Types on Russian Coins of the XIV and XV Centuries: An iconographic study 9780860542148, 9781407331577
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English Pages [280] Year 1983
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION. The Main Problems
CHAPTER I. The Monetary Circulation and the Coinage of Rus in the XIVth-XVth Centuries
CHAPTER II. A Survey of the Materials used for Comparison
CHAPTER III. THE IMAGES UPON THE COINS
Conclusions
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PLATES
Citation preview
Types on Russian Coins of the XIV and XV Centuries An iconographic study
A. V. Chernetsov Translated from the Russian by H. Bartlett Wells
BAR International Series I 6 7
1983
B.A.R.
122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker. M.A.
B.A.R. -S167, . 1983: 'Types on Ru ssian Coins of the XIV and XV Centuries'
©
A.V.Chernetsov, 1983
The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542148 paperback ISBN 9781407331577 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542148 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
C ontents
I ntroduction Chapter
Chapter
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I I.
Chapter I II.
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T he Monetary C irculation a nd t he C oinage o f R us ••• ••• •••
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A s urvey o f t he Materials U sed f or C omparison ••• ••• •.•
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T he
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I mages o n t he c oins.
T he human f igure
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The s tanding
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f igure
C ompositions w ith
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I mages o f H eads w ith A rms
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f igures
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C ompositions o f s everal human
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S cenes o f t he hunt and c ombat
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R uler upon t he t hrone
H orsemen
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Human h eads
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A nimals
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S ymbols and D ecorative E lements
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C onclusions
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B ibliography
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P lates
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F antastic Animals
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I NTRODUCTION T he Main P roblems S tudy o f t he R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth a nd X Vth c enturies i s a matter o f c onsiderable c omplication b y r eason o f t he e xistence o f a l arge n umber o f c enters where c o ins were s truck. T his i s e xplained b y t he p o litical f ragmentation o f R us a t t he t ime. T he e xtreme d iversity o f c oin t ypes a rose t hrough d ecentralization o f c oin p roduction, which t ook p lace o n a basis o f l easing o r f arming. T he v ar ious c enters s truck c oin o n d ifferent weight s tandards, a nd t hese were c hanged f rom t ime t o t ime. A c onsiderable p art o f t he R uss ian c oins ' o f t he X lVth c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he X Vth b ear A rabic i nscr iptions, s ide b y s ide w ith t he o nes t hat h ave R ussian i nscriptions. On t his a ccount, i n o rder t o u ndertake a c omprehensive s tudy o f t he R ussian c oins o f t he p er iod i n q uestion t he n umismatist must b e a s pecialist i n a r ange o f d istinct f ields, i n p articular m etrology a nd e astern s tudies. S uch a c ombination i s r arely e ncountered; a nd t he d iff iculty we h ave n oted, p lus t he e normous amount o f t he material, has b een t he r eason why a n a ppreciable p art o f t he c omprehensive work o n t he n umismatics o f t his p eriod h as r emained i ncomplete. T he d iff iculty o f s tudying R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies i s f urther a ccentuated b y t he f act t hat t he c urrency o f t hat p eriod was p ractically u nmentioned i n Russian l i terary s ources o f t hat d ay. T he s tudy we a re u ndertaking d oes n ot s et o ut t o b e a handbook o n R ussian n umismatics o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies t aken a s a whole, n or e ven l ess a c atalog o r a c ompendium o f i dentifications. T he a uthor h as s et h imse lf a more modest t ask - t hat o f e xamining t he t ypes o n R ussian c oins o f t hat p eriod a s a c lass o f a ncient Russian r epresentational a rt, f rom t he s tandpoint o f t heir i conography a nd t he m eaning t hey c onvey. T he t ypes o n R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth a nd XVth c enturies a re n umerous a nd v ar iegated. I n c omparison w ith t he c oins o f t he XVIth a nd XVIlth c enturies w ith t heir u niform a ppearance b rought a bout b y c entralization o f c oin manufacture, t he e arlier c oins r eflect a d ifferent .p o litical s tructure a nd a d ifferent o rganization o f c oin p roduction. A n i nd isputable p reponderance o f s ecular s ubjects i s c haracteristic o f t he t ypes o n R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies. I n t his r espect t hey a re d istinguished, f or e xample, f rom R ussian m edieval l ead s eals ( mo lybdobullae) which a s a r ule b ear i mages o f s aints ( Yanin, 1 970 , v olumes I , I). The d istinction i s t he more v ital i n t hat i mages a ppearing o n s eals a nd o n c oins w ere n evertheless c losely l inked t o e ach o ther i n t heir m eanings, a nd were r eciprocally a ssociated w ith e ach o ther . A c onnection b etween t he s ymbo lic i mplications o f n umismatic a nd o f s phragistic mater ial i s i rrefutable f or ancient R us, where t he i mpression o f t he d ie o n a c oin was r egarded a s b eing t he s eal o f t he p rince o r o f t he c ivic c ommunity. T his i s a ttested by t he n umerous c oins o f t he X lVth a nd XVth c enturies t hat b ear t he i nscription " the s eal o f 1
P r ince S o-and-so." P revalence o f c anonical i conographic s ubjects i n r epresentational a rt i s s omething c haracter istic o f a ncient R us. T hey u nquestionably d ominate i n monumental a nd e asel p ainting, a nd t he s ame s ubjects a re a lso p resented o n t he m ost o utstanding p roductions o f t he a pplied a rts. T he s ubjects o f C hr istian i conography were p laced n o t o nly o n o bjects o f l i turgical u se, b ut a lso o n o bjects a ssociated w ith t he s way o f s ecular f eudal r ulers. T hese were i n p ar ticular t he s eals o f t he R ussian p rinces, t he p rincely r egalia - t he d iadem, t he b army o r s hort , b ordered c oronation mantle b ear ing s acred i mages ( Makarova, 1 975, p . 4 7, p late 1 ; p . 5 5, p late 1 4 ; p . 5 7 , f igure 7 ; p . 5 9 , f igure 1 5), t he more r ecent r egalia o f t he t sars o f Muscovy ( OMOP, v olume I , 1 884, p . 4 3-47, 5 0 , 5 4 , 5 5 ), p r incely h elmets ( Yanin, 1 959 ; P SRL, v olume I, p . 4 39) a nd t he l ike. A ll t he o ther s ubjects o f a ncient R ussian a rt a re r epresented by l imited g roups o f material, f requently made u p o f s ubordinate e lements w ithin t he c omplexes o f i mages i n which s acred c ompositions p redominate, a nd i n a esthetic r espects t hey make t heir a ppearance a s a p eripheral a rea o f ancient R ussian a rt. T he d egree o f i deo logical s ignif icance o f s uch i mages i s i n p art o pen t o q uestion. U nder s uch c ircumstances t he t ypes o n c oins c onstitute a n e xceptionally i mportant p art o f t hat material, p roviding u s w ith a n o pportunity t o make a n a pproach t oward i nterpretation o f o ther p arts o f i t , s ince t hey a re a s a r ule t he main a nd s ole i mages a ppearing; among t he g roups o f a ncient Russian s ecular r epresentations, t hose f ound u pon c oins may b e r egarded a s t he most i ndisputably e ndowed w ith c onceptual c ontent, i nasmuch a s t he v ery u se o f t he c oin d ie i s i n i tself a manifestation o f o ne o f t he most i mportant f unctions o f p rincely a uthority - t he r ight o f c oinage. S ecular s ubjects i n m edieval a rt a re n o n ew t heme i n t he h istory o f a rt. A f undamental work o f R . van Marie ( 1931-1932) i s d evoted t o t his p roblem a s i t a pplies t o western E uropean material. I t has b een worked o ut a s a pplied t o B yzantine material a s well ( Matsulevich, 1 929; G rabar, 1 936; Weitzmann, 1 950 ; B ozhkov, 1 972; D arkevich, 1 975). A valuable a rticle by G rabar ( 1962) i s d evoted t o t he p roblem i n q uestion a s a whole ( but o nly f or t he p re-Mongol p eriod). B ut a s eries o f i mportant o bservations a nd d eductions which h ave a d irect b earing o n o ur s ubject i s c ontained i n A .V. A rtsikhovski's b ook , on t he a ncient R ussian m iniature ( 1944) a nd i n t he works o f G .K. V agner o n t he s culptural d ecorations o f t he V ladimir-Suzdal l ands f rom t he X lIth-XIIIth c enturies ( 1965-1969). I n A rtsikhovski's work t he o bservations m ost i mportant f or o ur s ubject a re t hose o n t he way f eudal i deology was r ef lected i n a ncient Russian a rt ( for e xample, t he i deas o f p rincely a uthority). I n t he works o f Vagner t hose o bservations c onsist o f t he e xtensive s ections d evoted t o a ncient R ussian s ymbolic s ystems i n t he r epresentation o f l iving c reatures a nd monsters, a nd a lso t he a nalysis o f c ertain o ther s ecular s ub jects which a re t o b e f ound i n c arvings o n t he walls o f c athedrals ( for e xample t he f l ight o f A lexander o f Macedon u pon g riff ins). 2
V ery i mportant p roblems a ssociated w ith t he basis o f a ncient R ussian a rt i n s ecular l i fe a re worked o ut i n F . K ampfer's b oök o n R ussian p ictures o f r ulers ( pr inces a nd t sars) i n t he X th t o XVI I th c enturies ( 1978). I m ight n ote t hat i n my o pinion o ne o f t he most s ubstantial s hortcomings o f K ampfer 's b ook i s i ts weak e xposition o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies, i .e. t he v ery t ime when t he c entralized R ussian s tate i s b eing p ut t ogether a nd t he p rerequisites making p ossible t he f ormulation i n t he XV It h c entury o f t he i deology o f Muscovite a utocracy a re e vidently b eing c reated. K ampfer d oes n ot p ause t o c onsider t he c oins o f t he X lVth a nd XVth c enturies, a lthough h e a nalyzes t he t ypes o n c oins o f t he X lth a nd o f t he XVI t hXV II th c enturies. A ccordingly h e d oes - n ot e ven r aise t he q uestion o f whether o ne may c onsider r epresentations o f p ersons o r parts o f p ersons o n c oins o f t hat t ime a s b eing i mages o f R ussian p rinces. O f i mportant s ignif icance f or s tudy o f t he s ubject we a re e xamining a re a lso works d evoted t o t he c oming i nto b eing o f R ussian h eraldry ( the s tate c oat o f a rms, but a lso l ocal a nd c ivic emblems) , f irst o f a ll t hose by A rtsikhovski ( 1946) a nd N. A. S oboleva ( 1979 , 1 981) . B ut t he emblems e xamined i n t hese were f or t he most p art c reated o nly f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he XVIth c entury o nward, a nd t he t ypes o n c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth , c enturies a re, a s c ompared w ith t hese, a r ef lection o f a n e arlier p hase i n t he e volution o f t he Russian f eudal emblematic s ystem. T he i mportance o f s tudying s ecular i mages i n m edieval a rt a r ises n ot t hrough t he a esthetic s ignif icance o f t hese i mages but t hrough t he f act t hat b y way o f t hem t he p olitical a nd o ther a ctivity o f t he p eriod was e nabled t o e xpress i tse lf more d irectly t han i t was t hrough i mages t he main p urport o f which was r eligious. S ecular s ub jects, moreover , were ( as-compared w ith t hose a ppear ing i n i kons) a ssociated t o a l esser e xtent w ith t radition a nd w ith e cclesiastical c ensorship. A s a r esult o ne c an t race i n t hem more c learly t he i nfluence o f t he p opular o r f olklor istic p r inciple, a nd s ide by s ide w ith t his t he var ious i nfluences o f a lien c ultures. T he i nteraction o f s ubject matter and i conography which i s i nherent i n m edieval s ecular a rt i s o ne o f i ts i mportant f eatures. T he c entral p osition o ccupied by t ypes o n c oins among t he r anks o f t hese i mages makes t he t ypes a n i mportant s ource f or t he h istory o f c ulture. While t hey a re a r ef lection o f t he i deology guiding t he r uling u ppermost c lass u nder , f eudal s ociety, t ypes o n c oins were addressed t o e xtremely b road s trata o f t he p opulation ( including i l literate o nes), a nd i n t his way t hey c onstituted a n a pologia f or t he e xisting s ystem i n a m ost p opular f orm ( one i ndeed p ractically u nknown i n l i terary writing), f or which, a s R ussian c oins o f t he X IVthXVth c enturies s how u s, a n a lmost c omplete d isplacement o f Christian i mages by s ecular a nd s pecifically b y f eudal o nes was c haracter istic. B y t he e xpression " conceptual c ontent" I a lways m ean t he a ssociations o f a l i terary, v erbal nature which g rew u p among t he c reators o f a rt p roducts a nd among t heir c ontemporaries, a nd n ot " pla s t ic i dea," " signif icant f orm," o r o ther n on3
l i terary c ategories. T he p roblem w ith c onceptual c ontent i n o ne a rt p roduct o r a nother i s t o my m ind n ot o ne a s t o whether i t i s p resent o r a bsent, but r ather o ne a s t o t he measure i n which o ne o r a nother s uch p roduct i s i mbued w ith c onceptual i ntent. I n t he e vent o f e xtreme c ontent d evelopment i n a r epresentational a rt p roduct ( for e xample, a strological o r a lchemical a llegories), t he c ompositions c onstitute a s ort o f r ebus, a n i nter-coupled t ext, e ach e lement o f which c an b e r ead i n o nly o ne c oncrete f ashion. B ut p roducts t hat a re e ven a g reat d eal l ess h ighly s aturated a re n evertheless n ot d evoid o f c onceptual c ontent. T he m ere p resence i n d ecorative a rt o f a ny r eal, f antastic, o r e ven a rbitrary e lement t hat c an b e g iven a n ame i n words i s a lready a c ase o f c onceptual c ontent. T he v ery f act o f t he s election o f a g iven o bject ( or g roup o f o bjects) i n o rder t o o rnament i t i n t he i nterest o f o ne s et o f i deas o r a nother d emonstrates t hat t he g iven k ind o f o rnamentation has c onceptual i ntent i n o ne measure o r a nother. T he s ame t hing a pplies t o t he s election o f i ndividual p arts o f a n o b ject w ith a v iew t o c over ing p recisely t hese parts w ith o rnamentation, whether t he a im o f t he s election i s o f a s ymbo lic o r o f a u t ilitar ian c haracter. T he g reater r ichness o f o rnamentation upon o bjects a ssociated w ith a f eudal l ord, o r s imply u pon o bjects t hat a re more e xpensive, i s a lso by v irtue o f t hat v ery f act a manifestation o f c onceptual c ontent i n t hat o rnamentation a s b e ing s ymbo lic o f s ocial p restige. T he l evel o f s aturation w ith c onceptual c ontent, t aken b y i tself , i s n either a p ositive n or a n egative c haracter istic, n either a n a rchaic n or a p rogressive f eature, i n a n a rt p roduct. T he a esthetic quality o f t he p roduct i s d etermined n o t b y t he d egree t o which t hese t wo e xtremely i mportant a spects a re d eve loped i n i t , n or e ven b y t heir q uantitative r atio t o e ach o ther , but b y t he e xtent t o which t he c reator h as s ucceeded i n making t hem c onvey a n o rganic i mpact. I n o ur a nalysis o f t he t ypes o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies i t i s a lmost e xclusively Russian materials t hat a re u tilized - b oth a s r egard p roducts o f r epresentational a rt , a nd a s r egards l i terary s ources. T he a uthor a cknowledges t hat t his d oes n ot e xhaust t he p otentialities f or i nterpretation o f t he t ypes o n Russian c oins o f t hat t ime, but h is having h ad r ecourse p rimarily t o R ussian materials i s warranted, i nasmuch a s t he u nderlying p roblem i n t his b ook i s t he p lace t he material b eing s tudied i s t o t ake w ithin t he c ontext o f a ncient R ussian a rt a nd o f ancient R ussian c ulture a s a who le. A f urther a rgument i n f avor o f s uch a l imitation u pon t he s ource material u sed i s t he i diosyncracy o f t he t ypes o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies, manifesting i tself i n t he a bsence among t hem o f a ny c onsiderable s eries o f d irect b orrowings f rom f oreign models. T he S tudy o f R ussian C oins o f t he X IVth-XVth C enturies T he s tudy o f R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth was put o n a s er ious s cientif ic f ooting b y A .D. ( 1834), who i n main r espects c orrectly a ssigned 4
c enturies C hertkov t hem t o
p articular p r inces a nd p rincipalities o n t he basis o f t he i nscriptions t hey c arry. A t t he s ame t ime t his s cholar p roved n o t t o b e i n a p osition t o d istinguish a l arge n umber o f c ounterfeits f rom t he g enuine c oins. A c ritical r eview o f t he material i n a ll i ts s cope i s t o b e f ound i n t he works o f A .V. O reshnikov. T his s cholar 's b asic work i s R usskiye Monety d o 1 547 g . ( 1896) - " Russian C oins B efore 1 547" . T his c onstitutes a c atalog o f t he e xtremely c opious c ollection o f e arly R ussian c oins a t t he Moscow H istorical Museum. T his i s t he o nly work i n which R ussian n umismatics o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies i s e xamined o ver i ts e ntire r ange. A long w ith i ts c atalog s ection p roper, O reshnikov's b ook c ontains a multitude o f s pecialized d igressions, among t hese c ertain o nes h aving t o d o w ith a n umber o f t he t ypes o n t he c oins. I t i s n atural t hat a p ortion o f t he mater ial a nd o f t he s pecial p roblems i n R ussian n umismatics o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies s hould h ave f ound n o p lace i n t hat b ook. T hey have b een f i lled o ut c onsiderably i n l ater works o f t he s ame a uthor ( 1899, 1 901). Y et o ne must a gain emphasize t he f act t hat O reshnikov's s tudy o f 1 896 i s t he b est a nd t he f undamental i nstrument f or t he s tudy o f R ussian numismatics o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies. S imultaneously w ith t he work o f O reshnikov, I .I. T olstoi was p reparing a g eneral work o n Russian numismatics o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies s ection by s ection, but h e was u nable t o b ring i t t o c ompletion. I n h is b ooks a nd a rticles, e xtraordinarily c omplete f or t hat d ay, T olstoi e xamined i n d etail a nd f rom e very a spect t he c oins o f N ovgorod a nd P skov ( 1884 , 1 886; t he a ppearance o f t hese p ublications made i t p ossible f or O reshnikov t o a bbreviate t he c orresponding s ections i n h is c atalog), a nd a lso t he e arliest c oins o f Moscow, t hose o f t he P rinces Dmitri D onskoi ( 1359-1389) a nd Vasilii Dmitrievich ( 1389-1425). The a ssignment o f c oins t o s pecific p rincipalities a nd p rinces was i n t he main b rought t o c ompletion i n t he works o f t hese s cholars. I n more r ecent works o n t he n umismatics o f o ur p eriod i t i s mainly more r estricted p roblems t hat a re s tudied: t he r ef inement o f d atings, m etrology, t he d istinguishing o f n ew v ar iants, e tc. T he d ata o n d ie-identities b etween d ifferent c oins a nd o n t he p roblems o f t he a ppearances t ogether o f d ies f or t he o bverse a nd t he r everse s ides a re i nteresting ( Mets, 1 960 - p late XXIV). Among t he more r ecent works which h ave t o d o w ith t he numismatics o f t his p er iod t he most i mportant a re t he s tudy o f monetary m etrological s tandards by V .L. Yanin ( 1956) a nd M .A. L vov ( 1974). I .I. I lyin ( 1940) p roposed + o t ake a f resh l ook a t t he e ntire c lassif ication o f t he c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies, but h e managed t o c omplete o nly a s mall p art o f t he work h e h ad p lanned ( 1940). I n h is work o nly c oins s truck by P o lish-Lithuanian r ulers i n e astern S lavonic t erritories a re e xamined; but among R ussian c oins p roper, o nly t he m intage o f t he S uzdal-Novgorod a nd t he R yazan p r incipalities. A n ew s ystematic a rrangement o f t he c oins o f Moscow u nder t he p r incipates o f Dmitri D onskoi ( 1369-1389) a nd Vasilii Dmitrievich ( 1389-1425) was c arried t hrough b y G .B. F yodorov
5
( 1949 ). A s ystematic a rrangement o f t he c oins o f Vasilii T yomny ( Vasilii t he D ark) ( 1425-1462) was c arried o ut b y N .D. M ets ( 1974). W e may a lso n ote t he s tudies o f V .L. Y anin a nd S .A. Y anina ( 1955), l ikewise t hat o f P .A. S horin ( 1971), b oth d evoted t o t he c oming i nto b eing o f t he m intage o f R yazan; o f A .S. M elnikova o n t he P skov c oins o f t he XV t f i c entury ( 1963); , a nd o f N .D. M ets o n t he c oins o f Y aroslavl a nd o f S uzdal. Nizhegorod ( 1960, 1 962). T he most r ecent among major works o n Russian n umismatics o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies was p ublished b y G .A. F yodorov-Davydov ( 1981). I t i s d evoted t o publishing t he l argest o f a ll h oards o f Russian c oins o f t he X IVth c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he XVth. I n a ddition t o a c atalog, t he b ook c ontains i mportant r esearch s ubdivisions; s ome o f t he t ypes o n c oins a re s ubjected t o s pecial ' e xamination. T he b ook a lso i ncludes a s eparate a nnex c ontaining a c orpus o f t he c oins o f t he p rincipality o f R ostov. A r ange o f l ess s pecialized works o n t he s ubject has a lso b een p ublished. T here i s a g eneral s ketch o f t he n umismatics o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies i n I .G. S passki's " The R ussian Monetary S ystem" ( 1962). A b ibliographical g uide t o S oviet n umismatics f or 1 917-1958 was published b y I .G. S passki a nd V .L. Yanin i n 1 960. T he t ypes o n c oins h ave b een s tudied t o a g reater o r l esser e xtent b y a ll t hose who have t aken t hem u p. A t t he s ame t ime, p resent i deas c oncerning t hese t ypes a re r educed t o s cattered i dentifications a nd s uggestions. A .S. Uvarov c orrectly r ecognized u pon t he c oins o f Tver t he a potheosis o f A lexander o f Macedon ( 1871, p . 2 65). A n umber o f i nteresting h ypotheses h ave b een p ut f orward by O reshnikov, A rtsikhovski ( 1948), M ets ( 1955), F yodorov-Davydov ( 1978, 1 981), a nd o thers. B ut n one o f t hese a uthors h as s ought t o o ffer a n o verall e valuation o f t he e ntire s cope o f t his material, o r e ven o f a ny p articular c onsiderable s eries o f t ypes. I n t his f ield t he most valuable work i s t hat o f A .K. Markov ( 1910), who s ought t o s egregate o ut a whole g roup o f t ypes o n c oins which h e a ssociates w ith t he i dea o f punishment f or v iolators o f t he e xclusive r ight o f p rinces t o s tr ike c oins. A n umber o f a u thors h ave written a bout t he r esemblance o f t his i mage o r t hat, o n p roductions o f a ncient R ussian a pplied a rt, t o t he s ame o ne o n c oins. Y et u p t i ll n ow n o a rt h istorian h as r eally e xamined t he t ypes o n a ncient R ussian c oins f or t heir own s ake, e ven t hough t hey a re m ost i ntimately b ound u p w ith t he i mages o f a pplied a rt a nd s ubstantially f i ll o ut o ur i deas o n t he i conography o f a ncient Russian a rt. N ot i nfrequently i nvestigators, i n s etting o ut t o i nterpret a t ype o n a c oin o f s ome i ndividual p rincipality, have l ost s ight o f t he f act t hat a n a ltogether a nalogous t ype i s t o b e s een o n t he c oins o f o ther p r incipalities a s well. I n a number o f c ases a t ype has b een i nterpreted i n s uch f ashion t hat i t i s r eally t orn away f rom among a c onsiderable s eries o f c losely s imilar t ypes w ith which i t i s u nquestionably l inked n ot o nly t hrough i conographic f eatures but a lso t hrough c onceptual i ntent. A n o pinion i s o ften a dvanced t o t he e ffect t hat t he m eaning o f t ypes o n c oins i s n ot o pen t o i nterpretation a t a ll. B ut h ere a rguments h ave a lready b een b rought f orward e videncing t hat
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a t l east among t he s ecular i mages i n a ncient Russian a rt ( with t he e xception o f t hose which a re u nquestionably i l lustrative), t he t ypes o n c oins a re j ust t he o nes t hat c onstitute t he material most e asily s ubmitting t o i nterpretation by v irtue o f t he f act t hat t he v ery f unction o f a t ype u pon a c oin d ef ines a p retty n arrow c ircle o f meanings f or t he i mages which a ppear o n t he c oin. A w ide r ange o f i nteresting t reatments o f i mages a nd c ompositions a ppear ing o n Russian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies may b e f ound i n works o n s phragistics, emblematics, h eraldry, a nd t he h istory o f a rt. The m ost i mportant o f t hese a re r eferred t o i n o ur f oreword a nd i n t he c hapter d evoted t o t he c omparative mater ials we have u tilized.
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CHAPTER
I
T he
Monetary C irculation a nd t he C oinage o f R us i n t he X lVthXVth C enturies T he S ources f rom which Monetary C irculation i n R us A rises
When o ne i s e xamining R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies o ne s hould t ake i nto a ccount t he f act t hat t hey a ppear a t t hat t ime i n R us a f ter a p rolonged i nterruption. A f ew words r egarding t he h istory o f monetary c irculation i n e astern E urope: Monetary c irculation e nters e astern E urope a s f ar b ack a s t he c lassical p er iod. T he A rabian d irhem b ecomes w idely d isseminated h ere f rom t he V Ilth ' c entury o nward. T he a ppearance o f a native c oinage f alls t o t he t urn o f t he X thX Ith c enturies. T he most a ncient R ussian c oins were s truck by t he K ievan P r ince V ladimir S vyatoslavich ( 980-10 15), u nquestionably d uring t he p eriod a f ter h e h ad a ccepted Christianity i n 9 88. T hese c oins were s truck i n g old a nd i n s ilver. B oth i n t heir e xternal c onfiguration a nd i n t heir weight t hey h ave a r esemblance n ot t o t he A rabian but t o t he B yzantine c oins o f t hat t ime ( Plate I . 1 -6). One s hould n ote t he n ature o f t he way i n which t he c oins a re c omposed, a ltogether d eliberate ( to j udge b y t he c ontent o f t he i nscriptions) a nd d ecidedly i diosyncratic f or t he i nitial p eriod o f t he c oinage. T he f ew g old c oins o f V ladimir h ave o n o ne s ide a n i mage o f C hrist, a nd o n t he o ther a n i mage o f t he p rince u pon a t hrone, wear ing a d iadem a nd h olding a l ong s cepter ( Plate I , 1 ). T he i nscr iption r eads " Vladimir o n t he t hrone." Above t he f igure o f t he p rince a nd t o o ne s ide i s t he p rincely emblem. T he e arliest s ilver c oins o f V ladimir a re c omposed i n a nalogous f ashion ( Plate I . 2 ). Later s ilver c oins o f t he s ame p rince, o nes more f requently e ncountered, h ave o n o ne s ide a n i mage o f t he p r ince a nd o n t he o ther t he p r incely emblem. T he i nscript ion r eads " Vladimir o n t he t hrone, a nd t his i s h is s ilver.' A f ter V ladimir , s ilver c oins were s truck w ith t he n ame o f P eter ( evidently t he C hristian n ame o f S vyatopolk Okayanny, S vyatopolk t he Damned, - 1 015-1019), i n t he p rinciple o f t heir c omposition s imilar t o t he c o ins o f V ladimir ( Plate I , 7 ). T he v ery r are but o n t he o ther hand m ost a rtistically e xecuted c oins o f Y aroslav Mudry, Y aroslav t he W ise, ( 1019-1054) a re d ifferently c omposed. O n o ne s ide we h ave n ot t he p rince h imself , but h is p atron S aint G eorge, a nd o n t he o ther t he p r incely emblem a nd t he i nscription " Silver o f Y aroslav" ( Plate I , 8 ). The most a ncient K ievan c oinage i s i n f act l imited t o t he c oins o f t he p r inces named. T he most n umerous a re t he c oins o f V ladimir, b ut e ven t hese w ill s carcely h ave c overed t he r equirements o f t rade which, t o j udge b y f inds, was c onducted by p reference i n A rab c oins i n t he e arlier f ashion. Apparently t he c oinage o f t he f irst K ievan p r inces was f irst a nd f oremost o f a d eclarative c haracter. A s erious o bstacle t o t he e volution o f a native c oinage i n Rus was t he l ack o f s ilver d eposits.
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A f ter Y aroslav t he W ise t here was n o s triking o f c oins i n R us u ntil t he X IVth c entury. One may p oint a s a n e xception o nly t o t he l imited c oinage o f a Russian p rince ( Oleg -Mikhail) b eyond t he b oundaries o f R us p roper, n amely i n t he p rincipality o f Tmutarakan ( the n eighborhood o f t he S traits o f K erch). F rom t he X th c entury t o t he b eginning o f t he X IIth t rade was c onducted t hrough t he i ntermediary o f a lien c oin, t o b egin w ith A rab, s ubsequently western E uropean ( circulation o f which was more l imited). F rom t he X IIth c entury t o t he m iddle o f t he X lVth t here e nsues i n t he h istory o f t he e conomy o f a ncient R us what i s c alled t he " coinless" p er iod. This p henomenon i s e xtremely i nteresting, a nd i t h as n ot b een e xplained d efinitively. T o t his p eriod t here f all n ot o nly t he s econd h alf o f t he X IIIth a nd t he b eginning o f t he X lVth c entury, t he p er iod i mmediately a fter t he c atastrophic T atarMongol i nvasion, but a lso t he X IIth c entury a nd t he f irst h alf o f t he X lIth, a t ime o f e conomic u psurge i n Rus, w ith c onsiderable d evelopment o f manufactures a nd t rade. H ow was t rade c arried o ut o ver t he d uration o f t he " coinless" p eriod? Only d isputed t heses w ith r egard t o t his matter a re i n e xistence. T he l i terary s ources make mention o f u nits o f value, i ncluding m inor o nes, but i t i s n ot c lear what t he mater ial b earers o f t hese values were. T here i s i nformation r egarding t he u se o f f urs a s p ayment media, a nd i t i s s uggested t hat s mall monotype p roducts o f s hop i ndustry were u sed a s " small c hange." Over t he e ntire c oinless p eriod t he g rivna, a n i ngot o f f ixed weight, was u sed f or ma jor payments i n R us. One g rivna r epresented a c onsiderable value ( the p rice o f a n o x). T he g rivna i s k nown i n s everal c lasses, t he g eography a nd c hronology f or t he d issemination o f which a re d ifferent. T he g r ivna o f K iev h as t he a ppearance o f a f lat , e longated h exagon weighing a bout 1 60 g . ( Plate I, 1 ). T hey a ppear i n t he X Ith-XIIIth c enturies. The N ovgorod g rivna l ooks l ike a r od 1 2-15 cm. i n l ength a nd a bout 2 00 g . i n weight ( Plate I, 3 -6). T hey a ppear o ver t he e ntire d uration o f t he c oinless p eriod a nd o verlap p artially w ith t he c oins o f t he X I .Vth-XVth c enturies. A s o-called " Chernigov" g rivna i s a lso known f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he X IIIth c entury , r eminiscent o f t he K ievan o ne i n s hape, but w ith e nds b eaten f lat ( Plate I, 2 ); a nd a lso , g oing b eyond t he f rontiers o f a ncient R us, t here i s a L ithuanian g rivna ( Fyodorov-Davydov, 1 949) a nd a G olden H orde g rivna o f t he X lVth c entury, h aving a c onf iguation r esembling a t rough ( the " boat-shaped g rivna" - P late I, 7 ). T he g r ivnas a re c ast i ngots w ith a b lank s urface. S ometimes s ome s ort o f marker was worked i nto t he mould ( the owner 's o r t he c aster's mark - P late I, 8 ). G r ivnas a re a lso known w ith g raff ito i nscriptions o r w ith marks o f a n a ccounting n ature ( indications o f t he weight f eatures o f t he i ngot - S otnikova, 1 961; a nd P late I, 5 ). F or c onvenience i n s ett ling a ccounts, g r ivnas m ight b e h acked i nto parts. The g reatest s pread o f t his p ractice was a chieved i n t he l attermost p eriod d uring which t hese i ngots e xisted, a t ime when t he s triking o f c oins was b eing r esumed.
I n t his p rocess t he parts o f g rivnas w ere n ot i nfrequently s tamped , s ometimes u pon t he s urface o f t he a ctual c ut. T he s tamp u sed f or t his p urpose o ften e xhibits a r esemblance t o c oin d ies. S ide b y s ide w ith r ound s tamps, u se was a lso made o f o nes h aving o ther a nd r ather v ariegated s hapes ( Plate II). Whole g r ivnas, t oo , were s tamped, f or r easons t hat a re n ot known ( Bulychov, 1 906), T he r esumption o f c oinage i n R us t ook p lace u nder Dmitri D onskoi ( 1359-1389). Apparently t he c oinage o f t he S uzdalN izhegorod p rinces i s o f e qually e arly d ate. Approximately a t t he s ame t ime t here a rises, o n t he p art o f t he p r inces o f R yazan, a p ractice o f c ountermarking c oins o f t he G olden H orde. T he i mmediate i ncentive which b rought a bout t he r esumption o f t he s triking o f c oins i n R us i s u nclear. A t t he e nd o f t he X IVth a nd b eginning o f t he XVth c enturies c oins were a lready b eing s truck b y p ractically a ll t he g rand p r incipalities a nd by many o f t he a ppanaged p r incipalities. N ovgorod a nd P skov ( 4120-1425) were t he l ast o f t he R ussian l ands t o t ake u p t he s triking o f c oins. The r eason f or t his l agging ( behind Moscow i n p articular b y s ixty y ears) o n t he p art o f t hese t raditional c enters o f t rade i s n ot c lear. P olitical S tructure a nd t he C enters o f C oin S triking i n R us i n t he X IVth-XVth C enturies T he p oli tical map o f a ncient R us i n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies o ffered t he f o llowing p icture. T he e ntire n orth o f t he E uropean t err itory o f t he U SSR, i ncluding t he N ovgorod a nd A rkhangelsk d istricts a nd a lso t he K omi Autonomous S SR a nd p artially t he V ologda d istrict, c onstituted l ands o f G reat N ovgorod. I n t he X IVth c entury P skov r eceived a utonomy ( 1348); u ntil t hen i t h ad b een d ependent u pon N ovgorod, a lthough t o a c onsiderable e xtent t his was m erely n ominal. T he t err itory o f P skov l and was i ncomparably l ess t han • t hat o f N ovgorod - i t r an i n a n arrow s trip a long t he b order o f L ivonia. W ith t he b eginning o f t he X IVth c entury a nd f rom t hen o nward t he l ands o f w estern a nd s outhern R us f ell u nder t he a uthority o f t he L ithuanian p rinces. U nder O lgerd ( 1345-1377) p ractically t he e ntire D niepr b asin a nd t he u pper r eaches o f t he western Dvina f ell t o L ithuania's s hare. F rom t ime t o t ime t he a uthority o f t he L ithuanian g rand p r ince was r ecognized by t he U p-River p rincipalities, p ositioned o n t he u pper r eaches o f t he O ka. A t t he m iddle o f t he X IVth c entury t he p r inces o f Smolensk r ecognized t he L ithuanian g rand p rince a s t heir o verlord. I n 1 404 , a f ter s ome y ears o f war like a ctivity, Smolensk went o ver t o L ithuania f or more t han a h undred y ears. T he p olitical l ife o f n ortheastern R us was c oncentrated i n t he main u pon t he t erritory o f t he t wo major p r incipalities o f t he p re-Mongol p eriod - V ladimir-Suzdal a nd R yazan. A f ter t he Mongol-Tatar i nvasion t he p r incipality o f V ladimir-Suzdal n o l onger e xisted a s a s ingle p olitical who le. I t was s plit u p i nto 1 0
a r ange o f s maller p r incipalities i n e ach o f which a l ocal g enealogical l ine o f p rinces s prang u p. One o f t hese p rinces r eceived t he k han's yarlyk o r e dict e ntitling h im t o t he V ladimir g rand p rincipality, a nd h e s ecured t he c ity o f V ladimir w ith i ts a d joining l ands which d id n ot f orm p art o f a ny h ereditary f ief . I n a ddition t o h is n ominal s eniority, t he g rand p rince c ollected t ribute f rom a ll R us o n b ehalf o f t he k han ( which s ubsequently f acilitated t he c entralization o f R us). A t t he t ime when t he s triking o f c oins was r esumed i n R us ( i .e., t oward t he s econd h alf o f t he X lVth c entury), t he yarlyk e ntitlement t o t he g rand p rincipate was p ractically a lways r eceived b y t he p rinces o f Muscovy. T oward t he s ame t ime i t a lso b ecame c learly e stablished t hat i t was p recisely Muscovy t hat was t he s trongest c enter i n n ortheastern R us, o ne c apable o f c onducting a c entralization p o licy. I n t he a ncient R ussian l i terary s ources a nd i n t he s cientif ic l i terature t he t i tle " grand p rince" a s a pplied t o t he h istory o f R ussia i n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies i s s ometimes u sed e xclusively o r p referentially f or p rinces who h ad r eceived f rom t he k han t he y arlyk o f e ntitlement t o t he g rand p rincipality o f V ladimir. B ut i n r eality t hat t i tle was quite o ff icially u sed by a b roader c ircle o f p rinces. T he t i tle " grand p rince" was b orne i n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies b y p r inces o f Muscovy, T ver, R yazan, N izhny N ovgorod, a nd Smolensk. T he Muscovite p rinces r ecognized t his t i tle i n t he o thers a nd u sed i t i n o ff icial d ocuments, e ven i n c ases where t hey were c oncluding t reaties o n a n unequal f ooting t hrough which t hese o ther p r inces were t o r egard t hemselves a s " younger b rothers" o f t he p rince o f Muscovy. The v assal p rinces s ubordinated t o t he g rand p r inces r eferred t o a re o rdinarily c alled a ppanaged p rinces i n t he s cientif ic l i terature. I n a ncient R ussian writings p r inces a re r arely t ermed " appanaged," but t he word udel =a ppanage i s u sed o ff a nd o n w ith a pplication t o t heir s mall p r incipalities. I t was n ot o nly t he a ppanaged p rinces t hat were d eprived o f t he t i tle o f " grand p r ince" - t hat t i tle was a lso n o t b orne by s uch p etty l ords a s t he p rinces o f R ostov a nd Y aroslavl, e ven t hough j urid ically t hey were r egarded a s i ndependent. I n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies t he a uthority o f t he T atarMongol G olden H orde k hans o ver R us was o f a s omewhat d ifferent c haracter t han i t h ad b een i mmediately a fter t he o nslaught a t t he m iddle o f t he X IIIth c entury. A t t hat t ime t he c ollection o f t ribute was n o l onger c arried o ut by T atar t axg atherers ( baskaks) but b y t he Russian p r inces. A t t he s ame t ime t he p rinces, i n t heir i nternecine s trife, a re c onstantly r eferr ing t o t he f act t hat t heir r ights h ave b een g ranted t hem b y t he k han; t he e levation o f a p rince t o t he r ank o f g rand p r ince o f V ladimir i s c arried o ut b y a T atar e nvoy. T he l ast t ime a T atar e nvoy d oes t his i s a t t he e levation o f Vasilii T yomny t o t he d ignity o f g rand p r ince i n 1 432, t his by t he way t aking p lace n ot a t V ladimir a s h itherto, but a t Moscow. I van I II was p roclaimed g rand p rince i n 1 462, t his t ime w ithout t he p articipation o f t he k han's ambassador. A long w ith t his, t he Russian p r inces n o t i nfrequently c onduct i ndependent p olicies a nd e ven c arry o ut m ilitary 1 1
o perations a gainst t he T atars. C ommencing i n 1 360 a n umber o f major c ampaigns o rganized b y t he p eople o f N ovgorod were c onducted a s a n u ndertaking o n t heir o wn; t hese w ere d irected a gainst t he l arge c ities o f t he u pper V o lga, a nd i n i ndividual c ases e ven a gainst A strakhan. A d ecade l ater t he c ampaigns o f R ussian p rinces a gainst Kazan c ommenced. T hese a ctions were n ot b rought t o a n e nd e ven a f ter t he b attle o f K ulikovo a nd t he t aking o f Moscow b y t he f orces o f T oktamysh. I ncrease i n t he p o litical a nd e conomic s trength o f t he R ussian p rincipalities l ed t o a p aradoxical s ituation i f o ne c onsiders t he p o litical d ependence o f R us o n t he H orde n umerous T atar warriors, among t hem n oblemen, d eparted f rom t he H orde t o s erve R ussian p r inces, a nd s ubsequently b ecame amalgamated i nto t he c orps o f t he R ussian n obility ( by V .O. K luchevski's c ount, t hey made u p 1 7% o f t he l ines o f t he e ar lier R ussian n obility - p art I, 1 908 , p . 2 57). I n 1 439 t he T atar r uler Y edigei wrote a l etter t o t he Muscovite G rand P rince Vasilii Dmitr ievich. Y edigei c harged t he Muscovite p r ince w ith h aving r etained , u nder f alse p retexts, t he money c ollected f or payment o f t he t ribute t o t he H orde; w ith f louting T atar e nvoys; w ith n ot having c ome b efore t he k han t o p rostrate h imself f or more t han t en y ears; a nd t he l ike ( PSRL, v olume X I, p . 2 09-210). T he p olitical d ependence o f t he R ussian p rincipalities u pon t he T atars was t he r eason why t here a re A rabic i nscriptions g iving t he n ame a nd t i tle o f t he k han o n t he e arliest c oins o f t he X IVth c entury a nd o n a r ange o f c oins o f t he XVth c entury. B ut t here a re n o d irect i ndications i n t he s ources t o t he e ffect t hat t his was d one a t t he o rders o f t he k han. T he o nly e vidence t hat i n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies t he T atars m ight l ay c laim t o a n e xpression o f s ubjection t o t hemselves a ppearing o n c oins f alls t o t he y ear 1 399. I n t hat y ear t here was a s evere b attle b etween t he L ithuanian G rand P rince V itovt a nd t he G olden H orde K han T emir-Kutui. B efore t he b attle, a ccording t o t he c hronicle, f irst V itovt a nd t hen t he T atar c ommander put f orward a d emand t hat t he o ne who s hould b e d efeated i n t he f orthcoming b attle s hould f or t he f uture p lace u pon h is c oins t he emblem o f t he v ictor ( PSRL, v ol. X I, p . 1 73). A f ter a g eneral e ngagement i n which V itovt was vanquished t here o ught, i n h armony w ith t hese e xchanges, t o h ave b een L ithuanian c oins i n s ome way o r o ther a cknowledging d ependence u pon t he G olden H orde. B ut t hus f ar s uch c oins a re u nknown, a nd i n a ll l ikelihood t here n ever w ere a ny. T he O rthodox C hurch was a p olitical f orce which p layed a s ubstantial p art i n R ussian a ffairs i n g eneral. I ts h ead, who c alled h imself " Metropolitan o f K iev a nd o f a ll R us," h ad h is s eat a t Moscow f rom t he f irst h alf o f t he X IVth c entury o nward, a nd a s a r ule h e a cted i n s upport o f t he p olicy o f t he Muscovite p r inces. I n a ddition t he M etropo litan a nd o ther e cclesiastical h ierarchs, a nd a lso t he a scetic monks who were i n authority, f requently p erformed f unctions a s i ntermediaries i n i nterprincely r elations. T he b est g uide o n t he h istory o f t he Russian c hurch i s E .E. G olubinski's work i n many v olumes ( the 1 2
p er iod we a re d ealing w ith i s c onsidered i n t he s econd p art o f V olume I, 1 911) . The f oundations o f Muscovite m ight were l aid u nder I van K alita ( 1325-1341). A f ter a r evolt a gainst t he T atars h ad t aken p lace a t T ver t he k han s tr ipped t he p rince o f Tver o f t he t i tle o f g rand p r ince a nd t ransferred i t t o I van Kalita ( 1328). A s ubstantial part i n t he r ise o f Muscovy was a lso p layed b y t he f act t hat t he h eads o f t he Russian c hurch t ransferred t heir s eat t hither f rom 1 326 o nward. I van Kalita i ntervened a ctively i n t he a ffairs o f t he n eighbor ing p rincipalities a nd o f t he N ovgorod l ands. I n 1 380, a f ter s everal l ess weighty c ollisions w ith t he T atars, a g eneral e ngagement c ame a bout o n K ulikovo f ield, i n which t he u nited f orces o f a n umber o f R ussian p rincipalities u nder t he l eadership o f Muscovy d efeated t he a rmy o f t he k han. T his h istoric v ictory s till f urther e nhanced t he a uthority a nd m ight o f t he Muscovite p r inces. B ut d ependency o n t he H orde c ontinued l ater , s ince i n 1 381 Moscow was t aken by K han T oktamysh. The t erritorial e xpansion o f t he p r incipality o f Muscovy, which h ad c ommenced a t t he b eginning o f t he X lVth c entury, b ecame p articularly c onsiderable u nder Dmitri D onskoi ( 1359-1389). The a ugmentation o f Muscovy's s trength c ontinued u nder Dmitri's s on a nd h eir Vasi lii Dmitrievich ( 1389-1425). Vasi lii Dmitrievich s eized t he p rincipality o f N izhegorod ( 1392, but s trife w ith i ts p rinces c ontinued t hereaf ter). T he d ependency o f Muscovy u pon t he k hans o f t he G olden H orde was merely n ominal u nder Vasilii Dmitrievich. A f ter t he d evastation o f t he G olden H orde by T amerlane's f orces i n 1 395 t hat s tate r apidly went i nto d ecline. Under Vasilii T yomny, s on a nd h eir t o Vasilii Dmitrievich ( 1425-1462), t he g reatest f eudal war i n t he h istory o f R us r an i ts c ourse. I n c ontradistinction t o e arlier f eudal c ollisions t he s truggle was n ot a bout which g rand p r incipality s hould b e l eader i n n ortheastern R us, but a bout which r epresentative o f t he l ine o f Muscovite p r inces, t he c losest d escendants o f Dmitri D onskoi, s hould h old Moscow, t he r ole o f which a s c enter o f R us a s a whole was by t his t ime a lready i ndisputable. T o b egin w ith Vasilii's r ight t o t he g rand-princely t hrone was c ontested by h is u ncle Y uri Dmitrievich, a nd t hen b y t hat man's c hildren, mainly Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka. Yuri Dmitrievich o ccupied Moscow i n 1 432 a nd 1 434. A f ter h is d eath i n 1 434 Vasilii T yomny s at o nce more a t Moscow, a nd i n 1 436 h e c onquered a nd b linded Y uri Dmitrievich's s on Vasilii who h ad c ontinued t o o ppose h im. I n 1 445, a s a r esult o f a l uckless b attle w ith t he T atars b efore S uzdal, Vasi lii T yomny was t aken p risoner, a nd a v ery h eavy r ansom was d emanded f or h im, s omething t hat was e xploited a s a p retext b y h is p o litical a ntagonists. I n 1 446 Vasilii T yomny was c aught by Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka a nd b linded ( whence t he n ickname T yomny - " the D ark," i n t his c ase m eaning " the b lind.") S hemyaka g ave V ologda t o Vasi lii T yomny a s h is f ief. B ut Vasilii T yomny e ntered i nto a lliance w ith P rince B oris A leksandrovich o f T ver a nd, r elying u pon t he s upport o f Muscovites d issatisf ied w ith 1 3
S hemyaka, s oon won Moscow back. A rmed e ncounters c ontinued u ntil 1 450, when S hemyaka was b eaten i n h is own f ief o f Galich; S hemyaka f led t o N ovgorod, where h e c ontinued t o p repare f or t he s truggle f or p ower u ntil h e was p oisoned i n 1 453. A s a r esult o f t he v ictory o f Vasilii T yomny t he p rocess o f d ecentralization which h ad s et i n was b rought t o a h alt. T he p rincipali ty o f S uzdal a nd p art o f t he Y aroslavl a nd o ther l ands b ecame c omponents o f t he p rincipality o f Moscow. A s a r esult o f t he f eudal war o f t he XVth c entury, r elations b etween Moscow a nd N ovgorod w ere markedly a ltered: a f ter t he v ictory o f 1 456 t he p eace t reaty o f Y azhelbitsy was c oncluded, u nder which t he p owers o f t he G rand P rince were c onsiderably e xpanded. U nder Vasilii Tyomny's s on a nd s uccessor I van Vasilievich II t he p rocess o f t he e stablishment o f t he c entralized R ussian s tate was i n main f eatures c ompleted. F irst o f a ll, u nder t his p rince t he i ndependence o f N ovgorod was b rought c ompletely t o a n e nd. A major c ampaign a gainst N ovgorod was c arried o ut i n 1 471, a nd t hereaf ter t he c ampaign o f 1 478, a s a r esult o f which t he p olitical o rder a t N ovgorod was wholly s upplanted. A t t he s ame t ime t he p r incipality o f Y aroslavl a nd t he r emnants o f t hat o f R ostov were a ttached t o Moscow , a nd i n 1 485 Tver. T he p r incipality o f R yazan, a nd R ostov, n ominally r etained t atters o f i ndependence, but were u nder t he s trongest Moscow i nfluence. P skov b ecame p ar t o f t he Russian s tate i n 1 510 , R yazan i n 1 521. I n t he g rand p rincipality o f Muscovy a ll t he p rinces, s tarting w ith Dmitri D onskoi, s truck c oins. I n a ddition, c oins were s truck i n t he a ppanaged p rincipalities o f Galich, S erpukhov, Mozhaisk, V ereya, Dmitrov, a nd U glich. T he p roblem o f t he p recise d ating o f t he s pringing u p o f t he Moscow c oinage i s o f c onsiderable i nterest. A lmost a ll t he c oins o f Dmitr i D onskoi h ave o n t he r everse a n i nscription w ith t he name o f T okhtamysh, a nd w ere t hus s truck a f ter 1 381. I n t he a ppanaged p rincipality o f G alich c oins were s truck b y P r inces Y uri Dmitrievich ( 1389-1434) a nd Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka ( 1434-1453). T he c oins o f Dmitri Yurievich S her nyaka c annot b e d ated l ater t han 1 450 , when Vasi lii T yomny s eized Galich. P art o f t he c oins w ith t he n ames o f Y uri a nd Dmitri S hemyaka were a pparently s truck a t M oscow, i n p articular a ll t heir c oins w ith t he t i tle o f " grand p rince." Among t he c oins o f U ri Dmitrievich a nd Dmitri S hemyaka t hose t hat p resent t he g reatest c omplications a re t he o nes o n which t here a re i n e ach c ase t wo n ames - t hat o f V asilii T yomny i n addition t o t heir own. T hose among t hem which p ertain t o Yur i Dmitrievich c all h im " prince" a nd Vasilii T yomny " grand p rince" a nd e vidently f all t o t he t ime when Y uri Dmitrievich r ecognized h is n ephew a s g rand p rince ( 14281 431, a nd 1 432). T he matter i s more c omplex w ith t he c oins o n which b oth Vasi lii T yomny a nd Dmitri S hemyaka a re c alled g rand p rinces. A t t he t ime when Vasilii T yomny was i n Moscow h e h ad n o o ccasion t o s tyle S hemyaka a s g rand p r ince. I t i s t he s ame w ith t he c ontrary c ase - when S hemyaka was i n 1 4
Moscow a nd gave V asi lii Tyomny a f ief a t V ologda, h e d id n ot r egard Vasilii a s g rand p rince a nd w ill s carcely h ave h ad o ccasion t o emphasize a n e quality o f t heir t i tles. Many s uggestions h ave b een a dvanced i n o rder t o r esolve t his n umismatic r iddle; t he a ppearance o f s uch c oins i s a ssociated, i n p articular, w ith a j oint p articipation o f t he p rinces i n s ome war o r o ther ( Lurie, 1 976). A ll t hese e xplanations, h owever, a re i nsuff icient. O ne may s uppose t hat t he c oins i n q uestion w ere s truck p ract ically a t t he v ery moment o f t he s hif t o f p ower f rom o ne s et o f h ands t o t he o ther, a nd t hat t hey p erhaps r eflect u ncertainty o n t he p ar t o f a moneyer o r c ommissioner ( for t he o rganization o f c oin p roduction s ee b e low) a s t o t he o utcome o f t he s truggle, o r t hat t hey r epresent s imply a n i nstance o f mechahical u tilization o f a n o ld d ie. T o r efer t he d ouble-name c oins i n q uestion t o t he t ime b efore S hemyaka's t aking o f Moscow, a s L urie d oes, i s s carcely p ossible. B efore Dmitr i Y urievich S hemyaka h ad t aken Moscow h e d id n ot e ven c all h imself g rand p rince. This i s a ttested by h is s eals a ttached t o c harters o f 1 434, 1 436 a nd 1 440 ( SGG, v ol. I , 1 813 , p . 1 2 , 18, 1 24, 1 30). I n 1 446 S hemyaka u ses a s eal w ith t he s ame p ortrait, but t he s ubscription i s a ltered a nd t he t i tle " pr ince" i s s upplemented w ith t he ad jective " grand" ( i t i s a pparent t hat t he p ortrait i s i mpressed w ith t he s ame g emstone, but t hat t he i nscr iption i nto which t he a lterations h ave b een i ntroduced i s u pon a metal mounting ( SGG, v olume I , 1 813, p . 1 37). T he t i tle o f " grand p rince" i s r etained a lso u pon t he i mpression Uom a s eal a ttached b y h im t o a c harter o f 1 448, a lready a f ter h is having b een e xpe lled f rom Moscow ( SGG, v ol. I , 1 813, p . 1 50)). S till a no ther a rgument i n f avor o f t he t hesis t hat t he " double-name" c oins w ith t he n ame o f S hemyaka c annot h ave b een s truck b efore h is o ccupying Moscow c onsists i n t he f act t hat t he i nscription a nd p ortrait a re a ltoJether a nalogous w ith t hose t hat a ppear o n o ne o f t he s ides o f t he d ouble-name c oins o f Dmitri Vasilievich; t hey a lso a ppear o h . c oins b earing h is n ame a lone. On t he r everse o f t hese c oins o ne r eads t he i nscr iption " lord o f a ll t he R ussian l ands." ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 34). U nquestionably S hemyaka c ould r eceive s uch a t i tle o nly o nce h e h ad e stablished h imseli a t Moscow. I n t he p rincipality o f S erpukhov, V ladimir Andreyevich t he B rave ( 1358-1410) was t he f irst t o c ommence t he s triking o f c oins; h e was a f amous m ilitary f igure o f h is d ay. I nasmuch a s t he c oins o f t his p rince have o n t he r everse a n A rabic i nscription w ith t he n ame o f K han T okhtamysh, i t i s p lain t hat t he c oinage o f t his p r ince a rose n ot e arlier t han 1 381. Among h is d escendants, S emyon V ladimirovich o f B orovsk ( 1410-1426), Y aroslav V ladimirovich o f Maloyaroslavets ( 1410-1426), a nd t he l atter 's s on Vasilii Y aroslavich ( 1426-1482), who i nherited S erpukhov, B orovsk, a nd Maloyaroslavets, s truck a f ew c oins. T he c oins o f t he l ast-named i ndividual may b e d ated t o 1 456, when t he p r incipality o f S erpukhov was c on joined w ith Muscovy. I n t he
a ppanaged
p rincipality 1 5
o f
Mozhaisk,
Dmitri
D onskoi's s on Andrei Dmitrievich ( 1389-1432) c ommenced t he s tr iking o f c oins. Among h is c oins o ne b ears n ot o nly h is n ame but a lso t he n ame Vasi lii, e vidently Vasi lii T yomny. Among t he c oins o f h is s uccessor I van A ndreyevich, who r uled f rom 1 432 t o 1 454 when Mozhaisk was c on joined w ith Muscovy, t here a re a gain o nes b earing n ot o nly h is n ame b ut a lso t hat o f V asilii T yomny, o r quite w ithout n ames o f p r inces. I n 1 432 t he p rincipality o f V ereya was s eparated f rom t hat o f Mozhaisk, a nd i t was r uled by a s econd s on o f Andrei Dmitrievich, n amely M ikhail Andreyevich ( 1432-1484). A f ter h is d eath t he p r incipality o f V ereya went o ver t o I van II. I n t he a ppanaged p rincipality o f Dmitrov c oins were s truck o nly b y Dmitri D onskoi's s on P yotr Dmitrievich ( 13891 428) . C oins o f t he p rinces o f U glich, I van V ladimirovich ( before 1 422) a nd K onstantin Dmitrievich ( died i n t he 1 430's), a re v ery r arely e ncountered. S econd i n i ts p olitical i mportance, a s well a s i n i ts c ultural a nd e conomic d evelopment, among t he c entral Russian p rincipalities, was T ver . A t t he b eginning o f t he X IVth c entury s everal p r inces o f T ver r eceived t he y arlyk o f t he g rand p rincipiate , a nd t hey l ost i t o nly i n 1 328. I van M ikhailovich ( 1399-1427), who was t he f irst t o s tart s tr iking c oins a t Tver, s pent h is r eign i n c onstant c ollisions w ith v assal p r inces. A f ter a b rief p er iod o f t he r eign o f t wo p rinces who s truck n o c oins, B oris A leksandrovich ( 1427-1461) e stablished h imse lf i n Tver. H e c onstantly t acked a bout b etween Muscovy a nd i ts a ntagonists; i n p articular, t o b egin w ith h e h elped S hemyaka a gainst Vasilii T yomny, t hen h elped t he l atter t o r e ' .urn t o t he t hrone. H is s on M ikhail B orisovich r uled t i ll 1 486 , when T ver was c on joined w ith t he Muscovite s tate. B ut t he c oinage o f Tver c ontinued e ven a f ter t his. I van II gave T ver a s a n a ppanage t o h is s on I van I vanovich, who r ules Tver u ntil h is d eath i n 1 490 a nd s truck c oins t here. Among t he T ver a ppanages c oins w ere s truck b y G oroden, K ashin, M ikulin, a nd D orogobuzh. T he G oroden c oinage i s o f a s omewhat u nusual c haracter . A t a t ime when t he c oinage o f t he a ncient R ussian c ities o rdinarily c ame a bout t hrough t he p resence i n t hem o f a p rince, i n t his c ase t he matter s tood o therwise. A lmost a ll t he c oins o f G oroden a re s truck i n t he n ame o f t he g rand p r inces o f T ver. On t he Tver c oins o f t hese s ame p rinces t he p lace o f s tr iking i s r ather r arely s hown. P erhaps s ome p ari was p layed i n t he s triking o f t he G oroden c oins by t he c ity a dministration s ide by s ide w ith t he p rincely a uthority. T he c omplexity o f t his q uestion i s h eightened b y t he f act t hat i t i s n ot e ntirely c lear where t hat G oroden i n which t hese c oins w ere s truck a ctually l ay. S ome s cholars c onnect i t w ith t he c itadel a t t he v illage o f G orodnya o n t he V olga, n ear T ver ; o thers p ropose t hat i t i s t he p resent S taritsa ( see O reshnikov, 1 896 , p . 6 6 ). G oroden c oins o f I van M ikhailovich a nd o f B or is A leksandrovich a re known, a lso o f t he l ocal p rince A leksandr I vanovich who r uled b efore 1 425. A t K ashin c oins were s truck by Vasi lii M ikhailovich, who i s m entioned i n t he c hronicles u nder 1 412 a nd u nder 1 426. I n a ddition t o c oins w ith t he n ame o f t his p r ince t here were
1 6
s truck a t K as hin c oins i n t he n ame o f t he g rand p r ince B oris A leksandrovich a nd c oins w ithout p rince's n ame. A round 1 412 c oins were a lso s truck a t K as hin b y P r ince I van B or isovich. A t M ikulin c oins were s truck i n t he n ames o f t he P rinces F yodor M ikhailovich a nd F yodor F yodorovich. A t D orogobuzh c oins were s truck i n t he n ame o f P rince Andrei Dmitrievich ( 1407-1437) Another p olitical c ompetitor o f Moscow o ver a p rolonged p er iod was t he p r incipality o f S uzdal-Nizhegorod. A t t he m iddle o f t he X IVth c entury i ts p rinces were c onducting a n i ndependant p o licy. A f ter t he d eath o f A ndrei K onstantinovich ( 1365) , s tr ife a rose b etween h is b rothers B oris a nd Dmitri K onstantinovich; w ith t he s upport o f t he Muscovite p rince a nd m etropolitan, t he l atter e stablished h imself a t N izhny N ovgorod i n 1 365-1383. A f ter t he d eath o f t he p r ince h is s on Vas i l ii Dmitr ievich K idryapa s trove w ith h is u ncle B oris K onstantinovich f or t he t hrone; t he u ncle won, but was s oon d r iven o ut by t he p rince o f Muscovy ( 1392). T he s ons o f B oris K onstantinovich c ontinued t he s truggle w ith S emyon Dmitrievich f or t heir p rincipality. Chronicle i nformation o n t he S uzdalN izhegorod p r inces v ividly d epicts t heir s truggle a gainst Moscow, i n which t hey were s ustained by T atar s upport. T he f inal l iquidation o f t he i ndependence o f t he S uzdal-Nizhegorod p rincipality i s d ated t o 1 451. T he most a ncient c oins o f t he S uzdal-Nizhegorod p r incipality c ommenced t o b e s truck by Dmitri K onstantinovich ( 1365-1383) . T hereafter c oins were s truck by B oris K onstantinovich ( 1383-1387, 1 391-1392 ) a nd by Vas i l ii Dmitr ievich K idryapa ( 1387-1391 ). A lso known a re c oins o f Dmitri K onstantinovich ' s g randson I van B orisovich Tugoi-Luk ( Tight-Bow), i nformation r egarding whose a ctivity r elates t o t he f irst quarter o f t he XVth c entury, a nd o f A leksandr I vanovich B ryukhaty ( Big-Belly), who d ied i n 1 418. L ikewise known a re c oins o f D aniil B orisovich, which a re a gain d ated t o t he f irst q uarter o f t he XVth c entury. F inally t here a re c oins o f I van V asilievich G orbaty ( Hunchback) , who i n 1 451 r enounced h is r ights i n f avour o f t he p rinces o f Muscovy. I n t his p r incipality c oins were s truck b y a ppanaged p rinces i n a ddition t o t he N izhegorod p rinces. B efore h e b ecame g rand p rince o f N izhegorod, B oris K onstantinovich s truck c oins a t G orodets ( before 1 383). I n 1 377-1387 Vasilii Dmitrievich K idryapa s truck a c oin a s a ppanaged p r ince o f S uzdal. I t was a s p rince S uzdal t hat D aniil B orisovich, t oo, f irst s truck c oins o f h is own a t t he b eginning o f t he XVth c entury. Among t he R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth a nd XVth c entury t he S uzdal-Nizhegorod o nes a re i n c onsiderable p art d istinguished b y t heir p articularly c oarse a ppearance. A d ecidedly l arge n umber o f u nassigned c oins o n which n either t he n ame o f t he p rince n or t he p lace o f s triking c an b e r ead e xhibit a v ery g reat r esemblance t o t his p art o f t he S uzdalN izhegorod m intage. A t t he s ame t ime t he a ppearance, t he p re s ence o f R ussian i nscr iptions, a nd t he c haracter o f t he t ypes s how t hat t hese a re / u nquestionably Russian c oins. One 1 7
must a ssume t hat a c onsiderable p art o f t hem w ere s truck i n t he S uzdal-Nizhegorod l ands. P art o f t he S uzdal-Nizhegorod c oins w ith t he n ame o f Vasi lii were p erhaps s truck h ere b y p r inces o f Muscovy V asi lii Dmitr ievich o r V asili i T yomny; b ut i t i s v ery d iff icult t o s egregate t hese f rom t he c oins o f Vasi lii Dmitrievich K idryapa. S till a f urther g rand p rincipality o ffering r esistance t o t he p o licy o f Muscovy was t hat o f R yazan. A s e arly a s t he b eginning o f t he X lVth c entury i t g ave way o n more t han o ne o ccasion b efore Muscovite p ressure, which won f rom i t t he i mportant c enter o f K olomna ( at t he c onfluence o f t he r iver Moskva w ith t he O ka). T he b est-known R yazan p r ince o f t he X lVthe c entury was O leg I vanovich ( 1350-1402). H e f requently e ngaged i n a rmed s trife w ith t he Muscovite p r inces a nd h e a voided t aking p art i n t he Kulikovo b attle w ith t he T artars. I n 1 381 h e was o bliged t o s ign a n u nequal t reaty w ith Muscovy a nd t o r ecognise Dmitri D onskoi a s h is " older b rother," but s oon h e o nce more a ssumed a n i ndependent p osition. T he h eir o f O leg, F yodor O lgovich ( 1407-1427), f rom t he v ery s tart o f h is r eign c oncluded a n unequal t reaty w ith Muscovy; h e h ad t o c ombat t he s eparatism o f t he a ppanaged p rinces o f P ronsk. F yodor's s on I van ( 1427-1456) c oncluded a t reaty w ith L ithuania i n which h e r ecognised t he p rotectorate o f t he L ithuanian g rand p r inces, but t his c onnection c ame t o a n e nd w ith t he d eath o f V itovt ( 1431). A t t he t ime o f t he f eudal war a t t he m iddle ) f t he XVth c entury t he p rince o f R yazan wavered, but i n ny e vent f rom 1 447 o nward h e c love f irmly t o Vasi lii T yomny. J n d ying i n 1 456 h e w illed t o Vasi lii T yomny g uardianship o ver h is e ight-year-old s on, who was r eleased b y I van I II t o R yazan i n 1 464 . R yazan n umismatics c omes i nto b eing a t t he s ame t ime a s t he s triking o f c oins i n t he p rincipalities o f Muscovy a nd S uzdal-Nizhegorod. Y et i nitially t his was n ot c oining, b ut t he c ountermarking o f c oins o f t he G olden H orde. A t f irst t his was c arried o ut w ith l etter p unches, a nd s ubsequently w ith p unches b ear ing t he R yazan p r incely emblem o r t amga. T he s ignif icance o f t his a ction i s n ot e ntirely c lear . T he c ountermarking o f c oins o f t he G olden H orde was s tarted b y O leg I vanovich a nd c ontinued b y F yodor O lgovich. I t i s u nder h im t hat t he f irst c oins a ppear , a lso w ith t he R yazan e mblem a nd t he Russian i nscr iption " the s eal o f t he g rand p r ince," but w ithout t he p rince's n ame. U nder I van F yodorovich . t here f inally a ppear c oins w ith t he n ame o f t he p rince o f R yazan. I n 1 456-1462 c oins were s truck a t R yazan i n t he n ame o f t he g rand p r ince o f Muscovy Vasilii T yomny, a nd f rom l ater o n s carce c oins o f V asilii o f R yazan a re known. A side f rom t he c oins a ssociated w ith t he R yazan g rand p rinces o ne e ncounters f rom t ime t o t ime c oins a ssociated w ith a ppanages i n t he l ands o f R yazan. T hus we a re a cquainted w ith c oins o f I van V ladimirovich o f P ronsk ( died a round 1 430), a nd a lso w ith a c oin b ear ing t he i nscr iption " Spasskaya," e vidently s truck a t S passk. The c oinage o f t wo
f urther
1 8
s mall
i ndependent
p r incipalities a lso c ommenced f rom t he t hreshold o f t he XVth c entury - R ostov a nd Y aroslavl. B oth t hese p rincipalities were a lready u nder t he s trongest s ort o f p o litical a nd e conomic i nf luence f rom Muscovy i n t he X IVth c entury. T he c ity o f R ostov was d ivided i nto t wo p arts which were r uled b y d ifferent p rinces. P rince A ndrei F yodorovich who r uled o ne p art o f R ostov ( before 1 409) s truck c oins j ointly w ith t he P rinces A leksandr K onstantinovich ( before 1 404), A ndrei A leksandrovich, a nd K onstantin V ladimirovich who r uled t he o ther p art. T he n ame o f Andrei A leksandrovich i s a lso e ncountered w ith t he n ame o f F yodor Andreyevich. T he p rincipality o f R ostov c ame t o f orm p art o f t he Muscovite s tate t hrough purchase , t he parts s eparately. R ostov went d ef initively t o Moscow u nder I van II ( 1474). I n t he p r incipality o f Y aroslavl c oins were s truck b y P rince I van Vasilievich ( before 1 426), b y h is b rother F yodor V asilievich ( af ter 1 426), a nd b y t he l atter 's s on A leksandr F yodorovich ( before 1 463). C oins o f V asilii I vanovich ( around 1 436) a re a lso e ncountered. I n 1 463 Y aroslavl was c on joined w ith Moscow. I n a ddition t o t he c oins o f t he g rand a nd a ppanaged p r inces, t he c ivic c ommunes o f N ovgorod a nd P skov a lso s truck c oins i n R us d uring t he XVth c entury. N ovgorod, which was a s elf-governing c ity, h ad a d ecidedly p eculiar p olitical s tructure. I t was b ased u pon j oint r ule by a c ommunal ( republican), a p r incely, a nd a n a rchepiscopal a dministration. T he g rand p rince o f Muscovy r egularly a ppears a s p rince o f N ovgorod a t t his t ime; h is a uthority i s l imited by t he t exts o f t reaties. I n t he X IVth c entury c ollisions b etween t he Muscovite g rand p r inces a nd N ovgorod a rose i nitially b y r eason o f f inancial p retensions o f t he Muscovite p rinces, i n p articular a s a r esult o f t he c ampaigns o f 1 386 a nd 1 391. N ovgorod was o bliged t o p ay a h eavy c ontribution. N ovgorod a lso made l arge c ontributions t o Muscovy i n 1 441 a nd 1 456. T he u sual p olicy o f N ovgorod was t o t ack a bout b etween t he warring p r inces a nd L ithuania. A t t he t ime o f t he f eudal war i n t he m iddle o f t he XVth c entury t he p rinces, who h ad s uffered d efeat, f ound s upport a t N ovgorod. I n 1 470-1471, s ensing t he i mpossibility o f s ustaining t he p ressure o f Moscow, t he b oyars o f N ovgorod s ought t o c onclude a t reaty w ith t he P olish K ing Kazimierz I V a nd t o r ecognise h im i nstead o f t he p rince o f Muscovy a s s upreme l ord o ver N ovgorod. B ut t he t reaty d id n ot g o t hrough, a s t he r esult o f a c ampaign o n t he p art o f I van II. T he f inal l iquidation o f N ovgorod i ndependence t ook p lace i n 1 478. D espite t he f act t hat t he e conomic p ower o f N ovgorod was t o a c onsiderable e xtent b ound u p w ith t rade, i t c ommenced t o s tr ike c oins o f i ts own l ater t han t he majority o f t he c entral Russian p r incipalities. The c oming i nto b eing o f monetary c irculation i n N ovgorod i s r eflected i n t he c hronicles. F or 1 410 i t i s i nd icated i n t he N ovgorod c hronicles t hat t he p eople o f t he c ity r esolved t hat f or t he f uture t hey would t rade i n E uropean c oins ( "Lithuanian p ennies a nd g roats, a nd G erman a rtugs" - N PL, p . 4 02.) F or 1 420 t he N ovgorod c hronicles s ay 1 9
t hat " the p eople o f N ovgorod c ommenced t o t rade i n s ilver d engi: b ut t hey s old t he a rtugs ( i .e. r tugs - T r) t o t he G ermans, a nd t hey h ad b een t rading i n t hem f or n ine y ears" ( NFL, p . 4 12). I n 1 447 t umults a ssociated w ith m isuses i n t he manufacturing o f c oins t ook p lace a t N ovgorod. A s a r esult " the burgomaster a nd t he c aptain a nd a ll N ovgorod ( i .e. t he c ivic a uthorities, t he r epublican o ff icials) s et u p f ive moneyer p ositions." ( NFL p . 4 26; P SRL, VOL, N o. 2 , 1 925 , p . 4 42, 4 43). T hus N ovgorod c oinage b ore a n o rganised g overnmental c haracter ( in c ontrad istinction t o t he o ther l ands, where i t was i n p rivate h ands). I n d escribing t he p utting i nto o rder o f t he p roduction o f c oins a t N ovgorod i n 1 447 t he N ovgorod c hronicle i n t he s ame p assage i ndicates t hat t he r egulations s et u p a f ter t his a lso b rought f orth p ronounced d issatisfact ion o n t he p art o f t he p opulace. A c hange i n t he t ype o f t he N ovgorod c oins, when i n p lace o f t he i nscr iption " of g reat N ovgorod" a n i nscription w ith t he t i tle o f t he g rand p rinces a ppears, may b e a ssociated w ith t he y ear 1 456, when t he words " and t he s tamp o r s eal i s t o b e t hat o f t he g rand p rinces" a ppear i n t he t ext o f t he t reaty o f Y azhelbitsy, o r e lse w ith 1 478, when t he i ndependence o f N ovgorod was u tterly d one away w i th. Among t he i nd ividual c ities o f t he N ovgorod l ands c oins ( exclusively o f c opper) were s truck o nly a t N ovy T org ( Torzhok), w ithout t i tle o r n ame o f a p r ince. T he s econd r epublic o f t he R ussian m iddle a ges was P skov. I ts i ndependent p o litical e xistence was f ortified by a t reaty w ith N ovgorod i n 1 348. I n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies P skov a ccepted v ar ious p r inces, i ncluding L ithuanian o nes, but a s a whole i t o rientated i tself p reponderantly t oward t he g rand p r ince o f Muscovy, a nd f requently h is v iceroys made c hanges i n t he p rinces a t P skov. T he m ilitary a ssistance o f t he g rand p r inces was c onstantly u tilized b y P skov f or d efence a gainst L ithuania a nd t he L ivonian O rder. A t t he t ime o f t he s trife b etween t he g rand p r inces a nd N ovgorod, P skov c onsistently s upported t he g rand p rinces. F or t his r eason t he i ndependence o f P skov l asted l onger t han d id t he i ndependence o f N ovgorod - u ntil 1 510. T he t ime o f t he c ommencement o f c oin s triking a t P skov was r eflected i n t he l ocal c hronicles. And y et t he d ate o f t he s tart o f c oinage h ere r emains o pen t o d ispute, s ince t he v ar ious c hronicles p ropose t hree d ates - 1 420, 1 424, a nd 1 425. A ll o f t hem h owever a re v ery c lose t ogether a nd t he d ifferences a re o f n o i mportance i n p rinciple f or t he s tudy o f t ypes o n c oins o f P skov. The b rief d ata o n t he p olitical g eography a nd h istory o f R us i n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies which we h ave p resented h ave a n e xclusively a uxiliary p urpose, t hat o f f acilitating u se o f t his b ook, a nd t hey a re b ased u pon d ata f rom t he R ussian c hronicles. T he most i mportant s tudy o n t he h istory o f t his p er iod i s L .V. C herepnin's monograph ( 1960). A v aluable guide t o t he g enealogy o f t he R ussian p rinces o f t his t ime i s A .V. E kzemplyarski's work ( volume I a nd I, 1 889, 1 891). Among t he c auses which l ed t o t he c reation o f t he c entralized R ussian s tate a nd t he a bolition o f t he i ndependence 2 0
o f t he i nd ividual p r incipalities a nd c ivic c ommunes was t he e conomic d ecline a nd t he i nstability o f t he e conomies o f t he m inor p r incipalities. The t estaments o f a n umber o f m inor p rinces i n c entral R us t hat h ave s urvived s how t hat t hey s ometimes l ef t v ery c onsiderable d ebts; v aluables, a nd e ven c lo thing, f rom among t heir p roperties h ad o f ten b een p awned ( Bakhrushin, 1 909; B azilevich, 1 926). I n t he X IVth a nd XVth c enturies t he t reasuries o f p rinces were n ot i nfrequently c aptured i n t he c ourse o f i nternecine wars. A gainst t his b ackground t he e conomic s ituation o f t he g rand p rinces o f Muscovy was e xceptional, a nd i t c onstantly b ecame more s olid o ver t he c ourse o f t he XVth c entury. T his was b rought a bout b y t erritor ial a ggrandizement o f t he p r incipality, s way o ver k ey p oints o n t rade r outes, a nd h eavy m ilitary l evies. G eneral D ata o n t he Monetary C irculation o f t he X IVth a nd XVth C enturies A t t he b eginning o f t he XVth c entury monetary c irculation was a lready p laying a d ecidedly i mportant p art i n t he e conomy o f R us. T his i s a ttested by a r ange o f i ndications i n t he c hronicles. F or 1 410, i n d escribing t he t aking o f V ladimir by t he T artars w ith t he h elp o f t he p rinces o f S uzdal-Nizhegorod, i t i s s tated t hat t here was s o much b ooty t hat " coins were s hared o ut by weight." ( PSRL, v ol. V I, p . 1 39; v ol. X I. p 2 16). F or 1 412, i n d escribing t he p rices f or b read a t N izhny N ovgorod, t here i s m ention o f " the o ld c oins" ( PSRL, v ol. X I, p . 2 18). Evidently e ven a t t hat t ime c hanges i n t he weights o f c oins h ad r eached s uch p roportions t hat t his was r ef lected i n market p rices. T he i nvolve 2 nt o f t he b roadest s ort o f s trata o f t he p opulation i n t he c irculation o f c oins was r ef lected i n t he f act t hat a v ery c onsiderable p art o f t he p easant p opulation i s r eferred t o f rom t he m iddle o f t he XVth c entury o nward a s s rebreniki ( one o f t he m edieval m eanings f or which i s " individual s ilver c oins," but h ere p robably " persons owing s ilver ( coins)" - T r.) i n which c onnection t his t erm s hows t hat t heir d ependence was t o b e e xplained by i ndebtedness o r o ther c ircumstances s tated i n monetary f orm ( Grekow, 1 954, v ol. I, p . 9 8-113). One o f t he e vidences f or t he d eveloped s tate o f monetary r elationships i n Rus a s e arly a s t he X IVth c entury i s t he c hronicle a ccount o f e vents o f t he y ear 1 378. I n t hat y ear Dmitr i D onskoi s ent h is c andidate t o C onstantinople i n o rder t hat h e m ight b e c reated a m etropolitan. I n t hat c onnection t he c andidate f or t he m etropolitan s ee was g iven a c harter b earing s eals o f t he g rand p rince but n o t ext s o t hat h e m ight b e i n a p osition t o d raw u pon merchants i n C onstantinople f or money w ith which t o s uborn B yzantine e cclesiastics. S ubsequently, making u se o f t his c harter, t he R ussian e nvoys d rew u pon F ranks ( Italians) a nd Musulmans i n C onstantinople f or t he s um, g igantic f or t hat t ime, o f 2 0,000 r ubles ( PSRL, v ol. X I, p . 3 8, 4 0). T he p ossibility o f s ecuring s o c onsiderable a s um s hows t hat t he a bility o f t he Muscovite g rand p rince t o p ay d id n ot a rouse d oubts e ven f ar b eyond t he f rontiers o f h is h oldings. 2 1
Apparently t he s triking o f c oins was c arried o ut e verywhere i n R us, w ith t he e xception o f N ovgorod a nd p erhaps P skov, b y p r ivate parties o n a basis o f l easing o r f arming. T his o rganization o f c oin p roduction e xisted n ot o nly i n t he X lVth a nd XVth c enturies, but a lso a t t he b eginning o f t he XVIth c entury. I van II i ndicates i n h is t estament ( DDG, p . 3 61) t hat t he r ight o f s triking c oins may b e c onferred u pon l essors o nly by h is e ldest s on a nd h eir V asilii, b ut t hat t he o ther b rothers may n ot d o t his. I n t he s ame p assage i t i s s tated t hat s tr iking s hall b e c arried o ut o nly a t Moscow a nd T ver , but n ot i n t he a ppanaged c ities. H erberstein o ffers a more c oncrete p icture o f t he p roduction o f c oins. H e was I mperial Ambassador i n R ussia i n 1 517 a nd 1 526. H e i ndicates t hat c oins were made t o o rder f or p rivate p ersons f rom t heir own s ilver , f or a s mall f ee. A ccording t o h is works, c oins were s truck by a ll c raf tsmen who worked i n p recious m etals ( Herberstein, 1 908, p . 8 9). W ith o rganization o f c oin p roduction u nder a l easing s ystem t he c oins m ight n ot a lways b e s truck i n t he c ity where t he p rince i n whose n ame t he s triking was u ndertaken was r uling. I n making c ompar isons among t he n umismatic materials o f t he t ime o f Vasilii Dmitrievich, 1 .1. T olstoi c ame r ) t he c onclus t hat i ndividual t ypes o f c oins o f A ndrei Dmitrievich o f Mozhaisk a nd o f S emyon V ladimirovich o f B orovsk h ad b een s truck b y d ies made b y t he s ame masters t hat h ad p repared s ome d ies f or c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich a nd t hat i n h is o pinion u r q i ; ! s tionably worked i n Moscow ( Tolstoi, 1 911, p . 4 3, 5 6). R ese L ) lance b etween c oins s truck b y r ulers o f d ifferent c ities t . i n t he main w ithin t he l imits o f a s ingle g rand p rincipaliLy i s a t t imes v ery c onsiderable i n many o ther c ases a s well. The t echnique o f s triking a ncient R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth a nd X Vth c enturies, a nd a lso l ater o nes o f t he XVIthXVIlth c enturies, was d ecidedly i ndividual. T he f lans f or c oins, b oth s ilver a nd c opper, were made f rom w ire. T he u se o f w ire was f acilitated by t he f act t hat R ussian s ilver c oins w ere made o f h igh-quality s ilver ( i t was d ifficult t o d raw w ire o f l ow-test s ilver). T he w ire was c ut u p i n b its c orresponding i n weight t o t he c oin i ntended, a nd t hen t he c oin was s truck by u sing t wo s eparate , u nhinged d ies. I n t he XVIth-XVIlth c enturies t he b its w ere a s a r ule f lattened b efore s triking by m eans o f a h ammer, b ut i n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies t his was o rdinar ily n ot d one. The c oin s triking t echnique d escribed i nevitably ' l ed t o t he c oins p roving t o b e o f i rregular s hape; t he d ies d id n ot a s a r ule make a c omplete i mpression upon t hem. On t hat a ccount o ne must s ometimes c ompare a c onsiderable n umber o f c oins i n o rder t o r ecreate, f or e xample, a c ircular i nscription o n a c oin. The d ies w ith which Russian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies were s truck d iffered g reatly among t hemselves i n t he quality o f t heir workmanship. On s ome o f t hem t here a re c omplicated a nd m inutely worked o ut t ypes a nd c alligraphically e xecu ted i nscr iptions; o n o thers t he t ypes a re e xtremely c oarse, t he i nscriptions c ontain numerous e rrors, 2 2
a nd s ometimes t hey e ven o ffer a m eaningless c ollection o f s ymbols. S uch d ifferences c an b e e xplained n ot o nly t hrough t he d iffer ing s kills o f c raf tsmen who h ad r eceived t he r ight t o s tr ike c oins, but a lso by t he f act t hat a p art o f t he a ncient Russian c oins were p repared b y c ounterfeiters ( Tolstoi, 1 9 11, p . 7 7, 7 8). T hus f ar, h owever, s cholars h ave n ot managed t o o ffer d istinct c riter ia f or s egregating t he f alse c oins among t he R ussian mater ial o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies. A s a s equel t o t he s tr iving o f t he p r inces a nd t he l essors f or more e fficient e xploitation o f p roduction, t he monetary c irculation which had c ome i nto b eing a t t he m iddle o f t he X lVth c entury s oon l ed t o t he a ppearance o f a p ractice o f r educing t he weight o f t he c oin, which i n i ts t urn e voked d issatisfaction among t he p eople a nd s imultaneously made t he manufacture o f c ounterfeit c oins e xtremely a ttractive a nd a dvantageous. T he more o r l ess s harp c rises which s prang up o n t his basis w ere r eflected i n t he l i terary s ources o nly f or 1 447 a nd f or 1 533-1535 ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 29, 1 30; P SRL, v ol. V I, p . 2 96). I n t he f irst c ase what was i nvolved was s olely t he m etrological s tandards f or c oins a nd t he a buses o f master moneyers a nd t he f oundrymen c asting i ngot g r ivnas ( Sotnikova, 1 957). • I n t he s econd c ase t he c risis was l argely a ssociated w ith t he p ractice o f c lipping c oins t hat had c ropped u p a nd s pread. I t had b een b rought i nto b eing by t he f act t hat i n t he u nified Russian s tate t here was i n c irculation a mass o f c oins s truck o n d ifferent weight s tandards. I n o rder t o o vercome t he d ifficulties a ssociated w ith t his, t here h ad b een i nstituted a p ractice o f c lipping t he h eavier c oins s o t hat t heir weight s hould b e brought d own t o a s ingle s tandard. T here i s a t hesis t o t he e ffect t hat t he c lipping o f c oin may have b een s tarted o n t he i nitiative o f t he g overnment. B ut t his p ractice was unquestionably t aken u p by t he p eople. T he manufacture o f c ounterfeit c oins went f orward s ide b y s ide w ith t he c lipping o f c oin; t here a lso a re i ndications i n t he s ources t o t he e ffect t hat p art o f t he c ounterfeits w ere made o f l ow-grade s ilver. I n 1 533 t he g overnment c arried t hrough e xtensive r epressive measures a gainst p ersons g uilty o f t he c ounterfeiting a nd c lipping o f c oin. " Their hands were c ut o ff a nd mol ten t in was p oured d own t heir t hroats" " Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 29). I t h as b een n oted t hat t he p unishments were i nf licted e ven i n c ities where c oins h ad n ever b een s truck. F inds o f c lipped c oins a nd o f h oards c ontaining s uch h ave b een f airly n umerous. A h oard i s e ven known t hat c onsists s olely o f t he c lippings f rom c oins. T he E xternal Appearance o f t he C oins T he ancient Russian c oins o f t he X IVth a nd XVth c enturies b ear many t ypes a nd i nscriptions. I nasmuch a s t he i nscr iptions a re t he basis. f or a ttribution o f t he ma jority o f t hese c oins, we may dwell upon t heir , content. T he i nscr iptions o n Russian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies may b e i n R ussian, o r t hey may b e i n A rabic; t here a re a lso i nscr iptions c ut i n t he L atin a lphabet. L et u s 2 3
e xamine t he Russian i nscriptions f irst. A c onsiderable p art o f t he a ncient R ussian c oins, i ncluding t he e arliest o f t hem s truck b y Dmitri D onskoi, have t he i nscription p echat' k nyazya v elikago ( a name) ( the s eal o f t he G rand P r ince S o-and-So). N o l ess e ar ly i s a var iant w ithout t he word f or s eal, b ut w ith a n a bbreviation o f t he g enitive f orm o f t he i nscription: k hnyazya v elikago ( a n ame) ( of t he G rand P rince S o-and-So). A f ter t his s imilar i nscriptions, but i n t he n ominative c ase, s pread a bout. On c oins o f t he XVth c entury b oth t he n ame a nd t he patronymic a re p resent a s a r ule , b ut i n i ndividual c ases t he p atronymic i s m issing, which makes t he a ttribution o f s uch c oins d iff icult. C omparatively r arely o ne e ncounters c oins w ith t he t i tle o f g rand p r ince, but ' anonymous p echat' knyazya v e likago ( the s eal o f t he G rand P rince) ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 4, 1 5, 5 9, e tc), o r k hnyazya v elikago ( of t he G rand P r ince) e tc. I t i s i nteresting t hat a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he XVIth, i .e. i n t he p er iod o f t he i nstitution o f monocracy i n R us, t he l ords o f Muscovy i ssued a g ood many s ilver c oins w ith a nonymous i nscriptions, a lthough f or e arlier Muscovite c oins a nonymity i s n ot a t a ll c haracter istic ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 27-131). F rom t he t ime when I van G rozny a ssumed t he t i tle o f t sar, 1 547, t he n ame a nd p atronymic o f t he t sar a re a lways p laced o n c oins. A more h ighly d eveloped i nscription i s a lso f ound o n t he c oins o f t he Muscovite g rand p r inces. F rom t he d ays o f Vasi lii Dmitrievich t he i nscription v elikii k nyaz ' v seya R usi ( grand p rince o f a ll R us) ( Oreshnikov, 1 896 , p . 8 9) a ppears o n Muscovite c oins; o n c oins o f Vasilii T yomny i t i s s ometimes r epresented by a v ariant o spodar ' v seya R usi ( lord o f a ll R us). T he t i tle o f t sar a ppears f or t he f irst t ime o n c oins o f V asil ii I vanovich II ( 1505-1533) s truck a t P skov a f ter t he a bolition o f i ts i ndependence i n 1 510. T his i s t he more i nteresting i n t hat o n t he o ther c oins o f t his r uler , i ncluding t hose s truck a t Moscow, h e i s n ot c alled t sar. T he f ull t i tle o f Vasi lii II o n t hese c oins i s Vasilii b ozhiei m ilost'yu t sar' i g osudar ' v seya Rusi ( Vasilii b y t he g race o f G od t sar a nd L ord o f a ll R us). T his i s t he e arliest c ase o f u se o f t he f ormula " by t he g race o f G od" o n c oins, but i t i s known o n s eals o f I van II f rom 1 497 o nward. I n c onnection w ith t he a ppearance o f t he t i tles o f t he R ussian r ulers o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies o n t heir c oins we s hould s ay a f ew words a bout t he o rigins o f t hese t i tles. The word knyaz' o r p rince i s o ne o f t he c ommon S lavonic t erms; e tymologically i t d isplays a k inship w ith t he G ermanic n oun k önig, k onung, k ing. I n t ranslation o f t he b ooks o f t he b ible t he S lavonic knyaz' s teadfastly a ppears a s t he e quivalent o f t he G reek apxov . T he word knyaz' i s t ranslated i n t he s ame way o n t he s eals o f R ussian p rinces o f t he X lth c entury which a re a ccompanied b y G reek i nscr iptions ( Yanin, 1 970, v ol. I , p . 1 7-350. T he G reek ß o c c YLX .Ebq i s c onsistently t ranslated a s l ater t sar ',) i n t he S lavonic t ranslation o f t he B ible. This work u nquestionably c omes f rom t he L atin C aesar „ but where t sar ' a ppears i n t he S lavonic t ranslation o f t he B ible o ne f inds 2 4
r ex i n t he L atin v ersion. F rom t his we h ave t he l ater n otions o f t he w estern E uropeans t o t he e ffect t hat t he t i tle o f t sar c orresponds t o t hat o f k ing r ather t han t hat o f emperor. H ere o ne s hould n ote t hat i n R us t he R oman e mperors a re more f requently c alled n ot t sar but k esar ( the l atter word i s a pth onetic modif ication o f t he s ame t i tle). A s a r esult, t he wellk nown s tatement i n t he N ew T estament o bx gX0p ,Ev [ 3 a0 1 ,7 \ . a , E p , ‘ ' n x o cCoapo c " we h ave n o t sar but K esar" i n t he S lavonic t ranslation ( John X IX, 1 5). B oth i n t he p re-Mongol p eriod a nd l ater t he R ussian t i tle k nyaz ' was f requently t ranslated i nto western E uropean l anguages a s k ing. T his i s a ttested i n p articular b y d iplomatic d ocuments. I n t reaties b etween N ovgorod a nd t he L ivonian c ities v e lilii knyaz ' ( grand p r ince) - i s t ranslated a s g reat k ing - i n G erman, g rote k oning - t reaties o f 1 342, 1 371 1 372 1 420 , a nd e lsewhere ( GVNP, p . 7 3, 7 4, 7 6, 9 7). S ide b y s ide w ith t his t here h eld s way t he n otion t hat t he t i tle o f k nyaz ' was l ower t han t hat o f k orol' t he R ussian word f or k ing ) (P SRL , v ol. I, p . 8 26, 8 27 ). T he g rand p rince o f L ithuania was o rdinarily e ntitled " grand d uke" ( magnus d ux) i n western E urope. V itovt i n p articular , who s trove f or c omplete i ndependance f rom h is b rother t he P olish k ing W lad islaw J agie llo , z ealously s et a bout p rocuring t he t i tle o f k ing f rom t he R oman p ope. T he a ddition t o t he t i tle o f g rand p rince o f t he p hrase o f a ll R us a pparently c ame a bout u nder t he i nfluence o f t he t i tle o f t he h ead o f t he R ussian c hurch, who was a lways c alled M etropolitan o f a ll R us. T he a ddition t o t he t i tle o f p r ince o f t he word v elikii ( grand) i s f amiliar f rom t he v ery o ldest Russ ia n d iplomatic d ocuments - t he t reaties o f R us w ith t he G reeks i n 9 11 a nd 9 45 (P SRL , v ol. I p . 3 3 , 4 7, 5 3), but o ver t he c ourse o f a p rolonged p eriod o f t ime t he u sages o f t he t i tles knyaz ' a nd v elikii k nyaz' were n ot c lear ly d ifferentiated. I n t he XVIth a nd XVth c enturies, h owever , t he t i tle v e likii knyaz ' o r g rand p r ince was a lready b ecoming f irmly a ff ixed t o t he r ulers o f c ertain r eally major p rincipalities. I n t he X lVth-XVth c enturies t he t i tle o f t sar' was a pplied i n R us n ot o nly w ith r espect t o B iblical k ings a nd o ther r ulers o f a ntiquity, but a lso t o t he B yzantine emperor a nd l ikewise t o t he k hans o f t he G olden H orde. T hus t he u se o f t his t erm was n ot a ssociated e xclusively w ith t he i dea o f t he s acred c haracter o f t he a uthority. W ith r espect t o t he R ussian p rinces t he t i tle t sar was n ot i nfrequently u sed a s a r hetorical f orm o f a dddress; i n particular, Dmitri D onskoi i s c alled t sar ' i n t he r elation o f h is l ife a nd d emise which was written s hortly a f ter h is d eath ( PSRL, v ol. V I, p . 1 04, 1 06). I van II a nd t he R ostov b ishop Vassian a re c alled t sar ' i n t he f amiliar m issive c alling u pon t he g rand p rince t o d o b attle f or t he i ndependence o f R us f rom t he T atars i n 1 480 ( PSRL, v ol. X II, p . 2 08 , 2 09). I n a t reaty o f P skov w ith t he L ivonian O rder, d ated 1 503, I van II i s c alled " emperor a nd l ord o f a ll R us" ( "ein k eysser u nd e in h erre a ller Russen" - GVNP, p . 3 32). I n 1 498 I van II c arried o ut t he B yzantine c eremony o f c onsecrating t o t he k ingship h is g randson, Dmitri, by h is f irst 2 5
w ife ( bypassing t he p osterity o f t he B yzantine empress S ofia P aleologos ). A fter t his, i n t he s ense o f t he e ccesiastical r itual a nd i n h armony w ith t he t exts o f p rayers, Dmitri s hould h ave b een s tyled t sar ' but was i nstead s tyled o nly g rand p rince. A nd y et t his f act, b earing w itness t o a c onsiderable e volution i n i deas r egarding t he a uthority o f t he l ords o f Muscovy, p roved t o b e o f l i ttle c onsequence i n i ts p olitical e ffects. A s e arly a s 1 502 I van II r eversed h is a ttitude t oward h is s econd w ife a nd h er s on V asilii a nd s et h is g randson, r ecently c onsecrated t o t he k ingship, u nder g uard, where h e s ubsequently i n f act d ied. A lthough u se o f t he t i tle t sar ' was n o t e xclusively a ssociated w ith i deas c oncerning t he s acred nature o f a uthority, s uch i deas n evertheless were c urrent i n e cclesiastical c ircles. I t i s c haracter istic, i n p articular , t hat a writer a t t he t urn o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies, E pifanii P remudry, i n t he L ife o f S tefan o f P erm c alls t he k han o f t he G o lden H orde t he " purported t sar " ( Epifanii, 1 897, p . 4 7). I n t he l etter o f Vassian t o I van II which we h ave a lready m entioned, K han A khmat o f t he G olden H orde i s c alled " the e vil s elf-styled t sar '. " ( PSRL, v ol. X II, p . 2 08). I n o rder t o d ef ine i n t he s ame a pproach t he t i tulature o f t he r ulers o f t he G olden H orde we may n ote t hat i n t he A rabic i nscriptions o n Russian c oins t he word " khan" i s s ometimes l ef t o ut, a nd t hat " sultan" i s u sed a s t he basic t i tle ( Oreshnikov, 1 896 , p . 8 7-89). I n t his c onnection, i n a n i nscription o f t he t ype o f " Sultan T okhtamysh-khan" t he t i tle i s s pecif ically " sultan," t he word " khan" a ppear ing a s a c omponent p art o f t he n ame a nd a dded t o t he names o f r uling p ersons o f v ar ious r anks. A s we a re e xamining t he p roblem o f i nscriptions c ontaining t he names a nd t i tles o f Russian p r inces we s hould r ecall F yodorov-Davydov's e ndeavour ( 1981. p . 1 05-17, 1 22) t o s et u p t heir var iants i n t he h ierarchical o rder o f t heir e xpressing t he i dea o f p ower. A lthough I a cknowledge t he g reat i mportance o f e lucidating t his matter , I n evertheless c annot a gree e ntirely w ith F yodorov-Davydov 's p roposed a rrangement o f s ome o f i ts d etails. While t he s uper iority o f t he t i tle " grand p rince" o ver t he t i tle " prince," o r t hat o f t he u se o f t he f ull n ame a nd p atronymic o ver t he i ndication o f a s ingle n ame, d o n ot g ive r ise t o d oubts, s till t he r elationship, f or e xample b etween s uch c ombinations a s o n t he o ne hand t he a nonymous u se o f t he t i tle " grand p rince" a nd o n t he o ther a c ombination o f t he name a nd p atronymic o f a r uler who i s s imply c alled " prince" i s l ess c lear. T here w ill s carcely b e a ny g rounds f or c onsidering a bbreviation o f a n ame t o b e a n i ndicator o f unexalted s ocial p restige i n t he c ase o f t he n ame's b earer, s ince i t i s hardly p ossible t o s uppose t hat t his a bbreviation was made d eliberately. F yodorov-Davydov ' s o pinion t o t he e ffect t hat l inear i nscriptions f ully o ccupying o ne s ide o f t he c oin r ef lect h igher r ank t han d o c ircular i nscr iptions o f a nalogous c ontent i s n ot b eyond d ispute. I f o ne a ccepts t hat p roposition, o ne would h ave t o h old t hat o ne i nscription o n a c oin i s a n i nd icator o f h igher p restige t han i s a c ombination o f a n i nscription, t he s ame i n c ontent, w ith a 2 6
p ortrait. Y et t he p ortrait was a lso a b earer o f t he i dea o f t he p rince's a uthority a nd t ended r ather t o h eighten t han t o l ower t he c onsequence o f t he a ccompanying i nscr iption. I n F yodorovD avydov's a rrangement t he a ttempt t o e valuate i n p oints s cored t he var iants o f a t i tulature i s a lso d ebatable; h e c onsistently a tsigns t he s ame v alue t o t he d ifferences b etween a d jacent v ar iations i n t his c hain, e ven t hough t he d ifferences a re p lainly d istinguished t hrough f eatures t hat a re n ot o f t he s ame nature. E qually a rbitrary i s t he v iew adopted b y F yodorovD avydov t o t he e ffect t hat a n a rabic i nscription w ith b oth t he n ame o f t he k han a nd a p ortrait ( which r epresents a Russian e lement) r ef lects g reater i nfluence o f t he H orde t han d oes a r fadable a nonymous A rabic i nscription . with t he t i tle " khan" b üt w ithout t he R ussian e lement. I t i s a lso n ot c lear h ow o ne s F lould e valuate Russian i nscriptions o n b oth s ides o f a c oin w 'hen t hey s tyle t he r uler t he s ame way - f or i nstance " Grand P r ince S o-and-So" o n b oth s ides, s omething which i s e ncountered f airly f requently. T he a rrangement p roposed by F yodorov-Davydov f or e valuation by t otalling u p p oints s cored b y b oth s ides c an s carcely b e a ccepted w ithout q ualification. A long w ith t he names o f p rinces o n t he c oins o f t he XVth c entury, o ther n ames a re a lso e ncountered f rom t ime t o t ime. T hey a re a pparently t hose o f a rtisans s triking t he c oin, o r o f f armer-lessors. I t i s i nteresting t hat t he n ames o f moneyers h ave n ever b een e ncountered o n t he c oins o f i ndependent N ovgorod a nd P skov, whereas t he f irst c oins o f P skov s truck i n t he name o f Vasi lii I II have i n a ddition t o t he name a nd t i tle o f t he p rince a lso t he i nscription d en'ga Zamani ( a d enga o f Z aman; P late I V, 1). P robably t he f unction o f t he l essor r ose i n i mportance a nd i ts s upervision o ver t he s triking o f c oins was a bo lished. On a n umber o f c oins o f I van II we h ave o n o ne o f t he s ides a c lear i nscription O rnistotelis i n L atin l etters ( Oreshnikov, 1 896 , p . 1 23; P late I V. 1 20. A number o f s cholars h ave s upposed t hat t hese c oins were s truck by t he well-known I talian a rchitect R idolfo F ioravanti, c alled A r istotle a t Moscow . B ut i n t he e vent i t i s n ot c lear why i t i s n ot t he r eal name but t he n ickname t hat a ppears o n t he c oin, n or why i t s hould b e i n s uch a d istorted f orm . One way o r a nother, t here were i n f act f oreigners among t he Moscow moneyers. T here i s mention i n a c hronicle o f o ne I van F ryazin ( apparently a n I talian), a moneyer ( PSRL, v ol. 1 2, p . 1 51). T his was a well-known a nd wealthy man, t o j udge by t he f act t hat h e t ook p art i n t he c onsideration o f a number o f d iplomatic q uestions, i n p articular o ne a s t o h ow o ne s hould r eceive a l egate o f t he R oman p ope a t Moscow. E vidently i n t his c ase t he moneyer was n ot a m ere a rtisan but a l essor. Most l ikely t he n ames e ncountered o n c oins were p recisely t hose o f l essors a nd n o t t hose o f a rtisans. A nother i nscription o n a c oin o f I van II a lso s eems t o p rovide e vidence o f a c onnection w ith a moneyer who was a f oreigner ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 24) T he i nscription i s R ussian; i t r eads master A leksandro Me t uree 6 Ane KC A H AP O .T he e nding o f t he n ame, l ike t he b orrowing o f t he f oreign word master, t estifies t o f oreign
( Italian?) o rigin. 2 7
I n a ddition t o p ersonal n ames, t here a re f ound o n c oins t he n ames o f t he p laces f or which t hey were s truck. S uch i ndications a re f ound o n Russian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies r ather r arely, w ith t he e xception o f a ll t he c oins .o f N ovgorod a nd P skov d ur ing t he p eriod o f t heir i ndependence. I n p articular, t hey a re f ound a lmost n ot a t a ll o n Muscovite c oins, a nd a lso o n R ostov a nd Y aroslavl o nes; t hey a re r are e nough o n t he c oins o f T ver a nd o f t he P rincipality o f S uzdalN izhegorod. One may n ote t hat i ndication o f t he p lace o f s tr iking i s more f requently f ound o n c oins o f a ppanaged p r incipalities t han o n t hose o f t he g rand p r incipalities p articularly o n t hose o f Mozhaisk, G oroden, a nd K ashin. I ndications o f t he p lace o f s triking a re f urthermore c ommon o n c opper c oins, which o f ten e nough h ave n either t he t i tle n or t he n ame o f a p r ince. One may s uppose t hat t he s triking o f m inor c opper c oin was t o a c ertain e xtent s ub-controlled by t he c ivic administration; y et c opper c oins w ith t he i nscr iption o f t he g rand p rince a re a lso known. The i nscription N ovgoroda v elikago ( "of . great N ovgorod") i s p resent o n a ll N ovgorod c oins. A pparently t he e pithet v e likii ( "great") was adopted by N ovgorod i n o rder t o put i tself o n a n e qual f ooting w ith t he g rand p rince a s a j uridical p erson. T he e xplanation i s t he s ame f or t he e xplet ive g ospodin ( "master, l ord ;" i n p resent-day u sage " Mr." - T r.) f ound i n t he s ources ( this t ime o ne a ltogether u nsuited f or a c ity). I n t his c ase t he c ity's t i tle c orresponds c ompletely t o t he t i tle which t he p eople o f N ovgorod r ecognized f or t he g rand p r ince o f Muscovy - t hey were emphasizing t he f act t hat t hey were w illing t o c all h im g ospodin ( "lord"), but n ot g osudar' ( "sovereign"; Chronicles o f P skov, v o1.11 1 955, p . 2 09; P SRL, v ol. XXV, p . 3 09 ). A f urther g roup o f i nscriptions o n c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies c onsists o f t he names o f t he d enominations which t hey r epresent. We s hould p oint o ut t hat i nscriptions o f t his s ort a re a lso d ecidedly r are o n t he c oins u nder c onsideration. T hey a re r egularly m et w ith o nly • o n t he c oins o f P skov. On c oins o f o ther p r incipalities t he n ame o f t he d enomination i s q uite r arely m et w ith s ave i n t he c ase o f c opper c oins. A ll s ilver c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies t hat b ear a n i nscription g iving t he n ame o f t he d enomination u se o ne a nd t he s ame t erm - d en ' ga w ith variant d enga). The t erm i s o f e astern o rigin, a nd i s u nknown t o l i terary s ources o f t he p reMongol p eriod. S ubsequently t he t erm was a dopted a s a n appellative t o s pecify t he c oncept " money". On c opper c oins t he n ame o f a nother d enomination i s f requently e ncountered: p ub o o r pul. I t i s a lso o f e astern o rigin. Among t he i nscriptions o n Tver c oins o f t he XVth c entury t here a re o nes making u p s till a f urther g roup. One i nscription r esisted d -cipherment f or a l ong t ime i nasmuch a s i t was n ot u nderstood a t o nce t hat t he t wo u ppermost l etters d o n ot c onstitute a l ine but a re i nserts a bove t he l ine, which i s n ot u ncommon i n Russian writing o f t hat t ime. B ut e ven i n i ts c orrect r eading t he i nscription i s n ot c ompletely c lear. I t r eads: S trazha o t b ezumnago c heloveka ( "A watch a gainst t he 2 8
w itless"; O reshnikov, 1 896, P . 2 3, N o. 9 7-10). The b est-founded e xplanation o f t his i nscrip tion c onsists i n i ts s ymboliz ing a p rotection o f t he p rince 's r ight (t o monetary r egale) a gainst t he ( moralistically) m indless men (U lyanit s ki , 1 894) . T o s ubstantiate t his i dea we may u tilize s eals o f t he X VI t h-XVI I th c enturies w ith t he i nscription p echat' - k repost' p rotiv b ezumnago ( "The s eal i s a f ortress a gainst t he w itless:" U lyanitski, 1 894, p .342 ; P late XXVIII, 2 3. O ne may s uppose t hat t his i nscription o n a c oin may b e r egarded a s a c ontinuation o f t he i nscription o n i ts o ther s ide. T hen t he i nscription a s a whole would b e r ead p echat' v elikago knyazya I vana o khrana o t b ezumnago c heloveka ( "The s eal o f t he G rand P rince I van i s a watch a gainst t he w itless.") P robably t he most c omprehensible t ranslation o f b oth o khrana a nd k repost' o n t he c o in a nd t he s eal would b e t he word " guarantee" - t he p rince guarantees t he quality o f t he c oin by means o f h is s eal, a nd a t t he s ame t ime t hreatens anyone who m ight w ish t o undertake any s or t o f abuse. O n o ne o f t he c oins o f B oris A leksandrovich o f T ver t here i s an i nscription which may b e r ead a s f ollows: a k to p odpishet, t ot budet o sch. A .A. Markov ( 1910) who was t he f irst t o r ead t his i nscription was i nclined t o s ee i n t he l ast word o sechen ( "hewn") t ransla ting t he whole a s " he who c opies, l et h im b e " hewn") , i .e. punished by c utting o ff h is h ead ( or hand) . T aking i nto c onsidera tion t he c loseness o f L I (c h) a nd . 9 ( u) i n writing, o ne m ight a lso r ead t he l ast word a s o su o suzhden ( "condemned") , which d oes n ot a lter t he s ense o f t he i nscription i n p rinciple. The main t hing i n i t t hat must b e r igh tly understood i s t he v erb p odpishet. E vidently h ere i t means " reproduces t his i nscription o n h is own authority," i . e. " On h is own au thority makes a c oin d ie b earing t he n ame o f t he p rince". ( In modern R ussian p odpishet means " shall s ubscribe," o r s imply " shall s ign"; t he a uthor 's e xplanation i s n ecessary i n o rder t o i ntroduce an o lder meaning o f f ollowing, t racing, o r c opy ing t he l ines o f a d epiction - T r.). I f o ne a ccepts t his p roposition, which i s t hus f ar t he s ole e xplanation t hat h as b een o ffered f or t he i nscription, t hen i t t oo must b e c onsidered a s b eing d irected a gainst v iolators o f t he monetary r egale, i n a ddition t o which i n t he c ase we a re c onsider ing i t i s p lain t hat i t i s s pecif ically c ounterfeiters who a re a t i ssue. A s we have a lready s aid, t here w ere i ndeed abuses i n t he f ie ld o f c oin p roduction i n R us; t his was r eflected i n p articu lar i n t rials a t l aw i n 1 447 a nd 1 533. T he p ossibility t hat i nscriptions o f s uch c ontent s hould b e p laced upon c oins n eed o ccasion n o s urprise. T he s ub ject r ange o f i nscriptions o n s eals i s s till b roader t han t hat o f i nscriptions o n c o ins. I n particular, o n s eals o ne e ncounters aphorisms o f a moralistic nature - f or e xample, v syo p rokhodit ( "all t hings must p ass"). S uch a n i nscr iption i s known, i n p articular, o n l ead s eals o f Dmitri D onskoi ( Yanin, 1 954), a nd i t i s a lso known o n a wax s eal o f t he XVIth c entury (I vanov
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1 858 , p late I V, 3 2 - n ot t aken i nto a ccount b y Y anin). On P skov l ead s eals o f t he XVth c entury w e e ncounter t he d ates 1 425 a nd 1 469 a nd m ention o f c ertain e vents i n t he l i fe o f t he c ity ( especially t he c ompletion o f b uild ing o f t he f ortif ications - Y anin, 1 960, p . 2 45, 2 47). D ates a re n ever f ound o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth a nd XVth c enturies. T he m ost a ncient R ussian c oin w ith i ndication o f t he d ate o f s triking a ppeared u nder t he t sar B or is G odunov i n 1 596. I n a ddition t o t he v arieties o f i nscriptions e xamined a bove, Russian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies n ot i nfrequently b ear i ndividual l etters. T hese a re o f ten f ound b esiae t he t ype, f i lling u p p art o f t he background. T hese l etters a re i n s ome c ases p erhaps t he i nitials o f l essors o r o f moneyer a rt isans. T here i s a t hesis t o t he e ffect t hat t he i ndividual l etters o n N ovgorod c oins r eflect t he d ivision o f t he c ity i nto wards ( kontsy; O reshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 2). One r ather f requently e ncounters t he t wo l etters k n o n c oins b ear ing v ar ious t ypes. T hese may b e r ead a s k nyaz ' ( pr ince) o r a s knyazha p echat ' ( the p r ince's s eal; S oboleva, 1 979 , p . 5 8). I n s ome c ases w ith a t ype t hat i s o therwise o f ten a ccompanied by t he l etters k n o nly t he s ingle l etter n P late X III. 1 9. 2 0. One may s uggest t hat t his i s a r udiment o f an i nscription _ kn which has n ot b een u nderstood by t he mone yer. B oth c ircular and l inear i nscriptions a re f ound o nRussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies. T he i dea o f p lacing multilinear i nscriptions o n c oins may h ave b een b orrowed f rom Russian l ead s eals, f or which s uch i nscr iptions a re u sual. Y et o n t he e ar liest R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth c entury t he i nscr iptions a re a s a r ule c ircular. S ometimes by r eason o f t he i neptitude o f t he e ngraver c ircular i nscriptions h ave n ot c ompletely f i tted; t hen i n i ndividual c ases t he c ontinuation o f t he i nscription h as b een p laced w ithin t he c ircular l egend, a longside t he i mage ( Plate I V.1). T his p henomenon i s a lso known o n wax a nd l ead s eals (I vanov , 1 858 , p late I , 1 6, o f t he XVth c entury; p late V I, 9 8 Yanin, 1 970 , v olume I, p late 2 5, 5 92). I n t he c ases where t here a re R ussian i nscr iptions o n b oth s ides o f a c oin t hey n ot i nfrequently made u p a s ingle t ext. When t his o ccurred a s ingle word m ight b e c ut i n t wo a t t he most u nexpected p laces a nd c ontinued o n t he o ther s ide. I n o ther c ases i nscr iptions o n d ifferent s ides d o n ot h ave s uch a n i ndissoluble c onnection. T hey may i n s uch c ases b e c lose i n c ontent, o r e ven quite i dentical ( for e xample O reshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 08, N o 5 83). The s o-called d ouble-names c oins a re o f p articular i nterest. O rdinar ily t he names o f d ifferent p r inces a re p laced o n d ifferent s ides. A s a r ule t he d ouble-name c oins r ef lect a n e xisting h ierarchical o rder, a nd t hey c ontain t he n ame o f t he g rand p rince a long w ith t he n ame o f t he a ppanaged p rince ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 34-135 , 1 37, 1 44 , 1 47, 1 62). T his i s n ot a n a bsolutely g eneral r ule f or t he r elationships b etween t he
3 0
p r inces who have l ef t d ouble-name c oins. T he d ouble-name c oins o f R ostov i n p articular r eflect j oint r ule b y t wo p rinces e ach o f whom r uled h alf t he c ity. W e h ave s poken a bove r egarding t he d ouble-name c oins o f Dmitr i Y urievich S hemyaka a nd Vasi lii T yomny. I n a ddition t o R ussian i nscriptions o n R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth c entury, we a re f amiliar w ith A rabic i nscr iptions. P art o f t hese, a ccording t o t he f indings o f o rientalists, a re i l legible a nd a re i mitations o f e astern writing; o thers y ield t o r eading. T he A rabic i nscriptions t hat c an b e r ead a s a r ule c ontain t he name o f t he k han o f t he G olden H orde a nd r eflect r ecognition o f h im b y t he R ussian p rinces a s b eing t he s upreme a uthority. A ll t he c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi have o n o ne s ide a n A rabic i nscription, o rdinarily w ith t he n ame o f t he k han T okhtamysh. A rabic i nscriptions o r i mitations t hereof a lso a ppear o n p art o f t he c oins o f V asilii Dmitrievich a nd Vasilii T yomny a nd t heir c ontemporaries. A rabic i nscr iptions a re e ntirely a bsent f rom t he c oins o f N ovgorod, P skov a nd Tver ( with o ne e xception i n t he l ast c ase). S ome c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich have a s ingle t ype f or o ne s ide, but t he o ther s ide i s r epresented b y t wo v ar iants - e ither w ith a n A rabic i nscription o r w ith a R ussian o ne g iving t he t i tle g rand p r ince. I n t he i nscr iptions i n Russian n either t he name n or t he t i tle o f t he k han i s e ver e ncountered. I n i ndividual c ases A rabic i nscr iptions w ith t he n ame o f t he k han c ontain a n i nvocation o f A llah; Musulman r eligious f ormulas a re f ound o n R ussian c oins i n a ddition t o Christian o nes ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 86, N o. 8 73; p . 1 99, N o. 9 07). A ccording t o a n o bservation o f F ydorov-Davydov ( 1981, p . 5 2-55) t he l egible A rabic i nscriptions r eflecting s uzerainty o f t he G olden H orde a nd n ot c onstituting m echanical r epetitions o f t he l egend f rom s ome c hance e astern c oin a re f ound o nly i n t he c oinage o f Moscow a nd o f t he Muscovite a ppanages o f t he t ime o f Dmitri D onskoi a nd Vasilii Dmitrievich, a nd a re a ssociated s olely w ith t he n ame o f T okhtamysh. T he l atter was d epr ived o f p ower i n 1 399 , but h is i nfluence i n R us was s harply u ndercut a s e arly a s 1 395-1398. T he p resence o n c oins o f t he p rincipality o f S uzdal-Nizhegorod ( more c losely b ound up w ith t he Tatars t han was t he Muscovite p rincipality) o f i l legible i mitations i n p lace o f s uch i nscriptions a s t hese b ears w itness, i n F yodorov-Davydov's o pinion, t o t he f act t hat t he G olden H orde o nly manifested i nterest i n having i ts s uzerainty a cknowledged d irectly by t he s trongest R ussian p rince a lone. Evidently t he a ppearance o f s uch l egible A rabic i nscriptions o n Muscovite c oins i s t o b e a ssociated w ith a d irect i nitiative o n t he p art o f t he r ulers o f t he G olden H orde. I n c ontradistinction t o t he A rabic i nscriptions w ith t he n ame o r t he t i tle o f t he k han, t he i l legible i mitations o f t hese c annot i n a ny way b e a ssociated w ith d irect i nitiative o n t he p art o f t he T atars. T he e xistence o f s uch i mitations o ffers e vidence m erely o f a r ecognition, o n t he p art o f t he R ussian p r inces, t hat t heir s overeignty was i ncomplete, but n ot c onceding t hat a s uperior a uthority o f t he k han was b eing made e ffective; f or i t i s i mpossible t o a dmit o f a r eflection o f 3 1
t he i dea o f t hat a uthority i n a f orm s uch t hat t he b earers o f t he a uthority c ould n ot p erceive i t a s b eing s uch a r ef lection. I t i s p ossible t hat i n i ndividual c ases t he p lacing m ight h ave b een o f a d eclarative c haracter , l aying c laim t o e qu 'a lity o f r ights w ith t he Muscovite p r ince, t o a r ight t o maintain a utonomous d iplomatic r elationships w ith t he H orde i ndependently o f Moscow ( a r ight which t he Muscovite g rand p rinces a lways s ought t o c oncentrate e xlusively i n t heir o wn hands). A side f rom t he A rabic i nscriptions t he c ontent o f which we h ave j ust e xamined, a nd t he i mi tations o f A rabic i nscr iptions, which may b e r egarded a s a n e cho o f a t radition t hat a rose o n a basis o f po litical d ependence, i nscr iptions o f a s omewhat d ifferent s ort a re f ound o n R ussian c oins o f t he s econd h alf o n t he XVth c entury. T hese a re i nscr iptions o n t he c oins o f I van II, o ne o f which i s a n A rabic t ranscription o f t he n ame I van a nd t he o ther r eads i n t ranslation " this i s a c oin o f Muscovy." ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 20, N os. 6 48 a nd 6 49, p late X I, 4 95, 4 86). On t hese c oins t he A rabic i nscr iptions n o l onger r ef lect t he i dea o f s ubjection. On c oins o f t he X lVth c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he XVth n o i nscr iption h as e ver b een d iscovered which c onveys i n A rabic l etters t he n ame o f a R ussian p rince. I n t he s econd half o f t he XVth c entury, a side f rom t he e xamples r elating t o t he c oinage o f I van II t hat h ave j ust b een c ited, t here i s known a c opper c oin f rom which R ussian i nscriptions a re e ntirely a bsent a nd t he t ype ( a w inged a nthropoid o n a s tylized d ragon, P late X IX 7 , 8 ) h as n o a nalogy i n ancient Russian a rt. B ut t he t echnique o f s triking o n w ire, a nd t he c ontent o f t he i nscription which r eads i n t ranslation M ikhail o f T ver ( Oreshnikov , 1 896, p . 5 2, N o 3 20), o blige o ne t o a ssign t he c oin t o t he c oinage o f T ver a nd t o M ikhail B or isovich ( 1461-1486). I t i s i mportant t hat t he n ame o f t he k han i s m issing f rom t his c oin. B efore we p ass o n t o d irect e xamination o f t he t ypes o f R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies, a f ew words r egarding t heir o verall a ppearance. T o b egin w ith t he R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he XVth o rdinar ily h ad o n o ne s ide a n i mage a nd a Russian c ircular i nscription s urrounding i t ; t he o ther s ide was e ntirely o ccupied by a n A rabic i nscription ( Plate I V, 1 -3). T he A rabic i nscription i s u sually n o t c ombined w ith a ny i mage s ave o rnamental b orders o r p laitings; t he e xceptions t o t his r ule a re i ndividual ( Plate I V, 9 P late X IV, 2 0-22). S ometimes a n A rabic i nscription i s c ombined o n o ne s ide w ith a R ussian o ne. i n t hat e vent t he A rabic i nscription i s p laced i n t he c enter , a nd t he R ussian o ne r uns a round i t ( Plate I V, 8 ). R ussian c oins a re e ncountered which h ave o n o ne s ide a n i mage a nd o n t he o ther s ide a n A rabic i nscription o r a n i mitation t hereof , a nd which a re t hus e ntirely w ithout R ussian i nscr iptions ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p late I X, 3 74-390 a nd e lsewhere). A s a r ule t hese c oins may b e j uxtaposed w ith o nes h aving R ussian i nscriptions, i n which c ases t he t ypes o f t he s ide o n which t here i s o nly a n i mage a re i dentical ( see P late I V, 3 a nd 4 ). One must s uppose t hat c ommencing w ith t he d ays o f Vasilii 3 2
Dmitrievich there arises a striking of idiosyncratic groups of coins which were represented by two obverse variants alternatively with Arabic and with Russian inscriptions. It is curious that on some coins of Vasilii Dmitrievich having linear Russian inscriptions on one of the sides the Russian inscription, just like an Arabic one, is broken into parts by an ornamental plaiting, something which is not found on Russian coins at a later time (see Plate IV, 5 and 6). Evidently the way eastern coin inscriptions were composed exercises influence upon the Russian inscription. Among the coins of Vasilii Dmitrievich there are ones devoid of any imQ.ges save ornamental plaitings, but having merely linear inscriptions (Russian and Arabic) on both sides (Tolstoi, 1911, plate 11, 31-340). In addition to the image inscription pairing, the following pairings are numerous among ancient Russian coins; image plus circular inscription inscription; image plus circular inscription - image without inscription; image plus circular inscription on both sides. One should remark that among the ancient Russian coins specimens are more than once encountered which have identical images on both sides. Thus on Tver coins of Boris Aleksandrovich we find on both sides the image of· a beast (Plate IV 14) and of the figure of a warrior (Plate IV 13). On coins the two sides of which bear respectively the figure of a warrior with sword and that of a warrior with spear, the inscription on both sides is identical: "the seal of the grand prince Boris." On coins of Vasilii Mikhailovich of Kashin (before 1426) one encounters the image of a horseman with a falcon on both sides, but on the one he is surmounted by an inscription and on the other by an ornament (Oreshnikov, 1896, plate VI, 279-281) Among the coins of Ryazan with the name of the grand Prince Vasilii there are ones on both sides of which there are entirely analogous images of a human head in profile inscribed within a crescent and surrounded with identical inscriptions (llyin, 1940, plate IV, 17; Plate XV, 9 , 10) In the field surrounding the image there are individual letters, and also various small objects and symbols. On the oth:er hand the inscriptions are sometimes divided by symbols or 'crosses. Sometimes a cross cuts across the entire field of a coin occupied by a multilinear inscription. In addition to the cross and various small symbols and ornaments, the text may be ,broken into by representational motifs. Thus on the coins of Vasilii Dmitrievich a tiny figure of a quadruped (apparently a lion) is inserted in a line of a multilinear inscription. The image of the king of beasts is thus enclosed, as it were, by the title of the grand prince (Tolstoi, 1911, p.16; Plate IV. 7). In the cases where one of the sides of a coin is completely occupied by a Russian inscription, the inscription is always multilinear. Coins having a Russian multilinear inscription on both sides are not characteristic for the XIVth-XVth centuries. They are encountered now and then only among the coins of Vasilii Ill for the first quarter of the XVlth century (Plate IV, 11). 33
A f ter t he unif ication o f c oin p roduction u nder I van G ronzny a monotype c lass o f R ussian s mall-change c oin was e stablished w ith a n i mage ( a h orseman) o n o ne s ide a nd a multi-linear i nscription o n t he o ther.
3 4
CHAPTER
I
A S urvey o f t he Materials u sed f or C ompar ison I n o rder t o f ind a way t hrough t he meaning o f t he i mages o n a ncient R ussian c oins t he a uthor c onsiders t hem i n t he c ontext o f ancient R ussian a pplied a r t a nd a ncient R ussian l i terary s ources. U nfortunately i nformation i mparted by R ussian l i terary s ources a s t o t he meaning o f i mages o n a ncient R ussian c oins i s m issing u ntil t he XVIth c entury. C onsider ing t he matter t heoretically, we may s uppose t hat t here were t wo b asic g roups o f m eanings f or t he i mages o n c oins. One g roup c onsists o f t he i mages a ssociated t hrough t heir c oncepts w ith t he f unction o f t he c oin a s a medium o f p ayment - w ith t he l egal a nd o ther a spects o f monetary c irculation a nd o f t he s triking o f c oins. The s econd g roup c onsists o f i mages r eflecting t he i dea o f t he a uthority c arrying o ut t he c oining - a s i t a pplies t o a ncient R us, t he a uthority o f t he p r inces a nd c ivic c ommunes. P lainly t he c ompass o f t he i mages o f t he s econd t ype i s t he more e xtensive. On t his a ccount o ne o f t he m ost i mportant t asks i n s tudying t he i mages o n a ncient Russian c oins o f t he X lVth a nd XVth c enturies i s t hat o f d etermining t heir p lace w ithin t he e ntire s cope o f a ncient R ussian f eudal emblems. The q uestion o f a ncient R ussian f eudal emblems h as b een e xamined by many i nvestigators, y et i t h as n ot b een c onclusively c leared u p. F rom t he v ery b eginnings o f t he R ussian s tate we r un a cross t he e xistence among t he R ussian p rinces o f p ersonal b adges o f ownership ( Rybakov, 1 940: P late XXV). They were r epresented o n v ar ious o bjects i ncluding t he most a ncient R ussian c oins o f t he X th-Xlth c enturies a nd a c onsiderable s eries o f s eals. A g reat p art o f t he a ncient R ussian p rincely e mblems a re o f s imilar d rawing a nd e vidently o f c ommon o rigin. Apparently u pon p assing f rom f ather t o s on t he emblem underwent i mportant c hanges. We h ave a r ange o f h ypothetical g enea logical d iagrams f or t he e volution o f a ncient R ussian p rincely e mblems ( Rybakov, 1 940, p . 2 32; P late XXVI Y anin 1 970 v ol I p . 4 0 f ig 7 ). B ut unquestionable a nd u niform r egularity i n t heir e volution h as n ot b een e stablished; p robably i t d id n ot i n f act e xist. N ot a ll o f t he emblems known h ave t hus f ar b een a ssociated i ndisputably w ith a ctual p r inces. The R ussian p rincely emblems a re made u p o f , l ines. There i s a hypothesis t o t he e ffect t hat t he p roto type f or t he emblems was a s tylized r epresentation o f a b ird o f p rey ( Rapov, 1 968) I f t hat i s i n f act s o, t he r ecollection o f t he o riginal meaning o f t he emblem c an hardly h ave b een a t a ll f irmly r ooted. T his i s a ttested by a whole r ange o f e mblems t hat a re u pside d own ( Yanin 1 970 , v ol. I , p late 2 5, 2 87, 2 89; p late 2 6, 2 93-301; R ybakov, 1 940, p . 2 39, f igs. 3 3-36). I n a ddition t here a re a lso p endants w ith i mages o f p rincely emblems c omplicated b y r epresentational e lements. T hese a re emblems w ith b irds p erched u pon t hem ( evidently t he emblem was a ssociated w ith a t ree - P late XXV. 1 5, 1 6; ) o n c oins o f S vyatopolk a c rescent was n o t i nfrequently r epresented
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a longside t he emblem ( Plate XXV, 1 0). E vidently t he emblems w ere a ssociated w ith c oncrete o b jects i n s ome way o r o ther . A f ter t he T atar-Mongol p eriod t he u se o f p rincely e mblems i s n o t t o b e t raced. An e xception i s o ffered b y t he s o-called t amga o f R yazan - n ow n o l onger a p ersonal b adge, b ut a n u nchanging f amily o ne o n c oins o f t he R yazan p rinces. A h istorical a nd t ypological c onnection o n i t s p art w ith t he p reMongol p rincely b adges c annot b e made o ut. T he e mblem r ecalls a s tylized f ace, o r a v ertical l ine c rowned w ith s piralling h orns. S ometimes t here a re r epresentations o f h uman f aces i n t he c onvolutions o f t his e mblem ( Plate XXII 5 7 ). The t radition o f making u se o f ownership b adges, which i s n ot e videnced f or R ussian p rinces a f ter t he T atar-Mongol a ssault, i s quite f amiliar f rom materials a ssociated w ith o ther g roups o f t he p opulation. T hese a re b adges o r b lazes b y means o f which t imber l ots a nd s ectors f rom which w ild h oney m ight b e c ollected ( Plate XXVII) were b ounded. T he u se o f s uch emblems i s r ecorded f rom t he XVth c entury o nward, a nd a l together analogous emblems a re known o n wooden a rtefacts o f t he X IVth c entury ( Kolchin, 1 968, p .31, f ig 2 2). L ong l ists o f s uch emblems w ith i ndications o f t heir d esignations a re c ontained i n manuscripts o f t he XVIlth c entury ( Anpilogov, 1 964; K otkova, 1 964). A most i mportant material f or s tudy o f t he e volution o f t he s ystem o f f eudal emblems i n R us c onsists o f t he s eals. T he i mportance o f t his material a s c ompar isons when o ne i s s tudying t he i mage o n a ncient Russian c oins i s e xplained b y t he f act t hat, a s h as a lready b een r emarked, i n R us t here e xisted a n i dea t hat t he i mpression o f a d ie u pon a c oin c onstituted t he s eal o f t he p rince t o whom t he r ight o f c oinage b e longed. The e xistence o f s eals among t he R ussian u pper c lass ( princely e nvoys a nd m erchants) i s e stablished by t he t reaty o f 9 45 b etween R us a nd B yzantium ( PSRL, v ol I , p . 4 8). I n t his c onnection mention i s made o f g old a nd o f s ilver s eals, a pparently manufactured o n t he model o f t he B yzantine o nes. S ubsequently t he u se o f s eals, i n t he main o nes o n l ead, was v ery w idespread i n Rus. Ancient Russian p endant l ead s eals were i n t heir o verwhelming majority o rnamented w ith i mages o f s aints, a s a r ule o nes h aving t he s ame n ame a s t he owner o f t he s eal. A lso w idespread were s eals w ith i mages o f t wo s aints, h omonymous w ith t he owner o f t he s eal a nd w ith h is f ather ( in c onformity w ith t he R ussian c ustom o f naming i mportant p ersons t hrough t he g iven n ame p lus p atronymic). I mages o f a n on-ecclesiastical c haracter o n p endant s eals i n m etal ( see P late XXVIII, 1 -6) c onstitute a r are e xception a nd f orm a s eries o f t riflingly s mall p roportions i n c omparison w ith s imilar r epresentations o n c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies. On t his a ccount t he i mages o n c oins c an more s ucessfully b e u sed a s a s ource f or a rriving a t j udgements r egarding t hese r are s ecular i mages o n s eals i n l ead t han v ice-versa. I n a ddition t o s eals i n l ead, s eals o n wax w ere known i n ancient R us ( Plate XXVIII, 7 -23). F rom t he p re-Mongol p eriod a nd f rom t he X IVth-XVth c enturies t here h as c ome d own t o u s a c onsiderable quantity o f s eal r ings a nd o ther s eal s tamps i n
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m etal a nd i n b one ( Kondakov, 1 896, P . 9 5, f ig. 5 1, p late V 8 ; P oluboyarinova, 1 971). H ere i mages o f a s ecular c haracter p redominate, but o n t he whole t his i s a s mall s eries. More n umerous a re s eal i mpressions p reserved i n d ocuments o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies a nd o f l ater t imes. T hese i mpressions a re most v ariegated. A v ital f actor i s t he c ircumstance t hat whereas i mages o n c oins a re a ssociated o nly w ith p r inces a nd c ommunities having t he r ight t o s trike c oins, s eal i mpressions o n wax d escribe a much w ider c ircle o f f eudatories, e cclesiastics, a nd burghers. S tarting w ith t he t ime o f I van II s eals a ppear which b ear i mages o f t he Moscow c rest a nd t he d ouble-headed e agle ( Plate XXIX, 2 S oboleva, 1 979, p . 4 7). Whereas t he i mages o n c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies r etain t heir variety o nly u p t o t he moment when t he c entralized s tate t akes s teps t o unify t he c urrency, t he i mages o n wax c omposition s eals p reserve a wealth o f s ubjects i n t he XVIth a nd XVIIth c enturies a s well. B ut t he i mpressions f rom s tamps h ave a s er ious s hortcoming a s s ources f or s tudy o f f eudal e mblematics. A cquantance w ith t he i mpressions o f a ncient R ussian s eals o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies d emonstrates t hat a t t hat t ime e xtremely w idespread u se was made o f f oreign g ems a nd s tamps, o r i mi tations o f t hese, a s p ersonal s eals. E xact d etermination o f t heir o rigin i s f requently made more d iff icult by t he p oor p reservation o f t he i mpression. A lthough t his s tudy i s n ot d evoted t o t he e xamination o f s eals, i n o rder n ot t o l et t he m ere s tatement s tand w ithout p roof i n my s peaking o f a c onsiderable number o f s eals p ertaining t o R ussian p ersons but c oming f rom s tamps o f f oreign o rigin o r f rom i mitations o f t hese I s hall n evertheless f irst o f a ll c ite a s election o f t he more v ivid a nd u nmistakable e xamples o f t his. I s hall l ist t he s eals t he c ompositions o f which r eproduce models f rom c lassical a ntiquity. T o b egin w ith I may n ote t hat t he u se o f a ncient g ems a s s eals i s a phenomenon known i n t he m iddle a ges n o t o nly f or R us a lone. I t has b een e stablished, a s a n e xample, f or X IIth c entury F rance ( Adhemar , 1 939 , p late I V, 9 ). O n a s eal a ttached t o t he r ecord o f a t reaty b etween Dmitri D onskoi a nd V ladimir A ndreyevich o f S erpukhov ( 1388) t here i s o n o ne s ide t he i mage o f a h ead wearing a c lassical h elmet, o n t he o ther s ide t hat o f a nude f igure ( SGG , v olume 1 , 1 913, p . 5 7). Among t he i mages o n p rincely s eals a ttached t o a c harter o f 1 423 o ne r epresents a h ead wear ing a c lassical h elmet a nd a nother t wo h orsemen r iding t oward e ach o ther ( the D ioscuri? - S GG, v ol. I 1 813, p . 8 2). Analogous i conography, e ncountered n owhere i n a ncient R ussian a rt s ave o n s eals i s k nown f rom o ther s eals o f t he XVth c entury a s we ll ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late II, 5 2 ; P late X XVIII. 1 2). A f igure i n c lassical c lothing a nd h elmet i s r epeated o n numerous o ccasions o n i mpressions f rom a s eal o f M ikhail Andreyevich o f Mozhaisk s tarting w ith 1 445 ( SGG, 1 813, v ol. I p . 1 35). O n i mpressions f rom a s eal o f V asilii T yomny s tarting w ith 1 447, o ne e ncounters o n more t han o ne o ccasion t he i mage o f a n ude f igure w ith a n o belisk i n t he b ackground ( SGG , v ol. I , 1 813 , p . 1 42) On i mpressions f rom s eals o f
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P r ince Vas i l ii Y aroslavich o f B orovsk s tarting w ith 1 448 , a Cupid i s r epresented ( SGG, v ol. I , 1 8 13, p . 1 62) . S tarting w ith 1 450 , t here i s a q uadriga o f H elios o n a n umber o f i mpressions f rom a s eal o f V asillii T yomny ( SGG, v olume I , 1 813 p . 1 70; P late XXVIII. 8 .). On a s eal hung o n a c harter o f 1 453 a nd a pparently b e longing t o Vasi lii Dmitrievich's w idow S ofia V itovtovna ( ?) t here i s r epresented a f ight b etween t wo n aked f igures o ne o f which i s w inged ( SGG, v ol. I , 1 813, p . 1 94). On a l ong s eries o f i mpressions f rom t he s eal o f I van II b eginning i n 1 462, t wo f igures i n c lassical r obes a re s hown. O ne o f t he f igures i s w inged a nd p rofers a wreath t o t he s econd ( SGG, v ol. I , 1 813, p. 2 1 5; I vanov, 1 858 , p late I, 7 ; P late XXVI I. 9 ) . A n i mpression f rom t he s ame s tamp a lso a ppears l ater o n a s b eing t he s eal o f I van G rozny ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late V , 7 6). Among t he s eals h ung t o t he t estament o f P r ince I van Y urievich P atr ikeyev i n 1 498 t here i s t he s eal o f t he a rchitect-contractor I van G olova V olodimerov, o n which a f igure o f a c lassical d ivinity w ith a s cepter i n h is h and a nd s tanding i n a c hariot h itched t o a pair o f m iniature b easts i s r epresented ( SGG, v ol. I , 1 813, p .338). Among t he s eals a ttached t o t he s ame d ocument t hat o f Ovdotya ( Eudocia), t he w ife o f P r ince P atrikeyev, i s o f p articular i nterest. I t r epresents a n a rmored c reature w ith s nakes f or l egs, unquestionably a variant o n a p ersonage known f rom g nostic g ems ( cf . D elatte a nd D erchain, 1 964, p . 2 5-37, f ig. 1 -34). T he most s ubstantial d igression f rom t he c lassical var iant o f t his p icture i s t he f act t hat i nstead o f t he u sual c ock's h ead a h uman o ne ( ?) i s r epresented. An a ltogether c lassical i mage o f t his s ame c ock-headed b eing w ith a ll i ts i ndispensable a ttributes ( shield a nd l ash) a ppears o n a s eal which t he b oyar a nd v oyevoda P rince P yotr I vanovich S huiski s uspended f rom a c harter o f 1 556 ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late V , 7 2; P late XXVIII, 1 8) A f ew more c lassical s ubjects o n a ncient R ussian s eals: L eda a nd t he s wan, o n a s eal o f t he XVth c entury, a nd a lso o n t he s eal o f P r ince I van Andreyevich B ulgakov o n a c harter o f 1 562 ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late I, 3 0; p late V I, 8 9 ; P late XXVIII, 1 a nd 1 9). On a f urther s eal, o f t he XVth c entury o ne may s ee a f igure w ith i ts h ead e ncircled w ith r ays a nd h olding a c ornucopiae ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late I , 1 5; P late XXVIII, 1 0). W inged f igures u pon a g lobe a nd w ith a wreath i n h and ( Fortune) a re e ncountered o n more t han o ne o ccasion (I vanov, 1 857 , p late II, 1 4 ; p late I V, 4 1; , P late XXVIII, 1 4 a nd 1 5). W e may a lso n ote a n aked h uman f igure a longside a c olumn o n t he s eal o f D anila R omanovich Y uriev, t he b rother o f t he f ounder o f t he R omanov d ynasty (I vanov 1 858 , p late V , 5 8; P late XXVIII. 1 7). A f antastic g rotesque f igure i n t he s pirit o f c lassical g lyptics a ppears o n t he s eal o f a s cribe a ttached t o a c harter o f 1 567 ( Ivanov, 1 ;858 , p late V I,
1 03; P late XXVIII. 2 0). A r ange o f a ncient R ussian s eals a re a pparently o f western E uropean o rigin. On o ne o f t he s eals a ttached t o t he r ecord o f a t reaty b etween Y uri Dmitrievich a nd Vasilii T yomny i n 1 433 t here i s r epresented a f antastic b east which h as a c rown a round i ts n eck ( SGG, v ol, I , 1 813, p . 1 04). S uch a n
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o rnament i s n o t a ppropriate t o a ncient R ussian a rt a nd e mbelmatics b ut i s w idespread i n western E uropean h eraldry. O n a s eal o f Vasi lii T yomny's a ntagonist Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka t here i s r epresented t he u pper h alf o f a f igure wear ing a western E uropean h elmet a nd a rmor ( many i mpressions, c ommencing i n 1 434 - S GG, v ol. I , 1 813, p . 1 22; P late XXVIII, 7 ). On o ne o f t he s eals a ttached t o a c harter o f 1 448 t here i s a f igure o f a f ish w ithin a r ocaille c artouche ( SGG, v ol. I . 1 813 , p . 1 50). S tarting w ith t he m iddle o f t he XVIth c entury t here a ppear i n R us i mpressions f rom s tamps b ear ing r epresentations o f c oats o f a rms ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late I V, 4 6; p late V , 6 9 ; p late V i, 1 23 a nd 1 27). S tarting w ith t he m iddle o f t he XVIth c entury o ne may n ote s eals which a re a pparently o f e astern o rigin. One o f t hese, a ttached t o a d ocument o f 1 564 , b e longed t o N ikita R omanovich, t he g randfather o f t he f irst t sar o f t he R omanov d ynasty ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late V I, 1 00); a nother , a ccompanying a c harter o f 1 600, b elonged t o I van M ikhailovich G linski, a d escendant o f e migrants f rom t he g rand p r incipality o f L ithuania ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late V III, 1 58). B oth t hese s eals b ear A rabic i nscr iptions o r i mitations t hereof . S till a nother s eal, a ttached t o a c harter o f 1 544 a nd b elonging t o a V ologda s cribe, b ears a n e xtremely c haracter istic i mage - a c amel w ith t wo r iders, o ne o f whom i s s hooting a b ow while i n t he h ands o f t he o ther i s a n o b ject which i s n ot p lain ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late V , 4 8 P late XXVIII. 1 6). T he i mage u nquestionably g oes b ack o t t he i conography o f B ahram Gura t he h ero o f t he S hahN ameh, who r ode o ut hunting w ith h is b eloved A zadeh p laying t he h arp t o h im ( SPA, v ol. v , p late 6 64 6 72, 6 79, 7 27, 8 26A ; v ol, V i, p late 1 300, 1 330C). T aking i nto a ccount t he c ircumstance t hat m edieval Musulman s eals h ave t hus f ar b een v ery l i ttle s tudied i ndeed, a nd p articularly t hose among t hem which b ear p ictures, t he e xistence o f t he i mpression o f s uch a s eal a s t his u pon a n ancient Russian c harter c onstitutes a d ecidedly i nteresting i tem. I s hall l imit myself t o t hese e xamples, which a re d emonstrative e nough. S uch o nes a re a lso n umerous i n t he R ussian s phragistics o f t he XVIlth c entury. I may p oint o ut t hat a c lassical g em was u sed i n p articular b y t he f amous o rganizer o f t he l iberation o f Moscow f rom t he f oreigners, K ozma M inin ( Oreshnikov, 1 903, p . 17, f ig. 6 ) The e xtremely l arge p ercentage o f t he a ncient R ussian s eals o n wax . which a re f oreign o r made o n t he model o f f oreign o nes f orces o ne t o adopt a v ery c ritical a ttitude t oward t hem a s a s ource f or s tudy o f ancient R ussian emblematics. A t t he s ame t ime, when o ne c onsiders t he c loseness o f t he m eanings o f t he s eal a nd t he c oin d ie t hese s eals s how h ow b road t he c ircle o f s ources f or b orrowings may h ave b een among t he a ncient R ussian moneyers. T he w idespread u se o f f oreign s tamps, o f ten w ith u ncomprehended i nscriptions o r f igures, was i n p art made e asier by t he n arrow f ield w ithin which s eals w ere u sed. The more n ational c haracter o f t he make-up o f a ncient R ussian c oins i s e xplained f irstly by t he a lmost e xclusively Russian o rigin o f t he moneyer a rtisans a nd s econdly b y t he f act t hat
3 9
the coin was intended for a far broader circle than was the seal. By virtue of these facts and with respect to this group of sphrag.ristic mat erial, coins of the XIVth-XVth centuries that bear images are a fundamental source for interpretation, rather than the reverse being true. The foundations for scientific study of Russian lead seals were laid by N.P. Likhachov 0928, 1930). At present a great part of the material has been assembled and arranged systematically by V.L. Yan in 0970). Only the rather cons iderable series of the seals of Pskov ( Likhachov, 1960; Yanin, 1960; and Beletski, 1962) remain beyond the scope of that publication. The images upon seals impressed in wax were published in the edition of state charters and treaties (the SG G , volume I, 1813) and thereafter in P. Ivanov' s symposium (1858). Various seals and their impressions were published nder the title "Photographs of Ancient Russian Seals" in 1882 (see in Bibliography s.v. Snimki), Materials of various categories were also published by A.V. Oreshnikov in 1903. A l{sting of finds of ancient Russian bone stamps is contained in M. D. Poluboyarinova' s article of 1971. In connection with our study of feudal emblematics we s�ould say a few words about the appearance of crests in Rus. The princely badges cannot be styled crests, since they are of an individual and not a family nature. Were there in Rus other emblems, firmly associated with a concrete territory or with noble families? Territorial emblems for individual regions first appear on the great state seal of Ivan Grozny (1583; Soboleva, 1976, p. 52; Plate XXIX. l). In the inscription all of these are called "seals." It is characteristic that all of them are different in principle from western European crests. The c"rests of the part of the Livonian lands (Livland and Riga) that were at that time attached to Russia are shown, but all the rest are without shields (except that for Moscow, placed in a shield upon the breast of the eagle). Part of the regional emblems placed upon this shield proved not to be lasting and they were replaced. There exist certain data to the effect that a part of such regional crests arose considerably earlier under the influence of local tradition and the like (Artsikovski, 1946). But they were not used earlier than this as local emblems having an iconography to any degree constant. Toward the end of the XVth century there was no constant native emblem even at Novgorod (at that time there wer.e only emblems for its individual wards - Yanin 1970, vol II,p. 141144). The appearance of a lion on the crest of Vladimir is probably associated with the popularity of depictions of this beast in the applied art of that principality , but the use of the lion as an emblem was not a right exclusive to Vladimir, and here the iconography of this figure did not take on constant forms. Let us examine some of the formal features on the basis of which one might speak of an acquaintance with heraldry on the part of the Russians. There are no grounds for considering every shield on which there is an image of a beast (for example a lion) as being indisputably heraldic. 40
Y et i nasmuch a s i deas r egarding t he e xistence o f h eraldic emblems i n R us a re a ssociated w ith s uch f igures, we s hould dwell u pon t hem i n f urther d etail. T here i s a f igure o f a l ion o n t he s hield o f S t. G eorge r epresented a bove t he main e ntrance t o t he S t G eorge c athedral i n Y uriev P olskoi ( 1240-1235 - Vagner, 1 964, P late I ; N ekrasov, 1 928, p late X XXI, 2 ). T his i mage o f t he patron s aint o f Y uri V sevolodovich, g rand p r ince o f Valdimir, m ight t heoretically b e r epresented a s h olding a s hield o rnamented w ith h is c rest. T he p ose o f t he l ion c orresponds a s a whole t o t hat u sual f or western E uropean h eraldry. The p resence o f a n o rnamental b order a long t he e dge o f t he s hield d oes n ot c orrespond t o t he t raditions o f h eraldry. T he r epresentation o f a l ion' o n t he s hield o f a c oat o f a rms c oming n ext i n t ime i s i n t he T heodore G ospel d ated t o 1 321-1327 ( Plate XXX. 1 ). This s hield i s a lso r epresented i n t he hands o f a s aint - T heodore S tratilatos ( Nekrasov, 1 928). T he i mage o f t he l ion c orresponds a s a whole w ith t he t raditions o f h eraldry, but h ere, t oo, t here i s a n o rnamental b order a long t he e dge o f t he s hield. A s hield w ith a f igure ( a l ion?) i s a lso p resented i n t he h ands o f S t P rokopii among t he f igures o n t he g ilded c hurch d oors o f N ovgorod o rigin, d ated t o 1 336 ( Lazarev, 1 953; P late XXXI 2 ). Another i kon , b earing a n i mage o f S t. Dmitr i r epresented w ith a s hield u pon which a l ion i s r epresented, i s mentioned i n t he i nventory o f t he p roperty o f I van G rozny ( end o f t he XVth c entury; Opis, 1 850, p . 5 ). A ll o f t hese i mages t estify t o a c onsiderable d issemination o f t he d ecorating o f a s hield w ith a p icture o f a l ion, but n ot o ne o f t hem has c lear f eatures o f b eing t he c oat o f a rms o f a c oncrete p rincipality o r a ristocratic f amily. I n t wo c ases, a nd t hese t he e arliest, t here i s a f eature o f d istinction f rom t he h eraldic s hield - t he d ecorative b order. T he e arliest i nstance o f a r epresentation o f t he Moscow c rest ( a h orseman s tr iking a d ragon w ith a l ance) upon t he s hield o f a c oat o f a rms i s o n t he b reast o f t he d ouble-headed e agle o n t he s eal o f I van G rozny a ttached t o a c harter o f 1 562 ( Snimki, 1 882, p late 1 2). F or t rue h eraldic f igures, o nes h aving c ertain s pecific f eatures o f a n a rbitrary nature a re c haracteristic: p ictures o f b easts h olding w eapons o r r egalia, s eparate r epresentations o f weapons a nd r egalia, d epiction o f " cut" f igures o f l iving b eings. S uch i mages a re n ot c haracteristic f or R ussian a rt b efore t he XVIth c entury: Among t he e arly p roductions o f s uch a n ature which m ight b e a ssociated w ith h eraldry o ne may p oint o ut t he d epiction o f a b ird's w ing o n t he s hield o f L onginus t he C enturion o n a mural o f t he m iddle o r s econd h alf o f t he X lVth c entury i n t he c hurch o f t he D ormition a t V olo tovo i n N ovgorod ( Alpatov, 1 977, p late 9 9). T his e xample i s n ot e ntirely c onvincing e ither, s ince t he s hield w ith t his s ort o f i mage i s s hown i n t he h ands o f a N ew T estament f igure. A b order i mitating a n A rabic i nscription, moreover, r uns a long t he e dge o f t he s hield. C rowns o n t he h eads o f a d ouble-headed e agle a ppear f or t he f irst t ime o n a s eal o f I van II i n 1 497 ( SGG, v ol. I , 1 813, p. 3 33). E arlier R ussian r epresentations o f d ouble-headed e agles 4 1
h ave n o c rowns.) What i s most s pecif ic f or h eraldry i s t he s o-called " truly h erald ic f igures" f ormed b y d ivision o f t he s hield i nto parts a nd by t he d ifferentiated c oloring o r t inctures o f t hese. S uch d epictions a lso c rop up f rom t ime t o t ime i n a ncient Russian a rt. I n particular, a c entaur a ppears w ith s uch a s hield o n a h orn c asket o f t he X II th c entury t hat was f ound a t P skov ( Labutina a nd K ondratieva, 1 975; P late XXXIX, 6 ). On t he s hield t here i s a " pale" o n t he back o f which " indented b ars" h ave b een i nserted. On t he s outhern d oors o f t he R ozhdestvenski C athedral a t S uzdal, d ated t o t he m iddle o f t he XIII th c entury, a s hield o f J oshua i s r epresented, o rnamented w ith " bends" ( Ovchinnikov, 1 978 , p late . 126). On a m iniature i n t he S imonovski P salter o f 1 295 o ne c an s ee a s hield w ith a h eraldic d esign i n t he f orm o f c hevrons ( represented among t he a rms o f G oliath - K irpichnikov, 1 971, p late XVIII, 1 ; P late XXXI. 1 ). I n m iniatures o f t he R adziwi ll c hronicle o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury o ne may s ee s hields w ith d epictions o f a " pale" and o f a " parted" s hield ( see t he 1 902 photographic f acsimile o f t he manuscript, s heet 1 68, a nd s heet 2 14 r ecto P late XXXI, 3 , 4 ). T hese s hields a re s hown i n t he manuscript a s b eing i n t he h ands o f s oldiers i n t he r anks; i n t he s ame manuscript t here a re i ncomparably more s hields t hat have n o f eatures o f h eraldic d esign. We may p oint o ut t hat t he c ontext i n which d epictions o f s hields b ear ing a d esign a re e ncountered i n ancient Russian a rt d oes n ot r ef lect t heir b eing c onnected w ith s pecif ic Russian f amilies o r t erritories. Apparently s uch d epictions s pread a bout Rus i n t he c apacity o f b orrowed motifs. The d issemination o f c rests among t he Russian a r istocracy c ommenced i n t he XVth c entury, when western R ussian n obility r eceived c rests i n t he P o lish- L ithuanian s tate ( Arseniev, 1 908, p . 2 69) . I n t his c onnection a c onsiderable number o f r epresentatives o f t hat n obility went o ver t o t he s ervice o f R ussia a nd b rought w ith t hem t he u se o f c rests. But w ithin t he l imits o f t he XVth c entury t here a re n o t races o f d issemination o f P olish c rests i n t he Russian r epresentational mater ial. S ubsequently n oble c rests were d evised i n Rus o n f oreign models. Ancient R ussian s ecular emblematics c an b e r elated, among a ll t he l ater Russian h eraldic emblems, o nly t o t he p art t hat c onsists o f r egional a r id c ivic c rests ( Soboleva, 1 976, 1 981). Among t he o ther ancient Russian r epresentations t hat a re r elated t o f eudal emblematics t he most i mportant a re o bviously t hose t o b e f ound o n o b jects a ssociated w ith a uthority a nd w ith warfare. They a re f ew i n number, and i t w ill b e we ll t o s tart o ff by e xamining t he more c opious o nes among t he s everal s er ies o f s ecular r epresentations t hat e xist. The most i mportant s eries, i nclud ing a multitude o f s ecular r epresentations, i s t hat o f f açade s culpture, d isseminated i n ancient Rus p reponderantly i n t he p rincipality o f V ladimir-Suzdal i n t he X II th-Xl II th c enturies. Two c athedrals a re p articularly i mportant - t hat o f Dmitri ( 1 193197) a nd t hat o f G eorge i n Yuriev P olsko i ( 1230-1234). The walls o f t hese c athedrals a re a lmost c ompletely c overed w ith 4 2
r elief c arving ( see P late XXXII). S ecular i mages a re r epresented o n t heir walls w ith r eligious o nes. T hey i nclude, a long w ith n umerous a nd v arious i mages o f b easts, a lso s ome s cenes w ith r epresentations o f h uman b eings. Many r eliefs e xhibit s imilarity t o R omanesque s culpture, but B yzantine f eatures a re a lso p resent. T he basic work o n i nterpretation o f t he s ubjects was p erformed b y G .K. Vagner ( 1964, 1 969), who a ssociates t he s ymbo lic s ystem f or t he r epresentation o f b easts w ith t he P hysio logos. I n c ontradistinction t o t he u ncoord inated i mages o n c oins, t he c arving o f t he c athedrals r eflects a c ertain s ystem, a h ie rarchy o f d epictions. On t he o ther hand t he c onceptual c ontent o f t he s ecular i mages o n t hese c athedrals was s ubordinate a nd' n ot p aramount i n t he g eneral s ystem o f t he c athedral, s ince t he paramount s ystem o f s ymbols f or t he c athedral a s a whole was, n aturally e nough, t hat o f r eligious s ymbolism. Among t he r eliefs o f t he c athedrals t hose most i mportant i deologically were t he r eliefs o f r eligious c ontent, i n r elation t o which t he s ecular o nes h ad m erely a s upplementary c haracter. T he c athedrals a re n evertheless v ery i mportant, s ince t hey a fford v ery l arge a nd v ar iegated r anges o f s ecular f igures. T he i mages s hown i n t he c arving o f t he c athedrals a t V ladimar a re i n many r espects t he s ame a s t hose i n a pplied a rt o f t he X Ith-XIIIth c enturies, a nd a lso i n t hat o f a l ater t ime. The s econd most i mportant s eries o f s ecular s ubjects i n a ncient Russian a rt i s t he s o-called t eratological o rnamentation o f manuscripts o f t he X II I th-XlVth c enturies. T he main e lement o f t his o rnamentation c onsists o f f igures o f b easts a nd monsters i ntertwined w ith e ach o ther a nd a ttached t ogether w ith s trapwork, r unners, a nd p lants ( Plates XXXI I. XXXIV). S imilar o rnamentation i s known i n W estern E urope a s well, p articularly i n I reland a nd S candinavia. I t i s a lso known among t he s outhern S lays. Russian o rnamentation i n t he f orm o f monsters i s r etained t o a c onsiderably l ater d ate t han i s o rnamentation o f t his s ort among t he o ther nations o f E urope. I t c omes i nto t he manuscripts f rom a pplied a rt, where i t i s known a t l east f rom t he b eginning o f t he X Ith c entury ( Arkhipovski, 1 954), a nd l ike t he western European s ort i t i s a ssociated w ith E uropean g eneral t radition f rom t he t imes o f t he m igration o f p eoples. I n i ts s election o f d etails a nd i ts c haracter istic f eatures t his o rnamentation, which has f lowered p articularly i n t he manuscripts, h as p roved t o b e d ecidedly i d iosyncratic. One may b oldly t erm i t t he most native p henomenon i n t he r ange o f m edieval R ussian o rnament. I n c ontrad istinction t o t he a nimal s ub ject matter i n c athedral c arvings, where a s ense o f variety i s a chieved b y v irtue o f t he w ide r ange o f t he d epictions, t he t eratological o rnamentation o f t he manuscripts i s based u pon t he c omplication o f t he i ntertwining o f t he b easts. I n t his c onnection o ne s hould n ote t hat t he d ismembered d ecoration o f t he c athedrals a nd t he monolithic d ecoration o f t he manuscripts e cho e ach o ther i n may r espects. On t i tle p ages a nd c hapter h eadings i n t he monster s tyle, e lements c an b e p erceived t hat h ave b een b orrowed f rom a rchitectural d ecoration ( Buslayev, 4 3
1 917, P . 3 0 , 3 1). I n a ddition, i n t he f ew f ragments o f t he s culptural a dornment o f t he C herigov c athedrals o f t he X IIth c entury t here a re o nes i n which v ivid f eatures o f t erato logy a re t o b e p erceived - t he l egs o f a nimals a re e nmeshed i n t endr ils, a nd t he t ails o f a nimals, t oo , a t t imes c hange i nto p laitings ( Bibikova, 1 962, B , p . 1 84, f ig. 18; P late X XXII, 3 ). A t t he m iddle o f t he X lVth c entury a n umber o f i nitial l etters o f t he monster s tyle s tarted t o i nclude f igures o f h uman b eings a nd f inally whole s cenes, s ometimes w ith s pecial c aptions. T he a ppearance o f t he human f igure i n t erato logical o rnament , t he i ncrease i n t he p ar t i t p layed , a nd s ubsequently, a t t he t urn o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies, t he r eplacement 'o f t eratological o rnament w ith a nother s ort, a re s ometimes r egarded a s a r ef lection o f ma jor s hif ts i n t he way man i n ancient R us u nderstood t he u niverse, i n p articular a s a r eflection o f a nimal d epictions' b ecoming d eprived o f s ymbolic i nterest. T his i s s carcely a ltogether t he c ase. Animal d ecor i n R us, having d isappeared ( and t hat n ot t o t he f ull) f rom t he b ook, was p reserved i n o ther b ranches o f applied a rt, a nd i t was a lso p reserved i n t he f orm o f i deologically meaningful i mages, o n c oins a nd o n s eals. I n a n umber o f c ases i nitial l etters o f t he t erato logical s tyle c onstitute a v ar iation u pon a p opular i mage known i n a ncient R ussian d ecorative a rt o n p roducts n ot among t hose b rought t ogether by t his s tyle. T heir f eatures h elp o ne t o understand t he p eculiarities o f t he i deas a ssociated w ith t his o rnamental s tyle. T hus i n t he Smolensk p salter o f 1 395 o ne o f t he i nitial l etters u nquestionably r eproduces a c omposition f amiliar i n R us - t he f l ight o f A lexander o f Macedon ( Bugoslayski, 1 906, p late 1 9; P late XXXIV, 3 ). I ndeed, t he p osition o f t he upper h alf o f t he human f igure w ith i ts o dd c ap b etween t wo v ertically d rawn-out f lying monsters r eminds o ne e xtremely c losely o f c orresponding c ompositions o n t he walls o f t he V ladimir-Suzdal c athedrals ( Vagner, 1 969, p . 3 07, f ig. 1 88; P late XXXII, 1 ) a nd o n a d iadem o f t he X lIth c entury d ecorated w ith a c loissond e namel ( Makarova, 1 975, p . 4 9, p late 1 2). B ut u pon o ne's b ecom ing a cquainted w ith t he d etails i t b ecomes c lear t hat t he f eatures o f d ifference a re g reater t han t he r esemblances. T he c rown o n A lexander 's h ead , o rdinarily t reated i n a n e ntirely d ef inite manner, h as b ecome t ransformed i nto a c ap o f f antastic s hape ( which d oes, by t he way, i n i ts o verall o utline r emind o ne o f a c rown); t he b asket i n which A lexander i s p laced ( in i ts t urn r epresenting a r udimentary p art o f t he c hariot which i s t o b e s een i n B yzantine d epictions) has b ecome c onverted i nto t he gape o f a monster, f rom which t he f igure o f a man e merges. I n t his p rocess t he o verall o ut lines o f t he u nderlying c omposition h ave b een p reserved, but t he c oncept o f t he d etails h as b een s ub jected t o c omplete t ransformation. T he g riff ins t o which A lexander 's c har iot i s t raditionally h itched i n t he p ictures h ave b een c onverted i nto d ragons; t hey a re n ot i n t he l east h itched t o t he b asket - o n t he i nitial l etter t he h uman f igure c lutches t hem w ith i ts hands. T he s mall b easts s eated upon t he l ance h ave e ntirely d isappeared - t hey b eing t he l ure w ith t he h elp 4 4
o f which A lexander i nduces t he g riff ins t o r ise. T he t ails o f t he d ragons a re p laited i nto k nots i n h armony w ith t he t raditions o f t eratology. E xamination o f t his i nitial l etter s hows t hat i n t he p resent c ase, a long w ith u ndoubted r eproduction o f a p opular p icture, w e a re f aced w ith a c omplete d egradation o f i ts o riginal s ense. A ll t he e lements o f t he c omposition t hat h ave c ounterpar ts i n t he l i terary e pisode a re a ltered i n s uch a way t hat t he c orrespondence i s c ompletely l ost. I t i s c haracter istic t hat e ven A lexander's most i mportant a ttribute a s a r uler, t he c rown, h as b een s ubjected t o d egradation. I n a n umber o f i nitials i n t he t erato logical s tyle o ne may s ee a c rowned s eated f igure p laying a p saltery. T he i dea t hat t he d epiction c onveys a s uggestion o f t he p salmist D avid g ives r ise t o n o d oubts. B ut i n t he i nitial l etters h e i s a lways s tr ipped o f t he a ttribute o f s anctity, t he n imbus, a nd h e o ften t akes o n d istorted a nd e ven c aricatured f eatures. One i nitial o f t he X IVth c entury i s p articularly c haracter istic ( Stasov, 1 887, p late 2 4; P late XXXIII, 3 .) I n i t t he p rincipal i tem o f t he r egalia, t he c rown, i s s ubjected t o d egradation. I ts p rongs a re c onverted i nto p laitings u sual f or t eratological o rnament, a nd t he p endants a t t he s ides o f t he c rown ( a u sual a ccessory t o B yzantine d iadems) h ave b een c hanged i nto s mall f igures o f b irds h anging h ead-downward. N or d oes t he p resence o f p laiting which, a s i t were, t ies h is l egs u p i nto knots h armonize e ntirely w ith t he p icture o f a s ainted k ing. H ere i t must b e r emarked t hat p laiting o f t he a rms a nd l egs o f f igures e nter ing i nto t he c omposition o f t erato logical i nitial f igures, l etters, t i tle p ages, a nd c hapter h eadings c anno t w ithout f urther ado b e c onsidered a p urely d ecorative e lement - a n i nitial l etter o f t he e nd o f t he X IVth c entury i s known i n which a p adlock i s d rawn i nto s uch a p laiting, s o t hat i n t hat c ase t he p laitings o n t he l egs o f t he f igure unquestionably r epresent l eg-irons o r s tocks ( Bugoslayski, 1 906, p late 1 9). C ertain f urther i nitial l etters i n t he monster s tyle p resent a human f igure m ounted o n a b east ( Stasov, 1 887, p late I XV, 1 6, 1 9; p late I XXI, 2 : P late XXXI I, 6-8 ). I n t wo c ases t he man t wists t he a nimal's h ead u pward, h olding i t by t he n ose. T his f eature u nquestionably r eflects a v ictory o ver t he b east, a nd t he whole c omposition i s a var iation upon a n e xtremely p opular s cene i n m edieval a rt, t he v ictory o f S amson o ver t he l ion. I n ancient Russian a rt t his s ubject was a lmost a lways r epresented t hrough a s ingle s tereotyped c omposition - S amson s its mounted u pon t he l ion a nd t ears o pen i ts g ape ( Rybakov, 1 970, p . 5 6, f ig 6 7; L azarev a nd Mneva, 1 954, p . 1 61). The c omposition was s o p opular t hat o ne c annot i magine t hat i n r epresenting a f igure o f a man s eated u pon a b east, a n a rtist c ould f ail t o r ecall i t . The a nimal u pon which t he human f igure s its i s i n o ne c ase r epresented w ith d ef inite f eatures o f a l ion. I n t he o ther t wo c ases t he b east h as a f airy-tale l ook, y et t he p ose o f t he man s eated u pon i t a nd h o ld ing i t by i ts u pper j aw ( a t ransformed d etail o f t he i conography g oing b ack t o t he i mage o f t he h ero t ear ing t he l ion's j aws a part) p oints t oward a n i conographic
4 5
c onnection w ith t he f igure o f S amson. A l ] t he i nitial l e tters p resenting a h uman f igure s eated u pon a b east a re o vergrown w ith s upplementary p laited e lements ( necessary f or t he m ost p art i n o rder t hat t he o verall c ontours o f t he c omposition may f i t a l e tter). T he h eroic c haracter o f t he i mage i s d eliberately d own-graded - i n o ne i nstance t he man i s s imply r iding o n t he l ion; i n t he o ther t wo , i nstead o f t earing t he l ion's j aw 's a par t h e i s h olding t he a nimal's h ead b y i ts n ose a nd e ar e longated t o t he e xtent o f c aricature. On t hese s ame i nitial l etters t he f igure o f t he b east i s r epresented i n markedly r educed s ize a s c ompared w ith t he c ase i n t he i conography o f S amson f ight ing w ith t he l ion. T hus j ust t hose i nitial l etters o f t erato logical s tyle which manifest t he g reatest l ikeness w ith c ompositions p opular i n a ncient R ussian a rt d emonstrate a t t he s ame t ime a d egradation o f t he c onceptual c ontent, a d owngrad ing o f t he p athos o f i mages a ssociated w ith t he t hemes o f s anctity, h eroism, a nd a uthority. Apparently t his i s n o r andom t endency i n o rnament o f t his s ort. I t may b e j uxtaposed w ith t he h umble h omely c haracter o f a n umber o f t hat a rt's o ther i mages, which i n i ndividual i nstances i s e mphasized b y c aptions e xplaining t he m eaning o f t he d epictions i n t he i nitial l etters: " He d ouses h imself w ith water," " the f ire b urns h is h ands;" o ne may m ention a we ll-known i nitial l etter u pon which t wo f ishermen a re s hown h olding a n et a nd a c aption s ets f orth t heir h eated e xchange o f c urses ( S tasov, 1 887, p late L XXXI, 5 ). S uch a c haracter, i n a d ecor a s a r ule p roper t o t he make-up o f l i turgical b ooks, may p erhaps c onstitute a n o dd e xpression o f t he a rtist's h umility i n t hat h e a cknowledges t he i nsignif icance o f h is c reativity when i t i s c ompared w ith t he s acred t exts. T he most e xtensive p ublication o f e xamples o f R ussian t eratological manuscr ipt o rnamentation, a nd a lso o f p arallels t hereto i n Y ugoslav a nd B yzantine manuscripts, i s c ontained i n t he monumental a lbum o f V .V. S tasov ( 1887) . S cho larly a nalysis o f t he e lements o f t his o rnament a ppears i n t he works o f F.I. B uslayev ( 1917 e dition) a nd A.I. N ekrasov ( 1913) . Among more r ecent works o ne s hould a lso c onsider t he a rticles o f M .V. S hchepkin ( 1974) , B .A. R ybakov ( 1975) , a nd T.B . U khova ( 1976). T he c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies, t he r eliefs o f t he V ladimir-Suzdal c athedrals, a nd t he t erato logical o rnaments i n manuscripts o f t he X I II th-XIVth c enturies a re t he most e xtensive s eries o f s ecular s ubjects i n a ncient R ussian a rt. A ll t he r emaining g roups o f material - d e l uxe a rms, o b jects a ssociated w ith p r incely a ttire, a dornments - a dd v ery l i ttle t o t hese. O f l ate i t h as b ecome p ossible t o b ring t o l ight s t ill a f urther g roup o f i mages p roviding a d ecidedly l arge s eries (a bout 2 00) a nd t o d emonstrate t heir R ussian o rigin (C hernetsov , 1 980). T hese a re s taffs o f t he e nd o f t he X Vth c entury, o ne t he c rozier o f a metropolitan, t wo o thers a pparently t he walking-staffs o f a g rand p rince, which a re d ecorated w ith d elicate c arving o ver t heir e ntire s urfaces. T he t wo p r incely s taffs a re p articular ly i mportant a s b eing
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o b jects a ssociated w ith s ecular a uthority a nd d evoid o f a n e cclesiastical e lement. T he g reater p art o f t he i mages c onsists o f a nimal o rnament ( Plate XXXV). T he a rrangement o f t he i mages i s s ubject t o d ef inite s ystem. T he c arving o f t he s taffs c learly s hows t he l iveliness o f a nimal o rnament i n R us a nd t he e xistence o f s ymbo lic s ystem i n i t . T hese i mages a re a lso v aluable i n t hat t hey f all t o t he p eriOd o f t he d ef initive p utting t ogether o f t he c entralized R ussian s tate. Among o ther o bjects a ssociated i n t heir p urpose w ith t he a uthority o f t he R ussian p r inces, a c onsiderable p art e ither b ear, a s w e h ave a lready s aid, i mages o f a r eligious n ature, o r e lse h ave n o s ubject r epresentations. I n p articular , t he f amous c ap o f Monomakh i s d evoid o f t hem ( evidently i t i s b asically a p roduct o f e astern j ewelers o f t he X IVth c entury S pitsyn, 1 906) A r are e xception i s a d iadem o f t he X IIth c entury f ound a t S akhnovka ( apparently p art o f t he s tate a ttire o f a p rincess). T he c entral f igure o n t he d iadem i s a f ami liar s ubject o f m edieval a rt, t he f l ight o f A lexander o f Macedon o n g riff ins ( Makarova, 1 975, p . 4 9, p late 1 2). S ecular s ub ject d epictions a re a lso c omparatively r are o n a rms, t hese b eing i mportant i nsofar a s d uring t he m iddle a ges t he r ole o f a rms i n f eudal s ymbo lic s ystems a nd c eremony was e xtremely g reat. An u nusual e xception i s t he b oar-spear o f G rand P r ince B or is A leksandrovich o f T ver ( 1425-1461), o n t he s ocket t o t he h ead o f which t here a re a n umber o f c ompositions ( Plate XXXVI). A ccord ing t o t he b est-founded e xplanation, t hat o ffered b y T .V. N ikolayeva ( 1976, p . 1 05-117). t his c omposition r epresents s cenes f rom t he Tale o f M ikhail o f T ver, a nd t ells o f t his p rince's d eath a s a martyr a t t he h ands o f t he H orde. A nother c ase o f t he p resence o f s ubject f igures o n a rms i s a lso a ssociated w ith Tver. T his i s t he b one g rip o f a s aber, a pparently o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury, t hat was published by A .K. Z hiznevski ( 1888 , p . 1 91, 1 92); i n i ts s election o f i mages t he c arving o n i t i s c lose t o t he c arving o n t he s taffs r eferred t o a bove ( Plate XXXVII, 1 ). A side f rom t he s eries mentioned a bove, s ecular i mages a re e ncountered a lso o n o ther p roducts o f a pplied a rt. A s a r ule t hey a re d escribed i n T .V. N ikolayeva's f undamental work ( 1971, 1 976). P roducts o f a pplied a rt i n wood a re s plendidly p resented b y B .A. K olchin ( 1971) o n a b asis o f N ovgorod e xcavations. 1 .1. P leshanova ( 1968) has p ointed o ut i ndividual i nteresting s eries o f r epresentations o f a nimals f rom t he XVIth c entury. T he most e xtensive s eries o f s ecular s ubjects i n t he a rt o f t he XVIth a nd XVIIth c enturies i s o ffered by t he t i les. T he i mages o n t i les h ave i nscr iptions i n many c ases, s omething v ery i mportant f or t heir i nterpretation. I n t he XVIth c entury p roducts o f r epresentational a rt d irectly i ntended l o g lorify t he a uthority o f t he Muscovite s overeigns b ecome more n umerous. P art o f t hese d irectly i l lustrate l i terary p roductions e xalting t he R ussian t sars. S uch a re t he c arved f igures o n t he r oyal t hrone o f I van G rozny ( "the T errible" o r t he Awe-Inspiring - T r.) U pon i t t here a re r epresented s cenes f rom t he " Story o f t he P r inces o f V ladimir," i .e. t he l egend r egarding V ladimir Monomakh's r eceiving t he 4 7
i mper ial t i tle a nd r egalia f rom B yzantium ( Zabelin a nd S hchepkin, 1 908). I n t he mural p aintings i n t he r oyal p alace o f I van G rozny, a long w ith c anonical i mages f rom e cclesiastical i conography, t here was e xtensive r epresentation o f a llegories a nd o ther f igures a ssociated w ith t he i dea o f a pologetics f or t he a uthority o f t he R ussian t sars ( Podobedova, 1 972); T he c reation o f t he L itsevoi L etopisny S vod o r " Illustrated C hronicle-Digest" f alls t o t he s econd h alf o f t he XVIth c entury - i t i s a g randiose s eries o f f olio v olumes o n u niversal a nd R ussian h istory, c ontaining more t han 1 6000 c ompositions o f many f igures ( on t hese manuscripts s ee b elow). A ll t hese p henomena b y n ow c onstitute a q ualitatively n ew s tage i n t he f ield o f i ncorporating t he i dea o f a uthority i nto r epresentational a rt. One o f t he c haracter istic p eculiarities o f s uch f igures o f t he XVIth-XVIIth c enturies a s c ompared w ith e arlier o nes i s a c onsiderable amplif ication o f t he p art p layed b y t he e cclesiastical e lement. Many f eatures a nd i mages p resent i n t he s ecular a rt o f R us i n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies n evertheless manifest a c onsiderable p ersistence a nd a re p reserved n ot o nly i n t he a rt o f t he XVIth-XVIIth c enturies, but i n f olk a rt o f t he XVIIIthXXth c enturies. T heir most i mportant s eries a re c arving a nd p ainting o n wood, a nd a lso p opular woodcuts. T he f ullest p ublication o f p opular woodcut p ictures i s t o b e f ound i n t he work o f D .A. R ovinski ( 1881). T he m ost e xtensive a lbum o f R ussian wooden manufactures was published by A .A. B obrinski ( volumes 1 -12, 1 910-1914). T he most i mportant s tudies o f c arving a nd o f p ainting o n wood a re t hose o f N .N. S oboleva ( 1934), V . M. Vasilenko ( 1960), a nd S .K. Z hegalova ( 1975). Work i n d etermining t he c onceptual c ontent o f t he i mages o n ancient R usian c oins i s made more c omplicated b y t he f act t hat d ata o ffered b y t he i nscriptions o r by l i terary s ources r egarding t he way i n which t he c oncepts t hey r epresent w ere u nderstood i s p ractically n on-existent. S ometimes t here a re d ata a bout t he c ontent o f i mages o n s eals, but t hese d o n ot e xplain much. On t wo N ovgorod l ead s eals o f t he XVth c entury t here a re i nscr iptions h aving a d irect c onnect ion w ith t he i mages o f a nimals s et s ide by s ide w ith t hem. On o ne o f t hese, t he word " eagle" s tands a longside t he f igure o f a b ird, a nd o n t he o ther, " this i s a r aging b east" a longside t he f igure o f a b east o f p rey ( Yanin, 1 970 , v ol. I, p late 3 7, 7 16 ; p late 3 8, 7 26; P late XXVIII. 3 , 6 ).. The s eal o f A leksandr N evski i s d escribed i n a XVIth c entury t ranscription o f a c harter o f h is: " upon t he c harter t here i s a l ead s eal, a nd u pon i t a man o n h orseback" ( GVNP, p . 3 37 -3 38 ). I n a manuscript o f t he e nd o f t he X VIth c entury c ontaining c opies o f c harters o f t he XVth c entury, d escr iptions o f t he s eals a ttached t o t hem a re o f t he s ame n on-concrete c haracter: " a wax s eal, a nd u pon i t a s tanding n aked man d epicted," " a wax s eal, a nd man's h ead c arved u pon i t ;" " a s eal - i n a c ircle a b east a round t he c entral p oint," " a s quare s eal, written o n i t : t he t amga o f t he p rince o f V ereya, a nd t herewith a b ird d epicted," " a s eal, i n a c ircle t hree c udgels" ( ASEI, v ol. II, 1 964, p . 3 93, 4 21, 4 22, 4 23, 4 42).
4 8
I n i nventories o f r oyal p roperty f rom 1 676 t here i s m ention o f s eal-rings a nd e ven o f t he f igures o n t hem, b ut w ithout a ny d ef inition o f t heir m eanings: " A c hased r ing w ith e namel, o n i t a s quare e merald, a nd o n t his a human b eing c arved, o n h orseback a nd w ith a s aber; a nd b eneath t he h orse a d ragon;" " A c hased r ing w ith n iello, i n t he c enter whereof a s apphire u pon which t wo h uman b eings a re c arved, o ne o f t hem s itt ing u pon a c hair, a nd t he o ther h olding t he j aw o f a l ion," o n s t ill a f urther r ing t here i s r epresented " a h uman p erson s hooting a b ow" ( Savvaitov, 1 865, p . 7 3, 7 4). I may pause f or a moment t o c onsider a n e xtract f rom t he t ranslated c ompilation T ainaya T ainykh o r " The S ecret o f S ecrets," k nown i n R us f rom t he f irst h alf o f t he XVIth c entury o r p erhaps e ven f rom t he e nd o f t he XVth, i n which t here i s d iscussion o f t he manufacture o f r ing-talismans w ith g ems, e vidently s eal-stones. " Make y our r ing o f s ilver a nd g old a nd a s tone o f p rice; c arve u pon t his t he i mage o f a b tula ( a H ebraism - Author) which r ides t riumphant u pon a k fir ( another - Author ) ...And d o t his o n S unday e arly a t t he h our o f t he s un a nd t he p lanet ( ? - Author) o f t he l ion, a nd t he moon s hall b e i n S araph ( still a f urther H ebraism ? Author).... H e who wears s uch a r ing o n h is h and, i s h onored a nd o beyed; h is a ntagonist c annot s tand b efore h im." I n a nother p assage i n t he s ame b ook t here i s m ention o f a r ing s et w ith p recious s tone u pon which t here i s a f igure o f a l ion; t he owner o f t he r ing " will w in g reat h onors a nd w ill q uickly a chieve what h e w ishes" ( Speranski, 1 93, p . 2 36, 2 38). The v alue o f t hese p assages i s r educed t hrough t heir b eing t aken f rom l i terature which i s n ot Russian b y o rigin. I n Rus a strological s uperstitions were w idespread, a t l east f rom t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury o nward. I n a t heological c omposition o f t he b egini l ig o f t he XVIth c entury b y l osif V olotski, d irected a gainst t he Russian f rontier h eretics o f t he XVth-XVIth c enturies a nd c alled t he P rosvetitel' ( "Enlightener ;" 1 882, p . 1 65), t here i s mention o f t he i mage o n a s eal r ing a s a r hetorical f igure. " One h as a g old r ing; a nother a n i ron o ne. On b oth r ings t here i s t he s ame i mage o f t he T sar, which i s i mpressed u pon wax. S ay t hen, i f y ou a re s o w ise, which i s t he i mpression f rom t he i ron, a nd which f rom t he g old? Y ou c annot, b ecause t he d istinction h ere i s i n t he mater ials, a nd n ot i n t he p icture i mpressed." I n t his p assage t he i mportant t hing i s t he i ndication t hat i t s eemed n atural t o t he a uthor t o s ee i n t he i mage c ommunicated by t he s eal r ing a d epiction o f t he t sar. T he d escriptions o f i mages u pon o b jects o f a pplied a rt a re o f a n on-concrete c haracter: " Upon i t a man o n h orseback p iercing t he h ead o f a s erpent" - XVIth c entury, i nventory o f p roperty o f I van G rozny ( 1850, p . 5 ). A s cene o f r ending i s d escribed i n a nother i nventory o f t he XVIth c entury: " Two b easts b iting e ach o ther" ( Viktorov, 1 875, p . 5 ). A n umber o f f igures o n t he s ocket t o t he h ead o f t he b oar-spear o f t he G rand P r ince B or is A leksandrovich o f T ver ( Plate XXXVI) b ear ing many c ompositions, a re d escribed i n a n i nventory o f t he XVIlth c entury ( OMOP, 1 884, v ol. I , p . 6 2): " and o n i t 4 9
t here a re g rasses, p eople, a nd b irds" ( although t here i s o nly o ne b ird, a nd n o g rass a t a ll). O f ten t he c aptions t o i nitial l etters i n t he monster s tyle a re o f t he s ame c haracter. A longside t he p layer o f a p saltery w e r ead " Play W ell." A longside a c lothed man p our ing water u pon h imse lf f rom a j ug, " He d ouses h imself w ith water." I n a d escription o f t he S t G eorge C athedral a t Y uriev P olskoi i n a c hronicle i t i s i ndicated m erely t hat t he c athedral i s o rnamented w ith c arving f rom t op t o b o ttom, a nd i n a d escription o f i ts b eing r epaired i n 1 471 i t i s s tated t hat e verything was r estored a s i t h ad b een e arlier ( PSRL, v ol. XXIII, p . 1 59), e ven t hough d ur ing t his r epair t he o rdering n ot o nly o f t he s ecular i mages, b ut a lso t hat o f t he g enerally f amiliar r eligious c ompositions, was v io lated. Among R ussian l i terary p roductions o f t he XVth c entury a ttention t o t he c ontent o f d ecor c an b e n oted o nly i n t he c ase o f t he R ussian t raveler t o I ndia A fanasii N ikitin, who o bserved t hat o n H indu t emples t he r eincarnation o f t he d ivinities was r epresented ( PSRL, v ol. V I, p . 3 36). S uch s kimpy i ndications w ith r egard t o t he i mport o f s ecular f igures o n o bjects o f a pplied a rt, s eals, a nd c oins may g ive r ise t o a n i dea t hat t hey were m erely o f d ecorative s ignif icance a nd were n ot a ssociated w ith s pecif ic l i terary e pisodes, a ctual e vents, o r c ircumstances o f c ontemporary r eality. B ut f or a ncient R ussian l i terature a nd a rt a n i mmediate a nd f requently e ven p ersonal way o f a ccepting t raditional i mages i s c haracteristic. R eflection o f t he d ay's m enacing p o litical s ituation i n ancient Russian r epresentational a rt i s known s tarting f rom i ts e arliest o utput: t he i mages o f p rinces o n t he most a ncient c oins ( Sverd lov, 1 972), o f p rincely f amilies o n t he f rescos o f S t. S ofia a t K iev, a nd o n t he m iniature i n t he S vyatoslav C ompendium o f 1 073 ( Kondakov, 1 906). T he c onstruction a nd o rnamentation o f c hurches i n c ommemoration o f c oncrete m ilitary v ictories has b een e stablished a s p racticed i n R us s tarting f rom t he v ery b eginnings o f t he a cceptance o f Christianity ( PSRL, v ol I , p . 1 47). A side f rom t he d epiction o f p rinces , t his a ctual, p ersonal c haracter i s a lso p resent i n i mages o f t heir s ainted p atrons, which a re e xtraordinar ily numerous i n a ncient R ussian a rt. A s a s tr ictly c ontemporary way o f t aking i n a t raditional B iblical p icture i n l i terary writing, o ne may r efer t o a n i nstance i n a R ussian manuscript o f t he X Vth c entury i n , which t he a ntagonists o f t he B iblical S amson a re c alled n o t P hilistines, b ut T atars ( Lurie, 1 961, p . 1 61). T he t raditional i mage o f t he d evil a s d ragon, t oo, was d irectly a ssociated w ith t he T atars i n t he XVth c entury ( AK, v ol. I , p . 1 37). Compar ison o f Russian p rinces w ith B iblical a nd o ther k ings a nd h eroes, a nd a lso w ith c elebrated R ussian p rinces o f e arlier p er iods, was e xtremely w idespread i n ancient Russian l i terature. C omparison o f t he warlike f eats o f R ussian p rinces a nd t heir warriors w ith f igures o f b easts a nd b irds o f p rey i s a lso n ot u ncommon. An e xample o f a " modern-dress" way o f t aking a f antastical p icture o n B iblical t hemes i nto r epresentational 5 0
material i s a m iniature i n t he Smolensk P salter o f 1 395 ( plate XXXVIII, 1 ) s howing f our a nimals a s t he s ymbols o f t he f our k ingdoms i n D aniel's p rophecy ( Daniel, C hapter 7 ). I n v iolation o f u sual i conography, m idway among t he f our b easts a f i f th i s d epicted - a s mall a nimal ( a h are?). T he i dea h as b een a dvanced t hat t his a nimal s ymbolizes t he d ifficult s ituation o f t he p rincipality o f Smolensk s urrounded by p owerful a nd a ggressive n eighbors ( Bogoslayski, 1 906). B ut most l ikely t he s ense o f t he p icture i s d isclosed by t he c ryptogram written i mmediately a bove t he m iniature: " Lord, a id t hy s ervant L uke." F rom a nother i nscription i n t he s ame manuscript we l earn t hat Luke i s t he n ame o f t he b ook's s cribe ( Speranski, 1 929, p . 7 9). Apparently t he u nderlying s ense o f t he i nclusion o f a s mall a dditional b east b oils d own t o a n e xpression o f d angers t o o ne's own s elf . I n a ncient R ussian l i terature t he s cribe i s i ndeed s ometimes a ssociated w ith t he h are ( "glad i s t he h are u pon e scaping t he s nare; e ven s o t he s cribe u pon c onclud ing h is b ook" - K arski, 1 979 , p . 2 80). T his e xample d emonstrates a n i mmediately p ersonal way o f r egister ing z oomorphic i mages ( whether f antastic o r r eal). An i mportant p eculiarity o f t his p icture l ies i n t he f act t hat i t c an b e a ccepted a s a n a llegory u pon t he e vils o f t he a rtist's own d ay o nly i f o ne i gnores t he c aptions which a re p resent, naming t he b easts o ne by o ne a s " the R oman t sar," " the t sar o f B abylon," " the Macedonian t sar ," a nd " Antichrist." E vidently s uch d esignations d id n ot g et i n t he way o f t he c omposition's e voking a ssociations w ith t he e vils o f t he a rtist's own d ay. Two s triking e xamples o f i mmediately p ersonal p erception o f s ecular p ictures a re t o b e f ound i n t he material o f t he b irch-bark d ocuments o f t he X lVth c entury. T hese a re t he d rawings o f t he b oy Onfim, f rom whom a n umber o f c aptions h ave c ome d own t o u s, i n c onsiderable p art o f a n e ducational n ature, a long w ith a number o f d rawings. I n o ne i nstance Onf im writes h is name a longside a p icture o f a c onquering h orseman s tr iking a n o verthrown e nemy w ith a l ance, a nd i n a nother h e writes " I am a b east" a longside a p icture o f a n a nimal ( Artsikhovski a nd B orkovski, 1 963, p . 1 8, 2 1). T he i nd ispu table p ossibility o f t he e xistence o f a n i mmediate, p ersonal c oncept i n a ncient R ussian d epictions, d emonstrated by t he e xamples c ited, may b e r ealised i n g reater o r l ess d egree a s i t a pplies t o t he v arious g roups o f p roductions. I n t his c onnection t he v ery f unction . o f t he i mages o n c oins o bliges u s a p riori t o c lassify t hose i mages a s b eing among t hose c onveying t he s trongest m eaning. T he main p ath t oward d etermining t he c onceptual m eanings o f o ne g roup o f i mages o r a nother i s t hat o f b ringing t hem i nto a ssociation w ith s ome t ext, e pisode, i mage, o r g roup o f i mages, i n written o r o ral l i terature. T he m iniatures i n manuscripts a re o f g reat i mportance i n i dentifying t raits c ommon t o l i terary a nd t o r epresentational f igures. A s a r ule t hey o ccupy a c ompletely c lear p osition i n t he c ontexts o f t he manuscripts a nd t hey d o n ot p resent c omplications f or t he i nterpretation o f t heir c ontent, which i s d ef ined by t he a ccompanying t ext. 5 1
F or o ur s ubject, m iniatures o f t wo s orts a re t he m ost i mportant: 1 . M iniatures o f a n i l lustrative n ature, o n h istorical t hemes; a nd 2 . S ymbolic m iniatures. Among t he f irst s ort we s hould p oint o ut t he f o llcwing s everal s eries: t he m iniatures o f t he T ver R ussian c opy o f t he B yzantine c hronicle o f G eorgios Amartolos ( a manuscript o f t he v ery b eginning o f t he X IVth c entury w ith 1 27 manuscripts), a nd t he m iniatures o f t he R adziwill manuscript ( a manuscript o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury o n s ub jects f rom R ussian h istory, w ith more t han 6 00 m iniatures; t here i s a phototype f acsimile e dition o f 1 902: P late XXXI, 3 , 4 : P late XXXVIII, 2 4 ). F rom t he s econd h alf o f t he XVIth c entury t here i s t he c olossal i l lustrated h istorical e ncyclopedia o f a ncient R us, t he L itsevoi L etopisny S vod o r " Illustrated C hronicle D igest" c ontaining more t han 1 6,000 m iniatures, o f which more t han 1 0,000 a re o n s ubjects f rom Russian h istory ( Artsikhovski, 1 944, p . 4 1-44). T his e xceedingly r ich r ecord r ef lects a s tage i n Russian a rt a lready d ifferent f rom t he o ne we a re e xamining. S till, t he multiplicity a nd v ariety o f t he o b jects a nd t he c ompositions p resented i n t hese m iniatures c onvert t his r ecord i nto a v aluable p rop i n t he s tudy o f a ny p roblem a ssociated w ith t he i conography a nd s ubject matter o f a ncient R ussian a rt. A ssociated w ith t he m iniatures o f h istorical c ontent a re a lso c ertain s eries i l lustrating t he l ives o f t he R ussian s aints. T he most i mportant o f t hese i s t he s eries o f m iniatures i n t he s o-called S ilvester c opy o f t he L ives o f B oris a nd G leb, f rom t he X IVth c entury ( Ainalov, 1 910). H ere t he matter most i mportant f or o ur s ubject i s t he p ictures o f R ussian p rinces. T he most i mportant s ignif icance o f a ll t he m iniature s eries r eferred t o , r eflecting i n p articular p revailing i deas r egarding p rincely a uthority, f eudal p rowess a nd e tiquette, i s s omewhat r educed t hrough t he c ircumstance t hat t hey l i terally r eproduce c oncrete t exts a nd a re n ot o f t hat g eneralized c haracter i nherent i n i mages a nd r epresentations o f a n emblematic n ature ( Artsikhovski, 1 944; P odobedova, 1 965). Among t he m iniatures o f s ymbolic c haracter which d o n ot l i terally i l lustrate a t ext, we s hould p oint o ut t hose o rnamenting a n umber o f manuscripts o f t he P salter. T hese a re t he K iev P salter ( 1397; f acsimile e dition o f 1 979), t he U glich P salter o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury, a nd a s eries o f p salters f rom t he XVIth a nd XVIIth c enturies, t he s elections o f i l lustrations i n which a re e xtremely c lose t o t hose i n t he f irst t wo ( Rozov, 1 970). T he a vailability o f t his s eries i s e xceptionally i mportant s ince i t c onf irms t he e xistence o f a p ersistent t radition o f r epresentational s ymbolics o ver t he whole s pan o f t he X IVth-XVIIth c enturies. A n umber o f t he m iniatures i n t hese manuscripts g o b ack t o t he i l lustrations i n B yzantine p salters o f t he I Xth c entury. Two Russian c opies o f t he P hysio logos f rom t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury a re i mportant f or s tudy o f d epictions o f a nimals ( Luri, 1 976, A ). Among t he l i terary p roductions t hat may b e u sed f or i nterpretation o f t ypes
o n c oins t he a uthor u tilizes, 5 2
a bove a ll,
t hose which a re n ative R ussian r ather t han t ranslated, s ince o nly t he p resence o f a g iven i mage i n o riginal R ussian p roductions a ffords i nd isputable g rounds f or a sserting t hat t he i mage i n q uestion was t ruly a dopted w ithin R us. F irst a nd f oremost t hese a re t he Russian c hronicles - a n e xtremely r ich h istorical s ource c omprising many v arious materials o f t he most d iversified nature a nd o rigin ( Shakhmatov, 1 938; P riselkov, 1 940; L urie, 1 976 B ) . T he e mphatic a ttention o f a ll t he c hroniclers t o p o litical h istory, t o t he a uthority o f p rinces, a nd t o f eudal a nd warrior e thics u nveils b efore u s, t o a c onsiderable e xtent, a world o f t he s ame i deas a s t hose r ef lected i n c oin t ypes. S ide by s ide w ith t he c hronicles, a ll t he i maginable s orts ' o f panegyrics o n t he p rinces p erform a n i mportant f unction o n b ehalf o f s tudy o f a ncient Russian c onceptions o f a uthority. F or t he p eriod we a re s tudying t he most i mportant a re t he L ife o f A leksandr N evski (Man s ikka , 1 913) , t he L ife o f D ovmont o f P skov ( Chronicles o f P skov, v ol. I , 1 941, p . 3 , 4 ; v olume 2 , p .16-18), a nd t he L ife o f Dmitri D onskoi ( PSRL, v ol. V I, p . 1 04-111). A ll t hree p rinces a re e ulogized a s m ilitary c ommanders. W e a re a lso a cquainted w ith s uch a e ulogy o f P r ince B oris A leksandrovich o f T ver ( Likhachov, 1 908). The P rayer , M issive, o r Word o f Daniel I mpr isoned , ( Moleniye, P oslaniye, o r S lovo Daniila Z atochnika) , a p roduction o f t he p re-Mongol p eriod known t hrough many s ubsequent r enditions, i s o f g reat i mportance f or o ur u nderstanding o f a ncient R ussian i deology d uring t he p eriod u nder e xamination. This p roduction c onsists o f a r hetorical a ddress t o a p rince w ith a p etition f or p rotection. T he p ersonality a nd s ocial p osition o f t he a uthor a re n ot e ntirely c lear. T he "Word" i s s tuffed w ith B iblical p assages i n p opular l anguage a nd o ther l i terary r eminiscences; i t r ef lects w idely d isseminated i deas r egarding t he a uthority o f t he p rince ( Zarubin, 1 932) . The s ecular c haracter o f t he t ypes o f c oins c ontrasts w ith t he Chr istian, e cclesiastical c oloration o f t he g reater p art o f a ncient R ussian writing ( including t he c hronicles ). A pparently t hese t ypes were i n many f eatures i nspired by f olklore, t he p opular e pic w ith i ts g eneralized h eroic i mages. R ussian r ecord ing o f f olklore c ommences o nly w ith t he XVI I th c entury, a nd i t i s d iff icult t o j udge o f f olklore i n t he X lVthXVth c enturies. And y et i n i ndividual p roductions o f a ncient R ussian l i terature - o r r ather i n i ndividual passages t hereof o ne c an t rack d own f eatures c lose t o t he p easant f olklore o f l ater t imes. S uch e xamples a re a n umber o f p assages i n t he C hronicle o f t he B eginnings ( Nachal ' n ava L etopis) , many p assages i n t he L ay o f I gor's H ost, a nd p assages i n t he Chronicle o f I patii. F or t he p eriod t hat c oncerns u s t he e xamples a re p rimar ily p oetical d igressions i n t he Z adonshchina, a p roduction c elebrating t he o utstanding v ictory o f t he Russians o ver t he T atars o n t he f ield o f K ulikovo i n 1 380 ( Shambinago , 1 906; P ovesti, 1 959). T he t exts o f s ome o f t he f ortune-telling known
f rom
c opies
o f
t he
XVI I th-XVI II th
5 3
b ooks
c enturies
t hat a re
a re o f
c onsiderable i nterest f or u nderstanding o f t he world o f a ncient R ussian s ecular i mages ( Speranski, 1 899). A lthough t heir o riginal p rototypes a re a pparently o f n on-Russian o rigin t hey a re s tigmatized w ith v ivid t raits o f R ussif ication. T he t exts o f t hese b ooks e xhibit a rchaic f eatures; i n p articular, t he p ower o f t he k han o f t he G olden H orde i s p ortrayed a s a n e xisting r eality. I t i s n o l ess a v ital f actor t hat t he c ontent a nd t he v ery c lass o f s uch b ooks i s a rchaic i n e ssence. Many p assages i n t hese b ooks a re t ypologically c lose t o t he d epictions - t hey d escribe i n words c ertain s cenes a nd i mages t hat a re known t o u s a s most p opular o nes among t hose o f a ncient R usian s ecular a rt. T hese a re t he f igure o f t he r uler, t he f igure o f t he warrior m enacing w ith h is weapon, t he f igure o f t he h orseman w ith h is f alcon, t he f igures o f b easts a nd b irds o f p rey, s cenes o f r ending. T he most v ital t hing i n t his c onnection i s t hat e ach s uch f igure i n t he t exts o f t he b ooks i s s et s ide by s ide w ith t he values o f e very-day l ife a nd i s a ccompanied by a n emotionally s tirred c haracterization. T he c onsiderable p art p layed i n a ncient R ussian s ecular a rt a s a whole a nd p articularly among c oin t ypes b y f igures o f r eal a nd f antastic b easts o bliges o ne t o dwell w ith s pecial a ttention u pon t he l i terary p roductions, w idespread i n a ncient R ussia, i n which t he s ymbolism o f t hese f igures i s d ealt w ith ( Soboleva, 1 981, p . 1 63-165). T hese a re f irst o f a ll t he R ussian t ranslations o f t he G reek P hysiologos a nd i ts l ater r enderings. An a nalysis o f t hese l i terary p roductions i s c ontained i n A . K arneyev's s tudy o f 1 890. The c omplex l inkages b etween t he f igures o f written l i terature, i n p articular b etween t he P hysiologos a nd i ts a pocrypha o n t he o ne hand a nd R ussian f olklore o n t he o ther, were worked o ut i n V . Mochulski's b ook o f 1 887, i n which c onnection d etailed c onsideration was g iven t o a r ange o f t he most p opular f igures o f b easts. Valuable d ata o n t he matter a t i ssue a re a lso c ontained i n t he R ussian A zbukovniki - t he s pelling-books o r h ornbooks o f t he XVIthXVIIth c enturies. Monographs o f A .P. K arpov ( 1877) a nd L .S. K ovtyn ( 1963) a re d evoted t o t hese written s ources. T aking i nto a ccount t he C hristian n ature o f R ussian c ulture o f t he X lV th-XVth c enturies, a nd t he s aturation o f a ncient R ussian l i terature a nd r epresentational a rt w ith t he i nfluence o f Chr istian r eligious l i terature, o ne s hould c onstantly h ave t hat l i terature i n m ind, p articularly t he b ooks o f t he O ld a nd N ew T estament which were r egarded a s s acred. C onsidering t he p resence i n a ncient R us o f writing a nd t he l i turgy i n t he O ld S lavonic l anguage which was c omprehensible t o t he p opulation, o ne s hould r egard t he most p opular f igures i n t hese b ooks a s having b een u niversally f amiliar ( either d irectly f rom t he t ext o f t he B ible, o r f rom t he multitudinous r eferences t o t hem i n e veryday l i turgical a nd p rayer u sage). T he G ospels e njoyed s pecial a uthority i n R us, a s d id a lso t he P salter ( the p opularity o f t he l atter i s e xplained by i ts having b een u sed t o t each r eading). I n s tudying t he i nf luence o f t he B ible o n t he c ulture o f ancient R us o ne s hould b ear i n m ind t he s pecial f eatures o f i ts S lavonic t ranslation. T he h istory o f t his was s et f orth by I .E.
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Y evseyev ( 1916), a nd t he most r ecent s tudy o f t he question i s t o b e f ound i n M .I. R izhski's work o f 1 978. T he S lavonic t ranslation o f t he O ld T estament, i n c ontradistinction t o t he P rotestant t ranslation, d oes n ot f ollow t he Masoretic t ext o f t he ancient H ebrew, but c omes i n t he main d irectly f rom t he G reek t ranslation o f t he S eptuagint. The p eculiarities o f t hat t ranslation a re e xamined i n I . K orsunski's b ook o f 1 898. I n t his p resent b ook a ll quotations f rom t he B ible a nd r eferences t o i t a re undertaken i n c onformity w ith t he t ext o f t he S lavonic t ranslation o f t he B ible. A s guidance material o n i ndividual s pecial q uestions we h ave made u se o f " Materials f or a D ictionary o f t he Ancient R ussian Language" by 1 .1. S reznevski '( Volumes 1 -I11, 1 958), a nd a lso o f t he e tymological d ictionaries o f t he Russian l anguage by A .G. P reobrazhenski ( 1 a nd 2 , 1 959) and M . V asmer ( Volumes 1 -1V, 1 964-1973)-
5
CHAPTER THE
II
I MAGES U PON THE COINS
I n e xamining t he i mages u pon t he R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies I f o llow o n t he whole t he p r inciple o f F . F riedensburg ( 1913, 1 922) a nd t hus t ake t he e ntire material a s c onstituting a s ingle s eries which I s ubdivide i n t he f irst i nstance n either g eographically n or c hronologically, but i nstead b reak d own i nto i conographic g roups. I n c ontradistinction t o F riedensburg, t he f undamental p art o f whose work ( vol. I, 1 922) c onsists o f a s ubject a nalysis a rranged i n a lphabetical o rder o f n omenclature, I s ystematize t hem d ifferently. I h ave s ought t o p osition my s ubjects i n s uch a way t hat t he s equence o f my s tudy s hall c orrespond a s c losely a s p ossible t o i conographic p ropinquity, e xamining t he s ubjects a nd e lements o f c ompositions i n a n o rder r unning f rom t heir h igher a nd more c omplicated f orms t o t heir s impler a nd l ower o nes. I n d oing t his I e xamine i mages o f t he h uman f igure a s a s tart, t hen i mages o f a nimals a nd b irds ( both r eal a nd f anciful), t hen o ther o bjects a nd a ll s orts o f a bstract s ymbols. C ompositions i n which a n umber o f o bjects a re r epresented h ave b een i ncluded i n t hat o ne o f t he g roups i nto which t heir main e lement f alls. T he Human F igure I n e xamining i mages o f a human b eing o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies t he f irst i dea t hat a rises c oncerning t heir meaning i s t o t he e ffect t hat t hey r epresent t he r uler i n whose n ame t he c oining t akes p lace. T his t hesis i s i n f act n ot c ontradicted a s a r ule by t he c ontent o f t he i nscriptions o n t hese c oins, which i n t heir o verwhelm ing ma jority o ffer t he n ame a nd t he t i tle o f a R ussian p rince. I n t he e xposition t hat f o llows I s hall d raw a ttention t o t he p eculiarities o f i conography a nd a ttr ibutes t hat may c onfirm t he t hesis i n question, o r r un c ounter t o i t . T he a ctual i dea t hat t he p ersonage r epresented o n a c oin was t he r uler was well known i n Rus f rom t he p opular G ospel q uotation: " Show me t he t ribute money. A nd t hey b rought h im a p enny. And h e s aid u nto t hem, Whose i s t his i mage a nd s uperscription? T hey s ay unto h im, C aesar 's" ( Matthew, XXII, 2 0, 2 1; a lso Mark X II, 1 5, 1 6 a nd L uke, XX, 2 4). T he i mage o f t he r uler i s a lready p resent u pon t he v ery e arliest Russian c oins f rom t he t urn o f t he X th-XIth c enturies, where t he K ievan G rand P rince V ladimir i s r epresented u pon h is t hrone. T his quite i ndisputably t ranspires f rom t he c ontent o f t he i nscriptions o n t hese c oins, which c onstitute a n e xplanation o f t he i mage p ortrayed u pon t hem. D epictions o f p ersons may b e s ubdivided i nto t he f ollowing main g roups: i ndividual f igures, paired i mages, s cenes o f hunting a nd warfare, f igures s eated u pon t hrones, h orsemen, h eads. H alf-f igures o r p rotomes, o rdinar ily a ssociated t hrough t heir a ttr ibutes w ith o ne g roup o f c omplete f igures o r a nother , a re e xamined t ogether w ith t hese c omplete f igures. A s pecial
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g roup i s made u p o f i mages o f human h eads a ssociated w ith o ne a rm o r w ith t wo. I nsofar a s t hey h ave i n t he h ands a ttributes o f s ome s ort I t hrow t hem i n w ith t he f igures a nd n ot w ith t he s eparate h eads. T he S tanding F igure A c onsiderable p art o f t he d epictions o f h uman b eings r epresents f igures s tanding i n f acing p osition. B oth t he p ose a nd t he a ttr ibutes o f many among t hem f ully c orrespond w ith p ictures o f m ilitary s aints ( a s word o r a l ance i n o ne hand, a s hield i n t he o ther). T here i s n o n imbus o n a ny s uch i mage a ppearing o n a c oin, but t his may b e a scribed t o t he d ifficulty o f e xecuting s uch s mall d etails. T he p roblem a s t o who i s p ortrayed by t he warriors r epresented o n t he c oins i s a v ery i mportant o ne. G iven t hat m ilitary s aints a re r epresented o n a c onsiderable part o f t he c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies, t his may b e r egarded a s a f eature o f b orrowing f rom t he e arlier l ead s eals, u pon which s uch i mages a re u sual. A t t he s ame t ime t here a rises a q uestion a s t o whether t he f igure o f a m ilitary s aint i s n ot t he underlying o ne f or t he c omposing o f a c onsiderable s eries o f c oin t ypes o f t he X IVth-XVIIth c enturies. A s t he h orseman o n c oins o f t he XVIth-XVIIth c enturies i s a u niform t ype c oming i n t o t ake t he p lace o f t he multiplicity o f c oin t ypes i n t he X IVth-XVth c enturies, t his may b e r egarded a s having a g reater o r l ess c onnection w ith t he i mage o f a m ilitary s aint, i t i s o bvious a g reat many matters h aving t o d o w ith a n o verall e valuation o f t he c ontent o f t he i mages o n t hese c oins d epends o n t he way o ne t reats a ll t he i mages o f warriors o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies. T o b egin w ith, l et u s a nalyze s ome a rguments i n f avor o f a n i nf luence o f p ictures o f m ilitary s aints u pon t he i mages o n c oins. F irst o f a ll, a r ange o f p r inces o n whose c oins warriors a re r epresented f acing had a s t heir p atron s aints e ither warriors o r e lse o ther s aints ( princes) t hat m ight b e r epresented t hrough f igures o f warriors. T hese were I van M ikhailovich o f T ver ( his p atron b eing J ohn t he Warrior - I van V om ) a nd B oris A leksandrovich o f T ver ( his p atron P rince B oris). Particularly t elling i n t his s ense i s a c oin o f B oris A leksandrovich o f T ver w ith a d epiction o f t wo f acing f igures o f warriors b earing l ances a nd s hields ( Plate V . 5 ). Apparently t heir b eing r epresented a s a pair i s e voked b y t he f act t hat B oris a nd G leb were u sually r evered t ogether; numerous i mages a re known s howing t hese t wo s aints t ogether, a s p atrons t o p ersons who b ore o ne n ame o r t he o ther ( Yanin, 1 970, v ol. I , p late 1 4, 1 56; p late 1 5, 1 67; p late 3 1, 3 54). This t reatment i s s omewhat n egated by t he p resence o f l ances i n t he hands o f t he s aints i nstead o f s words, which a re u sual i n i mages o f t hese s aints when t hey a re r epresented a s b eing o n f oot. B ut t he s word was n ot a n e xclusive a ttribute w ith t hese s aints. When t hey a re s hown mounted i t i s n ot r are f or t hem t o h old l ances i n t heir hands ( Antonova a nd Mneva, 1 9634, p late 8 8, 1 63). We o ught t o r emark t hat among t he c oins o f B or is
A leksandrovich o f T ver e xamples t hat
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s how o nly a s ingle
warr ior a re much t he more f requently e ncountered. Two f igures w ith l ances i n t heir h ands a re a lso s hown o n c oins o f I van B or isovich o f K ashin ( Plate V .6). T he l anceh old ing hands o f t he t wo f igures a re s ymmetr ically e xtended t oward e ach o ther. T he i mage o f a q uadruped a nimal i s p ositioned a t t he b o ttom. T he c omposition d oes n ot f ind a nalogies i n t he a ncient R ussian d epictions o f c ombat w ith b easts. B oth f igures s tand i n t riumphant f rontal p oses a nd h old t heir l ances v ertical. Apparently t he i mage o f t he b east i s n ot c onnected w ith t he h uman f igures t hrough a ny unity o f a ction, a nd i t may b e r egarded a s a p icture o f a b east o f p rey e mbodying t he i dea o f t he m ilitary p rowess o f t hose f igures. T he i ndependent n ature o f t he r epresentation o f t he b east may b e c onfirmed by t he f act t hat i t i s r epresented a s econd t ime, i n t he s ame p ose, o n t he o ther s ide o f t he c oin, but n ow w ithout t he h uman f igures. T he p resence o f t he t wo f igures o n t he c oin u nder e xamination i s p erhaps a lso u nder t he s pell o f f igures o f t he s ainted p rinces B or is a nd G leb, a nd i n t hat e vent t he i mage would r ef lect t he p atronymic o f P rince I van B or isovich o f K ashin. B ut t he whole c omposition i s d istinguished f rom t he i conography o f t he s ainted p rinces t hrough t he p resence o f t he a nimal a nd t he vagueness o f t he c ontext i n which i t i s r epresented. T he p eculiarities o f t he i conography o f c ertain f acing f igures o f warriors o n c oins r un s omewhat c ounter t o t he t hought o f t heir r epresenting s aints. S uch a re i n p articular t he i ndividualities o f t he p oses o f many among t hem. I n a ncient R ussian i kons t he s aints a re u sually r epresented i n s olemn monumental p oses d evoid o f d ynamic motion. On t he c oins o f Tver a nd i ts a ppanages we s ee p oses s uch a s o ne w ith a s word, b lade d ownward, i n a r aised hand ( Plate V , 7 , 8 ); sword w ith p oint r aised ( Plate V , 9 , 1 0; s word s wept back a bove h ead ( Plate V , 1). A ll o f t hese p eculiarities a re n onc haracteristic o f t he i conography o f m ilitary s aints ( in t he i conography o f mounted m ilitary s aints o ne c an s ee g reat d ynamic a ctivity a nd variety o f p oses). S ome f urther i mages o f t he s ame p rince o n c oins ( Plate V , 1 2), a nd o f Vasilii Tyomny t oo ( Plate V , 1 3, 1 4) s how t he f acing f igure o f a warrior w ith a b ow i n h is h and. T his weapon s ometimes a ppears o n p ictures o f m ilitary s aints, but i t i s u sually r epresented i n i ts c ase. I n a ncient R ussian a rt m ilitary s aints w ith b ow i n hand a re a g reat r arity ( possibly o n a ccount o f t he p opular p ictures o f t he a rcher-demon a nd h is a rrows i n e cclesiastical l i terature). T he i mages most c losely p arallelling t he i conography o f m ilitary s aints a re t o b e f ound o n t he c oins o f I van M ikhailovich o f Tver ( Plate V , 1 , 2 ). B ut o n o ther c oins o f t he s ame p rince t here a re, a long w ith t hese, i mages o f warriors which c an b y n o means b e t hought s aints. T hese a re a r unning f igure s upporting i tself w ith a l ance a nd b randishing a s word ( Plate V , 1 6); t he h alf-length f igure o f a warrior s houldering a s word ( an i conographic f eature which i s e ncountered among m ilitary s aints) w ith t he s cabbard i n h is o ther r aised h and ( but t his f eature i s n ot c haracteristic f or
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d epictions o f m ilitary s aints) , a nd f inally wear ing e xaggeratedly l ong moustaches ( Plate V , 1 5) On a n a nonymous c oin o f t he t ime o f I van II o r o f h is s on Vasi lii t here i s p resented i n a f rontal p ose what i s a pparently n ot a m ilitary s aint. H e w ears a c rown, s uch a s i s n ot f ound o n i mages o f m ilitary s aints, a nd h olds a s word w ith b lade p ointing u pward, which i s n ot c haracteristic f or e cclesiastical i conography; i n h is l ef t h and a c urved o bject t he u se o f which i s u ncertain. W e may n ote t hat t he i mage was p erhaps c reated b y a n on-Russian moneyer - t he l ong i nscription which s urrounds i t i s i l legible ( Plate V , 1 7, 1 8). O n S uzdal c oins w ithout t he n ame o f a p r ince a n i mage o f t he s tanding f igure o f a warrior r epresents h im i n t hree-quarter v iew, s omething which i s n on-characteristic f or m ilitary s aints ( Plate V , 1 9, 2 0). T he i mage o f a warrior o n c oins o f B oris A leksandrovich c losely r eminds o ne o f t he i mage o n a b one s eal-stamp o f I van K orova which was f ound i n XVth c entury Moscow ( Rabinovich 1 964 , p . 1 22, f ig. 5 9 , 4 ; P late XXVI I. 2 2) . H e has n o n imbus; t he s word i n h is h and i s h eld w ith t he b lade p ointing u pward. One c annot d eny t he p ossibility t hat t he i mage i s a ssociated w ith a m ilitary s aint - t he n ame I van makes t his p robable. A f urther i mage o f a f acing f igure o f a warrior i s f ound u pon a c arved wooden s poon o f t he b eginning o f t he X IVth c entury t hat was f ound a t N ovgorod ( Kolchin, 1 971 p late 4 6; P late XXXVI II. 4 ). An i nscription o n t he s poon g ives t he n ame o f t he owner, I van Varfo lomeyevich. I n p rinciple t he p ose o f t he f igure admits o f i ts b eing a m ilitary s aint - t he s word i s s houldered, t he o ther h and h olds i n p lace a s hield s tand ing u pon t he g round. B ut i n t his c ase t he warrior l acks a n imbus, a nd h ere t his c annot b e a scribed t o a ny s uch " technical" c ause a s t he s ize o f t he f igure, f or i n t he g iven i nstance b oth t he h eight o f t he f igure a nd t he d etailed n ature o f i ts e xecution made e ntirely p ossible t he i ntroduction o f a n imbus. T his t ime, h owever, t he r epresentation o f a n imbus m ight h ave b een l ef t o ut b ecause t he warrior f igure o rnaments a n a rticle o f h ousehold u se. I mages o f f acing warriors a re a lso known o n N ovgorod l ead s eals a s emblems o f o ne o f t he wards ( Yanin, 1 970, v ol. I, p . 1 41-144). Among t he ward emblems b oth s ecular s ubjects (a n a nimal, a n e agle) a nd r eligious o nes ( Christ u pon a t hrone, a h orseman s ometimes r epresented w ith n imbus) a ppear. Where s hould o ne p ut t he emblem s howing a warrior? A pparently t he N ovgorod s eal warrior a ppearing i n t he c apacity o f t he e mblem o f a ward i s a s ecular p ersonage. This i s e videnced b y t he s trange h eaddress o f s ome warriors ( a p ronged c rown(?) - Y anin, 1 970 , v ol. I, p late 3 6, 7 09-712) a nd by t he a bsence o f a n imbus, which i s u sually t o b e s een o n l ead s eals i n t he c ases where s aints a re r epresented. I n c onnection w ith t he N ovgorod ward emblems a nd w ith t he i mages o n c oins o f T ver o ne s hould n ote t hat t he c oincidences b etween t hem a re n ot l imited t o f acing f igures o f warriors. On c oins o f t his s ame P rince B or is A leksandrovich o f T ver t here a re o ffered a lmost a ll t he i mages k nown a s b eing
5 9
ward emblems o f N ovgorod - i n a ddition t o t he f igures we h ave m entioned, t hese a re a h orseman, a b ird, a nd a n a nimal. A t f irst g lance t he c oincidence s eems d ecidedly s ignif icant, b ut a ctually b oth i n t he o ne c ase a nd i n t he o ther we h ave n othing more t han a s tandard s election o f t he most p opular a nd g enerally c omprehended f eudal e mblems. S o i f t he e cclesiastical i mage o f t he m ilitary s aint d id i n f act i nf luence t he i mages o f f acing f igures o n c oins, i t s i conography a nd a cord ingly i ts i mport h ad b ecome s ubject t o d egradation. D irect i nf luence o f e cclesiastical i conography c an b e a ssumed o nly f or t he o pening p eriod o f t he T ver m intage. On t he whole, h owever, o ne c annot s peak o f t he s aintly p icture's h aving b een t he p oint o f o rigin f rom which c oin t ypes b earing f igures o f warriors w ere d isseminated - t he f act o f t he matter i s t hat t he e arliest warrior f igures o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c entur ies ( on c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi a nd h is c ontemporaries) a re d ifferentiated i n p r inciple f rom t he i conography o f s aints ( prof ile i mages u sually n ot e ncountered i n i mages o f s aints o n f oot, a nd i mages h aving c ertain a ttr ibutes n ot c haracteristic f or s aints). While we a re e xamining t he i mages o f f acing warriors a nd a long w ith t hem a ll t he o ther r epresentations o f warriors a foot a nd o n h orseback o n a ncient R ussian c oins we s hould s ay a f ew words a bout t hat most i mportant a ttribute o f t heirs, t he s word. I n t he m iniatures o f t he R adziwill c hronicle o f t he XVth c entury, i n t his c ase r eflecting a t radition which i s unquestionably e arlier, t he s word makes i ts a ppearance a s t he most i mportant s ymbol o f p rincely a uthority ( Artsikhovski, 1 944, p . 2 0, 3 1-35). T he c onversion o f t he s word i nto t he m ost c onsiderable r egale o f t he R ussian p rinces r eceived i deological r einforcement f rom t he t ext o f H oly Writ. I n t he e pistle o f t he a postle Paul t o t he R omans we r ead: " For r ulers a re n ot a t error t o g ood works, but t o t he e vil.... F or h e i s t he m inister o f G od t o t hee f or t hy g ood. B ut i f t hou d o t hat which i s e vil, b e a fraid; f or h e b eareth n ot t he s word i n vain; f or h e i s t he m inister o f G od, a r evenger t o e xecute wrath u pon h im t hat d oeth e vil." ( Chapter X III, 3 , 4 ; a s we h ave a lready s aid, t he G reek a rchon was c onsistently t ranslated a s knyaz ', p rince, i n R us). This p assage o f H oly Writ i s quoted more t han o nce i n t he R ussian c hronicles, o rdinarily i n c onnection w ith p raise f or o ne p r ince o r a nother ( see f or e xample P SRL, v ol. I , p . 4 22 , 4 36). A rtsikhovski h as b rought t o l ight a ncient R ussian r epresentations o f i nvestiture i n which t he t ransfer o f p ower i s s ymbolized b y t he h anding o ver o f a s word ( 1944, p . 3 4 , 3 5 ; P late XXXVI I. 2 ). T he e pisode o f V ladimir's s ending P r ince B oris a gainst t he P echenegs i s i l lustrated w ith j ust s uch a s cene ( i .e., w ith t he c onferring u pon h im o f authority o ver h is m ilitary c ompany), f rom t he X lVth c entury o nward ( Antonova a nd Mneva, v ol, I , 1 963, p late 15). F or 1 460 t he c hronicles n ote t he c eremony o f t he i nstallation o f a p r ince a t P skov, a ccompanied w ith t he d elivery o f a s word t o h im. " They s eated h im u pon t he t hrone i n t he Church o f t he T r inity a nd t hey p laced i n h is hands t he s word o f S t D ovmont" ( PSRL, v ol. X II, p . 1 12). Apparently 6 0
s uch a c eremony o f s eating u pon a t hrone, a ccompanied w ith t he p resenting o f a s word, e xisted i n t he o ther R ussian l ands a s well; t he p ictures o f i nvestiture m entioned a bove o ffer i ndirect e vidence o f t his. T he s cene o f a ccession t o t he t hrone i s t wice i l lustrated i n t he R adziwill c hronicle t hrough a n i mage o f a p r ince s i tting u pon a t hrone w ith a s word, b lade u pward i n h is h and ( sheet 2 00 r ecto, s heet 2 21). T he c ult o f t he s word a s a n h eir loom, m entioned i n t he a bove q uotation, h ad l ong b een k nown i n R us. I n a d escr iption o f e vents o f t he X IIth c entury t here i s mention o f t he s word o f S aint B oris ( killed i n 115 - P SRL, v ol. I , p . 3 69) a s b eing p reserved i n t he hands o f P r ince A ndrei B ogolyubski o f V ladimir. A long w ith t his s word which h as n ot b een p reserved, i n Rus ( at P skov) t he s words o f V sevolodGavriil ( died 138) a nd o f ' Dovmont ( died 1 299), which h ave b een p reserved t o t he p resent d ay, were o bjects o f v eneration ( Kirpichnikov, 1 976, p . 2 3-25, p late V I, V III, I X). A c haracter istic f ormula e xpressing o beisance t o t he p rince was e xpressed t hus i n t he N ovgorod c hronicle under t he y ear 1 234: " thy s word - o ur h eads" ( NPL, p . 6 4). T he f act t hat i t i s s traight s words a nd n ot c urving s abers t hat a ppear a s t he w eapons o f f acing warriors o n ancient Russian c oins i s a n a rchaic f eature f or t he X lVth-XVth c enturies, a nd i t s hows t hat among t he o ther g roups o f i mages o f warrriors u pon a ncient R ussian c oins t his i s p recisely t he o ne which h as t he most r esemblance t o t he i conography o f m ilitary s aints. P rof ile d epictions o f warriors a lready e xist u pon t he e ar liest R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies. T hese a re i mages w ith s aber ( Plate V , 2 1-22), b ow ( Plate V , 2 3-25) a nd battleaxe ( Plate V I. 1 -4). N one o f t hese a ttributes i s a ppropriate t o f igures o f m ilitary s aints. W e h ave a lready s poken o f t he b ow. T he battleaxe i s n ever e ncountered a t a ll i n c hurch i conography. Apparently i t was c onsidered a n " ignoble" p lebeian weapon, e ven t hough s ometimes t he battleaxe i s mentioned i n a c hronicle a s a p r ince's weapon, ( PSRL, v ol. I , p . 1 81, 4 98). I n t he C hronicle o f t he B eginnings t he s aber, a s t he weapon o f t he n omads, i s c ontrasted w ith t he s word, t he weapon o f t he R ussians ( PSRL, v ol. I , p . 1 7, 6 7). I t i s p recisely t he s word a nd n ot t he s aber t hat i s c haracteristic f or R ussian d epictions o f m ilitary s aints ( such s aints a foot , t he i conography f or whom i s t he more c onservative, a re s hown e xclusively w ith s traight s words). S abers a re f ound i n t he hands o f m ounted m ilitary s aints, but a s e xceptions. I n m iniatures o f t he XVth c entury t he s word i s r epresented, a s we have a lready s aid, a s t he most i mportant s ymbol o f p rincely a uthority. Y et i n t he r eal l ife o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies i n R us t he s word t o a c onsiderable e xtent y ields p lace t o t he s aber. T he o rientalization o f Russian a rmament h ad a lready c ommenced i n t he p re-Mongol p eriod. I n 1 252 t here i s mention i n a c hronicle o f t he r ich " Tartar" a rmament o f t he f orce o f a p rince o f Galich ( PSRL, v ol, p . 8 14). A lthough t he s traight s word r emained a m ost i mportant l i terary a nd i conographic s ymbol o f p rincely a uthority, t he s aber a pparently r eplaced i t i n t he
6 1
r eal l ife o f t he p r inces. T his i s e videnced p articularly b y t he t estmaments o f t he Muscovite p rinces o f t he X IVth c entury, i n which s traight s words a re n ot m entioned among t he c hattels, b ut o n t he o ther h and a " golden s aber" i s l isted ( DDG, p . 1 6, 1 8, 2 5). I n t he XVIth c entury u se i ndifferently o f a s word o r o f a s aber i s n oted i n d escribing t he marriage c eremony ( DRV, v ol. X III, p . 1-12), a nd we a re a cquainted w ith i nd ications i n l i terary s or a pparently r eplaced i t i n t he r eal l ife o f t he p r inces. T his i s e videnced p articularly b y t he t estmaments o f t he Muscovite p rinces o f t he X IVth c entury, i n which s traight s words a re n ot m entioned among t he c hattels, but o n t he o ther h and u rces o f t hat t ime which m ention t he s aber a s a t ypically R ussian weapon. " To t his d ay t he Russian s aber has n ot b een b looded i n t hose l airs o f t he u ngodly." ( PSRL, v ol. X III, p . 6 19). O n t erritor ial emblems o f t he X VIth c entury a c urved s aber i s s hown; a s N .A. S oboleva h as c onvincingly d emonstrated, i ts s ymbo lic s ystem was i dentical w ith t hat o f t he s traight sword. I n material e ntered i n a c hronicle f or t he y ear 1 535 t here i s mention o f n ew c oins i ssued a t t he b eginning o f t he r eign o f I van G rozny. I n t his c onnection i s i t i ndicated t hat o n t he c oins o f h is p redecessor Vasi lii II t here h ad b een r epresented " the g rand p rince upon a h orse, h olding i n h is h and a s word" ( PSRL, v ol, p . 2 96). And y et o n a ll t he c oins o f t hat g rand p rince t he weapon i n t he h ands o f t he h orseman i s r epresented w ith a c urving b lade ( Oreshnikov, 1 896 , p late X I, 5 20-526; P late X I, 1 9). O bviously i n t he e yes o f t he c hronicler o f t he XVIth c cntury a d ifference b etween s word a nd s aber was a l together n onexistent i n t his c ontext. When o ne c ompares d ata o n t he h istory o f a rms w ith t he a ncient R ussian i conographic material o ne c an s ee t hat i n t he f irst p lace r epresentational a rt l ags b ehind r eal l ife, a nd i n t he s econd p lace t he i conography o f e cclesiastical i mages i s d istinguished b y g reater c onservatism t han t hat i n t he i conography o f s ecular i mages. T hese p henomena a re f amiliar e ven w ithout t he e xample we c ited, which i s v aluable a s a v ivid i l lustration t hereof . An i mportant p eculiarity o f p art o f t he p rof ile f igures u nder e xamination, i ncluding t he e arliest o f t hem, i s e mphatically l ong h air ( Plate V , 2 1-23; P late V I, 3 , 5 , 6 , 1 8). T his i s a lso a c haracteristic f eature f or many o ther p ersonages o n ancient Russian c oins, p redominantly o f t he e nd o f t he X IVth c entury a nd t he f irst q uarter o f t he XVth ( cf . a lso P late V I, 2 -22; P late V II, 1 -10, 1 3-15 ; P late X II, 3 , 4 , 6 ; P late X III, 1 -4 ; P late X IV, 7 , 1 3; P late XV, 2 4, 2 5). T hese w ill s carcely b e t he l ong l ocks o f t he n omads, but t he whole f igure p resents a T atar r uler ( a k han). A lmost a ll s uch i mages a re a ccompanied b y i nscr iptions g iving t he n ame a nd t i tle o f a R ussian p rince, p resent o n t he s ame s ide a s t he i mage. I t i s p ossible t hat t he l ength o f t he hair has b een a ffected b y t he B iblical t exts o n S amson ( Judges, XVI, 1 7 a nd 1 9). L ong h air i s n ot c haracter istic f or d epictions o f ancient Russian p r inces, but i t i s e ncountered u pon t hem - i n p articular, a lmost a ll t he r epresentations o f S t G leb a re o f t his s ort. P ossibly o n t he 6 2
e arliest c oins o f t he X IV-XVth c enturies R ussian p r inces, a s v assals o f t he k han, c ould o ften e nough n ot make u p t heir m inds t o r epresent t hemselves w ith p rincely c aps o r c rowns a nd i nstead r ef lected t he i dea o f a uthority a nd eminence b y m eans o f l ong hair. Y et o ne s hould p oint o ut t hat s uch a c oiffure was r epresented o n R ussian c oins n ot o nly i n c onnection w ith f igures t hat m ight b e i dentif ied w ith t he Russian p r inces i n whose n ame t he c oinage was c arried o ut, but a lso o n t he s evered h eads o f t heir o verthrown e nemies ( see P late V II, 3 4 ; P late X III, 1 ). I n o ne c ase a p rof ile i mage o n a c oin o f Andrei Dmitrievich o f Mozhaisk p erhaps r epresents a Musulman r uler ( Plate I V 9 , r everse). H e h olds b efore h im w ith h is t wo h ands a s aber a nd a c up o r g oblet. T he m eaning o f t hese t wo a ttributes when t ogether w ill b e e xamined b elow i n o ur d escription o f i mages o f r ulers u pon t he t hrone. T he h eaddress o f t he p ersonage i n q uestion r ecalls a t urban w ith d angling t opknot. Above t he g oblet a s tar i s s hown. T his i mage a ppears o n t he s ame s ide o f t he c oin a s t he o ne b ear ing a n i mitation o f a c ircular A rabic i nscription; t he i nscription o n t he o ther s ide i s a Russian o ne, a nd i t i ncludes t he name a nd t i tle o f a R ussian p rince, who i s d epicted t here i n t he f orm o f a h orseman. A c onsiderable s eries o f c oins s hows a f igure h olding a c utting weapon i n e ach hand - i n o ne hand a s aber ( more r arely a s word), i n t he o ther a n a xe ( Plate V I, 5 -23). S uch i mages a re e ncountered e ven o n t he e arliest Russian c oins, i n p articular o n t hose o f Dmitri D onskoi a nd h is s uccessor Vasilii Dmitrievich. Obviously d ecipher ing t his i mage i s a d ecidedly v ital matter . On s ome c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich b earing t his i mage t here s a c lear i nscription " Rarai" ( Plate V I, 8 -12), which h as t hus f ar n ot r eceived a c onvincing i nterpretation. O reshnikov ( 1896, p . 9 8) a ssociates h imself w ith a s uggestion o f A .S. Uvarov l inking t his i nscription w ith mention o f a d ivinity " Rarakh" o r " Rarashek," who m ight i n f act b e t he g od o f wealth, i n written s ources o f t he western S lays. A cknowledging t he e xceptional a uthority o f O reshnikov i n a ll matters o f ancient Russian n umismatics, I c annot h owever r egard t hat v ersion a s h aving a ny f oundation i n t he l east s er ious. I n t he f irst p lace t here a re n o i ndications, whether i n written o r i n f olklore s ources, t o t he e ffect t hat a ny d ivinity w ith s uch a name o r e ven a r emotely s imilar o ne was known t o t he e astern S lays. I t i s a lso d iff icult t o s uppose t hat a Russian c oin m ight b ear a n i mage o f a h eathen d eity. E ven i f t he C hristian e lement i n t he make-up o f a ncient Russian c oins was o f l i ttle i mportance, t hat s till d oes n ot m ean t hat i mages o f a n on-Orthodox c haracter, a ssociated w ith a nother r eligion , c ould b e a dmitted u pon t hem. Among t he A rabic i nscriptions o n R ussian c oins o ne e ncounters Musulman r e ligious t exts, but t hese were unquestuionably unread by t he major p art o f t he R ussian p opulation. F yodorov-Davydov r egards i t a s p ossible t o s ee i n t he i nscription " Rarai" a c ryptogram written i n a w idely p revailing Russian c ipher b ased u pon c onsistent a l teration o f
6 3
c onsonants, a nd h e s uggests t hat i t b e r ead " Mamai." I n h is o pinion t he p resence o f s uch a c ryptogram was a way o f e xpressing d ependence o n t he G olden H orde ( Fyodorov-Davydov, 1 981, p . 6 4, 6 5.) E ven t hough t he p ossibility, a s a matter o f p r inciple, o f o ur r ead ing t he i nscr iption i n s uch a way s hould n ot g ive r ise t o d oubts, t he t reatment o f i t s till s eems i mplausible. F irst o f a ll, i f o ne a ccepts F yodorov-Davydov's r endering we would h ave b efore u s t he s ole c ase o f a n a ppearance o f t he name o f a T atar r uler i n Cyrillic l e tters. T he c laims o f t he G o lden H orde t o h aving i ts a uthority r ecognised c ould s carcely b e r eflected b y m eans o f t he p lacement u pon a c oin o f t he n ame o f a r uler l ong s ince d ead, a nd o ne who i n a ddition h ad n o t b een a l awful b earer o f t he t i tle k han. I nasmuch a s o n t he c oin t hat n ame i s e nciphered a nd would o bviously h ave b een a bsolutely i ncomprehensible t o t he T atars, i ts p resence o n t he c oin c ould a gain n ot b e a manifestation o f f ealty t oward t he H orde. I f , h owever , t he purpose i n p lacing s uch a n i nscription c onsisted i n e xpressing f or a R ussian p opulation t he i dea o f d ependence o n t he T atars, t hat a im m ight more a ptly h ave b een e xpresed e ither by m eans o f a n on-enciphered Russian i nscription o r b y means o f a n A rabic i nscription ( whether r ead o r u nread). A ll o f t hese d ifficulties a r ising u pon e xamination o f F yodorov-Davydov's s uggestion make i t i mplausible. W ith r egard t o t he i nscription " Rarai" o ne c an but r eturn, a s t o a p ossible variant u pon i ts i nterpretation, t o t he l ong s ince e nunciated s uggestion t hat t his i s t he n ame o r n ickname o f a m int-master o r a l essor ; i n t hat e vent t his i s o ne o f t he e arliest c ases o f t he a ppearance o f s uch a n ame o n t he R ussian c oins, o f a n A rabic i nscr iption ( whether r ead o r unread). A ll o f t hese d iff iculties a rising u pon e xamination o f F yodorovDavydov's s uggestion make i t i mplausible . W ith r egard t o t he i nscription " Rarai" o ne c an but r eturn, a s t o a p ossible I n d elving i nto t he q uestion o f t he c onceptual s ignif icance o f t he f igure w ith s word a nd a xe i n i t s hands o ne s hould a nalyze s ome s upplementary e lements o f i conography t hat make t heir a ppearance i n a p art o f t hese d epictions. On s ome c oins o f Vasilii T yomny, a nd a lso o f h is c ontemporary a nd r ival Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka, t here i s r epresented o n t he back o f t he f igure we a re c onsidering a n o bject which i s e vidently a h uman hand w ith t he i ndex f inger e xtended ( Plate V II, 1 -2). S ome f urther s imilar f igures have b efore t hem a nother e lement, a human h ead ( Plate V II, 3 -6). I n t he o pinion o f A .K. Markov ( 1910) s uch i mages r eflect t he i dea o f t he p unishment o f c oin c ounterfeiters, whose hands a nd h eads m ight b e c ut o ff . E ven t hough o ne may s uggest a nother e xplanation f or t he i mage w ith t he s evered hand, namely a s imple r ef lection o f t he i dea o f v ictory i n battle, t he e xistence o f i mages w ith a s evered h and d oes i ndeed w ith t he greatest l ikelihood p oint p recisely t oward t he i dea o f punishment. W e h ave a lready s aid t hat i t i s j ust t his c utting o ff o f hands t hat i s m entioned among t he punishments c ited i n c hronicle d ata f or t he y ear 1 533 a s b eing a punishment f or c ounterfeiting a nd c lipping c oins, a nd t hat
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among t he i nscr iptions o n a ncient R ussian c oins t here a re o nes c ontaining t hreats a ddressed t o c ounterfeiters. O n t his a ccount Markov's t heory t hat t he i mages o f a n a rmed f igure t ogether w ith a s evered h ead o r h and h ave s uch a s ignif icance s tr ikes o ne a s p lausible e nough. I f o ne a ccepts t hat t hesis, t hen t he p resence o f a weapon i n e ach h and o f t he f igure b ecomes c omprehensible. F or a ncient Russian i mages o f warriors t aken a s a whole, o nes s howing a c utting weapon i n e ach hand a re n ot c haracter istic. R are e xamples o f p ersonages w ith o ffensive w eapons i n b oth h ands may b e s een o n wax s eals o f t he X VIIth c entury - a c entaur w ith t wo s abers ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late X I, 7 1), a pparently h aving s ome a ssociat ion w ith a f oreign m ilitary man, ' a nd a h orseman w ith t wo s pears ( ibid. p late XVII, 2 57). T he s chool o f f encing w ith t wo s words o r s abers was n ot w idespread i n R us; a s choo l o f f encing w ith t wo weapons o f s uch d isparate f orms a s a s word ( or s aber) a nd a n a xe i s i mprobable o n t he f ace o f i t . A f ighting weapon i n e ach h and i s f ound o n a ncient R ussian d epictions o f warriors o nly i n a d ifferent c ontext - t he warrior h olds a s word i n o ne h and, a nd w ith t he o ther h e s upports h imse lf a gainst h is l ance. A side f rom t he i mages o n c oins, I am a cquainted w ith o ny a s ingle e xample o f t he d epiction o f a warr ior h olding i n h is h ands a s word a nd a n a xe. T his i s a n i nitial i n t he t eratological s tyle f rom a R yazan manuscript o f t he XVIth c entury ( Stasov, 1 887, p late LXXV, 2 ; P late XXXIV, 5 ) T his e xample p rovides n o basis f or c onsider ing s uch i conography t o h ave b een p opular b eyond t he b ounds o f t he n umicmatic f ield, but i t o nce more b ears t estimony t o t he e ffect t hat t he t hematic matter f or i mages o n c oins, a nd f or s ecular s ub jects o n o ther p roductions o f ancient Russian a rt, i ncluding t hose i n t erato logical o rnament, i n many c ases e choed b ack a nd f orth, e ven when r are a nd s pecif ic s ub jects w ere i nvolved. T he f act t hat t he f igure w ith t he s aber ( sword) a nd a xe i n i ts h ands i s a ctually known i n ancient R us o nly i n t he n umismatic material ( but i s e ncountered f requently e nough i n t hat material), i s i n i ts t urn a n a rgument i n f avor o f t his i mage's b eing a ssociated i n i ts s ignif icance w ith t he s pecific f unction o f t he c oin o r w ith t he j uridical c onsideration b ear ing u pon i ts s triking a nd c irculation. I n o ther words, t his i s o ne more a rgument i n f avour o f Markov's t hesis c oncerning a n arrowly s pecialized p urpose o f t hese i mages o n c oins, i n which h e p erceives a s cene o f punishment. I n t he p resent i nstance I would m erely e xtend t his g roup, r eferring t o i t a ll i mages o f a f igure w ith a n a xe. I n a ddition t o t he i mages w ith s word a nd a xe i n t he p resence o f a s evered h ead t here a re a lso o nes which s how b oth t he s evered h ead a nd a f igure w ith a n a xe, but t he s word o r s aber i s m issing ( Plate V II, 7 -14). T hese i mages b ear w itness t o t he f act t hat o f t he t wo s orts o f weapons i n t he hands o f t he f igure b eing c onsidered, i t i s p reponderantly t he a xe t hat i s a ssociated w ith t he f unction o f punishment. One s hould a ssume t hat t he p resence o f t he t wo s orts o f weapons i n t he h ands o f t hese f igures i s n ot a r ealistic t rait, but a s ymbo lic o ne, a nd t hat i t r eflects t he i dea o f t wo f unctions o f
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a uthority - t he m ilitary d efensive o ne, a nd t he j uridical, c hastising o ne. T he f ollowing c onsiderations t estify i n f avor o f t he i dea t hat i mages o f a f igure w ith s word a nd a xe r ef lect t he i dea o f t he p rince's a uthority: o n a c oin o f V asilii Dmitrievich, where t he f igure w ith s word a nd a xe i s r epresented f acing, t o t he s ides t here a re t he l etters " kn" ( only t he s econd l etter c an b e r ead d istinctly - P late V I, 2 2). A nother i mage o f a f igure w ith a s word a nd a n a xe s hows t he f igure i n p rof ile a nd s eated ( Plate V I, 1 9). A lthough i n t his i nstance a r epresentation o f t he t hrone i s m issing, t his p ose a pparently r eflects t he c oncept o f t he r uler 's a uthority . I n t he a ncient R ussian l anguage t he word c i o l dAeTi , s idet', " to b e s i tting" meant a t t he s ame t ime " to h old s way," a nd Cecrb , s est ', t o a ssume a s itting p osition" m eant t o " ascend t he t hrone", i n which c onnection t his v erbal u sage was n ot v ulgar, but f ormed p art o f t he t erminology c orrespond ing t o f eudal e tiquette a nd t o t he l anguage o f o ff icial d ocuments. T he r ange o f i mages o f a p rof ile f igure w ith a n a xe i n h and a nd s tanding b efore a s evered h ead i s c omplicated w ith s everal more s upplementary e lements. B etween t he f igure a nd t he h ead a t ree i s p laced, s ometimes w ith a b ird s itting i n i t ( Plate V II, 7 11). Above t he c omposition, o utside t he l inear b order w ithin which i t i s i nscribed, a c rowned h ead i s o rdinar ily s hown ( Plate V II, 7 -8). T his c omposition was g iven a n i nterpretation b y F yodorov-Davydov ( 1978) a ccording t o which i t d epicts J ohn t he B aptist. I ndeed, s ome o f t he e lements o f t his c omposition ( in d ifferent c ombination, i t i s t rue) may b e a ssociated w ith a r ather w idespread v ariant o f t he i conography o f J ohn t he B aptist. W e a re a cquainted w ith d epiction o f t his s aint h olding o n a s alver h is own s evered h ead; n ot i nfrequently a t ree i s r epresented a t h is f eet, w ith a n a xe l ying a t i ts r oots, i l lustrating t he words o f J ohn t he B aptist c ited i n t he N ew T estament: " And n ow a lso t he a xe i s l aid u nto t he r oot o f t he t rees; t herefore e very t ree which b r ingeth n ot f orth g ood f ruit i s h ewn d own, a nd c ast i nto t he f ire" ( Matthew II, 1 0 ; a lso L uke II, 9 ). B ut undisputed d epictions o f J ohn t he B aptist w ith a xe i n hand a re u nknown, n or d oes t he p ostion o f t he s evered h ead o n t he c oins w e a re e xamining f ind a ny e xplanation i n h is i conography n or d oes t he human h ead ( an a po tropaeic mask?) i n t he u pper p art o f t he c omposition, n or t he i mage o f a b ird f ound o n p art o f t he c oins i n q uestion. B ut t he main a rgument a gainst c onsidering t he c omposition a s b eing a ssociated w ith t he i conography o f J ohn t he B aptist i s t he f act t hat i t i s u nquestionably a ssociated b oth i conographically a nd c onceptually w ith t hose c ompositions where t here i s n o t ree a nd where t here i s e ither a n a xe a lone, o r a n a xe a nd a s word ( saber) i n t he hands o f t he f igure s tanding a bove t he s evered h ead. A d epiction o f J ohn t he B aptist w ith a s word a nd a n a xe i n h is hands a nd w ith a s evered h ead ( his own) a t h is f eet c ould h ardly e xist; i f i t d id, i t would c onstitute a n i mpossible amalgamation o f t he i mage o f t hat s aint w ith t he i mage o f h is e xecutioner. T hrough t he f igure w ith t he s word a nd t he a xe, s tand ing a bove t he s evered h ead, t he c omposition w ith t he t ree t hat we a re
6 6
a nalyzing s tands i n a f amily r elationship a lso t o a ll d epictions o f f igures h aving a s word ( or a s aber) a nd a n a xe i n t heir hands. A ll t his a ggregate, t aken a s a whole, c annot b e l inked w ith J ohn t he B aptist e ither a s t o i conography o r a s t o c onceptual m eaning. F yodorov-Davydov s uggests ( 1981, p . 1 36-138) t hat t he i mage o f J ohn t he B aptist may a ppear o n R ostov c oins a s p atron o f t he M uscovite G rand P rince I van K alita who c ommenced t o e xtend h is i nfluence i nto R ostov d ur ing t he f irst h alf o f t he X IVth c entury. S uch a n i dea s tr ikes o ne a s d oubtful, s ince i t would h ave b een more natural t o e xpect t he a ppearance o f t heir own p atron s aints o n c oins o f t he R ostov p r inces, r ather t han t hat o f t he p rotectors o f t he Muscovite p rince. B esides, a t t he moment when c oinage s prang u p a t R ostov I van K alita h ad a lready d ied, a nd i mages o f t he p atrons o f d eceased p rinces i n s uch a c ontext a s t his, b ypassing c ontemporary o nes, a re n ot c haracter istic f or a ncient R us. L et u s n ote t hat f or a ll t his g roup o f i mages t he i nterpretation b y Markov r emains b oth a n a ltogether p ossible o ne, a nd t he o ne b est f ounded. I n t his c onnection t he b ird a bove t he s evered h ead may b e r egarded a s a c row p repar ing t o p eck a t t he c arcass. T hat i mage i s d ecidedly p opular i n t he m edieval l i terature o f a ll p eoples a nd i n f olklore. A b ird p ecking a t a s evered h ead i s p resent among t he i mages o n R ussian c oins, s omething which was a lso p ointed o ut b y Markov. This i mage w ill b e e xamined b elow. T he p resence o f a b ird making r eady t o p eck a t t he h ead i s a d etail u nlikely f or t he d epiction o f a s aint, s ince t hat i mage r eflects t he i dea o f p ost mortem p rofanation. S t ill f urther a rgument a gainst a ssociating t his i mage w ith J ohn t he B aptist i s t hat t he h ead i s n ot s hown o n a s alver e ven u pon a s ingle c oin. On a whole r ange o f c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies f igures a re r epresented w ith o ther o bjects i n t heir hands, p artly o f i ndistinct c haracter. On o ne o f t he c oins o f V ladimir A ndreyevich o f S erpukhov o ne may s ee a f igure h old ing i n i ts h ands a m ili tary b anner ( a r ectangular s tretch o f c loth w ith t hree t r iangular f l ies - P late V II, 1 5). On o ther c oins o f t he s ame p rince t here i s a s imilar f igure w ith a b ow ( Plate V , 2 3) o r w ith a b attle-axe ( Plate V I, 1 ). A ll o f t hese a re s hown w ith l ong hair . A pparently, l ike t he f igures w ith a weapon, t he o ne w ith t he b anner r eflects t he i dea o f t he p rince a s warr ior . I n t his c onnection t he banner i nd icates n ot t he k nightly m er its o f t he p rince, but h is f unction o f m ilitary c ommand. I n t exts o f t he XVlth c entury c ontaining p rayers t hat were s aid u pon c onsecration t o k ingship, d irection o f t he k horugvi ( squadrons) was m entioned a s b eing among t he f unctions o f t he s overeign ( a k horugv' was a n ame t hat m ight b e g iven t o a ny m ilitary c ompany h aving i ts own b anner D AI, v ol I , p . 4 6-48). I n c onnection w ith t he i mage o n t he c oin o f V ladimir A ndreyevich t hat we a re e xamining O reshnikov p oints o ut a p asage i n t he S ynopsis where i t i s r emarked h ow, a f ter t he v ictory o n K ulikovo f ield a nd a t a t ime when t he wounded Dmitri D onskoi h ad n ot y et b een f ound, V ladimir 6 7
Andreyevich s tood b eneath t he b anner , a nd o rdered t hat t he t rumpet b e s ounded i n o rder t o a ssemble a ll t he p articipants i n t he b attle who h ad c ome t hrough i t whole ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 39). I n j uxtaposing t his t ext w ith t he i mage o n t he c oin u nder c onsideration, h owever , O reshnikov i ntroduces t he q ualif ication t hat t o r egard t his i mage a s h aving b een a ffected b y a c oncrete e pisode i n a f amiliar b attle " is s carcely p ossible, a nd i n t hat e vent t he c oin i n q uestion would b e a n e xception; a pparently we a re f aced w ith a m ere c oincidence." A ctually, t here i s n o g round f or p erceiving o n e ven a s ingle a ncient R ussian c oin a n i mage r eproducing a ny g iven c oncrete h istorical e pisode. T hus O reshnikov h imself h as most p ersuasively r e jected h is own s uggestion, which h as n evertheless s ince t hen s ometimes c ome u p a gain i n t he l i terature a s a c onvincing d emonstrat ion ( Fyodorov, 1 949 , p . 1 62). I t i s n ot c lear why O reshnikov t hought t hat t he i mage i n q uestion " is i nteresting i n i ts r ealism a nd i s d istinguished f rom t he u sual t ypes o f R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth c entury" O reshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 39). The a ctual f igure o n t he c oin i s a s c onventional a s a re t he o ther s imilar l ong-haired f igures o n c oins c lose t o i t i n t ime; t he p resence o f t he b anner i n t he f igure's h and i s a d etail which d raws a ttention n ot t hrough i ts r ea lism ( f igures w ith a weapon a re n o l ess r ealistic) but t hrough i ts r arity among t he i mages o n c oins. I n a n umber o f c ases f acing f igures h olding i n o ne hand a s word o r l eaning a gainst a l ance h ave i n t he o ther h and n ot a s hield but s ome s ort o f i nd istinct o b ject. P ossibly i n s ome i nstances t his i s a d egraded r epresentation o f a s hield. T hus o n p art o f t he c oins o f B or is A leksandrovich o f T ver o ne c an w ith s ome c onfidence p erceive a s hield, b ut o n o thers, which o n t he whole p reserve t he s ame t ype, t he o bject has t he l ook o f a g lobe l ying i n t he h and ( Plate V , 1). T his w ill s carcely b e t he o rb a s a n i tem o f t he r egalia. I n a ncient R ussian a rt b efore t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury r epresentations o f t hat i tem a re unknown. I n s ome c ases t he o bject i n t he warrior's h and a sumes a c omplicated c onfiguration, w ith t he warrior h old ing i t by a l ong a nd d elicate u pper part ( Plate V , 1 0). P erhaps t his i s a s lain b ird, a t rophy o f t he h unt. B ut t he i mage i s n ot c lear e nough f or u s t o i nsist u pon t hat s uggestion. I n a n umber o f c ases t he r ounded o bject i s b e low t he warr ior's h and, a s t hough h anging f rom i t ( Plate V II, 1 8, 1 9, 2 2, 2 3). I n Markov's o pinion ( 1910) t his i s a s evered h ead, a nd t he whole c omposition r epresents t he e xecution o f c ounterfeiters. B ut t he o bject d oes n ot have p lain f eatures o f a h uman h ead. R egarding Markov's s uggestion a s l ikely, I c an n evertheless n o t e xclude a s econd p ossibiltiy - t hat t he o b ject which h e s ees a s a h ead may a gain b e m erely a d egraded r epresentation o f a s hield. One o f t he var iants o f t he i mages o f t he warr ior w ith t he " head" i n h is h and p resents h im i n a r itual p ose, w ith h is s word s houldered ( Plate V II), 2 2, 2 3). S uch a p osition o f t he s word ( or s ometimes, i t would a ppear, o f a s cepter) i s b y p reference a sociated w ith t he i mage o f a r uler o n ancient Russian c oins. On o ne o f t he c oins o f Yuri Dmitrievich o f Galich a f acing
6 8
f igure w ith r aised s aber a nd s hield i n i ts hands i s r epresented ( Plate V II, 2 1). A t t he f eet o f t he f igure t here i s a n i mage o f a h uman h ead w ith a b ird p erched u pon i t . T his i s s till a f urther c oin among t hose which Markov ( 1910) p laces among t hose r ef lecting t he i dea o f p unishment o f c ounterfeiters. B ut i n t his i nstance t he c omposition may a lso b e e xplained i n a s impler way a s a r eflection o f t he i dea o f v ictory o ver t he e nemy. W e may n ote t hat t he p ictures o f m ilitary s aints i n R us a re n ever a ccompanied b y i mages o f t he s evered h eads o r hands o f t heir a ntagonists. P rostrate e nemies a re s ometimes r epresented o n i kons o f D emetr ios o f T hessaloniki, but o nly i n c ases where t he s aint i s s hown o n h orseback. I n t hese i nstances t he a ntagonist i s a lways s hown . a s a c omplete f igure. On o ne o f t he R ostov c oins w ith t he name o f P rince Andrei F yodorovich a h alflength f igure i s s hown i n p rof ile h olding i n i t s hands a n i nd istinct c urved o b ject ( Plate V III, 3 ). O reshnikov ( 1896, p . 1 73) s uposes t hat t his i s a musical w ind i nstrument , a c urving h orn ( ?). T hese i s n o c omplete c onviction t o t his i nterpretation. One may n ote t hat i n t he l ook o f i ts t wo s ides t his c oin i s i n p r inciple c omparable w ith o ther k nown c oins o f t he s ame p rince; u pon t hose, i n p lace o f t he f igure w ith t he i nd istinct o bject, t here i s a n i mage o f a h alf-length f igure i n p rof ile w ith s word a nd a xe, a nd o n s ome o f t he c oins a s evered h ead a lso makes i ts a ppearance. E vidently t he f igure w ith t he i ndistinct o bject i n i ts hands i s a gain a s imilar i mage o f a warrior r uler. One f urther i mage w ith d etails n ot e ntirely c omprehensible i s t hat o f a kneeling h uman f igure h old ing a r aised s aber i n o ne hand. I n t he f igure's o ther h and i s a n e longated o bject, a pparently a s cabbard ( Plate V III, 1 , 2 ). B ehind t he f igure i s a c urlicue which i s n ot understood - a s imilar d etail i n s ome o ther i mages r epresents a w ing ( cf . P late XX. 1 8. 1 9). T he i nscription " kn" a t t he f igure's back a ssociates t his i mage t oo, w ith t he i dea o f t he p rince's authority. One o f t he p rof ile i mages, f ound o n a c oin o f I van M ikhailovich o f T ver , r epresents a l ong-haired p ersonage wear ing a c loak ( in a ncient R ussian a rt a s ymbol o f eminence, f requently o f p r incely r ank) w ith r aised h and having a f inger e xtended ( Plate V II, 2 4). A lthough t he f igure i s u nquestionably s ecular, t he g esture r eminds o ne o f t he i conography o f b ened iction. I n t his c onnection o ne may r ecall a n i nitial f rom a N ovgorod manuscript o f t he X IIIth c entury ( Stasov, 1 887, p late LXIII, 1 6; P late XXXIII, 2 ) r epresenting a p lainly s ecular f igure wearing a c rown a nd s eated u pon a t hrone, t he h and r aised i n b enediction. Obviously we h ave h ere a n i nstance o f c ommixture o f t he f unctions o f s piritual a nd s ecular a uthority. S uch c onfusion, c haracteristic o f t he p er iod o f t he M iddle A ges, i s e ncountered i n R us a s well a s e lsewhere. One n eed o nly r ecall t he p opular e pic f orm o f address t o h eroes: i spolat ', which i s a mutilated G reek g reeting ( Ei , g T CO X V X gT11 b ishops ( Vasmera, vol. 1 1 967,
p .
) a pplicable 1 41).
C ompositions w ith a H uman F igure
6 9
e specially
t o
L et u s t urn t o i mages o n c oins i n which t he c entral r ole i s s till p erformed b y a h uman f igure, but i n which o ne a ctivity o r a nother i s r epresented. Among t he e arliest R ussian c oins f or t he p eriod we a re c onsidering, a nd s pecif ically among c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi, t here a re i mages o f a l ongh aired waist-length h uman f igure h o lding w ith i ts h and t he t ongue o f a s erpent ( Plate V III, 4 -6). T he h ead o f t he s erpent i s s et o pposite t he h uman f ace while a t t he s ame t ime i t s b ody f orms t he l inear b order f raming t he who le i mage. T he f igure o f a s erpent c urled i nto a c ircle r ecalls a p opular i mage i n t he m edieval s ystem o f s ymbols, t he s erpent e ating i ts own t ail. P ictures o f t his s ort were n ot w idely p opular i n R us; i n t his i nstance, d espite a ll t he s ketchiness o f t he d epiction, i t i s o bvious t hat t he s erpent i s n ot e ating i ts t ail. Most l ikely t he p ose o f t he s erpent embodies n o s ymbolic i mplications a nd i s c alled f or by d ecorational c onsiderations. T he man s eiz ing t he s erpent by i ts t ongue o bviously r ef lects t he i dea o f v ictory o ver t he s erpent o r, s ymbolically, o ver e vil. I n R ussian t he t ongue o f a s erpent i s c alled z halo (" sting?" ), a nd t he c oncept o f t he d anger o f a p oisonous s nake's b ite i s a ssociated w ith i t ( the v erb f or a s nake's b iting i s z halit '). I n e astern S lavonic f olklore t here a re s ubjects i nvolving t he s eizing o f a s erpent-dragon by t he t ongue (R ybakov , 1 981, p . 5 42). T he i mage under c onsideration i s known o nly o n c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi a nd f inds n o a nalogies i n a ncient R ussian a rt which a re t he l east b it c lose. T he i deas which were a ssociated i n R us w ith t he i mage o f t he b attler a gainst a s erpent w ill b e d ealt w ith i n g reater d etail f urther o n, when we t ake u p t he most n umerous s uch g roup p resenting h im a s o n h orseback. F or t he moment we may r emark i n c onnection w ith t he i mage o n t he c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi t hat t his i tem, b eing t he v ery e arliest among t he r ange o f f igures o f s erpent-f ighters o n c ons, i s a t t he s ame t ime d istinguished b y t he a bsence o f a ny a ppreciably c lose r esemblance t o t he i mages o f s aints who c ombat s erpents. On c opper c oins o f T ver w ithout t he n ame o f a p r ince we e ncounter a n i mage o f a h uman f igure w ith a rms a kimbo a nd w ith a s word a t h is b elt ( Plate V III, 7 , 8 ) B eneath t he f eet o f t his p ersonage t here i s a s nake. T he p ose may r ef lect t he i dea o f t riumph o r o f s elf-satisfaction. T he i mage may b e a ssigned t o t he s ubject t heme o f f ighting a gainst s nakes, t he o vercoming o f e vil, o r - s omething which i s l ess p lausible - i t may b e a ssociated w ith t he p opular a ncient l egend o f t he p rince b itten b y a s nake ( PSRL, v ol. I , p . 3 8, 3 9) . Unquestionably t he i mage o n a c oin o f P r ince Vasi lii Y aroslavich o f S erpukhov i s a ssociated w ith t he i dea o f c ombatting a s erpent. W ith o ne hand a t h is waist, t he f acing h uman f igure w ith t he o ther h and t hrusts a s aber i nto t he gape o f a d ragon-head ( Plate V III. p ). W e s hall s peak b e low, i n c onnection w ith h orsemen f ighting s nakes, r egarding t he s ubstitution o f a d ragon's h ead a lone f or t he e ntire f igure. On a c oin o f Vas i l ii T yomny t here i s a n i mage o f a man b ent o ver a nd h ewing a t s ome o bject which h e h olds d own w ith h is f oot. ( Plate V III, 1 0 , 1). Markov ( 1910) i s i nclined t o
7 0
s ee i n t his f igure a n e xecutioner , a nd h e r egards t he v ague o bject a s t he b lock. I t i s d iff icult t o a gree w ith t hat t reatment. I t i s u nlikely t hat a s econdary a d junct o f p unishment ( the b lock) s hould b e d epicted o n a c oin; a nd what i s more, t he c ulprit i s n ot r epresented e ven t hough t he main f igure n ot o nly h olds a n a xe but i s p lainly d oing s omething w ith i t . F urthermore, t he " block" i tself l ooks a s t hough i t were o n t oo m iniature a s cale; t here would b e n o p oint a t a ll i n a n e xecutioner's b lock b eing h eld d own w ith a f oot. This f eature o f t he c omposition c learly p laces i t among t hose f rom e very-day l ife. It hink t hat t he most c orrect t reatment o f t he p icture i s t hat p roposed by O reshnikov ( 1896. p . 16), who h eld t hat wood-chopping i s r epresented h ere.' Among t he i mages o n R ussian c oins a c omposition s howing s o " humble" a n a ctivity i s u nique. On t he o ther s ide o f t he c oin t here a gain a ppears a p icture which i s u nique f or a ncient R ussian c oins - a t ree w ith f ive b ranches ( Plate XXI, 1), i conographically c lose t o t he t rees i n t he c arvings o f t he S t. Dmitri C athedral a t V ladimir, a nd a lso t o h erald ic t rees. Apparently s uch a t ree s ymbolizes t he man o f r ighteousness, i n h armony w ith n umerous p opular B iblical t exts ( above a ll P salms I , 3 a nd XCI, 1 2-14). G enerally s peaking t he s ystem o f s ymbols a ssociated w ith t he t ree m ight b e e xceed ingly b road a nd v ariegated i n ancient R us. A t ree m ight s ymbolize t he k ingdom, i n a greement w ith t he p rophecy o f D aniel ( Chapter I V, 1 4 f., p articularly 2 2). I n t he r elation o f t he t aking o f P skov t he f all o f i ts i ndependence i s d escribed i n t he f ollowing manner: " There f lew a gainst m e a n e agle o f many w ings, t hese b eing c overed w ith t he c laws o f l ions; a nd i t s tr ipped m e o f t hree c edars o f L ebanon: my b eauty a nd my wealth a nd my c hildren" ( Chronicles o f P skov, 1 955 , v ol. I, p ., 2 57). T he i mage d raws u pon t he b ook o f t he p rophet E zekiel ( XVII, 3 , 4 ); t he monstrous f orm o f t he e agle i s t o b e e xplained b y p eculiarities o f t he S lavonic t ranslation o f t he B ible. The i mage o n t he o ther s ide o f t he s ame c oin, r epresenting t he c hopping o f f irewood, may h ave b een a ffected b y t he n o l ess p opular N ew T estament p assage r egard ing t he t ree which d id n ot b ring f orth g ood f ruit ( Matthew, II, 1 0 a nd V II, 1 81 9; Luke, I II, 9 ; J ohn, XV, 2 -6). The e xplanation o ffered f or t he r are i mages o n t his c oin o f Vasillii T yomny may b e a ssociated w ith t he p o litical s ituation o f t his t ime; p erhaps t he a llegorical a ntithesis o n t he c oin r ef lects a c onfrontation o f t he l awful, d evout P r ince Vasi lii T yomny w ith h is r ival t he u nlawful, i mpious Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka. I f t he i nterpretation p roposed i s c orrect, t hen t he c oin s hould b e d ated t o t he i nterval b etween 1 447, when V asilii T yomny r eturned t o Moscow, a nd 1 453 , when S hemyaka was p oisoned. A f ter 1 453 a c ontrasting w ith Vasilii S hemyaka b ecame moot. F urthermore, c onsider ing t he way i n which S hemyaka d ied i t would b e unlikely t hat t hat d eath s hould b e e choed i n Moscow t hrough t he s tr iking o f a c oin o f a moralizing c haracter. An i mage o n c oins o f B oris A leksandrovich o f Tver p resents a h uman f igure w ith a b ird t o e ither s ide. H e h olds a l ance u pon which a q uadruped i s s pitted ( Plate V III, 1 2, 1 3 7 1
) . I n h is d ay U varov h ad a lready d ef ined t his s ubject a s b eing t he f l ight o f A lexander o f Macedon ( 1871, P . 2 65). I n c ontrad istiction t o o ther a ncient R ussian d epictions o f t his s ubject, where t he f l ight t akes p lace o n g riff ins ( Plate X XXII, 1 ), h ere we h ave a f l ight u pon b irds, a s a lso i n t he t exts o f R ussian manuscripts (I str in, 1 893, p . 2 03, 3 18). T he c hariot o r basket i tself i s n ot s hown, but t he motif o f t he a nimal a s l ure i s p lain. T he s ubject o f t he f l ight o f A lexander o f Macedon was a ssociated i n R us w ith t he i dea o f p r incely a uthority. T his i s c learly a ttested b y t he f act t hat s uch a n i mage a ppears o n a d iadem ( evidently a n i tem i n t he c eremonial a rray o f a p rince's c onsort) o f t he X IIth c entury f rom S akhnovka ( Makarova, 1 975, p . 4 8 • , p late 1 2). L ikening R ussian p rinces t o A lexander o f Macedon c omes u p more t han o nce i n a ncient Rusian l i terature ( Zarubin, 1 932, p . 3 4, 3 5 , 7 3 , 19). W ith r eference t o A lexander N evski n ote i s t aken o f h is having t he s ame g iven n ame a s t he c elebrated h ero o f a ntiquity ( PSRL, v ol. V , p . 1 76; XXVI, p . 7 ). I n t his c onnection a q uestion a r ises a s t o whether t he d epicting o f t he f l ight o f A lexander o f Macedon was n ot a ffected by t he g iven n ame o f B or is's f ather, A lexander? S uch a l inkage a ppears i mplausible a t f irst g lance. On t he c oins o f B oris A leksandrovich i t i s more l ogical t o s eek a n i mage a ssociated w ith h is own g iven n ame. B ut numerous i mages o f a warr ior t hat c ould p erhaps b e a ssociated w ith t he p icture o f h is p atron s aint, t he p rincely warr ior B oris, c an b e l inked w ith t he g iven n ame o f t his p r ince. W e h ave e vidence i n f avor o f t he a rgu m ent t hat t he i dea o f r epresenting a p atron s aint d oes c ome u p o n c oins o f B or is A leksandrovich i n t hat, a s has b een r emarked a bove, o ne d oes f ind u pon t hem p aired f acing f igures o f warriors. I n a ddition, t here i s a wax-composition s eal i mpression o f t he b eginning o f t he XVIlth c entury u pon which t he f l ight o f A lexander o f Macedon i s r epresented ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late I X, 1 8). I conographically i t i s c lose t o t he i mage o n t he c oin o f B oris A leksandrovich ( also w ith b irds a nd n ot g riff ins). I n t his c ase, t oo , t he i mage b elongs t o a n owner o f t he s tamp whose p atronymic was A leksandrovich. T he motif o f t he f light o f A lexander o f Macedon was s ometimes u nderstood i n a ncient R us a part f rom t he t ext o f t he R omance o f A lexander a nd was t aken, c ontrary t o t hat t ext, a s b eing a p osthumous a scension which was c ompared w ith t he a scension o f t he p rophet E li jah: " Others s ay t hat h e was s wept u p t o h eaven i n a c hariot a s was t he p rophet E li jah" ( Speranski, 1 908 , p . 1 35). T his i s a v ivid e xample o f a m ixing t ogether , t ypical f or t he M iddle A ges, o f t he s ecular a nd t he s piritual p r inciple i n t he l i terary f ield. T he i dea i n q uestion i s a pparantly a c onsequence o f r everse i nf luence o f t he d epictions u pon t he written t radition. S till a nother i ndistinct i mage o n a c oin o f A ndrei Dmitrievich o f Mozhaisk ( Plate V III, 1 4) i s a lso s ometimes a ssociated w ith t he i conography o f t he f l ight o f A lexander o f Macedon ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 47); b ut t he d etails o f t he c omposition a re u ncertain - t he a rms o f t he f igure r aised a bove 7 2
i ts h ead may a lso b e a ssociated w ith t he i conography o f t he I ntercession o f t he V irgin ( in t hat v ariant o f t he i conography which i s r epresented o n t he S uzdal c hurch d oors o f t he X IIIth c entury - Ovchinnikov, 1 978, p . 5 2). I mages o f H eads w ith A rms H eads r epresented w ith a rms a re c haracter istic f or a ll t he c oins o f i ndependant P skov ( Plate V III, 1 5-17). T hey s how a h ead w ith a p ronged c rown, a s word b eing r epresented i n o ne hand a s r esting a gainst a s houlder, i .e. i n a r itual p osition; t he s word, l ike t he c rown, e vidently f igures a s a s ymbol o f a uthority. One s hould emphasize t hat a t a t ime when v ariety a s t o i mages a nd c ompositions p resented u pon t hem was c haracter istic f or t he c oins o f a ll a ncient R ussian p rincipalities, t he main i mages o n t he s ilver c oins o f P skov a nd o f N ovgorod i n t he p er iod o f t heir e xistence a s i ndependent c ommunities were r epresented t hrough o nly a s ingle u niform s ubject f or e ach c ity. T his i s a pparently t o b e e xplained by t he f act t hat i n t hese c ity-republics t he s triking o f c oins was i n t he hands n ot o f l essors, but d irectly i n t hose o f t he c ity a dministrations, ( in t his way f ree N ovgorod a nd P skov h eld t he l ead o ver g rand-pr incely Muscovy i n t he d egree o f t he c entralization a nd s tate c ontrol o f t hat most i mportant f unction o f g overnment, t he p roduction o f c oin). T he u niformity o f t he main i mage o n a ll t he c oins o f P skov f orces o ne t o r egard t hat i mage a s e ndowed w ith c onceptual s ignif icance t o a p articularly g reat d egree. U nfortunately t here a re n o i ndications a t a ll i n t he Russian written s ources a s t o whom t he p ersonage o n t he c oins o f P skov may r epresent. T he o utward a ppearance o f t he c oins o f P skov i s d escribed by H erberstein, who writes t hat " a bull 's h ead wearing a c rown" i s r epresented o n t hem ( 1908, p . 8 9). T his c haracterization c an o nly b e e xplained a s b eing a m isunderstanding. I n c ontrad istinction t o t he c omposition o n t he c oins o f N ovgorod, which i s n ot f ound u pon s eals, a n i mage a ltogether i dentical t o t hat which appears o n t he P skov c oins i s p resent a lso o n s eals o f P skov which a re d ated 1 469 ( Yanin, 1 960, p . 2 45, 2 46, f ig. 2 , 2 2-27). E vidently t he s ame p ersonage i s r epresented a lso u pon a n e ar lier s eal o f P skov, d ated 1 425 , where o nly a h ead wear ing a c rown i s s hown, s tylized i n a manner a ltogether a nalogous t o t hat i n t his c ase, but t here a re n o a rms o r s word ( Yanin, 1 960, p . 2 45 , 2 46, f ig. 2 ) U nlike t he c ase w ith t he c omposition o n t he c oins o f N ovgorod, which was r etained e ven a f ter t he c ollapse o f N ovgorod's i ndependence i n 1 478 a nd which c ould b e a ssociated w ith t he i nscription a cknowledging t he a uthority o f t he g rand p rince a s s overeign l ord, t he c haracterizing p ersonage o n t he c oins o f P skov was a pparently r epresented o nly o n c oins p rior t o t he c ity's l oss o f i ndependence i n 1 510, s ince t he c oins s truck b y Vasilii II a s r uler o f P skov a re o f a n e ntirely d ifferent a ppearance ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, P late I , 2 5-32). Y et t he p ersonage we a re d ealing w ith i s n ot i n a ny measure a s ymbol i ncompatible w ith a cknowledgment o f t he s upreme a uthority o f t he Muscovite
7 3
g rand p r ince. T his i s a ttested b y a n i nscr iption o n s eals w ith s uch a d epiction: " The s eal o f t he P skov p atr imony o f t he G rand P r ince" ( Yanin, 1 960, p . 2 45 , 2 46). N or d o we g et much t oward r esolution o f t he n ature o f t his i mage f rom i ts r esemblance, n oted b y a n umber o f i nvestigators, t o i mages o f b ishops o n c ertain c oins o f D orpat ( Tartu) f rom t he b eginning a nd f irst h alf o f t he XVth c entury ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 7). T his r esemblance i s p retty r emote; e ven i f o ne c onsiders t hat t he c rown o f t he p ersonage o n t he P skov c oins d erives i conographically f rom t he C atholic e piscopal m iter, s uch a n o rigin f or t he i mage would n one t he l ess n ot e xplain i n a ny way h ow i t was u nderstood i n R us. T he p resence o f a s word i n t he hands o f t he p ersonage a t o nce r eminds o ne o f a n e xtremely f amous r egale o f t he p rinces o f P skov, t he s word o f D ovmont t he l egendary h ero o f t he P skov c hronicles. Two l ong s ince e nunciated s uggestions a s t o whom t he p ersonage w e a re c onsidering r epresented a ppear t o b e t he most p lausible e ither t he l egendary P rince D ovmont h imself i n a r ole a s a n e xceptional p atron o f P skov, o r a p rince o f P skov w ith D ovmont's s word. Unquestionably D ovmont m ight a ppear i n a p atronal f unction w ith r espect t o P skov b oth a s a s aint a nd a s a s f ormer p rince o f P skov; but t he main, g enerally a ccepted h eavenly p atron o f P skov was t he T r inity, i n h armony w ith t he d esignation o f t he p rincipal c athedral o f t he c ity. A gainst D ovmont's b e ing r epresented o n t he c oins we h ave t he a bsence o f a n imbus; t he d imensions o f t he h ead o n t he c oins a re s uch a s t o p ermit s howing a n imbus. B ut i t i s p ossible r epresentation o f a n imbus o n a c oin may h ave b een a voided a s i nappropriate f or a p rofane o bject. I n t his c onnection we may r ecall t hat f or R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies a voidance o f r eligious i mages a nd t exts i s o n t he whole c haracteristic , a lthough t hey a re d ecidedly p opular o n, f or e xample, t he c oins o f B yzantium, a nd a lthough i n R us t hey a re p opular i n t he c ase o f s eals, a r ecognition o f a c onnection w ith which i nd ispu tably e xisted among t he c ommunity o f c oind ie c reators. Another t hing t hat i s p ossible i s a f using t ogether o f t he i mage o f a c ontemporary p r ince h olding s way a t P skov w ith t he i deal i mage o f D ovmont. S uch a n a ssociative p rocess i s e ntirely i n t he s pirit o f a ncient R ussian i deas r egarding t he a uthority o f p rinces. I n p articular, we a re a cquainted w ith a c ase where t he p eople o f N ovgorod i n 148 g reeted P rince l zyaslav Mstislavich, who h ad c ome t o r ule o ver t hem , w ith t he c ry " Thou a rt o ur V ladimir , t hou a rt o ur M stislav" ( PSRL, v ol. I, p . 3 70). I n c onnection w ith t he i mages o n t he c oins o f P skov, t he q uestion o f t he c rown u pon t he h ead i s o f n o l i ttle i mportance. Ancient R ussian p rinces d id n ot wear c rowns; what was c haracter istic f or t hem was a h emispher ical c ap b ordered w ith f ur. I n m iniatures o f t he R adziwill manuscript t he R ussian p r inces wear s uch c aps a lmost e xclusively. P r incely h eadgear a re r epresented i n t he s ame way i n t he manuscript o f t he L ives o f B or is a nd G leb o f t he X lVth c entury, a nd i n a ll t he e arly i kons
h aving
p ortraits
o f t hese t wo 7 4
s aints.
I n t he m iniatures
o f t he I l lustrated C hronicle D igest t he c rown i s a gain e xclusively a p roperty o f k ings, a nd I van G rozny a cquires s uch a p ronged c rown o nly a f ter h is h aving b een c rowned a s t sar i n 1 547 ( Artsikhovski, 1 944, p . 15, 18). B efore t hat t ime R ussian p r inces, a lmost w ithout e xception, a re r epresented w ear ing p rincely c aps, j ust a s i s I van I ll's g randson Dmitri b efore h is c oronat ion a s t sar i n 1 498 , a t t hat t ime, a nd t hereafter ( See C hernetsov, 1 980, p . 10, f ig. 9 , b ). A t t he s ame t ime, r epresentations o f c rowns i n t he f orm o f p ronged c irclets w ere well known i n R ussian a rt when f oreign r ulers w ere r epresented ( both v ar ious a ncient k ings, a nd a lso T atar K hans). I n t he X Vth-XVIth c enturies B yzantine e mperors, t oo, w ere r epresented w ith s uch c rowns ( Radziwill c hronicle, s heet 5 , v erso). D espite t he e xisting d ata t o t he e ffect t hat p ronged c rowns w ere n o t c haracter ist ic f or Russian p r inces a nd f or t heir i mages i n m iniatures a nd i kons, t here a re n evertheless d ef inite g rounds f or c onsidering t hat t he p ersonages r epresented wearing c rowns o n R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies p ortray Russian p r inces. F irst o f a ll, t his i s e videnced by t he i nscriptions f ound a longside t he g reater p art o f t he i mages o f p ersons wearing c rowns, c ontaining a s t hey d o t he names a nd t i tles o nly o f R ussian p rinces. A t t his p oint we may r emark t hat i mages o f r ulers wear ing c rowns a re a lmost n ever e ncountered o n c oins b earing A rabic i nscriptions, a nd t hat a ccord ingly t he t hesis t hat t hey m ight r epresent k hans o f t he G olden H orde f alls by t he wayside. L ikewise most i mplausible i s t he t hesis t hat t hese i mages m ight p resent f oreign ( for e xample B yzantine) r ulers, B iblical k ings, o r a ny o ther s ort o f r ulers o f a ntiquity. The u se o f p ronged c rowns was a pparently u nknown i n t he r eal l i fe o f R ussian p rinces; y et s uch c rowns s ometimes f ormed p art o f t he h eadgear o f t he w ives o f R ussian p rinces ( Makarova, 1 975, p . 4 7, P late 1 ; p ., 4 9, P late 1 2; D DG , p . 3 12; A rtsikhovski, 1 944 , p . 18). I n p articular a f emale h ead o n o ne o f t he g rand-princely s taffs a t t he K remlin A rmory i s r epresented wear ing a p ronged c rown ( side b y s ide w ith a male h ead l acking h eadgear - Chernetsov, 1 980, p . 1 00, 1 01, f ig . 5 ; P late XXXV, 2 ). F inally, we a re a cquainted w ith i mages o f t he XVth c entury i n which R ussian p rinces a re p resented wearing p ronged c rowns. T hese a re a n i mage o f Vasi lii Dmitrievich embroidered u pon t he s akkos o f t he Moscow M etropolitan ( Photios) b y B yzantine masters ( Bank, 1 966, p late 2 88) T he p ronged c rown u pon h is h ead d oes n ot, i n a ny e vent, r epeat t he h eadgear o f t he B yzantine Emperor J ohn Paleologos who i s p ortrayed u pon t he s ame o bject a nd who was married t o a d aughter o f Vasilii Dmitrievich a nd o f S of ia V itovtovna, Anna ( the w ives o f b oth r ulers a re a lso s hown o n t he s akkos). A lthough t he p ortrayal i s t he work o f f oreign masters, i t was n evertheless i ntimately b ound u p w ith Rus. T he p erson who c ommissioned i t was M etropolitan o f Moscow; i nscr iptions s etting f orth t he g iven name a nd t i tle o f t he Muscovite p rince a nd o f h is w ife a re r endered i n R ussian ( all t he r est a re G reek). A s econd s cene i n which R ussian p rinces a re s hown wear ing c rowns i s a gain a n e xample o f embroidery e xecuted by
7 5
n on-Russian ( Moldavian) masters a t t he e nd o f t he X Vth c entury ( Shchepkina, 1 954). T hree R ussian p rinces a re r epresented o n i t - I van II, h is g randson Dmitri, a nd a nd h is s on Vasilii. A l l t hree h ave p ronged c rowns u pon t heir h eads; I van II a nd Dmitr i a re r epresented w ith t he n imbus i n a ddition. T he l ast d etail i s b rought a bout b y t u te f act t hat Dmitri h ad b een c rowned k ing. F rom t hen o n, h owever , R ussian s overeigns d id n ot g o s o f ar a s t o d epict t hemselves w ear ing t he n imbus, e ven t hough B yzantine emperors a ppeared i n t hat guise o f ten e nough. This e xample o f embroidery, e ven t hough e xecuted b y n onRussian masters, was unquestionably made a t Moscow, a nd u pon c ommission i ssuing f rom c ourt c ircles a t t hat. T hus t he p ossibility i n p r inciple o f r epresenting R ussian p r inces p rior t o I van G rozny a s wearing p ronged c rowns i s n ot o pen t o d oubt. F yodorov-Davydov t oo r egards t he i mages o f p ronged c rowns o n c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies a s b eing s ymbols o f t he a uthority o f Russian p rinces ( 1981, p . 1 39-140). B eside t he o nes k nown f rom c oins a nd s eals o f P skov, i mages o f h eads w ith a rms a re a lso e ncountered o n c oins a ssociated w ith Muscovy a nd i ts a ppanages. On t hese t he h ead i s o rdinar ily p resented i n p rof ile, a nd i n f ront o f i t i s o ne h and h olding a weapon. On a c oin o f A ndrei Dmitrievich o f Mozhaisk t he h ead i s s hown wear ing a p ronged c rown, a nd t he h and h olds a s aber ( Plate V III, 1 8); o n t he o ther c oins t he h ead i s u ncovered. On c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich t he hand h olds a s aber ( Plate V III, 2 0, 2 1), o n a c oin o f V ladimir A ndreyevich o f S erpukhov a n a xe ( Plate V III, 1 9). T he f igure o f t he p ersonage o n a c oin o f V ladimir A ndreyevich i s d istinguished by i ndividual p eculiarities - i t h as t hick h air a nd a l arge b eard. On o ther c oins o f t he s ame p r ince t hese c haracteristics a re m issing. C ompositions
I nvolving S everal H uman F igures
L et u s p ass o n t o t he c ompositions t hat i nclude i mages o f more t han o ne h uman f igure. T o b egin w ith we may e xamine t he i mages i nvolving t wo f igures. We h ave i n m ind t hose c ases where t hey a re a ssociated w ith e ach o ther i n o ne way o r a nother ( the c oins o n which t wo s eparated f igures a ppear a re e xamined f urther o n). F irst o f a ll we s hould n ote t hat t he i mage o f t he t wo h uman f igures i s t he main o ne o n a ll t he s ilver c oins o f i ndependent N ovgorod ( Plate V III, 2 2-25, P late I X, 1 ). I nterpretation o f t hese c ompositions i s o f e xceptional i mportance, s ince N ovgorod a nd P skov a re t he s ole X Vth c entury c oinage c entres where uniformity o f t ype i s c haracter istic f or s ilver c oins. T he i mage o f t wo f igures i s p resent o n a ll t he s ilver c oins o f i ndependent N ovgorod w ith t he i nscr iption " of g reat N ovgorod," a nd o n part o f t he c oins s truck a t N ovgorod but a lready r ef lecting t he i dea o f S uzerainty o f t he Muscovite g rand p r ince - w ith t he i nscriptions d en'ga v elikago k hyazya ( "denga o f t he g rand p rince") a nd o spodar' v seya R usi ( "Lord o f a ll R us"). C oins
7 6
w ith t he t i tle o f g rand p rince o rdinar ily d ate t o a t ime a f ter t he d ef initive a bolition o f N ovgorod i ndependence i n 1 478. B ut O reshnikov s uggests t hat t hey may h ave b een s truck s tarting a s f ar b ack a s 1 456 i n c onformity w ith t he t ext o f t he Y azhelbitsy t reaty, where we r ead " and t he s tamps t o b e t hose o f t he g rand p rinces." ( GVNP., p . 4 1, 4 2). T he word p echat' ( "stamp" i n t he a bove - T r.) was i ndeed u sed f or t he c oin d ie a nd was f requently f ound o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth a nd XVth c enturies. I n a t reaty o f I van II w ith t he p eople o f N ovgorod i n 1 471 t his r equirement i s r epeated ( GBNP, p . 4 9).; e vidently i t h ad n ot b een c ompletely c omplied w ith ( Yanin, 1 970, v ol, I, p . 1 31). On t his a ccount o ne c annot u nconditionally a gree w ith O reshnikov, who h eld t hat i t was " very p robable t hat t he l ast y ear o f t he s tr iking o f c oins w ith t he i nscr iption ' of g reat N ovgorod ' was n ot 1 478, but 1 456." ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 7 ). C oins w ith t he i nscription " lord o f a ll R us" ( ibid., p . 1 5) c annot b e d ated e arlier t han 1 478, s ince i t was o nly i n t hat y ear t hat a p art o f t he p eople o f N ovgorod c ame t o c all t he Muscovite p rince g ospodar ' ( "lord"). This b rought o n a c ounter-action o n t he p art o f t he o ther f action o f t he N ovgorod p eople, who c onsented t o s tyle t he g rand p r ince g ospodin ( " master"), but n ot by a ny means " lord". ( Pskovskiye L etopisi, v ol. I, 1 955, p . 2 09; P SRL, v ol. XXV, p . 3 09). T he Muscovite g rand p rince was r ecognised i n N ovgorod i n t he c apacity o f g ospodar ' ( "lord") o nly a f ter t he c ollapse o f t he c ity's i ndependence. T hus t he i mage o n t he N ovgorod c oins k eeps c ompany p reponderantly w ith a n i nscription which e xpresses t he i dea o f t he c ity's s overeignty, but i t may b e f ound a lso o n c oins w ith t he t i tle o f g rand p r ince, i nclud ing e ven t hose which were p lainly s truck a f ter c omplete e limination o f t he i ndependence o f N ovgorod. T he f igures r epresented o n t he N ovgorod c oins f ace e ach o ther. T he l ef t-hand o ne h olds a s word o r a s cepter a t h is s houlder ( the c onsiderations i n f avor o f i ts b eing a s cepter w ill b e s et f orth b elow when we e xamine t he i mages o f a r uler u pon a t hrone). T his f igure i s r epresented i n a l ong r obe a nd a c rown; o ne a rm i s r aised t oward t he o ther f igure. T he s econd f igure, s hown more s ketchily a nd w ith s omewhat b ent l egs, s tretches a h and t oward t he f irst. T he p osition o f t he f irst f igure i s c learly t he p aramount o ne. S ometimes t he f igure w ith t he c rown i s u nquestionably r epresented u pon a t hrone ( Plate V III, 2 4), i n o ther c ases o ne c an o nly guess t hat t he r epresentation o f a t hrone was i ntended; f inally, o n a d ecidedly c onsiderable p art o f t he c oins t here a re n o t races o f a t hrone, a nd b oth f igures a re p lainly r epresented a s s tanding ( Plate V III, 2 2, 2 3). Taking t hese var iations i nto a ccount I c onsider t hat i n t he p resent i nstance t he f eature which i s i mportant i n p r inciple i s t he p resence o f t wo f igures, a nd t he t hrone, which may b e a bsent, I p lace among t he s econdary d etails. A long w ith t his, i n i ts g eneral c haracter t he c omposition i s c lose t o t he i mages o f a r uler u pon a t hrone a nd w ith a p erson s tand ing b efore h im, i mages which w ill b e d iscussed b elow. T he s econd f igure i s p resented i n t he p ose o f a s ubord inate, a nd r eminds o ne o f a p etitioner, o r c lient. The 7 7
s cene unquestionably r eflects i n o ne way o r a nother t he i dea o f i nequality o r o f h ierarchy. T he most l ikely e xplanation i s t o t he e ffect t hat t he whole s cene s hows a n i nvestiture. B ut i t i s n ot c lear whom e ach f igure r epresents. A f igure wear ing a c rown a nd w ith a s cepter o r a s word a t h is s houlder i s f airly f requently f ound o n t he c oins o f v ar ious p r incipalities. F or t his r eason A rtsikhovski 's p roposition t o t he e ffect t hat i t r epresents S t S of ia (H o ly W isdom) , t he p atron o f N ovgorod, s tr ikes o ne a s d oubtful (A rt s ikhovski , 1 948). T he u sual i conography o f S of ia s hows h er s eated f acing u pon a t hrone, a nd h er i nseperable a ttribute i n t his c onnection i s w ings. N either t he p ose t raditional f or t he i conography o f S ofia ( and t his i s j ust where A rtsikhovski t akes h is c omparison f rom), n or t he w ings, a re p resent o n t he N ovgorod c oins. T rue, A rtsikhovski p erceives i n a f eature t o b e f ound a t t he b ack o f t he c rowned f igure o n s ome c oins ( Plate V III, 2 5) t he i mage o f a w ing. B ut r egard ing t his e lement a s a w ing i s q uite p roblematical i n t he f irst p lace, a nd i n t he s econd p lace i t i s a ltogether m issing o n a g reat part o f t he t ypes a nd t he f igure i s p resented w ithout w ings b eyond a ll d oubt. F or t his r eason t hat a rgument o f A rtsikhovski c annot b e r egarded s eriously, s ince i f we h ave b efore u s t he p ersonage most i mportant t o N ovgorod a nd t he whole c omposition r eflects l ocal p atriotism, t he r ecognitional f eatures o f t he p atron o f N ovgorod o ught t o b e p lainly d iscernable o n a majority o f t he i mages, s omething which we a re, h owever u nable t o p erceive. A ll t he f eatures b ringing t he p ersonage i n q uestion c lose t o S t S of ia i n t he f irst p lace c onstitute n othing e xclusively a ssociated w ith h er , a nd t hey a re i n t he s econd p lace w idely s hown i n i mages o n c oins o f o ther Russian p r incipalities t hat a re b eyond d oubt a ssociated i n n o way w ith S t. S ofia. An e ssentially a nalogous p ersonage i s a lso p resented o n c oins o f P o ught t o b e p lainly d iscernable o n a majority o f t he i mages, s omething which we a re, h owever u nable t o p erceive. A ll t he f eatures b r inging t he p ersonage i n q uestion c lose t o S t S of ia i n t he f irst p lace c onstitute n othing e xclusively a ss skov , N ovgorod ' s " younger b rother." T hat t he i mage u nder e xamination i s s carcely t o b e a ssociated w ith S t S of ia a nd i s n ot e ven a n e xclusively N ovgorod o ne , i s a ttested by t he f act t hat i t i s a lso f ound o n c oins o f Vasi lii T yomny ( Plate I X, 2 ) a nd o f Y uri Dmitrievich o f Galich t oo ( Plate I X, 3 , 4 ). B oth t hese c ases, h owever , a re e vidently u nique e xamples o f a b orrowing o f t he t ype o f t he N ovgorod c oins i n o ther Russian l ands. T his c ircumstance may b e a ssociated c on jecturally w ith t he f act t hat d uring t he t ime o f f eudal i nternecine warfare t he o pposing p r inces - b oth Vasilii T yomny a nd h is p olitical a ntagonists - e ntered i nto p ar ticularly c lose r elationships w ith N ovgorod. Among t he c oins o f Vasilii T yomny b earing s uch a c omposition a s t his, t he i mage i s i n o ne c ase made more c omplicated t hrough a f urther f igure - b ehind t he f igure wearing t he c rown a m iniature i mage o f a d ragon i s p resented (M et s, 1 955). T his c oin was p ublished by N .D. M ets ; f ollowing A rtsikhovski, s he t reats t he c rowned f igure
a s
S t S ofia,
a nd
7 8
s he h olds t hat t he d ragon
( or
s erpent) i s r epresented a s a s ymbol o f w isdom a nd a n a ttribute o f S ofia. I nasmuch a s t he i dentif ication o f t he p ersonage we a re e xamining w ith S of ia i s d ecidedly p roblematical, t he p roposed i nterpretation o f t he d ragon i mage, t oo, s eems t o b e d oubtful. One may t hink t hat, a s i s t he c ase w ith a r ange o f o ther s mall i mages p eopling t he b ackgrounds o f main c ompositions u pon c oins, t his d ragon i s n o t c onceptually a ssociated w ith t he major g roup o f t wo f igures. T he m eaning o f t he i mage o n t he N ovgorod c oins i s n ot e xplained i n a s ingle R ussian written s ource. A t t he s ame t ime, i t i s i n f act m entioned i n H erberstein's b ook; h e writes t hat " Novgorod c oin h as o n o ne s ide t he i mage o f t he p rince, s eated o n a t hrone a nd f acing h im a mar l b owing" ( Herberstein, 1 908, p . 8 8). H erberstein's t estimony c annot b e r egarded a s i nd isputable p roof t hat t he f igure a t i ssue d epicts t he p r ince, i nasmuch a s t hat may r ef lect H erberstein's own o pinion. I n a nother i nstance h e f urthermore o ffers a n i ncorrect d escr iption o f t he i mages o n t he c oins o f P skov. T his i s n evertheless a n a ux illiary a rgument i n f avor o f t he f igure's d epicting t he p rince. I n s upport o f t he s ame p roposition we h ave a lso t he r esemblance o f t his f igure t o o ther f igures wear ing c rowns a nd w ith s houldered s words o r s cepters which a re k nown o n R ussian c oins o f o ther p r incipalities. S eeing t hat t he s cene whose c entral f igure may b e r egarded a s a n i mage o f t he p rince a ppears o n N ovgorod c oins d uring t he p eriod o f t he a pogee o f t he c ity's i ndependance, o ne c annot d eal w ith t he whole c omposition a s a r eflection o f t he i dea o f s upreme d uthority r esiding i n t he g rand p rince o f Muscovy. P erhaps t he whole s cene c onstitutes a r eminder o f t he p rivileges b estowed u pon N ovgorod by Y aroslav t he W ise a nd d estined t hereaf ter t o s erve a s t he f oundations o f N ovgorod a utonomy. I n a ny e vent, i f t he c rowned f igure i s a p rince, t he f igure s tanding b efore i t must b e a r epresentative o f N ovgorod r ather t han a moneyer, s ince a t N ovgorod t he moneyers, a s we h ave a lready s aid, were n amed n ot b y t he p rince, but by t he c ity a dministration. A cknowledging a p ossibility t hat t he i mage o n t he N ovgorod c oins r eflects t he i dea o f t he N ovgorod r epresentative's r eceiving p rivileges f rom a p rince o f t he d istant p ast, p rivileges c onstantly r enewed t hrough t reaties w ith t he p r inces, we s hould o nce more emphasize t hat t his was a pparently n ot t aken by g rand p rinces a s b eing a r ef lection o f o pposition t o t he p retensions o f t he g rand p rince, s ince i t was r etained e ven a f ter t he c omplete s ub jugation o f N ovgorod. A long w ith t he major e lements o f t he c omposition, s upplementary o nes a re s ometimes p resent o n N ovgorod c oins. On s ome o f t hem o ne s ees a n o bject which o ne o f t he f igures i s a pparently g iving t o t he o ther. T his d etail i s n ot s table. S ometimes i t i s a n o bject r eminding o ne o f a n a lmond-shaped s hield ( Plate V III, 2 2), s ometimes i t i s a l ine made up o f p oints ( a s cepter? - P late V III, 2 3), a f leur d e l ys ( Plate V III, 2 5) o r a c ross ( Plate I X, 1 ). We may r emark t hat t he a bstract f igure c alled a f leur d e l ys o r h eraldic l i ly i s f ound n ot o nly o n c oins but a lso o n s ome N ovgorod l ead s eals o f t he
7 9
XVth c entury ( Yanin, v ol. I, 1 970 , p lates 4 6, 7 55, 7 56). A ll o f t hese o bjects c an b e a ssociated w ith t he i dea o f i nvestiture; t he i mage o f a c ross p robably r ef lects t he i dea o f a n u ndertaking c onfirmed t hrough k issing t he c ross. I n o ne c ase t he c ross i s p resented a bove t he h eads o f t he f igures, a nd may r eflect t he s ame i dea ( Plate V III, 2 5). I n a nother c ase t here i s a c rescent a bove t he h eads o f t he f igures ( Plate V III, 2 4). I n t his c onnection we may r ecall t hat i n t he M iddle A ges p eople were i nclined t o a scribe a n e ternal, " cosmic" c haracter t o t heir t reaties o r u ndertakings. F or e xample, a t reaty b etween R us a nd t he G reeks c oncludes w ith t he words " so l ong a s t he s un s hall s hine a nd t he whole world s tand f irm" ( PSRL, v ol. I , p . 5 3). I n c oncluding t he a nalysis o f t he i mages o n N ovgorod c oins we s hould n ote t hat n either N ovgorod n or P skov r eally managed, i n t he c oins, t o f ind a ny s pecif ic e xpression f or t he i dea o f t he i ndependence o f t he c ity-republics. A s i n t he o ther R ussian l ands, h ere t he i dea o f a uthority was c onveyed i n r epresentational a rt f irst a nd f oremost t hrough t he i mage o f a f eudal r uler a nd warrior. I n i ts i conography a nd c onceptual s ignif icance t he i mage o f t he N ovgorod c oins c leaves t o t he i mages o f a r uler o n a t hrone w ith a f igure i n f ront o f h im, which w ill b e e xam ined b elow. I n a ddition t o t he i mages o n N ovgorod c oins a nd a nalogous i mages o n c oins o f Muscovy a nd Galich, we a re a cquainted w ith f urther p aired f igures o f which o ne i s u nquestionably t he p r incipal a nd t he o ther o f s econdary r ank ( Plate I X, 5 -7). A long w ith t hese i mages t here a re p aired o nes which p resent f igures o n e qual f ooting. T hese a re i n p articular t he i mages o f f igures s etting t heir hands u pon e ach o thers' s houlders ( Plate V III, 8 -11). I n o ne i nstance ( a c oin w ith a n i l legible n ame o f a p rince) b oth f igures h old a s ingle l ance a nd a t t heir f eet i s a n a bstract mark r epresenting a k not ( Plate I X, 1). T here a re s imilar f igures a lso w ith a k not b etween t hem, b ut w ithout t he l ance ( Plate I X, 1 0). One may s uppose t hat i mages o f t his s ort r eflect t he i dea o f a m ili tary a lliance. B ut among t he c oins w ith s uch i mages t here a re n one u pon which t he n ames o f t wo d ifferent p r inces a ppear ; o n t he f airly n umerous c oins w ith t he n ames o f t wo p r inces s uch i mages a re n o t e ncountered. One may s uggest t hat t hese i mages r eflect t he i dea o f i nvestiture, e ven t hough an unequal p osition o f t he t wo f igures i s n ot s hown. A f ew f urther i mages w ith t wo f igures r epresent t hem a s a s ymmetrical pair t o e ither s ide o f a t ree. T hese a re c oins o f Vasi lii T yomny w ith t he t i tles " grand p r ince" a nd " lord o f a ll R us." ( Plate I X, 1 5). D espite t he f act t hat t he f igures a re c lothed, f rom t he waist d own a t a ny r ate, t he i mages e voke a n a ssociation w ith t he p opular i conographic s ubject o f t he F all f rom G race. The F all i s a lso r epresented o n many waxc omposition s eal i mpressions. I n t his c onnection, o n s eals o f t he XVIth c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he XVIlth a nd a lso o n many c oins o nly t he human f igures b y t he t ree a re s hown, b ut t he s erpent i s m issing ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late I V, 3 7; p late V I, 8 8; p late I X, 3 0). A fter t his t here a ppear c ompositions i ncluding t he s erpent, n ow quite i nd isputably a ssociated w ith 8 0
i mages o f Adam a nd E ve ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late X II, 9 5, 9 8). W e s hould p oint o ut t hat i n a ncient R ussian a pplied a rt i mages o f paired l iving b eings t o e ither s ide o f " the t ree o f l ife" a re e xceedingly numerous. B ut w ith t he e xception o f t he s cenes o n c oins a nd s eals t hese a re a lways a nimals o r b irds. A long w ith t heir meaning a s a s ort o f i deogram f or t he u niverse, b ut a lso f or t he Garden o f E den, s uch pairs a pparently w ere a ssociated w ith t he i dea o f t he marriage c ouple a nd t hat o f f ruitfulness, a nd t hey b ecame e ndowed w ith a b road s ymbolism o f wellw ishing. S uch i deas m ight b ecome i ncorporated i n t hat i deo logical s cheme a lso i n c ases where i t was n ot a nimals n or b irds, but i nstead human b eings t hat were r epresented. I n t hat c onnection t he r epresentation o f human b eings i nstead o f t he more t raditional s pecimens o f b r 'ute c reation was p erhaps a ssociated w ith t he p eculiarities o f t he " language" r epresented o n c oins - i t i s c haracterized b y l ess ambiguity t han i n t he c ase o f s ubjects i n applied a rt , a nd f or t hat r eason o ne o bserves a t endency t oward r eplacement o f t he a rbitrary f igures o f b easts w ith r eal f igures o f human b eings; t he f igures o f human b eings o n c oins, i n c ontradistinction t o t he p ersonages o f t eratological d ecor o r t he f igures i n b one c arvings a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury, a re much more f requently e ndowed w ith a ttributes i ndicative o f t heir s ocial c haracteristics. On s eals o f t he XVIth c entury a nd t o t he m iddle o f t he XVIIth, u nlike t he c ase w ith t he c oins, f igures o f b irds a nd b easts t o t he s ides o f t he t ree a re i n f act e ncountered ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late V , 5 9 , 7 0 ; p late V II, 1 30; p late I X, 7 , 1 7; p late X II, 1 09; p late XV, 1 86). I n o ne i nstance t he d epiction o f t he f igures by t he t ree i s a ccompanied by t he i nscription " kn" ( Plate I X, 1 4). L et u s n ote t hat i n t his c ase t he i nscr iption c ertainly d oes n ot m ean t hat o ne o f t he f igures r epresents a p rince. We h ave b efore u s t he s ingle c ase i n which t his i nscription i ndisputably means n ot t his, but i nstead t he f act t hat t he t ype i n q uestion i s t he " seal" o r " stamp" o f a p rince. T his d oes n ot , n evertheless, m ean t hat i n a ll o ther c ases t he l etters " kn" a gain h ave o nly t hat s ignif icance. I n a ll t he o ther c ases where t he l etters " kn" a ppear o n c oins t here a re g rounds f or h olding n ot o nly t hat t he c oin d ie i n q uestion was u nderstood a s b eing t he p rince's s eal ( there was i n f act n o n eed t o emphasize t his, s ince a lmost a ll t he i nscr iptions o n c oins o f t he X IVth a nd XVth c enturies t ell u s t he s ame t hing), b ut a lso t hat t he p ersonage b y whom t hese l etters s tand was a ssociated w ith t he p r ince. The p resence o f t he l etters " kn" a long w ith t he i mage o f a p air o f h uman b eings t o e i ther s ide o f a t ree s hows t hat t hat i mage, t oo , was i n s ome way a ssociated w ith t he i dea o f p rincely a uthority. T his l ast t hought e vokes a c ertain a stonishment: i f a c onsiderable p art o f t he i mages o n Russian c oins o f t he X IVthXVth c enturies r ef lect t he i dea o f p rincely a uthority c oncretely put a cross t hrough t he p resentation o f a n i nequality o f human b eings, o f a h ierarchy which i s a lso q uite i ncisively e xpressed i n many t ypes o n c oins ( f igures w ith r egalia; i mages o f a r uler w ith a c lient), t hen t he f igures o f Adam a nd E ve a re i n
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a ncient Russian writing o rdinar ily c onnected w ith t he i dea o f t he e quality o f human b eings b efore G od. " For we a re a ll o f t he s ingle g eneration a nd s tock o f Adam - t sars, p r inces, n oblemen, magnates, m erchants, t raders, c raf tsmen a nd d ependents; a ll o f t he o ne g eneration a nd s tock o f Adam, a nd f orgetful o f t his we s tand i n e nmity o ne t o a nother a nd g naw a nd b ite, e stranged f rom G od's c ommandments..." ( PSRL, v ol. X I, p . 8 , 9 ). I nstances o f c onnecting t he f igure o f Adam w ith t he i dea o f a uthority, w ith t he i mage o f a p rince, a re e ncountered a s e xtremely r are e xceptions. T hus i n t he t ale o f t he l i fe a nd d emise o f t he G rand P rince Dmitr i I vanovich ( Donskoi) o ne t hing we f ind i s t his: " Shall I c all t hee t he f irst-made ( i .e., Adam)? B ut h e r ece ived t he c ommandment o f t he C reator a nd b roke i t , a nd t hou h ast f ulfilled t he p romises made a t h o ly b aptism" ( PSRL, v ol V II, p . 10). T his i s a s pecif ic b ookish t urn o f p hrase b ased u pon a c ontrasting o f t he f igures o f Adam a nd t he p r ince, a nd n ot u pon a l ikening o f t hem. I n a we llk nown r ecord f rom t he f ield o f f olklore, t he G olubinaya K niga ( "The D ove B ook") t here i s m ention o f " Adam's h ead;" i t i s c alled " the h ead o f h eads" ( Mochulski, 1 887, P . 1 83). C onsider ing t hat t he c oncept " head" i s a sociated w ith t he i dea o f a uthority, t his e xample may b e r egarded a s a c ase r eflecting a c ertain l inkage b etween t he f igure o f Adam a nd t he i dea o f a uthority. B ut t his e xample i s a u nique o ne, a nd t he i mage d id n ot e njoy p opularity. T he warrant f or s uch a n a ttitude t oward t he h ead o f Adam i s t o b e f ound i n t he l egend o f t he b lood o f Chr ist which f ell u pon A dam's s kull a nd washed f rom i t t he s ins o f mankind; a nd t hus i t i s n ot r elated t o t he i dea o f t he a uthority o f s ecular r ulers. I n t he XVth c entury, d uring t he r eign o f Vasilii T yomny, t he f igure o f Adam i s m entioned i n a m issive o f t he R ussian c lergy t o P rince Dmitr i Y urievich S hemyaka ( 1447). S hemyaka, a s p retender t o t he g rand p rincipiate, i s c ompared w ith Adam, who had p lucked t he f orbidden f ruit a nd who h ad w ished t o b e e qual w ith G od ( Al, v ol. I , p . 7 6). T hus when i n ancient R us t he f igure o f t he p rince was c ompared w ith t hat o f Adam t here c ame f irst t o m ind Adam's s in, a nd s uch a c omparison c ould n ot h ave b een t o t he p rince's h onor, s ave i n t he e vent t hat i t p artook o f t he c haracter o f r hetorical c ontrast. A ccordingly t he p ossibility t hat i n r epresenting t he s cene o f t he F all o n c oins t he p urpose was t o e xpress t he i dea , o f a n a nalogy b etween t he p rince a nd Adam must b e r uled a ltogether o ut o f c ourt. L et u s r eturn t o a ssociations o f a more g eneral c haracter, l inked i n a ncient R us w ith t his p ersonif ication f rom t he B ible - namely, t o t he i dea o f t he e quality o f h uman b eings b efore G od. A ccording t o a ncient R usian s ources i n writing, t he i dea o f t he e quality o f h uman b eings s ometimes c omes f orth v ividly i n t he a ddresses p rinces d eliver o n t he f ield o r b attle. One o f t hese i s t he e vocation o f P rince D ovmont which h e d elivered, a ccording t o t he c hronicle, i n 1 263: " Brothers o f P skov, h e among y ou who i s o ld i s my f ather , a nd h e who i s y oung i s my b rother . Ih ave h eard o f y our c ourage i n e very l and. B efore 8 2
u s, b rothers, we f ace l ife, o r d eath; f orward, f or t he H oly T rinity a nd f or t he s acred c hurches a nd f or y our f atherland." ( Pskovskiye L etopisi, v ol. I, p . 1 7, 1 950). I n t he r elation o f t he S ultan Mahomet, written i n t he m iddle o f t he XVIth c entury ( where t he T urkish s ultan i s c onsidered t o b e t he model o f a s overeign - " if t o t hat T urkish o rder ing o f t hings t here were t o b e a dded t he O rthodox f aith, t hen t he a ngels would c onverse w ith t hem"), t he f ollowing words a re addressed by t he s ultan t o h is warriors: " Brothers, we a re a ll o f t he l ine o f Adam; h e who s erves m e t ruly a nd s tands f irm a gainst t he e nemy i s t he o ne I s hall c onsider t he b est ." " So t hat e ach may a chieve f or h imself h onor a nd a g lorious name, t he s ul tan b estows h is wage u pon h im" ( PSRL, v ol, 1 2, p . 1 07, 1 08). T hus t he i mage o n c oins which p resents a pair o f h uman b eings t o e ither s d t he O rthodox f aith, t hen t he a ngels would c onverse w ith t hem"), t he f ollowing words a re addressed by t he s ul tan t o h is warriors: " Brothers, we a re a ll o f t he l ine o f Adam; h e who s erves m e t ruly a nd s tands f irm a gainst t he e nemy i s t he o neide o f a t ree i s p erhaps a ssociated w ith t he f unction o f money a s t he s oldier 's wage. N othing i s known r egard ing t he e xtent o f money p ayments t o s oldiers i n t he XVth c entury s ave t hat T atar d etachments n ot i nfrequently made t heir a ppearance a s m ercenaries ( PSRL, v ol, X I, p . 2 07, y ear 1 409). I n t he XVIth c entury we a re f amiliar w ith g old p ieces a nd g ilt c oins u t ilized a s award t okens i n t he Russian a rmy ( Spa s ski, 1 961) Apparently c oins m ight a ppear a s m ilitary awards o nly a f ter money c ompensation t o s oldiers h ad c ommenced t o s pread. A g ilt N ovgorod c oin o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury ( Oreshniko ‘ r, 1 896, p . 8 , N o. 1) s hows t hat award c oins a lready e xisted by t hat t ime. A f urther c onsideration making t he p roposed c onstruct r ather p lausible i s t he medieval understanding o f money a s a s ort o f l eve lling f orce. I ndeed, c ompensation b y means o f money o r l ands ( f iefs) was r egarded i n a ncient R us a s a more d emocratic f orm o f r eward t han were h ereditary p rivileges a nd e ntails, a nd s ometimes t he t wo s orts w ere e ven s harply c ontrasted w ith e ach o ther. " For s ervice r endered t he s overeign r ewards w ith l ands a nd money, a nd n ot w ith h ereditary p rivilege" ( Klyuchevski, 1 908, v ol. I, p . 1 93). Y et a t t he s ame t ime o ur p roposed t reatment o f t he d epiction o f t he s cene o f t he Fall f rom G race o n c oins o f t he XVth c entury i s t o b e r egarded o nly a s t entative - a s b eing o ne o f t he v ar iants t hat a re p ossible. S cenes o f t he Hunt a nd o f S ingle C ombat Hunting s cenes a re t o b e f ound o n a n umber o f c oins. On c oins o f I van M ikhailovich o f Tver a nd o f B oris A leksandrovich t here i s a d epiction o f a ran s triking a b ear w ith a hunting s pear. A d og i s s napping a t t he b ear ; a bove t here i s a n o utline i mage o f a n a xe, n ot l inked t o t he c oncept o f t he p icture ( Plate I X, 1 6-18). One may s ee s cenes o f t he hunting o f a b ear, t he muzzle o f which i s b eing t orn b y a d og, among t he r e liefs o f t he S t Dmitri c athedral a t V ladimir ( the b ear 's
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f orelegs a re i n a s nare; Vagner , 1 969 , P . 2 62 , 2 89 , f igure 1 77). On t he h unting s pear o f B oris A leksandrovich o f T ver a b ear-hunt i s a gain p resented - t he b east i s s hown a t a l ower l evel, e vidently i n a p itfall o r a d en ( Plate XXXVI). A h unter s pear ing a b ear i s a lso s hown o n i nit ials o f t he t erato logical s tyle i n R yazan manuscripts o f t he XVIth c entury. T he l egs o f t he b ear a re t angled i n o rnamental p laitings which p erhaps r epresent a t rap ( Stasov, 1 887, p late L XXXV, 6 ; p late L XXXVI, 2 2 ; P late XXXIV. 2 ). I n a ll t hese c ases, i n c ontradistinction t o t he i mages o n t he c oins, t he d og i s a bsent. T he s cene o f f ighting w ith t he b ear was a pparently n ot a m ere r eflection o f p rincely l ife; t he f ight w ith t he b ear was u nderstood a s a manifestation o f valor. I n t he L ife o f S tefan o f P erm t he pagan P ermians, d efending t he s uperiorities o f t heir f aith o ver Christianity, s ay, " among u s o ne o r t wo men g o f orth a gainst t he b ear, a nd i n battle w ith h im d efeat h im a nd b ring i n h is s kin; whereas among y ou ( the Russians) many men h unt a s ingle b ear, u p t o o ne a nd t wo hundred, a nd s ometimes t hey b r ing h im i n, but o f ten t hey c ome back u nsuccessful w ithout h im, t heir t ime wasted i n v ain, which s eems t o u s r idiculous a nd u nbelievable" ( Epifanii, 1 897, p . 4 7). T his q uotation s hows t hat a lthough R ussian p rofessional hunters e ngaged i n s ingle c ombat w ith b ears r ight d own t o qui te r ecent t imes, t his was f ar f rom b eing a g eneral r ule i n R us e ven i n t he f irst h alf o f t he XVth c entury. I may r emark b y t he way t hat t he n umber o f h unters m entioned i n t he L ife a s g oing o ut a fter t he b ear c an unquestionably r elate o nly t o a p rincely o r a ristocratic h unt. T he i mage o f t he b ear-hunt may b e j uxtaposed w ith t he i dea o f t he p rince's a uthority o therw ise t han merely a s a n e lement i n f eudal l iving. I n l ate manuscripts t here i s a l egend a bout h ow t he c ity o f Y aroslavl was f ounded u pon a s pot where P rince Y aroslav t he W ise c ame t o f ight w ith a b ear r evered by t he l ocal pagan r esidents, a nd t o d efeat i t . I n t he o pinion o f N . I . V oronin, t he p resence o f a b ear i n t he Yaroslavl c rest i s a ssociated w ith t his l egend ( 1941, p . 1 73, 1 74, 1 87-189). B ut t here a re n o p roofs f or f amiliarity w ith t his l egend i n t he XVth c entury ( Soboleva, 1 981, p . 1 75 , 1 76). I f i t e xisted a t t hat t ime, i t s hould h ave b een o f i nterest n ot o nly t o i nhabi tants o f Yaroslavl, but t o a ll t he R ussian p r inces o f t he d ay, i nasmuch a s a ll o f t hem d erived t heir a ncestry f rom Y aroslav t he W ise. A lso i l lustrated o n a c oin o f Vasili i T yomny i s a s cene o f s truggle b etween a man a nd a l arge b east o f p rey, a pparently a gain a b ear ( Plate I X, 1 9). H ere t he h uman f igure i s n ot a rmed w ith a weapon, t he hunting s pear, which i s s pecif ically f or t he h unt, a nd i s n ot a ccompanied b y a d og. T he man s tr ikes t he b east w ith a m ilitary weapon, a s aber. T hus h ere, a s c ompared w ith t he c oins o f t he p rinces o f T ver, i t i s t he m ili tary, f eudal c haracter o f t he f eat which i s t he more s trongly emphasized - t he hunting s pear a nd t he p resence o f t he d og s omewhat r educe t he h eroics o f t he i ncident a nd g ive t he s cene a c ertain e very-day c haracter. A s till more s trongly f eudal a nd h eroic p rinciple i s e xpressed i n a s cene o f s truggle
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w ith a b east o n c oins o f t he S uzdal-Nizhegorod P r inces I van B orisovich a nd D aniil. T he h uman f igure d efeats t he b ear w ithout t he a id o f a w eapon, m erely g rasping i ts t hroat w ith a h and ( a s uperhuman h eroic f eature), a nd y et t here i s a weapon, a nd a m ilitary o ne a t t hat, i n t he hands o f t he f igure - a s word which t he f igure r itually s houlders ( Plate I X, 2 02 2). I n t his c omposition t he weapon, which has p roven n ot t o b e n eeded i n t he s truggle, i s a s ymbol o f s ocial p restige, o f a uthority. C onsiderations o f f eudal e tiquette h ave g iven a d ownright f antastic a ppearance t o t he s cene, which i n i ts d irect c ontent i s a l together r ealistic a nd e ven f rom e very-day l i fe ( the h unt). O n t he S uzdal-Nizhegorod c oins t he b east w ith which t he man i s f ighting has a l ong t ail, d ivided i nto t hree b ranches a t t he t ip. A l ong t ail i s n ot c haracteristic f or t he b ear, but c onsider ing t he i ndifference o f a ncient R ussian a rt t o t he v isible p eculiarities o f a nimals, o ne c annot u nconditionally c onsider t his b east a s s omething o ther t han a b ear. I t i s a lso n ot o ut o f t he q uestion t hat t his i s a g eneralized i mage o f a b east o f p rey, t he " raging b east." A r ange o f i mages o n c oins p resent b ird-hunting ( Plate I X, 2 4-27). The b ird p erches i n a t ree; i t i s r ather s mall. A s a whole t he s cene d oes n ot e xhibit t he c haracter o f a g randee's f eat. E vidently t he hunt was t aken t o b e a n a ctivity worthy o f a f eudatary a nd a s ymbol o f s uccess. T he p aramount r ight t o h unt was moreover o ne o f t he c haracteristic a nd a ncient r ights a ssociated w ith a p rince's a uthority. V .P. D arkevich ( 1962, p . 1 04) a ssociates t he d epiction o f b ird-hunting o n a ncient R ussian c oins w ith a r elief o n t he walls o f t he S t. Dmitri C athedrel a t V ladimir w ith which h e d eals, r ather p ersuasively, a s b eing a s cene l inked w ith t he c ycle o f t he f eats o f H eracles b orrowed f rom R omanesque models. I t s tr ikes u s t hat a t ransference by c ontemporaries o f t he s cenes under e xamination, a nd p articularly a t ransference o f t heir i nterpretation, i s u nlikely. T he b ird i n t he r elief d oes i ndeed r emind o ne c losely o f t he S tymphalian b irds i n R omanesque a rt , which a re l ike c ranes. T he b irds o n t he c oins h ave n o f eatures o f c ranes, a nd g enerally s peaking t hey l ack a ny s pecific f eature. I n a ddition, i t i s b y n o m eans p ossible t o d emonstrate t hat t he r elief o n t he walls o f t he S t. Dmitri C athedral which was t he s ub ject o f Darkevich's e xamination was u nderstood i n Rus i n t he s ense o f t he o riginal m eaning o f t he m odels u tilized. T hus e ven i f t here i s a n i conographical c onnection b etween t he s cene o n t he walls o f t he S t. Dmitr i Cathedral a nd t he i mages o n t he c oins, t his a ffords n o grounds f or s eeing i n Russian c oins o f t he XVth c entury a r eflection o f t he H eracles myths, t he l ess s o i n t hat o ther a nd more p opular myths o r H eracles have n ot b een r eflected a t a ll i n i mages o n R ussian c oins. T o t he hunting s cenes a nd t hose o f s ingle c ombat b etween a man a nd b easts o r monsters t here a lso f alls t he i l lustration o f t he v ictory o ver a l ion e ncountered o n many Russian c oins o f t he XVth c entury. T he human f igure s its mounted u pon t he l ion a nd t ears t he j aws a part w ith i ts hands ( Plate X . 1 -9). T his i s t he i conography, w idely known i n R us, o f t he b iblical
8 5
S amson, r eflecting a n O ld T estament t ext ( Judges X IV, 5 , 6 ). F or s ome n ot e ntirely c omprehensible r eason O reshnikov ( 1896, p . 4 2 f.) c onstantly a ssumes t hat t he c omposit ion i n q uestion c an r epresent e ither S amson o r H eracles. An e xceed ingly l arge n umber o f a ncient R ussian p ictures u nquestionably r epresenting S amson a nd t he l ion w ith j ust s uch i conography a s t his, a nd t he c omplete a bsence o f a rguments which m ight c onnect a ny p art o f t hese c ompositions w ith t he f igure o f H eracles, e nable o ne t o s ettle t hat q uestion w ith c omplete a ssurance. I n a ddition, i n R us w e d o k now o f p ictures o f s cenes o f s ingle c ombat b etween a man a nd a l ion t hat c an b e a sociated w ith a n i conography a rising u nder t he i nfluence o f t he H eracles myths. T hese a re a p icture o n t he wall o f t he S t. Dmitr i C athedral ( Vagner, 1 969 , p . 3 09, f ig. 1 90) a nd a s cene o n a c arved wooden s poon f rom N ovgorod ( Kolchin, 1 971, p late 4 6, 2 ). I n b oth c ases t he h ero i s a rmed w ith a c lub, which t estifies t hat t his i s n ot S amson. On t he walls o f t he S t. Dmitr i C athedral t here i s a lso a h ero t earing a part t he j aws o f a l ion ( Darkevich, 1 962, f ig. 3 ). T his o ne u nquestionably i s S amson, s ince among t he r eliefs a ssociated w ith t he f eats o f H eracles t here i s a lready o ne s howing t he f ight w ith t he l ion. T he i mage o f S amson i s i ndisputably a ssociated w ith C hr istian i conography, but i t s tands a t t he p er iphery t hereof . T his i mage was i n f act n ot a n i kon i n i tself . B ut i t i s k nown i n c lose c on junction w ith s acred i mages - o n t he S uzdal c hurch d oors o f t he m iddle o f t he X IIIth c entury ( Rybakov, 1 970, p . 5 6, f ig. 6 7), a nd o n a c arved wooden p rocessional c ross o f 1 358 f rom N ovgorod ( Lazarev a nd Mneva, 1 954, p . 1 61). On p art o f t he c oins o f B or is A leksandrovich t he f igure o f S amson t akes o n e xtremely s tylized c haracterteristics, a nd i t c an b e r ecognised a nd understood o nly by a nalogy w ith i mages o n o ther c oins ( Plate X , 6 -9). A lmost a ll t he i mages o f S amson w ith t he l ion h ave o n t he o ther s ide t he t ype o f a h orseman w ith a f alcon; t hese l atter p resent a s omewhat d ebased e very-day i mage o f a f eudatary. S amson w ith t he l ion s upplements t he i mage o f t he r uler w ith s uperhuman, h eroic f eatures a nd a ssociates h im w ith t he world o f e cclesiastical c onceptions. I n a ncient R ussian l i terature S amson a s a model f or R ussian p r inces i s a w idespread l i terary c liche. T herefore e ven t hough t he i mages o f S amson a re n ot a ccompanied o n R ussian c oins w ith t he i nscription " kn" i t i s e vident t hat t hey were a ssociated w ith t he f igure o f t he p r ince. The f act t hat a h eroic f igure o f S amson s tr iving w ith t he l ion o n a s eal o f t he XVIth c entury was a ssociated w ith t he owner o f t he s eal-stamp i s a ttested by t he i nitials o f t he owner which o nceptions. I n a ncient R ussian l i terature S amson a s a model f or R ussian p r inces i s a w idespread l i terary c liche. T herefore e ven t hough t he i mages o f S amson a re n ot a ccompanied o n R ussian c oins w ith t he i nscription " kn" i t i s e vident t hat t accompany t he i mage ( Snimki, 1 882, p late 8 8). One o f t he c oins o f Andrei Dmitr ievich o f Mozhaisk h as o n o ne s ide a n i mage o f S amson a nd o n t he o ther a c ross ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 47). This i s a r are e xample o f s trong i nf luence o f e cclesiastical c onceptions 8 6
u pon t he make-up o f R ussian c oins o f t he p er iod w e a re s tudying. I n a ddition t o i ts h eroic s ignif icance, t he s cene o f t he c ombat o f S amson w ith t he l ion h ad a lso a f igurative, moralistic s ense. A long w ith t he f avorable m eanings t hat were a ssociated i n t he M iddle A ges w ith t he i mage o f t he l ion, t hat b east was a lso a v ery f amiliar f igure o f t he d evil ( Psalms, X XII, 2 1; XCI, 1 4 ; IP eter, V , 8 ). I n t he c ontext o f t his a nd o ther c ompositions s howing a f ight w ith a b east i t c annot b e d oubted t hat t he man i s t he p ositive h ero a nd t he b east i s t he n egative f igure. A lso s imilar i n m eaning t o t he i mage o f S amson w ith t he l ion i s t he i l lustration o f s ingle c ombat o f a man a gainst a d ragon o n a c oin o f Vasilii T yomny. The man t hrusts a l ance i nto t he d ragon's g ape, t he d ragon b eing r epresented m erely b y a g igantic h ead ( Plate I X, 2 3). The d imensions o f t he d ragon's h ead emphasize t he h eroic nature o f t he f eat. The s ystem o f s ymbols f or c ombat w ith a d ragon w ill b e e xamined b e low i n c onnection w ith t he f igures o f mounted warriors who a re d ragon-slayers. We s hall a lso s peak t here a bout r eplacements o f t he whole d ragon by i t s h ead a lone o n a n umber o f i mages. H ere we may n ote t hat t he i mage o f t he f ight w ith t he d ragon which i s a t i ssue h as n o c lose c ompositional a nalogies i n e cclesiastical i conography. I n e valuating t he c oins w ith i l lustrations o f s cenes o f hunting a nd o f c ombat w ith b easts a nd monsters we s hould p oint o ut t he f act t hat a lthough t he f eudal a nd moralizing c haracter o f a n umber o f t hem i s e xpressed d istinctly e nough ( Samson w ith t he l ion, t he man w ith t he s word a t h is s houlder who h olds a b east b y t he t hroat w ith h is h and, t he man s triking a b ear w ith a s aber), s till i n o ther c ases, i ncluding t hose o f t he e arliest c oins w ith f igures o f t his s ort ( the c oins o f I van M ikhailovich) s uch i deological n otions h ave n ot y et b ecome i ncorporated i n s pecific p eculiarities o f t he c omposition; t he h unt i s d ealt w ith a s a r ealistic s cene f rom e veryday l ife. The h unt h ad f or a ges p ast c onstituted a p aramount r ight o f t he R ussian p r inces. One o f t he most a ncient i nter-princely c ollisions a rose o ut o f a q uarrel a bout hunting r eserves ( PSRL, v ol. I , p . 7 4). Correspondingly o ne o f t he m ost a ncient p rivileges o f N ovgorod was l imitation o f t he r ight o f p rincely h unting u pcn t he t errain o f i ts l ands, c onstantly m entioned i n t reaties ( GVNR, p . 9 , 1 0). A t t he t urn o f t he X Ith-XIIth c enturies V ladimir Monomakh i n h is t eachings f or h is c hildren b oasts o f h is hunting f eats e ssentially o n a n e ven f ooting w ith h is war like f eats ( PSRL, v ol. I , p . 2 51). I n t he I patii C hronicle, i n d ata r elating t o t he e nd o f t he X IIIth c entury, t here i s m ention o f a c hief tain " universally f amed f or h is b ravery i n war a nd i n t he hunt" ( PSRL, v ol. I, p . 8 90). C ompar ing i mages o n c oins w ith t he t wo m ost i mportant g roups o f s ecular s ubjects i n a ncient R ussian a rt - t he t eratological o rnament o f manuscripts, a nd t he b one-carving o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury - we s hould n ote t hat t he s ubjects, p opular o n c oins , which were a ssociated w ith t he hunt a nd w ith c ombat o f a man a gainst a b east o r a monster ( to t he o nes 8 7
we h ave e xamined we must a lso a dd s ub jects s howing mounted h unters w ith a f alcon, h orsemen s tr iking a d ragon o r a b east o f p rey w ith a l ance, a nd a f igure o n a t hrone w ith a f alcon o n h is wrist - a ll o f t hese t aken t ogether c onstitute a d ecidedly a ppreciable p art o f t he i mages o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies) a re p ractically n ot r epresented i n t hese o ther t wo i mportant g roups o f mater ials. I n t erato logical o rnament, i t i s t rue, o ne e ncounters h uman f igures o n f oot w ith f alcons a nd, a pparently, h unting d ogs ( Stasov, 1 887, p late L XVII I , 1 7; p late LXXI, 3 , 4 ; P late XXXIV , 1 ). S ome d epictions o f h uman b eings w ith a n a nimal i n a h and c an b e a ssociated w ith t he c oncept o f game s ecured i n h unting ( Stasov, 1 887, p late L XV, 1 5; p late L XVII, 1 4; p late • LXIX, 4 ). S cenes o f h unting a re a bsent, a s s uch, f rom t eratological o rnament o f t he X IIIth-XIVth c enturies; t he s cenes o f b ear-hunting which h ave b een m entioned a re a ssociated w ith s urviving f orms o f t he t erato logical s tyle which a re a lready l ater i n d ate. I t h as b een r emarked a bove t hat d epictions i conographically c lose t o t he c omposition " Samson a nd t he l ion" a re known i n t erato logical o rnament, but t hey b etray p atent t races o f d egradation, o f l oss o f c onceptual c ontent. A ll o f t his may b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat t he t eratological s tyle was c onceived o f a s purely d ecorative. B ut s uch a n e xplanation c annot b e e xtended t o t he c arved s taffs o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury, o f which t wo w ere r egalia o f t he Muscovite g rand p rinces. T he d ecor o f t hese was b eyond d oubt i ntended i n t he f irst i nstance t o e xpress t he s ame i dea a s f or t he g reater p art o f t he i mages o n c oins - t he i dea o f p r incely a uthority. Apparently t he d ifference b etween t he gamut o f i mages o n c oins a nd o n t he s taffs was b rought a bout n ot b y p eculiarities which e ndowed t hem w ith c onceptual c ontent, b ut b y t he f act t hat c ertain p eculiarities o f t he " language" o f t heir s ymbo lic s ystems w ere i nherent i n t hese g roups o f o bjects. L et u s t ry t o f ind o ut which i mages p erform o n t he s taffs t he s ame f unctions a s d o t he s cenes o f hunting a nd o f c ombat w ith b easts a nd monsters o n t he c oins. F irst o f a ll we may p oint o ut t hat f or t he c arving o n t he s taffs i ndividual i mages ( sometimes p aired i mages) s eparated b y o rnament a re c haracter istic. T he r eciprocal r elationships b etween i ndividual p ersonages a re manifested, i n t his c onnection, p rimar ily n ot t hrough t heir b eing c on joined i n a s ingle c omposition o r t hrough t heir b eing g iven s ome s ort o f a ttributes which c haracterize t hem, but i nstead t hrough t heir f orming more o r l ess o rdered s ets o f s er ies o r d etached i mages. T he f act t hat t hey t ake o n meaning p recisely t hrough t heir b eing s ets o f s eries i s s uggested, f or e xample, by t he p resence o f t wo pairs o f medallions, b oth o f which c onstitute a t raditional c ouple - t he l ion a nd t he u nicorn; t he i mage o f a h orse's h ead i s l ocated c lose t o t he h ead o f a man, e vidently a r uler, t his c onjunction a pparently r ef lecting t he i dea o f a h orseman. A p eculiar i ncongruity d istinguishes, when i t i s t aken f or i tself a lone, a s eparated d epiction o f a s addled h orse ( the p resence o f t he s addle o bliges o ne t o c onsider t hat t his h orse i s o ffered n ot m erely a s a r epresentative o f t he 8 8
a nimal k ingdom, b ut a s a war h orse, t he h eroic a ssociations a rising n ot f rom i tself , but f rom i ts p roprietor who i s m erely h inted a t). G enera lly s peaking t he i mages s et f orth i n t he c arving o f t he s taffs f rom t he e nd o f t he X Vth c entury a re a lmost s tr ipped o f a ttributes d irectly a ssociated w ith f eudal i deology - weapons a nd r egalia., T his i s s omething t hrough which t his c arving i s s harply d istinguished f rom t he i mages o n c oins. A pparently a rt a t c ourts p referred a more f igurative l anguage. E vidently b oth t he i dea o f t he h unt a nd t hat o f c ombat w ith e vil m ight a ppear i n c arving u pon i vory o r b one i n t he g uise o f c ombat w ith b easts. I n t he c arving o f t he s taffs, s cenes o f r ending a re i ndeed r ather n umerous. W e may n ote a t o nce ; t hat among t he i mages o n c oins s cenes o f r ending, w ith p articipation o f a nimals a lone, a re p ractically n ot r epresented a t a ll, a lthough i n a ncient R ussian a pplied a rt t hey were d ecidedly p opular. On c oins, h owever, t here i s o nly t he n ot e ntirely c lear s cene o f t he r ending o f a s erpent by g riff ins ( Iluin, 1 940, p late V III, 2 1 - p r incipality o f S uzdal-Novgorod), a nd a n e agle r end ing a s erpent ( Plate XVIII, 1 0, V ereya, M ikhail Andreyevich). S ide b y s ide w ith t he u nique c haracter o f t hese i mages, o ne s hould n ote t he emphatic, d ef inite nature o f t he r elationships b etween t he f igures o n t hese c oins. I n b oth c ases t hese a re n ot s ome i ndef ini te moment i n a s truggle b etween c reatures s tanding o n a n e ven f ooting, b ut a s harply c onveyed v ictory; i n b oth c ases c lear a ccents o f a moralizing nature a re p resented - t he s erpent u nquestionably r epresents t he p rinciple o f e vil. Y et i n s cenes o f r end ing f rom ancient Russian a pplied a r t s uch p lainness i s f ar f rom b eing a lways p resent. R eturning t o o ur c omparison o f t he i mages p resented o n t he o ne h and u pon c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies, a nd o n t he o ther h and u pon t he c arved s taffs o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury, n ote t hat t he s ubject t heme o f t he h unt c ould b e r eflected u pon t hem i n a nother manner t han m erely t hrough s cenes o f r ending. T his i nvolves, f or e xample, t he t otality o f t he s eparated d epictions o f animals, i n p articular t hose s urrounded by a n etwork, a s i t were, o r p laited o rnament which m ight e xpress t he i dea o f a p rincely hunt t hrough c oursing. T here i s e specially, i n o ne o f t he c arved d etails o n a s eparated m edallion ( Plate XXXV, 6 ), a r epresentation o f t he f igure o f a n a nimal pursued by a s mall b ird; i n t he s ame d etail a c onsiderable part o f t he a nimals a re r epresented l ooking back ( in ancient Russian a rt t his p ose was quite f requently a ssociated w ith t he i dea o f a b east b eing p ursued). T hus t he s ub ject t heme o f t he hunt a nd o f c ombat i s p resented i n t he b one c arving o f t he XVth c entury, but p reponderantly t hrough d ifferent i mages t han t hose u sed o n c oins. The u nderlying s ignif icance o f i mages o f a nimals i n R ussian f olklore b oils d own t o t heir s ymbolizing human b eings; i t i s n ot r are f or c omparisons o f human b eings w ith a nimals t o t ake o n a n a ppearance o f s ymbo lical p ärallellism , whereupon i t b ecomes a ltogether c lear t hat t he f igures o f a nimals r epresent human b eings a nd t heir a ctivities. A s a n e xample o f s ymbolical s ynonymy b etween i mages o f f ighting o f animals a nd 8 9
f ighting o f h uman b eings we may a dduce a n e xtract f rom a l ate b ook o f f ortune t elling: " many e nemies h ave r isen a gainst t hee, b east gnashes i ts t eeth a gainst b east, b rigand whets t he s word a gainst b rigand, t hou t oo a rt a man, s o p ray t o G od a nd may G od s ave t hee." ( Speranski, 1 899 , p . 2 0). A s a pplied t o t he a uthority o f t he p rince, t he t heme o f v ictory o ver a b east o f c ourse c onstitu tes f irst a nd f oremost a n a llegorical e xpression o f t he i dea o f v ictory i n war. O n t his a ccount , e ven t hough r eflection o f t his i dea i n t he f orm o f s ingle c ombat w ith a b east i s l ess a llegorical t han when e xpressed i n t he f orm o f c ombat b etween b easts ( since a t a ny r ate t he main a nd p ositive h ero i s s hown i n h uman guise), i t t oo i s c onventional a nd s ymbo lical. S ince t he r epresentat ion u pon c oins o f a v ictory o ver a b east o r a monster i s e ncountered more f requently t han i s t he d epiction o f v ictory o ver a h uman b eing, t here a rises a q uestion a s t o t he e xplanation f or t his. Apparently i n s electing v ictory o ver a b east o r a monster t he makers s ought a bove a ll t o s how t he d istinction i n p r inciple b etween t he p ositive a nd t he n egative i mage. We s hould r emark t hat o n wax-composition s eals f rom t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury s cenes o f r end ing w ith t he p articipation o nly o f b easts a re w idespread a s c ompared w ith t heir a ppearance u pon c oins. S uch, i n particular, i s o ne o f t he s eals o f I van II ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late I , 8 ; P late XXVIII. 9 . r everse - a l ion r ending a s erpent); s ubsequently, s cenes o f r ending a re e ncountered a lso o n s eals o f t he XVIth c entury ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late I II, 1 ; p late I V, 2 5 ; p late V I, 8 5; p late V III, 1 50), a nd o n o nes l ater t han t hat. A t t he s ame t ime t here a re o n t he s eals a lso s cenes o f c ombat o f a man a gainst a b east ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late II, 5 1 - XVth c entury; p late II, 1; p late V II, 17 - o f t he XVIth c entury). A s cene o f t he hunting o f a l arge b east o f i ndeterminate s pecies i s p resented o n a s eal o f t he b eginning o f t he XVIth c entury which b elonged t o P rince Y uri, a s on o f I van II ( i t b ears t he t i tle " the p r ince, s on o f t he g rand p rince" - I vanov, 1 858 , p late I V, 2 2). Among t he s eal i mpressions o n wax f rom t he f irst half o f t he XVIth c entury t here a re a lso d epictions o f S amson a nd t he l ion ( Ivonov 1 858 , p late I V, 1 5). T hus t he i mages o n s eals t o a c onsiderable e xtent e cho a nd r e-echo t he i mages o n c oins; but a t t he s ame t ime t here a re o n t he s eals i mages o f a s ort c haracter istic f or ancient Russian a pplied a rt, but n ot c haracter ist ic f or c oins. On t he c oins o f Vasilii T yomny t here a re t wo i mages which p resent c ombat b etween t wo human f igures. I n o ne c ase o ne o f t he f igures s tr ikes t he o ther w ith a c lub o r a s word ( Plate X , 1 0 , 1); i n t he o ther, o ne f igure c uts t he o ther's h ead o ff w ith a s aber ( Plate X , 1 2, 1 3). T he f igure l osing i ts h ead i s p resented wearing a c urious c ap r eminding o ne o f t he h eadgear o f a n e nthroned f igure o n a c oin o f Y uri Dmitrievich, t he u ncle a nd a ntagonist o f Vasilii T yomny ( Plate X , 2 0). T he c oincidence i s e vidently a r andom o ne a nd c annot b e a ssociated w ith h istorical f acts - Yuri Dmitr ievich d ied a n atural d eath i n Moscow, which h e h ad s eized. I n t he o pinion o f A .K.
9 0
Ma r kov ( 1910), t he d epiction o f t he b eheading r eflects t he i dea o f p unishment f or c ounterfeiters. B ut a s cene w ith s uch a t riumph may a lso b e c onceived o f a s a b attlefield e pisode. T he R uler u pon t he T hrone A c onsiderable g roup o f i mages o n R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth a nd XVth c enturies p resents p ictures o f r ulers u pon t he t hrone. S uch i mages a re f or t he most p art t o b e a ssociated w ith Russian p r inces. This i s e videnced b y t he f act t hat t hey a re a lmost w ithout e xception u pon c oins w ith R ussian i nscr iption s ,a nd a ccord ingly t he p roposition t hat t hey m ight d epict r ulers o f t he G olden H orde f alls b y t he wayside. T here i s a n i nscr iption " kn" o n a r ange o f c oins b ear ing s uch i mages. F inally, t he i mage o f t he r uler u pon t he t hrone i s t he s ole t ype c ommon t o Russian c oins o f t he X IVth a nd XVth c enturies a nd t o t he most a ncient c oins o f t he R ussian s tate i n t he X th-XIth c enturies, u pon which t he f igure o n t he t hrone q uite i ndisputably r epresents a R ussian p rince ( Plate I ). Among t he e arliest c oins b earing t he i mage o f a r uler u pon a t hrone i s a c oin o f I van M ikhailovich o f Tver ( Plate X , 1 4, 1 5). The f igure i s p resented wear ing a c rown a nd w ith r aised s word and a l ance i n h is h ands; i t s its u pon a t hrone w ith a back. I t s hould b e n oted t hat o n t he m iniatures o f manuscripts o f t he X IVth a nd XVth c enturies t he t hrones o f R ussian p r inces o rdinar ily d o n ot h ave backs ( Artsikhovski, 1 944, p . 3 2). T he i mage u ndoubtedly r eflects t he i dea o f a r uler ( the c rown). Moreover, t he weapon i n t he hands o f t his f igure i s u nquestionably a ssociated w ith t he c oncept o f t he p unitive f unctions o f a uthority. This d oes n ot t ranspire f rom t he p eculiarities o f t he d epiction, but e nsues f rom t he i nscriptions o n t he c oins o f t his c lass. W e h ave a lready s poken o f t he i nscription t hat o ccupies t he r everse s ide o f t he c oin; i t r eads " Watch a gainst t he W itless." E vidently t he f igure w ith t he s word a nd t he l ance i n i ts h ands e xpresses n ot o nly t he i dea o f p r incely a uthority i n t he b road s ense but a lso t he i dea o f t his " watch" o ver h is r ights. On c oins o f Vas i l ii T yomny a nd Vasilii Y aroslavich o f S erpukhov t here a re s imilar f igures o n t hrones but i n p rof ile, h olding b efore t hem i n a n e xtended h and a r aised s word o r s cepter ( Plate X , 1 6, 1 7). I n a majority o f c ases t he o bject a t t he s houlder o r i n t he h and o f t he f igure s eated o n t he t hrone i s p robably n ot a s word but a s cepter , b ecause a s word's c ross-guard i s a lmost n ever s hown. I n a ctual l ife t he R ussian p r inces o f t he XVth c entury a pparently d id n ot u se a s hort s cepter. A t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury a nd i n t he XV I th t he s cepter o f t he Muscovi te s overeigns h ad a more a rchaic a ppearance, t hat o f a l ong s taff u pon which o ne m ight s upport o nese lf while walking (C hernetsov , 1 980). I n ancient Russia t he s hort s cepter was known a s a n a ttribute o f f oreign r ulers, a nd i n t hat r ole i t was f requently e nough r epresented by R ussian a rtis ts. A s a r egale o f a R ussian p rince t he s hort s cepter i s r epresented, a side f rom i ts a ppearance i n 9 1
c omposition o n c oins, o nly o n t he s akkos o f t he M etropolitan F otii ( Photios) which we h ave a lready m entioned, where t here i s a d epiction o f Vasilii Dmitrievich. B oth t he s hort s cepter a nd t he c rown were e xotic s ymbols o f a uthority f or R us o f t he XVth c entury. A s c ompared w ith t he R ussian p rincely c ap a nd t he s taff , which i n t heir c onfiguration h ad a g reat d eal more r esemblance t o f amiliar o bjects o f e veryday l i fe, t he c rown a nd t he s cepter e xpressed a g reat d eal more p lainly t he i dea o f a uthority a nd t he s pecif ic c haracter o f t he r egalia a s a ltogether s pecial o bjects. P robably i t was f or j ust t his r eason t hat t here c ould a r ise i n R us a phenomenon s o p aradoxical a s t hat o f t he i conography o f t he r egalia o f Russian r ulers' p roving t o more p rogressive ( insofar a s i n t hat f ield g reater s pecialization i s t o b e c onsidered a p rogressive f eature) t han w ere t he r egalia o f which t hey made u se i n t he a ctual c ircumstances o f t heir l ives. This h owever i s n ot s o s urpr ising i f o ne c onsiders t he f act t hat a ncient R ussian l i terature i s t o a c onsiderable e xtent u nder t he i nfluence o f B yzantine p hraseology a nd h ad o f o ld u sed f or t he R ussian p rinces t he r hetorical t i tle o f t sar ' o r t sesar' a nd h ad i n t hat c onnection a lso made a m ention o f s uch s ymbols o f a uthority a s t he b agryanitsa ( "the purple"), t he s kipetr ( "scepter"), a nd t he v enets ( "the wreath," " the l aurel," more r ecently a lso " the c rown". ) On c oins a ssociated w ith v ar ious p r inces a nd p rincipalities o ne may s ee a f igure s eated u pon a t hrone w ith a s cepter a t h is s houlder a nd w ith t he o ther hand r aised ( Plate X , 1 8-23). T hese a re d istinguished among t hemselves t hrough t he s hape o f t he t hrone a nd s ome o ther d etails. On o ne c oin o f Vasi lii T yomny t he t hrone i s r epresented a s s imple w ithout a b ack ( Plate X , 1 8). On a c oin o f P rince D aniil o f S uzdal t he i conography o f t he r uler i s a nalogous, but i n h is r aised hand t here i s t he i mage o f a g oblet o r c up ( Plate X , 1 9). I n t his i nstance t he o bject a t t he s houlder i s u nquestionably a s word ( i t h as a c ross). One s hould s ay a f ew words a bout t he r itual p ose w ith s word i n o ne hand a nd a v essel i n t he o ther. On c oins i t a gain a ppears o n t he c oin o f Andrei Dmitr ievich o f Mozhaisk t hat we h ave m entioned ( saber a nd goblet) i n t he hands o f a f igure o f o riental a ppearance ( Plate XX, 9 -10). Apparently t he s ame o bjects a re i ndistinctly i ndicated i n t he r aised h ands o f a c entaur o n a N ovgorod l ead s eal o f t he f irst h alf o f t he X IVth c entury which b elonged t o a n o ff icial whose g iven n ame was F iliks ( Yanin, 1 970, v ol. I, p late 3 5 , 7 0 1) . A p erfectly p lain s word a nd g oblet a re p resented r aised i n t he h ands o f a p ersonage i n a n i nitial o f t he t eratological s tyle o f t he X IVth c entury ( Stasov, 1 887, P late L XIX, 1 2; P late XXXII I , 5 ). T hus a lthough t he c ombination o f t he a ttr ibutes i n q uestion i s p retty r are, i t i s n evertheless n ot u nique a nd i t i s a pparently e ndowed w ith s ome s or t o f m eaning. One may s uppose t hat t he s word a nd t he g oblet r eflect t he i dea o f a uthority which may e ither punish o r r eward. A long w ith t his s word a nd v essel a re i ndispensable p roperties i n c onnection w ith t he f eudal o ath i n t he T atar c eremony ( the s o-called s hertnaya p risyaga). T his o ath 9 2
i nvolved t wo s wear ing c eremonies f airly w idespread among v ar ious p eoples - t he o ath u pon t he weapon a nd t he o ath a ssociated w ith t he d owning o f a s pecial d raught ( the s hert). M iniatures o f t he XVIth c entury r epresent t he o ath u pon t he d raught a bove s words; i n t he p rocess t hese l ie b efore t hose who a re s wear ing, while t he l atter d rink f rom v essels h aving n arrow n ecks ( Artsikhovski, 1 944, p . 1 28, 1 29, f ig 3 6) T hus i conographically s peaking t he m iniatures w ith d epictions o f t he o ath u pon t he d raught h ave l i ttle i n c ommon w ith t he i mages u pon c oins t hat we a re e xamining. S till, t he c ombination o f a weapon a nd a d rinking v essel i n t he h ands o f a r uler i s t oo d istinctive a o ne t o b e a matter o f m ere c hance. I nformation t o t he e ffect t hat among t he T atars t he •o ath was a ccompanied b y d rinking was f ami liar t o Russian s ociety a nd i t e ven p enetrated i nto f olklore. A ccording t o a c hronicle, a fter P r ince D aniil o f Ga lich c onsented t o d rink k oumyss while among t he H orde ( "I h ave n ot d runk h itherto, L ord; b ut n ow, i f y ou s o d irect , I s hall"), h e was t old, " Now y ou a re o ne o f u s T atars" ( PSRL, v ol. I, p . 8 07). I n a h istorical f olksong d evoted t o a r ising o f t he f irst half o f t he X lVth c entury a gainst T atar d omination a t Tver i t i s s aid t hat a T atar, d esir ing t o r eceive a uthority o ver T ver, was o bliged t o s ignify h is l oyalty t o t he k han by k illing h is own s on a r id d rinking a c up o f h is b lood. T he i mages o n R ussian c oins t hat o ne m ight a ff irmatively a ssociate w ith a r epresentation o f t he o ath u pon a d raught m ight b e i ntended n ot o nly f or T atar m ercenaries a s a r eminder o f t heir o aths o f t hat c haracter which h ad b een p ledged t o R ussian p rinces, b ut c ould a lso b e more w idely u nderstood a s a r eflection o f t he i dea o f t he f eudal o ath, t he c oncept o f f aithfulness t o o ne 's l ord. A f ew f urther c oins b earing a n i mage o f a p rince u pon a t hrone w ith a s cepter a t h is s houlder a nd t he o ther hand r aised s how h im o n a t hrone which i s s haped l ike t he f oreq uar ters o f animal f igures. A f igure o n a t hrone o rnamented w ith i mages o f l ion p rotomes i s r epresented o n o ne o f t he p ortals o f t he S t. Dmitri C athedral a t V ladimir ( Vagner , 1 969, p . 3 13, f ig. 1 92; P late XXXII, 2 ). S uch i mages a re known o n c oins o f Vasilii T yomny a nd o f h is a ntagonists, Yuri Dmitrievich a nd h is s on Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka, but a lso o n t hose o f Vasilii Yaroslavich o f S erpukhov ( Plate X , 2 0-23). T he i conography o f t hrones o f t his c onfiguration was a ffected, i n m edieval a rt, b y r epresentations o f t he t hrone o f S olomon. B ut t he p resence o f t he l etters " kn" t o t he s ides o f s uch a n i mage o n many o f t he c oins i s a n a rgument i n f avor o f t heir r epresenting a p r ince. The o bject i n t he hands o f t he f igure i s a pparent ly a s cepter a nd n ot a s word. A c rown i s s hown u pon a lmost a ll t he p ersonages s eated o n " lion" t hrones, t he e xception b eing t he c oins o f Y uri Dmitrievich, p erhaps t he e arliest i n t his s eries. A lthough t he t i tle g rand p r ince i s f ound among c oins w ith t he i mage i n q uestion o nly o n t hose o f V asilii T yomny ( the c oins o f h is p olitical a ntagonists Y uri Dmitrievich a nd S hemyaka b ear o nly t he t i tle o f p rince), t he i dentity o f t he i mages o n t heir c oins was p erhaps l inked w ith
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t heir p o litical r ivalry. Among r andom f inds a t T ver ( now K alinin) t here i s a m iniature b ronze bas-relief ( probably a d etail f rom t he b inding t o a b ook) which s hows a f igure o n a t hrone o rnamented w ith a d epiction o f l ions ( Suzin, 1 947; P late XXXVII 2 ) y et t he l ions a re p resented n o t i n t he f orm o f s culptural p rotomes a s o n c oins, but i n t he f orm o f whole f igures o rnamenting t he f lank s urfaces o f t he t hrone. I n c ontradistinction t o t he i mages o n c oins t hat a re u nder c onsideration, t he hands h old n ot a s hort s cepter , b ut a l ong T -shaped s taff . T hus o n t his b as-relief t he i mage o f t he Russian p r ince i s nationally d istinctive t o a much g reater e xtent, a nd a t t he s ame t ime i t c orresponds more c losely t o t he way a Russian r uler a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury l ooked i n r eal l ife. I n t his c onnection i t i s c haracteristic t hat t he main f eatures emphasizing h is a uthority - t he t hrone o rnamented w ith d epictions o f l ions, t he s cepter, t he h eadgear - a re i n p r inciple t he s ame a s t hose o n c oins. T he l ong s taff a s a s ymbol o f t he p rince's a uthority b ecomes p opular i n R us o nly a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury. I n t he m iniatures o f t he R adziwill c hronicle ( the 8 0 's t o 9 0 's o f t he XVth c entury) n ot o ne Russian p r ince i s s hown w ith s uch a s cepter ; i n t he m iniatures o f t he I llustrated C hronicle D igest o f t he s econd h alf o f t he XVIth c entury s uch a -t aff i s among t he most c haracter istic r egalia f or a ll R ussian p r inces a nd t sars a nd f or f oreign r ulers ( Artsikhovski, 1 944, p . 18-126). T here i s a lso a n i mage o f a r uler o n a t hrone o rnamented w ith l ion p ro t omes among t he s tamps o n s ilver i ngots ( Bulychov, 1 906, p . 1 48, f ig. 3 9). S t ill a f urther i mage p f a p r ince u pon a t hrone, p resenting h im c rowned a nd w ith a b ird i n h and, i s a lso e ncountered o n c oins o f t he p rincely r ivals Vasi lii T yomny a nd Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka ( Plate X , 2 5).. I n t he i conography o f t his i mage t raits f rom d iverse i conographic g roups a re c ombined - f rom i mages o f t he hunter a nd f rom t hose o f t he r uler o n t he t hrone. T he a ttributes c ontradict e ach o ther t o a c ertain e xtent. The i mage b ears p atent w i tness t o t he e xistence o f a n i ndissoluble c onnection b etween t he i mages o f t he hunter a nd o f t he r uler . A s a r emote a nalogy, we may p oint t o a G eorgian c oin o f t he X IIth c entury i n which a k ing i s p resented wear ing a c rown o f B yzantine model, s eated i n o riental f ashion a nd h olding i n h is r aised h and a f alcon ( Pakhomov, 1 910 , p late 6 , 1 07, 1 08 ; p late 7 , 1 09 , . 10). N aturally t here i s n o n eed t o s peak o f a ny t ransference o r i conographic c onnection h ere; t he p arallel f eatures i n t he d epictions a re t o b e e xplained t hrough p arallel m edieval c onceptions o f t he a uthority o f f eudal r ulers. We may r eturn t o t he i mages r epresenting a r uler o n a t hrone w ith a c lient b efore h im. The s eated f igure o n t he t hrone h olds i n o ne hand a r aised s word, i n t he o ther a s cabbard. F acing i t a s maller f igure w ith l ong h air e xtends a hand t oward t he f igure wear ing t he c rown. T he i mage e xists u pon c oins o f V asilii T yomny, a nd a c oarsened i mitation a ppears o n a c oin o f P r ince F yodor o f Y aroslav ( Plate X , 2 62 8). I t i s i mplausible t o s ee i n t his d epiction a s cene o f
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p unishment. The r aised s word e vidently s ymbo lizes a uthority. T he f igure s tanding b efore t he r uler a pparently r ef lects t he i dea o f s ubjection; i t p erhaps r epresents a n a ppanaged p rince. B ut o ne c annot t ake t he f undamental c ontent o f t his i mage a s b eing a s cene o f i nvestiture a nd r egard t he whole c omposition a s a s ubstantiation o f t he g overnmental r ights o f a v assal p r ince t hrough h is r ece iving t hem f rom h is s uzerain. T his i s a ttested by t he c ircumstance t hat t he i mage i s f ound o n a c oin o f a g rand p rince. A nother c omposition, p resent o n c oins o f Muscovy, S erpukhov, a nd Y aroslavl, r epresents t he f igure s eated o n t he t hrone w ith a rms a kimbo ( a p osition r eflect ing p ride). On t he r uler's h ead i s a c rown. T o h is r ight i s t he b owed f igure o f a c lient ( Plate X l. 1 , 2 ). On t he c oin o f t he p rince o f S erpukhov t he f igure o f t he c lient i s c ompletely s tylized a nd has l ost i ts human guise; i t i s t o b e r ecognised o nly by c ompar ing i t w ith c oins w ith a s imilar c omposition ( Plate X I, 2 ). A t t he s ame t ime we s ee o n t he S erpukhov c oin a s word o r a s cepter a t t he s houlder o f t he s eated f igure, s omething n ot s een o n t he o ther c oins. Apparently t his f igure t oo , s howing t he r eciprocal r elationships b etween f igures, r eflects p rimar ily n ot t he i dea o f v assaldom but t he i dea o f s overeignty, i nasmuch a s t he u nderlying t ype i s t he t ype o f c oins o f t he g rand p rince o f Muscovy; o n t he c oins o f t he a ppanaged p rince o f S erpukhov t he f igure o f t he c lient h as u ndergone d egradation. Apparently t he i mage o f t he p rince o f S erpukhov was i ntended t o b e s een n ot i n t he b owed f igure, but i n t he f igure o n t he t hrone. One more c ombination r epresenting a r uler o n a t hrone w ith a c lient p resents a f igure s eated i n p rof ile u pon a t hrone w ith a back, a s cepter a t h is s houlder a nd t he o ther h and l aid u pon t he s houlder o f a v assal ( Plate X I, 3 , 4 ). The g esture may b e i nterpreted a s a n e lement i n t he c eremony o f i nvestiture o r a s a r eflection o f t he i dea o f t utelage. S uch a c omposition i s known o nly o n c oins o f t he Muscovite G rand P rince Vasilii T yomny. I n e xamining a ll t he d epictions o f r ulers o n a t hrone we s hould n ote t hat a ll a re p resented o nly o n c oins f rom which l egible A rabic i nscr iptions a re a bsent, a nd t hat a ccord ingly t here a re n o g rounds f or s upposing t hat p art o f t hese c oins may r epresent t he k han o f t he G olden H orde. The f act t hat d epiction o f a f igure o n a t hrone w ith a c lient i s p reponderantly a sssociated w ith t he Muscovite g rand p r inces s hows t hat t he meaning o f s uch c ompositions l ay n ot i n t heir s ubstantiating t he r ights o f j unior p r inces t hrough t heir r eceiving t hese f rom t heir s uzerains, but i n merely emphasizing t he i dea o f a uthority. When t hey t urned u p o n t he c oins o f a ppanaged p r inces s uch i mages were a gain n ot r ef lections o f t heir d ependency, but i nstead r eflected t he i dea o f t he a uthority p ossessed b y t hese p rinces t hemselves. D espite t he f act t hat f or a ncient R ussian c oins o f t he XVth c entury t he a ctual p ossibility o f r ef lect ing t he i dea o f vassaldom o f p rinces was n ot a lien ( we h ave i n m ind t he e xistence o f c oins w ith t he names o f t wo p r inces), a ll t he way d own t o t he a bolition o f a utonomous c oinage b y l ocal r ulers t he i dea o f t he i nequality o f g rand p r inces a nd a ppanaged p rinces r eceived n o r eflection i n t he i mages o f
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coins. During the entire period of the existence of coinage on the part of appanaged princes, no specific images arose that were linked exclusively with the authority of grand princes alone, or of "lords of all Rus" alone. In the earliest times even the double-headed eagle was not an exclusive symbol of the authority of the lords of Muscovy, as is evidenced by its appearance on coins of independent Tver (Plate XXI, 5). The images on coins reflected only the idea of the authority of a feudal ruler, and they were not sensitive to distinctions between the ranks of such rulers. What is more, the images on wax seal-impressions show that a considerable part of the depictions present on coins might be found on seals that did not belong to princes, and that they thus reflect not ideas having to do exclusively _ with princely authority, but a broader field of conceptions associated with the theme of social prestige, conceptualized in the spirit of the values of the feudal era. The images of rulers with clients are extremely numerous in ancient Russian materials. They convey to us the most diverse sorts of relationships - the receipt of tribute or of gifts, the reception of ambassadors, the despatching of a herald, an investiture. Scenes of elevation to the principate are characteristic among the miniatures of the Radziwill chronicle; they represent an armed figure of a prince upon a throne, surrounded by figures facing him (sheet 212; Plate XXXVI II, /4). One of the depictions of a figure on a throne with a facing figure stands alone. It appears on a coin of Mikhail In it a crowned figure is represented Andreyevich of Vereya. with a scepter or sword at his shoulder, and seated upon a throne. The figure standing before him is distinguished from aJl other clients through the fact that it is not a human being, but a monster. This is a clothed anthropomorphic figure which has a bird's head and legs. The hand of this being extended toward the seated figure (Plate XI, 5). The sense of this image can be established only by finding an explanation as to whom this monstrous personage represents. Monsters in the guise of birds are extremely widespread in ancient Russian art, but usually they consist of a being with a human (male or Bird's legs are encountered in ancient Russian female) head. depictions of demons; devils with birds' heads a re not rare in western European iconography, but for Russian iconography they are not characteristic. And yet apparently the most plausible explanation of this personage will be that of recognising it as being of demonic nature. In ancient Russian written sources there is information to the effect that the spirits of the dead (Old Russian J-/d.8Y1 "navi") have bird's feet, and that their tracks can be seen in ashes. (Rybakov, 1981, p. 227; this last subject has parallels in Talmudic literature). The spirits of the dead, the navi, were assigned by ancient Rusian bookmen among the unclean forces and were represented in miniatures of the Radziwill chronicle (sheet 12/4) in a manner parallel to the usual representation of demons. The association of evil forces from beyond the grave with
f igures o f b irds may b e c ompared w ith t he a ncient e astern S lavonic s uperstition t o t he e ffect t hat t he a f terworld i s l ocated where t he m igratory b irds g o ( PSRL, v ol. I , p . 2 44). T he f igure o f t he r uler o n a t hrone w ith a d emon s tanding b efore h im may b e a ssociated w ith a p opular m edieval s ub ject t heme - S olomon c ommanding t he d emons. T his s ub ject i s k nown i n w estern E uropean a rt ( Gr illot d e G ivry, p . 9 0 , f ig. 7 0; p . 9 3 , f igs. 7 1 a nd 7 2); i t i s a lso r epresented o n a n A rabic g emstone ( Babe lon, 1 892, p . 2 04, f ig 1 54). On a ncient R ussian c oins o ne may a ssociate w ith l egends r egarding S olomon t he i mage o f a r uler s eated o n a t hrone o rnamented w ith l ion f igures ( see a bove); a pparently a lso part o f t he i mages o f a c entaur o n c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c entury a re a ssociated w ith S olomon l egends. On a ncient R ussian s eals o ne e ncounters d epictions o f t he j udgements o f K ing S olomon ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late 1 9, 3 15; S nimki, 1 882, p late 14). F inally, i n Russian manuscripts s tarting w ith t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury t here i s a t alismanic d rawing c alled " the s eal o f K ing S o lomon" ( Sobolevski, 1 903, p . 2 26). T hus a c onnection o f t his i mage u pon a c oin w ith t he K ing S olomon l egend s eems quite p ossible. A t t he s ame t ime i t i s n ot o ut o f t he q uestion t hat t he i mage s hould h ave b een b orrowed f rom a s ource t hat has r emained n o t quite f ully u nderstood, i n which c onnection t he underlying c ontent o f t he i mage - t he s upernatural p owers o f t he r uler - d id b ecome a ccessible t o t he Russian man o f t he M iddle A ges. T here i s a c ertain a nalogy t o t his i mage i n a r elief o n t he wall o f t he S t. Dmitri C athedral a t V ladimir; i t r epresents a f acing f igure s eated u pon a t hione, w ith a b east s tanding i n f ront o f i t ( Vagner, 1 969, p . 3 11, f ig. 1 93). One more g roup o f i mages o f a s eated human f igure u pon c oins p resents a m int worker s triking c oins. A ll o f t hese a re o n c oins o f B oris A leksandrovich o f Tver ( Plate X I, 6 -13). We s hould r emark t hat i mages o f c oiners a re e xceptionally r are o n m edieval c oins. A pparently t he a ppearance o f s uch a n i mage o n Russian c oins i s t o b e e xplained by t he p articularly g reat l icense which t he m intmaster o r l essor n ot i nfrequently e n joyed i n h is s electing o f s ubject f or d ecorating c oins. The c oiner i s s eated, a nd b efore h im i s a workbench ( ?); i n h is h and h e h olds a h ammer . A l ow anvil d ie i s f requently v isible o n t he b ench; i n o ne i nstance we s ee t hat t he master h as s et t he punch d ie u pon t he anvil d ie a nd i s h olding t he l atter w ith h is h and. I n a number o f c ases t he c omposition i s s everely mutilated a nd t he handle o f t he hammer i s s hown a s b e ing e xceedingly l ong. I n p art o f t he i mages, a nd t hese t he most c onventional a nd s ketchy ( and e vidently n ot t he e arliest w ithin t he g roup i n q uestion) t he c oiner i s s hown wearing a c rown ( Plate X I, 1 0-13), i .e. a pparently h e r epresents t he p r ince. T hrough t his v ery p rocess t he i mage t akes o n n ot t he c haracter o f a n e very-day p roduction a ctivity, but a c onventional m eaning; i t i s s omewhat o f t he n ature o f a d eclaratory i deogram . This i s a c onvention o f t he s ame s ort a s i s t he i mage o f d onor-princes w ith m iniature t emples o r c hurches i n t heir hands - t he p r ince h imse lf n o more b uilds c hurches t han h e s tr ikes c oins. A t t he s ame t ime, t he t ransference t o t he
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p r ince o f a ctivities t hat a re c arried o ut a t h is c ommand i s a c ommonplace m etaphor i n t he l anguage o f a ncient R ussian l i terature. The d epiction o f t he p r ince i n t he f unction o f a c oiner c onverts o ur c omposition f rom a r ealistic o ne o f manufacture i nto a purely c onventional o ne which i s moreover s uch t hat i ts f undamental c ontent c onstitutes a r ef lection o f j uridical n orms ( the monetary r egale a s t he r ight o f t he p rince a lone). T he s ame s ort o f s ymbolism i s a lso r epresented i n t he i mages r ef lecting t he p unishment o f c ounterfeiters - f or i t i s o f c ourse n ot t he p r ince who c arries o ut t he punishment, a s t he c ase i s r epresented o n t he c oins. T he d epiction o f t he c oiner o n t he c oins o f T ver i s o f i nterest o n a nother p lane a s well. T he g reater p art o f t he i mages o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XV th c enturies r ef lect t he m ost g eneral f eatures o f f eudal i deology. Only a s mall p art o f t he i mages o n c oins h ave a c oncrete c onnection w ith t he f unction o f t he c oin a s a means o f payment, a s a n e lement o f material c ulture, a nd a s a n i tem i n j uridical r elationships. T hese a re i mages o f a m inatory n ature, " addressed" t o c ounterfeiters. B ut e ven t hese i mages r ef lect a r ather b road f ield - t he punishment f unction o f a uthority, which i s f ar f rom b eing a ssociated w ith t he r ight t o s tr ike c oins a lone. T he r epresentation o n t he c oins o f t he p rocess o f m inting i s a s ubject d irectly a nd e xclusively l inked w ith t he n ature o f t he o bject u pon which i t i s f ound. S uch a h igh d egree o f r eciprocal l inkage b etween a n i mage a nd t he n ature o f a n o bject u pon which i t i s f ound i s n ot c haracter istic f or a ncient R ussian a pplied a rt a s a whole, b ut o ne d oes s till r un a cross i t . Among s uch i mages a re t hose o f d onors w ith a c hurch o r a b ook ( the S vyatoslav C ompendium) i n t heir hands ( Kondakov, 1 906); o ne may a lso a ssign h ere t he i mage o n t he s poon o f P r ince F yodor B or isovich o f V olokolamsk u pon which, a s i t s eems t o me, t here i s a p rince s eated u pon a t hrone a nd w ith a s poon i n h is hands ( T.V. N ikolayeva b elieves t hat t his i s a v essel - 1 976, p . 2 42; P late XXXVII, 3 ). H orsemen A d ecidedly w idespread g roup o f i mages o n c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies c onsists o f d epictions o f h orsemen. W ith t he e limination o f l ocal r ulers a nd t he c entralization o f c oinage t he i mage o f t he h orseman b ecomes t he main o ne o n Russian c oins o f t he XVIth-XVIlth c enturies. F rom 1 497 . o nward t he u se o f a n i mage o f a h orseman a s t he c rest o f Moscow b ecomes d efinitive ( Soboleva, 1 979, p . 4 7, 4 8). A ll o f t his o bliges o ne t o c onsider w ith particular a ttention t he i mages o f h orsemen o n c oins o f t he p eriod which h ad g one b efore. F irst o f a ll l et u s n ote t hat i mages o f h orsemen d id n ot a ppear o n Russian c oins f rom t he v ery s tart. T here a re n one o f t hem o n c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi a nd h is c ontemporaries, n or o n t he c oins o f t he f irst p rince who c ommenced t o s trike c oins a t Tver, I van M ikhailovich. B ut t he f irst h orsemen o n R ussian c oins d o a ppear a t a t ime when c oins w ith l egible A rabic i nscriptions o n o ne o f t heir s ides were c urrent, a nd t hey may
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c irculate i n t he s ame m edium w ith s uch i nscr iptions. On a c onsiderable p art o f t he c oins w ith h orseman i mages h e i s r epresented w ith a s word o r w ith a s aber. T he s word ' i s t he more r arely e ncountered ( Plate X I, 1 4-16), t he s aber t he m ore c ommonly ( Plate X I, 1 8-29). Our a ttention i s d rawn b y a s er ies o f i mages o n c oins o f t he t ime o f V asilii T yomny p resenting a h orseman o f u niform i conography who, h owever , may b e c ombined w ith v arious s upplementary e lements ( Plate X I, 2 2-29). A t t he s ame t ime t he f ormal c loseness o f a ll t hese i mages i s s o g reat t hat t heir b elonging t o a s ingle g roup b oth a s t o i conography a nd a s t o u nderlying c onceptual m eaning g ives r ise t o n o d oubts. T his i s a h orseman who i s t urning t oward t he r ear a nd b rand ishing a s aber. T he h orse's h ead a lso t urns b ack ( evidently t he moment . when t he h orseman i s t urning t he h orse i n i ts t racks i s r epresented. I n t he b est e xamples o f s uch i mages t he g roup h as a v ery l ively l ook - i t i s c aught u p i n t he m otion o f t he whole. The c omplication o f t he f oreshortening i s u nusual f or a ncient R ussian a rt, p articularly f or i mages o f h orsemen o n Russian c oins, s o t hat t here i s r eason t o s uppose a f oreign model. A long w ith t hese, o ne e ncounters c lumsy i mi tations o n which t he r ider s eems t o b e f alling f rom h is h orse ( Plate X I, 2 3). T he r earward-facing p osition o f t he f igure may d epict f l ight f rom pursuers, b ut i t i s more p robable t hat a n e ndeavour was b eing made t o s how t he h igh l evel o f t he warrior's a nd h orseman's s kill. S ome o f t he i mages o f s uch a warrior a re a ccompanied by i mages o f h is a ntagonist. T his i s i n p articular t he d ragon. I n o ne i nstance ( Plate X I, 2 5, 2 6) i t i s b eneath t he f eet o f t he h orse, i n a no ther ( Plate X I, 2 4) i ts h ead e xtends b eyond t he l inear b ord-r s urrounding t he c omposition ( as d oes t he s erpent o n c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi - P late V III, 4 -6). This p icture o f a m ounted d ragon-fighter may b e a ssociated i n p rinciple w ith t he p opular i mages o f Theodore o f T iro a nd G eorge t he V ictorious. I n i kons t hey o rdinar ily w ield l ances, but s words a re e ncountered t oo, a nd more r arely a s aber. C ombat o f t he s ainted warriors w ith a d ragon's h ead a lone, o r w ith a d ragon t he b ody o f which a t t he s ame t ime c onstitutes a f rame f or t he e ntire c omposition, i t u nknown i n a ncient Russian a rt. A h orseman a ltogether a nalogous a s t o i conography c an a lso b e c ombined o n c oins w ith a n i mage o f a b east o f p rey r unning b eneath t he h orse's h oofs i n t he o pposite d irection ( Plate X I, 2 7-29).. I n t he i conographic s ense t he b east r eminds o ne c losely o f t he h eraldic l eapard ( the p osition . o f t he p aws a nd t he t ail). Whereas t he i mage o f a d ragon, o r o f i ts h ead, b eneath t he h orse's h oofs o r t o t he h orse's r ear m ight a nd e ven s hould g ive r ise t o a n a ssociation w ith i mages o f t he s ainted warr iors, t he p resence o f t he b east o f p rey b ars a ny u nconditional l inking o f t he f igure o f t he h orseman, i n t his i conography, w ith t he warrior s aints. I n R us warrior s aints were n ever s hown b att ling w ith a b east. The f igure o f a h orseman b eneath t he h oofs o f whose mount t here i s a b east i s a lso f ound upon a l ead s eal o f Vasilii Tyomny ( Yanin, 1 970, p late 7 , 4 34 ; P late XXVIII, 2 ) a nd o n s eal-rings a nd wax i mpressions f rom t he e nd o f t he XVIth c entury t o t he b eginning
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o f t he XVIIIth ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late V III, 1 43, p late I X, 2 ; S nimki, 1 882 , p late 17; P late XXVIII, 2 8). A pparently e ven t hough t he i mage o f t he r earward-turning h orseman a rmed w ith a s aber underwent t he i nfluence o f C hr istian i conography i t was n evertheless n ot a p icture o f a warrior s aint. On c oins o f Vasi lii Y aroslavich o f S erpukhov t here i s p resented a mounted b owman t urning i n t he s addle a nd s hooting t oward h is r ear ( Plate X II, 1 , 2 ). I n t he M iddle A ges t he a rt o f s hooting t oward t he r ear while a t f ull gallop was o rdinarily a scribed e xclusively t o Musulman a nd n omad warriors ( Darkevich, 1 975 , p . 1 41). I n t he XVIth c entury f oreign t ravellers d ef initely a ttr ibute t his s kill t o R ussian warriors ( Herberstein, 1 908 , p . 7 5). T he d isseminat ion o f e astern f orms o f warfare i n R us s hould a rose n o s urprise when o ne c onsiders t hat a g ood p art o f t he warr iors s erving R ussian p rinces were o f e astern o rigin. D espite t he f act t hat i n t his i nstance t he s peed o f movement o f t he h orseman i s n ot s hown, what i s i nvolved h ere i s a pparently t his v ery e xercise - t he t urning o f t he h orseman's b ody i s t he most m eaningful a nd c haracteristic d etail o f t he s cene. T he h orseman d epicted i n t his way i s unquestionably n o t a warrior s aint - s ainted warrior-horsemen s hooting w ith a b ow a re u nknown; t he a rcher's p ose r enders t he p ossibility o f s uch a n i nterpretation s till l ess p lausible. A R ussian p rince i s a pparently r epresented, a nd h is p ose i s s o d evised a s t o emphasize h is m ilitary s kills. T here i s a lso a n i mage o f a h orseman s hooting a b ow t oward h is r ear u pon a s eal o f t he s econd half o f t he XVIth c entury ( Snimki, 1 882, p late 8 7). Mounted warriors w ith l ances a re c ommon o n c oins, s tarting w ith t he d ays o f Vasilii Dmitrievich ( Plate X II.3, 2 7); P late X III, 1 -4). N ot i nfrequently t hey p ierce a d ragon w ith a l ance ( Plate X II, 1 0-20), o r e lse a quadruped ( Plate X II, 2 1). T he p oses o f t he h orseman a nd t he d ragon a nd t heir p ositions w ith r eference t o e ach o ther v ary markedly. On a c oin o f I van II t he h orseman i s s hown w ith a c rown, a nd a t t he t ip o f h is l ance i s a s mall p ennon ( Plate X II, 1 9). A c rown i s s ometimes p resent o n i kons s howing t he v ictory o f G eorge o ver t he d ragon, but u sually n ot o n G eorge's h ead; i nstead, i n t he s ky a bove i t . I n t he c ases where i t i s o n t he h ead o f G eorge, i t i s o rdinarily h eld b y a n a ngel. I n t he p resent c ase t hese s pecial f eatures a re n ot p resent, a nd t he c rown i s more l ikely t o i nd icate t he r ank o f t he h orseman t han t he s aint liness o f h is f eat. I n a r ange o f c ases c ommencing w ith c oins o f , Vasilii Dmitrievich t he h orseman i s p iercing n ot a d ragon, but m erely i ts h ead ( Plate X II, 2 2-27). T his r epresentation o f t he p art f or t he whole may b e l inked w ith a well-known p assage f rom t he P salter,"thou b rakest t he h eads o f t he d ragons i n t he waters. T hou b rakest t he h eads o f l eviathan i n p ieces...," which h owever r elates n ot t o s aints but t o G od ( Psalms, LXXIV, 1 3-14). Among R ussian i kons t here a re n one u pon which m ilitary s aints s trike merely a d ragon's h ead r ather t han t he c reature e ntire. S ome i mages o f mounted d ragon-f ighters a re a ccompanied by t he l e tters " kn" ( Plate X II. 2 6. 2 7) which i s a n 1 00
a rgument , a lthough n ot a d ecisive o ne, i n f avour o f t heir r epresenting p rinces. On s ome c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich a nd A ndrei Dmitrievich o f Mozhaisk t he h orseman s trikes o r t ramples a human h ead ( Plate X III. 1 -4). S uch i conography i s a lso u nknown t o i kons - t here we f ind m ilitary s aints o verthrowing warriors o r h orsemen, but t hese a re n ever r eplaced by i mages o f a h ead a lone. T he most a ncient R ussian i nterpretation o f t he i mages o f a h orseman o n Russian c oins f alls t o t he f irst h alf o f t he XVIth c entury a nd i s t o b e f ound i n a p assage o f a c hronicle d escribing a monetary r eform o f P rincess E lena o f G linsk. " Under t he G rand P rince Vasilii I vanovich t he i mage o n c oins was t he g rand p r ince u pon a h orse, a nd i n h is h and a s word, but t he G rand P rince I van V asilievich made t he i mage o n c oins t o b e t he g rand p r ince o n a h orse, a nd i n h is h and a l ance, a nd by r eason o f t his t hey c alled t hem k opeinyye c oins" ( that i s t o s ay, " kopeiki" o r k opeks, f rom k opye, " a l ance", P SRL, v o l.VI, p .296). The i mage o f t he mounted d ragon-f ighter o n s eals o f t he Muscovite s overeigns was a lso i nterpreted a s a r epresentation o f t he r uler, a lthough u pon t hese i t was n ot a mere a rmed h orseman t hat was s hown, but a h orseman s triking a d ragon ( Yanin, v ol. 1,1970, p .32; S oboleva, 1 981, p .165) T he f act t hat s uch a h orseman d id n ot r epresent a s aint i s a lso c onfirmed by t he c ircumstance t hat mounted d ragon-f ighters o n s eals o f I van II a nd l ater a re w ithout t he n imbus, e ven t hough t he d imensions o f t he s eal a nd t he d etailed n ature o f t heir e ngraving f reely p ermi tted i ts b e ing r epresented ( Plate XXIX , 2 ) . N or d id H erberstein c onsider t he mounted d ragon-fighter o n R ussian s eals t o b e a s aint. H e d escribes Vasilii I ll's s eal a s f o llows: " On t he o bverse o f t his s eal t here was a n i mage o f a n aked man s itting u pon a h orse w ithout a s addle, a nd s triking a d ragon w ith a l ance" ( Herberstein, 1 908, p . 2 14-216). B ut t his d escription c annot b e r egarded a s a f ully v alid s ource, f or H erberstein unquestionably e rred i n h old ing t he i mage t o r epresent t he h orseman a s n aked ( Soboleva, 1 979 , p .49 ). The f act t hat t he h orseman d efeating t he d ragon m ight i n t he XVI I th c entury r epresent t he R ussian t sar i s a ttested by s ome n otes by K otoshikhin ( 1884, p .41), a man well a cquainted w ith t he R ussian a dministrative s ystem o f t hat d ay. I n a n e ngraving o f 1 666 i n t he C hernigov e dition o f S imeon P olotski's " Mech Dukhovny" ( "The S piritual Sword") t here i s amid t he c omposition o f a n a llegorical p icture e xalting monarchical a uthority ( the c entral p ortion o f which i s o ccupied by a g enealogical t ree c arrying t he R omanov d ynasty back t o V ladimir i n t he f ace o f h istorical r eality) a p icture o f a c rowned, mounted f igure w ith a c ross u pon i ts c hest a nd s triking a d ragon( R ovinski, 1 900 , v o. I , p .15 , f ig . 23) . T he c omplication o f f inding a s olution t o t he p roblem o f h ow a nd when i t c ame a bout t hat t he t hought o f t he c ombat w ith t he d ragon c ould b e e xtended t o t he i mage o f t he R ussian p rince l ay i n t he c ircumstance t hat n o c oncrete l i terary t ext i s known i n which t here i s a n e pisode o f a v ictory by a mounted p rince o ver a d ragon. I am c areful t o s ay mounted p rince b ecause a v ictory o f a p r ince o ver a d ragon i s r epresented by a s ingle 1 01
e pisode i n ancient R ussian l i terature. T his i s t he v ictory o f s ainted P rince P eter o f Muroma o ver t he d ragon i n t he " Narrative o f P eter a nd F evronia". A ll t he e xisting v ersions o f t his L ife g o b ack t o t he t ext o f a n a uthor o f t he X VIth C entury ( Dmitriev, 1 979); y et unquestionably t here was a n e arlier v ersion o f t he l ives o f t hese s aints, o r e lse a n o ral l egend, which c ontained a ll t he e ssential e lements o f t he L ife, i ncluding t he s truggle w ith t he s erpent. T his i s d emonstrated b y t he e xistence o f a s ervice f or t hese s aints which was written a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury ( Yablonski, 1 908, p .96). B ut t he v ictory o f P r ince P eter o ver t he s erpent t ook p lace i n a palace, a nd t he p rince f ought o n f oot; t he magical s word o f t he p rince i s p articularly s ingled o ut f or a ttention. F or t his r eason n one o f t he r epresentations o f mounted warriors who a re s erpent-f ighters c an b e l inked w ith t his l i terary e pisode; n or c an p ictures o f a warrior a foot, s triking a d ragon w ith a l ance, b e l inked w ith i t . I n R ussian f olklore t he f igure o f a p rince c ombatting a s erpent was n ot a p opular o ne. I n t he e pic s ongs ( the byliny) i t i s n ot p r inces who a ccomplish t he f eat, but b ogatyrs ( heroes) who a re n ot o f p rincely o rigin. N ot i nfrequently i t i s emphasized t hat p rior t o t he a rrival o f t he h ero, t he p rince has b een p owerless b efore t he monster o r b efore o ther e nemies. I n f airy-tales k ings' s ons f ight d ragons o f ten e nough ( but a lmost a lways o nes who a re n ot t hemselves k ings). B ut t here a re n o g rounds f or a ssuming a n i nf luence u pon f eudal emblematics by t he f airy t ale ( a s pecif ic f eature o f which i s a t r ifling a ttitude t oward i ts c ontent, t hrough which t he f airyt ale i s d iL • inguished f rom t he e pic). E vtLything t hat has b een s aid a bove l eads t o a n i nteresting c onclusion: a n e xtremely p opular s ubject t heme i n f eudal emblematics o f t he XVth c entury, o ne which s ubsequently e vo lved i nto o ne o f t he c entral f igures o f R ussian h eraldry, i s n ot a ssociated w ith a ny l i terary e pisode whatever, d espite t he f act t hat i t c onstitutes a c omposition p ortraying a s pecific a ction. This means t hat t he s ignif icance o f t his s cene i s purely s ymbolical a nd a llegorical, a nd t hat i t has n o d irect, i l lustrative m eaning a nd h ad n one f rom t he v ery d ay o f i ts a ppearance a s a s ecular p olitical emblem. T his, i n i ts t urn, i s v ery i mportant f or a n understanding o f t he e ntire s ymbolic s ystem g overning i mages o n ancient R ussian c oins a s a whole, a nd i ndeed a n u nderstanding o f a ll t he s ecular s ymbolics o f a ncient R us. I f we r egard t he meaning o f s cenes o f d ragon-f ighting o n a ncient R ussian c oins a s b eing e xclusively a llegorical, t hen t here o pen u p b efore u s b road o pportunities f or i nterpreting t hat meaning by b ringing i n l i terary a nalogies; b ut t his t ime n ot e pisodes o f a n arrative c haracter - i nstead, t hese a re a llegories a nd c ompar isons, m etaphors, t o b e f ound i n a ncient Russian l i terature. F requently t he u nbelievers, t he T atar-Mongol c onquerors, make t heir a ppearance a s d ragons i n a ncient Russian l i terature ( PSRL, v ol. V I, p .93 ; v o l . X , p .239 ; S oboleva, 1 981, p . 1 57-158). I mages o f s avage b easts a re a lso e quivalated w ith t he f igures o f t he e nemies o f R us. T he t hought o f s tr ife 1 02
w ith t he T artars, s ymbolized by t he s erpent, m ight a lso b e a ssociated among R ussian b ookmen w ith t he f igure o f t he s ingle p r ince, P eter, who was a s erpent-fighter. T his i s a ttested by a n e xceptionally t elling p assage f rom t he s ervice d evoted t o h im t hat was written e ither a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury ( a t ime when t he T atar y oke h ad n ot y et b een t hrown o ff ) o r i n t he f irst y ears a f ter i ts e limination. " As o nce t hou s lewest t he d ragon a nd gayest t he m emory o f h im o ver u nto o blivion, s o n ow vanquish h im who s triveth a gainst t hy f atherland, s o t hat w e may g lorify t hee" ( Yablonski, 1 909, p .96). A ssociations o f s uch a s ort e vidently l ie a t t he b asis o f t he s ymbolic s ystem f or t he mounted p rincely d ragon-f ighter. One s hould n evertheless n ote t hat i t w ill hardly d o t o t reat a ll s uch i mages a s b eing a imed a gainst t he m ight o f t he G olden H orde. A pparantely t he meaning o f s uch i mages was b roader: i t s imply p ersonif ied t he i dea o f c ombat a gainst e vil ( and f rom t he s tandpoint o f t he p rinces, t he b earer o f e vil was a ny p olitical a ntagonist t hey m ight h ave). I n a ny e vent, i l lustrations o f v ictory o ver a d ragon m ight c oexist w ith A rabic i nscriptions o r l imitations t hereof , a lthough t he g reater p art o f t he d issem ination o f c oins w ith s uch a n i mage f alls t o a t ime when A rabic i nscriptions were n o l onger b eing p laced u pon Russian c oins. I t was n ot i n i mages o n c oins, s eals, a nd t he l ike a lone t hat d epictions o f s truggle w ith a d ragon o r a s erpent ( identical p ersonages, s ymbolically s peaking) m ight b e u nconnected w ith p ictures o f warr ior s aints. S uch i mages a re k nown p articularly i n a ncient R ussian m iniatures. T here i s t he f igure o f J ason d oing battle w ith t he d ragon t hat guards t he G olden F leece, i n a m iniature o f t he XVIth c entury I l lustrated C hronicle D igest ( Shchepkin, 1 897, p .115, f ig . 15). T his l ast p icture i s e specially i nteresting, f or i t i l lustrates a t ext i n which n othing a t a ll i s s aid a bout a s erpent. The m iniature i n q uestion r ef lects t he v ictory o f t he R ussian p r inces u nder t he l eadership o f V ladimir Monomakh i n 112 o ver t he P olovtsians ( PSRL, v ol.1, p .289). I n p raise o f t he p rinces w ith r eference t o a n e arlier v ictory o ver t he P olovtsians i n 104 t here i s mention, among o ther matters, o f t he p assage f rom t he P salm e xalting G od f or h is h aving c rushed " the h eads o f t he d ragons i n t he waters" ( PSRL, v ol I , p .279). T he m iniature p resents a mounted Russian f orce which has a lready won t he v ictory. T heir l eader, who a lso wears t he guise o f a warrior ( evidently V ladimir Monomakh) r ides a head o f t he g roup o f h orsemen. I t i s n ot h e, but o ne o f t he warriors r iding b ehind h im, t hat s trikes t he s erpent. The most i nteresting t hing i n t his p icture i s t he f act t hat t he m iniaturist t hought i t q uite natural, a nd a pparently a matter o f c ourse, t hat h e s hould e xpress t he i dea o f v ictory o ver t he " unbelievers" i n t he f orm o f t he s triking d own o f a s erpent, a nd t hat t here s hould c ome f orward i n t he r o le o f c onqueror o f t his b eing ( in t his c ontext unquestionably a d emonic o ne) a q uite o rdinary warrior, by n o m eans n ecessar ily a s aint o r a p rince. T here a re n o g rounds f or r egarding t his s cene a s a r eflection o f t he p assage o n " the h eads o f t he d ragons" s ince i n t he f irst p lace a n e ntire 1 03
s erpent i s r epresented a nd n ot j ust i t s h ead ( in i l lustrating t hat p assage o f t he P salter a ncient R ussian a rtists d epicted a c ross s purning s pecif ically t he h eads o f s erpents s eparated f rom t heir b odies - t he s erpent i s s truck d own n ot b y G od n or b y a ny o ther s upernatural b eing; a nd i n t he t hird p lace, b ecause i t i s c haracteristic f or m iniatures o f t he R adziwill c hronicle t o s how a c oncrete l ink b etween t he p icture a nd t he i mmediately a d joining t ext, while t he m ention o f t he " heads o f d ragons" i s c onsiderably r emoved f rom t he p lace where t his m iniature s tands. Evidently t he p icture a rose n ot i n c onnection w ith t hat r eference, but was i nstead a r eflect ion o f a p ersistent h abit o f t hought i n which t he i mage o f t he u nbeliever e nemy was a ssociated w ith t he d ragon-demon, a nd t he i mage o f t he v ictorious R ussians was l inked w ith t hat o f t he warr ior s aints who w ere s erpent-slayers. A s we c haracterize t he i mages o n a ncient R ussian c oins which p resent a warr ior s triking a d ragon w e must b y n o m eans l eave o ut o f a ccount t he f act t hat i n t he e yes o f a ny man o f ancient R us s uch a n i mage was i nevitably a ssociated w ith t he f igure o f t he warrior s aint ( Soboleva, 1 979 , p .57, 5 8). P ictures o f warr ior s aints who were d ragon-slayers w ere e xceedingly p opular i n R ussian i kon-painting s tarting f rom t he p re-Mongol p er iod ( Karger, 1 963 , p late 7 7), a nd t hey e njoy e xtraordinarily w idespread p opularity i n t he X IVth a nd p articularly i n t he XVth c entury ( Lazarev, 1 954 , p .156, 1 64; N ikolayeva, 1 968, p late 6 , 2 5, 3 2, 1 05). T he r ise i n t he p opularity o f t he d epiction o f s ainted a nd o f s ecular d ragonf ighters f alls t o o ne a nd t he s ame p eriod o f t ime a nd i s e vidently t o b e e xplained by o ne a nd t he s ame t hing. T his c ommon b asis f or t he p opularity o f t he p ictures i n q uestion i s a n a ugmentation o f t he s ocial p restige o f t he i mage o f t he warrior h orseman, s omething e ntirely n atural u nder t he c ircumstances o f a n i ncrease i n t he m ight ( including t he m ilitary m ight) o f t he R ussian p rincipalities, a nd a lso t he f act t hat t he p atr iotic a nd c entralizing t endencies i n R us o f t hat d ay e xhibited a p lainly e xpressed c reedal c haracter. T his i s t o b e e xplained by t he p ersistence o f t he y oke o f t he T atarMongo l k hans o f t he G olden H orde, who w ere unbelievers s o f ar a s R us was c oncerned; a r eligious t inge was a lso t aken o n b y t he s truggle a gainst t he L ithuanian f eudatories, who r etained a pagan r e ligion until t he e nd o f t he X lVth c entury a nd t hen a ccepted Catholicism. T he a crimony o f t he r eligious a spects o f t he c onf lict w ith t he g rand p r incipality o f L ithuania mounted f rom t he moment when a t V itovt's i nsistence t here was c reated w ithin t he t erritory o f t hat p rincipality a n a utonomous e cclesiastical h ierarchy i ndependent o f t he Muscovite M etropo litan a nd e xcommunicated f rom t he C hurch b y t he R ussian c lergy ( 1416). An i mportant c onsequence, a nd a t t he s ame t ime a s timulus t o t he d eve lopment o f r e ligious i ntolerance i n R us, was t he s harp c ondemnation b y t he Muscovite g rand p r ince a nd by t he R ussian c lergy o f t he F errara-Florence u nion o f 1 439, which l ed t o t he e stablishment o f t he i ndependence ( autocephaly) o f t he R ussian Church w ith r eference t o t he P atr iarch o f C onstantinople. Amid t his s tate 1 04
o f a ffairs i t a ppears n atural t hat a m erely m ilitary a nd p olitical e vent, t he e limination o f N ovgord's i ndependence, s hould b e d ealt w ith i n t he c hronicle a s a d efense o f O rthodoxy a gainst a n a postacy f rom t he F aith which was p urportedly b eing p repared ( PSRL, v ol. X II, p . 1 27-132), a nd t hat t he e cclesiastical h ierarchs who s ummoned I van II t o b attle a gainst t he H orde a scribed a h oly nature t o h is a uthority ( PSRL, v ol.XI I , p .203-212; A l, v ol.1, p .137). T hus w ithout i ndicating d irectly t hat p rincely a uthority was s acred, t he i mages o f p rinces i n t he m iraculous r ole o f d ragon-f ighters o bliquely s uggested t hat way o f t hinking. O ne must k eep t he s pread o f s uch i mages i n m ind a s o ne s tudies t he p reconceptions wh ich made p ossible t he r eception b y P us o f B yzantine n otions o f t he s acred n ature o f i mperial ( kingly) a uthority. T he t hesis t hat i mages o f s ecular d ragon-fighters were understood i n i ntimate c onnection w ith i deas e ntertained r egarding s aints c an b e s ubstantiated b y m eans o f s ome s upplementary a rguments. I n 1 464 a nd 1 466 t wo s culptures o f s ainted warr ior-horsemen, G eorge t he V ictorious a nd Dmitri o f T hessaloniki, were e rected b efore t he g ates o f t he S avior T ower o f t he Moscow K remlin ( PSRL, v ol.XXIII, p .158) U nquestionably i n t he s election o f j ust t hese i mages a p art was p layed by t he f act t hat t hey f unctioned a s p atrons o f warriors, a nd t he f act t hat t heir i mages c oincided i n p rinciple w ith t he m ost p opular f eudal emblem o f t hat t ime. T he p ossibility o f c on joining, o r more e xactly o f m echanically m ixing, f eatures o f t he s piritual a nd t he s ecular p rinciple i n t he f igure o f t he r uler c an b e d emonstrated t hrough s till a nother e xample f rom t he a rt o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury. I n t he c arving o f t he g rand-princely walking-staffs o f t hat p eriod t he most i mportant p osition a t t he c enter o f t he h and's g rasp i s o ccupied by t he r epresentation o f a human h ead, which e vidently s ymbolizes t he r uler a nd which h as n o f ormal t raits o f s anctity ( the n imbus). B ut i t i s s tylized i n harmony w ith t he i conographic t ype o f t he warr ior s aint ( a y outhful, b eardless f ace w ith a s ingular t reatment o f t he waving hair t hat h arks back t o B yzantine a rt); t his i mage i s a lso b rought i nto f amily r elationship w ith t hat f igure t hrough t he c ollar o f i ts m ilitary c loak ( Chernetsov, 1 980, p .100, 1 01, f ig. 5 ; P late XXXV. 1 ). T he i mage i n q uestion c an b y n o m eans b e t hought t o r ender t he a ctual p ortrait f eatures o f t he Muscovite p r ince. I t c onstitutes a s ymbolic a nd i mpersonal p icture o f a r uler, a nd moreover o ne i n which t he f eatures o f r esemblance t o d epictions o f p opular s aints a re d eliberately emphasized. T he s ame may a lso b e s aid a bout t he r epresentations o f t he p rince i n t he g uise o f t he mounted d ragon-fighter. F igures o f s ainted h orsemen m ight s ometimes b e e ndowed w ith emblematic s ignif icance. I n p articular, s uch f igures a re t o b e f ound o n t he s eals o f c ertain N ovgorod c itizens o f t he X IVth c entury - i f we a re t o c onsider t he f igures a s b eing p atron s aints, t hen t he n ames o f t he owners d o n ot c orrespond t o t hose o f t he s aints i n question ( Yanin, 1 970 , v ol.II, p late 2 4, 5 82, 5 83). E vidently t his s ainted h orseman c orresponds t o 1 05
o ne o f t he f ive N ovgorod emblems, o ne which l ater o n was o rdinarily r epresented a s a h orseman w ithout n imbus. A quite c onsiderable g roup o f h orsemen o n R ussian c oins i s made u p o f o nes t hat r epresent t hem w ith hunting b irds ( the f alcon, P late X III, 5 -20) i n hand. T he h orseman w ith a f alcon a ppears f or t he f irst t ime o n a c oin i n t he m intage o f V asilii Dmitrievich, a nd i t b ecomes a n e xtremely p opular f igure o n t he c oins o f a lmost a ll t he R ussian p rincipalities i n t he d ays o f Vas i l ii T yomny. A s a r ule t he h orseman h as n o h eadgear, but i n o ne c ase t here i s a hat, a nd w ith a n e xtremely b road b rim a t t hat ( Plate X III, 1 2). L et u s p oint o ut t he e ssential d etails which a re p resent o n a r ange o f c oins w ith t he i mage o f t he h orseman a nd f alcon. On s ome c oins o f Vasi lii Dmitrievich t here i s a n i mage o f a c rescent o r a n i deogram o f t he s un b eside t he h ead o f t he h orseman ( a c ircle w ith a d ot i n t he m iddle - P late X III, 1 3-15). T here a re a lso i mages o f t he h orseman w ith f alcon a gainst a background o f s tars. ( Plate X III, 7 ). T he h orseman w ith t he f alcon r epresents a h unter pursuing s mall game, t he c ontest w ith which d oes n ot p artake o f t he c haracter o f h eroic s ingle c ombat. On t his a ccount a n i mage o f s uch a h orseman b eneath t he h oofs o f whose h orse t here i s a d ragon's h ead c omes a s a s omewhat s urpr ising var iant. Y et s uch a c ombination i s q uite o f ten f ound o n c oins o f t he XVth c entury ( Plate X III. 1 6-20) . S uch i conography s hows t hat t he c oncept o f t he h orseman w ith f alcon h ad a pproached t he c oncept o f t he h ero h orseman, t he h orseman who was a d ragon-fighter. Hunting w ith t he f alcon was e xceptionally p opular i n R us \ f en b efore t he Mongol p eriod ( PSRL, v o l.1 p .251), but we know o f n o d epictions o f h orsemen w ith f alcons f or t hat t ime. I t i s o nly a s ingle i mage o f a c entaur w ith a f alcon, o n a s eal-r ing o f t he X II th c entury ( Kondakov, 1 896, p .103, f ig. 6 3), t hat we may c onsider a s b e ing a r emote p rotype f or t his f igure which s ubsequently b ecame s o p opular i n R ussian a rt. The f igure o f t he h orseman w ith f alcon i s e xceedingly p opular i n m edieval a rt. I t may b e s een i n C optic t extiles o f t he V th-VIth c enturies ( Benda, 1 963, p .49 , f ig . 5 ), a nd o n a s eal o f Khorezm f rom t he p re-Musulman p eriod ( Nerazik, 1 966, p .150 , f ig.67, I ). I n western E uropean a rt p ictures o f a h orseman w ith a f alcon a re a lready k nown i n t he p reR omanesque p er iod ( van Marie, v ol. I, 1 931, p .227, f ig. 2 16). T here i s a lso s uch a n i mage i n B yzantine a rt o f t he X Ith c entury (D ar kevich , 1 975, p . 2 11, f ig. 3 35) . T he most n oteworthy a nd n umerous g roup o f m edieval d epictions o f t he h orseman w ith f alcon c onsists o f t he o utput o f Musulman a pplied a rt o f t he I Xth-XI II th c enturies, p rimarily f rom I ran a nd C entral A sia ( SPA, v ol. II , p . 2 6 62, f ig. 8 89; v ol.VI, 1 092, 1 301 c , 1 439 a ; B enda, 1 963, p .45 f ig. 2 ). A ccord ing t o t he v iew o f N .P.Likhachov ( 1928, p . 4 7-49), which i s a ccepted by V.L. Y anin (v ol. I , 1 970, p .22) . t he i conography o f t he m ounted hawker c omes t o R us f rom w estern E uropean s eals, o n which t his s ubject was a s ort o f p ortrait o f t he owners o f t he s eals. B ut o ne may s uppose t here i s n o n eed t o d eny t hat t here i s a lso a p ossibility t hat t his i mage m ight 1 06
b e b orrowed f rom e astern models. Two a rguments t estify i n f avor o f t his s econd v ar iant. I n t he f irst p lace, t he o ldest d epiction o f a mounted h awker t o h e f ound i n R us i s a g lass i nsert t o a s eal-ring t hat c ame t o l ight i n t he X lIth c entury s trata o f O ld R yazan; i t i s o f u nquestionably e astern o rigin ( most l ikely I ranian C hernetsov, 1 981-A). T he s econd a rgument l ies i n t he f act t hat i n t he w estern E uropean f igures t he f alcon i s more o f ten p resented f acing t he h orseman, whereas i n t he o verwhelming majority o f R ussian a nd Musulman d epictions o f t he s ubject t he f alcon i s s hown u pon a hand o r f orearm r eaching b ackward f rom t he h orseman. T he c ommunicating l ink i n t he t ransmission o f t he f igure t o R us may h ave b een t he t erritory o f t he V olga B ulgars, where w e a re a cquainted w ith n ot o nly i ntroduced a rticles o rnamented w ith t his s ubject ( Darkevich, 1 976, p .140, p late 4 8, 4 ), but a lso l ocal o nes ( Leshchenko, 1 970). T he e astern a nd t he R ussian i mages a re b rought t ogether a lso b y t he p resence, u pon s ome o f t hem, o f a stral s ymbols ( Leshchenko, 1 970; C hernetsov, 1 981 A ). T he most a ncient R ussian f igure o f a h orseman w ith a f alcon i n hand a ppears u pon l ead s eals o f P r ince Andrei A leksandrovich a t t he b eginning o f t he X lVth c entury ( Yanin, 1 970 , v ol. I, p late 3 , 3 90-395), a nd i t a ppears a gain i n R ussian f eudal e mblematics o n c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich, Vasi lii T yomny, a nd t heir c ontemporaries. S uch a p icture a lso a ppears o n l ead s eals o f Vasilii T yomny ( Yanin, v ol. I, p .261, p late 7 , 4 30). The f igure i s a lso known u pon waxc omposition s eals f rom t he m iddle a nd e nd o f t he XVth c entury ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late •I , 3 - 1 440 ; S GG 1 813, p .338). I n t he XVIth c entury t he i mage o f t he hawker i s f ound upon t i les ( Sultanov, 1 894, p .374, f ig. 2 8). We s hould a lso mention among t he f igures o f t he mounted h awker e ncountered i n R us a f ind which was made a t N ovgorod d uring e xcavations c arried o ut o n t he t errain o f t he f actory o f t he H anse merchants ( the G otski Dvor o r " Gothic C ourtyard"): a s mall, f lat r ound b ox o f t he XVth c entury. On i t t here i s a d epiction o f a h orseman w ith a f alcon u pon a hand e xtended b ehind h im; t here i s a f igure o f a d og b eneath t he h orse's h oofs. T he p resence o f t he d og a nd t he p osition o f t he hand b earing t he f alcon, b ehind t he h orseman's back, have a nalogies i n e astern a rt, b ut a s a whole t he l ook o f t he a rticle a nd o f t he o rnament s urrounding t he f igure a re n ot o riental. A .V.Ryndina ( 1975, p .247) s uggests a R ussian o rigin f or t his a rtefact, b ut s he p oints o ut t he v agueness o f t he s tylistic f eatures. E .A. R ybina h olds t hat e xclusively western E uropean t ypes o f a rticles w ere i n u se u pon t he t errain o f t he f actory, a nd s he i ncludes t he a rtefact we a re e xamining among t hese ( 1978, p .218). I n V .L.Yanin 's o pinion ( vo1.11, 1 970, p .23, 2 4) t he a ppearance u pon s eals o f a n i mage o f a h orseman w ith a f alcon i s a v ivid e vidence o f t he t ransformation o f t he patron-saint warrior i mage a nd t hat o f t he s ecular f eudal r uler i nto t he i mage o f t he mounted warrior i n R ussian f eudal emblematics. 1 07
A t t he s ame t ime Y anin c onvincingly s hows t hat t his p rocess c ame i nto b eing a s f ar b ack a s t he s eals o f A lexander N evski, o n a p art o f which t he s ainted warr ior w ith n imbus i s r eplaced b y a h orseman w ith c rown ( Plate X XVIII, 1 ) , which t his s cholar c onsiders t o b e a p ortrait o f t he p rince h imself . I n g eneral t erms t his c onstruct d oes n ot a rouse d oubts, b ut o ne would p erhaps t hink i t m ight b e t ouched u p a l i ttle. I n t he f irst p lace, t he a ncient R ussian r ider was a pparently a s a r ule n ot a p ortrait o f a c oncrete s overeign. O f c ourse h e i s n ot a c onventional f eudal e mblem, l ike t he l ion, t he e agle, e tc. B ut i n t hat i t r ef lected a c ertain t endency t oward r eplacement o f t he e cclesiastical f igure o r t he c onventional s ymbol t hrough a r eal, e arthly o ne, t he i mage o f t he r ider d oes a pparently p resent a g eneralized, h eroicized d epiction o f t he s overeign-concept. I n a ny e vent, t o j udge b y t he t ext o f western R ussian c hronicles, s uch was t he L ithuanian v ariant o f t he r ider P ogon - a r eal i mage which h ad c ome i n t o r eplace t he f abulous K itovras ( the c entaur): " And h e made f or h imself a c rest - a man w ith a s word u pon a h orse, - a nd t hrough t his c rest h e s ignif ied a p an ( in a nother c opy " a g osudar" b oth meaning " lord" - T r.), o f f ull g rowth, who s hould b e a ble t o d efend h is h eritage. On t his a ccount s elect f or o urselves a g ood ( full-grown) l ord , who s hall b e a ble t o d efend t his s tate, t he g rand p rincipality o f L ithuania" ( PSRL v o l.XVII, p .256, 3 09). I n t he s econd p lace, t he c rown which a ppears o n t he h ead o f t he h orseman o n t he s eals o f A lexander N evski was o rdinarily n ot r epresented i n t he X I II th c entury a s a p rincely h eadgear . P robably t his i s a b roader f orm o f t he f igure o f t he p o 2ntate g enerally s peaking, p erhaps o ne a ffected i n p art by t he i mage o f A lexander o f Macedon. T he p opularity o f t hat i mage i n a ncient R us i s g enerally f amiliar: t he s cene o f A lexander 's f l ight was p resented o n c hurch f açades a nd o n a d iadem. Ancient R ussian b ookmen r emarked u pon t he " interchangeability" o f t he t wo A lexanders ( PSRL, v o. V , p . 1 76); a nd i n t he p rayer o f D aniel I mprisoned, A lexander o f Macedon i s r eferred t o a s a model f or R ussian p r inces s ide by s ide w ith B iblical p ersonages ( Zarubin, 1 932, p .39, 3 5). A s we h ave a lready s aid, t he i mage o f A lexander 's f l ight o n c oins o f P rince B oris A leksandrovich o f T ver a pparently s hould b e r egarded a s s ort o f " patronal" o ne r eflecting t he p rince's p atronymic. I n t he t hird p lace t he f igure o f t he h awker i s n o t a n u nconditionally s ecular o ne i n a ncient R ussian a rt. S t.Trifon was s hown i n t his way i n t he XVIth-XVI I th c enturies. A R ussian l egend o f t he XV1th c entury i s a ssociated w ith t his i conography. A ccording t o t his l egend, a h awker o f I van G rozny l ost t he t sar's g erfalcon, a nd h e was m iraculously s aved f rom t he t sar 's wrath b y S t. T rifon h imself , who a ppeared t o h im u pon a h orse w ith t he l ost g erfalcon u pon h is wrist (Malitski , 1 932, p .18; D avid, 1 947, p .38). I t i s n o t o ut o f t he q uestion, h owever , t hat t he c onnection b etween t he f igure o f t he h awker a nd t he i mage o f t he s aint may h ave a r isen e ven b efore t he a ppearance o f t his l egend. I n a ny 1 08
e vent t he b ird i n T rifon's h and i n d epictions o f h im i s t o b e e xplained n ot o nly b y t he R ussian l egend o f t he XVIth c entury, but a lso by v ar ious B yzantine t exts o n h is l i fe ( Malitski, 1 932, p .14, 1 5, 1 8, 1 9). T hus o ne c annot p recisely d etermine t he t ime a t which t he i mage o f t he h awker made i ts way i nto C hr istian i conography. W e may n ote t hat o n t wo s eals ( among t he o ldest w ith t his f igure) t he h orseman i s r epresented w ith n imbus, i f we may j udge f rom t he i l lustrations i n Y anin's b ook (v ol II, 1 970 , p late 3 , 3 89 , 3 90). I n a B yzantine p icture o f t he X lth c entury t he emperor o n h orseback a nd w ith a h awk i s a lso p resented n imbate ( Darkevich, 1 975 m p .2 11, f ig . 335). T he p opularity o f t he h awker-rider i n R us l ed t o t he c oming i nto b eing o f t he t ruly R ussian l egend c oncerning S t .T rifon 's m iracle. T he i mage o f t he s aint w ith t he f alcon i s a lso f ound i n r epudiated f ortune-telling b ooks known i n c opies o f t he XVI I -XVI II th c enturies; h ere t he f eatures o f T rifon were t ransferred a lso t o a nother a nd c onsiderably more p opular s ainted r ider, T heodore o f T iro. " Saint T heodore o f T iro t ook w ith h im a f alcon-bird a nd s at u pon a h orse a nd r ode t o a n o pen f ield a nd t he f alcon c aught a nother f alcon-bird, a nd T heodore was g lad o f h is c atch. T hus s halt t hou, o man, r e joice i n t hy business, G od b eing a t t hy s ide; i f t hy f ortune f oretells i l lness o r a j ourney,thou s halt h ave j oy o f t he j ourney; i f t hou w ishest t o r eceive p ayment o f a d ebt, t hou s halt s o r eceive i t ; y et o nly n o t w ithout d ifficulties, but t hou s halt d efeat t hy e nemies". ( Pypin, 1 862, p .161). I n t his p assage, a s i n o ther c ases where t he hawker-saint i s m entioned i n f ortune-telling b ooks, t his i mage i s d ealt w ith i n i ts p opular a nd u tterly e arthy Go nse. A f urther l i terary s ubject l inked w ith t he p opularity o f t he i mage o f t he h orseman w ith f alcon i n R us i s t he S okolnik ( the P odsokolnik - " the H awker," o r " the a ssistant H awker"who i s t he s on a nd a ntagonist o f I lya Muromets i n t he byliny e pics ( Onuchkov, 1 904, p . 5 -15) . I n o ne o f t he bylina variants c oncerning t he f ight o f I lya Muromets t he l atter i s d escribed i n t he f o llowing t erms: " on h is r ight s houlder h e b ears a b right f alcon, " On h is l ef t s houlder h e b ears a white g erfalcon, " To h is s tirrup i s c hained a d ragon." ( Kireyevski, 1 862, v o l. VI , p.13). I n t his p assage t he most t elling t hing i s t he a ppearance o f t he d ragon, qui te u nwarranted by a ny c ommon s ense. E vidently h e c ame i nto b eing f or t he s ame r eason t hat t his s ame i mage o f t he h orseman w ith f alcon was o f ten e nough r epresented o n c oins a s t rampling t he h ead o f a d ragon - t he i mage o f a h orseman, i ncluding e ven t hat o f t he h orseman hunting w ith a f alcon, e voked i n R us a n i nevitable a ssociation w ith t he h eroic f igure o f t he d ragon-fighter. T he e xample o f t he bylina i s e specially i nteresting, b ecause i n t hat i nstance i t i s unquestionably a n egative p ersonage t hat i s b eing d escribed, a nd b ecause we a re c onfronted w ith a p atent c ase where a v isual i mage, a ffected by r epresentational a rt, has p roduced a r eaction i n 1 09
o ral l i terature. T hus t he a ncient R ussian l i terary p arallels t o t he i mage o f t he h awker o ffer o pportunities f or d ecidedly b road v ar iations i n t heir t reatment - f rom t he s aint t o " valiant u nbelievers," t he f igures o f whom s tand c ondemned f rom t he e cclesiastical p osition ( Buslayev, 1 866, p .17), a nd which t hus b ear w itness t o t he p opularity o f t he c oncept. T he i mage o f t he b ird o f p rey, p rimarily t he f alcon, was w idely u tilized i n ancient R ussian l i terature t o c haracterize warlike p rowess, c ommencing w ith t he P ovest V remennykh L et," t he Tale o f P ast Y ears" ( the P olovtsian d etachments o f B onyak " struck t he U grians a s i nto a b all, a s t he f alcon s trikes c ranes" P SRL, v ol.1, p .274), a nd a lso w ith t he " Lay o f I gor's H ost," a nd e nding w ith t he Z adohshchina("The E vents B eyond t he D on") a nd l ater r ecords. I van P eresvetov, t he a po logist f or t he r egime o f I van G rozny, c ompares " the s imple s oldiery" w ith f alcons ( "to wage war i s f or t hem l ike c oursing w ith f alcons: t heir h earts a re e ver h igh, a nd n othing c asts t hem d own" - P eresvetov, 1 956, p .175). C onsidering t hat t he e mblem i n t he f orm o f a h orseman was t aken i n R us a s a r epresentation o f t he s overeign, o ne may s uppose t hat t he f alcon o n h is wr ist m ight b e r egarded a s a p ersonif ication o f h is warriors, h is m ilitary c ompany. H ere i s a f urther c haracter istic q uotation f rom ancient R ussian l i terature o f t he XVIIth c entury: " If a f ather h ave a g ood s on, h e i s l ike a f ine h awk u pon t he wr ist" ( Buslayev, 1 861, p .90). T he i mage o f t he mounted warrior was a n e xtremely p opular a nd most f avorite s ubject i n t he a rt o f t he p eoples o f e astern E urope ( in p articular t he h orseman t rampling t he s erpent , which i s known n ot o nly among Russians but a lso among t he p agan F inno-Ugrians - G olubyova, 1 979, p late 1 6). T his i s t o b e e xplained by t he f act t hat t he i deal worldly man o f t he M iddle A ges i nevitably a ssumed t he f eatures o f t he f eudatory warrior. M entions o f h orsemanship b ecame c liches o f o ff icial f eudal t erminology - " to mount t he h orse" meant t o s et o ut u pon a c ampaign; t he v assal k night was t o p resent h imself f or a c ampaign " with h orses, p eople, a nd a rms." T he s kills o f t he h orseman w ere t he o utstand ing f oundation o f m ilitary s cience a nd c onversely i nability t o r ide a h orse was a s ymbol o f u tter i nexperience i n warfare. F or t his r eason t he Moscow c hronicler, i n d escribing t he f orce t hat was d efending t he i ndependence o f N ovgorod i n 1 471, i ndicated t hat i t i ncluded many warriors " who f rom t he d ay o f t heir b irth h ad n ever s at u pon a h orse" ( PSRL, v ol.XII, p . 1 35). We may a dd a nother s troke t o t he p icture o f t he h orse a nd i ts r ider i n a ncient R ussian l i terature t hrough a q uotation f rom a m issive o f I van G rozny t o t he S t.Cyril-Belozero Monastery: " Like a c orpse o n h orseback, s o i s a monk e ndowed w ith r ulership - t he o ne a nd t he o ther a re c ontrary t o n ature" ( Al, v ol.1, p . 3 89). An i nitiation-like c eremony c arried o ut u pon t he s ons o f p r inces i ncluded "mounting t he h orse" ( PSRL, v ol. I , p .409). I n t he c hronicles t here a re m entions o f s pecial a ffection o f c ertain p r inces t oward t heir h orses ( PSRL, v ol. I , p .38). I n 10
t he X IIth c entury o ne p rincely h orse was e ven h onoured w ith a s pecial burial f or h is k omon'stvo ( a d erivative f rom t he work k omon' " horse" o r " steed", o f t he s ame t ype a s muzhestvo, " manliness," f rom muzh', " man;" - t hus o ne m ight t ranslate " steedliness" - T r.) ( PSRL, v ol.1, p . 3 25). The p opularity o f t he f igure o f t he h orse i n P us was a lso r eflected i n t he f act t hat t he w idely d isseminated p agan amulets o f t he p re-Mongol p eriod were s haped l ike a h orse ( Sedov.1968). T hey were u sually d ecorated w ith c ircular s olar o rnaments. A t a much more r ecent t ime o ne o f t he f avorite s ubjects i n R ussian p easant e mbroidery, which g oes back t o i conographic p rototypes i n p agan r eligious a rt, i s t he f emale d ivinity s ymmetr ically f lanked by t wo f igures o f d ivine h orsemen ( Gorodtsov, 1 926). A s a n i dealized a nd g eneralized f igure f or man, t he i mage o f t he h orseman t akes o n d ur ing i ts e volution e ver more a bstract a nd u niversal t raits. T hus i n t he XVIth c entury p roduction " The Quarrel b etween L ife a nd D eath" ( in i ts c ontent r eminding o ne o f " the d ance o f d eath") t he a bstract c oncept " life" t akes o n a ltogether d ef inite f eatures o f t he medieval mounted warrior. " A c ertain man r ode u pon a n o pen f ield a nd w ide s pace; t he h orse b eneath h im p ossessed g reat s trength a nd • was l ike unto a w ild b east, a nd h is s word was v ery s harp u pon b oth e dges, t errifying i n a ppearance a s a l ion, a nd w ith a s erpent's s ting t hat c ould p ierce i ron a nd huge hard r ocks; a nd h e was e nveloped i n a s tout a rmor. And may r egiments d id t hat man d efeat, a nd many m ighty t sars d id h e d rive o ff a nd s ubject, a nd many c hampions d id h e s trike d own, f or t hat h e had g reat s trength a nd valor. And h e t hought t o h imself , i n p roud a nd p resumptuous words, ' is t here o ne i n a ll t his world under H eaven t hat c an f ight me a nd s tand b efore me - t sar o r c hampion o r m ighty b east?' And t hinking s o h e s aid, ' If I were i n t he c louds o f t he s ky, a nd t here were a r ing f astened t o t he e arth, I s hould d raw up t he whole world'"(Zhdanov, 1 904, p .700). I n a llegorical r epresentations o f " monastic purity" i n i mages o f t he XVIIIth c entury, " this world" - t he u niverse ( in t he meaning o f t he e arthly a s o pposed t o t he s piritual p rinciple) was r epresented a s a h orseman, s ometimes e ven w ith a f alcon o n h is wr ist ( Katalog, S ection I V, 1 907, p .112, f ig.10; R ovinski, 1 900, v ol.', p . 3 7, f ig. 4 4). I n t he XVIIth c entury c hurchmen c alled u pon R ussian p eople n ot t o p lace b efore t he g ates o f t heir h ouses i mages o f " valiant u nbelievers," a nd t o r eplace t hese w ith i kons a nd c rosses ( Buslayev, 1 866, p .17). What t hese i mages m ight c onsist o f c an b e j udged f rom o ne i nital l etter i n a manuscript o f t he XVth c entury, i n t he c onfiguration o f which t here a re n o t eratological f eatures ( Buslayev, 1 917, p .206, f ig. 2 15; P late XXXIV. 9 ). I t s hows a h orseman o f unquestionably o riental a ppearance ( the c ap w ith s lashed b rim). Evidently s uch e xotic i mages were a ttractive t o Russian p eople d espite t he f act t hat t heir a ppearance f orced o ne t o r ealize t hat t hey were u nbelievers. 11
T he way h eroic f igures were p opularly u nderstood b etrayed i n s ome p art a p owerful i nclination t oward t he e xotic, a nd f requently e nough t his was n ot d ef lected by t he u nbeliever o rigin o f t he i ncorporations o f warlike p rowess. I t i s n o t by c hance a lone t hat t he basic t erm f or t he e pic h ero i n R ussian f olklore ( and a lso i n t he P olish l anguage) i s o f e astern o rigin ( Russian b ogatyr' P olish b ohater). I n t he XVIth c entury t he p opularity o f t he mounted warr ior i n R us l ed t o t he f eatures o f t his i mage b eing t ransferred a lso t o s o p opular a p ersonage i n C hristian mythology a s t he a rchangel M ichael. I n R us h e a cquired a w inged h orse ( ?) a nd a c rown ( Antonova a nd Mneva, v o l. I, 1 963, p late 4 0). T he s ources f or t his i conography a re u nclear ; t he w inged f igure o n a w inged h orse i s known f rom t he s ame manuscript o f t he XVth c entury t hat c ontains t he h orseman o f o riental a ppearance. B ut t his w ill s carcely b e t he a rchangel t here i s a n e xotic h eadgear u pon t his p ersonage, a nd h is o ther a ttr ibutes a nd c lo thing a lso f ail t o c orrespond w ith t he a rchangel's i conography ( Buslayev, 1 917, p .207, f ig. 2 16; P late XXXIV.8). T he l inkage o f t he f igure o f t he h orseman, f requently a h orseman-victor , w ith t he s ubject t heme o f a uthority h as v ery a ncient t raditions b ehind i t . D epictions o f t riumphs o f B yzantine emperors, r epresenting t hem a s h orsemen, a re q uite f amiliar. The f act t hat i n R us t he f igure o f t he h orseman m ight b e a ltogether d irectly l inked w ith t he t riumph o f t he s overeign i s a ttested by a c ertain passage i n t he " Narration o f t he K ingdom o f K e-an" which t ells o f I van G rozny's e nter ing Moscow a s a v ictor. " And t hey s aw t heir a utocrat a s b ees d o t he q ueen b ee, a nd t hey r e joiced g reatly, p raising a nd t hanking h im; a nd t hey c alled h im g reat v ictor, a nd t hey c ried o ut f or a l ong t ime t heir w ishes f or h is l ong l ife; a nd a ll, f alling t o t he g round, b owed d own t o h im. H e f or h is part g ently paced among t he p eople u pon h is h orse, e xal ted a nd i n g reat g lory; h e t urned t oward t he p eople t o e ither s ide, t hat t hey m ight h ave j oy o f t he g reat g lory t hat s hone u pon h im. H e was e nveloped i n a ll h is k ingly r obes a s u pon t he h oly d ay o f Christ's r esurrection, i n a b reastplate a nd i n a s ilver garment, a nd w ith a g olden c rown u pon h is h ead w ith g reat g ems a nd p recious s tones, c uriously worked, a nd w ith t he k ingly purple ( the bagryanitsa o r mantle) upon h is s houlders. And n othing e lse was t o b e s een upon h im, e ven h is f eet, s ave g old, s ilver, a nd g ems a nd p recious s tones a lone. And n o o ne had s een s uch d ear t hings a nywhere i n a ll h is d ays, a nd a ll m inds were a stonished l ooking u pon h im.... T hen t oo t here were by c hance i n Moscow a t t hat t ime c ertain e nvoys who h ad c ome f rom d istant c ountries w ith h onors a nd g if ts a nd merchants o f E ngland; a nd a ll t hese e nvoys were a lso a stonished, s aying t hat t hey h ad n ever s een i n a ny k ingdom, whether t heir own o r f oreign o nes, u pon a ny t sar o r k ing s uch b eauty a nd p ower a nd g reat g lory. S ome r esidents o f Moscow c lambered u pon t all buildings a nd f ences a nd r oofs, a nd f rom t here gazed u pon t heir t sar; o thers r an f ar a head, a nd h aving 1 12
c lambered t o c ertain h igh p laces watched i n o rder t hat t hey m ight a t l east s omehow c atch s ight o f h im. A s f or t he d amsels l iving i n t he palaces, a nd t he w ives o f p r inces a nd n oblemen, who m ight n ot l eave t heir h omes a nd t heir q uarters t o a ttend s uch g reat s pectacles f or t hat t his w ere i mproper ( i t i s well t hat t hey s hould l ive a nd s it l ike b irds i n c ages), t hey d id z ealously p eer f rom t heir d oors a nd w indows a nd t hrough s mall c racks, a nd t hey h ad j oy o f t his u niversal m iraculous s pectacle o f g leam ing g lory a nd r ichness." ( PSRL, v o l. X IX, p . 1 ). I n c onnection w ith o ur e xamination o f t he i mage o f t he h orseman u pon a ncient Russian c oins we s hould n ote t hat t here i s a p eculiar i nterpretation o f t his f igure i n t he n otes o f o ne o f t he f oreigners who v isited R ussia a t t he e nd o f t he XV1th c entury. T his was t he E nglishman F letcher. I n h is b ook t he i mage o n t he R ussian c oin was a ssociated w ith a n a ncient h istorical a necdote k nown f rom t he d ays o f H erodotus, which F letcher a ssigned t o N ovgorod. " The n ext i n g reatness, a nd i n a manner a s l arge i s t he c itie N ouograde: where was c ommitted ( as t he R uss s aith) t he memorable warre s o much s poke o f i n s tories o f t he S cythian s eruants, t hat t ooke a rmes a gainst t heir maisters: which t hey r eport i n t his s ort: v z. T hat t he B oiarens o r G entlemen o f N ouograde a nd t he t erritorie a bout ( which o nely a re s ouldiers a f ter t he d iscipline o f t hose c ountries) h ad warre w ith t he T artars. Which b eing well p erfourmed a nd e nded h ad t hey r eturned h omewards. Where t hey understood by t he way t hat t heir Cho lopey o r b ondslaues whome t hey l eft a t h ome, h ad i n t heir a bsence p ossessed t heir t ownes, l ands, h ouses, w ives, a nd a ll. A t which n ewes b eing s omewhat amased, a nd y et d isdayning t he v illanie o f t heir s ervants, t hey made t he more s peed h ome: a nd s o n ot f arre f rom N ouograd met t hem i n warlike manner marching a gainst t hem. Whereupon a duising what was b est t o b ee d one, t hey a greed a ll t o s et u pon t hem w ith n o o ther s hewe o f weapon but w ith t heir h orse whips ( which a s t heir manner i s e very man r ideth w ithall) t o put t hem i n r emembrance o f t heir s ervile c ondition, t hereby t o t errifie t hem, & a bate t heir c ourage. And s o marching o n & l ashing a ltogither w ith t heir whips i n t heir h ands t hey gave t he o nset. Which s eemed s o t errible i n t he e ares o f t heir v illaines, a nd s troke s uch a s ense i nto t hem o f t he s mart o f t he whip which t hey h ad f elt b efore, t hat t hey f led a ltogether l ike s heepe b efore t he d rivers. I n memory o f t his v ictory t he N ouogradias e ver s ince have s taped t heir c om e ( which t hey c al a d ingoe N ouogrodskoy c urrant t hrough a l R ussia) w ith t he f igure o f a h orseman s haking a whip a l oft i n h is h and". D espite what F letcher r eports, t his a necdote i s u nknown i n a ncient R ussian wr iting. B ut o n t he o ther h and i t i s p resented i n p retty c lose a pproximation i n H erberstein, who a sserts t hat h e b orrowed i t f rom R ussian c hronicles ( 1908, p .119). B ut i n H erberstein t he i mage o n t he R ussian c oins i s n ot y et l inked w ith t his l egend. T he a ssigning o f t he a necdote t o R us c ould c ome a bout s imply e nough a s a c onsequence o f t he f act t hat i n m edieval writing, i ncluding t hat o f B yzantium a nd a ncient 13
R ussia, t he n oun " Scythians" was n ot i nfrequently t ransferred t o t he S lays ( see f or e xample P SRL, v p;. I , p .13, 2 9). C alling t he Russian c oins c urrent i n t he X VIth-XV II th c enturies N ovgorod o nes ( novgorodki) i s t o b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat d uring t he r eform o f 1 535 t he metrological s tandard o f t he N ovgorod d enga was a dopted f or t he k opek. T he h orseman was n ever r epresented o n t he c oins o f N ovgorod f or t he p eriod o f i ts i ndependence. On c oins o f t he e nd o f t he XVIth c entury, when F letcher was i n R ussia, a h orseman w ith a l ance ( on k opeks o r N ovgorod d engas) was r epresented, o r e lse w ith a s aber - o n Moscow d engas which were e qual i n v alue t o t he h alf o f t hat d enomination. I t i s d ifficult e nough t o c onfuse e ither t he o ne weapon o r t he o ther w ith t he whip. F letcher 's e rror may b e e xplained b y i nattention, o r by s ome s ort o f t endentiousness o n h is p art. Among t he r epresentations o f h orsemen o n a ncient R ussian c oins t here a re a lso o nes l acking a ny s ort o f a ttribute a nd f or t he most p art v ery c oarsely e xecuted ( Plate X III. 2 1. 2 2). Among t hem t here a re a lso o nes which p erhaps r epresent a man mounted n ot o n a h orse but o n s ome o ther a nimal. I n o ne i nstance t he h orseman s eems t o b e f alling o ff ( Plate X III. 2 3). H uman H eads On a w ide r ange o f R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies t here a re i mages o f h uman h eads, e vidently c onventional " portraits" o f s overeigns. I c all t hem c onventional n ot o nly b ecause t hey c an s carcely b e t hought t o p ossess f eatures o f p ortrait r esemblance, but a lso b ecause t he v ery i dea o f l inking t he c oncept o f t he p rince w ith t he i ndividuality o f h is e xternal a ppearance i s a pparently a bsent f rom t hem. W e h ave a lready s poken a bove r egarding t he u nquestionably c onventional i mage o f t he r uler u pon t he walking-staffs o f t he g rand p r inces i n t he A rmory c ollection, a nd we h ave c ited t he p assage f rom t he L ithuanian c hronicles i n which a n a ltogether r ealistic emblem i s d escribed, b ut o ne which i s n ot a n i ndividual d epiction o f t he p rince. T he c ompletely i dentical i mages o f r ulers u pon a t hrone o rnamented w ith l ion p rotomes, o n c oins o f Vasilii T yomny a nd o n o nes o f h is p o litical r ival Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka ( Plate X , 2 1, 2 3) may s erve a s a s ufficiently c onvincing e xample t o s how t hat t he i mages o n c oins were d evoid o f i ndividuality i n t he s ense o f p ortraiture o r physical r esemblance. E vidently i t was n ot o nly t he i dea t hat a g iven i mage c onveyed t he i nviolable l ikeness o f t his p r ince o r t hat which was a bsent, but a n egative a ttitude t oward i mages r epresenting t he r ival p rince, t he p olitical a ntagonist, was a bsent t oo. T he s ame i s a lso e videnced by t he e ntirely d issimilar h eads o n t he c oins o f o ne a nd t he s ame p r ince, f or e xample V asilii T yomny. P robably t he meaning o f s uch i mages was " that p rince who i s n ow r uling." I s hall c larify my i dea by m eans o f a l ater e xample. T he h orseman r epresented o n R ussian c oins o f t he XVIth-XVIIth c entury was t aken t o b e a n i mage o f t he s overeign. When a t t he e nd o f t he XVI I th c entury t wo t sars, P eter I a nd h is 14
b rother I van, w ere f ormally r uling R ussia, c oins w ith t he n ames o f t he o ne a nd t he o ther were s truck s eparately; c orrespond ingly a n u tterly i dentical h orseman a lternately r epresented n ow t he o ne s overeign a nd n ow t he o ther ( Spasski, 1 962, p . 1 24). Apparently a scetic ( and f eudal) ways o f l ooking a t p eople, a ccording t o which t hey were d istinguished n ot t hrough i ndividual p eculiarities, but t hrough t he p lace t hey o ccupied i n t he s ocial h ierarchy ( and w ithin t heir own g roups, b y t he d egree t o which t hey c orresponded t o t he s tereotyped g amut o f r equirements s et u p f or t he g roup), were t he u nderlying r easons why t he i mages o f p rinces upon c oins were t o a c onsiderable e xtent o f a n i mpersonal c haracter. T his i n i ts t urn e xerted i nf luence u pon t heir i conography, i n which a ttributes p layed a g reater p art t han d id i ndividual f eatures, a nd e ven upon t he s tyle o f t he i mages. F igures o f h uman h eads o n Russian c oins o f t he X lVthXVth c enturies c ome w ithout h eadgear, w ith p rincely c aps, a nd w ith c rowns. While o ne i s c onsidering t he r ole o f a ttributes o f p ower, o ne s hould p onder h ow t he i dea o f a uthority m ight b e r eflected i n i mages o f r ulers o n a ncient Russian c oins t hrough t he r epresentation o f a h ead w ithout h eadgear. F irst o f a ll, t he i dea o f a uthority c onsisted i n t he i mage o f s uch a h ead's b eing t aken t o b e a r epresentation o f t he p rince i n whose name t he c oin was s truck. Furthermore, t he v ery i mage o f a h ead a pparently was a ssociated w ith t he i dea o f h eadship ( golova i n R ussian, l ike " head" i n E nglish, means n ot o nly a part o f t he b ody, but a lso t he c hief ). A s a n e xample o f t he c onnection o f h ead i mages ( human o r a nimal) w ith t he i dea o f a uthority we may t ake a s eries o f s uch i mages i n t he p rincipal u pper part o f o ne o f t he g rand-pr incely walking-staffs o f t he XVth c entury ( in d oing s o we may r emark t hat t his upper p art i tself was a lso c alled t he h ead - Chernetsov, 1 980 , p .108). H eads w ithout h eadgear a re f ound f acing, s ometimes e xtremely s tylized, which i s e specially t rue o f t hose i nscribed w ithin a c ircle o n c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich ( Plate X IV. 1 . 2 ). A b eard, which by t he XVIth c entury b ecame a n i ndispensable a ttachment t o t he R ussian male, i s n ot by a ny means a lways s hown. H ere we h ave t o n ote a c ertain l ack o f c orrespondence b etween t he i conography a nd t he i ndications i n t he s ources. T he c hurch s ynod o f 1 551 which unif ied t he e cclesiastical o rders o f t hings i n t he R ussian s tate i n c onformity w ith p revailing t radition, h eld t hat s having o f t he b eard was a f ashion a ssociated w ith h eresy, a nd c ondemned i t , s o s everely t hat i t was f orbidden e ven t o p erform t he s ervice f or t he d ead o ver a s haven d ecedent ( Stoglav 1 890, p .163-165). A t t he s ame t ime, b oth i n t he XVth c entury m iniatures o f t he R adziwill c hronicle a nd i n t he m iniatures o f t he I llustrated C hronicle D igest a d ecidedly g reat n umber o f u nquestionably R ussian p ersons ( all t he y oung o nes, a nyway) a re p resented w ithout b eards. A ll warriors a re o rdinarily s hown a s b eardless i n a ncient R ussian a rt. A ccording t o t radition many s aints were p ainted a s b eardless, among t hese s ome v ery p opular o nes ( for e xample S t.S tephen, t he s ainted warriors G eorge a nd Dmitri, 15
t he s ainted P r ince G leb). P rof ile i mages o n a ncient R ussian c oins s ometimes a ppear w ith l ong h air ( Plate X IV.13), s ometimes w ith c urly hair. S ome o f t hem w ere p robably i nf luenced b y a ncient c oins o r g ems, o r i mitations t hereof ( Plate X IV 1 8). I n t heir p rimitiveness s ome o f t he i mages r ecall western European c oins o f a n e arlier c entury ( Plate X IV, 4 5); o n o thers t he modelling was more c omplicated. Among t he r epresentations o f h eads w earing h emispherical c aps w ith b rims ( fur e dgings?), i .e. e vidently w ear ing t he p rincely c ap ( Plate X IV 2 0-27), a n e specially i nteresting o ne a ppears o n s ome c oins o f V asilii Dmitrievich ( Plate X IV 2 0-22) I t i s p laced o n t he s ide o f t he c oin where t he A rabic i nscription i s, b ut i t i s u pside-down w ith r espect t o t he i nscription; i nasmuch a s t he i mage i s o n t he " Tartar" s ide o f t he c oin o ne m ight s uppose t hat i t r epresents t he k han o f t he G olden H orde. B ut G olden H orde c oins w ith d epictions o f k hans a re unknown. I n a ddition, i f t he i mage was i ntended t o r epresent a k han, i t o ught t o b e o riented t he s ame way a s t he i nscription. T he r eversed p osition o f t he h ead f orces o ne t o s eek a d ifferent e xplanation. T rue 1 .1. T olstoi s uggests t hat t he r eversed p osition o f t hese h eads i s a matter o f m ere c hance. Y et i t i s d ifficult t o a gree w ith t his. I n t he f irst p lace, t he h ead i s p laced i n t his way o n s everal varieties o f t he c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich; i mages o f h eads s urrounded by A rabic i nscriptions i n a nalogous f ashion but o riented t he s ame way a s t hese i nscr iptions a re n on-existent i n Russian n umismatics. T he A rabic i nscriptions o n t he c oins i n q uestion a re a ltogether l egible, a nd t hey were e vidently e xecuted by e ngravers u nder t he s upervision o f p eop le who c ould r ead A rabic a r rd who would h ave known what was u p a nd what was d own i n t he i nscriptions. T he s omewhat c oarser c haracter o f t he A rabic i nscr iptions a s c ompared w ith t hose i n s ome o ther c oins o f t he s ame p rince, a gain s omething n oted by T olstoi ( 19 11,p.47), i s n ot a n a rgument i n f avor o f t his v iew e ither. T he o nly s ubstantial a rgument i n t he c ase i s t he f act t hat t he i nscriptions a re l egible. I f t he h ead o n t he c oins i n q uestion d oes n ot r epresent t he k han o f t he G oden H orde, t hen i t a pparently r epresents t he R ussian p rince. I n t hat e vent, what d oes t he r eversed p osition, c learly g iven t o t hat h ead w ith i ntent, r eally m ean? O ne may s uggest t hat s uch a n i mage i s a n i mitation o f a R ussian c ountermark u pon a G olden H orde c oin. C ountermarking o f G olden H orde c oins by R ussian p rinces d id o ccur, a nd t his p ractice a pparently r elates t o t he s ame p eriod a s t he a ppearance o f n ative c oinage. I nasmuch a s t he c ountermarking o f T artar c oins was p racticed i n t he p rincipality o f R yazan, which was t he o ne most u nder t he G olden H orde t humb, o ne must a ssume t hat t he k han d id n ot t ake t his p ractice a s b eing d erogatory t o h is i nterests. T he l ook o f t he h ead i mage o n t he c oins i n q uestion d oes i ndeed v isually r emind o ne o f a c ountermark, particularly i n t he c ases where t he h ead i s s urrounded by a l inear b order. T he t hesis t hat t he i mage i n q uestion c onstitutes a n i mitation o f a c ountermark i s c onf irmed by t he f act t hat 16
c ountermarks w ith s uch i mages, u nquestionably n ot o f T artar o rigin, a re i n f act f ound o n G olden H orde c oins ( Likhachov, 1 930 , v ol. I, p . 1 64, f ig. 1 28). F yodorov-Davydov a lso r ecalls t he e xistence o f a R ussian a nonymous c oin, p rovisionally a ssigned by h im t o Dmitri D onskoi o r t he b eginning o f t he r eign o f h is s on, w ith s uch a c ountermark o n t he s ide w ith t he A rabic i nscription ( Fyodorov-Davydov, 1 981, p .106). T hat a uthor's i dea t hat t he r eversed p osition o f t he h ead o n t he i mitation c ountermark, r elative t o t he A rabic i nscription, " neutralized" o r " quenched" t he i nscription's e xpression o f h ated s ubjection t o t he H orde, s eems d oubtful; we s hould t hink i t was more l ikely b rought i nto b eing by a c oncern t o a void r eproach o n t he part o f t he T artars ( who c ould n otice o nly t hat t he i nscription a nd t he i mage were c ontradictorily o riented) f or t he R ussians' h aving o verly e xalted t he i mage o f t he R ussian p rince. A s we a re aware f rom t he d ata o f m iniatures, t he p rincely c ap was t he most c haracteristic o f t he r egalia f or R ussian p r inces o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies. A t t he s ame t ime, we d o n ot f ind i t o n t he majority o f t he r epresentations o f R ussian r ulers o n c oins o f t hat p eriod, y et we f requently e nough s ee a c rown o f western E uropean p attern, i .e. a r egale which Russian p r inces d id n ot u se a t t hat t ime. H ow a re we t o e xplain t his? I t s eems t o me t hat t he a nswer t o t he q uestion i s p rovided by t hose i mages o n a ncient Russian c oins where t hese c aps a re n evertheless i n f act s hown. A ll i mages o f p rincely c aps a re f ound o nly o n c oins where o nly h eads a nd n ot c omplete f igures a re r epresented. T he s pecif ic f eatures o f p rincely c aps would n ot h ave b een t aken i n f rom s mall-scale i mages; f or t hat r eason t he e ngravers p referred t he more d istinguishable i mages o f c rowns, w ith which t hey were a cquainted t hrough t he d epictions o f f oreign r ulers. Thus among t he c auses which c ontributed t o t he a cquisition n ot o nly o f n on-individualized, but i ndeed o f " internationalized" f eatures by t he i mages o f r ulers o n Russian c oins, t here were a lso c auses o f a " technological" c haracter. T he i mportance o f t he p rincely c ap a s a s ymbol o f a uthority i s v ividly r ef lected by t he d epictions o f R ussian p rinces i n m iniatures a nd i kons o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies, where t he p rince i s r epresented w ith h is c ap o n e ven while s leeping o r p raying. T his l ast f eature was a pparently a r eal o ne, s ince t here a re c hronicle r eferences t o a p rince n ot r emoving h is h eadgear while i n c hurch ( PSDRL, v ol. V , p .146). I n t he XVIth c entury a t radition o f s howing r ulers a t p rayer w ithout h eadgear b ecame e stablished. Among t he s tamps o n monetary i ngots t here a re a lso i mages o f h eads w earing t he p rincely c ap t hat a re d ecidedly c lose t o s ome s uch i mages o n c oins ( Bulychov, 1 906, p . 1 42, f ig. 1 5; g enerally s peaking a variety o f h eads, mainly w ithout h eadgear, a re v ery numerous among t he f igures o n s uch s tamps). A long w ith t he i mages o f h eads wearing p rincely c aps o n R ussian c oins t here a re a lso i mages o f h eads wearing c rowns ( Plate XV, 1 -8). Ip rovisionally a ssign among t hese a lso t he f igure o n a c ertain c opper c oin o f N ovgorod ( Plate XV. 6 ) 17
which has b een r egarded by s cholars e i ther a s a n i mage o f a h ead wearing a c rown, o r a s a d epiction o f a v essel o r c ontainer. I nasmuch a s d epictions o f s uch v essels s tanding a lone a re u nknown o n R ussian c oins, t he a ssumption t hat t his i s a h ead a ppears t he more p lausible. On R yazan c oins w ith t he n ame o f t he G rand P rince V asilii ( Tyomny?) a human h ead i s d epicted w ithin t he i mage o f a c rescent t he h orns o f which p ro ject t oward i ts f ace ( Plate XV. 9 . 1 0). I n O reshnikov's o pinion ( 1896) t his i conography i s b orrowed f rom a ncient c oins. Y et o ne s upposes t hat s uch a n i conography m ight a lso a rise q uite i ndependently, c onvergently. A human h ead i nscribed w ithin a c ircle w ithin which t here i s a lso i nscribed a c rescent i s a s tandard a ncient R ussian i conographic c liche f or t he r epresentation o f h eavenly b odies, whether t he s un o r t he moon. I t i s o nly t hat i n t hose f igures t he c rescent i s o rdinarily p laced a t t he back o f t he h ead i nstead o f i n f ront o f i t ( Redin. 1 9 16, p .97, f ig.71; p .159, f ig.152; p late I, 2 ; p late XV, XXI). Apparently i n t he p resent c ase t he i mage s hould b e r egarded a s r epresenting a r uler, l ike o ther i mages o f h eads. T he c rescent r ef lects t he i dea o f t he c onnection b etween t he p ath o f t he p rince's l i fe a nd t he h eavenly b odies. T he i dea o f s uch a c onnection i s w idespread i n Russian f olklore a nd i n written l i terature. I n t he byliny e pics t he u sual e pithet f or P rince V ladimir i s K rasnoye S olnyshko " the d ear R ed S un." I n R ussian l i terature t he d eaths o f o utstanding p rinces a re o n more t han o ne o ccasion c ompared t o t he s etting o f t he s un ( NPL, p . 3 06, 4 53 ). I n t he n arrative o f t he l ife a nd d emise o f Dmitri D onskoi t here i s a l ament o f h is w idow o ver t he d eceased p rince, c ontaining t he words "my s un, t hou s ettest e ar ly; my f air moon, t hou d isappearest e arly; s tar o f t he e ast, why g oest t hou westward? ( the d irection o f s etting)" ( PSRL, v ol. V I, p . 1 08). I n t he t raditional Russian marriage c eremony t he b ridegroom i s c alled t he " prince"; i n c eremonial marriage s ongs t he b ridegroom i s f requently c ompared w ith t he moon ( or c rescent). T he c onnection o f t he c oncepts o f t he p r ince a nd t he moon h as p erhaps s ome v ery ancient u nderpinnings among t he S lays c ompare t he e tymological p ropinquity o f t he P olish word f or " pr ince," k siqz9, a nd t hat f or " moon", k sigzyc. S ide by s ide w ith t he i mages o f a human h ead w ith a c rescent b ackground, we a re a lso o ffered a c lear r ef lection o f t he c onnection o f t he p rince's i mage w ith i mages o f h eavenly b odies i n t he r epresentations, which w e have a lready s tudied, o f a h orseman w ith a f alcon, b eside which t here a re d epictions o f a c rescent i n o ne c ase, o f a s un-ideogram i n a nother ( Plate X III 1 3-15) I n ancient Russian i conography t here a re n ot o nly i nstances o f t he i nf luence o f a stral s ymbolics o n t he i mages o f r ulers, but t here a re a lso e xamples o f t he r everse l inkage. R ussian d epictions o f h eavenly b odies f rom t he XVth-XVIth c enturies n ot i nfrequently s how w ithin t heir d isks c rowned h eads o r p rotomes ( Redin, 1 916, p late XXIV; N ikolayeva, 1 971, p late 2 1, 1 ). I n a ddition, we e ncounter i mages o f t he s unc hariot among p rincely s eals ( Plate XXVIII. 8 ). T heir i conography g oes back t o c lassical r epresentational a rt, but i t
18
i s a lso known i n a ncient R ussian a rt, i n p articular f rom t he i l lustrated p salters o f t he X IVth-XVIth c enturies ( the K iev P salter, s heet 1 88). T hus whereas t he i mage o f t he h uman h ead p lus c rescent was i ndeed under t he s pell o f a f oreign model, i n a ll l ikelihood i t r eceived i nterpretation i n t he s pirit o f b eliefs w idely d isseminated i n R us. A c onnection b etween t he h eavenly b odies a nd t he i dea o f t he a uthority o f p r inces i s b eyond q uestion f or a ncient R us; n or a re d oubts a roused by t he t hought t hat i t was a lso r eflected i n t he s ubject-matter o f r epresentational a rt. B ut among t he f igures i n r epresentational a rt t hat a re l inked w ith t he i dea o f a uthority, a stral s ymbolics a re r epresented by c omparatively f ew e xamples. I n f ront o f s ome i mages o f h eads i n p rof ile a nd w ithout h eadgear a n i ndistinct o bject l ooking l ike a v ertical r od i s p resented ( a s cepter? a d egenerated i mage o f a weapon? P late XV. 1-14). One o f t he i mages o f f acing c rowned h eads i s p ositioned a bove a r ender ing o f d rapery ( Plate XV.15). I t m ight a s a guess b e a ssociated w ith s ome s ort o f d ecorative i mages, p erhaps b orrowed o nes. On a r ange o f c oins t here i s a f acing v isage s urrounded by s crolls. E ven t hough t he upper o nes m ight b e r egarded a s d epictions o f hair , y et s tylized i n unusual f ashion a s t hough i n d isorder, s till t he t wo l ower s crolls t railing b eneath t he c hin c an by n o m eans b e r egarded e ither a s h air o r a s a b eard. The s uggestion t hat t hese a re s tylized hands o r a rms i s a lso i mplausible ( Plate XV. 1 6-18). Quite l ong a go t he s uggestion was made t hat t his f igure i s a v ariant o f a n i conography w idely e ncountered o n B yzantine a nd Russian amulets a nd g oing b ack i conographically t o t he f igure o f t he g orgon M edusa ( Tolstoi, 1 911, p .19). I n ancient Russian a rt t he g orgon was u sually r epresented i n t he f orm o f a human h ead f rom which i mages o f s nakes emerge e ither r adially, o r wriggling a t r andom i n a ll d irections. T he main purpose o f s uch a n i mage was t o s care o ff e vil s pirits. R ef lections o f t he g orgon myth a re k nown i n a ncient R ussian l i terature: i n t he r omance o f A lexander o f Macedon. A lexander, l ike t he h eroes o f a ncient myths, v anquishes a n umber o f h is e nemies a nd monsters b y s howing t hem t he g orgon's h ead ( Istrin, 1 893, p .233). T his s ub ject a lso a ppears i n m iniatures o f t he XVIth c entury, s o t hat t he g orgon's h ead i s known n ot e xclusively f rom f igures o n amulets. I n a ddition t o t he A lexander r omance, t he g orgon ( the b east G orgoneion) i s m entioned i n a procryphal l i terature, where i t guards p aradise a gainst h uman b eings a f ter t he F all f rom G race ( Pypin, 1 862, p ,3, 6 ). T hus t he p rincipal s ignificance o f t he i mage was a potropaeic a nd p rotective. T aking t hat s ignif icance i nto a ccount, o ne may f ully a cknowledge t hat t he i mage o f t he g orgon c ould h ave b een u sed o n c oins, among a r ange o f o ther i mages h aving a n a potropaeic s ymbolism. C oins w ith t he i mage we a re c onsider ing h ave o n t he o ther s ide a f igure w ith a s aber, a s word, a nd a n a xe, a s cene o f t he c utting o ff o f a h ead b eside a t ree, i .e. s ub jects i n which t he t heme o f 1 19
warning-off a lso p lays a n e xtremely i mportant p art. I n o ne i nstance a mysterious h ead a bove t he p unishment s cene h as a bove i t s crolls e ntirely a nalogous t o t he g orgon " coiffure" ( Plate V II 9 ). Apparently t his h ead i s a lso a ssociated w ith t he t heme o f warning-off . I n c onclusion I may n ote t hat c onsider ing t he p retty r emote i conographic a nalogies o n t he b asis o f which t his i mage i s b eing i nterpreted, o ne c annot b it oo s ure o f t he way o f l ooking a t i t t hat i s b eing s uggested. I n f avor o f i t o ne c an a dduce, i n a ddition t o t he v ery g eneral r esemblence, o nly t wo c onsiderations t he n oteworthy i nconstancy o f t he i conography o f t he g orgon o n a n ulets, a nd t he p opularity o f t his i mage ( even t hough i t i s p reponderantly e ncountered o nly o n amulets, a s eries o f o bjects h aving a s harply d ef ined a nd s pecif ic f ield o f a pplication). We e ncounter i n a ncient R ussian n umismatics s ome i mages o f a b ifacial ( janiform) human h ead ( Plate XV 1 9-22). The m eaning o f t he i mage i s unclear. U nquestionably s uch r epresentations a re by n ow n ot f igures o f a p rince. A t t he s ame t ime t he most g eneral s ymbolic m eaning o f a f igure o f a h uman h ead, c onveying t he i dea o f h eadship o r a uthority, m ight b e p reserved i n t hese i mages t oo. I n o ne c ase t he f aces l ooking i n d ifferent d irections a re p resented n ot g rown t ogether but s eparated ( Plate XV. 2 3). On o ne c oin o f uncertain a ssignment t here a re i mages o f f our l onghaired h eads amid which t here i s a p laiting a t t he c enter, p robably r epresenting a knot ( Plate XV 2 4-25). I n t he o pinion o f A .K. Markov ( 1910) t his i s a r epresentation o f s evered h eads a nd r eflects t he i dea o f punishment f or c ounterfeiters. I n f avor o f t hat t hesis we have t he i mage o n t he r everse o f t he c oin, where a f igure w ith a n a xe i s r epresented s tanding b efore a s evered h ead ( Plate V II 1 3, 1 4). Y et t here i s n o c omplete c ertainty t hat t he f our h eads r epresent s evered o nes. B eside t he t ypes o f p rotomes a nd h eads, o n a ncient R ussian c oins i mages o f s eparate parts o f t he h uman b ody a s p rincipal t ypes o n o ne o f t he s ide o f a c oin a re n ot f ound, s ave f or a s ingle e xception. T his, h owever , i s a v ery r evealing o ne. T his i s a c oin o f t he p rincipality o f S uzdal w ithout t he name o f a p rince ( Plate XV 2 6). T here a re s hown u pon i t t wo hands t o t he wrists, o ne h olding a n a xe a nd t he o ther s pread o pen w ith t he t humb s eparate. A .K.Markov ( 1910) r egards t his i mage a s o ne r eflecting t he punishment o f c ounterfeiters t hrough c utting o ff a h and. Apparently i n t his i nstance o ne must a gree w ith h im. I n t he f irst p lace, c oins a re known o n which a f igure w ith a s aber a nd a n a xe a nd w ith a s evered hand i s r epresented ; i n t he s econd p lace, we h ave a lso r emarked t hat o n c oins t he a xe a ppears o n more t han o ne o ccasion a s t he s pecif ic weapon o f p unishment. On t he o bverse o f t he c oin b eing e xamined t here i s t he f igure o f a warr ior. Animals I mages
o f l iving
b eings
o n a ncient 1 20
R ussian
c oins i nclude
b oth r eal a nd f antastic o nes. T he s cholars who h ave e xamined t hem h ave a ssigned t hem, o f ten v ery a rbitrarily, t o o ne s pecies o r a nother , a nd t he p lacing o f i ndividual b eings among t he f antastic o nes h as i n p art b een e qually a rbitrary. E ven O reshnikov's f undamental work s ins more t han o nce i n t his r egard. T hat s cholar, f or e xample, f requently c alls a n a nimal s hown o n o ne c oin o r a nother a " fantastic quadruped" a lthough i t i s n ot c lear where h e p erceives t raits o f f antasy. T o a g reat e xtent t his s ituation i s t o b e e xplained by t he s pecif ic f eatures o f a ncient R ussian ( and a g reat p art o f t he g enerally m edieval) d epictions o f a nimals. I n t hem i t i s p ossible t o make v isual i dentifications o nly o f t he b est-known a nimals; v isual f eatures a re n ot emphasized, but r ather t he r everse - t hey a re b rought d own t o a c ommon l evel ( for e xample, f requently t he e ars o f r abbits a nd t he t runks o f e lephants a re s hortened). G ross e rrors i n t he a natomy o f e ven t he b est-known a nimals a re n ot u ncommon. I s hall p oint o ut t he most s tr iking R ussian e xamples - s heep a nd g oats w ith t oes i nstead o f h oofs o n t heir f eet, o n t he N ovgorod c hurch d oors o f 1 336 ( Lazarev, 1 953, p .405, f ig.10), a nd a b eaver w ith c loven h oofs ( sic) i n a m iniature o f t he XVth c entury ( Redin, 1 916, p late X IX, 3 ). D espite t he c onsiderable s trayings f rom r eality o n t he p art o f many ancient R ussian d epictions o f a nimals, o ne s hould p lace among t he f antastic o nes o nly t hose u pon which f eatures o f b eings o f d ifferent s pecies, f or e xample man a nd b east, a re f ound t ogether; o r q uadruped a nd f ish, o r s erpents a nd b irds. W e d o n ot t ake i nto a ccount, a s b eing p rimarily d ecorative e lements, t he f antastic d etails o f s ome p ictures o f a t ail e nding i n an o rnamental p lant motif o r i n s ome o ther f antastic f orm, o r a n a nalogous t ransformation o f t he t ongue. T he p ropriety o f t his a ttitude t oward s uch d etails c an b e backed u p by t he p eculiarities o f t he i mages o f l ions o n a f amous memorial o f ancient R ussian c arving i n wood - t he N ovgorod p rocessional c ross o f 1 359. U pon i t t here i s a n i mage o f S amson t ear ing o pen t he l ion's gape ( the p resence o f a n imbus c onvinces u s t hat t his i s t ruly S amson a nd n ot by a ny means H eracles), a nd t he l ion's t ail has a n o rnamental t ip ( plant motifs, a t endril a nd a l eaf ; L azarev a nd Mneva, 1 954, p .161). On t his s ame c ross t here i s a n i mage o f S t. G erasim r emoving a t horn f rom a l ion's p aw. T he t ail e nds i n a t riple p lant-like s hoot ( ibid, p .159). I n b oth c ases p opular l i terary e pisodes i n which l ions p lay a p art a re r epresented. Obviously t he way t he t ail was t ipped d id n ot g et i n t he way o f r ecognizing what was s pecif ically a l ion i n t he b east r epresented. D ealing w ith t he p oses o f a nimals a lso i ntroduces a c onsiderable c omplication. B y n o m eans a lways c an o ne d istinguish w ith c onf idence b etween r epresentations o f a walking o r a s tanding a nimal, a r unning o r a l eaping o ne - i n a ncient R ussian a rt t here was n o s tandard g amut o f s tereotypes f or t he p oses o f a nimals ( as i n h eraldry); i n many i nstances t he p oses a re i nexpressive; p oses s harply d ivergent f rom e ach o ther may b e l inked b y a c hain o f t ransitional f orms; a nd many o f t hese c an w ith e qual j ustif ication b e a ssiged n ow t o 1 21
o ne a nd n ow t o t he o ther o f t he g roups. Among t he i mages o f l iving b eings o n a ncient R ussian c oins a c onspicuous p lace i s o ccupied b y r epresentations o f a quadruped, e vidently a b east o f p rey. E ndeavors t o d istinguish v arious s pecies among t hese i mages a ppear unpromising. A l arge s eries o f i mages o f t he quadruped i s t o b e f ound o n N ovgorod l ead s eals. Y anin c onvincingly a ssigned t hem t o t he a dministration o f o ne o f t he N ovgorod wards. I n t his c onnection t he b east c omes f orward i n t he r ole o f t he emblem o f t he ward i n q uestion. I n i ndividual c ases t his b east i s u nquestionably p resented i n t he f orm o f a l ion, where e vidently t he e ngravers made u se o f a g ood model o f w estern E uropean o rigin ( Yanin, 1 970, v o1.11, p late 3 7, 7 18; P late XXVI 1,4 ) I n o ther c ases t he i mage o f t he b east o n N ovgorod s eals h as a more p rimitive a ppearance, a nd i t l ooks more l ike a wolf . A longside o ne o f t hese t here i s t he i nscr iption " this i s a r aging b east", ( Yanin,1970, v ol I , p late 3 7, 7 16; P late XXVIII 3 ), s howing t hat t he f undamental c ontent o f t he i mage i s n ot i ts c orrespondence t o a ny c oncrete s pecies, but t hat t o t he c oncept o f s avageness o r f ury which was e vidently a ssociated w ith warlike p rowess. Among t he i mages o f t he s eals o f t he s ame ward t here i s a lso a b east w ith w ings ( Yanin, 1 970 , v ol. I , p late 4 0, 7 49; P late XXVIII 5 ). T hus o ne a nd t he s ame emblematic p urport may a dmit o f i ncorporations d iffering i n t heir i conographic d etails ( even o nes o f s uch c onsiderable i mportance a s w ings). T he most d istinctly s eparated g roups o f i mages o f a quadruped a re d istinguished f rom o ne a nother n ot t hrough t he d egree o f d ynamism i n t he p ose, b ut t hrough t he p osition o f t he h ead a nd t hrough t he d etails o f t he r epresentation o f t he t ail. B easts may b e b roken d own i nto t hree g roups a ccording t o t he p osition o f t he h ead. T he f irst i s t he b east w ith f acing h ead. T hese a re c omparatively f ew i n n umber ( Plate XVI 1 -7). Among t hem we s hould n ote a g roup i conographically r eminiscent o f t he h eraldic l eopard ( three f eet o n t he g round, o ne f oot r aised, t ail r evered a bove t he b ack ( Plate XVI. 1 -3). I nfluence o f western E uropean models i s a ltogether l ikely a nimal f igures i n s uch a p ose a re n oncharacteristic f or a ncient R ussian a rt a s a whole. T he most n umerous g roup p resents a nimals w ith t he muzzle f acing f orward. T his p ose i s t he o ne m ost c haracter istic f or t he r epresentat ion o f b easts o n R ussian c oins ( Plate XVI 8 -25). A g roup s howing t he b east w ith h ead t urned b ackward i s a lso p retty c onsiderable ( Plate XVII. 1 -11). One may s uppose t hat t his p ose r ef lects t he c oncept o f t he b east pursued by a hunter. I n a ny c ase, i n a ncient R ussian m iniatures b easts pursued b y h unters a re p reponderantly r epresented i n t his way. We s hould r emark t hat i n a ncient R ussian a rt o f t he p re-Mongo l p er iod f igures o f quadrupeds w ith t heir h eads t urned b ackward a re e xtremely f ew i n n umber; t hey s pread about l ater o n. P art o f t he b easts s hown o n c oins w ith h eads t urned b ackward a re r epresented w ith t heir t ongues t hrust o ut ( Plate XVII, 8 11). A f ew words o n t he f orms o f b easts' t ails. T he t ail i s 1 22
‚ frequently f inished o ff w ith a t hickened b rush. T ail-tips a re k nown i n t he f orm o f e lements o f p lant o rnament - t refo ils, l eaves, t endr ils ( Plate XVI. 1 .14. 1 6-18). I n a n umber o f c ases t he t ail o f t he b east i s t urned d ownward, p assing b etween i ts l egs, a nd i s d rawn u pward f rom b eneath t he l egs t o o ne s ide, p assing a bove t he b ody ( Plate XVI, 8 , 9 , 1 9 ; P late XVII, 1 ). T his p eculiarity i s known o n p re-Mongo l p ictures a nd i t s urvives i nto t he X VI I th c entury. On c oins o f R ostov t he t ail t hrust b etween t he l egs o f t he a nimal f orms a l oop b eneath i ts b elly ( Plate XVI. 1 6-18). P erhaps t his c ompounded v ariant o f t he i conography i s u nder t he s pell o f t he l oops a nd p laiting s o f t eratological o rnament. B eside t ails e nding i n a p lant like e lement we e ncounter t ails s haped i n t he f orm o f s tars ( ?) ( Plate XVI. 1 5).0n part o f t he c oins o f Vasi lii Dmitrievich t here i s a n o utline f igure o f a s corpion a bove t he i mage o f t he b east ( recognized b y I .1. T olstoi - 1 9 11, p .16 ; P late XVI. 2 32 5 ). T he c ombination o f t he i mage o f a l ion w ith a n i mage o f a s corpion a bove i t i s apparently b orrowed f rom o riental g lyptics ( in particular, s uch f igures a re k nown o n S assanid g ems B or isov a nd Lukonin, 1 963, p . 1 24), where i t i s e ndowed w ith a stral s ymbolism. B ut t his s ub ject w ill s carcely h ave b een d omesticated i n R us a long w ith a ssimilat ion o f i ts c ontent. D espite t he v agueness o f t he v isual f eatures o f b easts o n a ncient R ussian c oins, t he b east i s a pparently t o b e r egarded a s a v ar iant u pon t he most w idespread i mage i n a ncient R ussian f eudal e mblematics, c alled t he b ars o r panther by a n umber o f s cholars. A rt s ikhovski j ustly r emarked t hat i t i s more c orrect t o c all t his a nimal a l ion ( 1946, p. 53 , 5 4) , i na s much a s t he f igure o f t he l ion e n joyed i ncomparably g reater p opularity i n a ncient R us t han d id t hat o f t he p anther , s omething which was r eflected i n t he l i terary m emorials i n particular. I n c ontradistinction t o t he c ase w ith t he panther i mage, t here was a ssociated w ith t hat o f t he l ion a v ery h ighly e volved a nd variegated s ymbolic s ystem b oth o f a n e cclesiastical a nd o f a s ecular c haracter. Daniel I mpr isoned e xpressly l inks t he f igure o f t he l ion w ith t he f eudal r uler, t he p rince: " The e agle i s t he k ing-bird a bove a ll b irds, t he o syotr s turgeon a bove f ishes, a nd t hou, p rince, o ver t he p eople o f P ereyaslavl. T he l ion r oars, a nd who i s n ot a feard? a nd t hou, p r ince, s peakest - who s hall n ot s tand i n awe?" ( Zarubin, 1 932, p .66). W e a lso f ind a s imilar u nderstanding o f t he l ion-figure i n t he I patii C hronicle: " For h e made f or t he u nclean l ike a l ion, h e was f urious a s a l ynx a nd s lew t hem l ike a c rocodile, a nd h e c oursed t hrough t heir l and l ike a n e agle...." ( PSRL, v ol. I , p . 7 16). T he c onnection b etween t he w idely f amiliar f o lklore f igure o f t he " raging b east" a nd t he l ion h as l ong s ince b een d emonstrated ( Miller, 1 877) ; K leinenberg, 1 969) . L et u s n ote t hat a lthough a d ecidedly c onsiderable n umber o f r epresentations o f t he r aging-beast a s a l ion c ome f rom t he V ladimir-Suzdal l ands, t his s ubject t heme c an b y n o means b e r egarded a s a ssociated o nly w ith t hat p r incipality. T his i s t old u s b y l ion i mages which o riginate e lsewhere t han w ithin 1 23
t he l imits o f t he p r incipality o f V ladimir-Suzdal a nd a re y et u nquestionably a ssociated w ith f eudal e mblematics, f or e xample o n s eal-rings. S uch r ings a re known f or K iev ( Kondakov, 1 896, p late I , 8 ), N ovgorod ( Sedova, 1 959 , p . 2 57, f ig. 1 0 , 3 ), a nd O ld R yazan ( Chernetsov, 1 981 A ). T he l ion i s a lso k nown o n a n i mpression f rom a Smolensk s eal o f t he e nd o f t he X II I th c entury ( Likhachov, 1 930 , p .268). Apparently d ur ing t he p reMongol p eriod t he l ion was a f eudal e mblem t hat h ad s pread t hroughout R us, a nd i ts c onversion i nto a h eraldic f igure w ith a s table i conography, f ixed p ose, a nd s tr ictly d ef ined f ield o f a pplication, a ll i n c onnection w ith a c oncrete f amily l ine o r t erritory, h ad n ot y et c ome a bout, e ven t hough a t endency t oward t hat c onversion d id e xist ( Soboleva, 1 981, p .170). A s we h ave a lready r emarked, r epresentations o f t he r end ing o f o ne b east b y a nother a re n on-characteristic f or R ussian c oins. B ut t hey a re f ound o n s eals. I n p articular, o n a s eal o f I van I II t here i s a f igure o f a l ion r ending a s erpent, t he s ymbol o f e vil ( SGG, v ol. I, 1 813, p .215; P late XXVIII, 9 r everse). T hus t he s ystem o f s ymbols f or t his b eas t o n ancient Russian s eals a nd c oins c ould a lso r ef lect t he s ubject t heme o f t he s truggle w ith e vil. S till a f urther b rush-stroke t o c omplete t he s ymbo lic s ystem o f t he b east i n R us i s p rovided b y a well-known i kon o f t he X IVth c entury s howing B oris a nd G leb a nd s cenes f rom t heir l ives. One o f t he s cenes p resents t he s leeping P r ince B oris d reaming o f h is d eath. T his d ream i s p ersonif ied i n t he f orm o f a s mallish b lack b east o f p rey walking a long t he e dge o f t he p rince's b ed ( Antonova a nd Mneva, 1 963, p late 1 57). I t i s c haracter istic t hat i n n one o f t he v ar iants o f t he L ife o f B oris a nd G leb i s t he f igure o f a b east m entioned i n c onnection w ith t he e pisode we a re c onsider ing. On R ussian c oins o f o ur p eriod b irds a re f or t he most p art o f i ndef inite s pecies ( Plate XVII. 1 2-23; P late XVIII, 1 -9) . A pparently t hey were f or t he most part b irds o f p rey, e agles. T he s ole r epresentation o f a b ird i n a ncient R ussian n umismatics a nd s phragistics t hat i s f urnished w ith a n e xplanatory i nscription i s o n a N ovgorod s eal. T he i nscription c alls t he b ird " eagle" ( Yanin, 1 970 , v ol. I , p late 3 8, 7 25, 7 26; P late XXVIII. 6 ). Evidently t he f igure o f t he e agle was a ttractive f or t he s ame r eason a s was t he f igure o f t he l ion, a nd i t was a ssociated w ith t he f igure o f t he f eudal r uler, t he p rince o r t he k ing ( Zarubin, 1 932 , p .66 ). T he b irds r epresented o n c oins a re s hown f or t he m ost p art s tanding; s ometimes t heir w ings a re s pread a s t hough t hey w ere a bout t o f ly. One s hould n ote t hat i n ancient R ussian a rt b irds a re o rdinarily r epresented i n j ust t his s tanding p osition a nd n ot a s f lying. A t t he s ame t ime, f lying b irds a re r epresented o n c oins by a r ange o f i mages ( Plate XVIII. 6 -9 )a nd i ndeed t here a re s ome e ven among t he e arliest R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth c entury f rom t he p r incipality o f S uzdal-Nizhegorod. Among t he d epictions o f s tanding b irds t here a re o nes t hat s how t hem w ith t he h ead i nclined markedly f orward ( pecking? - P late XVIII. 3 -4). O n o ne s pecimen o f a T ver c opper c oin w ithout p rince's n ame t he b ird h olds a f lower i n i ts c law ( a t refoil o n 1 24
a s talk - P late X VIII. 2 ). P erhaps t his i s a d istant e cho f rom e astern a rt ( the b ird w ith a l eaf i n i ts c law - D arkevich, 1 976, p .165, 1 66), o r e lse i t may e xpress t he i dea o f t he d ove w ith t he b ranch i n i ts c law ( a s ub ject a ssociated w ith t he u nversal F lood) . A lthough t he g reater p art o f t hese b irds a pparently r epresent b irds o f p rey, t heir p reying c haracter i s i n n o way e xpressed. S cenes o f t he r ending o f a n a nimal o r a nother b ird b y a b ird, popular e nough i n a ncient Russian a pplied a rt a nd f inding p arallels i n l i terature, a re c ompletely a bsent f rom c oins. T he s ole s eries o f i mages ( a v ery i mportant o ne, t o b e s ure) i n which a d ef inite b ird o f p rey i s s hown i s t hat o f t he h orsemen w ith f alcons ( Plate X III. 5 -20) a nd t he r arer f igures o f r ulers u pon t he t hrone w ith a hunting b ird ( Plate X . 2 5). B ut i n t hese i mages t he b ird i s n ot t he c entral f igure. F or s ome r eason which i s n ot c lear , i n t he n umismatic material f igures o f b irds i n f rontal p ose a nd w ith s pread w ings ( the h eraldic e agle) a re a lmost c ompletely a bsent, whereas s uch a n i conography f or b irds i s f ound more t han o nce i n a pplied a rt. One may s uppose t hat t he c onventionality o f t he p ose d id n ot s uit t he l anguage o f t he i mages o n ancient Russian c oins, a l anguage which was i n t he main a ddressed t o t he r ank a nd f i le o f t he p opulation. Only o ne b ird, o n o ne Muscovite c opper pub ow ithout p r ince's name, i s s hown i n t he h eraldic p ose. A c rown i s s hown o n t he b ird's h ead, s omething unique i n t he r epresentation o f a n animal f or t he p er iod i n q uest ion ( if o ne e xcepts monsters w ith human h eads) i n t hat i t h as t he c rown o n t he h ead ( Plate XVIII. 1). T his i s a n e arly e xample o f t he p enetration i nto R us o f a s ymbolic s ystem o f t his t ype ( for which i mages o f a nimals w ith weapons, emblems made u p o f r epresentations o f a s ingle weapon o r o f r egalia but w ithout a h uman b eing, a nd t he l ike s ort, a re c haracteristic). A s imilar c rowned e agle i n h eraldic p ose may b e n oted o n a waxc omposition s eal o f t he f irst half o f t he XVI I th c entury ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late X II, 13). C onventional s ymbolism o f t his s ort c ame t o s pread about w ithin R us mainly f rom t he m idXVIth c entury o nward, a t t he s ame t ime when t erritorial emblems a ppeared. A side f rom b irds o f uncertain s pecies which may b e r egarded a s b irds o f p rey, o ne a lso f inds o n ancient Russian c oins i mages o f b irds which h ave d eterminate f eatures p ermitting a c loser i dentif ication. T hese a re t he p eacock a nd t he barnyard c ock. T he i mage o f a p eacock i s f ound u pon c opper p ub s o f T ver w ithout p rince's n ame. T he t ail a nd c rest o f t he b irds a re emphasized i n t he i mages ( Plate XVIII. 2 5. 2 6) . M edieval s ymbolism f or t he i mage o f t he p eacock c haracterizes i t f or t he most p art a s a n egative f igure. Apparently i t i s r epresented a s a e xotic o b ject. E xotic a nimals a nd b irds m ight f unction a s g ifts f rom f oreign r ulers, a s o bjects i ntroduced by merchants f rom d istant c ountries, a nd were t hus a ssociated w ith t he i dea o f wealth. I mages o f t he b arnyard c ock a re a lready f ound u pon t he e arliest Russian c oins - i n p articular , o n t hose s truck b y 1 25
Dmitri D onskoi ( Plate XVIII. 1 2. 1 3). T here i s n o q uestion t hat t his i s a c ock - t here i s a c omb a nd a c haracter istic t ail. O n t he Dmitri D onskoi c oins a m iniature i mage o f a s mall a nimal i s s hown above t he c ock. On s ome c oins t here a ppears i n a ddition a s mall g lobule t o t he r ear a nd b elow ( an e gg? P late XVIII. 1 3).Both t he s mall a nimal a nd t he g lobule a re f ound t ogether w ith t he f igure o f t he c ock o n t he c oins o f o ther p r inces a s well, but n ot a lways ( Plate X VIII. 1 4. 1 5, 1 8).0n c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich t he s mall a nimal i s f requently m issing a nd a p laiting i s r epresented i nstead ( Plate XVIII. 1 6. 1 7) . One a lso e ncounters i mages o f t he c ock o n s eals o f t he XVth c entury ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late I, 3 7; S edova, 1 979). T he c ock i s n ot o ne o f t he b irds o f p rey w ith which t he c oncepts o f warlike p rowess a nd o f a uthority m ight b e a ssociated. N or i s i t a n e xotic b ird l ike t he p eacock a nd t he o str ich. Apparently t he i mage o f t he c ock c annot b e a ssociated i n a ny way w ith f eudal emblematics i n t he n arrow s ense. T he i mage o f t he c ock c an b e l inked w ith a s ubject f rom t he H oly S cr iptures - t he d enial b y t he Apostle P eter. Y et t here i s n ot o ne i mage u nquestionably a ssociated w ith e cclesiastical i conography o n t he c oins e ither o f Dmitri D onskoi o r o f h is s uccessor. T he c hance t hat t he c ock may r epresent a c yclic s ymbol o f t he F ar E astern a nd T urkish z odiac a lso a ppears u nlikely. T he c ock i s a c omparatively r are p ersonage i n a ncient R ussian a rt. O f i nterest a re d epictions o f c ocks i n t he t erato logical o rnament o f manuscrips which a re c lose i n t ime o f e xecution t o t he c oins o f Dmitri D onsko i. On t he f rontespiece o f t he N ovgorod F rol P salter o f t he m iddle o f t he X lVth c entury ( M.E.Saltykov-Shchedrin S tate P ublic L ibrary, F 1 , N o. 3 ) t he major p art i s o ccupied by a s tylized r epresentation o f a Chr istian c hurch, above t he c upolas o f which t here a ppears a c ock d rawn w ithin a r adiate d isk e vidently d epicting t he s un ( for a r eproduction o f t he f rontespiece s ee R ozov, 1 968, p . 9 0 ). B irds o f much s maller d imensions p erch u pon t he c rosses o f t he c athedral, a nd o ne o f t hem a lso has p lain f eatures o f a c ock. Two f urther s imilar b irds i n s olar d isks a ppear i n t he s ame manuscript a s i nitial l etters " 0". ( Stasov, 1 887, p late L XVI I , 7 , 9 ; P late XXXIV, 6 , 7 ). I n R ybakov's o pinion ( 1975, p . 1 59, 1 60) t he c omposition o f t he f rontespiece i s a ssociated w ith t he i deas o f t he s trigolnik h eresy; t he a uthor d raws a ttention t o t he c ocks, but o ffers n o i nterpretation f or t hem. T he d isk a gainst t he background o f which t he c ocks o f t he f rontespiece a nd t he i nitial l etters a re s hown i s e vidently a s olar o ne ( Rybakov p oints t his o ut), a nd a ll i n a ll, s uch i mages r ef lect w idespread i deas r egarding t he a ssociation o f t he c ock w ith t he r ising o f t he s un. A m iraculous c ock l inked w ith t he s un i s m entioned i n a manuscript c ompendium o f t he XVIth c entury ( 1531) i n t he a pocryphal a rticle " On a ll C reation." " It i s written t hat t here i s a c ock t he h ead o f which r eaches t he h eavens, a nd t he s eas r each t o i ts k nees. When t he s un b athes i n t he o cean, t hen t he o cean b ecomes wrought a nd t he waves c ommence t o s tr ike u pon t he c ock's f eathers. 1 26
H e, f eeling t he waves, s ays: c ock-a-doodle-do , which m eans: L ight-giving L ord, g ive l ight t o t he world. When h e s ings o ut i n t his way, a ll t he c ocks s ing o ut a t t he s ame t ime e verywhere i n t he whole world" ( Tikhonravov, 1 863, v ol. I, p . 3 49, 3 50). I n t his f ragment t he c ock makes i ts a ppearance a s a f abulous g igantic b ird, a s ort o f " father" o f a ll c ocks. A lso i n h armony w ith t he t ext q uoted i s t hat p eculiarity o f t he F rol P salter f rontespiece c onsisting i n t he p resence, a long w ith t he l arge f igure o f t he c ock i n t he s olar d isk, o f more m iniaturized i mages o f b irds, o ne o f which a lso unquestionably r epresents a c ock. I n c onnection w ith t he c urious " translation" f rom b irdl anguage i n t his p assage o ne may n ote a s imilar e pisode i n t he c hronicle o f G eorgios Amartolos, where t he c ry o f t he c row i s t ranslated " kra-kra." ( Istrin, 1 920, v ol. I , p . 3 49). T he i deas r ef lected i n t he f ragment c ited e n joyed p opularity i n R us. T his i s a ttested b y t he f act t hat t hey c arr ied o ver i nto p opular o ral c reativity., T he f eatures o f t he f abulous c ock where t ransferred t o t he s tref il ( a mutilated f orm o f s trufokamil, t he " strauss-camel," t he o strich) o f t he D ove B ook, which makes i ts a ppearance a s " the mother o f a ll b irds." " The S tref il b ird i s t he mother o f a ll b irds, " The S trefil l ives among t he s eas, " lt e ats a nd d rinks u pon t he b lue waters. " When t he S tref il s tarts t o f lutter " At t he s econd h our a f ter m idnight, " All t he c ocks i n a ll t he world c ommence t o s ing, " And t he whole world b ecomes l ight a t t hat moment " Because t he S tref il-bird i s t he mother o f a ll b irds." ( Mochulski, 1 887, p . 1 45-146). The e pisode w ith t he m iraculous b ird f ormed p art o f a c ompilation which was j udged f alse i n t he XVIth-XVIIIth c enturies a nd which was e ntered i n t he I ndex o f P rohibited B ooks ( Pypin, 1 862, A . p . 4 1). S uch i deas l inked w ith t he f igure o f t he c ock were e vidently a lso r eflected i n ancient R ussian c oins. A lthough t he t ext o n t he c ock which we h ave c ited i s i n a manuscript o f a l ater t ime t han t he c oins, i t a pparently g oes back t o e arly s ources. S imilar s uperstitions r egarding a g iant c ock a re known i n Musulman l egends, a nd t heir r oots g o back i nto p rofound a ntiquity ( the f igure o f t he c ock a ppears a s a n i mportant r eligious s ymbol i n a ssociation w ith t he s olar d isk a s f ar back a s t he Avesta). T he m iniature i mage o f a q uadruped ( a mouse?) p resent a bove t he f igures o f a c ock o n t he c oins a nd t he i mages o f v arious s ymbols p robably h ave n o c onceptual c onnection w ith t he main i mage a nd a re p erhaps marks t hrough which t he work o f various d ie-engravers was d istinguished. T hus t he f igure o f t he c ock o n t he c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi i s e vidently n ot a m ere c hance d epiction o f a n e very-day o bject a nd i s a t t he s ame t ime n ot l inked d irectly w ith t he i dea o f a uthority o r w ith t he p erson o f t he p rince i n whose name t he c oin was s truck. I t r eflects m edieval n otions o f t he u niverse t hat l ie a t t he j unction b etween l i terature a nd 1 27
f olklore. A n umber o f o ther i mages o n c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies a re p robably o f a s imilar n ature. S cenes o f r end ing w ith p articipation b y b irds a re n ot f ound o n c oins, w ith t he e xception o f a s ingle n ot e ntirely p lain i mage which a pparently r epresents a n e agle t earing a t a s erpent ( Plate XVI II . 1 0) ; i t i s o n a c oin o f M ikhail Andreyevich o f V ereya. A f igure o f a n e agle c ombatting w ith a s erpent i n t he n arrative o f t he t aking o f C onstantinople which b ecame d isseminated i n t he s econd h alf o f t he XVth c entury a nd a t i ts e nd i s a ssociated w ith t he p rophecy o f t he f all a nd f uture l iberation o f C onstantinople ( PSRL, v ol. X II, p . 7 9). B ut i t w ill s carcely b e t hat s ubject t hat i s r epresented i n t his i nstance. T his i s more l ikely t he g eneralized i dea o f t he s truggle w ith e vil. A battle o f a b ird w ith a s erpent i s s hown more t han o nce o n s eals o f t he XVI I th c entury ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late X , 4 0; p late X I, 7 2; p late X II, 1 04, 1 05; p late X III, 1 49, p late XVIII, 2 76). Among t hese t here a re o nes which c ertainly r epresent " the a pparition a t C onstantinople" - t he c ity f orms t he background ( Ivanov, 1 858, p late XV, 2 02). F antastic Animals L et u s n ow t urn t o t he i mages o f f antastic a nimals. F irst o f a ll, l et u s e xamine t he f igure o f t he s erpent-dragon ( Plate X IX, 1 -6). T his i s a n i mage o f a d ragon w ith t wo p aws a nd w ings ( sometimes t here a re n o w ings). A s a r ule t he h ead h as f eatures o f a n a nimal - t he e ars. T he d ragon was i n Russian zmei, t he word u sed a t t he s ame t ime t o d esignate t he o rdinary s nake. I deas o f t he d emonic c haracter o f t he s erpent a re a ffected b y m entions o f t he c reature i n t he O ld a nd N ew T estaments ( Genesis, II, 1 -15; R evelations, XX, 2 -30) . I n ancient Russian a rt t he d ragon i s u sually d epicted i n t he f orm o f a w inged s erpent w ith t wo paws o r f our. An i nteresting passage i n a work by t he p rotopope Avvakum, a r eligious l eader o f t he XVI I th c entury, i nforms u s t hat t he c olorful, f abulous a ppearance o f t he d ragon i n a ncient Russian i l lustrations was a ssociated w ith t he i dea o f t he e xternal a ppearance o f t he s erpent a s i t was b efore G od h ad c ursed i t ( Genesis, II, 1 4) ; p rior t o t hat, a ccording t o Avvakum's i dea, i t was t he most b eautiful o f b easts a nd i t h ad l egs a nd w ings ( Avvakum, 1 979, p . 1 28) . Various s orts o f p opular s uperstitions were a ssociated w ith t he d ragon. I n p articular t here was a n e xtremely p opular i dea t hat t he d ragon was l inked w ith women ( hysteria was e xplained i n t his way). T his n otion p enetrated e ven i nto t he l ives o f C hristian s aints ( Peter a nd F evronia whom we have a lready m entiuoned; Dmitrieva, 1 979). A s a n o ffspring o f s uch a c onnection t here a ppears i n s ome byliny e pics a p rince, h ero, a nd magician ( an e xtremely a ncient mystical f oundation f or p rincely a uthority? f eatures i nherited f rom t otemistic i deas? - K irsha D anilov, 1 977, p . 3 2). I n a ncient R us c elestial p henomena, meteorites, were c alled d ragons ( PSRL v ol . 1, p . 2 14) . I n t he XVth c entury a strological manuscripts i n which t he " lunar d ragon" was mentioned b ecame w idely d isseminated i n R us (S obolevski , 1 903, 1 28
p .
4 15). I n t he N arrative o f t he K ingdom o f B abylon, a r ecord o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury, i t i s r emarked t hat N ebuchadnezzar r eceived t he i mage o f a s erpent a s h is e mblem o r s tandard ( Tikhonravov, 1 861, v ol. II, p . 2 2). I n t he XVIth t here a ppears a n emblem o f K azan i n t he f orm o f a c rowned d ragon ( Soboleva, 1 981, p . 1 57, 1 58). T he a ppearance o f t his emblem i s t o b e e xplained b y a l egend a ccording t o which t here h ad b een o n t he s ite o f K azan a " nest o f a s erpent" which h ad b een k illed w ith t he a id o f n ecromancy, a f ter which t he c ity was f ounded. One s hould n ote t hat i n t he t ext o f t he l egend i t i s s aid t hat t his d ragon h ad t wo h eads t hat o f a b ull a nd t hat o f a d ragon ( i t a te g rass w ith t he o ne, p eople a nd c attle w ith t he o ther - P SRL, v ol. X IX, p . 7 ). N evertheless t he d ragon i s n ot s hown a s t wo-headed o n e ven a s ingle d epiction o f t he Kazan emblem. Evidently t hat emblem a ssumed f orm n ot o nly u nder t he i nfluence o f a l i terary s ource, but a lso u nder t hat o f a n a ncient i conographic t radition which made i t n ecessary t o e liminate t he s pecif ic f eatures which c onstituted a d eviation f rom t he s tandard understanding o f t he c oncept " dragon." We h ave a lready e ncountered t he d ragon o n t he c oins w ith t he i mage o f t he mounted d ragon-fighter. I n t hat c ontext t he d ragon was t he s ymbol o f e vil, which i n i ts p ure f orm c ould n ot b e s uited f or e xplanation o f t he p rincipal i mages o n t he c oins. A s ort o f k ey f or t he u nderstanding o f i mages o n R ussian c oins p resenting d ragons i s a fforded by a c oin t he i nscription o n which was d eciphered b y A .K. Markov ( 1910) t o r ead, " he who waywardly i ssues a c oin w ith t he p rince's n ame s hall b e s ubjected t o punishment ( hewn) o r c ondemned," which d oes n ot c hange t he basic meaning o f t he i nscription. T hus t he i mage o f a d ragon o n c oins c ompletes t he l ist o f f igures t he main f unction o f which was t o t errify v iolators o f t he e xclusive r ight o f p rinces t o s trike c oins. A side f rom i ts main s ignif icance a s a s ymbol o f e vil, t he d ragon m ight a ppear i n a d ifferent c ontext. T hus i n t he P rayer o f Daniel I mprisoned we r ead " as t he d ragon i s t errible t hrough i ts h iss, t hus t hou, p r ince, a rt t errible t hrough t he n umber o f t hy warriors" ( Zarubin, 1 932, p .66). I t would s eem t hat c ompar ison w ith t he c onstant s ymbol o f e vil c ould n ot b e p leasant t o a p rince; y et t he e xistence o f s uch a p assage a s t his s hows t hat t he f eudal s ystem o f s ymbols was n ot d istinguished by d iscrimination a s t o t he o rigin o f o ne f igure o r a nother o r a s t o t he u sual moral e valuation t hat was a ssiged t o t hem; t he f eudatories were i nterested o nly i n t he e xpression o f t he i dea o f s trength a nd awesomeness. This p henomenon i s c haracteristic n ot o nly f or R us a lone - western E uropean h eraldry i s a lso f ull o f f igures which i n C hr istian s ymbolism a re p reponderantly t he b earers o f t he e vil p rinciple. Apparently o ne s hould a ssign among t he d ragons a n ot c ompletely c lear f igure u pon a c opper Tver c oin o f M ikhail ( Plate X IX, 7 , 8 ). I t r eminds o ne o f a c rocodile; a l ong t ongue p ro jects f rom t he o pen mouth, a nd a t i ts t ip i s a p elletl ike b roadening. I t r emains puzzling, a s d oes t he c oin i n 1 29
q uestion w ith t he n ame o f i t s p r ince written i n A rabic ( a u nique p henomenon f or T ver n umismatics, i n which n o o ther c oins w ith A rabic i nscr iptions a re known). Among t he s tamps o n i ngots t here a re o nes t hat b ear a n i mage o f a n a nthropomorphic f igure mounted u pon a quadruped t hrusting o utward a nd u pward a n e xtremely l ong t ongue. T he o verall c omposition a nd t he p eculiarity o f t he t ongue r ecall t he f igure o n t he Tver c oin we h ave e xamined. ( Bulychov, 1 906, p . 1 48, f ig. 3 9). I n a n umber o f c ases a g riff in, i .e. a w inged q uadruped, i s r epresented o n c oins ( Plate X IX. 9 -19). F igures o f g riff ins a re k nown i n R us f rom t he X Ith c entury o nward. I n t he f rescos o f t he S t. S ofia C athedral a t K iev t wo v arieties o f t he g riff in - w ith a b ird 's h ead, a nd w ith a n a nimal's h ead - a re a lready p resented ( Danilova, 1 962, P . 2 28, f ig. 1 48). I n t he p re-Mongo l p eriod i mages o f b ird-headed g riff ins p redominated; i n t he applied a rt o f t he XVth c entury g riff ins w ith a nimals' h eads b ecome t he u sual o nes ( Plate XXXVII. 1 ) The g riff in w ith a n a nimal's h ead i s a l ess d istinct f igure t han i s t he g riff in w ith a b ird's h ead. I ts i mages a re i n p art i ndistinguishable f rom s uch f igures a s t he w inged l ion ( see P late XXVIII, 5 ), which may a ppear i n a ncient Russian a rt b oth a s •a s ymbol o f t he E vangelist, a nd a s a d emonic i mage o f t he L ocust o f R evelations ( Buslayev, 1 884, p late I). T he w inged c reatures which i n t he v ision o f t he p rophet D aniel s ymbolize t he g reat k ingdoms ( Plate XXXVIII. 1 ) a re l ikewise i nd istinguishable f rom t his f igure. On c oins t he nature o f t he g riff in's h ead i s i ndistinct. G riff ins a rc o rdinarily c onsidered t o b e o f f avorable a ugury ( Vagner , 1 964, p . 16-120). I n a ny e vent, o n t he f açade r eliefs o f t he c hurch a t P okrov o n t he r iver N erl a nd o f t he S t Dmitri Church a t V ladimir g riff ins a re r epresented a s b easts c rouching by t he f ootstool o f t he t hrone o f D avid t he P salmist ( Vagner , 1 969 , p . 2 89 , f ig. 1 77; p .291, f ig. 1 78). G riff ins a re h arnessed t o t he c hariot ( or b asket) i n which A lexander o f Macedon f l ies, i n a lmost a ll a ncient R ussian i l lustrations ( excluding i mages o n c oins, i t i s t rue). T hese d epictions d emonstrate t he p resence o f a n i ndisputable c onnection b etween a ncient R ussian i mages o f g riff ins a nd t he i dea o f a uthority. T he a ssignment o f t he g riff in among t he g ood c reatures i s l ess u nquestionable. T here i s, i ndeed, a weighty a rgument i n f avor o f t his p roposition. I n a l i terary r ecord o f t he X lIth c entury, t he work o f K liment Smolyatich ( a K ievan m etropolitan o f Russian o rigin), t here i s m ention o f t he g riff in u pon which A lexander o f Macedon f lew, a nd i n t his c onnection i t i s r emarked t hat j ust s uch a g riff in, b earing t he R ussian a pellation o f n og ( a g igantic b ird i n R ussian f airytales) b rought t he p rophet Avvakum ( Habbakuk) t o t he p rophet D aniel l ying i n t he l ions' d en ( Loparev, 1 892, p . 3 0). Y et when t his p opular s ubject i s d epicted i n i kons t he p rophet Avvakum i s a lways b orne by a n a ngel a nd n ever by a g riffin ( Ovchinnikov, 1 978 , p late 1 02). T he p ossibility t hat t he a ngel m ight b e e xchanged f or t he f igure o f a g riff in a ffords e vidence t hat i n t his i nstance t he g riff in i s r egarded a s t he b earer o f a g ood p rinciple. 1 30
Among t he X Ith c entury f rescos o f t he S t.Sofia C athedral a t K iev t here i s a s cene o f c ombat b etween a b ird-headed g riffin a nd a d ragon, a c onstant s ymbo l o f e vil ( Darkevich,1975, p . 1 94, f ig. 3 00). S uch a c omposition i s n ot o f ten e ncountered i n ancient Russian a rt, but i t c an a lso b e n oted u pon t he m etal mounting o f t he c rozier o f t he Muscovite M etropo litan G erontii a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury ( Chernetsov, 1 980 , p . 1 04, f ig. 7 , 2 ) a nd o n a s eal o f t he XVIIth c entury ( Snimki,1882, p late 9 4). B ut i n a m iniature o f t he K iev P salter f rom t he e nd o f t he X IVth c entury we s ee t he g riff in i n a r ole which s carcely c haracterizes i t a s a b enef icent f igure. S ide b y s ide w ith a t ext i n which G od i s e xal ted f or h aving g iven f ood t o e very l iving b eing, a b ird-headed g riff in f rom t he mouth o f which a human l eg p ro jects i s r epresented among o ther b easts. ( sheet 1 44, v erso). T he f igure o f t he a nthropophagous g riffin h as e vidently b een a ffected by t he i mages o f t he i conography o f t he L ast J udgment, a nd i t s hows t hat t he p ositive c haracter o f t he f igure o f t he g riffin i n a ncient R us was n ot s table. More c onstant was t he i dea t o t he e ffect t hat t his was a p owerful, m iraculous b eing. The i mages o f g riff ins o n t he c oins we a re e xamining e vidently r ef lect t he i dea o f i ntimidation. One s hould r egard a s a c lass s eparate f rom t hese g riff in i mages t he d epictions o f a ? a nimal-headed b eing r eminiscent o f t he g riffin, but h aving a t ail e nding i n a s erpent's h ead. B eneath i ts f eet i s a t iny h uman f igure l ying p rostrated ( Plate X IX, 2 0. 2 1) The s ignif icance o f t he c omposition i s among t hose which a re l east c lear. S cenes o f c ollision b etween man a nd b east, o r man a nd monster , a re numerous e nough o n a ncient R ussian c oins, b ut t he man a ppears e verywhere i n a n a ctive f unction, a s a v ictor. I n t he c ases were a man o r a human h ead i s b eing s truck, i t i s a gain a lways a man t hat p erforms t his a ction. T he h ead o f a s erpent ( a d ragon) which t ips t he t ail o f t he monster i s u nquestionably a d emonic f eature; t he f igure was p erhaps a ssociated w ith t he d emonic l ocust ( Revelations, I X 3 -12). One may p rovisionally a ssociate t he f igure w ith o ne o f t he n umerous m iseries i n t he l ife o f Vasilii T yomny his b eing e xpe lled t hree t imes f rom Moscow by h is p r incely r ivals, o r h is b eing t aken p risoner by t he T artars. On t he c opper c oins s truck a t Tver b y I van II's s on, who r uled t hat c ity a fter t he a bolition o f t he i ndependence o f t he p r incipality o f T ver, t here i s r epresented a r ather s trange a nthropomorphic f igure wearing a c ap a nd h aving a t ail t hat r ecalls t hat o f a d evil . ( Plate X IX, 2 2, 2 3). T he t ip o f t he f igure's t ail e nds i n a d ragon, a bove which t he f igure b randishes a s word. T his i mage was e vidently t aken a s b eing a c omic o ne; t his i s e videnced by t he t ense, h unched f igure a nd t he b ent knees, f or i n a ncient R ussian a rt s uch f eatures, i ndicating e xertion, were n ever b rought o ut emphatically e ven i n i l lustrations o f warriors, who i n t he v ery moment o f c ombat a re s hown i n s evere, r igid p oses, a s t hough well r emoved f rom muscular s tress. A s a whole, t his i mage i s t o b e a ssigned among t hose, p opular i n m edieval a rt, which 1 31
g raphically e xpress t he i dea o f c ontradict ion ( an a nimal b iting i tself ; a c entaur s hooting a n a rrow i nto t he mouth o f a d ragon which g rows o ut o f i ts own t ail; a nd t he l ike), i n which c onnection s uch f igures a re u sually d ealt w ith a s n egative o nes. T he b ear ing which t his f igure may h ave u pon t he a uthority o f t he p rince a nd t he s pecifics o f monetary c irculation i s n ot c lear. One s hould n ote t hat i mages o n c opper c oins were a pparently e ven l ess s ubject t o r egulation t han were t hose o n s ilver c oins. One may s uppose t hat t he r ight t o s tr ike c opper c oins was i n t he h ands o f b urghers t o a g reater e xtent t han was t he s triking o f s ilver c oins. T his i s a ttested p articularly by t he f act t hat t he n ame o f a p rince i s more f requently a bsent f rom c opper c oins t han f rom s ilver o nes, a nd t hat t he n ame o f t he c ity i s p resent. L et u s e xamine t he i mages o f monsters w ith h uman f eatures. T he most c onsiderable a nd i nteresting g roup c onsists o f t he i mages o f c entaurs ( Plate XX. 1 -14). T he i mages o f c entaurs may f or a n umber o f r easons b e s ubjected t o more d etailed a nalysis, a nd t he i nterpretation o f t heir c onceptual meaning may b e c arried o ut w ith b etter warrant, t han i n t he c ases o f t he majority o f o ther i mages o n c oins. T he f act i s t hat i mages o f c entaurs o n c oins a re d istinguished by a c onsiderable v ariety o f i conographies a nd a ttributes, a nd a lso t hat i n ancient R ussian a rt a s a whole t his f igure i s r epresented by a l arge n umber o f e xamples, a c onsiderable p art o f which have o n more t han o ne o ccasion a ttracted t he a ttention o f a rt h istorians a nd a rcheologists ( Okladnikov, 1 950; L azarev, 1 953; Vagner , 1 964). The f igure o f t he c entaur , making i ts a ppearance i n R us a s a b orrowed o ne, s oon b ecomes t ransformed, t aking o n i diosyncratic t raits. I t i s known i n a w ide r ange o f r ecords o f a ncient R ussian writing, b oth t ranslated a nd o riginal; t he most i mportant o f t hese r ecords h ave s erved a s materials f or i nvestigations i n t he f ield o f l i terary s cience ( Veselovski, 1 921). I t i s a lso a v ital matter t hat a l ong l ine o f a ncient R ussian i mages o f c entaurs a re f ound i n manuscripts a nd o n c ertain o ther o bjects, a nd t hat t hey a re n eatly l inked w ith c oncrete t exts. T hese c ircumstances make t he f igure o f t he c entaur t he m ost c onvenient material o ne c an i magine f or t he s tudy o f t he r eciprocal r elationships b etween i conography a nd c onceptual c ontent f or t he c ases o f s ecular i mages i n a ncient R ussian a rt. T he R ussian word k entavr , which i s a p recise t ranscr iption, i n a ccordance w ith t he p r inciples adoplted b y S lavonic b ookmen, o f t he G reek 7 , t v 't a ,UpO g i s known i n r ecords o f ancient R ussian writing c ommencing w ith t he X Ith c entury. T o t hat t ime t here f alls a c opy o f t he t eachings o f G regory N azianzen, i n o ne o f which t here i s m ention o f " a c ertain k entavr, t he t eacher o f h eroes" ( Budilovich, 1 875, p . 2 4). T he k entavr ( or t he o nokentavr a v ariety o f t he c entaur w ith t he b ody o f a n a ss r ather t han o f a h orse) i s m entioned s ide b y s ide w ith t he s iren i n t he S lavonic t ranslation o f t he B ible, i n t he b ook o f t he p rophet I saiah ( Chapter X III, 2 1, 2 2; XXXIV, 1-14). N either " centaur" n or " siren" a ppears i n t he c orresponding p assages o f t he Masoretic B ible ( i .e. t he H ebrew 1 32
t ext u pon which P rotestant t ranslations i nto E nglish a re b ased - T r.) t hey a ppear i n t he G reek t ranslation o f t he S eptuagint, f rom which t he S lavonic t ranslation was made . T he most a ncient R ussian r epresentation o f a c entaur i s t o b e f ound u pon a wooden c olumn o f t he X lth c entury a t N ovgorod ( Artsikhovski, 1 954, p . 6 5-68; P late XXXIX 1 ) On t he s ame c olumn f ragment a g riffin i s r epresented a bove t he c entaur . B o th t hese t wo i mages a ppear i n a ncient R ussian a rt a s b orrowings. I n p articular , t he c entaur h olding i ts t ail w ith o ne h and ( or h olding a p laiting which p rolongs t he t ail) a pparently r eproduces a B yzantine model - c f . t he c arving o n a B yzantine i vory c asket which i s p reserved i n t he v estry-room o f Wurzburg C athedral ( Goldschmidt a nd Weitzmann, 1 930 , p late LXIII, 1 07 b ; D arkevich, 1 975, p . 1 97, f ig. 3 04). L ater o n a n a nalogous p ose i s r ecorded i n a r elief s howing a c entaur which i s o n t he f açade o f t he S t.Dmitri Cathedral a t V ladimir ( Vagner, 1 969, p . 2 64, 2 66; P late XXXIX 2 ) which r ef lects t he i nfluence o f t he B yzantine f igure. S ide by s ide w ith b orrowed t raits, t he e ar liest R ussian d epiction o f t he c entaur i s d istinguished by a c ertain o riginality. I n c ontradistinction t o t he majority o f B yzantine o nes, i t h as i nstead o f h orse's h oofs t he p aws o f a n a nimal ( a b east o f p rey?). I n a ddition, t his f igure i s n ot o nly s urrounded by c haracteristic p laited o rnament, but i s a lso amalgamated w ith i t - t he c entaur's t ail b lends i nto a p laiting o f b ranches. T he f igure o f a g riff in s tand ing a longside, w ith i ts f eet t angled i n o rnamental p laitings, i s s till more markedly b lended w ith t he d ecorative background. T hus e ven t he e arliest Russian i mage o f a c entaur r epresents i t a s a n e lement o f a more n ationally i diosyncratic d ecorative s tyle. Evidently e ven a t t he t ime t he b orrowed i mage h ad b ecome m etamorphosed i n t he s pirit o f p opular c onceptions. O ther i mages o f c entaurs f rom t he p re-Mongol p eriod a lso s how t hat t his f igure was s ub jected t o metamorphosis f rom t he v ery s tart o f i ts d issemination w ithin R us, a nd t hat a s a r ule i t l ost t hat c onceptual meaning which was p resent i n t he f oreign model u sed. I ndeed, when o ne c onsiders t hat t he basic s ources f rom which t he b orrowing was undertaken were B yzantine a nd R omance models, i t b ecomes a n i ndicative c ircumstance t hat s uch e xtremely p opular f igures a s t he c entaur-f lutist a nd t he c entaur-archer were n ot t aken o ver f rom t hese models a t t hat t ime. I f t he a ssimilation o f t he f oreign i conography f or c entaurs h ad b een a ccompanied b y a ssimilation o f f oreign i deas a bout t hem, t hese p opular f igures s hould h ave b een among t he f irst t o s pread a bout w ithin R us. T he s ame t hing i s a ttested b y p ortrayal o f h unter-centaurs h olding a s mall a nimal i n a h and, which a ppear i n a s tone c arving o n t he f acade o f t he S t.Dmitri C athedral a t V ladimir ( 1 194-1197; P late XXXIX. 3 ) a nd i n o ne o n t he f açade o f t he S t.George Cathedral a t Y uriev P olskoi ( 1230-1 44; P late XXXIX. 5 ). I n m edieval a rt ( both B yzantine a nd western) s uch f igures a re o rdinarily a ssociated w ith t he c onstellation o f t he C entaur ( Thiele, 1 898 , p .125, f ig.53). Whereas t he c entaur o f t he S t.Dmitri C athedral h olds t he s mall a nimal b efore i t , which 1 33
c orresponds t o t he c onfiguration o f t he c onstallation, o n t he wall o f t he S t.George C athedral b oth c entaurs h old s mall s lain b easts a t t heir backs, a nd i n o ne c ase t he a nimal hangs h ead d ownward ( Plate XXXIX. 5 ) but i n t he o ther t he c entaur h as whirled t he a nimal u pward ( Plate X L.1). T he a nimals h ave a pparently b een p laced b ehind t he c entaurs' b acks b ecause i t was more i mportant f or t he c arvers t o d epict i n t heir hands t he weapons which t hey a re h olding b efore t hem. T he i conography has b een t ransformed t o s uch a n e xtent t hat l oss o f t he a stral c ontent s eems t o b e b eyond q uestion. A lso c ontradictory t o t he p ossibility o f a stral s ymbolism i n t hese f igures i s t he f act t hat t here a re t wo c entaurs i nstead o f o ne. Another d eviation f rom t he i conography o f t he C entaur c onstellation i s t he f act t hat t he c entaurs d o n ot h ave t he h oofs o f h orses, but t he p aws o f a b east ( of p rey). We may n ote t hat d espite t he p resence o f a p atent i conographic c onnection b etween t he t wo s ets o f R ussian i mages o f c entaurs w ith a s mall a nimal i n hand, t he s pecies a ppurtenances o f t he l ower p arts o f t heir b odies n evertheless d iffer. ( i .e. i t i s o nly t he S t. G eorge c entaurs t hat have t he p aws o f b easts o f p rey; t he S t.Dmitri o ne s eems t o h ave h orse's h oofs, f rom t he p icture - T r.) Another a rgument a gainst a ny a stral s ignif icance i n t he f igures o f h unter-centaurs o n t he walls o f t he S t.Dmitri a nd S t.George Cathedrals i s t he f act t hat i n t he d ecor o f t hese c hurches t here i s a n a bsence o f a llegorical f igures o f o ther c onstellations, z odiacal o nes i n p articular, which were more p opular t han t he c onstellation o f t he C entaur. S till a f urther f eature which b ears w itness t o t he i d iosyncracy o f t he ancient Russian t reatment o f t he c entaur f igure i s t he a ppearance o f i mages w ith a ttributes t hat a re n ot c haracter istic f or t he c entaur f igure e ither i n B yzantine o r i n R omance a rt. S uch a re a c entaur w ith a b attleaxe among t he r eliefs o f t he S t. G eorge C athedral a t Y uriev P olskoi ( Vagner, 1 969, p late XXVIII, a ; P late XXXIX 4 ) a nd a c entaur o n a s ealr ing f rom a h oard o f t he p re-Mongol p eriod t hat was f ound a t K iev i n 1 834; a f alcon i s s hown u pon t he c entaur 's f orearm ( Kondakov, 1 896, p . 1 03, f ig. 6 3). S umming u p t he e xamination o f t he e arliest Russian f igures o f c entaurs, we s hould emphasize t he f act t hat n ot o ne o f t hem ( as w ith l ater ancient Russian r epresentations o f c entaurs) c an b e c onvincingly a ssociated w ith e pisodes f rom c lassical myths a bout c entaurs, a lthough i n ancient R ussian writings t here a re i n f act r ef lections o f t he mythological t radition r egarding c entaurs ( Istrin, 1 920 , p . 6 1, 2 49). A weapon b ecomes t he main a ttr ibute o f a g reat p art o f t he R ussian r epresentations o f c entaurs e ven i n p re-Mongol t imes; i n a n umber o f c ases ( on t he walls o f t he c athedrals) c rowns a re s hown u pon t heir h eads. T hese a ttributes s how t hat t he s ymbolism o f t he f igures b eing e xamined i s n ot l imited t o t he n egative C hristian c haracterization o f t he c entaur o n t he basis o f t he mentions o f t hem i n t he B ible a nd P hysiologos ( Karneyev, 1 890, p .242, 2 43)•
A s we h ave a lready s aid, a n umber o f v ar iants o n i conography o f c entaurs a re s hown o n Russian c oins o f 1 34
t he t he
X lVth-XVth c enturies. T he w inged c entaur s hould b e r egarded a s t he most p eculiar among t hem. I t i s p resented i n p articular u pon a c opper G oroden c oin o f I van M ikhailovich o f T ver ( 1389-1425). T his c entaur h as a c rown a nd w ings, a nd i t i s d rawing a s word f rom i ts s cabbard ( Plate XX. 1 -3). O n t he r everse o f t his c oin t here i s a h orseman w ith a f alcon ( Plate X III. 6 ). O n a s ilver G oroden c oin o f t he s ame p rince t here i s a s imilar c entaur w ith c rown a nd w ings, b ut w ithout t he s word; n or a re t he a rms o f t his b eing v isible (S pa s ski , 1 962, p .80, f ig. 5 6, 1 ). A s imilar w inged c entaur w ithout a rms i s s hown o n a wax-composition s eal o f t he XVI II th c entury ( Ivanov, 1 858 , p late I X, 2 7). P erhaps s ometimes a rms m ight b e p resent o r a bsent d epending o n whether t he c entaur was t o h old s omething i n i ts h ands o r n ot. W inged c entaurs w ith a n aked s word a re a lso p resent o n t wo u na ttributed R ussian c oins ( P late X X. 7 . 8 ). I nasmuch a s o n t he i mages under e xamination t here a re w ings i n a ddition t o t he f eatures u sual f or c entaurs, a q uestion a rises a s t o whether i t i s i n g eneral l egitimate t o r egard t his f antastic b east a s b eing a c entaur . I n f avor o f t hat way o f l ooking a t t hings we h ave a n i nscription a ccompanying a v ery ancient r epresentation o f s uch a b eing f rom t he f irst h alf o f t he X IVth c entury, where i t i s c alled k itovras ( Lazarev, 1 953, p . 4 24). The word k itovras i s unquestionably a d erivative f rom t he G reek g I n d ictionaries o f t he XVIth-XVIIth c enturies t he word k itovras i s u sed a s t he Russian e quivalent f or t he G reek words c entaur , o nocentaur, a nd h ippocentaur ( Karpov, 1 877, p . 2 76; S akharov, v ol. I, 1 849, p . 4 7, 6 7, 1 29, 1 60). I n a X lVth c entury t ranslation o f t he t eaching o f G regory N azianzen t o which we h ave a lready r eferred t here i s m ention o f " a c ertain h orse c alled k itovras" i n p lace o f " centaur" ( Gorski a nd N evostruyev, 1 859 , p . 8 5, 8 6) . I t i s i nteresting t hat t he c entaur i s r egarded a s a n a nimal, a h orse. T he s ame i s t rue i n t he d ictionaries r eferred t o , f or which t he c ompound " kitovras - a nimal" i s u sual. The most a ncient Russian i mage o f a w inged, c rowned c entaur ( Plate X L.2) f alls t o t he p er iod p receding t he r esumption o f t he s triking o f c oins i n R us. T his i s a c omposition o n o ne o f t he p laques o f t he g ilt d oors made i n 1 336 f or t he S t. S ofia Cathedral o f N ovgorod o n t he o rders o f t he N ovgorod a rchbishop Vasilii ( Lazarev, 1 953, m p . 4 24-427). A t p resent t he d oors a re a t A leksandrovo whither t hey were t ransported b y I van G rozny a f ter t he s ack o f N ovgorod i n 1 571. T he i nscription o n t he p laque c learly i ndicates t hat t he c omposition i l lustrates t he well-known t ale o f S olomon a nd t he K itovras ( Tikhonravov, v ol. I , 1 863, p . 2 54-257; Mazon, 1 927). T his i s a l egend a bout e vents i n B iblical h istory a ssociated w ith t he build ing o f t he J erusalem t emple u nder S olomon. The R ussian v ersion o f t he l egend c onstitutes a t ranslation o f a f ragment f rom t he Talmud ( treatise G ittin - Margolin, 1 880) which i s p retty c lose t o t he t ext. D ialectical a nd o ther p eculiarities o f t he t ranslation i nto t he O ld S lavonic l anguage s how t hat i t was made i n R us s traight f rom t he H ebrew, a nd
› t g v c ow p o
1 35
n o t i n t he S outh S lav ic c oun tr ies ( Sobo levski, 1 910 , P . 1 74). W e s hould n ote a t o nce t hat t he p ersonage c alled K itovras i n t he R ussian t ext ( in t his i nstance t his i s a pparently a p roper n ame) i s n o c entaur a t a ll i n t he T almud a nd i s c alled A smodeus ( the n ame o f o ne o f t he p r incipal d emons k nown f rom t he b ook o f T obit, II, 8 ). W ith l oss o f t he n ame A smodeus, t he l egends a bout t his d emon a nd S o lomon t o a c onsiderable e xtent l ose t he s harp d ef inition o f t heir c ontent. I n n o t a s ingle o ne o f t he R ussian v ersions o f t he l egend o f t he K itovras i s t he n egative, d emonic n ature o f t his b eing p lainly e xpressed. T here a re h ypotheses t hat A smodeus was c onverted i nto a c entaur a t B yzantium, but n o B yzantine v ersion o f t he l egend i n q uestion i s k nown; w e h ave a lready r emarked t hat t he t ranslation o f i ts t ext i nto O ld S lavonic was made d irectly f rom t he H ebrew. T he l egend o f S olomon a nd t he K itovras i s k nown f rom . Russian c opies o f t he XV th c entury. A number o f s cholars h ave s upposed t hat t he l egend was a lready k nown i n R us d ur ing t he p re-Mongol p eriod (M eshckerski , 1 958 , p . 5 7 , 5 8 ). I n a ny e vent, t he 1 336 p icture s hows t hat t he t ranslation f rom t he ancient H ebrew was n ot o ne o f t hose t hat w ere made a t t he e nd o f t he X Vth c entury a nd t hat w ere a ssociated w ith t he a ctivity o f t he " Judaiz ing" h eretics. T he c auses t hat b rought a bout t he t ranslation, a nd t he c ul tural m ilieu w ith which i t was a ssociated , a re n o t c lear . T he c onten t o f t he l egend i s a s f o llows. T he f abu lous c en taur i s c aught w i th t he a id o f t he d ecept ion a nd o f a c hain o n which t he n ame o f G od ( Shem-Gamforash) i s wri tten, a nd i t i s b rought b efore S olomon . S o lomon a sks i t t o p rov ide h im w ith a means o f s haping b uilding-stone w ithout t he h elp o f i ron ( "shamir" - a d iamond ; a ccording t o s ome r abbinical i nterpretations, a s pecial m iraculous w orm). T he K itovras t eaches S o lomon h ow t o g et t he s hamir, a nd r emains w ith t he k ing u nti l t he building o f t he t emple i s f in ished . T he c onversations b etween S o lomon a nd t he K itovras a re i n t he nature o f a r ivalry i n w isdom ; t he K itovras makes s ome p rophecies, which a re f u lf illed . A t t he e nd S olomon c harges t he K itovras w ith weakness, i n t hat i t h as l et i tself b e c aptured . T hereupon t he K itovras a sks S olomon t o r emove t he c hain w ith i ts s pell a nd t o g ive i t h is t a lisman, t he f amous r ing o f K ing S o lomon . When t his i s d one, t he K itovras e ats (s ic . ) t he r ing o f S olomon, g ives a s weep w i th i ts w ing, a nd t osses t he k ing s o f ar t hat t he w ise men a nd t he s cribes f ind h im o nly w ith g reat d ifficulty. T he s cene o f t he K itovras's d ealing w ith S olomon i s what i s r epresented o n t he p laque o f t he 1 336 d oors. T he K itovras h olds a small f igure o f t he k ing i n i ts r aised h and. I n a c orner o f t he c omposition a t iny f igure i s s hown i n a b uilding - p erhaps a s cribe s earching f or S olomon u nder i ns truction f rom a b ook o f magic ( ?). F rom a R ussian manuscr ipt o f t he e nd o f t he X Vth c entury w e a re a cquainted w ith a s omewhat a l tered v ers ion, a pparen tly
1 36
a n o riginal R ussian v ersion o f t his s ame l egend ( Lurie, 1 961, p .159; s ame a uthor, 1 964). I t i ndicates t hat t he K itovras was a b rother o f S o lomon a nd a s on o f David. I t i s n ot c lear f rom whence a v ersion a ccording t o which K ing D avid i s t o h ave b ecome t he f ather o f a monster may h ave c ome. W e may n ote t hat S olomon i s c alled t he b rother o f t he K itovras i n t he i nscription o n t he d oors o f 1 336, t oo . I n t he s ame v ersion i t i s a lso s aid t hat t he K itovras b estowed u pon S olomon a f aithless w ife, whom h e p roduced f rom h is e ar . B eside t he l egend a ssociated w ith t he building o f t he t emple, S olomon a nd t he K itovras a ppear i n a nother , a ssociated w ith t he s ubjects o f t he j udgments o f K ing S olomon ( Tikhonravov, v ol. I , 1 863, p . 2 57, 2 58). T he K itovras b rings b efore S olomon a man w ith t wo h eads. S olomon p ermits t his man t o s ettle i n h is k ingdom. A f ter t he d eath o f t he t wo-headed man a d ispute o ver h is e state a rises among h is s ons. One o f t hem a lso h as t wo h eads, a nd a ccord ingly a sks f or a d ouble s hare. S olomon has o ne o f t he h eads t ortured, a nd s ince t he s econd h ead a lso e xperiences p ain, h e r esolves t hat t he t wo-headed s on c onstitutes a s ingle b eing a nd may n ot l ay c laim t o a d ouble s hare o f t he e state. A nother n arrative s ubject l inked w ith t he names o f S olomon a nd t he K itovras i s k nown f rom a XVIlth c entury c opy ( Buslayev, 1 861 B , p . 7 18-721; Pypin 1 862, p . 5 9 , 6 0). T his i s t he l egend o f t he e nticement o f S olomon's w ife. T he l egend i s a lso k nown i n o ther ancient R ussian v ersions, but i n t hose t he k ing's a ntagonist d oes n ot b ear t he n ame K itovras. I n t hat f orm t he l egend e ntered R ussian f olklore a s well. A ccording t o t he XVIlth c entury v ersion S olomon f inds h is w ife f aithless, a nd s he d elivers h im t o t he K itovras. S olomon i s t aken o ut t o b e h anged, a nd h e a sks t o b e a llowed t o s ound h is h orn. S olomon's a rmy a ppears, a nd t he K itovras i s e xecuted i nstead o f S olomon. I n t his l egend, a s i n t he R ussian v ersion o f t he XVth c entury c oncerning t he building o f t he t emple a nd i n t he i nscription o n t he d oors o f 1 336, K itovras i s c alled a b lood b rother o f K ing S olomon. H ere , t oo , t here i s a n i mportant d escription o f t his p ersonage - by d ay h e r ules o ver m en, but b y n ight , c hanging i nto " the b east K itovras," h e r ules o ver b easts. E vidently, a ccording t o t his t ext, t he i conography o f t he c entaur p resented n o t h is a ppearance, but m erely h is a bility t o a ppear i n t wo d ifferent guises. T he l egends a bout S olomon a nd t he K itovras d id n o t a chieve a n ationwide p opularity a nd t he s ubject d id n ot p ass o ver i nto C hristian f o lklore. We know o nly o ne t ranscription o f a n o ral r endering o f a s mall f ragment o f t he l egend o f S olomon a nd t he K itovras, making m ention o f " King K itovras." I n t his f ragment t he K itovras wears t he guise o f a c entaur ( Kulikovski, 1 891, p . 1 98). A lthough i n a ll t he l egends r eferred t o K itovras i s a p roper n ame, t he s ame word was u sed a s a c ommon n oun, a s i s a ttested by t he d ictionaries o f t he XVIth a nd XVIlth c enturies a nd c er tain o ther d ata. Among t he i mages o f a c entaur t hat may b e a ssociated w ith t he l egend o f S olomon a nd t he K itovras o nly t he o ne which i s f ound u pon t he N ovgorod d oors o f 1 336 c oncentrates a ttention u pon a n a l together d ef inite e pisode. We may r emark t hat i n 1 37
t he l egend t here i s a c onsiderable g roup o f motifs t hat m ight a ttract t he a ttention o f a p erson p rimarily c oncerned w ith s ubjects o f r e ligious i nterest. T hese a re t he k ing's a bility t o s ubjugate s pirits, t he b uilding o f a r evered C hristian s anctuary ( the t emple o f J erusalem), a nd f inally, t he r estoration o f S olomon t o h is t hrone. B ut t he p icture o n t he d oors s hows t hat f or ancient R ussian r eaders, o r p art o f t hem, t he c ulmination o f t he l egend was n ot t hese motifs, b ut t he way t he m iraculous b uilder d ealt w ith t he s acred p erson o f t he s age-king. A long w ith s ome o ther c ompositions o n t hese s ame d oors, t he s cene w ith t he K itovras a pparently r ef lected t he i dea o f t rial by b attle, i n s ecular t erms - war. T hese a re " the s cales o f t he L ast J udgment," t he " parable o f t he g ood t hings o f t his world," i n which a s inner i s s hown i n t he j aws o f a d ragon. T he s ame i dea i s r eflected b y p art o f t he c omposition " the e xaultation o f K ing D avid b efore t he A rk o f t he C ovenant," i n which t here i s s hown t he s miting o f U zzah, who h ad v entured t o t ouch t he A rk o f t he C ovenant ( II S amuel, V I, 8 ; I C hronicles, X III, 9 11). T he s ymbolism o f a ll t hese i mages was a pparently d irected a gainst t hose who m ight move a gainst G reat N ovgorod a nd i ts p rincipal s anctuary S t.Sof ia, i nclud ing t he Muscovite g rand p rince. S ince t he " Tale o f S olomon a nd t he K itovras" was r egarded i n R us a s b eing a f alse b ook a nd was e ntered i n t he I ndex o f F orbidden B ooks ( Pypin, 1 862 A . p . 3 9 , 2 7, 5 2, 5 4), a n umber o f s cholars h ave r egarded t his p icture a s b eing a ssociated w ith t he s pringing u p o f a h eretical movement i n N ovgorod ( Rybakov, 1 948, p . 6 49, 6 50, 7 70 ; Vagner , 1 964, p . 15). T he i conographic p eculiarities o f t he w inged c entaur o n t he N ovgorod d oors o f 1 336 i n c onsiderable m easure g o b ack t o p rototypes o f t he p re-Mongol p eriod. T hus t he c inch-belt o n t he c entaur's h orse-body, d ecorated w ith a n o rnament r eminding o ne o f t he l etter S , a ppears o n a c entaur i mage i n a h orn c arving o f t he X IIth c entury f rom P skov ( Labutina a nd K ondratieva, 1 975; P late XXXIX. 6 ). T he p resence o f s uch a c inch-belt g oes b ack t o R omanesque a rt ( Baltrusaitis, 1 960 , p . 5 0 , f ig., 3 1 b ). F rom t hen o n t his s ort o f d ecorative e lement i s f requently e ncountered i n t eratological o rnament ( Karski, 1 970 , p . 4 26, f ig. 7 0). T he whole f igure o f t he c entaur h olding b efore i t t he t iny f igure o f S o lomon has p robably b een a ffected b y t he i conography o f t he c entaur w ith a s mall a nimal i n i ts h and ( cf . t he p osition o f t he f igure i n t he hand o f t he c entaur o n t he r elief o f t he Y uriev P olskoi C athedral - P late X L. 1 ). N or i s t he c rown o n t he c entaur 's h ead a n ew e lement - i t i s a lready p resent o n t he walls o f t he V ladimir-Suzdal C athedrals. T he p resence o f c rowns a nd w ings i n t he c ases o f a n umber a n a ncient R ussian c entaurs f inds a nalogies i n t he a ncient E ast ( Trever , 1 940, p . 7 1-86; P iotrovski, 1 962, p . 4 7, f ig. 1 2), a nd a lso o n d epictions a ssociated w ith m edieval I ran, t he C aucasus, a nd B yzantium ( SPA, v ol. V . p late 8 54 B ; L azarev, 1 948 , p late 2 07; S tasov, 1 887, p late CXLIV, 8 ). B ut 1 38
i n a ll o f t hese t he w ings a re f astened t o t he h uman t runk a t t he l evel o f h is p elvis a nd n ot a t t hat o f h is s houlders a s i n t he ancient Russian c entaurs. I am a cquainted w ith c entaurs h aving s uch a d isposition o f t heir w ings o nly f rom t he d ecor o f I talian f urniture o f t he XVth c entury, l ater t han t he m ost a ncient w inged c entaur ( Molinier, 1 896, v ol. I, p . 8 2). Apparently t he p resence a nd t he nature o f t he a ttachment o f t he w ings i n t he c ases o f t his a ncient R ussian c entaur a nd o ther s imilar o nes a re a f eature n o t b rought a bout b y a ny f oreign i nfluence a nd t hat h ave s prung u p s imply u nder t he i nfluence o f t he t ext i n which t he w ings o f t he K itovras a re m entioned ( the i nf luence o f t he i conography o f a ngels t oo n ot b eing e xcluded). One may s uggest t hat A smodeus a ssumed i n R us t he l ikeness o f a c entaur b ecause t he t ranslator may h ave b een i nclined t o s ee A smodeus i n t he f orm o f a monster a f ter t he f ashion o f t he C herub o f t he a ncient E ast. T hese b eings s ometimes h ave n ot o nly a human h ead, but a lso a human t orso a nd a rms, t hereby a pproaching t he f igure o f t he c entaur . An i ndirect c onnection w ith t he i conography o f t he c entaur i s d emonstrated b y s ome ancient N ear E astern a nd a lso E gyptian a llegories o n t he c onstellation o f t he A rcher ( Sagittarius) i n t he f orm o f a w inged c entaur w ith a t ail ( Boll, 1 926, p late I , 2 ; R oscher, 1 89)-1897, v ol. I, p . 1 055). T hat i conography i n i ts t urn a pparently e xerted i nfluence o n t he d escr iption o f t he monstrous L ocust i n R evelations ( IX, 3 -12), which s ubsequently e voked i n Rus a n a pproximation o f t his f igure t o t he f igure o f t he K itovras ( see b elow). B ut t he i conography was b uilt up w ithout i nfluence o n t he p art o f r epresentational models. This i s a ttested by t he way t he w ings a re a ttached i n t he R ussian c entaurs. T he e xistence o f a c omposition i n which t he f igure o f a w inged, c rowned c entaur i s a ssociated w ith a c oncrete p ersonage i n a known l i terary p roduct i s a n i mportant a rgument i n f avor o f o ur r egard ing a ll t he o ther f igures o f a ncient R ussian w inged, c rowned c entaurs i n a n a nalogous way a s well. B ut t he f igure o f t he c entaur w ith S olomon i n i ts h ands, u nquestionably i l lustrating t he e pisode i n t he l egend, r emains t he s ole e xample i n ancient Russian a rt; t he a ttributes o f a ll t he o ther i mages o f w inged, c rowned c entaurs d o n ot e xhibit a n i nd isputable c onnection w ith t he t exts o f t he l egend. F inally, we a re a cquainted w ith a ncient R ussian i mages o f c entaurlike c reatures b oth w inged a nd c rowned but i n n o w ise a ssociated w ith t he l egends a bout S olomon. T hus t he d escr iption o f t he a pocalyptic l ocust i n t he R evelations o f S aint J ohn t he D ivine ( IX, 3 -12) h as p rovided t he o pportunity f or p resenting i t i n a m iniature i n a Russian manuscript o f t he XVIth c entury i n t he f orm o f w inged c entaurs wear ing c rowns a nd p late a rmor a nd w ith t ails e nding i n s erpents' h eads ( Buslayev, 1 884, v ol., I, p late 8 2; P late X LI, 2 ), a p henomenon which would s eem t o b e u nique i n Christian i conography. T his i s d istinguished f rom t he K itovras o f t he 1 336 d oors o nly by t he t ail e nding i n a s erpent's h ead ( instead o f t he s corpion-tail mentioned i n t he t ext). B ut t he 1 39
apocalyptic l ocust s hown i n t he f orm o f w inged c entaurs i n t he m iniature o f t he XVIth c entury a nd a f resco o f t he XVI I th c entury ( Gerchuk and D omshlak, 1 975 , p .66 ) was more f requently r epresented w ithout a human t orso , t he h uman h ead b eing a ttached d irectly t o a h orse 's n eck (B uslayev , 1 884, p late 4 0 , 2 58 b ). A lso k nown i n R us a re XVI t h c entury f igures o f t he l ocust i n t he f orm o f c rowned, w inged l ions ( Buslayev, 1 884 , p late I I) - i nf luence o f t he s ymbols o f t he E vangelists i n d emonic f orm ( ?); i n t he f orm o f w ingless, c rowned l ions i n mail a rmor ( an i kon o f t he b eginning o f t he X VI t h c entury - A lpatov, 1 964 , p late 6 1). F igures o f t he l ocust i n t he f orm o f i nsects w ith human h eads were k nown i n R us i n t he X VI I th c entury ( Ovchinnikov, 1 970 , p .126 , f ig . 142) . A c onsiderable p art o f t hese i mages o f a pocalyptic monsters d iverge i n e ssential r espects f rom t heir d etailed d escriptions i n t he t ext. F igures o f r eal l ocusts i n m iniatures o f t he R adziwill c hronicle ( sheet 1 29 , v erso; s heet 1 32 ) s how n o p lain f eatures o f t he f antastic, and a t t he s ame t ime t hey e xhibit a c omplete l ack o f c orrect u nderstanding o f t he l ocust's e x ternal appearance. C entaurlike b eings, i ncluding o nes w ith w ings, h orns, a nd o ther s pecial f eatures, a re s hown i n t he I llustrated Chronicle D igest, where t hey r epresent t he unclean p eoples whom i t f ell t o A lexander o f Macedon t o e ncounter ( Chernetsov, 1 981 B , p .59 , f ig. 2 ,3,4). A p lainer e lucidation o f t he c onceptual meaning o f i mages o f w inged, c rowned c entaurs o n a ncient R ussian c oins o f t he X IV th-XV th c enturies c alls f or d etailed a nalysis o f t he i conography and a ttr ibutes which a re o ffered f or t hem. A s has a lready b een r emarked , w inged, c rowned c entaurs a re s hown o n t he c oins e ither w ithout a ny a ttributes, o r e lse w ith a sword. W e may r emark a t o nce t hat n either t he s word n or any o ther weapon i s mentioned f or t he K itovras i n t he l egends we have b een e xamining. T he most e xpressive and meaningful p ose o f t he w inged, c rowned c entaur w ith t he sword p resents i t a s d raw ing t he weapon f rom a s cabbard. This i s j ust t he way t he c entaur i s s hown o n t he c opper c oin o f I van M ikhailovich. C entaurs i n j ust s uch a t hreatening p ose, y et w ithout c rown o r w ings, a ppear o n a number o f o ther a ncient R ussian c oins. T hese a re c o ins o f V ladimir A ndreyevich o f S erpukhov ( 13581 410 - P late XX, 4 ,5), B or is A leksandrovich o f T ver ( 14251 46 1 - P late XX, 6 ) , and V asilii M ikhailovich o f K ashin ( before 1 426 - S passki, 1 962, p .80 , f ig. 5 0,6) . P erhaps t he absence o f t he c rown and t he w ings f rom a number o f t he c oins c an s imply b e e xplained by t he m iniature s ize o f t he f igures, H owever t hat may b e, t he c haracteristic menacing p ose t estif ies t hat a ll t he i mages w e a re l ook ing a t had a s imilar c onceptual meaning. The f igure o f a c entaur b earing a s word i s f ound e lsewhere t han o n c oins a lone. O ne s uch f igure was s tamped f rom w ithin o n t he b ottom o f a r i tual v essel ( for t he o il l ef t o ver a f ter e xtreme unct ion) f rom a g rave i n t he M oscow K remlin, and i t has b een published a number o f t imes (R abino vich , 1 964, p .160, 1 61, f ig. 7 2, 2 ; R ozenfeldt, 1 968, p late 1 7, 1 3; P late XLI . 3 ). T o j udge by t he way t he f orelegs o f t hi s c entaur a re f lexed, t hey a re n ot h orses's l egs; t here i s 1I n
a c inch-belt o n t he f igure. A f ragment o f a f urther s imilar f igure was b rought t o l ight o n c eramic ware o f t he X Vth o r XVIth c entury f rom j ust o utside Moscow ( Chernetsov, 1 981 B , p . 5 7, f ig. 1 , 4 1). F inally t his i mage a ppears i n a n a ncient R ussian m iniature a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury ( Ruzski, 1 891, p . 2 7; L urie, 1 961, p .140, 1 41; C hernetsov, 1 981 B , f ig. 2 , 1 ). T he manuscript i n which i t o ccurs i s p recisely d ated b y t wo e ntries made o n J anuary 2 8, 1 490 a nd O ctober 2 0, 1 491. T his f igure h as l ong b een known t o s cholars, but i t has n ot b een c ompared w ith t he i mages o n v essels a nd c oins. T he m iniature i s n ot i n a d irect s ense a n i l lustration t o a d ef inite p assage i n t he manuscript, but i t i s a ssociated w ith t he c ontext, which f acilitates i nterpretation o f t he s ub ject. S ide by s ide w ith t he f igure o f t he c entaur t here i s t he monogram o f t he manuscript's c opyist E frosin. E frosin was a monk a t t he Cyrillo-Belozero monastery a nd a s cribe whose hand has t ranscribed c onsiderable parts o f a number o f manuscripts. T he make-up o f t hese manuscript c ompilations was a pparently d etermined u pon by h imself . On t he v erso o f a nother m iniature i n t he s ame manuscript t here i s a s ubscription i ndicating t hat t he d rawing was made by a n a rtist f or E frosin, who a ppears a s having c ommissioned i t . E frosin's manuscripts o ccupy a s pecial p lace i n a ncient R ussian writing. T hey c ontain o ur e arliest c opies o f a r ange o f l i terary p roductions. T he c ontents o f t hese c ompilations r ef lects t he e ncyclopedic n ature o f E frosin's i nterests, w ith a c onsiderable s ecular e lement t hat was p ossible o nly a t t hat t ime s ince l ater, a s Ya. S .Lurie p oints o ut, " the harsh unif ication o f R ussian c ulture" was a lready t o make s uch p henomena i mpossible ( Lurie, 1 961, p . 1 68). T he p eriod o f E frosin's a ctivity was i n t he h istory o f t he c hurch t he p eriod o f t he r ise a nd s pread o f N ovgorod-Moscow h eresy a t t he t urn o f t he XVth-XVIth c enturies. T he p ositioning o f t he f igure o f t he c entaur i n t he manuscript d oes n ot p rovide c omplete c larity f or t he p roblem o f t he c onceptual meaning o f t his d epiction. I n t he c ompendium i n question t here a re i ncluded a pocryphal t ales which i nclude t wo variants o f t he l egend o f S olomon a nd t he K itovras - o ne a f amiliar o ne c onstituting a n a lmost word-for-word t ranslation o f t he t ale f rom t he T almud, a nd t he o ther a s horter o ne k nown o nly f rom t his manuscript ( Lurie, 1 961, p . 1 59; s ame a uthor, 1 964). B ut t he f igure o f t he c entaur baring a s word a ppears i n a d ifferent p art o f t he manuscript; i ts n eighbor i s t he t ext a bout A lexander. T he page a d joining t he f igure m entions t he men w ith h orses' l egs who f ormed p art o f A lexander 's a rmy a s s wordsmen. T he t ext s ays o f t hem " the p eople f rom t he waist d own a h orse, a nd f rom t here u p a man, a re c alled i spolin ( In p resent R ussian i spolin i s a c urrent word f or " giant" - T r.) T hus t he f igure o f t he c entaur w ith t he s word h as e vidently c ome u nder t he s pe ll o f t he t ext f rom t he page f acing i t . B ut t he most i mportant p eculiarities o f t he i conography o f t he c entaur r epresented i n t he m iniature - t he p resence o f a c rown a nd o f w ings upon i t - d o n ot d erive i n a ny way f rom t he t ext o f t he A lexander s tory; o n t he o ther hand, t hey f i t i n w ith t he 1 41
i nformation i n t he l egend a bout t he K itovras a nd t he i ndisputable r epresentation o f t hat p ersonage o n t he N ovgorod d oors o f 1 336. W e h ave r emarked t hat t he b rief l egend a bout t he K itovras i n t he E frosin manuscript e xhibits i mportant d ifferences f rom t he b asic v ersion. T he a ppearance o f t he e xternal a ppearance o f t he K itovras - " a man, but t he l egs a re t hose o f c attle" f inds a n a nalogy i n s ome western E uropean r epresentations o f c entaurs; but i n R us f igures o f " cloven-hoofed" c entaurs a re u nknown. T his s tatement d oes n ot c orrespond t o t he m iniature w e a re c onsider ing e ither ; i n i t t he c entaur c learly h as h orses's l egs a nd t ail. T hus t he l egs o f t he c entaur a re r epresented a s e quine i n c ontradiction t o t he d irect a nd s ole i ndication o f h is a ppearance i n t he t exts o f t he a pocrypha. Y et t his w ill s carcely b e i nfluence f rom t he t ext o f t he A lexander l egend. I t i s more l ikely a f ollowing o f a n a lready e xisting i conographic t radition - t he K itovras o f t he d oors o f 1 336 a lso has t he l egs a nd t ail o f a h orse. One m ight s uggest t hat t he h orses' l egs o f t he c entaur a nd t he s word i n h is h ands r eflect t he t ext o f t he A lexander l egend a nd t hat t he c rown a nd t he w ings a re t aken f rom t he a pocrypha, w ith t he r esult t hat t his " combined" i conography a rose a s a r esult o f t he c hance c on joining i n a s ingle manuscript o f t wo l i terary p roductions t he h eroes o f which s eemed s imilar t o t he m iniaturist. A gainst t hat s uggestion we h ave t he e vidence o f c onstancy o f t he i conography known f rom e arlier e xamples ( the c oins o f I van M ikhailovich). Evidently i t i s t he h ero o f t he a pocrypha t hat i s s hown i n t he m iniature. H e i s n evertheless s hown a s b eing u nder t he i nfluence o f a d ifferent t ext. We a re f aced by a s triking p henomenon - a s ingle m iniature i l lustrates s imultaneously, a s i t were, t wo d ifferent t exts. And i t d oes n ot, i n d oing s o, c orrespond f ully t o e ither o f t hem . I f we t ry t o l ink t he i mage o f t he c entaur d rawing a s word w ith a s pecific passage o f t he a pocrypha, t he most l ikely t hing i s t hat t he c entaur p resented i n a menacing p ose i l lustrates t he c onclud ing words o f t he l egend c oncerning t he " fear o f t he K itovras" which s eized u pon S olomon d uring h is n ights a f ter h is h aving undergone t he e xperiences o f t he e pisode r epresented o n t he d oors o f 1 336. B ut t he most s triking a ttribute o f t he c entaur - t he s word - a nd t he emphatically t hreatening p ose which a re c haracteristic f or a w ide r ange o f i mages f ind n o d irect c orrespondence i n t he t exts o f t he a pocrypha, where t here i s n o mention o f t he s word n or g enerally s peaking o f a ny warlike a ctivity o n t he p art o f t he K itovras. I t i s i nteresting t hat t he t hreatening p ose p roves t o b e a f avorite i conography f or t he w inged c entaur. I t would h ave b een more n atural t o e xpress t he h eroic c haracter o f t he f igure b y s howing i t w ith d rawn s word o r i n a s cene o f s ingle c ombat. H ere, h owever, a ttention i s c oncentrated p recisely u pon t he f act o f menace. I n t he R usskaya P ravda c ode o f l aws t here i s mention o f punishments f or " baring t he s word" w ithout s tr iking w ith i t a nd f or s triking w ith a s word n ot d rawn f rom 1 42
i ts s cabbard ( Pravda R usskava, v ol. I , 1 940, p . 7 0, 1 06). I t was n ot o nly t he c entaur, but n ot i nfrequently a lso s ainted warriors, t hat w ere s hown i n a ncient R ussian a rt i n a n a ttitude o f m enace a nd d rawing s words f rom s cabbards ( Antonova a nd Mneva 1 963, v ol. I , p late 1 5; Yanin, 1 970 , v ol. I, p late 4 2, 7 72). T he p opularity o f t his p ose s hows t hat t he v ery f act o f menace was u nderstood a s b eing a p ositive c haracteristic f or t he i deal f eudatory warrior. T he s ame i s s uggested by t he p assage we h ave quoted t hat c ompares t he p rince w ith a d ragon. T he n ickname g rozny f or v arious p r inces i s a lso l inked w ith s uch i deas a s t his ( as a pplied t o I van G rozny t his i s i ncorrectly t ranslated a s " Terrible.") An i mportant p eculiarity o f t he i mage o f t he c entaur i n t he manuscript i s t he p resence o f t he c opyist's monogram a longside i t . Monograms made u p o f t he l etters o f p ersonal n ames a re known i n t he a pplied a rt o f t he XVth c entury. S uch a re i n p articular t he monograms o f t he M etropolitan F otii, a nd o f t he N ovgorod A rchbishops E vfimii a nd I ona ( Nevostruyev, 1 866, N ikolayeva, 1 977, p . 4 5, p late 1 5, 1 ; B ocharov, 1 969, p late 4 0). T he b ookmark o f t he I gumen D osifei o f t he S o lovetsk Monastery f alls t o t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury ( Rozov, 1 963, p . 8 9, f ig. I . 2 ). T he monogram o f E frosin, l ike t hat o f I ona, i s i nscribed w ithin t he o utline o f t he l etter " omega", a pproaching t he c ircumference t hereof i n i ts o uter c onf iguration. Monograms made u p o f t he l etters o f names o f s upernatural b eings a re a s a r ule i nscribed w ithin a c ircle, a nd were r egarded i n t he l ate M iddle A ges a s " the s eals o f s pirits" ( Agrippa, 1 567, p . 3 91-393). S uch i deas were known t o E frosin. I n t he margins o f o ne o f t he manuscripts h e i nscribed t he f igure 6 66 w ithin a c ircle a nd wrote a longside " the s eal o f Antichrist" ( Lurie, 1 961, p . 1 63). E frosin a pparently r egarded h is own monogram, t oo , a s a " seal." T hus t here a re g rounds f or l inking t he monogram a nd t he c entaur i mage p laced b eside i t w ith t he s phragistic a nd n umismatic material, a s b eing c lose t o t hat mater ial i n i ts s ymbolism. T he p roximity o f t he i mage o f t he c entaur t o t he monogram o f E frosin ( on t his s heet o f t he manuscript t here a re n o i nscriptions o r i mages o ther t han t hese) a ffords g rounds f or s upposing t hat t he i mage i s o f t he n ature o f a p ersonal emblem o r b adge. S uch u se o f a c entaur i mage i s known i n R us. T his i s a ttested by t he s eal o f t he S uperior ( of a monastery) F elix ( Novgorod, f irst h alf o f t he X IVth c entury - Yanin, 1 970, v ol. p . 1 21, 2 19, N o.701), a nd a lso by i mages o n c oins, which l ikewise e vidently a re o f a n emblematic n ature. T he m eaning o f t he c entaur i mage i n i ts f unction a s a p ersonal emblem i s n ot e ntirely p lain. T he l i terary p rototype o f t he Russian K itovras, t he o ne i n t he T almud, i s t he d emon A smodeus. Y et t he d emonic n ature o f t he f igure c ould s carcely b e t he o ccasion f or i ts s election a s a p ersonal emblem by t he monk E frosin. Apparently t he r eason why t he i mage o f t he K itovras i s a ttractive l ies i n a b rief variant o f t he s tory a bout i t which i s known o nly f rom t he s ame manuscript. T his variant e nds w ith t he f o llowing e pisode; S olomon a sks t he K itovras, who has b een b rought b efore h im, "What i s t he most 1 43
b eautiful t hing i n t his world?" " He a nswered, ' Best o f a ll i s o ne' s own f ree w ill' ( freedom). U pon t his h e e xerted h imself a nd b roke l oose a nd l eapt o ut a t l iberty." T hus t he m ost i mportant f eature o f t he K itovras i mage i s t he l ove o f l iberty. I n c onnection w ith t he i mages o n t he N ovgorod d oors o f 1 336 we p ut f orward a bove a s uggestion t hat t he e ncounter o f t he K itovras w ith K ing S o lomon which i s d epicted u pon t hem i s a n a llegory o n t he i ndependence o f N ovgorod v is-a-vis t he a uthority o f t he g rand p rince. T he i mage o f t he c entaur i n t he manuscript we a re c onsidering a lso r ef lects t he i dea o f t hat b eing a s a m ighty e nemy o f S olomon, a nd o ne o f t he t exts o f t he manuscript d irectly l inks t his i mage w ith l ove o f l iberty. T he p ossibility t hat a l i terature p ersonage o f B iblical t imes m ight p ersonify i deas r elating t o o ne's p resent d ay d oes n ot g ive r ise t o d oubts. I n t he E frosin manuscript t here i s a v ivid e xample o f B iblical e vents b eing t aken a s c urrent o nes. I n o ne o f t he t exts h e t ranscribed t he a ntogonists o f t he B iblical h ero S amson a re c alled n ot P hilistines, but T atars, t he most d angerous e nemies o f t he P us o f t hat t ime ( Lurie, 1 961, p . 1 61). An i nteresting matter i s t he h eightened a ttention o f E frosin t oward a c ontemporary p amphlet o n t he D ay o f Wrath, t he T ale o f D racula. T he c opyist r emarks p articularly t hat h e i s t ranscribing i t f or t he s econd t ime. E frosin's s election o f t he K itovras a s h is p ersonal e mblem ( the p ossibility t hat t his i s a n i nherited emblem s eems u nlikely) i s a matter o f s pecial i nterest, s ince i t means t hat t he h ero o f a c ondemned b ook makes h is a ppearance a s t he emblem o f a n e ducated monk. I n t his c onnection o ne c annot j ustify E frosin by s aying t hat h e d id n ot know o f t his, b ecause i n h is manuscripts t here i s a n i ndex o f t rue b ooks a nd f alse b ooks. One g ets t he i mpression t hat E frosin's p ersonal e mblem was a gain a r eflection o f h is f reethinking. Can o ne l ink t he c ontent o f t he E frosin manuscripts w ith t he h eretical movement a t t he t urn o f t he XVth-XVIth c enturies? L urie ( 1961, p .155) a ssumes t hat t here a re n o g rounds f or t his a nd t hat t he c ontent o f E frosin's manuscripts " ref lects n ot h is c onvictions, but t he f ield o f h is i nterests." L et u s n ote t wo f actors which a re v ital f or a c haracterization o f E frosin's c onvictions. T he f irst i s h is d eliberate i nterest i n f orbidden l i terature, e xpressed i n h is c opying c ondemned b ooks. I n o ne o f t hese c ompilations a c omment by E frosin i s c haracter istic: " Do n ot r ead t his i n t he p resence o f p eople, n or s how i t t o many." T he s econd f actor i s t hat i t i s o nly i n E frosin's manuscripts t hat t here h ave c ome d own t o u s t wo t ranscripts f rom t he s o-called " Psalter o f F yodor t he J ew" ( actually t his i s n o p salter a t a ll, but a t ranslation o f t he J udaist p rayerbook " Makhazor" ). A n umber o f s cholars s uppose t hat t hese a re t hose v ery " psalms" which t he h eretics u sed t o p ray " in H ebrew" ( Speranski, 1 907) . O ther l earned a uthors s ee n o r eason t o a ssociate t his c ompilation w ith h eresy (K azakova , L urie, 1 955 , p . 3 16). B ut we a re n ot a cquainted w ith a ny o ther r ecord w ith which i t m ight b e p ossible t o l ink t he i nformation 1 44
we h ave r egard ing s pecial h eretical p salms. T he T itle o f t he R ussian t ranslation " The P salter o f K ing D avid" i s most l ikely a mystif ication, a s i s t he f oreword p resent i n o ne c opy, which s ays t hat t he t ranslation was made a t t he c ommand o f t he M etropo litan P hilip ( 1464-1473). T he a pocryphal t ale o f S olomon a nd t he K itovras c ontains n o d ef inite h eretical t heological s tand-takings. B ut t he i mage o f t he w inged c entaur m ight b e a ssociated w ith t he i deological c onflict o f t he t imes o f t he h eretical movement. T he s triving o f t he K itovras f or " its own f ree w ill" may b e c ompared w ith t he i nterest o f t he R eformation p eriod, a nd o f t hat which i mmediately p receded i t , i n t he t heological q uestion o f " the f reedom o f t he w ill". T his p roblem a lso a gitated t he R ussian h eretics. This i s a ttested i n p articular by t he b eginning o f t he L aodicea E pistle o f t he t urn o f t he XVth-XVIth c entury which i s l inked w ith t he R usian h eretics: " The s pirit i s a utonomous w ith r espect t o i tself , a nd f aith i s i ts s afeguard..." ( Kazakova a nd L urie, 1 955, p .265). T he monks o f t he Cyrillo-Belozero monastery t ook p art i n t he d iscussion t hat d eveloped o n a ccount o f t he c onflict w ith t he h eretics. F rom t heir m ilieu t here emerged a l etter s harply c riticizing t he c alls t o r epression a gainst t he h eretics t hat a rose f rom t he c amp o f t he m ilitant c hurchmen h eaded by t he N ovgorod A rchbishop G ennadii a nd by l osif V olotski ( Kazakova a nd Lurie, 1 955, p . 5 10-513). Thus i f t he E frosin manuscripts d id n ot i n f act a rise f rom w ithin h eretical c ircles , t hey d id r eflect t hat c ultural m ilieu a nd t he l i terary i nterests amid which t he h eresy h ad s prung u p a nd b ecome d isseminated. We may n ote t hat t he i mage o f a c entaur o n t he 1 336 d oors, t oo, was l inked w ith t he h istoricoc ultural background a gainst which t he h eresy o f t he s trigolniks d eveloped. I n j ust t he s ame way a s t he i mage o f a c entaur baring a s word i s unexpected a s a p ersonal emblem f or t he monk E frosin, s o i t i s d iff icult t o e xplain f or a v essel i ntended f or r itual purposes: C hr istian e xtreme u nction a nd burial. One c annot c all t he i mage o f t he c entaur o n t he v essel a s econdary d ecorative e lement, b ecause i t o ccupies a c entral p osition a nd s tands a lone. O ther v essels o f t his t ype a re d evoid o f a ny i mages. T he f igure w ithin t his o ne i s u nique f or a ncient R us. T he a ppearance o f s uch a n i mage i n c onnection w ith t he d iffusion o f a h eresy o r o f r eligous i ndifferentism i s e ntirely l ikely. I n written s ources t here i s mention o f t he u se by t he h eretics o f c ult o b jects w ith n on-churchly f igures ( Kazakova a nd Lurie, 1 955, p . 3 12, 3 13). N or d oes t he p lace where t he f ind was made r un c ounter t o t he t hesis t hat t he a ntecedents o f t he v essel were h eretical: t he Moscow K remlin. I t i s known t hat a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury a nd u p t o 1 504 Moscow was a major c enter o f h eresy t hat a ffected e ven t he h ighest s trata o f t he p opulation. On c oins o f P eter Dmitrievich o f Dmitrov ( 1389-1428) t here i s a n i mage o f a c entaur w ithout c rown o r w ings but w ith a s word a nd a g oblet i n h is r aised hands ( Plate XX. 1 3, 1 4). On t he r everses o f s ome o f t hese t here i s a man w ith a n a xe i n h is 1 45
h and, o n o thers a n a nimal l ooking b ackward. T his f igure e vokes a n a ssociation w ith t he a llegorical i mage o f t he c onstellation o f t he A rcher, o r S agittarius. S uch a n i conography f or t hat c onstellation i s i n f act k nown f rom a ncient R ussian manuscr ipts c ommencing f rom t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury; i n p articular, i n t he manuscript o f t he Christian T opography o f K osma I ndikoplov o f 1 495. T he A rcher i s p resented i n t he f orm o f a c entaur l ooking backward a nd s hooting a n a rrow i nto t he gape o f a s erpent g rowing f rom h is t ail ( Redin, 1 916, p . 1 78, p late I X, 1 ; P late X LII, 2 ). T his t reatment o f t he z od iacal S agittarius a pparently c omes f rom t he Musulman E ast ( Kuhnel, 1 922, p late 3 4, 4 1; A libegashvili, 1 973, p late 4 2), but i t i s a lso known i n P olish h eraldry ( Leszczyc, 1 908, p late XXIX). C entaur-archers o n c oins d o n ot h ave t ails i n t he f orms o f s erpents. I n t he g reater p art o f t he manuscripts o f K osma I ndikoplov c entaur-archers d o n ot s hoot r earward, but f orward j ust a s i n B yzantine manuscripts t oo ( Redin, 1 916, p . 1 79, f ig. 1 81-183; p . 1 81, f ig. 1 86; p late V . f ig. 1 ; P late X LI1,3). We s hould n ote t hat i n R us i t was n ot o nly t he i mage o f a c entaur s hooting a b ow t hat was u sed t o i ndicate t he c onstellation S agittarius. I n t he S vyatoslav C ompendium o f 1 073 t he a rcher i s r epresented i n t he f orm o f a b earded man w ith a b ow ( Materialy, 1 855, p late V ). There a re s imilar r epresentations i n s ome o f t he i l lustrated manuscripts o f t he Chr istian T opography o f K osma I ndikoplov ( Redin, 1 916, p . 1 78, f ig. 1 80; p . 1 80, f ig. 1 84, 1 85). I n o ther c opies t he A rcher c onstellation was p resented i n t he f orm o f a b owman w ith a f ish's t ail ( Redin, 1 916, p . 1 78, f ig. 1 77, 1 79, p late I V, 2 ). S ometimes i n m iniatures o f o ne a nd t he s ame manuscript t he S agittarius o f t he z odiac i s i l lustrated i n d ifferent ways ( a c entaur , a nd a b owman w ith a f ish's t ail - R ed in, 1 916, p . 1 83). A n umber o f a ncient R ussian f igures o f c entaur-bowmen a re p resented i n a c ontext s uch a s t o s how t hat t hey were c ompletely d evoid o f a stral s ymbolism, o r t hat t hey h ad a n e xtremely s mall measure o f i t . T hus among t he c arved f igures o n t he s o-called c rozier o f G erontii ( carved walrus i vory, e nd o f t he XVth c entury B ocharov, 1 969, p . 1 06; Chernetsov, 1 980, p .100, f ig. 3 ) a c entaur-bowman f acing backward i s p resented among a f i le o f a nimals i n which t here a re n o i mages i ndisputably c onnected w ith o ther s igns o f t he z odiac. T his c entaur i s i n t he c ompany o f a d ragon, a nd s eems t o b e s hooting a t i t . S uch a f eature f inds a p arallel i n Russian f olklore, where t he d ragon's a ntagonist i s c alled P olkan ( for t his n ame s ee b elow; s ee S akharov 1 841, v ol. I , p . 4 7, 4 8). I n t he c arving o f t he k ing's s eat i n t he S t. S ofia C athedral a t N ovgorod, which was d ecorated i n 1 572, t here i s a f igure o f a c entaur-archer b eside which t here i s t he f igure o f a s tag ( Bobrinski, 1 914, p late 1 70, 2 ). A c entaur-archer t ogether w ith a s tag a t which h e i s s hooting i s a lso p resented o n a p ainted c hest o f t he XVIlthXVI I lth c enturies ( Kamenskaya, 1 962 , p . 1 73, f ig. 12; P late XLII, 5 ). B oth t he c entaur s hooting a t a d ragon a nd t he c entaur s hooting a t a s tag e vidently f ail t o c onstitute 1 46
a llegories o f a z od iacal c onstellation. N either was a stral s ymbolism t he a pparent b asis f or t he c entaur-bowman, t urned a round a nd s hooting r earward, o n t he Magdeburg d oors o f t he S t. S ofia C athedral a t N ovgorod, where t his f igure i s a R ussian f inishing-touch o f t he XVth c entury ( Adelung, 1 834, p . 6 2, 6 3, p late X LI I, 1 ; f or t he d ating o f t he a ddition s ee F oppe, 1 976). I nasmuch a s t he f igure was made a f ter t he c omposition w ith t he K itovras o n t he o ther d oors o f t he s ame c athedral which were made i n 1 336, a nd was p laced i n a nalogous f ashion i n t he l ower p art o f i ts d oor ,i t i s a ltogether l ikely t hat t he s ignif icances o f t hese f igures, t oo, were i n s ome way o r o ther a ssociated. F inally, we a re f amiliar w ith a r ange o f i mages o f R ussian c entaur-bowmen o f t he XVI I th c entury which u nquestionably r epresent a n on-zodiacal A rcher. T his i s t he " hippocentaur" i n t he manuscript variants o f K an on I stomin's a lphabet-book o f t he XVIIth c entury ( Tarabrin, 1 916, p late XXVI). A whole b and o f c entaur-bowmen i s p resented i n a m iniature o f a XVI I th c entury manuscript o f t he A lexandriad; i t i l lustrates t he e pisode c oncerning t hose i spolins mention o f which h ad s erved, i n t he XVth c entury, a s t he o ccasion f or t he d epiction, a longside, o f a w inged a nd c rowned c entaur baring a s word ( Plate X L I, 1 ). I n t his i nstance, h owever, t he c entaurs a re s hown w ithout w ings o r c rown, w ith l ong h air, a nd - s omething which i s u nusua l w ith e arlier d epictions o f t hem - w ith n aked human t orsos. I n R ussian p opular a rt o f t he XVI II th-XIXth c enturies t he f igure o f t he c entaur-bowman f requently r epresents t he P o lk a n h ero i n t he knightly r omance o f B ovo t he k ing ' s s on ( Boeve d e Haumtone, B evis o f H ampton - Z hegalova, 1 975, P . 3 1, 3 8-41, 4 9, 5 1). T he h istory o f t he s preading o f t his r omance w ithin R us v ia I taly a nd t he s outhern S lays has b een s tudied i n c onsiderable d etail ( Veselovski, 1 888; Kuzmina, 1 964). I t i s c haracter istic t hat t he g uise o f a c entaur w ith h orses' h oofs a nd a b ow was c onferred u pon P olkan o nly i n R us, but n ot r ight away. O riginally t he c lub a ppears a s P olkan's weapon; h e h imself i s h alf d og, which i s e xplained by t he p assage a bout h is o rigin ( "born o f a d og a nd a woman" - V eselovski, 1 888 , p . 1 54). Apparently i n R us t he d og f eatures were r egarded a s u nsui table f or a h ero o f a ff irmative i mplications. B ut s ome r ecollections r egarding t he c anine n ature o f P olkan were p reserved a s l ate a t t he X IXth c entury. P o lkan i s o ne o f t he most w idespread n ames f or d ogs i n R ussia. T he e volution o f t he P olk a n i mage i n R ussian l i terature a nd a rt i s a n i nteresting e xample o f metamorphosis o f t he a ppearance o f a l i terature h ero u nder t he i nfluence o f a n i mage p opular i n r epresentational a rt. T he e xamples c ited s how t hat t he c onnection o f t he c entaurb owman i mage w ith t he c onstellation was i ts main c ontent o nly i n t hose c ases where t his i mage f ormed part o f c ompositions i ncluding o ther s igns o f t he Z odiac a s well. I n o ther c ases t he main s ignif icance o f t he i mage was a matter o f warlike s ymbolism. I t i s i n j ust t hat c apacity t hat t he c entaurb owman a lso c ame t c a ppear o n o ne o f t he m ilitary banners o f 1 47
t he XVIlth c entury ( Arseniev, 1 908, p .195 , p late K . 6 ). On a c oin o f P rince M ikhail B orisovich o f T ver ( 1461-1468) a c entaur i s s hown w ith r aised a rms. T he l egs a nd t he t ail a re n ot e quine ( Plate XX, 1 2). O reshnikov s uggested t hat o n t his c oin a G orgon i s r epresented, b y a nalogy f rom a m iniature o f t he XVIIth c entury. I ndeed, i n a XVIlth c entury c opy o f t he A lexandriad " the Maid G orgon," i .e. t he g orgon M edusa, i s e ndowed w ith t he f eatures o f a c entaur . I n t he t ext s he i s d escribed a s h aving " a h uman f ace a nd b reast a nd a rms, b ut h er l egs a nd t ail a re a s a h orse's, a nd o n h er h ead s he h as s erpents i n p lace o f h air" ( Buslayev, 1 861, A , p . 3 70, 3 71, f ig. 6 ; P late X LII, 6 ). T he e quine t orso o f t he G orgon i s e ncircled b y a b road c inch-belt ( an a rchaic d etail). T he r epresentation i s e xtremely i nteresting a s s till a f urther r ef lection o f t he p opularity o f t he c entaur i mage, which m ight b e c arried o ver i nto t he most v ar ious f antastic f igures. We s hould n ote h ere t hat t he g orgon i n m iniatures o f t he XVIth c entury, t hat i l lustrate t his s ame e pisode, d oes n ot h ave t he a ppearance o f a c entaur. The s ole f eature o f t his r epresentation o f a g orgon which i s s pecif ic f or t his l i terature p ersonage i s t he hair i n t he f orm o f s erpents. I t i s j ust t his f eature which i s n ot t o b e s een i n t he i mage o n t he c oin. T he nature o f t he r epresentation o f t he l egs a lso d istinguishes t his c entaur f rom t he g orgon. E ssentially t he o nly f eature which b r ings t he m iniature a nd t he c oin i mage c lose t o e ach o ther i s t he p osition o f t he c entaur's a rms. B ut t his i s n ot a t a ll a s er ious basis f or i nterpretation o f t he f igure. T he d etail o f f olded h ands r aised b efore t he c hest ( a g esture o f h and-wr inging, a ppeal) i s a t raditional f eature o f B yantine a nd a ncient R ussian a rt. S ometimes, a s i n f act i n t his i nstance , o ne hand i s s hown a s a bove t he o ther. S imilar r epresentations o f c entaurs a re k nown b oth i n B yzantine a rt ( Weitzmann, 1 950 , p late XXV, 1 23) a nd i n a ncient R ussian a rt ( Stasov, 1 887, p late LVIII, 1 2; T he T ver H oard, 1 915, p . 1 4, p late I, 2 ; T arabrin, 1 916 , p late X XVI). T he p osition o f t he a rms i s a lso s imilar i n a c entaur c onstituting a n i nitial i n t he t eratological s tyle i n a B ulgar ian manuscript o f t he X IIIth c entury ( Stasov,1887, p late XVII, 8 ). Apparently i n t his c ase t he c entaur i s s hown s imply a s a r epresentative o f e xotic f auna, a nd i ts g esture d oes n ot c arry a ny c onceptual l oad . I n a ddition t o t he f igures w ith t he t runk o f a n a nimal a nd t he t orso o f a man, we m ight a ssign among t he c entaurs t he f igures which h ave t he b ody o f a q uadruped a nd a h uman h ead. T hese a re known o n Russian c oins o f t he XVth c entury, a nd t hey c ome b oth w ith w ings ( Plate X XI, 3 ) a nd w ithout t hem ( Plate XXI, 1 , 2 ). I nd isputable a ncient Russian f igures o f c entaurs h aving o nly t he h ead o f a man i n p lace o f h is t orso d o e xist ( a m iniature o f t he XVth c entury a nd a n e ngraving o f t he f irst h alf o f t he XVIIth c entury - L urie, 1 976 A ; R ovinski, 1 900, v ol. I , p . 9 , f ig. 8 ); t hey a re s hown w ith h oofs. B eside c entaurs, q uadrupeds w ith h uman h eads may r epresent l egendary b easts t hat i nhabit I ndia ( Karpov, 1 877, p . 2 52-254; V eselovski, 1 881, p .251; T ikhonravov, 1 863, v ol. I, p . 2 59). 1 48
I n s umming u p o ur e xamination o f t he s ymbolism o f t he f igure o f t he c entaur i n R us we may p oint o ut i ts c onsiderable d iffuseness. T his d iffuseness i s manifested i n t he f act t hat t he a ppearance o f t he c entaur may b e a ssumed b y v arious l i terary p ersonages, b oth t hose which c ome w ith t he n ame o f " centaur" a nd o thers e tymologically c onnected w ith t hem, b ut a lso o nes having a n e ntirely d ifferent o rigin ( the " ispo lins" a nd t he l ike). A t t he s ame t ime many f igures t hat m ight i n a ncient R us b e r epresented i n t he f orm o f c entaurs c an a lso b e p resented i n a ltogether d ifferent ways ( the S agittarius o f t he z odiac, t he l ocust o f R evelations, t he g orgon). T his s ort o f i nstability i n t he i conography o f monstrous f igures i s known i n t he M iddle A ges f or western E urope a s well. T hus w e f ind t here i mages o f c entaurs w ith t wo l egs i nstead o f f our, c orresponding more c losely t o o ur i dea o f s atyrs ( Sezned, 1 953, p . 3 3 , f i g . 7 ) . C aptioned western E uropean i mages o f o nocentaurs a re a lso k nown t hat h ave t he f orm o f a h uman f igure w ith a n a ss's h ead ( Wegener, 1 928 , p . 1 29, f ig. 15; O r tus s anitatis, 1 529, p . 3 7, c hapter CVII). F luidity o f i conography i s b etrayed n ot o nly by a ll a ncient R ussian f igures o f c entaurs t aken t ogether , but a lso by s maller g roups among t hem t hat a re b rought t ogether by i mportant i conographic f eatures. T hus c entaurs b ar ing a s word may c ome b oth w ith c rowns a nd w ings, a nd w ithout t hem; t hey may h ave t he l egs o f a h orse, o r o f a b east o f p rey. C entaurs w ith a s mall a nimal i n h and a lso e xhibit a nalogous d ifferences i n t heir e xtremities. D ifferent variations i n t he l ower p art o f t he c entaur b ody a re a lso f ound among o ther g roups among t heir m edieval r epresentations - i n t he Musulman E ast, f rom t ime t o t ime a lso i n B yzantium ( Lazarev, 1 948, v ol. I, p late 1 44). I n western E uropean i conography c entaurs a re f ound n ot m erely w ith h orses' h oofs, but a lso w ith c loven h oofs ( Seznec, 1 953, p . 3 3, f ig. 7 ; p . 6 3, f ig. 1 3) o r w ith t he p aws o f a b east o f p rey ( Bologna, 1 964, p late 3 5). I nteresting i nformation c an b e s ecured by c omparing a ncient Russian r epresentations o f c entaurs w ith l i terary r ecords. F irst o f a ll i t c omes t o l ight t hat t he a ncient R ussian s ymbolism f or t he r epresentation o f c entaurs d oes n ot r eveal a ny s ort o f c onnection w ith t he c lassical myths c oncerning t hese b eings. N or i s a C hr istian t reatment b ased u pon m entions o f c entaurs i n t he B ible a nd t he P hysio logos c haracter istic f or t he ancient Russian r epresentations. T his i s e videnced i n particular by a n a bsence o f p aired i mages o f s irens a nd c entaurs f rom a ncient R ussian a rt. T he c onnection o f a p art o f t he most p eculiar a ncient R ussian i mages o f c entaurs w ith t he l egend o f S o lomon a nd t he K itovras i s b eyond q uestion, b ut i t s hould n ot b e o veremphasized. A ctually t he m ost c haracter istic a ttributes o f t he a ncient R ussian w inged c entaurs - t he c rowns a nd t he weapon - r ef lect t he r oyal a nd warriorlike nature o f a c entaur , f eatures which a re n ot r eflected i n s ubstance i n t he l egend. N either t he c haracter istic p ose o f a number o f c entaurs d rawing a s word f rom a s cabbard, n or t he v ery p resence o f t hat weapon, f inds a d irect c orrespondence i n a ny e pisode o f t he l egend. 1 49
E vidently t he basic c ontent o f a ll t hese f igures was war like s ymbolism, i n which c onnection t he m eaning o f t he c entaur p roves t o b e i dentical i n p rinciple w ith t hat o f a ll t he o ther most p opular f igures i n R ussian f eudal e mblematics ( the f igure o f t he warrior, t he r uler, t he b east o f p rey, e tc.). T he c onnection o f t he c entaur f igure w ith r eligious s eekings a nd f ree t hought , which d oes e xist i n i ndividual c ases, c anno t b e e xtended t o t he main p art o f t he r epresentations o f t his b eing. The f reedom-loving i deal a pparently p resent i n a p art o f t he c entaur f igures i s d ealt w ith i n t he f igures a s a ggressiveness, i .e. a s a p articular i nstance o f warlike p rowess. Warlike f eatures were a lso a pparently f undamental i n t he f igures o f t he g reater p art o f t he c entaur-bowmen, a nd t hey a lmost c ompletely s uppressed a ny a stral s ymbolism. A t t he s ame t ime, a n a stral n ature may s ometimes b e p resent a lso i n o ther c entaur f igures which d o n ot h ave t he i conographic f eatures o f a llegorical r epresentations o f c onstellations. S uch a re i n p articular t he d epiction o f a c entaur , w ith a s hield a nd a c lub, f rom t he X IIth c entury which i s p resented a gainst a b ackground o f c ircular o rnament ( Labutina a nd K ondratieva, 1 975; P late XXXIX 6 ), a nd a lso t he f igure o n t he back o f a b ronze m irror o f t he XVIIth c entury where a w inged a nd c rowned c entaur i s s hown a gainst a background o f r osettes ( stars - ? , O kladnikov, 1 950 , p . 1 43, f ig. 3 ; P late X LI, 4 ). T o j udge by t he t ext o f a p arody o f a c hurch d ivine s ervice o f t he XVIIth c entury, where t here i s m ention o f " the month K itovras" ( i .e. a pparently N ovember, c orresponding t o t he s ign f or S agittarius - Andrianova-Perets, 1 932, p . 2 15), t he v ery n ame o f t he c entaur e voked a stral c onnotations a s well. T he m iniature s howing a c entaur i n t he E frosin manuscript s hows t hat o ne a nd t he s ame i mage m ight a t t he s ame t ime b e a ssociated w ith d ifferent l i terature p ersonages. I n t hat c onnection, i n o rder t o i dentify t he i mage w ith t hem a most g eneral r esemblance s uff iced; a nd c ontradiction t o d irect t extual i ndications, o n t he p art o f i ndividual d etails, was n ot t aken i nto a ccount. T he i nconsiderable amount o f t ransfer o f t he c onceptual s ignif icance o f t he c entaur i n a ncient R ussian writings t o i ts i l lustrations may g ive r ise t o a n i dea t hat t he i deological i mport o f t hese i l lustrations was s canty. B ut t his i s n ot t he c ase. T hat i s e videnced by a n i ndicator s o v ivid a s i s t he p resence o f a n i nfluence o n t he p ar t o f c entaur i conography u pon R ussian l i terature, b oth written a nd o ral. H ere w e h ave t he a lready m entioned c onversion o f t he G orgon i nto a c entaur ( not o nly i n t he i l lustration, but i n t he a pplicable t ext); t he p roviding t he P olkan h ero w ith h orses' l egs a nd a b ow, i n t he f ace o f t he o riginal t enor o f t he t ext. I n b oth c ases a l terations i n t he t ext a re t o b e e xplained by t he i nfluence o f a p opular v isual i mage. I n p opular r eligious v erse t he f eatures o f t he c entaur a re g iven e ven t o t he i mage o f D eath, which f rom t he s tart makes i ts a ppearance u nder t he i ndifferent name o f " monster." " The l egs o f t he monster a re t hose o f h orses, t he b ody o f t he monster i s t hat o f a n a nimal, 1 50
t he h ead o f t he monster i s t hat o f a man." I n i ndividual v ar iants t he h uman a rms o f t his b eing a re a lso m entioned ( Kireyevski, 1 862, v ol. 4 , p .116, 1 20 , 1 21, 1 30). While we t ake n ote o f t he p opularity o f t he c entaur f igure i n ancient R us a nd o f t he n on-bookish nature o f i ts s ymbolism, we s hould n evertheless r ealize t hat i t d id n ot b ecome a n o rganic p art o f Russian p easant a rt a s t he s iren f igure, f or e xample, d id. I n f act, i n R ussian p opular a rt t he c entaur i s e ncountered o nly i n f olk woodcuts ( lubok) a nd i n p ainting o n wood , b oth o f which were t he o utput n ot o f p easants but o f p rofessional c raf tsmen. T his f igure i s n ot f ound i n p easant woodcarving. I n f olklore t he c entaur f igure i s e xtremely r are, a nd i n t hat c onnection i t i s e ncountered o nly i n t hose among i ts f orms which h ave most s trongly b een s ubjected t o t he i nf luence o f b ookish e ducational t raining r eligious v erse ( the c entaurlike D eath) a nd t he i ncantations o f s orcerers ( the P olkan). Whereas i n t he b ookish l egend o f t he e nticement o f t he w ife o f K ing S o lomon t he K itovras d oes a ppear, i n i ts f olklore v ersion i ts p lace i s t aken by a man. The c entaur f igure i s v ery r are i n t erato logical o rnament s aturated w ith f olklore p rinciples; h ere i t i s e ncountered o nly a s a n e xception ( Stasov, 1 887, p late L VIII, 1 2; N ekrasov, 1 913, p late V II, 3 ). I n a ncient R ussian r ecords o f l i terary a ctivity t here a re e vidences a s t o whether t he c entaur was r egarded i n ancient R us a s r eal o r n ot. I n o ne o f t he l ists o f t rue a nd f alse b ooks t here i s a r emark " All t hat a bout S olomon a nd a bout t he K itovras i s a l ie - t he K itovras n ever e xisted o n t his e arth a nd i t was made u p by t he H ellenic ( i .e. pagan, n onChristian) p hilosophers" ( Pypin, 1 862 A . p . 2 7, 3 9, 5 2, 5 4). B ut t he v ery n eed f or s uch a n e xplanation s hows t hat t here were i n f act p eople who c onsidered t he b ook " right", a nd t he K itovras a s r eally having e xisted. The o nocentaur was a pparently r egarded a s a r eal b eing, s ince i t i s m entioned i n t he B ible. I n t he o pinion o f a l earned monk o f t he e nd o f t he XVIIth c entury, r ef lected i n h is v erses i n a p rimer, " the animal o nocentaur i s o f a nimal c reation ( by G od)," i .e., r eal ( Tarabrin, 1 916, p . 2 85). I n a manuscript d ictionary o f t he e nd o f t he XVIlth c entury t he a ppearance o f t he a llegorical i mage o f t he c onstellation S agittarius i s d escribed i n t he guise o f a c entaur-bowman. I n t hat c onnection t here i s a t elling a ddition - i n t he o pinion o f t he c ompiler t he b ow i n t he h ands o f t he c entaur i s a f anciful d etail. A r eal c entaur d oes n ot have a b ow ( Karpov, 1 877, p . 2 76, 2 77). S uch i ndications i n written s ources a fford e vidence t hat i n r epresenting c entaurs ancient Russian a rtists a ssumed t hat t hey were d epicting s omething t hat was p ossible. A s triving n ot t o g o b eyond t he l imits o f t he p ossible i s c haracter istic f or a ll a ncient R ussian i l lustrations o f b easts a nd monsters a ll t he way d own t o t he XVIth c entury. I t i s j ust t hrough t his t hat o ne may e xplain t he f act t hat a t a n e arlier t ime o ne d oes n ot e ncounter f igures o f b easts a nd monsters t hat d o n ot have a human t orso w ith a weapon, o r wearing h eadgear. T his s ort o f 1 51
striving for plausibility in its turn testifies that the acceptance of images of monsters and living beings as purely conventional emblems did not yet exist at that time, and the belief in the realness of the monsters represented was pretty much alive. Sirens are represented on ancient Russian coins by two varieties - with the bodies of birds, and with the tails of serpents. Sirens with bird bodies are the more characteristic image for ancient Russian art (Plate XX, 15-17). The symbolism is rather complicated - in the Bible and the Physiologos the siren is a negative figure. We are also familiar with a miniature of the XVIth century showing a bird with a human head which is tempting a satnt (Shchepkin, 1903, plate X, 54). And yet in ancient Russian representational art a favorable treatment of the siren predominated. This is attested by numerous depictions of sirens as birds of paradise in wreaths and nimbuses (Makarova, 1975, p. 23m plate I, 3, 5, 7-9, etc.). Apparently a crowned siren with a bird body on a coin of Vasilii Tyomny (Plate XX, 1517) is represented in that capacity. On coins of the time of the same prince - partly with his own name, partly with that of the prince of Mozhaisk contemporary with him, and partly with the names of both there are images of a winged siren with a serpent's tail, curled into a ring or even tied up into a knot (Plate XX, 18, 19). In one case such a siren on a coin of Vasil ii Tyomny is neighbor to a siren with a bird body (Oreshnikov, 1896, plate X, 454). Apparently these beings were associated with each other. In the hands of the siren there is an indistinct object - or objects. In its upper part this object forms a loop, in its upper part it has the look of a line running along the interval between the image and the circular inscription. It is complicated enough to bring to light the meaning of this image. It is not that the image does not have iconographical analogies - on the contrary, they do exist, but they form a chain which brings no closer any interpretation of this subject as a coin type, and they lead us into a field of images which are apparently most unstable both as to iconography and as to conceptual content. In their pose, their basic features, and the presence of the object in their hands before them the coin images being considered find an analogy in the walrus ivory carving of the crozier of the Moscow Metropolitan Gerontii (70' s-80's of the XVth century). Here this is unquestionably a personage of male sex, with a beard. The object in its hand is not entirely clear (Chernetsov, 1980 p. 98, fig. l). A similar personage appears in the decor of the same crozier, upon its metal parts, in the make-up of a composition (Plate XXXV, 3). Here it holds in its hand a writhing snake which is biting its antagonist, a winged beast. Along with the combat of the winged beast with such a monster as this there is in the decor of the same crozier, again on its metal parts, a second composition (and on all the metal parts of the crozier we find only these two compositions); this time an analogous winged beast is fighting with a dragon (Chernetsov, 1980, p. 104, fig. 152
7 ). T he c lear p aralle lism o f t hese t wo s cenes, s imilar a lso i n t heir c omposition, s hows t hat t he man-dragon was a ssociated w ith t he s ymbol o f e vil, t he d ragon. T he u se o f a s erpent a s a s ort o f weapon i s, b y t he way, a s ymbolic f eature o f n egative p ersonalities i n a ncient Russian a rt. F igures w ith s nakes i n t heir h ands a re e ncountered i n p articular i n t he K iev P salter ( sheet 5 0). An i mage o f a n a nalogous p ersonage a lso a ppears i n t he walrus i vory o r b one c arving o f o ne o f t he g rand-princely walking-staffs a t t he A rmoury ( Chernetsov, 1 980, p . 9 9, f ig. 2 ; P late XXXV. 7 ). I t i s d istinguished f rom t he p ersonage i n t he c arving o f t he G erontii c rozier t hrough t wo p eculiarities. I n t he f irst p lace, t here i s quite d ef initely r epresented i n i ts h ands a writhing s erpent ( the o pen mouth o f which i s b rought n ext t o t he n ose o f t he p ersonage); i n t he s econd p lace, i t has a c rown o n i ts h ead. I n t his f orm t his p ersonage a pproaches western E uropean d epictions o f t he d evil ( in p articular, i n t he s cene o f t he F all f rom G race - Mode, 1 977, p . 18). The f igure o f a s iren w ith a s erpent's t ail a nd w ith w ings was r ather f irmly a ssociated w ith d emonic b eings, i ndeed v ar ious o nes - Russian d escriptions o f s uch b eings a re known f or t he XVIlth-XVIIIth c enturies, i n which c onnection t hey a re c alled " asps" o r " Basilisks" ( Karpov, 1 877, p . 2 37; R ovinski, 1 900, v ol. I . p . 1 29). S ide by s ide w ith t hese b eings t here i s a lso known, h owever, a d epiction o f a n a sp f rom t he e nd o f t he XVIlth c entury i n t he f orm o f a s erpent, l acking a nthropomorphic f eatures, having t wo l egs a nd w ings, o r s ometimes w ithout w ings ( Tarabrin, 1 916, p late XVI). B ut t his s ort o f t reatment c annot f ully e xplain t he p resence o f s uch a p ersonage whether o n c oins, o r o n t he g rand-princely walking-staff . B earing i n m ind t he " mixed" a ppearance o f t he f igure o ne may a ssociate t his i mage w ith t he i mages o f s hape-changing k ings. I n p articular , o ne may r ecall P haraoh, who a ccording t o R ussian l egend was c onverted i nto a h alf-man, h alf-f ish a f ter Moses h ad p lunged h im i n t he s ea ( Pypin, 1 862, p . 4 9 , 5 0 - t he i mages o f t he s erpent a nd o f t he f ish m ight c ome c lose t o e ach o ther i n medieval a rt). The man-dragon f ighting w ith a w inged b east ( a man-headed g riffin) m ight b e c ompared w ith a r elief a t t he S t.Dmitri C athedral a t V ladimir, i n which t here i s a s imilar b eing wearing a c rown ( Plate XXXII, 5 , 6 ) but having t wo p aws i n a ddition t o t he c urled-up t ail, which h olds a s word i n i ts hands a nd f ights w ith a n animal whose a ppearance r eminds o ne o f a d og. T he most s ubstantial d ifferences b etween t he c ompositions we a re c omparing l ie i n t he man-dragon's h aving p aws a nd t he a nimal's having n o w ings. Another s imilar mand ragon o n t he walls o f t he s ame c athedral i s r epresented w ith h orses' h oofs a nd p erhaps g oes back g enetically t o f igures i n c lassical a rt. S uch b eings w ith more o r l ess p lainly e xpressed b ird f eatures a nd w ith a l ong t ail p laited i nto o rnamental s trapwork a re e xtremely w idespread i n t eratological o rnament ( Stasov, 1 887, p late LXV, 3 6 ; B uslayev, 1 917, p . 3 0, f ig. 3 7; P late XXXIII, 1 ). F requently e nough t hese a re d ef initely male 1 53
f igures, w ith b eards. T he c onceptual m eaning o f t hese i mages i s d iff icult t o d etermine. P erhaps t hey a re s pontaneous v ar iants o n t he t heme o f t he u nclean f orces. I f we c ompare w ith e ach o ther t he f igure o f t he s iren w ith a b ird b ody a nd i ts i mage w ith t he b ody o f a f ish o r a s erpent, t he f ormer i nclines a s a who le more t oward t he p ositive, a nd t he l atter t o t he n egative i mages. B ut a t t he s ame t ime p ositive i deas may a lso b e a ssociated w ith t he f igure o f t he s iren w ith a f ish's t ail. T his i s d emonstrated b y a m ili tary b anner o f t he XVIIth c entury b earing s uch a f igure ( the s iren a lso h as p aws a nd w ings). I t i s t e lling t hat a p ectoral c ross i s s hown a t t he n eck o f t he monster ( Arseniev, 1 908, p . 1 94). Among t he i mages o f marvellous b easts o n R ussian c oins o f t he XVth c entury t he f igure o f t he d ouble-headed e agle i s o f s pecial i mportance ( Plate XXI, 5 -7). T he a ppearing o f t his emblem i s o rdinar ily a ssociated w ith t he i nfluence o f B yzantine t radition, i n c onnection w ith t he marriage o f I van II a nd S of ia Paleologos ( Oreshnikov, 1 896 , p .52). We s hould n ote t hat t he e mblematic f igure o f t he d ouble-headed e agle t hat was p olpular a t B yzantium was n ot a c rest i n t he p recise s ense a nd was i n particular n ot r epresented e ither o n c oins o r o n s eals o f t hat s tate. I t i s quite l ikely t hat s ide b y s ide w ith B yzantine i nf luence, t he s preading o f t his emblem w ithin R us t ook p lace under t he e ffects o f t he a nalogous e mblem o f t he Hapsburgs ( Soboleva, 1 979, p . 5 1-565). W e a re a lso f amiliar w ith i mages o f d ouble-headed e agles i n t he Musulman E ast, among t hese b eing X IVth c entury c oins o f t he G olden H orde ( Galkin, 1 973). S tr ictly s peaking, i n t he h istory o f t he a cceptance i n R us o f t he emblem i n t he f orm o f a d ouble-headed e agle t he q uestion o f whence t his p retty w idespread i conography p enetrated i nto R us i s n ot s o i mportant a s t he matter o f h ow a nd when t his i mage c ame t o b e c onceived o f a s t he c rest o f t he s tate o f n ew t ype which a ssumed f orm i n R us a t t he t urn o f t he XVth-XVIth c enturies. T he most a ncient r epresentation o f t he t wo-headed e agle i n t hat c apacity may b e s een i n t he 1 497 s eal o f I van I II. B ut .t he d ouble-headed e agle i s a lready p resent u pon c oins o f M ikhail B or isovich o f Tver, i .e. n ot l ater t han 1 496 ( Plate XXI. 5 ). T here i s a lso a d ouble-headed e agle o n c oins o f I van II, but f or s ome r eason o nly o n c opper o nes ( Plate XXI. 7 ; S passki, 1 962, p . 8 5, f ig. 6 0, 8 ). A ll t hese f igures o f d ouble-headed e agles l ack c rowns; t he e agle o n t he c oins o f I van I II has s ome s ort o f i nd istinct o b ject a bove t he h eads, but i t d oes n ot r esemble a c rown. T o t he f lanks o f t his e agle t here a re d ecorative r osettes. A r ing i s s hown o n t he n eck o f a n e agle o n a c oin o f N ovgorod. D ouble-headed e agles w ith r ings a t t heir n ecks a re known, b y t he way, f rom S erbian d epictions o f t he X IVth c entury ( D juric, 1 974, p . 1 40, f ig. 6 3). The f igures we a re e xamining a re t he e arliest R ussian d epictions o f t he d ouble-headed e agle which s ubsequently b ecame t he p rime emblem o f R ussian s tate business. T hey s how t hat i nitially t his n ew emblem was n ot c onceived o f ( or a t l east d id n ot r ece ive g eneral r ecognition) e ither e xclusively a s 1 54
t he c rest o f t he Muscovite s tate ( since i t a ppears o n c oins o f i ndependent Tver) o r a s a n e xtremely i mportant e mblem; i ts d issemination a s a s ymbol o f a uthority c ommences w ith c opper c oins o f t r ifling v alue f rom Moscow a nd i ts d ependent N ovgorod, whereas o n t he main monetary units o f s ilver o ther i mages were r etained. I t i s p ossible t hat t his g radualism i n t he d issemination o f t he d ouble-headed e agle i s i n p art t o b e e xplained b y t he i ncomprehensibility, f or t he c ommon p eople, o f t his monstrous f igure. The e arliest i mages o f t he d oubleh eaded e agle o n c oins, a t t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury, s till l ack c rowns. D ouble-headed e agles were a lso r epresented w ith . .it c rowns i n b one c arving o f t hat t ime - o n t he g randp r incely walking-staffs a nd o n t he c arved g rip o f a s aber ( Chernetsov, 1 980, p . 1 00, 1 01, f ig. 4 6; p .114, f ig. 1 ; P late XXXV. 5 ; P late XXXVII. 1 ). A ssociated w ith i mages o f t he d ouble-headed e agle we h ave a lso t he i mages o f s till a f urther marvellous b ird o n a R ussian c oin o f u ndermined a ssignment. Upon i t t here i s r epresented a b ird w ith s pread w ings, having t wo human f aces t urned t oward e ach o ther ( Plate XXI, 8 ). T he o rigin a nd a lso t he meaning o f t his i mage a re a puzzle. Apparently o ne c annot d eny t he e xistence o f s ome s ort o f c onnection b etween t his f igure a nd t he d ouble-headed e agle. I f t hat i s s o, t hen we have b efore u s a f urther a rgument s howing t hat i n t he e arliest d ays o f t he s preading w ithin Rus o f t he i conography o f t he d ouble-headed e agle i t was n ot a lways a ccompanied by t hat c lear a nd c onstant u nderstanding o f i ts s ignif icance which a ssumed f orm l ater o n, y et r ather p romptly ( 1497). T he t wo h uman h eads o f t he monster r ecall various a lchemical a llegories which r eflect t he i dea o f t he d ouble p rinciple o f matter ( the s un a nd t he moon, s ulphur a nd m ercury, t he male a nd t he f emale, e tc.). T hey were o f ten r epresented i n t he f orm o f a t wo-headed h uman b eing, a nd i n t his c onnection e arly i mages a re known i n which t his b eing i s r epresented a gainst t he background o f a n e normous b ird ( van L ennep, 1 971, p . 3 6, f ig. 8 ). This i s o f c ourse t oo r emote a n a nalogy - i t m erely s hows h ow i so lated t his i mage i s i n a ncient R ussian a rt. B eside t he f igures o f a nimals we h ave b een e xamining, t here a re a lso r epresented o n a ncient Russian c oins i mages o f a h orned quadruped w ith a n i nd istinct o bject o n i ts back e ither a monstrous d etail, o r s ome o ther c reature ( a s erpent?) ( Plate XXI. 4 ). Moreover, o n c opper c oins o f T ver w ithout p rince's n ame h orned h eads a re r epresented ( Plate XXI, 9 . 1 0). T hey may b e i nterpreted i n t wo s enses; e ither t hese a re r epresentations o f d evils, o r o f ma jor h orned c attle ( perhaps a w ild bull). E ither i s p ossible i n p rinciple. T he i mage o f t he d evil h as a lready b een e xamined; t he f igure o f t he d ragon - a g enerally a ccepted d evil-image - i s a lso p resent o n R ussian c oins. I n ancient R us t he w ild b ull m ight a ppear a s a n i mage a nalogous t o t hose o f b easts o f p rey, a nd i t m ight s ymbolize warlike p rowess. P erhaps t he e xpressiveness o f t he s ilhouette o f t he h ead w ith i ts h orns p layed a c ertain part i n t he a ppearance o f t his f igure o n c oins.
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O bjects h aving t o d o w ith p lants a re p resented o n R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies mainly a s a n e lement o f c ompositions. I n p articular, t hese a re t rees i n which a b ird s i ts a nd i s s talked b y a hunter ( Plate I X. 2 4-27), o r a b ird i s e ncountered which i s a bout t o p eck a t a s evered h ead ( Plate V II. 1 ). A t ree i s r epresented a s t he main c oin i mage o nly o n o ne c oin o f Vasilii T yomny; w e h ave a lready d iscussed i t a bove ( Plate XXI. 1). A markedly s tylized i mage o f a t ree i s a n e xtremely i mportant e lement i n t he c omposition, f ound u pon c oins, which i s i conographically a ssociated w ith t he F all f rom G race ( Plate I X, 1 2-15). P lant motifs a re moreover r epresented a s o rnamental d etails. S uch a re, i n particular, many t ails o f animals. A f our-petalled r osette o n a c oin o f u ndertermined a ttribution c onstitutes a p atently v egetable e lement ( Plate XXI, 1 2). T here a re r osettes o n a w ide r ange o f c oins ( Plate XXI. 1 3-18). I t i s d iff icult t o d ecide whether t hese s hould b e r egarded a s d epictions o f f lowers, a s a p urely d ecorative d etail, o r a s a stral s ymbo ls. H erberstein wrote t hat t hese were d epictions o f r oses ( 1908, p . 8 8). S ymbols a nd D ecorative E lements Among t he purely c onventional i mages o n ancient R ussian c oins we s hould m ention c rosses f irst o f a ll. On s ome N ovgorod c oins t hey c ut a cross a whole c oin f ield o ccupied b y a n i nscr iption ( Plate XXI. 1 9). S ometimes c rosses p ar t i nscriptions ( Plate XXI. 2 0). T here a re a lso c rosses which p lainly a ppear a s t he main t ype u pon a c oin ( Plate XXI. 2 12 4). T hese a re f ew i n n umber. T he a rms o f c rosses h ave d ifferent s orts o f e nds; t here i s a c ross w ith t he e nds o f t he a rms c rossed ( Plate XXI. 2 2), a nd a c ross w ith p oints b etween t he a rms ( Plate XXI, 2 3). A ll i n a ll, o ne s hould n ote t hat t he c ross i s r epresented o n a v ery s mall f raction o f t he R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies. Among t he o ther c onventional s ymbols e ncountered o n Russian c oins t he b est known i s t he s ymbol o f t he p rinces o f R yazan, ( Plate XXII. 1 -7), which a ppeared f or t he f irst t ime a s a c ountermark o n c oins o f t he G olden H orde, a nd t hereaf ter o n c oins s truck by t he p r inces o f R yazan. S ometimes t his s ymbol was p laced o n b oth f aces o f R yazan c oins. N o d istinction i s t o b e p erceived b etween t he s ymbols o f t he v ar ious R yazan p rinces. W e h ave n o d ef inite d ata t o i ndicate whether t his s ymbol was a ssociated w ith s ome s orts o f r eal o bjects o r whether t he i deas l inked w ith i t were i n a ny way p eculiar. W e may n ote t hat o n a n umber o f R yazan c oins more o r l ess s ketchy i mages o f h uman h eads w ithout h eadgear a nd w ith l ong hair h ave b een p laced among t he u pper v olutes o f t he s ymbol ( Plate XXII, 5 -7). T he m eaning o f t he c omposition i s n ot c lear . I t d oes n ot r eflect j oint r ule by t wo p rinces, i nasmuch a s n o s uch p ractice e xisted a t R yazan. One may s uppose t hat t he t wo f aces r epresent t he r uling p rince a nd h is h eir . T he s ymmetr ical a rrangement o f t he human h eads i n t he v olutes o f t he s ymbol p erhaps a fforded o ccasion f or a ssociating t he a ctual s ymbol w ith t he i mage o f a t ree ( ?) 1 56
A side f rom t he p rincely s ymbo l o f R yazan, s imilar c onventional f igures a re p ractically a bsent f rom a ncient R ussian c oins. C ommonly e nough o rnamental p laitings which a ppear o n a ncient R ussian c oins f igure i n t he n umismatic l i terature u nder t he n ame o f " tamga," i .e. a badge o f p roprietorship. I n t he main t hey r ef lect o riental i nfluence o n R ussian c oins, but t hey a re n o t b adges o f p roprietorship; i dentical p laitings a ppear o n t he c oins o f v arious p rinces who w ere c ontemporaries o f d ifferent k hans ( Likhachov, 1 930 , v o l. I, p . 1 01-104). T he o nly s ymbol which may p erhaps b e a b adge o f p roprietorship may b e n oted a s t he main t ype o n c oins o f uncertain a ttribution ( Plate XXII, 8 . 9 ). T here i s a u nique s ymbol o n a f urther c oin, a lso u nattributed. On t his c oin f our c ircles a re s hown, j oined t ogether by l ines a nd i nscribed w ithin a s quare ( Plate XXII. 1 0). S till a f urther i mage h as a c ertain r esemblance t o t his s ymbol; i t o ffers a s quare w ithin which f ive c ircles a re i nscribed ( Plate XXII. 1). One may s uggest t hat s uch a n i mage r epresents o ne o f t he s ides o f a g aming d ice. D ice were u sed i n a ncient R us n ot o nly f or gaming, but a lso t o t ell f ortunes a nd a s a means o f c asting l ots. I n R us, l ots were a ssociated w ith i deas r egard ing i nherited p roperty. One m ight t ake i t t hat s uch a n i mage c ould s ymbolize t he i dea o f wealth. I n a ddition t o c onventional s ymbols t here a ppear f rom t ime t o t ime o n c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies f igures which c onstitute e laborations o f l etters o f t he Russian a lphabet, a nd a lso i nscriptions written i n a s pecial s cript c ontaining l igatures. On t he c opper c oins o f Tver a nd G oroden o ne f inds l arge l etters A ( Plate XXII. 1 2-14), t he meaning o f which i s n ot c lear; c oins o f Tver w ith a v ery c rudely r epresented l etter " C" a re a lso known ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 6 1. p late V , 2 27). I nscriptions made u p o f l igatures a re w idespread i n t he t i tleh eadings o f Russian manuscripts f rom t he s econd half o f t he XVth c entury o nward: t hey a re a lso known e ven e arlier. On c oins t here a re n o s uch i nscriptions p r ior t o t he a nonymous c oins s truck by I van II o r by h is s on Vasilii ( Plate XXII, 1 6, 1 7) . T his i nscription c onveys t he t i tle g osudar ' ( Lord). Another s impler l igature i s known o n c oins s truck a t T ver b y I van II. I t i s made u p o f t he l etters " T" a nd " c t ) " ( Plate XXII. 1 5) a nd i nd icates t he p lace o f s triking ( Tver, t he name o f t he c ity, was o ften written a s T fer ' -Tee P i , ) . P laited o rnament i s w idespread o n Russian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c entur ies, i n which c onnection i t i s more c ommon o n t he s ides t hat b ear A rabic i nscr iptions. On c oins o f Vasilii Dmitrievich s uch o rnaments s ometimes a ccompany R ussian i nscriptions; but more f requently t hey f i ll t he background which l ies a longside o ne i mage o r a nother. T he p laited o rnaments we a re e xamining o ffer f ew a nd r ather s imple v ariants. One e ncounters a s imple l oop w ith d rooping e nds ( Plate XX. 4 . 5 : P late XXIII. 6 ), t he s implest f orm o f k not i n t he s hape o f a " heart" ( Plate XXIII. 1 -3), t wo r eciprocally i ntersecting o vals ( Plate XXIII. 2 , 4 -7); i n o ne i nstance s uch a s ymbol i s r epresented o n a l arger s cale, whereupon o ne s ees t hat t he i ntersecting s ides o f t he o vals a re
1 57
t hemselves i nterwoven ( Plate XXIII. 7 ). T he p opular p laiting s ometimes c alled " the Mongol g ood-luck k not" i s d ecidedly c ommon ( Plate XXIII. 8 . 9 ). I n a ncient R ussian a pplied a rt o f t he b eginning o f t he XVth c entury t his k not m ight t ake o n s pecif ic c onceptual c ontent. On a s mall t alisman-ikon o f t he b eginning o f t he XVth c entury t he l oops a t t he e nds o f t he k not h ave b een c onverted i nto h uman h eads a longside which " life" a nd " death" a re written ( the s econd h ead i s a pparently d ead N ikolayeva, 1 971, p late 3 , 1 ). B ut o n c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c entury s uch a k not more f requently a ccompanies A rabic i nscr iptions t han i t d oes R ussian i mages; e vidently t his d ecorative e lement e nters i n R us f rom t he E ast. T his p opular k not s ometimes a ppears o n R ussian c oins i n s lightly a ltered guise - s ometimes t he e nd-loops a re m issing ( Plate XXIII. 1 2), s ometimes t he s ymbo l t akes o n a r ectangular d esign ( Plate XXIII. 1). More c omplicated p laitings a re r are i n t heir i nstances t hey s ometimes h ave more r ows o f l aces, a nd n o t i nfrequently t hey r emind o ne more o f a l attice ( Plate XXIII. 1 3. 1 6) t han o f a p laiting; s ometimes t he s ymbol c onsists o f a n umber o f l oops o f r ounded o utline ( Plate XXIII. 1 4). A side f rom s eparated p laitings, o ne f inds f rom t ime t o t ime o n R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies o rnamental b ranches l aid o ut i n a s trip t o which t here a re a ttached k nots i n " heart" f orm ( Plate I V. 9 r everse: P late X IV. 9 ). I n a ddition t o p laitings, o ne o ccasionally e ncounters a s ymbol i n t he f orm o f a s quare s et u pon o ne c orner a nd i nscribed w ithin a nother s quare ( Plate X XIII. 1 7). T he s ense o f s uch s ymbols may h ave b een n ot m erely d ecorative; i n s ome c ases t hey were a pparently u sed t o d istinguish t he work o f d ifferent m int o peratives - c f . a n a nalogous s eries o f c oins o f P rince M ichail A ndreyevich o f V ereya ( 1432-1485) b ear ing t he i mage o f a h orseman b randishing h is s aber a bove a b east a nd a ccompanied by v ar ious s mall s ymbols a t t he r ider's b ack ( a c ircle, a k not, s even p oints - P late X I, 2 7-29). A s a r ule t he i mages o n R ussian c oins a re d rawn w ithin a c ircle f ormed by a l inear o r d o tted b order o r s imply b y a c ircular i nscription. More c omplicated f ramings made u p o f f igures a re a ssociated e xclusively w ith A rabic i nscr iptions ( Plate XXIII, 1 8-23). T he o nly e xception i s a n a rchaic g roup o f c oins o n which t he i mage i s e ncircled by a r ectangular f rame e longated h orizontally a nd s urrounded by s imple o rnament. T hese a re f or t he most p art R ostov c oins o f t he b eginning o f t he XVth c entury ( Plate I V. 1 0: P late XVI. 1 6-18). I n s uch c ases a b east i s a s a r ule d epicted w ithin t he f rames, but o ccasionally o ne a lso f inds i mages o f a h orseman ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p . 1 73, f ig. 8 ; p . 1 74, f ig. 9 ; P late X III. 2 3). On s ome c oins o f K ashin t he i mage i s s urrounded b y a n o rnamental c ircular f rame ( Plate X III. 9 -11). Among t he a ncient R ussian c oins o f u ncertain a ttribution o ne e ncounters var iants, f ew i n n umber , o ne s ide o f which i s c ompletely o ccupied by g eometrical o rnament ( Oreshnikov, 1 896, p late X IX, 8 81, 8 87, 8 90 ; P late XXIII. 2 4). 1 58
C onclusions Among t he i mages o n R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies i t i s u nquestionably t he o nes t hat r ef lect t he i dea o f t he a uthority o f t he f eudal r uler t hat p redominate. A c onsiderable p art o f t he p opular f igures r epresented o n c oins a re a lso known f rom o ther p roducts o f ancient Russian a rt. A t t he s ame t ime we a re a cquainted w ith f igures n ot e ncountered o r r arely e ncountered i n o ther a ncient Russian a rt o utput - f or e xample, t hose r ef lecting t he i dea o f p unishment f or c ounterfeiters, a nd t he f igure o f t he m int o perative. I n t his c onnection t he e ar lier c oins f rom t he X lVth c entury a nd f rom t he t urn o f t he X IV th-XVth c enturies r eflect a more s pecif ic a rray o f s ubjects, whereas l ater o n i t i s i mages a nd c ompositions popular i n o ther d epartments o f ancient R ussian a rt a s well t hat c ome t o b e e xtensively d isseminated o n c oins. I ndeed, o n c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi we f ind a n i mage o f a human f igure h olding a s erpent by i ts t ongue, s omething u nique i n ancient Russian a rt; a c omparatively r are i mage o f a c ock; a nd a lso t he f igure o f a man w ith a s aber a nd a n a xe i n h is hands, a c omposition which i s a ctually m issing f rom a ncient R ussian a rt b eyond t he b ounds o f t he n umismatic material. On t he m ost ancient c oins o f t he S uzdal-Nizhegorod p rincipality a f lying b ird i s d epicted - a gain a n i mage r arely e ncountered i n ancient Russian a pplied a rt. Evidently d ur ing t he i nitial p eriod o f t he d issemination o f m inting i n R us t here e xisted a t » -ndency t o p lace o n c oins s pecif ic i mages p roper t o t hem a lone, o nes which o nly s ubsequently, a t a l ater s tage, c ame t o b e f i lled o ut f rom among t he s tore o f p opular s ubjects f rom o ther f ields o f r epresentational a rt. T his c ircumstance i n i ts t urn f urnishes d ef inite e vidence t hat f rom t he v ery moment o f t he r esumption o f c oin s triking i n R us t he i mages o n t he c oins c ame t o b e o f a d eliberately i nvented nature r ather t han o f a purely i mitative o ne. T he c hronology f or t he p revalence o f i mages o f o ne s ort o r a nother o n Russian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies d oes n ot r ef lect a ny s ort o f e volution o f i deas o r c hange i n f ashion w ith r eference t o o ne f igure o r a nother i n Russian a rt a s a whole. I t i s t rue t hat o n t he e arliest c oins f rom t he X IVth c entury a nd t he t urn o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies t he f igure o f t he h orseman i s r h issing - o ne which t hereaf ter b ecame e xtremely p opular a nd f inally t he s ole i mage f or s ilver f ractional c urrency, B ut a s t he r esearch o f V. L.Y anin ( 1970, v ol I , p . 2 3 , 2 4) d emonstrated, t he e stablishment o f t he e mblem c onsisting o f a s ecular h orseman b elongs i n R us t o a much e arlier t ime, t he m iddle o f t he X I IIt h c entury. C oins d epicting t he c ombat o f S amson w ith t he l ion h ave a r ather l imited c hronological s pread i n R us - t hey a ppear a t t he t ime o f t he r eigns o f Vas i l ii T yomny a nd h is c ontemporaries, but t hey a re a lready a bsent f rom t he c oins o f h is s uccessor. Y et t he f igure o f S amson a nd t he l ion h ad e njoyed p opularity i n R us l ong b efore t hat, a nd c ontinued t o d o s o f or l ong a fterward. 1 59
S ince t he g reater p art o f t he i mages o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies e ssentially e xpressed o ne a nd t he s ame i dea, t hat o f t he a uthority o f t he p r ince a nd h is m ili tary p rowess, i n t he c ases where t he c oin h ad i mages o n b oth s ides a ny o f t he i mages e xamined a bove m ight b e c ombined w ith p ractically a ny o ther. T hat i s what h appened i n r eality, i n which c onnection f requently e nough t he s ame i mage f or o ne s ide, s ometimes e ven s truck f rom t he s ame d ie, m ight b e c ombined w ith v ar ious i mages f or t he o ther s ide. C ases where t here i s s ome s ort o f s pecial c onceptual c onnection b etween t he o bverse a nd r everse i mages ( i .e., n ot m erely s uch u ndeistandable p airs a s h orseman - r uler o n t hrone; r uler b east o f p rey; e tc.) a re e xceptional. I h ave a lready h ad o ccasion t o s peak o f t he c oin o f Vasilii T yomny w ith d epiction o f wood-cu tting o n o ne s ide a nd o f a t ree o n t he o ther . A f ew more c oins may b e m entioned o n o ne s ide o f which t here i s r epresented a hunter a f ter a b ird, a nd o n t he o ther t he b ird ( as g ame? - P late V III. 4 48. 4 49). A pparently t he c ombining o f i mages o n d ifferent s ides c ould a dd but l i ttle t o t heir i nterpretation. S tudy o f t hese c ombinations i s o f v alue i n t he main f or s pecial n umismatic a nalyses. E xamination o f t he i mages o n c oins p r incipality b y p rincipality, o r c ity by c ity, o ffers l i ttle f or s ub ject i nterpretation. S ave f or t he c oins o f N ovgorod a nd P skov, a nd a lso t he g reater p art o f t he c oins o f R yazan, f or which u niformity o f d esign i s c haracter istic, a ll t he r emaining p rincipalities made w ide u se o f a s ingle c ommon a rray o f s ubjects. S omething s pecif ic t o o ne p r incipality o r a nother c onstituted, a s a r ule, a r are e xception, whereas t he most p opular s ubjects f reely m igrate f rom o ne p r incipality i nto a nother. T his was n ot a r eflection o f p olitical d ependence ( although c ommonly e nough i t was s ub jects f rom t he s tronger p rincipalities t hat were b orrowed, s ince t he m inting o f t hose c oins was t he most a bundant a nd t he m ost v ariegated). T he f act t hat u se o f c oin t ypes b orrowed f rom t he c oins o f a nother p r ince d id n ot r eflect a d ependency r elationship i s c learly e videnced by t he c oinage o f Dmitri Y urievich S hemyaka who s truck a t Moscow c oins w ith t he s ame i mages t hat h ad e arlier b een u sed by Vasilii T yomny whom h e h ad d riven o ut. D espite t he f act t hat t he X IVth c entury a nd t he XVth, e specially t he s econd h alf o f t he l atter, were a p eriod d uring which t he p rocess o f c onsolidation o f t he Russian l ands i nto a s ingle s tate o f n ew t ype was mounting i n v igor, i t i s p ractically i n v ain t hat o ne s eeks t o d etect t races o f a n awareness o f t hat p rocess i n t he material o ffered by i mages o n c oins. Russian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies h ave monotype r epresentational s ymbolisms b oth i n t he c oinages o f m inor p r inces a nd i n t hose o f t he most p owerful g rand p r inces. T he o utput o f t he s tronger p rinces was s imply more a bundant, r epresented by a g reater n umber o f v arieties. A r eflection o f s ubordination i n i nter-princely r elationships was a fforded o nly i n t he i nscr iptions o n t he c oins ( the e xistence o f c oins b ear ing t wo n ames, t he p resence o r a bsence o f t he t i tle " grand p rince", " lord," e tc.). T he e limination o f t ype-variety f rom Russian 1 60
c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies i s m erely a c onsequence o f a dministrative r eorganization o f c oin p roduction, a nd d oes n ot o f i tself r eflect a ny r adical a lteration o f t he a pproach t o t raditional s ymbolism a ssociated w ith p rincely a uthority. A s ymbolism u niform i n p r inciple w ith t hat o f t he i mages o n c oins f rom t he X IVth-XVth c enturies c ontinued t o t hrive a nd e volve ( mainly b y v irtue o f t aking o ver n ew f igures i n a ddition t o t he o ld o nes) o n s eals. More d ef inite a lterations i n i mages o n c oins may b e a ssociated n ot w ith c entralizing t endencies, but w ith d iminution o f t he i nfluence o f t he k hans o f t he G olden H orde i n R us. A s t he e arliest c oins o f Dmitri D onskoi a lready s how, c oins b earing A rabic i nscriptions a nd i n t hat way r eflecting a cknowledgment o f t he k han's a uthority may a t t he s ame t ime b ear i mages o f a warlike c haracter, p articularly o nes r eflecting t he i dea o f c ombat a gainst e vil. A t t he s ame t ime, among c oins w ith A rabic i nscriptions ( legible o nes i n p articular) t hose i n which t he i dea o f t he p r ince's a uthority i s e specially s tressed a re r are - s uch o nes a s t he f igures o f t he r uler o n a t hrone, t he r uler wear ing a c rown. Apparently t his i s n o r andom matter. Awareness o f t heir g overnmental r ights o n t he p art o f t he R ussian p r inces mounted a s t heir d ependence o n t he H orde d iminished. T he t rifling q uantity o f e cclesiastical s ubjects o n R ussian c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies i s s ignif icant, t he more s o i n t hat r eligious s ub jects a re r epresented o n a n o verwhelming ma jority o f Russian l ead s eals - t he c ategory o f r ecords which i s t he most c losely a ssociated w ith c oins i n t he i ntent o f i ts i mages a nd i nscr iptions a nd o f t he i deas l inked w ith t hese, a nd which c hronologically p recedes o r i s t o a c onsiderable e xtent c ontemporary w ith t he Russian c oins o f t he p eriod we a re e xamining. P robably t o b egin w ith t his m ight i n p art b e e xplained by a r eluctance t o p lace s acred i mages s ide by s ide w ith A rabic i nscriptions o n t he s ame c oin. I t i s t rue t hat i mages o f t he c ombat o f S amson w ith t he l ion, a nd a lso t he main p art o f t he i mages o f mounted d ragon-f ighters a nd c rosses, a re t o b e f ound o n c oins t hat l ack A rabic i nscriptions. One s hould n ote t hat i n t he M iddle A ges t his s ort o f r eligious e tiquette was n ot a lways o bserved. I n p articular, we a re a cquainted w ith G eorgian c oins f rom t he t urn o f t he X th-XIth c enturies o n which t he A rabic i nscription " Mohamed i s t he p rophet o f A llah" k eeps c ompany w ith t he G eorgian i nscription " Chr ist e xalt K ing B agrat" ( Pakhomov, 1 910 , p . 5 9 , p late II, 3 7). T he p opularity o f f eudal emblems o f a s ecular n ature was a ssociated i n R us o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies w ith a p eculiar r eligious purism which i n p articular d id n ot p ermit o f t he d epiction o f l iving Russian p rinces wear ing t he n imbus ( even t hough i n B yzantine a rt s uch a f eature i s i n c onstant u se f or emperors). D espite t he c onsiderable t endency t oward a ttr ibuting a s acred n ature t o t he a uthority o f t he R ussian k ings, t he t radition o f t his pur ism was p reserved t o a c ertain e xtent i nto t he XVIth-XVIIth c enturies a s well. I n 1 551 t he q uestion o f whether k ings m ight b e r epresented among t he f igures o f t hose p raying o n i kons was d ebated ( Stoglav, 1 890, p . 1 72-174), but e ven a f ter t he handing d own o f a p ositive 1 61
a nswer t o t his q uestion t hey c ould n ot make u p t heir m inds i n R us t o d epict, f or e xample, t he c onsecration o f t he k ing b y Chr ist, a c omposition d ecidedly p opular i n t he a r t o f B yzantium a nd t he s outhern S lays. T he p eculiarities we h ave n oted c annot b e e xplained b y t he s pecif ic nature o f t he f unction o f t he c oin - d epictions o f s acred c ompositions, o f s aints, o f C hrist h imself , a re n ot u ncommon o n t he m edieval c oins o f w estern E urope a nd o f B yzantium. W e a lso k now o f s uch i mages o n t he most a ncient R ussian c oins - Chr ist o n c oins o f V ladimir, S t. G eorge o n c oins o f Y aroslav t he W ise. I mages o f R ussian p rinces w ith n imbus, t oo , a re k nown o n t he most a ncient R ussian c oins ( Plate I , 4 , 6 , 7 ) . Thus t he s pecial a ttitude o f R ussian moneyers t oward s acred f igures a nd t he a ttributes o f s anctity i s a s pecif ic f eature o f R ussian f eudal i deology f or t he t ime i n q uestion. A w ide r ange o f f igures r epresented o n R ussian c oins o f t he X lVth-XVth c enturies e xhibits c onsiderable d eliquescence a nd i nconstancy a s r egards i conography a nd s ymbolism. T his may b e s hown p articularly well i n t he material f or i mages o f f antastic b eings, f or e xample srens a nd c entaurs. S uch a s tate o f a ffairs i s n o s trange p henomenon i f o ne c ompares i t w ith a s eries o f g enerally known f acts f rom t he h istory o f l i terature. I t h as l ong s ince b een s hown t hat t he m ost i mportant z oomorphic f igures o f t he D ove B ook, t he " Indrikbeast" which i s " the f ather o f a ll b easts" a nd t he " Strefilbird" which i s " the mother o f a ll b irds," h ave i mbibed i nto t hemselves t he f eatures o f a whole c ollection o f f antastic i mages f rom written l i terature ( Mochulski, 1 887, p . 1 43153). Thus t he I ndrik-beast i s e ndowed w ith f eatures o f t he g od o f t he waters; o f t he f antastic f ish t he " endrop ;" o f t he u nicorn; o f t he l egendary a ntagonists o f t he d ragon a nd t he c rocodile, n amely t he o tter a nd t he i chneumon. I n t he f igure o f t he S tref il t here a re b rought t ogether n otions a bout t he o str ich a nd t he c ock; s ometimes i t i s e ndowed w ith f eatures o f t he s iren, t he phoenix, a nd a c utting p roperty i s a ttributed t o i ts f eathers ( inf luence o f t he myths o f t he S tymphalian b irds?). S t ill a nother v ivid e xample o f s ynthesis o f i mages o f d iffering n atures i s t he f abulous p ersonage b earing t he n ame F inistY asny S okol. The name o f t his p rincipal h ero o f a p opular f able ( which i s i tself a v ariant o n t he s ubject o f Cupid a nd P syche) i s i ndubitably a mutilated " Phoenix"; i n t he p resent i nstance t his mythical b eing i s l inked w ith a b ird o f p rey ( Yasny S okol means " bright f alcon" - T r. ).B esides h aving f eatures o f t he p hoenix a nd t he f alcon, t his p ersonage a lso a ppears i n h uman g uise ( Afanasiev, 1 957, p . 2 36-246). A R ussian writer o f t he XVI I th c entury, t he P rotopope Avvakum, d escribes a s o ne t he phoenix, t he s iren, a nd t he n eyasyt' (t he p elican) ; h e r eports t hat t his b ird weaves i t self a n est o n t welve t rees - a f eature a ttributed t o t he g riff in i n o ther written s ources o f t he s ame p er iod ( Sakharov, 1 849, v ol. II, p .153); h e writes t hat t his b ird i s a n e nemy o f t he d ragon ( Avvakum, 1 979,p. 2 00). S uch a m ixing o f t he s ymbolic f eatures o f d ifferent 1 62
z oomorphic p ersonages f rom l i terature c an b e n oted i n R us a s e ar ly a s t he p re-Mongol p eriod. T hus i n h is t eaching V ladimir Monomakh m entions t he t urtle-dove a s a s ymbol o f marital f idelity ( PSRL, v ol. I , p . 2 54) , a lthough i n t he u nderlying variant o f t h is l i terary f igure a s i t a ppears i n G reek a nd R ussian c opies o f t he P hysiologos i t i s t he c row t hat i s e ndowed w ith t his c haracter istic (K arneyev , 1 890 , p . 3 19 , 3 420). A t endency t o b ring a b orrowed f igure o f f antasy c loser t o Russian f olklore i s o n r ecord f or t he X I II th c entury, when Cyril Smolyatich t ranslates t he word " griff in" b y m eans o f t he S lavonic n og ( Loparev, 1 892, P. 3 0). H ere t he g riff in a ppears i n a n u nusual r ole - h e c arries t he p rophet H abakkuk i nto t he d en where D aniel i s s i tting, a lthough i n t he B ible t his i s d one by a nother l i terary p ersonage, a n a ngel ( Bel a nd t he D ragon, 3 6) . T he m ixing o f d ifferent a nd a t t imes q uite d issimilar f igures i s a lso a p henomenon n o t a t a ll r are i n a ncient R ussian i conography. I t m ight a ffect n ot o nly s ecular a nd f abulous f igures, but a lso o nes r evered by t he c hurch, s aints. T his i s a ttested b y t he m ix-up which o ccurred i n R us w ith r egard t o t he s ymbo lic f igures f or t he e vangelists, which i n t he XVIth-XVI It h c enturies were o rdinarily r epresented a s f o llows: Matthew - a n a ngel; Mark - a c alf ; Luke - a n e agle; a nd J ohn - a l ion; t his a lthough i n t he most a ncient R ussian manuscr ipt, t he O stromir G ospel o f 1 057, t he s ymbols f or t he e vangelists were a rranged i n a ccordance w ith g eneral E uropean t radition ( Porf iriev, 1 890, p . 3 83, 3 85-386; P okrovski, 1 892, p . 3 2-37; s ame a uthor, 1 895, v ol. I , p . 8 -12; P avlovski, 1 894, p . 1 05-109). S uch c onfusion was p ossible i n R us n ot o nly w ith r espect t o s acred f igures, but a lso w ith r espect t o t he s ymbols o f g overnmental a uthority. T hus i n a ncient R ussian s ources o ne i dentifies o n more t han o ne o ccasion a n i ncorrect u nderstanding o f t he G reek work " diadem," a lthough i t was u sed v ery w idely i ndeed i n t exts o f a n o ff icial nature. I n t he c oronation r ite o f I van G rozny i t i s t ranslated a s barmy, t he s hort c oronation c ape b earing h oly i mages ( SGG, v ol. I, 1 819 , 1 3 • 4 2) L ater o n i t was h eld i n R us t hat t his was t he b ag r yanit s a, " the p urple"; t here a re e ven i l lustrations o f t he XVI I th c entury s howing t his v estment w ith t he c aption " the d iadem" ( Tarabrin, 1 916, p late XX). I n o ne manuscript o f t he XVIth c entury t he G reek work " scepter," a lso w idely u sed by R ussian b ookmen, i s i nterpreted a s " flag" ( Sreznevski, v ol. II, 1 958, p . 5 91) . T he a bsence o f a s table a nd d ef inite c orrespondence b etween t he p opular i mages o f a ncient Russian s ecular a rt a nd o ne s et o f l i terature e pisodes a nd t exts o r a no ther d oes n ot m ean t hat t hese i mages were n ot b earers o f d ef inite i deological n otions. T hese n otions were t he more p acked w ith meaning i n t hat t hey e xhibited a c onsiderable i ndependence w ith r eference t o t he l i terature f igures. T his i ndependence more t han o nce l ed t o a n e xtremely i nteresting p henomenon - r everse i nfluence o f t he i conography u pon l i terature. V ivid i l lustrations o f t his p rocess a re p rovided b y t he i mage o f t he c entaur. The 1 63
r endering o f t he t raits o f t he c entaur G orgon i n R ussian manuscripts o f t he A lexander r omance i s unquestionably a n e xample o f t ransfer o f a p opular v isual i mage i nto written l i terature. An analogous e xample i n f olk lore i s d eath i n t he guise o f a c entaur, i n R ussian r e ligious v erse. A f urther e xample o f t ransformation o f a l i terary i mage u nder t he i nfluence o f a n i conographic s tereotype i s t he c onvers ion o f t he P olkan i nto a c entaur-archer . S uch p henomena a re c haracter istic n o t o nly f or t he c entaur f igure. I n R ussian manuscripts t here i s a n i ndication t hat a f ter h is d eath A lexander o f Macedon was s wept u p t o h eaven l ike t he p rophet E li jah ( Speranski, 1 908, p . 1 35). Evidently s uch a v ersion a s t his a rose a s a n i ncorrect e xplanation o f t he c omposition o f t he f l ight o f A lexander which was s o p opular i n m edieval a rt. Mention o f t he i mage o f S t. T rifon h unting, i n t he t exts o f R ussian f ortune-telling b ooks, ( Speranski, 1 899 , p . 3 4, 8 4), i s l ikewise a n e xample o f a nalogous n ature, i nasmuch a s i n n ot a s ingle v ersion o f t he L ife o f S t. T rifon d oes h e a ppear i n t he r ole o f a hunter. T he R ussian i conography o f T rifon w ith a f alcon a lso r epresents h im n ot a s o ut hunting, but a s a s aint who has r eturned a l ost r oyal f alcon t o a huntsman. F or t his r eason t he d escription o f t he hunt o f S t. T rifon i s t he r esult o f a n i ncorrect i nterpretation o f a p opular v isual i mage. A f urther d escription o f a hunter w ith a f alcon, t o whose s tirrup a d ragon i s h ung, i s a lso r epresented i n f olklore; t his i s a f igure t he o rigin o f which c an b e e xplained o nly a s b eing u nder t he i nfluence o f w idespread c ompositions s howing t he h orseman i n t he r ole o f a d ragon-f ighter. W e s hould a lso c lassify a s b eing among t he t races o f t he i nfluence o f i mages f rom r epresentational a rt u pon l i terature a m ention by t he P rotopope Avvakum o f t he s erpent's h aving h ad l egs a nd w ings b efore t he F all f rom G race ( Avvakum, 1 979, p . 1 28, 2 02). T his a bility o f p opular v isual i mages f rom t he a rt o f ancient R us ( the most r epresentative a rray o f which i s t o b e f ound o n c oins o f t he X IVth-XVth c enturies) t o e xert i nf luence u pon l i terature i s a n e xtremely i mportant i nd icator o f t heir m eaningfulness i n t he c ontext o f t he mass c ulture o f t he p ler iod o f f eudalism. T he r elative i ndependence o f f igures o n a ncient R ussian c oins c an a lso b e i l lustrated t hrough s uch c ases, f ind ing n o l i teral c ounterpar t whether i n s pecif ic l i terature e pisodes o r i n r eal a ctuality, a s t he i mage o f t he r uler h old ing i n h is hands a t t he s ame t ime a s word o r s aber a nd a n a xe, o r o f t he moneyer wearing a c rown, o r o thers. N or a re t he f undamental s ymbols o f R ussian s tate a uthority t hat a re r epresented o n c oins - t he h orseman ( particularly a s f ighting a d ragon) a nd t he d ouble-headed e agle - l inked w ith c oncrete l i terary p rototypes, T he a ppearance o f t he d oubleh eaded e agle a s t he main emblem o f t he s tate was n o t a ssociated w ith a ny t ext f rom l i terature a t a ll, a nd t o b egin w ith i t was quite unmotivated i n g eneral o ver a n umber o f d ecades, t he r eason f or t he e mblem's a ssuming t he guise o f a d ouble-headed monster n ot b eing e xplained i n a ny way. A s o ne e xamines t he i mages o n a ncient R ussian c oins i n 1 64
t he c ontext o f t he t otality o f s ecular a rt o utput i n ancient R us o ne may t ake n ote o f t heir s pecial p osition w ith r egard t o r ealism a nd t o t he d egree o f t heir c orrespondence w ith f igures f rom l i terature. T he i mages o n c oins o f t he XI Vth-XVth c enturies, t aken a s a whole, c onstitute a s ort o f s ui g eneris i ntermediate g roup b etween t he m iniatures i n t he h istorical manuscripts o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he r eliefs o f t he V ladimirS uzdal c athedrals a nd o ther a pplied-ar t p roductions o n t he o ther. I n c ontradistinction t o t he s ecular r eliefs o f t he c athedrals, i n which f eudal i deology i s mainly r epresented t hrough a llegorical f igures ( primarily a nimal a nd monstrous), t he i mages o n c oins r epresent t he f igure o f t he f eudal r uler a nd warrior l ess c onventionally a nd more c oncretely, i n t he f orm o f h uman f igures p ossessing a ltogether d ef inite a ttributes. A t t he s ame t ime t hese a re n ot d epictions o f R ussian p rinces, but i dealized f igures s tanding f or t hem ( dragon-fighters who a re s ometimes b att ling w ith a d ragon e ven a s t hey wear t heir c rowns) ; t heir r egalia a re p resented i n c onventional t erms, a nd d o n ot c orrespond t o t hose which were a ctually i n u se among t he Russian p r inces. A ll o f t his s harply d istinguishes t he r ealm o f f igures o n c oins f rom t hat o f i l lustrations i n m iniatures. The s ecular s ubjects i n a ncient R ussian a pplied a rt c annot b e r egarded a s a unif ied g roup a s r egards s aturation w ith c onceptual c ontent , n or c an t hey a s a whole b e c onfronted w ith t he i mages o n c oins. We have a lready r emarked t hat a r ange o f o bservations s hows t hat t he t eratological o rnament o f t he X I II th-XIVth c entury manuscripts a nd t he f igures a nd c ompositions f ound i n i t s hould b e r egarded a s l ess l aden w ith meaning t han o ther s ecular f igures i n a pplied a rt (i n p articular t he X II th-XI II th c entury c athedral r eliefs) . Apparently t he t eratological o rnament o f t he manuscripts has, a s r egards i ts c onceptual c ontent, a c ertain p ropinquity t o a n umber o f i mages o n l amellar s ilver b racelets o f t he X II thX I II th c enturies. T his p ropinquity i s e videnced by t he f acts t hat t he d ecor o f t he b racelets o f ten c ontains f ormal f eatures o f t he t erato logical s tyle, a nd t hat p art o f t he s pecif ic i mages f ound o n t hem a re a lso known i n t he d ecor o f t he manuscripts. These a re f igures o f musicians, d ancers, a nd t he d rinking o f w ine, which a re n ot t o b e f ound i n t he o ff icial f eudal s ymbolism o f a ncient R us. A t t he s ame t ime, a s mall g roup o f m etalwork o bjects b ears f igures d istinguished by unusually c onsiderable c onceptual c ontent a nd c onstituting, a s i t were, a t ransitional s tage b etween t he i mages o n c oins a nd t he m iniatures. T hese a re t he s cenes o n t he b oar-spear o f P rince B oris A leksandrovich o f Tver, t he f igure o n t he s poon o f P rince F yodor B orisovich o f V olokolamsk, a nd a b ronze b as-relief w ith a d epiction o f a p rince u pon a t hrone. I n c ontrad istiction t o t he g eneralized a nd o ften h eroicized f igures o n c oins, we f ind r epresented h ere e veryday f eatures - t he p rince d ining o r d rinking, a washing s cene, a nd a lso punishment w ith t he k nout. T he f igure o f t he p rince o n t he bas-relief , e ndowed w ith v ivid t raits o f national i diosyncracy, c onveys t he r eal 1 65
a spect o f R ussian p r inces a g reat d eal more e xactly t han d o t heir i mages o n a c onsiderable p art o f t he c oins. T he b ackless t hrone u pon which t he f igures o n t he b oar-spear a nd t he s poon s it c orresponds t o t he d ata i n t he R adziwill manuscript r egarding t he R ussian p rincely t hrone. The f igures o n t he s pear a re a lso r elated t o t he m iniatures by a n e lement o f n arrative i ntent which i s p ronounced a s c ompared w ith t hat i n t he i mages o n t he c oins. Y et while t hey must y ield p lace t o t hese f igures i n " truth t o l ife" a nd i n l evel o f s aturation w ith l i terary c ontent, t he c oin i mages a re i nteresting i n t hat t hey c oncentrate a ttention u pon t he f undamental v alues o f f eudal s ociety. A s c ompared w ith t he o utput o f a ncient R ussian l i terature a nd t he mater ial o f t he a ncient Russian m iniatures, t he i mages o n t he c oins a re i mpor tant n ot i n t hat t hey s upplement t hese w ith a dditional i nformation, but i n t hat t hey c onstitute a n e xceptionally c haracteristic s election o f f igures b oth s pecial, a nd f or t heir d ay, u niversally u nderstood.
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Vo lotsk i , 1 882: I os if Vo lotsk i - P rosvet ite l ( Ios if Vo lo tsk i t he P ropaga tor o f En l ightenment), K azan. Voron in, 1 941: Voron in, N .N.: M edvezh i ku lt v Verkhnem P ovo lzhe ( The B ear Cu lt A long t he Upper Vo lga), i n M ater ia ly i i ss ledovan i i p o a rkheo l c ig i i , M oscow, No.6. We itzmann, 1 950: We itzmann, K .: Greek Mytho logy i n Byzant ine Ar t, P r inceton. Wegener , 1 928: Wegener ,
H .:
D ie D eutsche Handschr if ten b is 1 500, L e ipz ig.
Yab lonsk i, 1 908: Yablonsk i, V .: P akhom i l S erb i e go a g lograph ichesk lye p isan iya ( Pakhom i i t he S erb ian a nd h is H ag iograph ic Wr it ings), S t P etersburg. Yan in, 1 954: Yan in , V .L.: R edcha ish i p amyatn ik moskovsko i s frag ist ik i X IV v . ( An Extreme ly Rare Examp le o f M oscow Sphrag ist ics f rom t he X IVth C entury), i n K SIIMK, M oscow, No.53. Yan in, 1 956: Yan in, V .L.: D enzhno-vesovyye s istemy r usskogo s rednevekovya. D omongo lsk i p er iod (Monetary a nd M etro log ica l Systems o f t he Russ ian M idd le Ages. The P re-Mongo l P er iod), Moscow. Yan in , 1 960: Yan in, V .L.: V is lyye p echa t i P skova ( Pendant S ea ls o f P skov), i n S ov ietskaya Arkheo log iya , N o.3. Yan in, 1 958: Yan in, V .L.: 0 p ervonacha lno l p r inad lezhnost i s h lyoma Yaros lava Vsevo lodov icha ( The Or ig ina l Ownersh ip o f t he He lmet o f Yaros lav Vsevo lodov ich), i n S ov ietskaya Arkheo log iya , No.3. Yan in , 1 962: Yan in, V .L.: N ovgorodsk iye p osadn ik i ( The N ovgorod Burgomasters), M oscow. Yan in , 1 970: Yan in, V .L.: Aktovyye p echat i d revne i Pus ! X-XV vv. (Anc ient Russ ian D ocument S ea ls, X th-XVth C entur ies), Moscow, v o l. I , I. Yan in a nd Yan ina , 1 955: Yan in, V .L., a nd Yan ina , S .A.: N acha lny p er iod r yazansko l monetno l c hekank i ( The I n it ia l P er iod o f t he Ryazan C o inage), i n Num izmat ichesk i Sborn ik, M oscow, v o l. I . Yep ifany, 1 897: Zh it iyo s vyatogo S tefana e p iskopa P ermskogo n ap isannoye Yep ifan iem P remudrym ( The L ife o f S t S tephen B ishop o f P erm, wr itten by Y ep ifan i i P remudry), S t P etersburg. Yevseyev , 1 916: Yevseyev, I .E.: Ocherk i p o i stor i i s lavyanskogo p erevoda B ib l i i ( Stud ies i n t he H istory o f t he S lav ic Trans lat ion o f t he B ib le), P rague.
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Z abe l in a nd Shchepk in, 1 908: Z abe l in, I .E., a nd S hchepk in, V .N.: T ron i i t sarskoye m esto Groznogo v 1 V i oskovskom U spenskom s obore ( The Throne o r K ing 's S eat o f I van Grozny i n t he C athedra l o f t he D orm it ion a t M oscow), i n O tchet I stor icheskogo Muzeya f or 1 907, Moscow. Z arub in , 1 932: Z arub in, N .N.: S lovo D an i i la Z atochn ika p o r edakts iyam X II i X III v v. I i kh p erede lkam ( The S tory o f D an ie l i n t he L ion 's D en i n Vers ions o f t he X IIth a nd X IIIth C entur ies a nd t he ir R ev is ions), L en ingrad. Zhega lova, 1 975: Zhega lova, S .K.: Russkaya n arodnaya z h ivop is ( Russ ian F o lk P a int ing), M oscow. Zh iznevsk i, 1 888: Zh iznevsk i , A .K.: Op isan iye t verskogo muzeya ( Descr ipt ion o f t he Tver Museum), M oscow.
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EXPLANATIONS FOR THE P LATES A l l t he pho tographs o f Russ ian c o ins o f t he X IVth-XVth c entur ies p resented i n t he P lates a re s hown i n t wo d iameters ' e n largement. I n d iscuss ing o ne f igure o r a nother i n t he t ext I r efer t he r eader t o t he p hotograph o f t he c o in i n t he P lates, but I p lace r eferences t o under ly ing p ub l icat ions i n t he c apt ions, a ppear ing i n t he L ist o f P lates, wh ich a pp ly t o t he i l lustra t ions i n quest ion. A .V. O reshn ikov 's monograph o f 1 896, wh ich i s t he o ne most f requent ly u sed, i s i nd icated m ere ly by u s ing t he l etter 0 f or brev ity 's s ake; a l l o ther works a re i dent if ied by t he a uthor 's s urname a nd t he y ear o f p ubl icat ion, a s i n t he c ases o f o ther b ib l iograph ic r eferences a s w e l l. I n r eferences t o Oreshn ikov t he numera l f o l low ing t he l etter 0 i nd icates t he n umber o n t he p la tes i n h is monograph. I n t h is c onnect ion t he n umber o f t he p la te i s om itted, b ecause t he numerat ion o f t he c o ins i n h is p lates i s c ont inuous. R eferences t o p lates i n o ther works a re h and led i n t he s ame way; p late numbers a re i nd icated o n ly i n i nstances where t he f igures o n e ach p la te h ave a numerat ion o f t he ir own. S ince t he ma in mass o f t he Russ ian c o ins o f t he X IVth-XVth c entur ies i s s i lver , t he meta l i n wh ich a c o in i s s truck i s i nd ica ted i n t he c apt ions t o t he i l lustra t ions o n ly f or t he c opper o nes. S ince i n P lates I V-XXIII o n ly o ne s ide o f c o ins h as a s a r u le b een r eproduced, what a ppears o n t he o ther s ide i s b r ief ly d escr ibed i n t he c apt ion, a nd i n s uch c ases, when p oss ible, a r eference i s a lso m ade t o a no ther P late i n t h is s tudy i t se lf . The l anguage o f t he i nscr ipt ions o n c o ins i s i nd icated o n ly i n c ases where i t i s n on-Russ ian. The word " inscr ipt ion" w ithout f urther c omment means t hat t he i nscr ipt ion i s i n Russ ian. A l l t he p ecu l iar it ies o f c ompos it ion i nd icated i n t he c apt ions t o t he P late f igures a re p laced h ere s o a s n ot t o o ver load t he f undamenta l s ect ion o f t he b ook ( Chapter I I) w ith r eference i nd icat ions a nd o ther a s ides. Th is a ppl ies o n ly t o P lates I V-XXIII. The b i lbiograph ica l r eferences t o o b jects u sed o n ly a s c ompara t ive mater ia l ( P lates I -III , XXV-XLII) w i l l b e f ound i n t he t ext. ( Trans lator 's n o te: I n a l l r eferences t o P la tes o f t h is b ook t ha t a ppear i n t he a uthor 's t ext, t he word P late i s wr itten w ith a c ap ita l P a nd t he r eference i s under l ined; i n r eferences t o p lates i n o ther b ooks, a l ower-case l etter i s u sed a nd t here a re n o under l in ings.)
1 91
P late I Anc ient Russ ian c o ins a f ter A . V. O reshn ikov a nd LI. To lsto i. 1 -6: V lad im ir S vyatos lav ich ( 980-1015, s truck a f ter 9 88 A .D .). 7 : Svyatopo lk Okayanny ( 1015-1019). 8 : J aros lav V lad im irov ich M udry ( 1019-1054). No. 1 i s g o ld, a l l t he o ther c o ins o n t he P la te a re s i lver. 3 a nd 4 a re 2X. a l l t he r est a re n a tura l s ize.
I 2
3
e
5
7
6
8
P late I Anc ient Russ ian Oreshn ikov.
p ayment
i ngots
i n
s i lver
( gr ivnas),
a f ter
A .V.
P late I I S tamps o n a nc ient Russ ian g r ivnas, a f ter P .I. Bu l ichov ( 1906).
1
t o
2
P late I V 1 2 3 ,4 5 6 7 8 n 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4
Dm itr i D onsko i, M oscow ( 0 , 3 20; T o lsto i, 1 910, 1 ). S ame p r ince ( To lsto i, 1 910, 3 ). Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 67, 3 68). Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 7 7). S ame p r ince ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 6); o ther s ide, a b east f ac ing backward ( P la te XV II, 3 , 4 ). S ame p r ince ( To lsto i, 1 911, 8 2); o ther s ide, h orseman w ith f a lcon. Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 8 46). Andre i Dm itr iev ich o f M ozha isk ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 37). S ame p r ince ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 33). Vas i l i i I I, P skov ( 0 , 2 6). I van I I , M oscow ( 0, 5 13, 5 14). B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 9 7). S ame p r ince ( 0 , 1 01).
3
K t* d c t i A • l Ab 41 4 « f i fer 7
1
b '
1 2
1 3
P late V 1 ,2 3 4 5 6 7 ,8 9
1 0 1 1 1 2
I van l ekha i lov ich, Tver ( 0 , 4 4, 4 5); o ther s ide, a b east ( P late XVI, 1 2). B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 9 9); o ther s ide, a b east. S ame p r ince ( Oreshn ikov , 1 901, 9 ); o ther s ide, b ird-hunt ing ( P late I X , 2 5). S ame p r ince ( 0, 5 8, 5 9); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. I van Bor isov ich, Kash in ( Oreshn ikov , 1 901, P. 3 35, f ig. 1 ); o ther s ide , ab east. Anonymous, Kash in, c opper ( 0 , 3 82); o ther s ide, h orseman w ith f a lcon ( P late X III, 1 0, 1 1). B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 8 8; s im i lar o nes, 0 , 6 8-98); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. S omet imes s uch i mages a re a lso c ombined w ith i mages o f a w arr ior w ith l ance ( P la te I V , 1 3) o r w ith a n a n ima l h av ing a h uman h ead ( P late XXI, 1 ). B or is A leksandrov ich o f Tver f or Goroden ( 0 , 2 67); o ther s ide a Russ ian i nscr ipt ion. Wkha i l B or isov ich, Tver ( 0 , 1 38; s im i lar o nes, 0 , 1 29-137); o ther s ide, a Russ ian i nscr ipt ion. B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 1 00); o ther s ide, a b east ( P late XVI, 1 9).
1 3,14 Vas i l i i Tyomny ( 0, 4 83, 4 84); o ther s ide, a b east. 1 5 I van l ekha i lov ich, Tver ( 0 , 3 6-38); o ther s ide, a c rowned h ead ( P late XV, 1 , 2 ). 1 6 I van l ekha l lov ich, Tver ( 0 , 4 2); o ther s ide, h a lf-f igure w ith h and r a ised i n b ened ict ion ( P late V II, 2 4). 1 7,18 Anonymous, I van I I o r Vas i l i i I I, M oscow ( 0 , 5 27, 5 28); o ther s ide, h orseman w ith s aber ( s im i lar t o P late X I, 1 9, but w ithout c ircu lar i nscr ipt ion). 1 9,20 Anonymous, Suzda l ( 0 , 7 77, 7 78); o ther s ide, t wo h ands, i n o ne o f wh ich a n a xe ( P late XV, 2 6). 2 1,22 Anonymous c o ins w ith t he t i t le " grand p r ince" ( 0 , 7 80, 7 81); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 2 3 V lad im ir Andreyev ich, S erpukhov ( 0 , 5 77, 5 78); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 2 4,25 Anonymous, Tver, c opper ( 0 , 1 92, 1 93); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion.
S
5
1 9
1 7
1 8
1 S
1 5
P late V I 1
V lad im ir Andreyev ich, S erpukhov (0 , 5 76); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 2 ,3 Anonymous ( 0 , 8 02, 8 03); o ther s ide, a c entaur s hoo t ing a bow ( P late XX , 1 3, 1 4). 4 F yodor Vas i l iev ich, Yaros lav l ( 0 , 6 66); o ther s ide, a c rowned h ead ( P late XV , 5 ; P late XXIV , 1 2). 5 Dm itr i D onsko i, M oscow ( 0, 3 20; To lsto i, 1 910, 1 ); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( P late I V , 1 ; P late XXIII, 1 8). 6 Anonymous w ith t he t i t le " grand p r ince" (0 , 7 86); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 7 V lad im ir Dm itr iev ich , M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 ); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 8 -12 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 3 64, 3 65; To lsto i, 1 911, 1 07-111); o ther s ide , a Russ ian i nscr ipt ion. 1 3 Dm itr i Konstant inov ich, N izhn i N ovgorod ( 0 , 7 01, 7 02); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 4 Anonymous ( 0, 7 95, 7 96); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion 1 5 Anonymous (Markov , 1 910, 2 4); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i iscr ipt iu . i. 1 6 Anonymous ( 0, 7 84); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 7 1 4kha i l Andreyev ich, Vereya ( 0, 6 30); o ther s ide, a h uman h ead. 1 8 Pyotr Dm itr iev ich, Dm itrov ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 326); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 9 D an i l l B or isov ich, S uzda l ( ?) ( 0 , 7 65, 7 66); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 2 0,21 Pyotr Dm it ir iev ich, Dm itrov (0 , 6 43); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l i n a n o rnamenta l r ectangu lar f rame. 2 2 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 02); o ther s ide, s ty l ized h ead ( s im i lar t o P late XV , 1 6-18). 2 3 D an i i l B or isov ich, N izhn i Novgorod ( 0 , 7 59-761); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( P late XXIII, 5 ).
9
3 I
I
7
I l
1
a
1 8
/ 7
2 1
2 2
2 3
P late V II 1 ,2
Vas f l i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 71); o ther s ide, a Russ ian i nscr ipt ion. An a na logous i mage a lso o n c o ins o f Dm itr i Yur iev ich S hemyaka w ith t he t i t le " grand p r ince" ( 0 , 5 71, 5 72); o n t he ir r everses, c rowned r u ler o n t hrone w ith f a lcon i n h and ( P late X , 2 5). 3 Andre i Dm itr iev ich , M ozha isk ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 33); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l i n a n o rnamenta l r ectangu lar f rame ( P late I V , 1 0). 4 R ostov ( ?) ( 0 , 6 94); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l i n a n o rnamenta l r ectangu lar f rame ( P late XVI, 1 7). 5 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow (Markov, 1 910, 1 5); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 6 Andre i F yodorov ich, R ostov (Markov , 1 910, 1 7); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l ( P late XVI, 1 8). 7 -9 Andre i F yodorov ich a nd A leksandr K onstant inov ich, R ostov (0 , 6 84; s im i lar t o 0 , 6 93-690); o ther s ide, a g orgon ( s im i lar t o P late XV, 1 6-18). 1 0 R ostov, i nscr ipt ion i nd ist inct ( 0 , 6 75); o ther s ide , f ac ing h a lf-f igure w ith c rown a nd s word. 1 1 Unass igned c o in (Markov , 1 910, 1 8); o ther s ide, f igure i n p rof i le w ith s aber a nd a xe. 1 2 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 7 97-800); o ther s ide, a c entaur s hoot ing r earward w ith b ow ( s im i lar t o P late XX, 1 3, 1 4). 1 3,14 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 7 88); o ther s ide, f our h uman h eads ( P late XV , 2 4, 2 5). 1 5 V lad im ir Andreyev ich, S erpukhov ( 0 , 5 75); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 6,17 Anonymous, Tver , c opper ( Oreshn ikov, 1 901, 8 4, 8 5); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 8-20 Yur i Dm itr iev ich, Ga l ich ( 0 , 5 54, 5 55); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 1 S ame p r ince (Markov, 1 910, 2 1); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 2,23 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 65); o ther s ide, a h orseman ( P late X II , 2 5). 2 4 I van A nkha i lov ich, Tver ( 0 , 4 2); o ther s ide, a warr ior ( P la te V , 1 6).
5
P late V III 1 ,2
Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 55, 4 56); o ther s ide , a m an c utt ing o ff t he h ead o f a no ther ( P la te X , 1 2, 1 3). 3 Andre i F yodorov ich, R ostov ( 0 , 6 98); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l i n ar ectangu lar f rame. 4 -6 Dm itr i Donsko i, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 910, 3 , 4 , 1 9); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( P late XXIII, 1 ). 7 ,8 Anonymous, Tver, c opper ( 0 , 2 15-218); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l ( P late XVII , 6 , 7 ). 9 Vas i l i i Yaros lav ich, S erpukhov (0 , 6 00, 6 01); o ther s ide, a h orseman c utt ing o ff h ead o f d ragon ( s im i lar t o P late X II, 2 2-27). 1 0,11 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 81); o ther s ide, a t ree ( P late XXI , 1 1). There i s a c omparab le i mage o n a f urther c o in o f t he s ame p r ince ( 0 , 3 93); o ther s ide, a h uman h ead s urrounded by a n i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 2,13 Bor is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 5 5, 5 6); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 4 Andre i Dm itr ievich , M ozha isk ( 0 , 6 07); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 5-17 P skov ( 0, 2 0-23); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion; s omet imes a lso a n i mage o f a n a n ima l (0, 2 1, 2 2). 1 8 Andre i Dm itr iev ich, M ozha isk ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 34); o ther s ide, a c ock ( P late XVIII, 2 2). 1 9 V lad im ir Andreyev ich , S erpukhov ( 0 , 5 79); o ther s ide , a n Arabic i nscr ipt ion. 2 0 Dm itr i Donsko i, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 910, 8 ); o ther s ide, a n Arabic i nscr ipt ion. 2 1 Andre i Dm itr iev ich, M ozha isk ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 30); o ther s ide , a s im i lar i mage. 2 2-25 Novgorod ( 0, 7 -11, 1 6-19); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion, s omet imes a lso ( in No. 2 5) a c ross ( s im i lar t o P la te XXIi 1 9).
8
5
1 8
l
1 7
2 1
P late I X 1
N ovgorod ( 0, 1 1); o ther s ide, i nscr ipt ion a nd c ross ( P la te XX I, 1 9). 2 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 11); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 3 ,4 Yur i Dm itr iev ich, G a l ich ( 0 , 5 56-558); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 5 ,6 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 5 51-553). The i mage m ay b e c omb ined w ith a s im i lar o ne ( 0, 5 52), a n i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( 0, 5 51), o r a n i mage o f a n a n ima l ( 0 , 5 53) o n t he r everses. 7 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 8 33); o n t he r everse, a b ird w ith t wo human h eads ( P late XXI, 8 ). 8 I van Andreyev ich, M ozha isk ( 0 , 6 12, 6 13); o ther s ide , a h orseman s tr iking a d ragon ( P late X II, 1 8). 9 N f ikha i l Andreyev ich, Vereya ( 0 , 6 37, 6 38); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 0,11 Unass igned c o ins ( 0 , 8 34, 8 35); o ther s ide, a h orseman ( P late X III, 2 3). 1 2,13 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 46, 4 47); o ther s ide i n o ne c ase ( No. 1 2) a h uman h ead w ith a n i nd ist inct o b ject b efore i t ( P late XV , 1 2), i n t he o ther ( No. 1 3) a human h ead ( P late X IV , 1 7). 1 4 S ame p r ince ( 0, 4 12); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 5 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 89-892); o ther s ide, a n o rnament. 1 6,17 I van N fkha i lov ich, Tver ( 0 , 4 6); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 8 B or is A leksandrov ich , Tver ( 0 , 4 7); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. i 9 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 85); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arabic i nscr ipt ion. 2 0,21 I van B or isov ich, N izhn i Novgorod ( 0 , 7 56); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 2 D an i i l B or isov ich, N izhn i Novgorod ( 0 , 7 72, 7 73); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 3 Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0 , 4 51, 4 52); o ther s ide, a f ly ing b ird ( P late XVIII, 8 ). 2 4,25 B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 4 8-52); o ther s ide m ay b ear a n i nscr ipt ion ( 0, 4 8), t he i mage o f a n a n ima l , ac ock ( P late XVIII, 1 8, 1 9), o r a warr ior ( P late V . 4 ). ther s ide a n 2 6,27 Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0 , 4 13, 4 50) ; o X V I I I , 5 ) . O n a i nscr ipt ion, o r t he i mage o f a b ird ( P late a s i m i l a r o bv e r s e f ur ther c o in o f t he s ame p r ince h av ing 48, 4 49 - P late i mage t here i s a c ock o n t he r everse ( 0, 4 XVIII, 2 0).
1 8
2 /
P late X 1 ,2
Vas l l l i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0 , 4 70); o ther s ide, a h orseman w ith f a lcon. O ther c o ins o f t he s ame p r ince h ave a na logous c omb inat ions o f c ompos it ions ( 0 , 4 38, 4 39, 4 67-469). 3 Yur i Dm itr iev ich, Ga l ich ( 0 , 5 60-562); o ther s ide a h orseman ( s im i lar t o P late X I, 2 4). A c o in w ith t wo n ames: V as i l i i Tyomny i s c a l led g rand p r ince, Yur i Dm itr iev ich i s c a l led p r ince. 4 Pytor Dm itr iev ich, Dm itrov (0 , 6 64); o ther s ide, a h orseman w ith f a lcon. 5 S emyon V lad im irov ich , B orovsk ( 0 , 5 87); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 6 -9 B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 14-118); o ther s ide , h orseman w ith f a lcon ( P late X III, 1 9, 2 0). 1 0,11 Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0 , 4 78, 4 79); o ther s ide , a n a n ima l ( P late XVI, 2 1). 1 2,13 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 55, 4 56); o ther s ide , a knee l ing f igure w ith a s aber ( Plate V III , 1 , 2 ). 1 4,15 I van ekha l lov ich, Tver ( 0 , 3 9-41); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion ( "Watch a ga inst t he W it less"). 1 6,17 Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0 , 4 44, 4 45); o ther s ide, a h ead ( P late X IV , 1 8). S ame i mage o n c o ins o f Vas i l i i Y aros lav ich, S erpukhov ( 0, 5 93, 5 94); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion; o f I van Andreyev ich, M ozha isk ( 0 , 6 15); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. The c o in o f I van Andreyev ich a lso b ears t he n ame o f Vas i l i i Tyomny. 1 8 Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow (0 , 3 86, 4 08); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arabic i nscr ipt ion ( 0, 3 86), o r e l se a Russ ian i nscr ipt ion (0 , 4 08). 1 9 D an ii l B or isov ich, N izhn i Novgorod ( 0 , 7 74); o ther s ide , a c ock ( P late XVIII, 2 1). A lso e ncountered: i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( I ly in, 1 940, p la te V II, 1 9), o r o f a Russ ian i nscr ipt ion ( ib id., p late V II , 1 7). 2 0 Yur i Dm itr iev ich, Ga l ich ( 0 , 5 59); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 1 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 09, 4 10); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 2,23 Dm itr i Yur iev ich S hemyaka, Ga l ich ( 0 , 5 67, 5 68); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. S im i lar i mage a l so o n a c o in o f Y aros lav V lad im irov ich o f M a loyaros lavets ( 0 , p . 1 42, f ig. 6 ). 2 4 ekha i l B or isov ich , Tver ( 0 , 1 80); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 5 Dm itr i Yur iev ich S hemyaka, M oscow ( 0, 5 71, 5 72); o ther s ide , p rof i le f igure w ith s aber a nd a xe, b eh ind a s evered h and ( s im i lar t o P late V II , 1 , 2 ). Th is c o in o f Dm itr i Yur iev ich b ears t he t i t le " grand p r ince o f a l l Rus". Ana logous i mage ( but a m irrorimage), o n a c o in o f Vas i l i i Tyomny , Moscow ( ?) ( 0, 4 85); o ther s ide, a h ead w ith a n i nd ist inct o b ject b efore i t ( s im i lar t o P late XV , 1 1-13). 2 6,27 Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0 , 4 72, 4 73); o ther s ide, a h orseman s tr iking a d ragon 's h ead ( P late X II, 2 7). 2 8 F yodor Vas il iev ich, Yasro lav l ( 0 , 6 65);, o ther s ide , a h ead wear ing t he p r ince ly c ap ( P late X IV , 2 6).
/ 1
/ 3
/ 8
Z /
2 3
P late X I 1
Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0 , 4 74, 4 75); o ther s ide , a h ead w ith a n i nd ist inct o b ject b efore i t ( P late XV, 1 3). The t i t le i nc ludes t he words " Lord o f a l l t he Russ ian l and". 2 Vas i l i i Y aros lav ich, M a loyaros lavets ( 0 , 5 96, 5 97); o ther s ide , a h orseman s tr ik ing t he h ead o f a d ragon. 3 ,4 Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0 , 4 76, 4 77); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l (No. 3 ) o r a f ly ing b ird ( No. 4 - P late XVIII, 9 ). 5 N lha 1 1 Andreyev ich, Vereya ( 0 , 6 29); o ther s ide , a h orseman s tr ik ing t he h ead o f a d ragon. 6 Anonymous, Tver, c opper ( 0 , 1 90); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 7 -13 B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 6 0-67); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. A lso e ncountered: i mages o f s im i lar m int o perat ive w ithout c rown, h av ing f igure o f warr ior o n t he o ther s ide (Oreshrikov, 1 901, 1 3). 1 4,15 S ame p r ince ( 0, 1 24-127); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion ( No. 1 4) o r ab ird ( No. 1 5 -P late XVII , 1 4). 1 6 A leksandr I vanov ich, Goroden ( 0 , 2 66); o ther s ide, a b ird ( P late XVII, 1 5). 1 7,18 I van I I, M oscow ( 0, 4 97-502); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. The t i t le i nc ludes t he words " Lord o f a l l Rus". 1 9 Vas i l i i I I, M oscow ( 0 , 5 21-525); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. The t i t le i nc ludes t he words " Lord o f a l l Rus". 2 0 I van I V , M oscow, a nonymous ( 0 , 5 4); o ther s ide, i nscr ipt ion " Lord o f a l l Rus". 2 1 I van I V , M oscow ( 0 , 5 45-548); o ther s ide, i nscr ipt ion w ith t i t le " grand p r ince" , i .e. before 1 547. 2 2 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 84); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arabic i nscr ipt ion. 2 3 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 4 66); o ther s ide, a h orseman s tr ik ing t he h ead o f a d ragon ( s im i lar t o P late X II , 2 5). 2 4 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 4 40, 4 41); o ther s ide , S amson w ith l i on. 2 5 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 4 59, 4 60); o ther s ide, a h orseman s tr ik ing t he h ead o f a d ragon. 2 7-29 M ikha i l Andreyev ich, Vereya ( 0 , 6 32-634); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion.
1 3
2 s
2 . 9
28
P late X II 1 ,2 3 -5
6 7 8 9
Vas i l i i Y aros lav ich, S erpukhov ( 0 , 5 98-599); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 6 0, 6 4, 7 6); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. I n o ne c ase ( No . 4 ), a lso t he i mage o f ah uman h ead ( P late X IV , 2 2). S ame p r ince ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 27); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscript ion. Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0 , 4 02); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. I van I V , M oscow, a nonymous ( 0 , 5 42); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion.
S ame r u ler ( 0 , 5 50); o ther s ide , a n i nscript ion w ith t he t i t le " grand p r ince", i .e. b efore 1 547. 1 0 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0, 4 52); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. The t i t le i nc ludes t he word " lord". 1 1 Dm itr i Yur iev ich S hemyaka , Ga l ich o r M oscow ( 0 , 5 69); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 2 I van Andreyev ich, M ozha isk ( 0 , 6 16); o ther s ide, a w inged s iren w ith s erpent a s t a i l ( s im i lar t o P late XX, 1 8, 1 9). Ana logous i mages o n a M ozha isk c o in w ith t he n ame o f Vas i l i i Tyomny ( 0, 6 17). 1 3 Anonymous, M ozha isk ( 0 , 6 18); o ther s ide s ame a s i n f orego ing c o in. 1 4 Vas i l i i Yaros lav ich, S erpukhov ( 0 , 5 92); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 5 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0, 3 83); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arabic i nscr ipt ion. 1 6 S ame p r ince ( 0, 3 81); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n A rabic i nscr ipt ion. 1 7 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 4 05, 4 06); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 8 I van Andreyev ich, M ozha isk ( 0 , 6 12, 6 13); o ther s ide, t wo f igures ( P late I X, 8 ). 1 9 I van I I, M oscow ( 0 , 4 95); o ther s ide, i nscr ipt ions - a n Arab ic o ne ( conta in ing t he n ame o f t he Russ ian r u ler) a nd a Russ ian o ne. 2 0 I van B or isov ich, N izhn i Novgorod ( 0, 7 55); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 1 A dkha i l Andreyev ich, Vereya ( 0 , 6 32); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 2 Vas i l i i N Ikha i lov ich, Kash in ( Oreshn ikov , 1 901, 6 2); o ther s ide , ab ird. 2 3 Mkha i l Andreyev ich, Vereya ( 0 , 6 25); o ther s ide, a b east l ook ing r earward. 2 4-27 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 79, 3 80, 4 20-423, 4 26, 4 27, 4 61-466, 4 71-473). S uch a n i mage may b e c omb ined w ith d ec ided ly v ar ious r everse o nes. These a re: i m itat ion o f Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( 0, 4 79, 3 80); Russ ian i nscr ipt ion ( 0, 4 20-423, 4 26, 4 27); i mages o f h uman h eads ( 0 , 4 61 - P late XV, 1 4; 0 , 4 62 - s im i lar t o P late XV , 1 1-13; 0 , 4 63, 4 64 - P late X IV, 1 5, 1 6); a f igure h o ld ing a n i nd ist inct o b ject i n i t s h ands ( 0 , 4 65 - P late V II, 2 2, 2 3); a h orseman ( 0 , 4 66 - P late X I, 2 3); a s eated f igure w ith a sword i n i t s h and, wear ing c rown a nd w ith c l ient b efore i t (0 , 4 72, 4 73 - P late X , 2 6, 2 7); a w inged s iren w ith a s erpent 's t a i l ( 0 , 4 71 - P late XX , 1 9).
I
2
6 '
I
7
. 9
1 2
1 3
f . f
1 7
I I
2S
P late X III 1 2 3 ,4
5
Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i , 1 911 , 6 8, 7 2); o ther s ide , a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. S ame p r ince ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 26); o ther s ide , a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( P late XXIII, 4 ). Andre i Dm itr iev ich, M ozha isk ( To lsto i , 1 911 , 1 36, 1 37); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( No. 3 ) o r a h a lflength f igure wear ing a t urban a nd h o ld ing a s aber a nd a v esse l ( No. 4 P late I V, 9 ).
Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 4 7); o ther s ide , a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion a nd a h uman h ead ( s im i lar t o P la te X IV , 2 2). 6 I vPn Mkha i lov ich o f Tver , Goroden ( 0 , 2 63, 2 65); o ther s ide , a w inged c entaur w ear ing a c rown a nd b ear ing a s word ( P late XX, 1 -3). 7 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0, 4 67); o ther s ide , S amson w ith l i on ( s im i lar c omb ina t ion o f s ub jects o n c o ins o f t he s ame p r ince: 0 , 4 38-439; 4 68-470). 8 Vas i l i i l Akha l lov ich , K ash im ( Oreshn ikov , 1 901, 6 0, 6 1); o ther s ide, a b east l ook ing r earward. 9 Anonymous c opper c o in, K ash in ( 0 , 2 81); o ther s ide , s im i lar h orseman, but i n p lace o f t he o rnamenta l b order a c ircu lar i nscr ipt ion. 1 0,11 Anonymous c opper c o in, Kash in ( 0 , 2 82); o ther s ide, a warr ior w ith s word ( P late V . 7 , 8 ). 1 2 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 78); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arabic i nscr ipt ion. 1 3 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 4 6); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion a nd a human h ead ( s im i lar t o P late X IV, 2 0). 1 4,15 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 3 51; To lsto i, 1 911, 3 6, 4 2); o ther s ide , a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( No. 1 4) o r a Russ ian o ne ( No. 1 5). 1 6 B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 1 18); o ther s ide, S amson w ith l i on ( P late X , 9 ). 1 7 I van B or isov ich, Kash in ( Oreshn ikov , 1 901, 6 3); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 8 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 76); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 9,20 B or is A leksandrov ich, ' Tver ( 0 , 14-117); o ther s ide, S amson w ith l i on ( P late X , 6 -8). 2 1 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 8 70-873); o ther s ide, a s ymbo l ( s im i lar t o P late XXII, 1 0). 2 2 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 75-878); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arabic i nscr ipt ion. 2 3 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 8 34, 8 35); o ther s ide, t wo f igures ( P late I X, 1 0, 1 1).
P late X IV 1 ,2 3 4 5 6
8 9 1 0 1 1
Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 12); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 8 95-897); i nd ist inct t ype ( ornament?). Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0, 4 58); o ther s ide, a g r iff in ( P la te X IX, 1 8). S ame p r ince ( 0, 4 32); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 20, 1 21); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. S Pme p r ince ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 25); o ther s ide, a Russ ian i nscr ipt ion. Anonymous c o in, S uzda l ( 0, 7 79); o ther s ide, f igure o n t hrone. I van B or isov ich, N izhn i Novgorod ( 0 , 7 54); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. I van A nkha i lov ich, Tver ( 0 , 4 3); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l.
Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( 0 , 7 49; T o lsto i, 1 911, 8 3-89); o ther s ide , a n a n ima l a nd a s corp ion ( P late XV, 2 3-25). 1 2 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 21); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( ?). 1 3 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 8 27); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 4 A leksandr F yodorov ich, Y aros lav l ( 0 , 6 69); o ther s ide, f igure o n t hrone w ith f ac ing c l ient. 1 5,16 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 64, 4 63); o ther s ide, a h orseman s tr ik ing h ead o f a d ragon ( s im i lar t o P late X II , 2 4, 2 5). 1 7 S ame p r ince ( 0, 4 46); o ther s ide , t wo h uman f igures t o e ither s ide o f at ree. 1 8 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 4 44, 4 45); o ther s ide, f igure o n t hrone ( P late X , 1 6, 1 7). 1 9 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 7 00); o ther s ide, a s tar w ith s ix r ays a nd a Russ ian i nscr ipt ion. 2 0-22 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 4 4, 4 8, 6 4); o ther III , s ide , a h orseman w ith f a lcon ( Nos. 2 0 a nd 2 1 - P late X 5 ), o r ah orseman w ith l ance ( No. 2 2 -P late X II, 4 ). 2 3,24 A leksandr F yodorov ich, Y aros lav l ( 0, 6 67, 6 68); o ther s ide, ah orseman w ith s aber ( P late XXIV , 2 5, 2 6). 2 5 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich , M oscow ( To lsto i , 1 911, 1 03, 1 04); o ther s ide , Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 2 6 F yodor B or isov ich, Yaros lav l ( 0 , 6 65); o ther s ide , c rowned f igure o n t hrone w ith f ac ing c l ient ( P la te X , 2 8). 2 7 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 8 28, 8 29); o ther s ide , h a lflength f igure w ith a rms r a ised, i n o ne h and a n a xe.
2 3
P late XV 1 ,2
I van Mkha i lov ich, Tver ( 0 , 3 6, 3 7); o ther s ide, warr ior w ith sword a t s hou lder ( P late V , 1 5). 3 ,4 M ikha i l B or isov ich, Tver ( Oreshn ikov , 1 901, 3 2, 3 3); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 5 F yodor B or isov ich, Y aros lav l ( 0 , 6 66); o ther s ide, h a lfl ength f igure w ith a xe ( P la te V I, 4 ; P late XXIV , 1 2). 6 Copper c o in, Novgorod ( 0 , 1 3); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 7 Unass igned c o in, R ostov ( 0 , 6 91); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l w ith h ead t urned r earward. 8 Pyotr Dm itr iev ich, Dm itrov ( 0 , 6 44-649); o ther s ide, a c entaur w ith s word a nd g ob let i n h ands ( P late XX, 9 -11). 9 ,10 Ryazan c o in w ith n ame o f t he Grand P r ince Vas i l i i ( 0 , 3 13, 3 16); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l (No. 9 - P late XVI, 2 0) o r ab ird (No. 1 0 -P late XVIII, 1 ). A lso e ncountered: c o ins w ith s uch a n i mage a s t h is o n b o th s ides ( I ly in, 1 940, p la te I V, 1 7). 1 1 Vas i l i i Tyomny, M oscow ( 0, 4 31); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 2 S ame p r ince ( 0, 4 47); o ther s ide, t wo f igures by a t ree ( P late I X, 1 2). 1 3 S ame p r ince ( 0, 4 74, 4 75); o ther s ide , f igure o n t hrone w ith f ac ing c l ient ( P late X I, 1 ). 1 4 S ame p r ince ( 0, 4 61); o ther s ide , h orseman s tr ik ing h ead o f d ragon. 1 5 Unass igned c o in o f R ostov ( 0 , 6 73); o ther s ide , t wo f igures. 1 6-18 Andre i F yodorov ich a nd A leksandr K onstant inov ich, R ostov (0 , 6 83-690); o ther s ide, a c ompos it ion ( s im i lar o n P la te V II , 7 -9). An a na logous i mage i s a lso f ound o n c o ins o f Vas il i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 9 8-102); i n t ha t e vent t here i s p resented o n t he r everse a f ac ing f igure w ith s aber a nd a xe i n i t s h ands ( P late V I, 2 2). 1 9-21 Pyotr Dm itr iev ich, Dm itrov ( 0 , 6 54-656); o ther s ide , a h orseman. 2 2 Unass igned c o in w ith t i t le o f " grand p r ince" ( 0 , 7 89-790); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. A s im i lar i mage a lso a ppears o n a c o in o f S emyon V lad im irov ich o f Borovsk ( 0 , 5 85), where t he o ther s ide b ears a n i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 2 3 Andre i Dm itr iev ich, M ozha isk ( 0, 6 06); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 4,25 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 7 88); o ther s ide , a f igure w ith a n a xe, s tand ing b efore a s evered h ead ( P late V II, 1 3, 1 4). 2 6 Unass igned c o in, Suzda l ( 0, 7 77); o ther s ide , a f igure o f a warr ior ( P late V , 1 9, 2 0).
1 3
/ 8
/ 7
28
P late XVI 1 ,2 2
Anonymous, S uzda l ( 0, 7 75, 7 76); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. Anonymous c opper c o in, K ash in ( 0 , 2 86); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 4 -6 F yodor N ekha i lov ich, A dkul in ( Oreshn ikov , 1 901, 6 4-66); o ther s ide , ac ock ( P late XVIII, 1 5). 7 B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( Oreshn ikov, 1 910, 2 7); o ther s id3, a warr ior w ith s word. 8 ,9 M ikha i l Andreyev ich, Vereya ( 0 , 6 20-622); o ther s ide , a h orseman s tr ik ing h ead o f ad ragon. 1 0-11 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( 0 , 3 55; T o lsto i, 1 911, 2 7, 2 8); o ther s ide , a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 2 I van N akha i lov ich, Tver ( 0, 4 4, 4 5); o ther s ide, a w arr ior ( P late V , 1 , 2 ). 1 3 Wha i l B or isov ich, Tver , c opper ( 0, 1 45, 1 46); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 4 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 43); o ther s ide, a h orseman s lash ing a t h ead o f ad ragon ( s im i lar t o P late X I, 2 4). 1 5 B or is A leksandrov ich o f Tver , Goroden , c opper ( 0 , 2 74, 2 75); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 6-18 Rostov c o ins ( 0, 6 93-697); o ther s ide, a f igure w ith a n a xe a nd a sword b efore a s evered h ead ( P late V II, 4 , 6 ). 1 9 B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 1 00); o ther s ide, a w arr ior w ith a b ow ( P late V , 1 2). 2 0 Ryazan c o in w ith n ame o f t he Grand Duke Vas il i i ( 0, 3 13, 3 14); o ther s ide, p rof i le h ead i nscr ibed w ith in a c rescent ( P late XV, 9 , 1 0). 2 1 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 4 78, 4 79); o ther s ide , t wo f igures, o ne o f wh ich i s b eat ing t he o ther w ith a s t ick ( ?) ( P late X , 1 0, 1 1). 2 2 F yodor Wkha i lov ich , M unn, c opper ( 0, 2 90, 2 91); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 3-25 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( 0 , 7 49; T o lsto i, 1 911, 8 3-89); o ther s ide, a h ead a nd a n i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( P late X IV , 1 1).
1 0
1
1 2
1 9
1 . 9
2 2
2 3
I n.
1 7
2 8
2 1
2 . 9
25
P la te XVII 1 ,2
V&s il i i Dm itr iev ich , M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 3 0); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 3 ,4 S ame p r ince ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 6-26); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 5 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 3 61); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 6 ,7 Anonymous, Tver , c opper ( 0 , 2 15, 2 16); o ther s ide, a f igure t ramp l ing a s erpent ( P late V III, 7 , 8 ). 8 kha i l B or isov ich , Tver , c opper ( 0 , 1 41); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 9 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 7 29, 7 30); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 0,11 M ikha i l Bor isov ich, Tver ( 0, 1 39, 1 40); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 2,13 Anonymous, Novy Torg ( 0 , 3 3-35); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 4 M ikha i l Bor isov ich, Tver ( 0, 1 74); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 5 A leksandr I vanov ich, Goroden ( 0, 2 66); o ther s ide, a h orseman w i th s word ( P la te X I, 1 6). 1 6 Anonymous, Tver, c opper ( 0, 2 09); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 7 S ame ( 0, 2 32); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 8 Anonymous, Tver ( 0 , 2 31); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. Apparent ly s truck a f ter 1 510. 1 9 Anonymous, Tver , c opper ( 0, 2 36); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 9 l ekha i l Bor isov ich, Tver ( 0, 1 25); o ther s ide, h orseman w ith sword ( P la te X I, 1 5). 2 1,22 Anonymous, Tver, c opper ( 0, 2 47 , 2 51); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 3 Anonymous, Kash in, c opper ( 0, 2 89); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion.
/
5
1 7
g
/ 3
1 8
2 /
2 2
1
P late XVIII
2 3 ,4
5 6 7 8 9
Ryazan c o in w ith n ame o f Grand P r ince Vas i l i i ( 0, 3 15-317); o ther s ide, a p rof i le h ead i nscr ibed w ith in a c rescent ( P la te XV , 1 0). S omet imes s uch a n i mage i s p resent o n b o th s ides o f ac o in ( 0, 3 17). Anonymous, Tver , c opper ( 0, 2 34, 2 35); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. M ikha i l Bor isov ich, Tver ( 0, 1 27; O reshn ikov, 1 901, 3 4-37); o ther s ide, a h orseman w ith sword ( s im i lar t o P late X I, 1 4, 1 5). Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0, 4 50); o ther s ide, b ird-hunt ing ( P la te I X, 2 7). S ame p r ince ( 0, 4 18); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. Dm itr i Konstant inov ich , N izhn i Novgorod ( 0 , 7 07-708); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0, 4 51, 4 52); o ther s ide, f igure o n f oo t s tr ik ing d ragon w ith a l ance ( P la te I X, 2 3).
S ame p r ince ( 0, 4 77); o ther s ide, f igure o n t hrone w ith f ac ing c l ient ( P la te X I, 4 ). 1 0 A nkha i l Andreyev ich , Vereya ( 0 , 6 28); o ther s ide, h orseman s tr ik ing h ead o f d ragon. 1 1 Anonymous, M oscow, c opper ( 0 , 4 64); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 2,13 Dm itr i Donsko i , M oscow ( 0 , 3 21-323; T o lsto i, 1 910, 1 2, 1 3); o ther s ide, a n A rab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 4 Pyotr Dm itr iev ich, Dm itrov ( 0, 6 39); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 5 Andre i Dm itr iev ich, M ozha isk ( Oreshn ikov, 1 901, 6 4-66); o ther s ide, a b east ( P la te XV, 4 -6). 1 6,17 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich , M oscow ( 0, 3 24; To lsto i, 1 911, 7 -15); o ther s ide, a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 8,19 Bor is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0, 5 0, 5 1); o ther s ide , b irdhunt ing ( s im i lar t o P la te I X, 2 4). 2 0 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0, 4 48, 4 49); o ther s ide, b irdhunt ing ( s im i lar t o P la te I X, 2 6, 2 7). 2 1 D an i i l B or isov ich, N izhn i Novgorod ( 0, 7 74); o ther s ide, f igure o n t hrone w ith sword a nd c up i n h ands ( P late X , 1 9). 2 2 Andre i Dm itr iev ich, M ozha isk ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 34); o ther s ide, c rowned h ead , b efore i t ah and w ith s aber ( P la te V III, 1 8). 2 3,24 F yodor Fyodorov ich, M u l l in ( d ied 1 463?) ( Oreshn ikov, 1 901, 6 7-70); o ther s ide , f igure o f warr ior w ith l ance. 2 5,26 Anonymous, Tver , c opper ( 0, 2 05-208); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion.
2
9
/ 3
/ 7
1 . 9
2 3
2 1
2 9
25
2 2
2 8
P la te X IX 1 ,2
B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0, 1 03, 1 04). The i nscr ipt ion r unn ing a round t h is i mage r eads " He who c op ies t h is, l e t h im b e p un ished ( or c ondemned)." O ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. S im i lar i mage, but w ithout menac ing i nscr ipt ion - 0 , 1 06-107. 3 B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0, 1 10-113); o ther s ide, i nscr ipt ion. S im i lar d ragon a lso o n c o ins o f M ikha i l B or isov ich o f Tver ( 0, 1 59-173); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion , s omet imes a id( ) a s tar ( 0, 1 71-173; P la te XXI, 1 6). 4 Anonymous, Ryazan, c opper ( 0, 3 12); o ther s ide, a n a n ima l. 5 Anonymous, w i th t i t le " grand pr ince", p robab ly Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 73); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 6 Anonymous, M ozha isk, c opper ( 0, 6 19); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 7 ,8 M ikha i l Bor isov ich , Tver ( 0, 1 78, 1 79); o ther s ide , a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion s ign ify ing i n t rans la t ion "M ikha i l o f Tver". 9 -10 Bor is A leksandrov ich , Tver ( 0, 1 08, 1 09); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 1 S ame p r ince ( Oreshn ikov, 1 901, 2 8, 2 9); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 2 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0, 4 82); o ther s ide , p rof i le h ead w i th i nd ist inct o b ject b efore i t ( s im i lar t o P la te XV, 1 1-13). 1 3 Vas i l i i Yaros lav ich, S erpukhov ( 0, 4 82); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 4 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 63, 8 64); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 5,16 M ikha i l 1 7 1 8
Bor isov ich ,
Tver
i nscr ipt ion. Anonymous, Tver , c opper i nscr ipt ion. Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0,
( 0,
1 54,
( 0 , 4 58);
1 53);
2 41-243); o ther
o ther
s ide ,
a n
o ther
s ide ,
a n
s ide ,
a h ead
( P lete
X IV , 4 ). 1 9 S ame p r ince ( 0, 3 88); o ther s ide , i m ita t ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 2 0,21 S ame p r ince ( 0, 4 15, 4 16); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 2,23 I van I vanov ich, Tver ( 0 , 1 85, 1 86); o ther i nscr ipt ion i nc lud ing t he t i t le " grand p r ince".
s ide,
a n
1
8
7
1
u
1 2
/ 7
P late XX 1 -3
I van M ikha l lov ich o f Tver, Goroden , c opper ( 0, 2 63-265); o ther s ide, a h orseman w ith f a lcon ( P la te X III, 6 ). 4 ,5 V lad im ir Andreyev ich, S erpukhov ( 0 , 5 81-584); o ther s ide , a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( P la te XXIII, 8 , 9 ). 6 B or is A leksandrov-i ch, Tver ( 0 , 5 4); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 7 Co in w ith t he n ame o f a p r ince Dm itr i ( ?) (Oreshn ikov, 1 901, 7 2); o ther s ide , ah orseman s tr ik ing a d ragon. 8 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 17); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( P la te XXIII, 1 5). 9 -11 Pytor Dm itr iev ich, Dm itrov ( 0, 6 44-649, 6 57, 6 58); o ther s ide, a c rowned h ead ( P late XV, 8 ). 1 2 kha i l B or isov ich, Tver ( 0 , 1 77); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 3,14 Unass igned c o ins ( 0, 7 97-807); o ther s ide, f igure w ith a n a xe ( P late V I, 2 , 3 ), o r e lse a n a n ima l ( 0, 8 06, 8 07). 1 5,16 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 89, 3 90, 4 54); o ther s ide , i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion ( 0, 3 89, 3 90) o r a n i mage o f a s iren w ith a s erpent 's t a i l ( s im i lar t o P late XX, 1 8, 1 9). 1 7 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 4 37, 4 71, 4 54); o ther s ide , a h orseman s tr ik ing a d ragon 's h ead ( 0, 4 37, 4 71; P la te X II, 2 6) o r a s iren w ith f eatures o f a b ird ( 0, 4 54; s im i lar t o P la te XX, 1 5, 1 6). An a na logous s ub ject o n c o ins o f M ozha isk - I van Andreyev ich ( 0, 6 16), o ther s ide a h orseman s tr ik ing a d ragon ( P la te X II, 1 2); w ithout p r ince 's n ame ( 0, 6 18) a nd w ith s ame i mage o n r everse ( P la te X II, 1 3); f ina l ly , w ith n ame o f Vas i l l i Tyomny , s ide by s ide w ith t he i nscr ipt ion d enga M ozha iskaya (Mozha isk d enga) ( 0, 6 17); o ther s ide , a h orseman s tr ik ing t he h ead o f a d ragon. 2 0-22 Anonymous, M oscow, c opper ( 0, 4 87, 4 88); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion.
/ 1
I s-
1 6
1 7
2 1
1 9
1 8
2 2
P late XXI 1 2 3
4 5
B or is A leksandrov ich, Tver ( 0 , 9 8); o ther s ide, a w arr ior w ith s word ( s im i lar t o P la te V , 9 ). Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 39); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0, 4 57); o ther s ide, a h ead w ith a n i nd ist inct o b ject b efore i t ( s im i lar t o P la te XV, 1 1-13). The t i t le i nc ludes t he words " lord o f a l l Bus". M ik h a i l Andreyev ich, Vereya ( 0, 6 24); o ther s ide , a h orseman s tr ik ing t he h ead o f a d ragon.
M ikha i l B or isov ich, Tver ( 0 , 1 81, 1 82; O reshn ikov, 1 901, 4 55 4); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 6 Anonymous, I van I I, M oscow, c opper ( 0, 4 89, 4 90); o ther s ide , a n i nscr ipt ion. 7 Novgorod , c opper ( 0, 1 4, 1 5); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 8 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 8 33); o ther s ide , t wo h uman f igures ( P late I X, 7 ). 9 ,10 Anonymous, Tver , c opper ( 0, 1 94-196); o ther s i f%, a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 1 Vas i l i i Tyomny , Moscow ( 0, 4 81); o ther s ide, a f igure c hopp ing wood w ith a n a xe ( P la te V III, 1 0, 1 1). 1 2 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 18-820); o ther s ide , a h uman h ead. The t i t le " grand p r ince" c an b e r ead. 1 3 I van I I, M oscow ( 0, 5 16); o ther s ide , ah orseman ( s im i lar t o P la te X I, 1 9). 1 4,15 The t wo s ides o f ac o in o f I van I I, M oscow ( 0, 5 18-520). 1 6 kha i l B or isov ich, Tver ( 0, 1 71-173); o ther s ide, a d ragon ( s im i lar t o P late X IX, 1 , 2 ). 1 7 Vas i l i i I vanov ich, Tver , c opper ( 0 , 1 87-189); o ther s ide, i nscr ipt ion w ith t he t i t le " pr ince". 1 8 I van I I, M oscow ( 0, 4 96). The Arab ic i nscr ipt ion r eads i n t rans lat ion " th is i s a M oscow d enga". O ther s ide , a h orseman w i th s word o r s aber. 1 9 Novgorod , p er iod o f i t s i ndependence ( 0, 1 0, 1 1); o ther s ide , t wo f igures, o ne o f t hem c rowned ( P la te V III, 2 5 a nd P la te I X, 1 ). 2 0 Vas i l i i Tyomny ( 0, 4 09); o ther s ide, f igure o n at hrone m ade o f l i on p ro tomes ( P la te X , 2 1). 2 1 Andre i Dm itr iev ich, M ozha isk ( 0, 6 09); o ther s ide, S amson w ith l i on. 2 2 Anonymous, Tver ( ?), c opper ( 0 , 2 28); o ther s ide , a n i nd ist inct o b ject. 2 3 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 9 22-925); o ther s ide, a n i nd ist inct i mage ( an o rnament?). 2 4 Unass igned c o in ( 0 , 8 75); o ther s ide , a h orseman ( s im i lar t o P la te X III, 2 2).
. 9
7
/ g
1 3
/ 8
8
P late XXII 1 -3
Co ins o f t he Go lden Horde w ith Ryazan c ountermark ( 0, 3 01, 2 92, 3 00). 4 Co in w ith i l leg ib le n ame o f p r ince, Ryazan ( 0, 3 05); o ther s ide , s ee P late XXII, 7 . 5 S ame, o ther s ide l i ke P late XXII, 4 . 6 S ame ( 0, 3 03); o ther s ide l i ke P late XX II, 4 , but t he i mage i s s urrounded by a n i m itat ion o f a n i nscr ipt ion made u p o f s hor t l i nes. 7 S ame ( 0, 3 05); o ther s ide s ee P la te XXII, 4 . 8 ,9 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 73, 8 86); o ther s ide ( 0, 8 73) i s a h orseman ( l ike P la te X III, 2 2) o r e lse ( 0, 8 86) a s tand ing f igure w ith s word. 1 1 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 9 09); o ther s ide, a b ird. 1 2,13 Anonymous, Goroden, c opper ( 0, 2 76-278); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 1 4
Anonymous,
Tver ,
c opper
( 0 ,
2 14);
o ther
s ide ,
a n
i nscr ipt ion. 1 5 Anonymous, I van I I o r Vas i l l i I I, Tver ( 0, 5 36); o ther s ide , a h orseman ( l ike P la te X I, 1 9) o r e lse a n i nscr ipt ion w ithout i mage ( Oreshn ikov, 1 901, 8 3). 1 6,17 Anonymous, I van I I o r Vas i l i i I I, ( 0 , 5 29-532); o ther s ide, a h orseman ( l ike P la te X I, 1 9 but w ithout i nscr ipt ion).
2
i f
1 5
/ 5
P la te XXIII 1 ,2
Dm itr i Donsko l, Moscow ( To lsto i , 1 910, 3 , 5 ); o ther s ide , a man h o ld ing a s erpent by t he t ongue ( P la te I V, 2 ; P la te V III , 4 -6). 3 Vas i l i i Tyomny , M oscow ( 0 , 3 67); o ther s ide, f igure w ith sword a nd a xe ( P la te I V, 3 ). 4 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich, M oscow ( To lsto i, 1 911, 1 26); o ther s ide , h orseman s tr ik ing h uman h ead ( P la te X III, 2 ). 5 D an i i l B or isov ich, N izhn i Novgorod ( 0, 7 59-761); o ther s ide , h a lflength f igure w ith s aber a nd a xe ( P la te V I, 2 3). 6 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 7 83, 7 84); o ther s ide , h a lflength f igure w ith s word a nd a xe ( P late V I, 1 6). 7 Anonymous, Tver ( ?), c opper ( 0, 2 29); o ther s ide, a c ross. 8 ,9 V lad im ir Andreyev ich, S erpukhov ( 0, 5 81-584); o ther s ide , c entaur b ear ing a s word ( P la te XX, 4 , 5 ). 1 0 Anonymous, N izhn i Novgorod ( ?) ( 0 , 7 44); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion s urrounded by a n i m itat ion o f a Russ ian i nscr ipt ion. There a re n o l eg ib le Russ ian i nscr ipt ions o n t he c o in. 1 1 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 62); o ther s ide , ad oor. 1 2,13 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich , Moscow ( To lsto l , 1 911, 4 9, 5 0); o ther s ide , ah orseman w ith a f a lcon ( s im i lar t o P la te X III, 5 ). 1 4 S ame p r ince ( To lsto i , 1 911, 9 5); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 1 5 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 17); o ther s ide , w inged c entaur w ith sword ( P la te XX, 8 ). 1 6 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 8 92); o ther s ide, t wo f igures t o e i ther s ide o f t ree ( s im i lar t o P la te I X, 1 5). 1 7 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 7 92); o ther s ide, h a lflength f igure w ith s aber a nd a xe. 1 8 Dm itr i Donsko i, M oscow ( To lsto i , 1 910, 1 ); o ther s ide , f igure w ith s aber a nd a xe ( P late I V, 1 ; Pka te V I, 5 ). 1 9 S ame p r ince ( 0 , 3 25); o ther s ide, h a lflength f igure w ith s aber a nd a xe. 2 0 Pyotr Dm itr iev ich, Dm itrov ( To lsto i , 1 911, 1 32); o ther s ide , f igure w ith s word a nd a xe, b efore i t as tar ( P la te V I, 1 8). 2 1 D an i i l B or isov ich, N izhn i Novgorod ( 0 , 7 71); o ther s ide, a n i nscr ipt ion. 2 2 Vas i l i i Dm itr iev ich K idryapa , N izhn i Novgorod ( 0, 7 10); o ther s ide a n a n ima l a bove t he b ack o f wh ich a human h ead - a t ransforma t ion o f a n e sa tern i conography o f t he s un i n t he c onste l la t ion L eo ( ?); c f . a s im i lar i mage o n a c o in o f Fyodor Vas i l iev ich , Y aros lav l ( P la te XXIV, 1 6). 2 3 Unass igned c o in ( 0, 9 33); o ther s ide, i m itat ion o f a n Arab ic i nscr ipt ion. 2 4 Unass igned c o jn ( 0, 8 81); o ther s ide, a h orseman.
5
1 9
1 8
2 1
8
/ 5
/ I
P late XXIV Rec iproca l d ie c omb inat ions o n c o ins o f t he p r inces o f Y aros lav l ( af ter N .D. M ets, 1 960): 1 -9, I van Vas i l iev ich; 1 0-18, F yodor Vas i l ieveh; 1 9-20, Vas i l i i I vanov ich; 2 1-28, A leksandr Fyodorov ich.
/ 5
f e
o
P la te XXV Anc ient Russ ian p r ince ly e mb lems: 1 -14 Emb lems o n a nc ient Russ ian c o ins: 1 -9, V lad im ir Svyatos lav ich; 1 0-11, Svyatopo lk Okayanny ( the Damned) ; 1 2-14, Y aros lav l Mudry ( the W ise) . A f ter A . V.O reshn ikov. 1 5-16 B ronze p endants w ith p r ince ly emb lems a f ter B . A. Rybakov ( 1940). 1 7-33 Emb lems o n l ead s ea ls a f ter V . L. Y an in, 1 970, v o l. I . 3 4 S ea l-r ing o f t he X IIth c entury a f ter Z. A. Vo lodchenko ( 1951). 3 5 S ea l-r ing a f ter A . V .O reshn ikov.
1
1 3
1 1
• •1•
d i• t
t
••
•
20
2
V .1
t 23
•
V
2 1
A . r
711 2 1 1
r :• • 1 1
27
h
1 3 3
3 , 3-
P late XXVI Typo logy o f Russian p r ince ly emb lems,
a fter B . A.
Rybakov, 1 940.
Z
1
i . 2
5
7
i
8
1*1
1 ' I I i i m me ,
1 3
19 '
V 1 2
0
. I") . 'M . 1 . .... i l
1 0
P late XXVII Emb lems o f t he XVIIth c entury o n t he b as is o f wh ich t imber l ots were d e l im ited, a fter G .N. Anp i logov ( 1964). The emb lems i n t he t wo upper l i nes were c a l led " he lmets" a nd " bows"; t hose i n t he t wo l ower l ines, " axes". ( Ev ident ly s ome, but p erhaps n o t a l l , o f t hese emblems may b e b lazes - Tr.)
— s z2 - 7 s7 1 z 24E n0 7 :7/ 7 "
"
°TT ( c ot u L 43
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ah lt
1 • 1 _•
mm
t z a
1 1(cf 7 2
l alo mi l mon
0, z 4 z
A r . r a " .
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Plate XXVIII Ancien t Russian seals: 1-6, lead; 7-21, impressions on wax; 22, a bone seal-stamp. 1-6 after V.L. Yanin, 1970; 7-21 after P. _ Ivanov, 1858; 22 after M.G. Rabinovich, 1954; 23 after Ulyanitski (1894).
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P la te XX IX Russian s ea ls o f t he XV Ith c en tury a f ter t he p ub l ica tion " Sn imk i", 1 882.
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P late XXX Sh ie lds b ear ing i mages, i n a nc ient Russian a rt: 1 Deta i l o f am iniature f rom t he Fyodorov Gospe l ( 1321-1327). 2 Re lief a t t he Ca thedra l a t Yur iev P o lsko i ( 1230-1234).
P la te XXX I Sh ie lds s hown i n a nc ien t Russ ian a r t , w i th i mages: 1 S imonov P sa l ter o f 1 295. i l t i mages, 1 336. 2 Novgorod c hurch d oors w i th g 3 ,4 Manuscr ipt o f t he Radz iwi l l Chron ic le o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c en tury.
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P late XXXII Facade c arving o f a nc ient Russian c hurches: 1 ,2,4-6 S t Dm i tr i Ca thedra l a t V lad imir ( 1193-1197). 3 F ragment o f c arving o f t he X IIth c entury f rom Chern igov.
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P la te XXXIII Terato log ica l d ecoration o f Russian manuscr ipts o f t he X IIIth-X IVth c entur ies, a fter V . V. S tasov.
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P la te XXX IV I n i t ia ls S tasov ;
f rom a nc ient Russian manuscr ip ts. 3a fter G .K K . Bugos laysk i.
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P la te XXXV De ta i ls o f c arved s taffs o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury : 1 ,2 , h and-gr ips o f p r ince ly s taffs ; 3 , o rnamen t o f m e tropo l i tan c roz ier; 4 -8, c arving o f ma in p ar ts o f p r ince ly s taffs. 1 , 2 , 4 -8 wa lrus t usk ; 3s i lver g i lt.
P la te XXXVI Hunting-spear o f Grand P r ince Bor is A leksandrovich o f Tver, 1 425-1461. 1 , t he s ocket, o rnamented w i th f igures a nd a n i nscr iption, s pread o ut i n p ro jec tion ; 2 , o vera l l a ppearance.
P la te XXXVII F igures o n var ious i tems o f a pp l ied a r t o utput: 1 Gr ip o f a s aber f rom Tver, c arved i vory o r b one , a fter A . K . Zh iznevsk i. 2 Bronze r e lief f rom Tver, a fter M .V. Suz in. 3 S poon o f Pr ince Fyodor Bor isovich o f Vo loko lamsk , e nd o f XVth c entury - b eg inning o f XVIth , a fter T . V. N iko layeva ( si lver) . 4 Carved wooden s poon o f a Novgorod n ob leman o f t he f i rst h a lf o f t he X IVth c entury , I van Varfo lomeyevich, a fter B . A. Ko lchin.
P la te XXXVIII Anc ient Russian m in iatures: 1 Smo lensk p sa lter o f 1 395 ( after G .K. Bugos laysk i). 2 -4 Manuscr ipt o f t he Radz iwi l l Chron ic le o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury.
P la te XXXIX Russian d ep ic t ions o f c entaurs, f rom t he p re-Mongo l p er iod. 1 Deta i l o f a wooden c o lumn , Novgorod, f i rst h a lf o f t he X Ith c en tury. 2 -3 Re l iefs o n t he wa l ls o f t he S t Dm i tr i C a thedra l a t V lad imir ( 1193-1197). 4 -5 Re l iefs o n t he wa l ls o f t he S t George C a thedra l a t Yur iev Po lsko i ( 1230-1234). 6 7
Carved h om e , P skov, X IIth c entury ( after I. K. L abutina a nd 0. A. Kondratieva). S i lver b race let o rnamented w ith e ngraving a nd n ie l lo , Tver , X IIth-X IIIth c entur ies.
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P la te XL Russ ian d ep ic t ions o f c en taurs f rom t he X IIIth a nd X IVth c entur ies: 1 Re l ief o n t he wa l l o f t he S t George C a thedra l a t Yur iev Po lsko i ( 1230-1234). 2 Compos i tion o n t he Novgorod c hurch d oors o f 1 336 , w i th g i l t f igures.
P la te XLI Anc ient Russ ian d ep ictions o f w inged c en taurs: 1 M in ia ture o f t he e nd o f t he XVth c entury. 2 M in iature o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he XVIth c en tury ( after F Bus layev) . 3 F igure i mpressed f rom w i th in o n t he b o ttom o f a r i tua l v esse l f rom t he g rounds o f t he Moscow Krem l in. 4 Reverse s ide o f a Russ ian b ronze m irror o f t he XVIIth c entury wh ich h ad b een i ntended f or s a le t o t he i nd igenous p opu la tion o f S iber ia ( after A . P. Ok ladn ikov, 1 950) . 5 De ta i l o f ac hurch l ustre f rom P skov, XVth-XVIth c entury.
P la te XL II Russ ian f igures o f c en taurs o f t he XVth-XVIIth c entur ies: 1 Russian a dd i t ion o f t he XVth c entury t o t he S igtuna ( Magdeburg) d oors o f t he S t S of ia C a thedra l a t Novgorod. 2 -3 M in iatures o f t he e nd o f t he XVth a nd t he XVIth c entur ies ( after E .K. Red in). 4 Red t i le o f t he XVIth c entury. 5 De ta i l o f a p a inted c hest o f t he XV IIth-XVIIIth c entur ies. 6 M iniature o f t he XVIIth c en tury ( after F .I. Bus layev). 7 Ename l p laque f orm ing p ar t o f a n a rch itec tura l d ecora tion, P skov, e nd o f t he XVth c en tury ( af ter Ia. P leshanova ).
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