Make-up pages" (Einaudi), a review edited by E. Vittorini and I. Calvino which published in every issue novels, plays and poetry by newcomers, together with critical essays relating to the moral, literary or historical problems treated in in //

(M.

the texts.

F. C.)

'^ republic of southern Europe, Italy is bounded on land Italu lldlj. northwest by France, north by Switzerland and Austria and northeast by Yugoslavia. The country includes the whole of

the Apennine peninsula, the large Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia and a number of smaller islands. Area: 116,294

(1951 census) 47. 515.537; ('958 est.) 49,895,283. Language: mainly Italian, but in Venezia Tridentina there are about 210,000 German-speaking Tyrolese and about 10,000 speaking Rhaeto-Romance dialects; in the area east of Udine sq.mi. Pop.:

there are about

d'Aosta

11,200 Slovenes and

(about 6,600)

is

population of Val

the

French-speaking.

mainly

Religion:

Roman Catholic (99.6%). Chief towns (pop. 1956 commune est.): Rome (cap.) 1,829,406; Milan 1,355,410; Naples 1,096,755; Turin 853,179; Genoa 727,012; Palermo 557,468; Florence 403,890; Bologna 387.574; Catania 337,286; Venice 333.165; Bari 299.928; Trieste 285.529; Messina 238,209. President. in

1959: Amintore Fanfani

Politically the year 1959

began with the congress

Giovanni Gronchi. Prime ministers

and (from Feb. 15) Antonio Segni. History.

—

of the left-wing Italian Socialist party (P.S.I.)

18 in Naples.

to

of the party

Its

officials,

from Jan. 15

leader. Pietro Nenni, against the wishes

succeeded

in

carrying a motion in favour

autonomy which implied its liberation at last from Communist control. This had a disintegrating effect upon the more moderate Italian Social Democratic party (P. S.D.I.) of the party's

and. since the latter was cabinet,

represented in Amintore

upon the government

as well.

The

Fanfani's

Democratic

Social

minister of labour, Ezio Vigorelli, resigned on Jan. 22 because

Nenni became independent of the Communists, Vigorelli prehim as Socialist leader to the right-wing leader of the P.S.D.I., Giuseppe Saragat. The result was that Fanfani, whose majorities in the parliament had been dwindling, was also obliged to resign. On Feb. 15 a new cabinet was formed under a former prime minister and colleague of Fanfani, Antonio Segni. Although Giovanni Gronchi, the president of the republic, made clear his disapproval, Segni accepted support from more conservative elements than would have countenanced Fanfani, and formed a one-party Christian Democratic government supported by the parties to the right, with Giuseppe Pella as foreign minister. On Feb. 27 the chamber of deputies passed a vote of confidence in its favour by 333 votes to 248; in the senate (March 6) the favourable votes were 143 to 97 against. The epilogue to this change was spoken at the meeting of the Christian Democratic party council held from March 14 to 17 when Fanfani was deposed as secretary-general in favour of Aide

if

ferred

More. Meanwhile on Feb.

8, in

preparation for their hoped-for fusion

group called the Movimento Unitario

made

new

Socialist

di Iniziativa Socialista;

great difficulties for them.

And

it

noticed with interest that in October a group of former

was

Com-

munists headed by Eugenio Reale, at one time Italian ambassador

in

Warsaw, preferred

to join Saragat's Social

Democrats.

In the spring political interest was focused upon the regional elections due to take place in the Val d'Aosta on

April 13 the

new Pope John XXIII made

May

a public

17.

On

pronounce-

ment condemning any party which co-operated with the Communists. This seemed to have the opposite effect from what the Vatican had intended: 91% of the electors in the Val d'Aosta went

to the

poUs; of these

48%

voted for the parties favourable

AN

Milan for visiting French Pres. Charles de Gaulle (saluting). To Ih is Pres. Giovanni Gronchi of Italy. De Gaulle paid a tiat visit to Italy in 1959 coinciding with the lOOth anniversary of the Battle o Magenta, when French troops went to the aid of the Italiani in their batti for freedom from the Austrians at

right of

De Gaulle

to the

government, and 52' substantial gains on the last

in a state of ferment.

gional election of 1955

with Nenni. Vigorelli and his friends formed a the P.S.I., however,

CARABINIERJ BAND PLAYING THE FRENCH NATIONAL

ITALIAN

THEM

and had nearly maintained the

th re

positia

they had won in the general election of 1958. Silvio Milazz now campaigned as leader of his Christian Social group whic had split away from the Christian Democrats. The result was 3

chamber of 90 for the Christian Democrats, 21 for th 11 for Nenni and 9 for Milazzo; the neo-Fascis M.S.I, picked up a little (9 seats, gaining one), but the othe

seats in a

Communists,

lost. After all kinds of false alarms, on July 2 Milazzo was re-elected prime minister of Sicily by a majorit of two with the support of the Communists and of Nenni

smaller parties

Socialists,

and

quarters in

in defiance of

Rome and

both Christian Democratic heac A Sicilian government wa,

of the Pope.

then elected consisting of four

members

of Milazzo's Christia

and four dissidents from other parties. It shoul be remembered that Milazzo's breakaway had begun in collaboK Social union

—

;

ITALY tion with the right.

He now depended on

the extreme left which,

369

Treaty organization. Undercurrents, chiefly of a commercial na-

though not represented in his cabinet, slipped into a number of

ture,

administrative positions. However, Milazzo's government

Arab countries whose

obliged to resign on Dec. 7

when

was

the Sicilian parliament de-

proposed budget by a 45 to 44 vote. On October 23 the Christian Democrats opened their national congress in Florence. Tribute was paid to Don Luigi Sturzo, feated

its

who had

the founder of their parent party, the Popolari,

died

continued to impel Italy into a certain patronage of the

help develop. This

potentialities

occasionally

Mattel was ever eager to

made

France uneasy. Further, as the end of in

its

Italian

relations

with

successful trusteeship

Somalia approached, Italy, to a certain extent instinctively,

displayed

itself as

the western

power with the most understand-

ing for the new, backward Asian and African nations.

8. After unusually violent debates an attempt from the wing to reassert the authority of Fanfani was defeated when

Italy's relations with Austria proved more difficult during 1959 due to the discontent of the South Tirolese or German-speaking

68 supporters of Segni were elected to the party executive as

population in the province of Alto Adige. The housing decrees

on Aug. left

was

have been expected. Indeed, during the year extreme rightist influence had asserted itself openly if spasmodically in the country as a whole an example was the refusal for the first time of the municipal

against 46

followers of Fanfani. This

Rome

authorities of

to celebrate the

to

anniversary of the libera-

by the Allies on June 4, 1944. was also a stormy year in the world of labour. The workers were determined to obtain a larger share of the growing national product and to resist the usual periodic dismissals by uneconomic concerns. On Jan. 9, 350 workmen dismissed by the Galileo concern in Florence occupied one of its factories from which the police evicted them after some violence on Jan. 27. Similar tion of the capital It

Communists explaining them caused by German competition made possible by the "common

events occurred in other towns, the as

market."

There were a number of

strikes,

and

it

was

officially

stated in

seven months of 1959 about 65,300,000 working hours had been lost as compared wuth 20,600,000 during the same period in 1958. October that during the

first

While the Communist-dominated General Confederation of

Labour (C.G.I.L.) admitted 1958, in 1959 cratic trade

it

seemed

members in Demohave come to a stand-

to a loss of 400,000

slightly to revive, while Christian

unions (C.I.S.L.) appeared to

they had been weakened by a breakaway in the big Fiat

still; I

concern of the group which called itself "Liberi Lavoratori I

Democratici" and which on April [the poll in the Fiat

elections

were held

7

came out

shop-steward elections.

at the

head of

When on

Oct. 18

in the big chemical concern of Montecatini,

however, the C.G.I.L. lost two seats and the C.I.S.L., gaining

came out

two,

top.

After the economic hitch caused by the recession in the United

and trade on the whole developed favourably, though ship-building, for instance, for which States in 1958, Italian industry

the state

was indirectly responsible, ran

increased, particularly with the

at a loss.

Foreign trade

German Federal Republic and

France, but also with the United States, Finland, and with the

Communist states (including Yugoslavia). Italy's foreign trade deficit was further reduced in 1959. Since the new Segni government had come into being in protest

against the policy of increasing the nationalized sector of

industry

which Fanfani, backed by President Gronchi and En-

rico

Mattel, president of the National Hydrocarbons authority,

liad

favoured, there was

much

tionalization. Several ministers, jflSce,

talk after

Februar>' of dena-

however, after a few months

in

reproached private capitalists with their unwillingness to

invest in industry.

They

stressed the need for private initiative

ind state enterprise at the

same time, and

in

August

it

was

inanged that the big banks controlled by I.R.I, (the Italian investment agency) should increase their capital. At about the same time the U.S.S.R. uttered one of its major Jireats to Italy over the transference of United States rocket

state

pases onto its territory;

the transference continued, however,

mainly involving the training of Italians in the use nuclear apparatus. When Pella succeeded Fanfani as foreign

'luring 1959, )f

ninister

he emphasized Italian fidelity to the North Atlantic

by Giuseppe Togni, the minister of public works under both Fanfani and Segni, were resented by the South Tirolese as a issued

violation of their provincial

autonomy and

at their expense. Their leaders to consult the

due

went

to

as favouring Italians

Vienna early

in

February

Austrian government. Since a general election was

in Austria in

May,

all

the political parties there took

up

the popular South Tirolese cause. Although the Italian gov-

ernment made administrative concessions Sept. 21, the

new Austrian

the summer, on Bruno Kreisky, felt some length when he adin

foreign minister,

obliged to refer to the South Tirol at

dressed the United Nations.

See also Austria; European Unity; Foreign Investments; Greece; Sam Marino. (E. Wi.)

—

Education. Schools U9S6-S7^: primary (incl. preprimary) 59,862, pupils 5,899,867, teachers 212,961; secondary (incl. intermediate) 3,306, pupils 673,967. teachers 60,319; vocational 2,533, pupils 518,269, teachers 43,360; teachers in training 111.754. Institutions of higher education 39, of which 27 were universities; students 212,412, teaching staff 19,872. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: lira (pi. lire), with an exchange

—

rate of 625 lire to the CS. dollar. Budget: (1958-59 est.) revenue 3,123,300,000.000 lire, e.xpenditure 3,258,000,000,000 lire. Currency circulation (March 195S) 1.813,000,000.000 lire, (Feb. 1959) 2,044,000,000,000 lire. Deposit money (March 1958) 3,221,000,000,000, (March 1939) 3,701,000,000.000 lire. Gold and foreign exchange (Feb. 1958) U.S. $1,581,000,000, (March 1959) U.S. $2,429,000,000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports 1,980,595,000,000 lire, exports 1,585,154.000.000 lire. Main sources of imports: continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 35%; U.S. and Canada 18%; Latin .America 7%; U.K. 5%; other sterling area 18%. Main destinations of exports: continental E.P.U./E.F. 42%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin .\merica 11%; U.K. 7%; other sterling area 9%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1957) 181,018 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 1,238,000, commercial 405,000. Railways (1958): 21,584 km.; traffic (state system only) passenger-km. (1957) 24,835,000,000; freight (1958) 13.068,000,000 ton-km. Shipping: merchant vessels. 100 gross tons and over (July 1958) 1,300; total tonnage 4,900,000. Air transport (1958): passenger-km. 759,360,000, freight ton-

—

BURNING WRECKAGE OF AIRLINER which was hit by lightning and crashed near Milan, Italy. June 26, 1959. Many of the 59 passengers who were killed were U.S. citizens bound for Chicago, III., via Paris, France

— IVORY COA ST — JAPAN

370

13,716,000. Telephone! (Jan. 1958) 1,871,011. Lici-nscil radio receivers (1957) 5,759,000; licensed television receivers (i9S7) 674,000. Agriculiur*. Production (metric tons, 1958; I9S7 in parentheses): wheat 9,815,000 (8,478,000); maize 3,674,000 (3,494.000); barley J96,000 (396,000); oats 569,000 (581,000); rye 105,000 (93,000); po-

km.

—

3,618,000 (3,158,000); rice 705,000 (637,000); broad beans 516,000 (585,000); dry beans 175,000 (153,000); tomatoes 3,541,000 (1,963,000); tobacco (1957) 63,000 (71,300 in 1956); olives 1,330,000 (2,013,000); citrus fruit 1,375,000 (i,ii6/)oo); grapes (1957) 6,848,000 (9,891,000 in 1956); hemp (i9S7) 30,000 ('43,100 in 1956); fidS (i957) 305,500 (318,400 in 1956); beef and veal (i9S7) 360,000 (353,800 in 1956); pork (1957) 343,400 (349.600 in 1956); cheese (i9S7) 339.000 (314,000 in 1956); beet sugar, raw 1,088,000 (849,000); olive oil (mechanically processed) 330.000 (353.000); wine (1957) 4.3S'.ooo (6,398,000 in 1956). Livestock (Sept. 1958): cattle 8,650,000; sheep 8,507,000; pigs 3,300,000; goats (Sept. 1957) 1,618,000; horses and mules 1,480,000; asses (Sept. 1957) 583.000. Induiiry. Fuel and power (1958): coal 733,600 metric tons; lignite 816,000 metric tons; crude oil 1,534.800 metric tons; gas (natural) s.184,000,000 cum.; (manufactured) 3,112.000,000 cu.m.; electricity 44.304.000.000 kw.hr. Production (metric tons. 1958): iron ore (50% metal content) 1.391.300; pig iron 3.172.000; crude steel 6,276,000; zinc, smelter 71,400; lead, smelter 48,000; aluminum, smelter 64,080; cement 13,384,000: cotton yarn 163,000; rayon filament yarn 61,560; rayon staple fibre 75.840; nitrogenous fertilizers (i9S7-s8) 425.000: sulfuric acid (100%. 1957) 2.052.000; typewriters (1957) 334.463 units: passenger cars 369.000 units; commercial vehicles 34.800 units. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over) 550.800 gross tons. New dwelling units completed (1957) 271,356. Unemployment (1958) 9%;

Japan's relations with the United States were dominated throughout the year by the issue of revision of the U.S. -Japan security agreement, which had been signed along with the p>eace

treaty on Sept. 8, 1951. Both in

parleys with the U.S.

official

tatoes

—

(1957)

9%-

ambassador, which had begun

[^ZTTmLZ

Democratic party, one of the most impwrtant points was

(1959

est.)

2,309,000;

3,100,000; Negroes of Kru, Agni (Ashanti) Baule,

est.)

Senufo, Dioula and other tribes. Language: Religion: animist and

Moslem; Christian

many

local dialects.

minorities. Chief towns

EuBouake (30.700); Grand-Bassam (12,000). Prime minister in 1959, Felix Houphouet-Boigny. French high commissioner, Yves Guena. The Republic of Ivory Coast was proclaimed on History. Dec. 4, 1958. The constitution was approved on March 26, 1959. (pop., 1958 est.): Abidjan (cap., 160,000, including 8,000

ropeans);

—

M the parliamentary elections held on April

12,

the

question whether Okinawa and the Bonins, not yet returned to

Japanese jurisdiction, should be included

in the treaty area.

Meanwhile, on March 30 the government was jolted when the Tokyo district court based its acquittal of seven trespassers on

upon the assertion that the security treaty and

a U.S. air base

Not only armed forces as but also more basically

related special criminal law were unconstitutional.

its

IX

art.

of the constitution (which forswears

instruments of national policy forever),

the whole structure of treaty-constitutional relations, thus be-

came subject to review. Government attorneys appealed to the Japanese supreme court, which ruled unanimously on Dec. 16 that the presence of United States troops and bases did not violate Japan's

sf.Toi\L

is

Area: 124,503 sq.mi. Pop.: (1951

lantic ocean.

unofficial

constitution;

international

that Japanese

treaties

made by

courts

the

could not

government.

It

ordered the seven students to be re-tried.

bounded west by the independent republics of Liberia and Guinea, north by the repubhcs of Sudan and Upper Volta, east by Ghana and south by the AtFrench Community. Ivory Coast

1958, and in

Oct.

conversations between the government and the ruling Liberal-

overrule

Ivory Coast, Republic of

in

the Rassemble-

ment Democratique Africain (R.D.A.) won all the seats. Europeans had 18 seats out of a total of 100. On May i Felix Houphouet-Boigny became prime minister. Camille Adam, the opposition leader, was expelled from the republic. Ivory Coast created a Sahel-Benin entente, together

Upper Volta. Niger and Dahomey. The entente would have a complete customs union and a common fund of capital on which each country could draw. (Hu. De.) \vith

Japan's reappraisal of relations with the U.S. also affected its

negotiations with the Soviet Union.

Foreign Minister Andrei

In Dec.

1958 Soviet

Gromyko had urged Japan

to follow

"a policy of neutrality," a suggestion promptly rejected by Foreign Minister Aiichiro Fujiyama.

On

Jan.

27

Soviet Premier

Nikita Khrushchev followed with a proposal for a denuclearized in the far east and Pacific areas; on May 4 another note urged neutrality and requested Japan's views on denucleariza-

zone

On May

Japan formally disclaimed neutralism as inits basic policy and further stated that prohibition of niiclear weapons must be considered part of the general disarmament problem. Japan continued without official contact with mainland China. In Nov. 1958 Chinese Foreign Minister Chen Yi broadcast a warning that the U.S. was trying to make of Japan a permanent military base through revision of the security treaty. In March tion.

compatible

a

15

with

nine-man Socialist-party mission, led by Secretary-General Asanuma, left Japan for Peking. There .^sanuma called

Inejiro

for closer ties with the People's Republic;

co-operation in the

denuclearization of, and withdrawal of foreign troops from, Asia;

abrogation of the Tokyo-Taipei treaty; and Asian economic

co-

operation built around mainland China and Japan. However,

Premier Chou En-lai destroyed

Socialist

hopes by insisting

that

trade was inseparable from politics; that govemment-to-govem-

Jamaica:

see

West

Indies,

The.

ment negotiations would be necessary

to adjust commercial rela-

tions.

lonqn

udpall.

^

constitutional

monarchy

in the

northwestern Pa-

Japan is made up of four main islands, Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku, with minor adjacent islands (total cific-,

Pop.: 142,767 sq.mi.). (1955 census) 89,275,529; (June I, 1959, est.) 92,670,000. Largest cities (1955 census): Tokyo. 6.969,104; Osaka, 2,547,316; Nagoya, 1,336,780; Kyoto, area.

Yokohama, 1,143.687; Kobe, 979.305. Principal reBuddhism: Shinto. Emperor: Hirohito. Prime minister 1959: Nobusuke Kishi. History. Foreign Affairs. During 1959 Japan continued to

1.204,084; ligions: in

—

play an important role as a

member

of the United Nations Se-

curity council. On Sept. 7, when the council took up a complaint by Laos that rebel forces were being supplied and trained by Communist North Vietnam, Japan voted with the majority to

appoint a subcommittee of inquiry (not subject to Soviet veto). Japan's delegate,

Koto Matsudaira, became chairman

of the sub-

committee, on which Argentina, Italy and Tunisia were also represented.

During 1959 protracted negotiations with the Republic of Korea (South Korea) for normal treaty relationships faced a crisis when, on Feb. 13, the Japanese cabinet approved Foreign Minister Fujiyama's scheme to repatriate North Koreans. There were about 600,000 Koreans in Japan, and it was estimated that about 117.000 desired to return to North Korea. South Korean Minister Viu Tai Ha immediately protested, terminated diplomatic negotiations and threatened to sever trade relations with Japan. Nevertheless, the Japanese government asked the International

Committee

fered to

of the

On Aug.

Red Cross

to verify the indiwdual

South Korean government ofreopen normalization talks "without attaching any con-

Koreans' wishes.

12, the

ditions," but its unilateral declaration prohibiting fishing behinc

the so-called

Rhee

line

continued to block normal

relations

Geneva the Red Cross decided t( assist in Japan's proposed repatriation of North Koreans; anc on Aug. 13 in Calcutta, Red Cross delegates from Japan anc North Korea signed a repatriation agreement. See also Korea. Meanwhile, on Aug.

11 in

——— —

JAPAN

ROYAL \:EZ'Ji\G IN JAPAN. Left, Crc^r. pr.rce Akihito and his bride, the former Michil^o Shoda, a commoner, in the official wedding portrait. Riahl, a student preparing to hurl a rock at the royal couple during the wedding procession, April 10, 1959. He was apprehended after he attempted to climb Into the carriage

On May

Japan reached a settlement of the last of its reparaan agreement with South Vietnam for $39,000,000 in a direct grant and an additional $16,600,000 in economic co-operation. Domestic Affairs. In Nov. 1958, the Imperial Household council announced the engagement of Crown Prince Akihito to Miss Michiko Shoda. The marriage on April 10 marked the largest national celebration since the end of World War II. The choice of a commoner as bride was widely regarded as a step 5

tions problems, signing

—

which brought the imperial institution closer to the people. Diet proceedings during the year were marked by questions of Japan's defense policy and

by dangerous party disputes over

related security measures. Since Oct. 1957, the National Public I

Safety commission had been studying a draft Police Duties law.

In Oct. 1958, Premier Kishi began to argue that social unrest

germinated by mass violence proved the need for a revised law.

budget.

The third revision of the Kishi cabinet, June 19, brought in all new appointees, except for Foreign Minister Fujiyama and Finance Minister Sato.

On

Sept. 26-27, central

Tjphoon "Vera,"

and almost 1,000,000 were homeless. Industrial Nagoya was hardest

hit.

—

On May i, 1958, Japan had 502 colleges and universities 653,253 students); 16,018 high schools (310,663 8,087,167 students); and 22,565 primary schools (363,984 13,492,087 students). On Jan i, 1959, Japan officially switched from a traditional to the metric system of measurements. Finance. The monetary unit is the yen with an official value in 1958 of 360 yen to the U.S. dollar. See Tables I. II, III. Foreign Trade. In the calendar year 1958 Japan's exports increased only 0.6% (1957, 14**), but imports also shrank 29% (1957, 32.5%). Decrease in textile goods was a major factor in export sluggishness: machinery decreased slightly: transistor radios and autos increased. Machinery was the only exception to a general decrease in imports. Japan's foreign currency reserves totaled $860,000,000 at the end of 1958. See Tables II and IV. Education.

(47.56S

professors,

teachers, teachers,

—

—

SociaUst opposition accused the government of attempting to

jstate.

Iplete

On Nov.

4,

Table

Japan; Fiscal Year Budgefs

I.

dent of the Liberal-Democratic party, and Socialist

.

.

.

.

1959-60

1958-59

1,419,248 1,419,248

1,312,131 1,312,131

1957-58

1,137,464 1,137,464

Chairman

was shelved and the lower house did not meet again during 10, 1958,

listrative

{tacked

When

1959

Bonk note! (000,000 yen) Wholesole price index (405 Hems;

1952 overoge= 100) index (151 items; ayerage= 100)

1934-36

Exports iU.S. $000,0001 • Imports lU.S. $000,0001-

Customs

tl957lolal.

stolislics.

Table

the diet reopened Jan. 26, 1959, admin-

Socialists,

who demanded

termination,

rather

In February both parties were occupied in the lower house

weapons for Japan. After Premier Kishi himself said that he was against nuclear armament of the self-defense forces, and would not permit U.S. forces to bring such arms into Japan, Socialists pressed with the explosive issue of prohibition of nuclear

701,200

891,000

(June)

98.5

97.9

97.5

(May) (May) (May)

285.5

227.0 2,858t l,284t

255.8 2,877t 3,033}

278 322

(I'SStolol.

(In

millions o( yenl

Moy

Moy

1959

891,340 33,508

Cosh* Deposits (other bonks) Loons

than revision, of the U.S. security treaty.

Dec. 1958

788,300

Japan: Principal Accounts of All Banks

III.

speeches by Premier Kishi and his cabinet were at-

by the

June 1958

(June]

Industrial production

immediately became snarled over the election of a speaker

and vice-speaker.

Japan: Selected Financial Indicators

II.

Indicotors

its

|Mosaburo Suzuki solved the diet impasse. The Police Duties extended session. The 31st regular diet opened Dec.

Table

bill.

keep the lower house and

committees from operation. Finally on Nov. 22, Kishi. as presi-

'but

. .

confusion as the Liberal-Democratic party unilaterally an-

land the Socialists tried forcibly to

:the

millions ol yen)

hem

proceedings were thrown into com-

nounced a 30-day e.xtension of the session, to pass the police

;law

lln

opening the way for revival of a police

1958, diet

more than 1,300

persons were reported dead, 1,200 were missing, 5,600 injured

enlarge police powers (along with re\ision of the security treaty |with the U.S.), thereby

Japan staggered under the impact of

the worst in recorded history;

Securities Coll loons

1958

Dec. 1958

965,138

1,041,279 32,580 5,812,942

6,048,370 1,063,854 95,844

30,062 5,218,742 858,696 74,975

6,648,365

5,694,343

594,309 325,776 277,888

452,557 497,302 228,106

912,054 93,362

liobilities

Deposits*

Debentures Borrowings Coll

money

'Including checks

and

bills.

tExdudtng checks,

bills

ond deposits

in

6,484,025 530,606 422,311 235,939

foreign currencies.

the Liberal-Democrats to co-sponsor a resolution to this effect.

iThe diet closed

its

144-day session

May

2,

Table

after passage of 163

IV.

Japan: International Balance of Payments lln

laws, including the

Defense Agency Establishment law revision

providing a 12,000-man increase in self-defense personnel: a

Minimum Wage

bill;

the National Pension

bill;

and the

new new

Item

millions of U.S. dollorsl

1934-36 overoge 1958

Receipts

906

Poyments Balance

941

-35

3,510 2,999 511

1957

3,643 4,175

-533

1954

1955

3,225 2,931

2,468 2,174

294

494

JAVA_JEWISH LITERATURE

372 -Japan:

Chhf

Agricullural Produett lln

19i7

froduci l)l» (bu.l

Wh«al and barlaylbu.) $w..l potato.! (Ib.l Iilih

T.a

potato*!

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

(lb.)

Umbtr Pllh

(Ib.l

product! catch lib.)

•19S4.

(bi/.)

.

I9M

3SS,7tt 3(2,088 148,712 100,439 13,783,443 13,433,078 1,363,480 3,982,839 1 30,874

_ _ —

743,nO 9,344,892

Ar«a Pfoducllon bu. oi Ib.l 1000 ocfa I95i

000

.

JEWISH RELIGIOU S and irony. Mukdam Umeuhar ("Early and Late"') was the title of Leah Goldberg's volume of selected poems, distinguished by a contemplative grace, which appeared late in the year.

I

!

Hebrew

In the United States,

was

the periodicals,

literary

activity,

except for

("Poems"), was, in its rather modest way, an event; it was tinged with deep resignation and an unfailing sense of Jewish historicity. Another book published posthumously was Zel I'tzlil ("Shadow and Sound"), by M. S. Benume, entitled Shirim

j

I

Largely

Meir.

,

affectation

traditional

and touching

form,

in

poems are free of Of interest too was

the

in their integrity.

the appearance of B. Ressler's novel Nachlat Zevi, I

with Jewish

and fortunes

life

in Poland, Israel

which deals and the United

— JOHN

XXlli

373 the col-

;

of essays Shrayber fun mayn dor ("Wri'ers of My Generation"), by Shlomo Bikl, was a product of 15 years of his research and activity in this field. lection

On

relatively quiescent. A. S. Schwartz's vol-

I

j

LIFE

cism was represented by a number of new publications

the occasion of the

looth anniversary of the birth of

Sholem .\leichem three editions of his selected works were published, one of them in Moscow, the first Yiddish book published in the Soviet Union since 1948. (D. Az.)

Jewish Religious

Life: see Judaism;

Religious Educa-

tion.

Jewish Welfare Board, National:

and

Societies

see

Associations. U.S.

I

States prior to the advent of Hitlerism.

j

.A

popular, very in-

thought was to be

structive exposition of various aspects of

I

found in Gershon Churgin's study. Zeramin be-Philisophia ha-

.Hadasha ("Currents Yiddish

I

Modern Philosophy").

in

Literature. —-The

jened in 1959

by

(G. P.)

Yiddish literary scene was enliv-

group of young writers who published their

a

Some of them were already familiar to Yiddish by their contributions to the magazines Di goldene keyt jC'The Golden Chain") and Yung Israel ("Young Israel"), both books.

(first

ireaders

of Tel Aviv.

The scope

was broad,

of fiction writing

reflecting the life of

widely scattered Jewish communities, as well as the

Ithe

and distant

e.xperi-

American Jewish life was [portrayed in short stor>- collections by L. Khanukov. L. Lasovin, IShaie Miller. X. Xudelman. L. Sigalovsky. I. Fridland and iOthers. The world created by these authors was populated by ;middle class men and women whose small tragedies, and still jsmaller triumphs, were recounted with compassion, humour and Isometimes with mordant irony (Sh. Miller). A fresh %ista was opened by Kh. Ayalti in his novel Vayter fun Bruklin ("Beyond

lences of the near

jBrooklyn

.

The

.").

.

setting

past.

was

familiar, but the story tran-

iscended the boundaries of realism

who

hero

jits

jrealm of his

qualities of

dreams. Oyf skmole trotuarn ("On Narrow Alleys") Israeli writer Yosl Birshte>-n. was a modem

young

the

jby

by the peculiar

actually lived not in the real world, but in the

psychological novel which probed with honesty and objective

detachment the

realities of the

new

life

in

Israel.

The

G»L'rsl''Tep.;"

In 1959 he became the

win the heavyweight boxing

first

Swede

championship of the world and the title

since

Max

Schmeling (Germany

ing out

Franco Cavicchi (Italy)

fended

this

Jewish

life in

Warsaw

of the historical novel, both in

its classical

made form

of the as well

sophisticated variety of a stylized old- Yiddish first

genre was represented by

(Tsvi

Kahan. the second by

jTiain

stream stood

I.

J. I.

folk

M. Osherovich and

Trunk. Quite apart from the

Metsker's collection of animal stories Gots

basheienishn ("God's Creatures''), fresh in

^d

at the turn of the

In the survey of fiction mention should be

The

win

this

at

Milan.

He

de-

Henry Cooper

(Britain) in five rounds at Stockholm in 1957 and by forcing

Joe Erskine (Britain) to retire year

later.

After defeating Eddie

in

13

rounds at Goteborg a

Machen (United

States), the

leading contender, in one round at Goteborg in 1958, he went to the United States flooring

New from

and

in

Floyd Patterson

in

June 1959 won the world title by three rounds at Yankee stadium.

York. This was Johansson's only contest in 1959. .•\part his achievements as a boxer, Johansson had great success

as a businessman.

(F. B. R.)

of eastern

life

Street''), a chronicle of

lovel.

rounds

in 13

successfully by knocking out

title

lege of Cardinals in conclave

its

to

by April 15, 1956, had won 14 contests, mostly by knockouts. On Sept. 30. 1956. in his first professional fight outside Sweden, he won the European championship by knock-

John

bs in

European

beat Jack Sharkey (United

professional and

hiel

jrevival

first )

States) in 1930. Only two men. Johansson and Rocky Marciano, had won the world title without one defeat as professionals. Johansson won Swedish amateur titles and boxed for his country in the Oly-mpic games at Helsinki in 1952 when along with Ed Sanders (United States), his opponent in the hea\'yweight final, he was disqualified for "not trying." On Dec. 5, 1952, he turned

inspiration for Yiddish writers.

century'.

to

tradi-

Europe was once more a source of The broadest in scope was YekHofer's A hoyj oyf Pokorne ("A court-yard on Pokorna Jewish

tional

Johansson, Ingemar - unit: Jordan dinar at par with the pound sterling (= U.S. $2.80). Budget: (1959-60 est.) revenue 30,800,000 dinars (of which approximately 22,000,000 dinars in foreign aid), e.xpenditure 38,200,000 dinars. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports 34,030,000 dinars, exports 3,530,000 dinars. Main exports: phosphates 28'^c. olive oil 2%. Transport and Communicoiions. Roads (1956, all-weather and others): 4.603 km. Motor vehicles in use (1956): passenger 4,985; commercial (incl. buses) 4,169. Railways (1956) 366 km. .\ir transport: Arab Airways and Mr Jordan; scheduled routes (1955) 9,222 km. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 15,125. Licensed radio receivers (1957) 59,000. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 65.600 (219,800); barley 16,800 (80.600); maize 5,500 (9,500); cucumbers 77.300 (109,400); onions and garlic 14,000 (12,900); tomatoes 74.400 (65.400); broad beans 1,100 (2,800); chick-peas 1,800

—

—

—

—

13.700): lentils 4,500 (12,000); bananas 13.100 (7,700); olives 52,400 114.900); sesame 2,300 (3,600). Livestock (Sept. 1957): cattle 64,000; sheep 453.400; goats 540,900; camels 13,500; horses (Sept. 1953) 9,000; mules (Sept. 1953) 7,000; asses (Sept. 1953) 56,000. Phosphate production; 261,900 metric tons in 1957 (208,400 in 1956).

IlirlQlcm UUUdlolll.

^^^

rnajor concern of Jewish leaders during 1959

meaning of Judaism. This preoccupation resulted from the complexities of the situation in Israel,

^ygg to clarify the

where Jewish immigrants from nearly all the countries The government of Israel decided to

of the world were gathered. issue passports to all

manded

its

citizens and, for reasons of security, de-

that each citizen declare whether he

was a Jew, an Arab Soon the question arose, "^^^lat is a Jew?" Within the government of Israel, this question of identification broke up the coalition between the Orthodox parties and the Socialists. But the effect of the controversy was felt throughout the Jewish Diaspora. After all, the government of Israel can only define the duties and qualifications of its citizens, while the or what.

test of belonging to the Jewish community is the concern of all Jews the world over. Accordingly. Jewish scholars and ideologists in all parts of the world took part in this debate, and their views on the question fell readily into several categories.

PROWD WAVING AND CHEERING KING HUSSEIN hrough Bethlehem on his way to a visit to Jerusalem

lountry

].

of

—

Jordan

1959

was undisturbed.

On May lifai

in

5.

shortly after the king's return to Jordan. Samir

el-

resigned as prime minister, on the grounds that he needed

rest

and that the

crisis

which had led him to accept

office

Iwo years earlier had passed, leaving the countr>^ at peace and onfidence between The retiring

the

throne and the people re-established.

prime minister also announced that he had obtained

rom London and Washington promises of financial assistance would ensure Jordan's economic stability. The king aplointed the court minister, Hazzaa Majali, to succeed Rifai as irime minister. Majali had championed the Baghdad pact in 955. but on his appointment as prime minister, he made it clear hat the pact was a thing of the past, and both he and the king Iromised that Jordan would stay out of all foreign alliances. On May 23. Major General Sadiq Share'i, deputy chief of staff f the Jordan army was arrested, together with several other fficers. on a charge of plotting to seize power while the king .as abroad. The plot, it was stated, had been discovered by he king before he left Jordan, and he had foiled it by taking •hare'i with him on his tour. The accused officers were put on August, the prosecution alleging that the plot was coned with the Iraqi revolution. The trial ended in mid-October hen Share'i and two other persons were sentenced to death. In June, following a frontier dispute, the United Arab Refhich

ein

Orthodox. For Orthodox Jews, the precepts of Talmudic Law as formulated in the Shulhan .^ruk are eternally binding. The Talmud contains philosophical speculations and general principles (Haggada) as well as a body of laws and ordinances (Halakah). While there are many degrees and types of Orthodoxy, the precepts of Halakah are decisive for all of them. In Halakah. the rule is stated that all who are bom of a Jewish mother are considered sons of the Covenant, obligated to abide by the laws of Judaism. Even if they violate one or all the laws of Torah habitually, they cannot liberate themselves from its yoke. ".\n Israelite, even if he sinned, is an Israelite" meaning that he continues to be under the obligations of Torah and that he cannot resign from the Jewish com-

—

munity. Conservatism.

—

The Conservative movement is divided on this issue, as others, between the traditionalists who offer no alternative Orthodox approach, and the liberals who recognize the legitimacy of differences within (he Jewish community. The Reconstructionist wing of the Conservative movement maintains that secularism, acknowledging no religion, is a valid branch of "Jewish civilization." Reform. The Reform and Liberal Conservati\'e spokesmen define Judaism predominantly in terms of religious affiliation, but they define religion in nonlegalistic terms, such as adherence to the principles of the Jewish faith, not necessarily compliance with the ancient laws. The difference between the .\merican Council for Judaism and the rest of the Reform movement relates more to politics and tactics than to philosophical principles, the former insisting on an abstract and rigid definition of the term religion, and on a strict delimitation of the interests of .American Jews in their coreligionists in other lands and in Israel. In general, the non-Orthodox writers distinguish between the principles of Judaism and its laws. When a definition is in order they are likely to ignore the law and to stress such Talmudic maxims (of Haggada) as the following: "Those who are merciful, benevolent and ashamed of doing wrong belong to the seed of Abraham our father"; or "Whoever denies the validity of idolatry is called a Jew." Secularists. Jewish secularism is a comparatively recent phenomenon. In the countries of central Europe, Jews who did not believe in the Jewish faith could declare themselves to be "without religion," Konjessiotislos, and disassociate themselves from the community. The rise of biological anti-Semitism, which directed its attack against "the Jewish race" or "Jewish blood," making no distinction between those who adhered to religion and those who did not, forced nonreligious Jews to maintain some associaon so

many

to the

—

—

tion with their fellows.

'; ,

JUGOSLAVIA — JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

376 The

rise of political /.iuiiism un ihf Ihrcshuld of the joth century iinthe ncccptance of s imlionalisticsecularistic dennition of Judaism, theory nssumed that the Jews of the world constituted a nation in the process of becominn. Jews were dislinKuishcd from their neiKhbours the world over l>y a common set of memories and traditions, a common hrritaite of persecution and martyrdom, and a common hope for redemption in the Holy L.ind. Those who will choose to live in Palestine, it was arKued, will emerge as a fulI-fledKed nation, with a distinctive and secular culture

plird

/.ionist

of their

Knl'Yclup«uia Bxitannica ViLUir -Arnold Toynbce: The Rrl (15th lecture of the serin, "A Changing World in the I.j History") (1958); David lien-Curion (The Wisdom Series) (r Dr. Louis Finkelstrin (The Wisdom Series) (1958): Jeruialem- The llulf City (i9St); Major Relifions oj the World (Development and Ritualt) (>954)ol Atia

Jugoslavia:

own.

The emergence of the slate of Israel in 1948 as a secular stale, Rranting equal riKhls to all its citizens, marked the triumph of the Zionist movement. Hut the new stale soon passed the I-aw of Return, enabling all Jews, who were so minded, to emigrate into Israel. This extension of a helpinit hand to "Jewish refugees" had to take account of the fact that some men and women who are not Jewish in a religious or national sense may be persecuted as "Jews" by racist fanatics. Th» Hiitoricol Vi»w. In the perspective of millenniums, the Jewish people constituted both a nationality and a faith, the one aspect or the other predominating at different times. In the biblical period, the Jews were a self-governing nation, and after they returned from Babylonia they enjoyed occasional periods of complete independence and of cultural autonomy. During the middle ages, the Jews were a distinctive religious minority, possessing at various limes extensive rights of self-government. In the countries of the western world, the progress of Jewish emancipation and integration implied the steady abandonment of strictly national features, and the gradual assumption of the status and character of a purely religious community. On the other hand, the occasional resurgence of antiSemitism would halt or reverse this process.

Jumping:

'

see Yugoslavla.

Track and Field Sports. Junior Colleges: sec Univeksiiies and Colleges. Justice, U.S. Department of: see Government Deia^, MENTS AND BUKEAUS, U.S. see

—

As of i9Sg, there were 7,000,000 Jews living in the free atmosphere of the Anglo-American world, maintaining their religious identity, in several interpretations. In the state of Israel,

To

nearly 2,000.000 Jews lived as an Israeli nation.

tions in Haifa

The major

and

in

made

to organize

non-Orthodox congrega-

difficulty in Israel

the Ashkenazic chief rabbi Isaac Halevi Herzog in July,

1959

the Sephardic chief rabbi temporarily in the ascendancy,

but there was no disposition to merge the two

Some American Jewish ernment during

1959

of

offices.

adopting

anti-Semitic

policies,

but

The Soviet government

is

hostile to all religions, forbidding religious education before the 18. It

recognizes national groups only

were held

by the subcommittee on special education and by the juvenile delinquency subcommittee to consider the proposed legislation. Among the proposed bills were S.694 and H.R.3464. These proposals would authorize $5,000,000 annually over a five-year'

when they

and evaluate

local

\

are con-

tional Invitation conference dealing with the

implementation

ofj

theory for prevention and control of juvenile delinquency. Morel

than 200 educators and other youth workers participated conference in Washington, D.C.,

May

in the!

14-15, 1959. This confer-,

centrated in any one territory, speaking a language of their own.

ence reviewed the theoretical statement. Delinquent Behavior: Culture and the Individual, prepared by the N.E.A. Delinquency!

still

identified as a separate na-

documents, but they are neither confined to one area nor do their young people speak Yiddish. tionality, in legal

See also Israel; Religious Education.

i

and slate efforts to prevent and control delinquency. The U.S. senate subcommittee on juvenile delinquency continued its investigations of various aspects of the delinquency problem in the United States and published Senate. Report No. 137 (May 24, 1959) on juvenile delinquency. Two, separate hearings were conducted in New York city by the senate subcommittee. The National Education association fX.E.A.) sponsored a Na-| strate

The Jews

of the U.S.S.R. are

;

;

organizations accused the Soviet gov-

Soviet officials denied this accusation.

age of

tide of norm-violating behaviour. Extensive hearings

'.

period to finance projects designed to discover, develop, demon-

Tel Aviv.

was the wide chasm between the "white" (European) and "black" (Oriental and African) Jews. Riots in Haifa, Beersheba and other cities during the summer months underlined the severity of this. problem. The death of left

on delinquency as a major youth problem in 1959, especially in the large urban centres. A number of bills were introduced in the U.S. congress intended to help public and private agencies at the state and local levels find new and better ways of stemming the ever increasing

',

that time,

only the orthodox version of Judaism was allowed. During the year, attempts were

".r*,

Juvenile Delinquency. L'S;.:";:."„t; New York city alone kept the spotlight

activities in

(J. B.

A.)

JUVENILES LINED UP AGAINST A WALL prior to a weapons after a killing in New York city's Lower East Several persons were shot or stabbed rival teen-age gangs

In

an

search side

for concetlec: In

Aug. 19S9

outbreak of violence between twc

(T

——

—

KAN SAS

377

I

I

I

Project

staff,

and made suggestions for school

much

senate publications pointed out that

The

practices.

serious norm-violating

and represents "normal" and even "demand" beha\-iour when considered against the youngbehaviour

is

culturally determined

The N.E.A. publinorm violators could

primar>' or essential reference group.

ster's

cation outlined

ways

which the nation's

in

be helped by the schools.

The American Academy

;

an issue of the

lished tion

outstanding

of

delinquency

way

and Social Science puband evaluaprevention programs and

of Political

Annah devoted

research efforts under

to a description

in different sections of the countn.-.

Most of these endeavours focused on helping the neighbourhood. the family and the gang, rather than on the one-to-one counseling

approach via the child guidance

testified to the

need for more

But all these reports and objective methods

clinic.

scientific

and techniques for evaluating the

effects of

agency and com-

munity programs aimed to reduce delinquency.

An encyclopaedic volume concerning

all

aspects of the delin-

quency problem was edited by Sheldon Glueck, of Harvard university. This volume brought under one cover the significant

many

writing of

researchers and practitioners on a wide variety

and diagnosis, prediction, ment and community programing. of topics including law. study

treat-

See also Child Welfare; Crime, U.S.; Education'.

—

BiBLioGR.^PHY. Xational Education .Association Juvenile Delinquency Delinquent Behavior: Culture and the Individual (1959): Delinquent Behavior: Principles and Practices (1959): "Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency,'' ed. by Helen L. Witmer, The Annals (March 1939, .American .Academy of Political and Social Science): Problems of Delinquency, ed. by Sheldon Glueck (1959'); "Juvenile Delinquency .Among Negroes in the United States." ed. by Chas. H. Thompson; The Journal of Negro Education (Summer 1959). (W. C. K.) Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Why Vandalism? (1955). Project,

—

|/q_--- Located in the geographical centre of the continental ^dllodd. United States, excluding Alaska. Kansas was admitted to the

union as the 34th state on Jan. 29. 1861. It

referred to as the "Sunflower state." but

"Jayhawk the state is

state," a

is

name

it is

of indefinite origin.

is

frequently

known

also

The

82.276 sq.mi.. of which 82,108 sq.mi.

as the

total area of

Kansas North American continent, from geodetic surveys are made. Population of the is

land.

the geodetic centre of the

which point

all

(1950 federal census)

state:

For the three

2,115.441.

capital) the population

aid to education, stricter driver licence and traffic laws,

more fits,

workmen's compensation and unemplo\Tnent bene-

liberal

a stronger antidiscrimination

law,

increased salaries

elective state officers, additional personnel for the state

for

highway

patrol and the foundation for a state educational television plan.

On

July 4 thousands of persons attended a ceremony marking

dam above Manhattan. Water was diverted from the river into the outlet the closure of the Blue river charmel at Tuttle Creek

I

t

cial

("1959

1.905.299;

largest cities

state

census)

(Topeka being the

(1950 census; 1959 state census

in

state

paren-

Topeka, 78,791 (115,744); Wichita. 168.279 (242,Kansas City 129.553 (131,360). According to the 1950 census, Kansas population was 47.9% rural and 52.1% urban. theses) was:

131);

—

History. The principal state officials in 1959 were: George Docking, governor; Joseph Hankie, lieutenant governor; Paul R.

Shanahan. secretary of state; George Robb. auditor: Adel F. Throckmorton, superintendent of public instruction; Frank Sul-

tubes of the dam. part of a $90,000,000 flood control project,

which would not be completed until 1961. In October ground was broken for the Eisenhower Presidential library at Abilene, the president's boyhood home. The institution was expected to be ready for operation by the conclusion of the president's current term.

—

Education. In Sept. 1959 preliminary figures indicated an approximate enrollment of 458,000 primary and secondary pupils in Kansas schools. There were 22 four-year colleges and 21 two-year colleges which had a combined enrollment for the 195S-59 school year of more than 44.000. The combined enrollment of the three state colleges and two universities for the 1959 fall term was more than 25.000. The populations of the other state institutions were as follows: school for the blind, 136; school for the deaf. 231. Social Insuronce and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. The populations of the state's institutions in Aug. 1959 were as follows: state training schools, 1,878: hospitals for tuberculars, 215: children's homes, 57: industrial school for girls. 82: industrial farm for women, 54: mental hospitals, 3,770: state penitentiary, 1,571; reformatory for boys. 545; industrial school for boys. 1S5. .As of July 1959 there were 65.029 persons receiving public assistance: old-age assistance, 30.226 persons with an average monthly payment of $75.28: aid to dependent children. 22,660 at an average of S33.96; general assistance, 6.924, average S:6.04: aid to blind, 667, average $72.09; aid to disabled, 4,552, average $75.36. Communications. .As of June 30, 1958, the total length of primary and secondary, county and township roads in the state of Kansas was 133,005 mi., of which 9,695 mi. were state-maintained. There were 537 mi. of urban state highways and. as of Dec. 31. 1958, 241 toll road miles. The remainder of the highways was controlled by the respective municipalities. Highway maintenance and construction during the calendar year 1959 were estimated at more than $80,000,000. Kansas had 8.609 mi. of railroads (all classes) and there were 191 airports, 107 of which were attended and operationally active. Si.t military air bases were in operation. Banking and Finance. Total state e.tpenditures authorized for the i960 fiscal year amounted to $332,800,715 as compared with actual operating expenditures of $348,569,879 for fiscal I9S9. The amount of sales tax compensating tax collected for the fiscal year 1959 was $72,022,009. The total income tax for the fiscal year 1959 was $29,152,880. There were 169 national banks and 426 state banks. Total deposits of all Kansas banks reached $2,141,529,410.17 as of June 1959. Agriculture. The total cash receipts from farm marketings for the period Jan. I to July i. 1959. was $645,214,000, a strong increase over the previous year. Preliminary reports indicated that the year's corn crop was the largest in nine years with a per-acre yield of 39 bu.. second only to the preceding year's record yield. Kansas farmers harvested an average hay crop. Sorghum grain production was good although moisture shortages caused some damages in the north central area. Late summer pastures and ranses remained good. The number of cattle and calves on Kansas farms increased by more than 500.000 to total 4,476,000 on Jan. i, 1959. The number of hogs and pigs increased to 1.066.900 head. .All sheep and lambs increased 179.000 to total 883.000 head. The number of chickens showed an increase, and horses and mules continued to decline with 8.000 head less than on Jan. I. 1958, far below the lo-year average. Commercial apple production was estimated at 240,000 bu.. up 60.000 bu. from 1958, and approaching the lo-year average. The peach harvest was estimated at 80.000 bu.. down from 1958 and below the lo-year aver-

—

—

—

age.

livan,

commissioner of insurance; John Anderson, Jr.. attorney George Hart, treasurer: Lillie Washabaugh. state

general;

Table

Principal

I.

Crop

The regular session of the 1959,

legislature

and adjourned on March

28,

convened on Jan.

proposed constitutional amendment providing

cities, i

it

home

adopted rule for

reapportioned the house of representatives and adopted

public

employees' retirement program.

named piece of unrealistic ing,

13.

after gaining for itself a

strongly conservative label. Despite its conservatism, 1

legislation

was severely

However, the

criticized

last-

because of

Wheat, bu

Averoge

Com, bu Sorghum

groin, bu

Ools, bu Barley, bu Rye, bu

19S9

1958

\9ii-ST

207,580,000 78,515,000 127,552,000 15,433,000 1 8,792,000

291,252,000 73,122,000 128,964,000 13,416,000 1 8,009,000 2,4)4,000 9,262,000 4,605,000

169,289,000 55,55^,000 44,988,000 23,653,000 6,747,000 689,000 4,094,000 3,234,000

1,830;000 9,020,000 3,382,000

Soybeans, bu Hoy, Ions

Source: Kansas Crop Reporting Service (U.S.D.A.I.

its

Table

Principal Industries of Kansas

II.

nature and was eventually vetoed by Governor Dock-

along with five other

Some

Crops of Kansas

Indicated

printer.

Solories All

bills.

where the legislature failed to act were civil service, where some state employees had not received salary increases for several years, and taxation, where state-wide assessment equalization was urgently needed. Among its accomplishments the session listed increased finan-

Industry

Group

employees 1957

fields

and wages (in

Volue added by manufacture

000s)

1957

92,747 40,864 36,053 26,068 26,058 282,248

lin

I9S7

OOOs]

)9S6

184,865 205,962 86,) 22 108,711 106,495 84,103 79,) 15 Fabricoled melol products. 43.866 44,036 Tronsporlalion equipment 488,391 345,834 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Annual Survey of Momifacti/ret, 1 957. Food and kindred products Printing ond publishing Chemicals and products Petroleum and coal products.

.

,

.

.

.

.

,

,

....

20,797 ) 0,607 7,420 4,477 6,004 53,688

—

—

378 ManufaOurIng and slnxlc

toiilril)Ul()r

Thr mnnulacturinK

Induilry.

to

Kansas

incoiiu-

i>iTsi>nal

in

payroll was Ihc larKrst 195**. a"'' there were

maniidiclurers in business at the beKinninK o( 1959Ninety-tour new plants were announced or bcxan production in Kansas durinK 1958. and reportenl(bbl) Cloyi

Cool

Uod

4.000 34,743,000 584,690,000 119,000 123,414,000 103,000 1,018,000 9,345.000 10,412,000 14,000

H.llum (cu f!.| . Natural goi (000 cu.d.) Noturol goiolln. (000 gol.) P.lrol.um (bbl.j P.lrol.ucn gaiej (000 gol.). .

Sail

Sand ond grav.l Stone Zint

570,000 27,888,000 66.883,000541,814,000 110,000 6.549,000 372,078,000118,188,000 4,042.000 115,000 1,073,000 10,353,000 4,175,000 10,317,000 11,924,000 12,424,000 4,000 3,679,000 1,191,000

...

Olti.rmln.rols

Valua

OuaiMlly

Volu*

Ouanllly

'Total hoi b..n odiuit.d to .limlnat. duplication Source U.S. Bur.ou of MIn.i.

Iti.

In

1,145,000 3,711,000 304,000 432,000 64,047,000 4,229,000 354,544,000 5,193,000 11,348,000 4,749,000 15,034,000

902,000 1,427,000

volu. of cloyi and iton..

Kashmir: see Pakistan. Kellogg Foundation: see Societies and Associations,

Brookline,' Mass., on

May

29, 1917, the

i960,

was

bom

in

son of Joseph P. Ken-

Sr., chairman of the Securities and Exchange commission and U.S. ambassador to Great Britain in 1937-40. John Kennedy graduated with honours from Harvard university in 1940 and then served for four years as a naval officer in World War II, His

nedy,

political career

when he was

began shortly after

representative from the

nth

U.S. congress for three terms

trict in the

from Massachusetts

elected U.S. senator

from active duty,

his release

in

Massachusetts (1947-53).

dis-

He was

1952 for the term

I953-S9and was re-elected in 1958 for the term 1959-65. In the Kennedy was a more or less independent voter, wellliked by his colleagues for his close study of pending legislation. senate

effective speaker, he attracted rather

wide popular attention.

Kennedywhich was rejected by the Eisenhower administration despite the fact that Ives was a Republican. Kennedy's pi-esidential boom began to receive serious consideration by party leaders in 1956, the year he published his book Profiles in Courage. By 195S he was conceded to be the Demo-

One of

the better-known bills he sponsored was the

Ives labour reform

bill,

cratic "front-runner," although during the next

pects seemed to slow somewhat. a

number

A Roman

year his pros-

Catholic, he issued

statements urging the continued separation of

of

church and state in the United States.

Known

as the "Bluegrass state,"

1

—

his six

won over

i

|

the'

opponents by a majority of 36,641.

'

Robsion, with a total of 63,130 votes, received 53,120 more, than his two opponents. Of the three candidates for the Republican lieutenant gubernatorial nomination, Pleaz a total of 27,21

1

votes, beat his nearest

W, Mobley,

opponent by 7,578

with

votes.

election, Democrat Combs easily defeated^ Democrats retained control of the legislature, .\nother major event during the year was a United Mine* Workers strike in eastern Kentucky, called on April 30. Thei union asked for a $2 a day wage increase, unionization of small, independent truck mines and the stoppage of nonunion truck mine sales of coal to independent ramp and tipple owners, who! were disposing of it at below the cost of union-produced coal,i The U.M.W. undertook to picket the nonunion mines, rampsi and tipples, as well as sections of railway. Violence followed! consisting of murder, bodily injury, the dynamiting and burning' of ramps and tipples, as well as the damaging of Louisville and

In

November

the

Robsion

1

;

Nashville railroad tracks and bridges. U.S.

menuoned p^ominenuylol

the Democratic presidential nomination in

announced his candidacy for lieutenant governor on the Coiiibt slate, which proved a winning team. In the Republican race former Louisville congressman, John there was little contest M, Robsion, Jr., won the nomination without serious opposition, The official returns showed Combs C 292,462 voles) as winner

combined vote of

Min.rol Production.— Tabic III .show.s the tonnaRC and value of those minerals produced in Kansas in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or more. In 1958 Kansas was third amonR the states in helium production; 1958 it it was fifth in natural Ras marketed and seventh in salt output. In ranked ninth among the states in the value of its mineral output, with 3.02% of the U.S. total. Encyclop.«dia BRiTANNtCA FiLins. Northwcslern Slates (i956).

Kennedy, John Fitzgerald

Wilson W. Wyalt. Midway

$498,524,000 30,047,000

...

Combs; and former Louisville tn in the campaign Wyall wilhdrev.

late court judge, Bert T.

over Waterfield by a 33,001-vote margin. Wyatt

I9S8

t»S7

Mlnerol

An

I

';'. ' .

KASHMIR — KENTUCKY

Some

of the perpetrators

and given long penitentiary sentences. Governor Chandler dispatched several companies oi| the national guard to the affected areas and the railroad obtainec! of violence were brought to trial

an injunction against the U.M.W. of

to

prevent further destructior

property. Shortly after, the governor called a meeting

its

operator and union

olj

which resulted in a "gentlemen's! agreement" to stop the violence. With an agreement reached. th«. guardsmen were withdrawn. Notwithstanding this, sporadic vioofficials,

lence continued.

The

state officers in 1959 were: governor, Albert B. Chandler

Harry Lee Waterfield; secretary

lieutenant governor,

Thelma Stovall; Jo M. Ferguson;

Mary

auditor,

treasurer,

of state

Louise Foust; attorney general,

Henry H. Carter; superintendent

public instruction, Robert R. Martin; commissioner of agricul ture,

Ben

J. Butler;

and clerk of court of appeals. Dorris Owensi

—

Education. The State department of education reported that there wer; 2.914 public elementary schools (1958-59) and 533 public secondar^ schools in Kentucky, and that 123 districts had adopted plans for or hai integrated schools. The total enrollment (grades 1-12) was 635,432 am the number of full-time classroom teachers, exclusive of principals, super; intendents, etc., was 22,480.5. The 1958-59 average daily attendanoj totaled 562,143.6; the public school foundation program fund $59.697.. 735.96: and current expense per pupil in average daily attendance wa $204.33. The mean of the annual salaries (1958-59) of all certified publi school employees was S3. 340. 00. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Progromj.The department of economic security administers the employment securk;: program, the public assistance program and the children's services in Ken tucky. During fiscal 195S-59. this department paid out $89,762,819, 0. which $37,069,131 represented benefits to unemployed workers (as coir pared with $93,513,551 paid out during fiscal 1957-58, and of whic. $45,168,695 represented benefits to unemployed workers). Unemploye beneficiaries during the average week in fiscal 1959 totaled 26.397. Tot2, unemployment in the state was estimated at 95.300 as of March 1959. wit covered unemployment at 50,600. Kentucky's labour force was estimate. |

,

Kentucky, which

Table

Principal

I.

Crops of Kentucky

1

Kentucky.

entered the union in 1792, has an area of 40,395 sq.mi., of which 531 sq.mi. are water. Its population in 1950

1959 was estimated to be 3,125,000. In 1959 the state's five largest cities were: Louisville 417,100, Covington 70,100, Lexington 64,000, Owensboro 50,400 and Paducah

was 2,944,806 and

47,600 (Jan. History.

and

I,

in

1959, estimates).

—The year 1959 was one

of unusual political interest

The primary election for state officers was held on The Democratic candidates for governor were: Harry

activity.

May

26.

Lee Waterfield, incumbent lieutenant governor; former appel-

Crop

1958

88 ,368,000

Com, oil, bu Wheol, oil, bu OoH, bu

4 ,750,000

280,000 1, 960,000 1,

Barley, bu

Soybeans Hay,

oil,

(for b.onsl,

3, ,500,000

bu

2, ,497,000

ions

Potatoes, Irish, cwt Potatoes, Sweet, cwt Tobacco, oil types, lb Apples, commerciol crop, bu. Peaches, bu

780,000 235,000 343, 970,000 .

.

Peors, bu.

260,000 150,000 30,000

75,803,000 3,948,000 1,116,000 2,352,000 3,871,000 2,758,000 890,000 242,000 326,348,000 395,000 190,000 50,000

76,202,00C 4,761,00C 1,993,00C 2,205,00C 2,286,000 2,215,00C 1,056,00C 300,00t 422,1 89,00C 308,00C 2I8,00C 63,00C

•1949-57 Source; U.S. Department of Agriculture.

J

— —

—

KEN YA Table

Principat tndusfries of Kenfucky

II,

its

Value added by manufacture

Salaries

and wagej

All

employeei

(In

1957

Food and kindred products Tobocco monofaclures

and publisliing aemicali and products Printing

OOOsl

lin

1957

26,328 10,403 7,399

$116,593 39,646 38,936

10,331

57,511

1956

$356,484 171,780 60,448 192,433 74,345 100,084

5,354 41,287 12,340 57,319 25,112 120,847 264,291 9,367 ...• 35,613 6,373 34,272 ...• Tronsportotion equipment 114,155 Wirilheld becouse the estimate did not meet publication standards, either on the Primary metal industries Fabricated melol products Machinery (except electrical) Electrical machinery

I

I

!

.

.

.

.

—U.S. Southeastern total.

States (1956).

000s)

1957

$390,346 203,397 63,429 200,360 65,687 91,048 283,840 81,830

379

mineral output, with 2.43% of the Encyclopedia Briiannica Films.

standard error of estimate or on the basis of a consistency review. Source) U.S. Bureau of (he Census, Annual Survey of Manufactures, 1 957.

basis of the associated

This British colony and protectorate in east Africa

|/ppyA IxCllja.

ig

bounded north by Sudan and Ethiopia,

by the

east

Somaliland Protectorate and the Indian ocean, south by Tanganyika and west by Uganda. The protectorate, the leased mainland

dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar, is a ten-mile-wide coastal strip between the Tanganyika border and Kipini, together with the

Lamu

Kenya: 224,960

archipelago. Total area of

including 5,170 sq.mi. of inland water. Total pop.

:

sq.mi.,

(1948 census)

5,405,966, including 29,660 Europeans, 97,687 Indians and Table

Mineral Production of Kentucky

111.

and 24,174 Arabs;

(Short tons, except as noted)

Total*

Cloys Cool Fluorspar Iron, plat Natural gas (000 cu. ft.l . Natural gasoline (000 gal.l Petroleum (bbl.l Petroleum gases (000 gol.)

....

Sand and grovel SiCfie

894,000 74,667,000 21,000 854,000 70,024,000 35,000 17,029,000 176.000 4,482,000 12,718,000

837

Zinc

Other mineral *Total has tValues for

been adjusted

to

1958

Value

tural

Quantity

$449,390,000 3,915,000 338,109,000 979,000 f

16,666,000 1,935,000 53,301,000 7,403,000 4,556,000 16,714,000 194,000 6,329,000

eliminote duplication

processed moteriols ore not included Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.

at 1,011,800 persons as of

March 1959,

in

of

in

737,000 66,312,000 26,000 757,000 72,248,000 38,000 17,509,000 151,000 4,685,000 12,597,000

Volue

$402,121,000 2,957,000 289,385,000 1,201,000 ?

17,412,000 2,165,000 51,652,000 8,491,000 4,835,000 17,360,000 1,258 257,000 7,180,000 ... the value of cloys and stone.

the totals.

whom

201,000 were agricul-

workers.

The department

of welfare reported for its penal institutions a total (July i, 1959) of 3.719, of which 1,186 were in the state penitentiary, 2,469 in the state reformatory and 64 in the women's division of the state reformatory. On the same date a total of 61S boys and girls were in the children's institutions: 374 in Kentucky V^illage, 39 in the reception centre and 205 in the children's home. Communications. The State highway department reported a total (July I. 1959) of 19,789 mi. of highways under state maintenance. Construction contracts awarded during fiscal 1959 totaled $121,869,708 involving 4,107 mi., an all-time high. Preliminary figures showed department expenditures for the fiscal year totaled $149,427,494. Motor vehicle registrations for the calendar year 1958 included: passenger cars 883,186; commercial trucks 131.535; farm trucks 92,007; motorcycles 6,038: and trailers 8,510. The state railroad commission reported a total of 5,938 mi. of track on July i, 1959. There were 38 airports in the state on the same date. Banking and Finance. The state banking commission reported a total of 272 state banks with assets of $1,402,074,237.64, June 10, 1959. On the same date, there were 88 national banks with assets of $909,777,000. The state finance department reported major fund revenues collected during fiscal 1959 totaled $340,560,249, consisting of general fund revenues

population

—

—

amounting to $131,037,363, road fund revenues $129,400,032 and revenues of $80,122,854 representing trust and agency fund receipts. Agriculture. The number of head of beef cattle on Kentucky farms on Jan. I, 1959 (1948-57 average in parentheses), was 1,215,000 (1,049,-

—

000): milk cows 628,000 (656,000); hogs and pigs 1,225,000 (1,279,000); sheep and lambs 604,000 (628,000). Cash receipts from farm marketings, Jan.-July 1959: livestock $158,077,000; crops $75,318,000: total $233,395,000. The total farm marketings for the first seven months of 1958 yielded $224,782,|ooo.

Manufacturing

i

and

Industry.

jThe state department of economic Idevelopment reported that, between Jan. I and Sept. i, 1959, 29 new manufacturing plants, with an anticipated employment of 2,766 and an estimated investment of $30,610,000, had been announced. It reported 23 plant expansions with an anticipated employment of 898

and an estimated investment of $5,745,000. It was further reported that more than 300 new and expanded manufacturing plant facilities, representing capital investment of $277,000,000 and 23,000

new jobs, had been announced for Kentucky between Jan. i. 1956, and Sept. i, 1939. (H. Tp.) Mineral Production Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Kentucky in 1 95 7 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or more. In 1958 Kentucky was second among the states in the production of ball play in

(24%

of

bituminous

U.S. total); third coal output; and

fourth in fluorspar. In 1958 Kenplucky ranked loth in the value of

6,450,000.

est.)

Main

Goans

tribes

(1948

Kikuyu 19.5%, Luo 14.4%, Baluhya 12.5%, Kamba 11.7%, Meru 6.2%, Nyika 5.6%. Language: Bantu and Nilotic;

census):

1957 Quantity

Mineral

(1959

Swahili as lingua franca. Religion

800.000 Christians; the

:

Moslem

Africans mainly pagan

about

;

religion flourishes in coastal,

urban and some northern communities. Principal towns (pop., 1948 census); Nairobi (cap.), 118,976, (1957 est.) 221,700;

Mombasa,

84,746; just over 50% Africans in each city. Governors in 1959: Sir Evelyn Baring and (from October) Sir Patrick Renison.

History.

—At the beginning of 1959 Rawson Macharia, one of

Jomo Kenyatta in 1952, was charged with swearing a false affidavit to the effect that he and six other witnesses had been procured and suborned by the crown to give false evidence against Kenyatta. After a hearthe prosecution witnesses at the trial of

Macharia was found guilty and sentenced to imprisonment for 21 months. An appeal against the sentence was ing lasting 29 days

dismissed.

In the meantime a tention.

Eleven

more

Mau Mau

serious event

had caught public

at-

detainees at the Hola camp, after a

mortem examination, were found to have died of violence. At the inquest on the dead men it was revealed that they had been beaten in an attempt to compel them to work, apparently post

with the intention of putting into

effect a

prisons officer to deal with detainees

The

plan drafted by a senior

who had proved

findings of the coroner gave rise to

intractable.

numerous questions

in the

commons, and the governor of Kenya appointed a tribunal to consider disciplinary charges against the commandant and deputy commandant of the camp. The composition British house of

KENYA'S AFRICAN MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

at a

meet-

ing in 1959. Tom Mboya, secretary-general of the Kenya Labour federation and a leader in the movement for nationalism, is shown fourth from left in the front row. He visited the U.S. during the year

—

KHRUSHCHE

380

KIMPTON

of the tribunal, which consisted of three civil servants of the

Kenya Rovcrnmcnt, was severely

by opp>osition mem-

criticized

bers of the Hritish parliament.

June a motion of censure was moved

In

parliament against

in

the secretary of state for the colonies, A. T. Lennox- Boyd, for

immediate steps

his failure to take

up a public enquiry

to set

to

ascertain where responsibility for the use of unlawful violence

should be placed. The charges against the prison argued, prevented a

full

responsible at a higher level

made

officers,

it

was

who was

enquiry into the issue of

making decisions which had

for

the use of violence possible.

In February Lennox-Boyd announced a further grant of iSoo,ooo and an interest-free loan of the same amount to help Kenya finance its recurrent expenditure arising from the emergency during the financial year 1959-60. It was also agreed with the Kenya government that this would be the last year in which the British government would be asked to provide financial assistance for this purpose.

Early

Michael Blundell announced his resignation as

in April

minister of agriculture in order to assume the leadership of a

group comprising elected, specially elected and nominated bers of the legislative council of

New Kenya

group.

mem-

races with the title of the

all

Simultaneously another group consisting

Moslem and Arab elected members and one member formed itself into the constituency

of African, Indian,

European elected elected

members

organization. In policy statements both groups

stressed the need to end racialism in

opportunities for

Kenya and

to provide equal

all.

In October an important sessional paper on land tenure and control outside native land units was tabled in the legislative council. Its

most

striking proposal

was that

in

future the main

consideration governing the ow'nership or occupation of land in the "white highlands" would be sound farming, not race. In-

evitably the White Paper aroused lively criticism from Euro-

peans.

An

equally important announcement to the effect that

the seven-year-old emergency would be brought to an end at the end of the year was

made

in

November by

the

new governor, (K.

Sir Patrick Renison.

I.)

(1958) Primary schools: European 46, pupils 8,479: .\sian 120, pupils 39,731: .\lrican 4.515, pupils 602,113: Arab and other 11, pupils 2,554. Secondar>': European 14, pupils 2,949; Asian 34, pupils 8,023: .\frican 30, pupils 3.922: .\rab and others 2, pupils 248. Vocational: African 25, pupils 1,684: .Asian, .Arab and other 6, pupils 1,449. Higher education: Royal Technical College of East Africa, multiracial, Kenya students (1957) 150: Mombasa Institute of Muslim Education, students (1958) 193. In I9S7 Makerere college in Uganda had 251 students from Kenya. Finance ond Trade. Monetary unit: East .African shilling divided into roo cents, valued at parity with the shilling sterling and at 14 cents U.S. Budget {1959-60 est.): revenue £32,393,000: expenditure £32,325.000. Foreign trade (1958): imports £77,028,600. exports £33,223,895. Chief e.iiports: coffee, tea, sisal, maize, pyrethrum extract, meat, wattle bark extract, soda ash, hides and skins, butter, fruits and fruit products. Educotion.

—

^'^'^^~

^""^^^

p°"""'

^ Khriihc currency in circulation totaled 100,491,000,000 hwan. The Bank of Korea, central bank of the Republic of Korea, showed assets and liabilities of 414,933,000,000 hwan at the end

a medical degree in 1941. P'rom 1942 to 1953 he

was on the staS

of the U.S. public health .service,

and from 1947

to 1951 he also

taught at Washington university,

St.

of June 19S9.

tion at Stanford university.

During calendar year 1958. the Rei)ublic of Korea received $321,000,000 in foreiKn economic aid. includinK U..S. aKricullur,il surpluses. (Jf this total the U.S. supplied all but $7,700,000, which came from the I'nitcd .N'ations Korean Reconstruction agency (concluiled June 30. 1958). The budget for North Korea in 1959 was reported to total j.330,000.000 North Korean won for revenues and 2,380,000,000 won for expenditures, an increase of 53% in revenues and 74% in expenditures over the 1958 budget. During 1959 the North Korea won underwent a currency conversion. I'rior to this conversion the North Korean won wiis reported to be U.S. dollar. .After revision it was valued at the valued at the rate of 120 to

and Ochoa's discovery of

—

1

rate of 1.2 to

i

U.S. dollar.

— In

1958 the Republic of Korea's commodity imports tot.iled $378,000,000 of which $311,000,000 was U.S. -UN-financed imports: exports totaled $16,500,000. The U.S., Japan and Hong Kong were major destinations of South Korea's exports: the major sources of imports were the U.S., Japan, Federal Republic of Germany, Italy and Formosa. Chief imports, including aid imports, were raw cotton, wheat, barley, fertilizer, coal, petroleum and machinery and vehicles. Chief exports were tungsten, graphite, other mineral ores and marine products. It was reported in 19.S8 that gh% of North Korea's foreign trade was with the Soviet bloc. Trade with Communist China and the Soviet Union alone accounted for 70%. Major imports were coal, petroleum, raw cotton, fertilizers, and grains: major exports were ferrous and nonferrous ores and metals, ferroalloys, fish, fruits and \*ool and silk textiles. Transportation and Communications. There were 1.846 mi. of railroad track in operation in South Korea in mid-i9S9: about 650 mi. of railroad track were located in North Korea. In the Republic of Korea the railroads carried 10,749,000 metric tons of freight and 70.100,000 passengers during Trod*.

in

radios.

—

Agriculturs, Fishing and Forestry Agricultural production in the Republic of Korea in the 1958-59 crop year included (in thousand bushels) clean or polished basis: rice 82.300: barley 12.900: naked barley 12.500: wheat 4.900: rye 820: Italian millet 2.700: sorghum 240; corn 500; buckwheat 370: soybeans 5,600: other pulses 730: white potatoes 2.600: and sweet potatoes 4,700. Raw cotton production totaled 7.600 metric tons. At the end of 1958 there were 1.000.509 cattle: 645 milk cows: 17.854 horses: 1.324.000 swine; 1.265 sheep: 83.000 goats: 309.000 rabbits; 9.900.000 chickens: 166.000 ducks; 219 asses: and 63 mules. The fish catch in 1958 totaled 395.193 metric tons. It was reported from North Korea that despite severe drought the 1958 grain crop totaled 3.700.000 metric tons as compared with 3.200.000 tons in 1957. The fish catch in 1958 totaled 682.000 tons as compared with 564.000 tons in 1957. In the first half of 1959 the fish catch was reported to be 7% lower than in the same period of 1958. .\s of June 1959 North Korea had 711.000 head of cattle and 1.S50.000 hogs.

— The

index of manufacturing production in South Korea in June 1959 (1955 100) was 183 as compared with 182 the year before. Manufacturing production in the calendar year 1958 included: raw silk 338 metric tons; cotton yarn 96,450.000 lb.; cotton cloth 149.010,000 Manufacturing.

=

sq.yd.; woolen and worsted doth 4.598.000 sq.yd.; nylon cloth 4.511,000 sq.yd.; silk cloth 3,220.000 sq.yd.: rayon cloth 62,572.000 sq.yd.: allrubber shoes 29.574.000 pairs: salt 436.000 metric tons; paper 30,000 metric tons; cement 296.000 metric tons: brick 455.000 metric tons; soap 25.000 metric tons; cut tobacco 7.400 metric tons; cigarettes 14,000 metric tons; wheat flour 202.000 metric tons; refined sugar 51.000 metric tons. Electric power production in 1958 totaled 1,511.675,000 kw.hr. North Korean manufacturing production in 195S included the following, in metric tons unless otherwise specified: pig iron 320.000;' steel 365.000: chemical fertilizers 457.000; cement 1.244.000: glass 3,268,000 sq.m.: textiles 110.000.000 m.; footwear 21.000.000 pairs; tobacco 7.700; salt 439.000. Electric power 7.600.000,000 kw.hr. Mining. The index of mineral production in South Korea in June 1959 100) was 235 as compared with 181 a year before. Mineral pro(1955 duction in calendar year 1958 included (in metric tons): copper ore 7.645: tungsten 3.012: amorphous graphite 94,026; kaolin 21.565; fluorspar 1,620; anthracite coal 2,670.889: gold 2.2: silver 7.7: iron ore 261.025; talc 10.106; lead ore 2.437: monazite 322: bismuth 300; zinc ore 669; nickel ore 70: pagodite 5.843. Mineral production in North Korea in 1958 was reported to include 6,88 2. 000 tons of coal and 1,552.000 tons of iron ore. It was reported that in the first half of 1959 coal production was higher and iron ore output higher than in the same period of 1958. (S. Nr.)

— =

45%

65%

Mo. Returning

there

1953, he was head of the biochemistry department at the medi-

1959 to assume a similar posiRomberg's Nobel award cited hii enzymes that would artificially produce

cal school until his resignation in

some of the

life. Specifically, Romberg was an enzyme that promotes the pro-

substances of

vital

honoured for

his discovery of

(DNA); Ochoa

duction of deoxyribonucleic acid

enzyme

that produces ribonucleic acid

(RNA;.

discovered an

DNA

is

believed

to be the chemical that transmits hereditary characteristics from

RNA

one generation to another;

is

considered necessary to the

production of protein. Romberg's research, together with that of Ochoa's, established the principle that unlinked nucleotides

could be linked to form spirals by such enzymes

if

some

of the

natural product was used to serve as a model. This achievement

was considered a

significant

basic life process.

The two

000

advance to the understanding of

scientists divided the

more than

the

$43,-

money.

in prize

This British-protected Arab sheikhdom

—

1958. In I9.'>8 there were about 21.000 mi. of roads in Korea of which slightly more than 10.000 mi. were in South Korea. At the beginning of 1958. the Republic of Korea had 13.366 trucks. 3.954 buses and 10.766 automobiles. In 1958 passenger arrivals on international air routes totaled 12,228: 44.928 passengers were carried on domestic routes. In Jan. 1959 South Korea had 9.926 vessels of 325.742 gross tons. In 1958 there were in South Korea i privately-owned and 4 armed services television stations, and 650 television receivers; 2 privately-owned. 9 armed services and 23 government-owned radio stations, and 165.000

Louis,

lies

on

th«

northwest coast of the Persian gulf. Area: 6,00c sq.mi.Pop.: (1957 census) 206,177. Cap.: Ruwait (pop. 99,438) Sheikh, Abdullah es-Salim es-Sabah. British political agent ii 1958, A. S. Halford.

History.

— Alarm

was caused

in

Ruwait

in the early part o

1959 by the growth of Communist influence in Iraq, and then were reports of an impending Communist coup in Ruwait itself

who were alleged to be smug arms into the country. The Ruwait security authoritie arrested some Communist suspects and deported a number o Iraqis and Palestinians who had been living in Ruwait. engineered by Iraqi Communists, gling

(E. S. Ah.)

— Monetary

Finance and Trade.

:

Indian rupee valued at 21 ccolj U.S. Foreign trade (1958): imports from U.K. £20,892,228; exports t| U.K. £132,471,537; re-exports £717,828. Chief exports: petroleum u| pearls. Production.

—

unit:

1

Oil production 288,000 metric tons in 1957).

in

1958 was 70,212,000 metric tons (S7j 1

I

Labor, U.S. Department of:

see

Government Depasi

Bureaus, U.S.

ME.\"TS .AND

Agricl-lture Child Labour; Employment International Labour Organization: Labour Unions; N^ TioNAL Labor Relations Board; Strikes; United States Wages and Hours. See also under various states.

Labour:

see

;

ahniir llninnQ LdUUUI UIIIUIIo.

1

—

bargainic United states. collective underwent in 1959 the severest test sine

Many managements too wage increases spur inflation, unless tti boost in wages is accompanied by greater management contn over work rules which makes possible increased efficiency operations. LTnions were equally adamant in arguing that wa{ raises are justified by the ever rising productivity of industr and that the- relinquishing of collectively bargained work rul' would threaten the job security of union employees and nullil past union gains. Union spokesmen also argued that wage rais' the beginning of the postwar period.

the position that annual

(

were needed

to bolster purchasing

power. Management contr

over work rules was a basic issue in numerous collective bargai ing negotiations and the major cause for strikes in steel, shippin

copper, glass and other industries.

I^nrnhorrr

Arthur

*^^9i8-

),

U.S.

biochemist,

who

^O^^Dc^g, AnnUr

The

shared the 1959 Nobel piize for medicine and physiology with Severe Ochoa, was bom at Brooldjii,

page

and was educated at City college, New York, and the University of Rochester (N.Y.) from which he received

than

N.Y., on

March

3,

experienced in 1959 the longest work sto when about 500,000 production workers strui,

steel industn.-

in history

most of the major

85%

steel

producers in the country, affecting

of the nation's steel capacity.

July 15. The

first

The

mo

strike began

break in the contest occurred on Oct.

26,

wb

1

LABOUR UNIONS

LABOUR INVESTIGATION. Left: James R. Hoffa (right), [ dent of the Teamsters" union, pointing his finger at Robert Kennedy, chief c lel for the senate investigation committee, at a recess of the hearings July 14 1959, Hoffa accused Kennedy of linking him with Communist labour leaders and threatened to sue. Right: Covering the microphones with their hands, a ness and his lawyer confer during the hearings in February. The witness, ven(

383

19S9 SENATE

machine distributor Gerard Catena (right), was questioned about contracts with a certain labour union. He pleaded the fifth constitutional amendment 70 times

the Kaiser Steel corporation, ninth largest steel the Steehvorkers agreed called for

company, and

on a two-year contract. The settlement

improvements

in

insurance and pensions costing an

average of 9 cents per hour during the

first

year of the contract,

and an average hourly wage increase of 9 cents plus insurance benefits costing i cent per hour during the second year of the j

contract.

In addition, the pact provided for adjustments

based on the rise in cost of

li\-ing

in

wages

during the second year of the

construction workers were

much

higher,

two out of every three

workers received deferred hourly raises in excess of 15 cents. While the union drive for decreasing the regular work week

made

little headway in 1959, the trend to reduce hours of work by lengthening vacations with pay and adding paid holidays con-

The majority

tinued.

of agreements negotiated during the year

provided three weeks of vacation after ten years of service,

and more than one-third of the contracts granted two weeks vacation after one year's service. Four weeks vacation after 20 or 25 years of service was adopted in a majority of the agree-

Many

ments.

contracts also provided for additional paid holi-

days.

The popularity

of long-term contracts declined in 1959.

Only

were for

contract, but total

one-fifth of the agreements negotiated during the year

limited

three years or more. During the previous two years, agreements

over to

wage adjustments under this provision were to 3 cents. The controversy over work rules was turned a joint study group representing the company, union and

the public.

Two

other

smaU

steel

companies also signed contracts

Meanwhile, on Oct.

21, at the request of the U.S.

an injunction was issued

for

an 80-day cooling-off period.

the union's appeal reached the

of total settlements.

rate of 180,000 soft coal miners

The

court,

ecofirst

mum

which on Nov.

7

Despite the generally favourable business climate, wage settlein 1958, a year marked by The median wage settlement during the

were lower than

nomic recession.

was

contract negotiated by the

The contract provided for a $2 daily wage increase and improvement in retirement and health benefits as well as an increase in paid vacations. In another major contract, 100,000 shirt and cotton workers received a 77% w-age increase, the first wage raise for the group in three years. About 300,000 southern textile workers, most of them unorganized, received wage increases in Februar>-. This was their first general wage increase since 1956, The wage increase established in most cases a Si. 25 hourly mini-

injunction was stayed un-

supreme

new

Miners' union with the Bituminous Coal Operators association.

work.

Iments in 1959

wage

under the

upheld the injunction, and the steelworkers thereupon returned to

basic daily

department

in federal court

Taft-Hartley law, ordering the steelworkers to return to the mills

Itil

The

raised to $24.25 as a result of a

with the union.

of justice,

40%

of this t>-pe constituted

A

rate in textile mills.

novel feature in labour-management contracts was incorpo-

months of the year was 9.1 cents compared with 9.4 cents during the same period in the previous year. Moreover, the median wage settlements dropped i cent during the third quarter, while economic conditions continued to improve. This development may be attributed to the tougher attitude displayed by

employees for work

management

handling cargo. Details for the distribution of the fund were

nine

in the steel negotiations. One-fifth of the collective

bargaining agreements settled during the first nine

months of the

hourly increases of 13 cents or more; half of contracts called for a 7- to 12-cent hourly raise and the bal-

ieax provided for the

ince of the

agreements raised hourly wage rates by 6 cents or

rated in the agreements between the

vided for the establishment of a $1,500,000 fund to compensate

An

unusual step was taken by the Hatters union to save jobs

of 300

members employed by the Merrimac Hat company, which The union loaned the company $300,000 and

faced bankruptcy.

ess.

union

rectors.

1

ng 1959 as a result of previous negotiations. The majority of hese employees were engaged in manufacturing. Seven out of iight

workers

in

ncreases ranging

manufacturing received deferred hourly wage

from

5 to 8 cents.

The deferred

increases for

lost as a result of increased efficiency in

not worked out in the agreement.

tor

Three per cent of the agreements made no provision at all wage boosts. About 3,000.000 workers covered under major contracts (those :overing i.ooo or more employees received wage increases dur-

West Coast Longshoremen's

union and the Pacific Maritime association. The contract pro-

The

officers

formed

a

majority of the company's board of

A.F.L.-C.I.O. held

A

its

(ii-

third constitutional convention in

at the convention was the agreement to submit interunion disputes to compulsor>' arbitration. The problem of jurisdictional rivalry among the craft and industrial affiliates of the federation had been a major problem facing the A.F.L.-C.I.O. since it was founded in 1955. The con-

September.

major decision

:'

LABOUR UNIONS

384

vcntion also authorized the executive committee of the A.F.L.-

by some unions. The Labor-Management RejKtrting and Dis-

C.I.O. to approve a petition by the International Longshoreman's

closure act was mainly concerned with the regulation of inter-

association to affiliate with the federation.

The

was exwas domi-

I.L.A.

pelled from the A.F. of L. in 1953 on charges that

it

nated by corrupt leadership.

Movement toward

Two

the merger of smaller unions continued.

mem-

unions representing insurance workers, with a total

bership of 2i.ooo, formed the Insurance Workers International

The Marine Engineers

union.

Beneficial

Brotherhood of Marine Engineers

with a combined membership of 11,000.

association

merged

al.so

and the

into one union

The Screen Actors

guild

voted to merge with the American Federation of Television and

Radio

The combined membership

Artists.

of the two unions was

nal union affairs. It provided for the disclosure of union financei

and made siK-cific provisions to safeguard union treasuries. Members were guaranteed the right to freedom of speech and assembly in connection with union affairs and freedom from discriminatory disciplinary proceedings, and the right to elect officers by secret ballot. The 1959 labour law also contained

some important amendments to the Taft-Hartley law, upon secondary boycotts and

The two rival unions in the maritime industry, the National Maritime union and the Seafarers International union, agreed in Jan. 1959 to settle the differences between them. Each union withdrew charges against its rival that were pending before the National Labor Relations board and the courts. The two unions also co-operated in a world-wide boycott of companies operating ships flying "flags of convenience."

and Independent National and International Unions With Reported U.S. Membership in Excess of 00,000 A.F.L.-C./.O.

picketing

practices.

Another law passed in 1959 raised retirement benefits of railroad employees by 10%. About 700,000 persons receiving retire-

ment and survivorship

25,000.

including

additional restrictions

,

benefits were affected

by the act. Unemployment insurance benefits of railroad employees were also increased, and the duration of benefits for employees with 15 years' service was extended to 52 weeks and to members with 10 years' service to 39 weeks. Previously the of

unemployment insurance

benefits to

maximum

duration

which railroad employees

had been entitled was 26 weeks. The increased cost of the retirement benefits was to be shared by employers and employees. The burden of the unemployment insurance was to be carried

1

.

only by the employers.

I

MembtMship

Union ToIqI' A.F.l.-C.I.0

Aulomobilo Boilerinokeri Bricklayers Building service

....

Carpenters Clothing

Communications workers. Electrical

(Brolherhoodl

Electricol (Unitedl

.

.

.

Garment,

.

.

Hod

ladies'.

.

.

.

Engineers, operating .

carriers

Hotel Iron

letter corrleri

Machinists

Moinlenonce of

Meot

way

.

.

cutters

Musicions Oil

Packinghouse

PopormakeM

17,024,000 14,092,000 »74,000 126,000 152,000 251,000 765,000 361,000 252,000

725,000 268,000 270,000 427,000 458,000 422,000 142,000 110,000 937,000 154,000 315,000 249,000 170,000 36,000 177,000 1

Painters

Union

'Excludes 1,182,000 met

Plumbino Poil office clerks.

Priming Pulp

B'

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Railwoy and steamsliip

340,000 134,000 300,000 143,000 149,000 200,000 885,000

clerks

Railway carmen

.

.

.

.

Retail clerks Retail, wholesale.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Rubber State

and county.

Steel Street, electric railway Textile workers

.

....

Tronsport workers

.

.

.

Typogrophicol Other (98 unions)

.

.

.

Directly offilioted locals.

Unoffilioted unions Electrical (United) Mine, cool

Teamsters Other (46 unions)

Conado ond

dividuol unions. Source: U.S. Department of Lobor,

.

preumen

Railrood trainmen

MombersMp 126,000 235,000 100,000 102,000 113,000 182,000

is

.

.

.

.

.

.

2,000 182,000 135,000 103,000 2,595,000 113,000 I

1

136,000 579,000 1,380,000

837,000

based upon membership claims of

At the

fornia, Colorado, Idaho.

The

issue in

voters of Cali-

Ohio and Washington rejected the pro-

•

posed laws, while Kansas adopted a right-to-work law. At the

end of 1959

had right-to-work laws on

a total of 19 states

the

statute books.

Twenty-one

states

raised

unemployment insurance

benefits |

during the year by amounts ranging from $2 to $15 per week. As a result of these changes the maximum basic weekly unemploy-

ment

benefits ranged

from

$:!6 to $55.

i

Sixteen states lengthened

by amounts varying from 2 to 13 weeks. The maximum duration of unemployment insurance benefits the duration of benefits

ranged from 18 to 39 weeks. Twenty-five states raised work-i men's compensation benefits by amounts ranging from $2 to $15 per week. At the end of the year. 15 states and the District of

Columbia paid maximum weekly

New York

of Labor Statistics.

practices

benefits of

$50 or more.

state enacted a law prohibiting certain financial

by unions and required

financial reports

from

unions,

employers and labour relations consultants. The financial disclosure provisions were similar to the law enacted by the federal

government. Montana, Nebraska and tional restrictions

New

Mexico placed

on union picketing and boycotting

(S. A. Ln.)

while Oregon repealed an antipicketing provision.

Canada.

addi-

activities,! i

—The

most disquieting feature affecting labour in Canada in 1959 was the widespread resurgence of antilabour sentiment, which became evident not only in newspaper editorials and addresses by spokesmen for industry, but also in provincial legislation.

Legislation adopted in British

Columbia early

in the

year wa;;

the most stringent and restrictive, in a general sense, which Can-

000.

Increased cost of operations forced a crease their

membership

dues.

Some

number

of unions to in-

of the larger unions that

Workers ($3.50 to $5.50 a month). Retail Workers (minimum dues raised from $3 to $4 a month) and the Railway Clerks, who raised their dues to a minimum of $4 and the per capita tax paid to the international from $1 to $1.50. raised dues during 1959 included the .\utomobile

rield

of legislation, congress enacted the first

major

labour law since the passage of the Taft-Hartley law in 1947.

The law

during the Nov. 1958 elections.

i

Union membership was about equally divided between manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries. About one out of every eight union members in 1959 was a white-collar employee. Females constituted more than one-sixth of the total union membership. Union membership tended to concentrate in large organizations. Four out of ever>- five unionists were members of the 43 largest unions with a membership of 100,000 or more, and more than one-third of the total union membership was concentrated in 7 unions each having more than 500,000 members. The total number of local unions exceeded 70,000, and the number of collective bargaining agreements in effect in 1959 was about 130,-

In the

was an

state level, right-to-work legislation

six states

resulted from the disclosures made by the McClellan committee which indicated that racketeering elements had gained control over some unions. Tb'- purpose of the new law was to help clean up unions and to outlaw certain coercive tactics used

ada had ever seen.

It prohibited picketing, except at the em-

by members of the striking uniorl and outlawed support from the members of other unions Unless the contrary was shown, the illegal action of any unioi member was presumed to be done, authorized or concurred in b;

ployer's place, of business and only,

the trade union.

The

legislation also

made unions

legal entities

with the right to prosecute and be prosecuted.

Other legislation was adopted

manly

against the International

in

New^foundland, directed

Woodworkers

pri

of America. Thi

union had been carrying on organizing activities in the islam province, and- had been certified as bargaining agent for

th

employees of the Anglo-Newfoundland Development compan)

However, the company refused

to negotiate with the union or

t

I

LABRADO R — LAOS accept the recommendations of a board of conciliation estabI

under provincial

Premier Joseph Smallwood and established a govemmentsponsored union which he invited the woodworkers to join. The international union was decertified by legislative action, and further legislation was adopted which made it possible for the govjermnent to expel from the province virtually any union which I

lished

attacked

strongly

legislation.

union

the

,

I

incurred

displeasure.

its

In August a political seminar was held in Winnipeg, under the

Labour congress and the Co-operative Commonwealth federation. It provided an opportunity to discuss the progress made in implementing the resolution adopted at the

auspices of the Canadian i

i

iCX.C. convention I

I

in April

1958 calling for the bringing together

of representatives of the labour

movement, the C.C.F., farmers'

organizations and others, to consider the creation of "a broadly-

based people's political

movement"

Canada.

in

The Canadian and Catholic Confederation of Labour held

Among

annual convention in September. considered while

was

affiliation

its

its

representatives

of

the

two bodies

no

final

was necessary for the C.C.C.L. to clarify Roman Catholic Church, and it was decision on affiliation would be taken before

jSept. i960. I

by membership of labour organizations in Canada was Jan. 1959 1,458,576, an increase of approximately 4.000

According to

the federal department of

statistics supplied

llabour, the total

as of

over the corresponding figure for 1958.

—Trade unions

(N.

S.

D.)

Europe were much concerned with Iproblems raised by the progress of economic integration. Folilowing the discussions among the governments of the "Outer ISeven" countries which were not members of the European lEconomic community, the trade union federations held a conEurope.

I

South Australian all-stars, playing under U.S. rules, set back the .\mericans, 13-5. at Adelaide on July 18 in another feature contest of the tour. The Americans also lost to the South Australian state team, 12-6, at Adelaide.

The Mt. Washington Lacrosse feated for the

in

ference to discuss the implications of this development.

Scholastic Locrosse.

jinsisted,

should be given representation on an equal footing with

(employers on any institutions that might be established under jthe plan.

Unions should have the right

to place items they think

—Baltimore

City college defeated

St.

city honours. Catonsville, going undefeated, took the Baltimore

County high-school circuit crown. Sewanhaka, of Floral Park, N.Y.. repeated as Long Island prep-school champion. Women's Lacrosse. The 28th annual tournament of the U.S. Women's Lacrosse association was held at Trenton (N.J.) State college in June. The Baltimore district team was named unofficial team title winner, compiling the best mark in the round-

—

robin series that featured the meeting.

Lamb: I

comed the hope of the governments that the proposed free-trade ;area would pro\ide a bridge toward the achievement of a wider economic association in Europe as a whole. They found the references in the free-trade area plan to the need for continued leconomic expansion particularly satisfactory. The unions, it was

club of Baltimore, going undetime since 1955, captured the national open

Paul, the private-school league titleholder, 11-4. in a play-off for

In a

istatement issued at the conclusion of the talks the unions wel-

first

title.

it

position vis-a-vis the

likely that

Baltimore on June 5. At the close of the American coOege campaign a team of Virginia and Washington and Lee stars toured .-Xustralia, marking the first time a U.S. men's lacrosse squad had visited that country. A highlight of the trip was the .\mericans' 15-4 triumph over a strong X'ictorian team at Melbourne on Aug. i. The

the important matters

with the C.L.C. It was decided that.

discussions between

Ishould be continued,

the Roy Taylor (class C) division. Princeton retained the Ivy league crown, unbeaten Oberlin of Ohio repeated as champion of the Midwest association, and South conquered the North, 10-9. in the annual college all-star encounter at Homewood field in

I

'

385

In the Laurie Cox (class B) division, the University of Bahimore finished first for the fourth successive year. Lehigh and Massachusetts Institute of Technology shared the top spot in

see

one ^

LdUOi

(T. V. H.)

Meat.

land-locked kingdom situated in the Indochinese pen-

Laos

bounded north by China, northeast by by the Republic of Vietnam and south by Cambodia. Area: 91,428 sq.mi. insula,

is

the Democratic People's Republic of Vietnam, east

Pop. (1958

est., no census ever taken) 1,690,000. The Laotians (66%) are Thais and speak a Thai dialect. The primitive Meo and Kha peoples, of the northern and southern hilly regions re:

spectively, constitute the largest minority groups. Religion

:

Bud-

Chief towns (pop., 1957 est.): Vientiane (administrative cap.) 60.000; Luang Prabang (royal cap.) 18,000. Ruler in 1959. dhist.

Cportant on the agenda of any such agencies and should have cess to the council of ministers, the governing body and the

King Sisavang Vong and (from Nov. 3) King Savang Vathana. Prime minister. Phui Sananikone.

[secretariat.

On Jan. 24, 1959, Phui Sananikone, the prime minformed a new government under the exceptional powers granted him by the national assembly for a period of 1 2 months in order to meet the "new and ver\' grave situation" facing the country. The general election, due to be held in the summer, was History.

Employment; National Labor Relations Board; Wages and Hours. (B. C. R.)

See also

'

Strikes;

—Working

Encyclop.cdu Beiiannica Films.

Labrador:

see

Together (1952).

Newfoundland and Labrador.

I

loprnoca J°^^ Hopkins university (Baltimore, Md.), LdClOSSc. University of Maryland (College Park) and Military

academy (West

Point,

the the

N.Y.) were named co-

Ichampions of the U.S. Intercollegiate Lacrosse association for 1959.

AU

three teams played in the

Cy

of the association. In a season that

Miller (class

A)

division

saw the sport reach new

growth and popularity, Maryland lost only once in III games, bowing to Johns Hopkins, 20-8. The Hopkins ten and iWest Point finished with identical marks of eight won and one heights in

Army, the defending

The new cabinet contained three army officers, six members of Phui's Lao People's Rally and one independent. The new government proclaimed a policy of hostility to the Neo Lao Hak Sat (Patriotic Front of Laos) headed by Prince Suvanna Vong. former leader of the Pathet Lao (Free Lao) proCommunist movement, but since his agreement -with the former

postponed.

iLobuan: see British Borneo.

U.S.

—

ister,

premier, Prince Suvanna

2i-member group

Phuma

(his half-brother), the leader

59-member national assembly. Opposing also the neutralist trends in Laos. Phui announced on Feb. 11 that his government had no further use for the International Commission for Supervision and Control in Laos (I.C.S.C.L.) set up under the Geneva agreements of July 21, of a

in the

Maryland, 17-

1954. that ended the Indochina war. Phui added that his govern-

setback in 15 games over a two-season span. Hopkins, unbeaten in 23 consecutive contests, finally fell before Navy, 13-11.

ment henceforth would recognize the United Nations as the sole arbitration body for disputes in the area. One of the points of agreement reached between the two half-

lost.

16, for its first

titleholder,

bowed

to

,

King Sisavang Vong (bom in 1885; died at Luang Prabang on On Aug. 21 he had named his eldest son. Prince Savang Vathana, as regent of the kingdom. On Nov. 3 Savang was proOct. 29.

brothers was that the Pathet Lao units would be merged into the

Laotian army. Instead of merger by agreement, Gen.

Uan Rat-

claimed king.

tinkun, chief of staff of the Laotian army, ordered that the

See also United Nations.

Pathet Lao units were to surrender their arms. One battahon

Education.

was disarmed in May, but another fled into the jungle where was later joined by some guerrilla fighters.

it

Laos, a country without railways, with very few roads and a

few grass

strip airfields,

is

unsuitable for large-scale military op-

Such warfare started in and on July 28 Prince Suvanna Vong and several of his supporters were arrested by the government. They were to be tried on charges of conspiracy but at the end of October the trial was postponed indefinitely. In the meantime guerrilla activity continued and the Demoerations, but ideal for guerrilla warfare.

the

summer

cratic

in the north,

(Communist) People's Republic

of

Vietnam was charged

with military and political aggression against Laos, while the gov-

ernments of Peking and Hanoi accused the Vientiane government of having provoked a ci\nl war and of having violated the Geneva agreement which stipulated that Laos was not to join

(1958): primary 770, pupils 77.133: secondary pupils 1,984; technical (1954) i, pupils 60; teacher training (1956) pupils 142. Finance and Trade.

—

Lard:

see

Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats.

LdrrdOdd, ArCdQIO

at Vich,

Dec.

near Barcelona, and

1.

to the priesthood at Saragossa

Roman

an invitation from the government of Laos

to visit that country.

Rome

where

earning degrees in both canon and

Roman

civil law.

In 191 8 he was

law at Apollinare and

in 1943

he was named undersecretary of the Sacred Congregation Religious,

becoming

ited the U.S. in

its

he:

seminary and Apollinare univer-

secretary in 1950. Father Larraona

1950 when he presided

at the U.S.

of'

vis-

National Con-

Dame. He was Cardinals by Pope John XXIII

gress of Religious at the University of Notre

elevated to the Sacred College of

on Nov.

16,

1959, becoming the

first

member

of the Claretian

order to be so honoured.

Latin America: see Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; British Guiana; British Honduras; Chile; Colombia; Costa Rica; Ecuador; El Salvador; French Community; Guatemala; Honduras; Mexico; Nicaragua; Panama; Paraguay; Peru: Suionam; Uruguay; Venezuela.

Ldlin~AII)6nC3n Lll6r3llirG. were

UN secretary-general, accepted

the

of

his religious profession on

Following his ordination he went to

studied at the Pontifical sity,

made

was ordained

appointed to the chair of

Dag Hammerskjold.

secretary

1903. After studying philosophy and theology at the Uni-.

8,

Canada regarded the commission's work as done, and thought it should be left to the Laotian government to decide whether they wanted it. Instead Laos appealed on Sept. 4 to the UN Security council for the "dispatch of an emergency force to halt the aggression and prevent it from spreading." On Sept. 7 the Security council, by 10 votes to i (the U.S.S.R.), decided to set up a subcommittee to conduct inquiries in Laos. The subcommittee, under the chairmanship of Shinichi Shibusawa (Japan), and with Brig. Gen. Heriberto Ahrens (Argentina). Ludovico Barattieri di San Pietro (Italy) and Habib Bourguiba, Jr. (Tunisia) as members, arrived at Vientiane on Sept. 15. On Nov. 5 it presented its report to the Security council. The subcommittee found no evidence of aggression by the North Vietnam government, but added that "it would appear that various degrees and kinds of support have been accorded to hostile elements from sources on the North Vietnamese side of

386

Larraona,

cardinal

Sacred Congregation of Religious, was born on Nov. 13 at Oteiza de la Solana. Navarre, Spain. He entered the Claretian novitiate

in 191

8

j

1958) of U.S. $1 — at 1,145,000,000 kips. Foreign trade (1958): imports 1,040,900,000 kips; exports 54.800,000 kips. Main exports: titnber. minerals, coffee. Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: South-EasI Asia and Its Peaceful Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture of the series, "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958). Oct. 6.

versity of Cervera he

On Nov.

i,

unit: kip, with an exchange rate ((rom 80 kips. Budget (1958-59 est.): balanced!

China and North Vietnam asked for the recall of the I.C.S.C.L. (inactive since July 19, 1958) in which Canada, India and Poland were represented. The U.S.S.R. and India also favoured it. Great

the border.''

7,1

— Monetary

military alliances or permit foreign bases.

Britain and

(K. Sm.)

— Schools

not unanimous as

the ultimate literary merit of Luis Spota's

new

novels,

t(

sud

works as Las horas violentas and La sangre enemiga were

ir

—

LATIN-AMERICAN LITERATURE 1959 rapidly acquiring best-seller status. Spota, whom Rafael Heliodoro Valle considered perhaps the leading novelist of the

new Mexican generation, placing him beside Juan Rulfo and Carlos Fuentes, showed himself a vigorous stylist and a man of fervent social conviction who scorned the ivory tower and successfully fused interest of plot and ideological content. El chulla Romero y Flores, the most recent novel from the pen of Jorge

387

(Eduardo Pachon Padilla) and Antologia del cuento chileno moderno (Maria Flora Yaiiez). The publication of Alfonso Reyes' Obras completas reached volume ix. del cuento colombiano

Poetry and Drama. Estravagario displayed the spectacular Pablo Neruda, Chile's leading contemporary

stylistic resources of

poet, in a brilliantly whimsical

volume which reached out

for

distinct

human more than political truths. Octavio Paz also came to grips with broad human problems, such as time, existence and haunting solitude, in his collection La estacidn violenta, com-

his

posed of material largely published

noted for his social consciousness, revealed a development in the author of Huasipungo. Shifting artistic focus from the mass to the individual produced

Icaza, likewise

Three writers of Spanish

origin,

but residing for years in

Argentina, contributed prominently to the Latin-American scene.

won

acclaim (and the Premio

graced

Losada) for his forceful character portrayal in La iliiminada.

The

de Castro

Cecilio Benitez

critical

Maria Teresa Leon's Juego limpio and Ricardo Bastid's Puerta

evoked the shadows of the Spanish

del Sol

tion of the former, wife of the poet

civil

The

war.

posi-

Rafael Alberti, as organizer

of the guerrillas del teatro helped her portray convincingly the

time

when such

guerrillas allayed the harsh

by

Also inspired

monotony

setting,

was Euclides Jaramillo Arango's

•regreso.

The author of

the charmingly picturesque

\Simoncito appeared in a fellow

countrymen

Two

'

tion.

of combat.

Colombian Un campesino sin

tragic historical events, but in a

more

Memorias de

serious vein, pleading with his

autobiographical accounts attracted considerable atten-

In Regreso de tres mundos, Mariano Picon Salas offered re-

moral and aesthetic

jflections

on the shaping of

icriteria.

In Flor de juegos antiguos, Agustin Yaiiez, author of

Al

his intellectual,

and broadly human

of living characters.

In the short story (which had been rapidly attaining literary

The Devil's Pit and Other Stories, and Angel Flores, enriched UNESCO's (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Lillo's S.

Dillon

organization) fine Latin-American Classics series. fering

and frustration provided the leitmotiv

iVIaria

Amparo

Davila's gripping volume

in

Human

suf-

such works as

Tiempo destrozado,

y otros cuentos and nine powerful tales which probed

Emilio Diaz Valcarcel's penetrating El asedio forge Rizzini's '.he

Beco dos

existentialist

ng under

some

aftitos,

anguish in an assortment of characters labour-

tragic abnormality, trapped as

it

were

in a blind

Hey.

Human

and affectionate humble American setting charcterized the Mexican Luis Cordova's Lupe Lope y otros cuentos nd two Chilean collections, Carlos Ruiz Tagle's Dicen que dicen variety, psychological understanding

oncem with

plain people in a

nd Guillermo Atias'

Un dia de luz. Enrique Bunster, on the Aroma de Polinesia the exotic flavour

ther hand, captured in f

the colourful

nd literary

Another

South Pacific which has cast

men

its spell

over artists

centenary year was a

olume of Seis cuentos, compiled by Carlos Garcia Prada, who rovided the excellent introductory study entitled

lention

Among

"Un

clasico

continent-wide anthologies one ought to

Antologia del cuento

hispanoamericano by Ricardo

atcham and Angel Flores' Historia y antologia del cuento en ^ispanoamerica, a valuable book for the study of trends and lotifs. Three others, national in scope, likewise attested to the itality

poems

flourished during the earlier part of

the 20th century, viz., the "criollista" Valdelomar's Obra poetica and Poesia de Santos Chocano, the vigorous singer of Alma America. The Colombian academy brought out a fine anthology Poemas de Colombia with prologue and epilogue by P. Felix Restrepo and biographical notes by Carlos Lopez Narvaez. An

from Guillermo Blest Merino Reyes was contained in compiled by the Chilean poet

interesting assortment of verse ranging

Gana

(Alberto's brother) to Luis

the Atlas de la poesia de Chile,

The year

saw the publication of Demetrio Aguilera Malta's prompted by a burning sense of social justice, and the handy Breve historia del teatro mexicano by Antonio Magana Esquivel and Ruth S. Lamb, as well as, wider also

Trilogia ecuatoriana, plays

Knapp

Jones's Antologia del teatro hispanoamerihis-

panoamericano). Essays and Criticism.

—Alberto

second phase of his Indice critico de cano. While the

first

zum

Felde completed the

la literatura

hispanoameri-

volume (1954) had examined the

essay,

volume ii, entitled La narrativa, enquired into the short story and novel genres. Zum Felde's wide reading in European literatures enabled him to apply a broad criterion and a mature literary taste to his monumental undertaking. In Coimbra, Port., publication of the first two volumes gave a glimpse of Joaquim de

Montezuma de Carvalho's

challenging project of providing a

panoramic view of 20th-century American literatures of the

letters, including the

United States and Canada.

When

completed,

Panorama das literaturas das Americas was expected to become an effective Pan-American interpreter strengthening continental understanding. Dedicated to the same ideal, Torres-Rioseco's indispensable reference work The Epic of Latin- American Literature appeared in an attractive paperbound edition. Others assessed more restricted areas. Gilberto Freyre became accessible to English readers in a handsome volume entitled New World in the Tropics containing interpretative studies on modern Brazilian culture. Ralph Dimmick's Brief History of Brazilian Literature, based on sections of Bandeira's Nofoes de historia das literaturas, was published by the Pan American union the four-volume

with introduction, notes and bibliographies. Luis Merino Reyes,

alike.

fine tribute to Carrasquilla's

Qtioquefio."

who

cano (complementing his earlier Breve historia del teatro

Raquel Banda Farfan's unflinching account of the melancholy drama of everyday life entitled Cuesta abajo. Writing with fervour and compassion, the author nevertheless did not neglect

Autonomy) Baldomero translated by Esther

of two compatriots

in scope, Willis

jfor

:he creation

of his earlier verse.

indefatigable Luis Alberto Sanchez presented the

and ex-

for the underprivileged provided the subject matter

Sympathy

much

interest.

del agua, successfully relived childhood scenes

filo

Navegacion nocturna

a

Antonio de Undurraga.

to challenge violence.

periences, blending local flavour

earlier.

new direction in Rafael Maya's lyric genius. Though still guided by an innate sense of harmony coupled with good taste, his new volume appeared to shun the ornate effect which

marked

aesthetically pleasing results.

and human interest of the genre of the short story: (Ruth S. Lamb), Antologia

ntologid del cuento guatemalteco

critic, offered a Panorama de la literatura chilena, Maria Teresa Babin the Panorama de la cultura puertorriquena, Juan Felipe Toruiio showed the Desarrollo literario de El Salvador and Luis Alberto Sanchez provided one more interpretation of his native land in a volume entitled El Peru: retrato de un

poet and

pais adolescente.

Contemporary Mexican verse during the past 50 years roughly was the subject of Raiil Leiva's analytical Imogen de la poesia mexicana contemporanea, devoted to 29 poets. Myron I. Lichtblau took a closer critical look at The Argentine Novel in the

— LATTER-DAY SAINTS — LAW

388

and Libreria Studium continued its splendid editorial contribution to the Hispanic field. Studium 's general titles included F-'crnando Alcgria's instructive Breve historia de Nini-tft-nlh Century,

hispanoamericana

novela

la

'

(tracing

the

novel

genre

from

Lizardi to the present day) and Las revistas literarias de His-

panoamirica by Boyd G. Carter. More specialized in scope were Robert H. Mead's Temas hispanoamericanos and Rodriguez-AJcali's Korn, Romero,

Unamuno, Ortega,

Giiiraldes,

22,300. Arable land (i9S7): 1.449.000 ha.; 1,159 collective (armi; it| farms; 93 machine and tractor stations (using 16,900 Iracton). Livestock (1957; 1939 in parentheses): cattle 811,000 (1,171,000); pixs 676,000 ^889,800); sheep and Roats S3S,ooo (1,468,700). FUbcria (>957; 1940 \n parentheses): 83,100 (12,400) tons. slate

induilry. Industrial production (1957: 1940 In parentheses): sl«d (17,900) metric tons; electricity 1,111,600,000 (151,100,000) kw.hr.; [>eat 1,671,000 (113,000) tons; cement 415,000 (115,000) toot; paper 68,100 (14,400) tons; cotton fabrics 47,100,000 (10,600,000) a.: linen fabrics 8,800,000 (3,800,000) m.; woolen fabrics 7,000,000 (i,8oo,000) m.; radio receivinx sets 485,100 (11,500); bicycles 171,300 (45,-

86,800

000): sugar 97,400 (41,000) tons.

collections of informative essays

on literary and philosophical themes. Luis Leal added

to

his

Legal scholars and political scientists were unusually

I

Breve historia and Antologia of the Mexican short-story genre a Bibliograjia del cuento mexicano, and J. S. Brushwood and J. Rojas Garciduenas provided a Breve historia de la novela tnexicana. Lowell

Dunham,

the biographer of Gallegos, received

the Premio Andres Bello for his study

Manuel Diaz Rodriguez:

Vida y obra. German Arciniegas explored Amirica mdgica through such

LdW>

terested in the

59 term, because

it

work of the supreme court

had been predicted that the appointment

Justice Potter Stewart would tip the balance of the court in

Brown

matters of

of 12 delightful thumbnail sketches of Chilean literary figures

invoke the privilege against self-incrimination, though the

(such as Gabriela Mistral, Manuel Rojas, the

to

known

critic

Alone, etc.)

of fa-

vour of a position more responsive to the needs of the government and less concerned with the liberties of individuals. Justice Stewart's opinions generally tended to be conservative, but by the end of the term scholars were not yet sure how he stood on

champions of freedom as Marti, Echeverria, Montalvo, Sarmiento. Gonzalez Vera gave Algunos, a collection

impassioned

in-

in the 1958-

S.

79

civil rights.

Ct. 539,

some

His decision

seemed

in

v.

United

States,

restrictive of the right of a witness to case,

extent, followed established law. His decision in Kings-

Gallenkamp offered an informAmerican civilization in Maya, and Irving A. Leonard portrayed Baroque Times in Old Mexico with scholarly thoroughness and genuine enthusiasm. The Mexican regional idiom received competent attention in Francisco J. Santamaria's Diccionario de mexicanismos, the latest work from a recognized

ley Int. Pictures v. Regents of the University of the State of Neve

authority on American Spanish.

had been asked to review

intimately

to him. Charles

ative glimpse of an old

(K. L. L.)

York, on the other hand, represented a sharp attack on the

right

of a state to censor motion pictures. These decisions, as well as all the other significant cases decided

by the court during

the'

term, constitute the subject matter of this article.

Aliens.

—In each year

for about a decade the a considerable

supreme

number

court'

of cases

in-

voh-ing the rights of aliens. During the 1958-59 term, for some

Latter-Day Saints:

see

Mormons.

reason not readily apparent, only one such case came before

th«

court.

country on the Baltic sea, an independent repubfrom igi8 to 1940, was forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940 as a Soviet Socialist republic. Latvia is bounded north by Estonia, east by the Russian S.F.S.R., southeast by Byelorussia, south by Lithuania and west by the Baltic I

QfifiQ

LdlVld.

"^^'^ lie

Area; 24,595 sq.mi. Pop. (1959 census) 2,094,000. Nationalities (1939): Latvian 75.5%; Russian 10.6%; Jewish 4.8%. sea.

Religion (1939): Lutheran 56.1%;

Roman

Catholic 24.5%; Or-

Tak Shan Fong v. United States, 79 S. Ct. 637, concerned ar unsuccessful effort by a native and citizen of China to gair American naturalization as a reward for serving with the States armed forces during the Korean hostilities. An act

Unitec of con

gress passed in 1953 provided for the naturalization of

serving at least 90 days in the

who had been

armed

forces prior to July

alien;

i,

1955

"lawfully admitted to the United States" ant

"been physically present within the United States for a

singl.

thodox 8.9%; Jewish 4.7%. Chief towns (pop., 1959 census): Riga (cap.) 604.500; Liepaja 71,400. First secretaries of the Latvian Communist party in 1959, Janis Kalnberzins, Arvid Y.

period of at least one year at the time of entering the Arme'

Pelshe (from Nov. 1959) chairmen of the presidium of the supreme soviet, Karlis Ozolins, Janis Kalnberzins (from Nov.

at

;

1959) chairmen of the council of ministers, Vilis Lacis, Janis V. Peive (from Nov. 1959). ;

History.

—The

Communist

i6th extraordinary congress of the Latvian

which took place in Riga on Jan. 12-13, I9S9. discussed N. Khrushchev's report on "The control figures perparty,

taining to the progress of the U.S.S.R. national

the years 1959 to 1965."

The Latvian

economy during imme-

soviet authorities

diately strengthened their efforts to adjust local policy to the

"general line" of the Kremlin.

Deputy premier

of Soviet Latvia,

Eduards K. Berklavs, and chairman of the trade unions. L Pinksis, were dismissed for placing "narrow national interests" above those of the Soviet Union. In May the Lutheran cathedral of Riga was transformed into a concert hall and museum. According to Soviet data, about 4,000 young Latvians had been "voluntarily" transferred to Siberia and the Donbas mines from 1952 to March 1959. See also Estonia; Lithuania. (Jo. Ps.) Education. years')

pupils 25.900;

institutions of higher education 9, students 18.200. Finance. Budget (1959 est.) balanced at 4.086,764,000 rubles. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1937-39 average): rye 409,700;

—

wheat 186.900; barley 215,900; oats 433.800; potatoes 1,729,780;

Tak Shan Fong

legally entered the

United States

in

Aug. 195

Honolulu on a seaman's 29-day pass. When his leave expirei he departed from the country with his ship. He again entere' the country in Jan. 1952. this time unlawfully. He was appre bended in June 1952 and deportation proceedings were coiu menced against him. These proceedings were halted when became known that on May 4, 1953, he had been inducted int the army. He ser\'ed honourably until his discharge in 1955, 2

:'

which time he instituted a proper action to gain

He

naturalizatioi

claimed that he was entitled to naturalization under the

at

had been lawfully admitted into the country in 195 The government contended, on the other hand, that the statut meant that lawful admittance must have been the means whereh since he

the alien

commenced

this theory,

jority of the

Justices

his year's

presence in the country. Undi

Tak's lawful Honolulu entry was irrelevant.

supreme

Hugo

court, with Chief Justice Earl

L. Black

and William O. Douglas

A

Warren

m. ar

dissenting, a

cepted the government's contention. The court's opinion,

writtt

by Justice William J. Brennan, showed great sympathy for T; Shan Fong, but concluded that congress had not intended 01 situated in Tak's position to be entitled to naturalization.

—

Schools (1957-58): primary (4-year), higher primary (5-7 and secondary (8-10 years), all pupils 290,000; vocational 64,

—

Forces."

flax

Armed Forces. Lee v. Madigan, 79 S. Ct. 276. decided f purposes of court-martial jurisdiction that the United States w at peace in 1949, even though the war with Germany was n terminated until 1951 by a joint resolution of congress and

t,

i

—

LAW war with Japan was not terminated until 1952 by a proclamation of the president. Under former Articles of War, which were in force when the operative facts of this case arose, "no person shall be tried by court-martial for murder or rape committed within the geographical limits of the States of the Union and the District of Columbia in times of peace." (Emphasis added.) Lee was 1949, at

Camp

and stressed the

fact that civnl courts are "better qualified than military tribunals

They have a more deeply engrained more thorough indoctrination in the procetrial.

Moreover, important

guarantees come into play once the

—

is

citizen

charged with a capital crime such

murder or rape. The most significant of these is the right to trial by jury, one of the most important safeguards against tyranny which our law has designed. We must assume that the Congress, as well as the courts, was alive to the importance of as

when

those constitutional guarantees ticular phrasing.

may

near as

Statutory language

it

is

gave Article 92

its

par-

construed to conform as

be to traditional guarantees that protect the rights

.

SEC

The

.

is

.

Frankfurter and Charles E. Whittaker dissented.

Variable Annuity Life Ins. Co., 79 S. Ct. 618, held that variable annuity "insurance" contracts are subject to reguV.

Justice Harlan, however, thought that the decision I

"a cloud upon the meaning of

all

federal legislation

would cast the impact

by the

Securities

and Exchange commission. The McCar-

construed to invalidate, impair, or supersede any law enacted by any State for the purpose of regulating the business of insurance. ..." The insurance companies involved in this litigation were regulated under the insurance laws of several states, and they

contended that the McCarran-Ferguson act gave them immunity

from the SEC. The court held that variable annuities are not by the McCarranFerguson act. Said Justice Douglas, who wrote the majority insurance, and hence they are not exempted

opinion:

"The concept

of 'insurance' involves

company. The

risk-taking on the part of the

sumed

of the citizen."

j

act (1954) applies prospectively only. So there

ran-Ferguson act provided that "no Act of Congress shall be

whether soldier or civilian

I

.

lation

I

I

.

did in the past.

it

to try nonmilitary offenses.

constitutional

j

new

not penalized for anything

is

judicial attitude, a

dural safeguards necessary for a fair

{

.

lington)

lan, Felix

Justice Douglas wrote the majority opinion

I

If

crime occurred.

10,

Cooke, Calif. The court found, with justices

I

...

from doubt than we think, it is still one that lies in the periphery where vested rights do not attach. Appellee (Darfree

Tom C. Clark and John M. Harlan dissenting, that the court-martial had no jurisdiction over this matter since the country was at peace when the

convicted by a court-martial of the crime of conspiracy to com-

i

hotel or motel business.

promote the the question be less clear and

no possible due process issue on that score. Congress by the 1954 Act was doing no more than protecting the regulatory system which it had designed. Those who do business in the regulated field cannot object if the legislative scheme is buttressed by subsequent amendments to achieve the legislative end." Justices Har-

mit murder. The offense occurred on June

I

389

aid veterans and their families, not with a law to

Yet

some investment

risk of mortality, as-

here, gives these variable annuities an aspect of insurance.

it is

apparent, not real; superficial, not substantial. In hard

reality the issuer of a variable annuity that has

assumes no true

no element of a

I

upon the existence of 'peace' or 'war.' Hitherto legislation of this sort has been construed according to welldefined principles, the Court looking to 'treaty or legislation or Presidential proclamation' to ascertain whether a 'state of war' exists. The Court, in an effort to make a 'more particularized and

portunity to pass on the availability of certain defenses to

j

discriminating analysis' has apparently jettisoned

charges that section 2(e) of the Clayton act had been violated.

of which depends I

I

I

Business Regulation. I

—

me

these prin-

what has taken their place." The court handed down several deci-

from clear to

ciples. It is far I

just

fixed return

risk in the insurance sense." Justices

Harlan, Frankfurter and Whittaker dissented. Federal Trade Commission 1005, was the

The

first

Simplicity Pattern Co., 79 S. Ct.

v.

case in which the supreme court

decision caused great excitement

among

Section 2(e) of the Clayton act makes

it

had an op-

antitrust specialists.

unlawful for any per-

sions concerning the regulation of business, and, except for the

son to discriminate in favour of one purchaser against another

were probably the

purchaser by furnishing in connection with the sale of goods serv-

cases involving civil rights, these decisions I

I

most important of the term.

!

was important

I

to the

in that

it

FHA

v.

Darlington, 79

S.

Ct. 141,

perhaps showed some judicial hostility

commercial use of buildings covered by mortgages insured

FHA

iby the

(Federal Housing administration"). Darlington built

apartments in 1949 and obtained FHA mortgage insurance. The question in the case was whether he was entitled to

I

!

one that are not furnished to the other. The retail price it charges a uniform price

of Simplicity patterns are uniform, and

However, Simplicity does not follow the

to all its customers.

notion of uniformity in the furnishing of certain services to

its

rental

customers. It furnishes patterns to variety stores on a consign-

some of these apartments to transients. When the apartments were built and the mortgage insurance obtained, neither the controlling statute, the National Housing act, nor the regulations issued under it contained any express provision prohibiting

sold. Fabric stores are required to

[rent

1

ices to

basis, requiring

and catalogues are furnished

are paid for transactions.

gress

amended

the National Housing act. In the it

has been

its

amendment

con-

intent since the enactment of

Housing Act that housing built with the aid of (mortgages insured under that Act is to be used principally for residential use; and that this intent excludes the use of such housing for transient or hotel purposes while such insurance on the the National

to variety stores free of charge all

transpor-

tation costs in connection with its business with variety stores

Darlington immediately commenced renting

igress declared, "that

payment only as and when the patterns are pay cash. In addition, cabinets

whereas fabric stores are charged therefor. Finally,

small percentage of his apartments to transients. In 1954 con-

rental to transients.

ia

ment

by Simphcity but none

is

paid on fabric store

Simplicity admitted these facts, but claimed that no competitive injury

had resulted to the fabric

stores, since these stores

are primarily interested in selling yard goods and handle patterns

I

mortgage remains outstanding."

of the difference in

customers.

A

costs in dealing with the

its

unanimous

two types of

court, through Justice Clark, held that

made out

a defense to section 2(e).

The

In spite of this amendment, Darlington continued to rent to

neither of these claims

and he took the position that he was lawfully entitled do so since the 1954 statute could not affect his rights which

court admitted that these claims would be a good defense to a

(transients, Ito

only as an accommodation to their customers. In the alternative. Simplicity argued that the differential treatment was reflective

ibecame vested in 1949 IJustice

Douglas

jthe (original)

said,

when he obtained

"We

his

take a different view.

FHA mortgage. We do not think

Act gave mortgagors the right to rent to transients.

no express provision one way or the other; but the

flhere

is

Itation

seems

fairly implied.

We

limi-

deal with legislation passed to

charge (under section

2

[a]

)

of price discrimination. But

it

found

that the Clayton act did not permit these defenses to section 2(e).

Safeway Stores Inc. v. Oklahoma Retail Grocers Ass'n, 79 S. 1 196, was a case in which the court was asked to pass upon certain aspects of trading stamps, described by the court as "these found in almost half of Amermulticolored scraps of paper Ct.

.

.

.

' '

LA w

390

homes." The Oklahoma Retail Grocers association brought an action against Safeway stores to enjoin it from selling some of its Koods below cost in violation of an Oklahoma statute. Safeica's

way

replied that

its

below cost were made to meet the com-

sales

The statute permitted it The Oklahoma court found that

petition of stores using trading stamps. to

meet

competition.

illegal

desires to adopt

may

be required of voters. But there

scope for exercise of age, previous criminal

factors which a State

jurisdiction.

its

record are obvious examples indicating

may

Lake into consideration in determining

The

the qualifications of voters. indicates

some

therefore, the competitors were not selling below cost; that Safe-

creed, color,

Safeway appealed to the United States supreme court. The supreme court sustained the Oklahoma court. In a unanimous decision, written by Justice Frankfurter, the court said that Oklahoma had not discriminated against Safeway in favour of stores using trading stamps. "Trading stamps are given to ca.sh customers 'across the board,' namely, the number of stamps varies directly with the total cost of goods purchased. Safeway "s price cutting, however, was selective. This

course a literacy

difference

vital in the context of the Act.

is

One

of the chief

The

selling of selected

goods at a

loss in

and

sex, as

test, fair

on

may

face,

its

No

designed to uproot.

likewise

promote

intel-

be employed to per-

fwtuate that discrimination which the Fifteenth

such influence

present requirement, applicable to

Amendment was

charged here.

is

members

of

.

races,

all

.

The

.

that

is

the prospective voter 'be able to read and write any section of

the Constitution of North Carolina in the English language.'

That seems person

way

to us to be one fair

is literate,

of determining whether a

not a calculated scheme to lay springs for the

citizen."

In Harrison

aims of state law prohibiting sales below cost was to put an end to 'loss-leader' selling.

and write

and illiteracy are neutral on race, reports around the world show. ... Of

ligent use of the ballot. Literacy

to the charges.

ability to read

relation to standards designed to

trading stamps were not to be reckoned into the price; that,

way had no defense

wide

is

Residence requirements,

v.

N.A.A.C.P., 79

in a divided opinion written

S. Ct. 1025, the supreme court, by Justice Harlan, refused to pass

order to lure customers into the store

on the constitutionality of Virginia's "massive resistance"

structive

racial

is deemed not only a demeans of competition, but it also plays on the gullibility of customers by leading them to expect what generally was not

true,

was

namely, that a store which offered such an amazing bargain

full

of other such bargains. Clearly there

is

a reasonable basis

integration laws until the Virginia courts had

to

con-

first

strued them. This policy was justified on the ground that federal courts should not unnecessarily interfere with the proper con-

cern of state courts.

The opinion

stated that the supreme court

for a conclusion that selective price cuts tend to perpetuate this

should not assume that state courts would not do their

abuse whereas the use of trading stamps does not."

in adjudging-state statutes in the light of federal constitutional

WD

Farmers Educational & Cooperative Union v. AY, Inc., 79 Ct. 1302, was one of the most important decisions ever handed down with respect to radio and television companies. The case inS.

volved a

libel suit

a speech

brought against station

made over

Townley, a

its

WDAY

legally qualified candidate in the

WDAY

North Dakota.

senatorial race in

as a result of

radio and television facilities

by A. C.

1956 United States

did not censor

Town-

and it claimed at the libel hearing that it had no power of censorship. As a corollary to this, it argued, it should be immune from liability for defamatory statements made by the uncensored speaker. The North Dakota court held for WDAY, and the plaintiff appealed. The supreme court, in a sharply divided court, voted to affirm the North Dakota decision. Justice ley's speech,

Black wrote the majority opinion.

He

stressed the fact that the

requirements. This point seemed the nub of the case, for the

so that the legislative purpose behind

them would not be

frus-

trated.

Scull v. Commonwealth of Virginia, 79 S. Ct. 838, also dealt with Virginia's "massive resistance" to racial integration. David

was convicted of contempt for refusing to obey a decision him to answer a number of questions put to him by a state legislative committee. These questions dealt Scull

of a Virginia court ordering

primarily with Scull's role in organizations attempting to racially integrate the Virginia school system. Scull requested the com-

that I

tell

may

him "the

specific subject of

your inquiry today, sc

judge which of your questions are pertinent." The'

Whittaker and Stewart dissented,

chairman gave an unclear answer. The supreme court unani-' mously held that under such circumstances Scull could not be'

basing their conclusion on statutory construction of the Federal

convicted for failure to respond to questions. But the opinion,'

Communications

written by Justice Black, did not rest on the narrow grounds

tices

libel suits arising

Frankfurter,

Civil Righfs. court's

major

civil rights,

Harlan,

out of political broadcasts. Jus-

act.

—Personal

attention.

and, as usual,

liberties again

occupied the supreme

The court decided it

was

26 cases involving

to these cases that legal scholars

turned to ascertain the true temper of the court. Scholars were

agreement that the decisions indicated

in general

a slight retreat

from the strong pro-civil-rights position taken by the court

in

Minority Groups.

— Only

five of the civil rights cases involved

minority groups. Perhaps the most important was Lassiter

Northampton County Board of

v.

Elections, 79 S. Ct. 985, holding

that a literacy test as a prerequisite to registration as a voter

well as the questions asked him,

make

it

unmistakably clear that

the Committee's investigation touched an area of speech, press'

and association of

vital public

importance.

.

.

.

is

Such areas

interest

is

clearly shown.

But we do not reach that question

nounced by the Chairman, were so unclear, in fact conflicting, that Scull did hot have an opportunity of understanding the basis for the questions or any justification on the part of the Committee for seeking the information he refused to give,"

The two other minority group cases were less important. Even Dwyer, 79 S, Ct, 178, held that an "actual controversy" ex-

V.

failed in the state courts, he appealed to the

ing on buses, even though the Negro plaintiff had boarded

preme

court. In a

unanimous decision the

court,

through an

isted over the validity of a state statute requiring segregated seat

existed, the court

"The States have long been held mine the conditions under which

court to dismiss the case as frivolous.

ercised.

.

.

.

We

have broad powers to deter-

the right of suffrage

may

be ex-

do not suggest that any standards which a State

£h«

bus for purposes of instituting the action. Since a controvers)

opinion written by Justice Douglas, held against the appellant, to

be-'

inquirj'. as an-

North Carolina, sued to have the literacy test for voters prescribed by that state declared unconstitutional. When his efforts United States su-

of'

individual liberty cannot be invaded unless a compelling state'

not necessarily unconstitutional. The appellant, a Negro citizen of

of

"pertinence" alone. "The events leading to Scull's subpoena, as

cause the record shows that the purposes of the

the past.

'

though not parties to the formulation of the "massive resistance" laws, were bound to interpret those laws, if possible,

mittee to

immunity from

dis-

by Justice Douglas, with Chief Justice Warren and Justice Brennan concurring, stressed the fact that Virginia courts,

From

he found that congress must have intended

duty

sent, written

radio and television stations cannot censor political speeches. this premise,

full

found that

it

was error

The

for a federal distrid

case

was remanded

t(

be heard on the merits. Williams

v.

Lee, 79 S. Ct. 269, held that the Arizona court

'

LAW

391

Brown

are not free to exercise jurisdiction over a civil suit brought

United States, 79 S. Ct. 539, and Raley v. State of Ct. 1257, dealt with the right of a witness to claim

v.

I

by one who

is

not an Indian against an Indian

action arose on an Indian reservation.

I

The

if

the cause of

plaintiff,

who was not

Ohio, 79 S. the privilege against self-incrimination in the face of a state im-

an Indian, operated a general store on the Navajo reservation

munity

under a licence required by federal statute. He brought an action against Williams, an Indian, to collect for goods sold him on

before a

i

The court

credit.

said that Arizona

since jurisdiction lay in the

case,

had no power

to hear the

tribunal court.

The court

Brown

statute. In the

case, the court held that a witness

New York

grand jury could not invoke the privilege where the state had guaranteed him immunity from prosecution if he testified. Tie decision was written by Justice Stewart, and there was a dissent

by Chief Justice Warren

which Justices

in

termed the case an "important question of state power over In-

Black, Douglas and Brennan concurred. In the Raley case the

dian affairs."

court held that where an Ohio Un-American Activities commis-

I

j

Subversive Control.

j

—Seven of the

civil rights cases

involved

I

I

I

\

sion instructed a witness that he could rely on the privilege

and federal governmental efforts to control subversion. By far the most important case in this group was Uphaus v. Wyman, 79 S. Ct. 1040, holding that the federal Smith act does not pre-empt the field of subversive control leaving the states powerless in this area. The decision, written by Justice Clark, surprised some members of the bar who had construed the recent case of Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Nelson, 76 S. Ct. 477, to hold that congress had so completely occupied the field of sub-

against self-incrimination,

power even to investigate in that realm. A strong dissent, written by Justice Brennan and indorsed by Chief Justice Warren and Justices Black and Douglas, did not stress pre-emption, but went in the direction of the constitutional guarantees of freedom of assemblage, due process and freedom from bills of attainder. Four of the subversive control cases dealt with the refusal of

an

state

it

could not prosecute the witness for

invoking the privilege on the theory that he was presumed to

know

that the law of Ohio granted

—Three cases

Judicial Process.its

The

notions of double jeopardy.

decisions

showed the court

view that gave the criminal defendant

inclining to a

tection than

him immunity.

compelled the court to review

some had

felt

he possessed. Abbate

79 S. Ct. 666, concerned a defendant

v.

less pro-

United States,

who had been

convicted by

I

versive activities that the states were without I

I

I

witnesses to give testimony before legislative committees. Baren-

United States, 79 S. Ct. 108 1, involved striking a balance between an individual's interest in not divulging associational blatt V.

and the federal government's Communistic activities in the United

interest in investi-

[relationships Igating

iwas struck,

by a sharply divided court,

in

States.

The balance

favour of the govern-

Illinois court for

conspiracy to injure and destroy property

company. This conviction,

of a telephone

it

was

held, did not

prevent the federal government from prosecuting the defendant for conspiring to willfully

and maliciously injure means of com-

munications controlled or operated by the United States, even

though the federal prosecution involved the same properties covered by the Illinois prosecution.

A

similar double jeopardy problem arose in Bartkus v. People

of Illinois, 79 S. Ct. 767. Bartkus was accused of robbing a federally insured savings

crime.

He was

and loan association, a federal and

state

acquitted by the federal court in the prosecution

for the federal crime. Nevertheless, the state of Illinois indicted

him

for

committing a state crime. The facts recited

in the Illinois

iment. Barenblatt, an instructor of psychology at Vassar college

indictment were substantially identical to those contained in the

|from 1950 to shortly before his appearance before the house

prior federal indictment. It

Isubcommittee

on un-American

activities,

iquestions concerning his relationship to the

refused

answer

to

-Communist party

and organizations on the grounds that (i) jthe subcommittee was not authorized to compel testimony because of the vagueness of the statute creating it; (2) he was not |and to various people

ladequately apprised of the pertinency of the subcommittee's Iquestions;

by the These contentions decision of Watkins v. United

and (3) the questions infringed

amendment

first

rights protected

to the federal constitution.

[required the court to reconsider its

^tates, 77 S. Ct. 1173.

The holding impressed many

as a serious

Williams

v. State, 79 S. Ct. 421,

jtions;

pursued in any of our educational

institu-

that undeniably a conviction for contempt cannot stand

unless the questions asked are pertinent to the subject matter of

investigation; that the ist

'the

amendment

protects an individual

some circumstances" from being compelled to disclose his associational relationships. But it found that none of these rights been violated in the instant case. The dissent, written by tad ustice Black, with Chief Justice Warren and Justice Douglas poncurring, stressed a broad construction of the Watkins case. ['in

Flaxer v. United States, 79 S. Ct. 191, held that a witness who fused to testify before the senate judiciary committee, carmot is proof beyond a reasondoubt that the refusal was deliberate and intentional. Flaxer

convicted on contempt, unless there .ble |ffas

ordered by the committee to produce certain membership

psts in ten days.

pince it did

The court found that "ten days" was vague, when the time was to start running. It

not specify

that the committee could not force a witness to guess as to

Pdrulings

on pain of contempt.

who was

and had been

tried

tion resulted in a sentence to life imprisonment. Thereafter

tence did not contravene constitutional guarantees.

Censorship.

—Once again

New

Int. Pictures v.

is

involved a defendant

and found guilty of murder. The conviche was indicted for kidnapping, was found guilty and sentenced to death. It was held that the kidnapping indictment, trial and sentim,

power of congress to investigate; that inquiries cannot be made teaching that

indictment and

charged with kidnapping. The defendant had murdered his vic-

the effect of

iinto

this

constitutional rights.

on the scope of Watkins. But the exact limits of the {holding were not clear. The court stressed a number of important aspects of the case. It stated that there are some limits on the (limitation

was held that

the subsequent Illinois trial did not deprive the defendant of his

the court was required to consider

York's motion-picture-licensing law upon the

ist amendment liberties, which ment from infringement by the

by the 14th amendThe court held in Kingsley

are protected states.

Regents of the University of the State of New York, 79 S. Ct. 1362, that New York cannot constitutionally prevent the exhibition of a motion picture because the picture advocates an idea, even though the idea

is

contrary to the moral

standards, religious precepts and the legal code of

The

case

its

citizenry.

involved the film Lady Chatterley's Lover, which

advocated the idea that adultery under certain circumstances

might be proper behaviour. Crvn, Rights Crvn. ServEducation; International Law; Labour Unions; National Labor Relations Board; Public Utilities; Selective Service, U.S.; Taxation; United States. (W. D. Hd.) United Kingdom Case Law. Perhaps the most interesting case, from the point of view of the removal of an old doubt, reported in 1959 was Diplock J.'s decision in Fowler v. Lanning (1959 2 W.L.R. 241). The defendant in this case had injured the plaintiff by accidentally shooting him at a shooting party. The form which the argument of the case took was that the statement

See also Automobile Industry

;

ice, U.S.;

—

;

LAWN BOWLrNG — LEAD

392

of claim baldly averred Ihe fact of the shootinR without alleging that the shooting

was cither intentional (which

was common

it

it was not) or negligent. The judge in the course of his judgment disposed of the argument that negligence was not

two organizations. The Canadiaiu won four of the

of the

five

games, defeating the U.S. players 108-87.

The

ground

Canadian Lawn Bawling championships were played

fifth

a necessary ingredient of an action for unintentional trespass

on the greens of the Boulevard club, Toronto, Ont., Aug. 24-26, 1959. Participants were the champions of the preliminary play-

and held that the burden of establishing negligence rested on the

downs

plaintiff.

ronto were:

A

decision of the house of lords of considerable importance view of the contemporary multiplicity of law reports was that

in

Qualcast (Wolverhampton) Ltd.

in

v.

Haynes (.959

2

ligence.

favour of the plaintiff on the footmg that he was bound to do so by the authority of previous decisions where the facts had been similar, but that left to himself he would not have found in

any negligence. The house of lords ruled that these decisions, : , , , being on questions of fact and not questions of law, were not binding on the judge and accordingly reversed his decision and ,

.

,

,

g-J'"

W.L.R.

workman was suing his employers for negThe county court judge who tried the action decided it

510). In this case a

that of the court of appeal.

^

si„gi,,

and important of the decisions of the Restrictive Practices court. As they had usually done, the court rejected all the arguments alleged on behalf of the Yam Spinners' of benefit to the public t^ ^ ^ association to flow from its minimum price scheme but they held likely to have a that the removal of the restriction would be serious and persistent effect on the general level of employment

R.aina Saiv

ciaytor.

^^^ ^^^^ Canadian championships were

its

by the association

case. Nonetheless, the court decided that

effects

^^^ ^^^^^,

^^^^ tournament

j^^^;^^^,

3^^,;^^ association was played ^^^^

were

it

and they

of the American

San Francisco,

Calif.,

Lawn

Aug. 31-

Treblei 1

(iklpl, Al MorllnM, G>ora* PlUon Got. Pork (Son FronciKo, Coiii.i dab

B.Mle M.morlal trophy

Cllv.

"'"c.) ciut

—

Singlet '.'°.'"'!'

ii:;'°;°^,°nTro^ph°y'"

:

:

?o''r:o1i'

F."cho7.^t?.r'':o*

B«d,VH.f;«o."c5M

'i"*' I

The i960 National Open tournament

whereas the adverse

nationally;

felt

at

^^^^ Winners were:

^

for the purposes of

on employment of ending the scheme would be localized,

the detriments of retaining

Edmon-

to be held in

.,,

.

;

in the 11 areas selected

at To-

f •,°6mr |ilp;:'U"H„!;j;;,rrCri*H°c.'Wo„,«o„. K„ch^.,, o-.

;

Spinners' Agreement was one of the most interesting

Re Yarn

The winners

provinces of Canada.

in the several

of the A.L.B.A. and thei

annual meeting of the council were to be held at Fla., April

28-March

St. Petersburg,:

(L. Pr.)

5.

!

accordingly declared the scheme to be contrary to the public

(W. T. We.)

interest.

—

Encyclop/EDIa Britannica Films. The Bill of Rights (1956): The Congress (1954). The Constitution

States States

(1956); Magna Carta, Part I (Rise of the EnRlish Monarchy) (1959); Magna Carta, Part II (Revolt of the Nobles and the Signing of the Charter) (1959) ;JAcS«?remeCoar« (19S4); Understanding the Law Equal Justice jor All (19S3).

—

OUin DnUflinn' LdWII DUWIIIIg.

I

Bowling

in the

People-to-People (P.T.P.) movement, which was T->i.,.T~vi7V L -liru-i Eisenhower White XT

.JUT)

House

at a

1956 as "a massive program of communication between Americans and the people of other lands designed to estabin

,.,.

,.,,. lish lasting

,.,.

,

.,

two-way relationships from which mtemational f J J J » JTU new group was friendships and understanding can grow. The "dedicated to furthering exchange of visits between lawn bowlers of different countries and to the spread of knowledge of lawn .

,

Tennis: see Tennis.

^ox\A mine Output

pOll LCflU. I

.

li

1-ru A T T> The American Lawn Bowling " •

•

.•

.

association

s

/AT T> A \ 2ndJTTC (A.L.B.A.) U.S. ^

tournament of doubles champions was held at The Inn, Buck Hill Falls, N.Y., Sept. 19-20, 1959, with two days of round-robin play by championship teams from the five territorial divisions. Winners were James Candelet and Robert Smart of the Providence, R.L, Bowling Green club (Eastern division), who received the Buck Hill Falls Inn trophy The 3rd U.S. tournament of singles champions was held at Spalding Inn, Whitefield, N.H., Sept. 12-13, 1959- Singles cham-

Tewksbury. In two days of round-robin play Tewksbury successfully defended ,. ..., ,. IT o i_ r J nis title, continuing as U.S. singles champion for 1959 and again receiving the Spalding Inn trophy. The annual "international match" between the eastern division of the A.L.B.A. and the Provincial Lawn Bowling association of ° Ontano, Can., was played Aug. 8, 1059, at the Glen Ridge club, /-> / Ci /- xu ^ V /I J \ N r 1! at. Cathermes, Ont., by five four-man teams (rinks) from each .

•

•

1

Table I.—

•

1

WorW

of lead declined in 1958, for

the'

.j

3%

'

Sme/fer Producf.on of

Uod

looo. of short tons)

"M

I'M ^^

^^^.^^^

Austroiio*

.

.

.

Conodo

.

.

.

fronce

.

....

Cermony, Woit. Holy jhtQnctnin Liechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy LIcUMlCllolClM. lying between Switzerland and Austria, united with Switzerland by monetary and customs union. .Area: I

60.6 sq.mi. Pop. (1950 census):

13.757 '^'958 est.;

minister-president

II;

Frick.

—

The chief event of the year 1959 was a "baby sumHistory. mit" meeting of the four smallest sovereign states of Europe al N'aduz. on Oct.

Andorra, Liechtenstein,

23.

Marino were represented, and there was the Vatican City state.

The

hopes that worthwhile

group be extended to Luxembourg, and

sources of the country's revenue continued to be the

British yearly grant of £3,750,000

and the U.S. yearly rental

of $4,000,000 for the use of Wheelus air base near Tripoli. In

July

it

was rumoured that Libya had

asked for the rental to be

increased to $40,000,000.

interest;

i.e.,

representative of

Monaco and

Sat'

also an observer froir;

delegates discussed matters of com-

mon

The main

in-

Vaduz, pop. (1958) 3,092. Sovereign prince: Franz-Josef (appointed Sept. 3, 194S): Alexander

tal:

June, had a flow of 17.500 barrels per day; the How in well no. 2 was said to be 15.000 barrels per day. This discovery encouraged oilfields existed.

15.361,

cluding 1,163 Swiss, 1,009 Austrians and 999 persons of other citizenship. Language: German. Religion: Roman Catholic. Capi-

tourism and the sale of postage stamps. Tht

Monaco proposed

membership was decided to

that the it

of thi inviti

that country.

— —

Education. Schools (1958-59): primary 14, secondary 5, pupils J,73J' teachers los. Finance. Included since Jan. 1924 in the Swiss customs union, Liechten' stein uses Swiss currency. In 1959 the franc was valued at 23.3 cents U.S' Budget (1959 est.): revenue io,io6,56o Fr., expenditure 10,254,924 Fi| Public debt (Dec. 31, 1958): 9,269,479 Fr. Agriculture. Chief products: corn, potatoes, fruit, wine, vegetableLivestock (195s): cattle 5,548; sheep 804; horses 295; pigs 3,635: goat 770; chickens 33.002. Industry. Cotton weaving and spinning, ceramics, artificial teeth, leathcj goods, hardware, machinery, sausage cases. \

•

The

British garrisons in Libya were reduced

and

at the

end

two infantry battalions (at Tripoli and Benghazi) and the armoured cars of the 2nd royal tank regiment at Homs, west of Tripoli. of the year they comprised

Education.

— Schools

(

1957)

:

—

—

,

1

I

primary 502, pupils 96,800, teachers 3,061

8, pupils 700, teachers teacher-training colleges 4, students 1,568. teachers 131; institutions i, students 71, teaching staff 10. Libyan pound (divided into 100 piastres), with a par value of LL.i=U.S. $2.80. Budget (1958-59 est.): revenue LL. 12, 128, 622, expenditure LL. 12, 373,417. Currency circulation (Dec. 1958) LL. 7, 842, 000 (Dec. 1957) LL. 7, 182, 000. Bank deposits (Tripolitania only, Oct. 1958) LL. 16, 744, 000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports LL. 34,501 ,000, exports LL. 5, 073, 000. Chief sources of imports: Italy 22.3%: U.K. 22.1%; U.S. 21.4%. Chief Egypt 16.7%; U.K. 15.1%. Main destinations of exports: Italy 37'»

secondary 53. pupils 6,900, teachers 525; vocational 87;

of higher education (1956) Finonce. Monetary unit:

—

Life Insurance: see Insurance.

)

Death

Life Statistics: see Birth and Data, U.S.

Statistics; CensuI

Limes: see Fruit. Lions Clubs, International Association of:

see

Soc

eties a.vd Associations, U.S.

;

MISSING

WORLD WAR

II

U.S.

BOMBER

1959. The plane had participated in and was last seen preparing to return

a

disco\ ired

bombing

jid

on the Libyan desert in on Naples, Italy, in 1943

was never heard from again, Investigators could find no trace of the crew ir the wreckage, but discovery that the plane's radio was still in worl'ptian government. He strongly crisis that

arose

in

t

in

i

8,347,923-

During 1959 London was transformed and dominated by

He became

minister of supply in 1954 and was minister of defense for a few months in 1955. As secretary of state for foreign affairs in Sir

Anthony Eden's government he played

Lord mayors

splendid summer.

The open-air

successful season, and the weather

Mail competition for the the .Arc de

was not

Triomphe

fastest

in Paris to

the

theatre in Regent's park had a

made

it

possible for the Daily

journey from Marble Arch

to

succeed beyond expectations.

It

just a publicity stunt but provided evidence that

it

might

in parliament the Anglo-French intervention in Egypt, and after Eden became ill in November, a heavy responsibility fell on him in the conduct of negotiations that led to the final withdrawal of the British and French troops from Egypt. When Harold Macmillan formed a new government in Jan.

prove possible to reduce the traveling time between the twOf

1957 Selwyn Lloyd was retained as secretary of state for foreign

as

defended

city centres

After

by something

many

like

an hour.

;

years the last stretches of the Cromwell road ex'

tension were finished and opened, the Chiswick flyover com-

pleted and the westward exit from central

much

as 15 min.

The annual

London shortened b), London Trans-'

reports from the

affairs.

In Feb. 1959 he acted as chairman of the London conference

BOMB DISPOSAL SQUAD WORKING AT NIGHT lb.

World War

1959

•V

II

bomb which was

to

discovered bene:

unexploded 500,

London

street in Jul:

LOPEZ MATEOS — LOUISIANA

401

port and from the commissioner for metropolitan police repeated

on vacation seeking part-time employment, and newcomers

more emphatically the warning that London was about

southern California.

to

j

j

I

own

The

that the public transport

Foreign commerce for the year ending June 30, 1959, totaled

system was shrinking under the impact of private motoring appeared, so that Londoners might, within a decade, anticipate paying higher prices for constantly curtailed bus services.

$944,600,000, including $611,600,000 in imports and $333,000,-

itself

I

to throttle

with

its

traffic.

first signs

000 in exports. Retail sales for the year ending June 30, 1959, reached $8,645,-

[

Several sawn-off "skyscrapers" of 14 to 17 stories were completed and opened, but the 25-story Shell-Mex building on the

i

south bank was

still

unfinished though the towering framework

had become a feature of the skyline. I'he gaps left in the City by wartime bombing continued to be filled up but not with any

I

\

great architectural distinction.

718,000.

The value

of building permits for the city of Los Angeles

year 1958-59 amounted to $595,917,920 and $1,360,632,000 for Los Angeles county. during the

fiscal

Air pollution continued as a disturbing element and received added attention from the air pollution control district and citizen organizations in an attempt to obtain, through state legislation,

;

I

The splendid summer provided a memorable setting for the of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower, which brought cheering Londoners into the streets in much larger numbers than anybody visit

i

j

(G. Fy.)

had calculated.

—

1

to)

Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. The British England (1952); Picture 0) Britain (1955).

Isles

(1948); Canals

the ultimate installation of exhaust-control devices on the

more

than 4,000,000 motor vehicles in the state of California. Preliminary legislation intended to obtain full control by the year 1963 was enacted by the state legislature. The Coliseum commission in July dedicated a sports arena adjacent to Memorial coliseum. The sports arena, with a seating

capacity of 17,500 for sports events, was to be the location of

I

the i960 Democratic national convention.

jLOPcZ mdlcOS, ADOITO was

succeeding Adolfo Ruiz Cortines. Lopez Mateos was bom on May 26 in Atizapan de Zaragoza, Mex., and entered politics in 1929, first as a socialist, then as a member of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional. He was elected senator in 1946 and later served as minister of labour and

In the litigation over the Chavez ravine contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers, National league baseball team, the California supreme court recorded a decision supporting the contract. However, opponents filed an appeal with the U.S. supreme court, which was pending. The Los Angeles Dodgers won the National league pennant and then the world series championship by defeating the Chicago White Sox, the American league pen-

social security in the cabinet of

nant winner.

July

6,

1958; he took office Dec.

Mexico on six-year term

elected president of i,

1958, for his

as chief executive,

President Ruiz Cortines.

In Jan. 1959, the new president presented the largest budget in Mexican history to the nation. At Acapulco on Feb. 19-20,

The advent

of jet passenger air service during 1959 brought

the eastern seaboard within 4^ hours flight time of Los Angeles

Pres.

and the Pacific

Mateos.

number

Dwight D. Eisenhower was officially received by Lopez The Mexican president returned Eisenhower's visit Oct. 9-15, conferring with Eisenhower and addressing the Organization of American States and the United Nations. He visited Canada, Oct. 15-18, becoming the first Mexican chief executive to

do

coast, resulting in further acceleration in the

of air passengers handled at the municipally

Angeles International airport.

(N. P.)

Encvclop.«dia Britannica Films.

One

so.

Louisiana.

—Far Western States

of the west south-central states of the United

Louisiana

known

state,

477,249 since the 1950 federal census of 1,970,358. This would place Los Angeles after New York and Chicago as the

54.8% urban; and 1,211,820 or 45.2%

of

third largest U.S. city in population,

but

it

was

first in area,

with

sq.mi.

or

is

67%

1950); 41,272;

n

in his

second four-year term, having been re-elected

1957-

The

city's budget total for all purposes for the 1959-60 fiscal was $432,826,012. The city property tax rate stood at fi.9574 on each $100 of assessed valuation. General obligation )onds outstanding and unmatured on June 30, 1959, totaled ^246,369,000. General obligation bonds authorized but unsold, )n the same date, amounted to $46,500,000; these were primarily 'or airport, fire, library, police, recreation and park purposes. Enrollment in the public schools of the Los Angeles city ichool district, which extends beyond the city limits, was 566,000 IS of Oct. 1959. Enrollment in private schools at the same time

'ear

more than 88,000. In addition, adult-education classes, part had an enrollment of 69,000. The annual value added in the manufacture of products, within he Los Angeles metropolitan area, was $6,880,000,000 during he year ending June 30, 1959. At that date 2,718,400 persons were gainfully employed. The otal unemployed on the same date was 121,200, mainly students

vas )f

the public-school system,

popularly

as the "Pelican state," "Cre-

Area 48,523

state."

sq.mi., of

which 45,162

which 1,796,548 nonwhite; 1,471,696 or

land. Pop. (1950 census) 2,683,516, of

were white and 886,968 or i,

ii% 1959,

rural.

The

provisional

was 3,166,000. Capital

(pop. 1950), Baton Rouge, 125,629. Other important cities (pop.

Los Angeles functions under a mayor and a council of 15 nembers elected to four-year terms. Mayor Norris Poulson in

was

is

"Bayou

estimated population on July

^57.9 sq.mi.

[959

(1956).

States, admitted to the union in 1812 as the iSth

Anrralac Population, expanding ahead of civic developLos nllgClCO. ment, continued as the outstanding problem of Los Angeles throughout 1959. The city's population based on growth statistics was now estimated at 2,447,607, an increase

ole state" or

owned Los

New

Orleans 570,445; Shreveport 127,206; Lake Charles

Monroe 38,572; Alexandria 34,913; Lafayette 33,541. History. The 1958-59 budget of the state was based upon the

—

following assumptions: fiscal

a

sizable surplus

from the preceding

year; increased tax collections with the end of the business

recession; substantial income

from mineral leases on state lands; and receipt of a large part of the $90,000,000 then held in escrow pending

final

tidelands.

adjustment of the disputed

Nearly

all

title

to

the oil-rich

these expectations were unrealized.

More-

over, the natural-gas interests brought suit to test the constitutionality of the increased gas-gathering tax,

which rendered un-

available the $20,000,000 budgeted from that source, and the

was empty when a special session of the legislature was convened on Nov. ii, 1958. It enacted no new taxes, but changed the basis of the disputed gas-gathering tax in an effort to placate its opponents and advanced the dates for collection of some other taxes so as to make funds from those sources imstate treasury

mediately available.

The

financial crisis continued until Feb.

1959,

when

a

new

on state lands yielded $60,000,000, and this unexpected bonanza solved the state's financial problems unto the end of the 195S-59 fiscal year. leasing of mineral

rights

LOUISIANA

402

men who favoured

their stead

his release. Shortly afterward he

declared that his health was restored and began a scries of

slumping tours to promote another term as governor.

his

candidacy for renomination

for

it was an election year, the legislators were reluctant to any reasonable request for state funds, so they passed

Since reject

;i|)priipriation bills

M

aggregating $83,000,000 more than estimated

income for the 1959-60

lie

fiscal year.

They then

the (|uestionable plan of passing another

bill

resorted to

carrying a

total

of $40,000,000, to be paid from the proceeds of mineral leases

on stale lands,

The

and when such funds should become available. this bill were arranged according to a

if

several items in

priority system, each to be paid in order as funds

became

avail|

from that source. None of the appropriation bills had reached the governor prior to his commitment to a hospital, and

able

the duty of vetoing enough bills and items to balance the budget

devolved upon the lieutenant governor.

He

vetoed a

total of

$83,000,000, in line with the previously expressed intentions of the governor.

Only $12,000,000 was received from the leasing of mineral and this was sufficient to pay only the first two items on the priority list: $2,500,000 to the state highway department and $9,500,000 to the state colleges for capital improvements. The other beneficiaries had to await the next leasing, which was expected to be held early in i960. The Louisiana political pot began boiling long before the rights,

date set for the filing of candidacies for nominations for state offices

Long

Democratic primary of Dec. 5, 1959. Governor by announcing that he would be

in the

raised an important issue

a candidate for renomination, despite the constitutional provision that "no governor should be his

He

own immediate

successor."

by resigning as governor just prior to filing for the nomination. After numerous conferences with his advisers, Governor Long qualified, just before proposed to evade

this provision

the Sept. 15 deadline, as a candidate for lieutenant governor,

in-

stead of for governor, on a ticket headed by former governor

James A. Noe.

A

total of 12 candidates filed for governor, but

drew because of LOUISIANA GOV. EARL LONG In

El Paso. Tex.,

mental

illness

In

looking out from behind in July 1959. Lo

Noe and Long were on Dec.

governor.

mittee he tried to get them introduced as amendments to

police F. E.

bills

legislature

II, 1959.

fiscal

then under consideration. Refusal of his legislative leaders

to introduce

such amendments enraged the governor, who then

addressed the legislature to profanity

speech

in a bitter

and vulgarity. In

in

which he resorted

a further address to the legisla-

ture he delivered another tirade similar to the preceding one.

This conduct of the governor convinced his family and political friends that

he was on the verge of a complete physical and in need of treatment in a hospital. He

mental collapse and was

was forcibly committed Tex., hospital, but

to the psychiatric

when he sought

clinic

New

of a Galveston,

release through court action,

his family consented to his release

the Ochsner clinic at

ward

on condition that he enter

Orleans for treatment.

He entered When he

but escaped and headed for Baton Rouge.

the ar-

rived there he was taken into custody and ordered committed to

the psychiatric

ward of the Mandeville

one soon with-

campaign largely devoid of

issues

state hospital. After a

few

days of confinement there he procured his release by dismissing the director of the state department of institutions and the

superintendent of the Mandeville hospital and appointing in

5.

A

rejected

by the voters in the primary elecwould decide whether

run-off on Jan. 9, i960,

DeLesseps Morrison, the mayor of New Orleans, or former governor J. H. Davis would be the Democratic candidate for

convened in regular 30-day fiscal session on Such sessions are legally restricted to a review of state finances and the adoption of a budget for the ensuing fiscal year. The governor, Earl K. Long, sought to have several nonfiscal bills introduced, and when they were rejected in com-

The

A

but replete with personalities then ensued.

where he was vacationing June

tions

May

illness.

For the

first

complete state

time

in

ticket,

many

decades the Republicans entered

headed by former superintendent of

a

state

Grevemberg.

State officers in 1959 were: Earl K. Long, governor; Lether E. Frazar, lieutenant governor; Wade 0. Martin, Jr.. secretary of state; A. P. Tugwell. treasurer;

Jack

P.

superintendent of education;

H. Odom,

William

J.

Dodd, comptroller;

J.

Gremillion. attorney general:

F.

Shelby M. Jackson,

M. Menefee

register of land office; Sidney J.

(to

May

i), George

McCrory, commis-

sioner of agriculture and immigration.

—

In the 1958-59 Session 857 public schools for whites en 301,274 elementary and 93.699 high-school pupils and employet teachers; 562 public schools for Negroes enrolled 201,034 dt mentary and 45,842 high-school pupils and employed 8,117 teachers; J3private and parochial schools lor whites enrolled 74.966 elementary an( 17,289 high-school pupils and employed 3,092 teachers; 85 private ani parochial schools for Negroes enrolled 19,638 elementary and 3,303 h'S" school pupils and employed 623 teachers; 8 state-approved nursery school and kindergartens enrolled 170 pupils and employed 14 teachers. The Stat operated 2S public trade schools in which about 30.000 men and womei received instruction. There were S state-supported colleges and universiUe for whites and 2 for Negroes; 9 privately endowed colleges and univer sities for whites and 3 for Negroes. The total state budget for public education at all levels was $212,53' 416 for the fiscal year 1958-59, compared with $208,893,881 for th fiscal year 1957-58. Education.

rolled

IS.957

—

—

LUEBKE — LUMBER Sociol Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. Total benefit payments under the Louisiana unemployment compensation law were $35,957,712 for the fiscal year 1958-59, compared with $17,612,475 for the fiscal year 1957-5S. Louisiana expended more than $156,000,000, in grants and administrative costs, on public welfare in the fiscal year 1958-59, compared with $150,000,000 in the fiscal year 1957-58. In 1959 the state maintained eight charity hospitals; three hospitals for mental patients: two tuberculosis sanitariums:- a school for white blind, a school for white deaf and a school for Xegro blind and deaf: a training school for spastic children: and a training school for the feeble-

minded.

I ;

I

i

The state maintained a prison farm for about 3.700 adult offenders: a separate correctional institution for 300 young first offenders and incorrigible juveniles; separate training schools for about 350 delinquent white boys and girls: and a training institute for about 450 delinquent Negro boys and girls. The state expenditures for maintenance, expansion and improvement of charitable and correctional institutions were about $36,000,000 for the fiscal year 1958-59, compared with $38,000,000 for the fiscal year 1957S«.

Table I.— touijiono Public Welfare Programs. 1958-59 Typo of ossistance

Average number on rolls

Old-oge pensions

124,790

Needy

3,114

blind

Dependent children

102,407 17,483 10,667 3,525 262,186

Disability ossistance

General ossistance Foster children

Tolols

Medical vendor payments Administrative expenses Total cost of

program

Cost for the fiscol year

$95,382,197 2,281,374 25,556,805 9,032,079 5,557,782 2,761,154 $140,571,391 3,123,033 12,544,100 $156,238,524

Source: Louisiana Department of Public Welfare Reportt,

—

Dmmunications. Louisiana had 47,500 mi. of rural highways and urban in 1959, of which 15.300 mi. were state-maintained 5,300 mi. paved with concrete or blacktop, the remainder graveled. Total expenditures for public highways, including federal grants-in-aid, were $135,000,000 for fiscal 1958-59, compared with $125,000,000 for 1957-58. There were 4,045 mi. of railways and 4,800 mi. of navigable waterways. There were 175 airports. 12 heliports and 39 seaplane bases in operation in 1959; 944,088 telephones were in service on Sept. i, 1959. Total tonnage handled by Louisiana's three ports for ocean-going vessels increased from 86,737,471 in 1956 to 93,039,852 in 1957; that on tbe Gulf Intracoastal waterway from 45,353,794 in r956 to 48,104,471

—

streets

1957. Banking and Finance. On Jan. I, 1959, Louisiana had 41 national banks, with total deposits of $1,818,188,000 and resources of $1,980,637,000; 145 state banks, with total deposits of $969,135,854 and resources of $1,061,778,761; 64 savings and loan associations, with total assets of $587,544,748; 366 small loan companies, with total assets of $45,568,299; and 98 credit unions, with total assets of $12,334,078. Total state income, including federal grants-in-aid, was $633,276,785 for fiscal 1958-59, compared with $618,304,347 for 1957-58. State bonded debt on July i, 1959. was about $240,000,000. Agriculture. Total value of agricultural and truck crops was estimated at $230,000,000 in 1959, compared with $225,000,000 in 1.958; total acreage harvested was 2,600,000 in 1959, compared with 2,700,000 in 1958. Total income from crops, livestock and poultry and their products was estimated at $320,000,000 in 1959, compared with $325,000,000 in 1958; from government payments $30,500,000 in 1959, compared with $29,702,000 in 195S. in

—

—

Toble

II.

Principal

Crop

495,000

Cotton (boles)

Cottonseed (tons)

Com(bu.) «ice(100-lb. bogs) Sugar cone (short Ions) Sweet potatoes (cv/i.l Irish potatoes (cwt.)

Hay

(Ions)

Ools

(bu.)

Pecans

(lb.)

peaches

(bu.)

206,000 13,497,000 12,910,000 6,298,000 5,015,000 364,000

644,000 2,263,000 20,000,000 60,000 70,000 245,000 I

Pears (bu.) Orongei (boxes) Source; U.S.

Crops of Louisiana

Indicoied 1959

Deportment of Agriculture.

1958

403

LUMBER

404

TobU IV.— Who/Mola lumbar (194;

1940 194S 1930

-49-

1935 1954 1937 1958

J4.2 SI 114.5 120.5

J

1952 1954

,

17.3

I

Toble

Pric» IndtK in the U.S.

1001

v.— Production

of Millworlr and Certain Other luildlng

Materiali

in

Iho U.S.

1,000.000 1.000,000

bd.fl.

in.

bosis

H

954

Open

5.379

6,1

994 369

sosh

E.t.rior fromei . . . . Point, varnish ond locqu

927

sq.ft.

1.000 tons

1
9S7) 1,400 (2,J00 in 1956): pineapples (1956) 114,000 (77,000 In I95S). Livestock (1958): cattle 385,000; plus 396,000; goats 375,000; shcrp (1957) 31,000; buffaloes 253,000; poultry about 12,000,000. Sawn hnrflwnod (1957) 987,000 cu.m. Fish catch (1957) 138,300 metric tons. Induitry.- Production (metric Ions, 1958): tin concentrates (metal conlent) 39,120; cement 110.400; iron ore (60% metal content) 2,844.000; lignite 67,200; bauxite (1957) 331,000; gold (1957) 312 kg.; electricity 892,800,000 kw.hr.

—

Encyclop/«[>ia Britannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: Soulh-Eail Ash and Iti Pracefui Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture of the series, "\ ChonxinK World in the Light of History") (1958); Malaya, Land oj Tin tjnd Rubber (1957).

Malgache Republic:

see

full legislative and executive powers. He wu by an executive council consisting of ex ofTicio and nominated members, but he was not bound by its advice. Political parties and constituted bodies in Malta protested

governor was given to be assisted

vigorously against the suspension of responsible government. The U.K. government declared that its aim was to restore representative

roHorotinn nf

^^^''

'^

^^^

possible.

provided for exemption from income tax for ten years and

The Uoll

government as soon as

In April an Aids to Industries ordinance was promulgated.

It

relief

from customs duty. The budget for 1959-60 announced an estimated revenue of £10,750,000 and expenditure of £17,250,000.

Madagascar.

Mdll, iCUCrdllOn 01. empire

,. ' '

— M A N G A N ES E

PU B LI C

name

of a

that existed

Negro Moslem

from the

nth

to

the 17th centup.' in an area of Africa situated on the upper and

was

deficit

to be

out representation.

Sudanese Republic, Upper Volta and Dahomey. Later the two refused to join.

gave

,

approval to a five-year plan for a capital develop-

his final

See Senegal, Republic of; Sudanese Republic.

to

make

This British colony and strategic base consists of a of three Mediterranean islands and three un-

Indus-

of a grant. It was proposed from Malta's own resources.

(A.G.)

Malta. group

islets, about 60 mi. south of Sicily. Area of main isMalta 94.9 sq.mi.; Gozo 25.9 sq.mi.; Comino i.i sq.mi. Total pop.: (1957 census) 319,656; (1959 est.) 324.000. Language: Maltese (of Arabic origin, with heavy overlay of SiculoItalian) English and Italian are also spoken. Official languages: Maltese and English. Religion: Roman Catholic. Principal towns

new

way

to raise a further loan of £3,000,000

inhabited

to attract

available for this purpose £29,000,-!

000, partly on loan and partly by

lands:

was

of the plan

develop tourism and carry out capital works in order to strengthen the economic position of the island. The British govtries,

ernment undertook

president of the federal assembly.

;

Education

(1958) Government schools: primary 113, pupils 55,515;! pupils 2,644; technical 10, pupils 1,445; private schools 91 17.687. Royal University of Malta: students 283, teaching slaB

secondary pupils

6,

(1957) 64. Finance and Trade. Currency: sterling. Budget (1958-59 est.): revenue. (including U.K. grants) £16,192,000, expenditure £15,013,000. Foreigo' trade (1958): imports £28,700,000, exports £4,540,000.

—

;

;

I

;

Manchuria:

(pop., 1957 census): Valletta (cap.) 18,175, excluding suburbs;

Mandated

see China. Pacific Islands: see Trust Territories.

Sliema 23,381; Pawla and Tarxien 19.097; Hamrun 17,139; Birkirkara 17,076. Administration: governor; executive council, comprising three ex officio, three nominated official and four

Mandates:

see

nominated unofficial members, presided over by the governor. Governors in 1959: Sir Robert Laycock and (from June 8) Admiral Sir Guy Grantham.

—

Trust Territories. In 1958, world production of manganese ore de

Manganese.

from that consumer of the work the statistical tables, were base(

clined nearly 1,000.000 short tons

The United States is the output. Data reported, including 1957.

largest

In Feb. 1959 the U.K. house of commons debated History. and approved a bill that restored to the crown the prerogative power to revoke the constitution of 1947 which had granted selfgovernment to Malta. The state of emergency proclaimed in 1958

on U.S. bureau of mines information.

continued until April 15 when the 1947 constitution was revoked and the Malta (Constitution) Order in Council, 1959, came into

Belgian Congo.

force.

Malta thus reverted

to the status of a

crown colony. The

Table

paradino on the island's National day, Sept. 8,

of

1959

the

Malta

Labour

party,

I.

— World Production of Manganese Ore (In

.

Brozil

Chile

Cuba Fr.

Morocco

.

.

.

Ghana

AGITATORS FOR INDEPENDENCE, members

1

In August the secretary of state for the colonies, Iain Macleod,

ment program. The aim

Modibo Keita. prime minister of the Sudanese Republic, became the head of the federal government, and Leopold Senghor

the U.K. government. Later,

some imported goods, car licences and income. This measure was strongly opposed by all political parties who protested against what they considered to be taxation with-

middle Niger. At an assembly held at Dakar on Jan. 17, 1959, this name was suggested for a federation grouping Senegal, the latter

made good by

taxes were increased on

19i3

1954

1955

195*

141.1

238.8

274.7

255.1 60.2

424.3 179.2

509.0 234.2

363.3 342.6 51.9 258.0 464.5 712.2 94.0?

59.4 277.4 469.9 889.5

Hungary .•.1,637.7 Japon 228.6 Mexico 157.4 Portuguese India 122.4 Rumonio South Africa. 964.1 Indio

.

.

.

.

.

.

S.W.Africa U.5.S.R

United Slates

.

.

Total

389.4 473.3 835.5 132.0 2,130.5 214.3 269.9 166.2 199,5 912.3 40.7

58.4

296.8 441.2 515.5 120.4 1,582.6 180.2

58.4?

346.7 453.0 604.3 105.2 1,773.6

222.4

278.0 116.8

97.3 149.5

191.1

429.8 649.5 41.9

772.9

5.4

99.0 5,115.8 157.5

34.0 54.9 5,058.5 206.1

55.2 5,228.3 287.3

10,865

12,466

11,033

11,987

88.7 4,853.5

Turkey

thousands of short tons)

1952

I

1

1,889.0

314.2 171.0? 215.8 259.1

768.4 57.3 66.0 5,443.2

1957

1958

404.6

365.C 764.2

1,011.9 59.7 148.3

541.8 718.3 132.0? 1,852.5

42.1 75.7

452.C 574.1 132.C 1,377.
fron-'

the principa

with high

'

blooc^

Among

hazards which were investigated were rapi(' murmurs, varicose veins, hardening of the arteries albuminuria, digestive disorders and nervousness. Actually ;' record of dyspepsia, indigestion, gastritis, cardiospasm am pressure.

pulse, heart

pylorospasm

offers less of a

hazard than does nervousness, par'

when such conditions as psychasthenia and nervou| indigestion occur at a young age. Medical Schools and Students. The number of applicant

ticularly

—

|

for enrollment in the medical schools of the United States seeme' to be decreasing although enrollments in colleges for the train

ing of undergraduates were increasing.

Medical school

appli'

5.1% of college graduates in 1950 and onl 4.1% in 1958. The percentage of students entering mediC' schools with an average grade of "A" was also decreasing, ani there was a decline in quantitative aptitude and scientific skill! as measured by the aptitude tests. The percentage of student cants represented

withdrawing during their freshman year

in

medical schools

ir

MEN'S FASHIONS — MERCHANT MARINE creased from

1954 and 1955 to 7.8% in 1957 and fewer students available for the second year

421

medical students in i960. Estimates indicated that expansion

and delivery of 22 new ships into service, while 6 ships were transferred to foreign flag, 19 were traded in to the government in connection with new building programs, and 7 were lost, scrapped or taken out of service. The government's loss was accounted for largely by the scrapping of old Liberty ships from the National Defense Reserve fleet. Of the total U.S. merchant fleet, 937 were active and 2,160 either temporarily inactive (121) or laid up in the government's reserve fleet (2,039). The active fleet consisted of 37 combination passenger-cargo ships, 626 freighters and 274 tankers. The active

and rehabilitation with sufficient funds would permit these schools to admit 9.400 students by 1966.

with

1958. This

5.5%

made

in

class.

The number of teachers available for the medical schools was also decreasing. The number of faculty vacancies in 1957 and 1958 was twice that reported for the period 1956 and 1957. Twenty schools reported an average need of 50 additional faculty members. In 1959 there were 86 medical schools in the U.S.. including and these would admit a total of 8.250

four two-year schools,

was clearly apparent in 1959 that there existed a shortage and of teaching facilities in the country in rela-

It

of physicians

tion to the increasing population.

States

was expected

The population of the United by 1975. At that time

to reach 235.000,000

return of 24 ships from foreign to U.S.

was 8 ships larger than the active fleet of the year before, 5 more in the government-owned fleet and 3 more in the privately owned fleet. There were 115 privately owned vessels inactive, of which 41 dry-cargo ships and 60 tankers were laid up for lack of employment, and the others were undergoing repairs fleet

or conversion.

The government's

310.000 practicing physicians would be needed to maintain the current ratio of 132 physicians for each 100,000 people. In 1959

flag,

active ships.

Of the

fleet

consisted of 35 active and 2,045 in-

active, 29

were on bareboat charter

to private

year medical schools were graduating 6.861 students yearly; the

companies. 4 were operated by general agents for the Military Sea Transportation service and 2 were owned by the Panama

:number would have to reach 10.400 per year by 1975.

Canal Co.

there were about 230.000 physicians,

and fully-developed four-

had changed the medico-economic situation was the problem of caring for students who were married. In 1956, 55% of the students were married, whereas in 1959 the number was 63%. In 195S, 24% of the married students had two or more Ichildren compared with only i29c in 1956. In fact, 7% of the

One

lig59 graduating class reported land

In the calendar year 1958 ships flying the U.S. flag carried

factor that

having three or more children,

Of 232

women

of U.S. imports. This was 10,000.000 tons less of exports and

14.000,000 tons less of imports than in the calendar year 1957. It

constituted only about

and

12%

ports and

one graduate had seven.

I

19.000.00c short tons of U.S. exports and 21,000,000 short tons

students in the class of 1959, 58% were single ^i% of the married women had one or

^nd 42Tc were married; Itnore children,

See also Allergy; Bacteriology; Biochemistry; Birth Control; Blood, Diseases of the; Cancer; Chemotherapy; Dentistry; Dermatology; Diabetes; Ear, Nose and Throat, JDiseases of; Endocrinology; Epidemiology; Eye, Diseases OF THE Hearing Heart and Circulatory Diseases HospiITals; Industrial Health; Medical Rehabilitation of the Disabled; Narcotics; Nutrition, Experimental; Psychiatry; Psychosomatic Medicine; Public Health Engineer-

16%

of total U.S. water-borne exports

of imports in 1958. a further decline from

21%

oi imports carried in 1957.

Of the

17%

of ex-

total vessels

in service, 307 were operated by 15 companies with the aid of government subsidy. The subsidies were paid by the government to make up the difference between the high U.S. cost of ship

[

;

;

;

Respiratory Diseases; Rheumatic Diseases; Stomach Intestines, Diseases of the; Surgery; Tr.4Nquilizing

|lNG;

po

Drugs; Tropical Diseases; Veterinary Medicine; Vitamins Nutrition X-Ray and Radiology,

rDBibliography.— R. ;

E. Wilson. "Technics of Human-Bone-Marrow procurement by .Aspiration From Living Donors." Xew England J. Med.. ^61:781-785 (Oct. 15. 1959): Wilder Penfield, "The Interpretive Cortex: Ihe Stream of Consciousness in the Human Brain Can Be Electrically Reictivated." Science, 129:1719-25 (June 26. 19S9>; Xorman Jolliflee. 5eymour H. Rinzler and Morton .'Vrcher, "The .\nti-Coronary Club: including a Discussion of the Effects of a Prudent Diet on the Serum Cholesterol Level of Middle-.^ged Men," Am. J. Clin. Nutrition, 7:451-462 [July-.\ug. 1959); Society of Actuaries, Build and Blood Pressure Study, (M. Fi.) J-ol. (1959). Britannica Films. .Alcoholism (1952): .Allergies [ EXCYCL0P..EDH 1,1952): Antibiotics (1952); Atom and Medicine (1952); Cancer (1953); Oejending the City's Health (1941); First Aid on the Spot (1954); Jeart Disease Its Major Causes (1955); Immunization (1955); Tuber-

—

i

—

ulosis

(1956).

Men's Fashions: see Clothing Industry; Shoe Industry.

The

Iferchant Marine.

U.S. merchant marine on Sept.

I, 1959,

totaled 3.097

i,

ocean-going mer-

hant vessels of 1,000 gross tons and over, which was 29 less

han the number in the fleet on Sept. i, 1958. Private steamship ompanies owned 1.017 of these ships and the government owned ,080. The private tleet had increased by 14 ships and the

fovernment-owned

fleet

had decreased by 43 compared with the

revious year.

The

difference in the private fleet

was accounted

for

by the

GERMAN TRAINING VESSEL

departing fn

1959. The three-masted bark carried 175

its

first

ocean voyage

MERCURY— METALLURGY

422

operation and the lower cost of foreign competitors, in order to assure adequate service for shippers

U.S.

essential

in

foreign

trade routes. In return the subsidized operators agreed not only to offer

over their assigned routes, but to provide for

adc(|uali' ser\'ice

replacement of their ships to keep their

fleets

modern. In ac-

cordance with such agreements, orders were placed during the year by live companies for a total of Si;- ,ilsn

Coast

Infernafional. the general

1

7

new

freighters.

CiI'ard. U.S.; Shipbi'ildi.nc.

— .Mlhough

M.)

(C. G.

there was a turn for the better in

volume of international sea-borne trade during 1959,

the recovery in economic activity was not sufficient to relieve the shipping industry of

its

depression. Dry-cargo

tramp

ship-

ping freight rates (as illustrated in Table I) remained at depressed levels, and

tanker freight rates remained similarly

oil

Throughout most of the year about 6,000,000 tons dead weight of dry-cargo tramps and much the same amount of tanker tonnage was laid up for want of employment. Despite a

depres,' were published during 1959, one of these, the "Ap-

—Copper-itining

and

Smelting

'950).

tion received at the "top" of the atmosphere and the variations

spectrum distribution of this radiation. These quantities which comprise the input to the atmospheric "heat engine" that drives the general circulation and represent the ultimate source in the

of those forces which produce the changes in weather, were be-

AeM

Prices and Production: see Mineral and Metal "roduciion and Prices.

yond reach of meteorologists

until space vehicles

provided the

1;

METEOROLOGY

424

In addition to fundamental studies of the earth's heat budget,

atmospheric conditions. The U.S. weather bureau reported

thai

and rockets were expected to provide data of variations in ozone and carbon dioxide content and layers in the high atmosphere which affect the earth's heat balance and there-

preliminary tests of the effects of cloud seeding on a hurricani

fore the temperatures on the ground; also the distribution of

in

satellites

active rain and

snow everywhere,

the intensity

and

vertical ex-

and perhaps extraterrestrial factors that influence the atmosphere and its weather and climate in ways still unknown. The possible import of these studies on man's welfare was given weight by a tent of severe storms, the heiRht of the freezing level

gave no evidence

of dry ice had been used successful!)

lb.

changing the course of a hurricane. Meteorologists conclude

any possible

that

had been insignificant

effect

comparisoi

in

mud'

with the colossal forces that drive a hurricane and that

more extensive cloud seeding would be needed changes

siderable

was

that

still

to cause

any con

the course of a hurricane, a possibilit]

in

just a speculation.

The Santa Barbara cloud

few research scientists who reminded the public that the causes of the ice ages with their cataclysmic changes in climate and

support of an earlier claim by another ex'

in

[icrimenter that 80

seeding project, one of the mos

life

on earth were

promising from the theoretical viewpoint, had not been as pro ductive during 1958-59 as it appeared to have been in precedinil

and

earth's

years and re-evaluations in 1959 cast

still unknown. Some hints of cosmic-solar atmosphere relationships were found in the preliminary research in data gathered during the International Geo-

elusions. Private operations in

some doubt on

rainmaking and

earlier con,

hail suppressioi'

in a few localities without any evidence that appears' modify the general conclusions published by the Americai' Meteorological society and the World Meteorological organiza tion. Because of the number of forest fires set off by lightnin;! strikes to the ground in "dry' thunderstorms, the U.S. foresi

continued

physical year 1957 5S.

—

Experimental Meteorology and Weather "Control." The status of weather modilication in 1959 was summarized in the Bulletin of the World Meteorological organization in July under the title, "Artificial Control of Clouds and Hydrometeors." A conference on weather modification by artificial means was

to

sponsored jointly by the American Society of Civil Engineers and the American Meteorological society in Denver, Colo., Aug.

velop practical methods for suppression of lightning by seedin

27-29.

Latest

techniques

methods of evaluating

for future experimentation in

The

institute

cloud seeding were discussed, were re-examined and the outlook weather modification was reviewed.

in

results

for atmospheric

(Tucson), continued

its

physics. University of Arizona

well-designed studies and tests with

the collaboration of the meteorological research staff of

The Uni-

service extended

its

experiments near Missoula, Mont., to

Tentative conclusions that cloud seeding increased the

was recognized that this woul.l from that through which lightnin discharges were increased in number during the Tucson experi' ments. Researchers at Missoula had hopeful indications but {&,

nimbus (thunderstorm)

stage. It

a technique different

call for

definite results.

Among

I

other fields of experimental meteorology and weathe!

fre-

were the atmospheric nuclei studies of the National Sciencj

quency of lightning discharges under some circumstances and that further tests under controlled experimental conditions would be necessary to determine the effects on rainfall were among

droplets, drop size distribution in clouds

the year's results of research.

sively

The U.S. navy demonstrated

for the first time that under cer-

humidity carbon black (soot) could be used

successfully to condense moisture into a thin cloud or to dissipate

clouds already

in

the

air,

the

dependent upon the different radiation

differing effects

results

being

under various

foundation and the weather bureau, the electrical charges 0; cence process. The

WEATHER

OFFICE,

a

r

public information about the weathe

:ording

opened

and forecasting centri in London in 1959

and the drop were studied

coalesl

last three in particular

exterj

England, the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. The physia

in

research laboratory of the U.S. weather bureau published papeil

on these aspects of cloud physics that were frequently

cited

il

U.S.S.R. scientific literature during the year. W'ith reference to large-scale weather control, lively discu:) sion

developed

deflect the

BRITISH

I

clouds to release their "energy" before they reached the cumulo'

modification considered and in some cases tested during 195

versity of Chicago.

tain conditions of

de|

in

warm

technical

meetings regarding proposals

tl

waters of the Japanese current by building

barrier near Bering strait, thus sending part of the current

the Arctic basin and

warming up polar regions

to

open

int:

thei-

which had cropped up anew evei' few years, was quickly attacked by scientists who pointed ot! that until meteorological knowledge of the natural controls for habitation. This scheme,

(•'

weather and climate was more adequate it would be folly undertake such a major change in ocean currents and climate b' I

cause present knowledge indicated that warming of the Arct ocean would set off a sequence of changes that would bring c-

another

ice age.

Other Developments ing.

—Hundreds

in

Weather Reporting and

Forecas.

of technical papers published during 1959

ported progress in the

many

r

different branches of meteorolof

and related atmospheric sciences. Research and development these fields had become so active and varied in subject matt that only a brief sampling can be given here.

The

necessity for adequate soundings of significant

nents or quantities throughout the atmosphere

nomena

if

comp

weather ph

comprehended and accurate The boldest approach to world-wide

are to be analyzed, fully

predicted

is

axiomatic.

servations and reports from the ground up, other than the pr

gram of meteorological

satellites

previously

described,

w

presented in' a U.S. air force systems project designated including aircraft components 460-L. Feasibility stu were conducted looking to development of aircraft equipp

AMQ-J5, ies

'

METEOR OLOGY make soundings

to

of the air above and below flight levels.

425

The high-speed computer

at the national meteorological cen-

I

Soundings from the aircraft dow-n to the surface of land or sea were designed to be taken by drop-sondes which had ser\-ed for this purpose for the past several years in Arctic and North Pacific ocean reconnaissance flights. Soundings above the aircraft would

made by balloons or rockets discharged from the aircraft in Numerous squadrons of weather reconnaissance aircraft

be

flight.

.

would

so equipped

I

criss-cross the oceans

providing

thus

tinents,

soundings

daily

and unrestricted conof the atmosphere

throughout.

By mid- 1 959

,

the intensive studies under this project had ad-

and in some phases equipment had been completed but work was curtailed by shortage of funds and shift of militarj' emphasis from aircraft to missiles. At the end of the year not only was the ad-

vanced close to the stage of practical design

I

tests of

;

,

tre,

Suitland, Md., enabled research meteorologists to refine the

methods of weather forecasting by numerical process but because of inadequate data, indeterminate variables omitted from the equations and the very complexity of cause and effect in weather changes, progress was relatively slow. The high-speed computer was indispensable also in testing hypotheses relating to the general circulation of the

on large

theories

scale

atmosphere which in turn apply also to weather control. These studies involve

unknown quantities representing changes in the earth's heat and water budgets and especially the role of ocean-atmosphere exchanges of energy in various forms. On the assumption that regions where abnormal heat exchange occurs between ocean and

storm development, the National Acad-

air are likely places for

emy

of Sciences committees on meteorology and oceanography

vanced 460-L project delayed but also curtailed were the aircraft

had recommended more intensive research programs

assigned to regular hurricane reconnaissance. Increased accuracy

interface problems.

and timeliness of warnings of hurricanes in recent years had come in large part through early detection and tracking of these

As examples of the large number and variety of problems that were studied by research meteorologists with a view to applica-

in these

I

j

;

by reconnaissance aircraft. Meantime the U.S. weather bureau, acting on authority from congress, was read>'ing two DC-6 aircraft and one B-57 for its national hurricane research project. These were planned to opdestructive storms

I

j

under contract as flying laboratories to gather storm data

erate

would lead

for analysis that

to

more

definite predictions. It

was

tions of interest to the general public w'ere the following, pub-

lished in

August

in the

nal of Meteorology:

American Meteorological

"A numerical experiment

society's Jour-

for Squall-line

Formation," "Some Objective Six-Hour Predictions Prepared by Statistical

Methods," "Distribution of Surface Friction

in

Hur-

ricanes" and "Origin of Hurricane Spiral Rain Bands.''

I

planned to use these aircraft for probing other kinds of atmos-

I

pheric disturbances, including squall

lines

and thunderstorms

j

'.

Statistical evaluation gained

which generate tornadoes, as well as for research in hurricanes

ticians at Big

and sudden secondary cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico.

critical

A

noteworthy achievement

[launching of a radio beacon

hurricane and

its

October was the successful

in

free balloon into

use for tracking the

movement

the eye of a of the centre

emphasis

in its meteorological ap-

plications as a result of the Skyline conference of leading statis-

Meadows,

recommended more use of in

meteorology

editorial

— such

critical

May. There they applied more

Va., in

of cloud seeding experiments and

tests of the results

statistics in evaluating other findings

as the accuracy of weather forecasts.

An

of unproved methods of long-range weather

I

]

i

;

about 24 hours. This test in Hurricane "Hannah" equipment that had been under development for several years

for a period of

forecasting appeared in the monthly magazine Weather (Royal

of

Meteorological society, London) in September, and an article

indicated regular use of this additional

canes at sea.

The

means

for tracking hurri-

constant-level balloon or "transosonde" pat-

jtemed after the transpacific balloons used by the Japanese during

World War II in their efforts to set fire to forests in western and developed by the U.S. na\-y for experimental soundlings of the atmosphere across the Pacific, North America and i

jU.S.,

more data during 1959 of value in air mass stream studies. However, because of high costs

the Atlantic, provided janalysis (these

A

and

jet

soundings were discontinued in the latter half of the year.

was published in the Journal of Geophysical Research, pp. 1845-53 (Nov. 1959). A vigorous program for mechanizing the observing, reporting land analysis of sj-noptic weather conditions for airport and air jUavigation purposes throughout the U.S. was launched in 1959 by joint action of the air force, the national aviation agency land the weather bureau under a plan known as project 453-L. rejwrt of results

[Designed to jing, lall

make completely automatic

the function of obser\'-

communicating and processing into the flight control system weather data for aircraft take-off, flight and land-

essential

would develop the use of present automatic and connect these with long lines teletype (feeding into high-speed automatic computers at selected air !trafl&c control centres. A full-scale test of the system was ex|ing,

this project

jweather stations

pected to be in operation in certain eastern states within four years.

During the year 1959 further progress was made in the development and use of radar for detecting and tracking storms and for other meteorological purposes. In a paper on 'New Developjments

in

Observations and Instrumentation in the Weather

Bureau," published in the

November

Bulletin of the American

on the "Power Spectrum Analysis of Climatological Data for Woodstock College, Maryland," published in the Monthly Weather Review (Washington, D.C.) in August served to question claims for a locality based

was

briefly re\aewed.

for that

Under the program of international geophysical co-operation which continued in part the program of data collecting provided during the International Geophysical year, the surface

weather observations and upper

air soundings from an ice island and numerous other land stations in the arctic and antarctic were continued during 1959 and the reports de-

in the arctic

posited in the world data centres (one at Asheville, N.C.

)

where

they were available for scientists in their studies of global conditions

which must be considered

in developing

methods

for long

range weather forecasting.

"Discomfort Index."

—A "tempest

in a teapot" was stirred up and June undertook to inform the public of conditions of high humidity that affected personal comfort. Although many persons showed interest in favour of the reports and forecasts expressing the humidity factor in terms of a discomfort index, the majority appeared to feel that this information merely added to their discomfort. The daily press throughout the country picked up the controvers}' and eventually the weather bureau changed the name of the factor to the Temperature-Humidity index (T-H index) and issued the information only in localities where requested. The T-H index was based on an empirical equation developed by professional engineers after extensive study of the reactions

when

the weather bureau in

May

of individuals to different conditions of humidity.

formula

T-H in

The simple

is:

Meteorological Society, recent progress in weather radar r.nd pther meteorological instruments

method of very long-range forecasting

on sunspot cycles.

which T^

is

index

=

o.4(Tj

-I-

T„)

-t-

15

the dry-bulb temperature and

T„

the wet-bulb

METEOROLOGY

426

was found that relatively few persons were uncomfortable from heat and humidity when the T-H index stayed below 70. About 50% of the population became uncomfortable when the index reached 75 and most persons found the heat and humidity uncomfortable when the tem|>eraturc, each in dcRrecs Fahrenheit.

The

index reached 80.

various localities

in

highest index noted in sampling data for

the U.S. was gj. Examples of the index

puted by the above formula are; If T^ the index iiuicx

is

is

approximately

almost

It

70. If

Tj

is

is

85° and T„,

95° and

T„

is

com-

is

52°

67° the

.So.

—

Hurricanes and Typhoons. In Table I are listed the tropical cyclones in the West Indies, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico which reached hurricane force or sutliciently close to it to have Toble

1

Some Vagaries

of

Weather During

1959.

—On

the whole,

was several degrees colder than usual in eastern two-thirds of the U.S., and very heavy snowfall was

the winter of 1958-59 the

recorded in several localities. Denver, Colo., had a total of more [than 100 '"•

IIS

in.

I**

during the winter and Buffalo, N.Y., had more than May. Kansas had 44 tornadoes, 20 hailstorms and

prolonged heavy rains which produced serious flash-floods in

I

many

I

localities.

In Louisiana, heavy rains resulting from Hur-

"Arlene" gave rainfall depths totaling 10

in. or more May. In contrast, California was warmer and drier than usual during |the first half of 1959. Near the Grand canyon the Colorado river

Iricane I

within a few days during

I

jin

was

April

at lower stage than for 37 yr. In

up

iover Seldon, Kan., brought drifts spots.

During August heavj' rains

to 3 or 4

June a hailstorm ft. deep in some

Alaska caused wash-outs

in

land landslides that destroyed roadbed

and bridges on parts of

Alaskan railway. In October exceptionally early snowfall

|the

much damage

to power lines and trees still There followed in November sev'eral severe outbreaks of arctic air with temperatures so low that inew all-time records for cold in November and December were ^established in many localities from Canada and Montana to

|in

Colorado caused

especially in Denver.

lin leaf,

Texas.

On Nov.

12, 1959. a cold

acteristics of

wave headlined

as "having the char-

mid-winter" spread over the Dakotas, Nebraska

The following week several days heavy rain over the Pacific northwest caused serious flooding

and Iowa, with heavy snows. of

north of Seattle and destroyed tlonged

heavy

flooding.

rains

much

property. In Florida pro-

Miami) caused much

(totaling 11 in. near

November was extremely stormy

Europe, with gales

in

GRETNA METHODIST CHURCH, LOUISIANA, firm of

Lawrence and Saunders, was

tects in

in

blizzards.

Much damage

and considerable

to shipping

loss of life

denomination's

first

Conference on

Methodist university

resulted.

Weather Bureau, World Meteorological Organization,

I

designed by the architectural American Institute of Archi-

cited by the

1959

two different storms exceeding 100 m.p.h. Scotland reported

—During

1959 the national meteorological services of the weather bureau were expanded and among other research jreports its nth Interim Report on Thunderstorms and other

in

Dallas,

Human Tex.,

regional groups held convocations in jurisdiction in Atlanta, Ga., Feb. 17-19,

|Q.S.

jurisdiction in

organization held

logical

kpril with 89 of the 102

its

The World Meteoro-

member

states

and

territories repre-

and Flood ConIntern ation.al Geophysical Co-opera-

See also Antarctica; Disasters; Floods

I

k'ROL;

riON

Ten

Geography;

— 1959;

Space Exploration.

(F.

W.

Rr.)

—

Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Atmosphere and Its Circulation 194s); Distributing Heat Energy (1938); The Weather (1941).

from mission lands were invited

visiting evangelists

to

the U.S. during Oct. and Nov.

Teams

sented.

Two

4.

the Southeastern

25. 1961.

Geneva during

third congress in

1959.

and the South Central Kansas City, Mo., April 7-9. The tenth World Methodist conference was to be held in Oslo, Nor., Aug. 17-

|»tc.

ktmospheric disturbances was published.

Relations at Southern

Aug. 31-Sept.

in

1959 for a preaching mission. of U.S. ministers and laymen carried on evangelistic tours

Malaya, the Philippines, Japan, and Central and South AmerIn October 400 Methodist ministers from 40 states aided

ica.

400 southern California pastors in visitation evangelism resulting in 12.382 new church members. Theological seminary enrollments advanced lo"^ over the pre-

number of 6S0 receiving degrees in 1959. new graduate divinity schools, the National Method-

vious year, a record

The 175th anniversary

MM\%\

Church.

1959 of the founding of the Methodist Episcopal

Church was observed on December Sundays

in

in

nearly

all

of the

Methodist Church. The commemoration Vas of the "Christmas Conference" in Baltimore in 17S4 which ^9,236 churches of the

Drought

into

one compact,

(ocieties resulting

connectional

from the pioneer

body the scattered Wesleyan

itinerants of the

The Methodist Church held several

(neetings

significant

and planned others. The National

conference

ist

of two

Theological seminary in Kansas City, Mo., opened in Sep-

The

Methodist Theological seminary in open in i960. The cornerstone was laid in June for a $5,000,000 plant in Claremont, Calif., for the Southern California school of theology. The Alaska Methodist tember.

Worthington,

other,

0..

was

the

to

university in Anchorage for which the cornerstone

was

laid

July 12, was to be open to a class of 450 in Sept. i960.

povement. j

One

met

in

quadrennial

Town and Country

Wichita. Kan., July 21-24. Plans were studied

During the year the 229 Methodist hospitals and homes cared for 1,528,613 persons; 14

new homes for older home were added.

people, one

new

hospital and one children's

thereby several pastors could serve not one but a group of as-

The church-owned Methodist publishing house reported a new

Reports were presented on inquiries into

high in annual net sales of $25,616,249. Mail subscriptions to

jociated congregations. jhe beliefs I

of ministers and laymen.

The National Convocation of Methodist Youth, another quadennial gathering, brought 6,000 to Purdue university Aug. 248. The program ranged from world peace and theology to atempts to put historic liturgies into dramatic and even jazz forms. Ten general agencies of the church jointly sponsored the

Together, the family monthly, passed 1,000,000 in November.

A new

40-page monthly magazine for church musicians. Music

Ministry, appeared in October.

Colour motion-picture

films,

one on problems of interfaith

marriages, the other on alcohol and

The

television series,

traffic safety,

were released.

"Talk Back," combining drama and

dis-

427

.

METROPOLITAN AREAS — MEXICO

428 cussion, appeared on 70 stations.

A new

was launched

series

in

Bishop Marvin A. Franklin, Jackson. Miss., was elected presiin April. Bishop Gerald Kennedy.

dent of the Council of Bishops

Los Angeles, on April

Calif.,

president-designate,

was

to

succeed him

Bishop Roy H. Short, Nashville, Tenn., was

21, i960.

secretary. Statistics for 1959 of the Methodist Church: members, 9,815,459 (not including 1,536,419 preparatory members); ministers, 27,750; churches, 39,236; church school members, 7,154,254; local

women's

local

societies, 31,864;

men's organizations,

11,-

209; value of buildings, $2,555,838,779; benevolent giving, $75.-

498,724; paid for

all

(an increase of

purposes, $512,164,658

$28,679,341 from the preceding year).

Church Membership.

Sec also

Metropolitan Areas: '^

Movipn

lYlCAIUU. British

see

(R. Sy.)

City and Regional Planning.

federal republic of

Middle America lying between

and Guatemala and Honduras on the south, Mexico has an area of 760.373 the United States on the north

sq.mi. Pop.

Chief

January the new administration announced the largeil in Mexican history for the calendar year; $750,000,000 This was raised in July when Lopez Mateos approved an inIn

budget

October.

(1950 census)

cities (pop.

25.791,017, (est.

1950 census, 1958

est. in

1959) 33,304.000.

parentheses

I

:

Mexico

crease of $29,680,000 for a total of $779,680,000. In May the government announced a drive to streamline 28^ government agencies. Officials estimated that $160,000,000 coulti be saved annually by trimming bureaucratic waste and remodel ing agencies along the lines of private enterprise.

Following an incident on Dec. 31. 1958, air force planes reportedly strafed

Mexican

in

which Guatemala!

fishing boats ailegedlj

Guatemalan waters. Mexico broke off diplomatic rela Guatemala. Three Mexican fishermen were reportet killed and 14 injured, and a number of vessels were badl;| damaged. Restoration of relations with Guatemala was an; nounced by Lopez Mateos in Sept. 1959. (See also Guatemala. Strife in Mexican railroad unions in February and March le< to the arrest of Demetrio V'allejo. Communist leader of the 60,' ooo-member National Railway Workers union, and 500 othe union leaders and members. They were charged with subversion Two members of the Soviet embassy diplomatic staff were ousted by the Mexican government in the wake of the railroad disturb! fishing in

tions with

',

1

ances. Capt. Nikolai V. Aksenov, military attache, and Nikolai

M. Remisov. second

secretary of the embassy, were expelle'

Mexican government charged them with involvemen, the strikes. Four more embassy personnel later left voluntaril;j

City (cap.), 2,234,795 (3,448,218); Guadalajara 377.016 (444.-

after the

139); Monterrey 333.422 (426.573); Puebla 211,331 (252.803); Mexicali 64,609 (148,336); Tijuana 59,952 (137,644); Merida 142.858 (168.767) Torreon 128,971 (159,358) San Luis Potosi

in

after similar charges.

The

[

(110,584); Saltillo 69,842 (86,298); Morelia 63.245 (73.172); Pachuca 58.658 (63.304). Language: Spanish, with estimated S.6% (1950) speaking Indian tongues only. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1959: Adolfo Lopez

Mexico and the United States exchange visits during 1959. In February. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhowei went to Acapulco at the invitation of Lopez Mateos. Lope, Mateos repaid the courtesy the following October, visiting Wask' ington. Chicago and New York. The Mexican chief executive alsl visited Canada on the same tour. In a joint statement followinl the Acapulco meeting, the two executives termed the event "; meeting between friends." They agreed that their govemmenlj

Mateos

should consult further on various questions.

;

;

125,662 (150,834) Leon 122,726 (148,081) Ciudad Juarez 122,566 (220,000); Veracruz 101,221 (121,408); Tampico 94.345 (134.204); Aguascalientes 93,358 (105,143); Chihuahua 87,000 ;

(g.v.).

History.

—The

Mateos started stantial

;

budget

its

new administration

of

six-year term on Dec.

deficit inherited

formed observers said the

deficit

Pres. i,

Adolfo Lopez

1958. with a sub-

from the previous regime. Inwas traceable largely to inept

presidents of

During

his

United States tour, Lopez Mateos spoke before

tions. In a blunt

statement before the O.A.S. he asserted ,

the organization's w^ork had not measured

He

expectations.

roads of Mexico and Petroleos Mexicanos.

satisfied the legitimate aspirations of

Acapulco. Feb. 19. 1959. Later with a trip to the U.S. at

In

oreeting U.S. President Eisenhower the year Lopez Mateos repaid the visit

said the O.A.S.'s

they have placed

fidence

in

up

economic

operation of such nationalized properties as the National Rail-

PRESIDENT LOPEZ MATEOS OF MEXICO

th

Organization of American States (O.A.S.) and the United Ni tbi\

to Latin America efforts

"have

our peoples nor the

our organization."

He

said

n(>

cot' th
',

which was hastened by the Suez war and the ensuing crisis of the economic blockade.

The celebration

July 1959 of the seventh anniversary of overthrew the Egyptian monarchy was ac-

in

companied by the announcement of record expenditures, in both United Arab Republic, for social services and for

parts of the

larger national incomes,

which would be distributed

to realize a socialist

I

librium and stability, in the national

!

in a

manner

co-operative society and to secure equi-

I

j

more on

Kassem was

U..-^.R.,

the support of the communists,

On the other hand, Kassem did not wish the communists to take over or to gain a determining influence. Under these cir-

•the revolution that

I

forced to rely more and

were intended to increase the agricultural acreage. Equally important was the progressive industrialization of the

hard-currency

i

operation, and perhaps union, with the

from the rapid increase of population in a heavily overpopulated country, on the other. The Aswan dam and the drilling of deep artesian wells

i

433

the strong forces in Iraq which supported close co-

who gained a growing influence among Iraqi students and labour and organized a number of front organizations which were able to mobilize masses for resolutions and demonstrations following the communist line.

arable land to be put under cultivation,

i

As against

Egj-pt

economy. More than onewas earmarked for production and economic development projects, more than twice the amount earmarked for such projects in the preceding fourth of the U.A.R. budget of $1,700,000,000

year.

A

far-reaching agrarian reform had been under

since 1958, trialization

and Syria, program.

too,

Egyptian-Iraqi Rivalry.

was

to

walk a tightrope

in

an often and quickly

By the end of March 1959 the communists were reported to have carried through a great purge in the Arab world and to have suppressed Collins,

Iraq. This

Mosul,

all

opposition in a ruthless drive, according to Larry other U.S. correspondents was expelled from

who with in

communist advance was the result of an uprising in which the Arab nationalist Baath party was involved.

The

uprising failed and led to increased tension between Cairo and Baghdad, which accused Nasser of having instigated the uprising. At the beginning of April it seemed that the Communist

party was well advanced on the road to taking over the leading role in Iraq. Nasser attacked communist influence in Iraq, and

from the new indus-

Arab affairs in general, with great vehemence. The Soviet Union granted economic aid totaling 550,000,000 rubles to Iraq,

played a large role in the

modernization of agriculture and partly for the building of a new

to benefit

— Syria

way

cumstances he had changing scene.

in Syria

in

to be used partly for the building of

new

factories

and for the

between Eg>-pt and Iraq for leadership in the .\rab world. Historically and geographically Syria was more closely linked with Iraq. Both countries form part of what is called the "fertile crescent." the land between the Persian gulf and the Red sea which until 1918 formed part of the Ottoman empire,

soon revealed themselves as being overly optimistic.

and borders on the Arabian desert. After 1918 there were several

paign for seats in the cabinet. Foreign Minister

attempts to bring Iraq and Syria, and also Jordan, into closer

declared that Iraq's foreign policy was aimed at keeping clear of

struggle

unity.

On

the other hand, Syria has no

Egypt and not

much

of

common

common

in past histor>'.

frontier with

The union

of

Egypt and Syria into the United Arab Republic was undertaken 1958 to forestall the danger of growing communist influence in

in

which the Arab Syrian nationalists feared. The situation changed with the July 1958 revolution in Iraq. From that time communist influence increased in Iraq, and at times seemed to become dominant. It turned above all against the bourgeois Arab nationalism represented by the United Arab Republic. To gain Syria would immensely strengthen Iraq's stand in its competition with Eg>-pt. The struggle between Eg>'pt and Syria,

Iraq

is

a threefold struggle: a traditional struggle

between Cairo

and Baghdad, between the Xile valley and Mesopotamia, for the jcontrol of the

middle

{regard

men

themselves as

which goes back to Biblical between two strong leaders, who both

east, a struggle

Itimes; a personal struggle

called

a poHtical and moral revival

!to

gle

:

upon

to guide the .\rab nations

and. finally, an ideological strug-

between a noncommitted Arab nationalism and what might be an Arab national communism.

called

Unrest a

in Iraq.

—After the revolution of July 1958 there were

number of violent

in Iraq, in

flare-ups

and

reshufllings of the

government

the midst of which the personal popularity of Premier

Kassem was the one constant factor. Kassem's former right-hand man. Col. Abdul el-Salem Aref, who led the July revolution with [him. was arrested on Nov. 4. 195S. Originally deputy premier and limperial minister, he lost his cabinet posts on Sept. 3. after having ireportedly split with Kassem over the relationship of Iraq and

transmitter of equal strength to that of Cairo.

However, any communist expectations of taking over Iraq

May. Kassem rebuked

of

upon

his wishes, to insist

participation in the cold

and

The

ment of fomenting trouble and

Iraqis accused Nasser's governstirring unrest in Iraq.

cam-

war through nonalignment with any

ex-

British government seemed convinced that there was a chance of keeping Iraq outside of the communist orbit and decided therefore to supply arms to Iraq. fair

On

July 14, 1959. the

sem promised

first

anniversar>' of the revolution. Kas-

to restore political life in Iraq. Political parties,

he would be allowed to resume activities by Jan. 6. i960, and elections would be held later on so that a new parliament could said,

meet by July 14. i960. After communist violence in the northern Iraq oil town of Kirkuk, public opinion seemed to turn against the communists, so much so that at the beginning of August the Iraqi communist party condemned itself for "criminal acts, emotionalism and miscalculations." But this setback to communist influence was balanced by the execution, on Sept. 20. of 13 leading Iraqi army officers and 4 civilians who were involved in the Mosul uprising of March, among them Brig. Gen. Nadhim Tobakchali. who was commander of the army's second division stationed at Mosul. In the United officers

were canonized as

political

Arab Republic the

e.xecuied

martyrs to the cause of .Arab

nationalism.

Thus the dispute between Cairo and Baghdad showed no sign Kassem and the Communist party continued to follow a policy of watchful coexistence. These two tensions the one between Iraq and Egypt, and the other within Iraq itself represented by the end of 1959 the element of greatof abating; and in Iraq.

—

—

est instability in the

middle

east.

The Fate of the Baghdad Pact.

—After the July revolution

the

(before the people's court.

its

The

|i959 Aref jand

for

isting bloc.

of 195S. Iraq remained officially though inactively a

and Rashid Ali el-Gailani. an old time Iraqi nationalist revolutionary-, were con\-icted of treason in a secret hearing

the end

Hashem Jawad

U.A.R. Aref wished a close union between the two countries, Iwhereas Kassem was determined to keep Iraq separate. In Jan. jthe

By

the communists for continuing, against legal status as a party

Baghdad

pact,

linked Iraq to Britain.

treaty against the spread of

March

24, 1959, Iraq

member

of

up in Baghdad and Pakistan, Iran and Turkey in a defensive

which was originally

communism

withdrew

ofl&cially

set

in the

middle

from the

pact.

east.

On

The

re-

434

MIGRATION — MINERAL AND METAL PRODUCTION AND PRICES

maininK members, however, continued

it, and its three Asian and Turkey signed separate defense pacts with the United Slates on March 5, in Ankara, Turk, The

membcr.s

—

—

Iran, Pakistan

pacts provided that, in the event of aggression against any of the three countries, the United States would take such appropriate action, including the use of

armed

agreed upon. The pact changed

Treaty organization, or

its

forces, as

name

Central

CENTO.

The Middle East and North Africa. streni;tlu'ncil nuitual relations

world. Cairo regarded

might he mutually

officially to the

itself

—The

Nasser, The Philosophy of the Revolution, with a bioxraphical sketch by John Ounlher 1959); Willon Wynn, Xaiier o) Egypt the Search /or l)if nily (1959); Sir John Glubb, hritam and the Arabs (1959;; David H Finnic, Desert Enterprise: the Middle East Oil Industry in Its Local Environments ( 1959); John Marlowe, The Seat ol Pilate 1959); ".Vationil. ism in the .Middle East," Current History (Feb. 1959); Charles hsawl ".Veuolialions From Strcnuthi' A Reappraisal o( Western-Arab Relations'' (

(

International AtJairs (Jan. 1959K .Nasrollah S. Falcmi, 'The Roots o( Arab Nationalism," OrAiJ (Winter 1959)1 Charles-Henri Favrod, R(v». lution algirienne, (1959). (H. Ko

U

—

)

E.NcvcLop^DiA Bbitannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: The Arab and Future; The Arab World's Case Against the West; Tkt Arab World's Reaction Against Western Rule; Why Prompt Peace SetlUments in Algeria and Palestine Are in Everybody's Interest; Suggestions lor Peace Settlements in Algeria and Palestine (8-12 lectures of the series "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958); David lien-Gurion ("The Wisdom Series") (1958); The Middle East (1955); Planning Oar Foreign Policy (Problems of the Middle East) (1955). H'orld's Past

Algerian war

hetwcon the two parts of the Arab

not only as the centre of the Arab

world but more and more as a leading .Xfrican capital;

it

was. in

on the .African continent. The council of the Arab league agreed on Oct. 18, 1958, to assess its ten members fact, the largest city

$34,000,000 to support the .Mgerian war of independence, a six times larger than that allotted to Algeria a year before.

government declared on

sum The

had allocated the sum of $5,600,000 to the .Algerian government, the premier of which, Ferhat .Abbas, was then visiting Baghdad. The Algerian Iraqi

fighters for

.•Xpril

26 that

it

independence were, however, not only supported by by the independent nations of Africa,

the .\rab league but also

which included, besides the two new states of Ghana and Guinea, the older states of Ethiopia and Liberia. See also Armies of the World; United Nations. Bibliography.— S.vdney Ncitldon Fisher, The Middle East (19S9I; W.ilter Z. 1.,-iqueur. Tlie Soviet Union and the Middle East (1959); "Communist Infiltration in the Middle East," The Listener (kug. 28, 1958); Faycz \. Savegh, Arab Unity, Hope and Fulfillment (1958); Caractacus, Revolution in Iraq: an Essay in Comparative Public Opinion (1959); Stephen Hemsley Longrigs and Frank .Stoakes. Iraq (1958): Rom Landau. Islam and the Arabs (i9S9); Tom Little, Egypt (1958); Gamal .\bdel

Migration:

see Im.micratio.\

and Naturalization; Refu-

gees.

MiJbanlt Memorial Fund:

see Societies

and Associationi

U.S.

Milk:

see

Dairy Products.

Mineral and Metal Production and Prices. In 11)58, world i)roduttion of many mineral commodities made new records, according to data of the U.S. bureau of mines. A survey revealed new^ highs for 12 of the 63 mineral items for which production data were compiled from no countries. The United States continued to lead the world in mineral output by a wide margin. It ranked first in the production of 29 of the 63 commodities covered. The U.S. was displaced as the leading

pro-

ducer of four commodities; coal (U.S.S.R.), iron ore (U.S.S.R.),

1

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MINERALOGY — MINNESOTA (Australia) and zinc (Canada). Prices in world markets were

fead

ower than in 1957 but were quite stable over most of the year, .with

some increase

in the last quarter of the year.

In the United States, the volume of mineral production de-

i

8%

clined

1958 affecting

in

all

major groups except non-

the

Among the metal declines were: copper about 10% lead nd zinc 23^ and iron ore i6'^c- Gold and silver output reached

inetais.

;

;

1946. However, uranium ore output increased and was valued at $116,515,000 as against $82,627,119 e lowest level since

In 1957-

with rare earths, from Japan, by T. Muto, R. Meyerowitz, A. M, Pommer and T, Murano (ibid., 44:633-650); shuettite, a basic

mercuric sulfate, HgS04.2H20, from various western states, by E. H. Bailey, F. A. Hildebrand, C. L. Christ and J. J. Fahey (ibid.,

C. 0.

The value of mineral output in the U.S. in 1958 was $16,526,compared with $18,113,000,000 in 1957. Metals ac-

;

000,000, as

437

from California, by T. C. McBurney and J. Murdoch (ibid., 44:839-8431; hellyerite, a nickel carbonate, XiCOj.eHoO. from Tasmania, by K. L. Williams, I. M. Threadgold and A. W. Hounslow (ibid., 44:533-538); ningyoite, a uranous phosphate

44:1026-38); yavapaiite. KFe('S04')2- from Arizona, by Hutton (ibid., 44:1105); novakite. (Cu.Ag)4As3. from

Riesengebirge. East Germany, by Z. Johan and

J.

Hak (Chemie

der Erde, 20:49-50),

bounted for the greatest drop, 25%, and solid fuels were down fO%. Since the prices of the nonmetals were only slightly below

See also Mineral and

Metal Production and

Prices.

(L. S. Rl.)

,

the 1957 level, \-irtually all the decrease in value reflected reductions in output.

Total emplo>-ment in the mineral industries was

However, there was a definite upturn p production in the latter part of 1958 which extended into 1959. The output of primary- aluminum, higher in the first seven nonths of 1959, dropped in later months. Copper output was

substantially lower in 1958.

Mining:

Mineral and Metal Production and

see

A

'

jiigher

than in 195S for the

seven months, but then dropped

first

harply. partly because of strikes.

unning at a lower rate by ier

fall

Gold and

silver output

were

because of reduced output at cop-

mines and smelters. Lead was running at a higher rate in

959, a

somewhat

illusorj' increase,

because 1958 output had been its low

he lowest in 60 years. Likewise zinc showed gains over

was

Prices.

See also under various minerals.

Minnesota. blue

waters,"

north central state of the United States, Min-

is known by various names "Land of sky"Land of 10.000 lakes," "Gopher state" and

nesota

:

"North Star state." Until the admission of Alaska as one of the United States, the northwest angle of Minnesota beyond Lakeof-the-Woods was the northernmost land in the United States. In area, Minnesota

the 12th state of the union, containing

is

84,068 sq.mi., of which 4.059 sq.mi. are water. Pop.:

(July

i,

down, as a result of the 116-day steel trike. Iron ore production and shipments, which were already unning behind 1958 in July, dropped sharply in the next two

1959 pro\-isional estimate) 3,399.000; (1950 census) 2.982,483 of which 54.5'^ lived in cities of 2.500 or more. The three largest cities were (1950 pop.): Minneapolis 521,718; St. Paul, the

aonths.

capital city, 311,349;

ate of 195S. Steel

far

See Geological Survey, U.S., and separate articles on the arious mineral commodities for further details,

History.

(F. E, H,; B. B.

The

general meeting of the International

first

Mineralogical association since ladrid. Spain, in

its

founding in

1958 was held at ZiJrich, Switz., Aug. 31-

1959. Delegates

ept. 3.

M.)

from 16 countries were present. The

rogram consisted of two s\Tnposia. "Alpine Fissure Minerals" nd "Twinning." and two

field trips to

Swiss mineral

The German Mineralogical society celebrated

—

pand with the development and opening of several new industries in the state and the expansion of existing industry. The Pearson Candy Co. opened a new $1,000,000 plant in St. Paul, and in Minneapolis the McGill Graphic Arts Center, a multi-million dollar industry',

moved

into a

the American National

new

bank of

one-storv- building. In .August

St.

Paul opened

its

$1,000,000,

three lane drive-in bank.

On

localities.

Sept. 17. dedication ceremonies were held for the

new

$8.-

50th anni-

000.000 State Centennial building, another step in the State

ersary with a special edition of Fortschritte der Mineralogie.

Capitol Approach improvements; and on Sept. 27. the comer-

"his

its

contained three articles on "Developments During the Last

Years

in

Germany and

the

World'

stone of the

The

as follows: "Crj'stallog-

histor>'

sh society and the Mineralogical Society of .\merica. It was

building

by

elberg;

nder the editorship of

J.

At the 40th annual meeting of the Mineralogical Society of Pittsburgh. Pa., Felix Machatschki of the University f Vienna was the i8th recipient of the Washington .\. Roebling ledal. awarded for outstanding achievement in mineralog\'. The nnual award of the society was given to H. F. W. Taylor of iinerica at

Aberdeen university, Aberdeen, Scotland.

Among

the

new minerals

first

described in 1959 were the fol-

Comwall. Eng.. by G. F. Claringbull.

Cu5rAS04):>COH

M. H. Hey and R.

14.

J.

from Da\-is

CaO. SrO. V2O3. H.O. from Colorado, by M. E. Thompson and A. M. Sherwood American Mineralogist, 44:261-265); gowerite, CaO. 3B2O3. H,,0. from California, by R. C, Erd, J. F. McAllister and H.

\Mineralogical Magazine, 32:1-5); delrioite.

.

mond

{ibid.,

library building

was

laid.

was held

in 1959, lasting

from April 25 to July

pute between conservatives and liberals over the tax the cause.

A

tax

bill

1:

a dis-

bill

was

passed in the closing hours of the special

session increased taxes on income, cigarettes, liquor, cigars, pipe

tobacco, iron ore. inheritance and gifts. As one of

its last

acts

before adjournment the legislature passed a $52,022,080 state bill,

more than S6.ooo.ooo was included

of which

for

expansion of the University of Minnesota on the west side of the

Phemister. of Edinburgh. Scot.

bwing: comubite. a copper arsenate.

new Minneapolis Public

longest special session of the legislature in the state's

F. Laves, Zurich; "Mineralogy," by P. Ramdohr. Heiand "Petrography," by E. Troger, Freiburg im Breisgau. Mineralogical Abstracts, published by the Mineralogical Solely of Great Britain and Ireland, was printed as part of the lineralogical Magazine for 13 years. Volume 14 was appearing sa separate publication, under the sponsorship of both the Eng-

iphy,"

1

Duluth 104. 511. Next in size were RochesCloud 28.410; Winona 25.031; and Austin 23,100. During 1959 the state's economy continued to ex-

ter 29.S85; St.

44:911-919); haweeite, CaO.2UO3.6SiO2.5H2O,

Mississippi river.

In the 1959 extra and general legislative sessions a record of about $498,000,000 was appropriated for the next biennium. an increase of $71,000,000 over the 1957 appropriation. Substan-

made

education and pubwas appropriated to education, compared with $236,522,499 in 1957. and $113,393.842 to welfare and institutions, compared with $103,320,489 in tial

appropriations were

lic

welfare.

The sum

of

in the fields of

$292,729,206

1957-

A

perennial measure finally succeeded in passage: reapportion-

ment of

the legislature, the

first legislative district

change since

1913-

The

chief elective officials for the state for 1959-61 included:

governor,

Orville

L.

Freeman; lieutenant governor, Karl F.

—

MINT. UNITED ST ATES — M SSI LES

438

I

Rulvaag; secretary of eral,

Miles Lord

state,

Joseph L. Donovan; attorney gen-

Uemocratic-Karm Labor);

(all

state auditor,

Stafford King; and state treasurer, Val Bjornson (both Republi-

cans). Education. -Approximalcly $342,189,407 was spent (or education by 3,oS4 [jublit school districts in Minnesota (or the 1937—58 school year. This for 389,812 pupils in 1,91s elementary schools, 244,591 pupils in b70 secondary schools, 3,475 pupils in 8 area-vocational schools, 2.376 in 9 junior colleges and 4 7 in 3 teacher training departments. These pupils were taught by 14,571 elementary teachers, 12,770 secondary teachers, 211 teachers in area-vocational schools, 133 teachers in junior colleges anil 3 in teacher training departments. In addition, 5 state colleges, with an cnrollmint o( 7,382, were supported (rom public (unds and the University of .Minnesota received 44 "7o of its support from public funds. The total enrollnienl for parochial and private elemtnlary schools was 142,378. Sociol Iniuronc* and Ailittanc*, Public Wdfor* and Related Progromt. As of I'eb. 1959, persons receiving financial aid or service under the programs supervised by the Minnesota department of public welfare totaled 158.581. This repricsenti'd 4.7'!' of the estimated population in Minnesota. The number of children under public agency supervision was 21,112, an increase of 7% over the preceding year. Persons receiving institutional and noninstitutional services totaled 18,509. The resident population of the medical institutions totaled 16,741 on Feb. 28, 1959. These included 10,732 mentally ill and 255 inebriates in the menial hospitals. 5,501 in the institutions for the mentally deficient and epiliplic, 127 children in Gillette Hospital for Crippled Children, 113 tuberculosis patients in the State Sanatorium and 13 emotionally disturbed children in the Children's Center. Persons receiving public assistance totaled 116,791, Of these, 102 children were in the Minnesota Braille and Sight Saving school, 264 children were in the School for the Deaf and 306 active vocational rehabilitation cases in Services (or the Blind. A total of 116,119 persons were given financial assistance under the five major public assistance programs, an increase of 7.3% over Feb. 1958. As of June 30. 1959, 1.049 persons were in Minnesota correctional institutions. Of these, 69 were in residence at the Willow River Forestry group and 422 in the St, Cloud reformatory, all of whom had been committed through the district courts of the state, and 54 committed by the juvenile courts were at the Thistledew Lake Forestry camp. Communications. All highways and roads in Minnesota (federal, state and local combined) totaled 123,367.2 mi. as of Jan. i, 1959, of which 102. 746. 5 mi. were surfaced. These included: trunk highways 11.794,7 mi,, county state-aid and county roads 43,387.1 mi., township roads 37.614.5 mi., other feder.il roads 858,8 mi., other state roads 416,4 mi„ municipal state-aid streets 766 mi,, other streets 7.909 mi. State and federal funds disbursed for trunk highways during the fiscal year ended June 30, I9S9. included: construction $76,910,384,08, right-ofway $30,726,722,42, maintenance $14,216,562,85, New trunk highway construction completed during the calendar year ending Dec. 31, 1958, totaled

amount provided

—

918 mi. Seven commercial passenger airlines served the state. Minnesota had 2.35") registered aircraft and 464 airports. Of the latter, 100 were municipal, 17 were privately owned public ports and 347 were private landing strips. There were 21 public seaplane bases. As of Dec, 31. 1958. railroad main-line trackage totaled 8,251.12 mi, for the 26 railroads operating in the state; 4,291.40 mi. were reported for sidings.

—

Banking and Finance. As of June 10, 1959, SOS State banks. 3 trust companies and i savings bank reported deposits of $1,621,678,288,88 compared with $1,515,992,185.01 on June 30, 1958. an increase of $105,686,103.87: total resources were $1,775,126,167,58 compared with $1,653,498.835,22 on June 30, 1058, an increase of $121,627,332,36, Minnesota's 179 national banks as of Dec, 31. 1958, reported total resources of $2,996.71S.000 as compared with $2,649,036,000 of June 6, 1957, an increase of

$347,682,000,

Of the 415 state-chartered credit unions in Minnesota, as of Dec, 31, 1958, 415 reported assets of $106,543,097,13, an increase of $16,146,937.72 over Dec. 31. 1057. During the year 14 new charters were authorized. 6 credit unions voted voluntary liciuidation and i credit union voted to merge with an existing credit union. There were also 48 industrial loan and thrift companies, as of Dec, 31. 1958, which reported assets of $45,23:!. 765,94. a gain of $5,539,386.57 over Dec. 31. 1957. On the same date 142 small loan companies reported assets of $28,931,786.10 compared with $29.0.56.208.66 as of Dec. 31, 1957. Net disbursements of the state government totaled $876,062,976.48 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, compared with $876,790,914.80 for iQsS. Total receipts from all sources totaled $874,404,353,29, compared with $867,764,912,60, Total state indebtedness in bonds and certificates as of June 30. 1959, was $158,069,106,54, The four principal st.nte trust funds tnnled S20S,810,664,80, as compared with $204,705,258.20 in 1958. Individual balances were as follows: internal improvements $405,441,13; swampland Table

I.

Principal

Corn, bu Oats, bu Barley, bu

Wheal, bu Floxseed. bu Potoloes.cwt

Soybeons May,

—

—

all.

for beans, Ions

bu

Rye, bu

Sugar beets, Ions Apples, bu.

•1949-57, Source; U.S. Department of Agri

Crops of Minnesota

Indiroted 1QS9

1958

19J8-57

360,360,000 174,754,000 28,942,000 23,914,000 5,181,000 11.308,000 39.312,000 6,492,000

312,448,000 211,464,000 30,960,000 25,345,000 6,993,000 11,346,000 53,935,000 6,663,000

1,088,000

1,170,000

900,000 261,000

883,000 330,000

268.215,000 186,255,000 29,356,000 16,202,000 10,928,000 8,960,000' 30,879,000 6,613,000 2,072,000 636,000 235,000

$27,132,317.80; permanent university fund $45,170,327.23; permtncni school $226,111,578.73. The 39 stalechartrred savings and loan associations in Minneiota it ported resources o( $307,830,176,43 as of June 30, 1959. «n increase el $27,178,991,59. compared with $280,651,184,84 as of Dec. 31, 1957, Agriculture. Minnesota ranked filth among the slates in respect o( cut income to fanners from the sale of crops, livestock and livestock producU

Table

11.

Principal Indusfri^t of Miniftola

LAUNCHING OF THE U.S.S. "PATRICK HENRY." the second of the navy's ballistic missufcn-annes. al Groton, Conn.. Sept. 22, 1959. The vessel was atomic powered and designed to carry the Polaris missile site

'

MISS ILES

440 They

known

Three new missile programs were initiated in 1959. The initialed by the air force, was for an air-launched ballisii< sile. This missile was intended to reduce the casualties in bombers by giving them the ability to stand off from their

this

a considerable distance.

giiics for

propulsion.

in ty|ie of

guidance used.

A program

differ in staging

arrangements, and

leading to a second-generation intercontinental bal-

as the Minuteman, was initiated in 1958. program was in the component development stage. In contrast to the Atlas and the Titan, the Minuteman employs a much smaller and lighter warhead, and uses solidlistic

missile,

During 1959,

The

propellant rocket engines.

tremely

fast

reaction lime.

It

missile

is

designed for an ex-

is

underground concrete emplacements, popularly termed combination of the

fast reaction

from

also designed to be fired silos.

The

time and the underground place-

ment was expected to make the system much less vulnerable to enemy attack. The Minuteman would use three powered stages, compared with the two stages used with the Titan and the so-

The increased somewhat lower per-

fint

mii

i

The

contract for this missile was

lei li

The army announced the develone known as Shillelagh, the othei

the Douglas Aircraft corporation.

opment of two new missiles; known as Redeye. Shillelagh

a new, lightweight, surface-to

is

surface guided missile system for close-in su|)port of troops. Thi

prime contract for be operational signed

this

system was

to

in

let

to Aeroneutronic Systems

was expected that the missile wouh mid- 1960. The Redeye missile system was de

Glendale, Calif.

Inc., of

It

combat

provide

with

troops

the

capability

destroying low-flying strafing or bombing aircraft.

foij

man

It is a

called one-and-one-half stages used with the Atlas.

transportable, shoulder-fired missile, effective at altitudes an(

number

ranges commensurate with the defense of and marine corps amphibious operations.

of stages was necessitated by the

formance and higher weight of the solid-propellant system. The Minuteman climaxed a trend, apparent over a number of

In a precedent-breaking step, the

army

army

field

positioa-, I

initiated

Nord SS-io and SS-ii antitank guided

procuremen

years, to replace liquid-propellant missiles with those using solid

of French

propellants.

missiles are remote-controlled, wire-guided missiles, with solid

Because of the higher performance of the liquid-propellant

many weapons

systems,

rocket propulsion.

It

projects

were initiated using liquid

was believed that as the state of the

art of

propellant rocket propulsion.

They can be

The SS-ii, somewhat

forces.

could be satisfactorily applied, the improved handling character-

has greater range, speed and effectiveness.

and greater readiness of the solid-propellant engines would most military appli-

lead to their replacing the liquid engines for cations.

A

further example of this trend was seen in comparing

Thor and

the

(IRBM)

Jupiter

intermediate-range

with the Polaris. During

1959.

ballistic

missiles

the liquid-propelled

Thor and Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missiles both became operational. Thor missiles were deployed in Britain and became operational with Royal Air Force squadrons. The Polaris program, initiated by the U.S. navy in 1956, was the

first

missile in the intermediate-range (approximately 1.500

Conforming

to

similar to the SS-io,

is

larger an

changing requirements, several missile pre

grams were canceled, either late in 1958, or during 1959. Thes were the RAT, Goose and Regulus II. In addition to the previously mentioned Atlas, the followin missiles were declared to have reached the operational status dui| ing 1959: Talos, Mace, Jupiter and Bullpup.

j

In the area of ballistic missile defense, the search continue for a really effective system.

active development

The only complete system

undt

was the army's Nike-Zeus. There was

cor'

siderable controversy as to whether this constituted an adequate

program continued during 1959. The missile was successfully launched both from the shore and from a surface ship,

The problem of ballistic missile defense differs in at leasj two important respects from the antiaircraft problem. Firs! ballistic missile warheads enter very high and very fast, and ai

under conditions simulating those to be encountered under

generally very small compared with aircraft.

mi.) category to use solid propellants for propulsion.

The

hand-carried, dropper

by parachute from planes and launched from the ground, vehicle helicopter or airplane. The SS-io is basically designed for grouni

the solid-propellant engines improved to the point where they

istics

missiles. Boll

Polaris

flight test

The

was scheduled

tacti-

deployment with the fleet in the fall of 1960. Three nuclear-powered submarines designed specifically to deploy Polaris missiles were launched: the "George Washington," "Patrick Henry" and "Theodore cal operations.

Polaris

for

In addition to their use for weapons purposes, ballistic misfigured prominently as first-stage and second-stage boosters

for space programs. for the

The Thor

Lockheed .Agena top

missile

was used

stage. This

orbit four satellites out of six tries, in a orbital recovery techniques.

Thor was

as a booster

combination put into

program

to develop

also used in conjunction

with the Aerojet-General .Able upper stage, to put into orbit

"Explorer

\'I."

The

Jupiter

IRBM

was used

as a first-stage

booster for "Pioneer IV," a lunar probe which passed within 37,300 mi. of the moon on March 4. .A lunar probe, using the Atlas as a booster,

was being readied early in October but the missile firing pad during a static firing. A second Atlas-

exploded on the

boosted lunar probe, using the Aerojet Able upper stage, was being readied for another trial later in the year. Plans were under

way

tute a difficult detection problem.

to use the .Atlas in a w-hole series of space vehicles desig-

nated as Vega, Centaur, Samos and Midas. The

first

stage of the

vacuum, and hence

with

number

together

manned space

with

Table

I is a listing of all

current U.S. mis-

summary information concerning them.

in

ligl

very large numbe

In view of the fact that the total transit time of a

sile

is

detection systems must be placed as far

For

this

reason a so-called

ballist

only about 30 minutes, mi

United States and as close to possible launch

BMEWS

away from

sites as

(Ballistic

is

tl

feasibi

Missile Ear'

Warning system) using giant radars was being installed aloi the Arctic circle. The Advanced Research Projects agency of tl department of defense was spending considerable sums of moni in search of major breakthroughs in the area that would ofi promise of

a»

really effective system.

away from aircra and other more conventional types of armament continued bo in the research and development and production phases of acli ity. The fraction of the total national defense budget expend^ on missiles continued to increase. No major new governme Financially, the trend toward missiles and

were created

ment

in 1959,

but work on the new

Paci:

was accelerated.

In the state of the

capsule.

of smaller missiles were under development

in operational use.

siles,

not subject to atmospheric drag, very

missile of intercontinental range

missile range

and

is

expense.

little

field activities

large

const

decoys are practically indistinguishable from actual warhead

huge Saturn space vehicle. The Atlas missile would also be used to boost the first U.S.

Thus they

this, since the great(

part of the ballistic trajectory passes through a nearly perfei

Titan missile was scheduled for use as the second stage of the

A

Beyond

Such decoys could be created by an enemy

Roosevelt."

siles

system.

art,

in the techniques

there

was continuous minor improv

that contribute to over-all missile

ii

provement. In propulsion, the primary advances noted were the area of building larger and better-performing solid-propelia

MISSILES

442

EXPLOSION OF AN ATLAS MISSILE in its testing stand on t desert near Edwards air force base. Left, the Atlas as it was given a final check before its scheduled static (captive) test March 27. 1959; right, the explosion a few seconds after the missile was fired. The explosion also severely darr^aged the testing stand

rockets.

The improvement

in specific

impulse in solid-propellant

provement were made

in the explosive

rockets was attributable primarily to the use of polyurethane

it

binders and the addition of metal powders which give very high

shields

heats of combustion. These propellants entered the flight test

earliest, historically,

stage on the Polaris program.

A

the high-performance cryogenic propellants for space purposes

and

was

weapons.

to use the so-called storable propellants for

Work

on the development of a huge liquid-propellant rocket engine of 1,500,000 pounds thrust. Although this engine was intended primarily for use in space vehicles, the enormous initiated

pay load which such an engine would permit, when used in a long-range missile, had obvious military implications. In the application of nuclear energy to rocket propulsion, a major milestone was reached in 1959 in the first test of the "Kiwi A" nuclear rocket. This rocket engine in fly,

but

it

was a step leading

to

itself

was

far too

heavy

to

the eventual application of

which

toward the use of

of

enemy

the

vulnerability

attack, there

all-inertial

of

radio-guidance

was an increasing trend

guidance systems for long-range

missiles.

In the area of warheads, the trend away from high explosives and toward nuclear warheads continued. The advances in nuclear technology made it possible to package the same explosive potential in warheads of progressively smaller size and weight. As warheads decrease in size, missiles can be made smaller proportionately. There was one report of a nuclear warhead small enough to be used in a hand-carried weapon. It was not clear whether or not a continuing ban on the testing of nuclear weapons

would jeopardize completion of these developments. With im-

This type of heat shield simply provides enough metal

tc

appeared

A

second approach

weight

reduction,

wat in s(

offer

to

substantial

doing absorb a greater amount of heat. Numerous successful

were made during 1959 with these ablating heat shields. In any re-entry heat shield, the amount of heat transferred

tests

the re-entry

body

U

a function of the sharpness of the fore

is

part of the body. Because of the large weights associated witl

heat-sponge protection, very blunt shapes were required. Thesi

very blunt shapes led

in turn to rather

low terminal

velocitie:,

for the warheads, with a consequent increase in vulnerabilit;;

countermeasures. The use of the more

terials

to

two basic varieties were under development. The was the so-called heat-sponge type of pro-

through the use of materials which melt or evaporate and

to

because

of

a destructive temperature being reached.

nuclear energy to the propulsion of space craft and possibly also

Primarily

other improvements

absorb the heat transferred to the re-entering nose cone without

of missiles.

ground stations

itself,

reached an altitude suitable for detonation. Protective heat

tector.

trend appeared evident in the liquid-propellant field to use

warhead

in the over-all pay load package. In a long-range ballistic missile, the re-entry velocities are so high that the unprotected warhead would be vapourized before

promised

efficient ablating

to lead to sharper re-entry bodies

ma

and highe

speeds.

Compared with

airplanes, missiles require relatively compli

cated and expensive ground-support equipment. Expenditures this area ran into

hundreds of millions of dollars

in

iJ

1959. Thi

category of equipment includes trailers and transporters

fo

handling and erecting the guided missiles themselves, equipmen

equipment for determining the statfi components of the missile system and equipmen, ascertaining the performance of the missile while in flight.

for servicing, check-out

readiness of for

Guided

all

missiles, in

many

cases, require not only special grouni'

equipment, but bases especially tailored to receive, service launch guided missiles. Because

proceeding concurrently in

ballistic missile

many

an'i

development wa

countries of the world, an

MISSIONS. FOREI weapons are capable of delivering a tremendous blow with very little warning, great stress was being placed on building bases capable of withstanding an initial blow while preserving the since these

retaliatory capabilities of the force.

This philosophy led to the

use of extensive underground emplacements, with a consequent increase in base construction costs.

During 1959, construction was begun on launching and support facilities for nine missile sites.

The

new

air force intercontinental

cost of these sites

was

ballistic

to be in the neighbour-

hood of $300,000,000. The sites were for the Atlas and Titan misand all were for operational facilities.

jsiles

Work was

initiated

I

fensive missiles. Ifacilities

Of

on 13 new sites for antiaircraft type dewere designated as Nike-Hercules

these, nine

and four as Bomarc facilities. There was considerable during budget hearings of the duplication between

[discussion

Nike-Hercules and Bomarc programs. Certain Bomarc funds Lere withheld by congress in an effort to force the department of

make a decision between these two missiles. Through 1959, guided missiles continued to be used as first, and sometimes second, stage boosters in the country's space program. Table H is a listing of the space launchings during 1959

defense to

and shows the missile or missile combinations used in each. It aerhaps worthy of note that the second stage of the rocket,

is

Vanguard

which was developed originally for a space mission, was

Thor

and that this combiwarhead re-entry research as the rhor-.Able vehicle. Later this same combination was used in the irst three lunar probe attempts of 195S, and in the "Explorer idapted to use with the lation

was used extensively

as first stage,

in

VI" firing of 1959. This interweaving of scientific and military rehicles for

both purposes illustrates the

difficulties

encountered

n attempting arbitrarily to separate military vehicles from space

Tc

—

MISSISSIPPI

444

and other centres

In Jan. 1059, riots in I>6opoldville

the

in

ConRO, accompanied by anti-Christian leftist propaRanda, destroyed some Roman Catholic property and brought about the suspension of school activities, but the latter were liel^ian

quickly resumed. In the Union of South Africa the apartheid

government brought the further withdrawal of state subsidies to mi.ssion schools, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, and the refusal of reRistration to some. On the other policies of the

hand, marked revivals were seen

and Kenya, and

in

Protestant circles

was under way

a project

for a

I'Randa

in

new Sunday-

school curriculum to be used by 100 different Protestant bodies

On

Roman

the world scene the giving to

The

Society of Saint Peter the Apostle continued to mount.

had as its chief objective the creation of an indigenous clergy. Under Syndesmus, an international organization of Orthodox youth, a pan-Orthodox Missionary society was latter society

process of formation.

western

in

continued, with the popularity of Zen

in .'\merica

Buddhism among some

intellectuals,

but only small minorities

were attracted. Vet Moslem states were financing the erection of mosques in several centres, and a new German translation of the

I

beneficiaries.

The missions of Huddhists. Moslems and Hindus

Europe and

Educotion. In lysS 59 there were 605 white elementary and 1,054 elementary schools. Knrollment in elementary schools was 2 3 1, jit whiles and 134,2X4 NeKroes. The state had 395 apiiroved white hifb schools and 150 approved NeKro hiKh schools. There were 10,467 white elementary and hiKh school teachers (including principals and (upcris tendents) and 7.168 NeKro teachers. 7'otal enrollments in white elementary and approved high schools wen 2V3.79S, and for all Negro elementary and high schools 275. HH7. Ap proximately $36.088, XK6 was spent in capital outlay lor Ijuiiding*. plut $1,868,060 lor the purchase of school huses. Approximately $3,105,594 wat, spent for school e(|uipment. Social Inturanc* and Atiittanca, Public W«lfara and R«lat«d Progromi. From July i, 1958, through June 30, 1959, the Mississippi stale departmen of public welfare paid $28,688,109 to 91.808 recipients of olil-agr ance; $2,656,908 to 6.594 families for aid to dependent children; S720 to 32,931 recipients for aid to the permanently and totally di $797,184 to 6,594 child welfare services; $268,764 to foster honi> and $427,615 for blind services. Including administrative and other costs, expenditures for the year totaled approximately $47,592,786 fiscal 1958 old-age, survivors and disability insurance payments iri sissippi totaled $56,645,000, and on June 30, 1958, there were 114,10; .Nrifru

:

Catholic missions

through the society for the Propagation of the Faith and to the

m

purpose of building a model town. To be designed by professional city planners, the new town would aim toward attracting Memphis' (Tenn.) growing population toward Mbsissippi in an orderly and constructive manner. sissippi for the

.

countries in .Xfrica and in 70 languages and dialects.

in 18

1

Koran was being made by

Ahmadiya

the

(K.

sect.

L.)

S.

—

,

Communications. .As of Dec. 31, 1958. there were 10,552 mi. of 'tat highways; 48.276 mi. of county roails; and 3,817 mi. of municipal During fiscal 1958-59 stale highway maintenance expenditures wer$6,038,290; county road maintenance (est.). $26,590,170. For fisc.il 59 an estimated total of 1,367 mi. of federal highway projects wen ,.; granied and an estimated 985 mi. of such projects were under way. In 1*5 there were 3,766 mi. of railroads. .As of June 30, 1959. there were 387,74 Southern Bell and 13,238 independent telephones. On Oct. I, 1959, 75 radio stations and 7 television stations were ioperation. In Oct. 1959 there were 42 publicly owned and 30 privatel owned airports open to the public. Regularly scheduled airline service wa, available at 12 of these. Vehicle registration for 1958 totaled 465,580 autc mobiles and 1S7.991 trucks and buses. Banking and Finonce. On June 10. 1959. there were 193 banks in Missi!, sippi 27 national banks with total assets of $367,465,000 and 166 stall banks with total assets of $940,996,000. Deposits in all banks tolalei $1,195,392,000. State bond issues outstanding on June 30, 1959, includej building commission bonds for construction at state institutions $15,500; 000. education finance commission for common school construction $46 000.000, highway bonds $68,202,000, to be retired by gas and oil taxes. For the fiscal year ending June 30. 1959, general fund receipts of $116' 726.813 plus a cash balance of $31,604,784 totaled $148,331,597: disburs-! ments were $1 13.037.1 57. leaving a general fund balance on June 30. 195', of $35,294,440. Special fund receipts of $206,890,399 and disbursements »i $211,432,734 left a special fund balance on June 30. 1959, of $58,069,06:1 Agriculture. In 1957 there were 212,000 farms, compared with 215.911 in 1954 and 219.000 in 1956. The total harvested acreage of principal croi' in TQ58 amounted to 4.639.000 ac. In the same year, receipts from farj products came to $543,872,000. $266,152,000 from livestock and liveslotj products, and $277,720,000 from crops. It was estimated that for 1958 t)> value of farm products consumed in farm households was $70,407,000. Manufacturing. The value added by manufacturing to Mississippi pro, ucts in 1957 was $580,621,000. Manufacturing industries employed d

J

'

;

;

i

A

southern state of the U.S., admitted to the

union

in

181

7,

Mississippi

is

popularly

known

Area 47,716 sq.mi. (47,248 sq.mi. land and 468 sq.mi. water); pop. (1950 census) 2,178,914 (July i, 1959, provisional est.) 2,185,000. Capital: Jackson (1950) 98,271. Other cities of more than 20.000 population: Biloxi 37,425; as the

"Magnolia

state."

Greenville 29.936; Gulfport 22,659; Hattiesburg 29,474; Laurel 25,038; Meridian 41,893; Natchez 22,740; Vicksburg 27,948. the state's population in 1950, 607,162, or

History. were:

64

—The

Of

27.9% was urban.

principal elected officials of the state for 1960-

governor,

Ross

Harnett;

R.

lieutenant

governor,

Paul B. Johnson; secretary of state, Heber Ladner; attorney

Evelyn Gandy; audiD. Neal; superintendent of pub-

general, Joe T. Patterson; state treasurer,

tor of public accounts. William lic

1

—

—

:

—

—

;

education, J. M. Tubb. A record-breaking turnout of 439,720 voters participated in

the state's

Aug. 1959 covering state and except state judges, and more than 95% of these

primary election

first

local officials

voters returned ballots in the second primary. Interest was manifested over the gubernatorial candidacies of Ross Harnett

and

who had the support of former governors J. P. Coleman and Hugh White. In the November voting. Harnett won the governorship. Incumbent Speaker

Lieutenant Governor Carroll Gartin,

House and Governor of the

Walter

of Representatives J.

P.

Coleman was

Sillers

was

re-elected,

elected to a seat in the

same

house.

More than

lature

would be composed of new members. During 1958 the business activity rose 6% while the nation's dropped 5%,

state's

and

this activity

dustries

'pal

in

two-thirds of each house in the 1960-64 legis-

continued during 1959.

Hy

Oct.

i,

79

new

Ir:!

Cotton (500-lb. baleil Corn, bu Ools, bu Whtol, Winter, bu Borley, bu Rice, cwt All hoy, tons Irish potatoes, cwt Sweet pototoes, cwl Soybeans for beans, bu. Peonuts, lb

Sorghums for groin, bu. Peaches, bu Pears, bu Pecans,

.

.

.

.

.

M

-D'ed

.

all, lb

•1949-57 average. Source: U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.

in-

Table

Principal Indvstriei of Mississippi

II.

had been reported as well as 36 major plant expansions

which provided 7.316 new industrial vious high in 1953 of 6.815

new

jobs, surpassing the pre-

jobs. In .August

manufacturing

employment reached a new peak of 120.500, which was i.ioo more jobs than were available in record-breaking Nov. 1958. Employment Security commission data listed Jackson as the city with the highest rate of

economic growth (18%)

in the

United States. In action resembling the British "new towns" movement, the

Apparel and related products Lumber and wood products furniture! Furniture ond fixtures

DeSoto corporation, subsidiary

of the First

Mississippi

corporation, purchased several thousand acres in northwest Mis-

machinery Transportation equipment Electrical

.

.

(ex(

.... .... ....

Pulp, paper ond products Chemicals and products Stone, cloy and gloss products Fabricated metol products Machinery, except electrical .

First

Crops of

.

.

.

.

....

Source: U.S. Department of

Commerce, Annua/ Survey of Manufacluni, ^9S7.

—

—

;

MISSOURI

445

average o( 100,812 workers that year, and manufacturing payrolls totaled $302,342,000(E. H. Hs.; D. S. V.) Minerol Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of the mineral output in Mississippi in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or

—

Table

I

Mineral Production of Mississippi

.

(In

shorr tons, except as noled)

1957 Minerol

Quonlltv

Total'

Clayi Nalurol BO! (000 cu.ft.)Nolurol oosoline (000 ool.) P.troleum (bbl.) Petroleum gases (000 ool.) Sand and grovel Stone Other minerals .

1958 Vcjioe

Quantity

$144,950,000 616,000 3,635,000 169,967,000 17,507,000 25,000 1,469,000 38,922,000 113,263,000 10,000 472,000 5,172,000 4,344,000 60,000 54,000 4,695,000

'Total has been adjusted to eliminate duplication Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.

in

Value

576,000 160,143,000 26,000 38,551,000

$148,663,000 3,338,000 22,260,000 1,658,000 110,256,000 503,000 6,240,000 92,000 4,820,000

9,000 6,545,000 102,000 of clays

t

and

stone.

more. In 1958 Mississippi's mineral production reached a record total value. It was second among the states in bentonite output (14% of U.S. total). The stale ranked 23rd in value of its mineral production in 1958, with 0.90% of the U.S. total. Encvclop>edia Britannica Films. Southeastern Slates (1956).

—

A

west north central state of the United States,

Missouri was admitted to the union in 1821. is

popularly

known

as the

"Show Me"

It

Area: 69,674 sq.mi.,

state.

of which 448 sq.mi. are water. Pop.:

(1950 census) 3,954,653 (61.5% urban, 38.5% rural; 90.2% white, 9.8% nonwhite) (July

I,

BIRTHPLACE OF FORMER PRESIDENT HARRY

1959, provisional est.) 4,243,000.

Mo., opened as a national shrine. April 19,

Capital: Jefferson City (1950 census)

(1950 census):

St.

j

Joseph

78,588;

Joplin 38,711;

—

I

!

Louis 856,796; Kansas City 456,622; St. 66,731; University City 39,892;

Springfield

Independence 36,963.

The major state officers at the close of 1959 were: History. James T. Blair, governor; Edward V. Long, lieutenant governor; Walter H. Toberman, secretary of state Haskell Holman, audi;

M. E. Morris, treasurer; John M. Dalton, attorney general. The 70th general assembly convened on Jan. 7, 1959, and adjourned May 31, 1959. There were 26 Democrats in the state senate and 8 Republicans. Democrats controlled the house of representatives 112 to 45. The legislature approved a record tor;

I

I

I

:

I

budget of $1,150,576,375 July

I,

for

the

two-year period

beginning

1959. Legislation to increase gasoline, cigarette, liquor

I

j

and beer taxes was defeated.

The only new tax

1

.

!

to

win approval was a

2%

use tax on items

purchased outside the state.

Other legislation adopted and approved included a motorboat

'

registration law, revision of the antiquated to

S.

TRUMAN,

Independen

1959

25,099. Largest cities

mining code so as

permit deep-shaft iron and lead mining, authority for estab-

aid to the blind; and 15,575 aid to the disabled. During the year ended June 30, 1959, the state penitentiary had an average of 3,150 inmates per day; the intermediate reformatory (.Mgoa) 537; and the expenditures of these institutions amounted to $3,087,827. For the year ended June 30, 1959, the two state training schools Boonville for boys and Chillicothe for girls) had an average population of 464 boys and 145 girls; and for the same period, expenditures were $888,361 in addition to $110,470 for the office of the stale director and the placement department of the training schools. Communications On June 30. 1959, Missouri had 28,278 mi. of state highways and on Dec. 31, 1958, 7i,335 mi. of rural roads. During the year ended June 30, 1959, the state highway commission spent $139,064,822 (

—

and federal funds). On Dec. 31, 1958, mileage of class-one railroads was 7,044. On Oct. i, 1959, there were no public airports, 4 military airfields and an estimated 120 private airstrips. There were 1,611,353 telephones in use on Dec. 31 1958. Banking and Finance. On June 10, 1959, Missouri had 550 state banks (11 chartered but not operating) with deposits of $3,478,679,787 and resources (loans and investments) of $3,905,100,233, and 75 national banks with resources (loans and investments) of $2,219,840,000. On June 30, 1959. there were 115 state-chartered savings and loan associations with resources of $779,797,888, and 37 federal savings and loan associations with resources of $487,840,381. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959. receipts in all state funds totaled $502,338,851; disbursements, $528,788,710. On June 30. 1959. the balance in the state treasury was $173,794,972. The state debt on July i, 1959, was $70,983,839, including $68,585,000 in building bonds. (state

—

lishment of watershed conservation districts and controls over

minimum wholesale price of milk. On Feb. 10, 1959, a tornado struck

Table

the

St.

Louis leaving 21 per-

and 1,400 others homeless. Damage was estimated at $12,000,000. Kansas City's coalition city government was overturned by Democratic factions in the April 1959 elections and L. P. Cookingham was deposed as city manager. Floods in 12 north Missouri counties early in August caused approximately

Kansas City was the 1959 which was classed

site of a polio

outbreak

in the

by pubhc health authorities

summer

of

as one of the

Principal

Wheal,

all,

bu

Hoy,

oil. Ions Cotton, 500-lb. boles

Rice,

100

lb.

bags

Oats, bu for beans, bu Rye, bu Tobocco, lb Potatoes, Irish, cwt Pototoes, sweet, cwt Sorghum groin, bu Apples, commercial, bu Pears, bu

Soybeans

244,915,000 37,824,000 4,367,000 505,000 1 47,000 I 8,975,000 52,800,000 542,000 4,200,000 720,000 120,000 26,673,000 700,000 80,000

Grapes, tons

worst in the nation.

Crops of Mis

Indicotod 195?

sons dead

'$3,070,000 in damages.

I.

Crop

3,800

Average, 1948-57

180,712,000 40,488,000 5,428,000 275,000 5,000 22,272,000 55,432,000 900,000 3,185,000 720,000 130,000 35,088,000 730,000 75,000 4,200 1

1

155,480,000 35,537,000 4,103,000 386,000 93,000 37,121,000 27,917,000 646,000 4,998,000 773,000* 139,000* 3,902,000 931,000 108,000 3,660

•1949-57. Education.

—

For the school year ended June 30, 1959. the public school system consisted of 1,825 districts operating elementary schools with 20,,573 teachers: 541 districts operating secondary schools with 8.589 teachers. (There were 805,399 pupils from kindergarten through high school enrolled Missouri public schools at the end of the 1959 school year. Hubert Wheeler was state commissioner of education. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. For the year ended June 30, 1959, unemployment insurance totaled $37,699,071, paid to about 100,000 persons. For the same year, old age assistance (amounted to $81,053,332; aid td dependent children, $26,156,515: genleral relief $5,874,885: blind pensions, $253,534: aid to the blind, $3,599,115; aid to the disabled, $10,543,468. In Sept. 1959. 118,415 per-ons (received old-age assistance; 25,883 families (88,926 mothers and children) aid to dependent children; 10,068 general relief; 315 blind pensions; 4,883 in

i

I

I

—

Sourcei

tl.S.

Department of

—

Agricullui

Agriculture. Cash income from crops and livestock in 1958 was $1,092,419,000 and cash income from government payments was $61,141,000. The value of Missouri's 1958 crops harvested from 12,868,000 ac. was $333.380,000 compared with $512,000,000. the value of the 1957 crops. The corn acreage was the lowest since 1871 with the reduction due to participation in the soil bank, but the yield per acre, 56 bu., was a new record. Wheat production was the second lowest since 1952 with acreage down about 200,000 ac. Soybean production was the largest on record. Manufacturing. The number of persons employed as production workers in manufacturing industries in July 1959 was 386,900. The July 1959 average weekly earnings in manufacturing industries was $85.83 as compared with $81.05 in 1958. The average hourly earnings in manufacturing in July

—

—

MITCHELL — MONGOLI AN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC

446 Tabu

Principal lndui1H»$ of

II.

pertinent infornnation on wages, profits and prices.

Miuourl Voluo add«(l by manulortufa

Salarloi

ond wooes

All

amployaai Irduilrv Gtoup Food ond hlndr.d producli Appor.l oi>d r*lol«d producl. Lumber ond wood producli Furnllure ond fl«lura< Pulp, popnr and product! Priming ond publiihlng Chemlcoli ond products Petroleum and cool product!

lift

l?57

'957

1956

$344,373 108,423

t34l,408 I «0,970

$J3S.744

19,333 28,338 49,920 124,824 92,713 13,438 3,476 108,319 77,400 67,140 113,462 124,786 118,086 306,139 10,804

33,934 44,830 103,639 193,992 283,913 38,483 8,143

39,728 43,838 96,063 184,688 262,611 39,637

202,330 160,713 110,620 203,713 224,304

204,473 159,708 114,814 204,010 208,434 195,673 519,634 24,942

3,729

870 .

,

,

Eledrlcol mochinery

Tromparlotion equipment Initrument! ond related product!

OOOil

I9S7

19,131

.

lin

33.332 3V.S33 6,369 7,089 12,233 26,730

Rubber producli Leolher ond leather good! Stone, cloy and glo.i product! Primory melol induilriet Fobricoled metal product! Mochinery, e«cepl electrical

OOOil

38.347 13,376 13.300 33.702 23,844 23,261 36,254 2.749

133,431

196,691

660,339

19,997 Commerce, Annuo/ Survey of Monufoclurei, 1957.

Source: U.S. Deportment ol

.

.

.

Mohammedanism: sre Islam. Molybdenum: 'cc Mineral a.nd Metal

\

II

IVIUIIdbU.

I)

sovereign principality on the Mediterranean coast, mi. east of Nice.

to

census)

Table

Mineral Production of Missouri

III.

$132,913,000

TotalBorile

Cement

Ibbl.)

Clayi

....

Biluminou! cool

Copper Iron ore

...

teod lime Petroleum |bbl,l Sand and grovel

317,000 10,794,000 3,648,000 2,976,000 2,000 594,000 126,000

3.938.000 34,307,000 7,648,000 12,691,000 966.000 4,625,000 34,135,000 14,475,000

1,393,000 .

.

.

Silver

Stone Zinc

.

.

!

.

.

20,202;

(1956 census) 20.472. including 2,696 Mone-

divided between the three communes Monaco-Ville. Monte Carlo and La Condamine. Language: French. Religion: Roman Catho-

been adiulled

5,986,000 11,111,000

752,000 3,820,000 26,471,000 14,136,000

to eliminate duplication in the

f

8,972,000 251,000 24,276,000

400 ...

9,728,000 227,000 32,878,000 74,000 1,926,000

volue of cloys and none.

Sovereign, Prince Rainier III; ministers of state in 1959:!

Soum and (from Feb. i) femile Pelletier. On Jan. 29, 1959, Prince Rainier III susp>ended the, Monegasque igii constitution. He did so, he explained, becausd

Henri

'

History.

—

i8-member

of the "continuously hostile attitude" of the

He

1938.

na-

dissolved the national; hiiri

cil's

attempts to withhold

prove the budget unless

money from him by refusing to ap council members were granted mor'-Fuchs expedition in the south polar

and a trend toward a partial disposal of studio assets. L-Ioll>-wood's immersion in the production of television films bepme deeper, and the major studios were derixing a sizable por-

Fish, a charming French idyll of a small

)rincipal

ields

jon of revenue from television production and distribution. large studios '/ision

were also renting

facilities

independent

to

The tele-

producers. Paramount Pictures corporation announced that

ihe International

Telemeter Co.. now a whoUy owned subsidiary,

alanned to install

its

pay-tele%ision system in 6,000

homes

in

he U.S. and Canada in i960. Universal Pictures Co. was back n profitable operation after having suffered severe financial re'erses

the pre\ious year. Universal sold

its

studios to the

Music

Corporation of .\merica for $11,250,000, leasing back facilities or

its

own production

activities,

Twentieth Centur>--Fox sold

!

Webb and Knapp,

Inc..

its

main studio

over a long period of time, and

erty

real

estate to

but retained leasing rights to the propstill

held ownership of

Warner Bros, sold a ranch propThree companies, Columbia, Paramount and Warner Bros.,

Idditional production acreage. erty.

lisposed of their laboratories. List Industries Corp., the parent

RKO Theatres, was merged into dding coal mining to

If

nc, announced

its

its

the Glen Alden Corp., thereby

diversified activities.

Loew's Theatres.

intention to diversify. Columbia Pictures

developed a large program of production with independent

i.'orp.

producers with

heavy investments

in production abroad.

The

Mnerican Congress of Exhibitors was formed late in 1958.

The increased measure of adult treatment

in

motion pictures

I

brought renewed attempts at censorship on the state and local vels despite the U.S.

supreme court's decision

in favour of

ady Chatterley's Lover. Peimsylvania passed a new censorship aw.

A

bill in

Maryland was defeated. In

New York

several

new by

ensorship bills were proposed with no further action taken

he end of the year.

—

Trend in Film Subjects. The successful pictures of 1959 hewed a proportionately increased number of comedies, farces nd "social problem" or adult dramas. Prominent among the omedies and farces that did excellent business at the box fere

n the

offices

Mame, Some Like It Hot, The Shaggy Dog, A Hole Head, Ask Any Girl and Pillow Talk. The outstanding

Auntie

region.

Among

the year's best short subjects were: The Golden

boy and his two pets, a Grand Canyon (Disney), Ferde Grofe's s>Tnphonic tribute to the Grand Canyon Transcontinental ( 20th Wonders of Puerto Rico (Columbia"), another Centur\'-Fox ^Musical Travelark"; Royal River (20th Centur\'-Fox) and

goldfish

and

a canarj';

;

;

)

;

two additions to the Disney "People and Places" series, lapan and The Danube. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts Polls and Awards. and Sciences announced the following awards for 1958:

—

—

Best Production. Gigi (.\rthur Freed Productions). .\CT0R. David Niven {Separate Tables). .\CTRESS. Susan Hayward (/ Want to Live). Supporting .\ctor. Burl Ives {The Big Country). Supporting .\ctres5. Wendy Hiller (Separate Tables). Direction. \'incente Minnelli (Gigi). CiNEiHTOGRAPHV. Black and white; Sam Leavitt (The Defiant Ones); colour; Joseph Ruttenberg (Gigi). Writing. Best story and screenplay (written directly for the screen): Xathan E. Douglas and Harold Jacob Smith {The Defiant Ones): screenplay (based on material from another medium): .Man Jay Lerner (Gigi). Slusic. Best song; "Gigi"' (Gigi): music. Frederick Loewe. lyrics, .Man Jay Lerner: best scoring of a musical; .Andre Previn (Gigi): best scoring of a drama or comedy: Dimitri Tiomkin (The Old Man and the Sea). Short Subjects. Live action: Grand Canyon (Walt Disney Prods., Buena Vista); cartoon: Knighty Knight Bugs (Warner Bros.). .\rt Direction. William .\. Homing and Preston Ames (Gigi): set direction; Henry Grace and Keogh Gleason. Costume Design. Cecil Beaton (Gigi). Film Editing. .-Adrienne Fazan (Gigi). Documentary Production. Feature: White Wilderness (Walt Disney Prods., Buena Vista); short subject: Ama Girls (Walt Disney Prods.,

—

—

— — —

—

—

—

— — ——

Buena

X'ista).

—

— Fred Hynes (South —Tom Howard — (Tom Thumb). (Specta-Gray-.\lter Films

Sound Recording. Special Effects.

Pacific).

Foreign Language Picture.

Mon

in Oncle association with Films del Cenlaure, France), Film Daily's poll, the "ten best" pictures of 1958 were: The Bridge on the River Kwai (Columbia); Cat on a Hot Tin Rooj (M-G-M); Gigi (M-G-M); .Auntie Mamc (Warner Bros.); The Defiant Ones (United .Artists); Witness lor the Prosecution (United .Artists); Separate Tables (United -Artists); 'The Long Hot Summer (20th Century-Fox): The Young Lions (20th Century-Fox); The Big Country (United .Artists). The Motion Picture Daily box office hits of 1958 included: The Big Country (United .Artists); The Bridge on the River Kwai (Columbia); Cat on a Hot Tin Root (M-G-M); Dont Go S'ear the Water (M-G-M); Fare-well to .inns (20th Century-Fox); Houseboat (Paramount); In.A discreet (Warner Bros); The Long Hot Summer (20th Century-Fox): ,Vo Time jor Sergeants (Warner Bros.); Old Yeller (Buena Vista); Peyton Place (20th Century-Fox) Raintree County (M-G-M); Sayonara (Warner Bros.); South Pacific (20th Century-Fox); The Ten Commandments (Par;

'

MOTION PICTURES

452

T"** Vikinii (United Artists): Witntss lor the Proteculion (Uniifd Arlisis): The Voung Lioni (lolh Century-Fox). New York Film Critics' nwards (or 1958 were: Best picture, The Defiant Onei (I'nited Artists); best nclor, David Niven (Separate Tallies); best nclress. Susan Hayward (/ Want to Live), best director. Stanley Kramer (The Defiant Ones), best (oreixn picture, Man Oncle (SpecIa-drayAller Films in association with Films del Centaure, France).

amount):

Poxofice nil-American (avourites o( 1958 were: Cary Grant, Elizabeth Taylor, William Holden, Deborah Kerr, Yul Brynner, Doris Day, Rock Hudson, Debbie Reynolds, Marlon Brando, Kim Novak, Olenn Ford, Innrid Bergman. Oarv Cooper, Natalie Wood, Jerry Lewis, Joanne Woodward, Frank .Sinatra. Susan Hayward, Kirk Douglas. Audrey Hepburn, James Stewart, June .Mlyson, Clark Gable. Doroth>' Malone. Fame's "money-makinR" stars (or 1958 were: ("ilenn Ford. Flizabelh Taylor. Jerry Lewis. Marlon Brando. Rock Hudson. William Holden, BriKilte Bardot. Yul Brynner, James Stewart, Frank Sinatra. (M. I.s.)

—

Nontheatrical Motion Pictures. The production of nonmotion pictures in the United States increased from

theatrical

7.300 in 1958 to 8.440 in 1959, or 15.6%.

Of the 1959

business and industrial firms produced 5,400

total,

(an increase of

20%); government film production remained the same, with 1,500 new titles; educational films were up 15% with 600 new titles; medicine and health made a spectacular gain of 33% with 400 new titles; religious film production increased 10% with 220 titles;

and films

320 new .\

in

other fields remained the same, with about

record $286,000,000 was spent by the nontheatrical motion

picture industry for materials and equipment

—an

increase in

volume of 12.2% over 1958. This figure reflected a marked increase in production and a modest increase in purchases of dollar

equipment.

by business and industry and gains in distribution. Two automobile manufacturers announced a combined visual-communications budget of more than $18,000,000. Nonof film activity

resulted from increased budgets for production

theatrical attendance figures soared to theatrical heights, with

such films as Kimberly Clark's

How

to

Catch a Cold reaching

about 170,000.000 persons through television and Industn,'-sponsored motion pictures

received

of

the

highest honours of the film world during the year. Perhaps the

most outstanding of these was Pan-American World Airways' Speaking of Words, produced by Henry Strauss & Company and chosen by the Committee on International Nontheatrical Events to represent the

United States at

all

of the overseas film festivals.

Business-sponsored motion pictures received 13 of the 35 Blue Ribbon awards at the First Annual American Film festival held

by the Educational Film Library association. Two of these winners were produced by Jam Handy. Nine business films were honoured with Freedom Foundation awards, including another Jam Handy production: American Look, sponsored by Chevrolet division of General Motors. The Academy award nominee, Psychiatric Nursing, sponsored by Smith Kline & French laboratories and produced by Dynamic Films, Inc., received top honours at the Annual Columbus (Ohio) Film festival. Another notable production was the sixth film in the Bell System Science series, The Alphabet Conspiracy, produced by Warner Brothers. Among the leading producers of films for school use. Coronet announced the release of 67 new titles; McGraw-Hill (with Young America) released 70 new titles; Encyclopaedia Britannica Films released 46 (in addition to 173 films produced for courses in chemistn,' and the humanities) Bailey Films released 1 2 Pat Dowling Pictures released 8 and Churchill-Wexler re-

(Freedom foundation) and Christmas

(Scholastic Teacher)

;

McGraw-Hill's Adeli

Canada (American Film festival), and Animals and Homes, a Young America release (Scholastic Teacher) of

;

The, Intei

Film foundation's Japan, produced by Julien Brya (American Film festival) and Russia, produced by Julien Brya (Scholastic Teacher) Film Associates' Earthquakes and Vo

national

;

Rhythm

canoes (American Film festival;; William Harlow's

Motions of Growing Plants (American Film

festival); Churchil

Wexler's Treasures of the Earth (Scholastic Teacher); Institute of Science's lastic

Teacher);

Woodpecker Gels Ready for Winter

Indiana

university's

Asexual

Mood (Sckt

Reproductio

(Scholastic Teacher Weston Woods' The Camel Who Took Walk (Scholastic Teacher). The American Film festival, sponsored by the Education; )

;

Film Library association, held its premiere in April 1959 ar presented Blue Ribbon awards for 35 films from a prescreent field

of 250.

most significant new development in the classrooi was the work begun under the National Defense Edi cation act. adopted in late 1958. Among other provisions th far the

film field

act called for federal appropriations of $8,000,000 for researc

and experimentation in the more effective use in teaching television, radio, motion pictures and related mass media, ar appropriations of $300,000,000 in matched allocations to tl states for the purchase by schools of instructional materials ar equipment to improve the teaching of science, mathematics ar modern foreign languages. According to the provisions of tJ act, such purchases were to include motion pictures, filmstrip

t

film projectors

and other audio-visual equipment.

To implement

live audiences.

many

Farm

Penguins of the Antarctic and Life of the Molds (Scholaiti Teacher) and City of Gold, produced by the National Film Boar

By

titles released.

The marked expansion

cation in America Series

Grandfather's

an

the act. the U.S. ofiice of education receivi

fiscal year 1959 that included $6c! 000,000 for the purchase of materials and equipment and $i.50c, initial

appropriation for

000 for research and experimentation. By the end of the ye more than $63,000,000 in federal funds had been allocated f the purchase of materials and equipment. However, this actii: was hampered by the slowness of states to submit acceptah and by resistance to the acceptance of funds for educi from the federal government. Though the funds had be' expected to cause greatly increased purchases of motion pi plans, tion

tures and equipment, this did not occur during the

first yes

Sales of equipment actually dropped slightly as schools he|

up orders awaiting the allocation of federal funds. In search phase of the program, in grants to 58 institutions.

the

i'

$57.'

000 was included for projects for study and experimentation the use of motion pictures. Most of the other projects were co

1

cerned with television.

The year

'

of free films to schools as well as to other audiences received

saw an increase of discussion in educatior journals of the potentialities of motion pictures and other mc' communication devices to improve the quality of teaching a overcome the shortage of capable teachers in critical areas. Tl interest was stimulated by the popular response to "Continen Classroom,"' the XBC daily network program that present Harvey E. White teaching a course in introductory physi' Whites introductory physics course on film, produced and leased by Encyclopaedia Britannica Films in 1958, was used institutions and school systems in more than 250 communit

170 new films during 1959, and reported that the list of community groups who used i6-mm. films had grown by 12,000 new

high school chemistry, taught by John Baxter of the Univers

;

;

leased

;

4.

The Modern Talking Picture

service, largest distributor

names, to make a total of 181.000.

Among

the

many

instructional films

Teacher)

;

throughout the country.

A

second complete course on

film,

which received awards

Coronet's The Jamestown Colony and the Edu-

!; '

and also produced by Encyclopaedia Britannica Filr was used by institutions and school systems in more than i of Florida,

during 1959 were the following: Encyclopaedia Britannica Films' A Trip to the Moon, Chaucer's England and Puss in Boots (Scholastic

also

communities.

The

on film encouraged production McGraw-Hill Book company undertc

interest in full courses

others during the year.

MOTION PICTURES

453

Ben-Hur used 65-mm. anamorphic negative. The Big Fisherman and Porgy and Bess employed an unanamorphised 65-mm. negative. They all utilized 6-track magnetic stereophonic Slieba.

sound.

For theatre projection, there were available

in the

States four different projectors which could run both

and 35-mm.

film.

The Norelco

United

70-mm.

projector, manufactured by the

company in the Netherlands, was the first commercial 70-mm.-35-mm. projector. The Bauer, manufactured in Germany, was distributed by National Theatre supply. An Italian projector was distributed by Joe Hornstein in New York city and Phillips

a Century projector manufactured in the U,S. was available.

70-mm.-35-mm. projectors was rapid in the it was expected that the trend would continue. The production and exhibition of motion picInstallation of

United States during the year, and

tures with large area negative and positive films gives a very high

quality picture and six-channel magnetic sound

true high-

is

fidelity stereophonic.

Projection Tools.

—The Motion

Picture Research council de-

veloped a new projector alignment

kit to

improve projection

in

theatres. This kit consisted of a film path gauge, an optical align-

ment tool and projector alignment The film path gauge assures that

film.

the film

is

pulled

down

verti-

improving definitions, reducing jump and weave on the screen and eliminating film damage. The optical cally in the projector, thus

system with the lens on the screen and optimum screen

tool aligns the optics of the illumination to provide

maximum

illumination.

definition

The Research

council also

made

available

70-mm,

projector alignment film for the installation and maintenance of

70-mm. projectors mentioned above. See also Photography.

the

—

ERROR

the filming of a scene from the motion picture Solomon and ISbeba In Spain in 1959. As a large battle episode was being filmed an airplane Oew over the area and was recorded by the camera. The scene, supposedly from {Old Testament times, had to be remade at a cost of several thousands of dollars, in

•dding to a budget which had already reached a total of $6,000,000

directorand star of his was produced by Calvin Films in Kansas City under the direction of Burr

Roney

Houston

of

leased another series in principles

McGraw-Hill

university.

produced by Calvin

—

also

re-

a college credit course

of genetics comprising 48 half-hour units. Coronet

Instructional Films released a series of 18 films cepts in chemistry.

Work

on basic con-

continued on the production of a series

of films for a newly-designed course in high school physics being

developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Also released during the year

was

a set of 12 pilot films for a high

school course in humanities, financed

by

a grant

foundation and produced by Encyclopaedia

An

offering in the social studies field

was a

by the Ford

Britannica Films.

series of seven half-

hour films titled Decision: the Constitution in Action, produced

by the centre for mass communication, Columbia university. Distributors of films for schools continued to release a

num-

produced originally for network television, including the CBS "You Are There" series, and the "Project 20" series, the NBC and Prudential "Twentieth Century" series reber of films in series

leased

through Association Films, and the

distributed

XBC

"Wisdom"

by Encyclopaedia Britannica Films.

(J.

series

T. B.)

—

EncycloP/Edia Britannica Films. Bring the World to the Classroom (193S): Making Films That Teach (1954): Xew Tools for Learn'"t (1952); The Unique Contribution (1959); Using the Classroom Film (1945).

Technical Developments.

—The most

significant trend in

mo-

1959 was the use of large area films for both production and exhibition. The Technirama negative was used for producing The Sleeping Beauty, Spartacus and

Solomon and

Ky.)

for the best foreign film. Writer,

films, Tati

took his place beside Chaplin

comedy, but he was less emphatically the clown and more concerned with the absurdity of as the creator of international

the surrounding

A

human

scene.

award was made at Cannes to the French actress Simone Signoret for her performance in Room at the Top, which many considered the best British film of the year. For British films generally 1959 was a year of modest competence. Within this field one of the most satisfying films was Tiger Bay. This story of friendship between a small girl and the Polish seaman who kidnaps her was told with s>'Tnpathy and suspense. Sapphire, a conventional thriller, was distinguished both by its sympathetic approach to the colour problem reflecting, however superficially, a contemporary preoccupation and by the fine performance of many coloured players. For the rest, British films concentrated on comedy. A topical satire was The Mouse That Roared, exploiting a breach of relations between the United States and the smallest grand duchy in the world, controversy over the "Q-bomb and gratifying

—

—

'

the v'ersatility of Peter Sellers, playing with considerable brilliance three parts

— the

grand duchess, her prime minister and

the envoy to the United States. Decidedly crazy comedy, the film

attempted too much, but had long passages of

hilarity.

Alec

Mouth was Guinness' own

Guinness' version of Joyce Gary's novel The Horse's

most serious comedy of the year. a round character study in eccentricity, and the film was further enriched by remarkable performances by Renee Houston and Kay Walsh. Foreign language films were much in evidence in 1959. The French representatives ranged from what amounted to a recordcertainly the

performance as the rapscallion Gulley was

tion pictures in

F.

cf the year

same year and a 1959 "Oscar"

the preparation of a series of films for high school biolog:>'. This

(W.

and European Films. \Vhat might be called the film came from France. Jacques Tati's comedy of electronic-age manners. Mon Oncle, received the Grand Prix from the 1958 Cannes festival, the New York Critics' award for the British

ICOSTLY

.

riTonciliation

between the embittered elemenLs of postwar Poin its way was the display of Poliih

Equally inspiring

land.

humour

the slapstick short film,

in

Two Men and

and the exuberant comedy. Eva Wants

to Sleep,

a Wardrobe,

which was remi-

Rene Clair films. From Greece came A Matter of Dignity, an exceptionally fine drama of a family trying to save its face while under the threat

niscent of the early

of bankruptcy

and of a daughter involved

This was another triumph

Michael

Cacoyannis,

in

in

deeper tragedy.

'

the series of films directed by

starring

Ella

i

Lambetti and exquisitely

i

photographed by E. Walter Lassally.

Economic and Organizational Developments.

—There

was an

indication in 1959 that the catastrophic decline in motion-picttire

w^'.

attendances

in

Great Britain was nearly over and that the

I

sta-

would soon be reached. This point had been from 600,000,000 to 623,000,000 attendances a year a weekly average of between 11,500,000 and 12.000,000. In the last two quarters of 1958 attendances averaged 15.200,000 and 12,600,000 a week respectively, giving an annual average of 14.500,000, or 18% below the 1957 figure.

bilization point

estimated at

variously

rmil

A 6 1929 IN FRANKFURT

—

MAIN

This meant that

had

lost

in

two years the British motion-picture industry

about one-third of

its

already contracting

home

audi-

two quarters of 1959 the attendance figure remained steady at 1 2,500.000 a week, and although there was a seasonal drop in the third quarter, it seemed as if the worst might

ence. In the first

be over.

Concomitant with the decline of motion-picture

theatres.

in

Official

attendances was the closure published in

figures

1959

showed that the total number of theatres closed each year from 1954 to 1957 were 72, 93, 224 and 216 respectively. For the year 1958 the provisional figure was 261, making a total of 866 closures in five years.

MILLIE PERKINS, star of the film The Diary 0/ Anne house where Anne was born at Franklurt, Ger. The molion

picture, which opened in U.S. theatres In 1959. recreated the story of the Franks, a Jewish family that was persecuted by the Nazis, as related In their adolescent daughter's diary

ing of the

homme

Comedie Frangaise production of Le Bourgeois Gentilthe work of the newest school of young French These carried off nearly all the awards at Cannes. The

to

cineastes.

Marcel Camus' Orfeu Negro, which transplanted a variation of the Orpheus legend to Brazil and among the Negroes at carnival time. The prize for the best direction went to Francois Truffaut's Les Quatre Cents Coups, a beauti-

Grand Prix went

to

photographed

fully

lyrical

International Critics' prize

shima

Man

man told member

Amour,

unhappy childhood. The was awarded to Alain Resnais" Hirostory

of

a love story of a

French

girl

and a Japanese

dually through their different backgrounds. of

this

quite vigorous

new

The

leading

school of French talent

seemed to be Claude Chabrol. His film, Les Cousins, a story of two cousins, was told in a complex mixture of counterpoint, decidedly brilliant in style and sombre in content.

A

striking manifestation of the impact of foreign language

was the sudden vogue for Swedish films and the thoroughness devoted to the work of Ingmar Bergman. The showing of Wild Strawberries. Bergman's biography of an aged professor (finely played by Victor Sjbstrom^), seemed to set off the whole season of Bergman's films, of which one of the most in-

films in Britain

teresting to

was The Face. Seldom does the public have a chance

survey so large a range of a director's work. Japanese film production continued to impress

the film Living, which

covery that he

is

showed an elderly

civil

—

in particular

servant's dis-

dying of cancer. This unlikely subject was From Poland came

good selection of films of which Andrzej VVajda's Ashes and Diamonds was the finest. Mellower and less savage than the same director's Kanal, this was a remarkable attempt to find a

454

in

31,

1959, there were 3,825

Great Britain.

Because of the difficulties which the motion-picture industi> was experiencing, there was great disappointment when thf chancellor of the exchequer failed to make any reduction in the entertainments tax in his April budget. Two months later, however, during the debate on the Finance bill, he announced that he proposed to

make

a

change after

all.

The entertainments

tax

which was then running at 13.5'^ of gross box-office takings would be reduced by one-fourth. In his speech the chancelloi stated that the industry was undergoing difficulties arising fron

other amenities, but that was not an automatic reason for

Having vision to

its

was the biggest single this change in

suppose that

by the

The growth

patrons entirely from taxation. factor.

It

re

of tele

would be unrealistii would be reverse!

social habits

abolition of the entertainments duty.

He

further declarec

that the closing of motion-picture theatres to date

more had to which gave him particular concern was and. whatever was done,

close.

was

inevitabli

The one

aspec

that of the small rura

theatres and theatres serving small market towns.

had been felt in some quarters that the export of Britisi which had been showing a sustained improvement over period, would be considerably aided by the shortage of U.S products resulting from Hollywood's concentration on makin It

films,

.

films for television rather than for the motion-picture theatre.'

The time seemed

ripe .once again for an all-out attack on th

large enough to be extremely profita they could establish themselves on as it had don sufficiently broad base. The Rank organization once before took up the challenge. The result was announce

U.S. market, which was

still

ble to British producers

treated with beauty, compassion and gaiety. a very

On March

motion-picture theatres open

if

—

—

in

Lord Rank's annual statement

in Sept.

1959.

He

said tha

the group's efforts to operate a system for distributing its film in the United States had had to be abandoned. "After 18 month; prosper it became clear that there was no reasonable of achieving a profitable operation even after this initial periot

operation

MOTORBOAT RACI N G — M U ELLER Mntnrhnflt Rarinrr mUlUIUUdl ndUlllg.

455

^" '^^9 a total of 4,688 racing craft were registered in the Un-ted states,

with stock outboards representing the largest number, 2,690. Racing outboards were next with r,025 bearing racing numbers, while the inboards had 973 registrants. Registration for other countries totaled less than one-third of the U.S. total.

On May

14.

Donald Campbell of England shattered

his old

record for jet-propelled unlimited hydroplanes for the fifth consecutive year

by coursing over Lake Coniston, Eng.,

at a

two-way

average of 260.35 m.p.h.

The major at

by

race for unlimited hydroplanes, the Gold cup. held

Wash., was won by

Seattle,

Bill

Waggoner's "Maverick,"

The "Maverick," outstanding boat in its class, was named Harmsworth trophy defender in the race at Detroit against James G. Thompson's Canadian challenger "Miss Supertest IIL" Bob Hayward (Embro, Ont.), driving "Miss Supertest III," wrested the Harmsworth trophy (British Interdriven

Bill Stead.

national trophy) from the U.S. where

MOTORIZED WATER SCOOTER

being operated by its inventor on Lake Geneva, 1959. The motor, mounted on pontoons, drives a propeller especially baffled to divert air bubbles which interfere with underwater vision. The motor was designed to run IS hours on one gallon of fuel and could propel the scooter at speeds up to about 4 m.p.h.

sion of a series of successful

Switz., in

unsuccessful

in

it

had been

in the posses-

defenders for 39 years. While

defense of the Harmsworth cup. the "Maverick."

Gold cup win, was first in the Diamond cup. and International Sweepstakes trophy races as well as being high-point winner for the unlimiteds. The fastest competitive speed for the unlimiteds was established by Bill Boeing, in addition to its

Silver cup

and

was decided

it

to terminate our losses."

(F.

Canada. in

the

B. Lt.;

D. Cw.)

— During the year 1959 there was a marked increase

total

volume of Canadian motion-picture production,

mainly because of the

first

all-Canadian financed and produced

39 film half-hour television dramatic entertainment series for

world market. This was "Royal Canadian Mounted Police," produced by Crawley McConnell limited in association release to the

with the Canadian Broadcasting

corporation and the

British

Broadcasting corporation. This single project added 259^ to the 1959 production gross over the 1958 figures.

The production volume of television commercial spot announcements increased in 1959 over 1958, while the production of nontheatrical (other than for television) short films and theatrical feature films remained at about the 1958 rate. Video tape production for television was started in Toronto

by Meridian Productions. A tabulation from the report of the Canadian government bureau of statistics, covering Canadian motion-picture production by private industry for all purposes, is shown in the table. During 1959, the trend in North America for motion pictures to become geared more and more to television release continued in Canada at an even faster pace than in the United States, since Canada had virtually no production of theatrical feature films. At the year end, repercussions from the television quiz scandal in the United States influenced the Canadian board of during 1959

I

I

I

I

broadcast governors in releasing an operating code regulating

Jr.'s

race.

"Wahoo" with a 113.924 m.p.h. lap (3 mi.) at the Gold cup The "Wahoo" also was winner of the President's cup at

Washington, D.C.

—

Inboard Champions. National champions in the ten most popular inboard classes for 1959 were: 48-c.i. hydro, F. C. Moor, Miami, Fla.; 135-c.i. h\-dro. Frank Xeely, El Monte, Calif.: 136-c.i. hydro, Sid Johnson, Cambridge, Md.; 225-c.i. hydro. Hank Vogel, Webster, \.V.: 266-c.i. hydro. Bill Ritner. Gladwyne. Pa.: 7-litre hydro, Frank Byers, Columbus, 0.: E-racing runabout, Ralph Barker, Niagara Falls, N.Y.; crackerhox runabout, Joe Herren, San Bruno, Calif.: 280-c.i. hydro, .\lton Pierson, Queenstown, Md.: and in the newly introduced ski-racing runabout, Les Brown. Oak Lawn, 111. Outboard Champions. National champions in the racing outboard classes for 1959 were: .\ hydro, Wally .\dams, .\uburndale, Fla.: B hydro, Dave Christner. Quincy, 111.: C hydro. Jack Leek. Seattle: D hydro, Fred Goehl, Quincy: F hydro, Hubert Entrop. Seattle: .\-racing runabout. Homer Kincaid, Carbon Cliff, 111.: B-racing runabout. Gene Hilton. Newton, N.C; C-racing runabout. Goehl: F-racing runabout. Chuck Parsons, Lodi. Calif.; C-service runabout, Rockey Stone, Willamina, Ore.; and C-service hydro,

—

Kincaid. Stock Outboard Champions. In the stock outboard classes, Ed Wulf of won both the .\V runabout and the .\ stock hydro 1959 national championships. Other champions were: JL" runabout. Jack HoMen, Seattle: BL' runabout. Ronnie Zuback, Morgan, N.J.: CL' runabout, Dean Mahaffey, Roseburg, Ore.: runabout, John Schedel, Secaucus. N.J.; 36-c.i. runabout. Bill Kennedy III, Halesite, N.Y.; B stock hydro, Bob Hering. Sheboygan, Wis.; C stock hydro. Bob Brown, Miami; and D stock hydro, Dick O'Dea, Paterson, N.J. (L. El.)

—

.Amityville, N.Y.,

DU

Motor Hotels: see Hotels, US. Motor Transportation: see Trucking Indltstry. Motor Vehicles: see Accidents; Automobile Industry; Trlxkixg Industry; Urban Transportation, U.S. Mozambique: see Portuguese Overseas Provinces.

both the government operated Canadian Broadcasting corpora(16

Summary

Statistics

IPrivote industry!

commerce

Gross revenue Printing

Solories

Year

11953 1954

M955

Production

laboratory

$1,150,890

$1,592,779

1549 233

2,106,131 2,456,038 3,726,557 4,471,710 3,962,780

$1,230,493 1,456,405

.

.

483,910 758 560 2,793,975 2 2

,

1957' 1958' •figures from ore not included

tion

1,817,784 2,095,985 2,978,626 3.344,948 laboratories with no motion-picture production. They 1,460,421

1956'.

1956 In

include film the figures for prior years.

and private television broadcasters.

lations, the

ond

ond wages

I

requirement that by April

SS% Canadian

i,

Among 1962,

all

other code regustations include

content in their broadcasting sparked long-range

expansion plans in the industry for both documentary and studio type motion-picture production.

).

U.S.

Mueller, Frederick Henry member, became

of Canadian Motion-Picture Production

(F. R. Cy.)

in

cabinet

secretary of

Aug. 1959 after the U.S. senate had voted on June

19 not to confirm the appointment of Lewis L. Strauss (q.v.)

(Strauss had serv'ed on interim appointment of Dwight D. Eisenhower since Nov. 1958.) Mueller had been assistant secretary of commerce (1935-59), and was undersecretary from June 4. 1959. until he became acting secretary after the resignation of Strauss. His appointment as secretary of commerce by Eisenhower was confirmed by the senate on Aug. 6. The next day Mueller declared that the department of commerce would consider expansion of trade with the U.S.S.R. under certain "realistic" conditions, but would not consider the extension to that office.

Pres.

of long-term credits to the Soviet Union.

Mueller was

bom

Nov.

22, 1893, at

Grand Rapids, Mich., and

;

, 1

MUENCH — MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT

456

was Kraduated from MichiRan State university

in

1914.

He

en-

tered his father's furniture business that year, remaining as a

general partner until 1955.

He was

also president of an insur-

ance company from 1941 to 1955 and president of Grand Rapids Industries, Inc., from 1941 to 1946.

North Carolina; and on municipal incorporations, consolidation* and annexations in Wisconsin. Official studies of local government problems, were authorized in several stales, including Wyoming. Texas, Tennessee and Minnesota. Metropolitan Govornnnent. While progress was being

—

made Eminence Cardinal Muench, Germany, was born

(1889-

Muench, Aloisius Joseph

).

Aloisius

bishop ol Kargo, N.D., and papal nuncio to

on Feh. 18

at

Milwaukee, Wis,, where he attended

seminary and was ordained

He

His

to the priesthood

St.

on June

Francis 8,

1913.

earned his master of arts degree from the University of

Wisconsin and a doctorate at the University of Fribourg, Switz. Further graduate study was done at the universities of Louvain, Sorbonne, Oxford and Cambridge. In 1922 he was appointed

dean of the theology department and professor of dogmatic theology and social sciences at St. Francis seminary. In 1929 he

was named rector of the seminary and in 1934 was created domestic prelate with the title of monsignor by Pope Pius XI. Consecrated bishop of Fargo on Oct. 15, 1935, he was granted

it

at the local level, there

was feared might

were several setbacks

affect the course of future

proposal for the establishment of a Metropolitan District authority for the city of St. Louis, Mo., St. Louis county and 98 municipalities in the county, to administer seven selected serv-

on a metropolitan basis, was rejected by the voters

ices

on Nov.

3

Miami metropolitan

named to act as liaison Church in Germany and U.S. occupation that year he was named papal visitator

with a metropolitan form of government.

1946, he was

to

Germany and head

Germany

ciature in

in 1949,

he became papal nuncio when diplo-

matic relations were re-established with the Vatican in 1951. On Nov. 16, 1959, Pope John XXIII elevated him to the Sacred College of Cardinals.

Mules:

I™L'7ml7cS

in large

enced by local governments

in

measure

to difficulties experi-

coping with the phenomenal and

continuing flood of urban expansion.

The

state governors, in a

of instances, assumed dynamic leadership. Concern for

such matters as local finances,

commuter

railroads,

tension of local

home

rule,

mass transportation,

urban planning and renewal, housing, ex-

boundaries, intermunicipal arrangements,

gional government and better state-local relations in

prT

United States by state governors and legislatures.

These problems related

number

re-

was expressed

the annual messages of the governors of one-third of the

Extensive legislation along these lines was subsequently

states.

enacted.

—

an

State Action on Municipal Problenris. New York created office for local government, aided by a local government ad-

visory board, to assist both the governor and the local units; a

state

office

of

council to provide state;

The "Committee on

transportation;

minimum

a

municipal police

training

training standards throughout the

and a temporary commission on governmental operations

the Future" of the

government

New York, designed to develop greater co-operabetween the city and the state. The voters in November approved a constitutional amendment enabling the legislature

cil

acquire formal legal

government indebtedness for any

joint

nicipal undertakings within the joint debt limits. Alaska's

created a Local

Government agency and

munew

a

Local

New

Jersey

Boundary commission. Jersey plan to use the surplus funds of the

its

1

powers of consultation, research and recommendabut confer no operating powers. The Joint Committee on

existing

the National Capital Metropolitan conference (an existing volun-,

tary

body

of local elected officers) might be developed as thei

voice of the region and, the instrument for expressing and

November. Legislation governing municipal annexation and incorporation procedures was enacted in Minnesota on armexations, planning controls and assessment procedures in

safe-!

guarding local interests. In the Chicago area the Northeastern Illinois

Metropolitan Area Local Governmental Services com-i

mission recommended a system of voluntary co-operation among the traditional units of local government rather than the adoption of a metropolitan-wide government.

The development

of joint

co-operation was stressed also in other areas and various

neft

study commissions were appointed.

The unique character

of

Rhode

Island as a t>'pe of

"city-'

was recognized in the final report of an official Specia! Commission to Appraise the Financial Operations of the State Government and the Matter of State-Local Relations, issued ir

state''

April 1959.

On

the basis of proposals submitted to

it

prepared by the Institute of Public administration in

recommended

the commission

in studie:

New

York

certain shifts of functions fron

the local governments to the state as "modest

first

steps' in

th(

direction of a metropolitan-state government. It advocated spe

ment

and of sanitation

in a

government am

new

state depart

of utilities.

FecJerai Legislation.

— There was

a disposition

on the part

1959 session to liberalize the various federa programs directly affecting municipal governments. The admin congress at

istration,

turnpike to aid distressed commuter railroads and bus lines, which received nationwide attention, was passed by the legislature and vigorously advocated by the governor but rejected in

i

Jersey and Connecticut state legislatures which would confirm

divisions of water supply

by the voters

.

recommended in 1959 that the counstatus by action of the New York, New

cifically the creation of a state division of local

A New

area's met-

officials,

tion

legislature

!

country ;

New York

of the city of

to authorize local

in the

ropolitan regional council, a tristate voluntary group of elected local

tion,

see Livestock.

in the

remained the only area

'

Washington Metropolitan Problems presented its final report to congress on Jan. 31, 1959. It recognized the need for a new and' limited structure for metropolitan government to create a network of regional public works and looked to the possibility that

Municipal Government. lems

area,

|

;

authorities. In July of

of the Papal Relief mission. Appointed regent of the papal nun-

at a

by more than two to one. In the Cleveland, O., metropolitan area a proposed home rule charter for Cuyahoga county, vesting in the county exclusive power over a variety of functions of regional significance, was likewise decisively defeated. In April a proposed metropolitan charter for Knoxville and Knox county, Tenn., which would have abolished the existing city and county governments and created a single metropolitan government for the entire area, met with overwhelming defeat. Dade county, Fla., which includes the special election

the personal title of archbishop on

Nov. i, 1950. On June 4, between the Roman Catholic

in 1959 which developments. A

its

on the other hand, frequently opposed

their expansion

Several measures, particularly the Housing act of 1959. wer substantially modified under veto or threat of veto dent.

Measures

finally adopted, in addition to the

by the presi Housing act

provided for; the creation of a permanent 26-member Advisor

Commission oh Intergovernmental Relations, with

federal, statt

municipal and county representation, which was to act as a ing house for discussion

and action on problems

cleai

affecting jointl

'

and

federal, state

jthe

local

governments, especially the grant

[programs and intergovernmental fiscal arrangements

;

the financ-

ing of the federal aid highway program, which had been slowed down because of cutbacks in the federal contributions and controls

imposed on state spending; extensions of the air pollution and the public health traineeprogram and the provision of atomic energy co-operation

control program, aid to airports ship

;

grants

to

facilities.

A

total of $45,000,000 was appropriated for federal communities for construction of sewage treatment Measures left for consideration at the second session of

with states.

1960 included, among others, a proposal for commission on metropolitan problems, expansion of the water pollution control program, community facilities loans and aid to the 86th congress in 1

depressed areas.

Urban Renewal.

—As signed by the president after two

on the ground that

;essive vetos

its

suc-

provisions were extravagant

new housing legislation, the first since 1957, new public housing units; $350,000,000 for

ind inflationary, the

luthorized 37,000

urban renewal to be immediately available and $300,000,000 to 36 available

on July

i960; a $50,000,000 direct loan program

i,

housing for the aged; and $8,000,000,000 for mortgage

tor

surance. Additional

amendments expanded

in-

or liberalized the pro-

Federal Housing administration mortgage inand the urban renewal and public housing programs. The jrban-planning assistance program (sec. 701 of the Housing act) idsion controlling

surance

and improved

was rewritten

important particulars;

in several

it

Housing and Home Finance igency administrator to encourage planning on a unified metrojolitan basis. Statistics on the status of urban renewal projects md projects under the urban-planning assistance programs, jubhshed in monthly bulletins by the Urban Renewal administra-

nduded

specific authorization to the

continued to show substantial progress in both programs. The federal urban renewal, slum clearance and mortgage insurance programs came in for considerable criticism in 1959, ;ion,

the annual conference of the National

raiced particularly at

\ssociation of

Housing and Redevelopment

The government, on jrojects

its

October.

from the planning into the building

stage. Scandals in

New York

city also pro-

voked heated controversy. Nevertheless, following a survey of [6 cities

and a canvass of leading authorities

Forum

in the field, Archi-

1959 issue reported the program to basically sound and advocated its continuance, subject to

ectiiral Ibe

in its Sept.

tuch improvements as better co-ordination of local

government

programs, citizen group participation and public disclosure of the details of

urban development projects. The work of the unified

paltimore Urban Renewal and Housing agency and the Greater altimore committee, a citizen group,

— Chicago, —

ended. Seven other cities

'a.,

ing

New

was particularly

111.,

corn-

Cleveland, 0., Little

Haven, Conn., Philadelphia, Pa., Pittsburgh, and Sacramento, Calif. were also cited as having outstand-

ock. Ark.,

it

was operating

York

v

v

1959

in

—There was

little

or no

improvement

in

1959

the situation of local bus lines, particularly in the medium nd smaller communities, according to a survey reported in the ugust issue of Public Management. But in the large urban

in

where mass transit remained a necessity, impressive new jplans were in operation or under consideration. The states of |New York and New Jersey enacted a bistate compact, subseentres,

by congress and the president, creating a New ork-New Jersey Transportation agency which was to devise

uently approved

commuter

New York metropolitan New York au-

ilans

for the

tea.

Funds were made available to the Port of

railroads in the

an existing bistate agency, to help provide $100,000,000

worth of passenger cars to designated

commuter

railroads.

ersey created a state division of railroad transportation

and

New New

established an office of transportation in the state execu-

The San Francisco bay area rapid-transit dishad plans under way for a three-stage integrated rapid-transit system involving 123 mi. of rapid transit, including a subway under the bay between San Francisco and Oakland, for the construction of which the legislature approved the issuance of $115,000,000 in revenue bonds by the California Toll Bridge tive department. trict

authority.

The

entire project

was subject to approval by the

voters of the five-county area.

The four-year mass-transportation survey ordered by congress was published in 1959 by the

for the Washington, D.C., area

National Capital Planning commission and the National Capital Regional Planning council, which were aided

many port

records.

Transportation.

hority,

IN TOKYO, JAP., a clock under a traffic signal motorists and pedestrians the number of seconds (in tills case, 13) the light will change. Its manufacturer presented it to the city of Tokyo tells

part, criticized municipal delays in getting

administration of the program in

;he

Officials in

TIMED STOP LIGHTS

in their

public and private organizations and individuals.

recommended

work by The re-

a $2,500,000,000 system of freeways, park-

ways, subways, suburban railroads and express buses, under a

temporary public corporation

to be created

by congress,

to

be

followed by a permanent interstate transit authority. Congres-

on the report were scheduled for November. Both Maryland had meanwhile ratified an interstate compact for the regulation of mass transportation in the Washington, D.C., area, for which congressional approval was pending. sional hearings

Virginia and

The

Illinois state

final report to the

mass-transportation commission submitted

governor and legislature

in

its

June; recommen-

dations included the establishment of a state office of co-ordi-

nator of mass transportation and of an advisory transportation

committee with state, local and mass-transit representation. The Louis Metropolitan Area Transportatiofi Study: igsy-yo-So was submitted to the mayor of the city and supervisors of the

St.

457

:

M U N TIONS

458

i

county of

St.

Louis

in

September; recommendations included

the cri-ntion of an area-wide transportation-planning authority.

Municipal Finance.

—The

census bureau's annual report on

city KoviTiimfnt liiiances issued in for fiscal years ending in

1958,

19S9, which presented data

showed another record increase

revenue, expenditure, indebtedness and financial holdings,

in city

though the degree of increase was

less

marked than

for

1957.

revenue reached approximately $12,832,000,000, about

Total

higher than the 1957 total; general revenue, excluding utility

7'";

''' j ; ' '

from Oct. 1953 to Oct, 1958, on a full-lime equivalent was approximately n'/c] in municipal payrolls it wu

interval basis,

39 'a-

I

See also City and Regional Planning; Civil DErENii, U,S.; Crime, U.S.; Police; Urban Transportation, U.S.; :

1778), which was one of six cartoo'

for a set of tapestries for the royal palace in Madrid.

The Cleveland Museum

of Art acquired a noted collection

Byzantine silver and, as their

Hanna

first

purchases from the Leonard

"The Nativity" by Gerard David. Anoth' important purchase from the Hanna fund was a three-foot lind wood statue of St. Stephen by the early 16th-century Germ^ sculptor, Tilman Riemenschneider. Of even greater significar fund, acquired

was Cleveland's purchase of one of Peter Paul Rubens' masterpieces, "Diana and Her Nymphs Departing Chase," painted about 1620. Diana is shown attired in

greati

for

t'

brillis

red and is surrounded by her njTnphs, one of whom is molest by a satyr. The picture, which was formerly in the collection Lord Northbrook. had not been seen publicly for 100 years. A very large painting (96^ in. high) by Edwin Dicklns' called "The Fossil Hunters" (1926-28) was acquired by Whitney museum in New York city. This was called the b modern painting to enter an American public collection in 19 Carnegie institute in Pittsburgh, Pa., was presented with paintings and pieces of sculpture from its Bicentennial Int national. These included work by the U.S. artists Franz Kli I

MUSIC Alexander Calder and Kenzo Okada, and by the European artists Hans Arp, Georges Mathieu, Georges Braque and Henry Moore.

The Art Institute of Chicago acquired by gift from Mrs. Joseph Regenstein "Three Studies of a Woman," a chalk drawing by Antoine Watteau; it purchased a large bronze "Seated Nude" (1925) by Henri Matisse; and Mrs. Suzette Morton Zurcher presented to the institute a construction commissioned from

Naum

Gabo. In the

field of paintings,

the institute purchased

by Bernardo Strozzi and received from Leigh B. Block the "Portrait of Picasso" by Juan

"Portrait of a Bishop" gift

See also Smithsonian Institution.

Classical Music.

—The

UllCIP RlUoiu. musical anniversaries.

'

It

(F. A. Sw.)

year 1959 was one of many marked the tercentenary of

the birth of Purcell, the bicentennial of the

sesquicentennial of the death of

!

of the birth of

as a

Gris.

Haydn and

death of Handel, the the sesquicentennial

Mendelssohn. Festivals of their music were given

over the civilized world. Since Purcell and Handel lived most

all

461

chestras undertook widely ranging tours.

New York

led

city,

by

its

Thomas Scherman, made

The

Little Orchestra of

permanent conductor and founder,

a tour of Asian countries in February

and March, presenting 38 concerts in 20 cities from India to Japan. One of the most interesting events of this tour was the world premiere of the Thirteenth Symphony by Henry Cowell, subtitled Madras Symphony, given in Madras, India, on March 3. The National Symphony orchestra of Washington, D.C., under the direction of its permanent conductor, Howard Mitchell, made a three months' tour of Latin-American countries during the summer months. The Vienna Philharmonic, under the direction of its permanent conductor, Herbert von Karajan, undertook in October and November a tour around the world in 40 days, going east through Japan, continuing through the United States and then returning to Europe. The programs contained mainly classical and romanworks.

tic

The 33rd annual

festival of the International Society for

Con-

j

of their lives in

London and were buried

in

Westminster abbey,

temporary Music was given

in

Rome and

Naples June 10-16.

I

extensive celebrations in their

i

honour were held

jPurcell-Handel festival was presented in der the

'

cil,

the

in England. The London June 8-27, un-

combined auspices of the Arts council, the British counBritish Broadcasting corporation and the British museum.

The Haydn celebrations brought out several of his littleknown operas of these, // Mondo della Luna had frequent performances, perhaps stimulated by the interest in the moon as \ht object of space e.xploration. However, the story of the opera, to a comedy by Carlo Goldoni, depicted merely a foolish old man's delusion that he had been transported to the moon. A commemoration of special interest was held in Esterhaz, Hung., the locality where Haydn spent his most fruitful years as court ;

I

I

i

musician to Prince Esterhazy.

jwith a I

performance

The

festivities

opened on Sept. 20

Esterhazy castle of Haydn's oratorio

in the

The Seasons.

The most spectacular orchestral tour of 1959 was undoubtedly undertaken by the New York Philharmonic, under the direcjtion of Leonard Bernstein, the first native American to become permanent conductor of that organization. The tour was arranged under the auspices of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower's special international program for cultural presentations. The I

[that

orchestra gave 50 concerts in 29 cities and 17 countries, beginning with a concert in Athens, at the

(Aug. 5), and concluding in

London

foot of the Acropolis

(Oct. 10).

The

tour in-

cluded appearances at five festivals; in Athens, Baalbek (Lebanon), Salzburg, Venice and Berlin. the tour

was a

The culminating point

series of 18 concerts in the U.S.S.R., in

lincluding several

American works, among them Bernstein's own

symphonic work The Age oj Anxiety. On Aug. presented in lution of

of

programs

Moscow

25, the orchestra

the first performance there since the Revo-

Stravinsky's

modern

highly significant event in

classic,

The Rite of Spring, a

view of the Soviet attitude toward

a short

composition by the American

The Unanswered

pioneer of

modern music, Charles

Question,

was performed. Bernstein prefaced the performances

Ives, entitled

with a few remarks, pointing out the revolutionary significance of the

Closer cultural relations between the United States and the

marked by

group of

the visit in the United States of a

Soviet composers, Tikhon Khrennikov, Dmitri vitch,

The

including

Dimitri

Shostakovich,

Kabalevsky, Constantin DankeFikret Amirov and the musicologist Boris Yarustovsky.

visit

four U.S.

was arranged

to reciprocate a visit in the U.S.S.R.

by

composers (Roy Harris, Roger Sessions, Peter Mennin

and Ulysses

Kay)

Besides the

val.

The programs

of the festival were as follows:

June 10: Cheltenham Concerto, for chamber orchestra by George Rochberg (U.S.); Skaldcns .\att, for soprano, chorus and orchestra by Ingvar Lidholm (Sweden); Omnia tevipus habent, cantata for soprano and 17 instruments by Bernd-.Mois Zimniermann (Germany); Prolation, for orchestra by Peter Ma.Nwell Davies (England). June 11: Eighth String Quartet by Hilding Rosenberg (Sweden); Serenata, for 5 instruments by Goffredo Petrassi (Italy); Nocturnes, for soprano and instruments by Hans Ulrich Engelmann (Germany): Three Blue Sketches, for 9 instruments by Hanns Jelinek (.Austria). June 12: Mali (Madre), for voice and string quartet by .\lojz Srebotnjak (Yugoslavia); Second String Quartet by .Alberto Ginastera (Argentina); Three Studies, for cello and piano by Don Banks (England); Two Sonnets, for baritone, clarinet, viola and cello by Milton Babbitt (TI.S.); Ein irrender Sohn, for contralto and instruments by Bo Xilsson (Swetien). June 13 afternoon concert: String Quartet by Raniiro Cortes (U.S.); Des Engels Anredung an die Seele, for \'oice and 4 instruments by Klaus Huber (Switzerland): Sei poesie di Dylan Thomas, for voice and instruments by Riccardo I\lalipiero (Italy): Canticum Psalmi Resiirreetionis, cantata for soprano and instruments by Dieter Schonbach (Germany). Evening concert: Sinfonia by Manuel Rosenthal (France); Tartiniana seconda. for violin and orchestra by Luigi Dallapiccola (Italy); Qitatre Essais, for orchestra by Tadeusz Baird (Poland); Impromptus, for orchestra by Wolfgang Fortner (Germany); Agon, for orchestra by Igor Stravinsky (U.S.). June 14: Suite de Kurpie, for contralto and 9 instruments by Witold Szalonek (Poland); Trio, for clarinet, cello and piano by Karl-Birger Blomdahl (Sweden); Improvisations sur Mallarme, for soprano and instruments by Pierre Boulez (France). June 15: Konslellationen. for strings by Per Xorgaard (Denmark); Concertino, for piano and chamber orchestra by .Andre Casanova (France): Incontri. for 24 instruments by Luigi Xono (Italy): Tre Studi, for chamber orchestra by Aldo Clementi (Italy): Oiseaux exotiques. for piano and orchestra by Olivier Messiaen (France); Satnai, for chamber orchestra by Voritsune Matsudaira (Japan). June 16: Permutazioni sinjoniche. for orchestra by Guillaume Landre (Holland): Vier Gcdichte von Stcjan George, for miNed chorus and instruments by Michael Gielen (Austria): Trittico sinjonico, for orchestra by Nils-Eric Fougstedt (Finland): Nachtstiicke und Arien, for soprano and orchestra by Hans Werner Henze (Germany).

Juan, Puerto Rico, on

He

also

continued until

May

Bach

suite.

The programs

May

i,

conducting a performance of a

appeared as a

cello

soloist.

The

festival

22.

Maggio Musicale Fiorentino (May lo-July by Handel and Purcell to mark their annias numerous other works by classical and

of

14) included works

music.

U.S.S.R. were

musical works was held. Eight hundred and seventy composers from 43 different countries entered the contest; the prize-winning works were included in the programs of the festitition for

Pablo Casals opened the third Casals Music festival in San

Stravinsky's music as being decadent.

At the same concert

In connection with this festival, a special international compe-

in 1958.

New York

Philharmonic, two other American or-

versaries,

as well

modern composers.

An

International Music festival in Vienna

(May 31-June

21)

presented 16 orchestral concerts and several concerts of chamber music.

The Holland June 15-July

festival took place in

IS,

Amsterdam and The Hague.

with the presentation of operatic and orches-

tral concerts.

The annual

International Festival of Edinburgh opened on

'

MUSIC

462

Aug. J4 with a presentation by the Royal Opera of Stocl

death of the once poilar television program. "The Hit Parade," which had been r utter worthlessness

be found

in the

years a fairly reliable guide to honestly successful music

in

5

"The Hit Parade" died because it represented o7 teen-agers, the largest consumer market for popiT

lighter forms.

the taste of

music, and gradually lost

its

adult audience as a result.

.As

-

dicated by the weekly listings of Variety magazine, "the Bii of

show business,"

hits

were created through records rather tl J and the success of these records -

the sale of sheet music,

pended upon the juvenile rating of the "singers" conceni.

MUTUAL SECURITY PROGRAM — NARCOTICS

j

many

of

whom

offered little or nothing to suggest either voice or

I

talent.

I

Curiously enough, the influence of a popular record occasionally

effect of reviving

had the

an old "standard," although usually example being the Harbach-

a garbled form, the outstanding

lin

JKem "Smoke Gets

Your Eyes." There was also a flicker of fact that some real folk music managed

in

jencouragement in the

way

mass of incredible trash, a trend already established by the jazzed-up Negro exaltation, "He's Got the .Whole World in His Hands." A surprisingly popular song was

ito find its

into the

i"The Battle of the time of

lof

New

Orleans." based upon an actual fiddle tune

Andrew Jackson. "Stagger Lee,"

a

new

version of

"Stackolee," rode high for a time, to be followed by

|the classic

"Tom Dooley," made jized largely

available by

by the Kingston

Frank Warner and popular-

trio.

There were some obvious borrowings as well, including "Good|bye, Jimmie, Good-bye," from the Neapolitan "Vieni sul Mar" j

as "My Nellie's Blue Eyes"), "Only You," from the "Lazy Mississippi Moon," and "Don't You Know?" from Musetta's Waltz in Puccini's La Boheme.

i(also

known

older

The menace of "rock 'n' roll" continued through 1959, alit showed some signs of weakening. Elvis Presley's mili-

I

ithough

itary service

did not interfere noticeably with his standing as high

priest of the cult, for at least

and

his popularity

Tonight" and

"A Big

"Richard

quences, and one (/

Want

Academic

interest

in

More

versity of Indiana.

Florida,

Head on

My

Shoul-

The few good songs were seldom heard except

1

its

entire score to

grow.

The Lennox

first

national jazz

camp

at the Uni-

and universities introduced

colleges

(Colorado,

Michigan,

Kansas, Texas). The Midwest Collegiate

California,

Jazz festival was held with such success at the University of

Dame

that plans were made to make it a nationwide event Throughout the southwest, high-school dance bands attended local and regional festivals. Eight major jazz festivals were held in the United States. The Newport, R.I., festival was probably the largest in terms of participation. Plans were drawn to provide permanent facilities for an annual festival there. Two festivals were held in Chicago, one at Chicago stadium and three midweek presentations at Ravinia park. Randall's Island, N.Y., Monterey, Calif., French Lick,

Notre

in i960.

Ind., Detroit, Mich.,

and Boston, Mass.,

ton and Detroit for the

In Italy the Florence

May

in

also held festivals (Bos-

time).

quartet

made two appearances

festival, the first jazz inclusion in the

tory of the festival.

began

first

Modern Jazz

at the

22-year his-

The Jazz Appreciation Society Mehegan in a concert-lecture

in the far east

fame, with "Put Your

to

survey and laboratory courses in jazz

Anyone Else But You," "Sweeter Than You" and "Just a ILittle Too Much." Edd Byrnes, an actor rather than a vocalist, 'capitalized on his television reputation in the autobiographical isong "Kookie, Kookie," and the highly synthetic Fabian (genlerally billed as "fabulous") made some sort of record with "Turn iMe Loose" and "Tiger." A song called "Lonely Boy'' was Paul |der" as a sequel.

jazz continued

Stan Kenton sponsored the

Africa sponsored John

jAnka's chief claim to

Live) devoted

school in Massachusetts scheduled a three-week session, and

growing reputation as a singer with "It's Late," "There'll Never iBe

to

the jazz idiom.

with teen-agers accounted

"A Fool Such as I," "I Need Your Love Hunk 0' Love." Ricky Nelson added to his

three hits,

463

Diamond," "Mickey Spillane-Mike Hammer"). Noticeable, too, was the adaptation of jazz to commercial radio and television advertising. Several movies used jazz in seSquad,"

of South tour,

and

Jack Teagarden completed an 18-week tour which Afghanistan and ended in Okinawa.

See also Records and Recordings.

(M. E. Hl.)

—

The Brass Choir (1956): ConEncvclop.jedia Britannica Films. ducting Good Music (1956): Igor Stravinsky (The Wisdom Series) (195S); Listening to Good Music (The String Quartet) (1955): Pablo Casals (The Wisdom Series) (1958); The Percussion Group (1956); Playing Good Music (The String Quartet) (1955): The String Choir (1956); The Symphony Orchestra (1956); Wanda Landowska (The Wisdom Series) (1958); The Woodwind Choir (1956).

in the theatres

housing such musical shows as the Rodgers-Hammerstein Flower

Mutual Security Program:

\Drum Song, Jule Styne's Gypsy and the prize-winning La Plume

U.S.

Tante. A promising score was that of Once Upon a Matcomposed by Mary Rodgers, the daughter of Richard jRodgers. When Kurt Weill wrote The Three-Petiny Opera, he deliberately turned out a vulgar, worthless tune called "Mack,

see

Foreign Aid Programs,

ma

'lie

At the 14th session of the United Nations Com-

fress,

Knife.'' Brought up to date and recorded by Bobby Darin, it became one of the big hits of the year. (S. Sp.) JoH. Worldwide interest in jazz continued to expand during ithe

—

Narcotics.

mission

Switz., April 27 to to provide

May

on

Narcotic

15, 1959,

Drugs held

at

Geneva,

governments were requested

prompt provisional control of new narcotic drugs hav-

ing powerful analgesic or antitussive properties, pending findings

tions in this area

by the World Health organization regarding the drugs' addictionliabilities. The World Health organization was invited to revise the list of exempted narcotic preparations, to be limited to those generally used in current medical practice which could be safely exempted from most control measures, for inclusion in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. The World Health organization was requested to prepare a

Russo,

report on the use of cannabis for extraction of useful drugs, espe-

(1959.

In the United States, jazz as an art form received con-

impetus through the compositions and arrangements of Evans (long-playing albums Miles Ahead, Porgy and Bess).

siderable Gil

jHis fresh

concepts of

harmony and form

influenced jazz writers

pnd performers throughout the nation. Noteworthy contribu-

were also made by George Russell, William Johnny Richards and Manny Albam. Miles Davis continued to expand his influence on trumpet iplayers and also on the extension of jazz forms. The simplicity lof his melodic lines and harmonic progressions put emphasis ;upon content and tonal qualities as opposed to involved arpeg-

cially antibiotics, preferably in

ference to adopt the Single convention, so that the extraction of useful drugs from cannabis could be permitted under that con-

The

Probably the most influential of tenor saxophone stylists was

[Sonny Rollins, an exponent of the

"hard" school of playing,

al-

though Stan Getz and Bill Perkins maintained a considerable Ifollowing.

time for the 15th session of the

commission, and specifically for use in the plenipotentiary con-

vention.

giated figures. '

producing

John Coltrane was a new light on the horizon but it whether he would develop into a major in-

Iremained to be seen

UN

secretary-general, in co-operation with the Interna-

tional Civil Aviation organization, the

World Health organiza-

and the International Criminal Police organization, was asked to prepare and distribute to governments, in time for action

tion at the 15th session of the commission, essential standards to

fluence.

control the use of narcotic drugs in first-aid kits on board aircraft

and presented jazz spectaculars, and began using jazz for background imusic for several of its weekly shows ("Peter Gunn," "M

engaged

Television also took note of the public interest in jazz

in international flight. All

governments which had not

yet done so were requested to adhere to the 1948 protocol, and all

governments of opium-producing countries were urged

to

j.

NASSER — NATI ONAL BUDGET protocol of 1953 so that United States. — Ihc continued

464

adhere to the Inlcrnalional Opium could come into force. Caution was advised to

new

analgesic drugs

by manufacturers,

application of the minimunj

it

in

the publicity Riven

journalists, or

on radio

mandatory penalties

for the unlawful sale of narcotic drugs

der the federal Narcotic Control act of 1956, buttressed

by

or television to prevent claims that these drugs were not addic-

states

tioii-prodiii ing.

a notable reduction in narcotic trafficking

Traffic.

Illicit

ii;5S

—Total

were considerably

was true

in

than for 1957, although the reverse illicit heroin

less

the United States, the chief target of

Iran had

tralfic.

seizures of narcotic drugs reported for

much

traffic

illicit

in

opium. Cannabis

found throughout the world, was heaviest

in the

traffic,

United States,

Mexico. Brazil, Morocco, several parts of South Africa, the far

and the near and middle east. Considerable cocaine traffic in several South American countries, and persistent use of cocaine in other parts of the world was indicated. Raw and Prepared Opium. The largest seizures of raw and

sufficiently severe state narcotic control laws, achieve*

and addiction. In

cotic

control

law providing a ten-year

minimum mandator

prison sentence for unlawful sale of narcotic drugs. Illinois al», instituted a

program of Nalline

tests for addicts

on probation

the far, near and middle east, par-

in

ticularly in Hurma-Chiiia- Thailand border areas of clandestine

cultivation, which included

Laos and South Korea.

Much

of this

opium was transported through Thailand, Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, The Shan and Kachin states of Burma permitted some diversion for personal use. Morphine and Heroin. The clandestine manufacture and smuggling of morphine and heroin from the far, near and middle east to other parts of the world continued. The far eastern

—

sources were near northern Thailand, with kok,

Hong Kong, Malaya, Macao,

traffic

through Bang-

Japan, South Korea and For-

mosa. The United States seized much heroin smuggled from Hong Kong and Japan, Transit traffic continued from abroad through

Mexico toward the United

States.

—

fic

Cocaine. The concern of the commission about cocaine trafwas evidenced by its request that the secretary-general send

reports of the cocaine discussion, held during the 14th session

of the commission, to the governments of Argentina, Bolivia,

Colombia. Cuba. Ecuador, Paraguay and Peru, urg-

Brazil. Chile,

ing the full co-operation of all countries to reduce this traffic.

Heavy

transit

traffic

continued through Cuba to the United

Governments were asked

States.

to prohibit the

dangerous habit

of coca chewing, which continued to be a problem, especially in Bolivia. Colombia. Peru and, to

some

extent, in Argentina

and

(H. EncvcloP/»I)Ia Bkitannica Filus.

—Hea\-y

traffic continued, mostly in the far east, and South America. Very large seizures were made in several countries because of vigorous enforcement measures. Mexico continued to co-operate with the United States to

Cannabis.

Africa. Central

check

— Aden. Ethiopia,

Israel,

Saudi Arabia and

Yemen

sub-

secret Free Officers'

— Control

of these drugs at

ill

effects similar to the drugs already

under interna-

tional control, they could be included in the Single

Convention

on Narcotic Drugs,

Addiction. ticularly in

— Heroin addiction continued

Hong Kong.

in

many

areas, par-

Greece reported a decrease

in heroin addiction,

but increased its

1955

law against opium abuse, reduced the number of opium addicts by two-thirds. Much opium addiction existed in the far, near and east,

movement

in the

Egyptian army.

although the exact extent of

it

was not known.

Addiction in the medical profession caused continued concern.

May

fougli

Maj. Gen.

1952, then a lieutenant colonel, Nasser approacbi;

Mohammed Naguib

and offered him the post of

The coup

of a planned revolution.

leadi'

d'etat of July 23 succeede

and Naguib became the head of state and later president arj premier of the republic. Nasser, however, took over the premie:

and shortly thereafter, in Nov. 1954, removed Naguj from the presidency. On July 27, 1954, Nasser signed an agre ment stipulating the evacuation of the Suez Canal zone by tli British forces within 20 months. On June 22, 1956, a nation plebiscite approved him as Egypt's president for six yeai| Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal company on July 26. FolloM ing the invasion of Egypt during October and November aij the subsequent retreat of the invading forces under diplomat ship,

1

Egypt had '"won the battle"

pressure, he claimed that

againi

the British, French and Israelis.

I

and Shukri el-Kuwatli, president Syria, proclaimed in Cairo the union of Egypt and Syria in; United Arab Republic (U.A.R.), and on Feb. 21 Nasser w; Feb.

i,

1958, Nasser

I

elected the first president.

During 1959 Nasser received

official

visits

the

from Amintof Nkrumsi

Kwame

Ghanian prime minister, Jan. 8-11; President Tito of Yugi

20-2S; Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia. June 2 and King Saud of Saudi Arabia, Aug. 31-Sept. 3. At t; Syrian-Lebanese frontier on March 25. Nasser had secret tal. with Pres. Fuad Shehab of Lebanon. They afterward emphasiz the need to strengthen Arab co-operation. Following the faili'

,

of the Mosul revolt in March, Nasser gave the lead to a violc propaganda campaign against Iraq by making a series of speed in which he denounced Gen. Abdul Karim Kassem as an aj of Britain, Communism and Zionism.

(

National Academy of Sciences: see International Gi PHYSICAL Co-operation 1959; Societles and Assocutio:

—

U.S.

National Association for the Advancement of Ci ored People: see Societies and Associations, U.S. National Association of Manufacturers: see Societ

ards encountered in the administration of narcotic drugs in the practice of medicine.

National Budget:

gers of addiction

of medical students regarding the dan-

was considered necessan.'

to

guard against haz-

i'\

I

In

and Associations, U,S, National Association of Real Estate Boards: TIES AND .Associations, U.S.

More thorough education

He

Japan, the United States and Canada.

abuse of cannabis. Iran, by vigorous enforcement of

middle

bom 2.

studied

war of 1948-49, but the Israeli victory ga\j further impetus to his ideas and plans. He was determined l! get rid of the Farouk regime.

2S:

Barbiturates and Tranquilizers.

He

in the Palestine

the use of khat. .Action on this question was postponed pending

the national level was advised. If they should be found liable to

president of tb

El-Nahda el-Misria secondary school in Cairo and in 1937 ws accepted at the military college. In Nov. 1942 he was appointe, lecturer at the military college and soon afterward founded thi

slavia, Feb.

abuse and

), first

United Arab Republic, was

Beni Mor, Asyut province. Upper Egypt, Jan. 15.

mitted information on medical and social problems involved in

completion of a report by the World Health organization.

^

J.

Addiction (195J).

Fanfani. the Italian prime minister, Jan. 6-9;

illicit traffic.

Khat.

— Drug

C1918-

Nasser, Gamal Abdel

On

Chile.

ti

determine violations because of relapse into drug use.

—

prepared opium were made

Ilii

one of the greatest problem areas, improvement was espe cially significant with the vigorous enforcement of a 1957 nar.

nois,

east

occurred

tint

in sonii|

see

Budget, National.

see Soc

—

2

NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS iNational

Bureau of Standards.

March

congress,

^TfSX:^

igoi, the national bureau of standards

3,

is

pri-

50,000

465

lb. /in.

In chemistry, a convenient analytical method was developed for determining as little as one-billionth of a milligram of tritium

•marily concerned with scientific standards

(the radioactive isotope of hydrogen) in water-soluble, nonvola-

jurement, basic properties of matter

tile

iconstants. In

and methods of measand fundamental physical

and related [areas, the bureau conducts research and development programs |in physics, mathematics, chemistry, metallurgy and various fields ,o{

fulfilling its

responsibilities in these

materials. This

the quantitative determination

obstacle to widespread use of tritium as a research tool in organic

and biological chemistry.

The

engineering.

In 1959 the bureau employed approximately 3.500 persons, of jwhom about half were scientists and engineers. Most of the staff

method makes

of tritium relatively easy and thus removes the most important

separation and determination of small amounts of phos-

phate, silicate and arsenate

when they occur together

in solution

I

19 field stations were also

had long been a difficult problem. In 1959, a rapid, accurate method was developed for quantitatively separating and determining these ions. The method was expected to prove useful in

maintained, mainly for radio propagation studies. Total funds

controlling the quality of chemicals, metals, glasses and water

jwas stationed at the bureau's

two major laboratories

D.C., and Boulder, Colo.;

'ington,

1959 were $34,839,000. Of this

jobligated for fiscal

came from

in

Wash-

total, $15,-

direct congressional appropriation

and the balance represented programs conducted for other government ;agencies and private sources.

•089,000

In research during 1959 on atomic standards of length, three

I

devices were developed which provide extremely narrow spectral |lines.

These narrow

make

lines

possible very precise standards

wave length of devices utilize beams

length based on the

radiation from

mercury mercury atoms to obtain a line 0.0002 .Angstrom in width; the third employs a magnetic filter with mercury-198 vapour to produce an absorption line 0.0003 A. wide. Besides serving as sources of very narrow spectral lines, the beam devices were being used to obtain more precise information on the properties of the mercury nucleus as seen in the isotope shifts and hyperfine structure of the lines. Progress was also made in the development of standards of [frequency and time based on invariant properties of the atom. i\ precision of 2 parts in 10,000,000,000 was achieved with an

tof

atoms.

Two

of the

of

I

atomic clock using a

beam

of cesium atoms. In other frequency-

btandard work, hyperfine and ['

Zeeman resonances

in

cesium and

Research

w-as also applied in studying the kinetic

of the solutions of the first-order nonlinear Poincare equation

and the second-order nonlinear Rayleigh equation, and a study thermodynamics and hydrodynamics of two-phase flows.

of the

Under the sponsorship search centre, the

measurements on nine

Precise interferometric

;

lines

of the

belium spectrum led to an independent confirmation of the

Ryd-

which since 1952 had been based on the work of of observers. (J. W. Drinkwater, 0. Richardson and

3erg constant,

single set

Williams, Proc. Royal Soc. 174, 164 [1940] E. R. Cohen, fhys. Rev. 88, 353 [1952].) The Rydberg constant relates the

jW. E.

;

bnergy levels of atoms, and enters into the frequency or

pumber formulas for tnents re-evaluated

all

wave

atomic spectra. The bureau measure-

data used in an early determination (W. V.

Houston, Phys. Rev., 30. 608 [1927]; D. Y. Chu, Phys. Rev.,

Cambridge Re-

of the U.S. air force's

Central Radio Propagation laboratory

from meteor trails. In the course of this work, an experitwo-way communication system was developed that could transmit messages at speeds up to 4,800 words a minute

tions

mental

80 times the existing speed of transmission by teletype. Results the

of

study indicated

intermittent

that

com-

meteor-burst

munication could compete effectively with other long-distance turbances.

rubidium-vapour atomic clocks were undef construc-

NBS

completed a three-year investigation to determine the feasibility of a long-distance radio communication system based on reflec-

systems, and that

Two

equation for a plasma.

Other work included a determination of the fluctuations in the annual flows and runoffs of rivers, investigations of the behaviour

ubidium as narrow' as 20 cycles at 7,000 megacycles were obtion using these results.

salts as impurities.

mathematical physics included an analysis of the important problem of the mechanics of turbulent diffusion by the techniques of statistical mechanics. A statistical approach in

ubidium vapours were investigated. Hyperfine line widths in

served.

1

which contain these

Work

it

was

relatively free

from ionospheric

dis-

continued on the pilot data processor, a multipurpose

computer network for the experimental investigation of government data processing problems. Considerable progress was made in the engineering design and actual construction of this machine.

The use for

of an existing computer to

the pilot was

work out the design

successfully demonstrated.

details

Experiments

in

machine translation, which the bureau had been conducting for the U.S. army office of ordnance research, indicated a promising approach to practical production of English text from Russian technical literature. .\ translation scheme was developed and feasibility studies carried out

On

July

I,

on an electronic computer.

1959. the bureau began

making

all its

calibrations

[1939]) of the Rydberg constant, bringing this earlier palculation into agreement with the presently accepted value

of length and mass (except those for the U.S. coast and geodetic

1(109737.309 =t 0.0012 cm.~^).

international yard and the international pound.

65- 17s

To keep pace with recent developments

and rockptry, efforts were made to extend precise measurement of both temperature and pressure into increasingly higher ranges. Adi

n'ances in

high-temperature measurement included the extension

of the calibration to

3,800°

in jet flight

range of optical pyrometers from 2.400° C.

C. construction

controlled temperatures,

of a high-current arc as a source of

and design of

a special type of high-

survey and those expressed

cal

in

metric units) in terms of the

To

these international units were adopted

by agreement between

the directors of the national standards laboratories of six English-

speaking nations: Canada.

New

Zealand, the United States, the

United Kingdom. Union of South

.Africa

and Australia. Accord-

ing to the agreement, the international yard equals 0.9144 metre

and the international pound equals 0.45359237 kilogram.

jemperature resistance thermometer for interpolating between fixed points jlata

on the International Temperature Scale.

(A. V. A.)

To provide

for the ultimate establishment of additional fixed points

was developed and constructed or studying the behaviour of various metals at pressures up to 1.500.000 lb. /in. 2 For the calibration of instruments used to measure high-transient pressures, apparatus was devised that ,'enerates pressure steps of accurately known amplitudes up to

pn the pressure scale, equipment

secure identi-

values for the yard and pound in precise measurements,

National Catholic Community Service: AXD

see Societies

ASSOCI.ATIO.VS, U.S.

National Catholic Welfare Conference:

see Societies

AND ASSOCIATIO.NS. U.S. National Congress of Parents and Teachers: cieties AND Associations, U.S.

see So-

1

NATIONAL

466

COUNCIL — NATIONAL

National Council of the Churches of Christ in the riKS AM) AsSi iCIATIDNS. L'.S. U.S.A.: V. Sim Dim \\riii\AL. National Debt: National Education Association: see Societifs and AsII

-

SOl'lAllllNs

National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs: wv Sdc iirii;!; anf) Associatmns, U.S. National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis: see SocieAM)

ill S

National Gallery of Art:

see

Smithsonian Insiiti tion.

rcclion of the National Geographic-.Montana co-operative wild-" life

research unit study of the ecology of the grizzly bear

near N'ellowstone park,

archaeologist, continued in n)5y to direct the large-scale Wether-

Mesa

was

project, which

jointly initiated late in

1958 by the

national park service and the National Geographic society. In

mapped much of the Mesa Verde National

year Osborne's group surveyed and

its first

undeveloped Wetherill Mesa section of park. Colorado, charting more than 100 cliff dwelling

cliff

13CX).

began excavations at Long House, largest of three dwellings which were to be restored and opened for

viewing by Mesa Verde visitors along with several mesa-top lage ruins.

The

now

out-'

department of tropical research, used a 1959 Nationa to carry out taxonomic and field work in Eu-

ropean countries on her world-wide study of fiddler crabs. Na-' tional Science foundation grants aided this study. '

Lear Grimmer, associate director of the National Zoologica

park of the Smithsonian institution, led a National Geographic sponsored field party which early in 1959 made a close-rang( study of the strange hoatzin

succeeded

in its

British

Guiana

keeping specimens of the peculiar crested bird

in

in captivity for

many weeks

in efforts to

i

habitat. Hi'

adapt them to

alivi'

life ii|

.\merican zoos. j

scientists

sizable

in andi

object of the projected fivc-yeai

Jocelyn Crane, assistant director of the .New York ZDoIogica' society's

Members

sites of the

Indian civilization that vanished from the mesa before a.d.

The

The

side of .Maska reduced to fewer than i.ooo in the United Statti

J.

National Geographic Society. :;r;-;,°'.'r .,":„ ill

di-'

Geographic grant

lATIDNS, U.S.

.\SS11(

f

research was to stabilize this endangered forest species,

S

I

GUARD

Ecologists John and l-'rank Craighead in mid-1959 began

vil-

national park service expected that the project

000

of the National Geographic society

at the close of 1959, resident in

numbered

2.400.

89 independent countries

aiuj

87 territories and dependencies. The 12 1958 issues of thi, National Geographic Magazine contained 1,740 pages of illus! in

trated articles, approximately half of the pages containing colou

,

'

photograph reproductions.

1958. the society's cartographic division produced seveil

would require five or six years. A two-man. water-jet-propelled "diving saucer," built for the National Geographic society-"Calypso" oceanographic expedi-

series" issued as supplements

tions to enable exploration of continental shelves to depths of

were: lands of the eastern Mediterranean, northeastern Unitei,

Qoo

ft.,

passed

its first tests in

The saucer became

the eastern .Atlantic in mid-1959.

operational during the .August-to-December

exploration and exhibition tour of the "Calypso.'' ship,

The research

under Capt. Jacques Yves Cousteau, sailed to the Canary

Islands.

Bermuda,

New York

city (during the ist International

Oceanographic congress), Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico and the

Cape Verde

Islands.

Scientists in the third season of National Geographic society-

Tulane university work at Dzibilchaltun, Yucatan, uncovered several Early Period steles. One was described as the most beautiful example of Classic sculpture yet found in Yucatan, by

Maya

E. Wyllys Andrews, leader of the investigation of this vast

ceremonial including

site

north of Merida. Nearly 15.000 pieces of pottery,

many whole

or restorable vessels, were recovered by

.\s in

ten-colour

States,

maps

of the

new uniform-size (25 to

x 19 in.j ".\tla

The

the magazine.

Germany, Alaska, western Soviet Union,

United States and

subject'

southwe-"''-

.Asia.

America's Wonderlands: the National Parks, a book

0;

;

pages with 390 natural-colour illustrations describing 82 sceni^ national park areas, was prepared during the year

by the Na'

Geographic book service. National Geographic News Bulletins, proving geographic backj ground for news events and reporting progress of expedition! tional

!

and researches, were sent by the society's news service on a average of six subjects weekly to more than 2,000 news outlet; The school service continued to issue the Geographic School Bw letins during jo weeks of the school year, providing currer events background material to 40,000 schoolteachers and the pupils.

monial plaza. Pottery, wooden and bone artifacts and photo-

On Feb. 4 at the White House. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhowe' presented Hubbard gold medals of the society to Sir \ivian Fuch

graphs of the excavated and restored Temple of the Seven Dolls

"for brilliant leadership of the British Trans-.Antarctic Exped:

and related structures constituted the principal exhibit in the National Geographic society's E.xplorers hall in Washington dur-

tion 1955-58''

Scuba divers from depths of the cenote

in Dzibilchaltun's cere-

ing 1959.

E.

seum

Thomas

Gilliard, associate curator of birds.

American Mu-

of Natural History, led a ten-man exploration of

tainous wilds of

mammal

New

moun-

Britain Island that brought out 215 small

specimens and a priceless collection of 492 bird study-

skins representing

100 species.

The

birds included previously

and to the United States navy antarctic exped Gold duplicates of the award for the nax'y wer

tions of 1955-59.

Burke, chief of naval operations, and to Rei

to .\dm. .Arleigh

.A.

.\dm. George

Dufec. commanding "Operation Deepfreeze."

J.

'.

Melville Bell Grosvenor continued as president of the societj

and editor of the National Geographic Magazine. The society headquarters are at i6th and

M

streets,

DC.

N.W,, Washington (M. B. Gr.)

,

unrecorded varieties of spiny-tailed babbler, leaf warbler and

pygmy

parrot. Sponsored jointly by the museum, the National Geographic society and the Explorers club, the seven-month ex-

National Guard.

pedition concluded with six weeks of photographic reconnais-

on .\ug. 51. 1959. was 37.695

Army.

— The

federally

strength of the U.S.

army

recognize

national guar

underwater archaeology

in portions of

officers and 356.577 enlisted me During 1959. the army national guard was reorganized in line witthe pentomic structure of the active army. The reorganizatitj reduced the total number of units from more than 5.300 to 4,49' now organized into 21 infantry and 6 armoured divisions. 34 mi

the old city of Port Royal, Jamaica, submerged

by earthquake

sile

sance in the Adelbert mountains of near-by northeast

New-

Guinea. In July, the National Geographic society and Smithsonian institution participated in

Edwin A. Link

and provided the exploration ship 'Sea Diver II." With the aid of a six-man U.S. na\y diving team, many relics were brought to the surface. Underwater remnants of the sunken city were located and mapped. in 1692.

led the project

battalions. 56 field artillery battalions. 11 separate infant'

battle groups, 8

armoured cavalry regiments and hundreds

other combat-, combat support and service units.

During the year, the missile battalions of the army nation guard continued to train for their active, full-time role

in

t]

NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD By

lation's air defense.

the end of June,

2

battalions had taken

pver the operations of Nike-Ajax sites from the active army, battalions were preparing to take over sites in the following

jind 5

pree months. In Jan. 1959, two missile battalions began training ;o take control of Nike-Hercules sites in Hawaii. During

year

fiscal

1959,

enlistees

49,841

entered

the

six

guardsmen with no prior miliary service. A total of 85,529 had completed this training with he active army since 1957, when enlistees were required to enter his program. Also during fiscal 1959, more than 331,700 army

nonths' active duty training for

juardsmen attended 15 days of annual active duty for training, ind 7,572 enrolled in courses at

Air.

—On Aug.

army

service schools.

31, 1959, the U.S. air national guard

was com-

and 42 nonflying installations served 24 combat wings and

Additional support units.

On June

ets.

30, 1959, the air national

guard began

status on

June

30.

ull-time alert status, the air national guard's 4 aircraft control

warning squadrons continued their active participation in defense.

J.S. air

In the year ending June 30, the air national guard jet instru-

jnent

school graduated 351 pilots;

echnical training courses for

air

force schools provided

more than 3,400

national guard

and airmen, and trained 191 national guard pilots and More than 64.300 air guardsmen attended annual ac-

fficers

avigators. ive ir

duty for training. All nonprior service airmen enlisting

in the

national guard were required to take basic training with the

ctive air force.

A

total of 8,001

airmen completed

this training

1959 and 1,284 of these extended their training up to months.

fiscal

1

ix

See also Aviation, Military;

SELECim: Service, (D.

lotional Income .N"D Product, U.S.

and National Product:

U.S.

W. M.)

see

Income

National Insurance: see Social Security.

During

lational

Labor Relations Board.

jiinistering title

I

of the

1

2th

1959,

the

year of

ad-

Labor-Management Relations

act of

(Taft-Hartley act), the U.S. National Labor Relations card for the first time decided to exercise jurisdiction over ho-

947

motels and similar establishments. The board also put into eft'ect its proposal of the previous year jo make its facilities more widely available by reducing the doljir volume of business required as a basis for asserting jurisdic:1s,

|ion.

—In deciding

to take jurisdic-

tion over hotels, the board acted pursuant to the

supreme court's

Jurisdiction in Hotel Industry.

recent decision holding that the board

The new standards took immediate pending before the agency and to

not continue

its

22-yr.

effect,

all

applying both to cases

which might be

cases

filed.

which did a gross annual business of $500,000. (The board defined a residential hotel as one in which at least 75% of the guests resided there for a month or more during the

dential hotels,

Board member Jenkins disagreed with the standard adopted, would approach the hotel industry on a case-bycase basis. Board member Fanning agreed that the board should

stating that he

At the same time the board increased its staff of trial by 26% to a total of 58 such employees, the largest

60%

of the 377,000 employees of hotels within jurisdiction

No

of the board. the country's

come within

Case

such estimate was possible as to

the

new

Activity.

ord number of cases of

move

to streamline

and expedite

its

processes, the board its

nd regulations and statements of procedure. Board

member

rules

was designated as chairman. During 1959, Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed a new general counsel,

loseph Alton Jenkins

fiscal 1959,

the board received a rec-

The

21,632 cases filed during

types.

the year represented an increase of

29%

over the 16,748 cases

The number of charges filed against either employers or unions reached a new high. Charges filed against employers numbered 8,266, an increase of about during the preceding year.

36%

over the 6,o6S charges

filed in fiscal

1958; 3,973 were

filed

against labour organizations, an increase of about 24^0 over the

3,192 charges filed in 1958. For the second year, charges filed individuals constituted a majority of

all

by

charges of unfair labour

practices. Individuals filed 7,176, or about

59%

of

all

charges

was the second year since the 1930s when unfair practice charges outnumbered requests for representation elections. Of the 1959 cases, 12,239 were unfair practice charges and 9.346 were requests for representation elections. More unfair labour practice cases were brought to a conclusion by the agency than ever before. A total of 11,465 unfair practice cases were closed, an increase of 57'^'^ over the 7,289 cases closed in the preceding year. The general counsel issued more complaints in unfair labour practice cases than in any other year of the board's history. A total of 976 complaints were issued: 601 against employers, 241 against labour organizations and 134 against both employers and unions. The number of petitions for injunctions filed by the general counsel also reached an all-time high. Petitions for injunctive relief were filed in 135 cases, as compared with 134 filed in the preceding year. The courts granted relief in 57 instances. Trial examiners for the board held 517 hearings on unfair labour practice cases and issued findings and filed.

It also

recommended orders in 382 cases. The number of decisions issued by

the board in contested un-

labour practice cases. 291, was the third highest since 1953. In fiscal 1958, the board issued 222 such decisions. Back pay fair

was awarded to 1,895 employees found to have by employers or unions or both. A total of 41,890 employees were reinstated in jobs after being illegally suffered discrimination

In a

all

filed

totaling $900,110

nnounced the establishment of a committee to revise

of

jurisdictional standard.

—During

lumber employed since the passage of the Labor-Management blations act.

how many

15,070 motels or their 43,000 employees would

jxaminers

res.

may

policy of declining to assert jurisdiction in the hotel industry.

than

guard had 22 squadrons on 5-min. runway

air national

These units actively participated in the ir defense of the nation by investigating unidentified and potenially hostile aircraft. Seven of the squadrons operated on a 4-hr. schedule and the rest on a 14-hr. daylight basis. And, on

1

(chairman).

adopted. The majority opinion estimated, on the basis of 1954 census bureau figures, that the new standard would bring more

air national

Sidewinder missile.

ind

United States department of labour. At the close of fiscal year June 30, 1959, the board was composed of Philip Ray Rodgers, Stephen S. Bean, Jenkins, John H. Fanning and Boyd Leedom

exercise jurisdiction but disagreed with the $500,000 standard

The lert

solicitor of the

and the

equip 3 fighter squadrons with the heat-seeking, solid-propelant

467

who was formerly

Fighter squadrons continued their training in the methods

delivering nuclear w-eapons.

if

of Minnesota,

preceding year.)

guard inventory of aircraft isted 2,425. During fiscal 1959, the one remaining combat squadlon with propeller-driven aircraft completed the conversion to '

Rothman

Jurisdiction was taken over hotels and motels, other than resi-

posed of 8,455 officers and 62,186 enlisted men. Its 94 flying pelds

Stuart

discharged because of their union activities or because they refrained

from such

activities.

Petitions for representation elections totaled 9.346, the greatest

number

petitions

filed since 1952.

were

filed.

Most

In the 195S

fiscal year,

of the elections conducted

7,399 such

by the board

NATIONAL M U SEU M — NATION AL PARKS AND MONUMENTS

468

WLTf held pursuunl to aKrccmcnt by the

73%

year,

as

of all elections

73%

compared with

conducted a

(jartics. In

the i95 fiscal

were based on all-party agreements, 1959, the board

1958. During Ascal

in

total of 5,660 representation elections, as

with 4,524 in

compared

seashore recreation survey of the Atlantic and Gulf

its

co.i

was cum

third survey, involving shore lines of the Great Lakes, '

pleted and awaited publication in 1959.

One

most recent actions

of the

in

'

prcMf

behalf of seashore

vation was the submission to the congress by the department

fiscal 1958.

In these elections, 447,322 employees were eligible to vote as compared with 363,672 in 1958. About 90% of those eligible

May

the interior, in

1959, of suggested legislation which,

en

if

to vote cast valid ballots. This equaled the participation in fiscal

would authorize the appropriation of $15,000,000 for ac quiring properties needed to establish not to exceed three nationa

1958 which was the highest percentage in the history of govern-

seashore areas.

acted,

j

Three areas of national

all

elections

were added ti' the national park system. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower signed

involved less than 30 employees. Labour organizations

won ma-

proclamation on Aug.

ment-conducted For the

first

elections.

time

in four years,

62%

jority designations in

60%

more than 55% of

of the elections, as

compared with

in 1958.

Sir also Labour Unions; Strikes.

National Museum:

see

(B. Lm.)

Smithsonian Institution.

historical significance

11, 1959, establishing Horseshoe Bend Na Alabama. This 2,040-ac. park, the lands fol which were donated by the Alabama Power company and Ih. slate of Alabama, contains the site of the battle of Horsesbo Bend, fought on March 27, 1814, in which Gen. Andrew Jack

tional Military park,

son's forces defeated warriors of the

Creek Indian nation

led b^

Chief Menawa. Grant monument, the imposing structure Riverside park.

New

National Parks and Monuments. long-range park

and

conservation program initiated by the national park service of

the General Grant national memorial on

the United State.s in 1956, was

ac.

by improving

setts, the

moving steadily forward in 1959 and services in the various units of the

facilities

national park system, while at the

same time keeping

intact their

his wife, Julia

site

Completion of the Mission "66" program was set for 1966, when the national park service Would celebrate the 50th anni-

Seaton.

versary of its establishment. The programs major objective is to provide a national park system adequately equipped and staffed

establishment of a

an anticipated 80,000,000 visitors annually. The

tor total in 1959

visi-

was approximately 62,000,000, nearly double the

Since the start of the Mission "66" program, the national park service had invested in excess of $100,000,000 in various facilities,

such as visitor centres, roads,

trails,

parkways, campgrounds,

picnic areas, water

and sewer systems, ranger stations and other administrative structures. Park concessionaires had provided lodge, cabin, restaurant, store and other accommodations costing

dude

putting the Civil

in

War

in

units of the national park system in shape

War

centennial observance, 1961-65. These units present the story of the war from the firing of the

1861 to the war's climax at

gun at Fort Sumter. S.C, Appomattox, \'a., in 1865. One first

of the latest projects undertaken in a Civil level visitor centre at

War

area w-as a multi-

Gettysburg National Military park, Penn-

sylvania, in which Paul Philippoteoux's battlefield,

famous cyclorama of the one of the world's largest paintings, would be on

display.

Significant progress was made, under the Mission "66" program, toward developing a national inventory of existing parks and recreation areas and their facilities and of potential areas

suitable for administration at federal, state

and local levels of government. When completed this inventory would be available to the National Outdoor Recreation Resources Review commission.

Early

in 1959. the national

mending establishment

park service issued a report recom-

on Cape Cod. Massachusetts, to include a 40-mi. stretch of outer beach from Provincetown to the tip of Nauset beach.

The lic

of a 30.000-ac. national seashore

service also issued a report on

seashore needs

in

May

was established

its

year-long survey of pub-

the Pacific coast region. This report urged

broad-scale planning to protect and reserve the relatively few

remaining undeveloped seashore areas which

still

were

in a wil-

derness or primitive state. In 1955 the service issued a report on

An

1959.

i,

1959,

14,

a|

eighi!

by Secretary of the Interior Fred

/i :

legislation

enacted by the congress authorized

Minuteman National

tl'

Historical park to

Glenmont,

ii

in

West Orange,

N.J., for

many

years the

home

A. Edison, was donated to the national park service

McGraw-Edison company

for administration, along with

(

ti tl:

Edison laboratory, as the Edison national monument. The Philadelphia customhouse, a national historic site since 193 Israel cemetery, where many patriots of the Amei

j

and Mikveh

can Revolution are buried, were included in Independence

N

tional Historical park. Philadelphia, Pa.

Areas Adminiitered by the Nalional Park Service (Sep).

Mission "66" funds would be spent

for the increased public use anticipated during the Civil

in

buried,

the site and associated historic properties.

Thomas

an estimated $17,000,000.

About $25,000,000

on April

Subsequent

the

total in 1949.

Dent Grant, are

segment of the historic Lexington-Concord road in Massacbii scene in 1775 of the opening events of the America Revolution, was designated as the Minuteman National Histort

scenic and historic treasures.

to care for

i'

'Vork city, in which Gen. Ulysses S. Gran'

) ,

)

9591 Fcderol

Number

Type of area Nalionol National Notional Notionol Notional Notional National Notional National Notional Notional Notional Notional Notional

29

pork.' hiiloricol

porks

8

monuments

.'.[['.'.'.]'.'.'.'.'.['.

military porks'

memoriol porks bottlefield porks

83 12

'

1

26!5 68,7

3 5

battlefield sites

5.5 1

10 13 10

tiistoric sites

memorials cemeteries seashore recreolionol oreos

1,3

t.i 2

3

24,7 89,8 38,5 2,013.7

182

24,399,7

1

parkways

3

Capitol porks

1

recreation oreos

Totol

lo

locretf

13.10S,5 31,9 8 968 4'

'Largest and oldest notional pork is ttte Yellowstone in Wyoming (also includes smod p lions of Idoho and Monlono). Esloblished in I 872, tlie pork contoins more thon 2,000,000

Ground-breaking ceremonies were held

Expansion memorial on June tion of the terminal first

phase

in the

at Jefferson Natior

2^. 1959. initiating

work on

reloc

railroad elevated tracks. This work,

t

development of the great river front memori

was being financed jointly by the national park ser\nce, the ci of St. Louis and the Terminal Railroad association. Three units of the national park system were dedicated 1959 Cumberland Gap National Historical park, Kentuct Tennessee-\'irginia Fort Union National monument. New M( ico; and Badlands National monument. South Dakota, .\ttracti new visitor centres were provided in these areas under the M sion "66" program.

—

:

An "Operation

Inland Seas" ceremony was held at Perr

Victory and International Peace Memorial National

monume

Put-in-Bay. 0.. on July 21 in honour of the British and

.-Vmerit

.

WORLD

NAVIES OF THE I

who died

|)fficers

engagements of the

laval

Canada.

Lake

in the battle of

—A record

War

Erie, one of the greatest

of 1812.

469

Table I.— N(

!

of (he World. Dec. 1959' light

(C. L. Wi.")

total of 4.959,110 people visited the na-

crafi

Escort

I

ional •ear.

parks and national historic parks in Canada during the An extensive construction program to improve park high-

ways continued.

Voho

)ark to

The Trans-Canada highway from Banff

national park was completed and opened to

The province of Prince ional historic park, lear

national traffic.

Island established

Sweden

site

Turlcey

.

.

.

40

—

Australia

Recreation Association:

—

—

365 300 102

—

2

Argentina Brazil

Chile Indio

(1935).

see

53

....

Conodo

— Yosemite

10

Spoin

M. As.)

(H.

Societies

China (Communist). Ne» Zealand. .

.and

.

. .

Greece Pakistan Peru

Motional Safety Council:

see

—

Jopon

Accidents.

Science Foundation: Co-operation

Norway

International Geo1959; Scholarships and Student see

and Associations. U.S. jvlotional Socnety for Crippled Children and Adults, nc: see Societies and .Xssociatio.ns. U.S. Societies

«lational

.

Itoly

Fort Amherst, or Fort La Joie, a 207-ac.

\SS0CI.ATI0XS. U.S.

\id;

United Kingdom. Fronce

na-

ENCYCLOP^Di.iv Brit.4nn-ic.^ Films.

j'HYSiCAL

.

U.S.S.R

first

its

Charlottetown.

i^lotlonaj

United States.

Nettierlands

Edward

See also Tourist Tr.\vel.

hiational

Bottle

Country

Temperance League,

Inc.: see Societies

and

Portugal

China (Nolionalistl. Germon Fed. Rep..

.

.

Rumania Egypt Venezuela

3

Poland Thailand

Dominican Republic . South Africa, Union of Israel

USOCIATIOXS. U.S.

National

Colombia

Wealth:

see

We.alth and Income, Distrtbu-

lON OF.

I^ATO:

see .\rmies of

the World; North Atlantic Treaty

pRGANIZATION.

vessels are those of Iron, Uruguay, Ecuador and Bui Cambodia, Ceylon, El Salvador, Eth Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, Iraq, Lebanon, guoy, Philippines, Syria and Vietnam (South).

(auru: see Trust Territories.

pleted.

\.u.

Cubo

Korea (North).

Gas: see Feder.al Power Commission; Gas. Xatuand Manufactured; Public Utilities. ilaturalizotion: see Immigr.ation and X.aturalization.

fiatural

s

possessed by Bul-

gorio,

The

was still suspended. The "Ark Royal" and "Eagle" were being The aircraft carrier "Bulwark"

aircraft carrier "Leviathan"

large aircraft

carriers

reconstructed and modernized.

^dVICO 01

inB WOllQ.

three great navies, those of the

and the United Kingdom. Other lajor fleets were those of France and Italy, followed by those f the Netherlands. Sweden, Spain, Turkey, Canada, Australia, irgentina. Brazil and Chile. There were also 56 lesser navies. "he strengths in ships, of and above the escort categories, of the avies of the world were as shown in Table I. For ten days in .^pril the North Atlantic Treaty organization NATO) exercise "Medflex Guard" involved every destroyer nd frigate of the British Mediterranean fleet and most of the iips of the other N.ATO powers in the Mediterranean. The bigest maritime exercise yet held by the Southeast Asia Treaty rganization (SEATO began on April 14 when three naval task Drees sailed from Singapore and 40 ships from five of the

:"nited

the U.S.S.R.

States,

)

EATO

nations (.\ustralia. France.

om and United f

the flag officer

On

Sept.

New

Zealand, United King-

command

States) took part under the over-all

commanding

the Australian

to the Baltic

nuclear-powered surface ship, sailed

on her maiden voyage. On Sept.

21.

during his

Khrushchev casually told the plain of the U.S. coast guard cutter 'Gresham." on a trip ound San Francisco bay. that the U.S.S.R. was cutting its |umber of cruisers by gc^. U.S.S.R. There was a considerable increase in Soviet naval L tivity on the high seas during 1959. The Soviet na\'y was cutng down its cruiser strength and concentrating instead on the wilding of submarines, torpedo boats, mine sweepers and guard isit

to the

United States. N.

S.

—

new

Thirteen

In addition to the categories

enumerated

in

Table

I.

there

I

mine sweepers. 125 patrol vessels. 500 motor torledo boats. 120 landing craft and 160 fleet auxiliaries. Sreat Britain. The new aircraft carrier ''Hermes'' was comi.oco

—

new

frigates of the antiaircraft,

and antisubmarine t\pes were being submarines,

including

the

built.

nuclear-powered

"Dreadnought," were under construction and others projected. Warships other than those shown in Table I included 3 fast mine layers, 2 net layers. 28 ocean mine sweepers, 10 coastal

mine

layers,

104

coastal

mine

sweepers.

85

mine

inshore

sweepers. 13 motor torpedo boats. 30 coastal craft. 21 trawlers.

Si landing ships, 80 landing craft. 6S boon-defense vessels. 7 surveying vessels. 88 fleet support ships and many miscellaneous ships and auxiliaries.

France.

—The

new

stage of construction.

aircraft

carrier

"Clemenceau" was pre-

A

helicopter carrier was projected.

A

new-

antisubmarine destroyer was under construction; 3 new frigates were completed and 9 were under construction; and 16 sub-

marines were being built or were projected.

—

light cruiser was being converted to carry guided --X Three guided-missile escort cruisers, two guided-misdestroyers, six frigates and four submarines were under con-

Italy.

missiles. sile

struction or projected.

—

Netherlands. Four submarines were being built or projected and 16 inshore mine sweepers were in various stages of construction.

— Nine submarines, motor mine sweepers were being Canada. —The seven new destroyer Sweden.

oats.

fere

struction or projected. Fifteen aircraft-direction

paring for service and her sister ship "Foch" w-as in an advanced

fleet.

15 the newly completed large Russian icebreaker

enin," the world's first

was being converted into a commando carrier. The new cruiser "Tiger" was completed and the construction of the cruisers "Blake" and "Lion" neared completion. Four guided-missile destroyers and seven general-purpose fr-igates were under con-

five

built

six coastal

torpedo boats and or projected.

escorts of the "Resti-

gouche

"

class

construction.

were completed and

a

new batch

of six was under

NAVIES OF THE WORLD

470

Table

Nam*

Colagory f

fl..l Alrcr.h Co.,1.,.

or clo«

"tnd«p«nd»nca

|'A°l.'°RoVor' I

"OtilVony"

Ughl FI..I Corrl.M

(••H.rm.." < "Wflghl" l"lo FoyoK"

BaltUihlpi


replace the existing bureau in the department of taxation il finance: routed the Albany-to-Canada northway through 3 .

Adirondack mountains, using about 300

ac. of forest presei

land; allowed the state to negotiate the transfer or lease of

J

government; permitted the sts to use the federal definition of income for income tax purpos eliminated primary elections where there was no contest; J state barge canal to the federal

authorized two or

more

municipalities to contract and levy

ta s

NEW YORK municipal

for joint

facilities or services.

The

voters rejected an

I

to permit New York city to float a $500,000,000 bond issue for school construction. The legislature also granted to New York city the right to levy seven new ta.xes estimated to yield $127,000,000 yearly. Adjditional revenue measures enacted included a rise of 2 cents

amendment

a gallon in

the gasoline tax, 3

cents

a gallon in

diesel

fuel

and a 15% increase in the tax on manufacturing price of tobacco. A system of withholding was adopted for the state income tax. Rates were increased in the higher brackets and the amount of individual exemption was recents a pack on cigarettes

tax, 2

I

i

'

duced to $600. It was estimated the income tax additions would $150,000,000 annually.

yield

Governor Rockefeller called a special

legislative session on were passed replacing the 'state's single harness racing commissioner by a three-member paid commission. The three-year-old multimillion dollar state

July

1959.

I,

At

session, bills

this

I

[subsidy for harness track capital construction

and expansion was

[eliminated.

International ceremonies on June 26-27,

19S9, marked the Lawrence seaway and power projects. On ijune 27 at Massena, N.Y., Queen Elizabeth 11 joined Vice-Pres. Richard M, Nixon in dedicating the huge Moses-Saunders power dam at Barnhart Island, The seaway, which opened in 1958, recorded 3,982 ship passages both ways in the international St. Lawrence section between April 25. and Aug. 31, 1959. Cargo movements in this 1959 period totaled 11,214,000 tons. Governor Rockefeller named 1959 as New York state's "Year

'

dedication of the St.

of History" to celebrate the

3Soth anniversary of the pioneer

Henry Hudson and Samuel de Champlain

explorations in i6og of

on the waterways which bear their names. Efforts were launched ito

obtain federal approval for a world's fair to be held at

York

city in 1964.

New

commemorating the 300th anniversary of the

British capture of the

Economic activity

province from the Dutch.

New York

in

state took an

upward course

of 1959, providing a sharp contrast with 1958

in the first half

when the recession was at

its

worst. Nonagricultural

employment

reached 5,973,000 in Aug. 1959, an increase of 24,000 from July and 34,000 greater than in Aug. 1958. The manu-

489

search and teaching and Syracuse Psychiatric hospital for observation and temporary treatment of mental patients and for teaching and research. In 1959. there were about 113,000 patients in these institutions. For the year 1959-60, the department's budget was approximately $247,000,000. Communications. The dedication of the St. Lawrence seaway in June 1959 stimulated ship movements on the Great Lakes in which several New York state ports shared. Buffalo and Oswego were undergoing harbour projects, and work also was being done at the port of Ogdensburg. The state maintains 800 mi, of connected inland canals and waterways capable of transporting waterborne cargoes. More than 103,000 mi. of improved roads are included in the various

—

highway and street systems which comprise Xew York state's over-all network of highways. Of these, approximately 1.200 mi, are in the interstate system; 14,000 mi, are in the state system; 54,000 mi. in town systems; 16,000 mi. in cities and villages. The Xew York state thruway, the world's longest direct highway system, had 553 mi, in operation at the end of 1959- Thirty-six railroads within the state operated in 1959 a total of 6,738 mi, of first track, 2,243 mi, of second main track and 795 mi, of additional main track, Xew York state's registration of 5,054,678 motor vehicles and motorcycles in 1958 was 2,2% over the 1957 figure. Xew York state had 2S7 landing facilities including 242 airports, 38 seaplane bases and 7 heliports in 1959. The airports consisted of 47 municipally-owned. 184 privately-owned and 11 military bases. During 1958, the four New York metropolitan airports. New York International at Idlewild. LaGuardia, Newark and Teterboro, handled a total of 13,610,099 air passengers, a gain of 1,3% over 1957. During the first six months of 1959, passenger traffic was up_ 11,2% over the first half of 1958, During 1958. .New York city's four airports handled 335,940,000 lb. of air cargo and 107,899,000 lb. of air mail. Banking and Finance. ,\t the end of 1958, there were 562 banks in the state commercial, trust companies, industrial, private and savings. Their total resources amounted to more than $106,000,000,000 and their deposits to nearly $63,000,000,000. In addition, there were 277 savings and loan associations with about $3,900,000,000 of total assets and $3,400,000,000 due to private shareholders. Expenditures for operating the state for the fiscal year ending March 31, i960, were estimated at $2,021,000,000. The major share, $1,050,000,000, was allotted to localities in the form of grants for education, social welfare, highways, health and other programs. Direct expenditures for operating state departments, institutions, colleges, the legislature and the courts were estimated at $671,000,000. The remaining $300,000,000 was allo-

—

—

cated for construction of highways and other

facilities.

Revenues

for the

1959-60 fiscal year were estimated at $1,617,000,000. To make up approximately $400,000,000 needed to balance the budget, revenues were increased to yield an estimated $277,000,000. The rest was to be made up from bond funds and Capital Construction fund reserves. Total state debt was $897,000,000 on March 31, 1959, Agriculture, Cash receipts from farm marketings of agricultural products in 1958 totaled $857,252,000. The 1957 total was $830,464,000. Government payments to farmers in 195S were $9,095,000. as compared with $10,833,000 in the previous year. Cattle and calves sold for meat were valued at $76,624,000. Sale of milk and other dairy products in 1958 totaled $433,972,000, The value of livestock and poultry (excluding commercial broilers) on farms as of Jan. i, I959. was $488,036,000, Cattle and calves in the state numbered 2,153,000 head. There were also 10,244,000 chickens (exclusive of commercial broilers), 42,000 horses and mules, 129,000 hogs

—

in the state

work force in August was 1,859,000, or 23,000 above the previous month and above Aug. 1958. The world's first nuclear reactor designed for medical research had a test run at Brookhaven National laboratory, Upton, Long

Table \.— Principal Crops of

facturing

Corn, bu

Wheat, bu Dots, bu Borley, bu hoy, Ions Beans, dry (100-lb. bogsl Soybeans, bu Potatoes, Irish, cwt Apples, bu Peoches, bu Peors, bu All

Island.

Work on

Consolidated Edison company's $100,000,000

atomic energy generating station at Indian Point, was

50% completed

at the

more than

end of the year.

—

Education. In the 1959-60 school year there were an estimated 3.974.000 students enrolled in Xew York educational institutions. Of the^e were enrolled in public schools, 831,000 in private and parochial pchools and 408,000 in the 170 universities and colleges in the state, The State University of New York, established in 1948, has administrative jurisdiction over 2& state-supported institutions of higher education, Special state schools include 14 community colleges, 136 schools for nursing, three institutes for the blind and seven for the deaf. The state spent almost $2,000,000,000 on public schools in 1958. State aid toward current operations cost totaled $521,000,000, while local taxes produced $806,000,000. Xew York led all other states in per-pupil expendifures for public schools, with an outlay of $535 for each child in average jdaily attendance. James E. Allen, Jr., was state commissioner of education g. 735.000

Grapes,

tons

Maple sirup, gal •1949 57.

New

Ave 3ge 1958

1948-57

32,400,000 8,250,000 31,860,000 962,000 5,485,000 948,000 84,000 16,117,000 18,800,000 1,120,000 625,000 84,000 344,000

33,400,000 9,212,000 31,980,000 1,672,000 5,855,000 1,311,000 102,000 20,050,000 22,000,000 1,390,000 625,000 100,600 401,000

31,291,000 11,032,000 28,320,000 2,208,000 5,455,000 1,412,000 100,000 18,594,000* 16,469,000 1,122,000 491,000 74,020 434,000

Source; U,S. Deportment of Agriculture.

1

Table II.— Principa/ Ind^ siries of Ne

1

fn

1959.

Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.— jApproximatcly 1,340,000 persons were given assistance, care or service r>t public expense in Xew York state during 1957. Expenditures for public fchargcs during the year were $570,000,000, of which the federal share was £128,000.000, the state share $165,000,000 and the local share $277,000,boo. In addition, about 2,800,000 persons received assistance or care from private institutions or agencies under the supervision of the state departSocial

I

jment of social welfare, The state department of correction administers 20 institutions (a reception centre, 7 prisons. 10 reformatories and camps and 2 hospitals for I

fhe criminally insane). In the fiscal year .\pril i, 195S. to March 31. [1959, the average yearly population of these institutions was I9,94i and |lhe estimated average cost of care and maintenance per person was $2,086, The state department of mental hygiene maintains 27 institutions, inpuding 18 hospitals for the mentally ill, 6 schools for the retarded, i Ihospital for epileptics, the York State Psychiatric institute for re-

New

All

Product

1957

Food ond kindred products Tobocco monufoctures

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

151,326 1,248

Textile mill products

Apparel and reloted products tumber and wood products Furniture and fixtures Pulp, paper ond products Printing and publishing Chemicals and products Petroleum and cool products Rubber products Leather ond leother goods Stone, day ond gloss products .

.... .

,

,

.

.

,

.

,

Primary metal industries Fobricated metal products Machinery, except eleclricol Electricol machinery Transportation equipment Instruments and related products Miscellaneous manufactures .

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

,

,

.

,

,

,

York

Indicated 1959

Crop

64,847 391,027 16,669 42,395 65,763 167,982 68,201 3,609 10,113 62,349 41,400 85,762 103,236 158,811 139,725 127,044 81,907 169,873

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Anni

—

,

NEWYORKCITY —NEW ZEALAND

490

anil piK'- and 189,000 shetp and Umbs. Commi-rtial broilrri. laisc-il in lyjli Intiilrd 11.610,000; turkrys, 658.000. Manufacturing and Induitry.- |n 1957 the State's manulBCluring firms

qucnt adoption of the name

iidilril $i(i.oyj.4sv.ooo in vniui- lo the raw and M-milini»htd material lliey liurJew Zealand's

By

the end of the year

overseas exchange transactions showed a surplus

compared with a deficit of i30.000.000 in the )revious year. The budget, announced in July, remitted tiy,00,000 in taxes in a full year. Most of the remission was on ncome tax. Taxation for the year for consolidated fund and 'ocial security purposes was estimated at £280.400,000, a slight jail on the pre\'ious year, while total taxation was estimated to broduce £300,730,000. Ordinary income tax was reduced by 20% Kith a maximum rebate of £30 to any one person. To encourage (f

£41,000,000,

•verseas investment,

NEW

companies not carrying on business

in

New

llEW BRIDGE FOR ZEALAND opened ii 1959 at Auckland. The bridae pas expected to carry 5.000 cars a day, repl cing a ferry service which opbetween the commercial and residential ctions of the city. Total length |f the bridge is 3.520 ft.

Med

with a cabinet responsible to the local legislative

provision for review of decisions by a council of state.

would continue

to take care of the defense of

The New

New

Zealand prime minister, Walter Nash, said that

Samoa

Zealand if

neces-

sary.

In February Nash paid a goodwill

In spite of these setbacks the ibled the

would rest assembly with

the Japanese prime minister

land

by way

of Indonesia, where he attended a

Colombo Plan

conference, and supported an extension of the scheme.

under

land's contribution so far It

this plan

had provided aid by sending experts

New

Zea-

had been £9.000,000.

in various scientific, engi-

neering and educational fields to assist in planning projects in the various

Colombo plan

countries and had also

made

provision

for the training of Asian students in educational institutions in

New

Zealand.

arctic,

New

Zealand, with special interests in the Ant-

was represented

at the 12-nation conference

on Antarctica

held in Washington.

A

notable religious event was the visit of the U.S. evangelist,

Billy

Graham, and meetings held by him

population were attended by

The Indonesian Zealand

many

main centres of

foreign minister. Dr. Subandrio, visited

in Februarj'

and held friendly

ment. Education.

at the

thousands of people.

New

talks with the govern-

(A. T. Cl.)

— Schools

primary (including Maori, private, district high and intermediate schools or departments) 2,458, pupils 412,403, teachers 12,312; secondary (including secondary departments of district high and combined secondary-technical schools) 302, pupils 71,702, (1957):

teachers (excluding private) 2,716; technical 36, pupils 17,496. teachers 969: part-time vocational pupils (1957) 41.354: pupils in correspondence schools (for isolated areas, 1957) 1,176 primary, 1.640 secondary full-time and 2,041 part-time, 3,031 technical (part-time). Teacher-training colleges (1957) 6, students 4,014, University of New Zealand (4 constituent colleges with university status and 2 associated agricultural colleges), students (1958) 13,486. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: New Zealand pound, at par with the pound sterling (= U.S. $2.80). Budget (consolidated fund, 1959-60 est.): revenue £N.Z. 317, 3 70,000, expenditure £N.Z.3i 7,300,000. Social security fund (1959-60 est.): revenue £N.Z.i04.8oo,ooo, expenditure £.\'.Z.i04,782,ooo. Total public debt (March 31, 195S): £N.Z.782,ioo,ooo. Currency circulation (.\pril 195S) £N.Z.68,ioo.ooo, (.April 1959) £N.Z. 68.300, 000. Deposit money (.\pril 1958) £N'.Z.252,8oo,ooo, (.\pril 1959) £N.Z.239,300,ooo. Gold and foreign exchange (reserve bank, May 1958) U.S. $138,000,000, (May 1959) £N.Z. 239,000, 000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports £N.Z.284,400,ooo, exports £N.Z.249,800,000. Main sources of imports: U.K. 53%; Australia 17%: other sterling area 6%; U.S. and Canada g%; continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 8%. Main destinations of exports: U.K. 56%: other sterling area 7%: U.S. and Canada 16%: continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 15%. Main exports: wool 32%: lamb and mutton 17%: butter 16%. Transport and Communications. Roads (March 1957): 90,300 km., in-

—

—

—

cluding 8,528 km. of state highways. Licensed motor vehicles (1958): passenger 465.714, commercial (including buses) 125,352. Railways (1958) 5,580 km.; freight (March 1959) 1,896,000.000 ton-km. Shipping; merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over (July 1958) 162. total tonnage 256,000. Air transport (195S); passenger-km. 377,448,000: freight, ton-km. 11,412,000. Telephones (March 1958) 605,224. Licensed radio receivers (March 1958) 549.307. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 184,000 (82,000); barley (1957) 68,000, (65,000 in 1956); oats

—

NICARAGUA

492

(1957) J5.000. (sj.ooo in 1956). Miscellaneous pr'oduction (metric ions): potatoes (1956) 197,000 (136,000 in 1955); dry peas (i9S7) J3,ooo (j3,ooo in 1956); tobacco (1957) i.ooo (j.ooo in 1956)- I-ivestocIc: cattle (Sept. 1957) 5,809.000; sheep (Sept. I957) 42,381,000; horses (Sept. 1957) iJ9,ooo; pixs (June 1957) 6oj,ooo. Food production (metric tons, 1958): lamb 356.400; other meat 308.400; butter }i8,40o; cheese 98.160; milk s.407,joo. Wool production, clean (1958) 162.700 (159.900 in

1957).

— Fuel

and power (1958): coal 858.000 metric tons; linnite 1,884.000 metric tons; manufactured Kas 154.800.000 cu.m.; electricity (excludinn industrial ceneralion) 5,628.000.000 kw.hr. Production (metric Ions. 1957): tungsten ore si; superphosphates (April 1957-58) 836.000; 121.000; sawn softwood woo' nickel produced in plants included 502 tons of the by-product of copper refining and 11.238 tons from domestic ore. The U.S. remained the world's largest consumer

Canodo

493

for 1959-60

it

as

a

last

of finance,

budget before

"budget of responsibility."

was estimated

at £83.900.000. of

which

£46.900.000 would be for federal expenditure; £4.000.000 would

go to the development fund

;

and recurrent e.xpenditure would be

£39.000.000. .At

the opening of the fifth session of the house of representa-

tives the

governor general. Sir James Robertson, described the

progress of "Nigerianization" of the public service which was

being pursued by

The

all

possible means.

British, Nigerian

and U.S. governments jointly sponsored

a commission on higher education under Sir Eric

Ashby

to in-

vestigate Nigeria's educational needs over the next 20 years. -An eral

agreement for 30 years was signed in June between the fedgovernment and the Shell-B.P. Petroleum Development

company providing for a 50-50 share of the profits, sanctioned by a federal act. The Nigerian Cement company became the first public company to issue shares in Nigeria. .At the end of 1958 a Nigerian national shipping line was established with an authorized capital of £2.000.000. Palm line and Elder Dempster lines were technical partners with the federal government in this venture and would train Nigerians as navigating and engineering and for other seagoing and managerial duties. Western Region. The regional budget for 1959 estimated

officers

—

re-

current expenditure at £14,700,000 and capital expenditure at

£14,900,000.

The government spent £31,000,000 under

the five-

NIXON

494

1959, to determine the wishes

of the people on

d)

tions:

two ques-

that the Northern

Cameroons should be the

Northern

Federation

part of

region

of

the

when

Nigeria

of

Nigeria becomes independent in

Oct. i960; or (2) that the

Cam-

future of the Northern

eroons should be decided at

The

a later date.

result of the

vote was 67,879 to 41,113 in

favour of the latter

—

to

re-

quo and leave

tain the status

the future of the region to be

decided at a later time.

Cameroons.

Southern

—

^In

the general election held on the Kamerun NaDemocratic party (K.N.D.P.) won 14 of the 26

Jan,

24

tional

seats and the allied

Kamerun

National

congress

and

Kamerun

People's party the

other

12.

leader,

J,

ceeded

E,

The N,

the

K.N.D.P.

Foncha,

suc-

M, R, Endeley,

leader of the K,N.C.. as pre-

The

mier.

main

wa^

issue

whether the Southern Cameroons should secede from the OTHER COLONIAL POSSESSIONS, PROVINCES

FR{NCH SPHERE I

I

D D

| I

AUTONOMOUS BfPueilCS, FRENCH COMMUNITY

AND

TRUSTS

sociate with

mous

BELGIAN

CUSTOMS UNION I

as an autono-

it

region.

The K.N.D P

I

favoured secession. In l^';r:

legislature tion of a long-needed

^^^^

bu'Wmg.

jsT^joiTw^ss^^ - -- --

^ajr

r

^s.

co^mued

o».

^^^^

Gr^^^^^^^^^^^

admU^N^-;;^^^^^.^^^^^^

:

:

:

:

:

Thad Eure, secretary v^tmuii, superintend^"f trpasurer' Charles f. jr. Pill treasurer „ (;^_,p,, auuiuc;auditor; Edwin GiU, general; beaweli, attorney 5 B. Malcolm instruction; f ,,„Ki;r .^^^ ic instruciio

governor;

T-j

_

pub ^^^^j^^^^^^^ i.. 1. WallaceWinborne. chief justice, of labour, commissioner Crane, Frank of agriculture;

. ent of

commissioner. Gold, insurance enrolled pupUs. S?^'\:S''prin^ci:>I.Vand .5,0:0

.

- ,,,„„;„•. oi,

i

:

:

:

:

:

..•

' ;

'

, ;

Depo...n,

u.s.

-~^

,.

y.

;

-- jlST^V .od." ^^-^^^

J-^^-

f343i

^I'^^t

fe

'^':-

•

:

:z.

:

:

:

•

:

»

U>^?

:

-^iTs^;- ... . c...e.e,

c

^i;r°™^-^=

^vu

:

.023,000

n.c. D.por-n,...

c a..

±^

^-^

.^^^^-^

^^J^^^^^^-

050 000

;

i-ro^oS

,^

s....,

5,426,000

!°',,,'ooo

-Zfol

;

/j-^g ^3,55.00

,

-.-;000

.

J.2,|^o°»

"g^^'.ooo

u,oo4,ooo

^^'l^-^:^... ,^,,

.

^

^^i^^ .2.3,0

:

S::^-"''^""'"

^"^-TiH^S^^ ^ffl'^U^ror,^

:

65.521000

.,"*'SS? ";2";ooo

^t'^eiro

:

tion to n.ent law of 1956.

andCharlott.wh^hha

its

—

^-- '" -^ ^^^'"*

^^^^ ^^^,,„

; '

'"I

---;.

„„rtpH rolleees and com-

--PP°

^P

^'i^'^::^J^'::^ ^^:^.

_^^_^^_^^^ ^^^^^ ^^

^..•••

°-'"

for to the voters to ,„,,ll„g $34,4x3.000

facilities at ^'a

"o.

Av-«-

m

::^b

"

,„,,,,,

,,pl,,l ^^^ -Pa-on of mental hosp^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^.^_ i^unity colleges, the ^ public agencies. 1 other improvements to plan commission was estab ished latK-e building

-

lor aid 26 565 families

5s^-:.^-^ ---"-^

e

the submission authorised l^o-^^jj^^^^^,, '""'^'"r -^f." a The legislature 01

-,' in/ol

^

rcij r^'^^t^rreSo^ni^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Attempts to reapportion every as the> j^j in census again failed basis of the 195°

27.

W

ft.i

£^^^ ^^.^T^jES^^'^^

controls. „f legislative

'Jl°^^

approval, on Uct.

»„

""""i"

'^:Z^^[:iZ i^->;^'^E^SAJ^£^"^'^^'^ •

..

-rS>=r^:srfrLe..ent

tee.

"

In hine 1959 publi":

.

k

i^H' ,^^

i

,,036..

-1;^,

l

^l^.t

t

/rl.

-^. .... s„.e, . m........

""

...-•• ::>^:« ^;>^^^^^ '•261,000

ci=ys Feidspor

;

«,„, s-op wic, sh«i

••• s=nd end •:•.:.. s ,

.

(ib.l

,rav.,

•

.

.

•

^.^^^'-'^ o^^-^"''

•

•

•

' •

53000 sfa'.Soo

4529000 ^^f^^^^

2.728,000 1,1/3,000 i.575.ooo 5,721,000

12,839000

2.000

,0.1,0

1,722,01 j.

^

i9,n2,o(

^,,„,

558.ooo

121,000

-•

^

t,, nna ".goo 7.o"'""2 ,2,85,000

'

„

'^„„„ '''" '

'

io,3,5,o.

— ;

NORTH DAKOTA — NORTHWEST TERRITORIES mately 7,000 industrial establishments employed 464,000 wage earners at average wages of more than $56 per week. Estimated industrial production in 1958 was more than $7,409,000,000, and electrical power produc(Jo. C. S.) tion was 19,403,000,000 kw.hr. Mineral Production Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in North Carolina in 1957 and r958 whose value exceeded $100,000. In 1958 North Carolina was first among the states in output of feldspar, sheet mica (79% of U.S. total), scrap and flake mica (more than half the U.S. tonnage), olivine, pyrophyllite and spodumene; third in talc and soapstone. North Carolina was the principal producer of lithium and the only state producing millstones. The state ranked 40th among the states in the value of its mineral output in 1958, with 0.24%

499

—

of the U.S. total.

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films.

A North Dakota. union Nov.

2,

— Southeastern

States (1956).

west north central state of the United

States,

North Dakota was admitted

to the

1889; popular name, "Flicltertail state." Area:

70,665 sq.mi., including 608 sq.mi. of water. Pop. (1950) 619,-

636; (July

1,

19S9, provisional est.) 642,000. Chief cities (1950 Bismarck (capital) 18,640

pop., with 1957 est. in parentheses);

(23,741)

;

Fargo 38,256 (46,250)

;

Grand Forks 26,836 (33,000)

Minot 22,032 (28,000).

—

State officers in 1959 were: governor, John E. History. Davis; lieutenant governor, C. P. Dahl; secretary of state, Ben

Meier; auditor, Curtis Olson; treasurer, John R. Erickson; attorney general, Leslie R.

Burgum; commissioner

of insurance,

A. J. Jensen; commissioner of agriculture and labour, Math Dahl; tax commissioner, J. Arthur Engen; superintendent of public instruction,

M.

F. Peterson; public service commissioners,

Anson J. Anderson, Martin Vaaler and Ernest D. Nelson. The Republican-controlled 1959 legislature was divided 31 Republicans to 18 Democrats in the senate, 64 Republicans to 49 Democrats in the house; it had more freshmen members (mostly Democrats) than any North Dakota legislature since 19 1 7. The legislature divided the state into two congressional districts (U.S. representatives had been elected at large since 1930) set up a commission to promote the marketing of wheat; increased the length and weight of trucks permitted on state highways; repealed the requirement of a third brakeman on long freight trains; established a department of accounting and ;

purchasing to centralize the

fiscal

administration of the state

government; and passed a resolution

to

encourage a favourable

business climate.

Through the summer of 1959 two outdoor "horse operas" were presented for tourists: "Trail West" about Gen. George Custer at

Fort

Abraham Lincoln

State park, and "Old Four-Eyes" about

Theodore Roosevelt

in the

nearly $2,000,000 of

new

Badlands at Medora. In Sept. 1959 and a $900,000 bridge were dedicated at Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial park.

—

visitor- facilities

Educotion. Public school teaching positions for the year ended June 30, 1958, were 6,79s; public school enrollment 128,950 (elementary 95,731; high school 33,219); schools in session 2,358; average cost per pupil enrolled $332; average salary of teachers including city superintendents $3,460; total expenditures for public elementary and high schools $43,099.056. Enrollment in 12 institutions of higher learning with 905 in the faculties totaled 12,904 full-time and 439 part-time students in Oct. 1959. In Sept. 1959, North Dakota had 1,106 one-room rural schools compared with 2,689 in 1949. Elections had reduced the number of school districts from 2,271 in 1947 to about 1,600 in 1959. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. For the year ended June 30, 1959, public assistance totaled $14,300,189 (federal 48.3%, state 35.6%, county 16.1%). Old-age assistance cost $7,422,314 (7,456 cases); aid to dependent children $2,913,928 (4.956 children); aid to the blind $84,455 (95 persons); aid to the permanently and totally disabled $1,156,061 (1,037 persons); general assistance $673,316 (869 cases); administrative expense $1,388,796. Total expenditures for three charitable and three correctional institutions in fiscal 1959 amounted to $5,062,698. Number of inmates in 1959: feeble-minded 1,362; insane 1,648: tubercular 41; penitentiary 272; state farm 35; training school 131. Communications. As of Jan. I, 1959, the highway mileage was; state highways 6,433 nii.; county roads 17,696 mi.; other rural roads 72,281 mi. There were 227 mi. with concrete surface, 4,33s mi. with bituminous, 45.248 mi. with gravel, 20,640 mi. only graded and drained and 25,960 unimproved. In 1958 North Dakota spent $37,485,703 on state highway construction and $8,016,831 for county highway construction. Motor vehicle registration as of Aug. 31, 1959, was: passenger cars 217,880: trucks 105,118. Six railroads operate 5,362 mi. of track. In 1959. 21 radio and 9 television stations were operating in the state and more than 178,146 telephones were in use.

—

1958

:

NORWAY

500

monarchy of northern Europe

Mackenzie district. In 1959 the commissioner was R. G. Robertson, who was also deputy minister of northern affairs and national resources. Appointed members of the legislative council were W. G. Brown, deputy commissioner; C. M. Drury; H. M. Jones; L. C. Audette; and L. H. Nicholson. Elected members were Robert Porritt, Knut Lang and J. W.

3,510,199. Languages: Norwegian and Lappish (about 20,000).

Goodall.

Religion:

divisions in the

nUIWdJ. bounded

Area (excluding Svalbard archipelago and Jan Mayen)

heim 58,915; at Chester-

and Ottawa during 1959. Under legislation passed at the Ottawa meeting, three Eskimo co-operative associations were formed, two in the Ungava bay area and the third at Cape Dorset. field inlet

and national resources conactivities for Eskimos. A handicrafts industry was being promoted and organized and a tourist industry developed. A number of families from the Keewatin district of the territories, whose survival was threatened by the decline of the caribou herds, were re-established at a community at Rankin inlet. There was a substantial increase in oil and natural gas exploration activity. By the end of March 1959, oil and gas exploratory permits for 66,426,209 ac. in the Northwest Territories had been issued and applications for priorities in the issue of oil and

The department tinued

its efforts

of northern affairs to find

new economic

gas exploratory permits received for 80,450,162 ac. of land in the .\rctic Islands north of 70° latitude.

—

Education. In 1959 the department of northern affairs and national resources operated 46 federal schools, 19 of which were primarily for Eskimo children. The department also assisted one residential school and 14 parttime schools operated by missionaries. Correspondence courses were available free of charge to any child whose parents requested them or to any adult who wished to enroll. Public Health and Welfare Services. In 1959, 14 hospitals were operated In the Northwest Territories, 10 by missions, i by a locally elected hospital board at Yellowknife, i by northern health services of the federal department of national health and welfare and 2 by private companies; 12 nursing stations were in operation, i by a mission. Medical and X-ray surveys were carried out during the summer months. Treatment was provided by the territorial and federal governntents without charge to crippled children, cancer patients and victims of tuberculosis. Children in Yellowknife, Fort Smith and Hay River received free dental treatment. A northern welfare service was established to provide the sources of trained social workers to

—

communities.

A team of physicians, a dentist, an X-ray technician and a number of nurses accompanied the annual eastern arctic patrol on board the government ship "C. D. Howe," treating persons at points of call and visiting many settlements to make physical examinations and X-ray surveys, to administer Salk polio vaccine and other preventive inoculations and to obtain material for medical research.

—

Transporiotion and Communications. The Mackenzie district and western arctic area are served by water and air transportation. The bulk of the freight is transported to most settlements during the summer months river route via the from Waterways (Alta.) to the Arctic ocean. Regular mail, passenger and express services were maintained by air throughout the year to all points in the Mackenzie district. Regular scheduled commercial flights to Frobisher Bay. in the eastern arctic were operated by two companies. The all-weather Mackenzie highway from Grimshaw (.Mta.) to

heavy

Hay River, continued to be used extensively and work continued on its extension to Yellowknife. Radio communications between important trading posts and settlements in the territories and outside points were maintained through government and private radio stations.

—

Forests and Fisheries. Timber cut in 1958-59 included 12.449,323 ft. b.m. of lumber; 328,535 linear feet of round timber and 7,814 cords of

wood. During the summer season of 1958 and the winter season of 1958—59, commercial fisheries on Great Slave lake produced a total catch of 5,763,000 lb., with an estimated market value of $705,000. Whitefish and lake trout were the principal species taken. Hunting and Tropping. Fur production in the territories, during the year ended June 30. 195S, was valued at $735,000 with a total of 257,183 pelts taken during that period. Trapping remains the principal occupation fuel

—

:

Svalbard archipelago (Spitsbergen and Bear Island)

Jan

Mayen (dependent

History.

—The

territory)

—Canada:

The Prairie Provinces

:

area, 23,-

area, 144 sq.mi.

municipal elections in Oct.

1959 were hard

fought, with national issues to the fore, but they produced no

With an over-all increase Communists could claim insupport. The Labour party in power nationally

significant swing in political affiliations. in votes cast, all parties except the

creased electoral

—

with an over-all majority

1945

—claimed

in the storting

(parliament) ever since

the result as a vote of confidence in

its

admin-

istration.

The opposition

on two issues relatgovernment was strongly criticized for permitting the export of ammunition to Cuba during the civil war there early in the year. The ammunition came from a state-owned factory, and opposition critics declared that the government had allowed local employment considerations to take parties took the offensive

ing to foreign affairs. First, the

precedence over prudence. The government's position was not

improved when it was discovered that the ammunition was U.S.financed under the military aid program. The government promised not to export ammunition in future to countries involved in a civil war.

The opposition

parties were also strongly critical of the gov-

ernment's decision to invite the Soviet Prime Minister N. S.

Khrushchev to Norway in August. Eventually the visit was postponed indefinitely on the initiative of Khrushchev, who referred to the unfavourable comments in newspapers in Scandinavia. Plans for setting up a Scandinavian common market, which the government had been studying for several years despite opposition from business circles, were shelved with the materialization of the European Free Trade association of the "Outer Seven." On the whole, Norwegian business welcomed the new association, although a European free-trade area including the six Common Market countries would have been preferred. Production and trade generally recovered well from the temporary recession which Norway shared with other countries in 1958. The economic improvement generally only slightly affected the low level of freight rates which had begun in 1958 and which had caused the lay-up of a considerable quantity of merchant shipping. However, toward the end of the year a number of idle ships were fixed at economic rates. In the course of the year the merchant fleet took delivery of more than 1,000,000 tons of new vessels ordered in earlier

boom

years.

Much

were high, and

On

market it was anticipated would make a large contribution to Nor-

in spite of the slack

the labour front a significant innovation

of the working

new tonnage when freights

of the

entered profitable time charters fixed in advance

way's foreign exchange income,

Encyclop.«dia Bkitannica Films.

:

958 sq.mi. The population, largely miners, shifts seasonally; in 1957 it was estimated at 1,530 Norwegians and 2,746 Russians.

The 5,000 reindeer maintained by the federal government in the Mackenzie delta region for the benefit of the native population were consolidated into two herds; one main government herd and one belonging to the Eskimos, .^bout 14,000 buffalo grazed in Wood Buffalo National park. A limited slaughter of reindeer and bufialo for meat is carried out annually.

(1958).

1958, admin-

minister in 1959, Einar Gerhardsen.

that shipping earnings

—

i,

est.)

Oslo (capital) 461,591; Bergen 114,711; TrondStavanger 52,848. Ruler, King Olav V; prime

of the native population.

Mineral Production. Mineral production in the Northwest Territories during 1958 was valued at $24,791,516, of which gold accounted for $11,392,475, uranium and silver $9,691,723. Crude oil is produced and refined at Norman Wells on the Mackenzie river; 1958 production was valued at $475,000. Production of natural gas was valued at $7,075. (R. G. R.)

(1958

3,278,546;

Lutheran. Chief towns (pop., Jan.

Gall in July 1959.

J.

— The Northwest Territories council met

(1950 census;

Pop.:

125,064 sq.mi.

istrative area)

History.

is

north by the Arctic ocean, east by the

U.S.S.R., Finland and Sweden, and south and west by the North sea.

There was a vacancy for one elected member resulting from the resignation of E.

constitutional

'^'''^

Unrtifou

week from 48

to 45 hours.

was the reduction

The reduction was

ai>

proved by the storting with the understanding that total output would remain undiminished. The storting also approved in prin-

compulsory schooling to the age of if compared with 14 hitherto. King Olav formally inaugurated the Halden boiling heavj water reactor on Oct. 10. It was designed and built by Norwegiai ciple the extension of

—

NOSE AND THROAT, DISEASES OF — NURSING nuclear scientists and engineers. Being the world,

first

of

its

kind in the

aroused considerable international interest, and an

it

lation passed at

the

an Act Respecting Fair Accommodation Practices, a significant

agreement was negotiated whereby nuclear physicists of a num-

contribution to social legislation.

ber of countries would operate the reactor jointly for a three-

ment announced

(O. F. K.)

year term. Education.

— Schools

(1956-57): primary 5,092, pupils 432,077, teachers (1955-56) 14.321; secondary 298, pupils 53,516, teachers (1955-56) 2,941 folk high schools (1955-56) 70, pupils 4,020; vocational (1955-56) 557, pupils 51,544; teacher-training (including vocational and physical education, 1954-55) 2>. students (1956-57) 2,421. Institutions of higher education (1957) 8 (of which 2 are universities with 4,132 students), stu-

501

1959 session of the legislature included

On June

5,

1959, the govern-

that an agreement

had been entered into with Stora Kopparbergs of Sweden, whereby a subsidiary known as Nova Scotia Pulp Limited would immediately undertake the conHawkesbury.

struction of a $40,000,000 pulp mill at Port

:

dents 6,216. Finance and Bonking.

—

Monetary unit: krone (plural kroner) with an exchange rate of kr. 7.143 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959-60 est.): current revenue kr. 5,802,000,000, expenditure kr. 6,032,000,000. Internal debt (June 1957) kr. 6,207.900,000; external debt kr. 1,593.600,000. Currency circulation (April 1958) kr. 3,126,000.000, (April 1959) kr. 3,280,000,000. Deposit money (April 1958) kr. 3,490,000,000, (April 1959) kr. 3,617,000,000. Gold and foreign exchange (May 1958) U.S. $229,200,000, (May 1959) U.S. $237,700,000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports kr. 9,352,000,000, exports kr. 5,311,000,000. Main sources of imports: Germany 20%; Sweden 16%; other continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 22%; U.K. 15%; other sterling area 4%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin America 4%. Main destinations of exports: U.K. 19%; other sterling area 8%; Germany 14%; Sweden 10%; other continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 22%; U.S. and Canada 9%; Latin America 5%. Main exports: fish 14%; wood pulp 10%; paper 10%; whale oil 6%; ship exports 3%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1958) 49,535 km. Motor ve(including hicles in use (Dec. 1957): passenger 153,216, commercial buses) 94,288. State railways (1958): 4,380 km.; passenger-km. (June 1956-57) 1,565,000,000, ton-km. (June 1957-58) 1,416,000,000. Shipping: merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over (July 1958) 2,624; total tonnage 9,385,000; net freight earnings (1958) kr. 2,700,000,000. Air transport (1958): passenger-km. 565,956,000, freight 12,084,000 ton-km. Telephones (June 1957) 646,522. Radio receiving sets (1957) 985,000; television receivers (1956) 300. Agriculture Production (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 17,000 (30,000); barley 356,000 (316,000); oats 134,000 (136,000); rye 1,000 (1,000); potatoes 1,202,000 (1,010,000); milk (delivered by farmers: 66% of total in 1955) 1,188,000 (1,200,000); butter 13,440 (15,600); cheese 36,000 (31,200); meat (1951): beef and veal 48,000; pork 53,000; mutton and lamb 15,000. Livestock (June 1958): cattle 1,126,000; sheep 1,809,000: horses 126,000; pigs (June 1957) 459,270: goats (June 1957) 110,000. Fish landings (1957) 1,738,900 metric tons. Whale and sperm oil production (1957-5S) 144,600 metric tons; value of whale oil exports (1958) kr. 316,000,000. Industry. Fuel and power (1958): coal (Svalbard mines) 291,600 metric tons; manufactured gas 42,000,000 cu.m.; electricity 27,180,000,000 kw.hr. Production (metric tons, 1958): iron ore (mineral content 65%, including ferrotitanium) 1,765,200; pig iron 507,600; crude steel 366,000; zinc, smelter, 45,000; copper, smelter, 17,520; aluminum 121,560; cement 1,033,200; nitrogenous fertilizers, N content (June 1957-58) 217,700; wood pulp (mechanical, 1957) 668,000, (chemical, 1957) 645,000; newsprint (1957) 185,000; other paper (1957) 375,000; sawn softwood (1957) 1,869,000 cu.m. Dwelling units completed (1958) 26,412.

—

—

—

'

,

I

—

Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. Scandinavia Denmark (1950); Tale oj the Fiords (1955).

Nose and Throat, Diseases Throat, Diseases

of:

see

—Norway, Ear,

Sweden,

Nose and

of.

four Atlantic provinces IJnuQ QpntiQ Second smallest of the llUVd OCOII2. of Canada, Nova Scotia entered the confeder-

(1956 census) 694,717, (1959 estimate) 716,000. Capital; Halifax, pop. (1956 census) v93.30i, metropoHtan Halifax 164,200. ation in 1867. Area: 21,068 sq.mi. Pop.

I

History.

,

—On

Oct. 23, 1958, an underground earth shift oc-

2 shaft of the Springhill coal mine operated by Cumberland Coal company, a subsidiary of the Dominion Steel and Coal corporation. Of the 174 men entombed, 100 were rescued; there were 74 fatalities. As a result of this disaster, the corporation withdrew its operations from the Springhill area and the mine shafts were permanently sealed off. The 50th anniversary of powered flight in the British Commonwealth was commemorated in a ceremony at Baddeck on Feb. 23, 1959, when tribute was personally paid to J. A. C. McCurdy, who, on Feb. 23, 1909, had flown the "Silver Dart" at this same site. Culminating the royal tour of Canada, Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip honoured the province with a visit, July 31 and

Education.

—

Statistics for 1958 reported an expenditure of $27,696,922 on public schools. During the school year 1957-58 there were 164,255 pupils registered in all public schools, including 115,133 in elementary

schools, 33,732 in junior high and 15,390 in senior high schools. There were 76,525 pupils in urban and 87,730 in'rural schools. Of the 5,913 teachers employed, 2,577 were in urban and 3,336 in rural and village schools. There were 1,615 rural and village schools and 42 urban schools with a total of 5,583 classrooms. Public Health and Welfare.

—

On Jan. 1, 1959, the province entered into program. The provincial financed by a sales tax administered by a Hospital Insurance commission. In 1957 there were 47 hospitals in the province with a total of 3,388 beds. The number of hospital admissions during the year was 93.554- By March 31, 1958, mothers' allowances had been paid to 2,131 families, involving 5,568 children, in the amount of $1,576,585.15. For the same period old-age assistance was paid to 5,219, in the amount of $2,654,006.42; 745 blind persons received $417,467.44; and 1,790 disabled persons received $914,349.96. Transportation and Communications. During 1958 there were 119,569 passenger and 36,475 commercial vehicles registered. The total mileage of highways was 15,196, of which 2,218 were paved. Expenditure on highways and rural roads for 1957 was $25,305,365.93. ()n Aug. 31, 1959, there were 163,653 telephones in the province. On April i, 1959, there were 13 radio stations, 2 of which were operated by the Canadian Broadcasting corporation and 1 1 by private companies, and there were 2 television stations. On July 31, 1957, there were nine airports, of which eight were land based and one sea based. Banking and Finance. The net provincial debt, less sinking funds, on March 31, 1958. was $144,206,389.57, while the total direct debt was $246,660,000. The provincial revenue for the fiscal year ending March 31, 195S, was $66,757,795.53, while expenditure was $60,073,641.23. The sinking fund installments for the year totaled $5,526,190, leaving a net revenue surplus of $1,157,964.30. On Dec. 31, 1958, there were 6 federally chartered banks with a total of 160 branches and 1 federal reserve bank (Bank of Canada). On Dec. 31, 1958, there were 211 active credit unions with a membership of 59,314 and shares amounting to $11,762,487. Outstanding loans totaled $9,967,209, and total assets were $12,828,216. Agriculture. In 1957 field crops totaling 379,400 ac. yielded an income of $17,474,000, of which hay ($11,044,000), potatoes ($2,719,000), oats ($1,778,000) and root crops ($1,380,000) were the main crops. The total farm cash income was $41,955,000, the principal sources being dairy products ($11,804,000), cattle and calves ($6,667,000), eggs ($7,623,000) and forest products and fur farming ($5,176,000). The number of livestock on farms included horses (16,700), cattle (177,000), sheep (83,000), swine (31,000) and poultry (1,891,000). Fisheries and Forestry. Preliminary statistics for 1958 showed that the total value of fish landings was $24,841,000. The landings totaled 464,721,000 lb., including 110,548,000 lb. of cod ($3,711,000), 66,317,000 lb. of haddock ($3,051,000), 104,454,000 lb. of herring ($1,482,000) and 17,825.000 lb. of lobster ($7,301,000). During 1957 the total foot board measure (f.b.m.) of forest production was 519,908,678, made up principally of softwood lumber (245,076,000 acti\'e participation in the national hospitalization

share

3%

is

—

—

—

—

f.b.m.) and pulpwood (202,675,500 f.b.m.). Manufacturing. In 1957 there were 1,356 manufacturing establishments comprising a work force of 31,530 and a total annual payroll of $90,634,615. The total selling value of the manufactured product was $427,299,045, and the major industries included iron and steel products, fish processing, wood products and shipbuilding. Mining. In 1957 the total value of the mining industry was $68,058,743, of which coal, totaling 5,685,770 tons and valued at the mine at $52,877,614, was the principal item. Gypsum weighing 3,842,027 tons and valued at $6,005,640 was mined, as well as 210,784 tons of barite valued at $2,559,713 and 122,763 tons of salt (sodium chloride) valued at $1,900,-

—

—

538.

ENCYCLOPiSDiA Bhitannica Films.

—Canada:

(S. B. E.)

The Atlantic Provinces

(1958).

curred at the No. the I

I

Aug.

I.

Robert L. Stanfield continued to lead the Progressive-Conservative

govenmient which had assimied

office in

Nov. 1956. Legis-

Nuclear Studies: Nursery Schools:

see

Astronomy; Physics.

see

Home

Economics.

A

U

NUi 01115.

total of 35 national nurses associations were represented at the International Council of Nurses'

board of directors meeting and at the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the council in Helsinki, Fin., in July 1959. The date April 17-22 was set for the council's 12th Quadrennial con-

which was to be held in Melbourne, Austr. Health organization (WHO) conferences regarding nursing were held in Oct. 1959. At the Fifth Regional congress (sponsored by the Pan American Sanitary bureau of WHO) in gress,

Two World

Buenos

Aires, Arg., the subject

Better Nursing Service."

was "Nursing Legislation for

The conference on Post Basic Nursing

NUTRITION,

502

Education for International Students, held

E

XPERIMENTAL —

Hypnosis and Weight Reduction. In recent years the mcHi profession had shown increased interest in the use of hypnotic

Geneva, Swilz.,

in

considered the results of a series of questionnaires circulated among educational institutions, nurses then studying abroad and

cal

agencies employing these nurses after their study.

trol

In 1959 3 project to determine the content of maternal and child health nursing was begun, using funds granted by the chil-

duration to evaluate the use of hypnosis in weight reduction.

dren's bureau. U.S. department of health, education,

and welfare.

This followed a trend on the part of specialty areas of nursing toward identifying those elements of practice thai belong uniquely to their field of nursing and those that are part of all nursing. These examinations of nursing were expected to lead to an increased understanding of the components of nursing care, as well

as

improvements both

in the

administration of nursing service

and the teaching of nursing. Other continuing projects with similar aims were concerned with the use of the practice field in nursing education, improving the teaching of nursing aides for psychiatric facilities

and preparing nurses

for nursing in dis-

suggestion for the reorientation of eating habits in weight cni

programs. L. B. Winkelstein conducted a study of

In line with

its

continuing program of planning and preparing

monili

attempted to determine whether or not ideas relating to the could be more deeply implanted

trol of diet

and, consequently,

in

II

cur

the hypnotic sta-

more completely accepted and

followed.

Winkelstein selected for his investigation 42 female patient: ranging

in

age from 16 to 52 years on the basis of two factors:

the ability of the patient to enter a sufficiently deep trance state,

of

and normal

excess

histories

weight,

varied from 10 to 60

of 32

and physical examination. The amount from height-age-weight tables, with an average for the entire group

calculated lb.,

lb.

Active hypnotherapy was continued for the the study.

With

early treatment,

first 14 weeks of was noted that suggestions

it

offered under hypnosis usually lasted

aster.

six

With

than 24 hours.

for less

additional sessions, however, both the degree and the ef-

American Nurses' De-

fective time continuation of the suggestions were increased so

association agreed to co-sponsor with the OfiBce of Civil and

that, after the

fense Mobilization a one-week civil defense course for nurses,

of the implanted ideas would carry over for several days or even

professional nurses for disaster nursing, the

to be held in

ig6o at Manhattan Beach, Brooklyn, N.Y.

for weeks. In general, training

Federal traineeship programs for professional nurses and for public health personnel, established for a three-year period under the Health

Amendments

second to fourth hj^Dnotic induction, a large part

act of 1956, were extended in 1959 for

to

by hypnotic suggestion was found

be most satisfactory when sessions were held approximately

twice a

week

for the first

and

to 8 weeks,

2

weeks, once weekly thereafter for 4 up to 14 weeks.

at less frequent inter\-als

five years. By the end of Aug. 1959, an estimated 3,500 professional nurses in the United States had benefited from

months. The six-month average weight

the federal traineeships, created to help alleviate a critical short-

was

slightly less than 27 lb., with the

An

58^

lb.

an additional

age of teachers, administrators and supervisors in nursing.

estimated 8S5 nurses had been awarded public health traineeships to qualify

them

attempt to help overcome the

in the

The

in

weight were measured and recorded weekly for

and the minimum

maximum

loss being

results of the study

loss for the entire

g\

weight loss being

lb.

showed that hypnosis and hypnotic

of obesity in certain persons.

The main

up of new and more

efficacy

seemed

to lie

shortage of nurses prepared for administration in nursing service

in the building

and education, and for teaching and research in nursing, was made possible by a three-year extension of the Commonwealth fund grant to the fellowship program of the National League for

effective changes in dietary regime

Nursing.

not considered to be the answer for most cases of obesity;

In Oct. 1959, the research

staff

of the American Nurses' Foun-

dation, Inc., began a study of patient

cardiac disease,

and family adjustment to supported by a two-year grant from the Na-

its

international nursing project.

project, supported

by

The

international

a Rockefeller foundation grant,

was con-

cerned with securing information on the professional needs and expectations of foreign nurses working in the U.S. under the

exchange visitor program.

According to the National League for Nursing, admission

fig-

showed a slight increase over those of previous years. The pronounced growth in the number of practical nurse schools from 480 in Aug. 1957 to 5S0 at the beginning of 1959 showed that large numbers of students were being attracted to this field of nursing, which was open to men and women from 17 to 50 and over. (M. L. R.) ures for schools of professional nursing in 1958

—

—

The

the active

is

it is

Protein Deficiency.

—Many areas

of the world are concerned

with nutritional problems arising from inadequate amounts of certain nutrients.

and continued

when

lost

an expensive and time-consuming treatment.

protein

health nursing under a grant from the U.S. public health service

were not

trance therapy was stopped at the end of 14 weeks, but con-

the foundation completed

third year of a study of public

rational dietary habits.

tinued for the six months of the study. However, hypnosis

tional Institutes of Health, U.S. public health service. In 1959 its

six

group

suggestion could be used as therapeutic agents in the regulation

for staff positions in public health nursing.

Another step forward

Changes

is

The

lack of a sufficient quantity of high quality

one of the major deficiencies and

can result in

it

and work output. Proteins are made of about 22 amino acids which can be divided into two groups: (i) the nonessential amino acids which can be synthesized by the body from other nutrients; and (2) the essential amino acids which must be supplied by the diet. The quality of a protein depends primarily on the proportions oi deleterious effects on health

amino acids

the essential

relative to

one another.

Low

quality

proteins are typically low in one or sometimes two or three sential

A

amino

es-

acids.

high quality protein gives a relatively high

>'ield

of tissu*

measured by growth or the amount of protein retainec by the body. Examples are animal proteins, meat, fish, milk anc eggs. Per unit weight, these proteins are consistently two to threi

protein, as

times

more

efficient

than the proteins in most vegetable food;

such as the cereal grains.

Much

nutritional

research

Nutrition, Experimental.

during 1959 concerned problems resulting from the paradox of an over-abundant food supply in

some parts of the world and inadequate supplies

in other areas.

Obesity was considered a major nutritional problem in the United States. Since obesity

is

bility to certain diseases

associated with an increased suscepti-

and a shortened

phasis was placed on weight reduction.

life

span,

much em-

Protein deficiency exists generally in areas where the majo part of the dietary protein

is

supplied by vegetable foods. Th'

efficiency of the vegetable proteins can be increased in thn

ways: (r) The diet can be supplemented with high quality pn teins, such as meat products, fish or milk, which furnish th

amino acids lacking

in the diet.

However, these foods are

oftelj

unavailable or too expensive. Plant foods which furnish adequatj protein

by themselves or supplement

the other vegetable protein

NU TS may

be used. (2) The amino acids lacking in the diet may be added directly. For example, a staple food, like bread, can be supplemented with specific amino acids, such as lysine, in the diet

be lacking in the native foods. (3) The two methods can be combined. N. W. Flodin and his co-workers found that when rats were

may

which

in all respects except

maintained on diets adequate quality protein

protein and

(85% wheat

growth was retarded. The males,

toms of

The females had

proached normal

Symptoms

nonfat milk solids),

in particular, exhibited

less

severe symptoms.

but bore subnormal

size slowly,

symp-

perverted appetite and decreased

irritability, anorexia,

longevity.

15%

low

for a

of special significance

for

man

They

ap-

litters.

these studies

in

were a reduced level of voluntary action and a low calorie intake, a condition in adults which leads to a vicious circle (poor

—»

diet

—»

low work output

low food production

—=

poor

Other s>'mptoms of protein deficiency seen particularly dren, apathy

and

diet).

in chil-

those observed in

inactivity, are similar to

very

Acid Deficiency.

Essential Fatty

—In some

instances, a de-

ficiency of the essential fatty acids results in disease

Phrynoderma, a skin condition,

symptoms.

considered to be caused by

is

a deficiency of the essential fatty acids. It had often been at-

A

tributed to vitamin

deficiency, primarily because the condi-

tion could be cured with the administration of fish liver oil rich in

vitamin A, but later work cast doubt on

this

concept of the

etiology of phrynoderma. For example, in one area of India

it

was noted that although children had symptoms of vitamin A deficiency (Bitot's spots and xeropthalmia) few had phrynoderma. In other studies, the administration of vitamin A had no beneficial effect on the skin condition. Other researchers concluded that phrynoderma might be attributable to combined deficiencies of vitamin A and the essential fatty acids. Later biochemical and clinical studies indicated that the condition responded

to essential fatty acid therapy.

human

subjects had been reported, K. Bagchi and co-workers conducted

(grams weight gained by animals divided by the grams of protein consumed) of the diet fed to the rats by all three methods listed above. The protein efficiency was improved by 50% to 80% by

a study based on histologic observations. Clinical observations

A similar increase could be monohydrochloride. A combination

lysine

30%

to

40%

of

were made on 61 patients of both sexes, ranging to IS years, attending the outpatient

The

obtained with 0.25% of the two supple-

patients with

raw linseed

oil

phrynoderma were treated with

or one teaspoon of linoleic acid

of both normal and

supplementation relieved the deficiency

alone. All three types of

symptoms

from

5

biopsies of

-J

of

oz.

(an essential

The blood lipid (fat) content phrynoderma subjects was determined and the skin from sites affected was done before and after

fatty acid) given orally each day.

by iso^o, an increase greater than could be achieved by either supplement efficiency

in age

department of the School

of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta, India.

ments, milk (a high quality protein food) and lysine (an essential

amino acid), however, increased protein

treatment.

In order to compare the diets of subjects with phrynoderma

in the rats.

with the methods presently available

with those of normal persons of identical socio-economic environ-

for increasing protein efficiency,

it should be possible, in any program of protein supplementation existing dietary habits and economic

ments, a diet survey was carried out in 15 families of subjects

specific area, to initiate a

with phr>'noderma and in 15 comparable families showing no

was concluded

It

that,

which could be adapted to

cases of the skin condition.

Results of the diet surveys showed no difference in the total

status.

Amino Acid Imbalance. acids are used to

—Care must be taken when amino

supplement

diets, especially

barely adequate in protein or

when

when such

diets are

a large percentage of the

protein in the diet consists of low quality protein.

When

sup-

plements of specific amino acids are fed to growing rats subsisting

on such a

diet, a

decrease in food consumption and growth

amount

that

felt

the

growth rate observed

in

ability to utilize the

imbalanced

the

diminished

food intake and

animals might be the result of a reduced

to equalize the food intake

diet.

But when attempts were

by forcing the animals in two to three days.

to eat

imbalanced diet the animals died

U. eat

S.

Kumta and

his

co-workers thought that training rats to

only during a single short interval each day might eliminate

and increase the amount of the imbalanced diet eaten. Therefore they studied the effects of amino acid imbalance on protein efficiency in protein-depleted adult rats and in adult rats trained to eat for only two hours each day. Rats trained to eat a large amount of a low protein basal diet in a single, short daily interval were unable to consume an equal amount of the diet after amino acids which caused an imbalance were added. The growth of rats on this regimen was retarded. Likewise, the gain in weight of normal or protein-depleted rats given as much as they wanted of the imbalanced diet was markthe possible nonphysiological conditions of forced feeding

edly reduced.

the

in defining the

amino acid imbalance, they were consistent with

theory that feeding an imbalanced diet increases the break-

down of

in the diet of

normal persons and the paa significant differ-

ence in the total amount of essential fatty acids.

The observations

of histologic features and biochemical data strongly supported the hypothesis that

phrynoderma

is

a manifestation of essential

fatty acid deficiency.

tissue proteins

and

results in decreased protein

efi6-

—

L. B. Winkelstein, "Hypnosis, Diet, and Weight ReJ. Med., 59:1751-56 (May 1959); N. W. Flodin, "Supplementation of Diets With Proteins and Amino Acids," Amer. J. Publ. Hltk, 48:1315-22 (Oct. 1958); U. S. Kumta, A. E. Harper and C. A. Eh'ehjem, ".-^mino Acid Imbalance and Nitrogen Retention in .-Vdult Rats," K. Bagchi, K. Haider and J. Biol. Chem., 233:1505-08 (Dec. 195S); S. R. Chowdhury, "The Etiology of Phrynoderma: Histologic Evidence," Amer. J. Clin. Nutr., 7:251-258 (May-June 1959).

Bibliography. duction, N.Y. St.

—

(M.

B.

McC;

Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. Foods and Obesity (1952); Understanding Vitamins (1952).

U

The

.

NUlo.

total U.S.

tree nuts

was

F. J.

Nutrition

Se.)

(1939);

1959 crop of 212,785 tons of four major larger than in 1958 and 8% above

5%

average. U.S. per capita consumption of tree nuts was 1.6

lb.

(shelled basis), two-thirds of which consisted of the above types

and one-third of "other" types, almost entirely imported. Prices were generally somewhat reduced during the earUer part of 1959. U.S. nut imports continued at approximately 209,000 tons, with cashews, Brazil nuts and almonds making up most of the total. Exports in 1958-59 of 13,000 tons were 22% smaller than in the

Although these studies had not yet succeeded basic disorder in

A

phrynoderma. However, there was

See also Vitamins and Nutrition.

Some observers

made

of vitamin

tients with

rate results.

'

is

Flodin and his associates could improve the protein efficiency

the total protein.

I

the total protein of the diet

Since no histologic investigations of this condition in

increasing the proportion of milk proteins to

i

when

low.

rats.

I

503

ciency, particularly

previous year, with indication of further decline in 1959-

60.

Almonds, a California crop, totaled a record 80,000 tons, far and the 1948-57 average of 41,280 tons. Prices were expected to average conlarger than the small 1958 crop of ig,8oo tons

NYASALAND — OBITUARIES

504

Oai Production of

siderably below the unusually high $772 per ton received for the

small 1958 crop. Almoncis continued as the world's leading com-

mercial nut, with Italy as a leading producer. Iran's production

was estimated at 10,000

tons, well

above the 1952-56 average

The

U.S. IQS9 filbert crop of

Oregon and Washington was

CO

f .u .u .U . 9,410 tons, roughly one-fourth larger than the 7,490 tons of 1958 1

19% above

and

courrry

1

the average 7,906 tons of the prior decade.

With

,

it

,

.

.

,

accounted for the decrease, with 55,000 tons against 120.000 tons in 1958; other major producers were Italy with 44,000 tons and 61.-

in 1959. 309^ smaller than the 88,700 tons of 1958 and below average for 1948-57. Prices to growers for the smaller 1959 crop were higher than the $380 per ton received for the 1958 crop. World production in noncommunist countries was indicated at 149,000 tons, substantially below the large 1958

16%

The 1959 commercial walnut crop

forecast at 28,500 tons as

of Italy

compared with 25,000 tons

1958 an average crop of 23,200 tons. France's commercial crop in

estimated at 25.000 tons, below the 29,000 tons of 1958 ,

,

,

„

the 1952-56 average 28,300 tons.

The

indicated 1959 pecan crop of 123,350,000 lb. was '-' U.S. ^ -^ ^' '^ smaller than the 174,750.000 lb. of 1958 and 18% below the

29%

average. Wild seedling varieties were 66,650,000 lb. 1048-57 '^ -" " ° against 69,250,000 lb. in 1958 and an average for 1948-57 of

.

Prirps lances wprp were pvnprfpH expected

tn to

avprairp average

The

m

66,000 tons (unshelled) as compared with a record 77.000 tons ^

,

,,.

,

,

,

,

,

Severe drought and high temperatures reduced the 1959 compared with " ^ ^ ^ 43,500 tons 1958; prices rose to about 23 cents per pound against pound a year before. The Iranian tpista10 to 12 cents a f ° in 1958.

Brazil nut harvest to 23.000 tons (unshelled) as

m

/

chio harvest

"^

was indicated

as approximating the 4,500 tons of

Q '

See also Pe.AXUTS.

NyaSaland:

see

(J.

K. R.)

Rhodesia and NyaSALAND. Federation

of.

.

1959 became

,.

than the 1948-57 average of 1,306,458.000 bu. Acreage Tj D crop .-tj o t'^ 9% to 28.823,000 ac, the lowest since 1892, re-

"

reduction by

fff

suited especially from a low support price in relation to corn. ^

A

hot dry June in the northern plains, plus rust, green bugs and rpri Ipaf virus, virus resultea rp«i.ltpr1in i-ihii nprarrp as compared rnmnarpr! ^\lttl with in 2,,.^ red-leat Du. per acre, as

44.7 bu. per acre in 1958 and an average for the previous decade r \ u o T lU JJ of 34.9 bu. per acre. As in 1958, Iowa was the leading producing 1

State, L

with 190,748,000 bu., follow-ed by Minnesota (174,7^4.s

,.-

/

,-

N

J

000 bu.), Wisconsin (124.224.000 bu.) and

T„-

•

Illinois

/„

Z

(89.6So.OOO

„' Ihe small 1959 crop, plus carry-over stocks of 369,000.000 of record—plus prospective imports from Canada

bu.—highest °

,

/

of about 2C.000.000 bu. (against actual imports of 3.265.000 bu.

1958-59), brought the total 1959-60 supply to about 1.464,000,000 bu., as compared with 1.750,000,000 bu. a year earlier. in

130 )3o

333 203 143

44

38 4* 34 39

's

33 *'

'

35 48

45 70

support price was reduced to 50 cents per bushel

of parity; as compared with 61 cents

(70%

of parity; on

September averagtij

standards were revised early

the year to pr-

in

vide for increase in test weight per bushel for numerical gratis

The world crop was

indicated at 3,700,000.000 bu. from iij

13%

below the large 1958 crop of 4,240,000,000 bu. from 116.520,000 ac. and 11% below the average crop for 1950170,000 ac,

54.

Reductions were indicated for most areas. ^^'^

Qt]Jtlldri6S.'

selected

a

is

women

(J.

list

K. R.;

of prominent

of the United States

and other

died during the year 1959:

_

.

.

fo'lo^ving

"'^" a"'!

who

countries,

.

,,

.

,

Sir Ibrahim Ibni Almorhum, Malayan sultan (b. Johore, Malaya. Sept. 17. 1873-d. London, Eng., May 8, 1959). Adams, Woyman, US. portrait artist (b. Muncie, Ind., Sept. 2i. 1883-d.

Abu-Bakar,

.Austin, Te.\.. .\pril

7,

1939).

dress designer (bNaugatuck, Conn., March 3 19« d. Los .Angeles. Calif., Sept. 13, 19o9), became a leading L.S. coutunct when he was the principal costume designer for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in Hollywood, designing gowns for Norma Shearer, Joan Crawford. GreU Carbo and many other leading movie actresses, including Janet Gaynor, whom he married. .Adrian opened his own fashion salon in Beverly Hilb, Calif., in 1942. He stressed "streamlining" in his designs. He was al80 known as a painter of .African scenes

Adrian

Gilbert

—

Alexander,

U.S

Sir Frank, British shipping executive (b.

igjji _^ Famborough, Eng., July 18. 1959). Anderson, Harry William, U.S. manufacturer 1891 d. Wallaceburg, Ont., Nov. 18, 1959).

(b.

London, Eng., June

17,

Cadillac, Mich., Dec. 2S,

—

Anderson, Maxwell U.S^dramatist (b. .Atlantic, Pa., Dec. 15, 1888--d Stamford, Conn., Feb. 28, 1959), was one of the most productive of 20thcentury U.S. playwrights. His 6rst success. It hal Price Glory/ (1924). "'"?." '" collaboration with Laurence Stallings became one of the ma n L .S. literary by-products of W orld \\ ar L The blank verse dramas, £/;: belh the Queen (193O), Mary oj Scotland (19J3) and it intersel (1935). last inspired by the Sacco-Vanzetti trial of the 1920s, gained for .\ndera prominent place in the American theatre. His other works inclu-'Sati-:,wi;***'2«^*s.,'*

Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, became in April 1959

23, 1959),

—

d

OBITUARIES

508

lirst nritinh prr^Ulrnt of the consultative ansemhty of the I'ouncil of Europe The «>n of a niilwnvmiin. he was educated at Aylesbury grammar school and for a time studied theology at the Community of the Resurrection, Minield. Yorkshire lie took a degree in economics at Leeds university and later had various appointments as a lecturer in economics. In 19J8 he was elected general secretary of the Post OfTicc Engineering union. He became Labour member of jKirliument for one of the Blackburn, Lancashire, constituencies in the 1*>4,S general elrtlion and two years later was apiiointed parliamentary secretary to the ministry of health. He was unsuccessful in the 1950 general election but shortly afterward won Hrighouse and S|jenborough, Yorkshire, in a by-election, becoming economic secretary to the treasury in Oct. 1950. With the Labour party in opposition, Edwards devoted most of his attention to the cause of European union. He became a delegate to the Council of Europe in 1955 and vice president in 1957. He was also chairman of the budget committee of the wc-stern European union and chairman of the executive committee of political and economic planning.

(he

Eisenberg, l')t:

et passion de Jeanne d'.irc and L'Eminence grise (1941)— reply to .Mdous Hu.xley's Grey Eminence (i.«,, Pere Joseph). i

Grock (Charles .Adries Wett.\ch). Swiss Switz.. Jan.

10..

1880— d. Imperia.

circus clown Italy. July 14, 1959).

(b.

Reconv

—

Grosz, George, German-U.S. artist (b. Berlin. Ger.. July 26, 1893 d. BerU July 6. 1959). began as a bitter caricaturist of post-World War I Germany_i| a series of drawings savagely attacking militarism, war profiteering, soa decadence and finally Naziism. His collected drawings were published in volumes. Grosz emigrated to the United States in 1932. the object of N« vilification, and became a U.S. citizen six years later. By this time he hal mellowed somewhat and turned to naturalistic themes in water colour all oil that drew the considered approval of critics and were exhibited in leadiil European and I'.S. museums. However, he continued his Goyaesqil 11 paintings of decadence and of the horrors of war— tvpicallv in "The Pit, Piece of My World." "Waving the Flag" and "The Wanderer." His autj" biography. Ein Grosser Nein und ein KIcines Ja, was published in 195S. I

I

(

'

OBrTUARIES US

educator and author

^!,*"/ ^"A',°r!'''/[^"', 1880— d. Stanford, Calif., Nov. 13, 1959).

(b. Paris,

""^

7bllogv'n9n1s^J'f ^^^ "' "'' °rom

Guest, Edgar Albert r.S writer and newspaperman (b. Birmingham, Eng., Aug. 20, ISSl-d. Detro.t, Mich.. .Aug. 5. 1959), became known is the -poei 01 the people for his sentimental and inspirational verse, published for more century in the Delroil Free Press and syndicated at one time in K ".^,An* about 300 newspapers. His verse was never considered good literature bv critics, nor for that matter by Guest himself, who preferred to refer to himself as a newspaperman. His first commercially book was -1 Heap Lnw (1916), a best seller; and he published published about two dozen others He also appeared on radio and television. Guest emigrated from England to the Lnited States as a child in 1S91 and began working for the Free Press in 1895 as an office boy after completing only a year of high school. He was later a police reporter column of verse. Guest

and exchange editor before starting became a U.S. citizen in 1902.

Guffey Joseph Finch, U.S. senator

his

own

"

daily

P^fe^^or in 1907 and Sterling professor

'^'"'^'"' °' '^'

N^""-'

Resear^cf council

^'^'«.="^° .("? Tokyo, Jap., Jan. 1, 1883-d. P"™^ minister of Japan from Dec 19S4 to

TokvriAth"? ^wf9n >: ™^ A ^^'nci ^oJ^c.^i-|:;^j;^-^-- ^-Ij^^^l'-;-

house

•

of the national diet

a^; melL'of the 5./r;.frPottcal'Fr°eL" f™" '° ''^.^he was minister of^^fcation.^Didig^WorU he'"' 'ff he was out of favour with Japan's mihtary rulers and took no part n public life. After the war he organized and led the N.kon y73.r aapan

-'*• P^^P^bed by Gen. Douglas MacAr hur in 1946 ^o^?, W^ Kr' "T ""^ ">« only Japanese purged spicifi ^Uv bv cam by name, name''"a„L°M''/"'^'''and did not resume "l"his seat in the diet

until after the oeace reaty with the Lmted States took effect in April 1952. In 1954 he left the Liberal party, Japan's largest, to join with the second largest group he Progressives, in forming the new Xihon Minshuto Japan Democrat cpartv) He was leader of the opposition until he became 195"^'

^ f

prime minister" Hawthorn John Michael ("Mike"), British motor-racing driver (b Mexbor ough, 'iorkshire, April 10, 1929-d. near Onslow, Surrey, Jan 2 1959) be came world-champion racing motorist in 1958. He was killed in a road acci ^^er announcing his retirement from Grand Prfx raHn/H"'r racing^ HawthornT^' began racing at 21 with Riley sports cars and tw"o years Bristol he won the Chiches?er cup at and wafolacedTi.\'^°°P" was placed high m numerous British and continental rn,-»o t„Goodwood ioj: j for Ferrari he w^n the French Grand P^flZ'tanManudlangro'af

Guggenheim, M. Robert, U.S. diplomat (b. New York, N.Y., May 17, 1885ooj j d. Washington. D.C., Nov. 16, 1959). ^'""'^^ ^"'-"'^ C'- London, Eng., Sept. 26, 1877-d. Woodland ^Z^u" r''r^"iililis, LaUt., Sept. ,

1959).

(b.

1946

I"'!

Wafft War II

(b.

Hale, Sonnie (pseud, for John Robert Hale-Munko), British actor tng.. May 1, 1902— d. London, June 9, 1959).

19!-8 to

A

near Pittsburgh, Pa., Dec. 29 1870-d VVashington D.C., March 6, 1959), was an early pohtical supporter of J-rankhn D. Roosevelt and one of the most influential of Roosevelt's backers in the senate during the first ten years or so of the New Deal In 1934 Guffey became the first Democratic senator to be elected from Pennsylvania in more than a half century. He continued in the senate for two terms but in 1 W6- Guffey was a successful businessman in PhM K l°\ '^"I'^'^'i?" Philadelphia before his election to the senate. During World War I he had charge of sales in the Office of Ahen Property Custodian.

6,

509

France, Nov. 3

London,

•

^a'"u"'

*^°ll*°P

'"'^''"'"^ ^'"dtey

Wood,

1st E.«l of, British statesman "'=*' ^'"='"' '^*=™°' Eng., April 16, 1881-d GarYorkshire, Eng., Dec. 23, 1959), was viceroy of

m'^'"" '^^^"'^; rowby Thall, near York ?* \l son IS^^hTk '^^','"u'' 1938-40. The fourth of the '

i^^

ri

.

nu

L -'Vig

°f "^'"^ f°^ ^°"='S^ ^ff^'irs

during

Mans 24_hr. race during which about 80 spectators ^c:1iil?^ra\?s''•''^r1,'"'''"-^^ were killed In 1957 he rejoined Ferrari and was highl>- placed in four Grands Prix and the Xurburg

'"=r'^''2nd viscount Halifax, who was well known as o-Cathohc movement, he was educated at Eton and at

p' ^? ^'""^'^ parliament in 1910 as Conservative m^lill f ''"d during World War I served for a time ?-' ^'1°"' Y"'^^^""' with the \orkshire dragoons in France. In 1921 he was appointed parhamentary undersecretary for the colonies and in the following year became "^"^ ''°'"''' °' education, holding this post until 1924 Durine .^\. ?nf! 1924-25 lie was minister of agriculture. His first major appointment was as viceroy of India (1926-31), and he served in India during a period of grea nationalist ferment, which Gandhi played a leading part. On his return from India he again became president of the board of education (193'-35) '"'^ ^"''^' "^^ ^^'^^^'^''^ ^'"d ^°"^ president "of the coundf °''^?,''^-,

n.

^fl

" W^';Wn7ton.'D C°^i'ul>''7'l9^'" "

m

a937-T8T'''''''^' The most controversial period of Halifax' career followed his as foreign secretary in Feb. 1938, after Anthony Eden's

U'

Hines,

appointment

resignatiolTfrom

°"'^'J"ding leader in the defeat of Japan. Early in Feb. 1942 he „h°'^'t'"' raided Japanese bases the Marshall and Gilbert islands. In October of that year he became commander of U.S. naval forces in the South Pacific, shortly "'" '^"^- °^ '^'?'''^'- ^"'"^ '°' his aggressive and often nn.rf ff.H""'''^ f h• H™flflagship, '^''u opposition. His the battleship U.S.S. "Missouri," was the surrende site for the Japanese Sept. 1, 1945. In Dec. 1945 Halsey was promoted omoteo to ro rne the five-star rank of fleet admiral. Son of a navy captain, Halsey was graduated from Annapolis in 1904 and commanded a destroyer patrol force during World War I Later he com manded the aircra.t carrier U.S.S. "Saratoga." After various other ship

']^^'''-

^""^^^^^

0"°her won

''^

'" 1958, his

him the

for

N'^"

""'^ ^°^^'

P90!-d.'^ch'enec'ta'S;:"Ma"v 2'r'l9T9f

^''" ^'^

"YeTullllm^Is^ttly 2t'l95^'°"''"'"

the Charnberlam government. Halifax had previously been politically close to ^hamberlain. and his acceptance of the foreign office meant that he v^ !'l Jdentihed himself with Chamberlain's policy of applasement toward Nazi Germany. When Winston Churchill became prime minister in May 1940 Halifax remained at the foreign oflice for seven months, but at the end of that year he went to Washington as British ambassador, remaining in this pos^ until May 1946. In 1957 he pubhshed a volume of recollections, VuUness

':-\VS- fleet admiral (b. Elizabeth, N.J., Oct. 30 "°yllV "^'"i^T ^'^i^^'^^J 1882-d. Fishers Island. N.\., Aug. 16, 1959), led the first U.S. nava offensive strike against the Japanese in World War II and went on to

"p"' ^^'^""'"^ the Tn'ro'" ^'°™"'"' ^'"""^ ^"^ '°

fn

champion

second pla? world

title of

^^^-

'-°"^' ^°'' ^'°^'

^"^

Feb.

'''^-''

Duncan U.S. pubhsher of guides to restaurants and hotels (b Bowhmr ^6. I880-d. Bowling Green, March 15. 1959 pubirshed L' ^^r^ inGood Eating in 1937 and within Adventures a few yea s was con

hi-'fir;t first

A

' ''°«-d.

S^^^-'^^^' ^Y-,

,

°n eating places for travelers. He late wrote '?""' and '\"f ^f^°"^>: published i»i^,„«/„r a Night (1938), a guide to hotels and motlj A• Goodman's attention to he

anlti^'shTh artistrj She became a"f""' featured singer

with Goodman's band and with the ' '^"^ ^haw and was among ]azz en Susfa stTls -EaT'Da"" "" H .""eeordings, beginningknown with "Your Mother's " ? Snn ,-o,?^-ISon-in-Law in 1933 became internationally knovvn; among others were Them There Eyes," "Lover Man," "Fine and Mellow,'"^'Driving Me Strange Fruit" She appeared in B ofdw,\ musical and in solo concerts. Miss motion pictures, telev isfon a Broadwa\ Holiday was convicted of a nar cotics y.olation in 1947 and thereafter her career declined, although she contmued her recordings and concert appearances and made a tour of EuropeTn .

m

f

?

•

"

IL

a^d '^"""^"dant of the Pensacola (Fla.) naval air stat?onT;^1station ^\''' H of an aircraft-carrier in 193, and head division in 1940. Following his retirement in April 1947 he was director of several corporations

T

"

TugeV''orr,Nov.''7'l9'5°9)'"""

ri

^"''"^ """''

Enrofc

w'lgsg);'-

"""

U.S. biologist

"Tiw?} New Haven, ^'"""'"P Conn., Sept.

30, 1959),

°®'" (b.

won

'^-

-^P"'

"

Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 13, international fame

"" iTr'l

I870-d

^""^ ''"'''"P ""'^''^'^ 'heir original ''""^ l.ght on the origin of nerve fibrefand

CLAZ"r,'!,''^rr'' 7P°':'^nt discoveries-including

^"^^^^'-k'.-;^/-.

May

16.

Oct.

14,

1877-d.

1878-d. Hollywood,

"°Cahf' L-all.. .Sept. S°eD,°''in^'fQ,of°'' 30. 1939), was a matinee idol of the early 1900s in the United """'''^ °f ^"^"' -""'i™ Pi^'"^^^ ^'nd in Brold wav^hows way ? ' starring show^s. "l"''^ .Among ^T\ Ijis later stage roles were those of Jeeter Lester in Tobacco Road and the president in I'd Rather Be Right.

"

"

''"''".;''= -^^P-^^'

(b-

Cornwall-on-the-

HSd^o^^''^ Y^^Ocrn^'i'l^-"''!,' 188/-d. ^V^' Miami, Fla., Feb. 1, 1959) became the . .'u-,;'j^S'greatest billiards player of his time after winning the world's 8 1 ba™k 1 ne fh'""P;T-'"P '" "".' '° ^^'^ "' 'he age of I8^n both the balllfne

and

^«'--''- London,

as a pioneer in tesue culture-the cultivation of animal cells outside the body In his research first published in 1907. he devised a simple method of transplanting

-" Urns Thl-P

''^-

P""-'^' O-'

''

organ led to

those of Alexis Carrel and the ^H^fh °° ?^' '!'="' °f '"°"''^>' "Sidneys. Harrison took his Ph D .? j?^'\'?,°P'''°' T^''°h"'T' "P'^^^'ty ^nd his medical degree at the University of Bonn, Bonn Ger. After teaching at Bryn Mawr coUege and Johns Hopkins

he

"^' acknowledged master for about 50 years, but Le won w^^ h s greatest fame in "l" he the three-cushion version of the game In 940 at the international tournament in Chicago, Hoppe won all the 21 three cushion matches and in the nexfl2 seasons won 10 world championship, He retired from tournament play in 1952, still the three-cushion champion

^r?^

^^''^'' Francisco, Calif., I863:'-d. New "°Yorr''^-'^Y° nr"r/',^-o; "'^' ^'',^t° °"' ?^ \^% ""''' "lebrated U.S. actresses of '' the early tl^e earK.'^90?s h I 1900s, being known particularly for her starring role in the '

musical

"^de

her

Broadway debut

in 1891 in The Club Friend and had "'^'"^^' P™'^""'-' "ho commissioned Dav?H t ^v"''"""' T"^ " ^^Pecially for her. This comedy. The Girl f r^OR X 51? ?,X'f """"f'' Left Behuid Me (1893), secured Miss Wallace her future top biUiAg She wa^

il!?;.

!i

ru

rI

"'

A

OBITUARIES

510 mtrrird

him

Dt Wolt Hopper (I858-19J5), the comedian, but divorced IWS married .Mberl () Brown, a slockbrolter. .^fter 1910

in 18'cars withheld by censorship from public performance. Frunitla (1906). a charming fantasy in which Harley Granville Barker collaborated, escaped this fate. It was not, however, until 1922 that Housman again became prominent, with the publication of the first of three collections entitled Little Plays oj St. Franeis. In the same year appeared the \'ictorian historical piece Angels and Ministers, and in 1923 Dethronements. These preceded the many one-act Victorian '"palace plays" and the full length Vietorm Kesina, which was staged in the I'nited States with great success before it was licensed by the lord chamberlain in 19J7. The note of satire which in varying degrees pervaded much of his writing was dominant in the novel Trimblerigg (1924). of which Lloyd (jeorge was the thinly disguised butt. \a individualist without allegiance to any literary movement, Housman described himself as "a rabid pacifist and internation-

—

alist."

Howells, John Mead, U.S. architect (b. Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 14, 1868— dKittcrv Point. Me., Sept. 22, 1959). Hudson, Richord Furmon, Jr., C.S. publisher (b. Jeflerson Co., Ga., Oct. 24, 1884 d. Monlgomery, Ala.. Sept. 26. 1959). Huff, Charles H., I'.S. author (b. St. Louis, Mo., 1888?— d. Yonkers, N.Y., July 15, 1959). ironside. Sir William Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron, British military leader (b. Ironside, Eng.. May 6, 1880— d. London. Eng., Sept. 22, 1959).

Wallace, U.S. newspaper columnist and humorist (b. Oneida, N.Y., March 15, 1875— d. Southern Pines, N.C., Feb. 14, 1959). was best known for his "Letters of a Japanese Schoolboy," a series of satirical columns, written for various N'ew York city papers and published as a book in 19U9. He also published a number of novels and books of humour and verse. He was the brother of William Henry (Will) Irwin (187J-1948). also one of the best-

Irwin,

known humorists

,

i

.

Kendall, Kay (.Mrs. Rex Harrison). British comedienne (b. Witherniea, Enf., M:iy 21. 1926-d. London. Eng .Sept, 6. 1959). Khama, Tihekedi, Bcchuanaland regent (b. 1906— d. London, Eng. June 10, 1959).

King, Samuel Wilder, U.S. political leader (b. Honolulu, Hawaii, Dec. 17, 1886 -d. Honolulu. March 24, 1959), was governor of Hawaii from Feb. 1953 to July 1957 and was one of the first to campaign for admission of the territory to the union. Son of a pioneer Hawaiian shipping executive. King graduated from the I'.S. Naval academy in 1910 and had active service io World Wars I and II. .\t the time of his death King was a Republican representative in the territorial house.

Harry Dexter, U.S. vocational psvchologist and educator (b. Miibawaka. Ind Aug 11. 1886 -d. Mishawaka, Sept. 25, 1959). Knipper-Chekhova, Olga, Soviet actress (b. 1870 d. Moscow, U.S.S.R., Kitson,

.

—

March

22, 1959).

Kovocs, Belo, Hungarian Smallholders party leader (b. in a village of the county of Baranya, Hung.. 1908 -d. Pecs, Hung.. June 21, 1959). was one o{ the toughest opponents of Communism. The son of a peasant, he became, after World War II. secretary general of the Independent Smallholders party, founded by Ferenc Xagy, and was instrumental in the party's electoral victory of Nov. 1945. Kovacs was appointed minister of agriculture ia Nagy's cabinet, but the Communists, backed by the Soviet occupation authorities, forced him to resign. When the house of representatives refused to waive his immunity. Lieut. Gen. V. P. Sviridor. Soviet president of the .Allied Control commission, ordered his arrest on Feb. 25. 1947, accusing him of "organizing espionage against the Soviet forces." He was deported to the U.S.S.R. and imprisoned there for almost nine years. Physically broken, he was released in Jan. 1956 and returned to Hungary. On Nov. 2, 1956, duriof the October rising, he was given the post of minister of state in the Imre Nagy cabinet. When the rising had been crushed. Kovacs returned to Pecs. first he refused to collaborate with Janos Kadar, but on Nov. 16, 1958, he was elected to the house of representatives as a candidate of the Patriotic

M

People's front.

Krauss, Werner, German actor (b. Gestungshausen, Ger., June 23, 1884— Vienna. Aus., Oct. 20, 1959). Kribben, Earl, U.S. business executive (b. St. Louis. Mo., July 2, 1903— d. Lake Forest, 111., May 31, 1959).

(b.

Philadelphia, Pa., Jan.

2,

1887—

Jansen, Ernest George, South African statesman (b. near Dundee, Natal, .\ug. 7, 1881— d. Pretoria, U. of S. Af., Nov. 25, 1959), was governor general of the Union of South .\frica from 1951 until the time of his death. Educated privately and at Ladysmith and Durban, he studied law and was admitted as an attorney in 1906. Joining the Nationalist party in 1915. he was elected to parliament in 1921 as a member for Vryheid. a constituency he was to represent for 22 years. When the government of Gen. James Hertzog came into power in 1924. Jansen was appointed speaker, and he held this office continuously until 1943. except for four years between 1929 and 1933. He was considered by many to be the best speaker the South .African house of assembly had ever had. Having lost his seat in the 1943 election, he became for a short time editor of \ew Era. an English language Nationalist weekly. Returned to parliament at a by-election in 1947. he was given the portfolio of native affairs when D. F. Malan formed a government following the Nationalist victory in the general election of 1948. Three years later Jansen was appointed governor general, a post he was to hold with distinction during a ditficult period in his country's history.

—

Johnson, Edward, Canadian operatic tenor (b. Guelph. Ont., .\ug. 22, 1878? d. Guelph, .\pril 20, 1959). was general manager of the Metropolitan Opera company in New York city for 15 years (1935-50) after his retirement from the operatic stage. He began as a choral and concert singer and a player in operettas and did not make his operatic debut until 1912 in Umberto Giordano's Andrea Chenier, at Padua. Italy. Changing his name to Eduardo di Giovanni, he attained wide European fame before joining the Chicago Opera company in 1919. when he resumed his real name, .\fter three years Johnson was hired by the Metropolitan, where he created new roles in such U.S. premiere operas as Deems Taylor's The King's Henchman (1927) and

—

Peter Ibbetson (1931) and Howard Hanson's Merry Mount (1934). and continued to star in a score or more standard productions until his farewell performance in March 1935. .\s general manager of the Metropolitan during the ensuing >ears. Johnson considerably enlarged the company's repertoire and its roster of U.S. singers and guest conductors. He also was credited with having placed the company on a sounder financial footing.

Johnson, Ernest Amos, U.S. educator April 13. 1959).

(b.

Ouray, Colo., Jan.

10.

1895— d. Lake

La Gorce, John Oliver U.S. editor and geographer (b. Scranton, Pa., Sept. 22, 1880— d. Washington. D.C., Dec. 23, 1959), was editor of the Satioiul Geographic magazine and was president of the National Geographic society, in succession to Gilbert Grosvenor, from 1954 to 1957. La Gorce was one of the principal organizers of .\dm. Richard E. Byrd's expeditions of 1929 and 1933 to the .Antarctica. He also assisted Donald B. MacMillan's expedition of 1925 to the arctic. La Gorce was the author of several books oo fishing

and

^^

I

|

travel.

Napoleon ("Larry"), L'.S. baseball player (b. Woonsocket. R.I.. 5. 1875 — d. Daytona Beach. Fla.. Feb. 7, 1959). was one of the original i bers elected to the baseball hall of lame in 1936-37. In 21 years (1896as a major-league player with the Philadelphia Phillies in the Nat league and with the Philadelphia .Athletics and the Cleveland Indians in '

Lajoie,

(

.American league. Lajoie had a lifetime annual batting average of .339. batting championship mark of .422 in 1901 had still not been bettered at I time of his death; Ty Cobb came closest in 1911 with .420, equaled by George! Sisler in 1922. Originally an outfielder. Lajoie shifted later to second base. Sieu was manager of the Cleveland Indians from 1905 to 1909 and played his last| major-league games for the Philadelphia .Athletics in 1915-16.

Land, Frank Sherman,

1890— d. Kansas

L".S.

worker with boys

City, Mo.,

Nov.

8,

(b.

Kansas City, Mo., June

21,|

1959).

Landowska, Wanda, Polish harpsichordist and pianist

(b.

Warsaw,

Pol.,

1879— d.

Lakeville. Conn., Aug. 16, 1959). spent the last 18 years of 1 the United States, where she had made her American debut in 19'_ Her revival of harpsichord music in the 20th centuo' drew wide public i terest and support. See her biography in Encyclopedia Britannica.

5.

life in

Lane, Lupino, British actor

(b.

London. Eng., June

16,

1892— d. London, No

10, 1959).

Longer, William, U.S. senator (b. near Everest, N.D., Sept. 30, 1886Washington, D.C.. Nov. 8. 1959). was a dissident Republican during mosto (' his career in state and national politics. He was an early supporter of Nonpartisan league, founded in North Dakota by .A. C. "Townley in 1915. state's attorney in 1914 and North Dakota's attorney general in 1916, he
onsible for establishing Kafka's reputation in Britain. Muir's full stature as a poet first became apparent with The Voyage (1946) and The Labyrinth (1949). These were followed by Collected Poems, 1921-il (1952) and Ont Foot itt Eden (1956), while new poems which appeared in periodjcab until the laat months of his life all added to his reputation. He was honoured by oaanjr universities in Britain and abroad and in 1953 was created a commandeTi Order of the British Empire.

Muir, Sir Robert, Scottish pathologist and bacteriologist (b. Hawick, Scot,, July 5, 1854 d. Edinburgh, Scot., March 30, 1959), was one of the great pathologists of his generation. Educated at Hawick academy and Edinbur^ university, he gained a gold medal in 1890 and became lecturer on bacteriology at Edinburgh in 1892. From then on he held various teaching posts in the universities of Edinburgh and St. Andrews until his appointment If professor of pathology at Glasgow, a post he held until his retirement in 1936, Muir was best known as a teacher and author of standard textbooks dfi bacteriology and pathology, but he specialized chiefly in immunology published his Studies on Immunity in 1909. For many years a member of the Medical Research council, he was elected a fellow of the Royal society a, 1911 and was awarded a royal medal for his research on immunity in 1929. His knighthood followed in 1934.

—

Munford, Walter F., U.S. industrialist Hyannis, Mass.. Sept. 28. 1959). Munnings, Sir Alfred (James), British

1878— d. Dedham.

(b.

Worcester, Mass., June

artist (b.

Mendham

8,

1900—4

Mill, Eng., Oct.S,

Eng., July 17, 1959).

Namafjira, Albert, .Australian

artist

(b.

Hermannsburg, Austr., July

1902— d. Alice Springs, Austr., Aug. 8, 1959). Naumburg, Walter Wehle, U.S. banker and music patron Dec. 25, 1867— d. New Y'ork, N.Y., Oct. 17, 1959).

(b.

28,

New York, X.Y.,

Neal, John R., U.S. lawyer (b. Rhea Springs, Tenn., Sept. 17, 1876— d. Rockwood. Tenn., Nov. 23, 1959), was chief defense attorney in the "monke> trial" of John T. Scopes at Dayton, Tenn., in 1925 for teaching evolution ii high-school classes there. .Although Neal directed the defense, he was out shone by another defense attorney, the famed Clarence Darrow; also b> William Jennings Bryan, Darrow's counterpart for the prosecution. Nelson, Donald Marr, U.S. business executive and government official (b Hannibal. Mo., Nov. 17, 1888-d. Los .Angeles, CaUf., Sept. 29, 1959) was director of the War Production board (1942-44), during most of thi was the powerful agency tha U.S. participation in World War II. controlled and directed the procurement and production of all U.S. wa by Pres. Frankln supplies. Prior to his appointment as chairman of the D. Roosevelt in Jan. 1942, Nelson had been associated with Sears. Roebud & Co. for 29 years, as executive vice-president and chairman of the execu live committee from 1939 to 1942. .After his resignation from the Wa Production board. Nelson was a special representative of President Roose

WPB

WPB

velt to

Chiang Kai-shek's government

New

George Henry,

U.S. educator Haven. Conn.. Feb. 5, 1959).

Nettleton,

Newman,

Ernest, British

music

critic (b.

in

(b.

China

in 19+4-45.

Boston, Mass., July

16,

Liverpool, Eng., Nov. 30,

Tadworth, Surrev, Eng., July 7, 1959). Norton, Mary Teresa, U.S. pohtician (b. Jersey City, N.J., Greenwich, Conn., .Aug. 2, 1959).

1874—

1858— I

March

7,

187S— Iag>-. -As research sctor of Pies. Heitiert C. Hoover's committee on sodai trends 19J0-3 J) zZ'-mTi completed wbat was tamed tbe ''first oatiooai inventor^"" of CS. sudety. He was an antlaority on tlie social cbanees arising from te^moSo^cal advances; from tbe growth of cities and faom ocber bctocs. He served oa a nnunber of federal conunittees and aa tej also as arfaetef in a aumber oi isbiMir-Dianaganait disputes. Ogbmn was pcofessoc of sodohgy at Cotcimbia imivieiaty bom 1919 to 1927 and at The Cniversity of Chicago from 192 7 tmtil bis seCireinent in 1951. He was an editorial adviser on so-wood home.

r'eaich

r

i:

;

513

the Republican part>- for most of his 40 years as representative from the upstate 43rd Xew York congressional district. .\s senior Republican on the house of representatives ways and means committee and its chairman in 1953—54. Reed opposed Large federal spending and high taxes. He also worked for protective tariJs and broke with Pres. Dwight Eisenhower on the tariS issue, as well as on the issue of aid to foreign nations.

(b.

Papantb. Ver.. Met. April 2T. J8S7—d. Santiago. CMe. Marcit it. 1959). d. Nurfcse, Kognor, UJS. ecDcamist and ediHator (b. Estonia. Oct. 5. 1907

Reinert,

Egon Hans, German public

official (b.

I90S— d. Saarbriicken, .\pril li. 1959). Reiss, William A., U.S. shipping executive (b. d. Chicago. IIL. Oct. 24. 1959).

—

Saarbrucken. Ger., Sept. 24,

Sheboygan, Wis., Xov. 28, 1884

—

Reyes, Alfonso, Merican poet (b. Monterrev, Mes., May 17, 1889 d. Merico City. Mei.. Dec 27. 19591. Rboods, Cornelius Packard, U.S. srientist (b. Springfield. Mass.. June 20, 189S— d. Stooington, Conn.. .\ug. 13. 1959). Richards, Sfephen L, U.S. church offidal :b. Mendon. Uuh. June 18. 1879— d. Salt Lake City-. Utah. May 19, 1959).

1882— d.

Perigord, Podt U3- edocatoc (b. Toukxise, France, October 25, Xj-ack. X.Y.. Xov. 4, 1959).

Pertnon, Selig, CS. economEt Ok Biaiystok. PoL. Dec 9. 1888—d. PhOadelpii^ Pa.. .\ng. 14, 1959), was a pionetT in the sdentiJic study of labour ecorsfosnics and histacy, o!riginall>~ nnder tbe tntdage of John R. Commons (1862-1944)1 at tlae UniveraiCy of WiscoDisin. With Commons and others. Pertman wrote the dassc Bisiffry of Ltzb&r sk tkg VKkid St'ZUs 1918). His A Tkmy if Iks Lxior Mmsmmit (1928) w^s generally considered to be his greatest work. He albo wrote a histovy of trade tmioas in the U.S. 1922 and was coantbor of several other works. Perlman studied at the L'aiversit>' of Xaples, Italy, in 1906-OT, then emigrated to the United States and was n.£tMralized a ir.S. citiaeD in 1913. He took Ms bachek>r s degree at the Unitrsity of Wiscnisin in 1910 and ins doctorate there in 1915. Except during :.^15, when he was a special investi^tor for the U.S. Commission on - I'icsttial RdatiaiBS, be was ob the stall of tbe University of Wisconsin from \ .!*jfi. advandng to the tank of foD prafessor in 1927.

Richards, Vincent, U.S. tennis player (b. Xew York, X.Y.. March 20. 1903 d. Xew York. X.Y.. Sept. 28, 1959). was one of the four outstanding amateur tennis players of the 1920s a golden era in U.S. tennis when .\merican teams won seven straight Davis Cup championships '1920-26). The other three

—

were William Tilden II. Richard X'. Williams II and William Johnston. Richards, then eclipsed by Tilden, did not win any amateur U.S. singles title. With Tilden. however, he took the national doubles championship in 1918, 1921 and 1922: he also won the doubles title with Williams in 1925 and 1926. Ricliards turned professional in 1926 la siirprise dedsion that gave U.S. professional tennis its original impetus) he won the national professional singles title in 1927, 1928. 1930 and 1933. Injured in an automobile acddent in 1935, he came back to win the professional doubles championship in 1937,

1

(

'

:

1938 and 1945.

'

Peterson, Jfonalhin)

Whtaey,

tobacco emjitire

ir.SL

(b.

.\pjil 30. 1S9»—d. Greenwich, Cbmn., Oct- 6. 1959). fliilipe, G«rord, French actor fit. Cannes, France,

Dec

Brooklyn. X.Y.,

—

1922 d- Paris, Firance. Xov. 25. 1959). Pigou, Arthur Cecil, Biitish economist (b. Ryde. F.ng , Xov. 18, 1877 d. London. Eng., March 7, 1959). Pnsky, David. Yidifish amthor (k Mogilev, Rnssia, April 5, 1872—d. Haifa, IsiraeL -Ase. 11. 1959). Plonmo'11 T>Kync< us. Roman Catholfic ckcgyman and educator (b. iVvenirr Gct.. March 19. 1879—d. Oban, X.Y.. Feb. 13. 1959). ^ r Polk Z- 1 T z C-S. cocgresaman (b. Highland Co., O., Oct. 6, 1896 : d_ VVi, .\priI28, 1959). 4,

—

-

—

.

CiMMdIer Rothfon, U.S- aothority on Spanish art

ftwt,

—

Dec

(b. Detroit.

Mich.,

14. 1881 d. Cannbridge, Mass., Xov. 2. 1959), was Boardman professor of fine aits at Harvard nniveisity from 1923 ontil bis retirement in 1950. PrevBoo^y he had tanght Greek aiBd hngnages at Han>'ard snce first jojining the Eacnlty in 19IK. the year he took his master's degree There. At the tinDe of 1"^ A^ffltt he had coinpleted 12 volnmes of a history' of ~ T.i,^g>h pointiii^ and was at work osl the 13th. was also antbor of several ;^er woirks om the fine arts.

modem He

—

U3.

= :-er. George W., joonnlEt (b. Fall River, Mass, Sept. 20, 1899 d. .-"-.-idemce. R_L. .\ug. 10. 1959). Pe'.d^, Willioa Henry, U.S. bnsine^man and Boy Scoot leader (b, Brooklyn, '

\'..

JaE.

1875—d. Xew York,

1.

-;-•!, Hennng -

.

-4—d-

Webb,

I:-::

:.:-t:

Jr.,

Jf.Y.. Feb. 16, 1959).

U5. manrfactorer

(b.

St

Loois, Mo.. July 11,

Laocaster, Pa., Oct. 29, 1959)'. -

CS. goveranfient oSdal (h. Van Buren, .\rfc.. WasiringtoBi. D.C... May 8. 19591. was depatj- U.S. It "^re time of h^ A^irtfe Xeil H. McEiroy. seoetary of t'i his dfCJSBOgE to retire in 1959. reconsidered after deputy "ncaDy irreplaceable.'* Prior to bis 7 rretaiy of defense in March 1937, Qtiarles had •-rieruse for research and devdopment (1953-55) = -57). He was one at the most influential r policy and in the devrilopmiwnt of space Se!! Telephone laboratories from 1948 'r:trtc coEffipany and president of ildary, in 1952-53.

.brey),

Richardson, Sir Owen (Willons), British phvsirist and Xobel prize winner (b. Dewsbury. Yorkshire. Eng.. .-Kpril 26, 1879— d. .\lton. Hampshire. Feb. 13, 1959) was best remembered for his discovers- of the fundamental law of physics controlling the motion of etectroos from hot bodies, known as the Ridiardson law. He made tiiis subject pecuh'arly his own and gave it the name "thermionics." Richardson was educated at Batle\- grammar school and at Trinity college. Cambridge, where he became a fellow. He was professor of ph>-sics at Princeton university. 1906—14. and Wheatstone professor of physics at King's college, London. 1914-24. He was then appointed a Yarrow research professor by the Ro>-al Sodety and director of research in phj-sics at King's college, a post he held until 1944. In 1931, Richardson was elected a fellow of the Roj-al Sodety and he was knighted in 1939. He was awarded the Xobel prize for physics in 1928 and wrote the standard works: The Eledirim Theory af Matter (1914) and Tkt Emissiait of EUctricity Prom Bot Bodies (1916).

Richardson, Sid Williams, U.S. oQ producer (b. .-Vthens, Tei., .\pril 25, 1891— d. St. Josephs Island, Tei., Sept, 29, 1959). Richey, Lawrence, U.S. public servant (b. Harrisburg, Pa.. Dec 21. 1885 d.

—

Washington. D.C. Dec 27. 1959). Germaine, French sculptor (b. Provence, France. 1904 d. Montpelier, France. July 30. 1959). Riddell, Guy Crosby, U.S. engineer (b. Charlestown. Mass., 1882 d. Easton, Md., J'jIv to. 1959). Ridenour, Louis N., Jr., U.S. phvsidst (b. Montdair, X.J., Xov. 1. 1911— d.

15. 1959).

Sox (.\kthuk S.uisfield W.uid), English author (b. London, Eng., I8S3-— d- London. June I. 1959). was the creator of the famous mysteryFu Manchu. .\fter working brieSy in the fin.inria,l district of London and as a newspaperman. Rohmer's intense interest in Egypt and the middle east led him into fiction writing, E.xpanding his story character Dr.

interests to

-

:

:

-

:

-

:

'..-.:

:

Remi. Que.. Oct. 30. 1889—d.

May

6.

1875—d. Orange.

indude the

far east.

Rohmer

published Dr. Fit ilanck^. a m>-s-

terv- novel, in 1913. The villainous and inscrutable oriental immediately caught the public "s fancy, and Rohmer produced more than 15 novels about him during the next 30 years. Several of the novels were made into morion pictures, and "Dr. Fu Manchu" became a popular radio series of the 19305. Rohmer also wrote se^'eral plays in wtiich Fu Manchu was the chief character. In 1955 it was reported" that Rohmer Iiad sold the television, radio and motion-picture rights to Dr. Fu Manchu for $4,000,000.

:'

:

21. 1959).

Rohoier,

.

:

May

—

-

;

Washington D.C.

Henry Ware, CS. government official (b. GreenviEe. S.C.. .^pril 13, t9. JoI>" 21. 1882—d. London, Eng., Julv 14, l'.359:i. Rogers, Bisobeth Cobb, U.S. author (b. 1903?—d. Xew York. X.Y.. March Ritey,

^

:

— —

Richier,

X.J.,

Thomas W., CS. actor (b. Boston, Mass.. Jan. 22, 1875— d. Torrington, Conn.. Xov. 14. 1959). Ruben, Barney, U.S. dothing eiecnrive (b. Poland. 1885? d. Xew York, Ross,

—

XV

gs,

Anhar

Lionet,

U

~

X.Y.. Xov. 17. 195 Conyers. CS. e«fc-;£:

-

7:{. 18»1

—d. Xc"

1959). Z = H, CS. artist (b. Berlin, Ger., .Aug. 18, 1959).

Ov-t. 27,

.-:.' -

1869— d. Xew York, N.Y.,

:

.

Pa.. ^riiiiili ' .

I

-

Dec 23, 195 P. t^Mi ifiiiil. r"

P^iilji«Mpl»Sa> Jan.

Alden,

2.

:

I

-

CS. cocLgresanan

D.C. Feb.

19, 1959),

J.

.

;

i

?

-.:-.:

-

25,

1881— ?a..

;

Xov.

-

fb. Sheridan.

was a leads

X.Y.. Sept.

15,

1575

of the cooservative

—d.

wing of

,'-/

.^ierre, Belgian colonial administrator (b. .\atwerp. Belg.. Xov. 26. liiL d. Brussels. Feb. IS, 1959). graduated from Louvain university as doctor of Liw (1913). He served with the Belgian Congo forces in World War L Joined the Belgian Congo d^Tl service and was governor general of Belgian Congo from 1934 to 1947. Later he served as permanent representative to the UX" Trusteeship coundL In 1950 he was appointed Belgian high commissioner for atomic enezgy. ;,t.- c.-i,

d

I

OBITUARIES

514

Soavedra Lamat, Carlot, Argentine statesman (b. Buenos Aires, Arg., Nov. 1, 1878 d. Uucnos Aires, Muy 5, IVSV), won the I9J6 Nubcl pence prize for his part in ending the Chaco war which simmered between Paraguay and Bolivia from 19J8 to 1935. He was chairman of the conference that arranged

Me was Argentine's 12, 19J5. minister of foreign affairs (19J2-J8), president of the League of Nations assembly (1930), and was a delegate to a number of international conferences. See also his biography in Encyclopitdia Britannka. a truce between the two nations on June

Sochi, Curf, U.S. musicologist (b. Berlin, Ger., June 29, 1881— d. New York, N.Y., 1-cb. 5, 1959). Samlnsky, Lozare, U.S. composer (b. Odessa, Russia, Oct. 27, 1882— d. Port Chester, N.Y., June JO, 1959). Samuels, Bernard, U.S. physician (b. Front Royal, Va., June 29, 1879— d. Wiscossctt, Me., July 26, 1959). Samuels, Mitchell, U.S. art dealer (b. Mitchell, S.D., 1880?-d. New York, N.Y., Nov. 28, 1959).

Sopiro, Aaron, U.S. attorney (b. San Francisco, Calif., Feb. S, 1884— d. Los Angeles, Calif., Nov. 23, 1959), was generally considered the foremost U.S. authority on legal aspects of farm and other types of marketing cooperatives, lie also specialized in labour law. In 1927 Sapiro sued Henry Ford lor $1,000,000. charging that Ford's weekly, The Dearborn Independent, bad libeled the Jewish religion in articles dealing with co-opcrativcs. The suit was settled out of court. Following charges of attempted jury bribing (of which he was acquitted) Sapiro was disbarred from practice in federal and state courts of New York.

Palo Alto, Calif., July II, 1959), was an international authority on (rahwater and marine algae. A graduate of Bcloit (Wis.) college, he taufht botany at the University of Wisconsin from 19t/> to 1925 and was profcftiar of botany and biology at Stanford university from 1925 until his retirement in I95U. Smith was the author of Freihwaler Algae oj Ike United SlttUt (1933) and other works, and was co-author of a general textbook on botany. He was an editorial consultant on botany for Encyclopadia Britiinnica. Smith, Henry Gerrith, U.S. shipbuilder d. Bronxville, N.Y., June 2, 1959).

(b.

Warrensville, O., April 9,

1870—

Smith, Sir Matthew (Arnold Bracy), English painter (b. Halifax, Yorkshire, Eng., Oct. II, 1879 -d. London, Eng., Sept. 29, 1959), was a great colouriit with an international reputation. He was educated at Giggleswick, Yorkshire, eventually studying at the Manchester School of Art and the Slade school. In his late twenties he went to France, working for a time in Henri Matisse's school in Paris, where he became acquainted with Fauvist art. There he acquired his love of brilliant colour and began contributing to the London Group exhibitions. He continued to paint in the Fauvist spirit during his army service in World War I and in the immediate postwar years, producing some fine landscapes. .After 1920 he retained a London studio, but worked mostly in France, painting nudes and landscapes in richly splendid colour schemes dominated by brilliant crimsons and grecni, oranges and peacock blues. His one man exhibition in the Mayor gallety, London, in 1920 was a major success and was followed at regular intervalt by others. In 1938, 23 of his paintings were shown at the Venice Bieonalc and 26 more in 1950. He was created a C.B.E. in 1949 and was knighted in 1954.

Sartoriui, Irving A., U.S. banker (b. New York, N.Y., July 21, 1893— d. New York. N.Y., July 9, 1959). Sasorith, Kotay D., Laotian political leader (b. Ban Mouang, Cbampassak, Laos, July 12, 19U4-d. Vientiane, Laos, Dec. 29, 1959). Scheidenhelm, Frederick William, U.S. hydraulic engineer (b. Mendota, 111., June 10. 1884-d. East Stroudsburg, Pa., Oct. 17, 1959). Schenck, Edgar Craig, U.S. museum director (b. Hot Springs, N.C., Dec. 6, 19U9-d. Istanbul, Turk., Nov. 16, 1959). Schindler, Raymond C, U.S. investigator (b. Oswego, N.V., 1883?— d. North Tarrytown, N.V., July 1, 1959). Schocken, Salman, U.S. publisher (b. Margonin, Pol., Oct. 30, 1877— d. Pontresina, Switz., Aug. 0, 1959). Schoti, Alfred, U.S. educator (b. Vienna, Aus., April 13, 1899— d. New York, N.V., May 20, 1959). Selwyn, Edward Gordon, British chprchman (b. Liverpool, Eng., July 6, 1885 -d. Shawford, Eng., June 11, 1959). Shaver, Dorothy, U.S. department store executive (b. Howard Co., Ark., July 29, 1897— d. Hudson, N.Y., June 28, 1959). Shneur, Zalmon, Hebrew-Yiddish poet and author (b. Shklov, Russia, Feb. 11, 1S87— d. New York, N.Y„ Feb. 20, 1959).

Siegfried, AndrS, French political writer, geographer and economist (b. Le Havre, France, April 21, 1875— d. Paris, March 29, 1959), well-known interpreter of modern French, British and .\merican history, was the son of Jules Siegfried, a prominent Protestant Republican of Alsatian origin. Having completed his studies at the Sorbonne university, he traveled around the world in 1900-02. In 1911 he was appointed professor of economic geography at the £cole Libre des Sciences Politiques. In 1920 he became director of the economic section of the League of Nations department at the Quai d'Orsay and attended many international conferences. He left the Ministr>- of Foreign .\ffairs in 1922, continuing to teach, to tra\el and to write. By then he had already published six books of which Le Canada, Us deux races (1906) was a success. , In 1924 appeared UAngUterre d'aujourd'hui and three >'ears later Les Etats-Unis d'aujourd'hui both promptly translated in English, both models of comprehensive and unbiased analj'sis. His Tableau des partis en France (1930) was a penetrating if somewhat optimistic exposition of French politics. In La Crise britannigue au XX' siccle (1931), Le Canada, puissance internationale (1947) and America at Mid-Century (1955) Siegfried continued his study of the Englishspeaking world. In all he wrote some 30 books, Suez, Panama et les routes maritimcs mondiales (1940) and La Suisse, democratic temoin (1948) being worthy of mention. In 1932 he was elected a member of the Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques and in Oct. 1944 of the Academic Franjaise. During World War II he restricted his public activities and did not wish to be associated with the Vichy government, .\fter the war he joined the board of Figaro to which he contributed until his death.

—

Simkhovitch, Vladimir

Gregorievitch, U.S. York, N.V., Dec. 9, 1959).

1874— d. New

educator

(b.

Russia Oct.

—

Sumner Huber, U.S. economist (b. Madison, Wis., Jan. 8, 1892 Boston, Mass., Sept. 27, 1959), was noted for his unorthodox economics

Slichter, d.

14,

— sometimes described as "liberal," sometimes "conservative."

He attracted

most attention

in his later years with his theory that creeping inflation is the "inescapable cost of the maximum rate of (economic) growth." He opposed farm subsidies but favoured deficit spending. He advocated tax reduction as a stimulus to increased consumer spending. Slichter was educated at the University of Wisconsin and the University of Chicago, and taught at Princeton and Cornell before joining the faculty of Harvard in 1930. He was Lamont University professor at Harvard from 1940 until his death.

Smith, Gilbert

Morgan, US, botanist

(b.

Bcloit.

Wis..

Jan.

6,

1885— d.

Smith, Sidney Earle, Canadian educator and government official (b. Pott Hood, N.S., March 9, 1897— d. Ottawa, Ont., March 17, 1959), was Canadian secretary of state for external affairs (foreign minister) from Dec. 1957 until his death, in the government of Prime Minister John G. Diefenbaker. Prior to this appointment Smith had a distinguished career in educatloa, as dean of the Dalhousie law school (1929-34), president of the University of Manitoba (1934-44), principal of the University College in Toronto (1944-45) and president of the University of Toronto (1945-57).

Sophion, Lawrence Henry, U.S. pathologist (b. New York, N.Y., June 26, 1903— d. .New York, .N.V.. July 8, 1959). Souter, Sir Edward (Motheson), British industrialist (b. Jan. 26, 1891—d. London, Eng., June 17, 1959). Speer, Robert K., U.S. educator (b. Peterboro, Ont., Aug. 11, 1898—d. Fresh Meadows, L.I., N.Y., Aug. 9, 1959).

j

i

|

I

|

I

Sir Stanley, English artist (b. Cookham, Berkshire, Eng., June 10^ I 1891— d. Taplosv, Buckinghamshire, Eng., Dec. 14, 1959), was, above al^ a distinguished painter of religious subjects. He was educated at the village I school and at Maidenhead Technical institute and then studied at the Slade School of .-Vrt. His bent for religious pictures, in which biblical characters were dressed in contemporary clothes, soon became evident as in "The Visitation" (1913). His great "Christ Bearing the Cross" appeared in 1920, but he did not become known to the general public until he painted his first "Resurrection" (1927), representing the dead rising from their, tombs. His major work, and indeed one of the greatest British works of the 20th century, was the decoration of the oratory of .\ll Souls, Burghclere, Hampshire. Those paintings, "Resurrection of the Soldiers" over the altar and scenes of army life on the side walls, were completed in 1932. Spencer's work also included closely observed and highly finished landscapes and humorous comments on the absurdity of human behaviour. In 1950 he completed his second "Resurrection," and a retrospective exhibition of his work was held in 1955 at the Tate gallery, .\lthough his paintings had never found universal favour, there was nevertheless general recognition of his power in representation. He painted with a Pre-Raphaelite attention to detail, but the distortion of his figures contributed to the sense of pressure, urgency and rh>thm of his larger compositions. His great achievement was to express timeless religious ideas through 20th-centur>', and usuall\' parochial, symbols, with a strong autobiographical element. In 1959, after a lifetime of controversy, he was awarded a knighthood.

Spencer,

—

Sphears, Wellington B., Canadian sea captain (b. Gloucester, Mass., .April 7 1849— d. Windsor, Ont., May 27. 1959). Sprengiing, Martin, U.S. educator (b. Centre, Wis., Oct. 9, 1877- d. Phila delphia, Pa., Sept. 5, 1959). Springs, Elliott White, U.S. textile manufacturer and author (b. Lancaster S.C, July 31, 1896- d. New York, N.Y., Oct. 15, 1959). Sprinzak, Joseph, Israeli government official (b. Moscow, Russia, Feb. 24 1885— d. Jerusalem, Israel, Jan. 28, 1959). Stadie, William Christopher, U.S. scientist (b. New York, N.Y., June 15 1886— d. Middletown, X.Y., Sept. 11, 1959). Stearns, Albert Warren, U.S. psychiatrist and educator (b. Billerica, Mass. Jan. 26. 1885— d. Billerica, Sept. li, 1959). Steele, Alfred N., U.S. businessman (b. Nashville, Tenn., April 24, 1901— New York. X.V., .\pril 19, 1959). Stenning, John Frederick, British Aramaic scholar and educator (b. Becken ham, Eng., Feb. 14, 1868— d. London, Eng., Nov. 18, 1959).

D. Leahy, U.S. naval officer; Douglas McKay U.S. government official; Victor McLaglen, Brilish-U.S. motion-picture actor Daniel Malan, South African statesman; George C. Marshall. U.S. soldier an.

1959 OBITUARIES: William

statesman

—

OBITUARIES Sterling, Richard, U.S. actor (b. New York, N.Y., Aug. 30, 1880— d. Douglaston. X.Y., .April 15, 1959). Stetson, Eugene William, U.S. banker (b. Hawkinsville, Ga., Dec. 5, 1881 d. Xew York, X.Y., July 20. 1959). Haven, Conn., Stetson, George A., IS. editor (b. 6, 1889— d. Stamford, Conn., June 20, 1959).

—

New

May

Stevens, Patricia, U.S. model-school operator (b. Clear Lake, S.D., April 12, 1914 d. Chicago, III., June 25, 1959), was a model in New York city from 1932 to 1940 before founding her own agency in Chicago to train young women for careers in photographic and other types of modeling. .At the time of her death her agency had a chain of training schools in more than 40 U.S. and Canadian cities.

—

Stevens,

Wayne

Edson, U.S. educator

Hanover, N.H., July N.Y., July

3,

(b.

.Avon,

lU.,

July 24,

20, 1959).

Abraham, U.S. physician

Stone,

(b.

Russia, Oct. 31, 1890

— d.

1892— d.

New

Y^ork,

1959),

Stone, Fred (Andrew), U.S. actor (b. Valmont, Colo., .Aug. 19. 1873— d. Hollywood, Caiif., March 6, 1959), was perhaps the most popular comedian in the United States during the first quarter of the century. He first came to public notices as the co-star of the vaudeville team of (David) Montgomer>- and Stone. .As the scarecrow in The Wizard oj Oz in 1903, Stone became a national show idol; he furthered his reputation with a number of successive hits that included The Red Mill (1906), Chin-Chin (1914). Jack o'Lantern (1917; his first solo starring role), and Stepping Stones (1923). Stone also played in a number of motion pictures, but mostly in minor parts.

Stoughton, Bradley, U.S. metallurgical engineer (b. New Y'ork, N.Y., Dec. 6, 1873— d. Bethlehem, Pa., Dec. 30, 1959). Strassburger, Ralph Beaver, U.S. publisher (b. Norristown, Pa., March 26, 1883— d. Paris, France. Feb. 26, 1959). Straus, Noel, U.S. music critic (b. Chicago, lU., Dec. 25, 1880— d. New York, N.Y., Nov. 6. 1959). Strecker, Edward Adam, U.S. psychiatrist (b. Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 16, 1886 d. Philadelphia. Jan. 2, 1959). Stroebe, Lillian L., U.S. educator (b. Illenau, Ger., Jan. 29, 1875— d. Charlotte, N.C., April 6, 1959). Stroud, William Daniel, U.S. phvsician (b. Villa Nova, Pa., Nov. 20, 1891— d.

—

Bryn Mawr,

Pa.,

Aug.

19, 1959).

Stuber, William G., U.S. businessman Rochester, N.Y., June 17, 1959).

(b. Louisville,

Ky., April

9,

1864— d.

Sturges, Preston (Edmcxd Preston" Biden"), U.S. playwright and motionpicture director and producer (b. Chicago, 111., .Aug. 29, 1898 d. New York, N.Y., .Aug. 6, 1959), won the 1940 motion-picture .Academy award for original screen writing with his The Great McGinty, which he also directed. Sturgis began writing stage pla\'s in 1928: the best known was Strictly Dishonorable (1929). His screen plavs included The Po-^:er and the Glor\ (1932), The Green Hat (1933), Diamond Jim (1935) and The Miracle oj Morgan's Creek (1943; also directed by him).

—

Don Luigi, Italian political figure (b. Caltagirone, Sicily, Nov. 26, 1871— d. Rome. Italy, Aug. 8, 1959). was the principal founder in 1919 of the Partito Popolare Italiano from which the modern Partito Democratico Cristiano derives. He was ordained priest on May 19, 1894, at Catania, obtained in 1898 a degree in divinit}" at the Gregorian university* in Rome and from 1899 to 1903 was professor at the Caltagirone seminary. In 1899 he was elected town councilor of his native city, of which he was later mayor for 15 years. He became the leader of the Christian Democratic movement, then politically limited to municipal and provincial contests. When after World War I the papal boycott of United Italy had been lilted. Sturzo formed the Popular party on a national basis. .As a priest, he was kept out of parliament, but as the party's political secretary he i;. ed an important part behind the scenes. When Benito Mussolini staged :oup d'etat on Oct. 30, 1922, Sturzo wanted the part3' to oppose Fascism, .' two popolari joined the first Mussolini cabinet. Under Fascist attacks : some pressure from the \'atican, Sturzo resigned in 1923 from his party .:e. Ordered by Pope Pius XI to leave politics, he left Italy in Oct. 1924. :L-r a long exile in Paris, London and Xew York, he returned to Italy 1946. In Sept. 1952 he was nominated a senator for life. He published LMV books, some of them translated into English: Italy and Fascismo ndon, 1926), Spiritual Problems of Our Times (Xew York, 1945) and ::ionalism and Internationalism (X'ew York, 1946). See also his biography in Encyclopedia Brilanni",^ r919 to 1929 and from 1931 -'-\TtUh "1 a !uto diabeus°rn which hypoglycemia, a 'i'^,^^^^^^.""'"" first to describe „ yood He was the clinic

^e

Ssiir"an^il^Llm Ma°ie A^ani.' He began writio reputation on a more than 2W ^"^'^.'""^f^' Dorothy Court, producing popular baUads for his ^e, t:'°\?'°^. „. p:'dy " "Bird of Love Divine

f

r^-rs:^l:^^ftLs^^^^s!^^|cce^^ -::^^t:^=I^.'^^o:^-bbetttrlh J^tring .uarte Wright. Prank L.yd,

^^^^f ^^f^'^'^^^tliS^^t^f

w. h the^n^tural backg^ Spon blending ^^is^.^ings ^^^ tojunction or pur,.se.^ .

seconda^ S^oo- tlLttsi^n mu^tbe by \\ rghtsotneo> hundreds bf buildings designed Chicago U9 10), the imperia the Robie house in witn.

Jokyo o (1916-22, the only large building '" '^^'^ °e, Johnson Wax building,

of 1923); the

m9);

aid the Edgar

Kaufmann,

J^-,

m

u is.

m

Kaufminn

.Wn.

tl

^ ^

ivj

^arthqual additions

, 1

,

a grea

adnlirer

I

^^i^^i^;^';^;^.^^Sa92!);;::.'^^Licaite.tbookon that disease.

r

OCEANOGRAPHY epochal figures who survive an era, Wright at the end of his career was producing works of dr>' purity and concision. In grandeur they resembled Wright's favorite music, the last quartets of Beethoven." See also Wright's biography in Eruyclopczdia Briiannica.

Wright, William Hammond, U.S. astronomer

1871— d. San

Jose, Calif.,

May

(b.

San Frandsco,

Calif.,

Nov.

4,

16, 1959).

Wylie, Ido Alexo Ross, British-U.S. novelist

(b.

Melbo

517

place from i960 to 1964. Twelve research vessels from Australia,

president of the congress, Roger Revelle, of the

received wide attention in the U.S. and abroad through the pub-

"Oceanography 1960-1970," by of Sciences-National Research Council Committee on Oceanography. The committee's conclusion was that a ten-year program should be initiated at a cost of lication of a series of reports,

the

third

National

Academy

$650,000,000, a tripling of the existing annual budget in the U.S. In the lo-year period $8,000,000 would go on education and manpower, $276,000,000 for 70 new research vessels, $146,000,000 on shore facilities, $100,000,000 on new devices, $32,000,000 on radioactivity studies, including its influence on marine life, and $87,000,000 for applied studies to utilize the ocean's

As a

resources.

result of the report's publication, the U.S. con-

gress held extensive hearings resulting in the presenting of a

congress recommending that the ten-year program be

to

bill

adopted.

The U.S.S.R. fleet of new oceanographic vessels was enlarged by the addition of two ships used principally to study the interchange between the ocean and the atmosphere. The U.S. National fleet

Science foundation started the renovation of the U.S.

by the awarding of a grant

to the

Woods Hole Oceano-

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, pointed out in his open-

graphic institution for the design and building of a 175-ft. deep-

oceanography had passed from the state of exploration into one of making deliberate attempts to answer

sea research vessel. This

ing statement that

properly

formulated

questions

and

test

carefully

conceived

hypotheses.

How

first

U.S. deep-sea research

vessel designed for the purpose since the "R. V. Atlantis" built in

1

93

1.

All other U.S. ships

were conversions from

was tugs,

yachts or ex-naval vessels. Japan and France also enlarged their

to divide the potential vast resources of the

oceans on

an equitable basis was the theme of C. O'D. Iselin's remarks to the closing of the congress.

He

applications in the near future.

The economic,

and po-

social

litical

problems raised by such developments would be a chal-

lenge

to

international law.

Ground

rules

should be

made to man-

develop the vast marine resources in an efiicient and safe

mankind.

during the congress: a multination sur\-ey of the Indian ocean,

through the earth's crust and

an international survey of radioactive' contamination of the sea.

The Indian ocean survey,

The sudden

as planned

by S.C.O.R. was

to take

increase in international effort so well engendered

during the International Geophysical year 1957-58 continued through the International Geophysical co-operation. The (Brit-

National Institute of Oceanography and the Woods Hole Oceanographic institution started a joint two-year study of subsurface ocean currents (first discovered during the IGY) using ish)

Bermuda

Three programs of international importance were announced the projected drilling of a hole

oceanographic programs, while in Great Britain interest was stimulated to obtain recognition and support.

suggested that existing knowl-

edge of the ocean was sufficient to expect considerable practical

ner for the benefit of all

would be the

as a

home

base. In addition to the fruitful exchanges

International

Oceanographic congress and the manynation Indian ocean survey discussions, a multiship Arctic Polar at

the

Front survey was carried out by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. A similar program was to be carried out in i960 in the Faroe-Iceland area by nine ships of eight

OCHOA — OHIO

518 northern European countries and Canada.

A book, published in 1959, described the knowledge of the Gulf stream acquired during the last 15 years, and the existing theories concerning the current, A new theory was also advanced and the problems and methods of physical oceanography were described.

See also Antarctica; Arctic; Coast and Geodetic Survey, Geography; International Geophysical Co-opera-

U.S.;

—

1959; Marine Biology. Bibliography. D. Wolflc, "The Occanographic Congress," Science. vol. 130, 3378:761, also in United Nations Review, vol. 6, 4:28-32; M. Sears (ed.). Int. Oceanogr., Preprints Am. Assoc. Adv. Set.; C. O'D. Iselin, "Use of the Ocean," Science, vol. 130, 3380:895; G. LIU and W. Bascom, "A BorcHole to the Earth's Mantle," Nature, vol. 184, 4681: 140-144; Anon., "Radio-Aclive Waste Disposal From Nuclear-Powered Ships," N.A.S.-N.R.C, Publ. no. 658; Anon., "Oceanography 1960-1970," N.A.S.-N.R.C, Comm. on Oceanogr.; A bill to advance marine sciences, etc., S. 2692, 86th congress, ist session; G. E. R. Deacon, "Ocean Research," The New Scientist, Aug. 13, 1959, and following issues; Anon., "Ocean Research," The New Scientist, p. 499 (March 5, 1959); Anon., "Int. Geoph. Coop. 1959," U.S. IGY Bull. 28:1-7; H. Stommcl, The (C. O'D. I.) Cull Stream (1958). ENCVCLOP.CDIA Britannica Films. Ocean Tides (Bay of Fundy)

tion

—

—

1959

(1956).

(1905-

Ochoa, Severn

),

U.S. biochemist

who

received

Nobel prize for medicine and physiology with Arthur Romberg, was born at Luarca, Spain, on Sept. 24, and was educated at the University of Madrid where the

1959

he received a medical degree

in 1929.

He commenced

as a teacher of physiology at the University of

his career

Madrid and

after

spending several years teaching at Heidelberg and at Oxford university, he settled

permanently

in the U.S. in 1940.

Following a

year on the medical faculty of Washington university,

Mo., Ochoa joined the

York ment

staff of the college of

Louis,

St.

medicine of

New

university where in 1959 he was chairman of the depart-

He

of biochemistry.

shared the prize of more than $42,000

with his former student for their chemical work on heredity. In

announcing the award, the Caroline institute of Stockholm cited Ochoa and Romberg for their "discoveries of the mechanism in the biological synthesis in ribonucleic acids cleic

acids."

and deoxyribonu-

Working separately from Romberg, Ochoa

covered an enzyme that produces ribonucleic acid is

believed by biochemists that

tion of protein of

RNA

CLEVELAND BANK EMPLOYEES LEAPING FROM WINDOWS to eic«B« burglar trapped inside. Eventually overcome by tear-gas pellets fired into the bank by police, the burglar shot himself. The attempted robbery occurred Sept. 23,

which

all

RNA

(DNA)

that are believed to control heredity.

and Romberg was considered a understanding of the

life

It

essential to the produc-

is

living tissue

and deoxyribonucleic acid

dis-

(RNA).

is

primarily composed.

are the chemical agents

The achievement

of

Ochoa

significant contribution to the

process.

Office of Education, U.S.: see Education.

A north central state of the United States, popularly UIIIU. known as the "Buckeye state," Ohio became a state of ni.'

the union in 1803, but because there was

some question about the

legality of the action, the U.S. congress in 1953 jestingly

went

through the motions of formally admitting the state to the union. Area: 41,222 sq.mi., including 222 sq.mi. of water. Pop. (1950 census): 7,946,627, including 5,578,274 urban and 2,368.353 rural; 6,566,531 white

lation July

I,

and 1,380,096 nonwhite. Estimated popu-

concentrated on financial problems as the state faced deficit since

The

before World

War

first

its

II.

general assembly approved a two-year budget of $1,848.-

387,410.

When

the fiscal year began on July

than $13,000,000 deficient. deficit

was $3,152,000 and

By

the state was

i

more

the end of July, however, the

at the

end of August, Ohio had a

cash balance of $6,239,000.

Largely responsible for the financial improvement was the

new

The

tax program.

general assembly

sales tax structure to bring in

tax

from

3 to 5 cents a

made changes

more revenue,

the

in

raised the cigarette

pack and increased the gasoline tax

2

cents a gallon.

Major work

of the general assembly, which adjourned Aug.

14.

included passage of laws: establishing a state-wide fair employ-

ment practices commission; lifting ceilings on aid-for-the-aged payments; requiring licensing of physical therapists and chiropodists;

ing

legalizing

supplementary unemployment benefits;

maximum weekly unemployment

benefits

from $39

rais-

to $53;

legalizing fair-trade contracts; raising salaries of judges, county

and members of boards of election; making Columbus and adopting as the motto of the state "With God All Things Are Possible." In the November election, voters approved two constitutional amendments which provided legislative authority to allow more judges in appellate court districts and lifted limitations on the sale of water and sewer services outside a city's corporate limits. Shortly before the election the Ohio supreme court ruled off the ballot a third proposed amendment which would have permitted cities of 50.000 or more population to form metropolitan fedofficials

day

a state holiday

erations for essential area-wide services.

Other state

officers serving in

1959 were: lieutenant governor,

John W. Donahey (Dem.) of Alliance; secretary of state, Ted W. Brown (Rep.) of Columbus; treasurer, Joseph T. Ferguson (Dem.) of Columbus; attorney general, Mark McElroy (Dem.^ of Cleveland.

Floods in Jan. and Feb. caused damage in excess of $100,000.-

1959, 9,700.000.

1950 population figures, with Jan. I, 1959, estimates by the Ohio department of health shown in parentheses, are: Cleveland, 914,808 (926,808); Cincinnati,

000 and took 15 lives. Communities that suffered included: Fremont, Mount .Vernon, Mansfield. Newark, Warren, Dayton

503,998 (S7S.523); Columbus (cap.), 375,901 (479,431); Toledo, 303,616 (343,741); Akron, 274,605 (308,014); Dayton,

and Willoughby

The

principal cities

and

their

243,872 (300,704); Youngstown, 163,330 (185,875); and Canton, 116,912 (124,116).

History.— Michael V, DiSalle (Dem.) of Toledo took

office

after inauguration ceremonies Jan. 12 as Ohio's 6oth governor

and the

fiirst

to face a four-year term.

His

first

efforts

were

Delaware. Columbus, Vermilion,

Circleville,

Van Wert. Bucyru:

Hills.

—

Education. In 1959 the state had 2,995 public elementary schools wi'.: a total enrollment of 1.205.437 and a total teaching staff of 39.954: i.i; secondary schools with an enrollment of 588.335 and a teaching staff 26.359. Combined public, private and parochial kindergarten data: 2.2c classes. 136.000 enrollment. 2.240 teachers. State exp'-nditure? on educatiofor 195S-5Q were estimated at $165,000,000. Edward E. Holt of Springfiel< was state superintendent of public instruction. Th Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. average number of recipients of general relief per month in the fiscal yea

—

— —

OIL

— OKLAHOMA

ended June 30, 1959, was 46,235 and the total relief extended was $50,406,918. The average number per month recei\'ing aid for the aged was 89,273 and they received $67,808,768: aid to dependent children, 23,248 who received a total of $29,709,221; aid to the blind, 3,714 who received a total of $2,880,990; aid for the disabled, 10,087 who received a total of $8,047,958. ISenefits paid by the Ohio bureau of unemployment compensation in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959, totaled $197,371,101 in compensation for 6,315,624 weeks of unemployment. Included in these figures were 1,741,519 weeks compensated for under the Ohio temporary extended unemployment compensation act which expired on Dec. 26, 1959. Ohio's correctional institutions had an average daily population of 11,386 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959. The industrial training schools had an average daily population of i.oSo and the juvenile diagnostic centre an average daily population of 104. Hospitals for the mentally ill had an average daily population of 28,317 and state schools for the retarded, 7,878. Total operating expenditures for the fiscal year for correction and training institutions were $14,491,433; for mental hygiene institutions, $52,159,029. Communications. Ohio had 83,322 mi. of highways in 1959 outside of municipalities. Of this total, 15,745 mi. were classified as rural state, 29,244 mi. as county and 38,322 as township. Total state expenditures on the state highway system in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959, were $339,376.701. There were 8,427 mi. of railroads in the state. In 1959 Ohio had 91 licensed airports, 94 licensed landing fields and 242 private-use airstrips. Banking and Finance. There were 375 state banks and 296 branches in Ohio with deposits (June 10, 1959) of $4,952,740,543 and resources of $5,665,870,386. There were 225 active national banks in the state with deposits (June 10, 1959) of $5,381,385,000 and resources of $5,980,838,-

—

—

000. State-chartered savings and loan associations

Table

numbered 444 with

Principal Industries of

I.

Ohio

Industry

employ

Group

(in

1957

Food ond kindred products. Tobocco monufactures

.

.

.

Apparel and related products lumber and wood products Furniture and flutures Pulp, paper ond products Printing and publishing Chemicals and products Rubber products leather and leather goods Stone, cloy and gloss products .

.

.

.

.

.... .

.

machinery Transportotion equipment Electrical

Instruments

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

....

and related products

Miscellaneous manufactures

.

Source: U.S. Deportment of

Table

II.

.

.

.

Wheat, bo

Maple

sirup, gal

Gropes, tons Pototoes, cwt

38,129 58,465 49,109 74,670 12,484 66,715 191,225 135,133 230,763 92,267 174,554 10,125 35,840

....

11,130 78,736 114,248 61,488 187,311 356,537 540,802 693,853

637,069 66,723 586,109

1,077,142

2,134,844 1,132,705 2,181,770 847,302 1,568,327 73,779 279,138

686,946 1,265,739

259,264,000 32,640,000 50,646,000 2.139.000 432,000 3,511,000 37,710,000 21,120,000 352,000 118,000 2,750,000 780,000 60,000 16,000 3,337,000

•1949-57 overage. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

1956

741,428

403,307 45,307 306,587

Indicated 1959

Oats, bu

Apples, bu Peaches, bu Pears, bu

23,201

$

446,473 998,429 47,165 161.722

Leading Agricultural Products of Ohii

Crop

Soybeons, bu. (for beans) Tobacco, lb Sugar beets, short tons

23,630 9,537

lulocturo OOOsI

1957

1957

Commerce, Annuo/ Survey of Monufoctures,

Corn, bu

(orley, bu Rye, bu Hay, tons

bymc

o:osi

380,701 4,734 45,086 76,000 34,460 103,585 191,230 310,726 255,135

$

1,664 10,662

Textile mill products

Primary metal industries Fobricoted metol products Mochinery (except electrical)

85,405

added

Volu

Salaries

and wage!

All

total

1

721,745 1

1,090

76,386 122,965 59,465 191,568 353,440 539,266 698,546 614,260 66,646 593,727 2,179,663 1,125,116 2,116,011

833,735 1,541,151 1

68,148 296,500 957,

519

——

a

OLD-AGE INSURANCE — OLYMPIC GAMES Table

Frincipat

I.

Wh.ol, bu

groin, bu

Hor.

loni

all.

I9'.,«

84,051,000 8,413,000 10,990,000 19.484.000 1.888.000 123,900.000 17,500.000 9,900 385,000 274,000 120,000

Corn, bu Ooli, bu

Sorghum

Cropi of Oklahoma

Indlrolad I'iV

C>op

P.onul., lb P.con., fb

Broomcorn, loni Collon, bolM Potoloei, cwl Pololoai, iwe.t, cwl

•1949-57 overoge. Sourco U.S. Oeporlment of

Table

Principal lndu$lriet of

omployooi 1957

Food and kindred products Priming and publiihing Petroleum ond cool product! Stone, cloy ond gloii producll

Tron!porlolion equipment Source: U.S. Deportment of

74-9- 5

"OKLAHOMA SUNSET

I

cartoon of

1959 by

Seibel of

The Richmond

(Va.)

Times-Dispatch which number 609 were home bound. A high percentage of the estimated 35.000 Negro children in public schools attended mixed classes in 1958-59, as Oklahoma public schools continued their fifth year under gradual integration. State institutions of higher learning included the University of Oklahoma (Norman); Oklahoma State university (Stillwater), with its technical school for vocational training at Okmulgee; Oklahoma College for rolled, of

Women

(Chickasha); Panhandle .'Vgricultural and Mechanical college (Goodwell); Langston university (Langston); Oklahoma Medical school (Oklahoma City); and 6 colleges for teacher training (.\da. .Mva, Durant, Edmond, Tahlequah, Weatherford), all state-owned senior colleges. There were 16 junior colleges, of which 7 were state-owned (including Oklahoma Military academy, Claremore), 3 independent with church affiliations and 6 municipal. There were also 6 independent senior colleges with church affiliations.

—

Sociol Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. On Aug. 31, 1959, the Oklahoma department of public welfare reported 91.483 old-age assistance cases receiving an average of $65.64 per case (a total of $6,004,934); 17,413 dependent children cases (representing 63.629 persons), each case receiving $109.87 (a total of $1,913,174); 1,890 blind cases receiving an average of $83.20 per case (a total of $157,251); 9,002 cases of disabled, each case receiving an average ofS74.8o (a total of $673,373). .\lso in .\ugust there were 2.928 cases of old age. dependent children, blind and disabled that received medical assistance, the payments totaling $532,609.32. There were 9,758 old age, blind and disabled cases that received nursing home service and nursing service at home in the same month, amounting to a total of $564,519.94. State-supported institutions included two tuberculosis sanatoria, one general hospital, four mental hospitals, two schools for deaf and blind, one reformatory and one penitentiary. Communications. The summary of disbursements by the state highway commission for construction and maintenance from Jan. i to Sept. i, 1959, was $53,301,329.88. The highway commission was responsible for 11,556 mi. of highway system in the state as of Jan. i, 1959; the total public open roads in Oklahoma was approximately 95.033 mi. Railroad and electric transit mileage approximated 6,000 mi., not including sidings. There were 16 cities served by major airlines in Oklahoma. Banking and Finonce. The state budget office reported state expenditures of $446,491,393.63 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, this amount including $1,801,823.33 in payments on the state bonded debt. State receipts for the year ending June 30, i959, were $457,179,019.63. The 27th state legislature appropriated $292,683,935.82 for the biennium July I, 1959, to June 30. 1961. The Oklahoma state banking board reported 1S9 state banks with total deposits of $503,073,781.75 as of June 30, 1959. The Oklahoma Bankers' association reported 197 national banks in the state with total resources of $2,102,054,000 and total deposits of $1,849,946,000 as of Oct. 19, 1959. The 30 building and loan associations chartered by the state reported total assets of $168,765,839.40 as of June 3c. 1959. Agriculture. The State soil conservation board reported 87 soil conservation districts, its latest report in 1958 giving a total of 86.745 farmers operating 29,382,566 ac. on 143,308 farms under the conservation plan. Late fall and winter pasture was greatly improved by heavy rains in late September and early October. Wet fields delayed wheat seeding, and where already sown, some reseeding was necessary. Marketings of cattle and calves at the Oklahoma City stockyards from Jan. i through

—

—

—

1

Agriculture,

II.

Primory melol induOriei Fobricoled melol product! Mochinery, except eleclricol Eleclricol mochlnery

113,440,000 9,000,000 2J.J94,000 18.440.000 2,038,000 133.300,000 15.300,000 2,000 313,000 281,000 118,000

,

.

.

,

.

,

.

,

.

.

,

15,454 4,055 7,022 5,813 3,654 7,515 11,303 1,924

11,993 Commerce, Annuof

St

Oklahoma

1948-57

44,923,000 1 2,944,000 11,259,000 10,778.000 1.744.000 97.751.000 1 8,420.000 11,400 347,000 302.000* 133,000'

OMAN AND MUSCAT — OREGON May, expelled Nationalist China from the Olympic movement on the grounds that it "no longer represents sports in the entire countr>' of China." Tokyo was awarded the 1964 summer 01>Tnpics, with the winter games going to Innsbruck, Aus. Rome, host to the XVII Olympiad summer games of i960, faced Ger.,

in

a problem in providing housing for the

many

visitors expected

for the gathering Aug. 25-Sept. 11. Italian officials effort to solve the

made every

poser by providing housing through the co-

operation of private citizens and property owners.

The main

GljTnpic stadium, which, with standees, holds 100,000 persons,

and other stadiums for various sports were completed early in (T- V. H.) 1959-

Oman and Muscat (Masqat):

Muscat and Oman.

Second largest and continuing as the fastest growwas an original

flntorin UlllullU.

member

see

jug province of Canada, Ontario

of the confederation in 1867. Area: 412.582 sq.mi. Pop.:

(1956 census) 5,404,933, (1959 est.) 5.952,000. Capital: Toronto (g.v.) (1956) 667,706; metropolitan Toronto (1956) 1,358.028. Leslie

M.

Frost (g.v.) continued as premier of Ontario in 1959.

History.

—Population, economic and budgetary expansion

ac-

celerated during late 1958 and continued in 1959. as the economic

moved northward from the Great Lakes into where new mining, oil production and explora-

"centre of gravity"

northern regions,

tion activities reached to the Arctic circle

and beyond. Active

plans for Arctic ocean subsea explorations, in collaboration with

dominion government, were nearing completion, with larger New town-

the

521

700,000 to a new-high total of $126,300,000. An additional $434,000 went to the Ontario .Mcoholism Research foundation. Estimates for 1959-60, $130,401,000, included polio treatments and other child care costs, family relief and unemployment benefits. The premier announced on October 14 that a new $3,000,000 psychiatric hospital would be built in Toronto. Transportation and Communication. Capital allocated for highway construction C1959-60) was $187,007,000, (1958-59) $169,435,000. It was envisioned that a record $321,800,000 would be spent by province and municipalities combined. On a unit basis, highway construction costs had fallen 20% in two years. Motor vehicle registrations (1959-60). i,Soo.ooo. Banking and Finance. In his Feb. 25, 1959, budget. Provincial Treasurer J. N. .\llan reported a nominal surplus but forecast a higher one for 195960 without any increase in taxation, owing to economic e.xpansion and population growth. Net capital debt rose by S129.800.ooo, to $948,000,000; and for 1959-60 it was estimated at more than $1,000,000,000. Agriculture. Cash income of farmers was estimated in 1959-60 at more than $850,000,000, (1958-59) $791,000,000. Production of oats, barley, wheat and mixed grains made all-time records. Gross value of production (1958-59) was $1,191,089,000, (1957-58) $1,092,574,000. Livestock production at $339,675,000 topped all other categories: field crops amounted to $314,009,000: dairy products, $190,000,000; poultry and eggs, $163,200,000: and fruits and vegetables, $73,685,000. Tobacco also was a record crop for the province. Manufacturing. Gross product for the province (including agriculture) was $13,300,000,000, a gain to which uranium output was a major contributor. The labour force (.Aug. 1959) was 2,356,000, (1958) 2,300.000; unemployed and seeking work 69,000, (1958) approximately 46,000. Cutbacks in base-metal production and manufacturing accounted for most of the increase in unemployment. Capital investment, preliminary estimate (1958), was $3,156,900,000, (1957) $3,205,300,000. .\ total of 86 new industries was recorded in 1958, (1957) 115. Construction awards in all categories totaled $1,489,593,500, including major additions to existing in-

—

—

—

—

dustrial plants.

—

Mining. Mineral production preliminary estimate (1958) amounted to $799,168,474, (1957) $769,000,000. Uranium output (1958) $222,000,000, (1957) $83,000,000. Lower prices for copper reduced output value to $72,000,000, (1957) $97,146,246: nickel output value $179,000,000, (1957) $243,500,000. Gold output (1958) $90,667,612, (1937) $85,527,505. Value of all metallics (1958) S636.326.046, (1957) $595,641,773. Aggregate value of all nonmetallics fell in 1958 to $20,943,185, (1957) $21,238,580. Natural gas and petroleum (1958) $7,934,000, (1957) $8,311,688: structural materials (1958) $133,965,243. (i957) $114,027,177. (C. A. Sn.)

volumes of both U.S. and domestic capital involved. sites in

were being built and others were

laid out.

A

social feature

the far north was the industrial and commercial integration

of the

Eskimo population

in expansionist activity. Creation of

an electoral district to give Eskimos direct representation in the

Opera: see Music. Ophthalmology: see Oranges: see Fruit. Orchestras:

Eye, Diseases of the.

Music.

see

dominion parliament was being worked out.

The 1958 program

of direct grants to municipalities to finance

expansion continued into 1959 and larger allocations of public revenues for new access roads to resources farther north were

made. Primary, secondary and university educational

facilities

^

nroarin UlCgUiii

^'^'^ °^ '^^

United States, located

in the Pacific

northwest, Oregon was admitted to the union on

Feb. 14. 1859. as the 33rd state. Area 96,981 sq.mi.. including

666 sq.mi. of water. Pop. (1950 census) 1.521,341, (July

i,

1959,

continued to benefit from substantially larger grants providing

provisional est.) 1.766,000. Capital: Salem (43,140, 1950; 47,-

new buildings and operating costs. Similar outlays for new hospitals and increased beds in existing ones were planned, and special facilities for two-year courses in training of nurses were announced to relieve the severe nursing shortage. New provincial parks were opened and land was reserved in all areas for further

100, 1958). Chief city: Portland (373,628, 1950; 402.300, 1958).

$1,696,

statistics

its

looth anniversary as a state

state staged a loo-day Exposition

and International

1959, the dominion

estimated Ontario's per capita income at

buildings to represent the old west; in southern Oregon, .Ashland

On

July

9,

up from §1,656.

(1958 pop. 8,800)

A

general election on June 11, 1959, resulted in the government's voting strength in the legislature being reduced from 83 to 71; the opposition Liberal

22; splinter groups

—Oregon celebrated

The

Trade fair at Portland which drew about 1,330.000 visitors. Almost every city had a centennial program. In central Oregon, Redmond (1958 pop. 3,750) put false fronts on its business

extension of the park system.

bureau of

History. in 1959.

party membership rose from 10 to

were merged into the Co-operative

Common-

building.

Even

dedicated

its

the tiny crossroads

new Shakespearean theatre to\\Ti of Damascus received

statewide attention by building a candle which burned for 100 days.

In Januan,' upon his inauguration, the

new governor, Mark

0.

wealth Federation (socialist) party, with a total of 5 members, an increase of i.

Hatfield (Rep.) appointed Howell Appling (Rep.), Portland, to

Immediately before the voting Robert Macaulay was appointed to a new ministry of energy and resources and continued

elected officers were Sig Unander (Rep.), state treasurer; Robert Y. Thornton (Dem.). attorney general; Norman 0. Nilsen (Dem.), commissioner of the bureau of labour; and Rex Putnam, superintendent of public instruction.

after the election in that office.

On April 13, 1959, Premier Frost announced appointment of a t4-man regional development council "to correlate needs and aspirations" of the province's 7 economic districts. Ontario received a $1,000,000 increase in

its

$97,637,000 share of Ottawa's

tax-sharing plan.

—

Education. The 1959—60 enrollment in primary and secondary schools was placed at 1,249,673 (1958-59, 1,234,000). Teachers numbered 42,647, up from 42,200. Education costs were higher by $25,500,000, at $202,400,000. Capital and maintenance grants to universities totaled $24,400,000. Education grants to municipalities were up $35,000,000, to $202,200,000; the estimate for 1959-60 was $203,037,000, Public Health and Welfare. Grants for 1958-59 were increased by $io,-

—

be his successor as secretary of state. Others of the state's top

The Democratic-controlled legislature vied with Governor way to raise taxes to balance the state budget. The compromise solution reached was to raise state income taxes 9%. Deduction of federal income tax in figuring state income tax was eliminated. The tax increase was blocked, at least temHatfield over the

by referendum petitions which would place it Nov. i960. The legislature also voted ministandards for farm-worker transportation and housing. It

porarily, however,

on the state ballot

mum

in

withheld an appropriation for a $1,000,000 vocational building

——

—

ORGANIZATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COOPERATION

522 for the

new

correctional institution which opened during the year

near Salem in order to provide rehabilitation convicted of their

The most

facilities for

men

felony.

first

serious disaster of

its

kind

in

the state's history oc-

Roseburg on Aug. 7 when a truck loaded with ammonium nitrate mixed with oil exploded during a warehouse fire. Thirteen people were killed, approximately 100 injured and eight square blocks of the business district were completely destroyed by the blast and accompanying curred

the southern

in

Oregon

city of

fire.

Educolion.

— Enrollmcnl

in

public schools of the stale for the school year

95,213 high-school students. The number was 15,936. The average yearly salary of classroom teachers was $5,053. Average cost per pupil in daily attendance was

I957~5^

^'^s 359>9^7i including

of certilicated personnel

$386.12, Total expenditures were $171,629,002, divided as follows; current expenditures $126,671,753; capital outlay $31,159,106; debt service $13,798, 143Total enrollment in the eight campus units of the state system of higher education for the year 1958-59 was 24,268. Enrollment in extension courses was 17,439. Total operating expiiiMS for the state system for the year were $35,684,221. Slate appropri.Ttion for capital outlay for building construction for the biennium 1957-1959 was $7,054,000. Social Insurance and Assistance. Public Welfare and Related Progroms. Expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1959, under the state public welfare program, including cost of administration, were $43,822,060.10. The program embraces general assistance, old-age assistance, aid to the blind, dependent children and permanently and totally disabled, as well as foster care and aid to child-caring agencies. Payments for unemployment compensation for the fiscal year 1958-59 dropped from an all-time high of $42,008,118 in the previous year to $30,276,409. Total operating expenditures for 11 state health, penal, correctional and eleemosynary institutions as of June 30, 1959, were $16,458,517. Inmates at this time totaled 8,966. (During the school year an additional 355 were enrolled in the schools for the blind and deaf.) Expenditures of the state commission for the blind from all sources for the fiscal year were $627,I41-33Communications. Railway mileage in Oregon as of Dec. 31, 1958, totaled 4,974.82 mi. for steam railroads and 63.33 mi. for electric railroads. Total mileage of the state highway system on June 30, 1959, was 7.466, of which 7,325 were surfaced. Total mileage of county roads was 28.417 with 20.511 surfaced. The number of miles of roads in national and state forests, parks and reservations and nonhighway streets was 25,870, of which 10.873 were surfaced. Total expenditures of the state highway department for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, were $88,469,025.

—

Table

I.

Principal

Crop Wheal,

Crops of Oregon

Indicoted 1959

27,312,000 4,030,000 8,643,000 19,976,000 8,490,000 1,813,000 7,155,000 2,200,000 46,000 24,700 42,000 4,700 9,000

bi)

Corn, bu Oats, bu Borley, bu Potatoes, cwl

Hay, Ions Hops, lb Apples, bu Peors, Ions

1

Clierries, Ions

Prunes, Ions Walnuls, Ions filberls. Ions

•1949-57. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Table

II.

Principal Industries

Averogo, 1958

ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES

523

with the precedents that had been established during the ten years that the treaty had been in force. In all previous instances affirmative action on such a request

matic, for

it

had been

virtually auto-

implied no expression of judgment on the merits of

the case but merely put the councU in a position to inquire into the facts. Because of opposition from

influenced to no

little

Cuba and Venezuela, and

extent by strong public reaction to acced-

ing to a request that might be construed as support for an un-

popular regime, the council delayed action and in the request.

On

council that

it

eft'ect

denied

July lo the Dominican Republic informed the was withdrawing its request for the convocation

of the organ of consultation under the Rio treaty.

Instead, the council on July 13 adopted a resolution convoking the fifth meeting of the Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs to be held pursuant to articles 39

and 40 of the charter

of the organization for the purpose of considering the situation of international tension in the Caribbean, as well as the effective

democracy and respect for human in Santiago, Chile, from Aug. 12 to 18, with the foreign ministers of the 21 American republics in attendance. The conference adopted a series of resolutions, including a Declaration of Santiago, which reaffirmed certain long-established basic principles, among them those on nonintervention, representative democracy and respect for human rights. of representative

exercise rights.

The meeting was held

It likewise delegated additional authority to the Inter-.American

Peace committee to be exercised until the

nth

Inter-American

conference at Quito. Ecuador, in Feb. i960 and entrusted to the

'WE CAN'T TOLERATE SLOPPY INTELLIGENCE REPORTS

from Latin An-

They indicate more revolutions than there are ica. TrufRe. 1959 cartoon by Lichly of the Chicago Sun-Tiwes syndicate .

.

.

committee the preparation of a report to be presented

countries,'

tion of the Santiago meeting. the council canceled the call for a

Although the Rio pact

is

meeting of consultation.

an intergovernmental treaty and

allay the is

intended to be invoked by one countrj' against another, in none

adopted by the council was reference made

of the resolutions

any other

to

countrj-. This innovation, obviously designed to

avoid embarrassment to any other

member

state of the organiza-

was followed almost inmiediately by the request from

tion,

Nicaragua.

On June

2,

1958, the government of Nicaragua informed the

council of the organization that individuals of various nationalities

had invaded

were approaching

its its

territory, that other

shores and that

it

armed revolutionaries

therefore requested the

charges were brought against anj' other government and the

Rio treaty was not invoked against any country, but in the light of the precedent established in the case of

Panama

:

1

able public sentiment against the existing

regime in Nicaragua,

1

i

1

the

able for ordinary banking operations. A special fund of $150,000.000 was also set up for projects that would not be able to meet the usual banking requirements for a loan. Of the authorized capital

stock $400,000,000 was to be paid in over a three-year period,

20'-by-country study of the problems and possibilities of economic development and an-

The report of the committee revealed that Nicaraguan case was essentially an internal matter and con-

other extending the procedure of consultation to economic ques-

both governments was one of

and nonintervention.

'

In the economic field an agreement establishing the InterAmerican Development bank was opened for signature at the Pan-American union on April 8, I9S9The bank was capitalized at $1,000,000,000. of which $850.000.000 represented authorized capital stock that would be avaO-

strict neutrality

the attitude of

;

meeting was to

effect of the

the Quito conference.

the councU

convoked the organ of consultation and again appointed a fact-finding commission, this one composed of representatives of Brazil, Mexico, the United States and Uruguay. The facts obtained by this committee revealed that of the no members comprising the invading force, 107 were Nicaraguans and 3 were Costa Ricans. No evidence was found of other revolutionaries approaching the Nicaraguan coast, and although in both Costa Rica and Honduras the committee found considerof the organization

'

The

immediate tensions but to defer the basic problem to

der was callable to meet obligations of the bank's loan operations.

convocation of the organ of consultation.

No

to the

Quito conference on the questions that prompted the convoca-

finned the impression held in

many

quarters that the action of

the council constituted intervention in a purely

domestic prob-

tions is

whenever

a

government considers that

its

national welfare

seriously aft'ected.

The problem

of stabilizing markets and prices of basic

com-

lem and a misuse of the Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance.

modities continued to confront the majority of Latin-American

On July 2, 1959, the government of the Dominican Republic sought to invoke the Rio treaty, alleging that its peace and se-

the

curity

were threatened by forces proceeding from and supported

by the governments of

Cuba and Venezuela.

In this case the request had been formulated in strict accord

countries, with little assistance

organization.

from the established organs of and outside the

Acting among themselves

framework of the organization, the coffee-producing countries of Latin America continued discussions looking toward a world-

wide coffee production and marketing agreement.

—

OSTEOPATHY — PACIF IC ISLANDS. FRENCH

524 Among

the other organs of the organization the Inter-Ameri-

can Council of Jurists held

Aug. 24 to Sept. tural council

9.

The

was held

its

fourth meeting in Santiago from

third meeting of the Inter-American Cul-

in

San Juan, P.R., from Nov. 22 to Dec. 2. nth Inter-American con-

Preparations were also begun for the ference, the

of

cost

$37,000,000 sewage-treatment

a

and collector

plant

sewers.

(G.

Encyclop>cdia Biitannica Filus.-

C.)

J,

Zanada: the Induttrial

Provirt'

(1958).

Outer Mongolia:

see

Mongolian People's Republic.

supreme organ of the organization, which was sched-

uled for Quito, beginning Feb.

i960.

i,

Under

See also Atomic Energy.

(W. Mr.)

PaCifJC ISlafldS, BfitiSh

this

heading are grouped

the territories administered by

the high commissioner for the western Pacific.

^^^ nctpnn!)thu UJlbU|jaillj.

osteopathic profession on Oct.

i,

1959, in

United States, was made up of 13,751 physicians and surgeons. They practice in all states and in 1959 were

Arao

[jjg

eligible in

38 states to receive licences granting complete diag-

nostic and therapeutic rights

and

privileges, including drugs

and

Solomon lilondt prol«ctorato Gilbert ond Ellic» lllandl colony t. Control and Soufhsrn Una lilondlt

fopulotlo'*

iKq.ml.)

1U,300

11,500

British

.

.

.

.

369

42,000

11,905

Tolol.

*I9S9

I

)lndud«i PhoanU and Northirn Una lilom Moldan and Slorbuck lilondi.

eit.

I

56,300

Idond. tComprltIng

Film, Carolina. Voilock,

major operative surgery. Osteopathic hospitals numbered approximately 400 in 1959 with approximately 12,000 beds, providing general medical and surgical care for patients in 3

1

states. In

1959 Los Angeles County

The New Hebrides (q.v.), an Anglo-French condominium, as Tonga (q.v.) and Pitcairn, are also administered by the

well as

western Pacific high commissioner.

unit, a $10,000,-

Populations: Melanesians predominate in the Solomons; Mi-

000, 500-bed institution, which provided medical services to the

cronesians in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. High commission

indigent of Los Angeles county and furnished the College of Os-

headquarters:

General hospital completed

its

new osteopathic

teopathic Physicians and Surgeons (Los Angeles) with a

new

teaching hospital.

There were currently six osteopathic colleges approved by the American Osteopathic association for the education and training of physicians and surgeons. They were located in Chicago, Des Moines, Kansas City, Kirksville (Mo.), Los Angeles and Philadelphia. During 1959 all of these colleges received federal and Again

in

1959-60, the United States public health service

made

Islands.

chi.

History.

—Substantial progress was made

development of

a

cocoa industry

in the

in 1959 toward the Solomons. The project,

backed by Colonial Development and Welfare funds, entailed

in

stage the building of a road system to open up large

its initial

on Malaita Island. The discovery of valuable

of land

tracts

state grants-in-aid.

Honiara

(pop. about 2,750), on Guadalcanal, High commissioner in 1959: Sir John Gutch; resident commissioner, Gilbert and Ellice Islands: M. L. Bemac-

Solomon

stands of commercial timber in the Solomons further widened

various grants to osteopathic colleges. These included teaching

the scope for economic diversification in a territory long de-

grants in cancer, cardiovascular and mental health, and funds to

pendent on copra for most of

help build and equip health research

The American Osteopathic the profession,

is

association, the official agency of

located at 212 E. Ohio

president for 1959-60 was Galen its

The mass treatment

facilities.

S.

St.,

Chicago

11, 111. Its

Young, Chester,

Pa.,

and

executive secretary, True B. Eveleth. Its 64th annual conven-

tion

was

to

be held

in

Kansas City, Mo.,

in July i960.

(R. P. K.)

flttqiiiQ

UlldWd.

^^^

Canada, located at the confluence of the Gatineau, Rideau and Ottawa rivers in the prov-

ince of Ontario,

capital of

Ottawa covers 47.6 sq.mi. Pop. (1956 census)

222,129, (metropolitan area) 345,460; Dec. 1958 (city estimate)

Tax assessment (1959) $442,973,000. Mayor George H. Nelms completed in 1959 his third year in office, having another 12 months to go to complete his second

United Nations

completed

its

export trade.

of yaws, a campaign sponsored by the

in co-operation

with local administrations, was

in all territories.

A

major advance in the field of education was the opening of and vocational training college at Honiara. The Solomon Islands' first census, based on sampling techniques, was conducted in November. (R. P. Gn.) a teachers'

Education. Solomon Islands (schools, 1957); government primary 7 (incl. I European): secondary i; also 218 mission and native council schools: pupils, all schools, about 9.380. .\ teacher-training and vocational centre was completed in 1959. Gilbert and Ellice Islands (schools, 1957): primary 262. pupils 8.298, teachers 315; secondary i, pupils no, teachers 6; 6 student teachers in training. Finance and Trade. iMonetary unit: Australian pound (£Ai.2S sterling U.S. $2.80).

—

=

=

236,837.

two-year term. At the inaugural meeting of the city council in

1959 he said the

Revenue

Expenditure

Solo

(1957octuol Gilbert and EIIL l!.(1957actuol)

Main

.

£A1, 189,194

£A1, 159,348

(1957)£A1, 497,845

£A1,547,221

£A370,486

£A483,314

(1956)£A1,214,408

£A997,67I

Solomon Islands: copra. Gilbert and

outstanding debenture debt as of Dec. 31, 1958, was $60,767,000, of which 65.65% was to be met from taxa-

phosphate.

and 34.35% from the earnings of the city's public utilities. taxable debt of the city was equivalent to $168 per capita, based on 1958 population figures, and represented about 9.01% of the assessment on which 195S taxes were based. The city's to-

idCITIC ISIdnQS, riGnCn.

city's

exports:

Ellice Islands: copra.

tion

The

tal debenture debt, including that issued for public utilities, was $256 per capita and represented 13.72% of taxable assessment at the end of 1958.

On June

Queen Elizabeth II visited Ottawa and was reat Lansdowne park in a ceremony arranged for the city's school children. During the year the municipally owned Ottawa Transportation commission completed ceived by

grouped two French overseas and the Anglo-French condominium of the New Heb(q.v.). Areas and populations are:

territories

rides

Territory

New

Caledonia and dependencies

....

French Polynesio

Areo (sq.mi.l 7,654 1,448

Pop. I19S8

ell.

69,000 79,000

30,

Mayor Nelms

the transfer from streetcars to an all-bus system. tion of natural-gas transmission lines

and

The

facilities

introduc-

proceeded.

Considerable progress was made on construction of the $31,000,000 cross-town Queensway. The city continued to seek negotiations with the federal

government for a contribution toward the

Population, New Caledonia proper (6,533 sq.mi.) and the de pendencies: Melanesian with Polynesian admixtures; European 24.882. mostly French;

4,468 Metnamese; 3.260 Indonesians

Seat of high commissioner:

High commissioner

Noumea, pop. (1957

for the Pacific ocean

est.)

22,23s

and governor of Ne\

Caledonia in 1959. Laurent Pechoux. French Polynesia consists of the Society Islands (the larges of which

is

Tahiti), the Marquesas,

Tuamotu and

other smalle

—

:

PACIFIC ISLANDS

,

U.S.

— PAKISTAN

525

islands. Pop.: Polynesian,

for industrial paint producers, while postponing the need

est.)

decreasing the

majority Christian; Europeans (1957 1,600, mainly French; Chinese 7,000. Seat of governor:

Papeete, on Tahiti, pop. (1957) 17,247. Governor in 1959, Pierre

amount

these building components after erection. For example, a coat of conventional oil-type house paint

Sicaud.

New

History.

Caledonia.

—In the

elections to the territorial

Union Caledonienne (Euroits majority. At the municipal elections of March 8, 1959, the Rassemblement Caledonien (right-wing) was victorious, and also at the senatorial elections on April 26. But at the parliamentary by-election (May 24), the leader of the Union Caledonienne, M. Lenormand, was re-elected with an enormous majority. On Sept. II Jacques Soustelle, minister-delegate to the prime minister's office, inaugurated the dam at Yate, which was to help the nickel industry. The creation of a port and town at Nepoui, on the northeastern coast, was approved by the territorial asassembly held on Dec.

8,

1958, the

peans and Melanesians) maintained

sembly.

—

French Polynesia. In Dec. 1958 the territorial assembly unanimously decided that French Polynesia would retain the status of an overseas territory within the French Community.

The executive council was presided over by the governor and comprised five members elected by the assembly. The Parti de I'Union (pro-French) defeated the Parti de Puvanaa (autonomist) in all the elections: executive councils, town council and senatorial election.

French Community.

See also Education.

— (1958)

Caledonia: 13,000 pupils in primary schools and 1.800 in secondary. Polynesia: 15,300 pupils in primary schools and 1.200 in secondary. Foreign Trade. (1958) Monetary unit: franc C.F.P. (Colonies FranS5S; (1958 est.) 37,396,000, Area of East Pakistan 54,501 sq.mi. Pop. (1951 census)

posed

Industrial finishes continued their trend to increasing specialization.

310,-

ficial

During the decade per capita annual paint consumption had more than four gallons. Although alkyds based on phthalic anhydride continued as the largest class

I

West Pakistan

236 sq.mi. (including small areas in Karachi not part of West

Pakistan province but reserved to the federal government and

Mariana Islands; Trust Territories. Paint production in the United

at

sq.mi.). Total pop. (1951 census)

75,842,165; (1958 est.) 85,635.000. Area of

members. Although martial law continued to strengthen, not to

in

operation,

weaken, the authority of the

it

civil

'

PAKISTAN

526

ment, arbitral determination of industrial disputes, reform

and

of the educational, health

ocial services, the institution

of

new system

a

of

"basic

democracy," as well as proposals

and

for

the

simplification

cheapening

were

procedure,

of

judicial

all

put

in

radical

step

in

hand.

The most

1959 concerned land reform.

The

great

estates

in

West

Pakistan over which landlords

had ruled with almost feudal

powers were broken up and distributed

pensated bonds.

ARRIAGE,

RIDING THF>

"I

1959. Standinu

^J

v.,

or hi, visit to Pakistan Dec. 7. of

Pakistan

by

No

irrigated or 500 ac. of irrigated land

tenants, the

being

com-

interest-bearing

one could possess

more than 1,000

U.S. President Eisen-

Ayub Khan, president

among

owners

former

—maximum

ac.

of non-

holdings fixed

deliberately on the high side in order to

make

administration, the entire machinery of which functioned as

while occupation. Tenants became

owners.

usual.

000

The first care of the new government was to restore the structure of law and order. Vigorous measures were employed to suppress the black market in food and in imported goods, with the result that prices fell. Drastic steps were taken to stop the smuggling of gold and of foodstuffs. Tax evasions were dealt with by allowing an amnesty to those who made declarations of what they owed by a certain date. In this way, more than Rs. 20,000.000 of illicit gold and more than Rs. 1,000,000,000 of tax arrears were recovered for the treasury. Administrative reorganization, which took the form of simplification of procedure, drastic reduction of cadres by weeding out corrupt, incompetent and superfluous officials and the institution of strict codes of discipline for public servants saved about Rs, 28,000,000, These measures were all

land reclaimed by the state in colonization areas, was given to

ac.

the

maximum

over and above the

agriculture a worth-

A

further 6,000,-

holdings, together with

Tenants everywhere were given security.

cultivators.

An embargo was

full

placed on

rent

enhancement and upon

exactions of labour and service from tenants.

all

Standing land

commissions were appointed to enforce these reforms with the full authority of the state. The land reforms were by no

means wholly economic

in their effects. While they set the agrion a sound footing, they also broke the political influence of the great landowning interests, whose lobbies in the former federal and provincial legislatures fostered corruption in public life and contributed actively to the chronic political instability which had afflicted Pakistan almost from its

cultural industry

creation as a state.

financial outlook. Foreign reserves in sterling

marked the measures to clean up Karachi and remove the slums which housed thousands of refugees in de-: plorable conditions. Being unmoved by fear of offending potential voters, the government dealt firmly with all efforts at obstruc-

from Rs, 420, 000.000 to Rs, 780,000,000, In place of a balance payments deficit of Rs, 336,000,000, there was a surplus of

stamped out

part of the introduction of a strict system of treasury supervision

over every branch of national expenditure.

During 1959

intelligent

Similar energy

to

and forceful control transformed the and dollars rose

of

The index of industrial production rose by 11.8% 167,2% (1954=100), The restoration of confidence in the

tion.

Public health regulations were enforced; epidemics wercj

A

at their inception;

new town

and the water supply was

im-,

at Korangi, outside Karachi, with ade-

Rs.34,600,000,

proved.

to

quate accommodations, good communications, hospitals, schools!

country's finances was reflected both in an increase in foreign

investment and by the oversubscription in one day of a Rs,i5,-

000.000 development loan for East Pakistan

in

September. Fi-

nancial stability enabled the second five-year plan to

(1960-65) be based on lines which frankly recognized the necessity of

maintaining a

minimum

West Pakistan

—a

rate of

growth

in

East as well as

in

conclusion which envisaged the net transfer

of both domestic and foreign resources to East Pakistan to correct the disparity in

development

This recogni-

in that region.

avowed determination

new regime

large

and community kitchens, drew off 40,000 refugees, A commission recommended the construction of a new federal capital on the Patwar plateau near Rawalpindi and the govern-

ment endorsed the finding. The government was in form a constitutional limitations. Toward

military dictatorship without the end of the year, however

the president took the first step toward constitutional develop

ment by creating a suffrage, which was

tier of

elected assemblies based on aduli

to exercise

authority in villages and

cit}

to

wards, in subdivisions, in districts, in groups of districts anc

secure for East Pakistan a partnership of complete equality and

eventually in both regions of the country, These "basic democ

tion illustrates the

parity with

of the

West Pakistan,

zation the government carried through a

form the foundation of a new consti which were already being examined Since the regime came into power expressly to reform internal conditions and with no desire to alter existing foreign relations, few changes took place in this sphere. Ties with the common wealth remained strong and friendship with the United Stateii Iran and Turkey was maintained. On the initiative of the presij dent, who met the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru racies''

Side by side with this administrative and financial reorgani-

number

of important

reforms. As soon as a problem was recognized as important, a small expert committee was appointed by the president to ex-

amine it, with a strict time limit. When the report was received, it was given first place on the cabinet agenda; and within a matter of days, a decision was taken and final orders were issued. By this means during the year land reform, refugee resettle-

were intended

to

tution, the requirements of

i

New

red Delhi in September, relations with India notably improve(

I

u

PALESTINE — PANAMA A

procedure was

laid

down

for obviating border friction in East

made

Pakistan; substantial progress was

in

composing

Palestine:

was resolved. Of the disputes which long embittered IndoPakistani relations, only the Kashmir problem remained un-

However

the continued U.S. aid to Pakistan in the

arms and munitions aroused

of

criticism

in

India.

form

The new

strength of Pakistan's internal situation was reflected during

1959 by fresh trade and financial agreements with Britain and German Federal Republic. During Dec. 7-8 Pres. Dwight

the

D. Eisenhower paid an

ofi&cial visit to

See also India.

527 Jordan; United Nations.

financial

A

disputes; and the quarrel over the Indus basin water resources

solved.

see Israel;

Karachi. (L. F. R.

W.)

—

republic on the isthmus joining the continents

Panama. of North and South America, Panama is bounded on the north by Costa Rica and on the south by Colombia and is

bisected

by the Panama Canal Zone, the possession

of which

with the United States. Area; 28,753 sq.mi.; pop.: (1950 census) 805,285, (1959 est.) 1,024,000, both exclusive of the Canal Zone. The capital is Panama City, pop. (1950 rests in perpetuity

census)

127,874, (1958 est.) 238,980; other principal cities (1950 census) are Colon 52,204, (1958 est.) 64,430; David 14,847; La Chorrera 8,652; Chitre 7,398; Puerto Armuelles 5,734;

Education. Schools (1957): primary 42,503, pupils 4,040,298; secondary 5,675. pupils 1,278,441; vocational (1954-55) 37. pupils (195455) 9.595- Teacher-training colleges (1952) 136, students (1952) 6,930. Institutions of higher education (1957-58) 163 (6 universities) students

and Santiago 5,886. Language; Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1959: Ernesto de la Guardia, Jr. In Feb. 1959 resentment against the alleged corHistory.

84.652. Finance and Banking.

ruption of certain municipal

— Monetary

unit: Pakistan rupee, with a par value of 4.761 and buying and selling exchange rates (May 1959) of 4.720 and 4.768 rupees to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959-60 est.): revenue Rs. 1,584,500,000, expenditure Rs. 3,311,900,000. (Currency circulation (May

1958) Rs. 3,601,000,000, (May 1959) Rs. 3,603,000,000. Deposit money: (May 1958) Rs. 1,772,000,000 (May 1959) Rs. 1,925,000,000. Gold and (May 1958) U.S. $289,000,000 (May 1959) U.S. $259,000,000. Foreign Trade. (195S) Imports Rs. 1,890,000,000, exports Rs. 1,417,000.000. Main sources of imports: U.S. and Canada 31%; U.K. 18%; India 5%; other sterling area 12%; continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 21%; Japan 6%. Main destinations of exports: U.K. 20%; India 3%; other sterling area 10%; continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 3i7o; U.S. and Canada 11%; Japan 10%. foreign exchange, official holdings:

—

Main

59%;

cotton 17%. Transport ond Communications. Roads (1956) 97,019 km. Motor Vehicles in use (1957): passenger 31,800, commercial 21,000. Railways (1958): ri,333 km.; traffic (April 1957-58): passenger-km. 10.572,000.000, freight, ton-km. 6.684,000,000. Shipping (July 1958): merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over 51, total tonnage 128,000. Air transport (i9SS): passenger-km. 228,924,000; freight, ton-km. 6,516,000. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 57,632 Licensed radio receivers (1955) 109,000. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): rice 11.407,000 (12,934,000); wheat 3,718,000 (3,663,000); barley 175,000 (134,000"); maize 473.000 (454,000): tobacco (1957) 88,900 (91,400 in 1956): jute 1,089,000 (1,125,000); cotton, lint, 285,000 (296,000); cottonseed 569,000 (592,000); tea (1957) 20,200 (24,800 in 1056); chick peas 696,000 (741,000); sugar, raw value 189,000 (172,000 linseed (1957) 14,000 (15,000 in 1956); rapeseed (1957) 229,000 e.xports:

jute

—

—

I

:

(317,000 in 195s); sesame (1956) 37.000 (38,000 in 1955). Livestock (Sept. 1958): cattle 31,060,000; sheep 6,145,000; buffaloes 7,067,000; horses (Sept. i9S4) 470,000; asses (Sept. 1954) 913,000; mules (Sept. 1954) 41,000. Industry. Fuel and power (1958); coal and lignite 612,000 metric tons: electricity (excluding industrial generation, 1956) 768.000,000 kw.hr.; natural gas 547,200,000 cu.m. Production (metric tons, 1958): crude oil 303,600; cement 1,080.000; woven cotton fabrics 526,800,000 m.: chrome ore (1957) 8,100 metric tons. Encyclop.«dia Briiannic.a Films. Arnold Toynbee: India, Pakistan, Ceylon (sixth lecture of the series, "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958); India (Pakistan and the Union of India) (1952); Pakistan (1955).

—

—

—

officials of Panama City was fanned open demonstration by the broadcasts of the owner of a radio station. A citizens' emergency committee seized the city

into an

general strike, demanded the removal of the councilmen and named an interim council. The national government, by use of the national guard, evicted the citizens' committee, ousted the interim council, swore in a new council and hall, called for a

restored a semblance of public order.

Sporadic outbreaks of disorder occurred in January,

March

and April. The most publicized of these occurrences was th? alleged conspiracy led by Roberto Arias, son of a former president, and his wife Dame Margot Fonteyn, well-known British ballerina. Miss Fonteyn was arrested on suspicion of revolutionary activity and expelled from Panama. Her husband eluded capture and left Panama by means of a safe conduct from the Brazilian embassy. On April 26 a band of invaders, said to number 80 men, seized Nombre de Dios on Panama's Caribbean coast, and was reported to be intent on capturing Porto Belle and ultimately on overthrowing the government. Three members of the band, who were captured, indicated that Arias was their leader and

point of departure. Premier Fidel Castro of

Cuba their Cuba denied any con-

nection with the proceedings and offered assurances that no other

armed bands would leave Cuba.

On

April 28 the United States and ig other

pledged their aid to repel the invaders. tee of five

members was named, and

An

American republics

investigating commit-

a sea and air patrol to which

the United States, Colombia and Ecuador contributed was instiU,S.

SENTRY HOLDING OFF PANAMANIANS atUmpflng

Canal Zone during anti-U.S. demonstrations

in

Nov.

1959

to

cross

Into

the

—

PANAMA CANAL ZON E — PAN- AMERICAN GAMES

S28

The

tutcd to provide protection

investigating committee con-

ferred with the invaders and appeared to have induced their

surrender They were taken into custody by the national giurd and sent hack to Cuba for trial. Tlie obserx-ation of Panama's Independence day, Nov. 3, was marked by a disptlay of anti-United Slates feeling. Groups of men, said to have been students, attempted a march into the Canal Zone to plant the Panamanian dag there. Police turned them back, and scufiBes precipitated considerable \-iolence.

Panamanian as=.embly passed and the president signed a measure extending the territorial waters of Panama from 5 to i; miles The law could be so construed as to inclose both entrances of the canal and allow Panama to collect fees and In Dec

105S. the

regulate shipping.

The United

States and six other nations protested, but the

protest was rejected.

— la

Amuucan

States.

(A. R.

;

^"c-.-

par with the U.S. dollar.

ball>oa. al

revenue and expenditure and expenditure at $36,662,917. invcs. expenditure. S57,55i,i95 '.44SK The public debt on Dec. 31, Si3,&65.ooo was external. Demand d ordinar>'

r; at ?5'

.

•

riue

(

•

30.

1959.

The

cost-of-living index

I'it.a— a C::y -:jji i'. ,^ ;2 June 1959 (1953 = 100). National income in 1956 was estimated al S;45.9DO.ooo. Trod* o«d CommjT.tctrtio-o Et7o-*? in ic?? f including re-exports) " fxports were bananas totaled $;i,i:'

'

lumber. The leading :he I'.S. '55^^^ the ••nany (4%) and the de is generally offset tourist expenditures,

(65";), frtih customer wa^ r^-i.

--.r,.

rd there.

TT;faEf .:;;^l was 1,553, of which Jan. 1, 1059, there were 17,900 automobiles Arrr^rdirp rr* Ll^vd'j R^rifter of Skifpmi, -•t»e« -:--' - : 7; • : _ r-ciss tons were rphones (Jan.

Ri

hcrn^i.v

.::

On

l57 and

—

'

(preliminar>' centrifugal

.

it :

sugar s'r"

If

:

} .:;i:, .:;ii '.1-.

;jiCio

^.ioi.sDC

lb.:

1937 included bananas 7,421,716 -t'.ric tons, refined sugar 3.064 tons and coconuts July 195S there were an estimated 629.000 cattle and -IS.

:-

Exports

in

In 1957. 3.745 metric tons of fresh shrimp. 2,i66.oS5 ^any lumber and 3.55i tons oi mahogany timber were ei-

—Installed

electric energj- capacity (Panama City and rS.ooD kw. on Dec. 31. 1955 Production in 1958 included 153.600.000 kwir.; manufactured gas (Panama Citj- and

• j-0.000 mjn. ExcTCior/Esu BUTUCKICA FuMS.

C.'

: •..-.

(J.

W. Mw.)

Cemtral America (1944).

The Panama Canal Zone is a U.S. Eovemment reservation embracing 5:np acros? tie Isthmus of Panama and auxiliary areas. occupation and control of which were granted by Panama

Panama Canal Zone. a izt-TPA

the use.

to the United States in perpetuity trith exclusive sovereign rights.

pover and authority, its

for construction of the

Panama

canal and

perpetual maintenance, opteration, sanitation and protection.

Area 55S sqjnL (including

i

S6 5q.mL of fresh water

1.

Population

(1950. inchiding armed forces^ 52.822; C1958 est.) 57.000. Principal

to protect U.S. interests and

treaty rights.

As planned, mobs carrying Panamanian flags as to invade the Canal Zone on Nov.

symbols attempted

cammmities (195S

est.): .\nc6n-Balboa. 3,96:;

Gamboa,

826: Gatun. 629; and Cristobal- Margarita. 1405. Headquarters: Balboa Heights. Go%'emor in 1959: Maj. Gen. William E. Potter. hKstory.^-Ocean-goiiig trSSc through the canal in 1959 was majAttd by record numbers of vessels reqtiiring daylight passage or ooe-tray i>a\-ieatioa in Gaillard cut. causing transit delays

aad reducing capacity. Traffic studia indicated that transit demands would become critical in 1971. thus emphasizing the necessity for an early decisaoo on proposals for major canal operational impro^'ODents and capacity increase.

sovereign! 3,

but wct'

by U.S. forces, with injuries on both sides. Mobs attacked the U.S. embassy and other property. Notwithstanding these difficulties, the U.S. continued fulfillint;

repelled

the 1955 U.S. -Panama treaty obligations, among them being th of construction on the $20,000,000 Thatcher ferry si;i

start

1956-57 there were 1.151 public and

141,331 pupHs enrolled and 103 po&tprimar>' schools The national universjty had J. 563 students. The ••.at :5 j'"r of the population over 10 years oi age. s. ivas illiterate, .\bout 11.5% of the 195S budget

The "^

by the U.S. congress of measures

Toble the school )t«r

- ;;

w

^

W.)

priixvao' schools with i'.irlciv :h

.n^j.

by Panamanian extremists for wresting jurisdictiun ut ih-Canal from the U.S. The announced plans of certain unoffin radicals for "peaceful invasion" and symbolic occupation of ih' Canal Zone on Nov. 3, 1959, Independence day of Panami, ! gether with other unrealistic demands, led to the considcratioi

(M. DuV,)

bridge across the canal's Pacific entrance.

See also Osc;AXiiATios or E*»c»t»on.

U.S. -Panamanian relations were complicated by continur.l tation

I,

—Conof l»3«

Trofi>>t>

Corgo (tM Tolb

Troniifi,

Cargo and

Tof/f

g

en us

mr

2 I

-

PAN-AMERICAN GAMES

530

Pan-Ammrlean Gom«i* Champiom

— 1959

Bafball

Soccer

Batktfball

Swimming

V«fl*iu«la

Mm

Won

Unllcd Slolai

Men's Events

Boxing

n3

MIgud tolto, Waldo Claudia

lb.

119 t}S 133

lb.

UO

.

lb.

I

lb.

,

lb.

147 1b 136 lb 1«S lb. 178 1b Haavywalghl

Argtntif a II

Corloi Aro, Argontlna a

.

.

AbttI laudonio, Arganllna a .

,

.

VIncant Shomo, U.S

AKrado Corrolo, Chlla Wllbart McClura, U.S. Abroa da Souio, Braill Amot Johnion, U.S. Allan Hudion, U.S.

.

.

....

trial

protaitad (adarollonl.

(Raiull

Prii Prii

I

.

.

.

.

.Canada

.

U.S.

MIchaal Poga, U.S.

Fencing Harold Coldtmllh, U.S.

Follt

Taam

U.S. U.S.

folll

....

Epea

Rolond

Woommack,

MmIm

Events

style

200-m 400-m 100-m

>

m Mo

I

1

.03.8*

2:1 8.J* 4:55.9* 1:12.2« 2:56.8t 1.09.51 4.17.5*

style

4.44.«|

UA

Mrs. Poulo Pope, Mrs. Paula Pop*

dive

:ord for games. tMcKinney set games' mark of 1:03.3 In trials. tMiss mark of 256.4 in breast stroke Iriols; Miss Nancy Romay, U.S., sat mork of 1:09.1 in butterfly triols. SGomas' and world mark.

dal Pilar Rolda

UA.

C. Toblon, A. Coxlolo,

live

Folll

4>I4.»'

U.S. J. Farrall)

Chris von Soltzo. U.S. Chris von Soltzo Chris von Soltzo kstroke Corin Cone. U.S. 200-ni asl stroke Ann Warner, U.S. 100-m fly Ba^ky Collins, U.S. 400-m U.S. Aolly Botkin, Joan Spillona, Shirley Slobs, Chris von Soltzo) 400-mI. medley relay U.S. Corin Cone, Anne Bancroft, Becky Collins, Chris von Soltzo)

100-n,

Thraa-day avani (laom) Jumping (taam|

.

3.43.) •

3.1 B* 8.33.7;

Winters, D. Rounsovalla, P. Slnli|

a diva

Women's

da Draiioga. T. Golvin, U.S. da Draiioga llaom). Chila

Thraa-day avant

ink McKinnay, U.S. Bill Mulllkon. U.S. va Clllondan, U.S.

200-m. breost stroke 300-m. bullarfly 800-m. free style relay

Intarnatlonal

to

Equestrian

Grand Grond

1,500-m, free style 100-m. backstroke

400-m. medley relay IF. McKinnay, K. Nokoiona, M. Troy,

Ro Ro

Juan Canlo. Arganllno . A. Arganloa, Broiil

S6.2 MC.' 4,3I.4' I7,S3.3' 1.03.6t

style style

(R. Blick, T,

Cycling 1,000 m 1,000 m. tlma

100-m. Iraa 400-m. free

'

Warner M» gam

Gymnasfics Tennis

Men's Events John Backner, U.S. John Beckn John Beckner

All-around Long horsa

bo

Porollal

Abe

listha

Horizonlal bor

"»

*'

laid, U.S.

19.2 19.3

Ab
-stem. Seven insured mutual savings banks also functioned in the state. The total assets and liabilities of insured commercial banks in Pennsylvania on Dec. 31, 1958, were $15,254,505,000. .As of Dec. 31, 1958, 844 building and loan associations with assets of $3,124,316,580, were operating in the commonwealth. The total 1957-59 appropriations which were passed by the Pennsylvania general assembly and approved by the governor from the general fund amounted to $1,439,548,897.09. Executive authorizations from the motor license fund for the 1959-61 biennium totaled $623,012,112 as of of

May

in this total

• j

!.

j

1

j

I

—

Nov. 10, 1959.

The gross bonded debt at

$262,100,000.

of the

commonwealth

as of

May

31, 1959. stood

535 Table

delphia 2,071,605; Pittsburgh 676,806; Erie 130,803; Scranton

Crop Corn, bu

1.

Principal

Crops of Pennsytv

PENSION. OLD-AGE— PETROLEUM

536 Pension, Old-Age: various

see

Social Seciriiy. See also under

both houses uf the Peruvian congress. As the end of the year apit appeared that the Prado administration had success-

proached

sl.ilrs.

Pensions, Veterans': see Veterans Administration (U.S.)Persia: «" Ikan. Persian Gulf States: see Rahrain; Kuwait; Qatar; TruCIAL StAVKS

fully

weathered another year of

(R. N. Br.)

crises.

—

Educalion. In 1955 there were iJ.i6j primary schools wilh 28,163 teachers and 1,101,227 pupils; J48 secondary schools, 92.098 students; 217 technical schools, 33,963 students; 28 normal schools, 3,463 students; 7 institutions of higher learning, 16,789 students. Nearly 30% o' tlw population over j years o( age is illiterate. Finonc*. The monetary unit is the sol, valued during the first 10 months of I9S9 at a free rate ranging between a high of 4.05 cents L'.S. currency (Jan. 2) and a low of 3.35 cents (July 13). The 1959 budget, including special accounts, was balanced at 6,846,300,000 soles. The public debt on Ucc. 31, 1957, totaled 3,294.795,000 soles, of which 670,195,000 solei represented the external debt. Currency in circulation (March 31, 1959) totaled 2,404,000,000 soles; demand deposits were in the same amount.

—

republic situated on the west coast of South .\merica

'^

Doril r CI U.

bounded on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on and Bolivia, on the south by Chile and on the west by the Pacific ocean. Peru has an area of 496.222 sq.mi. The population, 10.524,000 (1959 est.), is composed of approximately equal numbers of "white" and mestizo persons and Indians, with some Negro and Asian elements. Lima, the capital, ;,n(i

the east

by

Brazil

has a population of 1.186.212 (1958 est.).

The 1958 population

estimates for other major cities are: Callao 129,365; Arequipa 121,896; Cuzco 68,483; Trujillo 60,427; Chiclayo 54,390; Iquitos

Huancayo 47,486; Sullana 35.250; lea 34,230; and Language: Spanish, although Quechua is still spoken by some of the highland Indians. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1959, Manuel Prado y Ugarteche, History. The deterioration of economic conditions which af54,286;

Piura

32,147.

—

Peru during 1958 continued during 1959. A decline in the value of Peru's foreign trade, a government policy of issuing flicted

paper currency and a rising cost of living produced general unrest

throughout the nation. Discontent

Peru was reflected

among

during the

the workers of

quarter of 1959. During the next three months conditions became worse. Beginning

in

of the Federation of

When

to return to

when 12,000

Bank Employees struck

for higher

they refused to comply with a government order

work, constitutional guarantees were suspended and

strike leaders

The

first

April business throughout Peru was disrupted

members wages.

in 62 strikes

were arrested.

situation

was further complicated when Fernando Bela-

unde Terry, chief of the middle-class Party of Popular Action and a leading critic of the Prado administration, announced plans for a mass meeting of protest to be held in Arequipa. The government arrested Belaunde Terry and a number of his followers before the meeting could be held, and in spite of protests from their followers they were detained for nearly a week after the bank strike was ended on June 3. In the meantime the government had attempted to allay worker discontent by decreeing on May 29 an across-the-board wage increase for Peruvian workers, but this only served to arouse the criticism of businessmen

who claimed

that the govern-

ment was adding to inflation. During June the economic policies of the government came under increasing attack in congress. When the government admitted both the existence of a large deficit and the fact that the International Monetary fund had canceled a credit to Peru because of crisis

occurred.

On July

its

inflationary policies, a

4 Luis Gallo Porras,

who had been

premier and finance minister during the past year, resigned.

Two

weeks later a new cabinet was formed with Pedro Beltran and finance minister. Beltran, the editor of conservative La Prensa and an advocate of "free enterprise," embarked upon an austerity program. Controls on meat prices were removed in order to encourage production, and the price of gasoline was increased threefold to revive activity in the Talara oil as premier

fields.

Plans were announced for stopping the issuance of paper

money and duction.

A

for the

promotion of industrial and agricultural pro-

flurry of strikes in protest against higher prices for

meat and gasoline caused the government to suspend constitutional guaratitees at the end of July, but by the middle of August it felt strong enough to restore them. The position of the government was further strengthened at the end of .August and the beginning of September when it received votes of confidence from

National income in 1957 was estimated at 23,655,000,000 soles. The costof-living index stood at 152 in July 1959 (1953 100). Trod» and Communicationi. Exports in 1958 totaled 6,776,587,000 soles; imports, 7,808,082,000 soles. Leading exports were cotton (267c),

=

—

sugar and derivatives (w'S), lead (8%), copper (8%) and silver (7%); leading imports, machinery anrl vehicles (37%), food, drink and tobacco i^l^'/f.) and metals and manufactures (11%). Leading customers were the U.S., including the Panama Canal Zone (42rcl, Chile (10%), the U.K. (9%). Belgium (7%) and western Germany (6%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (47%), western Germany (11%), the U.K. (8%), Argentina (4%) and the Netherlands (i^'r). Railroads 1958) totaled 2,262 mi.: roads totaled about 18,600 mi. in 1954, of which 11,700 mi. were classified as improved. On Jan. 1, 1959, there were 68,356 automobiles, 51,903 trucks and 6,569 buses, .^ccording to Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the merchant marine bad 54 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating 107,697 gross tons on June 30, 1958. Telephones (Jan. I, 1958) numbered 79,171, of which 81.4% were automatic. Agriculture. Preliminary production estimates for 1958-59 included cotton (lint) 114,571 metric tons; sugar 708,561 tons; rice (milled) 178,676 tons; wheat 143,413 tons. In 1958, 107,519 tons of cotton and 438.150 tons of sugar and derivatives were exported. In Dec. 1957 there were 512,000 horses, 3,244,000 cattle. 14,130.000 sheep. (1956) 1,281,000 hogs, (1954) 2.454,000 goats. 3,419.000 alpacas, llamas and vicunas. In 1958, 4,963 tons of wool were exported. Manufactures. In 1955 there were 4.093 industrial establishments with 110.087 employees and annual gross value of production amounting to 9.050.130.000 soles. Most important by value of production were textiles, food products, grain milling and hulling and cotton ginning. Cement production in 1958 totaled 544. Soo metric tons. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31. 1956) totaled 400,000 kw.; production in 1956 (public use only) was 675,000.000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production in 1958 (prelim.) included copper tin ore) 57,174 metric tons; lead 137,152 tons; zinc 154,456 tons; coal 140,557 tons; silver 24.157.000 fine oz.; gold 132,823 oz.: iron ore (metal content 60%) 2.592,000 tons; crude petroleum 19,221,512 bbl. (J. \V. M\v.) (

—

—

—

—

EscvcLOP/EDiA Britannica Films. Land of Ihe Incas (1955); Arnold Toynbce: Mexico and Peru (first lecture of the series. ".\ Changing World Light of History") (1958); Peru (People of the .Andes) (1959)-

in the

Petrochemicals:

see

Chemical Industry.

"^^^ ^^^^ '9^9 marked the centennial of the perCllUICUIil. troleum industry in the United States, an event) which was widely advertised and celebrated. On Aug. 27, 1859, Col. Edwin L. Drake brought in the first well drilled for oil near

Dotrnlaiim

Titusville, Pa.

;

The

strike started a rush similar to the 1849 Cali-

fornia gold rush but surpassed

it

in the effect

it

was

to

have on

the world's materia! progress, for today petroleum challenges

and lignite for leadership as an energy resource. In 1959 petroleum accounted for an estimated i5.22'propylenei| acetal, high-density polyethylene and polycarbonate) which been under evaluation for the past two years were now readily available. Automation in machine design and plant layout en-l

$1,125,000,000, mostly for completed projects. It was predicted

abled manufacturers to produce plastics products faster andjT

A

year-long bicentennial celebration in 1959 was accompanied in the city's rebuilding. The Allegheny ConCommunity Development announced that total ex-

by major progress ference on

that an equal, 15 years.

if

not greater,

sum would be

required in the next

lb.)

!

more economically than

before.

Several applications with far-reaching implications were

j

de-

PLATINUM — POLAND Production of Plastics and Synthetic Resins

in thie U.S.

Celluloje ploiHcs* Phenolic ond other lor ocid reiinit

Urea ond melomins Slyrene resins Vinyl resins

Coumarone-indene and petroleum polymer

resins

Polyester resins Polyethylene resins Miscellaneous t

Of

Dnfjintrw UUiailJ.

pounds)

Iln

1958

1957

141,350,000 461,098,000 325,412,000 695,501,000 820,523,000 236,523,000 113,853,000 865,306,000 211,461,000

148,112,000 531,306,000 349,077,000 680,100,000 885,505,000 285,1 44,000 95,232,000 707,500,000 225,592,000

'includes flllers, piosticizers ond extenders. tincludes friction moteriois. {includes data for acrylic, nylon and other molding materials, as well as epichlorohydrin, acrylic, silicone and other protective-coating resins. Source: U.S. Tariff Commission.

549 1959 was the greatly

significance during

in-

creased participation of the organized podiatrists

programs dealing with the total health and welfare of the people of the United States. Highlighting this was their planned in

White House Conference on Children and Youth and the 1961 White House Conference on Aging. A comprehensive catalogue of audio-visual materials for public and professional education was compiled and published. An participation in the i960

abstract

of

state

chiropody in

all

laws

regulating

the

practice

of

podiatry-

of the states was brought up-to-date and pub-

lished.

veloped during the year. Included among these were blow molded high-density polyethylene bottles for household detergents

molded high-density polyethylene

injection

first

flight

the

;

luggage

The annual meeting in New York city, Aug. 29-Sept. i, 1959, more than 1,300 podiatrists-chiropodists. There were

attracted

114 papers read, several panel discussions and 35 scientific exThere were also conferences on the allied

hibits at the meeting.

ever put on the market; mass-produced glass-reinforced poly-

health professions in hospital service

motorboat engines and lawn mow'ers the first entry of plastics, in the form of a phenolic-glass clutch cone, into automatic car transmissions; a sofa frame molded of ex-

cation for America's youth; symposia on arthritis of the foot,

ester shrouds for

;

pandable styrene; the

first

entry of plastics (a molded acetal

valve) into faucet construction, which had been traditionally

all

and a new type of building construction (first shown in the U.S. pavihon at the 1959 American National exhibition in Moscow) in which premolded polyester-glass "umbrellas" were grouped into a canopy effect. Among the new plastics that made their appearance was a vinyl fluoride film that combines flexibility with inherent weathering brass;

ability,

toughness and chemical resistance.

It

could be used

outdoors for glazing and as a laminate to protect wood, aluminum

and other materials from deterioration. Another

plastic, chlori-

nated polyether, although not new, attracted attention, a

major price cut and then with

industrial application (a water

its first

first

meter wobble plate that showed

The material had exceptional corrosion

it

resistance,

and melting point (365° F.) and essentially zero water absorption. In Europe a new material which was described as a mechanically mixed blend of vinyl chloride and chlorinated polyethylene was developed. The mixture had exceptional light and weathering stability, could be formulated with impact strength as good as that of rigid vinyl and had a wider working temperature range than had been pos-

high heat distortion (300° F. at 66

sible

p.s.i.)

with rigid polyvinyl chloride.

manufacture of reinforced

of the sole of the foot.

The American Podiatry

plastics products

in

association announced that

annual meeting in Washington, D.C., ing,

its

its

1962

50th anniversary meet-

would be an international conference on foot health.

Encyclop,cdia Britannica Films.

— Care

(A. Ru.) oj the Feet

(1943).

Poetry: see American Literature; Canadian Literature; English Literature; French Literature; German Literature; Italian Literature; Jewish Literature; LatinAmerican Literature; Literary Prizes; Soviet Literature; Spanish Literature. people's republic of eastern Europe is bounded Dnlonri ^^^^ rUldllU. east by the U.S.S.R., south by Czechoslovakia, west by the German Democratic republic and north by the Baltic sea.

Area 120.359 sq.mi. Pop. (1950 census) 24,613,684; (Dec.

1958 for the

(by spraying polyes-

31,

1959, est.) 29,600.000. National minorities (1959 est.): Ukrainians 200,000; Byelorussians 120,000; Jews 50,000; Slovaks 15,000; Lithuanians 10,000;

nantly

Roman

Germans

7,000. Religion: predomi-

Catholic, but (1958 est.) there were about 400,-

000 Orthodox and 120,000 Lutherans. Chief towns (pop. 1958

Warsaw 1,088,000; Lodz 696,000; Cracow 461,000; Wroclaw 410,000; Poznan 392,000; Gdansk 272,000; Szczecin 254,-

est.):

000;

The spray gun technique which was developed

health and recreation edu-

with

use in a precision molded

wearing qualities at least four times better than the brass disk replaced).

;

diminished circulation in the foot, and chronic intractable lesions

Bydgoszcz 224,000; Katowice 209,000;

12

other towns

with a population of over 100,000. First Secretary of the Polish United Workers'

(Communist)

1959 to permit the simultaneous spraying of polyester resin and an

party in 1959, Wladyslaw Gomulka; chairman of the council of state, Aleksander Zawadzki; chairman of the council of minis-

aggregate for surfacing and other building applications. Blow

ters,

ter

and

glass simultaneously

on

a surface)

was refined

in

molding, an older processing technique, had a full-scale revival in 1959.

The

availability of

new stock machines and improved

plastics, particularly high-density

of the revival.

The

polyethylene were the causes

technique, in which a hollow tube

out by air against a mold and held in place until

it

is

blown

sets,

was

die in front. Instead, a centripetal

move

home

signs to the contrary,

from the

candidates compared with 1,296,938 at the time of the second

new concept

congress

(March 1952). The reduction

was used. The chief uses for the

port to the congress

melt extruder was ex-

pected to be in profile and foam extrusions, wire coating, pipe (C. A. Bn.)

Platinum: see Mineral and Metal Production and Prices. Plums: see Fruit. see

Respiratory Diseases.

in Oct.

United Workers' (Communist) party was held

mainly the

Pneumonia:

by Wladyslaw Gomulka

1956.

be developed from the rotary shearing of visco-elastic melts

and for compounding plastic materials.

there were no fundamental departures

policies inaugurated

of ex-

The year

pumping action which could elastic

1959 was economically one of slight resomewhat troubled. In spite of some

politics

material out of the

wares, toys, automotive and industrial components.

1959 also saw the introduction of an entirely

—The year

cession and in

During March 10-19, i9S9. the third congress of the Polish in Warsaw. On Jan. I, 1959, the party numbered 1,072,932 full members and

expected to have an important influence on packaging, house-

trusion which did not require a screw to

Jozef Cyrankiewicz.

History.

of party

membership was

result of the 1958 "verification." In his six-hour re-

Gomulka

was meant a cleansing from ideologically embarrassing "revisionist" and "dogmatic" elements. But he was worried by the fact that the percentage of workers among the party members was only 41.8% (6.5% less than in 1954), and that the peasant membership had fallen during the same period from 13.1% to 12.2%.

not disturbed by the loss

in

said that the party leadership

numbers because

it

marek was accused of antistate propaganda. Only the pope has the power to remove from

bishop

a

diocese,

his

XXIII

but on Aug. 19 John

addressed a letter to

Msgr.

Kaczmarek sending him

his

fatherly love and expressing the hope that the conflict would be happily settled. In

of

spite

these

all

menacing

signs nothing irreparable hap-

pened

and

between

the

Vivendi

state.

the

Church

The modus

established

in

Dec.

1956 continued. POLISH

PEOPLE CHEERING

U.S.

VICE-PRESIDENT

through Warsaw durino his visit to the country In the car it Milton Elsenhower

in

NIXON

as

1959. To the right

he of

When

rode

Nixon

Warsaw on Aug. 2 way home from Moscow, the people received him enthusiastically. On .Aug. 3 Nixon had a five-hour talk with Gomulka, who brought up the problems for which he for a three-day visit

The congress approved the directives for a new five-year development plan for 1961-65. Industrial production would rise by s°''c compared with the provisions for ig6o and by 80%

on

his

held the United States responsible: the western refusal to rec-

compared with 1958. But agricultural production was lagging, and Gomulka said that between 1959 and 1965 it was planned to increase agricultural production by 30'^f He pointed out that while in Bulgaria 95"^^ of arable land was collectivized, in Czechoslovakia this proportion reached 759c and in Rumania 65%, in

ognize Polish sovereignty over former

Poland only

totaling $50,000,000. Together with loans

.

of arable land belonged to the "socialized

189J:

sector" (of which

12.5% belonged

to 6,079 state farms). In other

words, 82- "Govemmental Process" was somewhat refashioned, and reflected the forces of cross acculturation. The main subheads dealt with political forces and trends, political parties and political beha\-iour. "Political Forces and Trends

Polo club

be anticipated, led the

list

trio retained the national intercollegiate title

by defeating the

University of Virginia. 14-5.

In the

annual Sherman Memorial indoor toumey.

final of the

the Huntington iX.Y.) Turtles set back the Huntington Fal-

Schwaru. Arthur Xichols and Frank Rice

cons. 14-10. Joseph

made up

the winning team.

Among

bowed

the features of the eastern indoor season, was the apof.

an all-women's team at Squadron

A

armour>-. In a (.Conn.)

Braun. Helen Puuel and CjTithia Michaels York Knights 5-4. yielding to their male

trio of .Vnn

Xew

to the

rivals after a

hard-fought contest.

(T. V. H.)

'

treated the following: general studies, pressure groups, labour influences, general

Popular Music: Population,

.'tt'

Music: Records

Movements

.a.vd

Recordings.

of: see Reflcees.

and comparative studies, national and regional middle classes, business influences, ideo-

studies, rural influences, logical influences,

military- influences,

religious

influences, na-

and racial factors, and studies by areas. Such a grouping was at once both "sociological" and realistic, denoting a getting away from the formalism which characterized the development of political science in an earlier period. "Political Beha\-iour." the last of the three categories under "Government and Public .Administration." was also a fast-growing emphasis and one of the newest. The subdi\"isions here were tional minorities

general studies, political attitudes, political leadership, channels of communication, propaganda, mass communication media, voting beha\nour and elections

As

for

i

generally,

and by

were thought

topics, therefore, as well as in

space-age model, was finding

it

terms of the

increasingly difficult to "keep

f^"

year of the population figure.

won

n«|«

The

Circle

F

four of DaUas, Tex.,

r UIU.

title

when

it

halted the Aurora riders of Buffalo. X.Y..

the national op)en

1959 final at the Oak Brook Polo club in Hinsdale. Delmar CarroU. Ray Harrington. Jr.. William A. Mayer and

>--. in the

—

-ell

Firestone. Jr.. comprised the wirming team. Circle

ed the United States 20-goal

with an 11-5 triumph over

Rock club

title to its feats

Meadow Brook

F

for the season

("X.Y.'i at

the Piping

X.V. Firestone. Mayer. Harrington and Lester Armour rode for the \nctor5. The Menlo Circus team of Menlo Park. Cahf accounted for two national outdoor championships. Menlo. with William G. Gilmore. Da\-id S. Moore. iRobert Skene and W. Mackall Jason the mallet swingers, set back Oklahoma. 0-5. for intercircuit honours. Frank A. Mcin

Locust

The

totals

\'alley.

NeiUy. Moore. Skene and Jason routed the Solo

Cup

quartet of

Chicago. 15-7. in the final of the U.S. 12-goal event.

The Oak

Biook quartet of Victor Graber. William Linfoot. Cecil Smith

This table pro\ides a fundamental basis

Populafions

and Areas of

C

riders of Detroit, Mich., 5-4, in the

!Oft

WoHd

!>:.; s=-=s!

58,599,308

total

AFRICA B«lgion cotony and trvsteeship

.... .

,

.

Ethiopia (ind. Eritreo)

1,121,892

103,089 91,843 94,925 178,201 124,503 43,000 679,358 227,737 419,229 174,471 489.206 800,296 76,124

Guinea haHan Sotnaliland (SoaoEol Krory Coast: Liberio

Ubyo Malgache: Mouritonia:

Morocco Niger: Portuguese overseas provirKes Senegal: South- West Africa (mandate of Unioa of South Africo) Spanish colonies and possessions. . . Sudan. Republic of the .

Tunisio

Union of South Africo Union of South Africa possessions United Arab Republic

The Milwaukee CWis.) Knights took door season, the national

the

major prize of the

in-

12-goal crown, beating the Cornell

imiversity entrv- of Ithaca. N.Y..

16-15. s' the Squadron

A

pnnoury in New York. Paul Smithson. Jr.. William E. Stevens Donald G. McCarroU rode for the westem champions. Competing for Comell. the eastern di\"ision title winner, were Ben Ihad {Baldwin. Peter Baldwin and Stan Woolawav. The same Cornell

967,491

472733

...

110 386,100 71,227 105,839

Egyot Syrio Upper Volta:

ANTARCTICA (e»chisive of

British colonies

317,725 114,195 464.873 48,332

Sjoonese RepubtcJ

Afghoniston Bahrain Bhutan

925,907 1,968,8i3

2' buildings, purchase of equipment and excavation work, which included the drilling and removal of more than the

in process of construction in

30,000 cu.m. of rock.

The ultimate potential of this undertaking was given as 3,000,000,000 kw.hr.. said to equal the total estimated output of all other Angolan hydroelectric systems already completed or in process of construction.

An

incident considered

by some observers

to

be not alto-

gether unrelated to the political unrest in the motherland oc-

curred in Portuguese Guinea in August when what was described in

an

statement as a "strike and mutiny" of native port

official

workers at Bissau was put down with severity. The

ment declared

official state-

that public order and the prestige of authority

would be defended by

all

possible

means and added the govern-

ment's regret at the number of victims resulting from "repressive steps promptly taken in a

manner adequate

to the intention of

the mutineers' attacks." It did not, however, give the

number

of casualties.

—

1

557

(162,000); potatoes 1,196,000 (1,196,000); broad beans 45,000 (56,000); meat 90,000 (80,400); wine (1957) 958,000 (1,096,000 in 1956). Livestock (1955-56): cattle 895,000; sheep 3,592,000; pigs 1,516,000; horses 74,000; mules 126.000; asses 232,000; goats 738,000. Timber production (roundwood, 1957) 5,200,000 cu.m.; raw cork (1957) 139,586 metric tons. Fish landings (including Azores and Madeira, 1957) 464,600

result of the re-

Addressing the

UN

general assembly in October, Jose Vasco

Garin, Portuguese ambassador to the United Nations, once

more

declared his country's refusal to submit reports to the Trusteeship council on

its

overseas provinces. Nor, he added, would

Portugal acknowledge any international statute which sought to discriminate

between the

different parts of the national ter-

i

ritories, the

independence of which was clearly estabhshed by

Porfuguese Oversees Provinces Area Country

(sq.ml.l

Populofion 11950 censusi

Capitol I19J8

esl.l

AFRICA Angola

481,351

372 303,073

4,145,266 148,331 51 0,777 60,159 5,738,911

l"diat

1,619

637,591

(Eur.

892)

649,000

»*°"0

6 7,332

187,772

(Eur.

2,719)

442,378

(Eur.

568)

188,000 493,000

Cape Verde Is Guinea Sao Tome and Principe

1,552 13,948 Ij

Mozambique

(Eur.

78,824)

(Eur.

2,909) 2,2631 52) 48,213)

(Eur.

(Eur. 1,1 (Eur.

4,508,000 192,000 559,000 62,000 6,234,000

ASIA

'ii"or

'Govemor-eenerol.

fComprlsei

Goo

(1,394 sq.mi.),

Domoo

(211 sq.ml.) and Diu (14

sq.mi.).

Ipop. 1950 censusi

:

POST OFFICE

S58 the independence of the Portuguese nation

revenue io9,75S.ooo escudos, expenditure no,] 18,000 escudos. Monetary

itself.

September the second phase of Portugal's case against Iijdia over its right of access to the enclaves of Dadra and NagarAvcli opened at The Hague Court of International Justice. On In

the eve of the opening, India submitted to the United Nations a

—

ondary

3, pupils

it

was stated that while

it

jurisdiction of the International court

(

products

accepted the compulsory

it

government of any

was not applicable

state with which, at the

time of an application to the court, the government of India

had no diplomatic

the present case was

when diplomatic

first

relations

and the

Progress was

e.\isted

it

between the two

states,

was not affected by the Indian reservation. It was expected would continue until nearly the end of the year, after which the court would adjourn and announce its findings several weeks later. It was announced that during 1959 the 11 municipalities of Goa would together spend about 13,200.000 escudos on local works, a great part of it on road construction, conservation and

tion

that the hearing of the case

A

be borne by municipal and other local authorities.

(F. B. H.)

coffee

(exports)

— This

governmental

depart-

year 1959 i960 toward providing the nation with fiscal

efficient postal service.

made

chiefly along three lines

— building,

legisla-

parcel-post rate increase was approved by the Interstate 20, 1959.

Construction of modern-

ized postal facilities such as post offices, postal branches, stations

and substations moved forward during

negotiations being completed for

fiscal

more than

year 1959 with

three facilities each

working day. This represented an increase of about

ii%

over

the previous fiscal year.

The new would

parcel-post increase to be put into effect Feb.

to average

i960,

i,

annual losses of about $88,000,000. The increase,

offset

about 17.1% was the

move

first

in

approximately

six

years to meet substantial increases in the department's costs for

—

Angola. Schools (1936): primary (including rudimentary) 1,580, pupils 75,215, teachers 3,488; secondary 40, pupils 4.461, teachers 358: vocational 183, pupils 7,024, teachers 415; teacher-training i, students 20S. Principal products (metric tons, 195S): sugar {Ul quel) 65,000; coffee (1957) 75,000; cottonseed 12,000; palm kernels (exports, 1957) 12.300; cotton, lint. 6.000: agaves (e.xports, 1957) 46,000; diamonds (i9S7) 864,400 metric carats; salt (1957) 52,300 metric tons. Foreign trade (1958); imports 3,738,000,000 escudos. exports 3,689,000.000 escudos. Roads (1956): 35,489 km.; motor vehicles in use (1957): light 21.400, heavy 9,000. Railways (1957): 2,934 km. Shipping (1957): vessels entered 4,318, net tonnage 5,843,187. Budget (1958 est.): balanced at 1.910,041.919 escudos. Monetary unit: angolar, at par with the escudo. (Escudo valued at 3.5 cents U.S.) Cape Verde Islands. Schools (1957): primary 120. pupils 6,595, teachers 148: secondary i, pupils 8S3, teachers 24; vocational i, pupils 165, teachers 4. Principal products: castor oil, coffee, mustard, brandy, oranges, hides. Foreign trade ( 1957) imports 378,361,000 escudos, exports 364.820,000 escudos. Shipping (1957): vessels entered 4,627, net tonnage 5. '72, 515. Roads (1957): 545 km.; motor vehicles in use (1957): light 234, heavy 53. Budget (1958 est.): balanced at 47,846,107 escudos (ordinary), and 26.S50.000 escudos (extraordinary). Guinea. Schools (1957): primary 163, pupils 11,142, teachers 192; secondary i. pupils 239, teachers 14; vocational 8, pupils 160, teachers 16. Principal products: rice, palm kernels, seeds, hides. Foreign trade (1956): imports 198.288,000 escudos, exports 203,208,000 escudos. Shipping (1957): vessels entered 72. net tonnage 77.505. Budget (1957 actual) revenue 136.289.000 escudos. expenditure 150,087,000 escudos. Sao Tom^ and Principe Islands. Schools (1957): primary 19, pupils 2,651, teachers 48; secondary i, pupils 125, teachers 15; vocational i, pupils 104, teachers 6. Principal products (metric tons, exports): cocoa beans (1957) 10,400; coconuts (1956) 5,639; copra (1956) 4,033; coffee (1956) 360; palm oil (1956) 1.324. Foreign trade (1956): imports 132.481.000 escudos, exports 172,977.000 escudos. Shipping (1955): vessels entered 1.551. net tonnage 603,902. Budget (1957 actual); revenue 71,899.000 escudos. expenditure 66.S56.000 escudos. Mozambique. Schools (1957): primary 2,796, pupils 341,629, teachers 3,362: secondary 6, pupils 1,726, teachers 107: vocational 77, pupils 7.89s, teachers 135; teacher-training 6. students 557, teachers 23. Principal products (metric tons): copra (exports. 1958) 44,400; cottonseed (1958) 64,000; bananas (exports. 1956) 12.000; sugar (1958. tel quel) 170.000; cotton, lint, (195S) 32.000; agaves (1958) 33.000. Budget (1957 actual): revenue 3,131,067,000 escudos, expenditure 3,176,540,000 escudos. Foreign trade (1957): imports 3.111,562,000 escudos, exports 2,029.294.000 escudos. Shipping (1956): vessels entered (including coastwise shipping) 9,494,000 registered tons, net tonnage handled 5,622,000. Roads (1957): 37.373 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): light 20,970; heavy 6,263. Railways (1956) 2.800 km. India. Schools (1957): primary 170, pupils 15,456, teachers 285; secondary 4. pupils 1.837. teachers 49; vocational iS. pupils 1.159, teachers 69; teacher-training i. students 29, teachers 3. School of medicine, students 114. Copra production (1956) 1,900 metric tons; salt (1957) 9,500 metric tons; manganese ore (metal content, 1957) 60.000 metric tons: iron ore (exports, metal content. 1957) 1.739.000 metric tons. Foreign trade (1956); imports 549.94S.000 escudos. exports 496.446.000 escudos. Shipping (1957); vessels entered 917, net tonnage 1.495.015. Roads (1957): 761 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957) 5.975. Budget (1957 actual): revenue 344,913.000 escudos. expenditure 291.474.000 escudos. Monetary unit: (from Jan. i, 1959) escudo, at par with the Portuguese escudo (formerly rupia). Macao. Schools (1957): primary 226, pupils 39,697, teachers 2,632; secondary 20. pupils 3.886. teachers 441; vocational 18. pupils (1956) 271, teachers 92. Foreign trade (1956): imports 368.304,334 escudos, exports 183.290,696 escudos. Roads (1956) 109 km. Shipping (1957): vessels entered 3.988, gross tonnage 1,927,984. Budget (1957 actual)

—

:

—

—

—

—

States.

Commerce commission Nov.

small part of this expenditure was expected to be cov-

ered by government subsidies, but in the main the burden would

—

1,200;

and mechanization.

A

it

repair.

half of fiscal

first

referred to the court in Dec. ig5S, still

copra

1956);

UlllbC. ment progressed rapidly during

an increasingly

For Portugal

'-'"'^*'^

PflQt UOl (IffiPP I

was held that since

relations.

(metric tons,

did so with certain res-

ervations, one being that such jurisdiction to disputes with the

93, pupils 6,578, teachers 193; secJj8, teachers 18. Foreign trade (1957); imports 61,333,

000 escudos, exports 38,879,000 escudos. BudKet (1957 actual): revenue 74.357.000 escudos, expenditure 70,171,000 escudos. Roads 1957): 2,154 km. Shipping (1957): vessels entered and cleared 59, net tonnage 55.626. Principal

note in which

=

unit: pataca 5.50-5.70 escudos. Timor. Schools (1957): primary

wages, transportation and other items connected with parcel post services.

Plans

erect

to

mechanized post

Project

office in

half of fiscal year

first

"Gateway." a revolutionary, fullv Calif., were made during th-

Oakland,

i960. This

new

structure, to be built

through the commercial leasing program, followed by a

year the announcement

to erect Project

less

than

"Turnkey'' a labora-

tory-type post office in Providence, R.I.

The department's mechanization and automation program also moved forward with the unveiling of two of the world's largest which was capable of accepting and distributing them to any one of nearly 1,000

letter-sorting machines, one of

coded

letters

destinations.

The development

of semiautomatic parcel-post-sorting ma-

automatic address-reading machines and

chines,

other

mail-

handling devices showed marked progress.

For the

fiscal

year ended June 30, 1959, the post

office depart-

ment's revenues were $3,035,250,808 and expenditures $3,640,368,053, leaving a deficit of $605,117,245.

At the end of the 1959 fiscal year, U.S. treasury savings stamps in about 17.000 post offices. Sales for the fiscal year amounted to $19,274,000. During the year 86,000 U.S. savwere on sale ings

bonds were sold over the counter

in

about 1.220 post

offices

on behalf of the U.S. treasury.

Through the '35,750 post offices, 8.865 classified, contract and and stations, a total of 61.247.220.000 pieces of mail were received for domestic mails and foreign destinations, transported and delivered during the 1959 fiscal year. This reprerural branches

sented an increase of 1,117,309,000 pieces over the preceding year.

The class

postal serv'ice transported 1,209,417,000 pieces of fourth-

(parcel post") zone-rate packages, weighing about 7,500,-

578,000

lb.,

during

fiscal

year 1959. For the preceding year the

were 1,170,119,000 pieces and 5.860.373.000 lb. There were 249.558 mi. of domestic airmail routes in thel United States on June 30, 1959. and during the fiscal year mailsl totals

were flown 114.336.482 ton-miles over these routes. Ton-milesI for the preceding year were 103.322.381. U.S. flag air carriers! transported 11.676.320 lb. of foreign mails during the year. The| experimental

airlift

of four-cent first-class mail on a space

avail-i

able basis during fiscal 1959 provided direct service through

major and

local service airlines to

about 229 U.S.

cities in

POTASH — POTATOES fifth

states.

There were

in fiscal year

1959, 31.377

routes serving 9,189,211 families.

By

rural

free delivery

master general

Aug. 1958. Star routes in the United States (including Alaska) numbered

and

its

As of June

award from the National Safety

approximately

30, 1959,

80%

Canada.

— In

(A. E. S.)

1958-59 Canada's mail volume increased by

about 100.000.000 items, making a record total of approximately 3.800,000.000 pieces of mail processed by the post

ment during

fiscal

1959 totaled $5,-

158,275,000.

At the

were 1,740,000 decompared with 1.925,-

close of the 1959 fiscal year there

positors in the postal savings system, as

office

depart-

the fiscal year.

In handling this increasing volume of mail the department was constantly alert to measures to improve

Domestic money orders issued during

of the department's

ardized equipment.

possessions and were traveled 59,097,759 mi. during the

year.

safety

vehicles had been converted to modern, lighter weight, stand-

in

10,078 and were traveled 271,780,071 mi. during the 1959 fiscal year. Short-haul truck routes numbered 707 in the United States

559

traffic

council.

the close of calendar year

1959 a total of 453,000 families had been added to rural routes under extensions of service provided by a directive by the post-

consecutive

service.

its

Postage

stamp vending machines and curbside mailing receptacles were among the extended facilities which had been made available to the public.

The mailmobile,

had been introduced

a three-wheel vehicle,

852 on June 30, 1958. Outstanding principal to the credit of

on an experimental basis

depositors at the end of fiscal 1959 was $1,043,452,661, a de-

ing delivery service in urban areas.

same period the previous year. In addition there were accrued interest obligations amounting to $85,285,056, making a total liability to depositors of $1,-

reached a

at $169,928,734,

representing an increase of $5,029,982

128,737,717.

those of 1957-5S.

Money

crease of about $170,155,000 from the

Depositories on June 30, 1959. numbered 6.335, which was

536 fewer than at the same date the previous year.

The

were occupied under

fiscal

lease,

1959.

Of these

buildings. 8.771

15,409 were rented, 3,155 govern-

ment-owned were operated by the post office department and 108 government-owned multiple-purpose buildings were operated by the U.S. General Services administration. The number of buildings utilized during fiscal 1959 was 27,136. During fiscal year 1959 more than 100,000 mail drivers operated more than 70,000 motor vehicles and drove about i.ooo.000,000 mi. to deliver the mails. The postal service received its "THE POSTMAN ALWAYS RINGS AT LEAST TWICE," Fletcher of the Sioux City (la.) Journal

in

in

office

958-59 from

its

1 1

in

1959

cartoon

by

over

value of $853,443,891,

offices to the

revenue and i.6o5c in numbers sold.

savings bank facilities were accorded at 1,477 post

balance of $34,155,617 appeared to the credit of 302,349 depositors at the close of the year. New federal buildings offices. .\

offices numbered 65 at the end There were 81 more such buildings under con-

completed and occupied as post of the fiscal year.

struction at that time..

Letter carrier delivery was inaugurated in two communities

and 2S0 additional

letter carrier

walks were placed in operation

at other places, bringing this service to

dresses.

The

total

number

of

homes and

120,577 additional ad-

places of business served

was 2,680,925. There was a net increase of 45 a

,634 post offices

orders numbering 53,746,050 were sold

approximately 11.000 post

Post

1

usefulness in improv-

its

of $183,380,508. Total postage sales stood

an increase of 0.92%

postal service utilized 27,443 buildings, leased, rented or

government-owned, during

Canada's postal revenue

new peak

determine

to

in the

number

of rural routes in operation, bringing the total to 5,521

such

services carrying mail to approximately 601,500 householders.

Railway post

offices

numbered

96.

baggage car services 460 and

a staff of 792 railway mail clerks traveled 37,033,339 mi. during the fiscal year.

Domestic water routes numbered

55.

(G. A. Be.)

See also Phil..\tely.

Potash:

see

PntotnOC rUlalUCo. cwt., as

Mineral and Metal Productiox and ^'^^

'•"'^^

Prices,

'^^^ white-potato crop in the U.S. was

smaller than in 1958; the total was 242,172,000

compared with 265,729,000 cwt.

for 1949-57 of 229,829,000 cwt.

dicated at 165,854,000 cwt.,

above average for 1949-57.

in 1958

The important

and an average crop was in-

fall

9% below 195S but, even A dip in prices early in the

the lowest level since 1940. plus an official

so,

9%

year to

recommendation that

summer and fall potatoes be reduced by 11% below farmers' March planting intentions), led to an

total acreage of

(and 7'^

overall reduction to 1,397,000 ac, nearly 5^0 below 1958

and

even more below the 1949-57 average of 1.481,000 ac. Acreage planted for early-season harvest was reduced by about one-fifth, fall crop by less than 2%. Dry weather in important areas during the growing season and freezing weather at harvest time

the

hurt the crop; the yield declined to 173.4 cwt. per acre, as com-

pared with 181,1 cwt. per acre in 1958, but an average for 194957 of 155,8 cwt. For the second year Idaho was the leading producing

state.

Diversion of 1958 crop potatoes to starch and livestock feed under the sec. 32 program exceeded 22,000.000 cwt,, about 10,-

000,000 cwt. more than the previous year. Prices strengthened as evidence accumulated that the late 1959 crop would be less

POULTRY — PRESIDENTS. SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS

560

by Itading Statu

U.S. Potato Production

in

Ihouiord hundrod*e.(lMl Indkolod

lln

1959

1958

1957

38,740 33,090 13,072 12,000 11,000

41,580 37,250 17,050 14,700 10,530 10,557 7,905

35,S25 37,816 13,352 9,775 7,500 8,482 5,940 6,370 6,860 4,140 4,340 3,393

Slala

Av-focjn 1949 57

Oop

Fall

Idoho

Main*

N»w

Yark North Oakolo Mlnnaioto

Colorado Michigan

.

.

8,092 7,050 6,820 6,075 5,500 4,375 4,050 2,409

.'

P.f.n.ylvanla

Or.gon Wo.hlnglon California

Wl.coniin

Ohio N^braika Summar Crop Waihinglon

2,091

.

6,240 5,614 4,050

Coiilornla

N«w

Jarioy

Wi«con,in

3,045 2,812 2.520

Oregon

2,4 15

York

(l.l.)

Colorodo

Delowar«

5,830 2,805 3,420 3,215 4,200 2,737 2,628 2,362 1,665 1,131

867

18,228 5,977 1,776 2,645

24,005 7,610

2,100 2,040

Te«oi Eorly Crop Colifornio Florida

15,799 5,051

2,120 2,070 1,908

Ariiono North Corolino

Alabama South Corolino

Arkansas

4,501

5,743 4,177 3,865 4,442 2,262 2,579 1,992 1,033

2,661

1,722 2,400 2,595

16.997 5,262 1,124 2,655 2.359

518 488 425

499 760 473

708

580 540 480

Texas

1,800 1,809

8,313 8,125 6,732 8,439 5,801 3,342 3,795 4,652 2,248 3,218

5,760 6,610 4,050 3,747 3,000 2,948 2,840 2,750 2,310 1,767

3,341

VIrglnIo

N«w

7,822 7,000 5,280 4,760 4,205 2,080 2,077

27,323 35,390 14,152 10,572

burdensome; producers received $1.82 per hundredweight

646 875

in

November, as against $1.18 a year earlier. Consumption was indicated at 103 lb. (farm weight) per capita, 3% more than in 1958, but 10% less than in 1947-49 ^nd only 79% of the level that existed before World War II. Exports accounted for less than 2% of production. In April, Canada eliminated the Jan. ously in effect for

to

i

June 14 duty-free entry period previ-

new potatoes and

applied a 37.5 cent per

hundredweight import duty. Evidence accumulated that, because of a hot dry summer, the European crop, a major part of the world total, would be reduced by as much as io%-2o%.

Sweet Potatoes.

—The

largely

southern-grown U.S. sweet-

western Africa and the Synod of the Christian Churches of

Central

Java,

in

Indonesia,

brought the membership to

churches, comprising more than 45.000,000 Christians

in

76 the

Presbyterian and Reformed Churches throughout the world. This represented more than a

The

of 50 churches.

50%

membership

increase over the 1950

distribution of the 76 denominations was:

North America 10; Latin America

8; British Isles 6;

Africa 14; Asia 13; and Australasia

Europe 22;

3.

In the North American sector of the alliance the

member

churches were: Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church,

27,-

Cumberland Presbyterian Church, 87,531; Cumberland Presbyterian Church in U.S.A. and Liberia, 20,000; Evangelical and Reformed Church, 807,280; Hungarian Reformed Church in America, 12,000; Presbyterian Church in Canada, 196,096; Presbyterian Church in the United States, 869,501 Presbyterian Church in Jamaica, 12,265; Reformed CDutch) Church in America, 219,360; United Church of Canada, 980,461; United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., 3,159,562. Other Presbyterian churches, not members of the alliance, were: Associate Presbyterian Church of N.A., Bible Presbyterian Church. Orthodox Presbyterian Church, Reformed Presbyterian Church in N.A. and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of N.A., with a combined membership of approximately 25.000. 629;

;

Within the ranks of the Presbyterian bodies in the United program became effective by the union of the various boards and agencies of the former States a significant consolidation

United Presbyterian Church of North America and the Presby-

Church in the United States of .America, officially united form the United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. The membership of this union reached 3.159,562, the largest single body of Presbyterians. For serving this number of communicants there were 9,454 churches and 11,801 terian

in 1958. to

ministers, organized on a national basis into 224 presbyteries,

35 synods and a general assembly. The Sunday church school enrollment was 1.932,954. There were 49 church-related colleges and training schools for lay workers to the support of which

potato crop of 1959 was indicated at 18,140,000 cwt., 4% more than 17,434,000 cwt. in 1958, but 7% less than an average crop

$1,351,212 had been granted.

of 19,516,000 cwt. Acreage was increased to 274,000 ac, about

United Presbyterian Church amounted to $242,583,778. Of this amount, $42,409,461 went into the general mission program of

39c over 1958, but small as compared with an average 353,000 for 1949-57. Generally favourable weather contributed to

ac.

on record. Louisiana was. as in recent years, the leading producing state, with 5,015,000 cwt., foUow-ed by North Carolina (2,387,000 cwt.), Virginia (1,892,000 cwt.), Texas (1,680,000 cwt.) and an indicated yield of 66.3 cwt. per

New

acre, the highest

Jersey (1,392,000 cwt.). Indicated consumption of 6.9

per capita was

3%

usage and only

32%

higher than in 1958,

many

55%

as

were used

contributions for furthering this over-all

the church,

Poultry:

see

See also Christian Unity;

Diamonds;

Gem

in the period

Stones.

^^'''''" *^ '^^"''^ Drochutorian Phiirnh ri CdUyiCI Idll UIIUI Ull. and Presbyterian

°^

^^ Reformed

Churches, united

World Presbyterian Alliance, 1959 marked a great commemorative year. The alliance held its i8th general council in Sao Paulo, Braz., from July 27 to Aug. 6, thereby commemoratin the

ing the looth anniversary of Presbyterianism in Brazil, .\pproxi-

mately 250 delegates from 53 countries celebrated the 400th anniversary of the first general synod of the Reformed Church of France, the 400th anniversary of the definitive edition of John Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion and the 450th anni^'ersary of Calvin's birth.

The addition

of two

new members,

Church Membership. (G.

Presidents, Sovereigns and Rulers. names

S.

K.)

the Presbytery of Liberia

J^l^^'Z

of those holding chief positions in their countries as on '

Dec, 31, 1959:

Afghanistan

.

.

Albania

.

.

Eggs; Livestock; Meat. see

local mission of the 9,454

churches.

Country

Precious Stones:

and $200,174,317 into the

work of the

lb.

of the 1947-49

193539. In September, producers received $2.68 per hundredweight, as compared w^ith $2.74 a year earlier. (J. K. R.) as

The

.

-

PRICES Country

Nome

Cambodic ,

King Prince (Norodom Sihanouk, Prime Minis Elizabeth II, Queen Moj.-Gen. George Vanier, Governor John George Dielenboker, Prime Mini

Central Afrie Republic.

Ceylon.

.

1955 1958 1952 1959 1957

.

Dacko, Prime Minister. obeth II, Queen. Oliver Goonetilleke, Governor Generol

rid

.

.

.

',',\

Minister

Chile

>

.

'Je"' of the People's Republic on of the Chinese Communist Party of the Stole Administrative Council

People's /Liu! Republic of hou En-loi, Chairmon Republic of hiang Kai-shek, President (T„: 'IT. en. Chen Cheng, Prime Minister Colombia . Iberto Lleras Comorgo. President Congo, Rep. IbertYoulou, Prime Minister Costa Rico = r,oEchand. Jimenez, President Cuba . . ;voldo Dorticcs Torrado, President .

f

^1

.

.

.

Hugh Foote, Governor

Cyprus Czechoslovak .

.

rny, p.rsi Secretary of the Com okio (1953) and Pr< sideni ncil of Minis

Mogarr.me ck

1957 1953 ,959 I 947 1955 1952 1954 1954 1930 1957 1956 1959 1959 1959 1959 1959 1949

en, Prir


'za agents

virus) that had been isolated

sembling the

South America, 450,000 were in Argentina Brazil. The remaining 100,000 were found in seven in

other states. In aU these, the

A

showed them

viruses that had been discovered over a 12 -year period were

in Sept. i960.

an increase of 177%. Since the education law

14,

only small sporadic outbreaks and isolated

cases of influenza were reported during 1959;

was revealed by N. R. Grist and R. G. Sommerville in were investigated virologically during a period of two years in the Glasgow, Scot., area. Type A influenza viral infections were detected during the autumn of 1957 and in the early months of 1958, but no new variants of the Asian \arus were detected.

In Israel, more than 600,000 pupils were expected to be enrolled in 1959,

influenza viral pneumonia.

It is of interest that

and plans were being completed

in Sept. 1959

women

rheumatic heart disease, might be important in the develop-

ment of

a report of 1,000 cases that

Hebrew Theological college received new Jewish university. A

5 to

the absence of bacteria, and that underlying diseases, particularly

elementary grades as

establishment of a

ages of

firmed that influenza virus alone could produce pneumonia in

Respiratory Infections With Other Viruses.

Yeshivah university added a department of supplementary

arts

B. Louria and co-workers reported results in 33 papulmonary complications. Their observations con-

of viruses that could be encountered in cases of acute respiratory

at the high school level.

7.7%

591

serum than did

by the study was the

rabbinic training for students preparing for ordination. In Chicago, the

Donald

other or multiple orientations.

The most disturbing

titers in the

tients with

and 1958, Jewish school enrollment increased

by 131.2%, far greater than the increase in Jewish population. Of the children in Jewish schools, 21% were in Orthodox schools, 38.6% in Conser\'ative schools, 28% in Reform schools and the

DISEASES

they developed higher

is,

those with a mild Olness.

report to the fourth National Conference on

its full

Jewish Education, held

that

sponse, that

cold.

—

-There were many reports on pneumonia caused by staphylococci and most authors assumed or observed that this form had become relatively more frequent and more severe since the advent of antibiotics. Shakeebe Ede, G. M. Da\is and F. H. Holmes, on the basis of cases observed since

Bacterial Pneumonias.

1955 in the U.S. naval hospital at Great Lakes, 111., believed was apparently no greater than

St.ates Congress.

that the incidence of this disease

Republican Party: see Political Parties, U.S. Research Libraries, Association of: see Societies and

prior to the development of antibiotics.

Associations, U.S.

the basis of simple tests for the sensitivity of these bacteria.

Resins: see Plastics.

Remarkably good

results

use of penicillin in the most

Rp^niratnrV nCdpildlUi; ni'inptoms of

Olness were referable to the gastrointestinal tract, namely, nau-

Census Data,

U.S.

the chest showed calcified lesion in and around the hilar regions

lymph nodes draining the lungs) in nearly twocases. The author felt that in patients with positive

(representing the

in the

Indian ocean has an area of 969 sq.mi. Pop. (1954 census) 274,370; (1958 est.) 318,000 (French Creoles, Negroes, Mulattoes, Indians and Chinese). Language: French and creole French. Religion: Roman Catholic. Capital, Saint-Denis; pop.

(1954 census) 26,310. Prefect in 1959, Jean Perreau-Pradier. History. At the municipal elections of March 8-15, 1959, the Gaullists (Union pour la Nouvelle Republique) won 211

—

seats, the

Independents (right wing) 235, the Communists 27

Socialist alliance

won with

57.

At Saint-Denis the

Gaullist-

7,300 votes against 6,700 for the

Communists. On April 26 Georges Repiquet (U.N.R.) was reAt the parliamentary by-election on May 24, M. Valere (U.N.R.) was elected deputy. elected senator.

Gen. Charles de Gaulle visited Saint-Denis during July.

vomiting and occasionally abdominal pain. X-ray films of

thirds of the

see

French overseas island departement

'^^'^

and various other parties

culin tests.

findings that

Retail

be important in the early

recognition of the disease, especially since

sea,

1959); H. Rubin et al., "The Course and Prognosis of Histoplasmosis," J. Med., 27:278-288 (Aug. 1939); E. Schwarz, "Radiologic Contributions to the Diagnosis of Histoplasmosis," /. A. M. A., 170:2171-2174 (Aug. 29, I9S9); E. L. Segal, G. F. Starr and L. A. Weed, "Study of Surgically Excised Pulmonary Granulomas." /. A. M. A., 170:515-522 (May 30, 1959); T. Takaro, H. E. Walkup and J. H. Matthews, "The Place of Excisional Surgery in the Treatment of Pulmonary Mycotic In(M. Fd.) fections," Dis. Chest, 36:19-30, (July I959)-

Am.

roentgenologist plays an important role in the recognition

many

that the roentgenologist's role

or

form progresses

be accompanied by remis-

and exacerbations.

sions

of

may

;

—

(1958) Monetary unit: i franc C.F.A. (Colonies Franmetropolitan francs. Imports; 10,000,000,000 fr. 2 d'Afrique) C.F.A., ind. 6,500,000,000 fr. from France. Exports: 6,500,000.000 fr., incl. 5,850,000,000 fr. to France. Principal exports: sugar 5,350,000,000 Foreign Trade.

ijaises

fr.;

=

essential oils 750,000,000 fr.;

rum 250,000,000

fr.

(Hu. De.)

skin reactions to histoplasmin and negative tuberculin tests, the

presence of isolated lung lesions or diffusely scattered (miliary) lesions with

involvement of the hilar regions should suggest the

In a report from the Veterans Administration hospital, where

many

patients with chronic fungous diseases of the lungs were

under intensive study, T. Takaro, H. E. Walkup and

Mathews

KncUnidllC UlSCdScS.

searches were continued in a search

for the specific changes in connective tissues of the

diagnosis of histoplasmosis.

tried to define the place of surgery in the

J.

H.

management

human

or-

ganism which permit the development of arthritis. The role of mechanical factors in producing disorders of connective tissue

was being studied. Localization of arthritis often

is

determined by trauma. Joints

and

to excessive use are

of such diseases, because a large proportion of the patients tended

which have been subjected

to disseminate their infection after operations

the intention of excising the infected lesions. For example, about

often sites of severe arthritic changes. Reactions of fibrous tissues to trauma are determined by the chemical nature of the sur-

one-fourth of the patients with North American blastomycosis,

rounding medium. The presence of small amoimts of nucleic acid

performed with

to injuries

RHODE ISLAND medium

or of other polysaccharides in the surrounding fibrous tissue to disintegrate rapidly

when subjected

causes

to grind-

A

path for research was the determination of what chemical features of connective tissues might set the stage for traumatic

ing.

of

fibrils.

Apparently calcification can proceed

treatment of rheumatic fever. Such steroid treatment had gen-

when

the basic molecules of collagen are

erally resulted in the disappearance of

geneous nucleation of apatite crystals in the presence of a highly stereochemical configuration in crystal structures

specific

in the organism only

packed

in a specific

which would would result

The

manner. Thus any disorder of fibrous tissues

result in

abnormal orientation of basic molecules

bone;

in

not

is

fact a

variety of reconstituted native-type collagen tissues which are

normally not

calcified

can be caused to take on calcium. All

collagenous tissues are apparently capable of becoming calcified,

but under normal circumstances

this calcification is inhibited

by

These inhibitors are believed to be acid mucopolysaccharides or polymers of these compounds. Accurate inhibitors.

delineation of the nature of calcification inhibitors could pro-

The data were significant because of their relevance to most frequent varieties of crippling human arthritis, namely steoarthritis, which is encountered with increasing frequency as aging progresses. Studies showed that the ratio of chondroitin sulfate to dry weight of cartilage decreases at a constant rate

with increasing age. The ratio of keratosulfate to dry weight of I

and then remains constant. The from zero at birth to the ratio of one to one when an individual reaches the age of seventy. Further, it was found that chondroitin sulfate present in the newborn is notably different in chemical characteristics from the chondroitin sulfate of adults. These data cartilage increases to maturity

ratio of keratosulfate to total polysaccharide increases

I

is,

those persons

which the disease results from an underlying hematopoietic

disorder.

Among persons suffering with women affected was much

proportion of

this tj'pe of gout, the

greater than

among

pa-

primary gout. Prolonged acute attacks, rapid development of tophi, urinary calcuh and marked elevation of serum tients with

uric acid levels

were also more characteristic of the secondary

tjpe than of the primary variety.

New

drugs being tested for the control of gout included 60 Correlation was

made

in the urinan.' excretion of uric acid. in size

and attacks greatly lessened

A new

Tophi were notably reduced

in frequency.

theory concerning uric acid excretion by the kidney

was formulated in an effort to account for paradoxical effects of small and large doses of salicylates and other compounds on the process of uric acid excretion. These studies showed that in addition to glomerular filtration there is a complete tubular reabsorption of urates followed by active tubular secretion. Pro-

longed administration of chlorothiazide, a diuretic agent in small doses,

was found to increase the

uric acid concentration without

inducing other changes in renal function.

When

tinuous chemical differentiation rather than one of degenera-

uric acid increased in the urine

tion.

serum was lessened.

Arthritis.

arthritis included

—Important new

studies of rheumatoid

one which showed that the presence of sub-

cutaneous nodules and high agglutination

titers

a poor prognosis and an unremitting course.

is

A new

indicative of

attempt was

reported to relieve the pain of rheumatoid arthritis through surgical e.xcision of

portions of the sympathetic nervous system.

The

operations were tolerated remarkably well, and during the im-

mediate postoperative period patients exhibited marked

relief of

by the segments of the nervous system which were removed. Notable improvement in mobility and general functional capacity was also reported. Neuropathic disorganipain in the area served

zation of the affected joints did not follow this procedure. It

was reported during the year that long-continued steroid

treatment could be carried out with successful suppression of the disease over long periods of time. In

some

instances, inflam-

matory damage progressed despite the most careful use of hormones. Most workers in this field agreed, however, that these compounds provided the most satisfactory agents presently available for the control of severe

Many new the

new

symptoms

of this disorder.

workers reported upon observations of

cortisonelike

compound dexamethasone.

effects of

All noted seri-

ous side effects, including gastrointestinal ulcerations, pathologi-

of their

of these studies, a compound known as sulfinpyrazone (G-28315) was discovered, which when administered brought about a marked lowering of serum concentrations and a striking increase

were administered intravenously, the opposite

I

I

in

indicated that the aging of cartilage involves a process of con-

Rheumatoid I

intensive study was carried out on the clinical

chemical structures and their pharmacologic actions. As a result

lie

1

—An

manifestations of so-called secondary gout, that

disappearance of abnormal calcium deposits.

Kears.

I

carditis.

analogues of phenylbutazone.

Another interesting development bore upon the nature of human cartilages with advancing

I

the rapid

vide powerful tools with which to bring about dissolution and

changes which take place in

I

murmurs and

lessening of other clinical and electrocardiographic evidences of

Gout.

specific for the fibrous tissues or collagen of

,

—

in disturbance of calcification.

ability to initiate mineralization or calcification

specific

face

tions of the use of triamcinolone, observations of the character

and permanence of improvement following local injections of cortisonelike compounds and studies of the value of combining cortisone with the other compounds were also reported. Rheumatic Fever. Persons with rheumatic fever who had been treated with steroids showed less severe carditis at autopsy than did patients who had not received steroid treatment. This appeared to be of great importance inasmuch as the results corresponded strikingly with the clinical experience with steroid

and degenerative arthritis. Another important question was the mechanism by which tissues become calcified or lose calcium from previously wellcalcified areas. Researches conducted during 1959 showed that the initiation of calcification results from the process of hetero-

native-type collagen

593

marked gains in weight, marked rounding of the and severe edema of the extremities. Long-term observa-

cal fractures,

Osteoarthritis.

larger

amounts

effect

resulted,

and the amount present

—Humans universally are

in the

affected in advanc-

ing years with osteoarthritis. Outstanding features of this condi-

and ulceration of cartilages, the overgrowth of bony margins of joints and chronic inflammation

tion include the deterioration

was suggested that the cause hormonal mechanism. Ovariectomy performed during the early months of life in female mice greatly retarded articular aging and decreased the incidence and severity

of bursae and tendon sheaths. It

might

lie in

a defective

of osteoarthritis. Castration of males also delayed articular aging

and the evolution of

osteoarthritis

ried out during the first

month

cated a possible important role

when

the procedure was car-

These observations indifor sex hormones in susceptibility of

life.

and progressiveness of osteoarthritis. See also Chemotherapy; Heart and Circulatory Dis(E. F. Rg.) eases.

A

Rhode

Island.

in

the 13 original states:

north Atlantic state of the United States,

New it is

England, Rhode Island was one of popularly

known

as "Little

Rhody."

Area: 1,214 sq.mi. (smallest of the United States), including 156 sq.mi. of water, 67% woodland. Population: (1950 census) 791,896;

(July

I,

I9S9, provisional

est.)

875,000.

The

principal

—

—

;

RHODE ISLAND

594 cities,

with 1950 populations and 1956 revised estimates

rentheses were: Providence (cap.) 248,674 (228,000)

;

in pa-

Pawtucket

81,436 (84,100); Cranston 55,060 (64,100); Woonsocket 50,211 (50,000); Warwick 43,028 (60,700); Newport 37,564 (38,500); Central Falls 23,550 (22,200).

East Providence 35,871 (39,700)

—The

History.

;

principal legislation enacted during the 1959

session of the state legislature included; the authorization of the

expenditure of $113,009,716 for the conduct of the government for the fiscal year ending

June

30, i960 (of this

amount, $29,-

184,560 were federal funds and $4,217,043 were restricted use revenues) a series of acts providing new and supplementary ;

funds totaling $2,164,573 '" further support of the state for the year ending June 30, 1959; a series of acts continuing the tem-

porary tax rates established

in

1958 on sales and the income of

banks and business corporations;

legislative

authorization for

referenda permitting the state to issue additional bonds of $3,-

500,000 for highway construction, $375,000 for

facilities

for

children-wards of the state and $2,500,000 as the state's share of the cost of the proposed Providence River hurricane barrier;

an act authorizing the city of Providence to issue $4,600,000 in to finance the municipal share of the hurricane barrier

9i>y mi. thereof having been built by the state. In the same month, railroads wire operating 184.12 mi. of track in the state. Water-borne commerce of the state for 1957 totaled 8,738,689 Ions, of which 8,277,047 tons represented activity in the Providence river and har-

bour.

As of Oct. 1958, there were four publicly owned (state) airporU and three privately owned and active airports. Bonking and Finance. There were 19 banking institutions in 1959. Resources of 15 banks under state supervision totaled $913,750,953; tboM of 4 banks under federal supervision totaled $542,866,801. Savings deposits (exclusive of club accounts) in savings banks and trust companiet (the IS state banks) amounted to $569,227,535 on June 30, 1959. In «ddition, 7 loan and investment companies had resources of $8,969,182; 7 building and loan associations $201,265,034; 90 credit unions $57,798,398. The state closed its fiscal year on June 30, 1959, with revenues totaling $102,433,078, including federal grants of $22,658,209; expenditures and encumbrances $105,548,359; operational deficit $3,115,281; free surplus $303,395. The state gross debt was $84,545,000; net debt after deducting sinking fund assets $76,812,946. Agriculture. The total acreage of principal crops harvested in 1958 wai 32,000. Cash income from crops in 1958 was $6,331,000; from livestock and livestock products $15,688,000; from governmental payments $76,000; total gross farm income $22,095,000. The estimated value of livestock on Jan. i, 1959, was $7,196,000. On Jan. i, 1959, the livestock population of the state included 1,000 horses and mules; 17.000 milk cows; s.ooo other cattle; 11,000 hogs and pigs; 2,000 sheep and lambs; 499,000 chickens; and 3,000 turkeys. Livestock products in 1958 included 130,000,000 lb. of milk valued at $8,814,000; 2,685,000 lb. of chickens, $440,000; 6,290,000 lb. of commercial broilers, $1,201,000; 512,000 lb. of turkeys, $155,000; 87,000,000 eggs,

—

—

$3,981,000.

bonds

Table

construction; an act providing an initial $50,000 in support of a

program; an act whereunder real-estate brokers and salesmen must be licensed by the department of business regulation; an act providing for the state's college of education to expand into a general college of liberal arts and sciences college scholarship loan

an act requesting the board of trustees of state colleges to study and report on the needs for community colleges; adjustments of the general appropriation act to the end that the finance

com-

mittee of the lower house of the legislature might employ

own

its

might be established; an act permitting cities and towns to protect and preserve historic areas by zoning ordinances and an act approvfiscal

advisory

staff,

and that a

legislative council

;

compact with the federal governEngland states with the objective of

ing the state's entering into a

ment and

the other

New

co-ordinated planning in the

management

of the region's water

and related land resources.

The

principal officers of the state in 1959 were: Christopher

Del Sesto, governor; John A. Notte, Jr., lieutenant governor; Augustus P. LaFrance, secretary of state; J. Joseph Nugent, attorney general; and Raymond H. Hawksley, general treasurer. The governor was Republican the other ofl5cers were Democrats. ;

—

Education. During 1958-59 there were enrolled in the public elementary and pre-elementary schools 82,766 pupils with 3,112 teachers; in junior high schools 23,670 pupils with 1,185 teachers; in senior, four-year and

vocational high schools 24,074 pupils with 1,24s teachers. Pupils attending private schools numbered; elementary and pre-elementary 35,534; junior high 6,284; senior and four-year high 7,970; business schools 335. The total number of teachers in private d.i)- schools was 1,655. Current expenditures for public day schools in 195S-59 were $43,544,586, and for evening schools $117,260. The commissioner of education in 1959 was Michael F. Walsh, working under the state board of education of seven members whose chairman was C. B. Collins. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. There were 34.208 persons receiving some type of direct monetary public assistance as of .Aug. 31, 1959, an increase of 48 over the preceding year (rev.). During the year Sept. i, 1958, through Aug. 31, I959. the total amounts paid out in the different categories of aid were as follows: old-age assistance $5,249,636; aid to dependent children $5,936,834; aid to the disabled $2,062,517; aid to the blind $101,973; general public assistance $3,100,523; soldiers' welfare $252,037; in addition, the first four categories were receiving medical services at an annual cost level of $2,275,000. As of Feb. 28. 1959, there were 77,065 persons receiving old-age, survivors and disability insurance benefits at a total monthly rate of $4,964,931. During the year ending June 30, 1959, 932,797 benefit payments amounting to $18,701,392 were made from the unemployment compensation fund, receipts into which totaled $17,932,371; an additional 217,237 benefit pay-

ments totaling $5,806,805 were made under the 1958 recession program of temporary unemployment compensation. In the same period, 263,467 benefit payments totaling $7,307,932 were drawn from the Temporary Disability Insurance fund, i.e., for those unemployed because of sickness; receipts

amounted

to

$6,581,159.

In July 1959, there were 634 inmates in corrective institutions and 5,541 patients in state-operated institutions, including 4,291 in institutions for the mentally ill or defective. Communications In Oct. 1959, the total miles of highway in the state were 4,177.4, of which 1,491.8 mi. were in the state highway system with

—

Crop

Com, bu

I.

Principal

Crops of Rhode Itiand

;

RHODESIA AN D NYASALAND Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Federation This

of.

a federation of three British central African countries:

is

Northern Rhodesia, protectorate (north of the Zambezi river) Nyasaland, protectorate (east of Northern Rhodesia) and Southern Rhodesia, self-governing colony (south of the Zam;

The

595

campaign of violence involving the assassination of the governor and other senior administrative officers. Events in February, the White Paper continued, had provided evidence that the early stages of the congress plan were under

summoning

gency had prevented the

On

full-scale

implementation of the plan.

(March 24)

mixed

2,360,000. Chief towns (total pop., African, 1956 est.;

a paradoxical situation, in which the

federation

is

—

European pop. in parentheses, 1956 census): Kitwe 73,000 (9,700); Ndola 57,500 (6,800); Luanshya 52,366 (6,000); Broken Hill 40,000 Mufulira 53,358 (5,600); Chingola 32,984 (4,600). Governors in 1959: Sir Arthur Benson and (from April 23) Sir Evelyn Hone. (4,200);

Nyasaland.

Pop.: (1959 est.) about 6,600; Blantyre-Limbe about 24,000. Governor in 1959: Sir Robert Armitage.

Southern Rhodesia. 2.860,000.

Chief

—Area:

towns:

150,337 sq.mi. Pop.: (1959 est.) Salisbury (cap.), pop. (1956 est.)

European (1956 census) 62,000; Bulawayo, African 94,000, European (1956 census) 41,000. Governors in 1959: Vice-Admiral Sir Peveril William-Powlett and Humphrey Vicary Gibbs (from July 10). Prime minister: Sir Edgar White.African

125,000,

of a

number

History.

—In Nyasaland the

first

three

months

of 1959 were

troubled by disturbances and demonstrations. Acts of violence

number

of widely separated areas during January and Feb-

ruary resulted in a request from the governor. Sir Robert Armitage, for troops of the King's

African Rifles to be

Lusaka, in Northern Rhodesia,

cessfully

moved an amendment

complete report.

to

moved from

Nyasaland, and European

March

3 Armitage declared a state of emergency and outlawed Nyasaland African congress. On the same day Hastings Banda, the congress leader, and other members were arrested and deported to another part of the federation.

the

In the

when

first

24 hours of the emergency 26 Africans were killed

security forces fired on demonstrators in different parts

of the protectorate.

The

declaration of an emergency in Nyasa-

land had been preceded five days earlier

by

a similar

move

in

Southern Rhodesia, where the Southern Rhodesia African National

congress, the Nyasaland African congress,

the

Zambia

National congress and the Northern Rhodesia African National congress had been banned as illegal organizations. The announcement of the Nyasaland emergency, however, was quickly taken up in the U.K. house of commons. An opposition offer to cooperate in the appointment of a parliamentary commission to

Nyasaland as soon as possible

in order to investigate the

background to the disturbances was rejected by the government, which argued that the next step should be for the minister of state. Lord Perth, to go to Nyasaland when the governor thought the time appropriate.

On March

23, the

U.K. government pub-

hshed as a WTiite Paper a dispatch sent by Armitage to the secre-

it

in

favour of accepting the

the middle of the year, however, only iso-

In Southern Rhodesia a series of

bills

was introduced into the

parliament in the earlier part of the year with the object of outlawing permanently the African National congress movement.

A

Preventive Detention

women wearing ment

aroused particular criticism, and

bill

black sashes stood at the entrance to the parlia-

building in silent protest against

it.

The

bill,

under the

terms of which persons detained for known or suspected subversive actixities might be detained indefinitely at the governor's

pleasure and without any recourse to the courts, was subse-

quently withdrawn. It was later replaced by another rather

less

leaders in Southern Rhodesia

of state for the colonies, A. T.

Lennox-Boyd, on March

18.

the governor traced the activities of the Nyasaland African

congress leading to a secret meeting on January 25 at which,

Armitage claimed, congress leaders arranged for demonstrations to take place, to be followed in the event of Banda's arrest by a

and from the Salisbury Bar

as-

sociation. It was, therefore, against this

stormy background that prep-

arations began for the review of the constitution to take place in i960. In April the secretary of state for tions,

Lord Home,

visited

commonwealth

rela-

Rhodesia for preliminary discussions,

Roy Welensky. flew where he met members of the government and also the opposition leader, Hugh Gaitskell. While in Britain, Welensky stated that he was agreeable to the proposal to appoint a July the federal prime minister. Sir

to Britain,

tary'

By

lated incidents were taking place in Nyasaland.

and

In

itself in

government introduced a

tained in the commission's report, while the opposition unsuc-

troops were also sent from Southern Rhodesia as a precautionary

visit

White Paper

The U.K. parliament then found

motion advocating the acceptance of only some of the views con-

measure. StOl the disturbance continued and in the early hours of

of other statements contained in the

published in March.

rigorous bUl, which, however, aroused objections from church

head.

in a

Nyasaland governor's emergency powers, it rejected the claim that a widespread murder plot had existed, and it challenged the accuracy feelings, for, while vindicating the

resort to

—Area:

46,066 sq.mi., incL 9,380 sq.mi. of lakes. 2,770,000. Chief towns: Zomba (cap.), pop.

that only the

it was announced that a commission of inquiry under the chairmanship of Mr. Justice Devlin had at last been appointed. However, the commission's report, which was published toward the end of July, aroused very

the following day

bounded north by Tanganyika and the Belgian Congo, east by Mozambique, south by Bechuanaland and the Union of South Africa and west by Angola. Area: 484,529 sq.mi. Pop.: (1959 est.) 7,990,000, incl. Asians and coloured. Language: English, tribal dialects and (in Southern Rhodesia) .\frikaans. Religion: Moslem, Christian, pagan. Federal capital: Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia. Governor general in 19S9: Lord Dalhousie; federal prime minister: Sir Roy Welensky. Northern Rhodesia. Area: 288,130 sq.mi. Pop.: (1959 est.) bezi).

way and

of reinforcements and the declaration of an emer-

in

commission to

visit the federation in

order to obtain informa-

advance of the i960 discussions, and he added that, if necessary, he was prepared to accept the inclusion in the comtion in

mission of members from other parts of the commonwealth

who

had had experience of a federal state. On July 21, the British prime minister, Harold MacmUlan, announced that a 26-man commission had in fact been appointed, on which the United Kingdom would have 11 members, the commonwealth 2 and central Africa 13. Of the last group, five would be Africans, and none would be members of either the governments or legislatures of their respective countries. It was later announced that Lord

Monckton would be chairman

of the commission.

In both Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, constitutional changes took place in the course of the year. After the legislative

councO elections in Northern Rhodesia in March, the first two Africans were appointed as ministers. Of the 22 elected seats in the legislature. Welensky's United Federal party won 13 but failed to obtain an over-all majority, since the

council

members in addition to the elected members. The formation of a new party, the Central African party, by R. S. Garfield Todd and Sir John Moffat, was expected to result in some loss of support for the United Federal party, since the new group had as its declared object the construction consisted of 8 appointed

of a united nation comprising

all

races on the basis of equality of

—

RICE — RIVERS AND

596

HARBOURS

1957) cattle 328,000; sbccp 58,000; goati 360,808; pigs 89,125. Ini^uilry. Production (metric ton», 1958): Soulhrrn Rhodesia, coal 3,540,000; chrome ore (metal content, 1957) 314,000; tung^^ten (metal content, 1957) 90,000; asbestos (1957) 119,900; iron ore (metal content, 1957) 74,200; gold 557, 7>4 fine oz. Norlhrrn Rhodesia, copper, smelter 376,800; zinc, smeller 30,720; lead, refined 13,920; copi>rr ore (metal content, 19 57) 422,900. Electricity (1958): Southern Rhodesia, 1,462,800,000 kw.hr.; Northern Rhodesia, 966,000,000 kw.hr.; Nyasaland 22,323,000 kw.hr.

—

production in the U.S.

DlPO

^''•^

"'''''•

53,111,000 bags of 100

015.000 bags of 1958 and decade.

Though

i^S4,ooo

ac.

lb.

11% above

rains interrupted

in

1959 was indicated at than the 47,-

13% more

each,

average for the previous

and slowed early preparations,

were harvested, 11.5% more than in 1958, but beac. average for 1948-57. The yield per acre of

low the 1,874,000

lb. was 43 lb. above the record set in 1958, and more than one-fourth above average. Texas was the leading producing state

3.352

with 13,136,000 bags (against 11,938,000 bags in 1958), followed by Arkansas (12,926,000 bags), Louisiana (12,910,000 bags) and California (12,735,000 bags).

The support

though continued at

price,

clined to $4.38 per hundredweight as

75%

of parity, de-

compared with $4.48 on

the 1958 crop; producers in November received $4.64 per hundredweight as against $4.75 a year earlier. The advance mini-

mum

national average support price for the i960 crop was set at

$4.36 per hundredweight. Stocks held by the

NYASALAND PLANTER EXAMINING RUINS durino a wave

terrorists

of violence in

of a

motor

fu

Commodity

economic and social fields. August that the number of Africans on the representative side of the Nyasaland legislative council was to be increased from five to seven, thus giving Africans a majority over the six official members representing Europeans and It

political,

was announced

in

$91,085,000 in the previous

fiscal year.

Rice Production of the Principal Producing Countriet oughl

Asians on that side of the house. The government side, however, retained

its

majority. It was further stated that two Africans Country

would

for the first time be appointed to the executive council.

The

combined with the fear that the events in the federation would have a discouraging effect upon capital investment from overseas led to a decision that the federal government's development plan for 1959-63 would have

fall in

to be

the price of copper

based upon a lower rate of expenditure than had

been proposed

in

the existifig plan which covered the period

(K.I.)

1957-61.

Northern Rhodesia (schools, 1957): European 62 (10 with secondary classes), pupils 13,988; coloured and .^sian primary and secondary 16, pupils i,49s; .\frican (1956) primary 1.427, pupils 209,599; secondary 11, pupils 1,198; vocational 36, pupils 1,857; teacher-training 15, students 1,192. Southern Rhodesia (schools, 1957): European primary 156. pupils 30,839; secondary 22. pupils 12,689; coloured and Asian (primary and secondary) 23, pupils 4.778; African (1952) primary 2,154, pupils 231,551. teachers 6,598; postprimary 18, pupils 1,575, teachers 99; vocational (1955) 18, teacher-training courses (1955) 32. The University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in Salisbury (established 1955) is multiracial and in 1958 had 125 students. Nyasaland (schools. 1958); European primarj' 7, pupils 1,214; secondary i, pupils 145; coloured and Asian primary 18, pupils 2,314; .African primary 3,098, pupils 268,693, teachers 6,031; secondary 19, pupils 1,119, teachers Education.

59; vocational 14, pupils 927, teachers 53; teacher-training centres 16, students 946. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: Rhodesian pound (£Ri=£i- ster-

—

Currency circulation (.\pril 1959); £23,539,036. Bank and federal government deposits (.\pril 1959) £15.761.833. Budget; (1958-59 est.) ling).

federal state revenue £51.400.000; expenditure £51,300,552. Foreign Trade. (195S) Imports £157,640,747; e.tports £142,577,875.

—

Principal exports: metals and manufactures £79,986,483; tobacco £28,365,252; minerals, earthenware, glassware, etc., £9,156,753; foodstuffs £6,978,591. Transport and Communications. Railways (1957): Rhodesia (Northern and Southern) 4.403 km.; Nyasaland 800 km. Roads (1957): 85.000 km. Motor vehicles in use (federation, 1957): passenger 96,000; commercial 37,500. .Mr transport (federation, 1958): 135,744.000 passenger-km.; freight, 1,572,000 ton-km. Telephones (federation, Jan. 1958): 84,300. Radio receivers: North Rhodesia (1955) 40,000; Southern Rhodesia (1951) 24,000; Nyasaland (1958) 12,000. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons): Southern Rhodesia, tobacco (incl. N.W. Rhodesia, 1957) 76,300; peanuts (1956) 2,000; maize (farms and estates, 1957) 308,000. Nyasaland, tobacco (1957) 18.200; cottonseed (1958) 3.000; peanuts (1956) 13,000; tea (1957) 9.000; maize (1054') 52,000; cotton, lint (1955) 1,000. Livestock: Southern Rhodesia (Dec. 1958) cattle 3,514,000; sheep 248,000; pigs 116,000. Northern Rhodesia (Dec. 1947) cattle 1,047,000; sheep 15,000. Nyasaland (Dec.

—

—

i,

compared with 11,517,000 hundredweight in 1958. Exports of milled rice in 1958-59 were 1,328,903,000 lb., valued at $97,097,000, as compared with 1,120,475,000 lb., valued at 1959, as

opportunity in

Credit

corporation declined to 8,403,000 hundredweight as of July

March 1959

1959-60

160,000 102,000 34,000 28,100

China (moinlondl India

Japan Pakistan Indonesia

Burma Thailand

• .

18,800 16,500

Bralil

Korea, South Philippine Republic Formosa United Slates

7,500

5,311

Source; U.S, Department of Agriculture,

—

RIVERS AND HARBOURS Table

1.

U.S. River

and Harbour Over-alt Appropriations

597

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS

598

administered by harbour commissions and 322 administered un-

ment. They are responsible for surveys, plans and specifications;

der control of the department of transport.

let contracts and supervise construction of federal-aid These various steps are subject to review by the bureau of public roads in order to ascertain whether they are economical, meet good engineering standards and best serve the motoring

they also

Lawrence seaway to 27-ft. navigation necessitated considerable improvements which were being undertaken at different ports along the 2,000 mi. route from tidewater

The opening

to

of the St.

Lakehead. At the port of Montreal, two additional grain elevaand expansion to wharves and transit sheds were being con-

tors

Rapid unloading and loading equipment of modern design was being installed to speed up port operations. At Lakehead (Fort William and Port Arthur), already noted for grain structed.

and iron ore handling facilities, a modern terminal for handling package freight was being constructed. The ports of Toronto, Hamilton and Windsor were constructing additional

wharf and terminals or reviewing existing

facilities

projects.

public.

The Federal-Aid Highway

made

act of 1956

provision for the

construction, in a 13- to 16-year period, of the national system

of interstate and defense highways

—

a 41,000-mi. network of

controlled-access superhighways which would connect

all

of the

and link 90% of all the cities of 50,000 population or more. Designed to handle 1975 traffic of more than 100,000,000 vestates

hicles

— the

—

system would carry

would represent only

1%

20%

of

all

traffic,

although

it

of the country's total mileage. In addi-

Some

tion to the interstate system program, the 1956 legislation pro-

smaller ports on the seaway route requested governmental dredg-

vided for a step-up in the regular program of improving the

as a result of the first year's operation of the seaway.

ing of harbour approaches to existing wharves to the

requirements of

seaway

See also Canals and Inland

Waterways

;

St.

Lawrence

Sea-

(W. H. V. A.)

way.

— The Great Lakes — High-way oj — How They Were Formed (i9sO;

Encyclop/EDIA Britannica Films.

Commerce (i9Si); The Great Lakes

—

regular federal-aid primary and federal-aid secondary systems

and

27-ft. draft.

The Great Lakes Their Link With Ocean Shipping (19S1): Inland Waterways (1956); The St. Lawrence Seaway (1959); Water Power (1937).

their

urban extensions. Roads and streets

eligible for federal

aid in 1959 totaled about 810,000 mi., of which 256,000 mi. were

primary system (including the interstate system) and 554.000 mi. in the federal-aid secondary system, or farm-to-market roads. in the federal-aid

Accelerated Federal-Aid Program.

way program under

the 1956 act

made

—The accelerated high-

available to the states, in

K02dS 3nd nipW3yS.

two years' time, federal aid totaling $6,550,000,000 for the fiscal years (ending June 30) 1957, 1958 and 1959. An additional

exceeded

$600,000,000 provided by the Federal-Aid Highway act of 1958

United States during 1959 again previous records. An estimated $10,504,000,000 was

all

was apportioned April

spent during the year for highways and streets, in capital im-

for fiscal year 1959

provement, maintenance, highway police, administration and

cluded $200,000,000

interest

on highway debt. Of

tures alone

amounted

this total,

construction expendi-

to $5,750,000,000. Capital outlay,

which

for

the interstate

17,

1958. This in-

system and a special

authorization of $400,000,000 on a two-thirds federal and onethird state matching basis to finance primary, secondary and

includes right-of-way as well as construction costs, totaled $6,-

urban projects that could be put under contract before Dec.

940.000,000. Capital expenditure for the improvement of about

1958, and completed within a year.

39,000 mi. of principal highways amounted to $5,487,000,000;

amounted

to

unimproved,

economy.

in the L'nited States totaled 3,477,000 mi.

fiscal

Role of the Federal

Government

in

Highways.

— Since 1893

the bureau of public roads has represented the federal govern-

ment

in

matters relating to highways. Its efforts cover a wide

i,

of this special

authorization was to aid in the nation's program to stabilize the

on about 93.000 mi. of local roads and streets $1,453,000,000. AH roads and streets, improved and

capital expenditure

The purpose

The 1958

act provided $3,400,000,000 of federal aid for the

year i960. This amount, apportioned to the states effective

Aug. I, 1958, was the largest federal-aid apportionment for highways ever made more than the sum of all authorizations made during the first 24 years of federal aid for highways, from 1917

—

range of engineering, administrative and research activities which

through 1940.

have as

and defense highways, a $300,000,000 increase over the previous fiscal year, and $900,000,000 for primary, secondary and urban highways. The latter amount was divided 45% for the federal-aid primary system, 30% for the secondary system and 25% for urban highways. In these three categories the requirement that the states match the federal grant dollar for dollar was continued. For the interstate system the 90% federal, 10% state, matching basis was continued.

a goal a

nationwide network of highways designed to

meet the ever-growing needs of the public for the improved transport of people, goods and services. A major function of the bureau of public roads is supervision

by congress to highway improvement. Under existing law the the roads to be improved and the type of improve-

of the expenditure of federal-aid funds authorized assist the states in

states select

CONSTRUCTION ALONG THE "HIGHWAY OF THE SUN"

In the Apennine mountains between Florence and Bologna. Italy, in 1959. The photograph shows the two arches which would support the Gambellato bridge spanning two valleys. When completed the road would stretch from Milan to Naples

It

included $2,500,000,000 for the national system

of interstate

Of the

total

i960

fiscal

year apportionment, the largest share,

$302,000,000, went to California. This

amount was $2,000,000

1

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS more than

Apportionment of Federal-Aid Highway Funds Authorized for the Fiscal Year 1 96

the largest annual authorization of federal aid for

the whole United States prior to

World War

II.

The second

larg-

went to Ohio; New York, with Delaware received $12,000,000, the

est apportionment, $198,000,000,

was

$180,000,000,

third.

State

among

smallest apportionment

the states.

The 1956 act not only increased most automotive taxes but also created a highway trust fund in the treasury department to most of these taxes and

receive

to disburse therefrom federal-

aid funds.

The 1956

legislation anticipated a close balance of authoriza-

tions paid out

based on the

and tax revenues received. But

this

balancing was

of the interstate program, not on a year-by-year

life

reckoning. Congress anticipated a

"surplus" in the

first

few

which would be balanced by surpluses in the closing years of the program. The legislation permitted repayable advances from the general funds in the treasury to the highway trust fund in order to solve this deficityears, then several "deficit" years

surplus problem. But a pay-as-you-go clause also included in the

1956 act had the effect of requiring a year-by-year balance. This limitation had no immediate impact on the interstate program, but as the

fiscal

year 1959 (beginning July

i,

1958) ap-

was evident that the increased authorization called for in the 1958 act could not be met by the highway trust fund revenues anticipated for the fiscal years 1959 and i960. Accordingly, congress in the 1958 act waived the pay-as-you-go clause for two years and directed that the full amounts authorized for fiscal 1959 and i960 be apportioned to the states. These and other financial provisions of the 1958 act which increased federal outlays advanced the day when the highway trust fund would be threatened with a deficit, since this act made no commensurate provision for additional revenue and the pay-as-you-go requirement would come back into effect after its proached,

it

two-year suspension.

To meet

this situation, the

Federal-Aid Highway act of 1959

increased the motor fuel tax by one cent a gallon, to four cents,

July

from Oct.

1,

1961, to June 30, 1964, one-half of the

I,

automobiles and five-eighths of the

8%

—up

fund

to that time this tax

The 1959

from three

would go

10%

tax on

new

motor vehicle the highway trust

tax on

parts and accessories were to be earmarked for

the treasury.

i.e.,

1959, to June 30, 1961. Then, from

to the general

fund of

act also reduced the interstate system

authorization for the fiscal year 1961 from $2,500,000,000 to

$2,000,000,000. portioned.

The

However, only $1,800,000,000 could be apshows the apportionment of fiscal year

table

1961 funds to the states.

Progress During 1959. federal-aid

In the

program

fiscal

is

—A good measure of progress on the

reflected in the obligation of federal funds.

year 1959, such commitments totaled $3,223,000,funds and

000, including $2,284,000,000 of interstate system

$939,000,000 for the primary, secondary and urban systems.

Work Much I

fiscal year on the interstate system which $1,039,000,000 was federal aid.

completed during the

cost $1,325,000,000, of

of the year's expenditures involved preliminary engineer-

and right-of-way purchases, but construction contracts were completed on 2,290 mi. Completions on all classes of federal and federal-aid projects ing

during the

fiscal

year accounted for the improvement of 32.828

mi. of roads and streets at a cost of $3,275,000,000, including

$2,095,000,000 of federal funds. Federal-aid improvements on 7,135 mi. of primar>- highway cost $781,000,000, of which $407,-

000,000 was federal; federal-aid improvements on 16,310 mi. of

farm-to-market roads cost $505,000,000, with $261,000,000 being federal aid.

Projects were completed during the fiscal year on 1,113 of roads in national parks

and

forests,

i"'-

on national parkways and

on flood-relief projects at a cost of $75,000,000, including $65,-

599

ROCKEFELLER — ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

600

Rockefeller, Nelson AldriCh governor and government ollicial,

became

a

i960 Republican

leading contender for the

presidential nomination after his election as governor of

York. Nov.

4,

New

Rockefeller, the second son of John D.

1958.

Georges Cardinal Grente, bishop of Le Mans, France, on May 4, 1959, and of Crisanto Cardinal Luque, archbishop of Bogoti and primate of Colombia, on May 7, 1959, reduced the membership of the college to 72.

Roman

Ministering to an estimated

and grandson of the fabled John D, Rockefeller, Sr., who founded the family fortune in oil, was born on July 8, 1008, at Bar Harbor, Me., and was graduated from

of 496,512,000 were 381,500 priests.

Dartmouth college in 1930. In the early 1930s he helped develop New York city's Rockefeller Center, of which he became presi-

This

dent.

lies

Rockefeller,

Jr.,

Rockefeller's long series of appointments to government office

began

1940 when he became co-ordinator of inter- American providing economic, social and cultural aid to Latin-

in

affairs,

American nations. He served he became

with Latin America.

in this position until

1944,

when

secretary of state in charge of relations

a.ssistant

He

resigned in 1945 and spent the next few

Catholic world population

Of

number, 116,000

this

belonged to religious orders and 265,500 were seculars.

numbered 39,505475

Catholics in the United States last figure

previous year.

in 1959.

represented an increase of 3,481,498 from the

The new

total

(which included

all

Catholic fami-

home and abroad

of the defense forces both at

the diplomatic and other services outside of

as well as

the continental

United States) represented an increase of 12,787,132, or 47.8%, from the 26,7:8,343 Catholics reported in 1949. There was a Catholic population of 17,341,117 in 26 archdioceses, and 20,164,358 in 114 dioceses in 1959. Among the

more than

archdioceses, seven had a Catholic population of

They were: Chicago

Boston 1,582,677;

years organizing and directing two private corporations for the

1,000,000.

economic and social development of Latin America. In 1950-51 he was chairman of Pres. Harry S. Truman's advisory board for international development (the Point Four program). In 1953-

New York

54 Rockefeller was undersecretary of health, education and welfare. In 1954-55 he was a special assistant to Pres. Dwight D.

population of 1,473,480. In second and third place, respectively,

Eisenhower

to develop

"cold war" policies, and

still

later

he

was chairman of the president's advisory committee on government organization, from which he resigned in 1958.

2,027,243;

1,558,328; Philadelphia 1,463,031;

Newark

1,345,-

944; Detroit 1,288,761; and Los Angeles 1,243,511. Brooklyn continued as the largest diocese, with a Catholic

were Pittsburgh with 866.554 and Buffalo with 847,554. Cleveland with 749,072 was fourth.

The number of parishes with resident pastors increased by 193 With 568 parishes without resident clergy, there was

to 16,185.

a record total of 16,753 Catholic parishes in the United States.

Rockefeller

Foundation:

see

and

Societies

Associa-

tions. U.S.

Rockets:

Rodeos:

see see

Meteorology; Missiles; Space Exploration. Shows.

RnffPrQ PiprPP llllliaill riClUC nUgCIO, William eral in 1957 to

^"^'^" ). us cabinet memwas appointed attorney gen-

ber,

succeed Herbert Brownell,

Bom

Jr.

at Norfolk,

N.Y.. June 23, 1913, Rogers took his arts degree from Colgate university, Hamilton, N.Y., and his law degree from Cornell

and was admitted

university, Ithaca, N.Y., state bar in

1937.

He was

York county from 1938

the

to

New York New

assistant district attorney of

and again from 1946 to 1947, after service in the navy. He was chief counsel for the senate war investigating committee in 1947-48, and from 1948 to 1950 chief counsel of the senate's subcommittee on executive expenditure. Rogers was named deputy attorney general under Brownell in the original Eisenhower cabinet of 1953. When Brownell reto 1942

signed Oct. 23. 1957, Rogers was designated his successor

Dwight D. Eisenhower. In 1958 he announced

Pres.

by

his opposi-

tion to a bill introduced in congress (but later defeated) to curb

the powers of the U.S. supreme court. eral

government would act promptly

land"

in

school integration.

He

He

declared that the fed-

to enforce the

"law of the

also said that the jurisdictional

scope of the International Court of Justice should be widened.

In 1959 Rogers announced that the Eisenhower administra-

was opposed

tion

ment

to repeal of the

22nd constitutional amend-

There were 4,867 missions. 1.603 stations and 10,390 chapels where Catholic activities were regularly pursued. Ordained priests totaled 52.689, or 1,876 more than last pre-

The new total was the largest ever recorded. The Roman Catholic hierarchy of the United States had 224

viously counted.

members. There were four

The number

A ars

and organizations

steadily growing inclination

among Roman

to explore all possible

Catholic schol-

avenues of approach

to fruitful dialogue with other religious bodies

marked the year

1959. Especially significant were the striking rapprochements

among

designated 23

new

cardinals on Dec. 14, 1958.

The year

1959 opened with the Sacred College of Cardinals increased to 74 members, the largest

number

in its history.

The death

of

number

of con-

tisms were counted during the year.

Three new institutions increased the number of Catholic hosbed capacities were extended by 2,718 to 145,190. The number of general hospitals was 803, with 133.819 beds. The 139 specialized medical and surgical institutions could

pitals to 942, while

accommodate 11,371. Patients treated in Catholic hospitals increased by 344.541 to a new high figure of 12.084,317. In the United States 580 Catholic newspapers and magazines reached a circulation of 24.273.972. a gain of more than 500.000 copies from the preceding year's total of 23,716,798.

Archbishop Egidio Vagnozzi, the apostolic delegate of the

Holy See

to the

United States, arrived on

May

8,

1959.

The

archbishop was the seventh apostolic delegate to the United

As such he would serve

States.

Cardinal Cicognani,

who

as intermediary

between the

He

succeeded Amleto Giovanni

sers'ed in

Washington for a quarter of

hierarchy and the Holy See.

a century.

of the

II. 1959. at

his first public address in English

ceremonies marking the looth anniversary

North American

Rome. Three American

college in

cardi-

800 other American churchmen and the student body heard the pope in an informal audience. The pontiff spoke warmly of the "vigorous faith" of the American church and especially

nals,

of "its unselfish devotion to the cause of charity."

During 1959 communism continued

biblical scholars of the various beliefs.

In keeping with the expanded needs of the church, Pope John

XXIII

of adult baptisms or converts to Catholicism dur-

versions during the decade to 1,301,335; 1,307,666 infant bap-

on Oct.

Catholic Church.

archbishops and 187

ing the year totaled 140. 411, bringing the total

Pope John XXIII delivered

limiting presidential terms to two.

Roman

cardinals, 33

bishops.

the

Roman

Catholic church with

its

its

relentless attacks on

52.000,000 adherents behind

the "iron curtain." Catholic institutions in East

Germany were new

closed or stopped while in process of construction, and a

decree of the authorities restricted the teaching of religion in

ROTARY INTERNATIONAL — ROWING

601

and professional life." The Catholic Interracial council gave the James J. Hoey Awards for Interracial Justice to John P. Nelson, Jr., of the Institute of Industrial Relations of Loyola University, New Orleans, La., and to Percy L. Steele, Jr., executive director of the San Diego, Cahf., Urban league. The awards are conferred yearly on two lay CathoKcs for distinguished service in the cause principles in her daily

of interracial justice.

On Nov.

16,

(J.

La

F.)

Pope John XXIII named the foUowng become cardinals at a consistory on Dec. 14:

1959,

eight prelates to

Agostino Bea, consultor of the Pontifical Commission for Biblical Studies.

German. William Theodore Heard, dean of the Sacred Roman Rota. Scottish. Arcadio Larraona, secretary of the Sacred Congregation of Religious. Spanish.

Paolo Marella, apostolic nuncio to France. Italian. Albert Gregory Meyer, archbishop of Chicago, El. Francesco Morano, secretary of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature. Italian. Aloisius Joseph Muench, bishop of Fargo, N.D. Gustavo Testa, apostolic nuncio to Switzerland.

See also Missions, Foreign (Religious); John XXIII; Religious Education; Societies and Associations, U.S.; Vatican City State and individual articles on newly appointed ;

cardinals.

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. (Development and Rituals) (1954).

Rotary International:

see

—Major

Societies

Religions

oj

the

World

and Associations,

U.S.

The University

of Wisconsin eight furnished the

major surprise of the 1959 rowing season with a 2length victory in the Intercollegiate Rowing association championships on Onondaga Lake at Syracuse, N.Y., on June 20.

POPE JOHN XXIII KISSING FEET

of a priest in a revival of the symbolic geskissing the feet of the disciples at the Last

ture taken from Jesus' washing and Supper. The custom had not been practised by a pope since

the

govemment

hampered

schools. Religious instruction in schools

countless

in

1S78

ways.

Jozsef

Cardinal

was

Mindszenty,

primate of Hungary's Catholics, remained confined to the United States legation in Budapest where he sought asylum following the Soviet repression of the popular uprising of 1956.

In China the communists used the wedge of the schismatic Patriotic Association of Chinese

Catholics.

At

least 32

CathoUcs to cleave the faith of

Chinese priests were "elected" bishops,

and of these 15 were known to have been illicitly consecrated. Only about 500,000 of the 1,500,000 Catholics in Vietnam were living in the communist-dominated north of the country. The continued expulsion of foreign missionaries had reduced their number in North Vietnam to less than ten. The communist authorities, using a

method preconized by China, continued

to or-

ganize mass accusation meetings against priests and imprison

who spoke up in defense of their pastors. Robert D. Murphy, deputy undersecretary of state, received the University of Notre Dame's Laetare medal for 1959. This those Catholics

distinction

is

presented annually to an outstanding Catholic lay-

man. Msgr. Edward E. Swanstrom of New York was named recipient of the 1959 Peace award of the Catholic Association for International Peace. Monsignor Swanstrom was honoured for his work as executive director of the Cathohc Relief service, an agency maintained by Roman Catholic bishops in the United States to aid refugees

and to conduct overseas

relief

work.

Clare Boothe Luce, former U.S. ambassador to Italy, received the 1959 annual award of the Catholic Institute of the Press. The first woman to be thus honoured, Mrs. Luce was cited for

the "distinguished

manner

in

which she exemplified Catholic

Sweeping ahead of Syracuse at the midway point, the Badgers went on to win the 3-mi. varsity event in 18 min. 1.7 sec. Following the Middies were California, previously imbeaten Washington, defending champion Cornell, Dartmouth, Pennsylvania, Princeton, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Colum-

won

bia. California

the junior varsity 3-mi. test in 17 min. 53.5

sec, with Washington second,

Perm

third

and Cornell fourth.

by ComeU in 1 1 min. 47.5 sec, Washington finishing second and Perm third. Washington, coached by Phil Leanderson, won the Jim Ten Eyck memorial trophy with 14 points. ComeD, winner of the scoring

The freshman

race of

2

mi. was captured

prize the five previous seasons,

was runner-up with

12 points,

CaHfomia tied for third with 11. The year 1959 saw the retirement from coaching of some of the sport's most colourful figures. Al Ulbrickson, Washington mentor for 32 years, stepped down in January with Phil Leander-

while Syracuse and

named to succeed him. Navy's "Rusty" Callow, because of ailing health, dropped his coaching reins and Louis

son being

Lindsey, formerly of Stanford, was selected for the position. Ky Ebright of California, who boated six I.R.A. champions and three -svinners, retired after a distinguished career of 35 years. Sprint Championships. Driving past Syracuse in the last few varsity won at Princeton, X.J., May i6. The Crimson Harvard's strokes. finished 4 ft. ahead of the Orange, covering the 2,000-m. course in 6 min. 3.1 sec. Yale, the 1958 champion, was third and Penn fourth. Cornell took the freshman event with Han.-ard next. Penn triumphed in the junior varsity contest, in which Harvard was fourth, behind Navy and Cornell. Harvard took home the Rowe cup for the first time since 1951 with iS points for the

Olympic

—

Eastern

three races. Blackwell Cup.

—

Yale defeated Penn by i sec. at Philadelphia, Pa., May 2. win the trophy for the fourth straight time. Columbia was third. Penn victor in both junior varsity and cub tests. In lightweight competition for the Wood-Hammond trophy Princeton scored in the junior varsity and freshman races and was second to Yale, which was not eligible for the award, in the varsity contest. Goes Trophy. Syracuse led Cornell, Xa\'y and Rutgers in a 2-mi. race on Cayuga Lake at Ithaca, X.Y.. May 2. Navy captured the junior varsity test while Cornell's freshmen won their event. Childs Cup. Penn repeated as champion in .\merica's oldest cup race, defeating Princeton and Columbia on the Harlem in New York, April 25, Penn's junior varsity also won, but its freshman entrj* finished second to to

was

—

—

Princeton.

'

RUANDA-URUNDI — RUBBER

602

HARVARD UNIVERSITY HEAVYWEIGHT CREW

(left)

crossing

the

finish

line ahead of the Isis Boa t club crew in the semifinals of the Grand Challenoe oup race at Henley-Oh-Tha mes. Eng.. July 3, 1959. The following day they won the cup, defeating the Thaimes Rowing club

Adams Cup. Md.,

May

in the feature event of the 4-day meet that drew entries from 21 nations. Royal Canadian Henley. .Amassing a record 429 points, the Detroit (Mich.) boat club won the Maple Leaf trophy in the 4-day competition at Port Dalhousie, Ont., that ended on Aug. i. The St. Catharine's club was second with 289.5 points. With the team championship at stake in the final event, the eight-oared race for seniors, Detroit triumphed in 7 min. 21.3 sec. A Detroit eight also won the senior 155-lb. final and Pat Costello, Detroit, captured the championship singles by defeating Jack Pearce of the Toronto .Argos. Pearce was first in the quarter-mile singles. The West Side club of Buffalo, N.Y., third in the final standing, surprised Detroit by win-

—

— Harvard's

varsity rowed to victory on the Severn at Andefeating Penn by 2 lengths. Navy was third and Rutgers, a guest entry, fourth. Penn captured both the junior varsity and cub contests, with Harvard second in each. Compton Cup. Harvard swept a 6-race regatta on the Charles river at Cambridge, Mass., May 2. Setting a record of 8 niin. 45 sec. for the i3-mi. course, the Cantab varsity defeated Princeton by 2I lengths. Dartmouth, M.I.T. and Boston university followed. Harvard's freshmen led home Princeton in 9 min. 48 sec, while the junior varsity heavyweights finished ahead of Dartmouth in 9 min. 6 sec. The Crimson started the day with victories in three contests for 150-pounders. Carnegie Cup. Vale finished ahead of Cornell and Princeton at Derby, Conn.. May 9. The Elis' varsity ended a string of Cornell victories, the Ithacan oarsmen having taken the junior varsity, freshman and two preliminary races on the day's program. Eostern 150-lb. Championships (V/right Cup). Harvard's varsity retained its title in this 2.000-m. event on the Charles. Dartmouth, Princeton, Cornell. Columbia and Vale trailed. The Crimson also won the freshman race, with Princeton leading the field in the junior varsity contest. Goldthwaiie Cup. Harvard defeated lightweight rivals from Yale and Princeton at Princeton. May 9. Princeton won the cub and junior varsity races, while Harvard's second freshman and third varsity eights triumphed. Dad Vail Trophy. Brown university surprised with victory in the 21st annual regatta for small colleges on the Schuylkill at Philadelphia. May 9. La Salle of Philadelphia was the victor in the junior varsity event and St. Joseph's of Philadelphia captured the freshman victory. Yale-Harvard. Harvard ended the 5-year supremacy of the Elis June 15 on the Thames at Xew London, Conn., in the 94th meeting with its old rival. Completing the regular season undefeated for the first time since 1942, the Crimson varsity triumphed in 19 min. 52 sec. over the 4-mi. course. Vale was clocked at 20 min. 2 sec. The Crimson junior varsity team led all the way in its 3-mi. race, winning in 15 min. 50 sec. Vale was the victor in the 2-mi. cub contest in 10 min. 44.4 sec. Oxford-Cambridge. O.xford rowing against a strong headwind, swept to a 6-length \ictory in the 105th meeting of these traditional rivals on the Thames in England, March 28. Oxford, leading almost from the start of the 4i-mi. grind, was clocked at 18 min. 52 sec, Cambridge finishing 18 sec. back. Pan-American Trials. Syracuse defeated the Vesper Boat club of Philadelphia by li lengths in the final heavj^veighl race at Syracuse, June 27. Other tests for the 1959 games were held as part of the I'nited States championships at Detroit, Mich., in .August (See Pan-.American Games). United States Championships. The Detroit Boat club, with a record 233! points, won national honours for the fourth straight year. Seattle's Lake Washington club was second, with the Vesper Boat club of Philadelphia third. Jack Kelly. Jr., and Bill Knecht of the Vespers won the double sculls and Harry Parker of the same team was the singles leader. Lake Washington gained the senior eight title, while the St. Catharine's (Ont.) Rowing club took the event for intermediate eights. Other champions included Paul Yager of Washington, senior quarter-mile singles, and .Bob Houston, New York .Athletic club. 150-lb. quarter-mile singles. Royol English Henley. Harvard eight-oared crews won two of the big pri2es at Henley-on-Thames, Eng., in July. The Crimson's heavyweight sweepswingers defeated the Thames Rowing club by 2} lengths for the Grand Challenge cup, covering the course of i mi. 550 yd. in 6 min. 57 sec. The Harvard university's lightweight entry successfully defended the Thames Challenge cup. beating the University of London by 2i lengths in 7 min. 13 sec. The Harvard lightweights had eliminated the Union Boat club of Boston. Mass.. in the morning semifinal. Stuart Mackenzie, an .\ustralian residing in England, was again the victor in the Diamond (singles) sculls. Mackenzie and C. G. V. Davidge of the Henley Leander club captured the doubles challenge cup. European Championships. Germany, winning 4 of the 7 titles at stake, carried off team honours for the third straight year at Macon, France, in August. German oarsmen tallied 45} points to 29} for the Soviet Union team, the runner-up. The German Kiel-Ratzeburg eight defeated the Czechonapolis,

slovakian entry by more than 3 lengths

9,

—

—

ning the race for 145-lb. fours, Detroit taking

—

—

(T. V. H.)

Ruanda-Urundi: Territories.

Rllhhor liUUUCI.

—

—

—

Rubber.

Natural

—World

production

of

natural

rubber for 1958 was estimated at 1,955,000 long tons, up 52.500 long tons over the 1957 output. Production for the first six months of 1959 was estimated at 982,500 long tons,

up 82,500 long tons as compared with the same 1958 jjeriod. After its meeting in London. May 11 to 13, 1959, the International Rubber Study group released only three estimates for 1959; world production of natural rubber would be at least 1,970,000 long tons; total world consumption of rubber, 3,520,000 long tons world synthetic rubber capacity (member coun;

tries

—

—

the other finals for fours.

see Belgian Ovekseas Territories; Trust

—

—

all

only) 2,040,000 long tons.

The New York at

spot price for no.

40 cents U.S. per pound

i

ribbed smoked sheets stood

in early Oct. 1959,

up 10 cents U.S.

per pound from the 1958 figure. Exports of natural rubber latex

from producing countries in 1958 totaled 171.576 long tons (dry rubber basis) or 8|9c of world production of natural rubber. Exports for the first six months of 1959 were estimated at 91,407 long tons as compared with 80,765 long tons for the same period in

1958

(all figures

on a dry rubber basis). Based on rubber

content, the price of centrifuged latex, entry,

was 8

to 9 cents U.S.

f.o.b.,

above that of no.

tank cars, port of i

ribbed smoked

sheets.

Total world area under plantation rubber was at 11.358.500 ac. (total in Asia 10.586,000

now

estimated

ac; Africa 692,500

ac; the Americas, 50,000 ac; Oceania 30,000 ac). In the U.S. on Sept.

15,

1959. the General Services adminis-

announced that 470,000 long tons of natural rubber had been declared excess to government stockpile needs, and that J plans had been developed for an orderly disposal over a period oil tration

|

about nine years. Total holdings

mated

at 1,250,000 long tons.

board of trade announced

its

A

in the U.S. stockpile

day

later, the

intention to dispose of

stockpile of 100,000 long tons, also in such a

were

esti-

United Kingdom!

manner

its entireiJ

as to avoidl

—

-

'

RUBBER Tobie

603 delivered; butyl 23 cents; neo-

World Consumph'on of Naiurat Rubber*

I.

II"

lo-'s '""'I

prene 41 cents World

hoif

July

Aug. Sept Oct

....

;

....

Nov.: Dec

Yeor'itolal.

.

Europe!

Canada

Chir,a§

Japan

55,000 49,500 63,250 63,750 62,250 67,250 739,500

2,925 2,434 3,920 3,877 3,969 3,757 37,085

12,500 13,500 25,000 19,000 10,000 16,750 148,750

10,630 10,540 11,830 12,030 11,980 12,360 128,170

152,500 145,000 187,500 185,000 167,500 187,500 1,982,500

3,341

10,790 11,720 12,300 13,280

192,500 167,500 165,000 172,500 170,000 182,500 llEstimoted and

Germonyf

U.S.

U.K.

Fronca

34,187 39,380 44,743 48,875 43,031 46,891 484,492

12,709 8,698 16,763 14,172 14,190 16,519 175,460

12,344 3,536 12,703 13,078 11,232 12,297 136,913

49,913 47,345 51,991 41,483

15,274 13,756

11,858 11,739

15,271

12,111 12,075

1958

11,041 10,836

12,350 12,765 11,962 9,699 129,300

—

U.S. cur-

all

rencv.

Tolalll

j tl, TT C TT" -In the U.S., firestone annnnnrpH LOllbUULUUll rnnetrnrtinn Ul nf d a ju, :!n nouilLCU

ooo ton Der vear olant for the

... either

production il,.

,

,

,

j-

,

.

.

their

01

.

s

Diene (cis-polybutadiene) or Coral (cis-polyisoprene) rub-

half

Jan

Fob Morch

....

April

Moy

13,933 13,814 18,328

38,777 47,786

June

12,523 11,327 10,872 11,920 10,036 12,248

10,268 ...

fFederol Republic

'Includes latex Idrybolisl. Includes all countries.

71,750 61,250 49,500 70,000 71,000

3,734 3,742

18,750 8,000 9,000 8,250 6,750

...

...

...

tEstimoted for total continent.

3,706 3,571

... ...

SEstimoted net importi.

oeK.

'

prene rubber in limited ton-

nagc

30

at

„ U.b.

,-

^

cents

pound OverSeaS f

SBR

capacity

Synthetic Rubber.

cis-Dolviso'^

their

per

a 70 000 tOn '

/

1

began

plant

production in Great Britain (International Synthetic Rubber Co.,

disruption of rubber markets.

thetic rubber for

began

ChemiCalS

bhell

marketine ^

—World

production of

types of syn-

all

and the other

1958, excluding the U.S.S.R.

countries which reported no figures, was 1,223,626 long tons, of which the U.S. produced 1,054,58s long tons. U.S. production by type was divided as follows: "regular" SBR (styrene-butadiene

SBR

Ltd., at Hythe, Hants.)

Notre tion

Dame

a 20,000 ton capacity butyl plant at

;

de Gravenchon (operated by Socabu") began produc-

— France's

first

synthetic rubber plant and the

plant outside the U.S.;

opened

in

the

first

Japan (Japanese Geon

synthetic Ltd.,

butyl

first

rubber plant was

Tokyo) with an

8,400-

630,917 long tons; neo-

ton capacity producing both general purpose and oil-resisting

prene (CR, chloroprene rubber) 97,806 long tons; butyl (IIR, isobutylene-isoprene rubber) 52,241 long tons; N-type (NBR,

types of rubber. This overseas production was expected to reduce

rubber) 144,166 long tons; "cold"

acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber) 31,976 long tons.

World produc-

months of 1959 was estimated compared with 562,352 long tons for the

tion of all types for the first six at 706.618 long tons as

same 1958 period. Principal world stocks of synthetic rubber at the end of June 1959 were estimated at 220,000 long tons. Production of synthetic rubber latices

in

the

for

U.S.

SBR-type 65,706 long tons;

totaled on a dry solids basis:

1958

NBR-

type 11.560 long tons; neoprene 10,679 long 'ons.

The

price structure of various synthetic rubbers per

pound

remained unchanged from 1958, except SBR which was reduced by 0.6 cent per pound: SBR 24.1 cents delivered; NBR 58 cents Table II.— WorU Consumption of Syniheiic Rubber' io„g ,o„;)

ii„

[^°'[

g^^

1958

Aug. •

Oc^:-

:

S.":: Year'stoioi. :

:

:

Canada jopon

U.K.

France

many}

Europe§

64,420 72 401

4,701 3,065

4,654

4,555

14,500

3,891

1,290

1498

4

352

11250

3

020

1300

95,000 97 500

lll't

lill

4'97i

nil

Vsfsl

i'"?

'All

Wiioo

u.s.t

....

July

Totaiii

liW

ll'll ii°9l tf/7 Vslio tfo? Wjo Vufoo 879,912 62,979 55,111 54,375 173,000 46,719 16,520 1,247^500

Rrst

some thought 22%. In 1958, exports totaled for all types: U.S. 193,846 long tons; Canada 98,750 long tons, Reclaimed Rubber. World production of reclaimed rubber in 1958 was 362,713 long tons. For the first six months of 1959. U.S. and Canadian exports of synthetic rubber,

by

as

much

as

—

world production was estimated at 200,839 long tons as compared with 174,093 long tons for the same 1958 period. U.S. production through June 1959 was 147,581 long tons as compared with 122,709 long tons for the same 1958 period.

—

Research and Development. Phillips Chemical Co. announced the availability of their cis-4 rubber (mainly cis-i, 4polybutadiene) in semicommercial quantities at a development price of 35 cents U.S. per pound in 5,000-lb. minimum lots. Montecatini, Milan, Italy, announced semicommercial production of ethylene-propylene copolymer rubber. Development of a continuous mixing machine for dry rubber stocks, known as the RotomlU, was announced bv B. F. Goodrich. Development of a ^. u r u j J . u > u tire, which Contains no rubber Or fabnc and does not have to be inflated, was announced by Goodyear as a possible solution of some problems of landing rocket-powered space craft. Made entirely of wire and resembling a wire burnishing brush, it was reported to have successfully passed dynamometer tests which ,

,

,.

•

,

simulated landings.

1959

Jo"

Feb March

,

.

.

April,

.

.

.

May.

.

.

.

'""'...-;

89,636 87,393 95,089 79,739 74,615

5,844 5,700 6,696 6,230 6,037

4,950 4,898 4,936 5,793 5,151

5,090 5,029 4,933 5,575 4,692

,'.'""

15,500 15,500 15,550 17,000 15,500

r

4,394 5,173 4,964 5,085 4,776

1,590 1,900 2,460 2,460 ...

122,500 122,500 130,000 117,500 110,000 '^°'°°°

,^'°"., ;•. •Includes latex (dry baiiil. flncludes oilf'""" content of oil-extended types. {Federal Republic. §Estimaled for lolol continent. and includes oil countries. ! Estimated

v.

The Research Association

m

of British

Rubber Manufacturers, .

,

,

endeavour, began a cover-to-cover translation of r .i. tt c- c- tv v-i_ il d each new issue of the U.S.S.R. rubber joumal Aa;/c«;/« / Acsjna a Significant ,

•

.

i

("Raw Rubber and vulcanized Rubber");

•

;

publisher: Maclaren

LoudoU price per year in U.S.. $50. Rubber Manufacturing. World consumption of new rub-

and SonS,

Ltd.,

;

—

ber in 1958 was again at an all-time record high of 3.230,000 long

Table III.— WorW Consumpfion of Reclaimed Rubber' lost

(In

?958 July

.

.

Aug..

.

.

Sept.

.

.

.

.

.

Oct.. Nov..

.

•

Ye'or's

total.

.

Canada

Brazil

YoTd

995 978 962 877 795

1,275

1,321

894 773 690 770 605

29,347 27,550 34,304 35,412 32 371

''"

""

''''^°

"'

"'^"^

35,591

10,221

15,121

8,449

378,896

U.K.

France

Germany

18,458

2,458

21,401

2,278 1,810 3,802 2,847 2,735

2,566 2,595 2,266

2,989 2,879 3,017 3,233 3,248

'"^'

^'^"

''''°'

248,156

33,567

19,461

21,899 23,708

809

27,791

tons. dlvlded 61^^:^ natural rubber,

long lonsi

U.S.

Australia

840 1,368 1,382

38^%

synthetic rubber. U.S.

I958 WaS 1,364,404 long tOnS,

in

synthetic rubber. World ^S^^ natural rubber, 64-^^ "^ ,, r l r Consumption of new rubber for the first six months or 19^9 was . ^ j . o J- -J J ^ . uu

divided

.

.

1

» estimated at 1,782.500 long tons, divided 59ared with 19,267,553 units on the same date a year before. (E. B. Nn.) Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. Malaya, Land of- Tin and Rubber

—

(i9S7).

Rulers: see Presidents, Sovereigns and Rulers.

Diim months ending June }o. 1958. Estimated production of principal crops for the same period were (in metric tons): copra 762, citrus fruits i}0, bananas 2,500, breadfruit 2.400, and taro 1.500. .\ native handicraft industr>' produced about $75,000 worth of Soor inat5 and woodcraft in that year. Imports in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1958. totaled $1,262,497, of which the I'nited States was the major source followed by .\ustralia and New Zealand and Japan. Exports totaled $5,854,258, of which fish, mostly canned tuna, accounted for 97'>; handicrafts. 2*^: and copra, i"^. Revenues collected during the 1957-5S fiscal year totaled $767,002: expenditures amounted to $1,721,279. The U.S. government appropriated $1,169,400 in grants and $123,039 for operation of the governor's office,

—

the legislature and the courts. Tronsportotion ond Communications.

—In 1954 Tutuila had 69

mi. of roads, of which 4 mi. were surfaced, and a 6,ooo-ft. long coral-surfaced airstrip, Tafuna .\irheld. Construction of a new 9.000-ft. runway continued in 1959. There was one radio broadcastina station in 1959. broadcasting to about 500 receivers. There was a weekly Samoan-language newspaper, a daily English-language newspaper and a quarterly English and Samoan periodica!. There were 4 motion-picture theatres in 195S. (S. Xr.^

Samoa, Western:

see

New

Ze.al.and;

Trust Territories.

ing boom in San Francisco's histor>': more than $450,000,000 new construction was announced during the first six months

the year.

A

in

of

$100,000,000 Port Authority plan provided for the

modernization of about So blocks of the water front's northerly segment. "Embarcadero City" would provide restaurants, theatres,

centres,

art

shopping centres, passenger

offices,

terminals and convention

scrN-ice

and a li mi. elevated promebuilding to Fisherman's wharf

facilities,

nade would run from the

Ferr>-

Other major construction plans included a $50,000,000 water front

rehabilitation

project

addition to "Embarcadero program for International air-

(in

City''), a. $25,000,000 expansion

port and the construction of a $15,000,000 baseball park for the

San Francisco Giants.

Qan Uorinn OdII lYldllllU.

(R. B. Kr.)

'^

small republic in central Italy (with which

it

is

united by customs unionl, San Marino

by the proWnce of Emilia and situated on the slopes of Monte Titano, 14 mi. southwest of Rimini. Area 24 sq.mi. Pop. (1959 est.) 15,000. Language: Italian. Religion: is

entirely surrounded

Roman

Catholic.

San Marino is governed by two capitani reggenii appointed every six months by a grand and general coimcil elected by universal suffrage every four years.

San Francisco.

The population estimate

for the city

county of San Francisco.

Calif., as of Jan.

and

I. 1959. was Sri.ooo persons, compared with 775.357 reported by the U.S. bureau of the census. April i. 1950. Total area 93.1

land area 44.6 sq.mi. The mayor of San Francisco. George Christopher, was re-elected for a four-year term in Nov. sq.mi.:

—

On Sept. 13, 1959, the anti-Communist parties History. scored a clear \-ictory in the general election, the Christian Democrats and the

On

Democrats being assured of an abso-

Social

lute majority in the

grand and general council.

Feb. 16. James D. Zellerbach. the U.S. ambassador

to

average daily attendance of 96,696. College and university enrollment in San Francisco in 1958 reached 25.000; also several

San Marino and announced that the U.S. economic aid of S850.000 would be paid shortly. On Oct. 8 the two capitani reggenti in ofiBce at the time of the 1957 coup d'etat, Primo Mariano (Communist) and Giordano Giacomini (left-wing Socialist'), were sentenced to 15 years of imprisonment. They were accused of an attempt against tbe

thousand students attended private and technical schools. In

security of the state.

1959-

There were 130 public-school buildings 1958, the active enrollment

amounted

in the city. In

June

to 120.07S, with a total

Total emplo>-ment in the city in July 195S was 478,200. Retail

amounted

to Si. 584. 530.-

000; sales of food for off-premise consumption and of gasoline,

which were not included

would increase

in taxable sales,

total

1958 to about $1,800,000,000, Wholesale trade in San Francisco in 1958 amoimted to about S5 .000.000.000. The value sales in

added by manufacture in San Francisco in 1954 (U.S. census) was 8495,815.000 and in 1958 estimated at S620.ooo.ooo. compared to $454,000,000 in 1950.

The total foreign trade of amounted to $991,034,352 in

fiscal

year 1959-60 was SS.og

The assessment

roll for

the fiscal

which $111,763,849 would be derived from city taxes. The city's bonded debt limit for future bond sales, as of June 30. 1959, based on the 1959-60 assessment, amounted to $241,768,173,

Bonds outstanding not matured on June

City

for

to $62,642,304

and

and for the

to S315.10o.604.

of expenditures included water supply

way

amounted

of San Francisco proposed a capital improve-

1959-60 amounting seven-year period 1959-65 amoimting

gram

30. 1959.

bonds authorized but unsold June 30, 1959,

S64. 275.000.

officials

ment program

and

The

pro-

distribution,

recreauon and parks, public health, sewers and disposal plants, municipal railway, police and fire protection and libraries and museums. traffic

signals

150,000.000

lire

balanced

iS,

pupils

1,492:

secondary

=

C.S.

from

3,

Si.). Italy:

per annum.

;

Santo Domingo: see Domixic.vn" Republic. Sao Tome: see Portugt."ese 0\trse.\s Pro\tkces.

Sarawak:

see

British Borneo. Central of the three prairie pro%"inces of

Saskatchewan.

Canada. Saskatchewan was created a provby act of the federal parliament. Area: 251.700

sq.mi. Pop. (1956 census") 8S0.665 (1959 est.: 902,000 1. Capital: Regina, pop. (1956) 89.755. (1958 est.: 100.800); Saskatoon,

to $248,193,440, of

to

(1957-58)

primarj-

Italian currency (625 lire at S53.000.000 lire. Subsidy

195S. of which $546,272,703 repre-

year was $2,014,734,779. Estimated fiscal-year revenue amounted

amounted

Budget

uses

ince in 1905

San Francisco's tax rate for the

to $228,935,000.

pupils roS. Finonce. San

the San Francisco customs district

sented exports and $444,761,684 imports. per $100 assessed valuation.

—Schools (1955): — Marino

Education.

195S there were 2S.321 attending Catholic schools. trade based on ta.xable sales for 195S

Italy, \-isited

lights,

The year 1959 saw what was expected

to

be the greatest build-

seat of pro\-incial imiversity, pop.

(1956)

72,858

(1958

est.:

32,769V

—The

History.^

provincial legislature passed iii public and

13 private bills in

1959 during the third session of the 13th

Enactments included proWsion for new types of liquor outlets for both men and women, subject to local option, and the institudon of a farm credit plan to assist young farmers in establishing themselves on economic family farm units. The legislature.

uniform time legislation of the pre\Tous year was repealed to permit local decision on the adoption of fast time during sum-

mer months. Premier T. C. Douglas continued to lead his Co-operative federation (CCF.") government and his party

Commonwealth

retained the Kinistino pro\'incial constituency in a June 1959 by-election.

In July the government appointed a South Saskatchewan River Development commission to guide development in all aspects of this multipurpose irrigation and power project. The official start

i

—

—

-

-

SAVINGS AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS construction of the river

:'

e

May

on

site

Meanwhile the

igjo.

27.

dam was marked

rporation be^an operating the

Qoem

-,evan,

\

and extaided

its

«TT

Medina 'c.acc

roo.oco: Buraida ra.occ:

Sask.-;

EEBsbe-

ism

Saskatoon and the Boundary

:

ceremony at

at a

-

gsr—---

racaf ffcrtwfici

000 farms.

-

Late in

1058 dissatisfaction

tv

irmers. under the leadership of

:.-.

the Saskatchewan Fanners' union, c^

--i

Ottawa

n to

dedciency

to request

iie Canadian

payr.-.

Wheat board durina

the

.

cr-.r -^ji:-.

.

-.n -..j : .i: contingent of 625 delegates, bearing a petition with 218.270

r'-.e

:

met the federal cabinet oa M^teek 10, rgjManitoba delegates swdted Adr iiimillin to

^natures, ::

the

>'-'—-.

r.-

1

;oo and the signatures to yan.aaa.

K potash mine

near Saskatoon, with a potential of 6cc

aimually. began production during the

'.s

jrear.

:

i: R.^.

-x-hi'-i;

nstruction of a $15,000,000 steel roiLM«giB3lBe.i

;

rduearion.

—

During tie 1557-53 school year rfere v - liled in secondary schools, j.156 in private schooU, ;5i,^c.r d:e^nrary schools 2nd 4.,ria in the government correspondence school. There •! S.i6j teachers with an average daily pupil enrollment of 169.4-5. .il receipts for all schools under the juri^ction ot the department ot -cation were $76,5cr.4ia. payments were J7+.345.4aj. '.ibiic Health and Wslfars. During ijiS the Saskatchewan Hospital icea plan, a government-sponsored program ot hospital care insurance, •red J65.544 persons, or more than 97.5'^ ot the total population. A i. ot r 73.001 patients (excluding newborns were admitted to hospital '. under the plan. Public assistance expenditure by the provincial gov:,iient, including old-age security supplementary allowances, blind per>; allowances, old-age assistance, mothers allowances and sodal aid for \f dscal year 1957-53 was J6.i36,j7i. ''ansportotion and Communicorion. At March jr. t959. there were 1 t73 licensed motor vehicles, including rao 495 passenger automobiles, 65,000 mi. of provincial and municipal roads. The provincial higinTay .•m of 3,155 ""i- included ;,oi t mi. 01 paving and 6,09c mi, of traveled is. There were 3,759 ""• of railway, 15% of the Canadian total. Daring :i. there were 2to,.z37 telephones in service, 14 radio and ; television

^

—

1

-

-

—

.

:

1

i.:smitting stations. inking ond Finance.

—and The

1959—^0 provincial budget

set

estimated

'nues at $tiJ.ji5,.i:o e-tpenditures at Jijj, .145.440. .\a of Dec jt, net direct debt less sinking funds and revenue-producing loans and ances was $41.^33, 911. In 1953 the t\vo largest publicly owned corKioos, power and telephones, showed a net surplus of $ij,d7J.ooc while remaining eleven crown companies together showed a net surplus of :34.ii7. Kx. March 51. 1959. there were j63 active credit unions with •embership of 107,154 and combined assets of $61,924,^34. Agriculture. Main crops, t9i3 1959 dominion bureau of statistics estile in parentheses); wheat t92,cco.ooo bu, ^ 253.000,000) oats 3j,"-:,cco bu. (95.aoo.ooo) barley 37.occ.ooc bu. 1,74,000,000); eye :-,Q,OQO bu. (j,ooo,aco): Sa-t it, 300, 000 bu. i,3,7ao.ooc>. Official pre.;nary estimate of farm cash income for r953 was J57t,6oo,oec. Valua'. of major items; wheat $271,925,000; oats $7,210,000; barley $52,rye $2,585,000; 3a.T $i7,33c,aoo: cattle $102,795,000; hogs : 000;

'

:'.

,

-.

-

—

i

•/UBS.

(E. S. Ah.)'

54r, pupils a^ 79c. teachers j,24Sr 45c; technical 7, pupils £,;o9. rexitsadans r.oj2. ceachers ij: insiruciana at higher education t, sudents 1952) ttj, teaching saS. zi. Rnonca; Monetary unit; rial, with an oiBcial eti'hange rate .tug. C9J9) of 5.075—5.17 rials to the C5. dollar and a free rare ijf apprnximaceiy 4.75 rials to the dollar. Budget C959 est.': balanced at :.4,ta.oco,oc.

Moslem. Chief towns ipop.. rQj6 est.'; Mecca 200.000: Jedda i6o.ccc: Hufuf

--„yadh leap.) rjo.ooo:

AsseH and

Liafaiir+ies.

—At the end of

aagE loans held amounted loans, as cfistinct

Sj.oco.aoc.acc in t(}jd and

to

mnrtConvenscmal

Sept. rojo, total

Sjt.jac.acc.aoc.

from either Federal Hiiusing a«faunistradcn-

insured or Veterans acfeniniatration-guaranteed, aggregated &i:.j20.aoa.aGc. or more rha-n Jo*^ of the total of mortgage toans.

United States gQvemmeat

obiigatiiQiis

were owned

in.

the

amount

SAVINGS BANKS — SCHOLA RSHIPS AND STUDENT AID

612

of $4,530,000,000 and cash holdings were $1,800,000,000. Total

universities,

cash and United States government obligations holdings were

ment) continued

12.1% of

total savings capital, a ratio slightly lower than

corresponding date

On

on the

dominant item, of course, was sav-

ings capital. Other liability items at the end of Sept. 1939 in-

Home Loan

bank advances of $1,800,000,000; other borrowings, $185,000,000; and loans in process, $1,550,000.000. Reserves and undivided profits, $4,125,000,000, amounted to about 7.9% of total savings capital. Mortgage Lending. New mortgage loans placed on the books of savings and loan associations in the nation from Janucluded Federal

all

to provide

levels,

govern-

federal

state

assistance to college stu-

liberal

but the most striking development was the

expansion of existing programs and the introduction of new

in 1958.

the liability side, the

dents at

and

organizations

private

—

ary through Sept. 1959 reached $11,955,000,000, almost

35%

programs of student aid by the federal government. National Science Foundation. This branch of the department of health, education and welfare enriched its assistance programs for graduate students, scholars and teachers of the sciences during the year. For graduate students the foundation continued, for the eighth consecutive year, its program of pre-

—

doctoral fellowships.

Under

stipends of $1,800,

$2,000 or $2,200

this

program 1,000 awards carrying in

addition

made

laboratory fees and travel allowances were

to

tuition,

to graduate

above the comparable period in 1958. Thus mortgage loans made by savings and loan associations in the calendar year 1959 were well over the previous highs of $12,346,000,000 in 1958 and

students working for the doctor's degree in mathematical, phys-

$11,432,000,000 in 1955. Savings and loan associations continued as the leading lenders for home financing, recording about 41%

tific

of total cial

home

financing transactions during 1959, with

banks next

at

commer-

medical, biological and engineering sciences and in certain

ical,

social sciences

which conform

In addition to this program, the foundation instituted a plan

summer

of assistance, during the

600 teaching assistants

i4''r.

to acceptable standards of scien-

inquiry.

of

for approximately

1959,

science departments throughout the

in

United States. The purpose of

program was

improve the

During the twelve months ended Sept. 1959, all operating savand loan associations increased their holdings of mortgage loans by a record $7,500,000,000. This was made possible pri-

appeal of teaching assistantships as a means of support for grad-

marily by the record net increase

uate assistants to continue their education during the

ings

amounted

period, which also

by an increase

Home Loan

in

in

savings capital during the

some extent

to $6,560,000,000, but to

and Withdrawals.

— Gross savings 20%

receipts in the first

1959.

Another new program instituted for predoctoral students was During the year 1,000

that of co-operative graduate fellowships.

from the program of predoctoral fellowships

independently by the National Science foundation. Another new

net inflow in the

first

first

nine months of 1959 was

nine months of 1958.

Most

14%

recent years, with the

exception of 1957, had recorded increases in the amount of net

ing universities

feature was that the funds involved were paid directly to the in turn

supported the fellowship

—

Competitive Pressures. The pronounced upsurge in lending by savings and loan associations during the first nine months of the year, substantially in excess of the gain in net savings inflow,

occasioned a severe credit stringency. In these circumstances, attention was being directed to the increase in outstanding ad-

vances from the Federal

toward a decline

Home Loan

of

and senior postdoctoral

postdoctoral

its

program These

fellowships.

awards, which provided a stipend considerably larger than those for graduate students, were designed to free

young or mature

scholars at the postdoctoral level from other duties for a year's

period so they could be free to follow research programs. In 1959, 140 postdoctoral fellowships and 75 senior postdoctoral

ing year.

banks and

in the liquidity position of the

to

any tendencies

savings and loan

associations. Managements necessarily gave thorough review to

a reassessment of association liquidity

and careful estimation of

fellowships were awarded.

For high school and college teachers the foundation supported them new) during the year. Each of these was designed to improve, in its own way, the quality of science teaching in secondary schools and colleges. All but one of them ten programs (half of

involved

summer

study, part-time study during the school year

or in-service study.

One provided

fellowships for an entire year of study. In each

of the programs provision

was made

for free tuition

and

in

some

for tinancial support for the participants.

cash flows. associations found that certain accounts carrying large

balances received quick withdrawal, particularly in view of

ris-

government securities. After showing months of 1958, the rate of divisavers by savings and loan associations again

ing yields on short-term

a slight decline in the last six

in 1959.

Savings Banks:

(J.

K. L.)

see B.-^nking.

—

Notional Defense Education Act. On Sept. 2. 1958. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the National Defense Education act which provided assistance of many kinds to education in the United States. The basic purpose of the act was to assist the educational system to meet the demands placed upon the country by the need for adequate national defense. However, the act, administered by the department of health, education and welfare,

was not limited

in the field of science.

In

Scholarships and Student Aid.

the

there

year

was

a

1959 great

in the amount and kind of aid provided to students in and universities throughout the United States. All of the three main sources of financial aid (individual colleges and

colleges

who

holders.

For advanced scholars the foundation continued

During Jan.-Sept. 1959 the ratio of total withdrawals to gross savings receipts was 72.8%. slightly higher than the 71.3% figure for the same period in 1958. Similarly, the ratio of withdrawals to the amount of savings capital held by the savings and loan associations was slightly greater in 1959 than in the preced-

dend paid to shifted upward

rather than through a competition conducted

participating institutions

savings infiow.

increase

in that the candi-

Withdrawals increased 23"^. The net growth in savings all savings and loan associations set a new peak in

The

Many

summer

months.

dates for the receipt of fellowships were nominated by participat-

accounts of

over the

possible for grad-

over the corresponding period

nine months of 1959 were up in 1958.

it

to

fellowships were awarded under this program, which differed

rose $55,000,000.

Inflow

make

uate students in the sciences, and to

borrowings, for advances from the Federal

banks went up $790,000,000 and other borrowings

this

to the assistance of scholars

Two

and students

parts of the act provided important

new sources

of financial aid for college and university students. These were the provisions for national defense fellowships (title IV) and student loans (title II). The act provided that i.ooo fellowships were to be awarded to graduate students, preferably to

those interested in teach-

'

—

SCHOOLS — SECONDARY METALS ing in colleges and universities,

who were

accepted into depart-

ments of graduate instruction approved by the commissioner of education. To be approved by the commissioner each program had to be new or expanded in such a way as to increase the facilities available for graduate training of college and university teachers, and to promote a wider geographical distribution of such facilities. Each fellowship was awarded for three years (pro\'ided the student's academic record merited his continuation) and paid $2,000, $2,200 and $2,400 in the successiv-e years

613

Eisenhower. Eisenhower appointed him assistant secretary of defense for legislature affairs in 1953. and two years later he joined

House staff as an administrative assistant to the presiThe senate confirmed him as secretary of the interior June

the WTiite dent.

1956, and he was sworn into office June

6.

recommended

In 1957 Seaton

8.

that federal reclamation projects should be

made

as nearly self-supporting as possible. In 195S he proposed federal

subsidies for certain minerals, including lead, zinc, copper and

tungsten.

plus $400 each year for each dependent. In addition, for each fellow an institution received,

it

was paid

a

sum equal

to the cost

to the institution of the education of the fellowship holder,

Secondary Education:

to a limit of $2,500.

quate to cover the fellowship grants. The

began their graduate work

first

ade-

fellowship holders

the National Defense Educa-

tion act pro\aded $30,000,000 during 1959. This

sum was

allotted

and within

states proportionately

those institutions which applied for loan funds and agreed

to pro\ide at least $1 for loans for each $9 received

from the

federal government. Institutions receiving loan funds also agreed

make

special

Mptfll*: ITICiaiO.

1958,

foreign languages. Recipients of loans agreed to repay

their total borrowings within

Other platinum group metals

in

Table

I

included 38.883 oz.

of palladium. 1,223 oz. of iridium, 355 oz. of osmium, 2.639 oz. of

rhodium and 2,008

oz. of

ruthenium. Secondary platinum-

group metals recovered by refiners

in the U.S.

was

7%

lower in

1958 than in 1957. Table

Secondary Nonferrous Metals Recovered

I.

1 1

yr. after

they ceased to pursue

lin

Copper

programs of study, and to pay

3%

interest

paid balance during the period of repa\Tnent. Except in special

circumstances repayment was to begin within 12 months after the recipient of a loan left college.

be cancelled at the rate of

Up to one-half of any loan 10% for each year in which

recipient served as a full-time teacher in a public elementary

alloys

In

compounds

1956

1957

1958

212.2 609.6

246.9 726.2

273.1

248.0 579.7

532.8

18.1

15.9

14.7

.

242.9 694.0 21.6 958.5 429.4

839.9 407.1

989.0 514.6

930.7 468.5

841.9 444.5t

797.4 411.4

126.6

486.7 428.8

120.0 360.9 480.9 425.0

128.3 373.7

.

133.4 373.4 506.8 445.5

126.6 362.6 489.2 431.9

285.7 401.8 343.3

107.9 142.8 30.7 281.4 73.7

104.7 126.0 33.4 264.1 76.8

77.4 120.4 32.5 230.3 69.9

...

From old scrap*. As metal

360.1

alloys Total

From old scrap*. As metal In

alloys

In

compounds

.

.

.

From old scrap*.

.

Total

Approximately

s%

of aU college students in the United States

were being assisted by the federal loan funds

in the

autumn

of

As metal In

oiloy

In

compounds

...

Total

I9S9-

From old scrap*. As In

also section

see

Education; Uni\'ersities and Colleges. See

Education

in articles

on countries and

states.

Scotland: see Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of. Scrap: see Secondary Metals. SEATO: see Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.

In

SBdtOn, FrBOGriCK AndrBW

mentofficlal,

radio-television properties in several western states.

Seaton's active interest in Republican politics dated from his

when he was chairman in

M. Landon during

From 1945

of the Riley

County Young

Kansas. In 1936 he was secretary to Alfred the latter's unsuccessful campaign for presi-

to 1949

Seaton served two terms in the Ne-

braska state legislature and in the latter year he was secretary

Harold E. Stassen. In 195 1 he was appointed senator from to fill the unexpired term of Sen. Kenneth S. \Vherr>'. In 1952 he joined the presidential campaign staff of General to

Nebraska

30.9 21.4

358.8

compounds

...

From old scrap*.

.

98.5 147.2 26.1

271.8 72.7

98.8 177.1

28.9 304.8 83.5

0.5

116.1

3.3

3.3

3.9

27.6

3.7 28.5

4.0

25.3 0.7 29.3

22.6

21.0

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

31.7 21.8

33.0 19.7

27.2 16.5

25.5 15.2

19.1

Total

.

.

.

.

(in

alloys)

From old scrap*

9.0

5.8

282.6

4.7

3.6

368.7 78.9

292.0 60.0

11.9 6.0

6.5 3.3

8.4

8.6 4.6

325.0* 2.0

336.0* 76.4* 6.6* 4.6*

9.5

9.2

7.9

328.2

350.4

279.7

2.1

2.2

2.0

339.8 71.7

361.8 72.5

289.6

7.6 5.4

1

0.7t 5.1

64.1

8.7 4.8

Nickel— tons Total

From old scrop*

.

.

11.5 7.5

14.9

22.4 22.4 23.7 19.0 18.9 20.4 31.3* 32.9 29.5 34.3 31.4 34.3 966.4 664.5 1,068 19,389 18,628.722,135,1

24.1

5.2

8.5

12.0 6.7

7.4

22.6 20.0 49.0 38.4 791.8 38,342,0

19.5 16.8 36.4 45.0

4.1

Antimony— Ions Totol

(in

olloys)

.

. .

.

.

.

O.P.M.t— ounces

.

.

Gold— ounces

was appointed secretarj' of the interior May 28, 1956. by Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower to succeed Douglas McKay. Born in Washington, D.C., on Dec. 11, 1909, Seaton attended Kansas State college, Manhattan, and was a radio sports announcer and then an editor for newspapers in Manhattan, Kan., until 1933. when he founded his O'ft'n publishing firm, acquiring newspaper, magazine and

Republican club

3.2 27.1 0.6

5.2

uielol

alloys

Totol

From old scrap*. Platinum— ounces

college days,

.

78.6 181.4 34.7 294.7 64.2

502.0* 449.2

14.2

255.1

(M. Ht.)

See also Education.

Schools:

642.9

Lead— tons

or secondary school.

the U.S.

1955

— (oni

In

In

in

ouncosl

fine

1954

As metal

on the un-

000 short Ions Of

1953

Total

full-time

dent.

in primary metal output and business improved for

the secondary metal producers, notably those dealing in copper.

who expected to who were

consideration to superior applicants

modem

its

price,

loans easily available to eligible students, and to give

primarily interested in science, mathematics, engineering and

to

nonferrous

all

when curtailment

began to increase the market

teach in elementary and secondary schools, and to those

was

recoveries of

secondar>' metals declined from 1957,

according to U.S. bureau of mines reports. Oversupply existed

the states on the basis of their relative enrollment in

institutions of higher learning,

to

^PPnnriflrV dCbUIIUaiJ until late in

in Sept. 1959.

The student loan program under

among

bills

Education.

'^''*

^'^

In the early spring, congress passed appropriations

among

see

up

Silver— ounces

.... ....

21.0 60.9 45.3

786.4

769.2

36,000,0 30,000,0 *Secondory metal recovered from old materials, the remainder having come from the reworking of nev^ plant scrap, tOther platinum group metoU. JRevised.

Table

II.

— Scrap

in the U.S. Iron

and

Steel Industry

SECRET SERVICE.

614 \i.O.

— S El SMOLOG Y

carefully desiRned tests in an experiment performed with the

States secret service, a bureau of

bevatron at the University of California's radiation laboratory

'J

II

U.S.

"^^^°^ functions of the United

^^^

Qprrot OClVlbC, OCllCl ^Pn/iPP

the treasury department, are protection of the person of the

Livermore,

at

Although having the mass of

Calif., in 1955.

ordi-

family, of the president-elect and of the vice-president at his

nary protons, antiprotons carry negative electric charges as contrasted with the positive charges of ordinary protons. Upon

the detection and arrest of persons committing any

contact, the two destroy each other, thereby releasing nearly

president of the United States and

request;

members

of his immediate

offenses against the laws of the United States relating to obliga-

2,000,000,000 ev of energy. Physicists saw the discovery as fur-

and securities of the United States and of foreign governments; and the detection and arrest of persons violating certain

ther evidence of the essential

laws relating to the Federal Deposit Insurance corporation, fed-

Segregation, Racial:

tions

eral land banks, joint-stock land

associations.

defined in

18, U.S. code, sec. 3056.

During the year ending June

30, 1959, the secret service re-

ceived 640 cases requiring investigation and arrested 90 persons in

see Civil

of nature.

Rights; Education; Law.

banks and national farm loan

These and other duties of the secret service are

title

symmetry

connection with matters concerned with the protection of the

^"""^

°^ '^SS and in 1959 the

'*"^^''

'^^

P^''' ^Pl^^mnlnO'V OCIOIIIUIUgJ. Xorth American continent recorded more

mic activity than

in recent years,

there was only an average

The event

seis-

although on a world-wide basis

number

of damaging earth shocks.

of major interest in the United States w:as the

Mon-

president. Unusual presidential protection activities during the

tana earthquake which, though of moderate severity, caused 28

year included protection of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower during a

deaths, brought injury to a score of persons,

Ottawa, Can.,

visit to

July 1958; a

in

Acapulco, Mex.,

visit to

in Feb. 1959; and a trip to Canada in June 1959. In June, advance agents of the secret service were sent to the U.S.S.R. to make

damaged a dam and

toppled a mountainside. Principal Earfhquakes.

quake

in

Java

—On

Oct. 20, 1958, a severe earth-

and injured nearly 2,000

killed seven persons

M.

others in the town of Blitar, causing wide-spread damage. In a

Nixon.

three-day period, beginning Dec.

In the suppression of counterfeiting, agents captured 19 plants for the manufacture of counterfeit paper money. A total of

earth shocks occurred near Guatemala City, Guat. Although

security arrangements for the visit of Vice-Pres. Richard

$1,924,536 in counterfeit notes was seized, of which $1,664,207

was captured before

it

could be placed in circulation.

The

repre-

many were

6,

a remarkable series of 210

injured, there were no deaths.

Reminiscent of the 1957 quakes in southwestern Turkey, Mugia province again experienced three severe earthquakes

sentative value of counterfeit coins seized was $6,766.32, of

which wrecked 100 houses and damaged 600 others on April

which $6,359.07 w'as passed. There were 308 new issues of counterfeit notes and variations thereof during fiscal 1959, and 343 persons were arrested for

1959.

On Aug.

violating the counterfeiting laws.

hit

The

secret ser\'ice received 40,655 forged

for investigation

cases on

and

as of July

hand awaiting

i;

government checks

quake which

During the year, agents

killed

15. following a

On May

24, five

of government checks and bonds.

state of Veracruz.

of the largest check forgery rings ever encountered

all

the

town of 2,500 persons. On Aug.

many

On

by

injured

Aug.

when

when an earthquake dehomes in Nochistlan. Mex., a

persons were killed

stroyed or damaged almost

completed investigation of 32,173 check forgery cases representing $3,015,304. There were 2.878 persons arrested for the forgery

One

25,

Formosa, suffered a sharp earthtwo persons but did relatively little damage.

later, Taipei,

typhoon and flood, the island was again by a severe shock which killed 16 persons, injured 80 and caused extensive property damage in the Pingtung area.

1959, there were 24.659 such

investigation.

One day

26, 14

persons were killed and

a severe earthquake occurred in the

17, eight

persons died and

many were

Mexican

injured in a

the secret service was broken up in Dallas, Tex., with the arrest

violent earth tremor which rocked the Rio Amarillo zone in

of 18 persons.

Chiloe province in southern Chile.

Cases of

types received for investigation aggregated 53,271 and 19,060 had been pending at the beginning of the year. Al-

though 42,816 were closed during

fiscal 1959,

there were 29,515

cases awaiting investigation as of June 30, 1959.

(U. E. B.)

Securities: see Banking; Stocks and Bonds. Seeing Eye, Inc.: see Societies and Associations, U.S.

'''^""' "'° "" ' "'^

'''°'~

Segrei, Emilio Gino

ceived the 1959 Nobel prize for phys-

Owen Chamberlain, was born

ics jointly

with

on Feb.

and was educated

i,

at Tivoli, Italy,

at the University of

his doctor's degree in 1928. Segre

1938 and became a U.S. citizen

came

in 1944.

to the

Rome, taking

United States in

Before joining the Uni-

versity of California at Berkeley in 1938. Segre had taught physics at the universities of

World War

II,

first

Rome and

Palermo. During most of

he was at Los Alamos, N.M., where he was actively

associated with the the

On Aug.

all

Manhattan

atom bomb

in

District project which exploded

1945. In 1946 Segre again joined the

physics faculty of the University of California. Sharing half of the $42,606 award with his co-worker Chamberlain. Segre was honoured by the Nobel committee for his part in the discovery of the existence of antiprotons. Nuclear physicists had strongly suspected their existence for some time before Segre and Chamberlain observed them for the first time by causing them to pass

18, the

northwestern section of the United States ex-

perienced a series of severe tremors, which damaged the large

dam

at Hebgen lake in Montana and caused the face of an 8,000mountain to topple into and block the Madison river. \ permanent lake, with a depth of 170 ft. near the face of the slide, formed upriver from the blocked area. In addition, local highways were blocked by slides and fissures and scarps with vertical displacements of 30 to 50 ft. were found north of Hebgen lake. ft.

In the following weeks, the area experienced more than 200 tremors, and

it

was reported that the

largest

shocks caused

from the epicenter, to fluctuate from 2 to 15 in. This phenomenon is caused by an earth wave which compresses the land around a well, thus causing the water level to rise and fall. A panel on seismic improvement, Scientific Activities. water

levels, in wells as far as 2.100 mi.

—

headed by Lloyd L. Berkner, president of Associated Universities. Inc.,

recommended

the establishment of

new

seismic sta-

and the refurbishing of existing stations in order to provide a more reliable recording network for the study of the various earth waves caused by natural earthquakes and explosions. The development of unmanned stations with automatic recording at distant points, and the development of a method of processing data with electronic equipment, were also strongly tions

recommended. Seismic surveys in Antarctica were

made by

traverses from

SELECTIVE

S

ERVICE. U.S.

615

two years of active military service at age 18^. After

men

tion,

by

are classified

registra-

local boards into a variety of classes

on the basis of individual

each

status,

man

being considered

available for military service until he establishes his eligibility

Most deferments extend

for a deferment or exemption. to age 35. Otherwise, 26 sification

is

is

the upper age of liability.

clas-

permanent. Deferments are postponements of mili-

some

tary service, except in

men deferred because of may eventually through such

cases

reserve or national guard training training

liability

No

become

eligible for classification as

having "completed

service" under the Universal Military Training and Service act, the

same

class into

which men are placed after completion of the

term of active military duty required under the law. In

men

are exempt from induction except after

this class,

war or national

emergency declared by congress. While men are liable at age 18^, those found available are selected for induction in categories of priority. Selection

the order of the date of birth, and within categories, oldest

men

are called

first.

all

As a

is

in

but one of these

result of this sys-

tem, selections for induction in 1959 were being made from available men who were not fathers and who were between the ages of 19 and 26, oldest

These men were being reached under age 23. This 19-26 non-

first.

for induction during the year just

father group

for

men

the source of

is

(men in violation induction. Under existing

delinquents

nonfathers 19-26 to meet

to

fill

induction calls after

of the draft law) and volunteers conditions, there were sufficient

calls.

Other categories of priority for selection of available

men

men

over

after nonfathers 19-26 are: fathers 19-26, oldest first;

first; and men 18;^ to 19, These categories would be entered in sequence to fill calls if the 19-26 nonfather category was exhausted. Legislation approved March 23, 1959, extended to July i, 1963, the authority to induct men who have not acquired extended hability through deferment.

26 with extended liability, youngest

oldest

first.

The extension

legislation also continued for four years the

authority to induct on special calls physicians, dentists and allied

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK EARTHQUAKE, I

1

I

!

Aug. 18-20, 1959. valley road destroyed when a section of it fell into Hebgen lake. Bottom, u.o. air force officer and national forest service pilot studying a map before sending In helicopters to rescue vacationers trapped in valleys cut off by land and rock slides following the earthquakes

men

America to the Ross ice shelf, thence to Skelton glaciers and along the Victoria Land plateau, under the direction of Al-

On March 19, 1959, the president amended Selective Service regulations to provide deferments from induction for men who

Little

I

I

bert P. Crary.

•

low sea

i

j

!

level,

While much of the land along it is

covered with as

much

As a

ice sheet

is

and that some parts

result of seismic

bottom surveys

in the Atlantic, Pacific

and Indian oceans, British scientists established the nearly universal occurrence of a 6.7 km. per sec. layer, which they assumed to

be basement rock.

from o

to 1.6

A

"sediment" layer ranging

km. with an average velocity of

2

in thickness

km. per

sec.

was

also found.

Methods of recording very long surface waves, while filtering by scientists from Columbia university and the California Institute of Technology. See also Antarctica; Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S.; Disasters; Inte^inatignal Geophysical Co-operation out shorter waves, were perfected

I

I

;

I

members

of

all

reserve and national guard com-

men

to qualify

ministrative policies which had been put into operation late in

by the

island groups.

•

are satisfactory

ponents, and to broaden the opportunity for

much smaller than may consist of

I

i

and provisions for extra service pay for

of the military forces;

physicians and dentists.

through reserve and national guard participation for classification as having "completed service" under the draft law.

indicated

\

dependents of

entering service; suspension of the ceilings on the strength

Frank Press and Gilbert Dewart of the California Institute of Technology determined by dispersion analyses of earthquake records that the land area of Antarctica

I

this profile lies be-

as 3,000 metres of ice.

specialist categories; provisions for assistance to

—

1959-

amendments

to the regulations formalized ad-

1958 and reflected legislative amendments. The amended regulawere based on a policy of not inducting men who were

tions

participating in of

men were

some

military training while sufficient

numbers

available for induction into the active forces

who

were not taking part in any training activity. Several hundred thousand men must enter the armed forces annually to maintain the required strength. Most of this number enter service voluntarily, but it is recognized that most of those ice

who volunteer do

and a time

The armed fluence

men

so in order to choose a branch of serv-

to serve in preference to waiting to

be inducted.

services rely on the prospect of induction to into enlist.

The department

of defense requests the

enough men to make up the deficiency between the numbers required and the numbers who enter service other than through Selective Service. During the Selective Service system to induct

(R- A. E.)

O6I6CIIV6 OGrVICB, U.O. Training and Service act, amended, young men register at age 18. They become liable

In part, these

as for

year, the department of defense asked for the induction of ap-

proximately 95,000 men.

SENATE — SEYCHELLES

616

Similarly, under the influence of probable eventual induction,

men

enter and remain in the reserve and national guard. Deferfor satisfactory participation

ments are granted

in

these pro-

grams. They also offer opportunities to participants to acquire exemptions from induction except in the event of war or national

emergency declared by congress as required periods

A major

provided for

is

men who

termine which members of the standby reserve

when

their recall

authorized.

is

Saint-Louis

(47,000),

History.

— The

may

is

to de-

be recalled

The number

of

national assembly and

Senegalaise

Progressiste

won

of the electorate). registrants were

added by

local

boards during the year and the total registration was expected

most cases men continued

in

around 23 or

away from

to

to wait to be

(85',;^

section of the Senegalese trade unions broke

The most important Adventists

was the

dition to the

—about

5,200.

—

made by

study.

The

test is

one criterion used by local boards

in

considering

men is

To

hold two la>Tnen's congresses in North America in i960,

the

more

students utilize sometime during their

they are ordered for

largest

with delegates from every church, thus to draw into service

student careers a statutory student deferment which permits if

1959 was to vote the sum of $27,881,182 for the mission program throughout the world. This

its

important actions were taken, as follows:

in-

effectively than ever, the lay potential of the church.

up a temperance department

set

complete an academic year

action

Seventh-day

the

for

registrant's class standing.

of

in

by

taken

sum in the history of the church, and was in admoney provided for the regular activities of the church in North America. The vote was taken at the annual autumn council held in Takoma Park, Md. At this council other

students on the college qualification

student deferments. Another guide used by the boards

to

A

Seventh-day Adventists.

But the number of registrants deferred as students during the year was substantial more than 210,000 on March 31, for instance. This number included men deferred for high school, college and graduate remained relatively small

them

Federalistc

the 80 seats with 954,500 votes cast

be reached for induc-

who choose

a little younger, those

number

1959, the Union Parti

(Hu. De.)

ing the Selective Service college qualification test in April 1959

small

22,

the

the Union Generale des Travailleurs de I'Afrique

expansion of

A

branch of

(a

Noire.

inducted can thus normally complete undergraduate study before induction is likely. Consequently, the numbers of students tak-

score

all

its

by the end of 1959.

to exceed 22.000,000

Because

Dia. French high

council of ministers. At the elections

its

assembly held on March

to the national

year drew to a close.

tion

Ziguinchor

(39,000),

Mamadou

Republic of Senegal, proclaimed on Nov. 25

Africain)

new

Ccap.,

commissioner, Pierre Lamy.

such reservists continued to grow to more than 1,600,000 as the In excess of 1,200,000

Thi^s

(40,000),

(23,000). Prime minister in 1959,

Dakar

(50,000), Kaolak

34,000 Europeans), Rufisque

incl.

1958, joined the Federation of Mali (q.v.), while retaining

function of the Selective Service system

to active duty

234,cx)o,

serve

the active forces.

in

Christian minorities. Chief towns (pop. 1957 est.):

eral

conference organization at

ordinate

To

all

Tu

w-ithin the structure of the genits

headquarters, thus to co-

the temperance activities of the church at one place.

enlarge and

make more

efficient the

plans for disaster relief

connection with the local churches.

To merge

the existing

duction while in school.

in

The system continued to aid in fuller national utilization of technical and skilled manpower through selection of men for enlistment in the critical skills reserve program. Under this pro-

general conference religious liberty department, the bureau of

by the local boards enlist in one of the armed forces reserves, perform three months of active duty for training, and serve the balance of their eight-year enlistment without reserve participation providing they remain in

To hold

gram, registrants found

work. Those eligible for consideration are

their critical

deemed

eligible

and to be using a

to possess

men

critical skill in a critical

defense-supporting industry, or in research affecting national defense.

The program

of law authorizing

it

is limited as to numbers, but the provision was extended during the first session of the

86th congress to Aug. Selective Service

up of volunteer jurisdiction.

is

i,

1963.

community where

services of about

made

the board has

40,000 volunteer citizens,

nearly 90^^ of the system's total personnel, are used to operate the system. Paid clerical help,

department at

much

of

it

part-time,

is

supplied

and appeal boards, accounting for more than 80% of all compensated employees. Other paid employees staff 56 state headquarters and national headquarters. (L. B. H.) See also National Guard. to local

known

to be

as the

department of public

affairs.

the next quadrennial session of the general conference

San Francisco,

Calif.,

July 26 to Aug.

4,

1962.

To

give

final

authorization to the College of Medical Evangelists (the .^dventist medical school), to

and

expand the

univ-ersity

dimensions

to give graduate courses leading to certain science degrees.

The membership

of the church at June 30, 1959,

216, divided as follows:

ObjflillCllCo.

was

(F.

^^^

1,162,-

United States and Canada, 322,868;

overseas, 839,348.

Qaunhallac

operated by about 4,000 local boards

citizens of the

The

public relations and the bureau of industrial relations, into one

British colony

D. N.)

and dependencies

consists

of g, islands in the Indian ocean 610 mi. north-

east of Madagascar. Area: 156 sq.mi.

(Mahe

55 sq.mi.). Pop.:

(1947 census) 34.632; (1958 est.) 41.901 Negro, Creole. Indian, European, Chinese. Language; English; French Creole patois. ;

Religion:

Victoria

Christian

(Mahe

(about

66% Roman

Catholic).

Capital:

Island), pop. (1956 est.) 10,000. Governor in

1959. Sir John Thorp.

—

History. In the June 1959 honours liat the governor, J. K. R. Thorp, was awarded a knighthood. In November details were given of a £2,500.000 development program for the Seychelles,

Senate:

see

government had allotted £1,000,000 from development and welfare funds. The scheme, worked out by the Seychelles government, included the development of roads, electricity, water supply and telephone ser\'ices. Plans of which the British

United States Congress.

colonial

Senegal, Republic

of.

21^'!".°:,

"Ttl

Community, is bounded north by the Republic of Mauritania, east by the Sudanese republic, south by the independent Republic of Guinea and by Portuguese Guinea and west by the Atlantic ocean. The British colony and protectorate of Gambia forms an enclave in the territory of Senegal. Area

76,124 sq,mi. Pop.

(1958 est.) 2,300,000, mainly Negro. Language: Ouolof, Peul (Fula) and other Negro dialects. Religion: Moslem, animist,

were also made for a hotel and tourist industry.

—

Education. Government schools (1958): primary 27, pupils 5.258. teachers 231: secondary 4. pupils 553, teachers 32; vocational i, pupils 20; teacher-training i, students 40. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Seychelles rupee, equal to IJ. 6a., or 21 cents U.S. Budget (1958): revenue Rs. s. 742, 819, expenditure Rs. 5,395.796. Foreian trade (1958): imports Rs. 9,495,612. exports Rs. 8.165.S78. Principal exports (long tons. 1958): copra 5.599. cinnamon-leaf oil oil and bark 1,070, dry salted fish 112; also guano, vanilla, patchouli

—

and dried

leaf.

SHEEP^SHIPBUILDING Sheep:

see

Merchant Shipbuilding

Livestock.

617 in

New

Principal Countries of the World, July 1, construction

in

hand or on order

11,000 gross Ions

OllllJUUMUMIg.

and

or on order (vessels of i,ooo gross tons

Number Country of building

was approximately 20% below the July I, 1958, total. The figures shown in the table, released by the Shipbuilders Council of America, do not include construction over) as of July

i,

1959,

in the U.S.S.R.

United States.

—On Jan.

i,

1959, 75 merchant vessels (1,000

gross tons and over) aggregating 1,542,500 gross tons were on order, under construction or awaiting delivery in privately

U.S. shipbuilding yards. This total comprised 47

cargo vessels, 3 Great Lakes ore carriers, seatrain, self-unloader,

2

ferries

owned

tankers,

and

i

each of:

coast and geodetic survey vessel, and

During 1959, one tanker of 30,000 gross tons and the seatrain of 8,500 gross tons were canceled. During the first nine months of 1959, contracts for 19 new vessels were awarded. Of these, 15 were general cargo vessels aggregating approximately 147,600 gross tons,

all

for the ac-

count of five U.S. berth-line operators, replacing part of their Also ordered were two container cargo vessels of 4,000

gross tons each, a 23,500 gross-ton tanker and a 16,500 gross-ton

ore carrier, the latter to be built on the Great Lakes.

During the same period, 25 vessels were delivered, all for Of these vessels, there were 21 tankers of 526,-

private account.

580 gross tons, I

2

ore carriers totaling 26,350 gross tons,

i

self-

unloader of 14,084 gross tons and i ferry of 1,334 gross tons. Launchings during the first nine months of 1959 consisted of 22 vessels, comprising 18 tankers,

i

passenger and cargo ship

with nuclear power for the Maritime administration, rier,

ferry

I

and

i

government. In the

i

ore car-

geodetic survey vessel for the United States first

nine months of calendar year 1958 there

were 21 vessels launched and 19 delivered. The United States bureau of labour statistics reported that

employed in both construction and work in private shipyards as of Jan. 1958. In Jan. 1959 employment stood at 124,700 and as of July had decreased to 123,100. The average hourly earnings in the shipbuilding and repairing industry during July 1959 were $2.73, as compared with $2.58 in 1958. The average weekly hours worked were slightly lower in July 1959 than in 1958: 39.3 compared with

there were 125,400 persons repair

39-8.

New U.S.

ship contracts awarded to privately owned yards by the navy department during the first nine months of 1959

totaled approximately $279,000,000. Additional naval ship con-

struction

FIRST

U.S.

approved by the congress comprised the following:

NUCLEAR-POWERED MERCHANT

in the Delaware river after its launching at Camden, 22,000-ton ship cost $41,000,000

i

the N.S. "Savannah," N.J.. July 21, 1959. The

SHIP,

Spain Yugosia Belgium

ig

passenger-cargo ship to be propelled by a nuclear power unit.

fleets.

ond over)

"^^^ '"'^^ world tonnage under construction

ChinhllilHinrr

Germany Canada East

Austrolia

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

of

MERCHANT M AR

SHIPPING.

618

tankers resulting from the severe decline in the level of freight rates in the previous

came

two years. The

shipbuilding prices

rise in

most countries and quotations for such business as was available became very keen. Total shipbuilding capacity, however, continued to increase, as expansion and modernization schemes started in earlier years began to take effect. A large new shipyard was inaugurated in Rotterdam and new berths and other improvements came into operation in the United Kingdom. Sweden and elsewhere. In Sweden a new building dock capable of constructing tankers of 100,000 tons dead weight came into use and work began on the building of an ento an abrupt halt in

new shipyard capable

two vessels of this size simultaneously, by unorthodox methods. W'ork started also on the expansion of building facilities in Norway and Denmark, tirely

The

came

— the

from the United Kingdom

"Oriana" (40,000 tons gross), designed for service between Europe, Australasia and \orth

America across the

"Windsor Castle" (38.000 tons

Pacific; the

— S H O OT

E

complete year an unprecedented pairs at a dollar

volume

shoe pattern, especially

thin type to the

of 135

ft.,

•» «n Oriental 1

bemg

had an over-all length of 9 ° ^'50

ft.

r" Giant

o

J

»

J

1--

and a width

i.»\

The

oil.

u

r

(67.800 tons dead weight), which came from

slightly flattened,

was not intended

1959, but

in

to

medium and

low.

As

for leathers, materials

limit to their variety

and range,

men's shoe picture. The "continental" styling was gradually giving

way

an "American continental" which had a more

to

look. The main trend in men's shoes was to smooth or subtly grained leather uppers, and medium, slim leather soles trimmed close to the tapered contour of the uppers. Leather was in short supply in the United States in 1959 and

American

natural,

75%

Raw

materials markets recorded increases

100% during

to

May

April and

1959. Factors con-

tributing to this situation included a reduction in U.S. cattle

heavy buying by eastern European buyers

slaughter,

world

in the

hide and skin markets, and reduced inventories in the leather

and shoe

industries. ^°'''*

largest cargo ship in

capable of carrying 1,021,000 bbl. of

.'•/''s national emploj-ment service.

the

Austrian Socialist party and the Austrian People's party, long

ferences in a general election. In the

col-

cities.

of 150 parliamentar>' seats or one seat less than the

suppression of

in Berlin.

Early

many towns and

Catholic party. During the rest of the year

and of the four communist states from the Warsaw pact,

and the development of a zone of central Europe that would strict

In the general elections

won 48

in

the fun-

however, to

It continued,

Communist party

the road

—

continued throughout the year as party leader.

Socialist

Malaya." won 43 of the 51

assembly of the new

In Indonesia, the Socialist party voiced

its

state.

approval of Presi-

Socialists polled 44.75"^ of the vote; the People's party. 44.35*^.

dent Sukarno's recommendation to revive the 1945 constitution. On April 22, President Sukarno urged that the country proceed

As

along the path of socialistic reconstruction which, while elimi-

People's party representation decreased

in

a result,

ser\-ices

The

from 82

to

six ministers.

In the

fall,

proposed a plan for the nationalization of medical

nating the excesses of the capitalist economy, would leave intact private enterprise sectors of the Indonesian economy.

—

Awsfralia and New Zealand. The Labour party of .Ausremained the government opposition during the year. In

on the British pattern.

resignation in Italy on Jan. 26 of two Social Democratic

ministers led to the downfall of Christian

Fanfani's coalition government.

The

Social

Democrat Amintore Democrats remained

out of the government during the rest of the year.

Democrats and the left-wing Italian

Communist

party, called

The

Socialist party

separate political organizations during 1959. In

its

Social

remained

Januan.- con-

had been closely linked with for the autonomy of the party,

vention, the Socialist party which the

79.

on July 14 another coalition government was formed,

which each party was represented by

the Socialists

I

625 method must be chosen as and declared that socialism must guarantee

resolved that the democratic

tralia

March In

it

New

emerged the winner

in the

New

South Wales elections.

Zealand, the Labour government continued to develop

programs for full emplo\Tnent and increased social security payIt encouraged new housing, intensified import and

ments.

exchange controls and increased

its

economic aid

to underde-

veloped countries.

Africa.

—Kwame Nkrumah,

Ghana's Labour prime minister.

SOCIALIST SOVIET REPUB Lies — SOCIAL SECURITY

626

took an outstanding part on April 15 African Freedom day,

in

the celebration of the

co-operation with other

in

members

of

Africa to

Freedom day address, he was Ghana's "moral obligation to help the rest of gain her freedom." Numerous Socialist parties were

active in

various African countries

the independent African states. In his

declared that

it

Madagascar the

throughout the year. In

assembly and senate elected Philibert

legislative

Tsiranana, founder of the Malgache Social Democralac party, as [iresident of the

North Annerica.

Malgache

— In

Canada, numerous conferences were

held during the year by the National Joint committee composed

Commonwealth

federation

(C.C.F.) and the Canadian Labour congress to discuss the pro-

gram

of a

new

political

unmatched anywhere

else in the

world.

Japan expanded pension insurance by covering,

in effect,

every

adult not already insured by one of the existing plans. Small contributions

and a long qualifying period characterized the neu

system, and the law provided for old-age assistance until

thi

covered individuals could receive pensions through insurance.

was strengthened by eliminating sevhad previously kept wage earners, especially agricultural labourers, at a disadvantage in comparison with Italy's health insurance

eral inequities that

republic.

of representatives of the Cooperative

in recent years with a diversity

Labour-Socialist party and to obtain

the co-operation of other farm, labour and progressive groups.

The C.C.F. government in Saskatchewan continued throughThe party's dominion legislative program included

white-collar employees.

—

United States. For the programs under the Social Security developments during 1959 concerned the putting into operation of the 1958 amendments. One new law, signed Sept. 16, 1959, amended provisions covering state and local government employees under federal old-age, survivors and disabilact, the chief

insurance;

made coverage

available

to

policemen and

out the year.

ity

an old-age pension plan which would provide, on retirement, a

firemen in four additional states and gave certain states more

pension equivalent to approximately one-half of a worker's in-

time to arrange for coverage of a small group of employees.

come.

It

was

in

favour of a summit conference, a demilitarized

On May

it

19, 1959, Pres.

Dwight D. Eisenhower signed amendand the railroad unemployment

zone for central Europe, and a loose federation of the govern-

ments

ments of East and West Germany as a step toward the holding of free elections throughout Germany.

insurance programs. Effective June 1959 the railroad retirement benefits were increased 10%, the taxable wage base was raised to

In the United States, the Socialist party-Social Democratic federation continued to serve as an International. At

equal

its

civil rights for

demned

of the

affiliate

Socialist

July executive committee meeting,

Negroes, and, regarding foreign

it

urged

affairs,

con-

West Germany and other weapons except nuclear warbe made to achieve agreed and

U.S. agreements to provide

nations with

all

parts of nuclear

heads. It urged that every effort

$400, retirement for spouses and certain

made

ing for the islands' complete independence

by

i960. Socialist

wage requirement, improved

the

financing provisions and provided, on a permanent basis, for

extended unemployment benefits for those with ten years or

more

federation, the affiliates

the

benefits, raised the qualifying

vision

—In The West Indies

For railroad unemployment insurance, the amounts of unemployment and sicknes?

rates were increased.

new law increased

tary forces.

Latin America.

women workers was

possible at age 62 with reduced benefits, and future tax

supervised disarmament, including balanced withdrawal of mili-

of the Federal Labour party, a socialist organization, were work-

to the railroad retirement

of service

who exhaust

their benefit rights ("the latter pro-

was retroactive to July 1958). The maximum contribution rate was raised to 3J%. Contributions were being paid at that rate beginning July

i,

1959.

Federal payments under the Temporary

Unemployment Com-

groups were active during the year in Venezuela, Cuba, Costa Rica, Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Chile, Bolivia and other Latin-

pensation act of 1958, which had been set up to pay additional

American countries.

under the regular state unemploj-ment insurance program, were

See also Democracy.

(H.

W.

benefits to

scheduled to end as of

L.; N. T.)

June

Socialist Soviet Republics: see Union of Soviet Social1ST Republics.

^

Qfipiol QDPIiritu

OUUIdl OCuUlllj.

major

development

in

igjg vvas new retirement legislation

in

social security

unemployed workers exhausting

30, 1959.

The

the

first

March 1959 but were extended through

five states that

benefits under their

their benefit rights

own

had provided these temporary

laws continued to pay them throughout

half of 1959.

Other 1959 legislation in the field of social insurance and related programs included a law providing (effective July 19601 for the first time federal participation in the cost of health and

both Great Britain and Sweden that added to the existing pensions (which are flat uniform amounts not related to earnings)

hospitalization insurance for federal employees. In addition, the

new

liberalized for persons 65 years of age

wage-related pensions for persons with earnings above a designated level. Contributions for the new supplementary pensions

would also vary with wages. In both countries the new

supplemental insurance was compulsory but might be carried under private instead of public arrangements. In Sweden any private supplementary benefit plan must be achieved through collective bargaining; in Britain the scope for private plans

much

broader.

The

costs of the

new

was

benefits in Great Britain

pro\ision for group

On Aug.

life

insurance for federal employees was

and over.

29 the president signed the Veterans' Pension act of

1959, providing, on the basis of nonservice-connected need, pen-

World War II and the Korean conflict and widows and orphans. Social Insurance. At the end of 1958 about 55.600,000 gainfully employed persons were covered by old-age. survivors and

sions to veterans of their

—

disability insurance. (.\n additional 1,000,000 persons

were cov-

are shared by the employer and employee, but in

ered jointly by the railroad retirement and the old-age. survivors

are paid entirely

and disability insurance programs.) During the fiscal year ended June 1959 about $8,460,000,000 was paid into the old-age. survivors and disability insurance funds in contributions and transfers, and the assets held at the end of that period totaled $23,208,091,000. Employers and employees were each paying contributions during 1959 at a 2k% rate and the self-employed at si%\ during i960, 1961 and 1962, the rates for the employer

relatively small

Sweden they by the employer. Both countries would pay

supplementary benefits

in

the early years of

operation and thereby accumulate substantial reserves. Political

developments directly affected the former

curity arrangements in

de Gaulle's government

and

some in

countries.

The

social se-

policy of Charles

France led to closer administrative

financial controls, without

major reduction of benefits and

with several actual increases. The Cuban revolution resulted in the formation of a single social insurance bank to take over the resources of the existing retirement systems that had expanded

and the employee would be would pay 4^%.

The

3%

benefit increases provided

11

each and the self-employed

t

by the 1958 amendments under

(i

I

SOCIAL SECURITY

627

year ended June 30, 1959. During the 12-month period, the program paid out $9,388,000,000. Lump-sum payments paid at the

ments to cases averaged $65.79. Under these programs, there were 2,420,000 needy aged on the rolls in June 1959, 2,929,000 recipients of aid to dependent children, 109,000 blind recipients and 339.233 disabled persons receiving aid. At the end of 1959

death of an insured worker amounted to $150,000,000. Monthly

all

the old-age, survivors

and

Jan. 1959, and their effect

disability insurance

was

were effective

in

reflected in the data for the fiscal

benefits totaled $9,239,000,000,

represented benefits going to

and about 4% of this amount disabled workers and their de-

Guam, except which

pendents.

Of the 13,200,000

on the

beneficiaries

rolls at the

end of the

about 3,400,000 were the aged dependents or survivors of retired, deceased or disabled workers; 1,748,000 were fiscal year,

(some of them 18 years of age or over, with a disability that began before that age). There were more than 275,000 disabled-worker beneficiaries on the rolls, and benefits for their dependents (first payable in Sept. 1958) were going child beneficiaries

to 86,000 persons.

The average amount received by

a retired worker, not count-

ing any benefits going to his dependents, was $72.19; for those just going

the federal-state programs were in operation in

on the

rolls the

average award was $80.32.

Monthly retirement, long-term

disability

is

for aid to the

Total expenditures for assistance in the year ended June 30, payments for medical care made in behalf of

recipients,

were about $3,600,000,000.

Child Health and Welfare.

—

Under the Social Security act the government shares in the cost of state programs for maternal and child health services, services to crippled children and child welfare services through grants-in-aid. In the fiscal year ended June 1959, federal payments made to the states for maternal and child health services amounted to $16,494,000; for federal

services to crippled children, such

payments totaled $15,216,000; was paid.

for child welfare services, $11,833,000

and survivor benefits

Canada.

—With

of the ten provinces of

A

large

(W. L. M.)

See also Cn'iL Services. U.S. pital insurance plan in

service program.

permanently and totally disabled,

1959, including

retirement program, to 2,934.200 under the veterans' programs civil

grant-in-aid

program

the implementation of the provincial hos-

Edward Island in Oct. 1959, nine Canada were participating in the federal

Prince

for a nationwide system of public hospital

group of beneficiaries was receiving such benefits under state

services.

government employee programs. For temporary diswas not work-connected, benefits were being paid in four states and within the railroad industry. For work-connected disability, workmen's compensation programs were in effect for

sons. British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan,

and

local

ability that

and for federal employees. program of unemplo>Tnent insurance pays benefits to qualified unemployed workers. The programs are financed by employer contributions and, in three states, employee contributions. The federal aspects of the program are administered by the department of labour. Unemployed federal workers receive benefits through the state in which they reside under the terms of the program in that state, which acts as agent of the federal government. Under the state programs and that for federal employees, about 6.C00.000 unemployed workers reworkers

The

in all states

state-federal

ceived at least one check during the fiscal year 1958-59

one-fourth fewer than the

number

—almost

in 1957-58. Benefits totaled

$2,845,400,000 and compensated for 93,000.000 weeks of unem-

ployment

—about $85,000,000

less

than the amount paid in the

weeks of unemplov-ment. The average check for total unemployment was higher by 25 cents ($30-33 ) tbe average duration of benefits was longer and more earlier year for 100.000,000

workers exhausted their benefit

rights.

In an average week in

June 1959, 1,200,000 jobless workers drew benefits that totaled $146,700,000 for the month, and the average check for total unemployment was $29.23. The temporary unemployment compensation program paid out about $600,000,000 from June 1958 to

July 1959. Public Assistance.

government shares

— Under the Social Security

act the federal

four special types of aid to the

needy: (i) old-age assistance for persons 65 years of age and over; (2) aid to dependent children in need because of the absence or disability of a parent; (3) aid to the needy blind; and (4) aid to the permanently

and

totally disabled. General assist-

and local funds, is available for and most localities. In June 1959 the needy aged person was receiving, on the average. $64.76; each recipient of aid to dependent children was get-

ance, financed entirely

from

other needy persons in

all

ting

state

states

an average payment of $28.39; blind assistance recipients and the average

were receiving pajTnents that averaged $69.04

;

permanently and totally disabled was $63.37. For general assistance, wholly financed by states and localities, pay-

payment

to the

Coverage under the program reached 12.000,000 per-

Newfoundland entered the program

in

Manitoba and

July 1958. followed by

Nova Scotia in Jan. 1959 and New Brunswick in There was universal coverage of the population in all participating provinces except Ontario and Prince Edward Island. In these provinces the services were universally available and were compulsory for wage earners of employers having more than a specified number of employees. While all provinces carried the same comprehensive range of inpatient services in active treatment, convalescent and chronic hospitals, the inclusion of outpatient diagnostic services was optional, and only a few provinces were covering these services to any considerable extent. Ontario and

July.

The plan in Ontario went beyond the provisions of the federal programs by covering hospital care in tuberculosis sanatoriums and mental hospitals. Pa\-ments to the provinces by the federal government for its share of the cost, which reached $160,000,000 in the fiscal year 1959-60, were financed from general revenues. A variety of methods of financing the provincial share had been implemented by the provinces. In some instances all the funds were obtained from general revenue, and in others premiums were adopted with individual and family rates. Monthly rates of $2.10 for a single person and $4.20 for a married person with or without dependents were typical premiums. In 1958 the province of Newfoundland extended

its

provision

of diagnostic inpatient services for children in order to provide for a government-financed for

in the cost of

the states,

in operation in 49 jurisdictions.

were also being paid under other public programs. In June 1959 such benefits were going to 501,000 persons under the railroad

and 335,900 under the federal

all

the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands and

all

program of medical and

children under 16 years of age

who were

surgical care

hospital inpa-

tients. The province of Manitoba passed legislation in 1959 to provide public medical care for public assistance recipients, be-

coming the

sixth province to legislate for this type of formal

program.

During 1958-59 there were a number of important developments relating to housing for older people. Legislation was passed in four provinces, and changes in regulations under existing legislation were made in three other provinces. One illustration of the nature of these developments was the Act to Facilitate the Establishment of Homes for the Aged in Quebec, which authorized the appropriation of $15,000,000 for the construction and maintenance of homes and housing projects.

The

federal

Unemployment Insurance

act

was amended

in

1959 by increasing contributions into the insurance fund by em-

SOCIAL SERVICE — SOCIE TIES AND ASSOCIATIONS

628

as special ances, in addition to the ordinary scale, for such items or domestic helj) diet, laundry, exceptional fuel requirements

and the federal government, extending the maximum period for drawing benefits from 36 to 52 weeks, and raising adding two new classes of contributions and benefits, to $5,460. the annual wage ceiling for coverage from $4,800 agreement, under the Also, the federal government concluded an Assistance act, with the province of Quebec,

plovers, employees

Unemployment which meant that

all

provinces

now shared

a fifty-fifty basis the cost of

ernment on

The

at the

to

also

had to be employment. Provision was made for

in the national insur-

During 1959 the only major alteration amendment of the ance scheme taking immediate effect was the These penearnings rules for retirement and widows' pensions. were more than sions were not to be reduced unless net earnings For widowed mothers £3 a week week. Sixpence was the net amount was raised from £3 to £4 a between £3 deducted from the pension for every shilling earned week by and £4 a week and is. for each shilling earned over £4 a instead of £2 io5. as previously.

made

£5, respectively.

There were

similar

between £4 and £5

also changes in adminis-

trative procedure.

a

45J. to 505. National assistance rates were increased from week for week for a single householder and from 76J. to 855. a allowance. The arrangea married couple, plus the usual rent

of the household was assumed terminated. be contributing toward the general expenses was might capital and certain types of income which

ment whereby an earning member to

The amount

of

be disregarded

in

deciding the

amount

of

an allowance was

was estimated that the additional cost to the exin a full year. chequer of these alterations would be £32,000.000 insurance The report of the ministry of pensions and national

liberalized. It

for

1958 showed that new

claims for sickness benefit totaled higher than in any year since the

nearly 8.000.000. This was (when there was scheme started (1948) except for 1952 and 1957 pensions epidemic). About 881,000 new retirement a

account

in the sickness

insurance scheme, in Switzerland in in Sweden in the old-age

scheme and

New

cost of pensions.

and over

Uke

Post Office Savings to be paid in cash, or to the credit of the

during the increasing contributions at four five-year intervals meet the following 20 years if this should prove necessary to

deductions were

the general social security scheme, and

there were pensions scheme. In the German Federal Republic widows and invalids. increases in the rates of pension for old-age, Zealand.— Arrangements were made for a family benefit

rights the state scheme. These equivalent pension

widowed mother. In her case

in

the tuberculosis insurance

rights

in respect of earnings

improvements

were made

week

their retirement

occupational pension schemes connected with of the graduated part their employment could be contracted out scheme if their ocof the national insurance retirement pension pension cupational scheme was financially sound and provided of equivalent to the maximum under the graduated part

a pensioner other than a

68%

were also made in of the rise in the wages index. Improvements improvemenU widows' and orphans' pensions. In Italy general

of

preser\-ed on change of

end of 1958,

creased and old-age pensions were increased to

pension.

Members

allowances was

Netherlands the rates of contributions were increased. In the accidents was in rate of benefit for disability resulting from

more than £9 a the flat-rate pensions and benefits. Those earning contribuweek, and their employers, would also pay a graduated to £15 a

in respect of

Of the 1,649,000 beneficiaries were receiving supplemenUtions of na-

Other European Countries.- In France a supplementary opera scheme of assistance to the unemployed was brought into receive an allowanic tion. Workers who were unemployed could were which in total reached 88.5% of the lowest wage. There

unemploy-

0- W. Wd.) ment assistance recipients. scheme United Kingdom.— In 1959 a new national insurance retirement introduced a measure of graduated contributions and April 1961 pensions relating to employees' earnings. As from employees and emthere would be a minimum contribution by for ployers—covering all employees' earnings up to £9 a week

tion—a percentage of earnings over £9 and up and thus qualify for a graduated addition to

board

tional insurance benefits.

with the federal gov-

payments

total expenditure of the

at the rate of £119,000,000 a year.

serious

there were in all into payment, and at the end of 1958 increase mainly resulted 5.330.000 retirement pensioners. The who did not from the coming into the scheme of late entrants the start of the national qualify for pensions until ten years after and 28.5% of the insurance scheme. About 52% of the men

came

pensions during 1958 had earned supplements by continuing at work after pensionable age. showed The report of the National Assistance board for 1958 being the year 1,649,000 allowances were

inland bank account of the mother, or to the commissioner of the mother or revenue, to meet the income-tax payments of parents with the purfather. Provision was also made to assist capitalization of the chase of home properties. This was by the from the age family benefit in respect of one or more children 16, provided that the total of the I year up to the age of was not less advance or advances in the case of any one family benefit of £iio than £200 or more than £1,000. A superannuation means test, to all had been payable in New Zealand, without a year from April i, persons over 65. This was increased to £156 a

of

i960. The superannuation 1959, and to £208 from March 30, benefit, would then be equivalent to the rate of age would substantially replace, thus providing a standard

benefit

which

it

benefit free of

means

Social Service:

see

^^

Child Welfare; Social Security.

... The following „ J . II Societies and Associations, u.b. selected ust of .

is

.

a

us

and associations, with date of founding, membership, and chief activities during 1959. Veterans' OrSee also the separate articles on Red Cross;

societies officers

ganizations, U.S.;

etc.

is a fellowship of men recover. The only req-i'te^ and women formed in igis to help the alcoholic dnnkmg. ment for membership is "an honest desire to stop }\'^^l[\"^ The organi the world. were 250,000 members in 8,000 groups throughout Anonymous and .4 4. Con,ej ol Age. zation publishes the books Alcokal.cs other pamphlets. Office s name also The A.A. Grapevine (monthly) and

Alcoholics

Anonymous— .'Mcoholics Anonymous

tradition of anonymity-, are not given because of the organizations Headquarters: supported solely through voluntary contributions^ Grand Central Station, New \ork 17. Box

>•»

4sg.

u

is

P.O.

.

orlnc.--Founded and incorporated in 1917, this which proles^ to provide a main channel through f»:«^^° in diversified occupations might )0"> Membership in I9S9 "as work for community and world improvement. Canada^ Great Britain. Gua te^ Tbout 6.000 in 500 dubs located in the U.S., I959.the °^/^";^^''°" ""';/. mala, Me.xico. Bermuda and Puerto Rico. In information and international re in public affairs, vocational

Altruso

Internotionol,

ganization's purpose Lnal and executive

is

women

out t^roiects women, regardless of nationality, for voca°at ons and awarded grants to totaled 540,o°o. P>ibdraining. Club funds available during t959-6o Boo'he^ Officers (1959-61) included; ^'^ .iltrusan. Intefnalionat licalion: Headquarters: 332 S. Michigan president; Ernestine Milner, president-elect.

tS

academy, of Arts and te«ers.-The purpose of the arts of literature and the fin^ in 1904. is to further -the interests from consisted of 47 members chosen n .rmerica.''ln I959 the academy the National .1"^'". '''^ °' organization, parent its of members the 250 X^;! and Letters. On May 20. .959. the jomt f"""f several exThere Institute of .\rts and Letters was celebrated.

^"Ame^ilcn^Accdimy

women awarded

founded

that at the end of

tional hibitions, notably a

were being assisted made. Altogether about 1.000,000 pensioners discretionary allowand 47% of the recipients were receiving

(]>•'•

test.

fVT°"'le

\^

^''"f^""^ showing of works by candidates '"^ «^='"'= '" "''JS and «;„^dTnteres' ^e welfare and interest the purpose of promoting ^^^ ^^,^^^ clubs membership stood at '""^.^ fidd of activity of local nt 'Jf" ^.•^°°,h"e( 1 ^e erne, Mexico. is

«'-.p«of >P'"'""'/"g„^°;P°e, World „er hostTo the"d Quinquennial Uurmg .959, ^ \.h^°e"''''",ten men and women from 34 nation.. by at.eniitauy led was which Sodality congress, yar ous MCof

m

^^^^J^, Americo.-

855 and m^,^.^

^

.^

^g g

^^ ^^^.^_.^^

Tsra^cept'e^^rerp'on'sl^im^y for hdping

]

—

—

SOCIOLOGY in 29 countries. Publications; the Bookshelf : YWCA Maga(1959) included: Lilace R. Barnes, president; Mrs. Paul M. Jones, vice-president: Mrs. Howard S. Anderson, secretary. Headquarters: 600 Lexington .\\t., Xew York 22, X.Y.

the

Y.W.C.A.

zine. Officers

Zonta Internationol. \ service organization of executive women in business and the professions founded in 19 19. this organization encourages high ethical business and professional standards, the improvement of the

economic and professional status of women, and internaunderstanding through a world fellowship of executive women. in 1959 included 408 clubs with approximately 15,000 members in the L".S. and 15 other countries. During 1959 three .\melia Earhart graduate scholarships were awarded. Publication: The Zontian. Officers (1958-60) included: .Andra E. Francis, president: Lucille Crawford, executive director. Headquarters: 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago 5, 111.

tion, there

635 were

at the

meeting at

them from the Free University

Among

least

200 students, most of

of Berlin,

the addresses at the plenary sessions were

— focused

many

of out-

on topics of importance, firmly based on relevant evidence that was closely analyzed and with conclustanding merit

legal, political,

tional

Membership

QnPinlniTU

OUblUIUgJ.

•^'though 1959 was not a year marked by the appearance of sociological writings that could at

once be judged as having extraordinarj' importance, the general quality of publication in

many

countries was distinctly credit-

able. Further, the spate of reasonably priced reprints of meri-

torious earlier works,

some

much among laymen and among professional sociologists who them long

of

the market, did

off

to diffuse sociological knowledge, not only

students at

all levels

but also

previously had been unable readily to acquaint themselves with

what tors

their predecessors had accomplished. Still further, translawere active, even from English into French or German and

sions cautiously drawn.

might be called ethno-sociology. Helmut Plessner of the University of Gottingen was re-elected as president.

Throughout Germany and

in

many

languages, went on broadening

scope.

its

A

and

articles

considerable

of

brought

Kiel,

Graz.

chiefly along the lines of research institutes

placed in positions of

much

influence or assurance of continuity.

London School of Economics done much toward the advancement of their field, and these efforts were carried further; nevertheless, little of high sociologists attached to the

earlier

significance occurred during the year. ties

were active

in sociology* to

some

The "red brick"

were no outstanding developments. To one observer

seemed clear that however widespread the reading of English had been or would become, a substantial part of the corpus of sociological publication would continue to make at least its first appearance in other languages. Rapprochement in the form of terminological equivalences, however, was

that

quite ob\nous.

both

it

The year 1959 was marked by

a

number

of important develop-

For example, at the Fourth World Congress of Sociology, meeting at Milan and Stresa, Italy, in early Septem-

ments

in sociology.

ber, there

appeared the

first

entrenched disciplines, particularly those

the

universi-

extent, but here again there

proportion of the works abstracted had initially been printed in English: nevertheless,

many new

them representing culmi-

and elsewhere. These developments were devoted to sociology, much like those earlier established at Cologne and Hamburg, and gave much promise for the future. In Great Britain there seemed to be less ground for optimism. Oxford and Cambridge appointed sociologists to their staffs, but although those chosen were of definite merit, they were not tingen.

had

frequently evident. Once more. Sociological Abstracts,

some

nations of earlier trends, at various universities: Munich, Got-

guages in which sociological treatises, compendious or brief, had less

.Austria the year

organizational developments,

The

the excellent journal abstracting, into English, books

at the smaller section

with sociology of work and with what, following Thurnwald,

\ice versa, and also into and from a wide range of other lan-

been

The papers read

gatherings were on the whole excellent, especially those dealing

it

appeared

among

or

linked with the humanities, were continuing their resistance to sociologj' with considerable effect.

Even Scotland provided no

exception.

French work

in sociology

continued to be notably productive,

and quality. The Italian Sociological association greatly expanded and intensified its activities; much of the in quantity

success of the Milan-Stresa congress was directly attributable to Italian initiative

and provision of excellent

facilities.

In the United States, organizational developments were

representatives of the Sociological

many

such association to which they could belong until late in 1957. The conduct of the U.S.S.R. official delegates at Milan and Stresa

and important. The American Sociological association (until 1959 known as the American Sociological society) reached a membership total of more than 6.500, making it well over three times as large as any other strictly sociological body of national scope. Sheer size, together with increasing specialization, brought

seemed

about the not altogether fortunate founding, within the general

Association of the U.S.S.R. There had been persons from the

U.S.S.R. at the Third World congress in 1956, but they did not represent any

official sociological association,

to be less aggressively

predecessors at the

for there was no

propagandistic than that of their

Amsterdam

congress.

Participants

in

the

Milan-Stresa congress from other iron-curtain countries included Poles. Czechs

and East Germans. Several of the Polish papers,

based on sound research, were well formulated and interesting.

The bulk

work reported at the Milan congress was that of from the west, those from Great Britain. France, Germany, Italy and the U.S. being most prominent. However, the near and middle east, the far east. Africa. Latin America, the Scandinavian countries and several other regions were well represented in quality, and sometimes in numbers as well. Sociolog>' of work, politics, religion and the family were among the chief topics of interest, but procedures and techniques of reof

sociologists

framework of the association, of established sections. Such sections, electing their own officers, and working with the general program committee in the setting up of annual programs, seemed likely to proliferate and to diminish further the already limited extent of mutual understanding among American sociologists. Three such established sections were approved in 1959 social psychology, methodology and medical sociology and several others were rapidly organizing. The section on social

—

psychology threatened to be divisive because of the inclination of

its

leaders to define their specialty in such a

way

that infringe-

Another important organizational development of the year was

most other specialists, and to general sociological theory as well, seemed inevitable. The establishment of the methodology section likewise had divisive possibilities because of the potential exclusion, foreshadowed in the preliminary organizational strategy, of all methods and

the meeting celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the founding

procedures that did not follow operationist practices, narrowly

German Sociological association; this was held at Berlin in late May. Although attended primarily by sociologists from West Germany, who flocked to the gathering in spite of the tense

defined,

search, together with sources of evidence, such as historical docu-

ments, interviews and so on, received due attention.

of the

more than 400 professional sociologists and other social scientists present included a number from other countries, and among this number were several repperiod during which

it

occurred, the

resentatives of their respective national organizations. In addi-

ment on

cal

and

the fields viewed as proper to

and were not closely statistical

identified with certain

mathemati-

techniques suitable for use with electronic

computers.

On

the other hand, no particular exceptions could be taken

to the establishment of the section

on medical sociology (per-

haps better phrased as the sociology of medicine). The American Psychological association, long familiar with its own

SODALITY OF OUR LADY — SOIL CONSERVATION

636

established sections, had

been attempting to check their im-

perialism, disintegrating tendencies

and extreme specialization,

i8. In

the men's play, the Raybestos Cardinals beat the All-Star^

game by the same score. The womin won one game from the Brakettes by 3-0 and lost the

i-o, then lost the second

but with only partial success.

All-Stars

Hopeful, however, was the modus vivendi brought about in 959 among social psychologists of sociological derivation and among those whose training had been primarily or even ex-

second to the Brakettes by 2-1.

(T. V. H.)

1

The American

clusively psychological.

had

for

some time been

trying to persuade the

on state psy-

chological bodies active in lobbying for legislation designed to

the use of the

psychologist,

title

Bonk:

see

Agriculture.

American Psycho-

logical association to exert a restraining influence

restrict

Soil

Sociological association

with or without a

was apparent during 1959 that

It

Soil

Conservation.

rec-

ognition of soil and water conserva-

tion as a key to both economic and social welfare was having an important influence on planning for the maintenance of the sta-

Co-operation almost on a world-wide scale was

qualifying adjective, to those approved by examining boards

bility of nations.

by psychologists only. The persuasive efforts were successful; the American Psychological association finally agreed to recommend that social psychologists whose training was chiefly or even wholly sociological need undergo no examination or certifying procedure except as controlled by the American Sociological association, and that only when practicing outside the confines of ordinary academic instruction and research. What the various state psychological groups, to which

carried on to study and exchange ideas and plans for solving land

effectively controlled

merely make recommendations, would actually do toward changing their restrictive efforts remained to be seen, but it seemed probable that the modus vivendi would eventually extend from the national to the local level. their national organization could

Kingsley Davis of the University of California continued as

problems.

More than 300 part or

all

agricultural leaders

of the year

from 40 countries spent

working with the

soil

conservation service

of the United States to learn the conservation techniques used on that country's farms and ranches.

The device

of handling total conservation by applying

all soil,

water and vegetative treatments to small watersheds as units

was studied by 32 conservation leaders from 19 countries in a watershed-management seminar and tour in the United States from August to October under sponsorship of the Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations. .Another feature of world co-operation involved the need, espe-

Asian and .African countries, for conservation methods

president of the American Sociological association until Sept.

cially in

was then taken by Howard Becker of the University of Wisconsin, who had been chosen president-elect in 1958. The 1959 balloting for the new president-elect, to become president in Sept. i960, resulted in the naming of Robert E. L. Paris of the University of Washington. This was the first in-

of preparing so-called wasteland for agricultural use. This ap-

1959. His place

stance of a father being followed by a son in the history of the

American Sociological association; the father, Ellsworth Paris of The University of Chicago, was president in 1937. The annual meeting of the association for 1959 was at Chicago, (H. B.) 111.; that for i960 was to be at New York city.

—

ENCYCtOP.«DiA Britaxnica Films. Centralization and Decentraliza(1952); Cities—How They Grow (1953); The Baltimore Plan (1953): Food and People (1956); Inside Story (1952): The Living City (1953): Man and His Culture (1954); Political Parties (1952); PresiPressure Groups (1952); Public Opinion dential Elections (1952); (1946): The Social Process (1952); Social Revolution (1952); Wastage a) Human Resources (1947). tion

Sodality of Our Lady:

see Societies

and Associations,

plied to semiarid steppes, brushland

United States.

completion of survey work

in

Softball. tournament

(III.)

of the

Sealmasters

Amateur

won

the 1959 world

Softball association at

Clearwater. Pla., Sept. 21-26. After losing

its first

game

to the

in-

soil

the public through the period 1960-62. in reports for each of the

and Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, including all and finally in a national inventory summary. The inventory would include data on present uses of all the nation's lands; a projection of expected changes based on land capabilities by 1975: needs for conservation treatments on both irrigated and nonirrigated cropland, pasture and range lands, forest and woodland and lands in miscellaneous uses, such as urban, industrial and others; and an inventory of watersheds and their needs for special treatments for flood prevention and water states

counties,

storage, in addition to conventional soil

and water conservation

and forest lands.

Steady progress was made

The Aurora

connection with the national

and water conservation needs, started in 1956. Plans were made to release the data and descriptive material to

ventory of

of farm, range

U.S.

and humid forest land.

— A major accomplishment of the year was the

in

planning and applying

water-conservation measures to the land.

An

soil-

additional

1

and

13.351

farmers and ranchers, operating nearly 39,000,000 ac, became aligned with their soil-conservation district programs and started

made

a total

had

finished

Clearwater Bombers, i-c, the Aurora team captured 9 straight contests to gain its first world title. Pitcher Harvey Sterkel was

applying conservation land use and practices. This

voted the tourney's most valuable player. Winning 8 consecu-

or were working toward complete conservation. Their land totaled

and struck outings on the

nearly 564.000,000 ac. of which 365,000,000 ac. had been planned

tive decisions after

out 84 batters.

He

i

loss, Sterkel

worked

61 innings

hurled 24 scoreless innings in 3

of 1,859.439 farm and ranch operators

in detail for protective

New

final day.

Pirst place in the

open division of the men's slow-pitch cham-

pionship at Cleveland, 0., Sept. 4-7. went to the Newport (Ky.) Yorkshires.

The

Cincinnati (0.) Turbine Jets w-on the industrial

division championship for the third year in a row.

A

total of 66

clubs competed in the two divisions.

The Raybestos

Brakettes, host team, retained their

title

the women's world series at Stratford, Conn., Sept. 4-1

won

1.

in

The

games. The Pearl Laundry team

who

either

land use.

and water-conser\'ation plans were reported for more than 29.000,000 ac. by 92,801 farmers and ranchers assisted by soil-

soil-conservation-service technicians.

.At

the

same

time, existing

plans were revised for 15.572 farms involving 8,600,000 ac. to

meet changed conditions. A total of 62,000,000 ac. w;as surveyed and the data compiled for use by planning technicians. In addition, 13,500,000 ac. were remapped to produce up-to-date soil information required. The year's survey work brought the total

amount

National Softball week featured double-headers between the

of land surveyed in detail to 709.500.000 ac. Nearly 29.000.000 ac. of farm land were added to soil-conservation districts by the organization of 55 new districts and additions of land to old ones. This brought the total number of

1958 champions and the world Ail-Stars at Stratford, July 17-

such districts to 2,861, covering 1,662,000,000 ac. The land of

Brakettes of

Richmond,

6 victories in 6

Va., retained

its title in

the third annual women's

slow-pitch tourney at Richmond, July 4-5.

:

CONS ERVATION

SOIL 20 States had been completely covered

Of the

the districts.

by the organization

nation's total farms

were within soil-conservation

of

and ranches, 94.7%

including construction of nearly i.ooo mi. of broad-base ter-

districts.

The trend toward complete conservation on a watershed

basis

continued to expand. People occupying 1.199 small watersheds, including

more than 85.000,000 ac, had applied

for technical

assistance in planning watershed protection and flood-prevention

Of the

projects.

total

number, 498 watersheds had been authorand 209 watersheds in 45 states

ized for planning assistance,

had been planned and had started programs. Some of the conservation practices that had been completed in the watersheds were as follows Floodwater retarding structures Water-flow stabilization and sediment control:

1,114

Structures Silt and debris basins Stream channel improvement Water diversions Roadside erosion control by revegetation: Grasses and legumes Woody plants Conservation crop rotations

2,353

and 200 grass-protected waterways; a combined

soil-

and

water-conservation project was started in Minas Gerais, while in

Rio Grande do Norte a unique project to develop methods for

the use and conservation of peat valleys, including a combination

and various conservation-farming pracwas w'ell under way by July 1959. Eleven of 18 grasses and legumes from the United States were declared adaptable to southern Brazil, Uruguay and northof irrigation, drainage tices,

ern Argentina, This was considered of great importance because the region had few improved forage plants and no sources of

introduced for

,664 mi. 177 mi.

Europe.

trials

during 1959.

—In France very

detailed studies on the serious ero-

Rhone valley were reported. Heavy runoff was main cause of the decline of plant growth, with

sion in the lower 161,644 172.480 1,373,214 2,460,802 2 ,206, 1 99 1,816.915 64.450 95-798 1 58,384 109,575 75.815 282,799

Pasture planting Ponds constructed Terracing Strip cropping Tree planting Grass waterways on farms Wildlife areas developed final

races

pure seed. Eighteen additional pasture and range plants were

475 i

Contour farming Crop residue utilization

A

637

was organized; eight teams of technicians assisted 100 farmers in establishing complete conservation on their land,

tion district

ac ac ac ac ac ac

revealed as the

low yields and the frequent death of cultivated plants before maturity. The need for drastic changes in land use and combined conservation

m: ac ac ac ac

summarj' of wind erosion during the 1958-59 blowing

season in the Great Plains showed that damage was less than in

treatments were recommended as urgent

if

the

land were to be saved from ruin. In Greece an agency of the ministry of agriculture was established to carry out a country-wide soil- and water-conservation program through research and technical assistance to farmers. Unusually rapid progress had been made in Spain since that

country's soil-conservation service was activated in

1956. In

two preceding years. By Sept. 19S9, 3,142 farmers

three years the service had organized and trained technical per-

and ranchers of the Plains, operating more than 8,500,000 ac, had contracted to take part in the program. As a precaution against wind erosion, they already had converted 263,000 ac,

for 16 brigades to work with farmers; 57 farmer committees were working with service personnel in as many watershed projects; 240.000 ac. had been terraced, and 417,000 ac. had been given complete conservation treatment. The re-

either of the

of cropland to permanent vegetation,

Latin-American Countries.

—A co-operative project

for the

evaluation of natural resources, started in 1954 and involving Brazil,

Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, and sponsored by the

Organization of American States, w-as proving valuable as an impetus to soil-conservation programs in the southern half of South

America, Soil surveys and mapping were completed

in the states

Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Sul, Braz, Soil and erosion surveys had been made in several large areas of Argentina where conservation work was most urgent, and more detailed surveys were started by scientists conof Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo,

nected with state experiment stations, Chile had completed

soil

map for the whole country, while in Uruguay, surveys were under way for the preparation of a combined soil- and land-classification map of all the country's surveys and published one

soil

were made available

land. All soil data

to soil conservationists

work on the land of Colombia gave promise that of some of the most difficult problems connected with

Studies and

and water conservation on equatorial lands might be found. complete conservation plan for the 2,500,000-ac. Cartagena

soil

A

basin, including the

into effect to serve, for

town of Palestina. was completed and put all practices were applied, as a mode!

when

the treatment of tropical

Colombia, a

soil

survey was

intermountain valleys. Also

made

Pacific coast rain-forest region to

to evaluate to

A

determine whether or not a

and water conserva-

a unified soil-

formation of a national soil-conservation service

zilian ministrj' of agriculture.

plishments

of

the

year

and water-

national conference was held in in the various states,

were

May

with a view in the

Bra-

In state programs some accomas

follows:

in

was being

of the country

closely co-ordinated

forest plantings a year.

Norway

86,000,000 young trees were planted during the

U.S.S.R.

—On-the-ground

by United States

studies

servation scientists revealed that certain

modem

soil-con-

conservation

methods were being integrated into the agriculture of the Soviet Union, Soil surveys, land use classifications and farm planning based on soil maps were found to be firmly established as fundamental to production on the country's 90.000 collective- and state-farm units. These methods were also being used in a large program to extend agriculture to new areas of Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, southern valleys requiring irrigation and other lands where drainage was essential.

tations designed to maintain soil fertility, tree for erosion control, shelter belts to

Sao

Paulo

a

watershed protection project was completed and a soil-conserva-

and grass planting

guard against

soil

blowing

and for moisture conservation, and snow ridging to conserve snow melt in the soil. An outstanding feature was the almost universal use of land according to

its capabilities,

with soil-types,

maps provided for each collecand state farm and cropping plans made to order and put effect by management officials.

land-capability and soil-fertility tive

soil

work

year on about 70,000 ac,

into

made toward

work already done

In

in

tion could be established.

In Brazil, headway was

new

of the sparsely inhabited

productive modern agriculture based on

conservation program.

forestation

with the soil-conservation program, with about 300.000 ac. of

Conservation practices noted on the farms included crop ro-

of the vast region for use in conservation planning.

solution

sonnel

Two widely used

erosion-control measures were planting across and taking slopes of 20% or more out of cultivation and planting them to trees. Research and field trials were in progress to develop strip cropping, gully-control methods and terracing suitable for repairing seriously eroded lands around the slopes

Stalingrad and along stream valleys.

Asia.

— In Ceylon, erosion-control practices were being rapidly

adopted. Broad-based terraces, contour strip cropping and contour tillage were incorporated in

all

settlement schemes. Tea and

rubber plantings on steep slopes were being

made on contour

SOLAR SYSTEM — SOMALILAND PROTECTORATE

638

dams

benches, and small earth

water

for storage of irrigation

were becoming common. Special

efforts

were made

to halt shift-

Europeans. Religion: Sunni (Shafi; Moslem. Capital, Mogadipop. (1957) 80,697. Administrator in 1959, Enrico Anziprime minister, Abdullahi Issa.

scio,

ing cultivation through regulation of permits, grouping and close

lotti;

supervision in order to induce cultivators to enter into settle-

On Dec. 5, 1959, the United Nations general asHistory. sembly unanimously decided that on July i, i960, five months in advance of the original U.N. timetable, Somalia would become independent. The news was received with great jubilation at Mogadiscio as the U.N. general assembly decision was in agree-

ment schemes practicing ture.

and

a soil-

and water-conservation agricul-

A

million acres in the dry zone were found to be irrigable,

to

provide water the irrigation department was restoring

reservoirs built

and improving

in

the days of the Sinhalese kings, enlarging

existing facilities

and providing new reservoirs

central soil-conservation organization of Pakistan

was

ex-

perimenting with various methods of dealing with land improve-

ment and conservation

and water

of both soil

in

connection with

projected land reforms and redistribution of acreages.

A

soil-

conservation project, well established in the Rawalpindi division,

was developing and adapting conservation practices for use on both irrigated and unirrigated farms of small and medium sizes. In India, contour farming had proved invaluable in several areas, resulting in

25%

to

increases in crop production. At

s°%

Bombay

the Sholapur research station in semiarid

increased yields by as

much

100% and

as

Even more spectacular

in wells.

Damodar

results

this practice

The legislative assembly was elected on March 4 and 8, 1959. Out of 90 seats the pro-western Somali Youth league obtained 81. The S.Y.L. and its leader, Abdullahi Issa, provided on the whole an

Ethiopia. His report proposed the establishment of a three-man arbitration tribunal to survey border questions and to final

was nominated by Ethiopia, Plinos Bolla (Switzerland) was named by Italy, and Erik Castren (Finland) was the joint choice of the two other members.

soil-conservation service estimated that of the coun-

try's 450,000,000 ac, of arable land, 150,000,000 ac. were ravaged by erosion. The new 30-year program to conserve soil and water included contour bunds (terracing) on all slopes of 2% to 12% and bench terraces on slopes over 12%.

In Formosa an outstanding conservation program had been

achieved through training of technicians over a six-year period.

By 1959 about 300 young men had graduated

See also Trust Territories. Education.

— Schools

(1955-56); primary (including preprimary) secondary

ii.oSi, teachers 324;

129, tech-

pupils 714, teachers 56;

8,

nical 12, pupils 690, teachers 79; teacher-training i, students 196, teachers 4, Institute of legal, economic and social studies (1957-58), students 62,

teaching staff

4,

somalo (= 14 U.S. cents). Budget (1957): — Monetary — (1957) Imports 116.825.800 somal exports 76,722,900 somalos. Chief exports: bananas, hides and cotton. Communications. — Roads (1957): 9.442 km. Motor vehicles use Finance.

unit:

balanced at 101,142.807 somalos. Foreign Trade.

OS,

skins,

in

(1957): passenger 1,914: commercial 1.507. Radio receivers (1951) 2,000.

3,166.

Telephones

1958)

(Jan.

as soil conserva-

and water-conservation centres had been

soil-

a

raised the water level

farmers, using contour systems and adequate fer-

and 16

make

settlement that both sides could accept. Ethiopia and Italy

pupils

tionists,

government.

the settlement of the disputed frontier between Somalia and

trebled production of badly needed food and fibre crops.

The India

efficient

At the request of the 1958 general assembly, King Olav V of Norway had appointed Trygve Lie independent commissioner for

were obtained by the

valley soil-conservation district in Behar, where con-

Some Behar

the wish of the Somali legislative assembly, expressed

25.

agreed to establish this body, Milosh Radojkovich (Yugoslavia)

servation farming had involved consolidation of small farms.

tilizers,

ment with on Aug.

or tanks.

The

—

Somaliland, British:

see

Somaliland Protectorate.

established,

Philippine Republic.

made on

—

Soil

Franqaise

(Cote

surveys and classifications were

2,000,000 ac, and conservation-farming plans were ap-

Somaliland, French

This

overseas

Somalis).

des

territory

of

the

on more than 50,000 ac, in eight soil-conservation districts. Some practices which were proving of great value were contour

bounded north, northwest and southwest by Ethiopia and southeast by Somaliland

planting of rice paddies, trees, cultivated field crops and hay

Protectorate. Area: 8.996 sq.mi. Pop. (1955 est.); 63.700

plied

strips; terracing

of

tall

iii

on sloping land; grass waterways; and the use

tropical plants in

narrow

Excellent progress was being

strips

made

between contoured

fields.

in introducing soil-fertility

French Republic

in the

Gulf of Aden

is

(1958

6g,ooo.

est.)

Governor

in 1959,

Capital,

Jibuti

(Djibouti),

pop.

— On May

Hassan Gouled was elected dep-

uty to the French national assembly and on April 26

feature of the conservation program of the Philippines was the

Kamil was elected

study devoted to forest lands and forest

minister.

soils. It

try-'s

was estimated

42%

History.

On

of the coun-

land area should be kept under either production or protec-

See also Dams; Irrigation. (Dd. A. W,) Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films, Birth oj the Soil (1948); Out Soil Resources (Formation and Conservation) (1947); Seeds oj Destruction (1948); This Vital Earth (194S).

—

senator.

Solar System: Co-operation

see

Astronomy; International Geophysical

— 1959;

Space Exploration.

Islands: see Pacific Islands, British;

Ahmed

scio,

Mohammed

Dini became deputy prime

July 3 Gen, Charles de Gaulle visited Jibuti.

movement, Harbi (who fied

the partisans of the "Great Somalia"

Mohammed

Somalia), that France intended to stay in

not abdicate

He warned

by the MogadiJibuti and would led to

its responsibilities.

— Schools (1958): primary, 83s: secondary, pupils 300. — (1957)= Monetary

Education, 8,

Solomon

27, 1959,

former prime minister,

tion forests.

31,855.

Jacques Compain.

methods, such as rotations, including green manure and other cover crops, and use of better pasture plants. An interesting

that to maintain a proper soil-cover balance,

incl.

28,000 Somalis, 25.000 Danakils, 6,000 Arabs, 3,132 Europeans;

pupils Foreign Trade.

French francs; U.S. $1 ports 157,000,000 fr.

state

14,

pupils

1.319:

private

=

unit: Jibuti franc 2.30 metropolitan 214.39 J. francs. Imports 864,000,000 fr.; ex-

(Hu. De.)

Trust

Territories.

Somaliland Protectorate.

eas't'AfSa isbTundeTnor^

bounded southeast by the Indian ocean, west by Kenya and northwest by Somaliland Protectorate and Ethiopia. Area: 178,-

by the Gulf of Aden and French Somaliland, west and south by Ethiopia and east by Somalia. Area: about 68,000 sq.mi. Pop.

201 sq,mi. Pop. (1958 est.): 1,320,000, ind, chief Somali tribal

stock with Arab,

groups: Darot, Hawlya, Rahaniun, Dighil, Dirr and Tunni (no-

with Arabic admixture. Religion:

madic or seminomadic

Hargeisa (cap.) pop. about 30,000 (about 45,000 max. in cold

This Italian trust territory in East Africa

pastoralists),

is

and Arabs, Indians and

(1958

est.)

650,000, mainly nomadic, of northeastern Hamitic etc.,

admixture. Language:

Moslem

Galla derivative

(Sunni). Chief towns:

—

SORGHUM GRAINS — SOUTH AFRICA, THE UNION OF

639

Berbera (port) about 7,500 permanent (about 30,000 max., cold season). Governors in 1959; Sir Theodore Pike and (from July 13) Sir Douglas Hall. season)

;

—

History. The political atmosphere in the protectorate greatly improved after a statement made at Hargeisa in Feb. 1959 by the secretary of state for the colonies, A. T. Lennox-Boyd, promising rapid constitutional development, a ministerial system and

an

majority in the legislative council following new

unofficial

elections in i960. If after Somalia attained independence the

wished

legislative council

to discuss the idea of

union with that

members

country, talks would be arranged. In March, 13 elected

were added

to the legislative council. Later

seven ministerial

posts were created.

came late in 1959, and for a time drought conditions accompanying grazing shortages. The annual government accounts showed revenue at £1,165,249, A deficit of (F, E, St,') £628,082 was met by a grant from the U,K,

The

rains

prevailed, with

—

Education, Schools (1957): primary and intermediate 155 (incl, 120 grant-aided private Koranic schools with 2,750 pupils), pupils 4,822; secondary i, pupils 69; i vocational training centre with 27 trainee teachers: I trade school, pupils 77, Finance and Trade, Monetary unit: East African shilling, divided into 100 cents, valued at parity with the shilling sterling and at 14 cents U,S. Budget (1957-5S): revenue £2,272,757, expenditure £2,176,777, Foreign trade (1958); imports £4,020,000, exports (incl, re-exports) £1,730,000, Principal exports: livestock, hides and skins, gums and resins,

—

QnrfThlim Trainc

OUIgllUIII UldlllO. 5'

"^^^ '^59 U.S. crop of this

newer major

feed grain was 588,539,000 bu,, about

smaller than the record 614,845,000 bu, production of 1958;

r

the 1948-57 average crop

was only 213,109,000 bu. Total acre-

age for harvest was reduced to 15,965,000 ac, nearly 5' in 1959 was highlighted conditions, organized efforts to attract

extensive road building,

challenges

by theatre

operators of the state's antiquated blue laws, an unusual of

bank robberies and defalcations, absence of further

developments on the issue of

number

significant

racial segregation in the schools

heaw rainfall and by extensive wind damage by hurricane "Gracie." The hurricane struck the southern and central coast Sept. 29. swept across central South Carolina, destroyed or damaged hundreds of buildings, caused seven deaths and did great damage to all unharand abnormal weather featured by unusually

vested crops. Later, eleven counties were declared disaster areas

j

;

j

by the federal small business administration. The tax proposals of newly inaugurated Gov. Ernest F. Rollings for meeting accumulated state deficits and balancing the budget were accepted by the legislature with little change. Higher bracket income taxes were increased, deductions for federal income tax pa>TTients abolished and a withholding system for income taxes inaugurated as of Jan. i. i960. The sales tax was extended to new goods and services and taxes increased on such items as cigarettes, beer, wine and admissions. Revenue was expected to increase by about S26.000.000. erase

deficits,

cover

general appropriations of 1158,096,623 and yield a substantial

of judges' salaries during their term of ofiice, allowed legislative

control of magistrates' terms and jurisdiction and gave spouses

of teachers and ministers voting rights after only six months

residence in

the state.

created a Confederate

Other legislation included laws which

War

made an

Centennial commission and

appropriation which would qualify the state for federal aid in

defraying the cost of medical and hospital care of aged and disabled persons on state welfare

rolls.

Among

significant laws af-

was one which limited 14- and 15-year-old daytime operation unless accompanied by an adult

fecting motorists

drivers to

licensed driver, a parent or guardian. (effective

Nov.

More important was

a law

i960) requiring owners of motor vehicles

i,

who

did not carry liability insurance to pay $15 into an uninsured drivers fund out of which insurance companies

part or

would be paid

of the cost of protecting their policyholders against

all

damages from uninsured Chief elective state

drivers.

1959 were; Ernest F. Hollings, governor; Burnet R. Maybank, lieutenant governor; 0. Frank officers in

Thornton. secretar>' of state;

McLeod. attorney

Jeff B. Bates, treasurer;

general;

Eldridge

C.

Dan

R.

Rhodes, comptroller

general; Jesse T. Anderson, superintendent of education;

W.

L.

Harrelson, commissioner of agriculture; Frank Pinckney, adjutant general.

—

Education, In the 195S-59 school year South Carolina public schools enrolled 600.509 pupils of whom 223,377 were in white elementary schools, 1S2.343 in Negro elementary schools. 121. 516 in white high schools and in Xegro high schools. Teachers numbered 19.930 distributed as 73.273 follows: 7.133 and 5,035 in white and Xegro elementary schools; 5,122 and 2,640 in white and Xegro high schools. Preliminary figures indicated that total expenditures for public school education exceeded those for the 1957-58 school year when the total was $132,469,01 1 of which $96,383,496 was for current expenses. $19,410,191 for capital outlay and $16,675,322 for debt service, .\verage teacher's salary in 1957-58 was S3. 274. Public school education in 1959 was still on a completely segregated basis in spite of the 1954 decision of the supreme court declaring this unconstitutional. State law gave local boards authority to assign pupils and were designed to close public schools when faced by a desegregation court order. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. In the year ended June 30. 1959. public expenditures for relief of needy persons amounted to S26.361.394 of which $20,261,738 were federal funds. The total of 91,145 persons receiving assistance June 30 included 37,501 aged. 2.150 blind. 41.221 dependent children. 9.1 iS totally disabled and 1. 155 needing general assistance. The estimated total number of persons receiving unemployment compensation during the \'ear was 61.132 and the amount paid in benefits was S13.052.315. On June 30 the funds available for unemployment compensation totaled S71.826.891. Patients in the state mental hospital. June 30, numbered 6.513; in the school for feeble-minded, 2.045. Oti the same date there were 2.179 in the state penitentiar>', and in state industrial schools (reformatories) there were 293 white boys, 299 Xegro boys. loi white girls and SS Xegro girls. Communications. Highway mileage in the state system on June 30. 1959, was 27.590 of which 23.354 mi. were paved; mileage outside the state system was 26.459 of which 4.238 mi. were paved. State highway department expenditures for construction and operation during the fiscal year totaled $96,589,588. .\t the end of 1958 railway mileage was 3.331 and telephones numbered 488.184. Estimated tonnage of waterborne imports for the calendar year 1958 was 1,338,630: exports, 338,288. Banking and Finance. On June 30. 1959. there were 25 national banks with 86 branches. 114 state banks with 38 branches. 2 military facilities and 6 cash depositories. Total resources, deposits and capital were, restate, spectively, national. $654,021,000. $581.101. 000. $48,763,000: $382,465,426, S340.932.982, $39,352,581. Resources of 43 federal building and loan associations were $408,938,000; of 36 state associations,

—

—

—

$146,403,947.

Table

I.

— Principal Crops

of South Carolina

|pdi':ated

l«59

Crop Corn, bu Wtieol. bo Ools, bu Hoy, Ions Peanuts, lb

Soybeans, bo.

(for

beans)

.

.

.

.

Pototoes, cwt

Sweet potatoes, cwt Tobacco, lb Cotton, 500-lb. bales.

.

Pecans, lb Peaches, bo

26,152,000 4,032,000 13,600.000 551,000 13,200,000 6,060,000 540,000 636.000 137,350.000 415,000 3,000,000 5,400,000

•1949-57. Source:

U.S.

Deportment of Agri

ollore.

1941

28,954,000 3,124,000 13,101,000 579,000 13,780,000 5,611,000 488,000 689,000 131.000,000 299,000 8,000,000 5,300,000

24,103,000 2,971,000 14,038,000 534,000 11,208,000 1,782,000 875.000' 1,386,000-

159,758,000 598.000 3,640,000 2,931,000

—

SOUTH DAKOTA

642

During the year ended June 30, 1959, the itite operated under a general fund appropriuiions budget of $is>.76s,886 and had a deficit of $4,706,10$ at the end of the year. Total state receipts and expenditures were, respectively, $386,134,171 and $399,814,153. The June 30 bonded debt was $^oS>J'9.ooo of which $146,475,000 was for schools and colleges and $39,104,000 for highways. Federal internal revenue collected amounted to $187,565,000; customs collection, $7,198,889. Agrlcuiiur*. The estimated cash income of South Carolina farmers in 1958 was $369,354,000 of which 61.5% ($117,004,000) was from crops, 19.6% ($109,188,000) from livestock and products, and 8.9% ($33.061,000) from government payments. The total was 7.6% above comparable 1957 receipts; farm marketing proceeds were 3.3% above 1957 but 5.4% below the 1947-56 average. Harvested acreage was 3,069,500. Of the two leading crops, tobacco for the third time exceeded cotton lint and seed in value. Manufaciurcri. For the year ended June 30, 1959, the South Carolina department of labour reported 1,146 establishments with capital investment of $1,485,613,589 and products valued at $3,071,758,115. Employees, exclusive of executives and salaried persons, numbered 191,096 (C. E. Cn.) earning wages of $571,087,364-

—

—

Table

II.

Principal Indu$tri9t of South Carolina

—

SOVIET LITERATURE above the ten-year average. The production index for all crops during 1959 season was estimated (Sept. i) at half that of the peak years 1948, i9S7 (Ev. W. S.) and 1958. Table

short tons, except as noted)

(In

.

268

.

176,000 46,000 568,000

Cloys Feldspor

Gold (oi.) Sond and gravel.

.

.

U,758,000

.

1,395,000 35,000

760,000 6,333,000

70,000 Other

240,000 155,000 26,000 571,000 14,705,000 153,000

8,001,000 122,000 5,068,000

135,000 1,718,000

Silver (oi.)

Stone irols.

Volue

Quontity

139,997.000 145,000 176,000 267,000 19,885,000

Total* Beryllium concentrote

Laos to

Value

Quantity

Mineral

$41,534,000 129,000 155,000 145,000 9,979,000 9,179,000 138,000 4,095,000 530,000 7,800,000

told the

Production.

— Table

while the

Communist Chinese premier, Chou

SEATO

Peking people's congress that

gressions in Asia.

En-lai,

plotted U.S. ag-

As the communist invasion of Laos began

to

take shape as an act of indirect aggression, the communist press

stepped up

trial,

ing

shows the tonnage and value of those mineral commodities produced in South Dakota in 1957 and 1958 whose value exceeded Sioo.ooo. In 1958 South Dakota was first among the states in the output of beryl fwith 52 Tc of total beryl) and first in gold production: second in concentrates of columbium-tantalum; fourth in sheet mica output: and seventh in uranium. South Dakota ranked 39th among the III

states in the value of its minerals in 1958. with .25% of the U.S. total. Encyclop.cdh Britannic.4 Films. The Sorth-aiestern States (1956).

—

its

propaganda campaign against SEATO. The official to put an insurgent up for judicial

Peking radio warned Laos not

at the very time that the

SEATO

Asian Mineral

In AprO, the U.S.S.R. issued statements unfriendly

join.

SEATO,

to

1

value of days and stone.

in ttie

hostility.

Nationalist Chinese irregulars stationed in Laos, so as to coerce

Mineral Production of South Dakota

III.

643

The Russian comments were as antagonistic as those from Communist China. In March, the Chinese alleged that U.S. policy was planning an invasion of Yunnan province by changed

Communist Chinese were

accus-

of interference in the domestic affairs of southeast

states.

Among

SEATO

was much less civil war continued, but the Djakarta press, with the exception of the communists, failed to see any connections between this war and the strategic defense structure set up by SEATO. Indeed, the local strategic security was so high that U.S. and British forces were able to hold some limited joint exercises in Borneo, in the British the neutralists, hostility to

marked than

in

previous years.

The Indonesian

Established

portion of the island, during June. In pre\'ious years a protest

in

1954-55 by the noncommunist members of the United Nations immediately concerned with the defense of Indochina and southeast

might have been expected from

Asia as geographic areas, the Southeast Asia Treaty organization

fulfilling its chief mission, that

(commonly

ous communist

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.

referred to as

SE.\TO)

system

a regional defense

is

watching the southeastern perimeter of the Sino-Soviet bloc.

The year 1959 showed functions of

mental

SEATO. Many

the nonmilitary

in

of these were at the intergo\-em-

Others lay in the

staff level.

growth

a distinct

fields of

countersubversion,

many

Asian states;

in

1959 the

military rehearsals passed almost unnoticed.

By

many

1959

free-world leaders thought that

sallies into

SEATO

the general

SE.\TO was

of regional deterrence.

No

seri-

free-world territory had occurred in

zone since the organization was established.

See also .Armies of the World. (P. M. A. L.) ENCVCLOP.iDH Brit.annica Films. Arnold Toynbee: South-East Asia

—

and

Its

Peaceful Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture of the series, in the Light of History") (1958).

"\ Changing World

fellowships for study and research, cultural exchange, public

health and economic analysis.

Southern Rhodesia:

Of the military crises of 1959, only the communist interference in Laos provoked a SEATO alert. This issue was discussed by a meeting of the SE.\TO representatives in Washington early

eration

in

September. The representatives,

under the leadership of

Undersecretary Douglas Dillon of the U.S. state department, reaffirmed the original mission of

SEATO

ing protocols, which included the

nonmember Indochinese

by virtue of

see

Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Fed-

OF.

South-West Africa: see South Africa, The Union of; Trust Territories. Sovereigns, Presidents and Rulers: see Presidents, SOVEREIG.NS AND RULERS.

found-

its

states

was SoWet Writers held in the Kremlin during May 18-24. The main report, by the first secretary of the union, the poet Alexis Surkov, once more condemned tendencies hostile to socialist realism and denounced the conduct of Boris Pasternak as "treacherous and unworthy of a Soviet writer." However, the trend toward a certain liberalization and toward the pardoning of past errors had several defenders and was even strengthened by N. S. Khrushchev himself,

Qnuiot itoratiiro OUVICI LllCldlUIC.

"^^^ ™°^'- ™p°'''-a"'^ ^vent of 1959

I

(South Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos)

in the area of its protec-

approved a political approach involving the Laos issue to the United Nations. In part this reflected the desire of the SEATO powers not to affront the Soviet Union nor to alarm the neutralist Asian powers. SEATO tion: the delegates referral of the

remained, as before, strictly defensive.

The annual meeting was held

of the Southeast .\sia Treaty organization

in Wellington, N.Z.,

during April. Prince Pote Sarasin

of Thailand was re-elected secretary-general of the organization,

and

its

headquarters was continued

i960 annual meeting was to be held

No members

were

lost or

in

Bangkok, Thai. The Washington. D.C. in

gained during the year. The

SEATO

pattern included Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines as Asian

New

Zealand as Australasian members; France, Great Britain and the United States as outside powers

members; Australia and

with important possessions in the Pacific ocean area. Laos.

Cam-

bodia and South Vietnam, nonmembers. were covered by the j

i

!

1

i

i

'

original protocols

was directed

which made

it

plain that the

SE.\TO

alliance

at stabilizing the situation in the geographic area

of Indochina. Burma, along with Indonesia, was affected only

because the SE.-XTO

staff

area of southeast Asia.

maintained vigilance over the whole

Malaya and India were

indirectly con-

Commonwealth

Nations along with such SE.\TO members as the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Australia. The communist reaction to SEATO remained one of unnected through their membership

in the

of

who on May

He

22

the third Congress of

made an extempore speech

before the congress.

called for indulgence towards the "deviationists." even to-

ward Vladimir Dudintsev, the author

Not by Bread The congress naturally

of the novel

Alone, which had created a sensation.

reminded its members of their duty to remain faithful to the system of socialist realism and to maintain the closest contact between literature and contemporary life. Soviet writers were mobilized to celebrate the seven-year plan and its heroes. The congress accepted the resignation of Surkov, who had been the subject of sharp criticism, and elected as

first

secretary of the un-

ion the well-known novelist Konstantin Fedin. It also appointed

the writer

S.

Smimov to be editor of Literaturnaya Gazeta. many writers left Moscow for the provinces,

After the congress

to see the places where work forming part of the seven-year plan was in progress, and a group from Literaturnaya Gazeta

visited Siberia, in particular the areas of reclaimed land, dur-

ing the summer months. As for Boris Pasternak, attacks against him ceased, and it was believed possible that under the new

SOVIET UNION — SPACE EXPLORATION

644

and two space probes. Fifteen were launched by the scientific satellites and space probes as part of the International Geophysical year (IGYj program and its 1959 extension, while five were engineering test vehicles of the department of defense. The first few months of the third space

leadership of Konstantin Fedin, he might be reinstated in the

satellites

Union of Soviet

United States: ten

VV'riters.

The 1959 Lenin

Among

prizes

were awarded, as usual, on April

22.

the prize-winners there were only two writers. First, the

dramatist Nikolas Pogodin,

who was the author of a trilogy s ruzhyom ("The ^Lln With a

dedicated to Lenin: Chclovek

year, coinciding with the last quarter of 1959, brought several

("The Kremlin Chimes") and Trrlyaa putvliclu'skoya ("The Pathetic Third"); and secondly the Kazakh writer Mukhtar Auezov. whose novel Abai was de-

additional

Krcmlivskic kuranty

C'lUn"),

voted to the

life

committee showed

selection

regard for the other national

its

literary

circles

on Nov,

considered

it

honour

great

a

that

—

in

particular "Explorer VTI," fired on

and the engineering 7,

more

clear: (i) exploration of distant space

to

Sholokhov accompanied him as official delegate when Khrushchev went to the United States in September. Khrushchev thus honoured the author of Quiet FloTi's the

Don

as the

first

great writer of the U.S.S.R.

(A. Pr.)

see

moon; and (3) applicaman, especially those relating

weather and communications. So far a few

initial

space exploration had been made, and considerable ticularly in the United States,

had been devoted

essays in

effort, par-

to the scientific

study of near space. Applications, readily feasible

in principle,

waited upon engineering developments but were expected to be in

Soviet Union:

became

and the moon and

(2) scientific studies, particularly of space near the

ernment, visited the novelist Mikhail Sholokhov at his Cossack that

years of

initial

earth, ranging as far as halfway to the tions of considerable interest to

Don and

"Discoverer VII,"

Important results were obtained during these

Khrushchev, the leader of the Communist party and of the govstantitsa on the

test device

1959.

the space age. Moreover, significant areas of interest

planets;

literatures of the U.S.S.R.

Soviet

fired

of the people of Kazakhstan and their national

hero .Abai Kunanbaiev, In honouring a non-Russian author, the

launchings

Oct. 13, 1959,

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

evidence within a few years. Safeiiites.

— Four

earth satellites put into

of the scientific

were launched by the United States. Three of these carried instruments for meteorological experiments: "Vanguard II," "Explorer \I and "Explorer VII." "Explorers VI" orbit during 1959

Soybean production of the U.S.

in 1959 was 528,than the record 574,413,000 bu. of 1958, but the second largest crop of record and much larger than the 1948-57 average crop of 326.020.000 bu.

Soybeans.

111,000 bu.. 8"^

less

'

and "VII" carried instrumentation

Allen radiation belts.

Harvested acreage, after nine years of successive expansion, was

ment

reduced to 21,968,000 ac, 7.5% smaller than

to provide information

stantially

central area, a result of a

in

1958, but sub-

above average. Most of the decline was

dry summer

in

some

expanded planting

of the

main

in the

north

to corn. In spite of

area, the indicated yield

was

carried

"Vanguard cells to

of

its

to provide further informa-

The major new instruby "Vanguard III" was a magnetometer designed

Van

tion on the

on the earth's magnetic

field.

II," the cloud cover satellite, carried

two infrared

record cloud cover distribution over the sunlit portion

"Explorer VI" successfully transmitted the

orbit.

first

24 bu. per acre, only slightly less than the record 24.2 bu. of

rough electronic picture of the earth's cloud cover. Besides fur-

1958 and above the 21.0 bu. average for 1948-57. Illinois continued as the leading producing state with 126,590.000 bu.

nishing data on the

(against 140.364.000 bu. in 1958), followed

by Iowa

(64,071,-

000 bu.), Indiana (57,850,000 bu.), Arkansas (53,112,000 bu.), and Missouri (50,600.000 bu.). Carry-over stocks from previous crops, mostly held by the

Commodity

Credit corporation, mounted to 62,353,000 bu., as compared with 21,083.000 bu. on Oct. i, 1958. Prices fluctuated less widely and erratically in early 1959 than in some previous years; trading became of record proportions late in the year. The official support was reduced to $1.85 per bushel (64% of parity), as compared with $2.09 per bushel (70% of parity) for the 195S crop. In October, producers received $1.93 per bushel, the same as a year earlier.

Exports of soybeans were a record total of about 110,000,000 compared with about 86.000,000 bu. in 1958; exports of

bu., as

soybean meal and soybean

oil

also

were

at record levels.

World soybean production in 1959 was estimated at 944,480,000 bu., 5*^ less than the record high harvest of 1958, but 40% larger than the 1950-54 average, the first year of decline follow-

ing five consecutive years of increased production.

The

unofficial

estimate for mainland China was 350,000,000 bu.. as compared with 360.000,000 bu. in 1958; acreage was indicated as having

been increased tities

than

in

1959. Chinese beans, in

in 1958.

continued to

move

Japan increased production.

to

more

substantial quan-

Europe. Indonesia and (J.

K. R.)

ENCVCLOP..EDIA Brit.annica Films.- -Science and Agriculture (The Soybe.in) (1953).

In the

first

two years of the space

Space Exploration. sjiulnik

I,

man saw

age, beginning Oct. 4, 1957, with the launching of 21 artificial earth satellites

and deep space probes. Of these,

six

were Soviet devices: four

Van

Allen belts, "Explorer

VI" was

instru-

and was called the paddle wheel satellite, and the i.ooo solar cells on each side of its four vanes provided a power source to regenerate its batteries. "Explorer \TI" carried instrumentation for seven major experiments. Among these were six sensing elements designed to measure the

mented

provide

to

information

micrometeorite distribution.

on

the

magnetic

field

It

is absorbed or reflected from the earth's atmosphere. Its instrumentation also included devices to measure heavy cosmic rays, micrometeorite impacts and ionospheric composition, as well as intensity of the Van Allen

balance of the earth's energy as radiation

radiation belts.

"Vanguard III" was the last of the IGY satellites scheduled Vanguard program. The magnetometer was sealed

as part of the

in the tip of the 26-in.

tapered tube so that magnetic forces in

would not interfere. It consisted of a copper coil filled with hexane and connected to power sources in the satellite. After a two-second flow of current, the hydrogen atoms in the liquid spin in orbits inside the coil as dictated by the earth's magnetic field. The information on their orbits is then analyzed in relation to ground-based magnetometer readings in an effort to learn more about magnetic disturbances. "Vanguard III" also carried instrumentation to provide information on environmental conditions and X-radiation. "Lunik III" ("Sputnik IV"), launched in the So\'iet Union the satellite proper

Oct. 4, 1959,

was expected

until the spring of i960.

On

to

remain

its first

in orbit

orbit

it

around the earth

passed the

moon

at a

distance of about 4,000 mi. at time of closest approach. Its instru-

mentation included two cameras to make photographs of the far side of the moon, one with a 200-mm. lens for photographing a large area

and the other with a 500-mm. lens for more detailed

pictures.

Space Probes.

—Three

space probes were launched during

SPACE EXPLORATION

645 in the radiation belts since the

"Pioneer III"

flight

on Dec.

195S. and that of the viet

1959.

space probe on Jan.

The peak

tensity

2,

radiation in-

measured

zone on March

6,

So-

first

in the outer 3,

1959, was

about 300,000 counts per sec-

ond as contrasted with about 25.000 counts per second on Dec.

6,

The outer

1958.

was also found

to extend

belt

about

10,000 mi. farther outward from the earth's surface on March 3, 1959. Measurements

made with

FLIGHT PATH OF THE SOVIET SPACE STATION which

obtained the first photoflraphs of the far side of the moon. The station was launched Oct. 4, 1959. Its position in relation to that of the moon on subseouent days is shown on the diagram. The photographs were taken Oct. 7. They were then developed and transmitted by radio waves to earth from the station (one of the photos is shown on page 647). Source: Official Soviet report translated and distributed by U.S.

Department

Commerce

of

Of the

three U.S. space probes launched during the first two years of the space age, one was launched during 1959. Called "Pioneer IV," it was launched March 3 and went into heliocentric orbit with a period of about 395 days. Like the other space probes in the Pioneer series, it was instrumented to meas1959.

ure the extent and intensity of

Van Allen

radiation in space.

One

of the two radiation counters was nearly identical to that carried in '"Pioneer III,"

which was launched after a period of

little

solar acti\ity.

"Explorer

launched on Aug.

7,

VI,"

1959, on

showed intensities far lower in the outer belt than had been measured by both "Pioneer III' and "Pioneer IV." Since considerable solar activity was observed for several the other hand,

days prior to the launching of "Pioneer IV," these findings lent support to the belief that the charged particles constituting the outer

Van Allen

belt are

probably of solar

origin.

All evidence

indicated that the outer zone consists primarily of electrons with energies of less than 100,000 electron volts.

The

Van Allen zone showed no similar changes between March 3, 1959. On the basis primarily of the "Pioneer IV" measurements, the inner zone was thought to have a high-energj- component and a lower-energy component. The Dec.

6,

inner

1958, and

comparison of "Pioneer III" data with data from "Pioneer

former consists of protons with energies of the order of 100,000,-

rv," which was launched after a substantial geomagnetic storm,

000 ev and the latter probably consists of electrons with energies up to about 1,000.000 ev.

A

was therefore of particular value

Van

in the study of the nature of the

Allen radiation zones.

Two

U.S.S.R. space probes were launched during 1959. "Lunik

"Mechta," was launched on Jan. 2. Its instrumentation by the U.S.S.R. included two Geiger counters for measuring radiation within a wide range of intensity and two scintillation counters for ionization measurements. The data obtained, analyzed in relation to altitude, provided information on I," or

as described

the magnetic field out to great distances.

"Lunik II," launched Sept. 12, impacted on the moon about its launching. Radio contact was maintained during this period, and data from its instruments were received. 35 hours after

Soviet scientists reported that steps were taken to avoid con-

tamination of the moon. Results.

—Three major discoveries were

realized during 1959:

Van Allen radiation belts first found development of a new theory about the shape of the

fuller delineation of the in 1958. the

earth and the correlation of atmosphere drag with solar activity.

In addition, valuable data on satellite environments were first photograph of part of the far side of the

reported, and the

moon was

taken.

The Van Allen magnetic

earth's

belts of high-intensity radiation trapped in the field

were

first

discovered and delineated in

195S by satellite and space-probe radiation e3cperiments directed by James A. van Allen of the State University of Iowa (Iowa City).

The

inner zone

lies

between altitudes of about 1,400 and

3.400 mi. above the geomagnetic equator and has an intensity peak at a height of about 2.500 mi. The vast outer zone, which cur\-es

zones),

has

its

in the high geomagnetic latitudes (auroral between altitudes of about S.ooo and 12,000 mi. and peak intensity at about 11.000 mi.

earthward lies

and space probes launched during 1959 contributed new knowledge on the extent and characteristics of the Van Allen radiation belts. Measurements made by "Pioneer IV" on March 3, 1959, showed that considerable changes had occurred Satellites

i

It appears that the inner zone is relatively well shielded from direct solar influence, and many investigators believe it is formed largely from the radioactive decay of outward-movins neutrons or other secondary particles resulting from cosmic-ray bombardment of the earth's atmosphere. Data collected in a University of Chicago experiment carried by "Explorer VI" suggest the possible presence of a third region of intense radiation, much narrower and much less extensive than the others, lying just beneath the inner \'an .\nen belt. Studies of variations in the orbit of "Vanguard I" caused b.v regional differences in the force of gravity acting on the satellite as it passed over various parts of the earth suggest a new concept of the earth's shape. It now appears that the traditional concept of the earth as a spheroid flattened by an approximately equal amount at each pole and bulging at the equator probably should be somewhat modified. The "\'anguard I" orbital perturbations indicate a pear-shaped component of small amplitude in the earth's figure, consisting of a rise of about 50 ft. at the north pole, an additional flattening of about 50 ft, at the south pole, about 25 ft. of bulge in the middle latitudes of the southern hemisphere and an equivalent flattening in the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The great stresses within the earth associated with these newly discovered components of the earth's shape imply either a mechanical strength greater than usually assumed for the interior of the earth or large-scale convection currents in the la\'er

On

beneath the crust. the basis of apparent periodic fluctuations in the acceleration of

"Vanguard I" and "Sputnik III," L. G. Jacchia, of the Smithsonian .\strophysical observatory, showed a correlation between the acceleration fluctuations and the 27-day solar rotation cycle. The satellite acceleration variations were attributed to semiregular changes in atmospheric density possibly resulting from the cj'clic reappearance of regions of increased solar activity which persist for several months at a time. In 1959 Jacchia found similar acceleration fluctuations following solar flares for the same two satellites. The acceleration fluctuations coincided exactly with two great geomagnetic disturbances following the flares and amounted to at least 40"^ during one of these events and at least during the other. The fluctuations were believed to have been caused by increases in the density of the upper atmosphere as a result of the influx of the stream of corpuscular radiation from the flare. Many rockets and most satellites launched during the IGV carried ex-

30%

periments to measure various aspects of the satellite environment. These measurements were continued during 1959, and a considerable body of new knowledge of environmental conditions in the upper atmosphere and in interplanetary space near the earth and moon was accumulated. These studies showed that the upper atmosphere is many times denser than previously estimated. a height of about 230 mi., according to calculations based on rocket measurements, the atmosphere is approximately 15 times as dense as previously believed. Even so. at this height, a cubic mile of air would weigh only two ounces. A strong dependence on latitude was also revealed. Measurements indicate that at a height of about 120 mi. the summer daytime density at arctic latitudes is six times greater than the corresponding density at temperate latitudes, .\rctic-region densities also depend upon season and time of day. At 120 mi., the arctic atmosphere is

M

SPACE EXPLORATION

646

bimjcU would it was inevitable that be would come about could not be prefollow, if he could. How quickly this was clear that .nan can develop the dicted as 1959 drew to a close, but it cannot conceive of his .topping short ability to man of the moon had never before been seen earth

...

Hence, the far side par 7, .959. showed A photograph released by the U.S.S.R. on Oc\2 was taken on Oct 7 when the of the moon's unseen side. The photograph surface of the moon. probe was about 35.000 to 45.000 mi. from the moon s unseen side was Qfte d.«erSoviet investigators reported that the described by U.S.S.R. scientists ent from the visible side. The far side was many fewer "seas" than the near ide^ as predominantly mountainous, with tw^o sides of the moon Th? reasons for the apparent differences between thephotographs were made would not be fuUv known until clearer and closer man. or until the moon was actually visited by .,„„a^ v;„„,f stands Man in Space.— With the beginning of the space age, man himselt as man was able to send poised on the threshold of a new world. As soon

"9*59, an American-born rhesus monkey named Able and 1 lofted 300 mi. into space on a 1,500Both monkeys were r«^0». 'he nose cone of a Jupiter rocket. the journey revc^ winds and water: thtis it ma> not face has not been eroded by of the Mrth also shed light on the development ts own'ancient historv but .othe*^'^^: life of «" forms possible liveliest interest is 'the question of funoa Perhaps no other question of. narticu larly Mars and also Venus. raises the this. But the question also menial science is as noteworthy as

'''r.rd\M"^:gir man""nterthe commonlv understood he eToToratory

as

was the objective

mv

"t

FAR SIDE OF THE MOON, televised

by

a

a crude

photooraph

Soviet loace tatelllte

in

Oct.

1959. To the left of the dotted line are regioni and landmarki visible from earth (Sea of Criiis, etc.). Other namet are thote be«tov«e: iron ore (50"^ metal content) 4,908,000: pig iron 1,341,600; crude steel (excluding castings) 1,560,000: zinc, smelter 20,640; copper, blister s.040; lead, refined 70.560; cement 4,812,000; cotton yam 75,960; wool yam 13.S00: rayon filament yam 16.680; rayon staple fibre 32,760: potash, K,0 content (1957) 402,000. Ore production (metric tons, metal content, 1937!; lead 65,200; manganese 12.600; antimony 200: tin concentrates 405; tungsten 718; pyrites 2.260,000. Index of production (mining, Jan. 1958; 1953 100) 133, (Jan. 1950) 130. Encyclop.«dh BRirANNic* Films. Iberian Peninsula (1948); People of Spain (1955).

Spanish Overseas Provinces.

—

Spanish-American Literature:

see L.\tix-Americ.\x Lit-

Areas, populations and chief towns are given in the table. Spanish Overseas Provinces

In

Weil

liq.iiTiJ

579

Spanish Sahara In

Population 1)958

est.l

Chlof town

Africa:

Itni

102,703

52,000 19,000

Sidi Ifnl

Aaiuo

Guinea:

Muni Iconh'nenlal Guinea) Fernando P6o

786

165,000 45,000

82

145,000

10,045

Rio

Places of Spanish Sovereignly in Morocco: Alhucemas, Ceula, Choforinas, Melilla, Peiion

de Velez de

la

Gomera

Bala liabe

Soma

—

The population of the places of Sponish sovereignly along the Medilerronean coast of Morocco is Arab. Berber and Spanish. The population of Guinean Sponish Africa is mainly Negro, with 1,900 whiles in Rio Muni ond 2,850 in Fernando P6o.

I

itorotiiro

Spain continued in 1959 to be one of

History. .^ period of calm marked relations between Spain and Morocco during 1959. This was a rehef after the tense situation in 195S produced by attacks of Moroccan troops on Span-

the few countries where verse and

ish

more successful and even more popular than Most people remained either semiliterate or satis-

the essay were serious fiction. fied

Areo Province

—

ER.ATURE.

ioh

l^Z^T'tZZ

possessions in Africa as they stood at the end of 1959. The total area was 114,195 sq.mi., and the population about 426,000.

—

=

(Ay, Kn.)

with the comic books which the censorship allowed to flood

consumed a substantial fare of philosophy and poetry. Relatively more books of essays were published in Spain than in any other countr}-. T>-pical were such imcompromising books as Jose Ferrater the newsstands in Ueu of a free press, but a minority

Mora's Ortega

V

Gasset, an analysis of that great thinkers de-

velopment. The Spanish edition was an amplification of a book

by Ferrater and published in Great by the same writer was La fiiosolia en el mundo de hoy. Americo Castro's first book to be published in Spain since the civil war was his Origen, ser y exister de los espaiioles, a coUecdon of essays on how the Spanish became what they peculiarly are and how they made their ''historiable" histor>-. Pedro Lain Entralgo published La originally written in English

Britain and the United States in 1957. Also

West

.\frican possessions which led to serious engagements and the Sahara with many casualties. There were, however, various questions still outstanding be-

in Ifni

tween the Madrid and Rabat governments, including the delicate one of the delimitation of frontiers in southern Morocco. During 1959 a mixed Hispano-Moroccan commission met several times to discuss these problems.

Mulay

.\bdallah Ibrahim, prime minister of Morocco, Rabat from Beirut after attending a meeting of the .\rab league, stopped in Madrid to meet Gen. Francisco Franco. The object was to deliver a cordial message of friendship from King Mohammed V, and to discuss outstanding questions between both countries. The Moroccan prime minister admitted there were problems, but between Spain and Morocco there was a close understanding which would help them to overcome any

In

on

.\pril,

his

way

to

difiiculties.

Several

officials

of the

Rabat government accompanied Mulay

palabra, an examination of the word, logos, as

Abdallah Ibrahim during his talks with the caudillo and also

therapeutic agent, and of Greek approximations to psychosomatic

with Fernando Maria Castiella y Maiz, the Spanish foreign minister. .Among questions discussed was the Moroccan government's

curacion por

medicine.

la

Monodialogos

de

Don Miguel

de

Unamuno, by

Eduardo Ortega y Gasset (exiled brother of Jose\ containing valuable memoirs of Unamuno in exile, was published in \ew York,

While brilliant youth elsewhere was dedicated to fiction and romance on the one hand and to science on the other, the outstanding new writer to appear in Spain in 1959 was Alberto Gil Novales (b. 1930"!. who documented the decadence of Spain during the pre\-ious three centuries in a series of fascinating sketches entitled (after Ortega) Las pequenas Atlantidas. Written in a style as subjective as that of a Latin Carlyle, uncon-

taminated by pale "objecti\-ity," the book stood up for the tragic valour and value of Spain in continuous decline.

L

The Premio de

la Critica

awards were given

to Bias de

Otero

all Spanish troops from northern Morocco, the former Spanish protectorate, with its capital at Tetuan, which was incorporated in the new independent Morocco under the Hispano-Moroccan agreement of -April 7, 1956. .A new juridical status for Spanish Guinea was approved by the Cortes on July 28. The old colony of Guinea was converted into two pro\-inces with the names of Fernando Poo and Rio Muni, subject to the same laws and legislation as pro\'inces in metropohtan Spain. This change in status thus ended the "colonizing phase," it was stated in the Cortes. The new provinces of Fernando Poo and Rio Muni followed upon the 1958 decree creating the new provinces of Ifni and

request for the withdrawal of

Sahara.

(X.)

—

—

SPEED RECORDS — STEVENSON

652

Finonc* Spanish Sahara. Budget (ind. Ifni, 1957): revenue 86,75j,2oo pesetas (of which receipts from territories 12,705.000 pesetas), expenditure 86. 762. 200 pesetas. Spanish Guinea. Budget (1Q57): balanced at 160,007,000 pesetas. Expenditure of central government on African territories (1958-59) 1. 440. 416. 187 pesetas. Fortign Trod*. Ifni (1957): imports 73. 224.830 pesetas. Spanish Sahara (1956): imports 31,765,000 pesetas, exports 16,836,000 pesetas. Spanish Cuinca (1957): imports 676.155,000 pesetas (of which 465,745.800 pesetas from Spain), exports 1,088,016,200 pesetas (of which 1,012,962,800 pesetas to Spain). Traniport and Communkolioni. //ni. Roads (1957) 359-5 km.; motor vehicles of all classes 316; telephones (Jan. 1958) I3S- Spanish Sahara. Roads (1957) 6.086 km.; motor vehicles of all classes 70; telephones (Jan. 1958) 46. Spanish Guinea. Length of bus routes (1957) 2,456 km.; buses in use 86; telephones (Jan. 1958) 668.

—

man

of Montreal, at Cambridge,

March

22

when they halted another Philadelphia team, Howard

of Pakistan.

Al Chassard, Bethlehem, Pa., finished on top in the national

New York when he defeated Mahmoud Kerim, an Egyptian playing for Montreal, on Feb. 26. Chassard bowed to Henri Salaun of Cam-

professional tournament at the University club in

Canadian open at Toronto, Canada on March 7 when

bridge, Mass., in the final of the

Apparent U.S. consumption of all spices in 1959 was 0|JlwCo> indicated as approaching, but probably slightly short of, one pound per capita. U.S. imports of complementary spices in 1958-59 were 84,516,000 lb. valued at $34,538,000, as compared with 76.180.000

years of high vanilla bean prices failed to bring the de-

Malgache Republic (formerly Madagascar) was reduced by hurricane damage to

sired increase in supply; the 1959 crop of the

about 820.000

lb.

a Canadian

and Pemba

with 54,000,000

lb. in

at

only 11,000,000

lb.,

compared

as

team triumphed over

to

a U.S. team, 10-5, in the three-

country competition at Toronto. Canada had shut out the Jesters club of Great Britain, 5-0, the night before.

Salaun repeated his victory of 1958 in the Cowles invitation at the Harvard club in New York, beating Carter

Fergusson, Philadelphia, on Jan. 25.

Englewood.

N.J., at Atlantic City, N.J.,

World production of pepper in 1959 was forecast at 149,500,lb., slightly more than the 147,000.000 lb. of 1958, but 14%

Atlantic coast cham-

Steve Vehslage. Princeton,

won

on Feb.

at

Princeton on

March

Princeton and Yale were tied with

1 1

won

MacCracken

of

8.

national intercollegiate hon-

ours and helped the Tigers win the team

Howe, Yale,

the previous year.

The

pionship went to Mateer when he stopped Cal

Early estimates placed the 1958-59 clove har-

vest of Zanzibar

The Lapham cup returned

tournament

Pepper, especially black, continued as the most popular spice.

Two

Jan. 18.

valued at $27,755,000 in 1957-58.

lb.

Ed Hahn,

Davis and James Whitmoyer. Mateer carried off the U.S. open crown in the 6th annual championship at Pittsburgh, Pa., Jan. 11 with an upset of

see

Cninno

23.

40 years of age and over when he turned back Vic Elmaleh, New York, N.Y. A Yale university entry beat Canada, 3-2, in 5-man team play. G. Diehl Maleer and John Hentz, Philadclphians, successfully defended their doubles title at Buffalo, NY., on

Hashim Khan Air Races and Records; Automobile Racing; Bousledding; Cycling; Gliding; Horse Racing; Ice Skating; Motorboat Racing; Rowing; Skiing; Swimming; Track and Field Sports; Yachting.

Speed Records:

Mass., Feb.

Detroit, Mich., gained national veterans' honours for players

by defeating Sam Going into the final,

title

8.

victories each in the tourna-

000

ment. Larry Brown, Fordham,

below the 170.900,000 lb. of 1957 and below pre-World War II levels. India with 60.000,000 lb., and Indonesia with 42,000,000 lb., were major producers. Latin-American (Brazilian) produc-

school was victor in the 15th annual interscholastic invitation

tion increased.

116.053,000

lb.,

Exports in

in

1958 were 98.813.000

lb.,

1957. U.S. imports were 38,078,000

against lb.,

as

compared with 34,959.000 lb. in the previous year. About onetenth was white pepper. Prices were fairly stable during the early part of 1959 at a level just above 30 cents per pound for black kinds and about 50 cents per pound for Muntok white. Buying by the U.S.S.R. firmed prices, and late in the year a Chinese syndicate was reported as having cornered the white pepper market, after which prices rose sharply, on some black kinds to about 50 cents per pound, and on Muntok white to about

(New York)

title at

the 6fh annual metropolitan

Hoboken, N.J. Ralph Howe of Haverford

New York's Racquet and Tennis club. Mrs. W. Pepper Constable of Princeton, who took the New Jersey state and New England titles earlier in the season, capevent at

tured the United States women's championship for the fourth successive year at Haverford, Pa., on Feb. 21, defeating Mrs. Sheila Speight

Macintosh of England. The doubles

title

went

to

Mrs. Charles Wetzel and Mrs. Carter Simonin, Philadelphians. as they beat Janet

Morgan and Mrs. Macintosh, topseeded Britwomen won the Wolfe-

ish team, at Philadelphia Feb. 28. U.S.

Noel cup from England for the first time since 1952 with 3-2 victory at Philadelphia on Feb. 23. (T. V. H.)

a

72 cents per pound.

The

world's 1958-59 hops crop reached an all-time record of

173.700,000 ing

lb.,

18%

larger than the 1957-58 crop

by 12.4% the previous record

set in 1951-52.

and exceed(J.

K. R.)

Spirits: see Liquors. .Alcoholic.

Spitsbergen: see Norway. Sports and Games: see Angling; Archery; Automobile Racing; Badminton; Baseball; Basketball; Bobsledding; Bowling; Boxing; Chess; Contract Bridge; Curling; Cycling; Fencing; Football; Gliding; Golf; Gymnastics; H..\xdball; Hockey, Field; Hockey, Ice; Horse R.acing; Ice Sk.\ting; Lacrosse; Lawn Bowling; Motorboat Racing; Olympic Games; Pan-American Games; Polo; Rowing; Shooting; Skiing; Soccer; Softball; Squash Racqi'ets; Swimming; Table Tennis; Tennis; Track and Field Sports; Wrestling; Yachting. Sports Car Racing: see Automobile Racing. Sputnilts: see Astronomy; Space Exploration. Ben Heckscher, U.S. army

Squash Racquets. title in

won

lieutenant,

the United States amateur singles

1959 when he defeated the Canadian

star, J.

Smith Chap-

Stamp Collecting:

see

Philately.

Standards, National Bureau of:

see

National Bureau

OF Standards.

Stars: see Astronomy. State, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments AND Bureaus, U.S. State Fairs: see Fairs and Exhibitions; Shows. Steel: see Iron and Steel. Stellar System: see Astronomy. Stereophonic Recordings: see Records and Recordings

Stevenson, Adiai EWing a^re^as bom in Lo^Angeles. Calif., on Feb. 5. He was graduated from Princeton university in

1922 and earned his law degree at Han.-ard and Northwestern 111.) universities. After serving abroad as a news-

(Evanston,

paper correspondent, he became a federal official, principally with the agriculture, state and navy departments. He was governor of Illinois from 1949 to 1953. As the Democratic nominee for president in 1952 and 1956, he was twice defeated by Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although Stevenson denied categorically and frequently in

STOCKS AND BONDS igsg that he would be a presidential candidate or the eventual Democratic nominee in i960, there was widespread but unorganized support for

him

in

many

sections of the country. Despite

two defeats, many influential Democrats envisaged him as- a compromise candidate in the event of a convention deadlock. Stevenson showed a keen interest in relations with the U.S.S.R., which he had visited in 1958. In a book recording his observations, he said that he was "deeply impressed" by the people's warm friendship for the U.S., and by the communists' progress in education, science and hydroelectric development. He approved of the 1959 Eisenhower-Khrushchev meeting, but he warned that the western alliance must be strengthened. He his

charged that the Republicans had permitted

it

to "disintegrate."

Generally, however, he approved the administration's foreign policies.

When

Stevenson was asked in advance of Khrushchev's arrival

in the U.S.

what aspects of American

life

and society should

be shown to him, Stevenson said that "we should teach him the

democracy of America, its staying power, adaptand dynamism." As exhibits, he recommended that Khrushchev be taken to the Tennessee Valley authority, a great industrial plant, a state fair, a midwestern cornfield, an integrated school and a session of a congressional committee. resiliency of the ability

As further evidence of a six-week

summer

his interest in foreign affairs,

he made

tour of Italy, Greece, Turkey and southern

France and planned a tour of South America

in early i960.

(R. Tu.)

The United

Stocks and Bonds.

States

stock

market

averages advanced very modestly in

1959 despite record-breaking displays of strength in most significant economic indicators. The upward drift of prices during the six months of 1959 was offset by declines in the third quarter of the year which coincided with the prolonged steel first

strike.

Most

of the

momentum

developed throughout a very

was dissipated during the first half of 1959. While the averages moved within a narrow range, however, many individual issues showed spectacular gains. As Table I indicates. Standard and Poor's composite index of 500 common stocks, which climbed steadily throughout 1958 from an average low of 41.12 in January to a year-end average high of 53.49 in December (a gain of 30%), was only able to advance from 55.62 to its July 1959 high of 59.74 or 7% before settling back at lower levels. The industrial index developed a pattern which was virtually identical with that of the composite index in 1958 and 1959. Whereas 1958 saw a steady uninterrupted rise, 1959 was characterized by brief declines in four of the first nine months. At bullish 1958

64.23 in July 1959 the industrial index achieved a record high.

Public utilities and rails both failed to display strength through most of 1959. During the first nine months, the high and low averages were 45.15 and 42.58 for utilities, while the corresponding figures were 36.86 and 33.78 for the rails. The optimistic post-recession mood of investors which typified Table I.— U.S. Stock Market Prices and Yields

—

STOMACH AND

654 for long-term

government bonds resulted

in

INTESTINES. DISEASES OF THE

a vigorous swing to

shorter-term issues which, in some instances, sold to yield as

much

as

s%.

Corporate bonds, as measured by Standard and Poor's index (Table III), also fell below the levels of the previous year.

The

hiRhest grade bonds sold well below par during the

first

.

nine months of 1959. In September a price of 93.0 was reached,

j

the lowest average price for such securities in Table

II.

U.S.

Government Long-Term Bond

many

Prices

and

years. Yietdt

i

;

STOMACH AND

INTESTrNES, DISEASES OF THE

flammation and ulceration. This hazard was diminished by

the liver and biliary tract, and severe diabetes, and occasionally

posing a segment of small intestine between esophagus and

appeared after the use of antibiotics (neomycin). Newly developed tubes facilitated the removal of tissue from the small bowel for diagnostic study. A unique illness, intestinal lipodystrophy,

stomach. Thinning of the esophagus in patients with chronic iron

and vitamin B deficiencies was found to result in strictures and webs in the upper esophagus and hypopharynx, interfering with swallowing. Prednisone and antibiotics taken by mouth prevented infection and stricture in children who had swallowed lye. Achalasia, a disturbance in the neuromuscular activity of the esophagus associated with the degeneration of nerve cells, was characterized by failure of relaxation of the lower esophagus. The narrowed area could be stretched successfully, without operation, with distending devices. Cancer of the esophagus can be removed with a relatively low mortality however, the poor end ;

results after five years re-emphasized the

need for

earlier opera-

tions.

—Duodenal

was more common in young chilhad been appreciated; often a family history of ulcer was found. Ulcers also were common after the age of 60. Because of frequent complications and increased mortality during medical treatment, surgery was recommended in this group. Many stomach ulcers (not duodenal) were ob-

Stomach.

ulcer

dren, especially males, than

served

among people

and multiple complications were associated with various endocrine tumours, including hyperfunction of the parathyroid glands.

The acute gastric and duodenal on the heart and blood vessels

to endocrine stimulation of acid production.

and not destroyed by the

liver.

The

by

a

ulcers following the use of

and rauwolfia.

salicylates (aspirin), adrenal steroids (prednisone)

were complicated by hemorrhage and perforation. Antacids and acid-suppressing drugs were helpful in

extracts occasionally

Many

approaches became available for diagnosing bleeding

from the digestive

tract,

a difl&cult problem.

These included

intravenous injection of radioactive iron which into the red blood cells

;

a

new

test for

incorporated

is

hemoglobin

in the feces

the use of fluorescein intravenously; the swallowing of radio-

aided

by

the

identification

in urine. Surgical

only treatment. Carcinoids also were found in

of

a

chemical,

removal was the the appendix and

the bronchus of the lungs.

A

destructive inflammation of the small bowel and colon,

pseudomembranous enterocolitis, was a serious postoperative complication. The use of antibiotics appeared to be an important

by circulatory failure and generalTreatment included the restoration of mineral balance and of the normal intestinal bacteria flora and

and

fluid

elimination of the toxemia. In the diarrhea

commonly contracted

by tourists, pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Shigella were not found; but Escherichia coli enteropathogens and possibly viruses or staphylococci seemed important. Narrowing, malrotation and excessive surgical removal of the small bowel occasionally were complicated by vitamin B12 deficiency. Colon. Arthritis, including ankylosing spondylitis of the spine, frequently accompanied ulcerative colitis; other concomitants found were abnormal blood proteins and liver cirrhosis. Medical treatment was helpful in most cases of ulcerative colitis.

Rectal installation of adrenal steroids (hydrocortisone

hemisuccinate and methyl prednisolone) by enema or slow drip,

and careful operative

decreased the inflammation and facilitated healing, especially

inspection of the digestive tract with illuminated instruments

mild or moderate cases. Surgery (colectomy and ileostomy) was indicated in patients with uncontrollable hemorrhage, ful-

active tape to locate the site of bleeding;

I

(endoscopes). Decreased local temperature of the stomach via

by cooling through

in

introduced into the stomach, reduced acid-pepsin production,

minating disease, perforation, unresponsiveness to medical treatment, possible cancer and disabling ano-rectal complications.

retarded digestion and thereby controlled bleeding from peptic

Young women could undergo

ice-water lavage, or I

ulcer.

a thin-walled balloon

Emotional problems were important

ogy of the ulcer patient, and,

if

in the

symptomatol-

not managed effectively, caused

The incidence

of

stomach cancer was increased

in

people with

pernicious anemia, as a consequence of inflammation and re-

The

operation without subsequent in-

ability to bear children.

Opinions differed as to the relationship of polyps of the colon

and rectum

recurrent distress despite medical or surgical treatment.

to cancer.

However, people already having polyps

developed new ones more often than the general population and the polyps appeared to signify an abnormal bowel, susceptible

and its tendency to grow slowly or rapidly, determined the outcome of surgery. Exploratory abdominal operations revealed lymphoblastoma, tuberculous peritonitis and chronic granulomatous inflammation

rectum and sigmoid were removed by local excision or electrocoagulation. Approximately 75% of cancers of the colon and rectum were easily located by palpation or proctoscopy. In people under the age of

as causes of persistent obscure fever.

40 and in children the tumours tended to progress more rapidly than in older patients. In general, the five-year survival rate

generation.

biological nature of the tumour,

gional enteritis)

—Inflammation

of the small intestine

(re-

caused fever, abdominal cramps, weight

loss,

Small Intestine.

diarrhea and obstruction. Surgery was required for complications

and good health was possible despite extensive removal of bowel. Nevertheless, recurrences were frequent. Medical treatment was effective in

uncomplicated cases.

Excessive fat in the feces (steatorrhea) accompanied diseases I

was

5-hydroxy indoleacetic acid,

—

treatment.

I

Associated findings were asthma and disorders of the heart.

Diagnosis

ized intoxication.

substance absorbed from or produced by the small intestine

.

episodes of flushing of the skin, abdominal cramps and diarrhea.

pulse and diarrhea, followed

patients with chronic lung dis-

Ulcers, after operations in patients with liver disease (porta-

'•

Newer X-ray methods revealed an increasing number of tumours of the small intestine; bleeding and intermittent obstruction were common symptoms. Intestinal polyposis, a hereditary condition, was associated with blackish-purple pigmentation in and around the mouth. A special tumour (carcinoid) composed of argentaSin cells, on extending to liver and lymph nodes, produced the chemicals serotonin and histamine responsible for

ulcers complicating operations

among

caval shunts), were related to excessive acid stimulation

j

by microscopic examination of lymph nodes, show-

established

ing large cells with special staining properties.

ease (emphysema, tuberculosis).

were ascribed

i

men, and was characterized by fatty and weight loss. Diagnosis was

diarrhea, migratory polyarthritis

factor, but other factors were intestinal obstructions, malignancy and bacteria {Micrococcus pyogenes, Clostridium welchii). The initial symptoms were abdominal distention, colic, fever, rapid

Peptic ulcer was frequent

I

affected chiefly middle-aged

living at high altitudes. Ulcers with very

large outputs of hydrochloric acid, refractoriness to treatment

j

655

inter-

of the small bowel, poor function of the pancreas, disorders of

to cancer formation. Accessible polj^ps in the

after operation approximated

Liver.

some

—Liver

50%.

disease produced

many

biochemical disorders;

of these were utilized to evaluate liver function, identify

the t>'pe and degree of hepatic injury, and predict the course

of illness. Practical tests included bromsulfalein retention, serum

plasma prothrombin after administration and measurements of various serum enzymes, in-

bilirubin, estimates of

of vitamin

K

—

STRAUSS- -STRIKES

656

Strauss was

eluding cholinesterase, tr.insaminase and alkaline phosphatase.

bom

on Jan. 31, 1896,

Hoover

was

general anesthesia was used to detect obstructions and by-passes

peace conference and later serving with U.S.

in the circulation

(percutaneous splenoportography). Inspection

of the interior of the

abdomen (peritoneoscopy) and removal

of

by a needle were additional diagnostic aids. little chance of serum hepatitis in patients receiving pooled plasma stored for six months at room from the

tissue

A

liver

15-year survey indicated

temperature

in a fluid state.

Operative procedures to decrease portal hypertension (porta-

were increasingly successful; how-

caval, spleno-renal shunts)

ever, poor liver function

remained

a serious obstacle.

A

hazard

was the intoxication induced by the accumulation of excessive ammonia produced within the digestive

aide to Herbert

in

1917-19, attending the Parij^ relief agencies

New York During World War II he was a special assistant to th secretary of the navy and was also a member of the army-navyj munitions board and the interdepartmental committee on atomii energy, rising to the rank of rear admiral. He was credited wit] having developed several secret navy weapons during Work W'ar II and was named an original member of the Atomic Energ commission in Oct. 1946. He was named chairman of the AE Europe.

He

then entered the banking business in

city.

in 1953-

Strauss retired at the end of his five-year term as chair

of shunt operations

tract (hepatic

staff

W.Va. He

at Charleston,

Injection of radiopaque material into the spleen under local or

of the

AEC

in

June 1958 and then became a special assistant

1

President Eisenhower in charge of the atoms-for-peace pro

coma).

by abnormal quantities of fats and the blood, responded partially to the feeding of large amounts of ethyl linoleate. Gall Bladder. Newer X-ray techniques facilitated visualizaBiliary cirrhosis, characterized

gram.

in the liver

Strawberries:

see Fruit.

—

were men, but the stones had not produced symptoms. Heart ailments and gall bladder disease often were associated. Elective cholecystectomy usually was well tolerated in such patients and the operation often improved the angina pectoris and abnormalities in heart rhythm when these conditions existed.

United States.

tion of the gall bladder. Abnormalities, chiefly gall stones,

observed

in

approximately

15%

— For inflammation

of apparently normal

accompanying inflammation of the gall bladder, operations removing stones in the bile ducts and facilitating drainage of bile were very helpful. Overeating and excessive intakes of alcohol, by stimulating secretion of pancreatic juice, were important causes. Chronic relapsing pancreatitis originated in various ways. Hence, no single treatment was uniformly effective; operations chiefly relieved Pancreas.

of the pancreas

obstruction to the flow of pancreatic juice. Fibrosis of the liver occasionally w'as associated with pancreatic

fibrosis.

Cysts of the pancreas were

common

originating

after inflammation or injury. Total removal

was possible occasionally; other operative procedures included incision and drainage, evacuation and internal drainage. Cancer of the pancreas usually developed insidiously, but upper abdominal pain, poor appetite, weight loss and, in some cases, jaundice w^ere important symptoms. Despite previously discouraging results, total removal of the cancer by pancreato-duodenectomy often appeared

—

Strauss, Lewis Lichtenstein ment commerce by

official,

was rejected

the U.S. senate in 1959 after weeks

of hearings and debate; he had been given a recess appointPres.

Dwight D. Eisenhower on Oct.

24, 1958, to suc-

ceed Sinclair Weeks. The senate, by a vote of 49-46, refused, on June 19, 1959, to confirm the nomination, and Strauss resigned. Various reasons were given

by the anti-Strauss senators; most frequently mentioned seemed to be that Strauss had irritated congressmen and withheld certain defense information from them. Only seven times previously in U.S. history had the the

senate refused to confirm a presidential nomination to the cabi-

was succeeded H. Mueller {q.v.).

net. Strauss

erick

activity during

1958

wa

terms of the number of workers involved and total man-day

lost. Still it

was comparatively small

in relation to the

postwa^

The number of work stoppages increased slightly by little more than J% (from 3,673 in 1957 to 3,694 in 1958), bu| the number of workers involved in work stoppages increased trend.

i

about

48%

(from 1,390,000

in

1957 to 2,060,000

in

1958).

same period the total number of man-days idle increase by about 45% (from 16,500,000 to 23,900,000). The averag^ duration of work stoppages increased, but only slightly, fron 19.2 calendar days in 1957 to 19.7 calendar days in 1958. The' number of workers involved in work stoppages, 2,060,000, represented 4.8% of total employment, as against 3.1% in the previous year. The number of man-days of work lost in 1958, 23,900,000, represented 0.22% of the total estimated working this

time of

all

workers, as against 0.14% for the year 1957, an

in-

Man-days idle per worker involved in stoppages did not change much, the change being from 11. 4 in 1957 crease of 0.08%.

to

1

1.6 in

The

1958.

increase in the

number

of workers involved in stoppages

was mainly due to the increase in the number of large stoppages. There were 332 stoppages in 195S that affected 1,000 workers or more (an increase of 53 stoppages over 1957), involving al-

number

of

w^orkers involved, an increase of about 700,000 workers over

Bibliography. \. G. Hampton, J. R. Beckwith and J. E. Wood, Jr., "The Relationship Between Heart Disease and Gail-Bladder Disease," Ann. Inl. Med., 50:1135-48 (May 1959); .\. B. Raper, "The Incidence of Peptic Ulceration in Some .\frican Tribal Groups," Tr. Roy. Soc. Trap. Med. Hyg., 52:535-546 (Xov. 1958); J. .\. Rider, el al., "Polyps of the Colon and Rectum." ]..i.M.A.. 170:633-638 (June 6. 1959); 0. H. Wanaensteen, et al., "Depressant .Action of Local Gastric Hypothermia on Gastric Digestion," J.A.M.A., 169:1601-08 (April 4, 1959). (J. B. Kr.)

ment by

in

— Strike

considerably greater than in the previous year, botl

together 1,587,000 workers or 77.1% of the total

justifiable.

See also Surgery.

as secretary of

Strikes.

as secretary of

commerce by Fred-

the previous year. These large stoppages (1,000 workers or more) Table

I.

United States:

Work Stoppages, Workers

and Man-Days Idle* Work Stoppages Workers involvedf

Mon.doys

Inyolved idle during

yeor

—

STRI accounted for 17,900,000 man-days idle or 74.7% of the total. There were 21 stoppages of 10,000 workers or more, involving 823,000 workers or 40% of the total number of workers involved

and accounting for 10,600,000 man-days of

in stoppages,

44.2%

ness or

idle-

of the total idleness in 1958.

Concerning the duration of idleness, about two-fifths of the stoppages in 1958 lasted less than a week, representing

8%

the workers idle and 5

35%

of

of the total man-days lost. But only

of the 21 major stoppages were in this group.

The other

14

stoppages ending in 1958 lasted between 13 to 54 days. Onefifth of the total stoppages lasted one month or more, involved 23 -7% of the total workers concerned and 55.9% of the total man-days idle. Strike activity was once again distributed among various sectors of the economy. Stoppages in manufacturing accounted for 1,955 out of 3,694, involving 1,490,000 workers and registering 15,400,000 man-days idle (as against 1,965 stoppages, 778,000 workers and 9,390,000 man-days in 1957). In the nonmanufacturing sectors, 1,739 stoppages involved 574,000 workers and registered 8,520,000 man-days idle (as against 1,711 stoppages, 610,000 workers and 7,080,000 man-days in 1957). In the transport-equipment industry the number of man-days idle because of strike activity reached 1.06% of the estimated working time of all workers employed in the industry (involving 4.310,000 man-days lost). The level of strike activity in this industry was the highest since 1950 when 8,000,000 man-days were lost. Five

other

manufacturing

industries

— fabricated

metal

products,

WAGE NEGOTIATORS

Conrad Cooper (left), executive vici McDonald, president of the United Steelw were resumed June 28, 1959, over n Despite an appeal by President Eisenhower, no agreement was n strike began July 15. Work was resumed Nov. 7 after the U,S, s R.

U.S. Steel, and David J. hands as talks

shaking

upheld the Taft-Hartley act injunction, forcing the workers 80-day period

machinery, machinery (except electrical), stone, clay

electrical

and

to

glass

products, and apparel

—each

registered

more than

1,000,000 man-days of idleness. In the construction industry, 844 Table

Work Stoppages by

United States;

H.

Industry Group,

ginning

in

days

idle

during 1958 (all sloppogesi

1958

% of esli-

moled lolal

Number

group

Industry

3,694 1,955

All induslries*

Manufccturing* Primary metal industries . Fabricated metal products {except ordnance, machinery and transportation equipment)

...

Ordnance and

accessories

.

Number 23,900,000 15,400,000 711,000

working lime

.22 .39 .25

.

.

256

.46

.

12

147,000 12,800

1,220,000

.

94,700

.29

93 223 210

102,000 152,000 551,000

1,030,000 2,760,000 4,310,000

.36 .72 1.06

69 74

18,200 13,800 44,900 6,370

282,000 254,000

.18 .28

1,200,000 111,000

.91

machinery, equipment

Electrical

ond supplies Mochinery, except eleclricol . Tronsportotion equipment Lumber and v«ood products, except furniture .

...

Furniture

167

Worlcers involved

2,060,000 1,490,000 102,000

and

fixtures

Stone, clay and gloss products . Textile mill products Apparel and other finished products mode from fobrics ond similar molerials Leather and leather products . . Food ond liindred products. .

Tobocco manufactures Paper and allied products Printing, publishing and allied .

176 4

270

2,170

.

.

60

18,100

252,000

.18

.

46 100

22,300 20,300

324,000 218,000

.15 .15

Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods; watches and clocks industries

Nonmonufocturing* fishing

.

Mining Contract construction electric,

78,900 661,000

.37 .09 .18 t

16

8,090

141,000

.23

58

23,800

147,000

.24

27

14,300

233,000

.29

58

8,330

1,739 6

141,000 8,520,000 14,300

§,12

168 844

574,000 4,010 38,600 326,000

242 358

132,000 57,000

302,000 4,790,000

.12 t

.16 .71

retail

trade

.

.

Finance, insurance and reol estate Services

Government

benefits, accounting for

ning in 195S, 6-.2'^c of

all

50.8%

of

all

stoppages begin-

workers involved and

76. 7*^

of all

man-days of idleness due to work stoppages. Stoppages directly concerned with wage increases accounted for 32.6% of the total stoppages, 47.5% of all workers involved and 49,5% of all man-days lost. Stoppages due to working conditions accounted for 2^.y'yc of all stoppages, 27.1% of all workers involved and 14,4'^ of man-days lost. Job security accounted for 11.7'^ of

all

stoppages. Issues concerned with union organization accounted for a small percentage of the total

were subsidiary

number

of stoppages or they

to other issues.

The year 1959 was expected to show a rise in strike activity because of a combination of factors the revival of economic

—

activity, the expiration of labour contracts in tries,

some

basic indus-

the renewed concern over inflationary pressures, and the

—

United Kingdom. The number of work stoppages arising from industrial disputes declined by about 8%, from 2,859 in 1957 to 2.629 in 1958, The number of workers involved in all stoppages in progress during the year declined substantially from 1,359,000 to 524,100, a difference of 834,900, representing a 60*^ A total of 3,462,000 working days were lost in all stop-

decline,

pages

gos' and sonitory

services

Wholesale and

mentary

industry, especially, played an important role in the 1959 events.

plastics

.

ond

41

1,100,000

lost

wage-price-profit relationships. Developments in the basic steel

industries

Agriculture, forestry

.05

.

industries

products.

51

126

152,000 7,720 60,600

Chemicals and allied products. Petroleum refining and reloted

Rubber and miscellaneous

117

man(0.71% of the estimated total working time). This was the largest number of man-days lost in any single industry group, with a level of strike activity only exceeded by the records reached in 1952 and 1953. The major issues were once again wages, hours and supplestoppages, involving 326,000 workers, registered 4,790,000

1956

Mon-days Sfoppoges be-

8

600

102

14,100 1,720

15

2,270,000 942,000 4,500 196,000 7,510

.23 .03 t

progress during the year, an approximate decline of

The

loss

of time for each of the workers involved averaged about S\

t J

'Stoppages extending into two or more industry groups hove been counted in each industry group affected; workers involved end mon-days idle were allocated to the respecgroups, tless thon 0.005%. JNot ovoiloble, lExcludes government ond agriculture. Source: United States Department of Lobor, Bureau of Lobar Review, June 1 959.

in

58'^ from the 8.412.000 days lost in the previous year.

tive

working days, as against

The was

in

7

days

in 1957.

principal cause of disputes

leading to

work stoppages

connection with wage considerations. All wage disputes

accounted for 45. 9"^?- of the number of stoppages in 1958 (44,7% 1957), representing 46. 6tyl« 220-yd. frea style 440-yd. frsa ifyle I,JOO-m. free style 100-yd. backstrske 220-yd. backstroke 100-yd. breast stroke 220-yd. breost stroke 100-yd. butterfly 220-yd. butterfly 200-yd. medley 400-yd. medley 400-yd. free style relay

1

n

Soltzo

on Soltzo on Soltzo

10- yd. bockstroke

'..

220-yd. bockstroke 100-yd. breost stroke

.

\.

220-yd. breast stroke

.

..

'..

Cone Cone Horgreovei

Los Angeles Detroit A.C.

3 min. 59.5

s.

414.15 441.50

A.C.

78

1

Colif., July 16-191

Santo Clo I

Cl
S6,763, a monthly average of 25,436 families, including 80,218 dependent and neglected children, received monthly averages of $70.04 per family and $22.21 per child, totaling $21,375,891. Total expenditures for the fiscal year under the state welfare program were $167,678,383. Transportation and Communicotion. The total mileage of all classes of public roads in Texas at the end of fiscal 1959 was 197.756. The state designated system included 60.345 mi., of which 55,507 mi. were paved. There were an additional 1 1,61 1 mi. of paved highway maintained by counties. There were 288 mi. of highway that had been developed under the new federal interstate highway sj'stem and an additional 519 mi. of multilane, divided highwa>'s which required additional work. Total receipts to the state highway department for the fiscal year were $385,000,000 and expenditures were $411,000,000. However, including funds brought forward from the preceding year, there was a balance of $26,000,000 in the state highway fund at the end of the year. Total net railroad mileage in Texas as of Dec. 31, 1958, was 21,201.53. The number of passengers carried during the calendar year 1958 was 3,175.582 for a total passenger revenue of $14,333,378. Freight totaled 152,687.265 tons for a total of $394,881,242 in revenue. There were ten deepwater ports in operation along the Gulf coast of Texas during the calendar year 1959. with foreign imports of about 5,000,000 tons and exports of more than 18,000,000 tons. In addition there is coastwise domestic shipping which amounts to about 5,000,000 tons of receipts and 90,000.000 tons of shipments annually. Slate Government Finance, Banking. The state government collected $1,134,574,137 and expended $1,163,883,080 during fiscal 1959. However, the actual operating deficit at the end of the year was about $90,000,000. Principal sources of revenue were the tax on production of crude oil and natural gas. $183,990,102; motor fuel tax, $194,445,805: motor vehicle licenses, permits, etc. $72,483,176; franchise taxes, $39,812,683. Principal expenditures were for education, $399,526,246: highways, $406,411,366: public welfare $189,909,267. There were approximately 930 banks in Texas at the end of 1958 of which 480 were state banks and 450 national. Total resources were $11,400,000,000. There were 435 stock life and 65 mutual life insurance companies in operation with about 9.800,000 policies in force. Agriculture. The total cash income of Texas crop growers and livestock raisers in 1959 was estimated b\' the U.S. department of agriculture at $2,494,808,000, of which livestock and products contributed $929,587,000, crops $1,443,033,000 and government payments under the price control programs $122,188,000. The number and value of livestock on farms on Jan. i. 1959. were as follows: all cattle. 8.510.000 valued at $1,165,870,000; hogs, 1,226,000 valued at $30,773,000: all sheep, 5,355,000 valued at $93,435,000: goats, 3,093,000 valued at $25,700,000; horses and mules. 232.000 valued at $24,592,000; chickens, 17,196,000 valued at $18,916,000; turkeys, 515,000 valued at $:.i 12,000. Manufacturing. In 1959 there was an average of 507.800 wage earners

—

—

—

—

—

ond wages 1957

I.

Indicoled,

Barley, bu Rye, bu Rice. 100.1b.

bags

Flaxseed, bu

Sorghum

grain, bu All hay, ions

poloioes, cwl Sweet polotoes, cwt Peanuts, lb Peaches, bu Pecans, lb Grapefruit, boxej

Irish

Oronges, bonej

l'59

4,500,000 1,888,000 43,708,000 56,440,000 24,156,000 6,884,000 135,000 13,136,000 357,000 276,912,000 2,359,000 2,620,000 1,351,000 193,061,000 1,100,000 26,000,000 5,800,000 3,200,000

•1949-57. Source! U.S. Department of Agriculture.

1958

4,308,000 1,816,000 42,973,000 73,040,000 53,130,000 10,143,000 338,000 11,938,000 336,000 273,066,000 2,487,000 2,285,000 1,210,000 224,110,000 1,100,000 26,000,000 4,200,000 2,300,000

10,91

nd n>

paper and products. Priming and publishing Chemicals and products Petroleum and cool product! Stone, cloy ond gloss products Pulp,

.

Fobricoted metal products Machinery (except electrical! mochinery .

Tronsportafion equipment :

Average, 1948-57

753,000 113,524,000 1,753,000 1,513,000* 1,560,000' 221,200,000 625,000 35,040,000 3,800,000 1,676,000

11 2,41

{607,673 35,339 114,325

69.1 18

81,949 64,133 91,788 190,877 957,965 772,767 176,159 295,940

69,580 98,650 204,583 1,044,832

689,643 162,739 304,249 173,735 456,682

107,471

242,672 44,257 407,968

Co

of

1954

$«50,3«5 38,957 131.342

1

231,493 277,548 61,053 152,694

45,961

.

Deportment

U.S,

I

8,796 75,842

Electricol

145,891

436,693

67,701

496,639

415,213

of Monufoclurei, I9S7.

Table III.—/ iineral Production of Texas Iln

sho rl Ions, except as noledl 1957

Qu,

Mineral

(bbl.j

.

Value

$4,484,538,000

$4,036,656 000 79,756 000 5,424, 000

100,000 3,343,000 3,353,000

100 ,000 4,120, ,000 4,807, 000

22,144,000 2,992,000

.

Clays

Coket

Gem

Quonllr

Volue

....

Total*

Cement

tity

»

'

...

slonesS

?

....

Gypsum

Helium (000

1,043,000

204,000

cu.ft.l

Iron ore

?

796,000

7,489,000

691,000

i,000

.

.

•

.

.

5,156,215,000

500,153,000

5,178,073,000

',000

147,618,000 17,104,000 23,427,000

3,787,000 3,843,000 32,871,000

lime l^olural gas . (OOOcu.lf.l

Nolurol gosoline.

(000

gol.)

.

.

Petroleum (bbl.l

(000 gol.

.

2,944,000 1,073,867,000 3,832,000 4,612,000 23,685,000

'.

.

I

Salt

Sand ond gravel Sodium sulfate,

.

151,896 15,1 15,

30,806,

?

.

31,248,000 3,224,000

Stone Sulfur Sulfur,

recovered elementalt .

.

183,000

4,022,000

171,000

.

48,000

1 99,000 71,510,000

61,000

Talc ond .

Other

mir

•Tolol tVolue: for processed

late duplication in the value of ^Vi not included in the lolols.


a

of th» Tin Indyriry

In th»

Unitil SlaHt

Stole

Nsrih Carolina Kontucky .

.

.

South Carolina Virainia

.

GTor'o'ia*

.

.

!

;

Pennsylvonio

.

Maryland

.

.

.

.

.

.

floritfo.

.

Wisconsin

Ohio

.

.

Connecticut Indiana .

.

.

.

.

.

.

Massachusetts

Country United Stotai China .

India U.S.S.R. Brazil . .

Japan. Turkey. Pakistan

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Rhodesia-Nyo

Conodo Italy

.

Indonesia

.

.

.

.

.

.

TOURIST TRAVEL — TOWN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

684

roads; residual powers are retained by the subordinate

Icrial

governments. The metropolitan municipality obtains

by tax

from the area municipalities

levies

its

revenues

Pennsylvania 19,500,000; Michigan 18,500,000; Ohio 16,900,000; Oregon 10,500,000; and Illinois 10,000,000.

same proportion

in the

Motels continued

to

open everywhere

in

the United States.

that their assessable property bears to the total assessable prop-

The

erty of the metropolitan area.

59,000, containing 2,100,000 units. California, Texas and Florida

The metropolitan municipality

is

governed by a 2s-member

metropolitan council, consisting of a permanent chairman, plus

and town and

12 township reeves

village

mayors, and 12

officials

of the city of Toronto. In 1959 the chairman of the metropolitan

council was Frederick G. Gardiner; the

Toronto was Nathan

From 1954

mayor

of the city of

number

more than

of motels in 1958 was estimated at

had more than 3,000 motels each; Oregon, Colorado, Minnesota, Michigan and New York had 1,500 to 3,000 each. Motels continued to assume more of the features of convenience and luxury usually associated with hotels.

Swimming

pools,

and wall-to-wall carpeting were standard items

room in

television

almost every

new motel.

Phillips.

to 1957 the metropolitan municipality gained

ers, e.g., police, at

total

By spending

pow-

the expense of the subordinate municipalities,

creased

its

For the

on roads, the U.S.

a record $6,000,000,000

total of toll turnpikes

became

and

in-

free expressways to 9,000

possible to drive from the Great

but in 1959 signs appeared that this process of aggrandizement might be nearing an end. One sign was the failure, after prolonged

mi.

negotiations, of an attempt to organize a unified fire-fighting

Perhaps the most important road completion of 1958 was the Illinois tollway, a three-pronged, 187-mi. pivot, which shuttled

However, in 1959 the metropolitan council was very much the prime mover in the area. On April 9 this body approved a capital program for 1959, part of a ten-year program, of $100,818,000. In November, thanks service for metropolitan Toronto.

by the metropolitan municipality, a was made on a ten-mile extension of the Toronto Transit commission's subway system, to be undertaken over ten years at

Lakes

traffic

first

time,

it

to the Atlantic seaboard without encountering a stoplight.

around Chicago.

Although summer continued to account for 65% to 70% of the over-all tourist volume, travel in other seasons was booming. for example,

had become the nation's

fastest growing

largely to pressure applied

Skiing,

start

vacation sport. During 1958 an estimated 3,000,000 enthusiasts

a cost of $189,000,000. This culminated three years of negotia-

between the 13 municipalities and the province over the

tions

di-

vision of the cost of the extension.

Metropolitan council estimates for 1959 provided for a gross current expenditure of $138,554,437, with $61,070,523 to be

met

by provincial grants and miscellaneous sources and $77,483,914 to be met by the area municipalities. This total exceeded the 1958 estimates by $14,841,754 (the 1957-58 increase was $17,168.015). City of Toronto estimates provided for a gross ex-

visited about

400

ski areas located in 28 states.

Marked improvements in air transportation also stimulated more tourist travel. By the end of 1959 the airlines had 300 purejet and prop-jet planes in service and were operating more tourist passenger-miles than

all

other forms of transportation combined

(except for the private passenger car).

Transport association reported that

its

The International Air member lines carried a

record total of 69,249,000 passengers during 1958, an increase of

12.4% over the previous rose

g%

year. Intra-European passenger traffic

but far greater was the

rise in traffic across the

penditure of $99,625,074, to be raised in part by a tax rate of 56 mills, 6 mills higher than in 1958. Total taxable assessment

Atlantic ocean, which under the impetus of the

was $1,747,048,713 (against $1,693,475,276 in 1958). In 1959 the more than 4,500 manufacturing plants in metropolitan Toronto produced goods worth about $2,750,000,000. The opening of the St. Lawrence seaway in 1959 prompted plans for the reclamation of about 1,400 ac. of water-front land to provide

carried.

additional berthing space for ships and manufacturing space for industry, but

by the end of the year no action on these plans had

been taken.

(L.

En-cyclop.«dia Britannica Films. —Canada:

Wn.)

the Industrial Provinces

{1958).

fares climbed

A

26.8%

to a record total of 1,292,166 passengers

Americans spent $2,140,000,000 on foreign travel during 1958. total of $1,460,000,000 was spent in other countries and the

remaining $680,000,000 for transportation. The

was mainly

rise in

so extensively as

it

^°' since the years immediately following World War II had tourist travel increased

did during 1959, both within the United States

and elsewhere. The

total

number

of U.S. vacationers rose to an

estimated 90,000,000 during the year, and their expenditures

amounted

more than $15,000,000,000. Automobile

to

accounted for

85%

travelers

of both totals.

Automobile registration

United States reached a peak of 58,591.000, a 3'^ increase over 1958 and a 75"^^- increase over in the

1948. Appro.ximately 37,600.000 U.S. families cars,

and the

total of all

motor vehicle

trafi5c in

owned passenger the country was

estimated at 700.000,000.000 mi.

The

than doubled over

in travel to

this period.

New York

state residents led

new records throughby the najumped from 33,000,000 in 1950 to more than

tional

park service

\"isits to

areas administered

58,000,000 in 1958; visits to the national forests from 52,000,000 to 68,000.000;

and

state parks rose

army corps more than 97,000,000. Visits

visits to the reservoirs of the

engineers from 20,000,000 to

from 114,000,000

in

led with 33,000,000 followed

of to

1950 to 237,000,000 in 1958.

Seven states reported more than 10,000,000

York

made

compared with 77.000 from California, the second ranking other leading states, in order, were Illinois,

New

all

the trip, state;

Jersey, Pennsylvania,

Massachusetts and Michigan.

U.S. tourist expenditures in

Canada during 1958 dropped

to

$323,000,000. 59c below the 1957 figure. In Mexico, on the other hand, they rose to a new peak of $320,000,000, of which twothirds was spent in Mexican border towns. The Mexican government estimated the number of foreign tourists at 700,000 and

expected a

lo'^c

The number

increase during 1959.

of foreign travelers to the United States rose to

472.000 in 1958 and their expenditures to $825,000,000, plus $90,in fares to United States steamship lines and airlines

000.000

use of public vacation areas reached

out the United States.

expendi-

Europe and the Mediterranean, where U.S. tourists spent $560,000,000. Of the 637,000 U.S. travelers to Europe, 419,000 crossed the Atlantic by air. For the first time since 1954, the number (218,000) of sea travelers was larger than in the preceding year. Air travel to Europe had more tures

others in travel to Europe. About 186,000 persons

Tniirict Trouol I UUlldl I laVcl.

North

new "economy"

visits annually.

for transportation.

Canadian expenditures

for about $425,000,000. Travel outlays

in the U.S.

by European

accounted visitors of

less than in 1957, with the number of travelers dropping from 208,000 in that year to 190,000 in

$86,000,000 were slightly

1938.

See also American Citizens Abroad; National Parks and

Monuments; Roads and Highways.

(Mi, Fe.)

New

by California 19,900,000;

Town and Regional

Planning:

see

City and Regional

Planning; Municipal Government. Retail sales of toys in the United States were

Tnu IllUUoUy. Inrflictru iUy 1959, tal

expected to amount to $1,650,000,000 in

compared with $1,500,000,000 sales,

1959

in the previous year.

Of

to-

about $1,000,000,000 were sold during the Christ-

mas season. The total number

of workers engaged in the

,800 toy

i

making

plants in the U.S. increased by about 3,000 in 1959 to a total of

73,000; they received wages amounting to approximately $270,-

000,000.

Despite the large production in the U.S. for

own consump-

its

imports of toys in 1959 rose by about 25% over those of 1958, about 85% of the imports coming from Japan.

tion,

Exports of toys from the United States were valued at more in 1959, the best markets being Canada and

than $15,000,000

South America. Japan, the leading toy exporting country, and West Germany, which ranked third after the United States, were

making

significant inroads in

both the Canadian and South Amer-

ican markets.

(E.

M. M.)

Athletes the world over, with

Track and Field Sports.

eyes

focused

on big interna-

tional meets ahead, achieved sparkling feats in 1959.

Dan Waern

of Sweden, one of the year's big distance men, ran his sixth

mile under 4 min. in London in September, being caught in 3 min. 59.7 sec, a month after running a 3 min. 59.2 sec. mi. at

Waern

improved on his own world m. when he was timed in 2 min. 17.8 sec. A University of Texas quartet eclipsed the 440-yd. relay standard with a 39.6-sec. clocking at Modesto, Calif., May 30. In the same meet, Roscoe Cook of Oregon Vaesterass, Sweden.

record of

2

min.

18.

i

also

sec. for 1,000

equaled the often-tied loo-yd. standard of 9.3 sec. as he defeated Bobby Morrow and Ray Norton. Parry O'Brien of Los Angeles,

with a listed standard of 63 challenged by

shot-put

former Kansas

2 in.,

ft.

Bill

saw

his

supremacy with the

Nieder and Dale Long. Nieder,

ace, attained a distance of 64

6^

in.,

a University of California freshman, reached 63

ft.

neither throw was recognition.

made under

ft.

and Long, 7

in.,

but

conditions necessary for record

Harold Connolly, Olympic champion, beat his own ft. 4 in. with a hammer throw of 226 ft. i\ in.

record of 225

Lieut. Al Cantello, U.S. marines, surpassed the javelin

Union

set

mark

3^ in., and Oleg Fedoseyev of the Soviet a hop, step and jump standard of 54 ft. g^ in. Edmund

with a toss of 282

ft.

Piatkowski of Poland improved on Fortune Gordien's 6-yearold discus Australia,

mark with a throw of 196 ft, 6^ in. At Melbourne, Herb Elliott, current holder of the mile record of 3

min. 54.5 sec, raced the anchor leg as his team was clocked in 16 min. 25.6 sec. for the 4-mi. relay. Hungary also filed claim for a 4-mi. relay record with a performance of 16 min. 25.1 sec.

Ray Norton, who

tied the loo-m.

mark

loo-yd. standard of 9.3 sec. several times, as the year's top sprinter. Bill

another

Penn

Woddhouse

who was caught at 9.3 sec. Woodhouse set

relays in April.

of 10. i sec. and the

won

general acclaim

of Abilene Christian,

for 100 yd., shone at the a games'

mark

of 9.5 sec.

and helped Abilene establish records in two relays for the Philadelphia show. Notable among the women's performances was the 54.3-sec. clocking for 440 yd. turned in by Betty Cuthbert in Australia. Norton, voted the meet's outstanding star, won both sprints at the national A.A.U. (Amateur Athletic union) title games in June. The Southern California Striders won team honours. Tennessee (State) A. & I. repeated as women's A.A.U. champion. Penn State added the I.C. 4-A (Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletics in America) crown to one it won indoors. Kansas capped a brilliant season by walking off with the National for 100 yd.

—

—

TRACKANDF lELD SPORTS

686

individual star of the meet, capturing the lOO- and 200-m. dashes

and running anchor U.S.

won

men

leg for the

women

took 14 of their 22 events, while the Russian

8 of their 10 contests.

Indoor Seoson.

— The

jumped 6 ft. ii| Columbus games

campaign on the boards proved the

with 8 world records bettered.

greati'sl in history

in.,

highest ever indoors,

Boston on Jan.

at

17.

Thomas

high

the Knights of

in

Under A.A.U.

rules,

to the next lowest

which cut lower fractions of an inch

this tirst

i-in.,

Thomas' mark was put at 6 ft. n^ in. The listed standard of 6 io| in. was set in 1953. Ron Delany of Ireland won the mile

ft.

in

vault at 15

Namo,

New

llndoon.

York

Winder, Morgan Sfalo

E.

Gilberl,

1000 yd

Z.

I'mi.

R.

l.mi.

wolk

Pole vault

Team

New

-mi.

6 min. 42.2

see.

2-ml. relay

medley relay

35.lb. weight throw

....

Broad jump 16-lb, shot-put

High jump

3 min. 16.6 sect

7 1

39.8

min.

lee.

min. 53.2 see.

66 ft. 2% in.* 25 ft. '/, in. 62«t. P/4in.'

7

1

(I.

5

1

in."

'/4

ft.

in.

1

1

2

York A.C.

Event

20-km. run 25-km. run Marathon

.

8.

MocDonald

.

.

.

R.

.

.

.

.

Holuio Holuio

.

.

.

.

Sipoi Sipos

Voncouver Olympic Vancouver Olympic

Denman

N.Y. Pioneer club

J.

T.Ryan

walk.

20-km. walk 25-km. walk 30-km. walk 35- km. wolk 50-km. wolk

.

.

.... .

.

.

.

Ouonlico Marines

R. F.

F. E.

4 min. 8 6 hr. 1 8 21 min. 54,4 1 1 mi. 3 4 Fleming, J. Kopil) 49 min. 42 hr.

1

1

2

hr.

1

M.

min. 34 2 hr, 1 4 min. 4 club 2 hr. 44 min. 20 club 3 hr. 12 min. 44.4 5 hr. 7 min. 47 1

hr.

32

sec.

min. tec.

yd. see. sec. sec.

sec. sec.

sec.

Other moior A.A.U. Oiidoor Chomoion), 1959 Decathlon Pentathlon All-around Women's pentathlon

C.

Yang

Formosa

D.

Farmer Pogoni

Orinda, Calif. New York A.C, Elmdole, Kon,

T. .

A. Roniger

7,549 3,194 7,874 4,075

pis. pis.

pli. pll.

pll.

'/j

record. (C. Pratt,

Table IV.— (.C.4-A Championships,

8%

100 m. 200 m

R.

400 m. 800 m 1,500 m

E.

R.

T.

Norton, Santo Clara Youth Villoge Norton, Soma Clara Youth Village Southern, Texas Murphy, New York A.C.

D. Burleson, Oregon B. Dellinger, U.S. Air Force M. Truex, So. Colifornia Striders

5,000 m 10,000 m

....

10-m. high hurdles

400-m. hurdles 200-m. low hurdles

.

.

3,000-m. steeplechose 3,000-m. wolk throw. Javelin throw Discus throw High jump Shot-put

.

.

.

P.

.

.

.

E.

.

.

Hop

step and jump Broad iump 56-lb. weight throw

.

.

.

Team •Meet record. (Brogg, U.S. Marines, tied

in

R.

20.8 sec. 46,1 sec, min. 47.9 sec. 1 3 min. 47.5 see.' 4 min. 47.6 sec. 3 1 min. 22.4 sec. I

Usee.

Colhoun, North Carolina A.A.

D. Howard, New Mexico C. Tidwell, unottoched

.

Pole vault

Hommer

L.

D. H. A. A. C.

0.5 sec.

1

50.7 see. 22.6 sec*

Coleman, Chicago Track club Denman, New York Pioneer club Brogg, U.S. Army

Connolly, So. Colifornia Striders Conlello, U.S. Marines Oerter, New York A.C. Dumas, So. California Striders P. O'Brien, So. Colifornia Striders Pioneer club I. Dovis, Philodelphia G. Bell, Fort Wayne A.C. B. Backus, New York A.C. Striders So. Colifornio

Morris, Siriders, 1 5 ft. 3

pole vault at

J.

Graham, Oklahoma

in.,

places

in

order

Stole,

1

9 min. 1 9.3 see. 3 min. 52.2 see. ft. 3 in. 1 5

216 ft. 10 in. 246 ft. 9 in. 186 ft. 5 rn.' 6

9

ft.

60-yd. high hurdlei

A.

600-yd 1,000 yd

J.

Slock, Yale

E.

Moron, Penn State Close, St. Johns (Brooklyn) Engelbrink, Penn Stole

New

mi

1

P.

2 mi.

R.

Pittsburgh (Z. Smith,

-mi. relay

1

C. Shine, Pennsylvonia E. Keerd, Boston U.

M. Herman,

lltidoors,

Washington, D.C.,

1

....

New

C. Stead, Villonovo

Pole vault

3.

High jump

Broad jump

Team lOutdoors,

100 220 440 880

New

yd yd yd yd

Basketball throw.

4-km. shot-put.

.

.

.

.

.

|eom (Flynn, Terry

Wood, Queens Mercuretles M. Lorney, Queens Mercuretles

A.

Tennessee A.

&

C,

1 mi 2 mi

.

.

20 yd. high hurdles -mi. relay

York

city,

Moy

60 m 100 m 200 m

400 m 800 m

K. Poison, Spolon A.C. G. Butcher, Clevelond Mogyor A.C.

80-m. hurdles 400-m. relay

S. Crowder, Tennessee A. & I. Tennessee A. 8, 1. A team (M. Hudson, I. Daniels, W. Rudolph, I. Williams) E. Brown, Sporton A.C. E. Brown, Spartan A.C, M. lorney. Queens Mercurettes M. Motthews. Tennessee A. i I. I. Josefson, Sporton A.C. Tennessee A. 8. I.

.

Team "Championship record.

in.

in.

1

ft.

B'/j in.

fl.

7V4

6

'A pis.

1

J.

J.

in.

on

first

T. Toil,

208

Pole voull

Andersen, Maryland Penn Slate

1

I.

B.

Table V.

N.C.A.A. Championships, lOu'do

100 220 440 880

,

Line

,

Ne

C. Tidwell, Konsi R. Norton, Son Ji E. Southern, Tex
Tnents, on their assessments toward the cost of maintaining

ting the term

re-

the

UN

Emergency

force

(UNEF)

;

$22,500,000 of $55,200,000

_l

—

UNITED NATIONS due had not been paid on May 31, 1959. The problem created by arrears in the payment of assessments for the regular budget may be illustrated by the fact that on Nov. 4, 1959, China still owed $2,167,929 for 1958, and China, France and the U.S.S.R. together owed $7,648,020 for 1959. On

Nov. 4, 1959, there were 24 nations that had made no payment toward the 1957 assessment for UNREF (United Nations Ref-

701 disarmament committee other major proposals, was

resolution, transmitting to the ten-nation

Khrushchev proposal and

the

sponsored by

On Nov.

members

all

all

of the genera! assembly.

1958, the general assembly urged the cessation of

4,

nuclear weapons' testing during the negotiations that were then progress in Geneva. These negotiations were again under

in

way

others in both groups refused to

in Nov. 1959. The general assembly in 1959 was asked by Morocco to consider the problem of proposed French tests of atomic weapons in the Sahara desert. Outer Space. An ad hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space was established by the general assembly on

pay, claiming that the cost of the

Emergency force should be paid by France, Israel and the United Kingdom. Eight Latin-

Dec. 13, 1958, but Czechoslovakia, India, Poland, the United Arab Republic and the U.S.S.R. refused to participate. The com-

American states paid their UNEF assessments; live refused to make any payment (Argentina, Bolivia, El Salvador, Panama and Paraguay and eight had made only partial payments for

mittee met from

ugees fund), 37 that had made no payment for 1958 and 52 that had not paid for 1959. Only Yugoslavia among the communist

and Morocco and Tunisia among the Arabs, had paid

states,

UNEF

their

assessments;

all

;

)

1957 (Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela). Ethiopia, Greece, the Philippines and

made no payment toward UNEF, and Afghanistan, China and Nepal had made only partial payments for 1957. Spain had

1959

Amounfs Assessed

$51,812,850 1,800,000 25,000,000 78,612,850

Regular budget Supplementory UN Emergency force • Sublolol

Income Provided Voluntarily Technical ossistance Special Fund for

program

Economic Development

.

.

$50,293,900

— 32,672,726 23,007,601

High commissioner fort refugees Subtotal

?

$19,000,000

UN Refugee

The do

to

pay

question as to

38,720,000 ?

90 governments

assessments

for

members should whether members intended

UN

might be necessary

to

borrow money

charter.

in

ary or March i960 in order to carry on the work of the

Febru-

UN, and

accordingly again requested an increase of the Working Capital

fund

to $30,000,000.

Table Working

Arrears

III.

in

$61,142

1957 1958 1959 1957 1958 1959

Regular budget

UNEF budget

$

65,652 2,637,955 12,050,035 4,372,636 8,468,373 6,626,070

Total

195S, the general

assembly approved several resolutions on the subject, chief of

which was one enlarging the Disarmament commission to include

members of the UN. On Sept. 7, 1959, the Big Four powers requested the secretary-general to convene the commission, which

all

met on Sept. 10 and unanimously welcomed the ten-nation disarmament committee established by the Big Four at Geneva, Switz., but with the recognition that ultimate responsibility for

general disarmament was vested in the

UN. On

Sept.

18 the

Soviet premier. Nikita Khrushchev, proposed to the general as-

sembly

a

Sheikh, where the approxi-

Colombian battalion in the autumn of 1958 was compensated by increases in the contingents from the seven states that continued to supply forces: Brazil, Canada, Denmark, India, Norway, Sweden and Yugoslavia. The failure of states to pay their assessments toward the cost of UNEF was a cause of concern. It was recalled that in 1956 the members of the general assembly had decided (by a vote of 62 to 8, with 7 abstentions) that the costs of UNEF should be borne by all members of the organization in accordance with the scale of assessments for the regular

budget.

was 42

On Dec. to 9,

—

13, 195S, the

vote on financing

system of complete and universal disarmament.

A

UNEF

for i960

with 27 abstentions.

Korea. On July 31, 1958. the UN Commission on the Uniand Rehabilitation of Korea (UNCURK) submitted a report covering two years, which noted that the commission had been unable to observe elections in North Korea in 1958, but that it had observed elections in South Korea on May 21, 1958. On Oct. 28, 1958, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea announced that all Chinese People's Republic "volunteers" had fication

10,

with the concurrence of the Chinese

People's Republic and the U.S.S.R., stated that conditions were

withdrawn. On Nov.

14, the general

free" elections and continued 19,467,079 $34,281,863

—

4,

el

were stationed. The withdrawal of

favourable for free all-Korean elections 14,753,642

Armaments Regulation. During 1959 discussion of the problem of regulation of armaments was, for all practical purUN. On Nov.

Sharm

UNEF

the

UN

The pleting

poses, conducted outside of the

of

withdrawn, and on Nov.

Payments of Assessments as of Ocfober 31, 1959

capital fund

men

for

all

to respect the obligations contained in art. 17 of the

it

recommended on

—

32,895,000 22,500,000

Unless there was some significant change, the secretary-general estimated that

1958,

United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF). Virtually unbroken quiet prevailed during 1959 in the Gaza strip, on the Israel-Egypt border and at

their

on Government Re-

years the resumption of consideration of the matter.

mately 5,400

after a general assembly decision that

so, raised a serious

1957, after not meeting in

32,034,303

fund {UNREF) and other specidi programs such

of governments

failure

—The Committee

on the Question of Defining Aggression which was estab-

29,128,400

as the World Refugee year.

UNEF,

Defining Aggression.

29,872,759

1959.

in

co-operation and authorize a small unit in the secretariat with limited functions.

25,781,277

•Voluntary contributions totaling United States in 1959 reduced the original assessment of $19,000,000. tOf this incoine, 87 governments contributed $19,966,000 in 1958 and {Includes contributions to the

UN

?

18,916,000

? 5,200,000 4,928,675 92,188,230 115,977,711 ? $170,801,080 $181,412,551 ? $3,785,000 by Irelond, Japan, United Kingdom and

TOTAL

6 to

April 22, 1959, that the general assembly postpone for three

for

Ciiildren's fundt

contributed

Members

$49,359,840 870,000 15,205,000 65,434,840 by Members

31,307,903

...

.

and Works Agency Polestine Refugees

Relief

June 25, 1959, and adopted a report agency to deal with the subject was not yet necessary, but that the general assembly should create a body to study ways and means of implementing international

lished in

1960

Agoifist

May

which concluded that a

plies

Table II.— UN Finances, 1958-1960 1958

—

if all

foreign troops were

assembly urged "genuinely

UNCURK

Korean Reconstruction agency

for another year.

(UNKRA)

was com-

but stressed the need for additional aid to

its activities,

the Republic of Korea,

UN

combat troops, composed of Thai, Turkish and United Korea in 1959. The Truce Supervision organization entered its Palestine. nth year with the number of observers increased from 77 to 105. The secretary-general continued to try to find some areas

The

States units, entered their tenth year of duty in

—

of agreement that might lead to a settlement in the region, but his conclusion in

be reported."

Aug. 1959 was that

The

15. 1958. considered,

against the United

peak of

or no progress can

but took no action on, Israeli complaints

Arab Republic.

Lebanon-Jordan. at the

"little

Security council in meetings on Dec. 8 and

—The

UN

its activities in

Observation group

in

Lebanon

1958 included 591 observers and

whether the decision to dispatch the subcommittee was a pro-

The

cedural or a substantive question.

representative of the

U.S.S.R. contended that the council's meeting had been called

m

violation of the rules of procedure because the secretary-

general had not invoked his right under art. 99. This argument

was overruled by the president of the council. As to the dispatch of the subcommittee, the U.S.S.R. representative argued that the voting on the establishment of such a group should be governed by par. 4 of the June 7, 1945, Statement oj the Sponsoring Powers ('China, U.S.S.R., United Kingdom and United States), in which it was agreed that "decisions and actions by the Security council may well have major political consequences and may even initiate a chain of events." For this reason, the Statement continued, decisions to make an investigation would require the affirmative vote of all the permanent members of the Security council. The decision to send a

subcommittee to Laos, therefore required the affirmative vote of the permanent members of the council.

all

JAPANESE IMPERIAL. DANCERS

rehearsing a traditional samurai dance to be performed for a select diplomatic audience In the United Nations general assembly hall May 25, 1959

The other permanent members

of the council argued that the

establishment of the subcommittee was governed by par. the Statement which provided that

The United

Other personnel from 21 countries.

States troops in

it

countries were sufficiently normal so that the Security council

The president then

deleted the Lebanese complaint from

organs under

the last observers left Beirut.

The

agenda, and by Dec. 9 office of the special repre-

Amman,

sentative of the secretary-general in

created by the

general assembly on Aug. 21, 1958, was continued, but the sup-

porting communication offices provided for in Beirut and Da-

mascus were never Suez Canal.

United Arab Republic continued to close

the canal to shipping to

and from

the right to do so as a belligerent. to the general

may

assembly on Sept.

Algeria.

Israel,

Both 24,

contending that

it

had

sides presented their case

1959. During the year the

but apparently without

1959, the

— A draft resolution

recognizing the right of the Al-

defeated by the general assembly on Dec.

result.

government of Laos addressed a

note to the secretary-general

concerning

its

difficulties

the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. This was followed

with

by quiet

diplomatic consultations between the secretary-general, the rep-

On Sept. 4 the secretarj'-general received another communication requesting resentative of Laos and others directly concerned.

1958,

13,

by a vote

of 35 in favour to 18 against, with 28 abstentions. The item was included on the agenda of the 14th session of the general

assembly tion.

4,

ruled that the establishment of subsidiary

art. 29 of the

gerian people to independence, and urging the two parties con-

Arab Republic and

—On Aug.

of the

charter was a procedural matter. He was supported by all members of the council except the U.S.S.R., which was thus blocked from applying a "double vote."

that there

Laos.

members

was the establishment of "such bodies or agencies as deem necessary for the performance of its functions."

secretary-general negotiated with the governments of the United Israel,

of

cerned to negotiate with a view to reaching a solution, was

instituted.

—The

council,

2

the matters, on which

council decisions would be taken by any seven

Lebanon were withdrawn by Oct. 25, 1958, and the British troops in Jordan by Nov. 2, 1958. By Nov. 25, conditions in both its

among

members who contended

in 1959, at the request of 25

had been "no indication of improvement"

made

This submission was, however,

de Gaulle's statement of Sept.

16,

in the situa-

prior to Pres. Charles

concerning

1959,

French

policy toward Algeria.

Thailand-Cambodia.

—On Dec.

22, 1958, the secretary-gen-

announced that the governments of Thailand and Cambodia had invited him to send a representative to assist them in finding a solution to the difficulties which had culminated in the mutual eral

the speedy dispatch of an emergency force to "halt aggression."

withdrawal of their ambassadors. The secretary-general desig-

On

and discuss

nated Ambassador Johan Beck-Friis of Sweden as his special

the secretary-general's report on the Laotian request, with the

representative, with the result that the two governments announced that they would re-establish diplomatic relations on

Sept. 7 the Security council

met twice

to hear

subcommittee consisting of representatives from Argentina, Italy, Japan and Tunisia was sent to Laos to "conduct result that a

such inquiries as

Under

it

may

determine necessary."

Feb. 20, 1959. Tibet.

—On

Sept. 9, 1959. the Dalai

Lama

cabled the secretary-

the chairmanship of .Embassador Shinichi Shibuzawa of

general asking that the general assembly consider charges of ag-

Japan, the subcommittee arrived in Laos on Sept. 15 and returned to New York on Oct. 21. On Nov. 5 the subcommittee

gression by the Chinese People's Republic against Tibet. At

reported that the evidence "did not clearly establish" whether

assembly agreed on Oct.

from the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) had crossed into Laos, but that there was evidence of organized guerrilla warfare co-ordinated from a common centre

on the agenda of the 14th session.

and supported by arms from North Vietnam. On Nov. 10 the secretar>'-general flew to Laos at the request of the Laotian

the continued repression in

government,

the Soviet Union and the authorities in

troops

in order to obtain fuller

information that he could

use in determining whether or not to establish a

UN

special

representative's office in Laos.

the request of Ireland and the Federation of Malaya, the general

Hungary.

Security council engaged in an important procedural debate.

The

were whether the secretary-general had the right report on the Laotian request of Sept. 4 without invoking the

12, 195S, the general

question of Tibet

assembly (by

a vote

of 54 to 10. with 15 abstentions) adopted a resolution deploring

the execution of Irhre

Hungary

Nagy and

of

human

rights,

denounced

Pal Maleter, again called upon

Hungary

to desist

from

repressive measures against the Hungarian people, and appointed Sir Leslie

In reaching the decision to dispatch the subcommittee the

—On Dec.

12, 1959, to place the

significant eral

Munro

to represent the

developments relating

United Nations and report on to the

assembly resolutions on Hungar>'.

implementation of gen-

On Dec.

13. the general

issues involved

assembly decided (by

to

"take no decision regarding the credentials submitted on behalf

authority granted to him under art.

702

99 of the charter, and

a vote of 79 to

of the representative of

Hungary."

i,

with

Sir Leslie

i

abstention) to

was not permitted

UNITED NATIONS Hungary and was

to enter

Nations late

to report to the

members

of the United

in 1959.

—At

703

On

Sept. 29, 1959, Ricardo J. Alfaro of the International Court of Justice.

was elected

a

member

—

in Libya, as a special representative to assist the

International Law Commission. During its nth session, from April 20 to June 25, 1959, the commission continued its work on state responsibility, the law of treaties and consular intercourse and immunities.

Guinea in careful and co-ordinated planning of the activities of the United Nations "family" to provide for effective assistance.

ment of acceptance

Guinea.

the request of the government of Guinea, the

secretary-general on July

European

director of the

1959, appointed Adrian Pelt, former

8,

office

—After

and United Nations commissioner government of

meeting from March 24 to April

—

Reservations to Multilateral Conventions. India's instruof the Convention on the Intergovernmental

Future Statelessness adjourned without adopting a convention.

Maritime Consultative organization (IMCO), which contained certain reservations, was deposited at the UN on Jan. 6, 1959. On Jan. 13, the assembly of IMCO requested the secretary-

On

general to circulate India's instrument of acceptance, with the

Sfatelessness.

UN

1959, the

(Knud Larsen

April 16 the president

when

18,

Conference on the Elimination or Reduction of of

Denmark)

resigned

the conference adopted a provisional text which he con-

sidered would

mean

that

states could continue to be free to

all

deprive persons of their nationality.

—On Nov.

The International Court of Justice. were seven cases under consideration by

i,

1959, there

the court, another seven

members

reservations, to

of the United Nations.

secretary-general wrote to members, saying that to the declaration from a state party was received, India would be listed as

to the

if

On

Feb. 6 the

"no objection

IMCO

convention"

a party to the convention,

India asked the 14th session of the general assembly to "pro-

having been disposed of during the preceding 12 months. In the

nounce

Interhandel Case {Switzerland v. United States) the court on

secretary-general in discharging his function as the depository of

March

instruments of ratification of multilateral instruments. At issue

1959, decided that the dispute

21,

must be decided

was a matter which and rules of inter-

in the light of the principles

national law. In so doing

rejected the United States objection

it

was a matter within the domestic jurisdiction of the United States. The court went on to decide that it had no jurisdiction in the case because Interhandel had not exhausted the remedies available to it in United States courts. that the dispute

itself clearly"

on the principles

to be followed

by the

was the question of whether or not the secretary-general should accept instruments of ratification

when they contained

unilateral

reservations to conventions.

—

removed from the list because the had no jurisdiction in view of the failure of Bulgaria and the U.S.S.R. to accept the compulsory jurisdic-

Special Fund tor Economic Development. The general assembly established the Special Fund on Oct. 14, 1958, and on Oct. 24 the sum of $21,500,000 was pledged by 41 governments. On Oct. 28 the 18 members of the governing council were elected by the Economic and Social council, and on Dec. 5 the general assembly confirmed the appointment of Paul G. Hoffman as managing director of the Special Fund. When the governing board met May 26-28, 1959, it was reported that 75 governments had made requests totaling $81,000,000 and that $26,000,000 was available to meet the first year's goal of $66,000,000. By Nov. 1959 the available funds had been increased to $32,000,000. Technical Assistance. The expanded program of technical

tion of the court: the Cases Concerning the Aerial Incident of

assistance completed

the 27 Jidy 195s {Israel and United Kingdom v. Bidgaria) Cases Concerning the Aerial Incident of 4 September 1Q54 {United States v. U.S.S.R.) and the Aerial Incident of Nov. 7,

000

On Nov.

28, 1958, the

lands against

Sweden

court rejected the claim of the Nether-

Case Concerning the Application of

in the

the Convention of IQ02 Governing the Guardianship of Infants.

Judgment was rendered

in favour of Belgium on June 20, 1959, Case Cottcerning Sovereignty over Certain Frontier Lands

in the

{Belgium

v.

Netherlands).

The following

cases were

court considered that

it

;

;

jgS4 {United States stituted on July Still

7,

v. U.S.S.R.).

The

pending were four cases

:

Award made by

1906 {Honduras

v.

had been

in-

the Right of Passage over Indian

Territory Case {Portugal v. India) Arbitral

latter case

1959.

the

;

the Case Concerning the

King of Spain on 23 December

Nicaragua); the Case Concerning the Barce-

lona Traction, Light and

Power Company, Ltd. {Belgium

v.

and the Case Concerning the Aerial Incident of 26 July 7955 {United States v. Bulgaria). Three new cases, in addition to the Aerial Incident of Nov. 7, 1954, were brought to the court in 1959. On Jan. 19 the assembly of the International Maritime Consultative organization (IMCO) requested an advisory opinion as to whether the Maritime Safety Spain)

;

committee had been elected establishing

venience"

in

IMCO. At

in

accordance with the convention

was the question of "flags of conconnection with whether the largest ship-owning issue

nations should be determined by national flag or national ownership.

Under the former concept, Liberia would rank

Panama

eighth

among

third

and

the largest ship-owning nations and con-

sequently be eligible for membership on the committee.

—

in

its

loth year after having spent $245,000,-

140 countries and

territories, including the provision of

8,000 experts and 14,000 fellowships.

By

1959 there were 85

countries supporting the program.

On Nov.

I,

.1958, the general

assembly approved an experi-

mental program to provide governments upon request with operation, executive and administrative experts (OPEX). By Aug. 1959 the secretary-general, the leading proponent of

OPEX, had

received 90 requests from 28 countries for this type of assistance.

The funds available for gram in 1959 amounted

the expanded technical assistance pro-

to about $1,500,000 less than in 1958, probably because of the creation of the Special Fund for Eco-

nomic Development. Commodity Trade. On Dec. 12, 1958, the general assembly approved the decision of the Economic and Social council to reconstitute and make more effective the Commission on International Commodity Trade. This step was part of a much broader program of activities concerning commodity trade. In 1955 the

—

UN

began to move into the area of international regulation of

commodity

trade, hitherto the function of specialized interna-

and intergovernmental organizations. UN conferences were held which dealt with olive oil (1955 and 1958), copper (1958), lead and zinc (1958), sugar (1958) and wheat (1958 and 1959). The UN Wheat conference met from Jan. 26 to March 10, 1959, tional

On Feb. 13 France charged that the government of Lebanon had unilaterally altered customs and tax exemptions, which had been provided for in an agreement of Jan. 24, 194S, enjoyed by the Compagnie du Port, des Quais et des Entrepots de Beyreuth

and established a new International Wheat creased powers and functions.

and by the Societe Radio-Orient. On Oct. 6 Cambodia instituted

transmitted to the 14th session of the general assembly by the

proceedings against Thailand in connection with the alleged sta-

Economic and

tioning of Thai troops in the area of the temple of Preah Vihear.

Children.

—A

with

in-

draft Declaration of the Rights of the Child

was completed by the Social and

UN

council,

Human

Rights commissions, and

Social council.

Children's

Fund (t/W/C£/^).— Children

in 105 countries

—

:

UNITED NATIONS

704

were assisted by 368 projects that cost about $27,000,000 in 1959. In its efforts to improve children's nutrition, UNICEF found it necessary to devote more attention to such problems as com-

munity development, social services and the improvement of training for primary school teachers. There was some concern as to whether the steady increase in UNICEF's resources would

12%

keep pace with the anticipated

during the succeeding five years

UNICEF

Narcofic Drugs.

the

countries

receiving

— The long struggle by international agencies

illicit

moved

narcotic drugs

in

traffic

into a

new

1959 when the 28th session of the Economic and Social

in

recommended

council

in

aid.

to reduce the

phase

increase in child population

that

the

assembly include the

general

cost of technical assistance for narcotics control in the regular,

UN.

rather than the voluntary, budget of the

The

land suggested that a UN-supervised plebiscite be held in 1960, and that the general assembly in 1961 might terminate the trusteeship agreement.

The resumed

ern and southern areas of the British Cameroons.

portant source of the

illicit

If all of these

measures were completed there would be only by 1962: Tanganyika f United Kingdom), (Belgium), New Guinea (Australia), Nauru

The problem

Territory of the Pacific Islands (United States).

instance was whether the

members

of the

of sufficient importance to accept

as a regular budget obligation the cost of assisting relatively few

members

to control production within their

own

territories (in-

cluding the cost of measures designed to assist farmers to produce

crops other than the poppy").

Refugees.

— A concerted world-wide attack on the problem of recommended by

refugees was

when

the general assembly on Dec.

5,

approved a United Kingdom proposal for a World Refugee year to begin on June i, 1959. The purpose of the year was to focus attention on the problem and to encourage addi1958,

it

tional contributions for its solution.

The

UN

for refugees, Auguste R. Lindt, reported

high commissioner on June 15 that the

population of the refugee camps had been reduced the

first

17%

during

four months of 1959.

By September. 54 governments had pledged support of one kind or another to the Refugee year, including a special contribuby the United States. no progress had been made

tine refugees,

in resettling the Pales-

but the secretary-general recommended the con-

tinuation of the

UN

Relief and

New

Zealand) and the Trust

—

Nonself-Soverning Territories. The loth session of the Committee on Information from Nonself-goveming Territories was held April 20-May 14, 1959, and gave special consideration to educational conditions in the territories. It was found that there had been an appreciable increase in educational facilities

many

territories,

but the committee believed that an accelera-

tion in the pace of

development was necessary. The committee

in

noted the absence of reports from Portugal and Spain on their territories.

The United

States reported that

it

would no longer

report on .Maska and Hawaii which had been granted statehood;

France reported that the

New

Hebrides had achieved self-govern-

ment.

—

Nongovernmental Organizations. Five organizations were added to the "B" category of consultative status with the Economic and Social council the International Association of Plan:

ning Societies, the International Association for Social Progress,

Women's World Federation of

the International Federation of Social Workers, the

tion of $1,630,000 Little or

9,

five trust territories

Ruanda-Urundi (United Kingdom. Australia and

illicit traffic

13,

tions to be put to the people, as well as the voting qualifications.

opium poppy remained an imtraffic, and the governments directly

concerned needed more help than could be provided through the

UN' considered the

On Nov.

it

various a.ssistance programs financed by voluntary contributions. in this

March

was announced that the people of the northern area had decided by a vote of 67,879 to 41.113 that they wished to remain under the trusteeship system for an unspecified time, rather than join with Nigeria, which was to become independent in 1960. Because the wishes of the people in the southern area were not clear, the general assembly decided that a plebiscite there should not be held until after Dec. 1959 but before .^pril i960, and that the 14th session of the general assembly should decide the ques1959,

cultivation of the

illicit

session of the i3lh general assembly on

1959, proposed separate UN-supervised plebiscites for the north-

Works agency

for as long as

needed.

—

The Trusteeship Sys+enn. During the year, important steps were taken that were expected to lead to complete independence

International Zionist organization and the the Deaf.

The World Federation

of Trade Unions discontinued

the practice of maintaining an observer at the

UN

headquarters.

At the request of the Economic and Social council, the secretarygeneral convened a second Conference of Nongovernmental Organizations Interested in the Eradication of Prejudice and Dis-

Cameroun, Togo and Somalia during i960, and Western in 1961. On Nov. 14, 1958, the general assembly congratulated France and Togo on an agreement that would bring independence to French Togo on April 27, i960. The resumed

having consultative status.

March 13, 1959. agreed that the trusteeship agreement for Cameroun should be terminated on Jan. i. i960, and that the new state should be recommended for membership in the UN.

The "family" of 13 organizations related to the UN was increased in 1959 by the addition of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative organization. The number of members in almost all

tor

Samoa

13th session of the general assembly, on

On

Dec.

13,

1958,

the general assembly urged

Italy

and

Ethiopia to agree upon an independent person to assist in drafting the terms of reference for arbitration of a border dispute

concerning Somalia and, failing to agree, to accept a person appointed by the king of Norway. The two states having failed to agree upon an independent person, the king of

Norway appointed

Trygve Lie. the former secretary-general of the UN. The general assembly also agreed that Somalia should achieve full independence by Dec. 2, i960, or earlier if the Somali government or legislative assembly so requested. In 1959, only defense and foreign affairs remained in Italian hands.

The Trusteeship council's visiting mission to Western Samoa (March 25-April 17, 1959) received a tentative timetable for the independence of that territory. The government of New Zea-

crimination.

The conference met

Geneva. Switz., from June 22 to 26, by representatives of 84 organizations

in

1959, and was attended

Intergovernmental Organizations Related to the UN.

the organizations increased during the year.

During 1959 the following organizations were in operation (membership figures are as of Oct. 5, 1959) Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO). Headquarters in Rome, Italy; Binay R. Sen, director-general; 76 members. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Headquarters in \"ienna, Aus.; Sterling Cole, director-general; 69 members. Organization Intergovern/nental Maritime Consultative (IMCO). Headquarters in London. Eng. Ove Nielsen, secretary-general; 35 members.

—

—

—

;

International Pittance Corporation (!FC).

Washington, D.C.;

— Headquarters

Robert L. Garner, director-general.

in

(See

separate article.) International

Bank

for

Reconstruction

and Development

UNITED STATES (IBRD).

—Headquarters

in

Washington, D.C.; Eugene R. Black,

president. (See separate article.)

International

Labour Organization (ILO).

—Headquarters

in

Geneva, Switz.; David A. Morse, director-general. (See separate article.)

International

Monetary

Fund

(IMF).

—Headquarters

in

Washington, D.C.; Per Jacobsson, managing director. (See separate article.)

International Civil Aviation Organization

(ICAO).

M. Macdonnell,

quarters in Montreal, Que.; Ronald general; 74 members.

International

Union

Telecommunications

—Head-

secretary-

(ITU).

—Head-

quarters in Geneva. Switz.; Gerald C. Ross, acting secretarygeneral; 96 ['.V

members.

Educational,

(UXESCO).

Scientific

—Headquarters

SwiLz.;

Organization

Cultural

France; \'ittorino Vero-

Si members.

nese, director-general;

Universal Postal

and

in Paris.

Union

(UPU).

—Headquarters

in

Berne,

Fritz Hess, director of the international bureau;

100

members.

World Health Organization (IVHO).

—Headquarters

neva, SwiLz.; Marcolino G. Candau, director-general; 87

in

Ge-

mem-

bers.

—

in

World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Headquarters Geneva. Switz.; David A. Davies, secretary-general; 102 mem-

bers.

See also Atomic Energy; Child Welf.are; China; Educa-

Foreign Aid Programs, U.S.; International Law; Middle Eastern Affairs; X.arcotics; Refugees; Space ExPLOR.ATION; Trust Territories. (W. Cn.) tion;

llnitoH Qtotoc UllllcU OldlCo.

^^^^ federal republic in North America has

an area of 3.615,210 sq.mi., including 63,-

012 sq.mi. of inland water. Its population was 150.697.361 by the 1950 census

and 178.000.000 by the Dec. 1959 estimate. (The

area and the 1959 estimated population include the

and Hawaii. Territories and possessions are shown Table II.

of .\la5ka

in

Table

new

states

1

1

in

Table

I:

chief cities

705

UNITED STATES Soviet PreScenes from the visit to the U.S. by 1959 mier Nikita S. Khrushchev, Sept. 15-27. Ezra Ao/icuiture Top left: With U.S. Secretary of aoricultural Tafl Benson (left) at Beltsville, Md..

Washington. D.C. right: At Lincoln memorial. Khrushchev's host in Centre left: Rosv»ell Garst, Iowa throwing silage at newsmen escorting Eisenhower President left: Bottom Md.. Khrushchev iato a cabin at Camp David. informal talks with concluded was visit the where

Too

Bottom centre; At Bottom lining

a

luncheon

in

New York

city

crowd right: Sign held up by part of a Francisco route of motorcade through San

UNITED STATES

707

ment was reached during the 8o-day period for which they were ordered by the courts to go back to work. In 1959 congress passed the first major labour legislation to be enacted since the Taft-Hartley act became law in 1947. The 1959 legislation, known as the Landrum-Griffith bill, sought to

the domestic events of 1959, important as they may have been, were not nearly so significant to the future of the United States

prevent corruption in labour unions and to assure democratic

was awaited with interest because United States officials felt that he might have some new proposals to make on the question of the future of Berlin. Little more than a month before Mikoyan arrived in the United States Soviet Premier Khrushchev had warned the west that the Soviet Union would give it six months to remove western occupation forces from the city and to make

procedures within the unions. after a special senate

Demands

were the new directions of the country's foreign policy. In January Anastas I. Mikoyan, first deputy premier of the Soviet Union, visited the United States. His visit as

Foreigfi Policy.

for the legislation arose

committee headed by Sen. John McClellan

(D. Ark.) conducted a two-year investigation which exposed corrupt and questionable activities in the Teamsters union and sev-

Labour Unions; Strikes.) The Space Program. Man's efforts to learn more about

eral other unions. (See

—

Berlin a "free city." Khrushchev's statements were regarded throughout the west as an ultimatum and were one of the important reasons why President Eisenhower decided to pursue a

space continued in 1959, as did the race between the United States and the Soviet to

first

push

scientific

tiers of the universe.

lag

Union

to see

which nation could be the

instruments and even

The United

behind the Soviet Union

men

men

policy of personal diplomacy.

into the fron-

States continued, however, to

in the race into space.

United States selected seven

—

Although the

considered to have been useful. For the

ence OF 1959.)

around the moon and take a picture of the side of the moon which has never been seen by man and which had never before been photographed. The picture indicated, as one newspaper headline

sions during the late winter

that the other side of the moon is a rather dull and drab By the end of the year it was generally conceded that howmuch the United States had accomplished with its space

The

still

seemed

pital in

Washington

He

post.

died in

Table III.— Mo/or Legislation Passed by U.S. Congress

19431

Increases in Railroad Employee Benefits (Authorized increases in retirement and survivor benefits under the Railroad Retirement Act,- increases in unemployment ond sicliness benefits under the Railroad Unemployment Insuronce Act; and increoses in applicable lax rotesl Life Insuronce Company Income Tax Act of 1 959 (Provided a permonent basis for taxing the income of life insurance componiesl. Public Debt Act of 1959 (Authorized a temporary increase of the public debt limit to $295,000,000 until June 30, 1 960, and a permanent increase from $283,000,000 to $285,000,000)

1

to

expire June 30,

1

9591

.

Renegotiation Act Extension (Extended the Renegotiation Act of 1951 to June 30, 1962) Clayton Act Amendment (Amended the Cloyton Act to provide for finality of orders of the Federal Trade Commissionl Mutual Security Act of 1959 (Authorized the appropriation of $3,556,200,000 for U,S. economic, mililory and technicol ossistance to foreign nations in the period July 1, 1959— June 30, 1960) Inter-American Development Bonk Act (Provided for U.S. contribution to the copitol of the Inter-Americon Development Bonk under on agreement between 2 1 American republics)

Department of Defense Appropriation Act, 1960 (Appropriated $39,228,239,000 for U.S. armed forces

in

the period July

1

,

1

959— June

30,

1

960)

Veterons' Pension Act of 1959 (Enacted basic provisions to govern payment of pensions to veterans in need due to nonservice connected disabilities) Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 (Mode numerous labour low changes, including provisions for reports of union expenditures, tightening of secondory boycott curbs and restriction of picketing) Stote Taxation of Interstate Commerce (Restricted the power of the states to impose income taxes on income derived from interstate commerce)

Housing Act of 1959 (Enocted numerous provisions extending and amending lows relating to housing, including authorizotion of 37,000 public housing units in fiscal year ending June 30, 1 960, in addition to earlier unused outhorizotions)

in

I

959

House vote

(Authorized the odmission of Hawaii to the Union as the 50lh state)

,

Union

sions with the Soviet

Act

Tax Rote Extension Act of 1959 (Extended to July 960, corporate income tax ond excise tax rates due

far the strongest

man

in the presi-

had been allowed by Eisenhower

much

to

as he thought

should be conducted. Dulles did not trust the Russians and

it

Hawaii

1,

more

he believed that the United States should approach any discus-

)

1

May. By

conduct the country's foreign policy pretty

and other missiles into space. (See also Missiles; Space Exploration. But both the developments in the exploration of space and

Extension of Selective Service (Extended the Universal Military Training and Service Act to June

February U.S.

for an operation, his second in a little

dent's cabinet, the secretary

artificial satellites

for

spring. In

cancer had recurred and in April Dulles resigned his cabinet

program ap-

peared to be the failure of scientists and technicians in the United States to produce the tremendous rocket power needed to hurtle

Statehood

and early

than two years. In Nov. 1956, a cancerous portion of the secretary's colon had been removed. It was soon discovered that

to be leading the space

principal difficulty with the United States

time since the 1930s

Secretary of State John Foster Dulles entered Walter Reed hos-

it,

race.

first

Foreign policy continued to dominate thoughts and discus-

place.

programs, the Soviet Union

new

a high Soviet official

Mercury man-in-space program and began to put them through managed to send a rocket

ever

did not present any

had been able to see the United States for himself. (See Berlin; Geneva Foreign Ministers' Confer-

to participate in the Project

rigorous training, the Soviet Union

put

Mikoyan

proposals to the United States, however, although his visit was

in a

most cautious manner. Dulles

UNITED STATES

708

by Sen. Lyndon

Johnson CD. Texas), the senate J. Fulbright CD. Ark.) succeeded Sen. Theodore F. Green CD. R.I.) as chairman of the senate foreign relations committee. Sen. Green was 91 years old and the oldest man ever to serve in the senate. He resigned as chairman of the committee after he was criticized for failing to ^|)onsored

B.

i)emocratic leader. Sen. William

give proper leadership to

Late

in the spring,

it.

controversies in the senate over the nomi-

commerce and

nations of Lewis L. Strauss to be secretary of

Clare Boothe Luce to be United States ambassador to Brazil

JOHN FOSTER DULLES and

Sir

(rioht) ocsturina as visited Dulle

Winston Churchill, who

le

at

spoke to President Eisenhower

Waller Reed hospital, May

5,

1959

overshadowed such foreign policy developments as Vice-Pres. Richard M. Nixon's decision to go to Moscow in July to 0f)en a United States exhibit there and the plans for a Big Four foreign ministers conference in May in Geneva. Mrs. Luce was confirmed by the senate as ambassador to Brazil, but two days after her confirmation she resigned. Sen.

Wayne Morse CD.

Ore.) led the

attack on her qualifications, charging that she was too "politialso believed that the Soviet

of

its

own

Union would eventually collapse He was succeeded as secretary

dictatorial blunders.

of state by Christian A. Herter. a former

member

of congress

and governor of Massachusetts who had been undersecretary of state. A man well liked on Capitol Hill, Herter did not demonstrate

much

of the tenacity and toughness which were the hall-

marks of the diplomacy of Dulles. As the year w-ore on President Eisenhower took over more and more of the diplomatic functions which he had delegated to Dulles. Other developments affecting foreign policy in the late winter and early spring included visits to the United States by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan of Great Britain, Mayor Willy Brandt of West Berlin and King Hussein of Jordan and a trip to Mexico by President Eisenhower. In April Fidel Castro of Cuba arrived in Washington to address a meeting of American editors. Castro, who had overthrown the dictatorial Batista regime on Jan. i, was still regarded in April as a man who would

democracy in Cuba, but by the end of the year United were bitterly disappointed with Castro, who seemed to be leading Cuba down the same discouraging demagogic road as Batista and its other strong men of the 20th century had done. Desegregation. One of the most significant domestic events in the United States during these months was the final breakdown build a States

officials

—

of \'irginia's "massive resistance'' to desegregation. In February,

which marked the 150th anniversary of the birth of Abraham Lincoln, schools in two Virginia communities, Norfolk and Arlington, were desegregated. In August the four high schools in Little

Rock, Ark., which had been closed by a desegregation

dispute during the 1958-1959 school year, were reopened without incident and without interference

from Gov. Orval E. Faubus

of Arkansas. (See Civil Rights.)

The Congressional Session.

—While Mikoyan was

visiting the

cal" a person to send abroad as an ambassador. Early in the

Eisenhower administration Mrs. Luce had served as ambassador to Italy. The senate, however, refused to confirm the nomination of Strauss, a former chairman of the Atomic Energy commission, following several weeks of hearings on his qualifications by the

commerce committee. The opposition to Strauss was led by Sen. Clinton P. Anderson CD. N.M.) and was based largely on a belief held by many senators that Strauss had not been frank in his dealings with them over the years. It was the first time that a cabinet nomination had been turned down by the senate

senate since 1925 B.

Warren

when

the senate refused to confirm Charles

as Pres. Calvin Coolidge's attorney general.

In 1959, for the

time since 1912 when Arizona became

first

the 48th state, the union was enlarged

by the admission of the

49th and soth states. Although congress had approved the admission of Alaska in 1958, Alaska did not formally become a state until in Jan. 1959. In the spring of 1959 congress also voted statehood for Hawaii, and Hawaii was officially admitted to the

union as the 50th state

in

August. The admission of both

Hawaii and Alaska climaxed 50 years of effort by the people of the two new states to gain admission to the union. In the fall a special house subcommittee held a series of hearings which revealed that many of the television quiz programs which had been so popular since 1955 had been rigged. Several contestants including the most famous one, Charles Van Doren

—admitted

—

subcommittee that not only had they been and answers in advance of their appearances, but they had also been coached in the way they should grimace to the

told the questions

in giving the answers.

Meanwhile, as June gave way to July, congress became bogged in a session which did not adjourn until September and which was the longest since 1950, the year that the Korean war

down

began.

The

inability of the foreign ministers of the

United States,

congress. In his State of the

and the Soviet Union to reach agreement at Geneva generated pessimism in Washington, even though the May 27 ultimatum deadline that Soviet Premier Khrushchev had set for a Berlin settlement had passed almost unnoticed. But

Union message President Eisenhower stressed the need for economy in government, an issue which dominated much of the ses-

soon after the Geneva talks recessed in June it became apparent that President Eisenhower was going to disregard the many sol-

United States

in

January, the

first

session of the 86th congress,

with an overwhelming Democratic majority in both the senate

and the house, got under way. There was an unusual amount of activity for the first

month

of a

new

sion of the congress. Rep. Joseph

who had been

W.

Martin,

Jr.

(R. Mass."),

the leader of the Republicans in the house for 20

years, lost his post to Rep. Charles A. Halleck (R. Ind.) after

Britain, France

emn warnings

of Secretary Dulles against dealing directly with

the Soviet Union and that the president would

preme

effort before his

second term of

office

make

Republican representatives decided that they wanted a more ag-

196 1, to reach a rapprochement with the Russians.

gressive leadership. In January the senate debated proposals to

went

make

it

more

death with a

difficult

filibuster.

if

not impossible to talk legislation to

The debate ended with

the adoption of a

compromise plan under which two-thirds of the senators present and voting on a motion, rather than two-thirds of all the members of the senate, could halt a filibuster. The compromise was

to

New York

a last su-

expired in Jan.

The

president

city to tour the Soviet exhibition there with

Frol R. Kozlov, Soviet

first

deputy premier, and the announce-

ment of Premier Khrushchev's trip to the United States soon followed. The announcement, made in August, was greeted with approval by most Americans as well as by most people throughout the rest of the world. In 1959 the world seemed to be sick

UNITED STATES of the "cold war" and ready to accept any efforts to bring about a

more permanent peace, however unorthodox

the attempts at

negotiating might seem to be in the light of disappointments of

the previous ten years.

Congress was determined to get out of Washington before Khrushchev arrived in mid-September, but the senators and representatives almost did not

make

it.

The

first

session of the 86th

congress adjourned only a few hours before Khrushchev arrived

and rode through Washington streets by curious but silent crowds. Khrushchev's welcome was polite in most of the cities that he visited, but the people who saw him could hardly be considered cordial to the Soviet premier. in a Soviet jet airplane

lined

The

principal legislative accomplishments of the first session

of the 86th congress were the admission of Hawaii as the 50th state, the

passage of a labour reform

bill,

increase in the federal gasoline tax (making

the passage of a housing

bill.

a one-cent-a-gallon it

four cents) and

The $77,000,000,000 budget

ap-

proved by congress was almost exactly what the president had requested. Eisenhower made economy in government one of the principal issues in 1959. Despite

much

criticism in congress of

the president for seemingly placing fiscal soundness above the

709

tween labour and management which closed almost

all

of the

nation's steel plants from mid-July until November. The strike was suspended by the Steelworkers union after ii6 days when the United States supreme court upheld a federal district court ruling that the government had the power under the Taft-Hartley act to order strikers back to work for 80 days if a strike imperiled the national health or safety. The two major issues in the strike were an increase in pay demanded by the union and a revision of work rules sought by the steel companies. In June

the U.S. bureau of labour statistics reported that the average

pay

was $3.11 an hour, which was one of the highest

in steel mills

rates of

pay

in

provisions as the

number

given job, authority for

and

restrictions

of

men

included such assigned to a

day

to take rest periods during the

on the kind of work that

men

in certain job

Although the issues which led

classifications could do. steel

Work rules men who would be

United States industry.

impasse were not seen by

many

to the

observers as questions of

principle, industry spokesmen indicated that they felt the union had usurped too many of management's prerogatives over the years and that the time had come for industry to reassert itself. Repeated efforts by President Eisenhower to bring the union and

military and domestic needs of the nation, congress went along

the industry together failed. Finally in October the president in-

with the administration's scaled-down spending programs.

voked the national emergency procedures of the Taft-Hartley

Although the 86th congress had the largest Democratic majorEisenhower, a Republican, was in con-

ity in 20 years. President trol

of the legislative situation during practically

all

of the

The president never hesitated to veto bills he did not turned down legislation taking away from the secretary of agriculture authority to approve loans made by the Rural session.

like.

He

and the house sustained the presiEisenhower vetoed two housing bills before congress

Electrification administration,

dent's veto.

passed one which was in line with his fiscal program and which he then approved. Only once did congress override a presidential veto; that legislation involved the authorization of rivers and

By his vetoes and other actions, Eisenhower showed once again how a president is uniquely able to lead the nation, whatever the size and composition the majorities may be in congress. Most of the members of congress went along with the president's program because it reflected the dominant middleof-the-road feeling among the senators and representatives who made up the 86th congress. The Steel Strike. The president was not able, however, to harbours projects.

—

use his considerable personal prestige to settle the dispute be-

SERVICEMEN HOLDING FLAG OVER CASKET OF JOHN FOSTER DULLES

at

the burial in Arlington National cemetery, May 27, 1959. Seated in the front right were Dulles' family, the president and vice-president and their

act.

The union appealed

the federal district decision granting

an injunction ordering the workers back on the job, but the

preme court upheld the law. The Ecottomy. Premier Khrushchev was unable

—

su-

to visit a

large steel plant during his trip to the United States because

all

had been shut down by the strike. Many Americans felt, however, that the strike, continuing in the midst of the premier's visit, must have brought home to Khrushchev the freedom which is such an integral part of American life and is a principal difference between life in the United States and in the Soviet Union. The rest of the United States economy was far from idle during Khrushchev's visit, however. In 1959 the United States had recovered from the effects of the recession which began in 1957 and continued into 1958. In congress, for example, proposals to expand public works programs and to give of the big plants

greater assistance to persons little

who were out

of

work received

support because the economy came out of the recession

remarkably quickly and with few permanent scars. "Cold War" or Coexistence? As 1959 drew to a close the traditional Christmas time hopes for peace and good will seemed to be more real than they had been in any other recent years. Al-

—

though the visits and other Soviet

to the

United States by Premier Khrushchev

ofiicials

during the year had not led to any

i*«..-^'

ir^

U

I

UNITED STATES

710 Tabl. W.

— fonign

CrtdiU of th* U.S.

Country, Juno 30,

tnl-by Program ond by

Go

1959 UmitlUud Outltanding

$13,904,017,000' %\2,79i,3S»,000

Tolal y

Afghonlitan

progromi Und«c Enporl-lmporl 4

3,442,563,000

763,724,000

Auilralio Auitrio

.

.

.

.

120,988,000 2,823,000 48,936.000 S,000 7,925,000 245,274,000 4,870,000 44,020,000 23,514,000 101,178,000 1,642,750,000 1,440,404,000 249,000 2,095,000 901,491,000 137,494,000 10,729,000 24,781,000 1,050,034,000 252,429,000 189,434,000 85,000 125.484,000 279,939,000 332,315,000 330,315,000 2,000.000 314,407,000 1,200,000 28,090,000 49,451,000 8,500,000 20,000,000 89,966,000 227,413,000 10,301,000 41,545,000 297,222,000 197,202,000 111,349,000 49,328,000 49,228,000 100,000 35,554,000 18,012,000 344,220,000 10,000,000 17,845,000 45,255,000

Ethiopia-Eri

Finland Frencti Corr

Id. for«ign

Loam

t

liub-

Frencti Equolorlol Afrlco

••Clioni 104|dl

ond I04ig||

438,273,000 .

1,001,059,000

.

Loam

lo prtval* •nt«rprii*i (lub*

•ctlon 104i«||.

.

Und'ments ($23,000,000), and a $150,000,000 prepayment of the annual amortization for the years 1961-65, on the German 1953 $1,000,000,000 credit settlement for postwar grants. The

United Kingdom resumed amortization service on

increase of $58,000,000

payments by France that country in

new

lines of credit

from the U.S. government, with the year's commitments aggre-

postwar

was about

offset

balance-of-payments

its

by the deferral of

re-

as a part of financial assistance provided difficulties.

Annual

re-

turns of lend-lease silver declined from $42,000,000 to $7,000,000, as most agreements to return these transfers were

consummated. Elsewhere, changes tions were moderate. In addition to

Germany and made

other European countries their indebtedness

India was again the leading recipient of

its

debts, after electing to defer service in fiscal year 1958, in accordance with the agreement of March 6, 1957; however, this

the U.S.

to

in

annual principal collec-

the United

Kingdom,

several

continuing annual inroads on

government.

Appreciable de-

creases were noted for Indonesia, Rhodesia and Nyasaland, and the

Union of South Africa.

gating the equivalent of $250,000,000, These 1959 authorizations $100,000,000 from the Development Loan fund and the

30, 1959, the outstanding long-term indebtedness of foreign governments and other foreign entities to the U.S. gov-

equivalent of $150,000,000 from rupees received by the L'.S. government for farm products totaled slightly more than had been made available for development in India in each of the two preceding years. Development Loan fund and foreign currency loan approvals were also the major components of the new commitments to Pakistan ($119,000,000), Yugoslavia

ernment was

—

—

($104,000,000), Indonesia ($92,000,000) and Spain ($88,000,-

A major

On June

cluding

A

new high

at a

World War

change

in U.S.

I

—

aggregating $12,795,358,000, exdebts (see Table IV).

government policy virtually eliminated main-

new credits disbursed in The new policy diminished

tenance-of-dollar-value provisions on foreign currencies after mid-1959.

the problem of the availability of international exchange as a factor in service on these debts, and introduced a greater ele-

Export-Import bank authorization was combined with these programs in the significant commitments to the

ment of approximation

Philippines ($102,000,000).

Of the indebtedness shown in Table IV, about $107,000,000 had been due and unpaid for 90 days or more. This included $3,587,000 which was paid by the U.S.S.R. in July 1959 and

000).

More than

bank authorizations durAmerican republics, which

half of the Export-Import

ing the 12-month period was to the

were pledged a total of $547,000,000 under all the U.S. credit programs. Export-Import bank loans to maintain essential imports from the United States and to allow major purchases of

U.S. equipment and services for development figured significantly in the contracts for Argentina

($173,000,000),

Brazil

Mexico ($110,000,000) and Peru ($65,000,000). Other noteworthy Export-Import bank loan authorizations were to Japan ($80,000,000). principally for short-term financing of cotton purchases from the United States, and to the European Atomic Energy community ($135,000,000). The commitment of $70,000,000 in credit assistance to Morocco was the only major mutual security program authorization outside of the Development Loan fund in the 12-month period. E.xport-Import bank outflows ($708,000,000), although 7% less than in the preceding year, continued to dominate disbursements. The significant year-to-year increase in pajTnents was from foreign currencies acquired under the .Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance act, which more than doubled to the equivalent of $328,000,000. PajTnents by the new Development Loan fund exceeded $68,000,000 and more than offset the decline in other mutual security program outflows. The latter aggregated $171,000,000, of which $50,000,000 represented the ($127,000,000"),

dollar equivalent of foreign currencies acquired by the U.S. government through the sale of surplus agricultural commodities under provisions of the Mutual Security act. Almost half of the loan disbursements in fiscal year 1959 was on credits to the American republics. Outflows to Brazil ($230,-

000.000) considerably exceeded those to Mexico ($83,000,000), Argentina ($76,000,000), Colombia ($67,000,000) and Peru ($61,000,000). In the eastern hemisphere, other major recipients were Yugoslavia ($131,000,000), Japan ($104,000,000), Pakistan ($62,000,000) and India ($58,000,000). Principal collections were at an annual record high of $668,000,000, in the

main

as a consequence of the first scheduled

into estimates of the dollar value of the

foreign indebtedness to the United States.

applied as the first principal collection on its indebtedness for postwar lend-lease transfers. Schedules of collections for the remainder extended past the year 2000.

The U.S. government received

the equivalent of $294,000,000

on the outstanding credits in fiscal year 1959. ExportImport bank receipts aggregated $120,000,000, increasing $23,-

in interest

000.000 over

fiscal

year 1958. There were moderate increases in

interest receipts for

mutual security and related program loans on these credits increased, and the

as the outstanding balances

first interest collections on the credits under the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance act were received. Other interest collections were relatively unchanged during the year. See also Foreign Aid Programs, U.S. (E. S. K.)

Education. See the articles Educ^tio.v; Scholarships a.nd Student Aid; Universities and Colleges. Defense. For information about the armed forces of the United States in 1959, Iff .Armies OF the World; .Aviation, Military; Coast Guard, U.S.; AIari.ne Corps, U.S.; Missiles; National Guard; Navies of the World; Selective Service, U.S. Finance and Bani^ing. Statistics pertaining to the United States will be found in such articles as Banking; Budget, National; Business Re-

—

—

view; Consumer Credit; Debt, National; Export-Import Bank of Washington; Federal Reserve Svstem; Foreign Investments; Income AND Product, U.S.; Savings and Loan .\ssociations; Stocks and Bonds; Taxation; Wages and Hours; Wealth and Income, Distribution OF. Foreign Trade. See the articles Business Review; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates; Export-Import Bank of Washington; Foreign Investments; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; International Finance Corporation; International Monetary Fund; International Trade; Tariffs. Communications. For Statistics, see the articles .Aviation, Civil; Canals AND Inland Waterways; Merchant Marine; Post Office; Radio and Television; Railroads; Roads and Highways; Shipbuilding; Telegraphy; Telephone; Trucking Industry; Urban Transportation, U.S.

—

Agriculture.

—

Statistical material pertaining to this subject may be found in separate articles on the principal crops and

under .Agriculture; also agricultural products. Mineral Production.

Metallurgy;

See separate articles on the principal minerals; also

Mineralogy;

Prices.

Bibliography.

Mineral and Metal Production and (X.)

—

(.Ml published in 1959.) Biographical: A. 0. .\ldridge, oj Reason (Thomas Paine) J. M. Blum, From the Morgenthau Diaries; M. Brecher, Nehru: F. M. Brodie, Thaddeus Stevens; V. W. Brooks, Howells; N. K. Burger and J. K. Betters-

Man

;

UNITED STATES CONGRESS

712

worth. South of Appomattox; R. L. Meriwclhrr (cd.), The Papers 0/ John C. Calhoun; M. C. Ross (cd), George Catlin; C. de Gaulle. Unity. 194'Touch 4.1; V. Counlryman, Doualiis ol the Supreme Court; K. Dunham, A ol Innocence; ;\. H. I)U|iro Cam.

Mlnnaopolta

R.p.

Minneapolis

Dam.

Grove

>.p.

Tyler

Dan.

Chliholm

Rap.

Kennedy

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Tho •Whillan, Jomla atlly,

•Smith, Frank

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Si.

Paul City (R.F.D.)

Charlailon

Greenwood Raymond Phllodelphlo

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Webster Grovai

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W.

.

.

.

.

R., Jr.

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J.

Konsos City

Weston Springfield

•Brown, Chorlai H.

•Cornohon, A.

S. J.

n, CIc

"Jonat, Paul C.

•Mouldar,

.

.

.

Morgan M. Da Da

•Malcolf, Laa •Andarion, la Roy H

Rap. Rap.

•Cunningham, Glann Brock. Lowrance McGinlay, Donold F.

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•Boring, Waller S.

•Marrow. Cheilar

1

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Cohill, Willie

•Auchinclois,

James

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C.

Jr.

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Jr.

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.

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.

Wollhouser, George M.

•Montoya, Joseph M. Mo Tho ,

Stuyve lion, Steven E •Becke Frank J. Holpern, Seymour vright,

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,

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.

•Hollzmon, Lester

.

•Anfuso, Victor

Rep. Rep. Rep.

1

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•Celler,

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Edna F. Emonual

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Froncis E

•Multer,

Abrohom

•Rooney, John •Ray, John H

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J

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•Powell, Adam Clayton Lindsoy, John V •Sontongelo, Alfred E

Dem.

19

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Derr

20

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L

Rep.

Dem.

Udw

•Dollinger. Isidon

•Buckley, Charles

26 27 28

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30

•O'Brien, Leo

Rep. Rep. Rep.

B.

Barry, Robert R. •St.

George, Katho

W.

•Taylor Stroltc

•Kilburr

Ale •Riehlman, R. Waller ,

•Tober, John

Howard

W

Rep. Rep. Rep.

Will

Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep.

Dulski,Thaddaus J John R •Goodall. Chorlei E

Rep.

•Robison,

Weis, Jessica

McC

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C

Dem. Rep.

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ling,

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leading cities (pop., 1954 est.) are Mercedes 44.900; Salto 44,-

900; Paysandu 44,000; Minas 36,700; 200;

Rocha

mostly

34,000.

Roman

Language:

Melo 36,000; Florida

Spanish.

Religion:

34,-

Christian,

Catholic. Presidents of the governing national

council in 1959: Carlos L. Fischer; Martin R. Etchegoyen.

—

On March i, 1959, Martin R. Etchegoyen, a memHistory. ber of the Herrerista faction of the National party (Blancos), was sworn in as president of the national council of government. The

election results of

Nov.

30,

1958,

had swept the Blancos They assumed

into office over the opposition party (Colorados).

control of the government for the

first

time in 93 years.

.

—

—

among new

national council.

A

last-minute truce

made

it

possible to

reach agreement on a cabinet composed of a coalition of Her-

and members of the urban wing of the party. Although the agreement had been supported by his own followers, Herrera rejected the arrangement and found himself under sharp attack from the Ruralistas. On April 8, 1959, Herrera died. In the wake of Herrera's death Uruguay suffered one of the reristas, Ruralistas

worst disasters in

its

history. Torrential rains caused the rivers

forming the northern and western boundaries to overflow and inundate lands aggregating approximately one-third of the country's area. In addition to heavy loss of life, the country suffered

''^

Iltoh Uldll.

Rocky mountain

to the

state of the

union in 1896, Utah

is

United States, admitted popularly

known

as the

"Beehive state." Area: 84,916 sq.mi. (2,570 sq.mi. water). Pop.: (July Salt

I,

Lake

1959, est.) 880,000, (1950 census) 688,862. Capital: City, pop. (1959 est.) 226,500: other principal cities

Ogden, 68,500; Provo, 41,000; Logan 18,600. 1959 state legislature contributed a number of changes to Utah's economic and political life. The senate, with 13 Republicans and 12 Democrats, and the house of representa(1959

est.) pop.:

History.

tives,

—The

with 22 Republicans and 42 Democrats,

made

the follow-

—

— UTILITIES. PUBLIC

728 mn

important changes

II. 8';;,

from

in

law: increased the biennial budget by

$i()8. 6:5,687 to

struction of a

new

$222,057,029; provided for the con-

state office building; allowed cities

and coun-

exempted gasoline used in farming operations from taxation, and at the same time noted the increasing importance of producing oil wells in Utah by increasing the occupation tax on wells from 1% to 2%; initiated income tax withholding on residents as well as out-of-state resities

the option to impose a

J%

sales tax;

dents; defeated an attempt to repeal Utah's right-to-work law; increased the basic program of guaranteed state aid to school districts

from $4,800

to $5,150; set

of higher education; raised

Weber

up a co-ordinating council Ogden from junior

college in

college status to a four-year degree-granting institution; granted

authority to establish a junior college in Roosevelt at ture date;

and made Carbon college

in Price a

some

fu-

branch of the Uni-

versity of Utah.

State officers in 1959 were: George D. Clyde, governor; La-

ment

F. Toronto, secretary of state;

general; Sid Lambourne, auditor;

Walter L. Budge, attorney

Sherman

J.

Preece, treasurer;

and E. Allen Bateman, superintendent of public instruction.

—

Education. For the 1958-59 school year there were 139,399 full-time elementary students and 85,821 full-time secondary students, with a total for all grades of 225, ;;o. The total instructional staff for the state reached 8.286 with 7,427 teachers, 450 principals, 89 supervisors and 320 other instructional personnel. In the school year 1957-58, total receipts for all districts were $82,885,951 and total expenditures were $85,446,089. For the same year the cost of instruction and supervision of vocational education in the state was $1,221,148.98. The assessed valuation of all school districts totaled $i,3t6,6i6,2 16 for the year. Social Insurance and Assistonce, Public Welfare and Reloted Programs. Total expenditures for public assistance during the fiscal year July 195S to June 1959 amounted to $17,51 i,95r. 50 (for 29,036 persons), which was an increase of $1,157,078.54 over the 1957-58 figure. The funds were distributed as follows: old-age assistance $6,667,828.26 (8.638 persons); aid to dependent children $5,298,614.64 (12,514 persons); aid to the blind $178,480.40 (224 persons); aid to the disabled $1,749,195.48 (2,203 persons); aid to uncmployables $668,022.85 (979 persons'): aid to employables $1,098,207.20 (4,040 persons); foster care $302,611.18 (438 persons); child-welfare services $265,942.31; marriage counseling $78,790.69; commodity distribution $63,019.71; and administration $1,141,-

238.78.

Appropriations for the 1957—59 biennium for the four Utah welfare institutions included $3,900,000 for the mental hospital at Provo: $r. 650. 000 for the training school at .\merican Fork; $934,856 for the industrial school at Ogden: and $425,000 for the tuberculosis Sanatorium at Ogden. Communications. .Ml highways and roads in the state (federal, state and local combined) totaled 31,692 mi. as of June 1958, of which 220 mi. were new roads. State and federal funds disbursed for highways and roads totaled $29,349,303 for the fiscal year ending June 30. 1958. This figure included sums expended by cities and counties in the state. Total registered motor vehicles as of Dec. 31, 1958, numbered 395,913, including 298,033 passenger cars and 70.890 trucks. .Ml railroads operating in the state numbered nine in 1958 with mileage (within the state) as follows; track mileage 3.008.22; line mileage 1.793.05 (mileage as of Dec. 31. 1957). .Airports and airfields in 1959 numbered 8 commercial. 48 municipal. 3 military. 12 private and 125 other. Regularly scheduled airlines operating in the slate numbered 5 in 1959. Operating radio stations in 1959 included 27 and 2 stations. There were 4 commercial TV stations and i educational transmitter. Banking and Finance. .\s of June 10. 1959. the 42 state banks had resources totaling $497,970,489.23 and the 7 national banks $478,453,307.15 for a combined total of $976,423,796.38, an increase of $70,395.486.31 over 1958. Deposits for the 42 state banks reached $455,233,652.71. while the 7 national banks noted deposits of $426,770,706.54 for a combined total of $882,004,359.25. There were 15 state-chartered savings and loan associations with total resources of $162,677,825.77 as of Dec. 31, 1958 an increase of $25,667,324,63 over the total assets of the 16 companies of the previous year. State receipts for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959. were $183,336.757.71: disbursements amounted to $187,004,164.63. The state of Utah had no bonded indebtedness as of Oct. i. 1959. Agriculture. Cash receipts from farm marketings for the first seven

—

AM

FM

—

—

—

Table

I.

Principal Agricultural Products of Utah Indie

Crop

Wheal, bu Borley, bu

Corn, bu Oats, bu

Hoy

(oil),

tons

Sugor beets, Ions Polotoej, cwl Peoches, bu

Apples, bu Peers, bu

•1949-57. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

1959

5,351.000 7.650,000 2,940,000 1,666,000 1,427,000 527,000 1,280,000 470,000 360,000 1 40,000

1953

.

— VANIER

VARNISHES — VEGETABLE OILS AND ANIMAL FATS Quebec military district. He was subsequently promoted to major general and was named Canadian ambassador to France after the war. He retired from the diplomatic and military service in 1953. On Sept. 15, 1959, in a ceremony in the senate chamber. Gen-

commanding

as brigadier

eral

Vanier was sworn

the

in as

first

Roman

(G.

hold this position.

Varnishes:

see

Catholic to J.

C.)

Paints and Varnishes.

A

729

730 lay persons are the pontifical armed corps: 500 Palatine guards of

enrolled in

are ecclesiastics.

total of

honour, 100 Swiss guards, 80 papal gendarmes and 50 noble

The Swiss

guards.

guards,

first

formed

most

1505, are the

in

ancient of these troops.

On

Canada's igth governor general since

confederation, the second Canadian and

whom

most of

Oct.

1959, the papal secretary of state,

8,

Domenico Cardi-

announced that all persons on the Vatican City state payroll would benefit from the pay raises decreed by Pope John XXIII. The salaries were to be increased by amounts varying from a little more than 12% for the higher positions to 35% for nal Tardini,

the lower echelon.

This

Vatican City State.

independent

sovereign,

by the Lateran treaty between the Holy See and the Italian government on Feb. II, 1929. The treaty was recognized in international law with the reigning pope as sovereign and was made an integral part of the constitution of Italy on March 26, 1947. The pope has full executive, legislative and judicial power which he delegates to a commission of cardinals. The legal system is based on canon law. In the rare^ cases where this law does not apply the was

Vatican City state archaeologists announced the discovery of

state

established

new evidence is

Experts on medieval records from eight European countries Vatican archives. The collection would be made up of copies of

ments

years 1198 and 1417, and ecclesiastic,

tures correspond in Vatican diplomacy to legations,

incumbent's rank tentiary.

is

(J.

LaF.)

and

their

They rank immediately

The area and

of Vatican City its

number

Veal:

Meat.

see

equivalent to that of a minister plenipoafter nunciatures

which are

equivalent to embassies. In 1959 diplomatic representatives of 47 nations were accredited to the Vatican.

pope, a

John XXIII; Roman Catholic Church.

with other govern-

represented by 42 nuncios and internuncios. Internuncia-

is

basilica

and other papal documents written between the now scattered throughout Europe in governmental and private libraries.

bulls

letters,

See also

in its diplomatic relations

was entombed beneath what

basilica.

agreed to build a central collection of papal documents at the

laws of the republic of Italy prevail.

The Holy See

that the Apostle Peter

today Saint Peter's

is

108.7 ac- It contains Saint Peter's

square, the Lateran palace which belongs to the of service

and

office

buildings and approximately

50 ac. of parks and gardens. In addition, Castel Gandolfo, the summer residence of the popes situated 14 mi. southeast of

Rome, and certain offices, churches and colleges of the Holy See Rome, enjoy extraterritorial status. The normal population of Vatican City is approximately i.ooo.

within

and Animal Fats. ?he unitedlJatel above the 1947-49 average, but were low as above average in 1958. The cottonseed crop was 6,100,000 tons, 27% more than in 1958; the peanut crop of 1,602,115,000 lb. was down from 1,835,800,000 lb. in 1958; the second largest soybean crop of 537,895,000 bu. was nevertheless 7% below the 1958 record; 22,709,000 bu. of flaxseed (raw

Vegetable

Oils

1959 totaled compared with

61% 82%

in

material for linseed oil) was

pared with 39,543,000 bu. Table

I.

— U.S.

Peter's basilica during a canonization

ceremony

in

April

1959

a half crop as

com-

Production of Principai Fals and Oili* lln

RAYS OF SUNLIGHT STREAMING DOW/N ON THE PAPAL THRONE

more than

little

in 1958.

000,000

lbs.)

Average In

SI.

19S9t

Lard Edible tallow Edible vegetoble

Soap

fats

Drying

Other

and

1956

1,542 2,625 162 324 350 360 4,232 6,495 7,453 7,925 2,322 2,929 3,290 3,485 1,034 1,166 1.270 1,423 17 43 75 64 85 11,934 15,670 14,936 16,733 17,745 enported oilseeds. fForecosI by U.S, Department ol Agriculture.

....

oils

oils

oils oils

Total 'Including equivolent of tPreliminary.

1947-51

1,542 2,624 321 6,385 3,275 1,480

1.524 2,434

1,439 2,703

1,425 2,925

Butler

1957

1958t

Though butter production decreased

slightly, lard

production

over 1958 and edible tallow also was more abundant. 'With a large carry-over of soybeans from the 1958 crop available, prospects were that the total supply of edible

8%

increased about

fats, oils

and oilseeds

in

1959-60 would be about one-tenth above 5% above the

the record disappearance of the previous year and

supply available in 1958-59.

Exports of food fats and

oils,

including the

oil

equivalent of

soybeans, were indicated at a possible total of 3,600,000.000 lb., as compared with 3,300,000,000 lb. in 1958-59 when they were equal to about

were expected

28% to

of domestic production. Cotton

increase

by

60%

oil

exports

over the 404,000,000

lb.

1958-59. Lard exports were forecast at 750,000,000 lb., up from 605,000,000 lb. in the previous year. U.S. per capita civilian consumption of food fats was indicated

shipped

in

1% above 1958 and 10% more than the 1947-49 average. Prices in September for all fats and oils were 67"^^ of the 1947-49 average, with lard 42'^, butter 93"^^ and do-

at a total of 46.5 lb.,

mestic vegetable

oils 5o'~c as

World production

high as in the base period.

of fats, oils and oilseeds set a

of about 33,600,000 tons (oil equivalent),

5%

new record

above 1958 and

—

VEGETABLES — VE

730

al)out onc-thirii larger than avcraKt

lor

11)50-54. Kilililc vt-Kc-

table oils from larRi' cottonseed, peanut

and soybean crops and a large olive crop in the Mediterranean basin were particularly abundant; copra and coconut oil supplies were at the lowest level since 1948. Whale and sperm oil production, largely in

Table

compared with 1958.

as

itiimoltd World Production of Fofi, Oilt and Oilseedi

II.

lln

000 ol ihorl loni,

oil

oqulvolgnll

Avorogo

_ (.ominoddv Edible vegaloble

Palm

5%

more than

antarctic seas, declined

...

olli

oili

litduilrlol oilt

AnimaUal. Morin. old Totol

I9ll0"

1959t

1958

1950-54

1935-39

12,600 4,300 1,373 14,600 1,050 33,925

12,940 4,040 1,450 14,170 1,020 33,620

I1.82S 4,158

9,38S 3,836 1,468 10,455

7,393 3,630 1,570 9,367 1,053 23,237

1,442 13,425 1,030

990

31,880

26,134

•Forecoil by U.S. Daportmenl of Agriculture, fPorlly forecosl.

World

fats

and

oil

trade in igSQ, spurred by export pressure

on the part of the United States, set a new record of about 8,600,-

000 tons,

oil

equivalent,

6%

up from 1958 and

34%

1950-54 average. Sec also Cotton.

whereas

in

K. R.)

(J.

The

Vegetables.

higher than

total

output of vegetables in the United

was $% above the 1947-49 base, above that average. Though supplies

States in 1959

1958

it

was

7%

fall of 1959 were substantially smaller than a year earlier and below average for 1949-57, the over-all

of fresh vegetables in the

vegetable supply situation, including processed stocks, was such that prices received

by producers

for

November were 228 (1910-14=100),

commercial vegetables

in

compared with 234 a the price index for fresh vegetables was 248 against

year earlier;

as

256 a year earlier.

Consumption per dicated at 99 of canned

lb.

and

beans and 0.7

capita, other than that of potatoes,

of fresh vegetables; 25

lb.

7.9 lb. of frozen vegetables; lb.

was

in-

of melons; 44.5

lb.

7.7 lb, of

dry edible

of dry peas.

Exports of vegetables and preparations increased to a value of $134,947,000 in 1958-59, as

compared with $120,437,000

in

1957-58-

—

Comnnercial Truck Crops for the Fresh Market. Producand melons totaled 206.500,000 cwt. valued at $792,435,000, as compared with

tion of 27 principal fresh-market vegetables

213,400.000 cwt. valued at $762,395,000 in 1958. Onions, sweet corn, escarole

and

garlic set

new record high production

levels,

but watermelons declined 29'~o below the record 195S crop. The winter vegetable crop of 30,301,000 cwt. was 8% larger than in

1958; the spring crop of 46,854,000 cwt. was only the

summer

2%

crop of 94,714,000 cwt. was

Table

I.

— U.S.

94%

of 1958;

below 195S; and

Vegetable Production for Fresh Market lln

000 cwl.l

Average

Crop Artichokes

1959

1958

1957

1949-56

376

329

329

Asporoguj

1,254

1,314

1,338

Bsons, lima Beans, snap Beers

276

328

324

478

4,387

4,549

4,851

5,357

470

530

510

732

Broccoli Brussels sprouts

Cobboge Contoloupes Corrots Cauliflower

Celery Corn, sweet

Cucumbers Eggplant Escarole Oorlic

Honeydew melons

2,260

622

548

19,127 11,115

26,450

14,301 4,754

14,997 4,599 14,316 11,503 3,725

15,215 4,646 14,069 13,169 4,047

14,774 11,767 4,190

11,901

498 938 272

422 758 218

499 774

1,285

1,171

1,484

162 32,697 23,742 237

177 33,137 24,248 294 2,807 98

205 30,279

1,672

2,039 18,876

'175

Tomotoes Watermelons

12,601

1,239 33,011 25,561

Spinoch

1,998

570 21,166

Lettuce

Shollots

1,869

590 19,043 12,733 13,615 4,120 15,227 13,307 3,658

Kole

Onions Peas, green Peppers, green

2,192

315 1,106

273 2,578 62 1,564 19,609 29,437

2,412 86 1,654 18,824

36,306

196

20,127 29,757

473 635 157

21,991

558 2,555

162

28,726

1V5«

VENEZUELA

731

among males and females by both private physicians and clinics. The increase in reported infectious s>'philis cases was of great

UonoTiiolQ VbllCLUCld.

concern because there had been a consistent significant decline

noco, and the eastern ranges of the Andes and their coastal

reported in this stage of syphilis from 1947 to 1954, after which

foothills. It

a plateau

was reached

between 6,500 and 6,800 cases

at a level of

per year.

The trend

of gonorrhea incidence was similar to the syphilis

among whites and non-

pattern in that increases were reported

whites of both sexes, and by both private physicians and

However,

it

clinics.

was conservatively estimated that a minimum of

1,000,000 cases of gonorrhea actually occur annually in

United States, but

The

many

thousands of cases are not reported.

increase in reported venereal disease

was particularly

the

disturbing.

142 sq.mi.. occupies the river basin of the Ori-

the sixth largest country on the South American

is

continent.

The census

An

estimate of 1958 stated

official

of 1950

showed it

a population of 5,091,543. at 6,320,000. Caracas, the

had a population of 495.064 in 1950. It was estimated in 1957 to have 661,275 within the city limits and 939.996 in the metropolitan area. The population of the principal cities capital,

is shown followed in parenby the estimates of 1957: Maracaibo 237,750 (319,689);

as recorded in the census of 1950

theses

Barquisimeto 105,108 (142,560); Valencia 88,701

among young people

Infectious venereal disease

"^^^ republic of Venezuela, with an area of 352,-

cases

reported in the 15-19 year age group alone rose from 44,864 in

1957 to 49,909 in 1958, an increase of ii"~t- There was a 14.3% increase in the number of cases reported in the 10-14 year age

Maracay 64,535

Cumana

46,312

San

(87.732);

Puerto

(61,325);

(113,633);

Cristobal

53,933

(70,469);

Cabello

34,382

(43,424);

Ciudad Bolivar 31,054 (39,338); Coro 29,341 (36,973) Puerto La Cruz 28,389 (43,262); Barcelona 25,341 (34,879); Maturin 25,067 (35,627); Merida 25,064 (32,801), History. The provisional government in power throughout ;

—

group.

In recent syphilis epidemics, nearly half of the persons

volved were under 20 years of age.

An

in-

average of 148 cases of

venereal disease was reported every day

among persons under

20 years of age. The 54,000 persons under 20 years of age re-

ported annually with an infectious venereal disease of the extent of this problem, and plete morbidity reporting

it

is

an index

was believed that com-

would probably

triple

or quadruple

this figure.

In fiscal year 1959, public clinics in the United States reported the examination of 1,910.000 persons to determine whether or not they were infected with a venereal disease, and found 250,000 to be infected. Included in the 1,910,000 persons examined were 154,000 persons who were examined because they were known to have been sex contacts to infectious cases of venereal disease. The remainder of the examinations were for voluntary

admissions to

clinics,

1958 continued to direct the government in 1959, until the inauguration on Feb, 13 of Romulo Betancourt, who had been elected constitutional president on Dec.

signed the post of foreign minister to the Democratic-Republican

Union, along with some lesser posts, gave the Christian for his

education and communications.

An

syphilis alone claimed

the lives of 3,825 persons in 1957, representing a death rate of 2.27 per 100,000 persons.

The annual

and the

latest figures

showed an additional

life

Josue Lopez Henriquez, was entrusted

The

president's

wing of

that

it

policy.

his

main concern,

own

all

through 1959, was with the

party, which expressed loudly

should receive so

little

patronage and even

The Communists, even more

its

discontent

less

voice in

active in 1959 than in 1958,

due to

although shut out of the principal executive posts were vocifer-

expectancy,

ous in the congress and dominant in the press, the ministrj' of

man-

education and the university; and the Communist influence in

loss to the U.S.

deaths from syphilis was 68,850 man-years of

air force general,

with the ministry of defense.

left

Recent mortality figures indicated that

Demo-

fomento (industrial development) and kept own group the ministries of finance, petroleum and mines,

crats the ministry of

sons as marriage applicants, expectant mothers, and certain occupational groups.

The new regime

1958,

a coalition.

the presidency of the chamber of deputies), in the state governments (where the two parties just mentioned and the Democratic-Republican Union shared the governorships and the various executive posts) and in the cabinet. The president as-

persons tested in blood testing surveys in

high-prevalence areas, and blood testing required from such per-

7,

Three parties were given posts in the congress (Accion Democratica, the party of the president, receiving the presidency of the senate, and the Christian Democratic party began as

loss of 32,000

years through hospitalization for syphilitic insanity, at a mainte-

labour unions was considerable.

nance cost of more than $47,000,000 annually.

Throughout the spring and summer, Venezuela repeatedly prooil imports and assigning quotas, and in the early autumn it asked Washington

The Venereal Disease 'Research laboratory

at

Chamblee, Ga.,

and the Venereal Disease Experimental laboratory at Chapel were conducting research studies in the laboratory aspects of the diagnosis of syphilis and gonorrhea, and providing

Hill, N.C.,

reference diagnostic service and training to state health depart-

ment

The Venereal Disease Research laboratory World Health organization serological reference

laboratories.

also served as a

tested against the L^nited States law controlling

to be put

—

special basis as Canada not subject to Revenue from petroleum continued to falling prices abroad and declining exports.

upon the same

quantitative limitation.

diminish because of

A

controversy with the iron mining industr>' over the prices fixed

for iron ore in Venezuela, after brewing for

The ministry

some

time,

became

of mines contended that the mining

centre.

public in July.

Major accomplishments during the year included the development and evaluation of a fluorescent antibody method for the

companies had held prices

diagnosis of gonorrhea in the male, a procedure which continuing

Joint ventures of Venezuelan capital with foreign industry were

studies indicated in the female,

was

specific also for identification of infection

inmuch

higher percentage than possible with the

usual culture methods; the development of a ing antigen emulsion used in the

VDRL

method

for stabiliz-

tests for syphilis, thus

eliminating the necessity of daily preparation; the isolation of

an endotoxin from acid,

A'^.

gonorrhoeae, free from protein and nucleic

is more toxic to mice than any previously isolated and the demonstration that strains of suspected regonococci from various areas in the United States exhibit

which

in

Venezuela low, so as to avoid taxes.

Industrial diversification continued to

make

progress in 1959.

reported, such as a large flour mill in Maracaibo and a refractory

factory in Barquisimeto.

Late

in the year, the

drafts ff a

new

cultural reform.

congress reconvened to pass upon the

constitution and a comprehensive plan for agri-

The

latter

was not focused upon wholesale

expropriation, but rather upon inducement to owners of un-

productive land to put

it

into cultivation.

The government would out with long-

fractions;

use the extensive national domain, parceling

sistant

and providing for necessary clearing and irrigation. The program was expected to cost from $200,000,000 to $300,000,000 a year for ten years; and it was contemplated to raise

only decreased sensitivity to penicillin rather than absolute sistance.

(W.

J.

Bn.)

re-

term

credit,

it

VERMONT

732 most

ol the

money throuRh

the issue of long-term bonds, fully

guaranteed by the government.

The payment in advance of taxes due in ig6o from petroleum companies was requested by the Central bank in December. The operation was reported to have taken the form of the sale of Venezuelan treasury notes in a total amount of $100,000,000 to New York banks, which would then sell them to oil companies to be turned in as tax payments. On Nov. 20 a comprehensive list of products was declared to be thereafter subject to import licences. (C. E. Mc.)

Sec also Foreign Investments.

—

Chief officers of the state during 1959 included Robert T. governor; Robert S. Babcock, lieutenant governor;

Stafford,

George H. Amidon, state treasurer; Howard E. Armstrong, secretary of state; David V. Anderson, auditor of accounts; Frederick

1956 there were 7,101 primary schools, public and private, with 546.79s pupils and 18,995 teachers, and 264 secondary and special schools with 44.4JJ students and 3.JS9 teachers. There were three public and two private universities with enrollment of 9. '84 in 195''- EduEducation.

Lake Champlain by Samuel de Champlain in 160Q. The governor in 1958 (then Joseph B. Johnson; declared 1959 to be a year of history. At least 100 communities in the state celebrated in various ways, such as old home weeks, parades, pageants and plays, and historical events appropriate to their individual localities.

In

9'; of the 1959-60 ordinary budget. Finance. The monetary unit is the bolivar, valued at 29.85 cents U.S. currency during I9S9. The 1959-60 budget (July i-June 30) balanced ordinary revenue and expenditure at Bs. 5,098,900,000 and speci.al expenditure at Bs. 1,065,390,959. In 1958 59 revenue was Bs. 5,306,000,000 and expenditure, Bs. 6,241.000,000. Currency in circulation (July 31, 19S9* totaled Bs. 1,235,000,000; demand deposits, Bs. 2,640,000,000. .National income in 1958 was estimated at Bs. 17,600.000,000. The cost-of-living index (Caracasl stood at 107 in June I959 (i9S3 = ioo). TradB ond Communicolions. Exports in 1958 totaled Bs. 7,770.627,000; imports. Us. 4.798,126.000. LeadinR exports were crude petroleum and refined products (91%). iron ore (5%), coffee (2%), cacao and sugar; leading imports, machinery and equipment (18%), motor vehicles (9'"c^, iron and steel pipes and fittings (7%), industrial chemicals (.4"c) and iron and steel bars, plates and sheets (2%). Leading customers were the U.S. (43%). the Netherlands .Antilles (23%). the U.K. (6%). Brazil {3%) and .Argentina (3'"r); leading suppliers, the U.S. (S7%^. Germany (8%),

cation was allotted

—

—

U.K. (7%). Italy (6%) and Canada (3%). Public railways (1957) totaled about 590 mi., divided among a number of disconnected lines of varying gauges. In 1957 there were about 15.000 mi. of all-weather roads and on Jan. i, 1959. 212.745 automobiles, 99.693 trucks and 8.873 buses. .According to Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the merchant marine had 99 vessels (100 tons and over1 aggregating 233.127 gross tons on June 30, 1958. Telephones (Jan. i, 1958) numbered 139,826, of which 94.4*^ were automatic. Agriculture. Production estimates for the 1958-59 season (preliminary figures) included coffee. 500.000 bags of 132 lb. each; cotton, 25.000 bales of 500 lb. gross weight; cottonseed, 13.000 short tons; tobacco, 3,720 tons; cacao, 33.000.000 lb.; sugar. 190.000 tons. .According to official figures, there were (1956') 6.000.000 cattle, 2,360,000 hogs and 176,028 sheep. Lumber production totaled 187,260 cu.m. in 1958; timber, the

—

268.731 cu.m. Manufactures. Production estimates for 1958 included cement 1,615,513 metric tons; soap 19,398 tons; cigarettes 3,984.937,000 units; tires 674,661 units; beer 189.063,000 1.; cotton cloth 17,512,000 m.; rayon cloth 26.872,000 m.; rayon and cotton cloth 5,320,000 m. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1956) totaled 550.000 kw.; total production in 1958 was 2.250,270,000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production of crude petroleum in 1958 totaled 950.764,000 bbl.; natural gas, 31.517.422,000 cu.m. Crude petroleum exports tot.iled 690.000.000 bbl.; exports of refined products, 203,000,000 bbl. Refinery throughput was 267,104.000 bbl. Production of other minerals in 1958 included iron ore (average metal content 65%). 15.484.543 metric tons; gold. 75.970 troy ounces; diamonds, 90,004 carats; coal, 35.533 tons; manganese ore. 8,200 tons; nickel. 2,003 tons. (J. W. Mw.) Encyclop.€D1a Britannica Films. Colombia and Venezuela (1945).

—

M. Reed, attorney

Educotion.

A

Vermont.

north .Atlantic state of the United States, the

only one of the

New

England

states without a sea-

Vermont is popularly known as the "Green Mountain state"; it was admitted to the union in 1791. Area 9,609 sq.mi., coast,

of which 331 sq.mi. are water. Population (1950) 377,747 (in-

cluding 240.135 rural, 137,612 urban; 348,435 native white, 443 Negro, 28,753 foreign born). The U.S. bureau of the census provisional estimate of the population

1959.

The

8.599, Burlington 33,155

History.

sembly

in

was 372.000 as of July

i,

chief cities are Montpelier (capital, pop. 1950 census)

and Rutland 17,659.

—Legislation enacted

or

amended by

the general as-

1959 included significant changes in court procedure;

the creation, subject to a referendum vote, of a state racing

com-

mission to regulate pari-mutuel betting on horse races; a 3^? tax payable by hotels and restaurants; the licerjsand regulation of driver-training schools; parents' liability for damage to property or injury to persons by children; the raising of the minimum hourly wage to $1 revision of the motorboat laws to promote uniformity of laws and legislation; and

room and meals ing

;

the registration

Vermont,

Canada

in

and regulation of trading-stamp companies. 1959, united with the state of

in celebrating the

New York

and

350th anniversary of the discovery of

number

general.

elementary schools in the state on June jo, 1959. was 548; these had an enrollment of 54.679 and a teaching staff of 2.210 for the school year 1958-59. Public high schools in the state numbered 84, with an enrollment of 20,538 and a teaching staff of 987. The superintendent of schools was the commissioner of education, A. John Holden. Sociol Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Progromi An average of 5.919 persons a month received old-age assistance from stale funds amounting to $3,884,408.07 during the year ended June 30, 1959. .Aid to dependent children was distributed to an average of 4.2 11 persons a month (children and eligible relatives), amounting to $1,081,225. Blind assistance amounting to $93,365 was distributed to about 141 persons a of

month. .Aid to the permanently and totally disabled was paid to about 765 persons a month and amounted to $517,657. Unemployment compensation payments made under the Vermont law numbered 149,322 for the fiscal year 1958-59 and amounted to $3,476,411. The three state correctional institutions during the year had an average of 458 inmates; their total expenses were $1,068,414.74. Communications. The total mileage of the public highway system (state, state-aid and town highways) as of June 30. i9S9. was 13,656.41, of which 1,975 nii- W'ere in the state system and 2,736 mi. in the stale-aid system. Total expenditures during the year amounted to $33,539,455.97. Eight miles on Vermont's first limited-access highway (interstate) were completed in 1958 and 1959. There were about 827 mi. of railways (all diesel) in the stale in the year ended Dec. 31, 1958. .As of Nov. 9, 1959, airports numbered 21. seaplane landings areas 2, airways 4, with a total mileage in the state of about

—

300 mi. Telephone subscribers in 1958 numbered approximately 128.000. Banking and Finance. The number of State and national banks as of June 30. 1959. was 65. of which 33 were state-chartered, with total de-

—

posits

of

$292,771,757.03. The

six

state-chartered

co-operative building

and loan associations had assets of $7,280,245.71. Total receipts of the state as of June 30. I959. were $87,741,050.19; total disbursements $89,626,280.79: there was a deficit of $5,049,132.15; net debt $34,880,132.15. Agriculture. Cash receipts from farm marketing for the year 1958, according to the agricultural marketing service of the U.S. department of agriculture, totaled $115,500,000, compared with $119,500,000 in 1957-

—

—

—

— The

Table

I.

— Principal

Crops of VermonI Indie

Crop

959

195a

VETERANS ADMIN ISTRATION Table \H.— Mineral Production of Vermont

World War Value

Quanlity

Tolol*

Copper

3,000

lime

....

557,000

Talc

?

Other minerals

1,882,000

1,316,000

?

1,051,000 3,269,000 11,404,000

?

Stone

475

$21,443,000 250,000

t

2,216,000

Slate

t

808,000

733

G.I. loans,

The

and up

until July 25, i960, to

apply for

to a full year after that to close their deals.

Korea veterans was Jan. 31, 1965. Unemployment Benefits. Korea veterans may be eligible for unemployment pay under the Korean G.I. bill or, if they left G.I. loan deadline for

—

15,789,000

'

t

in

f

?

4,149,000

...

'Total hos been adjusted to eliminote duplicotion tVolue included with other minerals. Source: U.S. Bureou of Mines.

Volue

Quonlily

$21,893,000 2,050,000

?

Sond ond grovel

had

II veterans

1958

19S7

Mineral

(U.S.)

were for the purchase of homes.

1958, under a new- law passed in 1958. Both benefits are administered by the U.S. department of labour

service after Oct. 27.

t

4,111,000

...

the value of stone.

through state employment security agencies. Job-finding help

is

by the U.S. employment service. The mustering-out pay program is administered by the armed

offered

was second among the states in dimension slate output and crushed and broken slate. The Elizabeth mine, one of the naor more. In 1958 \'ermont

tion's oldest copper mines (worlied since 1793). closed because of depletion of ore. Vermont stood 44lh among the states in the value of its mineral output in 1938, with cij*;^ of the U.S. total.

Encyclop,idia Bhii.annica Films.

—

frntirf^fS by

Benefits for the Disabled: Vocational Training. vocational rehabilitation training

Xortkeaslerti States (1955).

Veterans Administration (U.S.).

forces.

is

— Special

available to service-disabled

veterans of the Korean conflict. While in training and for two months afterward, they may receive a subsistence allowance from the government, in addition to their monthly disability

the Veterans

compensation payments. By the end of 1959, about 60,000 vet-

administration, an independent agency of the United States gov-

erans had received rehabilitation training under this program.

ernment. Broadly considered, these benefits are of three kinds;

Under another program

ble veterans

and

their families are administered

make

those to help veterans

the transition to civilian life after

time spent in service; rehabilitative or compensatory benefits. for disabled

virtually expired, an

veterans.

World War

Disability

Compensation and Pension.

—

\'eterans with dis-

from either wartime or peacetime service may qualify for monthly compensation payments ranging from $19 to $225 for wartime service, and 80% of the wartime scale for peacetime-incurred disabilities. .-Additional statutory awards were

payable to veterans with certain severe disabilities such as blindness

and amputations.

The

V.A in fiscal 1959 paid out more than $1,152,000,000 in pensions to 879.781 living veterans and to the dependents of

Veterans administration.

528,111 deceased veterans. This

As of Aug. 31, 1959, living veterans of the country's wars numbered 22,644,000. Nearly 70*^, or about 15,235.000. served in World War II; 945,000 of these, with 4.510,000 others, a total of 5,455.000 served during the Korean conflict. The remaining 2,899.000 were veterans of earlier wars and peacetime service. With their families, veterans made up an estimated 45' congress in

2

to 2.0 mg. per

body weight. With the

.5

Many

such as antibiotics, tranquilizers and

t>-pes of drugs,

in this

manner; zoo veterinarians found

the projectile syringe to be especially valuable. Brucellosis.

gram

viation of suffering

to

in the

—Acceleration

of the brucellosis eradication pro-

United States during 1958-59 caused much attention

be directed to the methods of detecting

this disease in af-

fected cattle. Investigations showed that the ring test, applied to

this science.

—With

respect to this disease, a

the bulk milk received at dairy plants, was an

1959 was the discoverj' that meat from animals infected with the virus was not rendered

of identifying herds containing reactor cattle. It

by the usual commercial procedures of ripening, boning, salting and storage. As a result of this finding, the shipment of processed meats from South American countries to the United States was suspended. Cobalt Bullets. During 1959 the unique Australian method of treating ruminant animals for cobalt deficiency was introduced

to identify the reactor animals in the herd. It

Foot-and-Mou+h Disease.

development reported

in

free of the virus

—

North America. A prolonged shortage of cobalt in the rations of sheep and cattle results in a deficiency in the formation of vitamin Bjo by rumen microorganisms. In Australia the resulting in

disease

is

called phalaris staggers.

A

5-gm. pellet, containing

mixed with clay, when given to a sheep will reone compartment of the stomach, the reticulum, for

sary,

eflficient means was then neces-

however, to subject the herd to blood serum testing

combined use of the two

tests

would afford a much more eco-

nomical means of establishing and maintaining the certifiable brucellosis free status of a given area than

would blood serum

testing alone.

Hog

Cholera.

States was for

I,

major disease of swine

in the

1959. however, 30 states had enacted legislation which

either outlawed the use of virulent

hog cholera virus completely

main

U.S. swine are raised in those states.

slowly releasing the equivalent of

i

mgm.

of

cobalt per day.

The hog

86%

of

cholera vaccines

permissible in those states contain killed or attenuated virus

incapable of spreading the disease.

—

Rabies. A well-known disease affecting all warm-blooded animals including man, rabies was for many years believed to be ioo'~^ fatal for

United

years controlled by vaccinating swine with

and antihog cholera serum simultaneously. As of

virulent virus

Aug.

—This

many

or with limited or specific exceptions. Approximately

many months,

in order

appeared that the

cobaltic oxide in

pound of was

larger dosage rate, the recovery time

even vaccines were given

trol of diseases transmissible

significant

The

to 6 min. for cattle thus

to s hr.

of man's animal food sources, the con-

from animals to man and the alleof animals remained the primary goals of

in the fiesh of the target animal.

immobilized. Dosages ranged from

I

in

embedded

onset of drug action was reported to be

veterinar>

^^^ ^'°^^' ^'p^''' °^ Uotorinarv Mpriininp IClCllliai; mCUIblllC. medicine were accented

is

735

be forced out through a hypodermic needle,

to

mammals.

It

had become apparent, however, that

occasionally an animal could develop the paralytic form of the

and survive. Of 40 guinea pigs inoculated with the virus one experiment. 3 survived. Wildlife studies showed that some

See also Agricultural Research Service.

ii-

A

.

(D. A. Pe.)

country forming the easternmost part of the Indo-

llcllldlll. Chinese peninsula. Vietnam was until

World War

II

disease

divided into two French colonies and the French protectorate

in

of .\nnam. After an eight-year war, on July 21, 1954, Vietnam was de facto divided into two independent republics. Areas and populations are Republic of Vietnam: 65.948 sq.mi., (1958 est.) 12.366.291; Democratic Republic of Vietnam: 60,156 sq.mi.,

wild animals carry in their blood stream antibodies against the rabies virus, thus indicating that they

must have been infected

and subsequently recovered.

—

Anaplasmosis. This disease of cattle, which causes serious some areas, is caused by a disease agent which destroys the red blood cells. It is most frequently transmitted from animal to animal by means of insect vectors. Successful eradication programs combined the use of a blood test (complelosses in

ment-fixation)

to

locate

administration,

in

feed,

the

animals

carrier

of a

tetracycline

plus

the

antibiotic

oral

such as

chlortetracycline.

Prospects for completely eradicating the disease from areas containing deer as well as cattle did not seem promising, since deer are carriers and since some insects attack both species.

Ringworm.

worm

in

—A major breakthrough

man and

treatment of ring-

in the

animals received world-wide attention in 1959.

Griseofulvin, an antibiotic isolated from PeiiicUliiim griseoful-

vum and

other Penicillium species, can be given orally. Fungus

infections of

many

years' standing responded to this treatment.

Preliminary investigations indicated that infect the skin are inhibited

all

fungus species that

by the drug, but that fungi that

infect the deeper tissues are relatively insensitive to

Remote Administration

of Drugs.

—The

ancient poisoned dart and blow gun was put to

it.

principle

new

use in

of the

modern

When conventional methods of subjugating and capturing wild or vicious animals proved impracticable, a drug such as nicotine salicylate was injected by means of a pneumatic (CO2 gun and a projectile-type syringe. Firing of the gun causes an effervescent mixture in one compartment of the syringe veterinary medicine.

I

to

form gas

in flight, causing the drug contained in the adjoining

(1958 est.) 15,000.000. Three-quarters of the total population i.e.,

on

10%

of the total territory, the

live

Red

on coastal plains,

river delta

(North

Vietnam) being among the world's most densely populated areas. Religion: Buddhist and a Roman Catholic minority. Republic of Vietnam. This republic comprises the former French colony of Cochin-China and the southern part of the empire of Annam with its old capital Hue. It is bounded on the

—

north by the Democratic Republic of

Metnam

(along the 17th

on the west by Laos. Cambodia and the Gulf of Siam. and on the southeast and east by the South China sea. National minorities (1956 est.): Chinese 701,000; Cambodian and Laoparallel),

tian 300,300; European 10,700. Chief towns (pop. 1956 est.): Saigon (cap.), including the port of Cholon, 1.794.000; Dalat

250,000; Turan 101,000; Hue 90,600. President of the republic and premier in 1959. Ngo Dinh Diem. Democratic Republic of Vietnam. This comprises the former French colony of Tongking and the northern part of the empire of .\nnam. It is bounded on the north by China, on the west by Laos, on the south by the Republic of Vietnam and on the east by the South China sea. Chief towns (pop. 1957 est.): Hanoi

—

(cap.) 405.000;

Haiphong

(chief port) 170,000. President of the

Lao Dong (Communist) party in Minh; chairman of the execunational assembly. Ton Duk Thang; chair-

republic and chairman of the

1959. tive

man

Ho

Chi (pronounced Tskhi

committee of the

of the council of ministers,

History.

General.

—As

)

Pham Van Dong.

in the previous four years,

no prog-

—

——— —

VIRGINIA

736

was made toward Vietnamese reunification in 1959. On the other hand, political stability increased in both republics and ress

their

economic positions improved. At the end of Dec. 1958,

Pham Van Dong, prime minister of North Vietnam, sent another note to Ngo Dinh Diem, president of South Vietnam, suggesting negotiations in order to "normalize" the relations between the

two

republics.

Ngo

did not reply.

Republic of Victmim.

— Five

years after the Geneva agree-

which ended the Indochinese war, the danger of military aggression from the north had receded, but communist efforts at subversion in South Vietnam were intensi-

ments of July

20, 1954,

These were connected not only with the general election to in the south, but apparently also with the events in Laos (g.v.). By April communist underground activity was especially

fied.

be held

apparent in Cochin-China.

On July

8

two members of the U.S.

bomb

in a

compound at Bienhoa, 20 mi. northeast of Saigon. The general election of Aug. 30 produced overwhelming

sup-

Military Assistance Advisory group were killed by a U.S.

port for the policies of President Ngo. At a ceremony in Saigon's

former opera house, Ngo opened the republic's second national 5. He referred to the ever-present danger of

assembly on Oct.

communist subversion but declared that there was "a general regression of communist influence in the countries of Asia and Africa."

On May

an agreement on war reparations between Japan

13,

and South Vietnam was signed

in

amount to 85%. The rice crop in i960 was expected to be 7,600,000 tons, and an the number of pupils in all schools would rise to 1,630,000 increase of 65% as compared with 1957.

—

—

Education. Republic of Vietnam. Schools (1956-57): primary, state 2,70.', pupils 543,483, teachers 10.01 1; primary, private 719, pupils 90,621, teachers about 2,000: secondary, state and private 182, pupils 69,565, teachers, 3,367; vocational (1955-56) 20. pupils a, 743, teachers 178. University o( SaiKon (1955-56), students 2,841, teaching staff 125. Financ*. Republic of Vietnam. Monetary unit: piastre, with a free txchange rate of 74.50 piastres to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1958 est.):

—

balanced at 14,375,019,000 piastres of which 5,673,680,000 piastres came from U.S. military support aid. Currency circulation fSjarch 1958, latest pulilished) 9,370,000,000 piastres. Cold and foreign exchange, central banl< (.April 1959): US, $143,000,000. Foreign Trade. Rrpuhlic of Vietnam. (1958) Imports 8,125,000,000 piastres; exports 1,914,000,000 piastres. Chief exports: rubber 1,228,000,000 piastres; rice 471,000,000 piastres. Transport and Communications Vietnam. Railways Republic oj (1957); 1.321 km. Roads (1957) 13.974 km. of which 23% asphalted and 41% roughly metaled. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 12,667. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1957): Republic oj Vietnam. rubber 69,700; rice, paddy 3,192,000; maize 18,000; coffee 3,300: tea 4,400: tobacco 7,000; copra 26,000: peanuts 16,000. Livestock (1957): cattle 659,000; buffaloes 382.000; pigs 2,362.000. Fish landings (i9S7): 120,000 metric tons. Industry. Republic oj Vietnam.— Production: electricity (1958) 240,000.000 kw.hr.; sugar (1957, white and brown) 14,886 metric tons. Democratic Republic oj Vietnam. Railways (1956): 654 km. Rice crop (1958): 3,915,000 metric tons. Production: coal (1957) 1,112,000 tons (1939: 2,615,000 tons); electricity (1957) 123,000,000 kw.hr.; (K. Sm.) cement (1953) 291,000 tons. Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: SouthEast Asia and Its Peace jut Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture of the series, "A Changing World In The Light Of History") (1958).

—

—

—

—

—

—

Saigon by the foreign ministers

of the two countries. South Vietnam would receive $39,000,000

Known

and $16,000,000 in loans and credits. The whole amount of $55,000,000 would be delivered in Japanese goods and

of Presidents," Virginia states of the union,

services.

history goes back, however, to April 13,

in a direct grant

—

Democratic Republic of Vietnam. On Jan. 23, 1959, in a letter to the Indian chairman of the International Commission for Supervision

and Control

in Laos,

Pham Van Dong

against the alleged Laotian "violations" of the frontier.

On

protested

North Vietnamese

Feb. 4 he addressed notes to the Soxnet and British

governments, whose foreign ministers had been co-chairmen of

"Old Dominion" and as the "Mother is one of the 13 original

as the

which

it

entered June 26, 1788, Virginia's 1607,

permanent English settlement was established

when at

the

first

Jamestown.

The

state's area is 40,815 sq.mi. including 922 sq.mi. of water. Pop. 3.318,680 (1950 census), 3,992,000 (1959 est.); cities include Richmond, the capital, with a 1950 population of 230,310;

Norfolk 213,513; Roanoke 91,921; and Portsmouth 80,039, History. A special session of the general assembly in the

—

Geneva conference, drawing their attention to the danger of Laos becoming linked with the Southeast Asia Treaty

spring of 1959 abandoned the state's policy of massive resistance

organization.

tive

the 1954

At the same time North Vietnamese press and broadcasts cused the South Vietnamese government of

"persecution

ac-

of

and of a U.S.-South Vietnamese conspiracy to keep Vietnam divided permanently. The three-year development plan 1958-60 was said to be progressing satisfactorily. It was hoped that by i960 agricultural production would be 74% greater than in 1957 and that the growth of industrial production during the same period w'ould patriots''

to racial integration of the public schools

and enacted a

legisla-

package widely characterized as offering individuals and

"freedom of choice"

localities

a

change

policy

in

came

in

the school dilemma.

after the Virginia

The

supreme court of appeals

had invalidated the school closing and fund cut-off statutes that were at the heart of the massive resistance program.

The new laws provided for continued state support of public whether they became racially integrated or not. At the

schools,

same time, the legislature appropriated up to $250 for each whose parents decided, for whatever reason, to send him

child

to a

nonsectarian private school or to a public school in a district

BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

IN

ment program

in

in

progress

VIETNAM, 1959

part of large-scale

highway develop-

outside that of his

own

residence. Integration occurred under

pressure of federal court decrees in Norfolk, Charlottesville,

Alexandria and Arlington county. In Warren county, the high school for whites was technically integrated, but only Negro children enrolled for instruction. In Prince

Edward county, an

was met by a decision on the part of the county's governing body to abandon education as a public function. Private schools opened for white chil-

integration order effective for Sept. 1959

dren there, but no comparable

Negro children

November

privately.

The

effort

was made

to educate the

results of the general election in

indicated a small gain in the strength of the legisla-

tive majority supporting the freedom-of-choice policy.

Principal officers of the state government at the close of the

Lindsay Almond, Jr.; lieutenant goverand attorney general, A. S. Harrison, Jr. Rights.

year were: governor,

J,

nor, A, E, S. Stephens;

See also

Cmi

—

In 1958-59, elementar>' school enrollment in Virginia was 587,575, including 435.333 whites and 152,242 Negroes. Secondary enrollment was 234,67s, including 184,722 whites and 49,953 Negroes. The eleEducation.

—

——

—

VIRGIN ISLANDS, BRITISH — VI RGI N ISLANDS, mentary school teaching staff included 18,046 positions, the secondary and vocational staff 11,083. In addition, there were 2,590 principals, head teachers and supervisors. Davis Y, Paschall was state superintendent of public instruction. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. During the \'ear ended June 30, 1959, general relief payments went to 11.886 persons and totaled $1,137,827. Old-age assistance payments amounting to $7,220,233 went to 18,155 recipients; 13,796 families with 43,469 dependent children received $8,652,877: the foster care program provided another $2,476,908 for 9,225 children; 7,802 totally and permanently disabled persons were paid $3,179,951, while 1.414 blind persons received assistance totaling $660,314. .Average daily population of six penal institutions for adults was 6.948 and of four industrial schools for juveniles was 814 at the close of fiscal 1959. Communications. As of June 30, 1959, Virginia had 7,925 mi. of primary highways and 41,670 mi. of secondary roads. During fiscal 1959. the state spent $138,176,745 for construction, maintenance and operation of its highway system, compared with $128,790,304 for this purpose in the preceding 12-month period. Total railway mileage in the state on Jan, i, 1959, was 4,126.69, The number of telephones in use by Nov. i, 1959, was 1,203.286. Banking and Finance. As of June 10, 1959, Virginia had 179 state banks with deposits of $1,303,523,000 and assets of $1,441,094,000. On the same date, the 130 national banks in Virginia had deposits of $1,739,588,000 and assets of $1,920,734,000. On Jan. i. 1959, resources of 20 industrial loan associations totaled $42,011,159: of 40 building and loan associations

—

—

$133,256,243 and of 95 credit unions $15,925,935, For the fiscal }'ear ended June 30. 1959, the state treasurer received revenues of $563,773,995 compared with $513,502,897 for the year before. Expenditures of the treasurer were $591,372,109, Gross state debt at the end of the fiscal year was $9,118,508. A sinking fund of $5,568,798 left a net debt of $3,549,710. The fiscal year ended with cash and securities in the general fund totaling $84,184,398.

total.

Encyclop/EDIa Bhitannica Films. Table

Principal Crops of Virginia Indicoled 1959

Crop

39,100,000 6,600,000 4,560,000 399,000 1,804,000 210,000,000 5,817,000 3,341,000 1,980,000 11,500 129,100,000 10,400,000 1,500,000 4,176,000

Corn, bu

Wheof, bu Oats, bu Rye, bu

Hoy,

all, tons Peanuts, lb

Soybeans, bu Irish

I.

lin

potatoes, cwf

Sweet polatoes, cwl Cotton, bales

Tobacco, lb Apples, bu Peaches, bu Barley, bu

1948-57

40,969,000 6,162,000 3,737,000 388,000 2,034,000 220,500,000 6,052,000 3,747,000 1,700,000 9,300 137,678,000 11,100,000 1,950,000 4,036,000

35,357,000 7,184,000 4,358,000 314,000 1,640,000 217,107,000 3,274,000 3,865,000' 1,332,000* 14,500 158,403,000 9,220,000 1,315,000 3,343,000

Total*

Cloy Cool Coket Leod

Source: Virginia Department of Agriculture.

....

Mongonese ore Noturol gas (000 Sond ond gravel.

cu.ft.) .

.

—

7%

rainfall. An output of 788,000,000 eggs in the first 10 months of 1959 represented a 16% gain over the same period in 1958. Pork production was expected to be up 5% to 6% and beef production to fall below 1958 by approximately 10%. Prices received by farmers for all farm products marketed in 1959 were expected to drop 1% to 2% below the preceding

—

Manufacturing establishments in Virginia were hit by the general business recession starting in late 1957 and continuing through the early months of 1958. The Virginia department of labour and industry reported, however, that diversification of industry proved to be a stabilizing influence on the economy as a whole. Employment in textiles during 1958 continued

downward

trend, but this category remained the lareest any single manufacturing group. The chemical industry experienced the sharpest loss in total employment during the vear. The value of products manufactured in Virginia during 1958 amounted to $5,103,153,000 compared with $5,139,311,000 in 1957. (\V. B. F.) Mineral Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Virginia in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or more. In 1958 Virginia mined all the domestic aplite; was second in pyrites; and third in dimension slate output. It ranked 19th among the its

employer of workers

of

—

Toble

II.

Principal Industries of Virginia Solories All

employees Industry

Group

Food ond kindred products Tobacco manufactures Textile mill product

Apparel and related product! Lumber and wood products Furniture and fixtures Pulp, paper and products Printing ond publishing Chemicols ond products Leather and leather goods Stone, clay and glass products Primary metol industries Fabricated metal products Machinery, except electrical Transportotion equipment Source:

LJ.S.

. .

Slate Zinc

1958

Volue

Quonlily

$224,531,000 986,000 153,959,000 3,051,000 899,000 6,029,000

1,153,000 26,826,000 154,000 3,000 471,000

Other minerals

Volue

$203,226,000

1,058,000 661,000 9,877,000 1,003,000 21,158,000 5,277,000 29,752,000

14,244,000 23,000

.

US

(1956).

short tonsi

?

Stone

of the

8,000 2,521,000 7,158,000

1,143,000 130,319,000 2,281,000 687,000 5,533,000 647,000 681,000 10,834,000

?

t

15,413,000 18,000

"Totol has been adjusted to eliminate duplication in the volue of tVolues for processed moteriols ore not included in the totols. tVolue included with other minerols. Source. U.S. Bureau of Mines.

27,504,000 3,808,000 25,428,000

cic

^^'^ British colony comprises a

IchnHo Dritich

IdldllUb, DMllbll.

group of 36 islands (12 inhabforming part of the Leeward Islands, lying at the eastern extremity of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean sea. The colony has in common with other Leeward Islands a govited)

Windward

Total pop.: (195S

West

est.)

Islands) a supreme court, but a sepa-

Indies,

The). Total

7,600. Population,

area: 59 sq.mi.

mainly Negro. Lan-

guage: English. Religion: Christian. Capital:

Road Town

[1958 est.]) on Tortola Island. Administrator G. P. AUsebrook. 1,500

— Following the

in

(pop, 1959,

from the Virgin Islands to London in July 1959 it was announced that when the office of governor of the Leeward Islands was abolished in i960, the head of the government of the Virgin Islands would be an History.

visit of a delegation

administrator directly responsible to the secretary of state for

was

also agreed that the e.xecutive council of the

colony should be increased by the addition of a third member.

Agriculture Based on conditions in early Nov. 1959, production prospects for Virginia's principal field crops were about below 1958, but nearly 10% above the 1948-57 average, according to the state department of agriculture. Lower tonnage of hays, a smaller corn crop and decreased production of peanuts, soybeans and potatoes were attributed to irregular

year. Manufacturing.

893,000 29,506,000 203,000 3,000 510,000 13,000 2,465,000 7,047,000

Lime

the colonies. It

•1949-57 overage.

— Southeastern States

1957

Quantity

rate legislature. (See

1958

737 1.23%

Mineral Production of Virginia

III.

Mineral

ernor and (with Table

U.S.

states in the value of its mineral output in 1958, with

1957

29,964 13,220 35,892 20,117 23,714 15,579 13,957 8,702 33,624 5,359 6,753 3,809 9,091

3,885 17,418

ond wages lin

Value added by manufacture

OOOsI

lin

OOOsI

1957

1957

1956

$ 96,984

$225,212 247,068 195,875 66,119 79,169 104,516

$196,862 241,858 177,196 61,518 82,450 109,104 138,759 59,526 459,808

47,674 109,082 46,803 55,945 53,254 63,721 41,215 167,696 14,103 23,820 16,263 39,296 18,862 93,762

156,521 64,439 444,831 19,381

63,962 27,233 64,606 33,440 159,665

Department of Commerce, Annuo! Survey of Monufoclures, 1957.

18,503 60,353

61,570

116,637

—

Education. Schools (1957): 18, pupils 2,145. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: British West Indian dollar: B.W.I. $i.7 U.S. $1. U.S. currency also circulates. Budget (1957): revenue B.W.I. $840,000, expenditure B.W.I. $807,000. Foreign trade (1957): imports B.W.I. $1,231,000. exports B.W.I. $259,000. Principal exports: livestock, fish, charcoal, vegetables and fruit.

=

Uirtrin

—

klanric

VII gill loldllUo,

II

Q

U.O.

^^^

^''^^^"

islands

of the united

States have the status of an organ-

ized but unincorporated territory with a total area of 133 sq.mi.,

located 1,400 mi. southeast of

New York

Puerto Rico. The three largest islands are

and 40 mi. east of Croix (pop. 12,103,

city St.

Thomas (pop. 13,813) and St. John (pop. The chief cities are Charlotte Amalie, the capital (11,469), on St. Thomas, and Christiansted (4,112) and Frederiksted census of 1950), St. 749).

(1,961) on

St. Croix.

On

July

i,

1958, the estimated total popu-

was 31,250. The islands are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. department of the interior. History and Government. Since the enactment of the Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands on July 22, 1954, legislative power has been vested in a unicameral legislature composed of II senators elected for two years (five representing three electoral districts and six elected at large). The first codification of laws in the history of the islands was passed by the legislature of the Virgin Islands and approved by the governor in May 1957, becoming effective Sept. i, 1957. To attract outside business investment, the legislature also passed a measure granting subsidies and special tax e.xemptions to new businesses. John D. Merwin took the oath of office as governor on Sept. 25, 1958. Other ranking officials in 1959 included: Roy W. Bornn, government secretary; Walter A. Gordon, judge of the district court; Walter I. M. Hodge, president of the legislature; and Leon P. Miller, United States attorney. lation

—

VIRUSES — VITAMINS AND NUTRITION

738 Edu

-In 1950 the three major islands had 29 public schools, consistinx of 7 kindorRarlens, 13 rural schools, 7 rily elementary schools, i junior hiKh school and 1 junior-senior high schools. Total enrollment in public schools was 6.466, at a per capita cost (cxcl. of school lunches, adult education, capital outlay, community services) of $216.97. The budRctnry allotment for the department of education for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, was $i.S44..U9.94. Banking and Financ*.- -Total revenue for the fiscal year ending June jo, I9S9, from real property taxes, income taxes, miscellaneous revenues, matchinK funds. Krant-in-aid funds and miscellaneous federal contributions

amounted to $9,826,532.36. There are two banks: the Virgin Islands National bank, with assets (June 30, 1959) of $15,751,542.81, and the West Indies Bank and Trust

company with

assets (June 30, 1959) of $11,249,075.11. Later in the year the assets of the West Indies Bank and Trust company were purchased

by Chase Manhattan Bank of New \'ork. Social W»lfar«. The department of social welfare administered $342.818. 12 in public assistance payments during 1958-59. This total included principally old-age assistance amounting to $160,258.31 and aid to dependent children totaling $105,233.28. .Average monthly assistance payments per recipient were: old-age assistance $23.40; aid to dependent children $12.06 per person in families with children; aid to the blind $26.81; aid to the disabled $25.64; and general assistance $23.53. Three homes were maintained for the aged and indigent, and there was one training school for boys. Approximately $1,925,000 in federal grants and local appropriations was available during 1958-59 to the department of

—

health. Agriculture, Industry

and Trade.

livestock.

Croix is obtained from agriculture, that of St. Thomas is derived largely from the manufacture of rum and handicrafts and from tourism, trade and shipping. During the year ending June 30. 1959. income from tourists was estimated at $21,738,000. For the calendar year 1958. the value of exports from the Virgin Islands to the United States was $3,106,835; the value of imports to the Virgin Islands from the United States was $18,053,605. Communications and Transportation. Daily airmail and passenger service is provided between St. Thomas and St. Croix and between the islands of the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, and daily boat mail and passenger service is furnished between St. Thomas and St. John. Caribbean Atlantic .\irlines. Inc., and British West Indian .\irways, Ltd.. served St. Thomas in 1959. St. Croix was also served by two airlines Caribbean .Atlantic .Mrlines, Inc.. St.

—

—

and Pan-American World .\irways.

Inc..

addition, they received 750 mg. of a pantothenic acid antago-

the

making four

latter

flights

weekly. Eighty-nine large cruise ships made St. Thomas a port of call. There are three daily newspapers and one triweekly newspaper with a combined circulation of about 3,000. In 1959. St. Croix had iSo mi. of highway serving the island's 2,303 motor vehicles. On St. Thomas and St. John. 90 mi. of roads served 2.677 motor vehicles and one airport accommodated two airlines. On these islands. there were 3,112 telephones, two cable offices and two radio stations. (J. D. Mn.)

Later some of the signs and symptoms of deficiency began

to diminish spontaneously, so the dose of the antagonist

was

in-

creased to 1,000 mg. daily. At the end of the deficient period the antagonist was continued while 4.000 mg. of pantothenic acid daily

was added. The remaining "control" pair received the basic

formula supplemented by 20 mg. of pantothenic acid daily, together with all other essential vitamins and minerals given to the other subjects.

During the

deficient period, as time progressed the antagonist

symptoms, A little later the two men group began to note similar complaints. The signs

pair developed deficiency in the deficient

of deficiency included: serious personality changes with irritability, restlessness,

quarrelsomeness, malaise, sleep disturbances,

excessive fatigue, neurological disturbances such as

numbness of

the hands, paresthesias (a sensation as of pricking, tingling or

creeping on the skin), muscle cramps and a peculiar gait. Physical

— There

arc approximately 750 farms in the Virgin Islands which, according to the 1950 census of agriculture, covered 73.753 ac. of which 16.461 had been in cropland harvested the previous year. The appraisal value of privately owned land and buildings in 1959 was $28,045,665.62 and the appraised value of lands, buildings and structures owned by the government of the Virgin Islands was $io.74i.54i-86. Agricultural activities centred on the raising of sugar cane (almost 5,000 ac. were devoted to its cultivation) and the breeding of

While much of the revenue of

in

nist.

examinations revealed few objective findings other than

transient increase of the tendon reflexes and faulty co-ordination

The most

associated with tremor.

sistent complaints, fatigue,

constant, annoying and per-

headache and weakness, usually oc-

curred simultaneously.

Administration of pantothenic acid was followed by improvement of the paresthesias and muscle weakness, but fatigue and some degree of irritability persisted. Gastrointestinal bacteria could quite possibly have produced some pantothenic acid and limited the extent of deficiency obser\-ed. The degree of the deficiency probably was relatively minor since many biochemical reactions which require coenzymes containing pantothenic acid

continued unchanged. However, this study had produced a syn-

drome

in

man by

restriction of pantothenic acid

and admin-

istration of a metabolic antagonist to pantothenic acid.

Hypervi+anninosis A.

—Very high doses of vitamin A given

to

pregnant rats influence the development of the fetus. The abnormalities resulting from an overdose of vitamin

A

include

anencephalia (absence of brain), anophthalmos (absence of the eyes) or large, open, protruding eyes, spina bifida (absence of the arches in the spinal column), cleft palate, malformations of

the extremities, labial fissures and cataracts,

Viruses: see B.\cteriology Cancer; Epidemiology; MediPoliomyelitis; Respiratory Diseases. Visual Education: see Motion Pictures. Vital Statistics: see Birth and Death Statistics; Census Data, U.S.; Marriage and Drorce. ;

ci-\e;

Vitamins and Nutrition,

°t

^tl'^'it,..*:!!

assumed that pantothenic acid was necessary for the maintenance of health in man. Spontaneous deficiencies, however, had not occurred or had not been recognized because of the abundance of pantothenic acid in natural foods. Even in very poor diets, other vitamin deficiencies seemed to be limiting factors

F.

M. Deuschle and co-workers produced

congenital defects in rats of vitamin

A

a variety of such

by the administration of

a single dose

(75,000 to 150,000 I.U.) on the ninth, tenth or

eleventh day of pregnancy.

On the basis of present knowledge, no correlation could be drawn concerning pregnancy in women from animal research. However, the striking nature of the defects and the relative ease with which they could be produced (along with the fact that any \ntamin A taken in excess of the body's needs is stored) would suggest cautious use of large and repeated doses of vitamin A during early pregnancy.

Chemicals

in

Food.

—Legislation amending

the food

and drug

before pantothenic acid deficiency caused definite trouble. Six volunteers participated in a study conducted by R. E.

must be proved safe by industry' before being sold for use in foods, was proposed to the congress in 1957 by the L'nited States depart-

Hodges and

ment

associates,

which attempted to produce pantothenic

man by tube feeding purified diets low in pantothenic acid together with metabolic antagonists to pantothenic acid. Tube feeding of a normal hospital diet, which was acid deficiency in

emulsified in a blender, ical effect

was done

to detect

of the procedure itself for the

any psychic or physthree weeks of the

first

study.

of health, education

dent on Sept.

6,

and welfare and signed by the

in all respects

six

men

in three groups.

the basic diet, adequate

but devoid of pantothenic acid. At the end of this

deficient period, 4,000

mg. of pantothenic acid was given

pair, the antagonist pair, received the

daily.

same formula

but,

presi-

195S.

The amendment required that: before a food additive could be it should be shown to be safe for long-term, as well as short-

used

term, consumption; the addition of additives to food should not

be permitted unless they served a purpose beneficial to the con-

sumer; industry must provide evidence

The experimental design paired the One pair, the deficient pair, received

Another

law. so that chemicals used in the processing of foods

to establish the safety

of the additive and should submit the proof to the

administration for evaluation.

Common

Food and Drug

additives, such as sugar,

salt and vinegar whose safety had been established by experience would be exempt.

Insect Control

and

Human

Nutrition.

— G.

C.

Decker

dis-

WAGES AND HOURS cussed the problem of food destruction, deterioration and con-

tamination by plant pests. Growing crops and produce must be protected from serious attack by insects, plant diseases and other

through evolution, have acquired an enviable de-

pests. Insects,

gree of fitness that has permitted at least

some representative

to

survive in almost every earthly environment. Insect population can be controlled ical

means. In nature, insect control

by natural and by chemlargely biological

and

739

For travel which would extend for periods of more than six months, some scientists believed that the only source of food feasible was that provided by the use of a closed ecological system which used plants to provide food and oxygen to the traveler, and the traveler's expired carbon dioxide and waste products for plant nourishment. Supplements, however, would be needed to provide lacking essential nutrients with such a system.

—

ecological.

BiBLiOGR.APHY. R. E. Hodges, M. A. Ohlson and W. B. Bean, "Pantothenic .\cid Deficiency in Man," J. Clin. Invest., 37:1642-1657 (Nov. 1958); F. M. Deuschle, J. F. Geiger and J. Wari^any, ".Analysis of an

tend to keep plant and animal population in a state of near

.\nomalous Oculodentofacial Pattern in Xewborn Rats Produced by Maternal Hypervitaminosis .\," /. Dent. Res.. 38:149—155 (Jan. -Feb. 1959); Editorial, "Xew Law on Chemicals in Food," Am. J. Pub. Health. 49:94—95 (Jan. 1959): G. C. Decker, ''Insect Control vs. Human Nutrition," Nuir. Rev., 16:289-291 (Oct. 1958): J. C. Ebbs, "Nutrition in the Space .\ge," Sutr. Rev., 17:129-131 (May 1959)(M, B. McC; F. J. Se.)

is

Most pests have tremendous reproductive powers, whether they be weeds, plant diseases, insects or rodents. However, nature has arrayed a variety of dynamic forces which equilibrium.

For many pests suitable biological or ecological control measures have not yet been developed. Pesticides constitute the only

—

EncycloP/Edia Britannica Fums. Foods and Nutrition (1939); Fundamentals of Diet (1943); Understanding Vitamins (1952).

defense weapon. Decker pointed out that "the use of insecticides is

the only established protective practice available for com-

batting the majority of our injurious insect species."

Such control

is

of vast importance. Plant production

would be

almost impossible without the use of chemical sprays and other

measures applied

much

to control insects

and plant

diseases.

Although

progress has been made, current insect losses in the agri-

Waffp^ liagCO

1958.

1959 this I).

persons were concerned with the possible public health

cides and pesticides. The U.S. department of agriculture, the Food and Drug administration, the U.S. public health ser\-ice

and the National Research council had stated that the hazards were potential, not real, and that there was no cause for alarm. Before nutrition research workers had Nutrition in Space. little more than scratched the surface in solving the problems

—

of

man

on earth, the space age presented them with the challeng-

ing problem of feeding

man

in space.

Jane C. Ebbs stated that man's entr>' into the space age would depend largely on the ability of the scientist to solve the problems concerned with man's physiological needs

in space. For both between 10 and 120 mi. above the earth) and space travel (more than 120 mi. above the earth's surface), the biologist would be faced with duplicating the earth's environment for the survival of the traveler. While the duration of space flight would be relatively short, space travel might involve long periods of time. In space, the lack of gravity provokes numerous problems. Everything not fastened down will float. Liquids will not pour and, in an open container, they tend to break into small particles if the container is moved. Some solid foods form dust and can

space

flight

(travel in the area lying

cause trouble is

if

the particles get into the lungs before the food

put into a semiliquid consistency by the mouth. Unless "syn-

thetic"'

gravity can be established in the space vehicle, safe feed-

ing can be done best by using liquid or semiliquid food dispensed via a squeeze bottle or piped from closed containers directly to

the traveler's mouth.

The

logistics of subsistence

support for

man

in space is stag-

Water requirement alone was predicted to be a minimum of 5 lb. per day per traveler. The recovery and purification of water from expired air, perspiration and the waste products gering.

would provide a partial solution. It seemed unlikely that conventional foods or heating, storage and preparation equipment would be used for space travel of more than one or two days' duration because of their bulkiness. If s>Tithetic gravity could be induced, precooked dehydrated foods that required only the addition of hot or cold water for preparation,

and irradiated fresh foods, pasteurized

to al-

leviate the need for refrigeration, might provide a partial an-

swer.

months was 10.8% for April. In Sept. index was 3.6% above that for Sept. 1958 {see Table

1959, real wages were higher than in the corresponding in

cultural field alone are estimated to be in excess of $4,000,000,000

Many

'" °^ ^^^ "^^^ cession" disappeared late in that year,

^^' ^^^'"'^ '^''''

with the result that real wages in the United States in 1959 were the highest in four years. In each of the first nine months of

annually.

hazards that might be associated with the wide use of insecti-

;ini1 IIUUIO. Hniir, and bituminous coal

Table II.— AvBrog* U.S. Wttkly larningi, Avaragt Wttkiy Houri ond Avraga Carningi Ptr Hour in Moior Indviiriti

^''Tou,"""' '^"3,no°'"''

'""io'^'iror"'

1959'""

i„^^^,^

All MANUFACTURING Durabl. good.

Nordurabi. Bood.

:::::::

Er.c,°"oV,l°a'l,i„;,;

Non.i.ctricoi machin.ry Transportolion vquipment

....

Agiomobii..

Lumb.r and wood product.

.

.

.

.

Furnllur. ond n.lur.i Stone cloy and olo..

L.tiii

mill

prod^t

19m'"'i958

1958

$89.65 94.80 80.00

$83.50 89.83 75.66

40.2 40.5 39.8

39.2 39.4 39.0

2.01

1.94

'ii:?' !°2-?5 108.53 111.10 80.19 74.66 92.13 63.83

'io?

"j

11°

i.ll

lUi

JJ'T^ 100.19 97.39 74.28 68.85 84.40 57.90

til 40.8

Hi

^5? 2.66

lift 2.53

2.69 1.98

2.51

,

JV.o 38.8 39.3 38.9 40.0 38.6

41.3 40.5 40.8 41.5 40.4

60:90 85!48

579° 8K99

Itl

Pop.r and allied product.' '.'.'.'. 95.03 Printing and publi.hino 103.52 Chemicoi. and allied product. 100.28

88.83 97.38 95.06

43.0 38.2 41.1

41.9 37.6 40.8

'i?:J9 72.13

42:i 40.0

3i:? 39.2

^jyJhlTo'd'i.'arh.'r Vo'dJci.' Food and food product.

. ;

;

...;

!

.

.

.

RLbt^p:L'uc°tl°':^''r'^''"'.

:

:

li'j?

Mi,ceiianeou,n,anufacturina.

.

.

75.60

.

1959'''''i9S8

Ikt 4K2

4o:9

$2.23 2.39

$2.13 2.28

1.89 1.77

1.83 2.22 1.58

2.11

1.50

Hi

H?

^09

i:99

2M

2.i] 2.71

2.44

2.59 2.33

2I?

lit

1.89

1.84

NONMANUFACTURING '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'

323

302

2'2? 9*'38 42'9 432 86.29 79.31 39.4 38.5 2.19 106.04 100.12 41.1 40.7 2.58 91.76 88.26 40.6 40.3 2.26 49.07 48.22 35.3 35.2 1.39 47.44 45.60 40.2 40.0 1. 18 116.16 112.17 36.3 36.3 3.20 United State. Department of Commerce.

iVz

325

324

9547

T.iephone

Go. ond electric ulilitie. Wholesale trode Generol merchandise .tores

.

.

.

Hotel. Building construction

Source, Survey o^ Current

9785

104.98

st'«i"r*aiil"a'Tandbu.'..'

Bu.i-nesi,

exceeded $iio per week for 8 out of 12 months coal mining,

and

for

i

month

in transportation

in

2.06 2.46 2.19 1.37 1.14 3.09

bituminous

equipment manu-

facturing.

As of July 1959, earnings exceeded $100 per week in 11 Induscompared with 5 in 1958. Seventeen industries paid average weekly earnings of more than •rj 2X $90 (against 15 in 1958); vo" " tries,

\

more than $So

industries paid

1957); and

3"

I-

^

.

(against 22 in 1958 and 20 in

industries paid less than $60

(compared with

tips.

board,

room Or uniforms), but

in hotels

this

was 4

ccnts higher than in 1958. For manufacturing as a whole, the u . -.u /^ .u mcrca.sc houfly rates was 4.7%, comparedJ with 2.9% the

m

•

M

1

Pr'or y^-"- Steel workers struck

late

in

1

059 for

still

higher

wagcs, dcspitc the fact that their hourly rate increased 5.4% during the year, which was above the average increase foT manu_

,

r

,

factUTing aS a whole. t- ,, u c. lu f Table ttt III shows a fivc-year climb of

,^

u

23.9% m hourly eammanufacturing industries. The greatest improvement ovBT the five-ycar Span was onc of 40.9% in iron and Steel. The second bcst incTeasB was 29.7% in bituminous coal mining. Thc '"Ss for

•

i

all

'•

L mdustfy showing thc wi kcst incTcase smce 19S4 was anthracitc coal mining ro.er-.), followed by texUle products ri6.2%). J

^

.

,1

•

1

•

•

Common labouT f Toad building) in Julv 1959 Tecclved an avcTj •... » I. . r ao -r-i.^gc hourly rate of $2.14, compared with $2.07 1958. This

m •

represents an increase of 3.4%.

Farm wages went up

6 cents to

was 6.4% higher than foT the preceding year. Rcported farm wages do not include a monetary evaluation of room ,, ^ and board, which normally are furnished in addition to cash „„,.„„„» pavment. jp summarv. wage payments in 1959 reflected a definite up^ , ,. ,, ward trend. I his was true for all component and directly re$1.00, which

,,,,., .

,

'^'' during the year.

see

Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United

Kingdom of. Walnuts: '^ee Nuts.

War, Law

of: see International Law.

^

U/ochinn'tnn

lifloMlllglUM.

state in the

extreme northwestern United

known as the "Evergreen Washington was admitted to the union Nov. 11, 1889. Total area: 68,192 sq.mi., of which 66,786 sq.mi. is land. Pop. (1950) 2,378,963; native white 2,135,495, foreign-bom white 191.001. Negro 30,691 and other races 31,776. According to the U.S. census bureau the provisional estimate of population on July i, 1959, was 2.823,000. In 1950 the urban population was 1.503. 166. or 63.2% of the total population. The populations of States, popularly

state,"

the five largest cities, according to July figures in parentheses),

i.

1959, estimates C1950

were respectively: Seattle 581,300 (467,-

S9r): Spokane 190,400 (161. 721); Tacoma 15S.800 (143.673); Yakima 45,100 (38.486); Vancouver 40,800 (41,664). Olympia (state capital) 17,700 (15,819).

Table iii.-r;«

in

Hourly U.S. Earnings Roles index,i959

ijuiy figuresi

Industry

all manufacturing Durable goods

.

Nondurobie goods iron and steei Machinery (nonelectrical) .

rummer on"

.

.

.

.

.

allied pr'oduc's: Textile products

.....

Food ond food processing Tobocco products Rubber products

.

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

"=iot'

$1.80

$1.89

$2.13 2.28

$2.23

2.01 1.71

$1.97 2.07

$2.07

1.91

2.39

168.9 170.7

1.94

2.01

162.1

2.94 2.38

3.10 2.50

198.7 171.2

f.li 1.50 1.99 1.66 2.35

?:98 1.58 2.09 1.76 2.52

1.66 2.20

1.82

2.20 1.90

2.46 2.08

2.47 2.20

2.71

lit

K72

III

^iw

1.36 1.68 1.37 1.95

1.37 1.72 1.40 2.09

1.44 1.86 1.50 2.17

2.51

2.49

2.43 2.50

2.58 2.83

2.93 3.08

2.59 3.02

2.75 3.23

159.0 173.7

2.11

2.66

li"!

2!94

sio^

3'20

lls's

2.01

2.30

1.50 1.92 1.61

2.26

1

70.7

141.1

172.7 176.0 170.3

nonmanufacturing Cool mining Anthracite Bituminous Buiiding°cons7rurtion

'.'.'.'.

Source: Suryec of Current Business, United Stotes Department of

Commerce.

History.— Democrats controlled both houses of the 36th legwhich met in regular session from Jan. 12 to March 12, 1959. and in extraordinary session from March 13 to 27. This was the fourth occasion in ten years that the regular session islature

... ., „ did not pro\nde Sufficient time to complete the legislative pro„ -rlo Stimulate . . j-i j » .i. j » gram. Credit and to attract capital, development Credit corporations Were authorized and State chartered financial .

l

.

,

.

,

,

-i.

i.

.

,

i

l

were authorized to f participate in such Organizations. o f Nine laws Were enacted to strengthen and e.xpand the operation ..,. , „, ,, ,f „ j ^ ,, j, authorities. Of these the so-called landlocked county P° port bill, designed to enable Spokane to develop improved in•. . j -.i. ^ a . .\. institutions ^ •

i

,

,

.

•

i

Qustnal sites

m

j,

.

Connection with port zones, reflected the general 1

stimulus to trade resulting from developments on the Columbia llver

and Other pOrt pTOJeCtS. Similarly alrpOrtS Were permitted

—

WASHINGTON, to use their funds to construct

manufacturing and warehouse

program received a setback when the supreme court ruled that the 1957 law which authorized port districts to use funds derived from a two-mill lew to acquire property for industrial purposes involved the condemnation

buildings and sites. This

— D.C Toble

741 I.

Principal

Crops of Washington Indic

led

948-57'

state

871,000 951,000 559,000 1 83,000 590,000 193,000 438,000 551,000 843,000' 75,000 588,000

of private property for other than public use.

In face of the prospect for a continued serious state deficit, the legislature increased the sales tax

On

from

3^%

to

4%.

Jan. 29, 1959, the state supreme court upheld the law of

1955 which required state employees to sign a loyalty oath. It however, that section three, which provided that mem-

ruled,

bership in a subversive organization be determined by the

list

prepared by the United States attorney general, constituted "an unconstitutional delegation of legislative authority to an officer of the United States over which the state government has no control." Also, the bill

an

had not

officer in the exercise of

set forth standards to guide such

such delegation.

United States supreme court was university professors

The

filed

who challenged

Application to the

on behalf of the two

the validity of the oath.

chief officers of the state for 1959 were; governor, Albert

D. Rossellini; lieutenant governor, John A. Cherberg; secretarv' of state, Victor A. Meyers treasurer, Tom Martin state auditor. Cliff Yelle; attorney general, John OConnell; state superintendent of public instruction, Lloyd J. Andrews (elected on non;

;

partisan basis); commissioner of public lands, Bert Cole; state

insurance commissioner, William A. Sullivan; and chief justice of the state supreme court, Frank P, Weaver. Education. At the close of the school year 1958-59, the total enrollin the public elementary schools was 389,581. the secondary schools

—

ment

109.833, junior high schools 87,756. The average daily attendance in elementary schools was 363. 87S. in junior high schools SS.76S and in high schools 107.625. Certified personnel in the state public-school s\'Stem numbered 25.836 and the average salary, exclusive of superintendents, supervisors and principals, was $5,194 and of all certified personnel $5,367. Total expenditures were $221,077,700 and the cost per pupil in attendance in elementary and secondary schools was $?So. Full-time student enrollment during the fall term of 1958 was 13.035 at the University of Washington and 5.724 at Washington State university (State College of Washington before Sept. i. 1959). During that term three colleges of education had a total enrollment of 5.712: ten publicly supported junior colleges had a total enrollment of 5,947: and 12 privately supported universities and colleees in the stale had a total of 10,783. Sociol Insurance ond Assistance, Public Welfare and Reloled Programs. During the period Sept. i. 1958. to Aug. 31. 1959, public assistance in the state, including federal expenditures and state aid, cost $102,516,951.16. An average of 133.851 persons recei\ed a total of S94.719.600.r2 and an average of 27.425 persons received general assistance to a total of $12,323,374.16. .\n average of 54.645 old persons received a total of $5°. 352, 535.98. .^n average of 41.315 dependent children received a total of $20,571,290.03. A total of $2,792,396.33 was provided for the foster care of 3.902 children. .\n average of 803 blind persons received a total of S818.641.25. A total of $6,603,565.83 was paid to an average of 6.530 disabled persons. .\ total of $1,055,998.30 was provided for public assistance service, of which $232,637.04 was extended to the blind and $823,291.44 was provided for burials. For medical service only. $911,528.88 was expended during the months June through .\ug. 1959. .\dministration of the entire program cost $7,087,619.74. On June i. 1959. three state hospitals for mental patients had a total population of 6.723: four adult correctional institutions had a total of 2.677 inmates; two veterans' homes and one colony had 749 inhabitants; II state schools or centres for children or youth were responsible for 4,183 persons: juvenile parole services had 629 and child guidance centres had 332 active cases, respectively. Total appropriations for the state institutions for the fiscal biennium, 1959-1961, amounted to $70,130,114 for

wages and operations. Communications. Railroads in the state during 1958 carried freieht to a total of 7.638,138.000 ton revenue freight miles, and passengers to a total of 246,247,641 passenger miles. There were 5.903 "!'• «' track of road operated. On Jan. i. 1959, the total mileage of highways in Washington was 59,058, of which 14,469 mi. were federal-aid highways. There were 6,585 mi. of hi-jhway under the state system and 38. 244 mi. uf highways, roads and streets under county jurisdiction and management. Total state expenditures for highways during the period Feb. i, 1958, to Jan. 31, 1959, were

salaries,

—

$96,660,734. In Sept. 19 59 the state was served by 10 scheduled airlines and there were 1,280 airline route miles. There was a total of 105 airports, 11 seaplane bases and 62 privately owned restricted-use airports. Banking and Finance. Tn 1958 the state board of equalization placed the value of real and personal property at $9,636,658,260 and equalized for purposes of taxation at S4.S1S.329. 130. The gross debt on June 30, 1959, was $86,496,912.32. For the year ending June 10, I959, receipts, including cash and warrant transfers, were $899,296,896.15, and for the year ending June 30, 1959, disbursements, including warrants redeemed to the amount of $704,883,038,94 and cash transfers of $i67,373,24i-32 amounted to a total of $872,256,280.26. The treasurer's cash balance was

—

$129,422,535.31,

lin

OOOsl

—

WATER SUPPLY — WE ALTH AND INCOME

742 bay.

The city of Washington

is

co-extensive with the District

of Columbia, covering an area of 69 sq.mi. with an estimated

population, July

i,

1959, of 840,000;

April

1950, census;

i,

principal proiilems of the District of

Columbia

in

1958-

59 were related to budget. A federal contribution of $32,000,000 was requested, but the U.S. congress granted only $25,000,000 toward the cost of running the city. The total 1959-60 district budget ($241,289,076) was the largest in history. Public school enrollment in Washington, D.C., totaled 117,452

on Oct.

relatively stable,

22,046; senior high and vocational high,

15,476;

DC.

Teachers college, 1,274; special schools 1,290). The total assessed valuation of real property in the District

Columbia was $3,312,198,062

for the fiscal year

1959.

Of

(59.9%) was taxable. The tax rate in 1959-60 was $2.30 per $100 of assessed valuation. In addition the district levied a sales tax, an income tax and other taxes comparable with metropolitan areas of similar size. Building permit activity in the first six months of 1959 rethis total,

in June 1959 (metropolitan area). Redevelopment projects were rapidly changing the face of sections of the city. The Southwest project, started in 1950, was Washington's largest redevelopment project in process. It would rid Washington of 600 slum acres when completed. A Northwest urban renewal project covering about 915 ac. was in the plan-

ning stage.

Two

1959 (elementary, including kindergarten, 77,366;

I,

junior high,

of

economy, remained

were employed

802,178.

The

the mainstay of the area's

standing at 301,900 in June 1959 (^metropolitan area). Private employment reached new highs during the year; 841,500 jiersons

$1,985,112,652

flected the unusually high construction activity

throughout the

new dwelling units were authorized during the sixmonth period as compared with 10,300 for the comparable period in 1958. The valuation of new dwelling units authorized for the six-month period in 1959 was $135,000,000, compared with $113,000,000 for the first six months of 1958. year; 12,000

All other building construction

lor the six-month period

was valued

at

$106,000,000

civilian

National Capital

The first was the establishment of the Downtown Committee Inc., a business group

interested in the organization, planning

better

downtown

for the capital city.

the comple-

Washington Area Transportation study which

tion of a

the spending of $1,600,000,000 for

major

and programing of a

The other was

called for

new expressways and other

arteries to handle the anticipated 3,000,000 population of

the region

by 1980.

(G. Kv.)

Water Supply and Conservation: cal Survey. U.S.; Irrigation; Public

see Dams; GeologiHealth Engineering;

Soil Conservation; Tunnels.

Wealth and Income, Distribution sumcr

T cI

of. I';

Finaiicis in the United States, published

by the board of

months

governors of the federal reserve system, supplied information

and military employment,

on the distribution of income for 1958 and liquid assets in early 1959. Previous surveys had made information available for the

and $61,000,000 for the

first six

of 195S.

During the year, federal

events of particular significance for the future of Wash-

ington occurred in 1959.

The surveys were based on small field canvasses consumer spending units, defined as all persons living in the same dwelling and related by blood, marriage or adoption who pooled their incomes for their major items of expense. Survey data on the percentage distribution of spending units period 1945-57.

SOVIET DEPUTY PREMIER ANASTAS MIKOYAN,

a

visitor

to

the

U.S.

In

1959. slopping in front of a Washington, D.C., bookstore displaying a sign advertising Dr. Zhivago by Boris Pasternak, Soviet writer who was offered the Nobel prize for literature in 1958 and was subsequently attacked by the !

of

—U.S. government associations — are provided

according to size of holdings of liquid assets

savings bonds, deposits in savings and checking accounts at banks

and shares in savings and loan in Table I. In early 1959, 75% of spending units owned liquid assets

—a

proportion that was higher than in nearly

all

other

years of the period surveyed.

Table II summarizes data provided by the sur\'eys on the tribution of spending units taxes) according to size of

was

little

Table

Amount! ol

1

$199 $200-$499 $500-$999 $1

1946

$I,000-$1,999 $2,000-$4,999 $5,000-$9,999 $10,000 and over

.

in

most

Spending Units by Size of Liquid Asset Holdings

liquid ossels held'

Mone

All units

total

change in the income distribution, whereas Distribution of

I.

dis-

money income (before income. From 1957 to 1958 there and

.

.

1950

1956

1959

1958

24%

31%

28%

26%

25%

15 14 14 14 13

16

15 12 12

18 14

11

10 12

18 13 12 10 12 6

11

10 10 13

4 2

6

100%

100%

3

11

12 6 4

5

100%

4

4

100%

100%

'Includes U.S. government savings bonds, checking accounts, sovings accounts in bonks, postal savings ond shores in savings and loan ossocialions and credit unions; excludes cur-

Source: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.

Table

II.

— Distribution, of Spending

Units

and Money

by Income Groups Annua

In

Received,

—

WEAPONS — WEATHER Table

by Each nits

inked

I

Fiffh

Third fifth fourth fifth

Highest

i

9.0

54.0

fifth

100.0%

groups

All

5%

Top

11.0 16.0 22.0 46.0

10.9

1957

4.8%

22.5 44.7

1957 lln

1929

45.3

I

poputatic

Massachusetts U.S.

Deportmen

War

Rhode

had been an upward movement. The e.xpansion of total money income in the postwar years resulted in a shifting of many consumers to higher income levels. The shifting pervaded the income distribuprevious years of the post-World

When

tion.

by

size of

income,

it

is

of the period from 1929 to 1957 the percentage of

all

income

649 11,641 1,720 6,524

7,531

Delaware Maryland Disl. of

Co

689

1,216

1,253

6,323 2,080 78,283 16,893 20,819

6,566 2,173 77,734 16,507 20,409 9,1 18 24,076 7,624

1,973 2,001

7,584 1,539 1,419 2,275

Nebrosko

253 288

.

The

loss of the highest quintile affected

and was heaviest

for the top

1%.

State Distribution of Income. individuals reached latest

1,046

470 1,015

753 856 570 866 564

the other brackets improved their relative positions.

new highs

mainly the top

5%

4,254 1,077 2,752 171

—-The dollar flow of income to

in nearly all states in

1958, the

available in 1959.

For the continental United States as a whole, personal

come or

in

in-

—

1958 totaled $356,000,000,000 about $8,500,000,000, than in 1957. Rates of increases were largest in the

2% more

plains, southeast, southwest.

gions.

Rocky mountain and

far west re-

Income expansion was comparatively northeastern part of the country New England

(See Table FV.)

limited in the

and the middle east

—while

an actual small decline. regions that the

recession had

its

slump

It

—

was

lots)

2,834 3,288 4,108 1,869 3,510 3,632 2,459 1,590 2,937 1,539 14,666 2,514 10,375

254 1,614

5,010

1,098 2,635 3,843

53,632 6,342 3,091

55,826 6,586 2,972

4,177

4,303 4,992 6,297 2,929 5,678 8,334 4,364 2,302 4,901 2,168

4,841 5,954 2,813 5,441

7,733 4,201 2,121 4,854 2,064

23,587 3,734 16,436 1,398 2,019 7,807

957 757

24,733 3,975 7,007 1

1,548 2,203 8,134

1,274 1,068

1,321

1,126

151

474

646

668

642 284

1,930

3,357 1,462

7,394

892 26,378

3,503 1,516

1,166

3,986

45,182 5,815 3,430

46,916 5,982 3,556

647 79

2,451

314

647

686

5,502

19,627

35,290

689

1,098

36,692 1,154

shown iented

the Federal

29,671 6,468 5,258 8,702 1,103 1,147 2,759 4,234

in this in

316 226 239 242 188

2,057 2,335 1,704 1,885

201

189 298 228 197 290 214 422

2,394 1,966 2,817 2,413 2,585 2,521 2,127 2,760

421

2,221

253 284 334 294 362

2,634 2,182 2,099 2,184 1,990 2,435 1,936 1,928 1,916 1,863 2,037 1,697

1,74 5

320 271

283 336 298 240 324 459 525 274 322 408 502 523 459 1,007

410 304 466 284 481

269 518 805 767 404 323 400 342 446 434 535 413 450 768 567

loble differ

Table IV of the

137 117 126 123 103 134 108 128 106 102 106

1,641 1,894 2,001 1,471 1,674 1,509 1,397 1,439 1,384 1,218 1,487 1,876 1,359 1,053 1,576 1,228 1,813 1,740 1,814 1,838 1,932 1,916 1,920 1,701

2,088 2,047 1,753 2,450 2,160 2,006 2,569 2,559 1,852

in

in one Income and

definition

article.

om

the stote estimates of income disbursed by military personnel stationed outside the Con-

This pe Governn

in these three "industrialized"

during the 1957-58 which the generally sharp

in factory activity

principal effect

and

in

expansion of farm income contributed least to the over-all

in-

come stream. Mainly because of the differing geographic effects divergent movements in manufacturing and agriculture,

of

changes in personal income from 1957 to 1958 varied considerably on a state basis.

For the country as a whole, per capita personal income

(total

personal income divided by total population) amounted to $2,057 in 1958, as compared with $2,043 in the previous year. By re-

income was almost one-fifth above the national average in the far west and middle east and was more than one-fourth below it in the southeast. The range among the states, of course, was much greater. Per capita personal income in 1958 varied from $2,817 in Connecticut to $1,053 i" Mississippi. In Connecticut and others in the top rank Delaware, District of Columbia, New York, Nevada, California and New Jersey average incomes ranged from approximately one-fourth to nearly two-fifths above the

gions, 1958 per capita

—

793

onol inct Product, U.S.

the Great Lakes states experienced

940

781

798 979

312 225

year for which department of commerce estimates were

16 8,364

1,949

794

9,231

23,856 7,484 28,154 6,158 5,1

2,643 34,193 4,024 2,203

982

all

15,984 5,060 19,854

811

1,020

The data indicate a distinct reduction in relative income differences. From 1929 to 1957, the share of total income received by the highest income bracket declined from 54% to 45%,

12,891 6,006

999 9,990 1,054

and unattached individuals), ranging from those with the

90,057 41,954 14,494 23,617

3,755 1,774 50,744 10,803

7,280

North Dakotc South Dakotc

41,078 14,220 23,5 60

240

615

lowest incomes to those with the highest.

whereas

1958

1,260

20,235 3,803 5,178

going to each fifth of the total number of consumer units (families

634 11,322 1,696 6,478 88,497

27,465 14,105 3,714

was found that the proportionate share of received by each tenth was fairly stable

afforded in Table III. This shows for selected years

448 7,799 1,287 3,860 59,448 28,054 8,699 16,477

Middle Ec

II period there

longer-term comparison of changes in the distribution of

income

225 1,641

throughout the postwar period.

A

1958

1957

3,862

596

Island

Conneci

the nation's spending units were ranked into tenths

money income

total

1950

85,661 225,473 347,911 356,328 7,125 15,180 22,769 23,257 479 1,087 1,573 1,622 322 699 1,066 1,101

of income

the

,

notion-

millions ol dollorsl

Continentol Unit

100.0% 22.2%

00.0% 19.9%

100.0% 21.4%

Totol personal income

11.3 16.3 22.3

11.3 16.6

16.1 22.1 46.1

100.0% 20.9%

30.0%

1953

4.9%

4.8%

5.0%

13.0% U.O

fifth

1950

1947

1929

fifth

Second

Units*

I

lowest to highest income

Lowest

C

of

743

Table IV.— U.S. Personal Income, by Stales and Regions

Percentage of Family Personal Income Received

III.

—

From 1929 to 1958, a period of tremendous economic growth, there was a pronounced relative shift of total personal income from the northeast (New England and the middle east) to the south and west. The share of United States personal income received in the northeast declined from 40% to 32%. whereas the proportion of the total accounted for by the four southern and western regions increased from 27% to 38%. The change in the share of the north-central area (Great Lakes and plains states)

—

was moderate from 32% in 1929 to 30% in 1958. Table IV shows the percentage increases in total personal income which occurred in the various states and regions over 1929-58 period. Despite their below-average expansions, England and the middle east form one of the largest concentrated markets in the world. Occupying only 6- quality. In 195S Bur-

g""dy and the Rhone produced 45.300.000 gal., of which 5.200.°°° gal- white and 21.900.000 gal. red were famous growths. The '959 estimate was 44.500.000 gal., including Burgundies of su-

c=,rrr,,

1959

Is/.a

ArgVn°na

^9!

a'',""^'"

37.0^

Brazil

'.'.'.'.'..

Conodo

In 1959. however, this program was found to be much too small, and a new authorization by the congress provided for

Colombia '.'.'.'.'.'.

an enlarged research program calling for $2. ^:;6v000 annuallv. -^ J ^ ^ . An inventorj- compiled by the Fish and Wildlife service

August indicated that the wild fur catch

in the

in

los.o

ioo]o

""^^^^

4.450 t -tJ7 mar-

,

321.900 minks. 5.608.410 muskrats. 513.586 nutria. 131.492 opossums. 16.595 otters. 1. 189. 576 raccoons. 79,857 skunks and tens.

and

coyotes and 356 wolverines.

A big-game ° " ice in

inventorv' published bv the Fish and Wildlife sers'' '^ ' September included not only reports of animals taken, as

in the fur-catch inventor>-,

but also estimates of total numbers,

although such estimates were not for all,

made

for all states, not even

some

that included reports of numbers taken by hunters. In ^ ^ the inventory accounted for 10,226.364 big-game animals

and a

kill

Lebanon Luxembourg

o.s" I.l* i.3|

moHo '.'.'.'.'.'.

Mor^co

^.'°'°"''.

Per*

!

!

!

»i'i/-^

!

ss'.i'

2j*

R°man°'

^ss'I*

SouihAfrico Spain Switzerland

435.6

7^0

75.5 29.0

'..'.'.'..'.

41.8*

....

129!4' '59.0

aw.R. United states

Uruguay

23.1

i06.7*

Yugosiovio

—

.

Totals for animals occurnng in both eastern and western states snowed o,8io moose andJ a 1,302 I'liy-.^ kill; 167,625 elk with a 65,167

l_j,n

sis-

'"o«"

^°'°'

of 1.860.466.

10 8*

,.JiV 1605.0

HungaV .'.'.'..'. ismei

civet cats. 3.402.619 squirrels, 51,142 weasels, 11.669 wolves

'

7.3

o!2*

Germany

badgers, 76 ringtail cats, 188.908 beavers, 9.445 bobcats, 712 Iv-nxes.

'

France

during the 1957-58 season totaled 11,709.255, comprising 12,381 86.732 foxes. 78.919 fur seals. 1.521

'

Cz«ho!iovakia l^'"''

United States

- directly into electrical energ>-. (1958) social hangover. The embarrassment and mortification felt on the day following a too hilarious party of the night before. social network. One's social group with its interrelationships, rights and

(1958^ dubbidobber, m. .\ small part of the seat-ejection mechanism of North .American's experimental X-15 rocket airplane. Dutch door. .X pull-out folded advertisement in a magazine. dynamic obsolescence. Planned obsolescence in car design. eorth-mon, n. .\n earth-bound person. (1958) Editeuropo, n. A project for simultaneous publication in eight languages. (I95S) electronic fence. A series of carriers and planes making a metaphorical

obligations.

fence.

electro-osmosis, n. Specif.

A method

of solidifying

cnmibling earth by

(1958) .\ controlled and hence a safe landing (on a planet). (1958) .\ device to clear radiation ahead of a space vehicle. (1958) .\ nail-shaped microphone able to be pushed through a wall or inserted in some other small area. subchannel, ». Radio. .\ division of a channel. soft landing.

space broom. spike mike.

sunik, n. .\ Russian cosmic missile. sun shot, allrib. Descriptive of a launching of a missile toward the sun. suprapolitical, adj. .Above politics. (1958) suspenser, n .\ suspense program on television. (1958)

swing

tail. .\

hinged

tail

on a cargo plane, permitting, when thrown open.

—

—

WORLD BANK — WYOMING class.

He

.\

parking system in which an attendant parks and gets a

sq.mi.,

New York

Athletic club.

The

Dave Auble,

took place at San Jose State college Sumikichi Nozaki, Hollywood, 130-lb.

division.

over-all;

which in the

Mas Yoshioka,

150

free style

Toledo, O.

1b

Newt Copple

Lincoln,

1b

Frilz Fivion

Oregon Stole college

Jim Ferguson Frank Rosenmoyr Bill Kerslake Cowboy A.C.

Lonsing, Mich. Son Francisco Olympic club

174 1b 1911b

Japan Neb.

Cleveland, O. Stillwater, Okla.

—

College Wrestling. Oklahoma State (Stillwater) won team honours for the 21st time in the 1959 championships of the National Collegiate Athletic association at Iowa City, la,, in March. Iowa State was second. Lehigh triumphed in the 55th annual Eastern tournament at Ithaca, N.Y., with three of its men taking titles and one being a runner-up. Cornell university retained the Ivy league secutive time in the

title,

New

Springfield

won

for the 9th con-

England association meet and Wilkes

N.C.A.A. Championj

115 123 130 137 147 157 167 177 191

1b 1b

Andy Fitch Doye Auble

1b

Stan Abel

1b 1b

Larry

1b

Dick Beoltio

Oklahoma Stale

1b 1b lb

Ed Homer Bill Wright

Lehigh

Hoyes

Ron Gray

Heavyweight

Yale Cornell

Oklahoma lowo State Iowa Stole

Gordon Tropp

Minnesoto Iowa

Ted

Oklahoma State

Ellis

Middle Atlantic conference honours. Other major team winners were Minnesota, Big Ten; Oklahoma State, Big Eight; and Maryland, Atlantic Coast college of Wilkes-Barre, Pa., again took

conference.

20, a

—

In a match with Russian stars at team of U.S. amateurs was routed, 7-1. The

international Wrestling.

Moscow, June

at 144,618.

was

50.2% of the total, The 1950 census reported

The

capital city

is

Cheyenne with a

population (1950 census) of 31.935 (1959 est. 40,000). Other cities with populations of 10,000 or more (1950 census, 1959 est. are Casper

23,673

(39,000), Laramie

Rock

(16,500), Sheridan 11,500 (11,700), and

15,581

Springs 10,857

'(11.400).

History. .

—Wyoming's economy operated on the highest plane during 1959, according to a report by the University division of business and economic research. Em-

in its history

Wyoming's

of

in June 1959 was estimated at 131,000, compared with 128,000 in 1958, and retail sales volume for the second quarter

ployment

—up

was $128.248,000

16.5% from the

first

quarter and 14.1%

higher than the second quarter of 1958. Tourist and vacation travel to

Wyoming was up 3%

August when

a series of

in spite of a

sharp

fall-off in

earthquakes rocked the west Yellowstone

The tremors created

By mid-November

a

new geyser

in

Yellowstone park.

Warren

three Atlas missiles had been delivered to

air force base's strategic air

tained four missile launchers, and

Tulio Y.M.C.A.

Heovyweigllt

it

Cheyenne. Construction was completed

Dick Wilson Torry McCann Yoshiloko Nishiwoki

Teom

suffrage, but

270,719 as native white, 2,557 as Negro, 3,963 as nonwhite and

the

1b

1b

it

has also been nicknamed

"Cowboy state." Estimated population at July i, 1959, was The 1950 census, which gave a total population of 290,-

area.

Champions of 1959 were:

1b

woman

lb.;

Lenwood Williams, heavyweight and

lb.;

and Southern California, team.

The U.S. 114.5 125.5 136.5 147.5 160.5

at

crown

California,

in

Calif., retained his

Other victors were

Vince Tamura, 180

representing the

7th United States judo tournament

Yellowstone National park.

the

grant

13,290 as foreign-born.

(domination of the heavyweight ranks in the na-

the national collegiate champion,

of

first to

in parentheses)

crown was Terry McCann of the Tulsa (Okla.) Y.M.C.A. in the i2S.5-lb. class. McCann was named the outstanding wrestler of the tournament after gaining a decision over

sq.mi.

2,973

529, listed rural inhabitants at 145,911, or

Kerslake, Cleveland (0.) star, continued bis

his

United

the

tional

defended

state of the

designated as the "Equality state" because

is

and the urban population

Child Welfare.

championships of the Amateur Athletic union held at Stillwater, Okla., in April. Another titleholder who success-

(T. V. H.)

Rocky mountain

319,000.

tions, U.S.

UfrPQtliniT IIIColMMg.

including

Wyoming

International Bank for Reconstruction AND Development. World Council of Christian Education: see Religious Education. World Council of Churches: see Societies and Associa-

'^'"

a

States, admitted to the Union on July 10, 1890. bounded by Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Montana, South Dakota and Nebraska. Ninth largest in area, it contains 97,914

see

see

is

It is

I

World Health Organization:

Wyoming

U/vnminO' lljUllllllg.

to extinguish a forest or brush fire. (1958) weirdie, n. 1. A curious thing. (1956) 2. SpeciJ. A British woman following lipstick. the current fashion of appearing unkempt, with eye make-up but no wet sell. (By analogv- with hard sell.) A business deal facilitated by alcohol. whye, n. A cross of wheat and rye. y] Wonny, n. [World War {one is pronounced the same as won) -\ d- W. R.) A World War I veteran.

fully

gained a decision over Y. Zamyatin, Soviet champion,

See also Pan-American Games.

wakeathon, «. The act of staying awake, or a contest in it. water drop. The dropping of water from an airplane or helicopter

World Bank:

of Tulsa in the 123.5-lb.

in 12 min.

Normal.

unbeat, valet parking. customer's car. adj.

753 McCann

only U.S. victor was Terry

large cargo items to be loaded or unloaded. teenism, n. The qualities of teen-agers. (1958) telegogue, n. A television demagogue. think contract. \ contract research program that calls for background theoretical worli rather than construction. triopoly, n. A group of three companies which control an industry. (1958) turbocopter, n. A turbine-powered helicopter.

work

command at site A,

operation at

which con-

started at four other

sites of the intercontinental ballistic missile base.

Wyoming' Was represented in the national congress in 1959 by Democratic Senators Joseph C. O'Mahoney (term expires in i960) and Gale W. McGee (term expires 1964) and Republican representative-at-large E. Keith Thomson. Elected in 1958 to state offices for the term 1959-62 were: Joseph J. Hickey (Dem.), governor; Jack R. Gage (Dem.), secretary of state; Minnie A. Mitchell (Rep.), auditor; C. J, Rogers (Rep.), treasurer; and Velma Linford (Dem,), superintendent of public instruction. Education. \t the beginning of the 1959-60 school year there were 484 elementary and rural schools in Wyoming, 2,246 elementary teachers, 345 rural teachers and a total enrollment of 56,869. There were 76 accredited high schools with 1,183 teachers and an enrollment of 1S.619. State operating expenditures for education in 195S-59 were $29,465,119.29. There were 80 superintendents and approximately 200 other administrative personnel emploved during this period. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. Funds spent on public welfare for the period Oct. i, 195S. to Sept. 30, 1959, were as follows: old-age assistance, $2,618,500; aid to dependent children, $1,109,226.88; aid to the permanently disabled, $401,475: aid to the blind, $52,464; general welfare, $581,685.57: and general welfare health, $875.-

046.97. Correctional institutions had 385 inmates as of .-Vug. 30, 1959, and operational budgets for the period July i, i9S9. to June 30, 1961, were as follows; state penitentiary at Rawlins, 294 inmates, budget $449,481; penitentiary farm at Riverton, 15 to 30 inmates, budget $50,000: girls' school at Sheridan, 32 inmates, budget $248,350: boys' industrial institute at Worland, 59 inmates, budget $337,300, capital outlay $27,800. The 1959-61 budget for the state-owned and state-operated home and hospital for the aged at Thermopolis was $264,037. Communications. .\s of Jan. I, 1959, Wyoming had 53,521 mi. of roads of which 5,964 mi. were surfaced. Included in the total were 929 >"'• of federal interstate highway. During the fiscal year ending June 30. I959. $33,645,287 was spent for construction of state highway system roads and $3:900.070 for maintenance. .\ total of $1,721,380 was spent for construction of county farm-to-market roads. Placed under contract for construction in fiscal 1959 were 37S.7 mi. of state highway system roads and 232.7 mi. of county farm-to-market roads. A new urban highway system, the first

—

X-RAY AND RADIOLOGY

754

thf state. wi\s opened at Cheyenne In 1959. There were seven operaiini; railroads in Wyominn in 1959 with a total track mlleaRe of j. 378. 04. There were three regularly scheduled airlines opt-ratinR in the state. jS commrrcial and municipal airfields and 100 private landinx strips. The .Mountain .States Telephone and Telegraph company listed approximately 116.8R0 telephones in the slate. Bonking and Finonc*.June 30. 1959, there were 27 state banks with deposits of $100,715,672.88 and resources of $1 10.673. S09-Ji. There were IS national banks with deposits totaling $266,377,692.03 and resources of $297,839,743.57. On Oct. 30. I9S9. there were ten savings and loan companies with resources of approximately $61,000,000. Total state receipts for the fiscal year ending June 30 were $103,302,786.85 and total disbursements for the period were $96,974,421.20. .^s of June 30. 1959. the state was oblixated lor $1,136,000 worth of revenue bonds (not guaranteed). The slate had no ceneral obligation bonds. The legislative appropriation for state operating expenses for ihe 1959-61 in

On

biennium was S28. 377.913. 71.

—

Agriculture. Cash receipts for Wyoming agricultural commodities in 1958 totaled $167,944,000, with livestock and livestock products making up $135,461,000 of the total. Cash receipts from farm marketings for the first six months of 1959 totaled $45,697,000. a gain of approximately S930.000 over the first six months of 1058. Range conditions were reported from 4 to 6 points below 1958 and 4 to 6 points below the 37-ypar averace. Monufocturing. Manufacturing employment in Sept. 1959 was estimated at 7.200 and average weekly carninss were $93.86. For the mining industry, total employment was estimated at q.900 and average weekly earnings were $108.42. Estimated nonagricullural employment in September

—

(G, K. O.) Minarol Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Wyoming in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000

was 93.300.

—

Toble

I.

— Principo/

Crop Corn, bu

Wh.ol, bu Ooti, bu Barley, bu Hoy, oil, ton! B.ar,,, dry, 100 lb. boos Sugar beeli, loos Pototoes, Iriih, cwl

•1949-57. Source: U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.

Crops of

Wyo

195»

1,525.000 5,496,000 3,828,000 3.366,000 1,462,000 1,184,000 608,000

768,000

195S

8i:433-4SS (March 1959); John A. Kirkpatrick and Richard W. Olmsted, "Cinefluorographic Study of Pharyngeal Function Related to Speech," Radiology, 73:557-559 (Oct. 19^9); Ira I, Kaplan, "Genetic Effects in Children and Grandchildren of Women Treated for Infertility and Sterility by Roentgen Therapy: Report of a Study of Thirty-three Years," Radiol(Be. B.) ogy, 72:518-521 (April 1959)-

With no America's Cup matches, Olympics

Yachting. muda

race

during

from Los Angeles,

starting July 4

or Ber-

the Transpacific

1959,

was the major yachting event of the year.

It

race,

Honolulu, Hawaii,

Calif., to

was again won by a

boat of light displacement construction, Peter Grant's "Nalu

She stayed close enough

II," a 46-ft. sloop.

to larger, deeper,

heavier displacement boats to save her time allowance on them including

all,

This

Ralph Larrabee's

mammoth

world, was

vessel,

i6i-ft.

one of the largest

first to finish, in

schooner "Goodwill." sailing yachts in the

10 days 12 hr. 16 min. 15 sec. for

the 2,225-mi. passage. Actually, a 46-ft. catamaran, "Aikane,"

not permitted to enter the race because of her twin-hulled design, beat

"Goodwill"

in

by several hours but was not considered

in official standings of the race.

In other west coast ocean racing events, Ash Brown's 40-ft. sloop "Carousel" bested a record (Calif. )-Ensenada

sloop "Rebel"

On

won

(Mex.)

race

fleet

Newport

of 318 in the

and Doug Sherwood's

36-ft.

the Tri-Island series in the Pacific northwest.

the Great Lakes, the Chicago-Mackinac went to

W.

G. Pea-

cock's 32-ft. yawl "Feather II," and Wilfred Gmeiner's 45-ft.

sloop "Apache"

On

won

the Port

Huron-Mackinac

race.

the southern ocean racing circuit in Florida, the

Bahamas

and Cuba during the winter, Emil ("Bus") Mosbacher sailed John Brown's 43-ft. yawl "Callooh" to the series victory, aided by having won first place in the climactic St. Petersburg-Havana

The other major event of the circuit, the Miami-Nassau race, was won by Benjamin duPont's 40-ft. yawl "Rhubarb." The major east coast event of an odd-numbered year, the race.

Annapolis-Newport

race, attracted a record fleet of 71

for the

468-mi. race, and Irving Pratt's s6-ft. sloop "Caper" was the in relatively slow time. Peter Richmond's new s6-ft. yawl "Magic Carpet" won the Halifax race from Marblehead, Mass., and Thomas J. Watson's new s6-ft. sloop "Palawan" won Maine's Monhegan Island race. Long Island sound's two major distance events, the Block Island and Vineyard races, went respectively to Robert Bavier's 30-ft. sloop "Memory," the smallest boat entered, and William Luders' 39-ft. sloop "Storm." "Storm" caused consternation among cruising-racing men by sailing the Vineyard race without a mainsail or main boom, depending entirely on her headsails and spinnaker. By leaving her mainsail at home, she increased her time allowance by more than

winner

four hours. Luders did this purely to point out a loophole in the handicap rule.

In major events abroad, the Swedish "Anitra" net race in England and the Argentinian

won

the Fast-

"Tango" won the Buenos

Aires-Rio race. In the small-boat field, 1959 was the year of the catamaran. For many years, devotees of double-hulled sailing craft had claimed that they were capable of fantastic speeds, but this claim never stood up in races on all points of sailing. It was agreed that catamarans were very fast on reaches, but they had never shown ability to beat to windward as well as similar-sized single-hulled craft.

One means

was a series by Yachting Magazine in 1949, 1952 and 1954. Catamarans had never done well in these, but several new ones had appeared in the interim, and it was deof testing various types of small boats

of "one-of-a-kind"

regattas staged

cided to hold another "one-of-a-kind" in 1959 to see

if

these

newly developed craft changed the picture. This was staged at the Coral Reef Yacht club, Miami, Fla., in February, with 40 boats from all sections of the country taking part. The boats.

NEW DESIGN FOR

SAILBOAT,

an Sfl. boat consl

YEMEN — YUGOSLAVIA

756 Megles,

Zenda, Wis.;

Jr.,

Adams cup (women), Mrs. James

Mcrlz, Rye, N.Y.; Sears cup (junior), John Welch, Montreal. Winnors in one-design class championships were: Penguin, Jay

Markham, Gardcna, Calif.; Wood Pussy, Borden L. Hance, Fair Haven, N.J.; Snipe, Richard Tillman, Lake Wawasee, Ind.; Comet, John MacCausland, Cooper River, N.J.; Jet 14, Art Lange, Lavallette, N.J.; International 14, Paul Henderson, Toronto, Ont.;

Finn.

Jack Knights, Riverton, N.J.;

Thistle,

Hcrm

Nickels,

Jerry Jenkins, Grosse Pointe, Mich.; Lightning,

Fenton, Mich.; Jolly Boat, David Smith, Marblehead. Mass.;

Y-Flyer

Sandy Edmison,

(U.S.'), Bill Perry, Atlanta, Ga., (Int.)

Montreal; Flying Dutchman, Pat Duane, Delray Beach, Fla.;

no, Albert A. Frost, Jr., San Diego, Calif.; 210, Edwin A. Hills, Cohasset Mass.; Highlander, Mark Bratton, Corpus Christi, Tex.; Flying Scot. Sandy Douglas, Oakland, Md.; Raven, Al Bortolotti, Detroit, Mich.; Hampton, George Conrad, Norfolk, Va.; Star (North American), Gary Comer. Chicago. (World) Lowell North, San Diego, Calif.; L-16, Cyril Cooper, Bermuda; Dragon, Walt Swindeman. Toledo, 0.; 5.5-Metre, Arthur Knapp, Larchmont, N.Y.; 5-0-5, Walter Bowden, San Antonio, Tex.; Moth (U.S.), Bill Spencer, Hollywood, Fla., (Int.) Ken Klare,

YllCinclilui!! lUgUolflVlfl.

^

people's

federal

republic

southeastern

of

bounded north by Austria, north and northeast by Hungary and Rumania, east by Bulgaria, south by Greece and west by Albania, the Adriatic sea and Italy. Europe, YuROslavia

is

Area; 98,766 sq.mi. Pop.: (1953 census adjusted) 16,991,449 (June 1959 est.) 18,448,000. Chief towns, other than republican capitals Cpop. 1953 census): Subotica 115,342; Novi Sad 83,180; Maribor 77,387; Split Rijeka 75,328; Nish 60,704; Osijek S7427- Nationalities (i9S3 census): Serb4i.7%; Croat 23.5%; Slovene 8.8%; Macedonian 5.3%; Montenegrin 2.8%; undefined (Bosnian, Istrian, 75.695

;

5.9%; others (national minorities) 12%. Religion (1948 Orthodox 49.53%; Roman Catholic 36.7%; other Chris-

etc.)

est.):

Moslem 12.52%;

tian i.i4%i;

136%

"no

other 0.11%; at the 1953 census

chairman (government) and supreme commander of the armed forces in 1959, Marshal Tito (Josip Broz). Deputy chairman of the executive council: Edvard

of

replied

executive

federal

the

religion." President of the republic,

council

Kardelj, Aleksandar Rankovic, Rodoljub Colakovic and Mijalko

Todorovic.

Miami, Fla.; Rhodes. Bantam, Brud Nicholson, Skaneateles, N.Y. Intercollegiate, Harvard; Interscholastic, St. George's. (W. W. RN.)

Constituent Republic! of Yugoslavia

;

Federol republics

Vomon ICIIICII.

'"^^

kingdom

'^^^^

4,979,154 3,941,817

southwestern coastal region

in the

lies

.\

,.

^

.u

/

.

Red

lU

J

.\

_

sea (southwest). Area: 75.290 sq.mi. Pop.: about 4.500,000. Language: Arabic. Religion: Moslem. Chief towns (pop., est.):

Imam

(king),

ed-Din; prime minister in

Mohammed

Yahya ibn Mohammed Hamid 1959, Crown Prince Seif el-Islam

Ahmed

ibn

el-Badr.

May 1959 the imam left Yemen for medical treatment in Italy. During his absence Crown Prince Mohammed History.— In

Gamal Abdel Nasser, set up a army purge. Yemen "had entered the modern era." Specula-

el-Badr, a keen supporter of Pres.

,

)

470,172 350,829

Zagreb

...'!.'.'.;;;..

Mo«donio

i;304;5i4

of

I22!i43 14,324

skopii» Tilograd

419,873

'Including the autonomous province egion of Kojovo-MeioWio (sos.ui).

lU'lil

2i47'790

Montenegro

Vojvodma (1,712,419) ond the outononioul

History.— The year 1959 opened with

Sana (cap.) 60.000; Taiz (seat of imam) 12,000; Hodeida (port) 30.000.

11953 ceniuri

Belgrodg ^i"'*'*.''""'

|'°'''"'h

between Saudi Qf the Arabian peninsula, Yemen .,./., J AJ Arabia (northwest and northeast), Aden (southeast) and the

Copllol

11953 coniusl

Serbio* Croatia

a fresh round of furious

attacks upon Yugoslavia in the Chinese paper, the

Red

Flag,

which as usual, denounced Tito as "the tool of American imperialism." Marshal Tito used the occasion of the 40th birthday of the Yugoslav Communist party in April to reply. In an interview with the paper Kommunist he said that Yugoslavia must on no account allow itself to be provoked or to become isolated,

representative council of seven and carried out an

Speaking on April 19 at the celebration of the party's birthday

announcing that

he referred to the constant struggle between the progressive and

tion as to whether these reforms

the knowledge of the

were carried out with or without

imam was ended when

the latter returned in

Communist world and declared was "nobody's monopoly." He believed that rec-

conservative forces wuthin the that Socialism

August and proceeded

onciliation with the U.S.S.R.

tools,"

China

to restore the old order, denouncing "alien and having several people executed. Rebel elements fled

He

evitable.

the country.

On May

— would

iS a

Yemen

Aden

delegation arrived in

to discuss

problems between the two countries, but since the Aden delega-

did not apparently refer to it

was

historically in-

claimed that the Soviet Union had several times

followed the Yugoslav example, for instance in the matter of decentralization.

On May

Yemenis

tion included four rulers of the federated amirates, the

—he

take a long time although

N.

25

Khrushchev, who was visting Albania, made

S.

a

did not

point of congratulating Marshal Tito on his 67th birthday and

Technicians from the U.S.S.R., the Chinese People's Republic

even the animosity of the Albanian and Bulgarian press died down for a time. After his return to Moscow, Khrushchev on

refused to negotiate with

it,

on the grounds that

Yemen

recognize the federation.

and Czechoslovakia government agreed United States Education.

—

visited to

Yemen

of a road between

— Schools

during the year.

the building

—with

The Yemen

assistance

Mokha and

from the

primary

2,155,

pupils

teachers

German

l^L:':::'^.^^r^r:^t:^^^\e^iJ^in^i^!L

on

of higher education i, students 50, teaching staff 16. Finance and Trade.— Monetarv unit: Maria Theresa

at the t-v

called

the

riyal, equal to approximately ss cents U.S. Trade with the U.K. (1958): imports £10,245, e.xports £104,598. Agriculture. Main crops; coSee (5,400 metric tons in 1957); wheat,

—

barley, millet.

Yiddish Literature:

see Jew-ish

Literature.

and

.\ssociATioxs, U.S.

AND Associations, U.S.

which had been postponed

when he was touring Montenegro,

mining centre of Niksic. expressed i_

•

,

^-

,

.

-.

s visit

of \ ugosla\na

.

.»

to the

tt

-^

^

his satisfaction •

.,

•!_

over ..•

1. j ^i. «ii_ was not only echoed by the Albanian prime minis-

Mehmet Shehu

,.

,

i_

(then in Peking), but also repeated in the

Moscow toward

still

seemed

its

bridges

made

several

Belgrade

impenetrably obscure. Yugoslavia, on the other hand, while keeping

see Societies

in 1957.

Tito, in a speech

Unitedj Ci. States as a genume contribution to a general detente. Only a few days later renewed Chinese abuse 1

Khrushchev

Soviet press: the policy of

see Societies

Young Women's Christian Association:

credits to Yugoslavia

Sept. .o,

ter.

Young Men's Christian Association:

A month later, on July 7, not only German trade delegation arrived in

Belgrade to reopen discussions of the plan for Soviet and eastern

Ah.)

93,099,

dollar,

expressed appreciation of Yugoslavia's support of an

6

atom-free zone in the Balkans. a Soviet, but also an eastern

Taiz.

(E. S. (1956):

June

open

to

western Europe and the United States,

all

deliberately antiwestem gestures during the year.

As one of

YUKON TERRITORY

757

these might be classed the visit of the Algerian "rebel" leader

tion of the Slovenes in Trieste.

Ferhat Abbas to Belgrade on June 12. But this was also part of Tito's patronage of Asian and African nationalism.

protest in the

Although

in his

"We

speech at Xiksic Tito said with apparent

satis-

showed a tendency toward further nationalization during the year. At Christmas 195S. house property was nationalized, with the exception of small houses containing not more than two large or three small dwellings. Early in May 1959 Edvard Kardelj made a speech about agricultural policy in which he took up and emphasized a resolution which the federal parliament had passed in April 1957 in favour of closer collaboration between the state farms and co-operatives and the independent peasants. In practice the peasants were bound to depend on at least the co-operatives, if they were to make any technical progress. It faction

are revisionists," internal Yugoslav policy

was through advice and credits made available directly or indirectly by the state that British tractors and Italian wheat seed had come into use. Improvements of this kind, together with good weather conditions, made it possible in June to forecast a record harvest for 1959, making the country independent of wheat imports from the United States. Independence of foreign wheat was also an important gain in relation to the U.S.S.R.. with whom discussions about the delivery of Soviet wheat to Yugoslavia had been suspended

in

May.

On

21a Yugoslav

April

same vein was delivered

in

note of

Vienna.

Bulgarian attacks upon the supposed Yugoslav oppression of the Macedonians helped to bring Patriarch Djoris

Macedonia

German

to

Aug. 1959. Although he resided in Belgrade he was patriarch of the Macedonian as well as the Serbian Church, and in

the visit was intended to emphasize the national

autonomy of

Macedonia,

new law

In Jan, 1959 a

restored to the government the right

up

to banish suspects for a period legal

to

two years. But on

—and accepted by assembly on June 30—which lessened

changes were proposed

tional

May

19

the Yugoslav na-

legal severity.

Ex-

cept in the case of serious political crimes, capital punishment,

imprisonment and the loss of civil rights were abolished, the sentence becoming 20 years. It was also provided that work in prison was to be paid and that those serving sentence life

maximum

more than one year should be allowed a two-week annual It was interesting that, after a Swiss representative of the International Red Cross, H. G. Beckh. had visited for

holiday at home.

Yugoslavia, he reported in October that Yugoslavia's prisons

gave the country the position of a pioneer crime; he

made

it

clear that he

in the punishment of had been allowed the necessary

imimpeded intercourse with prisoners See also Communism; Greece.

in a

number

of prisons.

(E. Wi.)

—

to the value of $50,000,000 to be

Education. Schools: primary (1957-5S) 14,257, pupils 2.316,000, teachers 71,803; middle and secondary (1956-57) 2.466. pupils 598,604, teachers 28,602: vocational (junior and intermediate, 1956-57) 1,103, pupils 174.406, teachers 14.S46: fine arts (1956-57) 174, students 20.456, teachers 2,168; workers' educational colleges (1956-57) 161, students 6,279, teachers 259: teacher-training colleges (1956-57) 82. students 20,930, teachers 1,568. Institutions of higher education (1956-57) 98 (of which 5 unisersities), students 71,852, teaching staff 6.418. National minority' schools (1957-58); primary 1,649, secondary 23, teachertraining schools 10. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: dinar, rath a par value of 300 dinars to the U.S. dollar, a remittance rate of 600 dinars and a tourist rate of 400 dinars to the U,S, dollar. Budget (1959 est,); balanced at 392,950.000.000 dinars. Currency circulation (Nov. 1958) 139,006,000,000 dinars. Savings deposits (Nov. 1958) 42,929,000,000 dinars. Gold and foreign exchange holdings: (March 1958) U.S. $48,000,000 (March 1959) U.S. S41.000.000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports 205.504,000,000 dinars, exports 132,419.000.000 dinars. Main sources of imports: U.S. and Canada 19%; Germany 12%; Italy 10%; other continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union 'European fund) countries 15%; U.S.S.R. S'^c; U.K. %%: other sterling area 4^7. Main destinations of exports: Italy 12^; Germany g^c: other continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 21%; U.S.S.R. %%\ U.S. and Canada i'~c U.K. S*"^. Main exports (1957): copper, lumber, livestock. Transport and Communications. Roads (classified. 1957): 82.298 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 21.570; commercial 38,162. Rail-

paid in investment goods, and credits were also offered by the

ways (1957): 11,760 km.; passenger-km. 8.059.000.000; freight (1958) 13,032,000,000 ton-km. Shipping; merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and

A

trade agreement between Belgrade and

Moscow on

Jan. 29.

1959. provided for a total exchange of goods to the value of

$108,000,000 compared with $124,000,000 in 1958. In the early months of the year trade with the other Communist countries be-

came increasingly

difficult

and by

April, because of a sharp in-

grown alarmDuring May. however, exports rose considerably, and by the end of July the economic news was good, not only in relation to the harvest. It was found that during the first half of the year Yugoslavia had produced 13% more coal, 14'^ more electricity and 24' Industry 58 67. 56. >V. Chemical ^-^^

58.

Bacteriology 57, 56

tural Research Service;

and Throat, Diseases

Art Sale. »iii„ Aruba: >r255a; Foreign .Aid Programs. Investments 266c; 265a;- Foreign Inter286a; Fruit 278b; Geography Innational Monetary Fund 340b;

ternational Trade 3S3c; Latm-Amer3'52d; ican Literature 387a; Lead Meat 418c; Merchant Marine 422c

and Mineral and Metal Production World Prices 435b; Navies of the Magazines 460b; Newspapers and

53Sa; 487d- Oats 504c; Petroleum Railroads 58,5c; Religious Education 617c; SOOb; Salt 6nob; Shipbuilding Silver 622a; Soil Conservation 6.Vh; Tropical Sucar 661a; Tariffs 668c; Diseases 680b; U.S. 710a; Wheat Yacht747c; Wines 740d; Wool 751c;

.Ar'idi '(Antoine Pierre): see

Obituaries

56

Arizona Crime. U.S. 180b

Arkansas

Education 220c iDikran Kouyoumd-

Civil Rights 165d;

Arlen.

Michael

Obituaries 57 Armies of the World iian)- ^cf

NATO

407b;

SEATO

643a

Armstrong, Louis ("Satchmo

)

,

57

ture

national Law 347c; Italy 369b; Japan Metallurgy 422d; Missiles 370c; Standards 440b; National Bureau of 497b; Navies of the 465a' World 469b; Norway 500d; PetroPublic 545c; Physics 537b; leum Engineering 571c: Radiation.

NATO

Health Medical Aspects of 5 '/a; Segrt Emilio Gino 614b; Socialism 6233, Veterans UN 701b; Uranium 726b; .Administration (U.S.) 734a .Audiospectogram 752a ^ Audiospectograph 752a see

Mo-

tion Pictures Aurora and Airglow: see InternaCo-operation tional Geophysical iQCQ 60 ^" International Geophysical Vear (1957-5S) 59, 58, 57, Arctic; Rock56. 5.. Antarctica; ets and Space Satellites 58 Astronomy 68b of Commonwealth Australia

-^rfc'iUuTe 27b; American Citizens .Armies Abroad 38b; Antarctica 44c; .Automobile Inof the World 63c;

Avidustry 78d; Aviation. Civil 82c; Banking 94d ation. Military 87c; and Baptist Church 95d; Birth and Brewing 106b; Statistics Death 172d. Beer 118d; Coal 169c; Coke Products Dairy Communism 180d; Eastern 105a; Debt. National 201c; Orthodox Churches 215d; Electnca

Industries 227a;

Employment

Baudouin

Insur-

Utilities

574d,

Strikes 650a Aviation, Military Armies of the Aircraft Industry 29b; World 60c; Canadian Literature Mis139a; Marine Corps. U.S. *1^hl»u.

Export- Import Bank of Washington 246c, 242d; Fairs and Exhibitions 277a; Friends. Religious Society of. InterGeological Survey. U.S. 287a;

Audio-Visual Education:

Public

139a;

231b,

Avila Camacho. aries 56

Avocados:

Fruit

see

. 1, ..—^ ana Awards

Prizesrriies.

see j^c

M,tio_ai National

Geographic Society 60, 59^^''^ American Library Association, Prizes;

SlTthropology; Literary Mineralogy; Motion P;» „ .Alabama 31d; Irrigation 365b, Pub,

HarUtilities 574d; Rivers and bours 597a; St. Lawrence Seaway 606a Spain see Canary Islands: Newspapers and Magazines 487d lic

Cancer

^ in^j. 10(5d Birth and Death Statistics Dermatology 206c; Industrial Hea th Health 340a; Medicine 419c; Public and Service. U.S. 573c; Societies and Associations. U.S. 629b; Stomach Diseases ol the 6530, .

Intestines.

Surgery 662c;

.

X-Ray and Radiology

754c

Candy Cane Sugar: see Sugar Canning Industry Cantelli. Guido: see

Canzoneri,

Obituaries 67

Tony 506a

INDEX

Machinery and Machine Tools 406b; and Hours 740a

Strikes 657b; Wages 67, 66

Chemistry

Standards 465c; National Bureau Nobel Prizes 4«6b; Societies and .\ssoiialions. U.S. 629c of

'erde Islands: ^fc Portuguese loas Provinces (Territories)

papers and Magazines 487c Bolt 7S2a

:

Anton

,

Julius: see

Dale:

e.

'

ll.lUl

L',

bituarle

Obituaries

Obituaries S6 (Mrs. John Zanfl);

)7

and

Societies

Chemotherapy

Rheumatic Diseases 59Jb; Stomach and Intestines. Diseases of the. 655a; Tranquilizing Drugs 687b; Tuberculosis 691b; Vitamins and Nutrition Chciinault. Claire Lee: see Obituaries

She Marshall,

59

nd Mariana Islands

Chen Ning Yang:

5(i()a

Ning 58 Cherenkov, Pavel A. 59

J oil

un Giles: see Obituaries 56 57, 56 Ceodetic Survey, U.S.

see

Yang, Chen

Obitu,

World 64a; Canada

the

of

es

Costa Rica 186c; Cuba 189d; 708b rophes: sfe Disasters l.iliznii; ;52b

Church

ic

Roman Catho-

see

:

hurch

Community

ic

Societies

see

il:

Service, Naand Associa-

U.S.

i,

Organizations for Youth:

ic

and

Societies

Associations,

Naand Associa-

Welfare Conference

Ic

Societies U.S. see Livestock zation 752b li: see

Edgar Algernon Gascoyne-Cecil: see Obitu-

Chelwood.

rt

and Metal Production and

4,15b

s

Data, U.S. and Death

106a; Welfare 156b; Crime. U.S. Geriatrics 290d; Hotels. U.S. Motion Pictures 450d; MuniciGovernment 458b; Radio and vision 577c; Tuberculosis 690d iniais: see Calendar, page xxii Dn S21d; Petroleum 536d; PhiStatistics

I

hy 541d city 752b

Fernando 59 Federation:

African

il

Salvador 60, British Honduras; Costa

II'

see El

Guatemala; Honduras; Nigua; Panama; Panama Canal ;

60, 59, 58, 57, 56. see SalvaEl 58, 57, 56 •ral and .Metal Production and !

iiSb

s

Treaty Organization: see of the World; Middle

li

I

;

Corn

Barley;

see

Rye;

Wheat

tion,

82c;

1

Child Labour

n Unity 161d; Com vealth of Nations 176c; Com sm 180d; Debt. National 201c sters 210a; Exchange Contro Exchange Rates 240b; Inter inal Trade 3S7c; Missions. For (Religious) 443d; Newspapers Magazines 487c; Soil Const 700c; U.S 637d; Tea 671b;

UN

Republic

60.

of,

see

Fren

itorial Africa 59, 58, 57, 56 ch Community 274d

Zechariah,

,

t>eriain,

Jr.: see

Obituar

I

Socl-

Ders of Cc

and Associations, U.S. ,r,

Kavniond Thornton 506a

el

Islands:

Northern I

see

of

Hayden

s !>ties

Great Britain United

Ireland,

Joseph

Foundation:

;

Co-operationtional Geophysical 1959. 345c; International Monetary

Fund 349b; International Trade 353c; Iron and Steel 362c; LatinAmerican Literature 387c; Manganese 410d; Marine Biology 412a; Marriage and Divorce 414d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Navies of the World 469b: Newspapers and Magazines 487d; Petroleum 538a; Prices S64a; Seismology 614d; Silver 622a; Soil Conservation 637b; Tariffs 668c; Tennis 674d; Tropical Diseases 689b; U.S. 710a; Vegetables 730d; Wines 749d

China 28c; Archaeology 49d; the World 59c; .Aviation, Civil 82c; Aviation, Military 88d; Banking 9Sa; Blood, Diseases of the, 110b; Canals and Inland Waterways 141c; Ceylon 147c; Clothing Industry 168d; Coal 169c; Commonwealth

.Agriculture of

of .Nations 176c;

Communism

178a;

187c; Dalai Lama 195c; Debt, National 201c; Disasters Education 221c; Electrical 210c; Industries 227a; Formosa 270b; Immigration and Naturalization 330c; India 334c; International Propaganda 352a; Iron and Steel 362d;

Corn 186a; Cotton

roads 585b; Refugees 587c; Religion 589d; Rice 596c; Roman Catholic Church 601b; Rubber 603c; Salt 609b; SEATO 643c; Shipbuilding 617c; Socialism 625d; Soybeans 644b; Sugar 66la; Table Tennis 667a; Tea 671b; Tibet 680d; Tin 682b; Tobacco 683a; Tropical Diseases 689a; U.S.S.R. 697b; Yugoslavia 756c

Chiropody: see Podiatry 60, 69. See Chiropody 68 Chiropractic Chlormethazanone (Trancopal) 687d Chlorpropamide: Chemotherapy 51b; Diabetes 207b

Dairy Products Industry 60, 69, 68

257d; Foreign Investments International Trade 354a;

Education

Bureau

of

Civil Aeronautics 69, 58, 57, 56

Administration

81b

219b; International Law 347b; Law 388c; Political Parties. U.S. 554a; Socialism 624d; Societies and Associations. U.S. 632b; U.S. 708b; Virginia 736d Civil Service, U.S.

Civitan International: sc; Societies and Associations, U.S. Claudel, Paul Louis Charles Marie: see Obituaries 56 Clement, Frank Goad 57 Cie Client State 752b Ciiburn, Van (Harvey Lavan) 59

Climate: 5ft' Meteorology Clothing Industry Home Economics 316b Coal Belgium lOld; European Unity 238c; International Trade 356b; Labour Unions 383d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 434c; Strikes 658a; Wages and Hours 739d Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Oceanography 517c; Shipbuilding

ology Call pages 116 Churches of Christ

296c;

In-

.Agriculture 24c; International

Trade

3S3c see

Church Membership 162c Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard S 66

i

57, 56

Compensation, Veterans':

see Veterans Administration (U.S.) Compiler 752b Computeresse 752b Confaionieri, Carlo 69 Confectionery: see Candy Congo, Belgian: see Belgian Overseas Territories 60, 59. See Belgian Colonial Empire 58, 57, 56

Congo, Republic of, 60 French Community 274d Congregational Christian Churches

Congr

United States

U.S.;

[>ngr

Coke Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435a Cold Sleep 752b Coidwell, Major James 59, 58, 67, 66 Colleges and Universities: see Universities and Colleges Collier, Constance (Laura Constance Hardie): see Obituaries 56 Colman, Ronald: see Obituaries 59

Colombia .Agriculture 27b; Armies of the World 63d; Aviation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Coffee 172a; Communism 180d; Debt. National 201c; Disasters 210c; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 240c; Ex-

port-Import

Bank

of

Washington

Fairs and

Exhibitions 246a; Foreign Investments 267a; Gas. Natural and Manufactured 280d; International Trade 353c; LatinAmerican Literature 387c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Navies of the World 469c 242d;

60. 5i

Com-

Federal

munications Con mission 60, Labour Unions Ur 60, 69, 58

59.

Congress of Industrial Organizations: see Labour Unions Connecticut Conscription:

see

Selective Service

Magazines 487d Petroleum 538a; Prices 564a; Rail roads 58Sc; Soil Conservation 637b;

Newspapers and

Tropical Diseases 668d; 688b; U.S. 711a; Wines 749d Tariffs

Colorado Crime, U.S. 189b

Colorado River Storage Project:

Utah 58, 57 Columbia, District of:

sec

see

Washing-

Mamie White (Mrs. David Leigh Colvin): see Obituaries 66 see Astronomy 58, 56 see Business Review; International Trade; Tariffs Canals and Inland Waterways 140a; 389c; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 631d

Law

Commerce, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments and Building and Construction Industry

127b

Commission on Organization

Conservation, Soil: see Soil Conservation Conservative Party, Great Britain: see Political Parties, British

Coinage

Bureaus, U.S. Ev

United Fund 58, 57. See Community Chest 56 Planning: see City and Regional Planning 60, 59, 58. See Municipal Government; Urban Transportation, U.S. 60, 59, 58, 57,56. >.e Building and Construction Industry 58, 57, 56. >. Town and Regional Planning 57, 56 Community Trusts 59, SB, 67, 56 Comoro Islands: si French Community 59. .St,. French Union 58,

Community

U.S.

Robert Peter Tristram: Obituaries 66 Cohen. Octavus Roy 506c Cohn, Harry: see Obituaries 59 Coffin,

Commerce:

i>f

Community Chest: see United Funds-Community Chests 60, See Community Chest59.

Television 578a

Agriculture 24c; Ghana ternational Trade 356b

ton, D.C.

Pric

World

Denmark

Automobile Industry 79a; Radio and

Coffee

Colvin.

Chr

Metal

Cocoa (Cacao)

Comet:

Metai Production and

of the

203c;

Federal 219b; Investigation 250d; International Propaganda 350d; LiForeign braries 394c; Missions. (Religious) 443d; Roman Catholic Church 6U0d. See also various countries

Advertising

Veterinary Medicine 735a

India 335b Chretien. Henri: Sf; Obituaries 67

Religion 589a; Religious Education 590c; Roman Catholic Church 600b; Societies and As^oci.itions. U.S. 633c; United riiiirrh "I Christ 699c and Chromite: see Mln-

Democracy

59c;

617a

Coast Guard, U.S. Cobalt: see Mineral and Production and Prices

Christian Science Christian Unity

see

^ee

cai ?rici*

Death Statistics 106c; Communism 180d; Copper 185a; Debt. National 201c; Disasters 210a; Exchange Con-

Chromium

SOfia

and Associations, U.S. Harry Woodburn; see Obltu|56 i:

46a;

World 63d; Aviation, Basketball 100a; Birth and

of the

Chou En-lai 66 Communism 179c;

Owei 60

Prizes 496a

:1

Antarctica

27b;

.Agriculture

Japan 370d; Lumber 404d; Merchant Marine 422c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Navies of the World 469c; Nehru. Jawaharlal 473d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Olympic Games 521a; Rail-

Affa 60 360b; Turkey 693d ics 56 I

5;

Chile

Armies

America:

il

see

and Nyasaland, Federa-

desia of

Salvation Army 609c; Social Security 627b; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 631a; UN 703d; Veterans Administration (U.S.) 734a

trol

It

i

Education 216d; juvenile Delinquency Education 590d; Religious 376c; of the. 109a;

and Exchange Rates 240b; Foreign Investments 266d; Interna-

59 r therapy 7S2b ral

59

Child Welfare Blind. Education

Civil 82c;

:

if

I

•American Library Association 39c; Canadian Literature 139c; Libraries 394b; Literary Prizes 398b Child swapper 752b

Armies

i,

204d;

Rights 60, 59, 58, 57. See Law; Negroes, American 56 Arkansas 57d; Brown. Edmund Education G(erald) P(at) 123c;

Chicago Child Labour Children's Books

of Nations

Argentina 55d; Armies

Telephone 673a

Chiario

:ommonwealth

Building and Coiislruitioii Industry 125d

Civil

59

Agriculture; Budget, National Cotton 187b; Dairy Products 195a; Rice S96,j; W heal 747b ^ee Business Prices: Review; Prices lommon Market Treaty: u-e European Economic Community 68 iommonwealth Fund: iifc Societies and Associations, U.S. 60

Commodity

ment; Town and Regional Planning; Urban Transportation, U.S. 67,56

Civil Defense, U.S.

phy

,

Labour Unions

irban) 752b Sho Cir City and Regional Planning 60, 69, 68. ^ce Building and Construction Industry; Municipal Govern-

.Aviation, Civil

and

58 Fidel 60

Religion 589b; Religious Education 390d. Hee also various churches

CIcognanI, Amieto Giovanni 59 Cigars and Cigarettes: u-e Tobacco Cancer 141d C. I.O.: see

Cancer Uld; Chemical Industry 150c; Dermatology 20Sd; Diabetes Eye. 23Sa; Epidemiology 207b; Diseases of the. 24Jc; Medicine 419c;

7.i8b

U.S.

Church Membership

of the

Executive Branch of the Government: see Hoover Commission 66 Commodity Credit Corporation: see

56

Construction Industry: see Architecture; Bridges; Building and Construction Industry; Housing; Rivers and Harbours Consumer Co-operatives: see Cooperatives

Consumer Credit Banking 92d

Currsncy:

Contract Bridge

Control i

Coolidge. Grace Goodhue: see Obituaries 68 Cook. Joe (Joseph Lopez) S06c

Co-op dinner 752b Cooper. (Leon) Jere: see Obituaries 58

Co-operatives

Copper Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 43Sa; Secondary Metals 613c Corbin. John 506c Cori. Gerty Theresa (Radnitz): see

Ciprui

Obituaries 68

Corn Agricultural Research Service 22a; Agriculture 23c; Botany 114d

Cornubite 437b

Corporation Income Tax:

sje

Taxa-

tion Corridor 752b Corsica: see French Community 69. See French Union 68, 57, 66 Cortisol (Hydrocortisone) 232b Cosmic Rays: see International Geophysical Co-operation— 1969 60. .Si. Astronomy; Space Exploration 60, 59. S.I International Geophysical Year (1957-58) 59, 58, 67, Si'i' Arctic; Rockets and Satellites 58. .Si'i National

56.

Space Geo-

graphic Society 57. See Physics 66 Cosmic rocket 752b Costa Rica .Armies of the World 63d; Aviation, Civil 82c; Birth.and Death Statistics 106c; Coffee 172b; Coinage 172c; 180d; Debt. National 201c; Fruit 278b; International Bank

Communism for

Reconstruction

and

Develop-

ment 344c; Marine Biology Newspapers and Magazines

412a; 487d; Tariffs 668c; U.S. 710a Costello, Lou (Louis Francis Cristillo)

506d

Cost of Living: Prices

see

Business Review;

|l

Cotton Agricultural Research Service 22c; Agriculture 23c: International Trade 353b; Textile Industry 5;6d Cottonseed Oil: see Vegetable Oils

and Animal Fats Council of Europe: see European Unity 58, 57, 56 Counterfeiting: see Secret Service,

Agriculture 24c; Federal Trade Commission 2S4c; International Trade

356b

Dakar:

see

French West Africa

59,

Lama

60

World

.Armies of the

59c; India 335b;

Tibet 680d

Damon. Ralph Shepard:

Obitu-

see

Couve De Murville, Maurice

60 Miguel: see Obituaries

58 i

Middleto

•

Obituarie

58 Cranberries: see Fruit .Agriculture 26c

Crawtord. David: see Obituaries 58 Crawl space 752b Credit, Consumer: see Consumer Credit Credit Unions: sec Co-operatives; Farm Credit System

Crime, U.S. Boxing li6a; Federal Bureau of Investigation 250d; Friends. Religious Society of, 277b; Juvenile Delinquency 376c: Law 38^r

Obltuaria*

S9 K.ili.-it

Bcrnfrd

4.1a;

46h: C.uiaila 1.17a; Communism IROh; (•.rrinany 204b; (".real Britain -102c; Intrrnational Prop.i .•\iil.irrlir.i

ganda

N.\TO

.l-lld;

4')7d;

Political

Partips. f.S. .'i52b; Radio and Tele vision .Sglb; St. Lawrence Seaway

Spain

(>n8a;

Tiirkev

ft.Snh;

I'.S,

69.1(1;

MM:

Strikes 7n.Sc; H.S.S.R.

bIM Elsenhower, Milton Stover 67 Elsenhower Doctrine: srr Middle Eastern Affairs; United States 68 Elections, U.S. Electrical Industries

Canada

Cooperatives

1.17a;

184c;

Federal Power Commission 2.^20; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Trade 1.';6b; International 344b; Machinery and Machine Tools 406h; .S7.1d; Railroads rtilities Public

Dams

r.S.

lo.'iil;

and

Societies

.SS4d;

6.1l)b;

.Associations.

Wages and

Strikes 6S7b;

llo 740a Electric Power: ^ee Atomic Energy; Electrical Industries Electric Transportation: sir Urban Transportation, U.S. 58, 57, 56 AutMin.il.ili- liidu-^tiv 7')a

Electrincation, Rural: s,r Rural Electrification Administration 58, 57, 56 Elect. onic fence 7S2b Electronics Fairs and Exhibitions 246c; Foreign

Investments 267c; Radio and Television 577c; Space Exploration 644c; Telegraphy 671c; Telephone 672d; Administration (U.S.) Veterans 7.14a

Electro-osmosis 7->2b

Elementary Education:

see

Educa-

tion

Elementary Particles:

see

Physics 60

Eh/.d.eth ,Eli?;ibclh Charlotte Josephine \'ictoria .Mexandra) (former

queen of Greece): see Obituaries 57 Elizabeth II Canada 137a; Chicago 153a; Commonwealth of Nations 176a; Diefenbaker. John George 20Sc; Great International PropaS24b; 351d; Ottawa St. L.iwrence Seawav 6(ISa Benevolent and Protective El>.'a>ei of the.

Death Statistics

58, 57, 56

Hydroplane Racing: Racing

Law

391a; Tuber-

Cambodia;

see

and

Federal

Power Commission Hydrogen Bomb: see Atomic Energy

ice

Law

Archaeology SUb,

Indochina:

Vietnam

R..l«-it Urrni-icl 411.

Idaho

690d

Honours and Awards: sec National Geographic Society 60, 59. :>cy American Library Association;

57,

Ancler..,ii,

tistics

Hong Kong

Hammarskj6ld, Dag

Theatre

culoiia bVId

Hydroelectric

Armies of the World 53d; Aviation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics IU6c; Coinage 172c; Communism

American

Iftdlapa, 41c;

I

Agruultiiral Research Service 22d

Haiti

B8, 6T, 66 Literature

Anietiian

578d

Humphrey, George Magofnn

56. See

Insulin:

see

Co-operatives 184b; Dentistry 205b; Industrial Health 340a; Law 389c; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 629c; Strikes 557b; Taxation 570c; Veterans .Administration (U.S.) 734a Insurance, Old-Age: see Social Security

Inter-American Conferences: see Organization of American States 60, 59, 58, 57. it,

ference: 56

see

Panama

57

Investment Con-

Inter-American

Foreign Investments

Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration: see Refugees 60, 59

U.S.

Interior,

Government

Department of: see Departments and

Bureaus, U.S. Interior Decoration

International Atomic Energy Agency:

scf

Atomic Energy

60, 59, 58, 57

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Costa Rica 186c: Foreign Investments 268c; International Finance (Corporation 345a; International Law 347b; International Monetary Fund 348d; International Trade 357a; Iran 360c; Middle Eastern .Affairs 432d: Roads and Highways 599d; Switzerland 566a; Tanganyika 667d

International Children's Emergency Fund: see Child Welfare International College of Surgeons: Societies and Associations, sec U.S.

International Confederation of Free

Trade Unions:

sec

Labour Unions

59, 58, 57, 56

International Cooperation Administration: see Foreign Aid Programs, U.S. Roads and Highways 599d International Court of Justice: see International Law; United Nations International Finance Corporation 60, 59, 58. i.. United Nations 57 International Geophysical Co-operation-1959 60. Sec International Geophysical Year (1957-58) 69, 58, 57, 56

Antarctica 44b; .Arctic 54c; Coast and Cieodetic Survey. U.S. 170d; Geography 285c; Meteorology 42Sd; Oceanography 517d; Space Exploration 644c

International Labour Organization Child Labour 154c International Law

UN

703a

International Monetary Fund Brazil 117d; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 239d; Foreign Aid

Programs. U.S. 264a; Foreign Investments 268c; Gold 298a; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 343c; Turkey 694a International Propaganda 60, 59, 58 International Red Cross: see Red

Cross International Refugee tion see Refugees 56 International Trade

Organiza-

:

Business

92b;

Baltimore

Review

130b; Census Data. U.S. 146b; European Unity 237c; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 239c; ExportImport Bank of Washington 242c; Foreign Investments 26Sc; Merchant Marine 422a; St. Lawrence Seaway 608a; Socialism 624d; TariSs 668a;

UN

703d. See also various industries.

International Trade Fairs: see and Exhibitions International Wheat Agreement: see Agriculture 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. See Wheat 58, 57, 56

Fairs

Wheat 747c Interplanetary Exploration: Space Exploration 60, 59

see

Interstate Commerce Commission Railroads 584a; Trucking Industry

689d

Intestinal Disorders: see Stomach and Intestines, Diseases of the Intoxication, Alcoholic: see Alcoholism 60, 59, 58. 5'; Intoxication, Alcoholic 57, 56 see National Bureau of Standards 60, 59, 58. See Electronics; Patents and TradeMarks; Printing; Telephone 60, 69,58, 57,56. See Munitions 58, 57, 66. See Standards, National Bu-

Inventions:

reau of, 56 Automobile Industri' 79b

Investment Banking:

see

Banking

Investments, Foreign, in the U.S.: see Foreign Investments Ionosphere: see International Geophysical Co-operation-1959 60. See Space Exploration 60, 59. See International Geophysical Year (1957-58) 59, 58, 57, 56. See Rockets and Space Satellites 58

Iowa Crime. U.S. 189b Iproniazid (Marsalid) 688a

Iran Archaeology

Armies

47c;

of

the

World 63d; .\viation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Child Welfare 155d; Communism 180d; Cotton 187c; Debt. National 201d; Disasters 210c; Export-Import Bank of Wash-

ington 242d; Fruit 278a; Immigration and Naturalization 330c; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 344b; International Trade 356d; Islam 365d; Mineral

and Metal Production and Prices Newspapers and Magazines

435d;

487c; Nuts S04b; Petroleum 538b; Prices 564a; U.S. 705d; Wines 749d

Iraq Agriculture 28b; .\rmies of the World S9b; .Aviation. Civil 82c; Child Welfare 155d; Communism 179d; Debt. National 201d; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 242a; Foreign Aid Programs. U.S. 265a; International Propaganda 352b; International Trade 356d; Islam 365c; Middle Eastern .\tfairs 431c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Petroleum 538b; U.S. 710c Ireland, Northern: see Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United

Kingdom

of

Ireland, Republic of Birth and Death Statistics 106c; China 158d; Debt. National 201d;

Shipbuilding 617c; U.S. 710c

Iron and Steel Income and Product. U.S. 333a; Inter-

Bank

Reconstruction and Development 344b; International Trade 353c; Labour Industry 382d; Mauritanian Islamic Republic 417c; Metallurgy 422d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 434c; New Zealand 49Ic; Secondary Metals 613d; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 630c; Stocks and Bonds 653b; Strikes 65gc; U.S. 705d; Wages and Hours 739d; West \'irginia 746a Iron and Steel Institute, American: Associations, see Societies and U.S. Irrigation national

for

137a; Commonwealth of Nations 176b; Soil Conservation 636d;

Canada

Tunnels 693b Irwin. Wallace 510a

Isham.

Ralph Heyward:

see

Obitu-

aries 56

Control and Exchange Rates 242a; Export-Import Bank of Washington 242d; Fruit 278c; International PropInternational Trade 353a; Jewish Literature 372b; Judaism 375c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Navies of the World 469c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Petroleum 538b; Religious Education Prices 564a; 590a; Socialism 624c; Tarifis 669d; Tropical Diseases 689c; U.S. 710c;

aganda 352c;

Wines 749d Italian Literature Italy .Agriculture 27d; .Aluminum 37a; Archaeology 49a; .Architecture 53b; .Armies of the World 60a; .Austria 76d; .Automobile Industry 7gd; .Automobile Racing 80b; Aviation. Civil 82c; .Aviation. Military 88c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Blood. Diseases of the. 110b; Bobsledding Ilia; Coke 172d; Communism 179d; Contract Bridge 183d; Co-operatives 184d; Com 186a; Dairy Products 195a; Dams 196c; Dance 199b; Debt. National 201d; Democracy 203c; Education 221a; Electrical Industries 227a; Epidemiology 234d; European Unity 237b; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 241c; Export-Import Bank of Washington 242d; Fairs and Exhibitions 246b; Foreign Investments 267c; Gas. Natural and Manufactured 280d; Greece 305b; Immigration and Naturalization 330b; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 344b; International Trade 353c; Lead 392d; Marriage and Divorce 414d; Merchant Marine 422c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Motion Pictures 450d; Music 462a; Navies of the World 469b; Newspapers and Magazines 487d; Nuts 504a; Petroleum 538a; Photography 543b; Prices S64a; Railroads 585a; Refugees 587c; Religious Education S90d; Salt 609b; Shipbuilding 617c; Socialism 625b; Social Security 626c; Sociology 635b; Sugar 661a; Tarifls 668a; Tennis 674d; Tobacco 683a; Tunnels 692c; U.S. 705d; Wheat 747d; Wines 749b; Wool 7Slc; Zmc 758c Ivory Coast, Republic of 60, 59. See French West Africa 59, 58, 57, 56. See French Union 58, 57, 56 Cocoa 171d; French Community 274c Jackson. Chevalier: see Obituaries 59 Jackson. Joseph Henry: see Obitu-

s56 Jamaica: 59. See

see West Indies, The, Jamaica 58, 57, 56

Man:

Isle of see Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United King-

dom of Isocarboxazid 151b

28a;

Archaeology

47c;

60,

Foreign Investments 267b; Newspapers and Magazines 487d James Marquis: see Obituaries 56 Janis iBierbower). Elsie; see Obituar sS7 Jansen. Ernest George 510b

Japan -Agriculture

28c;

Aluminum

Javelin Throw: see Track and Field Sports Jazx: see Records and Recordings 60, 59. See Music 60, 59, 58, 57, 56

Jehovah's Witnesses Church Membership 162d Jersey Dozen 752c Jet Propulsion: see Missiles; Navies of the World; Space Exploration 60, 59. See Aircraft Industry 60, 59, 58. See Aviation, Civil; Aviation, Military 59, 58. See Jet Propulsion 58, 57, 56 .Air Races and Records 31b; Automobile Industry 79b Jetwalk 752c Jewels: see Diamonds; Gem Stones Jewish Literature Literarv Prizes 397d Jewish Religious Life: see Judaism; Religious Education Jewish Welfare Board, National: see Societies and Associations, U.S.

Jimenez. Juan Ramon: see ObitJuan 59. See Jimenez, Ran 57 Johansson, Ingemar 60 1

Boxing 116b

John XXIII Christian Unity Religion 588d;

Italy 368b; Catholic

162a;

Roman

Church 600b

John Simon Guggenheim

A

nd rial Foundation: see Societi Associations, U.S. Johnson. Charles Spurgeon: see Obituaries 57 Johnson. Edward 510b

Johnson, Lyndon Balnes Political Parties. U.S.

Joint Chiefs of Staff:

see

Govern-

U.S. Joliot-Curie. Irine: see Obituaries 57 Joliot-Curie. Jean Frederic; see Obit-

i59

Obituaries

Holn 57

Margo: see Obituaries 56

Jones.

Jordan .Armies of the World 59c; Aviation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Child Welfare 156a; Communism 180d; International Propaganda 352c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Petroleum 538b; U.S. 710c Jowitt. William .Allen Jowitt. 1st earl: see

Obituaries 58

Joy. Charles Turner: see

Obituaries

.Alice:

see

Church Membership 162d; Religious

Track

and

Field

Departments

Biology 412d: Marriage and Divorce 413d; Merchant Marine 422c; Meteorology 426b; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Mis(Religiors) 443d; Foreign sions. Motion Pictures 450d; Navies of the

Kentucky Kenya 60,

469c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c. Petroleum 538b; Photography 543b; Prices 564a; Railroads S85b; Red Cross 587b; Religion S90b; Rice 596c; Rubber 603c; Salt 609b; Shipbuilding 617c; SUver 622a; Socialism 624c; Social Security 626c;

664d; Table Tennis 666d;

Tea 671b; Tobacco 683a; Toy Industry 685a; Trooical Diseases 689a; U.S. 710c; Wines 740d; Zinc 75Sc Jardine William M.: ser Obituaries 56

Java: see Indonesia Disasters 211a; Seismology 614c

Knights of Columbus: see Societies and Associations, U.S. Knowland, William Fife 58, 57, 56 Koerner. Theodor: see Obituaries 58 KSnig, Franziskus 59 Korda. Sir Alexander: see Obituaries^ 57 Korea Agriculture

28c;

.Armies

of

the

World 60c; Aviation. Civil 82d; Communism 180c; Disasters 210a; Edu221c; International Propaganda 352b; Japan 370d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Navies of the World 469c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Red Cross 587b; Rice 596c; Table Tennis 667a; U.S. 710c

Kornberg. Arthur 60 Nobel Prizes 496a Kovacs. Bela 510c Kress. Samuel Henry: see Obituaries 56 Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. Bertha; see Obituaries 58 Kubitschek, Juscelino 57 Architecture 52c; Brazil U7b Kusch, Polykarp 56 Kuwait 60, 59, 58. See Persian Gulf States 57. See Arabia 56 International Trade 356d; Petroleum 33Rb Labor, U.S. Department of; see

Departments and

127b see

Agriculture; Child La-

Employment; Internation-

Board;

Strikes;

United

States;

City 490c Kadar, Janos 58 Kaempffert. Waldemar Bemhard: see Obituaries 57

Pakistan

60, 59, 58, 57,

India 59, S3, 57, 56. See 59, 58

United Nations ;:inc

Kefauver, Estes 57, 56 Kellogg Foundation:

ism 56 Labour Unions Automobile

Societies

Political Parties. U.S. 5S4b Kennedy. Joseph William: see Obituaries 53 Kent. Frank Richardson; see Obit-

uaries 59 59, 58 .Agriculture 27c; .Anthropology 46d; Coffee 172c; Democracy 204b; Housing 325a; Mineral and Metal Pro-

duction and Prices 435d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c Ketterin?. Charles Franklin: see Obit-

uaries 59 S.

.Afghanistan 21c; Albania 33d; Berlin I03a; Communism 177d; Eisenhower. Dwight D. 223a; Finland 255c; Geneva Foreign Ministers" Conference of 1959. 282d; Germany 294b; International Propaganda 350a; N.ATO 497d; Nixon. Richard Millions 495b; Norway SOOd; Political Parties. U.S. 552d; Radio and Television 580c; Soviet Literature 643d; Sweden

Industry

78d;

Eisen-

Dwight D. 223c; National Labor Relations Board 467c; .Newfoundland and Labrador 478b Labrador: see Newfoundland and Labrador hower.

Labuan:

see British

Borneo

Lacrosse La Farge, Christopher:

see

Obituaries

57

La Gorce, John Oliver SlOc Lajoie, Napoleon 510d Lamb, Willis E., Jr. 56

Lamb: see

and Associations, U.S. Kelly, Grace (Patricia) 56 Kennedy, John Fitzgerald 60

Khrushchev, Nikita

Political Parties, U.S. 552c. See also various industries, products, states.

and

Juvenile Delinquency Child Welfare 156b; Crime. U.S. 189c; Education 216d; New York

World

57 King, Martin Luther, Jr. 58 King. Samuel Wilder 510c Kinsey. Alfred Charles: 5c< Obituaries 57 Kishi, Nobusuke 58 Japan 371b KIwanis International: 5^^ Societies and Associations, U.S. Klein. Charles Herbert l-'Chuck'): see Obituaries 59

Wages and Hours

63d; .Automobile Industry 78d; -Aviation. Civil 82c; .Aviation, Military 88c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Boxing 116d; Brazil 118a; Chemical Industry 149d; Clothing industry 168d; Coal 169c; Coke 172d; Communism I80d; Copper 185a; Dams 196a; Dance 197d; Debt. National 201d; Disasters 2lOc; EducaIndustries Electrical tion 221c; 227a; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 242b; Fairs and Exhibitions 246a; Fisheries 257a; Foreign Investments 268a; Fruit 279a; Gas. Natural and Manufactured 281a: Geography 286a; Gold 298a; Immigration and Naturalization 330c; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 343d; International Trade 352d; Iron and Steel 362d; Korea 381c; Lead 392d; Lumber 404d; Manganese 410d; Marine

Di:

Obit-

Labour Organization; Labour Unions; National Labor Relations

Bureaus, U.S. .Automobile Industry 79a; Federal Bureau of Investigation 250c

see

see

uaries 59 King. Ernest Joseph: see Obituaries

bour;

Sports

56. See

Martin:

Kimpton, Lawrence Alpheus King. Edward Poslell. Jr.: see Obit-

al

Jungle Market 752c Junior Colleges: see Universities and Colleges Justice, U.S. Department of: see

Kashmir:

Harley uaries 57

Kilgore.

Labour:

Education 5Q0d see Wrestling 57, 56 Jugoslavia; see Yugoslavia Jullien, Andre 59

Judo:

see

664a; United Arab Republic 698c; U.S. 705c; U.S.S.R. 695c Kibbee. Guy Bridges: see Obituaries

Bureaus, U.S. Building and Construction Industry

Obituaries 56

Judaism

Jumping:

769

Government

57 Joyce.

INDEX

cation

553b

ment Departments and Bureaus,

Government 37a;

American Library Association 39b; Antarctica 46b; Armies of the World

Swimming

Islam

Israel Agriculture

of the World S9c; Aviation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Communism 180d; Exchange

Armies

see

Meat

Landowska. Wanda SlOd Lane. Arthur Bliss: see Obituaries 57 Langer. William 5IOd Langmuir. Irving: see Obituaries 58 Lanza Mario (.Alfredo .Arnold Cocozza) 511a Laos 60, 59, 58. 56 Armies of the World 60b: Aviation. Civil 82d; Communism 180d; Co-operatives 184d; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 242b; International Monetary Fund 348d; Japan 37nb; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; SEATO 643b; UN 702b Lard: see Vegetable Oils and Animal

Fats

Larraona, Arcadio 60 Lashley. Karl Spencer: see Obituaries 59 Laskv. Jesse L.: see Obituaries 59

America: see El Salvador; French Community 60, 59. See Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; British

Latin

Nicaragua; Panama; Paraguay; Peru; Surinam; Uruguay; Venezuela 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. See French

Elections. U.S. J25b;

INDEX

770

\,n.-n.

Mormont

^r'

Latvia liiinugr.iUoii

llio.s 1S2I); ui.ilizillian I..iutcl.

N.it

.iiul

Boole lishiilK

Bftling

an.l 1 lu

Labour lS4a; Civil Righls 16(m; Eisenhower Civil Service. I'.S. 167c; DwiBht I). 223b; Fcder:il Bureau o{ Investigation 250d; Federal Com251(1; fed-

Lonardi. Edu.irdo:

the of Civil 820;

I80d; Export-Import Washington 242d; Inl^rnaBank Propaganda 352c; Middle tional Eastern Affairs 43 Id; Newspapers Petroleum and Magazines 487c; 538b; Prices 564a; Wines 749d Ledertwrg, Joshua 59 Lee John Cllrtord Hodges; stc Obit-

uaries 59 Lee, Tsung Dao 58 Leeward Islands:

The

60, 59. Sti

icr

West

,

Agriculture 26a. S« also individual nations and I'.S. states Legotards ^Leotights) 752c

Lyman

Louis 60

59

Leotights iLegotards) 752c

see Blood Diseases of the Percy Wyndham: see Obituaries 68 ^„ Lewisohn. Ludwig: see Obituaries 56 Liberia ^ , ,

:

Lewis.

.

.

Armies of the World 63d; .Aviation, Civil 82d; Foreign Investments 26 id; Merchant 362d; Iron and Steel Marine 422c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; U.S. 710c

Libraries

.

.

American Library Association 39a; Book Blind. Education of the 109a; Collecting 1 12a; Patents and TradeMarks 533c; Societies and Associations. U.S. 634a \rmies of the World 63d; Aviation. Civil 82d; Child Labour 154b; Foreign Investments 267d; International Monetary Fund 349c; Newspapers Magazines 487c; Petroleum and 538b; U.S. 710c

Liechtenstein Life Insurance:

see

Insurance

and Death Census

Life Statistics: see Birth Statistics 60, 59, 58.

.s.t

Data, U.S. 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. iff Birth Statistics; Death Statistics; Infant Mortality; Suicide Statis-

tics 57, 56 ult LIr Lindley. Walter Ca

r

Obituaries

59

Linen and Flax

Portuguese

58, 57, 56

Agriculuire 2Jd

Linguistics 58 Lions Clubs, International Association of: Kf Societies and Associations, U.S. Liquors, Alcohollo

Jff

Obituaries J

,

,_

uaries 59

McDonald, Stewart: Jff Obituaries 58 Macedonia: Jff Yugoslavia McElroy, Neil Holser 59, 58 McEvoy. Jkoseph) Patrick): jff Obit-

Machinery, Farm:

Jff Obituaries 56 Jff Agriculture

57. 56 ,,.. Agricultural Research Service 22b

Machinery and Machine Tools

National Bureau of Standards 465d Mclntire. Ross T. 511c Mack. Connie (Cornelius Alexander McGillicuddy); Jff Obituaries 57 McKay, Douglas 56 Obituaries Slid MacKaye. Percy: Jff Obituaries 57

McKellar. Kenneth Douglas: uaries 58 McLaglen. Victor Slid

Jff

Obit-

Macmillan, Harold 60, 59, 68 Canada 137a; (iermany. 294a; Great

302a; International Propaganda 35 Id; U.S.S.R. 696d McNeil. Hector; Jff Obituaries 56 McNutt. Paul Vories: Sff Obituaries 56 Britain

Madagascar

Disasters 210c; French Community 274d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Socialism 626a; Spices 65 2a

Madeira: Jff Portugal Newspapers and Magazines 487d

630b

Isl

hall

Plan:

Jff

Foreign Aid Pro-

grams, U.S. 56 56 Martin, Glenn L.: Jff Obituaries Martin du Gard. Roger: jff Obituaries 59 Obituaries set Maria: Luis Martinez. 67

Martinique Newspapers and Magazines 48/d Maryland „,,„nr.)Masonic Fraternity (Freemasonry). Societies and Associations, see .

U.S.

Massachusetts Massey, Vincent Canada U7a

59, 58, 57, 56

Mathematics

56

Societies

Matsu:

China; Formosa

60, 59.

iff International Lavv 59 Revolt: Jff British East

56

Maurice and Laura Falk Foundation The: Jff Societies and Associations, U.S.

Mauritania .f French Community 58 59. ^.. French West Africa 59 57,56 57 56 v,< French Union 58, Mau'ritanian Islamic Republic 60 iff 59. Community French iff French West Africa 59, 58, 57, 56. 56 See French Union 58, 57, French Community llic

^'^i'lh^Li Death Newspapers

k vi ~ Christian Unity 161b; Church Membersiup 162d ^. .

Metropolitan Areas: Jff City and Regional Planning 60, 59, 58. i« Town and Regional Planning 57, 56

and

Statistics

Magazmes

_,„. ^ Research Service 23a, .

Agriculture 26d; American Citizens Abroad 38b; Armies of the World and 63d; Aviation, Civil 82d; Birth Death Statistics 100c; Blind. Edu-

U6d; cation of the. 109b; Boxing Chemical Industry 149d; Child WelCommunism fare 155d; Coilee I72a; Col186a; 180d; Copper 185a; Corn Diston 187c Debt, National 201d; 209b; Education 221d; Epiasters

demiology 235b; Exchange Control and Exciiange Rates 240b; Expo"" Import Bank of Washington 242d; Fencing 2S5a; Foreign Aid Prograins. 26/b; U S. 265a; Foreign InvestmentsManuFruit 278d; Gas. Natural and factured 280d; Gold 299a; Guatemala Naturaliza307b; Immigration and

330a; International Monetary Fund 349b; International Trade 353d; Iron and Steel 362d; Irrigation Literature Latin-American 365a; 387a Lead 392d; -Manganese 410d; Marriage and Divorce 413d; MeMetal teorology 426a; Mineral and Production and Prices 435b; -Motion World Pictures 451a; Navies ol the 469c; Newspapers and -Magazines 531a; 487d'; Pan-American Games Petroleum 537c; Photography 543b; Television Prices 564a; Radio and 599d; S83a; Roads and Highways Seismology 614d; Silver 622a; Sugar 661a' Sulfur 661b; Tennis 674d; Tourist Travel 684d; Tropical Diseases 689b; U.S. 710b; Wheat 747d; Wines 749d; Zinc 758d tion

Meyer, Albert Gregory 60 .Meyer. Eugene S12b

.

j

>

Michigan

Mau Mau I

644c

Michael (Tliucydides Constantinides). archbishop: Jff Obituaries 59

57, ,- = ^,f,h and Associations. L .S. 630b

Jff

.

Methodist Church

Agricultural

Peyton Conway; Jff Obituaries 56 Marelli, Paolo 60 Mariana Islands: Jff Marshall, Caroline and Mariana Islands Mane Louise ^Franzisca Josepha Louise Augusta -Mane CHelena)! jff Obituaries 57 Marine Accidents: Jff Disasters Marine Biology Fisheries 256d Marine Corps, U.S. \viation. Military 86d Maritime Administration, U.S. Merchant Marine 57, 56 Marriage and Divorce Mars.aid ilproniazidl 688a .Marshall. George Calletl 512a Marshall, Caroline and Marl

.

Civil 82b; \rit..r. t^a 44c; Aviation. International (geophysical Co-operaExploration tion- 1959. 345c; Space

Mexico

.

66

158a

Vlarch,

Af

,

.

Meteorology

Obituaries 56

Geological Survey, U.S.; vey, U.S.; National Geographic Society 60, 59, 58. iff Cartography 57, 56 „t...

Ma

Jff

.Associations. U.S.

Metal Prices and Production: Jf« Mineral and Metal Production

Maple Sirup: Jff Sugar Maps: Jff Coast and Geodetic sur-

Overseas

,

Jff

and

.

« e£ 66 Obituaries .

and

.

and Prices

oba

Chii

McCormick. Robert Rutherford: Jff Obituaries 56 ^ MacDonald. Betty (Anne Elizabeth Campbell Bard): Jff Obituaries 59 McDonald. Eugene F., Jr.; Jff Obit-

uaries 59 Macfadden. Bernarr:

So. leties

Trust Territories

Mao Tse-tung

Provinces (Territories) Newspapers and Magazines 487c Mac.\rthur, Charles: Jff Obituaries 67 McCarthy Joseph R(aymond); Jff

Obituaries 58 Macaulay. Dame Rose:

Lemons: st, Fruit Lenin" 46yb Leu kemia

Jff

aries 57

Frank U.: Metallurgy

U.S. 333d; International Trade 353b; Labour Unions 383b Prices 562c; Societies and AssoU.S. 633b; Strikes 657a; ciations Wages and Hours 739d. iff also separate industries and various states,

Mem-

..

Merrill

come and Product.

Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 241c; Export-Import Bank ol Washington 242d; International Trade 3S3d; Iron and Steel 3b2d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Newspapers and Magazines 48/d, U.S. ;iOc; Wines 749d

Macao:

Trust

Manufacturing: .\ccidents 17b, BusiU.S. ness Review 133a; Census Data in146b; Foreign Investments 266b;

of the World 63d; Aviation. Civil 82d; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Brewing and Beer 118d; Communism 180c, European Unity 237b;

Newspapers and Magazines 48*a L^ger. Fernand; set Obituaries 56 Law; Taiatlon; Legislation: sre United States ^

Lemnitxer,

.

Sff

Mann Thomas:

Armies

57, 56

.

:

Christian Unity 161a; Church bership 162d

58,

China

617»;

Shipbuilding

Strikes 659a

Manning, Ernest C. 60

^ . A and Radio

..

Lutherans

Indies,

Leeward Islands

M

Wages and Hours 740a Jff Astronomy; MisSpace Exploration 60,

Luxembourg

Jff

500d;

.Norway

^ „ Mercury: Jff Mineral and Metal Production and Prices ObituMerrill, Charles Edward: Jff

Mangar

Television 581b; Space Exploration 645a; Words and Meanings. New 7S2c Luque. Crisanto 511c

of

69, 68, 67, 66

Merchant Marina

.

Pacific Islands: Jff

Mandates:

Lunar Probes:

series

Fashions: Jff Clothing Industry 60. iff Shoe Industry 60,

MlnV

Territories

57

"Lunik (Sputnik)

U.S. 167d; Drug Administration. U.S. 213a; Electronics 22«a; IndusInternational Health 339c; trial Propaganda 350a; Motion Pictures 452a; Nobel Prizes 496a; Red Croia and 586b; Socialism 62Sa; Societies 29a; U.S. Associations. Jj"'"^ Funds-Community Chests 699d. S« medical and diseases also specific sciences ^m_,^ Mencken. IKenry) L(ouis): Jff Obltuice.

Madagascar

Jff

,.

Mandated

5 lie

69

American Literature 40b; Civil Serv-

and (ireat Britain 302c; Newspapers Magazines 487d; Wines 749d

ivil

siles 60. iff

abled

Medleln*

..

...

Obituaries 69

Malta

Lozano Diaz. Julio: see Obituaries 58 Luebke, Helnrich 60 Lugosi ^Blasko). Bela: Jff Obituaries

Armies

Aviation.

co Obituaries 59

Manchuria:

Strikes 057b;

^

60 Mall, Federation of 60 l-reiuh West Africa 276d Malik, Charles Habib 69 .M.illory. Molla Bjurstedt 512a

Rights It.Sd Low, Solon Earl 58, 57, 56

Communism

Pal: Jff

Malgache Republic:

56

Chemical Industry ISOd; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 434c; Secondary Metals 613c Laague of Women Voters of the United States: ser Societies and Associations, U.S. Leahy. William Daniel Sllb Leather: st. Shoe Industry Agricultural Research service 22c, Strikes 657b; Wages and Hours 740a 47c;

Maimer.

Los Angeles Louisiana Lowe, Thus

,

World .\gii, allure 28d; Armies of the Badminton 03d. Aviation. Civil 82d; Death 90d; Banking 95a; Birth and Coin158d; China Statistics 106c; munism 180d; Debt. National 201d. Exchange Control and Exchanije Rates 240b; International Trade 357c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 43Sd; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Singapore 622c; I in 682b; Tropical Diseases 088d; U.S.

.Mexico 428b Lord, Uaniel Aloysius: see Obituaries

I.

:

Malaya, Federation of

,„ ,. L6pei Mataos, Adolfo 60, 59

,

63d;

Jff

I

Malan, Daniel Fr.incnis 512a iff Tropical Dlseaaes 69, 58, 57, 56 ( hil.l Welfare 155d

Obituaries 57

JJl.

Service

3S3c; Livestock .IWb. Poland SSOl. Engineerini 571(1 Health Public Mechta" 752c "Mr.lllrxt.uard" 4691, Medical Rehabilitation of the Dis-

41U

Malaria

...

^

^

K.-«-arrh

\K,ir„llur»l

Frozen 142d. Canning Industry Foods 277d; International Trade

67 II yprus I9ta. Middle Eastern Aflairs

(

,

Long, Breckinridge: Lopez. Alfonso 511b

Lawrence. Ernest Orlando: src Obltu'r Fruit Plutonium: ^er Atomic Energy 58,

1

Obituaries 68

Perry. R:ilph H.irlon: irf

Persia:

Philosophy Phosphates: see Mineral and Metal Production and Prices

and Gambling Paris Parkette 752d

Communism

Veterans': i" Veterans Administration (U.S.) Performing Right Societies: irr Societies and Associations, U.S.

Pensions,

Exchange

Papua-New Guinea

Pears:

Se-

Plasma physics 7S2d

657b

Philadelphia Philanthropy:

Armies of the World 60c

Peaches Peanuts

Social

see

58, 57, 66

Afghanistan 2Ic

Orbiter 752d

Pennsylvania Pension, Old-Age:

I'.rlin.u.

see

Oranges: see Fruit Orbital bomber 752d Orchestras:

P:i.ili.

Pacinc Islands, British

710b

curity. 5c(-

67

Pan American Union: j.

Ottawa Outer Mongolia:

Fruit

Bacteriology 89c; Ear. Nose and Throat. Diseases of 215b: Epidemiology 23Sc; Public Health Service. U.S. 573a; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 633c Political Parties, British 56 Political Parties, U.S. Eisenhower. Dwight D. 223a; Elections. U.S. 224c; Radio and Television 578c. Set also under individual states

Political Science Societies and .Associations. U.S. 629a Pollock Jackson: see Obituaries 57

Polo Popular Music: Recordings 60,

see

Records

59. See

Music

and 60,

59, 58, 57, 56

Movements of: set Population, Refugees ^ Population Statistics: see Census Data, U.S. Populations and Areas of the Countries of the World 60. See Areas and Populations of the Countries of the World 59, 58, 57, 56

Pork: see Meat Porto Rico: see Puerto Rico .Agriculture 28d; .Armies of the World 61d- .Automobile Racing 80c; .Aviation Civil 82d; Banking 95b: Birth

and Death Statistics 106c: Communism 180c; Debt. National 20Id; European Unity 209a; Disasters 238a; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 241c; Fruit 278c; International

Law

348b;

International

Monetary Fund 348d; International Trade 353a; Marriage and Divorce 414d; Merchant Marine 422c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Navies of the World 469c; Newspapers and Magazines 487d; Petroleum 538b; Prices 564a; Ship-

building 617c; U.S. 710c; Wines 749d Portuguese Overseas Provinces 60. Portuguese Overseas Terrier fi02d; Rye 60.5a; St. Lawrence Seaway

600c;

606a; Salt 609b; Salvation Army 609d; Savings and Loan Associations 61 Id; Scholarships and Student Aid SEATO 643b; Secondary 612b; Metals 613c; Secret Service, U.S. 614a; Seismology 614c; Selective ServShipbuilding 617a; ice, U.S. 615b; Shoe Industry 618h; Shooting 6l8d; Shows 6l9d; Silver 622a; Skiing 622d; Smithsonian Institution 623d; Srxcer 624b; Social Security 626c; Societies and Associations, U.S. 628d; Sociology 635b; Softball 6.»6b; Soil Conservation 636c; Sorghum Grains 639a; Soybeans 644a; Space Exploration 644c; Spain 650a; Spices 6S2a; Squash Racquets 6S2b; Stocks and Bonds 653a: Strikes 656c; Sugar 660b; Sulfur 661b; Swimming 664c; Table Tennis 666d; Tariffs 67na; Taxation 570b; Tea 671c; Telegraphy 671c; Telephone 672b; Tennis 674b; Theatre Textile Industry 676d; 678b; Tin 682b; Tobacco 5g2c; Tourist Travel 684b; Toy Industry 685a; Track and Field Sports 68Sa; Tropical Diseases 689b; Trucking Industry 689d; Tuberculosis 690d; Tunnels 692d; Turkey 693d; United States Congress 712a; Universities and Colleges 715b; Uranium 726a; Urban Transportation. U.S. 726c: U.S.S.R. 695c; Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 729c; Vegetables 730a; Venereal Diseases 730d; Venezuela

73ld; Veterans Administration (U.S.) 733a; Veterans' Organizations. L:.S. 734b; Veterinary Medicine 735a; Wages and Hours 739c;

Wealth and Income. Distribution

of.

742c; Wheat 747a; Wilderness Preservation 748a; Wildlife Conservation 748b; Wines 749d; Wool 751c; Wrestling 753a; Yachting 755a; Yugoslavia 756d; Zinc 758c; Zoology 759d. Set also various cities, states, territories and possessions United States Air Force Academy 56

United States Congress Eisenhower, Dwight D. 223b: cal Parties

l'„s.

Politi-

552c

United States Government Departments and Bureaus: -. Government Departments and Bureaus,

AU"

U.S.

-i.v

under

spe.

itir

r..ime.

e.g.. Coast Guard, U.S., etc. United States Information Agency:

see

International Propaganda 59,

58

United States Investments Abroad: see Foreign Investments United States Junior Chamber of

Commerce:

see

Societies

and As-

see Coinage and .Colleges

Donations and Bequests 212d: Education 216d; Home Economics 316c; Music 463c: Religious Education 590d; Scholarships and Student Aid 6I2b; United Arab Republic 698d. See also various sports and

games

Upper Volta, Republic of 60 French Community 274c; Mali. Federation

of.

410a

Uranium Atomic Energy 74b; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 437a Urbani, Giovanni 59 Urban Redevelopment: i.-. City and Regional Planning 60. 59, 58. .Sff Municipal Government; Urban Transportation, U.S. 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. .9,. Building and Construction Industry; Housing 58, 57, 56. See Town and Regional Planning City and Regional Detroit 207a

Planning

Armies of the World 63d; Aviation.

Communism

180d; Debt. Control and Exchange Rates 240d; Fencing International Tratle 255a; 354b; Newspapers and Magazines 487d; Soil Conservation 637b; Tariffs 668c: Tropical Diseases 689b: U.S. 710b; Wines -49d: Wool 751c U.S.S.R.: see Union of Soviet SocialCivil 82d;

National

201d:

Exchange

Republics

Utah Public Utilities see Obituaries 56 Tourist Travel

Utilities, Public: see

Maurice:

Vacation: \*alet

of

(cc

Parking 753a

Vanadium:

se,

Mineral and Metal

Production and

(iillK-rt

Denham:

see

Prices

Van Allen Radiation :. Astronomy; Space Exploration

Vjtnsittart.

Obituarlal

Palnta and Varnlshas Vatican City Stat* Demo.r.iry 203d Vaughan Williams. Ralph: lee Obltutee

rlat 69 Vaal:

fee

Meat

Vagatable Oils and Animal Fata Agri. ulliir:il K.-«.-ar(h .Service 22d; Agrirulliire 24d; Home Economics

316a: Paints and Varnishes S25b

Vagatablat Agriculture 23d; Canning Industry I42d; Frozen Foods 277c; Horticulture 320d: International Trade 356b Venaraal DIaaaaas Vaneauala Agriculture 27b: Armies of the World 63d; Aviation. Civil 82d: Coffee 172b: Communism I80d: Debt. National 20ld; Democracy 204a; Fencing 2S5a: Foreign Investments 267a; Gas. Natural and Manufactured 280d; Immigration and Naturalization 330c; International Trade 353d; Iron and Steel 362c; Marriage and Divorce 4l4d; Middle Eastern Affairs 432c:

Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Navies of 469c; Newspapers and

World Magazines

the

487d; Petroleum 537c; Photography 543b; Tariffs 668d; U.S. 710b

Vermont Crime. U.S. 189b

Veterans Administration (U.S.) Housing 125b; Budget. National 323a; Insurance 340d; Savings and Loan Associations 51 Id; Tuberculosis 691b Veterans' Organizations, U.S. Veterinary Medicine Agricultural Research Service 22b Vidor. Charles 516a

Vietnam Agriculture 28c: Armies of the World 60b; Aviation. Civil 82d; Blind. Education of the. 108c; Cambodia 13Sd; Communism 180c; Co-operatives 184d; Foreign .Aid Programs. U.S. 265a; Laos 386b; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Missions. Foreign (Religious) 443d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Red Cross 587b: Roman Catholic Church 601b; SEATO 643a: UN 702b; U.S. 710d Villa-Lobos. Heitor516a

Virginia Civil Rights 165d Virgin Islands, British 60, 59. See Leeward Islands 58, 57, 56 Virgin Islands, U.S. Farmpr? Home Administration 248b;

Newspapers

and Magazines 487d Viruses; see Bacteriology

60.

See

Cancer: Epidemiology 60, 59, 58. 5.'. Medicine; Poliomyelitis; Respiratory Diseases 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. Tropical Diseases 59

5..

R.;=»-ar