A Microscopic Analysis of Use-Wear and Polish Formation on Experimental Quartz Tools 9780860545101, 9781407346731

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Plates
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Methods and Terminology
Chapter 3: Hide Working
Chapter 4: Grass Cutting
Chapter 5: Wood Working
Chapter 6: Antler Working
Chapter 7: Bone Working
Chapter 8: Butchery
Chapter 9: Shell Drilling
Chapter 10: Feather Working
Chapter 11: Summary and Conclusions
Appendix 1: Combined Attribute Table for Experimental Quartz Tools
Appendix 2: Attribute Tables for Experimental Quartz Tools Grouped by Material Worked
Appendix 3: Attribute Counts and Statistics for Experimental Quartz Tools
Appendix 4: Measurements on Striae Lengths For All Flint Tools
Appendix 5: Discriminant Analysis Summary and Tables
Bibliography

Citation preview

A Microscopic Analysis of Use-Wear and Polish Formation on Experimental Quartz Tools

Carole Sussman

BAR International Series .395 1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S395, 1988: 'A Microscopic Analysis of Use-Wear and Polish on Experimental Quartz Tools' © Carole Sussman, 1988 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545101 paperback ISBN 9781407346731 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545101 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

F or G lynn L lywelyn I saac

T able o f C ontents L ist o f F igures L ist o f T ables L ist o f P lates P reface C hapter

1 :

i i i ii

I ntroduction

C hapter 2 : M ethods a nd T erminology P rocedure D efinitions S tatistics

7 9 1 3 2 0

C hapter 3 : H ide W orking

3 3

C hapter 4 : G rass C utting

4 9

C hapter 5 : W ood W orking

5 8

C hapter 6 : A ntler W orking

7 8

C hapter 7 : B one W orking

9 1

C hapter 8 :

B utchery

1 05

C hapter 9 : S hell D rilling

1 07

C hapter 1 0 :

F eather W orking

1 08

C hapter 1 1:

S ummary a nd C onclusions

1 09

A ppendix 1 : C ombined A ttribute T able f or E xperimental Q uartz T ools

1 13

A ppendix 2 : A ttribute T ables f or E xperimental Q uartz T ools G rouped b y M aterial W orked

1 15

A ppendix 3 : A ttribute C ounts a nd S tatistics f or E xperimental Q uartz T ools

1 35

A ppendix 4 : M easurements o n S triae f or A ll F lint T ools

1 78

A ppendix 5 :

1 81

B ibliography

D iscriminant A nalysis S ummary a nd T ables

1 89

L ist o f F igures F igure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9

Q uartz c rystals 8 G lacial m ovement 8 R egression: l inear g rooves o n t ime f or h ide w orking . 4 1 R egression: p it f ormation o n t ime f or a ll t ypes o f h ide 4 1 R egression: s triae f ormation o n t ime f or a ll t ypes o f h ide 4 2 R egression: s triae l ength o n t ime f or a ll h ide w orking 4 2 R egression: p it f ormation o n t ime f or g rasses 5 4 R egression: l inear g roove f ormation o n t ime f or a ll g rasses 5 4 R egression: s triae f ormation o n t ime f or a ll g rasses . • 5 5 R egression: s triae l ength o n t ime f or a ll g rasses ••• 5 5 R egression: p its o n t ime f or a ll w ood w orking . ..• 6 6 R egression : l inear g rooves o n t ime f or a ll w ood w orking 6 6 R egression: s triae o n t ime f or a ll w ood w orking ••• 6 7 R egression: s triae l engths o n a ll w ood w orking 6 7 R egression: p its o n t ime f or w ood s awing 6 8 R egression: l inear g rooves o n t ime f or w ood s awing • • • 6 8 R egression: s triae o n t ime f or a ll w ood s awing . ••• 6 9 R egression: s triae l engths o n a ll w ood s awing 6 9 R egression: p its o n t ime f or a ll w ood s craping 7 0 R egression: l inear g rooves o n t ime f or a ll w ood s craping 7 0 R egression: s triae o n t ime f or a ll w ood s craping . . . . 7 1 R egression: s triae l engths o n t ime f or a ll w ood s craping . 7 1 R egression: s triae o n t ime f or a ll w ood s awing a nd s craping 7 2 R egression: s triae l engths f or w ood s awing a nd s craping • 7 2 R egression: p its o n t ime f or w ood s awing a nd s craping . • 7 3 R egression : l inear g rooves o n t ime f or w ood s awing a nd s craping 7 3 D evelopmental s tages o f a ntler p olish 8 4 R egression: p its o n t ime f or a ll a ntler w ork 8 6 R egression: l inear g rooves o n t ime f or a ll a ntler w ork •8 6 R egression : c omet-tailed p its o n t ime f or a ll s oaked a ntler w ork 8 7 R egression : s triae o n t ime f or a ll a ntler w ork 8 8 R egression: s triae l engths o n t ime f or a ll a ntler w ork •8 8 R egression: c omet-tailed p its o n t ime f or b one w orking •9 7 R egression: p its o n t ime f or a ll b one w orking 9 8 R egression: l inear g rooves o n t ime f or b one w orking . . • 9 8 R egression: s triae o n t ime f or a ll b one w orking 9 9 R egression: s triae l engths o n t ime f or a ll b one w orking 9 9 R egression: s triae l engths o n a ll b one a nd a ntler w ork 1 00 H exagonal p lates n oted a fter w orking s hell a nd f eathers 12

L ist o f T ables T able 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2

H ide w orking: n umbers o f p its H ide w orking: s triae l engths H ide w orking: n umbers o f s triae H ide w orking: n umbers o f l inear g rooves G rass c utting: n umbers o f p its G rass c utting: n umbers o f s triae G rass c utting: l engths o f s triae G rass c utting: n umbers o f l inear g rooves W ood w orking: n umbers o f s triae W ood w orking: l engths o f s triae W ood w orking: n umbers o f p its W ood w orking: n umbers o f l inear g rooves A ntler w orking: n umbers o f p its A ntler w orking: n umbers o f c omet-tailed p its A ntler w orking: n umbers o f s triae A ntler w orking: s triae l engths A ntler w orking: n umbers o f l inear g rooves B one w orking: n umbers o f p its B one w orking: n umbers o f c omet-tailed p its B one w orking: n umbers o f s triae B one w orking: l engths o f s triae B one w orking: n umbers o f l inear g rooves

i i

3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 2 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 7 9 8 0 8 1 8 1 8 2 9 2 9 2 9 3 9 3 9 4

L ist o f P lates P late 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1

U nused c rystal q uartz s urface 2 00X U nused c rystal q uartz s urface 2 00X U nused c rystal q uartz s urface 2 00X U nused c rystal q uartz s urface 2 00X S calar s cars o n u nuesed q uartz e dge 2 00X C rystal q uartz e dge u sed f or c utting g rass, T ilden P ark S canning e lectron p hoto p late 6 2 00X S EM p hoto. E nlargement o f p late 7 1 000X S EM p hoto. C omet-tailed p its, 3 0 d egree t ilt 5 00X. . S EM p hoto o f q uartz e dge s craping f resh h ide w ith v olcanic a sh. 0 d egree t ilt 2 00X S EM p hoto. S ame a s p late 1 0 w ith 2 0 d egree t ilt .. S EM p hoto. S ame a s p lates 1 0 & 1 1 w ith 3 0 d egree t ilt S EM p hoto. S ame a s p lates 1 0-13 w ith 4 5 d egree t ilt. S EM p hoto o f " roches m outonees" C omet-tailed p its 2 00X S EM p hoto. L inear g rooves 2 00X S EM p hoto. S triation 3 900X C rystal q uartz e dge u sed f or c utting m eat 5 00X . . . S EM p hoto. C ross-sectioned f lint b lade w ith ? silica l ayer o n t op o f u naltered f lint 1 000X S EM p hoto. E nlargement o f p late 1 9 1 0 ,000X S EM p hoto. C ross-section o f u nused f lint b lade • • • S EM p hoto. S tep f ractures o n u sed q uartz e dge 1 00X. S EM p hoto. S tep f ractures o n u sed q uartz 1 000X • • • S EM p hoto. C rushing o n u sed q uartz e dge 2 00X V entral s ide q uartz t ool a fter s crpaing f resh h ide 2 00X V entral s ide q uartz t ool a fter s craping s un-dried h ide 2 00X Q uartz e dge a fter s craping t anned h ide 2 00X A ttrition o n q uartz h ide s craper 2 00X S EM p hoto. E dge r ounding f rom a ttrition o n q uartz t ool 5 00X F lint e dge a fter s craping f resh h ide 2 00X F lint e dge a fter s craping s un-dried h ide 2 00X ... Q uartz e dge a fter s craping r e-wet h ide 2 00X Q uartz e dge a fter s craping f resh h ide w ith v olcanic a sh a dded 2 00 X S EM p hoto . Q uartz e dge a fter s craping f resh h ide w ith v olcanic a sh 2 00X C rystal q uartz e dge u sed t o c ut b each g rass 2 00X . . Q uartz e dge a fter c utting b each g rass - p its a nd s triae 2 00 X S mooth q uartz e dge a fter c utting p ark g rass 2 00X . . F lint e dge a fter c utting p ark g rass 2 00X W ood p olish o n f lint 2 00X Q uartz t ool a fter s awing o ak 2 00X S EM p hoto. Q uartz e dge a fter s awing o ak - p its a nd l inear g rooves 1 600X

111

2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 ▪2 5 2 5 •2 5 2 5 •2 5 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 9 •2 9 2 9 2 9 •3 1 •3 1 •3 1 3 1 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 7 ▪4 7 4 7 •5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 7 4

P late 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8

Q uartz e dge a fter s awing w ood ( Yew) 2 00X 7 4 Q uartz e dge a fter s awing a ntler 1 0 m inutes 2 00X . . .7 4 Q uartz e dge a fter s awing e ucalyptus 6 0 m inutes 2 00X. . 7 4 Q uartz e dge a fter s craping h ardwood 6 0 m inutes 2 00X. . 7 6 Q uartz e dge a fter s awing a ntler 6 0 m inutes 2 00X . . .7 6 Q uartz e dge a fter s craping a ntler 6 0 m inutes 2 00X. . . 7 6 Q uartz e dge a fter s awing d ry a ntler 2 00X 7 6 " Melted s now" o n q uartz t ip 2 00X 8 9 F lint e dge a fter s awing a ntler 2 00X 8 9 F lint e dge a fter s awing d ry a ntler 2 00X 8 9 Q uartz e dge a fter g raving b one 2 00X 8 9 Q uartz s urface a fter s awing b one 2 00X 1 01 Q uartz e dge a fter s craping b one 2 00X 1 01 R ounding a nd s moothing o f q uartz s urface a fter s awing b one 2 00X 1 01 C omet-tailed p its a nd c racks i n p olish a fter s craping b one u sing q uartz 2 00X 1 01 F lint e dge a fter s awing b one 2 00X 1 03 F lint e dge a fter c utting m eat 2 00X 1 03

i v

P reface

T his w ork, a s aP h.D. d issertation, w as a ided b y am ultitude o f p eople b oth a t t he U niversity o f C alifornia, B erkeley a nd H arvard U niversity. C hanges t o t he c ontent o riginal d issertation a re m inimal w ith t he e xception o f m inor e diting a nd t he a ddition o f n ew i nformation o n m icrowear s tudies g ained a t t he U se-Wear C onference h eld i n V albonne, F rance i n 1 986. T he p urpose o f t his m onograph i s t o p rovide a n e asy r eference g uide f or a nyone a ttempting m icrowear a nalysis o n s tone t ools m ade o f q uartz. I t s hould b e e mphasized t hat t his i s t he r esult o f p reliminary r esearch a nd i s, b y n o m eans, a d efinitive w ork o n t he s ubject. O ngoing r esearch b y m yself a nd o thers, w ill u ndoubtedly s hed n ew i nsights o n q uartz m icrowear a nd t he f ield o f u se w ear a nalysis a s a w hole. W hen t his w ork b egan i n 1 983, l ittle a ttention w as p aid t o t he e ffects o f d iscard a nd b urial o n m icrowear p olish. R ecent w ork h as e mphasized t he n eed t o c onsider t he e ffects o f s oil m ovement a nd s oil a cids, a s t hey c an a lter a nd e ven o bliterate u se w ear p olish. I t i s m y b elief t hat m icrowear a nalysis i s a v aluable r esearch t ool i n d iscerning p ast b ehavior t hrough s tone t ool u se b ut, i t i s p ossible t hat a fter w e t ease o ut t he e ffects o f t housands o f y ears o f b urial, t he r emaining i nformation m ay b e l ess p recise t han o riginally h oped. S till, g reat a dvances a re o ften m ade u p o f m any s mall s teps a nd I d o n ot f eel, a s s ome , t hat m icrowear s hould b e d iscarded a s a u seless e ndeavor. M any p eople g ave f reely o f t heir t ime a nd i deas t o t his w ork, a nd Ia m g rateful t o a ll o f t hem f or t heir h elp. A ny m isinterpretations o r e rrors w ithin t his m onograph a re s olely m y o wn. J . D esmond C lark p rovided t raining a nd s upport b oth i n t he c lassroom a nd i n t he f ield. H is o ngoing i nterest i n n ew m ethods a nd i deas a lways o ffered f resh p rospectives f or m y r esearch. T his m onograph i s, i n n o s mall w ay, d ue t o h is e ncouragement. F . C lark H owell a nd G arniss C urtis r ead v arious d rafts o f t he t hesis a nd m ade c onstructive s uggestions a nd c omments. A ndrea L ain w orked t irelessly o n n umerous e xperiments. D avid P ilbeam a nd J ack H arris a re a lso t o b e t hanked f or t heir t ime, h elp a nd o ngoing e ncouragement. S incere t hanks g oes t o t he f ollowing p eople f or t heir t echnical a dvice a nd a ssistance: J ochim H ampel o f t he E arth S ciences D epartment a t U .C. B erkeley; M adeline A nderson, A llen S onafrank a nd G ene H ammel o f t he Q uantitative A nthropology L ab a t U .C. B erkeley a nd M aurice D umais, J ohn M erkel a nd D ave L ange o f H arvard U niversity. T he s taff o f t he A nthropology D epartment a t U .C. B erkeley, w as p articularly h elpful i n v arious a spects o f m y r esearch a nd w riting, e specially M .J. T yler, L illian T amblyn a nd C harlene H unter. T he A nthropology D epartment a t H arvard U niversity a nd t he s taff o f t he P eabody M useum , a lso g enerously f acilitated a spects o f t his r esearch.

M y c olleagues a t t he S tone A ge L ab a t H arvard U niversity i nfluenced t he c ontent o f t his t hesis, a nd I a m g rateful t o J eanne S ept, N ikki S tern, A nnie V incent, J ohn S hea, a nd G reg L aden f or c onstantly s haring n ew i deas a nd f riendship. P eter J ones m ade s ome o f t he t ools Iu sed i n m y e xperiments, a nd w as m ost g enerous w ith h is t ime, h elp a nd a dvice. J im M oore c onvinced m e t hat s tatistics w ere t he w ay t o g o ' a nd p rovided u nlimited a ccess t o a c omputer. T hank y ou a ll. T he l ate G lynn I saac f irst p roposed t his t opic f or m y d issertation r esearch; h e a lso g ave m e t he o pportunity t o g o t o H arvard a nd s et u p a m icrowear l ab w here I c ould c arry o ut t his r esearch. T he m any k indnesses a nd g enerosity e xpressed b y h im a nd B arbara I saac w ill n ot b e f orgotten. G lynn's s timulating i deas a nd e nthusiasm f or t his p roject s ometimes s urpassed m y o wn. H e a lways f ound t he t ime t o d iscuss a nd g uide a ll a spects o f m y r esearch. H is p ositive o utlook, b oundless e nergy, a nd c reative t hinking a re s orely m issed. F inancial a ssistance f or m y r esearch w as g enerously g ranted b y t he L .S.B. L eakey F oundation, t he F oundation f or R esearch i nto t he O rigins o f M an, a U niversity o f C alifornia H umanities R esearch G rant, R obert H . L owie s cholarships, a nd t he B oise F und. Iw ould l ike t o e xpress m y g ratitude t o a ll o f t hem.

v i

C hapter 1 I ntroduction

T hrough t he 1 960 's, m an w as c onsidered a s s eparate f rom t he G reat A pes d ue t o h is a bility t o m ake a nd u se t ools ( Bordes 1 968; C lark, G . 1 969, 1 970; C lark, W .E.L . 1 962; O akley 1 956). S tudies o f f ree-ranging c himpanzees ( Pan t roglodytes) b y J ane G oodall a nd o thers ( Goodall 1 964, 1 968; B oesch a nd B oesch 1 981, 1 983; M cGrew e t a l 1 979; N ishida a nd V ehara 1 980; S ugiyama a nd K oman 1 979) s howed t hat a pes r egularly a dapt a nd m odify o bjects i n t heir e nvironment f or u se a s t ools. C himpanzees s trip t wigs a nd s tems o f t heir l eaves a s f or u se a s t ermiting s ticks, c rushed g reen l eaves a re s ponges t o s op u p w ater f or d rinking, a nd r ocks a re u se t o c rack o pen n uts. W hile o ther a nimals s uch a s b aboons, b irds a nd s ea o tters a re a lso k nown t o u se t ools ( Beck 1 980; C uilmet 1 977), a s f ar a s w e k now, h ominids b ecame t he o nly a pes w ho h abitually m ade a nd u sed d urable t ools - t hose m ade o f s tone. I t i s l ikely t hat e arly h ominids a lso e mployed b ranches, b ark a nd l eaves a s t ools, b ut, b eing o rganic, s uch t ools a re g enerally n ot p reserved i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T his f orces p resent-day a nthropologists t o r ely o n a nalogies w ith o ur c losest l iving r elatives, t he c himps, f or c omparison ( Zihlman 1 979; Z ihlman e t a l 1 978; S usman 1 980). I nferential e vidence f rom t he e arly s ite o f K oobi F ora i n K enya d ating t o 1 .5 m illion y ears b efore t he p resent i ndicates t hat s ome o f t hese e arly s tone t ools w ere b eing u sed t o w ork w ood, p erhaps f or m aking d igging s ticks, t o c ut s oft p lant m aterial, a nd t o c ut m eat a s w ell ( Keeley a nd T oth 1 981). I t w as t his a bility t o m ake a nd u se s tone t ools t hat g ave t he c omparatively s low h ominid ( Lovejoy 1 981; S usman e t a l 1 985:190) a n e dge o ver t he o ther a nimals c ompeting f or t he s ame r esources. T he f irst u se o f s tone t ools s ignified a n a daptive s hift f rom b ipedal h ominids w ho p robably m odified b ranches a nd l eaves, t o u tilizing s harp-edged f lakes t hat c ould b e m ade b y s triking, w ith p reconceived i ntent, o ne s tone a gainst a nother. T hese c ould b e r eu sed, r e-sharpened, a nd w ere m ore e fficient i n p erforming s uch t asks a s p rocessing a n a nimal c arcass a nd r endering i t i nto m anageable p ackages o f p rotein ( Jones 1 980; L eakey, L .S.B. 1 950; S ussman, 1 985) o r d igging i n t he e arth t o e xpose r oots a nd t ubers a nd, p erhaps e ven m ore i mportantly, u sing f lakes a s t ools t o m ake o ther t ools - d igging s ticks, f or e xample ( Vincent 1 985). H istorically, t he f irst d ocumented r ecognition a nd s tudy o f s tone t ools i n t he S ixteenth a nd S eventeenth c enturies r aised q uestions c oncerning h ow t hese w ere m ade a nd w here t hey c ame f rom. T hey w ere d escribed a s w eapons o f a p rimitive p eople i gnorant o f m etals; t heir t rue a ntiquity o nly h inted a t, a nd w ere a lso c laimed t o h ave b een g enerated i n t he s ky, b eing a m ixture o f t hunder a nd l ightening m ixed w ith " metallic m atter..." ( Daniel 1 975:25-26). T he d iscovery o f h andaxes i n a ssociation w ith t he b ones o f e xtinct a nimals r aised a s trong a rgument f or a ccepting t hese s tone t ools a s t he h andiwork o f a p rehistoric p eople ( Ibid:26). T his s trengthened t he p roof f or m an's a ntiquity, p lacing i t e arlier t han 4 004 B .C, t he d ate w hich B ishop U ssher d erived f rom t he B ible f or t he c reation o f t he w orld ( Daniel

1 975; W ood 1 976). T he a ctual f unctions o f t hese s tone t ools w ere n ot q uestioned o r w ell e xamined u ntil l ater i n t he N ineteenth c entury b y c urious, i nquiring p eople s uch a s S purrell ( 1892). C onventionally, s tone t ools w ere c lassified i nto t ypolog ical c ategories b ased o n t heir o verall m orphology a nd i nferred f unction. D uring t he l ast p art o f t he N ineteenth c entury a nd t he f irst h alf o f t his c entury, a rchaeologists d irected t heir a ttention a nd e fforts t owards m ore s ystematic e xcavation o f s ites a nd a massing c ollections o f s haped s tone t ools w hile d iscarding, f or t he m ost p art, u nretouched f lakes a nd o ther w aste ( Daniel 1 967). T hese c ollections w ere u sed a s " markers" t o d ate a nd c onstruct h ierarchical s equences b ased u pon t heir c omparative m orphology, w hich w ere t hen u sed t o e xplain p opulation m ovements a nd/or c ultural c hange ( Braidwood 1 946; C hilde 1 925; L aville e t a l 1 980; S ackett 1 981; T rustees o f t he B ritish M useum 1 968). T he d evelopment o f a bsolute d ating t echniques b y L ibby e t. a l. ( 1949), f reed a rchaeologists f rom t he n ecessity o f u sing s tone t ools f or d ating a nd a llowed a ttention t o f ocus o n o ther r elevant i ssues s uch a s t ool f unction a nd a ssemblage v ariability. F unction w as o riginally d educed f rom t he s hape o f t he s tone t ools, t he a ngles o f t he e dges, a nd c omparisons w ith e thnographic d ata ( See f or e xample, B inford, S . 1 968 ; B urkitt 1 963; C lark, J .D. 1 958; G ould e t a l 1 971; K amminga 1 977; M ason 1 967:744; N issen a nd D ittemore 1 974; O dell 1 981; R igaud 1 978; S ummers 1 950; T indale 1 965). T he v ariation f ound i n l ithic a ssemblages w as a ttributed t o n atural d iversity, a ctivity v ariants, s tylistic c omponents, " culture" o r a f unction o f t he r aw m aterial ( B inford a nd B inford 1 966; B inford 1 973; B ordes a nd d e S onneville-Bordes 1 970; C lark a nd K leindienst 1 974; C lark, J .D. 1 980; C lose 1 978; D unnell 1 978; J ones 1 979; K leindienst 1 967; L aville e t a l 1 980; L eakey 1 950a; M ellars 1 970; R igaud 1 978; S ackett 1 973, 1 982; T ucker 1 980). C onsequently, u p t hrough t he e arly 1 960's, n umerous t ypologies a nd t erminologies a rose t o c lassify a nd d efine t he d ifferent a ssemblages, r elying h eavily o n a rtefact m orphology, c omposition a nd s ome q uantitative a nalysis ( Bourlon a nd B ouyssonie 1 912; B alout 1 955; B ordes 1 950, 1 961; G oodwin 1 958; I saac 1 967; K leindienst 1 961; L eakey 1 970; M ason 1 962; M ovius 1 948; S ackett 1 966; T ixier 1 963). A t t he B urg W artenstein S ymposium i n 1 965, a c oncerted e ffort w as m ade t o s tandardize l ithic t erminology a nd a nalyses o f a rtefact a ssemblages b y a dopting c omprehensive t erms t o e radicate s ome o f t he c onfusion, v agueries a nd c ontroversy a rising f rom t he u se o f n umerous t erms a nd t ypologies ( Clark, J .D. 1 967; D aniels 1 967; M ason 1 967; K leindienst 1 967; S ummers 1 967; T ixier 1 967). W hile t hese c ontroversies h ave n ot b een c ompletely e liminated, i t i s c lear t hat s trong h eadway h as b een m ade. A n e xperimental a pproach t owards t he s tudy o f s tone t ools b egan t o t ake h old i n t he e arly p art o f t his c entury. I mportant c ontributions h ave b een m ade b y m any p eople , a mong t hem B ordes ( 1947; B ordes a nd C rabtree 1 969) a nd C rabtree ( 1972), t wo a ccomplished f lintknappers a nd p ioneers i n t he f ield, w ho s tudied a nd e xperimented w ith t he m echanics o f s tone f racture a s w ell a s r ecognizing t he n eed t o e xamine f lintknapping d ebitage i n o rder t o g ain a c omprehensive u nderstanding o f t he r eduction s equences ( see a lso T ixier 1 972; T ixier

e t a l

1 980).

A nother i nteresting a pproach h as b een t aken b y J ones ( 1979) f or a ssessing t he p ractical e ffects o f s tone t ool ' blanks' a nd e dge s harpness b y u sing d ifferent r aw m aterials. J ones r eplicated b ifaces f rom O lduvai G orge i n T anzania a nd d emonstrated t he d ifferences i n e dge s harpness b efore a nd a fter r esharpening, a s w ell a s t he l imits p laced o n t ool m orphology d ue t o c hoice o f r aw m aterial b y e arly h ominids ( see a lso T oth 1 982). E arly h ominid b ehavior h as b een a t antilizing u nknown t hat a rchaeologists h ave s ought t o u nderstand i n a v ariety o f w ays: t hrough s tudying t he l ocation a nd c haracter o f s ites ( see I saac 1 968, 1 971, 1 97d f or e xamples), b y e xploring s patial r elationships a mongst a rtefacts o n t he s ites ( Cahen e t a l 1 979), e xamining t he r emains o f b ones a nd o ther f eatures w ithin s ites ( Binford 1 981; C ahen a nd K eeley 1 980; C lark a nd H aynes 1 970; S hipman e t a l 1 983), c onjoining s tudies o f b ones a nd s tones ( Bunn e t a l 1 980; C ahen a nd K eeley 1 980), a nd m icroscopic e xamination o f s tone t ools a nd a ssociated b ones f or t races o f m odification a nd u tilization ( A nderson-Gerfaud 1 983; B unn 1 981; K eeley 1 977; M oss 1 983a,b; P otts a nd S hipman 1 981; S hipman a nd R ose 1 983; S ussman 1 985b). O ne v aluable a pproach t hat h as r eceived m uch a ttention i s t he t echnique o f " use w ear" a nalysis u sing m icroscopy t o e xamine t he e dges o f s tone t ools f or t races o f u se ( for a n i n d epth r eview r efer t o C ook a nd D umont 1 983; a nd t o O dell 1 983 f or p ros a nd c ons o f b oth h igh a nd l ow p ower m icroscopy). A p iece o f s tone w hich h as b een u sed a s a t ool m ay h ave o ne, o r a c ombination o f t he f ollowing f eatures a long t he e dge w hich w as u tilized: e dge d amage i n t he f orm o f s mall s cars o f v arious t ypes; s triations f rom u se; a brasion o r p olish. T hese a ttributes h ave b een d ocumented a nd d escribed, u sing a m ultitude o f t echniques, t o d etermine e xactly h ow t ools w ere u sed a nd t he m aterial(s) t hey w ere u sed o n. A b rief s ummary o f t he v arious t ypes o f u se w ear a nalyses i s g iven b elow. T he " Father o f U se-Wear" i s a t itle o ften u sed t o d escribe S ergei S emenov ( 1974). W hile n ot t he f irst p erson t o u se m icroscopy f or a nalysis o f s tone t ools ( Curwin 1 930), S emenov w as t he f irst t o s ystematically r esearch a nd d ocument u se w ear t races o n t he e dges o f s tone t ools. T his w ork h as b een c ontinued a nd e xpanded u pon b y o thers ( Clark a nd P rince 1 978; K amminga 1 978; K antman 1 970; P hillipson a nd P hillipson 1 970; T ringham e t a l 1 974; i nter a lia). T he t hrust o f t heir w ork h as b een t o q uantify a nd d escribe t he s cars l eft a long t he w orking e dges o f s tone t ools u sing m agnifications g enerally l ess t han 1 00X ( also r eferred t o a s " low p ower" u se w ear s tudies). D epending u pon t he t ypes o f s cars f ound, t heir s ize, p atterning a nd d istribution, s tatements c an b e m ade r egarding t he t ype o f m aterial t he t ool w as u sed o n, e .g. " hard" v ersus " soft", a s w ell a s t he a ction e mployed. C ritics o f t his a pproach ( see T omenchuk 1 983:73; a lso O dell 1 983:17) a rgue t hat i t f ails t o p rovide s pecific i nformation a bout t he t ype o f m aterial a t ool w as u sed o n, t he t erms " hard" a nd " soft" b eing s een a s i nclusive a nd r ather v ague. I t h as a lso b een e stablished t hat e dge d amage c aused b y o ther f actors s uch a s b urial o r t rampling c an c losely m imic r etouch o r u tilization a nd c reate "a rtificial" t ools ( Flenniken a nd H aggarty 1 979; G ero 1 978; M oss

1 983c). F urther w ork i n t he 1 970 's u sing h igh p ower ( >100X) i ncident l ight m icroscopy i dentified d istinct p olishes w hich w ere l eft o n t he e dges o f f lint t ools a fter u se ( Keeley 1 974 ; K eeley a nd N ewcomer 1 977). W hile p olish s uch a s " sickle g loss" w as a lready k nown a nd n oted b y S purrell a s e arly a s 1 892, K eeley ( 1980) f ound t hat o ther p olishes, d istinctive t o t he m aterial w orked, a lso e xist; s o a t ool u sed t o s crape d ry h ide, f or e xample, s ustains a v ery d ifferent p olish f rom a t ool u sed o n b one. T his t echnique, k nown a s m icrowear a nalysis, a lso w orks w ell o n o ther f ine-grained m aterials s uch a s c halcedony ( Beyries 1 982; J . G uysels p ers.comm .; a uthor p ers. o hs.) a nd i gnimbrite ( Keeley a nd T oth 1 981). F or t he f irst t ime, s cientists a re p rovided w ith t he o pportunity t o g ather m ore s pecific i nformation a bout t he b ehaviour s urrounding t hese t ools - w hat f unctions t hey h ad a nd t he a ctivities p erformed b y t he h ominids w ho u sed t hem . M icrowear s tudies t hus a id m orphological a nalyses a nd m ay e ven s hed a n ew l ight o n t he c ontinuing ' style v ersus f unction' d ebates b y d etermining u pper b oundaries o f s tylistic v ariability b efore t he f unctional p urpose o f a t ool m ust c hange. L ike l ow p ower u se w ear s tudies, h owever, t his t echnique i s n ot w ithout i ts c ritics w ho c ontend t he s ubjective n ature o f t he o bservations a nd r ightly a rgue t hat t he r esults s hould b e m ore o bjective a nd s tandardized ( Odell 1 975). C ompetency o f m icrowear a nalysts s hould a lso b e t ested b y a dministering r igorous " blind" t ests ( refer t o C ook a nd D umont 1 983 ; i \ ewcomer e t. a l 1 986). M icrowear a nalysis i s n ot a ppropriate f or u se o n a ll r aw m aterials, s uch a s c oarse-grained r ocks l ike b asalt ( Sussman p ers. o bs. b ut s ee P lisson 1 982 f or o pposing v iew), o r o bsidian ( Hay 1 977; V aughan 1 981). M icrowear p olish i s a ffected, a nd c an b e o bliterated b y n atural p rocesses s uch a s a brasion b y w ind, w ater a nd s oil m ovement, ( Shackley 1 974 ; Y amada a nd S himura 1 984), c hemical a lteration o f t he s tone b y w eathering ( Fojud a nd K obusiewicz 1 982), a s w ell a s " bag d amage" f rom c ollective s torage ( Keeley 1 980). W ith a ll i ts s hortcomings, m icrowear a nalysis h as p rovided a rchaeologists w ith t he m ost s pecific f unctional i nformation o n s tone t ools t o d ate. R ecent w ork b y L evi-Sala ( 1986) h as p roduced p reliminary f indings w hich s tir t he w inds o f c aution. S he h as a ltered e xperimental u se w ear p olishes a rtificially i n t he l ab b y t umbling b oth u sed a nd u nused f lint t ools i n s and t o m imic p ost-depositional s oil m ovement. I t i s n ot s uggested t hat a rtificial t umbling m imics t he e ffects o f t ens o r h undreds o f t housands o f y ears o f p ost d epositional a ction a nd s oil a cids b ut, h er w ork s erves a s a r eminder t hat w e h ave, a s y et, m erely b egun t o s cratch t he s urface i n f unctional u se w ear s tudies a nd t hat t he e ffects o f b urial o n m icrowear p olish a re m ore p ronounced t han o riginally a nticipated. I t i s p ossible t hat m icrowear s pecialists m ay f ind t hemselves r elying o n t he m echanical f eatures p roduced b y w ear t o i dentify u se, s uch a s s triations a nd g rooves, w ith p olish a ttributes p laying a m ore s upportive r ole. I mportant r esearch s uch a s t his i s a n e xample o f t he n ew d irection u se w ear s tudies a re t aking, w here t he e mphasis i s n ow o n u nravelling a nd i dentifying t he m echanical a nd c hemical p rocesses a ffecting p olish a fter d iscard ( see a lso P lisson a nd M auger 1 987).

T his m onograph i s t he r esult o f i n d epth e xperimental r esearch a ttempting t o e xpand t he a pplicability o f m icrowear a nalysis t o i nclude e xperimental t ools m ade o f q uartz, as tone t hat w as w idely u sed i n A frica a nd A s ia d uring t he L ower P alaeolithic. K jiel K nutsson, o f t he U niversity o f U ppsala i n S weden, i s t he o ther r esearcher w ho h as r ecently c oncentrated h is e fforts o n m icrowear a nalysis o f q uartz t ools. T he r esearch p resented h ere w as c onducted i ndependently o f M r. K nutsson's w ork b ut, r ecent d iscussion w ith h im h as s hown t hat o ur r esults c orroborate e ach o ther's w ork. Q uartz i s a bundant i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, s panning f rom t he e arliest k nown s tone t ools f rom t he O mo i n E thiopia ( 2.3 m .y.a., i q errick e t a l 1 973 ; M errick 1 976; M errick a nd M errick 1 976), f rom Z houkoudian i n C hina ( 500 ,000 B .P ., s ee L anpo 1 980) t hrough P aleoI ndian L imes i n t he N ew W orld. E xpanding m icrowear a nalysis t o i nclude q uartz w ill a llow s cientists t o s tudy a rtefacts f rom i mportant s ites s uch a s t he O mo, O lduvai G orge ( Leakey 1 971; S ussman 1 985b), B order C ave ( Beaumont 1 973 ; B eaumont e t a l 1 978), i nter a lia. I n g eneral, t he r esearch d esign c onsisted o f s triking f lakes f rom l arge q uartz c rystals, a nd t hen u sing t hese f lakes o n v arious m aterials f or s pecific l engths o f t ime t o d ocument t he p resence a nd d evelopment o f b oth e dge d amage a nd u se w ear p olish . T he m aterials w orked w ere t hose k nown, o r t hought t o h ave b een u sed b y e arly h ominids f or p articular a ctivities a nd i ncluded: b one, w ood, h ide, m eat, s hell, a nd a ntler. T he a ctivities i ncluded b utchering d ead a nimals f or m eat a nd p erhaps s kin a nd s inew , c utting a nd w hittling b ranches t o m ake p ointed s ticks f or d igging, s awing a nd g raving b one a nd a ntler, a nd c utting s oft p lant m aterial, p erhaps t o u se a s b edding o r g round c overing. A ctivities a re d iscussed i n t heir a ppropriae s ections. A fter u se, a ll t he t ools w ere c leaned a nd e xamined m icroscopically. F lakes o f B randon f lint, ah omogeneous d ark g rey f lint f rom E ngland, w ere a lso i ncorporated i nto t he e xperiments. P olish a ttributes f irst d escribed b y K eeley ( 1974) w ere o n s tone t ools m ade f rom B randon f lint, s o u sing t ools m ade f rom i t a longside t he e xperimental q uartz t ools p rovided a n e xcellent m eans o f c omparing t he " classic" m icrowear p olishes w ith t he w ear p atterns a nd p olish f ound o n q uartz. I w ant t o e mphasize t hat t he a im o f t his r esearch p roject w as t wofold: 1 ) t o e stablish i f u se w ear p olish i s a v isible a nd d istinctive e ntity o n q uartz t ools a nd 2 ) i f t he p olishes l eft a fter u se a re i dentifiable t o a s pecific m aterial ( such a s h ide v ersus b one) o n e xperimental q uartz t ools. F uture r esearch w ill i nclude t esting t hese r esults o n s elected q uartz t ools f rom a ppropriate a rchaeological a ssemblages. A nother a spect o f f uture r esearch i ncludes e xpanding t he t echnique t o e ncompass a l arger s ample o f v ein q uartz. V ein q uartz, t he m ilky-white c rystalline v ariety, w as u sed m ore o ften i n t he m aking o f p rehistoric s tone t ools t han c rystal q uartz. T his i s p resumably b ecause v ein q uartz i s r elatively a bundant t he w orld o ver, w hereas l arge q uantities o f c rystal q uartz a re r elatively r are. V ein q uartz i s m ore d ifficult t o e xamine m icroscopically d ue t o i ts h ighly r eflective a nd u neven s urface s tructure. T he a ttributes o f u se-wear p olishes a re, h owever, t he s ame f or v ein q uartz b ut, a re m uch m ore d ifficult t o r ecognize, u nless w ell d eveloped, f or t he f ollowing

5

r easons: 1 ) t he s mall c rystals o f q uartz d o n ot " wear" a t t he s ame r ate a long t he w orking e dge o f t he t ool ( l ue, m ost p robably, t o t he u neveness o f t he m icrotopography; c onfident i dentification o f p olish, t herefore, c an b e d ifficult, e specially i f i t i s n ot w ell d eveloped. 2 ) t he u nretouched e dge o f a f lake o f v ein q uartz t ends t o b e m ore f riable t han t hat o f a n u nretouched f lake o f c rystal q uartz, a nd b reaks m ore r eadily d uring u se. 3 ) t he u neveness o f t he m icrotopography o n a t ool m ade f rom v ein q uartz m akes f ocusing a t h igh m agnification e xtremely d ifficu f t.

C hapter 2

M ethods a nd T erminology

R aw M aterial Q uartz i s a b rilliant, h exagonal c rystalline m ineral m ade o f s ilicon d ioxide, w hich o ccurs a bundantly i n c olorless, t ransparent f orm a lthough, i t m ay a lso b e c olored b y i mpurities a s i t i s f orming. C rystals o f q uartz m ay v ary a s t o t heir s ymmetry ( Figure 1 ) a nd f laws o r t he b eginning g rowths o f o ther, s maller c rystals a re c ommonly v isible i nside t he m ain c rystal. I t h as a h ardness o f 7o n t he M OH s cale, a s pecific g ravity o f 2 .65 a nd l acks c leavage, o ften f racturing c onchoidally. W hen a s ubstance f ractures c onchoidallly, a h ertzian c one o f p ercussion f orms u pon i mpact, a s t he f orce o f t he b low s preads a nd d issipates t hrough t he m ass. T his p rinciple i s w ell i llustrated w hen a b eebee p ellet h its a p ane o f g lass a nd t he f orce c reated f orms r ings o f p ercussion w hich s ubsequently p unch o ut a t iny c one. C hemically q uartz i s e xtremely s table a nd e ndures t he r avages o f t ime w ith l ittle a lteration. T o d etermine i f d ifferences i n m olecular p acking o n t he v arious a xes o f aq uartz c rystal w ould a ffect p olish a ttributes, It ook t he a dvice o f o ne o f m y a dvisors ( G.I.) a nd i ncluded f lakes o btained f rom d ifferent a xes o f t he s ame c rystal i n s ome o f t he e xperiments . W hen u sed o n i dentical m aterials f or t he s ame a mount o f t ime, p olish a ttributes w ere t he s ame f or a ll t he f lakes, r egardless o f t heir c rystal o rientation. T his f inding w as v erified u sing a s canning e lectron m icroscope i n a ssociation w ith t he i ncident l ight m icroscope. A rchaeologically, c rystal q uartz i s a n e xcellent r aw m aterial f or m anufacturing s tone t ools; i t f ractures e asily i nto s harp-edged f lakes w hich c an b e u sed " as i s" o r f urther r etouched i nto a v ariety o f f orms. M any s tone i ndustries i n A frica ( Clark 1 950; J effreys 1 951; L eakey 1 971; M errick 1 976; M iller 1 969), A sia ( Lanpo 1 980), a s w ell a s i n A ustralia ( Flood 1 983; M cCarthy 1 976) a nd i n t he N ew W orld h ave a p ercentage o f t heir t ools m ade f rom e ither c rystal a nd a nd/or v ein q uartz. M ore a bundant a nd, t herefore, u sed m ore o ften f or s tone t ools i s v ein q uartz; a v ariety o f q uartz f ound a s n odules a nd c obbles. I t d iffers f rom c rystal q uartz b eing m icro-crystalline i n s tructure a nd u sually m ilky w hite. V ein q uartz d oes n ot f racture c onchoidally, b ut, m ore o ften t han n ot, b reaks i nto i rregular c hunks a nd f ormless f lakes a long f aults a nd c rystals, m aking i t e xtremely d ifficult t o s hape i nto " formal" t ools. T here i s, h owever, v ein q uartz f ound i n t abular b locks a nd l arge b oulders a t p laces l ike N aibor S oit, ( the q uartz o utcrop n ear O lduvai G orge i n T anzania w here e arly h ominids o btained s ome o f t heir r aw m aterial f or t ools) w hich i s m ore e asily f ashioned i nto l arge, w ell-shaped t ools s uch a s b ifaces ( P.Jones p ers.comm.). V ery f ine l anceolate p oints w ere a lso m ade f rom v ein q uartz d uring t he M iddle S tone A ge ( J.D. C lark, p ers. c omm.).

B .

A .

-a 2 +al

QUARTZ

A . C rystal o f c ommon t ype s howing h ighest h exagonal s ymmetry

CRYSTALS

C .

B . M ore c omplex r evealing t rue s ymmetry. T he f orms r epresented a re t he p rism m ( 1010); r hombohedron r ( 1011); r hombohderon z ( 0111); t rigonal t rapezoh edron x ( 5161) a nd t rig onal p yramid y ( 1121)

( adapted f rom R ead & W atson

T rigonal t rapezohedron

( 2131) o f q uartz s howing t rue s ymmetry

1 966:30) F ig.

1

MOVE MENT OF I CE •

SMOOTHED BY ABRAS I ON

"

" . fh

A K

P LUCKED BY ABRAS ION [ 1 .

GLAC I AL

MOVE MENT

( adapted F ig.

8

2

f rom M ears

1 978:300)

M icroscopically, b oth v ein q uartz a nd c rystal q uartz a re e xtremely r eflective a nd v ariable i n s urface c onfiguration a s w ell a s s urface t exture. S ince v ein q uartz i s m ade u p o f m any s mall c rystals, w hen v iewed m icroscopically, r eflectivity i s i ncreased t remendously, m aking i dentification o f f eatures, s uch a s w ear p atterns, e xtremely d ifficult. T he m icrotopography o f a f lake o f v ein q uartz i s g enerally m uch m ore i rregular t han a f lake o f c rystal q uartz, m aking f ocusing a n a rduous, a nd s ometimes i mpossible, t ask. P lates 1 - 4 a re r epresentative o f s ome o f t he v ariability f ound o n u nused q uartz s urfaces. F or t hese r easons, I u sed c rystal q uartz f or m y e xperimental f lakes. I f elt t hat o nce I w as a ble t o r ecognize a nd d efine t he a ttributes o f u se w ear o n q uartz, i t w ould b e e asier a nd m ore a ccurate t o e xamine m ore d ifficult m aterial s uch a s v ein q uartz. Id id u se a f ew p ieces o f v ein q uartz e arly o n i n t he e xperiments a nd t hese w ill b e d iscussed i n t heir a ppropriate s ections.

P rocedure F lakes o f b oth q uartz a nd f lint w ere m ade b y d irect p ercussion u sing a h ammerstone a nd w ere e ither c aught i n t he h and o r a llowed t o d rop t o e ither a t arpaulin o r t he g rass b elow. Q uartz f lakes ( generally t hose t o b e u se f or t he l ongest a mount o f t ime) w ere e xamined m icroscopically a nd p hotographed p rior t o u se t o d ocument: a ) a ny i rregularities o n t he s urface o f t he q uartz w hich c ould b e m isinterpreted a s " wear" a nd b ) t he p resence o f m icro-scarring a nd e dge d amage s ustained d uring m anufacture ( refer, f or e xample, t o P late 4 ). T he e dges o f t he f lakes w ere l eft u nretouched w henever p ossible, a llowing u se d amage t o d etermine t he m orphology o f t he e dge. O ccasionally, f or c ertain t asks s uch a s s craping, a s teeper e dge a ngle w as r equired f or e fficiency, s o a h ammerstone o r a n a ntler b aton w as u sed t o r etouch a nd s trengthen t he e dge. A ll t he f lakes w ere a ssigned a n umber a nd b oth t he d orsal a nd v entral s ides w ere d rawn t o s cale o n a s heet o f m etric g raph p aper. T his a llowed a ccurate d rawing o f c hanges i n t he p rofile o f t he e dge f rom u se, l ocation o f p olish o n t he t ool a nd a ny p ertinent r emarks. E ach f lake w as u sed f or i ts a ssigned l ength o f t ime t o p erform a s pecific a ctivity s uch a s: h ide-scraping, c utting s oft p lant m aterial, w ood w orking, e tc. B oth f lint a nd q uartz f lakes, w hen u sed t ogether, w orked t he s ame m aterials f or t he s ame a mount o f t ime. A fter I h ad a r epresentative c ollection o f e xperimental f lint t ools t o c ompare w ith t he u sed q uartz t ools, Id iscontinued u sing t hem a nd c oncentrated i nstead, o n b uilding u p t he s ample s ize o f u sed q uartz t ools. A ll t hese t asks w ere c arried o ut, w henever f easible, i n n atural s ettings t o r eplicate a s c losely a s p ossible a boriginal c onditions. N o a dditional g rit o r d irt w as a dded ( except i n o ne u nusual h ide s craping e xperiment d escribed l ater), n or w as a ny a ttempt m ade t o r emove g rit f rom t he e xperimental e nvironment. C utting m eat f or b utchery e xperiments, f or e xample, w as d one b y p lacing t he m eat o n t op o f t he h ide i tself o r o n t op o f a w ooden t able. I t w as n ever p laced d irectly

u pon t he g round. T ime w as c hosen a s a v ariable r ather t han t he n umber o f s trokes a lthough b oth m ethods h ave b een u sed ( see K eeley 1 980; a nd a lso T ringham e t.al 1 974). E thnographically, t asks t hat a re t ime c onsuming s uch a s h ide s craping o r b ow a nd a rrow m aking, a re g enerally c arried o ut i n a r elaxed f ashion, o ften a s p art o f as ocial g roup, w hereas s hort t asks s uch a s m aking d igging s ticks, f or e xample, a re d one q uite s wiftly - o ften i n am atter o f m inutes ( Silberbauer 1 981; Y ellen 1 977; V incent p ers. c omm). T herefore, t he n umber o f s trokes r equired t o p erform a p articular t ask t o c ompletion w ill v ary u ndoubtedly a s w ill t he a mount o f p ressure e xerted o n t he t ool a s i t i s u sed. T he a ngle a t w hich t he t ool i s h eld w ill a lso v ary a f ew d egrees i n e ither d irection d uring t he c ourse o f t he a ctivity. U sing t ime a s t he i ndependent v ariable w as a n a ttempt t o c ircumvent t he " artificiality" o f t he e xperiments a nd a pproach m ore " normal" o r r ealistic c onditions. B ecause t his r esearch d ealt w ith h uman, h ence v ariable, a ctivity ( as o pposed t o u sing a u se w ear m achine), t he r egression a nd d iscriminant a nalysis I u sed f or a p ortion o f t he a nalysis a re n ot s tatistically v alid d ue t o t he u navoidable ( and u nmeasurable) v ariation i n w ork f orce a nd e ffort u sed b y t he e xperimentors ( G . H ammel p ers.comm .). N onetheless, t he r esults a re q uite i nteresting a nd u seful a nd s hould n ot b e d iscounted e ntirely. T hey s erve t o i ndicate t rends i n a ttribute d evelopments a nd a re v aluable i n t hat r espect. V arious m aterials w ere u sed i n t he e xperiments: h ide ( fresh, s und ried a nd t anned); f resh b one; a ntler ( dry a nd s oaked); m eat ( raw); v egetal m atter ( grasses); w ood ( fresh a nd a ged o f v arious s pecies); f eathers ( fresh) a nd s hell. T he r esults o f e ach o f t hese " sets" o f e xperiments w ill b e d iscussed s eparately. A fter b eing u sed, a ll f lakes w ere c leaned i n t he f ollowing m anner: 1 . a t en m inute s oak i n a mmoniated d etergent t o r emove a ny f ingerprints. T he t ool w as r insed u nder r unning w ater f or o ne m inute b efore b eing p laced i n , 2 . a 1 0% s olution o f H Cl f or t en m inutes t o r emove a ny m ineral d eposits w hich m ight b e a dhering. W hile t his i s n ot a p roblem w ith e xperimental t ools, i t i s o ften n ecessary w hen v iewing a rchaeological s pecimens. T he H C1 c an a lso b e h eated i f n ecessary w hen d eposits a re s tubborn a nd t he s oaked p eriod p rolonged. A gain, t his i s f ollowed b y ao ne m inute r inse w ith c lean r unning w ater, t hen, 3 . a t en m inute s oak i n a 1 0% s olution o f K OH t o r emove a ny o rganic d eposits. T his i s f ollowed b y a nother o ne m inute r inse w ith r unning w ater a nd, 4 . a t en m inute s oak i n c lean a mmoniated d etergent a gain a s a f inal " insurance" f ollowed b y a nother o ne m inute r inse w ith c lean w ater t o r emove t races o f d etergent. 5 . D rying w as d one q uickly a nd b riskly w earing r ubber g loves a nd u sing e ither l int f ree c otton c loths o r ah air d ryer. G loves w ere w orn w hile h andling c lean s pecimens b ecause o il f rom t he h ands i s r eadily d eposited o n t he s urface o f t he f lakes a nd o bscures w ear a ttributes a nd p olish.

1 0

I f ound n o a pparent a lteration o f t he p olish w hen t he s oak w as p rolonged, n or w ere a ny d ifferences n oted b etween t hose p ieces c leaned u sing a cetone c ompared w ith t hose u ndergoing c hemical s oaks. A t p resent, h owever, I p refer t o u se a cetone a nd w ater t o r emove d irt a nd f inger g rease w hen c leaning a rtefacts b ut, a t t he t ime t hese e xperiments w ere d one, Ia dhered a s c losely a s p ossible t o K eeley's t echnique ( Keeley 1 980). 6 . E ach s pecimen w as s tored i ndividually i n a n umbered p aper e nvelope w ith a t racing o f t he t ool o n t he o utside. I ndividual s torage o f t he t ools p revents a brasion a nd s cratching f rom c ontact w ith o ther p ieces. 7 . A ll s pecimens w ere e xamined a m inimum o f t wice w ith t he l ight m icroscope ( Olypmpus B HM m etallurgical m icroscope) t o l ocate a reas o f d amage a nd p olish f or d escription a nd p hotography a nd f or l ocation a nd m easurement o f s triations. T he m ost u seful m agnification w as 2 00X b oth f or l ocating a reas o f w ear a nd d escription o f w ear a ttributes. P hotographs w ere t aken u sing a n O lympus 0 M-2 c amera w ith a n a utomatic l ight m eter a nd A gfapan 1 00 b lack a nd w hite f ilm . S elected p ieces w ere s tudied w ith a s canning e lectron m icroscope ( JEOL-35 a nd I SI D S-130) t o d etect s urface f eatures o r t extural c hanges w hich m ight o therwise b e o bscured b y t he l ight r eflection u nder t he m etallurgical m icroscope. U sing a S EM r equired t hat e ach t ool b e c oated w ith a pproximately 3 00 a ngstroms o f g old t o m ake t he s urface c onductive . M agnifications u sed w ith t he S EM r anged f rom 1 0X f or e dge p rofiles t o 2 000X; w ith t he m ost u seful r ange b eing 2 001 000X. H igher m agnifications w ere u sed b ut n ot e xtensively d ue t o t he u neveness o f t he s urface t opography o f t he t ools w hich m ade f ine f ocusing q uite d ifficult. F lakes p hotographed w hile i nside t he S EM w ere n ot t ilted u nless o therwise s tated a nd w ere m ounted o n as tub s o t he e dge o f t he f lake w as p arallel t o t he s tub. D uco c ement a nd s ilver p aint w orked w ell f or m ounting t he s pecimen t o t he s tub s ecurely a nd p roviding a g ood c ontact b etween t he t wo. C are s hould b e t aken t hat t he t ool i s a bsolutely f ree f rom f inger g rease a nd d ust b efore p lacing i t i n t he S EM s o t hat e xtraneous m aterial i s n ot i ntroduced o nto t he s urface o f t he t ool. T he s pecimen w as e asily r emoved f rom t he s tub b y a b rief s oak i n p ure a cetone a nd t hen a t horough c leaning w ith a mmoniated d etergent a nd w ater. T he s canning e lectron m icroscope u ses e lectrons t o c reate a n i mage i n c ontrast t o t he r eflected l ight u sed i n t he m etallurgical m icroscope. P lates 6 a nd 7 i llustrate s ome o f t he d ifferences b etween t he l ight m icroscope a nd t he S EM . P late 6 i s a p hoto t aken, u sing t he l ight m icroscope, o f p its a nd s triae c reated b y c utting g rass w ith a q uartz f lake f or 6 0 m inutes. U sing a m agnification o f 2 00X, t he f eatures a re e asily s een. P late 7 i s t he s ame a rea t aken a t t he s ame m agnification w ith t he S EM. N ote t hat t he a rrow p oints t o t he s ame f eature i n b oth p hotos. I t i s m ore d ifficult t o f ind t hese f eatures i n t he S EM p hoto d ue t o t he l ack o f r eflected l ight. P late 8 i s a p hoto o f t he s ame a rea u nder t he S EM m agnified 1 000X. T he f eatures, w hich w ere r eadily v isible u sing t he l ight m icroscope ( Plate 6 ), a re m ore e asily s een n ow . I t i s i nteresting t hat f eatures, s uch a s c omet-tailed p its ( Plate 1 5), w hich w ere r eadily v isible u nder t he l ight

1 1

m icroscope a t 2 00X, w ere d etectable i n t he S EM o nly a t e xtremely h igh m agnifications a nd o nly w hen t he s pecimens w ere t ilted a way f rom t he e lectron g un. U nfortunately, t ilting s pecimens i n t he S EM c reates d istortion o f f eatures a s t he e lectrons s hooting f rom t he g un s trike t he s urface o f t he t ool a t o blique a ngles. T he a mount o f d istortion c reated i ncreases p roportionately w ith t he d egree o f t ilt, m aking i t d ifficult t o m easure a ttributes p recisely b ut, e asier t o d etect e xtremely s hallow s urface f eatures s uch a s c omet-tailed p its a nd s triations w ith a t ilt o f a pproximately 3 0 d egrees ( Plate 9 ). T hese s hallow f eatures a re e asily d etected u sing a m etallurgical m icroscope b ecause, t he l ight r eflection e nhances t hem , m aking t hem m ore p ronounced. P lates 1 0-13 i llustrate t he a mount o f d istortion t hat o ccurs w hen a p iece i s t ilted; t he a rrow i n e ach p hoto p oints t o t he s ame f eature. N otice h ow t he f eature b ecomes e longated a s t he a ngle o f t he t ilt i ncreases. T he m icron b ar i n e ach p hotograph h as b een c orrected f or a bberation c aused b y t he t ilt. W hile r eflected l ight i s p roblematic f or v iewing q uartz m icroscopically, d ue t o t he i rregularity o f t he s urface a nd t he q uantity o f l ight r eflected b ack o ff t he s urface, t he m etallurgical m icroscope r emains e ssential f or r ecognizing t he m ore s ubjective, o ptical q ualities o f p olishes, s uch a s t he " satiny s moothness" o f a n a ntler p olish o r t he " metallic b rightness" o f a s ilica p olish ( refer t o N ewcomer e t a l 1 986 f or p roblems a ssociated w ith t his a pproach). B y e liminating l ight r eflection a nd i ncreasing t he d epth o f f ield, t he S EM i s i nvaluable f or i solating s urface t extures, i n a ddition t o s tudying e dge d amage a nd a brasive a ction w hich a re o ften m asked b y s urface i rregularities ( see a lso A nderson 1 980 ,1981; M eeks e t a l 1 982 f or u se o f S EM o n f lint). M uch o f w hat h appens t o t he s urface o f aq uartz t ool i s a brasive i n n ature s imilar, i n m any r espects, t o g lacial m ovements ( see a lso K amminga 1 979). G laciers e rode b y a brasion c aused w hen t he d ebrisl aden i ce s crapes a nd r asps a gainst t he u nderlying r ock. T his s mooths a nd p olishes t he s urface o f t he r ock, a ltering i t i nto g ently r ounded f orms. T hese m ounds, r idden o ver b y t he i ce, b ecome s treamlined a nd s moothed o n t he s ide f acing t he s ource o f t he i ce w hile t he d ownglacier o r l ee s ide o f t he m ound b ecomes r oughened a nd s teep-faced ( Figure 2 ). W hen a g lacier i s l oaded w ith f ine d ebris, t he i ce m ay p olish t he h ard r ock b eneath i t. J agged-edged c obbles d ragged o ver t he u nderlying r ocks m ake s triations o r g rooves w hich p arallel t he d irection o f m ovement o f t he g lacier ( Andrew 1 975; B rainerd 1 978 ; S anders e t a l 1 976). T hese a symmetrical k nobs o f b edrock a re c alled " roches m outonees" a nd a re a c ommon o ccurrence ( on a m uch s maller s cale) o n q uartz t ools u sed t o w ork m oderately h ard s ubstances s uch a s w ood, b one a nd a ntler. P late 1 4 i llustrates t he " roches m outonees" e ffect q uite w ell o n a q uartz f lake u sed t o g rave s oaked a ntler. A nother f eature c ommon t o b oth g laciers a nd q uartz i s p lucking, o r t he r emoval o f f ragments o f r ock a t t he b ase o f t he g lacier o r i n l ow l ying a reas o f q uartz ( Fig.2 a nd P late 1 4). A s t here a re m any t erms w hich w ill b e c ontinually u sed t hroughout t his m onograph, i t s eems w ise t o d efine t hem n ow , t hereby a voiding r epetition i n e ach s ection.

D efinitions P its - P itting , a s d efined b y D iamond ( 1979), o ccurs w hen s urface f atigue i s c reated a fter r epeated c ontact b etween t wo s urfaces s liding o ver o ne a nother ( see P lates 6 & 8 ). T he t erm p it, r efers t o t he d epression l eft a fter m icroscopic f ragments s pall o ff t he s urface o f t he t ool. T here a re a lso p its, a ccording t o D iamond, w hich a re m erely d epressed a reas o n t he s urface o f t he t ool t hat h ave b ecome i solated f rom f urther a brasive a ction. W hile D iamond r efers s pecifically t o f lint, I f ound t he s ame f eatures t o b e p resent o n t he s urface o f q uartz t ools a nd s uggest t hat t he p henomenon o f s palling o ccurs o n q uartz a s w ell. I n t his s tudy, I d id n ot n ote, h owever, p its c orresponding t o D iamond's d epressed a reas. K eeley ( 1980 :50) d escribes p articular p its f ound s pecifically o n h ide-working t ools a s " pot-lid" f ractures. T hey a re c ircular i n o utline a nd a re c aused b y h eat g enerated f rom t he f riction b etween t he h ide a nd t he f lint t ool d uring u se. W hile p itting i s a n e xtrememly c ommon f eature o n q uartz h ide-working t ools, Id id n ot o bserve " potl id" f ractures o f t his t ype. C omet-tailed P its - T hese c ontrast w ith t he p its d escribed a bove d ue t o t he a dition o f s hallow d epressions o r " tails" t railing a fter t he p it. I t i s i nteresting t hat I f ound t hese c omet-tailed p its o nly o n t hose q uartz t ools u sed t o w ork e ither f resh b one o r s oaked a ntler ( Plate 1 5). T hey h ave b een n oted o n f lint t ools u sed f or c utting s oft p lant m aterial ( Keeley 1 980; W itthoft 1 967), h owever, In ever f ound t hem o n q uartz t ools u sed f or c utting g rass. O n q uartz t ools, t hese p its a re e xtremely s hallow a nd e asily v isible u sing a l ight m icroscope a t m agnifications o f 2 00X o r g reater. F inding t hem u sing t he s canning e lectron m icroscope r equired m agnifications o f 5 00X o r g reater, a nd a t ilt o f a pproximately 3 0 d egrees. E ven t hen, t hey w ere d ifficult t o s ee b ecause t hey l acked d epth ( M. D umais p ers. c omm; K amminga 1 979). A s w ith o ther l inear f eatures s uch a s s triations a nd l inear g rooves, c omet-tailed p its r un p arallel t o t he d irection o f u se. T he p lacement o f t heir " heads", ( e.g. t he p it), i s m ore v ariable, u sually f acing t he w orking e dge i n t he c ase o f s craping, b ut s ometimes a way f rom i t. T his v ariability i n d irection s eemed t o b e r andom i n i ts o ccurrence a lthough n o s tatistical c ounts w ere m ade t o t est t his a ssumption. I t i s p ossible t hat t he " head" o f t he c omet-tailed p it r esults f rom t he i nitial c ontact b etween t he q uartz s urface a nd t he s ubstrate, a nd t he " tail" i s f ormed a s t he v elocity o f t he t wo m aterials t o e ach o ther c hanged ( Del B ene 1 979; K eeley 1 980; W itthoft 1 967). L inear G rooves - T hese a re g ouges o r r ough b ottomed s triations w hich a lso p arallel t he d irection o f u se ( Plate 1 6). T hey o ccur w hen a s mall f ragment, s uch a s am icrochip o f q uartz, i s p ressed o bliquely o nto t he s urface o f t he t ool d uring u se, a nd m aintains a f orce p arallel t o t he q uartz s urface, o vercoming c ontact f riction. " At t he t railing e dge o f t he c ontact t he s pecimen e xperiences a n e nhanced t ension d ue t o t he d rag a nd a t t he l eading e dge t he s pecimen l ikewise e xperiences a n e nhanced c ompression" ( Lawn a nd M arshall 1 979:70). T his c reated s mall c racks i n t he w ake o f t he q uartz f ragment a nd f orms p artial h erztian c ones o f p ercussion a round t he c ontact z one. T he s tresses i n t he i mmediate a rea a re r elaxed a nd a s econd r ing o r p artial c one f orms w hen t he f ragment h as m oved f ar e nough t o b uild u p

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s ufficient s tress a gain. A s t he p article i s d ragged a cross t he s urface, a s eries o f r egularly s paced t racks r esult a long t he i ndentation p ath c reating a l inear g roove. T hese l inear g rooves s top w hen t he m icrochip e ither d isintegrates o r i s d isplaced f rom t he g roove ( Fedje 1 979). T his i s s imilar t o t hat s een o n ag rander s cale i n g lacial m ovement, w here g round r ocks e mbedded i n t he g lacier a re f orced a long b y t he f orward m ovement o f t he m ass. L inear g rooves a re r asped o ut o f t he u nderlying r ock a nd r un p arallel t o t he g lacier's f low ( Vial 1 952). S triae - T hese a re l inear f eatures w ith s mooth-bottoms c aused w hen a s mall r ounded f ragment, o ften o f s ilt o r a nother e xtraneous p article i s d ragged a cross t he s urface o f t he t ool o r t he p olished a rea ( Plate 1 7). T wo t ypes o f s triations w ere f ound o n t he q uartz t ools: a ) n arrow a nd d eep; w here t he b ottom o f t he t rough i s n ot v isible a t 2 00X a nd b ) b road a nd s hallow ; w here t he b ottom o f t he s triation t rough i s c learly v isible a t 2 00X. S triae a re a lso m ore r egular i n t heir o verall c onfiguration t han l inear g rooves. I t i s l ikely t hat t he r ounded e dges o f t he p articles p revent t hem f rom g etting " caught" i n t he b ottoms o f t he t roughs a nd c reating t he t racks s een i n t he b ottoms o f l inear g rooves. S triae v ary i n t heir l engths d epending u pon t he m aterial b eing w orked a nd t he q uantity o f a brasive t hat i s p resent ( refer t o i ndividual s ections f or s triae l engths). T hey c an f orm v ery q uickly, a s s oon a s s ixty s econds a fter u se b egins, b ut t hey a re n ot n ecessarily c umulative o ver t ime. I t h as b een n oted ( Del B ene 1 979) t hat a s ofter m aterial c an p roduce s triae o n a h arder o ne b y t ransferring p ieces f rom t he s urface o f t he s ofter m aterial t o t he s urface o f t he h arder o ne, t hereby a ppearing a s i f t he s triae h ave b een s meared o nto t he h arder s ubstance. I d id n ot f ind t his f eature o n a ny o f t he e xperimental q uartz t ools e ven t hough t here s eems t o b e a n " additive" p olish o n s ome o f t he f lakes u sed f or b utchery ( Plate 1 8). C ertainly m ore r esearch a nd c ontinued s tudy o f t he m echanics i nvolved i s n ecessary b efore m ore c onclusive s tatements c an b e m ade. S triae c an o ccur b y o ther m eans a s w ell, f or e xample, p ostd epositional s oil m ovement c an c reate r andom s triations o n t he t ool ( see t he s ection o n " artificial e ffects"). T hey a re d istinguishable f rom u se s triae b ecause t hey a re r andom i n t heir d istribution a nd o ccur o n t he i nterior p ortion o f t he t ool a s w ell, f ar a way f rom a ny w orking e dge. W hen s evere, p ost-depositional s triae c an o bscure t he m icrowear p olish, m aking i dentification o f t ool u se d ifficult a nd s ometimes i mpossible. P olish - T he m echanics o f p olish f ormation r emain a n u nresolved i ssue, a nd a re t horoughly d iscussed i n t he l iterature ( Anderson 1 980 ; B ettison 1 985; D el B ene 1 979; D iamond 1 979; K amminga 1 979; M ansurF ranchomme 1 983; M oss 1 983b; R abinowicz 1 968; W itthoft 1 967). W hile t he p rocess o f p olish f ormation i s b eyond t he s cope o f t his r esearch, i t i s w orthwhile t o p resent s ome o f t he c urrent h ypotheses c oncerning i ts d evelopment o n s tone t ools. A p revailing, a nd w idely a ccepted, e xplanation f or p olish f ormation o n m etals c omes f rom R abinowicz ( 1968), a nd i t a ppears t hat t he s ame f ormation p rocesses m ay b e a pplicable t o s tone. R abinowicz

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s aid t hat p olish f orms w hen m olecules a re r emoved b y f riction f rom t he h igh p oints o n t he s urface o f t he t ool a s i t m oves a gainst t he s ubstrate, c reating a s moothing o f t he s urface. H e d etected a w eight l oss i n t he p olished m aterial w hich c orresponded c losely t o t he a mount o f m aterial o riginally e stimated t o h ave b een p resent o n t he h igh p oints p rior t o p olishing. T his p rovided a n a lternative h ypothesis t o t he w idely a ccepted t heory o f B eilby ( 1904), w ho s uggested t hat p olishing g enerated h eat, w hich i n t urn c aused m elting a nd s mearing o f m aterial f rom t he h igh p oints o n t he s urface o f t he m etal t o l ower o nes, b ridging t hem w ith a s mooth, t hin s kin, k nown a s t he " Beilby l ayer". W hile m elting o f t he s urface i s n ot p roven, p olished m etals w ere f ound t o h ave " caps" o f t hin f ilm o n t heir s urfaces w hich, w hen e xamined u sing e lectron d iffraction, w ere f ound t o b e s tructurally d ifferent t han t he u nderlying m etal . I a lso f ound a s imilar s ituation o n a n a rchaeological p iece o f f lint w hich I c ross-sectioned a nd e xamined w ith t he s canning e lectron m icroscope. T his f lint b lade, f rom K ebara C ave i n I srael, h ad a n e xtremely w ell d eveloped p lant p olish, o r s ilica g loss, o n i ts s urface ( Plates 1 9 a nd 2 0). W hen s ectioned a nd e xamined a t 1 000X, a n a morphous' l ayer, w hich w as v ery d ifferent f rom t he s ectioned p ortion o f u nused f lint v iewed u nder t he s ame c onditions, w as c learly v isible o n t op o f a pparently u naltered f lint ( Plate 2 1). R esearch i s i n p rogress t o d etermine i f t his l ayer i s ad eposition o f s ilica o nto t he s urface o f t he f lint o r w hether a nother p rocess, s uch a s a brasion o r m elting h as o ccurred. O thers h ave o bserved a d issolution o f t he s urface o f t he f lint w hich, t hey s ay, i s r elative t o t he a mount o f h eat g enerated b y f riction a nd t he a mount o f m oisture p resent i n t he m aterial b eing w orked ( Anderson 1 980 a nd M ansur-Franchomme 1 983). O n t he o ther h and, M eeks, e t a l ( 1982), D iamond ( 1979), a nd K amminga ( 1979), h ave s uggested t hat s ome p olish f ormation i s t he r esult o f s urface a lteration c aused b y f rictional m echanisms r esulting i n a brasion. K amminga g oes o n t o s ay t hat c ertain p olishes, s uch a s a s oft p lant p olish , m ay b e a ffected b y t he a mount o f m oisture p resent. t oo h ave f ound t his t o b e t he c ase. M any r esearchers, w hen t heir e fforts o n p lant p olish t he p olishes, i s p resent o n a nd, w hen w ell d eveloped, c an

s tudying p olish f ormation, c oncentrate a s i t i s t he m ost e asily r ecognizable o f t ools i n b oth t he O ld a nd t he N ew W orld b e s een w ithout t he a id o f am icroscope.

W itthoft ( 1967) w rote t hat s ilica g loss w as c reated w hen p lant o pals a re d eposited o n t he s urface o f t he f lint d uring u se a nd t hen f used o nto t he s urface b y f riction a nd h eat. H is t heory d oes n ot e ncompass o ther t ypes o f p olishes s uch a s b one o r w ood b ut, t he f ormation o f o ther p olish t ypes h as n ot b een w ell s tudied t o d ate. F rom t his p reliminary r esearch o n q uartz, i t a ppears t hat t he p olish l eft o n aq uartz t ool a fter u se o n o rganic m aterial i s d ependent u pon m oisture c ontent, t he p resence/absence o f a brasives a nd t he h ardness o f t he s ubstrate. T hrough f uture r esearch , w e m ay d iscover t hat p olish f ormation i s, i n f act, ac ombination o f b oth d eposition o f m aterial o nto t he s urface o f t he t ool a nd s moothing b y a ttrition. A nderson ( 1980) s uggested t hat i t i s t he d issolution o f t he s urface o f t he f lint t ool i n c onjunction w ith h eat g enerated t hrough f riction a nd t he a mount o f m oisture i n t he m aterial b eing w orked t hat d etermines t he d egree o f p olish f ormation. U nger-Hamilton d isagrees, s tating t hat t he

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p lant p hytoliths w hich A nderson s ays a re m elted o n t he s urface o f t he f lint a re a ctually " relic g rains o f u nreplaced s keletal c alcite..."(1983:96) p rotruding o ut o f t he s urface o f t he f lint. I t oo h ave n oted t hese ' intrusions' o n a t l east o ne p iece o f u nused f lint e xamined a t 2 00X u sing t he S EM . S pecific p olish t ypes, t heir a ttributes a nd t heir f ormation d iscussed i n m ore d etail i n t heir i ndividual c hapters.

a re

E dge D amage - T his i s t he p resence o f s mall s cars w hich h ave b een r emoved f rom t he e dge o f t he t ool d uring u se. T here a re m any w ays, o ther t han p urposeful u se, i n w hich e dge d amage c an o ccur. F or e xample, s mall s cars m ay b e l eft o n t he e dges o f a f lake d uring m anufacture a s t he f lake t wists o ff t he c ore. D amage m ay a lso o ccur a s t he f lake h its t he g round a fter b eing s truck f rom t he c ore o r a s a c onsequence o f b eing s tepped o n o r t rampled. P ost-depositional p rocesses s uch a s s oil m ovement a nd p ressure f rom o verlying s ediments c an c ause m icro-chips t o b e r emoved f rom t he f lake o r t ool e dges. E ven c uration t echniques, i f n ot c arried o ut w ith a m ind t owards m icrowear s tudies, c an c reate p otential h azards f or t he u se w ear a nalyst b y c leaning t ools u sing w ire b rushes o r s toring m any u nwrapped t ools t ogther i n t he s ame b ag ( Sussman 1 985b). T his i s b y n o m eans a n e xhaustive l ist o f " hazards" a nd o ne i s r eferred t o K eeley ( 1980) f or am ore t horough d iscussion o f t he p roblems. E dge d amage s tudies, o r l ow-power s tudies a s t hey a re a lso c alled, h ave a ttracted m uch a ttention a s am ethod f or d etermining h ow a t ool w as u sed b y t he t ypes o f s cars s ustained o n t he w orking e dge ( Odell a nd O dell-Vereeken 1 980 ; S emenov 1 964; T ringham e t a l 1 974 i nter a lia). I t i s t he f eeling o f t his r esearcher ( see a lso M oss 1 983a; K eeley 1 974; K eeley a nd N ewcomer 1 977) t hat e dge d amage a lone d oes n ot p rovide s ufficient i nformation t o a ssess t he f unction o f a t ool. I n t he a bsence o f p olish, i t c an d etermine ( along w ith t ool m orphology a nd e dge a ngle) i n w hat m anner a t ool w as u sed, s uch a s s awing v ersus s craping, b ut c an n ot b e a s s pecific a s h igh-power m icroscopy i n s aying e xactly o n w hat m aterial t he t ool w as u sed, e .g. b one v ersus a ntler. T he s tudy o f a rchaeological m aterial f urther c ompounds t he p roblem b ecause o ther p rocesses s uch a s t ool r esharpening o r t rampling a lter a nd o ften m imic u se-wear p atterns ( Flenniken a nd H aggarty 1 979; M oss 1 983a). T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat h igh-power m icrowear s tudies a re t he d efinitive a nd f inal a nswer. T he s ame p roblems w hich p lague t he l ow p ower a nalysts a lso c reate p roblems f or m icrowear s pecialists b y o bscuring o r r emoving u se w ear p olish. H igh-power s tudies, h owever, a re b etter a ble t o t ranscend t he b road c ategories o f " hard v ersus s oft" a nd p otentially i dentify t he s pecific m aterials o n w hich t he s tone t ools w ere u sed. I deally, o ne s hould e mploy a c ombination o f t he t wo m ethods w hen c onstructing a c omplete p icture o f t he l ife h istory o f a t ool, a s e ach m ethod s erves t o e nhance t he o ther. S car T ypes K eeley ( 1980) m ade a d etailed a nalysis o f t he v arious m inute s cars h e f ound o n t he e dges o f f lint t ools a fter u se. I t w as s impler a nd j ust a s u seful t o c ondense t hese c ategories w hen w orking w ith q uartz.

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S cars o f d ifferent s izes w ere i ncluded i n t he s ame c ategory i f t hey h ad t he s ame m orphologcal f eatures, a s i t i s o ften d ifficult t o f ocus o n t he e dge o f aq uartz t ool c learly a nd d istinguish i ndividual s car p atterns d ue t o s urface r eflectivity, e dge i rregularities, u neveness, a nd s o o n. Id istinguished f our g ross s car c ategories a long t he e dges o f t he e xperimental t ools. T hese o ccurred i n v arying c ombinations a nd t heir p resence d epended u pon t he e dge a ngle o f t he t ool ( is i t r elatively s teep, o r i s i t a cute a nd w ill b reak e asily?) a s w ell a s t he a ctivity t he t ool w as u sed f or a nd t he m aterial i t w as u sed o n. T he f our s car c ategories a re d escibed b elow. S calar S cars - B y d efinition ( Crabtree 1 972) t hese i rregular a nd e xpanding s cars r esemble f ish s cales a nd a re c reated w hen t he f orce f rom u se i s a pplied r oughly p arallel t o t he f lake 's s urface ( Plate 5 ). S tep F ractures - " A s car t hat t erminates a bruptly i n a r ight a ngle b reak...caused b y ad issipation o f f orce o r t he c ollapse o f t he f lake" ( Ibid:93). T hese s cars w ere f ound m ost o ften a fter w orking h ard, u nyielding m aterials s uch a s b one, w ood o r a ntler. S craping h ide p roduced s tep f ractures a long t he t ool e dge a ided, n o d oubt, b y t he l og o r w ooden t able t he h ide r ested u pon w hile b eing s craped ( Plates 2 2 a nd 2 3). H alf M oon F ractures - T hese a re c aused b y a b ending, t ensile f orce a pplied a t r ight a ngles t o t he w orking e dge, a nd a re m ost o ften f ound o n w orking e dges h aving a cute a ngles a nd t hin c ross s ections. T he s cars r esemble h alf m oons o r s mall " bites" t aken o ut o f t he e dge. T hey c eased t o o ccur w ith r egularity w hen t he e dge a ngle s teepened a s i t s tabilized d uring u se. C rushing - T his w as p resent w ith r egularity o n t hose t ools u sed f or g raving a nd b oring. C rushing d estroyed t he s tructure o f t he w orking e dge b y g rinding i t i nto m inute p articles w hich o bscured t he e dge a s w ell a s a ny o ther s car p atterns w hich m ight h ave b een p resent. T hese t iny p articles a re n ot a lways r emoved b y c leaning a nd m ay n ot b e c ompletely d etached f rom t he s urface o f t he t ool ( Plate 2 4).

T ool U se A ctions - T hese r epresent t he m anner i n w hich t he t ools w ere u sed. I c hose t hese a ctions i n p articular, b ecause t hey w ere a daptable t o a v ariety o f m aterials, a nd a llowed d irect c omparisons t o b e m ade b etween t ools u sed i n t he s ame f ashion o n a v ariety o f d ifferent m aterials ( refer a lso t o K eeley 1 980). S awing - T he w orking e dge o f t he t ool r uns p arallel t o t he d irection o f m otion a nd i s d rawn b idirectionally b ack a nd f orth. T he s ides o f t he t ool a re h eld c lose t o r ight a ngles t o t he m aterial b eing w orked. T he w orking e dge o n t he t ool w as m ost e ffective w hen i t w as a n a cute, u nretouched e dge. C utting - c onsists o f b i- o r u nidirectional s trokes w ith t he e dge o f t he t ool h eld p arallel t o t he d irection o f u se a nd a t r ight a ngles t o t he m aterial b eing c ut. C utting w as t he t erm u sed w hen t he m aterial w orked i s s oft s uch a s m eat o r g rass, w hile s awing w as u sed w hen t he m aterial w orked w as h arder, a s i n t he c ase o f a ntler, w ood o r

1 7

b one. S craping - T he w orking e dge o f t he t ool i s s teeper t han t hat u sed f or s awing a nd c utting a nd i s h eld c lose t o r ight a ngles t o t he s ubstrate a s w ell a s a t r ight a ngles t o t he d irection o f u se. T he t ool i s p ulled t owards t he u ser i n a s ingle m otion. G raving - t he f unctional e dge o f ag raver i s r eferred t o a s t he " bit" a nd i s g enerally e ither o f t he t wo p oints a t t he t ip o f t he t ool. T he t ool i s h eld p arallel t o t he d irection o f u se w hile b eing p ushed a way f rom t he u ser. W hile t his i s ab idirectional a ction o f p ushing a nd p ulling, t here t ends t o b e m uch l ess f orce e xerted w hen t he t ool i s p ulled t oward t he u ser a fter t he p ush-away s troke. B oring - T he t ool i s h eld p erpendicular t o t he s ubstrate a nd i s r otated i n ac lockwise a nd c ounter-clockwise f ashion. T he f orce i s e xerted b y t he u ser d own t he l ong a xis o f t he t ool. T he w orking e dge o f t he t ool i s g enerally p ointed f or b etter p erforation. B ecause o f t he c rushing s ustained o n t he t ip o f t he b orer, t he d irection o f r otation o f t he b orer d uring u se c ould n ot b e a scertained. W ear F eatures A ttrition - T his i s t he p lucking o ff o r r asping o f t he h igh p oints a nd e dges o f t he t ools l eaving b ehind a r ough , n ubbly s urface s imilar t o s andpaper ( Plates 2 8 a nd 2 9). I t i s e xtremely s imilar t o a brasion b ut l acks s triations a nd m ay b e v ery r estricted i n i ts o ccurrence. A brasion - A p rocess o f e rosion t hat i nvolves r ubbing t he s urface o f a t ool a gainst a nother s ubstance ( such a s w ood, m eat, b one, e tc), c reating f riction a nd g enerating h eat. T his r esults i n t he r emoval o f s urface m aterial, l eaving b ehind a r oughened s urface, s omewhat s imilar t o a ttrition, b ut w ith a ccompanying s triations a nd l inear g rooves. " Artificial E ffects" - T here a re m any w ays i n w hich p seudo u se w ear m ay b e p roduced o n a f lake w ithout h aving b een u sed. T hese e ffects c an s eriously i nterfere w ith m icrowear i dentification a nd c ause m istakes. I t i s i mportant f or t hese t races t o b e i dentified a nd r ecognized a s b elonging t o o ther p rocesses w hich h ave n othing t o d o w ith u tilization. B elow a re s ome o f t he p rimary w ays i n w hich t ools m ay b e a ltered b y e ither n atural o r " human" a gencies ( K eeley 1 980 h as ag ood o verview ; s ee a lso Y amada a nd S himura 1 984). H ammerstone S mears - T hese a re o ften l ocalized n ear t he p latform o f t he f lake a nd o ccur w hen a f lake i s r emoved f rom t he c ore, o r w hile a djusting t he a ngle o f t he p latform b efore s triking i t t o r emove t he f lake. T hese " smears" a re v ery t hin, m ultiple p arallel s triae a nd a ppear a s b right p atches o n f lint. O n q uartz, h ammerstone s mnears m ay a lso b e a ccompanied b y c rushing a nd s pots o f e xtremely r estricted a brasion. G enerally, t hey a re e asily i dentified a nd d o n ot i nterfere w ith u se w ear i dentification. H ard H ammer R etouch - T his i s t he s ystematic r emoval o f s mall f lakes a long t he e dge o f a t ool ( usually t he e dge t o b e u sed) w hich s erve t o r egularize e dge m orphology a nd m odify t he e dge a ngle a s

1 8

w ell. R etouch m ay m imic u tilization i f t he s cars a re v ery s mall a nd c ontinuous d own t he e dge o f t he t ool b ut, t his i s n ot o ften t he c ase. I t i s a lso p ossible t o f ind h ammerstone s mears a long t he r etouched e dge w hen a h ard h ammer h as b een u sed f or r etouching. T wisting o ff t he C ore - I f t he c ore i s h eld s o t hat t he f lake c annot f all a way f rom t he c ore a s i t i s s truck, ( being h eld i n p lace b y t he f ingers), i t m ay t wist a gainst t he c ore a nd l eave a brasion t racks a nd s mall s cars. T his " spontaneous r etouch" ( Newcomer 1 976), a lso o ccurs w hen a f lake s trikes t he g round d uring m anufacture. W hile a brasion t racks a re e asy t o s pot o n f lint a nd r elatively s o o n q uartz, t he e dge d amage p roduced m ay b e h arder t o r ecognize. T ringham ( 1974) f eels t hat d istinctions c an b e m ade b etween s cars f rom r etouch a nd t hose f rom u se o n t he b asis o f p atterning a nd s ize. T rampling -B eing s tepped o n b y p eople o r a nimals a fter d iscard c an c reate e dge d amage o n a rtefacts w hich c losely r esembles e dge d amage f rom u tilization o r r etouch ( Flenniken a nd H aggarty 1 979). S oil M ovement - T his p rocess o ccurs p ost-depositionally a nd m ay l eave l ocalized t races o f a brasion a nd/or s triations o n t he t ool a s w ell a s r emoving s mall, r andomly s ituated s cars a long t he t ool e dges. A brasion m ay l ook l ike b right, s lightly g reasy a reas a long t he e dges a nd h igh p oints o f t he m icrotopography a nd c an o bscure a reas o f w eakly d eveloped p olish. I t m ay a lso t ake t he f orm o f c rushing a nd/or a ttrition o n q uartz t ools. P atinations - A c hemical a lteration o f t he s urface o f t he s tone w hich o bliterates t races o f m icrowear p olish. P atination c omes f rom m oisture l eaching f rom i nside t he s tone a fter p rolonged e xposure t o t he a ir, o r f rom c hemicals i n t he s oil a fter b urial. I t m ay a lso b e c aused b y o rganic m aterial a dhering t o t he s urface o f t he s tone. T his c an b e a p roblem w hen d ealing w ith f lint t ools b ut, q uartz i s c hemically s table a nd s uffers i nstead f rom a brasion, w hich c an e asily o bscure p olish t races. S ome p atination a nd c hemical e ncrustations o n f lint c an b e r emoved b y p rolonged o r h eated c hemical s oaks ( see c leaning p rocedure). " Desert V arnish" - L ong e xposure t o t he e lements a nd w ind, i n p articular, c auses a c hemical a lteration o f t he t ool's s urface, c reating a p atina. Ih ave s een t his p henomena o n f lint t ools b ut n ot o n q uartz. S evere a brasion, h owever, d oes o ccur i n t he d esert f rom t he p articles o f s and c arried b y t he w ind c ontinually b lasting a way a t t he s urface o f t he e xposed r ock. T his p rocess c an d rastically a ffect t he s urface o f t he q uartz. " Rolling" - T he c ontinual m ovement o f w ater o ver s tone a long w ith t he s ediments c arried b y t he m oving w ater, c auses r idges a nd e dges o f s tone t ools t o b eome b lunt a nd r ounded, a cquiring a n ice s heen ( Schackley 1 974). T he t ools m ay a lso b ang a gainst r ocks a nd b oulders a s t hey t umble a long i n t he w ater, r emoving n ew f lakes f rom t heir e dges. " Bag D amage" -W hen s tone t ools a re c urated a fter e xcavation, t hey a re o ften s tored u nwrapped, t ogether i n b ags. T he s heer w eight o f t he s tones c an c ause s mall c hips t o b e r emoved f rom t heir e dges. W hile

1 9

t hese a re r andomly l ocated a nd u nrelated t o a reas o f u se, t he j ostling o f u nwrapped t ools a gainst o ne a nother i n b ags o r i n t rays, a brades t he r idges a nd e dges o f t he t ools s o t hat t races o f u se m ay b e p ermanently o bscured ( Keeley 1 980). B ag d amage m ay m imic e dge d amage f rom u tilization a s w ell. S tatistics M ean a nd s tandard d eviation w ere r un o n t he r aw c ounts o f t he a ttributes ( numbers o f p its, n umber o f s triae, e tc). T o g et t hese c ounts, I c hose a t otal o f f ive a reas o n e ach t ool a nd c ounted a ll t he a ttributes I w as a ble t o f ind i n a n a rea m easuring o ne m illimeter a cross. T his c orresponded t o t he s ize o f t he a rea v isible i n t he e yepieces o f t he l ight m icroscope a t 2 00X. U nfortunately, t hese a reas c ould n ot b e r andomly c hosen, d ue t o t he i rregularity o f t he q uartz s urface a nd e xtreme v ariability i n r eflectivity a nd s urface t exture. I w as f orced t o c hoose t hose p laces w here: a ) Ic ould f ocus e qually w ell o n t he e ntire a rea a nd b ) Ik new t hat t hat a rea o n t he t ool h ad c ontacted t he m aterial w orked. A s a c ontrol, p rior t o t he a ctual c ounting, Ie xamined f ifty a reas o n v arious t ools I k new h ad n ot b een u sed, t o m ake c ertain I c ould f ind n o a ttributes I a ssumed t o b e c aused s oley b y u se. T hese s tatistics w ere c alculated t o d etermine i f a r elationship e xisted b etween t he l ength o f t ime t he t ool w as u sed, t he m aterial i t w as u sed o n, a nd t he n umber o f a ttributes o n t he s urface o f a u sed q uartz t ool. T he o riginal h ope w as t hat t his m ight p rovide a dditional i nformation f or i dentification p urposes. M any s ignificant r elationships e merged b ut, w hile i nteresting, t hey a re u seless f or i dentification o f t ool u se b ecause: 1 ) Q uartz, a s a r aw m aterial, i s t oo v ariable i n i ts s urface t exture t o p rovide c onsistent r esults r egarding t he n umbers o f a ttributes p resent. I n o ther w ords, o ne w ould n ot b e a ble t o t ell t hat a q uartz t ool w as u sed t o s crape a d ry h ide, f or i nstance, b y t he n umber o f p its o r l inear g rooves p resent o n t he u sed s urface. 2 ) S tone t ools w ere u sed b y p eople n ot m achines, t herefore, t he a mount o f p ressure e xerted o n a t ool d uring u se i s n ot c onstant. T his v ariance c annot b e a ccurately m easured t o s upport t hese s tatistics, a nd t he g oal i n r esearching t his t opic w as t o u nderstand w hat h appens t o t he s urface o f q uartz w hen u sed b y i ndividuals. T herefore, t he r esults o f t hese t ests a nd t he r egression p lots a re i nserted b ecause o f t he r elationships t hey i llustrate a nd t he i nformation t hey c onvey b ut, u nfortunately, m icrowear a nalysts w ill n ot b e a ble t o l ook a t t he a verage n umber o f p its a q uartz t ool h as a nd d etermine o n t hat b asis a lone w hat t he t ool w as u sed f or.

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1m onth) a nd, a fter a bout a n h our o f w ork, p rogress w as a ided i f t he a ntler w as r ei mmersed i n w ater f or t en m inutes. U nless s pecifically s tated, a ll e xperimets d escribed i n t his c hapter w ere d one u sing s oaked a ntler. S cars - S calar s cars w ere a pparent s oon a fter a ntler w orking b egan, f ollowed b y t he a ppearance o f s tep f ractures. A c ombination o f t he t wo w as v isible a fter a n h our o f s craping o r g raving. S cars l eft o n g raver b its f rom u se w ere m uch s maller t han t hose s een o n a ny o ther t ools. H alf m oon b reakages o ccurred i ntermittently b ut, o nly o n t he a ntler s aws. T his a ccords w ell w ith a t ypical e dge d amage o n f lint u sed i n t he s ame m anner ( Ibid:57-58). P its -B oth s craping a nd s awing s oaked a ntler p roduced c opious a mounts o f p its o n t he t ool s urface, w hile g raving s oaked a ntler a nd, s urprisingly e nough, s awing d ry a ntler, b oth p roduced o n a verage, m any f ewer p its ( Table 1 3; P lates 4 6-49). O verall,

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p roduced

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i ncrease i n t he n umber o f p its a fter t en m inutes o f u se. T his n umber m ore t han h alved i tself a fter t wenty m inutes o f s awing b ut, s howed a c orresponding i ncrease i n t he n umber o f c omet-tailed p its p resent ( see p roceeding s ection a nd T able 1 3). T he c ombined a verage o f c omet-tailed p its, h owever, i s m uch s maller t han t hat c alculated f or p its; b ut e ven s o, a fter 9 6 m inutes o f s awing, c omet-tailed p its f ar o utnumber t he o thers. A s m entioned, p itting r eaches a p eak a fter t en m inutes o f s craping b ut, o ddly e nough, t here w as n o e vidence o f p its a fter s craping c ontinued f or t wenty m inutes. T hey a ppeared a gain o n q uartz u sed t o s crape s oaked a ntler f or 6 0 m inutes a nd 9 6 m inutes. A r egression a nalysis r un o n t he n umber o f p its a nd t heir r elationship t o t he a mount o f t ime a t ool w as u sed, s howed o nly s craping a ntler, a nd a ll a ntler w ork c ombined, p roduced a s trong c orrelation w ith t ime ( Fig 2 7). T he p its s een o n t hose q uartz t ools u sed f or w orking s oaked a ntler w as a bsent f rom f lint t ools u sed i n t he s ame m anner. N umbers o f P its

N A ll A ntler W orking

M ean

S .D.

R ange

1 80

9 3.55

1 70.33

0 -999

S awing S oaked A ntler

7 0

1 25.68

1 68.38

6 -999

S awing D ry A ntler

2 5

3 1.12

2 0 .06

0 -70

G raving S oaked A ntler

6 5

3 0.49

3 9.62

0 -200

S craping S oaked A ntler

4 5

1 34.66

2 46.26

0 -999

N r efers t o a ttribute c ounts ( 5 p er p iece) T able 1 3 C omet-tailed P its - A lthough t here a re l ess t han h alf t he n umber o f c omet-tailed p its o n a ll a ntler p ieces c ombined c ompared t o r egular' p its ( see T ables 1 3 & 1 4), a s trong c orrelation w ith t ime i s s till e xpressed ( Fig. 2 9). T his t ype o f p it f irst b ecomes n oticeable a fter u sing a t ool f or f ive m inutes o n a ntler. C omet-tailed p its d iffer f rom ' regular' p its a s t hey h ave s hallow " tails" t railing a fter t he h eads o f t he p its a nd w ere f ound o nly o n q uartz t ools u sed f or w orking a ntler a nd b one. W hy t hey a re f ound o nly a fter w orking b one a nd a ntler r emains, a t p resent, am ystery. T hey a re f ound o n f lint t ools o nly , a fter p rocessing s oft p lant m aterial a nd t hey a re c alled " comet-shaped" p its; f irst d escribed b y W hitthoft ( 1967; K eeley 1 980:60-61). N one, h owever, o f t he q uartz f lakes u sed f or c utting s oft p lant m aterial s howed a ny e vidence o f t his t ype o f p itting. I t i s p ossible t hat t hey a re c aused b y s mall p ieces o f b one o r a ntler d ragged a cross t he s urface o f t he p olish ( rather t han t he q uartz s urface i tself) l eaving a " tail" b ehind a s t he p olish f orms. P erhaps a ntler a nd b one p olishes a re n ot a s ' fluid' a s h as b een s uggested f or w et h ide p olish ( Chapter 3 ) w here f ew s triae f orm . T hey

7 9

s uggested f or w et h ide p olish ( Chapter 3 ) w here f ew s triae f orm . T hey a re e xtremely s hallow f eatures; d ocumenting t heir p resence w ith t he s canning e lectron m icroscope r equired a t ilt o f a pproximately 3 0 d egrees a nd 5 00X m agnification t o m ake t hem v isible ( Plate 9 ). U sing t he l ight m icroscope, h owever, t hey a re e asily s een a t 2 00X ( Plate 1 5). T he g reatest n umber o f t hese c omet-tailed p its w as f ound o n t hose t ools u sed f or s awing, w ith t he s econd l argest q uantity f ound o n g ravers a nd f inally, t he s mallest n umber o f c omet-tailed p its w as f ound o n t hose q uartz t ools u sed f or s craping. A s w ith p itting, c omett ailed p its r each t heir g reatest n umbers a fter t en m inutes o f s awing a nd t hen p eak a gain a fter s awing a ntler f or 9 6 m inutes. A s ignificant r egression w as a chieved w hen c omet-tailed p its w ere c orrelated w ith t ime w hile s awing a ntler. I n g eneral, t he m ean n umber o f c omet-tailed p its i ncreased c onsistently d uring g raving a ctivity, a nd p roduced a s trong r egression w hen c orrelated w ith t ime ( Fig. 2 9), f ar s urpassing t he n umber o f ' regular' p its f ound o n t he s ame t ool ( Appendix 3 ). S craping p roduced v ery f ew c omet-tailed p its - m any f ewer i n f act, t han ' regular' p its. T here w ere n o c omet-tailed p its s een o n t hose t ools u sed f or e ither t wenty m inutes o r n inety-six m inutes o f s craping a ntler b ut, i nexplicably, a l arge i ncrease i n t heir n umbers w as f ound o n t he q uartz s craper u sed f or s ixty m inutes. A s w ith s triae, t he o rientation o f c omet-tailed p its c an b e u sed t o i nfer a ction, o r d irection o f u se . T hey r un p arallel t o t he w orking e dge o f a t ool u sed f or s awing, a nd a t r ight a ngles t o t he w orking e dge o n a t ool u sed f or e ither s craping o r g raving. T he l ocation o f t he " heads" o f t he p its i s m ore v ariable w hen s craping o r g raving ; t hey s ometimes o rient t owards t he w orking e dge a nd s ometimes a way f rom i t. N umbers o f C omet-tailed P its

N

M ean

S .D.

R ange

1 80

3 8 .99

9 3.99

0 -999

S awing S oaked A ntler

7 0

5 8 .31

1 32.69

0 -999

S awing D ry A ntler

2 5

N ONE

G raving S oaked A ntler

6 5

3 4.6

6 2.27

0 -300

S craping S oaked A ntler

4 5

1 5 .28

2 7.70

0 -100

A ll A ntler W orking

Nr efers t o a ttribute c ounts ( 5 p er p iece) T able 1 4

S triae - W here p resent, s triae w ere g enerally s hort, b road a nd s hallow, e xcept o n t ools u sed f or s awing, w here t he m ajority o f t he s triae w ere l ong a nd n arrow. T his c ontrasts n icely w ith K eeley's

' 80

d escription o f s triae h e f ound o n f lint t ools u sed f or w orking s oaked a ntler; m ost w ere w ere s hort a nd n arrow ( Keeley 1 980 :56). I t s hould b e n oted t hat r elatively f ew s triae a re t o b e f ound o n e ither q uartz o r f lint t ools u sed f or w orking a ntler ( Ibid). W hen a ll a ntler w orking i s c ombined a nd s tatistically e xamined, a s ignificant ( though n ot t erribly s trong) c orrelation e merges b etween t he n umber o f s triae a nd t he a mount o f t ime a t ool w as u sed ( p C O 4 ( 1 ) CD CI . 0 • 1 U

P late 5 2.

r I

C hapter 7 B one W orking T otal N umber o f F lakes: 3 8 T otal N umber o f O bservations ( 5 p er p iece): F lakes u sed f or S awing:

1 90

1 7

F lakes u sed f or S craping:

1 2

F lakes u sed f or G raving: 9

T he b one u sed f or a ll t hese e xperiments w as f resh c ow b one. W orking d ry b one w as u nproductive w hen u sing f lint t ools a nd, a s q uartz i s m ore f riable t han f lint, w orking d ry b one w ith q uartz w as n ot a ttempted. O ne p iece o f q uartz u sed f or s awing b oiled l amb b one f or f ifteen m inutes w as e xamined a nd i s d iscussed a t t he e nd o f t his c hapter. S cars - E dge d amage f rom u se w as f ound a long b oth f aces o f t he w orking e dges o f t he q uartz t ools u sed f or s awing b one. T he d amage w as c omprised o f p redominantly s calar s cars, w ith a f ew h alf m oon s cars a s w ell. T he p resence o f h alf m oon s cars s eemed t o b e c reated b y t he a cute e dge a ngle o f t he i ndividual t ool u sed f or s awing r ather t han b eing i ndicative o f b one w orking i tself. A l arger s ample s ize i s n ecessary t o c onfirm t his. H alf m oon b reakages a re r elatively u ncommon a lso o n f lint u sed t o s aw b one ( Keeley 1 980:44). A fter o ne h our o f u se, s tep f ractures w ere p resent o n t he q uartz t ools i n a ddition t o t he s calar s cars. S craping f resh b one r esulted i n d iscontinuous s calar s cars a nd s tep f ractures a long t he t ool e dges a s s oon a s u se c ommenced. T hese s cars i ncreased i n n umber o ver t ime, u ntil t hey w ere p resent c ontinuously d own t he l eading e dge o f t he t ool. V ery l ittle e dge d amage w as s ustained o n t he e dge o f t he s craper c ontacting t he b one. G raving b one p roduced s calar s cars, s tep s cars a nd c rushing o n t he g raver b it; t his c rushing o ccurred a s q uickly a s o ne m inute a fter g raving b egan. A s w ith s craping, u se d amage o ccured o n t hat e dge o pposite t he s ide i n c ontact w ith t he s ubstrate. C rushing, w here p resent, o bliterated a ll o ther s cars. P its - T he l argest m ean n umber o f p its w as p roduced b y s craping b one w hen c ompared w ith e ither g raving o r s awing ( Table 1 8). A r egression r un o n t he n umber o f p its r elative t o t he d uration o f u se s howed t hat b oth s craping a nd s awing c orrelated s trongly w ith t he a mount o f t ime a t ool w as u sed ( p1 C I N 1 101 1 3D a lI f

,

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P ITS M 1 .

L INEAR G ROOVES ••• • 1 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .

m in 4 5

m in 2 0

m ax 1 0 m ean 4 .2

0

m ax 9 99 m ean 4 83.6

m ax 7 5 m ean 4 1

s .d.

s .d.

s .d.

3 .37

S AWING P INE

**

4 24.10

1 8.81

T IMES C OMBINED

N =20 C .T.

P ITS

N ONE

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in

0

m in

m ax

8

m ax 3 50

m ax 4 0

m ean s .d.

1 1 .82

m ean 7 6.7 s .d. 14.16

m ean 9 .2 s .d. 1.16

0

m in

0

S AWING P INE * * O NE M INUTE N =5 C .T. N ONE

P ITS

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in m ax

0 1

m in 0 m ax 3 5

m in m ax

m ean

. 2

m ean

1 6.6

m ean 7

s .d.

. 4

s .d.

1 3.62

s .d.

1 69

2 1 4 4 .98

S AWING P INE * *

1 0 M INUTES

N =10 C .T.

P ITS

N ONE

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in

0

m in

m ax m ean

1 . 2

m ax 2 0 m ean 8 .2

m ax 4 m ean 1

s .d.

. 4

s .d.

s .d.

S AWING P INE

0

8 .06

m in

0

1 .55

* * 2 0 M INUTES N =5

C .T.

P ITS

N ONE

S TRIAE m in

P ITS

0

m in

m ax 3 m ean 1 .2 s .d. 1 .17

L INEAR G ROOVES 1 0

m ax 4 0 m ean 2 6 s .d. 1 0.68

m in

0

m ax 1 m ean 3 .6 s .d. 4 .13

S AWING P INE * * 6 0 M INUTES N =5 C .T.

P ITS

N ONE

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in m ax

m in 8 0 m ax 3 50

m in 1 m ax 4 0

m ean 2 .4

m ean 2 56

m ean 2 5.2

s .d.

s .d.

s .d.

0 8 2 .87

S AWING Y E

d*a

9 3.51

9 .70

A LL T IMES C OMBINED N =10

C .T. N ONE

P ITS

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in 0 m ax 7 m ean 1 .5 s .d. 2 .20

m in 0 m ax 9 99 m ean 2 80.9 s .d. 3 19.01

m in 0 m ax 9 5 m ean 2 9.7

1 70

s .d.

2 6.09

B ONE W ORKING * * A LL T IMES C OMBINED N =190 C .T.

P ITS

m in 0 m ax 3 00 m ean 2 4.66 s .d. 4 3.52

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in 0 m ax 6 0 m ean 3 .91 s .d.6.83

m in 0 m ax 3 00 m ean 2 9.48 s .d. 3 8.38

m in 0 m ax 4 7 m ean 6 .15 s .d. 7 .79

B ONE W ORKING * * O NE M INUTE N =35 C .T.

P ITS

S TRIAE

M O M M. M. M.B

M . I MP.

MI N

m in m ax

0 1 40

M .M

'

m ean 9 .57 s .d. 2 5.93

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

NO M M IM . W

ff la d .. 34.M .M ... . ». 1 8 1 1

m in 0 m ax 1 5

m in 0 m ax 3 0

m in m ax

0 7

m ean 1 .09 s .d. 2 .91

m ean 8 .57 s .d. 2 .93

m ean s .d.

1 .29 1 .85

MW

MA

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M O404, « W

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.

N r .30 C .T.

P ITS

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in 0 m ax 8 0

m in 0 m ax 1

m in 0 m ax 6 0

m in 0 m ax 1 5

m ean 8 .57 s .d. 1 6.35

m ean 2 .63 s .d. 3 .12

m ean s .d.

m ean 4 .27 s .d. 4 .27

A LL B ONE W ORK * *

1 6.87 1 6.39

1 0 M INUTES

N =40 C .T.

P ITS

m in 0 m ax 3 00 m ean 2 9.23 s .d. 5 2.51

S TRIAE

P ITS

m in 0 m ax 6 0 m ean 7 .4 s .d. 1 2.24

m in

L INEAR G ROOVES 0

m ax 1 50 m ean 2 5.8 s .d. 2 9.39

1 71

m in 0 m ax 2 2 m ean 5 .33 s .d. 5 .56

A LL B ONE W ORKING * * 2 0 M INUTES N =45 C .T.

P ITS

S TRIAE O M

m in

0

m in

m ax 2 00 m ean 3 2.49 s .d. 4 0.27

P ITS

N I. 14 1 »4 1 .. M. I I M

II I M WO M

0

M OR IU

m in

m ax 1 5 m ean 3 .13 s .d. 3 .36

L INEAR G ROOVES M

0

m ax 1 00 m ean 3 2.3 s .d. 2 3.39

m in

0

m ax 2 3 m ean 6 .29 s .d. 5 .88

A LL B ONE W ORKING * * 6 0 M INUTES N =35 C .T. 01 . 1 1.0. 1 « .. . I

P ITS M M WO

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in 0 m ax 1 9 m ean 5 .09 m ean 4 .95

m in 4 m ax 2 50 m ean 5 0.66 s .d. 5 1.52

m in 0 m ax 4 0 m ean 1 2.11 s .d. 1 0.79

M MO

m in 0 m ax 3 00 m ean 3 7.63 s .d. 5 7.06

B ONE G RAVING * * T IMES C OMBINED N =45 C .T.

P ITS

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in 0 m ax 3 00 m ean 3 8.71

m in 0 m ax 2 5 m ean 2 .78

m in 0 m ax 5 0 m ean 1 0

m in 0 m ax 2 6

s .d.

s .d.

s .d.

s .d.

6 7.73

4 .59

B ONE S AWING

**

9 .65

m ean 4 .47 6 .33

T IMES C OMBINED

N =85 C .T.

P ITS

i n in 0 m ax 1 20 m ean 1 6.55 s .d. 2 3.34

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in 0 m ax 6 0 m ean 6 .05 s .d. 9 .03

m in 0 m ax 3 00 m ean 4 3

m in 0 m ax 4 7 m ean 8 .35 s .d. 9 .46

s .d.

1 72

4 9.26

B ONE G RAVING * * O NE M INUTE N =10 m in m ax

0 1 4U

m ean 2 5.9 s .d. 4 3.78

m in m ax

0 2

m in m ax

m ean s .d.

. 3 . 64

m ean 5 .7 s .d.

0 1 7 5 .39

m in m ax

0 7

m ean 2 .4 s .d. 4 .27

B ONE G RAVING * * 5 M INUTES N =5 m in 0 m ax 8 0 m ean 2 1.4

m in 0 m ax 8 m ean 3

m in 4 m ax 1 7 m ean 1 0.6

s .d.

s .d.

s .d.

3 0.39

3 .69

B ONE G RAVING * *

5 .39

m in 0 m ax 1 m ean 2 .6 s .d. 4 .27

1 0 M INUTES

N =10 m in

0

a mx 3 00 m ean 5 6 s .d. 9 1.45

m in 0 m ax 2 5 m ean 3 .8 s .d.

m in m ax

0 1 8

m ean 7 .7 s .d. 5 .57

7 .36

m in 0 m ax 2 2 m ean 6 .1 s .d. 8 .17

B ONE G RAVING * * 2 0 M INUTES N = " 10 C .T.

P ITS

S TRIAE

m in

0

m in

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES .

m ax 7 3 m ean 1 6.5 s .d. 2 4.06

0

m in

m ax 1 0 m ean 3 .3 s .d. 3 .77

2

m ax 5 0 m ean 1 3.5 s .d. 1 3.63

m in

.

.

.

. M. I.M06 . 1 1 W I MOM OD M O

0

m ax 1 7 m ean 3 .9 s .d. 5 .65

B ONE G RAVING * * 6 0 M INUTES N =10 C .T.

P ITS

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in 0 m ax 3 00

m in 0 m ax 1 0

m in 4 m ax 4 0

m in 0 m ax 2 6

m ean 6 5.1 s .d. 8 6.73

m ean 3 .6 s .d. 3 .38

m ean s .d.

m ean 6 .4 s .d. 7 .43

1 73

1 2.8 1.19

B ONE S AWING * * T IMES C OMBINED N =85 C .T.

P ITS

m in

0

S TRIAE m in

m ax 1 20 m ean 1 6.55 s .d. 2 3.34

P ITS

0

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in

m ax 6 0 m ean 6 .05 s .d. 9 .03

0

m in

m ax 3 00 m ean 4 3 s .d. 4 9.26 **

B ONE S AWING

0

m ax 4 7 m ean 8 .35 s .d. 9 .46

O NE M INUTE

N =15 C .T. P ITS _ -------m in 0 m ax 1 6 m ean 2 .3333 s .d. 4 .21

S TRIAE • M m I l l o

P ITS

MM 1 1•4 1. 1 10 •••

«ND . " 0« M

m in 0 m ax 1 5 m ean 2 .33 s .d. 4 .09

L INEAR G ROOVES M. O I

M M I

m in 0 m ax 3 0 m ean 1 3.2 s .d. 1.00

m in o m ax 5 m ean 1 s .d. 1 .59

B ONE S AWING * * 5 M INUTES .

.

.

.

.

N =15 C .T. • 1• ••• ••• 1 1 1 1,.

P ITS .

.

.

S TRIAE

P ITS

.

m in 0 m ax 3 2

m in m ax

m ean 4 .4 s .d.

8 .65

L INEAR G ROOVES

1 1 1 0. 1 1 » ..0 11MNB M I MO W

0 1

m in 0 m ax 6 0

m in m ax

m ean 2 .67

m ean 2 5.6

m ean 4 .93

s .d.

s .d.

s .d.

3 .36

B ONE S AWING * * .

.

.

1 8.69

0 1 5 4 .88

1 0 M INUTES .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

N =15 C .T.

P ITS

m in 0 m ax 6 6 m ean 1 9 s .d. 2 2.44

S TRIAE m in 0 m ax 6 0 m ean 1 5.06667 s .d. 1 3.26

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

O M. 1 1.P

4.. .. M .

NI M I. MW

m in 6 m ax 1 50 m ean 4 0.66667 s .d. 3 7.95

1 74

M «. 1. 1

NO MM D. 1104 . 00

M

f l .4 1. 1.0. 1.

m in 0 m ax 1 6 m ean 5 .53333 s .d. 4 .35

B ONE S AWING * * 2 0 M INUTES N =20 C .T.

P ITS

S TRIAE

P ITS

m in

1

m in

m in

0

L INEAR G ROOVES 1 2

m in

1

m ax 1 20 m ean 2 7.95

m ax 1 5 m ean 3 .9

m ax 1 00 m ean 4 2.35

m ax 2 3 m ean 8 .95

s .d.

s .d.

s .d.

s .d.

2 8.09

3 .58

2 5.45

6 .28

B ONE S AWING * * 6 0 M INUTES M O

N

N

N . M.

N

N

N M I O MO O

NM .

N

N

N

N =15 C .T.

P ITS

S TRIAE

P ITS

M O

I

NM IO

N

N

L INEAR G ROOVES

N

m in 0 m ax 6 0

m in 2 m ax 1 9

m in 1 6 m ax 2 50

m in 1 m ax 4 0

m ean 2 1.33 s .d. 2 1.24

m ean 8 .27 s .d. 5 .41

m ean 7 2.07 s .d. 6 5.05

m ean 1 8 s .d. 1.84

B ONE S AWING * * 9 6 M INUTES N =5 C .T.

P ITS

S TRIAE

P ITS « BO

m in 0 m ax 8 0

m in m ax

m ean 2 9

m ean 2 .2 s .d. . 98

s .d.

3 4.12

1 4

N

L INEAR G ROOVES N

m in 2 5 m ax 3 00

m in 8 m ax 4 7

m ean s .d.

m ean s .d.

1 07 1 00.03

1 7.8 1 4.66

B ONE S CRAPING * * T IMES C OMBINED N =60 C .T.

P ITS

m in 0 m ax 2 00 m ean 2 5.6 s .d. 3 9.28

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in 0 m ax 9 m ean 1 .73 s .d. 2 .01

m in 0 m ax 1 00 m ean 2 4.93 s .d. 2 4.36

m in 0 m ax 2 3 m ean 4 .3 s .d. 4 .83

1 75

B ONE S CRAPING * * O NE M INUTE N =10 C .T. m in

P ITS 0

S TRIAE

P ITS

o mm

0 ». 0 1 .1 1 . 1.1 M I

e me... .bea r im m m l.. »

m in 0 m ax 2 0 m ean 4 .5 s .d. 6 .41

N ONE

m ax 1 5 m ean 4 .1 s .d.

L INEAR G ROOVES M ,

5 .96

m in 0 m ax 4 m ean . 6 s .d. 1 .28

B ONE S CRAPING * * 5 M INUTES m mmm .. m we m memm e «me u em

w.mo mm

. I w m.m w

s mm mm. m em . .. m

w m i o.m .mm b

N =10 C .T.

P ITS

m in 0 m ax 2 6 m ean 8 .4 s .d. 1 0.92

S TRIAE

P ITS

0. 1 1,1 Mn I MS 1 1 . 1 1 1

O M. MM I.

m in m ax m ean s .d.

M

M .O.

L INEAR G ROOVES N O

m in 0 m ax 2 0 m ean 6 .9 s .d. 5 .82

0 6 2 .4 2 .33

B ONE S CRAPING * *

m in m ax m ean s .d.

0 8 2 .8 2 .48

1 0 M INUTES

N =15 C .T. m in m ax

P ITS 0 1 00

m ean 2 1.6 s .d. 2 5.16

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in m ax

m in 0 m ax 7 3 m ean 2 3

m in m ax

0 6

m ean 2 .13 s .d. 1 .96

s .d.

0 1 4

m ean 4 .6 s .d. 4 .26

1 9.89

B ONE S CRAPING * * 2 0 M INUTES .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

N =15 C .T.

P ITS

m in 0 m ax 2 00 m ean 4 9.2 s .d. 5 4.31

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in 0 m ax 9 m ean 2 s .d. 2 .28

m in 8 m ax 6 0 m ean 3 1.53 s .d. 1 6.84

m in 0 m ax 1 4 m ean 4 .33

1 76

s .d.

3 .59

B ONE S CRAPING * * 6 0 M INUTES N :10 C .T.

S TRIAE

P ITS

L INEAR G ROOVES

m in m ax

0 3

m in 2 0 m ax 1 00

m in m ax

m ean 3 4.9

m ean

1 .8

m ean 5 6.4

m ean

9 9

s .d.

s .d.

1 .36

s .d.

s .d.

6 .91

m in m ax

P ITS 0 1 46 4 5.01

1 77

2 5.77

0

A ppendix 4 M easurements o n S triae L engths F or A ll F lint T ools A ll m easurements a re i n m illimeters

1 78

A LL A NTLER W ORKING * * D RY A ND S OAKED C OMBINED N =45 M in M ax M ean S .d.

1 6 0 1 0.91 1 2.19

D RY A NTLER S AWING N =33 M in 2 M ax 6 0 M ean 1 2.18 S .d. 1 3.65 S OAKED A NTLER S AWING N =12 M in 1 M ax 1 9 M ean 7 .42 S .d. 5 .35 G RASS W ORKING * * T ILDEN P ARK N =2 M in 6 M ax 1 0 M ean 8 S .d. 2 H IDE S CRAPING * * T ANNED H IDE N =4 M in 3 M ax 5 M ean 3 .75 S .d. . 83

A LL W OOD W ORKING N =111 M in 1 M ax 5 0 M ean 7 .71 S .d. 8 .0 S AWING W OOD * * P INE N =78 M in 1 M ax 5 0 M ean 7 .91 S .d. 9 .2 S AWING W OOD * * E EUCALYPTUS N =25 M in 2 M ax 1 M ean 5 .56 S .d. 2 .4 S AWING W OOD * * O AK N =8 M in 8 M ax 1 5 M ean 1 2.5 S .d. 2 .69

1 80

A ppendix 5 D iscriminant A nalysis S ummary a nd T ables

D iscriminant A nalysis S ummary

D iscriminant a nalysis w as p erformed o n t he r aw d ata c ounts f or t he m ajor a ttributes f ound a ssociated w ith u se-wear o n q uartz. T hese a ttributes: c omet-tailed p its, s triae, l inear g rooves a nd p its w ere c hosen b ecause t hey w ere b oth i dentifiable a nd q uantifiable o n a lmost e very e xperimental q uartz t ool. C omet-tailed p its, h owever, w ere o nly s een o n t hose t ools u sed f or w orking e ither b one o r a ntler. T hese s tatistics w ere p erformed i n a n a ttempt t o v erify t he s ubjective m icroscopic o bservations. Q ualifying u se-wear a ttributes i s u navoidably s ubjective, a s t here e xists n o c ompletely a ccurate ( or e asily i mplemented) m ethod t o m easure f eatures s uch a s " brightness" a nd " luster", f or e xample. S ubjective t erms s uch a s " melted s now" a re r egularly u sed t o d escribe c ertain o ptical q ualities s een o n p olishes ( Keeley 1 980 :56), b eing a ccepted b y m ost r esearchers, b ut r ejected b y o thers a s i nadequate a nd u nscientific t erminology ( refer t o C ook a nd D umont 1 986 b ut a lso D umont 1 982, f or a r eport o n q uantifying b rightness). S till, t hese t erms e voke s trong i mages t o m ost o f u s a nd, w hen v iewing t he p olish i n q uestion, t he d escriptions s eem a ppropriate a nd c lear. N onetheless, i t i s i mportant t o q uantify t hose a ttributes, w henever p ossible, i n o rder t hat w e m ay c hance u pon a n ew w ay t o o bjectively d escribe t he m icrowear p olishes o n a rchaeological s pecimens c learly a nd a ccurately. D iscriminant a nalysis a llowed g rouping o f t he v arious p olishes b oth b y a ction a nd m aterial w orked, b ased o n d irect c ounts o f t he f our a ttributes. C omet-tailed p its, s triae, l inear g rooves, a nd p its w ere c ounted a t 2 00X u sing t he i ncident l ight m icroscope. A t t hat m agnification, t he f ield o f v iew i s a pproximately l mm X l mm a cross a nd e very a ttribute p resent i n t hat " window" w as c ounted. T his c ount w as r epeated f ive t imes o n e ach e xperimental t ool. T hese a re n ot r andom c ounts b ecause, t oo o ften a n a rea o n a t ool h ad t o b e d iscarded a s t he s urface o f t he q uartz w as t oo i rregular t o p ermit f ocusing a nd, t herefore, a ccurate c ounts c ould n ot b e m ade. S ome a reas c hosen h ad n o v isible a ttributes a nd, t hese w ere r ecorded a s s uch. T he s ample w as b iased b ecause I k new w hich a reas o n t he e xperimental t ools s ustained t he m ost u se a nd p robably t ended t o c oncentrate o n t hose b ut, t ried, n onetheless, t o g et a s " good" a s ample a s p ossible o ver t he e ntire w orked e dge. I n t he t est o f d iscriminant a nalysis, t he f ive o bservations p er p iece w ere a dded t ogether g iving o ne t otal a ttribute c ount p er t ool. U nfortunately, i t i s n ot p ossible t o l ook a t t he t otals o f t he a ttributes a nd d etermine w hat m aterial a t ool w as u sed o n a nd f or h ow l ong. A s m entioned, d iscriminant a nalysis r eclassifies t he p olishes b ased s olely o n t he r aw d ata c ounts w ithout v isual i mput. I t i s t hen p ossible t o s ee h ow t he p olishes a re r egrouped w hen s orted b y a ction ( graving, s awing, e tc.), o r m aterial w orked ( bone, h ide, e tc.). L ooking a t t he r eclassification o f m aterials t hat o ccurred a fter a nalysis, i t i s i nteresting t hat b one p olish w as r eclassified i n o ne

1 82

i nstance a s g rass p olish, a nd g rass w as r eclassified o nce a s a h ide p olish i n t he s ixty m inute t able. W hen e xamining t he t ools m icroscopically, h owever, i t w ould b e h ighly u nusual f or a t rained m icrowear s pecialist t o m is-identify a b one p olish a s ag rass p olish o r, t o m istake a g rass p olish f or a h ide p olish. T he p olish a ttributes o f t he t hree a re q uite d istinct. T he e dge o f a t ool u sed f or c utting g rass b ecomes r ounded a nd s mooth, w ith a b right, m etallic s ilica g loss. T he b one p olish, o n t he o ther h and, c ould b e s mooth a nd b right a s w ell, b ut t he p resence o f c omet-tailed p its, w ould d istinguish i t i mmediately a s a b one p olish. W orking h ide p roduces n othing i n t he w ay o f a s mooth p olish, r ather, t he e dge o f t he t ool b ecomes e xtremely r ough a nd n ubbly f rom c ontinued a ttrition o f t he q uartz s urface s craping a gainst t he h ide. I n t he s ame v ein, t hree q uartz t ools u sed a s s aws w ere r eclassified a s s crapers a fter s ixty m inutes o f u se, w hen t he a ttributes w ere g rouped i nto a ctions. A gain, w hen e xamining t he p ieces m icroscopically, o ne w ould n ote t he o rientation o f l inear g rooves a nd s triae t o t he w orking e dge a nd w ould b e u nlikely t o m istake o ne f or t he o ther a fter a n h our o f u se. T hese m is-classifications o ccur t hroughout b oth g roupings a nd a ll t ime p eriods. T he r esults o f t his t est a re i nteresting b ut, d isappointing i f o ne h opes t o u se s tatistical m ethods t o o bjectively i dentify u se-wear p olishes. A t t his t ime, t here i s n o s ubstitute c omparable t o t he s ubjective i dentification o f a p olish b ased o n i ts v isual q ualities a nd, ..it i s p robably n aive t o i magine t hat q uantitative a ssessment w ill e ver s atisfactorily r eplace q ualitative d escription b ased o n o bservation, p hotomicrography a nd a nd t he j udgements o f e xperienced a nalysts. ( Cook a nd D umont 1 986 n o p p.).

M ultiple D iscriminant A nalysis: 6 0 m inutes

C lassification b y A ction b ased o n F our A ttributes

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED I NTO A CTION

F ROM A CTION

C U

G R

S A

S C

C U

3 7 5.00

0 0 .00

1 2 5.00

0 0 .00

4 1 00.00

G R

O 0 .00

2 6 6.67

0 0 .00

1 3 3.33

3 1 00.00

S A

3 2 7.27

1 9 .09

4 3 6.36

3 2 7.27

1 1 00.00

S C

5 4 5.45

3 2 7.27

1 9 .09

2 1 8.18

1 1 1 00.00

T OTAL P ERCENT

1 3 7.93

6 2 0.69

6 2 0.69

6 2 0.69

2 9 1 00.00

6 0 M INUTES

T OTAL

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED I NTO M ATERIAL

F ROM M ATERIAL

A

B

G

A

4 6 6.67

1 1 6.67

1 1 6.67

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

6 1 00.00

B

2 2 8.57

2 2 8.57

1 1 4.29

2 2 8.57

0 0 .00

7 1 00.00

G

0 .00

0 .00

7 5.00

0 .00

H

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

2 5 0.00

2 5 0.00

0 0 .00

W

O 0 .00

0 0 .00

4 5 0.00

0 0 .00

4 5 0.00

1 00.00

6 2 0.69

3 1 0.34

1 1 3 7.93

4 1 3.79

5 1 7.24

2 9 1 00.00

O

T OTAL P ERCENT

0

H

3

W

0

T OTAL

1 2 5.00

A ctions:

M aterials:

A ttributes:

C U = C utting

A A ntler B B one G = G rass H = H ide W = W ood

C omet-tailed P its S triae L inear G rooves

G R = G raving S A = S awing S C = S craping

P its

4 1 00.00 4 1 00.00

8

M ultiple D iscriminant A nalysis: 2 0 m inutes

C lassification b y M aterial b ased o n F our A ttributes

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED C U

F ROM A CTION

G R

S A

S C

0 .00

0 .00

0 .00

5

5

1 00.00

C U

1 00.00

G R

0 .00

3 6 0.00

0 .00

4 0.00

1 00.00

S A

2 1 6.67

3 2 5.00

3 2 5.00

4 3 3.33

1 2 1 00.00

S C

4 1.67

5

P ERCENT

2 0 M INUTES

3 5.29

1 8 .33

8 2 3.53

4 1.76

5

4

1 2

3 3.33

1 00.00

1 0

3 4

2 9.41

1 00.00

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED I NTO M ATERIAL

F ROM M ATERIAL

A

B 2

A

2

2 1 6.67

1 2

T OTAL

I NTO A CTION

T OTAL

2 8.57 O 0 .00 O 0 .00 O

T OTAL

H

2 2 8.57

1 1 4.29

7 7 7.78

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

5 1 00.00

0

3

W 2

2 8.57

6 0.00

4 0.00

O 0 .00

0 0 .00

3 3 7.50

1 1 2.50

9 2 6.47

1 2 3 5.29

0 0 .00 0 0 .00

2

0 .00

5 .88

0

0 0 .00

0

5

8 1 00.00

4 1.76

A ttributes:

C U = C utting

A = A ntler

C omet-tailed P its

B = B one G = G rass

S triae L inear G rooves

H = H ide

P its

W = W ood

5 1 00.00

4 5 0.00

M aterials:

S C = S craping

9 1 00.00

1 00.00

A ctions:

G R = G raving S A = S awing

7 1 00.00

0 .00

7 2 0.59

T OTAL

0 .00

2 2 2.22

0 .00

2

P ERCENT

C

3 4 1 00.00

M ultiple D iscriminant A nalysis: 1 0 M INUTES

C lassification o f

A ction b ased o n F our A ttributes

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED I NTO A CTION C U

F ROM A CTION

G R 3

S A 0

S C 0

T OTAL 1

4

C U

7 5.00

0 .00

0 .00

2 5.00

1 00.00

G R

1 2 0.00

3 6 0.00

0 0 .00

1 2 0.00

5 1 00.00

S A

3 2 3.08

2 1 5.38

4 3 0.77

4 3 0.77

1 3 1 00.00

S C

6 5 0.00

1 8 .33

2 1 6 .67

3 2 5.00

1 2 1 00.00

T OTAL P ERCENT

1 3 3 8.24

6 1 7.75

6 1 7.65

9 2 6.47

3 4 1 00.00

1 0 M INUTES

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED I NTO M ATERIAL

F ROM M ATERIAL

A

A

T OTAL P ERCENT

B

C

H

V

5 6 2.50

0 0 .00

1 1 2.50

1 1 2.50

1 1 2.50

8 1 00.00

1 1 2.50

4 5 0.00

1 1 2.50

2 2 5.00

0 0 .00

1 00.00

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

4 1 00 .00

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

4 1 00.00

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

1 2 0 .00

4 8 0.00

0 0 .00

5 1 00.00

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

5 5 5.56

0 0 .00

4 4 4.44

9 1 00.00

6 1 7.65

4 1 1.76

1 2 3 5.29

7 2 0.59

5 1 4.71

3 4 1 00.00

A ctions:

M aterials:

A ttributes:

C U G R S A S C

A B G H W

C omet-tailed P its S triae L inear G rooves P its

= = = =

C utting G raving S awing S craping

= = = = =

A ntler B one G rass H ide W ood

T OTAL

8

M ultiple D iscriminant A nalysis: 5 M INUTES

C lassification b y M aterial b ased o n F our A ttributes

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED I NTO A CTION

F ROM A CTION

C U

G R 4

C U

1 00.00

G R

0 .00

S A

1 8.18

S C

5 0.00

0 0 .00

O

6

T OTAL

5M INUTES

1 2 5.00 4 3 6.36

2 1 6.67

1 2 3 8.71

0

1 9 .09

1 8 .33

6 1 9.35

S C

0 .00

3 7 5.00

2

P ERCENT

S A

6 1 9.35

T OTAL 0

4

0 .00

1 00.00

0

4

0 .00

1 00.00

4

1

3 6.36

1 00.00

3

1 2

2 5.00

1 00.00

7

3 1

2 2.58

1 00.00

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED

F ROM MATERIAL

A

B

G

A

6 6 6.67

2 2 2.22

1 1 1.11

B

3 3.33

2

2 3 3.33

1 1 6.67

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

1 1 6.67

0

9 1 00.00 6

0 .00

1 00.00

0 0 .00

4 1 00.00

H

0 .00

0 .00

4 0.00

6 0.00

0 .00

1 00.00

W

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

2 2 8.57

2 2 8.57

3 4 2.86

7 1 00.00

P ERCENT

8 2 8.51

0

2

4 1 2.90

1 0 3 2.26

0 0 .00

T OTAL

O 0 .00

T OTAL

4 1 00.00

I NTO M ATERIAL

W

G

O

0 0 .00

H

3

0

6 1 9.35

3 9 .68

A ctions:

M aterials:

A ttributes:

C U = C utting

A = A ntler B = B one G = G rass

C omet-tailed P its S triae L inear G rooves

H = H ide W = W ood

P its

G R = G raving & A = S awing S C = S craping

5

3 1 1 00.00

M ultiple D iscriminant A nalysis:

1M INUTE

C lassification b y A ction b ased o n F our A ttributes

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED

F ROM A CTION

C U

G R

S A

S C

I NTO A CTION

T OTAL

C U

4 1 00.00

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

0 0 .00

4 1 00.00

G R

2 4 0.00

2 4 0.00

1 2 0.00

0 0 .00

5 1 00.00

S A

4 3 3.33

0 0 .00

7 5 8.33

1 8 .33

1 2 1 00.00

S C

5 8.33

7

1 7

T OTAL P ERCENT

1M INUTE

5 1.52

A

2 6 .06

9 2 7.27

B

5 5 5.56 O 0 .00 0

4

1 2

3 3.33

1 00.00

5

3 3

1 5.15

C

0 0 .00

1 00.00

3 4 2.86

0 0 .00

O 0 .00

0 0 .00

4 1 00.00 2 4 0.00

0

0 .00

0 .00

5 1 5.15

4 1 2.12

H

4 4 4.44

4 5 7.14

0 .00

O

T OTAL P ERCENT

1 8 .33

N UMBER O F O BSERVATIONS A ND P ERCENTS C LASSIFIED I NTO M ATERIAL

F ROM MATERIAL A

0 0 .00

4 5 0.00

1 7 5 1.52

W

0 0 .00 0 0 .00

T OTAL

0 0 .00 0 0 .00

0

0

9 1 00.00 7 1 00.00 4

0 .00

0 .00

1 00.00

1 2 0.00

2 4 0.00

5 1 00.00

0 0 .00

1 3 .03

4 5 0.00

6 1 8.18

A ctions:

M aterials:

A ttributes: C omet-tailed P its

C U = C utting

A = A ntler

G R = G raving

B . . B one

S triae

S A = S awing

G = G rass

L inear G rooves

S C = S craping

H = H ide W - W ood

P its

8 1 00.00 3 3 1 00.00

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