A Study of Microscopic Polish on Flint Implements 9780860548102, 9781407349350

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
Irene Levi Sala 1929-1991
GLOSSARY
PART I
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2. AIMS AT THE OUTSET
CHAPTER 3. METHOD
CHAPTER 4. FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF ARTEFACTS FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
CHAPTER 5. EXAMPLES OF OVER-INTERPRETATIONS: CAUTIONARY REMARKS
PART II
CHAPTER 6. REVISED AIMS
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Appendix 1
Appendix 2. Tabulation of Microdenticulates
Figures

Citation preview

A Study of Microscopic Polish on Hint Implements Irene Levi Sala

BAR International Series 629 1996

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 629 A Study of Microscopic Polish on Flint Implements © Irene Levi Sala and the Publisher 1996 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548102 paperback ISBN 9781407349350 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548102 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1996. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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T oN i s s im 1 936 1989

AB STRACT

AC KNOW LEDGEMENT S

T h is i s ar e por t o n r e sea r ch c a r r ied o u t t o i n v e s t iga t e t h e m ic ro s cop ic p o l i sh w h ich a pp ea r s o n t h e e dg e s a nd s u rf a ce s o fp reh is to r ic f l in t t o o l s a f te r t h ey a r e u sed o n v a r iou s m a t e r ia ls . An a tu ra l p o l i sh a l so o ccu r s o n t h e s u rf a ce o ff l in t u nd e r s ome d epo s i t iona l c ond i t ion s a nd t h e p r o je c t i n ve s t iga ted b o th t h i s n a tu ra l p ol i sh a nd i t s p o s s ib le e f ec t s o n p ol i sh p rodu c ed b y u se . I n t e r e s t i n m ic ro s cop ic p ol i sh w a s p i one e red b y L .H . K e e ley w ho i n t h e l a t e 1 970s p ub l i shed s e v e ra l l o ng p ap e r s a nd a b ook w h ich e xam ined p o l i sh o nf l in t . K ee ley s ugge s ted v e ry f o r c e f u l ly t ha t t h e p o l i sh p roduc ed o n f l in t t o o l e dge s b y u s e h a s ad i s t inc t iv e t e x tu re a nd a pp ea ranc e d e te rm ined b y a nd c ha ra c t e r is t i c o f t h e m a t e r ia l o n wh ich t h et o o l w a su s ed . K e e ley a nd h i sf olowe r s h av e s i nc e p ubl i shed s t ud ie s o f m any a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lag e s whe r e t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f f unc t ion h a s b een b a sed ma in ly o n t h e d i s t inc t iv ene s s o f p o l i sh a ppe a ran c e . T he p r e s en t r e s ea r ch w a s p romp t ed b y " m ic row ea r a na ly s i s " o fi mp lem en t s f r om s e ve ra l s i te s o fd i f f e r en ta ge s w h ich s ugge s ted t h a tp o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s s e sh ad n ega t iv e ly a f e c ted t h es u r f ace o ft h ef l in t i mp lemen t s a nd a l t e r ed o r d eg raded t h e p o l i sh m ak ing i td if i cu l t t o c ha ra c te r ize a nd c a s t ing d oub t o n t h e d i s t inc t iv en a tu re o fp o l i sh o nf l in t . A n e xp e r imen ta l p rog ramm e w a s t h en d ev i sed t o p rodu c e p ol i sh o n f l in t s u rf ac e s u nd e r av a r ie ty o f c on t ro l led c ond i t ion su s ing d if e r en tm a t e r ia l s . T h e e xpe r imen t s w e r e d e s igned t o i nve s t iga t e t h e p ro c e s se s i n vo lved i n p ol i sh f o rma t ion r a th e r t h an t o r ep l ica t e t a sk s w h ich p r eh is to r ic p eop le a r e l i ke ly t o h av ec a r r ied o u t . T he r e su l t ss ugge s tt h a t : a ) f l in ti sp o l i shed b yt h er emova lo fa spe r i t ie sf r om i t ss u rf ace d u r ing u se w h i ch t h en a c ta sa b r a s ive s b e tween t h ef l in ta nd t h ew o rked ma te r ia l ; b ) c on sequen t ly u se p rodu ce so n ep ol i sh o nt h ef l in t m ic ro topog raphy i n s e ve ra l s t ag e s o f d e v e lopmen t ; c ) t h er a te o fp o l i sh d eve lopm en td epend so nl e ng th o f u se , h a rdne s s o f u s ed m a t e r ia l , l u b r ica t ion , p r e s su re a nd f l in tt e x tu r e ; d ) s t r ia t ion s a nd o t he r l i ne a r f e a tu re s a r e c au sed m a in ly b y t h e f l in t p a r t ic le s f r om a sp e r i t ie s a nd e dge d amage b u t t h a t a dded a b ra s ive s d o a f e c t t h eq uan t i ty a nd s i ze o ft h es t r ia t ion s ; e ) p o l i sh d i s t r ibu t ion o n t h e n üc ro topog raphy i s r e la ted t o t h e h a rdn e s s o f t h e ma te r ia l u sed , e x t e rna l a b ra s ive sa nd t h ec oa r s ene s so ft h ef l in t ; f ) d i s t r ibu t ion o fp o l i sh o n t h e t o o l e dge i sr e la t ed t ot h et a sk p e r f o rm ed ; n o rde r t o i n te rp r e t f unc t ion c o r rec t ly ; p o l i sh g )i a ppea rance a nd d i s t r ibu t ion a r e n o t s u ff i c ien t . O th e r c l u e s s u ch a s e dge m o rpho logy a nd m a c rowea rh av et ob et a k en i n to c on s id e r a t ion . T wo r e po r t s a r e i n c luded r e ga rd ing t he a t t emp ted f unc t iona l r e con s tru c t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l a r t ef ac t s f r om t wo s i te s : H eng is tbu ry H ead i nD o r se ta nd K eba ra C av e i nt h e C a rme l H i l l s . D ue t ot h e a l te red c ond i t ion o ft h ef l in ts u rf ace so n ly al im i t ed l e v e l o fi n t e rp r e ta t ion w a sp o s s ib le .

T h i s r e sea rch h a s b en ef i t ted f r om t h e h e lp o f m any t o w hom Iam g ra t ef u l . Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank f i r s to fa l l m y s up e rv i so rD r . Ma rk H . N ewcom e r f o r a l l t h e h e lp a nd a dv ic e d u r ing t h e m any y ea r s o f m y r e sea rch a nd f o r g e t t ing m ei n t e r e s ted i ns t one t o o l si nt h ef i r s tp l ace . D u r ing t h e w o rk d e sc r ibed i nt h e s e cond p a r t o ft h i s p ro jec t my s up e rv i so r w a s D r . D af ydd R . G r if f i ths . T o h im g o m y t h ank s n o t o n ly f o r h i s g u idan ce a nd e n cou ragem en t t h roughou t t h e p e r iod b u t p ar t icu la r ly h i s p a t ience i n i mpa r t ing t om e s ome o fh i s s c ien t if i c k now ledge t o c a r ry o u t t h i s w o rk . Ia m p a r t icu la r ly g ra t e fu l t o h im f o r t h e t im e s p en t a nd t h e v a luab le c ommen t s g i v en o n r e ad ing t h e e a r l ie r d raf t s o f t h i s t h e s i s . P rof . O f e r B a r Y o se f o f H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty ( p r ev iou s ly o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy H eb r ew U n iv e r s i ty J e ru sa lem ) h a s v e ry k ind ly a l lowed m e t o s t udy b o th t h e m a t e r ia l f r om K eba ra a nd f r om m any o f t h eo t h e rs i te s s amp led f o rt h i sw o rk . Iam g ra tef u l a l so f o r h i s e ncou ragemen t t o c on t inu e a l ong t h i s p a th i n m omen t so fd oub t . D r . R u th Am i ran , D r . R .N .E . B a r ton , D r . D e smond C o ll in s , Mr s . J oan C row f oo t P ayne , D r . R oge r J a cob i , D r . I . G i lead , D r . A v i G oph e r , D r . N ige l G o r ing Mo r r i s , D r . T ama r N oy , a nd P rof . A b raham R onen h ave a l l p u t a r t ef ac t sf r om t h e i rs i t e s a tm y d i spo sa l f o r s t udy a nd Ia m d eep ly g r a tef u l f o r t h e i r k indne s s a nd c oop e ra t ion . N ick B a r ton h a s a l so r e ad e a r l ie r d raf t s o f t h e H eng i s tbur y H ead s e c t ion a nd It hank h im f o r m ak ing m yE ng l i sh m o r er e adab le . My a pp rec ia t ion t o I t z ik G i lead f o r t h e l i ve ly a nd u s ef u l d i scu s s ion s a nd t o L i l ian e Me ignen f o r e n l igh ten ing m eo nt h e Mou s t e r ian . Iw ou ld a l so l i k e t ot hank m yf r iend s a nd c o l league s a t t h e I n s t i tu te f o r l i ve ly d i scu s s ion s a nd s ugge s t ion s e spe c ia l ly K a thy A taman , R oge r G ra ce , Ma rga re t Mah e r , a nd N o r ah Mo loney . A pp r ec ia t ion a nd t hank s a r e o f e red f o r t h e s p e c ia l c oope ra t ion r e ce ived f r om C h r i s B e rgman i n m y e xp e r imen ta l w o rk a nd much m o ra l s uppo r t i n t h e e a r ly d ay s o f m y w o rk . My g ra t i tude g oe st oS t ua r tL a id law w i thou tw ho se h e lp t h e q ua l i ty o ft h ep i c tu r e si nt h i st h e s i sw ou ld n o th av eb e en t h es ame . T h e d raw ing s h av e b een m ad e b y J ef Wa l l i s , C h r i s t ine W i l son , T e s sa R icka rd s i n t h e U .K . , a nd Ma r iana G r inb la ti nJ e ru sa lem . A s pe c ia l t h ank y ou t o C o r ine C ad rane l , T racy Mo r r i s a nd B a rbara S co t t w ho h av e l o v ing ly a nd p a t ien t ly h e lped w i th t h ei n t r icac ie s o fw o rd p ro ce s s ing a nd o t he rp rob lem s . . . A nd f i na l ly t oD av id e , Mon ica a nd Ma r ina , w ho se p a t ience , e ncou ragem en t a nd u nd e r s tand ing s uppo r ted m e t h roughou t a nd s p ec ia l ly t o V icky w i thou t w hom t h i sw ou ld n o te ven h ave b egun .

1 1

AB STRACT AC KNOWLEDGEMENTS AN D THANKS TA BLE O F CO NTENTS

i i V

PR EFACE GL OSSARY

V i i i x

PA RT I CH APTER 1 :I N TRODUCT ION

1

1 . 1 1 . 1 .2 1 . 2 1 . 2 .1

D eve lopmen t Of Microwear R e search T he L ow P ower Approach S i tua t ion A tP resen t P roces se s Of P o l ish F orma t ion

1 1 2 3

1 . 2 .2 1 . 2 .3 1 . 3

D is t inc t ivene s s Of P o l i sh Quan t if icat ion Ana ly s ing A rchaeo log ica lI mp lemen t s

4 6 6

1 . 3 .1

P o s t -Depo s i t iona l ( PDS M )

6

1 . 3 .2

S amp le S ize And L eve l s Of I n terpre tat ion

S ur f ace

Mod if ica t ion

CHAPTER 2 : AI MS ATTH E OU TSET CH APTER 3 : ME THOD

7

9 1 0

3 . 1

M icro scopy

1 0

3 . 1 .1 3 . 1 .2 3 .2 3 .3 3 .4 3 .4 .1

Op t ica l Micro scopy S cann ing E lec tron Micro scopy P ho tography D a ta R ecord ing F unc t iona l Ana lys is E dge Morpho logy

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 2

3 .4 .1 .1

E dge Ang le

1 2

3 .4 .1 .2 3 .4 .2 3 .4 .3

E dge Th ickne s s P o l ish D is tr ibu t ion o nt he E dge s P o l i sh D is tr ibu t ion away f rom t he E dge s

1 2 1 2 1 2

3 .4 .4 3 .4 .5 3 .4 .5 .1 3 .4 .5 .2

"Haf t ing T races" L inear I nd ica tor s P o l ish D eve lopmen ta nd D i s tr ibu t ion o n F l in tS t ruc ture Ma ter ia l Hardne s s F lu id s

1 2 1 3 1 3 1 4

3 .4 .5 .3 3 .4 .5 .4 3 .4 .6

Abra s ive s L i t / s ic Raw Ma ter ia la nd P o l i sh De ve lopmen t R es idue s

1 4 1 4 1 4

3 .4 .7 3 .4 .7 .1 3 .4 .7 .2

E dge Wear Edge S car r ing Edge R ound ing

1 5 1 5 1 6

3 .5 3 .5 .1 3 .6

F l in tS truc ture P os t -Depo s i t iona lS ur f ace Mod if ica t ion P o s t -Excava t ion Hand l ing

1 6 1 7 1 7

3 .6 .1 3 .6 .2

Wash ing P ack ing And S torag eP rocedure s C lean ing I nT he L abora tory

1 7 1 8

3 .6 .3 3 .6 .4

F inger P rehen s ion R ef i t t ing

1 9 1 9

CH APTER 4 : FU NCT IONAL AN ALYS IS OF AR TEFACTS FR OM AR CHAEOLOG ICAL SI TES

2 0

4 . 1

AT oo lT ype F rom Heng is tbury H ead

2 0

4 . 1 .1 4 . 1 .2 4 . 1 .3 4 . 1 .3 .1

Me thod E xper imen t sT o De term ine T oo lF unc t ion Ob serva t ion sR esu l t ing f rom E xper imen t s Haf t ing

2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0

4 . 1 .3 .2 4 . 1 .4

F unc t iona l Ef f i c iency Ma ter ia l sU sed i nt he E xper imen t s

2 1 2 1

i v

CHAPTER 4 : FU NCT IONAL AN ALYS IS OF AR TEFACTS FR OM AR CHAEOLOG ICAL SI TES ( c on t inued ) 4 . 1 .4 .1 Hard Mater ia l s 4 . 1 .4 .2 S of t Ma ter ia l s 4 . 1 .5

M icro scop ic Ana ly s is

4 . 1 .5 . 1

P o s t -depos i t iona l

4 . 1 .5 .2 4 . 1 .5 .3 4 . 1 .6 4 . 2 4 . 2 .1 4 . 2 .2 4 . 2 .3 4 . 2 .3 .1 4 . 2 .4 4 . 2 .4 .1 4 . 2 .4 .2 4 . 2 .4 .3 4 . 2 .4 .4 4 . 2 .5 4 . 2 .5 . 1 4 . 2 .5 .2 4 . 2 .5 .3

2 1 2 1 2 2

s urf ace

mod if ica t ion

2 2

( PDSM ) C ond i t ion o ft he Heng i s tbur yA r tef ac t s

2 3

E xper imen t sf or Mechan ica lP roce sses

2 3

C onc lud ing R emark s

2 4

Mou s ter ian Ar tef ac t s F rom Kebara

2 4

T he S i te a nd t he Ar tef ac t s

2 4

P o s tE xcavat ion Hand l ing

2 5

S craper s

2 5

Edge Ang le a nd Edge Morpho log y

2 6

E xper imen t s

2 6

B u tchery

2 6

S crap ing H ide

2 6

S crap ing Wood

2 6

S crap ing B one

2 6

C onc lus ion s

2 6

F unc t ion o fR e touched P ieces

2 6

F unc t ion o fU nre touched P iece s " Ba ckground

No i se"

a nd

2 6 P os t -Depos i t iona l

2 7

P roces se s S i tes S amp led

4 . 3 CH APTER 5 : EX AMPLES CA UT IONARY REMARKS

2 7

OF OV ER -I N TERPRETAT IONS :

2 8

5 . 1

Haf t ing T race s

2 8

5 . 2 5 . 3 5 . 4 5 . 5

Handednes s

2 8

Durat ion Of Work

2 8

Mea t Kn ive s

2 8

D oubt fu l Me thod s

2 9

PA RT I CH APTER 6 : RE V ISED AI MS 6 . 1 R esearch D es ign 6 . 2 P o l i sh F orma t ion 6 . 3 P o s t -Depo s i t iona lS ur f ace Mod if ica t ion 6 . 3 . 1 S heen 6 . 3 .2 B r igh tS po t s 6 . 4 E xper imen t s On U se - Wear And P o l ish F ormat ion 6 . 4 .1 F l in t T ype Charac ter izat ion And

3 0 3 0 3 0 3 1 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 3

Abbrev iat ion s

6 . 4 .2 6 . 4 .3 6 . 4 .4 6 . 4 .5

Abbrev ia t ions U sed I n L is t Of E xper iment s

3 3

L is t Of U se - Wear E xper imen t s

3 4

L is t Of P o l ish F orma t ion E xper imen t s E xper imen t s

On

T he

Ef ect

3 5

Of Wa ter

On

P o l ish

3 5

F orma t ion

6 . 4 .6 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 .9

Wood -G r oov ing E xper imen t s

6 . 4 .10

P o l ish ing F l in tw i th Dus t -f ree H ides

6 . 4 .11

We igh t

3 6

E xper imen t sS crap ing H ide w ith Ochre

3 8

Mechan ica l ly P roduced P o l ish

4 4

Woo l a nd H ide E xper imen t s

4 6

V ar ia t ions

o n

P o l ished

4 6 a nd

Unpo l ished

F l in t

4 8

Ar tefac t s

6 . 4 . 12 6 . 5 6 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 .2 6 . 5 .3

E xper iment so n t he Ro le o fH ide F ibres

4 8

E xper imen t s F or P o s t -Depos it ion P roces se s

4 9

S hak ing E xper imen t s

S i

Tumb l ing E xper imen t s F r ic t ion E xper imen t s

5 2 5 4

CH APTER 6 : RE V ISED AI M S( c on t inued ) 6 .5 .4 6 .5 .5

T ramp l ing E xp er imen t Ef ec to f Natura l S o i l P roces ses

5 4 5 6

6 .5 .6

Ef f ec to f Na tura l ly Occurr ing S o i l P roces ses

5 6

6 .5 .7

Ef f ec to f Na tura l ly Occurr ing Chem ica ls

5 7

6 .5 .8

P a t inat ion

5 8

w i th

N a tura l ly

Occurr ing

Chem ica ls 6 .5 .9

Ef f ec to fL abora tory Chem ica ls

6 .5 .10

P at inat ion w i th S od ium Hydrox ide a nd Heat

6 .5 .11

P at ina t ion

w i th

S od ium

5 9

Hydrox ide ,

S od ium

5 9 C arbona te ,

6 0

Heat a nd

6 2

Ef ec t s o f P o s t -depo s it iona l P rocesses o n H igh ly D eve loped

6 4

Hea ta nd Ca lc ium C arbona te 6 .5 .12

S heen

a nd

P at inat ion

w ith

D is t i l led

Water ,

Ca lc ium C arbonate 6 .5 .13

P o l ish 6 .6

L im i tat ions Of T h is R esearch P ro jec t

6 5

6 .6 .1

Quant if icat ion

6 5

6 . 6 .2

Edge D a mage

6 5

6 .6 .3

Durat ion o fE xper imen t s

6 5

6 .6 .4

P ressure

6 5

6 . 6 .5 6 . 6 .6

R ig id Mater ia ls U se o ft he S EM

6 5 6 6

6 .6 .7

T eam work

6 6

6 . 6 .8

Ma ter ia ls S c ience

6 6

CH APTER 7 : CO NCLUS IONS

6 7

7 . 1

P rocesses Of P o l i sh F orma t ion

6 7

7 . 1 .1

P rev iou s Mode l s

6 7

7 . 1 .2

The P ropo sed Mode l

6 7

7 . 1 .3

The Ro le Of Wa ter

6 8

7 . 1 .4

The Ro le Of Abras ives

6 8

7 . 1 .5

The Ro le Of T he F l in tS truc ture

6 8

7 . 1 .6

S tr ia t ions

6 8

7 . 1 .7

P o l i sh F rom Mu l t ip le U ses

6 9

7 . 1 .8

R es idues

7 . 1 .9

U se - Wear

6 9 P o l i sh

A s

D iagno s t ic

Of

Worked

6 9

Ma ter ia l 7 . 2

P os t -Depo s i t iona l S urf ace Mod if ica t ion

7 . 2 .1

Mechan ica l S o i l P rocesses

7 0

7 . 2 .2

B r igh tS po t s F rom Mechan ica lP roces se s

7 0

7 . 2 .3

B r igh tS po t s F rom Chem ica lP rocesses

7 1

7 . 2 .4

S heen F rom Mechan ica l P roce sse s

7 1

7 . 2 .5

S heen F rom Chem ica lP roces ses

7 1

7 . 2 .6

P o s t -Depo s i t iona l P roces ses And T he Vu lnerab i l i ty Of E dges

7 1

7 . 2 .7

E dge Damage

7 1

7 . 2 .8

Microp it t ing

7 1

7 . 2 .9

P a t ina t ion

7 2

7 . 3

F u ture Re search

7 2

RE FERENCES AP PEND IX 1 AP PEND IX 2 FI GURES

7 0

7 5 8 1 8 6 8 7

v i

PR EFACE T he w o rk d escr ibed i nt h i s t h e s i sf a l l s i n to t wo o r mo re o r l e s s d i s t inc t p a r t s a l though t h e s e cond h a s b e en i n sp i r ed b yt he f i r s t . P ar t Is t a r t sw i th C hap t e r Iwh ich i sa n h i s to r ica l r e v iew o f r e cen t m ic rowea r r e sea r ch . C hap t e r 2d e sc r ibe sb r ie f ly wha tt h e a im s o fm yp ro jec t w e re a nd e xp la in s h ow t h ey h av e h ad t ob e m od if ied i n P a r tI . T h ec on t en t so fC hap t e r 3a r ei n t ended a s ad e s c r ip t ion o fa l l t h ev a r iou s s t ep s a nd t e chn ique s g en e ra l ly f o l lowed a nd /o r r e comm end ed f o r u s e i n f u n c t iona l a na ly s i s b y i n c id en tl i gh tm ic ro s copy a tm agn if i c a t ion so fx 50 t ox 400 a nd b y s c ann ing e l e c t ron m i c ro s copy . C omm en t s a nd o b s e rva t ion s h av eb e en o f e red w h i ch a r e t h e r e su l t o ft h e e xpe r i en c ea cqu i red w h i le c a r ry ing o u tt h i sr e s ea r ch . I nC hap t e r 4a r te f a c t sf r om t wo s i t e s ( m ic rod en t icu la t e s f r om a Me so l i th ic s i t e i n D o r s e t a nd s c r ap e r s f r om a Mou s t e r ian c ave s i t e i n I s ra e l ) h av e b e en s t ud ied _ A n a t t emp tw a s mad e a t ar e con s t ruc t ion o fp o s s ib l et o o l u s e s a l though t h e p o s t -d epo s i t iona l a l t e r a t ion s a f e c t ing t h e i r s u r f a c e sa lowed o n ly am o r el im i t ed l e v e lo fi n t e rp r e ta t ion t h an w ou ld h av e b e en p o s s ib l e h ad u se -w ea r p ol i sh s u rv iv ed o n t h e i r e dg e s . A l i s t o fa l t h e s i t e s s amp led w ho s ea r r te f ac t sw e r ef o und t ob ei n as im i la rs t a t ea sf a ra s s u rf a c e a l te ra t ion s w e r e c on ce rn ed i s a l so s u pp l ied A pp end ix 1l i s t s t h ee xpe r imen t sc a r r ied o u tt oi n v e s t ig a t e t h ep r ob ab le u s e so fm ic rod en t i cu la t e si ng r ea td e ta i l ,w h i l e A pp end ix 2r e v iew st h ee dg ew ea ra nd b r eakag ep a t t er no f t h e a r chaeo log ica l a r t e f ac t s . S om e c au t iona ry r ema rk s r eg a rd ing e xamp le s o f ah igh e r , b u t n o t n ece s sa r i ly m o r e a c cu r a t e ,l e ve lo fi n t e rp r e ta t ion sa r eg i v en i nC hap t e r5 . P a r t Id ea ls w i th t h en ew r e s e a r ch f o cu sr e su l t ing f r om t h e p r ob l em s e ncoun t e r ed i nP a r t I .D e t 2 i l s o ft h e r e v i s ed a im s a r e g i ven i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o fC hap te r 6 .T h e s am e c hap t e r a l so c on ta in s d e s c r ip t ion o f a l t h e e xp e r imen t s c a r r ied o u tT hey h av eb e en d i v id ed i n to t h r e ec a t ego r ie s : a ) e xpe r imen t so nu s e -w ea rt r a ce s , b ) e xp e r imen t so nt h ep ro c e s s e so fp o l i sh f o rma t ion , c ) e xp e r imen t so np o s t -d epo s i t iona lp r o ce s s e s . T h e d i v i s ion i sn o t r i go rou s d u e t oo v e r lap , p a r t icu la r ly s i n c e s m i t e o ft h e a r t ef ac t s u s ed i na )a nd b ) w e r e t h en s ub je c t ed t o p o s t -d epo s i t iona l p r o c e s s e s i n c ) . A l l t h e a r t e f a c t si na )w e r e u s ed b y h and a nd m o s tt h ough n o ta l t h ea r t e f a c t s i nb )w e r e s ub je c t ed t om e chan i c a lp o l i sh ing . C hap t e r 6i sc on c lud ed b y e num e ra t ing t h e l i m i ta t ion s o f t h i sp r o je c t . I nc on c lu s ion , C hap t e r 7s t a r t sb yp r e sen t ing t h e m od e l o f p ol i sh f o rma t ion a s i tw a s p r opo s ed b y A nde r son G e r f aud i n 1 980 , a nd g oe s o n t op r opo se a n ew m od e l b a s ed o nt h e r e su l t so ft h ev a r iou se xpe r imen t sa nd o n t h e o b s e rv ed f l aw s i nt h e p r ev iou s m od e l . T h e r e su l t s o ft h e v a r iou s a s pec t s o ft h i s r e sea r ch a r e r e v iewed t o g e th e ra nd s ugg e s t ion sf o rf u tu r er e s ea r ch a r eg i v en .

v i i

i n te l l igenc e w i th w h ich s he c onve r sed w i th h e r f e l low w o rke r s .

I rene L ev i S a la 1 929-1991 I r ene L ev i S a la 's s ucce s sf u l a cadem ic c a ree r a s ah igh ly

I r ene r egu la r ly a t tended mee t ings o ft he L i th ic S tud ie s S oc ie ty a nd t he P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic d ay c onf e rence s i n E ng land . H e r l a s t r e sea rch r e su l t s w e re p re sen ted i nD e cembe r 1 990 a t' Le s G e s te s R e t rouvd s ' ,

mo t iva ted a nd i nnova t ive a r chaeo log i s t e nded w i th h e r u n t ime ly d ea th i n a n a i r c ra sh o ve r S ou the rn C h i le o n F eb rua ry 2 0 , 1 99 1 .

a n i n te rna t iona l m ic rowea r c onf e rence h e ld a t t h e Un ive r s i ty o f L iege , whe re s he f ound t ha t h e r r e su l t s

I r ene w a s al a tecome r i n to t he w o r ld o f a r chaeo logy . Af te r r a i s ing h e r d augh te r s a nd p u r su ing a s ucce s sf u l c a ree r i n b u s ine s s w i th h e r h usband D av ide , s he

h ad b een c o r robo ra ted b y t he w o rk o f J apane se c o l league s . B o th o rgan ize r s a nd p ar t ic ipan ts h e ld h e r

d ec ided t of o l low h e r i n te re s t i n a r chaeo logy . I n 1 979 , s he b ecame a s t uden t a tt he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , L ondon , w he re s he e a rned a B .A . h onou r s d eg ree i n

w o rk i nh igh r ega rd , a nd t he t wo v o lume s t ha t r e su l ted f r om t h e c onf e rence , p ub l i shed i n 1 993 , w e re d ed ica ted t oh e r memo ry .

1 982 .

I r ene w a s a l so a n a c t ive membe r o ft h e L i th ic S t ud ie s S oc ie ty f o r t e n y ea r s , a s w e l l a s a memb e r o ft he I s rae l P reh is to r ic S oc ie ty . H e r d eep i n te re s t i nt he p reh i s to ry o f t he H o ly L and l e d h e r t o e ndow t he f ounda t ion o r ig ina l ly c a l led t he C are -A rchaeo log ic a l F ounda t ion ,

H e re n thu s ia sm f o rm ic rowea rr e sea rch b egan w h i le s he w a s s t i l l w o rk ing o n h e r u nde rg radua te t h e s is , a nd l a te r d eve loped mo re f u l ly i n to t he P h .D d i s se r ta t ion p re sen ted i nt h is v o lume . I n t he e a r ly 1 980s m ic rowea r w a s ar e la t ive ly n ew b ranch o fa r chaeo logy . I tw a s n o t

a n o rgan iza t ion w h ich a nnua l ly a loca te s g ran t s t o s cho la r sw o r ld -w ide f o r p reh is to r ic r e sea rch i n I s rae l o r f o rr e sea rch o n c o l lec t ions f r om I s rae l . T h is f ounda t ion ,

s urp r is ing , g iven h e r me t icu lou s a pp roach , t ha t I r ene s oon d i scove red t ha t s eve ra l o ft he a cc ep ted me thod s o f r e sea rch w e re n o t w i thou t t he i r p rob lems . S he b egan h e r o wn r e sea rch b y s t udy ing t he v i s ib le a l te ra t ions o n

n ow c a l led t he I r ene L ev i S a la C a re A rchaeo log ica l F ounda t ion , b ea r s h e rn ame i nt r ibu te t oh e r u nf lagg ing

t he s u rf ace so ff l in t i mp lemen t s i no rde r t od i scove r t h e p roce s se s i nvo lved i n ' po l ish ' f o rma t ion a nd s u rf ace mod if ica t ion c au sed b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s .

d ed ica t ion t ot h ef i e ld o fp reh is to r ic a rchaeo logy .

F o l low ing a s e r ie s o f me t icu lou s e xpe r imen t s a nd a t ho rough a na ly s is o f t h e i r r e su l t s , I r ene r eached t he c onc lu s ion t ha t p o l ish f o rma t ion w a s t he r e su l t o f a b ra s ion o ft he f l in t s u r f ace a nd n o t a n a dd i t ive p roce s s , a s h ad b een w ide ly a ccep ted . T he se e xpe r imen t s a l so l e d h e r t o c onc lude t ha t p o s t -depo s i t iona l s u rf ace mod if ic a t ions af ec ted t he v i s ib le w ea r t r ace s o n t he s u rf ace o fa n i mp lemen t . S uch n a tu ra l mod if ica t ions , i f i gno red , c ou ld l e ad t ot he m is in te rp re ta t ion o fu se -wea r p a t te rns b y r e la t ing t h em t o h uman a c t iv i ty . H e r P h .D d i s se r ta t ion w a s e s sen t ia l ly d ed ica ted t ot h is i mpo r tan t l i ne o f i n qu iry , b u t mo t iva ted b y t h e c once rn t ha t a rchaeo log is t s s hou ld b e a wa re o ft he se n a tu ra l e f ec t s

F ina l ly , I r ene L ev i S a la w a s n o t j u s t a r e spec ted c o l league , b u t aw e l l l oved f r iend . S he w a s k ind a nd a lway s g ood c ompany , a nd made t ime f o r e ve ryone , a lw ay s w i l l ing t oa dv ise o rh e lp w i th a ny p rob lem . H e r u n t ime ly d ea th l ef t ag ap a mong f am i ly membe r s a nd n ume rou s f r iend s a nd c o l league s . H e r l o s s i ss t i l l f e l t d eep ly ; h e r c on tr ibu t ion s , b o th p er sona l a nd p rof e ss iona l , w i l l a lw ay sr ema in i nde l ib le . O f e rB a r -Yo sef H arva rd U n iv e r s i ty , D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy

N o te f rom t he Ed i tor s I r ene w a s af r iend a nd c o l league . A t t h e t ime o f h e r d ea th , s he w a s i n t he p roce s s o f p repa r ing h e r P h .D d i s se r ta t ion f o r p ub l ica t ion . We f e l t t ha t I r ene 's

o n s t one a r tef ac t s , I r ene a l so l e c tu red a nd p ub l ished t h e r e su l t s o fh e r s t ud ie s . U pon c omp le t ion o fh e r P h .D i n 1 989 s he c on t inued h e r r e sea rch a s a n h ono ra ry r e sea rch f e l low o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy i n L ondon . T he p e r sona l k now ledge o f t he s i te s a nd t he i r e xcava to r s I r ene g a ined f r om f i e ld e xpe r ience m ade i t p o s s ib le f o r h e r t o u se a r tef ac t s f r om e xcava t ions i n E ng land , I s rae l a nd I t a ly i n h e r l a bo ra to ry s t ud ie s . Du r ing h e r c a ree r , I r ene p a r t ic ipa ted i n v a r iou s e xcava t ions i n E ng land a nd I s rae l , i n c lud ing s e ve ra l

i mpor tan t c on tr ibu t ion t om ic rowea r s t ud ie s s hou ld n o t g o u npub l ished a nd t he ref o re u nde r took t o f i n ish t h e t a sk s he h ad s t ar ted . A l though I r ene m ay w e l l h ave m ade c hange st ot h eo r ig ina lt ex t ,w ed ec ided t ol e ave i t v i r tua l ly a s s he h ad w r i t ten i t . Ou r c hange s h ave b e en p r ima r i ly t ho se o f p re sen ta t ion t o s u i t t he p ub l ished f o rma to ft he b ook . We w ou ld h ave b een u nab le t o c omp le te t h is t a sk w i thou t t he h e lp o fD r . M . C zwarno w ho c ame t oo u r a i d a nd p repa red t he c ompu te r ised c opy . We a re d eep ly

s easons a t t he e xcava t ions o f K eba ra c ave . H e r i nvo lvemen t w i th t h e K eba ra p ro je c t p romp ted t he

g ra tef u l t oh im . T hanks t oo , t oF . Swa r tz f o r t he i n i t ia l u nrave l l ing o f c ompu te r p rob lems . W i thou t B a rba ra

e xcava to r s t o d ed ica te t he f i r s t v o lume o f t h e s i te 's p ub l ica t ion i nh e r memo ry . I ndeed , a l l t ho se w ho t ook p a r t i nt h e s ame e xcava t ions a s s he , a dm ired b o th h e r

S co t t 's u nf a i l ing h e lp a nd e ncouragemen t , w e w ou ld h ave b een l o s t . A nd t o I r ene 's f am i ly , as i nce re t h ank y ou .

a b i l i ty t oa ccommoda te h e r se lf t op oo r l i v ing c ond i t ions a nd p hy s ica l ly s t renuou s w o rk a nd t he c harm a nd

Ma rga re t Mahe r a nd No rah Mo loney v i i i

GLo s sARy /DEF IN MON S e ar ing of o r AB RA S ION " The r e su l t o f r ubb ing o r w a way" ( Conc i se Oxf o rd D ic t iona ry ) . s u sed i n t h i s t h es i s p a r t ic le s f r om t he AD HERE A w o rked m a te r ia l a re s a id t o " adhe re" t o t he s u rf ace o ff l in tw hen t h ey a r en o t r emoved b y c l ean ing w i th d e te rgen t , n y lon b ru sh a nd /o r b y u l t ra son ic c l ean ing . T hey c an b e r emoved b y

b io log ica l

d e te rgen t s

a nd /o r

FL OW

a mong t h ep a r t ic le so rp ar t s" ( Sho r te r Oxf o rd E ng l i sh D ic t iona ry ) .

a l ka l ine

s o lu t ions . I ti sn o t i n tended t o s ugge s t t ha t t hey a r e f u sed i n o ne w ay o r a no the r t o t he s u rf ace ( s ee a l so DEPOS IT) .

FR ICT ION

BE I LBY LA YER At e rm l o o se ly u sed a f te r B e i lby 's ( 1921 :81) t h eo ry r ega rd ing w ea r o n me ta l s u rf ace s . H e t heo r ized t ha t t h rough h igh t empe ra tu re s t he s u r f ace w a s s of tened o r

O xf o rd E ng l ish D ic t iona ry ) . I t i s a l so a n on -po la r l i qu id . H yd roca rbons a nd n on p o la r l i qu id s a r e u nab le t o h yd ro ly se a f l in t s u rf ac e . HY DROLY S IS " Decompo s i t ion b y c hem ica l r eac t ion w i th w a te r" ( Conc i se Oxf o rd D ic t iona ry ) . sed h e re t o d e s c r ibe t he a r ea o f af l in t I M -AND U i mp lemen t a way f r om t h e e dge t owa rd s t he

t empe ra tu re s —and w e re b e ing r edepo s i ted a s amo rphou s s i l ica g e l o n o t he r p a r t s o f t he s u rf ace a s al a ye r . A l though t h is " Be i lby l a ye r" , o r a " s i l ica g e l l a ye r" i s o f ten i nvoked i nt h e l i te ra t u re d ea l ing w i th p o l ish o n f l in t , t h e re s eems t o b e n o c onc lu s ive e v idence f o ri t sp re senc ee ven o n g l a s s .

c en t re o ft he p i ec e . U nde r t h e m ic ro scope t he e dge o f af l in t a r tef ac t i sr em in iscen t o f a s ho re l ine a nd t h i s t e rm s e emed a pp rop r ia te s i nc e t o pog raph ic t e rm s a r e s ome t ime s u sed t od e sc r ibe t he f l in ts u rf ac e .

T h is t e rm h a s b een u sed i n t he

I N VA S IVENESS R e la t ive t ot h e d i s tance f r om t he i dge t ha tf l in ts e em sp o l i shed .

l i te ra tu r e d ea l ing w i th m ic rowea r . I n c hem is t ry i t i s u sed t o i nd ica te p a r t ic le g row th ( I le r 1 979 :220 ) , w he rea s i n p hy s ic s

LI NEAR F EATURES U sed a s ag ene r ic t e rm a s i n t he l i t e ra l s ense mean ing a l l i nd ica to r s o f mo t ion w he the r g roove s i n t he p o l i sh o r s t reak s o f p o l i sh o nt he u npo l i shed s ur f ac e .

a nd t r ibo logy i t i s u s ed t o i nd ica te t he a ccumu la t ion o f p a r t ic le s moved b y p la s t ic d ef o rma t ion f r om t he i r o r ig ina l l o ca t ion o n

LO NG ITUD INAL MOT ION S L ik e s aw ing , c u t t ing , r eap ing e t c . w he re t he movemen t i sp a ra l le l t o t he w o rk ing e dge . MA CRO SCOP IC V i s ib le t o t he n aked e ye ( Sho r te r O xf o rd E ng l i sh D ic t iona ry ) . MO T ION T he d i re c t ion at oo l move s i nr e la t ion t ot he w o rked ma te r ia ld u r ing u se . PL A ST IC D EFORMAT ION I s s a id t o o ccu r w hen y ou " i nc rea se t he t e n s i le s t reng th u n t i l t he re i sa p e rmanen t s hape c hange" . ( Ande r son e t a l .

t he s u rf ace . I ti si nt h is l a t te r s ense t ha t i ti s u sed i nt h et ex t . DE PO S IT

A s u sed h e re p a r t i c le s f r om t he w o rked ma te r ia l a r e " depo s i t ed" o n t he s u rf ac e o f f l in t w hen t hey a re v i s ib le m ic ro scop ica l ly a nd s ome t ime s m ac ro scop ica l ly b ef o re c l ean ing w i th w a rm w a te r a nd d e te rgen t ( s ee a l so AD HERE ) .

ED GE D AMAGE E dge s ca r r ing p roduced b y n a tu ra l p roc e s se s a nd c ove r s b o th m ic ro scop ic a nd mac ro scop ic o b se rva t ions . I ti sb y d ef in i t ion n o ti n ten t iona l . ED GE W EAR

Mac roscop ic

a nd

m ic roscop ic

PO L ISH

e dge

s ca r r ing ( m ic ro f lak ing )o nt he e dge a sw e l la s e dge r ound ing .

1 985 :155-6 ) . When f l in t s ur f ac e s a r e o b se rved o p t ica l ly a t x 200 a nd c e r ta in a l te red a r ea s o f t he f l in t e xh ib i t , a f te r t ho rough c l ean ing , a h ighe r r ef le c t iv i ty t han t ha t o ft he a d jo in ing s u rf ace , t ho se r e f lec t ive a r ea s a r e s a id t o b e p o l ished a nd t h er ef lec t iv i ty i sr e f e r red t oa s" po l i sh" .

EL A ST IC D EFORMAT ION I s s a id t o o ccu r w hen t he t ens i le s t reng th p roduce s a n " i ns tan taneou s a nd c omp le te ly r eve r s ib le" d ef o rma t ion a nd when " s t re s s a nd s t ra in a r e l i nea r ly p ropo r t iona l t oo ne a no the r" ( Ande r son e ta l .

PO L ISHED B Y U sed h e re t o mean a mechan ica l p o l ish ing o ft h ef l in tb y aw o rked ma te r ia l . PO L ISHED O N U sed h e re t o mean t ha t t he p o l ish w a s p roduced b y u s ing t h e f l in t o n aw o rked ma te r ia l b yh and .

1 985 :182183 ) . EM BEDDED

" . . .the r e s i s tanc e t o mo t ion w h ich e x i s t s w hen a s o l id o b jec t i s mov ed t angen t ia l ly w i th r e spec tt ot he s u rf ace o fa no the r wh ich i t t ouche s , o r w hen a n a t temp t i s made t o p roduce s uch mo t ion ." ( Rab inow icz 1 966 ) .

HY DROCARBON O IL " . . .i s a n o rgan ic c hem ica l c ompound o fh yd rogen a nd c a rbon" ( Sho r te r

l i qu if ied a nd s moo thed ma te r ia l s o l id if ied a s al aye r o n t he s u rf ace . When t h is t heo ry w a s t r ansf e r red t o g l as s p o l ish ing i t w a s h ypo the s ized t ha t t he s i l ica p a r t ic le s w e re b e ing r emoved a nd h yd ro lysed — in t he p re sence o f w a te r a nd h igh f r ic t iona l

BU I LT U PL AYER

p ar t ic le s ( s uch a s p lan t p hy to l i th s ) a r e t r apped w i th in t h e h yd ro ly sed l a ye r t o b e come ap e rmanen tp a r to ft he f l in ts t ruc tu re ( s e e a l so ADHERE & DEPOS IT ) . No e mbedded p a r t ic le s h ave b een o bse rved i n t h i sr e sea rch . " To move w i th a c on t inua l c hange o fp lace

S IL ICA : —AMOR PHOU S" Con s i s t s o f r eg ion s o f a t om ic o rde r o r c r y s ta ls o f ex t reme ly s ma l l s i ze , w h ich b y

A s u sed b y And e r son G e rf aud ( 1981) i s

r ef e r red t o h e re i n t h e s ense t ha t d u r ing a h yd ro ly sed p ha se o ft h e f l in t s urf ac e e x te rna l i x

c a refu l X ray d if rac t ion s t ud ie s a ppea r t o h ave

—GE L

t he

c r is toba l i te

s t ruc tu re"

( I le r

1 979 :27 ) . " Any me thod w h ich r e a r range s t he s u rf ace mo lecu le s w i l l g ive a n a mo rphou s s u rf ace" ( Co rn ish 1 96 1 :17 ; A dam 1 927 :162 ) . I s a " cohe ren t ‚ r ig id t h re e d imens iona l n e two rk o f c on t iguou s p ar t ic le s o f c o l lo ida l s i l ica" . ( I le r 1 979 :462 ) I tc an b e f o rmed i n d if e ren t w ay s b u t a lway s i nt h e p re senc e o f " a l i qu id med ium , u sua l ly a queou s" . ( i b id . ) w h ich r e su l t s i n ac hem ica l r e ac t ion b e tween s i l ica a nd w a te r t h rough h yd ro ly s is y i e ld ing S iOH . I t c an b e a mo rphou s s i l ica .

s a id t o b e h yd ro ly sed

ST R IAT IONS L inea r f e a tu re s a ppea r ing o n t he p o l ished f l in t s u rf ac e w he the r a s f u r row s o r g roove s . T hey a r e u sefu l i n r e cons t ruc t ing t h e d i rec t ion o ft h e t o o l 's movemen t a ga ins t t h e w o rked ma te r ia l . SU R FACE F LOW T he movemen t o f ma te r ia l f r om o ne p a r t o f as u rf ace t o a no the r u sua l ly b y f r ic t ion . I t i s o f ten , b u t n o t a lway s , a c compan ied b yh igh t empe ra tu re s h ence t he d i s t inc t ion TH ERM IC SU RFACE F LOW a nd AT HERM IC SU RFACE F LOW . TR ANSVERSAL MOT IONS S uch a s s c rap ing , w h i t t l ing , p lan ing , w he re t h e movemen t o ft he t oo l i s p e rpend icu la rt ot he w o rk ing e dge . TR IBOLOGY " I t o r ig ina te s f r om t h e G re ek t r ibo s mean ing r ubb ing . H ence i ti st he ' s tudy o f r ubb ing ' o r mo re c o r rec t ly ' t he s t udy o ft he s c ience a nd t e chno logy o f i n te rac t ing s ur f ace si nr e la t ive mo t ion" ( Qu inn 1 97 1 : 1) . US E -WEAR U sed i nt h is t he s is t o mean a l l t r ace s l ef to n t he e dge o f af l in t t o o l a f te r u se . I ti su sed p r ima r i ly t o r ef e r t o u se induc ed p o l ish b u t

WE AR

a l so t o s t r ia t ions , e dge s c a rr ing a nd r ound ing . " The p rog re s s ive l o s s o f s ub s tance f r om t he o pe ra t ing s u rf ace o f ab ody o c cu rr ing a s a r e su l t o f r e la t ive mo t ion a t t he s u rf ace" . ( OECD 1 969 ;D ow son 1 979 :499 )

PA RT CH APTER 1 I N TRODUCT ION s ca r r ing f r om w h ich t o i n f e r t h e r e la t iv e h a rdne s s o f ma te r ia ls . T he b i gge s t q ua l i ta t ive j ump a t temp ted b y u se -wea r a na ly s is w a s f i r s t s e en i n ap ape rb yK e e ley i n1 976 . H e r epor ted t ha tm ic ro scop ic p o l i sh o n f l i n te dge sp roduced b yd if e ren t w o rked ma te r ia ls w a s i d en t if iab le u nde r t he

1 . 1 D eve lopmen to fM icrowear R e search G iven t h e v e ry e xhau s t ive s u rvey s o f t h e h i s to ry o f F unc t iona l A na ly s is w h ich h ave a ppea red i n r e cen t y ea r s , o n ly ab r ief o u t l ine o fi mpo r tan t e a r l ie rw o rk w i l l b e p re sen ted h e re . T h i s r ev iew w i l l d i scu s s i n mo re d e ta i l t h e p e r iod f o l low ing t he a dven t o f " m ic rowea r p o l ishe s" i n augu ra ted b y t he p ub l ica t ion o f L .H . K ee ley 's w o rk a tO xf o rd b e tween 1 974 a nd 1 977 . A t temp t s t o r e cons t ruc t t he f unc t ion o f s t one t o o ls h av e b een made s i nce t h e 1 9 th C en t ury ( F r re 1 800 ; N i ls son 1 838-43 ; E vans 1 897 ; P f e if f e r 1 9 12 ; V ay son 1 922 ) a nd h ave r e l ied h eav i ly o n e t hnog raph ic

i n c iden t l i gh t m ic ro scope a t magn if ica t ions o fa round x 2 00 . Wh i le V ay son i n 1 920 w a s p robab ly t h e f i r s t t o s ugge s t t ha t p o l i sh c ou ld i nd ica te t h e w o rked ma te r ia l , h e d id n o t f o l low u p h i s c l a ims w i th e xpe r imen t s ( 1920 :4701) . K e e ley h oweve r , b a sed a l l h i s w o rk o n t ho rough e xpe r imen ta t ion a nd t he s ub sequen t b l ind t e s t ( Kee ley

p a ra l le ls , s pecu la t ion a nd o c cas iona l e xpe r imen ta l r ep l ica t ion o ft a sk s . Wea r t r ace s o n a c tua l a nc ien t t oo ls w e re d educed e i the rt h rough mac ro scop ic o bse rva t ion o f t he e dge so rt h rough e xam ina t ion w i th ah and l e ns . Ac omp rehens ive r ev iew o ft he l i t era tu re f r om 1 839 t o 1 978 w a s p ub l ished b y D ebo rah S e i tze r O lau s son ; i t d id n o t a ppea r u n t i l 1 980 a l though i tw a s c omp i led b ef o re t h e a ppea rance o f t he p roceed ing s o f t he F i r s t C onf e rence o n L i th ic U se -wea r h e ld i n 1 977 i nC anada ( Hayden 1 979 ) . O lau s son d i scu s sed t h e v a r iou s a ch ievemen t s b o th c h rono log ica l ly a nd u nde r h ead ing s r e la t ing t o e ach s pec if ic b reak th rough b o th i n E u rope a nd t h e U .S .A . O the rr ev iew s w e re c omp i led b yK ee ley ( 1977 ) , H ayden a nd K amm inga ( 1979 ) , V aughan ( 198 1) , O de l l ( 1982 ) , Mo s s ( 1983b :9-22 ) , U nge r -

a nd N ewcome r 1 977 ) g ave t he i mp re s s ion t ha t t he re i s as t r ic t c o r re la t ion b e tween d i s t inc t m ic rowe a r p o l i she s a nd d if e ren t w o rked ma ter ia ls . F if t een t o o ls f r om r e touched a nd u n re touched f l ake s o fB randon f l i n t w e re made a nd u sed b y M .H . N ewcome r i n" many d if e ren t w ay s o n aw ide v a r ie ty o f ma te r ia ls" ( Newcome r a nd K ee ley 1 979 :195 ) . T hey w e re u sed t o s c rape , c hop , d r i l l , s aw a nd w h i t t le w ood , s c rape b one , b u tche r f r e sh mea t , c u t f r ozen mea t a nd c u t h ide a nd b racken . K ee ley e xam ined t he t oo l s b yh i s n ew ly d ev e loped m e thod a nd o b ta ined t he f o l low ing p ub l ished r e su l t s : • I d en t if ica t ion o f a r ea o f t o o l u sed 1 4 o f 1 6 c o r rec t ; • R econs truc t ion c o r rec t ;

H am i l ton ( 1984 ) , C ook a nd Dumon t ( 1987 ) , J ue l J ensen ( 1988a )a nd L ev i S a la ( i np re s s ) . W i th t he a ppea rance i n 1 964 o f t he E ng l ish

• I d en t if ica t ion c o r rec t ;

o f t oo l

movemen t

o f ma te r ia l

w o rked

1 2 o f 1 6 1 0 o f 1 6

T he c oun t i so u t o f at o ta l o f1 6b e cau se o ne t oo l w as u sed o n t wo d if e ren t e dge s . T he e r ro r s w e re p a r t ly a t t r ibu ted t o Newcome r u s ing aw ooden c hopp ing b oa rd

t r ans la t ion o fS emenov 's b ook P reh i s tor ic T echno logy , i n te re s t i n t he f unc t ion o f s t one t oo ls w a s g iven n ew i mpe tu s . S emenov c onc en t ra ted o n t h e l o ca t ion o f p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion s f o r t he i n te rp re ta t ion o f t o o l movemen t . B inocu la r m ic ro scope s w i th magn if ica t ions

i ns eve ra l e xpe r imen t s . None the le s st h i s w a s c on s ide red av e ry " imp re s s iv e" r e su l t . T he me thod w a s l a te r s uppor ted b y t h e P h .D . t he se s o f A nde rson -Ge rf aud a nd V aughan i n 1 98 1 a nd t he b l ind t e s t c a r r ied o u tb yG ende l a nd P i rnay i n1 982 ( s ee c ommen t s o n b o th b l ind t e s t s b e low ) . T h is o ne to -one r e la t ionsh ip o fp o l ish t ou sed ma te r ia l h a s s i nce b een s o w ide ly a ccep ted t ha t t he l i t e ra tu re i sf u l l o fe xp re s s ions

o f x2 0 t o x1 80 w e re u sed t o o b se rve n o t o n ly e dge s c a r , b u t s t r ia t ions a nd " po l ish" w h ich a t l ow magn if ica t ions u sua l ly a ppe a r o n ly a s ad u l l l u s t re . S emenov r epo r ted t h e r e su l t s o fe xpe r imen t s a imed a t u nde r s tand ing k inema t ic s , e xam in ing t h e t o o l 's mo t ion i ns aw ing , s c rap ing , w h i t t l ing , b o r ing e t c . , a l though h e d id n o tc ons ide rs uch e xpe r imen t s a sa n e s sen t ia l a spec t o ft o o lu se r e cons truc t ion ( 1964 :121) . S emenov s ugge s ted t ha t i n c e r ta in c a se s

s uch a s" bone p o l ish" , " wood p o l ish" , " h ide p o l ish" a nd e ven " mea tp o l ish" . S ome c r i t ic ism d id f o l low K e e ley 's f i r s t r e su l t s ( Ho l ley a nd D e l B ene 1 98 1) b a sed ma in ly o n t he w ay t he r e su l t s w e re a s se s sed a nd o n t h e c onv ic t ion t ha t c r i te r ia o the r t han m ic rowea r p o l i she s w e re u sed i mp l ic i t ly i nt he i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e w o rked ma te r ia ls . H oweve r , many r e sea rche r s w e re o n ly t o o h appy t o b e

magn if ica t ions f r om x 3 00 t o x5 00 ( i b id . :22 may b e r equ i red f o r o b se rva t ion o f c ha rac te r is t ic f e a tu re s . N one the le s s , v e ry f ew a t temp t s w e re made b y S emenov o r o t he r s t o i d en t if y t h e w o rked ma te r ia l e xcep t b y e t hnog raph ic a na logy o r l og ica l r e a son ing ( Semenov 1 964 :83 142 ) . Mo s t w o rk d one i n t he d ecade f o l low ing 1 964 c oncen t ra ted o n e xam ina t ion o f t oo ls a t l owe r magn if ica t ions w i th a v i ew t o r e cons t ruc t ing t oo l movemen t a nd o r ien ta t ion . T r ingham e t a l . ( 1974 ) , B roadben t a nd K nu t s son ( 1975 ) a nd H ayden a nd K amm inga ( 1973) t r ied t o o b se rve p a t te rns o f e dge

a b le t o r ead mo re i n to s t one t o o l s t han j u s t t he i r mo rpho logy a nd t e chno logy o f manuf ac tu re a nd a ccep ted Ke e ley 's w o rk r a the ru nc r i t ica l ly . 1 . 1 .2 T he L ow P ower Approach I n sp i red b y S emenov 's w o rk , T r ingham a nd s ome o f h e r s t uden t s ( 1974 ) c a r r ied o u t e x tens ive e xpe r imen ta t ion t oo b se rve w he the r e dge s c a r r ing c ou ld 1

b e u sed t o i d en t if y p re c ise f unc t ion . T hey c onc luded t h a t t he re w a s ac o r re la t ion b e twe en c e r ta in p a t te rns o f m ic rof lak ing o n f l in t t oo l e dge s , t he mo t ion i n w h ich t h e t oo l w a su sed a nd t h e h a rdne s s o fm a te r ia ls a ga ins t w h ich t he t o o lw a su sed . K ee ley ( 1980 :7 ) c r i t ic ised t h e i r e xpe r imen ta l p rog ramme a sb e ing t oo mechan ica l a nd n o tr ep l ica t ing h uman a c t iv i ty . H e a l so f e l tt ha ti nt he i re f or tt oi s o la te t o o many v a r iab le s t h ey h ave p rodu ced " re su l t s w h ich a r e u n l ike ly t ob e c ompa rab le t ot he w ea r t r ace s f ound o n a r chaeo log ica l s pec imens a nd w h ich a r ei r re levan tt o t h ei n f e rence o ff unc t ion o n a nc ien t i mp lemen t s ." T he l ow p owe r me thod w a s f u r the r d eve loped b y O de l l , w ho w a s a membe r o f t he o r ig ina l T r ingham t e am , i na n a t temp t t oe s tab l ish i tu s ing magn if ica t ions o f x 1 0 t o x 1 00 " a s ar e l iab le a na ly t ica l t oo l f o r d e r iv ing f unc t iona l i n f o rma t ion f r om l i th ic a r t if ac t s" ( Ode l l a nd O de l l V e ree cken 1 980 ) . I nt he Ode I ls ' w o rk t h er e su l t so f ab l ind t e s t o ft he me thod w e re p ub l ished . T he Ode l ls , l i ke T r ingham , f e l t t ha t t hey w e re a b le t o d i s t ingu ish i n ten t iona l r e touch a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l s c a r s f r om t ho se c au sed b y u se . T hey h ave h oweve r a t t r ibu ted c e r ta in e r ro r s i n t h e i r b l ind t e s t t o t h e f a c t t h a t s ome r e touch s c a r s w e re m is taken f o r u t i l isa t ion d amage ( op .c i t . :117118 ) . T he i r c o r rec t i d en t if ica t ion o f p rec ise w o rked ma te r ia l ( a s o pposed t o ma te r ia l h a rdne s s o n a4 -pa r t r e la t ive h a rdne s s s c a le ) w a s 3 8 .7% , w h i le t h e K ee ley -Newcome r b l ind t e s t c l a imed 6 2 .5 % . R ecen t w o rk s ugge s t s , a s i lu s t ra ted b e low , t ha t t he l a t te r may h ave b een a n o ve r -op t im i s t ic a s se s smen t o ft he a ccu racy o f t he K ee ley me thod . K ee ley ( 1980 :83) , V aughan ( 1985 :45 ) , Mo s s ( 1983b :76 ) a nd Unge r -Ham i l ton e ta l . ( 1987 :274 ) c onc luded h oweve r , t ha t n o t o n ly i se dge s c a r r ing d ue t o u se n o t d i agno s t ic o f w o rked ma te r ia l b u t , mo re i mpo r tan t ly , t ha ti ti sn o ta lway sp resen t . I ti s my o b se rva t ion t ha t e dge w ea r i s , w hen p re sen t , a h e lpf u l e l emen t f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t oo l u se b u t c anno t o n i t s o wn b e u sed a s t h e i nd ica to r o fp rec ise f unc t ion f o r t he r e a sons m en t ioned a bove a nd a s d i scu s sed i nC hap te r3 . I n c on t rad ic t ion t ot h e a s ser t ion i n O de l l a nd O de l l V e reecken ( 1980 :90 ) t ha t " i n t he i r c r i t ic ism o ft he l ow p owe r a pp roach K ee ley a nd Newcome r a r e c o r rec t i n a s se r t ing t ha t t he mo s t u b iqu i tou s a nd f r equen t ly u sed i ndex i ss c a r r ing a l ong t h e e dge s" , O de l l ( 1986 :117 ) r e cen t ly p o in ted o u t t ha t " scho la r s e mp loy ing l ow p owe r t e chn ique s d o n o t r e ly s o le ly o n u se f rac tur ing ( Ode l l 's e mpha s is ) b u t o n a n e n t i re c omp lex o f d i s loca to ry a nd a b ra s ive v a r iab le s . E dge r ound ing a nd p o l ish a r e c ruc ia l i nd ica to r s o f t he e x is tenc e a nd l o ca t ion o fw ea r" . H e f u r the rf e e ls t ha t c r i t ic s o ft he l ow p owe r me thod h ave a lw ay s e mp loyed n on -s te reo scop ic m e ta l lu rg ica l m ic ro scope s t hu s l o s ing " sa l ien t v i sua l i mage s" . Ih ave n o t p e rsona l ly l o oked a t e dge -wea r u nde r a s t ereoscop i c m ic ro scope b u t e xpe r ience i n t h e e xpe r imen ta l u se o f f l in t t oo ls h a s n o t c on t r ibu ted t o c onv ince me o ft he r e l iab i l i ty o fi n f o rma t ion d e r ived a t s u ch l ow m agn if ica t ion s . O n ly i ndependen t t e s t ing w i l l c onf i rm w he the r t h i s i s ar obu s t t e chn ique a nd w ha t l e ve ls o fi n te rp re ta t ion c an b er e ached t h rough i t .

A no the r p ape r h a s r e cen t ly b een p ub l ished b y S hea ( 1987 ) , as t uden t o fO de l l 's , w ho d e sc r ibe s as e r ie s o f b l ind t e s t s . T he e xpe r imen t s w e re c a r r ied o u t b y u nde rg radua te a nd g radua te s t uden t s o f l i t h ic t e chno logy w o rk shop s i n H arva rd a nd B o s ton U n ive r s i t ie s ( one s e t o ft e s t t oo ls w e re u sed b y O de l l ) a nd t he f unc t iona l a na ly s is b a sed o n t he O de l l me thod w a s c a r r ied o u t b y S hea . T he t e s t s w e re , a s S hea s ay s , a s much t ot e s th i s o wn a b i l i ty a st ot e s tt he me thod . H e d iv ide s t h e c a tegor ie s o fw o rked ma te r ia l i n to a n ima l , v ege ta l a nd i no rgan ic a sw e l l a s e ach b e ing s ubd iv ided i n to s of t , med ium a nd h a rd . I n v i ew o ft h i s d if e rence w i th t he O de l l s co r ing a nd t he K ee ley a nd N ewcome r t e s t i ti sd if icu l t t o m ake p re c ise c ompa r isons . T he re a r e n o d raw ing s o r d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e t o o ls i n S hea 's t e s t , n e i the r i st h e re a n e xp lana t ion o ft h e w ay t hey w e re u sed o r o ft h e ma te r ia l o n w h ich e ach t oo l w a s u sed . No f o rma l t oo ls w e re i nvo lved b u t r a the r f l ake s w e re p i cked u p b y t he e xpe r imen te r s f r om a k napp ing f l oo r( Shea p e r s . c omm . ) T he re i sn o d oub t t h a t I F t h e O de l l me thod w e re r e l iab ly t e s ted a nd s hown t o b e v a l id , i t s g rea te s t a dvan tage w ou ld b et h es peed o fa na ly s is " ca . 5m in p e r t oo l" ( i b id . :120 ) . When u s ing h ighe r mag n if ica t ions Mo s s p o in t s o u t ( 1983b :2 1) t ha t i tt a ke s " up t oa n h ou r f o r a ny o ne p i ece" . I n t he T ueb ingen b l ind t e s t t he a na ly s t sf ound t ha tt h ey s pen t" on t h ea ve rage o ne a nd a h a lf h ou r s t o a na ly se" e ach t oo l w i thou t t he " exp lo ra to ry e xpe r imen ta t ion t o s o lve s pe c if ic p rob lems" w h ich w a s d en ied t o t hem a s t hey w e re t o c omp le te t he t e s t o n n ine te en t oo ls i n o n ly o ne w e ek ( Un ra th e ta l . 1 986 :165 ) . I ti s my e xpe r ience t ha t i tc an t ake much l o nge r t han o ne o r t wo h ou r s f o r c omp lex p iece s . I f af i ve m inu te p e r t o o l a na ly s is c ou ld g i ve a ccu ra te a nswe r s o n t he r e la t ive h a rdne s s o ft he ma te r ia l u sed a s w e l l a s t he mo t ion , i tw ou ld b e w o r thwh i le e i the r t o l owe rt he t h re sho ld o fe xpec ta t ions o rt oc ons ide rt h is a s af i r s tl e ve l o fa na ly s i s . 1 . 2 S i tua t ion a tp re sen t S inc e 1 979 , many m ic rowea r a na ly s t s h ave b een w o rk ing i nf i ve c on t inen t s i n te rp re t ing t h e f unc t ions o f t oo l s i np reh is to r ic a s semb lage s , t he ma jo r i ty p robab ly u s ing s ome f o rm o f t h e K ee ley me thod ( s e e t he R eg is te r s o fM ic rowea rA na ly s t sa nd t he ir R e sea rch No . 1a nd No . 2 Owen e t a l . 1 984 ; Owen 1 986 ) . T he a c t iv i t ie s o f p reh is to r ic p eop le a r e t hu s s uppo sed ly " recon s truc ted" i n g re a t d e ta i l d own t o t he t r ace s o f f i nge r p rehen s ion e ven w hen t h e r e su l t s f l y i nt h e f a ce o f a r chaeo log ica l k now ledge . T he l i t e ra tu re a bound s w i th d e sc r ip t ion s o fw ea r a t t r ibu ted t o h a f t s , e s t ima te s o fd u ra t ion o fw o rk , f a in t t r ace s o n 1 . 5 m i l l ion y ea r -o ld t oo l s i n te rp re ted a s b u tche ry ( Kee ley a nd T o th 1 98 1) a nd d i s t inc t ion sb e tween w o rk ing b one a nd a n t le r b a sed o n p o l i sh a ppea rance a l one ( s ee C hap te r 5f o r e xamp le s o ft h is t y pe o fw o rk ) . T he T ueb ingen mu l t i -ana ly s t b l ind t e s t h a s s hown t ha t t h e mo s t e xpe r ienced m ic rowea r a na ly s t s a r e n o t e spec ia l ly s ucce s sf u l i n r econs truc t ing s uch d e ta i ls o n

i mp lemen t s manuf ac tu red a nd u sed o n ly mon ths i fn o t w eek sb ef o re ( Unra th e ta l . 1 986 :17 1) .

1 985 :34 ) t o i d en t if y r eed f am i l ie s f r om t h e o p t ica l a ppea rance o ft h e p o l ish . V aughan s ugge s ted ( 1985 :36 ) t ha t t he i d en t if ica t ion o f" phy to l i th b od ie s f u sed w i th in t he p lan t p o l ish" b y S EM a na ly s is i s a mo re r e l iab le w ay t or e cogn ise p l an t f am i l ie s .

1 . 2 .1 P roces se so fP o l i sh F orma t ion T he r ei sa sy e tn og ene ra l ly a ccep ted e xp lana t ion o ft h e p henomenon o fp o l ish f o rma t ion . I th a s b een i n tr igu ing

Mansu r -F ranchomme ( 1983b ) o b se rv ed b y S EM w ha t s he c ons ide r s t o b e h ide p a r t ic le s e mbedded i n e xpe r imen ta l f l in t t oo ls . Hw -combe ( 1985 :54 ) h a s o b se rved b y S EM " phy to l i ths i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e o b s id ian s u rf ace a f te r w o rk ing g ra s se s w i th e xpe r imen ta l t oo ls" . T he c l a ims f o rr e s idue s o fh ide a nd mea t b e ing e mbedded i nt he s u rf ac e s o fs t one t oo l s a r e e ven mo re d if i cu l t t o e xp la in . A p ro ce s s s uch a s e nv isaged b y A nde r son c ou ld o n ly o ccu r w hen v e ry h igh t empe ra tu re s a re r eached d u r ing w o rk . When f l in t i s u sed t o c u t s i l ica -r ich g ra s se s o ne m igh t e xpec t

t om any t ha t ama te r ia l a sh a rd a sf l in t c an b e p o l ished b y m a te r ia ls s o much s of te r t h an i t se lf . T he r e la t ive ly r ecen t g rea te r a cce s s t o e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy h a s p roduced s eve ra l o b se rva t ion s w h ich may a s s i s t i n u nde r s tand ing p o l i sh f o rma t ion . V a r iou s t heo r ie s h ave b een p u t f o rw a rd ma in ly i n r ega rd t o t he h igh g lo s s o b se rved o n N eo l i th ic s i ck le b l ade s . T he mode ls c an b e s ummed u pi nt he i rb roades t l i ne sa sf o l low s : A u s e w ea r p o l ish i sa dd i t ive c aused , i n t he c a se o f s i ck le s , b y ad epo s i t ion o fp lan t s i l ica o n t he f l in t s u rf ace (W i t thof t 1 967 ) . B p o l i sh i s as ub t rac t ive p roce s s , t h e r e su l t o f h igh

r e la t ive ly h igh t empe ra tu re s t o b e r e ached b e cau se o f t he c on tac t o f t wo v e ry h a rd s ub s tance s t h e s i l ica i n g ra s s a nd f l in t .

a t t r i t ion r emov ing a m ic roscop ic p a r t o f t he f l in t s u rf ac e w i th o r w i thou t a ny c oncom i tan t c hem ica l

T he re i s h oweve r n o e v idenc e f o r t he se h igh t empe ra tu re s a nd s ome e xpe r imen ta l e v idence a ga ins t ( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 5 ) . O the r ma te r ia ls s uch a sm ea t a nd h ide a r e much mo re y i e ld ing t h an s i l ica a nd , a sl e s s f r ic t ion i s p roduced , o ne c anno t e ven e xpec t v e ry h igh

p roce s s( D iamond 1 979 ; Ma s son 1 981) . C p o l ish i s a l a ye r b u i ld -up d ue t o i nc rea sed t empe ra tu re ( c au sed b y f r ic t ion ) r e su l t ing i n t h e f o rma t ion o f a mo rphou s s i l ica g e l t r app ing p hy tol i th s a nd o the r e l emen t s f r om t he p lan t c e l l s w h ich c on t r ibu te t ot h e b u i ld -up ( Ande rson -Ge r f aud 1 981) .

t empe ra tu re st od eve lop w hen t hey a r ew o rked . R ecen t w o rk b y s ome a u tho r s h a s c a s t d oub t o n t he t heo ry o f p o l ish t r app ing o rgan ic p ar t ic le s , e i the r b ecau se s uch a l a ye r w ou ld b e t oo t h in t o t r ap s uch

D T ha tp o l i sh i st he r e su l t o fs ome c omb ina t ion o ft h e a bove p ro ce s se s ( De l B ene 1 979 ; K amm inga 1 979 ; Meek se ta l . 1 982 ; U nge rH am i l ton 1 984 ) . I n 1 980 P a t r ic ia A nde r son r epo r ted t h e o b se rva t ion b y S EM ( Sc ann ing E le c t ron M ic ro scopy ) o f w ha t s he i n te rp re ted a s " phy to l i ths" e mbedded i n t he f l in t

p a r t ic le s o rb ecau se t he re i sa sy e t n o c onc re te e v idence t ha t s uch a l a ye r a c tua l ly f o rms d u r ing u se . U nge r H am i l ton ( 1984 :94 F ig 3 b ) h a s p ho tog raphed af e a tu re v i sua l ly s im i la r t o o ne o f Ande r son 's " phy to l i ths" ( 1980 :P la te 8 d ) o n f l in t u sed o n ly " t op o l ish o t he r f l in t" s ugge s t ing t ha t s ome f e a tu re s o ft h e f l in t s t ruc tu re may b em i s taken f o rp hy to l i ths . Y amada ( 1986 : 123 )h a sa l so o b se rved t he p roce s s o f p lan t p o l ish f o rma t ion o n s i l iceou s s ha le u nde r t he S EM , c onc lud ing " i t w a s p o s s ib le t ha t r e s idue s a dhe re t o t h e s u rf ace , b u t i mpo s s ib le t ha t t h ey a re e mbedded i n to t h e s u rf ace" b ecau se h e o b served t ha t " hydra t ion i nt h e o rde r o fl e s s t han am ic ron m ay b e o ccur r ing o n t h e s u rf ac e" . Ih ave o b se rved t he s ame f e a tu re s u nde r t he S EM o n f l in t p o l ished w i th d i amond p a s te . T h is p a s te i s made o fp u re

s u rf ace s . T he t heo ry w i th w h ich s he e xp la ined t h e p henomenon w a st ha t" t he f l in t s u rf ac e c hange s l o ca l ly t o a n a mo rphou s g e l d u r ing t he w o rk ing o f p l an t ma te r ia ls a nd t ha t t h e a mo rphou s g e l l a ye r i mp r i son s p lan t r e s idue s" ( 1980 :186 ) . S he f e l t t h ey c ou ld b e d i ag no s t ic o ft he p lan t f am i ly b e ing h a rve s ted . A nde r son 's w o rk w a s q ue s t ioned b y Ma s son w ho c r i t ic ised t he se c l a im s a nd , u s ing t h e S EM f ound n o p hy to l i ths , a mo rphou s s i l ica o r p l an t o pa l o n as amp le o fs i ck le sf r om Mu reybe t( Ma s son e ta l . 1 981) . T he w eakne s s o f Ma s son e ta l . 's c onc lu s ions s e em s d u e t o t he f a c t t ha t t h e Mu reybe t s i ck le s w e re b u rn t

c a rbon a nd h yd roca rbon o i l . I ti st he ref o re c e r ta in t ha t t he f l in t d id n o t c ome i n c on tac t w i th a ny p hy to l i th s . F ur the rmo re f i gu re 2 20 s ugge s t s t ha t t h e t h ickne s s o f t he p o l ished l a ye r i sw e l l u nde r am ic ron . Ande r sen a nd Wh i t low ( 1983 ) h av e u sed i o n b eam a na ly s i s a nd h yd rogen p rof i l ing t o s t udy t h e n a tu re o f " g lo s sy w ea r t r ace s" ( i b id . :470 ) . T hey r epo r ted a" good c o r re la t ion b e tween c hange s i n h yd rogen p rof i le s a nd

( i b id . :47 ) a nd t ha t t h e i r c onc lu s ions w e re b ased o n t h e a mo rphou s s i l ica n e t b e ing o b servab le o n t he s i ck le s a t p re sen t wh i le Ande r son c l a im s t h e e dge s h ad p a s sed t h rough a n a mo rphou s s i l ica s t age d ur ing u se a nd t h en r e c ry s ta l l ized . S ub sequen t ly Ma s son s t ud ied e xpe r imen ta l s i ck le s u sed t o c u t d ry h ay a nd c onc luded ( 1982 :36 ) " No

t he ma te r ia l w o rked" ( i b id . :470 ) . I ts e ems h oweve r t h a t t he c o r re la t ion i sw i th t he w a te r c on ten t o ft h e w o rked ma te r ia l o n e xpe r imen ta l i mp lemen t s . H ence w o rk ing

s t ruc tu ra l c hange o ft h e f l in t o r o fo t he r r ock t ype s w a s o b se rved b y S EM o n t he e xpe r imen ta l p iece s . T h i s c onf i rm s t h e s ame o b se rva t ion s c a r r ied o u t o n t h e

d ry ma te r ia ls d oe s n o t i n c rease t he f l in t 's w a te r u p take a nd w o rk ing w e t o r mo is t ma te r ia l s d oe s . Mo re i mpo r tan t ly t h is e f ec t o n t he f l in t s u rf ace i st r ans ien t

N eo l i th ic s i ck le s f r om S y r ia" ( my t r ans la t ion ) . I ti sm y e xpe r ience t ha tp o l ish w i l l d eve lop f r om c u t t ing d ry h ay

s i nce n o s uch d if e rence s h ave b een f ound o n a r chaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s . Ande r sen a nd Wh i t low s ugge s t ( i b id . :468 ) t ha t t h e i n c rea se i n w a te r u p take i nd ica te s t he f o rma t ion o f as i l ica g e l l a ye r o ft h e o rde r

o n ly a f te r v e ry l o ng h ou r s o f w o rk e s pec ia l ly w hen u s ing N ea rE a s te rn f l in t . A nde r son 's w o rk w a s , o n t h e o t he r h and , s uppo r ted b y V aughan , w ho h ad a l so a t temp ted ( 198 1 :15 ;

o f 1 00 t o 5 00 nm ( nanome t re s e qu iva len t t o af r ac t ion 3

a rgumen t s i nf a vou r o ft h is c onc lu s ion a r e i lu s tra ted i n

o f am ic ron ) . T hey h ave a c tua l ly o n ly d emons t ra ted t ha t t he h yd rogen o n t he s u rf ace o f t he f l in t h ad b een

C hap te r6 . I nt h eb l ind t e s tj u s t men t ioned t he r a te o fs ucce s s i n t he i d en t if ica t ion o ft he u sed ma ter ia l w a s s uff ic ien t t o c onv ince s ome a r chaeo log is t s t ha t p o l ishe s a r e

e nhanced b y w o rk ing ma te r ia ls w i th a h igh w a te r c on ten ta nd NOT t h a t as i l ica g e l l a ye rh ad f o rmed . My o wn w o rk r ega rd ing p roce s se s o f p o l ish f o rma t ion i sd e sc r ibed i n P ar t Two a nd s ugge s t s t ha t

d i s t inc t ive a nd t ha t c onsequen t ly t h is w a s ap rom is ing me thod o ff unc t iona l a na ly s is .

p o l ish i s as moo th ing o ft he f l in t s u rf ace p roduced b y t h e r emova l o fs u r f ic ia l a spe r i t ie s w h ich a r e s ome t ime s d ragged a c ro s s t he s u rf ace f l a t ten ing i t . T he s moo the r a nd f l a t te r s u rf ace r e f lec t s l i gh t mo re u n if o rm ly a nd a pp ea r s a s a " po l ished" s u rf ace u nde r t h e o p t ica l

T he re i s much c on t rove r sy r ega rd ing t he w ay b l ind t e s t s a r e s co red ( Ho l ley a nd D e l B ene 1 981 ; B amf o r th 1 988 ; G rac e 1 988 ) t h e ref o re a no the r r e sco r ing o fo t he r p eop le 's r e su l t sw i l l n o tb ea t temp ted h e re . Wha t o ne c an l e a rn f r om t h is c on t rove rsy , h oweve r , i st ha t i n t he c a se o f a ny f u tu re b l ind t e s t s t he re i sa n eed f o r : a ) au n if ied s co r ing s y s tem t oa l low c ompa rab i l i ty ; b ) amuch l a rge r n umbe r o ft oo ls p e r t e s t t oa l low t he a pp l ica t ion o fs t a t is t ica l t e chn ique s ; c ) t e s t s t o b e c a r r ied o u t a s i n K ee ley a nd

m ic ro scope . T he i n c rease i n t he n umbe r o f m ic rowea r p rac t i t ione r s men t ioned e a r l ie rh a s l e dt oa n i n c rea se i n t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fp rob lems w i th t he K ee ley me thod . Ag rea t o ve r lap i nt h e d i agno s t ic f e a tu re s o f" po l ishe s" p roduced b y t he v a r iou s wo rked ma te r ia ls w a s n o ted e ven b y t he mo s t a rden t s uppo r te r s o f t h e me thod ( Vaughan

1 985 :30

a nd

4 6 ) .

I t w a s

N ewcome r ( 1977 ) b y i ndependen t e xpe r imen te rs a nd a na ly s t s a nd n o t b y membe r s o f at e am w ho a r e l i ke ly t o b e f am i l ia r w i th e ach o t he r 's e xpe r imen ta l h ab i t sa nd t hough tp roce s se s .

f u r the rmo re

o b se rved t ha t t he s ame ma te r ia l p roduce s d if e ren t " po l ishe s" u nde r d if e ren t c i rcums tance s a nd t h a t " po l ishe s" f r om t wo v e ry d if e ren t ma te r ia ls c an l o ok v e ry s im i la r (Mo s s 1 983 :86-87 ; U nge r -Ham i l ton v a r iou s

I n t h e mean t ime t h e f o l low ing a r e s ome c ommen t s a bou t K ee ley 's a ppa ren t h igh r a te o f s ucce s s i n t he b l ind t e s t :

" po l ishe s" a l ready h in t s a tt h ep rob lem , a nd V aughan 's v e ry d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ions ( 1985 :27-46 ) h igh l igh t t h e c au se o fc onf u s ion . I ti si mp l ied i n t he w o rk o ft he se r e sea rche r s t ha t i n s p i te o f t h is o ve r lap t hey c an d i s t ingu ish b e tween o ne p o l ish a nd a no the r .

1 ) H ad p o l ishe s b een c l ea r ly d i s t inc t ive n o o ne , e spec ia l ly n o t K ee ley , w ou ld c onf use b one p o l ish w i th h ide p o l ish ( t oo l N .15 ) o rc onf use b one a nd a n t le rw i th w ood ( t oo ls N . 1 ,6 ) . 2 ) Much i n f o rma t ion a l low ing t oo l u se t o b e

1 988 :107 ; U n ra th e ta l . 1 986 : 1 68 ) . K ee ley 's ( 1980 ) c ha rac te r isa t ion

F ur the rmo re ,

o f t h e

r e cons truc ted c an b e g l eaned f r om e dge mo rpho logy , e dge a ng le a nd e dge w ea r . T he e r ro r s made b yK ee ley s ugge s t t ha t h e may h ave i n co rpo ra ted t h is k ind o f i n f o rma t ion i n h i s o b se rva t ion o ft h e p o l ishe s . I n f a c t h i s s ucce s s r a te i sa t ta inab le e ven a s sum ing p o l ish i sn o t ma te r ia l s pec if ic a s t he b l ind t e s t c a r r ied o u t b y G race e ta l . ( 1988 :228 )h a s s hown . 3 ) P o l ish d i s t r ibu t ion i s h igh ly c o r re la ted w i th f r ic t ion a nd /o r r i g id i ty o f t he w o rked ma te r ia l w h ich c an b ei n f e r red f r om e dge w ea r , s t r ia t ions , a nd t h e t y pe o f e dge u sed . T he e xpe r imen t s i n t h e K ee ley a nd N ew come r b l ind t e s t w e re

t h e r a the r v ague n a tu re o f p o l ish

d e sc r ip t ions s uch a s" b r igh t" , " du l l" , " ma t te" , " smoo th" a nd " rough" make s i d en t if ica t ion o f p o l ishe s av e ry s ub jec t ive ma t te r . I n a s u rvey o f " bone p o l ish" c ha rac te r is t ic s a s d e sc r ibed b y K ee ley ( 1980 :43 ) , A nde r son -Ge r f aud ( 198 1( 1) :58 ) , Mo s s ( 1983b :92 ) a nd V aughan ( 1985 :32 )r epor ted b yG race e ta l . ( 1988 :220 ) , i tw a s n o ted t ha t " bone p o l ish c an b e r ough o r s moo th , ma t te o r b r igh t w i th m ic rop i t s o r d ep re s s ions o r b o th a nd t he re s e ems t o b e n o r e a l a g reemen t a bou t t h e p rec ise a ppea rance o f ad i s t inc t ive b one p o l ish" . 1 . 2 .2 D i st inc t ivenes so fP o l i sh

h eav i ly b i a sed t owa rd s r i g id w o rked ma te r ia ls w h ich d eve lop p o l ish f a s te rt han s of te r ma te r ia ls .

I ti sn ece s sa ry t o b ea r i nm ind o n r ead ing t he se p age s t ha t when t h is r e sea rch w a s u nde r taken t he K ee ley

A no the r b l ind t e s t w ho se s ucce s s i so f ten q uo ted i n

me thod o f f unc t iona l a na ly s is w a s c ons ide red v e ry r e l iab le a nd t ha t t he d oub t s d i s cu s sed i nt he p reced ing

s uppo r t o f t h e K ee ley t heo ry o f d i s t inc t ive p o l ishe s i s t he o ne c a r r ied o u t b y G ende l a nd P i rnay ( 1982 :25 1-

p age s a re r e la t ive ly r ecen t . T he mo s t s e r iou s c r i t ic ism w a s t he o ne w h ich H o l ley a nd D e l B ene ( 198 1) p rof f e red t ot he K ee ley a nd N ewcome r ( 1977 )b l ind t e s t

2 60 ) . T he a ppa ren th igh s ucce s s r a te i sd ue t ot he f a c tt ha t P i rnay w a s l im i ted t ou s ing o n ly t h ree ma te r ia ls : w ood , h ide a nd b one av e ry u n l ike ly s i tua t ion w hen a na ly s ing

f o l low ing i t s p re sen ta t ion a tt he V ancouve r C onf e rence a nd i t s p ub l ica t ion i n 1 979 ( Hayden e d . ) . Ke e ley

a n a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage . T he t h ree ma te r ia ls w e re a t t he s ame t ime q u i te

r i gh tf u l ly r ep l ied t ha t i n s tead o f j udg ing h i s me thod t h rough e xpe r imen ta l r ep l ica t ion a nd m ic ro scop ic o b se rva t ion , h i s c r i t ic s c hos e t oe mp loy ab inom ia l t e s t t ov e r if yw ha tt hey t hough th es aw . T he e xpe r imen ta l r ep l ica t ion a nd m ic ro scop ic

d if e ren t i n t he i r r e la t ive h a rdne s s w h ich c ou ld h ave made i te a s ie r t o c hoo se b e tween t hem . F u r the rmo re a t o le ran t s c o r ing me thod a l lowed p o in t s f o r o n ly p a r t ly c o r rec ta nsw e r s . T he re i s n o d oub t t h a t p o l ish i s av e ry s ens i t ive i nd ica to r o fw ea r . When i ti sw e l l d eve loped a nd t he re i s ap a t te rn ing o n t h e e dge s o fs eve ra l t oo ls , p o l ish c an

o b se rva t ion o fm ic rowea rp o l ish p rac t ised b ym e f o r t h e l a s t f i ve /s ix y ea r s h ave l e d me t oc onc lude t ha t p o l ish i s n o t d i s t inc t ive a cco rd ing t o t h e w o rked ma te r ia l . T he

i nd ica te t ha t t h e se e dge s h ave b een u sed a nd s t rong ly 4

s ugge s t t he mo t ion b y t he d i s t r ibu t ion

a nd l i nea r

w i th w h ich p o l ish c an b e c onf u sed . I nf a c t , i nt he b l ind t e s t s p o l ish p roduced b y a n t le r w a s i d en t if ied a s " p lan t

f e a tu re s . Wha t p o l i sh c anno t d o i sb y i t s a ppearance

p o l ish" a nd p o l ish f r om h ide w a s t a ken f o r w ood o r p l an t . T h is p ape r h a s s ub sequen t ly a rou sed much c on t rove r sy b u tt he c r i t ic s s e em t oh ave o ve r looked t ha t

a lone ( e .g . s moo thne s s , b r igh tne s s , g rea s ine s s ) s ugge s t t he ma te r ia lu sed . Many o t he r c l ue s n eed t o b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t i n o rde r t o i n te rpre t t h e ma te r ia l u sed , a nd t he se i n c lude

t h e T ueb ingen b l ind t e s t ( Unra th e t a l . 1 986 :15 ) w a s j u s t a s d i sappo in t ing w i th o n ly 2 6% s ucce s s r a te i n

e dge a ng le a nd mo rpho logy , e dge we a r a nd f l in t c ha rac te r is t ic s . K e e ley h as n eve r s t re s sed t h e i mpo r tance o f c ons ide r ing a l l t he se c l ue s t oge the r . H e a nd h i s a dep t s i n s is t t ha t t he v a r iou s w o rked m a te r ia ls p roduce v e ry

g iv ing " spe c if ic a nswe r s" t o w o rked ma te r ia l . T he se l a te s t r e su l t s p roduc ed b y f ou r a na ly s t s , s ome w i th s eve ra l y ea r s o f e xpe r ience , c ome t he ref o re , a s a c onf i rma t ion t h a tt he re i s af l aw i nt h e me thod i t se lf . A n ew mu l t i -va r ian t me thod h a s r e cen t ly b een d eve loped b y G race e t a l . ( 1988 ; G race 1 989 ) w h ich t a ke s i n to a c coun t e xp l ic i t ly a nd i n a s t anda rd ised m anne r , a l l t h e v a r iab le s t hough t t o b e d i agno s t ic o f f unc t ion . T he v ar iab le s a r e : r aw ma te r ia l c ha rac te r is t ic s , e dge mo rpho logy , mac ro scop ic a nd m ic ro scop ic e dge w ea r , p o l ish d eve lopm e n t a nd

d if e ren t a nd d i s t ingu ishab le p o l i she s ( Kee ley a nd N ewcome r 1 977 :37 ; K ee ley 1 980 :83 ; V aughan 1 985 :45-46 ; B amf o r th 1 988 ) . K ee ley d oe s d e sc r ib e p o l ish i nt e rms t ha t f o rm ac on t inuum o fv a r ia t ion a nd t o s ome e x ten t o ve r lap y e t h e l e ave s t h e c l ea r i mp re s s ion t ha t o nce t h e a r t i s ma s te red wood p o l ish w ou ld n eve r b e m i s taken f o r h i de p o l ish , f o r e xamp le

d i s t r ibu t ion . O b se rva t ion s a r e made mac ro scop ica l ly a nd m ic ro scop ica l ly a tu p t ox 200 . E xpe r imen t s t ot e s t i n te rp re ta t ions a r ea n i n teg ra l p a r to ft h e me thod .

( i b id . : 8 3 ) . I nf a c ti n1 98 1 h es ay s : B y t h e s t anda rd s o f e xpe r imen ta l s c ienc e , t h e e x i s t enc e o fd i s t inc t ive m ic row ea r p o l i she s i sa mp ly d emon s t ra ted , a nd i ti sh ypo the t ica l o n ly t ot h e d eg re e t h a t a l s u ch e mp i r ica l g ene r a l iz a t ion s o rc o r r e la t ion s a r e( e .g ." t he s u nw i l lr i se t omo r row " ) ( 198 1 :349 ) . I n t h e c on t rove r sy t ha t f o l lowed t he p ub l ica t ion o f Newcome r e t a l . 1 987 (Mo s s 1 987 ; H u rcombe 1 988 ; B amf o r th 1 988 ) many a na ly s t sh ave i nd ica ted t ha t t hey h ave a lway s b een u s ing o th e r d a ta s uch a s t oo l mo rpho logy , e dge mo rpho logy ,r aw ma te r ia l , e dge w ea r

S y s tema t ic r e co rd ing a nd s t anda rd v ocabu la ry w i l l make i tp o s s ib le t or ep l ica te a nd c ompa re o b se rva t ions . T he r e su l t s o ft h e b l ind t e s t s c a r r ied o u t t o v e r if y t h e m e thod s how " a f a r g rea te r l e ve l o fa ccu racy" t han i n p rev iou s t e s t s ( Newcome r e t a l . 1 986 :Tab le 1 ) . Wo rk w a s c on t inued t o i mp rove t h e me thod w h ich h a s s i nce f o rmed t he b a s is o f aP h .D . t h e s is p ub l ished i n B .A .R . ( G rac ee ta l . 1 988 ; G race 1 988 , 1 989 ) . I ti s my o p in ion t h a t t h is n ew a pp roach w i l l make f unc t iona l a na ly s is much l e s s t ime c onsum ing , l e s s s ub jec t ive a nd mo re r e a l is t ic i n i t s a ims . I th a s d one a way w i th t he v e ry

e t c . , i no rde rt or e con s t ruc tt oo lu se . I n e va lua t ing t h e K ee ley me thod o ne h a s t ob ea r i n m ind t ha t wh i le K ee ley i n h i s m e t icu lou s w o rk d id r eco rd e dge a ng le , e dge w ea r , s t r ia t ions a nd p o l i she s i ndependen t ly , h e c onc luded t h a t " u t i l iza t ion d amage wa s f o und t o b e o f l im i ted u t i l i ty i n d i s t ingu ish ing d if f e ren ta c t iv i t ie sa nd w o rked m a te r ia l s" ( 1980 :174 ) . H ed id n o tf i nd e dge a ng le t oa f e c tt he a ppea rance o f m ic rowea r p o l ishe s ( i b id .: 4 2-59 ) a nd d id n o t s t res s t h e c o r re la t ion o f e dge a ng le a nd e dge mo rpho logy t o c e r ta in u se s o r t h e i n f o rma t ion t h ey c an g ive t h e f unc t iona l a na ly s t . H e f u r the rmo re n o ted t ha t " t he t y pe

s ub jec t ive i n f o rma t ion a bou t t he a ppe a rance o f t he p o l ish i t se lf r e l ied o n b y K ee ley ( 1980 ) s uch a s i t s " smoo thne s s , b ump ine s s , g reas ine s s a nd me l ted s nowbank s" . C onsequen t ly t h e mo s t o bv iou s a dvan tage o ft he l ow p owe r a pp roach ( Ode l l e ta l . 1 980 ) , i t s s peed , n ow s e ems f a r l e s s i mpo r tan te spe c ia l ly w hen c ompa red t ot he d eg re eo fa ccu racy o b ta ined b yt he n ew me thod . When K ee ley s t a r ted h i s r e sea rch , t he a ccep ted m e thod o ff u nc t iona l a na ly s is i n t he We s t w a s b y l ow p owe r o b se rva t ion o f e dge s ca r r ing a nd s t r ia t ions a s a dvoca ted i n t he U .S .S .R . b y S emenov ( 1964 ) a nd c on t inued i nt h eU .S .A . b yT r ingham e ta l . ( 1974 ) . K e e ley 's w o rk w a s d i rec ted ma in ly t o s how , c o r rec t ly ,

o f f l in t i n vo lved h ad n o e f e c t o n t he f o rma t ion o r a ppea ranc e o f a ny o f t h e m ic rowea r f e a tu re s" ( 1980 :16 ) . H e w a s c l ea r ly i mp ly ing t ha t p o l i sh a ppea rance w a s t he o n ly i mpo r tan t c l ue . C on sequen t ly t ho se a na ly s t s who h ave b een c omp lemen t ing t h eK ee ley me thod w i th o the ro b se rva t ions i na dd i t ion t op o l ish a ppea ranc eh ave p re sumab ly d one s oa s ar e su l t o ft h e i r o wn e xpe r ience

t h a t e dge w ea r a l one i s ap oo r i nd ica to r o ff unc t ion a nd o f ten c anno t b e o b se rved b ecau se e dge s a re r e touched , b ecau se p o s t -depo s i t iona l e dge s c a r r ing c anno t b e c onf iden t ly i s o la ted a nd l a s t ly b ecau se c er ta in t a sk s a nd

a cqu i red t h rough e xpe r imen ta t ion i n s t one t oo l u s e . T hey m ay t hu s h ave e f ec t iv e ly d eve loped t h e i r o wn

c e r ta in e dge a ng le s l e ad t o a lmo s t n o s c a r r ing o n t he e dge . K ee ley 's v a luab le c on t r ibu t ion w a s t o p o in t o u t t h e i mpo r tance o f m ic ropo l ish a s o b se rved a t h igh magn if ica t ions u nde ri n c iden t l i gh tm ic ro scope s . O de l l ( 1986 :117 )n ow ma in ta in st h a tu se r s o fh i s l ow p owe r me thod d o o b se rve p o l ish a t x 50 w i th t he s t e reo scop ic m ic ro scope s . H oweve r a t s uch l ow

me thod , b u t t he i r s u cce s s d oe s n o t v a l ida te t he K ee ley me thod p e rs e . I n 1 985 a tt he T ueb ingen C onf e rence o n " Techn ica l A spec t s o f M ic row e a r S tud ie s o n S tone T oo ls" , t h e w ide sp read d oub t s c once rn ing t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e d i s t inc t ivene s s o f m ic rowea r p o l ishe s f o r t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h eu sed ma te r ia lw e re made p ub l ic .

mag n if ica t ions o ne c an b a re ly a s ce r ta in t he p re sence o f p o l ish l e t a l one u nde r s tand i t s s t age o f d eve lopmen t .

Two mu l t i -ana ly s tb l ind t e s t sN ewcome re ta l . ( 1986 )

F ur the rmo re , i n o rde r t o s t udy i t s d i s t r ibu t ion o n t he e dge a nd o n t he m ic ro topog raphy o ft h e f l in t , i n c iden t l i gh t m ic ro scopy a t x 100 a nd x 200 i s n ece s sa ry . F unc t iona l a na ly s i s , i n c lud ing i n te rp re ta t ion o f t he

a nd U n ra th e t a l . ( 1 986 ) , d i s cu s sed a tt he C onf e renc e , r evea led g rea t p rob lems w i th t h e me thod . T he Newcome r e t a l . ( 1 986 :215) p ape r d e scr ibed t h e e a se 5

o ve rcome t h e p rob lem o fd e sc r ib ing p o l ish o b jec t ive ly , t he s t udy e mpha s ised t ha t" po l ish t e x tu re s d on o tc l u s te r s imp ly a cco rd ing t oc on tac t ma te r ia l" ( Newcome r e ta l .

w o rked ma te r ia l , c an b e c a r r ied o u t o n e xpe r imen ta l i mp lemen t s i f ac a ref u l a pp roach i sa dop ted t a k ing i n to a c coun t e dge c ha rac te r i s t ic s , e dge w ea r a nd

much

1 986 :2 12 ; N ewcome re ta l . 1 988 ) .

e xper imen ta lv er if ica t ion o ft h ec onc lu s ions . I ti sb y i mp l ic i t ly t a k ing t he se f a c to r s i n to a ccoun t

I t may w e l l b e t h a t t he b igge s t s t umb l ing b l ock t o q uan t i ta t ive me thod s i st ha t d if e ren t w o rked m a te r ia ls d o n o t p roduce d i s t inc t ly d if e ren t " po l ishe s" t h a t c an l e nd t hemse lve s t o q uan t i ta t ive a s se s smen t . A f u r the r o b s tac le i s t ha t mo s t t e chn ique s u sed t o d e tec t f i ne i r regu la r i t ie s o n r e la t ive ly f l a t s u rf ace s c anno t b e u sed

t ha tK ee ley w a ss os ucce s sf u l i nh i s 1 977 b l ind t e s t . K ee ley 's e mpha s is o n t he v i sua l d e sc r ip t ion o fp o l ish h a s made a na ly s t s f o l low ing h i s me thod b e l ieve t h a t t hey c an l e a rn t o memo r ise t h e a ppea rance o f p o l ish . Many i n c lud ing K ee ley ( 1980 ) a nd V aughan ( 1985 ) d i scu s s p o l i sh t y pe s i n t e rms o f ar e f e rence c o l lec t ion s

o n f l in t o n w h ich t h e o r ig ina l m ic ro topog raphy i s i r regu la r . I t i s c onsequen t ly d if i cu l t t o d i s t ingu ish b e twe en t ho se i r regu la r s u rf ace s a nd t he s u rf ace s

i mp ly ing t h a t o ne c ou ld h ave s ome s or t o f Munse l l c har t t o r e cogn ise p o l i sh . Many o f K ee ley 's f o l lowe r s h ave e i the r n o t e xpe r imen ted e nough , o rn o t s uppo r ted

p roduced b yu se -wea r .

t he i r c onc lu s ion s b y s uf ic ien t e xpe r imen ta l e v idence , o r wo r se s t i l l r e l ied o n p ho tog raph ic e v idenc e t o

1 . 3 AN ALYS ING A RCHAEOLOG ICAL I MPLEMENTS

i d en t if y u sed ma te r ia l ( s ee s e c t ion 5 . 5 ) . U nf o r tuna te ly p o l ish a ppea rance a l one i s i n suf f i c ien t t o o b ta in t h e

A l l

t he

p rob lems

d e sc r ibed

a bove

h ave

b een

e ncoun te red w h i le a na ly s ing e xper imen ta l f l i n t t oo ls

c omp lex a nd s oph is t ica ted r e cons t ruc t ions t ha t t h e

w h ich a r e c a ref u l ly h and led a f te r u se a nd s t o red s i ng ly i n p l a s t ic b ag s . I t i s o bv iou s t he ref o re t ha t a r chaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s p re sen t g rea te r c omp l ica t ion s .

a na ly s t s u s ing t h e h igh p ow e r m e thod h ave b een p ropo s ing s i nce t he p ub l ica t ion o f K e e ley 's w o rk . I n c onc lu s ion w h i le K ee ley w a s r i gh t t o p o in t o u t t h a t r e ly ing o n e dge w ea r a l one i si n suff ic ien t t or e cons t ruc t

Af te r d i sca rd i n p reh is to r ic t ime s , a rchaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s may h ave b een e xpo sed t o t he e l emen t s f o r

f unc t ion , o ne mu s t s t re s s t ha t r e ly ing o n ly o n t h e a ppea rance o fp o l ish i sa l so i n suf f i c ien t t o o b ta in t h e f i ne d e ta i ls a r chaeo log is ts h av e n ow c ome t o e xpe c t

s ome t ime , t r amp led , s wep t i n ar ubb ish d ump , a nd b u r ied f o r t hou sand s o fy ea r s d u r ing w h ich t ime t hey

f r om t he h igh p owe rm e thod .

w e re a t tacked b y s o i l c hem ica ls a nd a b raded b y s u r round ing s ed imen t s . I th a s b ecome w ide ly r e cogn i sed t ha t a r tef ac t s c an move w i th in t he s ed imen t e ven w i thou t t he re b e ing

1 . 2 .3 Quan t if ica t ion A t temp t s h ave b een made t o o ve rcome t he q ua l i ta t ive a nd s ub je c t iv e n a tu re o f p o l i sh d e sc r ip t ion . T h is w a s d one i n t h e h ope t ha t q uan t i ta t ive me thod s w i l l m ake t he i d en t i f ica t ion o f c on tac t ma ter ia l t h rough p o l ish

c l ea r s t ra t ig raph ic d i s turbance . S uch v e r t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l d i sp lacemen t o f a r tef ac t s i s much mo re c ommon t han p rev iou s ly i mag ined . I t h a s b een h igh l igh ted b y t he c on jo in ing o fa r tef ac t s f r om s eve ra l s t ra t ig raph ic l e ve ls o n av a r ie ty o f s i te s ( Cahen a nd Moye r sons , 1 977 ; B a r ton a nd B e rgman , 1 982 ; V i l la , 1 982 ; R ow le t ta nd R ob ins , 1 982 ; a nd o t he r s ) .

a ppea rance mo re r e l iab le . K ee ley ( 1980 ) h imse lf a t temp ted t o mea su re t he b r igh tne s so fp o l ishe sw i th t he l i gh t me te r a t tached t o t he p ho tog raph ic a ppa ra tu s o f t he m ic ro scope . H e d i scoun ted i t s c apac i ty t o c l a s s if y p o l i she s . I n 1 982 J ohn D umon t u sed i n te rf e rome t ry w i th t he s ame a im , b u t h e a cknow ledge s t ha t t he me thod h a s d if i cu l t ie s . A s D umon t i lu s t ra te s i n h i s P la te 1 2 ( 1 982 :214 ) , i n te rf e renc e p a t te rns s eem t ob e a c on tou rm ap o ft he p o l ish . I td oe sn o t s e em , h oweve r , t o mea su re c r i te r ia w h ich w i l l r ep lac ep o l ish d e sc r ip t ion . I n o t he r a t temp t s t o a t ta in o b jec t iv i ty , t he

1 . 3 .1 P o s t -depo s i t iona lS urface Mod if ica t ion ( PDS IV I ) T he p rob lems d i scu s sed a bove c once rn e xpe r imen ta l i nve s t iga t ion o f t h e d i s t inc t ivene s s o f p o l ishe s o n e xpe r imen ta l i mp lemen t s c a ref u l ly h and led a f te r u se . A s men t ioned e a r l ie r , a na ly s ing i mp lemen t s u nea r thed a f te r t hou sand s o f y ea rs i s b ound t o b e mo re p rob lema t ic . U nf o r tuna te ly w h i le K ee ley w a rned r e sea rche r s t o

p rof i lome te r w a s u sed i n a s ses s ing u se -wea r t r ac e s b y Ako sh ima ( 198 1) a nd K je l K nu t s son ( pe r s . c omm . ) . T hey h ave b o th s i nce a bandoned t he me thod a st hey d id

a na ly se o n ly f r e sh i mp lemen t s , h e d id n o t d ef ine f r e shne s s a s f a r a s m ic row ea r i sc once rned . T he re a r e many p i ece s w h ich w i l l b e c on s ide red f r e sh b y

n o t f i nd i tc ou ld mea su re t he f i ne n uance s o ft he f l in t t opog raphy . A t t he V a lbonne C onf e rence i n 1 986 , B ey r ie s e ta l , p re sen ted t he i r w o rk w i th t he p rof i lome te r ( Rugo s ime tre ) . A f l in t b l ade w h ich w a s p o l ished t o a h igh g lo s sw a se xam ined a nd t he p rof i lome te rp e rce iv ed t he p o l i shed a r ea s a s t o ta l ly f l a t w h i le s ome o f t h e

a r chaeo log is t s i n v i ew o ft he a b sence o f a b ra s ions o n r i dge s a nd e dge s a nd y e ta re e i the rp a t ina ted o ra f e c ted b y s o i l s heen . K e e ley d id n o t c l a r if y t ha t s uch p o s t d epo s i t iona l p roce s se s c an af e c t a nd o b l i te ra te t he p o l ish i t se lf a nd a r e o b s tac le s t o m ic ro scop ic a na ly s is . H e c ove red t h e s ub je c t o fn a tu ra l ly p roduced t r ace s a t l e ng th b u t o n ly f r om t he p e rspec t ive o f s c ra tche s a nd e dge s ca r r ing a nd c onc luded : Mo s t n a tu r a l p r oc e s se s , t h en , l e ave t r a c e s w h ic h a r e u n l ik e ly t oc a u se m uch c onf u s ion t ot h e m ic rowea r a na ly s t , o n c e h e i sf am i l ia r w i th t h em a nd w i th t r u e

u ndu la t ions a r e a pparen t t o t he n aked e y e a nd a r e c er ta in ly v i s ib le a tx 100 ( f igu re s 19 a nd 2 26 ) . T he u se o fi mage p roce s s ing t e chn ique s ( G rac e e ta l . 1 985 ) b o r rowed f r om s a te l l i te p ho tog raphy h ave a l so b een a pp l ied t o u se -wea r t r ac e s . T hey w e re u sed t o a na ly se t h e t e x tu re s o f p o l ishe s p roduced b y c on tac t w i th v a r iou s ma te r ia l s . A l though t h ey may p a r t ly 6

m ic rowea r f ea tu re s , a nd p rov ided h e s t ud ie s t h em a t

i n 1 985 . I nt he n ew e xpe r imen t s , a gen t s l i ke ly t oo ccu r i n n a tu re w e re u sed s uch a s u r ine , a mmon ia , p ea t ,

h igh e nough mag n if ica t ion s . ( 1 980 :28 3 5 ) .

S c ra tche s a nd o t he r w ea r t r ace s w h ich t h i s a u tho r h a s o b s e rved b o th o n a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s a nd o n t ho se a f e c ted b y t r amp l ing a nd movemen t i n t h e s ed imen t ( s ee e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ib ed i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .1 a nd 6 . 5 .2 ) a r e e a s i ly r e cogn isab le a nd n eed n o t b e m is taken f o r u se -wea r . K e e ley 's s t a temen t i sc onfu s ing

f e r t i l ise r s , e t c . ( P l is son 1 986 :111116 ) . A l though p o l ish d eg rada t ion d id n o t o ccu r t ot h e s ame e x ten t a s i n t he f i r s t i n s tance , t h e e xpe r imen t s c onf i rmed t h a t p o l ishe s a r e d eg raded w hen e xpo sed t o s uch n a tu ra l a gen t s . A s i n a l l e xpe r imen t s a t temp t ing t o r ep l ica te a p ro ce s s w h ich o ccu r s a r chaeo log ica l ly o ve r t housand s o fy ea r s ,

h oweve r , s i nce amo re s e r iou s s u rf ace mod if ica t ion c an

i ti so f ten n ece s sa ry t o i n c rea se o ne e l emen t ( i n t h is c a se c hem ica l c oncent ra t ion ) t o o b ta in r e su l t s w i th in manageab le t ime s pan s .

b ep roduced b yn a tu ra lp roce s se s . T he p i onee rs i n t h e i nve s t iga t ion o fn a tu ra l s u rf ac e mod if ica t ions o n f l in t w e re R o t t laende r ( 1975 ; 1976 ) a nd S t ape r t ( 1976 ) w o rk ing i ndependen t ly a nd o n d if e ren t a spec t s o ft h e p rob lem . R o t t laende r a t temp ted t o p roduce c e r ta in c ommon ly o b served t y pe s o fp a t ina i nt he l a bo ra to ry u s ing c hem ica l s . H e w a s i nve s t iga t ing t h is p rob lem t o a sce r ta in w he the r i ti sp o s s ib le t oi n f e r t he a ge o f a f l in t i mp lemen t f r om t he d eg ree o f p a t ina t ion o n i t s s u rf ac e . H is w o rk , t hough n o t d i rec t ly a imed a t t h e m ic rowea r t r ace s , i s n one the le s s o f ten q uo ted a si ti st he mo s t r ecen t o n t he s ub jec t i nE ng l i sh ( s ee C u rw en 1 940 ; S chma lz 1 960 ) . S t ape r to nt he o the rh and d e s c r ibed an umbe ro ff l in t

P l i s son 's c on t r ibu t ion i n p o in t ing o u t t he d eg radab i l i ty o fm ic rowea r p o l i she s i sv e ry v a luab le . I t i s d if i cu l t t o a g ree w i th h im , h oweve r , w hen h e c onc lude s t ha t i ti sp o s s ib le t o a na ly se a r chaeo log ica l t oo ls a f te rp o l ish d eg rada t ion h a so c cu r red : o n ly p a tche s o f p o l ish r ema in a nd much f unc t iona l i n f o rma t ion i s l o s t . T he p ape r p re sen ted b y t h is a u tho r a t t h e 1 985 T ueb ingen C onf e rence o nce mo re r a i sed a nd e mphas ised t he i s sue o f c omp l ica t ions c au sed b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l f a c to r s a f f ec t ing p o l i she s a nd s t r ia t ions ( Lev i S a la 1 986a ) . E xpe r imen ta l r ep l ica t ion o fc e r ta in p o s t -depo s i t iona l p henomena o n f l in t s u rf ace s , p u re ly t h rough f r ic t ion w i th s ed imen t , s howed t h e e x ten t t o w h ich t h ey a f ec t u se -wea r p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions ( e ven w i thou t t he u ndoub ted ly i mpo r tan ta dded e f ec t o fc hem ica l a c t ion ) . P o l ish w a s o b l i te ra ted a nd r ep laced b y mo re d eve loped

s ur f ac e p henomena o b se rved o n D u tch a r tef ac t s a nd t r ied t o " sugge s t p o s s ib le mode s o f g ene s is" ( 1976 :1) . H is r e a son sf o rc a r ry ing o u tt h ep ro jec tw e re : a ) " some p henomena d e sc r ibed b e low c ou ld e a s i ly b ei n terp re ted a st r ace so fu s e" ; b ) " t race so fu se f o rme r ly p re sen t may b e e n t i re ly o r p a r t ly o b l i te ra ted" . A s S t aper t p o in ted o u t , a l though t h e p rob lem i s g ene ra l ly k nown t o e x is t , o f ten w o rk i sd one w i thou t s uf i c ien t a ccoun t b e ing t a ken o f i t , a s i n t h e c a se o f

p o l i sh w h ich i si nd is t ingu ishab le f r om t ha tp roduced b y u se . P o l i sh f r om c on tac t w i th s ed imen t w a s s e en t o r ound t h e e dge ( a l though d ef in i te ly n o t u se induced ) a nd t o p re sen t a v a r ie ty o f c ha rac te r is t ic s u sua l ly c ons ide red i nd ica t ive t h a t t he p o l ish i su se -wea r . ( Lev i S a la 1 986b F igu re 3 c , d ,e ;f i gu re 5e ,g ) . T he se r e su l t s w e re t hough t -p rovok ing , e spec ia l ly a s t hey f o l lowed t h ree y ea r s o f w o rk , a na ly s ing a r tef ac t s f r om 1 6 d if e ren t s i te s u s ing t h e K e e ley me thod a nd g e t t ing n ega t ive r e su l t s . I n a l l c a se s n o p o l ish c ou ld b e c l ea r ly a t t r ibu ted t o u se , d ue t o a l te ra t ions w h ich h ad a f ec ted t he f l in t s u rf ace s m ic ro scop ica l ly o n a r tef ac t s w h ich s e emed mac ro scop ica l ly " f re sh" . T he re a r e o t he r

S emenov 's i mpo r tan tw o rk ( 1964 ) . S e i t ze r -O lau sson ( 1980 ) p o in t s o u t t ha t , " wh i le S tape r t 's p ape r s hou ld b eb a s ic t oa l l e dge -wea r s t ud ie s , i th a s r e c e ived r e la t ive ly l i t t le n o t ice" ( i b id . :54 ) . S ince 1 980 , many f unc t iona l a na ly se s u s ing t h e K e e ley me thod h ave b een c a r r ied o u t w i thou t ad i scu s s ion o f h ow i tw a s a sce r ta ined t ha t t he o b se rved " u se -wea r" t r ace sw e re a c tua l ly t h er e su l to fu se . I n ap ape rp re sen ted t ot h e f ou r th I n te rna t iona l F l in t

f a c to r s b e s ide s u se , f r ic t ion i n t he s ed imen t a nd s o i l

S ympo s ium a t B r igh ton i n 1 983 , P l is son a nd Mauge r r epo r ted t h e r e su l t s o fe xpe r imen t s d e s igned t ot e s t t he r e s is tance o f u se -wea r p o l ishe s t o s o i l c hem ica ls

c hem ica l s w h ich c an a f f ec t f l in t s u rf ace s . P o s t e xcava t ion h and l ing i n c lud ing p ack ing , r ef i t t ing a nd l a bo ra to ry c l ean ing a r e a l l f a c to r s w h ich w e re

( 1988 :316 ) . T h is w a s p romp ted b y t h e f a c t t h a t t hey n o t iced " i t i s r a re t o o b se rve m ic rowea r o n a rchaeo log ica l p iece s w h ich a r e c omp le te ly c ha rac te r i s t ic o fp o l ishe sp roduced b y e xpe r imen ta l t oo l u se" ( i b id . ; s ee a l so G y se ls a nd C ahen 1 981) . D eg rada t ion

o f t h e m ic rowea r

p o l ishe s

b y

i n ve s t iga ted a nd a r e d i scu s sed i nC hap te r 3 .F o l low ing t he p re sen ta t ion a nd p ub l ica t ion o ft he a bove -men t ioned p ape r , p o s t -depo s i t iona l p rob lems b e came mo re w ide ly a nd o pen ly d i scu s sed ( Mo s s 1 986a ; P ro s t 1 988 e t c . ) . 1 . 3 .2 S amp le S ize a nd L eve l so fI n terpre ta t ion

s o i l

c hem ica ls w a s o b se rved , i nd if er ing d eg ree s a cco rd ing

S amp l ing i s ap rob lem f a c ed b y many b ranche s o f a r chaeo logy . I ti se ven mo re o f ap rob lem i nm ic rowea r

t o t h e m a te r ia l w o rked , t he q ua l i ty o f f l in t a nd t he c hem ica ls o lu t ion e mp loyed . O b jec t ions w e re r a ised b y c e r ta in p a r t ic ipan t s a tt h e B r igh ton S ympo s ium t ha t t he c hem ica l s i n t h e e xpe r imen t s , s od ium h yd rox ide ( NaOH ) , c a lc ium o x ide ( CaO )

a nd

s od ium

c a rbona te

( Na2CO 3) w e re

s t ud ie sd ue t ot h et ime -consum ing n a tu re o ft h ew o rk . I ti su nf or tuna te ly c omp l ica ted b y t he e l im ina t ion o f p i ece s w h ich a r e u n su i tab le f o r m ic rowea r e i the r d ue t o t h e i r p o s t -depo s i t iona l s u rf ac e mod if ica t ion o r d ue t o p o s t -excava t ion d amage . T h is c r ea te s as ub s tan t ia l b i as i nt h e s amp le p opu la t ion . K ee ley ( 1980 : 12012 1) g ive s

t o o

c oncen t ra ted o ru n l ike ly t oo ccu r i nn a tu ra l c ond i t ion s . P l i s son s ub sequen t ly p re sen ted t h e r e su l t s o f a f u r the r s e t o fe xpe r imen t s t ot h e T ueb ingen C onf e rence

f i gu re s w h ich a r e v e ry r e vea l ing r ega rd ing f l in i a r tef ac t s f r om t he L owe r L oam a tS wanscombe ( Ken t ) . 7

O ft he 2 67 f l in t a r tef ac t s a va i lab le t oh im f o r s amp l ing , o n ly 6 6 w e re s u i tab le f o r e xam ina t ion a nd o ft he se o n ly f ou r s howed u se w ea r t r ace s . I f w e c ons ide r h i s a ccu racy t ob e 6 2 .5 % a s i nt he K ee ley a nd N ewcome r b l ind t e s t ( 1977 ) , o n ly t he 2t o 3p i ece s o u t o ft he t o ta l 2 67 p i ece s w h ich w e re c o r rec t ly i n te rp re ted s e rved a s t he b a s is f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t he s i te . T h is may s e em a n e x t reme c a se b u ti ti s mo re o rl e s st y p ica l . W i th C lac ton -on -Sea t h e r a t io i s o n ly ma rg ina l ly b e t te r ( i b id :86-87 ) . U nf o r tuna te ly , n o t a l l a na ly s t s d i scu s s t h ep ropor t ion o f i t ems s t ud ied a ga ins t t ho se e l im ina ted a nd e ven f ewe r men t ion t h en umbe ro fp i ece s b ea r ing w ea r t r ace s o n w h ich t h e i rs i te i n te rp re ta t ions a re b a sed . T he d ange r o f o ve r in te rp re t ing t h e m ic ropo l ish p re sen t o n t he s t one t oo ls l i e s ma in ly w i th t he u se t o w h ich t he c onc lu s ion s o f am ic rowea r a na ly s t a r e p u t . S ome t ime s , t hough c ouched i n c au t iou s t e rms , t h e r e su l t s o fm ic rowea r a na ly s is a r eu sed t oo o p t im is t ica l ly b yt ho se r e spons ib le f o r t h e o ve ra l l i n terp re ta t ion o ft h e s i te . O n

o t he r

o cca s ions

t h e

f unc t iona l

a na ly s t s

t hemse lve s a r e o ve r in te rp re t ing t he i r o b se rva t ions . I n b o th c a se s t h i s c ou ld l e ad t oe r roneou s r e cons t ruc t ion s o f p reh is to r ic b ehav iou r . S ome e xamp le s w h ich m ay h e lp t oi lu s t ra te t h is p o in ta re d i scus sed i nC hap te r 5 . M ic rowea r r e po r t s c an h ave ap rof ound i nf luence o n a r chaeo log ica l r e cons truc t ion a nd y e t t hey may w e l l b e b a sed o n i n suf f ic ien t n umbe r s o f a r tef ac t s a nd /o r l a ck e xpe r imen ta l v e r if ica t ion ; many a l so l a ck a p ub l ished d ocumen ta t ion o f t he t r ac e s o n w ho se b a s is t h e c onc lu s ions w e re d rawn . S ec t ion 4 . 3 l i s t s t he s i te s f r om w h ich a r tef ac t s h ave b een s amp led , a tt he s t a r t o ft h is w o rk , f o r m ic rowea r a na ly s i s . A l l t h e a r tef ac t s s amp led s e emed f r e sh a nd u naf f ec ted b yp a t ina o rr o l l ing . I ti sw or th p o in t ing o u t t ha t t he a ge s o f t he se s i te s r ange f r om t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o t he C ha lco l i th ic a nd t ha t t he i r e nv i ronmen ta l a nd g eog raph ic a l s e t t ing s w e re a l so v e ry v a r ied . Y e t t h e n umbe r o f p i ece s o n w h ich t h e m ic ro scop ic t r ace s o b se rved o n t h e e dge c ou ld c onf iden t ly b e a t t r ibu ted t o u se w a s v e ry s ma l l . I ti s u n l ike ly t ha t a ny a rchaeo log ica l s i gn if icance c ou ld b e a t tached t or e su l t sf r om s uch s ma l l s amp le s . T he w o rk o n a r chaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s d e sc r ibed i n C hap te r 4 i lu s tra te s t h e p rob lems e ncoun te red i n i n te rp re t ing f unc t ion a nd h igh l igh t s t h e c au se s o f t h e s cep t ic ism w h ich p romp ted t he s ub sequen t r e sea rch d e sc r ib ed o n P a r t Two . T h is r e sea rch h a s a imed a t t r y ing t o u nde r s tand t h e p roc e sse s i n vo lved i n t he f o rma t ion o fp o l ish w he the r r e su l t ing f r om u se o r f r om p o s t -depo s i t iona l c i rcums tance s . E xpe r imen t s ( de sc r ibed i n d e ta i l i n C hap te r 6 ) w e re c a r r ied o u t u nde r c on t ro l led l a bo ra to ry c ond i t ions , n o t t or ep l ica te h uman t a sk s , b u t t o a t temp t t o u nde r s tand w ha t i s p hy s ica l ly o ccu r r ing o n t h e f l in t s u rf ace b y c ont ro l l ing t he v a r iab le si n vo lved .

8

CH A PTER 2 AI MS A TT HE O UT SET d epo s i t iona l p roce s se s a nd t he se t o o w e re i n ve s t iga ted t h rough e xpe r imen t s . I ti so n ly w hen w e , a s ag roup o fr e sea rche r s a tt h e I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , c a r r ied o u t t h e b l ind t e s t s d e sc r ib ed i n N ew come r e t a l . ( 1 986 ) t h a t my s e r iou s d oub t s a bou t t h e t h eo ry b eh ind t h e m e thod i t se lf w e re c onf i rmed . We n o t iced h ow o f ten e ven t h e m o s t e xpe r ienced a mong u s m is took o ne s uppo sed ly d i s t inc t p o l i sh f o ra no the r . T he e xpe r imen ta l w o rk i n vo lv ed i n f u nc t iona l a na ly s i s o f a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ions i s d e sc r ibed i n C hap te r 4 .Ad i scu s s ion o fh ow e xpe r imen ta t ion l e d t o t he n ew d i rec t ion w h ich my w o rk h a s n ow t a ken i s g iven i nC hap te r6 . I nve s t iga t ing p ro ce s se so fp o l i sh f o rma t ion h a sl e dt o e xpe r imen t s w h ich t h ough n o t e xhau s t ive a r e a l t h e o ne st h a tc ou ld h ave b een t a ck led w i th in t h ep e r iod o fa P h .D . p ro jec t . T o u nde r s tand i n e ven mo re d ep th t h e p roce s s b y w h ich f l i n t t o o l e dge s a r e p o l i shed b y u s e a nd h ow s u ch ap o l ish i sa f f ec ted b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s , i sp robab ly , ap ro je c t f o r m a te r ia ls s c ien t is t s t oc a r ry o u t . My w o rk d oe s , a t l e a s t , s ugge s t v e ry s t rong ly t h a t p rev iou s t h eo r ie s o n p o l ish f o rma t ion a r e f l aw ed a nd n eed s e r iou sr e v is ion . S i nce t h e T ueb ingen C onf e rence o f F eb rua ry 1 985 a nd f o l low ing t h e p ub l ica t ion o f N ew come r e t a l . ( 1986 ) , m any a na ly s t s a r e c l ea r ly a dm i t t ing t h a t p o l i sh f r om d if e ren t w o rked m a te r ia l d oe s l o ok a l ike a nd t h a t o t he r c r i te r ia , b e s ide s t h e a ppea rance o ft h e p o l ish , a r e n eeded t or e cons t ruc tt h ef u nc t ion o f at o o l . I tm igh t t h e ref o re s e em t h a t m yr e sea rch p ro je c t h a s b een o ve r taken b y e ven t s . I n a c tua l f a c t h oweve r mo s t o ft h e f o l lowe r s o f t h e h igh p ow e r a pp roach a r e s t i l l c onv inced t h a t o nce w e l l d eve loped , p o l ish f r om d if e ren t u sed m a te r ia ls , i s d i s s im i la r e nough t o b e d i s t ingu i shed ( Bamf o r th 1 988 ; H u rcomb e 1 988 ; J u e l J ensen 1 988a ) . T he re i s ,h ow eve r ,n ol o g ica l a nd p hy s ica l r e a son f o r t h i s d i ve r s i ty i n dependen t ly o ft h e mode l o ne a dop t s t o e xp la in p o l i sh f o rma t ion . I t i s h oped t h a t t h e e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ib ed i n C hap te r 6w i l l c onv inc ing ly i lu s t ra te t h is p o in t .

I ti sc l ea r f r om t h e l i t e ra tu re r e v i ew i nC hap te r 1t h a t t h e K e e ley m e thod o f m ic rowea r a na ly s is w a s c ons ide r ed a g rea t b r eak th rough i n t h e f u nc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion o f s t one t o o l s w hen t h e p ro je c t f o r my u nde rg radua te d i s se r ta t ion w a s s t a r ted . I t h ad b e en c onse c ra t ed b y ab l ind t e s t ( Ke e ley a nd N ewcome r 1 977 ) w h ich g ave e ve ryone g rea t h ope s a bou t t h e p o ss ib i l i t ie s o f t h e m e thod . S ub sequen t d rama t ic " r e su l t s" t h rough t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f b o th t h e o ccupa t ion a nd p opu la t ion o f a d i s tu rbed B e lg ian Meso l i th ic s i te Mee r ( Cahen a nd K ee ley 1 980 ) a dded e v en m o re t ot h ea l ready h igh h op e s . T he m e thod w a s s e lf taugh t ( a s i tw a s n o t b e ing t a ugh t a nywhe re a t t h e t ime ) b y e xpe r imen t ing o n v a r iou s w o rked m a te r ia l s a nd a t temp t ing t o r e cogn i s e t h e v i su a l d if e renc e s b e tw e en t h e p o l i sh p roduc ed b y e ach . A ny c onf u s ing s im i l a r i ty b e tween t h e " po l i she s" w as u nde r s tandab ly a t t r ibu ted t o my o wn i n expe r ience . T he p r o jec t w a s t o a na ly se a s e t o f f l in t i mp lemen t s f r om t h e s i te o f K sa r A k i l , L ebanon a nd d e te rm ine w he the r t h ey w e re c o re s o r s c rape r s i n v i ew o f t h e d if i cu l ty i nd i s t ingu i sh ing b e tw een t h em t y po log ica l ly o rt e chno log ica l ly . I tw a s n o t e a sy t oc a r ry o u t t h e t a sk i n t h e a lo t ted t i me b u t mo s t o f t h e d if icu l t ie s i n i n te rp r e t ing t h e o b se rv ed t r ace s w e re a t t r ibu ted t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ic a l i mp lemen t s h ad b e en t r av e l l ing a r ound t h e w o r ld i n c a rdboa rd b oxe s a l p acked t o ge the ra nd h ad l a in i nw ooden d r awe r so pened a nd c l o sed o f ten f o r t h i r ty y ea r s ( Lev i S a la 1 982 ) . B y t he t i me t h ep o s tg radua te w o rk w a s s t a r ted n o to n ly h ad K e e ley 's t h e s i s b een p ub l i shed ( 1 980 ) , b u t i t w a s f o l low ed b y t h e d oc to ra l d i s se r ta t ion s o f A nde r son G e rf aud ( 1 981) , V aughan ( 1 98 1) a nd Mo s s ( 1 983 ) , n one o fw hom v o iced a ny d oub t s a bou tt h em e thod a si t t hen s t ood . O n ly b r ief m en t ion w a s made o f t h e o b s ta c l e s w h ich t h ey e ncoun te red i n r e cogn i s ing p o l i she s w h ich t o o o f t en r e semb le e ach o t he r a nd t h e p rob lem s p o sed b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . When t he se p r ob lem s a nd o b s tac le s w e re d i s cu s sed , h ow ev e r , t hey w e re d i sm i s sed , i mp ly ing t h a to nc e a n a na ly s t h ad a cqu i red e xpe r ien ce o f m any y ea r s ' s t and ing t h e se s t umb l ing b l o ck s w ou ld n o t b e i n t h e w ay . I n 1 982 G ende l a nd P i rnay p ub l i shed t h e i r o wn b l ind t e s t s e em ing ly c onf i rm ing t h e v a l id i ty o ft h em e thod . F l aw s i nt h i s s e cond b l ind t e s t w e re n o t i mmed ia te ly n o t iced b ym e . T hey a r ed i scu s sed i nC hap te r 1 . S ub sequen t ly p rob lem sw e re e ncoun te red i ni s o la t ing u se -we a r o n a r chaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s f r om a s i t e r e cen t ly a nd c a ref u l ly d ug w he re e a ch i mp lemen t w a s b agged s e para te ly i n a p l a s t ic b ag . A t f i r s t , u nde r s tandab ly , a l l p rob lem s w e re a t t r ibu ted t o i n expe r ience . Ic on t inued t o e xpe r imen t i n o rde r t o o b se rv e al a rge n umbe r o fi mp lemen t s a nd t oc o l lec t a w ide r c a ta logue o f u s e -w ea r " po l ishe s" . S u sp ic ion s s t a r ted t oc r eep i n , h ow eve r , t h a t s ome o ft h e p rob lem s w e re c onne c ted w i th t h e v aguene s s o f p o l i sh c ha ra c te r isa t ion a nd s ome w e re r e la te d t o p o s t 9

CH APTER 3 ME THOD w h i le magn if ica t ions o f u p t o x 10 .000 w e re u sed t o e xam ine t h ef l in t s t ruc tu re . Due t o t he i r reve r s ib i l i ty o f g o ld c oa t ing o n f l in t

T h i s C hap te r d ea l s w i th t he me thod s e mp loyed b y t he w r i te rd u r ing t he v a r ious a t temp t s a tf unc t iona l a na ly s i s o f a r chaeo log ica l t oo l s . T he s ame me thod s , w he re a pp l icab le , w e re u sed i n t he s t udy o ft he e xper imen ta l

a r tef ac t s , a t temp t s w e re made t o o b se rv e f l in t s u rf ace s w i thou t t h is c oa t ing . U nf o r tuna te ly t h e s urf ace o f t h e

t o o ls a nd i nt h ew o rk c once rned w i th t h e s e cond p a r t o f t h is p ro jec t . Ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h et e chn ique s i nvo lved i n t he v a r iou ss t age so fw o rk a r ea l so d i scu s sed .

f l in t w a s c ha rg ing a nd d i d n o t a l low g ood o b se rva t ion a nd /o r g ood p ho tog raphy . C arbon c oa t ing w a s t h en u sed w i th r e a sonab ly s a t i sf ac to ry r e su l t s . T h i s c oa t ing h a s b een c i ted b y d 'E r r ico a nd Va re t to ( 1985 :136137 ) a s r eve r s ib le . I t i s my e xpe r ienc e , h oweve r , t ha t

3 . 1 MI CROSCOPY 3 . 1 .1 Op t ica lM icro scopy

w ash ing i n w a rm w a te r a nd d e te rgen t a nd s ub sequen t u l t ra son ic c l ean ing r emove s mo s t b u t n o t a l l o f t h e c a rbon c oa t ing . T he q ue s t ion o fc oa t ing i st he ref o re t o b e a dded t o t he o b s tac le s f o r t he u s e o f t he S EM i n e xpe r imen ta l w o rk r e qu i r ing o b se rva t ion a nd p ho tog raphy d ur ing s ucce s s ive s t age s o f ap roce s s o r a w o rk s equence .

T he o b se rva t ions d e sc r ibed i nt h is w o rk w e re o r ig ina l ly c a r r ied o u t a t magn if ica t ions f r om x 50 t ox 400 u s ing a b i no cu la r O lympus V anox i n c iden t l i gh t m ic ro scope . Magn if ica t ions o f x 100 a nd x 200 w e re u sed mo s t f r equen t ly a st hey a r e t he mo s t u sef u l f o r o b se rv ing t he f l in t s t ruc tu re a nd t he p o l ish . P o l ish d eve lopmen t a nd p a t te rn ing o n t he m ic ro topog raphy w e re r e co rded a t

3 . 2 PH OTOGRAPHY

x 200 . A tt he h ighe s t magn if ica t ion ( x4 00 ) t he d ep th o f f i e ld i s s o l im i ted t ha t t he o b se rva t ion o f i r regu la r s u rf ace s s uch a st ho se o n f l in t i sv e ry d i ff icu l t . O n t he o t he r h and , t h e l owe s t magn if ica t ion ( x 5 0 ) w a s u sefu l f o ro b se rv ing c oa rse o ra l te red f l in t a nd t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o fs c a r sa l ong t h ee dge .

T he O lympu s V anox i sf i t ted w i th aC 3 5 AD c ame ra b ack a nd a n a u toma t ic e xpo su re u n i t . I l f o rd F P4 3 5mm f i lm w a s u sed a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly o nce i tw a s o b se rved t ha t i t s t r ike s a g ood b a lance b e tween s pe ed a nd r e so lu t ion . T he p rob lems e ncoun te red i no b ta in ing g ood p ic tu re s d o n o t , i t wou ld s e em , d epend s o much o n t h e f i lm a so n t he f l a tne ss o ft he f l in t i mp lemen t ( g iven t h e l im i ted d ep th o ff i e ld o ft h e m ic ro scope o p t ic s ) a nd t he g ood e ye s igh t o f t he w o rke r i n c hoo s ing t he c o r rec t

3 . 1 .2 S cann ing E lec tron M icro scopy T he w o rk d e sc r ibed i n PART I h a s s ome t ime s b e en c hecked u s ing aS cann ing E le c t ron M ic ro scope ( SE M ) wh ich c an magn if y i mage s s ev e ra l t hou sand t ime s . T he u se o ft he S EM f o r u se -wea r h a s many a dvan tage s , n o t

o r ien ta t ion o f t he p i ec e a nd t he c o r r ec t f ocu s o f t h e i mage . I t i s i mpo r tan t f o r p ho tog raphy t ha t t h e m ic ro scope b e u sed o n as t u rdy b ench r e la t ive ly f r e e f r om v ib ra t ion . B ecau se o f t he i r i r regu la r s hape i ti sn ece s sa ry t o

l e a s t o f wh ich i st he p o s s ib i l i ty o fv i ew ing t o o l e dge s a t s uch magn if ica t ions w i thou tt he p rob lem s o fp oo r d ep th o ff i e ld e ncoun te red w i th t he o p t ica lm ic ro scope .

moun t t h e f l in t i mp lemen t s o n ab ed o f p u t ty . T he p u t ty 's c ons is tency i sv e ry i mpo r tan t a s av e ry s of tt y pe

T he re a r e , h oweve r , d i sadvan tage s i n a t temp t ing t o

w i l l a l low t h e s pec imen t o move i mpe rc ep t ib ly a nd b l u r t he m ic rog raphs w h i le t oo h a rd at y pe w i l l n o t h o ld t h e i mp lemen ta ta l l . T he se may b e v e ry e l emen tary h in t s f o r a n e xpe r ienced l a bo ra to ry m ic ro scop is t b u t a s mo s t

a na ly se a l l t he p i ece s b y S EM . I nt he f i r s t p l ace , n o t a l l m ic rowea r a na ly s t s c an h ave a cce s s t o t h i s e xpens ive e qu ipmen t . S amp le p repa ra t ion c an b e t ime c on sum ing a s m ay b e i n f e r red f r om t he w r i t ing s o f t ho se a dvoca t ing t h e u se o f t he S EM ( d 'E r r ico 1 985 :4464 47 ) . F ur the rmo re , a l though u sed e dge s a ppea r

m ic rowea r /f unc t iona l a na ly s t s may n o t h ave h ad a ny p rev ious f am i l ia r i ty w i th m ic ro scope s i ts e ems u sef u l t o

s moo thed w hen o b se rved b y S EM , i mage s a t x 200 t o x 500 d o n o t s how " po l ish" a s i ti ss e en o p t ica l ly . T h is h a s a l so b een r ema rked u pon b y A nde r son -Ge rf aud ( 198 1 [ i t 1 30 ) . D is tr ibu t ion o fp o l ish o n t h e e dge a nd o n t h em ic ro topog raphy c anno tt h e ref o re b er e co rded .

ment ion s ome o ft he p i tf a l ls . A l l p ho tom ic rog raphs h ave b een e n la rged t o 4 . 3 x 6 . 5 c m w h ich i sa pp rox ima te ly 1 . 75 t ime st he n ega t ive . I tw a s d e c ided a lway s t ou se t he s ame e n largemen t f o r

L a s t b u t b y n o mean s l e a s t , w hen u s ing v e ry h igh magn if ica t ion sw e a r e o n ly o b se rv ing am inu te p inpo in t o n t h e e dge a nd n o t t he e dge o f at oo l . T h i s i sa l so t he

t he s ake o fc ompa r ison ; e ven t hough d if e ren t l i gh t ing c ond i t ions o ft he p iece u nde r t he m ic ro scope c an m ake a n e dge l o ok v e ry d if e r en t a tt he s ame magn if ica t ion . F igu re s l a , l b , 1 cs how as t age s ca le p ho tog raphed w i th e ach s e t o fm ic ro scope o p t ic s u sed i nt h i s r e sea rch ( x

c a se w i th o p t ica lm ic ro scopy b u t mo re s ow i th t he S EM w he re much l a rge r magn if ica t ions a r ep o s s ib le .

5 0 , x 100 , x 200 ) . T he se s c a le s may b e u sed t o mea su re t he s i ze o ft h ef e a tu re so nm ic rog raphs .

I ti sn ec e ssa ry h oweve rt ou s et he S EM f o r o b se rv ing f e a tu re s r e la ted t o t he f l in t s t ruc tu re , o r p a r t icu la r p rob lems r e la ted t o t he p o l ish a s w a s d one i n t h i s

3 . 3 DA TA R ECORD ING

p ro je c t . T he magn if ica t ions mo s t u sef u l f o r o b se rv ing p o l ish b y S EM w e re f ound t o b e f r om x 700 t o x 6000

O n s t ar t ing f unc t iona la na ly s is , c o lou r -coded c a rd sw e re u sed o n w h ich e xpe r imen ta l a nd a r chaeo log ica l 1 0

p a r t icu la r e dge s o f at oo l t y pe , i ti sr ea so nab le t o

a r tef a c t s w e re d rawn t o s c a le i n o u t l ine o n ly a nd t h e o b ser ved t r ace s ma rked o n t he d raw ing sa ss ugge s ted b y K ee ley ( 1980 :26-27 ) . T he a rea s p ho tog raph e d w e re

i n f e rt ha tt he p o l ish i sp robab ly d u et ou s e s i nce i ti s h igh ly u n l ike ly f o r a n a cc iden tt oc au se ap a t te rn ing o f t r ac e s o n t he s ame e dge o f s eve ra l s im i la r

p inpo in ted o n t h e l i ne d raw ing a nd a s s igned a l phabe t ica l r e f e renc e s . I n my p ub l i shed p ape r s a nd i n t h is t he s is t h e l o ca t ion o f t he p ub l ished o r s ubm i t ted p ho tog raph i s h igh l igh ted w i th a s qua re . T he

a r tef ac t s . 2 . When s uch ar egu la r p a t te rn h a s b een o b se rved a nd e ven w hen , a s o f ten h appens , t h e re i s n o c l ea r p a t ter n ing o n t he e dge s , i ti s ag ood i d ea t oh o ld t h e

i n f orma t ion t o b e r e co rded v a r ied a cco rd ing t o t he p urpo se o ft he a na ly s is . I n v i ew o ft he t ime i nvo lved i n h igh p owe rm ic rowea r s t ud ie s , s ome a na ly s t s n o l o nge r e xam ine l a rge n umbe r s o f a r tef ac t s f r om a p a r t icu la r s i te b u t c hoo se r a the r t os t udy o ne p a r t icu la r ly u nu sua l o rc ha rac te r is t ic t oo lt y pe o r at ype c ommon t o as eve ra l

t oo l i nt h eh and t og e t a n i mp re s s ion o fh ow t h et oo l m igh th ave b een u s ed . I nf o rma t ion f r om t he s i te c an h e lp w i th t he f o rmu la t ion o f o ne o r mo re h ypo the se s . 3 . E dge mo rpho logy , i n c lud ing t he m ea su remen t o ft he e dge a ng le a nd t h ickne s s , i sr eco rded i n o rde r t o

s i te so fd if e ren ta ge s . Wha teve rt he a pp roa ch t a ken , t he r e co rd ing s y s tem mu s t b e a dap ted t o t he t a sk .

n a r row d own t he c ho ice s f o r t h e mo s t p robab le h ypo the s is r ega rd ing u sed e dge , mo t ion , a nd w o rked

D ed ica t ing s ome t ime a t t he s t ar t o f e ve ry p ro jec t t o a s ce r ta in w h ich i n f o rma t ion o ne i sl i ke ly t or equ i re c an

ma te r ia l . 4 . T he f l in t m ic ro topog raphy i so b se rved i n o rde r t o a sce r ta in t ow ha t e x ten t t he p o l ish d i s tr ibu t ion may

s ave t ime l a te ro n . A ppend ix 1i lu s t ra te s t he d a ta r e co rd ing u sed w hen s t udy ing t he H eng is tbu ry H e ad m ic roden t icu la te s . Af t e r

b ea f ec ted b yi t . 5 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he p o l ish o n t h e m ic ro topog raphy i so b se rved a nd r e co rded a st h is i s a f ec ted b yt he h a rdnes so ft he u sed ma te r ia l .

t he u se -wea r a na ly s is p ha se o f t h is t h e s is h ad b e en c omp le ted , at e am o f I n s t i tu te r e sea rche r s e vo lved a n ew d a ta r e co rd ing s he e t ( G race e ta l . 1 988 :206 f i gu re 1 )w h ich s e ems t ob e av e ry u sef u l b ackbone o n w h ich t oa dd n ew f l e sh a c co rd ing t ot he p ro jec ta th and .

6 . E dge w ea r i s o b se rved mac ro scop ica l ly a nd m ic ro scop ica l ly t o d ec ide w he the r , i n c on junc t ion w i th p o l ish d i s tr ibu t io n i n s t ep 5 , i ti sc ompa t ib le w i th t he h a rdne s s o ft he p robab le w o rked ma te r ia l

P ho tom ic rog raphs , i na mp le q uan t i t ie s , w e re u sed t o c omp lemen t r e co rd c a rd s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t he w o rk d e sc r ibed i nP a r tI . T hey a r eo bv iou s ly i nd ispensab le i n p o s t -depo s i t iona l e xpe r imen t s w h ich a r e c he cked a t r egu la r i n te rva ls o r a tp a r t icu la r s t age s o ft h e p roce s s .

a nd t he u se mo t ion . 7 . An e xpe r imen t i sc a r r ied o u t u s ing a n i mp lemen t w i th t he s ame c ha rac te r is t ic s ( f l in t t ype a nd e dge mo rpho logy ) a st he s t ud ied a r tef ac t , t or ep l ica te t he w ea r t r ace s a c tua l ly p roduced b y t he h ypo the s ised mo t ion a nd w o rked ma te r ia l . 8 . T he e xpe r imen t w i l l r evea l w he the r t he t o o l i s s u i tab le f o rt he t a sk a nd w he the r t h et r ace sp roduced e xpe r imen ta l ly a r e t he s ame a s t ho se o b se rved o n

T hey w e re u sef u l t od ocumen tw ha tw a s b e ing o b se rved m ic ro scop ica l ly a nd t o i lu s t ra te t h e c ommen t s s ugge s ted b yt he se o b se rva t ions . 3 .4

FUNCT IONAL ANALYS IS

T he e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed i n P a r t I t o i nve s t iga te p o l i sh f o rma t ion s ugge s tt ha tt he re i sn op o l i sh wh ich i s e xc lu s ive ly p roduced b yo ne ma te r ia la l one . T he v a r iou s s t age s i nt he p o l i sh ing p roce s s a r e d i scu s sed b e low i n 3 . 4 .4 u nde r t he h ead ing o fp o l i sh d eve lopmen t . E ven

t he a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t . T he t e rm t race s i su sed h e re t o i n c lude b o th p o l i sh d eve lopmen t ( i t s d i s t r ibu t ion o n t he e dge a nd o n t h e m ic ro topog raphy ) a nd e dge w ea r ( i t s t y pe a nd f r equency ) . I ti sn o t a u toma t ica l ly a s sumed t ha t a r tef ac t s s ha r ing

b ef o re t h e c onc lu s ions o ft h is p ro jec t w e re i n h and , i t w a s o bv iou s t ha t p o l ish a ppea rance w as n o t g ene ra l ly d i agno s t ic o ft he w o rked ma te r ia l . I tb ecame n ece s sa ry ,

ac ommon t oo l mo rpho logy w i l l h av e b een u sed f o r t h e s ame a c t ion a nd /o r o n t he s ame m a te r ia l . T he a bov e p rocedu re d oe sn o t c l a im t og iv e c a tego r ica l a n sw e r s o n t he f unc t ion o ft h et oo l w h ich , i ti sw o r th r emembe r ing , i s a lw ay s a ma t te r o f i n te rp re ta t ion o f t he o b served

t he ref o re , t oa dop t ame thod f o r f unc t iona l a na ly s is o n a r chaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s w h ich c an y i e ld t he b e s t r e su l t s i ne ach s i tua t ion . T he me thod r e l ie s o n u s ing a c omb ina t ion o f a l l t he v a r iab le s l i ke ly t o l e ad t o a s ucc e s sf u l f unc t iona l r e cons t ruc t ion . T he se v a r iab le s a r e : • e dge mo rpho logy , e dge d eve lopmen ta nd d i s tr ibu t ion .

w ea r ,

t r ac e s . T he mo s t l i ke ly f unc t ion i st h e o ne t ha t b e s t f i t s t he e v idence . T he g rea t u nknown v a r iab le i so fc ou rse t he d u ra t ion

p o l i sh

o f u se s i nc e i ti s p o s s ib le f o r ah a rde r ma te r ia l t o p roduce t h e s ame p o l ish a s as of t e r ma te r ia l u sed f o r a l o nge r p e r iod o ft ime . I ti su n l ike ly , h oweve r , t ha t t h e e dge w h ich i su sefu l t oc u t h ide f o r e xamp le , w ou ld b e

T he u se o f t h e se v a r iab le s i s s umma r i sed i n t he f o l low ing s t ep s w h ich , a f te r c l ean ing o f t h e a r tef ac t s ( s e e 3 . 4 .6 a nd 3 . 6 .2 b e low ) a r e t o b e f o l lowed i n t h i s o rde r :

u sed t ow h i t t le w ood . T he ref o re e dge mo rpho logy a nd e dge w ea r , t oge the r w i th t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e p o l i sh

I . A r tef ac t s a r e b r ie f ly s c anned m ic ro scop ica l ly o n a l l t he i r s u rf ac e s , t o g a in a g ene ra l i mp re s s ion o ft h e

o n t he e dge a nd t he m ic ro topog raphy , w i l l s ugge s t b o th t h e r e la t ive h a rdne s s o f ma te r ia l a nd t h e mo t ion i nu se . I nt he c a se o fe x t reme ly h a rd ma te r ia l s s uch a s s he l l o r s t one , t he re i s an o t iceab le c ru sh ing o ft he f l in t c r y s ta l s

c ond i t ion o f t he f l in t , t he p re sence o f a ny t r ace s w h ich c ou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t ou se a nd t h ep re sence o f a ny o bv iou s PDS M ( s e e d i scu s s ion b e low ) . When a p a t te rn o f p o l i sh d i s t r ibu t ion i s f o und o n t h e

( f igu re 2 ) o c cu r r ing o n ly w i th 1

u s e o n

s uch

h a rd

eve r e ncoun te red i n ma te r ia l s a nd wh ich I h ave n wo rk ing a n t le r , wood o rb one .

( 1981) , Mo s s ( 1983b ) , U nge r -Ham i l ton ( 1984 ) a nd o t he r s . I n g ene ra l t he re i sa g reemen t o n t h e d iagno s t ic e l emen t s o fe ach mo t ion . I ti st he ref o re n o t n ece ssa ry t o c ove r t h is g round a ga in . I ti so n ly w o r th r e i te ra t ing t h a t t h ep o l ish d i s tr ibu t ion i sa f ec ted b yt he d i rec t ion o fu se , t h eh a rdne s so ft he wo rked ma te r ia l ,t he a ng le o fa t tack ,

e sc r ibe t he e i gh t s t ep T he p reced ing p a rag raphs d rob lem s o ccu r , b u t i n p rocedu re f o l lowed w hen n o p p rac t ice p rob lems d o i n te rvene a t a ny o r e ve ry s t ep d e sc r ib ed a bove . I n s uch c a se s i ti si mpo r tan t t oa nswe r o n ly s u ch q ue s t ion s a s c an b e a n swe red . When n o

t he a ng le o f t he e dge a nd o t he r a spec t s o f i t s mo rpho logy , t h ef l in t m ic ro topog raphy a nd t he p re s su re a nd e xpe r t ise o ft he wo rke r .

p o l ish h a ss urv ived , i ti sn o tp o s s ib le c onf iden t ly t og i ve a nswe r s r ega rd ing t h e w o rked ma te r ia l . I t may , h oweve r , b e p o s s ib le t o i n te rp re t t h e mo t ion a nd t h e

3 .4 .3 P o l ish D is tr ibu t ion a way f rom t he e dge s a nd

r e la t ive h a rdne s s o ft h e ma te r ia l b y o b se rv ing t h e e dge w ea r , t h e e dge mo rpho logy a nd e xpe r imen t ing t o t e s t t he h ypo the s is ( Lev i S a la 1 987 ) . T he a c tua l i mp lemen ta t ion o f t h is a pp roach i s

"Haf t ing T race s" S ome t ime st r ace s o ccu re i the ro nt he d o r sa l r i dge s o ro n t he v en t ra l a spec t o f af l in t a r tef ac t a nd w h ich " make l i t t le s en se a s t r ace s o fu t i l i sa t ion b u t [ d o ] c onf orm t o

i lu s t ra ted i nC hap te r 4i n ad i scu s s ion o ft he f unc t iona l a na ly s i s o f a rchaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s . I t i s h oweve r a pp rop r ia te t o make s ome c ommen t s o n e ach o f t he v a r iab le sd i scu s sed a bove .

w ha t i sk nown o r e xpec ted o f w ea r t r ace s f r om m ino r movemen t s o f at oo l a ga ins t i t s h af t" ( Ke e ley i nC ahen e ta l . 1 979 :68 1) . F o l low ing t h is o b se rva t ion m ic rowea r

3 .4 .1 E dge Morpho logy

a na ly s t s h av e a t tr ibu ted t o h af t ing many t r ace s t h ey c ou ld n o t a ccoun t f o r . N o e xpe r imen ta t ion s e ems t o h ave b een c a r r ied o u t t o v e r if y w he the r h af t s d o l e ave s uch t r ace s ( Vaughan 1 987 : 1 35144 f i gu re 2a nd o t he r p ape r s i nS t o rdeu r e d . 1 987 ) . E xpe r imen t s b y Mo s s a nd N ewcome r ( 1982 ) a nd b yU nge r -Ham i l ton e ta l . ( 1987 ) h ave s hown t h a t w hen a h af t i s ef i c ien t i td oe s n o t

T o make a n h ypo the s i s r ega rd ing t he p o s s ib le u se o fa n a r tef ac t , i t i s n ece s sary t o a s se s s t he f unc t iona l c apab i l i t ie s o ft he w o rk ing e dge . T he i d en t if ica t ion o f t he w o rk ing e dge i sb a sed o n t he p a t te rn ing b o th o f p o l i sh a nd e dge s c a r r ing , o r t he p re sence o f e dge

l e ave m icrowear t r ace s o n t he t oo l . S eve ra l h af t ing e xpe r imen t sw e re c a r r ied o u tb y me d u r ing t he w o rk o n H eng is tbury m ic roden t icu la te s t o s e e w he the r o r n o t t hey h ad b een h af ted . H af t sw e re made o fw ooden s haf t s

r ound ing . E dge a ng le a nd t h ickne ss a r e t hen mea su red a nd r eco rded .

i nw h ich ah ea ted m ix tu re o fn a tu ra l w ax a nd r e s in w a s p ou red . O nce t h e a r tef ac t w a s i n ser ted , t h e ma s t ic w a s a l lowed t oc oo l a nd h a rden . No m ic rowea r t r ace s w e re

3 .4 .1 .1 E dge Ang le E dge

a ng le s

men t ioned

i n t h is

w o rk

h ave

b een

mea su red w i th ag on iome te rp l aced o nt h ea ng le f o rmed b y t h e v en t ra l s u rf ace o f af l ake a nd t he p lane o ft h e

l ef t b y s uch h af t s . O the r s or t s o f h af t s may l e ave m ic rowea r t r ace s . I t i s a dv isab le , h oweve r , t o e xpe r imen tb ef o re a t t r ibu t ing t oh a f t ing a l lt r ace s wh ich

d o r sa l s u rf ace w h ich i s n ea re s t t o t h e u t i l i sed o r r e touched e dge (W i lm sen 1 968 ; G race 1 988 ) . T he re a r e u sua l ly s l igh t v a r ia t ion s o f t he a ng le a l ong t h e e dge . S eve ra l p o in t s a l ong t h e e dge w e re mea su red a nd a n a ve rage w a st aken . A sn op la s t ic g on iome te r w a s f o und ,

" do n o t make s e nse" a ss ugge s ted b yK ee ley ( i b id . ) . Wha t i sd i scu s sed h e re i st he s urv iva l o fm ic rowea r t r ace s a nd d oe s n o t r ef e r t ot he s u rv iva l o fr e s in , t a r , o r o t he r ma te r ia l s u sed a s h af t ing ma s t ic s i n p reh is to ry

t he a r ea s w h ich c on tac t t he a r tef ac t h ave b een c ove red w i th a dhe s ive t ape t o p ro tec t t he f l in t s u rf ac e f r om b e ing d amaged b y am e ta lg on iome te r .

a nd

s u rv ive

u nde r

c e r ta in

3 . 4 .4 L inear I nd ica tor s C e r ta in l i nea r i nd ica to r s o fd i rec t ion a nd mo t ion i nu se a r e o b se rved o n u sed a r tef ac ts . T he se h ave b een g iven v a r iou s n ame s s uch a s s t r ia t ions , s t r iae , l i nea r f e a tu re s , s c ra tche s , s l eek se t c .

s ec t ion 6 . 4 c onf i rmed G race 's v i ew o n t he i mpo r tance o ft he se v a r iab le s .

K amm inga ( 1979 :192 ) d ef ined a s l eek a s " a l i nea r p la s t ic d ef o rma t ion" a nd as cra tch o rf urrow a s" at e a r i nt he s u rf ace ma te r ia l" . F igu re s 6 4 a nd 6 5 i lu s t ra te t h e

3 .4 .2 P o l i sh D is tr ibu t ion o n t he E dges . t o o ls

t o

b een c a ref u l ly r ep l ica ted e xpe r imen ta l ly ( s ee a l so G rac e 1 989 :49 f . ) .

p rof i le , a nd t he s hape o f t he t oo l w e re t ho se -w h ich s eemed t o p rov ide r e l iab le f unc t iona l i n f o rma t ion" ( 1988 :74 ) . A l though e dge l e ng th , p rof i le a nd t oo l s hape w e re n o ts y s tema t ica l ly r eco rded i nt h i sw o rk ,t hey w e re k ep t i nm ind a s ar e su l t o ft he d i scu s s ions w i th G race d u r ing t h e e vo lu t ion o f t he me thod d e sc r ibed i n h i s P h .D . t he s is . T he e xpe r imen ta l w o rk d e sc r ib ed i n

t he e dge s o f f l in t

k nown

o n f l in t i mp lemen t s s e e s e c t ion 6 . 5 . I ti s a dv isab le , t he ref o re , t oa t t r ibu te t oh af t ing o n ly s uch t r ace s a sh ave

E dge t h ickne s si s mea su red w i th p l as t ic c a l l ipe r sa l so a t t he m id -po in t o ft he e dge . R oge r G race f ound t ha t e dge a ng le a nd t h ickne s s t oge the r w i th e dge l e ng th , e dge

o n

a r e

a r tef ac t s a r e s c ra tche s , s t reaks o f p o l i sh a nd o t he r m ic ro scop ic t r ace s . Many p o s t -depo s i t iona l e ven t s c an c au se s c ra tche s , s t reak s o fp o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions t oo ccu r

3 .4 .1 .2 Edge T h ickne s s

P o l i sh d i s t r ibu t ion

w h ich

c ond i t ion s . Wha t w a s NOT f ound a f te r u se o n h af t ed

t wo f e a tu re s w h ich a ppea r q u i te d if e ren t . T he f a c t t h a t t he d if e rence b e tween " s leek s" a nd " s c ra tche s" w ou ld , h oweve r , o n ly b ev i s ib le b yS E M make s t h e i n f o rma t ion g a ined b yt h is d i s t inc t ion i n acce s s ib le t ot h e ma jo r i ty o f

i s

i nd ica t ive o ft he u se mo t ion a nd t h is h a sb een d i scng sed i n g rea t d e ta i l b y K ee ley ( 1980 ) a nd l a te r b y V aughan 1 2

m ic rowea r a na ly s t s w ho a r e u se r s o f o p t ica l m ic ro scope s . T he s ame i st r ue o ft h e p a ins tak ing w o rk o f Mansu r -F ranchomme i n c l a s s if y ing s eve ra l t y pe s o f " s t r ia t ion s" , c o r re la t ing t he i r l e ng th a nd d ep th t o v a r iou s u sed ma te r ia ls a nd a b ra s ive s i ze s . U n t i l i tw a s p o s s ib le f o r me t ou se a n S EM , Mansu r -F ranchomme 's o b se rva t ions c ou ld n o t b e a pp l ied a nd w e re n o t w e l l

I n t he l a te r s t age s o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t ma te r ia l h a rdne s s af ec t s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he p o l ish o n t h e m ic ro topog raphy w h i le a b ra s ive s , l i qu id s a nd b ack ing c an a l te r i t s s peed o fd eve lopmen t a nd i t s i n va s ivene s s . T he t a sk s p e rf o rmed g ove rn t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he p o l ish a l ong t h e e dge , d e te rm in ing t h e e x ten t o f c on tac t , p ene t ra t ion a nd i n te rac t ion b e twe en t he f l in t

u nde r s tood . F o r e xamp le " come t t a i l p i t s" a ppea r i nt he S EM t o

e dge a nd t he u sed ma te r ia l . I n t he s e cond p a r t o f t h is w o rk t he s chema t ic

b e t he e f ec t o f al a rge r c rys ta l ( o r a ma s s o fc ry s ta ls ) b e ing r emoved a nd d ragged a ga ins tt he s u r f ace , c au s ing ac ome t s haped g roove t o ( =Ur ( f igu re 6 6 ) . F e rn l ike s t r ia t ion s d e sc r ibed b y Mansu r F ranchomme ( 1983a :225 f i gu re 5 )c an a l so b eo b se rved o n ly b y S EM a nd a r e v e ry u sef u l f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e p o l i sh ing p roce s sa sw e l l a st h ed i rec t ion o f mo t ion ( f igu re 6 7 ) .

r ep re sen ta t ion a dvoca ted b y G race e t a l . ( 1988 :2082 10 ; f i gu re 6 3 t h is v o lume ) t oc l a s s if y p o l ish h a s b een a dop ted a s i ti s b a sed o n t h e p r inc ip le t ha t p o l ish c a tego r ie s " r ep re sen t a c on t inuum o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t , f r om p oo r t ow e l l d eve loped , a lmo s t a ny c a tego ry c an b e p roduced b y a lmo s t a ny ma te r ia l" ( i b id . :220 ) , a n o b se rva t ion c onf i rmed b y my e xpe r imen ta lw o rk . T he s t age s o fp o l ish d eve lopmen t a r e s ummar ised a s

I n t h i s t he s i s L inear F eature s i su sed a s ag ene r ic t e rm t o e ncompas s a ny i nd ica to r o f t h e d i rec t ion o f

c a tego r ie sb e low : A p o l ish o ccu r r ing a s i nd iv idua l e l emen t s o n t he u npo l ished m ic ro topog raphy a nd n o tl i nked ; B p o l ish l i nked i n ap a t te rn ;

mo t ion a s o b served o p t ica l ly . T he t e rm s t r ia t ions i s u sed t o d e sc r ibe f u r row s o r g roove s i n t h e p o l ished s u rf ace w h ich c an b e v e ry f i ne o r w ide r a nd d eepe r . T he i r c o r re la t ion w i th u sed ma te r ia l a nd p a r t ic le s i ze w as t e s ted i nt he e xpe r imen t d e sc r ibed i ns e c t ion 6 . 4 .7 b u t d e sp i te t he u se o ft h e S EM n o s uch c o r re la t ion w as

C p o l ish v e ry h igh ly l i nked , c ove r ing mo s t o f t h e o b se rved m ic ro topog raphy . A+ a nd B + a r e u sed t o i nd ica te s t age s o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t i n te rmed ia te b e tween t he a bove s t age s . I h ave u sed C + a nd C++ t o d e sc r ib e a lmo s t b l anke t p o l ish c ove r ing mo s t o ft h e m ic ro topog raphy w i th r a re e mp ty s pace sa si nt he c a se o f" s ick le g l o s s" ( s ee s ec t ion 6 . 4 .2 ) .

o b se rved . I ts eems r a the rt ha t av a r ie ty o fl i nea r f e a tu re s c an o ccu r o n t he s ame e dge . T he t e rm s t reak i su sed h e re t od e sc r ibe al i ne o fp o l ish s uch a st ha t c au sed b y r e touch ( f igu re 5 ) . 3 .4 .5 P o l i sh D eve lopmen t a nd D is tr ibu t ion o n t he F l in tM icro topography

3 .4 .5 .1 Ma ter ia l Hardne s s

T he d if e ren t p o l ish a ppea ranc e s w h ich m ic rowea r a na ly s t s h ave o b se rved s o f a r a r e mo s t p robab ly d ue t o d if e r ing s t age s i nt he d eve lopmen t o ft h ep o l ish o n t he m ic ro topog raphy . T he e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed i nP a r t I i nd ica te t h a t p o l i sh f o rma t ion i s ap rog re s s ive a nd c omp lex p roce s s d epend ing o n s eve ra l v a r iab le s :

T he e xpe r imen ta l w o rk d e sc r ibed a nd d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 6s ugge s t s t ha t p o l i sh f o rms o n f l in t s u rf ace s e s sen t ia l ly a s ar e su l t o f a t tr i t ion c au s ing t he r emova l a nd /o r t h e r ed ist r ibu t ion o f d ef o rma t ion ma te r ia l . T he h a rdne s s o ft h e ma te r ia l o n w h ich f l in t i mp lemen t s a r e u sed i s c onsequen t ly o f g rea t i mpo r tance . I t i s n e ce s sa ry , t he ref o re , t o c l a r if y w ha t i s mean t b y h a rdne s s . I n ma te r ia ls s c ience h a rdne s s i sd ef ined a s f o l low s : T he h ardne s so f am a t e r ia l i sd e t e rm ined b yp r e s s ing a n i n d en t e r i n to i t ss u rf a c e a nd m ea su r ing t h e s i z e o f t h e i mp r e s s ion . T he b i gg e r t h e i mp r e s s ion t h e s of t e r t h em a te r ia l ( A nde r son e ta l . 1 9 852 11 ) . T h is t e s t h a s n o t , t o my k now ledge , b een a pp l ied t o ma te r ia ls o fs o o bv iou s ly d if e ren t r e s is tance a s s t one , b one , a n t le r , w ood a nd h ide . I ti sp robab ly d ue t o t h e f a c t t ha t i ti s n o t e a s i ly mea su rab le p a r t icu la r ly o n

h a rdne s s o f wo rked ma te r ia l , e dge mo rpho logy , f l u ids , a b ra s ive s ,l i th ic r aw ma te r ia l ,a nd p re s su re . A l though a l lt h e se f a c to rs i nf luenc ed ev e lopmen t a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f p o l ish , d u ra t ion o f w o rk i s t he mo s t i mpo r tan t v a r iab le a nd t h is r ema ins u nknown f o r a rchaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s . On e xpe r imen ta l a r tef ac t s , i n t h e e a r ly s t age s o fw o rk p o l i sh d oe s n o t d eve lop b u t r a the r ag ene ra l b r igh tne s s o ccu r s w i thou t o b se rvab le l o ca l i sa t ion o n t h e m ic ro topog raphy . T h i s b r igh tne s s d eve lop s b o th w hen w o rk ing s of t a nd r e la t ive ly h a rd ma te r ia l s( f igu re 3a nd 4 ) . T he t r ace s i n i t ia l ly a ppea ra s ag ene r ic b r igh tne s s r a the r t han a p o l ish ; t he re i sn o

ma te r ia l s s uch a s h ide w h ich h ave s i gn if i can t e l as t ic d ef o rma t ion . H a rdne s s w i l l b e c on s ide red h e re i n t he s en se o fp l iab i l i ty r a the r t h an a s d ef ined i n ma te r ia l s s c ience . Many f unc t iona l a na ly s t s h ave s ugge s ted a

o b se rvab le l o ca l i sa t ion o nt he m ic ro topog raphy . S of to rp l iab le ma te r ia ls , s uch a sf r e sh h ide , c ome i n i n t ima te c on tac t w i th t h e f l in t t o pog raphy a nd a f ec t b o th t h eh igh a nd l owe r p o in t s s imu l taneou s ly . I n v i ew o f t h e e x t reme l ub r ica t ion o f e red b y f r e sh h ide ,

h i e ra rch ica l r e la t ion sh ip o f r e la t ive h a rdne s s b e tween t h ev a r iou s ma te r ia ls men t ioned a bove ( T r ingha rn e ta l . 1 974 :18919 1 ; O de l l a nd O de l l V e reecken 1 980 :10 1 ;

a t t r i t ion i s m in ima l a nd " po l i sh" i s v e ry s l ow t o d eve lop . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h is p henomenon may b e t ha t as moo th ing o ft h es ur f ac ei st a k ing p l ac e b u tn o t a r emova l o fa spe r i t ie st ot he p o in tw he re af l a t s u r f ace i s p roduced a s d eve lop s .

i s p re sumab ly t h e c a se w hen

G race 1 989 :113 ) . I ti ss ugge s ted h e re t h a t mea t i st h e mo s t p l iab le f o l lowed b yh ide , w ood , a n t le r , b one , s he l l a nd h o rn . T h i s i s n o t t o b e i n tended a s a r i g id c l a s s if ica t ion . S ome o f t h e se ma te r ia l s p re sen t a d if e ren t h a rdne s s when t hey a r e f r e sh o r d ry ( h ide a nd

p o l ish

1 3

t oo ccu r f a s te r t h an d ry p lan ts ( Unge r -Ham i l ton 1 983 ; V aughan 1 985 :3536 ; Mansu r -F ranchomme 1 983b :100 ) . I n my e xpe r imen ta l w o rk i t wa s o b se rved t ha t mo is t h ide w h ich i ss t a r t ing t o d ry p roduce s t h e b e s t d eve loped p o l ish i n ar e la t iv e ly s ho r tt ime p robab ly

w ood ) a nd w he the r o rn o t t h ey h ave b een s oaked ( h ide a nd a n t le r ) . I n t he w ood g roov ing e xpe r imen t s e c t ion

6 . 4 .6

mo is ten ing dr y w ood w i th d i s t i l led w a te r c au sed t he p o l ish t o b ecome mo re i n va s ive t ha t i s d eve lop ing f a r the r f r om t he e dge . T h is s ugge s ts t ha t t he wood h ad b ecome mo re p l iab le s i nce a l t h e o the r v a r iab le s h ad

d ue t ot h er i gh tc omb ina t ion o f mo is tu re a nd a t t r i t ion .

b een k ep t c ons tan t . A l l h a rde r ma te r ia l s ( i n t he a b sence o f af l u id s uch a sw a te r o ro i l )w i l lr emove t he a spe r i t ie s p ro trud ing f r om t h e f l in t t opog raphy . When t he

3 .4 .5 .3 . Abra s ive s Added a b ra s ive s a l so p l ay a c r uc ia l d eve lopmen t o f p o l i sh . E xpe r imen t s

ma te r ia l i se x t reme ly h a rd s uch a s s t one o r s he l l , t he c ry s ta ls may b e c ru shed i n to t h e s u r round ing i n te r s t ice s

r o le i n t he c a r r ied o u t

s c rap ing h ide w i th o ch re p rodu ced p o l i sh w h ich w a s mac ro scop ic a f te ro n ly 2 0m inu te so fw o rk .

f i gu re 2 , 6 8 a nd 6 9 ) . O n t h e o the r h and , w hen t he ma te r ia l i s mo re p l iab le , c r y s ta l s a r e d ragged a l ong t he t o pog raphy s moo th ing i t ( f igu re s 6 5 a nd 7 0 ) . S of t ma te r ia ls a r e u n l ike ly t op roduc e ac ru sh ing o fc ry s ta ls a s i lu s t ra ted a bove e ven i fv e ry h a rd a b ra s ive s h ave b een a dded a st he p l iab i l i ty o ft he w o rked ma te r ia l w i l l

I nve r se ly w i th

w o rk

o n

h a rd

ma te r ia ls

i n t he

p re senc e o f as of ta b ra s ive ( s ee g roov ing w ood w i th t a lc s e c t ion 6 . 4 .6 ) , t h e h igh a nd l ow p o in ts o f t he m ic ro topog raphy a r e b o th af ec ted . T h i s make s i t a dv isab le n o tt oi n f e r h a rdne s s o fw o rked ma te r ia l f r om p o l i sh d eve lopmen t w i thou t t ak ing t h i s v a r iab le i n to c on s ide ra t ion . When t he e v id ence f r om p o l i sh d eve lopmen t a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i s s ugge s t ing a s of t

p reven t al o ad t o b e a pp l ied t ha t w i l l c au se c ru sh ing . V e ry h a rd ma te r ia ls , h oweve r , i fu sed f o r ap ro longed p e r iod , may e ven tua l ly f l a t ten t he t opog raphy a nd s moo th t he s u rf ac e . T he l a s t t wo p o s s ib i l i t ie s h ave , h oweve r , n o t b een t e s ted e xpe r imen ta l ly . Ma ter ia ls l e s s

ma te r ia l a nd t h e e dge d amage i s mo re i nd ica t iv e o f a h a rd ma te r ia l , i ti sw o r thwh i le v e r i f y ing e xper imen taly w he the r a s o f t a b ra s ive m igh t h ave b een u sed .

h a rd t han s t one a nd s he l l ( s uch a s b one , a n t le r , w ood a nd h ide ) c e r ta in ly d o s moo th t he f l in tt opog raphy w i th

C omponen t so fe nv i ronmen ta l d u s tm igh tw e l l b er a the r h a rde rt han t a lc a nd w ou ld n o ta c ta s as of ta b ra s ive .

p ro longed u se ( f igu re 7 1) . T he mo s td if i cu l t ma te r ia lt oi n se r ti nt h i s s cheme o f r e la t ive h a rdne s s i sw ha t i sr e f e r red t oi nt he m ic rowea r

3 .4 .5 .4 L i th ic Raw Ma ter ia la nd P o l i sh Deve lopmen t

l i t e ra tu re b y t he g ene r ic t e rm " p lan t s" . G reen g ra s se s a nd r eed s w i th a h igh s i l ica c on ten t i n t he f o rm o f p hy to l i ths a nd ah igh f l u id c on ten t i nt he f o rm o fj u ice s ,

F l in t m ic ro topog raphy i s a no the r v e ry i mpo r tan t v a r iab le i nt h e d eve lopmen t o fp o l i sh . T h i s w a s a l ready n o ted b y V aughan ( 1985 :27-29 ) . I n my w o rk t he e xpe r imen t s c a r r ied o u t w i th t he c oa r se r v a r ie ty o f I s rae l i f l in t s h ave s hown t ha t p o l i sh may n o t d eve lop

u sua l ly p roduce a v e ry w e l l d eve loped p o l i sh c ove r ing a lmo s t a l l t he m ic ro topog raphy ( f igu re 6 ) . T h i s o n ly o ccu r sa f te rp ro longed u se h ow eve r . R eap ing r ushe so fa v a r ie ty w i th a v e ry h igh s i l ica c on ten t ( Juncu s ef u su s G . H i l lman p e r s . c omm . ) f o r u p t o s i x ty m inu te s

e ven a f te r f l ake s h ave , f o r e xamp le , b een u sed t or e ap r eed sf o r6 0m inu te s( EXP /82 ) . I na no the ri n s tanc ev e ry c oar se I s rae l i f l in t s c rape r s u sed t o s c rape mo i s t h ide w i th o ch re f o r 2 0 m inu te s d eve loped v e ry l i t t le p o l i sh

p roduced n op o l ish . T he s i l ica i nt he p lan t s i sp robab ly r e spons ib le f o r t h e b l anke t p o l i sh d eve lopmen t s e en m ic ro scop ica l ly w i th p ro longed u se . T he p l iab i l i ty o f t he se p lan t s a ccoun t s f o r t h e i nva s ivene s s s een o n N eo l i th ic s i ck le b l ade s w h ich a r e mac ro scop ica l ly

w h i le B randon f l in ts c rape r su sed f o rt he s ame l e ng th o f t ime d eve loped a b r igh t ly mac ro scop ic p o l ish ( s e e s ec t ion 6 . 4 .7 ) . When p o l i sh d oe s d eve lop o n c oa r se r f l in t t h e

g lo s sy f o rs eve ra l c en t ime t re sa way f r om t he e dge .

l i nkage i s much s l owe r t han i n mo re t i gh t ly p acked v a r ie t ie s . On ar i dged t o pog raphy ( f igu re 2 3) o n ly t h e r i dge s a r e p o l i shed a nd t he p o l i sh d i s t r ibu t ion may a ppea r s im i la r t o l i nea r f e a tu re s p e rpend icu la r t o t he

3 .4 .5 .2 F lu id s T he i mpo r tance o ff l u id s i nt h e d eve lopmen t o fp o l i sh

e dge e ven i ft h e mo t ion w a sp e rpend icu la rt ot he l i ne o f t he r i dge s a s i n c u t t ing . F u r thermo re , i n t he c a se o f

o n f l in t i s d i scu s sed i n mo re d e ta i l i n C hap te r 6 . E xpe r imen ta lw o rk d e sc r ibed i ns e c t ions 6 . 4 .8 a nd 6 . 4 .9

c oa r se f l in t , s ome s u rf ace p ro t ru s ion s c an d e te rm ine t h e

s ugge s t s t ha t w hen w o rk ing t h in s of t ma te r ia ls w i th a h a rd b ack ing t he h a rdne ss o ft he b ack ing c an a l te r t he

d eg ree t ow h ich a n e dge i sc om ing i nc on tac t w i th t h e u sed ma te r ia l , h inde r ing g ood a dhe renc e a nd a f ec t ing

d i s t r ibu t ion o ft he p o l ish mak ing i tmo re s im i la r t ot ha t o b ta ined w hen w o rk ing h a rd ma te r ia ls . When u s ing

b o th p o l i sh d i s t r ibu t ion a nd p o l ish d eve lopmen t .

h a rd ma te r ia ls o r s of t ma te r ia ls o n ah a rd b ack ing , t he h igh p o in t s i n t he m ic ro topog raphy a r e p o l ished f i r s t .

3 .4 .6 R es idue s

T he l a te r s t age s c ons is t o f a mo re o r l e ss g radua l l i nk ing u p o ft he p o l ish d epend ing o n t he a moun t o f w a te r o r o t he r l i qu id p re sen t . E xpe r imen t s d e scr ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 4 s how t h e i mpo r tan t r o le t ha t a n a dequa te q uan t i ty o f al i qu id m ed ium p l ay s i nt he s peed o fp o l i sh l i nkage . T h is e xp la ins t he o b se rva t ion b y m ic rowea r a na ly s t s t ha t mo is t h ide d eve lop s mo re v i s ib le p o l ish t han d ry h ide a nd t ha t g reen p l an t sc au se " s ick le g lo s s"

A s men t ioned i nt h e I n t roduc t ion , t he re h a s b e en much c once rn i n t h e m ic rowea r l i t e ra tu re a bou t t he r e s idue s f r om t he w o rked ma te r ia l r ema in ing o n t h e f l in t s u rf ace . T he s ub jec t i sd ea l t w i th b o th i nt h is C hap te r u nde r 3 . 6 P o s t -Excava t ion H and l ing a nd i n C hap te r 6 i nt he E xpe r imen t s . I ti su sefu l , h oweve r ,t od e sc r ibe t h e c ond i t ions i n w h ich r e s idue s h ave b een o b se rved 1 4

e xpe r imen ta l ly t e rm ino logy :

a nd

t o

s ugge s t

a

3 .4 .7 E dge Wear

h ie ra rch ica l

I nv i ew o ft he c ont rove r sy , b e tween t h e f o l lowe r s o ft h e l ow p owe r a pp roach a nd t ho se o ft h e K ee ley m e thod o r

D epo s i t ed R e s idue s

h igh p owe r a pp roach ( s ee C hap te r 1 ) , t he f o l low ing c ommen t s o n t h e i mpo r tance o f e dge w ea r may b e a pp rop r ia te . I ti sn e ce ssa ry f i r s t o f a l l t o d ef ine t he v a r iou s e xp re s s ion s u sed t oi nd ica te w ea r o n t h e e dge s o ff l in tt o o l s .

Af te r u s e a nd b ef o re a ny c l ean ing a l l u sed ma te r ia ls l e ave s ome r e s idue s uch a s s ap , b lood , d i r t o r g rease w h ich i s" depo s i ted" o n t h e e xpe r imen ta l a r tef ac t . T h is i su sua l ly r emovab le b y a ny m i ld d e te rgen t i n w a rm w a te r . I th a s n o c onnec t ion w i th p o l i sh w ha t soeve r . V e ry o f t en , a s i n c u t t ing mea t , d e -ha ir ing h ide o r r e ap ing r u she s i n s p i te o f e x tens ive d epo s i t ion o f mac ro scop ic r e s idue s , n o p o l i sh i s o b served a f te r w ash ing t h ei mp lemen t ( f igu re s 1 7 a nd 1 8 s e e a l so V an

A l though p o l ish i s d oub t le s s ak i nd o f w ea r , i t a ppea r s t o b e g ene ra l ly a s sumed b y m any r e se a rche r s t ha t e xp re s s ions o fw ea r o r d amage i nco rpo ra t ing t he w o rd

e dge

r e la te

t o

s ca r r ing

i n tended

o n ly

a s

m ic rof lak ing o n t h e e dge . I n t h i s w o rk t he t e rm e dge

G i jn 1 986 :13-28 ) . L oy ( 1983) h a s s ugge s ted t ha t b lood p la sma c an s u rv ive o n a r chaeo log ica l t oo ls b u t much c on t rove r sy s u r round sh i sr e sea rch . I ti sh igh ly u n l ike ly t ha t " depo s i ted" r e s idue s d ef ined h e re a sr emovab le b y

w ear i su sed t o i nd ica te mac ro scop ic a nd m ic ro scop ic

w a rm w a te r a nd a rchaeo log ica l ly .

m ic ro scop ic o b se rva t ions . A s e dge d amage i s b y i mp l ica t ion n o t i n ten t iona l i t e xc lude s d e l ibe ra te

m i ld

d e te rgen t

w i l l

e dge s carr ing t oge the r w i th e dge r ound ing . E dge d amag e i su sed t or e f e r t oe dge s carr ing p roduced b y n a tu ra l p roce s se s a nd c ove r s b o th mac ro scop ic a nd

s urv ive

r e touch ( s e ea l so G race 1 988 :84 ) . Adher ing R e s idue s 3 .4 .7 .1 Edge S car r ing

Af t e r w a sh ing a u sed i mp lemen t i n w a rm w a te r a nd m i ld d e te rgen ts ome u sed ma te r ia ls s uch a s peen w ood

T he v a r iou st ype so ff r ac tu re o rs c a r r ing w h ich o ccu r o n f l in t e dge s h ave b een c ha rac te r i sed b y C rab t ree ( 1972 ) a nd h i s t e rm ino logy i sl a rge ly i n u se t oday a s c od if ied b y t h e H o H o C la s s if i ca t ion a nd Nomenc la ture C omm i t te e R epo r t o f t he V ancouve r C onf e renc e

w i l l l e av e a mo re s t ubbo rn r e s idue s t i l l " adher ing" t o t he f l in t s u rf ace . I tw a s s hown t ha t t h i s i sr emoved b y movemen t i n s and ( f igu re s 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 EXP /9 S ec t ion 6 . 5 .1) . A s i ti sa l so r emoved b y s oak ing i n ab i o log ica l d e te rgen t , i ti st he ref o re t r ans ien t i ns p i te o fa ppea r ing t o " adhe re" t o t he s u rf ace a f te r w a sh ing . I t c ou ld , t heo re t ica l ly , b e p re served o n s i te s w he re o rgan ic ma te r ia l sh ave s u rv ived a nd whe re n o movemen t i nt h e s ed imen t h a s s cou red t h e s u rf ac e o ft h e f l in t a r tef ac t s . On s i te s l i ke Naha l H e ima r w he re o rgan ic ma te r ia l h a s s urv ived , Ih ave o b se rved t a r o n s ome i mp lemen t s b u t

( Hayden e d . 1 979 :133135 ) . C o t te re l l a nd K amm inga ( 1979 :97112 ) e nd t he i r c a ref u l i n ve s t iga t ion o f t he c o r re la t ion o fe dge s c a r r ing a nd u se w i th t he f o l low ing o b se rva t ion : U s e f r ac tu re p a t te rn s a r e a v a luab le a i d i n d e te rm in ing t h e f u nc t ion s o f c e r ta in t y p e s o f p r eh i s to r ic t o o l s( m ye mpha s i s ) . Wh i le t he re i s n o w ay t o p rove w i thou t a n i ndependen t b l ind t e s t t h a t e dge s c a r r ing a l one i sn o t d i agno s t ic o fu sed ma te r ia l , t he re i sq u i te a c onsensu s n ow a mong al a rge n umb e r o fa na ly s t s t ha t i tc anno t b e

n o t r e cogn isab le o rgan ic r e s idue s . I ti su n l ike ly t o b e p re sen to n mo s to t he rs i te s . Embedd ed R es idue s

u sed a l one a s ad i ag no s t ic i nd ica to r . A s men t ioned e a r l ie r ,t he r ea son sa r ea sf o l low s : a i ti sn o ta lway sp res en ta f t e ru se ;

A sd i scu s sed i nC hap te r 1 , And e rson -Ge rf aud , Mansu r F ranchomme , a nd H u rcombe h ave r epo r ted o b se rv ing , b y S EM , r e s idue s s uch a s p hy to l i ths , mea t a nd h ide p ar t ic le sf r om t he u sed ma te r ia l o n e xpe r imen ta l a nd /o r

b i tc an b e c au sed b y a cc iden t i n p reh i s to ry , a f te r d epo s i t ion , o rd u r ing a nd a f te re xcava t ion c i tc anno tb eo b se rved o n r e touched e dge s .

a rchaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s" embedded" i nt he f l in t s u rf ace . None o ft he r e sea rche r s i no u r I n s t i tu te : Mo s s ( 1983b ) ; U nge r -Ham i l ton ( 1984 ) ; A tam a n ( 1989 ) ; G race ( 1988 a nd 1 989 ) h a s o b se rved s uch e mbedded r e s idue s , e ven u nde rt h e S EM . T he r e sea rche r s w ho h ave r epo r ted t h e p re sence o ft he se r e s idue s h ave e xp la ined t h e i r s u rv iva l b y s ugge s t ing t ha t t h ey w e re " t rapped" u nde r a h yd ro ly sed a mo rphou s s i l ica l a ye r w h ich d eve loped d u r ing u se . No i n -dep th i nve s t iga t ion s o n t he s ub jec t h ave b een c a r r ied o u t s o f a r b y t he a dvoca te s o f t h is h ypo the s is t o d e te rm ine w he the r s uch a l a ye r d oe s i n

F u r the rmo re K nu t s son i nB roadben t ( 1979 ) s ugge s t s t ha t t o o l s u sed f o r al o ng t ime o n s of t ma te r ia ls c ou ld p roduce t he s ame e dge s c a r r ing a s s ho r t u se o n h a rd ma te r ia l s . T ha t i sn o t t os ay , h oweve r , t ha t e dge w ea r ( i nc lud ing e dge r ound ing ) i sn o t a n i mpo r tan t v ar iab le . B u t e ven t he u se r s o ft h e l ow p ow e r me thod a r e n ow u s ing o t he r i n f o rma t ion ( Ode l l 1 986 ) . When p re sen t a nd i d en t if iab le , e dge s c ar r ing c an b e u sed i n c on junc t ion w i th t he i n forma t ion o b ta ined f r om a l l t he o ther v ar iab les ,t os uppo r t o rc a l l i n to q ue s t ion t he d i ag no sed h a rdne s s o ft he ma te r ia l a nd t o s ugge s t t he

f a c t e x i s t . I ti sh e re p ropo sed t ha t t h e t e rm " embedded r e s idue s" i su sed o n ly i nt ho se c a se sw he re t he p re sence o f ah yd ro ly sed l a ye r t r app ing a nd e mbedd ing s uch l a rge s i zed r e s idue sh a sb een a s ce r ta ined . A s men t ioned i n C hap te r 1a nd i n C hap te r 6t h is p ro jec t h a s y i e lded

d i rec t ion o f mo t ion . D e te rm in ing w he the r o r n o t e dge s c a r r ing i s d ue t o u se o r d amage i s g ene ra l ly v e ry d if i cu l t p a r t icu la r ly o n r e touched e dge s ( s ee a l so K ee ley 1 980 :27 ) .

n oe v idence f o r at h ick h yd ro ly sed l a ye r t ha t c ou ld t r ap i t ems t h es i ze o fp hy to l i ths . 1 5

Mo s t w r i te r s o n m ic rowea r h ave n o t iced t h a t t h e

I ti st h e ref o re s ugge s ted t ha t o n ly s uch s c a r s a so ccu r o n t he u n re touched a spec t b e c ons ide red a s p robab ly

" g ra in s i ze" o r m ic ro s t ruc tu re i n f luenced t he s p eed o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t o n f l in t a r te f ac ts ( Vaughan

u s e induced .

1 985 :28 ; H o lme s 1 987 :92 ; Ma sson 1 982 :31-49 ) . F l in t w a s h oweve r d e sc r ibed i nt h e l i t e ra tu re a s , f o r i n s tance , " f ine g ra ined E ng l ish c ha lk f l i n t" , s ugge s t ing t ha t t he " g ra in s i ze" w a s h omogeneou s w i th in E ng l ish

3 .4 .7 .2 Edge R ound ing E dge r ound ing h a s o f ten b een d i rec t ly a s so c ia ted w i th s c rap ing h ide ( Kee ley 1 980 ) . I t d eve lop s , h oweve r ,

c ha lk f l in t , w he rea s t he re a re i n f a c t w ide v a r ia t ions i n

w hen s c rap ing e i the r s o f t ma te r ia ls w i th c oa r se a b ras ive s o r h a rd n a tu ra l ly a b ra s ive ma te r ia ls . I n

f l in te ven w i th in t he s ame n odu le . B rad ley a nd C lay ton ( 1987 :8 1-89 )h av e d i scus sed t h e i nf luence o ff l in t m ic ro s truc tu re o n t h ep a t te rn a nd r a te o f d eve lopmen t o f p o l ish d u r ing u se t h rough e xpe r imen ta t ion a nd S EM o b se rva t ion . G r if i ths e ta l .

t r ansve r sa l mo t ions s uch a s s c rap ing , e dge r ound ing i s v i s ib le o n t h e a spec t o f t he e dge i n c on tac t w i th t he s c raped ma te r ia l . I t r a re ly o ccu r s w i th l o ng i tud ina l mo t ions s uch a ss aw ing a nd , i fp re sen t , w i l lb el i gh t a nd o b servab le o n b o th a spec t s o f t he e dge . H igh a ng led

( 1987 :43-52 ) h ave s t ud ied t he e f ec t o fh ea t t r ea tmen t o n f l in t m ic ro s t ruc tu re a nd t he e f ec t o ft he c hange i n s t ruc tu re o n f l ak ing c ha rac te r is t ic s . T he se t wo s t ud ie sh ave s hown t ha t :

r obus t e dge s d o n o t r ound a s e a s i ly a s a cu te ly a ng led o ne s . W i th c e r ta in c oa r se r aw ma t er ia ls e dge r ound ing d o e sn o to ccu ra nd /o r i sn o t o b servab le . S c rap ing w i th a l ow a ng led a nd u n re touched e dge c au se s s c a r r ing r a the r t han r ound ing t od eve lop i nt h e i n i t ia l s t age s , e spec ia l ly

• t y p ica l b l ack f l in t c ons is t s o f s i l ic if ied s k e le ta l f r agmen t s , s phe r ica l q ua r tz " l ep isphe re s" ( wh ich t oge the r make u p t h e ma in f r amewo rk s t ruc tu re

w hen s c rap ing h a rde r ma te r ia ls . Af te r s uch a n e dge h a s b een s t ab i l ised e dge r ound ing w i l l s t a r t t o o ccu r . I ti s e v iden t t h e ref o re t ha t i fw o rk i si n te r rup ted b ef o re t he e dge i ss t ab i l ised t he re w i l l b e n o e dge r ound ing . I ti s u n l ike ly , h oweve r , t ha t s uch e dge s w i l l b e u sed o n t he

o f f l i n t ) , a nd a n i n te r s t i t ia l " cemen t" o f s t ruc tu ra l ly d i so rde red m ic rof ib rou s q ua r tz c ha lcedony ; • T he f r ac tu re s u rf a ce o f f r e sh f l i n t t e nd s t o g o t h rough t he c ha lcedony p ha se a nd a round t h e l e p isphe re s g iv ing t he u neven m ic ro topog raphy o ft he f l in t s u rf ace ;

h a rde r ma te r ia ls s i nc ea n a cu te e dge w h ich i sc ons tan t ly b reak ing d own w ou ld b ei n ef f ic ien t . T he re a r ec a se sw hen i ti so n ly p o s s ib le t os t udy e dge w ea r a nd i nt h is c ase l ow mag n if ica t ions a r e a dequa te . T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue w he re a r tef ac t s a r e a f ec ted b y

• d u r ing t he l i f e o f an odu le r e c ry s ta l l isa t ion c an

p o s t -depo s i t iona l s u rf ac e mod if ica t ions a nd w he re i mp lemen t sm ade f r om ma te r ia ls c oa rse rt han f l in t s uch a s q uar tz i te d o n o t a ppea r t o y i e ld u sef u l i n f o rma t ion w hen o b se rved o p t ica l ly a t h igh magn if ica t ions . I n t he se c a se s i t i s n ece s sa ry t o u se e i the r l ow mag n if ica t ions o r t he S EM ( Su ssman 1 988 ; K nu t s son

• r e c ry s ta l l isa t ion c an af ec t t h e s t ruc tu ra l ly d i so rde red s i l ica , r e su l t ing i nl o ca l r ed is t r ibu t ion

o ccu r i n r e sponse t o c hem ica l c hange s i n t h e s u r round ing p o re w a te r s , o r h ea t ing , i n ten t iona l o ro t he rw ise ;

o f t h e s t ruc tu ra l a nd s u rf ace -bound w a te r i n to m ic ro scop ic a nd s ub -m ic ro scop ic f l u id

1 986 ) . S peed a nd t h e r e la t ive ly l ow c o s t o ft h e e qu ipmen t r e qu ired make a na ly s is a t l ow magn if ica t ion s v e ry a t t rac t ive , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e c a se o fp ro jec t s i nvo lv ing al a rge n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s . Ap e rf ec ted a nd i mp roved s t udy o f e dge w ea r ( s ca r r ing a nd r ound ing ) c ou ld a nswe r q ue s t ions s uch a s u sed v .u nu sed , h a rd v . s of t ma te r ia ls o r c u t t ing v .c hopp ing . T he i n i t ia l o ve rv iew m igh t t h en b e c omp lemen ted b y as ub sequen t i n -dep th

i n c lu s ion s ; • i n h ea ted f l in t t he w a te r m ig ra te s t o f l u id i n c lu s ion s a nd t he c ha lcedony b e come s s im i la r t ol e p isphe re s i ni t sf r ac tu re p rope r t ie s ; • w he the r i t s c oa r sene s s i s d e te rm ined b y i t s o r ig ina l s t ruc tu re o r c au sed b y r e c ry s ta l l isa t ion , c oa r se f l in t s how s a g rea te r r e s is tance t o m ic rowea rp o l ish f o rma t ion ; • f l in t c on ta in ing a l owe r p ropo r t ion

a na ly s is o f as ma l le r n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s s uch a s p ar t icu la r t o o l t y pe s o r i n te rp re ta t ion o f s pa t ia l

o f w e l l

c r y s ta l l ised q ua r tz a nd a h i ghe r a moun t o f c ha lcedony t han r e c ry s ta l l ised f l in t i s mo re s u scep t ib le t o b o th mechan ica l a nd c hem ica l d amage ;

d i s t r ibu t ion e t c . T he d e ta i led a na ly se s i n vo lv ing t he mo re t ime c onsum ing me thod s , a t h ighe r magn if ica t ions , w ou ld i n c lude a l l t he v a r iab le s d e sc r ibed a bove .

• t he d ens i ty o fp ack ing o ft he l e p isphe re s w i th in t h e f l in t s t ruc tu re a l so i nf luence s t h e f o rm o ft h e

3 . 5 FL INT S TRUCTURE

t r ace sr e su l t ing f r om u se ; • t h e p re sence o f m ic rof lu id i n c lu s ions p robab ly

1 987 :49 f i gu re 6 . 7A ) w i th w a te r b e ing p re sen t b o th " a s h yd roxy l g roup s o n g ra in a nd s ubg ra in b ounda r ies a nd

c au se s t he w axy s heen s e en o n f r ac ture s m ade a f te r h ea t t r ea tmen t . T he i n c lu s ions t e nd t o p a r t ia l ly r ef le c t i n c iden t l i gh t r a the r t han s imp ly r e f rac t i ta s d oe s n o rma l f l in t ; c e r ta in w h i te p a tche s i n f l in t may w e l l b e d ue t o r ef lec t ions

a l ong l a t t ic e d ef ec t s , a nd a s mo lecu la r w a te r i n m ic ro scop ic a nd s ub -m ic ro scop ic f l u id i n c lu s ions a nd

f r om c r y s ta ls ,n o t f l u id i n c lu s ions a nd c an c au se i n tense g la re l e ad ing t op rob lem si no b se rva t ion .

a d so rbed o n s u rf ace s" ( G r iff i ths e ta l . 1 987 :48-49 ; s e e a l so M iche e l sen 1 966 ) .

T he B rad ley a nd C lay ton o b se rva t ion s r e f e r red t o U ppe r C re taceou s c ha lk f l in t ( p robab ly B randon ) a nd

F l in t i s c ompo sed o f 9 8% p u re s i l ica i n ac r yp to c r y s ta l l ine f o rm . I t h a s a " f ramewo rk o f g lobu la r l e p isphe re sw i th i n te r s t i t ia l c ha lcedony" ( G r iff i ths e ta l .

1 6

t wo n odu le s o f " beach p ebb le f l in t c o l lec ted f r om t h e n o r th c oa s t o fI r e land" . T he G r iff i ths e ta t . w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u t w i th t he " v isua l ly h omogeneou s" b l ack f l in t f r om B randon a nd t he mo t t led g rey f l in t f r om P o t te r s

d if icu l t ie s o fo b ser v ing p o l ish o n p a t ina ted f l in t h ave b een s u rmoun ted . Now w h i te p a t ina t ion , a c ommon p henomenon a s so c ia ted w i th n a tu ra l w ea the r ing , i s n o t t h e o n ly p roce s sc apab le o fo b l i te ra t ing u se -wea r p o l ishe s . When

B a r " con ta in ing l i gh te r a ppa ren t ly c oa rse r g ra ined r eg ions" . My e xpe r imen ta l w o rk r ep l ica t ing u se -wea r a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l e f ec t s a tH eng is tbu ry H ead w a s d one ma in ly w i th B randon a nd o cca s iona l ly w i th P o t te r s B a r f l in t . A v a r ie ty o f I s rae l i f l in t t ype s w e re u sed t o r ep l ica te w ea r t r ace s a nd s u rf ace a l te ra t ions w hen

p ronounced " so i l s heen" o r " g lo s s p a t ina" a l so r ende r s f l in t s u rf ac e su nsu i tab le f o r m ic rowea r a na ly s is ( S tape r t 1 976 ; P l i sson a nd Mauge r 1 988 ; L ev i S a la 1 986 aa nd b ) . S o i l s heen d oe s i n f a c t " po l ish" f l in t a nd a f ec t u se w ea rp o l i sh b yd eg rad ing i ta nd b y mak ing i ti mpo s s ib le

a na ly s ing a r tef ac ts f r om I s rae l is i te s . S ome p o s t -depo s i t iona l a nd p o l ish f o rma t ion e xpe r imen t s w e re c a r r ied o u t s imu l taneou s ly b o th o n I s rae l i a nd E ng l ish c ha lk f l in t sf o rc ompa r ison . Ac ha rac te r i sa t ion o ft he v a r iou s I s rae l i f l in t su sed i n t he e xpe r imen t s h a s b een a t temp ted ( s ec t ion 6 . 4 .1) . Mo s t o f t he I s rae l i f l in t t ype s u sed a r e d e r ived f r om

t o s epa ra te t he a rea p o l ished b y u se f r om t he s u r round ing a rea " po l ished" b y t a phonom ic p roce sse s ; t h is i sc onf i rmed b y t he w o rk d e sc r ib ed i nt h is v o lume ( s ee e xpe r imen t s i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 ) . C onsequen t ly a l l a r tef ac t s s t rong ly af ec ted b y s o i l s heen c anno t b e c ons ide red r e l iab le f o r m ic rowea r a na ly s is b a sed o n e xam ina t ion a th igh magn i f ica t ions . ( Lev i S a la 1 986 a

E oc ene f o rma t ion s . T he f l in t w as c o l lec ted f r om t h e h igh land r eg ion o ft he N egev d e se r t w h ich w a s d eep ly d i s sec ted b y a c t ive r i ve r v a l ley s a nd e ro s iona l d ep re s s ions . I nt he a r ea " F l in tg e ne ra l ly o ccu r s a ss ma l l n odu le s , t h in , s l ab l ike b and s , o r a s v e ry l a rge c obb le s . T he se c an b e f ound e i the r o n f l a t s u rf ace s w h ich h ave b een e xpo sed d ue t o e ro s ion , o r b edded i n c l i ff s , h i l l s l ope s , a nd , i n t he c as e o f t he s ma l l n odu le s , i n c ong lome ra te s" (Munday 1 976 :20 ) . T he p re sen t c l ima te i n t h e N egev i s d e se r t ic a nd c on t inen ta l , w i t ne s s ing t empe ra tu re v ar ia t ion s f r om 4 0 t o4 5 ° Ci nt h e d ay t ime t o2 t o5 ° Ca tn igh t . C l ima t ic v a r ia t ion a nd e r o s ion may a f ec tt he f l in tm ic ro s t ruc tu re . Ih ave a l so u sed f l in t c o l lec ted f r om t he C a rme l h i l ls whe re t h ec l ima t ic c ond i t ions a r e much mo re t empe ra te .

a nd b ;S t ape r t 1 976 ; P l is son a nd Mauge r 1 988 :4 ) . When I s rae l i f l in th a sb een a f ec ted b ys o i l s heen a nd o t he rt ype so f PDS M t he g l a re , w h ich i sp re sen t i ns ome v a r ie t ie se ven o n f r e sh ly k napped i mp lemen t s , i n c rea se s a nd i mpede s o b se rva t ion a t h igh magn if ica t ions . A s w i th o t he rt y pe s o ff l in t , i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t od i s t ingu ish u se -wea rf r om p o s t -depo s i t iona l p o l ish ing . 3 .6 PO ST -EXCAVAT ION H ANDL ING I ti so f ten men t ioned i n t he m ic rowea r l i t e ra tu re t ha t p o s t -excava t ion h and l ing o fa r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t sc an c au se ' wea r ' t r ace s wh ich m igh t c on s t i tu te " backg round n o ise" w hen a na ly s ing e dge s ( P l i s son 1 983 ; 1 985 ) . T he v a r iou s s t age s o fh and l ing a f t e r e xcava t ion h ave b een i nve s t iga ted a nd e xpe r imen t s d one t o s t udy t he p re se rva t ion o ff l in ts u r f ace s .

T h is i s much c oa r se r t ot he t ouch t han t he N egev f l in t . No t much i n f o rma t ion i s a va i lab le i n t he l i t e ra tu re r ega rd ing f l in t s ou rce s i n I s rae l o r e l sewhe re i n t h e

3 .6 .1 Wash ing P ack ing a nd S torage P rocedure s

L evan t ,t h e i ra ge ,w ea the r ing a nd c ha rac ter i s t ic s .

Wa sh ing o n s i te w i th a n y lon b ru sh may r emove o rgan ic d epo s i t s i f t h ey h ave s u rv ived . I t i s b e s t a vo ided , t he ref o re , w hen t he re i s t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f h av ing s uch r e s idue s a na ly sed . C on t ra ry t o P l is son 's

I ti sn o t c l ea r u nde r w ha tc ond i t ion s t h e I s rae l i f l in t s s t ud ied h e re h ave b een f o rmed . S ome o f t he se f l in t s , h ow ev e r , a r e n o t o n ly h igh ly r e s is tan t t o p o l ish f o rma t ion b u t a re v e ry r e f lec t iv e e v en when f r e sh ly l c napped . T hey o f ten c au se g l a re a t h ighe r magn if ica t ion s a nd t he s u rf ace i s s ome t ime s " pede s ta l led" a t x 200 . F igu re 7 i lu s t ra te s t he s u rf ac e

o b se rva t ions r e f e r red t oa bove , o n s i te w a sh ing d oe sn o t s eem t o a f ec t t he c ond i t ion o ft he f l in t o r t he p o l ish . T h is w a s d educed f r om a n e xpe r imen t i n w h ich B randon f l in t w a s b ru shed w i th s ed imen t f o r f i ve m inu te s w i thou t af e c t ing e i the r t h e p o l ish o r t he

s eem ing ly c on s i s t ing o fi nd iv idua l c r y s ta l s moun ted o n p ede s ta l s a nd s epa ra ted b y l a rge h o l low s pace s . D iane H o lme s( 1987 :92 )h a sn o ted t ha tE gyp t ian f l in t , s im i la r t os ome o ft he N egev v a r ie t ie s , i sv e ry s l ow t o d eve lop

s u r round ing u npo l ished s u rf ace . T h is e xpe r imen t i s d e scr ibed i ns e c t ion 4 .2 .2 ( Lev i S a la 1 987 :143150 ) . O n t h e o the r h and , s eve ra l p i ece s o f f l in t p acked

u se -we a r p o l ish . S he h ad t o a bandon t he p l anned f unc t iona l a na ly s is o f t he se i mp lemen t s d ue t o t h i s

t oge the r f o r t r anspo r t a nd f i na l s t o rage a r e l i ab le t o d eve lop e dge d amage . S uch e dge d amage may r emove

p rob lem a nd t op o s t -depo s i t iona l a l te ra t ions t ot he f l in t s u rf ace ( Ho lme s 1 989 ) . 3 .5 .1 P o s t -Depo s it iona l ( PDS M )

S urf ace

t he a rea b ea r ing t he u se p o l ish , i fi th a s s urv ived , a nd a dd o t he ra b ra s ion t r ace s . T he u se o f me ta l i n s t rumen t st or emove e nc ru s ta t ions

Mod if ica t ion

i sa l so t ob e d i scou raged ; i fa b so lu te ly n ece s sa ry p l a s t ic p o in ted i mp lemen t s s hou ld b e u sed i n s tead . Me ta l

PDS M i s t he s cou rge o f f unc t iona l a na ly s is a t magn if ica t ions a bove x 100 . P a t ina ted f l in t i sk nown t o b e u nsu i tab le f o r u se -wea r s t ud ie s b a sed o n p o l ishe s ( Kee ley 1 980 :29 ) . U nf o r tuna te ly , s ome s t ud ie s a r e s t i l l b e ing c a r r ied o u t o n p a t ina ted f l in t w i thou t a ny d i scu s s ion o fh ow t h e

i mp lemen t s l e ave ame ta l l ic d epo s i t o n t he f l in t s u r f ace w h ich i sn o t e a s i ly r emoved . T h is " po l ish" i s e a s i ly d i s t ingu i shab le f r om n on -me ta l l ic p o l ish b u t c an o b scu re a n a r ea w he re u se p o l ish h ad s u rv ived .

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s ugge s t s t ha t t he b io log ica l c l ean ing h ad r emoved a l l t he r emovab le d epo s i t s a nd t ha tt h e re w a sn o th ing mo re t ob eg a ined b yu s ing N aOH .

3 . 6 .2 C lean ing i nt he L abora tory K ee ley ( 1980 :1012 ) s ugge s ted t he c l ean ing o f f l in t i mp lemen t s p r io r t om ic rowea r a na ly s is w i th w h i te o r

T he s i tua t ion r ega rd ing a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s i s h oweve r ad if e ren t ma t te r . O rgan ic r e s idue s d o n o t o f ten s u rv ive a nd a r e i n a ny c a se n o t r e ad i ly r e cogn isab le b yt he m ic rowea r a na ly s t s . S ome w o rk h a s

me thy la ted s p i r i t , h o t w a te r a nd a n a mmon ia -ba sed d e te rgen t ; h e r ecommended r ubb ing w i th t h e f i nge r s a nd s oak ing . T h is i s f o l lowed b y " imme r s ion o f t h e p i ece i nw a rm HC 1( 10% s o lu t ion )" f o l lowed b y" NaOH

b een r epo r ted i n a r id a r ea s ( B rode r ick 1 979 , 1 988 ; S haf e ra nd H o l loway 1 979 )b u tt h is i si n my v i ew av e ry

( 20 t o3 0% s o lu t ion )" . F o r t h e N aOH s o lu t ion , 2 0 t o 3 0 m inu te s w a s

s pec ia l ised f i e ld . I ft h is e xpe r t ise i s a v a i lab le t o t he

c ons ide red s af e ; t h e a im b e ing t o r emove t r ans ien t o rgan ic r e s idue s f r om e xpe r imen ta l t oo ls w h i le t he HC 1 s o lu t ion w a s u sed t o r emove c a rbona te d epo s i t s f r om

e xc ava to r s , c l ean ing o f t he a r tef ac t s s hou ld b e c omp le te ly a vo ided . C a rbona te e ncru s ta t ions a nd s o i l d epo s i t s h oweve r d o o ccur mo re f r equen t ly o n t h e f l in t

a r chaeo log ica l s pec imens , b u t " bo th a r chaeo log ica l a nd e xpe r imen ta l i mp lemen t s w e re t r ea ted w i th b o th s o lu t ion s , i n o rde r t o ma in ta in s t r ic t c ompa rab i l i ty " ( i b id . :1012 ) . Wh i ls t t h is c l ean ing me thod i ss t i l l u sed b y s ome r e sea rche r s , i tw a s c r i t ic ised b y h i s c o l league s a tt h eV ancouve rC onf e rence ( Hayden 1 979 :190191) . I f o r o ne h ave a bandoned i t , a nd h ave n o ted t ha t a g row ing n umbe r o f c o l league s h ave h ad s e cond t hough t s t hough n o t a l l h ave e n t i re ly a bandoned

s u rf ace s . When f l in t i se nc rus ted i t s s t ruc tu re i s ma sked a nd a ny s u rv iv ing p o l ish w ou ld n o t b eo b se rvab le . Mo s s h ad a l so a dvoca ted a bandon ing t h e K ee ley c l ean ing me thod b ecaus e " I b egan t o c ompa re c hem ica l ly c l eaned a nd u nc le aned i mp lemen t s a nd f o und a b so lu te ly n o d if e rence i n t he a ppea rance o ft h e w ea r t r ace s" ( 1983b :1 05) . S he h a s n ow s l igh t ly r eve r sed h e r o p in ion b e cau se s he h a s " encoun te red o n a r t if ac t s . . .s o i l d epo s i t s w h ich n eeded c hem ica l r emova l a s s ugge s ted b y K ee ley" ( Mo s s 1 986c :94 ) .

c hem ica ls o t he r t han d e te rgen t s ( Cahen a nd C a spa r 1 984 :277-308 ; U nge r -Ham i l ton 1 988 :64-66 ; G race 1 989 :63-64 ; A nde r son -Ge rf aud 1 986 :74 ; P I son

My e xpe r ience h a s b een t ha t ab r ief s oak ing i n a b i o log ica l d e te rgen t f o l lowed b y a n u l t ra son ic c l ean ing a s d e sc r ibed a bove w i l l e l im ina te mo s t u nwan ted p o s t -

1 986 :114 ; Mo s s 1 983b :105 ) . A s ar e su l t o f c a ref u l e xpe r imen ta t ion o n f l in t a r tef ac t s t o s t udy t he p roce s s o f p at ina t ion , S chma lz w r i te s " A lka l ine s o lu t ion s , e ven w hen v e ry d i lu te , a t tack t h e [ f l in t ] g ra ins e xpo sed t ot he i r a c t ion , e t ch ing

d epo s i t iona l d epo s i t s . I n c a se s w he re t he re w e re c a rbona te e ncru s ta t ions , ab a th i n a1 0% HC l s o lu t ion f o r u p t o 3 0 m inu te s a t r oom t empe ra tu re h a s b een

t he g ra in s u rf ace s a nd i n e x t reme c a se s p e rcep t ib ly r educ ing t h e g ra in s i ze" ( Schma lz 1 960 :49 ) . S ee a l so

s uf i c ien t . T he a r tef ac t s f r om N aha l H e ima r , ac ave s i te i nt h e

t he e xpe r imen t s d e scr ibed i ns e c t ions 6 . 5 .9 t o6 . 5 .12 . i n t h is v o lume r ega rd ing t he p a t ina t ion o ff l in t . When u s ing f l in t t oo l s e xpe r imen ta l ly s ome o rgan ic d epo s i t s f r om t h e w o rked ma te r ia l s eem t o r ema in o n

A rava d e se r t , w e re c ove red b y s ome d epo s i t f r om t h e s o i l . T hey w e re s ub jec ted t ot he K ee ley c l ean ing m e thod b ef o re Ih ad s t a r ted u s ing b io log ica l d e te rgen ts . F igu re s 1 9 a nd 2 0 s how t ha tt he c l ean ing w a s v e ry t ho rough b u t n o t r ace s w ha tsoeve r w e re l ef t o n t he t o o ls . I ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t ha t t he re w e re n o w e l l d eve loped u se -wea r

t he s u rf ace e ven a f te rw a sh ing i n ah ou seho ld d e te rgen t , e spec ia l ly a f t e r u se o n g reen w ood a nd c e r ta in p lan t s . F igu re 1 4 s how s f e a tu re s s t i l l a dhe r ing t o t he f l in t

t r ace s o n t he se t oo ls i n t he f i r s t p l ace e i the r b ecau se t h ey w e re a " hoa rd" o r b ecau se many w e re " a r row h ead s" , b u tu sef u l t r ace s may h ave b een r emoved b yt h e d ra s t ic c l ean ing .

s u rf ace a f te r c l ean ing w i th d e te rgen t a nd d abb ing w i th me thy la ted s p i r i ta nd a ce tone . T hey h ave b e en p roduc ed b y w h i t t l ing r eed s a nd a re s im i la r i n a ppea ranc e t o " s t r ia t ions" a nd p o l ish . F igu re s 1 5 a nd 1 6 i lu s t ra te t he i r d i sappea rance a f te r c on tac tw i th s and i n ar o ta t ing

S ome

o b s t ina te

e nc ru s ta t ions

o f

n on -ca rbona te

ma te r ia l s uch a s t h e o ne s w h ich o ccu r red o n i mp lemen t s f r om K eba ra c ave , w i l l n o t b e r emoved b y

d rum a l though t h ep o l ish t ha t h ad mod if ied t h e s u rf ace o ft he f l in ti t se lf h ad s u rv ived .

t he c l ean ing d e sc r ib ed e a r l ie r i n c lud ing t h e 1 0% HC l b a th . T he re i se v idence o fb one d i sso lu t ion o n s i te a nd t he c ave i s e x tens ive ly u sed b y b a t s . I t i s t h e ref o re p o s s ib le t ha t t he e nc ru s ta t ions a r e p ho spha te s f r om t h e d i s so lu t ion o fb one sa nd /o r f r om t he b a td ropp ing s . S od ium h yd rox ide ( NaOH ) , a n a l ka l ine s o lu t ion , c an t he ref o re p a t ina te f l in t a nd h yd ro ch lo r ic a c id ( HC l )

L inea r f e a tu re s c aused b y t he d epo s i t ion o f o rgan ic ma t te r f r om t he w o rked ma te r ia l w h ich a r e r emovab le b yl ow c on tac tf o rc e s s uch a s movemen t i nt he s ed imen t a r e n o t l i ke ly t o s u rv ive a r chaeo log ica l ly . T he q ue s t ion o f o rgan ic r e s idue s h a s a l so b e en d i scu s sed u nde r s e c t ion 3 . 4 .6 a bove . Ih ave n o ted , h oweve r , t ha t s oak ing o r t ho rough b u t

a l though l e s s l i ke ly t o h ave a n a dve r se e f ec t o n t h e

g en t le w a sh ing w i th b io log ica l a mmon ia -f re e d e te rgen t

f l in t , s e ems t o b e s upe r f luou s w hen t he re a r e n o e nc ru s ta t ions . C lean ing d u r ing m ic ro scopy i s c a r r ied o u t w i th

i nw arm w a te r , f o l lowed b y i mme r s ion i na n u l tra son ic t a nk , i n ap la s t ic c on ta ine r f i l led w i th d i s t i l led w a te r , w i l lr emove a l l s uch o rgan ic d epo s i t sf r om e xpe r imen ta l i mp lemen t sw i thou tt he n eed f o rN aOH a s s ugge s ted b y K e e ley . S ub sequen t c l ean ing b y N aOH , t r ied e xpe r imen ta l ly i n s eve ra l c ase s a nd d ocumen ted p ho tog raph ica l ly b ef o re a nd a f t e r , d id n o t a ppea r t o i mp rove t h e c ond i t ion o f t he p o l ished s u rf ace . T h is

c o t ton b ud s d ipped i n me thy la ted s p i r i t t o r emove g rea se f r om c on tac t o f f i nge r s w i th t h e f l in t . O cca s iona l ly a ce tone i su sed t hough v e ry s pa r ing ly a si t t e nd s t o c au se f a lse t r ac e s m im ick ing p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions . When p u t ty c ome s i nc on tac tw i th t he f l i n t i t i sn ece s sa ry t or emove t he a r tef ac t f r om t he s l ide , w ipe 1 8

of t h ep u t ty w i th ad ry s of tt i s sue a nd w ash a ga in w i th d e te rgen t a nd w a rm w a te r . T h i s p rocedu re i sn e ce s sa ry i n o rde r t or emove t he f a lse t r ace s w h ich g rea se f r om t he p u t ty p roduce s . 3 .6 .3 F inger P rehen s ion C on t ra ry t o s ome s ugge s t ion s , i ts e ems u n l ike ly t ha t p rehens ion w i th t he f i nge r s e ven f o r p ro longed p e r iod s c an l e ave l a s t ing t r ace s o n f l in t i mp lemen t s , e spec ia l ly s i nce u se o n mea t f o r 9 0 m inu te s d oe s n o t p roduce d eve loped p o l ish ( J ue l -Jensen 1 988a :55 ) . H e r o b se rva t ion i sc onf i rmed b y a n e xpe r imen t i n wh ich t wo f l in t i mp lemen t s , EXP /7 1 a nd EXP /72 , w e re r ubbed a ga ins t mo i s tened r aw h ide f o r o ne h ou r e ach w i thou t a ny p o l i sh d eve lop ing . Wha t i sb e ing o b se rved b yo t he r s( P l isson 1 985 :100 ) i sp robab ly n o tt r ue p o l i sh i n t h e s ense o f ad ef o rma t ion o f t he f l in t t o g ive a s moo th s u rf ace . I ti ss ugge s ted t he ref o re t ha t t r ace s , i f a ny , l ef t o n f l in t b y f i nge r s e ven a f te r e x tens ive h and l ing a re r emovab le b y ab i o log ica l d e te rgen t a nd a re u n l ike ly t os u rv ive a rchaeo log ica l ly . 3 .6 .4 R ef i t t ing T h is p rocedu re i sv e ry u sef u l i nr e con s t ruc t ing f l ak ing s equence s i nt he manuf ac tu re o ff l in t i mp lemen t s . I ti s , h ow eve r , l i ab le t o c au se p o l ish , e dge s ca r r ing a nd s t r ia t ions o f v a ry ing i mpo r tance ( i n q uan t i ty a nd i n tens i ty ) t o d eve lop o n f l in t s u rf ace s ( s ee a l so P l is son 1 985 :99 ) . A l though s uch t r ace s a r e l i ke ly t ob er andom , r ef i t ted p i ece s a r e b e s t a vo ided a s c and ida te s f o r f unc t iona l a na ly s is . R ef i t t ing c ou ld b e d one a f t e r m ic rowea r a na ly s is h a s t aken p l ace , a t al a te rs t age o ft h es i te a na ly s is . C a ref u l h and l ing o fa r tef ac t s d e s t ined f o r f unc t iona l a na ly s is i st he ref o re r ecommended a l though u se -wea r p o l i she s h ave b een s hown t o r e s is t c l ean ing w i th a n y lon b ru sh .

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CH A PTER 4 F UNCT IONA LA NALY S I SO FA RTEFACT SF ROM A RCHAEOLOG ICAL S I TE S w ha t l o oked l i ke v a rn ish w h ich , i n t he e ven t , w e re n o t r emoved . T he r e a sons f o r a bandon ing t he K ee ley

4 . 1 AT OOL T YPE F ROM HE NGL STBURY HE AD T he m ic roden t icu la te s f r om t h e P owe l l Me so l i th ic s i te a tH eng i s tbu ry H ead , D o r se ta r e" ah igh ly c ha rac te r i s t ic g roup o fa r tef ac t s" i nt he a s semb lage ( Ba r ton 1 981 :15 ) . T hey a r e made o n b l ade le t s w e l l u nde r 6c m . i nl e ng th

m e thod o fc l ean ing i sd i scu s sed i nd e ta i l i nC hap te r3 . 4 . 1 .2 E xper imen t s t oD e term ine T oo l F unct ion

w i th a t h ickne s s o f b e tween 3 a nd 5 mm . T hey a r e e i the r c u rved o r c u rved a nd t w is ted i n p rof i le ( f igu re 2 4 ) . O ft h e 3 4 p i ece s e xam ined 2 6 a r e d en t icu la ted o n a c oncav e e dge , w h i le t he r ema inde r a r et oo b roken t ob e c ha rac te r i sed ( s ee A ppend ix 2 ) . T he e dge a ng le o ft h e m ic roden t icu la ted e dge v a r ie s b e tw een 3 0-45° a nd r a re ly e xceed s t h e u ppe r l im i t . T he r e touched e dge n o rma l ly c on s is t s o f a s e r ie s o f s ma l l c on t iguou s n o tche s w h ich a r e e x t reme ly r egu la r a nd e qua l ly s paced , g iv ing t he t o o l i t s f i ne " s aw t o o th" p rof i le . T he manuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s ugge s ted b y B ocque t ( 1980) i nvo lve st he r emova l o ft i ny f l ake s a l ong o ne e dge o fa b lank u s ing a no the r a r tef ac t . T he r e su l t ing n o tch s ca r s a re h igh ly c ha rac te r i s t ic ( f igu re 2 4 ) a nd o ccu r o n t h e v en t ra l s u rf ace w hen t he r e touch i sp roduced f r om t he

E xpe r imen t s w e re c a r r ied o u t o n av a r ie ty o fm a te r ia ls i n a n a t temp t t o ma tch t h e r a the r p e rp lex ing t r ac e s o b se rved o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l p iece s ( s ee M ic ro scop ic A na ly s is b e low ) . A pa r t f r om E xpe r imen t 3b e low i n w h ich a n u n re touched a r tef ac t w a s u sed , a l l e xpe r imen ta l p i ece s w e re m ic roden t icu la te s . T he e xamp le s w e re u sed b o th i nt he h and a nd h af t ed t ot e s t t he i r e ff ic iency . T hey w e re a l l o f E a s t Ang l ian f l in t e xcep t t he a r tef ac t i n E xpe r imen t S even w h ich w a s made f r om al o ca l b each c obb le . A d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o ft he i nd iv idua l e xpe r imen t s a ppea r s i n Append ix 1 , b u tt hey a r es ummar ised h e re a sf o l low s : 1 . C u t t ing h ide w i th m ic roden t icu la te s . 2 . D e -ha i r ing f r e sh h ide . 3 . D e -ha i r ing a nd c u t t ing h ide w i th u n re touched e dge s . 4 . C u t t ing m ea t . 5 . C u t t ing c a r t i lage a nd s i new . 6 . C u t t ing a nd w h i t t l ing d ry r eed ( Ph ragm i te s ) . 7 . R eap ing P h ragm i te s .

d o r sa l s i de ( wh ich i s mo s t ly t h ec a se h e re )o rv i ce v e r sa . A l though u se -wea r c an a f ec t t h e a ppea rance o f t h e t e e th t h e re i sn oq ue s t ion t ha tt h er e touch i st he r e su l t o f u se a l one . E xpe r imen t s w i th u n re touched b l ank s o n a r ange o f ma te r ia l s f a i led t o p roduc e as i ng le e xamp le w i th t h e k ind o f r egu la r s e r ra t ion f ound o n t h e

8 . R eap ing g reen b racken ( P ter id ium )s t ems . 9 . Wh it t l ing s ea soned w ood . 1 0 .I nc is ing g reen b i rch ( Be tu la ) . 1 .S aw ing s he l l . 1 2 .S aw ing b one . 1 3 .C u t t ing r u she s( Juncu s ) .

H eng i s tbu ry a r tef ac t s( s ee A ppend ix 1 , No .12 ) . 4 . 1 .1 Me thod T he f unc t iona la na ly s is w a so r ig ina l ly u nde r taken u s ing t he me thod e l abo ra ted b y K ee ley ( 1 980 ) . T he f l in t s u rf ace s w e re o b se rv ed b y o p t ica l m ic ro scopy u s ing a n O lympu sV anox m ic ro scope a sd e sc r ibed i nt h e C hap te r o n Me thodo logy . T he K ee ley me thod r e l ie s o n t he o b se rva t ion o f p o l i she s a nd s t r ia t ions w h ich a r e t hen u sed t o i n f e r t he k ind o f ma te r ia ls u sed a nd t he t a sk s p e rf o rmed . T he p rob lems b e ing e ncoun te red i n t h e a pp l ica t ion o f t h i s me thod o f i d en t if y ing p o l ish a nd d e te rm in ing t he ma te r ia l s u sed h ave b een a l ready d i scu s sed i n C hap te rs 1 . Among o t he r t h ing s , t he re

4 . 1 .3 Ob ser vat ion sR e su l t ing f rom t he E xper imen t s T he s ma l l s i ze o ft he t oo l , i t st h in c ro s s s e c t ion a nd l ow e dge a ng le a ppea red t or u le o u t av a r ie ty o fh eavy d u ty t a sks a nd t h i s o b se rva t ion w a s s ub sequen t ly c onf i rmed b y t he e xpe r imen ta l w o rk . On 2 4 o u t o f 3 4 a r chaeo log ica l s pec imens ( Append ix 2 ) , t he i nd iv idua l t e e th mak ing u pt he s e r ra ted e dge w e re w o rn d own i na r e la t ive ly e ven manne r . E xpe r imen t s a ga in s howed t ha t t h is w ou ld e xc lude u se o n v e ry h a rd ma te r ia ls s uch a s

w e re p rob lems d ue t o " po s t -depo s i t iona l s u rf ace a l te ra t ion" ( PDSM )d e sc r ib ed b e low a nd i nC hap te r6 .

s t one , s he l lo rb one .

A mo re r ea l is t ic a pp roach w a s t he ref o re a dop ted

4 . 1 .3 .1 Haf t ing

wh ich r e l ie s n o t o n ly o n p o l i sh i d en t if ica t ion b u t o n r eco rd ing o f mac ro e dge mo rpho logy a nd e dge s c a r s , a l l m ic ro scop ic e dge w ea r t r a ce s i n c lud ing p o l ish when

1 . E xpe r imen t s c onf i rmed w ha t w as a l ready s u spec ted f r om t he s i ze a nd mo rpho logy o f t h e se t oo ls t ha t t hey w e re d if icu l t t o u se i n t h e h and f o r l o ng p e r iods a nd i nh eavy t a sk s . T he t oo l s w e re t o o s ma l l

p re sen t , ( G race 1 9 8 1 ,G race e t a l . 1 988 ) a nd o n e xpe r imen ta l r ep l ica t ion a s d e sc r ibed i n Mo s s a nd Newcome r( 1982 ) .

a nd s ha rp f o r c omf o r tab le h and l ing f o r mo re t han s ho r t p e r iod s . D e sp i te t h e o bv iou s a dvan tage s o f u s ing a h and le , n o d i agno s t ic h af t ing t r ace s w e re o b se rved o n a ny o f t he e xpe r imen ta l i mp lemen t s . T h is i sn o t s u rp r is ing s i nce a n ef i c ien t h af t w ou ld n o ta l low t h et o o lt o move .

P r io r t o e xam ina t ion , b o th e xpe r imen ta l a nd a rchaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s w e re c l eaned w i th w a rm w a te r a nd d e te rgen t a nd t h en i mme r sed i n d i s t i l led w a te r i n a n u l t ra son ic t ank . O cca s iona l ly s p i r i t a nd /o r a ce tone w a s u sed t o r emove f i nge rp r in t s . O n ly t wo a rchaeo log ica l p i e ce s ( I 6 / 2Q / 1 a nd E 9 / 16 /4 ) w e re

2 . T he l i ke l ihood t ha t s e ve ra l i mp lemen t s w e re i n ser ted i n ar ow i n ah af tw a sr e jec ted b ecau s e:

i mme r sed i n 5% 1 1C 1 t ot r y a nd r emove s ome s po t s o f 2 0

a )t h ec oncave e dge s o ft h em ic roden t icu la te s w ou ld h ave m ade t hem i mp rac t ica lt ou se i n ar ow , e ven i n ac r e scen t ic h af t .

s ub jec t ive , t h ey g ive s ome i nd ica t ion o fh ow w e m igh t b eg in t oe va lua te t he f u nc t ion o ft he m ic roden t icu la te s .

b ) t h e c u rved a nd s ome t ime s t w is ted p rof i le w ou ld l i kew i se make t hem u nsu i tab le f o r i n se r t ing i n a h and le . c )t h e re w a s n o e v idence f o r c on s is ten t mod if ica t ion o ft h et o o ls i no rde r t of a c i l i ta te h af t ing . T h is m igh t h ave b een a ch ieved b y s napp ing b o th e nd s o f t h e

4 . 1 .4 . Ma ter ia l s u sed i nt he E xper imen t s 4 . 1 .4 .1 Hard Ma ter ia l s T he e xpe r imen t s s howed t ha t i nt he c ase o fu se o n d ry r e ed s , d ry w ood a nd s he l l , t he t e e th w e re w o rn d own i n amanne r w h ich i sn o t o b se rved o n t he a r chaeo log ica l p iece s . T he c en t ra l p a r t o ft h e e dge c omp le te ly l o s t i t s

i mp lemen t . I n f a c t o n ly f ou r w e re b roken i n t h is w ay ,t h e ma jo r i ty ( 24 )b e ing mo re o rl e s sc omp le te . 3 . T he e xpe r imen ta l ly h af ted t o o ls d id n o t d eve lop m ic ro scop ic t r ac e s s im i lar t ot ho se o b served o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l s pec imens a nd t e n ta t ive ly s uppo sed t ob eh af t ing t r ace s( Append ix I ) . 4 . A t l e a s t o ne o ft h e m ic roden t icu la te s ( K8 /2b / 1) w a s

d en t icu la t ion w h i le t h e a d jacen t t e e th w e re s t i l l v e ry s ha rp . ( See f i gu re 2 5 ) . E ven t he 1 0 a r chaeo log ica l m ic roden t icu la te s d e sc r ibed a s d if e ren t ia l ly w o rn i n Append ix 2 d i d n o t p re sen t t h is p a t te rn o fw ea r . h i t ho se , af ew t e e th w e re o c ca s iona l ly w o rn d own mo re t han t he r e s t . I tw a s t he ref o re c onc luded t ha t t he ma te r ia l ( s ) w o rked c ou ld n o t h ave b een a s h a rd a s d ry r e ed , s ea soned w ood o r

mod if ied i n s uch aw ay a st o s ugge s t h andho ld ing . T he d i s ta l e nd o f t h e t o o l w a s a b rup t ly t r unca ted w h ich w ou ld h av e p rov ided a c omf o r tab le f i nge r g r ip f o ra n u nhaf t ed t o o l( f igu re 2 4 i t em 1 0 ) .

s he l l . 4 . 1 .4 .2 S of t Ma ter ia l s

4 . 1 .3 .2 F unc t iona l Ef f i c iency

T he e xpe r imen t s s ugge s t t ha t t h e i d ea o fu se o n h ide , mea t , c a r t i lage a nd s i new s hou ld b e d i sca rded , o n t h e g round s t ha t w o rk o n t he se ma te r ia ls c ou ld b e c a r r ied o u t j u s t a s e a s i ly u s ing a n u n re touched e dge . F u r the rmo re , i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o ma tch t he p o l ish p roduced b y t h e se t a sks a nd w ha t w a s o b se rved o n t he a r chaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s ( c ompa re f i gu re s 2 1 , 2 2 t o

T ix ie r ( 1 963 :124 ) h a s s ugge s ted t ha t f i ne d en t icu la ted s aw sf r om t h e C asp ian h ave t h e s ame e dge mo rpho logy a s mode rn s t eak k n ive s , a nd w e re p robab ly u sed i n much t h e s ame w ay . C ons ide rab le d if e rence s e x is t , h oweve r , i nt he o ve ra l l s hape o ft h e N o r th A f r ican a nd B r i t i sh Me so l i th ic a r tef ac t s . F o r e xamp le , w he rea s t h e Magh reb e xamp le s a r e l o ng a nd s t ra igh t -edged , t h e H eng is tbu ry t oo ls a r e much s ho r te r , h ave c oncave e dge s , a nd a re a l so c u rved a nd s ome t ime s s l igh t ly t w is ted . J ue l J ensen ( 1988b ) h a s s t ud ied s im i la r m ic roden t icu la te s f ound f r om t h e D an ish L a te Me so l i th ic t o t he E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic . T he p re se rva t ion o ft he f l in t s u rf ace sa ppea r st ob e ma rked ly b e t te rt han i nH eng is tbu ry H ead .J ue lJ ensen w a sa b le t o

2 6 , 2 7 ) . D umon t ( 1983 :143 ) p u t f o rwa rd m ea t c u t t ing a s a p o s s ib le u se f o rm ic roden t icu la te sf r om S ta rC a r r . T he re w e re o n ly t wo a r tef ac t s i nvo lved i n h i s i n te r im r epor t a nd d ue t ot h e l a ck o fp o l i sh i nt h e s c a r s , h e c onc luded " t ha t t he d en t icu la t ion o ccu r red a f te r o r s ho r t ly b ef o re t h e t o o l c ea sed b e ing u sed t oc u t mea t o rf r e sh h ide" . I t i s my o b se rva t ion t ha t c u t t ing mea t a nd f r e sh h ide d oe s n o t l e ave a w e l l -deve loped p o l i sh ( c f . Dumon t

c onc lude i n s p i te o ft he p re se rva t ion o f p o l ish o n t h e p o ten t ia l u sed e dge s t ha t "t he t oo ls w e re u sed f o r p roce s s ing r a the r t han f o r c u t t ing movemen t s o r ien ted p e rpend icu la rt ot he e dge . T he w o rked ma te r ia l r ema ins

1 983 :f igu re 4 ) b u t r a the r a" sh ine" w h ich c an b e p roduced b y many s of t ma te r ia l s a s w e l l a s b y s o i l ( f igu re 2 8 ) . Many o f t he e xpe r imen ta l t oo ls u sed o n b o th s of t a nd h a rd ma te r ia l s h ave n o p o l i sh i n s ca r s ( f igu re 2 9 ) . I t w ou ld s e em t ha t t he f unc t ion o f

a n o pen q ue s t ion ." ( i b id . :231) . D e sp i te t he d if e rence s , i ti s c l ea r t ha t t he mo s t o bv iou s f unc t ion o f t he se t oo l s i s c u t t ing o r s aw ing . T h i s h a s b een amp ly d emon s t ra ted i n t he e xpe r imen t s w h ich s howed t ha t o t he r a c t ions r equ i r ing at r ansve r sa l mo t ion ( e .g . wh i t t l ing , d e -ha ir ing ) a r e f a r l e s s ef i c ien t ly c a r r ied o u t t han , s ay , b y u s ing ah igh -ang le e dge . A s l igh t ly s u rp r is ing d i scove ry , g i ven t he h igh ly s t anda rd ised n a tu re o f t h e t o o l , w a s t he f a c t t h a t

mea t /f re sh h ide c u t t ing d oe s n o t f i t t he e v idence f r om H eng i s tbu ry w he re t he e dge i sc oncave a nd t he w ea r o n t h et e e th o ft h e s e r ra t ion w a sg rea te rt han t ha t p roduced e xpe r imen ta l ly b y c u t t ing m ea t . I n my o p in ion t h e ma te r ia l (s ) u sed , w a s n o t a sh a rd a sd ry r e ed , b u t n o t a s s of ta s mea t .

d en t icu la t ion

p o ten t ia l u se a s b edd ing ma te r ia l made i t ar e a sonab le c and ida te f o r s t udy . T he b racken w a s r e aped f r om t he

d id

n o t

s e em

t o

g rea t ly

T he p re sence o f b racken ( P ter id ium ) i n t he E a r ly F land r ian ( Sca if e p e r s . c omm . ) , t oge the r w i th i t s

i mp rov e

p e rf o rmance i na ny o ft h ee xpe r imen t si nvo lved . I n f a c t , al o ng s t ra igh t e dge p e rf o rmed much mo re ef i c ien t ly , e spe c ia l ly i n t he c u t t ing o fh ide t hong s a nd mea t a nd d e tach ing c a r t i lage f r om b one . L ikew i se , e xpe r imen t si n r eap ing p l an t s s uch a s b racken p roved s l ow a nd

v i c in i ty o ft h e s i te i ne a r ly a nd l a te S umme r . I n J une , a f te r 1 0 m inu te s o fu se ( f igu re 3 0 ) , t h e r e su l t ing p o l i sh s howed s ome s im i la r i ty w i th t h e p o l ish o b se rved o n a f ew o ft he a r chaeo log ica l p i ec e s . T he s l igh tr e semb lance

c umbe r some a nd i n a ny c a se t he se p l an t s c ou ld b e

m igh tb ed ue t ot h ep o l ish b e ing n o tt o ow e l l -deve loped . B y S ep tembe r b racken i sn o l o nge r v e ry g re en a nd t he

g a the red u s ing much s imp le r m e thod s l i ke u p roo t ing . A l though c ommen t s o f t h i s k ind a r e i n ev i tab ly

c u t t ing w a s c a r r ied o n f o r 2 0 m inu te s ( f igu re 3 1) . T he 2 1

p o l i sh w a s b e t te r d eve loped b u t t he s im i lar i ty w i th t he " po l ish" o nt he a r chaeo log ica l p i ece sw as s t i l l d oub tf u l .

4 . 1 .5 M icro scop ic A na ly s i s A s men t ioned a bove t he e v idence f r om t he m ic ro scope w a s r a the r c onf u s ing . Many i mp lemen ts s eemed , a t x 100 , t oh av e ap o l i sh w h ich c ou ld h ave b e en m is taken f o r u se -wea r . A th ighe r magn if ica t ion s ( x200 a nd o ve r ) wh ich a r e mo re u sef u l f o r i n te rp re t ing t he f unc t ion o f

T he u se o fb i rch ( Be tu la ) b a rk v e s se ls a nd ma t s i s w e l l k nown i n t h e N o r th E u ropean E a r ly Me so l i th ic ( C la rk 1 954 , B oke lmann 1 986 ) . E xpe r imen ts w e re c a r r ied o u t i n vo lv ing t he c u t t ing a nd i n c is ing o f t he o u te r b a rk p r io rt or emov ing i tf r om t he t r ee . A l though t he se t a sks p roduced p o l ish ( f igu re 3 2 ) , i tw a s n o t

t he t oo l , t h e m ic ro su rf ace a ppea red t o o r ef lec t ive a nd d id n o t r e semb le a ny e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced p o l ish .

s im i la r e i the r i n a ppea rance o r i n d i s t r ibu t ion t o t he p o l ish o n t he Me so l i th ic a r tef ac t s ; t he m in ima l e dge d amage p lu s t he w ea r o n t he d en t icu la t ions , h oweve r , w e re b road ly c omparab le .

A l though t h e re s e emed t o b e mo re p o l ish a l ong t he e dge s ,t he w ho le s u rf ace o ft he t oo l w a sa l so p o l ished . I n many i n s tance s t he re wa s n o c l ea r c u t e v idence t ha tt he d en t icu la ted e dge sw e re t he o ne s u sed s i nc et he " po l i sh" w a s mo re c oncen t ra ted o nt h eu n se r ra ted e dge . S t r ia t ions ( i . e . l i nea r i nd ica to r s f o r d i rec t ion o f u se ) w e re r a re a nd w hen p re sen t d id n o t s how a c ons is ten t p a t te rn f r om w h ich t o i n f e r t he mo t ion o r d i rec t ion o f t oo l i nu se .

M ic roden t icu la te s w e re a l so u sed e xpe r imen ta l ly i n b a ske t ry manuf ac tu re . A n e xpe r imen t w a s c a r r ied o u t c u t t ing u p d ry r u she s . Af te r 3 0 m inu te s w o rk n o p o l ish d eve loped o nt he t oo l e dge ( f igu re 3 3) . A f te r s oak ing t h e r u she s ( a s i s u sua l ly d one i n b a ske t ry ) ,t he p o l ish w h ich a ppea red i no n ly 1 5 m inu te s w a sv e ry w e l l -deve loped ( f igu re 3 4 )b u tu n l ike a ny th ing

4 . 1 .5 .1 P o s t -Depos i t iona l ( PDS M )

o bs e rved o nt h ea r chaeo log ica lm ic roden t icu la te s . R eap ing , c u t t ing a nd w h i t t l ing d ry r eed s ( Ph ragm i te s ) a l so p roduced t he v e ry w e l l -deve loped mac ro scop ic p o l ish ( f igure s 2 9 a nd 3 5 ) c ommon ly a t tr ibu ted t ou se o np lan t s . A ga in t h is w a s i nn ow ay s im i la rt ot he t r ace s o n t h e a rchaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s . S uch a w e l l d eve loped

S u rf ace

Mod i f ica t ion

I ts oon b ecame a ppa ren t t ha t t he c onf l ic t ing e v idenc e f r om t he m ic ro scop ic o b ser va t ion w a s p robab ly d ue t o p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . T he i r e f ec t o n f l in t t o o ls h a s b een o b se rved f r om av a r ie ty o fs i te s o fa l l a ge s a nd g eog raph ic s e t t ing s ( Lev i S a la 1 986b ) . T he p rob lem i s much mo re w ide sp re ad t han c an b e i n f e r red f r om t he

mac ro scop ic p o l ish , o f t en r e f e r red t o a s " s ick le g lo s s" , g ene ra l ly s urv ive s e ven w hen t he f l in t s u rf ace s h ave b een a f ec ted b yp o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . T he r ea son

m ic rowea r l i t e ra t ure . F l in t s u rßce s a nd /o r u se -we a r p o l ish a r ea l te red i ns uch aw ay a st or e nde r d i ff icu l t , i f n o t i mpo s s ib le , t h e i r i n te rp re ta t ion a cco rd ing t o t he

f o r t h is p henomenon i sn o t y e t v e ry c l ea r b u t h a s b een e mp i r ica l ly o b se rved e l sewhe re ( Unge r -Ham i l ton

K ee ley me thod . E ven K ee ley ( 1980 :29 ) o b se rved t ha t p a t ina t ion c an a l te r " t he l i gh t r e f lec t ion q ua l i t ie s o ft he

1 984 :266 ; L ev i S a la 1 986b ) . I f t he H eng is tbury m ic roden t icu la te s h ad b een u sed t or eap P hragm i te s , i t

f l in t s ot ha t t he m ic rosu rf ac e a nd t h em ic rowe ,a r c anno t b e o b se rved w i th l i gh t m ic ro scope s " . T he H eng is tbur y m ic roden t icu la te s , w hen n o t w h i te p a t ina ted , h ad a

i sv e ry l i ke ly t ha t t he p o l ish w ou ld h ave s u rv ived . D ry r eed s w o re d own t he t e e th t oo h eav i ly w h i le r eap ing f r e sh r e ed s w o r e t hem o n ly l i gh t ly . A s men t ioned

mac ro scop ic s heen w h ich h a s b een a t t r ibu ted b y many r e sea rche r s t o t he e f e c t o f b u r ia l i n t he s o i l . T h is i s s ome t ime s c a l led " so i l s heen" o r " g lo s sy p a t ina" . Mo s t o ft he a r tef ac t s e xam ined a l so h ad r a ndom ly d i s t r ibu ted g lo s sy b r igh t s po t s . M ic ro scop ica l ly t h ey a ppea r l i ke a s moo th h igh ly r ef lec t ive p o l ish . T hey v a ry i ns i ze f r om

a bove , i nb o th c a se st he p o l ish w a s v e ry w e l l d eve loped a nd d i s t inc t ive , w h ich i s n o t t he c a se w i th t he a r chaeo log ica l s pe c imens . I ti sp o s s ib le t ha t t he H eng is tbu ry m ic roden t icu la te s w e re u sed f o ri n c i s ing o rc u t t ing g reen , b u t w oody p l an t ma te r ia lf o r ar e la t ive ly l im i ted l e ng th o ft ime . No o ne t a sk i se nv isaged b u t i th a s b een s ugge s ted t ha t

t he m ic ro scop ic t o t he mac ro scop ic , o ccu r r ing s i ng ly a nd i n c l u s te r s o n c o r t ica l a nd n on -co r t ica l s u rf ace s a l ike .

a p ar t icu la r f unc t ion m igh t h ave i nvo lved t h e " roughen ing" o fa r row s haf t sn ea rt he n ock -end p r io rt o

A l though b r igh t s po t s o f ten a ppea r o n a r tef ac t s af ec ted b ys o i l s he en ,t he t wo a re i nn ow ay c ompa rab le i n t he i r a ppea rance ( f igu re s 3 6 a nd 3 8 ) . A mo re

g lu ing o n t he f e a the rf l igh t s( C . B e rgman p e rs . c omm) . U nf o r tuna te ly , t he l im i ted e xpe r imen t s s o f a r c a r r ied o u t ( u s ing a s c rap ing mo t ion f o r 3 0 m inu te s o n s of t w ood ) d i d n o tp roduce t he s ame w ea r s e en o n t he t e e th

d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o ft he se a nd o t he r f e a tu re s c an b e f ound i nC hap te r6 . S o i l s heen i s o f ten a u n if o rm b r igh tne s s o ve r t he w ho le s u rf ace o ft he f l in t i mp lemen t . I nc e r ta in c a se s i t c an b e c onc en t ra ted o n t he p rom inen ta r ea s o fa r tef ac t s . I ti sc e r ta in ly c l ea r t o a l l t ha t t h i s s heen i sc au sed b y

o ft h e H eng is tbu ry t oo ls . A s c rap ing mo t ion a s i n d e h a i r ing h ide w a s a l so u sed i n E xpe r imen t 2 ( s ee Append ix 1 ) . S ome e dge r ound ing w as o b se rved m ic ro scop ica l ly w h i le n o s uch e dge w ea r w a s o bse rved o n t h ea r chaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s . D e sp i te t h e f a i lu re t o

n a tu ra lr a the rt han h uman a c t ion . B r igh t s po t s a r e as moo th , h igh ly r e f lec t ive p o l ish

f i nd ap rec i se p a ra l le l , i ts e ems t ha t i nt he t a sk (s ) t he c oncave s hape o ft h ew o rk ing -edge c l ea r ly ma t te red a nd t ha tt h eo b se rved w ea rp a t te rns a r ec ons is ten t w i th w o rk

l o ca l ised o n f l in t s u rf ac e s . T hey h ave b een o b served o n a r tef ac t s f r om many s i te s o fv a ry ing a ge s a nd l o ca t ions .

o n ama te r ia l s of te rt han s t one , s he l l , b one o rh a rdwood b u th a rde rt han mea t .

T he re i sa g reemen t t ha t t h ey a r e p o s t -depo s i t iona l i n n a tu re a l though s of a rt he i r mos t c ommon d e sc r ip t ion i s t ha t t hey a r e e n igma t ic . O n many m ic roden t icu la te s

2 2

t hey o ccu r o n t h e s e r ra ted e dge , i n s ide t he s c a r s , a nd o n t h et e e th .

4 . 1 .5 .3 E xper imen t sf or Mechan ica lP roce s se s T o i nve s t iga te t he h ypo the s is o f mechan ica l p o l ish ing , a n e xpe r imen t w a s s e t u p t or ep roduc et h e movemen t o f a r tef ac t s i ns and s . S inc e i tw a s o bv iou s ly i mpo s s ib le t o s imu la te t h e l e ng th o ft ime o fb u r ia l ( 9 / 10 .000 y ea r s ) ,

4 . 1 .5 .2 C ond i t ion o ft he Heng i s tbury A r tef ac t s A s m en t ioned a bove , t h e H eng is tbu ry a r tef ac t s w e re o f ten p a t ina ted a nd af ec ted b y s o i l s heen a nd b r igh t s po t s . T he P owe l l s i te i ss i tua ted o n a n e xpo sed h i l ls ide c ove red b y w indb lown s and s w i th a w e l l -deve loped p od so l f o rma t ion . T he Me so l i th ic a r tef ac t s a r ef ound i n f i ne s and s w i th p ebb le s o ccu r r ing w i th in t h e l owe r

w e w e re a b le t o a r t if ic ia l ly s peed u p t h e p roce s se s b y u s ing am echan ica l t umb l ing d ev ic e ( s e e a l so L ev i S a la 1 986a , 1 986b ) . T he s and s u sed w e re c o l lec ted f r om H eng is tbu ry a nd w e re e xac t ly t he s ame a s t ho se w h ich o ccu r red a t t he Me so l i th ic s i te . T he r e su l t s c an b e s umma r i sed a sf o l low s :

l e ve ls . T he re i s e v idence f o r v e r t ica l movemen t o f a r tef ac t s o n t he s i te a s s hown b y t he c on jo in ing o f a r tef ac t s s epa ra ted v e r t ica l ly b y u p t o 3 9cm ( Ba r ton 1 981 :19 ) . S im i la r o b se rva t ions h ave b een made o f Me so l i th ic ma te r ia l f r om o t he r s ou the rn B r i t ish s i te s i n

E xper imen t sw i th F ine S and A S hak ing a nd t umb l ing i nd iv idua l e xpe r imen ta l f l in t a r tef ac t s w i th k nown u se -wea r p a t te rns a t 6 0 r evo lu t ions p e r m inu te , i n f i ne s and f r om t h e s i te ,

s and s , w h ich s how a ma rked v e r t ica l d i spe r sa l o f a r tef ac t sa nd s u rf ace a l te ra t ion o ft he f l in t( Mahe r 1 983 ; D imb leby 1 965 ) .

w i th a nd w i thou t w a te r . T he l e ng th o ft ime a nd t he s peed w e re i n c rea sed g radua l ly , f r om 1 0 m inu te s t o 5 0 h ou r s ( s ee d e ta i ls o ft he e xpe r imen t s i n s e c t ions 6 . 5 .1 a nd 6 . 5 .2 )a f te rw h ich : a ) s o i l s heen a ppea red o n t he a r tef ac t s( f igu re 3 8 ) , b ) s t r ia t ions p re sen t o n a r tef ac t s u sed t ow h i t t le d ry r e ed s a nd i n c ise w ood h ad c omp le te ly d i sappeared ( f igu re s 1 4a nd 1 6 ) ,

F rom am ic ro scop ic p o in t o fv i ew , t he e f e c t o fw ind b lown s and s o n f l in t a r tef ac t s h a s a l so b een d e sc r ibed e x ten s ive ly b y S t ape r t ( 1976 :1419 ) , w ho c onc lude s " i t i s n o t i mpo s s ib le t ha t i n p l ace s w he re w indg lo s s i s h igh ly d eve loped ,m ic ro scop ic t r ace so ft h eu se f o rme r ly p re sen ta r ec omp le te ly o rp a r t ly o b l i te ra ted" .

c ) t h e s u rf ace o ft he f l in t a way f r om t he e dge w a s s c ou red c l ean ( f igu re 1 6 ) .

T ot e s t w he the r s uch e f ec t s c ou ld b eo b se rved u nde r mode rn c ond i t ions , B a r ton a nd B e rgman ( 1982 ) u nde r took a s e r ie s o f e xpe r imen t s i nvo lv ing f r e sh ly k napped f l in t s c a t te r s i n s and s . T he a r tef ac t s w e re f l aked o n to as and s u rf ac ea nd l a ye xpo sed o v e r s eve ra l mon th s . E ven a f te r ar e la t ive ly s ho r t p e r iod o fl y ing o n t he s u rf ace , b e ing b u r ied a nd t hen s ome t ime s s ub sequen t ly r e -exposed , many o f t h e f l i n t s w e re n o t iceab ly d i sco lou red a nd p a t ina ted . No s o i l s heen o r b r igh ts po t sw e re ,h ow eve r , o b se rved . I ts hou ld b en o ted i np a s s ing t ha tt h e e xpe r imen ta l s i te w a s l o ca ted o n t h e s e a s ho re i n ah igh ly a l ka l ine e nv i ronmen t a nd w i th c ond i t ions q u i te u n l ike t ho se p reva i l ing d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic , when H eng is tbu ry w a s e s sen t ia l ly a n i n land

E xper imen t sw i th G rave l l yS and B E xpe r imen ta l a r tef ac t su sed o n g reen b i rch , b racken , r u she s , d ry o ak , f r e sh w i l low w e re t umb led i n g rav e l ly w e t s and , f o r u p t o 5 0 h ou rs a t 6 0 r pm w h ich r e su l ted i n : a ) t h e a ppea rance o f v a ry ing d eg ree s o f s heen i n ten s i ty , b ) t h ed i sappea rance o fu se -w ea rs t r ia t ion s , c ) t h e a dd i t ion o fp o l i sh o n t he e dge s w i thou t a ny c l ue s t o i nd ica te t ha t t he re h ad b een t wo c onsecu t ive p o l i sh ing e ven t s( f igu re s 3 9 ,40 , 4 1) . d ) t h e a ppea ranc e o f ac oncen t ra t ion o f p o l i sh o n e i the r s i de o ft he s e r ra t ion ( f igu re 4 2 ) .

l o ca t ion . A no the r p o s s ib i l i ty c ons ide red w a s t h a t t h e s o i l s heen r e su l ted f r om mechan ica l p o l ish ing , f o r e xamp le b yt h ea b ra s ive a c t ion o fs and o n f l in t . T h is c ou ld h ave b een p roduced b y t r amp l ing , b i o tu rba t ion , w ind b l a s t ing , o r s imp ly t he s e t t l ing o f t he s ed imen t u nde r p re s su re ( V i l la 1 977 a nd 1 982 , C ahen a nd Moeye r son s 1 977 , B a r ton 1 98 1 , R ow le t t a nd R obb ins 1 982 , V i l la a nd C ou r t in 1 983 a nd o t he r s ) . I n f a c t i t i s l i ke ly t h a t o ne o r s eve ra l o f t he se p ro ce s se si nf luenced t he H eng is tbu ry s i te . F ina l ly , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t h e c hem is t ry o ft h e

DISCUSSION T he p re senc eo fg rave l i nt h e s ed imen t i nt he s e cond s e t o fe xpe r imen ts i su ndoub ted ly t he v a r iab le t ha t a ccoun t s f o r t he d if e ren t r e su l t s . I ti ss i gn if ican tt ha t gave l w a s a l so p re sen t i nt h e s and s a tt h e s i te . T he c oncen t ra t ion o fp o l i sh o nt he e dge s a f te rt umb l ing may mean t ha tt he o r ig ina l u se -w ea r p o l i she s w e re " i nc rea sed" b y movemen t i n t h e s ed imen t . H oweve r , s im i la r c oncen t ra t ions o f p o l i sh w e re a l so n o ted o n t h e u n se r ra ted ( and u nu sed ) e dge s o f t he e xpe r imen ta l

s o i l i t se lf c an a f ec t f l in t s u rf ace s . N o d e ta i led w o rk o n t h e e f ec t s o f s u ch p roce s se s w a s c a r r ied o u t i n t h i s c on tex t . S ub sequen t wo rk w a s h oweve r c a r r ied o u t a nd i s d e sc r ibed i n C hap te r 6 . I t c onf i rmed t ha t t h e d eve lopmen t o fs o i l s heen a nd b r igh t s po t s c an o ccu r t h rough s o i l c hem ica l p roce s se s a l one , t h a t i tc an b e c oncen t ra ted o n t he e dge a s i n t he c a s e o f t h e H eng i s tbu ry m ic roden t icu la te s a nd t ha t s u ch p o s t d epo s i t iona lp ro ce s se sc an o b l i te ra te u se -we a rt r ace s .

p iece s . T h i ss ugge s t st ha tt h ee dge i s mo re v u lne rab le t o p o l i sh ing t han t he r e s t o f t h e f l in t s u rf ac e , af a c t e mp i r ica l ly o b served b y o t he r e xpe r imen te r s ( Mo s s p e r s . c omm . ) . T he f a c t t ha t movemen t i nt he s ed imen t c an c au se p o l ish t o c oncen t ra te o n u nu sed e dge s i nd ica te s t ha t e x t reme c au t ion s hou ld b e e xe rc i sed b ef o re u nc r i t ica l ly e qua t ing ac oncen t ra t ion o fp o l ish o n a n e dge w i th s ome f o rm o fu se . A s men t ioned e a r l ie r , o t he r e xpe r imen t s ( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 ) h ave s hown t ha t 2 3

s heen p roduced b y c hem ica l p roce s se s a l so h a s a t e ndency t oc oncen t ra te o n t he e dge s . T he se o b se rva t ion s a re d i rec t ly r e levan t t o t he a r tef ac t s f r om t h e H eng is tbu ry s i te . Du r ing t he o r ig ina l m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion s o i l s heen w a s n o ted o n many o f t h e a r tef ac t s b u t t he se a l so s howed a s i gn i f ican t c oncen t ra t ion o fp o l ish a l ong t h e e dge s . I tw ou ld a ppea r

s ed imen t( Mahe r , 1 983 ) . A f u r the r e xamp le a r e

L ikew ise , t he t r ace sw h ich a ppea red o n e i the r s i de o f

t he

a r tef ac t s

f r om

t h e

Me so l i th ic s i te o f Mee r I , i n B e lg ium ( Van N o ten 1 978 ) w h ich a l so u nde rwen t e x tens ive v er t ica l a nd

b lade le t s a r e c u rved a nd t w is ted a nd o n many o ft hem t he a f ec ted a r ea sa r eq u i te p rom inen t , a nd c onsequen t ly mov ing

L ondon ,

f l in t s u rf ace s w e re i n ac ompa rab le c ond i t ion t o t h e

t he s e r ra t ion a nd w e re f i r s t t hough t t ob e h a f t ing t r ace s a re n ow b e l ieved t o h ave a d if e ren t o r ig in . T he se

w hen

T he s i te o f We s t H ea th ,

H eng is tbu ry H ead ma te r ia l . R ef i t t ing o fa r tef ac t s p o in t s t o t he i r " cons ide rab le v e r t ica l d i sp lacemen t" i n t h e

t ha tt h ea bove m en t ioned e xp lana t ion m igh ta c coun t f o r t he o c cu r rence o fp o l ish c oncen t ra t ion a l ong t h ee dge s .

mo re l i ke ly t o b e p o l ished

a l so e xam ined .

e xcava ted b y t h e H endon a nd D is t r ic t A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty u nde r t he d i rec t ion o fD e smond C o l l in s , h a s a s o i l e nv i ronmen t v e ry s im i la r t ot h a t o ft h e P owe l l s i te . T he a r tef ac t s w e re a l so e i the rp a t ina ted o rc ove red w i th s o i l s heen a nd b r igh t s po t s . M ic ro scop ica l ly t o o , t he

h o r izon ta l

movemen t

i n

t he

s ed imen t

a nd

a r e

mac ro scop ica l ly s o l u st rou s t ha t t hey a ppea r v a rn ished . My e xam ina t ion o ft wo o ft he Me e r a r tef ac t s ( Kee ley

i n t he

s ed imen t .

1 978 ) u nde r t h e m ic ro scope s howed t ha t t he p rev iou s a na ly s i s may h ave m is taken p o s t -depo s i t iona l t r ace s f o r u se -wea r . I n t he c a se s w he re p o s t -depo s i t iona l s u r f ace mod if ica t ions ( PDS M ) o ccu r s o n a r tef ac t s , t he n umbe r

F r ic t ion E xper imen t s C T h is i n vo lved r e pea ted ly r ubb ing f l in t s t oge the r t o p roduce mac ro scop ica l ly v i s ib le " b r igh t s po r t s" ( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 5 .3 ) . T he b r igh t s po t s mo s t s im i la r t o

o f t oo ls w h ich c an b e c onf iden t ly a na ly sed i s o f ten r educed t o a n a lmo s t u n rep re sen ta t ive s amp le a nd t h e

a r chaeo log ica l o ne sa ppea red o n ly w hen u s ing w a te r a s amed ium a nd r ubb ing f o r t wo m inu te s ( f igu re s

d e ta i led i n te rp re ta t ion o f m ic rowea r t r ace s o n s uch a r tef ac t s i sc l ea r ly v e ry d oub tf u l . T h is d oe s n o t mean ,

4 3 ,4 4a nd 4 5 ) .

h oweve r , t ha t f unc t iona l a na ly s is o n s uch t oo ls s hou ld

DISCUSS ION

b e a bandoned a l toge the r . T oo l a nd e dge mo rpho logy c an s ugge s t p os s ib le u se s ; e xpe r imen ta t ion w i th

B r igh ts po t sd on o tu sua l ly h ave a ny s y s tema t ic r e la t ion t ot h e e dge s a nd s hou ld n o t g ene ra l ly b e c onf u sed w i th

o b serva t ion o fe dge w ea r p a t te rns c an n a r row d own t h e n umbe r o ft a sks at oo l i ss u i tab le f o r o ri sl i ke ly t oh ave b een u sed f o r . I ti sn o d oub t amo re mode s t r e su l t t h an

g enu ine s i gns o f u se -wea r , a l though t hey c an ma sk p a r t s o f t he e dge ( f igu re 4 3 ) . I n s uch c a se s i t i s i mpo r tan t t ou nde r s tand t he s equence o fd eve lopmen t ; t h is c an h e lp a s ce r ta in w he the r o t her t r ace s o n t h e e dge

t h e f i rs t m ic rowea r s t ud ie s may h ave l e d a r chaeo log is t s t oe xpec t . O n t he o t he r h and , w h i le t he r e su l t s may b e l i m i ted i ns cope t hey a re a tl e a s tr ea l is t ic . I nc onc lu s ion , t he ref o re , i ti so n ly p o s s ib le t os ugge s t

a re n a tu ra l o r n o t . When b r igh t s po t s o ccu r a s l a rge , v e ry f l a t a nd i s o la ted p o l ish t hey a r e e a s i ly i d en t if ied , b u ti ft h ey o ccu ri nc l u s te r sw h ich a r en o t c i rcumsc r ibed i na r ea a nd t ape r o f , t hey c an l o ok r ema rkab ly s im i la r t ou se -wea rp o l ish .

t h a t t he H eng is tbu ry m ic roden t icu la te s w e re u sed i n a g ene ra l c u t t ing /saw ing mo t ion o n a r e la t ive ly s of t m a te r ia l p robab ly ab racken t ype p lan to rg reen w ood . T h is i n te rp re ta t ion i sb a sed o n t he e dge mo rpho logy

Av e ry a pp rop r ia te e xamp le i st he c a se o f 6s c rape r s f r om t h e P owe l l s i te wh ich w e re e xam ined t o s ee

a nd o t he r c ha rac te r is t ic s c oup led w i th t he r e su l t s o f e xper imen ta l w o rk .

whe the r t he p rob lems w i th t he m ic roden t icu la te s w e re r e la ted t of unc t ion o rd ue t op o s t -depo s i t iona l f a c to r s . I n

I n t h i s i n s tance m ic rowea r p o l ish w a s n o t a b le t o s ub s tan t ia te t he a bove o b serva t ions . I tw a s n o t p o s s ib le

t he c a se o f ap a r t icu la r t oo l J 9 /4a /30 , t he t r ac e s o n t he r e touched s c rap ing e dge c ou ld h ave b een m is taken f o r

i nt he s amp le o f 3 4 a r tef ac t s t o i s o la te w i th c e r ta in ty , t h e p o l ish p roduced b y u se , i fa ny , f r om t h a t p roduced

u se p o l ish ( f igu re 4 6 ) . Howeve r , e xam ina t ion o f t he o the r p a r t s o ft he i mp lemen t s howed t ha t b r igh t s po t s

b yp o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s .

o n t h e p rox ima l e nd o f t he v en tra l a spec t w e re d ef in i te ly n o t a t t r ibu tab le t o u se . I n te re s t ing ly , t hey

4 . 2 MO USTER IAN A RTEFACTS F ROM KE BARA

a ppea rv e ry s im i la rt ot h ep o l ish c ommon ly d e sc r ibed a s " s ick le g lo s s" ( f igu re 4 7 ) . Whe re t he se b r igh t s po t s w e re l e s s d eve loped t h ey w e re v e ry s im i la r t ot he " u se"

4 . 2 .1 T he S i te a nd t he A r tef ac t s

p o l i sh o n t h e s c rap ing e dge . I ti st he ref o re e xt r eme ly l i ke ly t h a t a l l t h e s u rv iv ing p o l ish o n t h i s i mp lemen t

T he K eba ra c ave s i te l i e s i n t he C a rme l h i l l s a nd h a s

w a sp o s t -depo s i t iona l i nn a tu re .

k nown d epo s i t s f r om t h e Mou s te r ian t o t he E p i P a laeo l i th ic . T he h i s to ry o f t he v a r ious e xcava t ion s i s

4 . 1 .6 C onc lud ing R emark s

d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i l i nS ch ick a nd S t eke l is ( 1977 ) a nd i t s mo s t r ec en t r e -excava t ion i sd i scu s sed b y B a r -Yo sef e t

T he d i sappea rance o ft r ace s o n a r tef ac t s s how ing s o i l s heen r ende r st h er e su l t s o fm ic rowea r a na ly s is i nt he se

a l . ( 1986 ) . A t t he s t ar t o f my w o rk a s a membe r o f t h e

c a se sd oub tf u lt os ay t h e l e a s t . S im i la r e f ec t sh av eb een

e xcava t ion t e am , i tw a s s ugge s ted t ha t Ic a r ry o u t a m ic rowea r a na ly s i s o f c e r ta in Mou s te r ian a r tef ac t s

n o ted o n a s semb lage s o the r t han H eng i s tbu ry . M ic roden t icu la te s f r om a no the r Me so l i th ic s i te w e re

f o l low ing t h e K ee ley m e thod ( 1980 ) . S i nc e r e touched 2 4

a nd f o rma l t oo ls a re r a re i nt he a s semb lage , a s i so f ten

l a s ts aw ho le m inu te ) u s ing an y lon b ru sh . T he s u rf ace w a s o bs e rved a nd p ho tog raphed b ef o re a nd a f te r b ru sh ing ( f igu r e s4 8 , 5 0 , 5 2 ) . N e i the rt he p o l ish n o rt h e s ur round ing u npo l ished f l in t a ppea red t ob e af ec ted b y

n o ted o n s uch Mou s te r ian s i te s , i n te re s t c en t red o n t he d e te rm ina t ion o f w h ich i mp lemen t s w e re u sed , h ow t hey w e re u sed , a nd w ha t ma te r ia l sw e re w o rked . F rom h und red s o fe xcava ted a r tef ac t s f r om t he 1 982 s ea son , Is amp led 5 6 a r tef ac t s w h ich mac ro scop ica l ly d id n o t a ppea r p a t i na ted , b u rn t o ro t he rw ise u nsu i tab le f o rm ic rowea ra cco rd ing t oK e e ley 's g u ide l ine s . My p rev iou s a t temp t s a t m ic rowea r a na ly s is o f f l in t i mp lemen t s f r om o t he r I s rae l i s i te s s howed t ha t f l in t

t h is c l ean ing w hen o b se rved o p t ica l ly a tx 100 a nd x 200 ( f igu re s4 9 , 5 1 , 5 3 ) . A s B randon f l in t i s mo re f i ne -ga ined t han t he f l in t f ound i nt h e c ave a tK eba ra o ne w ou ld e xpec t i tt o b e e ven mo re s u scep t ib le t o t h e f o rma t ion o f p o l ish a nd o t he r t r ace s r e la ted t o a t t r i t ion a nd a b ra s ion ( Vaughan

s u rf ac e s w ere af ec ted b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . T h is s e ems t o r e su l t i n t he d i sappea rance o f u se -we a r p o l ish a nd /o r t he a dd i t ion o f o t he r " po l ishe s" , n o t r e la ted t o u se , w h ich c onf u se t h e a ppea ranc e o f u se w e ar t r ac e s( Lev i S a la 1 986a ) . When t he a r tef ac t sf r om K eba ra 1 982 w e re e xam ined m ic ro scop ica l ly , e dge -w ea r o n p o ten t ia l ly u sefu l e dge s o f1 5t o o ls s ugge s ted t ha tt hese a tl e a s t s e emed l i ke ly t o h ave b e en u sed . O n t h e se 1 5 , h ow eve r , t he re w a s n o d i sc re te p a t te rn ing o fp o l ish o n t h e e dge s w h ich m igh t

1 985 :28 ; H o lme s 1 987 :92 ; Ma s son 1 982 :33 ) . A l l p i ece s e xam ined m ic ro scop ica l ly w e re c l e aned i n t he l a bo ra to ry w i th a mmon ia -f ree d e t e rgen t a nd b y i mme r s ion i n d i s t i l led w a te r i n a n u l t ra son ic t ank f o r a bou t 2 0m inu te s . Af ew p i ece s ( on w h ich e nc ru s ta t ions c ove red t h e p robab le u sed e dge ) w e re d ipped i n HC 1 1 0% f o r p e r iod s o f u p t o 3 0 m inu te s , a s a dvoca ted b y K ee ley ( 1980 :1012 ) . A l l c a rbona te e ncru s ta t ions w e re r emoved b y t h is c l ean ing b u t s ome mo re o b s t ina te e nc ru s ta t ions w e re n o t a f ec ted , p re sumab ly d ue t o t he i r b e ing o f n on c a rbona te c ompo s i t ion . T he re i s e v idence o f b one

s ugge s t t ha t t he e dge s w e re i nde ed u sed . T he re w e re p a tche s o f" po l ish" w h ich c ou ld b e a t t r ibu ted e i the r t o u se o ns of t ma te r ia ls o rt op o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . B ef o re a bandon ing t h ep ro jec tc omp le te ly ,a n a t temp t w as m ade t oa nswe rt he f o l low ing q ue s t ions : a w ou ld amo re c a ref u l a pp roach i ne xcava t ion a nd s t o rage t e chn ique s e l im ina te s ome , i fn o t a l l , o f

d i s so lu t ion o n s i te a nd t h e c ave i se x tens ive ly u sed b y b a t s . 4 . 2 .3 S craper s

t he p o s t -depo s i t iona l" backg round n o ise" ; b c ou ld a ny c onc lu s ions b e d rawn f r om l ook ing a t ap a r t icu la rt o o l t y pe?

A n umbe r o f r e touched " s c rape r s" ( 12 ) f r om v a r iou s Mou s te r ian l e ve ls a nd s qua re s w e re a l so e xam ined i n o rde rt oc ompa re p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se so n :

T o i nve s t iga te q ue s t ion a , a l l t he 5 9 p iece s f r om S qua re I 1 8 L eve l X I 1 985 w e re e xcava ted , w a shed , b agged i nd iv idua l ly a nd e xam ined . Many o ft he p iece s

1 p re sumab ly s c rape r s

w e re e i the r p a t ina ted , b roken a nd /o r p a ten t ly u nu sab le d eb i tage . T o a s s i s t w i th a dd re s s ing q ue s t ion b , t he e xcava to r s k ind ly s en t 1 2 Mous te r ian s c rape r s f r om v ar iou ss qua re sa nd l e ve l s( s ee 4 . 2 .3 b e low ) .

u sed ,

p o l i shed

s u rf ace s

o n

t h e

2 p o s s ib ly u nu sed u npo l ished r ema in ing a r tef ac t s

s u rf ace s

o n

t h e

T he s c rape r s h ad b een w a shed a nd b ru shed o n s i te a nd t r an spor ted f o r s t o rage i n b oxe s i n c on tac t w i th o t he rf l in tt o o ls . A s m en t ioned e a r l ie r t h e s c rape r s w e re p re sumed t o h ave b een u sed . O n s i x o ft hem h eavy p a t ina p reven ted

4 . 2 .2 P o s t -Excava t ion Hand l ing I t w a s d ec ided t o i nve s t iga te w he the r h and l ing o f a r tef ac t s c an c au se t r ace s w h ich m igh t c on s t i tu te " backg round n o i se" w hen a na ly s ing e dge s . I n ap ape r

o b se rva t ion o fu s e -wea r t r ace s a nd o n s ome i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t od i s t ingu ish e ven t he f l in t m ic ro -s truc tu re . I t w a s o n ly p o s s ib le o n t he se p a t ina ted s c rape r s t or eco rd s u rf ace c ond i t ion a nd e dge mo rpho logy . On t he o the r s i x s c rape r s s ome t r ace s o f w eak ly d eve loped p o l i sh

w a rn ing a bou t t he e f ec t s o f c a re le s s p o s t -excava t ion h and l ing , P l i sson ( 1985 :99101) r ecommend s a vo id ing b o th t h e b ru sh ing o f a r tef ac t s o n s i te a nd t he u se o f p ape r b ag s . H e c l a im s t ha t p ape r c au sed p o l i sh t o a ppea r o n e xpe r imen ta l f l in t i mp lemen t s a f t e r o n ly f i ve s econd so fc on tac t( i b id . :100 P la te 6 ) . Ag roup o f3 2 o ft he K eba ra p i ece sw e re w a shed a nd b ru shed w i th n y lon b ru she s o n s i te b ef o re b e ing b agged

w i th s ome s t r ia t ion s w e re p re sen t ( f igu re 5 4 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e p o l i sh o n t he e dge a nd o n t he f l in t s t ruc tu re c ou ld h ave b e en p roduced b y u se o n as of t ma te r ia l l i ke mea t i n t he p re senc e o f g r i t ( f igu re 5 5 ) , a nd /o r b yu se o n s epa ra t ing c ar t i lage f r om b one ( f igu re 5 6 ) .

i n i nd iv idua l p aper b ag s . A no the r g roup o f2 7 p i ece s w e re w a shed w i th w a te r o n ly a nd b agged i n i nd iv idua l

T he s u rf ac e o ft he se s i x p i ec e s i sn one the le s s a l so a f ec ted b yp o s t -d epo s i t iona lp roce s se s wh ich v e ry o f ten p roduce " po l i she s" n o t t o o d i s s im i la r f r om t he w eak

p la s t ic b ag s . No d if e rence i n s u rf ace p re se rva t ion a nd /o r mod if ica t ion w a s o b se rved b e tw een t he t wo g roup s . No s pec ia l p o l i sh w a s o b se rved o n t he a r tef ac t s wh ich w e re i n c on tac t w i th t h e p ape r b ag s f o r s eve ra l w eek s i n a k nap sack b ef o re b e ing b rough t t o t he l a bo ra to ry . E xpe r imen t s w e re c a rr ied o u t i n t he l a bo ra to ry b y

p o l ish p roduced b y b u tche r ing .

T h is o ccu rs e i the r

t h rough c on tac t w i th o t he r s t one s a nd /o r movemen t i n t h e s ed imen t o r mo re i mpo r tan t ly f o l low ing t he c hem ica l p roc e s se s i n t h e s o i l w h ich a f ec t t he f l in t s u rf ace a s d i scu s sed i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .1012 ( Lev i S a la 1 986 aa nd b ) .

b ru sh ing u sed p i e ce s o fB randon f l in t w i th w a te r a nd s ed imen t f o ru p t of i ve m inu te s ( on -s i te b rush ing r a re ly

I ti st h e ref o re n o t p o s s ib le o n t h e b as is o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t a nd p a t te rn ing t oi n te rp re tt he u se o ft he se 2 5

t oo ls a s b u tcher ing k n ive s . I n d raw ing c onc lu s ions

4 .2 .4 .3 S crap ing Wood

r ega rd ing f unc t ion i ti sf u r the rmo re a dv isab le t oo b se rve a much l a rge r s amp le w he re e ven tua l p a t te rn ing o f

T he e xpe r imen t s r evea led t ha t t h e s c rape rs w e re i n ef i c ien t w ood s c rape r s r emov ing o n ly v e ry m inu te s hav ing s ; at h icke r , h igh a ng led f l ake c ou ld w h i t t le o r s c rape b e t te ra nd q u icke r .

t r ace sc ou ld b eu sed a se v idence . O the r f e a tu re s w e re a l so e xam ined wh ich a r e p robab ly mo re r e l iab le f o r i n te rp re ta t ion o f f unc t ion t han p o l ish w h ich h a s b een a l te red b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . T he r e touched e dge s o n t he se a r tef ac t s w e re

4 .2 .4 .4 S crap ing B one

n o t a u toma t ica l ly a s sumed t o b e t he a c t ive e dge s . E xam ina t ion o ft he mo rpho logy a nd p rof i le o fa l l t h e se e dge s s ugge s ted t ha t t h ey w e re i nf a c t t h e mo s t u se fu l . E dge d amage w a s t a ken i n to a ccoun t b u t o f c ou r se i s n o t v e ry i n f o rma t ive o n r e touched e dge s o r o n t oo ls

T he s c rape r s p roved a s i n ef f i c ien t f o r s c rap ing b one a s f o r w o rk ing w ood . H oweve r , a s b one i s ah a rde r ma te r ia l t han w ood , t he t oo l w a s e ven l e s s ef i c ien t , y i e ld ing n os hav ing s a ta l l .

w h ich h ave b een r a the rr ough ly h and led .

4 . 2 .5 C onc lu s ion s

4 .2 .3 .1 Edge Ang le a nd Edge Morpho logy

4 .2 .5 .1 F unc t ion o fR e touched p iece s

O n a l l 1 2 s c rape r s t h e u sef u l r e touched e dge w a s mo re a cu te t han 5 0d eg ree s , made o n t h in b l ank s , w h ich w e re

I t s eems t he ref o re t ha t t he se 1 2 " sc rape r s" a r e n o t u sef u l t oo ls t o s c rape e i the r h ide , w ood o r b one . I t a ppea r s much mo re l i ke ly , b y p roce s s o f e l im ina t ion , t ha t t he se t oo ls r ep re sen t b u tche r ing k n ive s r a the r t han s c rape r s . T he re a r e o n ly 1 2 s c rape r s i n vo lved i n t h is

b e low 6mm t h ick a t t he m idpo in t o f t he e dge . A l l s c rape r s h ad s t ra igh t , s l igh t ly c oncave t o s l igh t ly c onvex e dge p rof i le s ,w h ich w ou ld b eu sef u l i n ac u t t ing a c t iv i ty l i ke b u tche r ing .

s t udy a nd a l though t hey w e re a l l f r om o ne s e a son 's e xcava t ion t h e i rt empo ra l r e la t ionsh ip t oe ach o t he rh a s n o t y e t b een s t ud ied _ I ti st he ref o re n o t p o s s ib le t o make g ene ra l isa t ions f r om a s ma l l s amp le w he re t h ere i sn o

4 . 2 .4 . U se -wear E xper imen t s 4 .2 .4 .1 B u tcher y

p o l ish w h ich i s c l ea r ly u se induced . I t i s h ow eve r p os s ib le t o make a t heo re t ica l h ypo the s is : o n as i te w he re a r tef ac t s w i th t he se c ha rac te r is t ic s a r e t he mo s t s i gn if ican t , w he re n o o t he r t oo ls w h ich a r e s u i tab le f o r

B u tche r ing e xpe r imen t s c a r r ied o u t w i th e dge s q u i te s im i la r t o t he se " s c rape r" e dge s a l so p roduced w eak ly d eve loped p o l ishe s a s d e sc r ibed a bove ( f igu re 5 7 s e e a l so f i gu re s 4a nd 2 1) .

h ide s c rap ing a r e f ound , i tm igh t b e w o r th p o s tu la t ing , p rov ided o t he r e v idence i sa l so c ompa t ib le , t ha t h ide p roce s s ing w a st a k ing p lac ee l sewhe re , i fa ta l l .

None the le s s , o t he r s im i la re dge s w e re u sed t os c rape h ide , w ood a nd b one , t o t e s t t he i r s u i tab i l i ty f o r s uch

T he r e su l t s o fe xpe r imen t s w i th t he se t oo l s c l a s s if ied a ss c rape r st y po log ica l ly w ou ld s ugge s tt ha t f unc t iona l ly t hey a r ep robab ly c u t t ing t o o ls .

t a sks . 4 .2 .4 .2 S crap ing H id e T he e dge sw e re t oo t h in a nd s ha rp t oh ave b een u sed t o s c rape h ide ; t h e s c rap ing mo t ion c u t t h e h ide , a mo s t u nde s irab le r e su l t .

4 .2 .5 .2 F unc t ion o fU nre touched p iece s R ega rd ing t he 5 9 u nre touched p iece s , t h e c ond i t ion o f t he f l in t s u rf ace a l low s o n ly v e ry l im i ted i n f o rma t ion t o b eg a the red r ega rd ing f unc t ion . T hey h av eb een d iv ided i nt h ree c a tego r ie sa sf o l low s :

T he L eva l lo is t e chn ique w a s e x tens ive ly u sed i nt h e l i th ic i ndus t ry a t t h e s i te , p robab ly t o p roduce t h in b lanks . T he s c a la rr e touch p resen to nt he se p iece st h ins , s ha rpens a nd s t reng thens t he e dge b u td oe s n o t b lun t i t ; h ide s c rap ing i s b e s t c a r r ied o u t w i th a t h ick h igh

1 ) 1 p i ece s w h ich c ou ld h ave b een u sed . T he se e ach h ave au s efu l e dge a nd /o r e dge d amage o fp robab le

a ng led a nd b lun te r e dge s uch a s t ha t f ound o n e nd

u se o r ig in . T he c ond i t ion o f t he f l in t s u rf ac e d oe s

s c rape r s . T he e xpe r imen ta l t o o ls s howed t ha tt he se t h in e dge s w e re u sef u l t od e -ha i rh ide . T h is a c t iv i ty h oweve r o f ten

n o t a l low mo re d ef in i te s t a temen t s o n t he e xac t f unc t ion t ob e made . 2 ) 2 8 p i ece s w h ich w e re p robab ly n o t u sed e i the r

r e su l t si ne dge r ound ing w h ich w a sn o to b se rved o n t he K eba ra s c rape r s . O n ly af ew t r ace s p a ra l le l t ot he e dge w e re p re sen t o n t he s i x a r chaeo log ica l p i ece s w h i le d e h a i r ing h ide u sua l ly l e ave s ap a t te rn o ff a in tw ea rt r ac e s

b ecau se t h e e dge s w e re u nsu i tab le o r b ecau se t he re i sn o e v idence o fu se p resen t . H oweve r , i ti su sua l ly n o t p o s s ib le t os t a te w i th c er ta in ty t ha t t he se p ie ce s

p e rpend icu la r t o t h e e dge . I t i s n o t c e r ta in t ha t t he

o ft he f l in ts u rf ace . 3 ) 2 0 p i ece s w h ich a r e b u rn t , t oo p a t ina ted o r t oo b roken t os t udy . T he se r e su l t s a r e n o t s urpr is ing i n v i ew o f t h e

w e re " no t u sed" ; e spec ia l ly i nv i ew o ft h e c ond i t ion

o bse rved t r ac e s p a ra l le l t ot he e dge a r e u se induced i n t he se a l te red a r tef ac t s . I ft hey w e re ,t hey w ou ld b e mo re i nd ica t ive o fc u t t ing t h an s c rap ing ( f igu re 5 8 ) . F u r the rmo re , h ad t he se t oo l s b een u sed t o d e -ha i r

p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t s qua re 11 8 L eve l X I i sa n a r ea w he re r efu se f r om a n ea rby h ea r th w a s b e ing d umped ( Ba r

h ide a s as pec ia l ised a c t iv i ty , o ne w ou ld e xpec t o t he r , t h icke r s c rape r s , mo re s u i tab le f o rp roce s s ing h ide t ob e

Y osef p e r s . c omm . ) . I t i s a l so q u i te c ompa t ib le w i th t he d i sappo in t ing

f ound o n s i te ; n o s uch t oo ls a r e r ep re sen ted i n t he a s semb lage ( Me ignen p e r s . c omm . ) .

o u tcome o fe f o r t s t of i nd r e cogn isab le u se -wea r p o l ish 2 6

h oweve r ,

o n v a r iou s f l in t c o l le c t ions f r om I s rae l ( s ee s e c t ion 4 . 3 a nd L ev i S a la 1 986a ) .

l i ke ly t o a f f ec t

f l in t s ur f ace s ;

l a bo ra to ry

e xpe r imen t s s e t u p t o o b se rve t h is p henomenon o ve r t ime a r e d e sc r ibed w i th a d i scu s s ion o f t he r e su l t s i n C hap te r 6 p a r t icu la r ly i n s ec t ion 6 . 5 .5 a nd 6 . 5 .6 . H oweve r i nv i ew o ft he d i ff icu l ty i n s peed ing u p s uch n a tu ra l p ro ce s se s , t he se e xpe r imen t s c anno t b e r e l ied u pon t o g ive u s c onc lu s ive e v idenc e f o r t he

4 .2 .5 .3 " Background No i se" a nd P os t -d epo s i t iona l P roce s se s A s d e sc r ibed e a r l ie r ( s e c t ion 4 . 2 .2 ) , o n -s i te c l ean ing w i th a n y lon b ru sh a nd b agg ing s i ng ly i n p ape r b ag s

u nde r s tand ing o fp o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s a tK eba ra w i th in t he t ime s pan o ft h is w o rk .

d oe sn o t s e em t oa f ec t f l in t c ond i t ion a s o b se rved f r om t h e se 5 9p i ece sa nd f r om t h ee xpe r imen ta lv e r if ica t ion . I tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o i d en t if y t he e l emen t s w h ich m igh t h ave c au sed s uch w ide sp read p o s t -depo s i t iona l s u rf ace mod if ica t ion i n t h i s a s semb lage . P e rco la t ing w a te r t h rough l ime s tone o ve r al o ng p e r iod o ft ime i s , S ITE ARAD AZAR IQ

AGE CHALCOL ITH IC MUSHA 1 3 IAN

B IR SAFAD I FAR 'AH I FAR 'AH

CHALCOL ITH IC MIDDLE -PAL . NEOL ITH IC

GHASSUL GOUGH 'S CAVE GRAR

CHALCOL ITH IC UPPER PAL . CHALCOL ITH IC

NEGEV DESERT J UDEAN H ILLS NEAR CHEDDAR NEGEV DESERT

HAYON IM HAYON IM HAYON IM

KEBARAN NATUF IAN MOUSTER IAN

CARMEL H ILLS CARMEL H ILLS CARMEL H ILLS

X IV XV

HAYON IM HENG ISTBURY J ER ICHO KEBARA ' 8 2

CARMEL H ILLS DORSET HEADLAND LO WER .JORDAN VALLEY CARMEL H ILLS CAVE

XV I XV I I XV I I I

KEBARA ' 8 5 NAHAL HE IMAR NAHA .L OREN

AUR IGNAC IAN MESOL ITH IC P PNAJPPNB MOUSTER IAN MOUSTER IAN P PNB NATUF IAN

N o . L I I I I V V V I V I I V I I I I X X X I X I I X I I I

P PNA KEBARAN UPPER -PAL . MESOL ITH IC I 1VED TOT AL ARTEFACTS EXA M

X IX XX XX I XX I I

NET IV HAGDUD NEVE DAVID QADESH BARNEA WEST HEATH

LOCAT ION NEGEV DESERT

P IECES 5 1 0 1 0 2 0 5 3 3 1 3 9 3 1 0

NEGEV DESERT NEGEV DESERT NEGEV DESERT

CARMEL H ILLS CAVE J UDEAN H ILLS CAVE CARMEL H ILLS LO WER J ORDAN VALLEY

6 4 5 2 5 5 5 7 1 2 7 3 4 1 5

N .COASTAL P LA IN N .S INA I DESERT HA MPSTEAD HEATH

1 0 1 6 5 7 4 52

s u rf ace s o ft he s amp le s s howed s u r f ac e mod if ica t ion t o t he e x ten t t ha t u se -wea r p o l ish h ad e i the r n o t s u rv ived o n t he i r e dge s o r c ou ld n o t b e i s o la ted f r om t h e s u r round ing a l te ra t ion s . T he n umbe r s o fa r tef ac t s e xam ined r e f lec t t h e o rde r i n wh ich t he se a s semb lage s w e re s amp led . A t t he s t a r t o f my r e sea rch t he a r tef ac t s w h ich a r e c on s ide red " f re sh" a r chaeo log ica l ly w e re c ho sen a nd c ons equen t ly l a rge n umbe r s a re i n vo lved . A s my e xpe r ience i n

4 . 3S i ms SA MPLED T he a bove i s al i s t o fs i te s f r om w h ich s amp le s w e re t a ken i no rde r t od ec ide w he the rt hey w ou ld b e s u i tab le f o r m ic rowea r a na ly s is a t magn if ica t ions o f a round x2 00 . T he s i tes , w h ich a re l i s ted a l phabe t ica l ly , a r e o f w ide ly d if er ing a ge s s pann ing a p e r iod f r om t he Mou s t e r ian t o t h e C ha lco l i th ic . T he g eog raph ica l s e t t ing v ar ies f r om t he s ou theas t o ft he B r i t ish I s le s t o

r ecogn is ing s u rf ace mod if ica t ion i n c reased f ewe r a nd f ewe r a r tef ac t s a ppeared s u i tab le e ven a f te r o n ly a mac ro scop ic e xam ina t ion a sf o r e xamp le i nt he c a se o f a r tef ac t sc ove red w i th i n tense s he en .

t he N egev d e se r t . T he mac ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o ft he a r tef ac t s f r om t he s i te o f Mee r i n B e lg ium a nd m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o ft wo o ft ho se a r tef ac t s h a s n o tb een i n c luded i nt h is l i s t . T he t wo s i te s f r om w h ich a r t ef ac t s w e re e ven tua l ly s ub jec ted t o a f unc t iona l a na ly s is a re , h oweve r , i n c lud ed a nd t he a na ly s is i s r epo r ted u nde r s ec t ions 4 . 1 a nd 4 .2 . I n I s rae l i t se lf b e s ide s t h e Negev s i te s , s amp le s w e re t a ken f r om s i te s i nt h e c oas ta l p la in , t he C a rme l h i l ls , t he J udean h i l l s a nd t h e l owe r J o rdan v a l ley . S ome o f t he s i te s w e re c ave s , o t he r s w e re r ock she l te r s , a nd s t i l l o t he r s w e re o pen a i r s i tes . I n s p i te o f t h is d ive r s i ty a l l t h e f l in t 2 7

CH APTER 5 EX AMPLES O F OVER INTERPRETAT IONS : CA UT IONARY R EMARKS 5 . 2 HA NDEDNESS

I n c on t ra s t t o t h e l ow l e ve l i n te rp re ta t ion s wh ich h av e b e en o f e red i n t h e p reced ing c hap te r s , t he m ic rowea r l i te ra tu re h a s a bounded i n a na ly se s w h ich h ave l e d t o wha t i s , i n t he w r i te r 's v i ew , o ve r e n thu s ia s t ic c onc lu s ions . S pace d oe s n o t a l low ac omp le te c a ta logue

O n t he b a s is o f t h re e " bo r ing i mp lemen t s" u sed o n b one /an t le r w h ich w e re i n te rp re ted a sh av ing t u rned i n a c oun te r -c lo ckw i se f a sh ion , C a l len a nd K ee ley ( 1980 :178179 ) c onc luded o n e xpe r imen ta l e v idence

o fr ef e rence sb u tt he f o l low ing c ase ss hou ld g ive a n i d ea

t ha t " t he se p a t te rn s a r e r e la ted t oh andedne s s" a nd " we b e l ieve w e h av e b een a b le t o i s o la te s pe c if ica l ly t he

o ft he p rob lem .

w o rk o ft wo c r af t smen" . U nf or tuna te ly , K ee ley d oe s n o t men t ion w he the r h i sr econs t ruc t ion i sb as ed o n t he u se w ea rp o l i sh o rt he e dge s ca r r ing . T he f l in t f r om Mee r i s

5 . 1 HA FT ING T RACES A s f a r a s Ia m a w a re t he re i sn o k nown a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r s t one t o o l s h av ing b een h af ted d u r ing t he Mous te r ian i n s ou thwe s t F rance . H oweve r , A nde r son G e rf aud ( 1981 :41-44 ) h a s i n te rp re ted a s p o s s ib le e v idence f o r h af t ing s ome t r ace s o b served o n

v e ry h eav i ly a f ec ted b y s o i l s heen ( Lev i S a la 1 986a ; 1 986b ) a nd i ti sd oub tfu l t ha t p o l i sh s u rv iv ed t o a l low s uch a f i ne r econs t ruc t ion o f t r ac e s t o b e made w i th c onf idence .

Mou s te r ian t oo ls ( Pech d e l 'Aze I V a nd C o rb iac ) a way f r om t h e u sed e dge . N o e xpe r imen t s s e em t oh ave b een c a r r ied o u t t o a sce r ta in w he the r h af t ing s im i la r t oo l s wou ld l e av e s im i la r t r ace s . Mo s s p o in t s o u t t ha t Ande r son 's " samp le e xcava ted s ome y ea r s e a r l ie r w a s n o t r e a l ly g ea red t owa rd a nswe r ing q ue s t ion s a bou t d i s t inc t Mou s te r ian t o o l k i t s" ( 1983b :20 ) . Mo s s a nd

5 . 3 DU RAT ION O F WORK Many a na ly s t s h ave e s t ima ted t he l e ng th o f t ime t ha t a r chaeo log ic a l p i ece s h ave b een u sed s uch a s " 2000

Newcome r ( 1982 :292 ) , s ugge s t t ha t n o d ef in i te t r ace s a re p roduced b y s i new h af t ing ( c f . r e con s t ruc t ion b y Ande r son -Ge rf aud 1 981 : f i gu re s4 6 a nd 4 7 ) . S ome f a in t

s t roke s?" f o r aC lac ton ia .n f l ake i n te rp re ted a s a mea t k n if e ( Kee ley 1 980 :9 1) a nd V aughan " f rom a f ew m inu te s t o a round t wen ty" ( 1985 :60 ) . A na ly s t s h ave

a nd " un iden t if iab le p o l ish" w a s o b se rved , h ow eve r , o n t he " r idge s" a nd " h igh p o in t s" ( Mo s s a nd N ewcome r

g ene ra l ly e xp la ined t ha t t he i r i n te rp re ta t ion s a r e b ased

1 982 :292 ) . T he e xpe r imen ta l w o rk d e sc r ibed i ns e c t ion 4 . 1 h a sn o t l ef ta ny t r ace s wh ich a r ed i agno s t ic o fh a f t s . S ee a l so s e c t ion 3 . 4 .3 . F u r the rmo re U nge r -Ham i l ton e t a L ( 1987 :280 ) h ave f ound n oh a f t ing t r ace s o n d r i l l b i t s w edge -haf ted w i th w ood a nd s i new s pec if i ca l ly t o t e s t t he p re sence o fs uch t r ace s . S ome p ol i sh w a s f ound o n a f ew p i ece s , o n d o r sa l r i dge s b ef ore h af t ing a nd a p robab le e xp lana t ion

i s of e red b y t he a u tho r s

C ommendab le t hough t h e e xpe r imen ta l

v e r if ica t ion w a s , t he re s e ems t ob e ag rea t d ea l o fo ve r i n te rp re ta t ion i nt he i rc onc lus ion d ue t ot h e c ond i t ion o f t he Mee r f l in ta r tef ac t s .

a s

f o l low s : . . a s t h e t o o l s w e r e r e tou ched o n ah i de p ad , s ma l l c h ip s o ff l i n t w e r er emoved t h a t c ong r ega t ed b en ea th t h e t o o l , s o t h a t w hen p r e s su re w a s a pp l ied d u r ing r e tou ch t h ed r i l lb i t sw e r ep r e s sed d own o nt ot h ef l i n t c h ip sc au s ing f l i n to nf l i n tc on ta c t . A s t he re i sn o e v idence f o r p re s su re f l ak ing i n t he Mou s te r ian , s im i la rt r ace s a r en o t l i ke ly t oo ccu r o n t he d o rsa l r i dge s o f Mou s te r ian t oo ls . I ti ss urp r is ing t os e e

o n t he d eg ree o f d eve lopmen t o f t h e o b se rved p o l ish . L eng th o fu se i sn o t h oweve r t he o n ly v a r iab le c au s ing p o l ish t o b e mo re o r l e ss d eve loped . T he re i s al a rge n umbe ro fo t he rv ar iab le st ha t af ec tt h ed eve lopmen t o f p o l ish n ame ly : ma te r ia l h a rdne s s , h um id i ty , p re s su re , a ng le o f w o rk , e dge w ea r a nd r e sha rpen ing ( F r ison 1 968 :154 ) . I ts e ems t o me t he ref o re v e ry d if i cu l t t o e s t ima te l e ng th o f u se , t ak ing s o many u nknown v a r iab le s i n to a ccoun t . I ti s d i ff icu l t i n b l ind t e s t s t o e s t ima te d u ra t ion o fu se w hen r econs t ruc t ing a n a c t iv i ty o n a n e xpe r imen ta l t oo l a nd e ven mo re u n l ike ly o n a r chaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s . 5 . 4 ME AT K N IV ES

" haf t ing t r ac e s" o n t he v en tra l a spec t a s s hown b y Ande r son ( i b id f i gu re 3 8 ) . Ih ave o b se rved t h e p o l ish d e sc r ibed b y A nde r son o n many t oo ls b o th Mous te r ian a nd Me so l i th ic a nd a m c onv inced t ha t , o n t he p i ece s I h ave o b se rved , i ti sc au sed b y PDS M . B ey r ie s ' h af t ing e xpe r imen t s( 1987 :80 )o nr ep l ica so f Mou s te r ian a r tef ac t sp rove t ha t t wo d oub le s c rape r s c an b e h af t ed a nd s o h af ted c an c hop w ood . A s t he re i sn o d e sc r ip t ion o fw ha tt r ac e s w e re l ef to n t he e xpe r imen ta l

T oge the r w i th many c o l league s i n t h e I n s t i tu te , e xpe r imen t s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t b u tche r ing d ee r , c ow , a nd l amb mea t o n s eve ra l o c ca s ions a nd f o r l o ng p e r iod s o ft ime . Wi th o ne e xcep t ion n one o fu ss e ems t o h ave o b ta ined aw e l l d eve loped p o l i sh e xcep tw hen f l in t w a s u sed t o d i sa r t icu la te b one a nd w a s t he ref o re u sed o n t he h a rd b one o r i n c a se s when m ea t w a s c u t o n a h a rd s u rf ace s uch a s awooden c hopp ing b oa rd o r af l a t s t one . J ue l J ensen ( 1988a :55 ) c onf i rm s t h a t n o p o l i sh d eve loped a f te r c u t t ing mea t f o r 9 0 m inu te s . Mea t c u t t ing a l one n eve rp roduce s a ny mo re t h an av e ry f a in t g ene ra l " sh ine" w h ich K ee ley d e sc r ibe s a s a

p iece s b y u se o rh af t ing , t h e se e xpe r imen t s c anno t l e ad t o ac onc lu s ion r ega rd ing u se o rr ega rd ing t h e p re senc e o fh af t s .

" p ronounc ed g rea sy l u s t re" a nd a dm i t s t h a t " i t s howed l i t t le c on t ra s t w i th t he u na l te red a r ea s o f t h e f l in t" ( 1980 :53 ) . T h i s a l te ra t ion o ccu r s a s t h e f i r s t s t age o f 2 8

I t i s o bv iou s f r om t h e a bove c ommen t s h ow m is lead ing i ti sf o r a r chaeo log ica l r e cons t ruc t ions t ob e b a sed o n f unc t iona l a na ly s is c a r r ied o u t w i th d oub tf u l

p o l ish d eve lopmen t o n a l l u sed ma te r ia ls . E ven i ft h i s s t age o fp o l ish d eve lopmen t w e re t o s u rv ive t hou sand s a nd m i l l ion s o fy ea r s o fb u r ia l a nd e ven i fo ne c ou ld d i s t ingu ish t h is b r igh tne s s f r om t h e s ub sequen t s o i l s heen , i tw ou ld b e i mpo s s ib le t o i d en t if y i ta s " mea t p o l ish" s i nce , a s men t ioned e a r l ie r , a l l u sed ma te r ia ls p rodu ce t h is g ene ra l ised b r igh tne s s i n t h e e a r ly s t age s o fu se ( f igu re s 3a nd 4 ) . I t i st h e ref o re mo s t d i s tu rb ing t ha t K ee ley s hou ld h ave i d en t if ied a s " cu t t ing mea t" ( a pa r t f r om t h e C lac ton ian f l ake men t ioned a bove ) f o u r i mp lemen t s f r om t wo s i te s i n K oob i F o ra , K eny a d a ted t o 1 . 5

me thod s . O the r e xamp le s w i l l b e r e f e r red t o i n t he f o l low ing c hap te rs o f c onc lu s ions w ho se e f ec t s o n a r chaeo logy a re

v e ry

i mpo r tan t

a nd y e t

a r e

e i the r

b ased

o n

i n suf f i c ien tn umbe rs o fa r tef ac t sa nd /o r l a ck ap ub l ished d ocumen ta t ion o f t he t r ace s o n w ho se b as is s uch c onc lu s ion sw e re d rawn .

m i l l ion y ea r s a go a nd made o f a n u ndef ined " che r t" ( Kee ley a nd T o th 1 98 1 :464 -465 ) . T he p ub l i shed p i c tu re s a r e a t a magn if ica t ion o f o n ly x 50 w hen h e h imse lf r i gh tfu l ly s t re s sed t ha t p o l ish s hou ld b e s t ud ied a tx 100 a nd b e t te r s t i l l a tx 200 . T he p ape r make s f a r r e ach ing c onc lu s ions " pe r t inen t t o t h e c on t rove r sy c once rn ing t he d i e t o fe a r ly h om in id s a nd t he r o le o f s t one t o o ls i nt he i r a dap ta t ions" . T he s t udy d ea ls w i th t r ace s o n o n ly n ine " imp lemen t s" a mong 5 4 f l ake s e xam ined a nd c o l lec ted f r om f i ve d if e ren t s i te s . K e e ley h a s h imse lf r ecommended a much g rea te r r i gou r i n m ic rowea rm e thodo logy ( Ke e ley 1 974 aa nd b )w h ich i s s ad ly l a ck ing i nt he K oob iF o ra a na ly s is . I nv i ew o ft he a mb igu i ty a nd l a ck o fd eve lopmen t o f t h e t r ace s l ef t b y c u t t ing mea t , i tm igh t b e t ha t t ho se w ho f i nd t o o many i mp lemen t su sed o n " mea t" i nt h e i r a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ions a r e p robab ly f a i l ing t o r e cogn ise t h ee a r ly s t age so fs o i l s heen . 5 . 5 DO UBTFUL M E THODS B ue l le r ( 1984 :202 ) d e sc r ibe s t he p roce s s b y w h ich h e l e arn t t o r e cogn ise u sed ma te r ia l s f r om m ic rowea r p o l i sh : 1 h e e xam ined p i ece s a nd p ho tog raphed " po l i she s" ; 2 h el e a rn tm ic rowea r ; 3 h ed ec iphe red p ho tog raph s . O ne mu s t a s sume , t he ref o re , t ha t w hen h e p ho tog raphed t he t r ace s h e c ou ld n o t d i s t ingu i sh t ho se r e la ted t o u se -wea r f r om t r ace s n o t c au sed b y u se . I n f a c t h e h imse lf e xp la in s t h i s s t range p roc edu re i n a na ly s i sb ys t a t ing : t h e p rec ise n a tu re o ft he d if e ren t k ind s o fm ic rowea r o ccu r rence s w e re n o t f u l ly u nde r s tood ( Bue l le r 1 984 :202 ) .

Y e t h e c onc lude s ( i b id :2 13) t ha t e nd sc rape r s w e re u sed t os aw b one a nd t ha t b u r ins b l ow s w e re i n tended f o r " haf t ing , t ha t t he e dge s o t he r t han t h e b u r in e dge w e re u sed o n " mea t , h ide , w ood a nd b one" w i thou t men t ion ing a ny e xpe r imen t s t o s how t h e t r ace s w h ich t he s ugge s ted h af t ing w ou ld l e ave o n b u r ins . T he se c onc lu s ions w e re b a sed o n 1 e nd sc rape r s a nd 1 2 b u r ins . B ue l le r ( 1983 :107125 ) h a s a l so a na ly sed 1 0 a r tef ac t s p e r t oo l t ype f r om AM Ma l laha a nd E l Wad , a nd c onc luded t ha t E l Wad w a s ab i g g ame s pec ia l ised b u tche r ing c amp w h i le A in Ma l laha w a s ah ome b a se w he re s ma l l g ame w a sh un ted i ns p i te o ft h ef a c tt ha th e r i gh t ly n o ted t ha t " even a f te r p ro longed u se r ea l p o l ish i sn eve rf o rmed [ b y mea t ]" ( i b id . :108 ) . 2 9

PA RT I CH APTER 6 RE V ISED A IMS a r tef ac t s a r e b e ing s ub jec ted t o s ucce s s ive t r ea tmen t s t he se t r ea tmen t s a r e a l so n umbe red w i th R oman

6 . 1 RE SEARCH D ES IGN

n ume ra ls a nd a r er e f e r red t oa s S t age s .

I nv i ew o ft he p rob lems d i scu s sed i nP a r t I ,my r e sea rch t o ok an ew d i rec t ion . I n s tead o fa t temp t ing y e t a ga in t o

6 . 2 PO L ISH F ORMAT ION

s t udy t he f unc t ion o f a rchaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s , i tw a s p ropo sed t o s ub je c t f l in t s u r f ace s t o c on t ro l led a nd

T he mechan i sm s i nvo lved i np o l ish ing g l a s s h ave b een s t ud ied o ve r t he y ea r s b y many s c ien t i s t s i n te re s ted i n t h e i mp rovemen t o f t h e me thod f o r v a r iou s i ndu s t r ia l p u rpose s i n p a r t icu la r f o r t he p roduc t ion o f o p t ica l

r e pea tab le f r ic t ion u nde r l a bo ra to ry c ond i t ion s , o b serv ing t he w ea r t r ace s a f te r v a r iou s t ime i n te rva l s . T he f a c to r s c on s ide red i mpo r tan t i n t he a ppea rance o f

l e n se s . Ah i s to ry a nd b ib l iog raphy o ft h i s r e sea rch w a s c omp i led a nd c ommen ted o n b y D .C . C o rn i sh i n 1 961 . S ince t hen t wo s ympo s ia h ave t aken p l ace u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o ft he U .S . N a t iona l B u reau o fS tanda rd s w i th s eve ra l p ape r s o n t h e s ub jec t o f s u rf ac e f i n i sh ing o f

w ea r t r ace s w e re v a r ied o ne b y o ne t o a s se s s t he i r r e la t ive i mpo r tance . T he i nve s t iga t ion i n c luded e xpe r imen t s t o d e te rm ine t he e f ec t o f t he p re sence /ab sence o f a f l u id med ium a nd i t s n a tu re i n c lud ing w he the r i t i n te rac t s c hem ica l ly a nd /o r

g l a s se s a nd c e ram ic s ( Schne ide r a nd R ice ( ed s . ) 1 972 ; H ockey a nd R ic e( e ds . ) 1 979 ) . D ue t o t h e s im i lar i ty o f f l in t t o many g la s se s a nd

p hy s ica l ly w i th t h e f l in t a nd a l so t he e f ec t o f t he p re sence , a b sence , n a tu re a nd s i ze o fp a r t icu la te ma t te r o n t h ed eve lopmen t o fp o l i sh a nd o n t he f o rma t ion a nd

c e ram ic s [ t hey a r e l a rge ly c ompo sed o f s i l ica a nd e xh ib i t t he s ame c oncho ida l f r ac tu re s ] i tw as t hough t t ha t t he k now ledge a c cumu la ted o n t h e s ub jec t o fg l a s s a nd c e ram ic p o l i sh ing c ou ld b e u sef u l i nt he s t udy o f p o l ish o n f l in t . C u r iou s ly e nough s ome o f t he e a r l ie s t g l a s s i na n t iqu i ty , a nd u p t ot he 1 7 th c en tu ry A .D . , w a s made u s ing c ru shed f l in t a s t h e s ou rc e o f s i l ica

t y pe o fs t r ia t ions . T he d eve lopmen to fp o l i sh o nf l in tt oo ls i st hough tt o b ea f ec ted b yt he f o l low ing : • h a rdne s so ft h e ma te r ia lw o rked ; • w a te r o r o t he r l i qu id s a dded o r c on ta ined i nt h e w o rked ma te r ia l ; • p re s su re e xe r ted ;

( Shephe rd 1 972 :208210 ) .

• t y pe o ff l in t e spec ia l ly g ra in s i ze , p a t te rn o ft he

F o r al o ng t ime i tw a s h ypo the s ised ( Co rn ish 1 96 1) t ha t g la s s w a s b e ing p o l i shed i n ap roce s s c omp r i s ing t wo s t age s :

c ry s ta l l ine s t ruc tu re a nd s i ze a nd f r equency o f i n c lu s ions ; • p re sence a nd g ra in s i ze o fa b ra s ive s ;

i s t s t age : t he m ic ro scop ic a spe r i t ie s o n t he s u r f ac e a r eb e ing f l a t tened .

• d u ra t ion o ft o o l u se ; Ia m n o ta wa re o fa ny l abo ra to ry w o rk d one a sy e t t o i nve s t iga te t he se v a r iab le s .

2 nd s t age :t h e ma te r ia l d i sp lac ed f r om t he a spe r i t ie s

Mansu r -F ranchomme ( 1983 ) i nve s t iga ted t h e i mpor tanc eo fa b ra s ive s a nd h um id i ty i n h ide s c rap ing . H e r w o rk , t hough s y s tema t ic , w a s b a sed o n nu nc r i t ica l a cc ep tanc e o f t h e i d ea o f s i l ica g e l f o rma t ion a s p ropo sed b y A nde rson ( 1980 ) . C onsequen t ly h e r

" new" s u rf ace a ppea r sp o l i shed .

f i l ls u p c r ack s , p i t s a nd s c ra tche s . T he T he t wo s t age s d e sc r ibed a bove c on s t i tu te w ha t i s t e rmed " p la s t ic f l ow " , " su rf ace f l ow" o r " p la s t ic d ef o rma t ion" . I n 1 921 B e i lby p ropo sed t he f o l low ing mode l f o rt he

i n te rp re ta t ions o ft he r e su l t s a r e a r r ived a t o n ly f r om t ha tp e r spe c t ive . F u r the rmo re h e rw o rk w as d o cumen ted

mechan ism o ft he f o rma t ion o fp o l ish o n g l a s s : T he r o ug e p a r t ic le s , i tm ay b e s u ppo sed , h a rd ly p ene t ra t e b e low t h e s u r f ac e , b u t c om ing i n to a lmo s t m o lec u la r c o n ta c t w i th t h e s h ee t o fm o lecu le s o n t h e s u rf a ce , d r ag i to fl i ke as k in . T h e f r e sh m o le cu la r l a ye r l e f t b y t h e r emova l o f t h e s k in r e t a in s i t s m ob i l i ty f o r a n i n s tan t , a nd b ef o re s o l id if ica t ion , i s s moo thed o v e r b y t h e a c t ion o fs u r f a c e t e n s ion , t h u s p r oduc ing t h e l i q u id l ik e s u rf a c e w h i ch i s t h e n e ce s sa ry c o nd i t ion o f a p e r f e c t f i n i sh ( Co rn i sh 1 9 6 1 : 3 ) .

m a in ly b y S E M whe re s he o b se rved a c e r ta in c l a s s if i ca t ion o f s t r ia t ion s wh ich i s n o t r e cogn isab le u s ing o p t ica l m ic ro scopy . O the r e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed i n t he f o l low ing p age s w e re d e s igned , f u r the rmo re , t o s t udy t h e f a c to rs , w he the rc hem ica lo r mechan ica l , a f ec t ing f l in t s u rf ace s d u r ing b u r ia l a nd c au s ing a l te ra t ions t ot he f l in t s u rf ace ( PDS M )a sw e l la sa l te ra t ion st ot he u se -wea rp o l i sh . T hey a r eg rouped t oge the ra sf o l low s : a nd

A l ready i n1 927 A dam s t a ted h ow eve rt ha t " i t i sn o t n ece ssa ry t oa s sume t h a t al i quef ied l a y e r p recede s t h e

s e c t ion 6 . 5 e xpe r imen ts t o s t udy p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s .

f o rma t ion o ft h e a mo rphou s l a ye r . . .Any me thod w h ich r ea r range s t h e s u rf ace mo lecu le s w i l l g ive a n a mo rphou ss u rf ac e" ( Co rn ish 1 961 :17 ) .

s e c t ion 6 . 4 e xpe r imen t s t o s t udy p o l i sh f o rma t ion ;

u se -wea r

R ecen t r e se a rch h a s l e dt op roce s se s b e ing e xp la ined b y f o rmu lae r a the r t han b y f i gu ra t ive d e sc r ip t ion s a s i n

I n s ome o f t h e w o rk e xpe r imen t s h ave h ad t o b e r e pea ted w i th o n ly o ne v a r iab le a l te red . T he se a r e d e sc r ibed a s R un s a nd a re i nd ica ted w i th R oman n ume ra ls .

B e i lby 's t ime . I tw i l l n o l onge r b e n e c e s sa ry t o u se w o rd s l i ke " a l i qu id l ike s ur f ace" w h ich w a s t h e c au se

When t h e s ame a r tef ac t o r a g roup o f 3 0

o f much m isunde r s tand ing b o th b y s c ien t is ts a nd b y m ic rowea ra na ly s t s . S eve ra l me chan isms a r e i n vo lved i n p o l i sh f o rma t ion . F r ic t ion , w ea r , l ub r ica t ion , a nd a dhe s ion a r e ag roup o f mechan ica l s u rf ace i n te rac t ions w h ich a r e

l a ye r o fa mo rphou s s i l ica b ecau se t he p ar t ic le s o n t he f l in ts u rf ace a re n ol o nge ro rde red i nt he s ame w ay a si n u npo l ished f l in t . Amo rphou s s i l ic a i n t h is c on tex t means s i l ica l a ck ing t h e l o ng r ange p e r iod ic s t ruc tu re

s t ud ied t oge the r . T hey a re w e l l k nown b u t t he r e la t ive i mpo r tance o fe ach i sn o tw e l l u nde r s tood .

f ound i n c ry s ta l l ine s i l ica a nd i st o b e d i s t ingu ished f r om s i l ica g e l ( s ee G lo s sa ry ) .

A mo l ten

l a y e r w ou ld

d ef o rma t ion a lmo s t a lway s means t he f o rma t ion o f a

i nd ica te t ha t v e ry h igh

6 . 3 PO ST -DEPOS MONAL S URFACE MOD IF ICAT ION

t empe ra tu re s w e re r e ached o ve r t h e w ho le s u rf ace d u r ing t he p o l i sh ing p roce s s w he rea s g ene ra l ly " t h i s c ons i s t s o f a mode ra te t emp e ra tu re r i se o ve r t he c on tac t ing b od ie s , a nd s upe r impo sed o n t h i s t he re a r e h ighe r " f la sh t empe ra tu re s " a t t he j unc t ion s" ( Rab inow icz 1 966 ) .

T he f o l low ing e xpe r imen t s w e re d e s igned t o s t udy t he p roce s se s i nvo lved i n p o s t -depo s i t iona l a l te ra t ion o f f l in t a r tef ac t s a nd t he i r e f ec t o n u se -wea r t r ac e s . A s men t ioned e a r l ie r a s semb lage s f r om many s i te s i n v ar iou s c oun t r ie s h av e b een f ound t o b e a f e c ted b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l s ur f ace mod if ica t ion ( PDS M ) , at e rm f i r s t u sed b yH o lme s ( 1987 :91) , a nd w ho s e a bb rev ia ted f o rm PDS M i sn ow w ide ly u s ed i no u r I n s t i tu te . T he se a s semb lage s w e re c on sequen t ly f ound t o b e u n su i tab le f o r a na ly s i s b y t h e K e e ley me thod . Mo s t o f t he se i mp lemen t s , w hen n o t p a t ina ted , h ad a mac ro scop ic

A h yd ro ly sed l a ye r wou ld f u r the rmo re p re suppo se t ha t w a te r i n te rac ted c hem ica l ly w i th t he f l in t . I ti sn o t k nown w he the r o r n o t t he se t wo p roce s se s ( h igh t empe ra tu re a nd c hem ica l i n te rac t ion w i th w a te r ) d o t a ke p l ace . T ha t i sn o tt os ay t ha tt hey d on o t o ccu r b u t t h ey d o n o t a ppea r t ob e e s sen t ia l f o r t h e f o rma t ion o f t h e p o l ished l a y e r . A s t h e s i l ica g e l l a ye r w a s h ypo the s ised f o r t h e p re sence o fp o l ish o n f l in t , i tw a s p o s s ib le t og o f u r the r a nd s ugges tt ha tr e s idue s s uch a s p hy to l i ths f r om p l an t s c an b e t r apped i n t ha t l a ye r d ur ing i t s " amo rphou s g e l" s t a te ( Ande r son 1 980 :184 ) .

s heen a t t r ibu ted b y many r e sea rche r s t o t he e f ec t o f b u r ia l i n t he s ed imen t . B r igh t s po t s , d e sc r ibed b e low , w e re a l so v e ry f r equen t . T he u b iqu i ty o f PDSM , e spe c ia l ly w i th s heen a nd b r igh ts po t s ,p romp ted t he i nve s t iga t ion o ft he p roc e sse s o fi t s f o rma t ion . C hem ica l p roce s se s w e re i nve s t iga ted t o t e s t w h ich o ft h e p henomena t hey w e re r e spon s ib le f o r . T he h ypo the s i st ha ts ome o ft he se a l te ra t ion so nt h e f l in t s u rf ace a r e d ue t o mechan ica l p roce s se s w a s a l so t e s ted . T he c on jo in ing o f a r tef ac t s ( whe the r f l in t , p o t te ry o r b one ) f r om s ev e ra l s t ra t ig raph ic l e v e l s o n a

T he r e i sn o n e ed t oa s sume t ha t t he p o l i shed l a ye r o n f l in ti s a" mo l ten" o r" hyd ro ly sed" l a ye r e ven w e re s uch al a ye r s hown t oo ccu r i ng l as sp o l ish ing . A n a rgumen t a ga ins t t h is h yd ro ly s is i s t h e q uan t i ty o f s i l ica t ha t w ou ld h ave t og oi ns o lu t ion a nd b er edepo s i ted i no rde r t o o b ta in a b l ade a s g los sy a s s ome N ea r -Ea s te rn N eo l i th ic " s ick le s" a r e . F u r the rmo re , i n o rde r t o t r ap p hy to l i ths , t he t h ickne s s o fs uch a l a ye r w ou ld h ave t o

v a r ie ty o f s i te s h a s , o f l a te , d rawn t he a t ten t ion o f a r chaeo log is t s t ot h e f a c t t ha t a r tef ac t s c an move i nt he s ed imen t w i thou t t h e re b e ing c l ea r s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence o fs uch movemen t . T he v e r t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l movemen t i s much mo re w ide sp read a nd f r equen t t han p rev ious ly i mag ined ( Cahen a nd Mo eye rson s , 1 977 ; B a r ton 1 981 ; V i l la , 1 982 ; R ow le t t a nd R obb ins , 1 982 ; V i l la a nd C ou r t in , 1 983 ;a nd o the r s ) .

b e m ea su rab le i n m ic rons ( s e e 1 980 :P la te 8 b " s ick le g lo s s" l im i t , b u i l t u p a pp rox ima te ly 1 0µ a bove f l in t s u r f ac e" a nd 0 1 1endo rf 1 987 :457 " phy to l i ths o f 1-44 ; 1 l e ng th" ) .Ac ons ide rab le ma s so fs i l ica w ou ld h ave t ob e d i s so lved a nd p rec ip i ta ted t og i ve s uch at h ick l a ye r o n ab l ade who se d o rsa l a nd v en t ra l s u rf ace s a r e g lo s sy a l ong t he who le e dge u p t o 2 0mm i n land . I t may b e n o ted t ha t n o e v idence o fs uch at h ick l a ye r w a s f o und u nde rt he S EM .

6 . 3 .1 S heen

I ng l a s s s t ud ie s w hen t e s t ing f o r s u rf ac e d ef ec t s i ti s c u s toma ry t oe t ch t h ep o l i shed s u rf ace w i th h yd rof luo r ic a c id ( Land ingham e ta t . 1 979 :231-246 ) . H ow eve r g l a s s i sv e ry h omogeneou s w h i le f l in t h a s ac omp lex c ry s ta l s t ruc tu re . O n g l a s s t he a c id r emove s t he s t re s sed ma te r ia l p ref e ren t ia l ly b u t a l so a ppea r s t o r emove t he f l owed ma te r ia l ( pe rhap s b ecause i ti su nde r s t re s s o r

R o t t laende r ( 1975 : 1 0 1 ) , " g lo s s p a t ina" b y S t ape r t ( 1976 :1112 ) , " su rf ac e s heen" b y P l is son a nd Mauge r

S heen h a s b een r ef e r red t o a s " g lo s sy p a t ina" b y

( 1988 )a nd " so i l s heen" b y Mo s s ( 1983 :8 1) . Mo s s 1 983) r epo r ted t ha t " a l l a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ions h ave s ome s o r t o f s o i l s heen e ven w hen t he f l in t s s eem t o b e i n p r is t ine c ond i t ion" . T he re w a s n o s pec if ic men t ion o f t he p rob lem t h is s heen c r ea te s f o r m ic rowea r a na ly s is . P l is son a nd Mauge r ( i b id . ) i nve s t iga ted c hem ica l a nd mechan ica l a l te ra t ion o fm ic rowea r p o l ishe s , p o in t ing o u t t ha t K ee ley ( 1980 ) a nd Ande r son -Ge rf aud ( 198 1) h ad t o" e l im ina te f r om t he i r s t ud ie s o fp a laeo l i th ic f l in t t oo ls n o t o n ly t oo ls h av ing mac ro scop ic n a tu ra l a l te ra t ion t r ace s b u t a l so 2 5-40% mo re o ft he t oo ls i n t he c o l lec t ions w h ich h ad p ronounced m ic ro scop ic s o i l s heen" . K ee ley h im se lf ( 1980 :28-35 ) w a rn s a ga ins t t he

b ecau se i ti s mo re d i so rde red ) . E tch ing f l in t w i th h yd rof luo r ic a c id p ref e ren t ia l ly r emove st he mo re s t ruc tu ra l ly d i so rgan ised c ha lcedon ic p ha s e ( Gr if i th s e t a / . 1 987 :47-51) . C on sequen t ly , i t s e emed s upe rf luou st oc a r ry o u tt h i s t e s t a s i tc ou ld n o t a nswe rt he q ue s t ion a bou t t h en a tu re o ft he l a ye r w h ich o p t ica l ly a ppea r sp o l i shed . I n t h is r e sea rch t he a im w a s t o o b se rve w he the r , when p o l ish o ccur s o n f l in t , o ne c an a t t r ibu te i tt ot he

d ange ro fi g no r ing n a tu ra l ly c aused t r ace s . H e e xc luded t h e " ma jo r i ty" o f S wanscombe L owe r L oam a r tef ac ts d ue t o " wea the r ing" i n c lud ing a " g laze o n t he i r

p henomenon o fp l a s t ic d ef o rma t ion a l one ( wh ich w ou ld s ugge s t a me chan ica l a c t ion ) o r w he the r s i l ica g e l ( t h rough h yd ro ly s i s ) w a s f o rmed a s w e l l . P la s t ic 3 1

s u rf ace s" . H e d e sc r ibe s t he " s l igh t e dge d amage a nd l o ca l ised a b ra s ions" c au sed b y " m ino r s o i l movemen t s"

r ounded v a r ie t ie s w h ich h ave a n a ppea rance a nd a d i s t r ibu t ion o n t h e f l in t t opog raphy v e ry s im i la r t ot ha t

w h ich c ons t i tu te " ap rob lem f o rt he m ic rowea ra na ly s t" . H e d oe s n o t d i scu s s t he e f ec t o f s o i l s heen o n

o fu se -wea rp o l ish . B o rde s ( 1950 ) n amed t h em " m i ro i temen t" a nd " p lage s b r i l lan te s" . H e r ev iew s t he v a r iou s p o s s ib le e xp lana t ions p u t f o rwa rd f o r t he i r f o rma t ion a nd

m ic rowea rp o l ish . R o t t laende r ( 1975 ) a t temp ted t op roduce s o i l s heen , w h ich h e c a l ls " g lo s sy p a t ina" , t h rough t he a c t ion o f

c onc lude st h a t mechan ica l w ea r i st he mo s t l o g ica l . T he

" weak ly a c t ing s o lven t s" . H e d e sc r ibe s t he i r e f ec t a s b e ing " l ike a mechan ica l p o l ish ing" . H e e ncoun te red

g ra in s i ze o f t h e p o l ish ing a gen t ( s and , l o e s s , a nd /o r s o i l i n s p r ing s ) c ou ld e xp la in t he ir v a r ie ty t hough n o t t he i r p inpo in t l o ca l isa t ion . S emenov ( 1964 :11)

d if icu l t ie s i n t r y ing t o p roduce t h is s o r t o f s u rf ac e mod if ica t ion i n a l a bo ra to ry ; w hen i nc rea s ing t he

d e sc r ibe s t hem a s " s ing le o r g roup s o f s c in t i l la t ions , s ha rp ly d ef ined s t a r s o r l um inou s v e in s . T he i r o r ig in

s t reng th o ft he s o lven t s t o a cce le ra te t he p roce s s o ne r i sked p a t ina t ing t h ef l in t . S heen i su sua l ly u n if o rm o ve r t he w ho le s u rf ace o f

s t i l l r ema ins u nexp la ined" . S hephe rd ( 1972 : 120 ) c a l led t h e f l a t o ne s " f r ic t ion g lo s s" a nd s ugge s ted t hey w e r e e a sy t or ep roduc eb yr ubb ing t wo f l in t st o ge the r . S t ape r t ( 1976 :2939 ) n o ted t ha t t he se b r igh t s po t s , w h ich h e d e sc r ibe s i n d e ta i l , w e re f a r c ommone r o n y ounge r

t he f l in t t hough i tt e nd s t o b e mo re c oncen tra ted o n e dge s a nd p rom inen t p ar t s o f a r tef ac t s . I t v a r ie s i n d eg ree o fi n tens i ty f r om v e ry f a in t t ov e ry g lo s sy , a s i n

m a te r ia l t han o n o lde r a r tef ac t s . H e s ugge s ted t ha t " f r ic t ion g lo s s" may b e am is lead ing n ame f o r t hem .

" w ind -g lo s s" a nd " de se r t v a rn ish" . T he l a t te ra r en ame s g iven t o g lo s s o b served o n a r tef ac t s f r om v e ry w indy e nv ironmen t s a nd /o r d e se r t s w h ich a ppea r v e ry g lo s sy a l l o ve r t he i r s u rf ace . T he g lo s s i s a t t r ibu ted t o t he

V aughan ( 198 1 : 3 65 ) a nd Mo s s ( i b id . ) h ave b o th t r ied u nsucce s sf u l ly t o p roduc e t h e g lo s s b y f o l low ing S hephe rd 's s ugge s t ion . V aughan ( 198 1 :36 1 :66 ) h a s n o ted a h igh i n c idenc e o f b r igh t s po ts a t t h e

e f ec t o fa b ra s ion f r om w ind a nd s and . I nh i s i mpo r tan t r ev iew o f n a tu ra l ly p roduced t r ace s o n f l in t a r tef ac t s f r om D u tch s i te s , S tape r t ( 1976 :12 18 ) d i s t ingu ishe s b e tween t he " w ind -g lo s s" a nd " de se r t v a rn ish" a nd

Magda len ian s i te o fC a sseg ro s l e ve l 1 0 . H e c a l ls t hem " spec ia l m ic ropo l ishe s" a nd h a s n o ted a " f la t" v a r ie ty a nd a " r ipp ly" v a r ie ty . Af te r S EM i n ves t iga t ions a t

" g lo s sp a t ina" a sf o l low s : "w ind -g lo s s" b e ing c o lou r le s s a nd a ppea r ing " g rea sy " a nd " va r iab le o n t he s ame p i ec e" h e f e e ls

x 2000 h e s ugge s t s t ha t t h e f l a t k ind w e re f o rmed b y " bo th f r ic t ion a nd w a te r" w h i le h e a tt r ibu te s t he r i pp ly v a r ie ty t o t he " p rec ip i ta t ion o fg round w a te r s i l ica te s"

i ti s" f o rmed ma in ly mechan ica l ly a s a r e su l t o f p o l i sh ing , t hough a c hem ica l c omponen t f o rma t ion" ;

may

c on t r ibu te

t o

o n t he s u rf ace o f t he a r tef ac t s . I n s p i te o f a l l t h e h ypo these s f o r t he ir f o rma t ion t h ey r ema ined u nexp la ined t o many : " my s te r iou s" t o Mo s s ( 1983 :8 1) , a nd " en igma t ic" t o S tape r t ( 1976 :38 ) a nd V aughan ( 1981 :366 ) . Mo s s ( 1983 :8 1) c a l led t hem " b r igh t s po t s"

i t s

" deser t v arn ish" b e ing d a rk i n c o lou r ( p re sumab ly f r om m ine ra l d epo s i t ion ) ; " g lo s s p a t ina" " a l though i ti ss ome t ime s s ugge s ted t ha t a me chan ica l e f ec t may b e r e spons ib le

a sS t ape r tr eached n of i rm c onc lu s ion a bou tt h e i r o r ig in a nd t h is i st he n ame a dop ted i nt h is t he s is . H o lme s ( 1987 ) c a r r ied o u t a n e xpe r imen t o n mode rn

( e .g . p o l ish ing i n as and ma t r ix d ue t o s o i l movemen t s ) , mo s t a u tho r s a s sume t h i s s moo thne s s i s ar e su l t o f c hem ica l

a r tef ac t s o f E gyp t ian f l in t . Af te r t wo w eeks o f t r amp l ing , a n umbe r o f m ic ro scop ic b r igh t s po t s a ppea red , c ompa rab le t o t hose o b se rved o n h e r c o l lec t ion o fp re -dyna s t ic f l in tt oo ls . B r igh t s po t s o ccu r o n e dge s , r i dge s a nd f l a t a rea s o f

p roce sse si nt he s o i l" . I ti s my e xpe r ience f r om s u rf ace a r tef ac t s c o l lec ted i n t he N egev d e se r t t ha t many a r tef ac t s h ave a c o lou r le s s v a rn i sh o n t hem s ugge s t ing t ha t t h e se t h ree t y pe s may o ve r lap . I n a ny c a se , h e c onc lude s t ha t " i t i s n o t

a r chaeo log ica l f l in t t oo ls . H oweve r , t hey d o n o t h ave a s y s tema t ic r e la t ion t o t h e p robab le u sed e dge s . A l though t h ey c an g ene ra l ly b e e xc luded a s u se w ea r , e sp ec ia l ly w hen i s o la ted , f l a t a nd l a rge , t h ey d o o f ten ma sk l a rge s t re tche s o f e dge ( f igure 4 3 ) . S ome t ime s

i mpo s s ib le t ha t , i n p lace s w he re w ind -g lo s s i sh igh ly d eve loped , m ic ro scop ic t r ace s o f u se f o rme r ly p re sen t a re c omp le te ly o rp a r t ly o b l i te ra ted" ( i b id . :19 ) . I n t h i s C hap te r s ome e xpe r imen t s a r e d e sc r ibed p roduc ing s heen o n e xpe r imen ta l a r tef ac t s b o th b y me chan ica la nd c hem ica lp roce s se s .

b r igh t s po t sc l u s te ra tt he e dge a nd t ape ro f f ,m im ick ing u se -wea r p o l ishe s ( f igu re 4 7 ) . F u r the rmo re , u nde r s tand ing t h e w ay t hey a r e f o rmed c an s ugge s t t o

6 .3 .2 B r igh ts po t s

t h e f u nc t iona l a na ly s t w he the r t he o t he r t r ace s p resen t o n t h e e dge s a r e d ue t o u se o r t o p o s t -depo s i t iona l c au se s . T he w o rk c a r r ied o u t i n t h is t h e s is h a s s hed

B r igh t s po t s o ccu r v e ry f r equen t ly o n a r chaeo log ica l

l i gh t o n t he p roce s se s o f t h e i r f o rma t ion . T hey a r e d i scu s sed i ns e c t ion 6 . 5 3a nd 6 . 5 .12 w he re e xpe r imen t s

a r tef ac t so f av a r ie ty o fa ge s a nd p rovenance s . T hey a r e a s moo th , h igh ly r e f lec t ive p o l ish ( g lo s s ) o n f l in t s u r f ace s , v a ry ing i ns i ze f r om ap i n p o in t t ot h e w ho le a r tef ac tb e ing g lo s sy , o ccu r r ing s i ng ly a nd i nc l us te r s . B r igh t s po t sv a ry : t hey c an b e f l a t , r a ised , c ro s sed b y s t r ia t ions o rn o t s t r ia ted . F la t b r igh t s po t s a ppea r a s a n

h ave s hown t h a t b r igh t s po t s c an b e f o rmed b o th b y f r ic t ion a nd b y c hem ica l p roces se s . T he c o r re la t ion b e twe en b r igh t s po t s a nd s heen o n t he s ame p i ece s h a s b een n o ted b o th o n a rchaeo log ica l a nd e xpe r imen ta l p i ece s ( s ec t ion 6 . 5 .12 ) s ugge s t ing a s im i la r i ty i n t h e p ro ce s se sr e spons ib le f o rt he t wo p henomena .

e x t reme a nd l o ca l ised s moo th ing o ft he s u rf ace w i th in t he a r ea o f o ccu r rence , b u t n o t s o w i th c e r ta in mo re 3 2

6 .4

EX PER IMENTS

F OR

U SE -WEAR

A ND

P OL ISH

6 . 4 .2 Abbrev iat ions U sed i nt he L is t so fE xper imen t s

F ORMAT ION

1 3 /FACET

6 .4 .1 F l in tT ype C harac ter i sa t ion a nd Abbrev iat ion s T he f o l low ing c ha rac te r i sa t ion s a r e b a sed o n f r e sh ly s t ru ck f l ake s a nd a r e as umma ry o f o b se rv a t ion s o n s eve r a l f l ake s f r om d if e ren t n odu le s . F igu re s 7 ,6 2 , 9 8 , 9 9 a nd 2 25 s how p ho tog raph s p roduced a s av i sua l a i d t ot h e se d e sc r ip t ion s . Mo s t o ft he I s rae l i f l in tt y pe s u sed a re d e r iv ed f r om E oc ene f o rma t ion s .

B u r in f a ce t

BLDLT

B lade le t

BRND CVX

B randon f l in t . C onvex

CCV

C oncave

DRSL

Do rsa l

DST

D is ta l

E .A .

E dge Ang le

BRND

B randon o r o t he r E a s t A ng l ian f i ne b l ack f l in t .

LL L ef tl a te ra l e dge MACRO Mac ro scop ic —wh ich c an b e s e en w i th t he n aked e y e

P /BAR

P o t te r 's B a rg rey , med ium t oc oa r se , f l in t .

MID

DRST

Do rse tp ebb le f l in t ,b uf f , med ium g ra ined .

MICRO M ic ro scop ic

I SR / 1

H oney c o lou red f l in t . S ou rce u nknown mac ro : v e ry f i ne g ra ined , e asy t o l c nap ,

MIN

M inu te s

NR

N ea r

I SR /2

L SE /3

I SR /4a

I SR /4b

I SR /5a

P o l ish

s moo th t e x ture a ppea r s f i ne r t han B randon m ic ro : d oe s n o t r e f rac t l i gh t t o t he s ame e x ten t a s f i ne g ra ined B randon f l in t . F ew

POL ISHED BY F l in t me chan ica l ly w o rked ma ter ia l

i nc lu s ion s many " r idge s" o n f r ac tu re s u rf ace ( f igu re 2 3 ) . S ome K eba ra t oo l s a ppea r t o b e

POL ISHED ON U sed b yh and o n w o rked ma te r ia l PE R? P e rpend icu la r

made f r om t h i sf l in t . N egev f l in t i n v a r iou s s hade s f r om l i gh t b rown t o n ea r ly b l ack , o f ten o n t he s ame n odu le mac ro : i n c lu s ions , med ium t o c oa r se , much g ra in s i ze v a r ia t ion i ns ame f l ake m ic ro : s h iny f l in t , l a rge a nd s ma l l i n c lu s ions , l a rge s ha l low h o l low s o n f r e sh f r ac tu re s u rf ace , med ium t oc oa r se g ra ined .

PRX

p o l ished

b y

P rox ima l

RET R e touch R IDGES " F issu re s" o r " f ea the rs" o n t h in e dge s o f f l ake s a r is ing f r om t he mechan ica l p rope r t ie s o f t he f l in t m ic ro s t ruc tu re . T hey a ppea r m ic ro scop ica l ly a sr i dge s o n t he f l in t s u rf ace ( s ee f i gu re 2 3 f o r ag raph ic i lu s t ra t ion ) . RL

H a rQ e ren f l in tb uf fc o lou red w ea the red n odu le mac ro : c oa rse d ue t o p a tchy c o lou r NOT b anded m ic ro : med ium g r a ined w i th l a rge i n c lu s ion s . G la re a tx 200 . Naha lT z in f l in tb uf fc o lou red mac ro : ma t te n o t s h iny l i ke I SR / 1 a nd B randon b u ts eems f i ne g ra ined m ic ro : c oa rse w i th d eep " r idge s" o r " wave s" r a re o paque i nc lu s ions . E ven i na r ea so ff i ne r g ra in n o t t i gh t ly p acked . V e ry h a rd t op o l ish a nd p ho tog raph . G la re a t x2 00 .

R igh tl a te ra le dge

S ERR

S e r ra t ion

S IN SM

S inuou s ( c omb ina t ion o f CCV + CVX /STRT o n s ame e dge ) S u rf ace mod if ica t ion

S TRT USC

S t ra igh t U l t ra son ic c l ean ing

VNTR

V ent ra l

WAVES U ndu la ted t opog raphy c au sed b y p e rcu ss ion r i pp le s . R ipp le s a r e af e a tu re o f c oncho ida l f r ac tu r ing a nd f o rm c oncen tr ica l ly f r om t he p o in t o f p e rcu s s ion ( s ee f i gu re 2 3 f o r a g raph ic i lu s tra t ion ) . I nt he f o l low ing p age s e xpe r imen ta l p o l ish h a s b een d e sc r ibed a cco rd ing t o t he s t age s o f i t s d eve lopmen t s ugge s ted b y G race ( 1989 :92 ) . I t i s g raph ica l ly i lu s t ra ted i nf i gu re 6 3 a nd s umma r ised b e low :

Naha lT z in v e ry d a rk f l in ta lmo s tb l ack mac ro : v e ry s h iny a nd f i ne g ra ined m ic ro : v e ry s h iny , w i th d eep " r idge s" a nd s ha l low h o l low sw i th g rey c ry s ta li n c lu s ions . G a l i le e " f l in t" , g rey c o lou red mo t t led w i th

A

p o l ish o ccu r r ing a s i nd iv idua l e l emen t s c l ea r ly s epa ra ted f r om e ach o the r w i th in a ma t r ix o fa nu npo l i shed s u rf ac e ;

l a rge s po t s

I SR /5b

M ic roden t icu la te

mac ro :t e x tu re s uga ry ,n o ts moo th l i ke f l in t m ic ro : s ome med ium g ra ined a rea s s epa ra ted b yc oa r se o ne s . G la re a t x2 00 .

t oge the r ;

Ga l i lee c he r t ,b anded d a rk b uf ft ol i gh tg rey mac ro :r oughe rt han I SR /5a i nt ex tu re m ic ro : e x t reme ly c oa rse — l igh te r a r ea s mo re

a r ea i su npo l ished ; B+ al i nked d i s t r ibu t ion w he re t he p o l ished a rea i s a pp rox ima te ly e qua lt ot he u npo l ished a r ea .

s o t han d a rk o ne s -c ry s ta ls a t g rea t ly d if e r ing h e igh t s s epa ra ted b y l a rge h o l low s pac e s— v e ry d if i cu l t t o p o l i sh a nd p ho tog raph —appea r sv e ry p o rou s .

s e e f i gu re s 16 , 17 a nd 18 f o r t he se s t age s w h ich I d ef ine h e reunde r :

A+

l a rge r i nd iv idua l e l emen t s b u t n o t y e t l i nked p o l i sh l i nked b u t t he ma jo r i ty o ft he o b se rved

Ih ave s ubd iv ided G race 's C p o l ish i n to t h ree s t age s ,

w hen mo s to ft he o b se rved a r ea i sp o l ished ;

3

C+

p o l ish l i nked t o c ove r mo s t o f t h e m ic ro topog raphy w i th r a re e mp ty s pace s ;

CH -

( a l l o ve r )a lmo s tb l anke tp o l ish .

6 .43 L i s to fA r tef ac t s i nU se - Wear E xper imen t s

No . E X P / 1 E X P / 1 E XP / 3 E X P / 4 E X P / 5 E X P / 5E E X P / 6 E XP / 7 E X P / 8 E X P / 9 E X P / 10 E X P / 1 1 E X P / 12 E XP / 13 E 3U 3 / 14 E XP / 15 ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) E XP / 17 E XP / 18 E XP / 19 E XP / 2 3 E XP / 2 6 E X P / 2 7 E X P / 2 8 E X P / 2 9 E XP / 3 1 ( 1 ) ( 2 ) E X P / 52 E XP / 5 3 E XP / 5 4 E XP / 5 5 E X P / 56 E XP / 57 E X P / 58 E X P / 59 E X P / 6 0 E X P / 6 1 E X P / 6 2 E X P / 6 3 E XP /6 4 E X P / 6 6 E XP / 6 7 ›E X P / 6 8 E XP / 6 9 E X P / 7 0 E XP / 7 3 E X P / 7 4 E X P / 7 5 E X P / 7 8 E X P / 8 0 E X P / 8 1 E X P / 8 2 E X P / 8 3 E X P / 87 E X P / 88 E XP / 107

TY PE

FL INT

US E

MA TER IAL

E. A.

ED GE

MI N

M /D M ID M /D M /D M /D F LAKE M /D M /D M /D M /D M /D M /D M /D B LADE M /D

D R ST D R ST D R ST B RND B RND B RND B RND P / BAR P / BAR B RND P / BAR P / BAR B RND B RND P / BAR

c u t t i ng c u t t i ng r e a p i n g s c r ap i ng w h i t t l i ng w h i t t l i n g w h i t t l i ng s a w i ng a n dw h i t t l i ng c u t t i ng a n dw h i t t l ing w h i t t l i ng c u t t i ng s a w i ng c u t t i n g d e b a r k i n g c u t t i ng

d r yr u s h e s w e tr u s h e s P h r agm i t e s s o f tc e da r d r yb e e c h g r e e nw i l low t h yb e e c h d r yr ed s d r yr ed s d r yr ed s c ow h i d e s h e l l b r a c k e n g r e e na l d e r c ow h i d e

5 5 3 8 5 0 4 5 6 5 5 0 3 5 3 8 3 5 4 0 4 2 4 0 6 0 4 5

C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C VX S ERR N OR ET C CV S ERR C CV S ERR S I NS ERR S TR S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C VX S ERR N OR ET C VX S ERR

3 0 1 5 6 0 3 0 0 5 2 0 4 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 5 1 5 1 0 1 5 5

B LADE M /D B LADE M /D M /D M ID M /D M /D M /D M /D M /D M /D

B RND B RND B RND B RND B RND B RND B RND B RND B RND B RND B END B RND

d e h a i r i ng d e h a i r i ng d e h a i r ing c u t t i n g c u t t i ng b u t c h e r i ng r e a p i n g r e a p i n g c u t t i n g s a w i n g s a w i n g d e h a i i ing

d e e rh i d e d e e rh i d e d e e rh i d e d e e rh i d e m e a t c ow l e g b r a c k e n b r a c k e n d e e rh i d e g r e e nb i r c h g r e e no a k s o a k e d ,s c r ap e dh i d e

5 0 4 5 4 0 5 0 4 0 4 0 4 5 3 7 4 5 4 5 5 6 5

N OR ET S TR S ERR S TR S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR C CV S ERR

4 5 5 2 0 1 5 3 0 6 0 1 2 2 0 2 5 1 0 5 3 5

B LADE B LADE B LADE B LADE B LADE S CRAPER B LADE B LADE B LADE B LADE B LADE E J SCRAPER O NB LADE

B RND B RND B RND B RND I S R / 2 B RND I S R / 2 B RND B RND B RND B RND B RND

d e h a i r i ng c u t t i n g s aw i n g b u t c h e r i ng c h o p p i ng s c r ap i ng b u t c h e r i ng b u t c h e r i ng s a w i n g i n c i s i ng s c r a p i ng b u t c h e r i ng

d e e rh i d e d e e rh i d e c ow b o n e d e e r d e e rh e a r t d e e rh i d e d e e r d e e r w e ta n t l e r t h yo a k w e ta n t l e r m e a t / b o n e

P / BAR B RND B RND B RND B RND I S R / 2 I S R / 2 I S R / 2 B RND B RND I S R / 1 I S R / 3 I S R / 2 I S R / 3 I S R / 3 I S R / 3 I S R / 1 I S R / 2 B RND

s c r a p i ng s c r a p i ng c u t t i n g d e h a i r i ng w h i t t l i n g s c r a p i ng s c r a p i n g s c r a p i ng s c r a p i ng c u t t i n g w h i t t l i ng w h i t t l i n g s h a v i ng s a w i ng r e a p i n g s c r a p i ng t a rc o a t i ng b u t c h e r i ng s c r a p i ng

c ow h i d e D RY P I NE f r e s hh i d e d e e rh i d e w e ta n t l e r d e e rh i d e d e e rh i d e d e e rh i d e d e e rh i d e d e e rh i d e t h yo a k g r e e na l d e r w e ta n t l e r w e ta n t l e r r u s h e s g r e e na l d e r r u s hb a s k e t m e a t / b o n e g o a th i d e

N OR ET N OR ET N OR ET N OR ET N OR ET P RX R ET N OR ET N OR ET N OR ET N OR ET N OR ET R ET + N OR E7 R ET D ST B UR IN B I T N OR ET C CV S ERR C VX S ERR R ET D ST R ET D ST R ET R L R ET R L N OR ET N OR ET R ET L L B / FACET R ET D ST D ENT IC R L D ST R L N OR E T N OR E T C CV S ERR

2 0 1 5 1 0 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 2 0 1 0 3 0 2 0

S CRA PER B UR IN / SCRA PER B LADE M /D M /D S CRAPER S CRA PER S CRAPER S CRAPER F LAKE B LADE S CRAPER B UR IN D ENT IC B LADE S CRAPER B LADE B LADE M /D

3 8 4 0 3 0 5 0 5 7 0 5 5 6 0 5 5 8 5 6 5 9 5 9 0 5 6 0 6 5 9 0 9 0 7 0 7 5 5 7 0 4 5 8 0 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 6 5 5

3 4

6 0 2 0 1 5 1 0 4 0 4 5 2 5 1 0 2 0 3 0 1 0 6 5 6 0 5 0 6 5 6 0 2 0 1 5 1 5 3 5

6 . 4 .4 L i s to fA r tef ac t si nP o l i sh F orma t ion E xper imen t s

TO OL No .

FL INT T YPE

EX PER IMENT D ESCR IPT ION

SE CT ION

EXP /7 1 EXP /72 EXP /79 EXP /84 EXP /85 EXP / 89 EXP /90 DT /9 1 EXP /92 ( 1 ) EXP /92 ( 2 ) EXP /93 EXP /94 EXP /95 EXP /96 EXP /97 E 3T /98 EXP / 10 I EXP / 103 EXP / 104 EXP / 108 EXP / 109 EXP / 117 DT / 118 DT / 119 EXP / 120 EXP / I2 1 EXP / 123 EXP / 124 EXP / 125 EXP / I26 DT / 127 DT / 128 EXP / 129 EXP / 136 E 3T / 137 EXP / 138 EXP / I39 EXP / 140 EXP / I4 1 EXP / 142 EXP / 143

BRND BRND I SR /2 I S M BRND BRND BRND I SR /2 I SR /2 I SR /2 I SR I2 I SR /2 I S M I SR /2 I SR /2 I SR /4b I SR /4a I SR /4a I S M BRND BRND I SR /5b I 551 2 BRND I SR J4b I SR /4b BRND I SR 13 I SR /2 I SR /4b BRND BRND BRND BRND I SR /2 I SR /2a BRND BRND BRND BRND BRND

R ubb ing h i de ,O ne h ou r R ubb ing h i de ,O ne h ou r B uf f ing ,w e th a rd b uf f /µg 4 1 r i t ,o nw he e l /µg 4 1 r i t ,o nw h ee l 1 / 4 1g r i t ,s c rap ing B uf f ing ,d ry w oo lb uf f G roov ing ,d ry b i r ch G roov ing ,b i rch +w a te r G roov ing ,b i r ch +o i l G roov ing ,d ry b i rc h +t a lc V s j ig r i t ,o nw he e l S c rap ing , ' 4 µg r i t G roov ing ,b i r ch +t a lc /1 4 1 2g r i t ,o nw he e l We tc hamo i s ,o nw hee l /µg 4 1 r i t ,o nb uf f t h l tg r i t ,o nb uf f Wh i t t l ing ,w ood B uf f ing ,w e th a rd w oo lb uf f B uf f ing ,h a rd w oo lw i th w e tc hamo i s S c r ap ing ,h i d e S c r ap ing ,h id ew i th o ch r e S c rap ing ,h i de w i th o ch r e S c r ap ing ,h i d ew i t ho ch re S c rap i ng ,h i de w i th o ch r e S c rap ing ,h i d ew i th o ch r e S c rap ing ,h i de w i th o ch r e S c rap ing ,h id ew i th o ch r e S c rap ing ,h i d ew i th o ch r e S c rap ing ,h i d ew i th o ch r e S c rap ing ,d ry /w e tc hamo i s S c rap ing ,h i d ew i th o ch re B ru sh ing , 1 /1 4 .g r i t We igh tv a r ia t ion o nf l i n t We igh tv ar ia t ion o nf l i n t We igh tv a r ia t ion o nf l in t B uf f i ng ,w e td us t f re eg oa th id e B uf f i ng ,d r yd us t -f r ee g oa th i de P o l i shed o na nd b yc ow h i de P o l i shed o ng oa th i de

3 . 6 .4 3 . 6 .4 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 .6 6 . 4 .6 6 . 4 .6 6 . 4 .6 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 .6 6 . 4 .8 6 . 5 .5 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 .8 6 . 5 .5 6 . 4 .9 6 . 4 .9 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .5 6 . 4 .7 6 . 4 .8 6 . 4 . 11 6 . 4 . 11 6 . 4 .11 6 . 4 .10 6 . 4 .10 6 . 4 .12 6 . 4 . 12

6 . 4 .5 E xper imen t s o n t he E f f e c t o f Wa ter o n P o l i sh F orma t ion A im s I th a s b e en r epo r ted t h a t g re en p l an t s p roduc e p ol i sh f a s te r t h an d ry o ne s ( Unge r -Ham i l ton 1 983 :24 4 ; And e r son -Ge rf aud 1 981 :46 ) . A l thoug h t h e d if e renc e w a s a t t r ibu ted t ot h e p re sence o ft h e i rj u ic e s i tw a s n o t c l ea r w ha t r o le t h ey p l ayed i n t h e d ev e lopmen t o f p o l i sh . F u r the rmo re i th a sb een h ypo the s i sed t h a t w a te r w a s i n t e rac t ing w i th t h e s i l ica i n t h e f l in t c au s ing a s i l i ca g e l l a ye rt of o rm i n ap roce s so fh yd ro ly s i s . I tw a s s ugge s t ed t ha t t h i s s i l ic a g e l l a y e r i sw ha t w e o b se r ve o p t ica l ly a sp o l ish . T oo b se rve a nd t r yt ou nde r s tand t h e i mpo r t anc e o f f l u id s s uch a s w a te r i n t h e p roce s s o f p o l i sh f o rma t ion , s e ve ra l e xpe r imen t s w e re c a r r ied o u t , s t a r t ing w i th t he o ne sd e sc r ibed b e low . E xpe r imen t s 1 Ab a ske t mad e o f r u she s w a s c u t i n h a lf . A f l in t b l ad e EXP / 1 w a s u sed t o s h red o ne h a lf o f t h e b a sk e t i n to v e ry s ma l l b i t sf o r3 0 m inu te s . T he o t he r h a lf o ft he b a ske tw a ss o aked i nw a te r o ve rn igh ta nd t h en s h redded i n t h e s ame w ay a nd f o r t h e s ame l e ng th o ft ime .

2 A t u rn tab le w a s c ove red w i th a p i ec e o f c hamo is l e a the r . Wh i le t h e t u rn tab le w a s r e vo lv ing i tw a s s c raped manua l ly w i th af l in t a r tef a c t EXP / 128 f o r f i v e m inu te s w h i le i tw a s d ry a nd f i v em inu te s a f t e r w e t t ing i t .T he t u rn tab le w a s u sed i no r de r t os pe ed u pt h ed ev e lopmen to fp o l i sh . O b ser va t ion s 1 C u t t ing t h e d ry r u sh b a sk e t p roduced h a rd ly a ny p o l ish o n EXP / 1 ( f ig u re 3) . C u t t ing t h e w e t r u she s p rodu ced a v e ry w e l l d eve loped p o l ish e ven a f t e r 1 5m inu te s ( f igu re 3 4 /8 ) a nd a f t e r3 0m inu te s i tw a s at o ta l ly l i nked C p o l i sh e ven a f t e r i mme r s ion i n 2 0% N aOH t o r emove p o s s ib le r e s idue s( f igu r e3 7 ) . 2 Af te r f i ve m inu te s o n t h e d ry l e a the r n o p o l i sh w ha t so eve r a ppea red o n t h e f l in t e dge o f EXP /128 , w h i le o n t h e w e t l e a the r , w e l l l i nked p o l i sh w a s p roduced a f t e rs c rap ing f o rf i ve m inu te s( f igu re 5 9 ) . C onc lus ion s I ti s o bv iou s t h a t t h e p re sence o f w a te r h ad g rea t ly e nhanc ed p o l ish f o rma t ion . T he e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ib ed i ns e c t ion 6 . 4 .6 s how t h a tt h i si sn o t d ue t o ap roce s s o f h yd ro ly s i sa st h es ame r e su l t sw e re o b ta ined w hen u s ing

3 5

w o rk ing as of t ma te r ia l w h ich , b y mou ld ing i t se lf b e t te r t ot he f l in t m ic ro topog raphy , p o l ishe s t h e l ow p o in t s a t

l i qu id s ( o the r t han w a te r ) n o t k nown t o c au se t he d i s so lu t ion o fs i l ica . I n o t he r wo rd s t he e nhancemen t o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t w a s d ue t ot he p re senc e o f al i qu id

t he s ame t ime a st he h igh p o in t s . T he re we re , h oweve r , s t r ia t ions , a nd e dge s ca rr ing i nd ica t ive o f a h a rd

med ium r a the rt han t ot h e c hem ica l p rope r t ie s o fw a te r a so ppo sed t oa ny o t he rl i qu id .

ma ter ia l .

6 .4 .6 Wood -Groov ing E xper imen t s

S t r ia t ions/Edge S car r ing T o a sce r ta in w he the r t he s t r ia t ion s o n EXP /93 w e re

A im s

c au sed b y t h e m ic roch ip s f r om t h e e dge s ca r s , t h e e xpe r imen tw a sr epea ted w i th ab ur in EXP /96 u s ing t he

T he p u rpo se o f t he se e xpe r imen t s w a s t o mon i to r t h e r o le c e r ta in v a r iab le s p l ay i nt he d eve lopmen t o fp o l ish o n f l in t e dge s . T he f a c to r s c ons ide red i mpo r tan t i nt he

v en t ra l e dge o ft he f a ce t t og roove . T oo l s w i th g rea te r e dge a ng le s a r e c ons ide red l e s s l i ke ly t o p roduce

a ppea ranc e o f p o l ish s uch a s a b ra s ive s , w a te r , o t he r

m ic ro ch ip s . T he e dge a ng le w a s 8 0 d eg ree s a nd n o mac ro scop ic e dge s ca r r ing w a s p roduced , n o r w e re t he re s t r ia t ions t hough al i nea r d i s t r ibu t ion o fp o l i sh d id r e su l t f r om t h e b ack a nd f o r th mo t ion u sed i ng roov ing t he w ood ( f igu re 6 1) . T h i s o b se rva t ion s ugge s t s t ha t

f l u id s a nd e dge a ng le , w e re v a r ied a nd t he r e su l t s o b se rved m ic ro scop ica l ly . E xper imen t s

m ic roch ips f r om e dge s ca r s may b ec om ing b e tween t h e

Ap lank o fd ry b i rch w a s g rooved b y h and w i th f l ake s r emoved f r om t he s ame c o re o fI SR /2 med ium g ra ined

f l in ta nd t he w o rked ma te r ia l a nd c au s ing t he s t r ia t ions .

f l in t . T he e dge a ng le o ft h e t oo ls w a s r e co rded a nd t he a dd i t ive s w e re w a te r , h yd roca rbon o i l a nd t a lcum p owde r u sed s ucce s s ive ly . E ach b ack a nd f o r th movemen t w a s c oun ted a s o ne s t roke . E ve ry a r tef ac t

C lean ing A n a t temp t w a s made t o r emove a ny t a lcum p owde r t ha t may h ave i n vaded t he i n te r s t ice s o f t he f l in t o n

w a s u sed f o r 3 000 s t roke s . Ob serva t ions w e re made a t v a r iou s s t age s o f w o rk t o d ocumen t v i sua l ly a nd p ho tog raph ica l ly , t h ee dge w ea ra nd t h ed eve lopmen t o f

EXP /93 a nd EXP /96 . T he a r tef ac t s w e re i mme r sed i na 1 % HC I s o lu t ion f o r 1 0m inu te s i na dd i t ion t ob rush ing w i th a n y lon b ru sh i n w a rm w a te r a nd d e te rgen t f o l lowed b y a n u l t ra son ic c l ean ing i n d i s t i l led w a te r .

t he p o l ish . T he e xpe r imen t s a nd t h e o p t ica l o b serva t ions h ave

T he p o l i sh r ema ined u nchanged . A l though s upe rf ic ia l

b een s umma r ised i nT ab le No .1 . D iscus s ion

r e s idue s f r om t he p owde r h ad b een r emoved , o ne c anno t , h oweve r , e xc lude t he p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t s ome t a lcum r ema ined i nt he i n te rs t ice so ft h ef l in t .

F lu id s

C onc lu s ions

P o l i sh f r om g roov ing d ry w ood w i th EXP /91 f o rmed s l owe s t ( f igu re 7 4 ) . T he p o l ish p roduc ed b y g roov ing

T h i s s e r ie s o fe xpe r imen t s s ugge s t s t h a t t he r o le w a te r p lay s i n p o l i sh f o rma t ion i s p robab ly n o t s o le ly a

b i rch w i th EXP /92 (1) c ons tan t ly w e t ted w i th w a te rw a s

c hem ica l o ne , s i nce v e ry s im i la r p o l ish i s o b ta ined w hen u s ing a h yd roca rbon o i l wh ich i sv e ry d if e ren t c hem ica l ly f r om w a te r i n t e rms o fp o la r i ty . T he b a s ic

s l igh t ly mo re i nva s iv e t han t ha t o n EXP /92 (2 ) d ipped i n o i l ( f igu re s 7 2 a nd 7 3 ) . A s t he e dge a ng le s w e re s im i la r ( 3 5° ) a nd t h e f l in t w a s t he s ame , p ene t ra t ion i n to t he w ood m igh t b e e xpe c ted t o b e c ompa rab le . R epea t ing t h e e xpe r imen t s howed t ha t t he w a te r s e em s t o b e s of ten ing t he b i rch ( o i l d oe s n o t ) , a l low ing t h e e dge t op ene t ra te al i t t le d eepe ri nt he p l ank .

d if e rence i n t h e p ol i sh p roduced b y 3 000 s t roke s g roov ing d ry w ood a l one o rw i th w a te r o r o i l i si nt h e s peed o fi t s f o rma t ion a nd i t sd i s t r ibu t ion o nt he e dge . T he d eve lopmen t o ft he u nu sua l p o l ish o n EXP /93 a nd EXP /96 s ugge s t s t ha t s of t a b ra s iv e s c an c au se a c hange i n t h e p o l i sh d i s t r ibu t ion o n t h e m ic ro topog raphy a nd empha s i se s t h e i mpo r tance o f a b ra s ive s i n p o l i sh f o rma t ion a bov e a nd b eyond t h e

Abra s ive s T he mo s t i n te re s t ing p o l ish w a s t he o ne p roduced b y

h a rdne s so ft h e ma te r ia l b e ing wo rked .

g roov ing b i rch w i th af l ake , EXP /93 , w ho se e dge a ng le w a s 4 5° a nd u s ing t a lcum p owde r a s as of t a b ra s ive

F u r the r a way f r om t h e e dge , h oweve r , r a the r t han t h e p o l ish a ppea r ing f i r s t o n t he h igh p o in t s o f t he

T he p o l ish p roduced b y t h is e xpe r imen t i ss im i la r t o c e r ta in t r ace s f ound o n s ome i mp lemen t s i nvo lved i na t r amp l ing e xpe r imen t a t K l i th i ( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 5 .4 c f . f i gu re 1 54 a nd f i gu re 6 0 ) . C on tac t o ft r amp led p i ece s b o th w i th o t he r s t one s a nd w i th s ed imen t s e ems t oh ave

m ic ro topog raphy a nd t h en l i nk ing u p ( a s h ad o ccu r red

p roduced ,

w hen g roov ing d ry b i rch ) , t he i n troduc t ion o ft he s of t a b ra s ive p roduced a s u rf ace p o l ished b o th o n t he h igh

d i s t r ibu t ion a sc on tac tw i th wood a nd t a lcum p owde r . T he se e xpe r imen ts s e em t o c onf i rm a n o b serva t ion

a nd l ow p o in t s o f t h e m ic ro topog raphy . T he o ve ra l l

a l ready made o n o t he r e xpe r imen ta l t o o ls , n ame ly t h a t e dge s c a r r ing i sr e spons ib le f o r s t r ia t ions . I tn eed n o t n ece ssar i ly b e t he o n ly c au se a s t h e e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ib ed i nt h ef o l low ing p age sw i l l s how .

( f igu re 6 0 ) . S ome w e l l d eve loped p o l ish s im i la r t ot ha t o n t h e o t he r a r tef ac t s a ppea red o n t he v e ry e dge .

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1t oo l w i th o chre o f ag ra in s i ze h e ld w i th in a4 25µ

6 . 4 .7 E xper imen t sS crap ing H ide w i th Ochre

s i eve ; 3t oo ls w i th o ch re o f g ra in s i ze b e tween 2 12 a nd 3 00µ ; 4t oo ls w i th o ch re o f amax imum g ra in s i ze o f2 12µ .

A ims T he a im o ft he f o l low ing e xpe r imen t s w as t o o b se rve h ow s t r ia t ions a nd p o l i sh d eve lopmen t a r e a f ec ted b y o ch re g ra in s i ze s k e ep ing c e r ta in v a r iab le s c ons tan t d u ra t ion o fu se i n p a r t icu la r ( s ee b e low ) . T he re w a s n o

E dge Ang le sT ab le No .4 5t oo ls w i th a9 0 ° e dge a ng le ; 6t oo ls w i th e dge a ng le s b e low 9 0 a nd d ec rea s ing t o

a t temp t t o make a s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s a s t h i s w ou ld r equ i re a f a r l a rge r n umbe r o f e x pe r imen t s . Man su r F ranchomme ( 1983 :143 ) c ar r ied o u t a n e xpe r imen t

4 5 /50 ° . E dge r ound ing w as v i ewed b y o p t ica l m ic ro scopy a nd v e ry r ough ly c l a s s if ied i n f i ve c a tego r ie s : " ve ry s l igh t" , " s l igh t" , " d is t inc t" , " seve re" , a nd " ve ry s eve re" i na scend ing o rde ro fo b served r ound ing o ft he e dge .

s c rap ing h ide w i th f i ne a nd c oa rs e s and a nd f ound t ha t c e r ta in s t r ia t ion t ype s o ccu r a c co rd ing t o t he t y pe o f s and u sed . T he u se o fo ch re i n c onnec t ion w i th h ide i s w e l l d ocumen ted a mong Au s t ra l ian a bo r ig ine s a nd i s

S ome c ommen t s r e su l t ing

o f ten p o s tu la ted f o r p reh i s to r ic t ime s . I t w a s c onsequen t ly d ec ided t ha t o ch re w i th a mea su rab le g ra in s i ze s hou ld b eu sed i nt hes ee xpe r imen t s . E xper imen t s

t h e m ic ro scop ic

t hes e o b se rva t ions a r e d i scu ssed b e low . S ome a bb rev ia t ions w e re n ece s sa ry i n c omp i l ing t he t a b le s

H ide w a s s c raped w i th o ch re f r om an a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing l ump t ha t h ad b een p ounded i n to p owde r . U ns if ted p owde r w a s u sed a s w e l l a s o ch re s i eved t h rough a s pe c if ic me sh s i ze . T he o chre w a s made i n to ap as te b y a dd ing d i s t i l led w a te r e xcep t i no ne c a se w hen h exane ( ah yd roca rbon o i l ) w a su sed i n s tead . T he s c rap ing w a s c a r r ied o u t w i th t he p i ece s o fh ide r e s t ing o n ab oa rd c ove red w i th at h ick p l a s t ic c ove r t oa vo id a ny c on tac t

a nd a r e g iven i n f u l l i n s e c t ions 6 . 4 . 1 a nd 6 .4 .2 . S ee a l so f i gu re 6 3 f o r ad iag ram i lus t ra t ing t he s t age s o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t r e f e r red t o i n t h e t ab le s a nd e xp la ined i n s e c t ion 6 . 4 .2 . O n a l l e dge s o n ly t he max imum s t age o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t h a s b een i nd ic a ted . G ene ra l ly p o l ish i s b e s t d eve loped a t t he p o in t o f max imum c on tac t a nd l e s s d eve loped p o l ish a ppea r s e l sewhe r e u sua l ly a way f r om a nd a l ong t he e dge .

b e tween t he t oo l a nd t h ew ooden s u rf a ce . B randon f l in t a nd t h ree t ype s o fI s rae l i f l in t s w e re u sed o n d ee r , g oa t a nd c ow h ide . H igh a ng led a nd l ow a ng led s c rap ing o ccur red a cco rd ing t ot h e r equ ir emen t o ft he t a sk o f t en d i c ta ted b y t he e dge morpho logy o ft h e t oo l . T he w o rk a imed a tr ep l ica t ing t h e w ay h ide s w ou ld b e c o lou red r a the r t han t he w ay t hey wou ld b e p roce s sed a f te r b u tche ry , w h ich wou ld r equ ire much l o nge r p e r iod s o f s c rap ing a nd wou ld p robab ly n o t i n c lude o ch re a tt ha t s t age .

O b ser va t ion s T he f o l low ing a r e i n tended s imp ly a s s t a temen t s o f w ha tw a so b se rved m ic ro scop ica l ly a nd m ac roscop ic a l ly a f te rt he e xpe r imen t s . T he d i scus s ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft he s eo b se rva t ion sa pp ea ru nde r as epa ra te h ead ing . IP o l i sh De ve lopmen t a T he s ame d eg ree o f p o l ish d eve loped w he the r w a te r o ro i l ( hexane ) w a s u sed a s amed ium ( s ee

T he f o l low ing v a r iab le sh ave b een k ep tc ons tan t : • a l lh ide wa sr aw ,t ha ti sn o tc hem ica l ly t anned , • a l lh ide w a ss oaked a nd s c raped w h i le d amp ,

EXP / 129 a nd EXP / 127 F igu re s 9 1a nd 9 3 ) . T he s ame w a s t r ue w hen s co r ing w ood s e e

• a l l h ide wa s s c raped f o r t wen ty m inu te s o n ly o n t he n on -ha i ry s i de . O the r v a r iab le s w h ich c ou ld i nf luence p o l i sh

e xpe r imen t i n s e c t ion 6 . 3 .6 . O the r e xpe r imen t s w i th h exane w e re n o t c a r r ied o u t a s i tt e nd s t o e vapo ra te v e ry q u ick ly a nd d oe s n o t a l low t he

d eve lopmen tw e re a l so r e co rded : 1 2 3 4

f r om

o b se rva t ion o f t h e e dge s a r e g iven o n t he t a b le s . An a t temp t w a s made t o o b se rve t he p o l ished f l in t s u r f ace a nd t h e s t r ia t ions b y S EM . T he c onc lu s ions d rawn f r om

o ch re t od eve lop i n to ap as te . b T he c oa r sene s s o f t he h ide f i b re s af ec ted t h e d eve lopmen t o fp o l ish . T he f i ne rt h e g ra in o ft he h ide t h e mo re d eve loped t he p o l ish a nd v i ce

f l in tt ype , e dge a ng le , h ide t ype , l i qu id med ium .

v e r sa ( c f . EXP / 120 a nd EXP / 126 f i gure s 8 5 a nd 9 0 w he re t he s ame f l in t t ype [ I SR /4 1 3 ] a nd t h e s ame o ch re g ra in s i ze [ 2 12 /300µ ] p roduced

I tw a s i mpo ss ib le t oc ove ra l lt he p e rmu ta t ions i nt he t ime a va i lab le . A r ang e o fe xpe r imen t s w a s c onduc ted t ha t s hou ld a t l e a s t t h row s ome l i gh t o n t h e f a c to r s

v a s t ly d if e r ing

af ec t ing p o l ish d eve lopmen t , e ven i fn o t e l uc ida t ing e ve ry a spec t .

s t age s

o f p o l i sh ) .

EXP /126

s c rap ing c ow h ide d eve loped A + p o l i sh wh i le EXP / 120 s c rap ing f a l low d ee r p roduc ed mac ro scop ic C + p o l ish a nd s eve re e dge r ound ing . A l l t h ree a r tef ac t s u sed o n c ow h ide

T h ree t a b le s w e re c omp i led t o s how t he v a r iou s e xpe r imen t sa nd t he i rr e su l ts g rouped a cco rd ing t o :

d eve loped o n ly A+ p o l ish i ns p i te o ft he p re sence

F l in tT ypes T ab le N o . 2 4t o o ls o fB randon f l in t ;

o f o ch re i n t h ree d if e ren t g ra in s i ze s f r om c oa r se t o f i ne . T he re w e re a l so t h ree d if e ren t

7t o o ls o fv a r iou sI s rae l i f l in t s .

f l in t t y pe s f r om m ed ium /coa r se t o med ium /f ine i n g ra in s i ze . S ee s ec t ion 6 . 4 . 12 f o r f u r the r

Ochre Gra in S ize sT ab le No . 3 2t o o ls w i th u ns if t ed o chre h ence w i th am ix tu re o f g ra in s i ze s ; 3 8

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5H ide T ype

e xpe r imen t s i nve s t iga t ing t he i mpo r tance o fh ide f i b re s . c T he t wo t oo ls w i th t h e b e s t p o l ish d eve lopmen t ( EXP /127 a nd EXP /129 ) a l so h ad t he mo s t

i nt h e c a se o f EXP / 126 a nd EXP / 120 b o th o ft h e s ame f l in t t y pe a nd u sed w i th t he s ame o ch re g ra in s i ze , p o l ish d eve loped v e ry w e l l o n EXP / 120 u sed o n f a l low d e e r h ide a nd v e ry l i t t le o n EXP / 126 u sed o n c ow h ide ( F igu re s 8 5 a nd 9 0 ) . A sw o rk ing t ime w a sk ep t c on s tan t

s e ve re e dge r ound ing . E dge r ound ing w a s s eve re o n a l l t oo ls w i th mac ro scop ic p o l i sh . A l l t h e t o o ls h av ing n o mac ro scop ic p o l ish h ad s l igh t o r

i tw a s p o s s ib le t o o b se rve t ha t t h e s peed o f p o l ish

v e ry s l igh t e dge r ound ing a s s hown o n EXP / 17 , EXP /121 , EXP /124 , EXP /125 , a nd

d eve lopmen t i sf a s te r w i th t he f i ne r g ra ined h ide s o f d e e r , g oa t s a nd o fy oung a n ima ls t h an w i th t he c oa r se r ga ined h ide s o fa du l t c a t t le .

EXP / 126 . d T he b e s td eve loped p o l ish ( C++ o n EXP /127 a nd EXP / 129 f i gu re s9 1 a nd 9 3) w a sp roduced b yt he f i ne s t g ra in s i ze o ch re ( §m ic ron s ) . S l igh t ly l e s s p o l i sh d eve loped o na r tef ac t su sed w i th

6Edge R ound ing A l l t he t oo l s i nt he se e xpe r imen t s d eve loped s ome e dge r ound ing . T he B randon f l in t t oo ls d eve loped mo re e dge r ound ing t han t he I s rae l i f l in t t ype s w i th t he e xc ep t ion

u ns if ted o ch re ( C o n EXP / 118 a nd EXP / 119 ) . B yc ompa r ing t wo p a i r s o fa r tef ac t s o n wh ich a l l

o f EXP /120 w h ich d eve loped s eve re e dg er ound ing . A l l

t h e v a r iab le s w e re t he s ame e xcep t o chre g ra in s i ze ,t he f o l low ing v a r ia t ion i so b se rvab le :

t he a r tef ac t s w i th s eve re e dge r ound ing h ad C o r mo re p o l ish o n t he e dge . A r tef ac t s w i th s l igh t e dge r ound ing d eve loped o n ly A+ p o l ish e xcep t f o r EXP / 125 w i th C + p o l ish d eve lopmen ta nd s l igh te dge r ound ing .

EXP /118 w i th u n s if t ed o ch re EXP / 125 w i th f i ne o chre p roduced C a nd C + p o l ish r e spe c t ive ly ; EXP / 119 w i th u ns if ted o chre

D i scu s s ion a nd c onc lu s ion s

EXP / 123 w i th f i ne o ch re p roduced C a nd C ++ p o l i sh r e spec t ive ly ( f igu re s 8 4a nd 8 7 ) .

T he f o l low ing i s ad i scu s s ion o f t h e r e su l t s o f t he se

O n EXP / 117 , u sed a s ac on t ro l s c rap ing f a l low

e xpe r imen t s . Wh i le s ome t en ta t ive i n f e rence s m igh t b e d rawn , o ne s hou ld b e c au t iou s n o t t oo v e r i n te rp re t t he

h ide w i thou t o chre , v e ry l i t t le p o l ish d eve loped , a l though t h is a r tef ac t i s a dm i t ted ly o f av e ry c oa r se f l in tt ype ( f igu re 8 2 ) .

r e su l t s u n t i l af a r g rea te r n umbe r o f e xpe r imen t s h a s b een c onduc ted . C ompar i son s a r e m ade h e re b e tween

I nt h e mo s tl i nked s t age s s uch a sC + o r mo re , a l l p o l i shed s urf ace sh ad " come tt a i l p i t s" .

e xamp le sw he re o n ly o ne p a rame te rw a sv a r ied . IMacro scop ic P o l i sh

2S t r ia t ion s

S ome o ft he a r tef ac t s i nt he se e xpe r imen t s d eve loped a p o l ish v i s ib le w i th t h e n aked e ye w h i le o t he r s d id n o t , e ven t ho se w h ich m ic ro scop ica l ly h ad a v e ry w e l l

Mo s t o f t h e t oo ls h ad r e la t ive ly f i ne s t r ia t ions w hen o b se rved u nde r a n o p t ica l m ic ro scope . EXP /121 u sed w i th 4 25 ! . 1 o ch re h ad n o s t r ia t ions : t he re wa s l i t t le d eve loped p o l ish o n r a the rc oa r se f l in t . I ns p i te o fu s ing

l i nked p o l i sh ( s e e EXP /118 a nd EXP / 125 f i gu re s 8 3 a nd 8 9 ) . Ap o s s ib le e xp lana t ion o ft h is p henomenon i s t ha tw hen f l in t i so fv a ry ing g ra in s i ze t h ef i ne r g ra ined a rea s o fw e l l d eve loped p o l ish a re s e pa ra ted b y a r ea s o f c oa r se f l in tw he re t he p o l ish i sv e ry s c a rce ly d eve loped .

t he S EM , n o d i s t inc t c o r re la t ion o f s t r ia t ion t ype w i th o ch re g ra in s i ze w a s o b se rved . Mo re t han o ne t ype o f s t r ia t ion w a s p re sen t o n e ach t oo l . T he re w e re a l so t oo many s t r ia t ion s f o r t hem t o b e mea su red i nd iv idua l ly . T he ref o re o n ly a v e ry g ene ra l c l as s if ica t ion s uch a s " f ine" , a nd " ve ry f i ne" s t r ia t ions h as b een made f r om o p t ica l o b se rva t ions a nd t h e se a l so d id n o t c o r re la te c l ea r ly w i th o ch re g ra in s i ze . S ee s e c t ion 7 . 1 .6 f o r a d i scus s ion o fs t r ia t ions i n t h e u nde r s tand ing o f p o l i sh f o rma t ion .

EXP / 118 a nd EXP / 125 , t hough f l ake s o ft he s ame f l in t t y pe , d if e r w ide ly i nt h e i r h omogene i ty : EXP / 125 h a s f i ve d if e ren tf l in tt e x tu re s o n t he e dge . O n f i ne f l in tt he s ame p o l ish i sv i s ib le mac ro scop ica l ly d ue t oi t sb e ing a c on t inuou sb and . 2S t r ia t ion s T he a b sence o f ap a t te rn c o r re la t ing o ch re g ra in s i ze t o s t r ia t ion t ype n eed n o t b e i n te rp re ted i nt he s ense t ha t

3F l in t T ype O n a l l t h e B randon a r tef ac t s p o l ish w a s v e ry w e l l d eve loped . O n t he I s rae l i f l in t t ype st he d eve lopmen t o f

g ra in s i ze o fa b ra s ive s i su n impo r tan t i nt he f o rma t ion o f s t r ia t ion s . I ti ss ugge s ted r a the r , t h a t d u r ing w o rk ,

p o l ish d i d n o t a ppea r t o b e s o le ly a f unc t ion o f f l in t g ra in s i ze .

t he o ch re p a r t ic le s t hemse lve s a r e b e ing c au s ing av a r ie ty o fs t r ia t ion t ype st of o rm .

c ru shed

I n t he K ee ley m e thod o f d e sc r ib ing p o l ish t h e re i s much u se o ft he w o rd s " smoo th" a nd " r ough" . N o t a l l

4Edge Ang l e

a na ly s t s a g ree o n w h ich p o l ish i ss moo th o r r ough . I n t he se e xpe r imen t s Ih ave n o ted , o p t ica l ly , t ha t w hen t h e

T ab le 3i sa r ranged b yg roup ing t he a r tef ac t s a cco rd ing t o e dge a ng le s t o o b ser ve w he the r e dge r ound ing w a s a f ec ted b y t h em . H igh a ng led a nd l ow a ng led e dge s w e re r ounded .

s t r ia t ions w e re v e ry f i ne t he p o l ish a ppea red s moo th a nd c onve r se ly w hen t he s t r ia t ions w e re n o t a s f i ne t h e p o l ish a ppea red r ough . A n i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h is , a dm i t ted ly a v e ry s ub jec t ive o b serva t ion , i st ha t w hen 4 2

t he f i ne r s t r ia t ions a r e v e ry c l o s e t oge the r t he p o l ish a ppea r s t o b e s moo th . When , o n t h e o t he r h and , t he s t r ia t ions a re l a rge r a nd mo re w ide ly s paced p o l ish

s c rap ing t ime . I ti sp robab le t h a t t he p re sence o f t h e o ch re c on tr ibu ted t ot he a t t r i t ion e ven t hough t h e re w a s n o c l ea r r e la t ion b e tween t he o chre g ra in s i ze a nd t h e

a ppea r s r ough . U nf o r tuna te ly o ne c anno t s e e t h e r oughne s s a nd s moo thne s s o fp o l i sh i nt he S EM a nd i t

e x ten t o f r ound ing . A l l B randon f l in t t o o ls d eve loped r ound ing w h i le n o t a l l t he I s rae l i f l in t s d id . T he e xp lana t ion , h oweve r , i sp robab ly n o t d ue t of l in t g ra in

w as n o tp o s s ib le t om ea su re t he d ep ths a nd w id ths o fa l l t he s t r ia t ions .

s i ze . EXP / 120 , w h ich i st he o n ly I s rae l i f l in t t o o l t os how r ound ing , w a s u sed o n f a l low d e e r . I ti so ft he s ame

3F l in t T ype i n t he se e xper imen t s t h e o b se rva t ion s d id n o t y i e ld a c l ea r c u t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p o l ish d eve lopmen t a nd g ra in s i ze . T he f a c t t ha t a l l B randon f l in t i mp lemen t s d eve loped C p o l ish o r mo re , w h i le I s rae l i f l in tt y pe sh ad av a r ie ty o fd eve lopmen t s t age s , n o t r e la ted p u re ly t o t he i r g ra in s i ze s , n eed n o t b e i n te rp re ted a s mean ing t ha t t h e re i sn o r e la t ion b e tween f l in t g ra in s i ze a nd p o l ish . A l l B randon t oo ls w e re u sed o n f i ne r h ide s . U nf o r tuna te ly t he l im i ted a moun t o ft he f i ne r r aw h ide

7C lean ing /Re s idue s

v a r iab le . C ow h ide c ou ld a ccoun t f o r t he l a ck o fp o l ish

I tw i l l b en o t ic ed t ha t c e r ta in a r tef ac t s w e re s ub jec ted t o amo re p owe rf u l c l ean ing p roce s st han o t he r s . T h i s w a s p romp ted b y t he f a c t t ha t d u r ing o p t ica l m ic ro scopy t he se a r tef ac t s s e emed t o h ave a v e ry s t rong g l a re n o t o b se rved b ef o re u se . I tw as o r ig ina l ly t hough tt ha t s ome r e s idue e i the r f r om t he h ide o r mo re l i ke ly f r om t h e o ch re w a s s t i l l a dhe r ing t o t h e f l in t s u r f ac e . T he se a r tef ac t s w e re c l eaned w i th a n y lon b ru sh a nd s ub sequen t ly s oaked o ve rn igh t i n ab io log ica l d e te rgen t . T hey w e re a l so s oaked i n a2 0% w /v s od ium h yd rox ide s o lu t ion a nd s ub sequen t ly i n 1 0% h yd roch lo r ic a c id .

d eve lopmen t o n EXP /126 , w h i le p o l i sh d eve loped o n EXP / 125 a nd EXP / 120 u sed o n d e e rh ide . Ag lance a t f i gu re s 8 2 -93 h oweve r w i l l s how v i sua l ly t he i nf luenc e o ft he f l in ts t ruc tu re o n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fp o l ish . 4Edge Ang le I tw ou ld s e em t ha t t he re w a s n o c o r re la t ion b e tween e dge a ng le a nd e dge r ound ing . T he h ighe s t e dge a ng le s w e re f ound , h oweve r , t o b e t he mo s t ef i c ien t t oo ls t o s p read t h eo ch re p a s te ( f o rmed b y o ch re a nd w a te r ) a nd c o lou r t h e h ide . T h is o pe ra t ion n o rma l ly f o l low s t h e p roce s s ing o fh ide ( wh ich t a ke s p lac e a f te r b u tche r ing ) a nd t he re i sn ol o nge r an eed f o rt he r emova l o ff l e sh o r o the r ma t te r f r om t h e h ide . T he l owe s t e dge a ng le s o n r e la t ive ly t h in e dge s c u t i n to t he h ide . I n t he c ase o f t h ick c ow h ide , w he re i ti sn ec es sa ry t ob reak d own t h e f i b re sb ef o re t he c o lou r i sa b so rbed i n to t he h ide , af l in t t oo l i sn ece s sa ry , o t he rw i se as moo the rb one t oo l w i th a n a tu ra l ly h igh e dge a ng le w ou ld p robab ly b e mo re a pp rop r ia te f o r t h i s t a sk . Id id n o t c a r ry o u t a n e xper imen tt ov er if yt h is s ugge s t ion .

T h i sc l ean ing p ro cedu re d id n o tr emove t h eg l a re . None o f t h e B randon a r tef ac t s p re sen ted t h i s p rob lem a nd w e re c on sequen t ly n o t s ub je c ted t o t h i s c l ean ing me thod . I ti sa rgued t he ref o re t ha tt he c au se o ft he g l a re i s mo re l i ke ly r e la ted t o t he c oa r sene s s o ft h e f l in t . I t may b e t ha t o ch re p a r t ic le s h ad e n te red t h e many h o l low s p re sen t o n mo s t I s rae l i f l in t a nd c ou ld n o t b e r emoved b yt he c hem ica l c l ean ing o rb yb ru sh ing w i th a n y lon b ru sh . 8O chre G ra in S i ze s I n t h es e e xpe r imen t s o ch re g ra in s i ze s e emed t o i nf luenc e p o l i sh d eve lopmen t b u t i td i d s o l e s s t han h ide . T he b e s t p o l i sh w as d eve loped w hen t he f i ne s t o ch re g ra in s i ze s w e re u sed a nd t h i s may b e d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e f i ne o ch re w i th a l i qu id med ium c r e a te s a s l u r ry l i ke t ha t u sed i n g la s s p o l i sh ing ( Co rn i sh

5H id e T ype T he s t ruc tu re o f t h e h ide f i b re s s e ems t o b e a n i mpo r tan t f a c to r i n p o l ish d eve lopmen t . M ic rowea r l i t e ra tu re h a s g ene ra l ly s t a ted t ha t d if e ren t t ype s o f h id ep roduce t he s ame " t ype" o fp o l ish . Wha ti sr e f e r red t o h e re i sn o t t he " t ype" o f p o l ish b u t t he s peed o f d eve lopmen t . I n t wen ty m inu te s o f w o rk d ee r h ide p rodu ced C+ p o l i sh a nd c ow h ide o n ly A+ p o l ish a l l ( EXP / 120

EXP / 120 i sp robab ly d ue t o s c rap ing a f i ne r t y pe o f h ide . T he re i sl i t t le d oub t t ha t t he c ond i t ions w h ich c au se w e l ld eve loped p o l i sh t of o rm a re a l so l i ke ly t ob e t ho se t ha t c ause e dge r ound ing . B u t t h e e v idenc e e me rg ing f r om t he se e xper imen t s d oe s n o t a l low f o r a o ne t oo ne r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he t wo t y pe so fw ea rt o b em ade .

a va i lab le r e s t r ic ted t h e e f ec t ivene s s o ft h is e xp e r imen t , f o rc ing m e t o i n t roduce t h e c ow h ide a s a n a dd ed

o the r v a r iab le s b e ing c ompa rab le EXP / 126 f i gu re s8 5 a nd 9 0 ) .

f l in t t y pe a nd o fc ompa rab le h omogene i ty t o EXP / 12 1 a nd EXP / 126 u sed o n c ow h ide . T he e dge r ound ing o n

1 961 :3 ) . T h i s s l ur ry may b e r emov ing t h e a spe r i t ie s f r om t h ef l in t s u rf ace a nd s moo th ing i t .T he s moo thne s s o f t h e r e su l t ing s u rf ace c an b e s een f r om t h e S EM p ic tu re s f i gu re s8 0 a nd 8 1 . On t he o the rh and t he c oa r se g ra ined o ch re may e i the r n o t p roduce a s l u r ry a nd /o r may c au se c on tac t b e tween i t s g ra ins a nd t h e f l in t t o

a nd

o ccu r o n ly o n w ide ly s paced p o in t s . F u r the r e xpe r imen t s u s ing 4 25µ o ch re o n d ee r h ide a nd B randon f l in tc ou ld c l ar if yt he e f ec t o fo ch re ga in s i ze . I ts hou ld b e b o rne i nm ind t ha t o ch re i s ac ons ide rab ly

6Edge R ound ing T he p re senc e o f s ome r ound ing o n a l l t he p i ece s i s p robab ly d ue t o t h e u se o f ah a rd w ooden c oun te r t o s uppo r t t he h ide d u r ing w o rk ing . O the r e xpe r imen t s c a r r ied o u t s c rap ing h ide w h ich i ss t re tched o n af r ame

s of te r ma te r ia l t han f l in t . T he c oa r se s t o ch re w a s a l so a v e ry i n ef f ec t ive c o lou r ing a gen t .

d id n o t c au se r ound ing a f te r s uch a r e la t ive ly b r ief 4 3

6 . 4 .8 Mechan ica l ly P roduced P o l i sh

9C o lour ing H id e w i th O chre F o r w ha teve rp u rpo se i tw a s d one , o ch re i ss uppo sed t o

A im s

h ave b een u sed i n p reh is to r ic t ime s d u r ing t h e p roce s s ing o fh ide s . I ti ss ugge s ted h e re t ha t p reh is to r ic p eop le may h ave p ounded t he o ch re u n t i l af i ne ly

I n o rde r t o t e s t w he the r p o l ish i sc ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e w o rked ma te r ia l a s c l a imed b y K e e ley ( 1980 ) s eve ra l t e s t s w e re c a r r ied o u t p o l ish ing f l in t m echan ica l ly i n

g ra ined p owde r w a s o b ta ined a s i tw ou ld y i e ld amo re h omogeneou s a nd e f ec t ive p igmen ta t ion o f t he h ide . T hough o ch re c anno tb e s a id t o" dye" h ide b u tr a the r t o

c ond i t ions w h ich m igh t i s o la te t h e i mpo r tan t f a c to r s g ove rn ing p o l ish d eve lopmen t . T he s e e xpe r imen t s d o n o ta im t or ep l ica te a c t iv i t ie s l i ke ly t oh ave b een c a r r ied

c o lou r i t ,a n a t temp t w a s made t ot e s t t he d u rab i l i ty o f s uch ap igmen ta t ion . T he j uven i le r ed d ee rh ide s c raped w i th 2 12300µ r e d o ch re w a s v e ry e ven ly r ed . l tw a s s ub sequen t ly s oaked i nw a te r f o r s eve ra l h ou r s w i thou t l o s ing i t s c o lou r . O ne may r ea sonab ly s uppo se t ha t i na p reh is to r ic s i tua t ion w he re a g a rmen t w a s s oaked b y r a in o rw h i le w ad ing i n ar i ve r , t he p igmen ta t ion w ou ld p re sumab ly n o tw a sh a way .

o u t i np reh is to r ic t ime s b u t t o mechan ica l ly p o l ish f l in t i n s uch a w ay a s t o c ont ro l t he v a r i L 3 . B e s ide s mak ing t he r ep l icab i l i ty o ft he e xp e r imea s ie r , t he m echan ica l p o l ish ing c u t s d own t h r I nen t o f b o redom w h ich m igh ti nduce e r ro r . S co r ing w ood w h i le c oun t ing 3 000 s t roke s may t a ke l e s s t ime b u t i s mo re mono tonou s t han p o l ish ing f l in t f o r 4 5 o r e ven 6 0 m inu te sw i th ab uf f .

1 0 " Come t T a i lP i t s" E xper imen t s

T he se h ave b een o b se rved b o th o p t ica l ly a nd b yS EM i n t he se a nd o the r e xpe r imen t s o n p o l i sh p roduced b y

A 1 4 1 / 2d iamond p a s te w a s u sed t op o l ish f l in t a r tef ac t s b yv a r iou sm echan ica l means .

d i amond p as te , h ide a nd w oo l ( f igu re s 6 6 , 7 0 a nd 6 4 ) . T hey a r e n o t , t he ref o re , d i agno s t ic o f p lan t p o l ish a s s ugge s ted b y W i t thof t ( 1967 ) a nd K ee ley ( 1980 :6 1) . T hey a r e d i scu s sed i n mo re d e ta i l i n s e c t ion s 7 . 1 .6 ,

1 At u rn tab le r o ta t ing a t 1 50 r pm a nd c ove red w i th a B ueh le r M ic roc lo th ( a s yn the t ic s ho r t p i le v e lve t l i ke c l o th ) w a s c oa ted w i th 1 4 µ d / i amond p a s te .

7 . 1 .9 a nd 7 . 2 .7 .

E xpe r imen ta l

V a s t ly d i f f e ren t s t age s o f p o l i sh d eve lopmen t w e re o b ta ined b ys c rap ing h ide f o rt he s ame l e ng th o ft ime . I t i so bv iou s t ha t t he a moun t o f p o l i sh o b se rved o n a n i mp lemen t i s t he r e su l t o f t he i n te rac t ion o f many v a r iab le s t he mo s t i mpor tan t o f w h ich , a cco rd ing t o

a r tef ac t s :

EXP /85

( B r andon

s e cond s t h e p o l ish w a s mac ro s cop ic , v e ry w e l l d eve loped , a nd t o ta l ly l i nked u p l i ke " s ick le g lo s s" ( f igu re s 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ) . C on t inu ing t h e e xpe r imen t u p t o 2m inu te s d id n o t s eem t o c au se a ny mo re p o l ish t od eve lop .

t he se e xpe r imen t s a r e : f l in t t ype , h ide t ype , a nd t h e p re sence o fa n a b ra s ive . F lu id sa re a l so c ruc ia l b u t w e re g ene ra l ly k ep t c on s tan t i n t he se e xpe r imen t s w h ich w e re a l l c a r r ied o u t o n d amp h ide . I n t he o ne i n s tance w he re h exane w a s u sed r a the r t han w a te r t o b l end t he o ch re i n to ap a s te , l i t t le d if e rence b e tween t he r e su l t ing

2 O the r a r tef ac t s , EXP /89 a nd EXP /95 , w e re u sed b y

p o l ishe s w a s f ound ( c f . EXP / 127 a nd EXP / 129 f i gu re s 9 1 a nd 9 3 ) . I t w ou ld s eem , t he ref o re , i n co r rec t f o r f unc t iona l a na ly s ts t or e cons truc t t h e l e ng th o ft ime a p reh is to r ic a r tef ac tw a su sed , o n t he b a s is o ft he a moun t o f p o l ish o b se rved o n t he e dge w hen s o many o f t he v a r iab le sa r eu nknown . 1 2

f l in t

f l in t ) , EXP /84 , EXP /94 , EXP /97 ( a l l I SR /2 f l in t ) w e re p o l ished b y h o ld ing t hem a ga ins t t he t u rn tab le i n as c rap ing mo t ion a t a n a ng le o f a bou t 6 0° a t a pp rox ima te ly 1 7cms f r om t he c en t re . A f te r 3 0

1 1 Dura t ion o fU se

h and t o s c rape t he s u rf ace o f t he s t a t iona ry t u rn tab le . T he r e su lt ing p o l ish w a s a l so v e ry w e l l d eve loped l i ke " s ick le g lo s s" a f t e r o n ly o ne m inu te ( f igu re 15 ) . T he t u rn tab le w a s u nf o r tuna te ly t o o f a s t t o o b se rve t he e a r l ie r s t age s o fp o l i sh f o rma t ion . F u r the rmo re , d ue t o t h e r i g id i ty o ft he s u rf ac e , t h e f l in t a rea i n c on tac tw i th i tw a sv e ry l im i ted a nd c onsequen t ly , i n a l l t he a bov e c a se s , v e ry w e l l d eve loped p o l ish

T oo l sw i th Mu l t ip le U se s

f o rmed v e ry f a s t o n ly o n t he v e ry p rom inen t p a r t s o f t he e dge . I t w a s d ec ided , t he ref o re , t o f i nd a d if e ren t w ay o fp o l i sh ing e nab l ing amo re i nva s iv e

Many f unc t iona l r e cons truc t ions h ave b een made s ugge s t ing t ha t ag iven a r chaeo log ica l t oo l h a s b een u sed o n d if e ren t ma te r ia l s o n t he s ame e dge w he re o ne p o l i sh i s s uppo sed t o o ve r l ie t he o t he r ( Vaughan 1 985 :40 a nd o t he r s . ) . Ih ad s ome t ime s n o t iced t ha t p o l ish f r om h a rd h amme r r e touch w ou ld s t i l l b e v i s ib le i ft he e dge w a s s ub sequen t ly u sed b r ief ly a nd /o r o n a s of t ma te r ia l . I n t h is s e r ie s o f e xpe r imen t s , a l l t h e

p o l ish t o f o rm mo re s l ow ly i n o rde r t o p e rm i t o b se rva t ion o f t he e a r ly s t age s o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t . 3 A s ma l l h and -he ld e l ec t r ic mo to r w a s f i t ted w i th a s of t woo l len f e l t b uff ing w hee l t u rn ing a t h igh s peed . T he b uf fw a s c oa ted w i th 1 / 4µ d i amond p a s te . Two f l in t b l ade s o f I SR /4a f l in t , EXP / 103 a nd

s c rape r e dge s w e re r e touched w i th ah a rd h amme r a nd c a r r ied p o l ish f r om c on tac t w i th t he r e touche r . T h is

EXP / 10 1 , w e re p o l ished . E ach b l ade w a s h e ld i n o ne h and w h i le t he b uff ing w a s d one b y t he o t he r

p o l i sh w a s , h oweve r , i n a l l c ase s p o l ished o ve r b y s c rap ing t h e h ide a nd i tw a s n o l o nge r p o s s ib le t o

h and . When t he b uf fw a s q u i te w o rn o u t a nd w a s h a rd r a the r t han s of t , t he l i nked -up a ppea rance o f t he p o l ish d eve loped much mo re s l ow ly ( f igu re 16 ) .

d i s t ingu ish t h e t wo p o l ish ing e p isode s o n EXP / 123 ( f igu re s9 4a nd 9 5 ) . 4 4

When a n ew s of t b uf f w a s moun ted t h e p o l ish

t h is i n te rp re ta t ion i s c o r rec t , i t h igh l igh t s t h e i mpo r tance o f p re s su re a s a v a r iab le i n p o l ish

s t a r ted a ga in t o l i nk u p r ap id ly ( f igure 17 ) . T he s of t f e l t b uf fp roduced p o l ish a f te r af ew m inu te s . Af t e r 3 0 m inu te s b uf f ing ( f igu re s 18 a nd 19 ) , t he e xpe r imen ta l b l ade s w e re a s mac ro scop ica l ly g lo s sy a sa r chaeo log ica l s i ck le b l ade s( f igu re 6 ) .

d eve lopmen t . T he d if e rence i nt h e d eve lopmen t o fp o l ish b e tween t h e s o f t w oo l b uf fa nd t h e wo rn d own h a rd b uf f( i n t h e e xpe r imen t a t3 ) s ugge s t s t ha t e ven w hen a n a b ra s ive p o l ish ing a gen t i s u sed t he p l iab i l i ty o f t he c on tac t ma te r ia l i sv e ry c ruc ia l . T h is p o in t s t o t he i mpo r tan t d if e rence i n p o l ish d eve lopmen t w h ich o ne m igh t e xpec tw hen as of t ma te r ia l s uch a sh ide i ss c raped o n a h a rd b ack ing a s o ppo sed t o w hen t he h ide i ss c raped w hen s t re tched o n af r ame . R ega rd ing t h e t heo ry o ft he s i l ica i nf l in t r each ing a s em i -mo l ten s t a te o r b e ing t r ansf o rmed i n to g e l b y t h e

4 T he e l ec t r ic mo to r i n t he p rev iou s e xpe r imen t w a s f i t ted w i th a n y lon b ru sh c oa ted w i th 1 / 4µ p a s te a s a bove . T he b ru sh ing d id n o t p roduc e a ny p o l ish o n EXP / 136 f r om t he s ame f l in t a f t e r 3 0 m inu te s i n s p i te o ft he d i amond p a s te w h ich wa s e ven a pp l ied o nt h ef l in ti t se lf . 5 An ew s o f t w oo l len b uf fw a s u sed t op o l i sh a f l in t b l ade EXP /90 w i thou t a dd ing w a te r o r d i amond

p re sence o f l o ca l ised h ig h t empe ra tu re s a nd w a te r ( Ander son -Ge r f aud 1 982 :152153 , W i t thof t 1 967 :385 ) , t h e e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed i n p o in t s 3a nd 5 a bove s ugge s t t ha t e ven i f h igh t empe ra tu re s d eve lop i n l o ca l ised a rea s t he t o ta l a moun t o fh ea t i nvo lved i sf a r s ho r t o f t ha t r equ ired t o p roduce me l t ing o ve r a ny s i gn if ican t p ropo r t ion o f t he s u rf ace . I ts e ems h igh ly u n l ike ly t ha t i n c rea se s i nt empe ra tu re d u r ing u se c ou ld

p a s t e . No p o l ish d eve loped a f t e r 6 0 m inu te s d ry b uf f i ng . O b ser va t ions T he f o l low ing c ommen t s a r e i t em ised a cco rd ing t o t he e xpe r imen tn umbe r sa ppea r ing a bove : 1 o nce t he p o l ish h ad c omp le te ly l i nked u p o n t he m ic ro topog raphy a nd h ad b ecome mac ro scop ica l ly g l o s sy , t he re w a s n o r ead i ly v i s ib le i n c rea se i n t he a moun to fp o l i sh ; 3 a ) i n t he e xpe r imen t s w i th d i amond p a s te o n t he s i ck le l ike b l ade s , t he t oo ls w e re h and h e ld w i th t h e f l i n t r e s t ing o n t h e i ndex f i nge r . S u ch h igh s peed b uf f ing , e ven w i th a s of t w oo l b uf f , w armed u p t h e f l i n t , b u t t he i n c rea se w a s p robab ly n o mo re t han a f ew d eg ree s . H ad ah igh t empe ra tu re b e en r e ached , e v en i n v e ry l o ca l ised a r ea s o n t he s u rf ace o f t h e f l i n t , t he w oo l b uf fw ou ld p re sumab ly h ave t oh ave r e ached t he s ame t empe ra tu re s . T he re w a s ,h oweve r , n oe v idence o fs i nge ing ;

b e o f s uch a magn i tude a s t o me l t o r e ven s of ten t he f l in ts i nce n e i the rt he c l o th o n t he r o ta t ing t u rn tab le n o r t he w oo l len b uf f w e re s i nged a nd , b e ing i n i n t ima te c on tac t w i th t h e f l in t , s im i la r h ea t w ou ld b e d i s s ipa ted i nt hem a s t ha t s ugges ted t ob e r e spon s ib le f o r me l t ing t h e f l in t . O n t h e o the r h and , f o r as i l ica g e l t o f o rm , t empe ra tu re s h ave t o s t ay mod era te a ta l l t ime s , f o r i t w ou ld d ecompo se a th ighe r t empe ra tu re s . Mo re w a te r w ou ld b e r equ i red i n t h e c ompo s i t ion o f ag e l t han w ou ld b ea va i lab le f r om t h ef l in ts t ruc tu re a nd y e t i nt he e xpe r imen t s w he re p o l ish c l ea r ly f o rmed , n o a dd i t iona l w a te r w a s u sed . A p roc e s s o f d i s so lu t ion a nd r edepo s i t ion o ft he s i l ica i n f l in t m igh t o ccu r . I n t h is c a se , h oweve r , s ub s tan t ia l q uan t i t ie s o f w a te r w ou ld p re sumab ly b e n ece s sa ry ( t he s o lub i l i ty o f s i l ica b e ing v e ry l ow ) , y e t n one w ha t soeve r w a s u sed i n a ny o ft he

b ) t h e c on tac t w i th s of t , y i e ld ing w oo l a nd h a rd , u ny ie ld ing w oo l p roduced v e ry d if e ren t r a te s o f p o l i sh d eve lopmen t ; c )t h e v e ry w e l l d eve loped p o l ish p roduced b y t he d i amond p a s te a ppea red o pt ica l ly s moo the r t han a r chaeo log ica l" s ick le g lo s s" ;

a bove e xpe r imen t s . T he h igh s i l ica c on ten t o fg ra s se s h a s b een t hough t b y many t o b e t he ma in c au se f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e mac ro scop ic g lo s s o n N eo l i th ic s i ck le s ( Spu r re l l 1 892 ; C urwen 1 930194 1 ; W i t thof t 1 967 ; K amm inga 1 979 ; A nde rson 1 980 ; A nde rson -Ge rf aud 1 98 11986 ; V aughan 1 98 1 , e t c . ) . H ow eve r , n e i the r o f t he e xpe r imen ta l b l ade s d i scu s sed i n p o in t 3a bove h ad c ome i nc on tac t w i th a ny e x te rna l s ou rc e o fs i l ica , t he d i amond g r i t b e ing p u re c a rbon . T he g rea te r s moo thne s s o b se rved o p t ica l ly o n t he p o l ish p roduced

5 I nt h ec a se o ft he w oo l b uf fu sed d ry o n t he f l in t , t he s ame h ea t ing p henomenon o c cu r red a l though n o p o l ish d eve loped . C onc lus ions T he f o l low ing i n te rp re ta t ions a nd c onc lu s ion s c an b e d rawn f r om t he a bove o b se rva t ions : T he e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed a bove u nde rp o in t 1h ave s hown t ha tt he re i s amax imum d eg ree t ow h ich af l in t

b y t h e d iamond p a s te a s o ppo sed t o t ha t s e en o n a r chaeo log ica l s i ck le b l ade s may b e d ue e i the r t o t he p re sence o ft he o i l i nt h ep a s te , o rt ot he p a r t ic le s i ze o f

s u r f ac ec an b ep o l ished . I nc r ea s ing t he d ura t ion o fw o rk b eyond t h is s t age h a s l i t t le i fa ny e f ec tu pon t h ef u r the r d ev e lopmen t o ft he p o l ish . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o fp o l ish a s as moo th ing o f t he s u rf ac e i sc ons is ten t w i th t h i s o b se rva t ion . O nce t h e s u rf ac e i ss moo th t he re a r e n o mo re a spe r i t ie st or emove a nd mo re p o l ish l i nkage may

t h e d i amond b e ing mu ch s ma l le r t han t he s i ze s o f p hy to l i ths . T he l a t te r a r e s uppo sed t o b e t he a gen t i n g ra s se s w h ich p o l ishe s N eo l i th ic s i ck le s t os uch ah igh g lo s s . A c omb ina t ion o f b o th f a c to r s ( o i l a nd s ma l l p a r t ic le s i ze ) c ou ld b et h e c au se o ft he p o l ish a ppe ar ing

o c cu ro n ly a f te ra n e x treme ly l o ng t ime . I nt h e e xpe r imen t d e sc r ibed u nde r 4 ,w hen b rush ing t h e f l i n t s u rf ace w i th d iamond p a s te , i tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t t h e n y lon b r is t le s may h ave s l id a c ro s s t h e f l in t s u rf ace w i thou ts uf i c ien tc on tac tp re s su re t op o l i sh i t .I f

s moo th a nd s l eek u nde rt h e o p t ica l m ic ro scope . I ti sn o t i n tended h e re t oa rgue t h a t t he g lo s s o n a nc ien t b l ade s w a s n o t c au sed b y s i l ica i n t he ma te r ia ls c u t ( no r t o s ugge s t t ha t p reh is to r ic p eop le w e re u s ing 1 4 i / . td i amond p a s te !) . 4 5

f l in t s u rf ace s a r e p o l ished b y s of t ma te r ia ls s uch a s

A s t he s ame k ind o f mac ro scop ica l ly g lo s sy p o l ish c an a l so b e p roduced b y 1 / 4 4 t d i amond p a s te o n as of t

d amp h ide .

woo l b uf f , a nd h ide s c rap ing , p o l ish w ou ld s e em t hen n o t t o b e s pec if ic t o t h e w o rked ma te r ia l ( f igu re 8 5

E xpe r imen t s

EXP /120 ) . S ee s e c t ion 6 . 5 .13 i nw h ich EXP / 103 w a s s ub jec ted t o p ro ce s se s l i ke ly t o o ccu r i n p o s t -depo s i t iona l

G oa th ide w a sw a shed w i th a mmon ia -f re ed e te rgen t a nd b ru shed w i th an y lon b ru sh a s f r ee o fd u s t a nd d i r t a s p o s s ib le . S epa ra te s qua re s w e re t hen u sed t o c ove r t h e b uff ing w hee l d e sc r ibed i ns e c t ion 6 .4 .8 . Two f l ake s w e re b uf f ed a s d e ta i led b e low . T o a vo id

c i rcums tance sw i th ad i scu s s ion o ft h er e su l t s . 6 .4 .9 Woo la nd H ide Mechan ica lE xper imen t s

m ic ro ch ips f r om t he e dge o f t he a r tef ac t s c om ing b e tween t he h ide a nd t he f l in t , n o c on tac t w a s a l lowed

A ims

b e twe en t he b uf fa nd t he e dge s o ft he f l ake s . T he h ide

Dur ing t he w o rk i nvo lved i n t h is t he s is i tw a s n o t iced t ha tp o l ish d i s t r ibu t ion a nd s peed o fl i nkage s e ems t ob e

s qua re s u sed i n t h is e xpe r imen t w e re p ho tog raphed b ef o re a nd a f t e r u se w i th b o th o p t ica l a nd s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy . Two f l ake s o f f i ne B randon f l in t w e r e u sed i n t h i s e xpe r imen ta sf o l low s :

r e la ted t o ma te r ia l " ha rdne s s" i nt h e s ense o fp l iab i l i ty . T o t e s t t h e h ypo the s is t h a t t he r i g id i ty o f ma te r ia ls r a the r t han t he i r s t ruc tu re w a s as i gn if ican t v a r iab le i n t he d eve lopmen t o f p o l ish o n f l in t , t h e f o l low ing e xpe r imen t sw e re c a r r ied o u t .

EXP /140 w a s b uf f ed f o r 4 5 m inu te s w i th a s of t w oo l w hee l c ove red w i th a c l e an p i ece o f h ide d ipped f r equen t ly i nd i s t i l led w a te r . T he f l ake w a s a l so r epea ted ly d ipped i n w a te r t o

E xper imen t s Two f l ake sk napped f r om t h es ame c o re o ff i ne B randon f l in tw e re p o l ished a sf o l low s :

r emove h ide p a r t ic le s f r om i t s s u rf ace d u r ing w o rk . T he f l ake w a s h and h e ld w i th f i nge r s p ro tec t ing t h e e dge a nd t h e b uf f t ouch ing o n ly a p rev iou s ly c i rc led a r ea o n t he d o r sa l s u rf ac e . T he re w a s n o a ppa ren t i n c rea se i n t empe ra tu re p robab ly d ue t o t he f r equen t i mme r s ions i nw a te r .

EXP / 108 w a s b uf f ed f o r 6 0 m inu te s w i th ah a rd w oo lb uf ff r equen t ly d ipped i nd i s t i l led w a te r . EXP / 109 w a s b uf f ed f o r 6 0 m inu te s w i th ah a rd b uf fc ove red w i th s eve ra l l a ye r s o fs o f t c hamo is l e a the ra l so f r equen t ly d ipped i nd i s t i l led w a te r .

EXP /141 w a s b uf f ed f o r 4 5 m inu te s w i th a s im i la r w hee l c ove red w i th a d ry p i ece o f h ide p rev iou s ly c l eaned a s a bove . A l though t h is

O bser va t ion s T he s ame s t age o fl i nked p o l ish d eve lopmen t o ccu r red o n b o th e dge s a f te r 6 0 m inu te s o fw o rk ( f igu re s 9 6 a nd 9 7 ) . T he o bs e rva t ions made h a lfway t h rough t he w o rk

f l ake w a s a l so r i nsed f r equen t ly t o r emove a ny h ide p a r t ic le s , i tw a s e ach t ime a l lowed

( name ly a t 3 0 m inu te s o n e ach f l ake ) s howed t ha t a lmos tn op o l i sh h ad y e tf o rmed . T he c on tac t o ft he b uf f w i th t he f l in t c au sed e dge s ca r r ing s uch a s o ccu r s i n c on tac tw i th h a rd u ny ie ld ing ma te r ia ls .

t o d ry t ho rough ly b ef o re r e sum ing w o rk t o a vo id i n t roduc ing a ny d ampne s s i n t h e e xpe r imen t . Wh i le t he f l ake w a s d ry ing t he b uf fw a s c a ref u l ly c ove red w i th p l a s t ic s ot ha t i ts hou ld r ema in d u s t -f ree . T he f l ake w a sa l so

C onc lu s ions

h and h e ld t op rec lude c on tac t w i th t he e dge s a nd t op o l ish ap rev iou s ly c i rc led a r ea o n t h e

A l though w oo l a nd h ide a r e q u i te s im i la r i n t h e i r c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion t h ey a re v e ry d if e ren t i n t he i r s t ruc tu re a nd m igh t h ave c aused d if e ren t " po l ishe s" , h ad p o l ish b een ma te r ia l s pec if ic . F u r the rmo re t h ew oo l w a s v e ry h a rd p re s sed m ak ing i tr e la t ive ly r i g id a nd u ny ie ld ing e ven w hen d i pped i nw a te r .

v en t ra l a spec t . Du r ing wo rk t h e f l ake b e came b a re ly w a rm t ot he t ouch . O b serva t ion s O p t ica lM icro scopy

T h is e xpe r imen t s ugge s t s t ha t i n s p i te o ft he f l ake b e ing i n c on tac t w i th s of t d amp c hamo i s , t h e h a rd

EXP / 140 P o l ish s t a r ted t ol i nk u p ( s tage B ) o n t he f l in t

u ny ie ld ing b ack ing w a s t he mo re i mpo r tan t v a r iab le . T he s l ow f o rma t ion a nd l i nk u p o ft he p o l ish a r et y p ica l

s u rf ac e a f te r o n ly 1 5 m inu te s o fw o rk . A t t h e e nd o ft he 4 5 m inu te s av e ry w e l l d eve loped C + mac ro scop ic p o l i sh a ppea red w i th " come t t a i l p i t s" a nd v e ry f i ne s t r ia t ion s o n t he a r ea o f max imum c on tac t . F igu re s7 5 a nd 7 6 s how

o fu ny ie ld ing ma te r ia ls . T he e f ec to f ah ard b ack ing o n e dge w ea r w hen w o rk ing d amp h ide h a s a l so b een d i scu s sed i n s e c t ion 6 . 4 .7 i n t he e xpe r imen t s s c rap ing h ide w i th o ch re o n aw ooden c oun te r .

t he g oa t h ide s u rf ace b ef o re a nd a f te r t he e xper imen t s ugge s t ing t ha t f l in t h ave b e come e mbedded i nt h eh ide .

6 .4 .10 P o l i sh ing F l in tw i th Dus t -Free H ide s

p ar t ic le s

EXP / 14 1 P o l ish s t a r ted t o f o rm ( s tage A+ ) o n ly a f te r 2 5 m inu te s o f b uf f ing . A t t h e e nd o f 4 5 m inu te s p o l ish h ad o n ly l i nked u p t o a r e t icu la r p a t te rn ( s tage B ) , e xcep t f o r o ne p rom inen t p o in t o n t he m ic ro topog raphy

A ims T he f o l low ing e xpe r imen t s a t temp ted t o e l uc ida te t he a b ra s ive f a c to r w h ich s e ems b ound t o b e p re sen t w hen 4 6

s e em ing ly b een a c t ing a s af i ne a b ra s ive c au s ing mac ro scop ic p o l ish t od eve lop . I nt he e xpe r imen t p roduc ing b r igh t s po t s d e sc r ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .3 i tw a s n o t ic ed t h a t wh i le

w he re as po t o fC + p o l ish a ppea red w i th o ne " come t t a i l p i t" . F igu r e 7 7 s how s t ha t i nt h is e xpe r imen t a s w e l l , t h e g oa t h ide s eems s pang led b yf l in tc r y s ta ls .

c on tac t b e tween t he e dge s o ft he t wo f l ake s p roduced a v e ry w e l l l i nked a nd i n va s ive p o l i sh , c on tac t b e tween t h e e dge o fo ne a nd t h e b u lb o ft h e o t he r , p roduced a much l e s s l i nked u p a nd mo re d i f f u se p o l ish . I n t h is e xpe r imen t , a st he e dge w a sn o t i nvo lved , t he

S cann ing E lec tron M icro scopy EXP / 140 F l in t p a r t ic le s a ppea r e mb edded i n t h e h ide s qua re u sed t o b uf ft h e f l in t ( f igu re 1 00 a nd 1 0 1) . F igu re 1 02 s how s ad o t mapp ing o ft he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs i l icon o n t he h ide s u rf ace i n f i gu re 1 00 b y e ne rgy d i spe rs ive X ray a na ly s is . A n X ray s pe c t rum o f e l emen t s p re sen t o n t he g oa t h ide s u rf ace w a s t aken b ef o re u se ( f igu re 1 03 ) . Af te r u se a n ew s pec t rum s how st h ei n c rea se o fs i l icon o n t he s urf ace o ft h eh ide ( f igu re 1 04 ) .

p o l ish w a sa t aC s t age o nt he f l a ta r ea so ft he m ic ro topog raphy o n ly . O n t he mo re r ounded p ar t s o ft h e s u rf ace i tw a s d i f fu se A+ a nd n o t l i nked u pa ta l l ( f igu re 1 09 ) . EXP / 141 B u ff ing

w i th

d ry h ide c au sed

p o l i sh

t o

d eve lop much mo re s l ow ly . A l though t he re w a s o ne s po t o fC + p o l i sh mo s t o ft h e a rea d id n o t g o b eyond t h e r e t icu la r p a t te rn i n a B + s t age ( f igu re 10 ) . T h is c onf i rm s t he r e su l t s f r om o t he r e xpe r imen t s i n t h i s w o rk t ha t t h e p re senc e o f w a te r p romo te s a s peed ie r a nd b e t te r l i nked p o l ish o n t he f l in t s u rf ac e . T he se r e su l t s d o n o t s uppo r t ,

D isc re te a rea s o f t he f l in t s u rf ace h ave b een s mo o thed b y t he h igh s peed c on tac t w i th h ide ( f igu re 6 4 ) . T he s moo thne s s h oweve r i s r e s t r ic ted t o mo re l o ca l ised a reas o n t h e s u rf ac et han i n s c rap ing h ide b y h and w he re t he e dge i si nvo lved ( f igu re 7 9 ) . F igu re 6 6 s how s a" come t t a i l p i t" o n t h e s u rf ace o ft he a r tef ac t . F igu re 6 4 o n t he o t he r h and i so f as t ra igh t s t r ia t ion a ppea r ing l i ke a g roove o n t h e f l in t s u rf ac e w i th

h ow eve r , t he h ypo the s i s o f as i l ica g e l l a ye r s i nce p o l i sh f o rms e ven i n t h e a b senc e o f w a te r . T he re i ss ome w a te r , n o d oub t , i nt he f l in t i n te r s t ice s a nd t he h ide f i b re s . I t i s u n l ike ly , h ow eve r , t ob e p resen t i ns uf i c ien t q uan t i t ie s t o d i s so lve s i gn if ican t a moun t s o f s i l ica o r c ause s i gn if ican t h yd ro ly s is . I n

u nsmoo thed c ry s ta ls a ti t sb o t tom a nd s moo thed e dges . EXP /141 S im i la rr e su l ts h ave b e en o b ta ined f r om S EM a nd X ray e xam ina t ion o f t he h ide s qua re u sed o n t h i s a r tef ac t . F l in t c ry s ta l s a ppea r embedded i n t he h ide ( f igu re 1 06 , 1 07 a nd 1 05 ) a nd t h e f l in t s u rf ac e a ppea r s s moo thed c ompa red w i th S EM p i c tu re s o fu nu sed f l in t ( f igu re 2 25 ) . T he e l eva ted a rea o f t he

c on t ra s t t o EXP / 140 , amode ra te i n c rea se i n t empe ra tu re o ccu r red d u r ing w o rk w i thou t w a te r . I ti su n l ike ly , h oweve r , t oh ave b een a s i gn if ican t v a r iab le i n t he d eve lopmen t o f p o l ish s i nce e ven b e t te r d eve loped p o l ish

m ic ro topog raphy o n w h ich C+ p o l i sh h ad b een o b se rved o p t ica l ly a ppea r s i nf i gu re 6 5 ) a s al a rge r a ised a spe r i ty w h ich h a s b een e x t reme ly s moo thed . T he o ne " come t t a i l p i t" o b se rved o p t ica l ly a ppea r si nf i gu re 7 0 .

f o rmed o n EXP / 140 w h ich w a s n o t a l lowed t oh ea tu p . A s e xpec ted t he e dge a nd t he f l in t m ic ro topog raphy a f e c t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd l i nk ing u p o fp o l i sh . T he amoun t o fp re ssu re e xe r ted w hen t he e dge i su sed i sl i ke ly t ob e g rea te r t han i n r ubb ing e ven a t t he h igh s peed s i nvo lved w i th amechan ica l b uf f . T he e dge i s g ene ra l ly mo re v u lne rab le a s i t s p a r t ic le s a r e f r e e s t and ing o n a t l e a s t o ne a spe c t , h ence mo re e a s i ly r emovab le ( D .R . G r if i th sp e r s . c omm . ) . I n c onc lu s ion , t he se e xpe r imen t s s ugge s t t ha t p o l i sh i s as moo th ing o f t h e f l in t s u rf ace p roduced b y t he r emova l o f s u rf ic ia l a spe r i t ie s w h ich a r e s ome t ime s d ragged a c ro s s t h e s u rf ac e f l a t ten ing i t . S ome r emoved a spe r i t ie s c an b ecome e mbedded i n a s of t w o rked ma te r ia l t o a c t a s a n a b ra s iv e . Wa te r s e em s t o b e a u sefu l med ium r a the r t han a n e s sen t ia l v a r iab le , wh i le

D i scu s s ion a nd c onc lus ions EXP / 140 A s t he a r tef ac t w a s f r equen t ly d ipped i n w a te r i t i s d oub tfu l t ha t a ny s i gn if ican t h ea t ing c ou ld h ave o ccu r red . V e ry w e l l d eve loped mac ro scop ic p o l ish f o rmed n one the le s s . A s n o e dge f l ak ing w a s a l lowed t o o c cu r , t he a b ra s ive e l emen t i n t h is e xpe r imen th ad t oc ome e xc lus ive ly f r om t he a spe r i t ie s r emoved f r om t he f l in t s u rf ace i t se lf . " Come t t a i l p i t s" d eve loped y e t a ga in , i na ssoc ia t ion w i th C +w e l l d eve loped p o l ish . T he p re sence o f s t r ia t ions d ocumen ted o p t ica l ly a nd w i th t h e S EM i nt he a b sence o f d u s t , d i r t a nd a dded a b ra s ive s s ugge s t s t ha t t he a spe r i t ie so ft h ef l i n ta re t hemse lve sb e ing d ragged a c ro s s t h e s u rf ac e . T he a r ea a ppea r ing i n f i gu re 1 08 i s s im i la r i n i t s f l a tne s s a nd p o l ish t o c e r ta in b r igh t s po t s p roduced b y t he r ubb ing t oge the r o ft wo w e t

h ea t d id n o t a ppea r t ob e c ruc ia l t ot he d eve lopmen t o f p o l i sh . P re s su re s e em s , o n t h e o t he r h and , t o b e s i gn if ican t s i nc e amo re d eve loped p o l i sh w as p roduc ed w hen e dge s a r e i nvo lved . " Come t t a i l p i t s" , a s s e en o n t h e S EM , n e ed n o t b e i nd ica t ive o f c on tac t w i th p lan t s i l ica s i nc et h ey a ppea r w heneve r av e ry w e l l d eve loped p o l i sh f o rm s . T he i r s hape i s p robab ly o n ly a ppa ren t w hen t he s u r round ing s u rf ace i sv e ry w e l l p o l ished . O n t h e S EM t h ey a ppea r t o b e at y pe o f s t r ia t ion i n t he

f l in t f l ake s . T h is s im i la r i ty m igh t b e d ue t o c on tac t h av ing o ccu r red b e tween a l a rge r a spe r i ty a nd t he a r ea b e ing p o l ished . T he f l in t p ar t ic le s e mbedded i n t he h ide h ave 4 7

a nd o n n one ( i nc lud ing EXP /139 ) w a s a ny w e igh t i n c rea se o rd ec rea se o b se rv ed wh ich c ou ld b e mea su red i nc en t ig ram s .

s ense o f ag roove o n t h ef l i n ts ur f ac e . S t r ia t ions s eem t o b e c au sed b y c r y s ta ls b e ing d ragged a c ro s s t he s u rf ace g roov ing t h e f l in t . " Come tt a i lp i t s" , o n t h e o the r h and , s e em t oo c cu rw hen l a rge r c r y s ta ls o rg roups o fc ry s ta ls

C onc lus ion s

h ave b een d i sp laced . 6 . 4 .11

We igh t

V ar ia t ions

o n

P o l i shed

I tw a s o b ser ved t ha t w e igh t f l uc tua t ions ( depend ing o n t h e c on tam ina t ion f r om h and l ing g rea se , a nd t h e g a in o rl o s so fh um id i ty f r om t h ea tmo sphe re e ven w hen k ep t

a nd

Unpo l ished F l in t Ar tef ac t s

i n as e a led p l a s t ic b ag ) a r e g rea te r t han a p o s s ib le v a r ia t ion d ue t od epo s i t ion o f ma te r ia l o rl o s s o f al a ye r f r om t he s u rf ace . P o l i sh ing t he a r te f ac t s t o a

A im s I n v i ew o f t he d i sag reemen t a mong m ic rowea r p rac t i t ione r s r ega rd ing t h e mechan ism w h ich p roduce s p o l ish o nu sed f l in t s u rf ace s ( s ee C hap te r 1 ) , a n a t temp t

mac ro scop ica l ly g lo ssy f i n i sh d oe s n o t s e em t oa l te rt h e w e igh t o fa n a r tef ac t b ya n a moun t w h ich i ss i gn if i can t c ompa red t o w e igh t c hange s d ue t o a d so rp t ion a nd

w a s made t o mon i to rt h ew e igh t o ff l in t a r tef ac t s o ve r a

d e so rp t ion o f w a te r a nd s ur f ic ia l c on tam ina t ion . I ti s s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s k ind o f a pp roach t o t h e u nde rs tand ing o ft he n a tu re o fp o l ish f o rma t ion i sn o t p o s s ib le i n v i ew o ft he w e igh t f l uc tua t ions o b se rv ed i n f l in t b o th i n t h i s e xpe r imen t a nd i n as im i la r o ne ,

p e r iod o ft ime i nt he h ope o fe ven tua l ly mea su r ing a ny i n c rea se o r d e c rea se i nw e igh t w h ich m igh t o ccu r o n a v e ry h igh ly p o l ished a r tef ac t . T he a im w a s t o mea su re a ny a dd i t ion f r om t he u sed ma te r ia l o n to t he f l in t s u rf ace o r a ny r emova l o f ma te r ia l f r om t he f l in t i t se lf

c a r r ied o u t f o r o the r p u rpo se s b y D r . D .R . G r if f i th s

t h rough a b ra s ion .

( pe r s . c omm , ) . E xper imen t 6 . 4 .12 E xper imen t so n t he R o le o fH ide F ibre s

T h ree f r e sh ly ' mapped a r tef ac t s o fd i f f e ren t f l in t t y pe s w e re u sed : EXP /137 I SR /2 B lade w e igh ing 1 0 .7028 g r . b ef o re

A im s I n t he e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 4 .7 , a l l t h re e a r tef ac t s u sed t o s c rape c ow h ide d ev e loped o n ly A+ p ol i sh i ns p i te o ft he p re senc eo fo ch re i nt h ree d if e ren t

c l ean ing ; EXP /138 I SR /4a B lade w e igh ing 6 . 417 1 c l ean ing ;

g r . b ef o re

g ra in s i ze s f r om c oa rse t o f i ne _ T he r e w e re a l so t h ree d if e ren tf l in tt y pe sf r om med ium /coa rs et o med ium /f ine

EXP / 139 BRND B lade w e igh ing 5 . 9706 g r . b ef o re c l ean ing . T he t h ree a r tef ac t s w e re w e ighed w i th e l ec t ron ic

i n g ra in s i ze ( s e e T ab le s 1t o 3 ) . T he f o l low ing e xpe r imen t s w e re c ar r ied o u t t ob e t te r o b se rve t h e r o le t h e s t ruc tu re o f t he h ide f i b re s p l ay s i n p o l i sh

s ca le s( wh ich a r ea ccu ra te t o at hou sand th o f ag ramme ) r epea ted ly o ve r a p e r iod o f 5 mon th s . T hey w e re

f o rma t ion .

w e ighed • a f te rw a sh ing , • a f t e rd ry ing i n aw a rm r oom o ve rn igh t , • a f te r b e ing s t o red o n a n o pen s he lf f o r t wo

E xper imen t s Two f i ne B randon a r tef ac t s w e re u sed t o s c rape c ow

w e ek s ,a nd • a f te r b e ing k ep t i n as ea led p l a s t ic b ag f o r t wo w eek s . I n e ach c a se s ev e ra l w e igh ing s w e re made o n t he

h ide a nd g oa t h ide r e spec t ive ly w i thou t o ch re f o r 9 0 m inu te se ach . EXP /142 s c rap ing c ow h id e EXP /143 s c rap ing g oa th ide

s ame d ay . O b ser va t ion s Macroscop ic o b serva t ions

N o mac ro scop ic p o l i sh d eve loped o n e i the r a r tef ac t i n

A l though t h e f i r s t d ec ima l d ig i t s t ayed c on s tan t , t he

s p i te o f u s ing f i ne B randon f l in t f o r s uch p ro longed

s e cond d ig i t f l uc tua ted o n t h e h eav ie r EXP / 137 a nd i n

s c rap ing

a l l t h ree p i ece s t he l a s t t wo d ig i t s w e re h igh ly v a r iab le

M ic ro scop ica l ly t he re w a s A p o l ish o n EXP / 142 a nd A+ o n EXP / 143 ( f igu re 1 20 EXP / 142 a nd 1 21

b ef o re t h e f l in tw a s u sed i na ny w ay . T he f l uc tua t ion i s ar e su l to fv e ry l o ca l i sed a tmo sphe r ic c hange se ven o ve r

e ven

i f

i n

t h e

a b senc e

o f

o chre .

EXP / 143 ) . U nde r t he S EM , i n f a c t , t he s u rf ac e o f

as pan o f s e cond s . I tw a s n o t e xpec ted t ha t e ven tua l a dd i t ive p o l ish f r om t h e u sed ma te r ia l o r r educ t ive

EXP /143 u sed o n g oa t a ppea red s moo thed p a r t icu la r ly o nt he e dge ( f igu re 1 26 s how st he e dge a si n 1 22 ) .

p o l ish f r om a b ra s ion w ou ld b e mea su rab le i n c en t ig rams ( f i rs t a nd s e cond d ig i t s ) . A n a t temp t w a s n one the le s s made t o p o l i sh EXP / 139 w i th w e t ted g oa t

EXP /142 n o t i n vo lved w i th t he s c rap ing e xpe r imen t ,

h ide

o n

a b uf f

u n t i l

t he

p o l i shed

a r ea

Ano the r a t temp t w a s made t o b uf f a n a r ea o f u s ing as qua re r emoved f r om t he s ame c ow h ide b ef o re u se . T he h ide -cove red b uf f w a s d i pped i n w a te r

w a s

mac ro scop ica l ly g lo s sy . T he w e igh t f l uc tua ted b e twe en

r epea ted ly a s i n t h e e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 4 .10 . B uff ing w a s c on t inued u n t i l t h eh ide s qua re w a s

5 . 9702 a nd 5 . 9690 g r . d ur ing e ach w e igh ing a s i th ad d one b ef o re b e ing p o l i shed . S ev e r a l o the r a r tef ac t s p o l ished m echan ica l ly l a te r , o n d if e ren t ma ter ia l s , w e re s y s tema t ica l ly w e ighed b ef o re a nd a f t e r p o l i sh ing

t o rn ( 45 m inu te s f i gu re 1 29 ) . V e ry l i t t le A+ p o l ish d eve loped i n land w h i le o n t he v e ry e dge s ome b e t te r d eve loped p o l ish B + /C w a s v i s ib le ( f igu re 1 23 ) . When 4 8

t h ea r e aw a se xam ined b yS EM ( f igu re 1 27 )a t x6 000 i t a ppe a red e x t reme ly s moo thed s im i la rt ot he s u rf ace o fa g lo s sy N eo l i th ic s i ck le b l ade ( c ompa re f i gu re 1 27 w i th

i n c rea sed p re ssu re a nd i n c rea se i nt he d u ra t ion o fw o rk . l ti sp re sumed t ha tp re s su re i s much h ighe rw hen ab uf f i su sed t han w hen o ne i ss c rap ing b y h and . Wh i le i ti s

f i gu r e2 16 ) . T he c ow h ide a ppea r sv e ry c oa r se u nde rt he S EM ( c ompa re f i gu re 1 00 g oa t h ide w i th f i gu re 1 29 c ow h i de ) . I t i s i mpo r tan t t o n o te t ha t t h is i s t he a ppe a rance o ft he t wo h ide s a f te r b e ing s moo thed b y 4 5

n o t i n tended t oa t temp t a n e qua t ion o ft he d u ra t ion o f u se w hen p o l ish ing me chan ica l ly w i th t he d u ra t ion o f s c rap ing b y h and , o ne c an s af e ly e s t ima te t ha t 4 5 m inu te s a t 6 0 r pm a moun t t o amuch l o nge r d u ra t ion

m inu te sb u ff ing f l in t .

t han t h ec ow h ide .

t han 9 0m inu te sh and s c rap ing . I n c onc lu s ion , t h is e xpe r imen t s e ems t oc onf i rm t h e o b se rva t ions made i ns e c t ion 6 . 4 .7 t ha t c ow h ide i sv e ry s l ow t o p roduce p o l ish e ven o n s uch f i ne g ra ined a r tef ac t s a s t he t wo c a ref u l ly c ho sen f o r t h is e xpe r imen t . T he v e ry s moo th s u rf ace o n t he b uf f ed a rea

EXP / 142 i s at h ick f l ake w i th a n u nre touched s t ra igh te dge h av ing a ne dge a ng le o f6 5° .

s ugge s t s t ha t e ven w i th ma te r ia ls w h ich d on o t p roduce p o l ish e a s i ly a w e l l d e ve loped p o l ish c an r e su l t f r om

EXP / 1 43 i sa l so at h ick f l ake b u t t he e dge u s ed t o s c rap e h ide w a s s t ra igh tened a nd s t reng thened b y

p ro longed u se .

D i scu s s ion a nd c onc lus ions I n t h e h and s c rap ing e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed a bove t he g oa th i de p roduced ama rg ina l ly b e t te r d eve loped p o l ish

6 . 5 . E xper imen t sf or P o s t -Depo s i t iona l p roces se s

r e touch w h ich p roduced a ne dge a ng le o f8 5° . A s p a r t ic le s f r om t he e dge d o a c t a s a n a b ra s ive d u r ing w o rk e nhanc ing t he f o rma t ion o f p o l i sh , o ne

L i s to fa r tef ac t si nP o s t -depo s i t iona le xper imen t s T he a r tef ac t s b ea r ing A w e re manu f ac tu red b y D r . R .N .E . B a r ton a nd e xam ined f o r mac ro scop ic e dge d amage b ef o re a nd a f te rt he s hak ing e xpe r imen t s . T hey

wou ld h ave e xpec ted EXP / 142 t od eve lop mo re p o l ish h av ing a n u nre touched e dge w h ich i s mo re l i ab le t o c au se e dge s ca r r ing . I t may b ea rgued t he refo re t ha tt he h id e f i b re s b e ing a s c oa r se a s t h ey a re i mpeded g ood c on tac t b e tween t h e f l in t a nd t h e h ide r e su l t ing i n a v e ry l i t t le -deve loped p o l ish .

a r e t he ref o re l i s ted s epa ra te ly a nd d if e ren t ia ted b y aA f r om t he a r tef ac t s n umbe red b y me w i th s im i la r n umbe rs .

O n t h e o the r h and t he v e ry s moo th s u rf ace w h ich r e su l ted f r om b uf f ing mechan ica l ly may b e d ue t ob o th ' nX F . , PERI M E 1 FL I NT T YPE T oo l ,N o . NT D E SCR IPT ION ,

SE CT ION

.

E 32 / 1A EXP /2A

BRND

s hak ing

6 . 5 . 1

BRND

s h ak ing

6 . 5 .1 '

EXP / 3A EXP /4A

BRND

s hak ing

6 . 5 . 1 ,

BRND

s hak ing

6 . 5 .1

EXP /5A

BRND

6 . 5 . 1

EXP /6A EXP 7 7A

BRND BRND

s hak ing s ha k ing

EXP /8A

BRND

6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 .1

6 . 5 .1

UT /9A

BRND

s hak ing s hak ing s hak ing

EXP / 10A EXP / 11A

BRND BRND

s hak ing s hak ing

EXP / 12A

BRND

s hak ing

6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 . 1

6 . 5 .1 '

EXP / 13A

BRND

s hak ing

EXP / 14A

BRND

s hak ing

6 . 5 .1

EXP / 15A EXP / 16A EXP / 17 A

BRND BRND

s hak ing s hak ing

6 . 5 .1

BRND BRND

s hak ing s hak ing s hak ing

EXP / 18A EXP / 19A EXP /20A

BRND BRND

s hak ing

6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 .1 .

BRND BRND BRND

s hak ing s hak ing s hak ing

6 . 5 .1

BRND

s hak ing

6 . 5 .1

BRND BRND

s hak ing s hak ing

BRND BRND

s hak ing s hak ing

6 . 5 .1 6 _ 5 .1 ' 6 . 5 .1

s hak ing

6 . 5 .1

EXP / 30A

BRND BRND

s hak ing

6 . 5 .1

EXP /31A

BRND

EXP / 32A EXP / 1 EXP / 2 EXP /E5 EXP /9 EXP / 11 EXP / 12 EXP / 16 E 3 C 13/ 1 9

BRND

s hak ing s hak ing

DRRS BRND P /BAR BRND BRND BRND BRND BRND

t umb l ing t umb l ing t umb l ing t umb l ing s hak ing t umb l ing s hak ing p a t ina t io n

EXP /2 1A EXP /22A EXP /23 A EXP / 24A EXP /25A EXP /26A EXP / 27A EXP /28A EXP / 29A

4 9

6 . 5 .1

6 . 5 .1 '

6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 .2 (b ) 6 . 5 .2 (a ) . 6 . 5 .2 (b ) . 6 . 5 .1 & 6 . 5 .2 (a ) 6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 .2 (a ) 6 . 5 .1 6 . 5 . 10

T oo l ,N o . EXP /20 EXP /2 1 EXP /22 EXP /24 EXP /25 EXP /26 EXP /27 EXP /29 EXP /52 EXP /59 EXP /65 A&B EXP /75 EXP /76 A& I 3 EXP /77 A& I 3 EXP /86 EXP /98 EXP /99 EXP / 100 EXP / 102 EXP / 103 EXP / I0 4 EXP / 105 EX/ 11O EXP / 111 EXP / 112 EXP / 113 EXP / 114 DCP / 115 EXP / 116 E XP / 128 EXP / 135 EXP / I38 EXP / 139 E XP / 144 EXP / 145 EXP / 146 EXP / 147 EXP / 148 EXP / 149 EXP / 150 EXP / 15 I E XP / 152 EXP / 153 'EXP / 154 EXP / 155

1 FL INT TYPE BRND BRND BRND BRND B RND BRND BRND BRND BRND BRND BRND I SR J 1 BRND BRND I SR /4 I SR /4a I SR /4a I SR /4a I SR /2 I SR /4a I SR /2 I SR /2 BRND I SR /2 I SR /2 BRND 1 SR /2 I SR /2 BRND BRND I SR /4a I SR /4a BRND BRND P /BAR I SR /4b BRND BRND BRND I SR / 2 I SR /2 I SR /2 I SR /2 I SR / 1 B RND

E xPER IMENT DESCRIPTION s hak ing s hak ing s hak ing s h ak ing s hak ing s hak ing t umb l ing s h een p a t ina t ion t umb l ing f r ic t ion t umb l ing f r ic t ion f r ic t ion b u r ied i nK eb a ra b u r ied i nK eba r a s h een p a t ina t ion p a t ina t ion P DS M o n ah igh ly p o l ished b l ade b ur ied i nK eb a r a p a t ina t ion s o i l p ro ce s s s o i lp roc e s s s o i lp ro ce s s s o i l p r oce s s s o i lp ro ces s s o i l p ro ce s s s o i l p roce s s b ur ied i nK eb a r a p a t in a t ion s he en p a t ina t ion s h ee n s he en s h ee n p a t ina t ion p a t ina t ion p a t ina t ion p a t ina t ion p a t ina t io n p a t ina t ion p a t ina t ion s h een s he en

5 0

SECT ION

6 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 . 1 6 . 5 .2 (a ) 6 . 5 . 12 6 . 5 _10 6 . 5 .2 (a ) 6 . 5 .3 6 . 5 .2 (b ) 6 . 5 .3 6 . 5 .3 6 . 5 .5 6 . 5 .5 6 . 5 _7 6 . 5 .10 6 . 5 .8 6 . 5 .13 6 . 5 .5 6 . 5 .8 6 . 5 .6 6 . 5 .6 6 . 5 .6 6 . 5 .6 6 . 5 .6 6 . 5 .6 6 . 5 .6 6 . 5 .5 6 . 5 .9 6 . 5 .7 6 . 5 .8 6 . 5 .7 6 . 5 .7 . 6 . 5 .7 6 . 5 . 11a 6 . 5 .8 6 . 5 . 11b 6 . 5 . 11a 6 . 5 . 11b 6 . 5 . 11a 6 . 5 .11b 6 . 5 .12 6 . 5 .12

t oge the r . S ee a l so s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 f o r o the r e xper imen t s ME CHAN ICAL P ROCESSE S

p roduc ing b r igh t s po t s .

6 .5 .1 S hak ing e xper imen t s

D i scus s ion a nd c onc lus ions T he e xper imen t s s ugge s t t ha t movemen t i n t h e s ed imen t o fu p t o 2h ou r s i sn o t l i ke ly t o c au se much e dge d amage o r s u rf ace mod if ica t ion . I nc rea sed s a l in i ty o ft he s o i ld id n o t s e em t ot h ec au se o fb r igh t s po t s . T he i mpor tance o fw e t s and a nd t h e p r e sence o fg rav e l w a s t o b e f u r the r i nves t iga ted ( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 5 .2 ) . L onge r p er iod s o f movemen t i n t h e s ed imen t w e re a l so t o b e i nve s t iga ted i n v i ew o ft h e d if i cu l ty i n e s t ima t ing t h e l eng th a nd s ever i ty o f movemen t i n n a tu re o ve r t housand s o f y ea r s . R e s idue s f r om w o rked ma ter ia l s " adhe r ing" t ot he s u rf ace o ft h ef l in ta f te rc l ean ing w i th ad e te rgen t a r e r emoved b ye ven b r ief movemen t i nt h e s and ( t en m inu tes ) a nd a r e t h e ref o re n o t l i k e ly t o s u rv ive a r chaeo log ica l ly w he re a r te f ac t s h ave moved i n t he d epo s i t .

A im s T he se e xpe r imen t s w e re p l anned t o o b se rve t h e e f f ec t o n f l in ts u r f ace s o ft h e m ovemen t o fi mp lemen t s d u r ing b u r ia l s u ch a s o ccu r red i nt he s ed imen t a tH eng i s tbu ry H ead . Expe r iment s An E nde co t t s T e s t S i eve S hake r w a s u sed . One i mp lemen t a t a t ime w a s b u r ied a t a d ep th o f a pp rox ima te ly 6 -8 cm i n ap la s t ic b ow l mea su r ing 3 0 cm i n d i ame te r f i l led w i th e i the r s and s i eved t h rough 0 . 30 n un m e sh o r g rave l ly s and ( wh ich i st h e n a tu ra l ly o ccur r ing ma tr ix o n t h e H eng is tbu ry s i te ) a nd t he s and a nd i mp lemen tw e re s haken f o rv a ry ing l e ng th so ft ime . A r tef ac t s o f E a s t Ang l ia f l in t w e re made i n to m ic roden t icu la tes ( s ee s e c t ion 4 . 1 f o r d e scr ip t ion ) b y R .N .E . B a r ton . T he 4 0 p i ece s i nvo lved ( s ee l i s t i n

6 . 5 .2 ( a ) T umb l ing E xper imen t s A i m s

s ec t ion 6 . 5 ) w e re o b served m ic ro scop ica l ly a nd d ocum en ted p ho tog raph ica l ly b ef o r e a nd a f t e r s hak ing .

T he r e su l t s o ft he e xper imen t s i n6 . 5 .1 s ugg es ted t ha t i t wa s n ece s sa ry t o s ub je c t a r tef ac t s t o mo re l e ng thy movem en t i nt he s ed imen t i no rde r t oo b ta in r e su l t s . I n f a c tt h eb r ief s hak ing t ime d id n o ta l te rt h e f l in t s u rf ac e e nough t o p roduce s heen o r a ny o the r g ene ra l ised PDS M c ompa rab le t o w ha t i s o b se rved o n a rchaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s . A t umb le -po l ish ing k i t f o r j ewele ry w a s u sed t o s imu la t e movemen t i n t h e s ed imen t . I tc omp r ise s t wo p la s t ic b a r re l s m ea su r ing 8 cm i nd i ame te ra nd 8 . 5 c mi nd ep th wh ich a r er o ta ted a t 6 0 r pm . T he t ime n eeded t os moo th s t one s f o rj ewe l ler y i sg iven i n w eek s r a the r t han h ou r s w i th v ery r ough

I n i t ia l ly a r tef ac t s w e re s haken f o r 2 ,5 , 1 0 , 2 0 , 3 0 a nd 6 0 m inu t e s . T he e dge d amage o n u n re touched u nu sed b lade le t sw a sm in ima l e ven a f t e r6 0m inu te s . E xcep tf o r af ew r andom s c ra tche s ( f igu re s 1 24 a nd 1 25 )A im s , n o v i s ib le s u rf ace mod if ica t ion o c cu r red o n t h e f l in t s u rf ace s e spec ia l ly o n t h e p i ece s s haken f o r s ho r t p er iod s . S ub sequen t ly a r tef ac t s w e re s haken f o r 2 0 , 3 0 , 6 0 , 9 0 ,a nd 1 20 , m inu te s . T he s i eved d ry s and a nd t h e g rave l ly s and w e re c omb ined w i th w a te ra nd s a l ta sf o l low s : RU N MATR IX s i eved d ry s and I g rave l ly d ry s and I I s i eved d ry s and a nd s a l t I V s i eved s and a nd w a te r V g raveley s and a nd w a t e r rave l ly d ry s and a nd s a l t V I g V I I g rave l ly s and , s a l ta nd w a te r

g r i t s . T he l e ng th o f 5 0 h ou r s e ven tua l ly n eeded i n t h e e xper imen t s d esc r ibed b e low n eed n o t , t he r ef o re , s e em e xce s s ive . F u r the rmo re , 6 0 r pm , t hough n o t a s s l ow a s t he movemen to fa r tef ac t si n an a tu ra l s i tua t ion , i sn o t a v io len t r o ta t ion . S h ipman a nd R ose ( 1983 :77 ) , i nves t igat ing " the e f ec t o f s ed imen ta ry a bra s ion " o n b one s , u sed ag eo log ic t umb l ing b a r r e l a t ar a te o f 1 800 r pm wh ich r an f o ru pt o3 5 h ou r s .

Mac ro scop ic a nd m icro scop ic o bse rva t ions E xpe r imen t s

On a r t ef ac t EXP /9 i nr un I ( shaken f o r 1 0 m inu te s i n d ry g rav ely s and ) l i nea r f e a tu re s , wh ich w e re p re sen t o nt h et o o le dge a f te r wh i t t l ing d ry r e ed s , w e re p a r t ia l ly r emoved ( f igu re s 1 4a nd 1 5 ) .

Two p a i r s o f e xpe r imen ta l a r tef ac t s o f B randon f l in t w er e b u r ied i n t he s e d imen t , o n e i n e ach b a r re l , a nd t umb led f o r5 0 h ou r s . ( a ) We ta nd d ry f i ne s and EXP /9 am ic roden t icu la te u sed t o wh i t t le a nd c u t

On eo ft he a r tef ac t si nr un V I I ( EXP 1 2J . d eve loped a b r igh t s po t ( f igu re 1 30 ) ( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 3 .2 f o r d ef in i t ion ) a f te r 9 0 m inu t e s i n g rave l ly w e t s and a nd s a l t . S ub sequen t ly o the r r un s w e re c a r r ied o u t

d ry r e ed s , i nB a r re l 1f i l led w i th w e t s and ; EXP /2 a n u nus ed m ic roden t icu la te , i n B a r re l 2

d e c rea s ing a nd i n c rea s ing t h e p ropo r t ion o fs a l t t ot h e s and i n o rde r t o mon i to r whe the r t h e s a l in i ty o f t h e s ed im en t w a s ac ruc ia l v a r iab le . A pa r t f r om t hese t wo

( b )

f i l led w i th d ry s and . We tg rave l ly s and EXP /12 a m ic roden t icu la te u sed t o c u t b racken f o r 1 0m inu te si nB a r re l 1 ;

i n s tan ce s n o o the r s u r f ace mod if i ca t ion s w e re o b se rved i n a ny o f t h e r un s a nd n o o the r b r igh t s po t o ccu r red . B r igh t s po t s w e re p roduced e xp e r imen ta l ly ( a s d e sc r ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .3 ) b y r ubb ing t wo w e t f l in t s

EXP /27 u sed t oi n c ise g reen b i rch f o r 1 0 m inu te s i nB ar re 12 .

5 1

t oi d en t ica le xp e r im en ta lc ond i t ion sd eve loped s h een o f a t o ta l ly d if e r en t i n ten s i ty . I n t h e f o l low ing e xp e r im en t s t h i s p h enomenon w a s o b se rv ed s e v e ra l t ime s s ugg es t ing t h a t t h e e f ec t o f p os t -d epo s i t iona l p roc e s se s m igh t d eve lop d if e r en t ly o n e ach f l ak e e v en i ff r om t h es am ec o r e .

Mac roscop ic a nd m ic roscop ic o bser va t ions ( a ) We ta nd d r yf i n es and Mac ro scop ic s o i l s heen a ppea red m a rg ina l ly e a r l ie r a nd w a s m o r e d eve loped o n t h e a r tef ac t s haken i n w e t s and ( EXP /9 ) t han o n t h e o n e i n d r y s and ( EXP /2 ) . A l ls t r ia t ion so n EXP /9 u sed t ow h i t t le d r y r e ed f o r 1 0 m inu t e s ( f igu r e 1 4 ) w e r e r emoved a f t e r 5 0 h ou r s o f t umb l ing ( f igu r e 1 6 ) . O n ly t h e w e l l d eve loped r e ed p o l i sh c ou ld s t i l l b e o b s e rved o n s ome p a r t so ft h ee dge , a l though i t st e x tu r ew a sn ow d u l led . A b ra s ion t r ack s l e f tb y manuf a c tu r e o n t h e u nu sed m ic roden t icu la te ( EXP /2 ) ( f igu re 1 3 1 ) d i sappea red a f t e r t umb l ing ( f igu r e 1 32 ) a nd t h e s u r f ace o ft h ef l in tw a ss c ou r ed b yt h ef i n es and . ( b ) We tg rave l ly s a nd O n EXP / 12 o n ly f a in t s he en d eve loped . S t r ia t ion s p a rale l t o t h e e dge a nd p r e sen t b ef o r e t umb l ing d i sapp ea r ed ( f igu r e 3 0 a nd 1 33 ) . T he w eak ly d eve loped p o l i sh p roduced b y c u t t ing b racken w a s i n c rea sed i n d eve lopmen t a nd i n va s ivene s s b y c on tac t w i th w e t s and a nd g r ave l , a nd i t s d i s t r ibu t ion o n t h e e dge w a s , i n p l ace s , n ow t r an sve r sa l ( a s f r om s c rap ing ) r a the r t h an l o ng i tud ina l ( a s f r om c u t t ing ) . E dge d amage s c a r s w e r e a dded o n b o th e dg e s . O n EXP /27 t h e s h een w a s m ac ro scop ic a nd b e s t d eve loped o n t h e p r om in en t a r ea s o f t h e b l ade le t . T he f a in t p o l i sh p roduced b y i n c i s ing g r e en w ood ( f igu r e 3 9 ) n ow a ppea r ed i nv a r iou s a r ea so ft h e i mp lemen tt ob e a t d if e ren t s t ag e s o f d eve lopmen t h av ing t h e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o f t wo d if e ren t " pol i she s " a s d e s c r ibed i nt h eK ee ley m e thod ( f igu r e s4 1 a nd 4 0 ) .

6 . 5 .2 (b )T umb l ing e xper imen t s A im s T he e xp e r imen t sd e sc r ibed i n6 . 5 .2a w e r er epea ted w i th s om e a l t e ra t ion s i n o rd e r t o i n v e s t iga t e t h e f o l low ing t wo p o in t s : a T he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h es t r ia t ion so n EXP /9 r emoved b ym ov emen ti nt h es e d imen tc ou ld b e r e s idu ef r om b r acken . T h e i mp lemen t h ad b e en c l ean ed w i th d e t e rg en ta nd w a rm w a te rf olow ed b yi mm e r s ion i n d i s t i l led w a t e r i n a n u l t ra son ic t a nk . A s s u ch a r e s idu e w ou ld p robab ly n o t h av e s u rv ived o n a n a r chaeo log ica l a r te f ac t ( s e e s e c t ion 3 . 4 .6 ) , i tw a s d e c ided t h a t t h e a r t e f ac t s i n vo lved i nt h e f o low ing s e t o f e xp e r im en t s w ou ld b e i mme r sed f o r 2 0 m inu te sa f t e ru s e i n as o lu t ion o f2 0% ( w /v ) N aOH i n w a te r i n t ended t o r emove o r gan ic r e s idu e s , a s s ugg e s t ed b y K e e ley ( 1 980 :11 ) . T h e a ppea ran ce o f t h e u s e induced t r ace s w a s r e co rded p ho tog raph ica l ly b e f o r e a nd a f t e r t h i s c l ean ing p roce s s . b T he t umb l ing t im eo f5 0 h ou r sw a sn o ta r b i t ra ry b u t w a s d i c ta ted b y t h e a ppea ranc e o f w e l l d ev e loped m ac ro scop ic s h een o n t h e a r t e f a c t s . H ow ev e r i t m igh t b e t h a t 5 0 h ou r s t umb l ing i n t h e s e d im en t c ou ld b em im ick ing a ne x t rem es i tua t ion r a th e rt h an ac ommonp lace o ccu r r ence . I tw a st h e re f o r ed e c id ed t or e pea tt h e e xpe r im en t s f o r t umb l ing f o r a r t e f ac t s o fd if e ren tf l in t t y pe s i nw e t g r ave l ly s and t wo f o r 2 1 h ou r sa nd t wo f o r 1 5h ou r sa sd e sc r ibed b e low :

DI S CUSS ION A ND C ONCLUS IONS W e ta nd d ry f ine s and EXP / 2a nd EXP / 9 T h e r emova l o f a l l s t r ia t ion s m igh t s ugge s t e i the r a s i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e s u rf ac e w a s n ow m o r e p ol i shed h ence t h e se l i nea rf e a tu re s a r e n o l onge r o b s e rvab le o r m o r e l i ke ly a s i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e " s t r ia t ion s " w e r e a c tua l ly r e s idu e " adhe r ing " t ot h e s u rf ac e w h ich w a s r emov ed b yt h em ov emen t i nt h e s ed imen t . I na ny c a s e t h ea b sence o ft h e s el i nea ri n d ica to r s m ak e s ac onf id en t r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e d i rec t ion o f mo t ion i n u se m o r e d i ff i cu l t . F u r th e rmo r e , i n t h e K ee ley m e thod , t h e p r e s enc e a nd a b senc e o f s t r ia t ion s a nd t h e ir t y pe s a r e o f t en u sed a sc r i t e r ia f o r d i s t ingu i sh ing b e twe en p o l i sh 4 4 ty

pes

1 EXP /E5 ar a the r c oa r se P o t t e r 's B a r f l in t f l ak e u s ed f o r2 0m inu t e st o wh i t t le f r e sh w i l low; 2 EXP /59 a f i n e -g r a ined B randon f l in t b l ad e le t u sed f o r3 0m inu t e so nd ry o ak; 3 EXP / 1 am ic rod en t icu la te o f m ed ium -g ra ined D o r se tp ebb le f l in tu sed f o r3 0m inu te st oc u tw e t r u she s( s oaked d r yr u she s ) ; 4 EM3/ 7 5 a n u n r e touched b l ad e le t o f I SR / 1 f i ne g r a ined f l in t u sed f o r 6 5 m inu te s t o wh i t t le d r y o ak C lean ing Af t e r w a sh ing w i th w a rm w a t e r a nd d e t e rg en t , EXP /E5 h ad a m a c ro scop ic g l o s s o n t h e u sed e dg e s e v e ra lm on th sa f t e ru s e .T h i sg l o s si so f t en o b s e rved o n e xpe r im en ta l w o rk ing o f g reen w ood o r o the r w oody p l an t sb u ti su sua l ly r emoved b yw a sh ing ( s e eC hap t e r3 f o r d i s cu s s ion o f r e s idue s ) . M ic ro scop ica l ly , t h e a ppea ranc e o ft h e g l o s s ( f igu r e 8 ) i sn o t i n a ny w ay s im i la r t o u s e -wea r t r ace s a nd t h e d i r ec t ion o f t h e " s t r ia t ion s "d oe sn o ts e em t or e f lec tt h ed i r ec t ion o fu s e . EXP /59 a nd EXP /75 d i d n o t d eve lop g l o s s , p r obab ly d ue t ot h e i ru s eo nd r yw ood . EXP / 1 u s ed o nw e tr u she s h ad w e l ld eve lop ed p o l i sh b u tn om a c ro scop ic g l o s s .

e l

We tg rave l l ys and EKP / 12 a nd EXP / 27 T h e r e w a s n o e v id ence o n t h e se t wo a r tef ac t s f unc t iona l ly , t o i n d ica te t h a t t h e r e h ad b een t wo p o l i sh ing e ven t s . P o l i she s p rodu ced b y c u t t ing b racken f o r t e n m inu t e s o r b y i n c i s ing b i r ch f o r t h e s am e d u ra t ion a r e n o t w e l l d eve loped a nd i ti sl i k e ly t h a t s ub sequen tp o l i sh ing b yt h eg r av e l ly s and p ol i shed o ver o r r emoved t h e e a r l ie r t r ace s . T h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f m o t ion w ou ld n ow b e m i s lead ing a s t h e s t r ia t ion s c au sed b yt h e t umb l ing w e r e s om e t ime s i nt h eo ppo s i t e d i re c t ion t ot h o s ep roduced b yu s e . I ti si n t e r e s t ing t h a t t wo i mp lemen t s o ft h e s ame f l in t q ua l i ty a nd s ub jec t ed 5 2

EXP /E5

T h ef l in ts u r f ace w a sn ow p o l ished a l l o ve ra s i n a r chaeo log ica l e xamp le s o f PDS M . T he e dge d amage s c a r s h ad r emoved a rea s o fw e l l d eve loped u se p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ion s . M ic rop i t s a ppea red wh ich w e re n o t p re sen t b ef o r e t umb l ing ( f igu re s 1 40 a nd 1 41 ) .

Af te r c l ean ing f o r 2 0 m inu te s i n t h e N aOH s o lu t ion , t h e a rea o f mac roscop ic g l o s s d i sappea red a nd o n ly a f ew " s t r ia t ion s" s u rv ived ( f igu re 9 ) , w h i le u se -wea r p o l i sh o n o the r a rea s o ft he e dg e r ema ined u nchanged ( f igu re 1 34 ) . M ic ro scop ica l ly , t h e se r ema in ing s t r ia t ion sa r eq u i te s im i la rt ot ho se o n EXP /9 ( c f . f i gure s 1 4 a nd 9 ) a nd t h e i r d i rec t ion i s q u i te c ompa t ib le wh i t t l ing movemen to ft h et o o l .

EXP /59

EXP / 1 EX P /75

w i th

D iscus s ion a nd c onc lus ions

t h e

T hese

T he a ppea rance o ft he p o l i sh w a sn o ta f ec ted b y 2 0 m inu te s i n t he N aOH s o lu t ion ( f igu r e 1 35 ) . T he s ame i st r ue o f t h i s a r tef ac t a s c an b e s e en b yc ompa r ing f i gu re s3 4a nd 3 7 . T he p o l i sh p roduced b y wh if f l ing o ak f o r 6 5

a na ly s t s

V e ry l i t t le s heen d eve loped o n t h i s a r t ef ac t a f te rt umb l ing e xcep to nt h ep rom inen tp a r t s . E dge d amage o ccu r red o nb o th e dge s a nd t h e s ca r s c hanged t he p rof i le o f t he e dge ( c f . f i gure s 3 4 a nd 1 37 ) . N ew m ic rop i t sa ppea red t ha tw e re n o tp resen tb ef o re u se .

f l in t

r ega rd ing

t h e

d eve lopmen t

o f

u s e -wea r

d amage , a nd t h e a ppea rance o f s t r ia t ion s u n re la ted t o t h e d i rec t ion o f mo t ion i n u se . T he se n ew s t r ia t ion s p re sumab ly r e f lec t t h e r e la t ive mo t ion o f a r tef ac t a nd

Aga in v e ry l i t t le s he en d eve loped e xc ep t o n t he e dge s . Much mac roscop ic e dge d amage , wh ich c ou ld m is taken ly h ave b e en s e en a s u se induced , o ccu r red o n t h e u n re touched c u t t ing e dge . N ew p o l i sh w a s a dded ( f ig ur e 1 38 ) , mak ing t he f l in ts u rf ace v e ry s im i la r t o a rchaeo log ica l a r t ef ac t s a f ec ted b y m ic roscop ic PDS M wh i le a ppea r ing v e ry

s ed imen ti nt h et umb le p o l i she r . M ic rop i t t ing ( ob served u nde rt h eo p t ica l m ic ro scope ) wh ich o ccu r s a f te r t umb l ing w i th g rav e l ly s ed im en t c ou ld b ei n te rp re ted a st h e r e su l to ft he r emova l o fl a rge c r y s ta l s ( o r ag roup o f c r y s ta l s ) f r om a p a r t icu la r s po t c au s ing t h e p i t t o f o rm . T hes e m ic rop i t s a l so o ccu r when f l in t t o o ls a r e u sed o n h a rd ma ter ia ls . Ih ad n o t iced t ha t a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac ts w ith PDS M o f t en h ad a l a rge n umbe r o f m ic rop i t s . T he se e xpe r imen t s h ave a l so p roduced f r equen t m ic rop i t t ing ( f igu re s 1 37 , 1 41 a nd 1 38 ) wh i le n o s uch m ic rop i t t ing w a s o b se rved b ef o r e t h e s hak ing e xpe r im en t s ( f igu res 1 39 , 1 36 a nd 3 4 ) . I ti si n te re s t ing t o n o te t ha t t h e p ol i sh o n EXP /1 , wh ich w a s v e ry w e l l d eve loped l i ke s i ck le g l o s s , w a s n o t a f ec ted i nt h e s ame w ay a s w a s p o l ish f r om o the r ma te r ia ls . N owhe re w a s i t" inc rea sed" a s h ad o ccu r red w i th t h e p o l i sh p roduced b y c u t t ing b racken a nd i n c i s ing w ood . I td i sappea red o n ly whe re a n ew s ca r r emoved t ha t p a r t o f t h e e dge , a nd i t s b r igh tne s s w a s

f r e sh t ot h en aked e ye . T umb l ing i nw e tg ra ve l ly s andf or 2 4h our s

EXP / 59

f i ne -g ra ined

b a th w e re r emoved b y movemen t o ft he a r tef ac t s i nt h e s ed imen t a nd a r e p re sumed t o b e " adher ing r e s idue s" ( s ee s e c t ion 3 . 4 .6 ) . T he n ew p o l ish f o rmed i ss im i la rt o t ha t o b se rved o n a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s w i th s o i l s heen . T h e r e cons t ruct ion o ft oo l u se i sh inde red b yt h e r emova l o f t h e w e l l d eve loped p o l i sh t h rough e dge

T umb l ing i nw e tg ra ve l ly s and f or 1 5h our s

EXP /E5

t ha t

T he I s rae l i f l in t u sed i n t h i s e xpe r imen t i s f i ne g ra ined b u tt h es u r f ace sh ave al a rge n umbe ro ff i s su re s . T he e f ec t o ft umb l ing o n t h i s f l in t w a s c ompa rab le t o o th e r f i ne -g ra ined f l in t s s uch a s t he b lack c ha lk f l in t s f r om E a s t Ang l ia . " S t r ia t ion s " wh ich s u rv ived t h e 2 0 m inu te N aOH

Mac ro scop ic a nd m ic ro scop ic o bser va t ions

EXP /75

s ugge s t

p ol i she s . I tw ou ld s e em t os ugge s t as im i la r i ty b e tween t h ep roce s se so ff o rma t ion o fs heen a nd p o l i sh , i n wh ich t h ea b ra s ion f a c to ri sv e ry i mpor tan ti fn o tp redom inan t .

m inu te s w a s a l so e xam ined a f te r c l ean ing w i th d e te rgen t a nd a ga in a f ter 2 0 m inu te s i n t he NaOH s o lu t ion . T he r e w a s n o c hange i n t he a pp ea ranc eo ft he p o l i sh ( f igu r e 1 36 ) .

EXP / 1

e xpe r imen t s

d eve lop s s heen f a s te r t han c oar se -gr a ined f l in t . T h i s i s t h e s am e p h enomenon e mp ir ica l ly o bserved b y m any

A f te r t umb l ing n o s he en d eve loped o n t h e c oa r se r p a r t s o ft he a r t ef ac t , wh i le i td id o n t he f i ne r -g ra ined e dge s . T he " s tr ia t ion s " wh ich h ad s urv ived t h eN aOH b a th h ave n ow b een r emoved ( f igu r e s 9 a nd 1 0 ) . S ca r s c au sed b y e dge d amage c hanged t he p rof i le o ft he u sed e dge . Mac ro scop ic s heen d eve loped b u t w a s , p red ic tab ly , n o ta s i n t en se a s o n t he a r tef ac t s t umb led f o r 5 0 h ou r s . T he a ppea ranc e o ft h e p ol i sh c au sed b y wo rk o n w ood ( f igu r e s 1 35 a nd 1 39 )w a sn ow t o ta l ly a l te red ( f igu re 1 40 ) .

s l igh t ly d u l led b y t he a b ra s ion . T h is i sa n e ncou rag ing c onf i rma t ion o f wha t h ad b een o bserved emp i r ica l ly , t h a ti st ha t" s ick le g lo s s" i st h e o n ly p o l ish t ha t s u rv ive s o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s wh ich Ih ave e xam ined

S t r ia t ion s p a ra l le l t o t h e wo rk ing e dge , p roduc ed b y i n c is ing w ood , a nd s u rv iv ing t h e NaOH b a th ( f igu re 1 39 ) w e re n o l onge r p r esen t , p re sumab ly p o l ished o ve ro ra way b y t he c on tac t w i th t he g rave l ly s and . T h es e s t r ia t ion s w e re r ep laced b y p o l ish d i s tr ibu ted p e rpend icu la r ly t ot he w o rk ing e dge .

s of a r , p a r t icu la r ly f r om t h eN ea rE a s t . Unge r -Ham i l ton ( 1984 :156 ) a l so n o ted t ha t wh i le p o l ish o n o the r a r tef ac t s "may h ave b een r emoved . . .po l i she so n mo s to ft he se [ s ick le b l ade s ] w e re r e la t ive ly i n tac t " . A p robab le e xp lana t ion f o r t he s u rv iva l o f ' s ick le g l o s s ' i st h a t i tr ep re sen t s o ne o f t he l a te s t s t age s o f p o l i sh f o rma t ion whe re t h e p o l i shed a r ea i s much 5 3

t or e ta in d i sp la ced f r agm en t so ff l in ts ot h a tt h ey p romo te w ea r w h e rea s i nt h e d r y s i tua t ion t h ey m ay b e f r e e t o l e ave t h e a r ea o f f l in t t of l in t c on tac t ( s e e s e c t ion s 3 . 4 .5 .2 a nd 6 . 4 .5 f o r a d i scu s s ion a nd e xpe r imen t s r e ga rd ing t h e i mpo r tance o ff l u id si nt h ed ev e lopm en to fp ol i sh o nf l in t ) ; c t h ep r e s su r ep roduced b yr ubb ing af l a ta r ea w i th a ne dge i sg r ea t e rt h an t h a tp rodu ced b yr u bb ing t wo f l a t a r ea s o n t h e f l in t s u rf ace i n t h a t t h e f o r ce i sc on cen t ra ted o n af a rs ma l le ra r ea ; d t h e m ic ro scop ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e f l a t b r igh t s po t sp rodu ced i nt h e se e xp e r im en t s s e em s , l i ke a l l p ol i sh , t o d epend n o t o n ly o n d u ra t ion o f c on tac tb u to nt h em ic ro topog raphy o ft h ef l in t . I nc onc lu s ion i ts e em s t h a t t h e h ypo the s i s , p ropo sed b y m any , t h a t b r igh t s po t s a r e p o s t -d epo s i t iona l i n n a tu r e h a sb een c onf i rmed b y t h e s e e xp e r imen t s . T hey h av e b e en p roduced h e r e , a s s ugg e s ted b y S h eph e rd ( 1 972 :120 ) , t h rough f r ic t ion o f f l in t w i th o the r f l in t , a l though t h e i r t y p ica l l o ca l isa t ion o c cu r red o n ly w hen w a t e rw a su s ed . T he p o l i sh f o rmed b yr u bb ing f l in t so n t h e v en t ra l b u lb h ad a d if u se d i s t r ibu t ion o n t h e m ic ro topog r aphy v e ry s im i la r t o s o i l s he en . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t c on tac t b e twe en f l in t s i nt h e p r e sen ce o f w a t e ri nt h e s e d imen t c ou ld p roduce e i th e rb r igh t s p o t s o r ad i f f u se p ol i sh s u ch a ss o i l s h een d ep end ing o nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e a r ea s i nc on tac t a nd t h e d u ra t ion o f w ea r . E xpe r imen t s d e s c r ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 s how t h a tc h em ica lp roce s se sc an a l so c au s eb r igh t s po t sa nd s o i ls h een t od eve lop o nt h es ame a r te f a c t .

g r ea te rt h an t h eu npo l i shed . T h i sm ak e si tv e ry d if i cu l t t o " i nc r ea s e " t h e p o l i sh b y m echan ica l m ean s . F u r the rmo r et h e r ea r ec on sequen t ly f ew e ra r ea so fo pen f i s su re s t h rough w h ich c h em ica l p roce s se s c an p ene t ra te a nd a t tack t h e f l in t s u r f a ce ( s e e s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 ) . When t h e p o l i shed a r ea i st o taly s moo th a nd c anno t b e p o l i shed f u r the r i t m ay , h ow eve r , b e s c ra tched b y ac oa r s ea b ra s iv e o rb y am a t e r ia l a sh a rd o rh a rde rt h an f l in t( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 5 .13 ) . 6 . 5 .3 F r ic t ion E xper imen t s A im s T he f o l low ing e xpe r im en t sw e re c a r r ied o u tt oa s ce r ta in w h e the r c e r ta in b r igh t s po t s w e r e d u e t o f r ic t ion , r u bb ing t wo p i ece so ff l in tt o ge the rw i th p r e s su re i nt h e " s ame s ma l l a r ea " , a s s ugge s ted b y S h eph e rd ( 1 972 :120 ) , p a r t icu la r ly w i th w a t e r a s am ed ium , a s s ugge s ted b yV aughan ( 1 981 :366 ) . E xper imen t s 1 Two f l ake s o fB randon f l in t ( EXP /65 A a nd B ) w e r ec a r r ied f o rt wo m on th si n ap l a s t ic b ag ,i na s ma l lp ock e t ,t i gh t ly r u bb ing a ga in s te a ch o t h e r . 2 Two o t h e r f l ake s o ft h e s ame f l in t ( EXP /76 A a nd 1 3 )w e r er u bbed t o ge th e rw e tw i th p r e s su r ea s m en t ioned a bove f o rf i ve m inu t e s . 3 T he e xpe r imen t w a s r e pea ted u s ing t wo f l ake s ( EXP /77A a nd B ) , r ubb ing t h em t o ge the r w i th w a t e rf o r 2m inu te s e a ch , f i r s t r u bb ing t o g e the r t h e a r ea s o ff i n e -g ra in ed f l in t o n t h e b u lb s a nd t h en r u bb ing o n ee dge a ga in s ta no the r .

6 . 5 .4 T ramp l ing E xpe r imen t A im s

M ic roscop ic a nd mac ro scop ic o bse rva t ion s

T he f o l low ing e xp e r imen tw a sc a r r ied o u tt oo b se rv et h e e f ec t o n a r t ef ac t s d i sca rded o n t h e s u r f ac e o r b u r ied j u s t b e low t h e s u rf ac e w h en t h ey a r e t r amp led b y a g r oup o fp eop le a s m igh t o ccu r i n ap r eh i s to r ic c amp s i t e . I tw a s a imed a t m on i to r ing m ov emen t o f t h e a r t ef ac t s o n t h e s u rf ac e a nd i n t h e s e d imen t a nd t o o b se rv e t h e c o r r e la t ion , i fa ny , o f s u ch m ovem en t t o s c ra t che s ,e dge s c a r r ing ,s o i ls heen a nd /o rb r igh ts p o t s . T he e xpe r imen tw a sc onduc ted a tt h es i t eo fK l i th ii n G ree ce b y D r . M .H . N ewcome r w ho a l so k napp ed t h e f l in t a r tef ac t s . My t h ank s g o t oD r . N ew come r a nd t h e s i t e e xcava to r s f o r a l low ing m e t o c a r ry o u t t h e m ic ro scop ic w o rk o nt h e s ea r te f ac t s .

1 EXP /65 N o b r igh t s po t s , m ac ro scop ic o r m ic ro scop ic , w e r e o b se rved , a l though ma c ro scop ic p o l i sh f o rmed w i th l i nea r f e a tu r e s s im i la rt ot h ep o l i sh o b se rved o n EXP / 11 s aw ing s h e l l( f igu r e 1 42 s e ea l so f i gu r e 1 2 5 ) . 2 E 32 /76 A f t e r 5m in , i n ten se m a c ro scop ic g l o s s a ppea red o n t h e e dge , a s o b s e rv ed o n a r cha eo log ica l a r t ef a c t s . M ic ro scop i ca l ly t h e p o l i sh w a s v e ry b r igh t a nd f l a t , c r o s sed b y s t r ia t ion s a s d e sc r ibed b y S t ape r t ( 1 976 :32 ) b u t w i th a n u n typ ica l c r u sh ing o f c r y s ta l s ( f igu r e 1 43 ) . 3 EX P /77 O n t h e b u lb t h e p o l i sh w a s d i f f u se , u ncha rac te r is t ic o fb r igh t s po t sb u t m o r e s im i la r t os o i ls he en ( f igu r e 1 44 ) . O nt h ee dge t h eb r igh t s po t sw e r ea lmo s ti d en t ica l t ot h ea r chaeo log ica l o ne s( f igu r e s4 4a nd 4 5 ) , w i th m ac ro scop ic g l o s s a nd n oc r u sh ing o fc r y s ta l s .

S tage s F rom 2 4-27 A ug . 1 985 ;2 80 f l in t s( w i th b one s )w e r e l a id o u ti nt wo l a ye r sw i th 1 40 f l in t sp e rl a y e ri nt h e s ame m e t r es qua r e .T he l o ca t ion o fe a ch a r tef a c tw a s r e co rd ed t h r ee d imen s iona l ly t o m on i to r v er t ica l /ho r izon ta l m ov em en t . T h e l owe r l a y e r w a s c ove r ed b y a5c m t h ickne s s o f s t e r i le s o i l w h ich c on s is ted o fs i ev ed s ed imen tf r om t h eK l i th i s h e l t e r , w h i le t h e t o p l a ye r w a s l ef t e xpo sed a t g r ound s u r f a ce . I E ve ry d ay f o r 7d ay s 2 0 t o3 0 p eop le w a lked o ve r t h es qua r e , s om ew i th s hoe so t he r sw i th s anda l s .

C onc lus ions T h ea bov eo b se rva t ion ss ugge s tt h a t a f r ic t ion b e tween t wo f l in t s u rf a ce s p r oduce s t h e s am e p ol i sh a si sp rodu ced b y u s e o n v e ry h a rd m a t e r ia l ss u ch a ss h e l l ; b w a te r i sa n i mpo r tan t e l emen t i nl o ca l i s ing t h e p o l i sh s ot h a t" b r igh ts po t s " a pp e a r . I tm ay s e rv e 5 4

f e a tu r e s , p re sumab ly f r om movemen t a ga in s t t he c o re

I I O n 4 th S ep t . 1 985 , a f te r 7d ay s o f t r ampl ing , o ne q uad r an t o f t h e s qua re w a s e xcava ted . B o th u ppe r a nd l owe r l e ve l s w e re e xcava ted w i th b ru sh a nd s coop . T he n ew p o s i t ion a nd o r ien ta t ion o f t h e p i ec e s w e re p lo t ted . T he s t e r i le l e ve l w a s s t i l l p re served b u t w a s c ompac ted t o 2 -3 cm . Ap l a s t ic c ove rw a sp u to no v e rt he r ema in ing t h ree q uad ran t s o ft h es qua re w e igh ted d own b y 5c m . s ed imen t . I V I n A ugu s t o f 1 987 , t wo y ea r s a f te r d epo s i t ion , t h e r e s t o ft h e m e t r e s qua re w a s e xcava ted . T he s t e r i le l a ye r w a s mo re c ompac ted b u t t h e u ppe r a nd l owe r l a y er s o ff l in t w e re s t i l l c l ea r ly d iv ided . R oo t s h ad g rown b e tween t h e a r tef ac t s a nd a round t he p l a s t ic s hee t . T he r e w a s l i t t le d if e r ence i n t he e x ten t o f m ovemen tb e tw een l a rge a nd s ma l lp i ece s .

d u r ing manuf ac tu re . F ou rp i ece s ( 2e ach f r om t h e u ppe r a nd l owe r l e ve ls ) w e re r andom ly c hosen f o r m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion . T h e U a nd L i n b o th t h e l i s t s b e low s t and f o r u ppe r l a ye ra nd l owe rl a ye r : U U L L

1 72 2 00 6 9 7 0

1 987

r a re r i dge c ru sh ing

1 987 1 985 1 987

s ome r i dge c ru sh ing s ome r i dge c ru sh ing s om er i dge c ru sh ing

N o s u rf ace mod if ica t ion ( SM ) w a s o b se rved , s ome r andom p o s t -depo s i t iona l ( PD ) " s t r ia t ion s" ( STR ) w e re p re sen tb u tn one w e re s i gn if ican t . Af u r the r 1 5 p i ece s w e re c hos en e i the r b ecau se t hey h ad m oved mo r e t han 2 cm i n o ne d i rec t ion o r t hey w e re i n ver ted a nd h ad u nde rgone m ov emen t wh ich w a s p o s s ib ly s i gn if ican t . V e ry s ma l l p i ece s w er e e xc luded

M ic ro scop ic o bser va t ions Two f r e sh ly s t ruck f l in t p i ece s wh ich w e re k ep t i n s epa ra te p la s t ic b ag s a tt he s t a r t o ft h e e xper imen t t o u se a s c on t ro l s , w e re e xam ined b ef o re o bserv ing t h e t r amp led p i ece s . T he f l in t u sed i n t h i s e xper imen t w a s o b ta ined f r om p ebb le s g a the red f r om t he r i ve r n ea r wh ich t h e s i te i sl o ca ted . T he q ua l i ty o f t h is f l in t w a s v e ry s h iny a nd t h e f r e sh ly s t ruck s u rf ace h a s m ic ro scop ica l ly a na ppea rance s im i la r t oB randon f l in t when i ti sa f ec ted b yt h ee a r ly s t age so fu s e . T he re w e re many i n c lu s ion s , f i s su re s , a nd r i dge s a nd s ome l i nea r

e ven i ft h ey h ad moved b ecau se t h ey w ou ld n o tb el i ke ly c and ida te sf o rf unc t iona la na ly s i s . T h e d a te s a ppea r ing a f te r t h e t o o l n umbe r i n t h e f o l low ing l i s t i nd ica t e t h e y ea r o f e x cava t ion . T he p i ece s e xcava ted i n 1 985 h ave b e en t r amp led a nd b u r ied f o r o n ly s even d ay s wh i le t ho se e xcava ted i n 1 987 h ave b een b u r ied f o rt wo y ea r s . T h e f o l low ing a r e s ome c ommen t so ne ach p iece :

TooL No

FR ESHNESS

PO L ISH STR ED SM A ND O THER

L7 8 1 987 L8 3 1 985 L8 9 1 987 L91 1 987 U1 42 1 987 U1 52 1 987 U1 53 1 987 U1 65 1 987 U1 66 1 985 U1 68 1 985 U1 71 1 987 U1 76 1 987 U1 77 1 987 U1 88 1 985 U1 89 1 987

much r i dge c ru sh ing s ome r i dg ec rush ing f a in tr i dge c ru sh ing n or i dge c ru sh ing n or i dge c rush ing n or i dge c ru sh ing r i dge /VNTR c r u sh ing h eavy r i dge c ru sh ing n or i dge c ru sh ing n oc r u sh ing h eavy d r s l c r ush ing c ru sh ing LL +D ST s ome c ru sh ing h eavy C urved c r ack s . f a in tr i dg e

R andom S TR . I n i t ia l PVNTR . R andom S TR . I n i t ia l PVNTR . S t rang em ac ro Po n DRSL . P ERP S TR +VNTR . c ru sh ing Wh i te s a l ty d epo s it N o SM . Much ED t h in b l ade le t . C u rved c r acks . No ED . R a re S TR . N o SM . No SM .No ED . RL r andom S TR . VNTR ED a nd r andom S TR . No SM . ED a nd r andom S TR .N o SM . S ome ED a nd r andom f r e sh S TR . N o SM . Many S TR . S ome Pn o SM . PNR c r ushed e dge s . N o SM . R andom+PERP S TR . No PVNTR /RL . No SM . DRSL A b ras ion DRSL . No SM . DRS UVNTR R andom + PERP S TR c rush ing ED r a re . No SM . c r u sh ing R a re S TR t race so fs a l ty d epo s i ta sL 91 .

p r e sen to nt h es i te . T he c ru shed r i dge sa r e p re served o n s ome o f t h e a r tef ac t e dge s e ven a f t e r k napp ing ( f igu re 1 47 ) . T he d rawback f o r t h e u se o ft h i s r aw m a ter ia l i n at r amp l ing e xp e r imen ti st ha t o ne i sn o t t h en a b le t o o bs erve e dge d amage c au s ed b y t r amp l ing i fi to ccu r so n ap r ev iou s ly c rushed e dge . C ) I tw a s i n t r igu ing t on o te t h a t s ome p i ece s a ppea red t o h ave b ad ly " t ramp led" e dge s wh i le o the r s w e re e x tr eme ly f r e sh l i ke t he c on t ro l p i ece s , a nd t he d if e rence c ou ld n e i the r b e a t t r ibu ted t ot h e l e ve l i n w h ich t hey w e re b u r ied n o r t ot h e l e ng th o fb u r ia l t ime . Once t h e c onne c t ion b e twe en t h e h eavy e dge

D i scus s ion a nd c onc lus ions A ) I tw a s n o ted t ha t t h e p i ece s e x cava ted i n 1 985 h ad v e ry f ew s i gn s o fa b ra s ion ( t ramp l ing t r ace s f i gu re s 1 45 , 1 46 , 1 52 ) o n t h em e ven w hen t h ey c am e f r om t h e u ppe r l e ve l . I n f a c t , o u t o f 1 5 p i ece s c ho sen o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e e x ten t o f movem en t o r i nv e r s ion , o n ly t h ree b e longed t ot ho se e xcava ted i n 1 985 . T h i s s t rong ly s ugge s t s t ha t mov emen t o ccu r s o ve r t h e c ou r se o ft ime a nd i sn o tp a r t icu la r ly c on f ined t ot h e e a rl ie s t s t age s o f b u r ia l o r t o t h e d u ra t ion o f t r amp l ing . I t m ay b e t ha t t h e l onge r p i ec e s a r e b u r ied t h e mo re t h ey a r e l i ke ly t ob e s ub jec ted t o movemen t a nd t o c on sequen t p o s t -depo s i t iona l t r ace s o ccu rr ing e ven a f te r t r amp l ing i t se lf h ad

a nd r i dge c ru sh ing a nd t h e r i ve r p ebb le s u sed a s c o re s ( po in t B a bov e ) w a s u nde r s tood , i t w a s a ppa ren t t h a t t h e t r amp l ing h ad n o t c au sed much e dge d amage o n t h e f r e sh ly k napped e dge s . N one o f t h e c ru sh ing c ou ld h oweve r b e c onf u sed w i th u se w ea r b u t h ad e a r l ie r b een e r roneou s ly a t t r ibu ted t o t r amp l ing . I t s e em s t he ref o re t h a t o ne w eek o f t r amp l ing b y 2 0 t o3 0 p e r son s ad ay i sn o t l i ke ly t o

c ea sed . B ) T he f l in t u sed i nt h i s e xper imen tw a s k napped f r om h eav i ly r o l led r i ve rp ebb le s . T he se p ebb le s w e re a l so t h e s ou r ce o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l f l in t i mp lemen t s 5 5

c ause d amage t o f l in t t o o l s t ha t c anno t b e i s o la ted d u r ing m ic rowea ra na ly s i s . I n ap reh i s tor i c s i tua t ion

c au sed t h e p ar t ia l o rt o ta l r emova l o ft h e u sed e dge , e spec ia l ly o nt h in b l ade s .

a n ima l s m igh t a l so h ave b een t r amp l ing t he s i t e a nd , i nt h e c a se o f ap e rmanen t b a se c amp , a much l onge rp e r iod o ft r amp l ing m igh t h ave o ccu r red . D ) I tw as n o t s u rp r is ing t h a t s o i l s heen o ro t he r s u r f ac e mod if i ca t ion d id n o t o ccu r a f te r t wo y ea r s o fb ur ia l .

CH EM ICAL P ROCESSES 6 .5 .5 Ef ec to fN a tura l S o i lP roce sse s

T he o the r e xper imen t s ( s ec t ion 6 . 5 .5 ) c a r r ied o u t a l so s ugge s ted t ha t ap e r iod o f o n e t ot wo y ea r s i s

A im s

n o t l ong e nough f o r c hem ica l a nd m echan ica l p roce s se s t o c r ea te t h e e f ec t s w h ich a r e n orma l ly

I n o rde r t os t udy t h e e f ec t o fn a tu ra l s o i l p ro ce s se s o n f l in ts u r f ace s , i tw a sp lanned t ob ury a r te f ac t s i nK eba ra c ave . A n a r ea w a s c ho sen n ea r t h e l ime s tone c av e w a l l w i th w a te r d r ipp ing . T he a r tef ac t s w e r e c l eaned w i th

o bserved o n a rchaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s . I t w a s s u rpr is ing h oweve rt ha tn ob r igh ts po t sh ad o ccu r red a s t h ey c an b e p roduced b y f r ic t ion b e tween t wo p i ece s o f w e t f l in t f o r av e ry s hor t t ime ( s ec t ion 6 . 5 .3 ) . A l though t h e re w a s d ew o ve rn igh t , t h e

w a rm w a te r a nd d e te rgen t a nd b ur ied a t ad ep th o f 5 0 cm . T he a im w a s t oo b serve whe the r s o i l s heen w ou ld o ccu r a f te r ar e la t ive ly b r ief p er iod o f b u r ia l i n a

t r amp l ing e xp er imen tt o ok p lace d u r ing ad ry p e r iod s o t h i s m ay b e ar e a son w hy b r igh t s po t s w e r e n o t f o rmed . O n t h e o the r h and o n af ew a r tef ac t s wh ich h ave b een i n t h e l owe r l e ve l f o r t wo y ea r s b u t n o t d i rec t ly a f ec ted b y t r amp l ing , ad if u s e , n o t w e l l

l ime s tone c ave w i th p e rco la t ing w a te r . F u r the rmo re i t w a s i n tended t o o b serve t h e d if e r ence ( i f a ny ) o f t h e e f ec t o fb u r ia l o nv a r iou s f l in t q ua l i t ie s a nd o n v a r iou s s t age so fp o l i sh d eve lopmen t . T he b ur ied a r tef ac t sw e re : EXP / 128 B lack B randon f l in t b l ade p o l i shed b y d amp c hamo is ; EXP /86 B uf f I SR /4a f l in t b l ade p o l i shed b y d amp c hamo i s ; EXP /98 B uf f I SR /4a f l in t b l ade p o l i shed b y d amp c hamo i s ; EXP /104 B rown I SR /2 f l in tf l ake p o l i sh ed b y wh i t t l ing

d eve loped p o l i sh w a s o b served ( f igu re 1 48 ) s im i la r t o t h e p o l i sh p roduced i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .3 b y r ubb ing t wo a r tef ac t sw ith t he i rb u lba ra r ea i nc on tac t ( f igu r e 1 44 ) . When l i t t le p r e s su re c an b e e xer ted w e l l d eve loped p o l i sh c anno tf o rm v ery f a s t . T h is l a ck o f p re s su r e a nd w a te r m ay e xp la in t h e a b sence o f b r igh ts po t s . Unexp la ined s a l ty d epo s i t s w e re o b served o n t wo

w ood .

a r tef ac t s o ne f r om t h e u pp e r l e ve l a nd o ne f r om t h e l owe r l e ve l . T hey w e re n o t r emoved b y t ho rough c l ean ing c on s i s t ing o fb ru sh ing w i th a n y lon b ru sh w i th b io log ica l d e te rgen t f olowed b y u l t rason ic c l ean ing . T hey h ad e a r l ie r b een w iped w i th a ce tone a nd m e thy la ted s p i r i t( f igu r e 1 49 ) .

Mic ro scop ic o bse rva t ions Af t e r 4 00 d ay s t h e re w e re s c ra tche s o n t h e f l in t s u r f ace ( f igu re 1 54 ) a nd s l igh t d amage o n t h e e dge p re sumab ly f r om t h e s e t t l ing d own o f t h e s ed imen t o r f r om t h e e f ec t o ft h et r owe l . N o mac ro scop ic o rm ic ro scop ic s o i l s he en h ad d eve loped . P o l i sh s e emed u naf f e c ted e xcep t

S ome v e ry s t range c u rved c rack s w e re o b served o n t h ev en tra la spec t so fs om ep i ece s ( f igu r e 1 48 ) . T hey o ccu rb o th o nt h e p i ece s w i th h eav i ly c ru shed e dge s a nd o nt ho se who se e dge s a r e n o t c ru shed . One c an o n ly s pe cu la te t ha t t hey o ccu r red i n s ide t h e p ebb le

when i th ad b e en r emoved b y e dge d amage . I n s ome c a se s p o l ish w a s s l igh t ly d im in ished m ic ro scop ica l ly a f t e r b u r ia l a s o ccu r s when s upe rf ic ia l r e s idue s a r e r emoved b y b io log ica l c l ean ing o r b y ad i lu te N aOH s o lu t ion ( f igu re s5 9 a nd 1 53 ) .

when i tw a sb e ing c ru shed i nt he r i ve r . E ) T he i mpo r tance o fw a t e r o r a no the r l i qu id med ium i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f p o l ish h a s b een n o ted emp ir ica l ly b y many m ic rowea r a na ly s t s a nd h a s b een i nves t iga ted i nt h i s p ro jec t . T he o n ly t r ace s o f p o l ish o n t h e e xam ined a r tef ac t s ( f igu r e 1 50 ) w e r e

T he a r tef ac t sw e re r e bu r ied a ga in i nO c tobe r 1 988 t ob e

n o ted o n o r n ea r t he c ru shed e dge s . One c an o n ly s pecu la te t h a t t he p o l i sh m igh t h ave f o rmed , n o t d u r ing b u r ia l , b u t r a the r a s ar e su l t o f movemen t o f t he p ebb le si nt h er i ve r .

r e t r ieved a tt h e e nd o ft h e e xcava t ion ( i n s eve ra l y ea r s ) a s i ti so bv iou s t ha t ap e r iod o fo ne o r t wo y ea r s i st oo s ho r t t op roduce s i gn if i can t c hange s . I tw a s i n te re s t ing t on o te t h a t r e s idue s s t i l l " adhe r ing ' .t ot h e s u r f ace h ad

C onc lus ions

b een r emoved a f te rs uch ab r ief p er iod o fb u r ia l .

F ) A l though n one o f t h e t r ace s f ound o n t h e K l i th i e xpe r imen ta l p i ec e s c ou ld b e m is taken f o ru se -wea r , i tw a s i n te re s t ing t on o te t ha t o no ne o ft h e a r tef ac t s

6 .5 .6 Ef ec to fN a tura l ly Occurr ing S o i lP roce s se s

ap o l ish a ppea red v e ry s im i la r t o t ha t p roduced b y g roov ing w ood w i th t a lc ( c ompa re f i gu re 1 51 w i th

A im s

f i gu re 6 1 ) . I t sd i s t r ibu t ion o n t he e dge w a s l o ca l i sed a nd w a s e a s i ly i d en t if ied a s n on u se -wea r . A d i s tu rbanc e

mo r e

p ro longed

t han

a t wo

T he f o l low ing e xpe r imen ts w e r e s e tu pt oo b serve 1 whe the r i t i s p o s s ib le t o p roduce p o s t -depo s i t iona l s u rf ac e a l te ra t ion s o n f l in t w i thou t g rea t ly a cce le ra t ing t h e p roce ss b y u s ing

y ea r

e xper imen t m igh t h ave p roduced a mo r e c onfu s ing d i s tr ibu t ion . A l though e dge d amage o n e dge s n o t

c onc en tra ted s o lu t ion sa nd /o rh ea t . 2 t oc he ck t h e d eve lopmen t o fe v en tua l a l te ra t ion s o n :

a f ec ted b yc ru sh ing w a sr e la t ive ly l i gh t , h ad c er ta in p iece s b een u sed a ny e dge d amage c ou ld h ave 5 6

H eng i s tbu ry H ead s ed imen t . T h i s s e emed s u rp r i s ing b e cau se K eba ra s ed imen t i s v e ry f i n e g ra ined wh i le H eng i s tbu ry H ead s ed imen t i s ac oa r se r g ra ined s and . B o th t o o ls w e r e r e la t ive ly t h in a nd i n se r ted l e ng th -w i se .

a ) d if e ren tf l in tt y pe s( I s rae l ia nd B randon ) , b ) p ol i shed a nd u npo l i shed f l in t , c ) w a te rw he the rs t agnan to rd r ipp ing . EXP / 110 HH s o i l +s t agnan td i s t i l led w a te r B randon f l in tp o l i shed b yc hamo is l e a the r EXP / 113 HH s o i l +d i s t i l led w a te rd r ipp ing l B r andon f l in t t o o l p ol i shed b y c hamo i s l e a the r EXP / 116 P ea t +d ecay ing l e ave s B randon f l in tf r e sh ly s t ru ck u nu sed

T he p a s sage o f w a te r w a s r ende r ing t h e K eba ra s ed imen t much mo r e c ompac t . I n f a c t t h e w a te r w a s f l occu la t ing t h e f i ne s ed imen t i n to s ma l l l ump s c a .1-2 cm l ong a nd h a lf a c en t ime t re i n d iame te r . T h is w a s n o t iced a f te r 4 50 d ay s o f p e rco la t ion . T he l ump s a r e v e ry h a rd a nd c an b e m i s taken a tf i r s t f o r p ebb le s , b u t t hey c rumb le w i th p re s su re f r om t h ef i nge r s . Ih ave a l so e ncoun te r ed t h em when e xcava t ing a t K eba ra t hough t h ey a r e l a rge r i n t h e c ave s ed imen t . T he i r s ma l l s i ze i n t h i s e xp e r imen t c ou ld b e a

EXP / 111 K eba ra s o i l + s t agnan t d i s t i l led w a te r + C aCO 3 I SR /2 f l in tp o l ished b yc hamo i sl e a the r EXP / 112 K eba ra s o i l + s t agnan t d i s t iled w a te r + AC0 3 I SR /2 f l in tp o l ished b yc hamo i sl e a the r

c on sequence o ft h e c on s ide rab ly s ho r te r t ime s pan a nd t h e c onf ined a r ea o ft h e v e sse l c on ta in ing EXP /114 . I t i sp robab le t h a t w a te r w a s p e rco la t ing i n t h e c ave f o r l ong p er iod s o f t ime t h roughou t i t s h i s to ry . T h is e xpe r imen t s ugge s t s t ha tt h e p resence o ft h e se l ump s i n ap ar t icu la rl a ye rc an b et a ken a sc onf i rma t ion o ft h i s .

EXP / 114 K eba ra s o i l + d r ipp ing d i s t i l led w a te r + CAC0 3 I SR /2 f l in tp o l i shed b yc hamo i sl e a the r EXP / 115 K eba ra s o i l + s t agnan t d i s t i l led w a te r + C aCO3 I SR /2 f r e sh ly s t ruck f l in tu nu sed T he e xp er imen tw a sc onduc ted a tr oom t empe ra tu re 2. A na t temp t wa s m ade t or ep roduce a sf a r a s p o s s ib le t h e c ond i t ion s a tH eng is tbu ry a nd K eba ra a nd t h e r ef o re t he s ed imen t f r om e ach s i t e w a s u sed i n c on junc t ion w i th f l in t f r om t ha t a r ea a nd c a lc ium c a rbona te w a s a dded t oe xp er imen t s i nvo lv ing I s rae l if l in t st os imu la te

C onc lus ions T he c onc lu s ion s t o b e d rawn f r om t h e m ic ro scop ica l o b se rva t ion s a r e t ha t s ome d i s so lu t ion a nd /o r r ed i s t r ibu t ion o f s i l ica f r om t h e s u rf ace h a s s t a r ted t o o ccu r . I t i s n o t p o s s ib le t o make a mo re d ef in i te s t a temen t a l though i nt h e f olow ing e xper im en t s i tc an b e s e en t ha t g l a re o f ten p recede s t h e d eve lopmen t o f s heen a nd p a t ina t ion . I ti so bv iou sf r om t h is e xpe r imen t t ha t t h e r ep l ica t ion o f PDS M a s i ta ppea r s n a tu ra l ly o n

t he l ime s tone p e rco la t ion si nK eba ra . Mic ro scop ic o bser va t ions

t he a r tef a c t s f r om K eba ra c an o n ly b e e xpec ted a f t e r a much l onge rp e r iod o ft ime .

T h e a r tef ac t s w e re e xam ined o n s eve ra l o cca s ion s o ve r ap e r iod o ft wo y ear s . E a r ly c heck s s howed n o e f ec t s . T he i n terva ls b e twe en c heck s w e re l e ng thened a s i t

6 . 5 .7 Ef ec to fN a tura l ly O ccurr ing Chem ica l s

b ecam e o bv iou s n o e f e c t s c ou ld b e o b served i n t h e s ho r tt e rm . Af t e r t wo y ea r s t h e p i ece s s how i n i t ia l s l igh t PDS M

A im s T he f o l low ing e xpe r imen t sw e re i n sp i red b yR o t t laende r

a s e v id enced b y t h e d eepen ing o f r i dge s a nd s ha l low h o l low s ( f igu re s 1 55 a nd 1 56 ) a nd a n i n c rease i n g la r e e spec ia l ly a t x 200 mak ing b o th m ic roscopy a nd p ho tog raphy v e ry d if i cu l t .

( 1976 :56 ; 1 975 :108 ) w ho r epo r ted p roduc ing " g los s p a t ina " ( h i s e xp re s s ion f o r s o i l s he en ) o n f l in t s u rf ace s a ccompan ied b y 0 . 3% w e igh t l o s s a f te r l e av ing f r e sh ly s t ruck f l in t a r tef ac t s f o r t h ree w eek s i n p ea t w i th d ecay ing l e ave sa nd w a te ra t5 0 ° C .

Mac ro scop ic o bser va t ions Wa te r w a s p a s s ing f a s te r t h rough t he b ox c on ta in ing K eba ra s ed imen t t h an t h rough t h e o ne c on ta in ing

My e xpe r imen t sw e re p lanned t oc ompa re : 1 t h e s peed o fd eve lopmen t a nd /o r i n ten s i ty o fs o i l s heen o nf ou rd if e ren tf l in tt y pe s ; 2 t h e d if e ren t e f ec t ( i f a ny ) o n p o l i shed a nd

s l ow d r op le t 5d ay s aw eek . R un s d r y o ve r w e ekend a nd h o l id a y s . N o tt o o d i s s im i la r f r om c a ve c ond i t ion s w he r e w e t a nd t h y c a ve c ond i t ion s w he r e w e ta nd d r y p e r iod s a l te rna t e a nd p e r co la t ion d oe sn o to c cu ra lw a y si nt h es ame s p o t . I n HH r a in a nd d r yw ea th e r a l so a l t e rna t et o da y . D r ipp ing w a te r i n t h i s e xp e r imen t i s n one the le s s p r ob ab ly r u nn ing t h roug h f a s t e rt h an i nn a tu r e a nd t h i s m ay h av e a c c e le ra ted t h e p o s t d e po s i t iona l p r oc e s s e s t o s om e e x t en t . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t o t h e rw i s e e ven t h e m od e s t r e su l t s o b ta ined c ou ld n o t b e e xp e c ted w i th in t h et i me span o fs u ch ap r o je c t . 2 a b ou t 2 0 ° Cd u r in g w o rk ing h ou r s , w h i ch c ou ld g o 2 3 ° l ow e r o n w e ekend s a nd 2 3 ° h i ghe r o n h o t s umm e r d a y s . C ond i t ion s n o t t o o d i s s im i la r f r om s e a sona l v a r ia t ion s i n n a tu r ee x cep t f o r t h e a b senc e o fh e a t p eak s a si nK eba ra i n t h e s umme r a nd p o s s ib le f r e ez in g a s i nH eng is tbu r y t o da y . C a v e c o nd i t ion s a r e , h ow eve r m o r e t empa ra te t h an t h o se i n t h eo p en a i r .

u npo l i shed s u rf ace s o f f l in t f r om t he n odu le .

s ame

EXP /99

I SR /4a f l in t p o l ished b y w e t h ide 2 0 m inu te s w e igh tg r .4 .08 EXP / 138 I SR /4a f l in t f r e sh ly s t ruck u nu sed w e igh t g r . 6 . 41 EXP / 144 B randon f l in t f r e sh ly s t ruck u nu sed w e igh t g r . 5 . 17 EXP / 145 P /Ba r f l in t f r e sh ly s t ruck u nu sed w e igh t g r . 9 . 80 EXP / 146 I SR /4b f l in t f r e sh ly s t ruck u nu sed w e igh t g r . 4 . 39 T he a r tef ac t s w e re i mmer sed i n p ea t w i th d ecay ing l e ave s a nd d i s t i l led w a t e r i n s epa ra te c ove red b eaker s 5 7

3 i fp a t ina t ion i sa ccompan ied b y w e igh t l o s s a nd i fs ot om ea su re i t se x ten t . EXP /139 B randon f l in tw e igh t 5 .97 g r . p o l i shed b yw e t h i de EXP / 148 B randon f l in tw e igh t 1 4 .91 g r . u nu sed

h ea ted c on t inuou s ly a tt empe ra tu re sb e tween 5 0-60 0 C . a ta pp rox ima te ly p H6 . S tage I : Mac roscop ic a nd m ic roscop ic o bse rva t ions N o s heen d eve loped a f te r e i gh t w eek s p o s s ib ly d ue t o t h e f a c t t h e e qu ipmen t c ou ld n o t b e ma in ta ined a t a c on s tan t t empe ra tu re w i thou t s uperv is ion . I t may b e t ha t when t h et emp e ra tu re w en ta bove 5 0° C t h e m ic ro o rg an i sm s i n t h e s o i l w e re k i l led . T hey m igh t h ave a n i mpor tan t r o le i n t h e p a t ina t ion p roce s s . A t t h is t ime

EXP /102 I SR /2 f l in t w e igh t 2 .66 g r . p o l i shed b y w e t h i de EXP /105 I SR /2 f l in tw e igh t5 . 03 g r . u nused A r tef ac t s w e re i mme r sed i n aP y r ex d i sh ( 20 c m d iame te r ) f i led w i th p ea t , l e ave s d ecay ing i n w a te r , u r ine a nd c a lc ium c a rbona te .

g a rden c ompo s t w a s a dded t o i n t roduce n ew m ic ro o rgan ism s a nd t h e t empe ra tu re w a s l owe red t o u nde r

C urwen 's e xp e r imen t w a s a pp rox ima ted i n t h e i ng red ien t s . A s t h e t e rm " ga rden m ou ld" w a s r a the r v ague , p ea tw a su sed f o r s i x w eek s a nd g a rden c ompo s t w a s a dded f o r t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e e xper imen t .

5 0 ° C . T he a r tef ac t s w e re r emoved a f te r 4 mon th s ( 8w eek s o f wh ich w e r e i n t he n ew c ompo s t ) a l though n o mac ro scop ic s o i ls h een h ad a ppea red .

D ecay ing l e ave s w e re u sed i n s tead o f d ecay ing g ra s s a nd c a lc ium c a rbona te w a s u sed i n s t ead o f c ha lk . C u rwen 's e xp er imen t s p a t ina ted f l in t i n 2 2 mon th s

S tage I Mac roscop ic a nd m ic ro scop ic o bse rva t ions

( app rox . 9 6w eek s )a tr oom t empera tu r e ( 20° C . ) . I tw a s a s sumed t h a t t h e r e ac t ion s p eed d oub le s a pp rox ima te ly w i th e ach 1 0 ° C . r i se i nt emp era tu re .

A f te rf ou r mon th s n o mac ro scop ic o rm icro scop ic s heen d eve loped a nd n o w e igh t l o s s o ccu r red o n a ny o f t h e a r tef ac t s . S ome a l te ra t ion o ft h e f l in ts u rf ace sh ad t a ken p l ace a s e v idenced b y t h e i n c r ea sed g l a r e wh ich

B y c onduc t ing t h e e xper imen t a t5 0 ° Ci tw a s h oped t ha t t he o n s e t o f p a t ina t ion m igh t o ccu r much s oone r , f o r e xamp le i n a pp rox ima te ly 1 2 w eek s . T he h ea ted

i nh ib i ted f o cu s ing o na l l t h e a r tef ac t s e ven w i th ag re en f i l te r ( f igu re 1 57 a nd 1 58 ) . T he p o l ish o n EXP /99 w a s

s o lu t ion w a s a t p H 7 . 30 /8 .0 . N o p a t ina t ion o ccu r red a f t e r 1 4 w eek s . T he a r tef ac t s w e re r emoved , c l eaned i n t h e n orma l w ay ( b io log ica l d e te rgen t , m e thy la ted s p ir i t , a ce tone , u l t rason ic t a nk ) , w e ighed a nd o b served

n o t r emoved o r d im in i shed b u t i tt oo w a s a f ec ted b y e x t reme g la re .

m ic ro scop ica l ly .

D i scus s ion a nd c onc lus ions T ime d id n o t a l low m e t oc on t inue t h is e xpe r imen t f o r mo re t ime w i th at emp e ra tu re b e low 5 0° C , t oa scer ta in

Mac roscop ic a nd m ic ro scop ic o bser va t ions Mac roscop ica l ly t he r e w a s n e i the r p a t in a o r s heen o n

whe the r g la r e w ou ld b e f o l lowed b y s o i l s heen a s s u spec t ed . G la r e a ppea red o n e xp e r imen ta l i mp lemen t s wh ich d eve loped s heen a nd i s o f t en o b se rved o n a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s a f ec ted b y PDS M . H ad s heen d eve loped a f te rt he a dd i t ion o fg a rden c ompo s t i tm igh t h ave s ugge s ted t ha t m ic ro -o rgan ism s p l ayed a n i mpor tan tr o le i nt h ed i s so lu t ion o ff l in t s u r f ace s d u r ing

a ny o ft h e a r tef ac t s n o r w a s t he re a ny w e igh t l o ss . T he e xper imen t s , h oweve r , y i e lded s o me r e su l t s wh ich w i l l b ed e scr ibed s epa ra te ly f o re ach a r tef ac t . EXP / 139 C er ta in a rea s o f t he v en t ra l a spec t w e r e c ove r ed w i th b rown e nc ru s ta t ion s n o t r emoved b y t wo h ou r s i n a b io log ica l d e te rgen t . N o a t temp t w a s m ade t o r emove t h em c hem icaly . M ic ro scop ica l ly t h e p o l ish

b u r ia l . F u tu r e r e sea rch w i l l b e n ece s sa ry t oi nve s t iga te t h is i n te r e s t ing p o s s ib i l i ty . F o r ag raph ic i lu s t ra t ion o f t h e m echan ism wh ich i sc au s ing g l a re t oa ppea r a tt h e s ame t ime a s PDS M a nd p a r t icu la r ly t oge the r w i th s o i l s heen o n a l l f l in t a r tef ac t s s e e f i gure 1 67 a nd s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 .

o n t h e e dge s e emed v e ry s l igh t ly d im in i shed i n t h e a rea s w he re i tw a s l e ss d eve loped . T h e re w a s much g la re o na l l t h e f l in t s u rf ace w h ich s e emed mo re i r regu la r a nd e t ched ( f igu re 1 59 a nd 1 60 ) . EXP /148 Mac ro scop ica l ly t he r e

CH EM ICAL P ROCESSES 6 .5 .8 .

P a t ina t ion

w i th

N a tura l ly

w e r e

s t a in s

a nd

e n cru s ta t ion s a s o n EXP / 139 ( f igu re 1 66 ) . T he se w e r e n o t r emoved b y p ro longed s o ak ing i n a b io log ica l d e te rgen t b u t

O ccurr ing

e v en t ua l ly d i sappea red a f t e r 3 0 m inu te s i n l u kewa rm 1 0% w /v HC l . T rack s o f l i t t le

Chem ica l s

d eve loped p o l i sh l ef t o n t h e e dge b y h a rd h amme r r e touch w ere d im in i sh ed ( f igu re s 1 6 1 a nd 1 62 ) a nd t he re w a s much g la re o n t h ef l in ts u r f ace d u r ing m ic ro scopy . EXP /102 G la re , wh ich s t a r ted t o a ppea r a f te r f i ve

A im s T he f o l low ing e xpe r imen t w a s i n sp ired b y C u rwen ( 1940 :435-437 ) w ho p roduc ed p a t ina o n a r tef ac t s i mme r sed f o r 2 2 mon th s a t r oom t empe ra tu re i n " ga rden mou ld " w i th c ha lk a nd w a te r a nd d ecay ing g ra s s . T he e xpe r imen tw a sr epea ted t oo b se rve : 1 t h e d if e rence ( i fa ny ) i n s pe ed a nd i n ten s i ty o f

w eek s a nd c on t inued t o i n c rea se , w a s i n t e rf er ing w i th m ic roscopy e ven a t x 100 . T h e s u r f ace s e emed e t ched a f te r 1 2 w eek s . S ome wh i te c r y s ta l s f o rmed i n t h e s ha l low h o l low s o f t h e f l in t s urf ace . L owe r l y ing p o in t s o f t h e m icro topog raphy a ppe ared

p a t ina t ion o n f l in t s o f v e ry d if e ren t t y pe a nd g ra in s i ze ; 2 t h ee f ec to fp a t inat ion o np o l i sh ; 5 8

S tage s

" po l i shed" a f t e r 1 4 w eek s i n a r ea s n o t p o l ished b y h id e ( f igu re s 1 63 a nd 1 64 ) . T he v ery w e l l d eve loped C 4+ - p o l i sh o n t h e p rom inen tp a r t so ft h ee dge s e emed i n tac tb u t

I I mme r sed i n 2 0 w t . ` Y o a queou s s o lu t ion o f s od ium h yd rox ide f o r 5 4 h ou r s . F o r 1 2 h ou r s o ft h i s t ime i t w a s h ea ted a t 5 0 ° C :N o mac ro scop ic o r m ic ro scop ic c hange so ccu r red . I I mme r sed a ga in f o r 3 7 d ay s w i thou t h ea t ing :a ga in

s how ing g l a re a tx 200 . EXP / 105 M ic ro scop ica l ly h e re t o o t h er e w a s much g la re a nd t h e h o l low s s e emed much d eepe r , mak ing t h e f l in t s u r f ace a ppea r mo re

n oc hange o ccu r red t ot h e s u r f ace o ft h ef l in t . I I E xposed t o t h e a i r f o r 1 5 d ay s t o s e e i fd amage

p ockma rked t han b ef o re ( f igu re 1 65 ) . N ew wh i te c r y s ta l sa ppea red a so n EXP / 102 .

b ecame a ppa ren t o n ly o n d ry ing : n o c hange w a s v i s ib le e i the r mac ro scop ica l ly o rm ic ro scop ica l ly

D iscuss ion a nd c onc lus ions

D i scus s ion a nd c onc lus ions

G la re f o rmed o n a l l a r tef ac t s whe the r o f t h e f i ne B randon f l in t o r t h e c oa r se r I SR /2 v a r ie ty . I ts e em s t o i nd ica te t ha t a spe r i t ie s f r om t he f l in t s u rf ace h ave b een

I tw a s s u rp r i s ing t ha t n o p a t ina t ion o ccu r red i ns p i te o f t h e l ong i mme r s ion i nh ea ted s od ium h yd rox ide t hough h ea t ing w a s f o r o n ly 1 2 h ou r s a t 5 0° C . S ome r e s ea rche r s h ave n o ted p a t ina t ion t o o ccu r o n f l in t i mme r sed i n N aOH f o r s ho r te r p e r iod s ( Schma lz 1 960 :47 ; R oge r G race p e r s . c omm . ) . T he f l in t i n vo lved ( I SR /4a ) i s m ic ro scop ica l ly v e ry c oar se a nd l o o se ly p acked i ns p i te o fi t s f i ne a nd s moo th a pp ea rance t ot h e n aked e ye . D ue t ot h i sc oa r s ene s st h i sf l in tw a se xp ec ted t ob e mo re s u scep t ib le t o p a t ina t ion t han f i ne g ra ined

r emoved b y d i s so lu t ion . On b o th t h e I SR /2 a r tef ac t s t h e s ha l low h o l low s s e emed e t ched d eepe r mak ing t h e s u r f ace a ppea r mo r e p ockma rked a nd c au s ing much g l a re . I ti si nt he se d eepened h o l low st ha tt h e f i r s t wh i te c r y s ta l s a ppea r ed . F o r a mo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o f g l a re o b served o n a r tef ac t s a f ec ted b y PDS M ( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 a nd f i gu re 1 67 ) . T he b rown e ncru s ta t ion s w e re a tf i r s t t hough t t ob e o rgan ic r e s idue s f r om t h e d ecay ing p lan t mate r . A s t h ey w e re n o t r emoved b y t h e p ro longed s oak ing i n a b i o log ica l d e te rgen t , a n a t temp t w a s mad e t o s oak EXP /148 o n ly i n l ukewa rm 1 0% w /v HC 1 wh ich

a nd t i gh t ly p acked v a r ie t ie so ft h eB randon f l in t s . 6 . 5 .10 P a t ina t ion w i th S od ium Hydrox ide a nd H ea t A im s

r emoved t h e d epo s i t s s ugge s t ing t ha t t hey w e re d er ived f r om t h e c a lc ium c a rbona te p re sen t i n t h e m ix tu re . I t w a s i n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t s uch e ncru s ta t ion s w e re

T he a im o ft h i s s e t o fe xper imen t s w a s t op a t ina te f l in t a nd o b se rve t h ec o r re la t ion o fp a t ina w i th 1 a r ea so fp ol i shed a nd u npo l i shed f l in t 2 p o l ish f r om ma te r ia ls o fd if e r en th a rdne s s .

p re f e ren t ia l ly d epo s i ted o n t h e f i ne r B randon f l in t . On t h e I SR /2 f l in t , h oweve r , t he f i r s t wh i t e c ry s ta ls a pp ea red p robab ly h e ra ld ing t h e s p read o fp a t ina wh i le

T he f o l low ing e xper imen ta l f l in ta r tef ac t sw e r eu sed : EXP /19 B randon f l in t m ic roden t icu la te p o l i shed o n

n one f o rmed o nt h eB randon f l in t . T he w el d eve loped C++ p o l i sh o n EXP / 102 w a s n o t

b racken , EXP /52 B randon f l in tf l ake p o l i shed o nb one , EXP /100 I SR /4a f l in tb l ade u nu sed . EXP /19 a nd EXP /52 i mme r sed i n 3 0 w t a queou sN aOH f o r2 74 h ou r sa t5 0° C

a l te red a s s e em s t ob e t he c a se w i th " s ick le g l o s s" a nd o th e r w e l l d eve loped p o l i sh . I t i s p robab le t ha t t h e p o l i sh s ea l s of t h ef l in ts u r f ace , i nh ib i t ing a t ta ck b y a ny c hem ica l s t ha t m igh t d i s so lve t h e f l in t . L e s s d eve loped p o l i sh i nwa rd f r om t h e e dge o n EXP /102 a nd t h e l i t t le

%

EXP /100 i mme r sed i n2 0 w t % a queou s N aOH f o r 3 20 h ou r sa t9 0° C

d ev e loped p o l i sh f r om t h e h a rd h amme r r e touch o n EXP /148 w e re d im in ished . Ap o l i sh , v e ry s im i la rt o PDS M ( a s i ti so b served o n

Mac roscop ic o bser va t ions

c e r ta in a rchaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s ) a ppea red o n EXP /102 . T he s ame p o l i sh w a s o b served o n EXP /93 a nd EXP /96 ( f igu r e 6 0 , s e c t ion 6 . 4 .6 ) g roov ing wood w i th t a lc a nd o n t h e t r amp l ing e xp er imen t ( f igu re 1 51 , s e c t ion 6 . 5 .4 ) . T h i s s e em s t o o ccu r when t h e f l in t

EXP / 19 a nd 5 2 T he a r tef ac t s w e re e xam ined d a i ly b u t n op a t ina t ion o ccur red d u r ing f i r s tn in ed ay s . Du r ing t he f o l low ing t wo d ay s ( aw eek e nd ) i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o e xam ine t h e p i ece s . A f te r t h e se t wo d ay s t o ta l l ing 1 d ay s o r 2 74 h ou r s i n s o lu t ion b o th p i ece s w e re c omp le te ly

s u r f ace i sp ol i shed b o th o nt h ep ro trud ing a spe r i t ie s a nd t h e l ow l y ing c r ev ice s . T h i s h a s b een n o t iced b o th w i th

p a t ina ted EXP /100 S eve ra l d eg ree s o f p a t ina t ion c ou ld b e s e en o nt h e o ne p i ece ( F igu r e 1 72 ) . On s ome p ar t s o ft h e a r tef ac t t h e f l in t c o lou r w a s p re se rved a si fu npa t ina ted .

c hem ica l p o l ish ing a nd w i th m echan ica l p o l ish ing w h en s o f ta b ra s ive sa r eu sed . 6 . 5 .9 Ef ec to fL abora tory C hem ica ls A ims

Micro scop ic o bser va t ions

T o o b serve t h e e f f ec t o f s od ium h yd rox ide o n u npo l ished f l in t a r tef ac t EXP /135 I SR /4a f l in t w a s t r ea ted i nt h ree s t age s :

EXP / 19 a nd EXP / 52 1 E x t r eme l e ach ing o fs i l ica o ccu r r ed a s w a s d educed f r om t he l i gh te r w e igh t . A s i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o 5 9

2 t h e e f ec t o f c a lc ium c a rbona te o n t h e s peed o f p a t ina t ion ; 3 i fd if e ren t f l in t t y p e s p a t ina te a t s i gn if ican t ly d if e r en ts peed s ; 4 t h e d if e rence ( i fa ny ) b e tween t h e e f ec t a nd /o r s p eed o f p a t ina t ion o n p o l i shed a nd u npol i shed f l in ta r ea s ; 5 wh e the rp ol i sh i sd eg raded b yl i gh tp a t ina t ion ; 6 t h e a moun t o fw e igh t l o s s a nd t h e d if e rence s , i f

r e p lace w a te rf r om e vapo ra t ion b e twe en t h e 9 th a nd 11 t h d ay i tm ay b e t ha t t he c oncen t ra t ion o f t he s o lu t ion w a s i n c reased a nd c aused t h e a brup t a nd s t rong p a t ina t ion . A s l owe r p a t ina t ion w ou ld p robab ly b e mo re u s ef u l t o mon i to r t h e e f ec t o f p a t ina o n p o l i shed a nd u npol i shed f l in t s u r f ace s . T he s e r ra t ion d i sappea red o n EXP /19 . E dge d amage r emoved p a r t s o f t he e dge o n EXP /52 wh ich i s s male r a nd t h inne r t han EXP / 19 ( s ee f i gu re 2 42 ) . T h e s u rf ace s h ad a p ockma rked s t ruc tu re ( f igu re 1 69 ) a t h igh m agn if ica t ion s a nd b ecame v e ry r e f lec t ive . 2 N o p ol i sh s u rv ived o n e i the r t o o l . P o l i sh b o th f r om u s e o nb racken a nd b one d i sappea red c omp le te ly i n t h i sp owerfu lp roce s s . EXP / 100 T he a r ea s o f mac ro scop ica l ly m ic ro scop ica l ly

t h e

a r tef ac t

a ny , o nd if e ren tf l in tt ype s . T he f olow ing a r tef ac t s w e re i mm e r s ed i nN aOH 0 . 5 M s o lu t ion a nd h ea ted : • t wo b rown I SR /2 f l in t a r tef ac t s EXP / 150 a nd EXP / 152 f r om t h e s ame c o re e ach p ol i shed i n a d i sc re te a r ea b yd amp h ide a nd o ch re .

wh ich

EXP /150 w e igh t g r . 2 . 87 i n0 . 5 M a queou s N aOH ( pH 1 2 / 13 )

s e emed u npa t ina ted w e re c ove red w i th b lue /g rey

EXP /152 w e igh t g r . 2 . 05 i n 0 . 5 M a queou s N aOH + e x ce s s C aCO 3 ( pH 1) ; • o ne b l ack f i ne B randon f l in t b l ade le t v e ry d if e ren t f r om I SR /2 f l in t w a s p o l ished b y d amp h ide w i th o ch re i n ad i sc re te a r ea

p a t ina c r y s ta l s . T he l e ss p a t ina ted a rea s a ppea r s im i la r i n c oa r sene s s t o c o r tex wh i le t he mo r e p a t ina ted o ne s a r e s im i la r t o t h e p ockma rked e f ec t o n EXP /19 a nd 5 2 . H eavy p a t ina a t tacked t h e e dg e s f i r s t a nd p a r t icu la r ly t he c or tex o n t h e r i gh t l a te r a l e dge wh ich w a s h igh ly l e ached o u t . T he p a t ina t ion o nt h i sa r tef ac tw a s n o ta se x t reme a s o n t ho se ( EXP /19 a nd EXP /52 ) i n t h e mo re c oncen t ra ted s o lu t ion s , i n s p i te o f t he

EXP /147 w e igh t g r . 1 . 02 i n0 . 5 M a qu eou s N aOH ( pH 1 2 /13 ) . T he e qu ipmen t c ou ld n o t ma in ta in a s pec if ic t empe ra tu r ea bove 5 0 ° C .w i thou tc on s tan t s up erv i s ion . T he s o lu t ion w a sh ea ted a sf o l low s : a f ou r d ay s a t8 0-90 ° C . f o r s e ve ra l h ou r s d u r ing

h ighe r t empe ra tu re a nd t he l onge r t ime . When a s ma l l f l ake w a s r emoved f r om t he e dge , t h e u nde r ly ing s u r f ace a pp ea red l i t t le a f ec ted ( c ompa re f i gu re s 1 70 a nd 1 71) .

t h e d ay a nd a t r oom t emp e ra tu r e o ve rn igh t . A r te f ac t s w e re e xam ined m ic roscop ica l ly a t i n t er va l so f2 4 , 7 2 a nd 9 6 h ou r s ; b s even d ay sa t5 0-60 ° C . ; c t h r ee mo re d ay sa t5 0-60° C .f o r EXP /147 .

C onc lu s ions Mic ro scop ic a nd mac roscop ic o bser va t ions

I t i s n o t p o s s ib le t o a t t r ibu te t h e d if e r en t r e su l t s o b ta ined i n t h e se e xpe r im en t s d i rec t ly t o t he c oncen t ra t ion o f t h e s o lu t ion a s t h e f l in t t ype w a s d if e r en t . I tm igh t s e em f r om t he se e xpe r imen t s t ha t B randon f l in t i s mo re s u scep t ib le t o p a t ina t ion a nd a l te ra t ion t han s ome o f t he c oa r se r I s rae l i f l in ts ( s ee

EXP /150

A f te r 2 4

h ou r s

r a re wh i te

p a t ina

c ry s ta l s w e re v i s ib le m ic ro scop ica l ly ( f igu re 1 73 ) . B y 9 6 h ou r s g la re w a s v e ry s t rong a nd p ol i sh w a s much d im in ished ( c ompa re f i gu re 1 74 t o f i gu re 1 75 ) . B y 1 d ay s m ac ro scop ic a nd m icro scop ic p a t ina t ion h ad o ccu r red a nd t he s u r f ace w a s c ove red w i th p i t s( f igu re 1 76 ) .

a l so s e c t ion 6 . 5 .9 , 6 . 5 .11(b ) 6 . 5 .12 a nd 6 . 5 .13 ) . F ur the r w o rk n eeds t ob ed one t os e e whe the r p a t ina t ion o ccu r s c on s i s ten t ly a nd t ou nde r s tand t h e p roce ss e s i nvo lved .

EXP /152 G la re s t a r ted t oa pp ea r a f te r 7 2 h ou r s a s t h e f i r s t b lue /wh i te p a t ina c ry s ta l s a ppea red . B y

A f u r th e r s e r ie s o f e xpe r imen t s ( s ee s ec t ion 6 . 5 .11 a ) w a s c a r r ied o u t w i th l e s s c oncen t ra ted s o lu t ion s a nd a mo r e c on t ro l led a l te ra t ion o f t he v a r iab le s t o o b serve t he p ro ce s sa t as l owe rp ace .

9 6 h ou r s t h e re w a s ap ro l if e ra t ion o ft hem o n s ome e dge a nd r i dge s . A f t e r 8d ay s t h e s h a l low h o l low s b ecame d eep er ( f igu r e 1 77 ) a nd t h e s u rf ace s e emed

6 .5 .11 [a ] P a t ina t ion w i th S od ium Hydrox ide , Hea t , a nd C a lc ium Carbona te

-p o l ish "

mac ro scop ica l ly p a t ina ted b y at h in v e i l . P a t ina a ppea red w he r en ou se p o l ish e x is ted . I n 1 d ay s t h e p a t ina t ion w a s c omp le te b o th mac ro scop ica l ly

A im s

a nd

m ic roscop ica l ly

p o l ished e dge w a s c omp le te ly a l te red f i gu r e 1 78 t o1 79 ) .

T h e f o l low ing e xper imen t w a s c a r r ied o u t i n o rde r t o

EXP /147

r ep l ica t e t he o ne d e sc r ibed b y S chma lz ( 1960 :47 ) i n wh ich f l in tw a sp a t ina ted w i th 0 . 5 M a queou s N aOH a t

a nd

t h e

( c ompa re

T he p roce s s o n t h is a r tef ac t w a s much s l owe r a nd o ne c ou ld a c tua l ly s e e t he p o l ish

d im in ish a te ach o b serva t ion ( f igu re 1 80 , 1 81 a nd 1 82 ) . T he f o l low ing c ommen t s c an b e m ade a s ar e su l t o f

7 8° C .i nt he p re sence a nd a bs ence o fc a lc ium c a rbona te ( CaCO 3) . T h ep u rpo se w a st oo b serve : 1 w he the r s heen d eve lop s i n t he i n i t ia l s t age s b ef o re p a t ina t ion ;

t h e o b se rvat ion s a nd a r e g i ven i nt h e s ame o rde r a s t h e p ropo sed a im s : 1 N o s o i l s heen o ccu r red i n t h e s t age s p reced ing p a t ina t ion , e i th e r m ic ro scop ica l ly o r 6 0

p rec ip i ta t ion o fn ew c ry s ta l s o r ac omb ina t ion o fb o th . I n t h e i n i t ia l s t age s , i td oe s s ub jec t ive ly a ppea r , t ha t t h e re i sa n e l emen t o f c r y s ta l l isa t ion o f n ew ma te r ia l

mac roscop icaly . I n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .11 ( b ) , h oweve r , whe re t h e s ame e xpe r imen tw a s c a r r ied o u t w i th N a 2CO 3,t h e p roc e s s w a s much s l owe r a nd s o i l s he en d id d eve lop b u t t h e re w a s n o p a t ina t ion c on t ra ry t oS chma lz ( 1960 :47 ) . 2 C a lc ium c a rbona te s peeded u pt he p roce s s . I n 1 d ay s

EXP /152 w a s c omp le te ly w h i te ,

f r om t h e s o lu t ion . I ti sc l ea r f r om t hes e e xper imen t s t h a tp ol i sh o np a t ina ted f l in t a r tef ac t s c anno tb e u sed t o r e con s truc tt o o lf unc t ion .

wh i le 6 . 5 .11 1 1 3 1 P a t ina t ion w i th S od ium Carbona te , Hea t ,

EXP /150 w i thou t C aCO3 w a s mo t t led wh i te a nd t h e c o lou r o f t h e f l in t i ss t i l l v i s ib le u nde r t h e p a t ina . E xcep t f o r t he w e igh t o f t h e p i ece s , a l l o ther v a r iab le s w e re t h e s ame . P r e sumab ly t h e l a ye ro fp a t ina f o rmed i n 1 d ay s i nt h e p r e sence o fC aCO3 i s much t h ick e r t han t h e o ne f o rmed

a nd Ca lc ium Carbona te A im s T he s am e e xpe r imen t a s i n6 . 5 .11(a ) w a s r epea ted w i th as o lu t ion o fN a2CO 3 a s s ugge s ted b y S chma lz f o r t h e s ame o b jec t ive s a nd h ea ted i nt h e s ame w ay t oo bserve w ha t , i fa ny , d if e r ence i n p a t ina t ion o ccur s b e twe en

i ni t sa bsence . 3 B randon f l in t p a t ina ted a t as l ower r a te t han t h e c oa r se r I SR /2 f l in t . Mo t t l ing w a s mo re p ronounced i nI SR /2 f l in t s i nce i ta ppea red a s a d eepen ing o fe x i s t ing s ha l low h o l low s a nd o the r p i t s wh ich a r e mo re c ommon i nc oa r se f l in t . T he b lue /wh i te c ry s ta l s s e emed t of o rm p ref e ren t ia l ly i n s ide t h em . C on t ra ry t o S chma lz 's o b serva t ion

a r tef ac t s i mme r sed i n N aOH a nd N a2CO 3.A r tef ac t s u sed w e re : • t wo B rown I SR /2 f l in t a r tef ac ts f r om t h e s ame c o re a s6 . 5 .11(a ) , e ach p o l ished i nd i sc re te a r ea b y d amp h ide a nd o ch re ; EXP /151 w e igh t ( pH10 /11) ,

t ha t " a l i gh t b lue wh i te p a t ina a ppea r s o n a l l s u r f ace sa f t e r2 4h ou r si n0 . 5 M N aOH a t7 8° C " ( i b id :47 ) , i n t h i s e xpe r im en t ( whe r e o n ly t h e

N a2CO3

Mac ro scop ic a nd m ic ro scop ic o bser va t ions EXP / 151 I SR/ 2f l in t

5 P o l i sh w a s d eg raded b y p a t ina t ion o n a l l t h re e a r tef ac t s . I n t he s t age s o f l i gh t p a t ina t ion ( a t l e a s t t h e k ind o f r e la t ive ly f a s t a r t if i c ia l

A f te r 5w eek s , m ac ro scop ic s o i l s heen d eve loped o nt h e d o r sa l c en t ra l r i dge b u t n o t o n t h e v en tra l a spec t . M ic ro scop ica l ly t h e s ur f ace a pp ea r ed p o l i shed a s o n a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s w i th s l igh t PDS M ( f igu r e s 1 84 a nd 1 85 ) . T he p ol i shed a rea w a s n o t a f ec t ed . T he p i ece w a s i n t h e s o lu t ion f o r t wo mon th s . On t h e v en t ra l a spec t m ic ro scop ic s heen b u t n o mac ro scop ic s heen d eve loped ( f igu r e 1 83 ) .

p a t ina t ion i nduced i n t h e l a bo ra to ry ) , s om e p o l i sh w a s s t i l lv i s ib le b u tg l a re s ugge s t st ha tt h e u npo l i shed f l in ta r ea s i nb e tween t h ep o l i sh w e r e a f ec ted , mak ing i td if i cu l tt oo b serve t h e p o l i sh a nd f o cu so ni ta tx 200 . 6 We igh tl o s so ccu r red a sf olow s: EXP /150 w en tf r om g r .2 .87 t o2 .73 , al o s so f 5% EXP /152 w en t f r om g r .2 .05 t o 1 . 81 , al o s s o f

EKP / 153 I SR / 2f l in t

1 3 .25 % EXP /147 w en t f r om g r .1 .02 t o 0 . 84 , al o s s o f 2 1 .5 %

Mac roscop ica l ly n o s heen d eve loped a f t e r 5w eek s b u t t h e b rown f l in t b ec ame g reyer i n c o lou r . M ic ros cop ica l ly s o i l s he en d eve loped o n t h e d o r sa l a sp ec t . T he re w a s a n i n c r ea se i nt h e b lue /g re y c ry s ta l s wh ich w e re p re s en t o n t h e p i ece b ef o r e t he e xpe r imen t ( f igure s 1 86 a nd 1 87 ) a nd whos e p ro l i f e ra t ion p re ceded

D i scus s ion a nd c onc lus ions T h i s w e igh t l o s s s ugge s t s t ha t s i l ica h a s b een l e ached f r om t h e f l in t i n te r s t ice s a s o b se rved b y S chma lz ( i b id :46 ) . T he w e igh t p e rc en tage o f l o s s w a s , p r ed ic tab ly , g rea te rf o rt h es ma l le rp i ece sa st h ey h av ea

t h e o ns e t o fp a t ina t ion i n t h e p rev iou s e xp er imen t ( c f . s e c t ion 6 . 5 .11 ( a ) ) . A f te r t wo mon th s i n s o lu t ion t he re w a s as l igh ts moo th ing o ft h ef l in ts u rf ac e .

g rea te r r a t io o f s u rf ace a rea t o v o lume . T he h eav ie s t p i ece l o s t o n ly 5% o fi t s w e igh t a nd t he l i gh te s t p i e ce

EKP / 149 B randon f l in t

l o s t 2 1 .5 % o f i t s o r ig ina l w e igh t . H oweve r EXP /147 w a s l e f t i n s o lu t ion f o r t h ree m o re d ay s i n o rde r t o

Af t e r 9w eek s mac ro scop ic s heen s t a r ted t of o rm o n t h e v en t ra l a spec t , s p read ing t o t h e d o r sa l a f te r 1 2 w eek s .

p a t ina te t ot he s ame d eg ree a st h e o the r t wo p i ece s a nd EXP /152 w a si n as o lu t ion o fN aOH w i th C aCO 3 wh ich may h ave a ccoun ted f o r i t s f a s te r a nd s e em ing ly d eepe r p at ina t ion . P a t ina t ion s e em s t o b e ac omp lex p ro ce s s o f i n ter s t i t ia l

a q .

EXP / 147 b u t v e ry d if e ren t f r om I SR /2 f l in t w a s p o l ished b yd amp h id ew i th o ch re i n ad i sc re te a r ea ; EXP /149 w e igh tg r . 0 . 7987 i n 1M a q . N a 2CO3 ( pH 1 ) .

p o l i shed s u rf ace s w e re t h e l a s t t o b e a f e c ted . H oweve r , e dge s w e re a l so mo re v u lne rab le t han t h er e s to ft he s u r f ace .

r emova l

1 M

C aCO3 ( pH11) ; • o ne b l ack f i n e B randon f l in tb lade le t v e ry s im i la r t o

a nd s ubsequen t ly at o ta l wh i te c ove r . 4 P a t ina a t tacked t h e u npo l i shed a r ea s f i r s t a nd

i nvo lv ing

1 . 48

EXP /153 w e igh t g r . 2 . 02 1M a q . N a2CO 3 + e xce s s

t empe ra tu re s w e re d if e r en t ) n o l i gh t p a t ina o ccu r red " on a l l s u rf ace s " . R a the r , e dge s a nd s e le c ted a r ea s o f t he p iec e w e re p a t ina ted f i r s t , f o l lowed b y a mo t t led s t age o n b o th f l in t t y p e s

p robab ly

g r .

M ic roscop ica l ly t h e s u rf ace w a s b eg inn ing t o a pp ea r " po l ished" , p a r t icu la r ly o n t h e e dge s whe r e t h e re w a s n o e xpe r imen ta l p o l i sh . T he l e f t l a te ra l e dge u p t o t h e d o r sa l s p ine w a s e ven tua l ly a s g lo ssy mac ro scop ica l ly

ma t t e r , 6 1

S tage I

a s t h e r i gh t l a te ra l wh ich w a s p o l i shed b y h ide w i th o ch re . T h i s n ew p o l i sh w a s v e ry s im i la r t o PDS M o n a rchaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s ( f igu re 1 88 ) . T he e xper imen ta l p o l ish , wh ich w a s v e ry w el d eve loped , w a s a f ec ted b y g la re a nd i tt o oa ppea red m ic ro scop ica l ly a l tered ( f igu re 1 89 a nd 1 90 ) . T h i s g la r e w a s s e en t op recede t h e o n se t

Macroscop ic a nd m icroscop ic o bs er va t ions A f te rt h ree w eek s n o mac ro scop ic s o i l s h een w a sv i s ib le o n EXP /29 b u t m ic ro scop ica l ly a s h ine s t ar ted t o a ppea r o n t he e dge s , t he h igh p o in t s o f t h e m ic ro topog raphy a nd t h ed or sa l r i dge s . Af ew d ay s l a te r

o fp a t ina t ion i nt he p rev iou s e xpe r imen t s e c t ion 6 . 5 .11 ( a ) .

a nd p ar t icu la r ly a f te r o ne mon th , t he s h ine w a s d i s t inc t ly l i ke p o l i sh : b e t te r d eve loped , c oncen t ra ted o n t h ee dge sa nd d ec rea s ing i n land ( f igu re 1 92 ) . I nv i ew o f

D i scuss ion a nd c onc lus ions T h i s e xpe r imen t s e em s t o s ugge s t t ha t N a2CO3 d oe s

t h e n eces s i ty o f u s ing a g l a s s b eake r d ue t o t he h igh t empe ra tu re s i nvo lved , e ach t ime t h e m ic roden t icu la te w a s e xam ined , i tw a s v e ry c arefu l ly r ep laced b y b e ing

a l te r f l in t b u t a t a much s l owe r r a te t han s od ium h yd rox ide . T h is w a s n o ted b y S chma lz ( 1960 ) who . i n exp l icab ly h oweve r , o b ta ined p a t ina a f te r 1 20 h ou r s .

l owe r ed w i th p las t ic t ong s i nt h eb eake r a nd a l lowed t o l i e w i th t h e d or sa l a spec t i n c on tac t w i th t h e l a ye r o f c a lc ium c a rbona te r a the r t han t h e g l a ss . I t i n i t ia l ly s e emed p o s s ib le t ha t t he p ol i sh m igh t b e c aused b y f r ic t ion w i th t h e c a lc ium c a rbona t e . When t h e m ic ros cop ic " po l i sh " d eve loped o n t h e e dge s o f t h e v en t ra l a spec t a sw e l l , i tw a s mo r e o bv iou s ly d ue t ot h e e f ec to ft h e s o lu t ion ( f igu re 1 93 ) . N one the le s s , t oa vo id t h e d oub t t ha t t h e p o l ish w a s c au sed b y c on tac t o ft h e

I n t h i s e xp e r imen t , a s w el a s i n a l l t h e e xpe r imen t s whe re a c ompa r i son b e tween d if e ren t f l in t t ype s w a s made . B randon f l in t s e emed t o b e mo r e v u lne rab le t o s heen t han t h e c oa r se r I SR /2 f l in t . T h i s i sc ompa t ib le w i th t h e f a c t t ha t u s e p o l i sh a l so f o rm s f a s te r o n t h e f i n e rf l in tt han o n c oa r se rv a r ie t ie s . I ts t rong ly s ugge s t s t ha t s he en i s a s moo th ing o f t h e f l in t s u r f ac e b y wha teve rm ean s .

f l in t w i th e i the r t h e c a lc ium c a rbona te o r t he g l a s s b eake r , t wo n ew p i ece sw e re i n t roduced i nt h e s o lu t ion :

6 .5 .12 S heen a nd P a t ina t ion w i th D is t i l led Wa ter , Hea ta nd C a lc ium C arbona te

EX 1 P /154 I SR / 1 f l in t u n re touched b l ade w e igh t 1 . 1085 g r .

A ims

EXP /155 BRANDON f l in tr e touched f l ake w e igh t 4 . 26

T he a im s o f t h i s e xpe r imen t w e re t o o b serve t h e d eve lopmen t o fs o i l s heen a s d e sc r ibed b y R o t t laende r ( 1975 :107 ) who p roduced " g lo s sy p a t ina s" b y

g r . B o th t h e n ew a r tef ac ts w e re mechan ica l ly p ol i shed i n o ne a rea b y d amp d ee r h ide . T he a r tef ac t s w e re h ung f r om as t r ing s u spended i nt he s o lu t ion i n al a rge 5l i t re

embedd ing f l in t i n g round ma rb le , a dd ing w a te r a nd h ea t ing t o8 0 ° Cf o r t h r ee w eek s . T he s ame p roc edu re wa sf o l lowed h e re e xcep tf o rt he f o l low ing : •

b eake r w i thou t t ouch ing t he g l a s s , e ach o the r o r t h e c a lc ium c a rbona te . EXP /29 w a s a l so h ung i n t he s ame

• t h es ub s t i tu t ion o fC aCO 3 f o rt h e ma rb le ; t h ef l uc tua t ion o ft h et empe ra tu r eb e tween 8 0 • a nd 9 0° C . a s t h e e qu ipmen t a va i lab le t o m e

w ay s o t h a t f r om t ha t p o in t o nwa rd s t he re w a s n o c on tac tw i th c a lc ium c a rbona te o rw i th t h eg l a s s .

c ou ld n o tb e ma in ta ined a t8 0 ° Cp rec ise ly .

S tage I

T he p i ece w a s o b se rved p er iod ica l ly . T he s o lu t ion w a s r egu la r ly t opped u p w i th d i s t i l led w a te r t o r ep lac e

Macroscop ic a nd m icroscop ic o bs er va t ions

t ha t l o s t b y e vapo ra t ion . T he d i s t i l led w a te r a va i lab le h ad ap Ho f9 .

Af te r at o ta lo fo ne mon th i ns o lu t ion a nd s i xd ays s i nce b e ing h ung , EXP /29 s howed a f u r the r i n c rea se i n t h e

EXP / 29

-p ol i sh "

d eve lopmen t a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . T he " po l ish "

w a s n ow q u i te s im i la r m ic ro scop ica l ly t o PDS M o n a r tef ac t s a f ec ted b y s o i l s heen ( f igu re s 1 94 ; 1 91 ; 1 95 a nd 5 4 ) . T he mac ro scop ic s heen h ad i n c reased o n t h e

AB randon f l in t m ic roden t icu la te , mac ro scop ical y- n o t h omogeneou sb u t w i th many g r ey m ed ium c oa r se a rea s ( we igh t 4 . 25 g r . ) , w a s embedded i n al a ye r o f C aCO 3 a nd c ove red w i th a b uf f e r s o lu t ion o fp H 9i n ag la s s b eake ra nd h ea ted t o8 0-90 °C .

d o r sa l a spec t a nd d eve loped o n t h ev en t ra l . I nt he e a r ly s t age s o fs heen d eve lopmen t ( f rom 3w e ek s o nwa rd s ) i t w a s ma in ly o n t h e e dge s , g radua l ly d ec rea s ing i n land l i ke u s e -wea r( f igu re s 1 98 a nd 1 99 ) . E ven when t he t oo l

T he e xpe r imen t p roc eeded i n s e ve ra l s t age s wh ich w i l lb en umbe red w i th R oman n ume ra l sb e low . I n i t ia l ly o ne i mp lemen t ( EXP /29 ) w a s i nvo lved t h en t wo o the r s

b ecame mac ro scop ica l ly s h iny a l l o ve r a nd m ic ro scop ica l ly t h e r e w a s " po l ish " i n land , t he e dge s h ad mo re d eve loped " po l i sh" , a s w ou ld b e t h e c a se i n

w e r e a dded ( EXP /154 a nd EXP /155 ) . S ubsequ en t ly , EXP /29 w a s r emoved w hen i tw a s c ove r ed w i th s heen .

u s e -wea r a nd a s i t w a s o n t h e H eng is tbu ry H ead a r tef ac t s ( f igu re s 2 00 a nd 2 01 ) . A f te r 5 0 d ay s i n t o ta l

t hen EXP /155 w a s r emoved when c ove red p a r t ly w i th s he en a nd p a r t ly w i th ab lue p a t ina v e i l . T he l a s t t ob e

t h e a r tef ac t w a s r emoved a s i tw a s f e a red p a t ina t ion

r emoved w a s EXP /154 . I ts e emed t h e ref o re c l ea re r t o d es cr ibe t h e o bs erva t ion s i nt he s equence i n wh ich t h ey o ccu r red .

m igh t f o l low , h av ing s t a r ted t oo c cu r o n EXP /155 ( s ee b e low ) . A t t h is s t age t he f l in t s u r f ace s e emed much mo re i r regu la r , l i ke e t ched f l in t , w i th f i s su r es s e em ing d eepe r a nd r ounde r . T he r e w a s mu ch g l a re a nd i tw a s d if i cu l tt of o cu se ven a tx 100 .

6 2

S tage I I

EXP /29 d eve loped p ronounced s he en , t h e much mo re

A lacro scop ic a nd m ic roscop ic o bserva t ions

h omogeneou s EXP /155 d eve loped l i gh t p a t ina w i th s ome b r igh t s po t s a nd s heen a t t h e s am e t ime a nd EXP /154 w a s s l owe s t t od eve lop a ny o ft h e a l tera t ion s . I ti s made o fI SR / 1 f l in t w h ich i sm ac ro scop ica l ly v e ry h omogeneou s b u t m ic ro scop ica l ly v e ry d if e ren t f r om B randon f l in t . I tm igh t h ave a l so ad if e ren t d i agene s is

1 155 Mac ro scop ic s heen d ev e loped a f te r 2 5 d ay s b u t s imu l taneou s ly a n i n i t ia l v e i l o f b lue p a t ina a ppea red b o th m ac ro scop ica l ly a nd m ic roscop ica l ly p a r t icu la r ly o n t he d o r sa l a spec t . Ac l u s te r o fb r igh t s po t s a ppea red o n

a nd r e su l t ing m ic ro s truc tu r e wh ich c ou ld b e r e spon s ib le f o rt h ed if e rence i nr e su l t s . I t i s i n te re s t ing t ha t i n a l l t h r ee c a se s p o l ish p roduced m echan ica l ly b y b uf f ing w i th h ide s e emed t o

t he v en t ra la spec ti mmed ia te ly a d jacen tt ot h e e dge ( f igu re 2 02 ) . F u r the ra way n ea rt he b u lb o f p e rcu s s ion a n a rea o f m ac ro scop ic s heen w as v i s ib le wh ich m ic ros cop ica l ly h a s a d i s t r ibu t ion o nt h e m ic ro topog raphy , n ea rt h e e dge v e ry s im i la r t o u se -wea r ( f igu re 2 03 ) a nd i n t h e o the r a r ea s a ppea r ing a s f l a t s t r ia ted p a tche sl i ke b r igh ts po t s ( f igu re 2 04 ) .

s u rv ive t h e d eve lopmen to fs o i l s heen o nt h e r e s t o ft h e a r tef ac t . A l though t h e r ew a so n ly as ma l lb and o fp o l i sh r e s t r ic ted t o t h e e dge , i tw a s n one the le s s av ery w el d eve lop ed C p o l ish w i th v e ry f ew a r ea s o f u npol i shed f l in t wh ich c an b e r e ad i ly a t tacked b y t he s o lu t ion . S ome s ma l l s ca le d i s so lu t ion d id o ccu r , h oweve r , a s i s e v idenced b yt he g la re a t x2 00 . G la r e may b ed ue t ot h e f a c t t ha t i n t h es e u npo l i shed s pace s i n te r s t i t ia l

T he p o l i sh p roduced b y h ide s e emed i n tac t a t x1 00 ( f igu r e 2 05 ) b u t a t x 200 t he re w a s s evere g l a re wh ich i n te r f e red w i th f ocu s a nd o bserva t ion . T he a r te f ac t w a s r emoved t o a vo id mo re s e ve re p a t ina t ion d eve lop ing .

c ha lcedony i sp re f e ren t ia l ly d i s so lv ing l e av ing r e la t ive ly i s o la ted l e p isphe re s p rom inen t o n t h e s u r f ace . A rea s f u r the r i n land f r om t h e i n ten t iona l ly p o l i shed e dge a ppea red " pol i shed" a s ar e su l t o ft h e e xpe r imen t . I ti s

EXP / 154 Af te r 2 8 d ay s g la re b egan t od eve lop o n t h e u npo l i shed a r ea s o ft h e f l in t s u rf ace . I t made o bserva t ion s a t h ighe r magn if ica t ion s v e ry d if icu l t . E ven a f te r 2 mon th s t he p o l ish p roduced b y t h e d amp h ide s e emed s t i l l i n tac t . T he m ic ro scop ic g l a re , h oweve r , w a s

p o s s ib le t ha t t hey w e r e b e ing s moo thed b y s ome o ft h e d i sso lved s i l ica b e ing r ed epo s i ted i nt h e i r i n ter s t ice s a s s ugge s ted b y R o t t laende r , who se e xp lana t ion i sw o r thy o fb e ing r epor ted i nf u l l : [ G lo s sy p a t ina t ion ] o c cu r s , i ft h e c o n cen t r a t ion o ft h e c hem i ca l a g en t s a r e t o o w eak t op en e t r a te i n to t h e h o le sa nd t h ef i s su re so ft h ef l i n t . S ot h ey j u s tr emov e t h e p r om inenc e s o ft h e f l aked s u r f a c e s , b e cau se o f t h e i r h i gh e r p o ten t ia l e ne rgy . S i n c e t h e f i s su re s a nd h o le sh av e as i gn if i c an t l y l ow e rp o t en t ia l e n e rgy t h an t h en o rma l s u r f ac e , t h ey a c t a sp i t f a l l s f o r s i l ic ic a c id o c cu r r in g f r ee i n s o lu t ion . B y t h i s m e chan i sm t h e s u r f a c ei ss moo th ed a nd p o l i sh ed . ( 1 976 :56 ) . I t may a tf i r s t a ppea r t ha t t h e r e i s ac on t rad ic t ion i n t h e o bse rved i r regu la r i ty o f t h e f l in t s u r f ace i n t h e p re sence o fg l a re a nd t h e h ypo the s ised s moo th ing o ft h e

i nc rea sed s e r iou s ly i n te r f e r ing w i th m ic ro scopy a nd p ho tog raphy a tx 200 ( f igu re 1 96 a nd 1 97 ) . T he a ppea rance o f t he f l in t w a s o fd i sc re te h igh p o in t s w i th h olow s i n b e tween . N o mac ro scop ic s heen d eve loped b u t m ic roscop ica l ly s ome " pol i sh " a ppea red o n p rev iou s ly u npol i shed a r ea s ( f igu re 2 06 ) . T ime d id n o t a l low c on t inua t ion o f t h e e xper imen ta ny f u r th e r .

s u rf ac e wh ich r e su l t si n" sheen" o r" g lo s sy p a t ina " . T he s ame p roce s s m ay b e r e su l t ing i n t wo s epa ra te p henomena : 1 I fg l o s s i st h e r e su l t o f ad i sso lu t ion o f s i l ica a sper i t ie s f r om t h e f l in t s u rf ace , s ome o f t he se p a r t ic le s mus t b e r emoved f r om t h e e dge s o f f i s su r e s a nd h o l low s g iv ing t h e s u rf ace ag rea te r d i spa r i ty b e tween t h e h igh a nd l ow p o in t s . T h i s i sm ak ing i t mo r e d if i cu l t t o b r ing t h e who le

D i scu s s ion a nd c onc lus ions EXP / 155 o ff i ne B randon f l in t s t a r ted t op a t ina te r a the r q u ick ly ( 25 d ay s ) . R o t t laend e r ( 1975 :109 ) s ugge s t s t ha t a n a t t emp t t o s peed u p t h e r e ac t ion f o r d eve lopmen t o f s o i l s h een " resu l t s i n awh i te p a t ina t ion ." B r igh t s po t s a l so a ppea red a tt he s ame t ime o nt h i sa r tef ac t . EXP /29 mad e o f al e s s h omogeneou s B randon f l in t h ad n o t s t a r ted t op a t ina te e ven a f te r 5 0 d ay s . I td id , h oweve r , d eve lop d ifuse s heen b u t n o b r igh t s po t s . EXP /154 o n t he o t he r h and , a f te r t wo mon th s , h ad o n ly s t ar t ed t o

m ic ro scop ic a r ea b e ing o b se rved i n to f o cu s a t o nce ( f igu re 1 67 ) . 2 Wh en d epo s i t ion o ft he d i s so lved s i l ica o ccu r s i t w i l lc on t r ibu te t o as moo th ing o ft he s u rf ace o na s c a le n o t v i s ib le a tt h e se magn if i ca t ion s ( f igu re 2 10 a nd 2 11 ) .

d eve lop s o me m ic roscop ic s heen a nd n on -u se " po l i sh" b u tn o mac ro scop ic g lo s s . A l though n o ma rked w e igh t l o s s o ccu r red o n t h e a r te f ac t s i n t he se e xpe r imen t s , s o i l s heen , b r igh t s po t s a nd p a t ina t ion s e em t ob e s u r f ac e mod if ica t ion s wh ich

R o t t laende r , who u se st h e e xp re s s ion " g lo ssy p a t ina " t o d e sc r ib e w ha t m ic rowea r a na ly s t s r e f e r t o a s " so i l s he en " , e xp la in s w hy a r tef ac t s w i th s o i l s heen r a r e ly p a t ina te . T h i s e xp lana t ion m ay a l so a pp ly t ot h e r e ason t ha t w e l l d eve loped p o l i sh d eg rade s v e ry s l ow ly a s

a r et h e r e su l t o fs i l ica d i s so lu t ion f r om t h e f l in t s u rf ace a ss ugge s ted b yR o t t laende r( i b id . ) . A lka l ine c ond i t ion s , h ea t a nd w a te r s e em t o b e n ece s sa ry

f o r

t h is p roce s s t o o ccu r

i n l a bo ra to ry

c ond i t ion s w i th in a r e la t iv e ly s hor t t ime . F l in t s t ruc tu re s s eem t o i nf luence t h e s peed a t wh ich t h e p ro c e s so ccu r sa nd p robab ly t h et yp eo fa l te ra t ion wh ich w i l l o c cu r . O f t h e t wo B randon a r tef ac t s . t he c oa r se r

n o t iced i n t h i s s e r ie s o f e xper imen t s . I n f a c t h e s ay s ( 1975 :109 ) , . . i ti ss od if i cu l tt op r odu ce t h i s s o r to fp a t ina t ion i n al a b o r a to r y e xp e r im en t . T he e ne r gy d if e ren ce s a r e 6 3

t o o l ow f o ri tt ob e ar ap id p r o ce s s , a nd a ny i n c reas e i n t h e a c t iv i ty o f t h e s o lven t r e su l t s i n aw h i te p a t ina t ion . . .So i tb ecome s c l e a rw hy ag l o s sy s u r f a ce o n ce f o rmed i sa b le t op ro te c t t h e f l in t t o ac e r ta in d eg ree : av i go rou s ly a c t ing s o lven t f i nd s n o o pen f i s su re sb yw h ich t op ene t ra t ei n to t h ef l in t .

T h i s i s a l so a p robab le e xp lana t ion f o r t h e p h enomenon o f g l o s sy s i ck l e b l ade s s u rv iv ing o n a l l t y pe s o fs i te s w h e r e o t h e r a r te f ac t s a r e e i the r p a t ina ted o r h av e s u r f ace s a f ec t ed b y P DS M a nd s how ing n o s u rv iv ing u s e -wea r p ol i sh . I t m ay a l so s ugge s t a s im i la r i ty b e tw een t h e e nd r e su l t o f t h e p ol i sh ing p roce ss e s w he th e r t h e m echan i sm b e c hem ica l o r f r ic t iona l , a sb o th g l o s sy a r t e f ac t s c a l led s i ck le b l ade s a nd t ho se c ov e r ed w i th w el d eve loped s o i l s he en r a r e ly d ev e lop p a t ina . 6 . 5 .13 E f f ec t s o f P o s t -depo s i t iona l P roce s se s H igh ly D eve loped P o l i sh

o n

2 08 )a nd t h ee dge s o ft h e g r oov e s , b e ing r a i sed , w e r ep o l i shed d u r ing t umb l ing ( f igu r e2 09 ) . c O n t h e h i gh ly p o l i shed f l in t , o n t h e o t he r h and , t h e d r y s c ra tch w a s e a s i ly f o rmed a s i ft h e s u rf ace h ad b e com e mo re b r i t t le ( f igu re 2 12 ) . D u r ing t umb l ing t h e s c ra t ch b ecam e w id e r ( f igu r e 2 13 ) a nd m o r e u npo l i shed f l in t w a s r e ve a led . d W i th w a t e ri tw as s l igh t ly e a s ie rt os c ra t ch b o th t h e u npo l i shed a nd t h e p o l i shed f l in t . T he s c ra t ch m ade o nt h ep o l i sh w i th w a t e rh ad n ea t e r e dge sa nd o nc e r ta in a r e as i ts e emed t oh ave l e f t ad ep r e s s ion ( f igu re s 2 14 a nd 2 19 ) w i thou t b r eak ing t h ep o l i sh . E xpe r imen t2 A s ar e su l t o ft umb l ing , e dge d amag e a ppea red o n t h e a r tef ac tb u tn o s t r ia t ion s s c ra tched t h e p o l i shed s u r f ace w h ich w a sn o ta l te red i na ny o the rw ay .

A im s

E xper imen t3

T o u nd e r s tand t h e e f e c t o f p o s s ib le p o s t -depo s i t iona l d i s tu rbance s o n v e ry w e l l d ev e lop ed a nd m a c ro scop ica l ly g l o s sy p o l i sh e s i t w a s d ec ided t o s u bm i t a n a r t e f ac t w i th s u ch a p o l i sh t o s c ra tch ing , t umb l ing a nd c h em ica la t tack .

I mme r s ion i n ah ea ted s od ium h yd rox id e s o lu t ion f o ra p ro long ed p e r iod d i d n o t p a t ina t e t h e f l in t i mp lemen t e i the ro nt h ep o l i shed o ro nt h eu npo l i sh ed s u rf ace s . D i scus s ion a nd c onc lus ions

E xpe r imen t s

F igu r e s 2 12 ; 2 13 ; 2 15 s ugge s t t h a t t h e p o l i shed a r ea s e em s t oh ave av e ry t h in , d i sc r e t e s u rf ace l a ye r ( s e e a l so f i gu r e 20 )t h a ti sb r i t t le a nd m ay b ed e tached f r om t h e u nd e r ly ing f l in t b y s c ra tch ing a nd /o r c on tac t w i th s and a nd g r ave l . Many a r chaeo log i s t s a nd u s e -w ea r a na ly s t s h ave n o ted e mp i r ica l ly t h a t" s ick le b l ade s " s u rv ive w i th t h e i r g l o s s a lmo s t i n tac t i n m any s i te s w h e r e a l l t h e o t h e r p i ece s a r e e i the rp a t ina ted o r h ave o t h e r h eavy s u rf a ce m od if i ca t ion s . I tw a s t h e r ef o re a tf i r s t s u rp r i s ing t h a t t h i s g l o s sy p o l i sh w h ich s e em s t o p r o tec t t h e f l in t s u rf ac ef r om c hem ica la t tack d u r ing b u r ia l ( a nd w a sn o t a f ec ted b y 3 6 h ou r s o f m ovemen t i n t h e s e d im en t ) c ou ld b eb r i t t le . Ap o s s ib le e xp lana t ion s e em st ob et h a t w h i le v e ry w e l l d eve loped p o l i sh c an b e e xpec t ed t o s h ie ld t h ef l in tf r om c hem ica l a g en t s , i ti sv u lne rab le t o s c ra tch ing b y am a te r ia l a sh a rd a sf l in t . T he h a rdn e s s a nd s of tn e s s o fm a te r ia l s i so n ly i mpo r tan t i na s m u ch a so n es c ra tche so ne ma te r ia lw i th a no th e r . T h e d r y s c ra tche s w e r e o b se rved b y S EM ( f igu r e s 2 18 ; 6 8 ; 6 9 )w h ich s how ed t ha tt h ep r oce s s i n vo lved i s t h e s am e a s t h a t s ugge s ted f o r g l a s s p o l i sh ing . T h e r a i sed e dg e sp roduced b ys c ra tch ing f l in tw i th f l in ta r ea r e su l t o f p l a s t ic d ef o rma t ion o f t h e s i n-f a ce . T he s ub sequ en tf l a t t en ing o ft h e i re dg e si nt h e s ed im en ti sa s moo th ing p r oc e s s . Am o r ed e ta i led e xp lana t ion o ft h i s p roc e s si sg i ven i ns e c t ion 6 . 2 , w he r ei t si mpo r tan c ei n u nde r s tand ing p roce s se s o f p o l i sh f o rma t ion i s d i scu s sed . T he s e e xpe r im en t s a l so s ugge s t t h o s e s t r ia t ion s w h ich a r e g roove s i n av e ry w e l l d eve loped p o l ish ( f igu r e 6 4 ) a r e m o s t ly f o rmed d u r ing u se r a th e r t h an b y p o s t d epo s i t iona lp ro ce s s e s . T h es t reak o fp o l i sh p rodu c ed b y t wo d r y f l in t i mp lemen t s b r ief ly s t r eak ing e ach o t h e r

EXP / 103 , a b l ad e o f I SR /4a f l in t , w a s p o l i shed m e chan ica l ly ( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 4 .8 ) w i th V + d i amond g r i t u n t i l i tw a s m ac ro s cop ica l ly a s g l o s sy a s a" s ick le " b l ad e . I tw a st h en s ub jec ted t ot h ef o l low ing p roc e s s e s : 1 T h r ee s c ra t che sw e r em ad eb ya no the rf l in tf l ake a c ro s st h ep o l i shed a nd u npo l i shed s u rf ace s : t wo d r ys c ra t ch e sa nd o ne w i th w a te r . 2 T he b l ad e w a s t umb led f o r 3 6 h ou r s i n w e t s ed imen t f r om a n e x cava t ion . I n t h e 8 c m d i ame t e r p l a s t ic d rum o ne s ma l l p ebb le w a s i n t roduc ed w i th t h eb l ade . T he d r um r e vo lved a t a pp rox ima te ly 6 0r pm f o r3 6h ou r s . 3 T he s c ra tched a nd t umb led a r t e f ac t w a s t h en i mme rs ed i n a 2 0% w t . a q . s o lu t ion o f s od ium h yd rox ide f o rf i ve d ay s a nd h ea t ed t ob e tween 5 0 a nd 6 0 °C . T h e t o o l w a s e xam in ed a nd p ho tog raph ed a t s e ve r a l i n t e rva l sd u r ing t h es ee xpe r im en t s . Mac ro scop ic a nd m ic ro scop ic o b se r va t ion s O b se rv ing t h e r e su l t ing t r ace s m ic ro scop ica l ly b ef o re a nd a f te rt umb l ing i tw a sn o t ed t h a t: E xp er imen t1 a Ar e a l s c ra tch w a s n o t e a s i ly p r oduced b y o n e f l in t i mp lemen t o n a no th e r u npol i shed f l in t w i thou t ag r ea t d ea l o f p r e s su r e . T he t r ace s w h ich w e r e l e f tw e r e s m ea r s ( f igu r e 2 07 ) w h ich w e r er emoved d u r ing t umb l ing . b When g r ea t p r e s su r e w a s b rough t t o b e ar i n s c ra tch ing i n t h e p r e s enc e o f w a te r , t h e u npo l i shed p a r to ft h eb l ade w a sg rooved ( f igu r e 6 4

( f igu re

2 07 )

w a s

r emoved

b y

mov emen t

i n

t h e

6 .6 .2 E dge Damage

s e d imen t . T h i s s ugge s t s t ha t i tm ay h ave b een a s i l ica r e s idue r a the rt han p o l ish wh ich i s as moo th ing u sua l ly i n c r ea sed b yf u r the rt umb l ing ( s ee 6 . 5 .2 ) .

I ns p i te o ft he e x treme c a r et a ken b yt h ee xpe r imen te r , a f r ac t ion o f am i l l ime t r e c an b e l o s t f r om t h e e dge o f a s t one t o o l d u r ing h and l ing . T h i s i se sp ec ia l ly t r ue o f p o s t -depo s i t iona l e xp er im en t si n wh ich a n i mp lemen ti s

I tw a s n o t iced i nt he se e xp er imen t s t h a t w a te r m ade t h e s c ra tch ing o f f l in t e a s ie r , t h a t t h e s c ra tche s h ad s moo the re dge s a nd i nc er ta in c a se s ad ep re s s ion r a the r t h an a s c ra tch w a s f o rmed . S c ra tche s a r e ap l a s t ic d ef o rma t ion i n wh ich t he s u r f ace h a s b een r up tu red . I t i ss ugge s ted t ha t w a te r f a c i l i ta t e s t h e a dhe rence o ft h e t wo s l id ing s u r f ace s a ga in s t e ach o th e r a nd e as e s t h e s moo th ing o ft he s u r f ace y i e ld ing t h e s moo th e dge s . I n t h e c a se o ft h e d ep re ss ion s i ts e em s t h a t t h e w a te r h a s p romo ted t he f o rma t ion o f p la s t ica l ly d ef ormed a r ea s wh ich d id n o tr up tu re t h e s u r f ac e . I t i s u n f or tuna te ly n o t p o ss ib le t o d raw a ny

i n t roduced i n to a m a s s o f s ed imen t a nd /o r d ecay ing ma t te r a nd o b served m ic ro scop ica l ly o ve r t ime , t hu s i nvo lv ing r epea ted r emova l s a nd c l ean ing . T h i s m inu te m ic roscop ic e dge d amage i so n ly n o t iced b ecau se o ft h e p ho tog raph ic d ocumen ta t ion . I tm ean sh oweve rt ha t : a ) w hen i nve s t iga t ing p o l ishe s , t h e s ma l l a rea o f p o l i sh t ha t w a s b e ing mon i to red m ay b e l o s t

c onc lu s ion s f r om t h i s e xpe r imen t r ega rd ing t h e r e s i s tance o f mac ro scop ica l ly g l o s sy p o l i sh t oc hem ica l a t tack , a s n o p a t ina t ion o ccur r ed o n a ny o f t h e u npo l i shed p ar t s e i the r . T he f l in t u sed i n t h i s e xp e r imen t ( I SR /4a ) i st h e s ame a st h e o ne i nvo lved i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .9 whe re p a t ina t ion w a s a l so a t temp ted i n v a in . I n t h i s e xper imen t t h e d e s i red r e su l t w a s n o t a ch ieved i n s p i te o f al onge r p er iod o fi mme r s ion i n a s o lu t ion h ea ted a t as l igh t ly h ighe rt emp e ra tu re . I tm ay b e af unc t ion o f t he f l in t t y pe ( s ee a l so EXP /154 i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 ) b u t i t may b e a l so d ue t ot h e l a ck o fa c a ta ly s t s uch a s c a lc ium c a rbona te wh ich s peeded u p t h e p a t ina t ion s i n 6 . 5 .9 a nd 6 . 5 .11 [ a ] . A l though t h i s m igh t s ugge s t t ha t c l ean ing f l in t a r tef ac t s w i th s od ium h yd rox ide f o rb r ief p er iod s i ss a f e , Iw ou ld r ecommend o t h erw ise u n t i l f u r the r w o rk h a sb een d one t oa scer ta in wh ich f l in tt y pe sa r e mo r eo rl e s sv u lne rab le . 6 . 6L im i ta t ion sO fR e search

t o ta l ly o rp a r t ia l ly ; b ) d ocumen ta t ion o f t h e e xa c t s po t t h rough t ime b ecome s m o r e d if i cu l tb e cau s e o ft h e l o s s o fs ome " l andma rk s "o nt h em ic ro scop ic e dg em o rpho logy ; c ) t h a tt h et r ans f e ro fi n f o rma t ion a bou tu s e -wea rf r om e xpe r imen ta lp i e ce st oa r cha eo log ica li mp lemen t si s p rob lema t ic , a s t h e l a t te r a r e b ound t o h ave l o s t s om eo ft h e i ro r ig ina le dg ed u r ing b u r ia l . 6 .6 .3 D ura t ion o fE xper imen t s D u r ing t h e r e pea ted r emova l so fa r t e f a c t s f r om t h e s o i l ( i n t h e c a s e o f p o s t -depo s it iona l e xp e r im en t s o f n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing p roce s se s )o n em ay b ei n t e r rup t ing ap roce s st h a t i su nde r w ay a nd w ou ld , i fa l lowed t od ev e lop , h av e a n e f e c to nt h ef l in ts u r f a c e .T h i sh a sb e en s ugg e s ted t om eb y t h e f a c t t h a t s om e o rgan ic p a r t ic le s f r om t h e d ec ay ing ma t t e r a r e s t ubbo rn ly a dhe r ing t o t h e f l im r e qu i r ing p ro long ed s o ak ing i nb i o log ica l d e t e rgen t a nd u l t ra son ic c l ean ing a nd e ven 1 0% HC l b e f o r e t h ey a r e r emov ed ( s e e s e c t ion 6 . 5 .8 a nd f i gu r e 1 66 ) . T o a vo id t h i s p i tf a l l o n e c ou ld , i d e a l ly , h av e al a rg en umb e ro fa r t ef ac t si n vo lv ed i n e ach e xp e r im en ta nd r emov et h em s u c c e s s ive ly f o rp e r iod ic m ic ro scopy wh i le l e av ing t h e o t h e r s u nd i s tu rbed . T h i s s t ra t egy p r e sen t st wo o b s ta c le s :

6 . 6 .1 Quant if ica t ion

a ) a n i n c re a se i n t h e n umbe r o f a r t ef a c t s i n e ach

T he se e xp er imen t sa re n o tq uan t i ta t ive i nt he i r mea su r e o fc hange . L ike a l l m ic rowea r e xpe r imen t s t hey r e ly o n t h e h uman e ye a nd wha t i t p e rce ive s t h rough t h e m ic ro scope , t oge the r w i th h uman m emo ry , a nd a ny n o t e s a nd p ho tog raph s t ha t may b e t aken . T h e p e rcep t ion o fc hange o r t h e l a ck o f i to ve r as e r ie s o f o b s e rva t ion s s epa ra ted i nt ime , i si n ev i tab ly s ub jec t iv e . T h e o n ly " documen ta t ion " p o s s ib le t h a t i si n a ny w ay

e xpe r im en ti smuch m o r et im e -con sum ing ; b ) e s t ima t ing t h e n umb e r o f p i e ce s r e qu i r ed . T h e l o nge rt h ee x pe r im en tl a s t st h el a rg e rt h en umbe ro f p i ec e s r e qu i r ed a s i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o k now i n a dvanc e t h e l e ng th o f t im e e a ch e xpe r im en t w i l l r un . E v en e xp e r im en t s m od eled o n o t he r p eop le ' s w o rk h ave o f t en t a ken mu ch l o ng e rt h an a n t ic ipa ted ( c f .6 . 5 .11 a nd 6 . 5 .12 ) .

o b jec t ive i s t h rough t h e p ho tog raph s t a ken a t e ach s uc ce s s ive o bse rva t ion . P ho tog raph s , h oweve r , a r e r a re ly s t r ic t ly c ompa rab le b ecau se t h e s l igh te s t d if e rence i n o r ien tat ion , f o cu s , i lum ina t ion , e xpo su r e , d ev e lop ing o r p r in t ing c ond i t ion s c an make a p i c tu re s how mo re o rl e s s o f ac er ta in f e a tu r e . F u r the rmo re t h e l im i ted d ep th o f f i e ld i n t h e o p t ica l m ic ro scope i s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e f a c t t ha t s ma l l d if e rence s i n t h e

6 . 6 .4 P re ssure I t i s c e r ta in t h a t t h e l o ad f a c to r i s i mpo r tan t w hen mon i to r ing t h e v a r i ab le s i n vo lv ed i np o l i sh f o rma t ion o n f l in t s u rf ac e s . We h ave h ow ev e r n o t b e en a b le t o d ev i s e e xpe r im en t s t o m ea sur e t h e l o ad f a c to r o b jec t iv e ly . T h e e xpe r im en te r 's h and p r e s su r e i sn o t r e ad i ly m e a su rab le o r c ons tan t a nd a t t emp t s t ou se t h e s am e h and p r e s su r e a r e i n ev i tab ly l im i ted i ns u c ce s s .

o r ien ta t ion o ft he p iece o rp lane o ff o cu s c an a f ec t t h e a ppea rance o f af e a tu re a nd s ma l l movemen t o f t h e f o cu s ing k nob c an s how " f ea tu re s" wh ich c an m i s lead t h e h uman e ye . H ence e x t reme t ime , c a r e a nd e xper t i s e a r e r equ i red t o" documen t " as po t o n at o o l u nde r t h e s ame c ond i t ion s i n s ucce s s ive o bserva t ions a nd e ven

6 . 6 .5 R ig id ma ter ia l s E xp e r im en t s d e sc r ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 4 h av e s hown t h a t p o l ish a sd eve loped a nd a s m ac ro scop ica l ly g l o s sy a s s o -

t h en i tm ay n o ta lway sb ep o s s ib le .

c a l led " s i ck le g l o s s " c an b e p rodu c ed b y av a r ie t y o f m a t e r i a l s s u ch a sd i amond p a s t e , o n as of tb a ck ing , d amp 6 5

h id ew i th o chr e , a nd j u s t w e tw oo l . T he se a r e a l y i e ld ing ma t e r ia l s e v en t h ough t h e i r a b ra s iv e q ual i t ie s a r e v e r y d if e r en t , i tw ou ld h ave b een i n te r e s t ing t of i nd aw ay t o p rodu ce t h i s k ind o f t o ta l l i nkag e o f p ol i sh w i th r i g id m a t e r ia l ss u ch a sw ood , b one a nd /o ra n t le rb u tt h i sp roved e l u s iv e . I t may b et h a t mo re p ro longed p ol i sh ing t h an u sed h e r em igh ty i e ld i n te r e s t ing r e su l t s .P ol i sh ing f l in ta r tef ac t s o n ar i g id t u rnt ab le i sn o ts a t i s f a c to ry , h oweve r , i nt h a tt wo r i g id s u rf ac e sh av e o n ly l im i t ed a r ea s o fr e a l c on tac t T h i s i sr e nde red m o r ed i ff i cu l t wh en o ne o ft h e m a t e r ia l s h a s a t o pog raphy a s i r r egu la r a s f l int " Pu t t ing t wo s ol id s t o g e the ri sr a th e rl i k et u rn ing S w i tz e r land u p s id ed own a nd s t and ing i to n A u s t r ia -t h e s am e a r e a o fi n t ima t e c on ta c t w i l lb es ma l l" ( Dow son 1 979 :424 :4 95 ) . 6 . 6 .6 U se o ft he S EM T h e u se o fa n S EM i nt h i s r e sea rch w a s u ndoub ted ly o f g r ea t h e lp a nd a l low ed i n s igh t i n to p roce s se sw h ich c ou ld n o t h av e b een a ch iev ed b y o p t ica l m ic ro scopy a l one . T h e n e ed t o c oa t f l in t a r t e f ac t s w i th a l a y e r o f c onduc t iv e m a t e r ia l i n o rd e r t o o b ta in a s a t i sf ac to ry i mag e w a s h owev e r ah ind ranc e d u e t ot h e i r r ev e r s ib le n a tu r e o ft h e c oa t ing ( s ee C hap t e r 3 ) . I tw a s o fp a r t icu la r h ind rance i n t h e c a se o f e xp e r im en t s i n w h ich r e p ea ted o b se rva t ion s o v e r ap e r iod o ft im e a r e n e ce s sa ry i no rde r t oo b se rve a p roce s sa tw o rk . I ne xp e r im en t s s u ch a st ho s ed e sc r ibed i n s e c t ion s6 . 5 .6 t o6 . 5 .8 t h eo n ly a l t e r a t ion o b se rv ed o p t ica l ly w a sg l a r e . O b s e rva t ion b y S EM i na n a t temp t t oa s ce r ta in wh e th e r o r n o t s i l ic a d i s so lu t ion m igh t b e o ccu r r ing p rog re s s ive ly w ou ld h av e b een v e ry v a luab le . O n c e c oa ted f o r S EM o b se rva t ion : , h ow ev e r , o n e w ou ld n o l o nge r b e a b le t oc on t inue t h ee xpe r im ent 6 . 6 .7 T eam Work T h i sk ind o fw o rk i sb e s td on e at e am o fe xp e r im en t e r s a s i nt h ec a s eo fP l i s son a nd Maug e r ( 1 988 ) a nd o t h e r s . T h i s a pp roa ch c u t s t h e l e ng th o ft im e r e qu i r ed , d im in i sh e s t h e s ub jec t iv i ty a nd a l low sf o r ah ighe rn umbe ro fa r t ef ac t sp e r e xp e r im en t . 6 .6 .8 Ma ter ia l sS c ience E xp e r t i s e i n t h e m a t e r ia l s s c ience s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e f unc t iona l a na ly s t i s p rob ab ly a v a luab le a s se t wh en i n ve s t iga t ing s u r f ac e m od if i ca t ion , p ol i sh ing a nd t h e l i k e . A st h i sr e sea r che rd i dn o tp o s se s ss u ch e xp e r t i s et h i st h e s i s w a s c l o se ly s up e rv i s ed b y D r . D . 1 1 _ G r if f i th s t ow hom I a cknow ledg em yg r a t i tude a nd s c ien t if i ci n deb t edne s s .

6 6

CH APTER 7 CO NCLUS IONS p a r t icu la r ly t r u ei nt h ec a s eo fi mp lem en t s who se w ho le e dg e sa r eh i gh ly p o l i shed . T h i sw ou ld h av e m ean tr epea ted f l a sh t empe ra tu r e se v en tua l ly h av ing o ccu r red a ta l lp o in t so nt h es u r f ac et og i v e a ne ven p o l i sh . We h av e , h ow eve r , n o e v idenc e o fb u rn t m a te r ia l s i n a ny o ft h e h and e xpe r imen t s i n c lud ing t h e e xpe r im en t w he r e h id e w a s s c raped w i th o ch r e a nd m ac ro scop ic p o l i sh d ev e lop ed o ns e v e ra lt o o l s . T empe ra tu r e r i s ew a s n o t iced o n ly o n i mp lemen t s p o l i sh ed m echan ica l ly w he r e ah igh s peed b uf f w a s u s ed w i th o r w i thou t d i amond g r i t . Y e t t h e r e w e r e n o c ha r red s ub s t ra t e s i n a ny o ft h e m echan ica l p o l i sh ing e xpe r imen t s , n o r a ny s me l l o f b urn ing . Wh i le t h e se o b s e rva t ion s d o n o t p re c lude t h e o c ca s iona l o c cu r r enc e o f h igh f l a sh t emp e ra tu r e s i ts e em s i mp lau s ib le t h a t t h e t o ta l h ea t g en e ra ted b y s u ch e ven t s w ou ld b e s u ch a s t om e l t t h e s u r f a ce o ft h ef l in t .

I n C hap te r 6 t h e r e v i sed a im s o f t h i s r e sea r ch p rog ramme w e r e d e sc r ib ed i n d e ta i l a nd c an b e s ummar i sed h e r ea s : a )t h e s t udy o fe xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced w ea r t r ace s o n f l in t s u r f a ce s i n o rd e r t o a s se s s t h e r e la t iv e i mpo r tan ce o f e a ch o f t h e v a r iab le s c on s id e r ed s i gn if i can t ; b ) t h e r e pl i ca t ion o f p o s t -d epo s i t iona l p roce s se s i n o rde r t o o b se rve t h e i r e f f ec t o n t h e s u r f ace s o f f l in ta r te f ac t s . A t t h e e nd o f e a ch s e t o fe xpe r im en t s ad i scu s s ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h er e su l t sh a sb e en g i ven ( s ec t ion s 6 . 4 a nd 6 . 5 ) . I ti st h e r ef o re p ropo sed h e r e t og i ve o n ly a n o v e rv iew o f wha t h a s b een o b s e rved a nd s ome c on c lud ing r ema rk s o n e ach o ft h e a spec t s o ft h e d ua l p rob lem . 7 . 1 PR OCES SES O FP OL ISH F ORMAT ION

7 . 1 .2 T he P ropo sed Mode l

7 . 1 .1 P rev iou s Mode l s

T h e e xp e r imen t s d e sc r ib ed i n t h i s t h e s i s h ave y i e lded e v id ence f o r as moo th ing o ft h e f l in t s u r f ace t h rough a c omb ina t ion o f p l a s t ic d ef o rma t ion a nd r emova l o f a sp e r i t ie s . T he se p ro ce s s e s a pp ea r t o b e t a k ing p l ace d u r ing w o rk o nv a r iou sm a te r ia l s . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e se s moo th ing p roc e s se s ma te r ia l may b e r emoved f r om t h e f l in t s u r f ace b y s c ra tch ing . S c ra t ch ing o f f l in t w i th a d i amond p o in t h a s s hown ( f igu r e s6 8a nd 6 9 ) al a t e ra lc h ip f o rma t ion a so ccu r si n g l a s s p o l i sh ing ( Ma lk in e t a l . 1 979 : F igu r e 9 [ bp s ugg e s t ing t h e s im i la r i ty b e twe en t h e se t wo p ro ce s se s . Wh en s c ra tch ing f l in t w i th f l in t , h ow ev e r , as moo th e r s c ra tch o ccu r r ed ( f igu r eS EM 2 18 )a l though c r ack ing o f t h e s u r f ac e w a s s t i l l p re s en t . T h i s h a s a l so b e en o b s e rv ed i n g l a s s p ol i sh ing w he r e K i r chn e r e t a l . ( 1 979 :27 ) h ave n o t iced t h a t a t l ow e r l o ad s s moo th e r t r ack s a r e f o rmed . Mo s t w o rked m a t e r ia l s a r e n o t , h oweve r , a s h a rd a s f l in t a nd a r e n o t l i ke ly t o c au se s u ch al a rg et e a r o nt h ef l in tt oo ccu r . T h e r e duc t ion o f f r ic t ion i n t h e p r e s enc e o f al i qu id m ed ium may b e h e lp ing t oa vo id t h e t r a i l s o fd r ag indu ced c r ack s a nd s ub sequen t f r ac tu r e a nd t h e p l uck ing o u t t h a t m igh t o ccu ru nde rd ry f r ic t ion . T h e c on tr a s tb e tween w e t a nd d ry a b ra s ion i si lus t ra ted b y s c r a t ch ing ap o l i shed f l in t a r te f a c tw i th a no th e rf l in t( s ec t ion 6 . 5 .13 f i gu r e2 18 a nd 2 19 ) . C on t ra ry t o f i gu r e 2 18 w h ich s how s t h a t t h e p o l i shed f l in t s u r f ace w a s b rok en i n t h e a b sen ce o f w a t e r , i n f i gu r e 2 19 t h e t r ack s l e f t b y t h e f l in t i n t h e p re senc eo fw a te ra r e s moo th a nd n ot e a r i nt h e s u r f ac e i sv i s ib le . T he a sp e r i t ie s r emov ed f r om t h e f l in t s u r f a ce b e ing h a rd q ua r tz c r y s ta l s , a f e c tt h ef l in t s u r f a c e b y i n duc ing ap l a s t ic d ef o rma t ion a tl ow l o ad s . T he i mpor tan ce o f t h e f l in t a sp e r it ie s i nt h ef o rma t ion o fp o l i shed s u r f a ce s o n f l in t w a s o b se rved i n t h e e xp e r imen t s d e sc r ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 4 .10 i n w h ich t h e f l in t c r y s ta l s w e r e f o und e mbedded i nt h e h i de u s ed t ob uf ft h e f l in t i n a lmo s t d u s t f r ee c ond i t ion s a nd w i thou t a ny c on tac t b e tw een

Am e chan i sm h a sb een p ropo s ed b y A nde r son -G e r f aud ( 1 980 :184 ) t h a t p o l i sh i sc au sed b y f l a sh t emp e ra tu r e s o c cu r r ing a tl o ca l is ed p o in t so fc on ta c tb e twe en t h ef l in t a nd t h e w o rked m a te r ia l c au s ing a m o l ten o r s em i m o l t en l a y e rt oo ccu ro nt h e s u r f ac e o ft h et o o la nd t h a t t h en s o l id if i e s a s s i l ica g e l . F o l low ing t h e e xpe r im en t s c a r r ied o u ti nt h i sp ro jec t t h e re a r e s e ve ra l o b je c t ion st o b em ad et ot h em echan i sm a si ti sd e sc r ibed a bove : A F o r as u r f ac el a ye ro fs i l ica g e lt of o rm , s i l ica f r om t h ef l in ts ur f a ce w ou ld v e ry p robab ly h ave t o d i s so lve i nw a ter a nd b er ed epo s i ted a s ag e l . T he r e i si n su f i c ien tw a te ri nt h ef l in ts t ruc tu re t op rov id e t h a tn ece s sa ry i n ag e ls t ruc tu r e . I nm any o ft h e e xp e r imen t sc a r r ied o u t( s ec t ion s6 . 4 .5 ; 6 . 4 .6 ; 6 . 4 .8 ) n ow a te rw ha t soeve rw a su sed n o ra ny o th e rs ou r ce o fh yd roxy lg roup sy e tp o l i sh d ev e loped a s m ac ro scop ica l ly g l o s sy a nd m ic ro scop ica l ly s moo th a s" s ick le g l o s s " . I tt hu ss e em su n l ike ly t h a t p o l i shed f l in ts u r f a ce so nf l in ta r t ef ac t sa r e c omp r i sed o f as i l ica g e ll a y e r . 1 3 I fh igh f l a sh t empe ra tu re sw e r et od eve lop a ny s i l ica g e lp r e sen to nt h es u r f ac eo ft h ef l in ta tt h a tt ime a nd p l ac ew ou ld d e compo se d u et ot h ee vapo ra t ion o ft h ew a te ri ni t sc ompo s i t ion . C on sequen t ly t h e i d ea o fh igh f l a sh t emp e ra tu r e sa st h em echan i sm o f p o l i sh f o rma t ion a nd t h ei d ea o ft h ep o l i shed s u r f a ce c omp r i s ing as ub s tan t ia ll a y e ro fs i l ica g e la r e m u tua l ly e xc lu s iv e( D r . D .R . G r if f i th sp e r s . c omm , ) . C H igh f l a sh t emp e r a tu re sc an o n ly o ccu ra tt h ep o in t s o fi n t ima te c on tac tb e twe en t h ef l in ta nd t h ew o rked m a te r ia l . H ad s u ch t emp e ra tu r e sr e ached t h e m e l t ing o rs of t en ing p o in tf o rf l in t( 1 500 d eg re e s C . )t h en a ny o rgan ic w o rk ed m a t e r ia lw ou ld b e c ha r red o rs i nged s i n ce as im i la ra moun to fh ea t w ou ld b ed i s s ipa ted i nt h ew o rk ed m a t e r ia la st h a t s uppo sed t om e l tt h ef l in ts u r f ace . T h i si s 6 7

t h eh id ea nd t h ee dge so ft h ef l in tt o o l( f igu re s 1 00 a nd 1 0 1 ) . T h e r emova l o f t h e a sp e r i t ie s f r om t h e f l in t s u r f ac e h a sa l so b een d ocumen t ed b y S EM o np ol i shed e xp e r im en ta l a r tef a c t s ( f igu re s 6 6 a nd 7 0 ) a nd o n a N eo l i th ic s i ck le b l ad e ( f igu re 2 21 ) . T h e p r e sence o fa l i qu id m ed ium m ay a c t t o r e ta in t h e a b ra s iv e f l in t p a r t ic le s n ea r t h e p o in t o f c on tac t b e twe en t o o l a nd w o rkp iece s o t h a t t h ey f o rm a s l u r ry w h ich p romo t e s w ea r b y p l a s t ic d e f o rma t ion e ven w h i le r e duc ing f r ic t ion . I n t h e a b s ence o f af l u id , o n t h e o t h e r h and , t h e s ep a r t ic le sm ay b ef r e et ol e av et h er e g ion o ff l in tt o f l in t c on tac t a nd s moo th ing i n t h e f o rm o f u s e -wea r p o l i sh i sn o t iceab ly s l ow e rt od ev e lop . A ne xc ep t ion c an o ccu r w hen t h e d i s lodged p a r t ic le s a r e t r apped b y t h e w o rked m a te r ia lw h ich a c t s a s af l in t a b rade ri nw h ich c a s ep ol i sh w i l ld ev e lop f a s te re ven i nt h ed ry s i t ua t ion . E xp e r imen ta l ly t h e t r app ing o f f l in t p a r t ic le s i n a w o rked m a t e r ia l h a s o n ly b e en o b se rved b y S EM o n d amp h i de ( s ec t ion 6 . 4 .10 ) . 7 . 1 .3 T he R o le o f Wa ter T h er o le t h a tw a te rm ay b ep l ay ing i np o l i sh f o rma t ion h a s u n t i l n ow b e en o b s e rv ed , p r ima r i ly i n n a tu ra l c i rcum s tance s , d u e t oi t s p r e s enc e i nv a r iou s m a t e r ia l s ( e .g . t h ew a te rc on t en t so fg ra s se sa nd o t he rp l an t s a nd t h e d ampen ing o fh i d e s ) . I n t h e e xp e r imen ts d e s c r ibed i nt h ep r ec ed ing C hap t e r , w a t e rh a sb een s hown n o tt o b e e s sen t ia l t o t h e f o rma t ion o f v e ry w e l l d ev e loped p o l i sh s i nc e s u ch p o l i sh w a s p roduced e i th e r i n t h e p re sen ce o fn on -po la rl i qu id s o ri nt h e t o ta l a b sence o f l i qu id s . Wa te r ( a s o ppo s ed t o o t h e r f l u id s ) d oe s n on e th e le s s p romo t e t h e f o rma t ion o f p o l i sh b y s o f t en ing t h e w o rk ed m a te r ia l a nd m ak ing c on ta c t a nd a dh e r enc eb e twe en t h et wo s u rf ac e s m o r e i n t ima t e ( s e e s e c t ion 6 . 4 .6 w ood g r oov ing e xp e r imen t s ) . T he s of t ened m a t e r ia l sm ay a l so r e ta in r emoved f l in t a spe r i t ie s m o r e r e ad i ly t h an t h e h a rd d ry o ne s . A c e r ta in s ma l l amoun t o fh yd ra t ion o ft h e f l in t s u rf ac e m ay b e t a k ing p l a ce i nt h e p r e s ence o fw a te r b u t t h i s d o e s n o t a l te r t h e a ppea ranc e o f t h e q ua r tz c r y s t a l s s ugge s t ing t h a tn os i l ica g e li sf o rmed .

p ol i sh wh ich s e emed t oh av ea f ec ted b o th t h eh igh a nd l ow p o in t s o ft h e m ic ro topog raphy a sh ad o ccu r red i n t h e t r amp l ing e xpe r imen t ( s ec t ion 6 . 5 .4 c f . f i gu re s 6 1 a nd 1 51 ) . T h i s u nde r l ine s t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e r o le a b ra s ive s p l ay i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f p ol i sh o n f l in t a r t ef ac t s . 7 . 13 T he R o le o ft he F l in tS t ruc tur e I mp lemen t s f r om s ame f l in t t y pe h ave r e ac ted d if e r en t ly t ot h e s am e e xp e r imen ta l c ond i t ion s . T h i s w a s o b se rv ed i n t h e s e r ie s o f e xp e r im en t s o n p o l i sh f o rma t ion w h e r e i n va r iab ly t h e f i ne r f l in t d ev e loped p o l i sh f a s te ra nd i n am o r el i nked s t age o fd eve lopmen t f o r t h e s am e l e ng th o ft im e t h an t h e c oa r se r v a r ie t ie s ( s e e s e c t ion s 6 . 4 .6 a nd 6 . 4 .7 ) . A s p o l i sh s e em s t ob e a s moo th ing o ft h ef l in ts u rf ace i tf o l low st h a tt h e r ei sl e s s t o l e v e l o f w h en t h e p a r t ic le s a r e s ma l le r a nd m o r e c l o se ly p a cked t h an i nt h eo ppo s i te c i r cum s t anc e . I nt h e e xpe r imen t s f o r p os t -depo s i t iona l p ro ce s se s t h e s am e w a so b se rv ed a ss e en i ns e c t ion 6 . 5 .2 . E a ch f l in tf l ake i s s om et ime s d if e r en t f r om t h e o n e f l aked b ef o r e i to r a f t e ri te ven w hen t h ey a r er emoved f r om t h e s am ec o r e ( s e e s e c t ion 6 . 5 .2 ( a ) EXP / 12 a nd EX P /27 ) . B o th i n e xp e r imen t s f o r c hem ic a l a nd f o r m e chan ica l P DSM , t h e c oar s e r p a r t s w e r e l e s s a f ec ted t h an t h e f i ne r g ra ined o ne ss ugge s t ing as im i la r i ty i nt h e s ea ppa r en t ly d if e r en t p ro c e s se s w h ich a f ec t f l in t s u rf ace s . I ta l so s ugge s t st h a tt h ep roce s se si n vo lved i np ol i sh f o rma t ion a nd p o s t -d epo s i t iona l s u rf ace mod if i ca t ion s s u ch a s s h een a nd b r igh ts po t sa r es im i la r 7 . 1 .6 S tr ia t ion s

7 . 1 .4 .T he R o le o fA bra s ive s P ol i sh ing o n g l a s s h a s b een s e en t o f o l low a g en e ra l mode l c omp r i s ing t h e f o rma t ion o f l i nea r p l a s t ic d ep re s s ion st h a t a r ef i n e e nough t oa pp ea r s moo th , t h e g r ea te rd e f o rma t ion e xpe r ienc ed b yt h e h igh p o in t s . A s a c on sequence o f t h e s t r e s se s p r oduced b y t h e p en e t ra t ion o f p o l i sh ing a b ra s iv e s , p r e -ex i s t ing m ic roc rack s w i l l d eve lop i n to l a te ra l c r ack s ( Evan s 1 979 ) . C o rn i sh ( 1 96 1 )h a sn o t ed t h a ti np o l i sh ing g l a s s , a dd ed a b ra s ive s a c t a s as l u r ry e nhanc ing t h e r emova l o f a spe r i t ie s f r om g l a s s a nd c on t r ibu t ing t o t h e s moo th ing o ft h e s u r f ace . T h i s h a s a l so b een o b s e rved i n t h e e xpe r imen t s s c rap ing h i d e w i th o ch r e ( s e c t ion 6 . 4 .7 )i nw h ich t h ef i n e ro ch r eg ra in s i ze sp rodu ced t h e b e s t d eve lop ed p ol i sh u nde r t h e o p t ica l m ic ro scop e w h ich c o r r e spond s t o t h e s moo the r s u rf ace b y S EM ( f igu r e7 1 ) . I nt h ew ood -g roov ing e xp e r imen t s( s ec t ion 6 . 4 .6 )t h e a dd i t ion o ft a lcum p owd e ra s as of ta b ra s iv ep roduced a 6 8

T h e e xpe r imen t s c a r r ied o u t i nt h i s w o rk s ugge s t t h a t s t r ia t ion s ( i n t h e s e n se o f g roov e s i n t h e p o l i sh ed s u rf ace a s o ppo sed t ol i nea r f e a tu re s s e e G lo s sa ry a nd f i gu re s6 4a nd 6 5 )a r ef o rm ed p r inc ipa l ly b ym ic ro ch ip s r emoved f r om t h e u s ed e dge d u r ing w o rk . T h i s i s s ugge s t ed i n v i ew o f t h e a b sen ce o f s t r ia t ion s w he r e v e ry h igh a ng led a nd r e tou ched e dge sa r eu sed . I n t h e h i d e s c rap ing e xpe r imen t s i n s e c t ion 6 . 4 .7 s t r ia t ion sf o rmed e v en o ne dge sw h ich w e re h igh a ng led n a tu ra l ly o r t h rough r e touch . T h i s m ay b e d u e t o r emoved a s p e r i t ie s f r om t h e f l in t s u rf a c e ( r a th e r t h an m ic roch ip s f r om t h e e dge ) b e ing t r apped i n t h e h i de w h ich d ef o rm su nde rp r e ssu r eo ft h et o o la nd b r ing st h e t r apped a sp e r i t ie s i n to c on tac t w i th t h e f l in t s u rf ace . I t i sp o s s ib le t h a t o ch r e p a r t ic le s w i l l b e b l ended i n t h e s l u r ry f o rm ed b y t h e s u r f ac e a spe r i t ie s t h u s i n c r ea s ing a b ra s ion a nd c aus ing ah ighe r q uan t i ty o fs t r ia t ion s t o f o rm . U nd e r t h e S EM t h e s t r ia t ion s t h a t Man su r F runchonun e ( 1 983 ) a p t ly d e sc r ib ed a s " f e rn l ik e " f o rmed o n EXP /127 u sed o n h id e w i th o ch r e a s d e sc r ibed i ns e c t ion 6 . 4 .7 . T he se s t r ia t ion s ( f igu r e 6 7 ) i lu s t ra te t h ep roce s sb yw h ich t h ey a r ef o rmed n am e ly t h e r emova l o f s u rf ac e p a r t ic le s w h ich a r e d r agged a c ro s st h es u rf ace a nd t h ec on sequen ts moo th ing o ft h e a r ea o n w h ich t h ey a r e d ragged . T he f e rn l ik e a pp ea ranc em ay b e d u et oc r ack s f o rm ed o ne i the r s i d e o ft h em a in t r ack b yd r ag .

7 . 1 .8 R es idue s

S om e f e a tu re s wh ich w e re p e rc e ived a s s t ra igh t s t r ia t ion s o p t ica l ly w e re s e en u nde r t h e S EM t o h ave b een t h er e su l to ft wo d if e r en tp roce s se s . I nf i gu r e 6 4 i t i sc l ea rt h a t ag roove i nt h ep ol i shed s ur f ace w a sf o rmed b y t h e r emova l o fo ne o r mo re c r y s ta l s . I nf i gu re 6 5 t h e t ion" o b served o p t ica l ly w as s e en a s a

T he e xper imen ta l p rog ramme h as s hown t ha t r e s idue s wh ich a re o n ly " depo s i ted " ( s ee G lo s sa ry ) o n t h e s u rf ace o f t h e f l in t a re u n l ike ly t o s u rv ive a r chaeo log ica l ly s i nce t h ey c an b e w a shed o f f w i th t ho rough c l ean ing . When t hey w e re " adhe r ing " t o t he

r a th e r b i , : f ace a sp er i ty w h ich i n s tead o f b e ing r emoved h a s b een s moo thed d own . I ti s ap rope r ty o f t he f l in t m icro s truc tu re t ha t s ome a spe r i t ie s h ave p ar t icu la r s hape s ( e .g . c i ga r s hap ed r a the r t han s ph e r ica l ) wh ich m igh t b e m i s lead ing . I n t h i s c a se , i n f a c t , t h e d i rec t ion o f t h e " s t r ia t ion " w a s n o t i n t h e

s u r f a ce mo re d ra s t ic s t ep s s uch a s movemen t i ns and o r i mme r s ion i nw a rm N aOH w /v 2 0 t o3 0 % a sa dvoca ted b y K ee ley w e r e n e eded t o r emove t h em . T he e xp e r imen t si ns e c t ion s6 . 5 .1 a nd 6 . 5 .2 h ave s hown t ha t t h e m o re s t ubbo rn r e s idue s s t i l l " adhe r ing " t o t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e f l in t e ven a f te r c l ean ing w i th s od ium h yd rox ide w e re r emoved b y movemen t i nt he s ed imen t . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t u nde r v e ry e xcep t iona l c ond i t ion s whe r e o rgan ic m a t te r s u rv ive s s uch r e s idue s m ay a l so b e p r e served . N o r e cogn isab le r e s idue s h ave b een

d i rec t ion o fu se . I na no the ri n s tance af e a tu re v e r y-s im i la ro p t ica l ly t o ac ome t t a i l p i t o n aN eo l i th ic s i ck le b l ade , r evea led i t se l fb y S EM t ob e ac i ga r shaped n a tu ra l h o l low i nt h e f l in t s u r f ace who se e dge s h ad b een p o l i shed d u r ing u se

o b served " embedded " i n o r u nder t he p o l ish p roduced

( f igu re s2 23 a nd 2 24 ) . C om e tt a i l p i t sc an b e s e en o n t wo s epa ra te a r tef ac t s

b y a ny o f t h e w o rked ma te r ia l s whe th er b y o p t ica l m ic ro scopy o r b y t h e S EM . T he b a r o n m ic rog raph s t ak en b y S EM a c ta s as ca le f o r wha t i sb e ing o b se rved . F rom t h e m ic rog raph s o fN eo l i th ic s i ck le b l ade s ( f igu r e

b uf f ed b yd u s t -f re eh ide . T hey a ppea rt oo we t he i rs hap e t o t h e a sp er i t ie s f r om t h e f l in t s u rf ace b e ing p lucked f r om o n e s po t f o rm ing t h e h ead a nd t hen d ragged a ga in s t t h e s u r f ace f o rm ing t h e t a i l . A s n o a b ra s ive s w e r eu sed i nt h i se xper imen ti n wh ich t h eh ide w a sk ep t a sf r ee o f amb ien t d u s ta sp o s s ib le ( s ec t ion 6 . 4 .10 ) , i ti s s ugge s ted t ha tt h i s i lu s t ra te s o ne o ft h e me chan i sm s o f p o l i sh f o rma t ion . I n f i gu r e 7 0 t h e s moo thed s u rf ace o f t he t a i l i sq u i te a ppa ren t s ugge s t ing t ha t t he a spe r i t ie s r emoved f r om t he h ead o ft h ep i th ad r ubbed a ga in s tt h e

2 16 , 2 20 a nd 2 22 ) a nd e xpe r imen ta l b lade s p o l i shed w i thou t w a te r t o a mac roscop ic g l os s ( EXP /103 f i gu r e 2 17 ) o ne c an m ea su re t ha t t h e d ef o rmed l a ye r i n e ach c a se i s aw e l l u nde r am ic ron . T h is mo re o r l e s s e xc lud e s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t p hy to l i th s f r om p lan t s o r o the r l a rge p a r t ic le s f r om m ea t , o r h ide s c an b e " t rapped " i nt h i sl a ye r .

t a i l a r ea f l a t ten ing i t . F igu re 6 6 i sa t a much h ighe r magn if i ca t ion c l ea r ly s how ing whe re t h e c ry s ta l (s ) h ave

7 . 1 .9 U se - Wea r P o l i sh a s D iagnos t ic o f Worked Ma ter ia l

b een r emoved l e av ing b eh ind t h eu npo l i shed f l in t wh ich f o rm s t h e h ead o f t h e p i t . I n s p i te o f t h e h ighe r magn if ica t ion t he t a i l a r ea d oe s n o t s e em t oh av e b een s moo thed a s much a s i nf i gu re 7 0 . T h i s may b e d ue t o t he f a c tt h a tt he re w a s ad if e renc e i nt h ep re s su re when

T h e a rgumen t s f o r a nd a ga in s t u s e -wea r p o l i sh b e ing d i s t inc t ive o f as pec if ic w o rked ma ter ia l h av e b een d i scu s sed a tl e ng th i nC hap ter s 1a nd 3 .T he e xpe r ience o f s e ve ra l m ic rowea r a na ly s t s , i n s ide a nd o u t s ide o u r I n s t i tu te , h a s a l ready s ugge s ted t ha t t he c ha rac te r is t ic s wh ich w e re s upposed t o b e d i agnos t ic o f o ne w o rked ma te r ia l o n ly w e r e a l so b e ing o b served when o the r ma te r ia l s w e r e b e ing w o rked . T he e xpe r imen t s d e s c r ibed i n C hap te r 6b o th o n u se -wea r a nd o n p ol i sh f o rma t ion a r e , Ih ope , c onv inc ing e nough t o c l ea r ly

t he r emov ed a sp er i t ie s h ad r ubbed a ga in s t t h e a r ea o f t he t a i l . 7 . 1 .7 P o l ish f rom Mu l t ip le U se s V aughan ( 1985 :40 ) a nd o the r s m en t ion t ha t t h ey r e cogn i se t wo u se -wea r " po l ishe s" s upe r impo sed o n

d emons t ra te t ha t t h e r e i sn o d i rec t c o r re la t ion b e tween p o l ish a nd t h e w o rked ma te r ia l . T he d eg ree o f p o l ish d eve lopmen t i s d ep enden t o n s eve ra l v a r iab le s : t h e h a rdne s s o f t h e w o rked ma t er ia l , t he p re sence o r

e ach o t he r o n t h e s ame e dge . T h i s s e em s t o c on t ra s t w i th m y o b se rva t ion s t ha t p o l i sh f r om w o rk ing s of t ma t er ia l s h a s a lway s b een p o l ished o ve r b y h a rde r ma t er ia ls . I n t he p a r t icu la r c a se o f a r tef ac t s f r om t h e e xp e r imen t s i n s e c t ion 6 . 4 .7 , t h e p o l ish p roduced b y

a b senc e o fa b ra s ive s , t he p re senc e o ra bsence o f af l u id m ed ium , t he mo t ion , a ng le a nd d u ra t ion o fw o rk . B lade s mac ro scop ica l ly a sg lo s sy a sN eo l i th ic " s ick le b lade s " w i th p o l i sh a ppea r ing b y o p t ica l m ic ro scopy i d en t ica l t o t h e o ne o b se rved o n t he N eo l i th ic i mp lemen t s , h av e b een p roduced b y p o l ish ing t h e f l in t

h a rd h amme rr e touch ( f igu re 9 4 ) w a s t o ta l ly r epo l i shed b y u se o n h id e w i th o ch r e . T he q ua r tz i te h amme r i sa v e ry h a rd ma ter ia l l e av ing av e ry w e l l l i nked p o l i sh b u t t he u se o n h ide s moo thed t h e a r ea i n s uch a w ay t ha t t he h a rd h amme r t r ace s w e re n o l o nge r v i s ib le . T he s am e o ccu r red i nt he e xp e r imen t s d e sc r ib ed i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .2 [ a ] whe re p ol i sh f r om c u t t ing b racken a nd

s u r f ace w i th 1 / 4 m ic ron d iamond g r i t . E xam ina t ion b y S EM o f t h e e xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced " s ick le b l ade s " a nd t h e N eo l i th ic o ne s s howed t ha tt he s ur f ace s o fb o th a ppea r e x t reme ly s moo thed ( f igu re s 2 16 , 2 17 a nd 2 22 ) . T he r e a r e t wo v i s ib le d if e rence s b e tween t h e t wo s u r f a ce s : a ) t h e d i rec t ion o f t he s t r ia t ion s wh ich i n t h e N eol i th ic s i ck le s a re a l l p a ra l le l t o t h e e dge i nd ica t ing t h a t t hey w e r e u sed i n al ong i tud ina l

i n c i s ing b i rch w e re p o l i shed o ve rb y t h e g ravely s and ( f igu re s3 0a nd 1 33 ) . A sp o l i sh s e em st ob e as moo th ing o f t h e f l in t s u rf ace t h e o n ly w ay o f d i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween o ne p o l i sh ing e p isode a nd a no the r w ou ld b e t h rough t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ep o l ish o nt he e dge . When t he t wo d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s a r e s upe r impo sed , i ti s g ene ra l ly n ol onge rp o s s ib le t od i s t ingu ish o ne f r om t h e

mo t ion s uch a s c u t t ing a nd /o r r eap ing wh i le t h e

o the r . 6 9

o p t ica l f i ne s c ra tche s wh ich w ou ld b e r e spon s ib le f o r t he d u l le ra ppea ranc eo ft umb led p o l i sh . E xpe r imen t s i ns e c t ion 6 . 5 .2 (a ) s ugg e s t t ha t w a te r a s

m echan ica l ly p o l i shed a r tef ac t d o e s n o t s how e v idence f o r mo t ion i n ar epea ted d i rec t ion ; b ) t h e m echan ica l ly p o l i shed s u r f ace a ppea r s s moo the r t han t h e a r chaeo log ica l o ne . T h i s i s

a f l u id e nhanced t he d eve lopmen t o f mechan ica l ly p roduced s o i l s heen ( EXP /12 f i gu re 1 33 ) . T he r e su l t ing s heen p ol i shed o ve rt he p rev iou su se -wea rp o l i sh s ot ha t a mo r e l i nked d i s tr ibu t ion w a s o bserved . T he d i rec t iona l d i s tr ibu t ion o f t h e s heen r e su l t ing f r om t umb le p o l i sh ing w a s c on t ra ry t o t h a t o f t he u se -wea r

mos tp robab ly d ue t ot h e f a c t t ha t t h e s i ck le m ay h ave b e en u sed o n g ra s se s o r r eed s i nw h ich t h e s i l ica p a r t ic le s a r e o f as i ze i n t h e o rde r o f a t l e a s t s e ve ra l m ic ron s w h i le t h e e xpe r imen ta l b l ade w a s p o l ished w i th amuch s ma l le r p a r t ic le s i ze ( 4 t / 1 g r i t )i n ah yd roca rbon o i lb a se . C ome tt a i lp i t sw e re s uppos ed t ob e d i agno s t ic o fu se o n p lan t ma te r ia l a s t h ey w e re f i r s t o b se rved o n a r chaeo log ica l s i ck le b lade s b y W i t thof t ( 1967 :384 )

p o l ish . T h i s i s p re sumab ly d ue t o t h e e f ec t o f t h e t umb l ing mo t ion wh i le t he d i rec t ion o f p o l i sh w ou ld t end t ob e mor e r andom i nt he c ase o f movemen t i nt h e s ed imen ti np o s t -depo s i t iona l c i rcum s tance s . T he re i s n o d oub t t ha t movemen t o f a r tef ac t s o n a r chaeo log ica l s i te s i s q u i te c ommon . Movemen t i s

w ho c aled t h em " come t s haped d ep re s s ion s" a nd w en t o n t os t a t e t ha t "Mo s t o ft h e g l o s s i sa dded t ot he f l in t r a the rt han d e r ived f r om i t . " ( i b id . :385 ) .

c aused n o t o n ly b y p er ig lac ia l s o i l p roce sse s , i n c lud ing c ryo tu rba t ion , g e l i f luc t ion , s o i l c r eep o r o the r d i s tu rbance s wh ich l e ave s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence , b u t o the r movemen t s o ccu r wh ich a re q u i te m ino r a nd a r e t he ref o r e s t r a t ig raph icaly i nv i s ib le . T hey a r e p robab ly

K ee ley ( 1980 :60-61) h a s u sed t hem a s ad iagno s t ic f e a tu re o fu se o np lan t s a nd a s ad i s t ingu i sh ing f e a tu re b e twe en " wood p o l ish" a nd " p lan tp o l i sh " . I n t h i s w o rk c ome t t a i l p i t s h ave b e en o b served o n

c aused b y t r amp l ing , b io tu rba t ion , a nd t he s e t t l ing o f t h e s ed im en tu nde r p re s su re . On ly n ow t ha t r ef i t t ing o f a r tef ac t s i s p rac t ised mo re f r equen t ly h a s i tb ecome

e xper imen ta li mp lemen t su sed t os c rape h ide w i th o ch re o n wh ich mac ro scop ic p o l i sh d eve loped . T h ey w e re a l so o b served o n t h e b l ades m echan ica l ly p o l i shed w i th 1 / 4 m ic ron d iamond g r i t . N one o f t h e se i mp lemen t s h ad

o bv iou sh ow c ommon t h i sp henomenon i s . T he q ue s t ion i s whe the r s uch n on -v io len t movemen t o ve r t hou sand s

c ome i nc on tac tw i th s i l ica w h ich c ou ld b ed epo s i ted o n

o fy ea r s c an a f ec t f l in t s u rf ace s t o c au se PDS M . T he r e la t ive ly g en t le e xp e r imen t s i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 1a nd 6 . 5 .2 h ave p roduc ed s he en a nd a f ec ted f l in t s u rf ace s wh ich

t h es u rf ace . Is ugge s t t ha tc ome t t a i l p i t s o ccu r w heneve r f l in t i s b e ing p o l i shed b y wha teve r ma ter ia l s i nc e t h ey a r e t he r e su l t o f r emova l o f o ne o r mo r e c ry s ta l s a nd t h e i r

s ugge s t s t ha t mechan ica l ly i nduced PDS M d oe s n o t r equ ir ev i o len tp roce ss e s i no rde rt oo ccu r a l though t h i s

s ub sequen t movemen t a l ong t h e f l in t s u r f ac e ( s ee a l so s e c t ion s 7 . 1 .6 a nd 7 . 2 .7 a nd f i gu r e s 6 4 , 6 6 , 7 0 ) . T hey a r e mo re n o t ic eab le when t h e s u r round ing a r ea i sw e l l p o l i shed a nd s moo th . I n a n a r ea o f l i t t le p o l i sh

d oes n o t p re c lude PDS M b e ing p r ima r i ly c hem ica l i na g iven n a tu ra l s i tua t ion ( s e es ec t ion 7 . 2 .4 b e low ) .

d eve lopmen tt h e i rs hape w ou ld b e u nno t iced among t h e v a r iou sc rack sa nd c r ev ice so fu npo l i shed f l in t . S ome o f t h e se c r ev ice s m igh t b e c au sed when a f l ake s l ide s

7 . 2 .2 B r igh tS po t sf rom Mechan ica lP roce sse s F la t b r igh t s po t s , v e ry s im i la r t o t ho se o b se rved o n a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s , c an b e p roduced b y f r ic t ion o f

a ga in s t t he c o r e a nd o ne o r mo r e s u rf ic ia l c ry s ta l s a r e r emoved i n much t he s ame w ay a s o ccu r s d u r ing u se

f l in to nf l in tw i th w a te ra s amed ium . T hey a re e a s ie rt o p roduce o ne dge s a nd r i dge s wh ich a r e mo re v u lne rab le

( s ee a l so N ewcome r 1 976 ) . On a r tef ac t s u sed u n t i l mac ro scop ic p o l i sh h a s d eve loped t he d i rec t ion o f t h e c ome t t a i l p i t s i s i nd ica t ive o f t h e t o o l 's movemen t

a nd whe r e mo re p re s su re c an b e e xe r ted i . e . ag iven f o rce c an b e b rough t t ob ea r o ve r as ma l le r a rea . T hey o ccu r o n ly v e ry r andom ly d u r ing t umb le p o l i sh ing whe re l i t t le p re ssu r e i se xer ted . T h e i r a ppea rance a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i sa f ec ted b y t he r n ic ro topog raphy o f t h e f l in t s u rf ace . I n t h e s o i l , f l a t b r igh t s po ts c ou ld o ccu r

a ga in s tt he w o rked ma te r ia l . 7 . 2 PO ST -DEPOS IT IONAL S URFACE MOD IF ICAT ION

d u r ing a b r ief b u t i n ten se movemen t wh i le t h e i mp lemen t i s r ubb ing a ga in s t a no the r i mp lemen t o r

7 . 2 .1 Mechan ica l S o i lP roce s se s Weak ly d eve loped u se -wea r p o l ish s u ch a s t ha t p roduced b y c u t t ing b rack en , a nd p robab ly b y c u t t ing

s t one

i n w e t

c ond i t ion s .

F la t

b r igh t

s po t s

w i th

s t r ia t ion s c ou ld b e d i agno s t ic o ft r amp l ing , movemen t i n t he s ed imen t o r s im i la r p o s t -depo s i t iona l f a c to r s . Any p o l i sh p resen t o n t he e dge s o fa r tef ac t s w i th t h e se s po t s s hou ld b e v i ewed w i th s u sp ic ion , a nd o n ly

m ea t a nd s c rap ing f r e sh h id e , c an d i sappea r a f te r movemen t i nw e t g rave l ly s ed imen t i n ag en t le t umb le p o l ishe r . T he s u rf ace o ft h ef l in t i sp robab ly r e -po l ished b y t h e ma t r ix , c aus ing a n i n c r ea s e i n t h e e x ten t a nd

a t t r ibu ted t o u se a f te r c a refu l c on s ide ra t ion . S t aper t ( 1976 :38 ) r e fu sed t o a ccep t t he h ypo the s i s t ha t b r igh t s po t s c ou ld b e t he r e su l t o ff r ic t ion " be tween s t one s i n

d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ep o l ished a r ea s . Wel d eve loped p ol i sh s uch a s t ha t p roduced b y c u t t ing r e ed sa nd r u she si sn o ta f ec ted i nt h es ame w ay . I t i s o n ly s l igh t ly d u l led . I f p o l ish i s t h e r e su l t o f s moo th ing o ft h e f l in t s u r f ace b y r emova l o f a l l m ic ro a sper i t ie s a nd p e rhap s b y i nf i l l ing t h e m ic ro

t he s o i l s i n ce t he l a t te rp roces sh as b een i no pe ra t ion f o r mo re o f t en o n M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t han o n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic o r l a te r i mp lemen ts " . T h e se e xp e r imen t s w ou ld h oweve r s ugge s t t ha t f l a t b r igh t s po t s w i th s t r ia t ion s a r e r e la ted t o t he p a r t icu la r t aphonom ic c i rcum s tance s o ccu r r ing d u r ing b u r ia l , r a the r t han b e ing d i rec t ly r e la ted t ot he d u ra t ion o fb ur ia l .

d ep re s s ion s ( whe the r b y p l as t ic f l ow , o r s o lu t ion a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion , o r a c omb ina t ion o f b o th ) , n o mo r e s moo th ing o r p o l i sh ing c an b e d one b y t h e s ed imen t , b u t s ome o fi t s mo re a b ra s ive a gen t s m ay p roduce s ub 7 0

c on s ide ra t ion , i ts e em s r e a sonab le t h a t a ny s moo th ing o f af l in t s u r f ac e i sa ch ieved f a s te r o nf i ne f l in t t han o n c oa r se f l in tw i th w ide ly s paced p a r t ic le s r equ ir ing much mo re r emova l o r i nf i l l ing o rb o th . T he e xp lana t ion f o r t he h ighe r p ropo r t ion o ff l in t f r om t h e N ea r E a s t b e ing

7 . 2 .3 B r igh tS po t sf rom C hem ica lP roce s se s I n t h e e xpe r imen t s d es c r ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 , t wo t yp e s o f b r igh t s po t s d eve loped ( f igu re 2 02 a nd 2 04 ) . T he f l a t v a r ie ty d eve loped w i thou t t h e s t r ia t ion s o bs erved o r m echan ica l ly p roduced b r igh t s po t s . I t

a f ec ted b y s o i l s heen m ay b e d ue t ot h e p ar t icu la r s o i l p roce s se s s pec if i c t ot ha t a r ea , s uch a s t h e p re sence o f s ome w a te r c omb ined w i th r e la t ive h igh mean t emp e ra tu r e s . F u r the r c on s ide ra t ion a l so n eed s t o b e g iven t o t h e t yp e s a nd p ropor t ion s o f s i l ica p hase s p re sen ti nd if e ren tf l in t s( C lay ton 1 983 ) .

f o rmed o n af l a t s u rf ace n ea r t h e e dge t hough n o t o n i t wh i le t h e b r igh t s po t s h av ing a d i s t r ibu t ion mo r e s im i la r t o u se -wea r p o l i sh d eve loped o n t he mo re r ounded a rea s o f t h e a r te f ac t n ea r t h e b u lb o f p er cu s s ion . T he s ame w a s o b s e rved o n t h e H eng i s tbu ry H ead s c raper d i scu s sed i n s e c t ion 4 . 1 f i gu re 4 7 . N o o bv iou s e xp lana t ion f o r t h i s p henomenon h a s y e t b een

7 . 2 .6 P o s t -Depo s i t iona l Vu lnerab i l i ty o fE dge s

e s tab l i shed t hough o ne i sn a tu ra l ly l e d t o s u spec t t ha t t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he se b r igh t s po t s o n t h e m ic ro topog raphy may b e i n f luenced b y s ome a spe c t o f t he c on s t i tu t ion o ft he f l in t a ta nd a round t h e i r p lace o f o ccu r renc e . I ti s i mpor tan t t o n o te h oweve r t ha t t h e

P roce s se s

a nd

t he

E ven when t h e who le a r tef ac t i s a f ec ted b y e i the r mechan ica l o r c hem ica l s heen , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h is s heen s e em s t ob e mo r e c oncen t ra ted o n t he e dge s a nd b ecome s p rog re s s ive ly l e s s ma rked a s o ne move s a way f r om t h e e dge s . T h i s d i s t r ibu t ion o f " po l ish" w a s f o rme r ly c on s id e red a d i agno s t ic f e a tu re o f u se -wea r

s am e p roce s s ( d i s t i l led w a te r , h ea t , a nd c a lc ium c a rbona te i n s o lu t ion ) p roduced b o th t h e b r igh t s po t s , t he s heen , a nd t h e i n c ip ien t p a t ina t don . T he p re sence o f

p o l i sh b u t t h e p re sen t w o rk s ugge s t s t ha t t h is i d ea s hou ld n ow b e a bandoned . I n t en s i ty o f p ol i sh b e ing a f unc t ion o f p rox im i ty t o f l in t e dge a c tua l ly s e ems t o

s t r ia t ion s i nb r igh t s po t s c au sed b y mechan ica l f r ic t ion a nd t h e i r a b sence i n s t r ia t ion s f o rmed b y c hem ica l p ro ce s se s d e serv e s f u r the r i nv e s t iga t ion . I f a d i re c t c or r e la t ion c ou ld b e d emon s t ra ted , t he p re sence /absenc e

a pp ly wheneve r t h e f l in t s u rf ace i sb e ing p o l ished b y wha teve r m echan i sm . A s t h e pa n ic le s o ft he e dge a re mo re e xpo sed t han t ho se i n land , t h ey w i l l c on sequen t ly b e p r ef e ren t ia l ly r emoved whe the r b y c hem ica l o r

o fs t r ia t ion s c ou ld b e ag ood i nd ica to r o ft h e c hem ica l o r m echan ica lp redom inance o ft h e PDS M m echan i sm . Non s t r ia ted b r igh t s po t s w ou ld b e i nd ica t iv e o f d i s so lu t ion s ugge s t ing t ha t o the r p ol i sh p re sen t o n t h e a r te f ac t m igh t a l so h ave b een f o rmed i nt h e s ame w ay ( s ee s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 ) .

me chan ica l mean s . T h i s h a s b een o bserved i n e xpe r imen t s f o r m echan ica l ( s ec t ion s 6 . 5 .1 , 6 . 5 .2 , 6 . 5 .3 ) a nd c hem ica l P DS M ( s ec t ion s 6 . 5 .5 t o6 . 5 .12 ) a s w e l l a s f r om t h e e xp e r imen t s d e scr ibed u nde r p o l i sh f o rma t ion ( s ec t ion s 6 . 4 .5 t o6 . 4 .12 ) . P o l i sh c an b e u sed a s ag ood i nd ica to r o f u se -wea r wh en i tp re sen t s a d i scr e te d i s t r ibu t ion o n e dge s t ha t m ay p l au s ib ly h ave b een u sed wh i le b e ing a b sen t o n o the r e dge s o f ap i ece . T h i s p a t t e rn o f d i s t r ibu t ion i s d i s tu rbed when p o s t d epo s i t iona l p roc es se s o ccu r a f te r u se e i the r d eg rad ing t he p o l ish c omp le te ly o r s moot h ing t h e s u rf ace s t i l l

7 . 2 .4 S heen f rom Mechan ica lP roce sse s Ma c roscop ic s heen a ppea r s o n ly a f t e r p ro longed movemen t o f t h e a r tef ac t s i n t h e s ed imen t a nd i t d eve lop s f a s te r when wa te r a nd /o r g rave l a r e p re sen t . C oa r se f l in t d eve lop s s heen m o r e s l ow ly t han f i ne f l in t ( c f . EXP /E5 s ec t ion 6 . 5 .2 ) . S ho r te r t umbl ing t ime s d id n o td eve lop a s much s o i l s he en a si so b served o nc e r ta in a rchaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s . H enc e c hem ica l p roce ss e s

f u r the r mak ing i tv e ry d if i cu l t , i fn o t i mpo s s ib le , t o i s o la te t h e u se -wea r p o l i sh f r om t h e s ub sequen t s moo th ing .

e i th e r a l one o r i n c on junc t ion w i th m echan ica l o ne s may b e p roduc ing s he en o n a r chaeo log ica l i mp lemen t s e ven a f te rr e la t ive ly b r ief movemen t .

7 . 2 .7 E dge D amage

7 . 23 S heen f rom Chem ica lP roce s se s

G en t le t umb l ing i n f i ne s ed imen t w i thou t g rave l d oe s n o t c ause s e r iou s e dge d amage ( s ee G lo ssa ry ) a s s e en

I tw a s o b served ( s e e s e c t ion 6 . 5 .11b e t c . ) t ha t s heen ,

f r om e xpe r imen t s i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .2 a nd 6 . 5 .4 . P red ic tab ly , a c er ta in amoun t o f e dge d amage i s p roduc ed b y t h e movem en t o f a r t ef ac ts i n g rave l ly s ed imen t . I t s amoun t a nd d i s t r ibu t ion c an m i s lead i fi t i s t h e o n ly c r i t er ion u sed t o r e con s t ruc t t oo l u se .

whe the rp roduced b yc hem ica lo r me chan ica l p roc e s se s , s e em s t oo ccu r e a r l ie r o n B randon t han o n t h e c oa r se r I s ra e l i f l in t . T h is i sc ompa t ib le w i th t h e f a c t t ha t u se p o l i sh a l so f o rm s f a s te r o n f i ne r f l in t t han o n c oa r se r v a r ie t ie s . I ts t rong ly s ugge s t st h a t s he en l i k eu s e -wea ri s as moo th ing o ft h e f l in t s u rf ac ew he the rb yt h e r emova l o f a spe r i t ie s , p l a s t ic d ef o rma t ion , s o lu t ion a nd

F u r the rmo r e , t h e r emova l o f m ic ro f lake s may r emove t he p o l i sh f r om t h e e dge , h inder ing ac o r rec t r ead ing o f t he t r ace s .

r edepo s i t ion o f s i l ica o r a c omb ina t ion o f t h e s e p ro ce s se s . T he f a c t t ha t s heen i s s l owe r t o f o rm o n c oa r se f l in t w as s u rp r i s ing a tf i r s t , s i nce mo s t o f t h e f l in ta r tef ac t s f r om I s rae l wh ich Ih ave s amp led a nd /o r e xam ined ( wh ich a r e g ene ra l ly c oa r se r t han B randon

7 . 2 .8 M icrop it t ing Wha t a r e o p t ica l ly o bs erved a s p i t s i n t h e p o l ished s u r f ace o f t h e f l in t a r e s ome t ime s r e f er red t o a s m ic rop i t t ing i nt he m ic rowea r l i t e ra tur e . K ee ley ( 1980 ) m en t ion s p i t t ing o n t o o ls u sed t ow o rk b one ( -t i ny p i t s

f l in t ) w e r e a f ec ted b y s heen . S emenov h a s a l so n o ted ( 1964 :11) t ha t s heen a ppea r s m o re o n f l in t o f " cha lk o r ig in " t han o n " l ime s tone f l in t " . I n f a c t , a f t e r c a refu l 7 1

6 . 5 .7 a nd 6 . 5 .8 n o p a t ina t ion o ccur red d ue t ot h e s l ow p roce s se s a nd l a ck o f t im e . H oweve r g la re s t a r ted t o f o rm o nt h e s u r f ace o ft h ef l in t a r tef ac t s . T h i s g l a re may b e d ue t o a s ma l l s ca le d i sso lu t ion o f t h e mo re p rom inen t c r y s ta l s w i th in t h e u npo l ished s pace s . T he d i s so lved s i l ica m ay a l so b e r edepo s i ted i n t h e s ma l l

s ma l le rt han 1m ic ron" i b id . :43 ) o ra n t le r ( -p ockma rk s " i b id . :56 ) . H e a l so n o t iced s ome p i t t ing ( c i rcu la r 5 m ic ron sa nd l e s si b id .: 4 9-50 )o nt o o l s u sed t ow o rk d ry h ide w i thou t l ub r ican t s . H e s ugge s t s t he l a t te r m igh t b e "m ic ropo t l id s" f r om t h e rma l s t re s s . A cco rd ing t o m y o b s e rva t ion s m ic-r op i t t ing a ppea r s d u r ing w o rk o n a l l t h e h a rde r ma ter ia l s . Unde r t h e

f i ssu re s o ft h e f l in t s u rf ace p roduc ing as moo th ing a nd a n i n c rea se i nt h e r ef lec t iv i ty o ft he s u rf ace o b served a s g l a re .

S EM p i t s a ppea r a sh olow s . T hey may r e su l t f r om t h e r emova l o f a spe r i t ie s a s t h e w o rked ma te r ia l a nd t h e

I n t h e i n i t ia l s t age s o fp a t ina t ion i ta ppea r s , a tl e a s t s ub jec t ive ly , t ha tt h e re i sa ne l emen to fc r y s ta l l i sa t ion o f

f l in ts l ide a ga in s te ach o th e ro rt h ey may b et h e r ema in s o f d eepe r d ep re s s ion s i n t h e n a tu ra l m ic ro topog raphy wh ich h ave n o t b e en o b l i te ra ted b y t h e s moo th ing p ro ce s s . One i s o f ten a b le t o o b se rve t h e i r r egu la r

n ew ma te r ia l f r om t h e s o lu t ion . Much mo r e d e ta i led w o rk n eed st ob ec a r r ied o u tt ou nder s tand t he p roce s se s b e t te r . I ti sc l ea rf r om t he se e xper imen t s , h ow eve r , t ha t

c ry s ta l s a t t h e i r b o t tom . I t m ay b e p o ss ib le t o d i s t ingu ish p i t sf o rmed b yp luck ing o u t o fp a r t ic le s l a te r

p o l i sh o n p a t ina ted f l in t a r tef ac ts c an p robab ly n o t b e u sed t o r e con s t ruc t t oo l f unc t ion a s i te i the r d oe s n o t s u rv ive o r i t w il b e t o o g rea t ly d i s tor ted b y t he p roc e s se st ha th ave c au sed p a t ina t ion . I nc onc lu s ion i ts e em s t ha t t he d i sapp ea rance o fu se w ea r t r ace s o n a r tef ac t s s ub jec ted t o s imu la ted p o s t d epo s i t iona l p ro ce s se s a nd t he a ppea rance o fn ew o ne s i n t he f o rm o f s o i l s he en h a s s e r iou s i mp l ica t ion s f o r m ic rowea r a na ly s i s u nder taken o n s uch c o l lec t ion s . A n

i n t h e w o rk ing p ro ce s s f r om t ho se p re sen t e a r l ie r ( whe the r o r ig ina l ly p re sen t o r d ue t o p luck ing o u t d u r ing e a r l ie rw o rk )b yt h ed eg ree o fr ound ing o ft h ep i t e dge s . P i t s d ue t o p luck ing o u t m ay s how c ome t t a i l s d u e t o s co r ing b y t h e r emoved a sp er i ty , a l though a c hanc e c ol i s ion o f af r e e p ar t ic le w i th a n a tu ra l m ic ro topog raph ica lp i tm igh ta l so g ive t h i sf e a tu re . I n t h e e xpe r imen t s o n p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s ( 6 .5 .2 a a nd b ) p i t s h ave b een o b served a f te r c on tac t w i th g rave l ly s and . I tm ay b e t ha t t he c on tac t o f t h e

e xamp le i sd i scu ss ed i n C hap te r 4 . 1 r ega rd ing t h e s i te o f Mee r ( Van N o ten , 1 978 ) . K ee ley ( 1980 : 3 4-35 ) ,

a r t ef ac t s w i th t h e g r av e l i n t h e s and d u r ing a r o ta t ive mo t ion h a sc aused l a rge a spe r i t ie so r ag roup o fc r y s ta l s

t hough w a rn ing o f t he t r aces c au sed b y n a tu ra l a genc ie s , c onc luded "mo s t n a tu ra l p roce s se s , t h en l e ave

t ob er emoved h ence l e av ing t he p i t s . S EM m ic rog raph s o f EXP / 103 ( f igu re 2 18 a nd 2 17 ) s how p i t s i n av a r ie ty o fs i ze s . S ome o ft h e l a rg e r o ne s

t r ace s wh ich a r e u n l ike ly t o c au se mu ch c onfu s ion f o r t h e m icrowea r a na ly s t" . I b eg t o d if e r : p o s t d epo s i t iona l p roce s se s c au se many p rob lem s t o t h e m ic rowea r a na ly s t a nd s ome c onfu s ion t oo a s s ome

a r e c l ea r ly s ugge s t ive o f ah o l low whos e e dge s h ave b een s moo thed d u r ing u se . T he a s soc ia t ion o fp i t s w i th wo rk o n h a rd ma te r ia l s a nd i n t umb l ing e xpe r imen t s

p os t -depo s i t ion a l t r ace s c an b ev e ry s im i la rt ou se w ea r . Av e ry c r i t ica l a pp roach i sr equ ired t od i s t ingu ish o ne f r om t h e o the r . R ecen t m ic rowear r epo r t s d o n o t s e em

s ugge s t t ha t t h e h ypo thes is p roposed f o r t h em b y D iamond ( 1979 :165 ) , n ame ly t h a tt h ey a r e t h e r e su l t o f s u r f ace f a t igue , m ay a l so b e c o r rec t . T h i s a u tho r w ou ld s ugge s t t ha t t he n a tu re o f t h i s " f a t igue" may b e h igh e ne rgy i mpac t o n a sp er i t ie s o r h igh p re ssu re c on tac t ( pe rhap sa s ar e su l t o ft h el o ad b e ing b rough tt ob ea ro n as ma l l a rea b y ar e la t ive ly u ndef ormab le , i . e . h a rd , ma te r ia l ) c au s ing s ub su r f ace c r ack ing r a the r t han s imp ly e l a s t ic a nd /o rp la s t ic d ef o rma t ion .

t o t ake e nough n o t ice o f t h e p rob lem , wh ich i sr a re ly m en t ioned . I n t h e p re senc e o f PDS M , s uch a s s heen , b r igh t s po t s a nd /o r p a t ina t ion , f l in t s u r f ace s a re g ene ra l ly s o a l te red t ha t n o c ompa r ison c an b e made b e tween t h em a nd t he u se -wea r p o l ish p roduced e xp er imen ta l ly . I t i s n o t p o ss ib le t o r e cogn ise t he p a t tern o f p ol i sh d i s tr ibu t ion ( s u r f a ce s moo th ing ) c au sed b yu s e when s ubsequen t smoo th ing h a sd i s tu rbed t h ep rev iou sp a t te r n .

7 . 2 .9 P a t ina t ion 7 . 3 FU TURE R ESEARCH

P a t ina t ion s e em st ob e ac omp lex p roce s s wh ich i sv e ry s en s i t ive t o s ma l l c hange s i n t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t h e s u r round ing s o lu t ion . F o r p a t ina t ion t oo ccu r t h e p H o f t he s o lu t ion s e em s t o b e ac r i t ica l v a r iab le . T h is w a s

T he s pec if ic p o in ts r equ ir ing f u r the rr e s ea rch h ave b een

o b se rved i nt h e e xpe r imen t d es c r ibed i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .10 whe re i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o r ep lac e t h e e vapo ra ted w a te r f o r t wo d ay s . D ur ing t he f i r s t 9d ay s n o p a t ina wha t soeve r w a s v i s ib le wh i le t wo d ay s o n ly a t t h e i nc rea sed c oncen t ra t ion p a t ina ted t he a r tef ac t s t o t h e c o re . T he e f ec t s o f o the r i on s [ i . e . o the r t han } 1± ]i n s o lu t ion r equ i re sf u r the rc a refu l c on s ide ra t ion , h oweve r .

T he -d ea th s en tence" i mposed b y t h e p re sen t w o rk o n s uch e xp re s s ion s a s" bone p o l ish" , " h ide p o l ish " a nd

n o ted i nt he t ex t a nd i ti ss ough t h e r e o n ly t o make a g enera lo bs erva t ion .

" wood p o l ish " s hou ld n o t m ean t he e nd o f m ic rowea r a na ly s i s . A s m en t ioned e a r l ie r , o the r mo re p e r sona l m e thod s h ave n ow b een d eve loped b y m any c ompe ten t m ic rowea r a na ly s t s t o i n co rpora te a l l t he c r i te r ia n ece s sa ry t or e con s truc tt oo l u se when p o l ish i sp re sen t . G race ( 1989 ) , f o r e xamp le , h a s n ow s imp l if ied a nd i mp roved h i s m e thod t o make i ta c ce s s ib le t o many

T hes e e xper imen t s h av e n o t u n f or tuna te ly c l a r if ied whe th e r t he p roce s s o f p a t ina t ion i nvo lve s r emova l o f i n t er s t i t ia l ma t te r , p rec ip i ta t ion o f n ew c ry s ta l s o r a c omb ina t ion o f b o th . G la re w a s o b served t o p recede

a sp i r ing m ic rowea r a na ly s t s . On a r t ef ac t s a f ec ted b y PDS M o n wh ich u se -wea r p o l ish h a s b e en d e s t royed o r i sn o t i d en t if iab le , e dge -wea r a nd e dge c ha rac te r i s t ic s c an b e made t o g i ve a l owe r l e ve l o f i n te rp r e ta t ion a s w a sd one i nC hap te r 4o ft h is w ork .

p a t ina t ion i n t h e e xp e r imen t s d e scr ib ed i n s e c t ion 6 . 5 .12 . I n e xpe r imen t s d e sc r ibed i n s ec t ion s 6 . 5 .6 a nd 7 2

C ommen t ing o n S emenov 's w o rk wh ich h ad p re ceded h i s , K ee ley s a id i n h i s b ook E xper imen ta l D e t erm ina t ion o f S tone T oo l U ses ( 1980 :108 : ) " D i sappo in tmen t a nd d i s i l lu s ionm en t f o l lowed a s o n e i n ve s t iga to r a f te r a no the r f ound S emenov 's r e su l t s i mpo s s ib le t os ub s tan t ia te" . S c ience p rog re s se s b y s uch l e ap s w hen o ne s t ag e b r ing s ag roup o fr e sea rcher st of i nd f au l t w i th p rev iou s w o rk a nd t ot ake i to ne s t ep f u r the r . I ti sh oped t ha tt h i s w o rk h a sp layed ap a r t i ns uch at r an s i t ion a nd t ha t t h e f l aw s i n t h i s w o rk may s pu r o the r s t o c on t inue t h e i nv e s t iga t ion o f p o l i sh a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s o n f l in t a r tef ac t s t o d eve lop t h e u s ef u lne s s o f s uch s t ud ie ss t i l lf u r the r . T he c r i t ic ism o f t h e K ee ley m e thod m ade i n t h i s t h e s i s s hou ld i n n o w ay d im in i sh t h e i mpor tance o f K ee ley 's c on t r ibu t ion i n r e cogn i s ing t ha t m ic ro scop ic p ol i sh o b served a ta round x 200 i s av a luab le i nd ica to r i n t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f f unc t ion o n f l in t t o o ls a nd i n g rea t ly s t imu la t ing f u r the rr e sea rch i nt h i sf i e ld .

7 3

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T e chno log ie . B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s ; I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s4 11 ( i ) . B ocque t , A . ( 1980 ) . L e M ic roden t icu le u n o u t i l ma l c omm . B u l le t in d e l a S oc ie t e P reh is tor ique

M ic ro f lak ing R e sear ch t e am ( 1 ) . J ourna l o f t h e A rchaeo log ica lS oc ie ty o fN ippon LXV I (4 ) :1 -5 . A nd er son , J .C . , K .D . L eave r , RD . R aw l ing s a nd J .M . A lexande r( 1985 ) . Ma ter ia l sS c ience T h i rd E d i t ion . V an No s trand R e inho ld ( UK ) . A nd e r son , P .C . ( 1980 ) . A T e s t imony o f P reh is to r ic T a sk s : D iagno s t ic R e s idue s o n S tone T oo l Wo rk ing E dges . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 2( 2 ) : 1 81-194 .

F ranca is e 7 7 :76-85 . B oeke l tnan , K ( 1986 ) . R a s t U n te r B aumen : E in E pheme re r Meso l i t is che r L age rp la tz A u s D em

A nd er son -Ger f aud , Me thodo log igue

Duven see r Moo r . O f f aB uecher 4 3 :149-163 . B o rde s , F . ( 1950 ) . Du p o l i p a r t icu l ie r d e c er ta in s s i lex t a i l le s . L' A n thropo log ie 5 4 :161-3 . B rad ley , R . &C . C lay ton ( 1987 ) . T he I n f luence o fF l in t M ic ro s t ruc tu re o n t h e F o rma t ion o f M ic rowea r P o l i she s . S i evek ing G . d e G . & M .H . N ewcome r ( ed s . ) T he h uman u ses o ff l in t a nd c her t : 1 -10

P . ( 1 98 1 ) . C on tr ibu t ion a ? Ana ly se d es M icro traces

d 'U t i l isa t ion s ur l e s O u t i l sP r eh is tor iques . T hes e d e 3 ec yc le , Un iv e r s i te d eB o rdeaux I ,T a lenc e ( 1 982 ) . C ommen t p r ec ise r l ' u t i l isa t ion a g r ico le d e s o u t i ls p re -h i s to r iqu es? C ah ier s d e L' E uphra t e 3 : 149-164 .

C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s sC amb r idge . B roadb en t . , N . ( 1979 ) . C oa s ta l R e sourc e s a nd S e t t lemen t S t ab i l i ty : A c r i t ica l S tudy o f a Me so l i th ic S i te C omp lex i nN or the rn S weden . AUN 3A rchaeo log ica l S tud ies U ppsa la U n iver s i ty o f N or t hE uropean A rchaeo logy .

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( 1983 ) . Me thodo log ia l p rob lem s i n t h e m ic rowea r a na ly s i s o ft o o l s s e lec ted f r om t h e N a tuf ian s i te s o f E l Wad a nd A in Ma l laha . T ravaux d e l a Ma i son d e I 'Or ien t5 : 107125 .

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C lay ton , C . J . ( 1983 ) . G eochem is t ry o fC he r tF orma t ion i n U ppe r C r e tac eous C ha lk s . U npub l i shed P h .D . T h e s i sU n ive r s i ty o fL ondon . C o rn i sh , D .C . ( 1961 ) . T he Mechan i sm o f G la s s P o l ish ing . B r i t i sh S c ien t if i c I n s t rum en t R e s ea r ch A s soc ia t ion S ou th H il C h i se lhu r s tK en t . B .S . I .R .A . R e s ea rch R epo r t R2 67 C ook , J . & J Dumon t ( 1987 ) . T h e d ev e lopmen t a nd a ppl ica t ion o f m ic rowea r a na ly s i s s i nc e 1 964 . S i ev ek ing G . d e G . & M .H . N ew come r ( e d s) . T he H uman u s es o fF l in t a nd C her t : 5 3-61 . C amb r idg e U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C o t te r e l l , 1 3 .&J .K amm inga ( 1979 ) . T h e Me chan ic so f F l ak ing . B . H ayd en ( e d . ) L i th ic U s e -W ea rA na ly s is : 9 7112 . A cadem ic P r e s sN ew Y o rk C rab t r e e , D on E . ( 1 972 ) . A n i n t roduc t ion t o f l in two rk ing . E .H . S wan son , J r . &B .R . B u t le r( e d s .) O cca s iona l P ap er s o f t h e I daho S t a t e U n iv er s i ty Mus eum 2 8 :1-98 . C u rw en ,E .C . ( 1941 ) . S ome f ood -ga th e r ing i mp lemen t s : S t udy i n Me so l i th ic t r ad i t ion .A n t iqu i ty 1 5 :32037 . ( 1 940 ) . N o te sa nd N ew s .A n t iqu i ty X IV :435-437 . ( 1 936 ) . N on -C r e s cen t ic S i ck le -F l in t s f r om S u s sex . T he A n t iqua r ies J ourna l XV I :85-90 . ( 1 935 ) . A g r icu l tu r ea nd t h e f l in t s i ck le i nP a le s t in e . A n t iqu i ty 9 :62-66 ( 1 930 ) . P r eh i s to r ic f l in t s i ck le s . A n t iqu i ty 4 :1 791 86 . D e l B en e , T . A . ( 1 980 ) . A n X -Ray Ana ly s i s o f D epo s i t iona l P o l i sh . L i th ic T echno logy I X (2 ) :363 7 . ( 1979 ) . O n ce U pon a S t r ia t ion : C u r r en t Mod e l s . B . H ayd en ( e d . ) L i th ic U se -wea r A na ly s is : 1 67177 A cad em ic P re s sN ew Y o rk . D iamond , G . ( 1979 ) . T he N a tu r e o fS o -Ca l led P o l i shed S u r f a ce s o n S ton e A r t ef ac t s . B . H ayd en ( e d . ) L i th ic U s e -W ea rA na ly s i s : 1 59-66 . A cad em ic P r e s s , N ew Y o rk . D imb leby J .W . ( 1965 ) . T he Me so l i th ic s i t e o n I p ing C ommon , S u s sex i n K e ef P .A .M . , J . J . Wyme r & J .W . D imb leby . P roceed ing s o f t h e P r eh is tor ic S oc ie ty XXX I :85-94 . d 'E r r ico , F . ( 1985 ) . T rac e s D 'U su r e s u r l ' Indu s t r ie L i th iqu e : A pp ro che Me thodo log iqu e e tP ropo s i t ion d ' une T echn iqu e . L' A n thropo log ie 8 9 (4 ) :439-456 . d 'E r r ico , F . a nd L . V a re t to ( 1985 ) . S cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope s t udy o f m ic rowea r o n o r ig ina l s t one i mp lemen t s . A n tropo log ia C on temporanea 8 (2 ) :135142 . D ow son , D . ( 1979 ) . H is tory o f T r ibo logy . L ongman , L ondon a nd N ew Y o rk . Dumon t , J .V . ( 1982 ) . T h e q uan t if i ca t ion o fm ic row ea r t r a c e s : a n ew u se f o r i n t e r f e rome t ry . W ord A r chaeo lo gy 1 4 :206-217 .

G rac e ,R . ,K . A ta rnan R . F ab rega sa nd C .M .B . H agg r en ( 1 988 ) . A mu l t i -va r ia t e a pp roach t ot h e f unc t iona l a na ly s i s o f f l in t t o o l s . B ey r ie s ( e d . ) I ndus t r ie s L i th iqu e s T rac eo log ie e t T echno log ie . B r i t ish A rcha eo log ica l R epor t s I n terna t iona l S e r ies 4 11 ( i ): 2 17-230 G rac e , R . , I . D .G . G raham a nd M .H . N ewcome r ( 1 985 ) . T h e Q uan t if i ca t ion o f M ic rowea r P ol i she s . W or ld A rchaeo logy . 1 7 (2 ) :112-120 . G r if f i th s , D . R . , C .A . B e rgman , C . J . C lay ton , K . Ohnuma , G .V . R ob in & J . S ee ley ( 1 987 ) . E xp e r im en t a l i nves t iga t ion o ft h e h ea t t r ea tm en t o f f l in t . S i eve lüng G . d e G . a nd M . H . N ewcom e r ( e d s . ) T he H uman U s es o fF l in t a nd C her t : 4 3-52 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . C amb r idge . G y se l s , J .a nd D . C ahen ( 1 981 ) . P r em ie r s r e su l ta t s d e l ' ana ly s e d e s t r ac e s m ic ro scop iqu e s d 'u su r e d e q ue lqu e so u t i l sd e Me sv in I V . N o tae P raeh is tor icae 1 : 75-82 . H ayden , B . ( e d . ) ( 1979 ) . L i th ic U s e -W ea r A na ly s i s . A cadem ic P r e s sN ew Y o rk . H ayden ,B .a nd J .K a rnm inga ( 1973 ) G ou ld , K o s t e ra nd S on tz o n" m ic rowea r " : ac r i t ica l r e v iew . N ew s l e t t e r o fL i th ic T echno logy 1(1-2 ) :3-8 . ( 1 979 ) . A n I n t roduc t ion t o U se -W ea r : T he F i r s t C LU W . B . H ayd en ( e d . ) L i th ic U s e -W ea rA na ly s i s : 1 14 . A cadem ic P re s sN ew Y o rk .

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S heph e rd , W . ( 1972 ) .F l in t . L ondon . F abe r&F abe r .

7 9

S i ev ek ing a nd M . H . N ewcome r ( e d s . ) T he H uman U s es o f F l in t a nd C her t : 11114 . C amb r idg e U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . V ay son , A . ( 1 920 ) . L ap lu sa nc ienne i ndu s t r ie d e S a in t A cheu l .L 'An th ropo log ie 3 0 :441-496 . ( 1 922 ) . L 'e tud e d e s o u t i l lage s e n p i e r r e . L' A n thropo log ie 3 1 :138 . V ila , P . ( 1 977 ) . S o I s e t N iv eaux D 'Hab i ta t d u P a leo l i th ique I n f e r ieu r e n E u rope e t a u P roch e O r ien t . O ua t erna r ia 1 9 :107134 . V i l la ,P .( 1 982 ) . C on jo inab le P i ec e sa nd S i t eF o rma t ion P roce s s e s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 7 : 2 76-290 . V i l la , P . & J .C ou r t in ( 1983 ) . T he I n te rp re ta t ion o f S t ra t if ied S i t e s : AV iew f r om Unde rg round .J ourna l o fA r chaeo log ica lS c ience 1 0 :267-281 . W i lm sen , E .N . ( 1 968 ) . F unc t iona l Ana ly s i s o fF laked S t on eA r t if ac t s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 3 (2 ) :156161 . W i t thof t , J . ( 1 967 ) . G lazed P ol i sh o n F l in t T oo l s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 2 (3 ) :383388 . Y amada , S . ( 1 986 ) . T he F o rma t ion P roce s s o f U se Wea r P o l i sh e s . A rchaeo logy a nd N a tura l S c ienc e 1 9 :101123 .

8 0

AP PEND IX

1

E dge Wear

T oo l : EX P / 14 3 1m in E dge Ang le Morpho logy

m ic rod en t icu la te

max .

4 5 d eg re e s Max imum T h ickne s s

e dge —h ighe r e dge a ng le mo re a pp ropr ia te

l e ng th

C ompar ison w i th A rchaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le

4mm

S erra t ion

2 0mm c onvex

P rof i le

v e ry s l igh t ly t w i s ted

Mo t ion

c u t t ing —mo s t ly u n id i rec t iona l

A ng le D ura t ion

p e rpend icu la rt ow o rked s u rf ace 5m inu t e s

P rehens ion

p rox ima lh e ld i nr i gh th and

P o l i sh

v e ry l i t t l e

S tr ia t ions E dge Wear

n one n one m a c ro scop ic

b ) T a sk : d e -ha ir ing h id ea si na ) T oo l : EXP / 15 /2 m ic roden t icu la te 7 9nun E dge Ang le Morpho logy

n o t

s t ra igh te dged C ompar ison w i th Archaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le b ) T a sk : r aw ( un tanned ) d ee r h ide ,

s oaked

o vern igh tc u ti n to s t r ip sf o rt hong s T oo l : EXP /15 /4 m ic rod en t icu la te —max . l e ng th 7 9nun E dge Ang le

5 0d eg r ee s

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne s s 6mm S erra t ion 2mm c oncave

Ang le

p e rpend icu la rt ow o rk ed s u rf ace

D ura t ion

1 5 m inu t e s p rox ima lh e ld i nr i gh th and v e ry f a in t

S tr ia t ion s E dge Wear

n one n one m a c ro scop ic

Mo t ion

u n id i rec t iona l f r om w o rke r

Ang le D ura t ion P rehen s ion

p e rpend icu la rt ow o rked s u r f ace 5m inu te s p rox ima l r i gh th and h e ld

P o l ish

n one

S tr ia t ion s

n one

E dge Wear

n one mac roscop ic

C ompar ison w i th A rchaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le 2 .D e -Ha ir ing H ide r aw

( un tanned )

d ee r

u n r e touched —max .

E dge Ang le

4 0d eg ree s

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne s s

h id e

5 0d eg r e e s

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne s s

P rof i le

c u rved

mm ,

Mo t ion

u n id i rec t iona l s c rap ing t owa rd s w o rke r

A ng le

p e rpend icu la rt ow o rked s u rf ace

D ura t ion

4 5 m inu t e s

P rehen s ion P o l ish

d i s ta lr i gh th and h e ld f a in t

S tr ia t ion s

n one

P rof i le

c u rv ed

u n id i rec t iona l s c rap ing t owa rd s w o rke r

Ang le D ura t ion P rehen s ion

p e rpend icu la rt ow o rked s u rf ace 2 0 m inu te s p rox ima l r i gh th and h e ld n one n one mac ro scop ic

E f f ic iency a nd R e su l t s 1 2 s q c m d e -ha i red , n o d en t icu la t ion r equ ired . h igh a ng le e dge mo re a pp rop r ia te C ompar ison w i th A rchaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le

6mm

n one , 4 5 c onvex e dg e

n one 3 1 mm s t ra igh t e dge

P o l ish v e ry v e ry f a in t

l e ng th

S erra t ion

6mm

S erra t ion

Mo t ion

S tr ia t ion s E dge Wear

E dge Ang le

a way

c ) T a sk : d e -ha ir ing h ide a si na )a nd b ) T oo l : EXP /15 / 3 u n r e touched e dge max . leng th 7 9nun

E ff ic iency a nd R e su l t s i n ef i c ien te dge

a ) T a sk : d e -ha ir ing s oaked o ve rn igh t T oo l : EXP / 15 / 1 7 9nun

s c rap ing

C ompar ison w i th A rchaeo log ica l n one

mo s t ly u n id i rec t iona lc u t t ing

P o l ish

s t r a igh t c u rved

E ff ic iency a nd R e su l t s n o d e -ha i r ing o ccur red , e xpe r i m en t s u spended , u n su i tab le e dge d u e t o l ow e dge a ng le a nd d en t icu la t ion

c u rved

Mo t ion

P rehens ion

max .l e ngt h

4 5 d eg ree s Max imum T h ickne s s 6mm S erra t ion 3 5 mm a lmo s t P ro f i le

Ef f i c iency a nd R e su l t s v e ry i n ef i c ien t— thong s

P rof i le

n one mac ro scop ic

Ef f i c iency a nd R esu l ts 7 5 cm d e -ha ired-e f i c ien t s ha rp

1 .C u t t ing H ide a ) T a sk : f r e sh c ow h ide c u ti n to s t r ip sf o rt hong s

3 .D e -Ha ir ing a nd C u t t ing H ide a ) T a sk : d e -ha i r ing h id ea si n2 T oo l : EXP /31 / 1 u n re touched l e ng th 4 9mm 8 1

b l ade le t —max .

E dg e Ang le Morpho logy

Mo t ion

E dge Wear

3 8d eg ree s Max imum T h ickne s s S erra t ion

n one - 1 7 c onvex e dge

P rof i le

v e ry c u rved

mm

Ang le

s c rap ing , u n id i rec t iona l , a way f r om w o rke r p e rpend icu la rt ow o rked ma te r ia l

D ura t ion

2 0m inu te s

P rehen s ion

p rox ima l i n w ooden h af t u p t o o ne th i rd , r i gh th and h e ld

P o l i sh

f a in t

S tr i a t ion s E dge Wear

n one n one mac ro scop ic

s of t ma ter ia l , n eed f o r s e r ra t ion n o to bv iou s C ompa r i son w i th Archaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le 5 .C ut t ing Car t i lage a nd S inew T a sk : b u tche r ing c ow l e g , c u t t ing c a r t i lage f r om b one T oo l : EXP / 18 6 6mm

Ef f i c iency a nd R e su l t s 2 0 s qc m d e -ha i red , t oo l ef i c ien t b u t s ma l l a nd c u rved , i mp roved p e rf o rmance a f t e r t i p b roke mak ing e dge l e s sc onvex .

E dge Ang le Morpho logy

4 0 d eg r ee s Max imum Th ickne s s

D ur a t ion P rehen s ion

b l ade le t

s l igh t ly c u rved a nd

t w i s ted mo s t ly u n id i rec t iona l s ome s aw ing

p rox ima l i n w ood en h af t f i xed

s ome p a ra l le l t oe dg e

E dge Wear

n one mac ro scop ic

6mm

S erra t ion

n one , c oncave , s t ra igh te dge , 1 5 mm

P rof i le

v ery c urved c u t t ing

p e rpend icu la rt ow o rked m a ter ia l 1 5m inu te s

P rehen s ion

p rox ima lr i gh th and h e ld

P o l i sh

l i gh t ly d eve loped

a nd t w is ted p rof i le a nd t o p o s i t ion o f s e r ra t ion o n c oncav e me s ia lp a r to fe dg e C ompar i son Wi th A rchaeo log ica l n o tc omparab le 6 . Cu t t ing a nd Wh it t l ing D ry R eed

E dge Wear n one mac ro scop ic Ef f i c iency a nd R e su l t s v e ry s ha rp a nd ef i c ien t e dge , p e rf o rmance i mp rove s a s h ide

a ) T a sk : d e l ib e ra te ly u sed i n t wo m o t ion s a s i n b a ske t ry T oo l : EXP /7 2 9nun

d r ie so u t C ompar i son Wi th A rchaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le

Max imum T h ickne s s

max .l e ng th

m ic roden t icu la te

m ax .

E dge Ang le

3 5 d eg ree s

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne s s

4 . Cut t ing Mea t T a sk : s k inn ing c ow m ea ta nd c u t t ing i ns t r ip s

4 0 d eg ree s

f a in t

E f f ic ien cy a nd R e su l t s n o t v e ry ef i c ien t d ue t o c u rved

t owa rd s

D ura t ion

Morpho logy

c u t t ing ,

mo s t ly p e rpend icu la r t o w o rked s urf ace 6 0 m inu te s

Max imum T h ickne s s

Ang le

S erra t ion

2 0

P rof i le

c oncave f l a t

l e ng th

4mm

mm

a nd wh i t t l ing

s l igh t ly

Mo t ion

s aw ing w o rke r

Ang le

s aw ing p e rpend icu la r , wh i t t l ing l ow a ng le

4mm

t owa rd s

S erra t ion

2 0 mm c oncav e

D ura t ion

1 0 m inu te s

P rof i le

s l igh t ly c u rved

P rehen s ion

p rox ima l r i gh th and h e ld

P o l ish

v ery w e l l d eve lop ed

S tr ia t ions

p a ra l le l t oe dge f r om c u t t ing a nd p e rp end icu la rf r om wh i t t l ing af ew mac roscop ic s c ar s

mo s t ly

u n id i rec t iona l

c u t t ing ,

s ome s aw ing Ang le

P rof i le

S tr ia t ion s

u n id i rec t iona l w o rke r

Mo t ion

c oncave 2 0 mm

P o l ish

E dg e Ang le

4 . 5 mm

S erra t ion

4 0d eg ree s

m ic roden t icu la te

l e ng th

w i th b ee sw ax , r e s in a nd s i n ew

Mo t ion

T oo l : EXP / 10 4 0m in

max

Morpho logy

Ang le

b ) T a sk : c u t t ing d ee rh id ea si n 1b )

m ic roden t icu la te

E dge Ang le

Mo t ion

C ompar i son w i th A rchaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le

T oo l : EXP /31 /2 u n re touched max .l e ngt h4 9mm

n one m ac roscop ic

Ef f i c iency a nd R e su l t s v ery ef i c ien t f o r f i ne c u t t ing o n

6mm

mo s t ly p e rp end icu la r , s ome l ow a ng le

E dge Wear

D ura t ion

1 5m inu te s

P rehens ion

p rox ima l r i gh th and h e ld

E f f ic iency a nd R e su l t s n o t ef i c ien t , a ng le t oo l ow f o r

P o l i sh S tr ia t ions

h a rd ly a ny n one

wh i t t l ing l e ng th w i thou th af t 8 2

i n su ff ic ien t

n o t c ompa rab le i n s t r ia t ion o re dge d amage

C ompar ison w i th a r chaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le

7 .Reap ing F re sh P hragm i te s T a sk : c u t t ing 3 00 r e ed s

b ) T a sk : c u t t ing a nd wh i t t l ing d ry r e ed sa si na ) T oo l : EXP /8 m ic rod en t icu la te max . l eng th 2 3 mm E dge Ang le

3 8d eg re e s

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne s s

T oo l : EXP /3 5 7nun

4mm

S erra t ion

1 6n un s i nuou s

P rof i le

f l a t

p o l i sh ,

m ic roden t icu la te

max .

l e ng th

E dge Ang le

3 8 d eg ree s

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne s s 4mm S erra t ion 2 2 mm c oncave P rof i le

s l igh t ly c u rved a nd t w is ted

Mo t ion

t owa rd s w o rke r b o th i n wh i t t l ing a nd c u t t ing

Ang le

l ow a ng le a nd h igh a ng le

Mo t ion

D ur a t ion P rehens ion

2 0 m inu t e s p rox ima li nr i gh th and

Ang le

u n id i rec t iona l c u t t ing mo t ion t owa rd sw o rke rs ome s aw ing p e rpend icu la rt ow o rked ma t er ia l

P o l i sh

n o ts ow e l ld eve loped a si na )

S tr ia t ions

s ome p a r a l le l a nd p e rp end icu la rt oe dge d en t icu la t ion w o rn d if e ren t ia l ly

Dura t ion P rehens ion

6 0 m inu te s r e s in c ove r ing p rox ima l ,

E dge Wear

s ome

r i gh t

h and h e ld d own

Ef f ic iency a nd R esu l t s mo r e c oncave p a r t o f e dge mo re ef i c ien t , l e s s p o l i sh t han 6 a )i n s p i te o fl o nge r d ura t ion o f w o rk

P o l i sh

v e ry w e l l d ev e loped ,v e ry s moo th a nd r ef lec t ive , u p t o 2 -3 mm f r om e dge , m ic rop i t t ing

S tr ia t ion s

s ome p a ra l le lt oe dg e

E dge Wear

s ome n ew s c a r s , n o d if e ren t ia l w ea ro fs e r ra t ion

d ue t o c oa r se f l in t o n e dge w ea r ing d own o f s e r ra t ion a l so r emove sp ol i shed p a r t so fe dge

Ef f i c iency a nd R e su l t s t a sk ef i c ien t ly c a r r ied o u t , n eed f o rs e r ra t ion n o to bv iou s

C ompar ison w i th Ar chaeo log ica l n o t c ompa rab le i n p ol i sh o r i n w ea rp a t t er n

C ompar i son Wi th A r chaeo log ica l w ea r o fs e r ra t ion c ompa rab le b u t p ol i sh n o tc ompa rab le

c ) T a sk : wh i t t l ing d ry r e ed s a s i n a ) a nd b ) a nd c u t t ing s t r ip sf o rb a ske t ry

8 .R eap ing B racken S tem s a ) T a sk : r e ap ing b racken s t em s( J un e ) T oo l : EXP / 12 m ic roden t icu la te max .l e ng th

T oo l : EXP /9 3 0mm

m ic rod en t icu la te

E dge Ang le

3 5 d eg ree s

E dge Ang le

4 0d eg ree s

Max imum T h ickne s s 5mm S erra t ion 2 0 mm a lmo s t s t ra igh t

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne ss

P rof i le

Mo t ion

Morpho logy

max .

l eng th

5 5 rnm 6mm

S erra t ion

3 5 mm c onvex

P rof i le

s l igh t ly t w is ted

Ang le

u n id i rec t iona l t owa rd s w o rke r a nd s ome b ack a nd f o r th s aw ing p e rpend icu la rt os t em s

c u t t ing p e rpend icu la r , wh i t t l ing

D ur a t ion P rehen s ion

1 0 m inu te s p rox ima l r i gh th and h e ld

l ow a ng le

P o l i sh

n o t w e l l d o r sa l

S tr ia t ions E dge Wear

s ome p a ra l le lt oe dge n o mac ro scop ic s ca r s , s e r ra t ion n o t mac ro scop ica l ly w or n

v e ry s l igh t ly c u rved a nd t w is ted

Mo t ion

mo s t ly u n id i re c t iona l c u t t ing a nd wh i t t l ing

Ang le

b o th

D ura t ion P rehens ion

1 0 m inu t e s p rox ima lr i gh th and h e ld

P o l ish

w e l l

d eve loped ,

i n

r n ic rop i t ted ,

s moo th a nd h igh ly r ef lec t ive b u t r e s t r ic ted t ot h ev e ry e dge S tr ia t ions

p e rpend icu la r a nd p ara l le l e dge , n on ei nt he p ol i sh

E dge Wear

s e r ra t ion w or n d if e r en t ia l ly a nd ma rked ly , mac ro s ca r s

d ev e loped ,

mo re

o n

E ff ic iency a nd R e su l t s t a sk c a r r ied o u t s a t i sf ac tor i ly b u t n eed f o r s e r ra t ion n o t o bv iou s h af t ing a dv isab le

t o

C ompar ison Wi th Archaeo log ica l s t a te o f s e r ra t ion c ompa rab le , p o l i sh a ppea rance n o t

Ef ic iency a nd R e su l t s i mp lem en t ef i c ien t ly u sed b u t n eed f o r s e r ra t ion w a s n o t

c ompa rab le

o bv ious C ompar i son Wi th A rchaeo log ica l

b ) T a sk : r e ap ing b racken s t em s ( J u ly )

8 3

T oo l : EXP / 19

m ic roden t icu la te

max

D ura t ion P rehen s ion

l e ng th

5 6mm E dge Ang le Morpho logy

Mo t ion Ang le

4 5 d eg ree s Max imum T h icknes s 6mm S erra t ion 2 7 mm c oncave

P o l i sh S tr ia t ion s

n one

P rof i le

E dge Wear

s ome s ca r s r emoved d if e ren t ia l ly w o rn

v e ry s l igh t ly c urved , a lmo s tf l a t

a ng le e dge a pp rop r ia te

D ura t ion

1 2m inu te s p rox ima l h and h e ld

P o l i sh

e s sen t ia l ly s im i la r t o EXP / 12 ( 8 a ) ,b e t te rd eve loped

S tr ia t ions

n one

E dge Wear

n o macro scop ic s e r ra t ion

w ea r

T oo l : EXP /6 4 4n un

n o

C ompar ison w i th A rchaeo log ica l p o l i sh n o t c ompa rab le , s t a te o f s e r ra t ion c ompa rab le

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne s s

6mm

1 5 mm c oncave

P rof i le

v e ry s l igh t ly c u rved c u t t ing

5 0 d eg ree s Max imum T h ickne s s

p e rp end icu la rt os t em s 2 0m inu te s

P rehens ion

d i s ta l l ef th and h e ld

P ol i sh

b e t te r d eve loped t han a ) s im i la r t ob ) r a r e

w i th h a f t _ q uan t i ty u nsa t i sf ac tor y

f l a t

s hav ing

l i ke

s l igh t ly

p enc i l sha rpen ing

Ang le

l ow

D ura t ion

4 0 m inu te s

P rehen s ion

p rox ima l c ove r ed w i th r e s in h e ld i nr i gh th and

P o l ish

b r igh t r e s t r ic ted t o 1 mm f r om

S tr ia t ion s

v e ry f ew s ome s ca r s r emoved ,

s e r ra t ion

T oo l : EXP /27 6 3n un

r eaped

E dge Ang le Morpho logy

s e r ra t ion c ompa rab le 9 . Wh i t t l ing S ea soned S o f t Wood a ) T a sk : s hap ing w ood s p l in te ri n to ap o in t T oo l : EXP /5 5 7mm

m ic roden t icu la t e

max .

E dge Ang le

4 5 d eg ree s

Morpho logy

Max imum Th ickne s s mm

l e ng th

m ic roden t icu la te

m ax .l e ng th

4 5 d eg ree s Max imum Th ickne s s

6mm

S erra t ion

3 0 mm c oncave

P rof i le

t w i s ted a nd s l igh t ly c u rved

Mo t ion

s aw ing b ack a nd f o r th

Ang le

p erpend icu la rt ow o rked s u r f ace

D ura t ion

1 0 m inu te s

P rehen s ion

r i gh t l a tera l i nw ooden h af tf i xed w i th b e e s w ax a nd s i n ew , r i gh t h and h e ld

4mm c onvex

b u t e dge

1 0 . I nc i s ing F re sh B irch T a sk : i n c i s ing g roove s i n to b i rch p o le

C ompar ison w i th A rchaeo log ica l p o l i sh n o t c ompa rab le , s t a te o f

Mo t ion Ang le

P rof i le

4mm

C ompar ison w i th Archaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le

Ef f i c iency a nd R e su l t s e dge s a t isf ac tor y f o r t a sk , b e t te r

P rof i le

2 2 mm c oncave

E ff ic iency a nd R esu l t s t a sk a ccomp l i shed u n re touched h igh a ng le mo re a pp ropr ia te

E dge Damage n o m ac ro scop ic s c a r s o r w ea r o n s e r ra t ion

3 4

S erra t ion

l e ng th

d if e ren t ia l ly w or n

D ura t ion

S er ra t ion

m ax .

Morpho logy

E dge Wear

t owa rd s

Ang le

S tr ia t ions

mo r e

e dge l i t t le d eve lop ed

S erra t ion

u n id i rec t iona l w o rke r

b e

a way f r om w o rke r

max . leng th

3 7d eg ree s

m ic roden t icu la te

E dge Ang le

Mo t ion

c ) T a sk : r e ap ing b racken s t ems ( Sep tembe r )

E dge Ang le

w ou ld

b ) T a sk : s hap ing w ooden p o in t

o bv iou s n eed f o r s e r ra t ion , u ncomf or tab le w i thou t h af t ing

m ic roden t icu la te

s e r ra t ion

C ompar ison w i th Ar chaeo log ica l n o tc ompa rab le

o n

Ef f i c iency a nd R e su l t s e dge s a t isf ac to ry f o r t a sk ,

Mo t ion

a lmo s tn one f o rmed

Ef f i c iency a nd R e su l t s t oo l i n ef f ic ien t , u n r e tou ched h igh

u n id i rec t iona lt owa rd so pe ra to r p e rpend icu la rt os t em s

P rehens ion

T oo l : EXP /23 6 7mm

5m inu te s l ef t l a te ra l i n w ooden h af t r i gh t h and h e ld

t o

P o l i sh

n o tw e l l d eve loped

s t ra igh t

S tr ia t ion s

p a ra l le lt oe dge

v e ry s l igh t ly c u rved

E dge Wear

s ome s ca r s a dded d if e ren t ia l ly w orn

u n id irec t iona l s hav ing mo t ion l ow a ng le

E f f ic iency a nd R esu l t s 8 4

s e r ra t ion

t o o lv e ry a pp rop r ia te f o rt a sk

Ef f i c iency a nd R esu l t s t a sk c a r r ied o u t , n o d en t icu la t ion o c cu r red

C ompar ison w i th A rchaeo log ica l p o l i sh n o t c ompa rab le , s t a te o f s e r ra t ion c ompa rab le

C ompar ison Wi th A rchaeo log ica l n o t c ompa rab le i n e dge w ea r o r i np o l ish

1 . S awür S he l l Ta 1 ac ow r ie s he l l T oo l : EXP ,11 n üc roden t icu la te 4 5 mm

m ax .

E dg e Ang le

4 2d eg ree s

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne s s

o the r ma ter ia ls u sed i n t h i s p rog ramm e b u t n o r egu la r d en t icu la t ion a s i nt h e m ic roden t icu la te s r e su l ted .

6mm

S erra t ion

3 0 mm c oncave a lmos tf l a t

1 3 . C u t t ing S traw

Mo t ion Ang le

s aw ing b ack a nd f o r th p e rp end icu la rt ow o rked s u r f ace

D ura t ion

1 5m inu te s

P rehens ion

p rox ima l r i gh th and h e ld

P o l i sh

v e ry

i n tense

NB : t h i s e xp e r imen t w a s r ep ea ted o n a l l t h e

l e ng th

P ro f i le

a ccompan ied

a ) T a sk : c u t t ing d ry r u she s T oo l : EXP / 1 E dge Ang le Morpho logy

b y Mo t ion Ang le

S tr ia t ions

mac roscop ic g l o s s p rof u se p a ra l le lt oe dge

E dg e Wear

e x t reme , s e r ra t ion t o ta l ly w or n

o u ta f te r 5m inu te s E f f ic iency a nd R e su l t s d en t icu la t ion t o o f i ne f o r s uch h a rd ma te r ia l C ompar ison Wi th A rchaeo log ica l n o a rchaeo log ica l i mp lemen t u sed o n s uch h a rd ma ter ia l n e i the r p o l i sh n o r e dge d amage c ompa rab le 1 2 . S aw ing B one T a sk : g roov ing c ow b one t o o b serve e f ec t o n

3 0d eg ree s Max imum T h ickne s s S erra t ion P rof i le

5mm

n one , c oncave s t ra igh t

t o

s aw ing b ack a nd f o r th

A ng le

p e rpend icu la rt ow o rked s u r f ace

D ura t ion

1 0m inu te s

P rehens ion P o l i sh

p rox ima l h e ld i nr i gh th and m ac ro scop ic o n b o th a spe c t s o f e dge , w e l l d eve loped , b r igh t , s ome p a ra l le lt oe dge

E dge Wear

m ac roscop ic , 2h a lf moon s ca r s 5 mm a c ro s s a nd s eve ra l s ma l le r

2 5 mm c oncave

P rof i le

t w i s ted a nd c urved

b ack a nd f o r th c u t t ing p e rp end icu la rt ow o rked s u rf ace

D ura t ion

3 0 m inu te s b ee swax a nd r e s in o np rox ima l

P o l i sh

n one

S tr ia t ion s E dge Wear

n one n one mac ro scop ic

Ef f i c iency a nd R e su l t s t o o lq u i te a dequa te f o rt a sk C ompar ison Wi th A rchaeo log ica l n o c ompa r ison p o s s ib le o n p o l i sh a nd /o re dge d amage

E dge Ang le

5 5 d eg ree s

Morpho logy

Max imum T h ickne s s

6n un

S erra t ion

2 5 mm c oncave

P rof i le

t w i s ted a nd c urved

Mo t ion

b ack a nd f o r th c u t t ing mo t ion

Ang le

p e rp end icu la rt ow o rked ma t er ia l 3 0 m inu te s

P rehens ion P o l ish S tr ia t ion s E dge Wear

b ee swa x a nd r e s in o n p rox ima l e nd w e l l d eve loped w i th m ac ro scop ic g lo s s n one n one mac ro scop ic

E f f ic iency a nd R e su l t s t o o l q u i te a dequa te f o rt a sk

r e s tr ic ted t oe dge S tr ia t ions

6mm

S erra t ion

P rehens ion

D ura t ion

v e ry s l igh t ly t w i s ted

Mo t ion

5 5 d eg ree s Max imum T h ickne s s

b ) T a sk : c u t t ing s oaked r u she s T oo l : EXP / 1

u nden t icu la ted e dge T oo l : EXP /52 u n re touched b l ade le t max . l e ng th 5 6nun E dg e Ang le Morpho logy

r egu la r

C ompar ison w i th Archaeo log ica l n o s im i la r d eve lopmen t q uan t i ty o f p ol i sh a rchaeo log ica lt oo l s

r emoved f r om e dge

8 5

a nd o n

Append ix 2 T abu la t ion o fM icroden t icu la te so n B a s is o f 1 .

S hape o f D en t icu la ted E dge : Mea su red f o r i t s i mp l ica t ion s r ega rd ing f unc t ion a c co rd ing t o t h e B orde s s y s tem o f h o ld ing a p enc i l a ga in s t t h e e dge —Bocque t s ugge s t s a mo re p rec ise , d e ta i led a nd t ime c on sum ing m e thod u s efu l i nt ypo logy . 2 6c oncave 2c onvex 4s t ra igh t 1s i nuou sc on s i s t ing o ft wo a d jo in ing c oncave l i ne s 1s i nuou sc on s is t ing o ft wo a d jo in ing c onvex l i ne s

2 .

Wear o fD en t icu la t ion ( Imp l ica t ion s r ega rd ing m a te r ia l )

h a rdne s s

o f

w o rked

2 4r egu la r ly w o rn 1 0d if e ren t ia l ly w o rn 3 .

B reakage o fd i s ta l a nd /or p rox ima le nds B reakage w a s t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion o n ly when n ea re nough t od en t icu la t ion t ob ec au sed b yu se o r p o s s ib le h af t ing — the ref o re s ma l l d i s ta l e nd b reak s wh ich c ou ld b ep o s t -depo s i t iona lw e r e i gno red . I mp l ica t ion so n a )h af t ing b )o nh a rdne s so fu sed ma ter ia ls 2 4b o th d i s ta la nd p rox ima lp r e sen t 4b o th d i s ta la nd p rox ima lb roken 4o n ly p rox ima lb roken 3o n ly d i s ta lb roken

o

•

�

G

8

�

"

�

n

�

w

�

1m�m1/m1/1 1 /1m/111 /1 1 /1 11/1 1 /1m�111/1 1 /1 11/1m/1 11/1 11/m1/1m/11�/1 �/

__

Figure la: Microscope stage scale shown at 50 magnifications

0

10

20

30

1.0

50

60: 70

80

90

Figure 2:

Grooving stone crushed crystals appearing as luminescent specks x200

Figure 3:

Initial stages of polish grooving wood x200

Figure 4:

Initial stages

JOC

/1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /!1 1/1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /1 1 /

0

1,

Figure lb: Microscope stage scale shown at 100 magnifications

Q,

11 0

Figure le: Microscope stage scale shown at 200 magnifications

87

F igur e5 :

L in eo fP o l i sh c au sed b yr e tou ch s ome t im e s c a l led s t r eak x 100

F igure 8 :

Ma c ro scop ic g l o s sa f t e rw h i t t l ing g r een w ood EXP /E5

F igur e6 :

A r cha eo log ica l" s ick le g l o s s"

F igure 9 :

S ame a r ea a si nf i gu r e 8a f te rc l ean ing w i th N aOH 2 0% ( w /v ) x 100 EXP /E5

F igur e7 :

C oa r s eI SR /5b F l in ta pp ea r ing p ed e s taled a t x 200

x 100

F igure 1 0 : A l lt r ac e sd i sapp ea ra f t e rt umb l ing i nw e t g r ave l ly s and x 100

8 8

F igure 1 : T race sf r om . w h i t t l ing r e ed sa f t e rw a sh ing EXP /9 x 100

F igure 1 4 : T ra ce sa f t e r wh i t t l ing d ry r e ed sa nd c l ean ing EXP /9

F igur e1 2 : S ame a r ea a sf i gu r e 1a f t e rs hak ing i n s and f o r 1 0m inu t e s x 100

F igure 1 5 : T he e dge i nf i gu r e 1 4a f te r 1 0m inu t e s s hak ing i ns and s om e" s t r ia t ion s " r emoved x 100

F igur e 1 3 : A f te rt umb l ing f o r5 0h ou r si nw e ts and n o t r ace sr ema in x 100

F igure 1 6 : E dge i nf i gu r e s 1 4a nd 1 5a f te r5 0h ou r s t umb l ing i ns and o n ly p o l i sh s u rv iv e s x 100

8 9

F igure 1 7 : Mac ro scop ic r e s idu ef r om d eb ark ing g reen a l d e rb ef o r ec l ean ing EXP /83 x 200

F igure 1 8 : C lean s u rf ace o fc oa r se f l in t ,n op o l i sh EXP /83 x 200

F igur e 1 9 : T ra ce sb e f o r ec hem ica lc l ean ing o n a r cha eo log ica la r t ef a c t x 200

F igure 2 0 : S ame e dge a si nf i gu re 1 9a f te r3 0m inu te s e a ch i nN aOH 1 5% a nd HCL 1 5% n o t r a ce sl e f t x 100

F igur e2 1 : T ra ce sa f t e rc u t t ing m ea tf o r6 0m inu te s EXP / 18 x 200

F igur e2 2 : T rac e sa f te rc u t t ing f r e sh h id ef o r2 5 m inu te s EXP / 31 x 200

9 0

percussion ripples

undulating topography

edge feathering

ridged topography

Figure 23: Features of the flint topography. After Grace (1989: Figures 38 and 39)

91

F igure 2 4 : M ic roden t icu la te s ( a c tua l s i ze ) ( s aw -edge e n la rged 2 x )

9 2

a

a a )

U nu sed e dge

b ) c )

E dge u sed o n m a ter ia l so fm ed ium h a rdne s s E dge u sed o nh a rd m a ter ia l s l i ke s he l l

d )

E dge so fa r chaeo log ica l m ic ro -den t icu la te sd e scr ibed a sd if e ren t ia l ly w o rn

F igur e 2 5 : P a t te rn so fw ea ro ne dge s o fe xper imen ta l a nd a r chaeo log ica l m ic roden t icu la te s

9 3

F igure 2 6 : P o l i sh o na r cha eo log ica lm ic ro -den t icu la te . x 200

F igure 2 7 : P o l i sh o na r chaeo log ica lm ic ro -d en t icu la t e

F igur e2 8 : P o l ish p roduced b yt umb l ing i ns o i l2 4 h ou r s EXP / 59 x 200

F igure 2 9 : Ma c ro scop ic p o l ish f r om c u t t ing r e ed s , 6 0 m inu t e s , n op o l i sh i ns c a r EXP / 3 x 200

x 200

F igur e3 1 : P o l i sh f r om c u t t ing b racken i nS ep tembe r f o r20 m inu te s EXP / 19 x 200

F igure 3 0 : P o l i sh f r om c u t t ing b ra cken i nJ une f o r1 0 m inu te s EXP / 12 x 200

9 4

Figure 32: Polish from incising green birch for lO minutes EXP/27 x200

Figure 35: Polish rounding the edge from cutting green reeds for 60 minutes EXP/3 x200

Figure 33: No polish after 30 minutes cutting dry rushes x200 EXP/1

Figure 36: Cluster of bright spots with striations on edge of archaeological artefact x200

Figure 34: Well developed polish after cutting wet rushes for 15 minutes EXP/1 x200

Figure 37: Totally linked polish after 30 minutes on wet rushes x200 EXP/1

95

1

' i e 1,1 \ '

F igure 3 8 : S o i l s heen o nu nu sed e dge EXP /9

x 200

F igure 4 1 : P ol i sh f r om t umb l ing b e t t e rd eve loped t h an f i gu r e4 0a nd r ound ing e dg e EXP /27 x 100

F igure 3 9 : I n c i s ing b i r ch f o r1 0m inu te s EXP /27

x 100

F igure 4 2 : P ol i sh f r om t umbl ing s im i la rt op re sumed " haf t ing "t r ac e so na r chaeo log ica la r t ef ac t s EXP /27 x 200

F igure 4 0 : N ew p o l i sh o ne dg ea f t e rt umb l ing s e e f i gu r e3 9 EX P /27 x 200

F igure 4 3 : B r igh ts po t sw i th s t r ia t ions o ne dge o f a r cha eo log ica la r t ef ac t

9 6

x 100

Figure 44: Bright spot from rubbing flint on flint with water for 2 minutes EXP/77B x200

Figu re 45: Archaeological bright spot similar to figure 44. x50

Figure 46: Bright spots spots on HH artefact with distribution similar to use-wear xl 00

Figure 47: Bright spots similar on same artefact as figure46 to figures 35 & 29 used on reeds xlOO

Fi gure 48: Polish before brushing experiment EXP/106 x100

Figure 49: Polish after brushing with nylon brush EXP/106 100

97

F igure 5 0 : Weak ly d eve loped p o l i sh b ef o re b ru sh ing e xp e r im en t EXP / 106 x 100

F igure 5 1 : Weak ly d ev e loped p o l i sh a f t e rb ru sh ing w i th n y lon b ru sh EXP / 106

F igur e5 2 : U npo l i shed f l in tb ef o re b ru sh ing e xp e r im en t EXP / 106

F igur e5 3 : U npo l i sh ed f l in ta f t e rb ru sh ing w i th n y lon b ru sh EX P / 106 x 100

x 100

F igur e5 5 : P o l i sh a f t e rc u t t ing m ea tf o r6 0m inu te s EX P / 18 x 200

F igur e5 4 : Weak ly d ev e lop ed p o l i sh o na r cha eo log ica l a r t e f a c tf r om K eba r a x 200

9 8

F igur e5 6 : P o l i sh f r om b u t che r ing ( mea ta nd b on e ) EXP /88 x 200

F igur e5 7 : Weak ly d eve loped p o l i sh f r om b u tch e r ing EXP / 18 x 200

F igur e5 8 : L inea rf e a tu r e sp a ra l le lt oe dge o n a r chaeo log ica ls c rap e r

F igure 5 9 : P o l i sh a f t e rs c rap ing w e th ide f o r5 m inu t e s . EXP / 128 x 200

x 100

F igur e6 0 : P o l i sh f r om g roov ing w ood w i th s of t a b r a s ive EXP /93 x 200

F igure 6 1 : P ol i sh w i thou ts t r ia t ion sg roov ing w ood w i th h igh a ng led e dge x 200 EXP /96

9

ISR/1:

Fine grained does not refract light as BRND x200

ISR/4a:

Coarse grained, many inclusions

ISR/2:

Medium to coarse small and large inclusions large shallow hollows

ISR/4b:

Medium grained with many ridges and inclusions xl00

ISR/3:

Medium grained weathered nodule with large inclusions xl00

ISR/Sa:

Not very tightly packed even in this area of finer grain x200

JSR/Sb:

Flint see figure 7 for Brandon flint see figure 98 For Potters Bar flint see figures 99 and 225

x200

Figure 62: Various Israeli flint types

100

xl00

POLISH DEVELOPMENT A+

A individual elements �

�

� �

�-

"J.

�

-�

� :,:.

� �

�

'="

•

�

B+

B linked

C all over

D linear C4i> '=• �� -·�•�-#._, ..,.�a

.,

.....

f¥1.'-'z�.,..i:.,��.�� �' �� ...�':•A•;, ��•":"••- - �

Figure 63: Polish Development. After Grace (1989:Figure 55)

101

F igure 6 4 : S t r ia t ion a s ag roov ei nt h es u r f ace s moo thed b yw e tg oa th id e EXP / 140

S EM

1 48884 2 8KV

F igure 6 5 : L a rge a spe r i ty p l a s t ica l ly d ef ormed a s l i nea rf e a tu r e EXP / 141 S EM

1 02

3 3

8

3

8

8

MU M

F igure 6 6 : C ome ts haped s t r ia t ion i ns u r f ace s moo thed b yw e tg oa th id e EXP /140 S EM

F igure 6 7 : F e rn l ik es t r ia t ion f r om s c rap ing h i de w i th o ch re EXP / 127 S EM

1 03

F igure 6 8 : S c ra tch o ns u rf ace h i gh ly s moo thed b y1 4 1 / . t . g r i t . N o t el a te ra lc r a ck sa nd c ru shed c r y s ta l s S EM

ä ä e e

2 8KV

F igur e6 9 : E n la rg ed v i ew o ft h et o pl e f tl a te ra lc r ack i nf i gu r e6 8a bove . EXP / 103 S EM a

1 0 4

.

.

E i4 2@ KV

i

l

i

l

i

l

X 2. 0 0K

i

S

i

8

8

3 0um

F igure 7 0 : C ome t ta i l s t r ia t ion w i th s moo th t a i l o n f l in tp o l i shed b yd r yh i de . EXP / 141 S EM

F igure 7 1 : Smoo th s u r f ace f r om s c rap ing d ee rh ide w i th o ch r e . EXP / 120 S EM

1 05

F igure 7 2 : P o l i sh f r om g roov ing w ood w i th w a te r . EXP /92 (1 ) x 200

F igure 7 3 : P o l i sh g r oov ing w ood w i th o i l . EXP /92 (2 )

x 200

F igure 7 4 : P o l i sh f r om g roov ing d ry w ood EXP /91

F igure 7 5 : U nu sed g oa th i de EXP / 140 a nd EXP / 141

x 200

x 200

F igure 7 6 : G oa th ide a f t e ru s es pe ck led w i th f l in t p a r t ic le s E 32 /14 0 x 200

F igure 7 7 : G oa th id ea f t e ru se s p eck led w i th f l in t p a r t ic le s EXP / 14 1 x 200

1 06

F igur e7 8 : H igh ly r ounded a nd s moo thed e dge s c rap ing h ide w i th u n s i f ted o ch re a nd w a te r , c ff i gu re 8 3 . EXP /118 S EM

,

ä ää001

F igur e7 9 : H ighe r magn if ica t ion o fa rea i nf i gu r e7 8 , n o te f i ne s t r ia t ion sp e rpend icu la rt oe dge . EXP /118 S EM

1 07

2 0KV

l

i

t

t

X

4

1 1

.3 0mm

F igure 8 0 : Smoo th s u r f ace f r om s c rap ing h id ew i th o ch re < 212 . ta nd w a t e r . EXP / 127 S EM

F igure 8 1 : Smoo th s u r f ace w i th s t r ia t ion f r om s c rap ing h i de w i th o ch r e< 212 1 1a nd h exan e . E 32 / 129 S EM B e t

6 11664 2 8KY 1 08

11 1 • • • 1 1 18 1 1 1 1 13 1 1 1

l e aue

F igure 8 2 : L i t t le d ev e lop ed p o l i sh o nc oa r se f l in t s c rap ing h i d e2 0m inu t e s . EXP / 117

F igur e8 3 : We l ld ev e loped p o l i sh a nd r ound ed e dg e s c rap ing h i de w i th u n s if t ed o ch r e ,c ff i gu r e s 7 8a nd 7 9 . EXP / 118

F igur e8 4 : We l ld ev e loped p o l i sh a nd r ounded e dge s c rap ing h i de w i th u n s if t ed o ch r e . EXP /119 x 200

F igur e8 5 : V e ry w e l ld eve lop ed p o l i sh a nd r ounded e dg es c rap ing h ide w i th 2 12 / 300 p .o ch r e . EXP /120 x 200

F igure 8 6 : L i t t le d ev e lop ed p o l i sh s c rap ing c ow h ide

F igure 8 7 : V e ry w e l ld ev e loped p o l i sh a nd r ounded e dge s c rap ing h ide w i th 2 12 / 300g o ch re . EXP /123 x 200

w i th 4 25g o ch r e EXP / 121

x 200

1 09

F igure 8 8 : L i t t le d ev e loped p o l i sh o nc oa r s ef l in t s c rap ing c ow h i d ew i th < 212µ o ch r e . EXP / 124 x 200

F igur e8 9 : We l ld eve loped p o l i sh o nc oa r s ef l in t s c rap ing h i de w i th < 212m o ch r e . x 200 EXP / 125

F igure 9 0 : L i t t le d ev e loped p ol i sh s c rap ing c ow h id e w i th

2

3

4

F igure 2 49 :A r t ef a c t sf r om t h e Mou s te r ian o fK eba ra c a ve .

1 7 2

1

2

3

F igur e2 50 :A r tef ac t sf r om t h e Mou s t er ian o fK eba ra c av e .

1 7 3

1

2

3

F igure 2 51 :A r tef ac t sf r om t h e Mou s te r ian o fK eba ra c ave .

1 74

2

3

F igure 2 52 :S i ck le b l ad e sw i th g l o s sf r om F a r 'ah .

1 75

2

0

3

4

F igure 2 53 :A r tef ac t sf r om N aha l H e ima rc ave .

1 76

2

2

3 4

F igure 2 54 :A r tef ac t sf r om Naha l H e ima rc ave .

1 77

2

3

F igure 2 55 :A r tef ac t sf r om N aha l H e ima rc ave .

1 78