Microwear Patterns on Experimental Basalt Tools 9780860545910, 9781407347462

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Previous Microwear Research
Chapter 3: Geology and Petrography of Cache Creek Basalt
Chapter 4: Historic and Prehistoric Use of Cache Creek Basalt
Chapter 5: Independent Variables, Recording Methods, and Procedures
Chapter 6: Dependent Variables, Recording Methods, and Procedures
Chapter 7: Microwear Observed on Experimental Basalt Tools
Chapter 8: Statistical Analysis of Microflake Scar Variables
Chapter 9: Blind Tests
Chapter 10: Relationships Between Tool-Use Behaviour and Microwear on Experimental Basalt Tools
Chapter 11: Summary and Conclusions
References
Appendix A: Detailed Tabulations of Microwear Observations
Appendix B: Light Microscope Photomicrographs of Microwear
Appendix C: Scannning Electron Microscope Photomicrographs of Microwear
Appendix D: Outline Drawings of Experimental Tools
Appendix E: Blind Test Interpretations

Citation preview

Microwear Patterns on Experimental Basalt Tools

Thotnas H. Richards

BAR International Series 460

1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S460, 1988:

© Thomas

'Jlicrowea.r

Patterns on

Hxperi:aental

Basalt Tools'

H. Richards, 1988

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545910 paperback ISBN 9781407347462 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545910 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T oS ha ron Mue l l e r

a nd

m yp ar en t s

Wa l t raud a nd T om R icha rd s

CONTENTS

L IST OF F IGURES L IST OF TABLES PREFACE

v x i

x i i i

C hap te r 1 .I NTRODUCT ION 1 . 1 R e search Goa l s $I 1 . 2 T he s i s Ou t l ine 2

2 . PREV IOUS MICRO WEAR RESEARCH 2 . 1 T he C ur ren tS ta te o fE xper imen ta lM ic rowea rR e sea rch 4 2 . 2 P rev iou sM ic rowea rR e sea rch I nvo lv ing B a sa l tT oo l s 7

3 . GEOLOGY AND PETROGRAPHY OF CACHE CREEK BASALT 3 . 1 3 . 2 3 . 3 3 . 4

I n t roduc t ion 1 0 Geomorpho logy o ft he C ache C reek B a sa l tS ou rce A rea Geo log ica lO r ig in a nd P e t rog raphy 1 4 P e t rog raph ic Ana ly s i s 1 5

1 0

4 .H ISTOR IC AND PREH ISTOR IC USE OF CACHE CREEK BASALT 4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 4

I n t roduc t ion 2 4 T homp son , S hu swap a nd L i l looe tL i th ic T echno logy P reh i s to r ic U se o fB a sa l t 2 9 S umma ry a nd D i scu s s ion 3 7

2 6

5 .I NDEPENDENT VAR IABLES , RECORD ING METHODS , AND PROCEDURES 5 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 3 8 5 . 2 P re -Expe r imen t Ob se rva t ion s 4 8 5 . 3 Ob se rva t ion s Du r ing E xper imen t s

5 1

i i

6 . DEPENDENT VAR IABLES , RECORD ING METHODS , AND PROCEDURES 6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 3 6 . 4 6 . 5 6 . 7

I n troduc t ion 5 9 Ana ly t ica lP rocedure 5 9 Reco rd ing Me thod s 6 0 Equ ipmen t 6 0 Dependen t Va r iab le s 6 1 Na tu ra l "Wea r 6 6

7 . MICRO WEAR OBSERVED ON EXPER I MENTAL BASALT TOOLS 7 . 1 7 . 2 7 . 3 7 . 4 7 . 5 7 . 6 7 . 7 7 . 8

I n troduc t ion 6 9 P lan t s 7 0 H ide 7 1 Bone 7 6 An t le r 8 0 F ish B u tcher ing 8 4 Deer B u tche r ing 8 7 Wood 9 3

8 .S TAT IST ICAL ANALYS IS OF MICROFLAKE S CAR VAR IABLES 8 . 1 8 . 2 8 . 3 8 . 4

I n t roduc t ion 1 01 Cor re la t ion sB e tween I ndependen ta nd Dependen t Va r iab le s C lu s te r Ana ly s i s 1 08 D i sc r im inan tF un c t ion Ana ly s i s 14

1 01

9 . BL IND TESTS 9 . 1 9 . 2 9 . 3 9 . 4

I n t roduc t ion 1 21 Backg round 1 22 D i scu s s ion o fB l ind T e s tR e su l t s S u mma ry a nd D i scu s s ion 1 32

1 22

1 0 . RELAT IONSH IPS BET WEEN TOOL -USE BEHAV IOUR AND MICRO WEAR ON EXPER I MENTAL BASALT TOOLS 1 0 .1 1 0 .2 1 0 .3 1 0 .4

I n t roduc t ion 1 33 V i t reou sB a sa l tM ic rowea rS umma ry 1 33 Non -V i t reou sB a sa l tM ic rowea rS umma ry 1 46 S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scope S tudy S umma ry 1 47

i ii

1 . SU M MARY AND CONCLUS IONS 1 .1 S umma ry o fR e sea rch C onc lu s ion s 1 .2 F u tu re Re sea rch D i rec t ion s 1 52

REFERENCES

1 49

1 54

APPEND IX A : T abu la t ion so fM ic rowea r Da ta

1 68

APPEND IX B : P ho tom ic rog raph so fM ic rowea r

2 02

APPEND IX C : S EM P ho tom ic rog raph so fM ic rowea r .

APPEND IX D : D raw ing so fE xpe r imen ta lT oo l s

APPEND IX E : B l ind T e s tI n te rp re ta t ion s

i v

2 72

2 51

2 22

L IST OF F IGURES F igu re

P age

1 .S ou the rn B r i t i sh C o lumb ia 2 .L oca t ion o fb a sa l ts ou rce

1 1 2

3 .B asa l tc obb le i na l luv ia ld epo s i t 4 .B a sa l tc obb le i nt i l l

1 3

1 3

5 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 2 2

1 9

6 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 4 4

1 9

7 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 2 1

2 0

8 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 2 1

2 0

9 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 2 5

2 1

1 0 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 3 5

2 1

1 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 2 6

2 2

1 2 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 2 6

2 2

1 3 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 3 4

2 3

1 4 .T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 3 4

2 3

1 5 .E thnog raph ic map o fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia 1 6 .S l igh tp re -u se d amage 1 7 .S evere p re -u se d amage

2 5

4 9 4 9

1 8 .T oo l 1 34 -23 b e ing u sed t os c rape w ood 1 9 .C lose -up o ft oo l 1 34 -23 i nu se

5 2

5 2

2 0 .T oo l2 7 -16 b e ing u sed t os c rape h ide

5 3

2 1 .C lose -up o ft oo l4 6 -4 d u r ing u se a ss c rape r 2 2 .T oo l 1 2 -11 b e ing u sed t ob u tche rd ee r 2 3 .T oo l 1 4b e ing u sed t ob u tche rd ee r

5 4 5 4

5 3

2 4 .T oo la c t ion s

5 6

2 5 . Do r sa la nd v en t ra le dge -a spec t s 2 6 . M ic rof lake s ca rr e la t ion sh ip s

6 2 6 3

2 7 . L ead ing a nd t r a i l ing e dge -a spec t s 2 8 . O r ien ta t ion o fs t r ia t ion s

6 7

2 9 . C lu s te ra na ly s i sd end rog ram

11

3 0 . Mode lo fp o l i sh s t age d eve lopmen t 3 1 . Ra te so fp o l i sh d eve lopmen t 3 2 . Unu sed t oo l 1 34 -23 3 3 . Unu sed t oo l2 7 -17

6 5

1 38

1 41

2 03 2 03

3 4 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -11

2 04

3 5 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -11

2 04

3 6 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 61 -11

2 05

3 7 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 7 -14

2 05

3 8 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 7 -14

2 06

3 9 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 2 -13

2 06

4 0 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 2 -13

2 07

4 1 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l2 7 -17

2 07

4 2 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l2 7 -17

2 08

4 3 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l2 7 -17

2 08

4 4 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -9

2 09

4 5 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -9

2 09

4 6 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l4 6 -2

2 10

4 7 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l4 6 -2

2 10

4 8 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l4 6 -2

2 11

V i

4 9 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l4 6 -2

2 11

5 0 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 7 -13

2 12

5 1 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 7 -13

2 12

5 2 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 7 -13

2 13

5 3 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 38 -19

2 13

5 4 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -6

2 14

5 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -6

2 14

5 6 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -6

2 15

5 7 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 41 -20

2 15

5 8 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 41 -20

2 16

5 9 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 41 -20

2 16

6 0 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 41 -20

2 17

6 1 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 41 -20

2 17

6 2 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 2 -3

2 18

6 3 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l4 5 -7

2 18

6 4 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l2 7 -5

2 19

6 5 . M ic rowea ro nt oo l2 7 -5

2 19

6 6 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -23

2 20

6 7 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -23

2 20

6 8 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -23

2 21

6 9 .M ic rowea ro nt oo l 1 34 -23

2 21

7 0 . Unu sed b a sa l tt oo l ( SE M )

2 23

7 1 . Unu sed b a sa l tt oo l ( SE M )

2 23

7 2 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l 1 2 -12

2 24

7 3 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l 1 2 -12

2 24

v ii

7 4 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -12

2 25

7 5 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 7 -14

2 25

7 6 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l 1 7 -14

2 26

7 7 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 7 -14

2 26

7 8 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 7 -14

2 27

7 9 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l 1 7 -14

2 27

8 0 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l2 7 -17

2 28

8 1 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l2 7 -17

2 28

8 2 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l2 7 -17

2 29

8 3 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l2 7 -17

2 29

8 4 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 34 -9

2 30

8 5 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 34 -9

2 30

8 6 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 34 -9

2 31

8 7 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l4 6 -2

2 31

8 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l 1 8 -19

2 32

8 9 . M ic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 8 -19

2 32

9 0 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 7 -13

2 33

9 1 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 7 -13

2 33

9 2 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 34 -22

2 34

9 3 . M ic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 34 -22

2 34

9 4 . M ic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 7 -11

2 35

9 5 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l 1 8 -13

2 35

9 6 . M ic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 61 -19

2 36

9 7 . M ic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 38 -12

2 36

9 8 . M ic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 34 -17

2 37

v iii

9 9 . M ic rowea r( SE M )o nt oo l 1 34 -17

2 37

1 00 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -6

2 38

1 01 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -6

2 38

1 02 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -6

2 39

1 03 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -6

2 39

1 04 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l4 5 -7

2 40

1 05 . Mic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l4 5 -7

2 40

1 06 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -11

2 41

1 07 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -11

2 41

1 08 . Mic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l4 4 -8

2 42

1 09 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l4 4 -8

2 42

10 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -1

2 43

11 . Mic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -1

2 43

12 . Mic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 41 -6

2 44

13 . Mic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 41 -6

2 44

14 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 41 -6

2 45

15 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 41 -17

2 45

16 . Mic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 41 -17

2 46

17 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l2 7 -15

2 46

18 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l2 7 -15

2 47

19 . Mic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l2 7 -15

2 47

1 20 . Mic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l2 7 -15

2 48

1 21 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l2 7 -15

2 48

1 22 . Mic rowea r( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 34 -18

2 49

1 23 . Mic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 34 -18

2 49

i x

1 24 . M ic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -5

2 50

1 25 . M ic rowea r ( SE M ) o nt oo l 1 2 -5

2 50

1 26 .P lan tc u t t ing t oo l s

2 52

1 27 . H ide wo rk ing t oo l s

2 53

1 28 . H ide wo rk ing t oo l s

2 54

1 29 .H ide wo rk ing t oo l s

2 55

1 30 .B one wo rk ing t oo l s

2 56

1 31 . B one wo rk ing t oo l s

2 57

1 32 . An t le r wo rk ing t oo l s

2 58

1 33 . An t le r wo rk ing t oo l s

2 59

1 34 . An t le r wo rk ing t oo l s

2 60

1 35 . An t ler wo rk ing t oo l s

2 61

1 36 . F i sh b u tcher ing t oo l s

2 62

1 37 . Dee rb u tcher ing t oo l s

2 63

1 38 . Dee rb u tcher ing t oo l s

2 64

1 39 . Dee rb u tcher ing t oo l s

2 65

1 40 . Dee rb u tcher ing t oo l s

2 66

1 41 . Wood wo rk ing t oo l s

2 67

1 42 . Wood w ork ing t oo l s

2 68

1 43 . Wood wo rk ing t oo l s

2 69

1 44 . Wood wo rk ing t oo l s

2 70

1 45 . Wood wo rk ing t oo l s

2 71

L IST OF TABLES T ab le

P age

1 .S um ma ry o fb a sa l tm ic rowea rr e sea rch 2 .B a sa l tt h in s ec t ion d e sc r ip t ion s 3 .L i s to f mamma ls pec ie s 4 .L i s to ff i sh s pec ie s

8

1 7

3 0

3 1

5 .L i s to fp lan ta nd t r ee s pec ie s

3 2

6 .L i s to fo rgan ic ma ter ia lc u l tu re i t em s 7 .L i s to fc h ipped s t one t oo lt ype s

3 4

3 6

8 .E xper imen ta lt oo lp re -u se a t t r ibu te s 9 .S umma ry o ft oo lu se e xpe r imen t s 1 0 . Dependen tv a r iab le d e f in i t ion s 1 .I ndependen tv a r iab le d ef in i t ion s 1 2 .S pea rman C or re la t ion s

3 9 4 4

1 02 1 04

1 06

1 3 . S pea rman C or re la t ion su s ing p e rcen tage s

1 07

1 4 . Agg lome ra t ion me thod sa nd d i s tance mea su re s 1 5 . Dependen tv a r iab le d i s t r ibu t ion s u mma ry 1 6 . Dependen tv a r iab le s e t s

13

1 7 . Cor rec t ly c l a s s i f ied t oo l s

17

1 8 .C or re la t ion sw i th d i sc r im inan tf unc t ion s 1 9 .B l ind T e s tt oo lc l a s s if i ca t ion r e su l t s 2 0 .S um ma ry o fB l ind T e s tt oo lu se 2 1 .T hree -pa r tc on tac t ma ter ia ls ca le 2 2 .F ou r -pa r tc on tac t ma te r ia ls ca le 2 3 .B l ind T e s t 1r e su l t s

19

1 23 1 26 1 26

1 27

X i

13

18

1 09

2 4 . B l ind T e s t 2r e su l t s

1 29

2 5 . B l ind T e s t 3r e su l t s

1 31

2 6 .P o l i sh d eve lopmen ts t age d e sc r ip t ion s 2 7 . S umma ry o fm ic rowea rp a t tern s 2 8 . M ic rof lake s ca rd i s t r ibu t ion s 2 9 . M ic ropo l i sh c ha rac ter i s t ic s 3 0 . S t r ia t ion c ha rac ter i s t ic s

1 43

1 69 1 77

1 90

x ii

1 39

PREFACE

T h i s b ook i sb a sed o n a t he s i s s ubm i t ted i n p a r t ia l f u l f i l lmen t o f t h e r equ i remen t s f o r a Ma s te r o fA r t s d eg ree i n An th ropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy a t t h e Un ive r s i ty o f S a ska tchewan ( R icha rd s 1 987 ) . T he Depa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy g ene rou s ly s uppo r ted my r e sea rch w i th g radua te s c ho la r sh ip s ,s e s s iona ll e c tu re sh ip s ,a nd t each ing a s s i s tan t sh ip s . T he membe r s o fm y c omm i t tee p rov ided i n s igh t fu l a nd h e lpfu l c ommen t s o n m y t hes i s : D r . J ame s F .V . M i l la r ( s uperv i so r a nd c ha i rman ) , D r . Ahme t R . Me rmu t , D r . E rne s t G . Wa lke r , Mr . S a tya P . S ha rma , a nd Mr . J ohn G . McConne l l ( e x te rna l e xam ine r ) . Io we a s pec ia l d eb t t o D r . Mermu t f o r h i s e n cou ragemen t , f o r g u id ing me t h rough t he t h in s e c t ion a nd s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope a na ly se s , a nd f o r p rov id ing s upp l ie s , e qu ipmen t a nd h i s t ime s o f r ee ly . P ro fe s so rM i l la r , my s upe rv i so r , d id e ve ry th ing i nh i sp owe rt oe n su re t he s u cce s sfu l c omp le t ion o f t he r e sea rch p ro jec t . He w a s a lway s a va i lab le f o r c on su l ta t ion a nd a dv ice , a nd h e e n su red t ha t In eve r s t rayed t oo f a r f r om m y t op ic . It hank t he f o l low ing p eop le f o r t he i r c on t r ibu t ion s t o my r e sea rch : L e s l ie Amund son ,J ohn B randon ,J oanne Hade r ,S ha ron Hanna ,E ldon J ohn son , Dav id K e l ly , K i tK roz se r ,K a thy L ip se t ta nd G inge rS can lon , m yf e l low g rad s t uden t s a t t h e Un ive r s i ty o fS a ska tchewan w ho h e lped i n av a r ie ty o fw ay s , Geo rd ie Howe ( S imon F ra se r Un ive r s i ty ) f o r p a r t ic ipa t ing i nt he b l ind t e s t s , Don G lo s sop a nd D on F lor izone ( Sa ska tchewan R e sea rch C ounc i l ) f o r p rov id ing a cce s s t o a n i n c iden t l i gh t m ic ro scope , a nd G len Hudy ( Un ive r s i ty o f S a ska tchewan ) f o r h i s i n va luab le a s s is tance d u r ing t he p repa ra t ion o f t h in s e c t ion s a nd d ur ing t h e s c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope a na ly s i s . T he Depa r tmen t o fA rchaeo logy a nd P reh i s to ry , Un iver s i ty o fS hef f ie ld , h ave g enerou s ly p rov ided f a c i l i t ie s f o r t he p roduc t ion o ft he manu sc r ip t o ft h i s b ook . I n p a r t icu la r , It hank Do ro thy C ru se , Mav i s T or ry , D r . P a t r ic ia P h i l l ip s a nd P ro fe ssor K e i th B ram i igan .

T homa s R icha rd s S he f f ie ld , N ovembe r 1 988

CHAPTERl

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Goals Archaeologists are increasingly concerned with reconstructing prehistoric cultural behaviour to attain a better understanding of past societies. Stone tools have a high potential for contributing to behavioural reconstruction due to the wealth of technological, functional and ideological information they embody, and archaeologists face the formidable task of reliably retrieving this information. Binford (1981,1982) advocates the development of "middle range theory" to provide a means whereby material remains can be related to the past behaviour which produced them. The present study is directed at understanding the rel�tionships between tool-use behaviour (or function) and microwear patterns on Cache Creek basalt tools. The problem is explored through controlled tool-use experimentation and the observation of microwear traces on used tools by means of light microscopes and a scanning electron microscope. The primary goal of this study is to develop a framework for the functional interpretation of basalt tools from late prehistoric archaeological sites located in the southwestern interior of British Columbia. Historically, this area was occupied by the Interior Salish speaking Thompson, Lillooet (Fraser Canyon Lillooet) and Shuswap people of the Plateau culture area. In the 19th century these societies cop.sisted of egalitarian hunter-gatherers who lived in semi­ permanent pithouse villages along the major salmon-bearing rivers and lakes. Archaeological research has led to the recognition of prehistoric cultures with similar lifeways occupying the area for at least the past 3500-4000 years. "Cache Creek basalt" is known to have been the primary raw material used for making chipped stone tools by both the historic and prehistoric Native people occupying this area. The ethnographic record and archaeological evidence are used to provide a systemic framework for the tool-use experiments in this study. 1

P rev iou sm ic rowea rr e sea rch w i th b a sa l t t oo l s( s ee C hap ter 2 . 2 )h a sl e f t man y u nan swered q ue s t ion s w h ich t he p re sen t s t udy w i l l i n ve s t iga te . T he f o l low ing s pec i f ic p rob lem s a re a dd re s sed i n t h e c ou r se o f e xp lor ing t he r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween m ic rowea ra nd t oo lf unc t ion :

1 . Do v i t r eou s a nd n on -v i t r eou s b a sa l t s h ave s im i la r m i c rowea r c ha rac te r i s t ic s? 2 . Wh ich t y pe s o fm ic rowea ra r e mo s t u sef u lf o ri d en t if y ing t h e u sed a r ea o f at o o l , t o o la c t ion a nd c on tac t ma t e r ia l? 3 . Wh ich magn i f i ca t ions a r e mo s t a pp ropr ia te f o r f unc t iona l i n te rp r e ta t ion so fb a sa l tt o o l s? 4 . Do d i s t inc t ive t y pe s o fp o l i sh d eve lop o n b a sa l t t oo l sa s ar e su l to f u se o n d i f f e r en t c on tac t ma te r ia l s a s h a s b een f ound t o b e t h e c a se w i th v a r iou sf l in t sa nd c he r t s? 5 .A r e r a r e l y o bse r ved w ea rt y pe ss uch a sp o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion s mor e c ommon l yo b se r v ed w hen h i gh magn i f ica t ion sa r ee mp loyed? 6 . A r e mu l t iva r ia te s t a t i s t ica l t e chn ique s a pp rop r ia te f o r t h e f unc t iona l c l a s s if i ca t ion o fb a sa l t t oo l s ( and s t one t oo l s i ng ene ra l ) , a nd c an s t a t i s t ica lm e thod sb eu sed t oi d en t i f yf unc t iona l l ys i gn if i can t w ea rv a r iab l e s .?

1 .2 Ou t l ine

I n C hap te r s 2 , 3a nd 4p e r t inen t b ackg round i n fo rma t ion t o t he r e sea rch i s p re sen ted . C hap ter 2 i s ar ev iew o f e xpe r imen ta l m ic rowea r r e sea rch , a nd c on ta in s as ec t ion d ea l ing s pec if ica l ly w i th p rev iou s i n ve s t iga t ion s i n to t h e m ic rowea rc ha rac te r i s t ic s o fv a r iou sb a sa l t s . T he c ha rac te r i s t ic s o fC ache C reek b a sa l t a re d i scu s sed i n C hap ter 3 , i n c lud ing g eo logy , p e t rog raphy a nd d i s t r i b u t ion . E thnog raph ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a r e p re sen ted i n C hap ter 4 t o p rov ide as y s tem ic c on tex tf o rt he t oo l -u se e xper imen t s . C hap te r s 5 ,6 ,a nd 7p e r ta in t o t h e t oo l -u se e xper imen t s . T he i ndependen t v a r iab le s a re d e f ined a nd e xpe r imen ta l p rocedu re s a re d e sc r ibed i nC hap ter 5 . T he d ependen tv a r iab le s a r e d ef ined i nC hap te r6 . C hap ter 7 i st he d esc r ip t ive h ea r t o f t h i s s t udy , a nd c on s i s t s p r ima r i ly o f d e sc r ip t ion s o f m ic rowea r t r ace s o b served o n t he e xpe r imen ta l t oo l s . F ou r a ppend ice s t o C hap te r 7c on ta in p ho tom ic rog raph so ft he o b served m ic rowea r , d e ta i led t abu la t ion s o fm ic rowea r o ne ach t oo l , a nd i lu s t ra t ion so ft he e xpe r imen ta lt oo l s . C hap ter s 8 ,9 ,a nd 1 0 a r e c once rned w i th a na ly s i s o ft he m ic rowea r o b served o n t he e xper imen ta l t oo l s a nd i ti sw i th in t he se c hap te r s t ha t t h e r e sea rch p rob lem s a re a dd re s sed a nd t he i n terp re t ive m e thod s p re sen ted . C hap ter 8 2

c on s i s t s o fs t a t i s t ica l a na ly se s o fs e lec ted m ic rowea rv a r iab le sd e s igned t oa s se s s t he a pprop r ia tene s s o f t wo mu l t iva r ia te me thod s a nd t he u se fu lne s s o f m ic rof lake s ca r a t t r ibu te s f o r f unc t iona l a na ly s i s . C hap te r 9p re sen t s t he r e su l t s o f as er ie s o f" b l ind t e s t s " u sed t op o in t o u tt he s t reng th s a nd w eakne s se s i nt he p re l im ina ry i n terp re t ive f r amework . Va luab le " l e s son s " l ea rned i nt he c ou r se o f t h e se t e s t sa re u sed t or ef ine a nd i mp rove t he me thod sp re sen ted i nf i na lf o rm i n C hap ter 1 0 . I n C hap te r 1 0 t he m ic rowea r o b serva t ion s , b l ind t e s t r e su l t s a nd s t a t i s t ica l a na ly se s a re i n teg ra ted t o e luc ida te t he r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween m ic rowea ra nd t oo l -u se b ehav iou r . Chap te r 1 i s as umma ry o f t he r e sea rch r e su l t s a nd c onc lu s ion s , w i th a d i scu ss ion o fh ow t he r e sea rch g oa l sw e re a dd re s sed . Add i t iona l ly , d i rec t ion sf o r f u tu re r e sea rch a re s ugge s ted .

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CHAPTER 2

PREV IOUS MICRO WEAR RESEARCH

2 . 1 T he C ur r en tS ta te o fE xpe r imen ta lM ic rowear R e sea rch T he s t udy o f m ic ro scop ic w ea r t r ace s o n s t one t oo l s c on s i s t s o f b o th e xper imen ta l a nd a pp l ied r e sea rch . T he u se o f me thod s d eve loped t h rough e xper imen ta t ion t o d e te rm ine t he f unc t ion o f s t one t oo l s f r om a rchaeo log ica l s i te s i s t he a pp l ied a spec t o f m ic rowea r r e sea rch . E xpe r imen ta l m ic rowea r r e sea rch ma in ly i nvo lve s mak ing a nd u s ing s t one t oo l s , s t udy ing t he r e su l t ing m ic rowea r t r ace s , a nd d eve lop ing me thod s f o r i n terp re t ing m ic rowea r o n p reh i s to r ic t oo l s . " E thnog raph ic " m ic rowea r r e sea rch i s c lo se ly a l l ied t o e xpe r imen ta lr e sea rch , a nd i nvo lve s t he s t udy o fm ic rowea rt r ace s o ns t one t oo l s u sed b y a bo r ig ina l p eop le s i n r eco rded c on tex t s ( s ee Gou ld , Ko s te r a nd S on tz 1 971 ; Hayden 1 979b ; N i s sen a nd D i t temo re 1 974 ; He s te r a nd F o l le t t 1 976 ) . T he re i sa l so a t heo re t ica l a spec t t o e xper imen ta l m ic rowea r r e sea rch wh ich i s d i rec ted a t a ch iev ing a g ene ra l u nde r s tand ing o f h ow d i f fe ren t w ea r t ype s a re f o rmed , a nd i nvo lve s s t r ia t ion a nd p o l i sh f o rma t ion t heor ies a nd f r ac tu re mechan ic s ( s ee Ode l l 1 981 ; De l B ene 1 979 ; L awn a nd Ma r sha l l 1 979 ; D iamond 1 979 ; C o t tere l l a nd Kamm inga 1 979 ; T s i rk 1 979 ; K am rn inga 1 978 ,1979 ; Unge r Ham i l ton 1 983 ,1984 ; Meek se ta l . 1 982 ) . E xpe r imen ta lm ic rowea r r e sea rche r s emp loy av a r ie ty o f magn if i ca t ion s , w i th t he e f fec t ive l im i to fl i gh t m ic ro scope s b e ing a bou t 6 00 x . S ome r e sea rcher s u se t he f u l l r ange o f magn i f ica t ion s a va i lab le , wh i le o ther s emp loy e i the r o n ly h igh magn i f ica t ion s ( gene ra l ly 2 00 x t o 4 00 x ) o r l ow magn if ica t ion s ( be low 1 00 x ) . T he magn i f ica t ion s emp loyed h ave f a r r each ing c on sequences r ega rd ing t he t y pe s o f w ea r o b served , a nd t he refo re , o n t he e n t i re me thodo logy d eve loped f r om t he r e sea rch . T here h a s b een c on s ide rab le d i scu s s ion o n t he r e la t ive me r i t s o fu s ing e i the r h igh o r l ow magn i f ica t ion me thodo log ie s ( s ee Ho l ley a nd

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D e lB ene 1 981 ; K ee ley 1 974 ,1981 ; Ode l l 1 975 ,1982 ; Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Vereecken 1 980 ; Newcome r , G race a nd Unger -Ham i l ton 1 986 ; R icha rd s 1 984 ; B amfo r th 1 986 ) . S ome r e sea rche r s h ave a l so t aken a dvan tage o f t he v ery h i gh m agn if ica t ion s , e no rmou s d ep th o f f i e ld a nd e xce l len t p ho tom ic rog raph s p rov ided b y t he s c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope ( s ee Ande r son 1 980 ; De l B ene a nd S he l ley 1 979 ; D e lB ene 1 979 ; F ed je 1 979 ; Hay 1 977 ; L aw rence 1 979 ; S h iner a nd P or te r 1 974 ; Unge r -Ham i l ton 1 984 ) . E xper imen ta l m ic rowea r s t ud ie s c an b e s ubd iv ided i n to t ho se w h ich r i g id ly c on t ro l t he v a r iab le s , k nown a s " ana ly t ic " ( S ta f fo rd a nd S ta f fo rd 1 983 ) o r " mechan ica l " ( Schu t t 1 982 ) e xpe r imen t s a nd t ho se w h ich s t r ive t o r ec rea te a bo r ig ina l c ond i t ion s , s a c r if ic ing s ome d eg ree o f c on t ro l , k nown a s " s y s tem ic " ( S ta f ford a nd S taf fo rd 1 983 ) o r " g oa l o r ien ted " ( Schu t t 1 982 ) e xper imen t s . A pp l icab i l i ty o f t he r e su l t s o f e xper imen t s t o t he p reh i s tor ic s i tua t ion t hey a re i n tended t o i lum ina te i sd ependen t o n t he d eg ree t o w h ich t he e xpe r imen ta l c ond i t ion s c an d up l ica te t he p reh i s tor ic s i tua t ion . Howeve r , s ome e xper imen t s mu s tb e r i g id ly c on t ro l led a nd u nde r taken s omewha t a r t if ic ia l ly , e spec ia l ly i ft he r e sea rche r i s a t temp t ing t o d e te rm ine t he r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween s pec if ic i n dependen ta nd d ependen tv a r iab le s . Mo s t e xpe r imen ta lp rog ram sd e s igned t o p roduce w ea r p a t tern s t o b e u sed f o r t he i n te rpre ta t ion o f p reh i s tor ic t oo l s s a c r if ice s ome a u then t ic i ty i n o rde r t o ma in ta in a d eg ree o f c on t ro l o ve r t he v a r iab le s . One s t udy d e s igned t o t e s t t he d i f fe rence s b e tween w ea r p a t tern s p roduced b y" mechan ica l " a nd " g oa lo r ien ted " e xper imen t s ( Schu t t 1 982 )s howed o n ly af ew mode ra te ly s i gn i f ican td ife rence s i nt he w ea rp a t te rn s . A s o ne m igh t e xpec t , t he " mechan ica l " e xpe r imen t s p roduced w ea r p a t te rn s w h ich w ere c l ea r a nd r e la t ive ly u namb iguou s , w h i le t he " goa l o r ien ted " e xpe r imen t s p roduced w ea r p a t tern s w h ich w e re s l igh t ly l e s s d i s t inc t ive . Howeve r , S chu t t ' s s t udy i s s e ve re ly f l awed b ecau se t he k ey v a r iab le o f l i th ic r aw ma te r ia l w a s n o t k ep t c on s tan tb e tween t he t wo s e r ie so fe xper imen t s . S ome m ic rowea r s t ud ie s d ea lw i th o ne t oo l t y pe , s uch a ss c rape r s o rb ur in s , w h i le o the r s c ompr i se w e l l rounded e xpe r imen ta l f r amewo rk s i n c lud ing many t oo l a c t ion s a nd c on tac t ma ter ia l s ( e .g . K ee ley 1 980 ; T r ingham e ta l1 974 ; Ode l l 1 977 ; Kamm inga 1 978 ; V aughan 1 985 ) . I t i s t he e x ten s ive e xper imen ta l f r amework sw h ich h ave f o rmed t he b a s i s f o ra dvance s i nk now ledge i nt h i s f i e ld i nr e cen t y ea r s a nd a l lowed i nnd va t ive a pp l ied r e sea rch t ob e u nder taken ( e .g . K ee ley 1 977 ,1980 ; K ee ley a nd T o th 1 981 ; C ahen , K ee ley a nd Van N o ten 1 979 ; O de l l 1 977 ,1980a ; Y e rke s 1 983 ) . Re sea rcher s h ave i d en t i f ied a n umbe r o f t y pe s o f m ic rowea r o fw h ich t he mo s t u se fu l f o r d e te rm in ing t oo l f unc t ion a re p o l i she s , m ic rof lake s ca r s , s t r ia t ion s , a nd e dge r ound ing . C e r ta in r e sea rche r s h ave b ecome i d en t if ied w i th o ne t ype o fw ea r : S emenov ( 1964 ) i sn o ted f o rb r ing ing a t ten t ion t om ic ro scop ic s t r ia t ion s a s a n i n d ica to r o f t oo l mo t ion ; T r ingham a nd Ode l l ( T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 ; Ode l l 1 977 ; O de l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken 1 980 ) a re w e l l k nown f o r p rov id ing a b road e xpe r imen ta l b a s i s f o r t he u se o f m ic rof lake s c a r s f o r d e term in ing t oo l a c t ion a nd a l so r e la t ive c on tac t ma ter ia l h a rdne s s ; a nd K ee ley ( 1 977 ,1980 ) h a s b een i n t he f o re f ron t o f c hamp ion ing t he u sefu lne s s o f m ic ro p o l i she sf o rd e te rm in ing c on tac t ma ter ia l s .

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E xper imen ta t ion w i th s t one t oo l s h a s i nvo lved aw ide v a r ie ty o fa c t ion s , i n f a c t v i r tua l ly e ve ry t ype o f a c t ion d e sc r ibed i n t he e thnog raph ie s a nd t ho se s u spec ted t o h ave b een u sed p reh i s to r ica l ly . T he se a c t ion s i nc lude s aw ing , s l ic ing , c u t t ing , s c rap ing , p lan ing , wh i t t l ing , p a r ing , d r i l l ing , b or ing , p e r fo ra t ing , e ng rav ing , c hopp ing , a dz ing , a b rad ing , p ound ing a nd u se a s ap ro jec t i le t i p . T he mo s t h eav i ly s t ud ied a c t ion i ss c rap ing , wh ich w a s d ea l t w i th i n a l l o ft he ma jo r e xper imen ta l p rog ramme s a s w e l l a s i n s eve ra l s ma l l s ca le s t ud ie s ( e .g . B r ink 1 978a ; B roadben t a nd Knu t s son 1 975 ; P r ice -Begge r ly 1 976 ; S iege l 1 984 ; L ev i t t 1 976 ; Hayden 1 979b ; N i s sen a nd D i t temo re 1 974 ) . A g rea t v a r ie ty o f ma te r ia l s ( " con tac t ma te r ia l s " ) h ave b een w o rked w i th e xpe r imen ta l s t one t oo l s , i n c lud ing b one , c a r t i lage , f i sh s ca le s , t ur t le s he l l , s ea s he l l s , a n t ler , h ide , l e a the r , h a i r , f l e sh , f a t , w ood , b a rk , w i ld a nd d ome s t ica ted p lan t s , v ege tab le s , p lan t f i ber s , e a r th a nd s t one . C on tac t ma ter ia l s h ave b een wo rked i nt he i r f r e sh , n a tu ra l s t a te o r t hey h ave b een mod if ied i nw ay sl i ke ly t o h ave o ccu r red i np reh i s tory . T he ma te r ia l sh ave h ad g r i t , f a t o rg rea se a dded t o t hem , a nd h avd a l so b een s oaked i n w a ter , b o i led i n w a ter , c ooked , f rozen , h ea ted , d r ied , a nd c l eaned . Aga in , t he l a rge s ca le e xper imen ta l p rog ramme s h ave u sed av a r ie ty o fc on tac t ma ter ia l s a pp rop r ia te t o t he p reh i s to r ic s i tua t ion f o r wh ich a s t udy w a s t a rge ted , wh i le s ma l ler s ca le s t ud ie s h ave emp loyed o n ly o ne o r af ew c on tac t ma te r ia l s . Aw ide r ange o fl i th ic r aw ma ter ia l sh ave b een u sed i ne xper i men ta lr e sea rch , i n c lud ing f l in t ( Kee ley 1 980 ; T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 ; Ode l l 1 977 ; Vaughan 1 981 , 1 985 ; Ande r son 1 980a ; B u l le r 1 983 ; Mo s s 1 983a ,b ; Unge r -Ham i l ton 1 983 ,1984b ,1985 ; Wh i te 1 982 ) ,c he r t ( B r ink 1 978a ,b ;B ro se 1 975 ; L aw rence 1 979 ; L ewen s te in 1 984 ; K amm inga 1 978 ; L yno t t 1 975 ; McConaughy 1 979 ; S abo 1 982 ; Y e rke s 1 983 ) , c ha l cedony ( L ewen s te in 1 984 ; G re i se r a nd S hee t s 1 979 ; Kamm inga 1 978 ) , o b s id ian ( Hay 1 977 ; F ed je 1 979 ; K amm inga 1 978 ; C orrucc in i 1 985 ; F lenn iken a nd Hagga r ty 1 979 ; G re i se r a nd S hee t s 1 979 ; He s te r e ta l 1 976 ; L ewen s te in 1 981 ,1984 ; Vaughan 1 981 ) , b a sa l t ( P r ice -Begge r ly 1 976 ; K amm inga 1 978 ; Mon tgome ry 1 978 ; Wyan t a nd B ayham 1 976 ; Ode l l 1 980b ; S ta f fo rd 1 977 ; S chu t t 1 982 ) , q ua r t z i te ( To l l 1 978 ; K amm inga 1 978 ; G re i se r a nd S hee t s 1 979 ) , q ua r t z ( B roadben t a nd Knu t s son 1 975 ; S u s sman 1 984 ,1985 ; Kamm inga 1 978 ) , v o l can ic t uf ( Kamm inga 1 978 ) a nd r hyo l i te ( Robe r t s 1 980 ; F o i x a nd B rad ley 1 985 ) . I t i s a ppa ren t t ha t mo s t e xper imen ta l m ic rowea r r e sea rch h a s b een u nde r taken w i th e i the rE u ropean f l in t ( and o the rf l in t s , c he r t s a nd c ha lcedon ie s w i th s im i la r p hy s ica l a nd m ic rowea r p rope r t ie s ) o r o b s id ian . When d i scu s s ing t he a ch ievemen t s o f m ic rowea r r e sea rch , o ne i su sua l ly r e fer r ing t o s t ud ie s emp loy ing t he se ma te r ia l s , e spec ia l ly t he f l in t s . T he a pp l icab i l i ty o f me thod s d eve loped f o r f l in t t o o ther l i th ic r aw ma te r ia l s mu s t b e d e term ined t hrough e xpe r imen ta t ion o n ac a se b yc a se b a s i s . T he a ccu racy o f m ic rowea r i n terp re ta t ion s h a s b een d emon s t ra ted b y b l ind t e s t s o f t he t wo ma jo r me thodo log ie s d eve loped i n t he 1 970 s . T he h igh magn i f ica t ion a pp roach d eve loped b y K ee ley wa s t e s ted f i r s t a nd p roved v e ry e f fec t ive i ni den t i f y ing t he u sed p a r t o f at oo l a nd d e term in ing h ow at oo l wa s u sed , b u t w a s s o mewha t l e s s a ccu ra te i n i den t i fy ing w h ich c on tac t ma ter ia l t he t oo lw a s u sed o n ( Kee ley a nd N ewcomer 1 977 ; N ewcomer a nd Kee ley 1 979 ) . A

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s e cond t e s t o ft h is m e thodo logy a ch ieved e ven b e t te rr e su l t s ( Gende l a nd P i rnay 1 982 ) , h owever , ar e cen t s e r ie s o f b l ind t e s t s h a s t h rown t he v a l id i ty o f t h i s m e thod i n to d oub t ( Newcome r , G race a nd Unge r -Ham i l ton 1 986 ) . T he l ow magn if ica t ion a pp roach d eve loped b y T r ingham a nd Ode l l a l so t e s ted o u t v e ry w e l l , b e ing e qua l ly e f f ec t ive i n i d en t i fy ing t he u sed p a r t o f at oo l , h ow i tw a s u sed , a nd t he r e la t ive h a rdne s s o f ac on tac t ma te r ia l , a l though t h i s me thodo logy p roved i ne f fec t ive f o r i d en t i f y ing s pec if ic c on tac t ma te r ia l s ( Ode l l a nd Ode l l V e reecken 1 980 ) . On t he f r on t ier s o fm ic rowea rr e sea rch a re a t temp t s t oe l im ina te s ub jec t iv i ty i ni d en t if y ing t oo lf unc t ion b y mea su r ing o r q uan t i fy ing w ea r ( e .g . S emenov a nd S hche l in sk i i 1 971 ; K ee ley 1 977 ,1980 ; G race , G raham a nd N ewcome r 1 9 85 ; T omenchuk 1 979 ,1983 ,1984 ; Dumon t 1 982 ) . T h i s r e sea rch h a s n o ty e t r e su l ted i np rac t ica l o r w ide ly a pp l ied t e chn ique s . O ther eme rg ing d i rec t ion s i n vo lve m ic ro scop ic a nd c hem ica l a na ly se s o f r e s idue s o n s t one t oo l s t o d e te rm ine f unc t ion . R e sea rche r s h ave d e tec ted m ic ro scop ic p lan t p hy to l i th s ( Ande r son 1 980 ) , d r ied b lobd ( Loy 1 983 ) , am ino a c id s ( B rode r ick 1 979 ) a nd o the r r e s idue s ( Sha fer a nd Ho l loway 1 979 ; B r iue r 1 976 ; P au l l 1 984 ; B rode r ick 1 982 ) i nd ica t ive o fc on tac t ma ter ia l s .

2 .2 P r ev iou sM ic row ear R e sea r ch I nvo l v ing B a sa l t T oo l s

A s i se v iden t i ns e c t ion 2 . 1 , t he ma jo r i ty o fr ecen t e xper imen ta l m ic rowea r s t ud ie s a re c once rned w i th t he d eve lopmen t o f w ea r p a t te rn s o n f l in t s , c he r t s a nd o bs id ian wh i le l e s se r e f for t s h ave b een d i rec ted t owa rd s " c oa r se r " l i th ic m a te r ia l s , i n c lud ing q ua r tz i te , q ua r tz , b a sa l t a nd r hyo l i te . O f t h i s g roup b a sa l t h a s r ece ived t he mo s t a t ten t ion , b u t n o ma jo r e xper imen ta l i n ve s t iga t ion h a s b een made i n to i t s s pec i f ic u se -wea r c ha rac te r i s t ic s . P rev iou s e xpe r imen ta l m ic rowea r s t ud ie s i n vo lv ing b a sa l t a re s umma r ized o n T ab le 1 a nd d i scu s sed b e low . Wi th t he amoun t o fr e sea rch u nde r taken t o d a te emp loy ing b a sa l t t oo l s ( s ee T ab le 1 ) i tw ou ld s e em r ea sonab le t o e xpec t t ha t s i gn i f ican t c onc lu s ion s o r g ene ra l iza t ion sc ou ld b e made a bou tt he w ea rp a t te rn s w h ich d eve lop o nb a sa l t . U nfor tuna te ly ,v e ry f ew g ene ra l iza t ion s c an b e made , f o r f ou r ma in r ea son s : ( 1 ) v a ry ing q ua l i t ie s o fb a sa l t ( i . e . c oa r se -g ra ined t og l a s sy ) h ave b een emp loyed b y d i f feren t r e sea rche r s , h i nde r ing c l o se c ompa r i son s o fw ea r p a t te rn s b ecau se t he t e x tu re o f b a sa l t a f fec t s t he t y pe s o fw ea r d eve loped a nd i t s v i s ib i l i ty u nder a m ic roscope ; ( 2 ) r e sea rche r s u sed d i f fe ren t magn i f ica t ion s w h i le o b se rv ing w ea r , a nd i nm ic rowea r r e sea rch t he magn i f ica t ion s emp loyed l a rge ly d e term ine w h ich t y pe s o f w ea r c an b e o b served ; ( 3 ) e xpe r imen ta l ly -de r ived w ea r p a t tern s w e re n o t a l l e qua l ly w e l l i lu s t ra ted , n o r w e re t hey d e sc r ibed u s ing a c on s i s ten t t e rm ino logy ; a nd , ( 4 ) t he e xpe r imen t s o f ten i n vo lved d i f fe ren t a c t ion s , c on tac t ma ter ia l s , a nd amoun t s o ft oo l -u se . A s a n e xamp le o ft he n on -compa rab i l i ty o f t h e se e xper imen t s , Wyan ta nd B ayham ( 1976 ) u sed med ium -g ra ined b a sa l t t oo l s f o r b u tche r ing r abb i t s a nd s aw ing o r s c rap ing w ood a nd b one . T he t oo l s w e re u sed f o r o n ly 1 00 s t roke s e ach , a nd s t ud ied u nde r am ic ro scope a t 3 0 x . I n 7

T a b le 1 . S u mma ry o f p r ev ious e x per im enta l • i crow ea r r e s ea rch i n vo lv inq b a sa lt t o o ls .

R e feren ce

S u mma ry

K a ma inga 1 9 78

b a sa lt : a l tered , a n de s it ic a n d o l iv ine b a sa lts f r om A u stra lia ; a c t ions : s c rap ing , e n g rav ing , c u tt ing , p e r fo ra t ina , s a w ing , d r ill ing ; c o nta ct m a ter ia ls : h i d e , b o ne , f l esh , t u rt le s h e ll, s e a s h e ll , w o od , p o ta to e ; d u ra t ion o f u s e : u n t il f i na l o r s tab le w e ar p a t terns w e re d e v e lo pe d ; n u m be r o f t o o ls a n d r e tou ch : 4 u n retou ch ed ; m a g n ificat io n e m p loye d : 5 0 a ; t y pes o f w e a r o b se rved : m i c ro f lake s c a rs , e d ge b l u nt ing , e d ge d u lling , e d ge r o u nd ing , p o lish , s m oo th ing , a b ras io n , s t r ia t ions .

M o ntgome ry 1 9 78

O d e ll 1 9 80b

b a sa lt : v i treous f r om C a che C r ee k , B . C .; a c t io ns : p a r ing , s c ra p ing , s a w ing ; c o nta ct m a te r ia ls : a n t ler , b o ne , w o o d , f l esh ; d u ra t io n o f u s e : 5 0 t o 4 0 0 s t ro kes ; n u mbe r o f t o o ls a n d r e tou ch : 1 7u n re touched ; m a gn if ica t io ns e m p loyed : 1 4a ; t y pes o f w e a r o b s erved : m i cro f la ke s c a rs , e d ge r o und in g , c r ush ing . b a sa lt : f i ne-g ra ined f r om C a che C r e ek , B . C .; a c t io ns : s l ic ing , s a w ing : c o n tact m a ter ia ls : f l esh , h i de , b o ne , s i new , f a t ; d u ra t io n o f u s e : 4 5 0 t o 9 50 s t ro kes ; n um be r o f t o o ls a n d r e tou ch : 9u n retouche d ; m a gn if ica t io ns e m p loye d : 1 0 -80 x ; t y p e o f w e a r o b s erved : m i cro f lake s c a rs .

P r ice-B egga r ly 1 9 76

S c hu tt 1 9 82

b a sa lt : f i ne-g ra ined f r om O a hu , H a w a ii; a c t io n s : s c rap ing ; c o nta ct m a te r ia ls : w ood ; d u ra t io n o f u s e : 2 5 0 t o 5 0 0 s t rokes ; n u mber o f t o o ls a n d r e tou ch : 1 6 u n ifa c ia lly r e to u ched ; m a gn if ica t io n e m p loyed : Ba ; t y pe o f w e a r o b s e rv ed : e dge b l u n t inq . b a sa lt : v i treous f r om W h ite R o ck C a nyon , N e w M e x ico ; a c t io ns : s c rap ing , s a w ing , w h itt ling ; c o nta ct m a te r ia ls : w o o d , b o ne , l e a ther ; d u ra t io n o f u s e : 2 0 0 t o 2 3 10 s t rokes ; n u m be r o f t o o ls a n d r e tou ch : 3 1 u n re tou ched ; m a gn if ica t ions e m p lo yed : 3 0 -70 a ; t y pes o f w e a r o b serv ed : m i cro f la ke s c a rs , e d ge r o un d ing , p o lis h .

S t a ffo rd 1 9 77

b a sa lt : f i ne -g ra ined f r om A s h fo rk , A r izona ; a c t io ns : s c ra p ing , g r av ing ; c o n ta ct m a te r ia ls : w o od , b o ne ; d u ra t io n o f u s e : 1 0 0 s t ro kes ; n u m ber o f t o o ls a n d r e tou ch : 1 2 0 b u r ina ted ; m a gn ifica t io ns e m p loyed : l o w ; t y pe s o f w e ar o b se rv ed : m i cro f lake s c ars , e d ge c r us h ing .

W y a nt a n d B a y ham 1 9 76

b a sa lt : m e d ium-g ra ined ( e ta basa lt f r om A r izo na ; a c t io ns : c u t t ing , s c rap ing ; c o nta ct m a te r ia ls : w o o d , b o ne , f l es h ; d u ra t io n o f u s e : 1 0 0 s t rokes ; n u mbe r o f t o o ls a n d r e tou ch : 1 7u n reto u ched ; m a gn if ica t io n m i cro flake s c a rs , e d ge r e gu la r iza t io n .

8

e m p lo y ed : 3 0 a ; t y pes o f w ea r o b se rved :

c on t ra s t , Ode l l ( 1980b ) emp loyed f i ne -g ra ined b a sa l t t oo l s t ob u tche r ar accoon a nd a p orpo i se , w i th i n d iv idua l t oo l s u sed b e tween 3 00 a nd 1 500 s t roke s . He s t ud ied t he e dge su s ing magn if ica t ion sb e tween 1 0 xa nd 8 0x . T he f o l low ing o b serva t ion s r ega rd ing m ic rowea ro nb a sa l tt oo l s c an b e made , k eep ing i n m ind t he a bove p rob lem s a nd o ne mo re l im i ta t ion . S ince a l l o ft he r e sea rch u sed l ow magn i f ica t ion s , s ome t y pe s o fw ea r ( i .e . p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion s ) may n o t h ave b een o b se rved s imp ly b ecau se t he magn i f ica t ion s u sed w e re t oo l ow t o s ee t hem . M ic ro f lake s ca r s a re t he p r ima ry w ea r t y pe r ecorded i na l l b u t o ne o ft he e xpe r imen ta l s t ud ie s emp loy ing b a sa l t . Mo s tr e sea rcher s c oncen t ra te o n t he s i ze , s hape , t e rm ina t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion a nd p a t te rn ing o f m ic rof lake s ca r s , a lmo s t t o t he e xc lu s ion o fo the r t y pe s o fw ea r ( e .g . Ode ! ! 1 980b ; S ta f fo rd 1 977 ; Wyan t a nd B ayham 1 976 ; Mon tgome ry 1 978 ) . S t r ia t ion s h ave r a re ly b een o b served o n b a sa l t t oo l s ( e .g . Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken 1 980 ; S chu t t 1 982 ; K amm inga 1 978 ) a nd p o l i sh h a s o n ly b een c ommon ly o b served b y o ne r e sea rche r ( Schu t t 1 982 ) . E dge round ing w a s q u i te v a r iab le i n i t s o ccu r rence , b e ing v ery c ommon i ns ome e xper imen ta la s semb lage s( e .g . P r ice -Begge r ly 1 976 ; S hu t t 1 982 ) . I ti sc l ea rt ha t much r ema in st ob el e a rned a bou tt he m ic rowea rp rope r t ie so f b a sa l t s . T he p re sen t r e sea rch i sd i rec ted a t f i l l ing i n s ome o f t he g ap s i n o u r k now ledge , e spec ia l ly r ega rd ing C ache C reek b a sa l t . T he g eo log ica l o r ig in a nd p e t rog raph ic c ha rac ter i s t ic so ft h i sb a sa l ta re d e sc r ibed i nt he f o l low ing c hap ter .

9

CHAPTER 3

GEOLOGY AND PETROGRAPHY OF CACHE CREEK BASALT

3 . 1 I n t roduc t ion T he b a sa l tu sed i nt h i s s t udy c ame f r om l owe r C ache C reek , j u s te a s t o ft h e v i l lage o fC ache C reek , B r i t i sh C o lumb ia ( F igu re s 1 , 2 ) . I tw a so b ta ined f r om a n a rea a pp rox ima te ly 2 . 5 km u p s t ream o ft he c onf luence o fC ache C reek w i th t h e B onapa r te R ive r , a nd a bou t 1 km d own s t ream o f t he p o in t whe re t he c reek eme rge s f r om b e tween t he A r row s tone H i l l s a nd t he C ache C reek H i l l s . B a sa l t w a s c o l lec ted f r om a bou t a 1km s t re tch o f t he c r eek a nd w i th in 1 00 m o f t h e c r eek . I tw a s i n t h e f o rm o f s ub -angu la r t o r ounded p ebb le s , c obb les a nd b ou lde r s . 5m o r mo re i nl eng th . T h i s s ou rce -a rea f o r b a sa l t i sw e l l k nown t o a r chaeo log i s t si nB r i t i sh C o lumb ia ( R icha rd sa nd R ou s seau 1 987 :34 ) .

3 . 2 G eomo r pho lo gy o ft h eC ache C r eek B a sa l tS ou r ce A r ea B ound ing l owe r C ache C reek a nd i t s n ar row a l luv ia l p la in a re t i l l d epo s i t s f r om t he F ra se r g l ac ia t ion ( Ryder 1 976 ) . T he t i l l , w h ich o ver l ie s b ed rock , i s c omp r i sed o f ah e te rogenou s m ix tu re o fp a r t ic le s r ang ing f r om c l ay t ob ou lde r s d e r ived f r om t he l o ca l b ed rock ( Ryde r 1 976 :3 ) . I n p lace s t he t i l l i sv e ry t h in ( l e s s t han 2 m t h ick ) a nd b ed rock o u tc rop sj u s t n o r th o f t he c reek . T he who le a rea , d i scoun t ing r e cen t d i s tu rbance s , i sc apped w i th a t h in v enee r o f a eo l ian s and a nd s i l t ( Ryde r 1 976 :3 ) . B a sa l t c an b e f ound i nt he c r eek a nd f l oodp la in d epo s i t s , a sw e l la si nt h e a d jacen tt i l l ( F igu re s3 , 4 ) . R ecen th uman d i s tu rbance s h ave c au sed t he r emova l o f s o i l a nd a eo l ian d epo s i t s n ea r t he c r eek i n t h e c o l lec t ion a rea ,p rov id ing l a rge e xpo su re so ft i l la nd e a sy a cce s st ob a sa l t .

10

F igure 1 . S outhern B r itish C o lumbia w ith t he C ache C reek b asa lt s ource m arked b y ab lack t r iang le.

1 1

ARRO WSTONE H ILLS 0

o

V

o

0 7

P

0

-

CACHE CREEK

A 1H

s o KA M LOOPS 0

1 !

I

2 0 km

S H

P S

F igure 2 . L ocation o f t he C ache C reek b asa lt s ource a nd t he l ocal d istr ibution o f C hilcotir i G roup a nd K am loops G roup b asalts. C hilcotin G roup b asalts a re i nd icated b y v ertical l ines, K am loops G roup b asalts b y h or izontal l ines a nd t he b asalt c o llection a rea b y ab lack t r iang le. G eo logical f ormation d ata f rom B ev ier 1 983a, E w ing 1 981a, D uffel a nd M cTaggart 1 951, a nd C ampbell a nd T ipper 1 971.

1 2

F igure 3 . B a sa l t c obb le ( a r row ) i n a l luv ia l d epo s i t a long C ache C reek . C ame ra l en sc ap t or i gh to fc obb le i s 5cm i nd iame te r .

F igure 4 . B a sa l t c obb le ( a r row ) i n t i l l d epo s i t e xpo sed i n b ank a long C ache C reek . C amera l en sc ap t or i gh to fc obb le i s 5c m i n d iame te r .

1 3

3 .3 G eo log ica lO r ig in a nd P e t rog raphy

T he b a sa l t n odu le s c o l lec ted f o r t he p re sen t s t udy c ame f r om t he g l ac ia l a nd a l luv ia l d epo s i t s a nd t he i r b ed rock s ou rce i sn o t k nown a tp re sen t . Howeve r , R yde r ( 1976 :3 ) h a s o b se rved t ha tt he l o ca lb ed rock i ss t rong ly r ep re sen ted i nt he t i l l , a nd wh i le b a sa l t ic r ock s g o ing b ack t o t he Uppe r T r ia s s ic N ico la G roup a re p re sen t i n t he a rea ( Du f fe l ! a nd McTagga r t 1 951 :12 -14 ) , t here a re o n ly t wo l i ke ly b ed rock s ou rce s f o r t he b a sa l t i n t he t i l l . O the r p o ten t ia l s ou rce s o f t he b a sa l tc an b e r u led o u t o n t he b a s i s o ft he i r c ha rac ter i s t ic s ( e .g . , c o lou r , t ex tu re , c ompo s i t ion , d eg ree o f w ea ther ing , e t c . ) . T he b a sa l t w a s mo s t l i ke ly d er ived f r om t he E ocene " Kam loop s G roup " ( Ew ing 1 981a ,b ) a nd/or t he M iocene P l iocene " Ch i lco t in G roup " ( Bev ie r 1 982 ,1983a ,b ) . B o th o ft he se f o rma t ion s a re l o ca ted n ea r t he s ur face , a re a bundan t ly r ep re sen ted i n a nd a round t he A r row s tone H i l l s , a nd w e re l i ke ly t o h ave b een g l ac ia l ly s cou red a nd i n c luded i n t i l l . O r ig ina l ly d ef ined b y Daw son ( 1896 ) , t he " Kam loop s G roup " o fs ou th -cen t ra l B r i t ish C o lumb ia h a s u nde rgone r edef in i t ion a nd r ev i s ion b y s ub sequen t r e sea rche r s ( e .g . D ry sda le 1 9 14 ; Duf f e l a nd McTagga r t 1 951 ; C ampbe l l a nd T ipper 1 971 ; Ew ing 1 98 1a ,b ) . I t c on s i s t s o f 1 3 km t h ick v o lcan ic a nd s ed imen ta ry d epo s i t sd a t ing f r om t he L ower t oM idd le E ocene ( ca .4 2 -52 m i l l ion y ea r s ) (Ew ing 1 98 1a ,b ) . S eve ra l g eo log i s t s h ave e xam ined t h in s e c t ion s o f K am loop sG roup h a sa l t s ( Duf f e l l a nd McTagga r t 1 951 :67 ; F e r ner 1 896 :384 -386 ; D ry sda le 1 914 :142 ) . Mo re r ecen t ly , Ew ing ( 1 981b :1485 ) h a s s t ud ied t h in s ec t ion so ft h i s ma te r ia l :

" The mo s t a bundan t r ock s o f t he Kam loop s G roup v o lcan ic s a re a ug i te -p igeon i te lab rado r i te a nde s i te s r ang ing i n c ompo s i t ion f r om 5 2 t o6 0% s i l ica . C lo t s o fc l inopy roxene c r y s ta l s ( bo th a ug i te a nd p igeon i te ) , a nd s t e l la te p lag ioc la se a gg rega te s a re c ommon . . . E uhed ra l o l iv ine p henoc ry s t s a re o b ser ved i n t he more maf ic s amp le s ( l e s s t han 5 % s i l ica ) . . . Euhed ra l magne t i te a l so f o rms p henoc ry s t s i ns ome s amp le s . T he g roundma s st yp ica l ly c ons i s t so f s ma l l p lag ioc la se ( ande s ine ) l a th s w i th s uhhedra l t o a nhed ra l i n te r s t i t ia l a ug i te a nd p i geon i te , magne t i te ,a nd r e s idua l g la s s . "

C ampbe l l a nd T ippe r ( 1971 ) d i s t ingu i shed l a te M iocene -ea r ly P l iocene " P la teau L ava s " f r om t he E ocene " Kam loop s G roup " a nd T ippe r ( 1978 ) l a te r n amed t hem t he " Ch i lco t in G roup " . B ev ie r ( 1982 ,1983a ,h ) s t ud ied t h i s f o rma t ion i n d e ta i l a nd r e s t r ic ted t he t e rm t o r e fe r t o v o lcan ic ma ter ia l s , e xc lud ing s ed imen ta ry d epo s i t s i n c luded i n T ippe r ' s ( 1978 ) o r ig ina l d ef in i t ion . A cco rd ing t o B ev ier ( 1983a ) , t he C h i lco t in G roup o f l a va s a nd a s soc ia ted b recc ia s d e r ive p r ima r i ly f r om t wo p er iod s o f e rup t ive a c t iv i ty ( ca . 2 3 m i l l ion y ea r s a go a nd 6 10 m i l l ion y ea r s a go ) a nd f o rm af l a t l a va p la teau s ome 5 0 ,000 s qua re k i lome te r s i n e x ten t a nd a t l ea s t 1 41 m t h ick i n p lace s . T he C h i lco t in

1 4

G roup may a l so b e t h e s ou rce f o r b lack , v i t reou s b a sa l t f ound i nt he B aezaeko R ive ra rea o ft he w e s t -cen t ra li n te r io ro fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia . C h i lco t in G roup b a sa l ti sd e sc r ibed b yB ev ie r ( 1983a :521 -522 ) a sc on s i s t ing o f

" . .up t o 1 0% e uhed ra l t o a nhed ra l o l iv ine m ic rophenoc ry s t s i n a s uboph i t ic t oi n te r se r ta lg roundma s s . . . S uboph i t ic a ug i te i sp re sen t i n mo s t s amp le s , a nd d i ty tax i t ic t e x tu re i s c ommon . A cce s so ry m ine ra l s i n c lude i lmen i te , magne t i te , a nd a pa t i te . I n af ew f l ow s t he o l iv ine g ra in sh ave a l te red p a r t ly o rc omp le te ly t oi dd ing s i te . "

E l sewhere ,B ev ie r ( 1983b :208 ) d e sc r ibe st he b a sa l ta sc on ta in ing

" . .o l iv ine m ic rophenoc ry s t s i n a g round -ma s s o f t i tanaug i te , p lag ioc la se , a nd i r on t i tan ium o x ide s . . . G roundma s s t e x tu re r ange s f r om s uboph i t ic t oi n te r se r ta l . "

T he b a sa l t i sp henoc ry s t p oo r , w i th o l iv ine u sua l ly b e ing t he o n ly p henoc ry s t p re sen t ; t he g roundma s s p lag ioc la se i s p r ima r i ly l ab rado r i te a nd t he i r on t ian ium o x ide s i n c lude b o th i lmen i te a nd magne t i te ( Bev ie r 1 983b :211 -219 ) . P e t rog raph ica l ly , C h i lco t in G roup b a sa l t i s at y p ica l a lka l i b a sa l t , h oweve r , c hem ica l a na ly s i sp la ce s i to n t he d iv id ing l i ne b e tween a lka l ine a nd s uba lka l ine a nd i tt he re fore s hou ld b ec on s ide red at r an s i t iona lb a sa l t ( Bev ie r 1 983b :209 ) .

3 . 4 P e t rog raph ic Ana l y s i s T h in s ec t ion s o fs even teen b a sa l t c obb le s w e re p repa red a nd s t ud ied f o r t wo r ea son s : ( 1 ) t o i den t i f y t he g eo log ica l s ou rce ( s ) o f t he b a sa l t ; ( 2 ) t o i den t if y s pec i f ic c ha rac te r i s t ic s wh ich may b er e levan tt ou nde r s tand ing d i f fe rence si nt he m ic rowea rp rope r t ie so fv i t reou s a nd n on -v i t reou sb a sa l t s ( s ee C hap te r 1 0 .3 ) . Th in s ec t ion s o fb a sa l t w e re p repa red a nd s t ud ied b y t he a u tho r u nde r t he g u idance o f D r . A . Me rmu t , Depa r tmen t o f S o i l S c ience , Un ive r s i ty o f S a ska tchewan , a nd h i s l ab a s s i s tan t , G len Hudy . S amp le s w e re s awn i n to s l ab s a pprox ima te ly 1 . 5 -2 c ml ong , 1 1 .5 cm w ide a nd . 5 cm t h ick ,u s ing aH i l iqu i s ts aw w i th a d iamond c u t t ing b lade . N ex t , o ne f a ce o ft he s l ab w a s g round s moo th b y u s ing 2 5 pm g r ind ing p owde r o n aL og i tech L P30 P roduc t ion L app ing a nd Op t ica lP o l i sh ing ma ch ine , a nd b yh and g r ind ing w i th 1 4 pm a nd l a s t ly w i th 5pm g r ind ing p owder i no i l o n ag la s s p la te . E ach s l ab w a s t hen moun ted o n ag l a s s s l ide w i th P e t ropoxy 1 54 R e s in a nd t hen c u t t o at h ickne s s o f4 00 Fm t o5 00 pm w i th t he d iamond s aw . T he s l ab w a s t hen g round t o at h ickne s s o f5 0 pm u s ing 2 5 pm g r ind ing p owde r o n t he L og i tech mach ine a nd b y h and t o at h ickne s s o f 2 5j im .

1 5

T he t h in s ec t ion s w ere e xam ined a nd p ho tog raphed w i th a Z e i s s " Un iver sa l R "b inocu la rm ic ro scope w i th aM 3 5 p ho to -m ic rog raph ic c amera a t tachmen t . A L e i tz We tz la r monocu la rm ic ro scope w a s a l so u sed f o rp re l im ina ry e xam ina t ion . T he m ine ra l s w e re ma in ly i den t i f ied a t magn i f ica t ion s o f 1 00 x t o 3 00 x a nd a l l p ho tom ic rog raph sr ep roduced h e re w e re t aken a t1 56 .3 x( F igures 5 14 ) . T he p y roxene o b served i nt he g roundma s s ( Tab le 2 ) i s mo s t l i ke ly a ug i te o r t ianaug i te w h ich h a s b een o b served i n b o th C h i lco t in G roup b a sa l t s ( Bev ie r 1 983a :521 , 1 983h :208 ) a nd K am loop s G roup b a sa l t s ( Ew ing 1 98 1b :1485 ) . P igeon i te w a s a no the r t y pe o f p y roxene o b served i n Kam loop s G roup b a sa l t s ( Ew ing 1 981b :1 485 ) . I ti sv ery l i ke ly t ha tt he g roundma s s " opaque s " o b served i n t he C ache C reek s pec imen s a re i lmen i te a nd magne t i te w h ich h ave b een i den t if ied i n C h i lco t in G roup b a sa l t s ( Bev ie r 1 983b :2 11 -219 ) . T he l a rge , e uhed ra l " opaque s " a re p robab ly magne t i te p henoc ry s t s , w h ich h ave b een o b served i n s o me Kam loop s G roup b a sa l t s amp le s b y Ew ing ( 1981b :1485 ) . G roundma s sp lag ioc la se h a sb een o b served i nt he C ache C reek s amp le sa nd wa s i den t i f ied a s p r ima r i ly l abrado r i te i n Ch i lco t in G roup b a sa l t s ( Bev ie r 1 983b :208 ) a nd a sa nde s ine i n Kam loop sG roup b a sa l t s ( Ew ing 1 981b :1485 ) . F ive o ft he c obb le sw ere b lack i nc o lou ra nd t he o the r s r anged f r om med ium g rey t o v e ry d a rk g rey . T he b lack b a sa l t s amp le s w e re o bv iou s ly f i ne -g ra ined a nd e ven g la s sy i n t ex tu re . T h i s o b serva t ion wa s c on f i rmed b y t he m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s : t he f i ve b lack b a sa l t s amp le s h ad av e ry f i ne g roundma s s c ompr i sed o f m inu te p lag ioc la se l a th s , e uhed ra l t o a nhed ra l o l iv ine m ic rophenoc ry s t s , a nd r a re o ccu r rence s o fp y roxene a nd o paque s , mo s t o f wh ich c on s i s t o f i r on o x ide s ( F igu re s 5 -7 ) . P henoc ry s t s a re r a re a nd t hey c on s i s t o f e uhedra l t o a nhed ra l o l iv ine c r y s ta l s ( F igure 8 ) . T he b lack b a sa l t i s mo s t s im i la r t o t he C h i lco t in G roup b a sa l t sa sd e sc r ibed b yB ev ie r( 1983a ,b ) . T he g rey -co loured b a sa l t s amp le s a re c oa r se r i n t e x ture t han t he b lack s amp le s a nd u sua l ly c on ta in s i gn if ican t ly h ighe r p e rcen tage s o f i r on o x ide s t han t he b lack b a sa l t s . L a rge amoun t s o f magne t i te h ave o n ly b een n o ted i n Kam loop s G roup s amp le s ( e .g . Ew ing 1 981b :1485 ; D ry sda le 1 914 :142 ; Du f fe l l a nd McTagga r t 1 951 :67 ; F er ne r 1 896 :384 -386 ) , a l low ing t he s ugge s t ion t ha t mo s t o f t h i s ma te r ia l o r ig ina ted f r om Kam loop s G roup d epo s i t s . S evera l g rey s amp le sa l so h ave f e ld spa r p henoc ry s t s ( F igure s 1 -14 ) , wh ich c ons t i tu te a no the r c ha rac te r i s t ic o f Kam loop sG roup b a sa l t s ( Duf fe l la nd McTagga r t 1 95 1 : 67 ) . I ti sl i ke ly , t hen , t ha t mo s tg rey b a sa l ts amp le so r ig ina ted f r om t he K am loop s G roup a nd mo s t b lack , f i ne -g ra ined b a sa l t s amp le s f r om t he mo re r ecen t C h i lco t in g roup . Howeve r , i ti si mpo s s ib le t o a s s ign s a mp le s u nequ ivocab ly t o o ne o r t he o the r g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s o n t he b a s i s o f p re sen t ly a va i lab le d a ta d ue t o t he o ve r lap i n c ompo s i t ion r epor ted i n p ub l i shed s t ud ie s ( Ew ing 1 981b ; B ev ier 1 983b ) . I ti s wo r th n o t ing t ha t t he C h i lco t in G roup may a l so h e t he s ource f o rb lack , v i t reou s b a sa l t f ound i nt he B aezaeko R ive r a rea o ft he w e s t -cen t ra l i n te r io r o f B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . T h is b a sa l t i sv i sua l ly i nd i s t ingu ishab le f r om C ache C reek b a sa l ta nd may w e l l s ha re t he s ame p e t rog raph ic a nd m ic rowea rc ha rac te r is t ic s .

1 6

T a b le 2 .

C OBBLE

C a che C r eek b a sa lt t h in s e ction d es cr ipt ions .

F IGURE

5

2

D ESCR IPTION

B lack , g l assy , f i ne-gra ined b a sa lt .

M e d ium s i zed o l iv ine p h enocrysts i n av e ry f ine

g rounduass o f p lag ioc lase a n d r are o p aques . 2 7

B l ack , g l assy , f i ne-gra ined b a sa lt .

-

O c cas iona l s ma ll o l iv ine p h enocrysts a n d c lusters

o f o l iv ine p h enocrysts i n av e ry f i ne q round.ass o f p lag io c lase , w i th r a re o paques a nd p y ro xene .

6

4

B lack , g l assy , f i ne-gra ined b asa lt .

O c cas iona l v e ry l a rge a n hedra l o l iv ine

p henocrys ts i n av e ry f ine g roundmass c o ns ist ing o f p l ag io c lase a nd r a re o p aques . 2 1

T O

B la ck , g l assy , m e d iumfine g ra ined b asa lt .

F e ldspa r p h eno crysts a n d l a rge t o v e ry

l a rge a nh edra l o l iv ine p heno crysts i n af i ne g roundmass o f p l aq ioc lase w i th r a re o paques a n d p y ro xene ( a uq ite ). 1 7

B lack , g l assy , f i ne-gra ined b asa lt .

-

M e d ium t o v e ry l a rge e u hedra l t o a n hedra l o l iv ine

e heno crys ts i n av e ry f i ne g roundmass c o ns ist ing o f p l aq io c lase . 1

D a rk g r ey , f i ne-gra ined b asa lt .

-

O ccas iona l o l iv ine e i cropheno crysts i n f i ne-gra ined

p lag io clase g r oundmass a l so c onta in ing r a re o paques a n d p y ro xene . 2 3

M ed ium g r ey , f i ne-gra ined b asa lt . N o p henocrys ts a r e p resent i n af i ne t e xtured

-

p lag ioc lase g r oundmass , c onta in ing r are o paques a nd p y ro xene c rysta ls .

E x tens ive

a r eas o f y e llow ish-o range s t a in ing a r e u sua lly a ssoc ia ted w i th o pa ques . 4 0

M ed ium g r ey m e d ium b asa lt .

-

M e d ium t o l a rge f e ldspar a n d o l iv ina p h enocrysts i n av e ry

f i ne-g ra ined p laq io c lase g roundmass , a lso c o nta in ing o p aques a n d p y ro xene .

O paques

a re c ommon a n d a re a s so ciated w i th a r eas o f y e llow t o d a rk y e llow b r own s t a in ing . 2 5

9

M ed ium g r een ish-grey , m e d ium b asa lt .

M ed ium t o v e ry l a rge d iv ine p h eno crysts i n a

m e d ium c o arse f e ldspar g roundmass , a l so c onta in ing o paques a n d p y ro xene .

Y e llow ,

o range a n d r e d s ta in ing i s a sso c iated w i th t h e r e la tive ly c ommon o paques a n d a lso c racks i n t h e r o ck . 3 5

1 0

V e ry d a rk g r ey , m e d ium b asa lt .

L a rge t o v e ry l a rge e u hedra l o l iv ine p h enocrysts a r e

p resent i n am e d ium c oarse f e ldspar g roundmass , a lso c o nta in ing o p aques a n d p y ro xene . Y e llow a n d o range s ta in ing a s soc ia ted w i th o paques . 2

-

V e ry d a rk g r ey , m e d ium b asa lt .

T he o c cas iona l s u bhedra l t o e u hedra l o l iv ine

p h eno crys t a n d c luster o f o l iv ine p heno crysts a r e p resent i n am e d ium c oa rse p lag ioc lase g r oundmass , a l so c onta in ing o paques a nd p y ro xene .

D a rk r u sty-o range

s ta in ing i s a s so c ia ted w i th r e la t ive ly c ommon a n hedra l o p aques .

c o nt inued

17

T a b le 2 .

C OBBLE

2 0

( c ont inued )

F I6URE

D E SCR IPTION

V e ry d ark g rey m e d ium-coarse b asa lt .

-

M e d ium f e ldspar a nd l a rge t o v e ry l a rge o l iv ine

p h eno crysts a r e p resent i n am e d ium c oa rse q r o undmass o f p lag ioc lase , o p aques a nd r a re p y roxene . o paques .

O range a nd y e llow s ta in ing a re a sso ciated w i th t h e r e lative ly c ommon O c cas iona lly , s evera l o l iv ine p h eno crysts a r e g rouped t ogether f o rm ing a

l a rge m ass . 3 1

V e ry d a rk g r ey , m ed ium b asa lt . T h e m e d ium-coa rse q roundmass o f p lag ioc lase , o paques a n d p y roxene c onta ins o ccas iona l l a rge t o v e ry l a rge e u hedra l t o s ubhedra l o l iv ins

-

p h eno crys ts w h ich a r e s omet imes f ound i n l a rge c lusters .

O p aques a re r e la t ive ly s m a ll

i n s i ze a n d c ommon ly a nhedra l. 6

-

V e ry d a rk g rey , c oarse b asa lt .

L arge , e uhedra l f e ldspa r p henocrysts a r e i n terspe rs ed

w i th s u bhedra l t o e u hedra l o l iv ine p henocrysts a n d r e lat ive ly l a rge a n d c o mmon e uhedra l o paque p heno crysts . V e ry d a rk g r ey , c oarse b asa lt .

8

M ed ium t o l a rge , e u hedra l f e ldspar p heno crysts a r e

v e ry c ommon , a s a re s u bhedra l o l iv ine p henocrysts .

L a rge o paque p henocrysts a re

c ommon a n d a r e s u rrounded w i th o range b rown s t a in ing . 2 6

1 , 1 2

V e ry d a rk g r ey , c oarse b asa lt . o r iented .

F e ldspar p h enocrysts a re l a rge , e uhedra l a nd r andom ly

M e d ium t o l a rge s u bhedra l t o e u hedra l o l iv ine p h enocrysts a r e c ommon ly

i n terspe rsed b e tween t he f e ldspars . T h ese a p pea r t o h ave b e en a ltered ( i dd ings it izat ion? ). U na ltered e uhedra l o paqu e p h enocrys ts a r e r e lat ive ly l a rge a n d c ommon . 3 4

1 3 , 1 4

V e ry d a rk g r ey , v e ry c oarse b asa lt .

E uhedra l f e ldspar p heno crysts a r e o f ten v ery

l a rge , a l though l a rge a nd m e d ium o nes a re m o s t c ommon .

S u bhedra l t o e u hed ra l o l iv ine

p h eno crysts v a ry f rom s ma ll t o v e ry l a rge , a n d a p pear t o b e p a rt ly w eathered t o i d d ings ite .

O paques p henocrysts a re s ma ll t o l a rge , a nhedra l t o e uhedra l a nd v e ry

c ommon .

18

F igu r e 5 . T h in s ec t ion o f c obb le 2 2 , b lack , f i ne -g ra ined b a sa l t . Ve ry f i ne p l ag ioc la se g roundma s s w i th o ne o l iv ine ( 0 ) p henoc ry s t . P o la r ized l i gh t , 5 46 x .

F igu r e 6 . T h in s e c t ion o f c obb le 4 4 , b lack , f i ne -g ra ined b a sa l t . Ve ry f i ne p l ag ioc la se g roundma s s . P o la r ized l i gh t ,5 46 x .

1 9

F igu r e 7 . T h in s ec t ion o fc obb le 2 1 , b lack , med ium f ine g ra ined b a sa l t . F ine p lag ioc la se g roundma s s w i th f e ld spa r ( F ) p henoc ry s t s . P o la r ized l i gh t ,5 46 x .

F igu r e 8 . T h in s ec t ion o f c obb le 2 1 , n ew a rea . O l iv ine ( 0 ) p henoc ry s ti np lag ioc la se g roundma s s . P o la r ized l i gh t , 5 46 x .

2 0

F igu r e 9 . T h in s ec t ion o f c obb le 2 5 , g reen i sh -g rey , med ium g ra ined b a sa l t . Med ium -coa r se p lag ioc la se g roundma s s a nd o l iv ine ( 0 )p henoc ry s t s . P o la r ized l i gh t ,5 46 x .

F igur e 1 0 . T h in s ec t ion o f c obb le 3 5 , v e ry d a rk g rey , med ium g ra ined b a sa l t . Med ium -coa r se p lag ioc la se g roundma s s a nd o l iv ine ( 0 )p henoc ry s t s . P o la r ized l i gh t , 5 46 x . 2 1

F igu r e 1 1 . T h in s e c t ion o f c obb le 2 6 , v e ry d a rk g rey , c oar se g ra ined b a sa l t . F e ld spa r ( F ) a nd o l iv ine ( 0 ) p henoc ry s t s . P o la r ized l i gh t ,5 46 x .

F igu r e 1 2 . T h in s e c t ion o fc obb le 2 6 . F e ld spa r ( F ) , o l iv ine ( 0 ) , a nd o paque ( Op ) ( magne t i te ) p henoc ry s t s . S ame a rea a sF igu re i u nde rn o rma ll i gh t ,5 46 x . 2 2

F igur e 1 3 . T h in s e c t ion o fc obb le 3 4 ,v e ry d a rk g rey , v e ry c oa r se b a sa l t . F e ld spa r ( F ) , o paque ( Op ) ( magne t i te ) , a nd w ea thered o l iv ine ( 0 )p henoc ry s t s . P o la r ized l i gh t ,5 46 x .

F igur e1 4 . T h in s e c t ion o fc obb le 3 4 . F e ld spa r ( F ) , o paque ( Up ) ( magne t i te ) , a nd w ea the red o l iv ine ( 0 ) p henoc ry s t s . No rma l l i gh t ,5 46 x .

2 3

CHAPTER

4

H ISTORIC AND PREH ISTOR IC USE OF CACHE CREEK BASALT

4 . 1 I n t roduc t ion H i s tor ica l ly , t he s ou thwe s tern i n ter ior o fB r i t i sh C o lumb ia wa s o ccup ied b y t he I n ter io r S a l i sh s peak ing S hu swap , T homp son a nd L i l looe t ( F ra se r C anyon L i l looe t ) p eop le ( F igu re 1 5 ) . T hey w e re e ga l i ta r ian , s em i seden ta ry , h un ter g a the re r s , l a rge ly d ependen t o n s a lmon f o r s ub s i s tence . P e rmanen t p i thou se v i l lage s w e re o ccup ied d u r ing t he w in ter , b u t p opu la t ion s moved t o t empora ry f i e ld c amp s a nd s t a t ion s t o e xp lo i t s pa t ia l ly s eg rega ted , s ea sona l ly -ava i lab le r e sou rce s d u r ing t he r e s t o ft he y ea r ( Te i t 1 900 ,1906 ,1909 ; B oa s 1 891 ; Daw son 1 891 ; Ray 1 939 ) . As im i la r w ay o fl i fe h a s b een d ocumen ted b y a rchaeo log is t s f o r a t l ea s t t he p a s t 3 500 -4000 y ea r s i n t he t e r r i to ry o ccup ied b y t he S huswap , T homp son a nd L i l looe t( Sange r 1 970 ;S t ryd 1 973a ,b ; Wi l son 1 980 ; Ca r l son 1 980 ; Wya t t 1 972 ; Rou s seau a nd R icha rd s 1 985 ) , a nd i sn ow k nown a s t he P la teau P i thou se t r ad i t ion ( R icha rd sa nd Rou s seau 1 982 ,1983 ,1987 ) . H i s to r ica l ly a nd p reh i s to r ica l ly , b a sa l t w a s t he mo s t c ommon l i th ic ma ter ia l u sed f o r mak ing c h ipped s t one t oo l s i n t h i s p a r t o f B r i t i sh C o lumb ia . T h is c hap te r d ocumen t s t he t e chno logy u sed t o make c h ipped s t one t oo l s i nh i s tor ic a nd p reh i s to r ic t ime s i n t he a rea , a long w i th d e sc r ip t ion s o f t he k ind s o f t oo ls w h ich w e re made , h ow t hey w e re u sed a nd wha t t hey w e re u sed o n . T h is i n fo rma t ion i su sed t o p rov ide a s y s tem ic f r amewo rk f o r t he b a sa l t t oo l -u se e xpe r imen t sd e sc r ibed i nC hap te r7 .

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F igure 1 5. E thnographic m ap o f t he s outhern i nterior o f B ritish C olumbia s howing m id-nineteenth c entury t ribal l ocations ( after D uff 1 964). T he b lack t riangle i ndicates t he l ocation o f t he C ache C reek b asalt c ollection a rea u sed f or this s tudy.

2 5

4 .2 T homp son , S hu swap a nd L i l looe tL i th ic T echno log y

J ame s T e i t ( 1900 ,1906 ,1909 ) , p r inc ipa l e thnog raphe r o f t he I n ter io r S a l i sh , h ad o b served t ha t mak ing t oo l s b y c h ipp ing s t one w a s r a re b y t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 0 th c en tu ry . Howeve r , b o th T e i t ( 1900 :182 ) a nd Sm i th ( 1899 :136 ) f ound T homp son I nd ian s l i v ing n ea r L y t ton who s t i l l k new h ow t o manu fac ture c h ipped s t one a r row p o in t s . C h ipped s tone h ide s c rape r s w e re d ocumen ted a s s t i l lb e ing i nu se i nt he l a te 1 9 th a nd e a r ly 2 0 th c en tu r ie s ( Boa s 1 891 :636 ; Sm i th 1 899 :147 ;T e i t 1 900 :182 ) . D i rec t o b serva t ion o fc h ipped s t one t oo l manu fac ture a nd u se w a s t hu s p o s s ib le f o r t u rn o f t he c en tu ry e thnog raphe r s . E ven i n t he m id -1930 s , e lder ly i n fo rman t sw e re s t i l la b le t op rov ide s o me i n forma t ion a bou t c h ipped s t one t oo l s ( Ray 1 942 ) . " G la s sy b a sa l t "w a s t he mo s tc ommon l i th ic ma te r ia lu sed f o r mak ing c h ipped s t one t oo l s , a l though j a spe r , o b s id ian , q ua r tz , q ua r tz i te , " f l in t " , c ha lcedony , a nd a ga te w e re a l so o cca s iona l ly u sed ( Daw son 1 891 :35 ; T e i t 1 900 :241 , 1 906 :203 ,225 ,234 , 1 909 :473 ; Ray 1 9 42 :147 ,152 ; Sm i th 1 899 :135 -137 ) . Daw son ( 189 1 , 1896 ) s t ud ied b o th t he g eo logy a nd e thno logy o f s ou thwe s tern i n ter ior B r i t i sh C o lumb ia i nt he l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry a nd c on sequen t ly wa sw e l l a cqua in ted w i th t he b a sa l t l i th ic ma ter ia l , i t s a bo r ig ina l u se , a nd i t s s ou rce . He o b se rved t ha tt he b a sa l tw a s

. v e ry c ommon i nl oo se b ou lder sa nd f r agmen t se ve rywhere i nt he v i c in i ty o ft he A r row s tone H i l l s . I tw a s f o rme r ly emp loyed b y t he I nd ian s f o r t he manu fac tu re o f a r row - a nd s pea r -head s , a nd p robab ly o ccu r s i n c on s ide rab le v o lume i nt he h igher p a r t s o f t he A r row s tone H i l l s " ( Daw son 1 896 :220 ) .

I ta ppea r s t he b a sa l t o ccu r red a bundan t ly a s c obb le s o ver a w ide a rea , a nd Daw son s eem s t o s ugge s t ab ed rock s ou rce i n t he h igher e l eva t ion s o f t he A r row s tone H i l ls . T he e x i s tence o f ab ed rock q ua r ry u sed b y t he T homp son I nd ian s w a s r eco rded b y Sm i th , a l though h e o n ly v ague ly n o te s t he l o ca t ion a s " t he moun ta in s " ( Sm i th 1 899 :137 ) . T he g ene ra l s ou rce o f t he b a sa l t wa s c onf i rmed b y T e i t . A cco rd ing t o h i s i n fo rman t s , t he T homp son o b ta ined b a sa l t " . .a t ac e r ta in p lace n o r th o fT homp son R ive r " ( Te i t 1 900 :241 ) , a nd h i sS huswap i n fo rman t s s t a ted i tw a s f ound " . . in many p a r t s o f t he c oun t ry , n o tab ly i n t he A r row s tone Range , n ea r B onapa r te R ive r " ( Te i t 1 909 :519 ) . B a sa l t u sed t o make t oo l s f o r t he p re sen t s t udy c ame f r om C ache C reek , wh ich i sn o r th o ft he T homp son R ive r , j u s t e a s t o f t he B onapa r te R ive r a nd o n t he f r inge s o f t he A r row s tone H i l l s ( s ee C hap te r3 . 1 ,F igu re s 1a nd 2 ) . T he s ou rce o f b a sa l t u sed b y t he L i l looe t w a s n o t r eco rded , a l though i ti s p robab ly s i gn i f ican t t ha t t he b ounda ry b e tween t he t h ree g roup s i sc l o se t o t he A r row s tone H i l l s , mak ing t he s ou rce a cce s s ib le f o r d i rec t p rocuremen t b y membe r so fe ach g roup . I fi tc ou ld n o tb e o b ta ined b yd i rec tp rocu remen t , t here w a s c on s ide rab le i n te rac t ion b e tween t he t h ree g roup s wh ich wou ld h ave f a c i l i ta ted t he c i rcu la t ion o ft h i s ma ter ia l . 2 6

T e i td e sc r ibe s ame thod o fc h ipped s t one a r rowhead manu fac tu re u sed b yt he Thomp son I nd ian s a sf o l low s :

" The b ow lder w a s s p l i t b yb e ing l a id o n as t one a nd s t ruck w i th a h and -hammer , g ene ra l ly ap ebb le o fh andy s i ze . When a s u i tab le p iece h ad b een o b ta ined , i t s e dge s w e re t r immed o f fw i th a h a rd s t one . T hen i tw a sw rapped i ng ra s s o r h ay , p laced o n e dge o n a s t one , a nd l a rge f l ake sw e re s p l i to f fw i th ah and -hamme r . A f te r a s u i tab le p iece h ad b een o b ta ined , i tw a sp laced o n ap ad i nt he l e f t h and a nd h e ld i n p o s i t ion w i th t he f i nge r s . I t wa s g i ven i t s f i na l s hape b y mean s o f af i ake r made o fa n t le r , wh ich wa s u sed w i th a f o rwa rd a nd d ownwa rd p re s su re . T he b lun t p o in t s e rved f o r f l ak ing o f f l a rge r c h ip s , wh i le t he s ma l ler o ne w a s u sed f o r t he f i na l s t age so ft he w o rk " ( Te i t 1 900 :182 ,F igu re 18 ) .

I t i s a ppa ren t t ha t t he T homp son u sed b ipo la r p e rcu s s ion , p ercu s s ion w i th h a rd h amme r s , a nd p re s su re f l ak ing w i th a n t le r t o manu fac tu re c h ipped s t one p o in t s a nd p robab ly o the r Acco rd ing t o T e i t ( 1906 :203 ; 1 909 :473 ) , L i l looe t a nd S hu swap wa sv i r tua l ly i d en t ica lt ot ha to ft he T homp son .

d i rec t f r eehand a nd h one f l ake r s t y pe s o f t oo l s . l i th ic t e chno logy

A r row p o in t sw e re s i de -no tched , b a rbed o r l ea f shaped i nf o rm ; s pea rhead s , a xe -head s ( " tomahawk s " ) a nd d agge r s w e re o f s im i la r f o rm s b u t l a rger ( Te i t 1 900 :241 , 1 906 :234 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o t he a bove c h ipped s t one t oo l t ype s , k n ive s , s c rape r s a nd d r i l l s w e re a l so u sed ( Te i t 1 900 :182 -184 ,263 , 1 906 :203 , 1 909 :473 ,474 ; Ray 1 942 :126 , 1 46 ,147 ,150 ,152 ,162 ; B oa s 1 891 :636 ,638 ; Daw son 1 891 :17 ; Sm i th 1 899 :147 ) . Wh i le t he e xac t me thod o f manu fac tu re o fs t one k n ive s i sn o tr ecorded i nt he e thnog raph ie s , t hey a re d e sc r ibed a s h av ing b een made b y b e ing " c h ipped a nd f l aked " ( Te i t 1 909 :473 ) , " worked a nd f l aked " ( Te i t 1 906 :203 ) , a nd " ba t te red i n to s hape , c u t a nd f l aked " ( Te i t 1 900 :182 ) . O f t he t wo k n ive s i lu s t ra ted b y T e i t ( 1900 :F igure s 1 25 ,126 ) , o ne i s e x ten s ive ly c h ipped , w h i le t he o the r h a s o n ly ma rg ina l u n ifac ia l r e touch a long mo s t o f t he e dge a nd b i fac ia l r e touch o n i t s b a se . C h ipped s tone k n ive sw e re u sed f o r c u t t ing o rw h i t t l ing wood , h ide , a n t le r a nd b one ( Te i t 1 900 :183 ,187 ; T e i t 1 909 :474 ,508 ; Ray 1 942 :147 ) , b u tcher ing f i sh ( Ray 1 942 :126 ) , a nd w e re p re sumab ly u sed o n o the r ma ter ia l s wh ich n eeded t o b e p roce ssed o r manu fac tu red b y s l ic ing , s aw ing o r wh i t t l ing ( s ee T ab le s 3 -7 ) . Kn ive s a nd d agger su sed i nw a r fa re w e re o f ten h a f ted i ns ho r t w ooden o r a n t le r h and le s ( Te i t 1 906 :234 ;R ay 1 942 :152 -153 ) . O the rt ype s o fk n ive sw ere h a f ted i n b one , a n t le r a nd wooden h and le s a nd b ound i n to p lace w i th s i new , o r w e re u nha f ted b u tw rapped i nb uck sk in ( Te i t 1 900 :183 , 1 909 :474 ; Ray 1 942 :126 ,147 ) . H ide s c raper s o f s t one a ppa ren t ly c on t inued t o b e i n u se i n to t he 2 0 th c en tu ry . T he T homp son h ide d ef le sh ing t oo li sd e sc r ibed o n ly a s a" s ha rp s t one s c rape r " ( Te i t 1 900 :184 ) . T he L i l looe t h ide s c rape r s " . .we re s imp ly t h in p i ece s f l aked o f ff r om p ebb le s o fv a r iou s k ind s , a nd w e re s l igh t ly c h ipped o n o ne e dge o n ly " ( Te i t 1 906 :203 ) . Among t he S hu swap , h ide s c rape r s " . .we re u sua l ly made f r om c h ips o fb ow lde r sw h ich s p l i tw e l l ,b u to cca s iona l ly w ere f l aked f r om b a sa l t , 2 7

i nt he s ame manne r a s t he a r row -po in t s " ( Te i t 1 909 :473 ) . I ta ppea r s t ha t b a sa l t w a s o n ly o cca s iona l ly u sed f o r mak ing c h ipped s t one h ide s c raper s w h i le o ther ma te r ia l s s uch a s s ch i s tw ere mo re c ommon ly u sed ( Ray 1 942 :126 ) . I ng enera l , h ide s c rape r s s eem t o h ave b een m in ima l ly r e touched , a nd p robab ly o n ly u n ifac ia l ly . An i lu s t ra ted e xamp le o f ah ide s c rape r ( Sm i th 1 899 :F igu re 6 4 ) i s a t tached t o a 1m l ong wooden h and le b y r awh ide b ind ing . T he s c raper h ad ma rg ina l r e touch a round t he e n t i re i lu s t ra ted f a ce . I na dd i t ion t o h ide s c rap ing , c h ipped s t one t oo l s w e re a l so u sed a s s c rape r s t o s t ra igh ten a r row s ha f t s ( Ray 1 942 :150 ) . T he re c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t c h ipped s t one s c rape r s we re u sed o n many ma ter ia l s wh ich n eeded t o b e manu fac tured o r p roce s sed b y s c rap ing o r s hav ing . B i t s made o f b a sa l t o r " f l in t " w ere u sed f o r d r i l l ing a v a r ie ty o f ma te r ia l s , i n c lud ing s t ea t i te ( Te i t 1 900 :183 , 1 909 :474 ; Ray 1 942 :146 ) . D r i l l b i t s w ere a ppa ren t ly made o n " f laked .p o in t s " ( Te i t 1 909 :474 ) , s o me o f wh ich w ere " no tched " ( Ray 1 942 :146 ) , wh ich s ugge s t s t ha t a tl e a s t s o me s t one d r i l lb i t s w ere made o f c h ipped s t one p ro jec t i le p o in t s w i th n a r rowed t i p s . P ro jec t i le p o in t s w i th s uch mod i f ica t ion s h ave , i nf a c t , b een o cca s iona l ly f ound a tp reh i s to r ic s i te s i nt he a rea ( e .g . Wi l son 1 980 : F igu re 4 5ei ) . S tone d r i l lb i t sw e re f i t ted t os ha f t s wh ich w e re h and ro ta ted ( Te i t 1 909 :474 ; Ray 1 942 :146 ) . T he T homp son , S hu swap a nd L i l looe t h ad a d iv i s ion o f l a bour b y s e x , w i th t he manu fac tur ing o f s t one t oo l s r eco rded a s b e ing a ma le t a sk ( Te i t 1 900 :182 ,295 ) . I ndeed , a l l " wo rk i ns t one , b one a nd w ood wa s d one b yt he men " ( Te i t 1 900 :182 ) . Howeve r , w omen d id e ngage i n a c t iv i t ie s w h ich w ou ld h ave i n vo lved t he u se o f s t one t oo l s : t he p repa ra t ion o f h ide s ( s c rape r s ) ; t he manu fac tu re o f ma t t ing , b a ske t ry , t w ine a nd c l o th ing ( kn ive s ) ; t he p roce s s ing o f f i sh ( kn ive s ) ; a nd t he p repa ra t ion o f mea l s ( kn ive s ) ( Te i t 1 900 :182 ,230 ,296 ; Ray 1 942 :124 ; Sm i th 1 899 :147 ; B oucha rd a nd K ennedy 1 977 :66 , 1 979 :134 ,146 ) . I ti s d i f f icu l t n o t t o s pecu la te t ha t w omen o cca s iona l ly manufac tu red o r a t l ea s t r e sharpened t he i r own s t one s c raper s a nd k n ive s , e ven t hough t he re i s n o d ocumen ted e v idence o fs uch b ehav iou r . I n t he e thnog raph ic r eco rd r ev iewed a bove , c h ipped s t one t oo l s w e re u sed w i th t he f o l low ing mo to r a c t ion s : s c rap ing , c u t t ing ( s aw ing , s l ic ing ) , w h i t t l ing ( " ca rv ing " ) , d r i l l ing , c hopp ing ( " tomahawk s " ) , a nd p ie rc ing ( dagge r s ) . A lso , a r row a nd s pea rh ead s w e re u sed a sp ro jec t i le t i p s . E ng rav ing t oo l sw ou ld h ave b een u se fu l f o r p roduc ing t he i n c i sed d e s ign s f ound o n b one , a n t le r a nd s t one i mp lemen t s , a l though g raver s a re n o t men t ioned i nt he e thnog raph ie s . P erhap s s uch i mp lemen t s w e re r ep laced b y much more e ff i c ien t me ta l t oo l s a t s uch a n e a r ly d a te t ha tt hey w ere f o rgo t ten b yt he l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry . I ti sa ppa ren t t ha t c h ipped s t one t oo l s w e re f o rmed b y v a r iab le d eg ree s o f r e touch , w i th p ro jec t i le p o in t s u nde rgo ing t he mo s t e labo ra te manu fac tur ing p roce s s . I n c on t ra s t , s ome h ide s c rape r s w e re n o t r e touched a nd s ome k n ive s w e re o n ly m in ima l ly r e touched . O ther s imp le u n re touched o r m in i ma l ly r e touched f l ake t oo l sw e re p robab ly a l so u sed , a l though n o men t ion o fs uch t oo ls i s made i nt he e thnog raph ie s . T he a u tho rs pecu la te st ha ts imp le f l ake t oo ls may h ave e a s i ly b een o ve r looked b yi n forman t so re thnog rapher s . 2 8

I ns umma ry , c h ipped s t one t oo l s , p r ima r i ly made o fb a sa l t ,w e re u sed b yb o th men a nd women o n av a r ie ty o fc on tac t ma te r ia l s . T he se i n c lude a n ima l s w h ich w ere p roces sed f o r s ub s i s tence p u rpo se s ( Tab le s 3 , 4 ) , p lan t s a nd t r ee s u sed f o r t echno log ica l p urpo se s ( Tab le 5 ) , a nd av a r ie ty o f ma ter ia l s wh ich w e re mod if ied i n to w eapon s , t oo l s , c on ta ine r s , c l o th ing , o rnamen t s , o rg am ing p iece s ( Tab le 6 ) .

4 . 3 P r eh i s to r ic U se o fB a sa l t L i th ic a s semb lage s f r om a rchaeo log ica l s i te s i n S hu swap , L i l looe t a nd T homp son t e r r i to ry u sua l ly c on s i s t o fh igh p e rcen tage s o f i t em s made o f b a sa l t ( s ee S anger 1 968a ,1970 ; R icha rd s 1 978 ; R icha rd s a nd Rou s seau 1 982 ,1987 ; Rou s seau a nd R icha rd s 1 985 ,1988 ; S t ryd a nd L awhead 1 983 ; S t ryd 1 972 ,1973a ,1974 ,1981 ; E ld r idge a nd S t ryd 1 983 ; P oko ty lo a nd B e i rne 1 978 ; Wh i t lam 1 980 ; Wya t t 1 972 ; Von K rogh 1 978 ; Wi l son 1 980 ; C a r l son 1 980 ) . T h i s b a sa l t i sv i sua l ly i nd i s t ingu i shab le f r om b a sa l t c o l lec ted a t C ache C reek f o r t he p re sen t s tudy , o r b a sa l t w ide ly a va i lab le i n g lac ia l , f l uv io -g lac ia l o r f l uv ia l d epo s i t si nt he a rea . B a sa l tf r equen t ly c omp r i se s9 0% o r mo re o fc h ipped s t one a s semb lage s a t p reh i s to r ic s i te s i n t he s t udy a rea ( s ee a bove r e ference s ) . I n a dd i t ion , e a r l ie r a s semb lage s t end t o h ave h igh p ropor t ion s o f n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t s , wh i le v i t reou s b a sa l t s o f ten c omp r i se a pp rox ima te ly 8 0% o f t ho se a s semb lage s d a t ing mo re r ecen t ly t han c a . 2 500 B .P . ( R icha rd s a nd Rou s seau 1 987 :27 ,34 ) . T he re a re s o me c h ipped s t one t oo l t y pe s f ound a tP la teau P i thou se t r ad i t ion ( PP t ) s i te s wh ich a re n o td e sc r ibed o ri lu s t ra ted i nt he e thnog raph ie s ; s im i la r ly , s ome t oo ls d e sc r ibed i nt he e thnog raph ie sh ave n o tb een f ound a ta rchaeo log ica l s i te s ( Tab le 7 ) . T oo l s d e sc r ibed b y a rchaeo log i s t s a s " g rave r s " , " choppe r s " " s p l i t c obb le t oo ls " a nd " m ic rob lade s " a re n o t d e sc r ibed i nt he e thnog raph ie s , b u t a re f ound i n PP t s i te s , a l though n one o f t he se t oo l t y pe s a re c ommon . C h ipped s t one " dagge r s " a nd " a xeb lade s " a re men t ioned i nt he T homp son e thnog raphy b y T e i t ( 1900 ) b u t s uch i t em s h ave n o t b een i den t i f ied i np reh i s tor ic a s semb lage s . I n mo s t PP t a s semb lage s f r om h i s to r ic S hu swap , T homp son a nd L i l looe t t e r r i to ry , m in ima l ly r e touched a nd u n re touched t oo l s ( " u t i l ized f l ake s " ) p redom ina te l i th ic t oo l a s semb lage s , wh i le t he w e l l -made " p ro jec t i le p o in t s " , " kn ive s " a nd " s c rape r s "a re g ene ra l ly l e s sc ommon . T he S hu swap , L i l looe t a nd T homp son manu fac tu red t oo l s u s ing b ipo la r p e rcu s s ion , d i rec t f r eehand p ercu s s ion w i th h a rd h ammer s , a nd p re s sure f l ak ing u s ing a n t le r t i ne f l ake r s o r b one t i p s i n a n t le r t i ne h o lde r s . A l l o f t he se t echn ique s h ave b een i d en t i f ied o n PP t t oo l s o r c o re s ( R icha rd s a nd Rou s seau 1 987 ) . I n a dd i t ion , s of t h amme r p e rcu s s ion may h ave b een u sed f o r b i fac ia l t h inn ing (Magne a nd P oko ty lo 1 981 ) , a l though b i l le t s h ave n o t y e t b een f ound . M ic rob lade t e chno logy w a s p re sen t u n t i l a pp rox ima te ly 1 200 B .P . ( Sange r 1 968b ,1970 ; R icha rd sa nd Rou s seau 1 987 ) .

2 9

T a b le 3 .

L i st o f m a mma l s p ec ies e x p lo ited h i s to r ica lly b y t h e S h usw ap 1 L i lloo e t

a n d T h om pson I n d ia ns ( T e it 1 9 00 ,1906 ,1909 ; R a y 1 9 42 ) a n d p r eh is to r ica lly i n t h e P l ateau P i thouse t r ad it ion ( R icha rds a n d R o usseau 1 9 82 ,19831987 ).

C OMMON N A ME

S C IENT IF IC N A ME

m u le d e er

O d o co ileus h e m io nus h e m io nus

b l a ck-ta iled d ee r

O do co ileus h e m io nus c o lumb ia nus

w h iteta iled d e er

O c oco ileus v i rg in ianus o c h ro u rus

e l k

C e rvus c a na de ns is

b i gho rn s h ee p

O v is c a nadens is

m o u nta in g o a t

O r eamos a m e r icanus

m o unta in c a r ibou

R a ng ifer t a randus

b l ack b e ar

U rsus a m e ricanus

g r izzly b e ar

U r sus h o rr ib i lis

c o ugar

F e lis c o nco lo r

l y nx w o lve r ine

L y nx c a na de ns is

c o yote

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f o x r e d f o x

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m a rten

M a rtes a m er icana

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f i she r

M a rtes p e nnat i

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L u tra c a nad ens is

m u skrat

O n da tra z i b eth icus

b e ave r

C a s to r c a nade ns is

m a rmot

M a rro ta s p p .

p o rcup ine

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s n owshoe h a re

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r a bb it w e ste rn g r ey s q u irre l

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3 0

S H USWAP

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T a b le 4 .

L i st o f f i sh s p e c ies e x p lo ite d h i stor ica lly b y t h e S h uswap , l i lloo et a n d

T h ompson I n d ia ns ( a fte r T e it 1 9 00 ,1906 ,1909 ; R ay 1 9 42 : K e nne dy a n d B o u cha rd 1 9 75 ,19 78 ) a n d p reh is to r ica lly i n t h e P l ateau P i thouse t r ad it ion ( R icha rds a n d R o usseau 1 9 82 ,198 1 1 , 19B7 ).

C O MMON N A ME

S C IEN T IF IC N A ME

s p r ing s a lmon ( c h inoo k )

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p i nk s a lmon ( h umpback )

0 . g o rbus cha

c o ho s a lmon

0 . k i su tch

s o ckeye s a lmon

0 . n e rka

k a m loops o r r a inbow t r out ( s tee lhead )

S a lmo g a irdne r i

D o lly V a rden c h ar

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b u rbot

I o ta I o ta

s t urgeon

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•

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l a rgesca le s u cker

C a tostom us • a croche il u s

s u cke rs

C a tostomus s p p .

e ls ( P a c ific l a mprey )

E n tos phenus t r ide ntatus

p e amou th

M y lo che ilus c a u r inus

s q uaw fish

P ty choche i lus o reqo nens is

r e ds ide s h iner

R i cha rdon ius b a ltea tus

s c u lp in

C o ttus s p p

3 1

S HUSWAP

P L ATEAU

ILLOOET

P I TH O USE

T H OMPSON

T R AD IT ION

T a b le 5 . P l ant a n d t r ee s p ec ies u s ed f o r t e chno loica I p u rposes i n h i s to r ic t i m es b y t h e S h uswa p , L i llooet a n d T h om pso n ( T e it 1 9 00 ,1906 ,1909 : R a y 1 9 42 ; T u rn er 1 9 79 ) a n d w h ich m a y h a ve b e en p r ocessed o r m o d ified w i th c h ippe d s t one t o o ls .

C O MMON N A ME

S C IEN T IF IC N A M E

h o rs eta ils c o mmon h o rse ta il c o mmo n s c ou r ing r u sh s w a rdfe rn b r acken f e rn

E q u isetum s p p. E . a r vense E . h i ema le P o lys t ichum m u n itum P t er id ium a g u ilinum

y e llow c e dar R o cky M o unta in j u n iper w e ste rn r e d c e dar g r and f i r a r a b ilis f i r

C h amae cypa r is n o o tka tens is J u n ipe rus s c o pu lo rum l h u 1a p l icata A b ies g r and is A b ies a m ab ilis

s u ba lp ine f i r e n ge lman s p ruce w h ite s p ruce

A b ies l a s io ca rpa P i cea e n g e lma nn ii

l o dge po le p i ne w h ite p i ne p o nde rosa p i ne d o ug las f i r w e ste rn y e w s e dqes t u le g r asses p i ne grass r y egrass r e ed c a na ry-grass c o mmo n r e edgrass c a t-ta il r o cky m o unta in m a p le c o w p a rsn ip I n d ia n h e mp s p read ing d o gbane s h owy m i lkweed p a s ture w o rmwood b i g s a ge brush b a lsa. roo t r a bb itbrush

P i cea g l auca P i nus c o nto rta P i nus m o nt ico la P i nus p o nde rosa P s eudo tsuqa a e n z ies ii T a xus b r ev ifo lia C a re x s p p . S c irpus a C UtU5 F ' o acea e o r S r a. ineae C a lam ag ros t is r u besce ns E l ymus c i ne reus P h a la r is a r un d ina cea P h ragm ites c o mmu n is T y pha l a t ifo lia A c er g l a bru. H e ra c leum l a na tu. A p o cy nu. c a nna b inue A p o cy nue a n dro saem ifo li u. A s t lep ias s p e c ios a A r tem is ia f r ig ida A r tem is ia t r ide nta ta B a lsamo rh iza s a g ittata C h ryso tham nus n a useosus

c o nt inu ed

3 2

T a b le 5 . ( c ont inued )

C O MMON N A ME

S C IEN T IF IC N A ME

r e d a l de r w e ste rn w h ite b i rch

A l nus r u bra B e tu la p a py r ife ra

h a ze lnut p r ick ly-p e ar c a c tus o r a nge h o neysu ck le

C a ry lus c o rnuta O p unt ia f r aq ilis o r p o lyacan tha L o n ice ra c i liosa

r e d e l de rbe rry b l ue e l de rbe rry

S a mbu cus r a cemosa S a mbu cus c e ru lea

w a xbe rry f l ow e r ing d o gwood r e d-os ie r d o gwood s i lv e rbe r ry

S y spho r ica rpos a l bus C a r us n u tta llii C a r us s t o lo n ifFra E l acagnus c o smutata

w i ld g o os ebe rr ies

R i bes d i va r ica tur n

m o ck-o ra nge w h ite c l em at is

P h ilade lphus l e w is ii C l emat is l i qus t ic ifo lia

s a s ka toon b l ack h a w tho rn

A m e lanch ier a l n ifo lia C r atac qus d o ug las ii

a c eans pray ( i ro nwoo d ) b i tte r c h e rry w i ld r o se

H o lod is cus d i s co lo r P r u nus e m a rg inata R o se a c icu la r is

t h im b lebe rry

R u bus p a rv iflo rus

b l a ck c o t tonwood

P o pu lus b a lsam ife ra

t r emb ling a s pen w i llow

P o pu lus t r emu lo ides S a lix s p p .

3 3

T a b le B . L i s t o f o r gan ic ( w ood , b o ne , a n t ler , s h e ll , t o o th , c l aw a n d h i de ) m a ter ia l c u ltu re i t ems p a rt ly o r c o mp lete ly m a nu factu red w i th c h ipped s t one b a sa lt t o o ls b y t h e h i s to r ic S h uswa p . L i i loo et a n d T h om pso n I n d ians ( T e it 1 9 00 ,1906 ,1909 ; R a y 1 9 42 ) a n d i n t h e P l ateau P i thous e t r ad it ion ( R icha rds a n d R o usseau 1 9 82 ,1983 ,1987 ).

I T EM

S H I JSW AP

P L ATEAU

L I LLOOE T

P I THOUSE

T H OMPSON

T R AD IT ION

a r row f o resha ft

b , a

a r row s h a ft

w

s p ea r s h a ft

w

h a rpoon s h a ft

w

f i re d r ill s h a ft

w

b a g n e t h a nd le

w

s c ra per h a nd le

w

f i sh g a ff h a nd le

w

e l bow a d ze h a nd le

w , b

c h ise l h a nd le

w , a

d a gg er h a nd le

w

k n ife h a nd le

w , b ,a

t o ma haw k h a nd le

w

d i gg ing s t ick h a nd le

w , a

c h is e l s l eeve

a

a de s l e eve

a

s l eev e o r h a nd le

a

b a g n e t h o op

w

b a g n e t r i ng

a

p o int

b , a

s p ea r p a int

b

b a rbed p o int

w , b ,a

b , a

c o m po s ite h a rpoo n v a lv e

w , b ,a

a , b

a r mour

w , h

s h e ild b o w

w , h w

m i nea tu re b o w

b

c l ub

w , b ,a

p e s t le

w

m a llet

w , b ,a

w e dge c h ise l

w , a b , a

d a gger

b

k n ife

b , a

p a dd le

w

p r essure f i ake r

a

a

a , b

a c o nt inued

3 4

T a b le

6 . ( c ont inued )

I T EM

d r il l b i t

S H USWAP

P L A TEAU

L I IIOOET

P I THOUS E

T H OMPSON

T R AD IT ION

ba

d i gg ing s t ick

w , b

g o rg et

b

f i sh h o o ks

w1b1a

f i sh s p reade rs

w

s t irre r

w

s p oo n s p a tu la

w1b , a w

r e am e r

b

m a t c r e aser

b

h i d e s c ra pe r

w , b

b a rk p e e ler

w , a

c a mb ium s c raper

b , a

t o ngs

w

p i n

a b

n e e d le

w1b , a

b

a w l n e tt ing s t ick

w b ,a w

b

h a ir t w ee zers

w , a

r i ng

b

w h is t le

b

s c ra tche r

b

d r ink in g t u be

b

b

b e ad n o se o r nam ent

b a 1t1s bs

b , t ,s 1c

b r ace le t

b

p e ndan t

b , t 1s1c

c o mb a n th ro pomo rph ic f i gu r ine

w

c a rved b e ar b a cu lum

a a b

g a mb lin g s t icks

w

d i ce b ow h a n d g u a rd

t h

q u ive r

h

b a g

h

h e ad b a nd

h

c a p

h

c lo th ing

h

m o ccas ins

h

m i tte ns

h

t

wwoo d 1 bbone , aant le r , hh ide , sshe 11, t too th , c cl a w

3 5

T a b le

1 . L i st o f c h ipped s t o ne t o o l t y pes u s ed h i s to r ica lly b y t h e S h uswap , L i lloo c t a n d

T h om pson ( T e it 1 9 00 !1 9 06 ,1909 ) a n d p r eh is to r ica lly i n t h e P l ateau F i thouse t r ad it io n ( R icha rds a n d R o usseau 1 9 8219B31981 ).

S H USWAP /L IILOOET/TUOMPSON

P L ATEAU P I THOUSE T R AD IT ION

a r row p o ints

a r row p o ints ( f o rmed b i faces )

s p ea r p o ints

s p ea r p o ints ( f o rm ed b i fa ces )

k n ives

k n ives ( f o rmed u n ifaces o r b i fa ces , u n fo rmed u n ifa ces o r b i fa ces , u t ilized f l a kes )

d a gge rs

n o e q u iv a lent ( p oss ib ly f o rmed b i faces )

s c rapers

s c ra pers ( f o rm ed u n ifaces , u n fo rm ed u n ifa ces , s p a l l t o o ls ,

n o tched d r ills

s p lit c o bb le t o o ls , u t ilized f l akes ) n o tched d r ills ( f o rm ed b i fa ces , r ewo rked p o ints )

d r ills

d r ills ( f o rmed b i faces )

a x eb la des

n o e qu iva lent

n o e q u iv a lent

p e rfo rato r/q rave rs

3 6

4 .4 S u m mary a nd D iscuss ion

T he h i s to r ic S hu swap , L i l looe t a nd T homp son I nd ian s a nd t he i r p reh i s to r ic a nce s to r s o ft h eP la teau P i thou se t r ad i t ion w e re h eav i ly r e l ian t o n c h ipped b a sa l t t oo l s f o r o b ta in ing a nd p roce s s ing s ub s i s tence r e sou rce s a nd f o r manufac tur ing many o ther i mp lemen t s i mpor tan t f o r u nde r tak ing s ub s i s tence r e la ted t a sk s . T he g l a s sy b a sa l t ,w h ich w a sp ref er red f o rt oo l mak ing d ue t oi t s s uper io rf l ak ing c ha rac ter is t ic s , w a s w ide ly a va i lab le a s f l oa t c obb le s b u t o n ly c oncen t ra ted i na f ew l o ca l i t ie s s uch a st he A r row s tone H i l l s . T he b a sa l t u sed i nt he p re sen ts t udy w a so b ta ined f r om C ache C reek o nt he p e r iphe ry o ft he A r row s tone H i l ls . T he t oo l su sed i nt he p re sen ts t udy a re p r ima r i ly s imp le f l ake t oo l s ( Appendi x D ) , w h ich a re t he mo s t c ommon i mp lemen t s f ound a t PP t s i te s ( R icha rd s a nd Rou s seau 1 987 ) . I n t h e PP t a nd d ur ing t he h i s tor ic p er iod , t oo ls w e re manu fac tured ma in ly b y h a rd h ammer p e rcu s s ion a nd a l so b y s of t h amme r p e r cu s s ion ; s uch i sa l so t h e c a se w i th t he e xpe r imen ta l t oo l s u sed i nt h i s s t udy . T oo l a c t ion s u sed h i s to r i ca l ly a nd i nt he PP t i n c lude c u t t ing , s c rap ing , w h i t t l ing , d r i l l ing , b o r ing , g rav ing , p ie rc ing ( dagge r s , p ro jec t i le p o in t s ) , a dz ing a nd c hopp ing . G round n eph r i te c e l t s w e re u sed f o r a dz ing a nd c h i se l ing . C h ipped p ebb le o rc obb le t oo l s ,u sua l ly n o t made o fb a sa l t ,w e re u sed f o rc hopp ing . W i th t he e xcep t ion s o fd r i l l ing ( wh ich i s av e ry s im i la r a c t ion t ob o r ing ) p i erc ing a nd c hopp ing , a l l o f t he r ecogn ized a bo r ig ina l t oo l a c t ion s i n vo lv ing c h ipped s t one t oo l sw ere u sed i nt he e xpe r imen t s . T he w ide v a r ie ty o fp lan ta nd a n ima ls pec ie s e xp lo i ted h i s to r ica l ly a nd p reh i s to r ica l ly b y N a t ive p eop le f o r s ub s i s tence p u rpo se s a nd f o r r aw ma ter ia l s a re l i s ted o n T ab le s 3 5 . T he s cope o f t he p re sen t s t udy o n ly a l lowed t he u se o f al im i ted r ange o f c on tac t ma te r ia l s , a l though t ho se s e lec ted a re o ne s w h ich w e re c ommon ly u sed a nd a re r ep re sen ta t ive o ft he ma jo rc l a s se so fc on tac t ma ter ia l s .

3 7

CHAPTER 5

I NDEPENDENT VARIABLES , RECORD ING METHODS , AND PROCEDURES

5 . 1I n t roduc t ion B a sa l t t oo l s w e re u sed i ne xpe r imen t s t o d e term ine t he e f fec t s o fd i f f eren t u se -ac t ion sa nd c on tac t ma te r ia l s o nt he t oo le dge s . C ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h eb a sa l t t oo l s a nd t he c on tac t ma te r ia l s , a nd h ow t he t oo l s w e re u sed o n t he c on tac t ma te r ia l s a re t he i ndependen t v a r iab le s i n t he e xpe r imen t s , w h i le m ic rowea r t r ace s o n t he t oo l s r e su l t ing f r om u se a re t he d ependen t v a r iab le s ( s ee Myer s 1 972 :1 ) . C ha rac ter i s t ic s o f t he i ndependen t v a r iab le s a re t he s ub jec t o f t h i s c hap te r ,w h i le t he d ependen tv a r iab le sa re d i scu s sed i nC hap ter 6 . I ndependen t v a r iab le si n vo lved i nt he e xpe r imen t s c an b e d i v ided i n to t h ree g roup s . Qua l i t ie so ft he t oo l s c omp r i se o ne g roup a nd i n c lude s uch a t t r ibu te s a s t y pe o fb a sa l t , s p ine -p lane a ng le a nd v ar iou s o the rc ha rac ter i s t ic s o f t he w o rk ing e dge ( Tab le 8 ) . Ano the r g roup o f i ndependen t v a r iab le s a re a t t r ibu te s o f t he c on tac t ma te r ia l , i n c lud ing h a rdne s s , e l a s t ic i ty , w e tne s s , g r i t t ine s s , e tc . T he l a s t g roup o fv a r iab le s c on s i s t s o f o b serva t ion s r e la t ing at oo l t o ac on tac t m a te r ia l d u r ing t he a c t ive p a r t o fa n e xpe r imen t . I nc luded i nt h i s g roup a re t oo l a c t ion , a pp l ied p re s su re , a ng le o ft he t oo l e dge t o t he c on tac t s ur face , a nd d u ra t ion o f u se . T he a bove v a r iab le s a re d e f ined a nd d e sc r ibed i ns ec t ion s 5 . 2 -5 .3 a nd t he a c tua l s t a te s o f t he i ndependen t v a r iab le s i n vo lved i n e ach e xper imen t a re p re sen ted i nt abu la rf o rm o nT ab le 9 . A s d i scu s sed b r ief ly i nC hap te r2 . 1 , o the rm ic rowea rr e sea rcher sc ha rac ter ize e xpe r imen t sa s" mechan ica l "o r " g oa l o r ien ted " . T he e xpe r imen t s c a rr ied o u tf o r t he p re sen t s t udy l e an mo re t owa rd " g oa l o r ien ted " t han " mechan ica l " i n 3 8

Table 8 . Experi mental tool pre-use attributes. Tool s are grouped by contact materi al s. A key to the abbreviati ons table.

TOOL NO.

used

is

at

the

L

W

12-9

4 .9

1 2-12 134-11 43-2

2 5 3. 5

161-11

3 .6

3 .4

1 .0

v 25-40

1-3 1 2-1 :3

3 .2 4 .4

3 .3 4 .1

1 .0 . 8

n 35-55 v 5)

1 7-14 22-7

5 .6 6 .9 3 . 0 2. 6

23-3

4 .5

27-16 39-1

4 .1 5 .3 3 .0 2 .9

1 .2 .9

44-4 3-4 22-12

3 .3 3 .6 3 .4 4 .3

. 5 v 40-50 1 .1 n 60 .7 n 60 1 .2 v 50

27-17 31-2

end

of

EC

th e

T

B SPINE EOS ANGLE

R D

2 .0

.9

v 25-40

i

p

n y

5 .4 5 .7 6 .8 5 .2

1 .5 1 .1

v 20-45 v 20-25

i i

p p

n y n n

. 7 v 20-35

s

PLANTS

i

n n s

n n

HIDE

2 .7

2 .6 4 .0 3 .3 3 .0

V

S

f l

v

i

S

r i y

2 .1 v 50-80 . 9 v 50

v V

p p

n n f l y

1 . 2 n 50-60

v. i

p

n n

v 30-40 v ,c V 40-SC ) v

S

n y n y

r

f l

vi c s s .v

p s p 5

n n n n

4 .4 3 .3 2 .6 2 .9

1 . 6 v 50-60 S . .v .9 n 45-50 v i

s p

r , y n n

44-6

4 .4

3 .2

1 .8

v 50-90

s

n y

46-4 80-4

3 .6 3 .6 6 . C ) 3 .9

.8 2 .0

v 30-40 v 70-80

p p

n n u

80-5 80-6 80-7 80-8 12-17

5 .5 3 .6 4 .9 6 .4 3 .9 2 .9 3 .5 3 .8 3 .4 4 .2

1 .9 1. 7 .9 . 6 .9

v v v v v

p n p s s

L t

n n n n n

1 34-9

6 .1

1 .1

v 40-5O

p

r i

5 .2

c ,i i V

60-70 V i 30 i 30-40 i 20-30 s i 20-50 s i

y n n y

-

-

-

-

-

i

continu ed

3 9

Table

TOOL NO.

8 .

( continued)

L

W

T

E i SPINE EOS ANGLE

EC

R D

BONE 21-6 26-8 26-9 46-2 1 1-6

2 .6 3 .6 3 .8 4 .1 4 .2 3 .9 3 .4 3 .5 3 . 3 3. 0

18-1 9 22-20 1 7-13

6 .4 2 .8 4 .0 2 .2 6 .2 4 .4

1 . 3 v 40-50 i .9 v 30-50 s ,i 1 .2 v 60 c

63-1 138-19

3 .7 3 .9

1 .0 1 .2

4 .3 4 .9

.9 .9 .7 .9 .8

v n n v n

V

v

45-50 30 10-30 30-40 35-40

3 u-40 -

s s c i V

n s p s p

n n n n n

p

n n n y n n

s s

i

S

-

-

f l

y n n n

f i

n n

ANTLER 43-3 1 34-22

3 . 2 3. 3 9 .0 4 .1

. 7 v 30-40 1 . 8 V 30-50

141-7 1 1-2

3 .6 4 .8

1 .9 4 .1

1 1-12

6 .8

1 7-11

3 .4

27-3 36-7 18-17

2 .2 4 .1 3 .4

2 .9 1 .3 3 .4

1 41-12 22-11

6 .0 2 .6

5 .1 2 .0 5 .0 .9

138-1 3

5 .3

3 .0

1 .3

141-14 1 61-18 161-19

3 .6 9 .4 8 .2

3 .1 5 .6 7 .4

.9 v 40-50 4 . 2 v 60-70 1 . 6 v 50-55

134-6 141-20

3 . - 4 .9 4 .3 5 .3

V

p

n

i

s

n n

.5 v 25-40 i 1 . 4 n 40-50 s i

p p

n y n n

5 .1

2 .0 n

60

3 .7

. 7 v

20

.4 . 4 1 .2

p

n n

i

p

n

c

S

f i

S ,p

n

y

p

n

n

v 40-50 r v 60-70 c i

p s

n n n y

v 60-70

C

p

n

i r c

p

f i

p

n

n

s

n

f i

40-50 v 20 v 40-50 v

.8 v .9 v

c

-

-

-

-

-

-

n

n n

continued

4 0

f i

i

8 .

Tab le

TOOL NO.

FISH

(c o n ti n u e d)

L

W

I

B SPINE ANGLE

EOS

v 15-20 v 20-30

v v

EC

R D

p s

n y n y

s s

n n n n

BUTCHERING

12-10 12-14

4 .1 2 .4

4 .7 3 .0

.5 . 6

134-16 20-7

3 .7 4 .1

5 .7 3 .9

.8 v 40-45 s v .8 n 20-40 v i

46-3

2 .8

3 .1

1 38-12 134-17

5 .8 3 .3 5 .0 5 .4

DEER

BUTCHERING

12-3 12-6

4 .9 4 .7 6 .2 5 .2

i

s

n n

1 .8 .9

.9 v 40-50 v 15-25 v 20-25

v i

s s

n y n n

. 7 .8

v 10-25 v 20-40

vi c

p p

n n n n

v 30-50

43-4

4 .7

3 .4

1 .0

80-1 80- 12 80-13

5 .6 6 .0 3 .4

2 .9 4 .0 3 .6

.6 v 25-40 1. 4 v 40 .7 v 20-30

V

s

n y

vi S. v s

p e s

n n n

1-4

4 .1

3 .0

1 1-9 22-17

4 .3 4 .1

4 .2 3 .2

1 . 0 n 20-30

V

p

n n

1 .0 .6

n 30 v 20-25

V

s s

n n n n

27-5 35-3

3 .2 2 .6

2 .2 2 .1

. 6 1 .7

v 20-40 n 30-40

c

s s

n f i n n n n

c V

-

36-8

4 .0

1 .5

. s

v 25-30

±

45-7

3 .3

4 .1

.8

v

s

s

12-15

3 .3

3 .8

1 .0

v 25-30

i

s

n y

22-10 22-15

4 .2 6 .5

3 .1 3 .8

. 7 1 .0

v 30-40 v 20-30

s i

s p

n y n n

45-6 1 2-11 80-3

3 .6 8 .8 7 .4

4 .9 1 .0 5 .4 1 .5 6 .2 2 .6

v 20-40 v so V 40

i v c v

s p e

n y n y n

80-14 44-8

3 .7 4 .3

4 .7 3 .0

.8 v 30 1. 6 v 60-70

p

44-11

4 .7

4 .8

1 .4

2-1 2-3

2 .5 2 .1

2 .1 2 .5

1 1-3 12-1

3 .6 2 .8

2 .6 3 .0

. 7 n 30-40 .9 v 40-50

5:

-

c

s

u n n

v 50-60

i

p

n n

.4 n 20-40 . 4 n 25-40

s i

s p

n n n

i i

p

n

s

' ,

-

-

continued

4 1

Tab le

TOOL

8 .

( continued)

L

W

T

B SPINE EOS

NO.

EC

R D

s n p

n y n y n y

ANGLE

WOOD 27- 11 36-5 44-10

2 .9 4 .1 4 .5 2 .8 4 .1 3 .6

1 .0 1 .6 1 .2

1 41-6

5 .0

1.

r

p

n n

141-11 1 61-20 26-10

7 .5 5 .0 1 . 8 v 55-60 8 .0 5 .8 2 .2 v 60 5 .4 4 .C ) 1. 3 n 60

i c i

p p p

n n n n n n

27-15 134-23

4 .5 3 .4 9 .3 5 .6

v 60-70 v 60-70

c i

s s

n y n y

3 .

z

v 60-65 v 50-60 v 40-50

ov

1 .1 2 .6

50

i V V

1 38-6

4 .5

3 .3

.9

v 40-60

v

p

n n

138-16 1 41-4 141-17

2 .3 5 .8 3 .3 2 .4 5 .9 4 .4

.8 . 7 1 .5

v 40-50 V 50-60 v 60-70

i c r

p s p

n n n n n n

27-10 134-18

2 .9 4 .5

3 .5 4 .5

.8 . 7

v 15-30 v 20

s s ,v

S s

n y n n

63-2 82-3

3 .5 3 .8

3 .6 2 .4

. 7 . 7

v 20-25 v 20-30

s v ,c

n p

n y n

27-7

3 .3

2 .2

. 6

v 1 0-20

s

I s

n n

27-14

4 .8

3 .3

. 7

v 10-20

V

s

n y

1 2-5 1 7-12

6 .3 4 .8 5 . 2 3. 5

.8 v . 30-4ö . 7 v 20

c r

n s

f i

80-9 80-10

3 .4 2 .6

2 .5 2 . 0

.

. 5 v 25-40 4 v 10

c c

s I S

n n

80-11

2 .5

2 .4

. 7

V

n

n

23-4 27-8

2 .7 3 .6

4 .8 2 .3

.6 . 8

n 20-25 V 30-40

V

n n

n n n n

44-7

4 .8

3 .7

1 .3

v 30-40

V

s

n n

44-9 161-15

4 .8 3 .0 5 .0 3 .8

v i

s p

n n n n

20-30

1 .3 v 30 1 . 0 v 40-50

i

-

y f i n

continued

4 2

-

-

-

8 .

Table

( continued) KEY

L = l ength measured at a r ight angle f rom t he striking p l atform to the d istal end ( in cm) W

w idth,

=

angles T

to

maxi mum length

maxi mum

=

d i stance

( in

thickness

( in

e ither

SPINE ANGLE

=

p l ane

edge,

range

indicated

EOS

edge

=

straight recurved EC

=

" n", R

=

outli ne

e dge

angle

" s",

" n",

or

e ither

retouch,

D = p re-use damage, or not present " n"

4 3

us ed

e ither convex " i

" v"

"

not

pronounced

unifaci al

of

" v"

degrees

shape,

curvature,

deliberate

present

in

v itreous

"s" • concave ' c", " r", or irregul ar

s light

r ight

cm)

B = type of basalt, or non-vitreous ' f l" spi ne

at

cm)

e ither

present " p' not

"u '

e ither

present

" y"

Table 9. Su11ary of tool use experi1ents. The tools are ordered by contact nterial. A key to the abbreviations used is at the end of the table.

---------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------TOOL

EL Cl1

PART

COND

PREP

B ACT

ANGLE

PR AP

DUR

STR

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------PLANTS 12-9 12-12 134-11 43-2 161-11

f f f f f

r r gs C

C

ps ps ps ps ps

f' "' g

hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh fh fh fh fh fh fh fh fh fh fh fh fh h h

o,d,g rd,u,d,r o,d,g rd,u,d,r o,d,g rd,u,d,r o,d,g rd,u,d,r o,d,g rd,u,d,r o,d,g rd,u,d,r o,d,g rd,u,d,r o,d,g rd,u,d,r f rd,u,r f rd,u,r f,g rd,u,r f rd,u,r f rd,u,r f rd,u,r f rd,u,r f rd,n f rd,n f rd,n f rd,n f rd,n 0 rd,u,r,d,h 0 rd,u,r,d,h

b b

f,d f,d f,d f,d

f,N,g

f,d y, d y,d

n n n n n

n n n n n

sl sl sl sl sl

40-50 70-90 90-120 120-140 120-140

h h h h h

C C C C C

SC SC SC SC SC

C C C C C C C

SC SC

SC SC SC SC SC

f f f f f n n

130-150 80-110 70-120 55-65 80-120 135-150 80-100 70-85 90-115 85-105 90-110 90-120 90-120 75-90 100-120 75-90 75-90

sl sl sa sa

h 11-h 5:15 hf 1-h 38:05 hN 1-h 47:04 h 1-h 1:32 h 1-h 10:48 h l-1 18:05 hf I 30:39 h 1-h 8:00 hf 1-h 14:26 h 1-h 7:22 hf 11-h 16:23 hf 1-h 58:04 hf 1-h 4:45 hw 11-h 40:00 hf 1-h 38:45 h 1-h S:00 h 1-h 5:00 h :30 h :30 h 1:00 h 1-h 4:16 h 1-h 18:02

5:47 200 l-11 22:38 1750 13:28 1000 I 3:01 150 I 19:25 700

•

HIDE 1-3 12-13 17-14 22-7 23-3 27-16 39-1 44-4 3-3 3-4 22-12 27-17 31-2 44-6 46-4 80-4 80-5 80-6 80-7 80-8 12-17 134-9

I I l l I l

g g g g g

fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd Id 1d

Id

11d

l l

Id fd fd

l 21-6 26-8 I 26-9 46-2 11-6 18-19 22-20 17-13 63-1 138-19

fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd fd

C

C C

SC

SC SC SC SC SC

45-90 40-60

500 4000 5200 200 1600 2000 2350 1000 1000 1000 1000 2537 250 1750 3200

400 1200

BONE

b b b b b b b b

f 1N

f I II f,d f,II f,d o,d

d,f d,f d,f d,f d,s d,s d,f d,s d,f n

n n n n n n n n n n

sa sa sa sa sa sa SC

SC

II

g

85-95 85-95 80-100 80-100 80-90 80-90 120-140 70-90 30-SO 0-45

h h h h h h h h h h

h h h h h h h

1:40 1:34 2:38 4:05 1:09 :55 2:18 1-h 1:39 h 1:04 h 11:41

200 400 400 400 200 200 70 100 60 600

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------continued

44

T a b le

T O OL

9 . ( c o nt inu e d )

E L C M

P A R T

C O ND

4 3 -3 1 3 4-22

1 1

1 4 1-7 1 -2 1 12 1 7 11 2 7 -3 3 6 -7 1 8 17 1 4 112

1 1 f d 1 a d 1 f d 1 f d 1 f d 1 a d 1 a d 1 a d 1 f d 1 f d 1 a d 1 f d 1 i d 1 f d

a a a

f , d ,q f , d ,g o , d ,g

a a a a a a a

P R EP

B A C T

A N GLE

P R

n n n

n s a n 52 n s a

8 5 -95 7 0 -80 8 5 -95

h h h

f , w o , w f , w f , w f , w o , w o , w

s s s s s s s

n n n n n n n

s a s a s a s a s a s a s a

8 5 -95 8 5 -90 8 5 -95 8 5 -95 8 5 -95 8 5 -95 8 5 -95

h h h h h h h

a a a a a a a

o , d ,g 41d, g f , w a , w f , w o , w o , w

n n s s s s s

n n n n n s s

s c s c s c s c s c b q

4 0 -60 4 0 -60 6 0 -80 6 0 -75 6 0 -80 8 0 100 1 0 -50

f , b ,s ,k 11b , s ,k

f , w f , w

t t t I t 1 t

f , b ,s ,k f , b ,s ,bk f1b , s ,bk f , b 1s , bk

L w f , w f , w f , w

i , s ,g ,p f , s ,g ,p

s l s l s l s l s l s l

k , s

f , w

f , s ,9

s l

1 2 -3 1 2 -6 4 3 -4

b b b

f d f d

f , h j,b 4 , h i,b

f 4

q g

f d

f , h i,b

f , g

9

8 0 1

g

8 0 12 8 0 13 1 4 1 -9 217 2 7 -5 3 5 -3 3 6 -8

g 9 b b b b b b

a d a d a d

f , h i f , h i f , h i

+ 4 4

9 9 9

f d f d + d

4 4 4

+ 4 4

9 g g

f d i d f d

4 f 4

4 4 4

9 9 9

A P

D U R

S T R

A N TLER

211 1 3 813 1 4 114 1 6 118 1 6 119 1 3 4-6 1 4 1-20

f d f d a d

h

h h h h h h h

h h a h h h h h h h h h h h h a h a h

: 3 8 1 : 40 : 4 5 1 : 22 1 : 10 2 : 00 1 : 00 1 : 10 1 : 10 2 : 34 1 : 03 : 5 6 1 : 14 2 : 14 2 : 13 1 5 :10 2 0 :45

2 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 t o o 1 5 1 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 00 1 0 00

5 0 -70 8 0 100 7 0 110

h h h

1 1 a h r n h

5 : 20 4 : 43 9 : 35

5 0 0 2 0 0 5 1 9

8 0 100 8 5 -95 8 0 100

h h h

I a 1 . 1 a

3 : 52 2 : 06 9 : 43

5 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 00

4 0 -50

h

1 9

4 : 16

5 0 0

2 8 :23 3 8 :40 1 3 :30 2 0 :00

7 5 0 2 8 20 9 2 5

FI S H 1 2 10 1 2 -14 1 3 416

1 I 1

2 0 -7 4 6 -3

1 1

1 3 812 1 3 417

t t

f , s ,q f ! s ,g f , s ,g i , s ,q ,p

D E ER ns l s a 7 5 -95 ns l 1s a 1 0 100 ns l ‚s a 3 0 100 n s l ns l‚ s a

h h h h h

ns l ,sa n s l n s l n s i n s l n s l n s l

h h h h h h h

5 0 -10 5 0 -90 8 0 -90 7 5 -90 6 0 -90 8 0 100

5 0 :00 5 : 00 9 : 2 7 9 : 23 1 : 44 2 : 05 2 : 50 1 : 08

7 0 0 4 6 6 1 0 0 I S O 1 6 5 5 0

c o nt inued

4 5

T a b le

T O OL

9 . ( c o nt inued )

E L

C M

P A RT

C O ND

P R EP

B A C T

A NKE

P R

A P

D U R

S T R

2 0 20 1 5 0 4 5 0 3 5 0 7 4 0 9 2 0

D E ER ( c o nt inued ) 4 5 -7 1 2 15 2 10 2 15 4 5 -6 1 2 Il

b b b b b b

f d

f , b

f

g

f d f d

f , t ,b f , h i,c ,b

f f

g g

I d

f , h i 1c b

f

g

f d f d

f , t ,b f f , h i,c 1b f , g

g q

8 0 -3 8 0 14 4 -8

g g 1

m d f , h i ,t ,c ,b d f , h i.t ,c ,b

4 11 2 I 2 3 1 -3 1 2 1

f f

g g

f , b ,p

f1d

n

nS i •s a 8 0 100 n 5 1 4 0 -70 n s l 1 0 100 n s l 7 5 100 n s l 6 0 100 ns as 1 6 5 105 n s a 7 0 100 n s a n S t 8 0 100

1 f d 1 f d 1 f d 1 f d 1 f d

p , t ,f ,b t , c ,p 1b f1b . p f , b f , b ,p

f , d f d f , d f , d f , d

n n n n n

n n n n n

2 7 I1 3 6 -5

1 1

d b p

b a ,w b a ,w

o , d o , d ,g

b b

n s c n s c

4 10 1 4 1-6 1 4 111

1 c 1 s 1 c

b a" W b a ,w b a ,w

o ,d o , d o1d

b b b

n s c n s c n s c

1 6 1-20 2 6 10 2 7 I5

1 s 1 s I s

w b a ,w b a ,w

o , d f , d f , d

b , ba b b

n s c n s c n s c

1 3 4-23 1 3 8-6 1 3 816 1 4 1-4 1 4 117

1 s 1 d 1 s 1 s 1 s

b a ,w b a ,w b a ,w b a ,w w , ba

f , d f , d f , d f , d f1d

b b b b b

n n n n n

s c s c s c S c s c

2 7 10 1 3 418 6 3 -2 8 2 -3

1 s 1 s 1 s a p

w w w w

f , d f , d o . d o , d

b1b a b , ba b , ba b , ba

n n n n

s a s a s a s a

2 7 -7 2 7 14 1 2 -5

1 b f b 1 s

b a b a b a ,w

o , d o , d f , d

r t n b

n s a n s l n w

1 7 12 8 0 -9

1 f

s w

b a, w b a ,w

f1d f , d

b b

n n

w w

8 0 10

f

w

b a ,w

f d

b

n

w

8 0 I1 2 3 -4

I 1

w s

b a ,w w , b

f , d f d

b b

i

w w

i d

S c

s l s l s l s l

I i

r n

h h h h h h h h

1 r n r n h r n h r n h h r n h

3 4 :22 6 : 37 1 2 :09 1 5 :22 2 0 :15 3 2 :04 3 :00

h r n h

5 : 00 2 8 :24

1 0 00

8 0 100 6 0 100 3 5 -60 3 5 -90 1 0 -45

h h h h h

r n h r n h r n h r n h r n h

6 : 45 9 :53 9 : 46 5 : 00 1 7 :40

3 0 0 3 5 0 3 5 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0

9 0 100 1 2 0130 8 0 100 8 5 -95 6 0 -90

h h h h h

r n r n h

9 : 44 1 7 :39 4 : 38

1 50 5 0 0 5 0 0

r n h

8 0 -90 8 0 -90 8 0 -90 7 5 105 8 5 -95

h h h h h

5 : 03 1 2 :34 5 : 13

5 0 0 1 0 00 5 0 0

7 : 58 1 8 :00

5 0 0 2 0 50

8 5 -95 9 5 105

h h

6 8 :58 4 : 47 4 : 5 1

5 8 50 5 0 0 5 0 0

8 5 -95 8 5 -95

h h

r n h r n h r n h r n h r n h r n h h

1 : 46 6 : 19

2 0 0 5 0 0

8 5 -95 8 0 100

h h

h h

1 : 55 6 : 30

4 0 0 1 0 00

2 : 5 1 4 :00

4 0 0

r n r n h r n h

6 : 00 6 :09 8 : 10

6 0 0 1 5 0 5 0 0

r n h

2 :59 7 : 00

2 0 0

W O OD

n

-

h

8 0 100 8 0 100

h h

2 5 -35 4 0 -55

h h

-

-

1 2 0140

r n h r n h r n h

h h h h w

r n h

2 :00 1 2 :00 2 : 38

-

-

2 0 0

c o nt inu e d

4 6

T a ble

9 . ( c ont inued )

T O OL

E L

C M

P A RT

C O ND

P R EP

B A C T

A N GLE

P R

A F

D U R

S T R

50

W OOD ( c on t inued ) 2 7 -8

1

b p

b a ,w

o , d ,g

b

n

w

2 0 -40

h

m

1 3 :22

4-7

1

b p

w

o ,d

b . ba

n

w

2 0 -40

I i

m

1 3 :06

4 2 0

4-9

1

b p

w

od

b , ba

n

w

2 0 -40

h

m

4 : 02

2 0 0

1 6 115

1

s

w

o , d

b1b a

n

w

4 5 -55

h

i

5 : 25

5 0 0

K e y E L =l o ca t io n o f e x pe r im ent : C M =c o nta ct m a te r ia l:

f i e ld

{ ‚ l a b ' l

b a rn

b ' , g a rag e

a p a rtm ent

" g

r e eds " r " , w i ld g r ass a n d s e dge ' g s " , c a tta ils

a

c "1 f a llow

d e er ' f d ' , m u le d e er t r ou t " t " d o gwood d , b a lsam p o p la r b p, c h o ke c h e rry .c " , S a s ka toon w h ite b i rch ' b a , w i l low " w " , p o nde ro sa p i ne " p " P ART = p a r t o f c o n ta ct m a ter ia l w o rked :

p l ant s t ems

f l esh s i de o f h i de ' f h " , h i de l a ck ing h a ir o r f l esh a ' , b o ne s ca les '

k

A

I

b , p e r ios teum f i sh s k in Y

p,

,

w o od

p s, h a ir s i de o f h i de h1, i n tact h i de

h,

h i ' , a n t le r

c a rt ila ge c f l esh a n d f a t f , t e ndo ns " t, f i s h w " , b a rk " h a s , b a ck ing b k s

C OND = c o n ta ct m a te r ia l c o nd it io n : f r esh " f " ,o l d

o

w e t ' w "

1

d r y " d '

g r itty

g

P REP = m o d ifica t ion o r p r eparat ion o f c o ntact m a ter ia l p r io r t o e x pe r im en t : s o a ke d i n w a te r " s, s o aked i n u r ine " u n , r i ns ed w i th w a ter r 1 d e fleshed " d ° d e ha ired r e mov ed f r om d e e r r d ' , f r o ze n a n d t h awed f , g u tted ' g, r i bs a n d s p ine r emoved p ' , b ran ches r e moved " b ' b a rk r e moved ' b a " , r e moved f r om t r ee a r t" , n o p repara t ion n P=b a ck ing :

a s pe n l o gs ' l '

s o ft l e a ther s h eet A C T =t o o l a c t ion :

c a rdboa rd o v er a p l as t ic s h eet

c " , c e m ent f l oo r

f " ,

n o b a ck ing " n s l ic ing

s l, s a w ing ' s a t , s c ra p ing

s c, w h itt ling

g r av ing

' g " , b o r ing " b A NGLE = a n g le b e tw een t h e v e ntra l e d ge a s pe ct o f at o o l a n d t h e c o n ta ct m a te r ia l s u rface i n d e grees ( r a nge ) P R =p r e hens ion o f t o o l: h a nd-he ld o nto a n a n t le r h a nd le h f A P =p r essu re a p p lie d t o t o o l : t o h e avy " m -h, h e avy h

h "

l i ght

w r apped i n r a wh ide a n d h a nd-he ld " h w " , h a fted

1 , l i ght t o m e d ium"I-m% m e d ium

D U R =d u ra t ion o f e x p e r ime nt i n m i nu tes a n d s e co nds ( m in :sec ) S TR = n u m be r o f t o o l s t ro kes

4 7

m , m e d ium

c ha rac te r . T he t a sk s o r " goa l s " i n c luded s k inn ing a d ee r , d eha ir ing a h ide , f i l le t ing f i sh a nd p repa r ing a r row s ha f t s , among o the r s . Howeve r , t a sk sw e re n o t n ece s sa r i ly c a r r ied o u t t o t he s t a ted g oa l w i th e very t oo l , a nd i n many c a se s s eve ra l t oo l s w e re u sed t o a ccomp l i sh a s i ng le g oa l . F or e xamp le , s eve ra l t oo l s w ere u sed t ob u tche r ad eer , wh i le i t may h ave b een p o s s ib le t o d o t h i sw i th o ne o r t wo t oo l s . S ome t ime s t oo l s w e re u sed i n ag oa l -o r ien ted f a sh ion w i thou t a ch iev ing t he u l t ima te g oa l ; f o r e xamp le , p a ra l le l g roove s w e re e ng raved i n a n a n t ler a s i n t he " g roove a nd s p l in te r " t e chn ique , b u t t he e xper i men t d id n o t e x tend t op ry ing o u t as p l in te r( s ee a l so Vaughan 1 985 :15 ) . Mo s t o ft he e xper imen t sw ere u nde r taken i n 1 984 a nd 1 985 , a l though af ew f r om 1 980 a nd 1 982 w ere u sed i n t h i s s t udy . T he e a r ly e xpe r i men t s d id n o t i nvo lve t he r eco rd ing o fa s many v a r iab le sa st he l a te ro ne sa nd t he se d i f f e rence s a re n o ted where a pp rop r ia te b e low . T oo l su sed i n1 980 a nd 1 982 a re i d en t i f ied b yt he p ref i x" 80 "o r" 82 " .

5 . 2 . P r e -Expe r imen tO b se r va t ion s 5 .2 .1

P rocedur e

T oo l s w ere p repa red f o r u se i n e xpe r imen t s a s f o l low s : ( 1 ) af l ake wa s manu fac tu red a nd l abe l led , ( 2 ) i tw a s c a refu l ly c l eaned , ( 3 ) i t wa s e xam ined m ic ro scop ica l ly f o r a cc iden ta l d amage , ( 4 ) p e r t inen t a t t r ibu te so ft he f l ake we re r eco rded , ( 5 ) i t wa s s t o red f o r u se i n af u tu re e xpe r imen t . C on tac t ma te r ia l s w e re e i the r c o l lec ted a nd s t o red f o r l a ter u se i n a n e xpe r imen t , o r t h ey w ere e ncoun te red a nd u sed i n e xpe r imen t s i n t he f i e ld . I n e i the r c a se p e r t inen t a t t r ibu te so f ac on tac t ma te r ia lw ere r eco rded p r io rt oi t su se i na ne xpe r imen t .

5 .2 .2

R eco rd ing Me thod sa nd E qu ipmen t

P e r t inen t f o rma l a t t r ibu te s o ft oo l s , t he i r mea su remen t s a nd i lu s t ra t ion s , a s w e l l a s p re -u se m ic ro scop ic o b se rva t ion s a nd p ho to n umbe r s w ere a l l r e co rded o no ne s t anda rd ized f o rm . E xam ina t ion o ft he e dge s f o r a cc iden ta l d amage w a s u nde r taken w i th e i ther aWi ld Hee rbrugg z oom s t e reo m ic ro scope ( 12 -100 x ) o r aL e i tz We tz la r s t e reo m i c ro scope ( 10 -100 x ) . P ho tom ic rog raph s o f a cc iden ta l d amage w e re t aken o n aZ e i s s s t e reo m ic ro scope ( 70 x ) e qu ipped w i th ab u i l t in 3 5 mm c ame ra u s ing Kodak P lu s -X b lack a nd wh i te f i lm ( ASA 4 00 ) . P e r t inen t c ha rac ter i s t ic s o f ac on tac t ma te r ia l w e re r eco rded i mmed ia te ly p r ior t o e xpe r imen ta t ion o n t he s ame f o rm u sed f o r r eco rd ing o b se rva t ion s d u r ing a ne xpe r imen t .

4 8

F igur e 1 6 . S l igh t p re -u se d amage o n t he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t o f t oo l 3 9 -1 . T he a r row p o in t s t o a n i s o la ted f ea ther term ina ted m ic rof lake s ca r . T he t oo l wa s l a ter u sed i n ah ide d eha ir ing e xper imen t . ( 245 x )

F igur e 1 7 . S eve re p re -u se d amage o n t he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t o f t oo l 4 3 -11 . S eve ra l o ver lapp ing a nd s uperpo sed s t ep te rm ina ted m ic ro f lake s ca r s a re v i s ib le . Damage w a s s eve re e nough t o p reven tt h i st oo lf r om b e ing u sed i na ne xper imen t . ( 245 x ) 4 9

5 . 2 .3 Manuf ac tur eo fT oo l s

F lake sw e re p roduced b y d i rec tf r eehand p e rcu s s ion o fb a sa l t n odu le sw i th a h ammer s tone , o r o cca s iona l ly , a n e l k a n t le r b i l le t . I n af ew c a se s b ipo la r p e rcu s s ion i n vo lv ing ah amme r s tone a nd a nv i lw a s e mp loyed . F lake sp o ten t ia l ly u sab le a st oo l s ( i . e . n o tb locky , r ea sonab ly l a rge , a nd s harp -edged )w e re h and led c a refu l ly a nd s e ta s ide . Howeve r , d u r ing d e tachmen t f r om t he c o re s ome f l ake s u nderwen t s pon taneou s r e touch ( Newcome r 1 976 ) , h i t o the r f l ake s o r f o rce fu l ly h i t t he c a rdboa rd b ack ing a nd t he reby s u s ta ined m ino r e dge d amage . F lake s i n tended f o r u se a s t oo l s i n e xper imen t s w ere l a be l led b y c o re -nodu le n umbe r a nd a na rb i t ra ry s equen t ia ln umbe r( e .g . f l ake " 1 6341 " = c o re 1 63 , f l ake 1 ) a nd s e ta s ide o nc a rdboa rd t r ay s .

5 .2 .4 Acc id en ta l Damag e

U sab le e dge s w e re e xam ined w i th a s t e reo scop ic m ic ro scope f o r p re -u se d amage a t magn if ica t ion s u p t o 1 00 x ( F igu re s 1 6 ,17 ) . T ho se w i th mo re t han s l igh t e dge -damage ( m ic ro f lake s ca r s ) w ere r e jec ted a sp o ten t ia l t oo l s ( F igure 1 7 ) . M ino rd amage w a sd e sc r ibed , i t sl o ca t ion i nd ica ted o n as ke tch o ft h ef l ake , a nd i n many c a se s p ho tog raphed ( F igu re 1 6 ) . A f te re xam ina t ion , p o ten t ia lt oo l s w e re w rapped i ns of tp aper t i s sue a nd s t ored i nl a be l led p ape rb ag s .

5 . 2 .5 T oo lA t t r ibu te s

A n umbe r o f b a s ic a t t r ibu te s w e re r eco rded f o r e ach p o ten t ia l t oo l , w i th s pec ia l a t ten t ion g i ven t o d e sc r ib ing u sab le e dge s : q ua l i ty o f b a sa l t , l e ng th , w id th a nd t h ickne s s o f t he t oo l , s p ine -p lane a ng le ( T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 :179 ) , e dge o u t l ine s hape ( Kee ley 1 980 :19 -20 ) , amoun t o fe dge c urva tu re ( T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 :3 ) , a nd t he p re sence o fd e l ibe ra te r e touch ( Tab le 8 ) .

5 . 2 .6 C on tac t Ma te r ia l

C on tac t ma te r ia l , a l so k nown a s " wo rked ma te r ia l " ( T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 ; K ee ley 1 980 ) o r " ob jec t ma te r ia l " ( Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Vereecken 1 980 ) , i st he ma t te rw o rked w i th t he t oo l . I n t h i s s t udy t h e f o l low ing c on tac t ma te r ia l c l a s se s w e re w orked : b one , a n t ler , h ide , f l e sh , w ood , a nd p l an t s . V a r iou s p a r t s o f a c on tac t ma te r ia l h ave q ua l i t ie s w h ich c ou ld d i f f e ren t ia l ly c ond i t ion t he d eve lopmen t o f m ic rowea r . T he refo re , t he s pec i f ic p a r t o f ac on tac t m a ter ia l w o rked w i th at oo l w a s r e co rded ; f o r e xamp le , p lan ts t em s w e re c u t r a the r t han h ead s , l e ave s o r r oo t s , a nd t he f l e sh o r h a i r s i de s o f h ide s w ere w o rked i n d i f f eren t e xpe r imen t s ( Tab le 1 0 ) . S ome c on tac t m a te r ia l s w e re u sed i nt he i r n a tura l s t a te , w h i le o ther s w e re mod i f ied . I n s ome c a se s t h is w a s d one d e l ibe ra te ly t o m ir ro r a bo r ig ina l b ehav iou r , s uch a s s oak ing b one o r a n t le r i n w a te r t o s o f ten i t( Te i t 1 909 :474 -475 ) . I n o the r c a se s i tw a s d one o u t o f 50

n ece s s i ty , s uch a sf r eez ing f r e sh ma te r ia l f o r l a te r e xper imen ta t ion , a l though i ti s l i ke ly t ha t ma te r ia l w h ich w a s f r ozen a nd t hen t hawed w a s a l so u sed p reh i s to r ica l ly .

Mo s t o b serva t ion s r ega rd ing c on tac t ma te r ia l s w e re r eco rded i mmed ia te ly p r io rt o t he b eg inn ing o fa n e xper imen t . O cca s iona l ly , h owever , s o me ma ter ia l s w e re c on tac ted u nexpec ted ly i n t he c our se o f a n e xper imen t . E xamp le s wou ld b e t h e a cc iden ta l c on tac t ing o f b ack ing wh i le s c rap ing h ide , o r t he i n c iden ta l c on tac t ing o fb one o r c a r t i lage i n af l e sh c u t t ing e xper imen t . T he f r equency o f c on ta c t ing t he se ma te r ia l sd u r ing a ne xpe r imen tw a sr eco rded .

5 . 3 O b se r va t ion s Dur ing E xper imen t s 5 . 3 .1 P rocedur e E xper imen t s w e re c onduc ted a s f o l low s : ( 1 ) af l ake w i th a n e dge j udged s u i tab le f o r t he p ropo sed t a sk wa s s e lec ted f r om t ho se a va i lab le ; ( 2 ) t he c on tac t ma te r ia l t o b e wo rked w a s made r eady ; ( 3 ) t he e xpe r imen t b egan a nd w a s r eco rded o n ap repa red f o rm a nd w i th p ho tog raph s ; ( 4 ) t he e xpe r imen t e nded a nd f u r ther o b se rva t ion sw e re r eco rded ; a nd ( 5 ) t he t oo lw a s c a re fu l ly s t o red f o r f u tu re e xam ina t ion .

5 . 3 .2 R eco rd ing Me thod sa nd E qu ipmen t A l l a spec t s o f t he e xpe r imen t s w e re r eco rded o n p repa red f o rm s b e fo re , d u r ing a nd i mmed ia te ly a f te r at oo l -u se e p i sode . T he u sed p a r t o f at oo l w a s i nd ica ted o n as ke tch o nt he f o rm , a sw ere t he d e ta i l s o ft oo lp rehen s ion a nd i t s p o s i t ion ing a nd mo t ion r e la t ive t o t he c on tac t ma ter ia l d u r ing u se . Wh i le t he e xpe r imen t sw e re i np rog re s s t he d u ra t ion o ft oo l -u se w a sr eco rded w i th ad ig i ta l s t op w a tch . P ho tog raph s w e re t aken d u r ing e xpe r imen t s i n p rog re s s w i th a N ikon FE 3 5 mm c ame ra u s ing Kodak P lu s -X b lack a nd wh i te f i lm ( ASA 1 25 ) o r Kodach rome c o lou rs l ide f i lm ( ASA 1 00 ) ( F igu re s 1 8 -23 ) .

5 . 3 .3 E xpe r imen ta lC ond i t ions T he e xpe r imen t s w e re c onduc ted i n b o th l ab a nd f i e ld s i tua t ion s . A l l e xpe r imen t s i n vo lv ing g r een p lan t s , a nd s o me i nvo lv ing w ood w ork ing , w e re c onduc ted i n c omp le te ly n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t s . S evera l o the r e xpe r imen t s w ere c onduc ted o n t he c e men t f l oo r s o f ab a rn a nd a g a rage , r epre sen t ing n e i the r c omp le te ly n a tu ra l n o r l a bo ra to ry c ond i t ion s ( F igu re s 1 8 -23 ) . B y t ak ing t he e xpe r imen t s i ndoo r s , a ne l emen t o fa u then t ic i ty w a s l o s t ,p a r t icu la r ly t he d eg ree o f" g r i t t ine s s " o ft he w o rk a rea ( Kee ley 1 980 :15 ; T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 : 184 ) . T he l a b w a s c on s ide rab ly l e s s g r i t ty t han o u tdoo r s , b u t t he b a rn a nd g a rage f l oo r s 5 1

F igur e 1 8 . T oo l 1 34 -23 b e ing u sed t os c rape aS a ska toon b ranch b yJ oanne Hada r .

F igur e 1 9 . C lo se -up v i ew o ft oo l 1 34 -23 d u r ing u se .

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F igur e 2 0 . Au tho r u s ing t oo l 2 7 -16 t o s c rape h a i r f r om af a l low d eer h i de .

F igu r e 2 1 . C lo se -up v i ew o f t oo l 4 6 -4 d u r ing u se a s ah a f ted s c rape rd ur ing t h ef i na ls t age s o fd ef le sh ing af a l low d eer h i de .

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F igu r e 2 2 . Au thor u s ing t oo l 1 2 -11 t o c u t o f af a l low d ee r f o re l imb . A t t he e x t reme r i gh t K i t K roz se r c an b e s een t im ing t he e xper imen ta nd c oun t ing s t roke s .

F igur e2 3 . K i t K roz se ru s ing t oo l 1 4 t o s l ice t h rough f a l low d ee r f a ta nd f l e sh .

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w e re o n ly s l igh t ly l e s s g r i t ty t han many o u tdoo r s i tua t ion s . A i rbo rne p a r t ic le s w h ich may c ome b e tween t he t oo la nd c on tac t ma ter ia l sw ere l a rge ly e xc luded i n t he i n door e xper imen t s . Howeve r , ma te r ia l s u sed i nt he e xper imen t s w e re n o t d e l ibe ra te ly c l eaned t o r emove g r i t , a nd s ub s tan t ia l amoun t s o f g r i t ( s and a nd s i l t ) w e re p re sen t o n s e ve ra l c on tac t ma te r ia l s , mo s t n o tab ly o n t he h a i r s i de o f t he f a l low d ee rh ide a nd o nf a l low d ee ra n t le r s ( adhered b yd r ied b lood ) .

5 .3 .4 Exper i men ters

A l l e xper imen t s a nd o b serva t ion su nde r taken i n1 980 a nd 1 982 w e re c a r r ied o u ta nd r eco rded s o le ly b yt he a u tho r , a sw e re mo s t b ft ho se u nde r taken i n 1 984 a nd e a r ly 1 985 . Howeve r , t wo i nd iv idua l s ( K i t K roz ser , J oanne Hader ) p a r t ic ipa ted i n e l even e xper imen t s u nde r t he a u tho r ' s d i rec t ion i n 1 984 a nd 1 9 8 5 , a nd s eve ra l p eop le ( K i t K roz se r , J oanne Hade r , S ha ron Mue l ler , L e s l ie Amund son ) a s s i s ted i n t h e r eco rd ing o f o b se rva t ion s , e spec ia l ly e l ap sed t ime a nd n umber o fs t roke s ,a nd b yt ak ing p ho tog raph s .

5 . 3 .5 Back ing B ack ing r e fe r s t o ma ter ia l o n w h ich t he c on tac t ma ter ia l i sd i rec t ly r e s ted w h i le b e ing w o rked . Ma te r ia l s w o rked w h i le b e ing h and -he ld o r p a r t ly r e s t ing o n t h e e xpe r imen te r s l e g a re c on s ide red n o t t o h ave b een b acked ( F igure s 1 8 ,19 ) . T he b ack ing w a s r a re ly c on tac ted w i th s t one t oo l s d u r ing t he e xpe r imen t s , b u t t h i s w a s r eco rded w hen i to ccu r red . A spen l o g s , as of t l e a the r s hee t , c a rdboa rd a nd p l a s t ic w e re t he b ack ing s u sed i n v a r iou s e xpe r imen t s ( F igu re 2 0 ) . On ly t he l o g s w e re c on tac ted t oa ny a pp rec iab le d eg ree d ur ing t he e xpe r imen t s .

5 . 3 .6 P rehens ion O n ly af ew t oo l su sed i nh ide sc rap ing e xpe r imen t sw e re h af ted o n to amu le d ee r a n t ler h and le ( Tab le 9 ) . T oo l s w e re p a r t ia l ly w rapped w i th t h in , s o f t l e a the r t o p reven t s l ippage , a nd w e re b ound t o t he h a f t w i th t h in l e a ther s t r ip s ( F igu re 2 1) . S ome h and -he ld t oo l s w e re p a r t ia l ly w rapped i nr awh ide t o s pa re t he h and . I tw a s n ece s sa ry t od e l ibe ra te ly ' back " mo s t t oo l s b y c h ipp ing w i th a h ammer s tone a nd t o d u l l s ha rp e dge s o r p ro jec t ion s b y g r ind ing b e fo re t hey c ou ld b e c omfor tab ly u sed w i th ab a re h and .

5 . 3 .7 Too l Ac t ion T oo l " a c t ion " r e f e r s t o t he " a c t iv i ty " ( Kee ley 1 980 :17 -19 ) o r " d irec t ion " ( T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 :181 ) o f t he t oo l d u r ing u se . S i x t oo l a c t ion s w e re 5 5

F igure 2 4 . T oo l a ct ions: a -s lic ing, b -saw ing, c -scrap ing, d -wh ittling, e -graving, f -bor ing . 5 6

emp loyed i n t h e e xpe r imen t s : s l ic ing , s aw ing , s c rap ing , w h i t t l ing , g rav ing a nd b o r ing ( F igu re 2 4 ) . T r ingham , Ode l l ( T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 :181 ; Ode ! ! a nd Ode l l -Vereecken 1 980 :98 -100 ) a nd o the r s make a u se fu l d i s t inc t ion b e tween mo t ion s l ong i tud ina lt ot h et oo l -edge a nd t ho se t r an sve r se t ot he e dge . F o rt he p re sen t e xpe r imen t st h e f o l low ing d ef in i t ion s o ft oo l a c t ion sa re u sed . S l i c ing ( " cu t t ing " i n t h e T r ingham -Ode l l t e rm ino logy , " s l ic ing " i n K ee ley ' s t e rm ino logy ) r e fer s t o ao ne -way l ong i tud ina l mo t ion u nder taken w i th t he t oo l e dge a t ah i gh a ng le ( i n t he v i c in i ty o f 9 0 d eg ree s ) t o t he c on tac t ma ter ia l ( F igu re 2 4a ) . S aw ing ( " saw ing " o r " c u t t ing " a ccord ing t o K ee ley ; " s aw ing " a c co rd ing t oT r ingham a nd Ode l l )r e fer st o ab ack a nd f o r th l ong i tud ina l mo t ion u nde r taken w i th t he t oo le dge a l so u sua l ly a t ah igh a ng le t ot he c on tac t ma ter ia l ( F igu re 2 4b ) . S c rap ing i s ao ne -way movemen t w i th t he t oo l e dge b e ing d rawn t r an sver se ly a nd u sua l ly a t h i gh a ng le s t o t he c on tac t s u r face ( F igure 2 4c ) . Movemen t o ft he t oo l c an b e e i the r t owa rd s o r a way f r om t he u se r , a s l ong a s t he s ame e dge l e ad s i ne i the rd i rec t ion . Wh i t t l ing r e fe r st o ao ne -way movemen t o f at oo l , a l so moved t r an sve r se ly a c ro s st he c on tac t ma te r ia l , b u t a t av e ry a cu te a ng le a nd a lway s a way f r om t he t oo lu se r ( F igure 2 4d ) . A sp o in ted o u tb y Ode l l ( Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken 1 980 :99 ) , g rav ing c an b e e i the r al ong i tud ina l o r t r an sve r se a c t ion . T he l o ng i tud ina l/ t r an sver se c l a s s if ica t ion i sr ea l ly o n ly u sefu l f o r d e scr ib ing t oo l u se i n vo lv ing e dg e s , a nd i sn o t r ea l ly a pp rop r ia te f o r a c t ion s i n vo lv ing p o in t s o r s pu r s . G rav ing i s ao ne -way movemen t o f as pu r red o r p o in ted t oo l , w i th t he p o in t d rawn o rp u shed a c ro s s t he c on tac t s u r face ( F igu re 2 4e ) . B or ing i ss imu l taneou s ly a s em i -c i rcu la r , b i -d i rec t iona l a nd d ownwa rd movemen to f ap o in ted o rs pur red t oo lh e ld a to r n ea r9 0 d eg ree s t ot he c on tac t s u r fa ce ( F igu re 2 4 f ) .

5 . 3 .8 App l ied P re s su re T he p re s su re o r f o rce a pp l ied t o t oo l s u sed f o r d ife ren t a c t iv i t ie s w a s v a r iab le ( s ee T ab le 9 ) a nd o f ten t he amoun t o f p re s su re a pp l ied t o at oo l c hanged d ur ing t he c ou r se o f as i ng le e xpe r imen t . T h i sw a s ma in ly c au sed b yt he i n c rea s ing p re s su re n eeded t og e tr e su l t sf r om ad u l lt oo l . No a t temp tw a s made t ok eep t he p re s su re a r t if ic ia l ly c on s tan t ( a sw i th T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 :182 ) a nd i tv a r ied a s w a s n ece s sa ry t o a ccomp l i sh a g i ven t a sk . App l ied p re s su re w a s g ene ra l ly n o tr ecorded d u r ing t he 1 980 a nd 1 982 e xper imen t s .

5 . 3 .9 Ang le o fT oo lt oC on tac tS u r face T he a ng le b e tween t h e v en t ra l e dge -a spec t o fa n e xper imen ta l t oo l a nd t he c on tac t s ur face w a s m ea su red s eve ra l t ime s d u r ing e ach e xper imen t ( " ang le o f t he e dge t ot he w o rked m a te r ia l " i nt h e T r ingham -Ode l lt e rm ino logy a nd " ang le o fa t tack " a cco rd ing t oK ee ley ) . An o p t imum a ng le w a s q u ick ly e s tab l i shed w i th e ach t oo l , a l though t h i s s ome t ime s c hanged d u r ing t he c ou r se o f a n e xper imen t a st h e e dge b ecame d u l le r o r t he e dge a ng le c hanged d ue t o a t t r i t ion , o r i ft he s hape o ft he c on tac t ma te r ia lw a s a l te red . N oe f for tw a s made t ok eep t h i sa ng le 5 7

a r t i f ic ia l ly c on s tan tt h roughou ta ne xpe r imen t ( a sw i th T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 :181 1 82 ) , a st he c once rn w a sw i th u s ing t he t oo l i na n e f f ec t ive a nd r ea l i s t ic m anner . E ven s o , t he t oo l a ng le u sua l ly o n ly v a r ied 1 0 t o 2 0 d eg ree s , a nd o f ten ma in ly w i th in a5 t o 1 0 d eg ree r ange . T h i s a ng le w a s u sua l ly n o t r eco rded d u r ing t he 1 980 a nd 1 982 e xpe r imen t s .

5 .3 .10 Dura t ion o f Too l Use

S ome r e sea rche r s u se o n ly " e lap sed t ime " ( Kee ley 1 980 :8 ) o r " numbe r o f s t roke s " ( T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 :184 ) t o mea su re t h e d u ra t ion o f a n e xpe r imen t . B o th a re u sed i nt h i ss t udy t oi n su re t he w ide s tp o s s ib le c omparab i l i ty w i th o the r r e sea rch . T ime w a s mea su red b y s t opwa tch a nd w a s s t opped d u r ing t he e xpe r imen t wh i le v a r iou s o b se rva t ion s w e re r eco rded , o r f o r ab reak d u r ing l onge r e xpe r imen t s . On ly e l ap sed t ime w a s r eco rded f o r t he 1 980 a nd 1 982 e xper imen t s .

5 . 3 .11 P o s t -Expe r imen tT oo lT rea tmen t A tt he e nd o fa ne xper imen tt he u sed t oo lw a sw rapped i nt i s sue o rs of tp aper t owe l a nd s t o red i n al abe l led p ape r b ag . T he b agged t oo lw a s p ro tec ted f r om p o s s ib le p o s t -u se d amage b yb e ing s t o red i n ac ab ine t a nd o n ly t aken o u tw hen n ece s sa ry f o re xam ina t ion . E ven tua l ly ,a l lo ft he t oo l sw ere s t o red i ns ma l l ,c l ea r p la s t ic b ag sf o re a se o fa cce s s .

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CHAPTER 6

DEPENDENT VARIABLES , RECORD ING ME T hODS , AND PROCEDURES

6 . 1 I n t roduc t ion

T he d ependen t v a r iab le s i nt h i s s e r ie s o fe xper imen t s a re w ea r t r ace s o n ly c l ea r ly o b se rvab le w i th t he a i d o f l i gh t m ic ro scope s o r as c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope ( SE M ) . T he t y pe sa nd g ene ra lc ha rac ter i s t ic s o ft he se v a r iab le s a re d e sc r ibed b e low , a sa re t h e me thod sa nd p rocedu re su sed t or ecord t hem .

6 . 2 A na l y t i ca lP roc edur e At oo l u sed i na n e xpe r imen t w a s r emoved f r om s t o rage a nd p repa red f o r a na ly s i s w i th a l i gh t m i c ro scope i n t he f o l low ing manner : ( 1 ) e ach t oo l w a s g en t ly b ru shed w i th a v ery s of t t oo th b ru sh i n w a rm , s oapy w a te r t o r emove r e s idue sf r om t he c on ta c t ma te r ia l ; ( 2 ) a f ter a i rd ry ing , e ach t oo lw a sp laced i na c l ean p las t ic b ag ( baby b o t t le l i ne r ) ; ( 3 ) i mmed ia te ly p r io rt oe xam ina t ion u nde r t h e m ic ro scope t he t oo l e dge w a s g en t ly w iped w i th a l coho l o r a ce tone t o r emove f i nge r g rea se ( t h i s w a s r epea ted w hen n ece s sa ry d ur ing t he e xam ina t ion ) ; ( 4 ) t he t oo l w a s e xam ined w i th a m ic ro scope , a nd m ic rowea r o b se rva t ion s w e re r e co rded a nd p ho tog raphed ; a nd ( 5 ) a f ter e xam ina t ion t he t oo lw a sp laced i ni t sb ag a nd s t o red u n t i li tw a sn eeded a ga in . T he p rocedu re f o r t oo l s t ob e e xam ined w i th a S EM w a s a s f o l low s : s t ep s ( 1 ) , (2 ) a s a bove ; ( 3 ) as e gmen t o ft he u sed e dge o ft he t oo lw a s r emoved w i th a s aw ; ( 4 ) b o th t he t oo l a nd s egmen t w e re c l eaned w i th s oapy w a te r ; ( 5 ) a f te r 5 9

d ry ing , t he t oo lw a s r ep laced i ni t sb ag a nd s t ored ; ( 6 ) t h e s egmen t wa sp l aced i n a n u l t ra son ic c l eaner ; ( 7 ) t he s egmen t w a s a l lowed t o d ry , p l aced i n as t er i le p la s t ic b ag a nd t r an spo r ted t ot h e S EM ; ( 8 ) t he s egmen tw a sa dhered t o a" s tage " a nd c oa ted w i th a t h in l a ye r o f g o ld ; ( 9 ) t he s egmen t w a s e xam ined w i th t he S EM a nd o b serva t ion s w e re made o n t he m ic rowea r a nd p ho tog raph s w ere t aken ; a nd ( 10 ) t he t oo ls egmen tw a sp laced i n ab ag a nd s t o red .

6 . 3 R eco rd ing Me thod s A l l d ependen tv a r iab le s w ere r eco rded i nd e ta i l o n f o rm s p repa red f o r t h i s p urpo se . E ach f o rm w a s d e s igned s o t ha t many o b serva t ion s c ou ld b e r e corded b y me re ly c heck ing o f t he a pp rop r ia te b ox ; h owever , t he re w e re n o l i m i t s o n r ecord ing o b se rva t ion s w h ich d id n o t f i t o ne o f t h e p rede te rm ined c a tegor ie s . T he m ic ro scope a nd magn i f ica t ion s u sed f o r t he o b se rva t ion sw e re r eco rded o n t he f o rm s . P ho tom ic rog raph n umber sw ere a l so r ecorded o nt h e f o rm s a nd i na p ho to c a ta log .

6 . 4 E qu ipmen t Av a r ie ty o fm ic ro scope sw e re u sed t oo b serve t h e d ependen t v a r iab le s . T o s t udy m ic rof lake s ca r s a nd e dge r ound ing , aZ e i s s J ena s t e reo m ic roscope w i th a r ange o f magn i f ica t ion s b e tween 1 6 xa nd 1 00 x w a s u sed . Howeve r , t he m ic rof lake s ca r c ha rac te r i s t ic s w e re r e co rded a s t h ey a ppea red a t 4 0 xt o s t anda rd ize o b serva t ion s . Two m ic ro scope s w e re u sed f o r t h e o b ser va t ion o f m ic ropo l i she s a nd s t r ia t ion s . T he f i r s t , a N ikon Op t ipho t me ta l lu rg ica l m ic ro scope e qu ipped f o ri n c iden tl i gh to b serva t ion a nd p ho tog raphy h ad ar ange o f magn if ica t ion sb e tween 5 0 xa nd 4 00 x . I tw a s f i t ted w i th av i deo -came ra a nd magn if ica t ion s o f u p t o 1 000 x c ou ld b e o b ta ined o n a mon i to r , a l though t he i mage s w e re q u i te f u zzy . T h i s m ic ro scope p roved u n su i tab le f or o b serv ing m ic rowea r p o l i she s a nd o n ly a f ew t oo l s w e re e xam ined ( t he se w ere l a ter r e e xam ined w i th t he Un i t ron ) . A much mo re s u i tab le m ic ro scope wa s aU n i t ron " N " me ta l lu rg ica l m ic ro scope w i th i n c iden tl i gh t , ax enon l i gh ta t tachmen t a nd a r ange o fp o s s ib le magn if ica t ion sb e tween 5 0 xa nd 6 00 x . I tw a se qu ipped w i th a 3 5 mm c ame ra , a sw e l la s ap o la ro id c ame ra . AP h i l l ip s5 05 s can n ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope w a su sed t oe xam ine p a r t s o f2 3 t oo l s a nd 3u nu sed f l ake s . B lack a nd w h i te p ho tom ic rog raph s w e re t a ken w i th P o la ro id T ype 6 65 P o s i t ive / Nega t ive L and P ack F i lm .

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6 . 5 D epend en tV ar iab l e s 6 . 5 .1 I n t roduc t ion S evera l d ife ren tc l a s se s o fw ea r , i n c lud ing m ic ro f lake s ca r s , p o l i sh , s t r ia t ion s a nd r ound ing , h ave b een c ommon ly o b served o n u sed t oo l s b y r e sea rche r s i n vo lved w i th t he s t udy o fm ic rowea r ( e .g . S emenov 1 964 , T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 , K ee ley 1 980 , a nd many o the r s ) . A l l o ft he se c l a s se s o fw ea rh ave b een o b served o n t oo l s u sed i nt he p re sen t s e r ie s o fe xper imen t s . T he c ha rac ter i s t ic s o f e ach c l a s so f wea ra re d e scr ibed b e low .

6 . 5 .2 M ic ro / lak eS ca r y M ic ro f lake s ca r s a re f ound o n t he e dge -a spec t s o f at oo l , n o t o n t he e dge . E dge -a spec t s a re t he a rea s o ft he d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce s i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t o t h e e dge ( F igu re 2 5 ) . S nap term ina ted m ic ro f lake s ca r s r epre sen t ap a r t o f t he e dge wh ich h a s s napped o f , h oweve r , t he se s ca r sa re u sua l ly o r ien ted t oo ne o rt h eo ther e dge -a spec tt os ome d eg ree . F o l low ing p rev iou s r e sea rch ( T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 ; C o t te re l l e t a l . 1 979 ) m ic rof lake s ca r s a re c l a s sed a s h av ing s nap , s t ep , h inge - o r f ea the r t e rm ina t ions . E ach m ic rof lake s ca rw a s r ecorded a sb e ing l o ca ted o nt he d o r sa l o rv en t ra l e dge -a spec t ( F igu re 2 5 ) . T he r a t io o f s ca r s o n t he d or sa l v s v en t ra l a spec tw a s c a lcu la ted ( numbe r o fv en t ra l s ca r s d i v ided b y t he n umber o fd o r sa l s ca r s = v en t ra l :do r sa l r a t io ) a s i tw a s c on s ide red ap o s s ib ly u sefu l i ndex o ft he r e la t ive d i s tr ibu t ion o fs ca r s a nd p o ten t ia l ly v a luab le f o r d i s t ingu i sh ing t oo l s o n t he b a s i s o ft he i ra c t ion . T he s pa t ia lr e la t ion sh ip sb e tween m ic ro f lake s ca r so r" c onf igu ra t ion "w a s a l so r eco rded f o r e ach e dge -a spec t . When f ew n on -ove r lapp ing , w ide ly s paced m ic rof lakes s ca r s o ccu r o n a n e dge -a spec t , t he c onf igu ra t ion i sd e sc r ibed a s " s ca t te red " ( F igu re 2 6a ) . C on t inuou s m ic ro f lake s ca r s , e i ther n o t o ve r lapp ing e ach o ther o r o n ly s l igh t ly o ve r lapp ing , a re d e scr ibed a s a " c on t iguou s " d i s t r ibu t ion ( F igu re 2 6b ) . C on t inuou s ,o ver lapp ing m ic rof lake s ca r sc omp r i se a n " ove r lapp ing "c onf igu ra t ion ( F igu re 2 6c ) . T he f r equen to ccu r rence o fs ma l ls ca r s w i th in l a rger s ca r s i sd e sc r ibed a s a" s uperpo sed " c on f igu ra t ion ( F igu re 2 6d ) . S eve ra lo ft he se c onf igu ra t ion sc an b ep re sen to nt he s ame u sed e dge -a spec t . L eng th o f m ic rof lake s c a r s w a s u sed a s t he mea su remen t o f s i ze , a l though s ome p rev iou s r e sea rche r s h ave u sed s c a r w id th t oc a tego r ize s c a r s b y s i ze ( e .g . K ee ley 1 980 :24 -25 ) . T he ma jo r d rawback i n u s ing w id th i st ha t s c a r s o f ten o ve r lap e ach o the r , t hu s t r unca t ing p a r t o f t he w id th . Mea su remen t s o fw id th a re t h e refo re n o tl i ke ly t ob e c ompa rab le b e tween s ca r so ccu r r ing i no ve r lapp ing c l u s te r s a nd t ho se o ccur r ing s i ng ly . I n t he p re sen t s t udy , m ic rof lake s c a r s w e re d i v ided i n to f ou ra rb i t ra ry s i ze c l a s se s s ugge s ted b y s ub jec t ive e va lua t ion o fs c a r s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion s o n s eve ra l u sed t oo l s . Ob ta in ing p rec i se mea su remen t s f o r 6 1

> a

b

\ e

C

d

T X

F igure 2 5 . R e lat ionsh ip o f t he d orsa l ( d ) a nd v entra l ( v) e dgea spects t o t he e dge ( e ) o f at oo l, a . u nrounded, l ow-angled e dge, b . r ounded l ow-ang led e dge, c . u nrounded, s teep-ang led e dge, d . r ounded s teep-ang led e dge .

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a

b

C

d

F igure 2 6 . S pat ia l r e lat ionsh ips b etween n icrof lake s cars. a . s cattered, b . c ont iguous, c . o ver lapp ing, d . s uperposed .

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e ach f l ake s c a r w ou ld b e e x t reme ly t ime c on sum ing , c on s ide r ing t he n umber o f s ca r s o nt he t oo l s they r anged f r om af ew t oo ver 1 00 s c a r s a nd mo s th ad a round 5 0 . I n t h i s s t udy s ma l l s c a r s mea su re l e s s t han 1 mm i n max imum l e ng th , med ium s ca r s b e tween 1a nd 2 mm , l a rge b e tween 2 a nd 3 mm , a nd v e ry l a rge s ca r s a re g rea ter t han 3 mm . S nap te rm ina ted s ca r s a re r eco rded a cco rd ing t o t he i r l eng th p a ra l le l t o t he e dge ( i . e . w id th ) b ecau se t h i s i st he mo s t r ea l i s t ic mea su re o fs i ze f o rt he se s c a r s . W i th t he e xcep t ion o fs nap s ca r s ,v e ry l a rge s ca r s r a re ly o ccu ra s ar e su l to fu se . M ic rof lake s c a r sw e re r e co rded a st hey a ppea red a t4 0 xmagn if ica t ion w i th a s t e reom ic ro scope , a l though h igher magn i f ica t ion s w e re o cca s iona l ly u sed . T h i s b a se l ine w a ss e tt oi n su re c ompa rab i l i ty i no b se rva t ion sb e tween t oo l s .

6 . 53 R ound ing E dge s , m ic rof lake s ca r r i dge s , a nd p rom inen t p a r t s o ft he m ic ro topog raphy c an b ecome r ounded b y u se . Rounded p a r t s o f at oo l c an b e a ccompan ied b y a b ra s ion , s moo th ing o r p o l i sh ing o f t he r ounded s u r face . A t v e ry h igh magn if ica t ion s , mo s t u sed e dge s a ppea r r ounded t o s o me d eg ree , a nd s o me " r ounded "e dge s a re a c tua l ly f a ce t ted . De sc r ip t ion so fe dge round ing i nC hap te r 7r e fer t o o b serva t ion s made d u r ing t he l ow magn if i ca t ion s t udy o f m ic rof lake s ca r s . E dge round ing w a s s ub jec t ive ly r eco rded a s b e ing s l igh t , mode ra te o r p ronounced . Round ing o fo the ra spec t so f au sed t oo lw a sa l so r ecorded . E dge round ing o n t r an sve r se ly u sed t oo l s i sc ommon ly d e sc r ibed a sb e ing o r ien ted t o t he " l ead ing " o r " t ra i l ing " e dge -a spec t s ( F igu re 2 7 ) . T h i s s imp ly r e fer s t o t he a spec t s w h ich w ere " l ead ing " o r " t ra i l ing " d ur ing u se . W i th t he s c rap ing a c t ion s u sed i n t he p re sen t s t udy , t he l e ad ing a spec t wa s a lway s t he v en t ra la spec td ue t ot he s hape o ft he f l ake sw h ich w e re u sed .

6 . 5 .4 P o l i sh F o l low ing o the r s w ho h ave d i s t ingu i shed man y d i agno s t ic f ea ture s o f u se p roduced m ic ro -po l i she s ( e spec ia l ly K ee ley 1 980 ) , g rea t c a re w a s t a ken t o r eco rd t he p o l i she s o b served o n t he b a sa l t t oo l s . S ome " po l i she s " w e re i ndeed s moo th a nd s h iny a s o ne e xpec t s ap o l i sh t ob e . O the r mod if ica t ion s o ft h e t oo l s u r face r e su l ted i n r oughened , d u l l s u r face s w h ich m igh t p erhap s b e t ter b e d e sc r ibed a s a b raded , b u t f o l low ing o the r m ic rowea r r e sea rche r s , t he se a re a l so i n c luded u nde r t he r ub r ic o f" po l i sh " . C ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft he p o l i she s r e co rded a t 2 00 xt o3 00 xi n c lude : b r igh tne s s , s u r face t e x tu re , l o ca t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd t he p re sence a nd o r ien ta t ion o ft r end l i ne s . T he b r igh tne s s o f ap o l i sh r e f er s t o t he d eg ree i tr ef lec t s l i gh t a t h i gh magn if ica t ion s a nd w a s s ub jec t ive ly d e sc r ibed a s d u l l , mode ra te ly b r igh t , b r igh t o r v ery b r igh t . I n c ompa r i son w i th a n u nmod i f ied b a sa l t s u r face d u l l p o l i sh r ef lec t sc on s ide rab ly l e s sl i gh t , mode ra te ly b r igh tp o l i sh r ef lec t ss l igh t ly l e s st oa n 6 4

F igure 2 7. L ead ing ( L) a nd t railing ( T ) e dge-aspects o f a t oo l u sed w ith a s crap ing a ct ion . T he a rrow i nd icates t he d irect ion o f t oo l m ovement .

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e qu iva len t amoun t o f l i gh t , b r igh t p o l i sh r ef lec t s t h e s ame amoun t o f l i gh t t o mo re l i gh t , a nd v e ry b r igh tp o l i sh i s much mo re r ef l ec t ive . S u r face t e x tu re o f ap o l i sh i sd e sc r ibed a s g ra iny , s moo th , p i t ted o r a c omb ina t ion o fs eve ra l . Av ery r ough s u r face w a sd e sc r ibed a s" g ra iny "d ue t oi t s g ranu la r a ppea rance . P i t s w e re e xc lu s ive ly p re sen t i n t he s u r face o f s moo th p o l i she s a nd w ere d e sc r ibed a st o t he i rp re sence o ra b sence , r e la t ive f r equency , s i ze a nd s hape . L inea r f ea tu re s o r " t rend l i ne s " v i s ib le i n t he s u r face o f t he p o l i sh c an b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om s t r ia t ion s , w h ich a re e s sen t ia l ly s c ra tche s i nt he s u r face o f a p o l i sh ( s ee a l so Hayden 1 979b :213 ; K ee ley 1 977 :113 -114 ) . T rend l i ne s c an b e v ery w ide a nd i n vo lve c on s iderab le v a r ia t ion s i ns u r face t opog raphy , s ome t ime s h av ing t he a ppea rance o fb road t r ough s . I n many c a se s , t r end l i ne s a r e mere ly s ugge s t ion so f1 i na rf ea tu re s i nt he p o l i she s o n ly v i s ib le b y mov ing t he o b jec t ive s l igh t ly i n a nd o u t o f f ocu s . T he se l i nea r f ea tu re s i n va r iab ly i nd ica te w he the r t oo l s w e re u sed w i th a n a c t ion t r an sve r se o r l ong i tud ina l t o t he e dge . T rend l i ne s w e re r ecorded a s t o t he i r c ha rac ter i s t ic s a nd , more i mpor tan t ly , t he i r o r ien ta t ion v i s -a -v i st he e dge .

6 . 5 .5 S t r ia t ions T he i mpo r tance o f s t r ia t ion s f o r m ic rowea r r e sea rch w a s f o rcefu l ly p o in ted o u t b y S emenov ( 1964 ) , h owever , t h i s w ea r c l a s s i sn o t c ommon ly f o und a nd s t r ia t ion s a re u sua l ly o n ly c l ea r ly o b se rvab le a th igh m agn if ica t ion s . I nt h i s s t udy s t r ia t ion s w ere g ene ra l ly i n f requen t ly e ncoun tered , b u t s i nce t hey s o c l ea r ly r ef lec tt oo l a c t ion c on s ide rab le e f fo r tw a s t aken t os ea rch f o r t hem t od e term ine i ft hey a re c o r re la ted w i th s pec if ic t oo l a c t ion s , c on tac t ma te r ia l s o r c ond i t ion s ( i . e . g r i t t ine s s ) . I n many c a se s , s t r ia t ion s w ere o n ly s ugge s ted a t 3 00 x ,a nd magn i f ica t ion so f6 00 xo rh i ghe rw e re n ece s sa ry t oc l ea r ly v i ew t hem . F o l low ing o ther r e sea rche r s ( e .g . S emenov 1 964 ; K ee ley 1 980 ) , t he r e la t ive f r equency o f s t r ia t ion s , l o ca t ion ,l eng th ,w id th , a nd d ep th ,r e la t ion t oo the rt y pe s o fm ic rowea r p re sen t , a nd o r ien ta t ion t ot he e dge w e re r e co rded ( F igure 2 8 ) . S ho r t s t r ia t ion s a re u p t o2 0 pm l ong , med ium s t r ia t ion s a re 2 1 pm t o5 0 pm i nl eng th , a nd l ong s t r ia t ion sa re g rea te rt han 5 0 pm i nl eng th .

6 . 6 Na tura l "W ea r " S ince t he p re sen t s t udy i sc oncerned w i th w ea rt r ace s o n e xper imen ta l t oo l s , t he p o s s ib i l i ty o fc on fu s ing n on -u se a l te ra t ion s o fs t one t oo l sw i th t r ace s o fu se w ea r i sn o t o f i mmed ia te c oncern . However , s i nce t he u l t ima te g oa l o f t h i s r e sea rch i st op rov ide amean s f o r i n terp re t ing t he f unc t ion o fp reh i s to r ic t oo l s , t he ma t te rs hou ld b e a dd re s sed . T he e xpe r imen ta lp rog ram i sp r ima r i ly d i rec ted a tp rov id ing amean s f o r i n terp re t ing t oo l s l e s s t han a bou t 3 000 -4000 y ea r s o ld , a nd s econda r i ly , t oo l st oa bou t 1 0 ,000 y ea r s . T h i si sn o te nough o f at ime s pan t o

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t _ a

b

F igure 2 8 . O r ientat ion o f s tr iat ions i n r e lat ion t o at oo l e dge . a . o b lique, b . p ara lle l, c . r ight-ang le.

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a l low n a tu ra l a l tera t ion s s uch a s p a t ina t ion , w ind o r wa te r a bra s ion t o b e e p idem ic , a s a t O ld Wo r ld P a laeo l i th ic s i te s . I n my e xpe r ience w i th l a te p reh i s to r ic C anad ian P la teau a s semb lage s , n a tu ra l a l tera t ion s a re d i s t inc t a nd e a s i ly r ecogn izab le a nd a re mo re l i ke ly t o o b scu re u se -wea r r a the r t han b e c on fu sed w i th i t ,a si st he c a se w i th Eu ropean P a laeo l i th ic t oo l s ( Kee ley 1 980 :28 3 5 ) .

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CHAPTER 7

MICRO WEAR OBSERVED ON EXPER I MENTAL BASALT TOOLS

7 . 1 I n t roduc t ion De ta i led o b se rva t ion s o fm ic rowea ro n 13 e xpe r imen ta l C ache C reek b a sa l t t oo l s a re p re sen ted i n t h i s c hap te r . T ex tua l d e sc r ip t ion s o f m ic rowea r a re s upp lemen ted b y t abu la ted r aw m ico rwea r d a ta ( Append i x A ) . L igh t m ic ro scope a nd s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope p ho tom ic rog raph s o f t he m ic rowea r ( Append ixe s B a nd C ) a nd i lu s t ra t ion s o f t he e xpe r imen ta l t oo l s ( Append ix D ) a re a l so p rov ided . T he c hap te ri sd i v ided i n to s even s ec t ion s c o r re spond ing t o ma jo r c on tac t ma te r ia l c l a s se s a nd f u r ther s ubd iv ided o n t he b a s i s o f mo re s pec if ic c on tac t ma te r ia l s a nd/or t oo l a c t ion s . T he c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f e ach o f t he f ou r ma jo r t y pe s o f m ic rowea r ( m ic rof lake s ca r s , e dge r ound ing , p o l i sh , s t r ia t ion s ) a re d e sc r ibed f o r e ach a c t iv i ty . P o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion s o b served w i th t he a id o f a s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope ( SE M ) a re d e sc r ibed s epe ra te ly f r om m ic rowea r o b se rved w i th l i gh tm ic ro scope s .

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7 .2 P lan ts (N=5 )

7 .2 .1 Green P lan ts

Two v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l sw e re u sed o n g reen r e ed s ( J uncu ss p .) a nd o ne o n g reen w i ld g ra s s ( Ca lamag ro s t i s i n expan sa ) i n term ixed w i th l e s ser amoun t s o f s edge ( Ca r ex a t he rode s ) ( Too l s 1 2 -9 ,12 -12 ,134 -11 ; F igu re 1 26a ,d ,e ) . T he r eed s s t ood i n as ha l low p ond ,w h i le t he g ra s s a nd s edge w e re l o ca ted o n t he e dge o fa d ry s l ough . Ah andfu l o fs t em s w ere h e ld i no ne h and a nd c u t n ea r t h e b o t tom w i th a s l ic ing mo t ion . On ly l i gh t t o med ium p re s su re w a s n ece s sa ry t o s l ice t h rough a h and fu l o f s t em s . Du ra t ion o f t oo l u se r anged f r om 6 t o 2 3 m inu te s ( 200 -1750 s t roke s ) , a nd e ven t he mo s t h eav i ly u sed t oo l w a s s t i l l u sab le f o r f u r the rc u t t ing . M ic rof lake S ca r s : S nap ( 4 1 .8 % ) a nd f ea the r ( 40 .0% ) s ca r s a re t he t wo mo s t c ommon m ic ro f lake t e rm ina t ion t y pe s . T he ma jo r i ty o f s ca r s a re s ma l l i ns i ze ( 8 3 .6 % ) . T he v en t ra l t od o r sa l s ca rr a t io i s1 . 6 :1 , a nd t h e mean n umbe ro fs ca r s p e r t oo l i s1 8 .3 . S ca r s a re r a re a nd s ca t te red o n t h e t wo t oo l s u sed o n r eed s , w h i le t hey a re c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing , a sw e l l a ss c a t te red , o n t he t oo l u sed o ng ra s sa nd s edge . Edg eR ound ing : E dge sa re u nmod i f ied t os l igh t ly r ounded . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sb r igh t t ov ery b r igh t , s moo th a nd p i t ted ( F igure s 3 4 ,35 ) . P i t s a re c ommon a nd s ma l l t o l a rge i n s i ze . P o l i sh t end s t o b e n ea r ly c on t inuou s a l ong t he e dge s o ft he t wo more h eav i ly u sed t oo l s ( 12 -12 ,134 -11 ) a nd s c a t te red a l ong t he e dge o ft he l i gh t ly u sed o ne ( 12 -9 ) . On t h e e dge a spec t s , t he p o l i sh i s mo s th eav i ly d eve loped o nh i gh a rea s o ft he m ic ro topog raphy a nd i ns ome a rea s t he se d omed h i gh p o in t s a re j o ined b y r i dge s o f p o l i sh , f o rm ing n e two rk s o f p o l i sh . On t he h eav i ly u sed t oo l s t he p o l i sh e x tend s ac on s ide rab le d i s tance f r om t he e dge . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : P o l i sh i se x ten s ive a nd c on t inuou s a l ong b o th e dge s o ft oo l 1 2 -12 a nd e x tend s am ax imum o f 1mm t o 2 . 5 mm o n to e i the r e dge a spec t ( F igu re s 2 , 73 ) . T he mo s t h i gh ly d eve loped p o l i sh u sua l ly e x tend s n o mo re t han . 5t o. 7 5 mm f r om t he e dge . T he p o l i sh i sv e ry s moo th i nt e x tu re , b u tp i t ted i ne ven t he mo s th i gh ly p o l i shed a rea s( F igure 7 4 ) . S t r ia t ion s : S t r ia t ion s a re p re sen t o n a rea s o f h i gh p o l i sh d eve lopmen t o n a l l t h ree t oo l s , b u t a re o n ly v i s ib le a th i gh magn i f ica t ion s . T hey a re s hor t , n a r row a nd t h e v a s t ma jo r i ty a re o r ien ted p a ra l le l o r o b l ique t o t he e dge , w i th af ew o r ien ted a to rn ea rr i gh ta ng le s . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : S t r ia t ion s a re c ommon o n t h e e dge s egmen t o f t oo l 1 2 -12 ( F igure 7 4 ) . T he se s t r ia t ion s a re 3j im t o 1 5j im i nl e ng th a nd a re p r inc ipa l ly o r ien ted p a ra l le l t ot he e dge , a l though af ew a re o r ien ted o b l ique t o t he e dge o r a th i gh a ng le st oi t .

70

C ompa r i son s : T he re i so n ly o ne o ther r ecorded e xamp le o f b a sa l t t oo l s b e ing u sed t o c u t g reen p lan t s . Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken ( 1980 :114 -115 ) u sed a r e touched C ache C reek b a sa l tt oo lt oc u tc ommon l awn g ra s si nt he i r " b l ind t e s t " e xpe r imen t s . T he o n ly w ea r men t ioned f o r t h i s t oo li s" un m i s takab le c orn g lo s s " ( h igh ly r ef lec t ive p o l i sh ) , w h ich i sa l so p re sen t o n t he p lan t s l ic ing t oo l s o f t he p re sen ts t udy .

7 .2 .2 T hy P lan t s

Two v i t reou sb a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 4 3 -2 ,161 -11 ; F igu re 1 26b ,c ) w e re u sed f o r 3 t o 1 9 m inu te s ( 150 -700 s t roke s ) t os l ice d ry ,y e l low c a t ta i l ( T ypha l a t i f o l ia ) s t em s s t and ing i n ad ry s wamp . As i ng le s t em w a s h e ld i no ne h and a nd c u tj u s tb e low t he h ead w i th a s l ic ing mo t ion . On ly modera te a pp l ied p re s su re w a s n ece s sa ry t oc u t t h rough as t em . E ven t he mo s t h eav i ly u sed t oo l w a s o n ly s l igh t ly d u l led a tt h ee nd o ft he e xpe r imen t . M i c rof lake S ca r s : F ea ther te rm ina ted m ic rof lake s ca r s a re t he mo s t c ommon t y pe ( 59 .1 % ) , a l though a s ub s tan t ia l p ropo r t ion o f s ca r s a re s t ep te rm ina ted ( 30 .4 % ) . A s w i th t oo l s u sed o n g reen p lan t s , mo s t s ca r s a re s ma l l i n s i ze ( 81 .7 % ) . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l m ic rof lake s ca r r a t io i s 1 . 2 :1 , a nd t he mean n umbe r o f s ca r s p er t oo l i s 5 7 .5 . S ca r s a re s ca t te red i n s ma l l , o ve r lapp ing g roup s . Edg eR ound ing : Edges a re u nmod i f ied t os l igh t ly r ounded . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sb r igh t t o v e ry b r igh t , s moo th t e x tu red , w i th s ma l l t o l a rge , c i rcu la r t o o va l p i t s ( F igu re 3 6 ) . T he p o l i sh h a s a" f low ing a ppea rance " a nd i s p re sen to nt he e dge a nd b o th e dge a spec t s o ft he t oo l s . On t he h eav i ly u sed t oo l 1 61 -11 t he p o l i sh i sa lmo s t c on t inuou s o n t he e dge , b u t s ca t tered o n t he e dge a spec t s n ea r t he e dge . I ti sc oncen t ra ted o n t he e nd s o f s nap s ca r s a nd o the r p ro jec t ing p a r t s o ft he e dge . On t he l i gh t ly u sed t oo l4 3 -2 , p o l i sh i sp re sen t a ta f ew l o c i o nt he e dge a nd o n ly s l igh ti nd ica t ion sa re f ound o ne i ther e dge a spec t . S t r ia t ions : A f ew s ho r t s t r ia t ion s o r ien ted p a ra l le l o r o b l ique t o t he e dge a re p re sen to nt oo l 1 61 -11 .

7 . 3 H ide ( N=22 ) 7 . 3 .1 H ide D eha i r ing

E igh t v i t reou s a nd n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 1 3 ,12 -13 ,17 -14 ,22 -7 ,233 , 27 -16 ,39 -1 ,44 -4 ; F igu re s 1 27a f , 1 28a ,b ) w e re u sed t o d eha i r ar e la t ive ly f r e sh f a l low d eer h ide ( F igu re 2 0 ) . I tw a s w o rked f r om 8 t o 1 2 d ay s a f ter r emova l f r om t he d ee r , a nd w a s s o mewha t s t i f f a nd d ry t h roughou t t he e xper imen t s . T oo l sw ere u sed f o r 1 1/2 m inu te st o4 7 m inu te s ( 200 -5200 s t roke s ) . A l l b u tt wo 7 1

t oo l s ( 12 -13 ,39 -1 ) w e re u n ha f ted ; af ew u nha f ted t oo l s w e re w rapped i n as ma l l p iece o f r awh ide t o p ro tec tt he h and . T he f l e sh s i de o ft he h ide wa s r i n sed w i th r unn ing w a ter w h ich may h ave r emoved s o me g r i t f r om t he h a i r s i de , h oweve r , d r ied mud l a te r a cc iden t ly a ccumu la ted o n t he h ide a nd a dded g r i t . T he h ide w a s p laced o n p la s t ic c ove red c a rdboa rd o n t he l a b f l oor a nd " s taked o u t " b y t y ing c o rne r s o f t he h ide t o t ab le l e g s ( F igu re 2 0 ) . A l l o f t he t oo l s p roved e f fec t ive f o r d eha i r ing h ide s , a l though t he h a f ted t oo l s w ere e a s ier t ou se t han t he u nha f ted o ne s . M ic rof lake S ca r s : Mo s tm ic rof lake s ca r sa re s t ep te rm ina ted ( 59 .2 % ) ( F igu re 7 5 ) a l though f ea the r te rm ina ted s ca r s a re a l so c ommon ( 30 .0 % ) . S ca r s a re ma in ly s ma l l ( 85 .5 % ) a nd t he mean n umbe ro fs ca r sp e rt oo l i s4 7 .5 . T here a re v ery f ew f l ake s ca r s o n t he v en t ra l e dge a spec t a nd h a l f o f t he t oo l s h ave n one . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l f l ake s ca r r a t io i s . 1 4 :1 . S ca r s o n t he v en t ra l a spec t a re p r ima r i ly s ca t te red , wh i le t ho se o n t he d o r sa l e dge a spec t a re ma in ly c on t iguou s a nd o ver lapp ing . Edge R ound ing : Edge s t end t o b e r ounded ( F igu re s 3 9 ,40 ,75 ,76 ) , w i th t he r ound ing o r f ace t t ing e x tend ing p redom inan t ly o n to t he d o r sa l ( t ra i l ing ) e dge a spec t . P o l i sh : T he p o l i sh i su n i fo rm ly d u l l ( l e s sr ef lec t ive t han t he s u r round ing ,u nworn b a sa l t s ur face ) a nd g ra iny tex tu red ( F igu re s 3 7 -40 ) . I ti su sua l ly e x ten s ive a nd c on t inuou s a long t he e dge a nd d o r sa l e dge -a spec t , b u t i sp re sen t o n ly i n t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o ft he e dge o nt he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t . Rounded p a r t so ft he e dge a nd s ca r r i dge s a lway s h ave p o l i sh p re sen t . T he b ounda ry b e tween p o l i shed a nd u npo l i shed s ur face s i s u sua l ly r e la t ive ly a brup t . A t 6 00 x t he p o l i shed s u r face a ppea r s t ob e c ove red w i th t i ny l i ne s , c rea t ing a " con tou r map " t e x tu re . T rend l i ne s a re p re sen t i n t he s u r face o f t he p o l i sh i nd ica t ing t he d i rec t ion o f t oo l movemen t ( F igu re 4 0 ) . T he se a re s ha l low , b road a nd l ong a nd r un a ta pprox ima te r i gh t a ng le s t ot he e dge . P o l i sh i sn o t d i s t ingu i shab le o nt wo n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( 1 -3 ,23 -3 ) . B o th t oo l s w e re u sed f o r mode ra te ly l ong p e r iod s a nd t he e dge s a re e x ten s ive ly r ounded a nd a ppea r " smoo thed " i n c ompa r i son w i th u nwo rn s ur face s . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : T he p o l i sh o n t oo l 1 7 -14 i sr ough tex tu red , a nd i ti sa ppa ren t a t magn i f ica t ion s o f 3 50 x a nd h ighe r t ha t t he p o l i sh i s n o t c on t inuou s , b u t c omp r i sed o fn umerou s s ma l l , o ve r lapp ing p o l i shed " p la te s " w i th g ap s o fv ar iou s s i ze s b e tween t hem ( F igu re s 7 7 -79 ) . A t magn if i ca t ion s a bove 1 000 x i t i s a ppa ren t t ha t t he p o l i shed p la te s a re t hem se lve s s moo th tex tu red ( F igu re 7 9 ) . T he e dge o ft he t oo l a nd t he d o r sa l a spec th ave b een e x ten s ive ly r ounded b y a n a ppa ren t ly a bra s ive r emova l o ft he b a sa l t . T he p o l i sh i sp re sen t o n t he r ounded s u r face a nd g radua l ly me rge s w i th t he u npo l i shed s u r face . T he h igh ly p o l ished s ur face e x tend s ama x imum o f. 6 mm f r om t he e dge , w h i le t he ma x imum e x ten t o fp o l i sh e x tend su p t o 1m in f r om t he e dge o nt he d o r sa l a spec t . On t h ev en t ra l a spec tt he p o l i sh i sr e s t r ic ted t ot he c l o se v i c in i ty o ft h ee dge . S t r ia t ion s : S t r ia t ion sa re r a re a nd l o ca ted o n ly o np o l i shed a rea s ( F igu re s3 7 ,38 ) . T hey a re s ma l l t o med ium i nl eng th a nd a re p r ima r i ly o r ien ted a tr i gh ta ng le s t o t he e dge , a l though af ew a re o b l ique t oi t . 7 2

S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : S t r ia t ion s a re n o t c ommon o n t oo l 1 7 -14 , a nd t ho se p re sen t a re o r ien ted a t o r n ea r r i gh t a ng le s t o t he e dge ( F igure s 7 7 -79 ) . T hey a re r e la t ive ly d eep a nd w ide , a l though t he l eng th v a r ie s c on s ide rab ly , w i th a f ew b e ing e xcep t iona l ly l ong . T he l a rge s t s t r ia t ion i s7 0j im l ong a nd 3pm w ide , w h i le t he s ho r te s t i s2 2pm l ong . A t v e ry h igh magn i f ica t ion s , s eve ra l p a ra l le l s c ra tche s c an b e s een t o make u p t he 7 0j . im l ong s t r ia t ion ( F igu re 7 9 ) . T he s t r ia t ion s f i r s t b ecome v i s ib le a t 2 00 x a nd a re o n ly p re sen t o n t he p o l i shed s u r face .

7 .3 .2

H id eD ef l e sh ing ( S c rap ing )

S even v i t reou s a nd t h ree n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 3 -3 , 3 -4 , 2 2 -12 , 2 7 1 7 , 3 1 -2 , 4 4 -6 , 4 6 -4 , 8 0 -4 , 8 0 -5 , 8 0 -6 ; F igu re s 1 28 e , f , 1 29 a , b ,e ,f , 1 30 c f ) w e re u sed t o d ef le sh o ne f a l low d ee r a nd o ne mu le d ee r h ide ( F igu re 2 1 ) . One d ay o ld mu le d ee r h ide w a s p a r t ia l ly d ef le shed b y s c rap ing w i th o ne u n re touched ( 80 -6 ) a nd t wo r e touched t oo l s ( 80 -4 ,80 -5 ) . T oo l sw e re u sed f r om 3 0 s econd s t o 5m inu te s o nt he h ide ,w h ich w a sp laced o n ac e men tf l oo r i n ag a rage , h a i r s i de d own . Too l st ended t os l ip a nd w e re g ene ra l ly i nef fec t ive . Af our d ay o ld f a l low d ee rh ide wa sp laced h a i rs i de d own o np la s t ic c ove red c a rdboa rd l y ing o nt he f l oo r a nd w a s s t re tched o u tb y t y ing e dge s o ft he h ide t o t ab le l eg s . T he h ide w a s d ef le shed s ucce s s fu l ly a nd c omp le te ly w i th s even t oo l s u sed f o r 5t o 5 8 m inu te s ( 250 -3200 s t roke s ) . F ive o ft he t oo l s w e re h a f ted ( 3 3 , 22 -12 ,27 -17 ,31 -2 ,46 -4 ) ( F igu re 2 1 ) , wh i le t he r e s t w e re h and -he ld . T he h a f ted t oo l sw ere e a s ie rt ou se t han u nhaf ted o ne s , a nd v i t reou s b a sa l tt oo l sw e re more e f f ec t ive t han n on -v i t reou so ne s . M ic rof lake S ca r s : T he ma jo r i ty o f m ic rof lake s ca r s o n u n re touched t oo l s a re f ea the r term ina ted ( 57 .0 % ) , w i th s t ep s ca r s b e ing t he n ex t mo s t c ommon t ype ( 23 .3 % ) . Mo s t o f t he s c a r s a re s ma l l ( 83 .9 % ) . T he r a t io o f v en t ra l t o d o r sa l m ic rof lake s ca r s i s. 7 :1 , w h ich i sr a the r h igh f or a s c rap ing a c t iv i ty , b u t i ti s s u spec ted t ha t p ronoun ced e dge r ound ing a nd f a ce t t ing h a s o b l i tera ted many o f t he s ca r s o n t he d o r sa l e dge a spec t . I t i s s ugge s ted t ha t t he m ic ro sca r r ing o ccu r red f i r s t , f o l lowed b y a t t r i t ion o f t he e dge r e su l t ing i n r ound ing a nd p o l i sh ing , wh ich n o t o n ly o b l i te ra ted mo s t f l ake s ca r s , b u t e l im ina ted s u i tab le p la t fo rm s f o r t he d e tachmen t o f mo re m ic rof lake s . S ca r s a re ma in ly s ca t te red , o c cu r ing s i ng ly o r i n s ma l l c l u s te r s o f o ve r lapp ing s ca r s . T he mean n umbe r o f f l ake s ca r s p e r t oo l i s al ow 2 4 .1 , h oweve r , t he t h ree n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s h ave v ery f ew m ic rof lake s ca r s w h ich r educe s t he a ve rage n umber o ff l ake s o n a l lt oo l s a nd a l so a f fec t st he v en t ra lt od o r sa lf l ake s ca rr a t io . F o rv i t reou sb a sa l t t oo l st he a ve rage n umbe ro ff l ake s ca r si s3 3 .2 , wh i le i ti so n ly 9p e rt oo lf o r n on v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l f l ake s ca r r a t io i s Al f o r v i t reou s b a sa l tt oo l sa nd . 9 :1 f o rn on -v i t reou st oo l s . E dge Round ing : E dge sb ecome r ounded w i th o n ly s l igh tu se , a nd h eavy u se c an c au se t he e dge t o b ecome v e ry r ounded . T he r ound ing e x tend s p redom inan t ly o n to t he d o r sa l( t ra i l ing )a spec to ft he t oo le dge s ( F igure s8 0 ,81 ) . 7 3

P o l i sh : H ide d ef le sh ing p o l i sh i sd u l la nd g ra iny tex tu red i na ppea rance ( F igu re s 4 0 -43 ) . T he b ounda ry b e tween ap o l i shed a nd a nu nu sed s u r face i sq u i te s ha rp a nd d i s t inc t ive . P o l i sh i su sua l ly c on t inuou s a nd v e ry w e l l d eve loped o nt h e e dge i t se l f , wh ich i su sua l ly r ounded a nd t hu s q u i te b road . T rend l i ne s i n t h e p o l i sh r un a ta pp rox ima te r i gh ta ng le st ot he e dge . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : Rough t e x tu red , " p la tey " p o l i sh ( F igu re 8 3 ) i sc on t inuou s a long t he e dge o f t oo l 2 7 -17 a nd b o th e dge a spec t s , a l though p ene t ra t ion i sv e ry r e s t r ic ted o n t he v en t ra l a spec t . A l a rge p o r t ion o f t he d or sa l f ace i sp o l i shed s i nce t he t oo l wa s t i l ted s o much d ur ing u se t ha t t h i s a rea f r equen t ly c on tac ted t he h ide . Howeve r , h igh ly d eve loped p o l i sh i sr e s t r ic ted t o t he e dge a nd t he d o r sa l a spec t , a nd u sua l ly e x tend s . 3t o . 7 5 mm f r om t he e dge a nd r eache s a max imum o f 1 . 3 mm . T rend l i ne s i nt he p o l i sh c an b e o b served a tr e la t ive ly l ow magn i f ica t ion s . T he se a re o r ien ted a to rn ea r r i gh t a ng le s t o t he e dge a nd t end t oc onve rge t owa rd st he c en te ro ft he u sed e dge . S t r ia t ions : S t r ia t ion s a re e x t reme ly r a re a nd w e re o n ly n o ted o n t wo t oo l s ( 46 4 , 27 -17 ) . S ing le s t r ia t ion s o r ien ted a t r i gh t a ng le s t o t he e dge a re p re sen t o n b o th t oo l s , wh ich a re among t he mo s th eav i ly u sed . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : S t r ia t ion s a re v ery r a re a nd a re g ene ra l ly o n ly v i s ib le a th igh t o v ery h igh magn i f ica t ion s o n t oo l 2 7 -17 ( F igu re 8 3 ) . T he u sua l l e ng th i s a round 1 5 pm , a nd t hey a re o r ien ted a t o r n ea r r i gh t a ng le s t o t he e dge . One v e ry l a rge g ouge l ike s t r ia t ion i sv i s ib le w i thou t magn i f ica t ion a nd mea su re s 2 mm i n l eng th a nd u p t o 7 0 pm w ide ( F igu re s 8 0 -82 ) . I tb eg in s i n t h e h igh ly p o l i shed a rea a nd a rc s o n to t he u npo l i shed s u r face . C ompa r i son s : T he re a re f ew o the r e xper imen t s i n vo lv ing h ide s c rap ing t o c ompa re w ea r p a t te rn s w i th . K amm inga ( 1978 : 4 92 , 5 05 ) u sed a l te red a nd a nde s i t ic b a sa l t t oo l s f o r d ef le sh ing f r e sh k anga roo h ide a nd s c rap ing d ry k anga roo h ide , w i th s and a dded i n af ew c a se s . T he t oo l e dge s w ere s moo thed a nd r ounded , o ne h ad p o l i sh , a nd s eve ra l h ad m ic rof lake s a nd s t r ia t ion s . T he w ea r d e sc r ibed b y K amm inga i s s im i la r i n g ene ra l c ha rac ter i s t ic s t o t ha t o b served h e re f o rh ide d ef le sh ing a nd i ns ec t ion 7 . 3 .1 f o rh ide d eha ir ing .

7 .3 .3 Hide Def lesh ing ( S l ic ing )

Two v i t reou sb a sa l tt oo l s ( Too l s8 0 -7 ,80 -8 ; F igu re 1 29c ,d )w e re u sed t oc u tf a t f r om f r e sh mu le d ee r h ide w h ich w a s l a id o u t o n t h e c e men t f l oor o f ag arage . T he e xpe r imen t s w e re a n a t temp t t o r emove a dhe r ing f l e sh b y s l ic ing , a s s c rap ing w i th r e touched , u nha f ted t oo l s h ad p roved i n e f fec t ive . S l ic ing d i d n o t w o rk much b e t ter a nd t he t oo l s w e re o n ly u sed f o r 3 0 s econd s a nd 1m inu te r e spec t ive ly . M ic rof lake S ca r s : Ha l f o f t he m ic rof lake s ca r s p re sen t a re h inge te rm ina ted ( 50 .0 % ) , a nd a s ub s tan t ia l p ropo r t ion a re s nap term ina ted ( 27 .8 % ) . L ow p e rcen tage s o f f ea the r - ( 16 .2 % ) a nd s t ep te rm ina ted s ca r s ( 5 .9 % ) a r e a l so p re sen t . A lmo s t a l l o f t he s ca r s a re s ma l l ( 98 .5 % ) . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l s ca r 7 4

r a t io i s. 8 :1 , a l though t h e i nd iv idua l t oo l r a t io s v a ry c on s ide rab ly . T he mean n umbe r o f f l ake s p e r t oo l i s3 4 . F lake s ca r s a re ma in ly s ca t tered s i ng ly o r i n s ma l lg roup s , o cca s iona l ly b e ing i no ve r lapp ing a nd s uperpo sed c on f igu ra t ion s . Edg eR ound ing : Ab sen t . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sd u l l , a nd g ra iny tex tu red i n a ppea rance . e dge s , where i to ccu r si nl ong , d i scon t inuou sp a tche s .

I ti sr e s t r ic ted t o t he

S t r ia t ions : Ab sen t .

7 .3 .4 D ry H ide S aw ing

Two v i t reou sb a sa l tt oo l s ( Too l s 1 2 -17 ,134 -9 ;F igu re 1 28c ,d )w ere u sed t os aw t h rough d ry , s t i f ff a l low d eer h ide ( 13 d ay s o ld ) wh ich h ad b een b o th d eha ired a nd d ef leshed . T oo l sw e re u sed f o r 4t o 1 8m inu te s ( 400 -1200 s t roke s ) . Med ium t o e x t re me ly h eavy p re s su re h ad t o b e a pp l ied t o s aw t h rough t he h ide , a nd t he t oo l sw ere n o t icab ly d u l led d u r ing u se . M i c rof lake S ca r s : A lmo s t h a l f o f t he m ic rof lake s ca r s a re s t ep te rm ina ted ( 47 .0 % ) , a l though -f ea the rt e rm ina ted s ca r s a re a l so c ommon ( 36 .8 % ) . S ca r s a re ma in ly ( 83 .1 % ) s ma l l i ns i ze . T he mean v en t ra l t o d o r sa lf l ake s ca r r a t io i s. 7 :1 . S ca r sa re p r ima r i ly c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing ,w i th s ma l l s ca r ss uperpo sed o ve r l a rge ro ne s . Edg eR ound ing : E dge sa r e s l igh t ly r ounded ( F igu re 8 4 ) . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sp re sen to n t he e dge a nd b o th a spec t so ft he t wo t oo l s . I ti sd u l l a nd r ough t e x tu red , w i th a g ra iny a ppea rance ( F igure s 4 4 ,45 ) . T he p o l i sh i s c on t inuou s a l ong t he e n t i re u sed p o r t ion o f t he t oo l e dge s a nd i sg ene ra l ly r e s t r ic ted t os ma l lp a tche so nh igh p o in t s o ft he e dge -a spec t sn ea rt he e dge . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : P o l i sh o nt oo l 1 34 -9 i sr e s t r ic ted t ot he e dge a nd a long s ca rr i dge s a nd t he b ack s o f s t ep s c a r s o n b o th a spec t s i n c l o se p r ox im i t y t o t he e dge ( F igu re s 8 4 ,85 ) . Howeve r , w eak ly d eve loped p o l i sh , wh ich a pppea r s a s s moo th ing o ft he t oo l s u r face , e x tend s much f a r the rb ack f r om t he e dge . H igh ly d eve loped p o l i sh e x tend s amax imum o f5 0 pm f r om t he e dge a nd u sua l ly much l e s s , w h i le t he s moo th ing e x tend s a s much a s 1 50 pm f r om t he e dge . T he p o l i shed s ur face i ss moo th a nd u np i t ted , b u t i np lace s t end s t owa rd s t he " p la tey ' t t e x tu re o b served o nh ide s c rap ing t oo l s . Un l ike t he " p la tey " p o l i sh o n d ef le sh ing a nd d eha i r ing t oo l s , t h i sp o l i sh i so n ly v i s ib le a tv e ry h igh magn i f ica t ion s ( F igure 8 6 ) . S t r ia t ion s : S t r ia t ion s a r e n o t o b servab le w i th t he a id o f a n i n c iden t l i gh t m ic ro scope o ne i ther o ft h et oo l s .

7 5

S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : S t r ia t ion s a ppea rt ob e c ommon o np o l i shed a rea s o ft oo l 1 34 9 ,a nd a re o r ien ted p a ra l le lo ro b l ique t ot he t oo le dge ( F igu re s8 5 ,86 ) . T hey a re n a r row a nd s ha l low a nd v a ry i nl eng th f r om 2j im t o1 2 pm . C ompa r i son s : S chu t t ( 1982 : Append i x 2 ) u sed o ne b a sa l t t oo l f o r s aw ing c omme rc ia l ly t anned s uede . No p o l i sh wa s o b se rved , b u t e dge r ound ing wa s p re sen t a s w e l l a s b i fac ia l s nap term ina ted s ca r s . K a rnm inga ( 1978 :524 -525 ) u sed a l te red a nd a nde s i t ic b a sa l t t oo l s f o r c u t t ing k anga roo h ide a nd o b se rved e dge r ound ing , b lun t ing , s nap s ca r s a nd o the r m ic rof lake s ca r s o n t hem . A l though S chu t t a nd Kamm inga d id n o t o b serve p o l i sh o r s t r ia t ion s , t he w ea r t hey d id o b serve i sb road ly s im i la rt ot ha to nt he h ide s aw ing t oo l s s tud ied h e re .

7 . 4 B one ( N= 1 0 ) 7 . 4 .1 Un soaked B one S aw ing F ou r v i t reou s a nd n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 2 1 -6 , 2 6 -8 ,26 -9 ,46 -2 ; F igure s 1 23b , 1 24b ,d , 1 25f ) w e re u sed t o s aw f r e sh , u n soaked f a l low d ee r b one f o r 1½ t o 4m inu te s ( 200 -400 s t roke s ) . T he t oo l sw e re h e ld a ta pprox ima te r i gh t a ng le s t o t he s u r face o f al ong b one a nd w e re v i go rou s ly d rawn b ack a nd f o r th wh i le a t temp t ing t os aw t h rough t he s haf t . A f te r 4m inu te so fs aw ing w i th h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re o n ly a n a r row , s ha l low g roove w a s s awn i n to t he b one . T oo l e dge sw ere ma s s ive ly d amaged a f te rv ery l i t t le u se . M ic rof lake S ca r s : T he re a re mode ra te ly h igh p e rcen tage s o fh inge ( 38 .8 % ) a nd s t ep ( 35 .9 % ) s ca r s , wh i le f ea the r s ca r s a re r e la t ive ly r a re ( 12 .0 % ) ( F igu re 8 0 ) . S nap te rm ina ted s ca r s a re u ncommon ( 13 .4 % ) ,b u t a re s i gn i f ican t wea rf e a ture s d ue t ot he ir l a rge o rv e ry l a rge s i ze wh ich l end s t he e dge s as e r ra ted a ppea rance . Mo s t s ca r s ( 69 .4 % ) a re s ma l l i n s i ze . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l s ca r r a t io i s1 . 9 :1 , a nd t he mean n umbe r o f s ca r s p e r t oo l i s 5 2 .3 . S ca r s a re c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing , a l though t he re a re a rea s l a ck ing s ca r sd ue t o t he a l terna t ing n a ture o ft he u se re touch . Edge R ound ing : T he e dge sa re b lun ted t ov e ry s l igh t ly r ounded i np lace s . P o l i sh : B r igh t , s moo th tex tu red a nd p i t ted p o l i sh i s r a re a nd r e s t r ic ted t o s ca t te red h igh p o in t s o n t he e dge a nd e dge -a spec t s ( F igu re s 4 1 -44 ) . B r igh t , g ra iny tex tu red p o l i sh i s much mo re c ommon , a nd d u l l , g ra iny p o l i sh i sa l so p re sen t . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 46 -2 ) . S t r ia t ion s : P o s s ib le s t r ia t ion s o r ien ted a to b l ique a ng le s t ot he e dge o ft oo l 4 6 -2 w e re o b served a th igh magn i f ica t ion s ( F igu re 4 4 ) . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 46 -2 ) .

7 6

C ompa r i son s : K amm inga ( 1 978 ) s awed b one w i th a l tered , a nde s i t ic a nd o l iv ine b a sa l t t oo l s . T he mo s t p rom inen t w ea r c on s i s ted o f l a rge s nap s c a r s , w i th s ma l le r s ca r s w i th in t h em ; e dge r ound ing , b lun t ing a nd s moo th ing w ere a l so p re sen t ( Kamm inga 1 978 :151 -156 ,544 -545 ) . Mon tgomery ( 1978 :274 ) s awed f r e sh c ow b one w i th o ne g l a s sy b a sa l t t oo l ,w h ich r e su l ted i n aj agged e dge w i th b i fac ia l m ic rof lake s c a r r ing . S chu t t ( 1982 :Append ix 2 ) s awed f r e sh b one w i th t wo b a sa l t t oo l s a nd o b served e dge r ound ing , a s w e l l a s b i fac ia l s ca r r ing p r ima r i ly c on s i s t ing o ff e a the r s ca r s , w i th s ome s t ep a nd s nap s ca r s . T he w ea r p roduced i na l l t h ree o ft h e se b one s aw ing e xpe r imen t s i s mo re o rl e s s s im i la r t o t he w ea r d e sc r ibed i nt h ep re sen t s t udy , w i th t ha td e sc r ibed b yK amm inga b e ing mo s t s im i la r . None o f t he se r e sea rche r s r epo r ted p o l i sh , w h ich t he p re sen t e xpe r imen t s i nd ica te i so n ly v i s ib le a t magn i f ica t ion s o f 2 00 -300 xw i th a l i gh t m ic ro scope .

7 .4 .2 S oaked Bone S aw ing

Two b a sa l tt oo l s ( Too l s 1 -6 ,18 -19 ; F igu re 1 24a ,f ) , o ne v i t reou s a nd o ne n on v i t reou s , w ere u sed t os aw s oaked f a l low d ee r b one f o r a pp rox ima te ly 1m inu te e ach ( 200 s t roke s ) . T he t oo l s w e re u sed w i th h eavy a pp l ied p re s sure w h i le a t temp t ing t o s aw t h rough a l ong b one s ha f t , b u t b o th t oo l s b ecame t o ta l ly d u l led d ur ing u se . S oak ing i n w a te r f o r 1 3 d ay s d id n o t make t he b one a ny e a s ie rt o work t han f r e sh ,u n soaked b one . M i c rof lake S ca r s : Mo s tm ic rof lake s c a r s ( 59 .3 % ) a re s t ep term ina ted , a l though a s i gn i f ican t p e rcen tage ( 2 3 .1 % ) a re f ea the r te rm ina ted ( F igu re 8 1 ) . T h ree q ua r te r s ( 75 .0 % ) o ft he s c a r s a re s ma l l . V ery l a rge s nap s c a r s a re n o t n ume rou s b u ta r ev ery p rom inen to nt he e dge ,g i v ing i tas e r ra ted a ppea rance . T he v en t ra l t od o r sa l f l ake s ca r r a t io i s1 : 1 a nd t he a verage n umbe r o ff l ake s p er t oo l i s4 6 . M ic rof lake s ca r s a re c on t iguou s a nd o ver lapp ing , a l though s ome a rea s a re d evo id o fs ca r s , d ue t ot h ea l te rna t ing n a tu re o ft he r e touch . E dg eR ound ing : E dge sa r eb lun ted a nd v ery s l igh t ly r ounded i np lace s . P o l i sh : On t oo l 1 8 -19 t h e p o l i sh i sd u l l a nd r ough t e x tu red , s im i la r t op o l i sh o n h ide sc rap ing t oo l s , b u ts l igh t ly b r igh te r . T he p o l i sh o nt oo l 1 -6 h a s t i ny b r igh t t ov e ry b r igh t s moo th s po t s s u r rounded b y g ra iny , d u l l p o l i sh s im i la r t o t ha t o n 1 8 -19 . P o l i sh o n b o th t oo l s i sr a re a nd s ca t te red , b e ing ma in ly f ound o n t he e dge s ,b u t o cca s iona l ly e x tend ing s l igh t ly o n to e i the ra spec t . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 1 8 -19 ) . S t r ia t ions : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ions ( SE M ) : P o s s ib le s t r ia t ion s a re v i s ib le a to ne l o cu s o n t oo l 8 0 -19 w i th v e ry h i gh magn i f ica t ion s ( above 3 000 x ) . T hey a re o r ien ted p a ra l le l o r o b l ique t o t h e e dge . Mo s t o f t h e o b served s t r ia t ion s a re a bou t 8pm l ong , w i th t he l a rge s t mea su r ing 1 2 pm . 7 7

7 .4 .3 U nsoak ed B one S c rap ing

As i ng le v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l ( Too l 2 2 -20 ; F igu re 1 23a ) w a su sed t os c rape a n u n soaked , f r e sh f a l low d ee r l ong b one . T he b one w a s s c raped f o r a bou t 2 m inu te s ( 70 s t roke s ) w i th h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re , w h ich h ad l i t t le e f fec t o n t he b one wh i le r e su l t ing i np ronounced d u l l ing o ft he t oo l . M ic rof lake S ca r s : A s w i th s aw ing f r e sh , u n soaked b one t he re i s n o c l ea r ly d om inan t m ic ro f lake t e rm ina t ion t ype , a l though h inge s ca r s a re a l so t he mo s t c ommon t ype ( 37 .8 % ) . B o th s t ep - ( 32 .7 % ) a nd f ea ther te rm ina ted ( 28 .6 % ) s ca r s a re s t rong ly r ep re sen ted . A lmo s t a l l o ft he s ca r s ( 92 .9 % ) a re s ma l l i ns i ze . T he v en t ra lt od or sa ls ca rr a t io i s1 . 3 :1 wh ich i su nu sua l ly h igh f o rs c rap ing a nd i s e n t i re ly d ue t o t he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t l ead ing a nd t he v en t ra l a spec t t r a i l ing d u r ing u se , a sn ece s s i ta ted b yt he morpho logy o ft he t oo l . T he re a re 9 8 s c ar s o n t h i st oo l , a nd t he se a re c on t iguou s , o ve r lapp ing a nd s uperpo sed .

E d g e Round ing : T he e dge i ss l igh t ly r ounded i np lace s . P o l i sh : T he s ca t te red p o l i shed l o c i c on s i s to fs ma l l ,b r igh tt ov e ry b r igh t , s moo th c o re a rea s s u r rounded b y d u l le r , g ra iny p o l i sh . O f ten , t he d u l l , g ra iny p o l i sh o ccu r s w i thou t t he b r igh t p o l i sh . T he s moo th , b r igh t p o l i sh i s ma in ly f ound o n h igh p o in t s o r p ro jec t ing p a r t s o f t he t oo l , p r ima r i ly o n t he e dge , b u t a l so o n b o th a spec t sn ea rt he e dge . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . C o m pa r i son s : Mon tgome ry ( 1978 :273 , F igu re 6 7 ) s c raped f r e sh b one w i th t oo l s h av ing l ow a nd h igh s p ine -p lane a ng le s . S he o b served u n i fac ia l ( dor sa l ) , s ma l l , o ve r lapp ing s ca r s o n t he l ow -ang led t oo l . S ca r s w e re mo re r a re a nd s ma l ler o n t he s t eep -edged t oo l , w i th a f ew o n t he v en t ra l e dge a spec t . S chu t t ( 1982 :Appendi x 2 ) s c raped f r e sh b one w i th a n u nre touched b a sa l t t oo l . M ic ro sca r r ing w a s b i fac ia l , a l though t he ma jo r i ty o f s ca r s w ere p re sen t o n t he v en t ra l a spec t . Mo s t w e re s t ep t e rm ina ted a nd b i f ac ia l e dge r ound ing w a s a l so p re sen t . T he w ea r o b served b y S chu t t i s mo s t s im i la r t o t he w ea r p roduced i n t he p re sen t s e r ie s o f e xper imen t s , e spec ia l ly w i th t h e ma jo r i ty o f s ca r s b e ing r emoved f r om t he l e ad ing ( ven t ra l ) e dge o ft he s c rap ing t oo l s . Ne i the r S chu t t n o r Mon tgomery o b served p o l i sh , mo s tl i ke ly d ue t ot he l ow magn if ica t ion s t hey emp loyed .

7 . 4 .4 S oaked B one S c rap ing

One v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l ( Too l 1 7 -13 ; F ig ure 1 24e ) w a s u sed f o r s c rap ing f a l low d ee r b one w h ich h ad s oaked i nw a te r f o r 1 3 d ay s . T he t oo l wa s u sed f o r a bou t 11 /2 m inu te s ( 100 s t roke s ) a nd w a sf ound t ob eu se fu lf o rr e mov ing t i s sue r ema in ing o n t he b one a nd s moo th ing t he s u r face s l igh t ly , b u t i t wa s v i r tua l ly

7 8

u se le s sf or s ub s tan t ia l ly t h inn ing t he b one . S oak ing d oe s n o t s eem t oh ave made t he b one e a s ie rt o wo rk . M i c ro / lake S ca r s : T he p redom inan t m ic ro f lake s ca r t y pe ( 83 .6 % ) i s s t epped ( F igu re s 8 3 ,84 ) a nd mo s t s ca r s ( 73 .8 % ) a re s ma l l i n s i ze . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l s ca rr a t io i s. 0 7 :1 a nd t he re a re 6 1 s ca r s o n t he t oo l . On t he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t t he f ew s ca r sp re sen t a re o ve r lapp ing a nd c l u s te red i no ne g roup . On t he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t s ca r s a re c on t iguou s , o ve r lapp ing a nd o f ten s uperpo sed ( F igu re s 8 3 ,84 ) . Ed g eR ound ing : Ab sen t . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sn ea r ly c on t inuou s a long t he e dge b u t i sr e s t r ic ted t o s ca t te red , s ma l l p a tche s o n t he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t a nd i sa b sen t f r om t he v en t ra l e dge a spec t . The p o l i sh i sg ra iny tex tu red , a nd d u l l w i th o cca s iona l b r igh t , s moo th s po t s ( F igu re s 4 5 -46 ) . One l a rge r ,b r igh t , s moo th a rea w a sp re sen to nt he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t( F igu re 4 7 ) . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : S ome s moo th ing i s v i s ib le n ea r t he magn if ica t ion s ,b u tn oa c tua lp o l i sh i sd i sce rnab le .

e dge

a t v e ry h igh

S t r ia t ions : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ions ( SE M ) : Ab sen t .

7 . 4 .5 Wh i t t l ing B one

One v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l ( Too l 6 3 -1 ; F igure 1 24c ) w a s u sed i na n a t temp t t o t h in af r e sh , u n soaked f a l low d ee rl ong b one b yw h i t t l ing . T he t oo lw a s u sed f o r 1m inu te ( 60 s t roke s ) a nd p roved t o b e t o ta l ly u se le s s f o r a ccomp l i sh ing t he i n tended t a sk . Mi c ro/ lake S ca r s : M ic ro f lake s ca r sa re p redom inan t ly ( 67 .7 % ) h inge term ina ted , w i th much l owe r p e rcen tage s ( 16 .2 % ) o f s t ep , f ea the r ( 8 .8 % ) a nd s nap ( 7 .4 % ) s ca r s . Mo s t s ca r s a re s ma l l i ns i ze ( 83 .8 % ) , a nd t he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l s ca r r a t io i s .4 :1 . The 6 8 s ca r s o n t h i s t oo l a re s ca t te red s i ng ly o r i n s ma l l o ve r lapp ing g roup so n t he v en t ra l a spec ta nd a re c on t iguou s , o ve r lapp ing a nd s uperpo sed o n t he d o r sa l e dge a spec t . Edg eR ound ing : T he e dge i sb lun ted w i th s l igh tr ound ing i np lace s . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sp re sen t o n t he e dge a nd t he d or sa l e dge -a spec t . d u l la nd g ra iny ,w i th t he o cca s iona lb r igh t , s moo th s po t .

I ti s ma in ly

S t r ia t ions : Ab sen t . C ompa r i son s : On ly o ne o the r r e sea rche r h a s a t temp ted t o w h i t t le b one w i th a b a sa l tt oo l . S chu t t ( 1982 :Append i x2 )w h i t t led f r e sh b one a nd o b se rved u n ifac ia l 7 9

e dge r ound ing a s w e l l a s b i fac ia l m ic ro sca r r ing c on s i s t ing o f s t ep a nd f ea the r s ca r s . T he w ea r o nt he t oo lu sed i nt he p re sen t e xpe r imen t d i f fer s i nt ha t h inge s ca r s a re p redom inan t , t here a re many more s ca r s , a nd p o l i sh i sp resen t .

7 . 4 .6 G rav ing B one

One v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l ( Too l 1 38 -19 ; F igu re 1 25e ) wa s u sed t o e ng rave a f a l low d ee r l ongbone . T he t oo l h ad a s pu r red t i p w h ich r ap id ly b roke d own d u r ing u se , a l though i ts t ab i l ized a nd f i na l ly d u l led t o n ea r u se le s sne s s a f ter 1 2 m inu te s o f g rav ing ( 600 s t roke s ) . Deep , p a ra l le l g roove s w ere s ucce s sfu l ly e ng raved a si nt he " g roove a nd s p l in te r "t e chn ique . Edge R ound ing : E dge sa nd r i dge sn ea rt he t i pa re w e l lr ounded . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sc on t inuou s a nd c oncen t ra ted n ea r t he t i p . I ti sv e ry b r igh t , s moo th -p i t ted a nd l end s t he s u r face a me ta l l ic a ppea rance ( F igure 4 8 ) . I n o ne a rea n ume rou s , s ha l low , c ome t shaped p i t s a re p re sen t . T he se p a ra l le l t he d i rec t ion o ft oo l mo t ion . A l so p re sen ti sg ra iny tex tu red , d u l lt ob r igh t ,p o l i sh . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t .

7 .5 An t ler (N= 1 7 )

7 . 5 .1 Saw ing Unsoaked An t ler F re sh f a l low d ee r ( 6 w eek s o ld ) a nd o ld mu le d eer a n t le r ( 4y ea r s o ld ) a re g rouped t oge the r h e re s i nce t he re d oe s n o ts eem t ob e s i gn i f ican t d i f f e rence s i n t he w ea r p a t tern s o n v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s p roduced b y wo rk ing e i the r o f t he se ma te r ia l s . T h ree v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 4 3 -3 ,134 -22 ,141 -7 ; F igu re 1 25a , 1 26d , 1 28b ) w e re u sed f o r . 5t o 2m inu te s ( 200 -400 s t roke s ) w i th s aw ing a c t ion s a c ro s st he a n t le rb eam sw i th t he i n ten t o fc u t t ing t h rough t hem . A l though h eavy p re s su re w a s a pp l ied , t he t oo l s w e re r e la t ive ly i ne f f ec t ive a t s aw ing a n t le r , a nd managed o n ly t oc u ts ha l low , n a r row g roove s wh i le r ap id ly b ecom ing d u l led . M ic rof lake S ca r s : S tep term ina ted s ca r s a re mo s t c ommon ( 47 .8 % ) ( F igure s 8 5 ,86 ) , a l though f ea the r te rm ina ted s ca r s a re a l so a bundan t ( 3 9 .1 % ) . C on s ide rab ly mo re t han h a l f ( 63 .9 % ) o ft he s ca r s a re s ma l l i ns i ze a nd t h e r a t io o fv en t ra l t o d o r sa l m ic ro f lake s ca r s i s1 . 4 :1 . T he m ean n umber o f m ic rof lake s ca r s p e r t oo l i s8 4 . M ic ro f lake s ca r s a re g ene ra l ly c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing w i th s ma l le rs ca r so f ten s uperpo sed o ver l a rge ro ne s( F igure s8 5 ,86 ) . E dge R ound ing : Ab sen t . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i s ma in ly p re sen t a long t he t oo l e dge s , a nd e x tend s s l igh t ly o n to b o th e dge -a spec t s . Sma l l p a tche s o fb r igh t , b u t g ra iny tex tured p o l i sh i sl o ca ted 8 0

o n t he h ighe s t p a r t s o f t h e m ic ro topog raphy . e x ten s ive d u l l , g ra iny tex tu red p o l i sh .

I ti su sua l ly s u r rounded b y mo re

P o l i sh ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 1 34 -22 ) . S t r ia t ions : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ions ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 134 -22 ) . C ompa r i son s : Mon tgome ry ( 1978 :F ig . 6 6 )u sed o ne g la s sy b a sa l t t oo lt o s aw d ry d ee r a n t ler , w h ich r e su l ted i nw ea r c on s i s t ing o f " . .ove r lapp ing b road , c re scen t s haped s ca r s " (Mon tgome ry 1 978 :274 ) . I n a dd i t ion , s he a l so o b served t ha t w o rk ing a n t le r i n g ene ra l p roduced " edge c ru sh ing a nd r ound ing " , wh i le s aw ing a n t le r g ene ra l ly p roduced " a j agged o r ' s ca l loped ' e dge c on s i s t ing o f w ide s ha l low s ca r so nb o th f a ce s " (Mon tgome ry 1 978 :274 -275 ) . T he w ea r o b served b y Mon tgo mery i ss im i la r t o t he w ea r o b se rved i n t he p re sen t s t udy , a nd a l though e dge r ound ing wa s n o t o b served o n s aw ing t oo l s u sed o n d ry a n t le r , i tw a s p re sen to nt oo l su sed t os aw s oaked a n t ler .

7 . 5 .2 S aw ing S oak ed An t le r F ive v i t reou s ( F igu re s 1 27a -c , 1 28a ,c ) a nd t wo n on -v i t reou s ( F igu re s 1 26b , 1 270 b a sa l t t oo l s w e re u sed t o s aw s oaked a n t le r ( Too l s 1 -2 ,11 -12 ,17 -11 ,27 3 , 36 -7 ,18 -17 ,141 -12 ) . F ou ry ea ro ld mu le d ee ra n t le ra nd f r e sh f a l low d eer a n t le r w e re worked a f ter b e ing s oaked i nw a te rf o r 9t o 1 3 d ay s . T oo l sw e re u sed w i th as aw ing mo t ion wh i le a t temp t ing t oc u tt h rough a n t le rb eam sf o r 1t o 2m inu te s ( 200 -400 s t roke s ) , w i th h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re . Na r row , s ha l low g roove s r e su l ted f rom t he s aw ing , b u t t he t oo l e dge s w ere v i r tua l ly d e s t royed . S oak ing d e f in i te ly s o f tened t he a n t le r , e spec ia l ly t he f r e sh a n t ler . A l so n o tewor thy i st he f a c tt ha t a n t le ri sn o t icab ly s o f te r a f te r 1 3 d ay s o fs oak ing t han a f ter o n ly 9 d ay s o fs oak ing . M i c rof lake S ca r s : No o ne t ype o fm ic rof lake t e rm ina t ion p redom ina te s , a l though f ea the r s ca r s a re t he mo s tc ommon ( 32 .4 % ) . S tep te rm ina ted s ca r s a re t he n ex t mo s t c ommon t ype ( 27 .7 % ) , f o l lowed b y s nap ( 22 .8 % ) a nd h inge ( 17 .2 % ) s ca r s . T he ma in d i f fe rence b e tween wo rk ing s oaked o ld a n t le r a nd s oaked f r e sh a n t le r i si n t he mean n umbe r o f m ic ro f lake s p e r t oo l , a nd e ven t h i s i ss l igh t . Mo s t f l ake s ( 74 .8 % ) a re s ma l l i ns i ze , b u td eep , a nd a s ub s tan t ia lp e rcen tage ( 15 .4 % ) a re med ium s ized . A l though r e la t ive ly r a re , t he l a rge t ov e ry l a rge s nap s ca r s o n e a ch t oo l d om ina te t he e dge ( F igu re 8 7 ) a nd i n s eve ra l c a se s s ma l ler s ca r s a re f ound w i th in t hem . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l f l ake r a t io i s 1 . 2 :1 . F lake s a re p r ima r i ly c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing w i th s ma l l s ca r s s uperpo sed o ver l a rge r o ne s . Edg e Round ing : r ound ing .

T he e dge s a re mode ra te ly r ounded o r b lun ted w i th s l igh t

8 1

P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sn ea r ly c on t inuou s o nt he t oo l e dge s , b u t i sc oncen t ra ted o nt he h igh p o in t s o fb o th e dge -a spec t s . I ti sg ra iny tex tu red a nd d u l lt ob r igh t . I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o c l ea r ly d i s t ingu i sh p o l i sh o n t he t wo n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( 11 2 , 11 -12 ) . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 17 -11 ) . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ions ( SE M ) : Ab sen t ( 17 -11 ) .

7 .5 .3

S c rap ing U n soak ed An t l e r

D ry , u n soaked f ou ry ea ro ld mu le d ee r a nd s i xw eek o ld f a l low d ee r a n t ler s w e re s c raped b y v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 2 2 -11 ,138 -13 ; F igu re s 1 25b , 1 26a ) w i th h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re f o r a bou t 1m inu te ( 100 -115 s t rokes ) . S c rap ing a ccomp l i shed as moo th ing o ft he a n t ler s u r face , b u ts ub s tan t ia l t h inn ing w a s n o t p o s s ib le . B o th t oo l sw ere s eve re ly d u l led b y8 0t o 1 00 s t roke s . M ic rof lake S ca r s : Mo s t m ic rof lake s ca r s ( 69 .3 % ) a re s t ep term ina ted ( F igure 8 8 ) . Over h a l f o f t he s ca r s ( 53 .3 % ) a re s ma l l , b u t as ub s tan t ia l p e rcen tage ( 20 .4 % ) a re med ium s ized o rl a rge ( 16 .8 % ) . T he mean n umbe ro fs ca r sp er t oo l i s6 8 .5 a nd t he r a t io o f v en t ra l t o d o r sa l m ic rof lake s ca r s i s. 2 :1 . S ca r s a re s ca t te red t o a b sen t o nv en t ra l ( l ead ing ) e dge a spec t s , w h i le t hey a re c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing w i th s uperpo s i t ion o f s ma l l s ca r s w i th in l a rge r o ne s o n d o r sa l ( t ra i l ing ) a spec t s ( F igure 8 8 ) . Edge R ound ing : T he re i ss l igh te dge r ound ing . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sb r igh t a nd g ra iny tex tu red . I ti sp re sen tp r ima r i ly o nt he e dge s a nd d o r sa la spec t s , e spec ia l ly a l ong t he b ack o fs t ep s c a r s . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 138 -13 ) . S t r ia t ions : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 138 -13 ) . C ompa r i son s : Mon tgome ry ( 1978 :F igu re s 6 5 ,66 ) u sed t h ree t oo l s t o s c rape d ry d ee r a n t le r . S he o b se rved e dge c ru sh ing , r ound ing a nd l a rge o ver lapp ing f l ake s ca r s ( ma in ly o n t he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t ) (Mon tgome ry 1 978 :273 ) . W i th t he e xcep t ion o fp o l i sh , t h i sw ea ri ss im i la rt ot ha to b served o nu n soaked a nd s oaked a n t le rs c rape r si nt he p re sen ts t udy .

8 2

7 . 5 .4 S c rap ing S oaked An t le r T h ree v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 1 41 -14 ,161 -18 ,161 -19 ; F igu re 1 25d , 1 26c , 1 27e ) w ere u sed t o s c rape f ou ry ea r o ld mu le d eer a n t ler a nd f r e sh f a l low d ee r a n t le r wh ich h ad s oaked i nw a te r f o r n ine d ay s p r io r t ot he e xper imen t s . T oo l s w e re d rawn t owa rd s t he e xper imen ter w i th as c rap ing mo t ion f o r 1t o 2m inu te s ( 100 -200 s t roke s )w i th h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re . T hey w e re e f fec t ive a ts moo th ing t he a n t ler a nd s l igh t ly t h inn ing i t ,b u tw e re n o ts u i ted f o rs i gn if ican ta l tera t ion s . Mi c ro / lake S ca r s : T he mo s t c ommon ( 45 .8 % ) f l ake t e rm ina t ion t y pe p re sen t i s t he s t ep s ca r , a l though h inge ( 30 .8 % ) a nd f ea the r s ca r s ( 22 .1 % ) a re a l so w e l l r ep re sen ted ( F igure 8 9 ) . T hree -qua r ter s ( 74 .6 % ) o f t he m ic rof lake s ca r s a re s ma l l i n s i ze . T he mean n umbe r o f s ca r s p e r t oo l i s9 9 .7 a nd t he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l m ic rof lake r a t io i s. 4 :1 . On t he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t , s ca r s a re ma in ly s ca t te red , a l though t hey a l so o ccu ri ns ma l lg roup s o fo ver lapp ing s ca r s . On t he d o r sa l e dge a spec t , m i c rof lake s ca r s a re c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing , w i th s ma l le rs ca r so f ten f ound w i th in l a rge ro ne s ( F igure 8 9 ) . Edg eR ound ing : T he e dge sa re o cca s iona l ly s l igh t ly r ounded . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sp re sen to n a l l t h ree t oo l s , e spec ia l ly o nt he e dge a nd t he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t . I ti se i ther b r igh ta nd g ra iny tex tu red o rd u l la nd g ra iny . P a tche so f b r igh t p o l i sh t end t o b e , l o ca ted o n h igh p a r t s o f t he m ic ro topog raphy . T he b r igh tp o l i sh i sn ea r ly c on t inuou sa l ong t he e dge . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 161 -19 ) . S t r ia t ions : S ho r t , n a r row s t r ia t ion sa re p re sen ti nt he p o l i sh o nt wo t oo l s ( 161 -18 , 1 61 -19 ) . T he se a re n o t c ommon , b e ing p re sen t a t s i ng le l oc i o n o r n ear t he e dge so fb o th t oo l s . A l l s t r ia t ion s a re o r ien ted a to rn ea r 9 0d eg ree s t o t he t oo l e dge . S t r ia t ions ( SE M ) : Ab sen t( 161 -19 ) .

7 .5 .5

B o r ing S oaked An t le r

As i ng le v i t reou sb a sa l t t oo l ( Too l 1 34 -6 ; F igure 1 32c ) w i th ap ro jec t ing s pu r wa s u sed t o b o re i n to n ine mon th o ld f a l low d ee r a n t le r wh ich h ad s oaked i n wa te r f o r 2 0 d ay s . B or ing w a s u nder taken w i th h eavy p re s su re a pp l ied t o t he t oo l , w h ich w a s h e ld a t a pp rox ima te ly 9 0d eg ree s t o t he a n t ler s u r face d u r ing u se . I t wa s emp loyed f o r 1 5 m inu te s ( 1000 s t roke s ) , b or ing a s ub s tan t ia l h o le i n to t he a n t le r . Twen t y d ay s o f s oak ing h ad s o f tened t he a n t le r s i gn if ican t ly mo re t han s oak ing f o r 1 3d ay s . Mi c ro/ lake S ca r s : S tep te rm ina ted s ca r sa re t he mo s tc ommon ( 45 .1 % ) s ca rt y pe , b u ts ub s tan t ia l p e rcen tage s o ff ea ther ( 31 .4 % ) a nd h inge ( 19 .6 % ) s ca r s a re a l so p re sen t . T he ma jo r i ty o f t he 5 1 s ca r s o n t h i s t oo l a re s ma l l ( 76 .5 % ) a nd 8 3

c oncen t ra ted i n g roup s o f o ve r lapp ing s ca r s , w i th s ma l ler o ne s s uperpo sed o n l a rger s ca r s . T he re a re a l so o cca s iona li s o la ted s i ng le s ca r s . Edg eR ound ing : T he t i pa nd r i dge sn ea ri ta re e x ten s ive ly r ounded . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i se x ten s ive n ea r t he t i p o f t h i s t oo l a nd e x tend s ac on s iderab le d i s tance u p r i dge s a way f r om t he t i p . Much o ft he p o l i sh i sg ra iny tex tu red , b u t v e ry b r igh t , a l though s o me d u l lp o l i sh i sa l so p re sen t( F igu re 5 4 ) . Smoo th -p i t ted p o l i sh i sp re sen to n af ew h igh p o in t s ( F igu re s5 4 ,56 ) . T he re i s al i nea rt r end ing i n t he p o l i sh , c on s i s t ing o f b road , s ha l low g roove s w h ich r un a t o r n ea r r i gh t a ng le st ot he l ong a x i s o ft he t i p ( F igu re s5 4 ,55 ) . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t .

7 . 5 .6 G rav ing S oaked An t l e r As i ng le v i t reou sb a sa l tt oo lw i th ap ro jec t ing s pu r ( Too l 1 41 -20 ; F igu re 1 34d ) w a s u sed f o r e ng rav ing n ine mon th o ld f a l low d ee r a n t ler wh ich h ad s oaked i n w a ter f o r 2 0 d ay s . T he t oo lw a s u sed t o s co re t wo p a ra l le lg roove s i n af l a t p a r t o ft he a n t le rs u r face ( f or t he e ven tua l r emova lo f as p l in ter a s i nt he " g roove a nd s p l in ter t e chn ique " ) . T he t oo l t i p s u f fe red c on s iderab le a t t r i t ion , a l though i t r ema ined e f fec t ive a f te r2 1 m inu te so fu se ( 1000 s t roke s ) . M ic rof lake S ca r s : Ha l f o f t he m ic rof lake s ca r s ( 50 .0 % ) a re f ea ther te rm ina ted , a l though s t ep te rm ina ted s ca r sa re a l so c ommon ( 37 .5 % ) . Nea r ly a l l ( 9 3 .8 % ) o f t he 1 6 s ca r s a re s ma l li n s i ze . T hey o f ten o ve r lap e ach o the r i n sma l l , s c a t tered c l u s ter s . Edg eR ound ing : T he t i pa nd a s soc ia ted r i dge sa re e x ten s ive ly r ounded . P o l i s h: P o l i sh i sp re sen t o n t he t i p o f t he t oo l a nd o n r i dge s n ea r t he t i p . I ti s ma in ly r ough tex tu red a nd d u l l t o v e ry b r igh t ( F igu re s 5 7 -61 ) , a l though b r igh t , s moo th -p i t ted a rea sa re a l so p re sen t ( F igu re s6 0 ,61 ) . S t r ia t ion s : S t r ia t ion s a re p re sen t i n t he b r igh t , s moo th -p i t ted p o l ish ( F igure s 6 0 ,61 ) . T he se a re s ho r t a nd o r ien ted p a ra l le l o r o b l ique t o t he l ong a x i s o f t he g rav ing t i p .

7 . 6 . F i sh B u tche r ing ( N= 7 ) T he f i ve l a rge t r ou t ( 1 .5 -2 .5 k g e ach ) u sed i nt he f i sh b u tche r ing e xpe r imen t s w e re f r ozen f o r a pp rox ima te ly 2 y ea r s p r io r t o e xpe r imen ta t ion . T he f i sh h ad b een c augh ti nn o r thern S a ska tchewan a nd w e re g u t ted p r io rt of r eez ing .

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7 . 6 .1 S l ic ing Who l eF i sh T h ree v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 1 2 -10 ,12 -14 ,134 -16 ; F igu re s 1 35e , 1 36b ,d ) w e re u sed t o c u t u p f i sh , c on tac t ing f l e sh , b one s , s ca le s a nd s k in i n t he p roce s s . T he t oo l s we re u sed w i th a s l ic ing mo t ion f o r 5t o 1 0 m inu te s ( 200 -500 s t roke s ) w i th l i t t le l o s so fe f fec t ivene s s . App l ied p re s su re v a r ied f r om l i gh tt oh eavy . Mi c rof lake S ca r s : One t oo l ( 12 -14 ) , wh ich wa s u sed f o r 5m inu te s , h a s n o m ic rof lake s ca r s . T he o the r s h ave n ea r ly e ven p ercen tage s o f f ea the r ( 48 .5 % ) a nd s t ep ( 42 .7 % ) t e rm ina ted m ic rof lake s ca r s . T he o verwhe lm ing ma jo r i ty o f s ca r s ( 93 .2 % ) a re s ma l li ns i ze a nd t he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l s ca r r a t io i s. 9 :1 . S ca r s a re ma in ly s ca t te red s i ng ly o r i n s ma l l g roup s o f o ve r lapp ing s ca r s . T he mean n umbe ro fs ca r sp er t oo li s3 4 .3 . Edg eR ound ing : Ab sen t . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sp r ima r i ly d u l la nd g ra iny tex tu red , a l though s ca t tered p a tche so f s omewha tb r igh ter , g ra iny p o l i sh a re a l so p re sen t . T he p o l i sh i s ma in ly l o ca ted o nt he t oo l e dge sw i th s ca t te red o ccur rence so nb o th e dge -a spec t s . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . C ompar i sons : Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken ( 1980 ) u sed o ne C ache C reek b a sa l t t oo lf o r s aw ing af i sh , c on tac t ing f l e sh , s k in a nd b one . T he i lu s t ra ted t oo l h a s a d en t icu la ted e dge w i th o ve r lapp ing f ea the r a nd h inge t e rm ina ted , m ic rof lake s ca r s . I n t he p re sen t s e r ie s o f e xpe r imen t s , f ea the r t e rm ina ted s ca r s a re b y f a r t he mo s tc ommon t y pe ,f o l lowed b ys t ep s ca r s ,w i th v e ry f ew h inge s ca r s .

7 . 6 .2 S l ic ing F i sh F l e sh One n on -v i t reou s ( F igu re 1 36a ) a nd t wo v i t reou sb a sa l t t oo l s ( F igu re 1 35d , f ) w e re u sed t o c u t t r ou t f l e sh i n to f i l le t s , o cca s iona l ly c on tac t ing b one a nd s k in ( Too l s 2 0 -7 ,46 -3 ,138 -12 ) . T he t oo l s w ere n o t n o t icab ly d u l led a f ter 2 t o 1 0 m inu te so fs l ic ing ( 200 -1000 s t roke s )w i th l i gh tt o med ium a pp l ied p re s su re . M i c rof lake S ca r s : T he n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l ( 20 -7 ) wa s u sed f o r 4m inu te s ( 500 s t roke s ) , b u t h a s n o d i sce rnab le m ic rof lake s ca r s . M ic rof lake s ca r s o n t he t wo v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s a re a lmo s t a l l ( 97 .9 % ) s ma l l i n s i ze ( F igure 9 7 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f s ca r s ( 55 .0 % ) a re f ea the r term ina ted , a l though a s ub s tan t ia l p e rcen tage ( 36 .4 % ) a re s t ep term ina ted . T he v en t ra l t od or sa l f l ake s ca rr a t io i s 1 . 8 :1 a nd t he mean n umbe r o f s ca r s p e r t oo l i s4 7 . S ca r s a re ma in ly s ca t te red s i ng ly o r i n s ma l l g roup s o fo ve r lapp ing s ca r s , a l though o n t he h eav i ly u sed t oo l 1 38 -12 s ca r sa re o ver lapp ing a nd c on t iguou sa l la long o ne e dge -a spec t . Edg eR ound ing : Ab sen t .

8 5

P o l i sh : On ly t oo l 4 6 -3 h a s p o l i sh a nd t h i s i sd u l l a nd g ra iny , w i th t he o cca s iona l b r igh ter p a tch . I ti sp re sen to nt he e dge a nd b o th e dge -a spec t s . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : No t r ue p o l i sh i sp re sen t o nt he e xam ined s egmen t o ft oo l 1 38 -12 . I n s tead , ad i scon t inuou s , s l igh t s moo th ing o fb o th e dge a spec t s w i th in 5 0J im o f t he e dge w a s o b served . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : One p o s s ib le med ium s ized , d eep s t r ia t ion , o r ien ted r ough ly p a ra l le lt ot he e dge w a so b served o nt he s moo thed a rea o ft oo l 1 38 -12 .

7 . 6 .3 F i sh S ca l ing

One f i sh s ca l ing e xpe r imen tw a s u nder taken w i th av i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l ( Too l 1 34 -17 ; F igu re 1 36c ) . T he t oo lw a s mo s te f fec t ive a t a4 0 -50 d eg ree a ng le t o t he c on tac t s u r face a nd f i sh s ca le s w e re r emoved w i th a s l ic ing -wh i t t l ing mo t ion , s o mewha t l i ke wh i t t l ing w ood . T he t oo l w a s o n ly s l igh t ly d u l led a f te r a bou t 4 m inu tes o fu se ( 500 s t roke s ) . M ic ro f lake S ca r s : Mo s t m ic ro f lake s ca r s ( 80 .0 % ) a re f ea the r t e rm ina ted . A l l s ca r s a re s ma l l ( t o v e ry s ma l l ) i n s i ze a nd v ery s ha l low . T hey a re b i fac ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted a long t he u sed e dge ,w i th av en t ra lt od o r sa l s ca rr a t io o f3 . 5 :1 . S ca r s a re r a re ly s uperpo sed a nd a re c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing o n t he v en t ra l e dge a spec ta nd s ca t te red s i ng ly o ri ns ma l l g roup so nt he d o r sa l a spec t . T he re a re 4 5 m ic ro f lake s ca r s o nt h i st oo l . E dge Round ing : Ab sen t . P o l i sh : Ab sen t . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : P o l i sh i sp re sen t o n t he e dge a nd b o th e dge -a spec t s . H igh ly p o l i shed a rea s a re p a tchy , a l though a l i gh t p o l i sh o r s moo th ing i s n ea r ly c on t inuou s a l ong b o th e dge -a spec t s . T he p o l i sh i si n ten se o rw e l l -deve loped o n h igh p o in t s a nd o n ly b ecome s v i s ib le a t magn i f ica t ion s a bove 2 00 x . l ti sv ery s moo th , l a ck s t r ue p i t s , a nd e x tend s 1 5 pm t o 4 0 pm f r om t he e dge . T he l i gh t p o l i sh o rs moo th ing e x tend s amax imum o f8 0 pm f r om t he e dge . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : Ab sen t .

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7 .7 Deer Bu tcher ing (N = 2 6 )

7 . 7 .1 Ev iscera t ion

One v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l ( Too l 1 2 -3 ; F igu re 1 40c ) wa s u sed t o e v i scera te a f a l low d ee r k i l led a pp rox ima te ly o ne h a l f -hou r p r io r t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he e xpe r imen t . I tt ook 2 8 m inu te s ( 750 s t roke s ) t o c u t t h rough t he h ide , o pen t he a bdomen , c u to u tt he g u t sa nd c u ta round t he a nu s . B one w a sn i cked l i gh t ly o n ly af ew t ime s . As l ic ing a c t ion w a s ma in ly emp loyed , a l though s aw ing a nd p ierc ing w e re a l so o cca s iona l ly n ece s sa ry . L igh t t o med ium p re s su re w a s a pp l ied t o t he t oo l . T he t oo l w a s v e ry w e l l s u i ted f o r t he t a sk , b u t s o mewha t d u l led a t i t s c omp le t ion . Mic rof lake S ca r s : S tep - ( 40 .4 % ) a nd f ea ther term ina ted ( 37 .5 % ) m ic rof lake s ca r s a re t he mo s t c ommon s ca r t ype s . T he o ve rwhe lm ing ma jo r i ty ( 97 .8 % ) o f t he m ic rof lake s ca r s a re s ma l l . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l s ca r r a t io i s1 . 8 :1 , w i th a t o ta l o f 1 36 s ca r s p re sen t o n t he t oo l . On t he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t , s ca r s a re p redom inan t ly c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing , w i th s ma l le r s ca r s s upe rpo sed o ve r l a rge ro ne s . On t he d o r sa le dge -a spec t ,t he s ca r sa re p r ima r i ly s ca t te red i ns ma l l g roup so fo ve r lapp ing s ca r s . Edg eR ound ing . T he e dge i ss l igh t ly r ounded . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sc on t inuou s o n t he t oo le dge , ma in ly b r igh ta nd g ra iny , a l though s ome b r igh t , s moo th ( bu t l i ned ) p o l i sh i sa l so p re sen t . On t he e dge -a spec t s , s ca t te red p o l i sh i s ma in ly d u l l t o d u l l -b r igh t a nd g ra iny ( F igu re 6 2 ) , w i th l e s s p re sen to nt he d o r sa lt han v en t ra l . S t r ia t ions : A f ew p o s s ib le s ho r t s t r ia t ion s r unn ing p a ra l le l t o t he e dge o n t he p o l i sh w ere o b served a t4 00 x .

7 .7 .2 S k inn ing

Two f r e sh ly k i l led mu le d ee ra nd o ne f r e sh ly k i l led f a l low d ee rw e re s k inned w i th f i ve v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 1 2 -6 ,43 -4 ,80 -1 ,80 -12 ,80 -13 ; F igu re s 1 36e , 1 39c , f , 1 40e ) . I nd iv idua l t oo l s w e re u sed f o r 1 3 t o 5 0 m inu te s w i th s l ic ing a nd s aw ing a c t ion s . Du r ing t h e r emova l o f t he h ide f r om t he d eer , h ide w a s c u t , a s we l la sf a t a nd f l e sh h o ld ing t he h ide t ot he c a rca s s . S and a nd s i l tw ere n o ted o n t he f a l low d ee r h ide a nd u ndoub ted ly a l l o f t he h ide s h ad g r i t i n t he h a i r . Med ium t o h eavy p re s su re w a sa pp l ied t ot he t oo l s . Mic rof lake S ca r s : S l igh t ly o ve r h a l fo ft he m ic rof lake s ca r s ( 51 .5 % ) a re f ea the r t e rm ina ted , a nd a lmo s t o ne th i rd ( 29 .7 % ) a re s nap term ina ted ( F igure 1 00 ) . T he v a s t ma jo r i ty o fs ca r s ( 96 .4 % ) a re s ma l l i ns i ze , a nd s eve ra l t oo l s h ave o n ly sma l l s ca r s . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l s ca r r a t io i s1 . 4 :1 , a nd t he mean n umber o f

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s ca r s p er t oo l i s6 6 .4 . S ca r s a re p r ima r i ly s ca t te red , ma in ly i n s ma l l c l u s te r s o f s eve ra lo ve r lapp ing s ca r s ,w i th s ma l ls ca r s o f ten s uperpo sed o ve rl a rge ro ne s . Edg eR ound ing : T he e dge sa re r ounded o ro cca s iona l ly b lun ted . P o l i sh : P o l i sh o n t he e dge s a nd e dge -a spec t s i s ma in ly d u l l a nd g ra iny , a l though b r igh t , g ra iny p o l i sh a nd b r igh t , s moo th p o l i she s a re a l so p re sen t . D i s t r ibu t ion o f p o l i sh o n t he e dge s v a r ie s f r om o n ly s l igh t t r ace s t o n ea r ly c on t inuou s s t re tche so n d i f fe ren t t oo l s . I ti sg ene ra l ly e x ten s ive ,b u t s ca t te red , o nb o th e dge a spec t s . P o l i sh ( SE M ) . P o l i sh i sv e ry e x ten s ive a nd v i s ib le a tq u i te l ow magn if ica t ion s ( 60 x ) o n t oo l 1 2 -6 ( F igu re 1 00 ) . Heavy p o l i sh i sc on t inuou s a long t he v e ry e dge o f t he t oo l a nd e x tend s o n to t he e dge a spec t s a long p ro jec t ing s pu r s ( F igure s 1 00 ,101 ) . T h i s p o l i sh i s d omed , w i th a v ery s moo th a nd u np i t ted s u rface ( F igu re s 1 01 ,103 ) . T he h eavy p o l i sh e x tend s n o mo re t han . 5 mm f r om t he e dge a nd u sua l ly l e s st han . 2 mm . As l igh t ly s moo thed o rl i gh t ly p o l i shed a rea e x tend s t oa bou t 1mm f r om t he e dge . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : S t r ia t ion s a re o n ly c l ea r ly v i s ib le a t h igh magn i f ica t ion s o n t oo l 1 2 -6 ( F igu re 1 03 ) . T hey a re r e la t ive ly c ommon a nd t end t o b e o r ien ted p a ra l le l o r o b l ique t o t he e dge . Ob served s t r ia t ion s r ange f r om 4pm t o 1 6J im l ong , a nd a re n a r row a nd s ha l low t od eep . C ompa r i son s : Ode l l ( 1980 ) u sed s eve ra l u n re touched C ache C reek b a sa l t t oo l s t o s k in a r accoon a nd ap orpo i se . T he w ea r h e o b se rved c on s i s ted p r imar i ly o f b i fac ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted f ea the rs ca r s ,p roduc ing ad en t icu la ted e dge . I na dd i t ion t o t he b i fac ia l f ea the r s ca r s , s t r ia t ion s a nd p o l i sh w e re o b served i n t he p re sen t s t udy .

7 .73 S l ic ing F le sh

F re sh ly k i l led f a l low d ee r f l e sh w a s c u t w i th 4v i t reou s a nd 3 n on -v i t reou s b a sa l tt oo l s ( Too l s 1 4 ,11 -9 ,22 -17 ,27 -5 ,35 -3 ,36 -8 ,45 -7 ; F igu re s 1 39a ,b ,d ,e , 1 40a ,b , d ) . T oo l s w e re u sed w i th a s l ic ing mo t ion wh i le r emov ing mea t f r om a d eer h aunch , c u t t ing mea t a nd f a t f r om r i b s , r emov ing s i new , a nd c u t t ing t ender lo in i n to s t r ip s . B one w a s o n ly n i cked av e ry f ew t ime s b yt he t oo l s . I nd iv idua l t oo l s w e re u sed b e tween 1a nd 3 4m inu te s ( 50 -2000 s t roke s ) . One n on -v i t reou sb a sa l t t oo l ( 1 -4 ) w a s n o t iceab ly d u l led a f te r 9m inu te s o fu se ( 700 s t rokes ) ( F igure 2 3 ) , wh i le av i t reou sb a sa l tt oo l( 45 -7 )w a s o n ly s l igh t ly d u l led a nd s t i l lu se fu la f ter 3 4 m inu te s ( 2000 s t roke s ) . M ic rof lake S ca r s : O n e o ft h e n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( 1 -4 ) h a s n o d i scernab le m ic rof lake s ca r s a nd t he o ther s o n ly h ave t wo s ca r s e ach . T he se a re a l l sma l l , f ea ther term ina ted a nd l o ca ted o n t he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t s . On t he v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s , m ic rof lake s ca r s a re ma in ly s t ep - ( 56 .5 % ) a nd f ea ther te rm ina ted 8 8

( 30 .8 % ) . Nea r ly a l l o f t h e s ca r s ( 97 .9 % ) a re s ma l l a nd s ha l low ( F igure 1 04 ) . T he v en tra l t od o r sa l s ca rr a t io i s1 . 2 :1 . T he a ve rage n umbe r o fs ca r s p e r t oo l i s 5 9 .3 . S ca r s a re o f ten s c a t te red s i ng ly o r i n s ma l l c l u s te r s o f o ver lapp ing s ca r s . On ly o n t he mo s t h eav i ly u sed t oo l ( 45 -7 ) a re t he s ca r s c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing o nb o th e dge a spec t s . Edg eR ound ing : E dge sa re s l igh t ly r ounded o nt he mo re h eav i ly u sed t oo l s . P o l i sh : On t he v i t reou s b a sa l tt oo l st he re a re t r ace s o fd u l l , g ra iny p o l i sh , b r igh t , g ra iny p o l i sh a nd a f ew s po t s o f b r igh t , s moo th p o l i sh o n t he e dge s a nd e dge a spec t s ( F igu re s 6 3 -65 ) . Smoo th ing o fu npo l i shed p a r t s o f t he e dge -a spec t s i s a l so p re sen t . T he n on -v i t reou s t oo l s h ave d u l l , g ra iny p o l i sh a nd b r igh t , g ra iny p o l i sh o n t he e dge s a nd e dge -a spec t s . T he p o l i sh i sn ea r ly c on t inuou s o n t he mo s th eav i ly u sed t oo l ,b u to n ly t r ace so fp o l i sh a re p re sen to nt he o ther s . P o l i s h ( SE M ) : T oo l 4 5 -7 h a s p o l i sh l o ca l ized o n p rom inence s a long b o th e dge a spec t s . Th i sp o l i sh i ss moo th tex tu red ,w i th as l igh tt endency t o a" p la ty "t e x ture a round t he p er ipher ie sw h ich i sr em in i scen t o fp o l i sh o nt oo l s u sed t ow ork h ide ( F ig u re 1 05 ) . T he re i sa l so a s l igh t s moo th ing o r l i gh t p o l i sh wh ich e x tend s . 2 mm t o. 3 mm u pf r om t he e dge . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : On t oo l 4 5 -7 , s hor t s t r ia t ion s o r ien ted p a ra l le l o r o b l ique t o t he e dge a re q u i te c ommon o n h igh ly p o l i shed a rea s , a nd a re a l so p re sen t o n l i gh t ly p o l i shed a rea s . C ompar i sons : Mon tgome ry ( 1978 :F igu re s 6 9 ,70 ) u sed a n u n re touched g l a s sy b a sa l tt oo lf o rs aw ing f r e sh mea t , h owever ,n ow ea rw a so b se rved . T h i si sa lmo s t c er ta in ly d ue t ot he v e ry l ow magn if ica t ion Mon tgome ry u sed t os t udy h e r t oo l s . Ode l l ( 1980 ) u sed o ne C ache C reek b a sa l tt oo l f o r c u t t ing p o rpo i se b lubbe r a nd o b se rved v e ry s ma l l , s ca t te red , b i fac ia l , f ea the r te rm ina ted s ca r s . T h i s i ss im i la r t o t h eb i fac ia l , s ca t te red , s ma l lm ic rof lake s ca r sp roduced b ys l ic ing f r e sh f l e sh i n t he p re sen t e xpe r imen t s , a l though s t ep s ca r s a re mo re c ommon t han f ea the r s ca r s .

7 . 7 .4 D i smembe r ing ( S l ic ing )

F our v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 1 2 -15 ,22 -10 ,22 -15 ,45 -6 ; F igure s 1 36 f , 1 38a ,b ,d ) we re u sed t o d i smembe r af a l low d ee r , wh ich ma in ly i nvo lved c u t t ing o f f l e g s a nd f o re leg s b y s l ic ing t h rough j o in t s . H ide , f l e sh , t endon s , a nd l i gamen t s w e re t he p r ima ry ma te r ia l s c on tac ted , a l though c a r t i lage a nd b one w e re n i cked a cc iden t ly . I nd iv idua l t oo l s w e re u sed f r om 6 t o 2 0 m inu te s ( 150 7 40 s t roke s ) . P re s su re a pp l ied t o t he t oo l s w a s ma in ly med ium t o h eavy . One t oo l w a s n o t iceab ly d u l led a f te r 1 5 m inu te s o f u se ( 350 s t roke s ) , a l though a no the r t oo l u sed f o r 2 0 m inu te s ( 740 s t roke s ) w a s o n ly s l igh t ly d u l led a nd w a s s t i l lu sefu l .

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M ic rof lak e S ca r s : S tep - ( 42 .6 % ) a nd f ea the r te rm ina ted ( 38 .5 % ) s ca r s a r e mo s t c ommon . S ca r s a re p r ima r i ly s ma l l ( 90 .8 % ) a nd s ha l low . T he v en t ra l t od or sa l s ca r r a t io i s 1 . 1 :1 a nd t he mean n umbe r o f s ca r s p e r t oo l i s4 8 .8 . S ca r s a re p r inc ipa l ly s ca t tered s i ng ly o ri ns ma l lc l u s te r s o fo ve r lapp ing s ca r s . Edg eR ound ing : E dge sa re o cca s iona l ly r ounded o rb lun ted . P o l i sh : T he mo s t h eav i ly u sed t oo l ( 45 -6 ) h a s n ea r ly c on t inuou s b r igh t g ra iny p o l i sh w i th s ca t te red b r igh t s moo th s po t s a long t h e e dge a nd s ca t te red a long b o th e dge -a spec t s . A l so , s moo th ing o f t he e dge -a spec t s b eyond t he l im i ted p o l i shed a rea s i sa ppa ren t .T he o the rt oo l so n ly h ave t r ace s o fd u l l , g ra iny p o l i sh . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t .

7 . 7 .5 D i smembr ing ( Saw ing -S l ic ing ) T h ree t oo l s ( Too l s 1 2 -11 ,80 -3 ,80 -14 ; F igu re 1 38c ,e ,f ) w e re u sed t o p a r t ia l ly d i smembe rt wo mu le d ee r a nd o ne f a l low d ee r . A l lo ft he t oo l s u sed w e re made o fv i t reou s b a sa l t , a nd o ne ( 80 -14 ) w a s u n i fac ia l ly r e touched . Two o ft h e t oo l s ( 80 -3 ,80 -14 )w e re u sed p r ima r i ly w i th as aw ing a c t ion , b u t s o me s l ic ing a l so t ook p lace . One t oo l ( 12 -11 ) w a s u sed p r ima r i ly i n as l i c ing mo t ion , w i th al im i ted amoun to fs aw ing . T he t oo l sw e re u sed f r om 3t o3 2m inu te s ( a max imum o f9 20 s t roke s ) , w i th med ium t o h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re . T hey w ere s pec if ica l ly emp loyed t or emove t he l e g sa nd c u to f ft he f o re leg so ft he d ee r( F igu re 2 2 ) , a nd i nt he p roce s s ma in ly c on tac ted f l e sh , h ide , a nd l i gamen t s . C a r t i lage a nd b one w e re a l so o cca s iona l ly c on tac ted . M ic rof lak eS ca r s : M ic rof lake s ca r s o n t he u n re touched t oo l s a re p redom inan t ly s t ep - ( 44 .9 % ) a nd f ea the r te rm ina ted ( 33 .8 % ) ( F igu re 1 06 ) . Mo s t ( 80 .2 % ) a re s ma l l i n s i ze . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l s ca r r a t io i s. 8 :1 , a nd t he mean n umber o f s ca r sp e rt oo li s1 31 .5 . T he h igh n umber o fs ca r si sr ef lec ted i nt he ir d i s t r ibu t ion , w h ich i so ne o fc on t iguou s , o ve r lapp ing s ca r s w i th s ma l le r o ne s s uperpo sed o ver l a rge rs ca r s . Edg e R ound ing : r ound ing .

T he t oo l e dge s a re b lun ted , w i th s l igh t t o modera te l o ca l ized

P o l i sh : Du l l t o d u l l -b r igh t , g ra iny p o l i sh i sp re sen t o n t he e dges a nd e dge a spec t s o f a l l t h ree t oo l s . T oo l 1 2 -11 a l so h a s b r igh t -g ra iny p o l i sh a nd t r ace s o f b r igh t , s moo th p o l i sh . P o l i sh ( SE M ) . Smoo th -p i t ted p o l i sh i s ma in ly f ound o np ro jec t ion s o n t h e e dge , r i dge s a nd s ca rb ounda r ie s o ft oo l 1 2 -11 ( F igu re s 1 06 ,107 ) . S t r ia t ion s : One med ium , n a r row s t r ia t ion , o r ien ted p a ra l le l t o t he e dge , i s p re sen to np o l i sh o nt he v en t ra la spec to ft oo l 1 2 -11 .

90

S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : S ho r t s t r ia t ion s o r ien ted p a ra l le l a nd o b l ique t o t he e dge a re v i s ib le a th igh magn i f ica t ion s o nt oo l 1 2 -11 . C ompa r i sons : Ode l l ( 1980b ) u sed s evera l u n re touched C ache C reek b a sa l tt oo l s t o d i smember ar accoon w i th s l ic ing a nd s aw ing a c t ion s . T he w ea r o b served o n t he t oo l s c on s i s ted p r ima r i ly o fb i fac ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted m ic rof lake s ca r s , f o rm ing a d en t icu la ted e dge . T he s c a r s w e re s ma l l t o l a rge i n s i ze a nd p r ima r i ly h inge , s t ep a nd f ea the r t e rm ina ted . K amm inga ( 1978 :476 ,478 ) u sed a l tered a nd a nde s i t ic b a sa l t t oo l s t o b u tche r ak anga roo a nd o b served e dge d u l l ing a nd b lun t ing a s w e l l a s m ic ro f lake s ca r s . I nt he p re sen t e xpe r imen t s , s ma l l s t ep a nd f ea the rs ca r s d om ina te t he e dge d amage a nd s o me e dge r ound ing i sa l so p re sen t , w i th p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion so b served a th ighe r magn if ica t ion s .

7 . 7 .6 Def le sh ing B one ( Sc rap ing ) Two t oo l s made o fv i t reou s b a sa l t ( Too l s 4 4 -8 , 4 4 -11 ; F igu re 1 37e ,f ) w e re u sed t o s c rape r emnan t s o ff l e sh f r om f a l low d ee r b one s . T he t oo l s w e re u sed f o r 7t o2 8 m inu te s ( 300 -1000 s t roke s )w i th med ium t oh eavy a pp l ied p re s su re t o s c rape s c rap s o ff l e sh f r om t he b one s , h eav i ly c on tac t ing t he b one i nt he p roce s s . One o ft he t oo l s ( 44 -8 ) , ac oncaved -edged t oo l , w a sp e r fec t ly s u i ted f o r s c rap ing t he f l e sh o f f r i b s , a l though i tw a s s o mewha t i n n eed o f r e sha rpen ing a f te r 2 8 m inu te so fu se ( 1000 s t roke s ) . M ic rof lake S ca r s : S tep te rm ina ted m ic rof lake s ca r s ( 46 .5 % ) a re t he mo s t c ommon t ype p re sen t o nt he t oo l s , w i th l e s se rp ercen tage s o fh inge ( 28 .5 % ) a nd f ea the r ( 24 .3 % ) s ca r s ( F igu re 1 08 ) . App rox ima te ly t h ree -qua r te r s ( 74 .1 % ) o f t he s ca r s a re s ma l l i n s i ze . On t he d or sa l e dge -a spec t s ca r s t end t o b e d eep , wh i le t hey a re p redom inan t ly s ha l low o nt he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t . T he v en t ra lt o d o r sa l m ic rof lake s ca r r a t io i s. 4 :1 , a nd t he mean n umbe r o f s ca r s p e r t oo l i s 7 1 .5 . S ca r s a re s ca t te red t o c on t iguou s o n t he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t a nd c on t iguou s , o ve r lapp ing a nd s upe rpo sed o nt he d o r sa l . Edg eR ound ing : Ab sen t . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sn o tc ommon o ne i the rt oo l ,b e ing r e s t r ic ted t o af ew h igh p o in t s o f t h e m ic ro topog raphy . On t oo l 4 4 -11 i ti sd u l l , g ra iny texured a nd p re sen t ma in ly o n t he d or sa l e dge -a spec t w i th t r ace s o n t he e dge a nd v en t ra l e dge a spec t . On t oo l 4 4 -8 , t he p o l i sh i sp re sen to n ly o nt he e dge a nd i sd u l l t ob r igh t a nd g ra iny . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : P o l i sh i sl a rge ly r e s t r ic ted t o c e r ta in h igh p o in t s o n t he e dge a nd d o r sa l e dge -a spec t o f t oo l 4 4 -8 , a l though s o me i sa l so p re sen t o n p a r t s o f t he v en t ra l a spec t . T he p o l i sh h a s as moo th t e x tu re , w i th af l ow ing a ppea rance , a nd l a ck s p i t s ( F igu re 1 07 ) . Smoo thed , b u t u npo l i shed a rea s w e re a l so n o ted o n b o th e dge a spec t s . T he l a rge s t h eav i ly p o l i shed p a tch i s1 00 J im l ong a nd 8 0 pm w ide . Smoo th ing e x tended . 2 mm a bove t he e dge o n t he d o r sa l a spec t , a nd a much l e s ser d i s tance o n t h e v en t ra l a spec t . C rack s a re v i s ib le i n t he p o l i sh a t 3 500x . 9 1

S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : Ab sen t ( 44 -8 ) .

7 .7 .7 Def lesh ing Bone ( S l ic ing )

I nd iv idua l t oo l s w ere u sed f o r 5m inu te s t o o ve r 1 7 m inu te s ( 2 10 t o 1 000 s t roke s ) o nf a l low d ee rr i b sa nd af r on tf o re leg . T h ree o ft he t oo l sw e re made o f n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t ( F igu re 1 37a -c ) a nd o ne w a s v i t reou s b a sa l t ( F igu re 1 37d ) ( Too l s 2 1 , 2 -3 , 1 -3 , 1 2 -1 ) . F le sh a nd f a t w ere c u t o f f t he r i b s w i th a s l ic ing a c t ion u s ing a med ium t o h eavy p re s su re . A s l i c ing a c t ion wa s a l so u sed t o d i s sa s semb le t he f o re leg . Unavo idab le h eavy b one a nd c a r t i lage c on tac t wa s s u s ta ined b y a l l t oo l s , a l though f l e sh a nd f a tw e re t he p r ima ry c on tac t ma ter ia l s . T he v i t reou s b a sa l tt oo l wa sd u l lb u ts t i l lu sab le a f te ra bou t 1 8 m inu te so fs l ic ing ( 1000 s t roke s ) ,b u tt he n on -v i t reou so ne sw e re d u l led a f ter much l e s su se . M ic rof lake S ca r s . F ea ther - ( 46 .4 % ) a nd s t ep te rm ina ted ( 33 .6 % ) m ic rof lake s ca r s a re t he mo s t c ommon t y pe s ( F igu re 1 03 ) . T he v a s t ma jor i ty ( 9 6 .6 % ) o f m ic rof lake s ca r sa re u n i form ly s ma l l . T he v en t ra lt od o r sa lf l ake s ca rr a t io i s. 9 :1 a nd t he mean n umber o f f l ake s p e r t oo l i s3 6 .3 . T h i s l ow n umber i sp robab ly d ue t o t he d i f f icu l ty e ncoun te red i n r ecogn iz ing s ca r s o n t he p redom inan t ly c oa r se b a sa l t u sed i n t he se e xpe r imen t s . M ic rof lake s ca r s a re p redom inan t ly s ca t te red , e i ther s i ng ly o r i n s ma l l g roup s o f o ve r lapp ing s ca r s . On t he mo s t h eav i ly u sed t oo l ( v i t reou s b a sa l t ) t he s ca r s a re c on t iguou s , o ve r lapp ing a nd o f ten s uperpo sed ( F igure 10 ) . Edg eR ound ing : E dge sa re u nmod i f ied t os l igh t ly b lun ted o rr ounded i np lace s . P o l i sh : E x ten s ive r ound ing a nd s moo th ing o f t he e dge s a re v i s ib le a t h igh magn i f ica t ion s o n n on -v i t reou st oo l s , b u t t he s u r fa ce s o ft he s moo thed a rea s a re i den t ica l i nb r igh tne s s a nd t e x tu re t o t he u nmod if i ed s ur face o ft he b a sa l t . T he e dge o f t he v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l ( 12 -1 ) i sn o t r ounded , b u t t r ace s o f d u l l , g ra iny a nd b r igh t ,g ra iny p o l i sh a re p re sen to nh i gh p o in t s o ft he e dge a nd b o th a spec t s . S l igh ts moo th ing o fb o th e dge a spec t si sa l so p re sen t . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : P o l i sh o nt oo l 1 2 -1 i ss ca t tered a nd r e s t r ic ted t o af ew h i gh p o in t s a nd p ro jec t ion s a long t he e dge a nd e x tend s s l igh t ly o n to e i ther a spec t . I t i s s moo th tex tu red a nd l a ck s t r ue p i t s ( F igu re 11 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o t he r a re p o l i shed a rea s , t he re i se x ten s ive s moo th ing o f t he e dge a spec t s . T he p o l i sh i s r e s t r ic ted i n d i s t r ibu t ion t o w i th in 2 0 pm o f t he e dge , wh i le t he s moo th ing e x tend s5 0 pm t o 1 00 pm f r om t he e dge . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : On ly o ne p o s s ib le s t r ia t ion w a s o b se rved o nt oo l 1 2 -1 , a nd t h i s a t4 700 x . I ti so r ien ted o b l ique t o t he e dge a nd m ea sure s a pprox ima te ly 2um l ong . 9 2

7 .8 Wood ( N= 2 9 )

7 . 8 .1 S crap ing D ry Bark a nd Wood A l l t oo l s u sed t o s c rape d ry b a rk a nd w ood w e re made o f v i t reou s b a sa l t ( Too l s 2 7 -11 , 3 6 -5 , 4 4 -10 , 1 41 -6 , 1 41 -11 , 1 61 -20 ; F igure s 1 41d , 1 42a ,d , 1 43c , 1 45a ) . T he w ood s w o rked w e re S a ska toon , c hoke c he r ry , d ogwood a nd b a l sam p op la r w h ich h ad b een c u t d own b e tween 1 0 d ay s a nd 5 w eek s p r io r t o e xpe r imen ta t ion . T oo l s w e re u sed f r om 4 t o 1 7 m inu te s ( 500 -1150 s t roke s ) t o s c rape w ood ( ma in ly w i th b a rk i n tac t ) o n r e la t ive ly t h in d iame ter t r ee s o r b ranche s , f r om w h ich s ma l ler b ranche sw e re r emoved p r io r t oe xpe r imen ta t ion . T he a c t iv i ty i ss im i la r t o t he a bo r ig ina l d eba rk ing a nd s moo th ing o f p o ten t ia l a r row o r s pea rs ha f t s . Med ium t oh eavy p re s su re w a s a pp l ied t ot he t oo l s . I ti s n o tewo r thy t ha t d ry b a rk a nd w ood a re s ub s tan t ia l ly h a rder t ow o rk t han f r e sh wood , a nd t ha t ac on s ide rab le amoun t o f h ea tw a s g enera ted o n t he t oo l e dge s d u r ing t he e xper imen t s . Mic rof lake S ca r s : F ea the r - ( 44 .1 % ) a nd s t ep term ina ted ( 34 .5 % ) m ic rof lake s ca r s a re t he mo s t c ommon t y pe s p re sen t ( F igure 12 ) , a l though a s ub s tan t ia l p ercen tage ( 20 .9 % ) o fs c a r s a re h inge te rm ina ted . Mo s t s ca r s ( 9 3 .8 % ) a re s ma l l i ns i ze . T he v en t ra lt od o r sa l m ic ro f lake s c a rr a t io i s. 2 :1 , a nd t he mean n umber o fs c a r s p er t oo l i s9 0 .7 . S ca r s o n t he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t a re r a re o r a b sen t o n i nd iv idua lt oo l s , a nd w hen p re sen t a re s c a t te red , e i the rs i ng ly o ri ns ma l l c l u s te r s o f o ve r lapp ing s ca r s . S ca r s o n t he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t h ave av e ry h i gh d en s i ty a nd a r e c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing a l ong t he e n t i re u sed e dge . A l so , s ma l l s ca r sa r e s upe rpo sed o ve rl a rge ro ne s . Edg eR ound ing : T he e dge sa re s l igh t ly t o mode ra te ly r ounded ( F igu re s 13 ,114 ) . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sp re sen t o n t he e dge s a nd e dge -a spec t s o f a l l t oo l s , a l though a f ew o f t he l i gh t ly u sed o ne s o n ly h ave t r ace s . B r igh t , s moo th , p i t ted p o l i sh i s o f ten c on t inuou s o r n ea r ly s o a l ong t he e dge s a nd i s ma in ly r e s t r ic ted t o h i gh p o in t so nt he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t s . T he b r igh t , s moo th p o l i sh i so f ten s u r rounded b yd u l lt ob r igh t ,g ra iny p o l i sh . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : P o l i sh i sc on t inuou s a l ong t he e dge o f t oo l 1 41 -6 a nd i sp re sen t o n b o th e dge a spec t s , a l though i te x tend s f a r the r u p t he d o r sa l a spec t . T he p o l i sh i sd omed , s moo th ,a nd l a ck s t r ue p i t s ( F igu re s 1 06 ,107 ) . I th a s a" smea red o n " a ppea rance , a nd a tv e ry h i gh magn i f ica t ion s ( 2 500 xa nd u p ) c r ack s b ecome v i s ib le o n t he p o l i sh s u r face . T he p o l i sh e x tend s f r om 4 0 pm t o 9 0 pm u p t he d o r sa la spec t ,b u ti s ma in ly i nt he 4 0 pm t o5 0 pm r ange . S t r ia t ion s : S hor t , n a r row , s ha l low s t r ia t ion s a re p re sen t o n t h ree t oo l s a nd p o s s ib ly a f ou r th . T hey a re o n ly f ound o n p o l i sh a nd a re o r ien ted a to r n ea r r i gh ta ng le st ot he e dge ( 7 0 -120 ) . T hey a re v e ry c ommon o nt wo t oo l s .

9 3

S t r ia t ion s ( SE M ) : S t r ia t ion s a re r e la t ive ly c ommon o n t he p o l i sh o f t oo l 1 41 -6 , b u t t hey a re n o t v i s ib le a t magn i f ica t ion s u nde r 2 500 x ( F igu re 14 ) . T hey a re n a r row , o f v a ry ing d ep th s , a nd mea su re u p t o 1 4 pm l ong . T hey a re ma in ly o r ien ted a tr i gh ta ng le st ot he e dge , a l though s o me h ave a no b l ique o r ien ta t ion . C ompa r i son s : S chu t t ( 1982 :Append i x2 )u sed 1 2 g l a s sy b a sa l t t oo l s t os c rape d ry p op la r a nd d ry p ine . S he o b served p o l i sh o n mo re t han h a l f o f t he t oo l s a nd n ea r ly a l l o ft hem h ad e dge r ound ing . M ic rof lake s ca r s w e re ma in ly p re sen t o n t he t r a i l ing e dge -a spec t s a nd l a rge ly c on s i s ted o f f e a ther a nd s t ep s ca r s . T h i s w ea r p a t tern i s v e ry s im i la r t o t ha t o b served o n t he t oo l s i n t he p resen t e xper imen t s , a l though S chu t td id n o to b serve s t r ia t ion s .

7 . 8 .2 S c rap ing F re sh B a rk a nd Wood

F re sh S a ska toon a nd d ogwood w e re s c raped w i th 1 n on -v i treou s ( F igure 1 43e ) a nd 6v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( F igure s 1 41c ,f , 1 42b ,c , 1 43d , 1 44a ) ( Too l s 2 6 1 0 , 2 7 -15 , 1 34 -23 , 1 38 -6 , 1 38 -16 , 1 41 -4 , 1 41 -17 ) . T he t r ee s h ad b een c u t d own f r om 3 h our s t o 2d ay s p r io r t o t he e xpe r imen t s . I nd iv idua l t oo l s w e re u sed f o r a pp rox ima te ly 2t o 6 9 m inu te s ( 200 -5850 s t roke s ) . T he t oo l s w ere v e ry e f fec t ive f o r d eba rk ing a nd t h inn ing smoo th ing t he wood ( F igure s 1 8 ,19 ) , w i th l i t t le d u l l ing o n e ven t he mo s t h eav i ly u sed t oo l s . Med ium t o h eavy p re s su re w a s a pp l ied t ot he t oo l s . M ic rof lak eS ca r s : T he mo s tc ommon m ic rof lake s ca rt y pe p re sen t o nt he t oo ls i s t he s t ep s ca r ( 57 .4 % ) , a l though f ea ther term ina ted s ca r s a re a l so c o mmon ( 35 .7 % ) ( F igu re s 15 ,117 ) . T he v a s t ma jo r i ty ( 92 .8 % ) o f m ic rof lake s c a r s a re s ma l l i n s i ze . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l s ca r r a t io i s. 0 8 :1 a nd t he mean n umber o f s ca r s p er t oo l i s6 0 .3 . T he r a re ly o ccu r r ing s ca r s o nt he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t a re w ide ly s ca t te red . M ic ro f lake s ca r sa re r e la t ive ly d en se o nt he d o r sa l e dge -aspec t a nd o cca s iona l ly o ccu r c on t inuou s ly , i n o ve r lapp ing a nd s uperpo sed c on f igu ra t ion s . Mo re o f ten t he s ca r s a re f ound i ns ma l l , s ca t tered c l u s te r s , a l so i no ve r lapp ing a nd s uperpo sed c onf igu ra t ion s . E dge R ound ing : 16 ,118 ) .

E dge s a re s l igh t ly t o mode ra te ly r ounded ( F igu re s 6 8 ,69 ,

P o l i sh : B r igh t , g ra iny p o l i sh w i th s ma l l , s moo th , p i t ted l ined p a tche s i sv i r tua l ly c on t inuou s a l ong t he e dge o f n on -v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l 2 6 -10 . On t he v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s , p o l i sh r ange s f r om b r igh t a nd g ra iny t o v ery b r igh t , a nd s moo th p i t ted ( F igu re s 6 6 -69 ) . L a rge p a tche s o f s moo th -p i t ted p o l i sh o n t he e dge a re u sua l ly s ur rounded b yt he g ra iny p o l i sh . P o l i sh i s ma in ly l o ca ted o nt he r ounded e dge s , b u t i so f ten a l so p re sen t o n b o th e dge -a spec t s , u sua l ly t o al e s se r e x ten t . T rend l i ne so r ien ted a tr i gh ta ng le st ot he e dge a re p re sen t . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : P o l i sh i sr a re ly v i s ib le b e low 1 000 xo nt oo l s 2 7 -15 a nd 1 41 -17 . I t i ss ca t tered i ns ma l lp a tche sa nd i sp r ima r i ly l o ca ted o nt he v ery e dge o ft he t oo l , a nd e x tend s s l igh t ly mo re o n to t he v en t ra l a spec t t han d or sa l ( F igure s 16 ,118 ,119 . T he p o l i sh i sv e ry s moo th i n t e x tu re a nd h a s t he a ppea rance o f 9 4

h av ing b een " smea red o n " . A t v e ry h i gh magn i f ica t ion s t he p o l i sh s u r face h a s a " pebb ly "a ppea rance ( F igu re 1 21 ) . T he p o l i sh e x tend s amax imum o f3 0j im o n to t he v en t ra l a spec t a nd 2 0j im o n to t he d o r sa l . Smoo th ing o r l i gh t p o l i sh e x tend s u p t o. 1 mm f r om t he e dge o nt he v en t ra la spec t . S t r ia t ion s : S t r ia t ion s a re p re sen to nt wo v i t reou sb a sa l tt oo l s ( 27 -15 , 1 34 -23 ) , a nd p o s s ib ly a t h i rd ( 141 -4 ) . T he s t r ia t ion s a re l o ca ted o n p o l i sh o n t he t oo l e dge s a nd a re o r ien ted a to rn ea r r i gh t a ng le st ot he e dge . T hey a re s hor t ,n a r row a nd o n ly a bundan to nt oo l 1 34 -23 ( F igu re s6 7 , 6 8 ) . S t r ia t ions ( SE M ) : S t r ia t ion s a re u ncommon o n t oo l s 2 7 -15 a nd 1 41 -17 a nd a re o n ly v i s ib le a tv e ry h igh magn i f ica t ion s o np o l i shed a rea s ( F igu re 19 ) . T hey a re o r ien ted a t o r n ea r r i gh t a ng le s t o t he e dge a nd a re s ho r t a nd n a r row . T he l onge s ts t r ia t ion mea su red 3j im . C ompa r i sons : Mon tgome ry ( 1978 :273 ,274 , F igu re 6 8 ) u sed t wo v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l st os cape af r e sh Doug la sf i rb ranch . T he m ic rowea rs he o b se rved c on s i s ted o f s ma l l , u n iform s ca r s , mo s t ly o n t he t r a i l ing e dge a spec t . Kamm inga ( 1978 :651 ) u sed a n a l te red b a sa l t t oo lt o s c rape f r e sh , d en se wood a nd o b served s nap s ca r s , e dge r ound ing a nd s moo th ing . S chu t t ( 1982 :Append ix 2 ) u sed af ew g la s sy b a sa l t t oo l s t o s c rape f r e sh p op la r . S he o b se rved m ic ro sca r r ing ma in ly c on s i s t ing o ff ea ther a nd s nap s ca r s , a sw e l l a s e dge r ound ing a nd p o l i sh . I nt he p re sen t e xpe r imen t s mo s t s ca r s a re s t ep o r f ea ther t e rm ina ted , w i th f ew s nap s ca r s . Ove ra l l , h oweve r , t he w ea r o b served b y t he se r e sea rcher s i s n o t s i gn i f ican t ly d i f feren tt han t he w ea ro b served i nt he p re sen ts t udy .

7 . 8 .3 S aw ing F re sh Wood A d eba rked , 1 cm d i ame te r S a ska toon b ranch c u t d own 6 h ou r s p r io r t o e xpe r imen ta t ion wa s s awn u s ing v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 2 7 -10 , 1 34 -18 ; F igu re s 1 43a , 1 450 . T hey w e re u sed b e tween 2 a nd 6 m inu te s ( 400 -1000 s t roke s ) w i th h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re . T he t oo l s w ere u sed i n ab ack a nd f o r th s aw ing mo t ion a tr i gh ta ng le st ot he l ong a x i so ft he b ranch . Mic rof lake S ca r s : T he mo s t c ommon m ic ro f lake s ca r t y pe i sf ea ther term ina ted ( 47 .7 % ) , w i th s t ep - ( 27 .3 % ) a nd s nap te rm ina ted ( 19 .3 % ) s ca r s ( 27 .3 % ) a l so b e ing w e l l r ep re sen ted . Al a rge ma jo r i ty ( 84 .1 % ) o ft he s ca r s a re s ma l l i ns i ze . T he v en tra l t od o r sa l s ca rr a t io i s. 8 :1 , a nd t he mean n umbe r o fs ca r sp e r t oo l i s 4 4 . M ic rof lake s ca r s t end t o b e s ca t te red , e i the r s i ng ly o ri n s ma l l c l u s te r sw i th o ve r lapp ing a nd o cca s iona l ly s upe rpo sed c onf igu ra t ion s . Edg eR ound ing : S l igh t r ound ing i sv i s ib le a t h i gh magn i f ica t ion s w i th t he S EM ( F igu re 1 22 ) . P o l i sh : On t oo l 2 7 -10 t h e re a re s ca t te red i nd ica t ion s o f d u l l t o b r igh t , g ra iny p o l i sh a nd b r igh t , g ra iny t os moo th p o l i sh o n af ew h igh p o in t s o ft he e dge , w i th o n ly s l igh t t r ace s o n t he e dge -a spec t s . T he mo re h eav i ly u sed t oo l 1 34 -18 h a s s ca t te red b r igh t , s moo th -p i t ted p o l i sh s u r rounded b y mo re e x ten s ive d u l l t o 9 5

b r igh t , g ra iny p o l i sh a l ong t he e dge w i th an ea r ly c on t inuou s d i s t r ibu t ion o nb o th e dge -a spec t s . P o l i sh ( SE M ) . P o l i sh i sc on t inuou s a long t he e dge o f t oo l 1 34 -18 a nd e x tend s o n to b o th a spec t s . I ti sf i r s tv i s ib le a ta bou t 2 50 xa nd h a s as moo th , b u t p i t ted t e x tu re ( F igu re s 1 22 ,123 ) . On t he p o l i sh b ounda ry i t o f ten h a s a" l ea f y " , d i scon t inuou s d i s t r ibu t ion . A sw i th wood p o l i she s o n o the r t oo l s , t h is p o l i sh h a s a" smea red o n " a ppea rance . Smoo th ing o r l i gh t p o l i sh i s a l so p re sen t a nd e x tend su p t o7 0 pm f r om t he e dge o nb o th a spec t s . T he h igh ly d eve loped p o l i sh e x tend s amax imum o f5 0 pm f r om t he e dge . S t r ia t ion s : S eve ra l s ho r t s t r ia t ion s a re p re sen ti n t he p o l i sh o nt he v en t ra l e dge a spec to ft oo l 1 34 -18 . T he se a re o r ien ted p a ra l le lo ro b l ique t ot he e dge . S t r ia t ions ( SE M ) : No d e f in i te s t r ia t ion s w e re o b se rved o n t he t oo l 1 34 -18 , h oweve r , af ew p o s s ib le s t r ia t ion sw e re n o ted a t magn if i ca t ion si ne xce s s o f2 000 X . C or npar i son s . Mon tgome ry ( 1978 :274 , F igu re 6 8 ) u sed o ne g l a s sy b a sa l t t oo l t o s aw f r e sh Doug la sf i r . S he o b served b i fac ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted m ic ro f lake s ca r s a nd a j agged e dge . Kamm inga ( 1978 :590 ) u sed o ne o l iv ine b a sa l t t oo l t o s aw f r e sh , l i gh t -den s i ty wood , wh ich r e su l ted i n aj agged a nd b lun t e dge , w i th s ome s nap s ca r s . S chu t t ( 1982 :Append ix 2 ) u sed a g la s sy b a sa l t t oo l t o s aw g reen p op la r . E dge r ound ing w a sp re sen t , a sw e re b i fac ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted s t ep , f ea the r a nd s nap s ca r s . M ic rowea r o n t he p re sen t e xpe r imen ta l t oo l s i s v e ry s im i la r , w i th b i fac ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted f ea the r , s t ep a nd s nap s ca r s . P o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion s a re a l so p re sen t , b u t w e re n o t o b served i n t he e a r l ie r s t ud ie s , p robab ly d ue t o t he l ow magn i f ica t ion s emp loyed .

7 . 8 .4 Saw ing Dry W ood Two v i t reou sb a sa l tt oo l s ( Too l s 6 3 -2 , 8 2 -3 ; F igu re 1 45 b ,d )w ere u sed t o s aw 1mon th o ld S a ska toon a nd 3y ea ro ld P ondo ro sa p ine b ranche s . Bo th b ranche s w e re d eba rked s ho r t ly a f te rt hey w e re c u t d own . T he S a ska toon b ranch w a s 1t o 2cm i nd iame te ra nd t he P ondo ro sa p ine w a s 2t o 3c mi nd iame ter . T oo l sw ere u sed f o r a pp rox ima te ly 3 t o 4m inu te s w i th h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re t o s aw t h rough t he b ranche s . M ic rof lake S ca r s : T he mo s t c ommon m ic ro f lake s ca r t e rm ina t ion t y pe s a re f ea the r ( 44 .1 % ) a nd s t ep ( 43 .2 % ) s ca r s . Ove r t h ree -qua r te r s ( 76 .8 % ) o f t he s ca r sa re s ma l l i ns i ze . T he v en t ra lt od o r sa l m ic rof lake s ca r r a t io i s. 7 :1 a nd t he mean n umber o fs ca r s p e rt oo l i s5 6 . M ic ro f lake s c a r s a re s ca t te red s i ng ly o r i n s ma l l c l u s te r si no ve r lapp ing a nd o cca s iona l ly s uperpo sed c onf igura t ion s . E dge R ound ing : T oo le dge s a re s l igh t ly r ounded o rb lun ted i np laces .

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P o l i sh : On ly s l igh t t r ace s o fp o l i sh a re p re sen t o n t he e dge o ft oo l 6 3 -2 . T he re a re s ca t tered o ccu r rence s o fb r igh t , s moo th p o l i sh o n h igh p o in t s o ft he e dge o f t oo l8 2 -3 w i th t r ace s o fp o l i sh o nb o th e dge -a spec t s . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t . C o m pa r i sons : S chu t t ( 1982 :Append ix 2 ) u sed s eve ra l g l a s sy b a sa l t t oo l s t o s aw d ry p ine a nd o b served p o l i sh a nd e dge r ound ing o na l l o ft hem . S he a l so f ound b i fac ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted m ic ro sca r s wh ich w e re ma in ly f ea the r , s t ep o r s nap t e rm ina ted . T h i s w ea r p a t te rn i sv e ry s im i la r t o t ha t o b served f o r d ry w ood s aw ing i nt he p re sen te xpe r imen t s .

7 . 8 .5 S aw ing B a rk B i rch b a rk wa s r emoved f r om at r ee 2w eek s p r io r t o t he e xpe r imen t , wh i le t he t r ee i t se l f h ad b een c u t d own a no the r 2w eek s e a r l ie r . A f l a t t o s l igh t ly c urved b a rk s hee t wa s c u t i n to s t r ip s w i th a s aw ing mo t ion , s t a r t ing a t t he t op e dge o f t he s hee t . Med ium p re s su re wa s a pp l ied t o t he v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l ( Too l 2 7 -7 ; F igu re 1 43b ) u sed i n t h i s e xper imen t . T he t oo l w a s u sed f o r 6 m inu te s ( 600 s t roke s ) . T he b a rk w a ss ucce s s fu l ly c u ti n to s t r ip s . Mi c rof lake S ca r s : F ea the r term ina ted s ca r s a re t he mo s t c ommon m ic rof lake s ca r t y pe ( 44 .0 % ) , b u t b o th s nap ( 32 .0 % ) a nd s t ep s ca r s ( 24 .0 % ) a re w e l l r ep re sen ted . T he ma jo r i ty o f s ca r s ( 82 .0 % ) a re s ma l l . P rom inen t o n t he e dge a re med ium t ov e ry l a rge s nap t e rm ina ted s ca r s ,i n wh ich many o ft he o the rs ca r s a rea f ound . U se -re touch i sa l te rna t ing . T he v en t ra l t o d or sa l s ca r r a t io i s. 9 :1 a nd t he re a re 5 0m ic ro f lake s ca r s o nt he t oo l . M ic rof lake s ca r so ccu rs i ng ly o ri n s ma l lc l u s ter si na no ver lapp ing c on f igura t ion . Ed g eR ound ing : Ab sen t . P o l i sh : B r igh t , smoo th , u np i t ted p o l i sh i s ma in ly f ound o n h igh p o in t s o f t he e dge a nd e dge -a spec t s o f t h i s t oo l . B r igh t , g ra iny a nd d u l l , g ra iny p o l i she s a re a l so p resen to nt he e dge ,o f ten a d jacen tt ot he b r igh t , s moo th p o l i sh . S t r ia t ions : Ab sen t .

7 . 8 .6 S l ic ing B a rk One v i t reou sb a sa l tt oo l( Too l2 7 -14 ;F igu re 1 44 f )w a su sed t os l ice b i rch b a rk o n ab irch t r ee wh ich h ad b een f e l led a pprox ima te ly 2 w eek s b e fo re t he e xpe r imen t b egan . T he p urpo se w a s t o c u t t he b a rk s o t ha t as hee t c ou ld b e r emoved f r om t he t r ee ( t h i s s hee t w a s u sed i n b a rk s aw ing e xpe r imen t 7 . 8 .5 ) . T he t oo l e dge w a s h e ld n ea r ly v e r t ica l t o t he c on tac t s ur face a nd w a s u sed w i th med ium t o h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re . T he t oo l w a s e f fec t ive a t t he t a sk , w h ich t ook 6m inu te s ( 150 s t roke s ) t oa ccomp l i sh . 9 7

M ic rof lake S ca r s : F ea the r - ( 37 .4 % ) a nd h inge te rm ina ted ( 36 .3 % ) s ca r s a re t he mo s t c o mmon s ca r t y pe s . Mo s t s ca r s ( 85 .7 % ) a re s ma l l i n s i ze . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l f l ake s ca r r a t io i s. 9 :1 a nd t he re a re 9 1 f l ake s ca r s o n t he t oo l . T hey a re ma in ly c on t iguou sa nd o ve r lapp ing . Edge Round ing : T he e dge i ss l igh t ly r ounded . P o l i sh : A t 3 00 x t he e dge a ppea r s v ery r ounded t o f a ce t ted , w i th n ea r ly c on t inuou s d u l l , g ra iny t o b r igh t , g ra iny p o l i sh . P o l i sh o n t he d or sa l a nd v en t ra l e dge -a spec t s i s s ca t te red b u t p len t i fu l , u sua l ly l o ca ted n ea r t he e dge , b u t o cca s iona l ly p ene t ra t ing s o me d i s tance f r om i t . T h i s p o l i sh i sd u l l a nd g ra iny a nd ma in ly l o ca ted o nh igh p o in t s . S t r ia t ion s : Ab sen t ,

7 . 8 .7 Wh i t t l ing F r e sh Wood a nd B a rk S a ska toon b ranche s c u t d own 2 d ay s p r io r t o e xper imen ta t ion a nd w i l low b ranche s c u t d own m inu te s b e fore e xpe r imen ta t ion w e re u sed i n t he se e xpe r imen t s . B a rk w a s l e f to n t he b ranche s b u ts ma l l t w ig sw e re r e moved p r ior t o e xpe r imen ta t ion . T he b a rk a nd s o me w ood w a s wh i t t led o f f t he w i l low b ranche s , w i th d eba rk ing b e ing t he g oa l o f t he e xpe r imen t . T he S a ska toon b ranche s w e re wh i t t led t o p o in t s . One n on -v i t reou s ( F igure 1 40 f ) a nd f i ve v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( F igu re s 1 41a ,b ,e 1 44b , 1 45e ) w e re u sed b e tween 2 a nd 1 2 m inu te s ( approx ima te ly 2 00 -500 s t roke s ) i n t he e xper imen t s ( Too l s 1 2 -5 , 1 7 -12 , 8 0 -9 , 8 0 -10 , 8 0 -11 , 2 3 -4 ) . Med ium t o h eavy p re s su re wa s a pp l ied t o t he t oo l s , w i th o ne b e ing p a r t ia l ly w rapped i nr awh ide t o p ro tec tt he e xpe r imen te r ' s h and . T he t oo l s w e re v e ry e f fec t ive i n a ccomp l i sh ing t he t a sk s a nd s t i l l u sab le a f ter e ven 1 2m inu te so fu se . M i c rof lake S ca r s : J u s t o ve r h a l f ( 52 .0 % ) o f t he m ic rof lake s ca r s a re f ea the r t e rm ina ted , a l though a s ub s tan t ia l p e rcen tage ( 32 .5 % ) a re s t ep te rm ina ted ( F igu re 1 24 ) . A s ub s tan t ia l ma jor i ty ( 85 .2 % ) o f s c a r s a re s ma l l i n s i ze . T he v en t ra l t o d o r sa l m ic rof lake s ca r r a t io i s. 3 :1 a nd t he mean n umber o fs c a r s p er t oo l i s4 2 . S ca r s a re r a re a nd ma in ly s ca t te red s i ng ly o nt he v en t ra le dge -a spec t s , a l though c l u s te r s o f af ew o ve r lapp ing s ca r s a re a l so p re sen t . On t he d or sa l e dge -a spec t s s ca r s a re much mo re c ommon a nd a re more o r l e ss c on t inuou s a l ong t he u sed e dge w i th o ve r lapp ing a nd s upe rpo sed c onf igu ra t ion s . E dge R ound ing : E dge s a re b lun ted a nd o cca s iona l ly r ounded ( F igure 1 25 ) . P o l i sh : P o l i sh i sp re sen to na l lo ft he v i t reou sb a sa l tt oo l s . B r igh t , smoo th -p i t ted p o l i sh i sp re sen t o n t he e dge s , a nd v a r ie s i nd i s t r ibu t ion f r om n ea r ly c on t inuou s t os ca t te red t r ace so nd i f f eren tt oo l s . Du l l ,g ra iny a nd b r igh t , g ra iny p o l i she s a re a l so p re sen t , a s i s b r igh t , s moo th , u np i t ted p o l i sh . P o l i sh i s a lway s more e x ten s ive o n t he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t t han v en t ra l , a nd h a s t he s a me

9 8

c ha rac ter i s t ic s a s t ha t f ound o n t he e dge . I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh p o l i sh o nt h e n on -v i t reou st oo l2 3 -4 . P o l i sh ( SE M ) : P o l i sh o n t he e dge o f t oo l 1 2 -5 i s c on t inuou s , b i fac ia l a nd e x ten s ive , b u t mo re p ronounced o n t he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t t han t he v en t ra l ( F igu re 1 25 ) . I t i sv e ry s moo th tex tu red a nd h a s t he t yp ica l " smea red o n " a ppea rance o f p o l i sh o n wood w o rk ing t oo l s . T he h igh ly d eve loped p o l i sh u sua l ly e x tend s 2 0pm t o 3 0pm f r om t he e dge . A z one o f l i gh te r p o l i sh o r s moo th ing u sua l ly e x tend sf r om 4 0 pm t o6 0 pm f r om t he e dge . S t r ia t ions : P o s s ib le s t r ia t ion s a re p re sen t i nt he p o l i sh o n t he e dge o ft wo t oo l s ( 80 -9 , 8 0 -10 ) . T hey a re o r ien ted b e tween 9 0 a nd 15 d eg ree st ot he e dge . S t r ia t ions ( SE M ) : Af ew p o s s ib le s t r ia t ion sw e re n o ted o n t oo l 1 2 -5 a tv e ry h igh magn i f ica t ion s . C ompa r i sons : S chu t t ( 1 982 : Append ix 2 ) u sed o ne g l a s sy b a sa l t t oo l t o w h i t t le g reen p op la r . S he o b se rved e dge r ound ing a nd b i fac ia l m ic ro f lake s ca r s ( f ea the r , s t ep a nd s nap ) , b u t n o p o l i sh o r s t r ia t ion s . W i th t he e xcep t ion o ft he p o l i sh a nd s t r ia t ion s , t h i sw ea rp a t tern i ss im i la r t o t ha t o b served i nt he p re sen t s t udy .

7 .8 .8 W h i t t l ing Dry

Wood

B a l sam p op la ra nd S a ska toon c u t d own o ne mon th p r io r t o e xper imen ta t ion we re u sed i nt he d ry w ood wh i t t l ing e xper imen t s . T he b a l sam p op la rb ranch w a s f i r s t d eba rked b y wh i t t l ing i n o ne e xpe r imen t a nd w a s w h i t t led t o ap o in t i n a no the r . One e xpe r imen t i n vo lved t h inn ing t he e nd o f S a ska toon b ranche s . V i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s ( Too l s 2 7 -8 ,44 -7 , 4 4 -9 , 1 61 -15 ; F igure s 1 43f , 1 44c -e ) w ere u sed f o r 4t o 1 3 m inu te s ( 200 -550 s t roke s ) . T he t oo l sw ere f ound t ob e e f fec t ive wh i t t l ing i mp lemen t s . Mic rof lake S ca r s : T he re a re n ea r ly e qua l p ercen tage s o f f ea ther - ( 38 .7 % ) a nd s t ep te rm ina ted ( 35 .8 % ) m ic rof lake s ca r s . L e s s c o m mon i ng enera l a re h inge t e rm ina ted s ca r s ( 19 .0 % ) , wh ich , h oweve r , a re v ery c ommon ( 39 .0 % ) o nt he t oo l u sed t o wh i t t le S a ska toon . T h ree q ua r te r s ( 75 .6 % ) o ft he s ca r s a re s ma l li ns i ze . T he v en t ra lt od or sa lm ic ro f lake s ca rr a t io i s. 7 :1 a nd t he re i sa na verage o f 10 .8 s ca r sp e rt oo l . On t he v en t ra le dge -a spec tm ic ro f lake s ca r sa re s ca t te red i ns ma l l g roup s o f s ca r s i n o ve r lapp ing a nd s uperpo sed c on f igu ra t ion s . On t he d o r sa l a spec t , s ca r s a re c on t inuou s o r n ea r ly c on t inuou s a long t he u sed e dge , a l so i n o ve r lapp ing a nd s uperpo sed c on f igu ra t ion s . Edg eR ound ing : Edge sa re r ounded o rb lun ted . P o l i sh : S ca t tered p a tche s o f b r igh t , s moo th -p i t ted p o l i sh a re a s soc ia ted w i th u sua l ly more e x ten s ive d u l l t o b r igh t , g ra iny a rea s a long t he e dge s a nd b o th e dge -a spec t s o ft he t oo l s . B r igh t , s moo th ,b u tu np i t ted p o l i sh i sa l so p re sen t .

9 9

S t r ia t ion s : On t oo l 2 7 -8 n ume rou s s ho r ts t r ia t ion s a r ep re sen t o n t he p o l i sh a nd a re o r ien ted a to rn ea rr i gh ta ng le st ot he e dge . C ompa r i son s : S chu t t ( 1982 :Append i x 2 ) u sed o ne g l a s sy b a sa l t t oo l t ow h i t t le d ry p ine . S he d idn ' t o b serve p o l i sh , e dge r ound ing o r s t r ia t ion s . A s i n t he p re sen t e xpe r imen t s m ic ro f lake s c a r s w e re b i fa c ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted , a l though p r ima r i ly o nt he v en t ra la spec t , a nd w e re ma in ly f ea the r -o rs t ep term ina ted .

1 00

CHAPTER 8

S TAT IST ICAL ANALYSIS OF MICROFLAKE S CAR VAR IABLES

8 . 1 I n t roduc t ion S ta t i s t ica l t e chn ique s h ave o n ly o cca s iona l ly b een a pp l ied t o m ic rowea r r e sea rch p rob lem s ( s ee N ance 1 977 ; S ta f fo rd 1 977 ; Ode ! ! 1 977 ; S iege l 1 984 ; Vaughan 1 985 ; S chu t t 1 982 ; L ewen s te in 1 981 ) , a l though much o f t he o b serva t iona ld a ta i s amenab le t os uch a na ly se s . I nt h i sc hap te rt he u t i l i ty o ft wo mu l t iva r ia te t e chn ique s f o r o b jec t ive f unc t iona l c l a s s i f ica t ion i se va lua ted . I n a dd i t ion , t he u sefu lne s so fm ic ro f lake s ca ra t t r ibu te si sa s se s sed . A l l s t a t i s t ica l a na ly se s w e re u nde r taken a t t he Un iver s i ty o f S a ska tchewan w i th S PSS -X ( Noru s i s 1 985 ) o n a VAX 8 600 c ompu te r u s ing v e r s ion 4 . 3 o f t he V MS o pera t ing s y s tem .

8 . 2 C or re la t ions B e tw een I nd epend en ta nd D epend en t V ar iab l e s 8 .2 .1 I n t roduc t ion

T he S pea rman Rank O rde r c or re la t ion c oe f f ic ien t ( Leach 1 979 :190 -194 ; Thoma s 1 976 :395 -405 ) w a s u sed t o d e te rm ine t he s t reng th a nd d i rec t ion o f r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween s e lec ted i ndependen t a nd d ependen t v a r iab le s . A n on p a rame t r ic c o r re la t ion c oef f ic ien t w a s c ho sen b ecau se t he u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion s o fp a rame t r ic mea su re s c an n o tb e me tw i th t he d a ta . T he v a r iab le s a re d e f ined o n T ab le s 1 0 a nd 1 a nd t he S pea rman c o r re la t ion c oe f f ic ien t s a re p re sen ted o nT ab le s 1 2a nd 1 3 . 1 01

Tabl e 1 0 . Dependent definiti ons.

Abbrevi at ion

vari abl e

abbreviati ons

Definiti on

1 .

DS TEF 'S

Number

of

small

2 . 3 .

DSTEF M

Number

C : ) +

medi um

OS TEFL

Number

of

large dorsal

4 .

DSTEPV

Number

0+

very

5 .

DHI NGES

Number

6 . 7 . B . 9 .

DHINGEM .

small

Number

DHI N t3EL

Number

of o f of o f of

1( 1

OH INGE :V OF EA THS DF EATHM DFEATHL OF EATH V

and

Number Number

dorsal

st ep

dorsal

large

scars. s cars. scars.

st e p

dorsal

dorsal

medi um

st e p

step

h i nqe

dorsal

scars.

scars.

hi nge

scar s,

scars. very large dorsal h inge scars. small dorsal feather scars. medi um dorsal feather scars. large

dorsal

h i nge

dorsal

feather

Number

0+

Number

of

large

Numb er

o f

very

DSNAF 'S DSNAFM

Number

of

small

Nu mber

of

medi um

DSNAF 'L DSNAF 'V VS TEFS

Number

large

Number Numb er

of

20,

VS TEFM VS TE FL VST EF 'V

of o f of o f

Nu mber

of

very

2 1.

VHINGES

Number

of

2

VH INGEM

small

Number

o f

VHI NGEL

Number

of

medi um ventral h inge scars. large ventral h i nga scars.

1 1.

1 2. 1 :. 1 4. i s. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8, 1 9.

2

Number Nu mber

very

large

dorsal dorsal

large

medi um large

VHINGEV

Number

o f

VFEATHS

very

Number

of

small

snap

st e p

step st e p

ventral

ventral

large

scars.

dorsal

ventral

large

h inge

VF EA THM

Nu mber

o f

VFEATHL

m

Number

of

28.

large

VF EAT HV

Number

of

very

29.

Number

of

small

30.

VSNA F 'S VSN A F 'M

Number

3 1.

of

medi um

VS NA F 'L

Number

of

large

VSNAF 'V

Number

of

very

VII ) 15MAL

Total Total

number

number

of

' b tal

n u mber

of

large

To tal 1 0 tal

number

of

very

n umber

of

sma . E 1 dorsal

number

0+

m

number

of

large

34.

V T DT M E .0 VT l iT LARG

36.

VTOT VL RG

37 .

D I OT s t iA L

38.

I )TOT ME T

9

DTC JTLARc ;

Total 1C 3tal

scars. scars. step

scars.

scars.

ventral h inge scars. feather scars.

26.

e d ium

o f

scars.

scars_

ventral

27.

-

scars.

snap

ventral

scar s.

scars.

snap

ventral

scars,

feat her

snap

dorsal

small

24. 25.

dorsal ,

ventral ventral

large

ventral

ventral

snap

ventral ventral

large

feather feather

snap snap

ventral

scars. scars.

feather scars.

s c ar5.

scars. scars. medi um ventral scars.

small

snap

ventral

ventral large

e d ium

s c : rs.

ventral ,

dorsal , dorsal

scare.

scar s. scars. scsrs. r : ç )nt

1 02

s cars.

scars.

1RL I'a d

Tabl e

1 0 .

( conti nued)

Abbrevi ati on

40.

DTor VL RC ;

41.

VTOT STE F

Defi ni ti on

Total

number

of

very

Total

number

of

ventral

large

step

dorsal

lotal Total

number number

of of

ventral ventral

h i nge scars. feather scars.

42.

V I OTH INC ;

43.

V TOT FEAT

44.

VTO ISNAF '

45.

Total

number

of

ventral

[ )TOTS TEF '

Total

number

of

dorsal

step

Total

number

of

dorsal

h i nge

Total

number

of

dorsal

feather

46.

DTOTH ING

47.

DT 01 FE AT

48.

DT 018 NAP

49.

SMALL PER

5 ' : ).

MEDF 'ER

51.

53.

LARGEF ER

regardl ess

of

type.

Percentage regardl ess

of of

type.

56.

very large type.

scars

step

on

of

STE PPE R

size.

Percentage

of

DORSFER

hi nc ie S i zC.

scars

scars

of

regardl ess

of

feather S i ze.

Percentage

of

snap

si

on

too]

on

scars

scars

tool

reqardj , cs.

too] . on

on

tool

too] .

tool

rpqardi es=

' .

Per centage toc ,i

0+ st rer iar r1

Percent age types

on

scars

Fercentage

on 58.

scars.

tool

large

of of

HI NGSTEP

on

type.

of 57.

scars

u m

of

Fercentaqe

SNAFFER

Medi

of

regardl ess Percentage

FEATHPER

scars.

Percentage

regardl e ss of 55.

scars. scars.

regard 1ess VL AREF 'E R

HI NGEF 'E :R

snap

Total number of dorsal snap scar ' s. f :errentaqe of small scars on tool

of 54.

scars.

scars.

and

o ' 4 -

n s

tot .aj

siz es

1 03

on

and h i , n c ie of s 7 j. j .Z :?. r ' umher « dorsal

c : t -

scars s ' : ars

a 'Spor -t.

co ( T ib i . ned of

a i 1

Tabl e

1 1.

I n dependent

vari abl e

abbr ev i ati on3

angl e

used

and

defi ni ti ons.

SFI NE NG:

Spi ne-pl an e Rounded

1F PRES:

to

Pressure is

of

nearest

appli ed

ranked

as

part

of

tool.

depree.

to

tool

dun

r ig

use.

Pressure

foll ows:

l Light 2=Li qht-t .o-Moder ate 3 Mod er ate 4= Floder ate-to-heavy 5 heavy HARDTHRE:

Rel ati ve 3-part 1=so+t

contact

materi al

hardness

ranked

on

a

ranked

on

a

scal e: ( butcheri n ,

pl ants)

2=medi um ( hi de, wood) 7—hard ( bone, antl er) H RDFI VE:

Rel ati ve 5-part

SPECONT:

contact

materi al

hardness

scal e:

l=soft ( fl esh) 2 medi um-soft ( fresh

hi de,

pl ants)

3=medi um-hard

wood,

dry

4=hard

( dry

5=very

hard

Specifi c

( fresh

wood,

( unsoaked

contact

esti mated

soaked

f l esh fl esh,

bone

-. =fi

f l esh,

bone,

and

scal es,

5=deer

f l esh,

fat

6 deer

fl esh,

fat,

p l ant

pl ant

9=fl esh

si de

l l =deer

hi de,

12=deer

bone

16=dry

and

order

of

and

scal es

and

hi de

hi de

and

bone

stems of

of

hi de hi de

bone, and

wood

wood

skin

ski n

cartil aqe.

fl esh dehaired

( birch)

15 fresh

in

ski n

defl eshed,

14=bar' :

ranked

stems

s i de

10=hai r

13=dry

antl er)

fat

4 fi sh

8=dry

and

materi al s

i=deer

7=qreen

bone

hardness:

2 fi sh sh

hi de)

antl er)

and

and

1 7=soaked

antl er

18=soaked

bone

bark

bark

19=unsoaked

antl er

20=unsoaked

bone

1 04

h i de

fl esh

and

fat

On ly s o me i ndependen t v a r iab le s l end t hem se lve s t o r ank ing a nd t he f o l low ing we re u sed i n t h i s s t udy : s p ine -p lane a ng le , a pp l ied p re s su re , c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne s s r anked o n a t h ree -pa r t r e la t ive h a rdne s s s ca le , c on tac t ma te r ia l r anked o n af i ve -pa r t r e la t ive h a rdne s s s ca le , a nd a l l c on tac t ma te r ia l s r anked i n o rde r o fr e la t ive h a rdne s s ( Tab le 1) . A l l o ft he d ependen tv a r iab le s c ho sen w ere a t t r ibu te s o fm ic rof lake s ca r s : s ca r s i ze , s ca r t e rm ina t ion t y pe a nd s ca r l o ca t ion ( dor sa l o r v en t ra l a spec t ) ( Tab le 1 0 ) . M ic rof lake s ca r a t t r ibu te s w e re c ho sen r a the r t han o ther t ype s o f w ea r f o r s evera l r ea son s : ( 1 ) t he a t t r ibu te s c ou ld b e o b jec t ive ly o b se rved ( un l ike p o l i sh t ex tu re o r r ef lec t iv i ty o r amoun t o f e dge r ound ing ) ; ( 2 ) t he a t t r ibu te s w ere p re sen t o n a lmo s t a l l o f t he t oo l s ( un l ike s t r ia t ion s , e dge r ound ing o r p o l i sh ) ; a nd ( 3 ) e a se o f o b serva t ion t he a t t r ibu te s c an b e o b se rved w i th l ow magn i f ica t ion s ( un l ike p o l i sh o r s t r ia t ion s ) .

8 .2 .2

R e su l t so ft h eS p earman C o r r e la t ion s

T he S pea rman c o r re la t ion s o n ly i nd ica ted s i gn if ican t r e la t ion sh ip s i n t h ree a rea s . T hese a re d i scu s sed b e low . T here i s ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween s p ine -p lane a ng le a nd m ic rof lake s ca r t e rm ina t ion t ype . T he i ndependen tv a r iab le S P INEANG i sc o r re la ted w i th t he d ependen t v a r iab le s VTOTSNAP , DTOTSNAP , DTOTSTEP , STEPPER a nd SNAPPER . T he re i s an ega t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween s p ine -p lane a ng le a nd s nap s ca r s too l s w i th h igh s p ine -p lane a ng le s h ave f ewe r s nap s ca r s t han t oo l s w i th l ow s p ine p lane a ng le s ( Tab le s 1 2 , 1 3 ) . T he re i sa l so a p o s i t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween s p ine -p lane a ng le a nd s t ep s ca r s too l s w i th h igh s p ine -p lane a ng le s h ave more s t ep s ca r s t han t oo l s w i th l ow s p ine -p lane a ng le s ( Tab le s 1 2 , 1 3 ) . T he se c or re la t ion s s uppo r t s im i la r o b serva t ion s made b y o ther r e sea rcher s w i thou tt he b enef i to fs t a t i s t ica la na ly s i s ( e .g . C o t te re l l e ta l . 1 979 :134 ; T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 :191 ) . T he e xp lana t ion f o r t he se c o r re la t ion s i sb eyond t he s cope o f t h i s s t udy , a l though h igh s p ine -p lane a ng led e dge s h ave t h icke r , s t ronge r e dge s t han l ower a ng led t oo l s a nd wou ld t he re fo re b e l e s s p rone t o s napp ing d ur ing u se . L awrence ( 1979 :119 ) n o ted t ha tf r ac tu re so nt h ick e dge st end t oh ave h inge o rs t ep t e rm ina t ion s . T here i s ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne s s a nd m ic rof lake s ca r s i ze . T he i ndependen t v ar iab le s APPRES , HARDTHRE , HARDF IVE , S PECONT , wh ich r ep re sen t c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne s s , a re c o r re la ted w i th t he d ependen t v a r iab le s VTOTS MAL , DTOTS MAL , VTOT MED , VTOTLARG , VTOTVLRG , DTOTS MAL , DTOTMED , DTOTLARG , DTOTVLRG , SMALLPER , MEDPER , LARGEPER , a nd VLARGPER . T here i s aw eak n ega t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne s s a nd s ma l l s ized m ic rof lake s ca r s too l s u sed o n h a rde r c on tac t ma ter ia l s t end t o h ave f ewe r s ma l l s ca r s t han t oo l s u sed o n s o f te r c on tac t ma te r ia l s ( Tab le s 1 2 , 1 3 ) . T he c o r re la t ion c oef f ic ien t b e tween s ma l l s ca r f r equency a nd c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne s s i so n ly v e ry w eak ly n ega t ive a nd i n af ew c a se s w eak ly p o s i t ive . T he c o r re la t ion c oe f f ic ien t b e tween p ercen tage o f s ma l l s ca r s a nd c on tac t ma te r ia l 1 05

Tabl e

1 2.

Spearman

Correl ati ons and

independent

(N=90). on

Tabl es

Rank

between

vari abl es

Vari abl e

1 0 and

Order

sel ected an

defi niti ons

dependent . a ll

tool s

can

be

found

1 1.

INDEPENDENT

DEPENDENT

CORRELAr I ON

VARIABLE

VARIABLE

COEFFICIENT

SF INEANG

VTO TSNAP

-

.

4867

DT UT SNAP

-

.

52 44

DTOT ST E F '

+.

AFPRE S

HARDTHRE

VT DISMAL

±.

o927

VT UlME D

+.

5381

VTO TLARG

+.

5848

VT OT VLRG

4

.391 8

DTOTSNAL

-

DTOTMED

+.

33 i

DT UT LARG

±.

3961

DT UT VLRE 1

4 -.

400 :3

VT 0TSMAL VT UT MED

±.

2564

VT tJ TLARG

4 -.

42?2

VIOl VLRb

+.

3952

DT 0TSNAL

+.

1 491

D T OT ME .D I )TOIL ARG DTOTVLRE , HARDFI VE

5043

-

4

.

.

( '769

1291

.3887

+.

3745

+.

411 5

.

( ) /) 14

VTOT SMAL

-

VIOl HE I )

+.

VTO TLAR G

+.

4083

VTOT VL RE i

+.

4 .329

+.

3521

+.

3065

D i OTVLRG

±.

379 :3

V i C iT SMAL VTOT MED

4.

3545

VTOTL R ' . ;

+. ±.

4421 4 1 .8 :3

+

L +

±

4 : . oi

11 92

D T DISMAL DT DIME D I )TO ILARI ;

S FECON I

VT UT VLRE D ii iT ' SM v; L D I M MED 0 1 01 Li -G [ >TU I VLRG 0 1 0 1H INL

1 06

Table

1 3.

Spearman

Rank

Order

Correlations f or all tools ( N=90). The variable definitions are presented on Table t O and I. Percentages o f microflake scar type and s ize are used rather than raw counts as on Table 1 2.

INDEPENDENT VARI ABLE

DEPENDENT

CORRELATION

VARI ABLE

COEFFICIENT

SPINEANG

STEPPER SNAPPER

APP RE S

HARDTHRE

SMALLP ER MEDPER LAR GEP ER VLARGPER

5 295 + .5082 +. 5 414 +. 3780

STEPPER

+ .1692 +. 2 792 .3158 . 0350 +. 3393 .4429 +. 3645

H INGEPER FEAT HP ER SNAPPER H INGSTEP SMAL LP ER MEDPER LARGEPER

HARDFIVE

-

+.

5151 4 755

VLARGPER

+.

STEPPER

+. 0911

H INGEPER FEAT HP ER SNAPPER SMALL PER MEDPER LARGEP ER VLARGPER SPECONT

+ .3860 . 6056

-

+. 2622

. 1797 . 0493 .3977 -

-

3 751 + .4692 +.

+.

4 433

STEPPER

+. 1485

H INGEPER FEATHPER SNAPPER H INGSTEP SMALLP ER

+.

MEDPER LAR GEP ER VLARGPER

107

3 029 .2536 . 0311 + .3355 -

.4408 + .4207 +. 5137 + .4729

h a rdne s s i sa l so n o t s t rong ly n ega t ive ( Tab le s 1 2 , 1 3 ) . T he re i s a l so a w eak p o s i t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween c on tac t ma te r ia lh a rdne s sa nd med ium t ov e ry l a rge s i zed m ic ro f lake s ca r s too l s u sed o n h a rder c on ta c t ma ter ia l s h ave mo re l a rge s ca r s t han t oo l s u sed o n s of ter c on tac t ma ter ia l s ( Tab le 1 2 , 1 3 ) . I n s umma ry , a t oo l u sed w i th h eavy a pp l ied p re s su re o n h a rde r c on tac t ma te r ia l s w i l l r e su l t i n mo re l a rge s ca r s b e ing r e moved t han a t oo l u sed w i th l i gh t p re s sure o n s of te r c on tac t ma ter ia l s . T he se r e su l t s s uppo r t as t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s b y L ewen s te in ( 1981 :182 ) a nd t he n on s ta t i s t ica l o b serva t ion s o f o the r r e sea rcher s ( e .g . Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken 1 980 :110 ; C o t tere l l a nd Kamm inga 1 979 :111 ; T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 :189 ) . T he re i s ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne s s a nd m ic ro f lake s ca r t e rm ina t ion t y pe . T he i ndependen t v a r iab le s APPRES , HARDTHRE , HARDF IVE , a nd S PECONT a re c o r re la ted w i th t he d ependen t v a r iab le s DTOTH ING , FEATHPER , H INGEPER . T here i s aw eak n ega t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne s s a nd f ea the r te rm ina ted m ic ro f lake s ca r s t oo l s u sed o n h a rder c on tac t ma ter ia l s t end t o h ave a l ower p e rcen tage o f f ea the r s ca r s t han t oo l s u sed o n s of te r ma te r ia l s ( Tab le 1 3 ) . The re i s av ery w eak p o s i t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne ss a nd h inge t e rm ina ted m ic ro f lake s ca r s too l s u sed o n h a rde r c on tac t ma ter ia l s h ave more h inge te rm ina ted s ca r s t han t oo l s u sed o n s of te r c on tac t ma ter ia l s ( Tab le s 1 2 , 1 3 ) . T he se r e su l t s a ga in s uppo r t n on s ta t i s t ica l o b serva t ion s made b y o the r r e sea rche r s ( e .g . Ode l l 1 981 :200 ,204 ; Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken 1 980 :101 ; C o t te re l l e t a l . 1 979 :133 ; C o t te re l l a nd Kamm inga 1 979 :111 ; L aw rence 1 979 :119 ) .

8 .2 .3 S umma r ya nd D i scu s s ion o fC or r e la t ion R e su l t s

I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t n one o ft he c o r re la t ion s a re p a r t icu la r ly s t rong a nd t hu s o n ly i nd ica te w eak r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween s ome m ic ro f lake s ca r a t t r ibu te s a nd i ndependen t v a r iab le s . T he S pea rman c o r re la t ion s g enera l ly a g ree w i th o b serva t ion s made b yo ther r e sea rche r sr ega rd ing r e la t ion sh ip sb e tween t oo lu se a nd m ic ro f lake s ca r a t t r ibu te s . Howeve r , o ne a s ser t ion made b y e ar l ie r r e sea rche r s i sn o t s uppo r ted : s t ep s ca r s a re n o t c o r re la ted w i th c on tac t ma ter ia l h a rdne s s , c on t ra ry t o t he o p in ion s o f Ode ! ! a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken ( 1980 :101 ) , T r ingham e ta l . ( 1974 :189 ) a nd L aw rence ( 1979 :119 ) .

8 .3 C lu s te r Ana l y s i s

8 .3 .1 I n t roduc t ion

C lu s te r a na ly s i s ( Snea th a nd S oka l 1 973 ; Rome sbu rg 1 984 ) i sc ommon ly u sed i na rchaeo logy , b u t h a s o n ly r a re ly b een a pp l ied t om ic rowea r r e sea rch . Nance ( 1977 ) u sed c l u s te r a na ly s i s i n a n a t temp t t o d e te rm ine i fg roups o fv a r iab le s w e re c o r re la ted w i th morpho log ica lt oo lt y pe si na na s semb lage o fP a laeo Ind ian 1 08

Table 1 4. Agglomeration methods and distance m easures used f or cluster analyses ( see Norusis 1 985:184).

Agglomeration Method

D istance Measure

Average L inkage Between G roups

Euclidean Squared

Euclidean

City Block Cosine

Euclidean

Average L inkage W ithin G roups

Squared

Euclidean

City Block Cosine

S ingle

Euclidean

L inkage

Squared

Euclidean

Cosine

Complete

Euclidean

L inkage

Squared Cosine

1 09

Euclidean

t oo l s , w h i le S i ege l ( 1984 ) emp loyed c l u s te r a na ly s i s o n a n e thnog raph ic c o l lec t ion o fE sk imo e nd sc raper st od e term ine t he m a ter ia l s e ach wa su sed o n . T he p rob lem w i th a pp ly ing c l u s te r a na ly s i s t o a n a s semb lage o f t oo ls o f u nknown f unc t ion i st ha t t he mean ing s o f t he d er ived c l u s ter s a re o pen t o s eve ra l i n terp re ta t ion s ( s ee S i ege l 1 984 , 1 986 ; B amfor th 1 986 ; Hayden 1 986 ) . T he u nce r ta in ty o f t he s i gn i f icance o f t he c l u s te r s , o r d oub t i f m ean ing fu l c l u s te r s h ave e ven b een p roduced , f o rce s t he r e sea rcher t o r e in t roduce a s ub jec t ive e l emen t i n to t he s t udy a f ter u s ing a n o b jec t ive m e thod t o g roup t he t oo l s . Hayden ( 1986 :67 ) r ecommend s t ha t mu l t iva r ia te s t a t i s t ica l t echn ique s b e t horough ly t e s ted o n e xpe r imen ta l t oo l s t o e va lua te t he u se fu lne s s o f t he a l gor i thm s a nd t he v a r iab le s b efo re t he se t e chn ique s a re a pp l ied t o t he a na ly s i s o f a rchaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s . T he c l u s te r a na ly se s d i scu s sed b e low a nd t he d i sc r im inan t f unc t ion a na ly se s d i scu s sed i n S ec t ion 8 . 4 w e re u nde r taken w i th e xpe r imen ta l d a ta t oe va lua te t he a pp rop r ia tene s s o ft h e se s t a t i s t ica l t e chn ique s f o rf unc t iona lc l a s s i f ica t ion a nd t oi d en t i f yf unc t iona l ly s i gn if i can tv a r iab le s . 8 .3 .2 C lu s te r Ana l y s i sR e su l t s

M ic ro f lake s ca rv a r iab le s o n9 0v i t reou sb a sa l tt oo l sw ere s ub jec ted t os evera l c omb ina t ion s o f c l u s ter ing me thod s a nd d i s tance m ea su re s ( Tab le 1 4 ) . S evera l c omb ina t ion s w e re mo re o r l e s s s ucce s sfu l i n s epa ra t ing t he t oo l s i n to g roup s h av ing f unc t iona l mean ing , a l though t he s i ng le l i nkage ( o r n ea re s t n e ighbou r ) me thod p roduced " c ha in ing " ( Doran a nd Hod son 1 975 :176 ; S nea th a nd S oka l 1 973 :223 ) a nd w a s u nu sab le . T he c omp le te l i nkage ( o r f u r thes t n e ighbo r ) me thod c on s i s ten t ly p roduced t he b e s tr e su l t sr ega rd le s so ft he d i s tance m ea sure u sed . C o s ine c on s i s ten t ly p roved t o b e t he b e s t d i s tance mea sure o f s evera l a va i lab le w i th S PSS -X ( s ee Noru s i s 1 985 :184 ) , a nd p robab ly wo rked b e s t b ecau se o f i t s p ropen s i ty f o r i g no r ing s i ze d i sp lacemen t s i n v ar iab le s , t hu s g roup ing c a se s o nt he p a t te rn ing i nt he i rv a r iab le p ro f i le s ( Rome sburg 1 984 :100 1 01 ) . C onver t ing t he v a r iab le s i n to s t anda rd ized Z score s made v e r y l i t t le d i f ference t ot he r e su l t s . F igu re 2 9 i st he d endrog ram r e su l t ing f r om c l u s ter ing t he 3 2 r aw f l ake v a r iab le s u s ing c o s ine a s t he d i s tance mea su re a nd c omp le te l i nkage a s t he a gg lomera t ion me thod . T h i s d end rog ram i s c omp r i sed o f 5 ma jo r c l us ter s ( c lu s ter s A -E ) w h ich a re d i scu s sed i n t e rm s o f b o th t h e i ndependen t v a r iab le s ( e .g . a c t ion , c on tac t ma te r ia l s , n umbe r o fu se s t roke s ) a nd d ependen t v a r iab le s ( e .g . m ic ro f lake s c a r a t t r ibu te s ) o f t he t oo l s . T he i ndependen t v a r iab le s a re d i scu s sed f i r s t . I tc an b e s een t ha t ma jo r c l u s te r s Aa nd C a re a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly c ompr ised o ft oo l su sed w i th t r an sve r se a c t ion s ( 3 1 o u t o f3 8o r8 1 .6 % )w h i le ma jo r c l u s ter s Da nd E a re a lmo s te xc lu s ive ly c ompr i sed o ft oo l su sed w i th l ong i tud ina l a c t ion s ( 39 o u t o f4 7 o r8 3 .0 % ) ( F igu re 2 9 ) . C lu s te r Bc on s i s t s o f as ma l l ( n=5 ) , m ixed g roup o f l ong i tud ina l ly ( 60 % ) a nd t r an sver se ly ( 40% ) u sed t oo l s . T he t oo l s i n 1 10

0

5

15

10

20

25

Figure 29. Dendrogram produced by clustering 90 vitreous basalt tools using 32 microflake scar variables (see Table 10:1-32). Cosine was the distance measure employed and complete linkage was the agglomeration method used. Each tool is identified by its number on the far left. Tools used with transverse actions are indicated by black rectangles and tools used with longitudinal actions are indicated by split circles.

1 11

c l u s te r Ba re a l lv e ry l i gh t ly u sed ( 60 t o 1 00 s t roke s )a nd t he refo re p robab ly h ave n o t d eve loped s ca r p a t tern s c l ea r ly r ef lec t ing t he i r u se , p reven t ing t hem f r om b e ing g rouped w i th t oo l su sed w i th t he s ame a c t ion s . T he c l u s te r s h ave s o me mean ing w i th r ega rd t oc on tac t ma ter ia l r anked o n t he b a s i s o f h a rdne s s . C lu s ter A i sc omp r i sed a lmo s t e n t i re ly o f t oo l s u sed t r an sve r se ly o n med ium c on tac t ma ter ia l s ( wood a nd h ide ) , w h i le C lu s te r C i s ma in ly c omp r i sed o f t oo l s u sed o n b o th med ium ( wood a nd h ide ) a nd h ard c on tac t ma ter ia l s ( bone a nd a n t le r ) . C lu s ter Dl i sc ompr i sed o f t oo l s u sed l ong i tud ina l ly o n s of t a nd h a rd c on tac t ma te r ia l s ( f le sh , b one a nd a n t le r ) , wh i le C lu s te r D2 i s ma in ly c omp r i sed o ft oo l s u sed l ong i tud ina l ly o n med ium a nd h a rd c on tac t ma te r ia l s ( wood , h ide , b one a nd a n t le r ) . C lu s te r s E l a nd E 2 a re b o th c omp r i sed o f t oo l s u sed l ong i tud ina l ly o n s o f t , med ium a nd h a rd c on tac t ma ter ia l s . C lu s te r E 3 i s ma in ly c ompr i sed o f t oo l s u sed l ong i tud ina l ly o n s of t c on tac t ma te r ia l s ( p lan t s ,f l e sh ) , a l though af ew u sed o n med ium ma te r ia l s( h ide , wood ) a re a l so p re sen t . T he v en t ra l t od o r sa lm ic rof lake s ca rr a t io ( v :d r a t io ) ( s ee C hap ter 6 . 6 .2 ) wa s n o t o ne o f t he d ependen t v a r iab le s u sed i n t h i s a na ly s i s , h owever , m ic rof lake s ca r l o ca t ion ( do r sa l o r v en t ra l e dge -a spec t ) wa s u sed a nd r ef lec t s t he s a me i n forma t ion a bou t s ca r d i s t r ibu t ion . C lu s te r s A a nd C h ad v :d r a t io s t y p ica l o f t r an sve r se ly u sed t oo l s ( Tab le 2 7 ) a nd c l u s te r s Da nd E h ad r a t io s c ha rac te r i s t ic o fl ong i tud ina l ly u sed t oo l s ( Tab le 1 5 ) . C lu s te r Ci sc ompr i sed o f t oo l su sed o n med ium a nd h a rd c on tac t ma te r ia l s wh i le c l u s te r A t oo l s w ere u sed p r ima r i ly o n med ium c on tac t ma te r ia l s . M ic rof lake v a r iab le s wh ich r ef lec t c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdnes s , s uch a s t e rm ina t ion t ype a nd s i ze ( s ee s ec t ion 8 . 2 ) a re d i s t r ibu ted a sf o l low s b e tween t he t wo c l u s te r s : c l u s te r A h a s a much h ighe r p ercen tage o f f ea ther te rm ina ted s ca r s , al ower p e rcen tage o fh inge term ina ted s ca r s , a nd ah igher p ercen tage o f s ma l l s ca r s t han c l u s ter C ( Tab le 1 5 ) . C lu s te r Dl i sc omp r i sed o ft oo l s u sed o n b o th s of t a nd h a rd ma te r ia l s , wh i le c l u s te r D2 c on s i s t s o ft oo l s u sed o n med ium a nd h a rd c on tac t ma te r ia l s . T he refo re , c l u s ter D l d ependen t v a r iab le s a s a g roup s hou ld r ef lec ta no ve ra l ls of te rc on tac t ma te r ia l a gg rega te t han c l u s ter D2 . T h i s i s , i n f a c t , t he c a se : c l u s te r Dl h a s ah i ghe r p ercen tage o f f e a ther t e rm ina ted s ca r s , al ower p e rcen tage o f h inge te rm ina ted s ca r s a nd a h igher p ercen tage o fs ma l l s ca r s t han c l u s te r D2 ( Tab le 1 5 ) . C lu s ter s E l a nd E 2 a re c ompr i sed o ft oo l s u sed o n c on tac t ma te r ia l s o fa l l h a rdne s se s , wh i le c l u s te r E 3 t oo l s w e re ma in ly u sed o n s of t ma ter ia l s . T h i s i s r ef lec ted i n t he c on tac t ma te r ia l s en s i t ive v a r iab le s : c l u s te r E 3 h a s ah i ghe r p ercen tage o f f ea ther t e rm ina ted s ca r s , al owe r p ercen tage o f h inge te rm ina ted s ca r s a nd a h igher p ercen tage o fs ma l ls ca r st han c l u s te r sE l a nd E 2( Tab le 1 5 ) .

8 . 3 .3 S umma ry a nd D i s cu s s ion o fC lu s t e rA na l y s i sR e su l t s I n s u mma ry , t oo l s u sed w i th t r an sve r se o r l ong i tud ina l a c t ion s w ere c on s i s ten t ly g rouped t oge the r . A s w e l l , t oo l s u sed o n s im i la r c on tac t ma ter ia l s t ended t o b e g rouped t oge the r w i th in t he ma jo r c l u s te r s o f l ong i tud ina l ly a nd 1 12

T able 1 5. Selected dependent variable distribution summary f or clusters A-E on t he c luster analysis dendrogram ( Figure 2 9)

CLUSTER

H ICROFLAKE

SCAR

VARIABLES

% OF SHALL SCARS

% OF H INGE SCARS

% OF FEATH SCARS

V :D SCAR RATIO

A

8 7.5

8 .7

60.8

. 3

B

9 4.0

3 6.5

18. 5

. 6

C

8 3.6

9 .1

2 4.1

. 2

Dl

8 8.2

7 .8

35.8

2 .4

D2

7 7.2

1 9.5

2 3.9

1 .3

E l .

8 3.5

10.7

3 2.4

1 .1

E2

8 7.6

1 8.0

4 5.6

1 .1

E3

8 8.5

2 .7

5 8.0

1 .9

Table 1 6. Dependent variable sets used f or discriminant f unction analysis.

VARIABLE SET

8

DEPENDENT VARI ABLES ON TABLE 10

4 1-48

1 6

3 3-48

3 2

1 -32

113

t r an sve r se ly u sed t oo l s . T h i sa na ly s i sh a s d emon s t ra ted t ha tt he t h ree m ic rof lake a t t r ibu te s o f s i ze , t e rm ina t ion t ype , a nd l o ca t ion c o mb ined i n to 3 2 d ependen t v a r iab le s d o r ef lec t t he f unc t ion o f t he t oo l s a nd t ha t i ti s p os s ib le t o u se o b jec t ive , r epea tab le me thod s t o d e te rm ine t oo l f unc t ion . T he se v a r iab le s r ef lec tt oo la c t ion w e l la nd c on tac t ma te r ia lo n ly f a i r ly . A s d i scu s sed i n s ec t ion 8 . 3 .1 , t he a dvan tage o f emp loy ing c l u s ter a na ly s i s t o t h i s a s semb lage i st ha t s i nce t he f unc t ion s o ft he t oo l s a re k nown , t he u se fu lne s s o f t he c l u s te r ing me thod s emp loyed a nd t he a pp rop r ia tene s s o f t he s e lec ted v a r iab le s f o r s eg rega t ing t he t oo l s i n to f unc t iona l t y pe s c an b e a s ses sed . I n t h i s c a se , c omp le te l i nkage p roved t o b e t he b e s t a gg lome ra t ion me thod , ar e su l t wh ich i sn o t u nexpec ted ( s ee Doran a nd Hod son 1 975 :176 ) . S evera l d i s tance mea su re s r e su l ted i n f unc t iona l ly mean ing fu l l c l u s te r s , b u t c o s ine p roduced t he mo s t c l ea r -cu t f unc t iona l g roup ing s . T he c l u s te r s h ave t he mo s t f unc t iona l mean ing i n r ega rd t o t oo l a c t ion a nd o n ly s econda r i ly i n r ega rd t o c on tac t ma ter ia l . W i thou t p r io r k now ledge i tw ou ld b e a lmo s t i mpo s s ib le t o a ccu ra te ly i n fer c on tac t ma te r ia lf r om a ny o ft he d end rog ram sp roduced . I tb ecame a ppa ren t d u r ing t h i s e xe rc i se t ha t amo re a pp rop r ia te s t a t i s t ica l me thod mu s t e x i s t f o r t he o b jec t ive f unc t iona l c l a s s i f ica t ion o f s t one t oo l s a nd f o r a s se s s ing t he v a l id i ty o f u s ing t he s e lec ted m ic rof lake s ca r v a r iab le s t o i den t i f y v a r iou s t oo l f unc t ion s . A s ea rch o f t he l i tera tu re i nd ica ted t ha t d i sc r im inan t f unc t ion a na ly s i s w ou ld b e p o ten t ia l ly mo re s u i tab le f or a dd re s s ing t he se p rob lem st han c l u s ter a na ly s i s .

8 .4 Discr im inan t Func t ion Ana lys i s

8 .4 .1 I n troduc t ion

T he p a r t ia l s ucce s s o fc l u s ter a na ly s i s i nd ica ted t h e p o ten t ia l o f mu l t iva r ia te s t a t i s t ica l me thod s f o r o b jec t ive f unc t iona l c l a s s if ica t ion . D i sc r im inan t f unc t ion a na ly s i s ( DFA ) i s a mo re s oph i s t ica ted mu l t iva r ia te me thod wh ich h a s b een s ucce s s fu l ly a pp l ied i n r ecen t y ea r s t o a dd re s s s eve ra l a rchaeo log ica l p rob lem s r equ ir ing t he o b jec t ive c l a s s if i ca t ion o f c a se s ( e .g . C hand le r a nd Wa re 1 976 ; B ur ton 1 980 ; Wa lke r 1 980 ; G reave s 1 982 ; Magne 1 985 ; Wa lde 1 985) . DFA h a s o n ly b een u sed i n o ne p rev iou s e xpe r imen ta l m ic rowea r r e search p ro jec t ( S ta f fo rd 1 977 ) a nd i t s a pp l ica t ion h e re i sa na t temp tt od e term ine t he s u i tab i l i ty a nd p o ten t ia l o f t he me thod t o p rov ide o b jec t ive f unc t iona l c l a s s if ica t ion s o f s t one t oo l s b a sed o n s e lec ted m ic rowea r v a r iab le s . A t t he s ame t ime , DFA w i l l p rov ide a n e va lua t ion o ft he u se fu lne s s o ft he c ho sen v a r iab le s ( Tab les 1 0 ,11 ,16 ) a si nd ica to r s o ft oo l a c t ion a nd c on tac t ma ter ia l h a rdne s s . S tepw i se s e lec t ion o f v a r iab le s w a s emp loyed u s ing t he s e lec t ion c r i te r ion o f m in im iz ing W i lk ' s l ambda ( Noru s i s 1 985 :73 -122 ) . D i sc r im inan t f unc t ion a na ly s i s i su sed t o c l a s s i f y c a se s ( i n t h is c a se s t one t oo l s ) i n to mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive g roup s o n t he b a s i s o ft he c ha rac ter i s t ic s o ft he se c a se s ( Noru s i s 1 985 :73 ; A f i f i a nd C la rk 1 984 :247 ) . T h i s me thod d i f f e r s f r om 1 14

c l u s te r a na ly s i s , f a c to r a na ly s i s a nd mu l t i -d imen s iona l s ca l ing , w h ich a re " un superv i sed l e a rn ing t e chn ique " u sed t o s ea rch f o r p a t tern s o r g roup ing s among c a se s (Wo l f f a nd P a r son s 1 983 ) . DFA i s a " s uperv i sed l e a rn ing t echn ique " (Wo l f f a nd P a r son s 1 983 ) w h ich u se s c a se s o f k nown g roup membe r sh ip t o d e term ine l i nea r c omb ina t ion s o f v a r iab le s wh ich r e su l t i n t he b e s t s epa ra t ion s b e tween t he g roup s ( Noru s i s 1 985 :73 ) . Once t h i s h a s b een a ccomp l i shed , c a se s o f u nknown g roup member sh ip c an b e c l a s s i f ied w i th a k nown d eg ree o fa ccu racy . F u r the r , t he v a r iab le s wh ich c on t r ibu te mo s t t o t he c l a s s i f ica t ion c an b e i d en t i f ied ( Noru s i s 1 985 :73 ; A f i f i a nd C la rk 1 984 :247 ) , wh ich a l low s t he d ropp ing o f u n impo r tan t v a r iab le s ( s ee Magne 1 985 f o r a n a rchaeo log ica le xamp le ) . T here a re c er ta in r equ i remen t s o f t he d a ta wh ich a re r ecommended t o b e me ti ft he l i nea r d i sc r im inan t f unc t ion i st o b e o p t ima l , m in im iz ing t he c hance s o f m i sc la ss if ica t ion ( Noru s i s 1 985 :75 ) . A rchaeo log ica l d a ta o f ten d o n o t mee t t he se r equ iremen t s ; f o r tuna te ly , t he me thod i s r obu s t e nough t o s t i l l b e e f f ec t ive , a s l ong a s t he d a ta a re n o t i n e x t reme v io la t ion o f t he r equ iremen t s ( Ha i re ta l . 1 979 :86 -87 ) . T he a ccu racy o ft he d i sc r im inan t f unc t ion s t o s eg rega te c a se s i n to g roup s i n t he p re sen ts t udy wa se s t ima ted u s ing t he f o l low ing t wo me thod s :

1 . Emp ir ica l Me thod ( A f i f i a nd C la rk 1 984 :266 ) : T h i s i s t he s t anda rd mean s o f a s se s s ing t he v a l id i ty o f t he d i sc r im inan t f unc t ion ( DF ) . T he DF i sa pp l ied t o t he s ame s amp le o f c a se s f r om w h ich i tw a s d er ived a nd t he r e su l t s a re p re sen ted i nt abu la r f orm , s how ing t he p ercen tage o f c a se s c or rec t ly c l a s s if ied . T h i s e s t ima te i sb ia sed a nd o f ten o ve re s t ima te s t he a c tua l d eg ree o f a ccu racy b ecau se t he s ame s amp le i s u sed f o r d er iv ing a nd v a l ida t ing t he DF . 2 .C ro s s -Va l ida t ion ( A f i f i a nd C la rk 1 984 :266 ) : T o c i rcumven tt he b ia s p rob lem i nhe ren t i n t he " emp i r ica l " me thod a nd a r r ive a t a n u nb ia sed e s t ima te ,t he DF i sd er ived f r om o ne s amp le a nd a pp l ied t oa no the r .

I n t h i s s t udy t he a ccu racy o f t he DF s w e re f i r s t e s t ima ted u s ing t he emp i r ica l me thod a nd t hen " va l ida ted "b yc l a s s i fy ing 1 0b l ind t e s tt oo l s ( s ee C hap te r9 )n o t u sed t od er ive t he DF s , r e su l t ing i nw ha ta re c on s ide red t ob e r e l iab le , u nb ia sed a ccu racy e s t ima te s . T he i mpo r tance o fi nd iv idua lv a r iab le si nd e r iv ing ad i sc r im inan tf unc t ion c an p e rhap s b e b e s t a s se s sed b y e xam in ing t he c o r re la t ion ( Pea r son c or re la t ion c oe f f ic ien t ) b e tween t he DF a nd t he d ependen t v a r iab le s ( Ha i r e ta l . 1 979 :104 1 05 ; Noru s i s 1 985 :91 -92 ) . T he d ependen tv a r iab le sw i th t he h ighe s t c o r re la t ion s w i th e ach DF a re l i s ted o n T ab le 1 8 , a nd t he i r s i gn if icance i s d i scu s sed i n f o l low ing s ec t ion s . T h ree " s e t s " o f d ependen t v a r iab le s w ere emp loyed i n t he DFA " r un s " ( Tab le 1 6 ) . 1 15

8 . 4 .2 T oo lA c t ion T he a ccu racy o f DFA u s ing t h ree d i f f e ren tv a r iab le s e t s c an b e s een o nT ab le 1 7 . F o rd i sc r im ina t ing l ong i tud ina l ly v st r an sve r s ly u sed t oo l si t make sv e ry l i t t le d i f fe rence i ft he 8 , 1 6 o r 3 2 v a r iab le s e t s a re emp loyed ( Tab le s 1 0 , 1 6 ) . O f i n tere s t i st he f ac t t ha t t he 8 va r iab le s e t i sa s a ccu ra te a s t he o the r s a l though e ach v a r iab le h a s mea su remen t s o n o n ly 2 d imen s ion s , m ic ro f lake s ca r t e rm ina t ion t ype a nd l o ca t ion , i gno r ing t he t h i rd d imen s ion , s ca r s i ze . F ea the r t e rm ina t ion , s ma l l s i ze a nd v en t ra l e dge -a spec t l o ca t ion a re t he v a r iab le s mo s t h igh ly c o r re la ted w i th t he DF ( Tab le 1 8 ) . T he re i sn o d i f fe rence i n a ccu racy b e tween t he 1 6 a nd 3 2 v a r iab le s e t s f o r d i s t ingu i sh ing c u t t ing , wh i t t l ing a nd s c rap ing a c t ion s , a nd t hey a r e b o th s i gn i f ican t ly b e t te r t han t he r e su l t s f r om u s ing t he 8 v a r iab le s e t ( Tab le 1 7 ) . Appa ren t ly s ca r s i ze , wh ich i sn o t r ep re sen ted i n t he 8 -va r iab le s e t , c on t r ibu te s t od i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween t he t h ree a c t ion s . F ea the r - t e rm ina t ion , sma l l s i ze a nd v ery l a rge s i ze a re t he s ca rv a r iab le s mo s t h igh ly c o r re la ted w i th t he D I ' s ( Tab le 1 8 ) . T o s u mma r ize , f ea ther term ina t ion a nd s ma l l s i ze a re t he t wo m ic rof lake s ca r v a r iab le s mo s t i mpo r tan t f o r d i sc r im ina t ing b e tween t oo l a c t ion s . T he re i sa s l igh t p refe rence f o r v en t ra l l o ca t ion , e spec ia l ly f o r d i sc r im ina t ing b e tween l ong i tud ina l a nd t r an sver se ly u sed t oo l s . A h i gh d eg ree o f a ccu racy i n d i sc r im ina t ing b e tween t wo , o r e ven t h ree a c t ion s , s o le ly o n t he b a s i s o f m ic ro f lake s ca r c ha rac ter i s t ic s , h a s b een d emon s t ra ted . T he se r e su l t s w ere c on f i rmed b y c l a s s i f y ing b l ind t e s t t oo l s o fu nknown f unc t ion w i th t he s ame DF ( Tab le 1 9 ) . I n f a c t , t he b l ind t e s t r e su l t s w e re s l igh t ly b e t ter t han t he e xpe r imen ta lt oo lr e su l t s .

8 .4 .3 C on tac t Ma te r ia l

On ly t he 1 6 a nd 3 2 v a r iab le s e t s ( Tab le 1 6 ) w e re u sed i n t he a t temp t t o d i sc r im ina te b e tween t oo l s o n t he b a s i s o f c on tac t ma te r ia l . Two mea su re s o f c on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne s sw e re emp loyed : t h ree - a nd f i ve -pa r t r e la t ive h a rdne s s s ca le s ( Tab le 1) b a sed o n t ho se o fT r ingham a nd Ode l l ( T r ingham e ta l . 1 974 ; Ode l la nd Ode l l -Ve reecken 1 980 ) . T he r e su l t s f o r t he 3 2 a nd 1 6 v a r iab le s e t s f o r d i sc r im ina t ing c on tac t ma te r ia l s o n t he 3 -pa r t s ca le w e re q u i te g ood , a l though s i gn i f ican t ly h i ghe r f o r t he 3 2 v a r iab le s e t ( Tab le 1 7 ) . T he 1 6 v a r iab le s e t w a s , t he re fore , n o t u sed i n t he r e s t o f t he a na ly se s . S tep - a nd f ea the r - t e rm ina t ion , s ma l l s i ze a nd m ed ium s i ze a re t he v a r iab le s mo s t h igh ly c o r re la ted w i th t he DF s ( Tab le 1 8 ) . T here i s n op re fe rence f o rs ca rl o ca t ion .

1 16

Table 1 7. The p ercentage o f t ools corrrectly c lassified using three variable s ets ( see Tables 1 0 and 1 6).

VAR SET

LorT

3 2

8 6.67

8 0.00

8 1.11

1 6

8 7.78

8 0.00

7 2.22

8 6.67

7 4.44

8

% CORRECTLY CLASSIFIED C-W -S 1-3 H-5

7 0.00

KEY

VAR

SET

=

V ariable

LorT = Longitudinal action. C-W-S

=

Cutting,

s et o r

t ransverse

whittling

o r

scraping.

( 1 -3 for

= Three-part r elative h ardness scale c ontact materials ( see Table 1 1).

1-5 for

= F ive-part r elative h ardness scale contact materials ( see Table 1 1).

1 17

Table 1 8. Dependent variables most w ith the discriminant f unctions.

I ND VARS

VAR SET

VAR H IGH COR DF 1

VAR COR

H IGH DF 2

LorT

8 1 6 3 2

VTOTFEAT DTOTS MAL VF EAT HS

C-W-S

8 1 6 3 2

VTOTFEAT DTOT SMAL VFEAT HS

DTOTFEAT VTOTVLRG DHINGEV

H-3

16 3 2

VTOTLARG VSTEPM

VTOTFEAT DFEAT HS

H-5

3 2

VSNAPV

DHINGES

h ighly correlated

VAR H IGH COR DF 3

VAR H IGH COR DF 4

VHINGES

VSTEPS

KEY

I ND VARS = I ndependent d iscriminated.

variables

VAR

( see

SET

=

Variable

set

which are

Tables

1 0

and

1 6).

VAR COR H IGH DF n = Dependent variable w ith correlation w ith discri minant f unction 1 , 2 , The dependent variables are defined on Table LorT C-W-S

Longitudinal

=

=

Cutting,

o r

t ransverse

whittling

1-3 = Three-part relative materials ( see Table 1 1).

o r

action.

scraping.

hardness

H-S = F ive-part relative hardness materials ( see Table 1 1).

1 18

highest 3 o r 4 . 10.

scale

s cale

f or

f or

contact

contact

Table 1 9. The percentage o f B lind Test tools corrrectly classified using the 1 6 and 3 2 variable sets ( see Tables 1 0 and 16).

VAR SET

% CORRECTLY CLASSIFIED C-W -S H-3 H-5

LvsT

3 2

1 00.00

8 7.50

25.00

1 2.50

1 6

1 00.00

87.50

3 7. 50

0 .0

KEY

VAR

SET

=

Variable

LorT = Longitudinal action. C-W-S

=

Cutting,

set o r

t ransverse

whittling

o r

scraping.

H-3 for

= Three-part r elative h ardness scale contact materials ( see Table 1 1).

H-S for

= F ive-part r elative hardness scale contact materials ( see Table 1 1).

1 19

T he r e su l t sw e re r e spec tab le f o rd i sc r im ina t ing t oo l s o nt he b a s i s o ft h e5 -pa r t c on tac t ma ter ia l s ca le s u s ing 3 2 d ependen t v a r iab le s ( Tab le 1 7 ) . S nap , h inge a nd f ea ther term ina t ion , s ma l l , l a rge a nd v e ry l a rge s i ze , a nd v en t ra l l o ca t ion a re t he d ependen tv a r iab le s mo s th igh ly c o r re la ted w i th t he DF s ( Tab le 1 8 ) . T o s u mma r ize , t he f r equency o f f ea ther te rm ina ted s ca r s i s o bv ious ly a n i mpor tan t r ef lec t ion o f c on tac t ma ter ia l h a rdne s s , a s i st he f r equency o f s ma l l s ca r s . T he l o ca t ion o f s ca r s d oe s n o t a ppea r t o c on t r ibu te s i gn i f ican t ly t o d i sc r im ina t ion b e tween c on tac t ma ter ia l c l a s se s . T he a ccu racy o fd i sc r im ina t ion o n t he b a s i s o f c on tac t ma te r ia l wa s g ene ra l ly l owe r t han d i sc r im ina t ing t oo l a c t ion s , b u t s t i l l o f a n a ccep tab ly h igh l e ve l ( Tab le 1 7 ) . Unfor tuna te ly , t he se p ro m i s ing r e su l t s a re n o t s uppo r ted b y t he b l ind t e s t s ( Tab le 1 9 ) . I ti sa ppa ren t t ha t t he d ependen t v a r iab le s emp loyed a re n o t s u i tab le f o r d i scr im ina t ing b e tween c on tac t ma ter ia l su s ing DFA .

8 . 4 .4 S umma ry a nd D i scu s s ion o fD i scr im inan tF unc t ion Ana l y s i s R e su l t s

T h i s s t udy h a s d emon s t ra ted t ha t DFA c an b e emp loyed t oa ccura te ly c l a s s i f y t oo l sb yu se -ac t ion o nt he b a s i s o fm ic rof lake s ca rv a r iab le sw h ich c an b er ead i ly o b served w i th l ow magn i f ica t ion s . Unfor tuna te ly , t he s ame c anno t b e s a id o f d i sc r im ina t ion o n t he b a s i s o f c on tac t ma ter ia l s w i th t he m ic rof lake s ca r v a r iab le s emp loyed . S ta f fo rd ( 1977 :242 -244 ) o b ta ined s im i la r ly d i s sapo in t ing r e su l t s when a t temp t ing t o d i sc r im ina te b e tween c on tac t ma te r ia l s o n e xper imen ta lb u r in su s ing m ic rof lake s ca ra t t r ibu te sa sd ependen tv a r iab le s . I ti s s ugge s ted t ha t a dd i t iona l m ic rof lake s ca r v a r iab le s , s uch a s s pac ing a nd c on f igu ra t ion ( s ee C hap te r 6 . 5 .2 ) m igh t i n c rea se t he d i sc r im ina t ing p owe r s o mewha t . A much l a rger e xper imen ta l s amp le , w i th p erhap s 5 0 t oo l s i n e ach c on tac t ma ter ia lc a tego ry , wou ld p rov ide amuch c l ea rer p ic tu re o ft he s u i tab i l i ty o fm ic rof lake s ca rv a r iab le sf o rr ef lec t ing c on tac t ma te r ia l . L a s t ly , i ts hou ld b e r emembe red t ha t t he g ene ra l ly p rom i s ing r e su l t s o ft he p re sen t s t udy w e re o b ta ined u s ing c omb ina t ion s o f o n ly t h ree m ic rof lake s ca r c ha rac te r i s t ic s o n al im i ted s amp le o f e xpe r imen ta l t oo l s . T he a dd i t ion o f v a r iab le s d er ived f r om o the r c l a s se s o f m ic rowea r , s uch a s d eg ree a nd o r ien ta t ion o f e dge round ing , s t r ia t ion o r ien ta t ion a nd l o ca t ion , a nd p o l i sh c ha rac te r i s t ic s w i l l p robab ly p rov ide v e ry p rec i se d i sc r im ina t ion f o r b o th t oo l a c t ion a nd , mo s t i mpo r tan t ly , c on tac t ma ter ia l . I ti sl e f t t o t he f u tu re f o r s uch s t ud ie s t o b e made a s t hey a re b eyond t he s cope o f t he p re sen t e xp lo ra tory r e sea rch i n to mu l t iva r ia te f unc t iona la na ly s i s .

1 20

CHAPTER 9

BL IND TESTS

9 . 1 I n troduc t ion M ic rowea r r e sea rch i su n ique i n a rchaeo logy i n t ha t t he a ccu racy a nd e f f ec t ivene s s o fi t s me thod s h ave b een o b jec t ive ly e va lua ted t h rough a s e r ie s o f " b l ind t e s t s " ( Kee ley a nd Newcomer 1 977 ; N ewcome r a nd K ee ley 1 979 ; Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken 1 980 ; Gende l a nd P i rnay 1 982 ; Newcome r , G race a nd Unge r -Ham i l ton 1 986 ) . A l though t he d e ta i l s d i f fe r s o mewha t f r om t e s t t o t e s t , t hey a l l i nvo lve o ne p a r t ic ipan t s t udy ing t oo l s u sed b y s o meone e l se a nd t he a na ly s ts ub jec t ing h i s o rh e rf unc t iona li n terp re ta t ion st os c ru t iny a nd e va lua t ion . I na l lc a se s t he m ic rowea ra na ly s th ad n op r io rk now ledge o fh ow o ro n wha tt he t oo l s w ere u sed , o r e ven wh ich p a r t o f at oo l w a s u sed . T he se t e s t s w ere p r ima r i ly u nde r taken t o d e term ine t he a ccu racy o f ap a r t icu la r me thod o f m ic rowea r a na ly s i s , a nd t o e va lua te t he u se fu lne s s o f m ic rowea r a na ly s i s a s a r e sea rch me thod .

P rev iou s b l ind t e s t s t ud ie sw e re u nde r taken t o e va lua te d eve loped me thod s , a nd t h i s i sw he re t he p re sen t s e r ie s o ft e s t s d i f f er . T he b l ind t e s t s d i scu s sed i n t h i s c hap ter w e re u nde r taken a f te r t he m ic rowea r t r ace s o n t he e xper imen ta l b a sa l t t oo l s h ad b een o b se rved , a nd a p re l im ina ry i n terp re t ive f r amewo rk h ad b een d ev i sed f o rt he i n te rp re ta t ion o fw ea r t r ace s . T he t e s t sw e re u nder taken t o p o in t o u t t he s t reng th s a nd w eakne s se s i n t he p re l im ina ry c oncep t ion o f t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t oo lf unc t ion a nd m ic rowea rp a t te rn s , r a the rt han t o a s se s s t he a ccuracy o f ad eve loped me thod . 1 21

9 .2 Backg round

One s e t o ft en b a sa l t t oo l s ( Tab le 2 0 ) w a s u sed i na l l f ou r o ft he b l ind t e s t s d i scu s sed b e low . T he se w ere made a nd u sed b y M r . G . Howe , w i th b a sa l t h e c o l lec ted i n 1 984 f r om t he s ame s ou rce a rea a s t he b a sa l t u sed i n t he e xper imen t s ( s ee C hap ter 3 . 1 , F igure s 1a nd 2 ) . Howe , c u r ren t ly a g r adua te s t uden t i n a r chaeo logy a t S imon F ra se r Un ive r s i ty , w a s w e l l q ua l i f ied f o r u nder tak ing t he t oo l u se p a r t o f t he b l ind t e s t s b y v i r tue o f h i s h av ing p a r t ic ipa ted i n ap rev iou s b l ind t e s t i n as im i la r c apac i ty ( Ode l l a nd Ode l l V ereecken 1 980 ) . I na dd i t ion , h e i s ac ompe ten tf l in tknappe ra nd h a se x ten s ive e xper ience i nC anad ian P la teau a r chaeo logy . T he re w e re f ew r e s t r ic t ion s p laced o n Howe ' s u se o f t h e b l ind t e s t t oo l s . E s sen t ia l ly , h e w a s .r equ i red t os t ay w i th in t he s y s tem ic f r amework d i scu s sed i n C hap ter 4 . Howe w a s t hu s f r ee t o u se r e touched o r u n re touched , h a f ted o r u nha f ted t oo l s made o fv i t reou s o rn on -v i t reou sb a sa l t a nd t ou se t hem w i th a ny a c t ion s o r o n a ny c on tac t ma ter ia l s t ha t a re h i s to r ica l ly d ocumen ted o r p reh i s to r ica l ly i n fer red t o h ave b een u sed o n t he C anad ian P la teau w i th in t he p a s t 4 000 y ea r s . T h i s l e f t Howe a n a lmo st u n l im i ted amoun t o f l a t i tude f o r s e lec t ing a c omb ina t ion o f c on tac t ma te r ia l s a nd u se -ac t ion s f o r e ach t oo l . I n a dd i t ion , t he re w e re n o r e s t r ic t ion s o nt he n umbe ro fa c t ion s e ach t oo l c ou ld b e u sed w i th o rt he n umbe ro fc on tac t ma ter ia l se ach c ou ld b eu sed o n . A l l t en t oo l sw ere p ercu s s ion f l ake s d e r ived f r om o ne v i t reou s b a sa l tc obb le . One w o rk ing e dge w a s r e touched p r ior t o u se , a nd s evera l u nused a r ea s o f a no ther t oo lw e re b lun ted b yr e touch t of a c i l i ta te p rehen s ion . None o ft h e t oo l s w e re h a f ted , a l though t wo w ere h e ld i n al e a ther p ad w hen u sed . Howe u sed t he t oo l s i n N o r th V ancouver b e tween S ep tembe r 1 985 a nd J anua ry 1 986 a nd s en t t hem t o me i n May 1 986 w i thou t a ny c l ue s a s t o t he ir f unc t ion . Mr . M . Rou s seau , a l so ag radua te s t uden ta tS imon F ra ser Un ive r s i ty , a c ted a s am idd le -man , f o rwa rd ing Howe ' s n o te s o n t he t oo l s t o m e a f te r r ece iv ing m yw r i t ten i n te rp re ta t ion si nJ u ly 1 986 .

9 .3 D iscuss ion o fB l ind T es t Resu l ts

9 .3 .1 I n troduc t ion

F ou r b l ind t e s t s w e re u nde r taken u s ing t h e s ame s e t o ft en t oo l s : B l ind T e s t ( BT ) 1i n vo lved f unc t iona l i n terp re ta t ion s made w i th o n ly t he a i d o f ah and l e n s ( 5x ) ; BT 2 emp loyed l ow magn i f ica t ion s o f4 0 t o 1 00 xa nd r e l ied p r ima r i ly o n m ic rof lake s c a r a t t r ibu te s , a sw e l l a s e dge round ing a nd p o l i sh ; BT 3 e mp loyed h i gh magn if ica t ion s o f2 00 t o6 00 xa nd i n terp re ta t ion s w ere made o n t h e b a s i s o fp o l i she s , t r end l i ne s , s t r ia t ion s a nd e dge r ound ing ; BT 4u sed m ic rof lake s c a r a t t r ibu te s t o e va lua te t h e a ccu racy o f ad i sc r im inan t f unc t ion a na ly s i s p rog ram f o rd e te rm in ing t oo l f unc t ion a nd i sb r ief ly d i scu s sed i nC hap te r8 . 4 . BT It o BT 1 22

T able

TOOL

1

2 0.

0

S ummary o f

B lind

T est

t ool

u se.

DESCRIPTION OF USE-EPISODE

This

t ool

w as

d eliberately r etouched

p rior

t o

u se

and t he r etouched e dge ( area 1 ) w as u sed t ransversely o n o ld, d ry m ule deer antler ( at l east 1 0 y ears o ld) ( 5 m in., 2 00 strokes). The t ool w as u nhafted and h eld w ith a b are h and, r esulting i n small f lake r emovals i n a rea 2 . T he t ool w as e ffective f or smoothing t he surface o f t he antler, b ut w as u nsuitable f or substantially t hinning i t. T he t ool w as moderately dulled,

b ut

s till

u seful.

2 T he tool w as not deliberately r etouched p rior t o u se. A rea 1 W as u sed l ongitudinally o n a f resh, moist, r ed c edar b ranch contacting b ark and wood ( 15 m in., 2 000 s trokes). The t ool w as u nhafted and h eld w ith a b are h and, w hich resulted i n smoothing and p olish o n t he dorsal r idge at a rea 2 . The t ool w as . an e ffective w ood s aw a nd w as h ardly dulled. 3 T he t ool w as not d eliberately r etouched p rior t o u se. A rea 1 w as u sed t ransversely t o scrape b ark and w ood f rom a f resh, moist, r ed c edar b ranch ( 5 m in., 5 00 s trokes). The t ool w as unhafted and h eld w ith a b are h and w hich m ay h ave r esulted i n t he m icroflake r emovals i n a rea 2 . I t w as e ffective a t scraping b ark and w ood and b ecame m oderately dull, but w as still u sable. 4 The t ool w as n ot d eliberately r etouched p rior t o u se. A reas 1 -4 ( the t ool t ip) w ere employed w ith a b oring ( pushing-twisting) action t o p erforate a p iece o f commercially t anned l eather which w as at l east 1 0 y ears o ld ( 5 m ins., 5 0 s trokes). T he t ip o f t he t ool b roke o ff a fter a f ew s trokes, but t hen s tabilized. T he t ool w as u sed u nhafted, b ut t he d istal e nd w as w rapped w ith l eather t o p rotect the h and. t l icroflake r emovals i n a rea 5 a re p robably t he r esult o f p rehension. Tool 4 w as n ot p articularly u seful f or p erforating t he l eather, and t his b ecame e specially d ifficult a fter t he t ip s napped o ff and t he e nd s tabilized. S T he tool w as n ot deliberately r etouched p rior t o u se. A rea 1 w as u sed l ongitudinally on an o ld, d ry mule d eer antler beam ( at l east 1 0 y ears o ld) ( 5 m in., 4 00 s trokes). The t ool w as h eld w ith a b are h and during u se. I t w as u seful f or p roducing a s hallow g roove i n t he antler b eam, b ut t he e dge r apidly b roke down during u se and t he t ool w as r eady t o b e

s harpened

o r

d iscarded

a fter

4 00

s trokes. continued

1 23

T able

TOOL

2 0

I

( continued)

DESCRIPTION OF U SE-EPISODE

6 A reas 1 and 6 w ere d eliberately b lunted w ith a n antler b illet p rior t o u se t o r emove s harp p rojections w hich m ay h ave I njured t he h and. T he u sed a reas 2 -4 w ere n ot r etouched p rior t o u se. T he t ool w as u sed to c hop a f resh, moist r ed c edar b ranch, contacting b oth b ark and wood ( 10 m in., 5 00 s trokes). M any f lakes w ere r emoved by the I mpact during u se. I t w as n ot r eally suitable f or c hopping d ue t o I ts small s ize which r esulted i n s ubstantial h and shock and d ifficulty I n p rehension, d espite b eing w rapped i n l eather. 7 T he t ool w as n ot r etouched p rior to u se. A rea 3 w as u sed l ongitudinally t o s lice commercially t anned l eather ( at l east 1 0 years o ld) I nto s trips ( 10 m in., 1 000 s trokes). The t ool w as h eld w ith a b are h and and m icroflake r emovals at a reas 1 and 2 a re p robably a r esulted o f p rehension d amage. The t ool w as v ery e ffective and b arely dulled. 8 The t ool w as n ot r etouched p rior t o u se. A rea 1 w as u sed l ongitudinally t o cut h ot r oast b eef ( 10 m in., 5 00 s trokes). T he t ool w as h eld w ith a b are h and. I ts small s ize r endered p rehension d ifficult, b ut t he e dge was e ffective u se.

at

cutting m eat.

I t

w as

o nly s lightly dulled

w ith

9 T he t ool w as n ot r etouched p rior to u se. A rea 1 w as u sed t ransversely o n o ld, d ry m ule d eer antler ( at l east 1 0 y ears o ld) ( 5 m in.). The t ool w as h eld w ith a b are h and. A s w ith t ool 1 , t his t ool w as o nly c apable o f smoothing t he s urface o f t he antler. I t w as q uite dull, but s till u sable. 1 0 The t ool w as n ot r etouched p rior t o u se. A rea 1 w as u sed t ransversely o n a p iece o f commercially tanned l eather ( at l east 1 0 y ears o ld) ( 15 m in., 9 00 s trokes). The l eather r ested o n a wooden c utting board w hich w as c ontacted by t he t ool a f ew t imes. The t ool w as h eld w ith a b are h and. The t ool w as i neffective at s craping l eather a nd accomplished v ery l ittle. I t w as m oderately dulled b ut s till u seful.

1 24

3f o l low al og ica l p rog re s s ion f r om e s sen t ia l ly n on -m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o fa t oo l ,t ol ow magn i f ica t ion a nd h igh magn i f ica t ion s t udy . T he b l ind t e s t s u nde r d i scu s s ion c on s i s t o f f ou r t e s t s u nde r taken w i th t he s ame t oo ls a nd s t ud ied b y o ne i nd iv idua l , a nd a re t here fo re n o t i ndependen t o f e ach o ther . I t i s o bv iou s f r om t he w ay t he t e s t s w ere u nder taken t ha t o b se rva t ion s made d u r ing e a r l ie r t e s t s c ou ld i nf luence i n terp re ta t ion s made i n l a te r o ne s . However , t h i s e f f ec t w a s m in im ized b ecau se t he a c tua l f unc t ion s o f t he t oo l s we re n o t k nown u n t i l a f te r t he c omp le t ion o f a l l o f t he t e s t s . I n a dd i t ion , t he t e s t s w e re u nde r taken a t l ea s t o ne w eek a pa r t a nd t he i n terp re ta t ion s made f o re ach t e s tw e re n o tc on su l ted d ur ing o the rt e s t s . I tw a s d ec ided b e fo re t he t e s t s n o t t o a t temp t t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween b one a nd a n t ler a s c on tac t ma ter ia l s b ecau se o f t he n ea r ly i den t ica l w ea r p a t te rn s p roduced b y w o rk ing t he se ma te r ia l s ( s ee C hap ter 7 . 4 -7 .5 ) . A s i nd ica ted i n Chap te r 4 , t he t wo ma te r ia l s w e re u sed f o r a lmo s t i den t ica l t e chno log ica l p u rpo se s b y t he I n ter io r S a l i sh a nd t he i r a nce s tor s , s o v ery l i t t le i n fo rma t ion wou ld b e l o s tb yn o td i s t ingu i sh ing t he ma te r ia l s o np reh i s tor ic t oo l s . P rev ious b l ind t e s t s ( Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Vereecken 1 980 ) h ave d emon s t ra ted t ha tl ow magn i f ica t ion me thod s a re n o t a ccu ra te f o ri n terpre t ing s pec if ic c on tac t ma te r ia l s , b u t a re q u i te u sefu l f o r d i sce rn ing t he r e la t ive h a rdne s s o r r e s i s tance o f ac on tac t ma ter ia l . T he re fore , r e la t ive c on tac t ma ter ia l h a rdne s s s ca le s w e re a l so u sed i n t he p re sen t s e r ie s o f t e s t s ( Tab le s 2 1 ,22 ) . T he s ca le s u sed i n t he p re sen t s tudy a re s im i la r t o t ho se u sed p rev iou s ly ( s ee T r ingham e t a l 1 974 ; Ode l la nd Ode l l -Vereecken 1 980 ) . T he manne r o fu se o f t he t en t e s t t oo l s i sd e sc r ibed o n T ab le 2 0 , a nd t he i n terp re ta t ion s made d u r ing t he t h ree b l ind t e s t s a re p rov ided o n T ab le s 2 3 -25 . De ta i led i n terp re ta t ion s o f t he t oo l s a re p rov ided i n Append ix E . E ach b l ind t e s t i ss u mma r ized b e low a nd t he r e su l t s a re d i scu s sed , w i th t he p urpo se o f i lum ina t ing w he re t he p re l im ina ry i n terp re t ive f r amewo rk i su sef u l a nd w he re i t n eed si mprovemen t .

9 .3 .2 B l ind T es t 1

S ince t h i s b l ind t e s t i se s sen t ia l ly n on -m ic ro scop ic i nn a tu re a nd i sp rov ided a s ab a se l ine a ga in s t w h ich t o c ompa re t he o the r t e s t s , i ti sn o t n ece s sa ry t o d i scu s s t he i n terp re ta t ion s ( Append ix E ) o r t he r e su l t s ( Tab le 2 3 ) h e re . T he r e su l t s a re d i scu s sed i n c ompa r i son w i th BT 2 a nd BT 3 i n s ec t ion 9 . 4 . B y r eco rd ing my i n terp re ta t ion s o f t oo l s made l a rge ly o n t he b a s i s o f morpho logy a nd f l ake s ca r l o ca t ion , I am e xp l ic i t ly a dm i t t ing my i n tu i t ive f unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion s a t t he o u t se t . T he se i n i t ia l i n terpre ta t ion s w ere t r ea ted a s f unc t iona l h ypo the se s a ga in s t w h ich t he m ic rowea r o b serva t ion s i n l a te r t e s t s w e re e va lua ted . Ic on s ide r i ta dvan tageou s t o h ave a " ho l i s t ic " a pproach t o f unc t iona l a na ly s i s , w he re n on -m ic ro scop ic t oo l a t t r ibu te s a re c on s idered i n c once r t w i th m ic rowea r t r ace s o b served a t a ny magn if ica t ion ( s ee a l so N ew comer , G race a nd Unge r -Ham i l ton 1 986 :216 ) . 1 25

Table

2 1.

scale

for

HARDNESS CATEGORY

Three-part contact

relative

materials.

ACTUAL

CONTACT MATERI ALS

1 .

Soft

f lesh and plants

2 .

Medium

h ide hard

3 .

Hard

hardness

and

f at

soft

woods

bone antler

Table scale

2 2. f or

HARDNESS CATEGORY

1 .

Soft

Four-part relative contact materials.

ACTUAL

CONTACT MATERI ALS

f lesh

and

plants 2 .

hardness

Medium-

h ide

Soft

soft

woods

3 .

MediumHard

hard

woods

4 .

Hard

bone antler

1 26

f at

T able 2 3. B lind Test 1 results. Correct answers are p rovided i n b rackets b elow i ncorrect estimates.

TOOL

U SED A REA

ACTION

CM 3

CM 4

SPECIFIC CM

1

1

T

2 ( 3)

3 ( 4)

2

1

L

2

2

h ide ( wood)

3

1

T

2

2

h ide ( wood)

4

1 -4

B

2

2

h ide

5

1

L

3

4

antler/bone

6

1 ,2

T ( C)

3 ( 2)

4 ( 2)

antler/bone ( wood)

7

3

L

1 ( 2)

1 ( 2)

f lesh ( leather)

8

1

L

1

1

f lesh

9

1

T

3

4

antler/bone

1 0

1

T

2

2

wood ( leather)

t otal correct

10

9

7

7

4

Key CM=contact material T=transverse L=longitudinal C=chopping B=boring

1 27

hard wood ( antler)

9 .3 .3 B l ind T e s t2

T h i s t e s t i n vo lved i n terp re t ing t oo l f unc t ion p r ima r i ly o n t he b a s i s o f m ic rof lake s i ze , t y pe , c onf igu ra t ion a nd l o ca t ion a sw e l l a s e dge r ound ing a nd p o l i sh v i s ib le a t4 0 x( and u pt o 1 00 x )w i th as t e reom ic ro scope . T he f un c t iona l a s se s smen t s made f o r t he t e s t a re p re sen ted i n Append i x Ea nd s umma r ized o n T ab le 2 4 . T he r e su l t so ft he t e s ta re d i scu s sed b e low . T he u sed e dge o r p a r t o ft he u sed e dge w a s c o r rec t ly i d en t if ied o n a l l t oo l s , a nd t oo l a c t ion w a s c or rec t ly a s se s sed o n 9o u t o f 1 0 t oo l s . T oo l 6 wa s i n cor rec t ly a s se s sed a s h av ing b een u sed w i th a l ong i tud ina l a c t ion w h i le i t wa s a c tua l ly u sed w i th ac hopp ing a c t ion . T oo l 1 0w a s c o r rec t ly i d en t i f ied a sh av ing b een u sed t r an sver se ly , a l though i tw a s s pec if ica l ly u sed w i th a s c rap ing a c t ion r a the rt han w h i t t l ing , a s e s t ima ted . T here i sl i t t le r ea son t od i s t ingu i sh b e tween s c rap ing , s hav ing , w h i t t l ing o rp lan ing a c t ion s a st hey a re a l l u sed t ot h in c on tac t ma te r ia l s . I ti sa ppa ren tt ha tu sed e dge a nd t oo l a c t ion c an u sua l ly b e i d en t if ied c o r rec t ly o n b a sa l t t oo l s w i th t he u se o f l ow magn if i ca t ion s ( s ee a l so O de l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken 1 980 ) . A ccu ra te ly i den t i f y ing s pec if ic c on tac t ma te r ia l s s o le ly o n t he b a s i s o fw ea r p a t te rn s v i s ib le a t l ow magn i f ica t ion s i s n o t p o s s ib le ( Ode l l a nd Ode l l V e reecken 1 980 ) a nd w a s n o t ag oa l o f t h i s b l ind t e s t . On a 3 -pa r t r e la t ive h a rdne s s s ca le ( Tab le 2 1 ) , c on tac t ma te r ia l w a s c o r rec t ly i d en t if ied f o r 7t oo l s a nd p a r t ia l ly c or rec t ly i d en t i f ied f o r 2o the r s ( Tab le 2 4 ) . On a 4 -pa r t r e la t ive h a rdne s s s ca le ( Tab le 2 2 ) c on tac t ma ter ia l w a s c o r rec t ly e s t ima ted f o r 5t oo l s a nd p a r t ia l ly c o r rec t ly e s t ima ted f o r 4o the r s ( Tab le 2 4 ) . T oo l 1w a s d e l ibe ra te ly r e touched p r io r t o u se a nd t he c on tac t ma ter ia l w a s e s t ima ted a s h av ing b een med ium h a rd t oh a rd w hen i ta c tua l ly w a s h a rd . T he ma in r ea son f o r t h i s e r ror i sd ue t o m i s taken ly i d en t i fy ing s ome o ft he m ic rof lake s r e su l t ing f r om w ea r a s r e su l t ing f r om r e touch . Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken ( 1 980 ) c au t ion a ga in s to ver e s t ima t ing t he h a rdne s s o f ac on tac t ma ter ia l o n r e touched t oo l s a nd t h e e r ror h e re i sl a rge ly ar e su l to f o ver -compen sa t ing f o r t h i st endency . T oo l 2w a s u sed o nf r e sh , d amp c eda r b a rk a nd w ood , ama ter ia l w h ich i sc l a s sed a s med ium o n t he 3 -pa r t s ca le a nd med ium so f t o n t he 4 -pa r t s c a le ( Tab le s 2 1 , 2 2 ) . T he c on tac t ma te r ia lw a s e s t ima ted a ss of tt o med ium o nt he 3 -pa r ts ca le a nd s of tt o med ium so f to n t he 4 -pa r t s ca le , e s t ima t ion sw h ich a r e o n ly s l igh t ly o f f . T oo l s 3 a nd 1 0 w e re e s t ima ted t o h ave b een u sed o n m ed ium so f t t o med ium -ha rd ma ter ia l so n t he 4 -pa r t s ca le ,w h i le t hey w ere b o th a c tua l ly u sed o n med ium sof t ma te r ia l s . L a s t ly , t he c on tac t ma te r ia l o fT oo l 9w a s e s t ima ted a s med ium a nd med ium -ha rd o nt he 3a nd 4 -pa r ts c a le s ,b u tw a sa c tua l ly h a rd . I ns u mma ry ,t he f o l low ing " l e s son s "h ave b een l e a rned f r om BT 2 :

1 .T he u sed a rea ( s ) o f at oo l c an b e v e ry a ccu ra te ly i d en t if ied u s ing l ow magn if i ca t ion s , e ven o nr e touched e dge s .

1 28

Table

2 4.

B lind

Test

2 r esults.

Correct answers are p rovided below i ncorrect esti mates.

TOOL

USED AREA

ACTION

i n

b rackets

CM HARDNESS 3 -pt. 4 -pt.

1

1

T

2 /3 ( 3)

3 /4 ( 4)

2

1

L

1 /2 ( 2)

1 /2

3

1

T

2

( 2) 2 /3 ( 2)

4

1 -4

B

2

2

5

1

L

3

4

6

1 ( 1,2)

T ( C)

2

2

7

3

L

2

2

8

1

L

1

1

9

1

T

1 0

1

T

2

3

( 3)

( 4)

2

2 /3 ( 2)

total correct

-

-

-

9 .5

-

9

Key CM=contact material T=transverse L=longltudinal C=chopping B=boring

1 29

8

7

2 . T oo l a c t ion magn i f ica t ion s .

c an b e

v e ry

a ccu ra te ly

a s se s sed

u s ing

l ow

3 . T he r e la t ive h a rdne s s o f ac on tac t ma te r ia l c an b e i den t i f ied w i th a n a ccep tab le d eg ree o f a ccu racy o n b o th 3 - a nd 4 -pa r t h a rdne s ss ca le s . 4 .C on tac t ma te r ia l h a rdne s s i sd i ff icu l t t o i n te rp re t o n r e touched t oo l s . 5 .T here i s ag ene ra l t endency t o s l igh t ly u nde re s t ima te c on tac t ma te r ia lh a rdne s s .

9 . 3 .4 B l ind T e s t. 3 T h i s t e s ti nvo lved h igh magn i f ica t ion ( 200 -600 x )e xam ina t ion o ft he t oo l s a nd i n terpre ta t ion s b a sed o n t he w ea r t r ace s o b served ( po l i sh , s t r ia t ion s , e dge r ound ing ) ( Append ix E ; T ab le 2 5 ) . Mo s t o b serva t ion sw e re made a t3 00 xu s ing a Un i t ron S e r ie s N me ta l log raph ic m ic ro scope e qu ipped w i th i nc iden t l i gh t ing . T oo l s 4 , 6 ,7 , a nd 8 h ad n o v i s ib le p o l i sh o r v e ry p oo r ly d eve loped p o l i sh a nd a l l l a cked s t r ia t ion s . I f o ne w e re i n terp re t ing p reh i s to r ic t oo l s w i th s im i la r i n conc lu s ive w ea r p a t te rn s , n e i ther t oo l a c t ion o r c on tac t ma ter ia l w ou ld b e i n fer red . T he n ece s s i ty t o c ome u p w i th i n terp re ta t ion s f o r t he t e s t i st h e o n ly r ea son t hey w e re o f fe red . U sed a rea ( s ) a nd a c t ion w e re c or rec t ly i den t if ied o na l lb u tT oo l 6 . T he mo s t u nexpec ted r e su l t o f BT 3 ,w h ich c on sequen t ly a l lowed t he g rea te s t o ppo r tun i ty f o rr ef in ing t he me thod su nde rd eve lopmen t ,w a st he i n co r rec ti n terp re ta t ion s o f c on tac t ma te r ia l made o n t he b a s i s o f m ic ropo l i she s . S pec if i c c on tac t ma ter ia l w a s o n ly c or rec t ly i den t if ied o n f ou r t oo l s . P r io r t o t h i s t e s t , my p re l im ina ry a s se s smen t o f t he e xpe r imen ta l d a ta i nd ica ted t ha t d i s t inc t m ic ropo l i she s d eve loped f r om s pec i f ic c on tac t ma te r ia l s a nd t h i s b e l ief f o rmed t he b a s i s o f i n terp re ta t ion s o fc on tac t ma ter ia l s d u r ing t he t e s t . P a r t icu la r ly s urpr i s ing w ere t he i n co r rec t i n te rp re ta t ion s o fT oo l s 1 , 9 a nd 1 0 . T he p o l i sh o n t he se t oo l s wa s wha tw a s t hen t hough t o fa s " t yp ica l " w ood p o l i sh , a l though T oo l s 1a nd 9w ere a c tua l ly u sed o n a n t le r a nd T oo l 1 0 w a s u sed o n c ommerc ia l ly t anned l e a the r . S im i la r p o l i sh w a s p robab ly n o t p re sen t o n e xpe r imen ta l a n t ler s c rap ing t oo l s p robab ly b ecau se t hey w e re n o t u sed l ong e nough f o r s uch p o l i sh t o d eve lop . T h i s wa s n o s imp le o ve r s igh t ; s c rap ing e xpe r imen t s w e re d e l ibera te ly c u t s ho r t d ue t o t he e x ten s ive d amage a nd d u l l ing o ft he t oo l e dge s a nd l a ck o fe f f ec t o n t he a n t ler . T oo l 9s hou ld h ave b een r ecogn ized a s h av ing b een u sed o n a n t ler d ue t o t he e x ten s ive e dge d amage a nd i s o la ted p a tche s o fp o l i sh . However , t he p o l i sh p a tche s w e re much mo re e x ten s ive t han a ny p re sen t o n e xpe r imen ta l a n t ler s c rap ing t oo l s a nd t he c on t rad ic t ion sw e re r a t iona l ized a s t he t oo l h av ing b een u sed o n v ery h a rd , d ry w ood , e ven t hough s c rap ing h a rd , d ry w ood i n t he e xpe r imen t s d id n o t r e su l t i n e xac t ly t he s ame w ea r p a t tern . S c rap ing c omme rc ia l ly t anned l e a the r w a s n o t a n a c t iv i ty u nde r taken i nt he e xpe r imen t s , n o r i si to ne w h ich w ou ld h ave t aken p lace u nde r a bo r ig ina l c ond i t ion s , a nd i t 1 30

Table

2 5.

B lind

Test

3 r esults.

Correct answers are p rovided below i ncorrect estimates.

TOOL

U SED A REA

ACTION

I n

b rackets

SPECIFIC CM

1

1

T

2

1

L

3

1

T

wood

4

1 -4

B

h ide

5

1

L

antler/bone antler/bone

6

7

4 ,5

T ,O

( 1,2)

( C)

3

L

wood ( antler) p lant stems ( wood)

( wood) f lesh ( leather)

8

1

L

9

1

T

f lesh wood ( antler)

1 0

1

T

9

9

wood ( leather)

t otal correct

Key CM=contact material T=transverse L=longitudlnal C=chopp I ng B=bor i ng G=gravi n g

1 31

4

t hu s v io la te s t he c ond i t ion s o f t he b l ind t e s t ( s ee S ec t ion 9 . 2 ) . T he b r igh t , s moo th , p i t ted p o l i sh o n T oo l 1 0 w h ich r e su l ted f r om s c rap ing t he t anned h ide w a s n o t p re sen t o n u n tanned d ee r h ide w o rked i nt he e xpe r imen t s , e ven w hen d ry a nd h a rd . I ti su n l ike ly t ha t s uch p o l i sh w ou ld r e su l t f r om s c rap ing h ide u nde ra bor ig ina lc ond i t ion s . I nco r rec t i n terp re ta t ion s o f c on tac t ma te r ia l s o n T oo l s 6a nd 7 w e re n o t s urp r i s ing d ue t o al a ck o fd ef in i te p o l i sh o ne i ther t oo l . C on tac t ma te r ia ls imp ly s hou ld n o t h ave b een i n fe r red f r om s uch amb iguou s w ea r t r ace s . T he e x ten t o f b r igh t , s moo th , p i t ted p o l i sh o nT oo l 2w a sv e ry much l i ke d i s t r ibu t ion so fp o l i sh f ound o n p lan t c u t t ing t oo l s , a nd much mo re e x ten s ive t han t ha tf ound o nw ood c u t t ing t oo l s u sed i n t he e xper imen t s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f p o l i sh f a r f r om t he e dge , i n p a r t icu la r , wa s u n l ike w ood wo rk ing t oo l s , a nd wa s t he r e su l t o f d eep p ene t ra t ion o ft he t oo li n to t he s o f t , d amp c eda rb a rk .

T he f o l low ing " l e s son s "w ere l ea rned f r om BT 3 :

1 .I n c a se s whe re o n ly amb iguou s t r ace s o f p o l i sh a re p re sen t , i n te rp re ta t ion s o fc on tac t ma ter ia ls hou ld n o tb ea t temp ted . 2 . M ic ropo l i she s , t r end l i ne s a nd s t r ia t ion s v i s ib le a t h i gh magn if ica t ion sa re e xce l len ti nd ica to r so ft oo la c t ion when p re sen t . Un fo r tuna te ly , t he se a re u sua l ly n o tp re sen to nl i gh t ly u sed t oo l s . 3 .L ong i tud ina l a c t ion s o n f l e sh o r h ide ( l ea ther ) r e su l t i n av e ry s l ow d eve lopmen to fu se -po l i sh . 4 .E ach c on tac t ma ter ia l d oe s n o t h ave ad i s t inc t ive p o l i sh u n ique t o w ork ing t ha t s ub s tance . T he s i gn i f icance o f p o l i she s a s i nd ica to r s o f c on tac t ma te r ia l mu s t b e c omp le te ly r ea s se s sed ( s ee C hap te r 1 0 .2 .3 ) .

9 .4

S umma r ya nd D i scu s s ion

A ccu ra te i den t if ica t ion o ft he u sed p a r to f at oo la nd t oo la c t ion wa sa ch ieved i na l l t h ree o ft he b l ind t e s t s ( Tab le s 2 3 -25 ) . T h i s r e su l t i ss urp r i s ing i nt ha t t he n on -m ic ro scop ic a na ly s i s o f BT 1 r e su l ted i n i n terp re ta t ion s a s a ccu ra te , o r s l igh t ly more a ccura te , t han i nt he l ow ( BT 2 ) o r h i gh magn if ica t ion ( BT 3 ) t e s t s . Howeve r , t he r e la t ive h a rdne s s o fc on tac t ma ter ia l sw a s i den t if ied s l igh t ly mo re a ccu ra te ly i n BT 2 t han BT 1 , a nd i t mu s t b e s t re s sed t ha t t he e s t ima te s o f c on tac t ma te r ia l i n BT 1w e re l i t t le mo re t han g ue s se s . S pec i f ic c on tac t ma ter ia l w a s i den t if ied w i th e qua l i naccu racy i n BT 1 a nd BT 3 . A s a l ready men t ioned , c on tac t ma te r ia lw a s o n ly g ue s sed a ti n BT 1 ,a nd ac omb ina t ion o fp rob lem s , a l l o fw h ich c an b eo ve rcome , l ed t ot he d i sappo in t ing r e su l t si n BT 3 . 1 32

CHAPTER 1 0

RELAT IONSH IPS BET WEEN TOOL -USE BEHAV IOUR AND MICRO WEAR ON EXPERI MENTAL BASALT TOOLS

1 0 .1 I n t roduc t ion A l l o ft he d a ta p e r t inen tt ou nder s tand ing t he r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t oo l u se a nd m ic rowea r , i n c lud ing t he e xpe r imen ta l m ic rowea r o b serva t ion s ( Chap ter 7 ) , t he s t a t i s t ica l a na ly se s ( Chap te r 8 ) , a nd t he b l ind t e s t r e su l t s ( Chap te r 9 ) , a re s yn the s ized i n t h i s c hap te r . Empha s i s i sp laced o n m ic rowea r t r ace s v i s ib le o n v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s w i th l i gh t m ic ro scope s , a s t h i s p a r t o ft he r e sea rch i s mo s t l i ke ly t ob e o fp rac t ica lu se t oo ther s . T he n on -v i t reou sb a sa l t a nd S EM s t ud ie s a re a l so d i scu s sed .

1 0 .2 V i t r eous B a sa l tM ic rowea rS umma r y I n S ec t ion s 1 0 .2 .1 -10 .2 .3 , f ou r t ype s o f m ic rowea r a re d i scu s sed a s t o t he i r u se fu lne s s f o r p rov id ing i den t i f ica t ion s a long t h ree p r inc ipa l f unc t iona l d imen s ion s : ( 1 ) t he u sed p a r t o f as t one t oo l , ( 2 ) t oo l a c t ion , a nd ( 3 ) c on tac t ma te r ia l . S ec t ion 1 0 .2 .4 i s ad i scu s s ion o f m ic rowea r p a t tern s r e su l t ing f r om s pec i f ic t oo l -u se a c t iv i t ie s .

3 3

1 0 .2 .1 Loca t ing U sed A r ea s

B efore s t udy ing m ic rowea r t r ace s o n ap reh i s to r ica l ly u sed t oo l , t he u sed p a r t ( s ) ( i .e . , e dge , p o in t , s pur ) mu s t b e l o ca ted , s i n ce s uch k now ledge , w hen c on s idered i nc on junc t ion w i th t he t e chno log ica la nd morpho log ica l a t t r ibu tes o f at oo l c an o f ten p rov ide i n s igh t s i n to i t s f unc t ion . T he u sefu lne s s o fe ach o ft he ma jo rt ype s o fm ic rowea ri ni den t i f y ing u sed e dge si sd i scu s sed b e low . R ound ing : T he p re sence o f s ub s tan t ia l e dge r ound ing v i s ib le u nder l ow magn if ica t ion s u sua l ly i nd ica te s au sed e dge . However , o ne s hou ld b e c a refu l n o t t o c on fu se u se -round ing w i th d e l ibe ra te g r ind ing o f a n e dge f or p rehen s ion p urpo se s . U sua l ly , t hough , e dge g r ind ing r e su l t s i n a ma rked ly f ace t ted e dge , r a the rt han ar ounded o ne . P o l i sh : T he p re sence o fp o l i sh w i th t he c ha rac te r i s t ic so fu se -po l i she s d e sc r ibed i n S ec t ion 1 0 .2 .3 i sa n e xce l len t i nd ica to r o f au sed a rea . Amb iguou s t r ace s o f p o l i sh s hou ld b e v i ewed w i th c au t ion : t he se c ou ld b e t he r e su l t o f p la t form g r ind ing , d e l ibera te e dge g r ind ing , p ercu s so r c on tac t , o rp rehen s ion . Smoo th ing p re sen t o n s o me u sed e dge -a spec t s l a ck ing p o l i sh may a l so h e lp t o i d en t i f y a u sed e dge .

S t r ia t ion s : When p re sen t , s t r ia t ion s a re a lmo s t a lway s f ound o n u se -po l i sh , b u t a re o f ten a b sen t o n e ven h eav i ly u sed t oo l s o r v i s ib le o n ly a t v e ry h igh magn i f ica t ion s . M ic rof lake S ca r s : A lmo s t a ny t ype o fu se w i l l r e su l ti nm ic rof lake r emova l s , b u t t he m i s take o f c on fu s ing u se -m ic ro f lake s ca r s w i th t ho se r e su l t ing f r om d e l ibe ra te r e touch o r i n c iden ta l e dge -damage mu s t b e a vo ided . D e l ibe ra te r e touch r e su l t s i n c on t iguou s a nd o ve r lapp ing s ca r c on f igura t ion s ( s ee C hap te r 6 . 6 .2 ) , wh i le u se re touch s ca r s a re s o me t ime s s ca t te red . Un fo r tuna te ly , i n c iden ta l d amage s ca r s c an h ave e i the r o f t he se d i s t r ibu t iona l c ha rac te r i s t ic s . Regu la r i ty o f s ca r s i ze i s a l so u n l ike ly t o a l low d i sc r im ina t ion b e tween d e l ibera te ly r e touched a nd u se re touched e dge s , a l though i n c iden ta l ly d amaged e dge s may h ave more s i ze v a r iab i l i ty t han e i the ro ft h e se t wo . Ab so lu te s ca rs i ze i s mo s t l i ke ly t ob eu sefu lf o ri d en t i f y ing u sed e dge s . Mo s t m ic rof lake s ca r s r e su l t ing f r om u se a re s ma l le r t han mo s t d e l ibera te r e touch s ca r s sca r s u nde r . 5 0 mm i n l eng th a re a lmo s t a lway s ar e su l t o f u se , a nd u se s ca r s r a re ly e xceed 2mm i nl eng th . Mo s t r e touch s c a r s , o n t he o ther h and , a re l a rger t han a bou t 3mm , a l though s ma l le r o ne s d o o ccur . R e touch r e su l t ing f r om a cc iden ta l d amage o f ten o n ly o ccu r s o n as ma l l p or t ion o f au sab le e dge , u n l ike mo s tu se re touch , a nd t he s ca r s a re u sua l ly l a rge ra sw e l l . T o s u mma r ize , t he u sed p a r t ( s ) o f at oo l a re r ead i ly i den t if iab le b y t he p re sence o fs eve ra l t y pe s o f m ic rowea r , a nd t he mo re t ype s o f w ea r w h ich a re p re sen t , t he more l i ke ly o ne i s t o c or rec t ly i den t i f y a n a rea a s u sed . T o d i s t ingu i sh " ha f t ing w ea r " , w h ich i sa c tua l ly a f o rm o fw ea r r e su l t ing f r om u se , f r om w ea r o n t he e dge o r p ro jec t ion c on tac t ing a n o b jec t ive ma ter ia l , o ne mu s t c on s ider a l l o f t he m ic rowea r t r ace s p re sen t , i n c on junc t ion w i th t he 1 34

t e chno log ica l a nd morpho log ica l c ha rac ter i s t ic s o ft he t oo l , a nd i t s h ypo the s ized f unc t ion .

1 0 .2 .2 De te rm in ing T oo lAc t ion

Once t he u sed a rea ( s ) o f at oo l h ave b een i s o la ted , t he n ex t s t ep i st o d e te rm ine h ow t he t oo l w a s u sed . T oo l a c t ion s hou ld b e c on s idered b efo re c on tac t ma te r ia l , b ecau se t oo l a c t ion l im i t s t he p o ten t ia l c on tac t ma ter ia l s o n wh ich t he t oo l may h ave b een u sed . F or e xamp le a t oo l u sed w i th a s c rap ing a c t ion wa s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een u sed t o wo rk g reen p lan t s . E ach t ype o f m ic rowea ri sc on s ide red b e low r ega rd ing i t su sefu lne s s i nd i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween t oo la c t ion s . R ound ing : U se w i th al ong i tud ina l a c t ion o n ly o cca s iona l ly p roduce s s i gn if ican t e dge r ound ing . U se o n h a rder ma ter ia l s s uch a s b one a nd a n t le r s o me t ime s r e su l t s i n l oca l ized r ound ing o n b lun ted p a r t s o f t he e dge , b u t b y t he t ime t h i s r ound ing o ccu r s t he t oo li s. r eady t ob er e sharpened o rd i sca rded . When p re sen t o n t oo l s u sed w i th l ong i tud ina l a c t ion s , e dge r ound ing i su sua l ly r e s t r ic ted t o p ro jec t ing p a r t so ft he e dge . Round ing i sc ommon o n s c rap ing t oo l s a nd i ss o me t ime s e x ten s ive . I n a dd i t ion , t he r ound ing u sua l ly e x tend sf r om t he e dge o n to t he d o r sa l e dge -a spec t b ecau se as c rap ing a c t ion r equ i re s mo s tt oo l s ( f lake s ) t ob e u sed w i th t he v en t ra l e dge l e ad ing a nd t he t oo l t i l ted s o t he d or sa l a spec t c on tac t s t he ma ter ia l more . T oo l su sed f o rw h i t t l ing h ave much l e s s r ound ing . B o r ing a nd g rav ing t oo l s h ave r ounded t i p sa nd b or ing t oo l sh ave a dd i t iona lr ound ing o ne dge s a nd r i dge sb ack f r om t he t i p . S t r ia t ions : When p re sen t , s t r ia t ion s a re e xce l len t i nd ica to r s o f t oo l a c t ion the p rob lem i st ha t t hey a re o n ly v i s ib le o n a bou t 1 /3 o f t he e xper imen ta l t oo l s . However , t hey may b e more c ommon o n p reh i s to r ic t oo l s u sed u nder g r i t t ier c ond i t ion s . L ong i tud ina l u se r e su l t s i n s t r ia t ion s o r ien ted mo re o r l e s s p a ra l le l t o t he e dge a s w e l l a s s o me a t o b l ique a ng le s t o t he e dge ( up t o a bou t 5 0d eg ree s ) . T ran sve r se u se r e su l t s i n s t r ia t ion s r ough ly a t r i gh t a ng le s t o t he e dge , w i th a f ew a t o b l ique a ng le s ( no t l e s s t han 4 5 d eg ree s ) . S t r ia t ion s o n t he e xpe r imen ta l t oo l s a re a lmo s t a lway s l o ca ted o n p o l i sh a nd o ne c an e xpec t t he s ame w i th p reh i s tor ic t oo l s . Mi c rof lake S ca r s : T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fm ic rof lake s ca r s i sa n e xce l len ti nd ica to r o f h ow at oo l w a s u sed . S c rap ing a c t ion s u sua l ly r equ i re at oo l t ob e u sed w i th t he v en t ra l e dge -a spec t l e ad ing , s o t ha t mo s t m ic rof lake r emova l s a re o n t he d o r sa l ( t ra i l ing ) a spec t . Howeve r , h a rd c on tac t ma te r ia l s s uch a s b one o r a n t ler o f ten r e su l t i n s ub s tan t ia l r emova l s f r om t he v en t ra l a spec t a s w e l l . I n g ene ra l , s ca r s o n t h e v en t ra l a spec t a r e s ma l ler t han o n t he d o r sa l , s ca t tered r a ther t han c l u s te red a nd f ewer i nn umber s . I n a lmo s t e ve ry c a se , t he r a t io o fv en t ra l s ca r s t o d o r sa l s ca r s o n s c rap ing t oo l s i sl e s s t han . 5 :1 a nd u sua l ly l e s s t han . 2 :1 . On w ood wh i t t l ing t oo l s t h e mean v :d r a t io i s. 5 :1 , a l though i ti s. 7 5 :1 f o r d ry w ood w h i t t l ing . 1 35

L ong i tud ina l ly u sed t oo l su sua l ly e xh ib i t amo re e ven d i s t r ibu t ion o fs c a r s ,b u t i n many c a se s t he re i s ap re fe rence f o r s ca r r emova l s f r om t he v en t ra l a spec t r a ther t han t he d o r sa l . T h i s i sp robab ly d ue t o t h e c u rva tu re o f mo s t f l ake s wh ich d i rec t s f o rce f r om t he d o r sa l t ov en t ra l s u r fa ce s when u sed l ong i tud ina l ly o n ac on tac t ma te r ia l the mo re ma rked t he c urva tu re , t he mo re p ronounced t he p re fe rence f o r m ic rof lake s ca r s o n t he v en t ra l a spec t . S ca r s o n t oo l s u sed w i th l ong i tud ina la c t ion sa re u sua l ly t he s a me s i ze o nb o th a spec t s . S ca r s o f ten e xh ib i t a" d i rec t iona l i ty " i n t he o r ien ta t ion o f t he ir l ong a xe s . S ca r s o nt r an sve r se ly u sed t oo l s a re ma in ly o r ien ted a to rn ea rr i gh t a ng le st ot he e dge , wh i le t ho se o n l ong i tud ina l ly u sed t oo l s a re o f ten o r ien ted a t o b l ique a ng le st ot he e dge . T he c o r re la t ion s p re sen ted i n C hap ter 8 . 2 i nd i ca te a n i nve r se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s nap s ca r s a nd h igh s p ine -p lane a ng led e dge s . Mo s to ft he se t oo l sw ere u sed f o r s c rap ing a c t ion s , s oi ti su nc lea r whe the r i ti st he a c t ion , t he s p ine -p lane a ng le , ac omb ina t ion o f b o th , o r s o me o the r f a c to r s , w h ich a re r e spon s ib le f o r t he p auc i ty o fs nap s ca r so ns c rap ing t oo l s . Rega rd le s s o f whe the r s nap s c a r s a re r e la ted t o t oo l a c t ion o r s p ine -p lane a ng le , t hey a re n o t c ommon o n t oo l s u sed w i th s c rap ing a c t ion s . P o l i sh . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f p o l i sh i su se fu l f o r d e term in ing a c t ion . P o l i sh i s p re sen t o n t he e dge a nd i n r ough ly e qua l p ropo r t ion s o n b o th e dge -a spec t s o f t oo l su sed w i th l ong i tud ina l a c t ion s . On s c rap ing t oo l s , mo s tp o l i sh i sp re sen to n t he e dge a nd d o r sa l a spec t , w i th l i t t le o n t he v en t ra l a spec t s i nce t he e dge a nd d o r sa l a spec t sh ave much mo re c on tac tw i th t he w o rked ma te r ia l . T rend l i ne s i n p o l i sh a re s o me t ime sp re sen ta nd i nd ica te t he d i rec t ion o fu se .

1 0 .2 .3 I d en t if y ing C on tac t Ma te r ia l De te rm ina t ion o f t he ma te r ia l o n wh ich a p reh i s to r ic t oo l wa s u sed i st he mo s t d i f f icu l t t a sk f ac ing m ic rowea r r e sea rche r s , b u t c on tac t ma te r ia l i den t i f ica t ion i sv e ry i mpo r tan tf o rr econ s truc t ing p a s t h uman b ehav iou r . I t may w e l lb e t ha t o the r me thod s o fc on tac t ma te r ia l i den t i f ica t ion , s uch a s a na ly s i s o f r e s idue s ( e .g . , L oy 1 983 ; Ande r son 1 980 ; B r iue r 1 976 ; B rode r ick 1 982 ) h o ld mo re p rom i se . I ti s mo s t l i ke ly t ha t ac omb ina t ion o fc hem ica l a nd m ic rowea r me thod sw i l lp rove t ob e mo s te f fec t ive . P o l i sh i sw ide ly r ega rded a s t he mo s t a ccu ra te a nd s pec if ic m ic rowea r i nd ica to r o f c on tac t ma te r ia l s . Howeve r , o the r t y pe s o fw ea r a re a l so i n d ica t ive o fc on tac t ma te r ia lt o al e s se r d eg ree o fa ccu racy a nd s pec i f ic i ty a nd c an b eu sed t o s upp lemen t o r mod i f y i n terp re ta t ion s made o n t he b a s i s o f p o l i sh c ha rac te r i s t ic s . R ound ing : P ronounced r ound ing e x tend ing f r om t he e dge o n to t he d o r sa l e dge a spec t i si nd ica t ive o f h ide s c rap ing t oo l s . Wood o r b one/an t ler s c rap ing t oo l s a nd l ong i tud ina l ly u sed t oo l s n eve r d eve lop a s im i la r d eg ree o f r ound ing . 1 36

E x ten s ive r ound ing w a s o therw i se o n ly e l sewhe re o b served o n t oo l s u sed f o r g rav ing o rb o r ing b one a nd a n t le r , i n s tance s whe re l im i ted p a r t s o f at oo lc on tac t h a rd ma ter ia l s f o r e x tended i n te rva l s . I nt he c a se o fb or ing , r ound ing i sp re sen t o nt he t i p o ft he t oo l a nd a dd i t iona l ly o nt he e dge sa nd r i dge s n ea r t he t i p . One may e xpec t as im i la r d i s t r ibu t ion o f r ound ing o n t oo l s u sed t o b ore wood a nd p o s s ib ly o n h eav i ly u sed h ide p er fo ra to r/bore r s . Round ing s im i la r t o t ha t o b se rved o nt he b one a nd a n t le re ng rav ing t oo l s may a l so b ef ound o nt oo l su sed t oe ng rave wood . S t r ia t ions : S t r ia t ion f r equency p robab ly r ef lec t s t he amoun t o fg r i t i n t he wo rk e nv i ronmen t a nd t he a b i l i ty o f t he c on tac t ma te r ia l t o h o ld t he g r i t o r s ma l l f r agmen t s o f t he t oo l ( m ic rof lake s ) wh i le b e ing wo rked . Ve ry f ew s t r ia t ion s d eve lop o n t oo l su sed t ow o rk b one a nd a n t le r wh ich may b e d ue t ot he i nab i l i ty o f t he se ma te r ia l s t o c a tch a nd h o ld t he g r i t o r t oo l f r agmen t s wh ich a re r e spon s ib le f o rs t r ia t ing t h et oo ld u r ing u se . M i c rof lake S ca r s : M ic rof lake s ca r c ha rac te r i s t ic s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion s c anno t b e u sed t o d e te rm ine s pec i f ic c on tac t ma te r ia l s , b u t t hey a re u se fu l f o r i den t i f y ing t he r e la t ive h a rdne s s o f ac on tac t ma ter ia l ( s ee C hap ter s 8 , 9 ; a l so T r ingham e t a l . 1 974 ; Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Ve reecken 1 980 ; Ode l l 1 981 ) . F ea ther te rm ina ted s ca r sa re b e l ieved t ob ep redom inan t o nt oo l su sed o ns o f t c on tac t ma te r ia l s a nd s t ep s ca r s o n t ho se u sed o n h a rder c on tac t ma te r ia l s . H inge s ca r s a re p erhap s b e t te ri nd ica to r so fh a rd ma ter ia l st han s t ep s ca r s , a si nd ica ted i nC hap te r8 . 2 . I f t oo l s u sed l ong i tud ina l ly a re r anked b y t he i r p e rcen tage o f s t ep s ca r s , h ide w o rk ing t oo l s h ave t he mo s t , f o l lowed b yt oo l s u sed t o wo rk b one/an t le r , w ood , b u tche r ing a nd p lan t s ( Tab le 2 7 ) . When r anked b y h inge s ca r s , b one/an t ler w o rk ing t oo l s u sed l ong i tud ina l ly h ave t he mo s t , f o l lowed b yt oo l s u sed o n h ide , b u tche r ing , p lan t s a nd w ood ( Tab le 2 7 ) . F o r l ong i tud ina l ly u sed t oo l s , f ea the r s ca r s p redom ina te o n t ho se u sed t o w o rk p lan t s , f o l lowed b y w ood , b u tche r ing , h ide a nd b one/an t le r( Tab le 2 7 ) . Ha rder c on tac t ma te r ia l s r e su l t i nl a rge r m ic rof lake s ca r s a nd s o f ter c on tac t ma te r ia l s i n s ma l le r s ca r s ( s ee C hap te r 8 . 2 ) . T h i s p a t tern i sr ef lec ted b y t he p e rcen tage o fs ma l l s ca r s o fa l l t y pe s o b served ,w i th b u tcher ing t oo l s h av ing t he h i ghe s t , f o l lowed b y t oo l s u sed o n h ide , p lan t s , wood a nd b one/an t le r ( Tab le 2 7 ) . On t oo l s u sed w i th t r an sve r se a c t ion s o nb one/an t ler a nd d ry wood t he re i sa h ighe r p ropo r t ion o f v en t ra l ( l ead ing ) e dge -a spec t m ic rof lake s ca r s t han t oo l s u sed t r an sve r se ly o ns o f te r ma te r ia l s . L a rge s nap s ca r s ,w h ich l end ama rked ly s e r ra ted a ppea rance t ot he e dge o fa t oo lh ave o n ly b een o b se rved o nb one/an t le rs aw ing t oo l s . P o l i sh : U se -po l i she s o nf l in t s h ave b een t ou ted a s t he b e s t m ic rowea r i nd ica to r o fc on tac t ma te r ia l s ( Kee ley 1 980 ; K ee ley a nd Newcomer 1 978 ; R icha rd s 1 984 ) . R ecen t ly , h oweve r , d oub t s h ave a r i sen a s t o t he v a l id i ty o f t he s imp le " c on tac t ma te r ia l = s pec i f ic p o l i sh " mode l p ropo sed b y K ee ley ( s ee N ewcomer , G race a nd Unger -Ham i l ton 1 986 ) . One o f t he g oa l s o f t he p re sen t r e sea rch i st o d e te rm ine i fp o l i she sd eve lop o nC ache C reek b a sa l tt oo l s a s ar e su l to fu se , a nd 137

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2 6 . D e s cr ip t ions o f p o lis h d e ve lo pmen ta l s t ages o n v i treous C a che C r ee k B a sa lt t o o ls .

I . I n it ia l U n d iffe ren t ia te d P o l ish S t age : T h is p o lish p r obab ly r e su lts f r om a b ras ive'rou ghe n ing' o f t h e t o o l s u rfa ce d u ring e a r ly c o n ta cts w i th t h e w o rked m a te r ia ls . l t i s p r ese n t a s s c a tte re d t r a ces o f d u ll, r o ughte x tu red ( g ra iny te x tu red ) p a tches o n o t he rw ise m o re r e f le ct ive s u rfa ces . 2 a . f r o m

D u ll d u ll

t o B r igh t , G r a iny P o lish S t age : T h is p o lish i s g r a iny i n t e xtu re v a r ies i n r e f le ct iv ity t o b r igh t , w i th t i ny b r igh t s p o ts o r p a tches s u rrounded b y l a rge r , l e ss r e f le ct ive a r eas .

l t i s t h e s e cond p o s s ib ly p lan ts . 2 b .

D u ll,

B r a iny

s t age

P o lish

o f d e ve lopme n t o n t o o ls u s ed f o r b u tche r ing a n d o n b o ne , a n t le r , w o o d a n d

S t a ge :

T h is d i ffe rs f r om I n itia l U n d iffe ren t ia ted P o lish p r im a r ily i n t h e

e x te n t o f t h e p o lishe d s u rfa ce , w h ich c a n b e v e ry l a rge a n d t h e g r a inyness o f t h e t e xtu re , w h ich i s m o re p r onoun ce d . I tis g e ne ra lly d u ll, h o weve r , t h e o c cas iona l b r igh te r s p o t i s s o me time s p r e sen t . T h is p o lish i s f o und o n ly o n h i de w o rk ing t o o ls a n d i s p r o bab ly a n a r res ted s t a te o f d e ve lo pmen t d u e t o c o nt inued a b ras ive s u rfa ce a t trit io n . 3 . B r ight t o D u ll, f r e que n t ly a l mo s t a s

G r a iny c o mmo n

P o lis h S t age : T h is i s s u ch l i ke S t age 2 a , b u t t h e b r igh t p a tches a r e du1 a r eas . l t i s t h e t h ird s t age o f d e ve lo pme n t o n t o o ls u s e d f o r

a s

b u tche r ing a n d t o w o rk b o ne , a n t le r , w o od a n d p o ss ib ly p l an ts . 4 . B r ight

t o

D u ll,

G r a iny

P o lis h/B r igh t ,

S m oo th

P o lish S t age :

T h is p o lish d i ffe rs f r om S t age 3

p r in c ipa lly b y t h e a d d it ion o f b r igh t , s m oo thte x tu red , u n p itted , a r eas . l t i s t h e f o u rth s t age o f p o l ish d e ve lo pme n t o b se rved o n b o ne, a n t le r- a n d w o o d-wo rk ing t o o ls a n d b u t che r ing t o o ls . P o lish o n p l an t w o rk ing t o o ls m a y a l so b r ief ly p a ss t h rough t h is s t age . 5 .

B r ight t o D u ll, G r a iny P o l ish/B righ t , S m oo th-P itted P o lish S t age :

T h is p o lish d i ffe rs f r om S t age

4 p r im a rily b y t h e a d d it io n o f s m a ll, s h a llow p i ts o n t h e s m oo th , b r igh t p o lish . O n ly p o lish o n t o o ls u s ed t o w o rk b o ne , a n t le r a n d w o od d e ve lop t o t h is s t age , a l though p o lish o n p l an t c u tt ing t o o ls m a y b r ie f ly p a ss t h rou gh i t . 6 . B r igh t S m oo th-P itted P o lis h /B r igh t , G r a iny P o lis h S t age : T h is s t age i s s u ch l i ke S t age 5 , e x ce p t g r a inytextu red p o lish i s r a re a n d b r igh t , s m oo th-p itted a r eas p r e dom ina te . B r igh t , s m oo th-p itted p o lis h

i s

g e ne ra lly

l o ca te d

o n h e av ily u s ed o r p r o je ct ing p a rts o f t h e e d ge a n d e d ge-aspe cts , w i th

b r igh t , g r a iny p o lish o n t h e p e r iphe r ies . S t age 6p o lish h a s b e en o b se rved o n w o od-w o rk in g t o o ls o n ly , a l though i t p r o bab ly a l so d e ve lo ps o n h e av ily u s ed b o ne a n d a n t le r b o r ing o r g r av ing t o o ls . P o lis h o n p l an t c u tt ing t o o ls m a y a l so b r ie f ly p a ss t h rou gh t h is s t a ge . 7 .

B r igh t ,

S m o o th ,

D e e p ly P i tted S t age :

P o lish i s b r igh t t o v e ry b r igh t , a n d s m oo th t e x tu re d , b u t

i s p o ckmarked w i th n u me ro us d e e p p i ts . l t i s v e ry e x te ns ive i n d i s tr ibu t io n a n d h a s c o ns ide rab le t o po g ra ph ic v a r ia b ility . O n ly p o lis h o n p l an t c u tt ing t o o ls r e a ches t h is s t age , e i the r p a ss ing t h ro ug h t h e o t he r s t ages v e ry r a p id ly o r n o t a t a l l.

1 39

i fs o , whe the r o r n o t d i s t inc t ive p o l i she s a re c o r re la ted w i th s pec i f ic c on tac t ma te r ia l s . T he re h a s b een s o me u nce r ta in ty w he ther p o l i she s u se fu l a s f unc t iona l i nd ica to r s w i l l d eve lop o n r e la t ive ly g ranu la r ma te r ia l s s uch a sb a sa l t ( s ee Ode l l 1 982 :25 ) . T he re i sn ol onge ra ny d oub tt ha tp o l i sh d eve lop so nC ache C reek b a sa l t t oo l s : 8 5 .6 % o f t he v i t reou s b a sa l t e xper imen ta l t oo l s h ad u se p o l i sh o nt hem . A s imp le mode l o f p o l i sh -con tac t ma ter ia l r e la t ion sh ip s s uch a s t ha t a dvoca ted b yK ee ley f o rf l in t i sn o t a pp rop r ia te f o rC ache C reek b a sa l t . R a the r , amode li sp ropo sed i n wh ich g enera ls t age so fp o l i sh d eve lopmen ta re r e la ted t o c on tac t ma te r ia l s , t oo l a c t ion s a nd amoun t o fu se . I n t h i s mode l , u se -po l i sh o n v i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s g oe s t h rough a n umbe r o f s t age s o f d eve lopmen t ( F igu re s 3 0 ,31 ; T ab le 2 6 ) ( s ee Vaughan 1 985 f o r s im i la r o b se rva t ion s o n Greek f l in t s ) . However , t he r a te o f d eve lopmen t f r om o ne s t age t o a no the r v a r ies d epend ing o nt he c on tac t ma te r ia l a nd u se -ac t ion ( F igu re 3 1 ; T ab le 2 7 ) . One r e su l to ft h i s f a c t i st ha t t oo l s b ecome d u l led t o u se le s sne s s when u sed w i th s o me a c t ion s o n c e r ta in c on tac t ma ter ia l s b ef o r et h el a te rs t age so fp o l i sh d eve lopmen ta r er e ached ( Tab le s2 6 ,27 ) . On ly o ne t ype o fp o l i sh h a sb een o b served o nt oo l su sed t oc u tp lan t sa nd t h i s i sb r igh t , s moo th tex tu red a nd d eep ly a nd e x ten s ive ly p i t ted . I ti sa l so much mo re e x ten s ive i na rea t han o the r s moo th p o l i she s o b served a nd h a s much mo re t opog raph ic v a r iab i l i ty . T he l a ck o fe a r ly p o l i sh s t age s o no np lan t wo rk ing t oo l s may b e d ue t o t he p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t p o l i she s o n t he se t oo l s g o t h rough t he o the r s t age s e x t reme ly r ap id ly . I ti sb eyond t he s cope o ft he p re sen t s t udy t o i n ve s t iga te t he mechan i sm s o f p o l i sh f o rma t ion , h owever , s o me s pecu la t ion s a re i no rde r . A mode l d eve loped b y Ande r son ( 1980 ) a nd mod i f ied b y Unge r -Ham i l ton ( 1984 ) s ugge s t st ha t av ery t h in l a ye r o f amorphou s s i l ica may b e f o rmed o n t he s ur face o ff l in t t oo l s u sed o n p lan t s . T he s i l ica i sd i s so lved o n t he t oo l s u r fa ce d ue t o ac omb ina t ion o f f ac tor s i n c lud ing f r ic t ion -p roduced h ea t , pH l e ve l s , a nd t he p re sence o f w a te r a nd a b ra s ive p a r t ic le s , i n c lud ing p lan t p hy to l i th s ( Ander son 1 980 :184 ) . Unge r Ham i l ton ( 1984 :96 ,97 ) s t re s se s t he i mpo r tance o f c hem ica l r eac t ion s a nd a b ra s ion t o t he p roce s s o fp o l i sh f o rma t ion . P o l i sh o nv i t reou s b a sa l t t oo l s may d eve lop t h rough s im i la r mechan i sm s . I ti sw o r thwh i le n o t ing t ha t t oo l s u sed t o wo rk w ood d eve loped p o l i sh mo re s im i la r t op lan t p o l i sh t han t oo l s u sed o n a ny o the r ma ter ia l , a nd t ha t s i l ica ( phy to l i th s ) i sp re sen t i n b o th p lan t s a nd w ood ( Ande r son 1 980 :187 -188 ) . S i l ica may w e l lb e t he a b ra s ive a gen t r e spon s ib le f o r t he h ea t b u i ld u p o n t he t oo l s u r face ( e spec ia l ly n o ted d u r ing wood -wo rk ing e xpe r imen t s i n t he p re sen t s t udy ) n ece s sa ry f o r d i s so lu t ion o f s i l ica o n t h e t oo l s u r face . O ft he o the r ma ter ia l sc on tac ted i nt he p re sen ts t udy b one a nd a n t le rw o rk ing t oo l s a re mo s t l i ke ly t o p roduce f r ic t iona l h ea t d u r ing u se , a l though t h i s i s p robab ly r ap id ly d i s s ipa ted b y t he c on s tan t r e mova l o f t he s ur face t h rough m ic rof lak ing . Un for tuna te ly , when t he t oo l e dge s t ab i l ize s a nd h ea tb u i ld -up o n t he s u r face b ecome sp o s s ib le t he t oo l i so f ten t oo d u l l f o rf u r the ru se . P o l i sh o n b one a nd a n t le r i s e spec ia l ly c ha rac te r ized b y h i gh ly p o l i shed a rea s b e ing

1 40

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r e s t r ic ted t o p ro jec t ing p o in t s o f t he e dge w h ich s t ab i l ized s ur round ing a rea sa nd w h ich w e re t hu ss ub jec ted t ol onger u se .

e a r l ie r t han

H ide w a s a n a b ra s ive , b u t r e la t ive ly s o f t ma te r ia l . H ide work ing d id n o t c au se a n e xce s s ive b u i ld -up o fh ea t o n t he t oo l s u r face , p robab ly d ue i np a r t t o t he s l ow r a te o f wo rk , t he e x ten s ive a rea o f at oo l c on tac t ing t he h ide , a nd t he c on s tan t a b ra s ive r e mova l o f ma te r ia l f r om t he t oo l s u r face . I n s tab i l i ty c au sed b y t he c on t inua l r e mova l o f t he t oo l s u r face p reven ted p o l i sh f r om d eve lop ing b eyond ar ud imen ta ry s t age ( S tage 2 b ,T ab le 2 6 ) .

1 0 .2 .4 Spec if ic Ac t iv i ty Microwear Pa t te r ns

T he f o l low ing ,a c t iv i t ie s a re d i scu s sed i n t e rm s o f t he i r r e su l t ing d i s t inc t ive u se -wea r c ha rac ter i s t ic s o r p a t tern s . T he w ea r d e sc r ip t ion s a re f or t oo l s wh ich h ave b een mode ra te ly t o h eav i ly u sed a nd r eady f o r r e sharpen ing o r d i sca rd ing , wh ich i st he p o in t whe re t he mo s td i s t inc t ive w ea rh a sd eve loped o nt hem ( Tab le 2 7 ) . P lan t C u t t ing : P lan t s a re o ne o f t he s of te s t c on tac t ma ter ia l s o n w h ich l ong i tud ina l ly u sed t oo l s w e re emp loyed . D ry p lan t s a re n o tab ly h a rde r t han g reen p lan t s , b u ta re s t i l l s o f t . M ic rof lake s ca r s a re r e la t ive ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted o n d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l e dge -a spec t s , w i th a t endency t ob e mo re c ommon o n t he v en t ra l a spec t . Edge s a re o n ly s l igh t ly r ounded , e ven a f te r h eavy u se . S t r ia t ion s a re r a re t o c ommon , p a ra l le l o r o b l ique t o t he e dge , a nd s ho r t . S tage 7p o l i sh ( s ee S ec t ion 1 0 .2 .3 ) d eve lop s q u ick ly a nd c over s e x ten s ive a rea s o ft he e dge a nd b o th a spec t s a f te ro n ly modera te u se . Bu tche r ing : T h i s wou ld h ave b een av e ry c ommon a c t iv i ty i np reh i s tor ic t ime s a s 5 0 -65 % o f t he p ro te in c on sumed i n t he l a s t 1 500 y ea r s i n t he s t udy a rea wa s d er ived f r om a nad romou sf i sh ( Ch i so lm 1 986 :115 -124 ) a nd a ne s t ima ted 2 0 -40 % c on s i s ted o f d eer , e lk , moun ta in s heep a nd s ma l l mamma l s ( R icha rd s a nd Rou s seau 1 987 ) . S imp le s ha rp f l ake s a re v ery e f f ec t ive f o r b u tcher ing f i sh o r d eer , i n c lud ing t he a c t iv i t ie s o f e v i scera t ion , s k inn ing , d i smember ing , f i l le t ing a nd d ef le sh ing . T oo l s c an b eu sed f o re x tended p e r iod sw i thou td u l l ing , a nd t h i s s l ow r a te o f d u l l ing c o inc ide s w i th a s l ow r a te o f w ea r d eve lopmen t , o f ten r e su l t ing i n w ea r t r ace s b e ing d i f f icu l t t o d e tec t , e ven o n h eav i ly u sed t oo l s . M ic rof lake s ca r s a re f a i r ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted , b u t t end t o b e s o mewha t more c ommon o n v en t ra l a spec t s . E dge s a re u n rounded t os l igh t ly r ounded . S tage 4 p o l i sh i sp re sen t , b u t n eve re x ten s ive , i nd i s t r ibu t ion . S t r ia t ion s a re o n ly p re sen t o n af ew t oo l s a nd a re r a re o n t he se ; t hey a re p a ra l le l t ot he e dge s a nd v a r iab le i nl eng th . H ide S c rap ing : Haf ted o r u nha f ted b a sa l t t oo l s a re e f fec t ive f o r d ef le sh ing o r d eha i r ing d eer h ide . T he f r e sh , f l e sh s i de o f ah ide i st he s of te s tc on tac t ma ter ia l s c raped ,w h i le t he h a i r s i de i s ah a rde r ma ter ia l t han w ood i ns evera l m ic rof lake c a tego r ie s b e l ieved t or ef lec t t he h a rdne s s o f ac on ta c t ma ter ia l . On mo s t t oo l s m ic rof lake s ca r s a re much mo re c ommon o n t he d o r sa l ( t ra i l ing ) a spec t t han v en t ra l ( l ead ing ) a spec t . Howeve r , o n af ew t oo l s t h i s p ropo r t ion i sr eve r sed , 1 42

summary of mlcrowear patterns on basalt tools.

Table 27. CONTACT M ATERIAL

cache creek

MICROFLAKE SCARS STRIAE: ROUNDING POLISH Orlen-: Orlen-: '\Feath \Small V:D Scar Dlstrl-: scars Ratio Stage butlon :Amount tatlon: tatlon: scars

L 0

Plants

7a

V-E-D b

S

G

Butch.

4

V-E-D

A

Wood

6

Hlde

C

experlmental

c

Ed

P, oe

52.9

82.4

l.2

s

E

P,O

45.l

96.0

l.G

V-E-D

s

E

P,O

46.0

80.0

.8

2b

V-E-D

s

E

P,0

36.8

83.0

.6

3/4/5

V-E-D

s

E

26.2

72. l

l.6

41.4

92.6

.2

0

Bone/

T R

Wood: s'

E-D

M-P

E-D

R

N

w

E-D

S-M

E-D

R

0.2

89.3

.5

R

39.8

86.6

.6

R

24.3

7 4. 1

.4

11

22.8

., 2. 6

Antler ------------------------------------------------------------------------

s

T N

Hide

2b

E-D

p

Butch.

2a

E-D

A

E-D

A-S

Done/ Antler KEY:

E-D E-D

a. see Table 26 for poll"h "taqe a.,11nlllon:1 b. v • Ventral edge aspect E Edge D • Dorsal edge aspect C .

s M

. -

Slight rounding Moderate rounding Pronounced rounding Rounding Absent

d. E = Edge Dorsal D e.

p

R f.

s

u 2

Parallel to edge Oblique to edge Right angle to edge Scraplng Whittling

143

-�

although the tools were used in identical fashion. It is believed that massive edge rounding has obliterated most of the scars on the dorsal edge-aspects of these tools. Stage 2b polish appears after very little use and only becomes slightly brighter after extremely prolonged use. Striations are rare and almost always oriented at or near right angles to the edge.

Cutting Hide: Basalt flake tools are effective for cutting deer hide. Fresh hide encountered while sl