Use Wear Analysis on Bone and Antler Tools of the Mackenzie Inuit 9780860549185, 9781407349909
194 54 136MB
English Pages [172] Year 1997
Polecaj historie
![Bone, Antler, Ivory & Horn: The Technology of Skeletal Materials Since the Roman Period [1 ed.]
0709932421, 9780709932420](https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/bone-antler-ivory-amp-horn-the-technology-of-skeletal-materials-since-the-roman-period-1nbsped-0709932421-9780709932420.jpg)
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Acknowledgements
Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: Approaches to Bone Technology
Chapter Three: Methods
Chapter Four: Experiments
Chapter Five: Results of Archaeological Analyses
Chapter Six: Analysis of Manufacturing Techniques in the Archaeological Samples
Chapter Seven: The Design System
Chapter Eight: Summary and Conclusions
References Cited
Appendix One
Appendix Two
Plate Captions
Plates
Citation preview
Use Wear Analysis on Bone and Antler Tools of the Mackenzie Inuit
Genevieve M. LeMoine
BAR International Series 679 1997
Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 679
Use Wear Analysis on Bone and Antler Tools of the Mackenzie Inuit © Genevieve M. LeMoine and the Publisher 1997 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860549185 paperback ISBN 9781407349909 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860549185 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1997. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.
BAR
PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:
E MAIL P HONE F AX
BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com
F o rS co t ta nd Me red i th
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S INE W STONE
3 3 6 3 7 3 7 3 8
SNO W AND I CE EARTH
3 8 3 9
NON -USE WEAR
3 9
DES IGN SYSTEMS
1 1 2
SUM MARY
3
CONCLUS IONS
4
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYSIS 4 2
H IDE W ORK ING ANTLER MEAT
AC KNO WLEDG MENTS CHAPTER ONE : I NTRODUCT ION MICROSCOP IC ANALYS IS ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS
CHAPTER TWO : APPROACHES TO BONE TECHNOLOGY M ODELS F RO M L ITH IC TECHNOLOGY
USE WEAR ANALYSIS RECONSTRUCT IONS OF M ANUFACTUR ING TECHN IQUES
T 1UBOLOGY DEF IN IT ION H ISTORY FR ICT ION W EAR THE S PEC IAL CASE OF P OL ISH ING APPL ICAT IONS I N ARCHAEOLOGY APPL ICAT ION TO BONE
THE THEORETICAL MODEL DES IGN STYLE
THE COGN ITIVE APPROACH COGN IT IVE ANTHROPOLOGY M OTOR LEARN ING THEORY ARCHAEOLOG ICAL APPL ICAT IONS
CHAPTER THREE : METHODS EXA M INAT ION TECHN IQUES SCANN ING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY HIGH PO WER L IGHT MICROSCOPY Lo w PO WER L IGHT MICROSCOPY REPL ICAT ION TECHN IQUES
EXPER IMENTAL PROGRA M ME LABORATORY STUD IES F IELD S TUD IES
I X 1
RESULTS AND D ISCUSS ION
4
I NTRODUCT ION
4
PREH ISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY
5
GUPUK ( N ITS -1 )
5 6 6 6 7 8 9 9
ARCHAEOLOG ICAL W ORK
U SE WEAR OF TOOLS FRO M GUPUK DR ILLS S PATULAS SCAPULA SCRAPERS KN IVES AND DAGGERS A WLS AND NEEDLES
9
P ICKS , ADZES AND M ATTOCKS
9 1
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS MISCELLANEOUS W ORKED BONE AND ANTLER
K ITT IGAZU IT ( NITR -2 )
1 1 2 1 2 1 2
GAUGED DR ILLS S PATULAS KN IVES AND DAGGERS A WLS
1 5
W EDGES D ISCUSS ION
1 5
THE POND S ITE ( NITS -2 )
1 5 1 5 1 6 1 6
GAUGED DR ILLS S PATULAS SCAPULA SCRAPERS KN IVES AND DAGGERS
1 8
A WLS AND NEEDLES
1 8 1 9
P ICKS
SNO W KN IVES MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS
4 0 4 0
4 2 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 8 5 8 5 8
A NOTE ON TER MINOLOGY
2 1
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPERI MENTS
2 3
CACHE POINT ( NHTS -2 )
5 8
2 3 2 3 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0
SAUNAKTUK ( NGTN -1 )
5 9
M ANUFACTUR ING CROOKED KN IVES CH ISELS/GRAVERS ADZES DR ILLS GR IND ING AND POL ISH ING SA W ING F IL ING
USE WEAR W OOD WORK ING EXPER I MENTS
D ISCUSS ION
GAUGED DR ILLS S PATULAS SCAPULA SCRAPERS KN IVES AND DAGGERS A WLS AND NEEDLES P ICKS , ADZES AND M ATTOCKS MISCELLANEOUS W ORKED BONE AND ANTLER
3 0
THE MACFARLANE COLLECT ION
3 1 V
5 9 5 9 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 1
M ANUFACTURE
USE W EAR
6 1 6 1 6 1
D ISCUSS ION
9 1 9 1 9 3
D ISCUSS ION
6 2
CONCLUS IONS
9 3
HANDL ING M ANUFACTURE
M ATER IAL
CHAPTER E IGHT : SUM MARY AND CONCLUS IONS 9 4
6 3 6 4
TOOLS O F KNO WN USE VS . TOOLS OF UNKNO WN USE. . . . SUMMARY
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS OF MANUFACTURING
S U M MARY EXPER I MENTAL ASPECTS OF USE W EAR ANALYS IS
9 4
SA MPLES
6 5
ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS
9 4
I NTRODUCT ION
6 5
THE DES IGN SYSTEM
9 6
ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYS IS
6 5
TE C H NI Q UES IN
THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL
9 4
CONCLUS IONS
9 6 9 8
( N iTs -1)
6 5
REFERENCES C ITED
KJTT IGAZU IT THE POND S ITE (N ITS-2)
7 0 7 0
APPEND IX ONE : WEAR DESCR IPT IONS
1 04
CACHE PO INT M ACFARLANE COLLECT ION
7 3 7 8
APPEND IX TWO : MANUFACTUR ING DESCR IPT IONS
13
GUPUK
D ISCUSS ION
7 8
I DENT IF ICAT ION OF M ANUFACTUR ING TECHN IQUES
7 9
PLATE CAPTIONS
1 23
I DENT IF ICAT ION OF M ANUFACTUR ING M ATER IALS CO MPARAT IVE STUD IES
7 9 8 0
PLATES
1 31
CONCLUS IONS
8 1
CHAPTER S EVEN : THE DES IGN SYSTE M
8 2
CONSTRUCT ING BEHAV IOURAL M ODAL IT IES
8 2
DR ILLS GuPuK OTHER S ITES
8 2 8 3 8 3
S PATULAS
8 3
GUPUK
8 4 8 4
OTHER S ITES
S CAPULA TOOLS
8 4
KNIVES AND DAGGERS
8 5
A WLS
8 6
GuPUK OTHER S ITES
8 6 8 6
NEEDLES
8 6
SNO W KN IVES
8 7
P ICKS
8 8
GuPuK OTHER S ITES
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS GU P U K OTHER S ITES
8 8 8 9 8 9 8 9
I NTER -SITE CO MPAR ISONS
9 0
THE DESIGN SYSTE M
9 1
FUNCT ION
9 1 V i
L IST OF F IGURES
1 . 1
M AP OF THE W ESTERN ARCT IC
3 . 1
OsTEoNs I N BONE
2 2 2
3 .2 EXAMPLES OF BONE TOOLS
2 2
4 .1 EXPER I MENTAL CROOKED KN IVES
2 3
4 .2 M ANNER O F U SE F OR CROOKED KN IVES
2 3
4 3
2 5
EXPER I MENTAL CH ISELS
4 . 4 M ANNER OF USING
EXPER I MENTAL CH ISELS
2 5
4 . 5 EXPER IMENTAL ADZES
2 6
4 . 6 M ANNER OF USING
2 7
EXPER I MENTAL ADZES
4 . 7 EXPER IMENTAL DR ILL K IT
2 8
4 .8 M ETHOD OF US ING EXPER I MENTAL BO W DR ILL
2 8
4 . 9F IVE EXPER IMENTAL BONE DR ILLS
3 1
4 .10 BONE DR ILL U SED TO DR ILL WOOD
3 1
4 .11 EXPER IMENTAL BONE S PATULAS
3 2
4 .12 METHODS OF U S ING S PATULAS
3
4 .13 EXPER IMENTAL S CAPULA TOOLS
3 4
4 .14 METHOD OF US ING S CAPULA S CRAPERS
3 4
4 .15 EXPER I MENTAL BONE KN IVES
3 7
4 .16 EXPER I MENTAL S NO W KN IVES
3 8
4 .17 EXPER I MENTAL I CE P ICKS
3 9
5 . 1
4 4
GUPUK
( N IT s -1)
S ITE MAP
5 .2 W EATHERED BONE
4 5
5 3
GAUGED DR ILLS F ROM G ijPuK
4 5
5 . 4
SCORCH ING OF A DR ILL FROM GU r 'UK
4 6
5 . 5
S PATULAS AND S CAPULA TOOLS FRO M
5 . 6 KN IVES AND DAGGERS 5 . 7
GuPuK
4 7 5 0
FROM GUPUK
A WLS ( TOP ) AND NEEDLES FROM GuPuK
5 1 5 1
5 .8 SNO W KN IVES F ROM GuPuK 5 .9 P ICKS AND A MATTOCK ( R IGHT ) FRO M
Gu PuK
5 . 10
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS FROM GuP U K
5 . 11
W ORKED BONE AND ANTLER F ROM
5 2 5 3
GU P U K
5 5
6 .1 FREQUENC IES OF MOD IF ICAT IONS AT GUPUK
6 7
6 . 2
FREQUENC IES OF MOD IF ICAT IONS AT THE POND S ITE
7 2
6 . 3
FREQUENC IES OF MOD IF ICAT IONS AT CACHE PO INT
7 4
6 . 4 FREQUENCIES 7 . 1
OF MOD IF ICAT IONS AT SAUNAKTUK
7 6
NEEDLE W ITH THE T IP OF A DR ILL EMBEDDED I N I T
8 7
v i i
6 . 6
L IST OF TABLES
4 . 1
2 4
CROOKED KN IFE USE
SECONDARY MOD IF ICAT IONS OF D ISTAL ENDS OF TOOLS
FROM GUPUK
6 9
6 . 7 M ANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES AT KITTIGAZUIT
7 0
6 . 8 BLANK EXTRACTION
7 1
4 .2 CHARACTER IST ICS OF MANUFACTUR ING WEAR
2 6
4 .3 CH ISEL U SE
2 7
4 .4 NUMBER OF S TROKES MADE WITH EACH ADZE
2 7
6 . 10
4 .5 DR ILL U SE
2 8
FROM THE POND S ITE
4 .6 NU MBER OF POL ISH ING E P ISODES WITH EACH MATER IAL 2 9
3 0
4 .7 F IL ING EXPER I MENTS
6 . 9
TECHN IQUES AT THE POND S ITE
PR IMARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON PROX IMAL ENDS O F TOOLS
7 1
FROM THE POND S ITE
6 . 11
PR IMARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON D ISTAL ENDS OF TOOLS
7 1
SECONDARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON PROX IMAL ENDS OF
7 3
TOOLS FROM THE POND S ITE
6 . 12
SECONDARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON D ISTAL ENDS O F TOOLS
4 . 8
TOTAL DEPTH I N M M DR ILLED I N EACH MATER IAL TYPE 3 1
FROM THE POND S ITE
7 3
4 . 9
TOTAL L ENGTH OF GROOVES MADE I N EACH WOOD TYPE 3 2
6 . 13 BLANK EXTRACT ION TECHN IQUES AT CACHE PO INT
7 3
3
4 .10 TOTAL L ENGTH OF WILLO W BARK P EELED
6 . 14
MATER IALS
PR IMARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON PROX IMAL ENDS OF TOOLS
3
6 . 15
FROM CACHE PO INT
PR IMARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON D ISTAL ENDS OF TOOLS
4 . 12
LENGTH OF F ISH S CALED WITH S CAPULA S CRAPERS
3 5
4 . 13
MINUTES OF RUBB ING AND GROOV ING LEATHER
3 6
4 . 14
CHARACTER IST ICS OF WEAR PATTERNS
4 0
5 . 1
ANALYZED GAUGED DR ILLS FROM GUPUK
4 5
5 . 2
S PATULAS FRO M GUPUK ANALYZED FOR WEAR
4 7
5 . 3
SCAPULA TOOLS FRO M GUPUK
4 9
6 . 19
5 0
FROM SAUNAKTUK
5 . 4 KNIVES AND 5 . 5 A WLS 5 . 6
DAGGERS FRO M GUPUK
5 . 7 ANALYZABLE SNO W KNIVES 5 . 8P ICKS
F ROM
GUPUK
5 . 9 MISCELLANEOUS 5 . 10
FRO M GUPUK
SECONDARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON PROX IMAL ENDS OF
7 5
SECONDARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON D ISTAL ENDS OF TOOLS
FROM CACHE PO INT
7 5
6 . 18 BLANK EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES AT SAUNAKTUK
7 7
PR IMARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON PROX I MAL ENDS OF TOOLS
7 7
PR IMARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON D ISTAL ENDS OF TOOLS
7 7
FROM SAUNAKTUK
6 . 21
SECONDARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON PROX IMAL ENDS OF
5 2
TOOLS FROM SAUNAKTUK
5 2
6 . 22
7 8
SECONDARY MOD IF ICAT IONS ON PROX IMAL ENDS OF
7 8
TOOLS FROM SAUNAKTUK
5 3
TOOLS FRO M GUPUK
7 5
TOOLS FROM CACHE PO INT
6 . 20
5 2
GUPUK NEEDLES
6 . 16 6 . 17
5 1
F ROM GUPUK
7 5
FROM CACHE PO INT
4 .11 N UMBER OF S TROKES RUBB ING BONE AGA INST OTHER
MISCELLANEOUS WORKED BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS
7 . 1
FREQUENC IES OF MOD IF ICAT IONS ON GAUGED DR ILLS . . . .8 3
FRO M GUPUK
5 4
7 . 2
FREQUENC IES OF MOD IF ICAT IONS ON S PATULAS
5 . 11
W EAR ON TOOLS FRO M KITT IGAZU IT
5
7 3
FREQUENC IES OF MOD IF ICAT IONS ON S CAPULA TOOLS . . . .8 5
5 . 12
W EAR ON TOOLS FRO M THE POND S ITE
5 7
7 . 4
5 . 13
W EAR I DENT IF IED ON TOOLS FROM CACHE PO INT
5 8
4 . 14
W EAR ON TOOLS FRO M SAUNAKTUK
5 9
5 . 15
W EAR ON TOOLS I N THE M ACFARLANE COLLECT ION
6 2
5 . 16
I DENT IF IED TOOLS F RO M GUPUK
6 2
6 . 1
BLANK EXTRACT ION TECHN IQUES AT GUPUK
6 . 2
PR IMARY MOD IF ICAT IONS OF PROX IMAL ENDS OF TOOLS
6 . 3 6 . 4
OF
PR I MARY
PROX I MAL
TO
D ISTAL
6 8
SECONDARY
MOD IF ICAT IONS
TOOLS F ROM GUPUK
OF
PROX I MAL
ENDS
ON
KN IVES
OF
6 9
v i i '
AND
8 5 O F MOD IF ICAT IONS ON AWLS
8 6
FREQUENC IES O F MOD IF ICAT IONS ON NEEDLES
8 7
7 . 7
FREQUENC IES OF MOD IF ICAT IONS ON SNO W KN IVES
8 7
7 . 8
FREQUENC IES OF MOD IF ICAT IONS ON P ICKS
8 8
FREQUENC IES OF MOD IF ICAT IONS ON M ISCELLANEOUS
TOOLS
6 8
CH I-SQUARE
MOD IF ICAT IONS
7 . 6
7 . 9
PR IMARY MOD IF ICAT IONS OF D ISTAL ENDS OF TOOLS
MOD IF ICAT IONS
6 . 5
7 . 5 FREQUENCIES
6 8
FRO M GUPUK
OF
DAGGERS
6 6
FRO M GUPUK
FREQUENC IES
8 4
8 9
a v e ry e n joyab le s now a r ch i tec tu re c ou r se o f fe red b y O u tdoo r P u r su i t s a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fC a lgary , t a ugh tb y A l f S k ra st in s . F ina l ly , s ome o ft h et o o l s w e re w o rked w i th ab e l t
ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS
s ande r i n t h e w oodwo rk ing s hop o f t h e F acu l ty E nv i ronmen ta lD e s ign a tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry . T h i s monog raph i s am in ima l ly r ev ised v e r s ion o f
o f
Mo re r e cen t ly , t h e s t af f o f T he P ea ry - Mac M i l lan
my d oc to r a l d i sse r ta t ion , c omp le ted i n t h e D epar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry i n 1 991 . L ike mo s t d i s se r ta t ion s i t c ou ld n o t h ave b een c omp le ted w i thou t e ncou ragemen ta nd s uppo r tf r om ag r ea tn umbe ro fp eop le . I w ou ld f i r s tl i ke t ot h ank my s upe rv i so rN icho la s D av id , a nd t h e r e s t o f my c omm i t tee , J ame s H e lme r , B r ian K ooyman , B r ian R eeve s , a l l o f t h e D epar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , A lan O lde r shaw o f t h e D epa r tmen t o f G eo logy , a nd e x te rna l
A rc t ic Mu seum a t B owdo in C o l lege h ave p rov ided e ncou ragemen ta nd s uppo r tw h i le Ip r epa red t h i s monog raph . K e i sha P ay son h e lped t o b r ing i ti n to t h e e ve r c hang ing w o r ld o f moder n w o rd p roce s s ing . S u san Kap lan , Dav id Ma sch ino a nd S e ig l inde A lexande ra l l a l so p rov ided s uppor t i n t h e i r o wn w ay s . C ompu t ing s e rv ice s a tB owdo in C o l lege a l so l e n t ah and , i np a r t icu la r t h e p r in t e r t h a t p roduced t h i s f i na lc opy .
e xam ine r L awrence K ee ley o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o f I l ino i s . T he ir c ommen t s a nd a dv ice h ave h e lped c l a r ify b o th my i d ea sa nd t h i sw o rk .
T hank s mu s t a l so g o t oJ ohn H edge s . Wi thou t h i s p e r seve r ance a nd e ncou ragemen t t h i s p ub l ica t ion w ou ld s t i l l b ei nl imbo .
Wh i le w o rk ing o nt h i s d i s se r ta t ion Iw a s g ene rou s ly f unded b y a S oc ia l S c ience s a nd H uman i t ie s R e sea rch C oun c i l Doc to ra l F e l low sh ip , a n I t zak Wa l ton K i l la in
Wh i le c a r ry ing o u t t h i s r e sea rch , Ie n joyed t h e h o sp i t a l i ty o fp eop le a c ro s s t h e c on t inen t : G ay le S am s , R o se S co t t , a nd C huck A rno ld , a l l i n Y e l lowkn ife , my s i s te r a nd
Memo r ia l F e l lowsh ip , a nd a R a lph S t e inhaue r Awa rd o f D i s t inc t ion . Add i t iona l r e search f und ing w a s p rov ided b y t wo N o r the rn S c ien t if ic T ra in ing P rog ram G r an t s , a U n ive r s i ty o f ( T h lga zy T he s i s R e sea rch G ran t a nd t h e
b ro th e r in law , B e rnade t te L eMo ine a nd J im We ir , i n b o th O t tawa a nd Y e l lowkn ife , a nd C huck a nd Agne s G la s s i n Wa sh ing ton D .C . .
D epa r tmen t o f A rcha eo logy . S uppo r t i n t h e f i e ld a nd f o r mu seum w o rk w a s a l so p rov ided b y t h e P r ince o f Wa le s No r the rn H e r i tage C en t re . T he d epa r tmen t o f G eo logy g ene rou s ly p rov ided a cce ss t o a S cann ing E lec t ron
T he i n te l lec tua lr oo t s o ft h i s d i sse r ta t ion g o b ack t o u nde rg radua te c ou r se s a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f T o ron to , p a r t icu la r ly t ot h o se t a ugh t b y t h e l a te W i l l iam I r v ing , who f i r s t s pa rked my i n te re s t i n b one t e chno logy , a nd G e ra ld
M ic ro scope a nd t o t h e ir p ho tom ic ro scope . Iam g ra te fu l t o Do r i s J ohn son , who t r a in ed me i n t h e u se o f t h e S EM , a nd R ick L a ru sh , who w a s e nd le s s ly h e lp fu l i n t h e u se o f t h e p ho tom ic ro scope . Debb ie G la t io t i s a l so h e lped me w i th t h e S EM ,a nd t ook t h ep ho tog raph si nF igu re 4 . 8 .
K uk an , who i n t roduced me t o d e s ign t h eo ry a nd a n ' i s och re s l ic ' a pp roach t os t y le u nde r a no the r n ame . My t ime a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry h a s s e en t h e se i n te re s t s d eve lop a nd e xpand . F ina l ly ,i tw ou ld n o th ave b een p o s s ib le t oc omp le te t h i s d i s se r ta t ion w i thou t t h e s uppo r t a nd e ncou ragemen t o f my f am i ly a nd f r iend s . T he f r iend s Ih ave made o ve r t h e y ea r s i n C a lga ry a r e t o o n ume rou s t ol i s t h e re b u t Iw ou ld l i ke e spec ia l ly t o t h ank S u san L ang ley , G lenn S tuar t , D on
F ie ld w o rk a t Gupuk w a s d i rec ted b y C ha r le s A rno ld o f t h e P r ince o f Wa le s No r the rn H e r i tage C en t re . I w a s f o r tuna te t ob e p re sen t f o r t h e 1 988 a nd 1 989 s e a son s . C huck h a s a l so b een g ene rou s w i th h i s t ime a nd a dv ice . T he c on se rva to r s a tt h e P r ince o f Wa le s , B runo P u l io t a nd R o se
H anna , S ha ron H anna , I an R obe r t son , P e te r F ranc i s , C la ire A l lum , Ma rga re t G la ss , P e te r McCar tney , R eg ina ld Auge r , C a rmen C ame ron , D ebb ie F e rgu son , J udy S te rne r , L aune B eckw i th , R o s s J am ie son , D on B o ra s , S and ra P eacock ,
S co t t , w e re a l so ag rea th e lp i ni d en t ify ing s u i tab le ma te r ia l s f o r m ak ing r ep l ica s a nd e n su r ing t h a t t h e a r te fac t s w e re i n t h eb e s tp o s s ib le c ond i t ion . Mo s t o ft h e o the r a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s e xam ined h e re w e re a l so p a r t o f t h e P r ince o f
B renda K ennedy , J e f f C har irand , D a le Wa lde , L a ura Wa rd law a nd G ay le S am s . T hey a nd many o the r s h e lped
Wa le s N o r the rn H e r i tage C en t re c o l lec t ion s , w i th t wo e xcep t ion s . Iam g ra te fu l t oR obe r t McGhee a nd t h e s t af fa t
make my t ime h e re t r u ly w o r thwh i le . My s i s te rE l izabe th ,t h e
t h e C anad ian Mu seum o f C iv i l iza t ion , whe re I e xam ined ma te r ia l f r om K i t t igazu i t , a nd t o W i l l iam F i t zhugh a t t h e N a t iona l Mu seum o f N a tu ra l H i s to ry i n Wa sh ing ton D .C .
o n ly membe r o f my f am i ly i n C a lga ry , h a s a l so b een a n u n fa i l ing s uppo r t , p rov id ing i n te l lec tua l a nd c u l tu ra l s t imu la t ion a sw e l la s al o to ff un .
whe r e Iw a s a b le t o s t udy t h e MacF ar lane C o l lec t ion . Don B o ra s g ene rou s ly a l lowed me t ou se h i sh ea t t rea ted c he r t s t o
My p a ren t s , Ma ry a nd J o seph L eMo ine , a nd my
t e s tt h er e l iab i l i ty o ft h er ep l ica t ion t e chn ique su sed h e re a nd h e lped me i n te rp re tt h er e su l t s .
g r andfa the r J ohn Wa t son h ave n eve r f o r amomen t d oub ted t h a t Iw ou ld s ucceed ; Ia mg l ad t h a t Ic ou ld p rove t h em r i gh t .
T he ma te r ia l s u sed i n t h e e xpe r imen t s c ame f r om a w ide v a r ie ty o f s ource s . Mos t i mpo r tan t ly I w ou ld l i ke t o
T he i r c on f idence i n me h a c h e lped make t h i s p o s s ib le . My h u sband ' s p a ren t s , Me red i th a nd A rno ld MacEacher n , h ave a l so b een v e ry s uppo r t ive . Mo s ti mpo r tan t ly , Iw ou ld l i ke t o
t h ank Don G ardne r . T he t o o l s h e made f o r me s e rved v e ry w e l l . H i s a dv ice , b a sed o n many y ea r s o f e xpe r ience , w a s
t h ank my h u sband , S co t t MacEache rn . Wi thou th i s u n f a i l ing s uppor t a nd e ncouragemen t , l o ve a nd d evo t ion , Iw ou ld n eve r h ave b een a b le t oc omp le te t h i s w o rk . And f i na l ly , I w i sh t ot h ank my d augh te r Me red i th . S he w a sn o ta round f o r t h e i n i t ia l t r auma o fp roduc ing t h i s w o rk , b u t s he made t h e r e v i s ion g o mo re p l ea su rab ly .T hank y ou a l l .
a lway s h e lp fu l , a nd h i s e n thu s ia sm f o r t h i s r e sea rch w a s a g rea th e lp when my o wn w a s w an ing . B one a nd a n t le rw e re s upp l ied b y L au ra E t tag iak o fT uk toyuk tuk , J ohn K ud lak o f P au la tuk a nd And rew H ammond o f Y e l lowkn ife . E xpe r imen t s w i th s now w e re c ar r ied o u tw h i le t a k ing p a r ti n i x
CHAPTER ONE : I NTRODUCT ION n ece s sa ry t o f o cu s o n t h e p robab le u se s among t h e g roups b e ing s t ud ied , i n t h i s c a se t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t o f t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta . I n f a c t , n o t e ven a l l k nown u se s f o rb one i n I nu i t c u l ture w e re i n c luded , a l though mo s t w e re . T he m a in u se s n o t e xam ined h e re a r e h un t ing a nd f i sh ing . No t o n ly a r e I nu i th un t ing a nd f i sh ing t oo l s ( p ro jec t i le p o in t s a nd f i shhook s f o r t h e mo s t p ar t ) r e ad i ly i d en t if iab le a nd o fw e l l k nown u se , b u t e xpe r im en t s t o r ep l ica te t h e w ea r p roduced b y t h e se a c t iv i t ie s a r e a l so d i f f icu l t t o a r range a nd p e rf orm . I n t e rm s o fu se w ea r i ti st h e o the r b one t oo l s , s ome w e l l r e cogn ized b u t m any o t he r s o f i n de te rm ina te u se , t h a t a r e mo r e i n te re s t ing . T he se t o o l sa r et h ef o cu so ft h i ss t udy .
CHAPTER ONE : I NTRODUCT ION
T h i s monog raph d e scr ibes a t h ree -par t r e sea r ch p ro jec t c a r r ied o u tb e tween 1 985 a nd 1 991 . T he f i r s t s t age , a nd t h e mo s t b a s ic , w a s t o d eve lop c r i t e r ia f o r i d en t ify ing m ic ro scop ic t r aces o f m anuf ac tu r e a nd u se o n b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s t h rough r e p l ica t ive e xpe r imen t s . T o b e m ean ingf u l , s uch e xpe r imen t s r equ i r e s ome g round ing i n p r eh i s tor i c t e chno logy . I n t h i s c a se b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s f r om l a te p r eh i s tor ic I nuv ia lu i t s i te s i nt h e Mackenz ie D e l t a ( Nor thwe s t T e r r i tor ie s , C anada ; S ee F i gu re 1 )w e r e u sed a s mode l s t o s t ruc tu re b o th t h e m anuf ac tu re a nd u se w ea r e xper imen t s . T he s e cond s t age o f t h e p ro jec t i n vo lved a pp ly ing t h e r e su l t s o f t h e e xpe r im en ta l p rog ramme t o a s amp le o f a r chaeo log ica l t o o l s f r om t h e Macken z ie D e l t a . S uch i d en t i f ica t ion s h ave s om e u t i l i ty i na nd o ft h em se lve s , b u t t h ey a r e much mo re u sefu l w hen p u t i n to s ome l a rge r c on tex t . I nt h i s c a se , t h e t h ird s t age o ft h e p ro jec t a imed t o d o t h i sb yu s ing t h e i n f orma t ion d er iv ed f r om t h e a na ly s i st o r e con s t ruc tt h e d e s ign s y s tem f o rt h e m anuf ac tu re a nd u se o f b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s among p r eh i s tor ic I nuv ia lu i t c r af t speop le .
T he t e chn ique s o fu se w ea r a na ly s i s u sed i n t h i s w o rk a r e b a sed o nt h o se d eve loped b y S emenov ( 1 964 ) a nd r ef ined b y l a te r a na ly s t s ( e .g . K ee ley 1 980 ; V aughan 1 985 ) . T h i s a pp roach i n vo lve s e xpe r imen ta lr ep roduc t ion a nd u se o fp re h i s tor ic t o o l s , r e p roduc ing p reh i s tor ic c ond i t ion s t o s ome e x ten t a l though mo s t w o rk i sc a r r ied o u t i n t h e l a bo ra to ry . I n a dd i t ion , c oncep t s f r om a s ubd i sc ip l ine o f e ng ineer ing , t r ibo logy , w e re a l so u sed . T r ibo logy i st h e s t udy o ff r ic t ion , l u br ica t ion a nd w ea r . I t mo s t ly d ea l s w i th m e ta l s , b u tt h eo r e t ica l , r a the r t h an p rac t ica l , a spec t s o f t r ibo log ica l s t ud ie s c an e nhance u nde r s tand ing o f t h e d eve lopmen t o fw ea r o n a l lm a t er ia l s . T he m e thodo logy a dop ted f o r t h e e xper imen ta l p rog ramme , i n c lud ing ad e ta i led d i scu s s ion o ft r ibo logy , i sd e sc r ibed i n C hap te r s Two a nd T h ree , wh i le t h e e xpe r imen t s t h em se lve s a r ed e scr ibed i nC hap t e rF ou r .
M icro scop ic A na ly s i s T h i s i sb yn om ean s t h e f i r s ta t temp tt oi d en t if yt r ace s o fu se a nd m anuf ac ture o n b one . A s e a r ly a s 1 877 L eguay u sed e xpe r imen ta l m e thod s t o i d en t ify t r ace s o f manuf ac tu re o n P a leo l i th i c b one t o o l s a s h av ing b een m ade b y f l in t . S emenov ( 1964 ) w a s t h e f i r s t t o m ake a ny s y s tema t ic a t temp ta ti d en t ify ing w ea r o nb one , a l though t h a tp a r to fh i s w o rk r e ce ived much l e s s a t ten t ion t h an h i s w o rk o n s t one . I n mo re r e cen t y ea r s , af ew o the r s h ave c on t inued t h i s w o rk , e xam in ing b o th manuf ac tu re a nd u se ( s ee C hap te r Two f o ra c o mp le te l i s to fr e f e r en ce s ) . S t i l l , n o c omp rehen s ive s t ud ie s , s uch a st h o se o fK ee ley ( 1980 ) a nd V aughan ( 1985 ) f o rl i th ic u se w ea r ,e x i s tf o rb one t o o l s .
A rchaeo log ica lA na ly s i s When Ib egan t h i sw o rk Ih ad t wo ma in r equ i remen t s f o rt h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le t ob e a na ly sed . O ne w a s t h a tt h e re b e aw ide v a r ie ty o fb one t o o l s r ep resen ted , a nd t h e o t her w a s t h a tt h ey b ev e ry w e l lp re served . B o th r equ i remen t s a r ew e l l m e tb yA rc t ic , s p ec if ica l ly T hu le o rI nu i t , ma ter ia l . P re serva t ion i so fp r ime i mpor tance i na ny s t udy o fu se w ea r , a nd t h e re a r e f ew p l ace s whe re b one a nd a n t le r i sb e t te r p re served t h an i n t h e p e rmaf ro s t r e g ion s . A s t h e a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s p rog res sed t h e i mpor tan ce o f p re serva t ion b ecame i n c rea s ing ly c l ea r ; e ven i np ermaf ro s t , b one t oo l s a r e n o ta lway s s uff ic ien t ly w e l lp reserved f o rm i c r o scop ic a na ly s i s . I ti si mpor tan t t o e va lua te c a ref u l ly t h e c ond i t ion s a te a ch s i te w hen s e lec t ing m a ter ia l f o r t h i s t y pe o fs t udy .
O ne o ft h ep r ima ry a im s o ft h i s w o rk i st of i l l t h i s g ap . T ha t s a id , i t mu s t b e e mpha s i zed t h a t t h i s s t udy i sb y n o m ean s t r u ly c omp rehen s ive : i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o c ove r a l l p os s ib le m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s a nd a l l p o s s ib le u se s . T he e xpe r imen t s i n b o th m anuf ac tu re a nd u se d e sc r ibed h e r e h ave b een t a i lo red t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp les t o b e s t ud ied . T h i s i s an ece s sa ry f e a tu re , a l r eady n o ted b y l i t h ic a na ly s t s , t or e s t r ic t t h e s cope o ft h e w o rk w h i le a tt h e s am e t ime m a in t a in ing r e a sonab ly b road c ove rage . T he
A par tf r om t h e q ue s t ion o fp re serva t ion , i tw a s i mpo r t an tf o r t h i s s t udy t h a t aw ide r ange o f t o o l s b e p re sen t i n t h e c o l lec t ion s . T hu le a nd I nu i t b one t e chno logy i so ne o ft h e mo s tc o mp lex b one t e chno log ie sk nown . An e x t r em e ly w ide v ar ie ty o ft o o l s w e re m ade b y t h e se p eop le s , r ang ing f r om s imp le a w l s m ade o n b roken b i rd b one s t o c omp lex mu l t i p a r tt o o l s . T he v a r ie ty o fu ses a nd manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s i su n surpa s sed , mak ing T hu le o r I nu i t m a ter ia l a n o bv iou s c ho ice f o r t h i s t y pe o f s t udy . I n a dd i t ion , e t hnog raph ic r e co rd s p rov id ing s ome i n f or ma t ion a bou t manuf ac tu re a nd u se a r e a va i lab le f r om t h e l a te n ine teen th a nd e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu r ies .
a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s w e re s e lec ted i np a r t b ecau se o ft h e v ar ie ty o fw ay sp reh i s tor i c I nu i tu sed b one t o o l s ,b roaden ing t h es cope o ft h ee xpe r imen t s c on s id e rab ly . T he m anuf ac tu r ing e xpe r imen t s u nde r taken h e r e c ove r t h e m a jo r t e chn ique s o fs hap ing b one a nd a n t le r w i th m a ter ia l s r ang ing f r om i r on t o p l an t s t e rn s . Wh i le s ome m ino r v a r ia t ion s may b e m i ss ing , t h e r e su l t s o ft h e se e xpe r imen t s a r ea pp l icab le t ob one t o o l sf r om a r ound t h ew o r ld . U se w ea r e xper imen t s w e re o u t o fn ece s s i ty mo re r e s t r ic ted i n t h e i r s c ope . T he p os s ib le u se s f o r b one t o o l s a r e v e ry n ume rou s . T o n a r row d own t h e r a nge o fe xpe r imen t s i tw a s
T he m a ter ia l s t ud ied c ome s f r om t wo s ou rce s . Mo s t c o l lec t ion s w e re e xcava t ed b yT he P r ince o f Wa le sN o r the rn 1
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT H e r i tage C en t re a s p a r t o f t h e ir manda te t o p re serve t h e p r eh i s to ry o f t h e r eg ion ( Arno ld 1 988 , 1 990 , S t rombe rg 1 985 , 1 984 ) . T hese s i te s h ave a l l b een p ar t ia l ly d e s t royed e i the r b y c u l tu ra l o r n a tura l c au se s . One s i te , K i t t igazu i t , w a s e xcava t ed much e a r l ie rb yt h eA rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f C anada ( McGhee 1 974 ) . An e t hnog raph ic c o l lec t ion f r om t h e r eg ion , t h e MacFar lane C o l lec t ion h ou sed a t t h e Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion , w a s a l so e xam ined . B ecau se o f r ap id c hange s i n b one t e chno logy i n t h e h i s to r ic p er iod , h oweve r , v e ry f ew o ft h e t oo l s w e re f ound t ob e s u i tab le f o r t h i s a na ly s i s . T he mo s ti mpor tan tc o l lec t ion , w h ich p rov ide s t h e f o cu s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s , i s t h e m a ter ia l r e cove red f r om Gupuk ( N iT s -1) . G upuk i s a l a rge Mackenz ie I nu i t w in te r v i l lage s i te t h a t w a s a l so a n i mpor tan t s umme r wha le h un t ing s t a t ion . I ta ppea r s t oh ave b een o ccup ied f o r a s l o ng a s 5 00 y ea r s , b e ing a bandoned i n e a r ly h i s to r ic t ime s ( A rno ld 1 988 ) .
T he o t he r s i te s e xam ined , t h e P ond S i te ( N iT s -2 ) , C ache P o in t ( NbT s -2 ) , K i t t igazu i t ( N iT r -1) a nd S aunak tuk ( Ngln 1 ) ( s ee F igu re 1 . 1) a l l h ave s ma l le r a r tef ac t s amp le s a nd , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fS aunak tuk , a r e l e ss w e l lp r eserved . I n s ome c a se s , p r e serva t ion w a s e x t reme ly p oo r , m ak ing i t n ea r ly i mpo s s ib le t o i d en t if y m ic ro scop ic f e a tu re s . N ever the le s s , e xam ina t ion o f t h e se c o l lec t ion s m ade i t p o s s ib le t o e s tab l i sh s pa t ia l a nd t empo r a l a spec t s o f Mackenz ie I nu i t b one t e chno logy w i th s om e d eg ree o f c onf id ence . T he MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion i se x t rem e ly w e l l p r ese rved , b u t r e p re sen t s a much n a r row e r r ange o f t o o l s , mak ing c ompa r i son sd i ff icu l t . My r e a son s f o r c hoo s ing t o w o rk w i th Macken z ie I nu i t ma ter ia l , t h en , h ad much t o d o w i th t h e l o g i s t ic p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th c a r ry ing o u t m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s : e xce l len t p re serva t ion a nd w id ev ar ia t ion . T he a r chaeo log ica la na ly s i s i s i mpo r tan t a s at e s t c a se , t o c heck t h e v a l id i ty o f t h e e xpe r im en ta l r e su l t s i n a' r ea l l i f e ' s i tua t ion . M ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s a l so h a s g r ea t p o ten t ia l f o r a n swe r ing i mpo r tan t q ues t ion s a bou t p reh i s to ry . T he t h i rd a im o f t h i s d i s se r ta t ion , t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p reh i s tor ic d e s ign s y s tem , c an l e ad t os ome o ft h e se a n swe r s .
T he ma ter ia lf r om G upuk i si mpor tan tf o rt wo r e a son s . F i r s t , i ti se xcep t iona l ly w e l lp r e served . T he c ond i t ion s a tt h e s i te , i n c lud ing a p e rmanen t ly f r ozen m idden w i th u p t o t wo m e t r es o f d epo s i t s , c omb ined w i th c a refu l e xcava t ion a nd c on serva t ion , a ccoun t f o r t h i s . S econd , t h e c o l lec t ion f r om G upuk , e x cava ted o ve r t h ree f i e ld s e a son s , i sv ery l a rge ; s ome s i x h und red b one t o o l s w e re a va i lab le f o r s t udy . T h i s i s much l a rge r t h an a ny o f t h e o t he r c o l lec t ion s f r om t h e r eg ion . No t o n ly i st h e v a r ie ty o ft o o l s g r ea t , b u t t h e re a r e many e xamp le s o f mo s tt ype s , s ot h a tr anges o fv a r ia t ion c an b ee s tab l i sh ed .
D e s ign S y s tems Ad e s ign s y s tem ( Ch ippenda le 1 986 ) i s as umma ry o fh ow a n a r tef ac t i s m ade , i n c lud ing t e chn ica l a spec t s , s u ch a s C ape B a thurs t,. C ape D a ihous ,
BEAUFORT S EA
- l-l e rsche l l sand
Mackenz ie B ay
R icha rds I s land
t r ee l i ne
N Macke nz ie R ive r
1Gupuk N iT S -1 2K i t t igazu i t N iT r -2 3P ond S i te N iT s -2 4Cache P o in t N hT s -2 5S aunak tuk N gTn -1 0
F igure 1 . 1 Map o ft h e We s tern A rc t ic , s how ing s i t e s i n c luded i nt h i s s t udy ( a f t e rA rno ld 1 986 ) . 2
1 00 KM
CHAPTER ONE : I NTRODUCT ION m a te r ia l c ho ice a nd manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique ; mo rpho log ica l a spec t s s u ch a s t h e s i ze , s hape a nd e ven d eco ra t ion o f a n a r tef ac t ; a nd s ymbo l ic a spec t s s u ch a s whe the r a nd i nw ha t w ay a na r tef ac ti si n ve s ted w i th s ymbo l ic mean ing . Ad e s ign s y s tem d ocumen t s t h e c ho ices m ade b y t h e make r s a bou t h ow t h ey m ake t h ing s .
T he a r chaeo log ica la na ly s i sw a sa l so as ucce s s . A t Gupuk i n p ar t icu la r , r a tes o f i d en t if ica t ion f o r w ea r p a t terns w e re c ompa rab le t o t h o se a ch ieved i n l i t h ic u se w ea r a na ly se s . O ne i mpor tan t f a c to r t h a t a f f ec ted t h e s u cces s r a te o f i d en t if i ca t ion s i sp r e ser va t ion . A t s i te s whe re p reserva t ion w a sp oo r ,r a te s o fi d en t if i ca t ion o fu se a nd manuf ac ture w ea r a r el ow .
Whe the rf o r as i ng le a r tef ac tt y pe o rf o r awho le t e chno logy , ad e s ign s y s tem i sc u l tu re s pec if ic . T he r e a son s f o r t h i s a r e many , r ang ing f r om c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s ( ' tha t i st h e w ay w e a lway s d o i t ' ) t o v e ry b a s ic t h ing s s u ch a s t h e w ay p eop le
B ecau se o f d i ff icu l t ies i n s amp le s i ze , d ue b o th t o s ma l le r c o l lec t ion s a nd p oo r p r e serva t ion , c o mpa r i son s o f d e s ign s y s tem s b e tween t h e s i te s e xam in ed w e re d i ff i cu l t . T he g ene ra l t r end s e em s t os ugges t t h a t a l l t h e s i t e s a r e p ar t o fa s i ng le d e s ign s y s tem , i n d ica t ing i n ten s ive i n te rac t ion b e t ween Mackenz ie I nu i t g roup s , m os t l i ke ly i n terma r r iage , c ommuna l h un t ing a nd t r ad ing . Wo rk ing f o r t h e mo s t p ar t w i th s ma l l s amp le s , h oweve r , t h i s i sm e re ly a s ugge s t ion . D e f in i t ive r e su l t sw i l lh ave t oa wa i tb e t te rs amp le s .
d eve lop mo to r h ab i t s . S ome o ft h ese a r e o ve r t , b u t o t he r s , p a r t icu la r ly t h e w ay p eop le l e a rn , m ay b e u n r ecogn i zed b y t h e p eop l e t h em se lve s a nd i n many c a se s b y a r chaeo log i s t s a sw e l l . C ogn i t ive s t ud ies i n p sycho logy , l i ngu i s t ics a nd a n th ropo logy h ave s hown t h a t p eop le l e a rn t h ing s , p a r t icu la r ly mo to rh ab i t s , i ns pec i f ic w ay s ( D icken son 1 985 ) . Many a spec t s o ft e chno logy i n vo lv ing mo to r s k i l l s , s uch a s manuf ac tu r ing t o o l s , a r e l e a rned i na pp ren t ice sh ip s i tua t ion s b eg inn ing a ta n e a r ly a ge ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 ) . T he s k i l l s ( a c tua l ly u ncon sc iou s c ho ice s a bou t h ow t o d o t h ing s )t h u sl e arned a r en o to f ten u n lea rned . T h i s b a s ic i n f orma t ion a bou t h ow l e a rn ing t a ke s p l ace h a s i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ion s f o r i d en t ify ing c u l tura l g roup s i n p reh i s to ry ( Sacke t t 1 990 ) . B y e xam in ing t h e w ay t o o l s a r e made , o n e c an t o s om e e x ten t r e con s t ruc t mo tor h ab i t s a nd o t he r u n con sc iou s c ho ice s made b y t h e t o o lm ake r s . D if f e r ence s a nd s im i lar i t ie s i n s uch c ho ice s h ave c u l tura l i mp l ica t ion s . B ecau se t h ed ec i s ion s a r e l a rge ly u ncon sc iou s , t h ey a r e b o th mo re d i ff i cu l t t o c opy a nd l e s s l i ke ly t o b e c op ied . T h i s b e ing s o , t h ey may r e vea l d i f f e rence s a nd s im i la r i t ie s wh ich c an b e m a sked b y s upe rf ic ia l mo rpho log ica lo rd eco ra t ive t r a i t sh e ld i nc ommon T he d e s ign s y s tem f o rb one a nd a n t le rt o o l s f o rt h es i te s f r om t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta e xam ined h e re w i l l b e r e con s t ruc ted w i th s pec ia l r e f e rence t o m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s . T he s i tes r e p r e sen t at ime s pan o f s ome 5 00 y ea r s a nd w e r e o ccup ied b y an umbe r o fh i s to r ica l ly r e cogn ized s ubg roup s o f t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t . B y e xam in ing t h e d e s ign s y s tem s f r om e ach s i te ,i ts hou ld b ep os s ib le t od e term ine w he the rt h e o ccupan t s o fe ach s i te p a r t ic ipa ted i n as i ng le d e s ign s y s tem ( a s mo re c ommon ly o bse rved a r tef ac t t r a i t s s ugge s t ) , o r whe the r t h e re w e re d i f f e rences i nt h e w ay t h ey a pp roached b one t e chno logy . T he r e su l t so ft h i sa spec to ft h es t udy h ave i mp l ica t ion s f o r u nde r s t and ing t h e n a tu re a nd e x ten t o f i n te rac t ion b e tween Mackenz ie I nu i tg roup s .
S ummar y A s t h e f o l low ing c hap te r s w i l l d emon s t ra te , t h e t h r ee g oa l s o ft h i s s t udy h ave b een m e tw i th v a ry ing d eg ree s o fs ucces s . T he e xpe r imen ta l p rog ramme w a s v e ry s ucce s sfu l . T r ibo log ica l t h eo r ie s i nd ica te t h a t w ea r p a t t ern s l ef t b y ma te r ia l s w i th v a ry ing q ua l i t ie s mu s t b e d i f f e ren t . E xpe r imen ta l w o rk b ea r s t h i s o u t . Many o f t h e p a t tern s o bserved a r e e a s i ly d i f f e ren t ia ted . T r ibo log ica l t h eory a l so i nd ica te s , h oweve r , t h a t ma te r ia l s w i th s i mi la r q ua l i t ie s w i l l l e ave s im i la r p a t tern s . E xpe r imen ta l w o rk a l so c onf i rmed t h i s ,p a r t icu la r ly w i th r e ga rd t os now , i c ea nd w e t ma ter ia l s .
3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT Mackenz ie D e l t at o make b one t oo l s . C ompa r ison s b e tween an umbe r o fs i t e s i nt h e r e g ion w i l l e xam ine t h e u n if orm i ty o fb on ea nd a n t le rt e chno logy t h rough t ime a nd s pace .
CHAPTER T WO : APPROACHES TO BONE TECHNOLOGY
USE W EAR ANALYS IS
Mod e l sf rom L i th ic T echno log y
U se w ea r a na ly s i s c an b e c onc i se ly d ef ined a s t h e m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o ft h ew o rk ing p or t ion s o ft oo l s i n
B one t e chno logy h a s much i n c om m on w i th l i t h ic t e chno logy , d e sp i te t h e i r e v iden t d i f f e r ence s . Mo s t o bv iou s ly , t h et o o l s made w i th e a ch a r e f un c t iona l ly s im i la r , b e ing u sed f o rc u t t ing , s c rap ing ,p i e rc ing , f o rp ro jec t i le s a nd s o o n . I n s om e c a ses , t h e t e chn ique s u sed t om ake t h e t o o l s a r e t h e s ame . T h i s i s mo s t o bv iou s w i th f l aked t o o l s b u t i s a l so t r ue o f s ome a spec t s o f g round s t one t e chno logy ( a l though p eck ing i sn o t u sed o n b one ) . B onn ich sen a nd Y oung ( 1980 ) h ave e xam ined t h i s a spec t o fb one a nd s t one t e chno log ie s t o l i nk t h e f l aked b one t e chno logy o f O ld C row t o s t one t e chno log ie s e l sewhe re . T ha t s a id , many more b one t o o l s a r e made b y g r ind ing , s c rap ing a nd g roov ing , t h an b yp e rcu ss ion .
o rde r t od e te rm in e t h e u se ( s ) t o wh ich t h ey h ave b een p u t . A l though i th a sb een u sed i na r chaeo logy s po rad ica l ly s i nce t h e l a te n ine t een th c en tu ry , i td id n o t b ecome a c ommon a na ly t ica l t o o l i n t h e We s t u n t i l t h e m id -1960 s , a f t e r t h e t r an s la t ion o f S em enov 's c l a s s ic P reh i s tor ic T echno logy ( 1964 ; s e e O lau s son 1 980 f o r a mo re d e ta i led h i s to ry ) . A l though S em enov i n c luded b one t oo l si nh i s s t udy , t h ev a s t ma jo r i ty o fw o rk d one i nt h e We s ts i nce t h en h a s f o cu sed o n s t one t o o l s . ( Th i s a l so s e em s t o b e t h e c a se i n t h e S ov ie t Un ion , s e e L eav i t t 1 976 , 1 979 . ) U se w ea r s t ud ies o fb one t o o l s a r e f ew i nn umbe r a nd o f t en a r e e i the r v e ry r e s tr ic t ed i nt h e i r s c ope o r l e s s w ide ly a va i lab le t h an l i th ic a na ly se s ( e .g . B ouchud 1 977 , C ampana 1 980 , C hoyke 1 983 , L eMo ine 1 985 , MacG rego r 1 975 , O l sen 1 979 , R unn ing s 1 984 ; d ' E r r ico e t a l . 1 984 a nd N ewcome r 1 974 h ave
P e rhap s t h e mo s t i mpor tan t s im i la r i ty i st h a t t h e se a r e b o th r educ t ive t e chno log ie s . T he s t age s o f m anuf ac tu re c an b e d e tec ted e i the r i n ma rk s o n t h e t o o l s t h em se lve s , o r in t h e
e xam ined t r ace s o f manuf ac tu re ) . N eve r the le ss , t h e d eve lopmen t s m ade i nu se w ea r a na ly s i s b y t ho se s t udy ing
d eb i tage ( Ch ippenda le 1 986 :476 ) . T he d eb i tage o f s t one t o o l manuf ac tu re i s more r e ad i ly r e cove rab le t h an t h a t o f b one . T he d u s ta nd s hav ing s l ef tf r om c a rv ing o rg r ind ing a b one t o o l a r e a l lt o o e a s i ly d e s t royed , a l though l a rge rp i ece s s uch a s a r t icu la r e nd s r emoved i n t h e e a r ly s t age s o f m anuf ac tu re a r e f r equen t ly p r e served . T h i s r e la t ive l a ck o f d eb i tage i sp ar t ly made u p f o rb yt h e c l a r i ty o ft h e e v idence
s t one t o o l s a r e r e ad i ly a pp l icab le t ob one t oo l s . T h i s i sn o t t h e p l ace f o r ad e ta i led h i s to ry o f t h e d eve lopmen t o fu se w ea r a na ly s i s . S uch h i s to r ies a r e a va i lab le e l sewhe re ( e .g . O lau s son 1 980 , T omenchuk 1 985 , V aughan 1 985 ) . H e re a b r ief o u t l ine , h i gh l igh t ing t e chn ique s t h a t w i l l b e u sed i n t h i ss t udy , w i l ls u ff i ce .
f o r r educ t ion p rocesse s s e en o n b one t o o l s . T he m a rk s o f v a r iou s s t age s o f manuf ac tu re a r e o f t en p r e served , a nd a r e more r e ad i ly i n t erp re tab le o n b one t o o l s t h an t h ey a r e o n
I n t h e p a s t t wen ty y ea r s t h ree s choo l s o fu se w ea r a na ly s i s h ave e me rged , a l though t h ey a r e n o t mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive . T hey c an b e c ha rac t er ized b y t h e t y pe o fm ic roscope t h ey
s t one .
f a vou r . T he L ow -Powe r s choo l h a s l a rge ly f a l len o u t o f f a vou r n ow , b u t i ts hou ld n o t b e d i scoun ted . T hose mo s t
T he s im i lar i t ie s b e tween b one a nd s t one t e chno log ie s a l low t h e u se o f b e t te r -deve loped t h eo re t ica l mode l s f r om l i t h ic t e chno logy t o b e u sed t o h e lp d eve lop mode l s f o r b one
c o mmon ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h i s s choo l a r e T r ingham ( T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 ) a nd O de l l ( 1975 ) . Mo re r e cen t ly
t e chno logy . B onn ich sen ( 1979 ; s e e a l so B onn ich sen a nd Y oung 1 980 ) h a su sed t h e se t oa dvan tage i nh i s s t udy o ft h e
S i ege l ( 1984 ) h a su sed t h i s a pp roach . T he se s cho la r s f a vou r t h e u se o f l ow -powe r b inocu la r m ic ro scope s , o pe ra t ing i n t h e 2 5X t o 1 00X m agn if ica t ion r ange . W i th t h i s a pp roach ,
f l aked b one t o o l s o f O ld C row i n t h e N o r the rn Y ukon . L eB lanc ( 1984 ) a nd Mor r i son ( 1 986 ) h ave b egun as im i la r p roce s s f o r t h e b one t e chno log ie s o f t h e D ene a nd I nu i t .
f l ak e s c a r s a nd s t r ia t ion sa r et h e ma in i d en t if ie r so fu se .
B lay lock ( 1980 ) , C o le -W i l l ( 1984 ) a nd N agy ( 1988 ) h ave
T he H igh -Powe r a pp roach , mo s t s im i la r t o S emenov 's
a l l c a r r ied o u ts im i la r wo rk o nv a r iou s T hu le a nd I nu i tb one
o r ig ina l w o rk , i su sed b y many mo re a na ly s t s , a nd i so f t en t h ough t t o h ave a h i ghe r s ucce s s r a te ( Kee ley 1 980 ,
a nd a n t le r t e chno log ie s . Iw i l lb e d o ing t h e s ame h er e , w i th t h e d i f f e rence t h a t Iw i l l f o cu s o n t h e t o o l s t h em se lve s , r a the r t h an o n t h e d eb i tage w h ich i st h e f o cu s o f a l l t h e a bove -men t ioned s t ud ie s .
V aughan 1 985 f o r e xamp le ) . S t r ia t ion s a nd , mo re i mpo r tan t ly ,p o l i she s a r et h e i d en t ify ing f e a tu res i nt h i s t y pe o f w o rk . D e sp i t e r e cen t b l ind t e s t s s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e s u cce s s o ft h i st e chn ique h a s b een o ve r r a ted ( Newcome re t a l . 1 986 ) , t h i s i ss t i l l p robab ly t h e mo s t p owerfu l a pp roach t ow ea rs t ud ie s . B a rnf o r th e ta l . ( 1990 )h ave c ogen t ly a r gued
I nt h i s s t udy t wo mode l s f o ru nde r s tand ing l i t h ic t e chno logy w i l l b e u sed . T he f i r s t , u se w ea r a na ly s i s , i s m a in ly m e thodo log ica l a nd w i l l b e u sed t og ene ra te t h e d a t a f o rt h e
t h a tw hen u sed w i th ad eg ree o fc au t ion ( p a r t icu la r ly w i th a r e ad ine s s t o c a t ego r ize p a t tern s a s u n r ecogn ized ) , h igh s ucce s sr a te sa r es t i l lp os s ib le .
s e cond p ar t o ft h e s t udy , i nw h ich af o rm o ft h e c ogn i t ive a pp roach ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 , H a s san 1 988 ) w i l l b e u sed i n t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f d e s ign s y s tem s ( Ch ippenda le 1 986 ) u sed b y t h e i nhab i tan t s o f t h e
4
CHAPTER TWO : APPROACHES TO BONE T ECHNOLOGY Mo re r e cen t ly , an ew t e chn ique h a s b een a dd ed t o t h e
o ve rcom e t h e p rob lem o f s ma l l w o rk ing d i s tance s . T h i s
r e per to i re . T h i s i s t h e u se o f t h e S cann ing E l ec t ron M ic ro scope ( SEM ) . T he a dvan tage s o ft h e S EM a r e m any ,
m e thod , u s ing a ce t a t e t a pe r e p l ica s , h a s r e cen t ly b een u sed s u cce s sfu l ly b y r e sea rche r s i nF rance ( P l i sson 1 983 , 1 984 ,
i n c lud ing
d ' E r r ico e ta l . 1 984 ) . Ad e t a i led d i scu ss ion o ft h e t e chn iques
b o th
i n c rea sed
m agn i f ica t ion
a nd ,
mo re
i mpor tan t ly , i n crea sed r e so lu t ion a nd d ep th o ff i e ld ,b u ti ti s n o t ap anacea . T oo l s a r e g ene ra l ly t o o l a rge t o f i t i n to t h e
t ob eu sed h e re c an b e f ound i nC hap te rT h ree . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e u se o f at o o l i s am a t te r o f t en t h ough tt ob eo fg r ea ti n te re s ta nd u t i l i ty o ni t s own . I ns om e
s ma l lm ic roscope c hambe r , a nd s o mu s te i the rb e c u tt os i ze o rr e p l ica ted b y o ne m ean s o r a no the r . I ft h e o r ig ina l t o o l i s t ob e o bserved , i tmu s tb e c oa ted w i t h ac onduc t ive m a t e r ia l
c a se s t h i s i st r ue , s u ch a s w i th t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f s i ck le p o l i sh , wh ich i s ag ood i n d ica t ion o f i n ten s ive c u t t ing o f g r a s se s i fn o t o f a g r icu l tu re i t se lf . I n mo s t c a se s h oweve r ,
( u sua l ly g o ld , b u t s ome t ime s c a rbon o r a n a l loy ) w h ich i s d i ff i cu l t t o r emove . F ina l ly , t h e S EM d oe s n o t r e vea l t h e
t h e a c t ua l i d en t if ica t ion o f ap ar t icu la ru se i sn o t r e a l ly t h a t i n t e re s t ing . Know ing t h a t at oo l w a s u sed t os c rape h ide , t o c u tm ea to rt oc a rve b one d oe sn o ti ni t se lf t e l lu s much . U se w ea r a na ly s i s i s , i n t h a t s en se , n o t a n e nd i n i t se lf , b u t a
s ame t y pe s o ff e a tu re s a s d oe s a n o p t ica l m icro scope ; mo s t i mpor tan t ly , t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic p o l i sh e s o b served w it h h i gh p owe r l i gh t m ic roscope s d o n o t a ppea r d i s t inc t ive i n t h e S EM ( Man su r -F ranchomme 1 986 ) . O the r i d en t if y ing
m ean s t o a n e nd . I ti s at e chn ique w i th wh ich w e c an g ene ra te mo re a c cura t e f unc t iona l i d en t if ica t ion s o f t oo l s ,
f e a tu re s a r e v i s ib le , b u t i ti sn o t p o s s ib le f o r a n a na ly s t t o move f r om o ne t e chn ique t o a no the r w i thou t l e arn ing t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic i d en t ify ing f e a tu re s a s soc ia ted w i th t h a t t e chn ique ( t he s ame i st r ue o f h i gh v e r su s l ow p owe r , o f c ou r se ) .
w h ich ,t o ge the rw i th o t he rt ype s o fi n f or ma t ion , c an b eu sed t ot e s t h ypo the se s a nd b u i ld mode l s a bou t t h e p eop le b e ing s t ud ied . T he m a in p o in t t o r emembe r i s t h a t u se w ea r a na ly s i s i n au sef u lt e chn ique f o rg ene ra t ing i n f o rma t ion . I n mo s t c a ses t h i s i n f orma t ion i so n ly m i ld ly i n te re s t ing a nd
A s ub s id ia ry t e chn ique , a l though n o t s t r ic t ly u se w ea r , i s a s soc ia ted w i t h t h e u se o ft h e S EM i nc on junc t ion w i th a n
u sef u l o n i t s o wn . I t s r e a lu t i l i ty c ome s when i ti su sed i na l a rge rf r amewo rk .
X ray a na ly se r , f o r t h e d e tec t ion o fr e s idues i np o l i she s . T o d a te p hy to l i th s h ave b een d e tec ted ( v i sua l ly ) i n s i ck le p o l i sh , a l though t h e s pec ie s h a s n o t b een i d en t if ied , a nd p o l i sh f r om w o rk ing b one h a s b een s hown t oh ave ah i ghe r p ropo r t ion o f c a lc ium t h an e i the r t h e r e s t o f t h e s t one o r o t he rt y pe s o fp o l i sh ( Man su r -F ranchomm e 1 986 ) .
R econ s truc t ions o f Manuf ac tur ing T echn ique s O ne p o in t t h a t h a s b een t o uched u pon h e re , b u t n o t
E ach o ft h e se m e thod s h a s i t s a dvan tage s . T he l ow p owe r
e mpha s ized , i st h eu t i l i ty o fu se w ea ra na ly s i s f o rr e cove r ing i n f orma t ion o n t h e m anuf ac tu re o f b one t o o ls , a s w e l l a s
a pp roach i s r e la t ive ly f a s t a nd u se s t h e mo s t r e ad i ly a va i lab le e qu ipmen t , b u t t h e l e ve l o fi d en t i f ica t ion p o s s ib le i sl ow . I ti so f t en p o ss ib le t od i s t ingu i sh o n ly b e tween t o o l s
t h e i ru se . Mo s t o ft h e m e thod s o fm anuf ac tu r ing b one t o o l s l e ave m ic ro scop ic t r ace s ( p r ima r i ly s t r ia t ion s ) o n t h e t o o l s t h a t a r e a s d i s t inc t ive a s t h e w ea r p a t tern s t h em se lve s ( s ee
u sed o nh a rd o rs of t ma ter ia l s . T he h i gh p owe ra pp roach h a s b een u sed t h e mo s t , a nd h a s w i th s tood t h e mo s t ' b l ind te s t s ' t od emon s t ra te i t s e ff i cacy ( Newcom e r a nd K ee ley 1 979 f o r
C ampana 1 980 , 1 987 , d 'E mco e ta l 1 984 , L eMo ine 1 985 , N ewcome r 1 974 , P l i s son 1 984 ) . T h i s m ean s t h a t o ne
e xamp le ; s e ea l so N ewcome re ta l . 1 986 a nd B amf o r th e ta l . 1 990 ) . T h i s i ss t i l lt h e mo s tp opu la ra pp roach . I tt a ke sr a the r l onge rt ol e a rn a nd , o nce l e a rned , t ou se t h an t h e l ow p owe r
t e chn ique , u se w ea r , wh ich i n l i th ic a na ly s i s y i e ld s i n f o rma t ion l a rge ly a bou t f unc t ion , c an w i th b one t o o l s b e u sed t o r e con s t ruc t t h e manuf ac tu r ing p roce s s a s w e l l . A l a rge p a r to ft h i ss t udy w i l l make u se o ft h i s f a c t ,t oe xam ine manuf ac tu re a sw e l la su se .
a pp roach a nd a l so r equ i res mo re e xpen s ive e qu ipm en t . A f u r the r d r awback , o f a mechan ica l n a tu re , i s t h a t t h e w o rk ing d i s tance o f h igh -powe r m ic ro scope s i sg en e ra l ly s ma l l , mak ing i td i ff i cu l tt oe xam ine l a rge s pec imen s .
O n e f u r the r a spec t o f u se w ea r wh ich h a s o n ly r e ce ived l i m i ted a t ten t ion i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra ture i s t h e t h eo re t ica l b a s i s f o r u nde r s tand ing h ow a nd why u se w ea r d eve lop s . T heo re t ica l a spec t s o fw ea r d eve lopmen t a r e t h e f o cu so ft h ef i e ld o ft r ibo logy .
T he S EM i s t h e mo s t d emand ing o f t h e a pp roache s , r equ i r ing s pec ia l ized m e thod s o fs p ec imen h and l ing a sw e l l a s a c ces s t o v ery e xpen s ive mach ine s w h ich a r e n o t o f ten f ound i n a n th ropo logy o r a r chaeo logy d epa r tmen t s a nd wh ich a r e f r equen t ly i n h i gh d emand . T he i n c rea sed m agn i f ica t ion , r e so lu t ion a nd d ep th o ff i e ld a va i lab le o f f se t
TR JBOLOGY
t h e se d rawback st os ome e x ten t ,h oweve r I n t h i s s t udy a c omb ina t ion o f a l l t h ree a pp roache s w a s u sed . A p rev iou s s t udy ( Le Mo ine 1 985 ) d e mon s t ra ted t h e u t i l i ty o ft h e S EM f o r s t udy ing b one t o o l s . I nt h a t s t udy t h e l ow p owe ra pp roach w a s a l so u sed , a si tw a sh e re , l a rge ly t o
p a r t , s hou ld b e o f p r ime i mpo r tance t o a r chaeo log ica l
i d en t ify a r ea s o fi n te re s tf o re xam ina t ion i nt h e S EM . I tw a s a l so p os s ib le t oi d en t ify s ome d i agno s t ic f e a tu re sw i th al ow p owe r m ic roscope . T he h igh p owe r t e chn ique w i l l a l so b e
w ea r
T r ibo logy , o f wh ich t h e s t udy o ff r ic t ion a nd w ea ri s am a jo r a na ly se s o f u se w ea r . B y e xp la in ing h ow a nd why w ea r o ccu r s , as ound t h eo re t ica lb a s i s f o rt h e i d en t if ica t ion o fu se p a t te rn s
o n
p r eh i s tor ic
t o o l s
i s p rov ided .
B y
r e cogn iz ing t h e d i f f e rence s b e tween w ea r p roce s ses ( i nc lud ing t h e s p ec ia l c a se o f p o l i sh ing ) a nd t h e d i f f e r en t
u sed h e r e , i nc on junc t ion w i th r e p l ica s o ft h e t oo l e dge s t o
5
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT c i rcum s tan ce s t h a t g ive r i se t ot h e p redom inance o fo ne o r a no the r t y pe o f w ea r , i tb ecome s c l ea r t h a t t h e r e mu s t b e d i f f er ence si nw ea rp a t tern s .A tt h i sp o in t , i ti sn o tc l ea rh ow
a t l e a s t t o t h e N eo l it h ic ( R ice 1 987 : 1 34 ) . T he f i r s t d ocumen ta ry e v idence o f l u br ican t s a ppea r s t o b e f r om E gyp t , whe r e ab a s r e l ief d a t ing f r om a bou t 2 400 BC s how s
f i ne a r e so lu t ion i s p o ss ib le , b u t i t i s o bv iou s t h a t m ic ro scop ic mo rpho log ica l d i f f e rence s o nt h ew o rk ing p a r t s o fp reh i s tor ic t oo l s a r e ar e su l t o f w ea r , a nd c an t o s om e e x ten tb el i nked w it ht h e ma ter ia lt h a tc au sed t h em .
l i qu id b e ing p ou red i n f r on t o f a s l edge wh ich w a s t r an spor t ing a l a rge s t a tue ( Dow son 1 979 :36 ) . Know ledge o ft r ibo log ica l p r inc ip les c on t inued t og row f r om t h a t t ime , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e f i e ld o f f r ic t ion . Un t i l t h e 2 0 th c en tu ry , h oweve r , t h i s w a s mo s t ly p rac t ica l k now ledge r a the r t h an t h eo re t ica l , a nd w a s b a sed o n t r ia l a nd e r ro r e va lua t ion s o f w ha t w o rked , r a the r t h an o n c on t ro l led e xper imen t s a nd t h eo re t ica l u nde r s tand ing l e ad ing t o t h e p red ic t ion o fw ha t w ou ld w o rk b e s t .
D ef in i t ion T r ibo logy w a sd ef ined i n aB r i t i sh D epa r tm en to fE duca t ion a nd S c ience R epor to f1 966 a s " The s c ience a nd t e chno logy o fi n te rac t ing s u rf ace si nr e la t ive mo t ion a nd o ft h ep rac t ice s r e la ted t h e re to" ( OECD 1 969 ) . ( I ti sd e r ived f r om t h e G r eek t r ibos , m ean ing r ubb ing . ) I t i s g ene ra l ly c on s ide red a s pec ia l ized b ranch o f mechan ica l e ng ineer ing , b u t w i th i mpor tan t t i e s t o c hem i s t ry , p hy s ic s a nd t h e rmodynam ic s ,
T he d eve lopmen t o f t h eo re t ica l k now ledge h a s f o l lowed a p a t te rn s im i la r t o t h e h i s to r ica l d eve lopm en t o f u se o f t r ibo log ica l p r inc ip les . F r ic t ion w a s t h e f i r s t t o r e ce ive s c ien t i f ic a t t en t ion , b eg inn ing i n t h e s even teen th c en tu ry ( Rab inow icz 1 965 ) . T he s c ien t if ic s t udy o f l u b r ica t ion b ecame i mpo r tan t a tt h e t im e o f t h e i ndu s t r ia l r evo lu t ion , a nd b y 1 925 t h e b a s ic s o fl u br ica t ion w e r e w e l l -unde r s tood
a nd w i th a pp l ica t ion s i na ny f i e ld w he re s u rf ace s i nr e la t ive mo t ion i n te rac t , i n c lud ing med ic ine a nd d en t i s t ry ( Moo re 1 975 :3 ) . A s t h e s c ience o f " i n te rac t ing s u rf ace s i nr e la t ive
( Dow son 1 979 :6 ) . T he s t udy o fw ea ri s much mo re r e cen t ; i t d i d n o t b ecom e i mpor tan t u n t i l t h e 1 940 s . R ab inow icz
mo t ion " , t r ibo logy i sc oncerned m a in ly w i th t h e s t udy o f f r ic t ion , l u br ica t ion a nd w ea r .
( 1 965 :5 ) a t t r ibu te s t h i s r i se i ni n ter es t t o t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f r a d io i so tope s o fc ommon m e ta l s , wh ich made p o s s ib le t h e s t udy o fw ea ra si tp rog re s sed .
App l ica t ion s o ft r ibo logy a r e l a rge ly i n du s t r ia l ; t h a t i s , t h ey a r e c once rned w i th t h e s ucces sfu lo pe ra t ion o fm ach ine ry o f a l l t ype s . A s s uch , t h e v a s t ma jor i ty o ft r ibo log ica l s t ud ie s , b o th t h eo re t ica l a nd p r ac t ica l , a r e c once rned w i th m e ta l s . Non -m e ta l s a r e s t ud ied l a rge ly a s t h ey a r e i mpor tan t i n i ndu s t ry . G ene ra l ly p o lymer s ( p la s t ic s ) , e l a s tome r s( r ubbe r s , n a tu ra l a nd s yn the t ic ) a nd c e ram ic s a r e c ove red . T he mo s t
I nt h el a s tt wo d ecades t h e a pp l ica t ion o fn ew t e chno logy t o t h e s t udy o fw ea r h a s l e ad t o ag r ea te r u nde r s tand ing t oa l l a spec t s o fw ea r . S ome o ft h e mo re i n te re s t ing d eve lopmen t s f r om t h e a r chaeo log i s t 's p o in t o fv i ew i n c lude e xam ina t ion o f w o rn s u rf ace s t o d i agnose w ea r p rob lem s ( Ruf f e t a l . 1 980 ) a nd t h e a na ly s i s o f w ea r p a r t ic le s t o mon i to r w ea r ( Sco t t 1 983 ) . T he se t ype so fs t ud ie s , a l t hough c a r r ied o u tf o r
i mpor tan t n on indu s t r ia l a pp l ica t ion o f t r ibo logy i s a s i t r e la te s t o m ed ic ine , a nd i s c once rned w i th t h e s t udy o f
d i f f e r en t r e a son s t h an a r chaeo log ica l a na lyse s o fu se w ea r , c l ea r ly d e mon s t ra te t h e u t i l i ty o f s t udy ing s u rf ace mo rpho logy a s ac l ue t op a s t a c t iv i t ie s . Ad rawback t ot h i s a pp roach , r e cogn ized b y b o th t r ibo log i s t s a nd
j o in t s , n a tu ra l a nd a r t if i c ia l , mo s t ly i n v i vo . I n d en t i s t ry , t r ibo logy i sa l so u sed t o s t udy t h e w ea r o ft e e t h a nd t o o th r ep lacemen tm a ter ia l sb yd en t if r ice .
a r chaeo log i s t s , i st h a t e v idence o fe a r l ie ra c t iv i t ie s o r s t age s
D e sp i t e i t s o f t -c i ted e conom ic i mpo r tance ( Dow son 1 979 ,
o fw ea ra r em a sked b yl a te rd amage ( Ruf fe ta l . 1 980 ) .
H a I l ing 1 975 , Moo re 1 975 ) , t r ibo logy r ema in s as pec ia l ized f i e ld o f e ng inee r ing , o f ten o n ly b r ief ly m en t ioned i n u nderg radua t e c ou r se s . I ti s , n eve r the le s s , al a rge s ub jec t , t oo l a rge t ob e r e ad i ly s ummar ized h e re . Wha t f o l low s i sa
F r ic t ion
b r ief h i s to ry o fs ome o ft h eb a s ic p r em i se s o ft r ibo logy , a nd o f t h e t e rm s wh ich w i l l b e u sed i n t h i s s t udy . F o r m o re d e ta i led i n f orma t ion , t h e r e ade r i s d i rec ted t o D ow son
A n u nde r s tand ing o f f r ic t ion i s f undamen ta l t o a n u nde r s tand ing o fw ea r , a s a l l m echan ica l t ypes o fw ea r a r e
( 1979 ) f o r ah i s tory o ft h e d i sc ip l ine f r om p reh i s tory t ot h e 1 970s ; R ab inow icz ( 1965 ) i s ac l a s s ic i n t roduc t ion t o f r ic t ion a nd w ea r . A n umbe r o f mo re u p t o d a te i n t roduc t ion s a r e a l so a va i lab le , i n c lud ing Moo re ( 1 975 ) ,
b a sed o n f r ic t ion . F r ic t ion h a s b een d ef ined a s " t he r e s i s tance t o mo t ion wh ich e x i s t s when a s o l id o b jec t i s moved t a ngen t ia l ly w i th r e spec t t o t h e s u rf ace o f a no the r
H a l l ing ( 1 975 ) a nd J ones a nd S co t t( 1983 ) .
s u ch mo t ion " ( Rab inow icz 1 965 :52 ) . ( The f o l low ing d i scu s s ion i ss umma r ized f r om R ab inow icz [ 1 965 ] . )
wh ich i tt ouche s , o r when a n a t temp t i s made t o p roduce
H i s tor y
S c ien t if ic u nd e r s tand ing o f f r ic t ion b egan w i th N ew ton . I t w a s n o t u n t i l h i s F i r s t L aw o f Mo t ion w a s d eve loped t h a t a s c ien t if i c u nde r s tand ing o ff r ic t ion w a s p o ss ib le . Af t e r t h a t ,
A l though o n ly d ef ined a s af i e ld o fs t udy i n 1 966 , s c ien t if ic
t wo c ompe t ing t h eor ies w e re d eve loped . T he f i r s ts t a ted t h a t
s t udy o f a s pec t s o f t r ibo logy a nd t h e u se o f t r ibo log ica l p r inc ip le s i s much o l de r . U se o ff r ic t ion t o s t ar t af i re i sa n o bv iou s e xamp le . U se o f b ea r ing s , i n i t em s a s d i ve r se a s b ow d r i l l s a nd p o t te r s whee l s a nd t o ume t te s , c an b e t r aced
f r ic t ion i sd ue t os u rf ace r oughness : a sper i t ie s ( ' sma l l sca le i regu lar i t ie s o n as u rf ace ' [ OECD 1 969 :16 ] ) o n s u rf ace s i n te r lock , mak ing s l id ing d i ff i cu l t . T h i st h eory h e ld s way f o r al o ng t ime b ecau se i ta ccoun ted f o r e xper imen ta l r e su l t s
6
CHAPTER TWO : APPROACHES TO BONE T ECHNOLOGY s how ing t h a t f r ic t ion i sp ropo r t iona l t o l o ad , n o t c on tac t a r ea . T he
1 965 :109 ) . A s s uch , i tc an b e b enef ic ia l , u ndes irab le , e ven c a t a s t roph ic , d epend ing o n t h e c i rcum s tance s . B enef i c ia l t y pe s o f w ea r i n c lude g r ind ing , p o l i sh ing a nd o the r t e chn ique s u sed t o s hape ma ter ia l s a nd c r ea te s u rf ace
s e cond t h eo ry s t a ted t h a t a dhe s ion b e tween t wo
s u rf ace sw a st h em a in c au se o ff r ic t ion . B ecau se t h i si mp l ie s t h a t c on t ac t a r ea i si mpo r tan t , a nd e xpe r im en ta l r e su l t s h ad
f i n i she s . Wr i t ing w i th ap enc i l o r c ha lk a l so f a l l s i n to t h i s c a tego ry . Wea r c an a l so b e u sed , t h rough t h e j ud ic iou s
s hown t h a t t h i s w a s n o t t h e c a se , i tw a s g ene ra l ly r e jec ted . T he a dhe s ion t h eo ry w a sn o ts e r iou s ly r e con s id e r ed u n t i lt h e 1 920s , a nd i tw a s n o tu n t i lt h e 1 940 s t h a ti tr e ce ived al o to f a t ten t ion . A t t h a t t ime i tw a s s hown t h a t c on t ac t b e tween
s e lec t ion o fm a ter ia l s , t o ma in ta in as ha rp c u t t ing e dge . I n t h e n a tu ra l w o r ld r oden t t e e th a r e a n e xamp le o f t h i s ( Rabmow icz 1 965 :112 ) . S tud ie s o f w ea r , h oweve r , a r e l a rge ly c oncerned w i th t h eu ndes i rab le e f f ec t s o fw ea r , s i nce r educ ing o r e l im ina t ing t h e se c an l e ad t o g rea t e conom ic b ene f i t sb yp ro long ing t h el i f e o fm ach ines b ef o re t h ey w ea r o u t .
t wo s u rf aces w a s a c tua l ly c on tac tb e tween a sper i t ie s o n t h e s u rf ace s . S ince t h e se a r e t i ny , t h e a c tua l a r ea o fc on t ac t i s a l so v ery s ma l l . T h i s s ma l l c on tac t a r ea w a s f o und t o b e p ropo r t iona l t o l o ad a nd t hu s t o f r i c t ion . T he c on tac t o f a sper i t ie s , wh ich h ave v e ry s ma l l s u rf ace a r ea s , w a s s hown
Wea r i t se lf i sa n i mmen se ly c omp l ica ted p roce s s . T he re i s
t o l e ad t o v e ry h i gh l o ca l p re s su re s , wh ich w ou ld c au se
g ene ra l a g reemen t a bou t t h e n a tu r e o f t h e ma in w ea r p roce s se s , t h e se b e ing a dhes ive , a b ra s ive , f a t igue , a nd c hem ica l o rc o r ro s ive w ea r ( Ba rwe l l 1 979 ) . ( O the r s i n c lude
p l a s t ic ( i . e .p e rmanen t ) d ef orma t ion o ft h e a sper i t ie s . T h i s i s t h e b a s i s f o r a b ra s ive w ea r . A spe r i t ie s c an t h en c o ld w e ld ( f u se w i thou t m e l t ing ) , a nd movemen t( s l id ing ) c an c au se a
e r o s ion [ Dow son 1 979 ] a nd f r e t t ing [ Ruf f a nd L udema 1 986 ] ) . H ow e ach m echan i sm w o rk s i s s t i l l a ma t te r o f
p o r t ion o fo ne a spe r i ty t os hea r o f f . T he se s h ea r ed p a r t ic le s s ome t ime s a dhe re t o t h e o ppos i te s u rf ace , a nd s om e t ime s b reak f r ee , b ecom ing w ea r d ebr i s . T h i s i s t h e b a s i s f o r a dhes ive w ear ( s ee b e low ) .
d eba te . I n mo s tc a ses , mo re t h an o ne p roce s s i so ccur r ing a t a ny o ne t ime . I n e ng ineer ing , a dhe s ive w ea r i st h e mos t i mpo r tan t , b ecau se i t i s t h e l e a s t c on t ro l lab le ( Dow son 1 979 ) . I nt h i s s t udy , a b ra s ive w ea r i st h e mos t i mpor tan t . A b r ief d i scu s s ion o fe ach o ft h e ma in w ea rp roce sse s f o l low s .
T hu s s hea r s t reng th , a nd p ene t ra t ion h a rdne s s ( h ow f a r a n a sper i ty c ou ld p ene t ra te i n to as of t e r m a ter ia l ) w e r e s hown t o b e i mpor tan t p a rame te r s f o r e s t ima t ing c oeff i c ien t s o f f r ic t ion ( " g iven a s t h e r a t io o b ta ined b y d i v id ing t h e
Abra s ive Wear : Ab ra s ive w ea r i sc au sed b y t h e i n te rac t ion
t a ngen t ia l f o rce r e s i s t ing mo t ion b e tween t wo b od ie s b y t h e n o rma l f o rce p re ss ing t h o se t wo b od ie s t o ge th e r " [ OECD 1 969 :23 ] ) a nd r e s i s tance t o w ea r . L a te r w o rk s howed t h a t p lough ing ( m ic ro -cu t t ing ) b y a spe r i t ie s w a s a l so i mpor tan t ,
ma ter ia l c an b e s ma l l l o o se g ra in s s uch a ss and , a n a b ra s ive s u rf ace s u ch a s s and s tone o r s andpape r , o r as o l id o b jec t s u ch a s af i l e . S c ra tche s , s ome t ime s v i s ib le t o t h e u na ided e ye c ha rac ter i ze a b ra s ive w ea r . T he m echan i sm s b y w h ich
l e ad ing t o t h e c ur ren t mode l , w h ich h o ld s t h a t f r i c t ion i s c au sed b y a c omb ina t ion o f a dhe s ion a nd p l ough ing ( s umma r ized f r om D ow son 1 979 ) .
t h e se s c ra tche s a r e f o rmed h ave b een s t ud ied f o r aw ide r ange o fm a te r ia l s .
L ub r ica t ion i se f f ec t ive i nr educ ing f r i c t ion b ecau se i tf o rm s al a ye r ( o f o i l o r o the r l u br ican t ) b e tween t wo c on tac t ing s u rf ace s , a nd t hu s h e lp s t od i s t r ibu te t h e l o ad o ve r ag r ea te r a r ea . U sed c or rec t ly , l u br ican t s c an v i r tua l ly e l i mina te s ome
t r an sf e r o f p i eces o f o ne ma ter ia l t o t h e s u rf ace o f t h e m a ter ia l i n c on tac t w i th i t . I t i s a s soc ia ted w i th p l a s t ic
o f t wo ma ter ia l s , o ne h a rde r t h an t h e o the r . T he h a rd
Adhe s ive Wear : T h i s t y pe o f w ea r i s t h e r e su l t o f t h e
d ef o rma t ion , b r i t t le f r ac tu re a nd f a t igue , b u t d oe s n o t g ene ra l ly p roduce p i t s o r s c ra tche s ( Ruf f a nd L udema 1 986 ) . I ti sn o t a lway s d e t r imen ta l , n o r i si ta lway s o n a m ic roscop ic s c a le .
t y pe s o f w ea r , p a r t icu la r ly a b ra s ive w ea r ( a s l o ng a s t h e l u br ican ti sk ep tf r ee o fi n c lu s ion s ) . I n t h e c a se o f b one t oo l s , l u br ica t ion i s n o t g ene ra l ly
F a t igue : T h i s i sc ha rac ter ized b y t h e s e em ing ly s udden l o s s o f ma ter ia l f r om a s u rf ace , o n e i the r am ic ro scop ic o r a
c on s ide red i mpo r tan t , b u t i ts hou ld b e r emembe red t h a t i t n eed n o ta lway sb ep u rposefu l . I nt h eo ry , t o o l su sed t ow o rk f a t ty m a te r ia l s may a ppea r v i r tua l ly u nworn i f af i lm o ff a t
m acro scop ic s c a le . I ti s t h e r e su l t o f ' t he f o rma t ion a nd s t eady g row th o fc r ack s i nt h e ma t er ia l ' ( Ruf fa nd L udema
a c t s a s al u br ican t . I np rac t ice t h i s i su n l ike ly . L ubr ica t ion i so n ly d e s i rab le w hen t h e g oa l i st oh ave t wo p i ece s move
1 986 ) , wh ich a r e d ue t o r epe t i t ive s t r ess o n t h e ma ter ia l . ( Bone c an b e m ade t of a i l d ue t of a t igue b y s t r ik ing l i gh t ly
a ga in s t e a ch o the r w i thou t a ny c hange . S ince t h e g oa l o f u s ing at o o l i st oc hange wha teve rm a te r ia l i sb e ing w o rked , l u br ica t ion
i s g ene ra l ly
u nde s i rab le .
F a t
a nd r e pea t ed ly , s e t t ing u p as e r ie s o f t i ny c r ack s . T h i s m e thod h a sb een r epor ted f o rt h er educ t ion o fb one i n to t i ny p i eces f o r b o i l ing t o e x t rac t g r ea se [W . I r v ing , p e r s . c omm . ] . )
i s r ou t ine ly
r emoved f r om b one t o o l s when i ti n te rf e r e s w i th w o rk [ Oake s 1 987 ] . Wo rk ing f a t ty ma t e r ia l s c an r educe w ea r , o r
C orro s ion : T h i s w ea r , a l so k nown a sc hem ica l w ea r , i st h e
s l ow i t sr a te o fd eve lopmen t ,b u tn o te l im ina te i ta l toge the r .
r e su l t o f c hem ica l r e ac t ion s o ccu r r ing a l ong w i th o r i n dependen t ly o fm echan ica lt y pes o fw ea r . T h i sc an i n c lude
W ear
o x ida t ion o fm e ta l s , a s w e l l a s t h e mo re s eve re e f f ec t s o f a c id s a nd o t he rc hem ica l s .
Wea r c an b e d ef ined a s " t he r emova l o fm a te r ia l f r om s o l id
F o r t h ep u rpo se s o fb one t e chno logy , a b ra s ive w ea r i s mo s t i mpo r tan t . A b ra s ion i s ac ommon m e thod o fs hap ing b one
s u rf ace s a s ar e su l t o f m echan ica l a c t ion " ( Rab inow icz
7
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT t o o l s , a sw e l la st h e mo s tc ommon t ype o fw ea ra f f ec t ing t h e t o o l s . T he r o le o f o the r t y pes o f w ea r i s n o t a s c l ea r . A dhe s ive w ea r may b e t a k ing p l ace i ns ome c i r cum s tance s , a nd f a t igue i sa l so p robab ly i mpor tan t , p a r t icu la r ly a s a n
a b ra s ive p a r t ic le i sk nown a nd ( b ) i d en t if y t h e s hape a nd /o r s i ze o f a b ra s ive p a r t ic le s t h a t h ave a c ted o n b one f r om g roove mo rpho logy . B y i d en t i fy ing t h e ( a verage ) s i ze o f a b ra s ive p a r t ic le s i n v a r iou s m a t er ia l s , i ts hou ld t h en b e p o s s ib le t oi d en t ify ar ange o f ma ter ia l s , wh ich c ou ld h ave
e xp lana t ion f o r t oo l f a i lu r e a nd d i sca rd , b u t c or ro s ive w ea r d oe s n o t s e em t o b e i mpor tan t ( bu t n o te t h a t e ven s l igh t ly a c id ic w a te rm ay h ave ac o r ro s ive e f f ec t ) .
c au sed g roove s o n b one . A l though i n tu i t ive ly p l a s t ic f l ow d oe s n o t s e em l i ke ly t ob e i mpor tan t i nt h e w ea r o fb one , i t c e r ta in ly d oe s o ccu r . B oyde ( 1971) h a s n o t ed i t s p re sence , a nd Ih ave a l so o b served i t .F igu re 3 . 1 aa nd b i lu s t ra te s a
A l though mo s t w o rk o n w ea r h a s b een w i th m e ta l s , s ome a t ten t ion h a s b een p a id t o n on -me t a l s a nd e ven , p e r iphe ra l ly ,t ob one . I np a r t icu la r , b one h a sb een ap ar to fa s e r ie s o fe xper imen t s c a r r ied o u t t o e xa mine t h e e f f ec t s o f i r rad ia t ion o fd en ta l ma ter ia l s ( bo th n a tu ra l a nd a r t i f ic ia l ) i n
g roove i nb one w i th e v idence o fb o th p l a s t ic f l ow a nd b r i t t le f r ac tu re
s t ud ie s o f d en t if r ice a b ra s ion (W r igh t a nd B u r ton 1 976 ) . ( Ma ter ia l s a r e i r rad ia ted t o make i te a s ier t o m ea su re t h e
T he s pec ia lc a se o fpo l i sh ing
amoun t o f m a ter ia l l o s t d ur ing w ea r . ) A s ar e su l t o f t h i s s t udy , b one a nd d en ta l t i s sue s ( i vo ry , e name l a nd d en t ine ) w e re f ound t o f o l low t h e w ea r b ehav iou r o f i on ic b r i t t le s o l id s a nd s em i -b r i t t le m e ta l sa so u t l ined b yW i lman a nd h i s c o -worke r s ( Dob son a nd W i lman 1 963 ; S t roud a nd W i lman 1 963 ) . T h i s w o rk i sp a r t icu la r ly p er t inen t t ot h i s s t udy , a nd
P o l i sh i s c ommon ly u nde r s tood a s t h e c r ea t ion o f a r ef l ec t ive s u rf ace . S ince t h i s i s r a the r s ub jec t ive , i t i s p e rhap s b e t te rt od ef ine i ta s as u rf ace o n wh ich " s c ra tches , o r l i ne s a r e n o l onge r v i s ib le w i th o r w i thou t m agn i f ica t ion " ( Coe s 1 971 :29 ) . P o l i sh ing p r e sen t s s ome p rob lem s i nt h e s t udy o fu se w ea r . I ti sc o mp l ica ted b y t h e .. .
s o i tw i l l b e u sed t o d i scu s s s ome g ene ra l p r inc ip le s o f a b ra s ive w ea ro nb r i t t le s o l id ss uch a sb one .
f a c t t h a t t h e re a r e a n umbe r o f d i f f e ren t p o l i sh ing m echan i sm s , a nd i ti sn o t a lway s c l ea r wh i ch o f t h e se i s o pe ra t ing .
Wi lman a nd c o -wo rke r s e xam ined t h e e f f ec t o f a b ra s ion w i th v a r iou s a b ra s ives o n s i ng le c r y s t a l s o f r o ck s a l t ( Dob son a nd W i lman 1 963 ) , a nd o n t wo b r i t t le m e ta l s , a n t imony a nd b i smu th ( S t roud a nd W i lman 1 963 ) . U s ing
H i s tor ica l ly , t h e re h ave b een t wo m a in t h eo r ie s o fp o l i sh . O ne , t h a t p o l i sh ing w a s e s sen t ia l ly s ma l l s c a le a b ra s ion i n w h ich s c ra tche s w e re s o t i ny a st ob e i n v i s ib le t ot h e n aked
v a r ious ly s i zed g rade s o f e mery p ape r ( a ngu la r a b ra s ive ) a nd o ne t y pe o fp ape r w i th s pher ica l p ar t ic le s , t h ey a b raded m a t er ia l s i n c on t ro l led c ond i t ion s ( c on t ro l l ing f o r l o ad ,
e ye , w a s f i r s t p roposed b y N ew ton i n O p t ic / c s ( Rab inow icz 1 968 ) . Much l a t e r , i n t h e e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry , i tw a s
a b ra s ive p ar t ic le s i ze a nd s hape , s l id ing s peed a nd s l id ing d i s tance ) a nd o b served t h e r e su l t s m ic ro scop ica l ly . T hey a r r ived a t an umbe r o f c onc lu s ion s ( s umma r ized f r om D ob son a nd W i lman 1 963 ) .
f ound t h a t p o l i shed s u r f ace s l o oked d i f f e ren t f r om f i ne ly a b r aded s u rf ace s . T h i s l e dt ot h e d eve lopm en to f at h eory o f m e l t ing
b y
L o rd
R ay l iegh
a nd
S i r
G eo rge
B e i lby
( Rab inow icz 1 968 ) . B e i lby f ound t h a t i f h e p o l i shed a s u rf ace , a nd t h en e t ched i ta way , t h e o r ig ina l s t r ia t ion s
F i r s t , p a r t ic le s hape a f f ec ted g roove morpho logy . Angu la r p a r t ic le sr e su l ted i ng rooves c ha rac te r i zed b yf r ac tu re s a tt h e ma rg in s o ft h eg roove . S pher ica lp a r t ic le sm ade g roove st h a t w e re s moo th , w i th ma ter ia l p i led u p a tt h e s i des , ar e su l t o f p l a s t ic f l ow . F rac tu re w a sn o ti mpor tan ti nt h el a t te rc a se .
w ou ld r e appea r . T h i s l e d h im t ob e l ieve t h a t t h e p o l i sh ing a c t ion a c tua l ly c au sed a l a ye r ( t he B e i lby l a ye r )t o f o rm , w h ich s mea red f r om t h e h i gh p o in t s o ve r l ow p o in t s , m a sk ing t h em b u tn o tf i l l ing t h em i n( Rab inow icz 1 968 :93 ) .
S econd , t h ey f ound t h a t , f o r a ngu la r p a r t ic le s , s i ze w a s i mpor tan t . P a r t ic le s s ma l le r t h an 0 . 5 . tm c r ea te g roove s b y
Ag r ea t d ea l o f d eba te f o l lowed a s t o wh ich o f t h ese t wo t h eor ie s w a s c o r rec t . I n 1 968 R ab inow icz p ub l i shed ap ape r d e scr ib ing w o rk t h a t s howed t h an n e i the r w a s t o ta l ly
p l a s t ic f l ow , n o t f r ac tu re , f o l low ing t h e p a t te rn f o r m e ta l s .
c o r rec t . B r ief ly , R ab inow icz f ound t h a t p o l i sh ing w a s a f o rm o fa b ra s ion , b u t o n amo lecu la r s c a le . A s l o ng a s t h e
P a r t ic le sb e tween 0 . 5 -54m w ea rb yb o th f r ac tu re a nd p l a s t ic f l ow . T he r e i s al i nea r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e c oeff i c ien t
l o ad o n t h e p o l i she r i sk ep t b e low ac r i t ica l v a lue ( v a ry ing b y ma ter ia l ) , t h ep a r t ic le s r emoved f r om t h e s u rf ace w i l l b e
o f f r ic t ion a nd w ea r r a t e s . F o r p ar t ic le s l a rge r t h an 5 im w ea ri s mo s t ly b yf r ac tu re , e ven e x tend ing b eyond t h ee dge s o ft h e g roove . Wea r , mea su red a sl o s s o f ma ter ia l , i n c rea se s much mo r er a p id ly t h an f r ic t ion .
i n d iv idua l mo lecu le s . E ven tua l ly t h e s u rf ace c r ea ted w i l l b e s moo th o n amo lecu la rs c a le . T he r e appea ran ce o fs t r ia t ion s r e por ted b yB e i lby i sa c tua l ly d ue t os ub su rf ace s t re s s s e tu p w hen t h es t r ia t ion sa r ef o rmed . An e t chan ta c t s d i f f e ren t ia l ly o nt h e s t re s sed a r ea s , mak ing i ts e em t h a tt h e s t r ia t ion sh ave
T hu s , in g ene ra l , a l though b r i t t le ma t er ia l sh ave c oef f ic ien t s o f f r ic t ion s im i la r t o t h o se o f m e ta l s , w ea r i so f ten much g r ea ter d ue t ob r i t t le f r ac tu re . Me ta ls t y p ica l ly l o o se 1 0% o f
r e appea red ( Rab inow icz 1 968 :98 ) .
t h e v o lume o f ag roove d u r ing w ea r . T he r e s t i sp i led u p a l ong t h e s i de s o ft h e g roove d ue t op l a s t ic f l ow . I n b r i t t le s o l id s , u p t o 1 75% o ft h e g roove v o lume c an b e l o s t d u r ing w ea r , d ue t o e x ten s ive f r ac tu re b eyond t h e g roove i t se lf . S ince t h i s s e em s t ob e t r ue o fb one a sw e l l a sr o ck s a l t a nd
A l though t h i sw o rk w a s p ub l i shed o ve r t wen ty y ea r s a go , i t d oe s n o t s e em t o h ave b een i mp roved u pon . O p t ica l p o l i sh ing i s s t i l l u nde r s tood a s v ery f i ne s c a le a b ra s ion ( Tu rk 1 986 ) . O the r me thod s o fp o l i sh ing e x i s t , s uch a st r ue m e l t ing ( a s i n c e ram ic g l az ing ) , c hem ica l e r o s ion , e l ec t ro ly t ic p o l i sh ing , a nd t h e c a s t ing o f s of t o r l i qu id
b r i t t le m e ta l s (Wr igh ta nd B u r ton 1 976 ) , i tw ou ld s e em t h a t i ti sp o s s ib le t o : ( a ) p red ic t g roove t ype , i ft h e s i ze o f t h e
8
CHAPTER TWO : APPROACHES TO BONE T ECHNOLOGY m a te r ia la ga in s t ap o l i shed s u rf ace ( Coe s 1 971 :29 ) . I tw ou ld
r e ac t ion w a s t a k ing p l ace . I tm ay b e t h a t at r ue p o l i sh h a s
s e em , h oweve r , t h a tn one o ft h e se a r e l i ke ly t ob e i mpor t an t i nt h es t udy o fp r eh i s to r ic b one t o o l s .
b een f o rmed b y t h e h ide , i n wh ich t h e s of t h ide c onf ormed t ot h er e la t ive ly l a rge g r a in s , p o l i sh ing a l l e xpo sed s u rf ace s , r a the rt h an r emov ing t h em .
I n t h e l i t h ic u se w ea r l i t e ra tu re , t h e n a tu re o fp o l i she s h a s b een d i scu ssed . O ne t ype o fp o l i sh t h a th a sb een p roposed i s
O ne o t he r a r ea i n wh ich t r ibo log ica l c oncep t s h ave b een u t i l i zed i s t h e a b ra s ion o f c e ram ic s ( Sch if f e r a nd S k ibo 1 989 ) . B one t e chno logy h a s n o t y e t b enef i ted f r om a ny s t ud ie sr e la ted t ot r ibo logy .
a n a dd i t ive p o l i sh , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e c a se o ft h e s o c a l led " s ick le p o l i sh " ( f o r e xamp le D iamond 1 979 ) . R ecen t ly t h i s t h eo ry h a s r e ce ived s ome v a l ida t ion t h rough t h e w o rk o f A nde r son ( 1980 ) who , u s ing S EM , h a s d e mon s t ra ted t h e p r esence o fi n c lu s ion s , i n c lud ing p hy to l i th s , i np o l i she s o n e xpe r im en ta l s t one t oo l s . T h i s d oe s n o t , h oweve r , p rove t h a tt h ep o l i sh i s" add i t ive" . C oe s ( 1971) p o in t s o u tt h a tt h e a b ra s ive u sed t op o l i sh ap a r t icu la rm e ta l w i l l s om e t ime s b e c ho sen o n t h e b a s i s o f c o lou r , a s m inu te i n c lu s ion s o ft h e
A pp l ica t ion t ob one T r ibo logy h a s much t o o f f e r s t ud ie s o f b one t e chno logy . T he r e la t ive s of tne s s o f b one , i t s l ow r e s i s tance t o w ea r , m ake s i t ag ood c and ida te f o rt h e d eve lopmen t o fu se w ea r e ven w hen u sed o n ly b r ief ly . T he r ange o f p o s s ib le
a b ra s ive w i l l l e nd ac o lou r t o t h e p o l i shed s u rf ace . D e sp i t e t h i s , p o l i sh ing i ss t i l l c on s ide red ar educ t ive p roce s s , a l be i t o n amo lecu la r s c a le . A dhe s ive w ea r i sp robab ly a c t ing a s w e l l , l e av ing m inu te p a r t ic le s o n t h e p o l i shed s u rf ace , b u t o n av ery s ma l ls c a le .
mo rpho log ie s o f w ea r p a t t ern s , e ven w i th in o ne t y pe o f w ea r ( a b ra s ion ) , i n c lud ing b o th p l a s t ic f l ow a nd b r i t t le f r ac tu re , s ugge s t t h a t d i f f e ren t m a te r ia l w i l l p roduce d i f f e ren t
p a t te rn s .
F ina l ly ,
a n
u nde r s tand ing
o f w ea r
m echan i sm s make s i tp o s s ib le , o n t h e o ne h and , t op red ic t l i ke ly w ea r t y pe s f o r p ar t icu la r t y pe s o f m a te r ia l s a nd , o n t h e o t he rh and , t oe l im ina te c l a sse s o fm a te r ia l when t r y ing t oi d en t ify p a t te rn so nt o o l s .
A pp l ica t ions i na rchaeo logy D e sp i te i t s a ppa ren t u t i l i ty f o r u se w ea r a na ly se s , l i t t le a r chaeo log ica l a t t en t ion h a s b een p a id t o t r ibo logy . T omenchuk ( 1985 ) u sed ma thema t ica l mode l s o f b lun t ing r a te s d e r ived f r om t r ibo logy t ot e s th i s h ypo the s i s t h a t e dge l o s s v o lume i s af unc t ion o ft h e a moun t o fw o rk d one . T h i s i s av ery i n ter e s t ing p ropo s i t ion , b u t r equ i re s b e ing a b le t o
T he s t udy o f w ea r i n e ng ineer ing h a s b een e x ten s ive ly q uan t i f ied . A t t h i s p o in t , h oweve r , q uan t if i ca t ion i sn e i the r p o s s ib le n o r n ece s sa ry f o r b one t o o l a na ly s i s . A l though s ome o ft h e n ece s sa ry m ea su re s ( i . e . , i n den ta t ion h a rdne s s ,
e x t rapo la te f r om t h eu sed t o o l t h e v o lume o ft h e e dge b ef o re w o rk b egan . U s ing f r ac tu re m echan ic s , t h i s m ay b ep os s ib le i nl i th ic t e chno logy ,b u t mo s tb one t o o l s a r en o t amenab le t o t h i s t y pe o f e x t rapo la t ion . G r ind ing , t h e mo s t c ommon
r e ad i ly a va i lab le f o rt h e ma ter ia l su sed t ow o rk b one , o r f o r t h o se wh ich b one i sl i ke ly t oh ave w o rked . F o r t h i s r e a son , t h e q uan t i ta t ive a s pec t o f w ea r s t ud ie s h a s n o t b een
e l a s t ic i ty a nd s o o n ) a r e a va i lab le f o rb one , t h ey a r e n o t s o
d i scu s sed h e re . I na dd i t ion , t h e q uan t i ta t ive a spec t s o fw ea r a r e a l l g ea red t o c a lcu la t ion o f w ea r r e s i s tance a nd w ea r l o s s . T he se a r e c u r ren t ly o f l i t t le u se a r chaeo log ica l ly . A s
manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique f o rb one t o o l s , i s av ery c on t ro l led r educ t ive p roce s s . T he r ange o fp o ss ib le s i ze a nd t h ickne s s f o r a ny b one t o o l e dge ( o r p o in t , e t c ) i st o o g r ea t t o b e s ucce s sf u l ly p red ic ted i nt h i s manne r .
w i th e ng inee r st r y ing t ou nde r s t and w ha tc au sed ap a r t icu la r p a r tt of a i l , w e a r e mo re c oncerned w i th r e con s t ruc t ing wha t h appened t h an p r ed ic t ing wha tw i l lh appen .
P rev iou s e xcu r s ion s i n to t h e f i e ld o ft r ibo logy b y l i th ic u se w ea r a na ly s t s a r e d ocumen ted i n H ayden ( 1 979 ) . D e sp i te s ome i n t e re s t ing i d ea s , l i t t le n ew w o rk w a s g ene ra ted , a nd t h e mo s tr e cen t o ft h e m a jo rp ub l ica t ion s o n l i t h ic u se w ea r ( Vaughan 1 985 ) d oe s n o t c i te a ny o f t h e t r ibo log ica l l i t e ra tu re . On ly o ne r e cen t s t udy m ake s e xp l ic i t u se o f
THE THEORET ICAL M ODEL
t r ibo logy , t h a t o f Adam s ( 1988 ) . I ti sp e rhap s s i gn if ican t t h a t t h i s i s as t udy o fg round s t one t o o l s ( manos a nd h ide p roce s so r s )r a the rt h an f l aked s t one . Adam s
( 1988 )
w a s
a b le
t o d i f f e ren t ia te
T he m e thod s o f u se w ea r a na ly s i s a nd c oncep t s f r om t r ibo logy p rov ide t h e f ounda t ion s f o r t h i s s t udy . U s ing t h e se , i tw i l l b e p o ss ib le t o d ocumen t h ow b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s w e re made a nd u sed i n t h e Mack enz ie D e l ta f r om a bou t AD 1 300 t oh i s to r ic t ime s . T he d a ta t hu s g ene ra ted w i l lb ep l aced i n to af r amewo rk o f( t oo l ) d e s ign , wh ich may u l t ima te ly , b a sed o n c ogn i t ive t h eo r ie s , h ave i mp l ica t ion s f o rt h es t udy o fs ome a spec t so fp reh i s tor ic b ehav iou r .
e xpe r imen ta l
v e r s ion s o f t h e t wo e t hnog raph ica l ly i d en t if i ed , morpho log ica l ly s im i la rt o o l t ypes o nt h e b a s i s o fu se w ea r . S he i d en t if ied mano sb yt h ep resence o ff a t igue a nd a b ra s ive w ea r , c on s i s ten t w i th t h e p roce s s o f r ubb ing t h e s t one a ga in s ta no the rs t one , w i th t h e a dd i t ion o fa b ra s ive p a r t ic le s o f g r a in ( ma ize ) . H ide p roce sso r s , o n t h e o t he r h and , s howed n o a b ra s ive o r f a t igue w ea r , r a the r t h e i n d iv idua l
D e s ign
g ra in s o ft h e s t one b ecame s moo th a nd s h iny ( ap o l i sh o r s heen ) . T h i s s he a t t r ibu ted t o at r ibochem ica l p roce s s ,
D e s ign i s aw o rd n o t much u sed i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re . T he c oncep t o f a' d e s ign s y s tem ' ( Ch ippenda le
a l though s he d oe s n o t e l abo ra te o n p r ec i se ly wha t c hem ica l
9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT 1 986 ) i su sed e ven l e s s . A rchaeo log i s t s s t udy t h e u se o f a r tef ac t s , t h e ' s ty le ' o fa r t ef ac t s , t h e r aw ma te r ia l s u sed , a nd t h e manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s a nd p roces se s . A l l t h e se a r e p a r t o ft h e d e s ign s y s tem o fa r tef ac t s , b o th p r eh i s tor ic a nd modern , b u t a l l t oo r a re ly a r e t h ey c on s ide red t o ge the r b y a r chaeo log i s t s( Cahen e ta l . [ 1 979 ] i so ne e xcep t ion ) .
C h ippenda le ( 1986 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t a r chaeo logy i s e s sen t ia l ly t h e s t udy o f d e s ign s , d e s ign s y s tem s , a nd t h e
( h e re m ean ing ' f unc t ion ' i n as t r ic t , u t i l i tar ian s en se ) ; t h e r equ i remen t o fe a se a nd e conomy ; a nd t h e r equ i remen t o f a ppea rance ( Pye 1 964 ) . A l though i tm ay s e em c oun te r i n tu i t ive , in a ny g iven c on tex ti ti st h e l a s tt wo r equ iremen t s t h a tc on s t ra in t h e d e s igne rt h e mo s t . I nt e rm s o fd e s ign , t h e f unc t ion o r i n tended u se o f a n i t em i s o ne o f i t s l e a s t i mpor tan t a spec t s . A l l t h a t i s r equ i red , o f ak n if e f o r i n s tance , i st h a t i th ave as ha rp c u t t ing e dge a nd s om e w ay t oh o ld i ts o t h a t t h e h o lde r ' s h and i sn o t c u t b y t h e e dge .
i n f e rence s t h a t c an b e made f r om t h em . W i th l i t t le t ow o rk w i th e xcep t t h e ma ter ia l r ema in s o f ac u l tu re , d es ign o f t h ese r ema in si s al o g ica lp l ace t ob eg in .
W i th in t h e se m in ima l c on s t ra in t s , t h e p o ss ib i l i t ie s a r e e nd le s s . T he t wo r equ i rem en t s wh ich p u tt h e mo s tc on s t ra in t o n t h e d e s ign e r , t h en , a r e t h o se wh ich a r e mo s t a f f ec t ed b y t h e s oc ia lc on t ex to ft h e d e s igne r . T hey a r e a l so t h e b a s i s o f a l ls t y le .
T he d e s igne r b eg in s w i th a n i d ea o ft h e f unc t ion , p u rpo se ,
I fa ny a s pec to fd es ign may b e c on s ide red t ob eu n ive r sa l , i t i st h er equ i rem en t so fu se . Ac u t t ing i mp lemen t mu s ta lway s
manuf ac tu r ing
p roce s s ,
r aw
ma ter ia l s ,
a nd
s t y l i s t ic
h ave as h a rp e dge t h a t i ss t rong e nough t oc u tt h e ma te r ia li t i st ob eu sed u pon , a nd wh ich i sl o ca ted s uch t h a to ther p ar t s
c onven t ion s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e i t em t o b e d e s igned a nd manuf ac tu red ( Ch ippenda le 1 986 :446 ) . A t e ach l e ve l , t h e re a r e c ho ice s t ob e made b e tween a n umbe r o fo p t ion s , a nd t h e c ho ice s m ade w i l l r ef l ec t ap a r t icu la r d e s ign s y s tem . A
o ft h e i mp lem en t d o n o t i n te rf e re w i th i ta si tc u t s , whe the r i tb e m ade o f s t one , s t ee l o r b amboo ( l eav ing o u t u l t ra moder n t y pe s o f c u t t ing i mp lemen t s s uch a s l a se r s ) . A d r ink ing v e s se l mu s tb e a b le t oh o ld l i qu id , a na w l t op i e rce l e a the r mu s t h ave a s ha rp p o in t . P eop le s o f a l l c u l tu re s
c ho ice o f s t a in le ss s t ee l o ve r f l in t f o r ak n if e , f o r i n s tance w i l l , o n ab road l e ve l i d en t ify a We s te rn i n du s t r ia l d e s ign s y s tem d i s t inc t f r om a ny p reh i s tor ic a nd s ome h i s tor ic d e s ign s y s tem s .
r e qu i r e a tl e a s t s ome o ft h e se t o o l s a ts om e t ime , b u t t h e re c an b e l i t t le a r gumen t t h a t s u ch t oo l s f r om v a r iou s c u l tu re s e xh ib i t c l ea r d i f f e rence s . T he i n tended u se o f a n o b jec t
A rchaeo log i s t s , u n l ike d e s igne r s , mu s t w o rk b ackwa rd s f r om t h e f i n i shed a r tef ac t s t o t h e d es ign s y s tem t h a t p roduced t h em . T he a r chaeo log i s t c an i n f e r s pa t ia l a nd
i mp l ie s v ery l i t t le a bou t i t s f i na l f o rm . I t i s , t h en , t h e r equ i r emen t s o f e a se a nd e conomy , a nd o f a ppea rance , wh ich d efi n e a n a r tef ac t o r awho le d e s ign s y s tem . I ti st h e
t empo ra l a s pec t s a s w e l l . T he a r chaeo log i s t c an t h en r e con s t ruc t a' b r ief o r s umma ry o f t h e d e s ign s y s tem , i n c lud ing t h e f o l low ing : f unc t ion , ma ter ia l , c on tex t , ' s t y le ' , d a te , g eog raph ic l o ca t ion , e xpec ta t ion s a nd h ab i t s , t e chn ica l k now ledge a nd e ff ic iency ( Ch ippenda le 1 986 :446 , F igu r e One ) . C h ippenda le a l so i n c ludes , mo re t e n ta t ive ly , t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o f r e con s t ruc t ing m in ima l c o s t ( a s sum ing t h a t t h i s w a s c on s ide red i mpor tan t ) , s oc ia l c on tex t a nd
c ho ice s m ad e u nde r t h e se r equ i remen t s t h a t i d en t if y a n o b jec ta sb e long ing t o as pec if ic c u l tu ra lm i l ieu . T he r equ i rem en t s o fe a se a nd e conomy a nd o fu se a ccoun t f o r mo s t o f t h e a t t r ibu te s c ommon ly u sed t o d i s t ingu i sh i t em s o f m a t er ia l c u l tu r e . I n P ye 's ( 1 964 ) t e rm s , t h e r e qu i rem en t o f e a se a nd e conomy d i c ta te s t h a t t h e c o s t o f
s ymbo l i sm a nd m ean ing . T he se a spec t s a r e mo re d i f f icu l t , b u tn o tn ece s sa r i ly i mpo s s ib le , t or e con s t ruc t . T hey a r e a l l a p a r to ft h eo r ig ina ld es ign s y s tem . T he e s sence o fa ny d e s ign s y s tem , t h a t wh ich d i s t ingu i she s
t h e o b jec t b e a c cep tab le . T h i s i sn o t t o i mp ly t h a t c o s t i s a lway s m in i mized , i nt e rm s o ft ime , e ne rgy e xpend i tu re o r a ny o t he r m ea su re . R a the r i t m ean s t h a t w i th in a ny p ar t icu la r c u l tu ra l m i l ieu t h e re w i l l b e a( n a r row ) r ange o f a ccep tab le c o s t s f o r a ny i t em . J u s t wha t t h i s r ange i sw i l l d epend o n m any c u l tu ra l ly s pec if ic f a c to r s . T h i s
i tf r om o the rd e s ign s y s tem s , i sc ho ice ; t h e c ho ice sm ade , a t a l l l e ve l s ( e ven s ubcon sc iou s ly , f o r i n s tance d i f f e r en t mo to r h ab i t s ) , b y t h e d es igne r a nd t h e manuf ac tu re r /c raf t spe r son , who i nt h ec a se o fp reh i s tor ic s y s tem s a r e g ene ra l ly o ne a nd t h e s ame . ' T he d es igne ra lway s h a s f r eedom o fc ho ice ' ( Pye 1 964 :90 ) . Y oung ( 1985 :61) p o in t s o u t t h a t ' d e sp i t e
r equ i rem en t c an a f f ec t many a t t r ibu te s o fa n i t em , f r om t h e r aw ma t er ia l c ho sen t o t h e t im e a nd /o r e n e rgy e xpended i n m anuf ac tu r e . T he r equ i rem en t o f a ppea rance
i s t h e o ne t h a t m ay
i n he ren t ly a l low f o r t h e mo s t v ar iab i l i ty , b u t wh ich a tt h e s ame t ime c on s t ra in s t h e d e s igne r t h e mo s t . I t i s t h i s r equ i remen t w h ich g u ide s t h e f i na l f o rm o f a n a r tef ac t , i n c lud ing e ve ry th ing f r om g ro s s mo rpho logy ( exc lud ing o n ly t h o se s p ec if ic a t t r ibu te s a ccoun t ed f o r b y t h e
t r ad i t iona l o r t e chno log ica l c on s t ra in t s c ho ice i s a lway s i nvo lved . ' R econ s t ruc t ing t h e d e s ign s y s tem , t h en , i s a ma t ter o f d ocumen t ing t h e c ho ice s made i n t h e c ou r se o f d e s ign ing a nd m anuf ac tur ing at oo l , o r mo re o f ten , ag roup o ft oo l s .
r equ i remen t s o fu se , s uch a s as ha rp e dge o n ac u t t ing t o o l ) t o s ymbo l ica l ly c ha rged d eco ra t ion . T h i s r equ i rem en t
Where d oe st h ed es igne rh ave c ho ice?
o pe ra te s w i th a v a r iab le d eg ree o f f l ex ib i l i ty i n d i f f e ren t s i tua t ion s a nd o n d i f f e ren t c l a s se s o fi t em s , b u t e ven t h i s i s c u l tura l ly d i s t inc t ive .
I ti s i mpor tan t t o u nde r s tand j u s t h ow b road t h e f i e ld o f p o s s ib le c ho ice s a va i lab le t ot h e d e s igne r i s . P ye ( 1 964 ) , i n a n e xhau s t ive s t udy o f d e s ign , h a s i s o la ted a s e r ie s o f
T he c ho ice s a va i lab le t o t h e d es ign e r w i th in t h e se r e s t r ic t ion s a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly n a r row . T he v a s t a r ray o f
r equ i rem en t s w h ich a ny d e s ign mu s t mee t . T he se c an b e d iv ided i n to t h ree ma in r e qu i remen t s : t h er equ i rem en to fu se
1 0
CHAPTER TWO : A PPROACHES TO BONE T ECHNOLOGY v a r ia t ion i nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd c an a t te s tt h a tt h ey a r e many . I ti so bv iou s , h oweve r , t h a tt h e v a r ia t ion o b se rved i n
( 1984 , 1 985 ) . T he s pec if i c s o ft h e i r s t udy a r e g i ven b e low . H e re ab r ief s umma ry o ft h e i r r e su l t s w i l l s uff ice . I n t h e i r e xhau s t ive s t udy , Y oung a nd B onn ich sen ( 1984 , 1 985 ) e xam ined t wo s e t s o fC lov i sp o in t s , o ne f r om t h e P la in s a nd
t h e a r ch aeo log ica l r e co rd ( o r f o r t h a t ma t te r i nt h e modem w o r ld ) i s a ny th ing b u t r andom . T he c ho ice s m ade b y c r af t speop le i na ny o ne g roup a ta ny o ne t ime a r er e s t r ic ted .
o ne f r om t h e e a s t c oa s t o f t h e Un i ted S t a te s . B o th s e t s o f p o in t s w e re mo rpho log ica l ly s im i la r , h av ing a l l t h e d ef in i t ive c ha rac ter i s t ic s o f C lov i s p o in t s . Me t r ica l ly t h ey
T h i s v i ew o fd es ign , d eve loped b y at h eor i s t o fd e s ign ( Pye 1 964 ) , c l o se ly p a ra l le l s a n a pp roa ch t o s t y le b ecom ing i n c rea s ing ly c ommon i na r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re , k nown f o r b e t te r o r f o r w o r se b y t h e n ame ' i s ochr e s t i sm ' , aw o rd
w e re a l so v e ry s im i la r , b e ing d i s t ingu i shed o n ly b y t h e w id th o f t h e b a ses ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 ) . Ma jo r d i f f erence s b e tween t h e p o in t s w e re s e en o n ly when t h e
c o ined b y t h e c h ief p roponen t o ft h i s v i ew , J am e s S acke t t ( 1982 , 1 986 , 1 990 ) .
' p roduc t ion g r amma r s ' , s pec if i c s equences o f p roduc t ion t a sk s , w e re e xam ined ( s ee b e low f o r a n e xpanded d i scu s s ion ) . W i th in e a ch s e t o f p o in t s t h e ' p roduc t ion g ramma r s ' w e re
S t y le
r ema rkab ly c on s i s ten t , wh i le t h e re w a s l i t t le o rn o s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e t wo g roups . T he d i f f e rences i n p roduc t ion g r amma r s c an b e c on s ide red i s ochr es t ic , s i nce e ach
S acke t t ' s ( 1 982 , 1 986 , 1 990 ) i s och r e s t ic a pp roach t o s t y le c on s ide r st h eq ue s t ion o fw he re s t y le c an b ei d en t if i ed ( wha t i ss t y le ) a nd wha t i tm ean s . I n p a r t icu la r , i te s pou se s t h e v i ew t h a t " e thn ic " s t y le ( t ha t w h ich c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o
a ccomp l i she s t h e s ame t h ing . T hey a r e t wo mean s t o t h e s ame e nd . T he c ho ice o f wh ich t o u se w a s mos t l i ke ly u n con sc iou s ;t h e make r so ft h et wo s e t so fp o in t s made t h em t h e w ay t h ey h ad b een t a ugh t t o make t h em , u s ing l ong
e t hn ic i ty ) ' i s al a ten t q ua l i ty t h a t p o ten t ia l ly r e s ide s i n a l l v ar ia t ion i nm a ter ia l o b jec t s ' ( Sacke t t 1 986 : 2 75 ) . V a r ia t ion , a cco rd ing t oS acke t ti s" i sochre s t ic " , d ue t oc ho ice sb e tween o p t ion s e qu iva len t i nu se . F or av a r ie ty o fr e a son s , ag roup
i n g ra ined mo to r h ab i t s . H oweve r , a l though t h ey d i d n o t c on sc iou s ly c hoo se , t h eo re t ica l ly c ho ice w a sp o ss ib le . T he re i smo re t h an o ne w ay t o make aC lov i sp o in t .
o f a r t i san s w i l l r egu la r ly c hoo se f r om a s ma l l s ub se t o f p o ten t ia lo p t ion s . T he o p t ion s a r e r e s t r ic ted b y P ye ' s ( 1 964 ) r equ i r em en t s o f u se , e a se , e conomy a nd a ppea rance . H ow
B y e xam in ing C lov i s p o in t s a t ad i f f e ren t l e ve l o fa na ly s i s ( d e ta i led a na ly s i s o f manuf ac tu r ing t e chn iques r a the r t h an
t h ey a r e r e s t r ic ted i s g u ided b y c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s , i d ea s
t h e u se o f s t anda rd mo rpho log ica l t r a i t s mo re c ommon ly
a bou t h ow t h ing s a r e d one c o r rec t ly . A l though t h e t h eo re t ica lr ange o fc ho ice s i sw ide , c r af t speop le o fa ny o ne c u l tu r e w i l l t e nd t o c hoo se o n ly a f ew o ve r a nd o ve r
u sed i n p ro jec t i le p o in t s t ud ies ) , Young a nd B onn ich sen ( 1984 , 1 985 ) w e re a b le t o i d en t if y d i f f e rence s n o t p r ev iou s ly k nown t o e x i s t . S ince t h i s a spec t o fa r tef ac t s i s
( Sacke t t 1 982 :73 ) . T hu sa n " e thn ic " s t y le i sb or n .
b o th mo re d i f f icu l t t om im ic ( b e ing d ue t o i n g ra ined mo to r h ab i t s ) a nd l e s s l i ke ly t ob e c op ied , i ti s amo re f r u i t fu l a r ea
T he c ho ice s a d e s igne r /c raf t spe r son m ak es w hen manuf ac tu r ing a n a r tef a c t c ar ry i n f orma t ion a bou t m any t h ing s ,
s ome t imes
i n t ended
b u t
o f t en
f o r t r y ing t o i d en t if y ' e thn ic i ty ' t h an f o rma l o r d eco ra t ive e l emen t st h a tc an b er e ad i ly c op ied a nd man ipu la ted ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 ) .
u ncon sc iou s .
D eco ra t ive a nd morpho log ica l e l emen t s a r e t h e mos t c ommon ly s t ud ied a spec t o f d e s ign , a nd a r e mo s t o f t en
T ha t o ne g roup o f p eop le w ou ld make C lov i s p o in t s d i f f e ren t ly ( a l though t h ey l o oked t h e s ame ) f r om a no the r g roup i sa t t r ibu tab le t o t h e w ay manuf ac tur ing t e chn iques a r e l e arned , t ot h e mo to r h ab i t s a nd u ncon sc iou s d ec i s ion s
a s soc ia ted w i th c on sc iou s c ommun i ca t ion a nd s ymbo l ing , a l though t h ey n eed n o t a lway s b e i n tended t o c a r ry i n f orma t ion ( Dav i s 1 988 ) . S ymbo l ic a t t r ibu t e s w it h i n ten t ion a l m ean ing s a r e mo re s u scep t ib le t o m an ipu la t ion ( Hodde r 1 982 ) . Morpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s a nd d eco ra t ive
made b y t h e make r s . A s d i scu ssed a bove , t h i s h a s i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f e t hn ic i ty i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . Why mo to r h ab i t s , u ncon sc iou s
e l emen t s a r e e a s i ly a nd o f t en c op ied ( on e t y pe o f man ipu la t ion ) , f o r many r e a son s ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 ) . T hey may p re sen t a mudd ied p i c tu re o f e t hn ic i ty .
d ec i s ion s a nd l e a rn ing a r e s o i mpor tan t i s t h e r e a lm o f c ogn i t ive a n th ropo logy .
T he s am e i sn o t t r ue o f a tr ibu te s d i rec t ly a s soc ia t ed w i th manuf ac tu r ing t e chn iques . A t t r ibu te s a s soc ia ted w i th manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s a r e
THE COGN IT IVE APPROACH
t h ough t n o t t o b e i n ve s ted w i th a ny c on sc iou s m ean ing . T hey a r e l e s s v i s ib le a nd s o l e s s e a s i ly c op ied . T hey a r e a s soc ia ted n o t o n ly w i th c on sc iou s d ec i s ion s o n t h e p ar t o f t h e a r t i san , b u t w i th u ncon sc iou s d ec i s ion s r e la ted t o mo to r h ab i t s . T h i s c an l e ad t ot h e e xam ina t ion o fw ha tS acke t th a s c a l led ' b ackg round s t y le ' ( 1986 :274 ) , t h e u ncon sc iou s
T he c ogn i t ive a pp roach i sb ecom ing i n c rea s ing ly p opu la r i n a r chaeo logy , a nd i s w e l l s u i t ed t o t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f d es ign s y s tem s . C ogn i t ive a r chaeo logy u se s a spec t s o ft wo o t he r c ogn i t ive a pp roache s , f r om p sycho logy a nd f r om a n th ropo logy / l ingu i s t ics ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 ) . T he r e su l ti sa n a pp roach t h a tf o cu ses o nt h e i nd iv idua l , b u t w i th wh ich i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t o a r r ive a t g ene ra l i za t ion s ,
t r ad i t ion s ' d eep ly a nd u ncon sc iou s ly e mbedded i n t h e i r b ehav iou r '( i b id . ) . An e xamp le o f as t udy a t temp t ing t o g e t a tt h i s l e ve l o f b ehav iou r i s o ne c a r r ied o u t b y Y oung a nd B onn ich sen
1
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT a nd a' mac ro scop ic 'v i ew . (Wha ti td oe sn o ts e em p o s s ib le t o d o ,h oweve r , i st r u ly r e con s t ruc tc ogn i t ion . )
Mo tor L ear n ing T heor y Mo to r l e ar n ing t h eory h a s d eve loped a l ong t wo ma in l i ne s . T he f i r s t i s t h e b ehav iou r i s t t r ad i t ion , S t imu lu s re spon se T heo ry , w h ich c an b e c ha rac te r i zed b y t h e w o rk o fP av lov .
C ogn i t ive A n thropo logy
T he s e cond i s t h e c ogn i t ive t r ad i t ion , b a sed o n S chema T heo ry , w i th P i age t a s i t s ma in p roponen t ( K le inmann 1 983 ) . N e i the r o f t h e se c an s ucce s sf u l ly a ccoun t f o r a l l a spec t s o f mo to r l e a rn ing , b u t a tp re sen t i ts e em s t h a t t h e
A l though i t s r oo t s g o much f u r the r b ack , c ogn i t ive a n th ropo logy i nt h e s en se i ti su sed h e re i s ar e cen t b ranch o f a n th ropo logy , d eve loped l a rge ly i n t h e l a s t f i f t een t o
c ogn i t ive a pp roach h o ld s mo re p rom i se ( D ick in son 1 985 ) .
t wen ty y ea r s ( Co lby 1 975 ) . T he o r ig in s o f c ogn i t ive a n th ropo logy l i e i nl i ngu i s t ic s . Mo s ti mpor tan ti st h e i d ea o f ag r amma r , t h er u le sb y wh ich a ni nfm i te n umbe ro f' c o r rec t '
S t em ming f r om c ogn i t ive p sycho logy , t h e c ogn i t ive a pp roach i sc once rned w i th h ow i n f orma t ion i sp roce s sed , h ow n ew i n f o rma t ion i sh and led , a nd h ow o l di n f o rma t ion i s r e t r ieved . I ti sn o tn ece s sa ry t og o i n to ag r ea t d ea l o fd e ta i l
c omb ina t ion s c an b e c r ea ted w i th af i n i te n umbe r o fu n i t s . T hu s c ogn i t ive a n th ropo logy i s c once rned w i th u nde r s tand ing t h e " r u le s f o r t h e a r rangem en t o f c u l tu ra l e l emen t s t h a t s hou ld a ccoun t f o r a l l c omb ina t ion s p roduced
h e re . I t i s s uff i c ien t t o n o te t h a t i t a ppea r s t h a t , b y a du l thood , m any mo to r s k i l l s chema ta h ave b een l e a rned , a nd t h a t t h ey a r e r e s i s t an t t o c hange ( D ick in son 1 985 ) . Mo to r h ab i t s c an b ecom e e mbedded a nd h ab i tua l . T hey a r e
b y t h e u se r s o f ac u l tu re " ( Co lby 1 975914 ) . Mo re r e cen t ly , D oughe r ty ( 1985 ) h a s s a id t h a t c ogn i t ive mode l s " s hou ld m in ima l ly i n c lude b a s ic c a tego r ie s a nd t h e i r f undamen ta l i n ter re la t ion s . . w i th , whe re a pp ropr ia te , r u le s t h a to pe ra te o n t h ese b a s ic c a tegor ie s t o g ene ra te t h e c on tex tua l ly a pp ropr ia te r anges o f b ehav io r " ( 1985 :5 ) . A l though , a s Doughe r ty h a s p o in ted o u t , t h i s i s ac l a ss ic a nd s omewha t i d ea l ized v i ew o fc ogn i t ive a n th ropo logy ( a l l m embe r s o fa c u l tu re d o n o t l e a rn a l l a spec t s o ft h e c u l tu re , f o r i n s tance , n o r d oe s e ve ryone a lway s d o t h ing s t h e s ame w ay ) , i ti sa u sef u lp l ace t ob eg in .
n o t r e ad i ly ' u n lea rned ' o r c hanged ( s ee f o r e xamp le H i l l ' s [ 1977 ] s t udy o f h andw r i t ing o f t wo a u tho r s o ve r t ime ) . Un l ike t h e f o rm o rs t y le o fa na r tef ac t , t h ew ay i ti s made i s l i ke ly t o r ema in t h e s ame o ve r t ime , a nd s o b e mo re d i agno s t ic o f t h e g roup t o wh ich t h e m ake r b e longed ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 ) . T h i s m ay b e p a r t icu la r ly t r ue o fp r e indu s t r ia lt e chno log ie s , whe re t h e d e s igne r i sa l so t h e manuf ac tu re r . C h ippenda le ( 1986 :81) s ugge s t s t h a t s u ch ' v e rnacu la r ' t r ad i t ion s a r e r e s i s tan tt oc hange b ecau se o ft h e p o ten t ia l ly h i gh c o s t o f e xper imen ta t ion . A c r af t spe r son may n o t w i sh t o e xpend t ime a nd e f f or t m ak ing a n ew
C ogn i t ive s t ud ie s b eg in w i th t h e i nd iv idua l , a l though t h e a im i st og ene ra l i ze t ot h e c u l tu re i nt h e e nd . I n l i ngu i s t ic s t h i s h a s r e su l ted i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f a t h eo re t ica l
d es ign t h a t m ay n o t w o rk ( o r b e a c cep tab le i n t h e ma rke tp lace [ Dav id a nd H enn ig 1 972 ] ) , a nd s o w i l l s t ick t o t r ied a nd t r ue m e thod s a nd d e s ign s . T h i s m ay a c t t or educe
i nd iv idua l p e rf ec t ly c o mpe ten t i na l l c onven t ion s a nd r u le s o f t h e l a nguage i n q ue s t ion . Wh i le i t i s ( t heo re t ica l ly )
t h e c ho ice s a va i lab le t o t h e c r af t spe r son , b y e l im ina t ing u n t r ied c ho ice s( Ch ippenda le 1 986 ) .
p o ss ib le f o rs u ch a ni nd iv idua lt oe x i s ti nt e rm so fl a nguage , i ti sn o t p o s s ib le f o r a ny o ne i n d iv idua l t ob e c ompe ten t i n a l l r u le s o f ac u l tu re s i nce n o s i ng le s e t o f c o r rec t r u le s e x i s t s ( Doughe r ty 1 985 ) . I nt e r ms o fc u l tu re , t h en , i tq u ick ly b ecome s i mpo s s ib le t o d ea l o n ly w i th e ven t h eo re t ica l
A rchaeo log ica lA pp l ica t ions
i nd iv idua l s ,a nd o ne mu s t move b eyond t h e i n d iv idua lt ot h e g roup . T h i s i s made s imp le r b y t h e f a c t t h a t b y d ef in i t ion
T he re h ave n o t b een m any a r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion s o f t h e se p r inc ip le s . T he e a r l ie s ts t ud ie sw e re u sua l ly c once rned
w i th in -g roup v ar ia t ion , b o th i nt h eu n i t s u sed ( 'mo rphem es ' ) a nd t h e r u le s u sed t o man ipu la te t h em ( ' g ramma r ' ) , i sl e s s
w i th p o t te ry , wh ich w a s t h ough t t o b e a mo re s en s i t ive
t h an v a r ia t ion b e tween g roup s , whe the r t h e se b e l a nguage g roup s , t e chno log ica l t r ad i t ion s o r s ome o t he r t ype o f
i nd ica to r t h an o the r t e chno log ica l r e alm s ( e .g . H i l l 1 968 , L ongac re 1 968 , D ee tz 1 965 , 1 968 ) . T h i s e a r ly ' c e ram ic
g roup ing . A l though n o t wo i nd iv idua l s w i th in ag roup w i l l u se t h eu n i t s a va i lab le t ot h em a nd t h er u les g ove rn ing t h em i np rec i se ly t h e s ame w ay , t h e i r u sage w i l l b e mo re s im i la r
s oc io logy ' w a s q u ick ly d i sc red i ted , b u t mo re r e cen t s t ud ie s o f t h e g r amma r o f c e ram ic p roduc t ion , r ang ing f r om d eco ra t ive mo t if s( Raymond e ta l . , 1 975 , R aymond 1 992 )t o
t oe ach o t he rt h an i tw i l l b e t ot h o se o fi nd iv idua l s o fo t he r g roups .
manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s ( Gos se l in 1 992 ) h ave b een mo re s ucce s sf u l . S ome l i t h ic t e chno log i s t s h ave a l so a dop ted t h i s a pp roach . T he s t ronge s t p roponen t s a r e Young a nd B onn ich sen ( 1 984 , 1 985 ) .
T h i s s im i la r i ty i nb ehav iou rw i th in g roup s c an b e a t t r ibu ted i np ar ta tl e a s tt ot h ew ay p eop le l e a rn a nd , f o rt e chno log ica l s t ud ie s , t h e w ay t h ey l e a rn mo to r h ab i t s i n p ar t icu la r . T echno log ica l t r ad i t ion s , p a r t icu la r ly l i th ic t e chno logy ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 :7 ) , b u t a l so b one a nd c e ram ic
Young a nd B onn ich sen c a r r ied o u t av e ry d e ta i led s t udy o f t wo l i t h i c c r af t sm en ( Bonn ich sen a nd E r re t t C a l lahan ) . T he e xper imen t s i n vo lved c on t ro l led e xpe r imen t s w i th e a ch c r af t sman , i n w h ich t h ey w e re a sked b o th t o r ep l ica te
t e chno log ie s ( A rno ld 1 985 , 1 989 ) , a r e c omp lex a nd t e nd t o b e l e a rned i n a n a pp ren t icesh ip s i tua t ion . Mo to r l e a rn ing
s pec if ic p r eh i s tor ic f l aked t o o l s a nd t o c a r ry o u t s pec if ic t a sk s o n p r epa r ed p i ece s o fs t one . T he i r a c t ion s w e re b o th r e co rded a nd v ideo taped . E ach w a s a sked t o p rov ide a s
t h eory s ugge s t st h a t mo to rh ab i t s l e a rned e a r ly o nt e nd t ob e r e ta ined .
1 2
CHAPTER TWO : APPROACHES TO BONE T ECHNOLOGY d e ta i led ac ommen ta ry a sp os s ib le a bou t wha th e w a s d o ing
n or thea s t T ha i land . V an E s te r ik h a s d eve loped a g ramma r
a nd w hy h ew a sd o ing i t .I nd iv idua la c t ion s ( e .g . r emov ing a p a r t icu la r t y pe o f f l ake ) w e re r e co rded a nd d eb i tage f r om s equence s o f t h e s ame a c t ion ( e .g . r emov ing a s e r ie s o f
f o rt h ep r eh i s tor ic p o t t e ry a nd u sed i ta s ab a s i s f o rs t udy o f t h e l a rge n umbe r s o f c op ie s / rep l ica s /f ake s /f orger ie s p roduced f o rs a le b y modem p o t te r s .
t h inn ing f l ake s ) w a s c o l lec ted t o ge the r ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 985 :23 -24 ) . S ub sequen t ly a l l t h e d a ta ( d eb i tage , s ound r e co rd ing / t ran scr ip t s , v ideo tape ) w e r e c a r ef u l ly e xam ined .
S t r ic t ly s p eak ing , o n ly Y oung a nd B onn ich sen a r e d o ing c ogn i t ive s t ud ie s , t h a t i s ,e xam in ing i n d iv idua l c ogn i t ion o f l i v ing c r af t speop le f o r a b s t rac t ion t o amo re g ene ra l l e ve l .
W i th t h e se d a ta , t h e a na ly s t s c a r r ied o u t ag ramma t ica l
H a ssan ( 1988 :281) a nd a l l o the r s w o rk ing s t r ic t ly w i th a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s a r e l o ok ing f o r " cogn i t ive a nd
a na ly s i s o ft h e w ay t h e t wo c r af t sm en w o rked t h e s t ep s t h ey t o ok t o p e rf orm e ach t a sk r e su l t ing i n t h e i d en t i f ica t ion o ft wo d i s t inc t ive ' p roduc t ion g ramm a r s ' . W i th
b ehav iou ra l moda l i t ie s " w h ich f a l l mo r e i n to a n orma t ive f r amewo rk , a l though t h ey g o b eyond t r ad i t iona l ly r e s t r ic t ive
-
-
-
-
' n o rma t ive ' i d ea s ( i b id . ) . E ven w i thou t d i rec t a cce s s t oe m ic m ean ing s , i ti s c l ea r ly p o ss ib le t o i d en t ify t h e r epea t ed c ho ice s m ade b y a r t i san s i nt h e p roduc t ion o fa r tef ac t s . I n
t h i s i n f orma t ion , t h ey f e l t t h ey c ou ld r e l iab ly i d en t ify p roduc t ion g r amma r s o n p reh i s to r ic a r tef ac t s ( t he C lov i s p o in t s d i scu s sed a bove ) , u s ing t h e d eb i tage p roduced i nt h e e xpe r im en t s t o l i nk p roce s s ( e .g . e dge th inn ing ) a nd i n ten t ion w i th r e su l t s a s d ocumen ted b y p a t tern s o f f l ake s c a r s .
a ny c a se , a c ce s s t o t h i s em ic m ean ing may n o t b e a s i mpor tan ta sp r ev iou s ly t h ough t. I ti sp o s s ib le t ou nde r s tand a nd mean ingfu l ly i n t e rp re t many a s pec t s o ft h ep a s tw i thou t i t( Hodde r 1 989 ) .
T h i si st h e mo s ts t r ic t ly ' c ogn i t ive ' s t udy o fl i t h ic p roduc t ion t o d a te , b eg inn ing a s i td oe s w i th l i v ing c r af t smen f r om w hom i ti sp o s s ib le t o e l ic i t d e ta i l s o f m ean ing f o r t h e i r
b u t t h ey p ose ap rob lem i n t h a t t h ey r equ i re t h e i n ten s ive s t udy o fl i v ing c r af t speop le i n c on t ro l led s i tua t ion s . Wh i le
S tud ies l i ke t h a t o f Y oung a nd B onn ich sen a r e i mpor tan t ,
a c t ion s a nd s o t o p rov ide e m ic a s w e l l a s e t ic d a ta . F o r Y oung a nd B onn ich sen i ti st h i s m ean ing t h a t i st h e mo s t i mpo r tan t p a r t o ft h e i r s t udy . I n ac ogn i t ive a pp roach i ti s
f l in t k nappe r s a r e ( r e la t ive ly ) c ommon a nd a menab le t o s uch s t ud ie s , t h e s ame c anno tb e s a id o fa l l t e chno log ies . I n p ar t icu la r , b one t e chno logy i sr a re ly p r ac t iced among e x tan t
i mpo r tan tn o t o n ly t ok now wha t w a s d one , a nd h ow i tw a s d one ,b u tw hy i tw a s d one a sw e l l .
g roup s ( e xcep t ing i n du s t r ia l m anuf ac ture ) , n o r h a s i t a t t rac ted t h e a t ten t ion o f r e sea rche r s w i l l ing t o l e a rn t h e
Unf o r tuna te ly , w hy i st h e mo s t d i ff i cu l t a spec t t o r e cove r a r chaeo log ica l ly . E ven i n c a se s w he re p roduc t ion u n i t s
t e chn ique s ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fD . G a rdne r ) . N o p oo l o f c ompe ten t l i v ing c r af t speop le i sa va i lab le t os t udy . D e sp i te t h i s , i ti sp o s s ib le t o c a r ry o u t s u ch ' c ogn i t ive ' s t ud ie s o n b one , w i thou t t h e o r ig ina l c r af t speop le , b ecau se o f t h e d i f f e ren tn a tu re o ft h er aw ma ter ia l .
i d en t ica l t o t h o se d e scr ibed ( w i th m ean ing ) b y t h e t wo c r af t smen s t ud ied a r e i d en t if ied a r chaeo log ica l ly , t h e re i sn o g ua ran tee t h a t t h e p reh i s tor ic c r af t spe r son w ou ld h ave a s s igned t h e s ame m ean ing t o t h em . T he m ean ings o f p roduc t ion ( o r o t he r ) u n i t s a r e c u l tu re -spec if ic , a nd t h e c r af t smen s t ud ied b y Y oung a nd B onn ich sen a r e membe r s n o t o f ap r eh i s tor ic s t one t oo l -u s ing c u l tu re , b u t o f a n i ndu s t r ia l c u l tu re , w he re t h e manuf ac tu re o fs t one t o o l s i sa
T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f p a r t icu la r s t age s o r s t ep s i n t h e manuf ac tu re o f s t one t o o l s i s af a i r ly c omp lex ma t t e r . Y oung a nd B onn ich sen i n c luded an umbe ro fv a r iab le s ( e .g . f o r ce , a ng le , i mpac to r t y pe e t c . ) w h ich t h ey f e e l a f f ec t t h e mo rpho logy o ff l akes i ns ub t le w ay s . ( Add i t iona l ly , Young a nd B onn ich sen 's i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e se mo rpho log ica l m a rke r s m ay n o t b e t o ta l ly s e cu re , s i n ce t od a te t h ey h ave
s c ien t if ic e ndeavou r , c a r r ied o u t f o r s t udy a nd n o t f o r l i ve l ihood . W i thou t t h e s t udy o f t h e o r ig ina l c r af t speop le , t h e o n ly m ean ing s w e w i l lb e a b le t oa s s ign t ot h e c ogn i t ive u n i t s w e s t udy w i l lb e o u r own , s c ien t if ica l ly o r ien ted o ne s .
o n ly w o rked w i th t wo c r af t smen . ) T he i d en t if ica t ion o f m anuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s u sed o n b one t o o l s ( h e re n o t
( Behav iou r u n i t s i n t h e Y oung a nd B onn ich sen s t udy a r e g ene ra l ly b a sed o n t h e s o lv ing o f p a r t icu la r p rob lem s : g e t t ing a f l ake s u i tab le f o r f u r the r w o rk , g e t t ing r i d o f a
i n c lud ing p e r cu ss ion ) i sa no the r m a t t e r e n t i re ly . A lt hough t h ey a r e b o th r educ t ive t e chn ique s , a nd s o a menab le t o many o f t h e s ame t y pe s o f s t udy , t h e m anuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s u sed t o m ake b one t o o l s a r e s ub s tan t ia l ly
m ed ia lr i dge , t h inn ing e t c . T he re i sn ow ay t ob e c er ta in t h a t ap r eh i s tor ic c r af t spe r son s aw p rob lem s i nt h e se t e rm s . ) I t i s , i n a ny c a se , n ece s sa ry t o g e t b eyond t h e l e ve l o f t h e i n d iv idua l , a nd t oa b s t rac tb ehav iou ra lu n i t s a nd r u les t ot h e g roup l e ve l .
d i f f e ren t f r om t h ose u sed t o f l ake s t one . O n t h e o ne h and , t h e re a r e ag r ea te r v a r ie ty o ft e chn iques : s c rap ing , c u t t ing , g roov ing , g r ind ing , s aw ing a nd d r i l l ing o fb one ( v e r su s t h e p e r cu s s ion a nd p res su re f l ak ing o f s t one ) . O n t h e o the r h and , t h e e v idence o f t h ese many d i f f e r en t t e chn ique s i s s ub s tan t ia l ly e a s ie r t o i d en t ify t h an a r e d i f f er en t t ype s o f f l ake s a nd o rf l ake s c a r s ( s ee C ampana 1 980 , 1 987 , d 'Er r ico
S ome ( i n f a c t , mo s t ) a r chaeo log i s t s h ave r e ve r sed t h e p rocedu re f o l lowed b yY oung a nd B onn ich sen ,b eg inn ing a t t h e a b s t rac t g roup l e ve l , l e av ing t h e i nd iv idua l t o l a te r
e ta l 1 984 , L eMo ine 1 985 , N ewcome r 1 974 , P l i s son 1 983 , 1 984 ) . T he se t r aces a r er e ad i ly i d en t if ied u s ing s t anda rd u se
c on s ide ra t ion . O ne o ft h e mos t r e cen t s t ud ie s o ft h i s s o r t i s t h a t o f H a s san ( 1988 ) i n wh ich h e e xam ine s t wo l i t h ic
w ea r t e chn iques , a l though e a r ly s t age s o f w o rk c an b e o b scu red b yl a te rt r ace s .
a s semb lage s , g ene ra t ing s e t s o fg r amma t ica l r u le s f o r e ach i n a n e f f or t t o u nde r s tand t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h em . T h i s h a s a l so b een d one i n a n i n te re s t ing s t udy b y V an
I na dd i t ion , t h e se t e chn ique s s e em t ob e c o mb ined i n much s imp le rw ay st h an i st h e c a se i nf l in tknapp ing . F o r e xamp le ,
E s te r ik ( 1985 ) f o r B ron ze Age B an C h iang p o t tery f r om
1 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT ab l ank i se x t rac ted u s ing ab u r in a nd g roov ing t e chn ique . I t i ss haped w i th ac omb ina t ion o fs c rap ing a nd g r ind ing , a nd f i n i shed b y d r i l l ing a h o le , mak ing an eed le . O ne e l emen t t h a t i s m i s s ing , o f c ou r se , i st h e ' em ic ' m ean ing o f e ach p roduc t ion p rocedu re . I ti sr e la t ive ly s imp le t o i d en t if y t h e u se o f ab u r in t o g roove a p i ece o f a n t le r f o r b l ank e x t rac t ion . I ti s much mo r e d i ff icu l tt os ay w hy ab ur in w a s u sed a s o ppo sed t o af l ake , wh ich i se qua l ly , s ome s ay e ven b e t te r , s u i ted t ot h e t a sk ( S to rdeu r -Yed id 1 979 ) . A l lt h a to ne c an d o i sa s sume t h a t t h e r e a son s f o r u s ing o ne p rocedu re o ve ra no the ra r et os ome e x ten tg roup spec if ic . T h i s d oe s n o t s e em t o b e t oo d i f f e ren t f r om Y oung a nd B onn ich sen 's a s sump t ion sw hen d ea l ing w i th a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l . I n t h e s ame w ay t h a t ' mo rpho -un i t s ' o n C lov i s p o in t s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th ' p roduc t ion p rocedu re s ' ( i nc lud ing m ean ing ) d e r ived f r om w ork w i th l i v ing c r af t smen , t e chno log ica l t r ace s o n p i eces o f b one c an b e a s soc ia ted w i th a n i n f e r r ed mean ing : ad eep g roove i n ap i ece o fb one o ra n t le r ( w i th o t he r a pp ropr ia te c ond i t ion s ) c an b e i n f er red t o mean t h a t ab l ank w a s t ob e e x t rac ted . T he m ac ro - a nd m icro scop ic a t t r ibu te s o f t h e g roove c an h e lp t o i d en t ify wha t t ype o f t oo l w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t h i s ' p roduc t ion p rocedure ' . I t s e em s p os s ib le t o m ake t h e c r uc ia l l i nk b e tween mo rpho logy a nd p roduc t ion p rocedu re t h rough e xper imen ta l w o rk , w i thou tt h e s t udy o fl i v ing c r af t speop le , a t l e a s t i n t h i s c a se . F rom t h e re , i tw i l l b e p o s s ib le t o c on s t ruc t ag r amma r , b a sed o n ' b ehav ioura l moda l i t ie s ' ( Ha ssan 1 988 ) . T h i s c an , i nt u rn , b e u sed when c omb ined w i th i n f orma t ion a bou t r aw ma ter ia l s e lec t ion , u se a nd c on tex t t o r e con s t ruc t t h e d es ign s y s tem f o r b one t o o l s among t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta T hu le .
1 4
CHAPTER THREE : METHODS v i s ib le i nt h e S EM ( Man su r -F ranchomme 1 986 ) , d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t p o l i she s a r e i d en t if i ed b y t h e d i f f e ren t ia l r e f lec t ion
CHAPTER TH REE : METHODS
o f l i gh t f r om a s u rf ace . I n t h e S EM , n o l i gh t i sr e f lec ted , r a the rt h ei mage i sc r ea ted b yt h er ef lec t ion o fe l ec t ron s f r om t h es ur f ace .
T he e xpe r imen t s c a r r ied o u t d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h i s s t udy c ove red aw ide r ange o fm anuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s a nd u se s . I nd iv idua l e xper imen t s a r e d e scr ibed i n d e ta i l i n C hap te r F our . H e r e , t h eb a s ic p rocedu res c ommon t oa l lo ft h em w i l l b e d i scu s sed . T h i s i n c lude s t h e e x am ina t ion t e chn ique s u sed a sw e l l a st h e e xper imen ta l me thodo logy . A l so i n c luded i sa b r ief d e scr ip t ion o f as t udy c ar r ied o u t a tt h e v e ry b eg inn ing o f t h i s p ro jec t t o e va lua t e t h e u t i l i ty o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia lf r om t h es i te o fG upuk f o rm ic ro scop ic a na ly s is .
U l t ima te ly , ac omb ina t ion o ft h e se f a c to r s l e d t o as w i tch i n t h e empha s i s o f my r e sea rch f r om t h e S EM t o al i gh t m ic ro scope . When i tb ecame c l ea r t h a t i t wou ld b e v ery d i ff i cu l t t oe xam ine a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s w i th t h e S EM , t h e t ime s av ing a nd e conom ica l a spec t s o fl i gh t m ic ro scopy b ecam ec ompe l l ing . I fw o rk s uch a st h i si st ob ec on t inued i n t h e f u tu re b y o t he rr e sea rche r s , e conomy a nd e a se o fu se a r e i mpor tan tf a c to r st oc on s ide r . D e sp i te t h e se d i sadvan tage s , t h e re a r eg ood r e a son sf o ru s ing t h e S EM a tl e a s tp ar to ft h e t ime . One o ft h ese i st h e q ua l i ty o ft h e i mage ,p a r t icu la r ly i np ho tom ic rog raph s . A l though t h e s am e f e a tu re s c an b e i d en t if ied w i th al i gh t m icro scope , t h e d ep th o ff i e ld p o s s ib le w i th t h e S EM c an make t h em e a s ie r
EXA M INAT ION T ECHN IQUES
O ve rt h ep a s tt e ny ea r s , i th a sb ecome c l ea rt ol i t h ic u se w ea r a na ly s t s t h a t n o o ne t y pe o f m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion c an p rov ide a l lt h ei n f orma t ion n eces sa ry f o r at h o rough a na ly s i s . E a r ly d i scu s s ion s f o cu s sed o n t h e r e la t ive m e r i t s o f l ow
t oi n te rp r e t , p a r t icu lar ly t ot h o se n o t f am i l ia r w i th u se w ea r . P l a t e 3 . 1 i lu s t ra te s t h i s , s how ing t h e s ame f e a ture s p ho tog raphed i nt h e S EM a nd w i th al i gh tm ic roscope .* T he g r ea t e r r ange o f magn if i ca t ion a va i lab le w i th t h e S EM
p owe r ed m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s o fm ic roch ippmg a nd s c a r r ing
( w i thou t d ec rea s ing t h e d ep th o ff i e ld ) i sa l so a n a dvan tage ,
( e .g . T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 , Ode l l 1 975 ) a nd e xam ina t ion o f p o l i she s a nd s t r ia t ion s w i th h igh p owe red l i gh t m ic ro scope s
a l though i nt h i s s t udy mo s ta na ly s i s w a s c a r r ied o u ta t1 25x , o n ly r a re ly a th i ghe r magn if ica t ion .
( Kee ley 1 974 , 1 980 ) . Mo re r e cen t ly , t h e s c ann ing e l ec t ron
I ns ome c a se s i tw a s n o tp o s s ib le t oo b serve c er ta in f e a tu re s w i th t h e l i gh t m ic roscope . I np a r t icu la r , d r i l led h o le s c anno t
m ic ro scope ( SE M ) h a s a l so b ecom e a n i mpo r tan t t o o l ( Man su r -F ranchomme 1 986 ) . E ach o f t h e se t e chn ique s p rov id es ad i f f eren tt ype o fi n f orma t ion , a nd a l l o ft h em may
b e a dequa te ly r e p l ica ted o ro b served . E xpe r i m en ta l ly d r i l led h o le s w e re e xam ined w i th t h e S EM , b u t a ga in , i tw a s n o t
b e n eces sa ry t o s ome d eg ree i n at h o rough a na ly s i s . T he s ame i st r u e f o r t h e a na ly s i s o fb one t o o l s . I n t h i s s t udy , a
p o s s ib le t oe xam ine a r chaeo log ica l e xamp le s b ecau se o ft h e p o ten t ia l d amage d one b y t h e r ep l ica t ive ma ter ia l . I tw a s a l so n ece ssa ry t o u se t h e S EM f o r t h e f i e ld e xpe r imen t
h igh p owe red l i gh t m ic ro scope w a s u sed f o r mo s t o f t h e a na ly s i s , s uppor ted b y al ow p owe red b inocu la r m ic roscope a nd aS EM . E ach o ft h e se m icro scope s a nd t h e r o le i tp l ayed i nt h e a na ly s i si sd i scu s sed b e low .
d e scr ibed b e low , i n wh ich c a s t s o ft h e b ones w e re made i n t h e f i e ld . T h i s e xpe r im en t w a s c a r r ied o u t b efo re Ib egan u s ing a ce ta te t a pe . T he S EM u sed i nt h i s s t udy i s aC ambr idge S t e reo scan 2 50 , m ade a va i lab le t o m e b y t h e D epar tm e nt o f G eo logy a nd G eophy s ic s a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry . I tw a s u sed a lmos t
S cann ing E lec tron M icro scopy
e xc lu s ive ly i nt h e e a r ly p ar t o ft h i s w o rk . When i tb ecame o bv iou s t h a t l i gh t m ic ro scopy w ou ld b e u sed f o r e xam in ing
A t t h e o u t se t o ft h i s r e sea rch , my i n t en t ion w a s t oc a r ry o u t mo s t o f t h e a na ly s i s w i th a S EM . Much p rev iou s w o rk o n
a l t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s , e a r ly e xper imen ta l p i ece s w e r ea l so r e p l ica ted a nd e xam ined w i th t h el i gh tm ic ro scope .
b one t o o l s h a s b een d one w i th a S EM ( Bouchud 1 974 , L e Mo ine 1 985 ) , a nd i t s a dvan tage s , i nt e rm s o ft h e r a nge o f magn if i ca t ion s a va i lab le a nd d ep th o f f i e ld a r e u nden iab le . A s t h e s t udy p rogres sed h oweve r , i tb ecame c l ea r t h a t t h e
H igh P ower L igh tM icroscopy
d i sadvan tages o u twe ighed t h e a dvan t age s . T ob eg in w i th ,t h ec os to fu s ing aS EM c an b ep roh ib i t ive f o r al a rge a na ly s i s , i nt e rm s o fb o th t ime a nd money . S econd ly , b ecau se o ft h es ma l ls i ze o ft h em ic ro scope c hambe r , a nd t h e
Mo s t r e cen t w o rk i nl i th ic u se w ea r a na ly s i s h a s b een d one w i th t h e h i gh p owe r m ic ro scopy t e chn ique s o r ig ina l ly d eve loped b y S em enov ( 1964 ) . T h i s i n c lude s t h e r e sea r ch o f
f a c tt h a t a l lm a ter ia l s e xam ined mu s tb e c onduc t ive , i ti sn o t p rac t ica l t o e xam ine a r chaeo log ica l t o o l s d i r ec t ly . R ep l ica s mu s t b e m ade . T h i s c an b e b o th e xpen s ive a nd t ime c on sum ing . Mo s ti mpor tan t ly , t h em a t e r ia l su sed t om ake t h e r ep l ica s c an d amage a r chaeo log ica l b one ( s ee b e low ) . T he s i ze o ft h e c hambe r a l so m ean s t h a t o n ly s ma l l p o r t ion s o f t h e t o o l s c an b e e xam ined a t o ne t ime ( a l though t h i s d i ff i cu l ty c an b eo ve rcome b ye xam in ing mu l t ip le r e p l ica so f
*
T oe n su r e t h a tt h e s ame f e a tu r e s w e re b e ing o b se rved , a n i ndependen tt e s t
w a s e ar ned O u t , u s ing l i th ic ma te r ia ls b e ing s t ud ied b y D . B o ra s . B o ra s w a s e xam in ing h ea t t r ea ted s pec imen s o f v a r iou s m a t er ia ls f o r e v idence o f m ic roc rack ing . Sma l l f l ake s w e r e c oa t ed w i th g o ld f o r d i rec t o b se rva t ion i n t h e S EM . T o t e s t t h e r e l iab i l i ty o fa ce ta te r ep l ica t ing t a pe , f o r e xam ina t ion i n al i gh tm ic ro scop e , t h e s am e ma te r ia ls w e re r ep l ica t ed w i th t h e t a pe a nd c ompa r ed t ot h e S EM p ho tom ic rog raph s . I na l l c a se s t h e s ame d e ta i ls , s uch a sm ic roc ra ck ing a nd c ry s ta l l ine s t ruc tu re , w e re v i s ib le .
c on t iguou s a r ea s ) . F ina l ly , s o me f e a tu r es i mpor tan t f o r t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fl i th ic u se w ea r , p ar t icu la r ly p o l i she s , a r e n o t 1 5
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT K ee ley ( 1 980 ) a nd V aughan ( 1985 ) i nt h e U n i ted S t a te s a nd o f Mo s s ( 1983 , Mo ss a nd N ewcome r 1 982 ) a nd o the r s i n
w i th o n ly l ow m agn if ica t ion . S ince o b serva t ion i sb o th mo re r ap id a nd s imp le r w i th t h e l ow p owe red m ic ro scope , i tw a s
E ng land . T he m ic ro scope s u sed b y t h e se r e sea r che r s a r e g ene ra l ly b inocu la r , i n c iden tl i gh tm e ta l lu rg ica lm ic roscope s , w i th magn if ica t ion r ange so fb e tween 1 00X a nd 4 00X .
u sed e xc lu s ive ly wheneve r p o s s ib le . I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh m any d e ta i l s o f u se w ea r , a s o ppo sed t o manuf ac tu r e , w i th s uch l ow magn i f ica t ion , s o mo s t o f t h e u se w ea ra na ly s i s ,b o th e xpe r imen ta la nd a r chaeo log ica l ,w a s c a r r ied o u t w i th m ic ro scope s c apab le o f h i ghe r magn if ica t ion s .
S uch a m ic ro scope w a s n o t a va i lab le f o r t h i s s t udy . I n i t s s t ead , a L e i tz L abo r lux h i gh p owe r t r an sm i t t ed l i gh t m icro scope ( i n wh ich t h e l i gh t c ome s u p t h rough t h e s pec imen ) , w i th amagn i f ica t ion r ange o f1 25X t o5 00X , w a s u sed i n c on junc t ion w i th t r an spa ren t a ce ta te r e p l ica s o f p o r t ion s o f t h e t oo l s . R ep l ica s , s pec if i ca l ly c l ea r r ep l ica s , w ere n ece s sa ry b ecau se i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o e xam ine s o l id o b jec t s w i th t r an sm i t ted l i gh t . I tw a s a l so n ece ssa ry t h a t t h e r ep l ica s b e b o th t h in a nd f l a t , t o f i t t h e l im i ta t ion s o f t h e m icro scope . I t m igh t h ave b een p o ss ib le t o a dap t t h e m ic ro scope f o ri n c iden tl i gh t ,b u tb ecau se o ft h e l a rge s i ze o f
R ep l ica t ion T echn ique s T he u se o fr e p l ica s h a s al o ng h i s tory i n s c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy . B ecau se o f t h e p hy s ica l r e qu i r em en t s o f t h e m ic ro scope ( a s d i scu s sed a bove ) , many o b jec t s c anno t b e v i ewed d i r ec t ly , a nd r ep l ica s mu s tb e m ad e ( s ee B oyde 1 972
many o f t h e b one t o o l s i n t h i s a na ly s i s , a nd t h e s ma l l w ork ing d i s tance o ft h e m ic ro scope l e s s t h an ac en t ime t r e a ta l lt im es a nd much l e ss t h an t h a t a th i gh magn if i ca t ion s a ce ta te r e p l ica s w e re t h e o n ly m ean s b y wh ich t h e t o o l s c ou ld b e e xam ined . T he u se o fr e p l ica s i sd i scu s sed i n mo r e d e ta i lb e low . -
f o r e xamp le ) . T he re a r e av a r ie ty o fm e thod s a va i lab le , e ach w i th s l igh t ly d i f f e ren t p rope r t ie s a nd r equ i r em en t s . H e re I w i l ld i scu s so n ly t h ose m e thod su sed i nt h i sw o rk .
-
-
-
A r e p l ica , a s t h e t e rm i su sed i n m ic ro scopy , i s e i the r a n ega t ive i mp r e s s ion o r ap o s i t ive c a s t o ft h e s pec im en t ob e
A s im i la r m ic ro scope , a l so a L e i tz L abo r lux , b u t w i th a magn if i ca t ion r ange o f2 5 t o 1 00X , w a s u sed f o r p roduc ing p ho tog raph s . Wh i le c a r ry ing o u tt h ea na ly s i s , mo s tw o rk w a s d one a t 1 25x , a tt h e l owe s t p o s s ib le magn if i ca t ion o n t h a t m icro scope . A t t h a t m agn if i ca t ion , d ep th o f f i e ld w a s r e la t ive ly g r ea t . A s m agn i f ica t ion i n c rea se s , d ep th o f f i e ld
e xam ined . A l though s ome d e ta i l i sl o s t e a ch w i th e ach s t ep ( s ugge s t ing t h a t a n i n i t ia l n ega t ive i mp re s s ion w i l l c a r ry mo re d e t a i l t h an t h e p o s i t ive c a s t made f r om i t ) , t h e q ua l i ty o f ma t er ia lc u r ren t ly a va i lab le i ss uch t h a tv ery l i t t le d e ta i l i s l o s t a t a ny s t age , e spec ia l ly a t t h e r e la t ive ly l ow magn if i ca t ion su sed h e re . I ti s ama t te ro fc ho ice whe the rt h e n ega t ive o r p o s i t ive i se xam ined . I n t h i s s t udy , b o th w e re u sed a t d i f f e r en t t i me s . T he ma jo r r e qu i remen t o f a l l
d ec rea se s . T he l owe r r ange o f m agn if ica t ion s a va i lab le o n t h e p ho tom ic roscope m ean t t h a t p ho tog raph s w e re t a ken a t i t sv ery h i ghe s t magn if ica t ion when t h e d ep th o ff i e ld i sv e ry l im i t ed ( s o a s t o b e c ompa rab le t o t h e i mage s s e en d u r ing
r ep l ica t ion m a ter ia l s i st h a t t h ey b e c apab le o fr ep roduc ing v ery f i ne s u rf a ce d e ta i l . T hey mu s ta l so b er e ad i ly r emovab le f r om t h e s p ec imen , n e i the rl e av ing r e s idue s o nn or r emov ing ma t er ia l f r om t h e i t em b e ing r ep l ica ted . H e r e t wo t y pe s o f
a na ly s i s ) . I nt h e p ho tograph s , t h en , s ome o ft h e ' d ep th ' s e en d u r ing a na ly s i si sm i ss ing .
ma t er ia l s w e re u sed f o r mak ing t h e i n i t ia l n ega t ive i mp re s s ion s o f ma te r ia l : a ce ta te r e p l ica t ing t a pe , a nd p o lyv iny l s i loxene d en ta l i mp re s s ion ma ter ia l . B o th h ave b een u sed e x ten s ive ly i no t he r a pp l ica t ion s , i n c lud ing l i th ic
L ow P ower L igh tM icroscopy
u se w ea ra na ly s i s .
T he l ow p owe red m ic roscope u sed i nt h i s s t udy , aC a r l Z e i s s J ena T ec im iva l s t ereo m i c roscope , h a s amagn if i ca t ion r ange o f 5 50x , a nd w a s mo s t o f t en u sed a t 1 6x . I ti sa n i n c iden t
A ce ta te R ep l ica t ing T ape A ce ta te t a pe p roduce s v e ry f i ne ly d e ta i led r e p l ica s ( Schoen e ta l . 1 978 ) , b u t i sn o t v ery u sef u l f o r a r ea s o fh igh r e l ief ( Sco t t 1 982 ) . I th a s an umbe ro fa dvan tage s . T he f i r s t i st h a t t h e i mp re s s ion s c an b e moun ted d i rec t ly o n g l a ss s l ide s f o r v i ew ing i n at r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope ( d 'E r r ico e t a l .
l i gh t m ic ro scope ( i n w h ich a l i gh t s ou rce i sf o cu sed o n t h e s pec imen f r om a bove a nd t ot h e s i de ) , a nd h a s ap ho to tube a t tach men t f o r as t anda rd 3 5na n c ame ra . M ic ro scope s s uch a s t h i s h ave a g r ea t m any a dvan tage s . T he u se o f i n c iden t l i gh t m ean s t h a t i ti sp o s s ib le t o l o ok a t t o o l s d i rec t ly ; n o t r an spa ren t r e p l ica ( o r t h in s e c t ion ) i sn ece ssa ry . T he l ow magn if i ca t ion a l low s f o r amuch g r ea te r d ep th o ff i e ld t h an when h i ghe r magn i f ica t ion s a r e u sed . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly u sef u l f o r o b serv ing l a rge , s ome t imes c omp lex , t o o l s . I n
1 984 ) . Whe re h igh p owe red i n c iden t l i gh t m ic ro scope s a r e u nava i lab le , t h i s i s ag r ea t a dvan tage . T hey c an a l so b e c oa ted , f o r v i ew ing w i th a n i n c iden t l i gh t m ic roscope ( Knu t s son a nd H ope 1 984 ) o r aS EM ( Runn ings 1 984 ) . T h i s make s t h em v ery v e r sa t i le . S econd ly , r e p l ica s c an b e made
a dd i t ion , t h ew o rk ing d i s t ance ( t he d i s tance b e tween t h e l e n s a nd t h e o b jec tu nde r o b se rva t ion w hen i ti si nf o cu s ) i sq u i t e
a nd o b served v e ry q u ick ly , w i th l i t t le s pec ia l ized e qu ipmen t . T hey a r e i n expen s ive , a nd t h e t e chn ique s r equ i red t o m ake
l a rge . T h i st o o makes i te a sy t oo b se rve l a rge b one t o o l s .
t h em c an b e l e a rned q u ick ly . F ina l ly , t h e t a pe i ss o lub le i n a ce ton e . S hou ld a ny o ft h e t a pe b e l e f to nt h eb one w hen t h e i mp re s s ion i sr emoved ( a c ommon o ccu r rence o n p o rou s ma te r ia l s , d ue t o t h e f r ag i l i ty o f t h e t a pe ) , a ce tone c an b e
I n t h i s s t udy t h e l ow p owe red m ic ro scope w a s u sed f o r t wo ma in p u rpo se s . I tw a s u sed f o r t h e i n i t ia l e xam ina t ion o f e very t o o l , t op rov ide g ene ra l i n f orma t ion o ft h e e x ten t a nd
u sed t o r emove a ny t r ace o f i t . T h i s i s i mpo r tan t when
d i s t r ibu t ion o f w ea r . I t w a s a l so u sed f o r much o f t h e manuf ac tu r e a na ly s i s . Many d i s t inc t t ype s o f manuf ac tur e
e xam in ing p o rou s ma ter ia l s t h a t a r e r e ad i ly s t a ined b y o t he r m e thod s ( s ee b e low ) . T he ma jo r d i sadvan t age s o f a ce ta te
( f or i n s tance g r ind ing v e r su s f i l ing ) c an b e r e ad i ly i d en t i f ied 1 6
CHAPTER THREE : METHODS t a pe s a r e i t s f r ag i l i ty , a nd t h a t i ti ss l igh t ly mo re d i ff i cu l t t o u s et h an d en ta li mp res s ion ma ter ia l .
a ce tone , h ave n o k nown d amag ing e f f ec t s . O ne p o s s ib le e xcep t ion t o t h i s i s e x t reme ly f r ag i le , e xf o l ia t ing b one . A ce ta te t a pe may i nt h i s c a se p u l l a way s ome o f t h e l o o se s u rf ace m a ter ia l . I n g en e ra l , h oweve r , t h i s i sn o t ap rob lem s i nce s u ch f r ag i le b one s a r e n o t l i ke ly c and ida te s f o r u se w ea ra na ly s i si na ny c a se .
A ce ta t e t a pe h a s b een w ide ly u sed b y u se w ea r a na ly s t s , p r ima r i ly i nE u rope ( e .g . Knu t s son a nd H ope 1 984 o n s t one , P l i s son 1 983 , 1 984 , P e l t ie r 1 986 a nd d ' E r r ico e ta l . 1 984 , o n b one ) . R unn ing s ( 1984 ) a l so u sed a ce t a te t a pe t o make r e p l ica s o f w o rked mammo th b one s . T he e a r l ie s t a r chaeo log ica l u se o ft h i s m e thod s e em s t oh ave b een b y P . F .P euch ( 1 976 ) , s t udy ing w ea r o n h uman t e e th d a t ing f r om t h eM idd le P a leo l i th ic .
D en ta lI mp r e s s ion Ma ter ia l s D en ta l i mp res s ion m a te r ia l s h ave b een u sed e x ten s ive ly i n w ea r s t ud ies , b o th a r chaeo log ica l ly a nd i n t h e s t udy o f moder n h uman t e e th ( e .g . S co t t 1 982 , S choen e ta l . 1 978 ) . T hey w e re u sed i n t h i s s t udy b o th t o mak e n ega t ive i mp re s s ion s a nd t om ake p o s i t ive c a s t s , a sd i scu s sed a bove .
I nt h i s s t udy t wo t ype s o fa ce ta te t a pe w e re u sed , t h ick a nd t h in . T h ick t a pe ( . 127 mm ) w a s o cca s iona l ly u sed t o make n ega t ive i mp re s s ion s wh ich w e re t h en f i l led w i th d en ta l i mp re s s ion m a te r ia l t om ake ap o s i t ive c a s t f o r e xam ina t ion
T he u se o f s i l icone r ubbe r i mp re s s ion s i n l i th ic u se w ea r a na ly s i s w a s p ionee red b y I l k jae r ( 1979 ) . N ewe r ma ter ia l s , w i th h i ghe r r e so lu t ion s , h ave s i nce b een u sed b y S h ipman a nd o t he r s i n s t ud ie s o f c u tma rk s o n f a una l r ema in s f r om O lduva i G o rge ( Bunn 1 981 , P o t t s a nd S h ipman 1 981 ,
i nt h e S EM , am e thod f i r s t d e scr ibed b y P ame i je r( 1 974 ) . T o u se e i the r t a pe , t h e s u rf ace i s f i r s t c l eaned w i th a ce tone . T h ick t a pe i st h en h e ld w i th o ne s i de i n a c e tone f o r a bou t e i gh ts e cond s . T he e xce s s i ss haken o f f , t h et a pe i sp l aced o n t h e a r ea t ob e r e p l ica ted a nd p r es su re i sa pp l ied f o r a bou t 1 0 s e cond s . T he t a pe i sa l lowed t o d ry f o r f i ve m inu te s , a nd t h en c a ref u l ly r emoved . T he n ega t ive i mp re s s ion c an t h en b e
S h ipman 1 981) . T he m e thod u sed h e re w a s b a sed o n t h a t d e scr ibed b yR ose ( 1983 ) .
u sed t om ake ap o s i t ive c a s t . B ecau se t h ick t a pe w a sf o und t o w a rp a nd d i s tor t c on s ide rab ly a si td r ied , t h i s t e chn ique w a s u sed o n ly b r ief ly b ef o re b e ing a bandoned .
Two b rand s o fi mp re s s ion ma ter ia l w e re u sed i nt h i s s t udy , R ep ro s i l a nd C u t te r s i l . B o th c on s i s t o f ab a se a nd ac a ta ly s t . T he t wo a r e c a ref u l ly m ixed a nd t h en p l a ced i n as y r inge a nd e xp re s sed o n to t h e a r ea t ob er ep l ica ted . T he s y r inge h e lp st o
Mo r e f l ex ib le t h in t a pe ( . 08 mm ) w a su sed t o moun to ng l a s s s l ide s t ob e v i ewed w i th t r an sm i t ted l i gh t . T h in t a pe i sn o t
r emove a i r i n co rpo ra ted d u r ing m ix ing . B ecau se o ft h e b r ief w o rk ing t ime o f t h e se m a te r ia l s ( max imum 3 -4 m inu t e s )
s t rong e nough t o s uppor t t h e m ak ing o f ac a s t ( un les s s uppor ted b y ag l a s s s l ide o r o t he r r i g id b ack ing ) , n o r i si t
v acuum d ea i r ing i sn o t p o s s ib le , s o b ubb le s a r e s ome t im e s f ound . When t h e ma te r ia l i ss e t , i ti sr e ad i ly r emoved f r om
s t rong e nough t o make ar e p l ica o fa na r ea o fh i gh r e l ief . I ti s b e s tu sed o nr e la t ive ly f l a ta r ea s .
t h e b one . T he r e su l t ing n ega t ive i mp r e s s ion c an b e moun ted
A s w i t h t h ick t a pe , t h e a r ea o f t h e t o o l t o b e c a s t i sf i r s t
mo ld . Mo ld s a r e u sed t o make r e s in c a s t s ( pos i t ive ) , wh ich a r et h en v i ewed i nt h eS EM .
a nd c oa ted f o re xam ina t ion i nt h eS EM , o ri tc an b eu sed a sa
c l eaned w i th a c e tone . Ap i ece o ft a pe l a rge e nough t oc ove r t h e a r ea o fi n te re s t , w i th e nough l ef tt of o rm ah and le , i sc u t . T h in t a pe d i sso lve s o n p ro longed c on tac t w i th a ce tone , s o
D en ta l i mp r es s ion m a te r ia l s a r e i n m any w ay s t h e i d ea l m ed ium f o r mak ing h i gh r e so lu t ion r e p l ica s . T hey a r e v e ry q u ick a nd e a sy t o u se , r equ ir ing l e s s p rac t ice t h an a ce ta te t a pe . T hey c an r e p roduce v ery f i ne d e ta i l , a nd t h ey a r e
i n s tead o f w e t t ing i t , t h e a r ea t o b e c a s t i sb ru shed w i th a c e tone , a nd t h e d ry t a pe p l aced o n i t . P re s su re m ay b e a pp l ied , a s a bove , b u t i s n o t a lway s n ece s sa ry . A s t h e
w ide ly a va i lab le . T he m a in d rawback , a nd t h e r e a son t h ey w e re n o t u sed o n a r chaeo log ica l b one t o o l s i nt h i s s t udy , i s t h a t e ven o ve r t h e s hor t t ime t h a t t h ey a r e i n c on tac t w i th
a c e tone e vapo ra te s , t h e t a pe , wh ich h a s l i quef i ed o n c on tac t w i th t h e a c e tone , d r ie s o n t o a nd makes a v e ry a ccura te r e p l ica o ft h e s u rf ace . T h i s p rocedu re c an b e t r i cky . I ft h e re
p o rou s ma te r ia l s s uch a s s ome b one a nd a n t le r f r agmen t s , t h ey c an l e ave ad epo s i to fs i lene o na nd i nt h eb one .
i st o o much a ce tone , t h e t a pe m ay d i s so lve s o c omp le te ly t h a ti tc anno tb er emoved f r om t h e s u r f ace i n t ac t( a l though i t
S i lene i sa n i n er t o i l , w h ich i s d i f f icu l t o r i mpo s s ib le t o r emove f r om b one . I t c an l e ave a d a rk s t a in , b u t mo re
c an a lway s b e r emoved w i th mo re a ce tone ) . I ft h e re i sn o t e nough a c e tone , t h e r e p l ica w i l l n o t b e c omp le te . W i th
i mpo r tan t ly , i th a s b een r e por ted t h a t t h e p re sence o fs i lene c an i nh ib i tt h eu p take o f mo i s tu re . Ac hange i nh um id i ty c an
p r ac t ice , i ti sp o s s ib le t o make s ucce ssf u lr e p l ica s mos to ft h e t ime . When t h e r e p l ica i sd ry , i ti sr emoved f r om t h e s u rf ace a nd moun ted o n ag l a ss s l ide a s s oon a s p os s ib le a f t e r r emova l ,t oh e lp p reven tw a rp ing .
t h en c au se c r ack ing o r e xf o l ia t ion , a s p a r t o f t h e b one e xpand s d ue t o i n c rea sed mo i s tu re c on ten t wh i le t h e a r ea
T he re a r em any a dvan tage s t ot h i s m e thod . T ob eg in w i th , i t i s much l e ss e xpen s ive t h an o the r r e p l ica t ing t e chn ique s : a
c omm . ) . F o r t h i s r e a son , d en ta l i mp re ss ion ma ter ia l s w e r e u sed o n ly t o make i mp re s s ion s o f e xper imen ta l t o o l s w hen s t a in ing , c r ack ing a nd e xf o l ia t ion w ou ld n o t b e ap rob lem ,
i mp regna ted w i th s i lene r ema in s t h e s ame ( B . P u l io t p e r s .
r o l l o r t a pe c os t ing a bou t e i gh t d o l la r s w i l l m ake o ve r o ne h und red r e p l i ca s , a bou t o ne t e n th o f t h e c o s t o f s i l icone b a sed m a te r ia l s . I ti sa l so f a s te r , o nce t h e t e chn ique h a sb een l e a rned . F i na l ly , a nd i n t h e c on tex t o f a n a r chaeo log ica l s t udy mo s t i mpor tan t ly , i t h a s n o k nown i mpac t o n a r chaeo log ica l b one . O the r ma te r ia l s , p a r t icu la r ly t h e d en ta l
a nd o n t h e f a una l m a te r ia l s t ud ied i n t h e f i e ld e xpe r im en t d e sc r ibed b e low . I ti sp o s s ib le t op r even tt h eu p take o fs i lene b y f i r s t c oa t ing t h e b one w i th a n i mperv iou s s ub s tance . O ne s uch s ub s tance , p o ly -v iny l -ace ta te B -72 , i n 5% s o lu t ion w i th a ce tone , w a sr e commended b y t h e P r in ce o f Wa le sN or the rn H er i tage C en t re c on serva to r ,B runo P u l io t . At h in l a ye ro fB -
i mp r es s ion m a ter ia l s d i scu s sed b e low , h ave t h e p o ten t ia l t o c au se i repa rab le d amage t o b one t o o l s . A ce t a te t a pe , a nd
7 2 c an b e p a in ted o n to t h e b one b ef o re mo ld ing , a nd 1 7
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT r emoved i mmed ia te ly a f t e rwa rd s w i th a ce tone . T h i s m e thod w a s t r ied o n as ma l l s amp le o f a r chaeo log ica l t o o l s , w i th d i sappo in t ing r e su l t s . I n e ve ry c a se , t h e B -72 r e su l ted i n a l o s s o f d e ta i l , e v iden t a t l OOx magn if ica t ion . A t h i ghe r magn if i ca t ion st h e ma sk ing b ecome s mo re a nd mo r e e v iden t ,
l e a the r , i c e , s now , d ee r s i new , b eef h ea r t , e a r th , a nd s oap s tone . S ome m a te r ia l s w e re w o rk ed i n mo re t h an o ne m anne ro rw i th mo re t h an o ne t oo lt y pe . Me thod s
s uch t h a ta t 10 00x , a lmo s tn of e a tu re sa r ev i s ib le .
T he re h a s b een s ome d i scu ss ion i n t h e l i t h ic u se w ea r l i t e ra tu re o ve r t h e n eed t o r ep roduce ' a u then t ic ' c ond i t ion s
O ne f i na l d r awback t ot h eu se o fd en ta l i mp re ss ion m a te r ia l s i s t h a t t h ey c anno t b e e xam ined in a t r an sm i t t ed l i gh t m ic roscope ( a l though t h ey w ou ld b e u sef u l w i th a n i n c iden t
w hen p e rf orm ing e xpe r imen ta l t a sk s . K ee ley ( 1980 :9 ) f o r i n s tance a dvoca t e s p e rf orm ing e xpe r imen t s i n ' n a tu ra l ' c ond i t ion s t o m im ic a s c l o se ly a s p o s s ib le p r eh i s tor ic
l i gh t m ic ro scope ) . T hey a r e t hu s s l igh t ly l e ss v e r sa t i le t h an r ep l ica s m ade w i th a ce ta te t a pe . G iven a l l t h e se c on s ide ra t ion s , t h eb u lk o ft h ea na ly s i st h a tf o l low sw a sd one u s ing r ep l ica so fa ce ta te t a pe a nd al i gh tm ic ro scope .
s i tua t ion s . V aughan ( 1985 ) a dvoca te s a s imu la t ion o f p reh i s tor ic c ond i t ion s t o s ome d eg ree , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e m anne r o f u se ( a l though n o t n ece s sa r i ly c a r ry ing o u t c omp le te t a sk s ) , w h i le ma in ta in ing c on t ro l o f a s many v a r iab le s a sp o s s ib le . T he se i n c lude a ng le o fu se , f o rce , a nd c ond i t ion o ft h em a te r ia l wo rked . A l though h ed id n o tf o l low K ee ley i np rov id ing a' g r i t ty ' e nv i ronmen t f o r e xpe r imen t s , h e d i d c a r ry o u t s p ec if i c e xper imen t s t ot r y a nd c on t ro l f o r t h e p r e sence o fg r i t . T omenchuk ( 1985 ) e xe r c i ses t h e mo s t c on t ro l , i n t h e l e a s t l i f e l ike s i tua t ion s , g o ing s o f a r a s t o c a r ry o u t e xpe r im en t s w i th am echan ica l a ppa ra tus t od o t h e
EXPER I MENTAL PROGRAM ME
L abora to ry S tud ie s
w o rk o fc u t t ing o r s c rap ing . T h i s i sa n a pproach t h a t h a s a g r ea t d ea l o fv a l id i ty . I n t h eo ry , b a sed o n t h e p r inc ip le s o f
Nume rou s e xpe r imen t s , b o th i n mak ing a nd u s ing b on e t oo l s , w i th a v ar ie ty o f ma te r ia l s , w e re c a r r ied o u t i n t h e c ou r se o f t h i s r e sea rch . T hey a r e d esc r ibed i n d e t a i l i n C hap ter F ou r . I nt h i s s e c t ion , o n ly g ene ra lp rocedu r e sw i l lb e d i scu s sed .
t r ibo logy , a nd i n p rac t ice a s w a s s e en a s t h e e xpe r imen t s p rog r e s sed , many i mpor tan t c ha rac ter i s t ics o f w ea r a r e i n dependen to fm anne ro fu se ( i . e . c u t t ing v s . s c rap ing ) , t y pe o f t o o l o r o t he r f a c to r s e xcep t ma te r ia l ( Le Mo ine 1 994 ) . A l though t h i s mo re ' a b st rac t ' t y pe o f e xper imen t c anno t p rov ide a' r ea l i s t ic ' i d ea o ft h e w ay a r chaeo log ica l t o o l s c an b e e xpec ted t ol o ok , i td oes p rov ide i s o la ted , c l ea r e xamp les o f w ea r . I n te rac t ion s b e tween d i f f e ren t w ea r p roces ses c an t h en b es t ud ied f u r the r .
Ma te r ia l s A w ide v a r ie ty o f ma ter ia l s w e re u sed i nt h e e xpe r imen t s . R aw ma te r ia l s f o r mak ing b one t oo l s i n c luded b o th d ee r a nd a n te lope b one s a nd c a r ibou a n t le r . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h e
I n t h e e xper imen t s d e sc r ibed b e low , V aughan ' s m e thod s
c a r ibou a n t le r , a l l b ones h ad b een f r ozen , o f t en w i th f l e sh
w e r e f o l lowed f o rt h e mo s tp a r t , a l though i ns ome c a se s t h e w o rk c a r r ied o u t w a s av e ry a bs t rac t v e r s ion o f w ha t t h e
s t i l l a t tached . ( A l though u s ing f r e sh b one w ou ld h ave b een p ref e rab le , as u i tab le s upp ly w a s n o t a va i lab le . ) T hey w e r e t h awed a nd c l eaned a s n eeded . I n s ome c a se s t h i s i n c luded s oak ing i nw a rm w a te r t o l o osen d r ied t e ndon s . I n a l l c a se s c l ean ing w a s c a r r ied o u t w i th a s t ee l k n if e . Ma rk s l ef t b y
o r ig ina l t a sk s w e re l i ke ly t ob e . I ng ene ra l , o n ly t h e w o rk ing p or t ion s o f t h e t o o l s w e re mode led o n e t hnog raph ic o r a r chaeo log ica l e xamp le s . I tw a s n o t c on s ide red n ece s sa ry t o m ake e xac t c op ie s f o r t h e p u rpo se s o f t h e se e xpe r imen t s , s i nce o n ly t h e w o rk ing e dge s w e re o f i n t e re s t a l though t h e g ene ra l f o rm o f t h e t o o ls w a s t h e s ame . I n am ic ro scop ic
c l ean ing w e re l a te r o b l i te ra ted b y manuf ac tu re . I n c a se s whe re t h ey m ay s t i l l h ave b een p resen t , a n i n i t ia l r e p l ica o f e ach t oo l , m ade when s t i l l u nu sed , e n su red t h a t s uch m a rk s w e re n o tm i s taken f o rw ea r .
a na ly s i s , o n ly t h e p o r t ion s o f t h e t o o l s t h a t c on tac t t h e w o rk ing e dge a r e r e a l ly i mpo r tan t . T h i s , a nd t h e manne r i n wh ich t h e e xpe r im en t s w e re c a r r ied o u t , r ef l ec t s V aughan 's
T oo l s f o r u se w ea r e xpe r imen t s w e re m anuf ac tu red u s ing a v ar ie ty o f t e chn iques . T oo l s u sed t o m ake t h e b one t o o l s
( 1985 ) ' a s i f a pp roach : c a r ry ing o u t e xpe r imen t s ' a s i f i n vo lved i n r e a l a c t iv i t ie s , w i thou t a c tua l ly p e rf orm ing
r anged f r om c op ies o f a r chaeo log ica l i mp lem en t s , s uch a s a dze s , a s w e l l a s g r ind s tone s , t o mo re modem t oo l s s u ch a s f i le s a nd i n r a re c a ses , ab e l t s ande r . F i les w e re u sed
c omp le te t a sk s . S ome t a sk s , s uch a sf i sh s c a l ing , d o n o t l e nd t h em se lve s t ot h i s t y pe o fa b s t rac t ion . O ther s , s uch a s h ide
e t hnog raph ica l ly v e ry e a r ly o n i nt h e Mackenz ie D e l ta ( s ee b e low ) a nd s ot r aces o f manuf ac tu re o nt o o l sm ade w i th f i l e s w e re l ef ta st h ey w e re . T races o fg r ind ing w i th ab e l t s and e r
a nd w ood w o rk ing , d o . E xper im en t s w i th t h e se m a ter ia l s w e r e c a r r ied o u ti nb o th a' l i f e l ike ' a nd a n' a bs t rac t ' m anne r .
w e re e l im ina ted b efo re t h e t o o l s w e re u sed b y b r ief ly
p a t te rn s i nb o th c a se s , a nd t e nd st os uppor tt h ei mpor tance o f
g r ind ing o n ag r ind s tone , o r b y f i l ing . T hu s t h e t r ace s o f manuf ac tu r e o n a l l o ft h e e xpe r imen ta l t o o l s w e re c on s i s ten t w i th wha tm igh tb e e xpec ted o nt h e a r chaeo log ica lt o o l s .
c a r ry ing o u t a t l e a s t s ome e xper imen t s t o i s o la te c l ea r e xamp le so fw ea rp a t te rn s .
T h i s s e rved t od emon s t ra te t h e s im i la r i t ies b e tween t h e w ea r
S ome t o o lt y pe s l e nd t h em se lve s mo re r e ad i ly t ot h i s t y pe o f a b s t rac t ion t h an o t he r s . D r i l l s , f o r e xamp le , a r e mo s tr e ad i ly
Aw ide v a r ie ty o f ma te r ia l s w e re u sed i nc r ea t ing u se w ea r . T hese i n c lude f i ve s pec ie s o f wood , p u rcha sed f r om al o ca l l umbe rs t o re , a sw e l l a sw i l low w and s f r om b o th A lbe r ta a nd t h e N WT , f ou r s pec ie s o f f i sh , s i x d i f f e r en t q ua l i t ie s o f
u sed t o d r i l l . N o o t he r a c t ion s a r e l i ke ly . F o r o t he r t o o l s , w ho se u se s a r e l e s s c l ea r o r wh ich m ay h ave h ad mu l t ip le u se s , a bs t rac t ion i se a s ie r . T he v a r iou st y pe so fb one s c rape r s 1 8
CHAPTER THREE : METHODS a r e a n e xamp le o ft h i s . I n t h e e xpe r imen t s t h ey w e re o f ten u sed f o r m o re t h an o ne t a sk , u s ing d i f f e ren t mo t ion s . I n s ome c a se s t h e se r ep re sen ted l i ke ly t a sk s , w h i le i n o t he r s
F ie ld S t ud ie s D u r ing t h e 1 988 f i e ld s e a son , at wo p ar t s t udy w a s c a r r ied o u tt oe va lua te t h eu t i l i ty o ft h e G upuk ma ter ia lf o ru se w ea r a na ly s i s , a nd t o e xam ine t h e e f f ec t s o f v ar iou s p o s t -
t h ey w e r e m e re ly r ubbed a ga in s t t h e m a te r ia l t ob e w o rked , w i thou t p e rf o rm ing ap ar t icu la rt a sk . D e ta i l s o ft h e se w i l lb e g iven i nC hap te rF ou r .
e xcava t ion t r ea tmen t s o nb one . T he n eed t oc on t ro l f o rb o th o ft h e se f a c to r sh a s l o ng b een r e cogn i zed i nu se w ea rs t ud ie s .
E xper im en t s w e re c a r r ied o u t i n al a bo ra to ry , t h e o n ly e xcep t ion b e ing t h e u se o f s now k n ive s . I n b o th manuf ac tur ing a nd u se e xpe r imen t s , w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u t i n
V aughan ( 1981) r e po r t s t h a t a s e a r ly a s 1 883 d e Mor t i l le t r e cogn ized t h e n eed t o d i s t ingu i sh n a tura l f r om c u l tu ra l mod if i ca t ion s o n s t one . T he ' e o l i th d eba te ' c en t red o n t h i s i s sue . I n 1 951 , B o rde s a nd B ou rgon ( 1951) r epor ted o n e xper imen t s t o d e term ine t h e e f f ec t s o f t r amp l ing o n s t one t o o l s .
ac on t ro l led f a sh ion , k eep ing a s m any f a c to r s a s p o s s ib le c on s t an tt h rough e ach s e t o fe xper imen t s . W i th in e ach s e t o f e xper imen t s , a n e f f or tw a s made t oc a r ry o u t e ach a c t ion f o r t h e s am e n umbe r o f t ime s o r f o r a pp rox ima te ly t h e s am e d u ra t ion , u s ing a bou t t h e s ame amoun t o f f o rce . G iven t h e
T he se e a r ly w o rk s w e re o n a m ac roscop ic s ca le , b u t m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s w a s b e ing c a r r ied o u t a s w e l l , mo s t i mpo r tan t ly b y S em enov ( 1964 ) i n t h e 1 950 s . S ince t h en l i t h ic u se w ea r a na ly s t s h ave c a r r ied o u t n ume rou s
n a tu re o fs ome o ft h e t a sk s , i tw a s n o t a lway s p o ss ib le t ob e p rec i se i n t h e se ma t te r s , h oweve r . I n t h e u se w ea r e xper im en t s , ar ep l ica w a s made o f e a ch t o o l b ef o re u se b egan , a s w e l l a s a f t e r r e sha rpen ing . D u r ing t h e c ou r se o f e ach e xpe r imen t , o bser va t ion s w e re m ade t o mon i to r t h e d eve lopm en t o f w ea r . A t e ve ry s t age , ar e p l ica o f t h e w o rk ing p or t ion o f t h e t oo l s w a s m ade . I n t h i s w ay
e xpe r imen t s e xam in ing d i f f e ren t f a c to r s a f f ec t ing n on -u se w ea r , i n c lud ing : n a tu ra l f a c to r s ( s o i l c ompac t ion , a b ra s ion , a nd p a t ina t ion ) ; t r amp l ing , wh ich c an b e c on s ide red b o th a n a tu ra l a nd ac u l tura l f a c to r , d epend ing o n who i sd o ing t h e t r amp l ing ; c u l tu ra l f a c to r s , s uch a s manuf ac tu r ing e f f ec t s ;
p ermanen t r e co rd o f t h e p rog re ss o f e a ch e xper imen t w a s p roduced .
a nd p o s te xcava t ion d amage , s uch a ss c reen ing ,b agg ing , a nd u nbagg ing ( Kee ley 1 980 , V aughan 1 981 a nd r e f e rence s t h e re in ) .
E xper imen t s w e re mea su r ed i nd i f f e ren tw ay s , d epend ing o n t h e t ype o fw o rk b e ing c a r r ied o u t . I n s ome c a se s , s uch a s mo s t o f t h e manuf ac tu r ing e xpe r im en t s , t h e n umbe r o f s t roke s w a s c oun ted ( t he e xcep t ion s b e ing d r i l l ing ,
A l though t h e se s t ud ie s a r e i mpor t an t i np r inc ip le , t h e a c tua l r e su l t s h ave l i t t le b ea r ing o n u se w ea r a na ly s i s o n b one . F o r tuna te ly , many s im i la re xper imen t s h ave b een c ar r ied o u t o nb one a sp a r to ft a phonom ic s t ud ie s . S tud ie s o ft h e e f f ec t s
g r ind ing /po l i sh ing a nd f i l ing ) . I n o t he rc a se s , t h e d u ra t ion o f w ork , o rt h e amoun t o fw o rk d one w a s m ea su red , ( l eng th o f g roove sm ade , s i ze o ff i sh s c a led , n umbe ra nd d ep th o fh o le s d r i l led ) . I n many c a se s t wo m ea su remen t s , o ne b e ing
o f n a tu ra l f a c to r s o n b one i n c lude t h ose c once rned w i th w ea the r ing , a n ima l g naw ing , a nd t h e e f f ec t s o f s ubsu rf ace f a c to r s s uch a s r oo t e t ch ing ( Beb ren smeye r 1 978 , B inf o rd
d u ra t ion a nd t h e o the rb e ing s ome m ea su re o ft h e a moun to f w o rk s uch a ss t roke s , w e re m ade . G en e ra l ly , w o rk c on t inued u n t i l t h e w ea r a ppea red t ob e s t ab le ( n o l o nge r d eve lop ing ) .
1 981 , B onn ich sen 1 979 , M i l le r 1 969 , 1 975 , Mo r lan 1 980 , T appen , 1 964 , 1 969 , 1 971 , 1 976 ) . T ramp l ing h a s a l so r e ce ived a l o t o f a t t en t ion , b o th c u l tu ra l ( Bra in 1 981) a nd
On s ome o cca s ion s , wo rk w a s s t opped w hen t h e t o o l sb roke , o ra ppea r ed t ob e i nd ange ro fb reak ing . I n af ew c a se s w o rk w a s l im i t ed b yt ime c on s t ra in t s ( e .g . s nowkn ives ) o rm a te r ia l
n a tu ra l ( Ageub road 1 984 , B eh ren smeye re ta l . 1 986 , F ior i l lo 1 984 , H ayne s 1 983 ) . On ly p o s t -excava t ion f a c to r s r ema in r e la t ive ly u n s tud ied , a l though p repa ra to r s ' ma rk s h ave b een i d en t if i ed i ns t ud ie s o fc u t s a nd s c ra tches o nb one ( Sh ipman
c on s t ra in t s t h e c o s t o f f i sh a nd m ea t c ou ld b ecom e p roh ib i t ive , f o re xamp le . I ne ach c a se , t h ough , t h e a moun to f wo rk d on e i sc ompa rab le t o t h a t a c comp l i shed i n s im i la r -
-
l i th ic u se w ea r e xper im en t s . S ince w ea r o n b one s e em s t o
a nd R o se 1 983 ) . C u l tu ra l f a c to r s , s uch a s t h e e f f ec t s o f manuf ac tu r ing , h ave a l so b een e xam ined ( Newcomer 1 974 ,
d eve lop m uch mo re r ap id ly t h an o n s t one , t h e se p re sumab ly r ep resen ta dequa te r e su l t s .
C ampana 1 980 ) a nd make u p al a rge p a r t o f t h e p re sen t s t udy .
I nt h e e a r ly s t age s o fr e sea rch , mo s tr e p l ica s w e re m ade w i th
I n t e rm s o f e xcava t ion p rocedu re a nd p o s t -excava t ion t r ea tmen t , t h e G upuk s amp le w a s k nown t o b e e xemp la ry .
R ep ro s i l . T he b u lk o ft h e w o rk t h a t f o l low s , h oweve r , w a s c ar r ied o u t w i th a ce ta te t a pe a nd al i gh t m ic ro scope . B ef o re e ach r e p l ica w a s made , t h e t o o l s , o r i n t h e c a se o f t h e manuf ac tu r ing e xper im en t s , t h e w o rked a r ea s , w e r e c l eaned .
C a r ef u l t r owe l ing a tt h e s i te m in im ized t h e n umbe r o ft oo l s t h a t w e re s ub jec t t o s c reen ing , a nd a n o n s i te c on serva to r e n su red t h a t a l l b one t o o l s w e re c a refu l ly d r ied t om in im i ze c r ack ing , w a rp ing , a nd s h r ink ing o f s a tura ted b one . T he p e rmaf ro s t r e spon s ib le f o r t h e s a tu ra t ion o f t h e b one a l so
I fn ece s sa ry , s oap a nd w a te r w e re f i r s t u sed t or emove f a t ty r e s idue s . As of td ry b ru sh w a s u sed t oc l ea ra way d eb r i s a nd a ce ton e w a sb ru shed o n w i th as of tb ru sh t oc l ean a way a ny
p re se rved i ti np r i s t ine c ond i t ion . O fc oncern i nt h i s s t udy , t h e ref o re , w a sp o s t -depo s i t iona l d amage , d ue t os uch f a c to r s
r ema in ing r e s idue . T he w o rk ing p a r t s o ft o o l s w e re h and led a s l i t t le a s p os s ib le t o a vo id c on tam ina t ing t h em . A rchaeo log ica l t oo l s w e r e c l eaned u s ing as of tb ru sh d i pped
a s t r amp l ing , s o l if luc t ion , f r os t h eav ing , a nd o ther f a c to r s ( i . e . m ovemen t d ue t o a n ima l s b u r row ing , r oo t s e t c . ) . T he e f f ec t s o f many o ft h e se f a c to r s a r e w e l l k nown a nd r e ad i ly r e cogn izab le , t h ank s t o t h e t a phonom ic s t ud ies d i scu s sed
i na ce ton e o n ly . T hey w e re h and led a sl i t t le a sp o s s ib le a ta l l t imes . T h e l o ca t ion o f e ach r ep l ica w a s r e co rded o n a d raw ing o ft h e t oo l . When mo re t h an o ne r e p l ica w a s m ade o f at o o l ,t h er ep l ica sw e re n umbe red s e quen t ia l ly .
a bove . O ne a spec t o ft h e p re sen t s t udy w as t o d e term ine t o w ha t e x ten tt h ey w e r e i mpo r tan t a tt h e s i te . T he o the r a spec t o ft h e s t udy , t h e e xam ina t ion o ft h e e f f ec t s o fd i f f eren tp o s t 1 9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT e xcava t ion t r ea tmen t s , w a s a imed a td e term in ing t h e u t i l i ty o f mu seum c o l lec t ion s ( who se e xcava t ion /co l lec t ion h i s to ry m ay b eu nknown o rl e s st h an i d ea l ) f o ru se w ea ra na ly s i s .
b one sw e re a l lowed t oa i rd ry i nt h e f i e ld . T hey w e re t h en a l l p l aced i n o ne b rown p ape r b ag a nd t r an spor ted b ack t o C a lga ry w he re t h ey w e re mo lded a ga in .F ew b one t o o l s f r om
T o a n swer b o th o f t h e se q ue s t ion s , a n e xpe r imen t w a s
G upuk , o rf r om a ny o the rs i te , a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een t r ea ted i nt h i s manne r , b u t u nrecogn ized t oo l s d o o cca s iona l ly t u rn
d ev i sed i n wh ich u nmod i f ied f r agmen t s o fa n ima lb one w e re s e lec ted d u r ing e xcava t ion , t o b e f i r s t mo lded a s s oon a f te r e xcava t ion a s p o ss ib le , t h en t o b e s ub jec ted t o d i f f e ren t t r ea tmen t s , a nd t h en t ob e mo lded a s e cond t ime . T he f i r s t a nd s e cond mo ld s w e re u sed t o m ake c a s t s , wh ich w e re e xam ined a nd c ompa red i n aS EM . T he f i r s t c a s t s g i ve a
F ina l ly , t h e f o u r th s e t , o f f i ve b one s , w a s t r ea ted mo re r ough ly t h an a ny ma ter ia l f r om G upuk , t o c on t ro l f o r e x t rem e s i tua t ion s . Af t e r t h e f i r s t mo ld w a s m ade , t h ese
g ood i nd ica t ion o ft h e g ene ra l s t a te o fb one a tt h e s i te , wh i le c o mpar i son s b e tween t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond c a s t s s how t h e e f f ec t so ft h ev a r iou st r ea tmen t s .
b ones w e re a l lowed t oa i r d ry . T hey w e re t h en b agged i na b rown p ape rb ag w i th f l ake sa nd o the rs t on es a nd t r an spo r ted b ef o re b e ing mo lded a ga in .
O ve r an umbe r o f d ay s i n 1 988 , 2 2 b ones w e re s e lec ted d u r ing e xcava t ion f o r i n c lu s ion i n t h e s t udy . I n i t ia l ly , t h e b one s w e re mo lded i mmed ia te ly a f t e r e xcava t ion .
L abo ra to ry a na ly s i s o f t h e se b one s t o ok t h r ee f o rm s . T he b ones w e re e xam ined v i sua l ly w i th al ow p owe rm ic ro scope t o d e tec t l a rge s c a le c hange . A s e lec t ion o f c a s t s w a s e xam ined i nt h e S EM f o rs ma l ls ca le c hanges a nd p roduc t ion o fp ho tog raph s . A l l b one s w e re a l so r e p l ica t ed w i th a ce ta te t a pe , f o r e xam ina t ion i n ah igh p owe r t r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope .
Unf o r tuna te ly t h i s p roved t o b e i mp rac t ica l . T he mo ld ing c o mpound , C u t te r s i l , d id n o t w o rk w e l l i nt h e c oo l o u tdoo r a i r , wh i le w indb lown d u s t a nd o t he r m a ter ia l made k eep ing t h e p i eces b e ing mo lded c l ean d i ff i cu l t . Mo s t r e p l ica s w e re m ade i n t h e l a b , e i the r i n t h e f i e ld o r i n C a lga ry . T o k eep t h em i nt h e ir o r ig ina l c ond i t ion a f t e r e xcava t ion a nd b ef o re mo ld ing , e ach b one w a s w rapped i nd amp s phagn u m mo ss a nd s t o red i n ap l a s t ic b ag t o r e ta in mo i s tu re ( t he s t anda rd t r ea tmen t f o r a l l b one a nd o the r o rgan ic a r tef ac t s a tt h e s i te ) u n t i l i tc ou ld b e mo lded . B one f r agmen t s w e r e s e lec ted o n t h e b a s i s o f s hape f r agmen t s w i th e l emen t s r e semb l ing -
u p i nf a una lb ag s . T h i sp o r t ion o ft h e s t udy c on t ro l s f o rs uch f i nd s .
R esu l t s R ega rd ing t h ef i r s ta spec to ft h i s s t udy , t h eb one f r om G upuk h a s s u s ta ined a lmo s t n o p os t -depo s i t iona l d amage . T he b one s s how l i t t le s i gn o fd amage , e i the r m ac ro scop ica l ly o r m ic ro scop ica l ly . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t s i nce t h e p u rpo se o f t h i ss t udy w a st oe va lua t et h e ma ter ia lf o rm ic ro scop ic s t udy ,
-
b one t oo l s , s uch a sp o in t s o r s ha rp e dge s , w e re f a vou red . I t w a s f e l t t h a t s i nce f o rma l c ha rac ter i s t ics o ft h e b one m igh t h ave a n e f f ec t o n t h e l i ke l ihood o fi ts u s ta in ing d amage , a r e semb lance t o t o o l f o rm w ou ld b e i mpo r tan t . A s w i th e xpe r imen ta la nd a r chaeo log ica lt o o l s ,n ob one f r agmen tw a s c o mp le te ly mo lded . T he p rec i se l o ca t ion o fe ach mo ld w a s n o ted s ot h a tt h es e cond c a s tc ou ld b e made i nt h es ame s po t .
b one s w i th v i s ib le d amage d ue t of a c to r s s u ch a sw ea the r ing o r a n ima l c hew ing w e re a vo ided . Any t o o l s s how ing t h ese t y pe s o f d amage a r e c l ea r ly l e ss s u i tab le f o r u se w ea r a na ly s i s . I tw a se xpec ted ,h oweve r , t h a tb ones u ndamaged o n al a rge s c a le w ou ld s how s ma l l s ca le a nd e ven m ic ro scop ic d amage s uch a s s c ra tch ing o r a b ra s ion . T h i s w a s n o t t h e c a se , a s P l a te 3 . 2 i lu s t ra te s . F ew o ft h e b one s e xam ined i n t h e S EM s howed a ny s c ra tches o r a b ra s ion . T hose t h a t d id a r e n o t l i ke ly t ob e m i s t aken f o r u se w ea r o r m anuf ac tu r ing d ue t h e i r mo rpho logy , l o ca t ion a nd f r equency . B a sed o n t h i s
Af t e r t h e i n i t ia l mo ld ing , t h e b one s w e re d i v ided i n to f ou r g roup s a nd s ub jec ted t od i f f e ren t t r ea tmen t s . T he f i r s t g roup o f 4b ones , t h e c on t ro l , w a s t r ea t ed i n t h e s ame w ay a s a r tef ac t s f r om t h e s i te . Af t e r r emov ing t h e s phagn u m mos s
s amp le , t h en , i tc an b e s t a ted t h a t t h e v a s t ma jor i ty o f s c ra tches , a s w e l l a s mo s t a r ea s o fp o l i sh a nd a b ra s ion , a r e d ue t oc u l tu ra l f a c tor s , u n le s s t h e re i sm ac roscop ic e v idence
t h a t h ad k ep t t h em mo i s t , t h e b one s w e re p l aced i n s e a led p l a s t ic b ag s ( Bagg ie s ) . E very d ay t h e c onden sa t ion t h a t
t ot h ec on t ra ry ( s uch a sc a rn ivo re c hew ing ) .
a ccumu la ted o n t h e i n s ide o ft h e b ag w a s w iped a way , u n t i l n o mo re w a s b e ing p roduced . T h i s c ou ld t a ke f r om d ay s t o w eek s , d epend ing o n t h e mo i s tu re c on ten t o ft h e b one . T h i s s l ow , c on t ro l led d ry ing m in im ize s c r ack ing a nd d i s tor t ion o f
R e su l t so ft h es e cond a spec to ft h i s s t udy , o np os t -excava t ion t r ea tmen t s , a r e amb iguou s b u t , a s w i th t h e f i r s t p ar t , p rom i s ing . O n a mac ro scop ic s ca le , n one o f t h e b one s s howed a ny g r ea t c hange s a f t e r t r ea tmen t , a l though a f ew h ad d eve loped c r ack s d ue t o u ncon t ro l led d ry ing .
t h e b one t h a t c an r e su l t f r om o ve r ly r ap id d ry ing . O nce d ry , t h e b ones w e re c a refu l ly w rapped w i th m ic rof oam ( a p ack ing ma te r ia l ) t op reven t t h em f r om t ouch ing e ach o t he r , p acked i n ar i g id c on ta ine r , a nd t r an spor ted t oC a lga ry whe re t h ey w e re mo lded a ga in .
M ic ro scop ica l ly , t h e mo s t s i gn if ican t c hange a f t e r a l l t r ea tmen t s w a s a n i n c rea se i n d e ta i l . T he s a tu ra ted b one s w e re p lumped b y t h e w a te rt h ey h e ld , o b scu r ing f i ne d e ta i l s . When d ry , d e t a i l s a ppea r c r i sper ( P la t e 3 . 3 ) . O the r c hanges w i l lb ed i scu s sed t r ea tmen tb yt r ea tmen t .
As e cond s e to ff i ve b one s w a s t r ea t ed s im i la r ly , b u tw i thou t t h e c a refu l d ry ing . T he b one s w e re t r an spor ted t o C a lgary s t i l l w rapped i n s phagnum mo s s f o r p ro tec t ion . T hey w e re u nw rapped i nt h e l a b a nd a l lowed t od ry i na n u n con t ro l led m anne rb ef o re b e ing mo lded as e cond t ime . T h i s t r ea tmen ti s
G roup 1 :C on t ro l . A s e xpec ted , t h e c on t ro l g roup s howed v e ry l i t t le c hange b e tween t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond c a s t s . S EM e xam ina t ion o f t wo o f t h e f ou r b one f r agmen t s s howed c hange s d ue t ow a te rl o s s , b u tt h e se w e re l e s s d r a s t ic t h an o n
r e p re sen ta t ive o f t h e t r ea tmen t o f many b one a r tef ac t s p roces sed w i thou tt h eb enef i to f ac on ser va to r .
t h o se f r agmen t s t h a t h ad b een a i r d r ied . I nb o th c a ses s ma l l c r ack s t h a t w e re p re sen t i n i t ia l ly w e re e n la rged , a nd a f ew t i ny c r ack s n o t p rev iou s ly v i s ib le a ppea red ( P la te 3 . 4 ) F ine d e t a i l i so t he rw i se w e l lp r e served .
T he t h i rd s e t , made u p o f e i gh t b ones , w a s t r ea ted a s w e re t h ef a una lr ema in sf r om G upuk . Af t e rt h e i n i t ia l mo ld ing , t h e 2 0
CHAPTER THREE : METHODS G roup 2 :A i r d r ied . I n t h i s s amp le a s w e l l , l i t t le c hange i s v i s ib le e xcep t e n la rged c r ack s . D e sp i te t h e a i r d ry ing , t h e c r ack s d o n o t s e em t ob e a ny l a rge r o r mo re n ume rou s t h an o nt h eb one st h a tw e re d r ied s l ow ly .
P o l i sh c an b e o ne o ft h e mo s tc onf u s ing t e rm s . When u sed i n t h i sw o rk u nqua l if i ed , i ti sm ean ti ni t s mos tg ene ra ls en se , a s ac hange i n t e x tu re o ft h e t o o l s u rf ace , n orma l ly b ecom ing s moo the r , a s ar e su l t o f a ny a c t ion o n t h e b one ( u se , m anuf ac tu re ,t r an spor ta nd s oo n ) .
G roup 3 :A i r d r ied a nd t r ea ted a s f a una l r ema in s . C hange s f r om t h e f i r s t t o t h e s e cond c a s t s o n t h ese s amp le s w e re
Two v ar ia t ion s o n t h e t e rm p o l i sh a r e i nvas ive p o l i sh a nd n on inva s ive p o l i sh ( P la te 3 . 7a , b ) . T he se r e f e r t o t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f t h e p o l i sh . An i n va s ive p o l i sh i s o ne t h a t
m in ima l , much l e s st h an e xpec ted . S EM e xam ina t ion a t2 50x s how s t h e c ong ruence i n f i n e d e ta i l b e tween t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond e xamp le s o f o ne o f t h e s p ec imen s . A ga in , c r ack s h ave w idened , b u t d e sp i te j o s t l ing i n ab ag , e dge s d o n o t
c ove r s a l l o r mo s t o f t h e s u rf ace w he re w ea r i s p re sen t , i n c lud ing t h e s i de s a nd e ven b o t tom s o f s t r ia t ion s . I t i s p roduced b y as of tm a ter ia l t h a t c onf orm s t o t h e s u rf ace o f t h e t o o l s . An on inva s ive p o l i sh i st h e o ppo s i te , ap o l i sh t h a t d oe s n o t c onf o rm t o t h e t o o l s u rf ace , a f f ec t ing o n ly h i gh
s e em t ob e a b raded , n o ra r et h e re s c ra t che sv i s ib le . G roup 4 :A i r d r ied a nd b agged w i th l i t h ic s a nd o t he rb one s . T hese b one sa l so s howed s u rp r i s ing ly l i t t le d amage , a l though t h ey w e r e t r ea ted q u i te r ough ly . O ne o ft h eb ones ( P la te 3 . 5 )
p o in t s . I ne a r ly s t age s o fd eve lopmen t , s uch ap o l i sh m ay b e s e en o n ly i n i s o la ted s po t s , o r may f o rm l i ne s o f p o l i sh , a l ong t h eh i gh p o in t s o fg r ind ing s t r ia t ion s f o re xamp le . A si t d eve lop s , i tw i l l w ea rt h e h i gh p o in t s d own , u n t i l e ven tua l ly
w a s t h e o n ly o ne e xam ined t o s how a ny s c ra tch ing . T he s c ra tches a r e v a r iab le b o th i n t e rm s o f s i ze a nd d i rec t ion . A f ter t r ea tmen t a t l e a s t o ne a dd i t iona l s c ra t ch w a s v i s ib le . T h i s i st h e o n ly s c ra tch a t t r ibu tab le t ot h e r ough t r ea tm en to f t h e se b ones .
a l l a r ea s a r e o fe qua lh e igh t a nd t h e w ea r c ove r s t h e s u rf ace e ven ly . S uch ap o l i sh i sp roduced mo s t o f ten b y h a rd , r i g id , m a ter ia l s . N a tu ra l ly , t h ese t wo t y pes o fp o l i sh r ep resen te nd s o f ac on t inuum . Ap o l i sh may b e ' modera te ly i nva s ive ' f o r i n s tance . Whe re n ece ssa ry t h e se v ar ia t ion s w i l l b e d e sc r ibed i nt h et e x t .
D i scu s s ion T he r e su l t s o f t h i s b r ief s t udy a r e p rom i s ing , b o th f o r t h e s t udy o f t h e G upuk m a te r ia l a nd f o r t h e s t udy o f mu seum
An i mpor tan t d i s t inc t ion m ade b e tween p o l i she s i s whe the r
c o l lec t ion s . T he Gupuk m a ter ia l s how s a lmo s t n o p os t d epo s i t iona l d amage . T h i s , c omb ined w i th t h e c a ref u l
t h ey a r e b r igh t o r d u l l P l a te 3 . 7c , d ) . T hese t e rm s r e f e r t o t h e r ef l ec t iv i ty o f t h e p o l i sh , ab r igh t p o l i sh b e ing h i gh ly
e xcava t ion a nd c on serva t ion t e chn ique s u sed a tt h e s i t e a nd i nt h e l a bo ra to ry p roce s s ing o ft h em a ter ia l , make s i ta ni d ea l s amp le f o ru se w ea ra na ly s i s .
r ef l ec t ive , w h i le a d u l l p o l i sh , a l though s moo th , i s l e s s r ef l ec t ive . U l t ima te ly t h i s d i f f e rence h a s t o d o w i th t h e s moo thne s s o f t h e p o l i sh , p robab ly o n a mo lecu la r l e ve l , m ak ing t h e r ef l ec t iv i ty a s e conda ry c ha rac ter i s t ic o f t h e
T he b r ief s t udy o f p o s t -excava t ion t r ea tmen t a l so h o ld s p rom i se f o r t h e e xam ina t ion o f mu seum c o l lec t ion s o f u nknown c o l lec t ion a nd c on serva t ion h i s to ry . D e sp i te v ery
p o l i sh . I n t h i s s t udy , r ef l ec t iv i ty i s u sed t o d i f f e ren t ia te p o l i she s r a the r t h an a c tua l s moo thnes s b ecau se o f t h e d i ff i cu l ty o fe xam in ing t h e ma te r ia l s o nt h e s c a le r equ i r ed t o d o s o .
r ough t r ea tm en t i n s om e c a se s , t h e s t udy b one s s how v ery l i t t le m ic ro scop ic d amage . I t m ay b e t h a t t h e e xce l len t p r e serva t ion o ft h e G upuk b one sm ake st h em l e s ss u scep t ib le t o s uch d amage . L e s s w e l l -p rese rved s pec imen s a r e v e ry l i ke ly l e s s a b le t o w i th s tand s uch h a r sh t r ea tmen t . F o r t h e p u rposes o fu se w ea r a na ly s i s , h oweve r , l e s s w e l l -p re served s pec imen s a r e o f l i t t le u se i n a ny c a se . G iven t h a t a c o l lec t ion w a s o r ig ina l ly w e l l - p r e served , a nd h a s b een t r ea ted w i th a t l e a s t al i t t le c a re , i ts e em s t h a t i tw i l l b e a menab le t ou se w ea ra na ly s i s .
S tr ia t ion s a r e a no the r c ommon f e a tu re o f many w ea r p a t tern s , a nd t h ey c an t a ke many f o rm s . T he re h a s b een s ome d i scu s s ion i n t h e l i t h ic u se w ea r l i t e ra tu re a s t o t h e p rec i se d ef in i t ion o ft h e t e rm s t r ia t ion ( e .g . i nH ayden 1 979 : 1 92 -3 ) . H e re , s t r ia t ion i su sed i n ag ene ra l s en se t o i d en t if y a ny c l ea rl i nea rf e a tu re l e f ta s ar e su l to f ma ter ia ld i s loca t ion . D if f e ren t t y pe s o f s t r ia t ion s a r e i d en t if ied b y q ua l if i e r s . T he se a r e d e scr ip t ive o f t h e v i sua l a ppea rance o f t h e s t r ia t ion s , r a the r t h an i d en t ify ing t h e mechan i sm o f w ea r f o rma t ion , a l though t os ome e x ten tt h et wo o ve r lap .
A NOTE ON TERM INOLOGY
T he m a jo r d i s t inc t ion m ade b e tween t ype s o fs t r ia t ion s h e re i s b e tween c oar se a nd s moo th s t r ia t ion s , d escr ib ing t h e i n t e rn a l c ha rac ter i s t ic s o ft h e s t r ia t ion P la te 3 . 7e , f ) . Smoo th
I ti so f t en d i ff icu l t t o a ccu ra te ly d e scr ibe d e ta i l s s e en u nde r t h e m ic ro scope . T o make m a t te r s w o r se , p ho tog raph s d o n o t a lway s d o j u s t ice t o t h e i mage s . C hange s i n c on t ra s t a nd
s t r ia t ion s , a sw ou ld b e e xpec ted , h ave n o i n te rna l g roove s o r o t he rf e a tu re s , w h i le c oa r se s t r ia t ion s may b e q u i te c omp lex , w i th b o th i n te rn a l g roove s a nd f e a tu re s s uch a s c r ack s
b r igh tne ss ,a sw e l la sf o cu s ( on t h et o p sa nd t h en t h eb o t tom s o f s t r ia t ion s f o r i n s tance ) a r e o f t en r e qu i red t o g e t af u l l
p erpend icu la r t o t he s t r ia t ion . B o th t ypes o fs t r ia t ion v a ry i n
p i c tu re o f t h e w ea r u nde r o b ser va t ion . T he se c anno t b e c ap tu red a c cu ra te ly o n f i lm . T o s imp l if y d e scr ip t ion s , I d eve loped a n umbe r o f t e rm s t h a t a r e u sed t h roughou t t h e t e x t . T hese w i l l b e b r ief ly d e f ined a nd i lu s t ra ted h e re . F o r c o mpar i son , u nwo rked b one a nd a n t le r a r e s hown i n P l a t e 3 . 6 .
2 1
w id th a nd d ep th . T hey m ay a l so v ary i n p ro f i le ( e .g . ' U ' s haped v s . ' V ' s haped ) , b u t t h i s d i s t inc t ion w a s n o t o f t en p o s s ib le t o make w i th t h em ic ro scop ic e qu ipmen ta va i lab le .
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT Two t e rm s i n t roduced i nC hap te r Two , a nd a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d e scr ip t ion o fs t r ia t ion s a r e b r i t t le f r ac ture a nd p i le -up ( s ee P la te 3 . 1) . T he se h ave b een b o r rowed f r om t r ibo log ica l t e rm ino logy .B r i t t le f r ac tu re i s ap roce ss b y wh i ch m a te r ia li s r emoved f r om e i the r t h e ma ter ia l w o rked o r t h e t o o l i t se lf . S l id ing mo t ion o f ma t er ia l s c an c au se b r i t t le m a te r ia l ( s uch a s b one o r s t one ) t o f r ac ture . B r i t t le f r ac tur e i s i n i t ia l ly m an if es t a s c r ack s a l ong t h e s t r ia t ion ( o r ' w ea r t r ack ' [ Rab inow icz 1 965 :194 ] ) , t h e e nd s o f wh ich p o in t i n t h e d i rec t ion o f mo t ion . F u r th e r wo rk c au se s t h e m a ter ia lt of a i l , s o l a rge p a r t ic le s a r e r emoved . T h i s i st h e m ech an i sm b y wh ich b on e i s o f ten w o rked , t h rough g r ind ing e spec ia l ly . P i le -up , o nt h eo the rh and , i st h er e su l to fp l a s t ic d ef o rma t ion
e xpo sed t h rough u se . F ina l ly , ab r ief w o rd a bou t t h e t e rm s u sed t o d esc r ibe t h e o r ien ta t ion o fb one t o o l s . I ti si mpor tan t t on o te t h a t t e rm s s uch a sp rox ima la nd d i s ta l( t he t wo mo s tc ommon ly u sed ) , r e f e r n o t t ot h e b io log ica l o r ien ta t ion o ft h e b one , b u tt ot h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h et o o la s at o o l( F igure 3 . 2 ) . A l lr e f e rence st o o r ien ta t ion f o l low C amp s -Fab re r a nd S t o rdeur ( 1979 ) . I n g ene ra l , t h i s m ean s t h a t t h e p o in ted , s h arpened o r o therw i se w o rked e nd i s t h e d i s t a l e nd , wh i le t h e p rox ima l e nd i s u nwo rked , w o rked f o r h af t ing , o r g ene ra l ly t h e p a r t o ft h e t oo l wh ich w ou ld b e h e ld d ur ing u se . O the r t e rm s a r e l e s s c ommon ly u sed , a nd w i l lb ed e f ined a sn ece ssa ry .
o ft h e ma te r ia l . I ti ss e en , e ven o n q u i te b r i t t le ma t er ia l s , a s r i dge s o f m a ter ia l a l ong t h e s i de s o f g roove s o r s t r ia t ion s . T he ma t e r ia l i s moved , b u t n o t r emoved f r om t h e s u rf ace . B o th o ft h e se f e a tu re sa r ei d en t if iab le o nb one . One b io log ica l f e a tu r e o fb one t h a t i so f t en v i s ib le , a nd i s d i agno s t ic o f c e r ta in t y pe s o f w ea r i s t h e e xposu re o f o s teons . O s teon s , s ome t ime s r e f e r red t o a s h ave r s ian s y s tems , a r e v i s ib le a s f o rma t ion s o f l am e l la r b one i n c oncen t r ic c i rc le s s u r round ing a n o pen ing ( t he h ave r s ian c ana l ) f o r ab lood v e s se l . T hey r ange i ns hape f r om c i rc le st o e l onga t ed o va l s d epend ing o n t h e a ng le o f t h e s e c t ion t h rough t h em . F igu r e 3 . 1a i lu s t ra te s t h e se f e a tu re s s chema t ica l ly , wh i le F igu re 3 . 1b s how s as i ng le o s teon a s
c o r t ica ls u r face
A
I-
f
.
•
‚ os teon
h ave rs ian c ana l
5c m
B F igure 3 . 2 E xamp le s o fb one t o o l s , a l l w i th t h e p rox ima l e nd a t t h e b o t tom . L ef t t o r i gh t , s now k n if e , a w l , a w l /bodk in , s pa tu la ,g auged d r i l l .
F igure 3 . 1 O s teon s i nb one . A ) S chema t ic d r aw ing o fa c ro ss sec t ion o f b one s how ing o s teon s i n p l an a nd p rof i le . B ) S EM m ic rog raph o f a n o s teon e xposed t h rough u se a tt h et i po f ab one a w l . Magn i f ic t ion 5 00x . 2 2
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPER IMENTS f i na l v ar ie ty o f c r ooked k n if e , m en t ion ed b y F i tzhugh a nd K ap lan ( 1 982 :171 ,F igu r e 2 09 ) , a nd N e l son ( 1899 :89 ) , i st h e b eave r i n c i so r k n if e , wh ich t h ey s ugge s t w a s t h e f o re runne r o ft h e i r on c r ooked k n if e . I tw a sp robab ly u sed i n as l igh t ly
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPER I MENTS
d i f f e ren t m anne r , a l though t o p e rf o rm s im i la r t a sk s , e spec ia l ly i nw oodwo rk ing ( Ne l son 1 899 :89 ) . ( Beave rt o oth
I n t h i s c hap te r , t h e r e su l t s o f t h e e xper imen ta l p rog ra m m e a r e d e sc r ibed . T he se r e su l t s f o rm t h e b a s i s f o r t h e a na ly s i s o ft h ea r chaeo log ica ls amp le t h a tf o l low s . E xpe r im en t s w e r e c a r r ied o u t t or ep roduce a spec t s o fb o th t h em anuf ac ture a nd u se o fb one t oo l s , a s w e l l a s s om e n on -u se f a c tor s , s uch a s
i mp lemen t s , i d en t if ied a s c h i se l s , a r e p re sen t a t G upuk . ) T hu s i r on s e em s t oh ave b een t h e f a vo red ma te r ia l f o rk n if e b l ades when i tw a s a va i lab le . S l a te a nd c he r t w e re u sed when i tw a s n o t . T he p o ss ib i l i ty e x i s t s t h a t c oppe r a nd b eave rt e e th w e re a l so u sed i ns ome i n s t ance s .
s t o rage a nd t r an spor t . T he r e su l t s w e re e xam ined w i th in a t r ibo log i ca l f r amewo rk , wh ich h e lps t o e xp la in why
F o r t h e f o l low ing e xpe r im en t s , f ou r c r ooked k n ive s , w i th b l ade s o fi r on , c oppe r , s l a te a nd c her t , w e re u sed ( no b eave r
ma ter ia l sc au se t h ew ea rp a t te rn st h ey d o .
t e e th w e re a va i lab le ; s e e F igu re 4 . 1a ) . T he k n ive s w e re manuf ac tu red b yD . G a rdne r * ‚a sw a s t h e r e s to ft h et o o l k i t Manuf ac tur ing
u sed i nt h i sr e sea r ch . E ach c r ooked k n if e w a su sed o n f r e sh b one , d ry b one , w e t a n t le r ( s oaked f o r t wen ty -f ou r h ou r s ) , a nd d ry a n t le r . T he a n t le r u sed w a s c a r ibou ( Rangf er t a randu s ) ,w h i le t h eb one w a sd ee r( Odoco i leus v i rg in ianu s ) .
T he m anuf ac tu r ing e xper imen t s d e scr ibed h e re w e re d e s ign ed t o c ove r a l l l i ke ly t ype s o f manuf ac tu re , n o t o n ly t h o se a c tua l ly d ocum en ted a t G upuk . T hu s , f o r e xamp le , a l though n o me ta lk n ive sw e re r e cove r ed ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f at i ny c oppe r u lu , p e rhaps s om e s o r t o fa mu le t ) , t h ey a r e i n c lud ed i n t h e e xper imen t s , o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h ey c ou ld h ave b een , a nd p robab ly w e re , u sed . T he r e cove ry o f h and le s w i th v e ry t h in b l ade s l o t s s uppor tt h i s . E xpe r imen t s a s soc ia ted w i th e ach m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique a r e d escr ibed b e low .
C rook ed K n ive s O ne o f t h e mos t c ommon a nd i mpor t an t t o o l s f o r t h e manuf ac tu re o fb one , a n t le ra nd i v o ry t o o l s i nt h eA rc t ic w a s t h e c r ook ed k n if e , n amed f o r i t s s om e t ime s c u rved h and le
F igure 4 . 1 E xpe r im ent h l c r ooked k n ive s ( l r ) , i r on , c oppe r , s l a te , c he r t .
a nd b l ade . I tw a s f o rme r ly b e l ieved t h a tt h e b l ade s o ft h e se t o o l s w e r e made e xc lu s ive ly o f i r on ( Mu rdoch 1 892 ) . A t
I na l l c a se s t h e k n ive s w e re h e ld i nt h e r i gh th and , w h i le t h e l ef t s uppor ted t h e b one o r a n t le r . T he k n if e w a s h e ld p erpend icu la r t ot h e m a t er ia l , w i th t h e b l ade a t ah i gh a ng le t o i t , ( a pp roach ing 9 0 ° ) . T he k n if e w a s d r awn t owa rd s t h e
P o in t B a r row , Mu rdoch p u rcha sed b o th f l in t a nd s l a te c r ooked k n ive s , a l ong w i th many i r on k n ive s . O n c l o se r e xam ina t ion Murdoch ( 1 892 :160 F igu r e 17 ) f e l tt h e se s t one k n ive s t ob e s pu r iou s , m anuf ac tu r ed r e cen t ly f o r s a le t o t h e e xped i t ion , when i tb ecame k nown t h a t ' o ld ' t o o l s w e re i n
u se r , s c rap ing a s much a sc u t t ing ( F igu re 4 .l b ) . T h i st y pe o f w o rk , d i scu s sed b yN ewcome r ( 1974 ) , i sk nown t op roduce
d emand . A round t h e B e r ing S ea , N e l son ( 1899 :85 ) t oo e ncoun te r ed o n ly i r on c r ooked k n ive s . A rchaeo log ica l wo rk , h oweve r , h a s d emon st ra t ed t h a t p r io r t o , o r a l ong w i th i r on , s t one b l ad ed c r ooked k n ive s d id e x i s t . F o rd ( 1959 :160 -161) i d en t if i ed o ne s l a te b l aded c rooked k n if e , c o mp le t ew i th h af t , a sw e l l a s ah af t w i th as l o t f o r as l a te b l ade , i nh i s wo rk a t P o in tB a r row . T hese w e re c on tempo raneou sw i th many i r on b l aded s p ec imen s . S t anf o rd ( 1976 :45 ) i d en t if ied 2 c rooked k n if eh af t sa t Wa lakpa . A l though h ed oes n o ti n d ica te wh ich b l ade sb e long w i th wh ich h af t s , o rw ha tt ype o fs ocke t s w e re p re sen t o n h af t s , a l l b l ade s w e re o fe i the r c he r t o r s l a te . I n t h e E a s te rn A rc t ic , Ma th ia s sen ( 1 927 :51-52 ) i d en t if ied ' wh i t t l ing k n ive s ' , wh ich s e em t o b e e qu iva len t t o c r ooked
F igure 4 . 2 Manne ro fu se f o rc r ooked k n ives .
k n ive s , w i th b l ades mo s t ly o f s l a te o r c her t , n eve r o f i r on . S t ef an s son ( 1919 :104 F igu re 5 0a , b ) i d en t if ied a c rooked k n if e w i th a c oppe r b l ade f r om t h e C o rona t ion Gu l f, a l though d e L aguna ( 1947 :179 ) a nd o t h e r s ( my se lf i n c luded ) f e e lt h a ti tw ou ld b et oo s of tt o wo rk m a ter ia la sh a rd a sb one
s t r ia t ion sp a ra l le l t ot h e d i rec t ion o fw o rk , a sw e l l a sc ha t te r ma rk s p e rpend icu la r t ot h e s t r ia t ion s . I n t h e c ou r se o f my e xper imen t s If ound t h a t b y a l te r ing t h e a ng le o ft h e k n if e b l ade , c ha t te r c ou ld b e c on t ro l led , a l though r educ ing i ta l so
*
Don G a rdne rs pec ia l ize si nt h er ep roduc t ion o fp r eh is to r ic t o o l sf o r
r nu suem s .
o ra n t le r , a l though i tmay h ave b een u s ed t ow o rk wood . A 2 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT r educed t h e e f f ec t ivene s s o ft h ek n if e . I tw ou ld s e em t h a ta n e xpe r ienced w o rke r c ou ld , i fd e s ired , e l im ina te c ha t te r , a nd t h a t c on t ra N ewcome r , c ha t te r i st h e r ef o re n o t n ece ssar i ly a h a l lma rk o ft h i s t ype o fw o rk , a l though i ti so f ten p re sen t . ( No te :D . G a rdne r[ p e r s . c omm . ] d oe sn o ta g ree w i th t h i s . H e i su nab le t oe l im ina te c ha t te rw h i le m a in ta in ing e f f ec t ivene s s o ft h e k n if e . H e t h ink s t h a t v e ry s l igh t a b ra s ion a f te rwa rd s m ay h ave b een u sed t oe r a se c ha t te r ma rk s . ) O n b one , e ach k n if e w a s u sed t w ice , f o r 5 0 s t roke s e ach t ime , s o t h a t e f f ec t ivene s s a s w e l l a s d i f f e rence s i n w ea r t r ace s c ou ld b e e va lua ted . T he f i r s t p i ece o f b one w a s w o rked f r e sh ( i t h ad b een f r ozen when f r e sh , a nd t h en t h awed a nd s oaked i nw a te r ) . A f te r5 0 s t roke s ,t h ei r on k n if e w a s s t i l l s ha rp , t h e c oppe rk n if e w a s d u l l , a nd t h e s l a t ek n if e w a s v ery d u l l , s ma l l c h ips h av ing b een r emoved f r om t h e e dge . Sma l l f l ake s w e re a l so r emoved f r om t h e e dge o ft h e c her t k n if e , b u t n o t s o many a s t od u l l i t . A s w a s e xpec ted t h e i r on k n if e w a s t h e mo s t e f f ec t ive , a l though i n n o c a se w a s t h e amoun t o f wo rk a ccomp l i shed s i gn if i can t . T he c oppe r k n if e w a s t h e l e a s t e f f ec t ive , h av ing a lmo s t n o a pp rec iab le e f f ec t o n t h e b one . A ce ta te p ee l s t a ken b ef o r e a nd a f te r b o i l ing t h e wo rked b one s how t h a t mos t o f t h e w o rk a ccomp l i shed b y t h e c oppe r w a s i n t h e p e r io s t eum , wh ich w a sr emoved b yb o i l ing .
r emoved . T he n umbe r a nd t y pe o fc r ack s , h oweve r , m igh t c hange a sw o rk c on t inue s . B o th w e ta nd d r yb one d eve lop s im i la rt r a ces when s c raped . T he d i f f e rence sa r e ama t te ro fd eg ree , s ot h ese t wo ma te r ia l s w i l l b e d i scu s sed t o ge the r . B one s c raped w i th i r on s how s v e ry f i n e ,s ha l low s t r ia t ion s ( P la te 4 . 1a ) . C rack sa c ro s st h e se a r e l ong , w i th i n d iv idua lc r ack s c u t t ing a c ro ss w ide b and s o f s t r ia t ion s . T he m a in d i f f e ren ce b e tween w e t a nd d ry b one i s t h e n umbe r o fc r ack s t h e re a r e f ewe r o n d ry b one . T he c oppe r k n if e d i d v e ry l i t t le w o rk , a nd l e f t v e ry l i gh t t r ace s , -
B one s c raped w i th s l a te m ay i n s ome c i r cum s tance s b e d i ff i cu l t t o d i f f e ren t ia te f r om t h a t s c raped w i th i r on . I n p a r t icu la r , d ry b one s c raped w i th e i the r t y pe o fk n if e l o ok s v ery s im i la r , w i th f i ne s t r ia t ion s , a nd a f ew l ong c r ack s a c ro s s t h em ( P la t e 4 . 1c ) . T he ma jo r d i f f e rence i st h a t s l a te s t r ia t ion s a r e mo re p rom inen td ue t ot h e l e s s e ven e dge . O n
p i ece o fa n t le r , a nd 2 0 s t rokes o n a no the r . A l though f ewe r s t roke s w e re made t h an i nt h e e xpe r im en t s o nb one , i ne ach c a se a pp rec iab le ma ter ia l w a s r emoved c r ea t ing a f l a t tened f a ce t o n t h e a n t le r . I r on w a s a ga in t h e mos t e f f ec t ive , f o l lowed b yc her t ,t h en s l a te . C oppe rw a st h el e a s te f f ec t ive .
c he r t c oppe r i r on s l a te t o ta l
5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 2 00
d ry a n t le r
5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 2 00
7 0 7 0 7 0 7 0 2 80
w e t a n t le r 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 1 80
-
mo s t ly s t r ia t ion s , w i th a lmo s tn o c r ack s v i s ib le o n d ry b one . O n w e t b one t h e r e a r e s om e c r ack s , u sua l ly i np a tche s , a nd t h ey a r e much s hor te r t h an o n b one s c raped w i th i r on ( P la te 4 .l b ) .
O n w e t a n t le r , e ach k n if e w a s u sed f o r 2 5 s t rokes o n o ne
d ry b one
I fi ti st h ec a se ,i ts e em s mos tl i ke ly t h a tt h ed i f f e ren tp a t te rn s w ou ld g r ade i n to o ne a no the r ,r a the rt h an b ecom ing mu tua l ly i n d i s t ingu i shab le . T he a c tua l s u rf ace i sl i k e ly t or ema in t h e s ame , s i nce i ti sr enewed w i th e ach s t roke , a s ma te r ia l i s
T he s e cond b one w a s d ry , h av ing b een c l eaned o ff l e sh a nd e xpo sed t oa i r f o r a bou t f i ve mon th s . T h i s b one w a s much h a rde r t h an t h e f r e sh b one . N one o f t h e k n ive s w a s v e ry e f f ec t ive a tw o rk ing i t , a l though a l l o ft h em r emoved s ome m a ter ia l .
f r e sh b one
d i rec t ion o f w o rk , a nd s ma l l c r ack s , e v idence o f b r i t t le f r ac tu re , wh ich c u t a c ro s s t h e s t r ia t ion s . A t t h e m agn if ica t ion sc ommon ly u sed f o ra na ly s i s( 125x ) , c ha t te ri s t o o l a rge t ob e r e ad i ly v i s ib le . I ti sb e s t o b se rved o n a c tua l s pec imen s w i th a l ow p owe r i n c iden t l i gh t m ic ro scope . T he re i ss ome i n d ica t ion t h a t t h e se f e a ture s may b e a f f ec ted t os om e e x ten tb y t h e d u ra t ion o fw o rk , b u tt h i s i sn o tc l ea r .
w e tb one , t h ed i f f e r ence s b ecome c l ear e r . T h e c r ack s a c ro s s t h e s t r ia t ion s a r e much s ma l le r , a l though e qua l ly c ommon , t h an t h ose o nb one s c raped w i th i r on . B one s c raped w i th c her t l o ok s d i f f e ren t a ga in .
t o ta l
I n t h i s c a se ,
t h es t r ia t ion s a r ev e ry p rom in en t( P la te 4 .i d ) . T h i s i sd i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e c ha rac ter i s t ic u neven e dge o fa ny f l aked i mp lemen t . V e ry f ew c r ack s a r e e v iden t h oweve r . T ho se
2 15 2 15 2 15 2 15 8 60
t h a t a r e p r esen t a r e s ma l l , s im i la r t o t h ose o n b one s c raped w i th s l a te . T he c r ack s s e en i na l lc a se sa r ee v idence o fb r i t t le f r ac tu re , wh i ch i st h e ma in m echan i sm b y wh ich t h e se t o o l s r emove ma t e r ia l f r om t h e s u rf ace o f t h e b one . I ti sn o t
T ab le 4 . 1 C rooked k n if e u se , s how ing t h e n umbe r o f s t rokes made w i th e ach k n if e .
s u rp r i s ing , t h en , t h a t wo rk ing w i th c oppe r l e aves t h e f ewe s t c r ack s , wh i le i r on l e ave s many l ong c r ack s , a nd c her t a nd s l a te f a l ls om ewhe re i nb e tween .
O n d ry a n t le r , e ach k n if e w a s u sed f o r 2 0 s t rokes o n o ne p i ece , a nd f o r af u r the r 5 0 s t roke s o n as e cond p i ece . N one
T he s im i la r i t ie s b e tween w e t a nd t hy a n t ler a r e n o t s o
o f t h e t oo l s w a s v ery e f f ec t ive . k n ive s r emoved a l i t t le ma t er ia l .
O n ly t h e i r on a nd c he r t T he se e va lua t ion s o f t h e
s t r ik ing a st h ey a r e f o rb one . We t a n t ler i sq u i te ad i f f e ren t m a ter ia l t o w o rk w i th t h an d ry a n t le r . D ry a n t le r mo re
e f f ec t ivene ss o f t h e t oo l s , p a r t icu la r ly i r on a nd c oppe r , a r e c o mpa rab le t ot ho se r e co rded b y C o le -W i l l ( 1984 :77 ) w hen w o rk ing w e ta nd t hy a n t le r . T ab le 4 . 1 s how s t h e n umbe r o f s t rokes made o ne ach ma te r ia lt ype w i th e ach k n if e .
c l o se ly r e semb le s s c rap ing b one , wh i le w e t a n t le r i si ns ome w ay s s i mi la r t o w o rk ing w ood . W i th a n i r on k n if e , t h e p a t te rn o fs t r ia t ion st h a td eve lops when w o rk ing d ry a n t le ri s q u i te s im i la rt ot h a to nb one . T he s t r ia t ion s a r e f i ne , s ha l low a nd r e gu la r ( P la te 4 . 1e ) . C rack s , o n t h e o t he r h and , a r e d i f f e ren t . T hey a r e u b iqu i tou s , a nd a ppea r t o j o in u p , f o rm ing a na lmo s tr e t icu la rp a t te rn a c ro ss t h es t r ia t ion s . D ry
R e su l t s : T he d i f f e rence s i nw ea r b e tween d i f f e ren t m a ter ia l s u sed t o s c rape b one a r e s ub t le , b u t i d en t if iab le ( P la t e 4 . 1 a 1 ) . T he t wo f e a tu res t h a t v a ry s i gn i f ican t ly b e tween w o rk b y d i f f e ren t ma ter ia l s a r e l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ion s , p a ra l le l t o t h e
a n t le r s c raped w i th c oppe r s how s as im i la rp a t te rn , a l though a s o n b one , t h e c r ack s a r e n o t u b iqu i tou s , b u t p a tchy ( P la te 4 . 1f ) . When s l a te i su sed , t h e s t r ia t ion s a r e a ga in mo re p rom inen t t h an w hen m e ta l i su sed . T he c r ack s a r e a l so 2 4
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPER IMENTS s ho r t e r , a nd d on o tj o in u pi n to d end r i t ic s y s tem sa so na n t le r
s e em t ob e r ep re sen ted mos t o f t en a r chaeo log ica l ly b y t h e i r
s c raped w i th m e ta l t o o l s ( P la te 4 . 1g ) . T hey c an g i ve t h e s t r ia t ion s a' p la ty ' l o ok . Ac he r t k n if e a ga in p roduce s v e ry d i s t ingu i shab le s t r ia t ion s . I n c on t ra s t t o t h e p r ev iou s c a se s , t h ey a r e mo re p rom in en t t h an a r e t h e c r ack s ( P la t e 4 . 1h ) . T he c r a ck s a r e n o t p rom inen t a ta l , b e ing v e ry s ma l l a nd much l e s s w idesp read t h an o n a ny o f t h e o t he r e xamp le s .
h af t s . T he se a r e t wo p ar t k n if e h and les , l a shed t oge the r , h o ld ing ab l ade o r b i t o f s t one , m e ta l o r t o o th i n o ne e nd .
Aga in , t h e n umbe r a nd s i ze o fc r ack s c an b e u sed a s s om e
t h em a s ' o ne too th s aw s ' , a nd s ugges t s t h a t t h ey a r e t h e d e scendan t s o fD o r se t h af t ed b um s . H af t ed b eave r i n c i so r s m ay a l so b e i n c luded i n t h i s c a tego ry , a l though t h ey m ay
T hey a r e c o mmon t h roughou t t h e A rc t ic . T h ey a r e a l so r e f er red t oa s' s p l i t t ing k n ives ' , a f t e rt h e i ri n f er red f unc t ion a s t h e p r ima ry t o o l f o r s p l i t t ing b one a nd a n t le r u s ing t h e ' g roove a nd s p l in te r ' t e chn ique . F o rd ( 1959 :162 ) r ef e r s t o
m ea sure o ft h e e f f ec t ivene ss o fe ach t o o l o n d ry a n t le r . T he d i f f e ren ce s b e tween t h e p a t tern s s e en o n d ry a n t le r a nd o n b one c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e d i f f e r ence s i nt h e m echan ica l p roper t ie so fe ach ma te r ia l .
a l so h ave b een u sed a sk n ives . T hey c er ta in ly s e em t o h ave b een u sed o n b one , a n t le r a nd i v ory ( Ha l l 1 971 :38 ,41) . A t G upuk , s t one b u r in s a r e u ncommon ; i nt h e 1 988 a s semb lage
A l l t y pe s o f k n ive s , w hen u sed t o w o rk w e t a n t le r , l ef t s im i la rp a t tern s , d i s t ingu i shab le o n ly b yt h et y pe o fs t r ia t ion s
o n ly o ne h a s b een i d en t if ied (Ward law 1 989 ) .
I n g ene ra l
g roove s p re served o n b one a nd a n t le r d eb i tage f r om Gupuk a r e s o n a r row a s t o p rec lude t h e i r manuf ac tu re w i th s t on e i mp lemen t s . I r on o rc opper , b u t mo s tl i ke ly i r on , mus th ave b een u sed .
s ome t im e s v i s ib le . T he p r ima ry p a t t ern i s o ne o f t e a r ing , v ery d i f f e r en t f r om a ny o ft h e o t he r ma ter ia l s . R a th e r t h an t h e r e la t ive ly s moo th , s t r ia ted s u r f ace s e en o n b one a nd d ry a n t le r , t h e se t o rn a r ea s a r ev e ry r ough a nd c onvo lu t ed . B o th i r on a nd c oppe r k n ive s l e f t s ome f i ne s t r ia t ion s o n a r ea s where t e a r ing w a s n o tp r edo minan t , b u tt h e se a r e r a re ( P la t e 4 . 1 i ,j ) .T he s l a te k n if e a l so l ef tv e ry f i ne s t r ia t ion s , a nd t h e
I nt h ee xper imen t s , t h ree c h i se l sw e re u sed , o ne e ach o fi r on , s l a t e a nd c he r t ( F igu res . 3 , 4 ) . E xper ience w i th c rooked k n ive ss ugge s ted t h a tc oppe rw a st o o s of tt ow o rk e f f ec t ive ly a s ac h i se l . E ach c h i se l w a s u sed o n w e t a n t le r , d ry a n t le r , f r e sh b one a nd d ry b one . Wi th t h e e xcep t ion o ff r esh b one ,
c her tk n if e l e f t c ha rac te r i s t ic c oa r se s t r ia t ion s ( P la te 4 . 1k , 1 ) . I n a l l c a se s , t h e t e a r ing w a s mo re e v iden tt h an t h e s t r ia t ion s . I tc an b e s e en t h a t much o f t h e m a te r ia l i sr emoved b y t e a r ing , r a t he r t h an b y b r i t t le f r ac tu re o rb y a ny c u t t ing t ype o fa c t ion . T he t e a r ing c ha rac te r i s t ic o fw e t a n t le r i sp e rhap s t h e mos ti mpo r tan ta spec to ft h i sm a te r ia l .
c h i se l s w e re u sed f o r t wen ty s t roke s e ach .
O n f r e sh b one
t h ey w e re u sed t w ice f o r f i f ty s t roke s e ach t ime . T ab le 4 . 2 l i s t st h en umbe ro fs t roke s made w i th e ach c h i se l . C h ise l s
S umma ry : I na l lc a se s ,u se o fc he r ti sd i s t ingu i sh ed b yp a ra l le ls t r ia t ion s o f h igh ly v a r iab le w id th , g ene ra l ly l a rge . T h i s i sd i rec t ly a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e c ha rac ter i s t ic u neven e dge o fa ny f l aked i mp lemen t . A l l o ft h e o t he r k n ive s h ad e ven e dge s a nd s o p roduced mo re r egu la r ly s i zed , s m a l le r s t r ia t ion s . S l a te s e em s t o b e d i s t ingu i shed i n a l l c a se s b y v e ry m any s ma l l e ven s t r ia t ion s . E ven o n w e t a n t le r , w h ich i sb ad ly t o rn b y a l l t y pe s o f w o rk , m a sk ing o t he r t r ace s , s ma l l s ha l low s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le . B o th i r on a nd c oppe r a l so p roduce s t r ia t ion s , b u t t h ey a r e f i n e r a nd s moo the r t h an t h ose
-
-
-
p roduced b y s l a te . T h i s i s mo s t l i k e ly b ecau se t h ey r emove mo re ma t er ia l( e spec ia l ly i r on ) ,r a the rt h an b ecau se t h ee dge s F igure 4 . 3 E xpe r imen ta lc h i se l s ( l r ) , i r on , s l a te a nd c he r t .
a r e l e s s e ven . C rack ing , e v idence o fb r i t t le f r ac tu re , g i ve s s ome i n d ica t ion o ft h e t o o l t y pe a sw e l l . T he i r on k n if e l ef t t h e l onge s t a s w e l l a s t h e mo s t p rom inen t c r ack s , wh i le c oppe r , t h e l e a s t e f f ec t ive ma ter ia l , l e f t f ew , s hor te r c r ack s , w i th o n ly t h e o cca s iona l l a rge c r ack . T aken i nc o mb ina t ion , t h ese f e a tu re s c an i nt h eo ry b e u sed t oi d en t ify t h e m a ter ia l u sed t ow o rk b one o r a n t le r . Unf o r tuna te ly , a sw i l l b e s e en i n C hap te r S ix , i n p rac t ice i ti s much mo re d i ff i cu l t t o d i f f e ren t ia t e b e tween a l l o f t h e se m a te r ia l s . C ra ck ing i n p ar t icu la r d oe s n o t s e em t o s u rv ive o n a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l s , l e av ing s t r ia t ion s a s t h e mo s t c ommon ly o bservab le f e a tu re .
C h i se l s/graver s F igure 4 . 4 Manne ro fu s ing e xpe r imen ta lc h i se l s .
C h i se l s a nd g r ave r s f o rm ap oor ly d ef ined c a tegory , w h ich p robab ly i n c lude s t o o l s o f s t one , m e ta l a nd t o o th . T hey 2 5
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT MAT . i r on
S TR IAT IONS CRACKS ) BONE ( FRESH AND DRY r egu la r ,f i ne , s ha l low l ong i n d iv idua lc r ack s c r os s ing aw ide b and o f s t r ia t ion s r egu lar ,f i n e ,l i gh t s ho r t ,v e ry f ew r e sen t s ha l low f i ne , d eepe rt h an i r on s hor t o rc oppe r -
c oppe r s l a te c her t
i r on
p rom inen t ,v ar iab le i nw id th a nd d ep th ANTLER ( DRY ) r egu lar ,f i ne , s ha l low
c oppe r
f i ne , l i ght ,s ha l low
s l a te
f i ne , d eepe rt h an i r on o rc oppe r p rom inen t ,v ar iab le i nw id th a nd d ep th
c he r t
i r on
ANTLER (WET ) f ew , f i ne a nd s ha l low
A d ze s Adze s a r e c ommon ly u sed i n b one , a nd mo re e spec ia l ly
s ho r t ,f ew
a n t le rt o o lm anuf ac tur ing . T hey s e em t ob e mo s tc ommon ly u sed i ni n i t ia lr educ t ion s t age s , s epara t ing b l ank s f r om a n t le r r a ck s ,a nd f o ri n i t ia lg ro s s s hap ing . [ I ns om e a r ea s ,h oweve r t h ey d o n o t s e em t oh ave b een u sed . N agy ( 1988 ) r e po r t s t h a t a l l a n t le r r educ t ion a tt h e T ra i l R ive r S i te , w a s c a r r ied
u b iqu i tou s ,r e t icu la r p a t te rn p a tche so fr e t icu l ar c r ack s s ho r t , c ommon
made f r om g round s t one , f l aked s t one a nd i r on .
s ho r t ,f ew
( 1983 )r epor t sc oppe ra dze h ead sa tt h eC lach an s i te . F u r the r a f ie ld , Ma th ia s sen ( 1927 :55 ) a l so r e po r t s ac oppe r a dze
o u tb yt h e g roove a nd s nap m e thod . ] A dze sa r ek nown t ob e
f ew , f i ne a nd s ha l low
t e ar ing p redom ina te s
s l a te
m any ,f i ne m any ,p rom inen t
t e ar ing p redom ina te s t e ar ing p redom ina te s
Mo r r i son
b l ade , a sw e l l a s as l a tey a dze b l ade f r om N au jan . I nt h e se e xpe r imen t s ,s l a te w a sf ound t ob et oo b r i t t le t ob eu sed a sa n a dze . S l a te v ar ie sw ide ly i nh a rdne s sa nd t o ughne ss h oweve r a nd i t may b e t h a t h a rde r s l a te s w e re u sed t h an w e re a va i lab le t o me . A tK i t t igazu i t , g round a dze b l ade s o fj ade -
t e ar ing p redom ina te s
c oppe r
c he r t
a r e e s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame , t h e o n ly d i f f e rence b e ing t h e r e s t r ic t ion o f wo rk w i th ac h i se lt o ac onf ined a r ea , s o t h a ta g roove i sp roduced , r a the r t h an r emov ing m a ter ia l f r om a w ide a r ea a sw i th ac r ooked k n if e .
l i ke ma t er ia l , a s w e l l a s s l a te a nd m e t amo rph ic r ock w e re i d en t if ied (McGhee 1 974 :62 ) .
T ab le 4 . 2 M ic ro scop ic c harac ter i s t ic s o fm anuf ac tu r ing w ea ru s ing i r on ,c oppe r ,s l a te a nd c he r tt o o l s . w e re h e ld i nt h er i gh th and a nd d rawn t owa rds t h ew o rke r w i th t h e c u t t ing e dge a t ah igh a ng le ( a bou t 900) t o t h e ma te r ia l( F igure 4 . 4 ) . A l lt h e s t rok e s w e re made i nt h e s am e p l ace , s oa st op roduce ag roove . I na l l c a se s , b eg inn ing t h e g roove w a s d i ff icu l t , a nd t h e c h i se l o f t en s l ipped of t ot h e s i de . T he se s l ips w e re n o tc oun ted a ss t roke s f o rt h ep u rpose o f t h e e xper imen t s a l though t h ey d o , o f c our se , l e ave s t r ia t ion s . O n a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s s uch e r ro r s c an b e a v a luab le s ou r ce o fi n f o rma t ion a bou tt h et ype o fc h i se lu sed . A s w i th t h e c r ooked k n ive s , i r on w a s t h e mo s t e f f ec t ive , f o l lowed b y c he r t . T he s l a te c h i se l o n ly w o rked a dequa te ly o n w e t a n t le r , a nd e ven t h en , a f te r t wen ty s t roke s i th ad
F igure 4 .5 E xper imen ta l a dze s , s l a te , i r on , a nd c oppe r b l ade .
p roduced a g roove o n ly a bou t h a lf a s d eep ( bu t t w ice a s w ide )a st h ei r on c h i se l . T hu sa l though i th ad r emoved a bou t t h e s am e v o lume o f ma t er ia l , i tw a s much l e s s e f f ec t ive a sa c u t t ing t o o l . G roove s m ade w i th a n i r on c h i se l c an b e
Two e xpe r imen t s w e re c a r r ied o u t w i th a dze s ( F igur e 4 . 5 ) . N e i the r f l aked n o r g round s t one a dze s w e re a va i lab le , w i th
i d en t if ied a r chaeo log ica l ly b yt h e i rn ar rowne s s : s t one c h i se l s o fa ny t y pe t y p ica l ly l e ave much w ide rg rooves .
t h e e xcep t ion o fo ne s l a te a dze . A s m en t ioned a bove , t h i s w a s t o o b r i t t le t o b e o f much u se . B o t h c oppe r a nd i r on a dze s w e re a va i lab le h oweve r . Adze s w e r e u sed b y s t r ik ing ag l an c ing b low w i th t h e a dze , s o a s t or emove a c h ip o f a n t le r( F igure 4 . 6 ) .
R e su l t s : T he u se o f c h i se l s l e aves m ic ro scop ic p a t t ern s s im i l ar t o t h ose l ef tb ys c rap ing w i th t h e s am e ma te r ia l( q .v . ) , w i th o ne e xcep t ion ( P la te 4 . 2 ai )
.
Ac he r t c h i se l o r b urn d oe s n o t
l e ave s i gn i f ican t ly l a rge r o r more v a r iab le s t r ia t ion s t h an a s l a te o ne ( P la te s 4 . 2b a nd c ) . T h i s c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e wo rk ing e dge i sn o t i nt h i s c a se a ny d i f f e ren t , b e ing a s i ng le f l a t f a cet , n o t b i f ac ia l ly w o rked . O n w e t a n t le r , a l l t h ree c h i se l s p roduced e x ten s ive t e ar ing , c ha rac t e r i s t ic o f a ny w o rk o n t h i s ma te r ia l ( P la te 4 . 2gi ) . T he se r e su l t s a r e t ob e e xpec ted , a st h e a c t ion s i ne ach c a se
I n o ne c a se , a l l t h ree a dze s w e re u sed o n w e t a n t le r . A l l t h ree w o rked a dequa te ly , a l though t h e e dge o ft h e s l a te a dze w a sd e st royed d u r ing w o rk ( mo re s l a te r emoved t h an a n t le r ) . T he c oppe ra dze a l so l e f t s ma l lp i ece s o fc oppe r a dhe r ing t o t h e a n t le r . I tw a s e v iden t f r om t h i s w o rk t h a t t h e s l a t e a dze w ou ld n o tb ea b le t op ene t ra te h a rde rd ry a n t le r , s oi tw a sn o t i n c luded i n t h e s e cond e xpe r imen t , o n d ry a n t le r . I n t h i s e xpe r imen t o n ly t h e c oppe r a nd i r on a dzes w e re u sed . N e i the r o ft h e se p roved t ob e v e ry u sef u l , h a rd ly r emov ing
2 6
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPER IMENTS a ny m a te r ia l a ta l l . C o le -W i l l ( 1984 ) , u s ing b o th i r on a nd c oppe r a dze s o n d ry a n t le r , h ad s im i la r r e su l t s : ma ter ia l w a s s ome t ime s r emoved i n c h ips o f f l ak e s when u s ing a n i r on a dze , w h i le ac oppe ra dze w a s t o ta l ly i n ef f ec t ive . I nl i gh t o f t h e se r e su l t s , n o e xpe r im en t s w e re c a r r ied o u t o n b one . I t
e v iden t t h a t d ry a n t le r i sn o t r e ad i ly w o rked e ven b y m e t a l a dze s . T hese r e su l t s a g ree w i th t ho se o fC o le -W i l l ( 1 984 ) , who f ound t h a t c oppe r w a s c omp le t e ly i n ef f ec t ive f o r
s e em s t h a t w h i le a dze s a r e v e ry u sef u l f o r r ap id ly r educ ing w e t a n t le r , t h ey a r e n o t p a r t icu la r ly u sefu l o n e i the r d ry
a n t le r . S ince b one i sa sh a rd a s d ry a n t l er , i tt oo i su n l ike ly t oh ave b een w o rked w i th a dzes . T ab le 4 . 4 s umma r ize s t h e c ha rac ter i s t ic s o fm anuf ac tu r ing w ea r o fe ach ma te r ia l t y pe o nb one a nd a n t le r .
w o rk ing d ry a n t le r , w h i le a n i r on a dze r emoved c h ip s o r s ha rd s , r a the r t h an t h e t y p ica l s hav ing s r emoved f r om w e t
a n t le ro rb one . T he se m a ter ia l s a r et o oh a rd a nd t o ob r i t t le t o b e e f f ec t ive ly w o rked w i th a n a dze . A dd i t iona l w o rk w i th t h e i r on a dze w a s u nde r taken d u r ing t h e manuf ac tu re o f a n t le r t o o l s t o b e u sed i n t h e u se w ea r e xpe r imen t s . T h i s w o rk s uppor t s t h e c onc lu s ion s f r om t h e e xpe r imen ta l d a ta . T ab le 4 . 3 s how st h ew o rk d one w i th e a ch o ft h ea dze s . C h ise l t y pe C her t I r on S l a te t o ta l
F re sh b one 1 00 1 00 1 00 3 00
D ry b one 2 0 2 0 2 0 6 0
D ry a n t le r 2 0 2 0 2 0 6 0
We t a n t ler 2 0 2 0 2 0 6 0
c oppe r i r on s l a te
T o ta l
t o t a l
1 60 1 60 1 60 4 80
d ry a n t le r 2 0 2 0 4 0
w e ta n t le r 2 0 2 0
t o ta l 4 0 4 0
2 0
2 0
6 0
1 00
T ab le 4 . 4N umbe ro fs t roke s made w i th e ach a dze .
D r i l l s
T ab le 4 . 3 C h i se l u se , s how ing t h e n umbe r o f s t roke s m ad e w i th e a ch c h i se l .
T he u se o fd r i l l s , n o t o n ly t op roduce h o le s a nd s ocke t s , b u t a l so t oe xcava t e t h e i n te r io ro fv e s se l s , a nd t oc u t s t on e ( a nd o t he r ma ter ia l s ) i sw e l ld ocumen ted i nT hu le c u l tu re . A ga in ,
R e su l t s Wo rk ing w i th a dze sp roduce sm ic ro scop ic p a t tern ss im i la rt o t h o se l e f t b y c r ooked k n ive s a nd c h i se l s , a l though o n a mac ro scop ic s c a le t h ey a r e d i s t ingu i shab le ( P la te 4 . 3 a e ) .
aw ide v a r ie ty o f ma te r ia l s w e re u sed a s d r i l l b i t s . Among t h e se a r e i r on ( Mu rdoch 1 892 :175 , N e l son 1 899 :81 , Ma th ia ssen 1 930 :14 , S t ef an s son 1 919 :102 ) , s l a te
c a se w i th c r ooked k n ive s , b o th i r on a nd c oppe r a dze s a l so l e f tv e ry f i ne s t r ia t ion s i ns o me p l ace s ( P la te 4 . 3a , b ) . T hey
( Ma th ia s sen 1 927 :58 , 1 930 :14 ) , c h e r t a nd o the r s t one ( Ma th ia s sen 1 927 :58 , 1 930 :14 , H a l l 1 971 , N e l son 1 899 :818 2 , ) 'c oppe r ( Ma th ia ssen 1 930 :14 , S t ef an sson 1 9 19 :102 ) a nd b one , a n t le r o r i v o ry ( Mu rdoch 1 892 :179 , F igu re 1 57 ,
a r e mu ch mo re c ommon when c oppe ri su sed , i nd ica t ing t h a t c oppe r i sl e s s e ff i c ien t a tr emov ing m a te r ia l t h an i r on . T he
F o rd 1 959 :174 -175 , H a l l 1 971 :42 , S t anf o rd 1 976 : 5 9 , Ma th ia ssen 1 927 :82 , 1 930 :14 ) . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o t ed h e re
When w o rk ing w e t a n t le r , t h e p r ima ry c ha rac ter i s t ic i s t e ar ing . S ome t e a r ing w a s v i s ib le i na l l c a se s . A s w a s t h e
t h a t S t ef an s son ( 1919 :102 ) s ay s t h a t ab roken n eed le t i p i s
s l a te a dze a l so l e f t s t r ia t ion s , i nt h i s c a se much c oa r se r t h an t h o se l e f tb y t h e s l a t e c r ooked k n if e ( P la te 4 . 3 ) . T h i s i sd ue t o t h e v ery u neven , b roken , e dge t h a t r ap id ly d eve loped w hen t h e b r i t t le s l a te w a s u sed a s a n a dze . H ad t h e s l a te b een s t ronge r ( a s o t he r v a r ie t ie s m ay b e ) , t h e s t r ia t ion s l e f t
n orma l ly u sed t o d r i l l t h e e yes o f n eed les . H e d oe s n o t s pec if y t h em a ter ia l , b u tt h e n eed le s h e d i scu s se s a r e c oppe r . A l l o f t h e se m a ter ia l t y pes w e re u sed i n t h e e xpe r imen ta l p rog ramme , u s ing a b ow d r i l l . T he b one d r i l l b i t s a r e o f
m igh th ave b een l e s sc oa r se , a nd mo r e s im i la rt ot h ec r ooked k n if es t r ia t ion s .
p a r t icu la r i n te re s t , b ecau se o f t h e c onfu s ion i n i d en t if y ing c e r ta in b one i mp lemen t s k nown a s g auged d r i l l s ( s ee F igu re 5 . 4 ) . T he se a r e b eve l -ended r od s o fb one , o f t en e xpand ing t o aw ide f l a tp rox ima le nd , wh ich h ave b een h ypo the s i zed t o
When w o rk ing d ry a n t le r , b o th c oppe r a nd i r on a dze s a l so l ef t s im i la r p a t tern s . I n b o th c a se s f i ne s t r ia t ion s a nd
b e d r i l l b i t s ( G idd ing s 1 964 ) , a s w e l l a s av a r ie ty o f o t he r t o o l s . Ac omp le te d i scu ss ion o ft h e se t o o l s c an b e f ound i n C hap te rF ive .
c r ack ing w e re p r e sen t , b u t t h e re w e re a l so a r ea s wh ich l a cked b o th o ft h ese f e a tu res a nd a ppea red s moo thed ( P la te 4 . 3d , e ) . T h i s i s ar e su l to ft h e t oo l s l id ing a l ong t h e s u rf ace b u tr emov ing l i t t le o rn o ma ter ia l . S een m icro scop ica l ly i ti s
H and d r i l l s , f o r u se w i thou t b ow s o r s t r ings , a r e a l so r e co rded . T he se a r e mo r e o f t en a r e m ade o fc her t , a nd s e em t ob e h eav ie rt h an b ow d r i l lb i t s . T hey a r e a l so i d en t if ied a s r e am e r s ( Mu rdoch 1 892 :181 F igu r e 1 59 ) . Ma th ia s sen i d en t if i ed s u ch h and d r i l l s i n t h e P o in t B a r row c o l lec t ion ( 1930 :31) , a nd a s a n e l emen t o f e a s te rn T hu le c u l ture ( 1927 :82 ) . H e i n c luded t o o l s w i th b one b i t s a nd w i th i r on b i t s . H e i sn o t s pec if i c a bou t h ow h and a nd b ow d r i l l s a r e d i f f e ren t ia ted ,h oweve r . I nt h e e xper im en t s d e scr ibed b e low , a l ld r i l l sw e re o pe ra ted w i th ab ow . A s i nt h e s c rap ing e xper imen t s , i r on , c oppe r , s l a te a nd c h er t w e re u sed a sd r i l lb i t s ( F igu re 4 . 7 ) . B on e w a s a l so u sed b u t w i l lb e d escr ibed b e low i nt h e s e c t ion d ea l ing w i th u se w ea r .
F igure 4 . 6 Manne ro fu s ing e xpe r im en ta la dzes . 2 7
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT T h r ee h o le s w e r e d r i l led i nw e t a n t le r w i th e ach o ft h e i r on , c oppe ra nd c her td r i l l s . T he s l a t e d r i l lw a su sed o n ly t od r i l l o ne h o le b ef o re i tb roke . T he a n t le r u sed w a s t h e p a lma te p ar to f ac a r ibou a n t le r t h a th ad b een s oak ed i nw a te r f o r 7 2 h ou r s . E ach o ft h e f i r s t t h ree d r i l lb i t s w a s a l so u sed t od r i l l d ry a n t le r ( p a lma t e p ar t , d r ied f o r 7 2 h ou r s ) , w i th l i t t le s ucce s s . On ly t h ei r on b i ts e em ed t ow o rk a ta l l . T he c oppe r b i t d i d n o t p ene t ra te t h e d ry a n t le r a ta l l , wh i le t h e c her t b i t s ucceeded i nm ak ing o n ly as ma l ld ep re s s ion . T ab le 4 . 5 l i s t s t h en umbe ro fh o les d r i l led w i th e ach b i ti nw e ta n t le r . R e su l t s : M ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o ft h e d r i l led h o le s p roved t ob e d i f f icu l t . T hey c ou ld n o t b e e xam ined d i r ec t ly w i th t h e e qu ipmen t a va i lab le , n o r w a s i tp o s s ib le t o m ake a ce ta t e r e p l ica s f o r e xam ina t ion w i th a l i gh t m icro scope . I n a dd i t ion ,R ep ro s i lr ep l ica sw e re o n ly p a r t ia l ly s u cce s sf u l .
F igure 4 . 7E xper imen ta ld r i l lk i ti n c lud ing i r on d r i l l( t op ) w i th e xchangeab le c oppe rb i t , c he r t d r i l l , c a r ibou r i bb ow a nd a t ragu lu sb ear ing .
h o le sd r i l led
A l lb i t s w e re moun ted i n wooden s haf t s , a nd o pe ra ted w i th a b ow d r i l l m ade f r om ac a r ibou r i b , w i th ar awh ide s t r ing . A c a r ibou a s t raga lu ss e rved a s ab ea r ing . T o o pe ra te t h e d r i l l , t h e a s t raga lu s w a s h e ld i nt h e l ef th and , p res s ing d own o nt op o ft h et a pe red e nd o ft h ew ooden s haf t . T he s t r ing w a sw rapped a round t h e s haf ta nd t h eb ow moved r a p id ly b ack a nd f o r th w i th t h e r i gh t h and ( F igu r e 4 . 8 ) . I n
c he r t c oppe r i r on s l a t e t o ta l
3 3 4 1 1
T ab le 4 . 5 D r i l l u se , s how ing t h e n umbe r o f h o le s d r i l led w i th e ach d r i l lb i t . E xam ined a t l ow m agn if ica t ion s ( up t o 5 0x ) w i th a s t e r eo scop ic m ic ro scope , i t a ppea r s t h a t t h e d i f f e rences b e tween d r i l lb i t s a r e a se xpec ted . T he p r ima ry d i f f e rence i s
c a ses whe re t h e ma te r ia l b e ing d r i l led w a s u n s tab le , i tw a s h e ld i n p l ace w i th t h e f e e t . E thnog raph ic r e co rd s i n d ica te t h a t i n s om e c a ses t h e b ea r ing w a s h e ld i nt h e t e e th , s o t h e l ef th and c ou ld s uppor t t h e ma ter ia lb e ing d r i l led . T h i s w a s b y n o m ean s au n ive r sa l me thod h oweve r . T he d r i l l b i t s w e re u sed t od r i l lw e ta nd d ry a n t le r .
b e tween t h e f l aked s t one b i t a nd t h e m e ta l b i t s . B o th i r on a nd c oppe rb i t s l ef tf l a t b o t tom ed h o le s , w i th b o th t h e s i de s a nd t h e b o t tom f i n e ly s t r ia ted . T he c he r t b i t l ef t ar ound b o t tom ed h o le ( s ince i td id n o th ave af l a t ,b eve led t i p ) w i th b o th s i de s a nd b o t tom mo re c oa r se ly s t r ia ted . T he se r e su l t s a r e c ompa rab le t ot h e r e su l t s f r om c r ooked k n ive s . S een a t
A l ld r i l lb i t sw o rked a ccep tab ly o nw e ta n t le r . A f te rs oak ing f o rt h ree d ay s , t h e a n t le r( pa lma te p a r t ) w a s s of te nough t h a t a l l t h e b i t s c ou ld r e ad i ly d r i l l t h rough i t . T he d ep th o ft h e h o le s d r i l led w a s d e term ined b y t h e l e ng th o ft h e d r i l l s haf t , r a the rt h an b ya ny o the rf a c to r .
h igh e rm agn i f ica t ion s , t h e se r e su l t s a r e c onf i rmed ( P la te 4 . 4 a c ) . T ea r ing i s t h e p redom in an t f e a tu re o n a l l t h ree e xamp le s . S t r ia t ion s a r e a l so v i s ib le , p a r t icu la r ly when i r on i su sed .
No t a l l d r i l l b i t s w e re u sed o n d ry a n t le r . I np a r t icu la r , t h e s l a te b i tb roke , a nd Iw a su nab le t or e p lace i t . O n ly i r on w a s r e a l ly e f f ec t ive f o r d r i l l ing d ry a n t le r . T he c oppe r d r i l l b i t d id n o tr emove a ny ma ter ia l . T he c he r tb i td i dr emove s ome ma te r ia l , b u t t h e p re ssu re n ece s sa ry t h rea tened t ob r eak t h e b i t .
Unf o r tuna te ly i th a s n o t b een p o s s ib le t o e xam ine d r i l led h o le s o n a r chaeo log ica l s pec im en s s i nce t h e mo ld ing c ompound w ou ld d amage t h em .
G r ind ing a nd P o l i sh ing T he e f f ec t s o f g r ind ing w i th a c oa r se g ra ined s t one a r e g ene ra l ly w e l l k nown ( e .g . C ampana 1 980 , L eMo ine 1 985 , N ewcome r 1 974 ) . E xpe r im en t s i n t h i s manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique w e r e r e s t r ic ted t ot h e e f f ec t s o fd i f f e r en t m e thod s o fp o l i sh ing . O ne s imp le m e thod f o r p o l i sh ing b one i st h e u se o f f i ne s and a nd w e t l e a the r ( no t u n l ike s andpape r ) . O l sen ( 1 979 ) h a s e xper imen ted w i th t h i s m e thod o nr ep l ica s o fS ou thwe s te rn U .S .b one i mp lem en t sw i th s ome s ucce s s . L e s s w e l l k nown , a nd n o t w e l l d ocumen ted , i st h e u se o f h o r se ta i l s ( Equ i se tum s p . ) a s ap o l i sh ing a gen t . R i tch ie ( 1975 :156 ) s t a te st h a tA la skan E sk imo a nd A leu tc a rve r s u se
F igure 4 . 8 Me thod o fu s ing e xpe r imen ta lb ow d r i l l
E qu i se tum n yema le ( s ic , p robab ly m ean s E . h yema le ) t op u t 2 8
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPER IMENTS af i na l p o l i sh o nb one c a rv ing s . T h i s s p ec ie s , a nd an umbe r o fo t he rs pec ies o fE qu i se tum ,h a s ac i r cumpo la rd i s t r ibu t ion .
T he s am e a moun t o f w o rk ( on s im i la r ly s i zed p i ece s o f b one ) , u s ing s t em s o fE qu i se tum s p . t or ub b one , p roduced
A t l e a s t o ne s pec ie s , E . a rvense , i sk nown t o o ccu r i n t h e i mm ed ia te v i c in i ty o f G upuk . H o r se ta i l s , a l so k nown a s s c our ing r u sh , a r e k nown e l sewhe re t o h ave b een u sed t o
m a rked ly d i f f e ren t r e su l t s ( P la te 4 . 5d ) . T o t h e u na ided e ye ,
c l ean h ou seho ld u t en s i l s ( Er ich sen -B rown 1 979 :226 ) , a nd t o r emove b l em i she sf r om h orn ( MacG rego r 1 985 ) .
v i r tua l ly o b l i te ra t ed . S een a th i ghe r magn i f ica t ion s , t h ese h ave b een r e p laced w i th much f i ne r s t r ia t ion s . ( I n t h e
I n as e r ie s o fe i gh te xper imen t s , s ma l lp l aque s o fb one w e re p o l i shed i n v a r iou s w ay s . A l l w e re i n i t ia l ly g round o n a
e xpe r imen t s t h e se w e re p u rpo sefu l ly o r ien ted p e rpend icu la r t ot h e g r ind ing s t r ia t ion s , t oc l a r ify t h e s i tua t ion . ) H e re t oo ,
c oa r se g r ind s tone , t o p repa r e t h e s u rf ace . Two w e re t h en p o l i shed w i th w e t l e at he r a l one , t wo b y r ubb ing t h e b one w i th h o r se ta i ls t em sa nd t wo w i th ab ru sh m ade o fh o r se ta i l s ,
a so n t h o se p i eces p o l i shed w i th w e t l e a the r . T he ma in t ype o fw ea r i nt h i s c a se i sa bra s ive , d ue t ot h e p resence o fl a rge
t h e b one s u rf ace i s b o th s h in ie r a nd s moo the r t h an t h e o r ig ina l c oa r se ly g round s u rf ace . T he g r ind ing s t r ia t ion s a r e
q uan t i t ie so fs i l ica i nt h es t em so fE qu i se tum s p .
t h e c u t e nd s b e ing u sed r a ther t h an t h e s i d e s o ft h e s t e rn s . T he r ema in ing t wo w e re mo re t h o rough ly p o l i shed . O ne
A t t h i s p o in t , i ti sn o t c l ea r w he the r f i ne a b ra s ive s c an b e u sed t o p o l i sh t o t h e p o in t o f r e vea l ing b one s t ruc ture , o r
w a s g round o n af i ne g r ind s tone , t h en p o l i shed w i th ap i ece o f g round s l a te ( v e ry f i ne a nd s moo th ) , a nd t h en p o l i shed
w he the r mo re t h an o ne t y pe o f w ea r i s a c t ing h e re . C er ta in ly , i ti sk nown t h a tt h e d i f f e ren tt ypes o fw ea ra r en o t mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive . T he i mpo r tan tt h ing t or em embe ri st h a t d i f f e ren tt y pe s o fw ea r a r e d om inan t , d epend ing o n t h e t ype
w i th w e tl e a the r . T he f i na lp i ece w a sg round o n af i ne s t one , p o l i sh ed w i th w e t l e a the r , a nd t h en p o l i shed w i th g round s l a te . T ab le 4 . 6 l i s t s t h e n umbe r o fp o l i sh ing e p i sode s w i th e a ch ma ter ia l . F o r e ach s t age o f e ve ry e xpe r imen t , w o rk c on t inued f o r s even m inu te s . A ce ta te r e p l ica s w e re m ade a t e a ch s t age o f wo rk .
o fm a ter ia l u sed t oc r ea te t h e p o l i sh , a nd t h a t t h e se d i f f e ren t t y pe s o f w ea r l e ave r e ad i ly i d en t if iab le t r ace s . T h i s p r inc ip le , d i f f e ren t ia t ing b e tween p o l i sh d ue t o a s of t m a t e r ia l a nd a n a b ra s ive o ne , i si mpor tan t i n t h e u se w ea r s t ud ie st h a tf o l low .
p o l i sh ing e p i sode s c oa r se s t one f i ne s t one h o r se ta i lb ru sh h o r se ta i ls t em s p o l i shed s l a te w e tl e a the r t o ta l
s ome o ft h eb one s t ruc tu re i se v iden t , a l though n o t a sc l ea r ly
8 2 2 2 2
S aw ing T he u se o f s aw s t o w o rk b one , a n t le r o r i v ory i sn o t w e l l
4 2 0
d ocum en ted . Mo r r i son ( 1983 :161) make s r e f e rence t o t h e p o s s ib i l i t y t h a t as t r ing s aw ( s inew o r o ther c o rd u sed w i th
T ab le 4 . 6 Numbe ro fp o l i sh ing e p i sode sw i th e ach m a ter ia l .
g r i ta nd w a te r ) w a su sed t oc u tt h e t e e th o n ac omb f r om t h e
R e su l t s : T h i s s e r ie s o f e xper imen t s mo s t c l ea r ly d emon s t ra te s a
C lachan S i te . T he u se o f as t r ing s aw r a ther t h an ar i g id s aw w a s i d en t i f ied b y c urved ( c onvex ) r a ther t h an f l a t c u t s . McGh ee ( 1974 :66 P l a te s 3 1 , 1 4w ) i d en t i f ied t h in s l abs o f
s i gn if i can t p r inc ip le i n t h e s t udy o f u se w ea r , t h a t i s , t h e
s and s ton e w i th ' u ' s h aped e dge s a s s aw s a t K i t t igazu i t .
d i f f e rence b e tween w ea rw i th am a ter ia l s of t e r t h an t h e t o o l , a nd w ea r w i th ma ter ia l h a rde r ( mo r e a b ra s ive p a r t icu la r ly ) P o l i sh ing i sm ac ro scop ica l ly
Mu rdoch ( 1892 :175 F igu re 1 47 ) r e f e r s t o awo rked s capu la , w h ich m ay h ave b een u sed a s as aw , a ga in i n c on junc t ion w i th g r i t a nd w a t e r , b u t h e f e e l s i tw a s u sed t o c u t s t one .
i d en t if ied b y ar ef l ec t ive s u rf ace , b u t p o l i she s p roduced b y t h e se t wo d i f f e ren t c a tego r ie s o fm a te r ia l l o ok v ery d i f f e ren t
G o ing f u r the r a f i e ld , r e f e rence s t o n on -me ta l l ic s aw s a r e g ene ra l ly c oncerned w i th s aw ing s t one . C o le s ( 1973 )
m ic ro scop ica l ly . I n a s t udy o f H op i g r ind s tone s /h ide w o rk ing t o o l s , Adam s ( 1988 ) e xam ined t h e d i f f e r en t w ea r
o u t l ine s n ume rou s e xpe r imen t s i n vo lv ing c u t t ing s t one b y
t h an t h e t o o l ( P la te 4 . 5 a d ) .
s aw ing a nd d r i l l ing s t one w i th s of t e r ma ter ia l s s uch a ss t r ing , b on e , w ood a nd o t he r p l an t p a r t s , u sed i n c on junc t ion w i th g r i t . F l aked s t one h a s a l so b een p ropo sed a s as aw f o r b o th
p roduced o n g r ind s tone s b y as of t m a te r ia l , h id e , a nd a n a b ra s ive o ne , c or n . I n t h a t s t udy , h i de w a s d e te rm ined t o p roduce w ha t Adam s i d en t if ied a s at r ibochem ica l t y pe o f w ea r , i n wh ich h i gh p o in t s a nd l ow p o in t s w e r e e qua l ly a f f ec ted , l e av ing a p o l i shed b u t u neven s u rf ace . G r ind ing
s t one a nd b one ( Semenov 1 964 ) . A l l a g ree t h a t t h e se s aw s a r e v ery t ime c on sum ing t ou se . I na dd i t ion , t h e g r i ta nd t h e s t r ing ( i ft h a ti st h em ed ium u sed t oc a r ry t h e g r i t )n eed t ob e r e newed c on t inua l ly . I n o ne c a se , ar e p l ica o f aMaor ij ade c a rv ing w a s r e p l ica ted u s ing t h e se t e chn ique s , i n at ime o f 3 50 h ou r s ( Ba r row 1 962 ) . T he re i sn o c l ea r e v idence o f s aw ing o n b one f r om t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta t h a t c anno t b e a t t r ibu ted t om e ta ls aw s .
c or n , o n t h e o the r h and , l ef t as moo the r b u t l e s s p o l i shed s u rf ace ( po l i sh h e re r e f er r ing o n ly t ot h e c apac i ty t or ef l ec t l i gh t . ) I nt h i s c a se , t h e u se o fw e t l e a the r t op o l i sh ap i ece o fb one t h a t h ad b een p rev iou s ly g round w i th a c oa r se g r ind s tone s e em s t oh ave h ad as im i la r e f f ec t ( P la te 4 . 5c ) . A f te r s even m inu tes o fw ork , g r ind ing s t r ia t ion s a r e s t i l l c l ea r ly v i s ib le , m ic ro scop ica l ly a nd t o t h e u na ided e ye . T he p i ece s w e re mo re r ef l ec t ive , mo re p o l i shed , b u t o n ly m a rg ina l ly
B ecau se o fb o th t h et ime a nd m a ter ia lu sed u p s aw ing i nt h i s w ay , o n ly af ew , b r ief e xper imen t s w ere c a r r ied o u t . I n o ne c a se as i new s t r ing , w a te r a nd g r i tw e re u sed t os aw ap i ece o fd ry a n te lope b one . I na no the r , s i new a nd g r i tw e re u sed t o s aw ap i ece o f d ry a n t le r , a nd f i na l ly , a n a n te lope s c apu la f r agmen t w a s u sed w i th w a t e r a nd g r i t t o s aw a p i ece o f
s moo the r . A t h ighe r m agn i f ica t ion s b one s t ruc tu re s s u ch a s o s teon sa r ev i s ib le . 2 9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT w ood ( s p ruce ) . I n a l l c a se s t h e r e su l t s w e re t h e s ame . T he s awn a r ea s o fb one a nd a n t le r h ad t h e a ppea rance o fb e ing g round , a sd i dt h e e dge o ft h eb one u sed t os aw w ood . S aw s o f a ny t ype w h ich w o rk i n c on junc t ion w i th g r i t w o rk o n
may b e c onf u sed w i th s c rap ing w i th a n i r on c r ooked k n if e ( P la te 4 . 6b ,c ) . F i led w e ta n t le ri st h ee a s ie s tt od i s t ingu i sh f r om t h a ts c raped w i th ak n if e . A l though i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e a n t le r i st o rn t o
e xac t ly t h e s ame p r inc ip le a s d oe s g r ind ing . Sma l l h a rd a ngu la rp a r t ic les ( g r i t ) a r e t h e m echan i sm b y wh ich m a ter ia l i sr emoved . T h i s b e ing s o , a ny g roove p roduced b y s aw ing i nt h i s w ay w i l l h ave t h e a ppea rance o fb e ing g round , q u i t e d i f f e ren t f r om ag roove c r ea ted w i th ab u r in . T h i s p r inc ip le a l so h o ld s f o r s aw ing w i th as l ab o fs and s tone s u ch a st h ose r e por ted b y McGhee , i ft h ey w e re i n deed u sed t os aw b one .
s ome e x ten t , s t r ia t ion s l e f t b y t h e f i l e , b o th l a rge a nd s ma l l , a r e u b iqu i tou s u n l ike w e t a n t le r w o rk ed w i th a c r ooked k n if e , wh ich s how s f ew o rn o s t r ia t ion s . Unf or tuna t e ly , w e t -
a n t le rq u ick ly c l og s af i l e , s o i ti su n l ike ly t h a ti tw a sw o rked i n t h i s w ay v e ry o f ten . D ry a n t le r a nd b one s how v e ry s im i la rp a t tern s , b o th t oe ach o the r a nd t ot h e s ame m a te r ia l w o rked w i th a c r ooked k n if e . A t o ne e nd o ft h e r ange o f
S aw ing w i th a r e touched f l ake o r b l ade , a s r e por ted b y S emenov ( 1964 ) c an b e s im i la r ly r e la ted t og roov ing w i th a s t one b ur in . T he p a t tern s p roduced a r e l i ke ly t ob e s im i la r a l though i nt h i s c a se , l a rge i regu la r s t r ia t ion s c au sed b y t h e i regu la r e dge o f af l ake , o r b y t h e c oa r se g r a in s o f a s and s tone s l ab , c an b e e xpec ted t o b e p re sen t d ue t o t h e i r regu la r i ty o ft h ee dge .
F i l ing F i le s a r e n o t k nown t oh ave b een u sed p reh i s tor ica l ly , b u t i t i s l i ke ly t h a t t h ey w e re a va i lab le s oon a f te r c on tac t a nd p e rhaps b efo re , t h rough t r ade . F o r t h i s r e a son t h ey w e re i n c luded i n t h e e xpe r im en ta l p rog ramme . ( I den t if ica t ion o f f i l e ma rk s o nb one t oo l s c ou ld b e au sef u lw ay o fi d en t ify ing a n h i s tor ic c o mponen t a t s i te s i n t h e a b sence o f o the r e v idence . G iven p rob lem sw i th t h e d a te s a tG upuk , t h i s may b e i mpor tan t . F i le ma rk s a r e a l so v i s ib le o n t o o l s f r om
c r o ss h a tched t e e th , w e re u sed o nb one , a nd o nb o th w e ta nd d ry a n t le r . E ach w a s u sed f i r s t w i th u n id i rec t iona l s t roke s a nd t h en w i th b i -d i rec t iona l ( r ec ip roca l ) s t roke s . N o d i f f e rences w e re a ppa ren t f r om t h e se v a r ia t ion s , a nd t h ey
b one d ry a n t le r w e ta n t le r t o ta l
2 4 0 6
0 4 6
F u r the r w o rk , p e rhap s i n vo lv ing m e t r i c o r q uan t i t a t ive s t ud ie s , i sr equ i red b ef o re i tc an c on f iden t ly b e s a id t h a t f i l ing a nd s c rap ing w i th a n i r on c r ooked k n if e c an a lway sb e m icro scop ica l ly ,
a l though
t h ey
c e r ta in ly
U se w ea re xpe r im en t s w e re p e rf ormed w i th av a r ie ty o ft o o l t y pe s o n many d i f f er en t ma ter ia l s . S om e t o o lt ype s , s u ch a s d r i l l s a nd s pa tu la s , w ere u sed o n mo re t h an o ne ma ter ia l . I t b ecame c l ea r d u r ing t h e e xam ina t ion o ft h ese t oo l s t h a t , a s
t o ta l 2
A tt h eo t he re nd o ft h e s c a le , t h e s t r ia t ion s s ome t ime s l ef tb y f i l ing ( d epend ing It h ink o n t h e m anne r o fw o rk ) a r e much l a rge r , a l though s t i l l w i th c ha rac ter i s t ics t y p ica l o f m e ta l t o o l , a nd c anno tb e m i s taken f o r e i the r s c rap ing o rg r ind ing , t h eo n ly o t he ra c t ion l i ke ly t ol e ave s uch l a rge s t r ia t ion s .
USE W EAR
w i l l a l lb e d i scu s sed t oge the r . T he f i l es w e re e f f ec t ive o na l l ma te r ia l s , a l though w e t a n t le r t e nd s t o c l og t h e f i l e . T ab le 4 . 7 l i s t s t h e n umber o f t ime s e ach f i l e w a s u sed o n e ach ma ter ia lt y pe .
f i l ec ro s sha t ched
s i ze o fs t r ia t ion ss e en o ns c raped s pec imen s . O ne d i f f e r en ce , s e en o n b one e spec ia l ly , i st h e s moo thne s s o ft h e s t r ia t ion s . T he b one a ppea r s h a rd e r a nd mo re b r i t t le ( t h i s r e f e r s t o a ppea rance o n ly ,n oa t t emp tw a s made t om ea su re c hange si n b one h a rdne s s ) . B o th e xh ib i t s ome c r ack ing a nd v a r iab le amoun t s o ft e a r ing , much mo re o n d ry a n t le r t h an o nb one .
s om e t ime s c an . F or tuna te ly , a sm en t ioned a bove , i ti sn ea r ly a lway s p o s s ib le t o d i f f e ren t ia te t h em m ac ro scop ica l ly , a nd t h i sc an a c ta s ac heck a ga in s tm ic ro scop ic i d en t if ica t ion s .
Two t ypes o f f i le s , o ne w i th p a ra l le l t e e th , a nd o ne w i th
-
s e em t ob e g ene ra l ly l a rge r t h an t h o se l ef t b y s c rap ing , b u t w i th af i ne rt o ot hed f i le i ti se xpec t ed t h ey w ou ld o ve r lap t h e
d i f f e ren t ia ted
K i t t igazu i ta nd t h e MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion . )
F i le p a ra l le l
v a r ia t ion , s t r ia t ion s o n b o th a r e v e ry f i ne a nd d i ff i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh f r om t h o se l ef t b y s c rap ing . F i l ing s t r ia t ion s
w i th m anuf ac tu r ing , t h e ma ter ia l b e ing w o rked o n i s af a r mo re s i gn i f ican t f a c to r i n t h e p roduc t ion o f m ic ro scop ic w ea rp a t tern s t h an t h e t y pe o ft o o l o r t h e m anne r o fi t s u se . T o r ef l ec t t h i s , t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion s a r e a r ranged b y m a t er ia l t y pe r a the r t h an t oo l t ype , a nd s om e t o o l t ype s w i l l b ed i scu s sed i n mo re t h an o ne s e c t ion .
4 4 4 1 2
T ab le 4 . 7 F i l ing e xpe r i m en t s .
T he t o o l s u sed h e re r ep re sen t , a s f a r a s p os s ib le , a ccu ra te r ep l ica so fa r chaeo log ica lo re t hnog raph ic t o o l s ,b u tt im e a nd ma ter ia l s d id n o ta lway sa l low t h i s . I tw a s d eemed s uff i c ien t
R e su l t s
f o rt h ep u rpo se s o fm ic roscop ic e xam ina t ion t or ep l ica t e t h e
F i l ing p roduce s c ha rac te r i s t ic p a t t ern s t h a t a r e v i s ib le t ot h e n aked e ye . T he se a r e b e s td e scr ibed a sp a ra l le lr i pp le s ( P la te 4 . 6a ) . T hey d o n o t a lway s o ccu r o ve r t h e who le a r ea f i l ed , b u t t h ey a r e c o mmon . T hey a r e t o o c l ose t o ge the r a nd t o o r e gu la r t o b e c onfu sed w i th c ha t te r ma rk s , a nd s o a r e a n
g ene ra l f o rm o ft h e wo rk ing p ar t ( e dge o rp o in t ) s o t h a t t h e t o o lc ou ld b eu sed i nt h em anne re xpec ted .
i mpor tan t i d en t ify ing c r i ter ion f o r f i l e w o rk ing . F i l ing i s a l so i d en t if iab le m ic roscop ica l ly , a l though i n s ome c a se s i t 3 0
CHAPTER F OUR : EXPER I MENTS W oodwork ing e xper imen t s
t a ken b ef o re u se . T he d r i l l s w e re u sed t o d r i l l h o le s i n a s p ruce p l ank . ( None o ft h e d r i l l s h ad s haf t s l ong e nough t o
T h ree t y pe s o ft oo l s w e re u sed o n av ar ie ty o fw ood s . D r i l l s w e re u sed o n s p ruce ; f i ve t y pe s o f w ood ( p in e , s p ruce , p op la r , c eda ra nd o ak ) w e re w o rked w i th s pa tu la te t o o l s ; a nd
p ene t ra te t h e p l ank c o mp le t e ly . ) T ab le 4 . 8 s umm ar ize s t h e t o ta ln umbe ro fm i l l ime t re sd r i l led i ne a ch ma ter ia lt y pe .
b a rk w a sp ee led f r om f r esh w i l low w and s , a l so w i th s pa tu la s . A l l o ft h e w ood e xcep t t h e w i l low w a s k i ln d r ied l umbe r ,
R esu l t s :
r a the r t h an f r e sh w ood . S uch w ood i s mo re l i ke t h e o l d d r if twood a va i lab le t ot h e Mackenz ie I nu i t t h an f r e sh w ood w ou ld b e .
A l l d r i l l s u sed o n wood d eve loped t h e s am e w ea r
p a t tern . T h i s i sc ha rac te r ized mac ro scop ica l ly b y s co rch ing a nd e ven b urn ing a tt h e t i p a nd e x tend ing u p t h e s i de s o ft h e b i tw i th e x ten s ive u se ( F igu re 4 . 10 ) . S t r ia t ion s , v i s ib le t ot h e n ak ed e ye ( no t i nd iv idua l ly , b u t e n m as se ) d eve lop r ap id ly o n t h e s i de s o f t h e b i t , p a ra l le l t o t h e e dge , whe re i tr ub s
D r i l l s :
a ga in s tt h e s i de s o ft h e h o le . D epend ing o n t h e s hape o ft h e b i t ,t h e se c an b ee x ten s ive , o rr e s t r ic ted t oc or n e r s ,w he r e t he
F ou r b one d r i l l b i t s w e re u sed t od r i l l s p ruce ( F igu re 4 . 9 ) . O ne o ft h e se w a s r e sha rpened o nce , m ak ing f i ve i nd iv idua l
b i t i sw ides t . S t r ia t ion s i n t h e f o rm o fc oncen t r ic a r c s a r e s ome t imes v i s ib le o n t h e w o rk ing e dge , p a r t icu la r ly a t t h e c or n e r s whe re i ti st h ick e s t . Af t e r s ome wo rk , p robab ly d ue t ot h eh ea tg ene ra ted , t h e w o rk ing e dge a nd a d jacen ts u rf ace b ecome s b r i t t le a s mo i s tu re i sd r iven o f f . D r i l l ing c an t h en
F igure 4 . 9 F ive e xper imen ta l b one d r i l l s moun ted i nt h e ir s haf t s . e xpe r imen t s , d ur ing wh ich n ine o b se rva t ion s w e re made . T he a moun t o f wo rk d one b y e ach w a s m ea sur ed b y t h e d ep th o f t h e h o le s i n m i l l ime t re s . A t o ta l o f 2 03 mm o f w ood w a sd r i l led .
F igure 4 . 10 Mac ropho tog raph o f t h e t i p o f ab one d r i l l u sed t o d r i l l w ood . T he s u rf ace o ft h e e x t reme t i p b roke a way d ur ing u se . T he o r ig ina l s u rf ace i ss co rched f r om t h e h ea tg ene ra t ed b yd r i l l ing . S ca le : e ach s qua re = 1mm )
Two d r i l l s w e re made o n b l ank s i s o la ted f r om d ee r m e tacarpa l sb yt h eg roove a nd s nap m e thod , a nd t h en s haped w i th a n i r on f i l e . T he o the r t wo w e r e m ade o n b l ank s i s o la ted b y p e rcu ss ion a nd s haped b y g r ind ing o n ac oa r se g r ind s t one , w i th w a te r a s al u br ican t . A l l d r i l l s h ave t h e
c au se t h i s a r ea t o b reak a way , r equ i r ing r e sh arpen ing . I n s ome c a se s a tl e a s t , r e sha rpen ing o ft h e w o rk ing e nd c an b e
s ame g ene ra l f o rm a s t h e " gauged d r i l l s " f r om G upuk a nd o t he rw e s te rn T hu le s i t es . T he se h ave b road f l a t tened b a se s ,
r e ad i ly a ccomp l i shed b y e i the r g r ind ing o r f i l ing w i thou t d i s turb ing t h ew ea ro nt h e s i de s o ft h eb i t , whe re i tc on t inue s
c on s t r ic t ing m ed ia l ly t o ar ound o r o va l s haf t . T he w o rk ing e nd i se i the r f l a t o r s l igh t ly c onvex i nt h e m ed ia l p l ane , a nd b eve led t o ap o in t i n t h e s agg i ta l p l ane . A l l d r i l l s w ere
t od eve lop .
moun t ed i n s haf t s made f r om 3 / 4 i n ch d owe l ing .
G iven t h ese c r i t er ia , i tw ou ld s e em t h a t d r i l l s u sed o n w ood c ou ld b e i d en t if ied o n m ac ro scop ic t r a i t s a l one . S co rch ing
A b ow ,
s e em s p a r t icu la r ly s i gn if i can t . S een m ic ro scop ica l ly , t h e s t r ia t ion s p roduced b y w ood a r e a l so d i s t inc t ive , h oweve r
m ade f r om ac a r ibou r i b ,w i th ar awh ide s t r ing , a nd ac a r ibou a s t raga lu s b ea r ing , w e re u sed t o o pe ra te t h e d r i l l s , i n t h e s ame m anne r a s t h e d r i l l s u sed t o w o rk a n t le r i n t h e
( P la te 4 . 7 a ) . T he s t r ia t ion s a r e b o th v e ry s ma l l a nd v e ry s moo th . T he re i sl i t t le i fa ny p i l ing u p o fb one a l ong t h e
m anuf ac tur ing e xpe r imen t s . R ep l ica so fa l ld r i l l sw e re
1 62 .0 2 21 .0
s i des o ft h e s t r ia t ion s , a nd n o s i gn o fb r i t t le f r ac ture . T he who le a r ea o fw ea r s how s s i gn s o fs mea r ing o rp la s t ic f l ow . T he l a ck o fb r i t t le f r ac tu re s ugge s t s t h a tt h ep ar t ic le s mak ing t h e s t r ia t ion a r e e i the r s ma l l o rr ounded , o r b o th . I t may b e
2 03 .0
s i l ica b od ie s ( phy to l i th s ) i n t h e w ood t h a t c au se s t h e
d r i l led d ep th ( mm ) s oap s tone w e ta n t le r w ood
s t r ia t ion s t o f o rm . C on if e r p hy to l i th s a ppea r t o b e s ma l l , a ngu la rb od ie s ( Rovne r 1 971) , v a r iab ly s haped . On ly f u r the r w o rk w i l l d e te rm ine i ft h ey a r e i nf a c t i mpor tan t i ns t r ia t ion
w ood+gr i t t o ta l
0 . 5 5 86 .5 T ab le 4 . 8 T o ta ld ep th i n mm d r i l led i ne ach ma te r ia lt y pe .
f o rma t ion d u r ing w ood w o rk ing . 3 1
E xper imen t s w i th o t he r
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT s pec ie s o fw ood , d i scu s sed b e low , s how t h a t w ood w ea r i s d i s t inc t ive f r om o th er t y pe so fw ea rr ega rd le ss o fs pec ies .
c h i se l ing a nd f e a the r s e t t ing : g roov ing w i th t h e g r a in , g roov ing a c ro s st h e g r a in , a nd c h i se l ing . F ive t y pe s o fw ood w e r e u sed : p i ne , s p ruce , p op la r , c eda r a nd o ak . T he f i r s t t h ree a r e t y pe s o f w ood l i ke ly t o b e f ound a mong t h e d r if twood i nt h e Mackenz ie D e l ta . T h e l a s t t wo w e re f o r
S pa tu la s : A s e r ie s o f s pa tu la s w e re made a s r ep l ica s o fb one t o o l s i d en t i f ied e t hnog raph ica l ly a nd a r chaeo log ica l ly a s c h i se l s ( Ne l son 1 899 :86 ) , f e a the r s e t te r s ( Murdoch 1 892 :294 F igu r e
c o mpa ra t ive p u rpose s o n ly , a st h ey a r e u n l ike ly t oh ave b een a va i lab le t ot h e p eop le i nt h e D e l ta . A s i tw i l l b e s e en , t h e w ea r p a t tern s p roduced b y t h e se t a sk s a r e s im i la r , a nd c l o se ly r e semb le t h ose p roduced b y d r i l l ing w ood . F ive
2 87 ) , b oo t s o le c r ea se r s ( u sed t o m ake t h e p l ea t s i n h id e whe re b oo ts o le sj o in u ppe r s ) ( Ne l son 1 892 :108 P l a te XL IV , F igu re 2 9 ) , ma r l in s p ike s ( Ne l son 1 892 :43 P la te LXX I I ,
s pa tu la sw e r ea l so u sed t op ee lb a rk f r om w i l low s t em s . T h i s i sa n a c t iv i ty d e scr ibed b y G idd ings ( 1952 :34 , 1 956 :10 ) f o r K obuk E sk imo . W i l low b a rk i ss a id t oh ave b een u sed b y
F igu re s 5 6 , 5 7 ) a nd b a rk p ee le r s ( G idd ing s 1 952 :34 , 1 956 :10 , 1 961 :35 ) . T hey a l so r e semb le t oo l s s uch a sm ar row s pa tu la s ( f o re x t rac t ing mar row ) a nd wound p in s ( f o rc l o s ing w ound s i n a n ima l t o p reven t l o s s o f b lood wh i le t h ey a r e t r an spo r ted h ome ) . A l l o f t h e se t o o l s h ave f l a t r ounded t o p o in ted wo rk ing e dge s p e rpend icu la r t ot h e l o ng a x i s o ft h e t oo l , a nd a r e g ene ra l ly s pa tu la te . T ho se w i th p o in ted t i p s may g rade i n to t oo l t y pes s uch a s a w l s , b u t t h ey a r e f l a t r a the r t h an r ounded a s a w l s a r e . S pa tu la s a r e i lu s t ra ted i n F igu re 4 . 11 .
t h em f o r m ak ing n e t s . S nyde r ( 1986 ) s ugge s t s t h a t w i l low b a rk n e t sm ay a l so h ave b een u sed a tG upuk . A l l s pa tu la s w e re made o n p i ece s o fd ee r o r a n te lope b one , w i th t h e w o rk ing e nd g round t o s hape . A l l w e re f l a t , w i th v a r iou s ly r ounded o r p o in t ed e nd s . T he s pa tu la s a r e g ene ra l ly mode led o n s im i la r t o o l s i d en t if i ed i n t h e G upuk s amp le . As umma ry o ft h e e xpe r imen t s f o l low s , b eg inn ing w i th t h e w oodwo rk ing e xpe r imen t s , a nd p roceed ing t o t h e b a rk p ee l ing s t udy . Woodwo rk ing : F ive s pa tu la s w e re u sed i n t h e f o l low ing t h ree e xpe r im en t s , o ne f o r e ach o f t h e d i f f e ren t t y pe s o f w ood ( F igu re 4 . 12 ) .
T he s am e t o o l w a s u sed o n t h e s am e
t ype o f w ood f o r e a ch o f t h e e xpe r imen t s . F o r g roov ing , t o o l s w e re h e ld a t a4 5 ° a ng le t ot h e w ood , w i th t h e t i p a nd o ne e dge c on tac t ing t h e w ood . G roove s w e re p roduced b y d raw ing t h e t o o l a l ong t h e w ood a nd t h en p u sh ing i tb ack a l ong t h e g roove s o f o rmed an umbe r o ft im e s ( ar e c ip roca l mo t ion ) . When c h i se l ing , t h et o o l sw a sh e ld a t al ower a ng le t o t h e w ood ( 2 5 -35 ° ) , w i th t h e t i p a nd p a r t o f o ne f a ce c on tac t ing i t . Ma t er ia l w a s r emoved b y p u sh ing t h e t o o l a way , f o rc ing i tu nde r t h e w ood , t o r emove a s hav ing . I n g ene ra l , t h i s w a s n o t p a r t icu la r ly e f f ec t ive .
F o r g roov ing ,
w o rk w a s m ea su red b y t h e c umu la t ive l i nea r d i s tance o f g roove s f o rm ed . D ep th v a r ied s l igh t ly b e tween s pec ie s , b u t w a s l e s s t h an 2 mm a ta l l t im e s . T ab le 4 . 9 l i s t s t h e se f o r
F igure 4 . 11 E xpe r imen ta lb one s pa tu la s I n t h e e xpe r imen t s d e scr ibed h e re , s pa tu la s w e re u sed i n woodwo rk ing t a sk s ; o the r t a sk s a r e d e sc r ibed b e low . T hey
e ach w ood t y pe ( t ime w a s n o t m ea su red , a pp rox ima t e ly c on s t an t , a bou ts even m inu te s ) .
w e re u sed t op e rf orm av a r ie ty o ft a sk s o n w ood r e la t ing t o
b u t
w a s
g rooved l e ng th ( m m) c eda r o ak p i ne p op la r s p ruce t o ta l
2 88 1 77 2 80 2 89 2 63 1 297
T ab le 4 . 9 T o t a l l e ng th i n cm o fg roove s ( i nb o th d i rec t ion s ) made i ne a ch w ood t y pe . F o r c h i se l ing , w o rk w a s c on t inued f o r f i ve m inu tes , r a the r t h an m ea sur ing i t ,b ecau se t h e g r ea t v ar ia t ion i n t h e amoun t o f wo rk a c comp l i sh ed i nt h a tt im eo nd i f f e ren tw ood s .
F igure 4 . 12 m e thod s o fu s ing s pa tu la s f o r v a r iou s t a sk s , c l ockw i se f r om t op l ef t , b a rk p ee l ing , g roov ing , c h i se l ing a nd r ubb ing
R esu l t s : I n g ene ra l , t h e d i f f e ren t t ype s o f w ood p roduce p a t t ern st h a ta r ei n d i s t ingu i shab le f r om e ach o t he r , e spec ia l ly w hen t h e a moun t o f w o rk i sn o t k nown ( P la t e 4 . 8 a j ) . Mac ro scop ic w ea r o n t h e se t o o l s i s i d en t i f iab le o n ly a s 3 2
CHAPTER F OUR : EXPER IMENTS s moo th ing a nd p o l i sh o n t h e e nd s , a nd t o s ome e x ten t t h e f a ces o f t h e t o o l s . T he e x ten t o f t h e p o l i sh i sv a r iab le , d epend ing mo s t ly o n t h e h a rdne ss o f t h e w ood , a nd s o t h e
p ee l ing w i l low b a rk a r e r e ad i ly d i s t ingu i shab le f r om t ho se l ef t b y w oodwo rk ing . T he e x ten t o f w ea r f u r the r d i s t ingu i she s t h e t wo a c t iv i t ie s . T h i s i sc l ea r ly a f f ec ted b y t h e m anne r i n wh ich t h e t o o l s a r e u sed , b u t i t s e em s s i gn if ican t t h a t a f t e r r e la t ive ly s ma l l amoun t s o f w o rk , a l l
d i s tance i n to i tt h a t t h e t o o l c ou ld p ene t ra t e : c eda r w a s a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e mo s t e x ten s ive w ea r , w h i le o ak w a s a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e l e a s t . M ic ro scop ic w ea r p a t tern s a r e i nd i s t ingu i shab le ,
s i gn s o f manuf ac tu re h ave b een e r ad ica ted o n b a rk p ee l ing t o o l s , wh i le t h ey w e re s t i l l r e ad i ly a ppa ren t o n o the r
a l though s ome a r e mo r e w e l l d eve loped
t h an o t he r s . I tw ou ld n o tb e p o s s ib le t os ay w he the rt h i sw a s d ue t ot h e t ype o fw ood o r t o t h e d u ra t ion o fw o rk w i thou t p rev iou sk now ledge o ft h ec i rcum s tance s .
w oodwo rk ing t o o l s . T h i sp a t te rn o fr ap id w ea r d eve lopmen t a nd a g l os sy p o l i sh i sc ha rac te r i s t ic o fp o l i sh ing w i th v ery s ma l l a b ra s ive p a r t ic le s . T h i s m ay b e d ue t o h ighe r p ropor t ion s o fs i l ica i nt h ew i l low . I ft h i s i st h e c a se , i tmay a l so a ccoun tf o rt h ed i f f e rence si nt h es t r ia t ion s .
S t r ia t ion s f o rmed b y g roov ing o rc h i se l ing w ood h ave much i nc ommon w i th t h ose f o rmed b y d r i l l ing . P r inc ipa l ly , t h ey a r en a r row a nd s ha l low , w i th l i t t le e v idence o fb r i t t le f r ac tu r e o r p i le u p a tt h e e dges . T he re i se v idence f o r l a rge r s c a le b r i t t le f r a c tu re ( i . e . ,n o tr e la ted t ot h e f o rma t ion o fs t r ia t ion s ) , i n t h e f o rm o f c r ack s wh ich m ay d eve lop p e rpend icu la r t o t h e s t r ia t ion s ( e .g . P l a te 4 . 8b , e ) .
R ubb ing : Al im i ted n umbe ro fe xpe r imen t s w e re d e s igned t op roduce w ea r b y m e re ly r ubb ing w ood a nd b one t o ge the r . T he se w e r e i n t ended t o r e p l ica te c ond i t ion s i n wh ich t h e t wo
T he se may b e d ue t ot h e
p re ssu r e e xer ted o n t h e t oo l d u r ing w o rk , w h ich c an b e c on s ide rab le . T he s t r ia t ion s a nd a ny a r ea s o f s moo th ing a s soc ia ted w i th t h em a r e n o t v e ry i n va s ive i n to t h e f a ce o f
m a t er ia l s w e r e i n ( s l id ing ) c on tac t , b u t n o t p u rpo sefu l ly r emov ing ma ter ia l a s i n t h e o t he r e xpe r imen t s . S uch a s i tua t ion w ou ld a r i se f o re xamp le when ab one f o re shaf tw a s u sed w i th aw ooden s haf to r when aw ooden s hea th w a su sed
t h e t o o l , n o r a r e t h ey i nva s ive , o n as ma l le r s c a le , i n to t h e g roove s l ef tb y m anuf ac ture . T hey a r e s t r ic t ly c onf ined t o h igh p o in t s . T h i s i s c ha rac te r i s t ic o f w o rk o n a ny h a rd
o n ab one t o o l .
ma te r ia l , a s i t c on tac t s o n ly h igh p o in t s . T h i s c an b e c on t ra s ted w i th s t r ia t ion s f o rmed b yw o rk ing s of t e r ma te r ia l s s uch a sh i de . B a rk P ee l ing :
B o th w o rked ( s pa tu la te ) a nd u nwo rked
p i ece s o fb one w e re r ubbed v i go rou s ly o n ap i ece o fs pruce w ood . T ab le 4 . 11 o u t l ine s t h e n umbe r o fs t roke s made w i th e a ch .
F ive s pa tu la s w e re u sed t o p ee l b a rk f r om
b one b a r
f r e sh w i l low s t em s . T hese h ad t h e s ame f o rm a st h ose u sed i nt h e w oodwo rk ing e xpe r imen t s d e scr ibed a bove . A l l w e re u sed i n t h e s ame manne r , f o r c ing t h e f l a t p o in t u nde r t h e b a rk a tt h e b a se o ft h e s t em , a nd s l id ing i tu p , b o th s l i t t ing t h eb a rk a nd s epa ra t ing i tf r om t h e s t em . T h i s c au sed p o l i sh t od eve lop o n b o th f a ces o ft h e t i p a nd t h e e dge t h a t w a s i n c on tac t w i th t h e b ranch . Wo rk w a s mea su red i nt h e l i nea r
w i l low t o ta l
5 64 8 74
-
d ry
1 00 1 90
t o t a l
4 60
R e su l t s : T he w ea rt h a td eve loped d ur ing t h i s w o rk i st yp ica l o f w ood p o l i sh s e en i n t h e p rev iou s e xpe r im en t s P la te 4 . 10a ) . I t i s c ha rac te r ized b y s moo th s t r ia t ion s i n t h e
l e ng th ( cm ) 3 10
2 10
b one w ood
T ab le 4 . 11 Numbe r o f s t rokes made when r ubb ing b one a ga in s to the rm a te r ia l s .
d i s tan ce o fb a rk p ee led f r om t h ew i l low b ranche s , wh ich h ad d i ame te r s mea su r ing a bou t t h ree c m . T he e xpe r im en t s a r e s umma r ized i nT ab le 4 . 10 .
w i l low -f r e sh
a n t le r
d i rec t ion o f w o rk , w i th l i t t le e v idence o f e i the r b r i t t le f r ac tu re o r p i l ing u p o f m a ter ia l a l ong t h e s i de s o f t h e s t r ia t ion s .
T ab le 4 . 10 T o ta ll e ng th i n cm o fw i l low b a rk p ee led . H id e W ork ing R e su l t s : T he se t o o l s a r e e f f ec t ive i n r emov ing b a rk f r om w i l low , e s pec ia l ly wh en i ti sy oung ( p re sumab ly t h e b es t
As ma l l n umbe r o fe xpe r imen t s w i th h ide w e re c a r r ied o u t f o r t h i s r e sea rch , d ea l ing mos t ly w i th g ener ic r ubb ing o f h ide , b o th w i th a nd w i thou t h a i r , a nd g roov ing h ide ( bo th a c t ion sr ep re sen tw ay st h a tb oo ts o le c r ea se r s may h ave b een
t ime t ou s ei tf o r mak ing n e t sa si ti s mo s tf l ex ib le t h en i ti s s a id t oh ave b een c o l lec ted i n t h e e a r ly s umme r [ G idd ing s -
-
1 952 :34 , 1 956 :10 , 1 961 :35 ] ) . Wea r d eve lop s r a p id ly a nd e x ten s ive ly , r e ad i ly v i s ib le a s ag l o s sy p o l i sh a f te rv e ry l i t t le wo rk . When o b served a th ighe r magn if ica t ion , t h i sp o l i sh i s
u sed ) . F i sh s c a l ing i sa l so i n c luded h e re . H ide w o rk ing i s o ne o f t h e mo s t c ommon u se s a t t r ibu ted t o b one , b u t t h e
made u p o f many v e ry s ma l l s t r ia t ion s ( P la t e 4 . 9a , b ) .
e x ten s ive ly d ea l t w i th e l sewhe re ( LeMo ine 1 985 , 1 989 ) . P rev iou s e xpe r imen t s d ea l tw i th a w l su sed o nb o th f r e sh a nd t a nned h ide , n eed le s u sed o n t a nned h ide a nd f l e she r s u sed
u sua l u se s ,
Un l ike t h ose f r om t h e o the r woodwo rk ing e xpe r imen t s ,t h ese s t r ia t ion s a r e n o t s moo th . Whe rea s a t h i gh m agn i f ica t ion s wood s t r ia t ion s a r e s t i l l s moo th a nd c on t inuou s , w i l low s t r ia t ion s a r e r ough a nd d i scon t inuou s . Wha t c au ses t h i s d i f f e r en ce i s n o t c l ea r b u t i n a ny c a se , s t r ia t ion s l e f t b y
a s f l e she r s ,
a w l s
a nd n eed le s ,
h ave
b een
b o th t of l e sh h i de a nd t or emove h a i r . Iw i l l n o t d i scu s s t h e r e su l t s o f t h o se e xpe r imen t s i n d e ta i l h e re . T he w ea r 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT p roduced b y t h em w a s r ep l ica ted e xpe r imen t s ,d i scu s sed b e low .
b y
mo re
r e cen t
a sf i sh s c a le r s . S t anf ord ( 1976 :56 ) i st h eo n ly e xcep t ion . H e c on s ide r s t h a t s c apu la s c rape r s , a nd a l l o t he r b one s c rape r s , s hou ld b e l umped t o ge th e ri n to o ne c a tego ry o fs c rape r sw i th v ar iou s ,u nknown f unc t ion s .
Two t oo l t y pe s w e re u sed i nt h e e xper imen t s , s c apu la t o o l s c ommon ly r e f er red t o a s f i sh s c a le r s , a nd s p a tu la s , a s d e sc r ibed u nd e r wood w o rk ing e xpe r im en t s a bove . T he s c apu la t o o l s w e re u sed b o th t o s c a le f i sh a nd t o s queeze w a te r f r om s a tura ted f u r s , w h i le t h e s pa tu la s w e r e u sed t o r ub a nd g roove av ar ie ty o fh ide s , i n c lud ing f r e sh h i de , d r ied r awh ide a nd t a nned h ide so fv ar iab le h a rdne ss .
E xam ina t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l s , d i scu ssed i n mo re d e ta i lb e low , s how s t h a t t wo t ype s o fs c apu la s c rape r s w e re m ade , o n e u s ing t h e c auda l b o rde r a s t h e g r ip a r ea , a nd t h e o t he rt h ec r an ia l( F igure 4 . 13) . E xpe r im en t sh ave s hown t h a t i ti sp o ss ib le t o make b o th t y pes o fs c rape r s f r om t h e s ame s c apu la , l e av ing t h e h ead ( g leno id ) a s ac h arac ter i s t ic p i ece o f d eb i tage . I n e xper imen t s , t h e b one w a s p repa red b y
S capu la T oo l s : S capu la s c rape r s a r e c ommon ly r e f e r red t oa s' f i sh s c a le r s ' ,
mak ing a g roove t h rough t h e i n f ra sp inou s f o ssa o f t h e s c apu la , f r om t h e v e r teb ra l b o rde r , t h rough t wo th i rd s t o t h ree -quar te r s o f t h e l e ng th o f t h e b one , a nd r emov ing t h e
b u t h ave a l so b een i d en t if i ed a s h ide s c rape r s ( Ne l son 1 899 :115 P l a t e L1 8 ) o rs k in s of t ene r sa nd t o o l sf o rr emov ing s p i l l s f r om h ide s ( on s l eep ing p l a tf orm s ) ( Ma th ia s sen
s p ine .
I n o ne c a se t h e s p ine w a s r emoved f i r s t , u s ing a n
a dze , a nd i nt h e o the r , a f t e r g roov ing , b yp e rcu s s ion w i th a
1 927 :101) . Mu rdoch ( 1 892 :311 F igu re 3 13 ) w a st h e f i r s tt o i d en t ify b one s c rape r s a s f i sh s c a le r s , b u t h e n eve r s aw t h e
h amm e rs t one a nd a nv i l . B o th t e chn ique sp roduced t h es ame r e su l t , b u t p e rcu s s ion w a s much f a s te r . T he t wo p o r t ion s w e re s p l i ta pa r tb yp e r cu s s ion . Ho ld ing t h e b one a ta na ng le
t o o l s i n u s e a nd t h ey w e re i n a ny c a se l ong b one s , n o t s c apu lae . N e l son ( 1899 :115 ) r e corded s c apu la s c rape r s a s t o o l s f o r d r e s s ing t h e h i de s o f s ma l l a n ima l s . T he mo s t c ommon c i ta t ion f o r t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h ese t o o l s a s f i sh s c a le r s i sG idd ings ( 1952 , 1 964 ) . H e c on s ide r ed t h em t ob e
w i th t h e h ead r e s t ing o n a n a nv i l , ab low w a s d i rec ted a tt h e n eck . T he t wo p o r t ion s s p l i t a par t , l e av ing t h e h ead o n t h e c r an ia lp or t ion . T h i sw a sr emoved b yd i r ec t ing ab low a tt h e n eck , h o ld ing t h e b one i nt h e s ame mann e r a sb ef o re . T he t o o l s p roduced t h i s w ay c l o se ly r e semb le a r chaeo log ica l s pec imen s . I n t h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le , h oweve r , t h e t wo
a n i n land t r a i t , a s t h ey w e re i d en t if i ed f o r h im b y p eop le o f t h e Kobuk R ive r . H e p o in t s o u t , h oweve r , t h a t t h ey a r e p robab ly mu l t i -purpose t o o l s . I n t h e C en t ra l A rc t ic ,
f o rm s a r e n o t e qua l ly r ep re sen ted , s ugge s t ing t h a t o ne f o rm ( c auda l )w a s mo r ep opu la r . S p i l lR emova l F ou r s c apu la t o o l s w ere u sed t os queeze w a t e r f r om f u r s , a s w ou ld h ave b een d one t o r emove s p i l l s f r om f u r s i n d we l l ing s . Ad ee r h ide ( c ar ibou h ide w a s u nava i lab le ) , w a s s oaked w i th w a te r , wh ich w a s s queezed o u t o ft h e h ide b y
F igure 4 . 13 E xper imen ta l s c apu la t o o l s : c auda l ( l ef t ) a nd c r an ia l( r igh t ) Ma th ia s sen ( 1 927 :61) i d en t if ied a s l igh t ly d i f f e ren t t ype o f s c apu la s c r ape r a s b e ing u sed b o th f o r s of t en ing s k in s a nd f o rr emov ing s p i l l s f r om h i de so ns l eep ing p l a tf orm s . T he mo s t p e r t inen t s t udy i sp robab ly t h a t o fH a l l ( 1 971 :33 ) w ho i d en t if i e s t h e se t oo l s a sf i sh s ca le r s o n t h e b a se s o fu se w ea r , c i t ing S e menov ' s ( 1964 :106 ) i d en t if i ca t ion o f s t one f i sh s ca l ing t o o l s . I tw ou ld a ppea r ,h oweve rt h a tn e i the rH a l l
F igure 4 . 14 Me thod o fu s ing s c apu la s c rape r st os ca le f i sh a nd r emove s p i l l sf r om f u r s .
n o r S emenov a c tua l ly c a r r ied o u t a ny e xpe r imen ta l w o rk t o v er ify t h i s i d en t if i ca t ion . T he t oo l s S emenov e xam in ed w e r e
d r aw ing t h e e dge o ft h et o o la c ro ss i t ,f o l low ing t h e d i r ec t ion o ft h eh a i r( t ha ti ss moo th ing i t ,n o tr uf f l ing i t ) . T he t oo lw a s h e ld i no ne h and , a t al ow t om ed ium ( 30 -60 ° ) a ng le ( F igu re 4 . 14 ) . Wo rk w a s mea su red i nm inu te s . I ft h e w a te rw a s a l l s qu eezed o u t b ef o re t h e p r ede term ined t im e w a s u p , mo re w a s a dded . T he f ou r t oo l s w e re u sed i nt h i s w ay f o r at o t a l o f4 8m inu te s .
o fs t one . H a l l , e xam in ing b one r a the r t h an s t one , a nd u s ing r e la t ive ly l ow m agn if i ca t ion ( 50x ) , i d en t i f ied as im i l a r w ea r p a t tern o n b one t oo l s g ene ra l ly d i agona l , s ubpa ra l le l s t r ia t ion s o n b o th s i de s o f t h e t oo l s a nd c onc luded t h a t t h ey mu s th ave b een u sed f o r t h e s ame t h ing . O the r a u tho r s ( Mor r i son 1 988 , 1 983 , Y o rga 1 980 ) , c i t ing b o th G idd ing s -
-
-
-
( 1 964 ) a nd H a l l( 1971) , c on t inue t oi d en t if y s c apu la s c rape r s 3 4
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPER I MENTS R e su l t s : I ne a r l ier e xper imen t s ( LeMome 1 985 , 1 989 ) t o o l s u sed i n c on junc t ion w it h h a i r w e r e d e sc r ibed a s f i ne ly s t r ia ted , w i th t h e s t r ia t ion s r unn ing b ack f r om t h e e dge , g ene ra l ly
p a ra l le l ing
t h e
d i rec t ion
o f w o rk .
s i ze o ft h e s c a le s . Wh i tef i sh a nd p ike , b o th w i th q u i te l a rge s c a les ( 7 -10 mm ) l e ave t h e l a rge s t s t r ia t ion s . T rou t , w i th much s ma l le r s c a le s ( 2 -3 mm ) l e ave q u i te s ma l l s t r ia t ions . T he s ma l le s t a r e l e f t b y b u rbo t , w i th s c a le s a bou t 1 mm a c ro ss . T he s t r ia t ion sl e f tb yt h i s s pec ie s ( a nd a ny o the rw i th
I n t h e
e xpe r im en t s d e scr ibed h e re , t h e p a t te rn i st h e s ame . L igh t s t r ia t ion s , g ene ra l ly p a ra l le l t ot h e d i rec t ion o fw o rk , e x tend
e qua l ly s ma l l s c a les ) a r e a s f i ne a st ho se l e f t b y h a i r , a nd i t m ay b e p o s s ib le t o c onfu se t h e w ea r c au sed b y t h ese t wo
b ack f r om t h e t oo l e dge ( P la te 4 . 11 a ) . A t t h e e dge , t h e p o l i sh i s f i ne e nough t h a t o s teon s a r e s ome t ime s v i s ib le . T h i s p a t te rn a ppea red o n a l l o f t h e s c rape r s u sed i n t h i s m anne r .
m a ter ia ls . Un l ike a ny o f t h e o t he r s c a le p a t te rns , b urbo t s c a le sa r es of i ne t h a to s teon sa r ev i s ib le , a sw i th h a i r . H a i r a nd s c a le s c an b e s e en a s r e su l t ing i n ac on t inuum o f w ea r p a t te rn s , w i th l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s c au sed b y l a rge
F i sh S ca l ing :
s c a les a to ne e nd , a nd much l i gh te r , f i n e rs t r ia t ion s c au sed b y b o th v e ry s ma l l s c a les a nd h a i ra tt h e o the r . A t t h e f i ne e nd
S capu la s c rape r s w e re a l so u sed t ot e s t t h e c ommon ly h e ld b e l ief t h a tt h e se t oo l s w e r e u sed t os c a le f i sh . F ou r t y pe s o f
o f t h e s c a le , t h e w ea r f o rm ed c an b e f i ne e nough t h a t t h e s t ruc tu re o ft h eb one i se xpo sed .
f i sh k nown t oh ave b een c on sumed a tt h e s i te o ra va i lab le i n t h e v i c in i ty w e re u sed : L ake T rou t ( Sa lve l inus n amaycu sh ) ,
T he re a r e d i f f e r ences , h oweve r , b e tween w ea r p roduced b y h a i r a nd b y f i ne s c a les , wh ich c an b e a t t r ibu ted t ob o th t h e m anne ro fw o rk a nd t h e n a tur e o ft h e ma te r ia l s . F i sh s c a le r s
Wh i tef i sh ( Coregonu s c I upeaf orm i s ) , B u rbo t ( Lo ta i o ta ) a nd N o r the rn P ike ( E sox l u c iu s ) . T he s c apu la s c rape r s w o rked w e l l , a l though r emov ing s c a le s i s at e d iou s j ob . S ome f i sh a r e e a s ie rt os c a le t h an o t he r s , l a rge ly d epend ing o n t h e s i ze o f t h e s c a le s . P e rhap s t h e b igge s t a dvan tage o f t h e b one s c rape r s i st h a t t h ey d o n o t e a s i ly p i e r ce t h e s k in ( wh ich i n
w i l la lway s w ea r o nb o th s i de s o ft h e e dge , b ecau se t h ey a r e r emoved b y s c rap ing a ga in s t t h e g ra in , s o t h a t t h ey r i de u p
s ome c a se s m ay h ave b een u sed t o m ake c l o th ing o r b ag s [ Ne l son 1 899 :118 ]) . T he s c rape r s w e r e h e ld i n t h e s am e m anne r a s i n t h e h a i r e xpe r imen t s d e scr ibed a bove , a t a v a r iab le ( 30 90 0) a ng le t o t h e s k in ,
a nd i n t h i s
c a se
p e rpend icu la r t ot h e l e ng th o ft h e f i sh ( F igu re 4 . 14 ) . Wo rk
t h e s c rape r w e re r emoved r e gu la r ly . T ab le 4 . 12 s how s t h e t o ta ll e ng th o ft h ef i sh o fe a ch s pec ie s .
b u rbo t p ike
a nd t ot h er emova lo fs c a le sb u i l tu p o nt h et o o l d ur ing w o rk b y s l id ing t h em a l ong t h e e dge . F ina l ly , s t r ia t ion s o n f i sh s c a le r s a r e mo re i nva s ive , e x t end ing f u r the r a way f r om t h e
w e igh t( gm )
2 5
t r ou t
1 47 1 06
wh i tef i sh t o t a l
1 68 4 46
5 00 4 500
e dge o n h i gh p o in t s p a r t icu la r ly . T h i s may b e a t t r ibu tab le b o th t ot h e a ng le a t wh ich t h e t o o l s w e re h e ld , a nd t h e w ay t h ef i sh s c a le ss t ick i nc l ump st ot h et oo l s . T hu s a l though f i sh s c a les a nd h a i r may p roduce s im i la rp a t te rn s o n as ma l ls c a le ,
4 150 3 465 1 2615
t h ey s hou ld b e d i s t ingu i shab le when o t he r a t t r ibu t e s a r e c on s ide red .
T ab le 4 . 12 T o t a ll e ng th o ff i sh s c a led w i th s c apu la s c rape r s . R e su l t s : F i sh s c a l ing p roduced d i ve r se r e su l t s , d ue t o t h e v a r ia t ion i ns i ze o ft h e s c a le s ( P la t e 4 . 11b -e ) . A s S emenov
R ubb ing a nd G roov ing :
( 1964 :106 ) a nd t h en H a l l ( 1 971 :33 ) d e scr ibed , t h e w ea r c an g ene ra l ly b e c ha rac te r ized a sl a rge s t r ia t ion s o nb o th s i de s o f a n e dge , d i agona l o r p e rpend icu la r t o i t . I ti sp o ss ib le t o r ef ine t h i s d e scr ip t ion s omewha t b y c on s ide r ing t h e s i ze o f t h es c a les ,a nd t h e manne ri n wh ich t h et o o lw a sh e ld . I nt h i s c a se , t h e t o o l s a l l h ad au n id i rec t iona l a s pec tt ot h em t h ey -
S pa tu la s , a s d e scr ibed i n t h e w oodwo rk ing e xpe r imen t s a bove , w e re u sed t o b o th r ub a nd g roove v ar iou s q ua l i t ie s a nd s t if f ne s se s o f l e a the r a nd r awh ide . When r ubb ing , t h e f l a tf a ce o ft h et oo lw a s moved w i th ar e c ip roca l mo t ion o ve r t h e h ide . T o g roove , a n e dge o ft h e t o o l w a s u sed w i th t h e
-
s ame mo t ion . T he se a c t iv i t ie s w e re i n tended t o r ep l ica te a v a r ie ty o fa c t iv i t ie si n wh ich b one o ra n t le rt o o l sw ou ld c om e
w e re mo s t e a s i ly u sed i no ne d i rec t ion , w i th t h e s ame f a ce t owa rd s t h e f i sh a t a l l t ime s . T h i s r e su l ted i n s l igh t ly d i f f e ren t w ea r p a t tern s o n e ach f a ce . O n t h e f a ce s wh ich
i n to c on tac t w i th h ide s . S uch a c t iv i t ie s i n c lude c r ea s ing , a s w hen mak ing b oo t s o le s ( a l though i ti st h ough tt h a tt h i s w a s o f t en d one w i th t h e t e e th r a the r t h an a t o o l ) , a nd o t he r e l emen t s o f s ew ing a nd p r epa r ing h ide s . T he amoun t o f
w e re n ex tt ot h e f i sh , s t r ia t ion sa r e l o nge ra nd mo re r e gu la r ly o r ien ted p e rpend icu la r t o t h e e dge o f t h e t o o l . O n t h e o ppo s i te f a ce s , s t r ia t ion s a r e mo re r a ndom ly o r ien ted , a nd o f ten s ho r t e r . Wea r o n t h i s s i de i s g ene ra l ly l e s s w e l l d eve loped . S t r ia t ion s c au sed b yf i sh s c a le sa r e much s ho r te r , a sw e l l a sb e ing w ide r a nd d eepe r , t h an s t r ia t ion s c au sed b y a ny o the r m a te r ia l t e s t ed s o f a r . T hey a r e o f t en g rouped t o ge ther i n b unche s
t h a t may
h ave
s l igh t ly
a c ro s s t h e h ide w i th t h e g r a in , s o t h a t o n ly o ne s i de o ft h e e dge i s w or n ( un les s t h e t o o l i s manageab le i n b o th d i rec t ion s , u n l ike t hose u sed h e re ) . A s e cond d i f f e ren ce i s t h e mu l t id i rec t iona l s t r ia t ion s s e en o n f i sh s c a le r s . E spec ia l ly o nt h e f a ce h e ld a way f r om t h e s k in , s t r ia t ion s a r e o r ien ted a lmo s t r andom ly . I n many c a se s s t r ia t ion s w e r e e ven o bse rved r unn ing p a ra l le l t o t h e e dge . T he se c an b e a t t r ibu ted b o th t o l a te ra l movemen t o ft h e t o o l d ur ing w o rk
p roceeded f r om t h e t a i l f o rwa rd , a ga in s t t h e d i rec t ion o ft h e s c a le s , l i f t ing t h em a nd p u l l ing t h em o u t . S ca le s a dhe r ing t o
l e ng th ( cm )
o n to t h e f a ce o ft h e t oo l a way f r om t h e s k in . T oo l s u sed t o s queeze w a t e r f r om f u r s , o n t h e o the r h and , a r e s c raped
w o rk d one o n t h e v a r iou s t y pe s o f h ide a nd l e a the r i s t a bu la ted i nT ab le 4 . 13 . R e su l t s : T he w ea rp roduced b yr ubb ing l e a the rw a su n if orm , w i th o n ly af ew e xcep t ion s , a nd f o l lowed t h e p a t te rn s e en i n
d i f f e ren t
e a r l ie r e xper imen t s ( LeMo ine 1 985 , 1 989 ) . T he mo s t c ommon p a t te rn , p roduced b y l e a ther s a nd h ides r ang ing
o r ien ta t ion s ( d iff i cu l t t os e e o n t h e m ic rog raph s d ue t ot h e i r s c a le ) . T he s i ze o ft h e s t r ia t ion s i sl a rge ly d e term ined b y t h e 3 5
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT f r om v e ry s of t ( c hamo i s ) t o much t h icke r , s t if f e r l e a the r s , w a s ad u l lp o l i sh , i n va s ive i n to b o th t h eb ody o ft h e h a rd l e a the r m ed ium l e a the r
g roove 1 0 5
s of tl e a the r m ed ium s uede c hamo i s d ry r awh ide r awh ide t o ta l
r ub
1 5
5 2 0
1 0 2 0
1 5
1 5
5 5 5 5
A s n o ted p r ev iou s ly , t h i s v ery f i ne
p o l i sh ing i s d ue t o t h e p re sence o f w a te r a c t ing a s a l u b r ican t . Aw l su sed o nl e s ss of to rw e th ide a l so d eve lop a n i n va s ive p o l i sh wh ich s moo the s t h e t o pog raphy b u t w h ich l a ck st h ev i s ib le o s teon so ft h e w e th i de p o l i sh . B ecau se i ti s
t o ta l 5
5 5 2 5
p re sence o f o s t eon s .
i n va s ive ,t h el ow p o in t so nt h et opog raphy b ecome s moo thed a lmo s t a s s oon a s t h e h i gh p o in t s . T h i s l e ave s ag ene ra l ly u ndu la t ing s u rf ace t h a t w i l l e ven tua l ly b ecome b o th f l a t a nd s moo th . O s teon s a r e n o t g ene ra l ly v i s ib le , b u t s ma l l s t r ia t ion s a r e c ommon , e i the r l e ngt hw i se , when t h e a w l w a s
1 0 5 5
u sed s imp ly t op u sh t h rough t h e h id e , o r a r ound t h e s haf t , w hen a t w i s t ing mo t ion w a s u sed . B ouchud ( 1 977 ) n o ted
8 0
c r u sh ing o n a w l t i p s , w h ich h e a t tr ibu t ed t o t h e p r e s sur e e xer ted w hen t h e a w l w a s u sed t op i e r ce . H e d i s t ingu i shed
T ab le 4 . 13 Numbe r o f m inu te s o f r ubb ing a nd g roov ing e ach t y pe o fl e a the r .
t h i s f r om r ound ing a nd s moo th ing s e en o nn eed le t i p s , wh ich a r e u sed o n ly t os ew t h rough h o le s m ade b y a n a w l . Ih ave p r ev iou s ly n o ted ( LeMo ine 1 985 ) t h a t a w l s u sed o n s of t m a ter ia l s a l so d eve loped s moo th r a the r t h an c r u shed t i p s . F u r the r w o rk w it h a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s h a s s hown t h a t
t o o la nd l ow p o in t s o ft h et o pog raphy , l e av ing r ounded e dge s a nd h i gh p o in t s ( P la te 4 . 12a -h ) . O n ly i n o ne c a se w a s t h e p o l i sh f i ne e nough t oe xpose o s teon s( P la te 4 . 12h ) . I ti s mo r e o f t en f e a ture le s s . T he e xcep t ion s t o t h i s p a t te rn w e re p a t te rn s c r ea ted b y w e t r awh ide , d ry r awh ide , a nd o ne p a r t icu la r ly s t if f s amp le o f l e a the r . A s e xpec ted f r om p r ev iou sw o rk ,w e tr awh ide p roduced ap a t tern t h a tw a s d u l l , i n va s ive a nd r ounded , a s a bove , b u t wh ich a l so e xpo sed
n eed le s t o o s ome t ime s d eve lop c ru shed t i ps , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h ey w e re u sed n o tj u s tt od r aw at h read ,b u tt op i e r ce a sw e l l ( Le Mo ine u npub l i shed d a ta ) . N eed le s , t h en , s how w ea rt h a t i si na l lr e spec t st h es ame a st h a to na w l s .
o s teon s a nd s ome s t r ia t ion s ( P la te 4 . 12 j ) . D ry r awh ide , o n t h e o t he rh and ,p roduced o n ly v ery r e s t r ic ted w ea ra nd a l so a d u l l r ound ed p o l i sh ( P la te 4 . 12 i ) . F ina l ly , t h e v e ry s t if f l e a the r p roduced ar a the r b r igh te r , s t r ia ted p o l i sh , s im i la r i n s ome w ay st ot h a tp roduced b yw ood , a l though n o ta sb r igh t
B one t o o l s w e re u sed t o w o rk a n t le r a s d r i l l b i t s , a nd a s ' r ubbe r s ' , a si nt h ee xpe r im en t s d escr ibed a bove . I nt h i s c a se
a nd mo re i nva s ive a nd r ounded ( P la te 4 . 121 ) . G roov ing
l e a the r p roduce s
s im i la r
r e su l t s ,
e xcep t
t h e ' r ubbe r s ' m ay b e c on s ide red t or e p l ica t e w ea r c au sed b y s uch t h ing s a sb one o r a n t le r f o re shaf t s a nd h a rpoon h ead s , a j agak o r c up a nd p in t y pe g ame s * , a nd a ny o the r i n s tance whe re b one r ub so nb one ,a n t le ro rw ood .
t h a t
s t r ia t ion s a r e c ommon . I n a l l c a se s , l i gh t s t r ia t ion s w e re v i s ib le a tt h e e dge o ft h e t o o l , a l ong w i th ar ounded p o l i sh . Away f r om t h e e dge t h e p o l i sh , b u t n o t t h e s t r ia t ion s , e x tended i n to t h e b ody o f t h e t o o l .
A n t ler
A s w i th r ubb ing , t h e
D r i l l s : T h ree d r i l l b i t s w e re u sed i n s e ven e p i sode s t o d r i l l s a tu ra ted a n t le r . T he d r i l l s w e re m ade a nd u sed i n t h e
s t r ia t ion s c au sed b y g roov ing v e ry h a rd l e a the r a r e t h e mo s t p rom inen t , b e ing s im i la r t ot h o se c au sed b y w ood a nd o the r h a rd ma te r ia l s . Aga in , t hough , t h e r ounded e dge s a nd i n va s ive n a ture o ft h ep o l i sh d i s t ingu i she st h em .
manne r d e scr ibed a bove , a nd w o rked e f f ec t ive ly . T ab le 4 . 8 g ives t h et o t a ld ep th d r i l led i nw e ta n t le r .
T aken t oge the r , t h e w ea r c au sed b y g roov ing a nd r ubb ing h ide c an b e s e en t o b e d i s t inc t ive . I nva s ivene s s a nd
R e su l t s :
r ound ing a r e t h e ma in d i s t ingu i sh ing c ha rac ter i s t ic s o fh ide w ea r , c ommon t o v i r tua l ly a l l t ype s o f h ide . O the r
O n am ac ro scop ic s c a le , t h e re a r e f ew c l ues t ot h e u se o f d r i l l s o n a n t le r . T he s haf t b ecom e s s l igh t ly p o l i shed , b u t
c ha rac ter i s t ics o ft h e h ide c an b e u nde r s tood f r om s e cond ary c ha rac ter i s t ics o f t h e w ea r : t h e p re sence o f s t r ia t ion s ; t h e b r igh tne ss o ft h e p o l i sh ; e xpo sed o s teon s . T he n a tu re o ft h e
t h e re a r e f ew o rn o s t r ia t ion sv i s ib le . Wea ro nb one d r i l l sb y s oaked a n t le r i s c ha rac t e r ized m ic ro scop ica l ly b y t wo d i s t inc t ive f e a tu re s : f ew , l a rge s ha l low s t r ia t ion s p e rpend icu la r t ot h e l o ng a x i s , a nd a v ery f i ne , s of t p o l i sh e xpos ing o s teon s ( P la te 4 . 7b ) . T h i s w ea r p a t tern i sr e ad i ly
w o rk c an b e i n f er red f r om t h e f o rm o f t h e t oo l a nd t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e w ea ro n i t . O fc ou r se , t h e re i sn o r e a son t h a t as i ng le s pa tu la te t o o l c ou ld n o t b e u sed f o r b o th t h e a c t iv i t ie sd e scr ibed h e re .
d i s t ingu i shed f r om t h e m any f me s t r ia t ion s a nd r a the r h a rd p o l i sh c ha rac ter i s t ic o fu se o n wood . A sw i th w ea rp roduced b yw e th ide ,t h i si s ac ha rac ter i s t ic s of t ,n on -ab ra s ive p o l i sh .
Aw l sa nd N eed le s : N o e xper imen t s w e re c ar r ied o u tw i th e i the r a w l s o rn eed le s i nt h i s s t udy . T hey h ave b een e xam ined i np rev iou s s t ud ie s ( Bouchud 1 977 , L e Mo ine 1 985 ) . T h i s e a r l ie r w ork d ocumen ted t h e d eve lopmen t o f v a r iou s a spec t s o f w ea r r e la ted t o t h e m e thod o f u se ( p ie rc ing o r s ew ing ) a nd t h e t y pe o f ma ter ia lu sed . Aw l su sed o nv ery s of t , a nd e spec ia l ly
* A l though Ma th ia s sen ( 1927 P t2 )s ugges t s t h a tt h e se g ame s a r e n o t k nown i nt h e w es te rn a r c t ic , L owe ( 1984 :63 ) r epo r t s t h e w o rd a yagaq f o r a' b one
w e t , h ide d eve lop a n i nva s ive p o l i sh c ha rac te r ized b y t h e
a nd s t ick g ame ' ,w h ich may b e t h e s ame t h ing .
3 6
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPER I MENTS R ubb ing :
p reven ted a s much a s p os s ib le b y u s ing a c u sh ion o f o t he r
R ubb ing b one a nd a n t le r f o l lowed t h e s ame p a t t ern d e scr ibed f o rr ubb ing b on e o nw ood , a bove . T h ree p i ece s o f b one w e re r ubbed a c ro s s ap i ece o fd ry a n t le r at o ta l o f2 10 t ime s , a ss p ec if i ed i nT ab le 4 . 11 .
m ea t o rf a t t oc u t a ga in s t . T he r e s t o ft h e k n ive s w e re u sed i nd i rec tc on tac tw i th t h eb oa rd ,b u tt h i sh ad am in ima le f f ec t o n t h e w ea r . T he k n ives w e re u sed f o r at o ta l o f 2 68
R e su l t s : Wo rk ing d ry a n t le r p roduce s w ea r t h a t i s s i gn i f ican t ly d i f f e ren t f r om w o rk ing s a tura ted a n t le r . T o t h e u na ided e ye o r a tl ow m agn if ica t ion s t h e w ea r i ss e en a s a l i gh tp o l i sh . S een m ic ro scop ica l ly , t h e w ea r i sv e ry s im i la r t o t h e w ea r p roduced b y r ubb ing w ood a nd b one t o ge the r ,
m inu te s , i nt h a tt ime c u t t ing 3 330 gm o fb eef h ea r t i n to 1 2 c mc ube s . R e su l t s : T he w ea rp roduced b ym ea ti sd i s t in ct ive , a l though i th a s s ome f e a tu re si nc ommon w i th w ea rp roduced b yo the r s of t , mo i s tm a te r ia l s ( P la te 4 . 13a ,b ) . Wea ri sh eav ie s ta l ong t h e e x t r eme e dge ,
a nd s o s im i la r t ow ood p o l i sh i ng ene ra l ( P la te4 .l ob ) . T he p o l i sh i ss moo th , a nd d oe sn o tp ene t ra t e i n to t h e g roove s l ef t
whe re
i t r ange s
f r om
s moo th
a nd
f e a tu r e les s t os moo th w i th e xposed o s teon s . T h i s i sd ue t o t h e s of t , mo i s t n a tu re o fr aw m ea t . T race s o f manuf ac tu re a r ed e s t royed i n at h in b and a l ong t h ee dge .
b y manuf ac tu re . S t r ia t ion s a r e s moo th a nd l i gh t . T he w ea r a ppea r st ob e l i gh te r , o rt od eve lop mo re s l ow ly t h an s im i la r
A l though t h eb ody o ft h e k n if e a l so c on tac t s t h e m ea t , a way
w ea rp roduced b y w ood , b u ti tw ou ld n o tb e p o s s ib le t ot e l l , o na na r chaeo log ica ls pec imen , w h ich h ad p roduced i t .
f r om t h e e dge w ea r i s much l i gh te r . T he m ea t g ape s a si ti s c u t , s o f i rm c on tac t i s mad e o n ly w i th t h e e dge ; e l sewhe re c on tac t b e tween t h e m ea t a nd t h e t o o l i s v e ry l i gh t . G ene ra l ly t r ace s o f manuf ac tu r e a r e s t i l l e v iden t a way f r om t h ee dge . T he p o l i sh t h a td eve lops i ss moo th a nd f e a tu re le s s , a nd w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted . I th a s t h e c ur iou s a ppea rance o f
Mea t E xpe r imen t s w e re c a r r ied o u t w i th f i ve k n ive s , m ade t o
h av ing b een m ade b y s ome h a rd s ub s t ance , o ne t h a td oe sn o t
r e p l ica te k n ive s a nd d agge r s ( w i th o ne o r t wo s ha rp e dge s r e spec t ive ly ) f ound a t G upuk ( F igu re 4 . 15 ) . T hey w e re
c onf orm t ot h es u rf ace o ft h et o o l , a nd s oo n ly w ea r st h eh igh p o in t s . O n ly t h e se h igh p o in t s a r e p o l i shed i n i t ia l ly . A s t h e
m ade f r om d ee r l o ng b one s , f ou r o nt i b ia f r agmen t s a nd o ne
w ea r e xpand s , w o rn a r ea s g row l a rge r , j o in ing u p t o s ome e x t en t . T h i sg i ve st h ew ea r ap i t ted a ppea rance . T he p i t s a r e
o n af emu r f r agm en t . O n e ach , o ne o r mo re e dge s w a s s ha rpened w i th a f i l e . T he se k n ive s d o n o t p rec i se ly
n o t ap roduc t o f w ea r , b u t t h e r emnan t o f t h e o r ig ina l
r e p l ica te e i the rt h e k n ive s o rt h e d agge r s f r om G upuk . T hey w e r e i n tended o n ly t op rov id e s ha rp c u t t ing e dges .
s u rf ace . T he t e x tu re o ft h e o r ig ina l s u rf ace ( f ine o r c oa r se ) i nf luence s t h e g enera l a ppea rance o f t h i s w ea r s om ewha t . T h i s ' n on -pene t ra t ing ' t y pe o fp o l i sh s hou ld n o tb e c onf u sed w i th t r ue h a rd p o l i she s l ef tb y h a rd m a ter ia l s s uch a s wood o rb one . I ti sn o t s t r ia ted , n o r d oe s t h e b one s e em s mea red . A l so , a l though t h e w ea r i sw ide sp read o n t h e e xpe r imen ta l k n ive s , i ti sa l so v e ry l i gh t t r ace s o f manuf ac tu re a r e n o t o b scu red . T rue ' h a rd ' p o l i she s d eve lop v ery r ap id ly ( much mo re q u ick ly t h an t h e h ou r o r s o f o r wh ich e ach o f t h ese k n ive s w a s u sed ) a nd a r e u n l ike ly t o b e f ound i n d i rec t a s soc ia t ion w i th e xpo sed o s teon s . -
-
S i new F ou r s pa tu la te b one s t oo l w e re u sed t ow o rk w i th s i new , t o r e p l ica te t h e w ea r p roduced b y t h a t m a ter ia l b o th o n s i new t w i s te r s a nd m a r l in s p ike s , t o o l s a s soc ia ted w i th s i n ew
F igure 4 . 15 E xpe r imen ta lb one k n ive s T he k n ive s w e re e ach u sed t oc u tu pb eef h ea r t . T he re i sn o d i rec t e v idence t h a t b one k n ives w e re u sed e i the r i n
b acked b ow s a nd f ound i n b o th t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic c o l lec t ion s e xam ined h e re . T he s i new u sed w a s as e r ie s o ff ou rc o rd s o fb ra ided s i new , e ach b ra id m ade
b u tche r ing o ri np repa r ing a nd e a t ing m ea t . T he u se o fm ea t i n t h e se e xpe r imen t s i s m ean t t o r ep roduce t h e w ea r
o ft h ree s t rand s o fa n te lope l e g s i new . T he s pa tu la te t o o l s r ep l ica ted m a r l in s p ike s a s s e en i n t h e MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion , a nd a si d en t if ied b y Mu rdoch ( 1892 :292 F igu re s
p roduced o no the rt o o l s l i ke ly t oc om e i n to c on tac tw i th r aw f l e sh , b u t f o r wh ich d i r ec t r ep l ica t ive e xpe r i m en t s w e r e n o t p o ss ib le , e . g . h a rpoon s , e spec ia l ly w i th b one e ndb lade s , a nd o t her p ro jec t i le s , a nd e ven d agge r s ( f o r s t abb ing ) . E ach k n if e w a s u sed t o c u t r aw b eef h ea r t , e i the r f r e sh o r p a r t ly f r ozen , f o r ap er iod r ang ing b e tween 4 0 a nd 7 0 m inu te s . I n
2 84 , 2 85 ) , N e l son ( 1899 :193 P la te LXX I I , F igu re s 3 7 , 5 6 ) a nd o the r s . T hey a r e u sed t ol i f ta nd s epa ra te t h e s t rand s o f s i new c o rd b ack ing ab ow s o t h a t t h e s i new t w i s te r s c an b e i n se r ted . T he s i new t w i s te r s a r e u sed t o i n c rea se a nd d ec rea se t h e t e n s ion o n t h e b ow b y t w i s t ing t h e s i new t o e i the rd ecr ea se ( tw i s t ) o ri n c r ea se ( un tw i s t )i t s l e ng th . T o d o
t h a tt ime i tw a sp o s s ib le t oc u tu pt o8 50 gm o f mea ti n to 1 2 c m c ube s . T he k n ive s w o rked s u rp r i s ing ly w e l l o n b o th t h e r aw a nd t h e f r ozen mea t , a l though t h ey w e re n o t a se ff i c ien t a s me ta l k n ives . C u t t ing w a s d one o n aw ooden c u t t ing b oa rd . F o r t wo k n ive s c on tac t w i th t h e c u t t ing b oa rd w a s
t h i s t h ey mu s tb e s l id b ack a nd f o r th b e tween t h e s t rand s , s o t h a tt h ey m ay b et u rned . T hu st h ew ea ro nb o th t h e se t oo l s i s p roduced b yr ubb ing a ga in s td ry s i new c ord . 3 7
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT I nt h ee xpe r imen t st h et oo l sw e re r e pea t ed ly r ubbed a ga in s ta g roup o f f ou r b ra ided s i new c o rd s t h a t w e r e h e ld u nde r t e n s ion b yh o ld ing o ne e nd , w i th t h e o t he rn a i led t o ab oa rd . E ach t oo l w a s u sed f o r 5 00 s t roke s , f o r at o ta l o f 2 000 s t roke s .
e i the ra dz ing o rg r ind ing ( F igu re 4 . 16 ) . T h i s o fc ou r se o n ly s upe rf ic ia l ly r e semb le s t h e w ay s uch t o o l s w e re made p reh i s tor ica l ly , b u t t h e t ime n ece s sa ry t o d o s o w a s n o t a va i lab le . E ach k n if e w a s u sed d u r ing t h e c on s truc t ion o fa n i g loo ( i n t h e A lbe r ta R ocky Moun ta in s , n ea r F o r t re s s Moun ta in ) f o r a bou t h a lf a n h ou r . T h i s l i m i t ed amoun t o fu se i n n o w ay a pp rox ima te s t h e l i ke ly u se l if e o fp r eh i s tor ic s now k n ive s . I tc an o n ly g i ve a n i n d ica t ion o f t h e w ea r p a t te rn s t o b e e xpec ted . T he k n ive sw e re u sed t ot r im s now b lock su sed i n c on s t ruc t ion . Wo rk w a s m ea su red b y d u ra t ion o fu se o n ly .
R e su l t s : S inew w ea r i s c ha rac ter ized b y as moo th , h a rd p o l i sh ,w i th p rom inen ts moo th s t r ia t ion s( P la te 4 . 14 ) . Un l ik e s t r ia t ion sp roduced b y o ther h a rd ma t er ia l s s uch a sw ood , t h e s i new s t r ia t ion s a r e l ong a nd i s o la ted , n o t s e en e n ma s se a s a r e wood s t r ia t ion s . T hey a r e s ome t ime s s e en i ng r oup s , b u t e ach s t r ia t ion i sc l ea r ly s epa ra te , wh ich i sn o t t h e c a se w i th w ood . T h i s w ea r i s s e en n o t o n ly o n t h e e xpe r imen ta l p i ece s , b u t o n b o th t h e ma r l in s p ike s a nd t h e s i new t w i s te r s f r om t h e MacFa r lane c o l lec t ion .
I tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o m ea su r e t h e l i nea r d i s tance o f c u t s d ur ing c on s t ruc t ion .
S tone S t one w a sw o rked o n ly w i th b one d r i l l s . T he s t one u sed w a s s oap s tone , n o t f r om t h e s t udy a r ea , a s t h i s w a s u nava i lab le , b u tf r om I nd ia ( bough ta t al a p ida ry S t o r e ) . I ti sf i ne rg ra ined t h an t h e s oap s tone f ound a t Gupuk , b u t i sp robab ly o fa bou t t h e s am e h a rdnes s . T he amoun t o fw o rk d one w i th d r i l l s o n t h i s s t one i sg i ven i nT ab le 4 . 8 . R e su l t s : A st r ibo log ica lp r inc ip le sw ou ld l e ad o n et oe xpec t , t h e w ea r p roduced b y d r i l l ing s t one w i th b one l o ok s v e ry l i ke t h a t p roduced b y wo rk ing b one w i th s t one . W i th l ow magn i f ica t ion s , t h e d r i l l b i t s u sed o n s t one l o oked f i ne ly g round w i th s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t . A t h i gh magn if ica t ion s , t h ese s t r ia t ion s l o oked t y p ica l o f g r ind ing
F igure 4 . 16 E xper im en ta ls now k n ive s . R esu l t s :
s t r ia t ion s p roduced i n t h e manuf ac tu r ing e xpe r imen t s ( P la te 4 . 7c ) . T hey a r e c ha rac ter ized b y b r i t t le f r ac tu re , u n l ike t h e s t r ia t ion s s e en o n d r i l l s u sed o n o t he r m a t er ia l s . T hey a r e
4 . 15a ) . T he w ea ri sl i gh t , a se xpec ted-t h el o ad a pp l ied t oa
much f i ne r t h an manuf ac tur ing s t r ia t ion s g ene ra l ly , b ecau se o ft h e v ery f i ne t e x ture o f t h e s t one t h e d eb r i s p roduced w a s mo re l i ke t a lc t h an g r i t , b u tw a s o bv iou s ly s t i l la b ra s ive . -
Af t e r s uch a s hor t u se , mac ro scop ica l ly t h e t o o l s
a ppea r u nwo rn . M ic ro scop ic w ea r o n t h e e xpe r imen ta l k n ive s i sc ha rac te r ized b y t wo f a c to r s : al o s s o fd e ta i l o ft h e t r ace s o f m anuf ac tur e , a nd t h e e xpo su re o f o s teon s ( P la t e s now k n if e i s g ene ra l ly l i gh t a nd t h e s now o f f e r s l i t t le r e s i s t ance .
-
T he f a c t t h a t i ti sc ha rac ter ized b y s of tp o l i sh ing , a s s e en i n t h ee xpo su r eo ft h e o s teon s ,r a the rt h an b ya b ra s ive p o l i sh ing a s m igh t b e e xpec ted f r om t h e g ranu la r n a tu re o ft h e s now r equ i r ed f o r i g loo c on s truc t ion , c an b e a ccoun ted f o r b y t h e
S ome o ft h es t r ia t ion s may a l so h ave b een p roduced b ys ma l l c h ips o f s oap s tone , r a the r t h an b y i nd iv idua l g ra in s . A l toge the r , e xcep tf o rt h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e s t r ia t ion sa nd t h e macroscop ic c ha rac te r o f t h e w ea r , i tc ou ld b e t a ken f o r manuf ac tu r ing ,r a ther t h an u se w ea r .
p re sence o fw a te r .
I n t h i s r e ga rd , s now w ea r i ss im i la r t o
w ea rd ue t ow e ta n t le ro rw e th ide . A l though t h e s now i s , o f c ou r se , f r ozen , a nd t h e a i r t empe ra tu re w a s b e low f r eez ing o n t h e d ay o ft h e e xper imen t s ( a l though o n ly j u s t ) f r ic t ion c au se s al a yer o f w a te r t o f o rm b e tween t h e t oo l a nd t h e
S now a nd I c e
s now . T h i s i st h e s ame p r inc ip le t h a ta l low s s k i s t og l ide o n s now , o r s ka te s o n i c e . I ti s ac omb ina t ion o f p re ssu re
S nowkn ive s : T hree s nowkn ives w e re made f r om c a r ibou a n t le r( c ou r te sy o fL au ra E t tag iak ) . T he a n t ler p i eces w e r e f i r s ts awed i nh a lf u s ing a b and s aw . T hey w e re t h en s haped w i th a c o mb ina t ion o f ab e l t s ande r , a n i r on a dze , a n i r on f i l e a nd a c oa r se g r a ined s t one . I na l lc a se s af i l ew a su sed f o rt h ef i na l s ha rpen ing o ft h e wo rk ing ( concave ) e dge . T he a dze a nd t h e g r ind ing s t one w e re e ach u sed f o r e x ten s ive t h inn ing o n o ne
m e l t ing a nd
f r ic t iona l m e l t ing ( Moo re 1 975 :99 ) .
T he
amoun to fm e l t ing d ec rea se s w i th t empe ra tu re . A tv ery c o ld t empe ra tu re s , a ss k ie r sk now , s uch m e l t ing c an b es or educed a s t o i n h ib i t s l id ing . I n t h e se e xpe r imen t s , t h e t empe ra ture r ema ined n ea r z e ro a ta l l t im e s . T hu s al a ye r o fw a te r w a s p re sen tb e tween t h ek n ive sa nd t h es now c ry s ta l s . I n t h e f a r n or th , i ti su n l ik e ly t h a t i g loos w e re c on s t ruc ted u nde r s u ch f a vo rab le c ond i t ion s . T empe ra ture s w e re
t oo l . B o th o ft h em r equ i red ag rea t d ea l o fw o rk , h oweve r ,
p robab ly much l owe r mo s to ft h e t ime . T h i s wou ld h ave t h e e f f ec t o fr educ ing t h e a moun t o fw a te r p re sen t b e tween t h e s now a nd t h e k n if e . A l so c ha rac ter i s t ic o ft h e w ea r i st h e e x ten t t o w h ich i tp ene t ra t e s i n to t h e b ody o ft h e t oo l . I n
i n e xces s o f e i gh t h ou r s i n e ach c a se , b ef o re t h e r equ i s i t e t h inne ss w a s e ven a pp roached . U s ing a b e l t s ande r c on s ide rab ly s peeded u p t h i s p roce ss . Whe re n ece s sa ry , t r ace s o f t h i s manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique c ou ld b e e r a sed b y 3 8
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPER IMENTS c u t t ing s now , t h e who le f a ce o ft h e t o o l o f ten c on tac t s t h e s now b lock , s ow ea rd eve lop s a l ong t h ew ho le f a ce .
t h e i c e w hen c h ipp ing a way a ta nu neven s u rf ace , a nd t h i s i s ap o s s ib le c au se o ft h e se s t r ia t ion s .
I c eP i ck s : F ou r i c e p i ck s w e re m ade o n c a r ibou a n t le r ( F igu re 4 . 17 ) .
E ar th
O ne o ft h e se w a s made o n as e c t ion o fa n t le r t h a t h ad b een s awn i nh a lf w i th ab and s aw ( t he o t he r h a lf b e ing u sed t o
A s ma l l s e r ie s o f e xper imen t s w e re c onduc t ed u s ing a n t le r p i ck s , t h e s am e o nes u sed a s i c e p i ck s , t o d ig e a r th . I ti s
make as now k n if e ) . T he t i p w a s s h a rpened o n ab e l ts ande r . T he o th er t h ree w er e made f r om as i ng le p i ece o fa n t le r t h a t w a s f i r s th a lved , u s ing a n i r on c h i se l . O ne o ft h eh a lve s w a s t h en f u r the r h a lved u s ing a s t ee l s aw .
e v iden t t h a t s om e t y pe o f e xcava t ion w a s n ece s sa ry i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fT hu le s em i sub te r ranean w in te r h ou se s a nd t h e se e xpe r imen t s w e re i n t ended t o p ar t ia l ly r ep l ica te t h i s a c t ion . S im i la r w ea r w ou ld a l so b e e xpec ted o n p egs . T he s o i l a tG upuk i sl o amy o n t o p , u nde r la in b y s andy t o s i l ty d e l ta ic s ed imen t s t y p ica lo fR icha rd s I s land ( MacKay 1 963 ) . A s as ub s t i tu te f o rt h i s ,p i ck s w e re u sed w i th d amp l o am a nd s i l ty s and w i th s ma l l p ebb le i n c lu s ion s , b o th w e t a nd d ry . P i ck sw e re u sed i ne a r th f o r at o ta lo f4 0m inu tes .
S ha rp t i p s w e r e
f o rm ed b y g r ind ing o n ac oa r se g r ind ing s t one . I n a l l c a se s t h e re w a sn o f u r ther mod if ica t ion . T h i sf o l low st h e mode lo f w ha ta r et h ough tt ob ep i ck s f r om G upuk . T he f i r s tp i ck w a s l ef tu nmoun ted wh i le t h e o the rt h r ee w e re h af t ed o n w ooden s haf t s .
R e su l t s : B ef o re u se , a l lt h ep i ck sh ad b een u sed a si c ep ick s , a nd s o w e re p o l i shed , w i th t h e c e l lu la r s t ruc ture c l ea r ly v i s ib le m ic ro scop ica l ly ( s ee a bove ) .
Af t e r u se n o o s teon s
w e re v i s ib le . I na l lb u to ne c a se t h ey h ad b een r ep laced b y a r ough p o l i sh ,g ene ra l ly m ade u p o fl i gh ts t r ia t ion s , g i v ing t h e e xpec ted a ppea rance o fl i gh t a b ra s ion ( P la te 4 . 15c ) . I n o ne i n s tance , s t r ia t ion sd i dn o ta ppea r , a l though a l lp rev iou sw ea r w a s e r a sed , a nd t h e p i ck h ad ag en e ra l ly r ough a ppea rance . T h i sw a st h ep i ck u sed o nd amp l o am . I nt h i sc a se , t h e d amp
-
s o i l c on t inua l ly s t uck t ot h e p i ck , t o ad ep th o fa bou t 1 mm . D u r ing w o rk , t h i sw a so cca s iona l ly s c raped o f f( t o e ncou rage w ea rd eve lopm en t ) , b u tt h e t oo l n eve r s t ayed c l ean f o r l ong .
F igure 4 . 17 E xpe r im en ta li c ep i ck s .
I ti sn o tc l ea rw he the rt h i s ma sk ing , o rt h e d i f f e rence s i ns o i l t y pe , a ccoun tf o rt h el a ck o fs t r ia t ion so nt h i st oo l . A l l o ft h e p i ck s w e re t r ea ted t h e s am e w ay . E ach w a s u sed
A l though t h e m echan i sm o f w ea r h e re i s t h e s ame a s i n g r ind ing ( mo re o r l e s s s h a rp a b ra s ive p a r t ic le s ) a nd t h e r e su l t s a r e s im i la r ( s t r ia t ion s c au sed b y b r i t t le f r ac tu re ) i ti s u n l ike ly t h a t t h i s t y pe o f w ea r w ou ld b e c onf u sed w i th
t oc h ip i c e f r om ao va l p an 3 7x28x 1 1c m . T h i s t o ok a bou t o ne h a lf h ou ri ne ach c a se , a l though i nn oc a se w a sa l lt h ei c e r emoved , t oa vo id s t r ik ing t h e s i d e o ft h e p an w i th t h e p i ck . B ecau se o fw a rm w ea the r , t h i s w a s c a r r ied o u t i n s ide , w i th
g r ind ing o ro t he r e v idence o f manuf ac tu re . T h i s i sp robab ly d ue t o d i f f e r ence s i nt h e l o ad a pp l ied . I n t h e e xpe r imen t s , t h e ma t r ix w a s n o t c on so l ida ted a s a r e t h e p a r t ic le i n a g r ind s tone ( no ri si tl i k e ly t oh ave b een i n ar e a ll i f e s i tua t ion t h e s andy s ed imen t s o f t h e D e l ta a r e q u i te l o o se ) . T he
t h e t o o l s a t r oom t empe ra tu re , e x cep t i n o n e c a se . I n a n a t temp t t o s imu la te o u tdoo r w o rk i n b e low f r eez ing t empe ra tu res , o ne o ft h ep i ck sw a sf r ozen f o r4 8h ou r sb ef o r e u se . T he w ea rt h a td eve loped w a st h e s ame a so nt h e o t he r s , b u ti ti sn o tab le t h a tt h i s i st h e o n ly t o o l t h a tc h ipped d ur ing w o rk . Af t e r l e ss t h an t h ree m inu t e s w o rk , t h e t i p o ft h e t o o l b roke a way . T he t o o l c on t inued t o p e rf orm w e l l h oweve r ,
-
p r e s su re p l aced o n t h em w i th t h e t o o l i s much l e s s t h an t h a t u sed when g r ind ing , a nd t h e p a r t ic le s c an move a way . T he r e su l t i sd i f f e ren t , w i th l i gh te r s t r ia t ion s a nd amuch s l owe r r a te o f a b ra s ion . T he s t r ia t ion s a r e , h oweve r , o therw i se
a nd w o rk c on t inued w i thou t f u r the r d amage . I th a s b een n o ted ( D . G a rdne r , p e r s . c omm . ) t h a t a n t le rp i ck s o f t en c h ip a nd s p l in te r when u sed p a r t icu la r ly i ft h ey a r et h in .
i n
v e ry
c o ld
c ha rac ter i s t ic o fr ubb ing s h arp ,h a rd p a r t i c les .
t empe ra tu re s ,
R e su l t s : I n a l l f ou r c a se s , t h e w ea r t h a t d eve loped o n t h e p i ck s w a s t h e s ame . T he a n t le r d eve lops an o t iceab le l u s te r i nd ica t ing p o l i sh ing ,v i s ib le t ot h eu na ided e ye , a nd ap ebb ly t e x tu re . T he p o l i sh ing i ss e en m ic ro scop ica l ly a s ar e la t ive ly
NON U SE W EAR
A m a jo r p rob lem i n t r y ing t o i d en t if y u se w ea r o n a r chaeo log ica l t o o l s i st h e q ue s t ion o fh ow t h ey h ave b een
s moo th s u rf ace o n wh ich t h e mo s t o bv iou s f e a tu re s a r e t h e o s teon s ( P la te 4 . 15b ) . T hey a r e e ven mo re e v iden t o n t h e
a f f ec ted b y n on -u se a c t iv i t ies . B o th p o s t -depos i t iona l a nd p o s t -excava t ion c hange s h ave b een d i scu s sed a bove . T hey
e xper imen ta l p i ck s t h an o n t h e s now k n ive s , p robab ly b ecau se o ft h e i n c rea sed p re ssu re e xe r ted o nt h et o o l s a ga in s t t h e i c e . A l so o cca s iona l ly v i s ib le a r e l i gh t s t r ia t ion s . When p re sen t t h e se a r e c l o se t o t h e t i p , i ng roup s , p a ra l le l t o t h e
a ppea r t oh ave h ad am in ima l i mpac t o n t h e a r tef ac t s f r om G upuk . T h i s l e ave s o ccu r rences d u r ing t h e u sefu l l i f e o ft h e t o o l s , b ef o re d i sca rd , t o a ccoun t f o r . T he se c ou ld i n c lude
d i r ec t ion o fw o rk . I ti sc o mmon f o r t h e p i ck t os l ip a ga in s t
s t o rage a nd t r an spo r t . B one i sr e ad i ly s u scep t ib le t od amage i n s u ch c a se s , a s t h e e xper imen t s d i scu s sed b e low w i l l 3 9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE l ' . I I JIT i n d ica te , a nd t h i s c an h ave i mpo r tan t i mp l ica t ion s f o r u se
w o rk ing p ar to ft h e t o o l s , a nd i n many c a se s b en t , c urved o r o t he rw i se a bno rma l( P la te 4 . 16b ) .
w ear . W i th in t h e t ime f r ame o ft h i s p ro jec t , i tw a s n o t f e a s ib le t o t r u ly r ep l ica te t h e c ond i t ion s ab one t o o lc ou ld b ee xpo sed t o i n al i f e o fp e rhap s many y ea r s . T he e xper imen t s d e sc r ibed h e re a r e b y n o mean s d ef in i t ive , b u t t h ey d o g i ve a n i n d ica t ion o f t h e e f f ec t s o f s t o rage a nd t r an spor t o n b one t o o l s . T o b eg in w i th , t h ree s ma l l p i ece s o f b one w e re
Ma ter ia l w ood h ide (we t )
S t r ia t ion s s moo th ,l a rge r a re ,m a l l , s moo th (due t o i n c lu s ion s )
P o l i sh n on inva s ive i n va s ive
h ide (d ry )
s ma l l , s moo th ( i . e . a w l s )
i nva s ive
s e lec ted . T hese i n c luded t wo w h ich h ad b een u sed a s s pa tu la s , o ne o f wh ich h ad n o tb een u sed a nd o ne wh ich h ad
h ide & h a i r
f i ne ,c oa r se , m ay s e em a n a b ra s ive p o l i sh v a r iab le s i ze , d i rec t ion . w ide , s ha l low , c oa r se
b een u sed t op ee l w i l low b a rk , a nd af r agmen tt h a th ad b een p o l i shed w i th b o th l e a the r a nd h o r se ta i l s a s ap a r t o f t h e m anuf ac tur ing s t udy . I n t h e f i r s t s t age o ft h e e xpe r imen t s , t h ese t h ree p i ece s w e re b und led t o ge the r i n ap i ece o fs u ede ( i nt h e manne ro f a' h ou sew if e 'N e l son 1 899 :144 P l a te XLV ) a nd t i ed , b u t n o t s o t i gh t ly t h a t t h ey c ou ld n o t move a ta l l . T h i s b und le w a s c a r r ied i n ap ocke t f o r o ne m on th . A t t h a t t ime , t h e p i ece s w e re r e p l ica ted , a nd t h en t r an sf e r red t o a l a rge r s uede b ag , a l ong w i th o ne p i ece o fc oppe r , o ne o fi r on a nd o ne o fc her t . T he b ag w a s l a rge e nough f o rt h ep i ece st o move a r ound e a s i ly . T h i s ' k i t ' w a s c a r r ied a r ound f o r a mon th a sw e l l . F ina l ly , t oa cce le ra te t h e p roce s s o fd amage , t h e b one p i eces w e re c a r r ied a r ound u np ro tec t ed , o ne i n a p ocke t a nd t wo i n ah andbag , f o r t wo mon th s . I n t h e se c ond i t ion s , t h e p i eces o fb one w e re e xposed t o ag r ea t d ea l o fw ea ra nd t e a r , f r om b o th s of t ma t er ia l s ( c lo th , l e a the r ) a nd h a rd ( k ey s e t c . ) . A l though t h i s i sa n u n l ike ly s c ena r io f o r p r eh i s tor ic t o o l s , t h e g ene ra l c ond i t ion s m ay n o t b e u n l ike t h ose i n at o o lk i t , o ro the rc on ta ine r . T he r e su l t so ft h i s f i na l s t age w e re much t h es ame a st h o se o ft h ep r ev iou ss t age s .
s c a l ing a n t le r (we t ) a n t le r( d ry )
a sf o rw ood
m ea t
s moo th , s ha rp
s t one
c oa r se , a sf o r g r ind ing
s now / ice
' p ocke t '
o s teon s
n on inva s ive l i gh t , i n va s ive , may a ppea r n on inva s ive
s i new
e a r th
O th e r
n on inva s ive
i n va s ive c oa r se , l i gh te r t h an g r ind ing s hor t , l i gh t , s ma l l r andom ly o r ien ted
o s teon s
o s teon s
n on inva s ive n on inva s ive , b r igh t
T ab le 4 . 14 G ene ra l ized c ha rac ter i s t ics o f e xper imen ta l ly p roduced w ea rp a t tern s R e su l t sa nd D i scuss ion
A l though t h i s n on -u se w ea r i sn o t l i ke ly t ob e m i s tak en f o r
Af t e r t h e f i r s t s t age o f t h e e xpe r imen t , t h e mo s t n o tab le c hange w a s t h e d eve lopm en t o f v e ry s ho r t , l i gh t s t r ia t ion s , r andom ly o r ien ted , w i th a s l igh t p redom inance o n s ome p i ece s t owa rd sb e ing p erpend icu la rt ot h e l e ng th o ft h ep i ece ( P la te 4 . 16a ) . T hese a r e n o t s im i la r t oa ny o ft h e s t r ia t ion s s e en s o f a r o n a ny o f t h e o t he r e xpe r im en ta l t o o l s , p a r t icu la r ly i nt e rm so fo r ien ta t ion a nd p l acemen t ,b u ta l so i n t h e i r l e ng th . I n a dd i t ion t ot h i s , o n a r ea s o ft h e b one w i th a c oa r se t e x tu re , s ma l l a r ea s o fv e ry s moo th , h a rd p o l i sh h ad d eve loped o n h i gh s po t s . F ina l ly , s ome s t r ia t ion s , v i s ib le b efo re t h ep i ece s h ad b een c a r r ied a r ound , h ad b een p a r t ia l ly o r c omp le t e ly o b l i te ra ted . T h i s p a t tern i sr e f e r red t o a s
u se w ea r , i ti si mpor tan tb ecau se i tc an m a sk s i gn s o fw ea r . T he u sed t o o li nt h i se xpe r imen t , as pa tu la t h a th ad b een u sed t o p ee l w i l low b a rk , s t i l l e xh ib i ted c l ea r e v idence o f w ea r when t h e e xpe r imen t w a s o ve r , b u t i ti sc once ivab le t h a t a t o o l t h a tw a s c a r r ied a r ound f o r al ong t ime b e tween u se s o r b ef ore d i sca rd m ay l o se a l lt r aces o fu se .
CONCLUS IONS
T aken a s awho le , t h e r e su l t s o ft h e se e xpe r imen t s s how t wo
' p ocke t 'w ea ri nt h er e s to ft h i sw o rk .
t h ing s .
F i r s t , c on tac t b e tween b one a nd o the r ma ter ia l s
p roduce s v i s ib ly d i f f e ren t w ea r p a t tern s d epend ing o n t h e ma ter ia l a nd , s e cond , t h e w ea r p a t tern s f o l low t r ibo log ica l
T h i s p a t t ern c on t inued t h rough t h e n ex t t wo s t age s o f t h e e xpe r imen t . Ac on t inua l l o s s o f ma ter ia l c an b e s e en i nt h e d i sappea rance o f s t r ia t ion s a nd t h e d eve lopm en t o f i n c rea s ing l a rge a r ea s o f s moo th p o l i sh o n h i gh p o in t s , a s w e l l a s t h e o ccu r rence o fn ew s t r ia t ion s a te very s t age . I n t h e l a ter s t ages , w i th t h e i n c lu s ion o fm a te r ia l s h a rde r t h an
p r inc ip le s a nd s oa r e t os ome e x ten tp red ic tab le . T ab le 4 . 14 s umm ar ize s t h e c ha rac t er i s t ic s o f w ea r p roduced b y t h e ma ter ia l se xam ined i nt h e se e xper imen t s . B yt a k ing at r ibo log ica l a pp roach t ou se w ea ro nb one t o o l s , i sc l ea r t h a t b one t o o l s u sed o n d i f f e ren t m a t er ia l s c an , a nd
b one , t h es t r ia t ion st h a td eve loped w e re n o ta lway s s ma l la nd l i gh t , a s i nt h e f i r s t s t age , b u t t h ey a r e d i s t ingu i shab le f r om
i n deed mu s t , s how d i f f e ren t w ea r p a t tern s .
w ea r s t r ia t ion s . L a rge r s t r ia t ion s t h a t m igh t o t he rw i se b e m i s taken f o r s i gn s o f e i the r w ea r o r m anuf ac tu re c an b e i d en t if ied a sn on -u se w ea rb ecau se t h ey a r e u sua l ly i s o la ted , r andom ly o r ien ted , o f t en o n t h e b ody , r a the r t h an t h e
f a c to r s w h ich c on t r ibu te t o w ea r
-
-
Know ing t h e
r e la t ive h a rdnes s o ft h e
m a t er ia l s i nq ue s t ion , s u rf ace r oughnes s , a nd l o ad a pp l ied a s w e l l a s t h e i mpor tance o f l u br ica t ion , a nd k now ing t h a t t h e se v a ry g r ea t ly a mong t h e ma ter ia l s w o rked w i th b one , i t -
4 0
-
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPER I MENTS i so bv iou s t h a tt h ep a t te rn s t h a t d eve lop w i l lb e d i f f e ren t . A t r ibo log ica l a pp roach a l so l e ad s t o as e cond c onc lu s ion , h oweve r : w h en m a ter ia l s a r e s im i la r , t h en t h e p a t te rn s p roduced w hen t h ey a r e w o rked w i l l a l so b e s im i la r , e ven i n d i s t ingu i shab le m ic ro scop ica l ly . T h i si ss e en i nt h e c a se o f t o o l su sed t ow o rk w e tm a ter ia l s , b e i tw e th ide , s now , i c e o r m ea t . A l l s how g ene ra l ly s moo th p o l i she s c ha rac te r i zed b y t h e e xpo su re o f o s teon s . T hu s , m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s a l one c anno t a lway s p rov ide u nequ ivoca l a n swe r s t o q ue s t ion s o f u se . F un c t iona l i d en t if ica t ion s o fb on e t o o l s mu s t t a ke i n to a ccoun t o t he r l i ne s o fa va i lab le e v idence . T h i s i so fc our se w e l l recogn ized i nl i th ic u se w ea r a na ly s i s ( e .g . B an if o r th e t a l . 1 990 , N ewcome r e ta l1 986 ; s e e a l so L eMo ine 1 994 f o r a ne x tend ed d i scu s s ion ) .
4 1
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT t h ey c on s ide r ed t ob e s avage s ) ( Pe t i to t i nS avo ie 1 970 :215 , s e ea l so Mo r r i son 1 990 ) .
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYSIS
L i t t le a r chaeo log ica l w o rk h a s b een d one i nt h e Macken z ie D e l t a r e g ion . T he e xcava t ion s a tG upuk r e p re sen t t h e mos t e x ten s ive w o rk u nde r t aken t o d a te . T h e mo s t i mpo r tan t s t udy i s McGhee ' s ( 1974 ) w o rk a t t h e s i t e o f K i t t igazu i t , d i rec t ly a c ro s s t h e r i ve r f r om G upuk a nd p robab ly c on tempo ran eou s w i th i t . I ts e rve s a s t h e t y pe s i te f o r t h e r eg ion . McGhee a l so w o rked b r ie f ly a tt h e s i te o f R ad io C reek ( NhT r -1) , u p s t ream f r om K i t t igazu i t a nd d i rec t ly a c ro s s t h er i ve rf r om C ach eP o in t . Mo r r i son ' se xcava t ion sa t K uga luk ( NgT i l) a nd i nt h e F rank l in B ay a r ea ( I g lu lua lu i t ,
I NTRODUCT ION
T he a r tef ac t s wh ich a r et h e f o cu s o ft h i s s t udy c ome f r om t h e s i te o f G upuk ( N iT s -1 ) , al a rge v i l lage s i te l o ca t ed o n t h e e a s t s i de o fR icha rd s I s land i n t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta , NWT ( s ee F igur e 1 . 1) . T he s i te w a s e xcava ted o ve rt h ree s e a son s ,
N lRu -1 , O ka t , N jRp -l(? ) , L ang ton B ay a nd B oo th I s land ) (1988 , 1 990 ) , a s w e l l a s A rno ld ' s ( 1990 ) w o rk a t
i n1 986 , 1 988 a nd 1 989 ,b yC . A rno ld o ft h eP r ince o f Wa le s No r the rn H er i tage C en t re . Ma ter ia l s f r om a l l o ft h e se y ea r s a r e i n c luded i nt h i s a na ly s i s . Gupuk w a s a l so b r ief ly v i s i ted i n 1 985 , w hen s u rf ace ma te r ia l s w e re c o l lec ted ( A rno ld 1 986 ) . T h e se ma te r ia l s w e re e xam ined , b u t a s s u rf ace ma ter ia l s t h ey a r e mo s t ly t oo e roded f o r m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion . T he s i te w a si n i t ia l ly r e co rded b y MacNe i sh i n t h e 1 950s a nd w a s b r ief ly t e s ted b y G o rdon i n 1 972 ( A rno ld
T he o r ig in so ft h e Macken z i e I nu i ta r eu nc lea r . B a sed o nh i s w o rk a tK i t t igazu i t , McGhee ( 1974 )p o in t so u ts im i lar i t ie s i n m a te r ia l c u l tu r e b e tween t h e Mackenz ie I n u i t a nd b o th w e s t
1 986 ) . s t udy .
Ma te r ia l s f r om t h o se v i s i t s a r e n o t i n c lud ed
i n
S aunak tuk a nd t h e P ond S i t e , a nd S t rombe rg ' s ( 1984 , 1 985 ) a tC ach e P o in t a r e a l so i mpo r tan t , b u t mu ch o ft h e m a te r ia l r ema in su npub l i shed .
A la skan p eop le s ( hou se f o rm , k ayak f o rm ) a nd N o r th A la skan i n l and p eop les ( e spec ia l ly f i sh ing g ea r ) . Mo s to ft h e c u l tu ra le l emen t sh ave a ffm i t ie st ot h ew e s tr a the rt h an t ot h e
t h i s
G upuk i st h e l a rge s t a nd mos t e x ten s ive ly e xcava ted o f a n umbe r o f r e la ted s i te s i n t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta . Ma te r ia l f r om s ome o ft h e se o the rs i tes i sa l so i n c luded i nt h e a na ly s i s f o r c ompa ra t ive p urpose s . T hey i n c lude K i t t igazu i t ( N iT r 2 ) , al a rge v i l lage d i rec t ly a c ro ss t h e r i ve r f r om G upuk , t h e P ond S i te ( N iT s -2 ) , as ma l le rv i l lage s i te a bou to ne k i lome t r e s ou th o f G upuk , C ache P o in t ( NhT s -2 ) , 1 0 km s ou th o f G upuk , a nd S aunak tuk ( NgTn -l) , a n i n land s i te o n t h e E sk imo L ake s s ou th a nd e a s t o f Gupuk ( s ee F igu re 1 . 1) .
e a s t , ab i a s t h a tw a s ma in ta ined i ne t hnog raph ic t ime s . T h i s i s r e f lec ted i n my c ho ice o f s ou rce s f o r e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s o fb one t o o l u se a nd manuf ac tu r e . D e sp i te s t rong a ffm i t ie s t o t h e w e s t , Mackenz ie I nu i t c u l tu re i s c l ea r ly d i s t inc tf r om o t he rg roup sb o th t ot h ew e s ta nd t h e e a s t . O ne o f t h e d i s t ingu i sh ing f e a tu re s , f o r t h e G opugm iu t a nd K i t t iga xyum iu t i n p a r t icu la r , i s t h e s p ec ia l ized e conom ic a dap ta t ion t o b e luga h un t ing . T h i s s y s tem s e em s t o h ave b een i np l ace s i nce a tl e a s tt h e 1 5 th c en tu ry , when t h e R ad io C reek a nd C ache P o in t s i te s w e re o ccup ied . T he p eop le o f t h e se t wo s i te s a r e t h ough t b y McGh ee ( 1974 ) t o h ave
K i t t igazu i t a nd t h e P ond S i te a r e r ough ly c on tempo raneou s w i th G upuk , wh i le C ache P o in t a nd S aunak tuk a r e e a r l ie r .
o pe ra t ed a wha le t r ap f o r ac en tury o r s o b ef o re t h e r i ve r b ecam e t o o s i l ted u p , f o r c ing t h em t o m ove t h e v i l lage s d own r i ve rt ot h es i te so fK i t t igazu i ta nd G upuk .
A l l o f t h ese c o l lec t ion s a r e c on s ide rab ly s ma l le r t h an t h e G upuk c o l lec t ion , a nd i n s o me c a se s , much l e s s w e l l p r e served .
T he se l a rge v i l lage s i te s , s e en a r chaeo log ica l ly a s w in t e r v i l lage s o f s em i sub te r r anean h ou se s ( wh ich a r e u n inhab i tab le i nt h e s umm e r d ue t om e l t ing ) w e re a l so t h e f o cu s o fa n i mpor tan t s umme r o ccupa t ion , w hen t h e b e luga
P reh i s tor ya nd E thnog raphy
wha le w a s h un ted . T he s p ec tacu la r w ha le t r ap i sd escr ibed b y McGhee ( 1974 ) , Nu l igak ( 1 966 ) a nd o t he r s . T o o pe ra te i t ,l a rge n umbe r s o fk ayake r s f o rm ed al i ne a c ro s s t h e mou th
G upuk h a s b een i d en t if i ed a s t h e ma in w in te r v i l lage o ft h e G opugm iu t ( A rno ld 1 986 ) . T hey a r e o ne o ft h e s i x g roup s
o ft h er i ver . S l app ing t h e i rp add le s o n t h e w a te r , t h ey d rove t h e b e luga b ef o re t h em u p r i ve r , w he re t h ey w ou ld b ecome
t h a t made u p t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t , o r S ig ht a s t h ey c a l led t h em se lve s d u r ing h i s tor ic t imes ( Lowe 1 984 , McGhee 1 974 ) . As e cond g roup , t h e K i t tega ryum iu t , h ad t h e i r ma in
g rounded i n t h e s ha l low s a nd c ou ld b e e a s i ly k i l led a nd b u t che red . T he m ea tc ou ld t h en b e c ached a tt h e s i te f o rt h e w in te r . I nt h e s p r ing , i c e f i sh ing a way f r om t h e v i l lage w a s
w in te r v i l lage a c ross t h e r i ve r f r om G upuk , a t K i t t igazu i t . O the rg roup sl i ved a sf a rw e s ta st h eA la ska b o rde ra nd a sf a r e a s ta sF rank l in B ay ( Mo r r i son 1 990 ) . R e la t ion sb e tween t h e g roups a r e n o t c l ea r . T he G opugm iu t a nd K i t tega ryum iu t a ppea r t o h ave c oope ra ted i n t h e a nnua l b e luga h un t
a n i mpor tan t o ccupa t ion , wh i le c a r ibou w e re h un ted i n t h e f a l l , a l so a way f r om t h e v i l lage . C a r ibou w e re i mpor tan tn o t o n ly f o r m ea t , b u t a s as ou rce o fr aw m a t e r ia l s f o r c l o th ing a nd t o o l s .
( McGhee 1 974 , Nu l igak 1 966 ) , b u t w e re a l so r i va l s , a nd c a r r ied o u tb l ood f eud s ( Nu l igak 1 966 ) . I n g ene ra l i ts e em s t h a tt h eg roup sd i s t ingu i shed b e tween t h em se lves a tt h e l o ca l l e ve l , b u t r e cogn i zed t h a t t h ey w e re mo re s im i la r t o e a ch o t he r t h an t og roups e i the r t ot h e w e s t o r t ot h e e a s t ( whom
S aunak tuk r ep re sen t s ad i f f e ren t a spec t o f t h e e conom ic a dap ta t ion o ft h e Mackenz ie I nu i t . L oca t ed f a ri n land o nt h e E sk imo L akes , t h ep eop le w ho l i ved a tS aunak tuk h ad a cce s s t o a n v e ry w ide r ange o fr e source s , i n c lud ing b o th ma r ine a nd f r e shwa t er f i shes a nd m amma l s , a sw e l la s many s p ec ie s o fw a te rf ow l , a nd l a nd m amma l s s uch a s c a r ibou . No l e s s 4 2
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS O F ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS t h an 5 7 s pec ie s w e re i d en t if ied i n t h e f a una l a s semb lage
i n c lud ing a b r ief d i c t iona ry , b u t t h e se a r e o f q ue s t ionab le v a lue . T he d i c t iona ry i sh eav i ly i nf luenced b y h i s much mo re e x t en s ive k now ledge o f D ene l a nguages , a nd i sn ow c on s ide red t o b e o f mo s t ly h i s to r ica l i n te re s t ( Lowe
f r om t h i s s i te ( Ba lkw i l l i nA rno ld 1 990 ) , i n c lud ing 3 2 b i rd s pec ie s , 1 8 m amma l a nd 1 0 f i sh . A s t h e s i te w a s b ad ly d i s tu rbed b ef o re e xcava t ion , i ti sn o t c l ea r w hen , o rf o rh ow l o ng i tw a s o ccup ied . Win te rh un t ing i sn o ti nd ica ted b y t h e f a una l r ema in s ( t he o n ly p e r iod n o t r e p re sen ted ) , a l though
1 984 :xv i i i ) . A l though much o ft h e i n f o rma t ion i n P e t i to t 's a ccoun t s i ss u spec t , i tr ema in s t h e mo s t e x ten s ive s ou rce o f i n f o rma t ion o n t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t b ef o re t h ey w e re v i r tua l ly w iped o u t .
t h e s i te c ou ld h ave b een o ccup ied f o r p a r t o ft h e w in te r b y r e ly ing o nc ached f ood ( A rno ld 1 990 ) . T he s i t e m ay h ave b een a s e a sona l o ccupa t ion b y p eop le s uch a st h eK i t tega ryum iu t , who a r ek nown t oh ave e xp lo i ted t h e r e sou rce s o ft h e E sk imo L ake s ( A rno ld 1 990 ) . I tc ou ld
T he
a l so h ave b een o ccup ied b y amuch l e s s w e l l k nown g roup , t h e I nuk tu iu t . T he se a r e ag roup k nown o n ly f r om o r a l t r ad i t ion s , f i r s t r e co rded b y S t ef an s son ( 1919 ) , b u t s t i l l r emembe red i nt h e a r ea ( A rno ld 1 990 ) . T he I nuk tu iu t s e em c l ea r ly t oh ave b een r e la ted t ot h e Macken z ie I nu i t , b u t w i th
h oweve r ,t h a te ven a tt h i se a r ly d a te , Mackenz ie I nu i tc u l ture w a sa l ready h eav i ly i n f luenced b yt h ei n f lux o fA la skan I nu i t
ac omp le te ly i n land e conomy , n eve r c om ing t ot h e c oa s t a t a l l .
I n t e re s t ing ly , a to ne p o in t S t ef an s son ( 1919 :24 ) n o te s t h a t K upuk ( Gupuk ) , o n t h e e a s t s i de o f R icha rd I s land , w a s a bandoned s ome t ime e a r ly i nt h e 1 800 s , when a l lt h ep eop le moved a c ro s s t h e r i ve r t o K i t t iga ryu i t ( K i t t igazu i t ) , wh ich
o n ly
t r ue
' a n th ropo log ica l '
w o rk
c once rn ing
t h e
Mackenz ie I nu i t i st h a t o fS t ef an sson ( 1 919 ) . H e s pen t t h e w in te ro f1 906 -07 i nt h e Mackenz ie D e l ta . S t ef an s son n o te s ,
a nd t h e ma s s ive d epopu la t ion f r om d i sea se .
H i s c h ief
i n f o rman t , R oxy , c l a im ed t o h ave b een b o rn a t G upuk , a l though v a r iou s l o ca t ion s a r e g i ven f o r t h e v i l lage .
O the r s i t e s i n t h e Mackenz ie r e g ion , n o t i n c luded i n t h i s s t udy , r e p re sen t o the r a spec t s o f t h e Macken z ie I nu i t e conom ic a dap ta t ion . K uga luk ( Mor r i son 1 988 ) r e p re sen t s a f a l l c a r ibou h un t ing c amp , wh i le I g lu lua lu i t( Mo r r i son 1 990 ) i s ac oa s ta lw in te rv i l lage t h a tf o cu s sed o ns e a lh un t ing .
w a s o n ly a bandoned a f t e r t h e g r ea t e p idem ics . S t ef an s son ( 1919 :120 , 1 55 ) r e por t s c on t rad ic to ry i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e s i te l a t e r o n , wh ich make s t h i s s t a temen t d i ff i cu l t t o e va lua te . O n t h e who le , t h e re i s much u sef u l i n f o rma t ion i n S t ef an s son ' s w o rk , b u t t h e i mpac t o f o t he r c u l tu re s o nt h e Mackenz ie I nu i tb y t h i s t ime mu s t a lway s b e k ep ti nm ind .
E thnog raph ic S ou rce s T he r e i sr ema rkab ly l i t t le r e l iab le e t hnog raph ic i n f orma t ion c once rn ing t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t . A l though t h e D e l ta r e g ion
F ina l ly , t h e re i s at h i rd s ou r ce o fe t hno -h i s tor ic i n f o rma t ion o n t h e Macken z ie I nu i t , i n t h e f o rm o f a n a u tob iog raphy w r i t ten b y Nu l igak , a Mackenz ie I nuk b o rn a t K i t t iga ru i t
w a s p robab ly t h e mos t h eav i ly p opu la ted r e g ion o f t h e C anad ian A r c t ic i nt h e 1 800 s ( A rno ld 1 988 ) a nd l o ng b ef o re , t h e p opu la t ion w a s s eve re ly a f f ec ted b y c on tac t w i th E u ropean wha le r s , a nd b yt h e t u rn o ft h e 2 0 th c en tu ry , u p t o 9 0% o f t h e o r ig ina l p opu la t ion h ad d i ed o f E u ropean
( K i t t igazu i t ) i n 1 895 ( Nu l igak 1 966 ) . T h i s i s av ery i n te re s t ing a ccoun to fl i f e i nt h eD e l t af r om t h e I nu i tp o in to f
i n t roduced d i sea se s ( J enne s s 1 964 ) . Mo s t o f t h e p eop le c ur ren t ly l i v ing i nt h e r eg ion a r e t h e d e scendan t s o fA la skan
v i ew , b u t i tt o o d ea l s w i th t h e p e r iod o f e p idem ic s a nd i n ten s if ied c on tac tw i th b o th E u ropean sa nd A la skan I nu i t .
I nu i t who moved i n to t h e a r ea w i th t h e w ha le r s ( A rno ld 1 986 ) . C on tac t s w i th t h e Macken z ie I nu i t b ef o re t h a t t ime w e re f ew , a nd many o ft h e r epor t s a r e c on s ide red u n re l iab le ( f o re xamp le , L owe 1 984 ) .
F o r t h e p u rpo se s o ft h i s w o rk , a l l o ft h e a bove s ou rce s , a nd o t he r s d ea l ing w i th o t he r g roup s o fw e s t e rn I nu i t ( Mu rdoch 1 892 a nd N e l son 1 899 e s pec ia l ly )h ave b een c on su l ted .
C on tac t w a s s po rad ic f r om t h e t im e o f f i r s t e ncoun te r i n 1 799 ( wh ich r e su l ted i nt h e d ea th o ft h e E u ropean s a nd t h e i r
GUPuK ( N ITs -l)
I nd ian g u ide s ) ,u n t i lt h e 1 850s ( McGhee 1 974 ) . A tt h a tt ime , t r ade w i th t h e I nu i t b ecame mo re f r equen t . I n t h e 1 860 s c on tac t w a s i n ten s if i ed a s wha le r s b egan mov ing i n to t h e a r ea . F rom t h a t t ime e p idem ic s o f i n t roduced d i sea se s a r e r e por ted , a sw e l l a s f a i l ing h un t s a nd e s ca la t ing b l ood f e ud s ( McGhee 1 974 :5 ) . P opu la t ion d ec l ined r a p id ly u n t i l , b y 1 910 , i ti se s t ima ted t h a t o n ly 1 50 p eop le r ema ined ( U she r 1 971) ,a nd b y 1 930 , f ewe rt h an t we lve ( J enne s s 1 964 ) .
A rchaeo log ica l W ork T he f o l low ing d e scr ip t ion o f G upuk i s s umma r ized f r om A rno ld ( 1 986 , 1 988 ) . T he s i te e x tend sf o rs ome 8 00 m a l ong t h e r i ve r , a nd h a s b een d i v ided i n to s i x a r ea s , i d en t if ied b y
O n ly t h ree s ou rces g ive a ny d e ta i led i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t . E a r l ie ra ccoun t sb yF rank l in , S imp son , a nd i n t h e H ud son B ay a r ch ive s a r e b r ief a nd a r e d i scu s sed i n
A rno ld ( 1986 ) a s f an s o r s pu r s ( F igu re 5 . 1) . A rea s 4 -6 a r e e x ten s ive ly e r oded , r ema in s o f h ou se s b e ing v i s ib le i n t h e r i ve rb ank . Ma t er ia lf r om t h e se a r ea s w a s c o l lec ted f r om t h e b each b e low t h e b ank w hen w a te r l e ve l s p erm i t ted ( a lmo s t a l l o f t h i s m a te r ia l w a s c o l lec ted i n 1 986 , w a te r l e ve l s i n 1 988 a nd 1 989 b e ing t o o h i gh ) . E xcava t ion s w e re c a r r ied o u t i na r ea s 1 3 . A t ten t ion w a s f o cu sed o n e xcava t ion o fa
McGhee ( 1 974 ) . T he e a r l ie s t o ft h e se i st h e w o rk o f Em i le P e t i to t , a n O b la te M i ss iona ry w o rk ing a mong t h e D ene a nd Me t i s f u r the r t ot h e s ou th ( Savo ie 1 970 ) . P e t i to t v i s i ted t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t f i ve t ime s o ve r t h e t h ir teen y ea r s h e w a s i n t h e r e g ion , g ene ra l ly o n ly b r ief ly ( Savo ie 1 970 :43 ) . H e p roduced a n umbe r o f w o rk s a s ar e su l t o f t h e se v i s i t s ,
n umbe r o fl a rge s em i sub t er ranean w in te r h ou se s , a nd o n a 4 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT v e ry d eep m idden i n a r ea 2 . O the r f e a tu re s , s uch a s c a ch e p i t s , w e r e n o t e xcava ted d ue t o t ime c on s t ra in t s , w h i le b ur ia l s ( wh ich may p o s t -da te o ccupa t ion ) w e re l e f t
b e e xpec ted o np ro jec t i le s a r e d i ff i cu l t( e ven c on t rove r s ia l , i f t h e a c t ion s o fh un t ing a r e t o b e t r u ly r ep roduced ) t o c a r ry o u t . A pp ropr ia te a n ima l s o r t h e i r c a rca sse s a r e n o t r e ad i ly a va i lab le , n o r d o Ih ave t h e s k i l l s n ece ssa ry a ccu ra te ly t o
u n touched . A l l o r p a r t o ff ou r h ou se s w e re e xcava t ed d u r ing t h e 1 986 a nd 1 988 s e a son s , o ne e ach i na r ea s 1a nd 2 ,a nd t wo i na r ea 3 . I n a l l t h ree s ea son s e xcava t ion s w e re a l so c a r r ied o u t i n t h e m idden , wh ich h ad b een e xpo sed b y i c e s cou r ing , a nd w a s i n d ange r o f mo re e x ten s ive e r os ion . T he m idden i s mo re t h an 1 . 7 m d eep . E xcava t ion s b e low t h i s l e ve l w e r e h ampe red b yw a te ra nd t h et o ta ld ep th i sn o tk nown .
r ep roduce t h e a c t ion s i n vo lved i n h un t ing . A l l o f t h e se f a c to r s m ade i tc l ea r t o me t h a t my e f f or t s c ou ld b e mo r e e f f ec t ive ly d i rec t ed e l sewhe re . O ne a r ea i n wh ich t h e h un t ing w eapon s w ou ld b e o f g r ea t i n te res t i s t h e i r manuf ac tu re . If e l t , h owever , t h a t ad e ta i led manuf ac tur ing a na ly s i s o f a l l t o o l c l a s ses w a s b eyond t h e s cope o f t h i s w o rk . Many a r tef ac t s t h a t f e l l i n to t h e c l a sse s o f t oo l s t o b e e xam ined w e re e l im ina ted o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e i rp re serva t ion . T hey a ccoun tf o r5 98 o ft h e 1 071 t o o l sa va i lab le f o ra na ly s i s .
D u r ing t h e t h ree y ea r s o f e xcava t ion , s om e 4 600 a r tef ac t s w e re r e cove r ed , 1 664 o ft h em b one , a n t le r , i v o ry o r t o o th . O f t h e se , o ve r 1 000 b one , a n t le r a nd i v ory t o o l s w e r e s e lec ted f o r e xam ina t ion , 2 53 w i th p re served m ic ro scop ic u se w ea r . F o r an umbe r o fr e a son s , n o t a l l s u ch t o o l s w e r e s e lec ted . T ho se t h a tw e re i n c lude a l le dged a nd p o in ted t o o l s ( exc lud ing h un t ing w eapon s a sd e sc r ibed b e low ) . T oo l s n o t i n c luded a r e o rnamen t s , h and le s , a nd p i ece s o f ' t r an spo r ta t ion e qu ipmen t ' s uch a ss l ed a nd b oa tp a r t s . T he se a r e g ene ra l ly i t ems e a s i ly r e cogn i zed b y t h e i r f o rm . U se w ea r a na ly s i s i su n l ike ly t o e xpand o u r k now ledge o ft h em t o ag rea td eg ree . Add i t iona l ly , a l lo ft h em h ave w ea rt h a ti s
T ho se t h a tw e re t oo f r ag i le ( a s d ec ided b yN o r the rn H er i tage C en t re c on se rva to r s ) f o r t r an spor t t o C a lga ry f r om Y e l lowkn if e whe re t h e ma ter ia l i ss t o red w e re e xam ined i n Y e l lowkn if e . I n many c a se s , t h e se t oo l sw er ea l so t o o f r ag i le o r e r oded t o w a r ran t m ic ro scop ic s t udy . Many w e re e l im ina ted w i thou t m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion b ecau se I j udged t h em t o b e t o o e roded o r w ea the red f o r a ny m ic ro scop ic d e ta i l s t ob e v i s ib le . A s a na ly s i s p rog res sed , i t b ecame o bv iou s t h a tm ac roscop ic c r i t er ia w e re n o t s uff i c ien t t oi d en t ify a l l t o o l s t o o e r oded f o r e xam ina t ion . Many t o o l s t h a t a ppea r ed w e l l p re served p roved t o b e w ea the red o r e r oded o n am ic ro scop ic s c a le . T oo l s t h a t w e re t oo p oo r ly p re se rved f o ro b serva t ion a r e e xc luded f r om t h e c oun t sg i ven b e low . I n t o ta l , 2 53 t o o l s h ad s ome m ic ro scop ic t r aces p re served .
d i ff i cu l t t o r e p l ica t e e i the r i n t e rm s o f t h e t ime r e qu i red ( y ea r s i n t h e c a se o f o rnamen t s ) , o r t h e a c t ion s i n vo lved ( boa t s e spec ia l ly ) . T oo l s e l im ina ted f r om t h e a na ly s i s o n t h e se g round sa ccoun tf o r5 93 o ft h eb one a r tef ac t s . T he l a rge s t c l a ss o ft o o l s e l im ina t ed f r om u se w ea r a na ly s i s i s t h e h un t ing w eapon s , i n c lud ing a r rowhead s , b a rb s , f i shhook s , l a nce p o in t s a nd h arpoon h ead s . T he se w e r e e l im ina t ed f o r an umbe r o fr e a son s . T he f i r s t , a nd p e rhap s
U SE WEAR OF TOOLS FROM GUPUK
mo s t o bv iou s , i s t h a t t h e i r u se i s w e l l k nown , a nd u nd i spu ted . T he re i sv i r tua l ly n o q ue s t ion a bou t t h e u se o f a ny o ft h e se t o o l s . T he s e cond r e a son i st h a t t h e w ea r o n
T o f a c i l i ta te a na ly s i s , a l l o f t h e t oo l s f r om Gupuk w e re
t h e se t o o l s i sl i ke ly t o b e s im i la r i n a l l c a se s , a nd i n t h a t s en se , n e i the rv ery i n te re s t ing n o rv ery i n f orma t ive . F ina l ly ,
i n i t ia l ly d i v ided i n to b road c a tego r ie s , u s ing s t anda rd t o o l t ype s a s d ef in ed i n t h e l i t e ra tu re w he reve r p os s ib le . F o r
e xpe r im en t s r equ i red t or e p roduce t h e t y pe o fw ea r t h a t c an
s ome t o o l t y pe s , s now k n ive s o r n eed le s f o r i n s tance , t h i s w a s as imp le p roce s s . T he se t o o l s a r e r e ad i ly i d en t if iab le , a nd t h e i ru se i sn o t o f t en d i spu ted . I n s uch c a se s , u se w ea r a na ly s i s h a s t e nded t o s uppor t t r ad i t iona l i d ea s a bou t h ow t oo l s w e re u sed . O the r t o o l t ype s , s uch a s s c apu la s c rape r s o r g auged d r i l l s , w e re r e ad i ly i d en t i f ied b y f o rm , b u t t h e i r u se w a s n o ta sc l ea r . I nt h e se c a se s t h e re w a s s o me q ue s t ion a bou tw ha tt h et o o l sw e re u sed f o r , a nd u se w ea ra na ly s i sh a s h e lped t o c l a r if y t h i s . F ina l ly , s ome t o o l s w e re l umped t oge the r o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e f o rm o ft h e i r w o rk ing e dge o r p o in t a l one . T he se i n c luded a w l s ( f ine ly p o in ted t i p s ) a nd s pa tu la s ( f la t tened r ound o r p o in ted t i p s ) . I n t h e c a se o f a w l s ,u se w ea ra na ly s i s d emon s t ra ted t h a tt h e g roup d i dh ave s ome b a s i s i nr e a l i ty ; mos t o ft h e t oo l s i n i t ia l ly i d en t if i ed a s a w l s h ad a c tua l ly b een u sed t op i e rce h ide . S pa tu la s , o nt h e o the rh and ,h ad b een u sed f o r av a r ie ty o ft a sk s .
Mackenz ie R ive r
I n t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion s , t oo l t ypes a s i n i t ia l ly d e f ined w i l l f o rm t h eb a s i sf o rd i scu s s ion . E ach t ype w i l lb e d ef ined , a nd s ome b ackg round i n to t h e t ype w i l l b e p rov ided . Whe re u se w ea r
a na ly s i s
h a s
mod if ied
t r ad i t iona l
f unc t iona l
i d en t if i ca t ion s , t h i s w i l l p rov ide a n o ppor tun i ty t o e va lua te t h eu t i l i ty o ft h e se t r ad i t iona lt ype s .
F igure 5 . 1 G upuk ( N iT s -l) s i te map ( a f te rA rno ld 1 986 ) 4 4
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS Mo s t e v idence s uppo r t s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e se t oo l s a s d r i l lb i t s . E thnog raph ica l ly Mu rdoch ( 1892 :179 F igur e 1 57 ) r epo r t s t h a t b one w a s u sed t o d r i l l o the r ma ter ia l s . I n a dd i t ion ,H a l l( 1971 :42 )h a si d en t if ied u se w ea rt h a ts uppor t s t h e i r i d en t if ica t ion a s d r i l l s . T he r e a r e a l so c l o se mo rpho log ica l s im i lar i t ies b e tween s l a te d r i l l b i t s i lu s t ra ted b y s ome a u tho r s ( Ma th ia ssen 1 927 :173 ) a nd g auged d r i l l s . F ina l ly t h e re h ave b een f md s o fs uch b one b i t s moun ted i n b ow d r i l l s haf t s , n o tab ly a t G upuk i t se lf . None o f t h e p ropo sed u se s c an b e e l im ina ted o n t h e b a s i s o f f o rm , n o r c an i tb e a s sumed t h a t o n ly o ne o ft h e se u se s i st h e c o r rec t o ne . T he se a r tef ac t s may w e l l h ave b een mu l t i -purpo se t oo l s . F igure 5 . 2 L igh t m ic rog raph s how ing w ea the red b one . C rack s a nd o ve ra l l r ough s u rf ace t e x tu re a r e c ha rac te r i s t ic o f w ea the red o r e r oded b one . N o m ic ro scop ic d e t a i l sa t t r ibu tab le t ou se a r ev i s ib le .
O f t h e 6 8 a na lyzed d r i l l b i t s f r om G upuk , 4 4 h ave b een i d en t if ied a s t o u se ( Tab le 5 . 1) . B a sed o n m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s , e i gh teen d r i l l s h ad b een u sed o n w ood ( p lu s o ne t e n t a t ive i d en t if ica t ion ) , e i gh teen o ns o aked a n t le r( p lu st h ree t e n t a t ive i d en t if ica t ion s ) , a nd t h ree o n s ome mo re a b ra s ive s ub s tance s uch a s s oaps tone o r p o t te ry , o r i n c on junc t ion
D r i l l s
w i th g r i t ( P la te 5 . 1 a c ) . N ine h ad p a t t ern s t h a t a r e s o f a r u n iden t if iab le ( P la te 5 . 1 d ) , a nd n ine h ad s t r ia t ion sp a ra l le lt o
O n t h e b a s i s o ff o rm , d r i l l b i t s a r e t h e mo s t n ume rou s b one a r tef ac t s f r om G upuk ; 14 w e re i d en t if i ed . O f t h e se , 6 8 ( 59 .6% ) w e re s u i tab le f o ru se w ea r a na ly s i s . T he r ema in ing
t h e s haf t . I n t h i s l a t te r c a tego ry f i ve h ad s t r ia t ion s wh ich w e re l a rge a nd c oa r se a nd s o f a r u n iden t if ied ( i den t if i ed i n T ab le 5 . 1 a sn i d /coa r se ;P la te 5 . 1 e ) . T he r ema in ing f ou rh ad
4 6 w e re e l i mina t ed e i the r b ecau se s o l i t t le o ft h e d r i l l s haf t r ema ined t h a t w ea r w a s n o t e v iden t ( n=6 ) , o r t h ey w e re t o o
s t r ia t ion s s im i la r t o t h o se l ef t b y d ry a n t le r o r wood ( i den t if i ed i n T ab le 5 . 1 a s n id lwap [ wood /an t ler /pa ra l le l ] ;
w ea the red a nd e r oded f o r m ic ro scop ic t r ace s t o b e v i s ib le
P la t e 5 . 1 f ) . S even o ft h ese t o o l s w i th s t r ia t ion s p a ra l le l t o
( n=40 ) . Wea r d eve lop s q u ick ly o n b one , b u t i sj u s t a s q u ick ly e r a sed . Av e ry s ma l l a moun t o fe r o s ion w i l l m a sk
t h e s haf ta l so h ad s t r ia t ion s a round t h e s haf t i nd ica t ing t h a t t h ey h ad b een u sed a s d r i l l s . Unf o r tuna te ly , t h e s t r ia t ion s
m ic ro scop ic s i gn s o fw ea r , a l though t h e m ac roscop ic t r ace s may s t i l lb ev i s ib le ( s ee F igu re 5 . 2 . )
p a ra l le l t ot h e s haf tm a sk c ha rac t er i s t ic s t h a t w ou ld m ake i t p os s ib le t oi d en t ify t h e ma ter ia l t h a th ad b een d r i l led . ( Br ief d e sc r ip t ion s o f t h e w ea r o n e ach t o o l c an b e f ound i n Append ix One ) f r e sh a n t le r a n t le r? w ood w ood? g r i t n id n i d / c oa r se n id / w ap b roken t o ta l
F igure 5 . 3 G auged d r i l l s f r om G upuk , i n c lud ing s i ng le ( t op )a nd d oub le ( bo t tom ) . G auged d r i l l s , a s b one d r i l l b i t s a r e mo s t o f t en c a l led , a r e b eve l -ended r od s o f b one , o f t en e xpand ing t o af l a t tened p rox ima le nd . T hey c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o ra ny n umbe ro f
d i sco lou red d amaged n / a n one t o ta l 0 0 0 1 1 2 8 5 3 1 8 0 0 2 1 3 4 1 0 2 2 1 8 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 3 0 2 3 4 9 1 2 1 1 5 1
2
1
0
4
0 8
0 2 6
6 2 1
0 1 3
6 6 8
T ab le 5 . 1 Ana lyzed g auged d r i l l s f r om Gupuk , s how ing mac ro scop ic ( c o lumn s ) a nd m ic ro scop ic w ea r ( r ow s ) .
p urpo se s ( F igu re 5 . 3 ) . T hey a r e c a l led ' g auged ' b ecau se o f t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o fp roduc ing ah o le o f ap r ede te r mined s i ze w hen t h et oo li su sed a s ad r i l l . B y a l te r ing t h e l e ng th o ft h e
I tw a s n o ted i nC hap te rF ou r t h a tt h e re a r e a l so m ac ro scop ic
s haf t , t h e max imum d ep th o ft h eh o le c an a l so b e c on t ro l led .
c r i t e r ia f o r i d en t if yi ng d r i l l s t h a t h ave b een u sed t o w o rk
T hey h ave b een h ypo the s ized t o b e d r i l l b i t s b y G idd ing s ( 1964 :145 ) , h a rpoon f o re shaf t s b y McGhee ( 1974 :46 ) , t o o l s
wood . T hese i n c lud e s co rch ing a nd t i p d amage . E v idence o fs u ch s co rch ing a nd d amage w a sv i s ib le o n4 8 o ft h e d r i l l s , i n c lud ing f ou r teen o ft h o se t h a tw e re o t herw i se t o o e r oded t o
f o rc l ean ing o u th arpoon s ocke t s a nd l i ne h o le sb y G e i s ta nd R a iney ( 1936 ) , a nd s t oppe r s ( f o r b l adde r a nd s k in c on ta ine r s ) a ga in b yG idd ing s( 1964 :145 ) .
i d en t if y , s i x o ft h ose w i th o the r t ype s o fs t r ia t ion s , a nd t wo o f t h ose wh ich w e re u n iden t if iab le ( F igu re 5 . 4 ) . 4 5
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT D i sco lou ra t ion i st r icky t o i d en t if y o n b one , b ecau se i ti ss o r e ad i ly s t a ined , a nd f o r t h a t r e a son Ih ave r e f ra ined f r om p os i t ive ly i d en t if y ing t h e u se o ft o o l s b a sed o n t h a t c r i ter ion a l one . Whe re m ic ro scop ic e v idence t o c or robo ra te t h e
i nt h e f o rm o fs t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t , t y p ica l o fd r i l l ing b u tt o o e r oded t oi d en t if yw i th a ny c er ta in ty . F u l ly 3 0 o f5 3 o f t h e d r i l l s u n iden t i f ied ( f o r a ny r e a son ) h ave s ome m ac ro scop ic e v idence s ugge s t ing t h a tt h ey h ave b een u sed a s d r i l l s . T he o t he r2 2a r ei d en t if i ed o nt h eb a s i so ff o rm a l one .
i d en t if i ca t ion i sl a ck ing d ue t ow ea ther ing o r e r o s ion , Ih ave f o rn ow e l im ina ted t h ose t oo l s f r om a na ly s i s .
I ts e em s s a f e t o s ay t h a t g auged d r i l l s a r e i n deed d r i l l b i t s , a nd w e re n o t g ene ra l ly u sed f o r a ny o ft h e o the r p u rpo se s
If e e l c onf iden t , h oweve r , t h a t t h e c o inc idence o f a r ea s o f d i sco lou ra t ion ( o r s co rch ing ) o n t oo l s t h a th ave b een c l ea r ly u sed a s d r i l l s , e xac t ly whe re s uch d i sco lou ra t ion w ou ld b e e xpec ted o n t h e b a s i s o f e xper imen ta l e v idence , a nd i n t h e
t h a t h ave b een s ugge s ted . T h i s c anno t b e a n u n equ ivoca l s t a temen t h oweve r . T he re a r e s t i l l t h e d r i l l s w i th s t r ia t ion s p a ra l le lt ot h es haf tt oa ccoun tf o r . S ome o ft h ese a r e c l ea r ly d r i l l s , w i th a no ve r lay o fo t he rs t r ia t ion s . O ther s d on o th ave
a b sence o fa ny o the r s t a in ing o ft h e b one , i st oo g r ea t t ob e i gno red . I ts e e ms c l ear t h a t t ho se a r tef ac t s t h a t s how t h i s s co rch ing h ave a ts ome t ime b een u sed t od r i l l w ood . Is ay a ts ome t ime ,b ecau se e v idence o fs co rch ing i sa l so f ound o n
a ny c l ea r i n d ica t ion s o f d r i l l ing , a l though t h ey a r e i n d i s t ingu i shab le o nt h e b a s i s o f mo rpho logy f r om i d en t if ied d r i l l s . I f t h e s t r ia t ion s h ave b een c au sed b y r ubb ing o r s c rap ing w ood o r a n t le r a s e xpe r imen t s i n d ica te , t h en t h e re a r e a t l e a s t t wo p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion s f o r t h e se s t r ia t ion s .
d r i l l s i d en t if ied a s h av ing b een u sed o n o the r ma t er ia l s : a n t le r a nd g r i t , a s w e l l a s o n s ome o f t h e t o o l s w i th p erpend icu la rs t r ia t ion s o n ly , a nd o ns ome o ft ho se t h a th ave
S ome o f t h e d r i l l s a r e d oub le e nded a nd b o th e nd s s how s i gn s o fu se . T hey m ay h ave b een r emoved , r eve r sed a nd r e in ser ted i n t h e d r i l l s haf t , d epend ing o n wh ich e nd w a s r equ i red . T h i s t y pe o f a c t ion wou ld p roduce t h e w ea r s hown . B u t o n ly h a lf o ft h e d r i l l s s how ing t h i s p a t te rn a r e d oub le e nded . A f u r the r s i x , o f wh ich t h ree d o n o t s how s i gn s o fh av ing b een u sed a s d r i l l s , h ave o n ly o ne w o rk ing e nd . T he re i st h e p os s ib i l i ty t h a t t h ese h ave b een c ove red w i th a s hea th , wh ich m ay a l so h ave p roduced t h i s p a t te rn . Mu rdoch ( 1 892 :179 , a l so R ay 1 885 :Pa r t I I , P la te I [l ] ) r e po r t s t h e u se o fs hea th s t op ro tec t d r i l lb i t s a nd a l though I am n o ta wa re o fa ny s uch s hea th sb e ing f o und a tG upuk , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty r ema in s t h a t t h i s may a ccoun t f o r s ome o f t h e w ea ro ns ome o ft h ed r i l l s .
F igure 5 . 4 S co rch ing o f ad r i l l f r om G upuk . S t r ia t ion s , d i sco lou ra t ion a nd d amage a r e a l l v i s ib le o n t h i s a r chaeo log ica l e xamp le . Magn if i ca t ion 5 xm e ach s qua re i so n mm .
McGhee ( 1974 :46 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t s im i la r t o o l s a t K i t t igazu i t ,d i rec t ly a c ro s st h e Mackenz ie R ive rf r om G upuk , w e re u sed a sf o re shaf t s . H oweve r , o ft h e n i ne t oo l s s how ing t h e se s t r ia t ion st h a th ave n o tb een u sed a sd r i l l s , f i ve a r ev e ry n a r row a nd l i gh t . T hey s e em u n l ike ly c and ida t e s f o r h a rpoon f o re shaf t s . F ou r d o f a l l w i th in t h e r ange g i ven b y
n o t y e t b een i d en t if ied . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e d r i l l s w e re u sed o n v a r iou s ma ter ia l s i nt h e i r w o rk ing l i f e , a nd t h a t a n i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e i ru se o na ny o ne m a ter ia l me re ly r ef l ec t s t h e l a s t e p i sode o f u se . I n t wo c a ses , t wo d i f f e ren t w ea r
McGhee f o r s u ch t o o l s a t K i t t igazu i t , b u t t h e i r u se a s h a rpoon f o re shaf t s c an p robab ly b e e l im ina ted . A s w i l l b e d i scu s sed i n mo re d e ta i l b e low , b one f o re shaf t s ( o f t h e
p a t te rn sh ave b een i d en t if i ed o n ad r i l l . E xpe r imen ta lw o rk d e mon s t ra te s t h a t ad r i l l t h a tc an b e u sed o no ne ma ter ia li sj u s ta se f f ec t ive o na no the r , a nd t h a t wh i le
t y p ica l I nu i t /Thu le f o re shaf t t y pe , n o t ad r i l l b i t t y pe ) f r om o t he r s i te s h ave b een e xam ined a nd t h ey h ave w ea r t h a t i s n o ts im i la rt ot h ew ea ro na ny o ft h eu n iden t if i ed d r i l lb i t s .
t h e w ea r p a t te rn w i l l c hange f r om o ne ma ter ia l t o a no the r , e ven a f te r as ma l l amoun t o f wo rk , t h e s co rch ing p roduced when d r i l l ing o n wood p e r s i s t s f o rs ome t ime a nd s or ema in s
U se a ss t oppe r sf o rh ide c on ta ine r s , a nd a st o o l s f o r c l ean ing
a s ac l ue t o p rev iou s u se s . T h i s i sf u r the r s uppo r ted b y a s t a t is t ica l a na ly s i s o f d r i l l s haf t w id th s . T he w id th w a s c ho sen b ecau se i ti st h i s t h a t d e te rm ine s t h e s i ze o ft h e h o le ( t he ' g auged s i ze ' ) , a nd b ecau se i ti s mo s t o f ten m ea surab le , e ven o n b roken t o o l s . A t tes t , t o d e te rm ine whe the r t h e w id th s o fd r i l l s u sed o n a n t le r d i f f e red f r om t ho se u sed o n w ood w a s n o t s i gn if ican t , i nd ica t ing t h a t t h e re i s n o
s now a nd i c e o u to fh a rpoon s ocke t s a nd l i ne h o les , c an a l so b ee l im ina t ed . S uch u se w ou ld p roduce w ea rt yp ica l o fh ide , s now a nd i c e , w h ich h ave n o t b een s e en o n a ny o f t h e a r chaeo log ica ld r i l l s .
S pa tu la s
d i f f e rence i nt h e mean w id th o ft h e se d r i l l s . T he re w e re n o t e nough d r i l l s i na ny o ft h e o the r g roup s t ot e s t i nt h i s w ay , b u tt h i s g i ve s s om e s uppor tt ot h ei d ea t h a tt h ed r i l l sw e re n o t
S t anf o rd ( 1976 :56 ) , h a s s ugge s ted t h a t an umbe r o ft y pe s o f w o rked b one , o f ten i d en t if i ed a st oo l s w i th s pec if i c u se s , b e l umped t o ge the ri n am i sce l laneou s c l a ss o fb one s c r ape r s o f
s epa ra ted b y s i ze a cco rd ing t o t h e ma te r ia l t h ey w e re i n tended f o ru se o n . I n a dd i t ion t o s co rch ing
a nd o the r f o rm s
u nknown u se . T hese t o o l s c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo b road c a tego r ie s , b a sed o n t h e l o ca t ion a nd f o rm o f t h e w o rk ing e dge : s c rape r s h av ing t h e w o rk ing e dge p a ra l le l t o t h e l ong
o f d amage
a s soc ia ted w i th d r i l l ing w ood , e i gh t o f t h e d r i l l s t h a t w e re t o o e r oded t o i d en t if y h ad mac ro scop ic e v idence o fd r i l l ing
a x i s o f t h e t o o l ( s ide s c rape r s ) , a nd s c rape r s h av ing t h e w o rk ing e dge p e rpend icu la r t ot h e l ong a x i s ( end s c r ape r s ) 4 6
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS O F ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS ( F igur e
5 . 5 ) .
T he
f o rmer
a r e
g ene ra l ly
( a t
G upuk
Mu rdoch a l so r epo r t s t h a t v i r tua l ly a l m a r l in s p ikes h ave
e xc lu s ive ly ) made o n s c apu lae , b u t a r e a l so k nown o n l o ng b one s , p a r t icu la r ly m e tapod ia l s . T hey w i l l b e d i scu s sed b e low . T he l a t ter a r eg ene ra l ly s pa tu la te , a nd m ay g r ade i n to
s ome m ean s o f s u spen s ion , o f ten a k nob o r c on t rac t ion a t o ne e nd , s ome t im es w i th ah o le a sw e l l . None o ft h e G upuk m a r l in s p ike s a r e a s f i ne ly f i n i shed a s t h ose c o l lec t ed b y Mu rdoch . O n ly t wo h ave a ny m ean s o f s u spen s ion , i n t h e
t o o l t y pe s s uch a s a w l s . S pa tu la t e b one t o o l s h ave b een i d en t if ied e t hnog raph ica l ly a nd a r chaeo log ica l ly a s w ood
f o rm o f ag roove o r n o tche s t h a t m ay h ave h e ld a l i ne i n p l ace . O ne mo re may h ave s uch ag roove , b u t i st o o e r oded
c h i se l s ( Ne l son 1 899 :86 ) , f e a the r s e t te r s ( Murdoch 1 892 :294 ) , b oo t s o le c r ea se r s ( Ne l son 1 899 :108 ) a nd b a rk p ee le r s( G idd ings 1 952 :34 , 1 956 :10 , 1 961 :35 ) . Ma r l in s p ike s a nd w ound p in sa l so f a l li n to t h i s c a tego ry ( Mu rdoch 1 982 ) .
t o a l low ap os i t ive i d en t if i ca t ion . O ne c l ea r ly h a s n o s uch n o t ch o rg roove ,a nd o ne i sb roken . D e sp i te t h e se d i f f e r ences ,t h e w ea ro na l l o ft h e se t o o l si st h e s ame ( P la te 5 . 2 b , c ) . T he d i agno s t ic t r a i t o n e a ch i st h e
T h i sv a r ie ty o fp o s s ib le u ses made t h e s pa tu la s i nt h e G upuk c o l lec t ion o ne o ft h e mo s t d i ff i cu l t c l a s se s o ft o o l s t o d ea l w i th . I na l l , 4 7 t oo l s w e re p laced i nt h i s c a tego ry . O ft h e se ,
p re sence o fm any v e ry f i ne s t r ia t ion s , w h ich a ppea r t oh ave b een made b y s om e th ing s ma l l a nd s h a rp . T he s t r ia t ion s d o n o tn ece s sa r i ly a l l t r end i nt h e s ame d i rec t ion , d epend ing o n
2 6 w e r e t o o e r oded f o r m ic roscop ic d e ta i l s t o b e v i s ib le . O n ly 2 1 o ft h es pa tu la sw e re a na lyzab le ( Tab le 5 . 2 ) .
s i new m ed l e a the r w e th ide? w i l low? m a r row w ound p in mu l t i ( s inew /h ide /mea t? ) mu l t i( s inew /h ide? ) mu l t i( s inew /w i l low? ) n id t o ta l
a n t le r
b one
b i rd b one
t o ta l
0
4
0 1
2
1 0
5 2
0 2
0 2
1 4
1 2
0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 2 1 6
0 0 0
1 1
0 1 4
3 2 1
h ow t h e t o o l w a s u sed . A l so , t h e b ackg round m ay v a ry . P o l i sh i so f t en n on inva s ive , b u t i ns ome c a se s f i n i sh ing o f t h et o o lp roduced ah i gh p o l i sh i t se lf . Wound P in s Two o f t h e s pa tu la s h ave b een t e n t a t ive ly i d en t i f ied a s w ound p in s . L ike t h em a r row s pa tu la , t h ey c ou ld h ave b een i d en t if ied o nt h eb a s i s o ff o rm : w ound p in s a r e g ene ra l ly f l a t t o s qua re o r d i amond s h aped p in s , w i th p o in t ed t i p s , a nd n o tche s a t t h e p rox ima l e nd . S im i la r t oo l s h ave b een i d en t if ied t h roughou t t h e A rc t ic , i n c lud ing t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta ( McGhee 1 974 :53 P l a te 1 5f , Mo r r i son 1 988 :40 ) .
1
T ab le 5 . 2 S pa tu la s f r om G upuk a na lyzed f o rw ea r , s how ing ma t er ia lt y pe ( c o lumn s )a nd m ic ro scop ic w ea r( r ow s ) . Ma r row S pa tu la O ne t o o l , a mar row s pa tu la , w a s i d en t if ied o n t h e b a s i s o f f o rm a l one . I t i s v i r tua l ly i d en t ica l t o ma r row s pa tu la s i d en t if ied a tt h e h i s tor ic p er iod Ho lm e s C reek S i te ( Nhl s -3 ) ( McGhee 1 974 :P la t e 2 5 a -d ) , a nd a t K uga luk ( NgT i l ) (Mo r r i son 1 988 :P la t e 7f ) . A l l o f t h e se a r e f i ne ly made e l onga t ed b one t oo l s w i th a n e xpanded s pa tu la te e nd . I n s om e c a se s , i n c lud ing t h e o ne f r om G upuk , t h ep rox ima l e nd i ss c a l loped t of o rm ag r ip . T hey a r eu sed t oe x t rac tm a r row , ap r ized f ood , f r om b one s . T he w ea ro n t h e m a r row s pa tu la f r om G upuk d id n o tr e semb le t h a t o n a ny o ft h e o t he rt o o l s , e i the r a r chaeo log ica l o r e xpe r im en ta l , c onf i rm ing i t s d i s t inc t ivenes s , n o r d i d i tr e semb le t h e w ea r o n t h e b r ief ly u sed e xpe r imen ta l s pa tu la ( P la te 5 . 2 a ) . ( A l though t h i s i s mo s t l i ke ly d ue t o t h e d u ra t ion o f u se . ) T he s u rf ace w a s s moo thed , w i th p rom inen t s t r ia t ion s , l a ck ing e v idence o f b r i t t le f r ac tu re , p e rpend icu la r t o t h e e dge , c r i s s -c ro s sed b y l i gh te rs t r ia t ion s .
Ma r l in S p ike s F ive o f t h e s pa tu la s h ave b een i d en t if ied a s ma r l in s p ike s . T he se a r e t oo l s mo s t c ommon ly u sed t o s epa ra te s t rand s o f b ra ided s i new u sed t o b ack b ow s , a nd t o o t he rw i se man ipu la te s i new u sed i n b ind ing s ( Mu rdoch 1 892 :292 ) .
F igure 5 . 5S pa tua l s( t op )a nd s c apu la t o o l s f r om G upuk . 4 7
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT A l though n o e xpe r im en t s w e re c a r r ied o u t t o s p ec if i ca l ly r ep roduce t h ew ear o nw ound p in s , i tc an b ei n f e r r ed t h a ti ti s
O ne o b jec t ( N iT s -1 290 ) h a s a n i s o la ted p a tch o f i n va s ive p o l i sh w i th o s teon s , i nd ica t ing c on tac t w i th s ome s of t w e t
l i ke ly t ob e s i mi la rt ow ea r f r om f r e sh ( o rw e t ) h i de . I tm ay a l so h ave a spec t s o fw ea r f r om h a i r , s i new , m ea t a nd b on e . T he t o o l s i d en t if ied a s w ound p in s b ea r s t h i s o u t ( P la te 5 . 2 d ) . t h ey h ave al i gh t , n on inva s ive t ype o fp o l i sh , s i mi la rt o
ma t er ia l s u ch a sw e th ide ( P la te 5 . 2 g ) . T he s econd ( N iT s -13 56 ) h a s a mode ra te ly i nva s ive p o l i sh , a l so w i th o s teon s v i s ib le ( P la t e 5 . 2 h ) . I na dd i t ion , l o ng , l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s r un a l ong t h e l e ng th o f o ne e dge o f t h e t i p . T h i s c omb ina t ion o f f e a ture s i su n l ike a ny o f t h e e xper imen ta l
mea tp o l i sh , w i th v a r iab le s t r ia t ion s . I ts e em s l i ke ly t h a tu s e a s aw ound p in w ou ld p roduce t h i st y pe o fw ea r . U n t i le i the r
t o o l s . T he t h i rd ( N iT s -1-3065 ) a l so h a s c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , r unn ing d i agona l ly a c ro s s o n s i de o f t h e t i p ( P la te 5 . 2 i ) .
e xper imen t sh ave b een c a r r ied o u t , o re t hnog raph ic e xamp le s o f w ound p in s a r e a va i lab le f o r e xam ina t ion , t h i s i d en t if ica t ion mu s tr ema in t e n ta t ive .
A pa r tf r om t h e d i rec t ion , t h e se a r e s im i la ri ns i ze t ot h o se o n N iT s -1-356 . T he re a r en oo s teon sv i s ib le h oweve r . A l l o f t h e se t o o l s w e re p robab ly p r ima r i ly u sed a s ma r l in s p ike s ,w i th o cca s iona ls e conda ry u se s . J u s t wha tt h e se o the r u se s w e r e i sn o t c l ea r . T he c oa r se s t r ia t ion s o n t wo o ft h e
H ide w o rk ing T hree s pa tu la s h ave b een i d en t if i ed a s h av ing b een u sed o n s o me s o r to fl e a the r ,t wo o nd ry l e a the ra nd o ne o nw e t .
t o o l s i n d ica te s a n a b ra s ive s ub s tance . T hey a r e t oo l a rge t o h ave b een p roduced b yw i l low b a rk , o ne o ft h e f ew ma te r ia l s
T he s pa tu la u sed o n w e t l e a the r s how s a n i n va s ive p o l i sh
u sed i n t h e e xpe r imen t s t h a t p roduced s im i la r s t r ia t ion s . P e rhap s t h ey w e re u sed f o r s ome th ing a s s imp le a s c l ean ing d i r t a way . T he mo re o r l e s s i n va s ive ly p o l i shed a r ea s w i th
w i th r e ad i ly v i s ib le o s teon s ( P la te 5 . 2e ) . T he o s teon s a r e c ha rac ter i s t ic o fu se w i th av e ry f i ne o r l u b r ica ted ma ter ia l , wh i le t h e i n va s ive n a tu re o f t h e p o l i sh i sc ha rac te r i s t ic o f h ide w o rk ing . T h i st o o l i sa bou t 1 0 .5 cm l ong , 0 . 9 cm w ide , w i th ah o le d r i l led i nt h e p rox ima l e nd . I tm ay h ave b een u sed t ol a ce h ide s o nt of r ame s f o rs t re tch ing , o ri tm ay b e a b oo t so le c r ea se r . T he se a r e t o o l s u sed t oc r imp t h e e dge s o f b oo t s o le s w he re t h ey j o in t h e u ppe r s . O ake s ( 1987 :34 ) r epor t s t h a t s e am s a r e o f t en w e t ted b ef o re s ew ing , a s t h i s make st h em mo re p l iab le . T h i s c ou ld a ccoun tf o rt h er e ad i ly v i s ib le o s teon s . S he a l so r epo r t s , h oweve r , t h a t modem -day
o s t eon s o nt wo o ft h e t o o l s a r e a l so d i ff i cu l tt oi d en t ify a st o s pec if ic u se . I nt h e c a se o fN iT s -1 356 , t h ep o l i sh i sg ene ra l , b u tl i gh ta nd o n ly mode ra te ly i n va s ive . T h i s c ou ld b e am ea t p o l i sh , o rp e rhap s e ven s now , a l though t h e f o rm o ft h e t o o l m ake s i td i ff i cu l t t o s e e h ow i tw ou ld h ave b een u sed w i th e i th e ro ft h ese m a te r ia l s . O nt h e o the rt o o l( N iT s -1 290 ) , t h e p o l i sh i si n va s ive , a si ff r om w e th ide o rs ome o the rs of t , w e t m a t er ia l , b u t i s a l so i s o la ted i n d i s t r ibu t ion . A ga in i ti s d i ff i cu l tt os e ew ha tt a sk c ou ld h ave p roduced t h i sp l acemen t o fw ea r .
w om en i nt h e e a s tern A rc t ic a tl e a s t o f t en u se t h e i r t e e th t o c r imp s o le s , r a the r t h an a ny t oo l . Mu rdoch ( 1892 :130 ) a l so r epor t s t h e u se o f t e e th f o r c r imp ing s o le s , w h i le N e l son ( 1899 :108 )r e por t st h eu se o fc r ea se r s .
W i l low B a rke r s F ou rs pa tu la s may h ave w ea rt e n ta t ive ly a t t r ibu ted t op ee l ing
D epend ing o n whe the r o r n o t t h e h ide w a s w e t b ef o r e
w i l low b a rk . I n a l l c a ses t h e w ea r c on s i s t s o fl i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , s im i la r t o t ho se s e en o n e xpe r imen ta l t o o l s , s ome t ime s w i th a v e ry f i ne , n on inva s ive , a bra s ive p o l i sh . S t r ia t ion s a r e n o t c on s i s ten t ly o r ien ted , h oweve r . O n t h ree
s ew ing , t h e o t he rt wo s pa tu la s s how ing h ide w ea rc ou ld a l so h ave b een u sed a sb oo ts o le c r ea se r s . B o th h ave a ni n va s ive p o l ish , b u t w i th n o o s teon s v i s ib le ( P la te 5 . 2 f ) . T hey a l so h ave s ma l l , f i ne s t r ia t ion s , s im i la r t o t h o se s e en o n a w l s . B o th a r e f r agmen t s o f l ong b one ( p robab ly c ar ibou ) , h ave
o f t h e t o o l s s t r ia t ion s a r e o r ien ted p e rpend icu la r t o t h e t i p a nd a way f r om i t , wh i le o n o ne t h ey a r e d i agona l t ot h e t i p ,
b een n o t ched p rox ima l ly , a nd h ave f l a t tened ,r ounded p o in t s .
a tb o th e dge s ( a s i fi th ad b een u sed i nt wo d i rec t ion s . T h i s p a t t ern i s mo s t s im i la r t o , b u t n o t e xac t ly t h e s am e a s , t h a t p roduced i nt h ew i l low b a rk p ee l ing e xpe r imen t s .
T hey m ea su re 8 . 1 a nd 5 . 6 cm l ong r e spec t ive ly . T he c r ea se r s i lu s t ra ted b y N e l son ( 1 899 :P la te XL IV ) a r e h i gh ly v ar iab le i nf o rm , f r om e l abo ra te ly c a rved i v o ry p i eces w i th l i nk sa nd p endan t st o am in ima l ly a l te red u lna .
U n iden t if i ed S pa tu la s T h r ee o ft h e s pa tu la s h ad w ea rt h a tw a s n o tr e cogn ized f r om t h ee xpe r imen ta lp rog ramme . T he se c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo g roup sw i th s im i la rc ha rac te r i s t ic s .
A l though o n a l l t h ree o ft h e se t oo l s t h e w ea r i sq u i t e c l ea r , t h e i r s pec if ic i d en t if ica t ion a sb oo t s o le c r ea se r s i st e n t a t ive . I ti sn o t c l ea r a tt h i s p o in t whe the r s uch t o o l s w e re u sed b y t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t , a nd a l though t h e f o rm o f t h e se t o o l s d oes n o t e xc lude t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t t h ey w e re u sed i nt h i s
O n e o ft h et o o l sh ad amode ra te ly i n va s ive p o l i sh w i th many
manne r , i td oe s n o t s uppor t i te i the r . T hey h ave c e r ta in ly b een u sed t ow o rk h ide ,b u tt h ep rec i se manne ri sn o tc l ea r .
f i ne , l i gh t s t r ia t ion s r unn ing t h e l e ng th o ft h e t oo l ( P la te 5 . 2
j ) .
T he s t r ia t ion sa r e s im i la rt ot h o se s e en o nt h ew ound p in s , b u tt h eo ve ra l lp o l i sh i sn o tt h e s ame . I ti sn o tc l ea r wha tt h i s t o o lw a su sed f o r .
Mu l t i -Pu rpo se T oo l s T h ree o ft h e s pa tu la s h ave b een i d en t if ied a s mu l t i -purpo se t oo l s . A l lh ave f i ne s t r ia t ion s c ha rac ter i s t ic o fs i new , a nd s o s e em t oh ave b een u sed a s ma r l in s p ike s . Two o ft h em a r e a l so n o tched p rox ima l ly , at r a i t c ommon i nt h e se t o o l s . I n
T he o t he r t wo u n iden t i f ied t oo l s h ad an on inva s ive p o l i sh , w i th s t r ia t ion s p e rpend icu la r t o t h e l e ng th o ft h e t oo l , s e en mo s t ly a way f r om t h e t i p , r a the r t h an a c ros s i t . T he se s t r ia t ion s a r e f i ne a nd c oa r se , i n d ica t ing w ea r w i th a f i ne
e ach c a se , h oweve r , a dd i t iona l w ea r p a t tern s s ugge s t t h a t
a b ra s ive ( P la te 5 . 2 k , l ) . I t i s p o ss ib le t h a t t h ey w e re p roduced b y w i l low ; t h a t i st h e e xpe r imen ta l w ea r t h a t t h ey mo s t r e semb le . A s w i th t h e mu l t i -pu rpose t oo l s , h oweve r ,
t h ese t o o l sw e re a l so u sed f o ro the rp urpo se s .
4 8
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS t h i s p l acemen t o f w ea r d oe s n o t ma tch t h a t o n t h e e xper im en ta l t o o l s . O ne p o s s ib i l i ty i st h a t t h e e xpe r imen t s d i d n o t a c cu ra te ly r e p roduce t h e mo t ion s u sed i n p ee l ing
b een i d en t if ied h e re a s c auda l a nd c r an ia l s c rape r s , i d en t ify ing wh ich o ft h e b o rde r s i sp r esen t . C auda l s c rape r s a r e t h e mo s t c ommon , m ak ing u p 1 0 o f t h e 1 5 s pec imen s ( 7 1 .4% ) . B o th t ype s o fs c rape r st yp ica l ly h ave ab reak a tt h e p rox ima l e nd , whe re t h e h ead w a s r emoved , a nd t h e e dge
w i l low b a rk , i n wh ich c a se t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fw ea rw ou ld b e d i f f e r en t . A s e cond p o s s ib i l i ty i st h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l t o o l s w e re u sed i n s om e t a sk u s ing w i l low b a rk ( o r s om e o t he r a b ra s ive p l an t m a ter ia l ) , r a the r t h an p ee l ing i t . S uch a c t iv i t ie sc ou ld i n c lude n e ta nd b a ske tm ak ing .
m ade a l ong wha tw ou ld h ave b een t h ec en t re o ft h eb one ( t he i n f ra sp inou s f o s sa ) , a l ong i t s l ong a x i s . C ran ia l s c rape r s i n c lude t h e s p inou sp roces s , wh ich i na l lb u to ne c a se ( wh ich m ay b e ap ref o rm ) w a s r emoved , s ome t ime s b yp e rcu s s ion . C auda l s c rape r s a r e g ene ra l ly l o nge r a nd n ar rowe r t h an c r an ia l , a nd n eve ri n c lude t h e s p inou sp roces s . I nh a lf o ft h e
S umma ry T he r e su l t s o ft h e u se w ea r a na ly s i s o n s pa tu la s a r e r a the r d i sappo in t ing . O n ly t h e f i ve m ar l in s p ike s h ave b een
c a se s ( n=5 ) t h e v en t ra l s i de h a s b een f l a t tened s om ewha tb y t h e r emova l o f t h e t h ick p a r t o f t h e c auda l s p ine . Whe re e v idence o f manuf ac tu re i s v i s ib le , t h i s w a s d one b y g roov ing a l ong b o th s i de s o ft h ep rom inence , a nd s ome t imes
p o s i t ive ly i d en t if i ed b yt h e i ru se w ea r . O ft h eo t he rs pa tu la s , t h ree w e r e i d en t if i ed mo re o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e i rr e semb lance t o e t hnog raph ica l ly i d en t if ied t oo l s ( ma r row s pa tu la a nd w ound p in ) , a l though t h ey e ach d i d h ave w ea r w h ich w a s d i s t inc tf r om o the rg roups o ft o o l s . I nt h e c a se o ft h e w ound
a c ro s s t h e d i s ta l e nd . T he e dge o n s ome s c rape r s w a s a l so f o rmed b y g roov ing , b u t e v idence f o r t h i s i s r a re ly p r e served .
p in s ,t h ew ea rf i ta ni n f e r red p a t te rn ,b u te xper imen ta ld a ta t o s uppo r t t h e i d en t if ica t ion a r e l a ck ing . T h ree o ft h e s pa tu la s
c auda l
w e re i d en t if i ed a st ot h e ma ter ia lt h ey h ad b een u sed t ow o rk ( h ide ) , b u t t h e s pec if i c t a sk , s ugge s ted t o b e b oo t s o le
m ea t?
c r ea s ing , c ou ld n o tb ep o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied .
p ocke t n l a
T he t a sk s w e re u sed a s ma r l in s e conda ry
s c a le r?
f o r wh ich t h e r ema in ing t e n a na lyzab le s pa tu la s mu s tr ema in u nce r ta in . T h ree o ft h em w e r e u sed s p ikes s om e , p e rhaps mo s t , o f t h e t im e , w i th u se s t h a t a r e n o t i d en t if i ab le . T he o t he r s i x w e r e
t o t a l
c r an ia l
t o t a l
3 1 1
0
3
0 1
2
0 5
1 2
1 7
T ab le 5 . 3 S capu la t o o l s f r om G upuk , s how ing s c rape rt ype ( c o lumn s ) a nd m ic roscop ic w ea r( r ow s ) .
n o ti d en t if iab le a ta ny l e ve l . T he f a c tt h a tt h ey c an b ed i v ided
S een m acroscop ica l ly o r w i th l ow p owe r magn if ica t ion , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f w ea r o n t h ese t oo l s i s h igh ly c on s i s ten t .
i n to t wo d i s t inc t c l a sse s , h oweve r , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e p a t te rn s a r e s om ehow ' r ea l , a nd f u r th e rw o rk m ay r evea lt h e i ru se s .
D iagona l s t r ia t ion s o f v a ry ing w id th s a nd l e ng th s a r e g ene ra l ly p re sen t o n b o th e dge s , ( a l though o f t en w ea r i s h eav ie r o n o ne e dge ) , a nd o n t h e t op s o fp rom in ence s a way
G iven t h e w ide v a r ie ty o f t a sk s wh ich s pa tu la te t o o l s a r e r e por ted t oh ave b een u sed f o re t hnog raph ica l ly , i ti sp e rhap s n o t s u rpr i s ing t h a t t h e r e i s s uch a h i gh p ropor t ion o f
f r om t h e e dge . I n p ar t icu la r , t h e se s t r ia t ion s a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le o n t h e e dge s o f g roove s w he re e i the r t h e s p inou s p roce s s o r t h e p rom inence o f t h e c auda l b o rde r h a s b een r emoved . Whe r e t h eb o rde ri si n tac t , s t r ia t ion s a r e g ene ra l ly
u n id en t if i ed a nd t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if i ed t o o l s i n t h i s g roup . F u r the r w o rk , i n vo lv ing d i f f e ren t t a sk s , a s w e l l a s c o mb ina t ion s o ft a sk s , w i l l b e n ece s sary b ef o r e t h e se t o o l s a r ef u l ly u nde r s tood .
v i s ib le a l ong t h et wo s i de s o fi t . T he se s i ze a nd p l acemen to f t h e se s t r ia t ion s i nd ica te s t h a t t h ey a r e mo s t l i ke ly t h e r e su l t s o fs ha rpen ing t h et o o l s .
S capu la S craper s
A t h i ghe r m agn i f ica t ion s , w ea r p a t te rn s a r e q u i te d i f f e ren t . O n ly s i x o ft h e s c apu la t o o l s w e re s u i tab le f o r m ic ro scop ic
S capu la s c rape r s a r e ac ommon e l emen t i n We s t e rn T hu le s i te s . T hey h ave b een i d en t if ied a s e a r ly a s N o r ton t ime s
a na ly s i s . O f t h e r ema in ing n ine , o ne w a s t oo b roken ( no w o rk ing e dge r ema ined , s e en i n T ab le 5 . 3 a s n / a ) ) a nd t h e
f r om I a ya taye t ( G idd ing s 1 964 :146 ) a nd o ccu r i ns i t e s u p t o t h e h i s tor ic p er iod ( Mo r r i son 1 988 :53 ) . T hey s e em t ob e a c l ea r ly w e s te rn t r a i t , a tl e a s t i nt h e f o rm t h ey t a ke a tG upuk , a l though H o l tved ( 1944 :256 ) h a s i d en t if i ed s im i la r t o o l s i n e a r ly T hu le s i te s i n G reen land . Ma th ia s sen ( 1927 :61) a l so i d en t if ied s c apu la s c rape r s a t N a juan , b u t t h ey h ave t h e w o rk ing e dge p e rpend icu la r t o t h e l o ng a x i s o f t h e b one , r a the r t h an p ara l le l , a s i n t h e w e s t . T hese t o o l s a r e c ommon ly r e f e r red t o a s ' f i sh s c a le r s ' , b u t t h i s i s n o t n ece s sa r i ly t h ec a se .
o t he r s even w e re t o o e r oded f o r m ic ro scop ic d e ta i l s t o b e v i s ib le . Two o ft h er ema in ing s i x s c rape r s h ad w ea rc ha rac te r i s t ic o f c a r ry ing a nd h and l ing : a b r igh t n on inva s ive p o l i sh a s soc ia ted w i th s t r ia t ion s o f v a r iab le s i ze a nd o r ien ta t ion ( P la te 5 . 3 a ) . T h ree o ft h e s c apu la t o o l s e xh ib i ted ap a t te rn t h a th a st e n ta t ive ly b een a s soc ia ted w i th m ea tw ea r( P la te 5 . 3 b ) , a l though i ti sn o ti d en t ica lt ot h e e xpe r imen ta ls pec imen s . T hey a l l h ave w e l l d eve loped w ea r , c ha rac te r ized b y t h e p r e sence o fo s teon s , a tt h e e x t reme e dge o n ly . Away f r om
F i f teen s c apu la s c rape r s w e re f ound a tG upuk , f a l l ing i n to
t h e e dge , w ea ri sl i gh t ,n on inva s ive a nd d u l l ( un l ike ' p ocke t ' w ea r ) . T h i s w ea r s e em s t o b e d i f f e ren t ia ted f r om m ea t
t wo d i f f e ren t f o rm s ( Tab le 5 . 3) . B o th s e em t o h ave b een u sed f o rt h es ame t a sk s ; t h e re a r et o of ew s c rape r st oi d en t if y d i f f e r ences i nu se a cco rd ing t o t y pe . F igu re 5 . 5 i lu s t ra te s t h e d i f f e ren t f o rm s o fs c apu la s c rape r s . T he t wo f o rm s h ave
p o l i sh o n ly i nt h e p re sence o fv ar iou s s t r ia t ion s , i no ne c a se p a ra l le l t ot h e e dge ( a nd p e rhap s as i gn o f amo re d eve loped m ea t w ea r? ) , a nd i no ne c a se a tv a r iou s a ng le s t ot h e e dge . 4 9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT T hese s t r ia t ion s m ay b e t h e p roduc t o f s ome o t he r u se , i n a dd i t ion t om ea t , o r t h i s who le s u i te o fc ha rac t e r i s t ics may r e p re sen ta na sy e tu n iden t if i ed w ea r . F ina l ly , o n e s c apu la t o o l s howed a c omb ina t ion o f w ea r p a t te rn s ( P la te 5 . 3 c , d ) . O ne f a ce h ad s t r ia t ion s l i ke t ho se p roduced i n t h e f i sh s c a l ing e xpe r imen t s , wh i le t h e o the r , a l though w ea the red , s e em ed t os how a n i n va s ive p o l i sh w i th s ome o s teon s . T h i s t oo s e em s t oh ave b een amu l t i -purpo se t o o l . S umma ry A l though f ewe r t h an h a lf o ft h e s c apu la t oo l s w e re s u i tab le f o r m ic roscop ic a na ly s i s , i t s e em s t h a t t h ey r e p re sen t a v ar ie ty o fu se s . E a r l ie rw o rk i d en t ify ing s im i la rt o o l s a sf i sh s c a le r s ( Ha l l 1 971 , G idd ings 1 952 , 1 964 ) h a s n o t b een s uppor ted . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a tt h e s t r ia t ion s s e en b y H a l l a nd o t he r s , wh ich h a s b een l i nked t of i sh s c a l ing , a r e ar e su l t o f s ha rpen ing r a the r t h an u se .
T he p rom inen t m ic ro scop ic
s t r ia t ion s t h a t d eve loped i nt h e f i sh s c a l ing e xpe r imen t s a r e n o t e v iden t o n mo s t o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l t oo l s , n o r a r e t h e f i n e rs t r ia t ion st h a tr e su l ted f r om h a i ra nd s ma l le rf i sh s c a le s . I nn o c a se a r e t h e se u se s u nequ ivoca l ly l i ke t h o se p roduced e xper imen ta l ly . A l l t h e i d en t if ica t ion s a r e t e n ta t ive . I ti s c e r ta in ly p o s s ib le t h a tt h e se t oo l sc ou ld h ave b een u sed t oc u t m ea t , a st h ew ea ro nt h ree o ft h em s ugge s t s . T he d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e e xpe r imen ta l p a t te rn s a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l p a t te rn s may b ed ue t ot h el e ng th o ft ime t h et oo l sw e re u sed .
T he re a r e t wo p o s s ib le u se s f o rt h e se b l aded t o o l s i d en t if ied i nt h e l i t e ra ture . I n e a s te rn T hu le a nd I nu i t c u l tu re , s ha rp e dged b one t o o l sh ave b een i d en t if ied a sk n ive sf o rr emov ing w a te r f r om t h e h ide s o fc a r ibou t h a t h ave b een k i l led f r om k ayak s ( Ma th ia s sen 1 927a :P la te 1 3 n o s . 1 5 a nd 1 8 ; 1 927b :51 ; F o rd 1 959 :112 ) . B o th a u tho r s n o te , h oweve r , t h e i r r e semb lance t o b one k n ive s d e sc r ibed b y Mu rdoch ( 1892 :191) a s d agge r s f o r ' k i l l ing a " bad m an" . B o th u se s a r e o f c ou r se p o s s ib le , b u t m any o f t h e t o o l s a r e s o b eau t if u l ly f i n i shed , a nd i ns ome c a se s d ecor a ted , t h a t t h ey s e em mo re l i ke ly t o h ave b een d agge r s . Add i t iona l ly , s pec ia l t o o l s f o r r emov ing w a te r f r om c a r ibou h ide s a r e n o t r e po r ted f r om t h e w e s te rn A rc t ic , wh i le d agge r s a r e . McGhee ( 1974 :54 ) r e por t s f i nd ing t h ree s u ch d agge r s a t K i t t igazu i t , a nd Y o rga ( 1980 :78 ) i d en t if ied o ne a t Wa shou t . a n t le r
b one
b one
i v ory
t o t a l
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 9
9
f r e sh f r e sh? m ea t? n i d /mea t? s hea th? o s teon s p ocke t n id n / a t o t a l
0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3
1 6 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1 2 8
2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3
1 2 3 3 3 2 1 3 5
T ab le 5 . 4 K n ive s a nd d agge r s f r om G upuk , s how ing ma ter ia lt y pe ( c o lumn s )a nd m ic ro scop ic w ea r( r ow s ) .
I ti sa l so p o s s ib le , e ven l i ke ly , t h a t t h ey w e re u sed f o r mo re t h an o ne t a sk ,w h ich a ga in may a ccoun tf o rt h ed i f f e r ence si n p a t te rn s .
F u l ly t wen ty o ft h e 3 5 a na lyzab le d agge r s s howed n o w ea r . Mo s t a r e v ery f i n e ly p o l i shed ( a s ap a r t o fm anuf ac tur e ) b u t s how n o s i gn s o fu se ( P la te 5 . 4 a , b ) . S ix d agge r s a l so s how v i r tua l ly n o s i gn o f u se , a l though t h ey d o h ave o t he r
K n ive sa nd D agger s
p o l i she s .
T h ree o ft h e se h ave av e ry l i gh t p o l i sh w i th f i ne
s t r ia t ion s s im i la r t o t h e p o l i sh s e en o n e xpe r imen ta l p i ece s p o l i shed w i th l e a the r ( P la te 5 . 4 c ) . T h i s c ou ld b e a p u rpo sef u l p o l i sh , o r i tc ou ld b e f r om s ome s or t o f s h ea th .
F if ty -seven t o o l s i d en t if ied a s k n ive s o r d agge r s w e r e r e cove red f r om G upuk . T he se a r es ha rp ,p o in ted a nd u sua l ly d oub le -edged w eapon s ( F igure 5 . 6 ) . Many o f t h em a r e f i n e ly f i n i shed a nd f ou r h ave ac en t ra l g roove ( two o ft h e se h ave a dd i t iona l i n c i sed d eco ra t ion ) . S ome a r e b i convex o r
T h ree o t he r sh ave a r ea s o f an on inva s ive , b r igh tp o l i sh s u ch a sw a sp roduced o ne xpe r imen ta lt o o l s t h a th ad b een c a r r ied a bou t( ' pocke tw ea r ' ) ( P la te 5 . 4d ) .
p l ano -convex ,b u tt h e ma jor i ty h ave ac oncave -convex c r o s s s e c t ion . Twen ty t wo w e re t o o e r oded f o r e xam ina t ion a nd
T he r ema in ing s i x a na lyzab le d agge r s m ay h ave s ome f o rm
o ne h ad n o p ar t o fi t s e dge r ema in ing f o r e xam ina t ion . T he r ema in ing 3 4w i l lb e d i scu ssed h e re ( Tab le 5 . 4 ) .
o f w ea r . T h ree o f t h e se s how a v ery f i ne p o l i sh c ha rac ter ized b y v i s ib le o s t eon s ( P la te 5 . 4 e ) . T h i s i s o bv iou s ly t h e r e su l t o f w ea r b y s ome s of t , w e t m a te r ia l . E xpe r im en ta l p a t t ern s s im i la r t ot h i s i n c luded b o th w e t h ide a nd s now . I ts e em s u n l ike ly t h a t t h e se a r e s now k n ive s -
-
t h ey d o n o t r e semb le a ny k nown s nowkn ive s , n o r a r e t h ey a ny d i f f e ren t f r om t h e r e s t o ft h e d agge r s . I ti s mo s t l i k e ly t h en t h a t t h i s p o l i sh i st h e r e su l t o fc on t ac t w i th w e t l e a the r . P robab ly , t h en , t h i s i sn o t u se w ea r , b u t manuf ac tu re w ea r , t h e r e su l t o f v e ry f i ne p o l i sh ing t o f i n i sh t h e t o o l s . I n s uppor t o f t h i s , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t i n o n ly o ne c a se ( N iT s -1-2088 ) i s t h e re a ny e v idence o f p r ev iou s manuf ac tur ing s t age s , s uch a sg r ind ing s t r ia t ion s . T he f i na l t h ree d agge r s h ave a v e ry l i gh t p o l i sh wh ich i s c l o se s tt ot h e e xpe r imen ta lp o l i sh p roduced b y c u t t ing m ea t , a l though much l e s s w e l l d eve loped , p a r t icu la r ly i no ne c a se ( i den t if ied i nT ab le 5 . 4 a s' n id lmea t ? ' ; P l a te 5 . 4 f ) . I ti sn o t
F igure 5 . 6K n ives a nd d agge r sf r om G upuk . 5 0
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS p o s s ib le t os ay whe the r t h i s i sa c tua l ly u se w ea r , o rw he the r i ti se v idence o fb r ief p o l i sh ing .
a ny o t he r w e l l d ef ined c a tego ry s u ch a s f i shhook b a rb s , wh ich a r e a l l s h arp e nough ' aw l ' i n t h i s s en se r ema in s a -
r e s idua l
T he f a c tt h a tt h ese t oo l s s how s o l i t t le s i gn o fu se i sp e rhap s t h e s t ronge s te v idence t h a tt h ey a r e i n deed d agge r s , i n tended a s w eapon s f o r u se a ga in s t o the r p eop le , r a the r t h an a ny o the r s o r t o ft oo l . T he r e i sn o d oub t t h a t t h ey w ou ld make e ff i c ien t s t abb ing w eapon s . S t ef an s son ( 1919 :187 ) w a s t o ld
c a tego ry ) .
-
O the r
g ene ra l ly
p o in ted
b u t
n o t
n ece s sar i ly s h arp b one t oo l s w e re p l aced e i the r i n to t h e m i sce l laneou sc a tego ry , o rw i th t h e s pa tu la s , i ft h ep o in tw a s f l a t .
t h a t k n ive s made f r om p o la r b ea r h um e r i w e re p ref e r red f o r f i gh t ing , a l though n o r e a son f o r t h i s p r ef e rence w a s g i ven .
At o ta l o f5 0 a w l s w a s f ound a tG upuk . O ft h e se e i gh teen w e re t o o e r od ed f o r a ny u se w ea r t ob e v i s ib le ( Tab le 5 . 5 ) . O f t h e r ema in ing 3 2 , 2 8 h ad c l ea r t r ace s o f w ea r
F ina l ly , t h e re a r e n ume rou s r epo r t s o f murde r a nd b lood f eud s i n vo lv ing s t abb ing ( S tef an s son 1 919 , Nu l igak 1 966 )
c ha rac te r i s t ic o fu se f o r p i e rc ing h id e , i n c lud ing s moo th ing a nd p o l i sh ing a s w e l l a s s ma l l s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t
among I nu i t i n g ene ra l a nd Macken z ie I nu i t i n p a r t icu la r . B o th S t ef an s son a nd Nu l igak r epor ts t o r ie s o fb lood f e ud ing
( P la te 5 . 5 a , b ) . N ine h ad c ru shed t i ps , a nd n ine teen h ad r ounded o r s moo thed t i p s . F ou r t o o l s , wh ich w e re mo rpho log ica l ly a w l s ( i . e . , f i n e ly p o in ted ) h ad w ea rp a t te rn s t h a t Id id n o tr e cogn i ze ( P la te 5 . 5 c , d ) .
b e tween p eop le f r om G upuk a nd K i t t igazu i t , f o r i n s t ance . N a tu ra l ly , n o e xper imen t s w e re c a r r ied o u t t o s t udy h ow w ea r d eve lop s o n t oo l s u sed f o r s t abb ing ( a l though i t may w e l lb e s im i la rt ot h a to nw ound p in s? ) a nd i ti su n l ik e ly t h a t t h ey w i l l b e c a r r ied o u t i n t h e f u tu r e . I ti sn o t p os s ib le t h e ref o re , t os ay p os i t ive ly whe the ro rn o t a ny o ft h e se t o o l s w e re u sed f o r t h e i r i n tended p u rpo se . P o s s ib ly f u tu re b lood r e s idue a na ly s i s w i l l b e a b le t o a n swe r t h i s q ue s t ion . I t s e em s c l ea r , h oweve r , t h a t whe the r t h ey w e re u sed o r n o t ,
c r ushed
n i d
r ounded
a w l a w l?
8 1
md t o t a l
0 9
0 0 4 4
0 1 0 1
s moo th 1 4 4 0 1 8
T ab le 5 . 5 Aw l s f r om G upuk , s how ing ( c o lumn s )a nd m ic ro scop ic w ea r( r ow s ) .
t h ey w e re i n tended a sp e r sona lw eapon s .
t o ta l 2 2 6 4 3 2
t i p
c ond i t ion
N eed le s s howed t h e s ame w ea r p a t te rn a s a w l s , i n c lud ing s of t p o l i sh ing a nd r ounded o r c r u shed t i p s ( P la te 5 . 5 e , f ) .
Aw l sa nd N eed le s
S t r ia t ion s w e re s e en mo re c o mmon ly a l ong t h e l e ng th o ft h e n eed le t h an a r ound t h e s haf t , d ue t o t h e manne r o f u se . N eed le st e nd a l so t ob e more f i n e ly f i n i shed t h an a w l s , s ot h e s u r f ace s a r e s moo the rt ob eg in w i th . T h ir ty -f ive o f at o t a lo f
Aw l s a nd n eed le s a r e s u ch w ide ly f ound b one a r t if ac t s t h a t t h ey s e em h a rd ly t on eed d ef in i t ion ( F igure 5 . 7 ) . F o rn eed le s t h i s i se s pec ia l ly t r ue . B one n eed le s s o c l ose ly r e semb le
4 4 n eed le s a tG upuk w e re w e l l e nough p re se rved t oa na lyze ( Tab le 5 . 6 ) . T h ir ty two o ft h e se h ad c l ea r ly b een u sed a s
modem s t ee l n eed le s t h a t t h e re i s l i t t le q ues t ion o f t h e i r i d en t if ica t ion , e i the r b y f o rm o r b y u se . Aw l s , o n t h e o t he r h and , m ay n o t b e q u i te s o s t ra igh tf orward . E xam ina t ion o f t h e p l a te s i n many a r chaeo log ica l r e po r t s a nd monog raph s
n eed le s , wh i le t h ree s e emed t ob e f r e sh . F ive o ft h e n eed le s h ad c r u shed t i p s , i n d ica t ing t h a tt h ey h ad b een u sed t op i e r ce a sw e l la st od r aw at h read . A l though i ti sg ene ra l ly b e l ieved
h a s l e ad m e t ot h e c onc lu s ion t h a tm any a r chaeo log i s t s h ave v e ry l i t t le i d ea o f wha t i sr equ i red o f a n a w l . A lmo s t a ny v ague ly p o in ted b one i mp lemen t i sl i ke ly t ob e i n c luded i n t h a t c a tego ry . I n many c a ses , i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e se s o -ca l led a w l s a r e t o o d u l l t o b e r e a l ly u sef u l f o r p i e rc ing h ide ( f o r e xamp le s e e McGhee 1 974 : P la te 1 5 , k -m , r ;S t anf o rd 1 976 : P la te 6 6 c , P la te 13 , c , d ; ) . I n t h i s s t udy , a w l s w e r e i d en t if i ed o n ly o nt h eb a s i s o f af i n e ly p o in ted t i p ,j udged t o b e s ha rp e nough t op i e rce h ide ( a nd wh ich d id n o t f a l l i n to
F igure 5 . 8 S now k n ives f r om G upuk , m ad e f r om wha le b one ( t op )a nd a n t le r . t h a tb one n eed le s w e re n o t u sed t op i e rce h ide ( e .g . . N e l son 1 899 :106 ) , B a l ikc i ( 1970 :15 ) s t a te s t h a t a w l s w e re u sed f o r t h ick h ide , i mp ly ing t h a tb one n eed le s w e r e u sed o nt h inne r h ide . H e d oe s n o te t h a t t h e n eed le s o f ten b roke . I t may b e t h a tn eed le s w e re u sed w i thou t a w l s f o rp a r t icu la rp u rpo se s , s uch a st h e s p ec ia lw a te rp roof s t i tch e su sed i np repa ra t ion o f F igure 5 . 7 Aw l s( t op )a nd n eed le sf r om G upuk .
w a te rp roof g a rmen t sa nd f oo twea r( s ee O ake s 1 987 ) . 5 1
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT n e ed le f r e sh t o ta l
b l ank 1 2 3
c r u sh 5 0 5
n / a 1 1 1 2
p o i n t 6 0 6
p r e f o rm 1 0 1
r o u nd 8 0 8
t o t a l 3 2 3 3 5
I ti si n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t , d ue t o s now c ond i t ion s i n t h e A rc t ic , al ong k n if e c apab le o f mak ing ad eep c u te qu iva len t t o t h e b read th o f t h e s now b lock m ay n o t h ave b een n ece s sary ( D . G ardne r , A . S k ra s t in s p e r . c omm . ) . S l id ing l a ye r s i nt h e s now , d ue t ot h e b u i ld -up o fh oa rf ro s tb e tween
T ab le 5 . 6 G upuk N eed le s a na lyzed , s how ing t i p c ond i t ion ( c o lumn s ) a nd m icroscop ic w ear ( r ow s ) .
s now f a l l s o rd r if t ing e p i sode s make i tp o ss ib le t oa vo id s uch ac u t . B ym e re ly c u t t ing t h eo u t l ine o ft h eb lock , f o r wh ich a s hor t , c urved k n if e i ss u i tab le , t h e b l ock c an b e s epa ra ted f r om t h e s now b e low i ta l ong t h e s l id ing l a ye r , wh ich a c t s
S now k n ive s
l i ke af r ac tur eo rb edd ing p l ane i nr ock .
N ine teen t o o l s i d en t if ied a s s now k n ive s w e re r e cove red f r om G upuk ( F igure 5 . 8 ) . T he se a r e l o ng , f l a t , c u rved k n ives , made o f wha lebone o ra n t le r , w i th t h e c oncave e dge s ha rpe r t h an t h e c onvex , a l though n e i the r i s v e ry s ha rp . T hey a r e u sed f o r c u t t ing b lock s o f s now f o r c on s t ruc t ing s now h ou se s . T h i r teen o ft h e se w e re e i the r t o o e r oded , o r t o o f r agmen t a ry ( n= 1) f o r u se w ea r a na ly s i s ; t h e r ema in ing s i xw i l lb e d i scu ssed h e re ( Tab le 5 . 7 ) . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e se
P ick s , A d ze sa nd Ma t tock s T h i s c a tegory o ft o o l s i n c lude s a l l h eavy p o in ted o r b eve l e nded t o o l s ( F igu re 5 . 9 ) . Twen ty -s ix s uch t oo l s h ave b een i d en t if i ed f r om G upuk . I n g ene ra l t h e se a r e m in ima l ly s haped f r om a n t le r , b one b e ing u sed i no n ly t h r ee i n s t ance s .
s now k n ive s a r e made w i th wha le b one . O n ly t h ree w e re m anuf ac tured f r om a n t le r , a s w e re t h e t o o l s u sed i n t h e e xper imen t s ( wha le b one b e ing u nava i lab le ) . O n ly o ne o f t h e a n t ler k n ive s w a s s u i tab le f o r a na ly s i s . Whe re i ti s p o s s ib le t ot e l l , t h e s now k n ive s f ound a tG upuk a r e o ft h e s i ng le shou lde red t ype d escr ibed b y Ma th ia s sen ( 1927 :85 ) , w i th t h e c oncave e dge s harpened . S im i la rs now k n ive s h ave b een i d en t if ied a t aw ide r ange o fs i te s , f r om t h eJ a ck son S i te o n C ape P a r ry ( Tay lo r 1 972 ) t o C or n e r s M idden (W i s s le r 1 918 ) . s now k n ive s s now n / a
6 1
t o ta l
7
F igure 5 . 9P i ck sa nd ama t tock ( r igh t )f r om Gupuk . T h i r teen w e re t o o e r oded f o r m ic ro scop ic e xa mina t ion . O f t h e r ema in ing t h ir teen ( Tab le 5 . 8 ) , o ne i s awha le b one a dze o r m a t tock , a nd a no ther , a l so o f wha le b one , i sp robab ly a
T ab le 5 . 7 Ana lyzab le s now k n ive s f r om G upuk a si d en t if i ed b ym ic ro scop ic w ea r .
f r agm en t o f a n a dze o r ma t tock . T he o n ly o the r b one e xamp le , a ppa ren t ly ap i ck , h a sn o tb een i d en t if i ed a st ou se . I ti s as p l i t p i ece o fc ar ibou me tapod ia l , w i th a v ery s ma l l p o r t ion o ft h e p rox ima l e nd p re sen t . I th a s ad r i l led h o le i n t h ep rox ima le nd a nd s t a in ing , p robab ly f r om l a sh ing , o nt h e c or t ica ls u rf ace a bou to ne t h i rd o ft h ew ay f r om t h ep rox ima l e nd . I np rof i le i ti sc u rved s l igh t ly , s o t h a t when h af ted , a s
D e sp i te d i f f e rences i n ma ter ia l , w ea r p a t te rn s o n t h e s i x a na lyzab le k n ive s a r e c on s i s ten t . T he p a t te rn s o b served a l l c l o se ly r e semb le t h e e xpe r imen ta l t o o l s , w i th o ne d i f f e rence ( P la te 5 . 6 a , b ) . I n a l l c a se s l i gh t s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le , g ene ra l ly p e rpend icu la r t o o r a t as l igh t a ng le t o t h e e dge . T h i s d i f f e r ence c an , Ib e l ieve , b e a t t r ibu ted e i the r t o t h e t empe ra tu re d i f f e ren t ia l d i scu ssed i n C hap te r F ou r o r t o l onge r u se . S t r ia t ion s d id a ppea r o n e xpe r imen ta l i c e p i ck s .
s ugge s ted b yt h el a sh ings ( a l though t h ey may h ave b een o n ly t op rov ide ag r ip ) , t h e t i p w ou ld h ave b een a ta na ng le t ot h e h and le .
Whe re t empera tu re s a r ev ery l ow , a nd s ot h ed eve lopmen to f al a ye r o f w a ter b e tween t h e k n if e a nd t h e s now i s l e s s c o mp le te , t h e g ranu la r s now may c au se s im i la r s t r ia t ion s o n s now k n ive s .
P i ck s g ene ra l ly f a l l i n to t wo c a tego r ie s , h a rpoon i c e p i ck s , h af ted t ot h ee nd o fs e a l ing a nd w a lru sh un t ing h a rpoon s ,
McGhee ( 1983 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t s i nce a r chaeo log ica l e xamp le si d en t if i ed a ss now k n ive sb y Ma th ia s sen ( 1927 ) a r e r a the r d i f f e ren t f r om e t hnog raph ic e xamp le s , b e ing s hor te r a nd w ide r , t h ey may a c tua l ly b e f l en s ing k n ive s ( f o r c u t t ing b lubbe r f r om wha les a nd o the r s e a m amma l s ) , w h ich h e
i c e? e a r th
ma in ta in s a r e r a re ly r e cove red . I ti sd i ff i cu l t a tt h i s t ime t o a cqu i re s e a m amma l b lubbe r w i th w h ich t oe xpe r imen t , a nd s o t h i s p os s ib i l i ty c ou ld n o t b e e xp lo red . I n my o p in ion h oweve r , ' s now k n if e r ema in s a n a pp ropr ia te i d en t if i ca t ion . V a r iou s
t ype s
o f s now
s t ruc tu re s
p i ck s 5
i c e
T ab le 5 . 8 w ea r .
h ave b een r e po r ted
e t hnog raph ica l ly a c ro s s t h e A rc t ic , i n c lud ing r e c tangu la r b l ock -bu i l t s t ruc tu re s w i th c anva s r oof s ( Mu rdoch 1 892 :81) . A l lw ou ld r equ i re s ome c u t t ing o fb l ock s .
3
e a r th?
3 1
n id t o t a l
1 1 3
P i ck s f r om G upuk a s i d en t if ied b y m ic roscop ic
a nd g ener ic p i ck s . A cco rd ing t oF o rd ( 1959 ) , h a rpoon i c e p i ck s , p a r t icu la r ly t h e i r h af t ing d es ign , h ave s ome t empo ra l s i gn i f icance . 5 2
N one o f t h e i c e p i ck s i d en t if ied h e re h ave
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS t a ng s , s c a rf s o r s ocke t s a s d escr ibed b y F o rd , h oweve r . I t s e em s u n l ike ly t h a t t h ey w e re h af t ed t oh a rpoon s haf t s . A
g auge s , b eave r t o o th c h i se l s , n ozz le p lug s , i c e s coop r im s , a nd s now p robe s ( F igu r e 5 . 10 ) . None o f t h e se t ypes a r e r e p re sen ted b y mo re t h an t h r ee e xamp le s . T hey w i l l b e d i scu s sed o n ly b r ief ly ( Tab le 5 . 9 ) .
mo re l i ke ly e xp lana t ion i s t h a t t h ey w e r e h ou seho ld i mp lem en t s , u sed f o r c h ipp ing i c e o u t o fe n t r ance p a ssage s a nd o f f h ou se f l oo r s a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e w in te r ( Fo rd 1 959 :181) ,a nd f o rm any o the ri c e -b r eak ing n eed s . A l though e t hnog raph ica l ly mo s ti c ep i ck s a ppea rt oh ave b een m ade o f
S inew Tw i s t e r s F ive s i new t w i s te r s w e re f ound a tG upuk . T he se a r e s ma l l r e c tangu la rp i ece s o fb one o ra n t le r , wh ich c urve u p s harp ly
i v o ry , p a r t icu la r ly w a l ru s i v ory ( Mu rdoch 1 892 :307 ) , t h i s i s n o t t h e c a se a tG upuk , w a l ru se s a nd i v o ry b e ing e x t rem e ly r a re .
a te ach e nd , t of o rm al i p , p o in t ing u p o no ne s i de a nd d own
A l l o ft h e e i gh t t o o l s i d en t if i ed a s i c e p i ck s h e re a r e
o nt h eo t he r . T hey a r eu sed b yi n se r t ing t h em b e tween s i new c o rd s a nd t h en t ur n ing t h em , t h e reby t w i s t ing t h e c o rd s t o ge the r . B yt h i sm ean s , t e n s ion o n as i new b acked b ow c an
m ade f r om c a r ibou a n t le r , g ene ra l ly s p l i t , w i th o ne e nd g round t o ap o in t . Mod if ica t ion i so t herw i se m in ima l . T he re a r e n o n o tche s o r h o le s f o r l a sh ing , a nd i ti sn o t a ta l l c l ea r
b e r e gu la ted . T he t w i s te r c an b e s l id b ack a nd f o r th , a l low ing i tt ot w i s tt h e s i new e ven t h ough i tl i e s c l ose t ot h e
h ow t h e se p i ck s w e re h af ted . T hey d o e ach h ave af l a t f a ce ( t he i n ter io r o f t h e a n t le r , s ome t ime s g round s moo th ) a nd
b ow ( i n t h e s ame m anne r a s av i se i st i gh tened ) . T he l i p s h e lp k eep i t f r om s l id ing o u t f r om b e tween t h e c o rd s .
t h i s may h ave b een l a shed a ga in s t ah and le . T he w ea r o n t h e se t o o l s c l ea r ly i nd ica te s t h a t t h ey w e re u sed o n s ome
Mu rdoch ( 1892 :291) s t a te s t h a t as t anda rd s e t o f ' b ow a nd
l u br ica ted s u rf ace i ne ach c a se o s t eon s a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le , s ome t ime s i nc on junc t ion w i th s t r ia t ion s s uch a st h o se s e en o n t h e e xpe r imen ta l t o o l s ( P la te 5 . 7 5 . 17 a ) . Wh i le t h i s p a t te rn c ou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t o o the r m a te r ia l s , s now o r w e t h ide p a r t icu la r ly ,i c es e em st h e mo s tl i ke ly . A s ap a r t icu la r ly -
-
a r row t o o l s 'i sm ad eu po f ama r l in s p ike ; af e a the rs e t te ra nd t wo t w i s te r s . ( A l though s e t s i n t h e MacFa r lane c o l lec t ion l a cked t h ef e a the rs e t te r s . ) T he t wo s i new t w i s te r s f r om G upuk w i th o b servab le w ea r b o th h ad w ea r p a t te rn s t y p ica l o f u se w i th s i new : n on -
r e s i l ien tm a ter ia l , a n t le r s e em s av e ry s u i tab le c ho ice f o r i c e p i ck s s i nce i ti sl e s s l i ke ly t ob reak t h an mo re b r i t t le b one o r i v o ry .
i n va s ive p o l i sh w i th f i n e s moo th s t r ia t ion s( P la te 5 . 8 a ) . On e i sj u s t l i ke t h e t w i s te r s i lu s t ra ted b y Mu rdoch ( 1892 :293 , F igu r e 2 86 ) , b u t t h e o t he r o ne l a ck s t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic l i pp ing .
F ou r o f t h e t oo l s i n t h i s c a tego ry w e re u sed o n e a r th , a s e v idenced b yt h e h eav i ly s t r ia ted s u r f aces a nd l a ck o fv i s ib le o s t eon s( P la te 5 . 7 5 . 17 b ) . T hey i n c lude t h e wha le b one a dze a nd a dze /ma t tock f r agmen t . T hese w e re mo s t l i ke ly u sed i n h ou se e xcava t ion a nd c on s t ruc t ion . T he o the rt wo a r e a n t le r p i ck s . O ne i ss im i la ri nf o rm t ot h ei c ep i ck s , a l though r a the r
S now P robe s F ive p i ece s o f a n t le r h ave b een i d en t if i ed a s s now p robe s . T he se a r e r od s w i th r ounded e nd s , u sed t o p robe t o f md s now o f t h e r i gh t t e x tu re a nd c on s i s tency f o r c on s t ruc t ing
s ma l l . T he o t he ri sa l so s im i la r , e xcep t f o rn o tch ing c l o se t o t h et i p , wh ich may b er e la ted t oh af t ing . T he p rox ima le nd i s m i s s ing i nt h i s s pec imen , s o t h e re a r en o o the ri n d ica t ion s o f h af t ing .
s now h ou se s( Ba l ikc i 1 970 :59 ) . T he p robe s f r om G upuk a r e v e ry l i ke t h o se i lu s t ra ted b y McGhee ( 1974 :P la te s 7 j , 2 1 1 ) . T hey a r e u n l ike t h e s now p robe f e r ru le s i lu s t ra ted b y F o rd ( 1959 :142 ) f r om P o in t B a r row a nd S t anf o rd ( 1976 :P la te s
M i sce l laneous T oo l s
3 7h a nd 5 0e )f r om Wa lakpa ,i nt h a tt h ey s e em t ob eh af t ed t o t h e s haf t d i f f e ren t ly . T he P o in t B a r row f e r ru le s a r e s ma l l a nd h ave a s o cke t o r o t he r m ean s o fh af t ing . T ho se f r om
As ma l ln umbe ro fo t he rt oo l s ( n= l5 ) , i n wh ich t h eu se i sf o r t h e mo s tp ar tc on s ide red t ob e i d en t i f iab le b yt h e f o rm o ft h e t o o l , w e re a l so e xam ined . T hese i n c lude s i new t w i s te r s ,n e t
G upuk , a l though b roken p rox ima l ly , a r e l onge r a nd s e em t o h ave h ad a l o nge r s haf t , l i ke t h a t i lu s t ra ted b y McGhee ( 1 974 :P la te 2 1 ,1 ) .
n i a
p lug
s i new
s no w
c h i se l f e r ru le n e t g auge n ozz le p lug s i new t w i s te r
4
0 0
0
0
0 0
0 2 0
0 0
0
3
0
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
2
f i sh s coop
0
0
0
0
0
0
t o t a l
4
3
2
1
1 2
0 0
'2
w ood
t o ta l
1
5 2 0
AM
F igure 5 . 10 M i sce l laneou s t o o l s f r om G upuk , l ef tt or i gh t t wo s i new t w i s te r s ,t wo p lugs a nd t wo s now p robe t i p s .
T ab le 5 . 9 M i sce l laneou s t oo l s f r om G upuk , e xc lud ing f r ag i le s pec imen s , s how ing m icro scop ic w ea r . 5 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE 1 s 4U 1T T hree o f t h e p robe s f r om G upuk a r e t o o e r oded f o r m icro scop ic e xam ina t ion . T he o t he rt wo h ave al i gh tp o l i sh w i th many o s teon s v i s ib le c ha rac ter i s t ic o fc on tac tw i th s of t , w e t ma ter ia l s ( P la te 5 . 8 b ) . T h i s w ea r c ou ld b e d ue t o c on tac tw i th an umbe ro f ma ter ia l s , n o to n ly s now , b u t s now s e ems l i ke ly ,g iven t h ee t hnog raph ic e v idence f o rt h e se t o o l s . N e tG auge s S even t o o l s h ave b een i d en t if ied a s n e t g auge s , u sed t o m a in ta in as t anda rd m e sh s i ze when mak ing an e t . O ne b one e xamp le i sv e ry t i ny a nd may b e at oy . I tw ou ld h ave p roduced an e t w i th am e sh o fa bou t 5 cm , h oweve r ( tw ice t h e s i ze o ft h e g auge ) . S nyde r ( 1986 ) s t a te s t h a t n e t s w i th s uch s ma l lm e she sw e re u sed a ss e ine n e t sf o rc a tch ing s ma l l s choo l ing f i sh s uch a s h er r ing . O th e r g auge s w ou ld h ave
F i sh S coop O ne f i sh s coop f r agmen ti si n c luded i nt h e s amp le , b u ti st o o e r oded f o r e xam ina t ion . T he se t oo l s w ere u sed t or emove f l oa t ing i c e f r om f i sh ing h o le s , a nd t or emove s now a nd f r o s t f r om c l o th ing ( Mu rdoch 1 892 :309 ) . T hey h ave a n t le r r im s , w i th ab a leen ' n e t ' .
M i sce l laneou s W orked B one a nd A n t ler
m ade n e t s w i th al a rge rm esh ( 1 3 .6 c m ) , u sed a sg i l ln e t s f o r l a rge r f i sh s uch a s w h i tef i sh . O ne b one g auge h a s t wo
A ' m i sce l laneou s ' c a tegory i n c lude s t h e l a rge s t n umbe r o f t o o l s , 3 75 ( F igu r e 5 . 11 ; T ab le 5 . 10 ) . T h i s i n c lude s t o o l st h a t
w o rk ing e nd s , t o make n e t s w i th m e she s o f d i f f e ren t s i ze s a nd o ne a n t le r g auge h a s b een b roken , d r i l led a nd may a l so h ave b een u sed a s ad r i l l b ea r ing . U nf o r tuna te ly a l l o ft h e g auges a r e t o o e r oded f o r m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s . N e t s w e r e made o f w i l low r oo t , s i new a nd b a leen a nd o t he r f i be r s ( Snyde r 1 986 :125 ) .
d o n o t f i t i n to a ny o f t h e o the r r e cogn ized c a tegor ie s d i scu s sed a bove . S ome m ay b e b roken b i t s o f o t he rw i se i d en t if iab le t o o l s( i . e . , af ew may p e rhap sb eb roken b a se s o f g auged d r i l l s ) . A l a rge r p e rcen tage o f t h ese t o o l s , 3 43 ( 9 1 .4% ) , a r e t oo e r oded f o r m ic ro scop ic o bserva t ion t h an i s t h ec a se w i th o t he rc a tegor ie s . I ti sn o tc l ea r why t h i s s hou ld b es ob u t many o ft h e se e r oded a r tef ac t sh ave b een i d en t if ied a ss t ake so rp eg s . T hey a r em in ima l ly wo rked p i ece so fb on e o ra n t le r , s haped t o ap o in t a nd s how ing n o e v idence o ff i ne
N ozz le P lug s Two s ma l l p i ece s o f w o rked a n t le r a nd o ne o fb one h ave b een i d en t if ied a s n ozz le p lug s . T he se a r e s ma l l t a pe r ing c y l inde r s . T hey f i tt h ed e scr ip t ion g i ven b y McGhee ( 1974 ) , a nd a r e s im i la r t o t h ose i lu s t ra ted b y S t inf o rd ( 1 976 : P l a te 5 1c , d ) . T hey w e re p robab ly u sed a s s t oppe r s f o r i n f la t ion
f i n i sh ing . I f t h ey w e re u sed a s p egs , t h e e xpo su re t h ey w ou ld b e s ub jec t t o d u r ing t h e i r u se l i f e a nd t h e m in ima l c ura t ion t h ey a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een g iven may e xp la in t h e i r p oo re rp re serva t ion .
n ozz les i ns e a l sk in f l oa t s .
t o ta l
T he w ea r o n a l l t h ree i ss im i la r , b u t i ti sd i ff i cu l t t o s ay whe the r i ti sd ue t ot h e i ru se a sn ozz le s o rn o t . A l l h ave a n
s ha rp s t r ia t ion s c oa r se s t r ia t ion s f r e sh
i nva s ive p o l i sh c ha rac te r ized b y o s teon s , w i th v a r iab ly s i zed c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a round t h e s haf t( P la te 5 . 8 c ) . I n o ne c a se t h i s w ea r i sp resen t o n ly o n o ne p or t ion o ft h e s haf t . A t t h e
h af t h and l ing
t i p ah a rd w ea r w i th many s moo th s t r ia t ion s , s im i la r t ot h a t p roduced b y r ubb ing w ood o r a n t le r , i sv i s ib le ( P la te 5 . 8 d ) .
o s teon s o s teon sa nd l i gh tp o l i sh n id t o ta l
S t anf o rd ( 1 976 :26 ) i d en t if i ed ' s p i ra l ing s c a r s ' a r ound t h e s haf to fo ne i v o ry p lug ( ' s ea lf l oa t mou thp iece s t oppe r ' ) f r om Wa lakpa , wh ich h e a t t r ibu ted t o f o rc ing t h e p lug i n to t h e mou thp iece .
f r om b one o ra n t le r t ot e e th . O ne t oo th , h oweve r , d id h ave w ea r s im i la r t o t h a t s e en o n b one u sed t o w o rk w ood , s ugge s t ing t h a tt h i sw a st h eu se o ft h e se t oo l s .
No s uch s c a r s a r e v i s ib le o n t h e G upuk
1 3 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2
T ab le 5 . 10 Wea ro n m i sce l laneou s wo rked b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s f r om G upuk .
s pec imen s . I f t h ey w e re p lug s o f t h i s s o r t , t h e o s teon s s ugge s t t h a t t h ey w e re w edged i n p l ace w i th a c u sh ion o f
Many o ft h e o t he rt o o l s i nt h i s c l a ss a r e s im i lar ly m in ima l ly
h ide . T h i s m igh t a l so a ccoun t f o r t h e m ic ro scop ic , r a the r t h an mac ro scop ic , s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t . On ly o n e s e em s t o h ave b een i n d i rec t c on tac t w i th ab one o r w ood
w o rked , a l though o f ten mo re c a ref u l ly t h an t h e ' s t ake s ' . T hey h ave v ar iab ly r ounded t op o in ted d i s t a l e nd s a nd l i t t le o r n o mod if ica t ion p rox ima l ly . T h ir teen h ave w ea r c ha rac te r ized b y f i ne , s moo th s t r ia t ion s a round t h e p o in t , wh ich s e em t o h ave b een made b y s o me th ing s ha rp ; t h ese make u p t h e l a rge s t g roup w i th in t h e m i sce l laneou s t o o l s ( P la te 5 . 9 a ) . T h i s w ea r i s mo s t s im i l ar t o w ea r o n ma r l in
n ozz le , a nd i tw a sa l so i nc on tac tw i th as of t e r ma t er ia l . B eave rT oo th C h i se ls T hese t o o l s , b eave r i n c i so r s h af ted i n a n t le r h and le s , a r e g ene ra l ly b e l ieved t o h ave b een u sed a s c h i se l s , i n t h e manne r o f a c r ooked k n if e , p r ima r i ly t o w o rk w ood
s p ike s . None o ft h e se t o o l s a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een u sed f o r t h i s p u rpo se , a st h ey a r e t oo l a rge t ob e u sef u l . T hey may , h oweve r , h ave b een u sed f o r o t he r s i new -wo rk ing t a sk s , o r p e rhap s f o r n e t t ing o r b a ske t m ak ing . I ti sn o t p o ss ib le t o m ake ap o s i t ive i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e t a sk s f o r wh ich t h e se t o o l sw er eu sed .
( F i tzhugh a nd K ap lan 1 982 :171 , F igu re 2 09 ) . Af u r the rf ou r l o ose b eave rt e e th h ave b een i d en t if i ed a sc h i se lb i t s . A tt h i s p o in t , i th a s n o t b een p o s s ib le t o a cqu i re b eave r t e e th w i th wh ich t oc a r ry o u t e xpe r imen t s . A s t e e th l o ok s i gn if ican t ly d i f f e ren t f r om b one o r a n t le r a th i gh m agn if ica t ion s , i tw a s n o t c on s ide red a dv i sab le t o t r an sf e r e xper imen ta l r e su l t s 5 4
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS r ep l ica t ed , a nd o f t h e se , o n ly 3 1 w e re s u i tab le f o r m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s . T he v a s t m a jor i ty o f t h ose t o o l s n o t r e p l ica ted w e re c l ea r ly t oo e r oded f o r e xam ina t ion . T hu s 3 82 , o r 9 2% , o ft h e s amp le w a s e l im ina ted . O ft h e 3 1 t oo l s t h a t c ou ld b e a na lyzed , s even w e re c l a s s if ied a s o rnamen t s , t wo w e re a r rowhead s , a nd t h ree w e re f i shhook e l emen t s . T he se w e re n o t e xam ined , f o l low ing t h e p a t tern e s tab l i shed f o rt h e G upuk ma ter ia l . T hu s , o ft h e o r ig ina l s amp le o f4 07 a r tef ac t s , o n ly n ine teen ( 5% )w e re a va i lab le f o ra na ly s i s . T h i s s amp le i se x t reme ly s ma l l , much s ma l le rt h an e xpec ted , 5
a nd t oo s ma l l t ob e v e ry u sefu l f o r d e ta i led c ompa r i son s . I t i sn o t c l ea r why t h e p r e serva t ion a tK i t t igazu i t s hou ld b e s o p oo r . McGhee ( 1974 ) r epo r ted t h a t p reserva t ion a tt h e s i te w a s e xce l len t , b u tt h e c ond i t ion o ft h eb one a r tef ac t s a tl e a s t
F igure 5 . 11 M i sce l laneou s w o rked b one a nd a n t le r f r om G upuk .
d oe s n o t b ea r t h i s o u t ( a l though o f c ou r se ' e xce l len t p re serva t ion ' i s ar e la t ive S t a temen t ) . S ome o ft h e t o o l s h ave n o d oub t s uf f e red f r om p oo r c on se rva t ion , b u t t h e ma jor i ty a ppea r t o h ave b een s ub jec t t o h a r she r d epo s i t iona l c ond i t ion s t h a t t h o se a t Gupuk . Many a r e h eav i ly r oo t e t ched ,w ea the red a nd g ene ra l ly e r oded .
T he r ema in ing m i sce l laneou st oo l sa r ev a r iab le b o th i nt e rm s o f f o rm a nd u se . Mos t o f t h em ( 19 ) h ad w ea r p a t t ern s , wh ich w e re n o t s im i la r t o a ny o f t h e e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced p a t tern s ( P la te 5 . 9 b , c ) .
T hese i n c lude v ar iou s
c omb ina t ion s o fp o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion s . S ome o ft h em may b e v a r ia t ion s o n f i n i sh ing p o l i she s , w h i le o t he r s a r e c l ea r ly r e la ted t o s ome u nknown u se . Two w e re f r e sh ly w o rked , a nd u nu sed . F ina l ly , t wo h ad w ea r s im i la r t ot h a t o b se rved o n s ome o f t h e g auged d r i l l s : b r igh t n on inva s ive p o l i sh
A l though a d e ta i led a na ly s i s o f s im i la r i t ies a nd d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e t wo s i t e s i sn o tp o s s ib le , p ar t icu la r ly i nt h e a r ea o f manuf ac tur ing t e chn iques a sd i scu s sed i nC hap te rS ix , i ti s p os s ib le t o make s om eg ene ra ls t a temen t s . On t h e who le , t h e u se w ea r a na ly s i s o fb one t oo l s f r om K i t t igazu i t c o mpa re s f avo rab ly t ot h a tf r om G upuk .
w i th l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ion s ( P la te 5 . 9 d ) . F o rt h eg auged d r i l l s i tw a s h ypo the s ized t h a t t h i s m ay h ave b een t h e r e su l t o f i n se r t ing i n aw ooden h af t , a nd t h e s ame m ay b e t r ue i nt h i s c a se . B o th p i ece s a r e b roken , a nd c ou ld r e p re sen te i the rt h e p rox ima lo rd i s ta le nd s o fs ome u n iden t if ied t o o l( one i nf a c t c ou ld b e af r agmen to f ag auged d r i l l ) .
G auged d r i l l s N one o f t h e d r i l l s f r om K i t t iga zu i t a r e i n v e ry g ood
K Ir r IGAzur r
c ond i t ion . T hey a r e a l l b roken , a nd mos t a r e b ad ly e roded . O f t h e t we lve g auged d r i l l s f r om K i t t igazu i t ( i den t if i ed b y McGhee a s p os s ib le f o re shaf t s [ 1 974 :46 ]) o n ly t wo w e re s u i tab le f o ra na ly s i s . B o th h ave b een u sed t od r i l lw e ta n t le r
( N ITR-2 )
T he s i t e o f K i t t igazu i t i s l o ca ted d i rec t ly a c ro s s t h e E a s t
( P la te 5 . 10 a ;T ab le 5 . 11 s umm ar ize s a l l w ea r i d en t if ica t ion s a tK i t t igazu i t ) . I no ne c a se ( N iT r -2 -1 601) t h e d r i l lm ay h ave
C hanne l o ft h e Mackenz ie R ive r f r om G upuk . T he s i te w a s o ccup ied b y t h e K i t t iga ryum iu t who , t o ge the r w i th t h e G opugm iu t o pe ra ted t h e wha le t r ap d i scu s sed a bove . I tw a s
b een u sed t o d r i l l s o aps tone o r s ome o the r g r i t ty ma ter ia l p rev iou s ly . T he re i sn o e v idence t h a ta ny o ft h e se t o o l sw e re u sed a sf o re shaf t s .
e xcava ted i n 1 969 a nd 1 970 b y R ober t McGhee o f t h e N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man ( now t h e C anad ian Mu seum o f C iv i l iza t ion ) . T he c o l lec t ion s f r om t h i s s i te w e r e e xam ined t op rov id e ac ompa ra t ive s amp le .
S pa tu la s
A l though Ie xam ined a t o ta l o f 4 07 b one t o o l s ( a l l o f t h e b one a n t le r a nd i v o ry a r tef ac t s r e cove red e xcep t f o r t h ree wh ich w e r e o n e xh ib i t e l sewhe re ) , o n ly 5 8 o f t h e se w e r e
E igh ts pa tu la te t o o l sw er e a va i lab le f o rm ic roscop ic a na ly s i s . I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t od e term ine t h e e xac tn umbe ro fs uch t oo l s
a n t ler
a w l
f r e sh
w ood
s i new
s i new /w i l low
w e th i de /coa r se s t r .
t o ta l
g auged d r i l l
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
s p a tu la
0 0
0 0
0
0
2
1
1
0
0
0
4 4
w edge
0 0
0 0 6
0 0
0 1
3 4
2
0 2 2
0 0
t o ta l
0 4 0 4
0 0
4
0 0 0
0 3
0 1
2
m a r l in s p ik e b l ade a w l
3
T ab le 5 . 11 Wea ro nt oo l s f r om K i t t igazu i t 5 5
1 9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT i n
t h e K i t t igazu i t c o l lec t ion a s t h i s w a s n o t ac a tegory u sed
D i scus s ion
b y McGhee . S ome o f t h e t o o l s i d en t if ied h e re a s s pa tu la s w e re i d en t if ied b y h im a s a w l s , f o re shaf t s o r a su n iden t if ied
U se w ea r a na ly s i s o ft o o l s f r om K i t t igazu i th a s s hown t h em t ob ev e ry s im i la ri n , a st h ey a r ei no t he rr e spec t s , t ot h et o o l s f r om G upuk . A l though t h e re a r e t o o f ew o ft h em t om ake
b one o ra n t le rt o o l s . S ix o ft h e se s pa tu la te t o o l s h ad w ea ra s s e en o n e xper imen ta l , e t hnog raph ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l m a r l in s p ike s ( P la te 5 . 10 b ) . T h i s w a s a l so t h e p redom inan t u se w ea r i d en t if ied o n Gupuk s pa tu la s . T he o the r t wo h ad w ea rs ugge s t ing mu l t ip le u se s . O ne ( N iT r -2 -1370 ) , a l though q u i te e r oded , s howed w ea r c ha rac te r i s t ic o f g roov ing , i d en t if ied b y d i agona l s t r ia t ion s a c ro s s t h e s i de o f t h e t i p , a l though t h e m a ter ia l g rooved c ou ld n o t b e i d en t if ied ( P la t e 5 . 10 c ) . S ub sequen tu se o ns ome s of t ma te r ia lh ad e r a sed t h e c ha rac ter i s t ic s o ft h e se s t r ia t ion s t h a tw ou ld h ave mad e t h em i d en t if i ab le . T he s of t ma te r ia l w a s mo s t l i ke ly w e t h ide , a s t h e w ea r o n t h e r ema inde r o ft h e t oo l t i p w a s i n va s ive a nd c ha rac te r i zed b y o s teon s . T h i s c omb ina t ion o f t r a i t s
a ny d efi n i t ive s t a t emen t s , d i f f e rence s s e em t ob e m ino r . N o w ood s p l i t t ing w edge sw e re i d en t if ied o nt h eb a s i so fw ea ra t G upuk , f o r i n s tance , b u t t h i s m ay b e d ue t o p oo r p re serva t ion . No d oub t s ome o f t h e w edges f ound t h e r e w e re u sed t o s p l i t w ood . I n a l l o t he r t o o l c a tegor ie s , w ea r p a t te rn sf e l li n to t h es ame g roup sa tK i t t igazu i ta st h ey h ad a t G upuk . P e rhap s t h e mo s t i mpor tan t i n f o rma t ion t oc ome o u t o ft h i s p ar to ft h es t udy i st h a tp re serva t ion , ak ey f a c to ri nt h i s t y pe o fw o rk , c anno tb et a ken f o rg ran ted . A l though t h et wo s i te s a r e v e ry c l o se t o ge the r , i n v e ry s im i la r ( v ir tua l ly i d en t ica l )
( g roov ing a nd w ea rb yw e th ide ) s ugge s t s t h a tt h i s w a s s om e
e nv i ronm en t s , p re serva t ion i sc l ea r ly d i f f e r en t a te ach s i t e . A s m en t ioned a bove , p o s t -excava t ion c on serva t ion p robab ly
s o r t o fh ide w o rk ing t oo l . T he f i na l mu l t i -purpo se s pa tu la h ad w ea rl i ke t h a to nt h e ma r l in s p ike s , a sw e l la sf i ne c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , d i agona lt ot h e t i p ( P la te 5 . 10 .d ) . T he se may h ave
h a s s ome th ing t o d o w i th t h i s , b u t d epo s i t iona l f a c to r s a r e a l so i mpo r t an t . I ti sn o t c l ea r wha t t h e d i f f e rences b e tween t h e t wo s i t e s a r e . I t may b e t h a t a r tef ac t s f r om K i t t igazu i t c ame f r om amo re s e a sona l ly a c t ive p a r t o ft h e p ermaf ro s t ( one t h a t t h awed a nd f r oze mo re o f t en ) t h an t h o se f r om G upuk . I na l lo th e rr e spec t s , t h e ma te r ia l f r om K i t t igazu i ti s v ery s im i la rt ot h a tf r om G upuk .
b een p roduced b y w i l low , b u t may a l so b e t h e r e su l t o f p o l i sh ing w i th s ome o the r f i ne a b ra s ive . T he t oo l s i t se lf i s m ade o nt h e d i s ta l e nd o f ab i rd u lna ( s pec ies n o ti d en t i f ied ) w i th t h e p rox ima l a r t icu la r e nd i n tac t , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e w ea ri sd ue t ou se r a the rt h an f i ne f i n i sh ing .
K n ive sa nd D agger s
THE POND S ITE ( N ITS 2 )
T h ree f r agmen t s o fb one b l ade s w e re s u i tab le f o ra na ly s i s o f ap robab le t o ta l o ff i ve i nt h e c o l lec t ion . A s w a s t h e c a se a t G upuk , n one o ft h e se s e em s t oh ave b een u sed . A l l s how a f i ne p o l i sh ing wh ich i sd ue t o manuf ac ture ( fi n i sh ing p o l i sh ) r a the rt h an u se ( P la te 5 . 10 e ) .
T he P ond S i te i s aw in te r v i l lage s i te o f s em i sub te r ranean d r if twood h ou se s o n t h e e a s t s i de o fR icha rd s I s land , NWT , a bou t 8 00 i ns ou th o fG upuk . I ti sc ur r en t ly s e para t ed f r om t h er i ve rb y aw ide a r ea o ff o re sho re f l a t s . As t r eam c r o s s ing t h e se f l a t s ( a nd r unn ing t h rough t h e s i te ) i st o o s ha l low f o r b oa t s , s o a cce s s t ot h e r i ve r i sd i ff i cu l t . A s sum ing t h e s i t e w a s a l so o ccup ied i nt h e s umm e r , a s ab e luga h un t ing s t a t ion
Aw l s
a s w e re G upuk a nd K i t t igazu i t , t h en i t mu s t h ave b een o ccup ied b ef o re t h e f l a t s d eve loped . H ow l o ng a go t h i s o ccur red h a sn o ty e tb een d e term ined ( A rno ld 1 986 ) .
A s n o ted a bove , McGhee ( 1 974 :70 ) i n c luded i nh i s c a tego ry o fa w l st o o l st h a tw e re mo s tl i ke ly n o ta w l s ,b u tr a the rm a r l in s p ike s a nd o the rf l a tp o in ted t o o l s . H e i d en t if ied s even t o o l s a ss h arp p o in ted a w l s t h a t mo s t l i ke ly w e re a w l s . O ft h e se , o n ly f ou r w e re s u i tab le f o r a na ly s i s . A l l o f t h e se a r e
E xcava t ion s a tt h e s i te w e re c a r r ied o u t i n t h e s umme r o f 1 989 b y ac r ew l e db y D r . C . A rno ld o ft h e P r ince o f Wa le s No r thern H er i tage . Two h ou se s a nd s ome o ft h e a d jacen t m idden s w e re e xcava ted . A s w i th t h e w o rk a t G upuk , a g r ea t d ea l o fc a re w a s t a ken t oe n su re t h a tt h e a r tef ac t s w e re
p robab ly a w l s ,b u tt h ree o ft h em s how l ong i tud ina ls t r ia t ion s , p robab ly f r om m anuf ac tu re ( f in i sh ing ) b u t p os s ib ly f r om u se , wh ich d i s t ingu i sh t h em f r om mo s t o f t h e Gupuk a w l s ( P la te 5 . 10 f ) .
c a r efu l ly e xcava ted a nd p rope r ly c on se rved . D ur ing t h e 1 989 s e a son , 1 98 b one , a n t le ra nd i v o ry a r tef ac t s w e re r e cove red . O ft h e se , 6 2 ( 3 1 .3% ) f e l li n to t h e c a tego r ie s o ft oo l s e xam ined f o ru se w ea re s tab l i shed f o rG upuk . O n ly 2 9 o ft h e se ( 46 .7% o ft h e s amp le , 1 4 .6% o ft h e t o t a l ) w e re
W edge s
s uf f ic ien t ly w e l l p re served f o r m ic ro scop ic d e ta i l s t o b e
T h ree b one t o o l s a nd t wo f r agmen t s w e re i d en t if ied b y McGhee ( 1974 :65 ) a s w edge s . Two o ft h e se w e re s u i tab le f o ra na ly s i s . B o th t oo l s a r e s l igh t ly e r oded , b u t s how an on -
v i s ib le . Twen ty -f ou r o ft h e se ( 40 .3% o ft h e s amp le , 1 2 .6% o ft h e t o ta l ) w e re i d en t if ied w i th s om e d eg ree o fc onf idence T ab le 5 . 12 ) .
i n va s ive p o l i sh wh ich i s q u i te s moo th , w i th v ar iab le s t r ia t ion s . T h i s w ea r i s mo s t s im i la r t ow ea r e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced b y r ubb ing wood , s uppo r t ing t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e se t o o l s a sw edge sf o rs p l i t t ing wood ( P la te 5 . 10 g ) .
5 6
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS O F ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS G auged D r i l l s
s e cur e i d en t if ica t ion i mpo ss ib le . I nt h e o t he r t wo c a ses , t h e s t r ia t ion s f a l l i n to t h e r ange p roduced b o th b y h a i r a nd b y b u rbo ts ca le s a sd i scu s sed i nC hap t e rF ou r . B urbo ti so ne o f t h e mos t c ommon f i she s i nt h e f a una l s amp le e xam ined t o
O n ly t wo g auged d r i l l s w e re i d en t if ied a tN i t s -2 o nt h e b a s i s o ff o rm . O ne o ft h e se h ad b een u sed t od r i l lw ood , w h i le t h e o t he r h ad a p a t tern t h a t w a s u n recogn ized , b u t d i d n o t i n c lude s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf ta s a r e e xpec ted o n ad r i l l ( P la t e 5 . 11 a ) .
d a te ( Meadow s p e r s . c omm . 1 99 1) . T he o r ien ta t ion s o ft h e s t r ia t ion s o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l t o o l s s uppor t s t h e i r i d en t if ica t ion a sf i sh s c a le r sr a the rt h an t oo l s u sed t or emove h a i ro rc l ean u ps p i l l so nh ides ( P la te 5 . 11 d ) .
S pa tu la s K n ive sa nd D agger s F ive s pa tu la te t o o l s w e re i d en t if ied .
O ne o ft h ese w a s t oo
e r oded t o e xam ine . Two o f t h e r ema in ing s pa tu la s h ad p a t tern st h a tw e re n o tr e cogn ized . B o th h ad c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a c ro s s t h e t i p , mak ing t h em s im i la r t o s ome o ft h e s pa tu la s
N ine b l ade f r agm en t s a nd o ne p o s s ib le b l ade f r agmen t w e re
f r om G upuk ( P la te 5 . 11 b ) . T he f i na lt wo s pa tu la sh ad w ea r i d en t if i ed a tG upuk a sb e ing f r om u se a s aw ound p in ( P la t e 5 . 11 c ) . O ne o ft h ese t oo l s i s ac l a s s ic n a i l l ike w ound p in a s
G upuk . Mo s t ( f ou r c e r ta in a nd t h ree l i ke ly ) w e re u nu sed , b u t h i gh ly f i n i shed . O n ly o ne s howed s i gn s o fu se , i nt h i s
i d en t if ied , o fw h ich t wo w e re t o o e r oded t o e xam ine .
T he
r ema in ing e i gh t f o l low t h e s ame p a t tern e s tab l i shed a t
c a se , p os s ib ly m ea t w ea r . S im i l ar p a t tern s w e re s e en o n k n ive s a nd d agge r s f r om G upuk . T h i s a ppea r s t ob e at oo l c a tego ry w i th l i m i ted ,w e l ld ef ined u se s .
f ound a tm any T hu le s i te s . T he o the r w a s i d en t if i ed mo re g ener ica l ly a s ab odk in . T hese t o o l s w e re p robab ly u sed a s p in s t oc l ose o pen ings ( i nc l o th ing o ri nb ags ) , a nd a r er a the r b roade r t h an t yp ica l w ound p in s , a l though s t i l l n o tched p rox ima l ly ,w i th ap o in td i s ta l ly . I ts e em sl i ke ly t h a tb odk in s
Aw l sa nd N eed le s
w ou ld d eve lop w ea r p a t tern s v e ry s im i la r t o t h o se s e en o n w ound p in s , a nd i t may n o t b e p o ss ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh t h e t wo .
A l though s even a w l s w e re i d en t if ied a tt h eP ond S i te , b yu se o ft h e s ame c r i te r ia a sa tG upuk , o n ly t wo w e re w e l l e nough p r e served t oi d en t if y w ea r . I nb o th c a se s t h i s w a s t y p ica l o f w ea rs e en o ne xpe r imen ta la nd o t he ra r chaeo log ica la w l s .
S capu la S craper s
T h ree n eed le sw e re r e cove red a tt h eP ond S i te . One o ft h e se w a s t oo e r oded t o e xam ine a nd a s w i th t h e a w l s , t h e o the r t wo e xh ib i ted w ea rt y p ica lo fn eed le s .
F ive s s c apu la s c raper s w e re r e cove red f r om t h e P ond S i t e . T h ree o ft h e se h ad s uff i c ien tm ic ro scop ic d e ta i lp re se rved f o r i d en t if ica t ion . Un l ike a tG upuk , whe r e o n ly o ne o ft h e se s o c a l led f i sh sca le r s h ad w ea r c on s i s ten t w i th t h a t a c t iv i ty , a l l t h ree o ft h e s c apu la t oo l s f r om t h e P ond S i te may h ave b een
S now k n ive s
u sed f o r s c a l ing . I n a l l c a se s t h i s i d en t if i ca t ion i st e n ta t ive , h oweve r . I n o ne c a se , wha t a ppea r t ob e s t r ia t ion s l e f t b y f i sh s c a le s a r e p ar t ia l ly o b scu red b y w ea the r ing , m ak ing a
Two c on jo in ing f r agmen t s o f aw ha le b one s now k n if e , w i th h o le s d r i l led o n b o th s i de s o f t h e b r eak t o r e pa i r i t , w e re
T oo lt ype
F resh
Wood
G auged d r i l l S pa tu la
0
1
0 0 4
S capu la t o o l B lade Aw l N eed le S now k n if e P i ck
0 0 1 0
Wound p in 0
S ca le s ! h a i r
Aw l
N eed le
I c e
0
0
0
0
1 0
0 2
0
0
0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0 1
1
1 2
2
4
1
6
2 4
0 0 0 0
C h i se l
1
F o re shaf t M i sc .
0 0
0
t o ta l
6
0 0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
1
1
2
1
T ab le 5 . 12 Wea ro nt oo l sf r om t h eP ond S i t e . 5 7
N id
t o ta l
0
F ine p o l ish 0
1
2
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
0 0 2
0 0
0
0 0
4
0 0
2
0
0 0 4
0 0 0 0
0 2
1 1 4 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT f ound . T he se p i ece sa r et h eh and le a nd as ma l lp o r t ion o ft h e b l ade , t h e r e s t b e ing l o s t . A l though t h e mo s t d i s ta l p a r t o f t h e r ema in ing b l ade w a s e xam ined f o r w ea r n one w a s s e en , t h e e dge b e ing f r e sh . E i the r w ea r d id n o t e x tend t h a t f a r o r mo re l i ke ly , t h e t oo l h ad b een f r e sh ly r e sha rpened b efo re i t w a sd i sca rded o rl o s t .
CACHE P O INT ( NHT s -2 )
C ache P o in t i s a no the r w in te r v i l lage s i te o f s em i s ub te r r anean d r if twood h ou se s , o n t h e e a s t s i de o fR icha rd s I s land , a bou t 1 0 km s ou th o f Gupuk . I tw a s e xcava ted b yR . S t rombe rg i nt h e s umme r s o f1 983 a nd 1 984 . T o d a te , o n ly t wo b r ief p r e l im ina ry r epo r t s a r e a va i lab le ( S t rombe rg 1 984 , 1 985 )a nd t h e se f o rm t h eb a s i so ft h ef o l low ing d e scr ip t ion .
P ick s
C ache P o in ti s ar e la t ive ly l a rge s i te , 5 00 m e a s tt ow e s t , a nd E igh t a n t le r i c e p i ck s , a l l s im i la r t o t ho se i d en t if i ed a t Gupuk , w e re f ound a tt h e P ond S i te . F our o ft h ese w e re t oo e roded t o e xam ine , wh i le t h e r ema in ing f our a l l h ad w ea r c ha rac ter i s t ic o fu se a si c ep i ck s .
o fo ccupa t ion m ay h ave b een as ma l li s land . A sw i th G upuk , s a lvage o pe ra t ion s w e re a ma jo r c on s idera t ion d ur ing e xcava t ion s a st h e s i te i sb e ing a c t ive ly e r oded . Du r ing t h e f i r s t f i e ld s e a son , e f f o r t s w e re c oncen t ra ted o n s l umped m a ter ia l , a nd o n o ne p a r t ia l ly e roded h ou se . D ur ing t h e s e cond s e a son , t h ree mo re h ou ses w e r e e xcava ted a nd a f u r the r s i x t e s ted . One c ache p i t w a s a l so e xcava ted . T he
M i sce l laneous T oo l s
h ou se s , i n c lud ing t h e r e a r c ache p i t s , a r e s im i la r t o t h ose f r om o t he r Mackenz ie D e l t a s i te s , s how ing c l ea r a ff in i t ie s t o w es t A la skan n eo -E sk imo ( Thu le ) h ou se s . T hey a r e n o t ,
A n umbe r o f m i sce l laneou s t oo l s w e re a l so p r e sen t i n t h e P ond S i te c o l lec t ion , b u t mos t w e re t o o e r oded t oe xam ine . T hey i n c lude o ne s now p robe , t wo w edge s , f o ur teen p i ece s
h oweve r , l a te c r uc if orm s t y le h ou ses , a s a t Gupuk , b u t t h e e a r l ie r s qua r e f o rm , w i th s ome s i de a l cove s . T he a r ch i tec tu re a nd a r t if ac t s t y le s w e re u sed b y S t rombe rg t o
o f wo rked b one a nd a n t le r , t h ree t o ot h c h i se l s a nd o ne a n t le r f o reshaf t . T he s now p robe , t h e w edge s a nd t we lve o f t h e w o rked b one a nd a n t le r p i ece s w e re a l l t o o e r oded t o e xam ine .
a bou t2 50 i nn o r th t os ou th , o n al ow b luf f , wh ich a tt h et im e
T he c h i se l s c ou ld n o t b e i d en t if ied b ecau se o f a
l a ck o f e xpe r imen ta l ma ter ia l f o r c o mpa r i son , b u t o ne w a s c er ta in ly f r e sh ly s ha rpened . F ine s t r ia t ion s o nt h e o t he rt wo
d a te C ache P o in t t o a bou t A .D . 1 350 -1450 , o n t h e b a s i s o f c o mpa r i son s w i th R ad io C reek ( McGhee 1 974 ) . R ad io C reek l i e s d i r ec t ly a c ro s s t h e r i ve r f r om C ache P o in t , i nt h e s ame r e la t ion t oi ta sK i t t igazu i ti st oG upuk .
a r e s ugge s t ive o f wood w ea r ( P la t e 5 . 11 e ) , wh ich w ou ld b e c on s i s ten t w i th e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s o f h ow t h e se t oo l s w e re u sed , b u tw i thou t e xpe r imen ta l w o rk t h i s i d en t if ica t ion c anno t b e s uppor ted . Wea r o n t h e m i sce l laneou s p i ece s o f
D u r ing t wo f i e ld s e a son s , 2 82 b one , a n t ler a nd i v ory a r tef ac t s w e re r e cove red . T he f a c t t h a t m any o ft h em w e r e r e cove red f r om s l umped , a nd t h e ref o re b o th d i s turbed a nd e xposed , d epo s i t s ,i ss i gn if i can t . O n ly 7 1 a r tef ac t s ( 25 .1 % o f
wo rked b one a nd a n t le ra l so p roved v e ry d i ff i cu l tt oi d en t ify . I no ne c a se , ar od o fp o l i shed b one , i ti sp robab ly n o tw ea ra t a l l , b u t af i ne manuf ac tu r ing p o l i sh . T he s am e m ay b e t r ue
t h e t o t a l ) w e re t y pe s s e lec ted f o r a na ly s i s a tG upuk a nd o f t h e se , o n ly s even ( 9 .9% o f t h e s amp le , 2 . 5% o f t h e t o ta l ) w e re f ound t o h ave a ny m ic roscop ic d e ta i l p re se rved . O f t h e se s e ven , o n ly t wo ( 2 .8% o f t h e s amp le , 0 . 7% o f t h e ‚
i nt h e o t he rc a se ,p o s s ib ly ac omb t o o th . T he f o r e shaf t w a s i n c luded t o v er ify e xpec ted d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e w ea r s e en o n i ta nd o n d r i l l s . A s w i th t h e f o reshaf t f r om t h e MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion , s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t w e re p re sen t , b u t t h ey a r e much l a rge r t h an a ny s e en o n d r i l l s , a nd s e em t o b e c au sed b y p i ece s o f g r i t
t o ta l ) w e r e s u cce s sfu l ly i d en t if i ed ( Tab le 5 . 13 ) . T h e i mpor t ance o f p r eserva t ion i n s e lec t ing s i te s f o r u se w ea r a na ly s i s c an h a rd ly b e o ve rempha s ized . I n t h i s c a se , t h e p oo rp re serva t ion may b e a c coun ted f o rb y ac o mb ina t ion o f t h e i n c rea sed a ge o ft h e s i te ( a s c ompa red t o Gupuk ) , a nd t h e d i s tu rbance c au sed b ye r os ion .
t r apped b e tween t h e f o re shaf t a nd t h e h a rpoon s ocke t ( P la te 5 . 11 f ) .
a w l D i scu ss ion A s w a s t h e c a se w i th K i t t igazu i t , t h e c o l lec t ion f r om t h e P ond S i te i st oo s ma l l t o make a ny q uan t i ta t ive c ompa r i son s t o Gupuk , a l though i ti sg ene ra l ly b e t te rp re served . T he t wo c o l lec t ion s a r e s im i la rb ot h i nt e rm s o ft h e t o o l s p re sen t , t h e f o rm o ft h et oo l s , a nd t h eu ses i d en t if ied o nt h em . T he mo s t s i gn if i can td i f f e rence b e tween t h et wo i st h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f a tl e a s t t wo , a nd p robab ly t h ree f i sh s c a le r s a tt h e P ond S i t e ,
w o rn
n id
0
p ocke t 1
s hea th?
g auged d r i l l
0
0
0
t o ta l 1
s pa tu la s c rape r
0 0
0
0 0
0
2
2
0
b l ade a w l?
0 1
0
1
0 0
0 0
0 1
0
0
1
0
0 0
0
s now k n if e
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 1
1 1
1
2
3
7
p i ck n e t g auge m i sc .
o u to f at o ta l o fo n ly f i ve s c apu la t o o l s , wh i le a tG upuk o n ly o ne s c a le r w a s i d en t if ied among 1 4 s c apu la t o o l s . T he n umbe r s a r e s o s ma l l , h oweve r , t h a t t h i s r a t io m ay b e
t o ta l
a tr ibu ted t os amp l ing b i a s .
0 0 0 1
1
T ab le 5 . 13 Wea ri d en t if ied o nt oo l sf r om C ache P o in t .
5 8
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS T he s u i te o ft oo l s a tC ache P o in t i sg ene ra l ly s i mi la r t ot h a t a tt h e s i te s d i scu s sed a bove , i n c lud ing a w l s , s pa tu la s , s now
a nd s ugge s t a n o ccupa t ion s pann ing t h e s p r ing , s umme r a nd f a l l . I f , a s A rno ld ( 1990 ) s ugge s t s , S aunak tuk c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e l i t t le k nown i n land dwe l l ing g roup o f t h e
k n ives , p i ck s , k n ive s a nd d agge r s , d r i l l s a nd m i sce l laneou s t o o l s . S ucce s sfu l i d en t if ica t ion s w e re m ade o n o ne a w l ( o f t wo i nt h e c o l lec t ion ) , a nd o ne b l ade ( o ft h ree ) . T he a w lh ad t yp ica l a w l w ea r , w h i le t h e b l ade s howed e v idence o f
Mackenz ie I nu i t , t h e I nuk tu iu t , t h ey may a l so h ave i n hab i ted
p os s ib le s h ea th w ea r , a s i d en t if i ed a t G upuk . T he s i ng le g auged d r i l l f r om t h e s i te s howed n o e v id ence o fu se a s a
f r ame l o g h ou se b u i l t o ve r as ha l low d ep re s s ion , w i th a s t one -paved f l oo r .
d r i l l ; t h e o n ly w ea r i d en t if ied w a s ' p ocke t ' w ea r .
Two
t h e s i t e f o r p a r t o ft h e w in te r , r e ly ing o n c ached f ood . T he o n ly s t ruc tu r e e xcava t ed a t t h e s i te a ppeared t o b e a n A -
T he mo s t i n t r igu ing a spec t o ft h e ma ter ia l s r e cove red f r om t h i s s i te a r e t h e h uman r ema in s . T he se s how c l ea r e v idence
s pa tu la s ( o f s even ) h ad u n iden t if ied l i gh t , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , wh ich m ay h ave b een c au sed b y w i l low , b u t a r e n o t c l ea r e nough t op o s i t ive ly i d en t ify ( P la te 5 . 12 b ) . T he o n ly o t he r t oo l s w e l l p re served e nough t o h ave i d en t if i ab le w ea r w e r e
o f a ma s sac re , i n c lud ing t o r tu re a nd p e rhaps c ann iba l i sm , , w h ich e nded t h e o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te ( A rno ld Me lbye a nd F a i rgneve 1 990 ) .
o ne w o rk ed b e luga t o o th , wh ich w a s h eav i ly w orn o n a l l
1 990 ,
s u rf ace s ,p o ss ib ly b yh and l ing , a nd ab roken p i ece o fw o rked a n t le r w h ich h ad w ea r mo s t s im i la r t o t h e u n iden t if i ed s pa tu la s ( P la te 5 . 12 c ) . T he t i p o f t h i s t o o l i s m i s s ing h oweve r , s ot h e f u l lw ea rp a t te rn c ou ld n o tb eo b se rved .
At o ta l o f 1 72 b one , a n t le r a nd i v o ry t oo l s w e re r e cove red f r om S aunak tuk . S even ty seven ( 44 .8% ) o f t h e se f e l l i n to
I t i s n o t p o ss ib le , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s p oo r ly p re served s amp le , t o d er ive a ny c onc lu s ion a bou t s im i la r i t ie s o r
m ic ro scop ic d e ta i l s p r e served , a nd 2 0 ( 1 1 .6% o f t h e t o ta l , 2 5 .9% o f t h e s amp le ) w e re s ucce s sfu l ly i d en t if ied ( Tab le 5 . 14 ) .
t h e c a tegor ie s e xam ined f o ru se w ea ri nt h i s s t udy . O ft h e se , 2 6 ( 15 .1 % o ft h e t o ta l , 3 3% o ft h e s amp le ) p roved t o h ave
d i f f e rence s b e tween C ache P o in t a nd a ny o ft h e o t he r s i te s e xam ined h e re .
G auged D r i l l s SAUNAKTUK
( NGTN -1 )
S ix teen g auged d r i l l sw e re i d en t if i ed a tS aunak tuk . O ft h e se , f i ve h ad o b servab le u se w ea r . One o ft h e se h ad c l ea r ly b een u sed t od r i l lw ood , wh i le t wo h ad p robab ly b een u sed t od r i l l w e t a n t le r , a l though t h e w ea r w a s s o mewha t o bscu r ed b y
S aunak tuk i s ar a the rd i f f e ren ts i t e f r om t h e o t he r s e xam ined i nt h i s s t udy . T he s i te w a s f i r s tf o und i n 1 981 , w hen al a rge p ar to fi tw a s d i s tu rbed b yb u l ldoze r . T he r ema in s o ft h e s i te w e re t e s t ed i n 1 984 , a nd e xcava t ed i n 1 985 b y C . A rno ld .
e r o s ion . T he o ther t wo b o th e xh ib i ted amode ra te ly i n va s ive p o l i sh , l a ck ing t h e s t r ia t ion s a round t h e s haf t c ha rac ter i s t ic o fu se a s ad r i l l .
T he f o l low ing d e sc r ip t ion i s s umma r ized f r om h i s r epor t ( Arno ld 1 990 ) . A l though i ti s c l ea r ly a Mackenz ie I nu i t s i te , S aunak tuk a ppea r s t o b e as e a sona l c amp f o r e xp lo i t ing t h e r i ch
S pa tu la s
r e sou r ce s o ft h e E sk imo L ak es , u n l ik e t h e s ub s tan t ia l w in te r v i l lage s f ound a l ong t h e Mack enz ie R ive r . T he f a una l
S aunak tuk p roduced f i ve s pa tu la s , o f wh ich t h r ee h ad s ome m ic ro scop ic d e ta i lp re served . Two o ft h ese h ad l i gh t , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s o r ien ted d i agona l ly , a s w ere t h o se o n t h e
r ema in s r e cove red w e re e x t reme ly d i ve r se ( Ba lkw i l l 1 987 ) , T oo lt y pe G auged d r i l l S pa tu la B lade B lade? Aw l P i ck P i ck? S inew t w i s te r N e t g auge C h i se l M i sc . t o ta l
f r e sh 1
s hea th 0
Aw l 0
N eed le 0
S inew 0
P ocke t 0
I c e 0
n id 2
t o ta l 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 4 0 0 0
0 0 0 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 0 0
2 1 0 0 0 0 0
3 2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 4
0 0 2
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 0 2
1 7
T ab le 4 . 14 Wea ro nt o o l sf r om S aunak tuk .
5 9
6 2 1
1 2 0
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT e xpe r imen ta l t o o l s u sed t o p ee l b a rk ( P la te 5 . 13 a ) . T hey h ave b een t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if ied a s b a rk p ee l ing t o o l s . T he t h i rd s pa tu la h ad a g ene ra l i n va s ive p o l i sh , w i th s ome o s teon s v i s ib le d esp i te l i gh tw ea ther ing ( P la te 5 . 13 b ) . T h i s
M i sce l laneou s W orked B one a nd A n t ler Twen ty th ree t o o l s h ave b een i n c luded i n t h i s c a t ego ry . Mo s t o f t h em a r e t o o e r oded f o r e xam ina t ion . T ho se t h a t w e r en o ta r el i s t ed i nT ab le 5 . 14
h a sb een i n te rp re ted a s ah ide p o l i sh .
S inew Tw i s te r S capu la S c raper s
a nd i t se dge w a sf r e sh ly g round ,w i th n ow ea rv i s ib le .
One s i new t w i s t e r w a s i d en t if i ed a tS aun ak tuk . I th a s w ea r s im i la r t ob o th t h e e xper imen ta l t oo l s u sed w i th s i new , a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica la nd e t hnog raph ic s i new t w i s t e r s d i scu s sed a bove .
K n ive sa nd Dagger s
T he o n ly n e t g auge f r om S aunak tuk i s as ma l l b one t o o l ,
On ly o ne s c apu la s c rape r w a s r e cove red f r om S aunak tuk ,
N e tG auge w i th t wo g auge s o fd i f f e ren t s i zed ( one f o r s ma l l n e t s , o n e f o r l a rge r n e t s ) . I ti sg ene ra l ly p o l i shed , w i th l i gh t , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s i n m any d i f f e ren t d i rec t ion s , b u t p redom inan t ly p e rpend icu la r t o t h e e dge o n a l l s i des o f t h e g auge ( P la t e
F ou rb l ade f r agmen t sw e re f ound a tS aunak tuk . O ne o ft h e se w a st oo e r oded f o re xam ina t ion . T he o the r sc ove red a sw ide ar ange o fw ea rt ype s a sp o s s ib le . One w a s f r e sh , t h e t yp ica l p a t te rn f o r t h e se t oo l s . One s howed s i gn s o f s hea th w ea r .
5 . 13 c ) . A sn oe xpe r im en t sw i th n e tg auge sw er e c a r r ied o u t , a nd n o o t he r n e t g auge s w e r e w e l l e nough p re served t o
T he t h ird h ad a g ene ra l l i gh t p o l i sh , w h ich b ecau se o f t h e p oo rq ua l i ty o ft h e r ep l ica , c ou ld n o tb e i d en t if i ed . I ts hou ld
e xam ine i ti sn o tc l ea rh ow t h i sp a t te rn f i t s i n . T he d i rec t ion s o f t h e s t r ia t ion s s e em s c on s i s t en t w i th u se a s an e t g auge .
b e n o ted h e re t h a t t h i s i s ap rob lem i nhe ren t i nt h e u se o f r ep l ica s f o rs t udy ing mu seum c o l lec t ion s . I ti sg en e ra l ly n o t p o ss ib le t oc heck t h e q ua l i ty o ft h er ep l ica sa st h ey a r e made ,
T he c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e p o l i sh a nd t h e s t r ia t ion s t o b e e xpec t ed d epend s o nt h em a ter ia l su sed t om ake t h e n e t s . A
s i nce i n mo s t c a se s , s u i tab le m ic roscop ic e qu ipm en t i sn o t a va i lab le . T h i s mean st h a t as ma l lp ropo r t ion o fr ep l ica sw i l l b ef ound t ob eu n su i tab le wh en t h ey a r ef i na l ly e xam ined .
v ar ie ty o f m a te r ia l s w e re u sed e t hnog raph ica l ly , i n c lud ing b a leen , w i l low r oo t , s i new a nd o the r f i be r s ( Snyde r 1 986 ) . B a leen n e t s h ave b een f ound a r chaeo log ica l ly a tS aunak tuk ( A rno ld 1 990 ) .
Aw l sa nd N eed le s
C h i se l s One b eave r t o o th c h i se l t i p w a s r e cove red . T he e dge h a s b een g round t o s hape , b u t t h e p i ece w a s e r oded , mak ing
F our teen a w l sh ave b een i d en t if i ed u s ing t h e s am e c r i te r ia a s f o r t h e G upuk a w l s . S ix o f t h e se w e re t o o e r oded t o
i d en t if ica t ion d i ff i cu l t . T he o n ly w ea r t h a t c ou ld b e p o s i t ive ly i d en t if i ed w a s' p ocke t 'w ea r .
e xam ine . T he o t her e i gh t a l l h ad w ea r c on s i s ten t w i th t h e i r u se a s a w l s . T h i s c ove red a r ange o f v a r ia t ion f r om t h e t y p ica l p a t t ern a s s e en a tG upuk , i n c lud ing s ho r t s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h es haf t , t o ap a t te rn i nd i s t ingu i shab le f r om t h a ts e en o n n eed le s , d om ina ted b y s t r ia t ion s a l ong t h e s haf t . T hese d i f f e rence s r e la te t o t h e w ay t h e a w l s w e re u sed , w i th o r w i thou t at w i s t ing mo t ion . I n a l l c a se s t h ey h ave c l ea r ly b een u sed t op i e rce h ide .
F o re shaf t A s i ng le f o r e shaf t w a s f ound a t S aunak tuk , a nd i tw a s e xam ined f o r c o mpa r i son w i th t h e f o re shaf t s f r om t h e P ond S i te a nd t h e MacFa r l ane C o l lec t ion . Unf or tuna te ly , i tw a s t oo e r oded t o p rov ide much i n f o rma t ion . L a rge s ha l low s t r ia t ion s , a s s e en o n t h e o t he r f o re shaf t s , w e re v i s ib le , b u t e ro s ion m a sked a ny d e ta i l s ( P la te 5 . 13 d ) . T he s i ze o ft h e s t r ia t ion s c o mpa re s f a vourab ly w i th t h o se o n t h e o t he r f o re shaf t sh oweve r .
On ly o ne n eed le w a s f ound , a nd i tw a s t oo e r oded f o r e xam ina t ion .
P ick s , Ad ze sa nd Ma t tock s
M i sce l laneou s Worked B one a nd A n t ler T he r ema in ing 1 9 t o o l s p rov ided o n ly o ne e xamp le w i th e nough m ic ro scop ic d e t a i l p re served f o r e xam ina t ion . T h i s i s as ma l lf r agmen to fg round b one , w i th ar ounded t i p . T he
S ix p i ck sw e re f ound a tS aunak tuk . T h ree o ft h e se w e re t oo e r oded f o re xam ina t ion . T he o t he rt h ree a l lh ad b een u sed a s i c e p i ck s , a nd s howed w ea r c ha rac te r ized b y e xposed
e x t r em e t i p i se r oded , b u t b e low t h a t l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ion s s i mi la r t o t ho se s e en o n w ound p in s a r e v i s ib le . N ea r t h e
o s teon s , w i th s ome s t r ia t ion s a s s e en o n t h e i c e p i ck s f r om G upuk .
e roded t i p , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf ta r e a l so v i s ib le . T h i s p a t t e rn i sn o t l i ke a ny o ft h o se r e cogn ized s o f a r ( P la t e 5 . 13 e ) . T he u se o ft h i st o o li su nknown . D i scu s s ion I n s p i t e o f ma s s ive d i s tu rbance wh ich d es t royed p ar t o ft h e s i te , t h e b one t o o l f r om S aunak tuk a r e g ene ra l ly w e l l 6 0
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS p r e served . T he s u i te o f t o o l s e xam ined , a nd t h e r e su l t s o f u se w ea r a na ly s i s , s how t h a t t h e s i te i si n mo s t r e spec t s
T h i s i sd ue t ot h e l a rge n umbe ro fb one a nd e spec ia l ly a n t le r h and le s i n t h e c o l lec t ion .
s im i la r t o G upuk a nd t h e o the r Mackenz ie I nu i t c o l lec t ion s e xam ined . Wi th t h i s s ma l l s amp le , a ny d i f f e rence s ( i n
A l though MacFa r lane c o l lec ted
v ery f ew b one t o o l sp er S e , many o ft h e i r on k n ives , b ur in s a nd s aw s h e c o l lec ted w e re h af t ed w i th a n t le r . B ow d r i l l s w e re s t i l l a l so i nc ommon u se , a nd t h e b ow s w e re g ene ra l ly b one , w i th o ne i v ory s pec im en . O the r t o o l s p rov id ing e xamp le s o fh and l ing w ea ra r e t wo t h imb le h o lde r s , at o gg le
p ropo r t ion s o ft o o l c a tego r ie s , o rw ea r o nt o o l s f o r i n s tance ) c an b e a t t r ibu ted t os amp l ing b i a s a sr e ad i ly a st oa ny o t he r f a c to r .
o rd r ag l i ne h and le , t wo p o s s ib le b ucke t o rb ag h and le s a nd a ni v o ry r od o fu nknown u se . THE M ACFARLANE COLLECT ION
Wea rc au sed b yh and l ing c an b e c ha rac t er ized a si n va s ive t o mode ra te ly i n va s ive , w i th v e ry f i ne , l i gh t s t r ia t ion s ( P la te 5 . 14 a ) . Any b i o log ica lf e a tu re so ft h eb one , s uch a so s teon s , a r e o b scu red . M i sce l laneou s s t r ia t ion s a r e a l so c ommon . T hey a r e f ound r unn ing i ne very d i r ec t ion , a nd r ange i ns i ze
I n May 1 990 , Ie xam ined as e r ie s o fb one , a n t le r a nd i v ory t o o l sf r om t h e MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion ,h ou sed i nt h eN a t iona l Mu seum o fN a tu ra l H i s to ry o f t h e Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion . T he se t o o l s w e re c o l lec ted b y R ode r ick R o s s MacFa r lane i n t h e Mack enz ie D e l ta b e tween 1 857 a nd 1 866 . MacFa r lane
f r om v ery s ma l l , t o v ery l a rge ( f rom 1 m ic ron u p t o 3 0 m ic ron s o r a bou t at h i rd o f am i l l ime t re ) . T hey a ppea r t o h ave b een c au sed b y i n t ru s ive b i t s o fg r i t . A l so c o mmon ly
w a s emp loyed b y t h e Hud son ' s B ay C ompany a nd w a s r e spon s ib le f o r e s tab l i sh ing t h e i r p os t a t F or t Ande r son
s e en i st h e a s soc ia ted w ea r p a t te rn c au sed b y s t o rage a nd t r an spor ti d en t if ied i nt h ee xper imen ta ls t udy .
( Sm i th 1 984 ) . D ur ing h i s s t ay t h e re h e made a n e t hnog raph ic c o l lec t ion o f m a te r ia l f r om t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t ,b ef o re t h e i rd eva s ta t ion b yd i sea se b rough tb y wha le r s .
Manuf ac ture
A l though b y t h e 1 860 s t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t h ad a l ready s t opped m ak ing many t ype s o fb one t oo l s ( o r a tl e a s t t h ey
T he s e cond mo s tc ommon s e to fp a t te rn s s e en o nt h er ep l ica s a r e t h o se l e f t b y manuf ac tu re . Twe lve o ft h e 3 2 s pec imen s
w e re n o t c o l lec ted b y MacFa r lane ) , s e em ing ly p ref e r r ing i r on a nd s t ee l , t h i s c o l lec t ion p rov ide s au n ique a nd v ery u sefu ls amp le f o rc ompar i son w i th t h ea r chaeo log ica ls amp le u nde rs t udy , a sw e l la sw it he xpe r imen ta lt o o l s .
r e vea l s ome i n f o rma t ion o n t h e manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique u sed . O n o n ly n ine o f t h e se w a s i tp o s s ib le t o make a p o s i t ive i d en t if ica t ion . O n t h e r em a in ing t h ree , s ubsequen t u se h a s p a r t ia l ly o bscu red t r ace s , s o o n ly t e n ta t ive
D ue t ot ime c on s t ra in t s , c on serva t ion c once rn sa nd s pec imen c ond i t ion , i tw a s n o t p os s ib le t o e xam ine o r r ep l ica te t h e
i d en t i f ica t ion s w e re made . O n a l l o the rs pec imen s , h and l ing a nd u se h ave m ade p o s i t ive i d en t if ica t ion o fm anuf ac tur ing
w ho le c o l lec t ion f o r m ic roscop ic s t udy . S pec imen s n o t e xam ined i n c luded p ro jec t i le s ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f o ne h a rpoon e ndb iade ) , c ompo s i te t o o l s , whe re t h e p re sence o f
t e chn ique i mpo s s ib le .
T he r e su l t s o ft h i s p a r t o ft h e s t udy
w i l l b e d i scu s sed i n C hap te r S ix a l ong w i th t h e r e s t o ft h e m anuf ac tur ing a na ly s i s .
o t he r ma ter ia l , s uch a s h ide , s i new , m e ta l o r i n la id m a ter ia l m ade r ep l ica t ion o f b one d i ff i cu l t ( t he Sm i th son ian c on serva t ion s t af f w e re c once rned a bou t p o s s ib le u nknown e f f ec t so fa ce tone a nd /o ra ce ta te t a pe o nt h e se ma ter ia l s ) , a nd f i shhook s a nd l u re s , wh ich w e re u n if orm ly t oo g r ea sy f o r s u cce s sfu l r ep l ica t ion . T oo l s e xam ined i n c luded ma r l in s p ikes ( s pa tu la te t oo l s ) , s i new t w i s te r s , h and le s ( of b u r in s ,
U se W ear F ina l ly , t e n o f t h e t o o l s b o re i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e i r u se ( Tab le 5 . 15 ) . T he se i n c lude ( u s ing t h e i d en t if ica t ion s g i ven w i th t h e t o o l s ) t h ree m a r l in s p ike s , f ou r s i new t w i s t er s , o ne
k n ive s a nd s aw s ) , b ow s f r om d r i l l k i t s , b ucke t o r b ag h and le s , t h imb le h o lde r s , o ne t o gg le , a nd s ome u n iden t if i ed
h a rpoon e ndb iade , o ne h arpoon f o re shaf ta nd b o th e nd so fa n i v o ry r od ( i n t wo p a r t s , w i th a s c a rf ed , r i ve ted j o in ) wh ich w a sn o ti d en t if ied b y MacFa r lane .
b one o ri v ory p i ece s . At o t a l o f3 2 r e p l ica sw e re made f r om 2 9 s pec imen s . T h i s i s av ery s ma l l s amp le , b u t t h e r e su l t s a r e q u i te i n f orma t ive . A l though many o ft h e t oo l s e xam ined w e r e o f c l a sse s n o t e xam ined i n t h e G upuk c o l lec t ion
A s i st ob e e xpec ted b o th f r om t h e e xper imen ta l s t udy a nd a na ly s i so ft h eG upuk m a ter ia l , t h ew ea ro nt h e ma r l in s p ike s a nd t h es i new t w i s te r sw a ss im i la r , s i nce i tw a sc au sed b yt h e
( p a r t icu la r ly t h e h and le s ) , i tw a s f e l t t h a t i n t h i s c a se t h ey s hou ld b e s t ud ied , a st h ey r ep re sen t as ou rce o n i n f o rma t ion n o t r e ad i ly o b ta inab le f r om e xpe r im en ta l t o o l s p a r t icu lar ly w i th r ega rd t ot h ee f f ec t so fl ong t e rm u se a nd h and l ing .
s ame m a ter ia l : s i new ( P la te 5 . 14 b , c ) . T he se e t hnog raph ic t o o l s c l o se ly r e semb le b o th t h e e xpe r imen ta l t o o l s a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica lt o o l s .
H and l ing
L i t t le c an b e s a id a bou t t h e h a rpoon e ndb iade : as amp le o f o ne i sn o t s uff i c ien t . T he w ea r i s an on inva s ive p o l i sh , s im i la r t o m ea t p o l i sh , w i th a p i t t ed a ppea rance , a nd i s
P re l im ina ry a na ly s i s o fw ea rp a t te rn s o ns pec imen s f r om t h e
c onf ined t ot h e e x t reme t i po n ly ( P la t e 5 . 14 d ) . Wha t a ppea r
MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion s how s p rom i s ing r e su l t s . B y f a r t h e
t ob e p i t s a r e a c tua l ly t h e r emnan t s o ft h e i n i t ia l s u rf ace o f t h eb l ade . A sw i th m ea tw ea r al i gh tp o l i sh h a sa f f ec ted o n ly t h eh i gh p a r t so ft h es u rf aces , l e av ing t h el ow p o in t su nwo rn .
mo s t c ommon w ea rp a t te rn v i s ib le i sd ue t oh and l ing : 1 9 o f t h e 3 2 r ep l ica s p rov ided i n f orma t ion o n t h i s t ype o f w ea r . 6 1
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT T he t i p o f ab one h a rpoon f o re shaf t w a s r e p l ica ted t o c o mpa re w i th s upe r f ic ia l ly s im i la r w ea r o n d r i l l b i t s f r om G upuk . McGhee ( 1974 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t s im i l ar t o o l s f r om t h e s i t e o f K i t t igazu i t , a c ro s s t h e r i ve r f r om G upuk , w e re h a rpoon f o reshaf t s r a ther t h an d r i l l s . T he s im i lar i ty i n t h e w ea r p a t t e rn s , h oweve r , i ss upe rf ic ia l i n b o th c a se s , s t r ia t ion s c i r c l ing t h e s haf t . M ic ro scop ica l ly t h ey a ppea r q u i te d i f f e ren t . T he w ea r o n t h e MacFa r lane f o re shaf t i s u n l ike a ny o ft h e e xpe r im en ta l ly p roduced p a t t ern s , o ra ny o f -
-
t h e p a t tern s s e en o n a r chaeo log ica l d r i l l b i t s . I ti s made u p o f p a ra l le l t o s ubpa ra l le l s t r ia t ion s o f v a r iab le l e ng th a nd
s qua re s e c t ion . I n t h e l a t t e r c a se , t h e s t r ia t ion s a r e c onf ined t o t h e c or n e r s . T he s t r ia t ion s mo s t c l o se ly r e semb le t h o se s e en o n t h e f o re shaf t d i scu s sed a bove . A l though t h i s i v o ry r od i sl ong a nd s l ende r , a nd h a s as c a rf ed a nd r i ve ted j o in t , i t may b es ome v a r ie ty o ff o re shaf t . e ndb iade?
n i d
t o ta l
0
0
0
1
h a rpoon e ndb lade
0
0
1
0
1
ma r l in s p ike
0
3
0
0
3
s i new t w is te r
0
4
0
0
4
i vo ry r od
0
0
0
1
1
t o ta l
1
7
1
1
1 0
T ab le 5 . 15 C o l lec t ion .
-
s uper io r i nt h i s c a se , s i nce t h ey a r e l e ss l i ke ly t o h ave b een
n on inva s ive p o l i sh , w i th l a rge s t r ia t ion s c i rc l ing b o th t i p s ( P la te 5 . 14 f ) . One e nd i sr ounded , w h i le t h e o t he r h a s a
s i new
e xamp le , i ti s mo s t l i ke ly s af e t os ay t h a tu se p o l i sh o n t o o l h and le s w a s c au sed b y h o ld ing t h em . S uch w ea r d eve lop s
p ro jec t , a nd mo s t o the r s Iam a wa re o f , i ti sn o t p os s ib le t o g ene ra te t h i s t y pe o f w ea r . On ly e t hnog raph ic o r a r chaeo log ica ls p ec imen s c an p rov ide e v idence o fs uch w ea r a si td eve lop sa f te ry ea r so fu se . E thnog raph ic s pec imen sa r e
T he w ea r o n t h e i vory r od i ss im i la r a tb o th e nd s . T h i s i sa
1
i mpo r tan ce . A l though t h e i r l i f e h i s to r ie s c anno t b e p os i t ive ly k nown , s ome a spec t s c an b e a s sumed . F o r
-
s t r ia t ion s w e re c au sed w hen o ne o r t h e o t he r w a s t w i s ted . T he r ema in ing s t r ia t ion sw e re c au sed b yd i rec tb one /bone ( o r b one /an t le r ) c on tac t , a l so w hen t h e f o re shaf tw a s i n se r ted i n t h es ocke t .
f o re shaf t
T he u se l i f e o f e t hnog r aph ic t o o l s , p re sumed t o b e much l onge r t h an t h a t o f mo s t e xper imen ta l t o o l s , i s o f k ey
q u i te s l ow ly t h e h and le s o f my e xpe r imen ta l t oo l s a r e a s y e to n ly v e ry s l igh t ly p o l i shed . Wi th in t h et ime f r ame o ft h i s
w id th ( P la t e 5 . 14 e ) . Many o ft h e s t r ia t ion s a ppea rt ob e d u e t o d ebr i s t r apped b e tween t h e s haf t a nd t h e s o cke t . T h e
f o re shaf t
t h a t mo s t t o o l s i ne t hnog raph ic c o l lec t ion s w e re u sed f o r a much l o nge rt ime t h an i ti sp o ss ib le t ou se e xpe r imen ta lt o o l s w i th in t h et ime f r ame o f aw o rk s uch a st h i s .
e xposed t of a c to r s t h a t m igh t a l te r t h e w ea r , s uch a sb ur ia l . T hey c an b e u sed t oc on f irm t h e p resence o fs uch ' h and l ing w ea r ' o na r chaeo log ica lt o o l s . T hu s i tc an b e s e en t h a t , o n ag ene ra l l e ve l , t h e s t udy o f e t hnog raph ic c o l lec t ion s c an h ave a n i mpo r t an t p l ace i n e xpe r im en ta l ly b a sed u se w ea ra na ly ses . O n amo re s pec if i c l e ve l , i n f orma t ion a bou tt h e MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion t oo l s c an b e c ompa r ed w i th i n f o rma t ion d er ived f r om t h e t wo a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s t o b e s t ud ied , t o h e lp d ocum en t p a t te rn s o fm anuf ac tur e a nd u se , a nd t o i d en t if y c hange s i n t h e se p a t te rn s .
D ISCUSS ION
Wea r i d en t if i ed o n t o o l s i n t h e MacFa r lan e T he
E xam ina t ion o fe t hnog raph ic s pec im en s o fk nown u se h a s a n umbe r o f a dvan tages i n u se w ea r s t ud ie s . A s sum ing t h e t o o l s w e re i d en t if ied c o r rec t ly t ob eg in w i th , i ti sp o s s ib le t o u se t h em i nl i eu o fo r i na dd i t ion t oe xper im en ta l e xamp le s . T he h a rpoon e ndb iade e xam ined h e re i s ac a se i np o in t . I t h a s n o t b een p oss ib le t o c a r ry o u t e xpe r imen t s u s ing p ro jec t i le s , p a r t icu la r ly h a rpoon s , w i th in t h e s cope o f t h i s
o f
t h i s
a na ly s i s
14
a n a lv sab le n % 6 2 5 4 .4
d r i l l
e xpe r im en t si nt h is c a se . T he ma in d rawback o fc our se i st h e u nknown l i f e h i s tory o f t h e s pec imen s i n q ue s t ion : o t he r I t
c an o n ly b eh oped t h a te ven tua l ly al a rge e nough s amp le c an b e s t ud ied , i n wh ich i ti sp os s ib le t o e s t ab l i sh a r ange o f v a r ia t ion f o r t h e w ea r p a t te rn , a nd wh ich w i l l m ake i t mo r e l i ke ly t h a ta noma l ies d ue t ou ncommon u se sw i l lb ed e tec ted . O bv iou s ly as amp le o fo ne , a su sed h e re , i sh a rd ly s uff i c ien t , b u ti ti s as t a r t . A mo re s ound u se o fe t hnog raph ic s pec imen s i si na dd i t ion t o e xpe r imen ta l wo rk . T hu s t h e ma r l in s p ike s a nd s i new t w i s te r s e xam ined h e re c an r e inf o rce t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l s b a sed o n e xper imen t s . E thnograph ic s pec imen s h ave t h e a dded a dvan t age o f l ong u se . A l though o fc ou r se t h i s c anno tb e m ea su red , i ti sl i ke ly
a r chaeo log ica l
a nd
i d en t if ied a s t ou se ( s ee T ab le 5 . 16 ) . A f u r ther 4 3 ( 17% ) w e re t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if ied f o r at o ta l o f 1 93 ( 76 .3 % ) . S ome o ft h eo t he rc o l lec t ion se xam ined s howed s im i la rs ucce ss
g auged
s pec imen s c an , t o s ome d eg ree , a c t a s a s ub s t i tu te t o
o f
e t hnog raph ic m a ter ia l a r e e ncourag ing . O ft h e t o ta l o f 2 53 t oo l s f r om G upuk w h ich w e re a na lyzab le , 1 50 ( 59 .3% ) w e re
t o ta l
p ro jec t . T h i s w a s t h e ma in r e a son f o r e xc lud ing t h em f r om t h e s t udy i n t h e f i r s t p l ace . E xam ina t ion o f e t hnog raph i c
f a c to r s may b e c on t r ibu t ing t ot h e w ea r v i s ib le o n t h em .
r e su l t s
s p a tu la
4 7
s c apu la t o o l b l ade
1 5 5 7
3 4
a w l n e ed le
5 0 4 4
3 2 3 5
s n ow k n if e p i ck m i sc . t o o l s m i sc . w o rk ed t o ta l
1 9
2 1 6
6
i d en t if i ed n % 4 0 6 4 .5
4 4 .7 4 0 .6
1 0
5 9 .6 6 4 .0 7 9 .5
4 7 .6
t e n t a t ive n % 8 1 .8 8 4
3 8 .0
3 .3
2 5
7 3 .5
7
2 0 .6
2 2
6 8 .8
3 5
1 00 .0
6 0
1 8 .7 0 . 0
2
6 6 .6
3 1 .5
6
1 00 .0
0
0 . 0
8 2
6 1 .5
4
3 0 .7
1 6 .6
6
5 0 .0
0
0 . 0
2 6
1 3
2 9
1 2
5 0 .0 4 1 .4
3 75
3 2
8 5 .3
2 1
6 5 .4
7 76
2 53
3 2 .6
1 71
6 7 .6
4 3
1 6 .9
T ab le 5 . 16 Numbe r sa nd p e rcen t age s o fi d en t i f ied t oo l s f r om G upuk .
6 2
CHAPTER F IVE : RESULTS O F ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS r a te s . A l though t h e s amp le f r om K i t t igazu i t w a s s m a l l a nd t h e p re serva t ion much p oo re r , ah i gh s ucce s s r a te w a s a l so
t e n t a t ive .
T he l ow o f 1 6 .6% r ep re sen t s t h e m i sce l laneou s
t o o l s . I n t h a t c a se , o n ly t h e s i new t w i s te r s c ou ld b e p o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied a s t ou se , a l though af u r the r s i x ( 50% ,
a ch ieved t h e re . O fn ine teen a na lyzab le t o o l s ,t we lve , o r6 3% w e re p o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied , wh i le t h er ema inde rw e re
f o r at o t a l o f 6 6 .6% ) w e re t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if ied a s p lug s , s now p robe s a nd ac h i se l . ( M i sce l laneou s p i ece s o fw o rked b one a nd a n t le r a r e e xc luded f r om t h i s d i scu s s ion s i nce s o
t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if i ed . O f t h e 2 9 t o o l s w i th p r e served u se w ea r a t t h e P ond S i te , 2 5 , o r 8 6% w e r e s ucce s sf u l ly i d en t if i ed . S aunak tuk p rov ided 2 6 t o o l s w i th p r e se rved u se
f ew o ft h em w e re o bservab le d ue t oe r o s ion . )
w ea r , o f wh ich 2 0 , o r 7 7% w e re i d en t if ied . O n ly C ache P o in t , w i th s even a na lyzab le t o o l s , o f wh ich o n ly t wo , o r
I ti sp os s ib le t h a t s om e o ft h e t oo l s i nt h i s s e cond c a tegory c an n ow b e moved t o t h e c a tegory o fb e t te r -def ined t o o l s . G auged d r i l l sa r et h eb e s te xamp le . O ft h et oo l g roup s i nt h e
2 8 .5% w e r e i d en t if ied , h ad a l ow s u cce s s r a te . U se w ea r a na ly s i s o f t h e MacFa r lane c o l lec t ion c anno t r e a l ly b e
s e cond c a tegory , d r i l l s ( u sed o n v ar iou s ma ter ia ls ) h ad t h e
c ompa red t o t h e se r e su l t s , a s i n mos t c a se s t h e u se s o ft h e t oo l s w e r e a l ready k nown . I d en t if i ca t ion s o f u se w ea r me re ly c onf i rmed t h ee t hnog raph ic i d en t if i ca t ion s .
h i ghe s tr a te o fp os i t ive i d en t if i ca t ion s ( 64 .5% ) . I ft ho se t h a t h ave s t r ia t ion s a t t r ibu ted t o b e ing p l aced i n as haf t ( a s r e ve r s ib le d r i l l s ) , a nd t h o se t h a t a r e t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if ied a r e a l so i n c luded , t h i s c an b e r a i sed t o7 6 .3% . A l though t h i s i s s t i l l b e low t h e r ange o ft h e b e t te r k nown t oo l s , i ti s av ery h i gh i d en t if i ca t ion s ucce s s r a te . D r i l l s a r e r e ad i ly
T he se r e su l t s a r e s im i la rt ot h o se a ch ieved i nl i t h ic u se w ea r s t ud ie s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fC ache P o in t . K ee ley ( 1980 ) , f o r i n s tance , i d en t if ied b e tween 7 5% a nd 9 8% o ft h e f l ake s w i th u se w ea r f r om t h r ee E ng l i sh P a leo l i th ic s i te s . V aughan ( 1981 :Tab le 3 5 ) p o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied 7 7 .4% o f t h e
i d en t if iab le b y t h e i r mo rpho logy , a nd s e em t o h ave b een u sed f o r av e ry l im i ted n umbe ro ft a sk s . W i th t h eh e lp o fu se w ea r a na ly s i s , i ti sn ow p o s s ib le t op o s i t ive ly i d en t ify t h e se
I ndependen t U se Z one s ( 2 19 o f 2 83 I UZ s o n 1 53 t o o l s ) , t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if i ed 1 8% , a nd w a s u nab le t o i d en t if y o n ly 5 . 5% , o f wh ich 2 . 5% w e re e i the r t oo a b raded o r h ad w ea r
t o o l s a s d r i l l s , r a the r t h an a ny o f t h e o the r p o ss ib i l i t ie s o f f e red b yn um e rou sa u tho r s .
wh ich w a s i n suff i c ien t ly d eve loped t o b e i d en t if iab le . O n t h i s l e ve l , u se w ea r a na ly s i s o n b one i sa tl e a s t a su sefu l a s s t ud ie s o ns t one , a sl ong a st h e c o l lec t ion i ss uff i c ien t ly w e l l p re se rved . Howeve r , i no rde rt ot r u ly e va lua te t h e se f i gure s , a nd t h e s u cce ss o f t h e a na ly s i s , i ti su sef u l t o l o ok mo re c l o se ly a t h ow t h e t oo l s w e re i d en t if i ed . T he f o l low ing
T he s c apu la t o o l s a r e s omewha t m i s lead ing .
T hey h ave a
v ery l ow r a t e o fp o s i t ive i d en t if ica t ion s , b u t when t e n ta t ive i d en t if i ca t ion s a r e t a ken i n to a ccoun t , 1 00% o f t h e a na ly sab le s p ec imen s a ppea r t o h ave b een i d en t if ied . T he u se o ft h e se t o o l s i sb y n o m ean s c l ea r . T he o n ly p o s i t ive i d en t if i ca t ion s a r e n o t o f u se w ea r p er s e , b u t o f ' p ocke t ' w ea r , a t t r ibu t ed t ot r an spo r to rs t o rage . A l li d en t if ica t ion s o f
d i scu s s ion f o cu se s o n G upuk . T he s ma l l s amp le s f r om t h e o the rs i te sa ppea rt of a l li n to t h es ame p a t te rn .
u se o n t h e se t o o l s a r e t e n ta t ive , a nd t h e q ue s t ion a s t o wh e the r t h ey a r e r e a l ly f i sh s ca le r s mu s t r ema in o pen , a l though t h o se f r om t h e P ond S i te i nd ica te t h ey may s ome t ime sh ave b een u sed a ss uch .
T oo l so fK nown U se v s . T oo l so fU nknown U se
O ne p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion f o rt h e d i f f e ren t ia li d en t if iab i l i ty o f t h e t wo g roups may b e t h a t t h e t oo l s a s soc ia ted w i th c l ea r
T he t o o l s c an b e d i v ided i n to t wo g ene ra l c a tego r ie s , t h o se t h a th ave r e la t ive ly s e cu re f unc t iona li d en t if i ca t ion sb a sed o n morpho log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ics ( and e t hnog raph ic
f unc t iona l t a sk s , s uch a s d agge r s o r s now k n ives , w e re a c tua l ly u sed mo re s e lec t ive ly , t h a t i sf o r a more l im i ted r ange o f t a sk s , t h an o the r t o o l s . T h i s d oes n o t s e em t o o
i d en t if ica t ion s ) , a nd t ho se t h a t d o n o t . I n t h e f i r s t c a t ego ry a r e a w l s , n eed le s , k n ives a nd d agge r s , s now k n ive s a nd
u n l ike ly a nd c e r ta in ly make su se w ea ri d en t if ica t ion s imp le r . N eed le s , f o ri n s t ance , a r e t o o s ma l l a nd f r ag i le t oh ave b een u sed f o r many t a sk s o the r t h an t h e o ne t h ey w e re d e s igned
p i ck s . I n t h ese t o o l g roup s , t h e s u cce s s r a te o f u se w ea r a na ly s i s w a s v e ry h igh : f r om 6 1 .5% t o 1 00% o fa na lyzab le t oo l s a tG upuk c ou ld b e i d en t if ied ( i n c lud ing t o o l s i d en t if i ed a s u nu sed ) , r i s ing t o 9 2 .2% t o 1 00% when t e n t a t ive i d en t if ica t ion s a r e t a ken i n to a ccoun t . I n a l l c a se s , t h e u se s i d en t if ied w e re t ho se e xpec ted f r om t r ad i t iona l f unc t iona l
f o r . S now k n ive s a r e mos t ly t o o d u l l t oc u t much mor e t h an s now , wh i le d agge r s s e em mo re o f t en t oh ave b een c u ra ted r a th er t h an u sed . S pa tu la s ,o nt h eo the rh and , a r e av ery d i ve r se g roup o ft o o l s , i n c lud ing t h ose u sed t o w o rk h ide , s i new a nd p o s s ib ly
i d en t if ica t ion s . T he o n ly e xcep t ion m ay b e t h e k n ive s a nd d agge r s ,b u tg i ven t h e i rt r ad i t iona lu se a sw eapon s f o rk i l l ing p eop le , t h ey w e re p robab ly i n f requen t ly u sed . L i t t le u se
w i l low a s w e l l a s mu l t i -purpose t oo l s .
T h i s i sd esp i te t h e
f a c tt h a t t h e i r mo rpho log ica l d i ve r s i ty i sn o g rea ter t h an t h a t o fb e t te rd ef ined g roup s s uch a sa w l s . G iven t h i sd ive r s i ty o f t a sk s , i ti sp e rhap sn o ts u rpr i s ing t h a tt h e r e i s al a rge rn umbe r
w ea r w ou ld b e e xpec ted , s o t h e i r i d en t if i ca t ion a su nu sed i s n o tt o os u rpr i s ing . U se w ea ra na ly s i s h ad as omewha t l owe rs ucce s s r a te o n t h e s econd t o o l g roup , t h ose w i th l e s s c l ea r f unc t iona l i d en t if ica t ion s . T he s ucce ss r a te f o ri d en t ify ing t h e se t o o l s a t Gupuk r a nged f r om 1 6 .6% t o6 4 .5% , r i s ing t ob e tween 6 0%
o ft h e se t o o l s w i th u n recogn i zed p a t te rn s . T hese t oo l s a r e mo r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een u sed f o rt a sk s t h a tw e re n o tp a r t o f t h e e xpe r imen ta l p rog ramme , a nd f o r mu l t ip le t a sk s , a s i tua t ion i tw a s n o t p o ss ib le t o e xam ine i n a ny d e ta i l . T h i s p rob lem o fi d en t ify ing u se w ea ro nt oo l sw i th p oor ly d ef ined f un c t ion s f r om o the r s ou rce s o fi n f orma t ion i s mo s t e v iden t
a nd 1 00% when t e n ta t ive i d en t if i ca t ion s a r e t a ken i n to a ccoun t . I n t h i s c a se 1 00% i d en t if i ca t ion s r e p re sen t s t h e s capu la s c rape r s , whe re t h e t e n ta t ive i d en t if ica t ion s a r e v ery 6 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT i n t h e c a tego ry o f m i sce l laneou s w o rked b one a nd a n t le r , whe re v e ry f ew o ft h et o o l sw e re i d en t if i ed b yu se w ea r .
u se sp roposed b yv ar iou s a u tho r s . T he s i te s e xam ined s e em t ob e f r om ar e la t ive ly h omogenou s g roup , a sf a r a st oo lu se
I t may b e t h a t af i rme r k now ledge o ft h e t r ad i t iona l ly c i ted
i sc once rned . I tr ema in st ob e s e en whe the rt h e s ame i st r ue o f manuf ac tu re .
u se o f at o o l makes t h e o b serve r mo re l i ke ly t og ive af i rm i d en t if i ca t ion o fu se w ea r . S uch i d en t if i ca t ion s may b eu sed , c on sc iou s ly o ru ncon sc iou s ly , a sc l ue s , s o t h a t o ne i n te rp re t s amb iguou sp a t te rn s i nt e rm s o f wha to ne e xpec t s ,r a the rt h an a c t ing a sa ni mpar t ia lo b serve r . C e r ta in ly t h eu se o fc l ue s a bou tt h e f unc t ion o ft h e t oo l c an , i ndeed mu s t , p lay a n i mpor t an t r o le i n f unc t iona l i d en t if i ca t ion s . N ewcome r e ta l . ( 1986 ) c l ea r ly d e mon s t ra t e t h i s i nt h e i r mos tr e cen t s e r ies o fb l ind t e s t s . Mo re r e cen t ly , B amfo r th e ta l . ( 1990 ) r e -empha s i ze t h i s p o in t . Unde r n o c i rcum s tance s i si ta ccep tab le t oi d en t if y as now k n if e a s a t o o l f o r r emov ing b a rk f r om w i l low b ranche s , n o ma t te r wha t t h e w ea r l o ok s l i ke , a s t h i s i s au se f o r wh ich i ti s c l ea r ly mo rpho log ica l ly u n su i ted . T oo l s s uch a ss pa tu la s , o r m i sce l laneou s p i ece s o f w o rked b one , s u i ted f o r aw ide v a r ie ty o ft a sk s , c an t h en b e much mo r e d i ff i cu l t t oi d en t if y s i nce t h ey l a ck s uch s t rong c l ues . Wi thou t t h e a i d o f s u ch e x t erna l c l ue s , t h e f a c t t h a t s im i l ar ma te r ia l s l e ave s im i la r t r ace s ( s now a nd w e th ide f o ri n s t ance ) c an m ake i td i ff i cu l t , i fn o ti mpo s s ib le ,t od ec ide p rec i se ly h ow at oo lw a su sed . T h i s i np ar ta c coun t s f o rn o t o n ly t h e h igh r a te o fs ucce s s i n i d en t ify ing t h e f i r s t g roup o f t o o l s , b u t a l so h i gh r a te s o f i d en t if ica t ion o fo ther t o o l s t ype s . C e r ta in t ype s o fw ea r a r e mo re d i s t in c t ive t h an o the r s . S inew , i np ar t icu la r , p roduced ap a t tern o ft h in f i ne s t r ia t ion s u n l ike t h o se l ef tb y a ny o t he r ma te r ia l . Ma r l in s p ike s a mong t h e s pa tu la s , a nd o the r s i new w o rk ing t o o l s among t h e m i sce l laneou s w o rked b one a nd a n t le rp i ece s , a r ev ery r e ad i ly i d en t if i ed , e ven when t h e t o o l s h ave b een u sed f o r o t he r p u rpo se s a s w e l l . T hey a r e p robab ly o ve r rep resen ted i nt h e s amp le , s imp ly d ue t o t h e e a se w i th w h ich t h ey c an b e i d en t if ied . Mu l t ipu rpose t o o l s , o n t h e o t he r h and , a r e p robab ly u nde r rep resen ted , b ecau se o ft h ed i ff i cu l t ie si ni d en t if yi ng t h em .
S umma ry O nt h e who le , t h en , t h i s a pp l ica t ion o fu se w ea r a na ly s i sh a s b een s ucce s sf u l . When t o o l s t o o e r oded t o o b serve a r e f a c to red o u t , t h e r a te s o fi d en t if i ca t ion o fw ea r p a t tern s o n b one t oo l s a t mo s t o ft h e s i t es c ompa re s f a vou rab ly t ot h o se a ch ieved i n l i th ic u se w ea r a na ly s i s . T he i mpo r tance o f e r o s ion o n b one t oo l s c anno t b e u nde re s t ima ted . A s C ache P o in t a nd K i t t igazu i t d e mon s t ra te , t h e p oo r er t h e c ond i t ion o ft h e b one , t h e f ewe r t h e i d en t if ica t ion s t h a t c an b e mad e . When p r e se rva t ion i sg ood ,o nt h eo the rh and ,t h e re i s ag r ea t d ea l t o b e l e a rned f r om t h e m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s o f b on e t oo l s . I n many c a se s , t h e a r tef ac t s e xam ined h e re w e re f ound t o h ave u se w ea r c on s i s ten t w i th t h e u se s c ommon ly a t t r ibu ted t o t h em . I n s ome c a ses , s uch a s t h e ma r l in s p ike / spa tu la s , t o o l so f ac l ea r ly i d en t if ied f unc t ion w e re s ucces sfu l ly p i cked o u t f r om a g roup o f t o o l s w i th mo re d i ve r se u ses . T h e a na ly s i s o fg auged d r i l l s w a sp e rhaps t h e mos t s ucce s sfu l , a s t h eu se o ft h e se t oo l s w a s c onf i rm ed , e l im ina t ing t h e v a r iou s 6 4
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS OF MANUFACTURING TECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SAMPLES p o s s ib le t ob e mo re p r ec i se . One i n t e re s t ing a spec to ft h i s i s t h a t i t i s o f t en p o s s ib le t o i d en t ify t r ace s o f s c rap ing mac ro scop ica l ly , w i th t h e u na ided e ye , o r w i th l ow
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYSIS OF MANUFACTUR ING TECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S A MPLES
magn if ica t ion , wh i le t h e m ic ro scop ic d e t a i l s a s soc ia ted w i th t h i st e chn ique a r e c o mp le te ly o b scu red . T h i se mpha si ze st h e i mpor t ance o f t a k ing a l l p o ss ib le i n f orma t ion i n to a ccoun t , a nd n eve rr e ly ing o n ly o no ne l i ne o fe v idence . A l l t o o l s e xam ined f o r u se w ea r w e re a l so e xam ined f o r t r ace s o f manuf ac tu re . I n a dd i t ion , a r tef ac t s wh ich s howed
I NTRODUCT ION
n o u se w ea r , p ar t icu la r ly b l ank s a nd d eb i tage , w e re a l so
I ti sw e l l k nown t h a t c e r ta in t ype s o fm anuf ac tu re o n b on e
e xam in ed whe reve rp o s s ib le . I ti so n ly t h rough at ho rough e xam ina t ion o f d eb i tage t h a t a t r ue p i c ture o f t h e m anuf ac tur ing s equen ce f o r b one t o o l s c an b e s e en .
t o o l s c an b e d i s t ingu i shed b y mac ro scop ic c r i te r ia . S om e o f t h ese a r e m e thod s o f b l ank e x t rac t ion , s uch a s s aw ing , g roov ing o r c hopp ing , w h i le o the r s r e la t e t ot h e s hap ing o f t o o l s . P r imar i ly , t h e se l a t t e ra r eg r ind ing v er su ss c rap ing . I n
Unf o r tuna te ly , much b one d eb i tage f i nd s i t s w ay i n to t h e
C hap te r F ou r i tw a s s hown t h a t f i ne r d i s t inc t ion s c an b e made . I ti sp os s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh n o to n ly w ha tt ype o ft o o l w a su sed ,b u tw ha t ma ter ia lt h a tt o o lw a sm ade f r om a sw e l l . T hu s i r on c r ooked k n ive s a nd c h i se l s , u sed t o s c rape a nd g roove b one , c an b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om c oppe r ,s l a te o rc he r t
Ma te r ia l f r om K i t t igazu i t , f o r e xamp le , w a s i d en t i f ied i nt h e f i e ld , a nd n o tt r an spor ted s ou th . Ana ly s i so fb o th G upuk a nd t h e P ond S i te f a una l r ema in s i ss t i l l o n -go ing . O n ly G upuk
f a una l c o l lec t ion r a th e rt h an t h e a r tef ac t c o l lec t ion , w i th t h e r e su l tt h a ti tc an b ed i f f icu l tt oe x am ine . F auna l ma te r ia l sf o r mo s t o f t h e c o l lec t ion s e xam ined h e re w e re n o t a va i lab le .
f a una lm a ter ia lw a s s y s tema t ica l ly e xam ined , a nd e ven t h en , o n ly a p or t ion o f t h e c o l lec t ion ( d e scr ibed b e low ) w a s s t ud ied . I n mo s t c a se s , t h en , t h e d eb i tage e x am ined
t o o l s . G r ind ing w i th ag r ind s tone c an b e d i f f e ren t ia ted f r om f i l ing , a nd a b ra s ive a nd n on -ab ra s ive p o l i she s c an b e
r ep re sen t s an on random s amp le , b a sed o n t ho se p i ece s t h a t w e re c o l lec ted a sa r tef a c t s .
i d en t if ied . I nt h ef o l low ing s e c t ion s , t h e c r i te r ia d eve loped t o i d en t if y t h e se d i f f e ren tt ypes o fm anuf ac tu r e w i l l b e a pp l ied t ot h ea r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l se xam ined i nC hap t er F ive . O ne t h ing t h a tb ecame c l ear a s e xam ina t ion o f manuf ac ture t r ace s p rog r e s sed w a s t h e d i ff i cu l ty i n d i f f e ren t ia t ing
ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYS IS
b e tween t r ace s o f i r on , c oppe r a nd s l a te t oo l s o n a r chaeo log ica l s pec imen s . A s d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 3 , t h e d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e se a r e mo r e ama t t e r o fd eg ree t h an k ind . T he s t r ia t ion s l e f t b y a l l t h r ee a r e f i ne , e spec ia l ly c ompa red t o t h o se l e f t b y c he r t k n ive s . Much o f t h e
G upuk ( N iT s -J )
d i f f e rence b e tween t h e t h ree d epend s o n p a t t ern s o f c r ack s
T he a r tef ac t s e xam ined f r om G upuk i n c lude t h o se d i scu s sed
i n d ica t ive o f b r i t t le f r ac tu re , b u t t h e se a r e d i ff icu l t , o f ten i mpo s s ib le , t oi d en t if y a r chaeo log ica l ly . T he ma in p rob lem
i n C hap te r F ive , a nd a s amp le o f d eb i tage f r om t h e f a una l a s semb lage . T he f a una l a s semb lage f r om Gupuk i s e x t reme ly l a rge . T o d a te , o n ly a s ma l l f r ac t ion h a s b een
i st h e p ro l if e ra t ion o fc r ack s o n a r chaeo log ica l t oo l s d ue t o u se , w ea the r ing a nd e r o s ion . Wi th s o many p o s s ib le c au se s
a na lyzed , a nd i t i s d eb i tage f r om t h i s p or t ion o f t h e a s semb lage t h a t i si n c luded i n t h i s s t udy . T he s amp le o f
o f c r ack s , i ti sr a re ly p o s s ib le t o s i ng le o u t t h ose l ef t b y manuf ac tu r e . F o rt h i sr e a son , t r aces w i th f i ne s t r ia t ion sh ave
i d en t if i ed f auna r ep re sen t s a2 5% s amp le o fb one s f r om t h e 1 986 e xcava t ion s o f t h e m idden , p lu s b ones f r om t h e t wo h ou se s ( Hou se 1 ,A rea 1a nd H ou se 1 ,A rea 2 ) e xcava ted i n t h a t s e a son . T o d a te , n o l e s s t h an 9 419 e l em en t s f r om t h e f i r s ts amp le h ave b een i d en t if i ed t ot h eg enu sl e ve l ,g iv ing a n
b een i d en t if ied b e low a s e i the r i r on ( s ub sum ing c oppe r a nd s l a te ) , o r c he r t ( wh ich may a l so r e pr esen t s l a te t oo l s , i ft h e e dge s h ave b ecome c h ipped a nd i r regu la r a s w a s t h e c a se w i th t h e e xper imen ta l a dze s ) . E xpe r im en ta l w o rk s howed t h e se t o b e t h e mo s t e f f ec t ive o f t h e s moo th a nd u neven e dged t o o l sr e spec t ive ly .
i nd ica t ion o fi t ss i ze . E v idence o fw o rk ing o nb one o ra n t le r w a s r e co rded b y t h e a na ly s t s ( Da r lene B a lkw i l l a nd K a ren McCu l lough ) , a nd t h i s i n fo rma t ion w a s r e l ied u pon i n
A s e cond f a c to r t h a t mu s t b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t i s t h e p re serva t ion o f manuf ac tur ing p a t tern s . Whe rea s w ea r i s p re served r e la t ive ly o f t en , t r ace s o f m anuf ac ture a r e o f t en
e x t rac t ing t h e d eb i tage f o r t h i s s t udy .
A l l b one s t h a t h ad
b een i d en t if i ed b yt h em a sb e ing w o rked ( g rooved , c u t , e t c . ) w e re e xam ined v i sua l ly a nd t h e l o ca t ion s o f t h e t r ace s
d e s t royed , n o to n ly b yp o s t -depo s i t iona l f a c to r s , b u tt h rough f u r the r manuf ac tu re a nd o rd in a ry u se a s w e l l . I ti s o f ten
r e co rded . T ho se t h a tw e re n o tt oo e r oded w e re r e p l ica t ed f o r m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion . At o ta l o f 1 09 p i ece s o fd eb i tage ( i nc lud ing as ma l ln umbe r f r om t h e a r tef ac t c o l lec t ion ) w e re
p os s ib le t o i d en t ify t h e manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique u sed a t a g ene ra l l e ve l , p ar t icu la r ly i n t h e l a te r s t age s , b u t t r ace s o f i n i t ia lr educ t ion t e chn ique s a r e o f ten o bscu red b yl a te rs t age s o f m anuf ac tu re , a nd t h e se may b e f u r the r o b scu red b y
a dded t o t h e s amp le i n t h i s w ay . T en o f t h e se h ad s om e m ic ro scop ic d e t a i lp r e served .
h and l ing a nd u se . T h i sm ean s t h a t , wh i le i ti sa lmos ta lway s p o s s ib le t od i f f e ren t ia te b e tween s c rap ing a nd g r ind ing a st h e
F o r a na ly s i s , m anuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s a t d i f f e ren t s t age s a nd f o r d i f f e ren t p a r t s o f t oo l s w e re r e co rded . T yp ica l ly , m e thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion , i n i t ia l mod if i ca t ion o fp rox ima l ,
p r ima ry m ean s o f s hap ing , f o r i n s tance , i ti s o f ten n o t 6 5
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT m ed ia l a nd d i s ta l p a r t s o f t h e t oo l , a nd s e cond a ry mod if ica t ion o r f i n i sh ing o f p rox ima l , m ed ia l a nd d i s ta l
g en e ra l ly l e s s w e l l p re se rved t h an b one . r e a son s , t h i si se spec ia l ly t r ue f o rd eb i tage .
p ar t s , w e re r e co rded whe reve rp os s ib le f o re ach t o o l . Whe r e m ic ro scop ic d e ta i l s w e re o bscur ed , a mo re g ene ra l i d en t if ica t ion , s uch a s ' s c raped ' w a s g i ven . O n ly p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l mod if ica t ion s w i l l b e d i scu s sed h e r e . Med ia l p o r t ion s o ft o o l s a r e g ene ra l ly mod i f ied i nt h e s a me w ay a s
I tw ou ld s e em f r om t h e se r e su l t s t h a tf l aked s t one t oo l sw e re u sed mo re o f t en t h an i r on t o o l sa tG upuk . T h i s i sv ery l i ke ly t h e c a se , b u t i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t t h e se r e su l t s a r e s kewed b y p re se rva t ion b i a s . I tm ay b e t h a t t h e f i nene ss o f t h e
F o r u nknown
s t r ia t ion sl ef tb yi r on ( a nd o the r me t a l ) t o o l s mean s t h a tt h ey a r e mo re s u scep t ib le t o d e s t ruc t ion b y s ub sequen t s hap ing , u se a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l f a c to r s t h an t h e p rom inen t s t r ia t ion sl ef tb yc he r t .
e i the rt h ep rox ima lo rt h ed i s ta lp o r t ion . Me thod s o f b lank e x t rac t ion w i l l b e d i scu s sed b e low , f o l lowed b y ad i scu ss ion o fs hap ing a nd f i n i sh ing .
B reak s : T he s e cond mo s tc ommon m e thod o fr educ ing b one B lank E x t rac t ion M icro scop ic i d en t i f ica t ion o ft h e m e thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion f o r f i n i shed t o o l s p roved t ob e d i ff icu l t . O f4 78 t o o l s w i th s ome manuf ac tur ing i n f o rma t ion o n t h em , o n ly 1 86 h ad e v idence o f b l ank e x t rac t ion . T h i s c an b e i n c rea sed b y
f o rt o o lp roduc t ion a tG upuk w a s b yb r eakage . E igh ty th ree ( 28 .3% ) o ft o o l sw e re b egun t h i sw ay . Many more may a l so h ave b een p roduced i nt h i s m anne r , b u t t h e d eb i tage l ef tb y t h i s t e chn ique i sn o tr e ad i ly r e cogn i zab le a nd s o i sr e co rded n e i the ra mong t h ea r t ef ac t sn o rw i th t h ef a una ls amp le . O n ly t h ree p i ece s o f d eb i tage o n w h ich t h e p r ima ry me thod o f r educ t ion w a sb r eak ing w e re i d en t if ied , i ne ach c a se b ecau se
a dd ing t h e d eb i tage , t o b r ing t h e t o ta l t o 2 93 p i ece s w i th s ome i n f orma t ion o nb l ank e x t rac t ion . T ab le 6 . 1 a nd F igu re 6 . 1 as umma r ize me thod s o fb l ank e x t rac t ion b yt o o l ma ter ia l
t h e re w a s o t he r e v idence o fw o rk ing p re sen t . T hu s mo s t o f t h e p i ece s i d en t if ied i n t h i s c a tego ry a r e f i n i shed t o o l s . T he re m ay a l so b e mo r e f i n i shed t o o l s t h a t b e long i n t h i s c a tego ry , b u t t h ey t o o a r e d i ff i cu l t t o i d en t if y , s i nce a tt h i s
t y pe ( i n t h i s c a se i n c lud ing d eb i tage ) . G roov ing i sc l ea r ly t h e mos tc ommon me thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion , a ccoun t ing f o r 1 33 , o r4 5 .4% o ft h e t o ta l . S imp le b reak s a r e t h e n ex t mo s t c ommon ( 8 3 o r 2 8 .3% ) , f o l lowed b y c hopp ing ( 64 o r 2 1 .8% ) . O the r me thod s , s uch a s s aw ing , s c rap ing o r u n iden t if ied c u t t ing a ccoun tf o ro n ly 1 2e l emen t s( 4 .4% ) .
p o in t i ti sn o t a lway s p o s s ib le t o i d en t if y ab reak o ccur r ing d u r ing o ra f t e rm anuf ac tu re f r om ap u rpo sefu lo ne b ef o re . T he v a s t ma jor i ty o fp i ece s r educed b y b r eak ing a r e b one . B ecau se o f i t s m echan ica l p roper t ie s ( t oughne ss i n p a r t icu la r ) , a n t le r i sr a re ly r educed i n t h i s w ay . I ti sv ery
T hese f r equenc ies c an b ef u r ther e xam ined b yb reak ing t h em d own i n to f i ne r d iv i s ion s , a nd b y i s o la t ing m a ter ia l t y pe . T he mo s t i mpor tan t d i s t inc t ion h e re i sb e tween b one a nd a n t le r , a l though b i rd b one c an b e d i s t ingu i shed . T he s ma l l
r e s i s tan t t ob r eakage ( t he v e ry q ua l i ty t h a t makes i ts u ch a u sef u l r aw m a te r ia l ) , a nd s o i sb e t te rr educed i no the rw ay s . B one o n t h e o t he r h and i sq u i te b r i t t le a nd f r ac tu re s e a s i ly
n umber s o f i v o ry , t oo th a nd wha lebone i mp lem en t s a r e l umped t oge the ri nt h e c a tego ry ' o the r . ' . a n t le r b r oken g r ooved c hopped o t he r t o ta l % to ta l
2 3 4 6 4 4 1 04 3 5 .49
a nd ,t os ome e x ten t ,p red ic tab ly . T oo l s may h ave b een made o n b one f r agmen t s i n i t ia l ly b roken f o r o the r p u rpo se s , s uch
b one
b i rd o t he r t o ta l % to ta l b one 6 4 1 7 0 8 3 2 8 .33 7 8 1 7 5 1 3 4 4 5 .73 0 1 0 6 5 2 . 18 7 0 0 1 3 . 75 1 4 9 3 4 2 9 3 6 1 0 0 .00 5 0 .85 1 .6 2 . 5 1 0 0
a s m ar row e x t ra c t ion , o r b ones may h ave b een b roken s pec if ica l ly f o r t o o l m anuf ac tu re . S ince s ome o f t h e t o o l s made o n b roken b one s a r e b i rd b one ( wh ich h a s l i t t le ma r row ) , wh i le m any a r e o n c a r ibou m e tapod ia l s o r o t he r l ong b one s ( ar i ch s ou rce o fm a r row ) , i ti sp robab le t h a tb o th me thod sw e re u sed .* Chopp ing :
C hopp ing w i th a n a dze i s t h e t h i rd mo s t
T ab le 6 . 1 B lank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique s a t G upuk ; r aw f r equenc ie sw i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s .
c ommon m e thod o fp roduc ing b l ank s , b e ing i d en t i f ied o n6 5 p i ece s . Mo re p a r t icu la r ly , i ti st h e mos tc ommon me thod o f
G roov ing :
b l ank e x t rac t ion o na n t le r . T h i s i s , i n mo s t c a ses , t r an sve r se c hopp ing a c ro ss t h e w id th o f t h e a n t le r b eam , e i the r t o s epa ra te t h e b eam a nd t i ne s , o r t o c u t i t i n to l e ng th s
G roov ing w i th s o me t ype o fc h i se l i st h e mo s t
c ommon m e thod o f b l ank e xt rac t ion u sed a t Gupuk , a ppear ing o n 1 34 ( 45 .7% ) s pec imen s . O ve r h a lf o f t h e se
p roduc ing c o re s , f r om w h ich b l ank s c an b ef u r the re x t rac ted , o rb la nk s , f r om wh ich c omp le te t oo l s s uch a sh and le s c an b e
( 58 .2% ) a r e b one , w i th a f u r the r 1 2 .7% b e ing b i rd b one . An t le r a ccoun t s f o r aq ua r ter o fa l l g rooved p i ece s ( 2 5 .3% ) ,
made . T h i s t r an sve r se c hopp ing i so f ten a ccompan ied b y l e ng thw i se g roov ing ,t of u r the rr educe t h ea n t ler .
w i th i vo ry ,t o o th a nd wha le b one t oge th e ra ccoun t ing f o rl e s s t h an 4% . G roov ing i st h e mo s t c ommon me thod i d en t if ied o n b one , a nd t h e s e cond mos t c ommon o n a n t le r , a f te r c hopp ing . T h rough
m icro scop ic
e xam ina t ion
o f g roove s ,
i t w a s
p o s s ib le t oi d en t ify t h e t y pe s o ft oo l s u sed t o make s ome o f t h em , a l though mos t ( 7 3 , o r 5 4 .% ) r ema in u n iden t if ied . A m ong t h o se t h a tw e re i d en t if i ed , c her t i st w ice a sc ommon a s i r on a s ag roov ing t oo l , w i th 4 0 i d en t if ied g roove s P la te 6 . 1a a nd b ) . a n t le r .
*
B ecau se mo s t o f t h e t o o ls e xam ined a r e h igh ly f i n i sh ed , i ti sn o t o f t en
p o s s ib le t oi d en t if y t h e t a xa o re l emen tf o rb one t o o ls . C a r ibou i st h e mo s t c ommon l a rge l a nd m am ma l i nt h e a r ea , a nd s eem s t oh ave p rov ided mo s t
V ery f ew o ft h e 6 0 i d en t if i ed g roove s a r e o n
o f t h e r aw ma te r ia l f o r b o th b one a nd a n t le r t o o ls .
I tw a s f ound t h roughou t t h i s s t udy t h a t a n t le r i s
Me tapod ia ls a r e
c ommon ly u sed f o r b one t o o l p roduc t ion t h roughou t t h e wo r ld b ecau se o f t h e ir c onven ien ts hape : l o ng a nd s t ra igh t . O the rb one sw e r e a l so u sed .
6 6
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS OF MANUFACTUR ING T ECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S A MPLES
GUPUK B lank E x t rac t ion T echn iques
a 3 0 .00
2 5 .00
2 0 .00
-
=
-
C a )
a n t le r
a - 1 5 .00 a )
•b one 1 0 .00
I Sb i rd b one -
mo the r
g rooved
c hopped
o the r
b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn iques
G UPUK
GU I LK Mod f ic af i on P ra dma l
b
C
P 1nay Mx jf
cn D i s t a l -
5 00 0 4 5 .00
0 00
4 00
5 00 0
3 5 .00 >‚
> .
3 00
4 000
C , C ,
2 5 .0
a 3 00 3
2 00 1 5 .00
2 00 3
1 0 .00 1 0 .0
5 . 00 0 .0
0 . 00
al ltD rTiCa l
p i r ray n f i a ,
d
e
4 00 0
4 50 3
4 00 0
4 0 03 000-
> ‚ 3 C
3 0 03 00 0
3 0 0-
4 : 2 0 LOD
0 0 0S C
i s c o
1 500-
1 00
15 0 3
50
5 0 3
n re
0 0
nId
0 0 3
d u a l
. L 1 , r u ne
F igu re 6 . 1a e P e rcen tage f r equency g raph s o f a ) b l ank e x t rac t ion b ) p rox ima l p r im ary , c ) d i s ta l p r ima ry , d ) p rox ima l s econd a ry a nd e )d i s ta ls e conda ry mod if ica t ion t e chn iques a tG upuk .
6 7
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT I ts hou ld b e n o ted h e re t h a t mo s t o ft h e a n t le r f r agmen t s f o r wh ich b l ank e x t rac t ion me thod i s r e co rded a r e i n f a c t d eb i tage r a the r t h an t oo l s . T he d eb i tage i sd om ina ted b y a n t le r ,u n l ike t h e t o o la s semb lage e xam ined . T h i s i sp a r t ly a f unc t ion o f t h e t oo l s s e lec ted f o r e xam ina t ion : t oo l s mo s t c ommon ly made f r om a n t le r , s u ch a s p o in t s a nd h a rpoon h ead s , w e r e e l im ina ted e a r ly i n t h e a na ly s i s . Add i t ion o f t h e se t o o l s t o t h e manuf ac ture a na ly s i s w ou ld n o t c hange much a tt h i s s t age , s i nce t h ey a r e g ene ra l ly h i gh ly f i n i shed
f a rt h e mos tc ommon m e thod f o rs hap ing t o o l s . T h i s i sa l so t r ue when p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l e nd s a r e e xam ined s epa ra te ly . B u t when t h e se a r e b roken d own b y m a te r ia l t y pe , w e c an s e e t h a ta n t le r t oo l s a r e mo re o f t en w o rk ed b y s c rap ing t h an g r ind ing , wh i le b one i s a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly w o rked b y g r ind ing . T ab le s 6 . 2 a nd 6 . 3 a nd F igu re s 6 . 1b a nd 6 . 1c i lu s t ra te t h e se f r equenc ie s . a n t le r
a nd s o c a r ry l i t t le e v idence o f e a r ly s t age s o f t h e m anuf ac tu r ing s equence , b u t i ti si mpo r t an t n o t t o p u t t o o much w e igh to nt h e a ppa ren to ve r -abundance o fa n t le ri nt h e
s c r ap ed g r ound o t he r n one t o ta l % to ta l
d eb i tage . I ti si mpor tan t t on o te , h oweve r , t h a t wh i le c hopp ing i st h e mo s t c ommon m e thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion f o r a n t ler , i td oe s
1 2 ( 6 .5% ) a r e a n t le r , w i th a s i ng le i v o ry p i ece t o c omp le te
D ISTAL P ROX IMAL G round
S c raped
1 0
0 2 8
O the r
3 1 4 1
2 1 0
T o ta l
2 40
4 0
O th e r
T o ta l 1 0
1 68
1 0
3 9 3
8 1 9
5 9 2 99
o n ly 4 . 5% o f t h e t o ta l ( n= 15 ) , w i th t h e r ema inde r b e ing made u p o f i v o ry a nd t o o th t o o l s . G r ind ing i s r e ad i ly i d en t if ied m ac roscop ica l ly , a nd a tl ow magn if i ca t ion s c an b e f u r the r d i v ided i n to c oa r se g r ind ing a nd f i ne g r ind ing ,
S hap ing
r e f e r r ing t o t h e g ra in s i ze o ft h e g r ind s tone ( P la te 6 . 2a a nd b ) . F ine g ra ined g r ind s tone s w e re u sed i n am inor i ty o f c a se sa tG upuk ,b e ing s e en o no n ly 2 4p rox ima la nd 4 1 d i s ta l e nd s .
b i rd o t he r t o ta l % to t a l b on e 2 5 7 0 3 1 0 . 19 2 1 3 0 0 . 93 1 9 4 4 2 0 1 2 .96 1 5 6 1 5 1 1 8 4 5 6 .79 3 1 7 0 4 1 1 2 .65 8 0 1 2 1 6 . 48 2 4 1 3 0 6 3 24 1 0 0 .00 7 4 .38 9 . 26 1 . 85 1 0 0
b one
A c h i squa re t e s t c ompa r ing p rox ima l t o d i s ta l manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique w a s s i gn if i can t a t t h e . 0 01 l e ve l ( ch i= 1 67 .58 , w i th 1 5 d eg ree s o f f r eedom ) . T he c on t ingency t a b le f o rt h i s t e s t ( Tab le 6 . 4 ) c l ea r ly s how s t h a t t oo l s g round p rox ima l ly a r e mo s t o f t en g round d i s ta l ly , a nd n eve r w o rked b y s c rap ing , wh i le t h o se s c raped p rox ima l ly a r e mo re l i ke ly t oh ave b een w o rked d i s ta l ly b y s c rap ing ,b u t may a l so b e g round . O the r p rox ima l mod if i ca t ion s a r e
T ab le 6 . 2 P r im a ry mod if ica t ion s o fp rox ima l e nd s o ft o o l s a nd
1 58
ma jor i ty o ft h e se a r eb one ( 291 o r9 3 .3% ) . An t le rr ep re sen t s
Manuf ac tur ing f r equenc ie s o fa l l t o o l s ( exc lud ing d eb i tage ) s how s im i la r v a r ia t ion i n t h e i r f r equenc ies . When l umped t o ge the r( p rox ima la nd d i s ta l ,a l lm a te r ia l s )g r ind ing i sb y
r ow
G round
T ab le 6 . 4 C h i -squa re c on t ingency t a b le t o t e s t r e la t ion sh ip o f p r im ary p rox ima l t o d i s ta l mod if ica t ion s ( c r i t ica l v a lue= l 67 .58 ) .
s c rap ing b one , a l though t h e d i f f e rence i sn o ta sg r ea ta sw i th c hopp ing . I ti sn o t s u rpr i s ing t h en , t h a t t h ese d i f f e rence s e x i s ti nt h eG upuk c o l lec t ion s .
w i th
1 5 .62 7 8 .59 4 . 28 1 . 5 1 1 0 0
t h e s amp le . G r ind ing i se ven mo re c ommon o n d i s ta l e nd s o f t oo l s . O f 3 97 o b servab le d i s t a l e nd s , 3 12 ( 8 1 .6% ) h ad b een s haped b yg r ind ing . A sw i th p rox ima le nd s ,t h e
o ft h e e xpe r im en ta l w o rk . C hopp ing w a s f ound t ob e mo s t e f f ec t ive o n w e t a n t le r , a nd n ea r ly i n ef f ec t ive o n d ry a n t le r o r b one . S c rap ing w e t a n t le r i sa l so mo re e f f ec t ive t h an
f r equenc ie s
6 2 3 12 1 7 6 3 97 1 0 0
t e chn ique ( i nc lud ing n o mod if i ca t ion ) , 1 84 ( 56 . 8% ) w e r e g round . T he ma jor i ty o ft h e se , ( 171 , 9 2 .9% ) a r e b one . O n ly
D i scu ss ion : T he se r e su l t s c o inc ide n i ce ly w i th t h e f i nd ing s
r aw
6 6 0 0 1 2 3 . 02
% to t a l
G r ind ing : G r ind ing o ra b rad ing i sb y f a rt h e mo s tc ommon
S c raped A r t icu la r
f r om G upuk ; p e rcen tage s .
1 3 7 0 0 3 8 9 . 57
t o ta l
me thod o fs hap ing a nd f i n i sh ing b one t o o l s a t Gupuk . O f 3 24 t o o l s w i th e v idence o f p rox ima l m anuf ac tu r ing
o ne c a se w a s i tp os s ib le t o i d en t ify t h e c hopp ing t o o l a s a n i r on a dze . A l though mac ro scop ica l ly s ome c hop m a rk s a ppea red h eav i ly s t r ia ted , a s i fm ade b y s t one a dze s , i tw a s n o t p os s ib le t o v er ify t h i s m ic ro scop ica l ly . S tone a dze b l ade s , i n c lud ing o ne n eph r i te e xamp le , a r e k nown f r om t h e s i te h oweve r , s ot h e i ru se c an b ea s sumed .
1 0 1 9 1 2 3 1 2 4 7 1 4 .51
2 0 2 54 1 2 5 2 9 1 7 3 .30
o t he r
G upuk ;r aw f r equenc ie sw i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s .
V ery l i t t le c an b e s a id f u r the r a bou t t h e n a tu re o ft h e t o o l s u sed t oc hop a n t le r a t Gupuk b eyond t h e f a c tt h a t t h ey w e re p robab ly a dze s o fs om e d e scr ip t ion . An t le r i ng ene ra l , a nd a n t le r d eb i tage i np a r t icu la r , t e nd s t ob e l e ss w e l l p r e served , s om ic ro scop ic t r aces a r e mo re d i f f icu l t t oi d en t ify . I n o n ly
a r t icu la r b r eak s c rap ed g r ound n one o t he r t o ta l % to ta l
3 5 1 5 5 1 5 6 1 4 .11
b i rd b one
T ab le 6 . 3 P r im ary mod if ica t ion s o fd i s t a le nd so ft oo l s f r om
n o ta ppea rt oh ave b een u sed a ta l l when r educ ing b one . A s i ng le t o o th s how st h e o n ly o the re xamp le o fc hopp ing i nt h e a s semb lage . B one i s mo s t o f t en w o rked b y t h e m e thod s d i scu s sed a bove . T h i s f i t sw e l lw i th t h ee xpe r imen ta lr e su l t s , w h ich s howed h ow p oor ly s u i ted a dze s a r e f o r w o rk ing d ry a n t le ra nd ,b ye x ten s ion ,b one .
a n t le r
b one
a s soc ia ted mo s t o f t en w i th g r ind ing , b u t may a l so b e s c raped .
c o lumn
S crap ing : S c rap ing , p robab ly w i th a c r ooked k n if e , i st h e s e cond mo s t c ommon m e thod o f manuf ac ture , b e ing 6 8
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS O F MANUFACTUR ING T ECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SA MPLES o bserved o n 4 2 p rox ima l e nd s a nd 6 3 d i s ta l e nd s r ep re sen t ing 1 3% a nd 1 5 .6% r e spec t ive ly . O n p rox ima l
a tG upuk , b u t d ef in i te ly p r e sen t o n as ma l l n umbe r o ft o o l s f r om e xcava ted c on tex t s .
e nd s , s c rap ing i se qua l ly c o mmon o n b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s , 1 9 ( 45 .2% ) i n e ach c a se . S c rap ing o n d i s ta l e nd s , o n t h e o the rh and ,i s mo re c ommon o na n t le r( n-35 , 5 6 .5% )t h an o n b one ( n=20 , 3 2 .3 % ) .
F in i sh ing T oo l s a tG upuk a r e f i n i sh ed i n av a r ie ty o fw ay s . F in i sh ing h e re m ean s s e conda ry mod if ica t ion s ( c ar r ied o u t a f te r p r ima ry s hap ing ) wh ich m ay o r may n o tb e i mpor tan t t ot h e
I n mo s t c a ses i tw a s n o tp o s s ib le t oi d en t if y t h e m a ter ia l o f t h e t o o l u sed t o s c rape u s ing m ic ro scop ic c r i t er ia . O n p rox im a l e nd s , 2 2 ( 5 3 .7% ) e p i sode s o f s c rap ing a r e
f unc t ion o f t h e t o o l .
u n iden t if ied . On d i s t a l e nd s , t h e t o ta l i s 3 9 , o r 6 2 .9% . Among t h e i d en t i f ied t r ace s i nb o th c a se s , c he r t s c rap ing i s mo re c o mon t h an i r on ( P la te 6 . 3a a nd b ) . S ix teen ( 39% ) p rox ima l e nd s w e re s c raped w i th c he r t , a s w e re 1 6 ( 2 5 .8% ) d i s ta l e nd s . Mos t , b u t n o t a l l o f t h e se r e p re sen t t h e s am e t oo l s . I r on s c rap ing w a s i d en t if i ed o n o n ly t h r ee ( 7 .3% ) p rox im a le nd s , a nd s even ( 1 1 .3% )d i s ta le nd s .
f i n i she s , s e em s t o b e mo re e s the t ic t h an f unc t iona l ( t o t h e moder n e ye a t l e a s t ) w h i le n o tch ing , o r d r i l l ing e ye s i n n eed le s , i sc l ea r ly f unc t iona l . T he m a jo r i ty o f t oo l s a t G upuk h ave n o s e conda ry mod if ica t ion t o f i n i sh t h em . P rox ima l ly , 2 12 o f 3 35 t oo l s ( 6 3 .3% ) s how n o mod if ica t ion b eyond i n i t ia ls hap ing . S ome o ft h e se , s uch a st oo l s w i th a r t icu la r e nd s p rox ima l ly , s how n o p r ima ry mod if ica t ion e i the r . D i s ta l ly , 2 31 o f3 84 t o o l s ( 60 .2% ) s how n os e conda ry mod if ica t ion ( s ee T ab le s 6 . 5 a nd 6 . 6 a nd F igu re s 6 . 1d a nd 6 . 1e ) . T oo l s o n wh ich u se w ea r
T h i s p a t t e rn , o f m any u n id en t if i ed c a se s a nd mo re i d en t if i ca t ion s o f s c rap ing w i th c her t t h an i r on , f o l low s t h e s ame p a t t ern a st h e g roove s d i scu s sed a bove . L ike t h em , t h e s ame p o s s ib i l i t ies f o ru nde r rep re sen ta t ion o fi r on e x i s t s .
c ou ld n o t b e d i s t ingu i sh ed f r om p o s s ib le f i n i sh ing p o l i she s w e re r e co rded a sn o th av ing s e conda ry mod if i ca t ion s .
No Mod i f ica t ion : T he p rox ima l e nd s o f t o o l s o f ten l a ck mod if i ca t ion . T h i s i sa l so s e en o n as ma l l n umbe r o fd i s ta l
a n t le r
e nd s ( g ene ra l ly b roken e dge s o rp o in t s o n w h ich u se w ea r i s t h e o n ly e v idence o ft h e i r u se a s at o o l ) . N o l e s s t h an 7 7 ( 23 .8% ) o f p rox ima l e nd s l a ck mod if i ca t ion . ( 1 .5% )d i s t a le nd s a r eu nwo rked .
P o l i sh ing , o ne o f t h e mo s t c ommon
n one p o l i sh g r ound d r i l led o t he r t o ta l % to ta l
O n ly s i x
T oo l s l a ck ing mod if i ca t ion o f t h e p rox ima l e nd c an b e d i v ided i n to t wo c a tego r ie s , t ho se w i th b r eak s p rox ima l ly , a nd t h o se i n wh ich t h e a r t icu la r e nd o ft h eb one i sl ef t more o r l e ss i n tac t . T he f o rme r a r e s l igh t ly mo r e c o mon i nt h e s amp le ( n-4 4 , 1 3 .7% ) . A r t icu la r e nd s a r e p r e sen t o n 3 3 ( 10 .2% ) o f t h e s pec im en s . B o th b i rd a nd m amma l l o ng
3 2 9 1 3 4 8 1 4 .33
b one
b i rd o t he r t o ta l % to t a l b one 1 4 9 2 5 5 2 12 6 3 .28 4 2 1 1 4 6 1 3 .73 2 5 1 0 3 5 1 0 .45 3 6 2 0 3 9 1 .64 0 0 0 3 0 . 90 2 52 2 9 6 35 1 0 000 7 5 .22 8 . 66 1 . 79 1 00
T ab le 6 . 5 S econda ry mod if ica t ion s o f p rox ima l e nd s o f t o o l s f r om G upuk ; r aw f r equenc ies w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen t age s .
b one s w e r e u sed w i th t h e a r t icu la r e nd s i n tac t . C ar ibou a cce sso ry m e tapod ia l s a r et h e mo s tc o mmon e l em en t a mong
a n t le r
t h e se . O th e r c a r ibou l o ng b one s a r e a l so r e p re sen ted , a s a r e av a r ie ty o fb i rd l ong b one s .
n one p o l i sh g r ound o t he r t o t a l % to ta l
O ther Mod if ica t ion s : O the r mod if ica t ion s a r e p r e sen t i n s ma l l n umbe r s o n b o th p rox ima l a nd d i s t a l e nd s o f t o o l s ( n"21 o r6 . 5% a nd n = 17 o r4 . 3% r e spec t ive ly ) . O n p rox ima l p ar t s o f t o o l s , t h e se mod if ica t ion s i n c lud e b a t te r ing a nd f l ak ing , g roov ing , c hopp ing , c u t t ing , g oug ing ,
3 1 1 5 7 0 5 3 1 4 .17
b one 1 6 6 8 4 1 9 5 2 74 7 3 .26
b i rd b one 3 1 3 2 0 3 6 9 . 63
o t he r 3 3 4 1 1 2 . 94
t o t a l
% to ta l
2 3 1 6 1 .76 1 0 5 2 8 .07 3 2 8 . 56 6 1 . 60 3 74 1 0 0 .00 1 0 0
T ab le 6 . 6 S econda ry mod if i ca t ion s o f d i s ta l e nd s o ft oo l s f r om G upuk ; r aw f r equen c ies w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p er cen tage s .
s aw ing ,p o l i sh a nd f i l ing . O the r d i s ta l mod if i ca t ion s i n c lude f l ak ing , g roov ing , p o l i sh a nd f i l ing . T he se mod if ica t ion s w i l ln o tb ed i scu s sed i nd e ta i lh e r e . S ome h ave b een c ove red
P o l i sh ing : O n b o th p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l e nd s o ft o o l s s ome
i n t h e d i scu s s ion o n b l ank e x t rac t ion . O the r s w i l l b e d i scu s sed b e low , i n t h e s e c t ion o n f i n i sh ing . On ly f l ak ing a nd f i l ing r e qu i re s ome c o mmen th e re .
f o rm o fp o l i sh ing , t og i ve t h e t oo l af i n e r f i n i sh , i st h e mo s t c o mmon s e conda ry mod if i ca t ion . F or ty -s ix ( 1 3 .7% ) p rox ima le nd s a nd 1 05 ( 2 7 .3% ) d i s ta l e nd s s how s ome f o rm o fp o l i sh ing d i s t inc tf r om u se w ea r .
F l ak ing i sn o t ac ommon m e thod o fw o rk ing b one a mong I nu i t a nd T hu le g roup s . A l though i t h a s b een amp ly
F ew o ft h e se p o l i she s w e r e i d en t if i ab le a s t ot h e m e thod o f p o l i sh ing . O n ly o ne p rox ima l e nd a nd t wo d i s ta l e nd s s howed c l ea re v idence o fp o l i sh ing w i th af i ne a bra s ive , s uch a s w a s p roduced i n t h e e xpe r imen ta l p rog ramme b y
d e mon s t ra t ed t h a ti ti sp o s s ib le t ow o rk b one i nt h i sw ay ( e .g . B onn ich sen a nd Y oung 1 980 ) , n o r thern g roup s a ppea r t o p ref e r mo re p rec i se a nd c on t ro l led m e thod s o f b one r educ t ion . On ly t wo t o o l s i nt h e s amp le h ave b een w o rked b yf l ak ing .
E qu i se tum s p . ( P la te 6 . 4a ) . P o l i sh o nf ou rp rox im a le nd s a nd o ne d i s ta l e nd w a s i d en t if ied a s b e ing p roduced b y l e a the r ( P la te 6 . 4b ,c ) . T he r ema inde r o ft h e p o l i she s c ou ld n o t b e r e l iab ly d i s t ingu i shed .
F i l ing w ou ld s e em t o b e ad ef in i te i n d ica t ion o ft r ade w i th m e ta l -wo rk ing g roup s , e i the r v i a S i be r ia o r w i th E u ropean s mov ing u p f r om t h e s ou th , i fn o t o fa c tua l c on t ac t . I ti sr a re 6 9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT D r i l l ing :
D r i l l ing a s as e conda ry mod if ica t ion i sc ommon
manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s T ab le 6 . 7 .
o n ly a tt h ep rox ima le nd o ft o o l s , l a rge ly b ecau se o fn eed le s . N eed le s may a l so b e p o l i shed , b o th p rox ima l ly a nd d i s ta l ly ,
i d en t if ied a r e n umbe r
b u tw ea rm ak e sp o l i sh ing i mpo s s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh . O ther Mod if ica t ion s : Av a r ie ty o fo t he r mod if ica t ion s a r e s e en a tb o th t h e p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l e nd s o f t o o l s . T he se
c hopped g rooved g round
i n c lude g r ind ing ( bo th c oa r se a nd f i ne ) a nd s c rap ing , b o th o f w h ich a r es ome t ime su sed o nt h es ame t o o l , a nd n o tch ing .
s c raped o t he r t o t a l
F in i sh ing o fd i f f eren tt oo l t ype s : S econda ry mod if i ca t ion s , p a r t icu la r ly p ol i sh ing , a r e n o t d i s t r ibu ted e ven ly among a l l t o o l t y pe s . T hey a r e c ommon o n ly o n k n ive s a nd d agge r s , n eed le s ( i f i n deed ap urpo sefu l p o l i sh c an b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om w ea r ) , s i new t w i s t e r s a nd s now k n ive s . O rnam en t s , n eed le c a se s , t h imb le h o lde r s , p o in t s , h a rpoon h ead s a nd f i sh ing g ea r , a l so o f t en h ave s e condary mod if i ca t ions s uch a s p o l i sh ing , a l though t h ey h ave n o t b een e xam ined i n d e ta i l . T oo l s s uch a sa w l s , s pa tu la sa nd g auged d r i l l s a r e o n ly r a re ly f i ne ly p o l i shed . Why t h i s d i s t inc t ion s hou ld b e made i sn o t
2 2 2 8 8 5 4 5
s umm ar i zed i n
p e r cen t 4 . 44 4 . 44 6 2 .22 1 7 .78 1 .11 9 9 .99
T ab le 6 . 7 Manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s a t K i t t iga zu i t ; r aw f r equenc ie sw i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen t age s . B lank E x t rac t ion B ecau se v i r tua l ly n o d eb i tage w a s a va i lab le f o re xam ina t ion , v ery l i t t le i n f o rma t ion c once rn ing b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique s i sa va i lab le . O n ly f i ve p i ece s h ad e v idence o f b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique . Two o f t h e se ( bo th a n t le r w edge s ) h ad b een c hopped , t wo g rooved ( a p i ece o f b on e d eb i tage a nd a n a n t le r p i ck ) , a nd o ne ( ap i ece o ff o s s i l ized b one ) may h ave b een s awed , a l though t h e t r ace s a r e n o t c l ea r . T he re a r e t oo f ew e xamp le s t o m ake a ny d e ta i led
c l ea r . I n s ome c a se s , t h e t o o l s may h ave b een i n tended f o r i mmed ia te u se o n ly , a nd s o i n ve s ted w i th l i t t le w o rk . I n o t he r s , s uch a sg auged d r i l l s , i tmay b e t h e f a c t t h a t mo s t o f t h et oo lw a sn o tv i s ib le , i n s ide t h eh af t . I tmay s imp ly m ean t h a t s uch t o o l s w e re n o t c on s ide r ed i mpo r tan t e nough , o r w o r th t h ee f f o r to ff i ne f i n i sh ing .
c o mpar i son s w i th b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique s f r om o t he r s i te s , b u ti ti sc l ea rt h a tt h es ame t e chn ique sw er eu sed , i fn o t i nt h es ame p ropo r t ion s .
D i scu s s ion T he ma ter ia l s u sed t om anuf ac ture b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s a s
S hap ing S hap ing t e chn iques a tK i t t igazu i ta ppea rt of o l low t h ep a t t e rn s e t a t G upuk . A l though a ga in l i t t le d e t a i l i sa va i lab le , t h e
i d en t if i ed t h rough m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s a r e , a s m igh t b e e xpec ted , ac o mb ina t ion o fs t one a nd m e ta l , p robab ly i r on . D e sp i te b e ing r a re ly f ound o n s i te s , i ti s c l ea r t h a t i r on ,
ma jor i ty o ft o o l sh ave b een s haped b yg r ind ing , w i th s m a l le r n umbe r s s haped b y s c rap ing . S ome t o o l s a l so c omb ine g r ind ing a nd s c rap ing . A s a t G upuk , t h e ma jor i ty o f t h e
t r aded f r om S ibe r ia , t r aded o r s c avenged f r om N o r se o ccupa t ion s , a nd m e teor ic , h a s b een u sed i n t h e A rc t ic f o r h und red s o f y ea r s ( McCa r tney a nd Mack 1 973 , McGhee
s c raped t o o l s a r e a n t le r , a l though s ome a r eb one . Two t o o l s h ave t r ace s s ugge s t ing t h a tt h ey may h ave b een w o rked w i th m e ta l f i l e s , b u t i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t os ay w i th a ny c onf id ence whe the rt h i si ss oo rn o t .
1 984 ) . A l though n o t f ound a tG upuk , i ti sc l ea r t h a t i tw a s u sed t h e re , n o t e xc lu s ive ly b u t p robab ly e x ten s ive ly . S t one t o o l sw e re u sed a l ong s ide i r on . I ft h ep ropo r t ion so fg roove s a nd s c rapes i d en t if i ed m ic ro scop ica l ly a ccu ra te ly r ef l ec t r e a l i ty , t h en s t one w a s u sed t w ice a so f ten a sm e ta l . B u tt h e f i n ene ss o ft h e s t r ia t ion s l ef tb y me t a l t oo l s m ay mean t h a t t h ey a r e l e s s l i ke ly t os u rv ive s ub sequen tp o l i sh ing , u se , a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l e f f ec t s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h en , t h a t s t one i s
F in i sh ing When p re serva t ion c ond i t ion sa r ep oo r , e v idence o ff i n i sh ing i s t h e f i r s t a spec t o f manuf ac tu r ing t o d i sappea r . I t i s d i ff icu l tt os ay h ow many , o r wh ich , t o o l s a tK i t t igazu i tw e r e f i n i shed b yp o l i sh ing . P o l i sh ing w a s r e co rded a sa n e l em en t
o ve r rep re sen ted i nt h e s amp le . T he o n ly w ay t ot e s t t h i s i s t o c a r ry o u t e x ten s ive , l o ng t e rm u se a nd w ea the r ing e xper imen t s , wh ich a r eb eyond t h es cope o ft h i sw o rk .
o ff i n i sh ing i no n ly f i ve c a se s , a nd i nn one o ft h e se w a s i t p os s ib le t od e te rm ine t h en a tu re o ft h ep o l i sh .
K i t t igazu i t
D i scu s s ion I t i s l i k e ly t h a t b one a nd a n t le r t oo l manuf ac tu re a t K i t t igazu i t f o l low s ap a t tern s im i lar t o t h a t a t G upuk . Unf or tuna te ly , t h e c ond i t ion o ft h e ma ter ia l e xam ined m ake s
J u s ta st h e t o o l s f r om K i t t igazu i tw e re mos t ly t oo e roded f o r w ea r t r ace s t o b e v i s ib le , s o t oo m anuf ac tu r ing t r ace s a r e p oo r ly p re served . Manuf ac tu r ing d a ta w e re o n ly c o l lec ted f r om t h e s ma l l s amp le c on s ide r ed w e l l -p re se rved e nough t o
i ti mpo ss ib le t o make d ef in i te s t a temen t s a bou tt h i s .
r e p l ica te f o rm ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o fu se w ea r . On ly o ne p i ece o fd eb i tage w a s i d en t if ied i nt h i s s amp le , a nd n o mor e w i l l b ecome a va i lab le , a sf a una lr ema in s w e re n o t c o l lec t ed .
T he P ond S i t e( N iT s -2 ) T he s amp le o fb one a nd a n t le ra r tef ac t sf r om t h eP ond S i te i s
D ue t ot h ep oo r ly p re se rved n a tu re o fe ven t h i ss ma l ls amp le ,
b o th l a rge r a nd b e t te r p re served t h an t h a t f r om K i t t igazu i t ,
a sr evea led b yt h eu se w ea ra na ly s i s ,n o a t temp tw a s made t o i d en t ify t h em a ter ia l s u sed t ow o rk t h e t o o l s , b eyond g ene ra l d i f f e ren t ia t ion o f s c rap ing v e r su s g roov ing . A l l
a l though i ti s s t i l l l e s s t h an h a lf t h e s i ze o f t h e G upuk 7 0
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS O F MANUFACTURING T ECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SAMPLES c o l lec t ion . I tt o o s e em s t o f o l low t h e p a t te rn o u t l ined f o r G upuk ,i nb l ank e x t rac t ion , s hap ing a nd f i n i sh ing .
c o l lec t ion .
T he f auna l c o l lec t ion f r om t h e P ond S i te i s
Me thod o f b l ank e x t rac t ion w a s r e co rd ed o n 3 7 a r tef ac t s
c ur ren t ly u nde r s t udy b y M . Meadow s a nd s o n o t a va i lab le f o ra na ly s i sh e re . H er e por t s , h oweve r , t h a t d eb i tage s uch a s t h a t d escr ibed b y Mo r r i son ( 1986 ) h a s n o t y e t b een e ncoun te red ( Meadow sp e r s . c omm . 1 991) .
f r om t h e P ond S i te , o f wh ich 2 6 a r e d eb i tage . A l though m any o ft h e s am e t e chn iques u sed a tG upuk a r e r ep re sen ted h e re , t h ey o ccu r i ns l igh t ly d i f f e ren t f r equenc ie s ( s ee T ab le 6 . 8a nd F i gure 6 . 2a )
Me thod s o fs hap ing b on e a nd a n t le r t o o l s a r e a l so s im i la r a t t h eP ond S i t e , a l though a ga in t h ep ropo r t ion so fe ach m e thod
B lank E x t rac t ion
b r oke n g r oov ed c hopp ed t o t a l % to ta l
a n t le r
b one
0 1 0 9 1 9 5 1 .35
6 6 0 1 2 3 2 .43
b i rd b one 1 1 0 2 5 . 4 1
o t he r
t o ta l
% to ta l
0 2 2 4 1 0 .8 1
7 1 9 1 3 7 1 0 0
1 8 .92 5 1 .35 2 9 .7 3 1 0 0 .0
S hap ing
d i f f e r s l igh t ly f r om t h ose a tG upuk . I n t h i s c a se , s c rap ing a nd al a ck o f mod if i ca t ion a r eb o th c ommon o nt h ep rox ima l e nd s o ft oo l s , a nd mo re c o mmon t h an g r ind ing , wh i le o nt h e d i s t a l e nd s o ft o o l s , g r ind ing d om ina te s . T ab le s 6 . 9 a nd 6 . 10 a nd F igu r e s 6 . 2b a nd 6 . 2c i lu s t ra te t h ese f r equenc ie s . G r ind ing : Un l ike G upuk , g r ind ing i sn o tt h e mo s tc ommon m e thod o f mod if y ing p rox ima le nd so ft o o l sa tt h eP ond S i te . S even o f3 4 o bservab le p rox ima le nd s ( 20 .6% ) w e r e g round . A l l o f t h e se a r e b one , n o a n t le r t o o l s i n t h e s amp le a r e
T ab le 6 . 8 B lank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique s a tt h e P ond S i te ; r aw f r equen c i e sw i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s . G roov ing : N ine teen o ft h e 3 7 a r tef ac t s b ea r ing i n fo rma t ion a bou tb l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique sw e re g rooved , mak ing t h i s
g round p rox ima l ly . D i s ta l ly , a r t ef ac t s f r om t h e P ond S i t e f o l low t h e s ame p a t te rn a s a t G upuk , w i th g r ind ing
t h e mo s tc ommon me thod . R eve r s ing t h es i tua t ion a tG upuk , mo re o f t h ese ( 3 , 1 5 .8% o f g roove s ) h ad b een made w i th
p redom ina t ing . T he re , 1 8 o f 3 7 ( 4 8 .6% ) o b se rvab le d i s t a l e nd sw e re g round . Aga in ,n one o ft h e se a r ea n t le r .
i r on t o o l st h an w i th c he r t ( 1 , 5 . 3% , s e e P la te 6 . 5a a nd b ) . I t i sn o t p o s s ib le t o s ay , w i th t h i s s ma l l s amp le , whe the r i r on
S crap ing : S c rap ing i so ne o ft h e mos tc ommon m e thod s o f s hap ing p rox ima l e nd s o f t oo l s a t t h e P ond S i te , w i th 1 0
w a s m o re c ommon ly u sed t h an s t one a s ag roov ing t o o l a t t h e P ond S i te , o r whe the r t h e g rooves a r e s imp ly b e t te r p reserv ed t h an t ho se a tG upuk .
e xamp les ( 29 .4% ) , mo re c ommon t h an g r ind ing , b u t s l igh t ly
A l so r e ve r s ing t h e s i tua t ion a t G upuk , mo s t g roove s w e r e f ound o n a n t le r r a the r t h an o n b one . T en g roove s ( 52 .6% ) w e r e i d en t i f ied o n a n t le r , i n c lud ing t h e o ne p roduced b y a c her t t o o l . S even g roove s w e re f o und o n b one ( 36 .8% ) , i n c lud ing a l l o f t ho se p roduced b y i r on t oo l s , a nd t wo g roove s( 1 0 .5% )w e re i d en t if i ed o nf r agmen t so fi v ory .
l e s s c o mmon t h an n o mod if ica t ion . T oo l s s c raped p rox ima l ly a r ee qua l ly d i v ided b e tween b one a nd a n t le r ,w i th f i ve e xamp le s e ach . O n d i s ta l e nd s o ft o o l s , s c rap ing i sl e s s c o mmon t h an g r ind ing b u t s t i l l f r equen t , w i th 1 4 e xamp le s ( 37 .8% ) . An t le ri s much mo re l i ke ly t h an b one t oh ave b een s c raped d i s ta l ly . T en a n t le rt o o l ss how t h i s mod if i ca t ion , b u t o n ly f ou rb one t o o l s . I tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o d e ter mine wha t ma ter ia l s h ad b een u sed t os c rape a ny o ft h e se t oo l s .
B reak s : B reak ing b one a s amean s o fb l ank e x t rac t ion w a s l e ss c ommon a tt h e P ond S i te t h an a tG upuk . On ly s even ( 18 .9% )o ft h e3 7 a r tef ac t sw i th e v idence o fb l ank e x t rac t ion m e thod w e re r educed i nt h i s w ay . A l l o ft h e se w e re b one a nd a l lw e r ef i n i shed t o o l s .
p rox ima l e nd a r e c ommon a t t h e P ond S i te . E leven t o o l s ( 32 .4% ) e i the r h ad n o mod i f ica t ion o r h ad t h e a r t icu la r e nd
Chopp ing : C hopp ing a ccoun t s f o r e l even ( 29 .7% ) o f t h e b l ank s f r om t h e P ond S i t e , as omewha t h ighe r p e rcen t age
p re sen t ( 5 .9% ) , a bou t h a lf t h e p e r cen tage a t G upuk . T he r ema inde rh ave b reak sf o rm ing t h ep rox ima le nd . An t le ra nd
N o Mod if ica t ion :
T oo l s t h a t a r e u nmod if i ed o n t h e
o ft h eb one l e f ti n tac t . On ly t wo o ft h e se h ave a r t icu la re nd s
t h an a tG upuk . N ine o ft h e se c hopped p i eces w e re a n t le r ,t h e r ema in ing t wo b e ing wha le b one . U n l ike G upuk , c hopp ing w a s n o t t h e mo s t c o m mon me thod o fr educ ing a n t le r : mo re p i ece s w e re g rooved t h an c hopped . T h i s may i n p a r t r ep re sen t ac o l lec t ion b i a s , i n t h a t much o f t h e a n t le r
b one , i n c lud ing b i rd b on e , a r e r e p re sen ted , a l though t h e t wo t oo l sw i th a r t icu la re nd sp re sen ta r eb o th c a r ibou .
d eb i tage e xam ined f r om G upuk w a s f ound i n t h e f a una l a n t le r a r t icu la r s c rap ed g r ound n on e o t he r t o ta l % to t a l
0 5 0 5 1 1 3 7 .93
b one
b i r d o t he r t o ta l % to t a l b one 2 0 0 2 6 . 90
5 6 3 0 1 6 5 . 17
0 0 1 0 1 3 . 45
0 1 0 0 1 3 . 45
1 0 7 9 1 2 9 1 0 0
a n t le r s c r ap ed
3 4 .48 2 4 . 14 3 1 .03 3 . 45 1 0 0 .00
g r ound o t he r n one t o ta l % to ta l
1 0 0 1 3 1 4 3 8 .39
b one
b i rd b one
o t he r
t o ta l
4
0
0
1 3 0 0 1 7 4 7 .22
1 0 0 1 2 . 78
4 0 0 4 1 . 11
% to t a l
1 4
3 8 .89
1 8 1 3 3 6 1 0 0
5 0 .00 2 . 78 8 . 33 1 0 0
T ab le s 6 . 9 a nd 6 . 10 P r im ary mod if ica t ion s o n p rox ima l ( l ef t ) a nd d i s ta l ( r igh t ) e nd s o f t o o l s f r om t h e P ond S i t e ; r aw f r equen c ie sw i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s . 7 1
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT a
P ond S i te B l ank E x t rac t ion T echn iques
3 0 .00
2 5 .00
2 0 .00 >' C ) C > -
C )
a n t le r
1 5 .00
•bone b i rd b one
1 0 .00
o the r
5 .00
0 .00
b r oken
g rooved
c hopped
b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn iques
b
C
c xd S te
P C )t tS te
4Q C >
XOD MOD MOD 2 0O D
i s c o 1 0. 0
;; ;
U ..
J E
5 . 0D
—
Mre p Cn yr Ttd 1 t
d
F t rd S te
1 bd S t e
e
y f a-Adn
6
s co
c c
g u rd a xot t rym wab c rs
F igu re s 6 . 2a -e P e rcen tage f r equency g r aph s o fa )b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique s , b )p rox ima lp r ima ry r educ t ion , c )d i s ta l p r im ary r educ t ion , d )p rox ima ls e conda ry r educ t ion a nd e )d i s ta ls e conda ry r educ t ion a tt h eP ond S i te .
7 2
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS O F MANUFACTUR ING T ECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SA MPLES On ly t h ree t oo l s l a ck mod if ica t ion a tt h e d i s ta l e nd , a l l o f t h em a n t le r . T hey r e p re sen t t o o l s t h a t h ave n o t b een mod if ied b eyond i n i t ia lb l ank e x t rac t ion .
t wo s i t e s i n t e rm s o f l o ca t ion , s e a son o f o ccupa t ion , t ime p er iod a nd s of o r th .
O ther Mod if i ca t ion s : F ew o t he r mod if i ca t ion s w e r e r e co rded o n t h e t o o l s f r om t h e P ond S i te . O ne a n t le r t o o l
C ache P o in t
h ad t h e p rox ima l e nd s haped b y c hopp ing , b y a n a dze o f u n iden t if ied ma ter ia l , a nd t wo t o o l s ( one a n t le r , o ne wha le b one ) a ppea red t oh ave b een mod if ied o n ly b yp o l i sh ing .
W i th C ache P o in t , w e r un i n to m any o ft h e s ame p rob lem s m e t w i th a t K it hgazu i t , a l l r e la ted t o p r e serva t ion . F ew s p ec i f ic i d en t if i ca t ion s o f m anuf ac tur ing t e chn ique w e re p o s s ib le ,b u tt h e se s how s im i la rp a t te rns t ot h ose o bserved a t t h eo t he rs i te s .
F in i sh ing A s w i th t h e t o o l s f r om G upuk , mo s t o ft h o se f r om t h e P ond S i te s how n o s e cond a ry mod if ica t ion . S i x t een o f 2 4 o b se rvab le p rox ima l e nd s ( 66 .7% ) , i n c lud ing t h ose w i th n o p r im a ry mod if i ca t ion , h ad n o t b een p o l i shed , d r i l led o r o the rw i se f i n i shed . As im i la r p e r cen tage ( 6 7 .6% , 2 3 o f3 4 ) o f o b se rvab le d i s t a l e nd s h ad a l so n o t b een p o l i shed o r
a n t le r
b r ok en g r oov ed c h opp ed o t h e r t o ta l % to ta l
o the rw i se mod if i ed ( Tab le s 6 . 11 a nd 6 . 12 a nd F igu re s 6 . 2d a nd 6 . 2e ) . Whe re s e conda ry mod if ica t ion s h ad b een m ade , p o l i sh ing w a st h e mo s tc ommon o nb o th p rox ima l a nd d i s t a l e nd s , w i th 4 ( 16 .7% ) a nd 1 0 ( 29 .4% ) e xamp le s r e spec t ive ly .
a n t le r
b one
9 0 0 0 9 3 4 .62
T ab le 6 . 11
6 3 2 4 1 5 5 7 .69
b i rd 1 0 0 0 1 1 85
o t he r
n one p o l i sh g r ound t o ta l % to ta l
9 1 1 1 3 2 .35
9 8 0 1 7 5 0 .00
b i rd b one 1 0 0 1 2 . 94
o t he r 4 1 0 5 1 4 .7 1
t o t a l 2 3 1 0 1 3 4 1 0 0
2 2 . 56 5 3 6 7 .95 2 0 2 5 .64 3 3 . 85 7 8 1 0 0 .00 1 0 0
c ommon , f o l lowed b y c hopp ing a nd b reak ing . S even ty -n ine a r tef ac t s h ad s om e i n f o rma t ion a bou t b l ank e x t rac t ion ( s ee T ab le 6 . 13 a nd F igu re 6 . 3a ) . G roov ing :A sw i th t h eo t he rs amp le s , g roov ing w a st h e mos t c ommon m e thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion a tC ache P o in t , w i th 5 4 e xamp le s ( 68 .4% o ft h e s amp le ) . G roov ing w a s f ound mo re
S econda ry mod if ica t ion s o n p rox ima l e nd s o f
b one
0 3 0 2 5
% to ta l
t h o se a t t h e P ond S i te , w i th g roov ing b e ing t h e mo s t
% to ta l 1 6 6 1 .54 4 1 5 .38 2 7 . 69 4 1 5 .38 2 6 1 0 0 .00 1 0 0
f r equen t ly o n a n t le r t h an o n b one , r ef l ec t ing t h e h ighe r f r equency o f a n t le r i n t h e s amp le . P ropor t iona l ly , t h e f r equency o fg roov ing o ne ach ma ter ia li st h es ame .
t oo l s f r om t h e P ond S i te ; r aw f r equenc ie s w it h r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s . a n t le r
t o ta l
B lank E x t rac t ion P a t t e rn s o f b l ank e x t rac t ion a t C ache P o in t a r e s im i la r t o
t o t a l
0 1 0 0 1 3 . 85
b i rd o t he r b one 0 2 0 3 5 1 4 1 1 7 3 0 1 0 0 5 3 1 9 1 6 7 .95 2 4 .36 1 . 28 6 . 4 1
T ab le 6 . 13 B l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn iques a tC ache P o in t ; r aw f r equenc ie sw i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s .
I tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t od e te rm ine w he the r t h e se p o l i she s h ad b een m ade w i th f i ne a b ra s ive s o rw i th s of tp o l i she r s s uch a s l e a the r .
n one p o l i sh d r i l led o t he r t o ta l % to ta l
b one
% to ta l
I tw a s p o ss ib le t o i d en t i fy t h e ma ter ia l u sed t o p roduce g roove si nt h ree c a se s ,t wo i r on a nd o ne c he r t( P la te 6 . 6a a nd
6 7 .65 2 9 .4 1 2 . 94 1 0 0 .00
b ) . O ne o f t h e i r on g roove s w a s o n af r agmen t o f f o s s i l b one , w h i le t h e o t he r t wo w e re o n b one . T h i s i ss im i la r t o t h e s i tua t ion a tt h e P ond S i te , whe re i r on w a s a l so i d en t i f ied mo r e f r equen t ly t h an c he r ti ng rooves . I fm ic ro scop ic t r aces o ni r on g roove sa r e mo re l i ke ly t ob ed e st royed t h an t h ose o n c he r t , a s d i scu s sed a bove , t h en g iven t h e p oo r o ve ra l l
T ab le 6 . 12 S econda ry mod if ica t ion s o n d i s ta l e nd s o ft o o l s f r om t h e P ond S i te ; r aw f r equenc ie s w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e r cen tage s .
c ond i t ion o f ma ter ia l f r om C ache P o in t , i r on mus th ave b een u sed v e ry f r equen t ly . H oweve r , w i th o n ly t h ree i d en t if ied g roove s , i ti sn o t p os s ib le t o e va lua te t h e a ccu racy o ft h ese r e su l t s .
O the r s e conda ry mod if ica t ion s o n t o o l s f r om t h e P ond S i te i n c lud e d r i l l ing ( p rox ima l e nd s o f n eed le s ) , g r ind ing a nd n o t ch ing . T oge the r t h ey a ccoun t f o r s i x p rox ima l e nd s ( 25% )a nd o ne d i s ta le nd ( 2 .9% ) .
B reak s : B reak s w e r e i d en t if ied v e ry i n f r equen t ly a tC ache P o in t . T h i s may b e af unc t ion o ft h e q ua l i ty o ft h e ma ter ia l , wh ich m ake s i td i ff i cu l t t o d i f f e ren t ia te p urposef u l b reak s f r om l a te r a cc iden t s . p u rpo sef u lb reak s .
D i scu ss ion Me thod s o fb l ank e x t rac t ion , s hap ing a nd f m i sh ing b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s s e em t ob e much t h e s ame a tt h e P ond S i te a nd
O n ly t wo t oo l s a ppea red t o h ave
Chopp ing : C hopp ing w a si d en t if i ed o n2 0 ( 2 5 .3 % ) a r tef ac t s . Mo s t , b u t n o t a l l w e re a n t le r . Two b one a r tef ac t s h ad e v id ence o f c hopp ing . O ne o f t h e se w a s s uff i c ien t ly w e l l p r e served f o rt h e c hop ma rk s t ob e i d en t if i ed a sh av ing b een m ade b y as t one a dze ( P la t e 6 . 6c ) .
G upuk . T he mo s t c ommon t e chn ique s a te a ch s i t e a r e t h e s ame : g roov ing , g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing . A l though t h e re i s s ome v a r ia t ion i nt h e f r equenc ies o ft h e o t he r t e chn ique s , i t i sn o t c l ea r t h a t t h i s a ny th ing b u t af unc t ion o fs amp le s i ze . T h i s i sn o t t oo s u rp r i s ing , g iven t h e s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e 7 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT a
CACHE PO INT B lank E x t rac t ion T echn iques
4 5 .00 4 0 .00 3 5 .00 3 0 .00 C . )
2 5 .00
a n t le r
a-
Ibone
2 0 .00
E 1b i rd b one
1 5 .00
Mo ther
1 0 .00 5 .00 0 .00
b roken
g rooved
c hopped
o the r
b l ank e x t rac t ion t echn iques
b
C
COE N T RMr yN bd f iC 3 f iw -Ds w
r XM
-
aE
p W Tf ly t Cu J l. ub
e
d
Sm iky V af ia bm-R od n i
C E
Sm3-& yM x fk @ 1k n -Ds W
c 5 cc
c c
c ow
J it h
F igure s 6 . 3a -3 P e rcen tage F requen cy g r aph s o f a )b l ank e x t rac t ion , b ) p rox ima l p r im a ry , c ) d i s ta l p r ima ry , d ) p rox ima l s e conda ry a nd e )d i s ta ls e conda ry mod if ica t ion t e chn iques a tC a che P o in t .
7 4
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS O F MANUFACTUR ING T ECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SA MPLES O ther Mod if ica t ion s : T h ree a r tef ac t s f r om C ache P o in t f e l l i n to t h i sc a tego ry . O ne p i ece o fa n t le ra ppea red t oh ave b een c u t w i th ak n if e o f s ome t ype , wh i le t h e o the r t wo h ad n o i d en t if i ab le b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique . T he se a r eb o th t e e th ,
O ther Mod if ica t ion s : O the r mod if i ca t ion s f ound a tC ache P o in t i n c lude d r i l l ing , n o tch ing , c hopp ing , b a t ter ing , p e rcu s s ion a nd p o l i sh o n p rox ima l e nd s , a nd c hopp ing a nd p o l i sh o nd i s ta le nd s .
w h ich w e re mod if i ed ( p robab ly f o ru se a sc h i se l s ) , b u t w er e o t he rw i se who le .
F in i sh ing Mo s t o f t h e t o o l s f r om C ache P o in t s how n o s e conda ry mod if i ca t ion . O np rox ima l e nd s , 2 5 o f3 0 ( 83 .3% ) h ave n o
S hap ing O nce a ga in , b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s w e re s haped a t C ach e
f i n i sh ing p o l i sh o r o t he r s e conda ry mod if i ca t ion . O n d i s ta l e nd st h i sf a l l st o2 4 o f3 4( 70 .6% ; s e eT ab les 6 . 16 a nd 6 . 17
P o in ti n much t h e s ame w ay sa sa tG upuk a nd t h eo t he rs i te s , a l though f r equenc ie sd i f f e r . G r ind ing a nd s c rap ing s c rap ed g r ound n one o t h e r t o ta l % to ta l
a n t le r b one o t he r t o t a l % to ta l 3 3 1 7 2 0 .59 2 3 1 6 1 7 .65 4 2 2 8 2 3 .53 8 4 1 1 3 3 8 .24 1 7 1 2 5 3 4 1 0 0 .00 5 0 .00 3 5 .29 1 4 .7 1 1 0 0 .00
n one p o l i sh o t h e r t o ta l % to ta l T ab le 6 . 16
f r om C ache P o in t ; r aw f r equenc ie s w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s .
a nd F igu re s 6 . 3d a nd 6 . 3e ) .
P o l i sh ing i sn o t c ommon o n
t oo l s f r om C ache P o in t ; o n ly o ne p rox ima l e nd ( 3 .3% ) a nd o n ly s i x d i s ta l e nd s ( 17 .6% ) a r e p o l i shed . T he se l ow f r equenc ie s a t C ache P o in t a r e p robab ly a f f ec ted , a s t h ey
a r e e qua l ly c ommon o n b o th p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l e nd s o f t o o l s . O n p rox ima l e nd s , h oweve r , b o th a r e l e s s c ommon t h an e i the rn o mod if i ca t ion o ra l lo t he r mod if i ca t ion sl umped t o ge the r( Tab le s 6 . 14 a nd 6 . 15 a nd F igu re s6 . 3b a nd 6 . 3c ) .
T ab le 6 . 15
S econda ry mod if ica t ion s o n p rox ima l e nd s o f
t oo l s f r om C ach e P o in t ; r aw f r equenc ie s w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s .
T ab le 6 . 14 P r im a ry mod if ica t ion s o np rox ima le nd s o ft o o l s
s c raped g r ound o t h e r n on e t o ta l % to ta l
a n t le r b one o t he r t o ta l % to t a l 1 9 5 2 5 8 3 .33 0 1 0 1 3 . 33 4 0 0 4 1 3 .33 1 5 1 0 5 3 0 1 0 0 .00 5 0 .00 3 .33 1 6 .67 1 0 0 .00
w e re a t K i t t igazu i t , b y t h e p oo r p rese rva t ion o f ma ter ia l . O the r s e conda ry mod if i ca t ion s p re sen t o n t oo l s f r om C ache P o in t i n c luded d r i l l ing , s c rap ing a nd c hopp ing o n p rox ima l e nd s , a nd s c rap ing a nd c hopp ing o nd i s ta le nd s .
a n t le r b one o t h e r t o ta l % to ta l 9 5 2 1 6 3 6 .36 6 9 1 1 6 3 6 .36 2 3 1 6 1 3 .64 4 0 2 6 1 3 .64 2 1 1 7 6 4 1 0 0 .00 4 7 .73 3 8 .64 1 3 .64 1 0 0 .00
n one p o l i sh o t he r t o ta l % to ta l
a n t le r b one o t he r t o ta l % to t a l 1 4 6 4 2 4 7 0 .59 3 3 0 6 1 7 .65 1 2 1 4 1 .76 1 8 I l 5 3 4 1 0 0 .00 5 2 .94 3 2 .35 1 4 .7 1 1 0 0 .00
T ab le 6 . 17 S econda ry mod if ica t ion s o n d i s ta l e nd s o ft o o l s f r om C ache P o in t ; r aw f r equenc ie s w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s .
P r ima ry mod if i ca t ion s o n d i s ta l e nd s o f t o o l s
f r om C ache P o in t ; r aw f r equenc ie s w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen t age s . G r ind ing : C ache P o in ti st h eo n ly s amp le i nw h ich g r ind ing
D i scu s s ion D e sp i te p rob lem s w i th p r ese rva t ion , C ache P o in t s e em s t o f o l low t h e p a t te rn s e t a tG upuk a nd s e en a l so a tt h e P ond S i te . T he re a r e s ome d i f f e ren ce s , s uch a s t h e i n c rea sed f r equency o fs c rap ing , a nd t h ep re sence o fc hopp ing o nb one a s w e l l a s a n t le r , b u t t h e se p robab ly r ef l ec t v ar ia t ion w i th in t h ep a t te rn ,r a the rt h an ad i f f e ren tp a t te rn a l toge the r .
a nd s c rap ing a r e e qua l ly c ommon f o rs hap ing b o th p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l e nd s . B o th a ccoun t f o r 7o f 3 5 p rox ima l e nd s ( 20% ) ,a nd 1 6 o f4 4d i s ta le nd s( 36 .4% ) . When e xam ined b y m a te r ia l t y pe , i ti sc l ea rt h an g r ind ing i s mo re c ommon o n b one ( f ive o f s even p rox ima l e nd s , o r 7 1 .4% , t e n o f 1 3 d i s t a l e nd s , 7 6 .9% ) t h an o n a n t le r ( two o f 1 7p rox ima l , 1 .8% ,f i ve o f2 0d i s ta l ,2 5% ) .
S aunak tuk
S crap ing : S c rap ing i sp resen to nt h e s ame n umbe r s o ft o o l s f r om C ache P o in t a s g r ind ing . O n p rox ima l e nd s , i ti s s l igh t ly mo re c ommon o nb one t h an o n a n t l e r , w i th t h ree o f
A l though i n many r e spec t s S aunak tuk i s mo re l i ke b o th Kuga luk ( Mo r r i son 1 986 ,
1 988 ) a nd T ra i l R ive r ( Nagy
e ach b e ing s c raped ( bu t f ewe rb one t o o l s t h an a n t le r ) . O ne t o o th i s a l so s c raped . On d i s t a l e nd s , a n t le r i s mo re c ommon ly s c raped , w i th n ine e xamp le s . S ix b one s a nd o ne t o o th a r ea l so s c raped d i s t a l ly .
1 988 ) , i n t h a t i t i s s e a sona l o ccupa t ion whe re c a r ibou e xp lo i ta t ion w a s p robab ly i mpo r tan t , t h e e v iden ce o f m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s , p a r t icu la r ly b l ank e x t rac t ion , s how i tt ob e s im i la rt oG upuk a nd o t he rw in te rv i l lage s i te s . One r e a son f o r t h i s m ay b e t h e f a c t t h a t mo s t d eb i tage w a s
N o Mod if ica t ion : O n p rox ima l e nd s , n o mod if ica t ion i s mos t c ommon , b e ing p resen t o n f ou r a n t le r t oo l s , t wo b one
p robab ly c o l lec ted w i th t h e f a una l s amp le , a nd s o i sn o t i n c luded h e re .
t o o l sa nd t wo t e e th ( c h i se l s ) . O nd i s ta le nd s , f ou ra n t le rt o o l s a nd t wo t e e th h ave n o mod if ica t ion b eyond u se .
7 5
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT SAU NAKT UK
a
B lank E x t rac t ion T echn iques
2 0 .00 1 8 .00 1 6 .00 1 4 .00 > . C . ) C
a . Q )
1 2 .00 1 0 .00
-
.
-
-
-
-
a n t ler -
Ub one 8 .00 6 .00
-
1 3b i rd b one Mo ther
‚
4 .00 2 .00
-
0 .00
b roken
g rooved
c hopped
o ther
b l ank e x t rac t ion t echn iques
C
b
a ea
r we
d
S O LNKRX
a a -
e
J
K
L
F igu re 6 . 4a -e P e rcen tage F requen cy g raph s o fa )b l ank e x t rac t ion , b )p rox ima l p r ima ry , c )d i s ta l p r ima ry , d ) p rox ima l s e conda ry a nd e )d i s ta ls e conda ry mod if ica t ion t e chn ique s a tS aunak tuk .
7 6
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS O F MANUFACTURI NG T ECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SA MPLES B lank E x t rac t ion
S hap ing T echn ique s u sed t o s hape t o o l s a t S aunak tuk f o l low t h e p a t te rn s s e t a t o t he r s i t e s d i scu ssed h e re , w i t h g r ind ing
F i f ty two a r t ef ac t s f r om S aunak tuk h ad s ome e v idence o f b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique r ema in ing . T he se f o l lowed t h e p a t t e rn s e t a t Gupuk . t h e se f r equen c ies . a n t le r b r oken g r oov ed c hopp ed o t h e r t o ta l % to ta l
0 1 4 1 1 1 6 3 1 .37
d om ina t ing t h e s amp le ( e spec ia l ly o n d i s ta l e nd s ; s e e T ab les 6 . 19 a nd 6 . 20 a nd F igu re s 64 ba nd 6 . 4c ) .
T ab le 6 . 18 a nd F igu re 6 . 4a i lu s t ra te
b one 7 2 0 0 0 2 7 5 2 .94
b i r d b one 3 4 0 0 7 1 3 .7 3
o t he r 0 0 0 1 1 1 . 96
t o ta l
a n t le r
% to ta i a r t icu la r s c rap ed g r ound n one o t he r t o ta l % to ta l
1 0 1 9 .6 1 3 8 7 4 .5 1 1 1 . 96 2 3 . 92 5 1 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0
T ab le 6 . 18 B lank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique s a tS aunak tuk ; r aw f r equenc ie sw i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s .
a n t le r
b one t o o l s ( 24 , 6 3 .2% o f g roove s ) , b u t when r e la t ive f r equenc ie s o fb one a nd a n t le rt o o l s a r e t a ken i n to a c coun ti t c an b e s e en t h a t t h ey a r e a c tua l ly mo re f r equen t o n a n t le r t o o l s . F ou r teen o f 1 6 a n t le r t o o l s h ave g roove s ( 87 .5% ) , c ompa red t o2 4o f3 5b one t oo l s( 6 8 .6% ) . I tw a s p o s s ib le t o i d en t ify t h e m a te r ia l s u sed t o m ake t h e g roove s i n ar e la t ive ly h igh n umbe r o f c a ses . S even h ad b een made w i th i r on ( 18 .4% ) , a nd t h r ee w i th c he r t ( 7 .9% ; s e e P l a te 6 . 7a a nd b ) . T h i s i st h e s ame p a t te rn s e en a tt h e
1 0 4 3 0 8 1 9 .05
o t he r 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 . 38
t o ta l 1 7 1 4 1 8 2 4 2 1 0 0
% to ta l 2 . 38 1 6 .67 3 .33 4 2 .86 4 . 76 1 0 0
s c raped g r ound o t h e r n one t o ta l % to ta l
1 2 1 0 1 1 4 2 5 .45
b one 1 3 0 2 0 3 6 0 .00
b i rd b one 0 6 0 0 6 1 0 .9 1
o t he r 0 2 0 0 2 3 . 64
t o t a l 1 3 3 9 2 1 5 1 0 0
% to t a l 2 3 .64 7 0 .9 1 3 . 64 1 . 82 1 0 0
T ab le 6 . 20 P r im a ry mod if i ca t ion s o n d i s ta l e nd s o f t oo l s f r om S aunak tuk ; r aw f r equenc ie s w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s .
P ond S i t e a nd C ache P o in t . I t c l ea r ly i n d ica t es t h e i mpor t ance o f i r on t oo l s i n n or the rn t e chno log ie s . Wa lke r
G r ind ing : G r ind ing i sa ga in t h e mo s t c o mmon me thod o f s hap ing t oo l s . O ne th i rd o fp rox ima l e nd s w e re s haped t h i s
( 1990 ) h a s a l so i d en t if i ed e v idence o f me t a l t o o l s a t S aunak tuk , i nt h e f o rm o fc u tm ark s o nb one . H e c a r r ied o u t
w ay ( 14 o f4 2 , 3 3 .3% ) , a s w e re t h e ma jor i ty o fd i s ta l e nd s ( 3 9 o f5 5 , 7 0 .9% ) . A l lo ft h ep rox ima l e nd s s haped t h i s w ay a r e b one t o o l s , n one a r e a n t le r . T he d i s ta l e nd o fo n ly o ne
ad i sc r im inan t f unc t ion a na ly s i s , c ompa r ing e xper im en ta l a nd a r chaeo log ica lc u tma rk s made b ys t one a nd s t ee lk n ive s . A t S aunak tuk , 2 3% o f c u tma rk s w e re a s s igned b y t h e d i scr im inan tf unc t ion t os t ee lk n ive s (Wa lke r 1 990 :122 ) .
a n t le r w a s s haped b y g r ind ing ; t h e r e s t a r e b one a nd o ne w o rked t oo th .
B reak s : B reakage w a s t h e s e cond mo s t c ommon m e thod o f b l ank e x t rac t ion f o rb one t o o l sa tS aunak tuk . A l lo ft h e se 1
S crap ing : S c rap ing i st h e s e cond mo s t c o mmon me thod o f s hap ing d i s ta l e nd s o ft o o l s a tS aun ak tuk , b u t ad i s t an t t h ird
( 2 1 .2% ) t o o l s a r e b one , e i gh t mamma l b one a nd t h ree b i rd b one .
o n p rox ima l e nd s , w he r e al a ck o f mod if ica t ion i s more c ommon . I nc on t ra s tt ot h e s i tua t ion w i th g r ind ing , mo s t o f t h e t o o l s s haped b y s c rap ing a r e a n t le r . On ly t wo p rox ima l
E v idence o f c hopp ing i s u nu sua l ly r a r e a t
S aunak tuk ,b e ing f ound o n o n ly o ne p i ece o fa n t le r( 1 .9% o f t h e s amp le ) . One l i ke ly r e a son f o r t h i s e x t rem e ly l ow
e nd so fb one t o o l sw e re s c raped , a nd o n ly o ne d i s ta le nd . O no n ly o ne o ft h e a n t le rt o o l s w a s i tp o s s ib le t oi d en t ify t h e m a ter ia l o ft h es c rap ing t o o l , ac he r tk n if e ( P la te 6 . 7c ) . T h i s
f r equency i s t h e u nde r rep re sen t a t ion o f d eb i tage i n t h e s amp le . T he p os s ib i l i ty t h a t t h i s r e p r e sen t s at r ue d i f f e rence
i sn o te nough t oe va lua te t h e r e la t ive i mpor tance o fd i f f e ren t m a te r ia l s .
i n a pp roach t o t h e r educ t ion o f b on e a nd e spec ia l ly a n t le r c anno tb er u led o u t . I ti si n t r igu ing t on o te t h an c hopp ing i s r a re i n D ene b one a nd a n t le r t e chno logy ( LeB lanc 1 984 ,
N o Mod if i ca t ion : A l a ck o f mod i f ica t ion w a s t h e mos t c ommon p rox ima l t r a i t . N ine teen o f 4 2 p rox ima l e nd s
Mo r lan 1 973 , Mor r i son 1 986 ) . S aunak tuk l i e s o n t h e v e ry b o rde ro fI nu i t /Dene i n te rac t ion , a nd i t sc u l tura l a ff i l ia t ion i s b y n o m ean s a s c l ea r c u t a s t h e o t h e r s i te s e xam ined h e re ( A rno ld 1 990 ) . O ther :
0 2 1 0 9 2 2 3 5 4 .76
b i rd b one
T ab le 6 . 19 P r im a ry mod if ica t ion so np rox ima l e nd s o ft o o ls f r om S aunak tuk ; r aw f r equenc ie s w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e r cen tage s .
G roov ing : G roove s w e re i d en t if i ed o n 3 8 b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s f r om S aunak tuk . T he ma jor i ty o ft h e g roove s w e re o n
Chopp ing :
0 5 0 5 0 1 0 2 3 .8 1
b one
( 4 5 .3% ) l a cked mod if i ca t ion . On ly o ne i n tac ta r t icu la re nd i s i n c luded i nt h i s t o ta l , t h e r ema inde rb e ing b reak s . F our teen o ft h e se w e re b one . O n ly o ne d i s ta l e nd ( of a n a n t le r t o o l ) h ad n o mod i f ica t ion b eyond b l ank e x t rac t ion .
O the r me thod s o f b l ank e x t rac t ion w e re n o ted i n
o n ly t wo c a se s . I n o ne i n s tan ce , aw o rked t o o th w a s c omp l e te , w i th n o m e thod o f b l ank e x t rac t ion , a nd i n t h e o t he r , o ne a n t le rt oo lw a sc u tw i th ak n if e .
O ther Mod if i ca t ion s : T he o n ly o the rp r ima ry mod i f ica t ion r e p re sen ted a tS aunak tuk i sp o l i sh ing , wh ich w a s i d en t i f ied o nt wo p rox ima le nd s( 4 .8% )a nd t wo d i s ta le nd s( 3 .6% ) .
7 7
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT F in i sh ing
a l though t h ey a r e n o t t h ough t t o h ave b een c ommon u n t i l l a te r . S ome E u ropean g ood s w e r e o b ta ined b y t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t b ef ore c on tac t t h rough t r ade w i th Nor th A la skan E sk imo s a nd Ku tch in ( McGhee 1 974 ) . D e sp i t e t h e r e cency o f e x ten s ive c on t ac t a nd t r ad e a t t h e t ime t h i s c o l lec t ion w a s made , f i l e s s e em a l ready t ob e i nc ommon u se
F in i she s a tS aunak tuk a l so f i tt h e p a t t e rn e s tab l i sh ed a to the r s i t es . T he v a s t ma jor i ty o fp rox ima l e nd s ( 3 8 o f4 2 , 9 0 .5% ) h ave n o s e conda ry mod if i ca t ion . A s ma l le r p ropor t ion ( 3 3 o f 4 8 , 6 8 .8% ) o f d i s ta l e nd s f a l l i n to t h e s am e c a tego ry . P o l i sh ing w a s f ound o n t h ree p rox ima l e nd s ( 7 .1% ) a nd 1 ( 22 .9% ) d i s ta l e nd s o f t oo l s . O the r mod if ica t ion s i n c lude d r i l l ing , f i ne g r ind ing a nd g roov ing ( deco ra t ive ) . T ab le s 6 . 21 a nd 6 . 22 a nd F igu re s 6 . 4d a nd 6 . 4e i lu s t ra te t h e se f r equenc ie s . a n t le r n one p o l i sh o t he r t o ta l % to ta l
7 2 0 9 2 1 .43
b one 2 1 1 2 4 5 7 . 14
b i rd b on e 8 0 0 8 1 9 .05
o t he r 1 0 0 1 2 . 38
t o ta l 3 8 3 1 4 2 1 0 0
f o r mak ing b on e t o o l s . T hey a r e c e r ta in ly s uper io rt ok n ive s f o r mo s tb one w o rk ing t a sk s , a st h ey w o rk mo re q u ick ly a nd a r e e a s ie r t o c on t ro l ( a t l e a s t i n my i n exper ienced h and s ) . T he f a c t t h a t t h ey w e re c ommon ly a va i lab le c an b e s uppor ted b yt h ep r esence i nt h e MacFa r lane c o l lec t ion o fa t l e a s to ne k n if e made f r om af i le ( no . 2 292 ) .
% to ta l 9 0 .48 7 . 14 2 . 38 1 0 0 .00
I ts e em s , t h en , t h a tb y t h e 1 860 s f i l e s w e r e t h e mo s tp opu la r t oo l f o rm anuf ac tu r ing b one t oo l s , b u tj u s th ow r ap id ly t h ey g a ined i n p opu la r i ty i s n o t c l ea r .
T ab le 6 . 21 S econda ry mod if ica t ion s o n p rox ima l e nd s o f t o o l s f r om S aunak tuk ; r aw f r equenc ie s w i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s . a n t le r n one p o l i sh o t he r t o ta l % to ta l
4 2 4 1 0 2 0 .83
b one 2 8 0 3 0 6 2 .50
b i rd b one 6 0 0 6 1 2 .50
o t he r 1 1 0 2 4 . 17
t o ta l 3 1 4 4 8 1 0 0
S po rad ic t r ade f o r
E u ropean g ood s b ef ore 1 850 d oe s n o t s e em t o b e al i ke ly s ou rce f o rs o many f i le s t h a t t h ey b ecam e t h e mo s t c ommon t oo l f o r w o rk ing b one , a l though o nce t h e i r s uper io r i ty w a s e s tab l i shed , t h ey may h ave b een ap ref e r r ed t r ade i t em . I ti s e qua l ly p o ss ib le t h a t MacFa r lane 's c o l lec t ion w a s b i a sed , b y b e ing c o l lec t ed f r om p eop le who h ad mo r e r e ad i ly a ccep ted
% to ta l
t h e n ew manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique p e rhap s , o r b y f a vo r ing ' n ew ' l o ok ing t o o l s . F u r the r s t udy o f s e cu re ly d a ted
6 8 .75 2 .92 8 . 33 1 0 0 .00
a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic c o l lec t ion s i sr equ i red t o c l ar ify t h i s ma t t e r . I ti si n te res t ing t h a t c he r t k n ive s w e r e o cca s iona l ly u sed a s w e l l i n t h i s p e r iod , a l though t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t s ome o f t h e t oo l s i n t h e MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion w e re ' h e i r loom s ' c anno t b e r u led o u t . I t i s
T ab le 6 . 22 S econda ry mod if ica t ion s o n p rox ima l e nd s o f t o o l s f r om S aunak tuk ;r aw f r equenc ie sw i th r ow a nd c o lumn p e rcen tage s .
u nf o r tuna te t h a tt h ec o l lec t ion i sn o tb e t te rd ocum en ted .
D ISCUSS ION
D i scu s s ion A l though S aunak tuk d oe s n o t f o l low t h e p a t te rn o f o the r i n land , s e a sona l o ccupa t ion s s uch a s Kuga luk a nd T ra i l
T h i s e xam ina t ion o f m anuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s a s s e en o n t o o l s , r a the rt h an o n d eb i tage , h a s s hown t h a tt h e re a r e b o th a dvan tage s a nd d i sadvan t age s t o t h i s a pp roach . T he f i r s t ,
R ive r , i ts e em s t o e xh ib i t s ome i mpor tan t d i f f e rences f r om Gupuk a s w e l l . P a r t icu la r ly i n t r igu ing i s t h e r a r i ty o f c hopp ing a s am e thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion .
a nd mo s to bv iou s , a dvan tage i st h e f a c tt h a t , e spec ia l ly i nt h e A rc t ic , f i n i shed t o o l s a r e o f t en t h e o n ly e v idence o f manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s a va i lab le . E xcava to r s a t many
MacFar lane C o l lec t ion
s i te s d i d n o t c o l lec t f a una l r ema in s , a nd s o n eg lec ted t o c o l lec t b one a nd a n t le r d eb i t age . ( Th i s i s ap rob lem a nywhe re t h a t o ld c o l lec t ion s a r e s t ud ied . ) I n a dd i t ion , a t
Manuf ac tur ing d a ta f r om t h e MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion i s s pa r se . A l l o ft h e t o o l s a r e h igh ly f i n i shed ( a s w e l l a sb e ing
many s i te s , s uch a s G upuk i t se lf , b one a nd a n t le r t o o l m anuf ac tur ing w a sn o t ama jo ra c t iv i ty ,a nd t oo l s t h em se lve s g r ea t ly o u t -numbe r d eb i tage . I n s uch c a se s , t h ey c an b e t h e
e x ten s ive ly wor nb yh and l ing , s i nce mos t w e re h and le s ) a nd t h e re a r e n o p i ece s o fd eb i tage . T he re w a s n o i n f orma t ion a bou t b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique s p re served . O n ly 1 2
mo s t i mpor tan t mean s o f u nde r s t and ing manuf ac tu r ing p roces se s . F ina l ly , b y e xam in ing t h e t o o l s , e spec ia l ly i n c on jun c t ion w i th t h e d eb i tage , w e c an s t udy t h e who le manuf ac tur ing p roces sa nd n o tj u s ti t se a r ly s t age s .
p i ece s , t e n h and le s , o ne f o re shaf t a nd o ne h a rpoon s ocke t , h ad i n f o rma t ion a bou t i n i t ia l s hap ing o f t o o l s p r e served . Whe re t h ese a r e c l ea r a nd u nwo rn , t h e t e chn iques u sed a r e n ea r ly e ven ly d iv ided b e tween s c rap ing w i th ac r ooked k n if e
T he d i sadvan t age s t o t h i s a pproach a r e e qua l ly o bv iou s . P e rhap s t h e mo s t i mpor t an t i st h e r educ t ive n a ture o fb one
( bo th i r on ( n=2 ) , a nd f l aked s t one ( n2 ) ) , a nd f i l ing ( n '5 ; s e e P la t e 6 . 8a -c ) ) . O ft h e t h ree s pec imen s f o r wh ich o n ly t e n ta t ive i d en t if ica t ion s w e re p o s s ib le , a l l a ppea r t o h ave b een f i led .
a nd a n t le r t e chno logy , wh ich mean s t h a t t r ace s o f e a r l ie r manuf ac tu r ing s t age s a r e e r a sed b y l a te r s t age s . I tw a s t h i s , i np ar t , wh ich l e dt ot h e e xc lu s ion o fa r tef ac t s s uch a sp o in t s a nd h a rpoon h ead s . T he se t oo l s a r e v e ry o f ten h i gh ly
I ti sc l ea r f r om e xam ina t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l ma t er ia l s t h a t s moo th e dged , p robab ly i r on , k n ive s w er e p r e sen t i n t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta l ong b ef o re c on t ac t . E v idence o ff i l e s a l so
f i n i shed , s o t h a tn o e v idence o fe a r l ie r manuf ac tur ing s t age s i sp re se rved ; o n ly t h e f i na l p o l i sh c an b e i d en t i f ied . O n o t he r , l e s s h igh ly f i n i shed t oo l s , t h i s i sn o t a s much o f
s how s u p o cca s iona l ly i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ion s , 7 8
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS OF MANUFACTUR ING T ECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL SAMPLES p rob lem . E v idence f r om t h e e a r ly s t age s o f m anuf ac tu re , i n c lud ing b l ank e x t rac t ion , i sp re se rved i n many c a se s . U se
K uga luk . T he r ema in ing d eb i tage t h en , wou ld b e l e f tb eh ind a nd n o ta ppea ri nc o l lec t ion sf r om w in te rv i l lage s i te s .
w ea rt o o c an o b scu re t r ace s o f manuf ac tur ing . T h i s i s mo s t e v iden t w hen t r y ing t oi d en t ify d i f f e r en t t oo l ma te r ia l s u sed t o r educe b one a nd a n t le r . T he se d i sadvan tage s , h oweve r ,
P r ima ry Mod if ica t ion s Me thod s u sed f o r t h e i n i t ia l s hap ing o f t o o l s a r e more d i ve r se t h an f o rb l ank e x t rac t ion . I ng ene ra l , g r ind ing i st h e mo s t c ommon m e thod o n b o th p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l e nd s o f
c an b e o ve rcome b y l o ok ing a t l a rge s amp le s , a nd b y i n c lud ing t h e d eb i tage c omponen t o ft h e s amp le w heneve r p o s s ib le . U l t ima te ly , b o th t o o l s a nd d eb i t age mu s t b e s t ud ied t og a in af u l lk now ledge o fm anuf ac tu r ing p roce s se s .
t o o l s . T h i s i s mo s t e v iden t a t G upuk , whe re 5 6 .79% o f p rox ima l e nd s a nd 7 8 .59% o f d i s t a l e nd s a r e g round . G r ind ing s im i la r ly d om ina te s t h e d i s ta l mod if i ca t ion s a t o t he r s i te s : 5 0% a tt h e P ond S i te , a nd 7 0 .91 % a tS aunak tuk .
I den t if i ca t ion o fManuf ac tur ing T echn ique s
O n ly a tC ache P o in t i st h e p a t te rn s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t . T h ere s c rap ing a nd g r ind ing a r ee qua l ly c ommon ,3 6 .36% e ach .
I ti s p o s s ib le t o l e a rn a g r ea t d ea l a bou t m anuf ac tur ing s equen ce s b y e xa min ing e v idence a t a g ene ra l l e ve l , i d en t if y ing s imp le g roov ing v e r su sc hopp ing f o re xamp le , o r
O n p rox ima l e nd s o ft oo l s , t h e re i s mo re v ar ia t ion .
VT h i 1e
g r ind ing w a s t h e mo s t c ommon mod if ica t ion a t G upuk , s c rap ing i st h e mos t c ommon a tt h e P ond S i te , f o l lowed b y
g r ind ing v e r su s s c rap ing . A tt h i sl e ve l ,n o s pec ia le qu ipmen t
n o mod if ica t ion ( 34 .48% a nd 3 1 .03% G r ind ing a ccoun t s f o r o n ly 2 4 .14%
i sn ece s sa ry . T he t r ace s a r e r e ad i ly v i s ib le t ot h e n aked e ye , a nd e a s i ly r e cogn ized f o rw ha tt h ey a r e . Mo s ta na ly s i sr e l ied o n t h i s l e ve l o fo b serva t ion , s i nce t h e se t ype s o ft r ace s a r e t h e mo s to f t en p re served .
r e spec t ive ly ) . o f p rox ima l
mod if ica t ion s . L ack o f mod if i ca t ion i s mo s t c ommon a t S aunak tuk ( 42 .86% ) ,f o l lowed b yg r ind ing ( 3 3 .33% ) . C ache P o in t i s t h e mo s t d i ve r se s amp le . T here , av a r ie ty o f mod if i ca t ion s , i d en t if i ed i n T ab le 6 . 14 a s ' o the r ' , d om ina te w i th 3 8 .54% o f t h e s amp le . No mod if i ca t ion a nd s c rap ing
B lank E x t rac t ion B lank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique s a r e f a i r ly u n if o rm a ta l l t h e s i te s e xam ined h er e . G roov ing i st h e mo s t c ommon m e thod a t e ach s i te , r ang ing f r om 4 5 .73% a t G upuk t o 7 4 .5 1 % a t S aunak tuk . T he p e r cen tage a tS aunak tuk may b ei n f la ted b y t h e l a ck o fd eb i tage f r om t h e s i t e . A t G upuk i tw a s f ound
f o l low ( 23 .53% a nd 2 0 .59% r e spec t ive ) , w i th g r ind ing t h e l e a s tc ommon ( 17 .65% ) . T he mean ing o ft h i s d i ve r s i ty i sn o t c l ear . T he S aunak tuk , C ache P o in t a nd P ond S i t e c o l lec t ion s a r e a l l much s m a l le r t h an t h e G upuk c o l lec t ion , a nd t h i s m ay b e af a c to r . I tm ay r ef l ec td i f f e rence si nt h ep ropor t ion o fd i f f e ren tt o o l st ype sa t
t h a t mo s t d eb i tage i d en t if ied i n t h e f a una l c o l lec t ion w a s a n t le r . T he mos tc ommon r educ t ion t e chn ique o nt h i s a n t le r w a s c hopp ing ; g roov ing w a s f a r l e s s i mpor tan t . T he a lmo s t c omp le te l a ck o fc hopp ing a tS aunak tuk i sa s l i ke ly t ob e a r ef l ec t ion o f c o l lec t ion b i a s a nd t h e f a c t t h a t i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t oe x am ine t h e f a una l r ema in s , t h an ad i f f e rence i n a pp roach t ob one t e chno logy .
e a ch s i te . S ome t oo l s , s uch a sg auged d r i l l s , a r e l e s s l i ke ly t o h ave u nmod if i ed p rox ima le nd st h an o t he r s , s u ch a sa w l sa nd s pa tu la s . T h i sw i l lb ef u r the re xp lo red i nC hap te rS even . S econda ry Mod if i ca t ion s B o th p rox ima l ly a nd d i s ta l ly , s e conda ry mod if i ca t ion s a r e
I ti sl i k e ly t h a t t h e g ene ra l p a t te rn o fb l ank e x t rac t ion a nd
u ncommon .
b one a nd a n t le rr educ t ion f o l lowed t h a to u t l ined b y Mor r i son ( 1986 ) f o r Kuga luk . C hopp ing w a s mo s t o f t en u sed f o r
P e rcen tage s
o f t o o l s
w i thou t
s e cond a ry
mod if ica t ion r ange f r om 6 1 .54% o n p rox ima l e nd s a t t h e P ond S i te t o9 0 .48% o fp rox ima l e nd s a tS aunak tuk . T hose
t r an sve r se r educ t ion o fa n t le r . G roov ing w a s a l so s ome t ime s
t h a t a r e mod if ied h ave mo s t ly b een p o l i shed , a nd p o l i sh i s mo re c ommon d i s ta l ly t h an p rox ima l ly . D r i l l ing i s a l so r e la t ive ly c ommon o np rox ima l e nd s , mos t ly d ue t on eed les . O th er mod if ica t ion s p re sen t i n s ma l l n umbe r s a t a l l s i te s
u sed f o r t h i s a nd f o r t r an sve r se r educ t ion o fb one , b u t w a s mo re o f t en u sed f o r l e ng thw i se r educ t ion o fb o th b one a nd a n t le r . B r eak ing b one s b y p e r cu s s ion w a s a l so c ommon ly u sed ; t h i s i n c luded t h e u se o f b one s b roken p r imar i ly f o r o the r p u rpo se s , s u ch a s ma r row e x t rac t ion , a nd o f b one s
i n c lude n o tch ing a nd g r ind ing o r s c rap ing ( wh ich a r e s ome t ime su sed s e conda r i ly t os ha rpen o rs hape t o o l s ) .
b rok en e xp re s s ly f o r t o o l m anuf ac tu r e . O the r m e thods o f b l ank e x t rac t ion , s u ch a sc u t t ing ,w e re r a re ly u sed . T he t wo m e thod s o fr e duc ing c a r ibou m e tapod ia l s d e scr ibed b y Mo r r i son ( 1986 ) w e re n o t r e co rded i n t h i s s t udy . T h i s m ay b ed ue t ot h e w ay t h e s t udy w a s c a r r ied o u t . I tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t oe xam ine a l l f a una l r ema in s a tG upuk , a nd t h o se r edu ced b y b reakage w e r e n o t i d en t if i ed b y t h e a na ly s t s a s
I den ti f i ca t ion o f Manuf ac tur ing Ma ter ia l s O ne o ft h e ma in a im s o ft h e m anuf ac tur ing a na ly s i s w a s t o d i f f e ren t ia te b e tween ma te r ia l s u sed t o mod if y b one a nd a n t ler . I n many c a se s , p rese rva t ion o f t h e ma t e r ia l s m ean t
c u l tu ra l ly mod if ied a nd s o n o t e xam ined b y m e . T he c ha rac t er i s t ic d eb i tage d e scr ibed b y Mor r i son m ay o r may n o t b e p r e sen t i nt h e s amp le f r om G upuk o r t h e o t he r s i te s . I ti sa l so p os s ib le , p a r t icu la r ly f o r t h e w in te r v i l lage s i te s
t h a t v ery f ew i d en t if i ca t ion s c ou ld b e made .
I tw a s a l so
f ound t h a t t h e l e ve l o fc onf idence w i th wh ich i d en t if ica t ion s c ou ld b e made w a s l owe r t h an e xpec ted f r om e xpe r im en ta l w o rk . I tw a sn o tp os s ib le t od i f f e ren t ia te s moo th e dged t o o l s
s uch a s G upuk , t h a t s u ch d eb i tage w a s s imp ly n o t p re sen t . S uch b l ank s a s w e re d eemed n ece s sa ry may h ave b een
( me ta l , g round s t one ) o ru neven e dged t oo l s ( c he r t , c h ipped s l a te ) . S ince , f r om e xper imen ta l w o rk a nd a r chaeo log ica l
e x t rac ted a ts umme r a nd f a l l c a r ibou h un t ing s i te s , s uch a s
e v idence , i r on a nd c her t s e emed t h e mos t l i ke ly m a te r ia l s i n 7 9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT e ach c a tego ry , i d en t if iab le t r ace s w er e a s s igned t ot h e se t wo ma te r ia l s .
b o th m a te r ia l s . S c rap ing a nd g r ind ing w e re b o th u sed t o s hape t o o l s . C lea r ly t h e f a c tt h a tb one i s mo r e e a s i ly w o rked b y g r ind ing , wh i le a n t le ri s mo r e e a s i ly w orked b y s c r ap ing , d oe s n o t m ean t h a t a l l b one t e chno log ie s w i l l f o l low t h i s p a t te rn , a l though t h eo ne a tG upuk d oe s .
T he ma te r ia l s u sed t o p roduce g roove s w e re mo r e o f t en i d en t if i ed t h an t ho se u sed t o s c rape , p robab ly b ecau se g roove s a r e l e s s l i ke ly t o s how s e conda ry s u rf ace mod if ica t ion s o r u se . A t a l l s i tes e xcep t G upuk , i r on w a s f ound t o h ave b een u sed mo re o f t en t h an c he r t t o p roduce g roove s . O ff ou r i d en t if ied g roove s a tt h e P ond S i te , t h ree w e re made b y i r on . S even o ft e n g rooves a tS aunak tuk w e r e p roduced b y i r on a nd t wo o f t h ree a t C ache P o int I n c on t ra s t , o n ly 2 0 o f 4 0 i d en t if ied g roove s a t G upuk w e r e m ade w i th a n i r on t oo l . No g roove s o n t o o l s f r om
C lo se rt oh om e , t h e re a ppea r t ob e s i gn i f ican t d i f f e rences i n t h e w ay I nu i t v e r su s D en e p eop le s r educe b one a nd e spec ia l ly a n t le r . Mo r r i son ( 1 986 ) h a s p o in ted o u t t h a t t r an sve r se c u t t ing o f a n t le r , mo s t o f t en b y c hopp ing , i s c ommon a t K uga luk ( a Mackenz ie I nu i t s i te ) , b u t r a re a t D ene s i te s s u ch a s R a t I nd ian C reek ( Le B lanc 1 984 ) a nd K lo -Ku t ( Mo r lan 1 973 ) . G upuk , a l though d eb i tage i s much
K i t t igazu i tw e re i d en t if iab le .
s c a r ce r , s e em st of o l low t h eK uga luk p a t t ern . A tT ra i lR ive r , i n t h e N or the rn Y ukon , c hopp ing w a s i d en t if i ed o n o n ly a
T races o ft o o l s u sed t os c rape b one a nd a n t le rw e re f o und a t a l l s i te s , b u t t h e t oo l ma ter ia l s w e re r a re ly i d en t if i ab le , e xcep ta tG upuk . T he re , c her t s c rap ing w a s i d en t if i ed o n 1 6
s ma l l p e rcen t age o fa n t le r p i ece s a na lyzed b y N agy ( 1988 ) . T he r e , c u t t ing o rs aw ing w a st h e mo s tc ommon m e thod u sed t o r educe a n t le r t r an sve r se ly . F o r f i n i shed t o o l s , h oweve r , s c rap ing a ga in w a s mo re c ommon f o r a n t le r t o o l s , g r ind ing f o rb one . C oppe rI nu i ta n t le rt o o l sa nd d eb i tage a na lyzed b y C o le -W i l l ( 1984 ) f o l low a p a t te rn s im i la r t o t h a t s e en a t G upuk , w i th h i gh p e rcen tage s o f c hopp ing a s a n i n i t ia l r educ t ion t e chn ique ,a nd o fs c rap ing a s af i n i sh ing t e chn ique .
p rox ima l a nd 1 6 d i s ta l e nd s . I r on s c rap ing w a s i d en t if ied o n t h r ee p rox ima la nd t wo d i s ta le nd s . Aga in , c he r to u tnumbe r s i r on , a s i td id i n g roove s . On ly o ne s c rap ing e p i sode w a s i d en t if i ed a ta ny o the r s i te . A t S aun ak tuk ac her tk n if e w a s u sed i n a t l e a s t o ne i n s tance . I ti sn o t t o o s u rp r i s ing t h a t s c rape ma rk s a r e mo re d i ff i cu l t t o i d en t if y t h an g roove s , g i ven t h e i n c rea sed w ea r t h ey a r e l i ke ly t o h ave b een
Mo r r i son ( 1986 ) a l so d e scr ibe s t wo r educ t ion s equence s f o r
e xpo sed t o .
c a r ibou m e tapod ia l s
C hop ma rk s w e re t h e mo s t d i ff i cu l t o fa l l t oi d en t if y . T hey a r e r a re ly p re served e xcep t o n d eb i tage , a nd a r e o f t en t o o
e x t rac t ion o fl o ng b l ank s made u p o ft h ep rom inen tp o s te r io r r i dge s o fc a r ibou m e tapod ia l s . T he d i f f e rence b e tween t h e t wo t e chn ique si si nt h ep r ima ry s t age s o fr educ t ion , whe the r
e r oded t oi d en t ify . On ly o ne s e t o fc hop ma rk s , f r om C ach e P o in t , w a s i d en t if i ed a s h av ing b een made w i th a n c he r t
a t K uga luk .
B o th r e su l t
i n t h e
t h e m e tapod ia l i s s p l i t i n to a n ter io r a nd p o s ter io r p ar t s ( s equence 1 ) , o r m ed ia l a nd l a t era l ( s equ ence 2 ) . S uch b l ank s w e re a l so e x t rac ted a t G upuk , p ar t icu la r ly f o r t h e
a dze . C hop ma rk s l e f t b y a n i r on a dze w e re i d en t if ied o n o ne t o o l f r om G upuk . No o the r c hop m a rk s w e re s ucces sfu l ly i d en t if ied .
manuf ac tu re o fg auged d r i l l s , b u t f ew d i agnos t ic f r agmen t s w e re p re sen ti nt h es ma l l amoun to fd eb i tage f r om t h es i te . T he v o lum e o f d eb i tage a t G upuk i s i n i t se lf s i gn if ican t . O n ly 1 09 p i ece s w e re i d en t if i ed , f r om at o t a l c o l lec t ion o f
C ompara t ive S tud ie s
o ve r 1 000 b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s , a bou t 1 0% o ft h e s amp le . When t h e c omp le te f a una l s amp le i s a na lyzed t h i s w i l l
I ti sp o s s ib le t o c ompa re t h e se r e su l t s w i th t h o se o f o t he r s t ud ies o f m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s , a l though n one a r e d i rec t ly c ompa rab le . Mo s t s t ud ie s o fT hu le a nd I nu i t b one
i n c r ea se , b u t t h e t o ta l i sn eve r the le s s q u i t e l ow . T h i s s m a l l amoun t o f d eb i tage c an b e c ompa red t o l a rge amoun t s o f b o th b on e a nd a n t le r d eb i tage a t Kuga luk a nd T ra i l R ive r . A t K uga luk , Mo r r i son ( 1986 ) i d en t if i ed 3 87 p i eces o fb one a nd a n t le r d eb i tage ( 121 b one , 2 66 a n t le r ) . T h i s c an b e
t e chno log ie s h ave f ocu sed o nb one a nd a n t le rr educ t ion , a nd s o o n d eb i tage , r a the r t h an o n t oo l s ( B lay lock 1 980 , C o le W i l l 1 984 , Mor r i son 1 986 ,N agy 1 988 ) . S tud ie s f o cu s ing o n t o o l s a r e l e s s c ommon , a nd h ave n o t b een c a r r ied o u t o n s t r ic t ly c ompa rab le t e chno log ie s . C amp a n a ( 1980 ) f o r
c ompa red t ot h e t o ta l o f 1 81 b one a n t le r o r t oo th a r tef ac t s f r om t h e s i te ( e x t rapo la ted f r om Mo r r i son 1 988 ) . B one a nd a n t le r d eb i tage make u p 6 8% o ft h e s amp le . A t T ra i l R ive r
i n s tance e xam ined t h e b one t e chno logy o f t h e Z ag ro s N eo l i th ic , wh i le C hoyke ( 1984 ) f ocu sed o n B ronze A ge H unga r ian s i t e s .
t o o , d eb i t age , p a r t icu la r ly a n t le r , d om ina t e s t h e s amp le . N agy ( 1988 ) i d en t if ied 7 13 p i eces o f b one a nd a n t le r
D e sp i te d i f f e rences i n f o cu s , s ome u sef u l c ompa r i son s c an b e made w i th t h e se s t ud ie s . C ampana f ound t h a tb one t o o l s o ft h eZ ag ro sN eo l i th ic w e re mo s to f ten g round , wh i le o n ly a f ew w e re s c raped . T h i s c on t ra s t s w i th t h e s i tua t ion i n t h e
made u p o f t h e b yproduc t s o f b one m anuf ac tu r e .
L evan t whe re b one t oo l s o fs im i la r a ges a r e a lmos t a lway s s c raped , a l though t h ey a r e o cca s iona l ly g round ( Newcome r 1 974 ) . S im i la r ly , C hoyke ( 1984 ) r epor t s t h a t t o o l s o f t h e H unga r ian B ronze a ge w e re mos t o f t en s c raped , b u t w e r e
d eb i tage ( i nc lud ing a l l r educ t ion s t age s ) , c ompa red t o o n ly 14 c o mp le t ed t o o l s . I n t h i s c a se , 8 6 .2% o ft h e s amp le i s a nd a n t le r t o o l
I n b o th o ft h e se c a ses , t h e a u tho r s h ave r e la ted t h e se h i gh p ropo r t ion s o f m anuf ac tu r ing d ebr i s t o s i te f unc t ion . Kuga luk i s as ma l l s i te o ccup ied p o s s ib ly f r om e a r ly s p r ing u n t i l a s l a te a s t h e e nd o fD ecembe r ( Mor r i son 1 988 ) .
A t
t h a tt ime , t h e i n hab i t an t s w ou ld p robab ly h ave moved t ot h e s e a c oa s t t o s p end t h e w in te r h un t ing s e a l s . T he p r im a ry
o f t en f u r the rw o rked b y g r ind ing ( t he ma jor i ty o ft h e se t o o l s a r ea n t le r ) . I nt h e Ame r ican S ou thwe s t , g roov ing i sr e po r t ed t ob e t h e mos t c ommon me thod o fr educ ing b o th b one a nd a n t le r ( O l sen 1 979 ) , a l though c hopp ing i sa l so r e por ted o n
a c t iv i ty o f t h e p eop le a t t h i s s i t e , p robab ly n o mo re t h an t h ree f am i l ie s , w a s c a r ibou h un t ing . A s e conda ry b u t a l so 8 0
CHAPTER S IX : ANALYS IS OF MANUFACTUR ING T ECHN IQUES I N THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S AMPLES i mpo r tan ta c t iv i ty w a s t h e manuf ac tu re o ft o o l sf r om c a r ibou b one a nd a n t le r . T ra i l R ive r i sa l so a s ea sona l o ccupa t ion , b u t o f a much s hor te r d u ra t ion , p robab ly f r om l a te May t o l a te J une , t h e c a r ibou c a lv ing s e a son . N agy ( 1988 ) s ugge s t s t h a t m anuf ac tu r ing a c t iv i ty a t t h e s i te i sr e la t ed t o ' g ea r ing u p ' a c t iv i t ie s a s h un te r s p repa red f o r t h e u pcom ing c a r ibou h un t ing s e a son . P r ima ry r educ t ion o fa n t le ri n to m anageab le p i ece s p robab ly t o ok p l ace e l sewhe re , a s i n deed t h e r aw m a te r ia l w a s p robab ly c o l lec ted e l sewhe r e . An t le r f o r t o o l m anuf ac tu re mu s tb e o u t o fi t s v e lve t o rs h ed . I nt h e s p r ing h un t ed a n ima l s w ou ld n o tp rov ide s u i tab le a n t le r , s o i tmu s t h ave b een c o l lec ted a s s hed a n t le r , o r k ep t f r om a n ima l s h un ted t h ep r ev iou s s ea son . T he se i n te rp re ta t ion s a r e s uppor ted t o s ome e x ten t b y t h e G upuk d a ta . A s aw in te r v i l lage s i te , a nd as umme r wha le h un t ing s t a t ion , i tw a s p robab ly n o t ap r ima ry l o ca t ion o f t o o l manuf ac tu re . T he k ey r e source f o rb one a nd a n t le rt o o l m ak ing i nt h er eg ion i sc a r ibou , wh ich w a s n o th un ted i nt h e a r ea . I ft o o l s w e re b e ing made a tt h e s i t e , p robab ly o n ly t h e f i na l s t age s o f manuf ac tu r e w e re c a r r ied o u t t h e re . P r im ary r e duc t ion w a s mo s t l i ke ly c a r r ied o u t a tp l ace s l i ke K uga luk , w he re t h e c a r ibou w e re h un ted . T h i s a ccoun t s f o r b o th t h e h i gh p ropo r t ion o fd eb i tage a t Kuga luk , a nd t o s om e e x t en t a l so a tT ra i lR ive r , a nd t h el ow p ropo r t ion a tG upuk .
C onc lu s ions T h i s a na ly s i s o f m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s a t s i te s i n t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta h a s s hown t h a tt h e re a r eg ene ra ls im i la r i t ie s i nt h ew ay b one a nd a n t le rw a s wo rked a te a ch s i te , a l though t h ef r equenc ie sw i th wh ich d i f f e ren tt e chn ique sa r eu sed may v a ry . Mo s tc ommon ly , g roov ing i su sed t or e duce b one , a nd g r ind ing i su sed t os hape i t . An t le r i so f ten c hopped a sw e l l a s g rooved , a nd i s mo re l i ke ly t o b e s c raped t o s hape t h an b one . C he r tt o o l s a ppea rt oh ave b een u sed mo re o f t en t h an i r on a tG upuk , wh i le t h e r eve r se i st r ue a tt h e o t he r s i t e s f o r w h ich i n f o rma t ion i s a va i lab le , a l though i n a l l c a se s t h e s amp le i ss ma l l . A l though t h ec ha rac te ro ft h es amp l ed i f f e r s f r om o the r Mackenz ie I nu i t s i te s , b e ing d om ina ted b y f i n i shed t o o l s r a the r t h an d eb i tage ( Mo r r i son 1 986 , N agy 1 988 ) , t h er educ t ion p a t tern s s e em s im i la rt ot h o se d e sc r ibed b y Mor r i son ( 1986 ) . I nt h e f o l low ing c hap te r , t h e d a t ag ene ra ted h e re w i l lb eu sed i n amo re i n -dep th s t udy o ft o o l manuf ac tu re , e xam in ing t h e p roces ses b y wh ich s pec if ic t o o lt ype sw e r em ade .
8 1
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT l i v ing c r af t speop le i s l a ck ing , s ome p rog res s i s p o s s ib le t h rough i d en t if ica t ion o fs pec if ic m anuf ac tur ing t r ace s . B y
CHAPTER S EVEN : THE DES IGN SYSTE M
e xam in ing t h e w ay s s pec if ic t oo l t ype s w e re made , among a r ange o fa r chaeo log ica l s i te s , i ts hou ld b ep o ss ib le t oa n swe r t h e q ue s t ion s l i s ted a bove , a nd t o d e f in e t h e t e chno log ica l
I n t h e p rev iou s t wo c hap te r s , m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o f b one a nd a n t le rt oo l s f r om as e r ie s o fs i te s i nt h e Mackenz ie D e l ta w a su sed t oe x t rac ti n f o rma t ion a bou t manuf ac ture a nd u se . T h i s i n f orma t ion c an n ow b e u sed t o g ene ra t e
t r ad i t ion o r d e s ign s y s tem f o r Macken z ie I nu i t b one a nd a n t le rt e chno logy .
' b ehav iou ra l moda l i t ie s ' ( Ha ssan 1 988 ) , a nd u l t ima te ly , a d es ign s y s t em ( Ch ippenda le 1 986 ) f o r b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s
C on s t ruc t ing B ehav ioura l Moda l i t ie s
among t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta I nu i t .
B ehav iou ra l moda l i t ie s c an b e c on s ide red t o b e s imp ly t h e
I n C hap te r F ive , t h e t oo l s u nde r s t udy h e re w e re b roken d own i n to a s e r ies o f f un c t iona l t y pe s , b a sed o n a c o mb ina t ion o ff o rm a nd c ommon ly u sed a r chaeo log ica l a nd
mo s t c ommon ( s ta t i s t ica l ly , t h e mode ) v ar ian t o r s t a t e f o r
e t hnog raph ic i d en t if i ca t ion s . T he u se w ea r a na ly s i s s howed t h a t t h ese t y pe s h ave s om e b a s i s i n r e a l i ty , a s i s t o b e e xpec ted f r om a t y po logy o r ig ina l ly d er ived f r om e t hnog raph ic i n forma t ion . I nt e rm s o fu se mo s t o ft h e t ype s h e ld t oge the r , i nt h a t mos t t o o l s o fa ny o ne t y pe w e re u sed
a ny a t t r ibu te o r c omb ina t ion o f a t t r ibu te s . T hu s f o r t h e a t t r ibu te ' b lank e x t rac t ion ' t h e re a r e many p o ss ib le s t a te s : c hopped , g rooved , b roken , a nd s o f o r th . T h i s c an b e f u r the r r ef ined b y i d en t ify ing t h e ma ter ia l u sed : c hopped w i th a s t one a dze o rw i th a n i r on a dze , f o r i n s t ance . F o r a ny t o o l t ype s uch mode sc an b e c omb ined t og ene ra te amoda l i ty f o r t h e t y pe . V a r ia t ion s f r om t h e moda l s t a te c an b e r e co rded a nd may b e o f s ome i mpo r t ance , d epend ing o n t h e i r f r equency .
f o rt h e ir h i s to r ica l ly d ocumen ted p urpose . I np a r t icu la r , t h e mo s tw e l lk nown a nd r e ad i ly i d en t if i ed t o o l t y pes , s uch a s s now k n ive s , a w l s , a nd n eed le s , w e re mo r e l i ke ly t o h ave i d en t if iab le u se w ea r t h an t h o se t h a t w e r e
T he re a r e , o f c ou r se , a n i nf in i te n umbe r o f a t t r ibu te s t h a t c ou ld b ei n c luded i nc on s t ruc t ing t h e se moda l i t ies . S e lec t ion o f a t t r ibu te d epend s o n t h e q ues t ion s b e ing a dd re ssed . I n t h i sc a se , s i nce t h e f o cu s i so n manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s , t h e a t t r ibu tes s e lec ted a r e t ho se e xam ined i n C hap te r S i x ,
p oor ly d ocumen ted , s uch a sm i sce l laneou sp i ece s o fw o rked b one a nd a n t le r a nd t h e b road c a tego ry ' s pa tu la ' . Two e xcep t ion s t ot h i s p a t te rn w e re n o ted . G auged d r i l l s , at o o l t ype n o t d ocumen ted e t hnog raph ica l ly ( a l though Murdoch [ 1 892 ] w a st o ld t h a tb one d r i l lb i t sw e re u sed b ef o r ei r on w a s c ommon ly a va i lab le ) , p roved t ob e ah i gh ly c on s i s ten t t ype b a sed o nb o th f o rm a nd u se . S capu la s c rape r s , o n t h e o t he r
n am e ly b l ank e x t rac t ion , p r ima ry a nd s e cond a ry p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l mod if ica t ion s . Whe re n eces sa ry , t h e se a t t r ibu te s a r e mod if ied s omewha tt or ef l ec td i f f e ren tt oo lf o rm s . T he se d i f f e rence sw i l lb en o ted when t h ey o ccu r . U se a nd ma te r ia l t ype w i l la l so b ec on s ide red h e re .
h and , d ocumen ted b y G idd ing s ( 1952 , 1 964 ) t o h ave b een u sed a s f i sh s c a le r s among t h e K obuk E sk imo s , a nd a l so r e por ted b y o t her s , w e re o n ly r a re ly i d en t if i ed a s s uch , a nd
A s i n t h e p rev iou s c hap te r s , Gupuk , t h e l a rges t a nd b e s t p re se rved c o l lec t ion , w i l lb e e x am ined f i r s t a nd w i l lp rov ide
s e em t oh ave h ad aw ide v a r ie ty o fu se s .
ab a se l ine a ga in s t wh ich t o c ompa re t h e o ther s i te s .
W i th
s ub s tan t ia l ly s m a l le r c o l lec t ion s , t h e se s i te s c an b e e xpec t ed t os how s ome s amp l ing v a r ia t ion .
I n C hap te r S ix , t r ace s o f m anuf ac ture w e re i d en t if ied a nd d i scu ssed . T he r ange o ft e chn iques , a nd t h e m a te r ia l s u sed ( me ta l v s . s t one ) w e re d ocumen ted . I t w a s s hown t h a t ma ter ia l s a nd manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s w e re g ene ra l ly s im i la rt h roughou tt h er eg ion , o ve r at im e s pan o fa bou t 5 00 y ea r s , w i th as udden c hange i np ro toh i s tor ic o re a r ly h i s to r ic t imes , d ocumen ted i nt h e MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion , w hen f i l e s b ecame t h e mo s t p opu la r t o o l s f o r m ak ing b one a nd a n t le r t oo l s .
DR ILLS
O f a l l t h e t o o l s t y pe s e xam ined h e re , d r i l l s a r e t h e mo s t c on s i s ten t ly m anuf ac tu red . A ' t yp ica l ' d r i l l i s made o n a b l ank e x t rac t ed f r om m amma l b one , p robab ly c a r ibou
H e re , t h e manuf ac tu r ing a na ly s i s w i l l b e c omb ined w i th t h e
me tapod ia l , b y g roov ing . B o th p rox ima l a nd d i s t a l e nd s a r e g round t os hape ,w i th n o s e conda ry mod if ica t ion . ( Dr i l l s a r e
f unc t iona l t y pe s u sed i n C hap te r F ive t o d ocum en t t h e ‚ b ehav iou ra l moda l i t ies ' f o r e ach t y pe . A r e t o o l s m anuf ac tur ed a sc on s i s ten t ly a st h ey a r eu sed? A r e d i f f e ren t t ypes manuf ac tu red i nd i f f e ren tw ay s ( b eyond wha tm igh tb e e xpec ted f o r t e chn ica l r e a son s )? A re t h e re p ref e rence s f o r c er ta in t y pe s o f manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique w i th c e r ta in ma ter ia l s , o r i n s pec if i c c i rcum s t ance s? A nd a r e t h e re
c on s i s ten t ly d i v ided i n to o n ly t wo p o r t ion s , aw ide p rox ima l e nd , a nd t h e s haf t w i th a b eve led d i s ta l e nd . ) T he
d i f f e rences i n t h e w ay t o o l s w e re made b y d i f f e ren t s ubg roup s o ft h e Mackenz ie I nu i t , o r a r e t h ey a l l p a r t o f a u n if i ed t r ad i t ion? A s d i scu s sed i n C hap te r Two , t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ' b ehav iou ra l moda l i t ie s ' i n vo lve s a k ind o f c ogn i t ive
f r equenc ie s f o rt h e se mod if i ca t ion s a tG upuk a r e i na l l c a se s g r ea te r t h an 6 0% , a nd i n t h ree c a se s g r ea te r t h an 9 0% . F requenc ies f o r G upuk , t h e P ond S i te , C ache P o in t a nd S aunak tuk a r e g i ven i n T ab le 7 . 1 . ( No te t h a t r aw f r equenc ie s a r e n o t g iven i n t h e se t a b les . T hey v a ry a cco rd ing t ot h en umbe ro fo b serva t ion sp o ss ib le f o ra ny o ne a tr ibu te . T he r e la t ive f r equenc ie s w e re g ene ra ted b y d i v id ing t h en umbe r o fo b serva t ion s o fa ny o ne s t a te , b yt h e t o t a ln umbe r o fo b serva t ion s f o r t h a ta t t r ibu te . Whe re f ewe r t h an t e n o b se rva t ion s w e re made f o r a ny o ne s t a t e , t h e
a pp roach . A l though d i rec t a cce s s t o c ogn i t ive p roce sse s o f 8 2
CHAPTER S EVEN : THE DES IGN S YSTEM f r equen cy i s ma rked w i th a na s ter i sk . Moda lf r equenc ie s a r e u nde r l ined . )
m anuf ac tu re w a sp o l i sh o nt h e d i s ta le nd ( a ppa ren t ly d i s t inc t f r om u se w ear ) . A t K i t t igazu i t , e l even d r i l l s w e re r e co rd ed , b u t d e ta i led i n f orma t ion o n m anuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s i sn o t
A t t r ibu te
S t a te
G upuk
B lank e x t rac t ion
g rooved
6 3 .5
K i t t igazu i t n / a
b reak
3 6 .5
n / a
G round
2 01
n one
2 8 .0
P rox ima l s e conda ry
n one
9 6 .4
D i s ta lp r ima ry
G round
P rox im a lp r ima ry
P ond S i te n / a
C ache P o in t *fJC J
n / a
* 50
n / a
* 50 * 50
n / a
g round
* 50 9 9 .1
9 0. 9
* 25 .0 * 692 * 23 .1 n / a
1 00 .0 8 4
* 100 * 9 .1
s c raped n one
*75 0
n / a
P o l i sh
D i s t a ls e conda ry
S aunak tuk
9 1 .
* 15 .4
n / a
n / a
n / a
l OOM
T ab le 7 . 1 F requenc ie s o f mod if i ca t ion so ng auged d r i l l s . a va i lab le . O ve r a l l , g r ind ing i st h e d om inan t mod if i ca t ion , n o ted p ar t icu la r ly o nt h e d i s ta l e nd s . A s a tG upuk , t h e P ond
G upuk
S i te a nd S aunak tuk , as i ng le d r i l l h ad b een s haped b y s c rap ing . Wi th s o f ew e xamp le s i ti s i mpos s ib le t o s ay w he the r t h e d r i l l s f r om t h ese s i te s f i tt h e p a t te rn e s tab l i shed
B lank e x t rac t ion i st h e l e a s t c on s i s ten t a t tr ibu te a tG upuk . G roov ing i s c l ea r ly t h e d om inan t m e thod o f e x t rac t ing
a t Gupuk o r n o t , a l though t h e a ppea r t o f a l l i n to t h e s ame r ange .
b l ank s ,b u tb reak sa r ea l so c ommon . T h i sr ef l ec t st h ep a t te rn s e en i n t h e c o l lec t ion a s a who le . P r im a ry p rox ima l
D r i l l s a r e s l igh t ly mo re c ommon a t S aun ak tuk , g iv ing a b e t ter i d ea o f o ve ra l l p a t tern s o f m anuf ac tu re , wh ich a r e s im i lar t ot h o se s een a tG upuk . G roov ing d om ina te s b l ank
mod if i ca t ion s , mo s t o f ten g r ind ing , a l so s how a s e cond c ommon v a r ian t , w i th n o mod if ica t ion t ot h e p rox ima l e nd . A s h af t ed t o o l s , d r i l l s may h ave b een mod if i ed p rox ima l ly o n ly w hen n ece s sary f o r h af t ing ( wh ich w ou ld h ave b een f a ir ly o f t en ) .
e x t rac t ion t e chn iques , f o l lowed b y b reak ing .
F o r o n ly o ne
g roove c ou ld t h e ma ter ia l b e i d en t if ied ; i tw a s made w i th a c he r t c h i se l . P r ima ry p rox ima l mod if ica t ion s w e re mo s t
When t h e s hape o f t h e b l ank w a s s u ch t h a t
h af t ing c ou ld b e r e ad i ly a ccomp l i shed , n o mod i f ica t ion w a s made . A l l o t her a t t r ibu te s a r e c l ea r ly d om ina ted b y o ne s t a te , g r ind ing i nt h e c a se o fd i s ta l e nd s ( on ly o ne d r i l l i nt h e who le c o l lec t ion w a s s c raped r a the r t h an g round ) , a nd n o s e conda ry mod if ica t ion p rox ima l ly o rd i s ta l ly .
c ommon ly made b y g r ind ing . A f ew p rox ima l e nd s w e re u nmod if ied , a nd a s i ng le d r i l l w a s s c raped p rox ima l ly . S econda ry mod if ica t ion o ft h e p rox ima l e nd s i sn o t p re sen t a tS aunak tuk . D i s t a l mod if i ca t ion s a r e s im i la r ly d om ina ted b yg r ind ing ,w i th t wo s c raped e xamp le s ( t oo l su sed t os c rape w e re n o ti d en t if iab le ) . Aga in , s e conda ry mod if i ca t ion s w e re n o tp re sen t .
Add ing m ic ro scop ic i n fo rma t ion t ot h i s c hange s v ery l i t t le . Mo s t i n f orma t ion i sa va i lab le f o r b l ank e x t rac t ion s , whe re g roove s c ou ld b e i d en t if ied . I nt h i s c a se , g roove s a r e n ea r ly e ven ly d i v ided b e tween i r on , c her t a nd u n iden t if iab le . O ne d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een p r ef er red . T he s i ng le t o o l s haped b y s c rap ing w a s made w i th a c her t c r ooked k n if e .
A l though t h e n umbe r o fd r i l l s a tS aunak tuk i s much l owe r t h an a t G upuk , t h e f r equenc ie s o f d i f f e ren t mod i f ica t ion t e chn iques a r e a lmos t e xac t ly t h e s am e . I n b o th c a ses t h e modes a r e c l ea r a nd v a r ia t ion i s r e la t ive ly u ncommon . S i mi la r ly , d r i l l s f r om t h e o t he r s i t e s a ppea rt of a l lw i th in t h i s
Mo s t o f t h e g r ind ing w a s d one o n a c oa r se g ra ined g r ind s tone , o n ly f ou rt o o l sb e ing s haped w i th af i ne rg ra ined s t one . T he m a ter ia l u sed f o r d r i l l s i s e xc lu s ive ly b on e , mo s t ly m amma l ( p robab ly c a r ibou ) . On ly f o ur teen d r i l l s ( 12 .7% )w e re made o nt h inne rb i rd b one .
p a t tern a l though t h e re a r e t o o f ew o f t h em t o b e t r u ly r e p re sen ta t ive . U se w ea r h a s a l ready s hown t h a t t h e se t o o l s a r ec on s i s ten t ly u sed f o ro ne p u rpo se d r i l l ing . T hey a ppea r t oh ave b een made n ea r ly a s c on s i s ten t ly , i nt h e s ame w ay t h roughou tt h er eg ion . -
O ther S i t e s S PATULAS
G upuk a ppea r s t ob e u n ique i nt h e r e g ion i nt h e n umbe r o f d r i l l s f o und t h e re o ve ro ne h und red c o mpa r ed t of ewe rt h an -
f i f teen a te a ch o ft h e o the r s i te s . A tt h e P ond s i t e , o n ly t wo d r i l l s h ad a ny manuf ac tur ing i n f o rma t ion p r e se rved , a nd
S pa tu la s a r e s omewha t l e s s c on s i s t en t ly m anuf ac tu red t h an d r i l l s . U s ing t h e moda l f r equenc ie s f r om G upuk ( s ee T ab le 7 . 2 ) , t h e t y p ica l s pa tu la i sm ade o n ab l ank e x t rac ted b y b r eak ing . T he p rox ima l e nd h a s n o p r ima ry o r s e conda ry
t h e se o n ly o n t h e p rox ima l e nd s . O ne i sg round , a nd o ne i s s c raped . A t C ache P o in t o n ly o ne d r i l l w a s f ound t o h ave a ny i n f o rma t ion a bou t manuf ac tu r ing . T he b l ank h ad b een e x t rac ted b y g roov ing . T he o n ly o the r e v idence o f
mod if ica t ion , a nd t h e d i s ta l e nd i ss haped b y g r ind ing , w i th 8 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT n o
s e conda ry mod if ica t ion .
Mamma l b one
( p robab ly
S econda ry d i s ta l mod if ica t ion s a r e a ga in u ncommon . s ma l ln umbe ra r ee i the rg round o rp o l i shed .
c a r ibou ) i st h e mo s t c ommon ma ter ia l u sed , a l though b i rd b one a nd a n t le ra r ep re sen ti ns ma l l q uan t i t ie s . U se w ea rh a s s hown t h a tt h ese t o o l sa r eu sed f o r av a r ie ty o fp urpose s .
A t t r ibu te b l ank e x t rac t ion p rox ima l p r imary
S t a te b r eak g rooved n one s c raped o t he r
G up . 6 5 * 35
K i t t i
P ond S i te * 100
n / a
* 100
5 6 .3 * 25
n / a
* 33 •3 * 33 •3 * 333
2 . 1
n / a
* 66 .7 * 333
* 50 * 50 n / a
* 500
p rox ima l s e conda ry
n one
d i s ta l p r ima ry
g round s c raped
8 6 .1
d i s ta l s e conda ry
n one
7 4 .4
n o tched
C ache P o in t
p o l i sh
-
S aun . * 500 * 50 .0
* 25 .0 * 50 .0 * 25 .0 * 100
*i jç
* 750
* 333
* 100
* 25 .0
* 66 .7 * 66 .7 * 333
* 333
* 50 .0
A
* 100
* 66 .7
T ab le 7 . 2 F requenc ies o f mod i f ica t ion so ns pa tu la s .
G upuk
O ther S i t e s
A t Gupuk , t wo th i rd s o f s pa tu la s a r e m ade o n b l ank s e x t rac ted b y b reak ing . Many o f t h e se ( 12 ) w e re s imp ly b one s w i th o ne a r t icu la r e nd r emoved , l e av ing t h e o the r e nd
I ti sv e ry d i ff i cu l tt od e t ec t a ny p a t te rn i nt h e s pa tu la s f r om
i n tac t a s t h e p rox ima l e nd o ft h e t oo l . T h i s r e la t ive ly h i gh f r equency o fb reak s r eve r sed t h e s i tua t ion f o r t h e c o l lec t ion
f ound a t G upuk , a l though f r equenc ie s a r e n o t a lway s t h e s am e . C ache P o in t i np ar t icu lar s e em s t o s t and o u t , w i th i n c rea sed f r equenc ie s o fs c rap ing a s ap r ima ry mod if i ca t ion
t h e o t he rs i te s ,b ecau se t h e re a r e s o f ew o ft h em f ewe rt h an s i x i na l l c a se s . T hey r ep re sen t t h e s ame r ange o fv ar ia t ion -
a s awho le , whe re b reak s a ccoun ted f o rl e ss t h an o ne t h i rd o f b l ank s ( s ee T ab le 6 . 1) . T he r ema in ing s pa tu la s ( s even ) w h ich h ad i n f o rma t ion a bou t b l ank e x t rac t ion h ad b een g rooved . T he ma te r ia l u sed t o make f ou r o ft h ese g roove s w a si d en t if i ed a sc her t . No i r on g rooves w e re r e co rded .
o nb o th p rox ima la nd d i s ta le nd s . Wi th b e tween f ou ra nd s i x t o o l sh oweve r , t h i s c an h a rd ly b e c on s ide red ar e p re sen t a t ive s amp le . Wh i le t h e mode s a r e n o t a so bv iou s f o r s pa tu la s a st h ey a r e f o r d r i l l s , t h e r e d o s e em t ob e t r a i t s t h a t c an b e c on s ide red
O np rox ima l e nd s , mod if ica t ion i su ncommon . T h i s c an b e a c coun ted f o r b y t h e l a rge n umbe r o f t o o l s w i th i n tac t a r t icu la r e nd s . Twe lve o f 1 8 t oo l s w i th n o p rox ima l mod if ica t ion h ad i n tac t a r t icu la r e nd s . Whe re t h e p rox ima l e nd s a r e mod if i ed , s c rap ing d om ina te s . A l l o f t h e a n t le r s pa tu la s a r e s c raped p rox ima l ly ( a nd a l l w i th c he r t ) , wh i le a s ma l l p ropor t ion o fb one s pa tu la s a r e s c raped . Mo s t o ft h i s s c rap ing w a s d one w i th c he r t c r ooked k n ive s . S ix o fe i gh t e p i sode s o fs c rap ing w e re d one w i th t h i s ma te r ia l , t h e o t he r t wo a r e u n iden t if iab le . O n ly f i ve s pa tu la s a r e g round p rox ima l ly , a nd o ne i sf i led . S econda ry mod if i ca t ion s a r e e ven l e s s c ommon t h an p r ima ry , n o s e conda ry mod i f ica t ion a ccoun t ing f o r n ea r ly t h ree -quar t er s o f t h e s pa tu la s . r ema inde ra r ee i t he rp o l ished o rg round .
T he
t o o l s w e re made w i th c her t c r ooked k n ive s a nd o ne w a s m ade w i th a n i r on c r ooked k n if e . One e p i sode o f s c rap ing w a s u n iden t if iab le . As i ng le s pa tu la w a s s haped d i s t a l ly b y s ame
o ne
s haped
t h a t
w ay
s c rap ing . S econd ary S pa tu la s a r e mo s t o f ten
S CAPULA T OOLS
( Obv iou s ly , t o o l s s haped p rox ima l ly b y s c rap ing a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly s haped t h a t w ay d i s ta l ly . ) T h ree o ft h e s c raped
( t he
g r ind ing , b u t s om e t im es b y mod if i ca t ion o f a ny k ind i sr a re .
m ade o n m am ma l b one , b u t a n t le r a nd b i rd b one a r e a l so u sed . U se w ea r s how s t h a t t h e se t oo l s a r e u sed f o r m any p urpo se s ,s om ea sy e tu nknown .
P r ima ry d i s ta l mod if i ca t ion s a r e s i gn if ican t ly d i f f e ren t f r om p rox ima l . H e re g r ind ing c l ea r ly d om ina te s , w i th o n ly a s ma l l n umbe r ( f ive ) o f t oo l s s haped d i s ta l ly b y s c rap ing .
f i l ing
t yp ica l f o r t h em . B lank e x t rac t ion i s mo s t l i ke ly b y b reak ing , w i th n o f u r the r mod if i ca t ion t ot h e p rox ima l e nd . I nm any c a se s , t h i sw i l lb ea ni n tac ta r t icu l ar e nd . T he d i s ta l e nd w i l l b e mod if ied i n to a s pa tu la t e t i p mo s t o f t en b y
B ecau se o f t h e ir d i s t inc t ive s hape , s c apu la t o o l s a r e n o t d i v ided i n to p rox ima l /d i s ta l s e c t ion s a s mo s t o f t h e o t he r t oo l s a r e . R a the r , f ou r a spec t s o f t h e i r m anuf ac tu re w e r e r e co rded : m e thod o fh ead r emova l , m e thod o f s p l i t t ing t h e s c apu la , m e thod o f r emov ing b orde r s o r p roce s se s , a nd s ha rpen ing ( s ee T ab le 7 . 3 ) . S capu la t o o l sa r en o tc ommon a t a ny o f t h e s i te s . N one w er e r e co rded a t C ache P o in t o r K i t t igazu i t . I n f orma t ion w a s a va i lab le f o r o n ly t h ree a tt h e
p rox ima l ly ) .
8 4
CHAPTER S EVEN : THE DES IGN SYSTEM P ond S i te , a nd o ne a tS aunak tuk . Am ax imum o ff o ur teen w e re a va i lab le f r om G upuk .
a lmo s t n o c omp le te s pec im en s w e re p r e sen t .
I n a l l b u t o ne a t t r ibu t e , mode s a r e o bv iou s i n t h e s c apu la t o o l s f r om G upuk , w h ich a r e t h e o n ly o ne s t h a t p rov ide c o mp le t e i n f o rma t ion o n m anuf ac tu r ing . T he h ead s ( a r t icu l a r e nd s ) o f t h e s c apu lae a r e a lmo s t i n va r iab ly
A t t r ibu te
S t a te
r emoved b y b reak ing .
B lank E x t rac t ion S hap ing
g rooved
S i te , h ad t h e h ead r emoved b y g roov ing . I nf o rma t ion o n h ow t h es c apu lae w e re s p l i ti sr a re ly p r e sen t . On ly t h ree ( a l l f r om G upuk ) h ad e v idence o f g roov ing a s t h e m ean s o f s p l i t t ing . I ti sn o t c l ea r whe the r t h e o t he r s w e re s p l i t b y b reak ing o r whe the re v idence o fg roov ing h a sb een r emoved
o t he r
* 4 .8
F in i sh ing
p o l i sh
4 8. 8
f i ne g r ind ing n one
2 5 .6
b y
O n ly o ne e xamp le , f r om t h e P ond
s ub sequen t s ha rpen ing .
S capu la t o o l s
a r e u sua l ly
s ha rpened b y g r ind ing , t h e mo s t c ommon m e thod f o r a l l t h e t o o l s i nt h e r e g ion . O n ly o ne s c apu la t o o l f r om G upuk h ad b een s ha rpened b ys c rap ing . a t r ibu t e H e a d r e m ov e d
s t a t e g r ooved b r eak
S p l i t R i dg e / p ro c e s s r e m ov e d
G roov ed G rooved
s h a r p e n ed
G upuk 1 0 0 .0
P ond S i t e * 2 5 .0 * 7 5 .0
U sua l ly o n ly
f r agmen t s o fb l ade s w e re r e cove red , mo s t o f ten d i s t a l e nd s . F o r t h e se r e a son s , t h e o n ly a t t r ibu te s r e co rded w e re b lank e x t rac t ion , s hap ing a nd f i n i sh ing ( s ee T ab le 7 . 4 ) ) .
g round s c raped
G upuk
K i t t i ,
* 100 .0 88 . 1 . * 7 .1
* 1000
P ond S i te
* 6 7 * 333 1 00 .0
2 3 .3
S a unak tuk
T ab le 7 . 4 F requenc ie s o f mod if ica t ion s o n k n ive s a nd d agge r s
* 100 .0
A ga in , a t G upuk a t l e a s t , ap a t tern i n m anuf ac tur ing i s
10 0 . 0 * 3 57
e v iden t . I nf o rma t ion o n t h e me thod o fb l ank e xt rac t ion i s r a r e ly p r eserved o n t h e se h i gh ly f m i sh ed t oo l s . On ly t h ree
B r e ak
* 2 8 .6
n on e
* 3 5
s howed e v idence o fg roov ing , a l lw i th c he r tc r ooked k n ives . S hap ing i s mo s t o f ten b y g r ind ing , a lmo s t e ven ly d iv ided
*
7
g r ound
2 . 1 .2
s c rap ed
* 8 .3
*
1 0 0 .0
* 1000
b e tween g r ind ing w i th a c oa r se g ra ined s t one a nd w i th a
* 1000
f i n e r g ra ined s t one . U se o f af i ne g r a ined s t one i s mo re c ommon h e r et h an i nt h ec o l lec t ion a s aw ho le . S c rap ing w a s p r e sen t o n o n ly t h ree b l ade s , o ne s c raped w i th ac he r tk n if e , o ne w i th i r on , a nd o ne u n iden t if iab le . F in i sh ing ( s econd ary mod if ica t ion s ) i s much mo r e c o mmon o n b l ades t h an o n mo s t o the r t o o l s e xam ined h e re . P o l i sh ing i s t h e mo s t
T ab le 7 . 3 F requenc ie so f mod if ica t ion so ns c apu la t o o l s T he o n ly a t t r ibu te t h a t i s n o t c l ea r ly d om ina ted b y o ne t e chn ique i st h e r emova l o f r i dge s a nd p roce s se s . T h i s i s
c ommon f i n i sh . G r ind ing o n af i ne g r ind s tone i s a l so r e co rded h e r e , s ome t ime s b e ing p re sen t a l ong w i th c oa r se r
n ea r ly e ven ly d i v id ed b e tween g roov ing , b reak ing a nd n o mod i f ica t ion . T h i s e ven d iv i s ion r e f lec t s ( a t G upuk ) t h e p re sen ce o f c auda l s c rape r s , o n w h ich t h e p os te r io r b o rde r h a s e i the r b een r emoved b y g roov ing o r l ef t i n tac t , a nd c r an ia l s c rape r s , o n wh ich t h e s p inou s p roce s s h a s b een r emoved b yp e rcu s s ion .
g r ind ing u sed f o ri n i t ia ls hap ing . Abou to ne q ua r t e ro fb l ade s h ave n o f i n i sh . O n ly K i t t igazu i t a nd t h e P ond S i te p rov ided k n if e b l ade s f o r c ompar ison ; f i ve a t K i t t igazu i t a nd t h ree a t t h e P ond S i te c a r r ied i n f o rma t ion a bou t m anuf ac tu r ing . N eve r the le s s , t h e
When t h e d i f f e rence b e tween c auda l a nd c r an ia l s c rape r s i s t a ken i n to a ccoun t t h en , s c apu la s c rape r s a r e made v e ry c on s i s t en t ly . T he h ead i sr emoved b y b reak ing i to f f . T he
p a t tern s e em s t o b e a bou t t h e s ame . S hap ing w a s b y g r ind ing o n t wo o ft h e b l ade s a tt h e P ond S i te , s c rap ing o n t h e t h i rd . A l l h ad b een p o l i shed . On ly t h e m e thod o f
b one i ss p l i ti nt wo , p robab ly b y g roov ing ( a tt h i sp o in t , i ti s
s hap ing w a s r e co rded a t K i t t igazu i t ; a l l f i ve h ad b een g round .
p os s ib le t om ake t wo s c rape r s ,a sd i scu s sed i nC hap te rF ou r ) . I ft h e t o o l i st ob e m ade o n t h e c auda l p o r t ion o ft h e b one , t h en t h e p o s te r io rr i dge may b er emoved b y g roov ing ( a bou t h a lf o fc auda ls c rape r sh ave t h ep o s te r io rr i dge i n tac t ) . I ft h e t o o l s i st ob e made o nt h e c r an ia lp ar to ft h e s c rape rt h en t h e s p inou sp roce ss i sr emoved b yp e r cu s s ion . F ina l ly , t h e e dge i ss ha rpened b yg r ind ing . T he re a r et wo f ew s c apu la t o o l s a t t h eo t her s i te sf o ra ny u sefu lc ompa r i son st ob e made .
T he mode s f o r k n ive s a nd d agge r s t h en , f o l low a p a t tern s im i la r t o o t he r t o o l s a t G upuk . G roov ing w a s p robab ly mo s t o f ten u sed t o e x t rac t b l ank s , a l though e v idence r a re ly s u rv ive s s ub sequen t mod if ica t ion . G r ind ing i sc e r ta in ly t h e mo s t c ommon m et hod o f s hap ing t h e t o o l s . O n o cca s ion s w hen s c rap ing w a s u sed , t h e re s e em s t o h ave b een n o p ref e rence f o r ac e r ta in t ype o fk n if e . F in i sh ing i st h e mos t v a r iab le a t t r ibu te . A l though p o l i sh ing i sb y f a r t h e mo s t c o mmon f i n i sh , h igh p ropo r t ion s o f t o o l s a r e a l so f i n i shed
KN IVES AND DAGGERS
w i th a f i n e g r ind s tone o r n o t a ta l l . T he ma jo r i ty o fk n if e b l ade s a r e m ade o n b one . ( H i s to r ica l ly b ea r h umer i a r e r e por ted t oh ave b een t h e f a vou red r aw ma te r ia l [ S tef f an son
Kn ive s a nd d agge r s a r e e ven l e s s c o mmon t h an s c apu la t o o l s . O n ly G upuk h a s as i zeab le n umbe r ( 42 ) . F ive w e re r e co rded a tK i t t igazu i t , a nd f ou r a tt h e P ond S i te . K n ive s a nd d agge r s a r e i ng ene ra lh igh ly f i n i shed , w i th n o v a r ia t ion b e tween p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l mod if ica t ion s . Add i t iona l ly ,
1 919 :187 ] . ) Av e ry f ew a r e m ade o na n t le r , a nd t h e re i so ne i v o ry d agge r i n t h e c o l lec t ion f r om G upuk . U se o f t h ese t o o l s i se n igma t ic t os ay t h e l e a s t . T hey a ppea rt oh ave b een u sed mo re f o r s how t h a t f o r c u t t ing . T hey a r e s a id t o h ave 8 5
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT b een t h e p r ef e r red f i gh t ing w eapon among t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t , a nd t h i s mo s tl i ke ly e xp la in st h el a ck o fw ea r .
O ther S i t e s F requenc ie s o fa w l s a tt h eo t he r s i te s a r ea ga in l ow , b u tt h ey n eve r the le s s r ef l ec t t h e d i ve r s i ty s e en i nG upuk a w l s . Aw l s a tt h e P ond S i te f o l low t h e s ame p a t te rn a st ho se a tG upuk , w i th t h e e xcep t ion t h a t d i s ta l e nd s a r e mo re o f t en s c raped
A WLS
t h an g round . No p a t te rn c an b e d i sce rned a tC ache P o in t , w i th o n ly t wo a w l s . Mo re a w l s w e re f o und a t S aunak tuk , a nd t h e r e t h e p a t te rn c l o se ly r e semb le s t h a t a t G upuk ,
Aw l s a r e t h e l e a s t c on s i s ten t ly manuf ac tu red t o o l s i n t h e s amp le ( s ee T ab le 7 . 5 ) . A l though modes c an b e i d en t if ied , t h ey a r e l e s s ma rked t h an t ho se f o r o the r t o o l s . A t y p ica l
a l though s c rap ing i sl e s s c ommon . A tK . i t t igazu i to n ly d i s ta l mod i f ica t ion sw e r er e co rded , a nd t h ese t o of o l low t h ep a t te rn s e ta tG upuk .
a w l , l i ke t h e t y p ica l s pa tu la i tr e semb le s , i sm ade o n ab l ank e x t rac ted b yb r eak ing . T he p rox ima l e nd i sn o tb e mod if i ed . T he d i s ta l e nd i ss haped b y g r ind ing , w i thou t s e conda ry
O ne t y pe o fa w lt h en , m ade o n ab roken b one f r agm en tw i th n op rox ima l mod if ica t ion a nd s haped b yg r ind ing d i s ta l ly , i s
mod if ica t ion . L ike s pa tu la s , v ar ia t ion s a r e c ommon , e ven mo re c ommon i nf a c t .
t h e mo s t c ommon a t a l l t h e s i te s e xam ined h e re .
T he
f r equency o f v ar ia t ion a r ound t h i s ( w i th in t h e p a rame t e r s a l ready e s tab l i shed ) i sg r ea t e r f o r a w l s t h an f o r o ther t oo l t ype s e xam ined h e re . S im i la r ly , mamma l b one i st h e mo s t c o mmon m a te r ia l t ype , b u t b i rd b one a nd a n t le r a r e a l so c ommon , r e p re sen t ing n ea r ly o ne t h i rd o f t h e a w l s e ach . D e sp i te t h i s v ar ia t ion i nm anuf ac tu r ing a nd ma te r ia l , u se o f
G upuk Two th i rd s o fa w l s f r om G upuk w e re made o nb roken b one f r agmen t s ,w h i le o ne th i rd w e re made o nb l ank se x t rac ted b y g roov ing . O n ly o ne o fe i gh t g rooves c ou ld b e i d en t if ied a s h av ing b een made b ya ni r on c h i se l . P rox ima l mod if ica t ion s a r e q u i te v a r iab le . A l a ck o f mod if ica t ion ( p r ima r i ly i n tac t a r t icu la re nd s ) i st h e mos tc ommon . When a l l mod if ica t ion s
t h ese t o o l s i s c on s i s ten t ly i d en t if i ab le m ic ro scop ica l ly a s h ide p i e r c ing . No t a l l t o o l s t y pe s a r e m ade a su n ifo rm ly a s t h ey a r eu sed .
a r e l umped t o ge the r , h oweve r , t h ey o u t n umbe r u nmod if ied p rox ima l e nd s . Mod if ica t ion s o n p rox ima l e nd s a r e e ven ly d i v ided b e tween g r ind ing a nd s c rap ing . O ft h e s c raped a w l s , o ne h a s b een s c raped w i th c her t a nd o ne w i th i r on .
NEEDLES
S econda ry mod if ica t ion s o fp rox ima l e nd s a r e r a re . D i s ta l e nd s a r e mo s t o f ten g round , b u t ah ighe r p ropo r t ion t h an u sua l i ss c raped . O ft hose t h a ta r e s c raped , mo s t( n ine ) h ave b een s haped w i th ac her tc r ooked k n if e , a nd o n ly o ne w i th a n
N eed le s , p e rhap s b ecau se o f t h e i r r e la t ive ly r i g id d e s ign
i r on k n if e . S econda ry mod if i ca t ion s a r e a ga in r a r e , b u t p o l i sh , a sw e l la ss e conda ry g r ind ing , a r ep re sen t .
g r ind ing , a nd t h en d r i l led p rox ima l ly . T hey a l so a ppea r t o h ave b een p o l i shed , b u t i ti sv e ry d i ff icu l t t o d i f f e ren t ia te p o l i sh f r om u se w ea ri nt h i sc a se , a sb o th c an b e e xpec ted t o b e f ound o ve r t h e who le s u rf ace o ft h e t o o l s ( wh ich i sn o t
r equ i r em en t s ( t h in , s harp a to ne e nd , p i e r ced a tt h e o the r ) , a r em anuf ac tu red h e re i n av e ry c on s i s ten tm anner ( s ee T ab le 7 . 6 ) . B lank s a r e e x t rac t ed b y g roov ing , t h ey a r e s haped b y
u sua l ly t h ec a se w i th u se w ea r ) . A t t r ibu te
S t a te
G upuk
K i t t i .
P ond S i te
C ach eP o in t
S auaak tuk
B lank e x t rac t ion
B reak
6 16
n / a
7 50
5 0 .0
7 5 .0
G rooved
3 6 .4
2 5 .0
5 0 .0
2 5 .0
P rox ima l p r ima ry
N one
4 2
6 63
1 00 .0
6 25
G round
2 8 .6
S c raped
2 8 .6
None
8 4 .6
n / a
1 00 .0
1 00 .0
1 00 .0
G round S c raped
6 7 .5
7 5 .0
2 8 .6
1 00 .0
9 29
3 2 .5
1 2 .5
7 1 .4
P rox ima l s e conda ry D i s ta l p r ima ry
O the r D i s t a l s e cond ary
-
N one P o l i sh S c raped G round
n / a
2 5 .0 3 3 .3
1 2 .5
7 . 1
1 2 .5
2 7 .
n / a
1 00 .0
5 0 .0
8 . 3
7 1 .4 2 1 .4
5 0 .0 1 3 .9
7 . 1
T ab le 73 F requenc ie s o f mod if ica t ion so na w l s .
8 6
CHAPTER S EVEN : THE DES IGN SYSTEM T he v a r ia t ion f r om t h i s mod e l a tG upuk i sv ery s l igh t . A l l n eed le s w he re b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique c ou ld b e i d en t if ied
S econda ry mod i f ica t ion s e l sewhe re o n n eed le s a r e l im i ted t o p o l i sh . A s m en t ioned a bove , t h i s i sd i ff i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh f r om p o l i sh l e f tb yu se ,w h ich u n l ike mos to the ru se p o l i she s , i s d i s t r ibu ted o ve r t h e w ho le s u rf ace a nd n o t j u s t at h e w o rk ing e dge o rt i p .
( f ou r o n ly , a l l b lank s o r p ref orm s t h em se lve s ) h ad b een g rooved . No b l ank s w e re i d en t if ied a to t he rs i te s . P rox ima l e nd s a r e a lmo s te xc lu s ive ly w o rked b yg r ind ing , o n ly av ery f ew b e ing s c raped . e nd s .
S c rap ing a ppear s o n e ven f ewe r d i s ta l
F ew n eed les w e re r e cove red f r om t h e o the r s i tes , o n ly t h ree f r om t h e P ond S i t e a nd o ne f r om S aunak tuk . T he P ond S i te
S econda ry mod if i ca t ion s a r e c ommon o n n eed les , a s t h ey w e re o n k n if e b l ade s . P rox ima l ly , t h e mo s t c ommon
n eed le s f a l l e xac t ly i n to t h e e xpec ted p a t te rn , wh i le t h e o n ly m anuf ac tu r ing i n f o rma t ion t h a t c ou ld b e r e co rded f o r t h e s i ng le n eed le f r om S aun ak tuk i st h e f a c t t h a t i tw a s d r i l led p rox ima l ly .
s e conda ry mod if ica t ion i sd r i l l ing , t op roduce t h e e yes . T h i s mod if i ca t ion s hou ld t h eo re t ica l ly b e p r esen to nt h e p rox ima l e nd so fa l ln eed le s . T ho se o nw h ich i td oe sn o ta ppea r( n in e
N eed le s t h en , a l ong w i th d r i l l s , a r e manuf ac tured i n amo s t c on s i s ten t m anne r . T h i s may b e r e la ted t o t h e r e la t ive ly
o f t h e 4 2 p rox ima l e nd s ) a r e a l l u n f in i shed , b l ank s o r p r ef o rm s . T h i s i nd ica te s t h a t , d e sp i te t h e d i ff i cu l ty o f d r i l l ing ah o le i n at i ny s l ive ro fb one , t h i sw a so ne o ft h el a s t mod if i ca t ion s m ade t on eed le s , r a the r t h an d r i l l ing t h e h o le a nd t h en s hap ing t h e n eed le a r ound i t . I ndeed , v a r ia t ion i n
s t r ic t r e qu ir emen t s o f f o rm f o r n eed les .
I t may b e t h a t
g r ind ing , f o r i n s t ance i s a mo re e f f ec t ive w ay o f s hap ing s m a l l t o o l s . B u t S t o rdeu . r -Yed id ( 1979 ) h a s s ucce s sf u l ly r e p roduced P a leo l i th ic n eed le s b y s c rap ing , a nd f ound t h a t many P a leo l i th ic n eed le s h ad i ndeed b een made t h a t w ay .
t h e l e ng th o f n eed les ( 28 -60 mm ) a t G upuk s ugge s t s t h a t b rok en n eed le s w ere r e dr i l led . O ne n eed le h a s t wo p ar t ia l h o le sd r i l led , e ach w i th at i ny f r agmen to fw ha ta ppea r st ob e
S c rap ing c anno t b e r u led o u t o n t e chn ica l g round s a s a n a l terna t ive m anuf ac tur ing t e chn ique , a nd d id i ndeed a ppea r o n af ew n eed le sf r om G upuk .
ac he r td r i l lt i p e mbedded i nt h em ( F igu re 7 . 1) . At h i rd h o le w a s s u cce s sf u l ly c omp le ted . O the r s s e em t o h ave b roken t h rough t h e e ye , a s s e en i n a' U ' s haped p rox ima l t i p , a nd t h en b een r ewo rked . A t t r ibu t e
S t a te
B l ank e x t ra c t ion P r ox im a l p r im a ry
G rooved
* 100
G round S c r aped D r i l led N one
9 23 *7 • 3
* 1 00
8 05 * 1 4 .6 *73
* 1 00
G round
9 4 .4
J . Q Q
S c raped P o l ish
9 4 .4
N one
* 56
P r ox im a l s e cond a ry D i s ta l p r ima ry D i s ta l s e conda ry
G upuk
* 5 .6
P ond
S NOW K N IVES
S aunak tuk
S i te
T he s amp le o fs now k n ives a va i lab le f o r s t udy i sr e a l ly t oo s ma l l t o p rov ide a ny d ef in i t ive p a t te rn s , n eve r the le s s , t h e r ange o fv a r ia t ion i nm anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s i ss ma l l . A s
* 100
w i th k n if e b l ad e s , s now k n ives a r e h igh ly f i n i shed , a nd a r e g ene ra l ly s haped t h e s ame w ay p rox ima l ly a nd d i s ta l ly . O n ly b l ank e x t rac t ion , s hap ing a nd f i n i sh ing w e re r e co rded ( See T ab le 7 . 7 ) .
*o
T ab le 7 . 6F r equenc ie s o f mod if ica t ion so nn eed le s .
A t t r ibu te
S t a te
B lank e x t rac t ion
G rooved
* 1000
S hap ing
G round
J J
F in i sh ing
P o l i sh N one
* 200
O the r
* 200
G upuk
P ond S i te
9 0 0
C ache P o in t
*ØØ
T ab le 7 . 7F requenc ie so f mod if ica t ion s o ns now k n ive s . On ly a tG upuk w a s mo r e t h an o ne s now k n if e a va i lab le f o r a na ly s i s . F ou rs now k n ives h ad e v idence o fb l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique , a l l g r ooved . O ne o ft h ese h ad b een g rooved w i th ac he r t c h i se l . A l l b u t o ne o fe i gh t s now k n ives a t Gupuk w i th e v idence o fp r imary s hap ing h ad b een g round , a s h ad b o th t h e s now k n if e f r om t h e P ond S i te a nd t h e o ne f r om C ache P o in t . T he o t he rh ad b een s c raped . Mo s to ft h e s now k n ive s h ad b een p o l i shed a sw e l l , i nt wo c a se s o b scur ing a l l t r ace s o fp r ima ry mod if ica t ion . Two s now k n ive s h ad n o
F igure 7 . 1 An eed le f r om G upuk w i th t h e t i p o f ad r i l l embedded i n i t . Magn if ica t ion l Ox ( e ach s qua re i so ne mm ) .
s e conda ry mod if ica t ion , wh i le o ne h ad s e conda ry g r ind ing a nd o ne s e conda ry s c rap ing .
8 7
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT D esp i te t h e s ma l l s amp le , i ti sp o s s ib le t o s e e t h a t a s w it h mo s to ft h eo the rb one a nd a n t le rt o o l sh e r e , s now k n ive s a r e made i n as t anda rd w ay . B lank s a r e e x t rac ted b y g roov ing , p r ima ry s h ap ing i sb y g r ind ing , f o l lowed i n mo s t c a se s b y
D i s ta l s hap ing i s mo s t o f t en b y s c rap ing , a t e chn ique c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th a n t le r t o o l s . J u s t o ve r h a lf o fa l l p i ck s a r e s c raped , wh i le j u s t u nde r h a lf a r e g round . O n a s i ng le p i ck , w ea r o b scu red a l l t r ace s o f m anuf ac tu re .
p o l i sh ing .
S econda ry d i s ta l mod if i ca t ion s a r er e la t ive ly c ommon . O n ly h a lf o ft h ep i ck sh ad n o s e conda ry mod if i ca t ion . T h e o t he r s w e re e i the rg r ound o rp o l i shed . F rom t h i s , i ti sn o tp o ss ib le t oi d en t ify a ny o ne w ay i nw h ich p i ck s w e re u sua l ly made . I n mo s t c a se s , d i s t r ibu t ion s a r e b imoda la tl e a s t .
P ICKS
P i ck s a r e r e la t ive ly c ommon t oo l s o n a l l s i te s i nt h e r eg ion . Manuf ac tu r ing p roce s se s a r e q u i te v a r iab le , d e sp i t e c on s i s ten t u se ( a s i c e p i ck s ) , a nd c on s i s t en t c ho ice o fa n t le r
O ther S i te s
a s ar aw m a ter ia l( s ee T ab le 7 . 8 ) .
T he s i tua t ion i ss im i la r a t t h e o the r s i t e s e xam ined h e re , a l though t h e s amp le s a r e s ma l le r . A t t h e P ond S i te , b l ank e x t rac t ion m e thod s a r e a ga in e ven ly d i v ided b e tween g roov ing a nd c hopp ing . A t S aunak tuk , g roov ing i s mo r e c ommon t h an c hopp ing , b u tt h e s amp le i so n ly t h ree . C ach e
G upuk I ti sv e ry d i ff icu l t t o i d en t if y mode s i n t h e m anuf ac tu r ing p a t te rn s f o r p i ck s a tG upuk . B lank e x t rac t ion s a r e e ven ly d iv ided b e tween g rooved a nd c hopped , w i th a s i ng le e xamp le o fb reak ing ( on ab one p i ck ) . I n t h i s c a se , b l ank
P o in t s t and s o u t , w i th g roov ing b e ing t h e o n ly me thod o f b l ank e x t rac t ion i d en t if ied o na l ls i xp i ck se xam ined .
e x t rac t ion i su sed t oi d en t ify t h e m anne r i n wh ich t h e a n t le r p i ece w a s s e pa ra ted f r om t h e ma in b eam . O f ten , t h e b l ank w a st h en s p l i t , a nd t h i sp roce s sw a s s ome t ime sa l so u sed a sa w ay o f s h ap ing t h e p i ck ( c onve rgen t g roove s ) . G roov ing t h en , i st h e p r ima ry p rox ima l mod if i ca t ion s e en o n p i ck s , a ccoun t ing f o r n ea r ly h a lf o f t h em . O the r p rox ima l mod if i ca t ion s i n c lude c hopp ing , g r ind ing , c u t t ing a nd p o ss ib ly s aw ing . S econda ry mod if i ca t ion s t op rox ima l e nd s a r e r a re . Two a r e n o t ched a nd t wo a r e d r i l led ( a s soc ia ted w i th h af t ing ) ,b u t mo s th ave n os e cond a ry w o rk . A t t r ibu te
S ta te
B lank e x t rac t ion
G rooved
P rox ima l p r ima ry
C hopped B reak
* 11 .1
G rooved
* 455
P ond S i te a nd a tS aunak tuk . A t b o th n e i ther p r ima ry n o r s e cond ary p rox ima l mod if i ca t ion s w e r e r e co rded . A ga in , h oweve r , s amp le s i zes a r e s ma l l : t wo a tP ond a nd t h ree a t S aunak tuk . A t C ache P o in t , a l a ck o f mod if ica t ion d o mina te s , b u t s t i l l r ep resen t s l e s s t h an h a lf o ft h e s amp le . C hopp ing a nd o the r mod if i ca t ion s ( g r ind ing , s c rap ing ) a ccoun tf o rt h eo t he r s . D i s ta l mod if ica t ion s a r e d i ve r se a tb o th t h e P ond S i te a nd C ache P o in t . O n ly a t S aunak tuk a r e a l l p i ck s s c raped
K i t t i . * 444 * 44 •4
P ond S i te n / a
C ache P o in t * 50 .0 * 50 .0
*
1 00 .0
S aunak tuk * 66 .7 * 33 •3
5 *00 * 100 .0
None
* 100 .0
O the r
* 9 .1 * 455
* 500
None
2.
n / a
S craped
* 533
n / a
G round
* 40 .0
* 20 .0
* 333
* 6 .7
* 20 .0
* 8 .3
C hopped P rox ima l s econda ry
G upuk
P rox ima l mod if i ca t ion s a r e h igh ly c on s i s ten t a t b o th t h e
* 22 .2 * 333 * 100 .0
* 88 .9
* 100 .0
D r i l led D i s ta l pr ima ry
P o l i shed D i s ta l s e cond ary
None
* 50 .0
G round
*
P o l i shed g rooved
n / a
1 2 .5
* 100 .0
* 60 .0
* 75M
* 20 .0 * 20 .0
3 7 .5
* 20 .0 * 25 .0
-
T ab le 7 . 8F requenc ies o f mod if ica t ion so np i ck s .
8
CHAPTER S EVEN : THE DES IGN SYSTE M d i s ta l ly . A t t h e o the r s i te s , s c rap ing i st h e mo s t c ommon d i s ta l mod if i ca t ion , a s i tw a s a t G upuk , b u t g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing a r e a l so c ommon . A t K i t t igazu i t , o n ly t wo p i ck s
G upuk A t G upuk , g roov ing i st h e mo s t c ommon b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique , c l o se ly f o l lowed b y b reak ing . C hopp ing i sa l so w e l lr epr esen ted w i th j u s to ve r 1 5% o ft h e s amp le . P rox ima l
w e re r e co rded . One h ad b een g rooved d i s ta l ly ( p e rhap s u n f in i shed? ) a nd t h e o t he r w a s f i l ed . S econda ry mod if ica t ion sa r eu ncommon a ta l ls i t e s .
p r ima ry mod i f ica t ion s a r e a lmo s te ven ly d i v ided b e tween n o mod if ica t ion a nd g r ind ing . S c rap ing r e p re sen t s a lmo s t a q uar te r o ft h e s amp le a s w e l l . S econda ry mod if ica t ion s a r e u ncommon , b u t p o l i sh a nd o t he r mod i f ica t ion s s u ch a s
C lea r ly t h e re i s l i t t le c on s i s ten cy i n t h e w ay p i ck s w e re m anuf ac tu red i n t h e D e l ta . T ak ing a l l t h e p i ck s t o ge the r , g roov ing i s mo re c ommon t h an c hopp ing a s am e thod o f
n o tch ing m ake u po ne t h i rd o ft h et oo l s .
b l ank e x t rac t ion , b u t a t t wo o f t h e s i t e s , t h ey a r e e qua l ly c o mmon . A l a ck o f mod if i ca t ion o f a ny k ind i s mo s t c o mmon o n p rox ima l e nd s i n t h e w ho le s amp le , b u t a t G upuk g roov ing a ccoun t s f o r n ea r ly h a lf o ft h e p i ck s .
D i s ta l mod if ica t ion s a r e d om ina ted b y g r ind ing , w i th j u s t o ve r h a lf o f t h e s amp le . S c rap ing i s a l so c o mmon .
On
S econda ry mod if ica t ion s a r e p re sen t o n h a lf o f t h e t o o l s , mo s t o f t en i n t h e f o rm o f p o l i sh , a l though t h e re a r e o the r f o rm s( i nc lud ing s e conda ry g r ind ing ) a sw e l l .
d i s ta l e nd s , s c rap ing d om ina te s , b u tg r ind ing i sb yn o m ean s u ncommon . S econda ry mod if ica t ion s o f a ny s o r t a r e r a r e . D e sp i te t h i s v a r ia t ion , b o th t h e u se o f p i ck s , a s i d en t if ied m ic roscop ica l ly , a nd t h e ma te r ia l s t h ey a r e mad e o f a r e c on s i s ten t .
O ther S i t e s F o rt h e mo s tp a r t , d ive r s i ty i n manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique si sa s
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS
g r ea ta tt h eo the rs i tes a si ti sa tG upuk . T he ma in e xcep t ion t o t h i s i sb l ank e x t rac t ion , wh ich i sc l ea r ly d om ina t ed b y g roov ing a tt h e P ond S i t e , C ache P o in ta nd S aunak tuk . B o th b r eak ing a nd c hopp ing a r eu ncommon .
E ven mo re d i ve r se t h an t h ep i ck s , a sm igh tb e e xpec ted , a r e t h e m i sce l laneou s p i ece s o f w o rked b one a nd a n t le r . I ti s v i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le t o d e tec t a ny k ind o f ' b ehav iou ra l moda l i ty ' f o rt h ese t oo l s( s ee T ab le 7 . 9 ) .
P rox ima l mod if ica t ion sa r e , i fa ny th ing , mo re d ive r se ,b u tn o r e a l p a t t e rn i s d i sce rnab le . A t e ach s i te , a d i f f e ren t mod if i ca t ion d om ina tes . S econda ry mod if ica t ion s a r e l e ss v ar iab le ,w i th al a ck o fv a r ia t ion d om ina t ing e ve rywh e re .
A t t r ibu t e
S ta te
B lank e x t rac t ion
G rooved B reak
G upuk
K i t t igazu i t 4 7 .6
P ond S i te n / a
C ache P o in t
* 100 .0
* 18 .2 * 25 .0
None
3 2 .8
G round
3 1 .1
S c raped
2 4 .6
n / a
O the r P rox ima l s e cond a ry
D i s ta l p r ima ry
D i s ta l s e conda ry
* 75 .0
3 5 .7
C hopped P rox ima l p r ima ry
S aunak tuk
None
6 7 .2
P o l i shed
1 6 .4
O the r
1 6 .4
n / a
None
* 4 1 .7 * 357
* 16 .6
* 55 .6
* 28 .6
* 41 .7
* 44
* 357
4
* 66 .7
* 69 .2
8 33
* 16 .7
* 77
* 16 .7
* 16 .7
* 23 .1
* 500
G round
5 1 .4
* 37
S c raped
3 4 .4
* 28 .5
* 33 • 3
* 31 .3
* 27 .6
O the r
1 4 .3
* 28 .5
* 16 .7
* 31 .3
* 18 .2
None
5 0 .0
n / a
* 750
*
P o l i sh
3 2 .4
* 250
* 16 .7
* 62 .5 * 375
o t he r
1 7 .6
5
7
* 16 .7
T ab le 7 . 9F requenc ie so f mod if i ca t ion so nm i sce l laneou st o o l s . 8 9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT D i s ta l mod if i ca t ion s a r e a ga in h igh ly v ar iab le .
G r ind ing
t h e c a se , t h en t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t g roup s i n c luded h e r e a t
d om ina te s a t C ache P o in t , S aunak tuk a nd K i t t igazu i t , b u t o n ly a t S aunak tuk d oe s i tr ep re sen t mo re t h an h a lf o f t h e s amp le . S c rap ing a ccoun t s f o ra bou to ne t h i rd o ft h et oo l s a t e ach s i te , w i th o the r mod if i ca t ion sb e ing p re sen ti ns ma l lb u t
l e a s tc an b e c on s ide red t oh ave u sed as i ng le ' d e s ign s y s tem ' f o rb one a nd a n t le rt oo l s , wh ich c u t s a c ro s s o t he rd i f f e rence s b e tween t h em .
s i gn if ican t n umbe r s a t a l l s i te s . A l a ck o f mod if ica t ion i s s e en o n t h e d i s ta l e nd s o f t oo l s i n s ma l l b u t s i gn i f ican t n umbe r s a tb o th t h e P ond S i te a nd C ache P o in t .
T he se a r e
t r ue e xped iency t oo l s , b one o r a n t le r f r agmen t s u sed w i th v i r tua l ly n o mod if ica t ion e xcep ti n i t ia lb reak ing . H ow much o ft h e v ar ia t ion s e en among t h e se t oo l s i sr e la ted t ot h e r e la t ive ly s ma l l s amp le s i zes i nvo lved i sn o t c l ea r , b u t i n o the r t o o l s c a tegor ies w i th e qua l ly s ma l l s amp le s s om e p a t tern i sg ene ra l ly e v iden t . T h i s s ugges t s t h a tt h e v a r ia t ion
S uch s im i la r i t ie s i nd ec i s ion mak ing i mp ly ah i gh d eg ree o f i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e d i f f e ren t g roup s . T h i s s hou ld n o t c ome a s much o fs u rpr i se . I n te rac t ion b e tween Mackenz ie I nu i t g roup s i sk nown t oh ave i n c luded t r ade , i n t e rm ar r iage a nd c ommuna l h un t ing ( McGhee 1 974 ) , a s w e l l a s l e s s f r iend ly f o rm s s uch a s b lood f e ud s . I n te rma r r iage p a r t icu l a r ly p robab ly c on tr ibu ted t ot h e s im i lar i t ie s o b served h ere , b u t t r ade a nd o the r f o rm s o f i n te rac t ion ( s uch a s c ommuna lh un t ing )w e re a l so i mpor tan t . I fg roup s a r e s o c ia l ly o r s pa t ia l ly i s o la ted , t h ey a r e mo r e
s e en h e re r ef l ec t s t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e w ay t h e se m i sce l laneou s t o o l s w e re made . T hey may e ven b e t h ough t o f i n s ome s en se s a s ' e xped ien t ' t oo l s , made a nd u sed w i th t h e ma ter ia l st h a tc ame t oh and f o ra ni mmed ia te p urpo se .
l i ke ly t o make d i f f e ren td ec i s ion sa bou ts u ch b a s ic c ho ice sa s w he the rt ou se ak n if e o r ag r ind s tone t os hape at o o lt h an i f t h ey i n te rac t f r equen t ly . ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 's [ 1 984 ] C lov i s s t udy i s ag ood e xamp le o f t h i s . ) When s oc ia l i n te rac t ion i sf r equen t , t h e re i s mo re o ppo r tun i ty t oe xchange i d ea sa bou tt h ings a nd p roce s se s t h a ta r en o ta lway s o bv iou s .
I NTERS ITE COMPAR ISONS
Whe rea s a t t r ibu te s s uch a s t o o l f o rm c an b e c ommun ica ted i nd irec t ly , a t t r ibu te s o f m anuf ac ture a r e v i r tua l ly i n v i s ib le a nd mu s tb ec ommun ica t ed b y mo re d i rec tm ean s .
T he o r ig ina l a im o f t h i s p ar t o f t h e s t udy w a s t o e xam ine
I n te rmar r iage i so ne l i ke ly c au se o ft h e s im i lar i t ies s e en h e re . T echn ique s o ft o o l s manuf ac tu re a r e u sua l ly c ommun ica ted i na n a pp ren t ice sh ip s i tua t ion w i th ay oung p e r son l e a rn ing f r om a n o l d e r , i n m any c a se s t h e p a ren t . T he a pp rop r ia t e
s im i lar i t ie s a nd d i f f e rence s i n manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s o f b one a nd a n t le r t oo l s b e tween s i te s i n d i f f e ren t p a r t s o ft h e Mackenz ie D e l ta a nd o fd i f f er en t a ges . I tw a s t h ough t t h a t t h e se m igh t t h row s o me l i gh t o n i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e
c ho ice s b e tween d i f f er en t manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s a r e l e a rned v e ry e a r ly o n ( Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 ) . D ec i s ion s a bou t s uch t h ing s a s wha t t e chn ique t ou se w hen ,
d i f f e ren t Mackenz ie I nu i tg roup s . Unfor tuna t e ly , s amp le s f r om a l l s i tes e xcep t G upuk a r e , r e la t ive ly s peak ing , s ma l l . E ven t oo l s t h a t a r e p re sen t i n v e ry h igh n umbe r s a t G upuk , d r i l l s f o r e xamp le , a r e g ene ra l ly r e p re sen ted b y f ewe r t h an t en s pec imen s a t t h e o ther s i te s u nde r s t udy . When t h e se a r e e xam ined f o r v a r iou s a t t r ibu te s r e la t ing t o manuf ac ture , t h e n umber o f p os s ib le o b se rva t ion s i s s o l ow t h a t r e l iab le f r equency
l e ar n te a r ly o n , a ppea rt ob e r e s i s t an tt oc hange ( s ee C hap te r Two ) . A du l t s mov ing f r om g roup t og roup ( i ti sn o tp os s ib le h e re t o p o s i t ive ly i d en t if y e i the r u xo r i loca l o f v i r i loca l r e s iden ce ) w i l l p a s s o n t h e i r k now ledge t o t h e i r c h i ld ren , l e ad ing t os im i lar i t ie sa c ro s st h eg roup s . C ommuna lh un t ing , wh ich m ay h ave b rough t g roup s t o ge the r f o r ap e r iod o f w eek s , m ay a l so h ave p rov ided o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r t h e e xchange o fs u ch i n fo rma t ion .
d i s t r ibu t ion s c an n o t b e c on s t ruc ted . T h i s make s i td i ff i cu l t t o d i f f e ren t ia te p os s ib le d i f f e rences i n m anuf ac tur ing d ec i s ion s f r om me re s amp l ing v a r ia t ion . I ta l so m ean s t h a t s t a t i s t ica l t e s t s c anno t b e a pp l ied . F o r c h i squa re t e s t s i n p ar t icu la r ( t he o bv iou s c ho ice f o r t h i s n om ina l l e ve l d a ta ) ,
A s m igh t b e e xpec ted , t h e d e s ign s y s t em a ppea r s t o h ave s ome t im ed ep th . A l though t h e re w e re c hange si nt h e f o rma l a t t r ibu te so fs ome t oo l st y pe sa nd i nt h er e la t ive f r equency o f
r e su l t s a r e l i ke ly t o b e u n re l iab le d ue t o l ow e xpec ted c e l l v a lue sa nd e mp ty c e l l s .
o t he r s ( s ee McGhee [ 1 974 ] t h ese r e la te mo s t ly t oh un t ing i mp lemen t s n o t i n c luded i n t h i s s t udy ) , m anuf ac tur ing -
A l though d i f f e rence s b e tween s i te s c anno t b e r e l iab ly i d en t i f ied , s im i lar i t ies c an b e i d en t if ied w i th g r ea te r c on f idence . Where s amp le s i ze s a r e l a rge r ,p a r t icu la r ly d r i l l s a nd a w l s f r om S aunak tuk , i n spec t ion o ft h e t a b le s s how t h a t t h e p a t te rn s o f manuf ac tur ing d ec i s ion s c l o se ly f o l low t ho se s e t a t G upuk . T h i s i s t r ue e ven f o r t h e h igh ly v ar iab le
-
d ec i s ion s s e em t oh ave r ema ined f a i r ly c on s tan t .
P rob lem s
w i th d a t ing a nd p r e serva t ion make t h i s as l igh t ly t e nuou s c onc lu s ion , b u t t h e p a t tern s s e en a tC ache P o in t ( t he o l des t s i te e xam ined h e re ) a r e s im i la r e nough t ot h o se f r om G upuk ( mo re r e cen t ly o ccup ied ) t os ugge s t c on t inu i ty o ve r a tl e a s t 5 00 y ea r s . T h i s d oe s n o t i mp ly , h oweve r , t h a t t h e d e s ign s y s tem w a si n capab le o fc hange . O nt h e c on t r ary , t h e e x ten t
m i sce l laneou s w orked b one a nd a n t le r c a tego ry . A tt h e r i sk o fg ene ra l iz ing f r om r a the rp oo rd a ta s e t s , i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t
o f i n te rac t ion a l low s
f o r v e ry r a p id c hange
i n s ome
b one a nd a n t le rt oo l s o fa l l t y pe s w e re made i ns im i la rw ay s t h roughou tt h eD e l ta .
c i rcum s tance s . T he s e em ing ly r ap id a dop t ion o ft h e f i l e i s a ne xamp le o ft h i s .
T h i s t e n ta t ive c onc lu s ion f o l low s f r om t h er e su l t s o fC hap te r S ix , whe re d i f f e rences i ng ene ra l manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s , p a r t icu la r ly f o rd eb i tage , c ou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t od i f f e rences i n s i te f unc t ion : p r ima r i ly c a r ibou e xp lo i ta t ion s i te s v e r su s
F i le s s e em t oh ave b een p re sen ti nt h e D e l ta i nl ow n umbe r s f r om p ro to -h i s to r ic t ime s
-
-
av ery f ew f i l ed t o o l s a r ep r e sen t
i n an umbe r o ft h e c o l lec t ion s . T he MacFar lane C o l lec t ion , t h e o n ly c l ea r ly h i s to r ic c o l lec t ion s t ud ied , s t and s i nc on t ra s t t ot h e o t he r s , w i th many o ft h e t oo l s m ade w i th f i l e s . At o o l
w in te rv i l lage s , r a ther t h an a ny o the rf a c to r . I ft h i s i si ndeed 9 0
CHAPTER S EVEN : THE DES IGN SYSTEM m ade w i th af i l e l o ok s t h e s ame a so ne m ade a ny o the rw ay , e xcep t o n c l o se i n spec t ion . T ran sf e r o fk now ledge o ft h i s
Ma ter ia l
t o o la nd i t su se sw a s mo s tl i ke ly o n ap e r son t op e r son b a s i s , p robab ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e t r ade t h a t i n t roduced t h e f i l e i n t h ef i r s tp l ace .
W i th a n i n t ended f unc t ion i nm ind , t h e ma te r ia l t o b e u sed mu s tb e c ho sen . B y r e s t r ic t ing t h i s s t udy t ob one a nd a n t le r t o o l s , Ih ave r e s t r ic ted t h es cope o fc ho ices f o r ma ter ia lt y pe . S om e o ft h e t o o l s e xam ined h e re may a l so h ave b een m ade f r om o t he r m a ter ia l s : s t one o r me ta l d r i l l s f o r i n s tance , o r m e t a l n eed le s . B u t e ven w i th in t h e r ange o f ' o s seou s ' m a t er ia l s , c ho ice i sp o s s ib le . T he f i r s t l e ve l o f c ho ice i s
A f i le i s e s sen t ia l ly a h a rd , s ha rp , m e ta l g r ind s tone . A l though i t s u se ( i n t e rm s o f mo to r s k i l l s ) i s s omewha t d i f f e ren tf r om w o rk ing w i th ag r ind s tone , t h ew ay i ta ch ieve s w o rk ( i . e . t h e w ay ma ter ia l i sr emoved f r om b one o r a n t le r )
b e tween b one a nd a n t le r ( and i vo ry when a va i lab le ) . A l though b o th o s seou s , t h e re a r e i mpo r t an td i f f e rences i nt h e p rope r t ie so ft h e se t wo ma ter ia l s wh ich may i np a r tg u ide t h e
i st h e s am e . I ti sn o t s uch ag r ea t c hange , t h en , t os w i tch t o t h e mo re e ff i c ien t f i le when i tb ecame r e ad i ly a va i lab le , a nd i ta ppea r st oh ave b een r e ad i ly i n co rpo ra ted i nt ot h e e x i s t ing
c ho ice . When b one i s t h e ma te r ia l o f c ho ice , f u r the r d ec i s ion sa r er equ i r ed : s pec ie sa nd e l emen t .
d e s ign s y s tem . F i le s d id n o t c omp le t e ly r e p lace a l l o t he r m e thod s o f manuf ac tu re h oweve r s c rap ing , c u t t ing a nd g roov ing t o o l s w ere s t i l l u sed , a l though s ome t ime s t h e i r h and le sw e re s haped b yf i l ing . -
-
T he se c ho ice s m ay b e g u ided b y f unc t iona l a nd e ven s ymbo l ic r equ i rem en t s ( s ee f o r e xamp le McGhee ' s [ 1 977 ] s ugge s t ion t h a t u se o f i v ory a nd a n t le r may h ave h ad s ymbo l ic i mpo r t ance i nt h e C en t ra l a nd E a s te rn A rc t ic ) . I n s om e c a se st h ef unc t ion o ft h et oo l may r e s t r ic tt h e c ho ice o f s pec ie s a nd e l emen t . S i ze , s hape a nd n ece s sa ry s t reng th o f t h e t o o l m ay m ean t h a t c e r ta in s pec ie s a nd e l emen t s a r e
I t s e em s c l ea r , t h en , t h a t a s i ng le d e s ign s y s tem f o r manuf ac tu r ing b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s e x i s ted among t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t , f o r ap er iod o f s eve ra l h und red y ea r s a t l e a s t s pann ing t h e o ccupa t ion s o f C ache P o in t , S aunak tuk , K i t t igazu i t a nd G upuk . T h i s i sb y n o m ean s a mono l i th ic ,
r e jec ted . Ab i rd b one c anno t b e u sed t o make a n i c e p i ck .
i n v io lab le s e t o f i n s t ruc t ion s a bou t h ow t o o l s w e re t o b e m ad e . O n t h e c on tra ry , i ta l lowed f o r ag r ea t d ea l o f
S ymbo l ic r equ i rem en t s a r e A cco rd ing t o e t hnog raph ic
v a r ia t ion i n t h e manuf ac ture o f s om e t o o l t y pe s , a nd w a s
mo re d i ff icu l t t o i d en t ify . s ou rce s b ea r h umer i w e re
c on s id e red t h e i d ea l r aw ma ter ia l f o r mak ing d agge r s ( S tef f an son 1 919 ) , b u t s u ch d agge r s d o n o t a ppea r t o b e
o pen t o r a p id c hange a nd t e chno log ica l i n nova t ion . T he d es ign s y s tem i sb e t te r c on s ide red a S e t o fg u ide l ine s t ob e f o l lowed t h an an orma t ive ' men ta l t emp la te ' . I ti s as e t o f
c ommon a r chaeo log ica l ly . I t i s n o t a lway s p o s s ib le t o i d en t ify t h e s pec if ic e l emen t o r t a xon f r om wh ich ad agge r
r u le s f o l lowed more o r l e s s r i g id ly , d epend ing o n c i rcum s tan ce s . T he f a c t t h a t ' b ehav ioura l moda l i t ie s ' c an b e d e tec ted i n d ica te s t h a t r u le s w e re f o l lowed more o r l e s s c on s i s ten t ly . T h i s i sb a lanced , h oweve r , b y t h e f a c t t h a t
w a sm ade , d ue t o ah i gh d eg ree o ff i n i sh ing ,b u tt h er ange o f s i ze s a nd s hape s o fd agge r s i nd ica te s t h a tb yn o mean s a l l o f t h em w e r e made f r om b ea rh umer i . I twou ld n o tb ep o s s ib le , f r om t h e s amp le s t ud ied h e re , t o i n f e r t h a t o ne p ar t icu la r e l emen t o fo ne p a r t icu la r s pec ies w a s p ref e r red . C ho ice o f
v a r ia t ion a r ound t h e se moda l i t ie s i sc ommon a nd i n s om e c a se so ve rwhe lm st h em .
m a t er ia l t y pe s w a s b a sed o n ac omb ina t ion o f f a c to r s , o f wh ich s u i tab i l i ty f o r t h e i n tended f unc t ion w a s p robab ly t h e
Wha tw i l lb ep re sen ted h e re i so n ly ap o r t ion o ft h ec omp le te d e s ign s y s tem f o r b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s among t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t . I t w i l l f o cu s o n c ho ice s made i n t h e
mo s ti mpo r tan t ,b u tn o tt h eo n ly c on s ide ra t ion .
m anuf ac tu r ing a nd u se o f t oo l s , w i th l e s se r empha s i s o n ma te r ia l c ho ice a nd f o rma l ' s ty l i s t ic ' a t tr ibu t e s . E lemen t s
Manuf ac ture
s uch a ss oc ia l c on tex t a nd s ymbo l i sm o rm ean ing a s soc ia ted w i th t h et o o l ss t ud ied h e re a r eb eyond t h es c ope o ft h i sw o rk .
O nce t h e ma t e r ia l t y pe w a s s e lec ted , manuf ac ture c ou ld b eg in , l e ad ing t o as e r ie s o fd ec i s ion s , t h e f i r s t o f wh ich i s h ow t o e x t rac t ab l ank f r om t h e r aw ma te r ia l . Once t h e
T HE D ES IGN S YSTEM
b l ank i sm ade ( o r i ns om e c a se s s e lec ted ) , d ec i s ion s mu s tb e m ade a bou th ow t os hape a nd f i n i sh i t . O ne o f t h e i n i t ia l a im s o f t h i s s t udy w a s t o e xam ine t h e c ho ice s m ade a bou t t h e ma te r ia l s o f t o o l s u sed t o mod if y
F unc t ion
b one a nd a n t le r . T h i s p roved t o b e mo re d i ff i cu l t t h an o r ig ina l ly a n t ic ipa ted . T race so fm anuf ac tu re ,a l though o f t en
Ad e s igne r / too lmake rb eg in s w i th a n i d ea o ft h e f unc t ion o r
v i s ib le o n al a rge , m ac ro scop ic , s c a le a r e r a re ly i d en t if iab le
i n tended p u rpo se o ft h e t oo l t ob e m ade . T h rough u se w ea r a na ly s i s t h e a c tua l , i fn o t i n tended , f un c t ion o f many o ft h e b one t oo l s u sed b y t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t i sk nown . T he f r equency w i th wh ich p a r t icu la r t o o l s f o rm s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th s pec if i c u se s s ugges t s t h a t t h e se a r e i n deed i n tended
m ac ro scop ic c ha rac te r i s t ic s ,t h em ic ro scop ic t r a i t st h a tw ou ld
m ic ro scop ica l ly . T hu s a l though i ti se a sy t o t e l l whe the r a t o o lw a s g rooved o rc hopped , o rg round o rs c raped ,b a sed o n a l low i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e s pec if ic ma ter ia l u sed t o c r ea te t h e se t r ace sa r el e s so f ten p reserved .
f unc t ion s . T hu s t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween a w l s ( s h arp ly p o in ted ) a nd s pa tu la s ( w i th f l a t t ened p o in t s o rr ounded e nd s ) i s ar e a l d i s t inc t ion , a l though i no t he rr e spec t s t h ey a r e v e ry s im i la r .
B lank E x t rac t ion I n C hap te r S ix i tw a s s hown t h a t al im i ted n umbe r o f m e thod sw e re u sed t oi s o la te b l ank s . G roov ing w a st h e mos t 9 1
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT c ommon , f o l lowed b y b reak ing a nd c hopp ing .
T he se l a t te r
n o c l ea r r e a son why t h e m i sce l laneou s w o rked b on e a nd a n t le rp i ece s c ou ld n o ta l so h ave b een made t h i sw ay . N o ri s i tc l ea rw he the rt h i s i sc au se o fe f f ec t . We re t h ey c hoo s ing a r ap id a nd e a sy m e thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion , o ri n tac ta r t icu la r e nd s o n t o o l s? S uch t o o l s m ay h ave b een i n tended t oh ave o n ly as hor tu se l i f e , a nd s on o t wo r th e xpend ing much e f f o r t o n , b u t s om e s how e x ten s ive r ound ing , s e em ing ly f r om h and l ing . T h i ss ugge s t s al o ng u se l i f e .
t wo a r e h i gh ly ma te r ia l d ependan t : a n t le r i sr a re ly b roken , wh i le b one i sr a re ly c hopped . B o th may b eg rooved . I tw a s p o s s ib le t o i d en t ify t h e ma te r ia l u sed t o m ake 4 0 g roove s a tG upuk . T hey a r e e ven ly d i v ided b e tween c he r t a nd i r on , s ugges t ing t h a t o ne w a s n o t p r ef er red o ve r t h e o the r . A t t h e o the r s i te s , h oweve r , i r on d i d s e em t ob e t h e p ref e r red m a ter ia l f o rp roduc ing g rooves , a l though t h e r e a r e f a rf ewe re xamp les f r om t h e se s i te s .
S hap ing
A l though g roov ing i st h e mo s t c ommon m e thod o fi s o la t ing b l ank s i ti sb y n o m ean s t h e o n ly o ne , a nd i ti sn o t u sed e qua l ly o n a l l t oo l t ype s . C on s ider ing o n ly t h e ' b ehav iou ra l moda l i t ie s ' f o r b lank e x t rac t ion o fe ach t o o l t y pe , g roov ing a ccoun t s f o r mo s t , b u tn o ta l l o ft h em. T he t wo e xcep t ion s
E v iden ce f o r s hap ing t o o l s i sp reserved much mo re o f ten t h an e v iden ce o f b l ank e x t rac t ion o n ly a h igh f i n i sh , o r -
e x ten s ive u se e r ad ica te s i t . T h i s d oes n o t m ean , h oweve r , t h a t m ic ro scop ic d e t a i l s a r e a lway s p r e sen t . Of t en mac ro scop ic e v idence o f m anuf ac ture t e chn ique i sc l ea r ly v i s ib le wh i le m ic ro scop ic d e ta i l s , wh ich i n d i ca te t h em a t er ia l
a r e a w l s a nd s pa tu la s . B lank s f o r b o th o f t h e se t o o l s a r e mo re o f ten e x t rac ted b y b reak ing . T he r e i sv ar ia t ion o f c our se : a bou t o ne t h i rd o fa w l s a nd s pa tu la s w e re m ade o n
u sed t ow o rk t h eb one , a r eo b scu red .
b l ank s e x t rac ted b y g roov ing . F o r t oo l s s u ch a s d r i l l s , t h e p ropo r t ion s a r e r eve r sed . S ome t oo l s s e em t o h ave b l ank s e xc lu s ive ly e x t rac ted b y g roov ing , s uch a s d agge r s a nd
On t h e w ho le , g r ind ing w a s f ound t o b e t h e mos t c ommon t e chn ique f o r f i n i sh ing t o o l s , a nd t h i s i sg ene ra l ly t r ue f o r e ach o f t h e t o o l s t y pe s e xam ined i nd iv idua l ly a s w e l l , b u t
n eed le s , b u t t h e h igh ly f i n i shed n a ture o ft h e se t o o l s m ean s t h a t t h e m e thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion i sr a re ly o b se rvab le , s o
o n ly f o rt h e i rd i s ta l e nd s . P rox ima l e nd s s how aw ide rr ange o fv a r ia t ion .
t h e se c oun t s may n o tb ea ccu ra te .
F ou rt o o lt ype sa r e mo s tc ommon ly g round o nb o th p rox ima l
C hopp ing w a s n o ted i nC hap te r S ix a sa n i mpor tan tm e thod
a nd d i s ta l e nd s . T he se a r e d r i l l s , k n ive s a nd d agge r s , s now k n ive s a nd n eed le s . A pa r t f r om d r i l l s , t h e se t oo l s a l lt e nd t o b e h i gh ly f i n i shed , mo s t ly p o l i shed . D r i l l s a r e a n e xcep t ion
o f e x t rac t ing b lank s i n a n t le r . T h i s m e thod s e em s t o b e u nde r rep re sen ted i n t o o l g roups f o r av a r ie ty o f r e a son s . O ne f a c to ri st h e mo re ' f i n i shed n a tu re ' o fm any a n t le rt o o l s . O n ly o np i ck s d oe s t h i s m e thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion s how u p
i n t h a t t h ey a r e a lmo s t n eve r p o l i shed a s ap a r t o f t h e m anuf ac tu r ing s equence .
o f t en mo s t o f t h e c hopp ing n o ted i n C hap t e r S ix i so n d eb i tage . Ano the r f a c to r i st h a t a n t le r may g o t h rough mo r e s t age s o f r educ t ion . C hopp ing i s mo s t o f t en u sed t o c u t a n t le r t r an sve r se ly , i n t h e i n i t ia l r educ t ion o f a r a ck -
-
A l l
a tr ibu te s ,
p i ck s
a nd
-
M ic ro scop ic i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e ma te r ia l u sed t o s c rape b one a nd a n t le r w a s n o t v e ry s ucces sfu l . At o ta l o fj u s t 2 6 s c rap ing e p i sode s c ou ld b e i d en t if ied . T hese a r e d om ina t ed b yc he r t ,w i th s i x teen e p i sode s , t h er ema inde rb e ing i r on . A s d i scu s sed i n C hap te r S ix , i t i s n o t c l ea r whe the r t h i s r ep re sen t s ap ref e rence f o r c her t k n ive s , t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f i r on , o rt h ef a c tt h a tc he r tl e ave s l a rge rs t r ia t ion s wh ich s t and ab e t te r c hance o fp re serva t ion . ( Ch i se l s a r e s l igh t ly s m a l le r t h an k n if e b l ade s , wh ich m ay e xp la in why i r on g roove s a r e mo re c ommon . ) T he re d oe s n o t a ppea r t ob e a ny p a t t e rn i n
b e ing
e l onga te , w i th an a r row , mo re o r l e ss p o in ted , w o rk ing e nd . T hey a r e d i s t ingu i shed o n t h e p r ec i se f o rm o ft h i s w o rk ing e nd , a nd i nt h e c a se o fd r i l l s , b y t h e s t ra igh tne s s o ft h e s haf t
t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f i d en t if ied s c rap ing e p i sode s : p ar t icu la r
( af unc t iona lr equ i rem en t ) . Why o ne g roup s hou ld b e m ade o ne w ay a nd o ne a no the r i sn o t c l ea r .
s pa tu la s ,
s c rap ing i su se mo re o f ten o nt h i s ma ter ia lt h an o nb one .
made e xc lu s ive ly o fb one ) , s how t h e r e ve r se , i n a lmo s t t h e s ame p ropo r t ion s . f o rma l
a w l s ,
a r e m ade f r om a n t le r , a nd i tw a s s hown i nC hap te r S ix t h a t
s ame r ange o f ma ter ia l s ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fd r i l l s t h a t a r e
s im i la r
-
p ropo r t ion o f s c rap ing o n p i ck s i sp robab ly r e la ted t o t h e c ho ice o fr aw ma te r ia l s , i nt h i s c a se a n t le r . A lmos t a l lp i ck s
t ype , t h ough , a l so s e em s t o b e i mpor tan t . B o th d r i l l s a nd m i sce l lan eou s t oo l s a r e mo re c o mmon ly g rooved t h an b roken . Aw l s a nd s pa tu la s , d e sp i te b e ing m ade f r om t h e
s ha re
-
T he d i s ta l e nd s o f a l l t o o l s a r e c ommon ly g round w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fp i ck s , wh ich a r e mo re o f t en s c raped . T h i s h i gh
t o s u rv ive s ubsequen t mod if i ca t ion a nd u se . F rom t h e e v idence a va i lab le i ts e em s t h a t c ho ice o fm e thod d epended o n an umbe r o f f a c to r s . T he mos t o bv iou s i sm a te r ia l , a s s e en i nt h e d i cho tomy b e tween c hopp ing a nd b reak ing . T oo l
t oo l s
t y pe s
T h i s i sa l so s ome t ime s t r ue o f t h e m i sce l laneou s c a t ego ry , b u t n eve r o ft h e p i ck s . Mo re o f t en , t h e se l a t te r t oo l s h ave p rox ima l e nd s l e f t a s t h ey w e re f r om t h e b l ank e x t rac t ion s t age , e i the rb roken ,o rg rooved .
B lank e x t rac t ion i st h e l e a s t l i ke ly e v idence o f manuf ac tu r e
t h e se
t oo l
-
( Mor r i son 1 986 ) . L eng thw i se r educ t ion i s mo re o f t en b y g roov ing . O n s ma l l t oo l s , t h e g roove s m ay b e v i s ib le , b u t t h e e v idence o fc hopp ing h a s o f t en b een e r ad ica ted . F ina l ly , t h e f i n i shed n a ture o f many a n t le r t o o l s m ean s t h an n o m e thod o fb l ank e x t rac t ion c an b e i d en t if i ed ( t he s ame i so f c ou r se t r ue o fh igh ly f i n i shed b one t o o l s ) .
A l l
o th e r
m i sce l laneou s wo rked b one a nd a n t le r a r e f r equen t ly u nmod if ied a tt h e i r p rox ima l e nd s . F o r a w l s a nd s pa tu la s t h i s o f t en m ean s t h e a r t icu la r e nd o f t h e b one l ef t i n tac t .
t o o l m a ter ia l s ( i ron , c he r t ) d o n o t s e em t ob e f avou red f o r p roduc ing p a r t icu la rt o o lt y pe s .
T he f a c t t h a t m any
a w l s a nd s pa tu la s a r e made o n b one s w i th a r t icu la r e nd s i n tac tm ay h ave s o me th ing t od o w i th i t ,s i nce b reak ing i sa n e a s ie r a nd f a s te rw ay o fp roduc ing s uch ab l ank , b u tt h e re i s
G r ind ing , t h en , i s c l ea r ly t h e mos t i mpor tan t me thod f o r s hap ing b one t o o l s . S c rap ing w a s u sed l e s s t h an 1 0% o ft h e 9 2
CHAPTER S EVEN : THE DES IGN SYSTE M t ime . I ti s mo re c ommon o n a n t le r t h an o n b one , b u t e ven t h en ,w a si d en t if ied o no n ly 2 0% o ft o o l s . T he i mpo r tance o f g r ind ing i nt h e r eper to ire may b e o n e r e a son t h a t f i l ing , a t y pe o fg r ind ing ,b ecame s oc o mmon i nh i s tor ic t ime s .
T he t h i rd p a t te rn d escr ibe s t h e p i ck s a nd m i sce l laneou s w o rked b one a nd a n t le r . Ma te r ia l c ho ice f o r t h e se t o o l s i s l e s s c l ea r . P i ck s a r e mo s t o f t en made o f a n t le r , b u t o bv iou s ly , t h e m i sce l laneou s w o rked p i ece s a r e m ade o f e i the r a n t le r o n b one c ho ice h e re may b e e xped ien t , b u t i n tended f unc t ion p robab ly p l ay s ar o le . A ga in , b l ank s f o r t h e se t o o l s a r e mo s to f t en e x t rac ted b y g roov ing . S hap ing i s v a r iab le f o rt h e se t oo l s . P rox ima l e nd s a r e mos t l i ke ly t ob e l e f tu nmod if i ed . D i s ta l e nd s a r e s c raped a lmos t a s o f t en a s t h ey a r eg round . T h i si se spec ia l ly t r ue o fp i ck s a nd i sd ue t o -
F in i sh ing F in i sh ing , mo s t ly i n t h e f o rm o f p o l i she s , i sr a re o n mo s t t o o l s . O n ly k n ives a nd d agge r s , n eed le sa nd s now k n ive s a r e r e gu la r ly p o l i shed , a nd t h e se a r e r a r e ly l e f t u npo l i shed . C on tex t o fu se may b e o ne r e a son f o r t h i s . I n t h e c a se o f k n if e b l ad e s , w h ich r a re ly s how u se , a nd w h ich a s f i gh t ing
t h e h i gh f r equency o fa n t le r t o o l s .
F in i sh ing o fa ny s o r t i s
w eapon s m ay h ave b een mean t a s much f o r d i sp lay a s a ny th ing e l se , i ti sp e rhap s n o t s u rp r i s ing t h a t ag r ea td ea l o f
r a re , b u t w hen p resen t i s mo re l i ke ly t o c on s i s t o fn o tch ing o ro the r mod if ica t ion sf o rh af t ing t h an p o l i sh .
a t ten t ion s hou ld b e s pen to nt h e i ra ppea r an ce . A sm en t ioned a bove , p o l i sh ing o n n eed le s may b e w ea r r a the r t h an manuf ac tu r ing p o l i sh , b u t i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t t h e se s ma l l
F ina l ly , t h e f our th p a t te rn g ove rn s t h e manuf ac tu re o fa w l s a nd s pa tu la s . Ma ter ia lc ho ice i nt h ese c a se s i sp redom inan t ly b one . B lank e x t rac t ion i st h e a t t r ibu te t h a td i s t ingu i she s t h i s
t o o l s w ou ld h ave s ome f i ne -g ra ined f i n i sh i na ny c a se . I ti s n o t c l ea r , t h ough , why t h ey s hou ld r e ce ive mo re a t ten t ion
p a t te rn f r om t h e o the r s . T oo l s i n tended t ob e a w l s , u sed f o r p i e rc ing h ide , o rs pa tu la s u sed f o r av a r ie ty o fp urpo ses , a r e
t h an a w l s , wh ich a r eu sed i nt h e s ame c on tex t . E l sewhe re i n t h e r e g ion , a w l s w e re s ome t ime s v e ry e l abo ra te a nd f i n e ly
mo s t o f t en m ade o nb lank s e x t rac ted b yb reak ing . P rox ima l e nd s a r e o f t en l ef t u nmod if i ed , wh i le d i s ta l e nd s a r e
‚
f i n i shed ( Ne l son 1 899 :P la te XLV I ) . S now k n ive s t o o a r e h i gh ly f i n i shed , f o r n o r e ad i ly a ppa ren t r e a son . I c e p i ck s w e re p robab ly j u s t a s i mpo r tan t , b u t a r e among t h e l e a s t h i gh ly f i n i shed o fa l lt h et o o l se xam ined h e re .
g ene ra l ly g round . mod if ica t ion sa r er a re .
P o l i sh ing
o r
o t he r
s e condary
C onc lu s ions D i scu s s ion
T he d e s ign s y s tem d e scr ibed a bove a ppea r s t o h ave b een c on s tan ta mong t h e Mackenz ie I nu i to ve r ap e r iod o fp e rhap s 5 00 y ea r s . A f te r t h a t t ime , w i th i n ten s if ied c on tac t w i th E uropean s , i t c hanged r ap id ly . T he i n i t ia l c hange s a s
T he o ve ra l l d e s ign s y s tem f o r b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s a mong t h e Mack enz ie I nu i t c a l l s f o r e x t rac t ion o f ab l ank b y g roov ing a nd t h en i t s s hap ing b y g r ind ing . We h ave s e en ,
d ocumen ted i n t h e MacFa r lane c o l lec t ion , p ar t icu la r ly t h e a dd i t ion o f f i l ing t o t h e r eper to i re , d id n o t i nvo lve a g r ea t mod if i ca t ion e i the ro fh ow t oo l s w e re made , o ro f wha tt o o l s w e re made . E ven tua l ly , o fc ou r se , i n c rea sed c on tac tl e dt oa d ra s t ic a nd r a p id p opu la t ion d ec l ine . B yt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry , t h i s d e s ign s y s tem w a s mo s t l i ke ly a l lb u t e x t inc t .
t h ough , t h a t t h e i n i t ia l d ec i s ion , c once rn ing t h e f unc t ion o f t h e t o o l s , a f f ec t s l a te r d ec i s ion s . F o r t h e t o o l g roup s e xam ined h e re , f ou r ma in p a t tern se me rge . T he f i r s tp a t te rn g ove rn st h e manuf ac tu r e o fd r i l l s , o ne o ft h e mo s tc on s i s ten tt oo l s i nt h e s t udy i nt e rm so f ma te r ia lc ho ice , f o rm , a nd manuf ac tu re . T he ma te r ia l i sa lmo s t i n va r iab ly b one ( on ly t wo a n t le r d r i l l s f r om a l l s i t e s e xam ined ) . T he f o rm , w i th af l a t , o f ten b road p rox ima l e nd a nd an ar rowe r , s t ra igh t s h af t w i th a b eve led e nd d i s ta l ly , i s r e ad i ly r e cogn izab le . U se w ea r a s d r i l l s c or re la te s h i gh ly w i th t h i s f o rm n ot o o l s i d en t if i ed a sd r i l l s o nt h eb a s i s o fs hape w e re i d en t if ied o t herw i se o n t h e b a s i s o f m ic ro scop ic w ea r ( a l though s ome c ou ld n o t b e i d en t if i ed ) . B lank s f o r t h ese t o o l sa r e g ene ra l ly e x t rac ted b yg roov ing . B o th t h ep rox ima l a nd d i s ta l e nd s a r e s haped b y g r ind ing , a nd s e conda ry p o l i sh ing i sr a re . -
T he s e cond p a t te rn d e sc r ibe s t h e manuf ac tu re o ft h e h igh ly f i n i shed t o o l s i nt h e s t udy : k n ive s a nd d agge r s , n eed le s a nd s now k n ives . A l l a r e f r equen t ly m ade o n b one , a l though s now k n ive s a r e made e i the r o n a n t le r o r wha lebone , wh ich i so t herw i se r a re i nt h e c o l lec t ion s ( s ize r e qu i rem en t s r equ i re r aw m a te r ia l s l a rge r t h an i ti sp o s s ib l e t o f i nd a mong l a nd mamma l b one ) .
A s w i th d r i l l s , b l ank s a r e e x t rac ted b y
g roov ing , a nd t h e t oo l s a r e s haped b y g r ind ing . T hey a r e d i s t ingu i sh ed b yt h ep o l i sh ing wh ich f o l low s , a nd i nt h e c a se o f n eed le s , b y t h e d r i l l ing o f t h e e ye . ( Dagge r s a r e a l so s om e t ime d eco ra ted ,p a r t icu la r ly w i th ac en t ra lg roove . ) 9 3
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT mo rpho logy a nd s t reng th mu s ta l lb e c on s id e red i nm ak ing a u se i d en t if i ca t ion .
CHAPTER E IGHT : SU M MARY AND CONCLUSIONS
T r ibo logy s how sg r ea tp rom i se f o rf u tu re u se w ea rs t ud ie so f b o th b one a nd s t one . W i th s u i tab le e qu ipm en t , h i gh ly c on t ro l led e xpe r imen t sc an b ec a r r ied o u tt oi s o la te p a r t icu la r t ype s o f w ea r . T h i s t y pe o f w o rk c an n eve r r e p lace r ep l ica t ive e xper imen t s , b u t u sed a l ong w i th t h em i tm ay make u n rave l ing c omp lex p a t te rn s , p a l imp se s t s o f
SU M MARY
manuf ac tur e , u se a nd d epos i t iona l f a c to r s , s imp le r . T he g r ea te r o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e t h eo r e t ica l p r in c ip le s o f w ea r d eve lopmen t , t h e mo re s ucce s sfu l s t ud ie s s uch a st h i s w i l lb e .
Is e t o u t , w i th t h i s d i s se r ta t ion , t o a ch ieve t h ree g oa l s : t o c a r ry o u ta n e xper imen ta l p rog ramme t od eve lop c r i ter ia f o r t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fm ic ro scop ic t r ace s o f manuf ac tu re a nd u se o n b one a nd a n t le r t oo l s ; t o a pp ly t h e se c r i ter ia t o a n a r chaeo log ica l s amp le ; a nd t ou se t h e d a ta t hu s g ene ra ted t o r e con s t ruc tt h e d e s ign s y s tem f o rp reh i s tor ic b one a nd a n t le r
A rchaeo log ica lA na ly s i s T he a pp l ica t ion o f c r i te r ia d eve loped i n t h e e xper im en ta l p rog ramm e t o a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l w a s a l so s ucce s sfu l , a l though s ome p rob lem s w e re e ncoun te red . T he s i ng le mo s t i mpor tan t p rob lem , o ne t h a t i s d i ff i cu l t t o o ve r come , i s p re serva t ion . I n a ny u se w ea r a na ly s i s , t h e i mpor tance o f e xce l len t p r e se rva t ion c anno t b e o ve rempha si zed . T h i s i s p ar t icu la r ly ap rob lem w i th b one a nd a n t le r , s i nce t h ey a r e d amaged much mo re r e ad i ly t h an s t one .
t oo l s m ad e b y t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t . T he se g oa l s h ave a l l b een m e t , w i th v a ry ing d eg ree s o f s u cce ss . T hey w i l l b e d i scu s sed i nt h eo rde rt h ey w ere p re sen ted .
E xper imen ta lA spec t so fU se W ear A na ly s i s T he e xpe r im en ta l p rog ramme w a s v e ry s ucce s sf u l .
A s w a s
e xpec ted f r om p rev iou s wo rk , b o th my o wn ( Le Mo ine 1 985 ) a nd o the r s ( p r ima r i ly S emenov 1 964 ) , b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s u sed t o w o rk d i f f e ren t ma ter ia l s , o r w o rked w i th d i f f e ren t ma ter ia l s , d eve lop d i s t inc t ive m ic ro scop ic p a t te rn s . T h i s makes i tp o ss ib le t oi d en t if yt h et a sk s at o o lh a sb een u sed t o
P re se rva t ion T he q ue s t ion o fp rese rva t ion c an b e b rok en d own i n to t wo d i s t inc tp rob lem s ,p re - a nd p o s t - d epo s i t iona l . D e s t ruc t ion o f m ic ro scop ic t r ace s b ef o re t h e t oo l i sd i sca rded i sc ommon , b u t n o t f a t a l : s ome i n f orma t ion r ema in s . T h i s i s ap rob lem
p erf orm . No te very u se r e su l ted i nd i s t inc t ive w ea rp a t tern s , h oweve r . I n s o me c a se s , p a r t icu la r ly r e la ted u se s s uch a s w ork ing w i th i c e a nd s now , a s w e l l a s o the r s a tu ra ted ma ter ia l s , o r ma ter ia l s w i th s im i la r h a rdnes se s a nd s u rf ace t e x tu re s , s u ch a s wood a nd b one ( when t h e a c t ion i ss imp le
mo s t ly w i th t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f m anuf a c tu r ing t r aces . T he se a r e o f t en d e s t royed b y s ub sequen t u se , h and l ing a nd s t o rage . Wea r t r ace s , t o o , c an b e o b scu red b y h and l ing , s t o rage a nd e ven r e sha rpen ing . Wh en d e s t ruc t ion o f m ic ro scop ic t r ace s i sd ue t ot h e se f a c to r s , h oweve r , i ti ss t i l l p os s ib le t or e cove rs ome i n f o rma t ion .
r ubb ing ) ,w ea rp a t te rn sc an b e d ecep t ive ly s im i la r . T h i s p rob lem c an b e e xp la ined , i fn o t o ve rcome , b y a n
T he s am e c anno t b e s a id o fp o s t -depo s i t iona l d e s t ruc t ion o f m ic ro scop ic t r ace s . S uch d e s t ruc t ion c an b e c au sed b y a ny n umbe r o f t a phonom ic f a c to r s , i n c lud ing e xposu re t o t h e
u nde r s tand ing o f h ow a nd why d i f f e ren t w ea r p a t te rn s d eve lop . T r ibo logy p rov ides a n u nde r s tand ing o f b o th . A l though r a re ly c once rned d i rec t ly w i th b one , t r ibo log ica l s t ud ies h ave s hown t h a t t h ree ma in f a c to r s c on t r ibu te t ot h e d eve lopmen t o f w ea r . T he se a r e r e la t ive h a rdne s s o f t h e
e l em en t s , f r eeze / thaw c yc les , s o l if luc t ion a nd a c id s o i l s . B io log ica l f a c to r s s uch a s r oo t e t ch ing a nd e ven a n ima l g naw ing c an a l so e f f ec t ive ly e r ad ica te w ea rt r ace s . A l lt h e se
w orked a nd t h e wo rk ing ma t er ia l , s u rf ace r oughne s s o fb o th ma ter ia l s , a nd t h el o ad a pp l ied .
f a c to r s p hy s ica l ly d e s t roy t h e b one s u rf ace , r emov ing a l l m ic ro scop ic t r ace s . I f t h e d e s t ruc t ion i s n o t t o o f a r a dvanced , i ti s s ome t ime s p os s ib le t o make a t e n t a t ive i d en t if i ca t ion , b u t d e s t ruc t ion d oe s n o t h ave t o h ave g one v e ry f a rb ef o re e ven t h i s i sn o tp o s s ib le .
S im i la r h a rdnes s a nd s u rf ace r oughne ss a ccoun t s f o r t h e s im i la r w ea r t h a t d eve loped when b one w a s u sed t o r ub ( w i thou t
c u t t ing
o r
g roov ing )
b o th
wood
a nd
b one .
S im i la r i t ies i np a t te rn st h a td eve lop w i th u se o ns now , i c e , o r o the r s a tura ted n on -ab ra s ive ma te r ia l s c an b e a ccoun ted f o r b y t h e p r esence o fw a te r , wh ich a c t s a s al u br ican t i n e ach c a se .
P os t -depo s i t iona l d e s t ruc t ion p roved t o b e a s i gn i f ican t p rob lem i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s . E ven a t G upuk , whe re p r e serva t ion w a s c on s ide red t ob e e xcep t iona l , s ome 5 0% o f t o o l s w e re s ub jec t t o s ome s u rf a ce d e s t ruc t ion . B ecau se t h er e s to ft h e s amp le w a se x t reme ly w e l lp re served ,
A l though s ome w ea r p a t te rn s a r e s im i la r , t h ey n eed n o t b e c o mp le t e ly i nd i s t ingu i shab le . I t i s i mpor tan t i n a ny m ic roscop ic a na ly s i s t o t a ke i n to a ccoun t mac ro scop ic f e a tu res a s w e l l . A l though w ea r o n as now k n if e m ay r e semb l e t h a t o n at o o l u sed t o w o rk w e t h ide u nde r a m ic roscope , t h e s i ze a nd s hape o fe ach t oo lw i l lh e lp p reven t am i s taken i d en t if ica t ion .
S i ze ,
s hape ,
e dge o r p o in t 9 4
a nd b ecau se i ti ss o l a rge , i tw a s s t i l lp o ss ib le t o make s ound i d en t if i ca t ion s . T he s ame c anno tb es a id o fs ome o ft h eo t he r s i te s . T h e s u r f ace s o ft oo l s f r om K i t t igazu i ta nd C ache P o in t i np a r t icu la rw e re v ery p oo r ly p re served . F ew i d en t if i ca t ion s c ou ld b em ade w i th a ny c onf idence a tt h e se s i tes .
CHAPTER E IGHT : S U MMARY AND CONCLUS IONS U se Wea rI d en t if i ca t ion s
I ti s o f t en p o s s ib le t o i d en t if y manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s ,
Whe re p re serva t ion w a s g ood , w ea r c ou ld b e p o s i t ive ly
i n c lud ing s u ch s hap ing t e chn ique s a s s c rap ing a nd g r ind ing , e ven w hen n o m ic ro scop ic d e ta i l i sp re served . When t h ese
i d en t if ied o n many t o o l s . R a te s o f i d en t if ica t ion c ompa re f a vou rab ly w i th t ho se a ch ieved i n l i th ic u se w ea r a na ly s i s .
a r e e xam ined m ic ro scop ica l ly , h oweve r , f i ne d e ta i l s s u ch a s
A s w a s n o ted i nC hap te rF ive , h oweve r , i d en t if i ca t ion s w e re n o t e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted a mong a l l t o o l c l a sse s . P o s i t ive i d en t if i ca t ion s a r e mo s t c ommon f o r t o o l s w i th u se s t h a t a r e h i s to r ica l ly w e l l d ocumen ted a nd a r e r e s t r ic ted t o o ne o r a f ew t a sk s . G auged d r i l l s , a t o o l n o t d ocumen ted e t hnog r aph ica l ly , a r e a n e xcep t ion t ot h i s . T oo l s w i th many p o s s ib le u se s , n one o f wh ich a r e w e l l d ocumen ted , g ene ra l ly w e re mo re d i ff icu l tt oi d en t ify .
s t r ia t ion sa r eo f t en f ound t ob et o oo bscu red b yu se , h and l ing o r p o s t -depo s i t iona l e f f ec t s t o b e i d en t if ied . P a t te rn s o f c r ack s , i d en t if ied i nt h e e xpe r imen ta l p rog ramme a s u sefu l c l ue st om a ter ia lt y pe , a r e o f t en o ve r la in b y c r ack s c au sed b y t h es t r e s so fu se o rb yw ea th er ing . When i tw a s p o s s ib le t oi d en t ify t h e m a ter ia l s u sed t ow o rk b one a nd a n t le r , av a r ie ty o f ma ter ia l s h ad b een u sed . G roov ing a nd s c rap ing t o o l sa t t r ibu ted t oc her ta nd i r on w e re i d en t i f ied a t mo s ts i t e s , a l though t h en umbe r s w e re t oo s ma l l t ot e s ts t a t i s t ica l ly f o r ap r ef e rence o fo ne o rt h e o the r . T ha t
T h i s d i cho tomy empha s ize s t h e p o in t m ade a bove , t h a t a l l p o s s ib le l i ne s o f e v idence mu s t b e t a ken i n to a c coun t f o r s ucce s sf u l i d en t if ica t ion s . T he t o o l t y pe s t h a t w e re d i f f icu l t t oi d en t if y i n c lude s pa tu la s a nd m i sce l laneou s w o rked b one a nd a n t le r p i eces . T he g ene ra l i zed n a tu re o f t h e se t o o l s
i r on w a s f ound t o b e u sed a t a l l s i t e s ( r ega rd le s s o f a ge ) s hou ld c ome a sn o s u rpr i se . D e sp i t e f ew a c tua l f i nd s o fi r on o n mo s t p r eh i s to r ic s i te s i nt h e A rc t ic , i ti sk nown t o h ave b een u sed f r equen t ly b y T hu le p eop le s ( s ee McCar tney a nd Mack 1 973 ; McGhee [ 1 984 ] h a s s ugge s ted t h a t a cce s s t o
a l low s t h em t ob e u sed f o r aw ide v a r iet y o ft a sk s ( w i tne s s t h e n umbe ro fd i f f e ren tu se s f o r s pa tu la s i nt h e e xper imen ta l p rog ramme ) . T hey a r e o f ten l e s s h i gh ly f i n i shed t o o l s , p e rhap s m ade f o r as i ng le u se w i th w ha teve r w a s a th and .
i r on m ay h ave b een a r e a son f o r t h e T hu le m igra t ion ) .
T hey m ay e qua l ly h ave b een i n tended a s mu l t ipu rpo se t o o l s , a ss ome o ft h ew ea ri d en t if i ca t ion s s ugge s t .
M ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s h a s c onf irmed i t s p re sence , a nd h a s a dd i t iona l ly s hown t h a t i tw a s n o t u sed e xc lu s ive ly f o r g roov ing a nd s c rap ing .
Af u r th e rp o in tt h a ts hou ld b en o ted h e r e i st h ei mpo r tance o f
Manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s a ppea r t oh ave b een s im i la r a ta l l
r e cogn i z ing u n iden t if i ab le w ea r p a t tern s . B amf o r th e t a l . ( 1990 ) h ave made a n i mpor tan t p o in t i nt h i s r e ga rd . T hey
t h e
p o in t o u t t h a t o ne r e a son f o r l ow s ucce s s r a te i ns om e b l ind t e s t s ( p ar t icu la r ly N ewcome r e ta l . 1 986 ) m ay b e a na ly s t s ' u nw i l l ingn es s t o a s s ign a n i d en t if i ca t ion o fu n r ecogn ized o r u n id en t if iab le . E ven i nl i th ic u se w ea ra na ly s i s , w i th amuch
e xam ined
h e re ,
w i th
t h e
e xcep t ion
o f t h e
( bow d r i l l s , c h i se l s , b one f i shhook s ) , b u t t h ey w e re o f ten made w i th f i l e s , o n ly w ide ly a cce s s ib le a f t e r c on tac t ( a l though o cca s iona l ly u sed p rev iou s ly ) .
l a rge rb ody o fe xper imen ta l w o rk t od r aw u pon , a l l p o s s ib le w ea r p a t te rn s h ave n o t y e t b een i d en t if i ed . Mo r e i mpor tan t ly , t h e e f f ec t s o f many p re - a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l
D if f e r ence s i ns ome a s pec t s o f manuf ac tu re , p a r t icu la r ly t h e l ow i n c iden ce o f d eb i tage a t w in t e r v i l lage s i t e s when c o mpa red w i th i n land s p r ing / summe r /f a l l c a r ibou h un t ing c amp s ,m ay b e a t t r ibu ted t ot h ep reva lence o fd i f f e ren ts t age s
f a c to r s a r e n o t y e t a c coun ted f o r . I t i su n rea sonab le t o e xpec ta tt h i ss t age t h a ta l lm ic roscop ic t r ace sw i l lb e e qua l ly i d en t if i ab le , e i the ro nb one o ro ns t one . D e sp i t e p rob lem s i n i d en t ify ing m ic ro scop ic t r ace s a ts ome s i te s , t h i s u se w ea r a na ly s i s c an b e d eem ed a s ucce s s .
o f manuf ac tu re c a r r ied o u t a t t h e s i te s , r a the r t h an a ny d i f f e rence i n manuf ac tur ing t e chn ique s . I ta ppea r s t h a t mos t i n i t ia lr e duc t ion o fb o th c a r ibou b one a nd a n t le r w a s c a r r ied o u t a ts i te s , s uch a s K uga luk ( Mor r i son 1 986 ) , whe re t h ese
T rad i t iona l u ses o f s ome t oo l s t y pe s w e re c onf i rm ed . F o r o t he rt o o l s , e spec ia l ly t h eg auged d r i l l s , as i ng le u se ,d r i l l ing , w a s d e term ined t o b e t h e i r m a in f unc t ion .
s i te s
MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion . T he h i s tor ic p e r iod w a s at ime o f r a p id a nd p rof ound c h ange i n b one t e chno logy . T he t o o l s c o l lec ted b y MacFa r lane r ef l ec t t h e v e ry e a r l ie s t s t age s o f t h i s c hange . Many o ft h e s ame t o o l t y pe s w e re b e ing made
O the r u se s
r e sou r ces w e re a bundan t . A l though s ome o f t h i s t y pe o f w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u t a tG upuk a nd p robab ly o the r w in te r
s ugge s ted f o rt h e se t o o l s i nt h ep a s td on o ts e em t oh ave a ny v a l id i ty . U se o f t h e d i f f e ren t t ype s , w i th o n ly m ino r v ar ia t ion s ,w a sc on s i s ten ta ta l ls i tes .
v i l lage s , i d en t if ied o n ly w he re d eb i tage w a s a va i lab le f o r e xam ina t ion , i ts e em s t h a t t o o l s w e re mo s t ly f i n i shed o r r ewo rked t h e re .
Manuf ac tur ing
O the r a spec t s o f m anuf ac tu re w e re s hown t o h ave b een g ene ra l ly s im i la r a ta l l t h e s i te s e xam ined . D if f e rence s w e re
I d en t if ica t ion o f manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s p roved t o b e mo re d i ff i cu l tt h an a n t ic ipa ted . A t o ne l e ve l , d i f f e ren t ia t ing
n o ted , n o t b e tween s i t e s , b u t b e tween d i f f e ren t t o o l t ype s . T he se d i f f e rence s a r e o n ly p ar t ly a t t r ibu tab le t o d i f f e rence s
manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s i ss imp le , r a re ly r equ ir ing t h e a i d o f am ic ro scope . G roov ing , c hopp ing , s c rap ing a nd g r ind ing c an a l l b e r e ad i ly s epa ra ted t h i s w ay . T he d i ff i cu l ty a r i se s when f i ne r l e ve l s o fi d en t if ica t ion a r e d e s i red . I np ar t icu la r ,
i nt o o l mo rpho logy o ru se . S ome t o o l s , s now k n ive s , k n ive s a nd d agge r s a nd n eed le s p a r t icu la r ly , a r e mo s t o f t en s haped b y g r ind ing a nd t h en f m i shed b y p o l i sh ing w i th l e a the r . D r i l l s a r ea l so s haped b yg r ind ing ,b u tn eve rp o l i shed . O the r
a t t emp t s t o i d en t ify t h e ma ter ia l t ype o f t h e t o o l s u sed t o w o rk b one a nd a n t le r m e t w i th l im i ted s u cce s s . T he m a in
t o o l s a r e mo re v a r iab le i nt h e w ay t h ey a r e made . P i ck s a nd m i sce l laneou sw o rked b one a nd a n t le rt o o l s a r e o f ten g round a s w e l l , b u t i n g ene ra l a r e l e s s h eav i ly mod if ied . T he
p rob lem h e re i st h e f a c t t h a t s ub sequen tu se a nd h and l ing o f t o o l s o f ten o bscu res p a r t icu la r ly t h o se d e t a i l s w h ich c an b e u sed t od i f f e ren t ia te t h ed i f f e ren t ma ter ia lt y pe s .
p rox ima le nd s o ft h e se t o o l s m ay b e l ef tu nwo rked , o n ly t h e d i s ta l e nd s b e ing s haped .
Aw l s a nd s pa tu la s m ake u p a
g roup o f t h e i r own , s im i la r t o p i ck s a nd m i sce l laneou s 9 5
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT w o rked b one a nd a n t le r , b u t d i f f e r ing mo s t ly i n b l ank e x t rac t ion t e chn ique . Many o f t h e se t o o l s a r e m ade o n s imp le b roken b one s , w i th i n tac t a r t icu la r s u rf ace s a t t h e
m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s t o u nde r l ie d i f f e rence s i n a ppea ran ce a sf o rt h e o ppo s i te . I ti sa l so n o tc l ea r wha tl e ve l o fi n te rac t ion o rc o mon h er i tage l e ad s t os im i lar i t ie s a tt h i s l e ve l .
p rox ima le nd s .
I n t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta , i tw a s p o ss ib le t o e xam ine t h i s
A l though s ome p rob lem s i d en t ify ing t r ace s o fb o th u se a nd manuf ac tu re w e re e ncoun te red , c r i t er ia d eve loped i n t h e e xpe r imen ta l p rog ramm e w e re s ucce s sfu l ly a pp l ied t o a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s . F o r u se w ea r , p o s t -depo s i t iona l c hanges t o t h e t oo l s u rf ace s w e re t h e g r ea te s t b a r r ie r t o i d en t if ica t ion . F o r manuf ac tur ing , s ub sequen tm anuf ac tu r ing
q ue s t ion b y c ompa r ing d es ign s y s tem s f o rs im i la rt oo l s f r om s i t e s a t t r ibu t ed t oh i s tor ica l ly d i f f e ren ts ubg roups . A s s hown a bove , i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t t h e d e s ign s y s tem f o r b one a nd a n t le rt o o l s a mong t h e Mackenz ie I nu i tw a s t h e s ame f o r a l l s ubg roup s o ve r at ime s pan o fs ome 5 00 y ea r s . T h i s c an b e t a ken t o i mp ly b o th a c ommon o r ig in a nd a s i gn if i can t d eg r ee o fi n t e rac t ion t h rough t ime .
s t ages , u se a nd h and l ing w e re s i gn if ican t b a r r ie r s t o i d en t if i ca t ion . N eve r the le s s , many i d en t if i ca t ion s w e re made , e nough s o t h a t s ome a spec t s o f t h e d e s ign s y s tem c ou ld b er e con s t ruc ted .
Q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e o r ig in s o ft h e Mackenz ie I nu i t r ema in u n r e so lved . W i thou t ag r ea td ea lo ff u r th e rw o rk w i th o t he r , e a r l ie r c o l lec t ion s , t h i s t ype o f s t udy c anno t l e g i t ima te ly a dd r e s s t h e se q ue s t ion s . Mo s t a r tef ac t t ype s ( f i shhook s ,
T he De s ign S y s tem
s c apu la s c rape r s , a nd g auged d r i l l s ) s how r e la t ion s t o t h e w e s t , w i th A la skan g roup s , r a the r t h an t o t h e e a s t w i th g roup s o f t h e C en t ra l A rc t ic . F u ture s t ud ie s e xam in ing
T he ma in q ue s t ion t ob e a dd re s sed b y t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e d e s ign s y s tem w a s whe the r t h e v ar iou s Mackenz ie I nu i t s i tes s t ud ied h e re p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h e s ame d e s ign s y s tem , o r whe the r t h e re w e re d i f f e r ence s i n t h e w ay s t h e v a r iou s
manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s among A la skan g roups wou ld h e lp c l a r if yt h i s ma t t e r . I n te ra c t ion s b e tween Mackenz ie
g roups made o r u sed b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s . A l though p rob lem s w i th p rese rva t ion m ean t t h a t s ome o ft h e s amp le s e xam ined w e re e x t rem e ly s ma l l a nd p e rhap s n o t r ep re sen ta t ive , t h e a n swe rs e em st ob e t h a tt h ey d id a l lm ake
I nu i t g roup s
a r e
w e l l
d ocumen ted f r om o t he r s ou rce s . T ype s o fi n te rac t ion r ange f r om t r ad ing a nd c ommuna l h un t ing t o b lood f eud s . W i th t h i s l e ve l o fi n te rac t ion , i ti sn o t s u rpr i s ing t h a t i d ea s a bou t m anuf ac tur ing w ou ld b e c ommon ly h e ld . O ppor tun i t ie s f o r e xchang ing i d ea s a bou t t oo l manuf ac tu re , a nd f o r l e ar n ing
a nd u se t h e se t o o l si nt h es ame w ay . T h i sc onc lu s ion i sb a sed o nu nde r ly ing a s sump t ion sb a sed o n c ogn i t ive t h eor ie s . T he se s ugge s tt h a t mo to rh ab i t sa nd s k i l l s u sed t o manuf ac tu re a r tef ac t s ( i nc lud ing f l aked s t one t o o l s [ Young a nd B onn ich sen 1 984 ] a nd p o t te ry [ A rno ld 1 989 ] ) o nce l e arned b ecome i n g ra ined , e ven s ubcon sc iou s , a nd a r e r e s i s tan tt oc hange . S uch t e chn ique s a r e l e a rned , o f ten a ta n e a r ly a ge , i na pp ren t ice sh ip type s i tua t ion s . A l though t h e re w i l l b e s om e r andom v a r ia t ion , many o f t h e d ec i s ion s r ou t ine ly made d u r ing m anuf ac tu re o f a n a r tef ac t w i l l b e p a s sed f r om a r t i san t o a pp ren t ice . T he se r ou t ine ly m ade d ec i s ion s , s ome c on sc iou s , s ome u ncon sc iou s , a r e al a rge a nd f undamen ta lp ar to fw ha t make a r tef ac t s f r om o ne g roup s im i la r t o o ne a no the r a nd d i f f e ren t f r om t ho se o f o t he r g roups .
f r om m embe r s o f o t he r s ubg roup s , w ou ld b e c ommon . W i thou t k now ing mo re a bou t h ow MacFa r lane made h i s c o l lec t ion , i ti sd i ff i cu l tt os ay a nyt h ing d ef in i te , b u tt h er a p id a dop t ion o f t h e f i l e a s a manuf ac tu r ing t o o l i n t h e e a r ly h i s tor ic p er iod m ay b e i nd ica t ive o f e x t en s ive i n te rac t ion l e ad ing t ot h er a p id s p read o f an ew t e chn ique .
CONCLUS IONS
I n a c comp l i sh ing t h e a im s s e t o u t a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h i s d i s se r ta t ion , t h i s s t udy h a s a n swe red an umber o fq ue s t ion s a nd r a i sed n ew o ne s . I nt h e f i r s tp l ace , t h es t udy o fu se w ea r o n b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s h a s b een s hown t ob e a n i mpor tan t
Y oung a nd B onn ich sen ( 1984 ) h ave a r gued t h a t mo to r s k i l l s a nd d ec i s ion s d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e w ay t o o l s a r e
a dd i t ion t o a r chaeo log ica l m e thod s . T he re a r e c e r ta in l im i ta t ion s t o t h i s t e chn ique , c h ief ly t h e p rob lem o f p r e ser va t ion , b u tm any p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld o f f e r c ond i t ion s o f
made , r a the r t h an d ec i s ion s c once rn ing h ow t h ey l o ok , a r e mo re l i ke ly t ob e s ubcon sc iou s a nd i n g ra ined a nd s o a r e l e s s o pen t o c hange . Wh i le i ti se a sy t om im ic t h e w ay t o o l s o r
e xce l len t a pp l ied . r e a son s , s a tu ra ted
o t her a r tef ac t s f r om d i f f e ren t g roup s l o ok , m im ick ing t h e w ay t h ey a r e made i s mo re d i ff i cu l t . T h i sb e ing s o , a t t r ibu te s r e la ted t o m anuf ac ture m ay b e a mo re r e l iab le ma rke r o f e t hn ic i ty t h an t h o se a t t r ibu te s mo r e l i ke ly t ob e man ipu la ted f o rv ar iou sr e a son s .
b one p r e serva t ion whe re t h i s t e chn ique c an b e Ic ho se t o w ork i n t h e A rc t ic f o r av a r ie ty o f b u t w e l l p r e served b one f r om d ry s i tes , s om e s i te s , a nd s i t e s b ur ied i na l ka l ine s o i l s a r e a l l g ood
c and ida te sf o ru se w ea ra na ly s i s . T he a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s h a s a n swe red q ues t ion s o n a n umbe ro fd i f f e ren tl e ve l s . S ome o ft h e q ues t ion s a dd re s sed
T he e xam ina t ion o f C lov i s p o in t s f r om t wo r eg ion s o f t h e Un i ted S t a te s b y Young a nd B onn ich sen ( 1984 ) c onf i rm s t h a t d i f f e rence s i n manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique c an u nde r l ie s t rong mo rpho log ica l s im i la r i t ie s . T he q ues t ion r ema in s , t h ough : h ow w ide sp read a r e s u ch s im i la r i t ies o rd i f f e r ence s? Wha t l e ve l d o t h ey o pe ra te o n , a nd i si ta lway s t h e s ame? T heo re t ica l ly i t i s j u s t a s p o s s ib le f o r s im i la r i t ie s i n
h e r eh ad t od os imp ly w i th d i f f e ren ti d ea sa bou th ow s pec if i c t o o l s w e re u sed . G auged d r i l l s a nd s c apu la s c rape r s w e re p r ima r i ly o f i n te re s t i n t h i s r ega rd . G auged d r i l l s w e re s hown t o b e j u s t t h a t , d r i l l s , r a the r t h an a ny o f t h e o t he r p o s s ib i l i t ie s s ugge s ted o ve r t h e y ea r s . S capu la s c rape r s p roved t ob e mo re a mb iguou s . I d en t if i ed e t hnograph ica l ly 9 6
CHAPTER E IGHT : S UM MARY AND CONCLUS IONS a s f i sh s c a le r s , t h ey s howed s l igh t e v id ence o fh av ing b een u sed f o r t h i s t a sk , a s w e l l a s f o r an umbe r o f o t he r , o f t en u n iden t if i ed ,t a sk s . U se a nd m anuf ac tu re a na ly s i s a l so s howed t h a ta l l s ubg roup s o f t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t p a r t ic ipa t ed i n t h e s am e d e s ign s y s tem , o ve r ap er iod o fa bou t 5 00 y ea r s . T he i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h i s , i n t e rm s o f o r ig in s a nd g r oup i n t e rac t ion , w e r e d i scu s sed a bove . A s w i th a ny s t udy o f t h i s t ype , a lmo s t a s m any n ew q ues t ion s a r e r a i sed a s a n swe red . T he e xpe r im en ta l p rog ram me c a r r ied o u th e re w a sn ece s sa r i ly o fl im i ted s cope , a nd t h e re w i l l a lway s b e an eed f o r f u r the r e xper im en ta t ion . T hese s hou ld i n c lude n o t o n ly d i f f e r en t m a ter ia l s , b u t l o ng t e rm e xpe r imen t s o n h and l ing , s t o rage , a nd t h e e f f ec t s o f d epo s i t ion . H igh ly c on t ro l led e xper imen t s s uch a s t h ose c a r r ied o u tw i th m e ta l sa nd o t he rm a ter ia l sb yt r ibo log i s t sa r e a l so a n i mpor tan t a r ea o f f u tu re r e sea rch . An i mp roved k now ledge o ft h e mechan ic s o fw ea r f o rma t ion w i l l g r ea t ly e nhance o u r u nde r s t and ing o f b o th w ea r a nd p os t d epo s i t iona le f f ec t s . A pp l ica t ion o ft h eor ies d er ived f r om c ogn i t ive a n th ropo logy a nd i d ea s a bou t h ow manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s a r e l e a rned a nd r e t a ined , a s w e l l a s a n i s och re s t ic a pp roach t o s t y le , r a i sed s om e q ue s t ion s t o o a nd s ugge s ted n ew a r ea s o f r e sea rch . A l though It h ink t h e re c an b e l i t t le d oub t t h a t m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s c an b e a u sef u l m a rke r o f e t hn ic i ty , t h e re i s s t i l l s ome q ue s t ion a s t o wha t l e ve l o f e t hn ic i ty t h ey r e f e r t o a nd whe the r t h i s w i l l a lway s b e t h e s ame l e ve l . I ti s q u i te p os s ib le t h a t t h i s w i l l v a ry f r om c u l tu re t o c u l ture a nd b e tween d i f f e ren t manuf a c tu r ing s y s tem s . T h i s s t udy s how s t h a tu n i t s made u p o f an umbe r o fd i s t inc t s ubg roup s s u ch a s t h e Mackenz ie I nu i t m ay s ha re t h e s ame d es ign s y s tem . Y oung a nd B onn ich sen ( 1 984 ) h ave s hown t h a t t h e re c an b e s ome d i f f e ren ce s a t t h e l e ve l o f manuf ac t ur ing , d e sp i te s ha red i d ea s a bou t t oo l mo rpho logy , b u t t h e t wo g roup s t h ey s t ud ied , s e pa ra t ed b y t h ou sand s o f m i le s ,c ou ld h a rd ly h ave h ad much c on t ac ta l though t h ey h ad s ome t h ings i n c ommon . F u tu r e s t ud ie s w i th s amp le s e xpanded i nb o th t ime a nd s pace a r e r e qu ired t o d e t e rm ine t h e l im i t so fs uch s ha red d e s ign s y s tem s . When s u ch s t ud ie s a r e a va i lab le , t h i s m e thod s how s g r ea t p rom i se f o r a dd re s s ing q ue s t ion s o fe t hn ic i ty , g roup i n te rac t ion ,a nd e ven l e a rn ing s i tua t ion si np r eh i s to ry . I n s um , t h i s d i s ser ta t ion h a s s hown t h a t t h e p o ten t ia l f o r i n c rea s ing o u r k now ledge a bou t t h e p a s t t h rough d e t a i led a na ly s i s , n o to n ly o fb one t oo l s , b u t o fo t he rt e chno log ie s a s w e l l , i sg r ea t . T he s t udy o f manuf a c tu r ing t e chn iques a nd u se c an l e ad t o much mo re t h an a n u nde r s t and ing o f p reh i s tor ic t e chno logy . I n c omb ina t ion w i th t h eor ie s o f c ogn i t ion a nd l e a rn ing , o f s t y le a nd o f d e s ign , p r eh i s to r ic t e chno logy c an t e l lu s much a bou to t h e ra spec t so ft h ep a s t .
9 7
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT B eh ren smey er , A nna K . 1 978 T aphonom ic a nd E co log ic I n f orma t ion f r om B one Wea ther ing . P a leob io logy 4 : 150 -162 .
REFERENCES C ITED
B inf o rd , L ou i s R . 1 981 B one s : A nc ien t Men a nd Mod ern My ths .A cadem ic P re ss ,N ew Y o rk . Adam s ,J e nny 1 988 U se - Wea r Ana ly se s o n Mano sa nd H ide p roce s s ing S tone s . J ourna l o f F ie ld A r chaeo logy 1 5 : 3 07 -3 1 5 .
B lay lock , S and ra K ay 1 980 A T hu le B one a nd An t le r I ndu s t ry f r om S ome r se t I s l and , C en t ra l C anad ian A r c t ic , N .W .T . Unpub l i shed Ma s te r ' s T he s i s , D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f A rkan sa s ,F aye t tev i l le .
A genb road , L a r ry 1 984 Mammo th T ramp l ing a nd O the r B one Mod i fy ing P roce s se s a t t h e H o t S p r ing s Mammo th S i te , S ou th D ako ta . I n A b s t rac t s o ft h e i s tI n terna t iona lB one Modi f i ca t ion C onf erence , p p . 1 2 . C a r son C i ty ,N evada .
B onn ich sen , R obson 1 979 P l e i s tocen e B one T echno logy i n t h e B e r ing ian R ef ug ium . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man Mercur y S er ie s A r chaeo log ica l S urvey o f C anada P aper 8 9 .N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man , O t tawa .
Ander son , P a tr ic ia C . 1 980 A T e s t imony o f P reh i s tor ic T a sk s : D iagno s t ic R es idue s o n S tone T oo l Wo rk ing E dge s . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 ( 2 ) : 1 81-193 .
B onr n ch sen , R obson a nd D av id Y oung 1 980 E a r ly T echno log ica l R eper to i re s : B one t o S t one . C anad ian J ourna lo fAn thropo logy 1 :1 23 -128 .
A rno ld , C ha r le s D . 1 990 A rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s a t S aunak tuk . Manu scr ip t o n f i le , P r ince o f Wa le s N o r the rn H e r i tage C en t re , Y e l lowkn if e .
B o rde s , F ranco i s a nd M . B ourgon 1 951 L e C omp lexe Mou s te r ien : Mou s ter ien s , L eva l lo is ien , e tT ayac ien . L 'An thropo log ie 5 5 : 1 23 .
A rno ld , C ha r le s D . 1 988 V an i sh ing V i l lage s o f t h e P a s t : R e scue A r chaeo logy i n t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta . T he N or thern R ev iew 1( 1 ) : 4 0 -58 .
B ouchud , J e an 1 977 L e s A igu i l le s o n O s : é t ude C ompa rée d e s T race s L a i s se s p a r l aF abr ica t ion e tl ' U sage s u r l e Ma tér ia l P réh i s to r ique e t l e s O b je t s E xpe r imen taux . I n Me thodo log ie A pp l iqué a l ' I ndus t r ie d e l ' O s P réh i s tor ique , e d i ted b y H en r ie t te C amp s -Fab re r , C o l loques I n te rna t iona l d u C en t re N a t iona l d e l aR eche r ch e S c ien t i f ique 5 68 . CNRS ,P ar i s .
A rno ld , C ha r les D . 1 986 P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n t h e 1 986 a c t iv i t ie s o ft h e Mackenz ie D e l ta H er i tage P ro jec t : E xcava t ion s a t G upuk ( N iT s - 1 ) . Manu scr ip t o n f i l e , P r ince o f Wa le s No r the rn H er i t age C en t re , Y e l lowkn if e . A rno ld , D ean 1 989 P a t te rn s o f L ea rn ing , R e s idence a nd D e scen t among P o t te r s i nT icu l , Yuca t an , Mex ico . I n A pproache s t o C u l tura l I den t i ty , e d i ted b y S t ephen S hennan , pp. 1 74 -184 . Unw in Hyman , L ondon .
B ouchud , J e an 1 974 L 'Or ig ine Ana tom ique d e s Ma tér iaux O sseux U t i l i sé s d an s l e s I ndu s t r ie s P réh i s tor ique . I n P rem ier C o l loque I n terna t iona l s ur l ' I ndu s t r ie d e l ' O sd ans l aP réh i s to ire , e d i ted b yH enr ie t t eC amps F ab re r , p p . 2 1-26 . E d i t ion s d e l ' Un ive r s i té d e P rovence ,A ix -en -P rovence .
A rno ld , D ean 1 985 C eram ic T heo ry a nd C u l tura l P roce s s . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss , C ambr idge .
B oyde , A lan 1 972 B io log ica l S pec imen P repa ra t ion f o r t h e S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scope An O ve rv iew . S cann ing E lec tron M icro scopy / I972 ( Par t 2 ) :257 2 64 .
B a l ikc i ,A sen 1 970 T he N e t s i l ik E sk imo . T he N a tu ra lH i s to ry P r e s s , G a rden C i ty ,N ew Y o rk .
-
B a lkw i l l , D a r lene 1 987 An A rc t ic C o rnucop ia : F auna l D ive r s i ty a tt h e S aunak tuk S i te . P ape rp r e sen ted a t t h e 2 0 th Annua l Mee t ing o f t h e C anad ian A rchaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion , C a lga ry .
B oyde ,A lan 1 971 S cann ing E lec t ron M ic roscope S t ud ie s o f B one . i nT he B iochem i s tr ya nd P hy s io logy o fB one , e d i ted b y G . H . B ou rne , p p . 2 59 -310 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk .
B a ,mf o r th , D oug la s B . , G eo rge R . B urn s a nd C ra ig Woodman 1 990 Amb iguou s U se T race s a nd B l ind T e s tR esu l t s : N ew D a ta .J ourna lo fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 7 : 4 13 -430 .
B ra in , C ha r le s K . 1 981 T he H un t e r s o r t h e H un ted? An I n t roduc t ion t o A f r ican C ave T aphonomy . Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s , C h icago .
B ar row , B . T . 1 962 An E xper im en t i n Wo rk ing N eph r i te . J ourna lo ft h eP o lyne s ian S oc ie ty 7 1 : 2 54 .
B unn , H en ry T . 1 981 A rchaeo log ica l E v idence f o r Mea t e a t ing b y P l iocene H om in id s f r om K oob i F o ra a nd O lduva iG o rge .N a ture 2 91 : 5 74 -576 .
B a rwe l l , F .T . 1979 T heor ie s o f Wea r a nd T he i r S i gn if icance f o r E ng inee r ing P rac t ice . I n W ear , e d i ted b y D oug la s S co t t , p p . 2 -83 . T rea t i se o n Ma ter ia l s S c ience a nd T echno logy 1 3 . A cadem ic P re s s , N ew Y o rk .
C ahen , D an ie l , L aw rence K ee ley a nd F ranc is V an N o ten 1 979 S t one T oo l s , T oo l K i t s a nd H uman B ehav io r i nP reh i s to ry . C ur ren tA n thropo logy 2 0 : 6 6 1-683 . C ampana , D oug la s V . 1 987 T he Manuf ac t ure o fB one T oo l s
B ehr en smeye r , Anna K . , K a th leen D . G ordon a nd G lenn T . Y anag i 1 986 T ramp l ing a s aC au se o fB one S ur f ace D amage a nd P seudo -cu tma rk s . N a ture 3 19 : 7 68 7 71 .
i n t h e Z ag ros a nd t h e L evan t . MASCA J our na l 4 : 10 -123 . C ampana , D oug la s 1 980 A n A na ly s i s o f t h e U se -wear P a t terns o n N a tu f ian a nd P ro toneo l i th ic b one I mp lemen t s . P h .D . d i s se r ta t ion , C o lumb ia 9 8
REFERENCES C ITED U n iver s i ty , N ew Y o rk , Un ive r s i ty M ic rof i lm s , Ann A rbo r
D ick in son , J . 1 985 S ome P e r spec t ive s o n Mo to r L ea rn ing T heo ry . I n D if f er ing P er spec t ive s i n Mo tor L earn ing , Memory , a nd C on tro l , e d i ted b y D . G oodman , R . W i lbe rg a nd I .F rank s , p p . 2 09 -237 . E l s ive r , Am s te rdam .
C amps -Fab re r , H en r ie t te a nd D an ie l le S to rdeu r 1 979 O r ien ta t ion e tD éfm i t ion d e s D if f é ren te s P a r t ie s d e 1 ' Ob jec t . I nI ndus t r ie d e l ' O sN eo l i th ique e td e l ' Age d e s Me taux , e d i ted b y H en r ie t te C amp s -Fab re r , p p 9 11 . E d i t ion s d u C en t re N a t iona l d e R eche rche S c ien t if ique ,P a r i s .
D ob son , P .S . a nd H . W i lm an 1 963 F r ic t ion a nd Wea r , a nd T he i r I n te r re la t ion sh ip , i n A b ra s ion o f aS ing le C ry s ta l o fB r i t t le N a tu re . B r i t i sh J ourna lo fA pp l ied P hy s ic s 1 4 : 1 32 -136 .
C h ippenda le , C hr i s tophe r 1 986 A rchaeo logy , D e s ign T heo ry , a nd t h e R econ s t ruc t ion o f P reh i s tor ic D e s ign S y s tem s . E nv ironmen t a nd P lann ing B : P lann ing a nd D e s ign 1 986 : 4 45 -485 .
D oughe r ty , J ane t 1 985 I n t roduc t ion . I n D irec t ions i n C ogn i t ive A n thropo logy , e d i ted b yJ ane tD ougher ty , p p . 3 14 . Un ive r s i t yo fI l ino i sP re s s ,U rbana .
C hoyke , A l ice M . 1 984 F auna l I n f orma t ion O f f e red b y Worked B one A s semb lage s . A c ta A rchaeo log ica A cadem iae S c ien t iarum Hungar icae 2 6 : 5 3 -58 .
D ow son ,D . 1 979 H i s tor yo fT r ibo logy . L ongman ,L ondon . E r ich sen -B rown , C ha r lo t te 1 979 U se o fP lan t sf or t h e P as t 5 00 Y ear s .B reezy C reek P re s s ,A uro ra ,O n ta r io .
C hoyke , A l ice M . 1 983 A n A na ly s i s o fB one , A n t ler , a nd T oo th T oo l s f rom B ronze A ge Hungary . P h .D . d i s ser ta t ion , D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy , S t a t e U n iver s i ty o fN ew Y o rk , B inghamp ton , Un ive r s i ty M ic rof i lm s , A nn A rbo r .
F io r i l lo ,
F i tzhugh , W i l l iam , a nd S u san K ap lan , 1 982 I nua ; S p ir i t W or ld o f t h e B er ing S ea E sk imo . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton D .C .
C oe s , L .J r1 971 A bras ive s . S pr inge rVe r lag ,N ew Y o rk . C o lby , B en jam in N . 1 975 C u l tu re G ramma r s . S c ience 1 87 ( 4 180 ) : 9 13 -919 .
F o rd , J ame s A . 1 959 E sk imo P reh i s to ry i n t h e V ic in i ty o f P o in t B a r row , A la ska . A n thropo log ica l P aper s o f t h e Ame r ican Museum o fN a tura l H i s tory 4 7 (1) . Amer ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry ,N ew Y o rk .
C o le -W i l l , R ebbeca 1 984 C oppe r I nu i t An t le r T echno logy , B ank s I s land , N .W .T . Unpub l i shed Ma s te r 's t h e s i s , D epar tmen to f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fA lbe r ta , E dmon ton
G e i s t , O t to a nd F roe l ich G . R a iney 1 936 A rchaeo log ica l E xcava t ion a tK uku l ik , S t . L aw rence I s land ,A la ska : P re l im ina ry R epor t . U n iver s i t y o f A la ska M i sce l laneou s P ub l ica t ion 2 . U .S . G ove rnmen t P r in t ing O ff i ce , Wa sh ing ton D .C .
C o le s ,J ohn 1 973 A rchaeo logy b yE xper imen t . Hu t ch in son & C o . , L ondon . d ' E r r ico ,
F . ,
G .
G iacobm i a nd P . -F .
P euch
1 984
An thony R . 1 984 An I n t roduc t ion t o t h e I d en t if i ca t ion o fT ramp le Ma rk s . I nA b s t rac t s o ft h e i s tI n ter na t iona lB one Mod if i ca t ion C onf erence , p . 1 . C a r son C i ty ,N evada .
L e s
R ep l ique s e n V ern i s d e s S urf ace s O s seu se s F aconée s : Et ude s E xper imen ta le s . B u l le t in d e l a S oc ie te P réh i s tor ique F rança i se 8 1(6 ) : 1 69 -170 .
G idd ing s , J ame s . L . 1 964 T he A rchaeo logy o f C ape D enb igh . B rown U n ive r s i ty P re s s , P rov idence , R hode I s land .
D av id ,N icho la s a nd H i lke H enn ig 1 972 T he E thnog raphy o f P o t te ry : aF u lan i C a se S een i n A rchaeo log ica l P e r spec t ive . A dd i son -W e s ley Modu le s i n A n thropo logy 2 1 .
G idd ing s , J am es L . 1 961 K obuk R ive r P eop le . U n iver s i t y o f A laska , S t ud ie so fN or thern P eop le s 1 .U n iver s i ty o f A la ska , C o l lege ,A la ska .
D av i s , Wh i tney 1 988 C ommen t o n Why P o t s a r e D eco ra ted , b yN icho la s D av id , J udy S t erne ra nd K odzo G avua . C ur ren tA n thropo logy 2 9 :380 -381 .
G idd ing s , J ame s L . 1 956 F o re s t E sk imo s : a n E thnog raph ic S ke tch o f t h e K obuk R ive r P eop le i n t h e 1 880 's . U n iver s i t y o f P ennsy lvan ia , Mu seum B u l le t in 2 0 (2 ) :1-55 . P h i lade lph ia .
D ee tz , J ame s 1 968 T he I nf e rence o fR e s idence a nd D escen t R u le s f r om A rchaeo log ica l D a ta . I n N ew P er spec t ive s i n A rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y L ew i s R . B info rd a nd S a l ly R . B inf o rd , p p . 4 1-49 . A ld ine , C h icago .
G idd ing s , J ame s L . 1 952 T he A rc t ic Wood land C u l tu re o f t h e Kobuk R ive r . U n iver s i ty o f P ennsy lvan ia , U n ive r s i t y Mu seum Monog raph 8 ,P h i lade lph ia . G o sse l in , O l iv ie rP .1 992 T echno logy a nd S ty leL P o t te r s a nd P o t te ry a mong B af ia o fC am e roon . Man 2 7 (3 ) :559 5 86 .
D ee tz , J ame s 1 965 T he Dynam ic s o f S ty l i s t ic C hange i n An ka ra C e ram ic s . U n iver s i ty o fI l l ino i s S er ie s i n A n thropo logy 4 . Un ive r s i ty o f I l ino i s P re s s , U rbana .
H a l l ,
d e L aguna ,F reder ica 1 947 T he P reh i s to ry o fN or thern No r th Ame r ica a s S een f r om t h e Y ukon . Memo ir s o ft h e S oc ie ty f or Amer ican A rchaeo logy n o . 3 . Mena sha .
E dw in S . , J r . 1 971 K ang iguk suk : a C u l tu ra l R econ s t ruc t ion o f aS ix teen th C en tury E sk imo S i te i n No r thern A la ska . A rc t ic A n thropo logy 8 ( 1 ) : 1 1 0 1 .
H a i l ing , J .( ed i to r ) 1 975 P r inc ip le s o fT r ibo logy . Macm i l lan P re s s ,L ondon .
D iamond , G eo rgel979 T he N a tu re o f S o -ca l led P o l i shed S ur f aces o n S tone A r t if ac t s . I n L i th ic U se W ear A na ly s i s , e d i ted b y B r ian H ayden , p p . 1 59 -166 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk .
H a s san , F ek r i A . 1 988 P ro legomena t o aG ramma t ica l T heory o fL i th ic A r t if ac t s . W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 9 : 2 81-296 . 9 9
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT H ayden , B r ian ( ed i to r ) 1 979 L i th ic U se W ear A na ly s i s , A cadem ic P res s ,N ew Y o rk . H ayne s , G a ry 1 983 F requenc ie s o f S p i ra l a nd G r een B one F rac tu re s o n Ungu la te L imb B ones i n Modem S u rf ace A s semb lage s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 8 : 1 02 14 . H i l l , J ames N . 1 977 I nd iv idua l V a r iab i l i ty i nC e ram ic s a nd t h e S tudy o fP reh i s tor ic S oc ia l O rgan iza t ion . I n T he I nd iv idua l i n P reh i s tor y , e d i ted b y J ame s N . H i l l a nd J . G unn , pp. 5 5 -108 . A cadem ic P re s s , N ew Yo rk . H i l l , J ames N . 1 968 B roken K P ueb lo : P a t tern s o fF orm a nd F unc t ion . I n N ew P er spec t ive s i n A rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y L ew is R . B inf o rd a nd S a l ly R . B inf o rd , p p . 1 03 -143 .A ld ine , C h icago .
H odde r , I an 1 982 S ymbo l s i nA c t ion . C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P ress , C ambr idge .
R ona ld 1 984 S ig ht I nuv ia lu i t Uqau s i i ta K ipuk t iru ta i t /Ba s ic S ig ht I nuv ia lu i t E sk imo D ic t iona ry . C en t re f o rO r ig ina lP eop le s E n t i t lemen t , I nuv ik .
MacG rego r , A r thu r 1 975 P rob lem s i n t h e I n terp re ta t ion o f M ic ro scop ic Wea r P a t te rn s : t h e E v idence f r om B one S ka t es . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience 2 : 3 85 -390 .
J enne s s , D iamond 1 964 E sk imo A dm in i s t ra t ion I : C anada . A INA T echn ica lP aper 1 4 . A r c t ic I n s t i tu te o f No r th Amer ica , Mon t rea l .
MacKay , J .R o s s 1 963 T he Mackenz ie D e l ta A rea , N .W .T . D epa r tmen t o f M ines a nd T echn ica l S urvey s , G eog raph ica lB ranch , Memo i r No . 8 ,O t tawa .
I ndu s t r ia l
K ee ley , L aw rence H . 1 980 E xper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o f S tone T oo l U se . Un ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re s s , C h icago . K ee ley , L aw rence H . 1 974 T echn ique a nd Me thodo logy i n M ic rowea rS tud ie s . W or ld A rchaeo logy 5 :3 23 -336 .
Man su r -F ranchomme , Mar ia E s te l la 1 986 M ic roscop ie d u Ma te r ie l L i th ique P reh i s tor ique . T race s d 'U t i u i sa t ion , A l te ra t ion s N a tu re l le s , A cc iden te l le s e tT echno log ique s , E xemp le s d eP a tagon ie . C ah ier s d u Q ua terna ire 9 .E d i t ion sd u CNRS ,P ar i s . Ma th ia ssen , T he rke l 1 930 A rchaeo log ica l C o l lec t ion s f r om t h e We s tern E sk imo s . R epor t o f t h e Fi f t h T hu le E xped i t ion 1 921 -1924 ,V o l . X . Gy ldenda l ske , C openhagen .
K le inmann , Ma t thew 1 983 T he A cqu i s i t ion o f Mo tor S k i l l . P r ince ton B ook C ompany ,P r ince ton ,N ew J e r sey . Knu t s son , K . a nd R . H ope 1 984 T he A pp l ica t ion o fA ce ta te P ee l si nL i th ic U sewea r .A r chaeome t r y2 6 : 4 9 -61 .
Ma th ia s sen , T he rke l 1 927 A rchaeo logy o f t h e C en t ra l E sk imo s . R epor t o f t h e F if t h T hu le E xped i t ion 1 921-1924 V o l . I V . Gy ldenda l ske ,C openhagen .
L eav i t t , J ef f 1 979 A R ev iew o fE xpe r imen ta l T raceo log ica l R e sea rch i nt h e USSR . I nL i th ic U se -W ear A na ly s i s , e d i ted b y B r ian H ayden , p p . 2 7 -38 . A cadem ic P re ss ,N ew Yo rk . L eav i t t ,
L eMo ine , G en ev ieve 1 985 E xper im en ta lU se Wea r Ana ly s i s o f B one T oo l s . Unpub l i shed Ma s te r 's T he s i s , D epa r t m en t o fA rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry , C a lga ry.
MacG r ego r , A r thu r 1 985 B one , A n t ler , I vor y , a nd Horn . C room H e lm ,L ondon .
I 1 k jae r , J orgen 1 979 A N ew Me thod f o r O b se rva t ion a nd R eco rd ing o f U se - w ea r . I n L i th ic U se -W ear A na ly s i s , e d i ted b y B r ian H ayden , p p . 3 45 -349 . A cadem ic P re ss ,N ew Y o rk .
1 983
L eMo ine , G enev ieve 1 989 U se Wea r Ana ly s i s o f B one T oo l s .A rchaeozoo log ia I I (1 ,2 ) ;211-224 .
L owe ,
H o l tved , E r ik 1 944 A rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s i n t h e T hu le D i s t r ic t , I I T . Medde le l ser o m G røn land 1 41 ( 1 -2 ) : C openhagen .
M . H . a nd D . S co t t ( e d i to r s ) T r ibo logy ,E l sev ie r , Am s t e rdam .
L eMo ine , G enev ieve 1 994 U se Wea r o n B one a nd An t le r T oo l s f r om t h e Mackenz ie D e l ta , Nor thwe s t T er r i to r ie s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 9 :316 -334 .
L ongac re , W i l l iam A . 1 968 S ome A spec t s o f P reh i s tor ic s o c ie ty i n E a s t - C en t ra l A r izona . I n N ew P er spec t ive s i n A rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y L ew i s R . B inf o rd a nd S a l ly R . B inf o rd , p p . 8 9 -102 . A ld ine , C h icago .
H odde r , I an 1 989 T h i s i sN o t a n A r t ic le A bou t Ma ter ia l C u l tu re a s T ex t . J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 8 :2 50 -269 .
J one s ,
L eguay , L . 1 877 L e s P roced s Emp loyee s p ou r l aG ravu re e t l a S cu lp tu re d e s O s a vec l e S i lex . B u l le t in d e l a S oc ie te d 'An th ropo log ie d e P a r i s 2 eme S er ie s 1 2 : 2 80 -296 .
McCa r tney , A lan P .a nd D . J . Mack 1 973 I r on U t i l iza t ion b y T hu le E sk imo s o f C en t ra l C anada . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 8 :328 -339 .
J ef f 1 976 T he T raceo log ica l Me thod : a n I n t roduc t ion a nd C a se S t udy Ana ly s i s o fS ome L a te P reh i s tor ic S c rap ing T oo l s f r om t h e N or thwe s t P la in s . Unpub l i shed Ma s te r 's T he s i s , D epa r tmen t o fA rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f , C a lga ry .
McGhee , R obe r t , 1 984 T he T im ing o ft h e T hu le M ig ra t ion . P o larf or schung 5 4 :1-7 . McGhee , R obe r t 1 983 E a s tern A rc t ic P reh i s to ry : t h e R ea l i ty o f My th? Mu sk -Ox 3 3 : 2 1-25 . McGhee , R ober t 1 977 I vory f o r t h e S ea Woman : S ymbo l ic A t t r ibu te s o f aP reh i s to r ic T echno logy . C anad ian J ourna lo fArchaeo logy 1 : 141-149 .
L eB lanc , R ay m ond J o seph 1 984 T he R a t I nd ian C reek S i te a nd t h e L a te P reh i s to r ic P er iod i n t h e I n ter io r Nor thern Yukon . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man Me rcu ry S er ie s , A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f C anada P ape r 1 20 .N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man , O t tawa .
McGhee , R ober t 1 974 B e luga Hun te r s : a n A rchaeo log ica l R econ s truc t ion o f t h e H i s to ry a nd C u l tu re o f t h e Mackenz ie 1 00
D e l ta K i t tega ryum iu t .
N ewf ound land
REFERENCES C ITED S oc ia l a nd E conom ic S tud ie s 1 3 . I n s t i tu te o fS oc ia l a nd E conom ic R e sea rch , Memor ia l U n ive r s i ty o f N ewf ound land , S t . J ohn 's .
Mu rdoch , J ohn 1 892 ( r epr in ted 1 988 ) E thno log ica lR e su l t s o f t h e P o in t B ar row E xped i t ion . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton D .C .
Me lbye , J e r ry a nd S co t t F a i rgr ieve 1 990 Append ix I V : T h e H uman R ema in s . A rchaeo log ica l I nves t iga t ion s a t S aunak tuk b y C ha r les D . A rno ld . Manu sc r ip t o n f i l e , P r ince o f Wa les No r th e rn H er i tage C en t re , Y e l lowkn if e .
N agy , Mur ie l le I da 1 988 C a r ibou E xp lo i ta t ion a tt h e T ra i l R ive rS i te ( No r the rn Y ukon ) . Unpub l i shed Ma s ter 's T he s i s , D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , S imon F ra se r Un ive r s i ty ,V ancouver .
M i l le r , G eo rge J .1 975 A S tudy o fC u t s , G roove s a nd O the r Ma rk s o n R ecen t a nd F o s s i l B one : I Wea the r ing C rack s , F rac ture s , S p l in te r s , a nd O the r S im i la r N a tu ra lP henomena . I nL i th ic T echno logy , e d i ted b y E a r l Swan son ,p p . 2 11-226 . Mou ton ,H ague .
N ewcome r , Ma rk
Moo re , D e smond F . 1975 P r inc ip le s a nd A pp l ica t ions o f T r ibo logy . P e rgamon P res s ,O xf o rd . Mo r lan ,R icha rd E .1 980 T aphonomy a nd A rchaeo logy i nt h e U ppe rP le i s tocene o ft h e No r the rn Y ukon T e r r i to ry : A G l imp se o f t h e P eop l ing o f t h e N ew Wo r ld . N a t iona l Museum o f Man Mercur y S er ie s , A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o f C anada P aper 9 4 . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man , O t tawa .
C u l tu re
N ewcom e r , Ma rk a nd L aw rence K ee ley 1 979 T e s t ing a Me thod o fM ic rowea r A na ly s i s w i th E xper imen ta l F l in t T oo l s . I nL i th ic U se -W ear A na ly s i s , e d i ted b y B r ian H ayden , p p . 1 95 -205 . A cadem ic P re s s , N ew Y o rk .
G eo rge 1 975 M ic ro -wea r i n P e r spec t ive : a S ympa the t ic R e spon se t o L aw r ence H . K ee ley . W or ld A rchaeo logy 7 :2 26 -240 .
OECD 1 969 G lo s sa ry o fT e rm s a nd D ef in i t ion s i nt h e F ie ld o fF r ic t ion , Wea r a nd L ubr ica t ion . O rgan i sa t ion f o r E conom ic C o -o pe ra t ion a nd D eve lopmen t ,P a r i s . O lau s son , D ebo rah S e i tze r 1 980 S t a r t ing f r om S c ra tch : t h e H i s to ry o fE dge -wea r R e sea rch f r om 1 838 t o 1 978 . L i th ic T echno logy 9 :4 8 -60 . O l sen , S and ra 1 979 A S tudy o f B one A r t if ac t s f r om G ra sshoppe r P ueb lo , AZP :14 :l . T he K iva 4 4 : 3 43 3 73 ,
Mo r r i son , D av id A . 1 986 I nu i t a nd Ku tch in B one a nd An t le r I ndu s t r ie s i n No r thwe s te rn C anada . C anad ian J ourna lo fArchaeo logy 1 0 : 1 07 - 1 25 . T hu le
N ewcome r , Ma rk P . , R . G race a nd R . Unge r -Ham i l ton 1 986 I nve s t iga t ing M ic rowea r P o l i she s w i th B l ind T e s t s . J ourna lo fArchaeo log ica lS c ience 1 2 : 2 03 -217 .
O de l l ,
Mor r i son , D av id A . 1 988 T he K uga luk S i t e a nd t h e N uvo rugm iu t . C anad ian Mu seum o f C iv i l i za t ion Mercury S er ie s , A r chaeo log ica l S ur vey o fC anada P aper 1 37 . C anad ian Mu seum o f C iv i l iza t ion , O t tawa .
1 983
W or ld
O ake s , J i l l E . 1 987 F ac to r s I nf luenc ing K am ik P roduc t ion i n A rc t ic B ay , N o r thwe s t T e r r i tor ies . C anad ian Mu seum o fC iv i l i za t ion Mercury S er ie s , C anad ian E thno logy S er v ice P ape r1 07 . N a t iona l Mu seum s o f C anada , O t tawa .
Mor r i son , D av id A . 1 990 I g lu lua lum iu tP r eh i s to ry : t h e L o s t I nu i t o f F rank l in B ay . A rchaeo log ica l S ur vey o f C anada Mercury S er ie s P aper 1 42 . C anad ian Mu seum o fC iv i l iza t ion , O t tawa .
A .
( Lebanon ) .
Nu l igak 1 966 1 ,N u l igak . P e te r Ma r t in ,T o ron to .
Mo r lan , R icha rd E . 1 973 T he L a te rP reh i s to ry o ft h e M idd le P o rcup ine D ra inage , No r the rn Yukon T e r r i tory . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man Mercury S er ie s , A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o f C anada P aper 1 . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man , O t tawa .
D av id
1 974 S tudy a nd R ep l ica t ion o f B one
T oo l s f r om K sa r A ld i A rchaeo logy 6 :1 38 -153 .
M i l le r , G eo rge J .1 969 A S tudy o fC u t s , G roove s , a nd O the r Ma rk s o n R ecen t a nd F os s i l B one I . An ima l T oo th Ma rk s . T eb iwa 1 2 ( 1 ) : 2 0 -26 .
Mo r r i son ,
N e l son , E dwa rd W i l l iam 1 899 ( r ep r in ted 1 983) T he E sk imo a bou t B er ing S t ra i t . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C .
P am e i je r , C o rne l i s H . 1 974 R ep l ica T echn ique s . I n P r inc ip le s a nd T echn ique s o f S cann ing E lec tron M icro scopy , B io log ica l A pp l ica t ions , e d i ted b y M . A . H ya t t , p p . 4 5 -93 . V an N os t rand R e inho ld , N ew Y o rk .
i n Wes te rn
C o rona t ion G u lf N WT . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man Mercury S er ie s , A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o fC anada P aper 16 .N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man , O t tawa . Mo s s , Em i ly H . 1 983 T he F unc t iona l Ana ly s i s o f F l in t I mp lemen t s : P inceven t a nd P on t d 'Ambon : Two C a se S tud ie sf r om t h eF rench F ina lP a leo l i th ic .B AR I n terna t iona lS er ie s 1 77 . BAR , O xf o rd .
P e l t ie r , A . 1 986 É tude E xper imen ta l d e s S u rf ace s O s seu se s F aconnée s e t U t i l i sée s . B u l le t in d e l a S oc ie te P réh i s tor ique F rança i se 8 3 ( 1 ) : 5 -7 . P euch ,
Mo s s , Em i ly H . a nd Ma rk N ewcome r 1 982 R econ s t ruc t ion o f T oo l U se a t P inceven t : M ic rowea r a nd E xpe r imen t s , i n T a i l ler ! P our q uo i F a ire :
P i e r re F ranco i s 1 976 R eche r che s u r I a Mode d 'A l imen ta t ion d e s H omme s d u P a léo l i th ique p a r l ' E tude M ic ro scop ique d e s C ou ronne s D en ta i re s . I n L a P réh i s to ire F ran c a i se I , e d i ted b y H en ry d e L um ley ,p p . 7 08 -709 . CNRS ,P a r i s .
P réh i s to ire e t T echno log ie L i th ique I , R ecen t P rog re ss i n M icrowear S t ud ie s , e d i t ed b y D an ie l C ahen , S tud ia P raeh i s tor ica B e lg ica 2 . Mu sée R oya le d el ' Af r ique C en t ra le ,T ervu ren .
P l i s son , H . 1 984 P r i se d ' Emp r e in te d e s S u rf ace s O sseu ses : N o te C omp lemen ta ire . B u l le t in d e l a S oc ie te P réh i s tor ique F rança i se 8 1 :p p . 2 67 -268 . 1 0 1
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT P l i sson , H . 1 983 An App l ica t ion o fC a s t ing T echn ique s f o r O b serv ing a nd R eco rd ing M ic rowea r . L i th i c T echno logy 1 2 : 1 7 -21 .
S acke t t ,
J ame s 1 982 A pp roache s t o A rchaeo logy . J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 1 :5 9 -112 .
P o t t s , R icha rd a nd P a t S h ipman 1 981 C u tma rk s Made b y S t one T oo l s o n B one s f r om O lduva i G o rge , T anzan ia .N a ture 2 91 : 5 77 -580 .
S avo ie ,
D ona t ( e d i to r ) 1 970 T he Ame r ind ian s o f t h e C anad ian N or thwes ti nt h e 1 9 th C en tury , a sS een b y Em i le P e t i to t V o l . 1 : T he T ch ig l i t E sk imos . Mackenz ie D e l ta R e search P ro jec t9 .D epa r tm en to f I nd ian A f f a i r sa nd N o r the rn D eve lopmen t , O t tawa .
P ye , D av id 1 964 T he N a ture o f D e s ign . V an N o s t rand R e inho ld C ompany ,N ew Y o rk .
S ch if f e r , M ichae la nd J .B . S k ibo 1 989 A P rov i s iona lT heory o fC e ram ic Ab ra s ion . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 9 1 : 1 0 1-115 .
R ab inow icz , E rnes t 1 968 P o l i sh ing . S c ien t if i c Amer ican 2 18 (June ) :91-99 . R ab inow icz , E rne s t 1 965 F r ic t ion a nd W ear o f Ma ter ia l s . J ohn W i ley a nd S on s ,N ew Y o rk .
S choen , F .J . ,H . Mohammed , W . F i sch l schwe ige r a nd R . E . G o ing 1 978 O b jec t ive E va lua t ion o f S ur f ace M ic ro rep l ica t ion b y D en ta l I mp re ss ion Ma te r ia l s . J ourna lo fD en ta lR e search 5 7 : 2 83 -290 .
R ay , P a tr ick H en ry 1 885 R epor t o ft h e I n t erna t iona l P o lar E xped i t ion t o P o in t B ar row A laska . G ove rnmen t P r in t ing O ff ice , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C .
S co t t , D . 1 983 Wea r . I n I ndu s t r ia l T r ibo logy , e d i ted b y M . H . J one s a nd D . S co t t , pp. 1 2 -30 . E l sev ie r , Am s t e rdam .
R aymond , J .S co t t 1 994 T he I n te l lec tua l L egacy o fD ona ld W . L a th rap . I n H i s tory o f L a t in Amer ican A r chaeo logy , W or ldw id e A rchaeo lo gy V o l . 1 5 , e d i t ed b yA . Oyue la -Caycedo . A vebu xy ,L ondon .
S co t t , E ugene C . 1 982 R ep l ica P roduc t ion f o r S cann ing E lec t ron M ic roscopy : aT e s t o f Ma ter ia l s S u i tab le f o r U se i n F i e ld S e t t ing s . J ourna l o fM icroscopy 1 25 : 3 37 -341 .
R aymond , J .S co t t , Wa r ren R . D eBoe ra nd P e te rG rove 1 975 C umancaya : A P eruv ian C eram ic T rad i t ion . D epa r tmen t o f A rcheo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry O cca s iona lP ape r sn o . 2 .C a lga ry .
S emenov , S .A . 1 964 P reh i s tor ic T echno logy . C ory , Adam s a nd MacKay , L ondon .
R ice , P rudence M . 1 987 P o t ter y A na ly s i s : aS ourcebook . Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s , C h icago .
S h ipm an , P a t 1 981 L if e H i s tory o f aF os s i l : An I n t roduc t ion t o T aphonomy a nd P a leoeco logy . H arva rd Un ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge Ma s s .
R i t ch ie , C a r son I .A .1 975 T he E sk imo a nd H i sA r t . A cademy E d i t ion s ,L ondon .
S h ipman , P a t a nd J enn ie R o se 1 983 E v idence o fB u tche ry a nd H om in id A c t iv i t ie s a tT or ra lba a nd Amb rona ; a n E va lua t ion U s ing M ic ro scop ic T echn ique s . J ourna lo fArchaeo log ica lS c ience 1 0 : 4 65 -474 .
R o se , J enn ie 1 983 A R ep l ica t ion T echn ique f o r S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scopy : A pp l ica t ion s f o r An th ropo log i s t s . Amer ican J ourna l o f P hy s ica l A n thropo logy 6 2 : 2 55 -261 .
S i ege l , P e te r E . 1 984 F unc t iona l V ar iab i l i ty W i th in a n
R ovne r , I rw in 1 971 P o ten t ia l o fO pa l P hy to l i th s f o r u se i n P a leoeco log ica l R econ s t ruc t ion . Q ua terna ry R e search 1 :3 43 - 3 59 . R uf f ,
S ty le i n L i th ic A n thropo log ica l
A s semb lage o fE nd sc rape r s . L i th ic T echno logy 1 3 : 3 5 -51 .
A . W . , L . K . I ve s a nd W . A . G lae ser 1 980 C ha rac te r iza t ion o f Wea r S u rf ace s a nd Wea r D ebr i s . I n F undamen ta l s o fF r ic t ion a nd W ear o f Ma te r ia l s , e d i ted b y D . A . R igney , p p . 2 35 -289 . Am er ican S oc ie ty f o r Me ta l s , Me ta l sP a rk ,O h io .
R uf f ,A .W . a nd K . C . L udema 1 986 Wea r . I nE ncyc lopaed ia o f Ma ter ia l sS c ience a nd E ng ineer ing , e d i ted b yM . B eye r ,p p . 5 273 -5278 . P e rgamon P re s s ,O xf o rd .
Sm i th , D e rek G . 1 984 Mackenz ie D e l ta E sk imo . I n A r c t ic , e d i t ed b y D av id D ama s , Handbook o f N or th Amer ican I nd ians S . pp . 3 47 -358 . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton D .C . S nyde r , Ma rgo t 1 986 F i sh ing T echno logy o f t h e S i gh t . Unpub l i shed Ma s te r ' s T hes i s , D epar tmen t o f An th ropo logy ,T ren t Un ive r s it y ,P e te rborough . S t anf o rd ,D enn i sJ .1 976 T he Wa lakpa S i te , A la ska . I t sP l ace i n t h e B im i rk a nd T hu le C u l tu re s . Sm i thson ian C on t r ibu t ion s t oA n thropo logy n o . 2 0 , Sm it h son ian I n s t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton D .C .
R unn ing s , A nna K . 1 984 An E xper imen ta l Ana ly s i s o f Two B one T oo l s f r om t h e Mann i s S i t e , S equ im , Wa sh ing ton . Unpub l i shed Ma s te r 's T he s i s , Wa sh ing ton S t a te Un ive r s i ty ,P u l lman .
S t ef an s son , V i lh ja lmu r 1 919 T he S t ef an sson -Ande r son A rc t ic E xped i t ion : P r e l i minary E thno log ica lR epor t . A n thropo log ica lP aper so ft h e Amer ican Mu seum o f N a tura l H i s tory , Ame r ican Mu seum o f N a tura l H i s tory , 1 4 (1) .N ew Y o rk .
S acke t t , J ames 1 990 S ty le a nd E thn ic i ty i nA rchaeo logy : t h e C a se f o r I s och res t i sm . I n T he U se s o f S t y le i n A r chaeo logy , e d i ted b y Ma rga re t C onkey a nd C hr i s t ine H a s to rf , pp. 3 2 -43 . C ambr idge Un ive r s i ty P r e ss , C ambr idge .
S to rdeu r -Yed id , D an ie l le 1 979 L e s A igu i l les aC ha s a u P a léo l i th ique . X I I Ie s upp lemen t a ' Ga l l ia P réh i s to i re ' E d i t ion s d u C en t re N a t iona l d e l a R eche r che S c ien t if ique ,P a r i s .
S acke t t , J ame s 1 986 I s och res t i sm a nd S ty le : aC la r if i ca t ion . J ourna l o fA n thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 5 : 2 66 2 77 .
1 02
R EFERENCES C ITED S t rombe rg , R icha rd 1 985 T he 1 984 E xcava t ion s a t C ache P o in t N .W .T . Manu sc r ip t o n f i l e , P r ince o f Wa le s N or the rn H er i tage C en t re ,Y e l lowkn if e.
Un ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia , A nn A rbo r , Un ive r s i ty M ic rof i lm s ,A nn A rbo r . Wa rd law , L au ra K . 1 989 An Ana ly s i s o fF laked S tone T oo l s f r om t h e G upuk S i te , N or thwe s t T e r r i to r ie s . B .A . H onour s T he s i s , D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry .
S t rombe rg , R icha rd 1 984 T he 1 983 E xcava t ion s a t C ache P o in t , N .W .T . Manu sc r ip t o n f i l e , P r ince o f Wa le s N o r the rn H e r i tage C en t r e ,Y e l lowkn if e. S t roud , M . F . a nd W i lman . H . 1 963 T he E f f ec t s o fB r i t t le F rac tu re o nt h e Wea ra nd F r ic t ion o f Me ta l s D ur ing A b ra s ion , i n P a r t icu la r o f An t imony a nd B i smu th .
Wa lke r , P h i l l ip 1 990 T oo l Ma rk s o n S ke le ta lR ema in s F rom S aunak tuk . Append ix V i n A rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s a t S aunak tuk , b y C . A rno ld . Manu scr ip t o n F i le , P r ince o f Wa le s No r the rn H er i tage C en t re , Y e l lowkn if e .
B r i t i sh J ourna lo fApp l ied P hy s ic s 1 4 : 3 81-385 . T appen , N . C . 1 976 Advanced Wea ther ing C rack s a s a n I mp rovemen to nS p l i t l ine P r epa ra t ion sf o rA na ly s i s o f S t ruc tu ra l O r ien t a t ion i n C ompac t B one . Amer ican J ourna l o f P hy s ica l A n thropo logy 4 4 : 3 75 -380 .
W i s s le r , C la rk 1 918 A rchaeo logy o f t h e P o la r E sk imo . A n thropo log ica lP aper so ft h e Amer ican Mu seum o f N a tura l H i s tory 2 2 . Amer ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra l H i s tory ,N ew Y ork .
T appen , N . C . 1 971 Two O r ien ta t iona l F ea tu re s o fC ompac t B one a sP red ic to r s o fS p l i t l ine P a t te rn s . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica lA n thropo logy 3 5 : 1 29 -140 .
Wr igh t , K . H . R . a nd B ur ton A . W . 1 976 Wea r o f D en t a l T i s sues a nd R e s tora t ive Ma ter ia l s . I n T he W ear o f N on -M e ta l l ic Ma ter ia l s , e d i ted b y D . D ow son , M . G ode t a nd C . M . T ay lo r , p p . 16 -126 . Mechan ica l E ng ineer ing P ub l ica t ion s ,L ondon .
T appen , N . C . 1 969 T he R e la t ion sh ip o f Wea the r ing C rack s t oS p l i t - l i ne O r ien ta t ion i nB one . Amer ican J our na l o fPhy s ica lA n thropo logy 3 1 : 1 91-198 . T appen ,
Y o rga , B r ian 1 980 Wa shou t : A We s te rn T hu le S i te o n H e r sche lI s land , Yukon T e r r i to ry .N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man Mercury S er ie s , A rchaeo log ica l S ur vey o f C anada P aper 9 8 . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man , O t tawa .
N . C . 1 964 An E xam ina t ion o f A l t e rna t ive E xp lana t ion s o f S p l i t l ine O r ien ta t ion i n C ompac t B one . Amer ican J ourna l o fP hy s ica l A n thropo logy 2 2 : 4 23 -442 .
Y oung , D av id 1 985 T he N eed f o r aC ogn i t ive App roach t o t h e S tudy o f Ma ter ia lC u l tu re . C u l ture 5 :5 3 -69 .
T ay lo r , W i l l iam E . J r . 1 972 An A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey B e tween C ape P a r ry a nd C amb r idge B ay , N .W .T . , C anada i n 1 963 . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man Mercur y S e r ie s , A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o fC anada P aper 1 . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man ,O t tawa .
Y oung , D av id a nd R ob son B onn ich sen 1 985 C ogn i t ion , B ehav io r a nd Ma ter ia l C u l ture . I n S t one T oo l A na ly s i s : E ssay s i n H onor o f Don E . C rab tr ee , e d i ted b y Ma rk G . P l ew , J ame s C . Wood s a nd
T omen chuk , J ohn 1 985 T he D eve lopm en t o f a Who l ly P a rame t r ic U se -wea r Me thodo logy a nd i t s A pp l ica t ion t o Two S e lec ted S amp les o f E p ipa leo l i th ic C h ipped S t one T oo l s f r om H ayon im C ave , I s rae l . U npub l i shed P h .D . d i sser ta t ion , D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f T o ron to ,T o ron to .
P ave s ic Max G . , pp. 9 1-131 . Un ive r s i ty o f N ew Mex ico P re s s ,A lbuque rque . Y oung , D av id a nd R obson B onn ich sen 1 984 Unde r s tand ing S t one T oo l s ; aC ogn i t ive A pp roach P eop l ing o f t h e Amer ica sP roce s sS er ie s 1 .C en te rf o rt h e S tudy o f E a r ly Man , Un ive r s i ty o f Ma ine a t O rono , O rono . .
T r ingham , R u th , G . C ooper , G . O de l l , B . B oy t ek a nd A . Wh i tman 1 974 E xpe r imen ta t ion i nt h eF o rma t ion o f E dge D amage : aN ew A pp roach t oL i th ic A na ly s i s . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 :1 71-196 . T u rk , R . R . 1 986 O p t ica l F in i sh ing . I n E ncyc lopaed ia o f Ma ter ia l s S c ience a nd E ng ineer ing , e d i t ed b y M . B eye r ,p p . 305 -3306 . P e rgamon P r es s , O xf o rd . U she r ,P e te r 1 971 T he C anad ian Wes t e rn A rc t ic : AC en tu ry o fC hange . A n thropo log ica ,N .S . , 1 3 (1-2 ) :169 -183 . V an E s t e r ik , P enny 1 985 I m i ta t ing B an C h iang P o t te ry : T owa rd a C ogn i t ive T heo ry o f R ep l ica t ion . I n D i rec t ions i n C ogn i t ive A n thropo logy , e d i ted b y J ane t W . D oughe r ty , p p . 2 21-241 . U n ive r s i ty o f I l ino i sP re s s ,U rbana . V augh an , P a t r ick C . 1 985 U se W ear A na ly s i s o f F laked S t one T oo l s . Un ive r s i ty o fA r i zona P re s s ,T uc son . V aughan ,P a tr ick C . 1 981 L i th ic M icrowear E xper imen ta t ion a nd t h e F unc t iona l A na ly s i s o f a L ower Magda len ian S t one T oo l A s semb lage . P h .D . d i sser ta t ion , D epa r tmen t o f A n th ropo logy 1 03
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT 3 64
s c apu la
e roded
t oo e r oded g ene ra l ly ,m ay b e s om en on inva s ive p o l ish w i th p e rp .
3 66
s capu la
p ocke t
d epos i t sa nd e r o s ion o b scu r ew ea r , o n ly p ock e t w ea rv i s ib le
3 71
s capu la
e roded
v e ry e r oded ,s ome o s t eons , i nva s ive p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ion s
3 74
b l ade
p ock e t
n on inva s ive ,b r igh t p o l ish ,p ocke tw ea r
3 79
p i ck
i c e
many o s teon s
APPENDIX ONE : WEAR DESCR IPT IONS
NOTE : T h is a ppend ix c on ta in s a b r idged w ea r d escr ip t ions o fa l l t oo ls f o r w h ich s uch i n f o rma t ion c ou ld b e d e scr ibed . A l l t oo l s w h ich w e re t oo e roded f o re xam ina t ion a r e om i t ted .
GUPUK ( N ITS -] ) NUM
OBJECT
WEAR TYPE
WEAR DESCR IPT ION
0 37
p i ck
e a r th
e r oded , c oa r se s t r ia t ions n oo s teon s
3 89
g auged d r i l l
n id
9 5
a w l
a w l
e x tens ive i nva s ive p o l ish , s ome s hor ts t r ia t ion s a r ound s haf t ,
s of tp o l i sh , af i ne ,c l ea r s t r ia t ion sa l ong s haf t
3 93
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
b a sed o n mac ro scop ic t r a i t s ( f orm ) d oe sn o t r e semb le a ny o the rt y pe
o s teon sv i s ib le ,l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , a l so s ome w ood ish s t r ia t ion s
3 98
g auged d r i l l
n id
n on inva s ive p o l ish ,f i ne s t r ia t ion s ,b u tn o tl i ke s i new , wound p in?
n on inva s ive p o l ish e sp . a tt i p ,s t r ia t ion s i n v a r iou sd i rec t ions
4 00
m i sc
n id
p o l i shed w i th af i ne a b ra s ive ,g ene ra l l i gh t n on inva s ive p o l ish
l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s a c ro ss t i po n ly ,o the r s t r ia t ion se l sewhe re
4 08
m i sc
n id
mode ra t e ly i n va s ive p o l i sh g rad ing i n to n on inva s ive ( pocke t ? )a way f r om e dge ;
4 11
b lade
f r e sh
s ome e r o s ion ,s ome p ocke t w ea r( h a rd l i gh tp o l ish )
4 28
m i sc
f r e sh
h a rd , s moo th ,p o l i sh w i th s t r ia t ion s ,f r e sh ly p o l ished
5 29
s pa tu la
n id
s omewha ti n va s ive p o l ish , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions
9 7
s pa tu la
ma r row
-
2 73
2 78
s pa tu la
b l ade
w ound p in
f r esh
2 83
s pa tu la
n id
s om ewha ti nva s ive p o l i sh , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
2 90
s pa tu la
mu l t i u se
o s teons a nd i nva s ive p o l ish o n o ne s i de , v a r iab le s t r ia t ions
2 93
m isc
s ha rp s t r ia t ion s
e r oded , f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ion s ,p ocke tw ea r
2 99
p i ck
e a r th
e r oded , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , n oo s teon s 6 00
a w l
a w l
i nva s ive p o l ish , e r oded
3 11
a w l
a w l
i n va s ive p o l ish ,s ho r t s t r ia t ion s a round s haf t
6 34
a w l
a w l
i nva s ive p o l ish , s ho r t s t r ia t ion sa r ound s haf t
v e ry e roded ,f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ions
6 42
m isc
h and l ing
3 17
m i sc
s ha rp s t r ia t ion s
3 19
b l ade
f r e sh
s ome o s teon sv i s ib le f i ne f i n ish ing p o l i sh?
3 39
s now k n if e
s now
l i gh tw ea r , manu s t i l l v i s ib le , many o s teon s , v e ry l i gh ts t r ia t ion sp e rp
s ome o s t eon se xpo sed ,b u t a ppea r s mos t ly a s e x tens ive h and l ing w ea r
-
6 57
a w l
a w l
i nva s ive p o l ish , s ho r t s t r ia t ion sa r ound s haf t
6 79
b lade
n id /mea t ?
v e ry l i gh tn on inva s ive p o l ish ,s l igh tm ea t ,v e ry l i gh th ide?
3 49
s now k n if e
n / a
h and le f r agmen to n ly
3 54
m i sc
s ha rp s t r ia t ion s
n on inva s ive p o l ish ,f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ions a nd o the r v a r iou s s t r ia t ion s
7 53
s pa tu la
med l e a the r
e x tens ive i n va s ive p o l i sh , s im i la rb u tl e s se x tens ive t h an 7 78
3 56
s pa tu la
mu l t i u se
s ome o s teons ,n on inva s ive p o l ish ,l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ions . mu l t i -u se?
7 54
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
o s teon s , af ew c oa r se s t r ia t ion s
7 73 3 60
s c apu la
p ocke t
w ea ther ed ,o n ly p ocke t w ea rv i s ib le
1 04
s pa tu la
wound p in
l i gh tn on inva s ive p o l ish , f ew f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ion s .
APPEND IX ONE 7 78
s pa tu la
m ed l e a the r
e x t en s ive i nva s ive p o l ish , a l so f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ions . mu l t i u se?
1 085
g auged d r i l l
n id
i nva s ive p o l i sh w i th af ew s t r ia t ions i nv a r iou s d i rec t ion s
7 79
s now k n if e
s now
o s t eon sv i s ib le , mu l t i -d i rec t iona l s t r ia t ion s
143
p i ck
i c e?
e roded ,s ome o s teon s v i s ib le
8 04
m i sc
n i d
mode ra te ly i nva s ive
15 1
g auged d r i l l
wood
n on inva s ive p o l ish , f i ne wood l ike s t r ia t ions ( bu t
p o l ish , v a r iab le s t r ia t ion s
ab i tc oa r se r )a l so s ome
8 29
a w l
c fa w l
i n va s ive p o l ish , e r oded
8 42
b l ade
f r e sh
e r oded ,e v idence o f
154
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
f ew l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s ,a l so s ome l i gh te ro nes
manuf ac tu re v i s ib le ,n o
162
g auged d r i l l
n id
w ea r
h a rd p o l ish n ea rt i p ,n o s t r ia t ion s ,e roded e l sewhe re
8 50
m isc
h af t
e r oded ,b r igh tn on i nva s ive p o l ish ( pocke t ) , a l so s ugge s t ion o fh af t l i ke s t r ia t ions
8 71
s pa tu la
8 77
m is
8 78
n eed le
8 99
s pa tu la
9 02
9 18
n eed le
c h i se l
e roded
t o oe r oded , s ome s t r ia t ion s s im i la rt o3 065
h af t
n on inva s ive p o l ish , s ugge s t ion o fl e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions ,s moo th ,
n eed le
i nva s ive p o l ish , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s , manuf ac tu re s t r ia t ion s
w e th i de?
many o s teons , i n va s ive p o l i sh , s ome th ing w e t , p robab ly h ide . b oo t so le
n eed le
n / a
w ea rn o te x ten s ive l i t t le u sed ,a w l l ike p o l ish
s capu la
e roded
n eed le
n eed le
w ood
wood l ik e s t r ia t ion s
187
m isc
n id
e x t r eme t i pw ea the r ed ,
1 20 1
g auged d r i l l
w ood
wood l ike s t r ia t ions , a l though l a rge rt h an e xper imen ta l
1 208
m i sc
n id
h igh ly p o l ished , l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ions a c ro s s t i p , s im i la rt o4 00
1 2 14
g auged d r i l l
n id /coa r se
m isc . s t r ia t ion s
1 231
b lade
o s teon s
v e ry u nc lea r ,w ea the r ed , b u t mo r e t h an f i n ish ing p o l i sh?
-
e r oded , s ome p o l ish w i th
1 234
n ozz le p l ug
p lug
s im i la rt o1 04 1 ,b u t mo r e e r oded
1 263
n eed le
n eed le
e r oded ,m anuf ac tu re s t r ia t ion ss t i l lv i s ib le , s om en eed le l ike w ea r
v e ry e r oded , s ome
1 265
n on inva s ive p o l ish a t e dge 9 73
g auged d r i l l
l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s a r ound s haf t ,s ome
v e ry s ma l l s t r ia t ion s , e l sewhe re l i gh tc oa r se 9 72
169
g auged d r i l l
b roken
1 268
e r oded ,a w l l ike p o l ish ,
m isc
e roded
n eed le
n eed le
1 269
e r oded ,p o l ished w i th
m isc
n id
c h i se l
n l a
1 275
e r oded? w ood l ike p o l ish
a w l
a w l
n ozz le p lug
p l ug
o s t eon s , i nva s ive p o l ish ,
1 279
s capu la
mea t ?
d u l ln on inva s ive p o l ish , s im i la rt o2 167
1 282
n eed le
n eed le
n eed le l ike ,l e ng thw ise
s t r ia t ions a round s haf t 1 044
a w l
a w
i nva s ive p o l ish ,
s t r ia t ion s , s ome s t r ia t ion sa round s haf t
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s 1 054
b lade
f r e sh
s ome o s teons ,f i ne f i n ish ing p o l ish?
1 057
s pa tu la
e r oded
t oo e r oded , s om ep ocke t w ea r , w ound p in?
i nva s ive p o l ish , s ho r t s t r ia t ion sa r ound s haf t
a nd s t r ia t ions a te dge 1 04 1
e r oded ,n on inva s ive p o l i sh , e x ten s ive , s ome l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ions
s ma l l s t r ia t ion sa r ound s haf t 1 031
t oo e r oded , s ome o s t eons , l i gh ts t r ia t ion s
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions 1 052
n ow ea rv i s ib le o nb roken p o r t ion
1 285
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , w i th o ve r lay o ff i ne r s t r ia t ion sa l ong s haf t
1 290
n eed le
n eed le
g round ,w i th l e ng thw ise a nd p e rpend icu la r( aw l l i ke )s t r ia t ions
1 05
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT 1 295
m isc
e roded
t oo e roded , c oa r se
1 551
g auged d r i l l
w ood
1 577
g auged d r i l l
w ood
s t r ia t ion sa round s haf t 1 296
n eed le
n eed le
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s , n eed le l ike w ea r
1 304
a w l
n id
i nva s ive p o l i sh ,s ho r t s t r ia t ions a round s haf t
1 306
p i ck
i c e
many o s teon s
1 309
b lade
f r e sh
f i ne f i n ish ing p o l ish
1 313
p i ck
i c e
many o s teon s
1 37 1
g auged d r i l l
g r i t
many l a rge c oa r se
1 374
b lade
f r e sh
f r e sh ly g round ,m ed ium g ra ined g r inde r
1 375
g auged d r i l l
n id /wap
n on inva s ive p o l ish w i th f ew m isc st h /non inva s ive p o l ish w i th s ome c oa r se
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
1 605
s pa tu la
w i l low?
1 717
g auged d r i l l
b roken
a w l
a w l
1 397
1 453
c h ise l
b lade
a w l
n / a
f r e sh
a w l
n o w ea rv i s ib le o nb roken
1 721
b l ade
f r e sh
1 738
n eed le
n eed le
p rob u nf in ished i nt h e p roce s so fr ewo rk ing f i ne p o l i sh ,l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s ,t yp ica ln eed le w ea r
1 745
s i new
s i new
p o l ished a nd wor nw i th t h in , s ha rp s t r ia t ion s
1 77 1
f ew c oa r se s t r ia t ion s ,
s pa tu la
s i new
mode ra t e ly i nva s ive p o l ish a tt i p , s t range s t r ia t ions s im i la rt o MacFa r lane
i nva s ive p o l ish , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
1 394
a tt i p ,n on inva s ive p o l ish ,a way f r om t i p c oa r se d i agona l
p or t ion
o s teons 1 390
s ma l l a r ea o fw ea r v i s ib le , s ma l l wood l ike s t r ia t ions
s t r ia t ion s ,g r i t l ike
1 376
af ew f i ne wood l ike s t r ia t ion , n on inva s ive p o l ish
n on inva s ive p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ion sa te dge f i ne f i n ish ing p o l i sh , s ma l l amoun to fi nva s ive p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions a t
1 869
n eed le
n eed le
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions ,b u t n o ta sf i ne ly p o l ished a s o the r s
1 9 17
b l ade
f r e sh
g ene r a l l i gh tn on inva s ive p o l ish , s o me p ocke tw ea r
1 926
b l ade
s hea th?
g ene ra l l i gh tn on inva s ive p o l ish ,e dge s moo th a nd p o l ished w i th s ome l ong
1 932
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
f ew l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s ,i nva s ive
i nva s ive p o l ish ,s hor t s t r ia t ions a r ound s haf t , a l so m isc s t r ia t ions
1 475
g auged d r i l l
w ood
v e ry sma l l f i ne s t r ia t ion s
p o l ish
1 476
b l ade
f r e sh
f r e sh , w i th s ome p ocke t
l i t t le u sed ,b u ts o me a r ea so ff i ne p o l ish a nd
w ea r
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions
1 970
1 489
b lade
f r e sh
e r oded ,n os i gn o fu se , s ome manuf ac tu re
1 500
p i ck
i c e
m any o s teon s
1 502
m isc
n id
i nva s ive p o l ish , s t r ia t ions l e ng thw i se a way f r om t i p ,a l so s ome l i gh t
1 506
n eed le
b lank
b l ank g round b u ts how s n o u se
1 509
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne ly p o l ished w i th
n eed le
n eed le
n eed le
1 998
m i sc
n id
l i gh tn on inva s ive p o l ish ,
2 013
b l ade
f r e sh
f i ne f i n ish ing p o l ish
2 022
s pa tu la
w i l low?
p o l i shed w i th av e ry f i ne a b ra s ive , f ew s t r ia t ions , f r e sh ,o rl i t t le u se .
2 024
m i sc
f r e sh
f r e sh ly g round , s o me p ocke tw ea r
2 031
g auged d r i l l
wood
-
2 033
s capu la
n /a
b roken ,n oe dge r em a in ing
1 549
g auged d r i l l
b roken
n ow ea ro n b roken p or t ion
n eed le
n eed le
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions , o s teons e xpo sed
f i ne ly p o l ished ,l e ng th w ise s t r ia t ions ,s ome p e rpend icu la rs t r ia t ion s
1 531
f i ne wood l ik e s t r ia t ions , n o te x ten s ive
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s , s om e a round s haf tt o o , 1 519
n eed le
1 06
2 044
g auged d r i l l
wood
f i ne s moo th s t r ia t ion s ( t h icke ra nd f ewe rt han e xper imen ta l )
2 06 1
g auged d r i l l
n id
n on inva s ive p o l i sh ,m isc s t r ia t ion s ,e ro s ion
A PPEND IX ONE 2 086
g auged d r i l l
n id / coa r se
p os s ib le a n t le rw ea r ,b u t
2 474
m i sc
e r oded ,o ve r la in w i th s t r ia t ion s a l ong s haf t 2 088
b lade
o s teon s
s ome o s t eon s( mo re t h an f i n i sh ing p o l ish ) ,b u tt o o w ea the r ed t oi d en t if y
2 090
a w l
n id
s ha rp
non i nvas ive
s t r ia t ion s
f i ne s t r ia t ions a c ro ss t i p
p o l ish , s ha rp
2 486
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
o s teons , f ew l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s
2 488
n eed le
n eed le
e roded ,s ome f i ne p o l ish a nd l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions v i s ib le
i nva s ive p o l ish ,p rom inen t s ho r ts t r ia t ion s a r ound s haf t
2 489
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne p o l ish , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s , maybe f i ne f i n ish ing p o l i sh
2 094
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne p o l ish ,l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
2 095
g auged d r i l l
b roken
n ow ea ro nb roken p o r t ion
2 104
g auged d r i l l
w ood
f i ne w ood l ike
2 553
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
o s teons ,a l so l a rge s t r ia t ion s a nd r andom s t r ia t ion s
s tr iat ion ,
ab i tl a rge rt h an e xpe r im en ta l ; 2 12 1
b lade
s hea th?
s im i la rt o1 926 ,b u tw i th d epo s i t so b scur ing s hea th?
wear
s capu la
p ocke t
v e ry e r oded ,p ock e tw ea r o n ly v i s ib le a te dge
2 154
m isc
n id
c oa r se s t r ia t ion d i agona l ly a c ro s sa nd
m ea t?
2 199
m isc
b l ade
2 590
a w l
c fa w l
n id
o s teons a nd l i gh tp o l ish
2 594
g auged d r i l l
n id /coa r se
i nva s ive p o l ish ,r andom s t r ia t ion s
2 623
n eed le
n eed le
e roded ,f i ne p o l ish a nd
2 626
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne p o l ish , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions ,p e rpend icu la r
n ow ea ro n b roken p or t ion
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions
s ha rp
n on inva s ive pol ish ,f i ne
s t r ia t ion s
s ha rp s t r ia t ions a c ro s s t i p
2 633
g auged d r i l l
b roken
s t r ia t ion s
s hea th?
m ed ium g r ind ing t of i n i sh ,
2 65 1
b lade
n id /mea t?
n id
s o me e ro s ion ,l i gh t , p a r t ly i nva s ive p o l ish
1 926 , s hea th? a w l
i nva s ive p o l ish ,b u tn o t
m i sc
b u ts moo th e dge a si n
2 26 1
m any t h in , f i ne , s ha rp s t r ia t ion s . ma r l in s p ike
2 593
l i gh t ,d u l ln on in va s i v e p o l ish a te dge . Away f r om e dge mo re I n va s ive p o l i sh ,
2 193
s i new
a ss moo th , s ome d i agona l s t r ia t ion s
a round t i p s capu la
s pa tu la
-
2 127
2 167
2 555
2 677
g auged d r i l l
g r i t
many s moo th l e ng thw ise
many l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ions
s t r ia t ion s , s o me s hor t s t r ia t ion sa r ound s haf t
2 693
s now k n if e
s now
many o s teons a nd s t r ia t ion sp e rp t oe dge
2 280
m isc
c oa r se
h igh f i n i sh ,w i th c oa r se
s tr ia t ion s
s t r ia t ion s a r ound s haf t
2 699
b l ade
f r e sh
f re sh ly g round , o b scur in g a t o n e n d , o d t e x t u r e p r e v iou s w ea r
2 294
p i ck
n id
e r oded ,b u tc l ea r ,n on i nva s ive p o l ish a nd s om e s t r ia t ions a te x t r eme t i p
2 700
c h i se l
n id
s moo th p o l ish w i th f i ne s t r ia t ion sp a r a l le l a nd d iagona l t oe dge ,w ood l i ke
2 296
g auged d r i l l
n id
s ome s t r ia t ion sa l ong
s h a f t 2 7 8 1
g auged d r i l l
b roken
n o
2 300
a w
a w l
i nva s i vepol ish
2 802
m i sc
s har p s t r ia t ion s
in es ha rp e roded , man yf s t r ia t ions a c ro s s t i p
2 307
p i ck
e ar th
( ma t tock )e roded ,b u t many s t r ia t ions , no o steons
2 803
g auged dr il
woo d d
s m oo th wood l ik e s tr ia t ions
2 318
s i new
s i new
p o l ished a nd w o rn w i th t h in ,s har ps t r ia t ion sa nd o the rm isce l laneou s
2 819
g auged d r i l l
wood
mu l t i -d i rec t iona l
w ea r
o n
br o k e n
p o r t
i o n
s t r ia t ion s ,e roded ,b u t s o me w ood l ike s t r ia t ion s
2 326
n ozz le p lug
p lug?
s ome a r ea so fo s t eon sa t t i p ,d i agona l s t r ia t ion s
2 338
m isc
s ha rp
f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ion s s t r ia t ion s
2 822
1 07
n eed le
n eed le
f in ep o l ish , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT 2 884
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
f ew l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ions ,o s teon sn o t v i s ib le
2 889
f e r ru le?
s now?
t o o e roded ,b u t s ugge s t ions o fo s teon s
2 907
g auged d r i l l
n id lwap
s ome l i gh ts moo th s t r ia t ions o nc or ne r , ' p ocke tl i ke 'w ea r
2 9 11
g aug ed d r i l l
w ood
w ood l ike s t r ia t ion s a way f r om t i p , s ma l l a r ea o f a n t le r l ike w ea ra tt i p
2 925
g aug ed d r i l l
a n t le r
l i gh tw ea r ,o s t eons ,f ew l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s
2 931
n eed le
n eed le
s now k n if e
s now
o s teons v i s ib le , s t r ia t ions p e rp t oe dge
2 974
b l ade
o s teon s
c l ea ro s teons ,s ugge s t s u se o n s ome th ing w e t
2 984
a w l
a w l
2 988
b lade
2 990
s now k n if e
s now
o s t eons v i s ib le , s t r ia t ion sp e rp t oe dge
3 134
b l ade
f r e sh
f i ne f i n i sh ing p o l ish
3 142
s now k n if e
s now
o s teon sv i s ib le , s t r ia t ion sp e rp t oe dge
3 203
g auged d r i l l
w ood
f i ne w ood l ike s t r ia t ions , b o th a r ound a nd a l ong s haf t
3 208
p i ck
i c e
many o s t eons
3 233
a w l
c fa w l
i nva s ive p o l ish ,b u tn o t s moo th ,l i gh tl e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
f i ne p o l ish , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s ,g r ind ing s t r ia t ions s t i l l v i s ib le
2 932
3 085
3 251
p i ck
i c e?
many o s teons , a l so many s t r ia t ion si na l l d i rec t ion s ,e roded
3 252
s c apu la
mea t ?
l i gh tn on inva s ive p o l i sh , s ome o s t eon sa te x t reme e dge . c r is s -c ros sed
i nva s ive p o l ish , s t r ia t ion s a round s haf t , many c r ack s
3 266
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
o s teon sv i s ib le , l a rge l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s , a l so s ome w ood l ike
e roded
t oo e r oded , s ome o b scu r ed o s teons
3 311
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne p o l i sh , l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ion s
p i ck
e a r th
s t r ia t ions ,n oo s teon s , e roded
3 315
a w l
c fa w l
i nva s ive p o l i sh , s t r ia t ion s l e ng thw ise a nd a round s haf t
3 003
g auged d r i l l
n id /coa r se
l a rge l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s ,a l so s t r ia t ion sa l ong s haf t
3 319
n eed le
f r e sh
e roded ,a ppea r s u nused
3 340
b l ade
f r e sh
3 028
m isc
n id
s ma l l l i gh ts t r ia t ion s p e rpend icu la ra nd d i agona l t oe dge
f i ne f i n i sh ing p o l ish , s ome o s teon s
3 345
g auged d r i l l
n id
e roded , many m i sc s t r ia t ion s
many o s t eon s , a l so af ew s t r ia t ion s
3 358
b l ade
f r e sh
f i ne f i n i sh ing p o l ish
3 383
a w l
a w l
i nva s ive p o l ish
3 397
m isc
n id
3 030
3 049
3 051
p i ck
g auged d r i l l
s pa tu la
i c e?
wood
n id
wood l ike s t r ia t ion s ,a f ew l a rge rs t r ia t ion s a l ong s haf t l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s p e rpend icu la rt oe dge , h eavy s t r ia t ions a to ne e dge
3 053
s pa tu la
s i new
many t h in , f i ne ,s ha rp s t r ia t ion s . ma r l in s p ike
3 060
g auged d r i l l
n id / coa r se
v ar iab le s t r ia t ions a l ong
3 40 1
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
o s teons a nd f i ne s t r ia t ion s , maybe r emnan t so fp rev iou s wood w ea r
3 436
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
o s teon s ,f ew l a rge l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ions
s haf t 3 513 3 062
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
e roded ,o b scu red l a rge e l igh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s
3 065
s pa tu la
mu l t i u se
t h in , f i ne , s ha rp
a w l
a w l
m isc
s ha rp s t r ia t ion s
i nva s ive p o l ish , s t r ia t ion sa round s haf t
3 545
a w l
c fa w l
i nva s ive p o l ish ,b u tn o t s moo th ,v ar iab le s t r ia t ion s
3 636
g auged d r i l l
n i d
m isc s t r ia t ion s ,b u t b roken p rob n o ta c tua l w ea r
s t r ia t ion s ,a l so c oa r se s t r ia t ion s . 3 078
s ma l l a nd l a rge s t r ia t ions p e rpend icu la rt oe dge , s im i la rt of i sh s ca l ing ,
e r oded ,f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ions a c ro s s t i p
-
1 08
APPEND IX ONE 3 644
3 654
a w l
n eed le
a w l
n eed le
i n va s ive p o l ish ,o s teons
3 946
a w l
a w l
s t r ia t ions a r ound s haf t ,
s haf t
s ome l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions
f i ne p o l ish , l e ng thw i se
3 950
s pa tu la
s i new
s t r ia t ion s 3 659
a w l
a w l
n eed le
b l ank
m any t h in , f i ne , s ha rp s t r ia t ion s . ma r l in s p ike
i n va s ive p o l i sh ,o s teon s
3 951
a w l
c fa w l
c ommon , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions 3 69 1
i n va s ive p o l ish ,
c ommon , s t r ia t ion s a r ound
i nva s ive p o l ish , s t r ia t ion sa r ound s haf t l a rge rt h an o ther s
g round ,u nu sed
3 962
s pa tu la
n id
l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s a c ro ss t i p
3 698
3 704
g aug ed d r i l l
a w l
a n t le r
a w l
p oo rc ond i t ion ,o s teons , l a rge l i gh ts t r ia t ions
3 964
b lade
f r e sh
f i ne f i n ish ing p o l ish
i n va s ive p o l ish , s t r ia t ion s a r ound s haf t ,
3 966
s capu la
s ca le r ?
s ca le l ike s t r ia t ions , o ve r la in w i th l i gh t
s ome p ocke tw ea r
i nva s ive p o l ish .
3 718
g aug ed d r i l l
a n t le r
o s t eon s , l a rge l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s
3 995
m isc
s ha rp
t h in , s ha rp s t r ia t ion s s t r ia t ions
3 762
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
o s teons ,l a rge l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s
3 996
a w l
a w l
i nva s ive p o l i sh
3 773
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
o s t eons , l a rge l i gh t
4 005
s pa tu la
w i l low?
p o l ished w i th af i ne a b r a s ive ,b o th f i ne a nd
c oa r se s t r ia t ions , s o me e v id o fs e conda ry w ea rt oo 3 774
c h ise l
f r ag i le
f r ag i le
3 775
m isc
s ha rp
t h in s ha rp s t r ia t ions
c oa r se s t r ia t ions . 4 020
m i sc
s ha rp s t r ia t ion s
e roded , f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ion sa c ro ss t i p
4 063
s pa tu la
s i new
many f i ne ,t h in , s ha rp
s t r ia t ions 3 776
m isc
s ha rp s t r ia t ion s
e r oded , t h in s ha rp s t r ia t ions a c ro ss t i p
3 778
g auged d r i l l
g r i t
m any c oa r se s t r ia t ions
3 782
a w l
a w l
3 805
g auged d r i l l
3 820
a w l
3 92 1
g auged d r i l l
s t r ia t ion s . ma r l in s p ike 4 074
b lade
p ocke t
e r oded ,p ocke tw ea r
4 077
b lade
e roded
t oo e r oded , s ome v i s ib le
i n va s ive p o l ish , s t r ia t ions a round s haf t
4 078
a w l
a w l
i nva s ive p o l i sh , s t r ia t ion sa r ound s haf t
n id /wap
e r oded ,b u to ve r lay o f f i ne s t r ia t ions a l ong s haf tv i s ib le
4 080
g auged d r i l l
wood
f i ne l i gh ts t r ia t ion s , wood l ike
a w l
i n va s ive p o l ish ,
4 084
b lade
p ock e t
e rod ed , po c k et
s t r ia t ions a round s haf t
4 088
n eed le
n eed le
e r oded , f i ne p o l ish ,
n id /wap
e r oded ,b u t overl ayo f
osteons
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions
f i ne s t r ia t ions a l ong s haf tv i s ib le
4 090
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne p o l ish , l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
3 922
g auged d r i l l
w ood
f i ne l i gh ts t r ia t ion s , s ome a l ong s haf ta sw e l l
4 093
g auged d r i l l
wood
f i ne l i gh ts t r ia t ion s , w ood l ike
3 925
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
s om e o s teons , l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s
4 094
b lade
n /a
t oo b roken ,n oe dge
3 935
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne p o l ish ,l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions
4 220
c h i se l
wood?
s om ep o l ish w i th l i gh t s t r ia t ion ss im i la rt o wood
3 940
b lade
e roded
e r oded ,n on inva s ive p o l i sh a te x t reme e dge
4 225
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne p o l ish a nd l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ion s ,s ome l i gh t s t r ia t ion sa r ound
3 944
m i sc
s harp s t r ia t ion s
e r oded , f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ions a c ro ss t i p
4 234
g auged d r i l l
wood
f i ne s moo th s t r ia t ion s ,p os s ib le
3 945
a w l
c fa w l
i n va s ive p o l ish
o ve r ly ing p rev ious a n t le r w ea r
1 09
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS O F THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT 4 274
4 275 .1
b l ade
g auged d r i l l
mea t?
a n t le r
l i gh t , m ea t l ike p o l ish i n s ome p lace s , e l sewhe re b r igh tn on inva s ive
1 41
w edg e
wood?
e roded ,n on inva s ive s moo th p o l ish , wood l ike
' p ocke t 'w ea r
1 66
s pa tu la
n id
e r oded ,s ome f i ne s moo th s t r ia t ion s ,b u tv e ry l i t t le a c tua l w ea rv i s ib le
u nc lea r o s teons ,a nd l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s
4 275 .1
4 302
g auged d r i l l
n eed le
w ood
n eed le
1 89
b lade
m ea t l ike
e roded ,f i ne s moo th
e dge , l i gh ta way f r om i t , may b e u se o ro dd
s t r ia t ion
f i n i sh ing p o l ish
f i ne p o l ish a nd l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions , s om e o dd d i agona l s t r ia t ions n ea r
2 09
s pa tu la
s i new
s ma l l s moo th s t r ia t ions , n on inva s ive p o l ish
t i p
2 20
p o in t
n id
m isce l laneous s t r ia t ion s
4 316
b lade
f r e sh
f i ne a b ra s ive p o l ish
4 322
g auged d r i l l
n id
many m isce l laneou s
a r ound s haf ta nd e l sewhe re ,h eav i ly wo rn 2 57
s pa tu la
s i new
s t r ia t ions ,b u tn o ta r ound s haf t 4 345
4 367
g auged d r i l l
n eed le
f r e sh
n eed le
b lade
f r esh
4 423
n eed le
f r e sh
f r e sh ly g round ,m ay b e s ome wood w ea r( f ine s t r ia t ions )r ema in ing
2 99
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r
o s teons ,w i th l a rge l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s
7 83
p o in t
n id
v a r iab le s t r ia t ions a round s haf ta nd e l sewhe re , a l so
f i ne p o l i sh a nd l e ng thw ise
r emnan t so ff i n i sh ing p o l i sh
e roded , b u ta ppea r sf i ne ly p o l ished s ome b r igh tn on inva s ive
9 20
a w l
c fa w l
p oo rc ond i t ion ,i nva s ive p o l ish? p robab ly a w l
1 222
s pa tu la
s i new
e roded , s ome s ma l l s moo th
p o l ish ( ' pocke t ' ) ,b u tn o t
s t r ia t ion s
u sed 4 444
s pa tu la
n id
e roded , g ene ra l c oa r se p o l ish , w i l low l ike
4 445
m isc
h ide?
e roded , many o s teons
1 350
w edge
wood?
n eed le
n eed le
e r oded ,s moo th n on I n va s ive p o l ish w i th many v a r iab le s t r ia t ions
1 370
s pa tu la
mu l t i u se
e xposed , s ome l i gh t s t r ia t ions a way f r om t i p 4 453
n on inva s ive p o l ish , s ma l l s moo th s t r ia t ion s
s t r ia t ion s 4 400
p o l ish h eavy a te x t reme
d i agona l s t r ia t ions f r om g roov ing s ome th ing , o b scu red b yi nva s ive p o l ish a nd o s teons .
f i ne p o l ish a nd l e ng thw ise
1 382
s pa tu la
mu l t i u se
s t r ia t ion s
s ma l l s moo th s t r ia t ions ( s inew ) a nd f i ne c oa r se d i agona l s t r ia t ions ( w i l low? )
4 470
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne p o l ish a nd l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
4 475
n eed le
n eed le
f i ne p o l ish a nd l e ng thw ise
e roded ,s ome l i gh t d i agona l g r ind ing o r
s t r ia t ions
f i n i sh ing s t r ia t ions
1 572
4 484
s pa tu la
w i l low?
l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ions
1 601
b l ade
g auged d r i l
f r e sh
a n t le r
p e rpend icu la rt oe dge a nd a l ong o ne s i de 4 489
b lade
mea t?
e roded , l i gh tp o l ish a t e x t rem e e dge
4 497
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r ?
e roded , s ome o s teons a nd
4 543
b lade
f r e sh
c oa r se s t r ia t ions , p o s s ib ly w i th g r i te a r l ie r 1 702
s pa tu la
s i new
s ma l l s moo th s t r ia t ions
1 780
s pa tu la
s i new
s ma l l s moo th s t r ia t ions
v ague s t r ia t ion s
1 900
s pa tu la
s i new
s ma l l s moo th s t r ia t ions
e roded ,p o l i shed ,s ome
1 903
a w l
a w l
f i ne f i n ish ing p o l ish ,
a r ea s o fb r igh tn on i nva s ive ' p ocke t 'w ea r
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions 1 904
a w l
a w l
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions a nd f i ne f i n ish ing p o l ish
1 928
b l ade
f r e sh
e r oded ,b u to n ly f i n ish ing p o l i sh v i s ib le
K ITT IGAZU IT ( N ITR -2 ) BCN
OBJECT
WEAR TYPE
o s teon s w i th l a rge ,l i gh t
WEAR DESCR IPT ION
10
APPEND IX ONE 1 992
a w l
a w l
f i ne f i n ish ing p o l i sh ,
5 45
s pa tu la
wound p in
l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
f i ne l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ions , s o me f i ne s moo th s t r ia t ions
THE P OND S ITE ( N ITS 2 )
p e rpend icu la rt ot h em s im i la rt o Gupuk wound p ins
BCN
OB JECT
WEAR TYPE
WEAR DESCR IPT ION
0 20
s pa tu la
n id
er o d ed ,c oa r se
s t r
i a ti o ns
5 48
s nowkn if e
f r e sh?
a c ro ss t i p 0 51
b l ade
f r e sh
f i ne f i n ish ing p o l i sh ,n o u se
0 75
s capu la
s ca les?
e roded , f i sh l ike
s c r ape r
e v idence o fu se
p i ck
i c e
many o s t eon se xpo sed , s ome m isce l laneou s s t r ia t ion s
1 08
b l ade
f r e sh
f i ne f i n ish ing p o l i sh ,n o u se
1 27
s pa tu la
n id
e roded , l i gh tc oa r se
5 79
s c apu la s c rape r
s ca le s?
n eed le
n eed le
e i the r
f i ne c oa r se s t r ia t ions s im i la rt oe i the rf i ne f i sh s ca le s o rh a ir .
5 92
s pa tu la
p in?
t i pm i ss ing , f i ne l e ng th w ise s t r ia t ion s
5 98
a w l
a w l
e r oded , s o me a w l l ike s t r ia t ions b u th a rd t os ee
6 57
c h ise l
n id
f i ne s t r ia t ion sa np o l ish a te dge , s t r ia t ion si n
s t r ia t ions a c ro s st i p 1 4 1
-
f r e sh o rt oo c l ose t o h and le f o ru se
s t r ia t ions
0 90
a ( f i b r n i a s i h i ve ng ) p o l is b u ht n o c l ea r
many d if f er en td i r ec t ions
f i ne l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
6 75
a w l
a w l
a nd p o l ish
e roded ,s ome o s t eon s , s o me f i ne s t r ia t ions a round s haf t
1 93
p i ck
i c e
many o s teon sv i s ib le , c l ea r ly i c e
6 86
p i ck
i c e
e roded b u to s teons v i s ib le
7 07
b l ade
f r e sh
e r oded ,n oe v idence o fu se
1 98
b lade
f r e sh
f i n i shed ,b u tn ou se
2 14
b lade
f r e sh
f i n i shed ,b u tn ou se
2 38
b lade
f r e sh
f r e sh ly g round
2 61
n eed le
n eed le
CACHE PO INT ( NHTS l)
g auged d r i l l
w ood
OBJECT
WEAR TYPE
WEAR DESCR IPT ION
3
a w l
a w l
e roded ,b u tt yp ica l a w l w i th i nva s ive p o l ish a nd a
f i ne l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ion s a nd p o l ish
2 83
NUM
wood l ike s t r ia t ion s ,b u t
f ew f i ne s t r ia t ion s
ab i tc oa r se rt h an o n o the rd r i l l s
6 4
s pa tu la
n id
n on inva s ive p o l ish w i th l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ions ,
2 91
g auged d r i l l
n id
n o i d en t if iab le w ea r v i s ib le
s im i la rt ow i l low b yn o t q u i te i t
3 40
b lade
f r e sh
f i ne f i n ish ing p o l ish ,n o u se
8 88
m i sc
n id
m isce l laneou s c oa r se s t r ia t ion s ,i nva s ive p o l ish
3 68
c h ise l
f r e sh
f r e sh g r ind ing s t r ia t ions o b scu re p rev iou s u se p o l i sh
8 95
p i ck
e a r th?
e roded ,s t r ia t i ons butno o s teon s
4 16
f o r e shaf t
s haf t
v e ry l a rge s t r ia t ions ,
9 43
g auged d r i l l?
p ocke t
e x ten s ive n on in v a s i v e
a lmo s tg ouge s ,a r ound s haf t 4 18
p i ck
i c e
e r oded b u to s teon sv i s ib le
4 63
s capu la
s ca le s?
e roded ,s om eo s t eo ns
s c rape r
5 11
b lade
b r igh tp o l ish ,n o s t r ia t ion s a r ound s haf t 9 72
s hea th?
l s i t r g i h a t t io l e n n g s t , hw is s i em i la rt o ' s hea th w ea r 'a t Gupuk
e xpo sed , f i ne f i sh l ike
m ea t l ike?
b l ade
1 010
s pa tu la
e roded
s om e i nva si v ep o l ish ,
s t r ia t ions
m isce l laneous c oa r se
l i gh tn on inva s iv e pol ish
s t r ia t ion s
mo s te v iden ta te x t r eme
5 4 1
c h ise l
n id
e dge
S AUNAKTUK ( NGTN l)
l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s d i agona l ly a nd p a ra l le l t o e dge
BCN
11
OBJECT
WEAR TYPE
WEAR DESCR IPT ION
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT 4 7
s pa tu la
h ide?
5 8 .1
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r ?
e roded ,s ome e xpo su r eo f o s teons , i nva s ive p o l i sh
3 80
a w l
a w l
i nva s ive p o l ish w i th s ome
3 83
g auged d r i l l
a n t le r ?
e xposed o s teon s a nd l i gh t s t r ia t ion s a r ound s haf t 5 8 .2
g auged d r i l l
w ood
6 0
g auged d r i l l
n id
f i ne p o l i sh a nd l i gh t l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ions i nva s ive p o l ish w i th af ew l i gh ts t r ia t ions a r ound s haf t
s ome e ro s ion ,s moo th f i ne s t r ia t ion sa round s haf t
3 86
m isc
n id
l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ion s , l i gh t ,w i th s ome c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a r ound s haf t
e roded , s moo th i nva s ive
3 91
s pa tu la
w i l low?
l i gh td i agona l s t r ia t ion s
p o l ish ,n os t r ia t ion s a r ound s haf t
i nt wo d i r ec t ion s ,l i gh t i nva s ive p o l ish ,s o me e xposu r eo fo s t eon s
6 4
a w l
a w l
e roded ,b u tf i ne s t r ia t ion sa nd p o l ish mo s t
4 06
b lade
s hea th
l i ke a w l 8 6
f o re shaf t
s haf t
l i gh tp o l i sh ,f a in t s t r ia t ion s ,s im i la rt o s hea th w a ra tG upuk
e r oded , l a rge s t r ia t ions , a lmo s tg ouge s ,a r ound s haf t
4 23
b lade
n id
l i gh tp o l ish ,u n l ike o the r s
p i ck
i c e
o s teon se xpo sed
1 08
p i ck
i c e
n o tc l ea r ,s o me o s t eon s
1 324
1 37
a w l
a w l
e roded ,b u tf i ne p o l ish a nd l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
MACFARLANE COLLECT ION
1 63
s c apu la
f r e sh
f r esh g r ind ing s t r ia t ion s
NUM
OBJECT
2 15
s i new t w i s te r
s i new
s moo th n on inva s ive p o l ish w i th f i ne s ha rp s t r ia t ion s
2 249 .1
f o r eshaf t
s t r ia t ion s ,a lmo s t g oug ing a round s haf ta so n o t he rf o r e shaf i s
2 18
c h ise l
p ocke t
e roded , s ome s t r ia t ion s , b r igh tn on inva s ive p o l i sh
7 422 .1
e ndb lade
n on inva s ive p o l ish , e x ten s ive c l o se t ot i p , v e ry l i gh te l sewhe re ,a
3 25
a w l
a w l
WEAR TYPE
e r oded ,b u tf i ne p o l ish
f ew l a rge s t r ia t ions
a nd l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s 3 28
p i ck
i c e
o s t eon se xpo sed
3 41
b l ade
f r e sh
e roded ,b u tn oe v idence o f
7 445 .1
ma r l in s p ike
s i new
3 43
a w l
g auged d r i l l
3 47
a w l
3 51
n e tg auge
a w l
n id
a w l
f i ne s moo th s t r ia t ion s a t v a r ious a ng le s , mo s t ly l e ng thw i se
7 445a . 1s i new t w i s te r
s i new
u se 3 42
WEAR DESCR IPT ION
f in es moo th s t r ia t ion s a s w e l l a s many m isce l laneou s s t r ia t ion sa n as moo th p o l i sh
e roded ,b u tl i gh t l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s , a w l l ike e roded ,l e ng thw ise l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s ,n one a round s haf t
7 445b .1 s i new t w i s te r
s i new
f i ne s moo th s t r ia t ion s , g ene ra l ly t h es ame a s 7 445a .1
7 446 .1
s i new
v e ry f i ne s moo th s t ria ti o n sa c ro s s t i p , l e s ss moo th ,h eav ie r s t r ia t ion sa way f r om t i p
ma r l in s p ike
e roded ,b u tf i ne p o l i sh a nd l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ions
( a no the ru se? ) s ome o s teons e xpo se , g ene ra l o ve ra l lp o l ish
7 448 .1
ma r l in s p ike
s i new
w i th l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s mo s t ly
s moo th s t r ia t ion sa cro s s t i p
p erpend icu la rt ot h ee dge , b u ta l so i no the r
7 488b . Is i new t w is te r
s i new
d i rec t ion s 3 54
a w l
a w l
s pa tu la
w i l low?
e roded , f i ne c oa r se s t ri a t ion s , mo s ts im i la rt o w i l low
3 71
a w l
a w l
e roded ,b u tf i ne p o l ish a nd l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
r ough t e xt ur e( d epos i t s? ) , s ome s ma l l d i scon t inuou s s t r ia t ions i nb unches , a l so s moo th f i ne s t r ia t ion s
e roded ,b u tf i ne p o l ish a nd l e ng thw ise s t r ia t ion s
3 69
v e ry f i ne a nd l a rge r
7 488c . 1s i new t w is te r
12
s i new
g ene r a l ly s im i la rt o 7 488b .1 w i th s ome s po t so f amode ra t e ly i n va s ive w ea r , manuf a c tu r e mo re c l ea r ly v i s ib le
0 V
0 U
0 0 C
U
•0
0
U
•0 .0
. 0
. 0
0
0
0
0
.0 U
-
0
. 0 0
0
b0 c-
. 0 0
. 0 . 0 . 0 0 C
0 C
0 0
0 0 00
V
U
. . 0
C O
C
0 C
0 , C . . U 0 0
' ,
C
C
>
0
O
0
0
C O - -V C 0 U
C
. 0
. 0
0 .0 .0 .0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0
> . O .
. 0 .0 C C
C O C
U ‚ C
O C . C C O 0 0 C O
C O
0
0
b
0
C
0
C
0
0
O .o
0 C 0 0
.
0 .0 0 C
U ) 0 0
. 0 •0 C C 0 0 0 0
0 .
• 0
C 0
0
0
0
2
c .0
0 0 )
0
0
0
00
C
O
O
C V 0 C C
O
O
)
C C O
C O
C
0 >
V
C O E
C O
C
U
' _
l i
'
C
Q o > O - C C) 0 0 0 0 U
0.
C O .
U .C U .0 U 0 0 . 0 U U
C O - ,U C
C O 0
.-
C
v
C
C
O ‚ . 0 0 ..
C 0 -
0
0
b
0 )
C 0
O
0 0 0 0 0 0 t h
0 U
0 . C O C U .0
U
>
>
O
O
oo
C ) C .
U
O
V
0
-
-
.0
V
4
> 0 O
C O
U
0 0
C -
C O
U
C
C O
C O
C
C
C O
C
C O
C
C O
'2-
0
C
C. 0 V 3 -
C .
. 0
C
C
C
U
C
C O
C O
C
C
c u
-
C
-
C
o 2 -
V
U
0
0
.0 U
0 0 > . 0
0 C O
0 0 C
C
-w
b C
C
C C)
9
U
o
U
C
C
0 0 . 0
0
V
0 )
U
C )
0
..
0
U
3 -
C
U
U
.0 0
C 0 O
. 0
V
U
0 )
U
0 )
U
U
V
0 . 0
0 . 0 .0 0 .0 0
C O
.0 0
.0 0
.0 0
C
> O
C -
C
c
C
C -
. C -C O V C .0
. o
' . >
O
C O
0 0 0
CO
0 0 0 . 0 ...
C .
U 0 C O
0
C O0 .0 0 0.0 0
U
0 )
0 0 C O
0 0
U.
.0
.0
. 0 0
0 . 0
C 0 O
. 0 0 0. 00 . 0 . 0 .0
. 0
. 2
. 0
2
U
2 0
C 0 O
0 0 C O . 0
E -w
F -
. 0
C C -
0
.0 C . . . .
O
0
C
\ Q '0 ‚0 '0 ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 N
C-
0 . 0
. ' ,
0 0 C O
C O
2
2
. .
. ' .
0 o o- o
Cl 0-4 C O)
N
M
N
N
N
N N
3
. ‚
C C O
> . 0
U
0
N
N
N
0 0
2
OO CO . 0
C 0 0
U
U
0 )
03
0 .
C O . 0
C 0 O
0
C
C
C
C
0
Q
O
O
C
. 0
C 0 O . 0
0
2 C O
C O
U
U
EE
-
. U 0
. 0 C O
U .0
0O 2 .0
U
U
. ‚
2
00 . 0
2
U
0
C
CO
.0 . 0 U
V
O0
b CE. . , oE
U
00
0 . 0
en
N N N C \ C N C \ O N O
C 0 0
en
O
en
O
-
0
. 0
0 . CO
O
O
C
O
C
C
C
C
C.
0
0
o2 29 2 9 23 9
0
0
C
99 2 .
) C
2
U
0 0
00
. 0
C
' . 00
O
0 . . 0
0 )
0
0 0 00
O
C
C
o
C
C
o
c .
C
-
C
0 C )
0
C 0 0
• 0
0 .
-C O
U
0 C 0
C
.
)
0 . 0
-
0 0 U
Cl 0 4 en 0 N 00 en 0 0 -0 00 C Ir vI lo N N N 00 _ _ 0 00 0 0 00 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 ' C \ 0 0
.
.
. 0 U
-
2
U .0
C O . 0 . 0 .0
C
0 C
2 92 2
O
C O
C
C
0
0
3 0
T W O : M A N U F A C T U R I N G D E S C R I P T I O N S
B L A N K E X T .
CC O
C O
c-
C O
C O
C l .
C O
C O
C O
.0
U C
0 .0
u
U C
U C
V C
C ) C
U C
U C
U C
U C
u
U C
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
m0i z 0i D0i z m m mi z
N
00
CO CO
C O
C O
0
0
C O
C O
C O
E
O
C O.
0
C O
2 °o
2 .
C
'C)
C )
C )
U
U
U
0 )
U
U
U
U
O
>
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
. 0
_
. 0
. 0 .0
O
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
0 0
0 0
0 0'
. ) U
C . 0
C O
2
. 0
C O
V
C . 0 . 0 . 0
' . 2 .2 22
C O
C O
O
C O
C O.
2
0
0
C ) 0
U
U
U
U
0
0
U 0
U 0
C ) 0
U 0
0 ) 0
U 0
C ) 0
U 0
U
0 . 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
. 0
C O
10
0 . 0
C O
V
0 . 0
C OC OC O 0C O 0C O 0O . 0C O ( C )
= .
C
. 0
CO 0 . U U C U U
. 0
. 0 . 0 U
V
C O CO
CO
0 0 0 0 00 ( 3 0.
0 .' .. ,
2
0 0 00 00 . . .
On 00 On 0 en 0' - N 0 ' 0 0 ‚ .0 0' 0 00 0 1 N N N 0 0 0 ' 0' 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' C O n 0 ' ' 0 0 e n ' VI ' 0 ' . 0 ' 0 ' . 0 0 -- N C N 0 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 ' . 0' P C 4 0 0 0 4 ( N 0 4 ( N 0 4 en On en en en en r, C -) e n e n e n e n e n e n en en en en en en -
i )Z r m
C
.
t z A S
C -
0 C
.
0
C
0 ) 0
C
C O
0 )0 0
.
0 . 0 . 0 . . E
U
3 0
.0
0 ,0
C O
C
U
E
C O
V
. 0
o
C )
C O
.0
U >
-
C O
A P E N D I X
Cl .
. 0
U
U
0 )
C O
CO
_ .
0 0 U O C E
0 0 0
0
0 0 U .
0 0 2
. 0
N 0 0 0 0
U
U 00
0
00 ' .o
C O
U 0 .
C
00 e n 0 0 e 0 en en On
. 0 E C E
0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 0t 2 C C O . 2 C . C > C C C C o C 0 O C U O C O 0 E C O 0 o . 0 o 0 . 0 C 0 C U o . 0 C C 0 0 ) C o C 0 2 . O C O Q C O C O 0 . O 0 C U O . U C 0 0 0
P R O X I M A L
U
. 0
0 )
U
V
. 0
. 0 C l.
00
-
U
C O
C )
0 U . -
0 . )
U
.0
0
-w
N
C )
C O . 0 . 0
. 0
0 0
00
U C?
0 C O . 0 . 0 . 0
( 30 0 U ( 3 i U E 0 2 U U 0 C O C O 0 2 C O U 0 . 0 ._ U >
0
0 . 0 0
• 0
C ?
0
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
O
0
b
0
O
C ) C O
O
0
0
C O
C C
0 0
t 0
O
.0 0
. 0
.
. 0 . 0 0 0
0 O o
C -
C O
0
C ?
. 2
0
O 0.
0 0
. 0 0
_
.
0 00 0
o t o t o t ot 0
0
0
t o
0
-
•
0
-
0
2.
0
t 00 00
t o0
0
O
C )
C
0 C
O
t
C C
0
0 0
0 0
C
0
0
0
to
C -O 0 C 00 C C
.
C .,
_
-
-
C ?
-0
0 =
0 0 t 0CC
t oo
. 0
0
0
0
0
-0
-
0
.0
0
0
.0
0
0
C
bt o
C
-
•
0
0
-
00
0
-0 0
0
0
C C O
0.
0
C
•
C
•
0
0
-
0 .
C
C -
0 0
. 0 .0 0 0 0
0
0
. 0 0
. 0 . 0 0 0
0
0
.0 . 0 0 0
0
=
C
t ot ot ot ot o. .
C ) C O
C
0
-
0
0
• 0
0
•0
0
-
bo bo
0
0
t OC
'
. 0 .0 0 0
0
-0
-0 0 .
0.
E
C )
0 0 00 0 0 0 0
C ?
C .
0
.
C O C
E
0
C C
. 0
0
0
0 =
0
•0 C C C )
C C
C O
0
0
0 0
0
0
t ot ob 0 C -
C
0 .
.
0
0
0
0
P
l u
C ?
.0
C O
.0
0
0
C ?
C
C -
0
C ?
C C 0 C 0 O C C . 0 C )
0
C )
C -
. 0 C )
C
.
.
C
CC
0 C0
C
.
0 C ? >
0
2
. 0
C ?
C ? >
.
CO -
C . .
C C
C
C ?
. 0
C ?
C ?
C ?
C ?
C ?
0 0
0
C C
E
0 0
-
-
>
O 0
C C
.0
.0 C ?
‚0 C ?
_
0 C C
C O
0 0 0.
0
C C
C0
0
C O
4
-
0
C
C
C C)
C C
C
t o . 0
0
0
0
0 0
C -
C V
C )
C )
0
C O
C -
C -
C O
CC
C C1
C
C
0
0
0
0
0 O
C
C C O?
0
. 0
C ?
C ?
> O 0
C C ?
C ?
O 0
t o . 0
C ?
> 0
C
0
0 0
t o 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.0
.0
.0
. 0 C ?
‚0 C ?
: ; C C
-
C C C
0
0
0
0
0 0
C C
.0
0
0
0
0
0
. 0 .0 . 0 .0 .0
0 C o
0 0 C C
C ?
0 C
0 "
0 0
. 0
K D
C ?
0 0
C C ?
t C ?
C C )
C ?
C
C
C
C
C
0 . 0
C )
. 0
C )
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .0 .0 . 0 . 0 .0 . 0 . 0 .0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .0 .0 .0 . 0 .0 .0 .0 . 0 .0
C ?
'm c)
C ?
C O .0 C ?
0
0
0
0 0 . 0
C C
0 C
0
. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .0 . 0
C C
C ? _
"
O C .C C ._ C ?
C
C
C C C ?
C
C
O
O
. 0
r m
O
C C .
C C -
C ? C ?. 5
.CO
.C O
C )
C. C O 0 .
0 0 . 0 C C
C ?
C ? _
0
0 0
. 0
. 0 C ?
0 C
C ? C?
C )
C ? .
C C _ .
E
• 0
'0
• 0
C ?
‚0 C ?
‚0 C ?
0 0 C )
0 0 . 0
C
C
C O
C ? C ?
C )
_
C O '
E
C ?
•
‚0 C ?
0 0 C )
C O
C
C O
.
C C
..
C
C C C C C .
.
. 0 C ?
= 0
.0
‚0 C ?
C ? .$2
C )
0 "
0 0
o
O C
C ? C ?.
0 0
0 0
0
C C
' 0 C ?
C
0
C
C
_
C C .0
-0
0 0 . .
= 0 0 0 C . 0
.0
0 0
.0
= 0
C C
.0 .
C )
C O O
0
0 0 0
C
O
C
C .
0 0
.0
‚0 ‚0 C ?
C C C
C OE ' 00 0 E 0O . 0 . 0 0 O C O E E C O E . 00 00 . 0 . 00 0S0 00 C S O OE . 0 0C O . 0 5 00 C . C OC ,C OC , C O. 0 C E O D
C O
- C ' r-
0 0
‚0 C ?
0 .
C C C -
0
0
0
0
t o
t ot 0t 0
0
C OC .
C .
0 0
C
N
0
I
> 0
C ?
C O
0
C ?
-
C
C ?
0
0
0 0 .0
0 C
CO
C ? .
O
C
EE
.0
= C C
E
O 0
. 0 0O CO
0 0 . 0
0 C C
C ?
>
C C ?
C
•0 C ?
C ?
.0
0
0
0
0
0 C C
0
0
0 0
0
C 0
0
C -
b t o '
C ? ' . .
0
0 C
C ? 0 . C
C O C ?
C O 0
0 0 0 C
0
0
0
CC
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
C O
0 0
0
C -
t O t 0 00
0 0
C -
0 . C C C
C C )
0 C O
C O C ?
0
0
C -
C OCO
u
C O
C O
0 C .
C -
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C O t 0 00
C ' l N
N
N
C ? 0. C C
0 . 0. C
C -
N
‚0
‚0 C
C '
0 0 0 C
.
C O 0
N
C ?
C C -
00 0
r O C
0 C C -
0
0
t O,
0
0
0
0
0
t o
0
0
0
0
C O O
C C
0 0 0 C C t O CO
0 O
C 0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
C CC
o 0t ot 00
.0
.
t O
‚0
‚0
0
5 0
• C 00
.
C )
E l
‚0 0
. 0 C
. 0
0
0
C -
. 0
0 .
C C C -
0
'.
0
‚0
0 .
0
. . .
0
0 -. .
U S E W E A R A N L Y S I O N B O N E A N D A N T L E R T O L S O F T H E M A C K E N Z I E I N U I T
0
C ?
C
- c 0 0
. 2 0
c ' .
C C Q
0 O O
C )
0
C ? '
o 0
C
C C -C ? .. ?C
C ? C -
C -
0 0
0 0
0 . . 0
. 0
>
j
t O t O "C
0
. o
C 0.
C )
o 0
C 0
C 0
>
C )
0
0.
0 0 . 0
= 0
= 0
0 . 0 C ? C O C )
C
0
C ?
C ?
C -
C
C
0 0 0 0 .0 .0 .0 . 0 .0
. .
.
_
C C
0 0 0 0 C C .0 . 0 . 0
t O
0
0
0
0
‚ 0 0
. 0 0
. 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
C
0
0
t o
0
C
C
‚ 0 0
. 0 0
. 0
0
0
C -
t ot o
C C
o
, 30
t o
C O C C ). _ . 0
C
C C
0
C ?
0 .0
0
C )
0
. 0 0 ? OO o
C cC C ? 0 0 .0
C CC 0 0
C
0 0
0
C ?
0
2
C 0 0
0
0 l . 0
> 0
.
> O
C -
0
C
C 0
C ?
o 0
C O t O
.
C
0
0
5 O OC .0
0
= 0
0 C 0 0 0 0 C C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C . 0 0 JD . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .0 . 0 . 0
C C
C C -
C C
C ?
0
C C C
C ?
C
C
--
CC
O
C
C
C
CC
C
I . .
=
0 0 C .0
= o
C C
0 O
.0
0 0
.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 . 0 .0
0 0 o 2 .0
= o
C
C
C
C
C C
C
C ?
C ?
C --
0 c
0 0 0 0 C C .0 . 0 . 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 . 0 .0
=
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .0 .0 .0
C C
' 0
C ?
C. . 0 0 0 0 O
C C
. 0 C ?
0 0 . 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
C
C
0
C
C O 0 0 C O
' 0 N W)
0
4 D
o C O
5
C O r C
0 0
O C ' - ' 0 �o 00 N C 'C
5 00 0 N
C O C
0 0 C C _
0 0.0
N
-
N
O _
0.
C ?
0 . V
m
N
.
-
'T
N
C ? C ?
0
C .0
I '
0
C
0 0
' 0 '0 N N
.C O
0 0 . 0 C O
_
E 5
00
0 N
0
C C
C C C ) C O
C C ? C . C ? C O 0
O Cr , 0 N ' 0 N 00 N N N N N
0
C
C ) C ?
0 0 0
0 N
N
0 0 0
. 0
O C
C ? C )
C D
C O _
C ) C O __
E o S
N Cr , C N 0 5 C s C s 0 N N N
C ) . _ C C C.
'
0
C _ . 0
' 0 O s C 0 C .
C O
‚0
‚0
‚0 C ?
0 0 0 C -. _
C
C C
_
0 0 0 . 0 0 . 0
rf l
-
'
‚ 0 C )
0 C ?
O C
O C
0 0 0 0 C C
C
'0 0
0
‚0 C )
-
_.
. 0 C )
C O _ • _
C C
.0
E
C C
C ' - 0 0 r
O C
0 0. 0
I r
‚0 C ?
C ?
C
O C
C
0 0 . 0
C C C O . _
C
C O E .
' 0 ' 0 0 5 N
o
5
N
V
C ?
0
C ?
C ?
C ?
0
C )
C
0
O
C
C O C O
0 o s 0' 0
-
C o
C o
' C
0 0 00
C . 'C
C
C ‚ C ' C
0 0
0 0
0 0
‚ C ‚ C
C o C
' C
C
' C ' C ' C ' C ' C
C
C
t o C C )o C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
‚ C ' C
C
' C
-
C‚ C
C
‚ C 'C
'
C
0 , C
' C ' . C
C
O
C o
, C
C
C
' C ‚C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C 'C
C
C
O C
C
C
C
C
C
C
0 C ,0 C
'C
C C . -
, 0 , 0
0
C b o t ü u
0 0
C
C O
C o
0 0
C. _
E C
‚ C ) C 0 o C b C ) C o 0 6 ‚C ‚C C C
.
0
‚ C
C C
C C ) C
. C
-
C
. 0
-
C -
C ' ) C
C
‚ C C
' S.,
C
C -
‚ C ‚ C
e C
O C C o C -
‚ C C O
‚ C
C C O C o '
C O
C O
C
C )
C
C
0 ,0 ,0
C )
C ) C C
C )
‚C C ' -
5 ) 50
C )
C )
‚ C ) ‚ C )
C C 0 0 C
C O
C O
C )
5 0 50
c o
C
C
C
O
C
C
0
. 0
C )
C C )
C )
C
C
C
C '
C
.0 ,0 . 0 .0 .0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0
‚ C )
C C C o
‚ C )
6. 0
C O C 0 , C
o
' 3 O C s o
C )
.
C O
E
. 0
C
C
C
C
‚ C
C -
C o C C C o
C C
C
C
C
C
O
C
C
C
C
C
C
C o C ) C C C o 6
‚ C
0 0 C C C 0 C o C
C o C C C , C s o C o
‚ C ‚C ‚ C C ) C ) C C
0 0 C ' N Sf N l N
f l
C
C o
C 0
C 0 C
CC 0 2 OC0 ' C C0 ' C OO 0 ' C C' O C' CC C )0 C )0C ' 5 0s 0 . , C
‚C C
C -
'
C
C
C
0 ‚ C 0C 0 ' O C C . C C ' C
) C
C O
C
O
C
C
C-
C
C
C
C
C
C O
C
C
C
C
C O .0 ,0 . 0
C
C O ‚ 0 . 0 . 0 .0
C )
C ' - N
‚ E C
C 2 3
C o ‚ C C C )
‚ C C C
C o C o 0 . C
0 0 0
C . 0
C . - -
S Q N
Cr ) -
N
"
C.
C
C
0 C
C
C )
C )
C
C )
, 0 ,C
C
C
C
C
,
C
C )
C o C ) C
C . 0
0
C o
6
C o Co
C '
‚
C )
, O
0 . ‚ C
0 0 C C r f l 0 0 C C
'
C o C o C
C ' - C ' -
C
5 )
C )
0
. 0
C
C
C )
,
C )
C
C O3 C
C
C )
C ‚0
l C )
C O C
C
C
C
C
C .0 .0
C2
C O
0 0 0 0 C C C
C )
CS ,
C o 0 0 C
6
C ' S C C N
C ' -
-
' E C ) C ' 3 C )
C o 0 0 C C
C
c. C )
( 0 ‚ 0 .0 .0 ‚0 .0 ‚ 0 . 0 . 0 .0
C C ‚ ‚ 3 C ) ' 3 ‚ C )
‚ C C
)'
0
C
‚ ‚ 3 C )
C )
C o C o oC C C
C
C
C
C )
C )
)
C
-
' C 0
‚ C
C '
-
0 0 >
0 .
C
C . )
0
C
0
e ' . ‚ C
'
C
r )
00
C
C )
'
'
.0
‚C
C
. 0 ‚C .0
C
C C
r )
s
N
'C ‚C
' C' C ‚ C ‚ C
‚C
C ‚ C ‚ C
C O
2
C -
2
C )
C
N
N
C CO ‚ C
C '
C
‚ C ' s C
O C
C
CC
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
' C
C
'
C C )
C ) ‚ C ' ‚ S S C C C V
‚C
‚ C
C ) > C Q
C ) > C C
C
C
3
C )
C )
C )
C )
C ) C)
0 0
,0
C
C
0
‚ C ‚ C ' C
C
O
C
C
C o C o C
C C
0
C 0
C -
0
' C
C
0 C -
0 0 C o
'
C ) ' C ' C
-
'
C -
C o
C
C
‚ C )
C ) s o
N
N
N
N
2 C o
C )
0
N
C )
‚ C
0 0 C
, 0 0 O
C )
C
C ,C C
C C
C C C. . .
C . .
' C
0
C
C -
C C)
C
C
0
0
0
C
C
C -
C -
C -
,
C
S.
C o s o
C
C )
C
' C
C
C C C o C o 0 0 C
‚ C
c ' C C )
0 )
C
°
C
C
5 0 S C C)
C )
C '
C '
C '
N
N
N
N
C S n N N N N
C
C
. 0
C )
C
C )
C
C
C
, 0
C > C O C O. .. .0
C , 0
C C O
C C O
0 C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 C 0 C C C C C ‚0 . 0 . 0 ‚ 0 ‚0 . 0 . 0 ‚ 0 ‚ 0
C
C
0 C . 0
C
C O C C o C O
C -
C )
'C C ' s,
‚ C
‚C 'C
-
C
C.
C
C
C _
S..
'C C )
‚ C C ) >
C
C
C
,. ,
0
C
C C C
-
C ' -
, 0
.
C „
C
'
C . ‚
C
S
C ,
.
C
C ',
C
S
C ,,
.
C
.
C
C
C ) C
C
O
, 0
C
',
C
C
C O )
C
. 0
C O
C )
C
C
C
C C
2
C C1
C o . 0
0
C
C
0. _
C )
C
C , 0
C C 0 C 0 C ‚ 0 ‚0
0 C C C 0 . 0 ‚0
1
0 C 0 C C 0 C 0 0 0 , 0 .0 , 0 . 0 ‚ 0 ‚ 0
C )
C
'3
,
0 0 0 C C C , 0 . 0 ‚ 0 .0 .0 , 0
C -
s o
C ‚ C
C )
‚ C
F C
o
C O
C
' -'
‚ C
C .'C )
' O C ' C o C ' 0 S C C C _ N N N N N N S n S n S n S n S n S n S n N N N N N N N N N N N N
o . ,
.
'
' 3
‚ C
' -'
C
p C. C o C )
' .Q
C ) C
-
C C
C -
‚C
-
C
C ) ' C
C
C ) C C
C
C )
-
. 0 O C )
C C )
C )
' C C C C C C C C C C C C C 0 C 0 C ,0 ‚0 . 0 , 0 . 0 . 0 .0
N
C ' C 0 0 C s o C C ' C
C , , , C )
C o ‚ C
‚ C
C oCC ) C0 0CC C , 0 ( 0 C C o s o 00 C o ' C ,o
C
C o
‚ C
‚ C C ) 0 , C
C ' C ' O S C C CC C C N N N
-
‚ C
C ) 0 ‚ C 0
'C
C.
C C
5 ) C o 0 , 0 5 0 C C - CO
C C C C 0 C C ‚0 .0 ‚ 0 . 0 , 0
‚ C 0 )
CO
C
) C
0 s . 0
C
C
' 6 0 C CC ) 0 )
C l .
C ' ) ' ) • C C
0
0
C
C O
C )
C CC , . .
' C C C )
‚ C
‚ C
C
‚ C C )
0
C o 'C
C
> C > C
s C . ot ' .
C . 0 .0
‚ C )
‚C
‚C
'C
>
C ‚ C )
C
6 E
Cr ) C ' N
C )
C 0
C -
‚ C ‚C C O C C C C
O C O j )
C -
C )
C
. ',
C 0
C )
C
C
C O
0 0
C )
‚ ‚ 3 C E ' C
0 0 C ) ,
C
0 0 C
C C )o
C o C C L C C o C 2
C
C
'
C
C 3 0
C
0
C
> 0
C ) cO C
s o
E C '
‚ C ‚ C
0 C o
r )
‚ C > C )
C 0
C C
C
O
‚ C
'
N ' 0 ' N S . 0 Q ' N C 0 . ' N C ' . ' 0 N C 'C C N ' - N s 5 Q . ' N r C . ' N 0 r 0 - N C 0 C 0 0 N C C 0 N 0 N 0 N 0 0 N 0 00 N C . ' 0 N 0 0 0 N 0 0 N 0 0 N C ' 0 0 C N ' 0 N C 0 ' N C ' 0 N C ' - C N s - N C ' N C ' C N ' S ' C N ' S ' N C . ' 0 N C 0 ' 00 C N ' C N ' S C S C n S C N C f l S C C S n C S n C n C S r C f n l I C n C C S C n S C C f n ' C . n 0 S C ' C n C S ' C n 0 s C C . n - S C C 0 ' n 0 C f n C n c Sn o n
A P E N D I X T W O
C'
0 0 C C O 0 0
‚ C )
) O ,C
C O .0 .0 .0 . 0 ‚ 0 . 0 .0 .0 . 0 . 0 ,0
‚ C ) ‚ C ) ‚ C ) C o C C C o
‚ C )
C ) C o C , ‚ 0 C
C C C C C o C o 0 0 C C
> C D
C
C -
0
‚ C ‚ C ' C
C ) ‚C
• ' 5
c ' . ‚ C
C
ö z. . .
C o '
' C 0 0 0 C ) 0
C C C C . 'C s o C -0 2 0 C -C0S . , '? C
t o b o t o Ö D n , t
C
0 C 0
0
5 0
N
N
C ) ‚ s C C
C )
N N
N
N
00 ‚ C
‚ C ‚ C
‚ C
‚ C
‚ C ‚ C
‚ C
0
-
‚
N
N
( 0, C o ‚C ) ‚ C ) C ) C C ) C )
N
0 QQ
0
N
N
N
N
' 3
C O C C C
N C r ) N
C
CS' S
N
N
‚ C C
‚ C
C C
C S ' S N
"'
CS' S
N
C
s o
C
C '
C '
C '
r5
C S 'S
CS' S
C S ' S
N
N
N
N
‚
C
C )
C )
N N S n ' C ' C ' C ' C N N
C D
C D
0
0
C
0
0
0
0
0
C D
V V V V 0 0 0 0
o
0
0
2
0
C
0
0
C . )
C D2
0 .
5-
V 0 . 0
C . )
C . 0
u
C D
E
0
0
C C 0 C D C D
V
V 0
>
0 )
C D
C V V . - ) v o
-
C
0 0 3 0 C D C D . .
. V > 0 0
0 V
0
o
o
2
C )
0 0
.0
C )
0 0
.0
V C C V
C ) .0
0 0
C
C D 0 0
0
.0
C )
0 0
.0
5
0
V 0 0
V V
: 0
C C C D
.0
0
C )
0 . 0
C )
0 0
.0
V V C )
C O
0. _ C C C
.C D
S
C 0
C )
0 0
.0
V V
C D C ) C O
O
0
o
0
0
C o
C -
C C -
C )
C D
C D
0 0
0 )
0 0
0
0
)
C C
C D
5
C C
0
C D
C D 0
C )
0
C )
0
C )
0
C )
0
0 )
0
E 0 CD
S
0
C D 0
0
O C - C b 0 ) SS .
- V 0
C D
C D
C D 0
0
C D C D 0
.
0
C D
C D
0
Z .
-
-
V V V r - r -
V
5
0
C D
E
.
> 0 0
.0
C C S -
.0
..
V V V V 0 0 0 0
0
0
V C CC
C -
C )
0 0
.0
C )
0 0
.0
0 )
0 0
.0
C )
0 0
.0
C )
V 0 C C
C )
0 0
C )
C )
0 0
C )
0 0
.0 .0
0 0
.0
.0
. 0
C )
C )
0 0
0 0
.0
0
C
V 0
C
V 0
2
O
C
C )
V V
C )
> C 0
. C C
C )
0 0
0
0
0 .0
C )
V 0
0 0
C C
.0
C )
0 0
.0
.
2
-
0 .0
C )
0 0
.0
C )
C
0 0
C D C O
V
C )
C
V
0 )
0 0
C C
C D
C C
0
0
0
C )
V 0
O 0
0 0
.0
C C
C C
0
C )
0 0
. 0
C )
0 0
.0
C . C D C . )
C . )
C C
C D
0
0
0 )
V 0
V 0
0 0
C )
C . )
.
C )
V 0
C D
V
0
C
V
0)
0
C )
0
0 0 C . C D
C C
.
C )
C C
.0
C D
C C
C C
S
0
C )
.0
C )
0 0
.0
C ) C -
0 .0
C )
0 0
.0
C )
0 0
.0
C D S
.
0
C )
0 0
.0
C D C ) C -
. 0
C )
0 0
0 0 0 )
C )
0 0
C . .
C
0 0
C D C D C D C D C ) . 0 . 0 . .. . . . . -. . . 0 0 D U C ) 0 0 0 0 C )
C ) C . .
I -
C D.0
C )
0 0
C )
C )
C )
0 0
V 0 C C
.0
.0
C . )
.
.
.0
.0 . 0
. 0
-
. 0
C D C . )
.0
0 .. . ,.
0 0
0 0
V 0 C D
C )
0 0
.0
C )
0 0
.0
C )
0 0
.0
C )
0 0
.0
r C D -
•
C D C D C D V
-
2
C C
C . C D 0
.0 .0
V V
C )
C
N-
EE E
V V
C C
. .
V
C )
. C C C )
C C
0 ) >
0 0 .
0
V
0 ) >
0
C )
0 0
-
C D
0 0 0 0 C O C O C O C O
C D
-
V
C ) >
C )
C )
0 0
C )
C D
-
C
C . -
C D
0
.0
C
0
0 )
V > 0 0 C . -
C ) C . .
C )
o
V V 0 0
C -
0
C -
0
0
0
0
C . )
C D C D C D C D C D 0 0 . 0 0 0 -
u
0 0 V V C D 0 0
C
.
0.
V
. 2
0 0 V 0
C D C C
0 V V V C D O C ) 00 0
0
C D
. 2
C D
.
C C
C D
. 2
0 0 V V C D 0 0
V
C D 0
C D
. 2
V 0
V V V C ) V V V 1 3 : V V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-
V
C )
C )
>.
-
C . )
V -
C )
._ CC
S
.
S
. !
C )
C D V
-
0
_
S
C D
oE
V V
C D
C )
C
0
.
-
-
._
C D. _.
oE S
V C D V
C
-
.
C C
S
C ) V
C
C. _
C D
C C
V V
C )
C C
oS
C ) V
V
C.
C D 0
C C
ON Cf l le C I '0 00 C) CI C 0 0 0 - ON 'I C 'I C 0 0 NC S o 0, 0 - 00 O N ' 0 N - ' I C 0 ' I C 0 I C N - 0 0 C ' 0 - O N ' 0 0 0 0 CC l e r . ) ' 0 N - N- N - N - C - 0 0 0 0 O N O N O N ON C -C f l 'I C 'I C I C '0 C \ C ‚0 N- 00 C' C ' 0 O N O N ' C N - N - N N - N - N - 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 C ' C ' C ' N - N - N - N - N - N - N - N - 0 0 00 00 C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' C ' O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C C -C Cf l C -C Cf l C -C m C p C rf l f l f l Cf l Cf l Cf l Cf l Cf l C -C f l f l Cf l Cf l rf l C C rf l f l I � r I T I T ' I T I R T C
Cf l Cf l C -C
.
C D
V
V
0 . 0 C D
V V V V V V 0 0 0 0 0 0
C O )
0 0
00
0
0 0 0
00
0
C D
0
0 0
C D
C D V
V V V 0 0 0
C D
0 0
0
00
V 0
V V 0 0
0
0
C D
V
0
0
V 0 C
C O
0
. 0
2
V
V
•O
C D
C D C D CO
0
C C C D
C V
O V C D O
V C
5
0 C
V V 0 0 C
0 C
0 O
C -
V 0 . . .
V
C )
0 V
0 O
C D C
0
C D
.
.
V
D O
C C D
C -
. 5 .
CC
C 0 )
o C )
C D C )
0C
0
0
C O
C O
O C )
C D C )C .0
.
.
V
V V C C V 0 0 C 0 • C O V O C C D O _ . DC
0
.
0. C C
V V 0 0 C C .S 0 bO
.
V
C D
V 0
0 0
0 0
r o
C D.
C D C .
V 0 C D
V 0
0
0
D
V
C )
C D o
0
V
B
0 D C
V 0
V 0
C ) 0 . 0 .
BE
o C O
0 )
V C 0 ) 0 ,,
5 o 0
C D
.
V 0
V 0
V 0
V 0
C D 0
t o
1 4 C D C ) C -
2 2
C )
U S E W E A R A N L Y S I O N B O N E A N D A N T L E R T O L S O F T H E M A C K E N Z I E I N U I T
C D C D 0
C D 0
c .
E .
C .
C CC .
C D
.
.
C D C C )
.
0 C C )
C
C
0
C D 0
C )
C )
V
C . 0
2
C )
C )
C > >
C )
C ' In
00 C C
0
0
C D
C D
C )
C C C C D
V
C )
C )
C )
C )
C C )
C )
C )
C )
C C )
V
C )
C )
C )
0
V 0
O C
V 0
V 0
0 C
0 C
O C
V 0
V 0
0 C
0 C
0
C )
5
C C
C D
0 C C D V V C )
C . 0
C .
0 0 O C C 0 . 0 . 0 . 0
.0
C
C ) C)
C )
C )
C C
C C
C
C D
C C . . .. .
C D O . 0 .
O N - Cf l C ' 0
0 of i
-
C C
0 V
C )
C C
C
00
0
-
-
CS. ) ON ON C C Of i
-
.0
1
.0
.0
EE
2V
V
C C
C C
.0
.0
0
0 . C D
ON rf l Cr C ON ON ON Cf l Cf l 11
C D
.0
‚0 ‚0 ON C C
ON NON C C
C' 00 ON C C
0
C -0 rf l
C 0
-
C C
C D
C
C )
C V C C D
0
C
O
0
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C C )
C )
C C )
C )
C )
C C )
0 C
0 C
V 0
0 0
0 C
0 C
0 0
0 0
V C
0 C
V o
0 C
0 0
V 0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
rf l Of i
E f l C C
C D
.0
.0
.0
0
C )
CC
DS
C C
N- 0 0 C ' C ' 0 C C C C
C C
C
Of i C -C
C C
C D
0
C . ) C C
2
-
C C Of i
C D
C D
0 C D
0
C D C D ‚ 0
C -C
.0
.0
C C
Cr C
0
C .f l
C C
0
Cr C
C C C C
E 0
V 0
C V C D 0
0
*
0
C )
C
C D
O
C
O
. . C O
C -
0 C)
C C C ) C C ) .0 C D 0 . C . )
-
V 0 0 C C . . D O
.
C )
0 C
.0
C )
C
. ‚
C
C ) . 0
C )
0 C
.0
V
C D -
V 0
V
C
C )
0 C
.0
C )
C )
0 C
.0
C
C )
0 C
.0
V V
C D C .0
Cr C f l
0 C ) C D C ) . .
C )
.. .
> C
V V
0 )
D•
Cf l 'I C
.0
V V C D
00 '0 C C C C
C C
C )
C C
C r C 00 00 ' I C Cf l Of i f l C C C C C C
.0
0 V V
0 )
C
.0
C . . 0
V
C )
C D C )
C )
0 .0
Of l C C
C D
0 C
- ' I C C ' 0
Of i Of i
C D
C )
C )
C
> C D
C D C
V
>
0
0
V V
C
C C C C ) C D .
C D C D ( C
C
. .
V C )
V
V
C )
C C
C
> . C
C D CC CC C 0 0
).
C D V
..
0 0
C C
C D C
ON
C D
-
> C
0
C 0
.
0 )
P .
C C
C D 0 0
V
C )
C C
C C
5
V
V C l .
C D 0
'
0 . C D
C -) C C
C C
o C C
0 Cr C C -C
C )
0 o
.0
C D C D C ) 0 . 0
C )
0 C
.0
C )
0 0
.0
C 0
C )
0 C
.0
C 0
C )
0 C
.0
V V
C D
f l
0 0 0
C C
C 0
C )
0 C
.0
C D
C )
0 o
.0
V C
C )
C )
0.
0
‚ I C
'I C
C'
C C
Of i
On
0C .0 ' Q
C ) DC
R
C C
C
C'
C'
C'
C -C
Of l
C C
' 0 ' O
C )
0 o
.0
C . )
C
O N
C
V V
C
D C V
C D C
f l ‚0 C C
C C ) . 0
C C C D C D 0
C D C
C )
C ) C )
C )
C )
0
V
0
0
.0
C C
.0
in
0 V V
D O C V
C )
C D V
C )
C )
C D
C
C ) CD C D
C
0 00 O N ‚ 0 0 C' 0 0 - ‚0 N - N - C . N -
' 0
C C
Of i
C C
f l
.
0
.
0 C • 3
C O
‚ 0 )0
0
0
0
O
0
. 0
0
C )
-
C o
0
=
22
0
-
a
0
0 00
O
. .
.
0
0 0
0
0 ) 0
0
C o
0
0
l
0 =
e
0
0
0
C o
C o
b O'?
?
0
0
. 0 ,
0 Q
=
0
0 ..
0 0 0
0
0
0
.
0 0 Q
C o
o2
M
0 0
00
0
c i
.t i .
. 0
0
.
2 2 1 2e .2 2 0 0 0
-
0
0
m
0 =
0
.
0
O
2 , 0
.
0
0 . 0 ..
C o ,. 3
0 0 0
, 0
0 0 0 0
to
o 0 = - °0
-
00 0
0
0 0
0 0 0
0
2
0
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ' . 0 .0 . 0 . 0
• 0 0 )
C l .
C ) > 0
0
2 C o 0 0 0
0
! C o
1 1
0
0
C o
C o
C o -
0
- ) 0 0 >
0
.
0 0
2.
• 0 > C ) 0 )
- .
V . 0
C o 0
C o 0
0
00 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0
= C O
0 0
. 0
0
C o 0
0 0
0 0
. 0
0 0 . 0
)
0 )
C )
.0
C . 3 C0
0
00 0
0
0
0
. 0 0
C o
C o
. 3
-
0
0
= 0 0 0 0 0 = = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C o . 0 . 0 . 0 .0 . 0 . 0 . 0
=
= 0 C o . 0
• C 0 ) > C , O 0
= 0
C o
.
C )
C)
, 0 0
= 0
.0
= 0
C o O I .
C o 0
= 0
.0
.0
C ) ) C
C ) C )
0
= 0
.0
C o C ) 1 . . 0
0 .0 . 0 ))
= 0
0
.0
0)
0
.
C o
v
0. 0
. 0 .0 C )
)
C )
C )
0.
0.
0.
0
C o
0
. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0
C o
C . )
0
C o
C o
0
0
0
C o
C o
0
0
0 ' . 3
C o
C o
C o
) C
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C o
0 >
0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .
.
C o
0
0
-
0
0
0
C o
0
0
.0
-
0
0 0 I -
0
0. 0
0
0
. . 0 00 0 0 )
0
0
.0
C o
0
0 . , 0
.0
0 .
.
0. 0
0
0
0
C o
C o
C o
C )
V
C )
C )
C o
C o
C o
C o
' C ) 0 I . --
0
.0
0
.0
E • 0 b e
. 2 . 2
0
C)
0
0
Q
C ) 0 . 0
0
C ) 0
CN N
m
C )
0 ) .0
'
C o C ) 0 0 0
N
0
C o
C o 0 0 ,, '
‚ ‚
C . )
C ) ) C ) .. . .
Z r -
e n
N
C )
C o
C )
0 )
' n
C ) C )
C ) C )
C ) C )
C ) C )
0 C ) C )
V V
C ) C )
C ) C )
0.
0
' . 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00
C o -
C o 0.
C )
•
0 . 0
v
) f l S
C
N
N
N
S
o
N 0 0 - N 0 00 00 C ' C 0 0
0 0
0
0 0
•
e n
-
- N )
C ,)
N C ,
e n
-
.
.
C )
0
C )
C )
0 )
0 )
0
e n
C )
C )
10
Im
C )
V
. - '0 S
Im
C , '
C ) Im
C ,
C )
-
V
.
C o
.0 .0 .0 C )
22 5 -
C )
0 0 00 00
C )
0 0
C ) '
C )
. 0
E- - - E -
-
C f
-
S
N
N N ‚O ' .O
C )
N N
A P E N D I X T W O
-
C)
00
.
-
Z D
-
.
2
c i
-
0 0 O
C o
. -
0 C o
C o
)
0
0
0
0
0 0
00
0
b
0
C o
0
0 00
.
.
-
a
0
.
.
.
0 C o
C o ):
0 0
0
2
0
0 0
w
0
O
O
0 0
C o
o C
0 0
0 00 2
O
C o
C o
C o
C o
2
0
C o .
0
0
O
, 0
0 O
C o 00 C0
0 O
.
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
, 0
0 0 0
0 0 00
C o
O
O
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
0
.
0 0
0
0 0
C o
0
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
S 0
0 C o 0
C o 0 0 00 00 , ' ,
o o C o 0
0
0
0
-
-
0 C o O 2
0 0 Q
C o 2
C o
o2
w
0 0 0
C o
o2
0
0 0
, 0
, 0
, 0
C o CO
C o
C o
2o
0 0 0
0
22 2-. c o
0
0
C o
0
>
= 0
‚ .
t o
o
0 . . .
C )
o o 0
0
C )
O
O
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
0 .
0
C )
> 0 0
0 C )
C )
1
t z
0
o C )
C o
C )
0 .0
0 )
C )
C )
C )
0 0
C )
0 0
0
.0 .0 . 0
0
C o 0
.0 C )
e > 0 O
C o
C o
C o
C o
i )2 2 2 2
C ) -
C )
C )
C )
C o
C )
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
C o
C o
0
0
C )
, ')
0
.0
0
.
C o
C o
C o
0
0
C ) 0
.0
C ) 0
0
.0
2 -
00 0
C C 0
C ) 0
.0
Q
.0
.0
C ) C o
C o
C )
C )
2 - 0
5 . . C) 0
C o
C O
0
C o
C )
C )
C )
.0 .0
C )
.0
.0
C )
C )
0
C )
C )
0
0
C , ' . 0 . 0
. 0
0
C )
-
C C
00
0
' 0
0
-
N
-
-
C ) C )
o o
C )
) C )
5 0 0 N N
N .
N -
-0
-
C . '
C )
e n
en
vl
wl
N
N
N
N
-
0 0 c C 0 "
T. 0 N
.
N -
0 1
N
c o 0
C )
C )
C )
C o .0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .0
C o
0
0
C )
0 )
0)
0
0
C )
C )
0
C )
0 0 N
00
0 ' 0 N N
-
C )
•
N
N
C ) "
-
-
00
0
en
N
N -
.
00 0
i ' i N
N -
C ) C ) C ) )2
N
e n
N
N
0 C )
C
N N
.
C )
.
N
N
.
0 C )
0
N
N -
C )
0
0
-
,1 = ü 00
- '0 N
e n
‚ . ' . )
C ) C ) 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .
o
0
00
C )
C )
, 0 -
0
. 0
.
0
C )
0
, 0 . 0 -. C )
C o
-.-
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
))
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
. 0 .0 .0
C o
C o
.0
.0
.0
C o
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
C o
C o
C )
C )
C )
0
0
-0
0
0 .
.
0
o o
C ) >
2
0
. C o C o
C It
0 C )
0 ._.
00
0 )
e n e n
. 0
0
.
o
O N
N
0
00
o
0 . -
-
C ) . C C
0 0
C . 0 , 0
C o
.
C ) 0
a
o
C 0
)
M .
C
C o
.
C )
.0
0
C )
0
0 C o
0
>
0 0 0 0 0 0
.
. 0
e n e n . .
0
0
' 0
e n
0
. 0
. 0
C )
o C )
' . ,
S
'0
e n e n en e n e n IT
n
N
e n e n
N
0'
0
o oo C )
0
e n e n e n e n
C )
C o
0 00 0 ' N
e n
o 0 ‚
0
e n e n en e n
0
0
• 0 C ) 0 . C C
• 0 0 0 0
-
0
C
C
C
0
•0
. 0
. 0
.0
.0
>
>
0
0
> 0 0
> 0 0
> 0 0
C )
o
C )
o
m
t o
C )
C )
C )
00
i n . > 0 . 0 0 0 .0
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
00
0 . 0 . > 0 . 0 . 0 0 0 0 -
0 0 0
C )
0 . 0 . 0 0 1 . 0 . C )
C )
C
C )
C )
C )
0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 0 . 0 . 0 C . ) C )
C )
0 0 C )
0 . > 9 2 . 0 0 0 . 0 C C ) 0
C )
> 0 0
C )
C )
C )
C )
v C )
0 . 0 . > 0 . 0 . 0 0 0
00
C )
C )
C )
0 0 C )
C )
C )
C )
2
C )
0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
' . C1 )
0 1
C )
0 1
g r o u n d / s c r a p e d ?
C )
0 1
. 0 •0
.0
C )
C )
C
0
0 1
C C
C )
0
0 1
C )
C )
0
0
C C
0 1
C)
C )
0
0
10
. 0
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C
C C
C C
0 1 .0
Q
0 0
. 0 0 C C
C )
. 0 0 0 1
C )
0 0
. 0
C )
0
C
C )
C )
C )
0
0
0
0 1
C
0 1
C )
0
C C
C)
0
C C
C ?
C )
0
0
C C
C C
C )
C )
C )
c -o
C 0 1
C )
C )
C )
1 )
0 . > 0 . 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 .0 . 0 . 0
l w.
-' -
0
0
0 1
C
C
) C
C ) C1
0.
00
O
O
C - C ?
.
) C
C )
C
0
0
E 0 1) m C )
0 0 0 1
C )
C C
C
C
C )
C )
C )
0 0 t o
.0
10
C
. 0
. 0
Im
0' -
C )
4)
4 . )
0 1
C
C
C )
C )
C )
0 0
0 01 )
. 0
. 0
C -0
00
C i
C )
C )
Q
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
0 1
0 1
C
0 1
C C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
.0 .0 C ) C )
.0 C)
0 1 ) 00 00 00 M
. 0 .0
o C ) -
o
f l ' f i '0
‚ 0
.
. 0 .0 . 0 .0
o 5
' 0 C -
C ) 10
0
C )
C )
.0
10
0 C -
N
C )
. 0
0 )
I m .0
0 O C
0 )
C C
. 0 . 0 . 0
5
0
C )
0
C )
N
C )
. 0
N
1 )
.0
C )
. 0
.0 . 0
0 0 C
O
. 0
. 0
> 0 C
> 0 0
>
. 0
.0
Ci
U S E W E A R A N L Y S I O N B O N E A N D A N T L E R T O L S O F T H E M A C K E N Z I E I N U I T 1 )
C )
0 . > 0 . o 0 C ) C . )
0 0 C )
0 0
C ) C ) C 0 . > 0 0 0 . o 0 o 0 1 C )
C )
0 0
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C
C
O
C
C
C ) C
C ) C
0 1
0 1
. 0
0 1
0 1 .0
. 0
O
0
. 2 . 0
0 C )
0 . 0 . cl . 0 0 0 C C
C )
0 . 0 . o C C . 0 0 0
C )
C ) C)
. 0
C
C . 0 . 0 C 0 0
C )
C C
0
C )
C )
0 0
C 0
C C
0 1 .0
. 0
. 0
C )
. 0 = .0 C )
C )
C )
0
> 0 0
. 0 - ) C 0 1 0 . 0 . 0 0 0 . C ) 0 0 . 0 . 0 C Z . 0 . C 0 0 0 0 C ) 0 C 0 . 0 . 0 .0 0 . 0 0 . 0 C ) C ) 00 . 0 C ). _ C ). _ C ) 0 1
C )
C )
0
.0 0 . C )
C )
C )
C
C )
. 0
-
-
_ -o
00 0 1
0
0
t O
0 C
0' N
Ci N
C
0
eC
N
Ci N
f l N
C N
') ' n N
0
C )
l o .0
0
0 1
E
C C C CC C 1 (
C )
C C
0
00 C -
O
'
C
-
0 0 0 0 . 0 .0
f l ‚0 ‚ 0 00 0
\0
C C -
0 1 )
0
0 1
. 0
.0
. 0
C )
-
0 1
C .
C .0
m 'O Vi Vi
N 10
C C
C )
t- 0 C -- CC
0 1
0 0
0 1
N
N
0 ' -.
N
C
C )
. 0 .0
a
_
0 . .0
.0
0'
"0 1 2
. 0
) C
C )
> 0 0
f l
c . c.
>
C C
. b
C )
5
0 0
C C
-
f l In Vi
.0 C 0 0
0
0 0
0.
C )
0
1 0
C )
.0 C )
C )
. 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 :s : E
C )
00
0 00 00
C,
C
. 05 5
K I T I G A Z U I T ( N I T R 2 )
C )
C
C
C )
C
c-.
.0 C
0O
C )
C )
C )
?
. 0 . 0 . 0 C ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 . . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 C 0 0 0 . 0 - 1 C ) 0 00 C ) C )
.0
0 . o 0 . O 0 0
Q
C ) 01 ) Q
1 )
0 )
C )
C )
>
O
C ) 0 . 0 . 0 . > C . 0 . 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 )
.0
C )
C )
0
O
2 .0
00
t C )
0 C )
0 C ) 0 . > 0 . 0 0 0 C )
C -
2 .0
. 0 C ) 00 0 . 0 . t 0 C )
0 Q
C )
C ) 0 . 0 . 0
. 0 . C ) C ) 0 . ) C . 0 . 0 0
C )
C )
0 0
o
. 0 C ) C ) 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 , 0 0 . C C 0 C ) C )
C )
.0 . 0 C ) C ) > 0 . 0 . 0 0 C - . 0 0 C )
C ) C ) C ) C ) C ) 0 . > 0 . 0 . 0 . Q 0 0 0 0 .0 . . 0 C ) 0 C ) C ) C )
C ) 0 C )
C )
C )
0 C
C O
0 C
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
0 )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C )
C
. 0 C
C )
C
C
C
C
C
C
0
0
0
C
C
0
0
0
C
C
0
C
C
C
O
C
C
C
C
C
O
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
0 1
C
C C
0 1
. 0
0 1
0 1
0 1 .0
CC
0 1
. 0
. 0
0 1
C
0 1 .0
C
1 0
0 1
0 1 .0
C
C C
0 1
. 0
0 1
C
C C
C C
0 1
. 0
0 1
0 1
C
C C
0 1
0 1
C
•0
• 0 0 0
0 0
0. 0
0
0
0
0
0 0 00
0
C o
C O
0
0 -.
0
O
C O
0
. 0 C O
O C . .
• 55
0 0 0
-o
0
0 0 o ,
C O
-
4 0 o
-
0 0
2
0 0
• 0 0
•
- 2
0 . 0 0
0
C 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
-
• 0 0 0 0 ) . 0 0 .
•
0 0 .
0 0 0 ) ) • 0
C O -
C O
O
4
0
0
• 0 0 0. C O 0
-0
4 0 ) . C O
-
0
0
•0 0
.0
_s
•
0 0
. 0
N . C O -
C 0 --- -
0
C 0
0 . 0
0
C O
a b . .
-
C O
• 0 C C 0
0 0
0 . C O
C O
0
C0
00
0
0
0
0
•0
0 .
C O CO
• 0
.0
V
0
0 .
0
C O
0 . C O
C
0
0 0 -
-
-
0
0
.0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Q
C )
0 4 ,
• 0 0 ) 4 ) C O
0 .0
C O
C O
C O
C O
C O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 )
>
o
‚0
C )
0 .
o 0
0
0
C )
0 .
C .
0
0
C
>
0
o
0 .
00
0 .
0 , 0
s o0
C O
C O 0
00
C O
C.
0
> . 0 . 0
-
C O
C .0
.0
0
C O
C O
0
0
0
C
0.
.0
0 . )
0 . 0 0 C O
0
s o 0 C .
_
o
0 .0 .
0
0
0 )
4 )
4)
C O
5 0
0
0 .0
. 0 S . .
)
0
0
0
00
0
C. _
CO
0
0
0
0
0
0
O
00
. 0
0
0
0
0
o. 0 v
0
0
0
0
C O 0
-
0 ) 0 ) 0. s .
.0 0 0 0 0 00 0
0
0
0
0 . . 0 . 0 0 0
C . . .
0
0 00 0
C O
0
0
C O
. 0
0 )
0 )
C 0
Q . 0
0
C 0 ) 0 0
0
0
0
C 0 0 0 . 0. 0
C 0 . 0
0
0 )
0
C C 0 0 0 . 0 .0
C )
0
0
0
0 0 0 0 .0 .0
C C O
C O
0 0
0 )
0)
0
0
0
C
C . 0
0
E
oS S E
C O
0
0 0
0 S 4 N N C ' C
-
0 . 0 0 '
t o C OO 0 0
en
-
C O
4 0
5 N
-
0
0
C . . 0 0 . 0 C O
o 0
0
C O
0
C O
0 2
0
0 .
0
0
C
0
C O
0
0.
0 0
. 0
0
. 0
0
. 0
o
. 0
0 0 )
0
_
C O
0
0
N ‚ 0 ' N 0 N 0 ( C N N 0 - 0 0 4 0 N ' N C
s o
0 0 .
CO
S
N .0 0
4) 0
s o
0
0 )
C O
C O
0 0
0 . 0
0
.0
0
0 .0
00
0
0n C r -) - C -) C m ) 0 C 0 -)
' 0 N C -I
' 0
0 )
s o S
'0 00 C 1
\ C O ) C C . ) 0 C -0 ) 0 C -O )
.
o. ..
C .
0 ) *• s o 0 B.
0 0 0 0 ' .
.
o o
C I 0 0 f l
-
0 0 C C '
C l )
0
. 0
0
0 0 0
0 C O
C O
0
.0
0
._
C C O
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
o o .0 o S So
' 0 C 4 0
0 . 0
0
C4
.0
00
-.
-
C l 0 )
' SD
Cl )
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 1 ) ) 0 C - 0
0 .
0
0
Q 0
4 )
4 0
. E.B
1 Cl )
0
'° E
C -
0 '
0 .0
-
0
- C 4 C (5 C ' N
' C I D l ) 0 C . l ) N
N C c )
N C l)
C N l
C S\ )
00
o l )
0 0
f l 0
' o 0 0 ' 4 0 ‚ 0
00
0 -
' r ' 0
A P E N D I X T W O
-
-
0) O
0 )
C )
0 0 00 C) O
0
C 0 0 0 .0
C -
C O
. 0
C -
0 C O
C O
-
0
. 0
0 C O
0
0 C O
C O
4 )
2
5 0
O
b
> 0
0
o
0
' 0 0 ) 0
.
CO
0
0
0
0
0
0
•0 )
' C
0
C )
0
0
5 0
5 0
5 0
C 0 0
C 0 0
0 ‚C
' C
' 0
0 )
C . C . 0 . 0
0 0
C )
0 0 ) . 0
‚0 0 )
0 I -
I .
C
0
0 . 0. 0
0
C 0 0
C 0 0
C 0 C . C .
. 0 0 0 0
' C 0 )
0
0 . .
-
C
0
C C )
C o 0
' C
0
C . . 0 . 0
. 0 0 0. 0 4 )
h .
0 o 0
0 )
1 .
C . 0 .
0 C
0 0 .
5 -
0 0
0
- ‚0 C 0 . 0 0 0 0 . 0
‚0
C '
C C
0 0 00 C ) C.
0 0
0
o
,
5 .
C . 0 ' 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 -
5 -
5 -
C-
C .0 '0 ' 0 '0 . 0 ' 0 . 0 C C 0 0 0 0 C C C C = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 -
S . .
5 -
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 ) C O C O
5 -
S .
S . .
I
0 C
C
0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 ) C C C O
0
C
C
0
0
0
5 -
.
0
0
0 C )
0
0
0
0 .0
0
4 )
0
o
0
0
C o 0
C 0 ) 0
0
'0 C )
0
C 0 0
0 0 0 0 0.
0
0
C 0 0
5 -
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 )
C .
. 0 N
-
0 0 . C O -
o
)
0
0 'C
-
0
C
C
C O
'C
'C
0 )
0 )
0 ) ‚
0 )
' C
O C ) -
0 0 0 0
S
b 0
N
0
N
N
0
' C N
N
(
0 0 ' 0 C -i
o
N
0 0
. C
C O "
2 i e =
0 0 s s ,
0
00
o
00,C
C -I
0 1 0 -) C -I 0 0
N Cl )
.
'
C .
' C
C
C
' C
'
0 )
2
0 0
S
0 O
-
0 . .0
0 4 0
0 0 N ö
2
0
0
00 0
'C ' C
C o on C
. . 0
0
' C
0
0
f "
00 00
0 ) s o
0 ) ) 0 0
0
-
C ) '
0 "
C C '
5 C 0
-
0 0
0 0 C O
'S 5 .
-
0
00 . 0
' C 0 0 ., C
0
C
2
0 )
C
C O 0
00
0 C C
. 0 C
C .
C l
C . 0
C '
0 0 '
-
C
0 0 C O ‚ ) ) 0 )
00 .
C . )
0
0
C .. C . . . 'C
0 / ) - 0
0 N 0 N
C -I
- 00 00 0 4 0 -1 0
C S O S C S O S C S C S 05
0 0 0 4 N
z 0 C ,
( N
0 C l ) N
N 0 4
1 )
0 0 - ( N 0 N C S ' ' '0 0 C l) 0 5 0 0 0 4 4 ' I D / ) 00 N C - C S '
C'
0 00 ' 0 05 0 C S C S ( 4
0 0 ) 0 . C ) C -
0
.
C
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
C .0 C )
. 0 C )
-
o
C ) 0 0 O
0
0 )
0 Ö >
0 > Ö
> Ö
C
Ö
0
6
0 0 0 0 u
to
0 C
0 0 0 0 .0
. 0 0 0 C .0
0 ) o D C
0 C
C ) C C ) . 0 ' - 0 .' - C ) 0 . C 0 . . 0
-o
. 0 0 C
o
0
1 ) 0
0
0
0 0 O
C O
00
0
. 0 ) 0 0
0 ' - 00 Q ' I C - 0 0 0 0 O C C N N N C - C - N
. 0 ) 0 0
>
C
0
-0
. 0 0 0 0
C
00 0
-
. 0
C
0 0 0
0 0 o
. 0 0 ) 0 )
0 0 )
o
0 C
00
>
0 0 0 0 0 C .0 .0
0 ) 0 0 C O
C C
C '
2
. 0 ) 0 -
0 0 0
0 C
C " C C
C
E S
0 0 0 C . 0
0 . 0
0
0
C ) 1 ) 0 C
C C 0 .'
C
E 2
0 0 0
a
C
Z C0
_ 0_
.0
> O o
.0
> 0 o
0
0
C
. 0 0 0
.0 C ) 0 .
0 0
C . .0 C ) 0. 0. 0
. 0
C ) %
. 0 00 0
C
0 00
C
0 1 )
o
C
. 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 . > 0 . 0 0
0
-o
0 ) 0 ) 0 . > 0 . 0 0
0
£
0 00
0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 00
0 o
o
"2
o
0 ) . 0 C )
C
0 ) 0) 0 ) 0 0 0 0 00 C 41 0 ' )
C -
.0
0 0
.0 C ) . 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0
C
. 0 0 0 C ol oC O
0 0 0
0 . 1 •0
C
. 0
0 0
o o
. 0 O 0
C . 0
0 0 0 C 0 O . 0 . 0 .0
0 ) 0) 0 ) 0 0 1 ) 0 0 0 0 0 00
. 0
C
0 . 0
C ) C C 0 .
0
. 0 .0
2 .0
. 0 -0
. 0 O C o
. 0 0 0 0 0 0 C . 0 . 0
0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ) 0 00 C C C
. 0 .0
2o
-o
0 . 0. 0. 0 . 0 0 0 C )
C )
0
o
. 0 0 0 0 0 0 O C C O C .0 . 0 . 0 . 0
) C C " 0 0 0 0 C C C C
. 0
C
0
0
5
. 0 -o
0 0
b
) C
0
C )
> 0 0
o.
0 00 0
C
O O
0
0 C
C
C )
C
C . 0 .0 .0
C
-o
C
2 .0
S E
0
C
C
0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 C .0 .0 . 0 .0 . 0
O C O C 0 0
2 2
D C )
C )
0 )
O C C - - - - - - -- . 0 0 . .0
2 2
0. 0 0 0
0 o . 0
0 ) 0 ) 0 0 0 1 ) 0 4 00
-
. 0
-0
0.
1 : 1 -
C ) 0 0
o o
. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 C . 0 .0 . 0 . 0 . 0
C ) C ) C ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2
C ) > 0 C
2
0
0
0
o o
0
0
. 0 o C C
. 0
. 0
. 0
C
C
0
0 0 . 0
0 ) 00 0 .
0) 00 C 0
C )
0 C bO
-0
-0
0 .
2
'0 O N C 00 C C 1 ) C - 0 0 V ' ' 0 N 0 ' 0 V C - 00 ' 0 C ) C , 0 0 N 0 - O N C ' ) / ‚ ) C - 0 ' - C ) C ' ) 1 ' ) C - 0' 0 0 0 0 ' 0 N 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 ' ) 0 ' ) 0 ' ) 0 ' C ' ) C ' ) 0 0 0 0 - - - C ) O N O N m o n C . ' ) C r , ' 0 ' 0 r - N r - N C - 0 0 C- 00 00 0 ' 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 0 ' 0 ' ) 0 ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' C' C ' ) C ' ) C ' C ' C ' C ' 0 ' C ' ) C ' ) 0 ' C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' C ' ) C ' ) C' ) 0 ' ) C ' ) ( 2 ' ) C' ) C ' ) r
r
' )
-
C )
0 0 )
0
0 0 . O C
.
C
0 . 0 0 0
C
C
C C -
C 0 4 0 . .
C
C
O O
C
0
0
0
0
C
0 C
C
C
C
0 0
C ) C
C ) C
0 . .
C
0 0
0. C 0 .
.0
O. . 0
0 C
0
5
0 .
o
-
U S E W E A R A N L Y S I O N B O N E A N D A N T L E R T O L S O F T H E M A C K E N Z I
C
.
>
0
C
C ' . 0
0 .
0
C
C
0
C ) 0
. 0
S 0 ) > 0 0
C
5 0 -
0 ) > 0 0
'0 ) > '
-
0 . 0
0 ) 0 . 0 . 0
0 ) > 0 0 C )
. 4 0 )
C )
u
u
0 0 C .0
0 C
0 0 C .0
u
. 0 ) 0 . 0 .
o
0 41 O-
C )
0 . ) 0 . ) 0 . > 0 . 0
0 ) 0 ) - > 0 0
C )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 4 '_C _ 0 0 . 0 0 0
3
0 ) > 0
. 0 ) o 0
33 3
0 .
. C 0 ) 0 . 0 .
4 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) > 0 . > > > > > 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 C 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C ) 0 0 ) 0 1 )
0 0 0
0
C )
C 0
. 0 0 C
0
. 0
. 0
. 0 0 C
. 0 0 0 0 0.0
1 C )
0 ) C 0 0 - cO
0 ) > C
C ) 0 . 0 .
3 .
0
0 0 0
C 0
C 0
C 0
C
0 0 0
C ) C ) 0) > > C o- C 3 0 ) 0 C 0 0 0 0
4 ) 0 . 0 . C C 0
0 ) > 0
0 ) 0 . 0 .
C )
0 0 C )
0
0 1 ) C )
0
. 0 0 0 0 C .0
0 0 4
0 C
0 C
0 0 4
0 C
0 C
0 ) 0 0 0
0 ) 0 0 C
O r .
22 0 3
0 . -
C )
. 0 0 C
. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 4 . 0 .0 .0
C
0 C
0 0 0 C . 0
. 0 0 C
0 0
C
0 4 0
0 0 4
0 C
0 C
0 C
O 0 0 0 .0
0
O 0 0
0
. 0 0 0 4
0 0 0
0 C
0 C
0 0 C 1 ) 0 1 ) 0 00 00
C )
. E E. E 0
. 0
. 0
C
o -
•_
_
C 0 C - 00 00 0 ' 0 S0 '0 10 C -
C ) C
0 ) 0 0 C
0 ) 0 0 C
5 -0 5 C A H E P O I N T ( N H T S 2 )
.
0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 00 10
.0
0 0 C ' ) Ci C f l I t ) 0 0 O N 0 C ) C ) O f l O n o n o n o n
o n
-
-
0 . 1 0
I )
0
C -
. 0
C
0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C C C CC C0 ,
0
0
0
0 0 - o n C ' ) 00 0' ) 0 -C l ' ) Ct ) C l ' ) C t ) ‚ 0 '0 ' 0 C - N
0
0
. 0
0 ) 0 0 C
-C
5 .0 2
0 .
0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 4 C C 2 .0 )
0 )
0
C ) 0
0 ) 0 0 C
0 . 0 )' 1 0 . 0 B
C ' ) ‚ 0 O N C ' ) ' 0 00 0 ' 0 - O N C ' ) C ' ) N N C - C - N N 0 0 0 00 00
0 ) -0
0 )' 0
0 ) 0 ) 0 1 ) 0 0 0 0 4 ) 2 .C 0
0 ). . 0 0 .
I t ) ' 0 C - C ' ) C l ' ) ‚ 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 C - C - N
• 0 V
O
u ,
0 0
0 0
C i
0
C O O C--
C O
C l
C O
C O
C C
v o
• 0 0 0 . C O
1 1 0 0 0 0 C O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
C -
O
C O
C ) C O C - C1
C O
0
0
0
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
0 0
0
0
0 0 0
b
C O . 0
• 0 0
C O 0 . 0
•0
u > -
C ) o C -
0 0
c ' C O
0
C O 0
0
.
C O 0 "
0
0
> o
> o
0
> C ) 0 0 -
0
o >
> 0
'
C O 0
C O 0
0
C O
C O 0
"
. .
C I
C O
C O
C O
C O
C O
C O
0
0
C O . 0 . 0
C O . 0 .0
'
C O O.
E 0C ' . i C O
C O . 0
0
0 1 ) 0 0 C O C O
C O C )
D 7 0
0 0 0 C O • 0
1 3, 1 0 C ' - 00
0 0 1 ) 0 1 ) 0 C O C O O. o 0
I
•0 0 0
20 1 ) 0 0
0
C O
O
0
0
C O
O
C O
3
C O 0
0 0 0 0 0
.
C O . 0 . 0
0 •-
0
f l ' 0 0 0
0
- I n C ' - N
o > 0
0 V >
0 ) C -
C O . 0
. 0 . 0
C O
0 0 0 0 C 0 0 C 1 ) 0 C 0 0
C O 0
0
.
C -
0 0 C O
C O ‚ 0 . C O
C O
C O 0 0 . 0
.
C O 0
C
C O . 0
C O
C O
C O
C ) . 0
C O 0
0
0
0
C O
a , '
. .
O
C O
0 0
"
0 C 1 ) 0
C O 0
.
) C 0 .
C O 0 O.
0 O
C O
C O
0 > O
> O 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .C 0 - .0 C -
C O
0 . C 0 -
0 C -
0 C 0 0
‚ ) C " C O 0
0 . 0
0
0
0
‚
0
C O
C O
0
C O
C O
0
0
0
C . 0
C O
C O .0 . 0 . 0
0
0
. 0 . 0
0
0
. 0
.0
O
0
O
0
C O .0 .0 .0 . 0
0
0
C O .0 . 0 .0 .0
C O . 0
0
0 ‚ 0 C O ‚ 0 C )
_
0 0 .
'
C O
-
0 0
0
' 0 ‚ 0 -
1
0 1 ) 0 C O .
C ) t o C O : 0 . 0 o
C )
. 0 0
0
C 1 1 0 0 C f l 0
-
C P C L a c )
N
N
N
N
0 . 0
0
C ) ‚ 0 0 0 O C O 0 0. 0 0 0 . 0 0
0 . C O 1 )0 0
v i ' 0 00 0
c i
N
o
2
C ) 0 0
C O
0 .. 0
C f l ' C t ' 0
0
- N
EE
0 0 0 C O 0 0 _ . . _
1 ) O C O
C O
0
‚0
C O
-
C O
0 C O
0 0 0 0
_ _
S
O O
C O
0 O
'
C O
C O
0 Co
C O
10
" z 3 0 o 0 1 ) ) 0 0 0 0 0 O O C O
0 ) 0 1 ) C O .
.0
60
_
OO OE 6
C O
O N
0 C O
N
' 0
c i c i c i c i c ' i r f l c i c i c i c i C i c 0 c i c i I n c i c i c i c 0 c f l c 0 c i c i c i c i c i I n co
A P E N D I X T W O
0 0 0 1 N
C )
C ) 0 C O .0 C C O
C -
-
' 0 • ‚ 0 C I
C O
' 0
'
O C O 0 C 0 0
.
C -
-
0 0 ' -- -
C O 0
1 ) C 0 C) O >
0 0 0 C 0 0
C O
.0
0 0 0 0 I -
‚ 0
t
0
1 ) 0
.0 C '
0 ‚0 1 )0 0
0 0 C) 0 0 0 C 0 0 C 0 . 0 0 C 0 0
0
• 0 0 0 C 0 0-. -.
C ' •
C '
.
0 . C O C -
0 . C O C 0 C O
C O
C O
0
‚
0 C )
‚ 0
E .
E
0 0 0
0
C O C O
C O
3
0
0
0
0 . 0 0
0 . C O C 0 C O
C O
C -
0 . C O C 0 C O
-
.
‚
C "
c '
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 ) 0
1 ) 0 .
-
0 0 . C O C 0 C O
.
0 0 . O C 0 C O
0 C O -
. .
‚
0
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0 C 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C - C - C - C - C - C - C . . C - C 0 0 0 0 1 ) 0 0 0 1 ) 0 1 ) 0 0 0 1 ) 0 0 0 0
.
C 0 C O
0 C 1 ) 0
C "
C ) 0 . C O
C O
0
C O 0
'
.
1 ) 0 0
,
1 ) 0 o
C O
' 0
"
0 C O 0 ' 0 C O
- .
-
0
.
0
C O -
.
0
0 . C O C 0 o . .
0 C )
‚ 0 O -0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C - C - C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C O
"
-
-
.
.
0 0
' 0 0
0
0
0
C 0 )
.
0
)
-
e
C O
-
C ) > 0
O 0 . 0
C O 0
0 0 0
0 0) 0 0 0 0
0
01 )0 00 0
C ) 0 0 1 ) 0
C ) 0 0
0. 0 .
0 0
0
C O
C O
0
0 0 0
0
0
0 0 0
'
>
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 , )
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 C O
0 0 C O .0
0 . 0
0 0
o 0
0
C ) 0 . 0 .
C O
0 > 0 0
0
0 0 0
0 '2 0
0 0 0 . > 0 . 0 0
0 > 0 0
C O
B
m ‚ 0 0 0 > > 0 0 0 0
0 > 0 0
‚ 0 0 0 0 . > 0 . 0 0
0 0 1 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o
0 C) C) C )' °
C O
C o C . ,
0 0 > 0
0
B 0 C > i 0 . > > 0 0 0 0
0 0 > 0 0
‚0 0 ) > 0 C O 0
1 ) 0 0 0 0
C
0 0
‚ 0 O 0 0 ) > > 0 0 C O 0 0
C O
0
0 0 1 ) 0 0
0
0
0 0)
0
0
0 0 )
0
0
C )
C O
C O
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0 C O .0
. . JE
0
0 . 0
C " 0
C C O ‚
0
. 0
0 0
0 0
.
C -
w
0
-0
> 0 0 C O ' 0'
0
> 0 0
> . ) . c 0 0 0 C )
0
0
0
0
0
0 0)
C 0
C 0
C 0
C-0 C )
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
' 0
0 b0 0 C O b0
0 bI = O b0
0 00 0 0 00
0 00 = 0 00
0
0
.
. C ) 0 0 C O
0 .. . C)
0
C ) 1 ) 1 ) C O
0 0 0 0 0 00 00 C O C O C O
O "
0
C ) 0 1 ) C O
.0 . 0 C O 0 0'
E -
. 0 C )
C )' b C O.
a C
0 ‚ 0 C i - N c i C ' - 0 0 C i 0 00 00 0 00 C i O N O N Ci C i C i C i 0' C i C i C ', C i C i C i Ci C i C i C i
C C C ) C
C )
. 0
C ) u 0 C O
. 0
C O .O
0
0
0 ) 0 0 0 1 )0 C O O
0 ) 0 1 ) 0 1 )0 C O C O
. 0
. 0
. 0 C C C
. 0
I V
0
C
O
0 . ! 1 )
C O
S
. 0 0
- c i 1 0 C ' - C N 0 0 0 0 0 0
c n 1 2, 0 0 C i 0 N
- N N N
N
C i M N m
w l C i m C
r f l ' 0 r - 0 0
S A U N A K T U K ( N G T N 1 )
0 1 ) 0 C O :0
0 00 C O = 0 . C O C O t 0
'
N
C ' . 0 0 0 0 C u C ' C
C l .
0 0 ø0 0 0 00 0
7I n
0 .0 C O E o2
0 1 ) 0 0 0
0
- c i 0 - N N C u i ' 0 00 0 0 ' 0 ‚ 0 ' 0 '0 'O '0 00 Ci - '
•
0 0
0
.0 . 0
.
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
•0
0 0
e . . 0
0 0
U S E W E A R A N L Y S I O N B O N E A N D A N T L E R T O L S O F T H E M A C K E N Z I E I N U I T
0 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0 . 0
0
0
0
0
55
0 V 0 • 0 0 0
0
0
0 0 .
0
0
0
C
0
0
0
0
bO b
0 .
b
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
. b
o
-
V C -
2
V 0 c
1 010 V . 0 0
-
5
V > 0 0 c
o V > 0 0
-
V > 0 0
o V
-
V . 0
0 V > 0 0
o V
0 0
2-
0
c V
0 V
V
>
>
0 o
.
o V
c o V
0
C
0
22 2
0
0 0
V 0
V V 0 0 0 0 c o . 0 . 0
V 0 0 . 0
.0 0
V 0
V 0 0 m .0
V 0
V 0 0 0 i m
V 0 0 m
V Q V V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .0
V =
V V V V V V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 m . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 .0 . 0
C O -
C .
C
0
-u 5
C O
0 0 0 V CO V
-
0 )
C O
V
- C 14 I T C ' C C ' C ' C ' 0 ' C
2
. 0 0
V 0
5
-
0
2 1 2
-
V
.-
2
V
=
0 0
0 0
-o 0
CO
CO
V
V V V' 0 0 00 O0- -Z O CO C O ( 0 V V
V 0 0 0 C O V
V
V C)
V
V
V
V
f l ' C r - oo C C C C C
-
' 0 00 C N
N
N
-
N
V
N
V
0 )
C O
0 C - 0 0 N N N
C O
N f l m -
V V V 0 -c 0 0 00 00 V V CO C O C O V
n . -
V
V
-
-
5
0
-
0
99 V =
V V V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 . 0 .0
V
V
5 R5 r e C
C
CO
CO
55
0
0 ) 0 0 0 -C
V
CO
V
' C 0 - C ' C -
. V
CO
55 5
0 ) 0) 0 0 00 ( 0 (0 V --
V 0 0 0
2
V 0 ( 0
C 0
0
2
V V 0 00 C O CO
5 0
2
V V V V V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .0 . 0 . 0 . 0
•0 0 C O
C O
c i
C
0
92 2 V V Q V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 .0 . 0 .0
V
-
o V
5
2 V V = 0 0 0 .0 .0
-o V > 0
2
C
Z i
V > 0
V
C .)
0 0 V
CO
0 0 5 C O
.0 V V.
0 )
-
V
-
N
' C « u -
-
P LATE CAPT IONS b ) L igh t m ic rog raph o f t h e b roken s u rf ace o f u nmod if ied b one . T he d a rk s h adow s a r e a r tef ac t s d er ived f r om t h e m e thod o f moun t ing t h ea ce ta te r e p l ica s .
P LATE CAPT IONS
c ) L igh t m ic rog raph o f t h e c o r t ica l s u rf ace o f u nmod i f ied a n t le r .
NOTE : Magn if ica t ion sa r e 10f o rS EM m ic rog raph sa nd 6 4x f o rl i gh tm ic rog raph su n le s so the rw i se n o ted .
P la te 3 . 7 I d en t i f ica t ion o fs i gn i f ican t m ic ro scop ic f e a tu re s i nl i gh tm ic rog raph s . a ) I nva s ive p o l i sh . T h i s i s t h e mo s t d i ff i cu l t p o l i sh t o c onvey i n am ic rog raph . I ti si d en t if i ed b y r ound ing a nd s moo th ing o fl ow p o in t s a sw e l la sh i gh p o in t s o nt h et oo l( i t i s i n va s ive i n to t h e se f e a tu re s ) . T o r e a l ly o b serve t h i s r equ i re s e i the r ag r ea t e r d ep th o f f i e ld t h an p o s s ib le i n a m ic rog raph o r t h e a b i l i ty t o ' f ocu s t h rough ' t h e s pec imen , o b serv ing i t a s t h e p l ane o f f o cu s c hange s . I n t h i s m ic rog raph t h e w ho le a r ea i s r ounded , b u t n o t much s moo thed . P oo r ly f o cu sed a r ea s a r e l owe r ( d ep re ss ion s o n t h et oo ls u rf ace ) ,b u ta l so r ounded a nd s l igh t ly s moo thed .
P la te 3 . 1 C ompa r i son o f S EM a nd t r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic rog raph s . a ) S EM m ic rog raph o f as t r ia t ion ( magn if i ca t ion 2 00x ) s how ing b r i t t le f r ac tu re c r ack s a c ro s st h eg roove a nd p i le u p , m a t er ia l b u i l t u p a l ong t h e e dge o ft h e g roove . A r row s p o in to u ti d en t ica lf e a tu re so n aa nd b . -
-
b )T he s am e g roove i n al i gh tm ic rog raph . C rack s i n d ica t ive o fb r i t t le f r ac tu re a r e c l ea r e r , b u tp i le u p i ss e en h e re o n ly a s u nf ocu sed a r ea s a l ong t h e s i de s o f t h e g rooves d ue t o t h e r educed d ep th o ff i e ld . c ) S EM m ic rog raph o f ap i ece o f b one p o l i shed w i th e qu i se tum s t em s . d ) L igh t m ic rog raph o f t h e s ame p i ece o f b one a s i n c ( magn if ica t ion l øøx ) . F ine ly s t r ia ted s moo th a r ea s a r e e v iden ti nb o th .
b ) N on inva s ive p o l i sh . T he n a ture o ft h i s p o l i sh make s i t much e a s ie r t op ho tog raph a s i ti sb y d ef in i t ion f l a t te r t h an a n i n va s ive p o l i sh . T he p o l i sh a f f ec t s o n ly h i gh p o in t s , w ear ing t h em d own , l e av ing s ha rp ly d ef in ed e dge s b e tween wo rn h i gh p o in t s a nd u nwo rn l ow p o in t s , s uch a st h eb o t tom o f s t r ia t ion s . I n t h i s l i gh t m ic rog raph t h e wo rn a r ea i si n c l ea rf o cu s a nd i sq u i te s moo th w i th s t r ia t ion sr unn ing a c ro s s
P la te 3 . 2 S EM m ic rog raph o f as u rf ace r ep l ica o f a n u n m od if ied b one f r agmen t f r om G upuk . I tl a ck s s t r ia t ion s , c r ack so ro t he re v idence o fa b ra s ion o rw ea the r ing .
t h e f r ame . R emnan t s o fg r ind ing s t r ia t ion s , l owe r t h an t h e p o l i sh a nd s o o u t o f t h e p l ane o f f o cu s , a r e u nwo rn . Magn i f ica t ion l øøx .
P la te 3 . 3 C ompa r i son o fb one r e p l ica s m ade f r om s a tura ted a nd d ry b one ( Magn i f ica t ion s2 50x ) .
c ) B r igh tp o l i sh . B r igh tnes sr e f e r st ot h eh i gh r e f lec t iv i ty o f t h i sp o l i sh . I ti sl e s s e v iden t i n am ic rog raph t h an u nde r t h e m ic ro scope . I nt h i s l i gh tm ic rog raph t h e s moo th , f e a tu re le s s a r ea i nt h ec en t re o ft h ef r ame i sa na r ea o fb r igh tp o l i sh .
a ) S EM m ic rog raph o f ar e p l ica o f u nmod if i ed b on e f r om G upuk made i mmed ia te ly a f te r e xcava t ion . T he b one i s s wo l len w i th w a te r .
d ) Du l l P o l i sh . Ad u l l p o l i sh i ss moo th , b u t l e s s r ef l ec t ive t h an ab r igh tp o l i sh . I nt h i s l i gh tm ic rog raph as moo th , d u l l p o l i sh i sd ue t o p o l i sh ing w i th a p i ece o f l e a the r . T o t h e n aked e ye , t h i s p o l i sh w ou ld a ppea r l i t t le d i f f e ren t f r om t h e b r igh tp o l i sh i nc .
b ) S EM m ic rog raph o f ar ep l ica o ft h e s ame a r ea o fb one a s i na ) , a f t e rd ry ing . D e ta i l sa r es ha rpe rw hen b one i sd r ied . P la te 3 . 4 E f f ec t so fd ry ing o nc r ack s i nb one .
e )C oa r se s t r ia t ion s . C oa r se s t r ia t ion s g ene ra l ly h ave u neven e dge s a nd a r e s ome t ime s d i scon t inuou s . T hey may b e c ha rac te r i zed b y b r i t t le f r ac tu re , b u t a r e o f t en s o s ma l l t h a t t h e se d e ta i l s c anno t b e r e so lved . I n t h i s l i gh t m ic rog raph c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a r e s e en a s u neven , l i gh t c o lou red l i ne s a c ros s t h e t o p a nd d own t h e r i gh t s i de o f t h e f r ame . Magn i f ica t ion l OOx .
a ) S EM m ic rog raph o f ar e p l ica o f u nmod if ied b one f r om G upuk made i mmed ia t e ly a f t e r e xcava t ion , wh i le b one w a s s t i l l w e t a nd s wo l len . An a r row c r ack c an b e s e en r unn ing a c ros st h ec en t re o ft h em ic rog raph . b ) S EM m ic rog raph o f ar e p l ica o ft h e s ame a r ea o fb one a s i na ) , a f t e r d ry ing . T he c r ack i n much w ide r , a nd s ma l le r c r a ck s a r eb eg inn ing t od eve lop p e rpend icu la rt oi ta tt h e l ef t h and e dge o ft h em ic rog raph . S uch c r ack s a r e mo re l i ke ly t o d eve lop when d ry ing i sr ap id a nd u ncon t ro l led . P la te 3 . 5 S c ra tche so nu nmod i f ied b one . a ) S EM m ic rog raph o f ar ep l ica o fu nmod if ied b one f r om G upuk s how ing l i gh t s t r ia t ion s o r ien ted r andom ly o n a p rom inence . Magn if ica t ion 5 3x . b ) C lo se -up o fa bove , magn if i ed 5 00x . R andom o r ien ta t ion a nd p l acemen t o n t h e b one d i f f e r en t ia te t h e se f r om u se o r m anuf ac tu re s t r ia t ion s .
f ) Smoo th s t r ia t ion s . Smoo th s t r ia t ion sh ave e ven e dge s , a nd a r e l e s s o f t en d i scon t inuou s . T hey a r e n o t c ha rac t er ized b y b r i t t le f r ac tu re a nd a r e p robab ly d ue t oe i the r v e ry s ma l l o r v e ry s moo th p a r t ic le s ( Dob son a nd W i lman 1 963 ) . I n t h i s l i gh t m ic rog raph s moo th s t r ia t ion s a r e s e en a s p a ra l le l f i n e b l ack l i ne s . T he p o l i sh i sn on inva s ive . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . P la te 4 . 1 T race sl ef tb ye xpe r imen ta lc r ooked k n ive s . a ) I r on c r ooked k n if e u sed o nb one . F ine s ha l low s t r ia t ion s r un i nb and s a c ro s st h e f r ame . L ong c r ack s , s e en a si r regu la r d a rk l i ne s , d ue t ob r i t t le f r ac tu re c r o s s t h e s t r ia t ion s a tr i gh t a ng le s . Magn if ica t ion 1 00x 9 01 .1
P la te 3 . 6 u nmod if i ed b one a nd a n t le r .
b ) C oppe r c r ooked k n if e o n b one .
a ) L igh t m ic rog raph o ft h e c or t ica l s u rf ace o fu nmod if ied b one . A s i ng le l i gh t s t r ia t ion a c ro s s t h e c en t re o f t h e m ic rog raph i sp robab ly f r om c l ean ing .
F ine s ha l low s t r ia t ion s
s im i la rt ot h ose i na )a r e v i s ib le , b u t c r ack s a c ros s t h em a r e f ewe r a nd s ho r te r . T he a r e mos t c l ea r ly s e en i nt h e b o t tom h a lf o ft h ef r ame . Magn if ica t ion l øøx . 9 0 1 .2 1 23
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT C ) S l a te c r ooked k n if e o n b one . S t r ia t ion s a r e mo r e p rom inen t t h an o n e i the r a )o rb ) , a l though t h ey a r e v a r iab le a nd s om e a r e q u i te f i ne ( s ee l owe r l ef t c or n e r o f f r ame ) . C rack s a r es ma l la nd s ho r t . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 01 .3 d ) C her tc r ooked k n if e o nb one . S t r ia t ion s l e f tb y c he r t a r e h i gh ly v a r iab le a nd a lway s mo re p rom inen tt h an t h o se l ef tb y o t he r ma ter ia l s . H e re s t r ia t ion s f r om t wo s t roke s c an n o t e ven b e p ho tog raphed in t h e s am e p l ane . C rack s a r e v ery s ma l l . 9 21 .4 e ) I r on c r ooked k n if e o n d ry a n t le r . F ine s ha l low s t r ia t ion s d eve lop , b u t a r e v i s ib le o n ly a tt h e r i gh t h and e dge o f t h e f r ame i n t h i s l i gh t m ic rog raph . T he p a t te rn i n d om ina ted h e re b y t h e many c r ack s f o rm ing a r e t icu la r p a t te rn , p ar t icu la r ly i nt h e b o t tom h a lf o ft h e f r am e . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 06 .5 f )C oppe r c r ooked k n if e o n d ry a n t le r . F ine s t r ia t ion s r un a c ro ss t h e f r ame , w i th p a tches o fd end r i t ic c r ack s a si ne )i n t h e r i gh t h a lf o f t h e f r ame b u t s i gn if i can t ly s ma l le r . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 06 .6 g ) S l a te c r ooked k n if e o n d ry a n t le r . T he s t r ia t ion s a r e s l igh t ly mo re p rom inen t t h an t ho se l ef t b y m e ta l t o o l s . C rack s a r e c ommon , b u t s hor t a s t h ey w e re o n b one . T he d a rk a r ea sa r ea r tef ac t s . Magn if ica t ion l OOx . 9 06 .7
i r on . C rack s a r e l a rge r d ue t o t h e g r ea te r p re ssu re e xer ted w hen u s ing ac h i se l . Magn if ica t ion l øüx . 9 23 .5 c ) C her t c h i se l o n b one . S t r ia t ion s a nd c r ack s a r e b o th p rom inen th e re . S t r ia t ion s a r e n o ta s l a rge a s t h ose l ef tb y a c r ooked k n if e b ecau se o ft h e f l a t w o rk ing e dge o f ac h i se l . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 23 .6 d ) I r on c h i se l o nd ry a n t le r . I nt h i s a nd t h e f o l low ing P l a te s ( ei ) S EM m ic rog raph s a r e u sed b ecau se t h e g rea te r d ep th s o f t h e g roove s c r ea ted m ade r ep l ica t ion w i th a ce ta t e t a pe d i ff i cu l t . F ine s ha l low s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le , a s a r e l o ng c r ack s , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e u ppe r l ef ta nd l owe r r i gh t c or n e r s o ft h ef r ame . Magn if i ca t ion 2 50x . 9 05 .1 e ) S l a te c h i se l o n d ry a n t le r . S t r ia t ion s a r e mo re p rom inen t h e r e t h an when i r on i su sed . C rack s a r e a l so p rom inen t , b u t n o ta sl o ng a st h ose i nd ) . Magn if i ca t ion 2 50x . 9 05 .2 f ) C he r t c h i se l o nd ry a n t le r . S t r ia t ion s a r e mo re p rom inen t t h an w hen e i the r s l a te o r i r on i su sed , wh i le , f o l low ing t h e p a t te rn s e t b y c r ooked k n ive s , c r ack s a r e s hor te r , b u t s t i l l c ommon . T he p a r t icu la r ly d eep s t r ia t ion a c ro ss t h e c en t re o f t h e f r am e w a s p robab ly c au sed b y t h e c or ne r o f t h e b ur in e dge . Magn if ica t ion 2 50x . 9 05 .3 g ) I r on c h i se lo nw e ta n t le r . I nt h i s m ic rog raph , t or na n t le r , w i th a f i b rou s a ppea rance , i s t h e o n ly f e a tu re v i s ib le . Magn if i ca t ion 1 40x . 9 04 .1
h ) C her tc r ooked k n if eo nd ry a n t le r . Much mo re p rom inen t s t r ia t ion s a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le . C rack s a r e mo re c ommon a nd l a rge r t h an t h ose p roduced b y ac he r t k n if e o n b one , b u t a r e n o t d om inan t t h e w ay t h ey a r e when a n i r on k n if e i su sed . Magn i f ica t ion l OOx . 9 06 .8
h ) S l a te c h i se l o n w e t a n t le r . H e r e s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le a c ro s s t h e f r ame . T ea r ing i sa l so p resen t , a l though n o t a s p rom inen ta so ng ) . Magn if ica t ion 1 50x . 9 04 .2
i ) I r on c r ooked k n if e o n w e t a n t le r . T ear ing i s t h e p rom inen t f e a tu re h e re , s e en i n t h e c onvo lu ted a r ea s n o t i n t h e p lane o f f o cu s . F ine l i gh t s t r ia t ion s a r e o n ly s l igh t ly v i s ib le i nt h em idd le o ft h er i gh th a lf o ft h ef r ame . A r tef ac t s , p ar t icu la r ly h o le s a nd t e a r s i nt h e a ce ta te p ee l , a r e c o mmon o nr ep l ica so fa n t le r wo rked i nt h i sw ay a st h e s u rf ace i sv ery r ough . At e a ri sv i s ib le i nt h eu ppe rl ef tc or n e ro ft h e f r ame . Magn if ica t ion l OOx . 9 22 .1
j ) Copper c r ooked k n if e
o nw e ta n t le r . L ike a ) ,t e a r ing i st h e p redom inan tf e a tu re h e re . L igh ts t r ia t ion s a r e s l igh t ly v i s ib le i n t h e u ppe r r i gh t a nd l owe r l ef t p o r t ion s o f t h e f r ame . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 22 .2
i )C he r tc h i se lo nw e ta n t le r . T ea r ing i se v iden ti nt h eu ppe r r i gh t c or n e r o ft h e f r ame , a nd c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le i n t h e l owe r l ef th a lf . N o te t h a tt h e a ng le a t wh ich t h i sp ho to i s t a k en l o ok ing d own t h e s t eep s i de o f ag roove . T h i s m ake st h es t r ia t ion sd i ff i cu l tt os e e , i ti so t he rw i se i mpo s s ib le t ov i ew s uch ac on s t r ic ted a r ea . 9 04 .3 -
-
P la te 4 . 3 T race sl ef tb ye xper imen ta la dze s . a ) I r on a dze o nw e ta n t le r . A sw i th o the rt oo l su sed o nw e t a n t le r , t e a r ing i st h e mo s t p rom inen t f e a tu re h e re . S om e v ague s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le i n t h e l owe r h a lf o f t h e f r ame . 9 25 .1
k ) S l a te c r ooked k n if e o n w e t a n t le r . T ea r ing a l so p redom ina te s h e re . No s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le . Magn if ica t ion l OOx . 9 22 .3
b ) C oppe r a dze o n w e t a n t le r . T ear ing i s a l so t h e mo s t p rom inen tf e a tu re h e re . Much o ft h et or na r ea i sb eyond a ny o ne p l ane o ff o cu s . A r t if ac t s , a t t r ibu tab le t ot h e r ough , t or n s u rf ace , a r ep r e sen ti nt h eu ppe rh a lf o ft h ef r ame . 9 25 .2
1 ) C her tc r ooked k n if e o nw e ta n t le r . T ea r ing i sa l so v i s ib le h e re , e spec ia l ly a te i the r s i de o ft h e f r ame , b u t s t r ia t ion s a r e a l so p rom inen t . C he r t , w i th i t s u neven e dge , i st h e o n ly ma ter ia lt h a tl e aves p rom inen t s t r ia t ion s o nw e ta n t le r . T hey a r e n o t n ea r ly a s v i s ib le a s t ho se o n b one o r d ry a n t le r . Magn if ica t ion l OOx . 9 22 .4
c ) S l a te a dze o n w e t a n t le r . T ea r ing i sa l so v i s ib le i nt h i s m ic rog raph , p a r t i cu la r ly i n t h e l owe r l ef t a nd u ppe r r i gh t c or n e r s , b u t s t r ia t ion s , a nd c r ack s a r e a l so c l ea r ly v i s ib le . T h e se a r ep robab ly d ue t ot h el e ss e ven e dge o ft h e s l a te a dze ( wh ich b ecam e i n c rea s ing ly u neven a sw o rk p rog re s sed ) . n o n umbe r
P la te 4 . 2 T races l ef tb ye xper imen ta lc h i se l s .
d ) I r on a dze o n d ry a n t le r . F ine s t r ia t ion s a nd c r ack ing a r e v i s ib le i nt h i s m ic rog raph , a s w e l l a s s ma l l a r ea s o ft e a r ing ( uppe r l ef t c or n e r o f f r ame ) . Smoo th , n ea r ly f e a tu re le s s a r ea s i n d ica te t h a t a tt ime s t h e t oo l s s l id a l ong t h e s u rf ace w i thou tr emov ing a ny ma ter ia l . 9 26 .1
a ) I r on c h i se l o nb one . T races h e re a r e s im i la r t ot h o se l e f t b y a n i r on c r ooked k n if e , w i th f i ne , s ha l low s t r ia t ion s . C rack s i nt h i s m ic rog raph a r e n o t a sp rom inen t , b u tt h a ti sa f unc t ion o fp re s su re e xer ted a tt h i s l o ca t ion . E l sewhe re , t h ey a r ep rom inen t . Magn i f ica t ion l OOx . 9 23 .4 b ) S l a te c h i se lo nb one . S t r ia t ion sh e re , l i ke t h o se l ef tb yt h e c rooked k n if e , a r e s l igh t ly mo re p rom in en tt h an t h o se l ef tb y 1 24
e ) C oppe r a dze o n d ry a n t le r . S im i la r t ot r ace s l ef t b y a n i r on a dze , t h i sm ic rog raph s how s f i ne s t r ia t ion sa nd c r ack ing , b u t n o t much t e a r ing ( c oppe r w a s l e s s e ff ic ien t t h an i r on ) . O n ly s ma l l f e a tu re le s s a r ea s a r e p resen t ( i n c en t re ) , a
P LATE CAPT IONS f unc t ion o f where t h e p ho to w a s t a k en r a the r t h an o f t h e e ff ic ien cy o ft h et oo l . 9 26 .2
e s pec ia l ly i n t h e l owe r h a lf o f t h e f r am e a r e o s teon s , a l so c ha rac ter i s t ic o fw o rk ing w e t a n t le r a nd o the rw e t ma ter ia l s . Magn i f ica t ion l OOx . 9 39 .4
P la te 4 . 4 T races l ef tb ye xper imen ta ld r i l l s .
c ) D r i l l ing s oap s tone . Ma s se s o f c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , l a rge r t h an t h ose l ef t b y w ood , c ha rac ter i se d r i l l ing s t one . D a rk s h adow s a r ea r tef ac t s . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 38 .4
a ) I r on d r i l l o n w e t a n t le r . F ine s t r ia t ion s a nd s ome t e a r ing a r e v i s ib le o n t h e w a l l s o f t h e h o le ( s een b o th a s i regu la r h o le s a nd l ump s i n t h i s n ega t ive i mp re s s ion ) . T he se a r e c ha rac t e r i s t ic o fw e t a n t le rw o rked w i th i r on . Magn if ica t ion 5 0X . 9 24 .1
P la te 4 . 8 T race sl ef tb yw ood o nb one s pa tu la s . a ) G roov ing s p ruce ; f i ne , r e la t ive ly s moo th s t r ia t ion s a nd a n on inva s ive p o l i sh ( a s i n d ica ted b y as ha rp d ema rca t ion b e tween t h e p o l i sh a nd t h e r emnan t g r ind ing s t r ia t ion ) a r e c ha rac ter i s t ic . T he e dge o f t h e s pa tu la i n t h i s a nd t h e f o l low ing m ic rog raph s i sa tt h e t op , v i s ib le i nt h i s c a se a s a d a rk l i ne o nt h er i gh t . B and o fr ough b one v i s ib le d i agona l ly i st h e r emnan t o f ag r ind ing s t r ia t ion . Magn if ica t ion l øøx . 9 46 .4
b ) C oppe r d r i l l o n w e t a n t le r . S ome l i gh t s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le ( a c ro ss t h e f r ame ) , b u t c r ack s a nd t e a r ing p erpend icu la r t o t h em , s e en a s l o ng r i dge s i n t h i s n ega t ive i mp re s s ion , d om ina te . Magn if ica t ion 5 0x . 9 24 .3 c ) C her t d r i l l o n w e t a n t le r . T h i s v i ew o f an ega t ive i mp re s s ion s how s t h e r ounded b o t tom a nd s i de s o f ah o le m ade w i th af l aked s t one d r i l l . T he i regu la r s hape ( un l ike t h e s moo th s i ded , f l a t b o t tomed h o le s l ef t b y m e ta l d r i l l s ) a nd t h el a rge s t r ia t ion s a r ec ha rac ter i s t ic . Magn if i ca t ion 4 2x . 9 24 .5
b ) G roov ing p ine ; s l igh t ly c oa r se r s t r ia t ion s t h an a ) , b u t a s im i la r n on inva s ive p o l i sh a nd o ve ra l l a ppea rance . R emnan t s o fg r ind ing s t r ia t ion s a nd c r ack s i n t h e b one a r e a l so v i s ib le . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 47 .4
P la te 4 . 5 T races l ef tb yg r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing .
c ) G roov ing c eda r ; f i ne s t r ia t ion s a nd an on inva s ive p o l i sh , w i th r emnan t s o fg r ind ing s t r ia t ion s . T he e dge o ft h et o o l s i s n o tv i s ib le . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 50 .3
a ) L igh tm ic rog raph o fs t r ia t ion s l e f tb yg r ind ing o n ac oa r se s t one . ( See P la te 6 . 6a f o r a mac ropho tog raph o f a n a r chaeo log ica l e xamp le . ) A s e r ies o f l a rge s t r ia t ion s r un a c ros st h ef r ame , i d en t if ied b yr ough l o ok ing a r ea s . 9 16 .1 b ) L igh tm ic rog raph o fs t r ia t ion s l e f tb y g r ind ing w i th af i ne g ra ined g r ind s tone . S t r ia t ion r unn ing d i agona l ly f r om t h e l owe r l e f t t ot h e u ppe rr i gh t o ve r l ie s t r ia t ion s r unn ing a c ro s s t h e f r ame . I nd iv idua l s t r ia t ion s a r e d i ff i cu l t t op i ck o u t b u t a r e c l ea r ly s ma l ler t h an t h o se i n a ) . ( See P l a te 6 . 6b f o r a mac ropho tog raph o fa na r chaeo log ica le xamp le . )9 11 .2 c ) P o l i sh ing w i th w e t l e a the r R emnan t s o f g r ind ing s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le a s d i agona l b and s o fr ough b one . T he p o l i sh l ef t b y w e t l e a the r c on s i s t s o f ma s se s o f v e ry f i n e , s ha l low , i l -de f ined s t r ia t ion sa nd s moo th ing . 9 16 .2
d ) G roov ing p op la r ; f i ne r e la t ive ly s moo th s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e l ef t h a lf a nd l owe r p o r t ion o f t h e f r ame . T he p o l i sh i sa ga in , n on inva s ive . T he e dge i sa tt h e t o pl ef t . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 48 .3 e ) G roov ing o ak ; F ine s moo th s t r ia t ion s . O n ly t i ny r emnan t s o fg r ind ing s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le , b u t e l sewhe re t h e p o l i sh i s s e en t o b e n on inva s ive . Magn i f ica t ion l øøx . 9 49 .3
.
f ) C h i se l ing s pruce ; f i ne s moo th s t r ia t ion s i nt h e d i rec t ion o f t h e w o rk . Ar emnan t o f ag r ind ing s t r ia t ion i sv i s ib le a tt h e b o t tom l ef t . T he p o l i sh i sa ga in n on inva s ive . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 46 .5a
d ) P o l i sh ing w i th E qu i se tum s p . a f t e r g r ind ing . R emnan t s o f g r ind ing s t r ia t ion s a r e l e s s v i s ib le , a s t h e s i l ica i n t h e E qu i se tum r emove s mo re ma ter ia l t h an l e a the r . S t r ia t ion s a r e l e s s e v iden t t h an o n c ) , b u t t h e w ho le a ppea r s c oa r se r . 9 14 .2
g ) C h i se l ing p ine ; f i ne s moo th s t r ia t ion s a nd an on inva s ive p o l i sh . C rack s i nt h e t o o l s a nd r emnan t g r ind ing s t r ia t ion s a r ea l so v i s ib le . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 47 .5 a h ) C h i se l ing c eda r ; as ma l l a r ea o ff i ne s t r ia t ion s i ss e en a t t h et o pr i gh to ft h ef r ame . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 50 .3
P la te 4 . 6 T race s l ef tb ym e ta lf i l es . a ) Mac ropho tog raph o fc ha rac te r i s t ic mac ro scop ic f e a tu re s ( pa ra l le lr i pp les )o ff i l ing , n eed p ho to
i ) C h i se l ing p op la r ; f i ne s moo th s t r ia t ion s a nd a n on i n va s ive p o l i sh . T he a r ea a t t h e r i gh t o f t h e f r ame i s u nwo rked a nd u nu sed . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 47 .5a
b ) L igh t m ic rog raph o ff i l ed b one . L a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a nd l a rge c r ack s a r et y p ica lo ff i l ing . I ns om e c a se st h i s may b e d i ff i cu l t t o d i f f e ren t ia te f r om b one w o rked w i th o t he r me t a lt o o l s . 9 18 .3
j )
c ) L igh tm ic rog raph o ff i l ed d ry a n t le r . L a rge s t r ia t ion s a nd c r ack s a r e s im i la r t ot h o se o n b ) , b u t t e ar ing i sa l so p r e sen t
P la te 4 . 9T race sl e f to nb one b yw i l low b a rk .
C h i se l ing o ak ; f i n e s moo th s t r ia t ion s a nd an on inva s ive p o l i sh . T he l i ne a tt h e t o p o ft h e f r am e i st h e e dge o ft h e r e p l ica ,n o to ft h et o o l . Magn i f ica t ion l OOx . 9 49 .5a
a ) P ee l ing f r e sh w i l low b a rk ; s t r ia t ion s a tt h e e dge o f t h e t o o l s , s e en i n t h e l owe r l e f t , a r e f i ne . T hey a r e s im i la r t o t h o se l ef t b y w ood b u t s l igh t ly c oa r se r . T he p o l i sh t h ey p roduce i sf i ne , a nd c an e ven l e ad t o e xposu re o f o s teon s :
( t op l e f t ) . A me ta l f i l e i ss t rong a nd e ff i c ien t e nough t ot e a r e ven d ry a n t le r . 9 19 .2 P la te 4 . 7 T race s l ef to nb one b yd r i l l ing .
o ne c an b e s e en a tt h e l ef te dge o ft h e f r ame . T he s t r ia t ion s r un i n t wo m a in d i rec t ion s , a s t h e d i rec t ion o f mo t ion w a s c hanged d u r ing w o rk . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 41 .2
a ) D r i l l ing wood . Ma s se s o f f i ne , s moo th s t r ia t ion s a r e c ha rac ter i s t ic o f d r i l l ing w ood . I n t h i s a nd t h e f o l low ing m ic rog raph s , t h e s t r ia t ion s a r e a c ros st h e w id th o ft h e f r ame . T he p o l i sh i sn on inva s ive . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 39 .5
b )P ee l ing d ry w i l low b a rk ; s t r ia t ion sa tt h ee dge , s e en a tt h e t o p o f t h e f r am e , a r e l a rge r a nd c oa r se r t h an t h o se l e f t b y
b ) D r i l l ing w e t a n t le r . F ewe r l i gh t , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a r e c ha rac te r i s t ic o f wo rk ing a n t le r . C oncen t r ic o va l s , v i s ib le 1 25
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT f r e sh w i l low b a rk , b u t t h e g ene ra l p a t te rn i s s im i la r . Magn if ica t ion l OOx . 9 44 .2 P la te 4 . 10 a n t le r .
T race s l e f t o n b one b y r ubb ing w i th w ood o r
a ) S imp ly r ubb ing b one a nd w ood t o ge the r l e ave s t r ace s v e ry l i ke t h o se l e f t b y w o rk ing w ood w i th b one . F in e s moo th s t r ia t ion s a nd an on inva s ive p o l i sh a r e e v iden th e re . 9 63 .2 b ) R ubb ing b one a nd a n t le r t o ge the r p roduce s s im i la r r e su l t s . A f ew s moo th , l i gh t s t r ia t ion s a nd a n on inva s ive p o l i sh a r es e en p a r t icu la r ly i nt h ec en t re o ft h el e f th a lf o ft h e f r ame . 9 67 .3 P la te 4 . 11 T race so ne xper imen ta ls c apu la t o o l s . a ) W ip ing u p s p i l l s ; d ee r h a i r , t h e c on tac t m a ter ia l i nt h i s a c t iv i ty , l e ave s v ery f i ne , l i gh t b u t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s . T he e dge o ft h e t o o l i nt h i s a nd t h e f o l low ing P l a te s i na tt h e l ef t e dge o ft h e f r ame . S t r ia t ion s a r e b e s t s e en a way f r om t h e e dge , a tt h e r i gh t e dge o ft h e f r ame . T he re a r e m any , v ery f i ne S t r ia t ion s r e su l t ing i n ap o l i sh f i ne e nough t o e xpose o s teon ss l igh t ly . Magn i f ica t ion l øüx . 9 32 .4 b ) S ca l ing p ike ; l a rge s c a le s o n p ike l e ave l a rge , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s . T hey a r e s e en h e re i n ab and p e rpend icu la rt ot h e e x t reme e dge a nd a l so a way f r om t h e e dge , i nt h e c en t re o f t h e f r ame . T he s t r ia t ion s a r e c oa r se a nd o f ten q u i te d eep , e spec ia l ly a tt h e e dge . Magn i f ica t ion l üøx . 9 30 .6a c ) S ca l ing w h i tef i sh ; l a rge s c a le s a ga in l e ave l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , i n as im i la r p a t te rn a s b ) . T he s hor t , w ide , d eep s t r ia t ion s a tt h e e x t reme e dge a r e p a r t icu la r ly c ha rac t er i s t ic . Magn i f ica t ion l OOx . 9 33 .5
d ) G roov ing d ry r awh ide ; w i th v i r tua l ly n op ene t ra t ion ,t h i s l e ave s l i t t le o r n o w ea r . T he s l igh t ly i n va s ive p o l i sh s e en h e re i s ar emnan t f r om ap rev iou s u se r ubb ing h a rd l e a the r ( bu tn o tf r om t h e ma in w o rk ing a r ea ) . 9 47 .6 e ) G roov ing w e tr awh ide ; t h i s r a the r d a rk p ho to s how s t h e i n va s ive p o l i sh c ha rac ter i s t ic o f wo rk ing s of t , w e t r awh ide . T he p o l i sh i sn ea r ly f e a ture les s , s t r ia t ion s i nt h e b o t tom h a lf o ft h ef r ame b e ing l e f tf r om ap rev iou su se . 9 45 .4a f ) R ubb ing h a rd l e a the r ; t h e s l igh t ly i n va s ive q ua l i ty o ft h i s w ea r i ss e en mo re c l ea r ly h e re , a nd t h e s t r ia t ion s a r e s hown t ob e l e s s s moo th , a nd a l so l e s s f r equen t t h an t h ose l e f t b y w ood . T he w ea r i s o the rw i se s im i la r t o g roov ing h a rd l e a the r . Magn if ica t ion l OOx . 9 47 .6 g ) R ubb ing m ed ium l e a the r ; t h i sw ea ri sa ga in s im i la rt ot h e p a t te rn p roduced b y g roov ing , w i th a n i n va s ive , a lmo s t f e a ture le s s p o l i sh . S ome l i gh t s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le o n ly a way f r om t h ee dge . Magn i f ica t ion l OOx . 9 48 .6 h ) R ubb ing s of t l e a the r ; w o rk ing v e ry s of tl e a the r l e ave s a v e ry f i ne p o l i sh t h a t c an e ven e xpose o s teon s , t r ace s o f wh ich c an b e s e en i n t h e t op r i gh t h a lf o f t h e f r ame . Magn if ica t ion l øøx . 9 50 .6 i ) R ubb ing d ry r awh ide ; t h e w o rk ing f a ce o f at oo lu sed i n t h i s a c t iv i ty d eve lop s ac l ea rp a t te rn s im i la rt ot h a tp roduced b y h a rd l e a the r . L igh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a nd a s l igh t ly i n va s ive p o l i sh a r ee v iden t . T he p o l i sh d oes n o ta ppea rt ob e a s b r igh t a s ah a rd l e a the r p o l i sh ( a l though t h i s i s n o t p a r t icu la r ly e v iden t i n t h e m ic rograph s ) . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 46 .6
J ) Rubbing
w e tr awh ide , t h i s a c t iv i ty p roduce s a n i n va s ive p o l i sh i n w h ich t h e p a t te rn o f o s teon s i n c l ea r ly e v iden t , e spec ia l ly i n t h e c en t re o f t h e f r ame . S ome s t r ia t ion s a r e p robab ly c au sed b y f i b rou s ma ter ia l o n t h e i n ne r s i de o ft h e r awh ide . Magn if ica t ion l OOx . 9 45 .3
d ) S ca l ing t r ou t ; s ma l le r s c a les l e ave s l igh t ly s ma l le r , b u t s t i l l p rom in en t s t r ia t ion s . T hey a r e a ga in c oa r se , a nd s ome t ime s q u i te d eep . T he v ery l a rge s t r ia t ion s s e en a tt h e e dge i nb ) a nd c )a r e n o t f ound o n t o o l u sed t o s c a le t r ou t . Magn if ica t ion l OOx . 9 30 .5b
P la te 4 . 13 T races l ef tb yc u t t ing mea t .
e ) S ca l ing b u rbo t ; w i th v e ry s ma l l s c a le s , s c a l ing b u rbo t l e ave v e ry s ma l ls t r ia t ion s . I nt h i sc a se t h ee dge i sa tt h et o p . T he s t r ia t ion s a r e v e ry f i ne , b u t c oa r se . T he p roduce a p a t te rn i n d i s t ingu i shab le f r om t h a t l e f t b y h a i r [ s ee a ) ] . S ome o s teon s a r e s l igh t ly v i s ib le a s c oncen t r ic o va l s . Magn if ica t ion l üüx . 6 32 .6b
a ) Sma l l a r ea s o ff e a ture le s s p o l i sh a r e s e en a tt h e e x t rem e e dge , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e l ef t h a lf o f t h e f r ame , a nd i n i s o la ted a r ea s a way f r om t h e e dge ( a t t h e t o p o ft h e f r ame ) . G r ind ing s t r ia t ion s a r e s t i l l c l ea r ly v i s ib le , e ven c l o se t ot h e e dge . Wea ri sr e s tr ic ted t oh i gh p o in t s . Magn if ica t ion l OOx . 9 74 .2 b ) I n t h i s l i gh tm ic rog raph t h e r ep l ica t a k es i nt h e e dge a nd b o th s i de so ft h et oo l s . T he e x t reme e dge c an b e s e en a c ro s s t h e c en t r e o f t h e f r ame . T he a r ea o f p o l i sh i se xt reme ly l im i ted , a nd s ome o s teon s a r e v i s ib le . Magn i f ica t ion 1 00x . 9 77 .2
P la te 4 . 12 T race sl e f to nb one u sed t ow o rk h ide . a ) G roov ing h a rd l e a the r ; f i ne s t r ia t ion s a nd a no n ly s l igh t ly i n va s ive p o l i sh make t h i sp a t te rn r e semb le t h ose l e f tb yh a rd m a t er ia l s s u ch a s wood . T hey c an b e d i f f e ren t ia ted b y t h e s l igh t ly i n va s ive p o l i sh , a nd g ene ra l ly mo re r ounded a ppea rance , e spec ia l ly a tt h e e dge ( t op o ft h e f r am e i nt h i s a nd f o l low ing P la te s ) . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 45 .3b
P la te 4 . 14 T races l ef tb ys i new . a ) B one u sed e x ten s ive ly t o w o rk s i new . Nume rou s l o ng , s moo th s t r ia t ion s a nd a n on inva s ive p o l ish c an b e s e en p e rpend icu la r t o t h e e dge a t t h e t op o f t h e f r ame . Magn i f ica t ion l øøx . 9 70 .6
b ) G roov ing m ed ium l e a the r ; t h i s l e ave s a much mo r e c ha rac te r i s t ic l e a the rp o l i sh . I ti se x ten s ive ly r ound ed a tt h e e dge , t h e p o l i sh i s i n va s ive a nd t h e re a r e f ew s t r ia t ion s . ( Crack s v i s ib le h e re a r e i ndependen t o f w ea r ) . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 48 .7
b ) B one u sed t o wo rk s i new l e s s e x ten s ive ly t h an a ) . P o l i sh i s l e s s w e l l d eve loped , b u t c an s t i l l b e s e en t o b e n on i n va s ive . T he re a r e f ewe r s t r ia t ion s ( mo s t i nt h e l ef th a lf o f t h e f r ame ) t h ey a r e l ong , s moot h a nd i s o la ted . Magn i f ica t ion l OOx . 9 71 .3
c ) G roov ing s of tl e a the r ; t h i s l e ave s av ery i n va s ive p o l i sh . T he b o t tom s o f g roove r emnan t s c an b e s e en h e re t o b e r ounded a nd b eg inn ing t ob e s moo thed , p a r t icu la r ly t h o se a t t h e r i gh t a nd l ef t s i des o f t h e f r ame . Magn i f ica t ion l OOx . 9 47 .7
-
P la te 4 . 15 T races l e f tb ys now ,i c ea nd e a r th . 1 26
P LATE CAPT IONS a ) S now ; w o rk ing s now a nd o t he r w e t m a te r ia l s i s c ha rac te r i zed b y e x ten s ive e xposu re o fo s teon s , s e en c l ea r ly h e re a sc on cen t r ic o va l s . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 57 .2b b ) I c e ; w o rk ing i c e s im i la r ly r e su l t s i ne xpo su re o fo s teon s . S t r ia t ion s a r e a l so s ome t im e s v i s ib le , b u t n o t o n t h i s m ic rog raph . 9 53 .2a
o f t h e f r ame , a r e mo s t s im i la r t o t h ose p roduced e xper imen ta l ly b ys i new ( See P l a te 4 . 23 . ) N il s -1-2555 c ) S i new w ea r ; v e ry s im i la r t o b ) a bove , a l though t h e d i rec t ion o ft h e s t r ia t ion s i sp r edom inan t ly p e rpend icu la r t o t h ee dge a tt h et o po ft h ef r ame . N iT s -1-3053 .1 d ) Wound p in ; al i gh tn on inva s ive p o l i sh i se v iden t i nt h e s ha rp d ema rca t ion b e tween w orn a nd u nwo rn a r ea s , p robab ly r emnan t s o f manuf ac tu r e s t r ia t ion s , e s pec ia l ly i n t h e l owe r h a lf o f t h e f r ame . Smoo th , f i ne s t r ia t ion s a r e s im i la r t ot ho se l ef tb y s i new . T h i s c omb ina t ion o ft r a i t s i s t h ough tt ob el i ke ly o n wound p in s . N iT s -l-773
c ) E a r th ( s andy s o i l ) ; wo rk ing e a r th l e ave s m a s se s o fl i gh t , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , s e en h e re d i agona l ly a c ro s s t h e f r am e . T he a ppea rance o fv ague o s teon s i sd ue t o ap r ev iou s u se o ft h i s t o o la sa ni c ep i ck . 9 53 .3 P la te 4 . 16 T race sl e f tb ys t o rage a nd t r an spo r t . a ) ' P ocke tw ea r ' i na n e a r ly s t age o fd eve lopmen t . An a r ea o fb r igh t , n on inva s ive p o l i sh c ha rac t er i s t ic o f t h i s w ea r i s v i s ib le i n t h e l ef t h a lf o f t h e f r ame . R andom ly o r ien ted s t r ia t ion sa r ea l so v i s ib le . Magn if i ca t ion l OOx . 9 51 .2b b ) ' P ocke t w ea r ' i n al a te r s t age o f d eve lopmen t . B r igh t , n on inva s ive p o l i sh i s mo re e x ten s ive , a l though f ewe r s t r ia t ion sa r ev i s ib le i nt h i sm ic rog raph . Magn if i ca t ion l øøx . 9 51 .5b
e ) We t h ide ; a n e x ten s ive , i n va s ive p o l i sh w i th c l ea r e xpo su re o fo s teon s s ugge s t s u se w i th w e t ma te r ia l , i n t h i s c a se p robab ly w e th ide ( b ecau se o ft h e c l a r i ty o ft h e o s teon s a nd t h et oo l f o rm ) . T he e dge o ft h et o o l i sa tt h e l ef ts i de o f t h ef r ame . ( See P l a te 4 . 20 j . ) N iT s -1 -899 f ) Med ium l e a the r ; a n i n va s ive p o l i sh i si nd ica t ed b y t h e u nc lea r d ema rca t ion b e tween p o l i shed a r ea s a nd l ow p o in t s s uch a s t h e g rooved ( r emnan t s o f g r ind ing s t r ia t ion s , e spec ia l ly v i s ib le a tt h e r i gh t s i de o ft h e f r ame , h i s p o l i sh , c omb ined w it h t h e l i gh t s t r ia t ion s s e en r unn ing a c ro ss t h e f r ame s ugge s t u se w i th l e a the r o f m ed ium s t iff l ie s s . ( See P l a tes 4 . 20f a nd g . ) N il s -1-753 .1
P la te 5 . 1 M ic roscop ic t r ace so nd r i l l sf r om G upuk . a ) Wood w ea r ; f i ne , s moo th s t r ia t ion s a r ev i s ib le a r ound t h e s haf t , i n t h e l owe r h a lf o f t h e f r ame . I n t h i s a nd t h e f o l low ing P l a te s , t h e d r i l l s haf t i so r ien ted v er t ica l ly i n t h e f r am e . ( S ee P l a te 4 . 13a )N iT s -l-2044
g ) Mu l t ip le u se s : N iT s -1-290 s how s b o th a n on inva s ive p o l i sh , w i th v a r iab le l i gh ts t r ia t ion s ,b o th s moo th a nd c oa r se , v i s ib le i nt h eb o t tom h a lf o ft h e f r ame , a nd a r ea s o fi n va s ive p o l i sh a nd e xpo sed o s teon s ( no t p i c tu r ed h e r e ) . T he u se o r u se s l e ad ing t o t h i s c o mb ina t ion o f f e a tu res h a s n o t b een i d en t if ied .
b ) We t a n t le r w ea r ; l a rge l i gh t a nd c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le r unn ing a r ound t h e s haf t( a c ro s s t h e f r am e ) . O s teon s a r ea l so v i s ib le ,p ar t icu la r ly i nt h e t op h a lf o ft h e f r ame . ( See P l a te 4 . 13b ) N iT s -1-2486 c ) A b ra s ive w ea r ; l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s ,b e t t e rd ef ined t h an t h o se l e f tb yw e ta n t le r , a r ev i s ib le a r ound t h e s haf t . T he r e s t o f t h e s u rf ace i s a l so r ough u n l ike e i the r w ood w ea r ( smoo th ) o ra n t le r( o s teon s e xpo sed ) . ( See P l a te 4 . 13c )N iT s 1 1371
h ) Mu l t ip le u se s ; N iT s 1-356 .1 s how s l ong c oa r se s t r ia t ion s r unn ing a l ong o ne e dge ( a c ro s s t h e f r ame ) , a s soc ia ted w i th a n i n va s ive p o l i sh a nd s ome e xpo su re o f o s t eon s , p ar t ly v i s ib le i n t h e l owe r r i gh t c or n e r o ft h e f r ame . T he u se o r u sed c au s ing t h i sp a t te rn a r en o tk nown .
d ) Un iden t if ied w ea r ; n o s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t a r e v i s ib le o nt h i s t o o l . Two s e t s o fr emnan tS t r ia t ion s , d i agona l a nd p e rpend icu la r t o e ach o t her a r e p robab ly f r om m anuf ac tu re . T he p o l i sh i so f u nknown o r ig in . N iT s -12 296 .1
i ) Mu l t ip le u se s ; N iT s -1-3065 .1 a ppea r s t oh ave b een u sed b o th t o w o rk w i th s i new a nd t o p ee l w i l low b a rk . F ine s moo th s t r ia t ion sp robab ly l ef tb ys i new a r e v i s ib le a tt h et op l ef to ft h ef r ame , a nd a l so a tt h ee x t r em eb o t tom l e f t . Ma s se s o fl i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s e l sewhe re a r e mo s t s im i la r t ot ho se l e f tb yw i l low b a rk . ( See P la te 4 . 4 .16 ) .
e ) U n iden t if ied w ea r ; an umbe r o fd r i l l s l a cked s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t , h av ing i n s tead c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a l ong t h e s haf t a ss e en h e re , v i s ib le i nt h e l e f t h a lf o ft h e f r ame . T hey a r eo fu nknown o r ig in . N iT s -1 1214
j ) Un iden t if i ed ;
f ) U n iden t if ied w ea r ; t h e se s moo th , f i ne s t r ia t ion s a l ong t h e l e ng th o f t h e s haf t a r e l i ke t h o se l e f t b y v ood . T hey a r e p robab ly t h er e su l to fi n ser t ing t h e e nd o ft h d r i l l e i the ri na s haf t( f or r e ve r s ib le d oub le e nded d r i l l s )o ri n as h ea th . T hey o ccu r b o th o n d r i l l s w i th a nd w i t hou t ( a s i n t h i s c a se ) s t r ia t ion sa r ound t h es haf t . N iT s -1 2907
amode ra te ly i n va s ive w ea r , a s soc ia ted w i th b o th e xposu re o f o s teon s ( t op c en t re ) a nd l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s p erpend icu la r t o t h e e dge a tt h e t op o ft h e f r ame . T h i s w ea ri ss im i la rt ot h a ti d en t if ied o n w ound p in s , b u tt h e o ve ra l la ppea ran ce i sn o tt h es am e . N iT s 1-1529 .1 k ) Un iden t if ied , w i l low? ; l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s d i agona l ly a c ros s t h e f r ame s ugges t w ea r c au sed b y w i l low b a rk ( c ompa re t oi )a bove ) , b u tp l acemen to ft h e w ea ro n t h e t o o l d i f f e r s . N iT s -1-1605 .2
P la te 5 . 2 M ic ro scop ic t r ace so ns pa tu la sf r om G upuk .
P la te 5 . 3 M ic ro scop ic t r ace s o ns c apu la t oo l s f r om G upuk .
a ) Ma r row s pa tu la? : ( p ic tu red a t t h e r i gh t i n P l a te 5 . 7 ) . L igh t s t r ia t ion s a nd a n e x ten s ive s moo th p o l i sh a r e e v iden t h e re . N o t r ace s o f manuf ac tu re r ema in . T h i s w ea r w a s n o t i d en t if ied e xpe r imen ta l ly , t h e t o o l f o rm b e ing t h e ma in c l ue t ou se . N iT s -l-97
a ) ' P ock e tw ea r ' ; av e ry b r igh t , n on inva s ive p o l i sh p re sen t o n ly o ni s o la ted h i gh p o in t i s mo s ts im i la r t ow ea rp roduced e xpe r imen ta l ly b y s t o rage a nd t r an spor t . ( See P l a t e 4 . 27 ) . T he e dge o ft h et oo l i nt h i s a nd t h e f o l low ing P l a te s i sa tt h e r i gh te dge o ft h ef r ame . N iT s -1-360
b ) S inew w ea r ; m any f me s ha rp s t r ia t ion s , v i s ib le b o th a c ro s s a nd p e rpend icu la r t ot h e e dge o ft h e t o o l a tt h e r i gh t
b ) Mea t l ike ; i n va s ive w ea r c ha rac ter i sed b y e xposu re o f o s teon s i sv i s ib le a tt h e e x t rem e e dge . Away f r om t h e e dge 1 27
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT i ti sl e ss e v iden t , a l though more s o t h an o n t h e e xpe r imen ta l t oo l s . ( See P l a te 4 . 22 ) . N iT s -l-3252 c ) F i sh s c a l ing ; t h e o n ly e v iden ce f o r u se o ft h e se t o o l s a s f i sh s c a le r sa tG upuk . S ho r td eep s t r ia t ion sa tt h ee dge o ft h e t oo l ( on o ne f a ce o n ly ) a r e v e ry s im i la r t o t h o se l ef t b y s c a l ing l a rge s c a led f i sh . ( See P l a te 4 . 19a a nd b ) . N iT s -1 3 966 .2 d ) I nva s ive w ea r ; o nt h eo ther f a ce o ft h et o o lp i c tu red i nc ) , w ea r i sc onf ined t o t h e e dge . T h i s i n va s ive w ea r s how s e xpo sed o s t eon s a t t h e e x trem e e dge , a t t h e r i gh t o f t h e f r ame . I tt o om ay b e aw e l l d eve loped mea tp o l i sh ,b u ti fs o , i ti sh a rd t os ay h ow t h e t wo f a ce s c ou ld n o tb e w or ni nt h e s ame w ay . N iT s -1-3966 .1
f ) N eed le w ea r ; i n s ome c a se s , w ea r o n n eed le s i s mo re h i gh ly s t r ia t ed , w i th l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a s i n t h i s c a se . T h i sm ay r e la te t ou se w i th ad i f f e ren t g r ad e o fh ide , o r may b e a n e a r l ie r s t age o fw ea r , w i th amanuf ac tu re p o l i sh s t i l l v i s ib le . N iT s -1 1509 P la te 5 . 6 M ic ro scop ic t r ace so ns now k n ive sf r om G upuk . a ) S now ; a l though p ar t ly o b scu red b yw ea ther ing c r ack s , a p o l i sh c ha rac te r ized b y t h e e xpo su re o f o s teon s i sv i s ib le , p ar t icu la r ly i nt h e r i gh t h a lf o ft h e f r ame . T he e dge o ft h i s w ha lebone s now k n if e i sa tt h e t op o ft h e f r am e . ( See P l a te 4 . 4 .25a . ) N iT s -1 2693
P la te 5 . 4 M ic ro scop ic t r ace so nb l ades f r om G upuk . a ) F re sh ; n o w ea r i sv i s ib le h e re , o n ly af i ne p o l i sh l ef tb y l e a the r . T he e dge i nt h i s a nd t h e f o l low ing P l a te s i sa tt h e r i gh to ft h ef r ame . N iT s -l-1054
b ) S now ; o n t h i s a n t le r k n if e , ap o l i sh c ha rac ter ized b y e xpo su re o fo s teon s i se v iden ta tt h e t o p o ft h e f r ame a nd a t t h e b o t tom r i gh t . T he s t r ia t ion s m ay h ave b een c au sed b y c o lde r , mo r e g r anu la r s now t h an t h a t u sed i n t h e e xpe r imen t s ,o rm aybe r andom . N iT s -1 3085
b ) F re sh ; a ga in , n o w ea r i sv i s ib le . T h i s b l ade w a s f i n i shed b yf i ne g r ind ing , w i thou tp o l i sh ing . N iT s -1 1374 .1 c ) S hea th w ea r? ; a n e x ten s ive p o l i sh , w i th n o s i gn s o f p rev iou s s t age so f manuf ac tu re , i ss e en h e re . I ti sp robab ly a c o mb ina t ion o ff i n i sh ing p o l i sh , a si na )a bove , a nd p o s s ib ly t h e u se o f as hea th . T h i s i ss ugge s ted b y t h e f i ne l e ng thw i se s t r ia t ion s , mo re p rom inen t t h an t ho se g ene ra l ly l ef t b y p o l i sh ing . N iT s -1 2121 d ) ' P ocke t w ea r ' ; ab r igh t , n on inva s ive p o l i sh , e x t en s ive b u t o f ten i s o la ted , i sc ha rac ter i s t ic o f t r an spor t a nd s t o rage ( bu t n o t i n at i gh t ly f i t t ing s hea th ) . ( See P la tes 5 . 9a a nd 4 . 27 . ) N iT s -1-374 .1
P la te 5 . 7 M ic ro scop ic t r ace so np i ck sf r om G upuk a ) I c e ; ap o l i sh w i th e xpo sed o s teon s , v i s ib le e spec ia l ly i n t h e l owe r h a lf o ft h e f r ame , i sc on s i s ten t w i th u se a s a n i c e p i ck . ( See P l a te 4 . 25b . ) N iT s -1-3208 b ) E a r th ; w ea ra t t r ibu ted t ou se w i th e a r th i sv i s ib le h e re a s f i ne d i agona l s t r ia t ion s i n t h e l e f t h a lf o f t h e f r ame . E l sewhe r e , w ea the r ing o b scu re s w ea r . ( See P la t e 4 . 25c . ) N iT s -1 2037 P la te 5 . 8 G upuk .
e ) We th ide? ; aw e l l d eve loped p o l i sh c ha rac te r ized b y t h e e xpo su re o fo s teon s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se t o o l s w e re p o l i shed w i th w e t , r a the rt h an d ry ,h ide . N iT s -l-2974 .1 1 ) Mea t? ; av e ry l i gh t p o l i sh , d i ff i cu l t t o s e e i n a m ic rog raph , m ay b e t h e r e su l t o f l i gh t p o l i sh ing o r m ay b e f r om c u t t ing m ea t . N iT s -1 670 P la te 5 . 5 G upuk .
e ) N eed le w ea r ; n eed le s a r e mo s t o f t en h i gh ly p o l i shed , w i th av e ry f i ne p o l i sh a si nt h i sc a se . I ti ss im i la rt o ap o l i sh p roduced b y l e a the r a nd s o c ou ld b e e i the r u se w ea r , manuf ac tu re p o l i sh , o r( mo s tl i ke ly )b o th . N iT s -1-1282
M ic roscop ic t r ace s o n a w l s a nd n eed le s f r om
a ) T yp ica la w l ; w ea rh e re i sp ar t ly o b scu red b yw ea the r ing , p ar t icu la r ly a c ro s s t h e c en t re o ft h e f r ame . Wea r o n a w l s i s t y p ica l ly as moo th , i nva s ive ,p o l i sh w i th o cca s iona ls t r ia t ion s e i the r a r ound t h e s haf t o r a l ong i t . B o th t ypes o fs t r ia t ion s c an b e s e en h e re i nt h e l owe r h a lf o ft h e f r ame . I n t h i s a nd t h e f o l low ing P l a tes , t h e s haf t i so r ien ted v er t ica l ly w i th t h e t i pt ot h er i gh t . N iT s -1-2300 b ) T yp ica l a w l ; as moo th , i nva s ive p o l i sh i ss hown h e re , w i th s hor t , s moo th s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t v i s ib le c en t re o ft h e l ef th a lf o ft h e f r am e . N il s -1-634
M ic ro scop ic t r ace s o n m i sce l laneou s t o o ls f r om
a ) S inew t w i s te r ; w ea r o n t h i s t o o l s i ss im i la r t o t h a t o n e xpe r imen ta l t o o l s u sed w i th s i new ( P la t e 4 . 23 a nd o n a r chaeo log ica l m a r l in s p ike s ( P la t e 5 . 8b a nd c ) , a nd e t hnog raph ic m a r l in s p ike s a nd s i new t w i s t e r s ( P la te 5 . 26b a nd c ) . L ong , f i n e s moo th s t r ia t ion s a r e v i s ib le i nt h e c en t r e o ft h ef r am e , a nd d i agona l ly i nt h el e f th a lf . N iT s -1 2318 b ) S now p robe t i p ; p o l i sh c ha rac t e r ized b y e xpo su r e o f o s t eon s , a l though s omewha t o b scu red b y w ea the r ing , i s c on s i s t en t w i th u se a s as now p robe . P a r t ia l o s teon s c an b e s e en a tt h ec en t re r i gh to ft h ef r ame . N iT s -l-732 c ) N ozz le p lug ; o b scu red b y w ea ther ing , ap o l i sh w i th e xpo sed o s teon s c an b e s e en h e re , a l ong w i th v ery l i gh t w ide , s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e p l ug ( o r ien ted h o r izon ta l ly i nt h e f r ame ) . T h i sp a t te rn s e em sl i ke ly t oh ave b een c au sed b yu se a s ap l ug , b u t t h e re a r e n o e xper imen ta l d a ta t os uppor t t h i s i d en t if ica t ion . N iT s -1 1041 d ) N ozz le p lug : u n iden t if ied w ea r o n an ozz le p lug , c on s i s t ing o fm any f i ne , l i gh t , s t r ia t ion s , p re sen t o n ly a to ne c or n e r o f t h e t i p o f t h e p l ug . T h i s p a t t ern i s a s y e t u n iden t if ied . N iT s -1 2326 .1
c ) Un iden t i f ied w ea r ; as moo th i nva s ive p o l i sh i st y p ica l o f a w l s , b u t t h e many f i ne s t r ia t ion s i n many d i f f e ren t d i rec t ion sa r en o t . T h i sm ay b e a na w lt h a th a sb een u sed f o r s ome o ther p u rpo se a sw e l l . N iT s -l-2261
P la te 5 . 9 M ic ro scop ic t r ace s o nm i sce l laneou s w o rked b one a nd a n t le rf r om G upuk .
d ) Un id en t if i ed w ea r ; t h ew ea ro nt h i sa w li sa t yp ica l ,b e ing d om ina ted b y ap o l i sh made u p o f many l i gh t , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s . I ti ss im i la r t o t h e w ea r s e en o n s ome n eed le s h oweve r , a nd s o may s t i l l b e r e la ted t o s ome a spec t s o f s ew ing . N iT s -1 2090
a ) S inew ; f i ne , s moo th s t r ia t ion s v i s ib le i nt h e c en t re o ft h e f r ame a r e c ha r ac t er i s t ic o fu se w i th s i new . ( See P la te 4 . 23 . ) N iT s -1-2193 .1
1 28
P LATE CAPT IONS b ) Un iden t if i ed ; s ome o f t h e f i ne s t r ia t ion s h e re a r e l i ke t h ose p roduced b y s i new , b u t t h e o ve ra l l c omb ina t ion o f a v a r ie ty o fs t r ia t ion s a nd p o l i sh i su n l ik e a ny e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced w ea r . N iT s -1-804 .1
c ) Wound p in o rb odk in ; s i new l ike s t r ia t ion s a c ro s s t h e t i p ( a tt h er i gh to ft h e f r ame ) , a nd al i gh ti n va s ive p o l i sh s ugges t t h a t t h i s w a s u sed t o c l o se o rj o in h ide p i eces . ( See P la te 5 . 8d . ) N iT s -2 -545 .1
c ) Un iden t i f ied ; av e ry f i ne , s moo th p o l i sh s e em s t o b e o b scu r ing l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s o n t h i s t o o l . T h i s p a t tern i s a l so u n recogn ized . N iT s -1-1208
d ) S capu la t o o l ; s ho r t , d eep s t r ia t ion s a tt h e e dge o ft h i s s c apu la t oo l ( a tt h et op o ft h e f r ame ) a r e v ery l i ke t h o se s e en o n e xper imen ta l t o o l s u sed t o s c a le l a rge s c a led f i sh ( s ee P l a te 4 . 19c ) a nd o no ne o ft h es c apu la t oo l sf r om G upuk ( s ee P l a te 5 . 9c ) . N il s -2 -579 .1
d ) Un iden t if ied ; t h i s p a t te rn b ea r s s ome r e semb lance t ot h e l o ng w ood l ike s t r ia t ion s s e en o ns om e d r i l l s ( s ee P l a te 5 . 5 f ) , a l though t h i s i s mo re a ppa ren t u nde r t h e m ic ro scope t h an i n t h i sm ic rog raph . T h i s may ,t h en ,b eh af tw ea r . N iT s -1 1181
e ) T oo th c h i se l ; a l though n o t e e th w e re u sed i n t h e e xpe r imen ta lp rog ramme , t h e w ea ro nt h i s t o o th , p a r t icu la r ly a tt h e e x t reme e dge ( a t t h e t o p o ft h e f r ame ) r e semb les t h a t l ef tb yw ood . B eave rt oo th c h i se l s a r eg ene ra l ly i d en t if i ed a s w ood w o rk ing t o o l s . N iT s -2 -657 .1
P la te 5 . 10 M ic roscop ic t r aces o n t o o l s f r om K i t t igazu i t . No te t h a t a l l t oo l s f r om K i t t igazu i t a r e l e ss w e l l p r e se rved t h an t h ose f r om G upuk , c on sequen t ly w ea r i s mo re d i ff i cu l t t os e ea nd t oi n terp re t .
f ) F o re shaf t ;
l a rge d eep s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t a r e
s im i la r t o t h o se l ef tb y d r i l l ing b u t l e s s f r equen t , l a rge r a nd d eepe r . T he a r e p robab ly l ef tb y i n t ru s ive g r i t b e tween t h e
a ) D r i l l u s ed o n a n t le r ; e xposed o s t eon s , a nd v ague l a rge c oa r se b u t l i gh t s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s h af t( a c ro s s t h e f r am e h e re ) i d en t ify t h i s a s w ea r p roduced b y d r i l l ing w e t a n t le r . N iT r -2 -299 .2
f o r e shaf t a nd t h e s ocke t . Ap a r t icu la r ly l a rge s t r ia t ion r un s a c ro s s t h e w id th o f t h e f r ame i n t h e b o t tom h a lf . N iT s -2 4 16 .1
b ) S pa tu la u sed w i th s i new ( ma r l in s p ike ) ; f i ne s harp s t r ia t ion sp e rpend icu la rt ot h e e dge o ft h et oo l i nd ica te t h a ti t w a su sed t ow o rk s i new ,p robab ly a s am a r l in s p ike . N iT r -2 1 702 .1 c ) S pa tu la w i th mu l t ip le u ses ; d i agona l s t r ia t ion s s ugge s t s ome s o r t o f g roov ing w i th t h e t o o l h e ld a t a n a ng le , b u t s ub sequen tu se o n s ome s of t , w e t m a te r ia l s uch a sw e t h ide , h a s o b scu r ed t h e i d en t ify ing c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e s t r ia t ion s . An i n va s ive p o l i sh a nd e xpo sed o s teon s a r e v i s ib le , p ar t icu la r ly i nt h el owe rh a lf o ft h ef r ame . N iT r -2 -1 370
P la te 5 . 12 M ic ro scop ic t r ace s o n t o o l s f r om C ache P o in t . L ike K i t t igazu i t ,t h e se t oo l sa r ep oo r ly p r eserved . a ) Un iden t i f ied w ea r o n as pa tu la ; d i agona l l i gh t s ma l l , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s o n t h i s s pa tu la may h ave b een l e f t b y w i l low , b u t a r e t o o p oo r ly p re served t o i d en t ify p o s i t ive ly . 9 83 .63 .064 .1 b ) U n iden t if i ed w ea r o n as pa tu la ; h e re t oo , l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s , i nt h i s c a se a c ro s s t h e t i p ( v e r t ica l i n t h e f r ame ) m ay h ave b een l ef tb y w i l low b u t a r e t o o p oo r ly p r e served f o r ap o s i t ive i d en t if ica t ion . 9 84 .46 .1010
d ) S pa tu la w i th mu l t ip le u se s ; f i ne l i gh ts t r ia t ion s a c ro s s t h e t i p ( a tt h e r i gh t s i de o ft h e f r ame ) i n d ica te au se w i th s i new . AT a n a ng le t o t h ese , s e en i nt h e t o p h a lf o ft h e f r ame , a r e l i gh t , c oa r se s t r ia t ion s s im i la r t ot h o se l ef tb y w i l low . N iT r 2 -1 38 2
c ) Un iden t if ied w ea ro nm i sce l laneou s w o rked a n t le r ; a way f r om t h e t i p ( wh ich w a s b roken o ff ) , s ome v ery l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion sa r eb a re ly v i s ib le ( v er t ica l ly i nt h e l owe rh a lf o ft h e f r ame ) . T hey h ave n o tb een i d en t if i ed . 9 84 .46 .888
e ) B lade ; af i ne p o l i sh wh ich h a sn o te r ad ica ted a l lt r aces o f g r ind ing s t r ia t ion s i nd ica te s t h a t t h i s d agge r h a s b een u sed v e ry l i t t le o r , mo re l i ke ly ,n o ta ta l l . N iT r -2 -1 89 .1
P la te 5 . 13 M ic ro scop ic t r ace so nt oo l s f r om S aunak tuk . a ) S pa tu la u sed w i th w i l low? ; l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion s d i agona l t ot h e t i p ( a t t h e r i gh t o ft h e f r am e ) a r e s im i la r t o t h o se l ef tb yw i l low . NgTn -1 369 .1
1 ) Aw l ; t h i s a w l , w i th t h e t i p t owa rd s t h e t op o ft h e f r ame , s how s s moo th s t r ia t ion s a l ong i t s l e ng th ( l ef ts i de o ff r ame ) , u n l ike a w l sf r om G upuk . Unf or tuna t e ly w ea ther ing o b scu re s t r ace se l sewhe re . N iT r -2 -920 .1
b ) S pa tu la u sed o n w e t h ide ; d e sp i te w ea ther ing , a n i n va s ive p o l i sh , w i th e xpo sed o s teon s i nd ica te s t h a t t h i s s p a tu la w a s u sed t o w o rk w e t h ide . T he d a rk s hadow s a r e a r tef ac t s . N gTn -1 47
g ) Wedge ; w ea ther ing m akes i d en t if ica t ion o fw ea r o n t h i s t oo l d i ff i cu l t , s moo th a r ea s o fn on inva s ive p o l i sh ( t op r i gh t o f f r am e , a nd b o t tom l e f t ) w i th s om e s moo th s t r ia t ion s s im i la r t ot h o se l e f t b y w o rk ing w ood ( bo t tom l e f t ) s ugge s t t h a t i tm ay h ave b een a w edge a s i d en t if ied b y McGhee ( 1974 ) . N iT r -2 -1350
c ) N e tg auge ; l i gh tc oa r se s t r ia t ion s s c a t te red a l ong t h ee dge ( a t t h e t op o ft h e f r ame ) s e em t o b e d i s t inc t ive o n t h i s n e t g auge , a l though n o e xpe r imen ta l d a ta e x i s t t o s uppo r t i d en t if ica t ion o ft h i s w ea r a s c ha rac ter i s t ic o fu se a s an e t g auge . N gTn -1-351 .1
P la te 5 . 11 M ic ro scop ic t r ace s o nt o o l sf r om t h eP ond S i te .
d ) F o re shaf t ; l i ke t h e f o re shaf t f r om t h e P ond S i te , v ery l a rge s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t ( o r ien ted h or izon ta l ly i nt h e f r ame ) a r e d i s t inc t f r om t h o se l ef t b y d r i l l ing . ( See P la te 5 . 23f . ) n 23f . ) N gTn -1-86 .1
a ) Un id en t if ied w ea r o n ad r i l l ; s t r ia t ion s a round t h e s haf t ( o r ien ted h o r izon ta l ly i n t h e f r ame ) c ha rac ter i s t ic o f d r i l l s , a r e n o t p r e sen t . T he many s t r ia t ion s o r ien ted i n d i f f e ren t d i rec t ion s a nd o f d i f f e ren t s i zed p r e sen t a n u nr ecogn i zed p a t tern . N iT s -2 -29 1 . 1
e ) Un iden t if ied w ea r o n m i sce l laneou s w o rked b on e ; l i gh t c oa r se s t r ia t ion sa r ound t h es haf t( o r ien t ed h or izon ta l ly i nt h e f r ame ) a nd s ome v ery l i gh t s moo th s t r ia t ion s a l ong t h e s haf t a r e v i s ib le . A l though i ns ome w ay s t h i s r e semb les w ea r o n w ound p in s , w ea r a tt h e mos t d i s t inc t ive a r ea , t h e t i p , w a s
b ) Un id en t if i ed w ea r o n as pa tu la ; s im i la r t o a ) a bove , t h e v a r iab le s t r ia t ion s o n t h i s t oo l p r e sen t a n u n r ecogn i zed p a t te rn . N iT s -2 -20 .1
1 29
USE WEAR ANALYS IS ON BONE AND ANTLER TOOLS OF THE MACKENZ IE I NU IT n o to b se rvab le , a nd n op o s i t ive i d en t if ica t ion c ou ld b e made . T he who le i sp a r t ly o bscu red b ye r o s ion . N gTn 1-386 .1 P la te 5 . 14 M ic ro scop ic t r ace s o nt o o l s f r om t h e MacFa r lan e C o l lec t ion . a ) H and le ; a n o ve ra l l l i gh tp o l i sh , mode ra t e ly i n va s ive a nd w i th v e ry f i ne s t r ia t ion s i n v ar iou s d i r ec t ion s a r e c ha rac ter i s t ic o fh and le s i nt h e MacFa r lane c o l lec t ion . T h i s p a t tern i smo s tl i ke ly c au se sb yh o ld ing t h et o o l s . 2 318 .1 b ) Ma r l in s p ike ; t wo s e t s o f v e ry f i ne s t r ia t ion s , r unn ing p e rpend icu la rt oe ach o t he ra r ec au sed b ys i n ew . 7 445 .1 c ) S inew t w i s te r ; l i ke b ) a bove , t h e f i ne l i gh t s t r ia t ion s o n t h i s t oo l a r e c harac ter i s t ic o fs i new . ( See P l a t e s 4 . 23 , 5 . 8b a nd c ,5 . 19a . ) 7 445a .l d ) H a rpoon e ndb lade ; w ea r a t t h e t i p o f t h i s t oo l i s e x ten s ive ,b u tb ecomes l e s s s o a way f r om t h et i p( a tt h er i gh t s i de o f t h e f r ame ) . T he d i scon t inuou s l i gh t n on inva s ive p o l ish g i ve si tap i t ted a ppea rance . 7 442 .1 e ) F o re shaf t ; l i ke t h o se i lu st ra ted a bove ( s ee P l a te s 5 . 23f a nd 5 . 25d ) v e ry l a rge s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t( i n t h i s c a se o r ien ted v e r t ica l ly i nt h e f r ame ) s ugge s tt h a tg r i tw a st r apped b e tween t h ef o reshaf ta nd t h es ocke t . 2 249 .1 f ) I vo ry r od ; c oa r se s t r ia t ion s a r ound t h e s haf t( s een i nt h e t o p h a lf o ft h e f r ame ) a r e s im i la r t o , b u t s ma l le r t h an t h ose o n t h e f o re shaf t a bove . T he i r o r ig in may b e t h e s ame , b u t t h eu se o ft h i st oo li sn o tc l ea r . 2 179 .1
b ) L ea th e rp o l i sh i si d en t if i ed b y as moo the rf i n i sh t h an s e en o n a ) . I ti si n va s ive , b u t h a s n o t e r ad ica ted e v idence o f p rev iou s s hap ing t e chn ique s , i nt h is c a se g r ind ing . N iT s -l3 198 c ) We t l e a the r p o l i sh , l i ke u se o n w e t l e a the r , e xpo se s o s teon s , t h ree o f wh ich c an b e c l ea r ly s e en i nt h e l ef th a lf o f t h ef r am e . N iT s -1-3700 P la te 6 . 5 G roov ing o nt o o l sf r om t h eP ond S i te . a ) T he b o t tom o f ag roove made b y ac he r t c h i se l i s i d en t if i ed b y t h e c oa r se s t r ia t ion s s e en i nt h e b o t tom h a lf o f t h ef r ame . N iT s -l-434 . b ) T he b o t tom o f ag roove made b y a n i r on c h i se l i s i d en t if i ed b y f i ne s t r ia t ion s , a s w e l l a s l ong s t r ia t ion s p e rpend icu la rt ot h em . N iT s -1 416 .2 P la te 6 . 6 B lank e xt rac t ion t e chn iques o n t o o l s f r om C ache P o in t . a ) A g roove m ade b y ac her t c h i se l , i d en t if i ed b y t h e r emnan t s o f l a rge s t r ia t ion s s e en a c ro s s t h e b o t tom o f t h e f r ame . 9 84 .64 .940 .1 b ) Ag roove made b ya ni r on c h i se lo ff o s s i lb one , i d en t if ied b y f i ne s t r ia t ion s a nd l o ng c r ack s , s e en i nt h e u ppe r h a lf o f t h ef r am e . 9 86 .49 .1019 c ) T race s l ef t b y ac he r t a dze u sed o n w e t a n t le r a r e i d en t if i ed b yl a rge s t r ia t ion s a nd t e a r ing , e v iden tp a r t icu la r ly a tt h eu ppe rl e f th a lf o ft h ef r ame . 9 83 .63 .84 .1
P la te 6 . 1 G roov ing a tG upuk .
P la te 6 . 7 Manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique sa tS aun ak tuk .
a ) C her t g roove ; t h e g roove i sv i s ib le a t t h e t o p o f t h e f r ame , w i th as ma l l s ha l low g roove ( a n e r ro r ) d i agona l t oi t . T he g roove h a s l a rge c oa r se s t r ia t ion s ,n o tr e ad i ly v i s ib le in a p ho tog raph . C rack ing i s m in ima l , a nd p a r t ly d ue t o w ea ther ing .N iT s -3 8 03 b )I r on g roove , t h eb o t tom o ft h i s g roove t a ke su pt h e who le f r am e . Sma l l s t r ia t ion s a nd l ong c r ack s p e rpend icu la r t o t h em i d en t ify t h i s a s h av ing b een made b y a n i r on t o o l . N iT s -1 3003 .3
a ) A g roove made b y ac he r t c h i se l , i d en t i f ied b y c oa r se s t r ia t ion s . N gTn -1-156 .1 b ) Ag roove made b y a n i r on c h i se l , i d en t if i ed b y r emnan t s o f f i ne S t r ia t ion s a nd l o ng c r ack s p e rpend icu la r t o t h em . NgTn -1 414 C ) S c rap ing w i th a c he r t c rooked k n if e , i d en t if i ed b y r emnan t so fc oa r se s t r ia t ion s . NgTn -1 214 . P la te 6 . 8 T race s o f manuf ac tu re o nt oo l s i nt h e MacFa r lane C o l lec t ion .
P la te 6 . 2 G r ind ing o nt oo l sf r om G upuk . a ) C oa r se g r ind ing ; l a rge s ubpa ra l le l s t r ia t ion s a r e s e en d i agona l ly a c ro s st h e f r ame . Magn if ica t ion 1 6x .
a ) A t o o l s haped b y ac he r t c rooked k n if e i d en t if i ed b y r emnan t so fl a rge s t r ia t ion ,p ar t ly o b scu red b y an on inva s ive p o l i sh . 7 454 .1
b ) F ine g r ind ing ; much f i n e r s ubpa ra l le l s t r ia t ion s t h an i n 6 . 5a , s e en d i agona l ly a c ro s s t h e r i gh t s i de o ft h e f r ame , a r e t h er e su l to fg r ind ing w i th af i ne rg r a ined s t one .
b ) A t o o l s haped b y a n i r on k n if e , i d en t if i ed b y f i ne s t r ia t ion s . 2 317
P la te 6 . 3 S c rap ing o nt oo l sf r om G upuk .
c ) At o o l s haped b y f i l ing , i d en t i f ied b y l a rge g roove s a nd
a ) C her t s c rap ing ; a l though c hanged s omewha t b y u se a nd d epo s i t ion , l a rge s t r ia t ion s , v i s ib le a s c hange s i n t h e f o ca l p l ane , i nd ica te t h a tt h i st oo lw a s s haped w i th ac he r tc r ooked k n if e . N iT s -14 5517
c r ack s p e rpend icu la r t o t h em ( on ly b a re ly v i s ib le i n t h i s m ic rog raph ) . 2 072
b ) I r on s c rap ing ; f i ne s t r ia t ion s a r e b a re ly v i s ib le h e re , b u t t h e p a t tern o f c r ack s ( i n t h e o ppo s i te d i r ec t ion t o t h e w ea ther ing c r ack s a l ong t h e l e ng th o ft h eb one ) s ugge s t st h a t t h i st oo lw a sw o rked w i th ac r ooked k n if e . N iT s -1-2635 P la te 6 . 4 P o l i she s o nt oo l sf r om G upuk . a ) A bra s ive p o l i sh i sc ha rac te r ized b y ad u l l , r a the r c oa r se f i n i sh . Sma l l l i gh t s t r ia t ion s c an b e c l ea r ly s e en , a l though t h es u rf ace i sc l ea r ly f l a t . N iT s -1-2121 1 30
-D
h
U N
h
rn
U
I T
r
H
r
0
c l N
L )
c
c l
z t -
N -
j
r
r r
U S E W E A R A N L Y S I S O N B O N E A N D A N T L E R T O L S O F
C ) In . 00
T H
r l•
N J
U
U S E W E A R A N L Y S I O N B O N E A N D A N T L E R T O L S O F T H E M A C K E N Z I E I N U I T
c i
c l -
cr c
c4
U S E W E A R A N L Y S I S O N B O N E A N D A N T L E R T O L S O F T H E M A C K E N Z I E I N U I T
c
U S E W E A R A N A L Y S I O R O \
• \ 1 E R T O L S O F T H E M A C K E N Z I E I N U I T
‚C
U
‚C
N
‚C
U
‚C
‚C
h
C
‚C