Towards an African Theology: The Igbo Context in Nigeria (Dieux, Hommes et Religions / Gods, Humans and Religions) 9052019754, 0820446807, 9783035260588, 9789052019758

Table of contents :
Contents
Presentation (by Johan Verstraeten, Faculty of Theology, K. U. Leuven, Belgium) 11
Foreword (by Ken Ashton, Media Consultant, North Wales) 13
Introduction 15
CHAPTER ONE. Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations? 23
I. Gaudium et Spes: Church-World Dialogue 24
II. The Medellín Conference of Latin American Bishops, 1968 34
III. Historical Precedence to the ‘African Contextual Theology’ 37
CHAPTER TWO. Theology: Unity in Diversity 63
CHAPTER THREE. Understanding the Igbo 69
CHAPTER FOUR. Developing the Hermeneutics of Igbo Theology 81
CHAPTER FIVE. Faith goes Further – The Church and the World vis-à-vis Igbo Church and Society: Witnessing in Concrete 99
I. Igbo Theology at Home in Igbo Society and Nigeria 103
II. Igbo Theology: the Task before the Hierarchy, Theologians and Laity 111
CHAPTER SIX. The Prospect of Igbo Theology 115
I. The Praxis of Igbo Theology 115
II. What can Igbo Theology offer the Church, Humanity and World Order? 119
CONCLUSION. Reinstating the Theological Conversation? 123
Bibliography 125
Index 133

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Towards an African Theology

Peter Chidi Okuma is a priest of the diocese of Orlu, Nigeria. He holds a diploma in freelance and feature writing in Journalism from The London School of Journalism, UK, and degrees in Philosophy and Theology from Bigard Memorial Seminary Enugu, Nigeria, an affiliate of Urban University Rome. He equally holds two Masters degrees in Religious studies and Theology from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.

Peter Chidi Okuma

Towards an African Theology. The Igbo Context in Nigeria is a study about the challenge facing contemporary African theology today. It aims at transposing the theoretical doctrines of faith into practical guidelines. The author outlines the history, culture and life setting of the Igbo in Nigeria and develops a theological hermeneutics that would give an answer to African Christians' present faith and situation. He discusses Igbo theology in praxis and as a discipline and considers what contribution Igbo theology could make to the church, humanity and world order.

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D i and eux, R Hom gio me ns[ eligi s et ons Ho D ieu YD gio mmes x, H ieu Reli nsY et gio Ho x, R o nsZ D m elig m H m i m e o R e elig es et ux, H ionsZ s et R mme God s e G o ds,sH, H u m a n s a n d R e l i g i o n s ux, ion o R e G m l tR igio elig Ho sZ me o u d s et s, H nsV mm ion Go elig man sa sV ds, R es e i u G o m n elig Go ods sû nd R t R Hu a n elig elig man ds, H ionsû s and , Hu D m ion s ion i R s[ sû and R uman elig ans a eux, D n i H i D elig s an eux, ons[ d R D o ieu m dR ion ieu elig m H x, H e D om x, s[ s i o e ieu ns Y et ligi Ho me om D x R o s mm me , n ieu et H s e Y D l R es e igio s et om x, H i e e tR om Die ligio mes e ux, H nsZ Reli nsZ t R elig ux, me Go gion om s ion H sZ et R om God eligio mes e ds, H sVG me s, H nsV t R Go elig um ods s i ,H ans ons elig ds, et um G u V Hu R o io a ma God eligi ns an ds, H nsû and R m u ns o d eliand s, Hu nsû Re mans D ligi ma ieu and R D o n x n elig sa nd ieux s[D Rel , io

dieux-hommes-religions new.qxd

Towards an African Theology The Igbo Context in Nigeria

Peter Chidi Okuma

ISBN 90-5201-975-4

P.I.E.-Peter Lang Bruxelles

09:37

Seite 1

Towards an African Theology

Peter Chidi Okuma is a priest of the diocese of Orlu, Nigeria. He holds a diploma in freelance and feature writing in Journalism from The London School of Journalism, UK, and degrees in Philosophy and Theology from Bigard Memorial Seminary Enugu, Nigeria, an affiliate of Urban University Rome. He equally holds two Masters degrees in Religious studies and Theology from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.

Peter Chidi Okuma

Towards an African Theology. The Igbo Context in Nigeria is a study about the challenge facing contemporary African theology today. It aims at transposing the theoretical doctrines of faith into practical guidelines. The author outlines the history, culture and life setting of the Igbo in Nigeria and develops a theological hermeneutics that would give an answer to African Christians' present faith and situation. He discusses Igbo theology in praxis and as a discipline and considers what contribution Igbo theology could make to the church, humanity and world order.

2

06.02.02

D i and eux, R Hom gio me ns[ eligi s et ons Ho D ieu YD gio mmes x, H ieu Reli nsY et gio Ho x, R o nsZ D m elig m H m i m e o R e elig es et ux, H ionsZ s et R mme God se ux, s, H ion o R e G m l t i g elig Ho sZ me s et od s, H ionsV Reli uman mm ion Go gio sa sV ds, R es e u G m n elig Go ods sû nd R t R Hu a n elig elig man ds, H ionsû s and , Hu D m ion s ion i R s[ sû and R uman elig ans a eux, D n i H i D elig s an eux, ons[ d R D o ieu m dR ion ieu elig m H x, H e D om x, s[ s i o e ieu ns Y et ligi Ho me om D x R o s mm me , n ieu et H s e Y D l R es e igio s et om x, H i e e tR om Die ligio mes e ux, H nsZ Reli nsZ t R elig ux, me Go gion om s ion H sZ et R om God eligio mes e ds, H sVG me s, H nsV t R Go elig um ods s i ,H ans ons elig ds, et um G u V Hu R o io a ma God eligi ns an ds, H nsû and R m u ns o d eliand s, Hu nsû Re mans D ligi ma ieu and R D o n x n elig sa nd ieux s[D Rel , io

dieux-hommes-religions new.qxd

Towards an African Theology The Igbo Context in Nigeria

Peter Chidi Okuma

P.I.E.-Peter Lang Bruxelles

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Towards an African Theology The Igbo Context in Nigeria

P.I.E.-Peter Lang Bruxelles Bern Berlin Frankfurt/M New York Oxford Wien ●

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Peter Chidi OKUMA

Towards an African Theology The Igbo Context in Nigeria

“Gods, Humans and Religions” No.2

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Die Deutsche Bibliothek – CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Okuma, Peter Chidi / Towards an African Theology : The Igbo context in Nigeria. / Peter Chidi Okuma. – Bruxelles ; Bern ; Berlin ; Frankfurt/M. ; New York ; Wien : PIE Lang, 2002 ("Gods, Humans and Religions" ; No.2) ISBN 90-5201-975-4

CIP available from the British Library, GB and the Library of Congress, USA. ISBN 0-8204-4680-7

© P.I.E.-Peter Lang S.A. PRESSES INTERUNIVERSITAIRES EUROPÉENNES Brussels, 2002 E-mail : [email protected] www.peterlang.com No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photocopy, microfilm or any other means, without prior written permission from the publisher. All rights reserved.

ISSN 1377-8323 ISBN 90-5201-975-4 (paperback) ISBN 978­3­0352­6058­8 (eBook)

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“Nothing that is worth doing can be achieved in our lifetime; therefore we must be saved by hope. Nothing, which is true or beautiful or good, makes complete sense in any immediate context of history; therefore we must be saved by faith. Nothing we do, however virtuous, can be accomplished alone; therefore we must be saved by love.” REINHOLD NIEBUHR

In memory of my tenth priestly anniversary this year, this book is dedicated in love to: Most Rev. Charlie Gonet, and Rev. Francis Reilly (Noony 1), Springfield, MA. And Most Rev. Dr. Gregory Ochiagha, Rev. Frs Peter Chuka Nkedife and Jan Dumon; Sir Ken Ashton, Profs. Drs. Johan Verstraeten and Mathijs Lamberigts and families. To the memory of Papa and Azubuike, and all Ndigbo and Africans dedicated to the cause of peace, justice and the faith.

Contents Presentation.......................................................................................... 11 by Johan Verstraeten, Faculty of Theology, K. U. Leuven, Belgium Foreword .............................................................................................. 13 by Ken Ashton, Media Consultant, North Wales Introduction ......................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER ONE. Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations? ......................................................... 23 I. Gaudium et Spes: Church-World Dialogue........................................ 24 II. The Medellín Conference of Latin American Bishops, 1968.................................................................................................. 34 III. Historical Precedence to the ‘African Contextual Theology’ ......................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER TWO. Theology: Unity in Diversity ................................... 61 CHAPTER THREE. Understanding the Igbo........................................ 67 CHAPTER FOUR. Developing the Hermeneutics of Igbo Theology .................................................................................. 79 CHAPTER FIVE. Faith goes Further – The Church and the World vis-à-vis Igbo Church and Society: Witnessing in Concrete ....................................................................... 97 I. Igbo Theology at Home in Igbo Society and Nigeria..................... 101 II. Igbo Theology: the Task before the Hierarchy, Theologians and Laity.................................................................... 109

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CHAPTER SIX. The Prospect of Igbo Theology................................ 113 I. The Praxis of Igbo Theology.......................................................... 113 II. What can Igbo Theology offer the Church, Humanity and World Order?........................................................................... 117 CONCLUSION. Reinstating the Theological Conversation? ............. 121 Bibliography....................................................................................... 123 Index ................................................................................................... 133

10

Presentation In the Apostolic Exhortation Evangelii Nuntiandi Paul VI wrote “for the church, evangelising means bringing the good news into all the strata of humanity, and through its influence transforming humanity from within and making it new”. This implies the task of evangelising culture and cultures, “not in a purely decorative way as it were by applying a thin veneer, but in a vital way, in depth and right to their very roots” (EN 17 and 20). Recent statements by Cardinal Ratzinger and the transition in liberation theology from socio-economic to a cultural paradigm demonstrate that the question of inculturation has become more relevant than ever. It is, however not an easy question and matter of controversies. There is a real need for theological clarification. With this book Rev. Fr. Peter Okuma (doctoral student of theology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium) fills a gap. Grasping with great clarity the basic questions of inculturation in Africa on one hand and the Igbo in Nigeria on the other. Peter Okuma makes scholarly theologia insights accessible for everyone who is concerned with the problem. Above all he endeavors to develop a hermeneutics that would answer to the faith and societal situation of his people, the Igbo in Nigeria.

Prof. Dr. Johan Verstraeten Faculty of Theology, K. U. Leuven, Belgium

11

Foreword One of my friends owns our corner shop. Living in North Wales, he comes from the Punjab, in India. As he grew up, he became shocked at the way the lowest people in his country’s rigid caste system were treated – the ‘untouchables.’ He has spent his adult life crusading on their behalf, changing his religion to Buddhism in the process. He has lectured to the British Government, the French and the German, as well as the United Nations and in New York. We have occasional debates on how we can put the world to rights and on one of these occasions he suggested that if we were to take a pinch of the very best of every religion in the world and mix those best bits together, we would have the ideal world. “Your God would want that – and my God would want it,” he said. Putting this into the context of the genocide in Rwanda, when one million people were slaughtered in 100 days, the current conflict in Zimbabwe, Yugoslavia, Israel and Palestine, along with the unrest in Asian countries, many consider the world to be troubled because of the lack of faith and the refusal to care about the cultures of other peoples. As a journalist for some 50 years and a tutor for the past 15, I was approached by my friend Father Peter Okuma, to edit his thesis on the struggles to bond faith with his Igbo society in Nigeria. His request came at the same time as I saw on British TV a documentary on the Rwanda genocide and the dignity and strength of one woman there, who is now caring for 30,000 orphaned families. So, as a professional journalist, I asked myself how much do I charge Peter? I prayed on this and God said, “Just do it.” Peter Okuma has researched this thesis, using his own knowledge of other ‘theologies’ and unique problems in Igbo of Nigeria, which details the facts, stimulates debate and provokes questioning. He says faith can go hand in hand with the life of the people. More so, he says faith must go hand in hand with the Sitz im Leben of the Igbo 13

Towards an African Theology

if they are to survive and flourish as a unified people… with God as the one true master. Living in peaceful North Wales, I often face the dichotomy of feeling sorry for the victims of conflict and my apparent inability to be able to raise a hand to help. I hope by writing this preface to a profound piece of writing by a Nigerian priest I have never met, but who became my friend as I taught him the finer points of journalism, I will have done a small something to help.

Ken Ashton Media Consultant, North Wales

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Introduction There is ‘a theology’ and there are ‘theologies.’ The resurrection of Christ is the former. The hermeneutics of this theology is the consequence of theologies. Paradoxically, most of these theologies are directed toward giving meaning and integrating the faith into the concrete life-situation of the people. Historically, this fact is verifiable in the case of Europe in many situations, as for instance, after the French revolution of 14 July 1789 and its declaration of the Rights of Man or within the period of the ‘cold war.’1 This quest had been heightened thanks to Vatican II and the Medellín Conference of Latin American Bishops. The synod of African bishops of 1994 was at least in principle towing this line of making theology integral to the life-situation of the people. How far this has been achieved is verifiable from the happenstance in the daily, concrete life-situation of the people, in the local churches and the entire continent at large. The faith does not seem to have given concrete answer to some “existential situations” in the lives of the people. There are still tensions between the so-called sacred and the profane, the faith and ‘the world,’ the gospel and the culture of the people. But the Vatican II plunged into the depths of these things and included them in its renewal, by way of the in depth-reaching theological method it deployed: “that of an understanding of both realities from a point of departure in Christ, and in the God who became concretely present in Jesus. The reason the church itself is regarded as a sacrament of salvation is that Christ is such a sacrament (see LG, No. 1).”2 Thus 1

In his pro manuscripto, “Introductory Reflections: What does Tolerance Mean for the Future of Europe?” , in Multiculturalism and Tolerance in Europe – A Mission Impossible? Brussels, October 25-26, 2001, 1. Dr Gabriel Fragnière (Honorary Rector, College of Europe) seems to argue differently that “… the Cold War, had influenced for fifty years the minds of many of Europeans in blocking their capacity to ‘think differently’”.

2

J. SOBRINO, The Principle of Mercy. Taking the Crucified People from the Cross, New York, 1984, 109.

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theologies today should work toward this realization in concrete. The fact that Paul VI in Evangelii Nuntiandi calls for “bringing the Good News into all the data of humanity, and through its influence transforming humanity from within and making it new (No.18). Yet he adds to the traditional modes of evangelization – proclamation and testimonial – a new one, that of liberation (Nos.29-31). However, the challenges to these efforts are enormous today in a world of misery and injustice, of hope and despair, above all of inequalities. How can theology today realize this fact of being integral in the life-situation of Africans and coming homeward to the concrete lifesituation of the Igbo in Nigeria? How to integrate the gospel into their everyday life-situations today is not always an easy task for the Igbo. Many years after the missionaries left Igboland, Christianity still remains – ‘Mission Christianity’ for the Igbo. Mission Christianity has come to mean for many Igbo simply a set of rules to be observed, promises to be expected in the next world, rhythmless hymns to be sung, rituals to be followed and a few other outward things. It is a Christianity which is locked up six days a week, meeting only for two hours on Sundays and perhaps once during the week. It is a Christianity, which is active in a church building. The rest of the week is empty. The Igbo, who traditionally do not know religious vacuum, feel that they don’t get enough religion from this type of Christianity, since it does not fill up their whole life and their understanding of the universe. Furthermore, Igbo Christians in general whether Catholic, Anglican or Protestant often feel complete foreigners in mission churches. For example, much of formal Christianity is based on books but there are older Christians who do not read; the hymns are translated from European, English and American versions and are sung to foreign tunes which have little rhythm and without bodily movements like clapping the hands or twisting the loins as a religious expression. Worship in mission churches is simply dull for most Igbo. Independent churches (what we see today in numbers around us – the ‘Pentecostal churches’) are an attempt to find ‘a place to feel at home,’3 not only in worship but in the whole profession and expression of Christian Faith. Beneath the umbrella of independent churches or the so called Pentecostal churches today, Igbo Christians can freely shed their tears, voice 3

F. B. WELBOURN and B. A. OGOT use this phrase in their study: A place to feel at home, Oxford, Nairobi, 1966.

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Introduction

their sorrows, present their spiritual and physical needs, respond to the world in which they live and empty themselves before God.’4 On another note, since after the Nigeria-Biafra civil war (19671970), the people still see themselves as ‘strangers’ in the land, this factor has been made more complex with the Muslim-Christian power game in Nigeria today which we see often being resolved in the name of Religious riots and mutiny. But on the side of Christians, the Igbo are in the majority and give the greatest devotion and support to the Church in Nigeria. Yet the Christian faith still seems not to attend enough nor give satisfactory answer to their complex issues and situations. Further, why does the ‘Igbo’ Christian in the Church on Sunday seem to be a different personality outside the Church for the rest of the week? Why does he or she still would like to cling to visiting the native doctor to find out certain ominous things about the fate of his or her dead relatives and friends? Why does he or she still believe in reincarnation at the bottom of his or her heart? Why does he or she still clamor for protection from charms and amulet even after believing in the ‘credo’ and hanging crucifix on the neck? Why does he still cling to his “Ozo traditional title” in secret even after threats of sanctions from the local church? Why would he prefer rather to stick to this title and abandon his Christian faith? Why would the youths (even some adults) prefer long hours of fellowship with the Catholic charismatic renewal movement (a pious society) rather than staying much longer at the holy Mass? Why the enormous quest even among the clergy for beginning ‘healing ministry’? On the part of the people, why is the outstanding hankering for ‘healing’ and miracles for prosperity? Of course, knowing too that it is against their faith to visit the spiritual homes, they do so in secret, in spite of threats of suspension from their local churches. Why do Igbo Christians not have answers to most of their public lives situations – in the Government and Work places from their Christian faith? Often their attitude toward their Christian faith is that of timidity – since, they see their local church ‘as the big father with the big stick’ rather than the one who has come to ‘bring good news to the poor, to heal the contrite of heart’ (Luke 4:8), ‘to seek and to save what was lost’ (Luke 19:10) (LG, No.8) and to set the downtrodden free. Why the high trend of poverty among the people, in spite of the flamboyance of a few?

4

J. MBITI, African Religions and Philosophy, (second edition), Ibadan, 1997, 228.

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Towards an African Theology

These concerns and more show that there is a need for an understanding of how the Gospel can address their socio-economic, politico-cultural and moral contexts. A crisis-situation! Crisis is not always evil. It is mostly an opportunity for reflection and discovering of new meaning in existence. In the words of Jansen, ‘crisis is a necessity that falls upon human persons or communities, to revise the structure of their existence, to orient themselves from their closeness to greater openness and meaningfulness in existence.’5 This quest for the discovering of meaning in existence is a fact for the Igbo in Nigeria6 who had gone through crisis as Biafra7 (the Igbo were the Biafrans during the 30-month civil war in Nigeria: 1967-1970; and as ‘a people of God’ witnessing growth in faith, vocations to the religious life and priesthood, quest for self-reliant Church, crisis of culture, identity in Nigeria, the World and existence in general. A theological model, contextual theology – that which answers in concrete and existentially to the sorrows, joys, despairs, aspirations and prospects of a people – is opted for this people here towards this “living in between two states, the one you are now, and the one you hope to achieve in the future?”8 In the light of contemporary theology which aims at transposing the theoretical doctrines of faith into practical imperatives so that hope for humanity becomes the principle of theological reflections, this contextual theology project will aim at transposing the theoretical doctrines of faith among the Igbo from the resource of their values and from what they benefited from the missionaries into practical imperatives that is the object of contemporary theology and which Vatican II has endorsed

5

G. M. A. JANSEN, O.P., The Sacramental We: An Existential Approach to the Sacramental Life, Milwaukee, 1968, ix.

6

Nigeria – Africa’s most populous country – has about 250 dialects. There are basically three main tribes among other minority tribes in Nigeria. These major tribes are Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba. See AFIGBO (ed.), Groundwork of Igbo History, Lagos, 1992. In this groundwork, prominent historians carried out an in depth chronicle of the history of Igbo. See also A. K. APPIAH, In My Father’s House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture, New York, 1992.

7

See A. A. MADIEBO, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, Enugu, 1980.

8

JANSEN, op. cit., x.

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Introduction

also, so that “the theological as such will become a principle of action;”9 and hope for the people and entire humanity become the prospect of this theological investigations. It is often said that the Church is where the people of God are gathered. In this sense the Church is reckoned as the Assembly of God’s people since, “the Church does not fully exist except in true believers, converted to the Gospel – the people of God.”10 But it is not just enough to be ‘people of God.’ A people only begin to be as such a people of faith in Christ, Risen from the dead, only when they begin to realize and make meaning of their faith through appropriation of the salvation with liberation wrought by Christ for the whole humanity. Otherwise the people atrophy! The ‘true witness’ to the resurrection is to announce life – Christ! A people announce the resurrection through making their own the new life and victory won by Christ for humanity courtesy of His resurrection.11 In this direction a contextual theology becomes a necessity for each people as much as the gospel of the Risen Lord addresses people uniquely in their situation. In this regard, the resurrection of Jesus Christ is no less addressed to me than to the Romans, the Galatians, the Corinthians, and the Asians. Thus from the moment that ‘this Gospel text’ escapes from its author and from his situation, it also escapes from its original audience. Hence it can procure new readers for itself.12 The Gospel throws new challenges for each generation and each community of believers – “circumstances in which people live, speak about God’s 9

K. RAHNER, “Considerations on the Active Role of the Person in the Sacramental Event”, in Theological Investigations, Vol. 14, Baltimore, Helicon and New York 1976, 139. L. LEIJSSEN, “Current Theology. Sacramental Theology: A Review of Literature”, In Theological Studies, 55(1994), 661. “… Sacramental theology has retrieved the importance of rooting its thought in actual celebration rather than in abstract concepts.”

10

G. ALBERIGO & J. A. KOMONCHAK et al. (eds.) History of Vatican II, The Formation of the Council’s Identity: First Period and Intersession, October 1962September 1963, Vol. II, Leuven, 1997 90. Thus we read in Lumen Gentium, No. 14, “They are fully incorporated into the society of the Church who possess the Spirit of Christ.”

11

G. GUTIERREZ, On Liberation Theology: New Challenges, (Guest Lecture), Leuven, May 9, 2001.

12

P. RICOEUR, Hermeneutics and the human sciences, trans. and edited by J. B. Thompson, New York, 1980, 192.

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will naturally and lead to different statements. Today the term for this tendency is ‘contextual theology,’ which again is a dominant motif in contemporary discussion.”13 In this sense a contextual theology within the ‘Church’s theology’ becomes a necessity.14 There is an urgent need for a contextual theology that is uniquely ‘Igbo’ – for the Igbo church as a way of concretizing and making the Gospel at home in the lives and Sitz im Leben of the people; this is in agreement with recognizing more clearly that, “Third World countries have their own history, traditions, and social structures, as well as their own problems, and that none of these are to be treated as though they were no more than adjuncts to those of the West.”15 Of course such a theology is not meant to be ‘independent of other theologies’ but of necessity must enter into dialogue too with other theologies, in this way to bring home to the Igbo the Gospel message and the lessons of Vatican II Council, which is yet to be integrated and assimilated as such by the people. This is a necessity since one does not need to wait in order to experience the grace of God after. One has to survive life for now. The victory of Christ’s Resurrection has to have a meaning in what we are going through now. This has to be realistic and liberating in the existential situation of the people, since “It is in the created world and in the concreteness of human life, viewed through the loving eyes of God, and not through a selfish desire for conquest and subjection of the otherness of creation, that Christians discover and live their commitment of God.”16 Consequently, the first chapter of this book situates the setting for this enquiry that the Gospel, life-situation of a people, the Church and World do mix! These, as it were, formed the bases for such contextual theologies as the European theology, Liberation theology, Political

13

G. JONES, Christian Theology: A Brief Introduction, Massachusetts, 1999, 29.

14

The ‘Universal theologyness’ is the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, which is the background to contextual situation, or particular theologies.

15

D. DORR, Option for the Poor. A Hundred Years of Vatican Social Teaching (Revised edition), Dublin, 1992, 152.

16

J. HAERS, “A Risk Observed” in T. MERRIGAN (ed.), Louvain Studies 21 (1996), 47.

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Introduction

theology, theology of Inculturation to mention but a few.17 The second chapter considers the unity nature of these theologies, which is the Gospel, the resurrection of Christ, which gives Christians the courage to bear witness. My argument is that this hermeneutics speaks for every people of God no matter their situation; thus, it speaks for the Igbo, as a people of God. In this direction some conditions are reviewed as necessary tools towards this realization via the Igbo theologians, the richness of the language, the values of the people, and the narratives of the Bible (that has to be in the language of the people) to harness this effort. The third chapter develops a purview of the history, culture and life setting of the Igbo in Nigeria and searches into factors that makes room for a contextual Igbo theology. In the fourth chapter, a hermeneutical paradigm is offered for the realization of Igbo theology through the appropriation of the values of the people. The fifth chapter takes the faith of the people farther into the political Nigerian society today, where the Igbo live; the socio-cultural, concrete life situation where they operate on day-to-day basis, which this theology is meant to address and marry with the gospel for the integral human persons adequately considered in Igbo society. Here the hierarchy, theologians and laity are challenged to cooperate in witnessing in the society and in Nigeria in general. The sixth and final chapter goes further to consider the prospects of Igbo theology in praxis and as a discipline. It considers also what contribution Igbo theology could give to the Church, humanity and World Order. In the conclusion the need for Igbo theology is reemphasized as a way forward to a better Igbo society and the Nigerian society at large as it is stated, that it is impossible to be authentically Christian without the Africanness or Igboness of the people. But then this work remains an introduction to the ‘big project’ of an Igbo theology (which could be taught as a discipline and the sampling of this is integrated into this last chapter), which should integrate faith and life in concrete as a way of witnessing to the resurrection of Christ. In the course of producing this work the author feels grateful to His Lordship, Most Rev. Dr Gregory Ochiagha, the bishop of Orlu diocese, Nigeria. He appreciates the efforts of Mrs. Catherine Closson, Senior Editor of P.I.E.-Peter Lang publishers (Brussels) and her co-workers. 17

DE SCHRIJVER, op. cit., IX-XI. The lists of contributors to this compendium coming from different parts of the world show that contextual theology cuts across all society and human situations.

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The author is thankful to Dr Gabriel Fragnière, the honorary Rector, College of Europe and the Series Editor and his wife for their friendship, useful suggestions, corrections and assistance. The author is kindly indebted to Rev. Frs. Jan Dumon, Francis Reilly (Noony 1), Kevin Codd (Rector, American College Leuven), and Most Rev. Charlie Gonet of Springfield, Massachusetts for his goodness. To the Rector of K. U. Leuven, Prof. Dr. A. Oosterlinck, to Professor Dr. Johan Verstraeten and family, the Dean, Prof. Dr. Mathijs Lamberigts and all the Professors in the faculty of theology of Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, I remain very grateful. Ken Ashton, a Media Consultant, North Wales and his family are highly appreciated. To my colleagues and friends, who made enormous suggestions and proofreading of the manuscript at different stages, Sergius Duru, Jude Uzochukwu Njoku, Lawrence Nwankwo, Charles Okorougo, John Bosco Ekanem, Ellis Kekong, Peter Safari, Tony Njoku, Jake Otonko, John Ayah, Eusebius Mbidioaka, Tony Osuji, Eusebius Onyeche, Casmir Nnubia, Cyril Nwankwo, Damian Ilodigwe, I remain indebted in thanks. To Tina, Chinyere P. Young, Sr. Eucharistia Nwokeji, Eloka Family, my friends in Nigeria, Leuven, Louvain-la-Neuve, Kiri Egbuchu family, my family and all my friends abroad, I remain thankful. My final thanks go to the Franciscan Sisters of Bawinkel, Germany who sheltered me in the last moment of rewriting and reworking the entire manuscript, and Ken Ashton of North Wales for the correction of the initial and final drafts and to the K. U. Leuven Interfaculty Council for Development Cooperation Scholarships program for their continual supports. In the end, this Igbo theology project remains a personal work for whose pitfalls this author is responsible, and for whatever good quality it may contain, he dedicates to Ndigbo – home and abroad, to all Nigerians and lovers of peace and justice in the world at large.

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CHAPTER ONE

Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations? Jesus Christ is God’s Conversation1 with humanity at its peak. He bridges the gap between Divinity and Humanity and so opens up the way to Communicative relations. Thus, during his entire life on earth, Jesus Christ repudiates to make a distinction between the secular and the cultic, between worship and actual day-to-day living. In the concrete reality of his time, as we know, “Jesus saw public worship not as the locus of a privileged access to God, but rather as a suspect thing, a vitiated thing. Jesus fought a ritual conception of the human being’s relationship with God, he fought an extrinsic conception of sanctification: “It is mercy I desire and not sacrifice”(Matt. 9:10-13; cf. Matt. 12:1-3; 15:1-20; John 5:16-18, 9:16, etc.). His obsession, if we may call it that, was with an approach to human persons, in whatever manner and whatever area that approach might be possible.”2 In the case of Paul, when he went to Athens, he spoke before the Athenian Council, the Areopagus (Acts 17: 22-23). He used the gospel to speak not only to the immediate culture of the people, but also addressed the life-situation of the people, their very existence. The Gospel, culture and life are closely linked. In acting the way he did, Paul gave a great example of what today may be seen as the ‘contextualisation’ of the gospel – a process by which the Gospel permeates the totality of a people’s way of life. Addressing Athenians, Paul said, “As I walk

1

C. SCHWÖBEL, Pro manuscripto, God as Conversation. Reflections on a Theological Ontology of Communicative Relations, Leuven, November 7, 2001, 2. “Taking the understanding of God as conversation seriously implies that God is eventful, relational, personal, communal and that the divine being is freely communicative being so that the world’s being is freely communicated and dependently communicative being.”

2

SOBRINO, op. cit., 129.

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around looking carefully at your shrines, I even discovered an altar inscribed, To an Unknown God. What you unknowingly worship, I proclaim to you” (Acts17: 22ff). Through this way Paul, ‘Apostle of the Gentiles,’ follows the pace of Jesus to dialogue between the Gospel and People’s way of life, the Church and the World – showing no dichotomy as such!3 The Church since Vatican II had tried to rediscover this route as such.

I. Gaudium et Spes: Church-World Dialogue Gaudium et Spes, the document of Vatican II Council on the Church in the Modern World, sets the agenda for ‘openness’ and dialogue between the Church and the World – in its openness it could be said to be ‘appropriating’ the footsteps of Jesus who in fidelity to God and human persons spent himself, and his life thereby became a sacrificed life – to being himself the victim;4 Paul in his own apostolic life and concretely in his interaction with the Athenians equally showed this openness. By towing the line of Jesus and Paul in a way, Gaudium et Spes thus, provides the background and hermeneutics for contextualising the gospels in a people’s concrete situation; since this document is also involved in the society and endeavors to act in society, “to undertake that kind of non-violent action which we call influence, the chief instrument of which is bearing witness”.5

3

F. J. SHEEN, “Personality: Earth and Heaven,” in Christ-Centred Wisdom for the Third Millennium, In the Fullness of Time, Missouri, 1999, 69. “There has always been throughout human history a belief that the world, and all that is in it, is wicked. Oriental philosophies insisted on the extinction of desires. In Christian history one of the greatest of all heresies was Manicheanism – namely, that there was an absolute principle of evil working in the world, hence, not all creation is good. Teilhard de Chardin sought to bridge this gap between the world and God, or between physics and theology, as Saint Francis before had bridged the gap between the Divine and the human. Francis found humanity lovable; Teilhard found the cosmos lovable. As all mortals, even the weakest, told Francis of God, so the physical universe told Teilhard of the Divine. His background, he said, prepared him for seeking the union of the two.”

4

SOBRINO, op. cit.

5

Y. CONGAR, “The Role of the Church in the Modern World”, in H. VORGRIMLER et al. (eds.), Commentary on the Documents of Vatican II. The Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, Vol. V, New York, 1969, 214.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

A. Brief History of Gaudium et Spes As a matter of historical insight, the remote intention of John XXIII (Mater et Magistra and Pacem in Terris) had influence on the making of this document.6 But from a proximate point of view the influence of the group “Jesus, the Church and the Poor”7 cannot be overlooked. This group formed around Paul Gauthier came together for their first reunion on 26 October 1962. It assembled some Council Fathers among whom were: Mercier, Guyot, Marty, Renard, Moralejo, Coelho, Oliveira, Helder Camara (auxiliary bishop of Rio de Janeiro), Cardinals Suenens of Belgium, Lercaro of Bologna, Leger of Montreal, and Montini of Milan who became Paul VI. This group had a common project, that of “How to make the Church of the poor the center of the reflection of the conciliar?” By focusing on this project, they drew attention to the issue of development and poverty in the World especially in Third World from the point of view of a Christian ethic of development.8 The action of this group was taken over in two different ways and reflected in the commission concerned with schema XIII.9 Consequently, because 6

D. DORR, Option for the Poor. A Hundred Years of Vatican Social Teaching (Revised edition), Dublin, 1992, 152. “Gaudium et Spes expresses the consensus that emerged after three years of private and public dialogue, debate, and even controversy. It crowns a three-year process of thorough and intense exploration by experts in the various matters it deals with, as well as a process of education of the bishops and of the millions of people who followed the progress of the Council. So, even where it merely repeats the teaching of Pope John or earlier popes, it does so with a greatly increased degree of authority and credulity.”

7

D. PELLETIER, “Une marginalité engagée: Le groupe Jésus, l’Église et les pauvres, ” in M. LAMBERIGTS, C. SOETENS, J. GROOTAERS (dir.), Les Commissions Conciliaires à Vatican II, Leuven, 1996, 63.

8

Ibid., 68. “Ainsi se met en place au sein de ‘l’Église des pauvres’ une sensibilité tiers-mondiste, qui s’efforce de réfléchir sur la pauvreté dans le cadre d’une éthique chrétienne du développement. Dès la première séance, Mgr Helder Camara propose par la voix de Mgr Mercier la tenue d’un ‘Bandoeng chrétien’ qui prendrait la forme d’‘un grand rassemblement autour du Pape, des évêques intéressés et des techniciens, pour examiner la situation du monde sous-développé.’” See also C. MOELLER, “Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World: History of the Constitution,” in H. VORGRIMLER, Commentary on the Documents of Vatican II, Vol. V, New York, 1969, 10-11ff.

9

Ibid., 86. “Son action est relayée de deux manières: au sein de la commission sur le schéma XIII, par Helder Camara, Lorrain et Blomjous, auxquels s’ajoutera dans l’intersession Gonzalez Moralejo, sans qu’il soit possible d’évaluer dans quelle mesure leurs initiatives individuelles s’enracinent encore dans la réflexion collective de

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“Vatican was first of all a place of meetings, experiences and confrontations for the Episcopates of the whole World; the diversity in the inspiration of the members of ‘The Church and the Poor’ – weighed very much on the group in a short time. This invites us to re-evaluate its role in the light of the conciliar inheritance.”10 Of course, most of these bishops who opted for going beyond the internal affairs (ad intra) of the Church into the ‘World’ (ad extra) were influenced by the opinions of the ‘liberal Northern European theology and theologians.’11 Consequently, in the light of this initiative a coordinating commission was established to address the new agenda item.

B. The Draft of Gaudium et Spes In January 1963, a ‘mixed commission,’ composed of the theological commission and the commission on the lay apostolate were instructed to prepare a new schema on ‘the principles and the action of the Church for the promotion of the welfare of society.’ This was schema 17, later schema 13, and would become the Pastoral Constitution on ‘The Church in the Modern World,’ Gaudium et Spes.12 The drafting process went through a tortuous process of six drafts. Even the sixth version had about 20,000 amendments that the mixed commission had to deal with. At first, no laity were involved in the process of the mixed commission. Later, twenty-three laymen were invited, fourteen of who were able to attend. Three others were invited as ob-

‘l’Eglise des pauvres’; en aula, par l’action du comité d’animation, avec les mêmes réserves de méthode.” Selon Himmers, le comité “a participé à la préparation d’interventions sur le schéma XIII au cours de la troisième session.” 10

PELLETIER, loc. cit., 89.

11

DORR, op. cit., 151. See also the intervention by Bishop James Corboy of Zambia in Acta Synodalia, Vol. III, Pars V, 625-6. He criticized the draft of GS as being too Western in Outlook. See also G. ALBERIGO et al. (ed.), The Reception of Vatican II, M. J. O’CONNELL (translated), Washington D.C., 1987, 19. See also ibid., 149. However, it is worthy to note that, “The documents of the Council represent not merely the consensus of the bishops from all over the world but also the consensus of these bishops with the Vatican, above all with the pope.”

12

R. GOLDIE, From a Roman Window. Fives Decades: The World, the Church and the Catholic Laity, Sydney, 1998, 74.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

servers, one of them a woman from Australia, Miss Rosemary Goldie. They were invited to advise the bishops on the practical sections; the dogmatic chapter was not given to them and was discussed by the clerical theologians. 13 During the discussions in the hall after the schema had been presented on October 20, 1964, Cardinal Léger made an explicit reference to the encyclical, Ecclesiam Suam. Ecclesiam Suam, the encyclical of Paul VI (Montini of Milan) had most direct influence in the discussion of the orientation taken up by the commission on Gaudium et Spes. Two men, M. G. McGrath and R. Tucci who played a role in the development of the schema have attested to this.14 The subsequent repeated references to Ecclesiam Suam were due to the natural closeness of the encyclical to a document meant to introduce clarity to the dialogue between the Church and the World.15 In the words of Alberigo, “Despite this fact, from as early as 1965 the encyclical received hardly any mention in the immense bibliography on the ecclesiology of Vatican II. This can be explained by the fact that Ecclesiam Suam intended simply to offer a direction, whereas, Gaudium et Spes gave concrete form to the dialogue. In this respect, the latter is in harmony with the former, which B. Häring, one of the drafters of Gaudium et Spes, says was of fundamental significance for the pastoral constitution.” 16 However, the main contribution of the text is in the attempt to offer a solid theological background to practical directives. Among such key issues as religious liberty (Dignitatis Humanae), on peace (especially 13

M. L. R. MICH, Catholic Social Teaching and Movements, New York, 2000, 35. The other two women include: Sister Luke Tobin, the Superior of the Sisters of Loreto in the United States and the head of the leadership Conference of Women Religious, and a noted British economist, Lady Jackson (Barbara). Though these women were allowed to speak during the meetings of these commissions they did not have a vote.

14

G. ALBERIGO, History of Vatican II. The Mature Council, Second Period and Intersession, September 1963-September 1964, Volume III, Maryknoll, Leuven, 2000, 456.

15

Ibid.,

16

Ibid., An exception is Henri de Lubac’s Athéisme et sens de l’homme. Une double requête de “Gaudium et Spes”, (Paris, 1968), in which the contribution and interpretation of the pastoral constitution take Ecclesiam Suam as their explicit point of departure.

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GS 78), on human work (GS 33-9,67), on the nature of human authority and the need for it (GS 74), and on the relationship of the Church to the World (GS 40-4). Rather less successful efforts in this direction are the text statements on ‘development’ (GS 25-32, 63-72, 85-90) and on culture (GS 53-62). In these presentations the text tried to integrate both scriptural and philosophical basis to the discussion.17 One of the greatest achievements of the text is on the issue of peace. The document proposes a conception of peace, which provides a philosophical-theological basis for its more practical statements (which follow in the same general direction as John XXIII’s). According to Gaudium et Spes, peace is not merely an absence of war. It is an ordering of society; but real peace is built not just on any order but also on one which is to be brought into existence by the thirst of people for an ever more perfect justice (GS 78.1). Of course this justice is not limited to ‘political’ grievances, it extends to economic order and even into international cooperation in the economic field.18 From this insight into the document of Gaudium et Spes, we realize that its bent is towards the society – the Church ‘bearing testimony’ in the society of humankind.

C. ‘The Theology of Bearing Testimony’ of the People of God in the General Mission of Church in the World in Gaudium et Spes The general motivation of this document was not to define new doctrine but to explain the church’s social teaching in a way that invites dialogue and cooperation with those in the human family who are not part of the Roman Catholic community.19 Its methodology was an examination of social, cultural, political realities “in the light of the gospel and human experiences.”20 In this direction, the approach21 of Gaudium et Spes (Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, December 1965) to ‘mis17

DORR, op. cit., 153.

18

Ibid., 153-154.

19

M. L. KRIER MICH, Catholic Social Teaching and Movements, New York, 2000, 123.

20

G. S. n. 46. Gaudium et Spes, in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 58 (1966) 15, 1025-1115.

21

MOELLER, op. cit., 10-11. On December 1962, Cardinal Suenens made a speech proposing to group the schemata round two poles: ad intra (mission within), ad extra

28

Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

sion’ may be said to differ from that of Lumen Gentium, whereas that of the latter seems ‘inside-looking’ (ad intra); the impression one gets is that of a Church isolated from the ‘world of mission’ and looks inside itself; that of the former is outside-looking (ad extra) – social teaching (‘social mission’) of the Church – ‘a Church that goes on mission to the world.’22 In Gaudium et Spes, then, we see spelt out the larger role of the Church to the World through both clergy and laity. What the Church receives from the World’s ‘secularity:’ “the experience of past age, the march of science, the treasures hidden in the various cultural traditions”.23 Thus, the first-three chapters of this document are devoted to man and human life; the Church is presented as having a contribution to make to the world. The whole part of the second part with five chapters are devoted to social doctrine; according to Yves Congar, this doctrine merely defines in specific details some of the demands made on the new man who is born at Easter.24 Be it as it may, the problem with the document lies entirely with the manner of the presentation of this ‘mission-project:’ while lack of exactness within the documents about how the people of God are to accomplish this mission may enhance the freedom, autonomy and adulthood of the people of God, the ambivalence about the valuation of the world, the lack of opportunity to articulate honestly within the Church, the secular orientation so strongly pronounced in the document as inherent in being a faithful, compromises adult identity, evoking a quasi(mission outside); this won the approval of the Council fathers. The next day Cardinal Montini emphasized the bond between Christ and the Church and went on to express his own agreement with the proposed schema on the Church and the World. On 6 December, Cardinal Lercaro emphatically insisted on the necessity of speaking about the Church of the poor. 22

DORR, op. cit., 152.

23

G. S. nn.41-5.

24

Y. CONGAR, The Role of the Church in the Modern World in H. VORGRIMLER et al. (eds.), Commentary on the Documents of Vatican II (Vol. V). Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, New York, 1969, 204. NB: Congar questions in this regard: ‘what justification does the Church offer for its activity which goes beyond the work of conveying to the faithful the Easter grace of renewal?’ It seems to say that the basis of this, theologically and Christologically is in the Old Testament, by Christ’s ‘sovereignty as head of the Church’ (Eph.1: 18, 22) and ‘of all things’ (Eph. 1: 22).

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dependency that counters mature adulthood.25 This is not unconnected with the fact that the document presents itself as confronting the ‘World’ even where it is already established. It reads in part: “The good news of Christ continually renews the life and culture of fallen man.”26 In this way the Church sees her mission as that of ‘going out of herself,’ christening the World “exactly as it is being built” and not constructing “a Christian World” at her own expense and on her own initiative.27 The consequence of this is that the relation is very close and that in the realization of the Church’s mission it is impossible to separate work from the welfare of humankind from the preaching of the gospel.28 In this regard, the faithful may be stocked in their mission in the world, in which they live, because, the Pastoral Constitution does not markedly develop the christological foundation of the relations between the Church and the World.29 This could be attributable to the realization of the fact that the pastoral constitution Gaudium et Spes “occasionally overlooked such concepts as justice, progress, and human dignity; and it failed to realize they do not necessarily have the same meaning in the Christian and the modern understanding of them.”30 This as it were created some loophole in the document’s inability to let the faithful out of the quagmire, the impasse, and creating for them an apt theology for mission in the world, in their, ‘participation in the general mission of the Church.’ The way out of this quagmire is to recognize the fact that, “the role of the Church in regard to the World (its munus) is not based only on the positive divine realities, such as the will of God, the mission received from Christ, the grace which the Church serves, but also on man and the

25

V. S. FINN, “Laity: Mission and Ministry” in L. RICHARD, O. M. I et al. (ed.), Vatican II: The Unfinished Agenda, New York, 1987, 152.

26

G. S. n. 58.

27

M. D. CHENU, “Consecratio Mundi” in A. AMER et al. (ed.), The Christian and The World, New York, 1965, 161-177.

28

CONGAR, op. cit.

29

Ibid., 206.

30

H. J. POTTMEYER, “A New Phase in the Reception of Vatican II: Twenty Years of Interpretation of the Council,” in The Reception of Vatican II, G. ALBERIGO, J.-P. JOSSUA and J. A. KOMONCHAK (eds.), trans. by Matthew. J. O’Connell, Washington D.C. 1987, 43.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

human conscience to whose appeal that service and mission have the answer.”31

D. The Shortcomings of Gaudium et Spes What were missing in the document were a coherent ‘Third World theology’ and a body of ‘experts’ to articulate such a theology. In the absence of these it is not surprising to find that even Third World problems were looked at to some extent from a First World problems perspective. This is evident in the treatment of ‘development’ and in the chapter on culture (GS 53-62, 64-5 respectively).32 In Gaudium et Spes, the Council focused on various aspects of culture and its relationship to the Church (Nos.53-62).33 The text began with the explanation of the notion of culture. It says that: “The word ‘culture,’ refers ‘to all those things which go to the refining and developing of man’s diverse mental and physical endowments.’”34 From here, the constitution dwelt on the diversity of cultures, observing that “culture necessarily has historical and social overtones, and the word ‘culture’ often carries with it sociological and ethnological connotations; in this sense one can speak about plurality of cultures.”35 According to Eugene LaVerdiere: “The participants in the council were able to view this plurality very dramatically. During the council, the Eucharist was celebrated in St. Peter’s Basilica in every rite, including the Ethiopian rite with its drums and cymbals.”36 The implication is that the gospel of Jesus Christ must be preached to all nations, and the Liturgy must be celebrated in each culture. The obvious inference of this fact is the implicit call for ‘inculturation.’ The text underscored that Culture affects every aspect of the Church, including evangelization, catechesis, the liturgy and prayer life, even the

31

POTTMEYER, loc. cit. This view championed by the polish bishops had influenced No. 11 and No. 40 of G. S. ‘Munus,’ literally means duty or responsibility.

32

DORR, op. cit., 152.

33

LaVerdiere, (July 22, 1999). “God in Our Midst,” in The Catholic Spirit, 14.

34

Gaudium et Spes, No. 53.

35

Ibid.

36

LaVerdiere, E. (July 22, 1999). “God in Our Midst” in The Catholic Spirit, 14.

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language used in various regions of the globe. The Church is one but it has to express itself in various cultures. Consequently, through inculturation, the Church, for her part, becomes a more intelligible sign of what she is, and a more effective instrument of mission.37 “In this way the Church carries out its mission and in that very act it stimulates and advances human and civil culture, as well as contributing by its activity, including liturgical activity, to man’s interior freedom.”38 But the obvious fact is that these notions of culture and development are purely Western. Consequently, these Western ideas of ‘development’ and understanding of ‘culture’ are adapted as prototypes for Christianity. Such that a Latin American type of theology – Liberation theology or African type of theology (inculturation or ‘contextual theology,’ or black theology or even Feminist theology) that could have different hermeneutics of understanding development and culture fall short of the ideal. Thus is most of African culture in spite of its richness seen as ‘profane’ and liberation theology that answers to the ‘religiosity’ and yearning of the people of Latin America be regarded as Marxist and its proponents, Marxists, in the words of Jon Sobrino, “automatically regarded as the worst possible peril for the church”?39 These obvious questions are pertinent: So Christianity cannot get out of Western civilization – could Christianity be post-Western today? Arnold Toynbee’s advise is relevant here, ‘he advised Western Christians to separate their religious and spiritual heritage from Western civilization. Christianity did not originate in the West, but predated Western civilization. The inclination to make Christianity today a ‘Western culture or the culture of the Western a Christian culture’ needs a rethinking. Since Christianity from its early history, when it spread around the Mediterranean and to parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe, more so today, its members included and still include people from many diverse cultures and civilizations. More over, as Toynbee argued succinctly, Christianity would outlive Western civilization and cultures, continuing to be a spiritual force thousands of years after Western civili-

37

Gaudium et Spes, No. 57.

38

Gaudium et Spes, No. 58.

39

J. SOBRINO, The Principle of Mercy: Taking the Crucified People from the Cross, Maryknoll, New York, 1984, 118.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

zation had passed away.40 Even, as we see Christianity and vocations to the Priesthood and Religious lives in the decline in the West and its increase in the ‘Two-Thirds of the World.’ What would this portend to a Christianity that tends to hinge on a particular cultural model today? Does the sponsorship of the ‘Churches of the Two-Thirds of the World’ by their Western brethren imply that the culture of the Church should be Western? Is what is Christian only that which passes for Western understanding of culture and development? Is Christianity purely Western? Could not the gospel of Jesus Christ speak to people in their culture and modality of development and yet remain undistorted? Could redemption of Christ only be realized within a particular prototype culture? Where do we find then the example set by Jesus Christ in going in search of the lost and the Pentecost of speaking in different tongues yet understanding one another? ‘Can the Church fully exist except in true believers, converted to the Gospel – the people of God no matter the culture and developmental background?’41 Just as Willem B. Drees argues, “Replacing all the historic languages by a single global language, whether Esperanto or English, would make, to a large extent, the richness of human cultural history inaccessible. Since languages do not correspond on a one-to-one basis in distinctions and meanings expressed, each language allows for a slightly different angle at reality. Translations are possible even if they never completely cover the content of the original. Languages are influenced by each other and exchange words and phrases. We cannot coexist without interacting. We should do so, preferably, with sensitivity and respect for the variety of languages.”42 These facts are also very pertinent to ‘development’ and cultures of peoples. Apparently limiting the culture of Christianity to that of a particular people today would make the richness of Christianity inaccessible. Consequently, it is either the Church sees 40

A. TOYNBEE, Christianity Among the Religions of the World, New York, 1957, 62-67.

41

G. ALBERIGO & J. A. KOMONCHAK et al. (eds.), History of Vatican II, The Formation of the Council’s Identity: First Period and Intersession, October 1962September 1963, Vol. II, Leuven, 1997, 90. Thus we read in Lumen Gentium, No. 14, “They are fully incorporated into the society of the Church who, possess the Spirit of Christ.”

42

W. B. DREES, “Naturalism, Morality and Religion” in D. A. CROSBY & C. D. HARDWICK (eds.), Religion in a Pluralistic Age: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Philosophical Theology, 2001, New York, 139-140.

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and recognizes these essential differences of other cultures for which she should become a “World-Church” to deploy the phraseology of Karl Rahner, and with a Pauline boldness draws the necessary consequences from this recognition, or she remains a Western Church and so in the final analysis betrays the meaning of Vatican II and the richness of the Gospel message of Jesus Christ. In spite of shortcomings, it behooves to say that ‘the very generality of many passages of the conciliar text like the one pointed out above on development and culture in Gaudium et Spes afterwards do not, therefore manifest a weakness but a strength – a strength of a long tradition that need not be defensive and that has the time to be open to opinions that seem to contradict or seriously qualify the status quo.’43 Yet, “Gaudium et Spes represents a considerable advance on earlier Church documents – even those of John XXIII – in so far it begins to recognize more clearly that Third World countries have their own history, traditions, and social structures, as well as their own problems; and that none of these are to be treated as though they were no more than adjuncts to those of the West (e.g. GS 69.2, 71,86).”44 It is in the light of the ‘openness’ and outward looking of this text to the mission of witnessing in concrete that the Medellín conference promptly adopted Gaudium et Spes few years after the Council and this had concomitant influence on the Latin American theology.

II. The Medellín Conference of Latin American Bishops, 1968 All the bishops at Vatican II were advised to set up a program and organize their individual conferences and internalize the message of Vatican II. Most of the Conferences of Bishops capitalized on the decree: Gaudium et Spes, Pastoral Constitution of the Church in the Modern World, ‘On its openness to the world.’ The Medellín conference was held in order to bring home to their people the deliberations of the Vatican II Council to the Latin-American people. Their general approach to this ‘contextualisation of theology’ 43

J. O’MALLEY, S. J, “Vatican II: Historical Interpretations,” in L. RICHARD, O.M.I (eds.), Vatican II: The Unfinished Agenda, New York/ Mahwah, 1987, 29.

44

Ibid.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

was through the application of the gospel to socio-economic and political analysis of their situation.45 The bishops at the conference recognized in their opening statement termed, the “pertinent facts” that, “There are in existence many studies of the Latin American people. The misery that besets large masses of human beings in all of our countries is described in all of these studies. That misery, as a collective fact, expresses itself as injustice which cries to the heavens.”46 As a contrast to the studies made the bishops acknowledged, “But what perhaps has not been sufficiently said is that in general the efforts which have been made have not been capable of assuring that justice be honored and realized in every sector of the respective national communities.”47 In this regard the bishops set up a project for them to redress the situation. They developed a “doctrinal bases”48 for such a project based on the propositions of Gaudium et Spes inter alia, that “earth and all that is in it for the use of all men and all nations, in such a way that created goods can reach all in a more just manner” (G.S 69).49 In the third project, which the bishops called “projections for social pastoral planning” they aimed at the “service of encouraging and educating the conscience of believers, to help them to perceive the responsibilities of their faith in their personal life and their social life.”50 This task of “concientizacíon”51 and social education was integrated into joint Pastoral Action at various levels. In the 33rd paragraph of their pastoral conclusions the bishops inter alia moved “To encourage and praise the initiatives and works of all those who in the diverse areas of

45

J. P. HOGAN, (1989) “Puebla” in New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XVII, Washington, D.C., New York, 290.

46

O. L. QUENTIN (ed.), “Justice: Latin American Bishops Medellín”, 1968, in The Pope and Revolution. John Paul II Confronts Liberation Theology, Washington D.C., 1982, 141.

47

Ibid.

48

Ibid., 142.

49

Ibid.

50

Ibid., 143.

51

Ibid., 146.

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action contribute to the creation of a new order which will assure peace in our midst.” As George De Schrijver states, “if Medellín stressed development and social change as her key words and if this is globally in line with the spirit of Gaudium et Spes, it also marks a pronounced difference. While Gaudium et Spes optimistically wagered on social transformation resulting from the spreading of modern schooling, the bishops in Medellín critically point to obstacles in terms of class division. They denounce the existence of a dramatic antagonism between the rich and the poor in their countries, due to unequal social opportunities. The elites tend to become westernized in mentality and life-style, whereas large sectors in the agrarian and urban settings continue to live their lives in a particular sub-culture, which not always reaches the public scene.”52 At the end of the day the message of Medellín may be seen in the light of making the victory of Christ through His resurrection meaningful in the concrete existential facticity53 of the Latin American people; despite the fact that “the position of Latin American episcopate in Medellín, which adopted a clear and prophetic option expressing preference for, and solidarity with the poor was distorted, misinterpreted by some and even vitiated by some others”54 who used it as a ploy for neoMarxism and revolutionary tendencies. These latter and later explosive consequences following the Medellín conference could have led to the world’s reaction and attention towards liberation theology. However, the achievement of Medellín may be seen in the light of discovering of the world of the poor and the struggle on their behalf, a new Church that is dedicated and attuned to the welfare of the poor in Latin America. Its greatest importance is that, “it institutionalized in its decrees the experience and practice of a significant number of Catholics in every stratum of the Church, from peasants to bishops. It thus provided legitimization, inspiration and pastoral plans of a continent-wide preferential option for the poor, encouraging those who were already 52

G. DE SCHRIJVER, Contextual Theology: Developments in Third World Theologies of Liberation, Leuven, (1999-2000), 13.

53

M. PONTIFEX, Freedom and Providence, New York, 1960, 532. This term, facticity, which is at home to Philosophy of Existentialism, refers to “…the factual state of the human person in the world, which includes, political and economic structure of society, the psychological ‘state’ etc.”

54

DE SCHRIJVER, op. cit., 10.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

engaged in the struggle and exhorting the entire Church, both rich and poor, to become involved.”55 Medellín Conference set the pace for many other world bishops’ conferences and Third World churches on the issue of ‘testimonium in concrete situations’ in the light of the Gospel and Vatican II.

III. Historical Precedence to the ‘African Contextual Theology’ African quest for ‘contextual theology’ did not originate postVatican II, but it seems plausible to argue that Vatican II had heightened this interest and given more clue to this quest with its outward looking text like Gaudium et Spes and then the Medellín Conference. African theologians trace the African route of African contextual theology as far back as the New Testament – “the flight into Egypt” and the Ethiopian eunuch, minister of Candace; queen of the Ethiopians (Acts 8:26) whom Philip baptized on the road south from Jerusalem to Gaza. 56 Councils were held at Carthage under St. Cyprian in the 3rd century. The last was in 534 A.D. under Bishop Boniface.57 Long ago, Christianity flourished in North Africa until Islam overran it in the 8th century. St. Augustine, the most influential Latin father of the church, was an African bishop. Schematically, three key moments may be distinguished in the Church in Africa’s historical journey toward contextual theology. According to Peter Hebblewaite, the Vatican affairs writer, these were as follows: The period 1520-1920 was dominated by the principle “no salvation outside the church.” Baptism was a way of saving souls from damnation. Africans were victims of ‘paganism,’ widely considered diabolical. They had to be converted as soon as possible, although this process did not really begin energetically until the late 19th century. It was the time of colonization and heroic missionary endeavor.58

55

N. NDIOKWERE, The African Church Today and Tomorrow: Prospects and Challenges, Vol. I, Onitsha, 1994, 263.

56

P. HEBBLETHWAITE, (April 22, 1994). ‘Developing a theology tied to African Cultures’ in National Catholic Reporter, No. 30, p.7.

57

Ibid.

58

Ibid.

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Towards an African Theology

1920-1950 was the period of ‘implantation’. The Church was to be well and truly ‘rooted’ in African soil. But the African was seen as having ‘no soul’ and needed to be given one, on which the healing and beneficent gospel would be grafted. Most theologians saw this would necessarily involve an African clergy and African religions. It was slow to come. At best, this theology meant that African churches would be mere carbon copies of the predominantly European churches from which they derived.59 The period 1950-1962 saw the development of a theory of ‘adaptation’ or ‘stepping stones.’ Instead of merely casting aside native or traditional religions as pagan superstition, the idea was to find in them ‘points of contact’ that could give Christianity an African look, but by the time of Vatican II, critics saw this approach as merely cosmetic.60 The post-conciliar moment was not much better, in the sense that there was no uniform theological development in the continent. Instead, three schematic developments could be noticed. One was Black theology, whose exponents included Desmond Tutu, Dominican Fr. Albert Nolan, who in 1982 refused the job of serving as the master of the Dominicans, Smangaliso Mkhatshwa – former secretary of the bishops’ conference of South Africa and present director of the Institute for Contextual Theology and Buthi Thiakale – professor at the Pretoria Seminary.61 Another theological development was the African Liberation theology. The Latin American model inspired this. According to one of its chief proponents, Jean-Marc Ela, from Cameroon, “If one is concerned with the culture of the people without being bothered by their marginalization, then one is concerned merely with folklore.”62 In his 1985 book, My African Faith, Ela claims start! “From villages crushed by the burden of injustice and deep frustration.”63 Another proponent of this kind of theology is the Jesuit, Engelbert Mveng. African feminist theology is seen as a subsidiary of the African liberation theology movement. Its 59

HEBBLETHWAITE, ibid.

60

Ibid.

61

Ibid.

62

Ibid.

63

Ibid.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

proponents include Mercy Amba Oduyoye from Ghana and Sr. Bernadette Mbuy Beja, from Zaire, president of EATWOT, the Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians.64 The latest on the rung of post-conciliar African theology is the theology of inculturation. Oscar Bimwenyi-Kweshi defended the possibility of Black African Theological Discourse in a 1981 book of that title. He had argued that revelation had come to Europe and the rest of the world via the mediation of Greek philosophy, Roman law and Western thought generally. But revelation is not essentially tied to these. African theology, therefore, should be rethought in African categories and reflect the African experiences. Other proponents include Tharcisse Tschibangu, now bishops of Mbujimayi, Zaire, Benezet Bujo, author of African Theology in its Historical Context.65 On the English-speaking side include Laurenti Magesa, of Tanzania, Justin Ukpong, of Nigeria, and Kenyan Anglican John Mbiti.66 In spite of these worthy efforts, theology is yet to be ‘conceptualized,’ contextualized and so come to full maturity in Africa.

A. African Root in the Quest for Contextual Theology vis-à-vis Inculturation The instructions following Vatican II Council and its concrete application to the various cultures of the world led the African Bishops to begin to labor like their Latin American counterparts (and others over the world) to bring the Gospel message home to their people. The key theological issue at stake among others was inculturation as such in the African church. The bishops aimed at finding out a process of transformation of African culture, so that its root might issue in the living out of the incarnation in distinct peoples and cultures of Africa.67

64

Ibid.

65

It is worth noting that Benezet Bujo was the first African to be professor in the Catholic University of Fribourg, Switzerland.

66

HEBBLETHWAITE, loc.cit.

67

Ad Gentes 22, in N. P. TANNER, S. J. (ed.) Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, Vol. II (Trent to Vatican II), London, 1990.

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Towards an African Theology

B. The Notion of Inculturation vis-à-vis Enculturation and Interculturality The term inculturation, although a neologism68 in anthropology and theology, has become one way of understanding the mission of the Church. It seems to have been taken from cultural anthropology, where ‘acculturation’ means measurable changes in artifacts, customs, and beliefs consequent upon contact between two disparate cultures; and ‘enculturation’ (first coined by M. J. Herskovitz, 20th century American anthropologist) meaning the life-long learning process through which persons interject their own cultures.69 According to Oliver Onwubiko, the term inculturation traced its origin to a 1962 article attributed to a French author who talked of un christia-nisme inculturé, but today scholars identify its origin with a 1959 article in which inculturation appeared in a missiological sense. 70 In general, theologians seem to use ‘acculturation’ or ‘acculturization’ (much less frequently) to mean the bringing of a preexistent body of truth to another culture.71 According to Joseph G. Healey, “In the African context, inculturation is closely related to indigenization, incarnation and contextualization,”72 whereas, in Latin America, it generally refers to the inclusion in the theological enterprise of socioeconomic and political analysis in India, the great religions as they function in excruciating societal conditions. Even, in European context the word is often used to imply that the European church inculturated the Word into a monarchical ecclesiological system and into scholastic

68

Father Eugene LaVerdiere, SSS, asserts that, though inculturation is as old as the Gospel, but the word itself is quite new. He says: “We are not surprised that ‘inculturation’ was not included in the most recent edition of ‘The Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary.’ ”

69

J. P. HOGAN, “Puebla” in New Catholic Encyclopedia, Supplement: Change in the Church, Vol. XVII Washington D.C., New York, 1989, 290.

70

O. ONWUBIKO, Missionary Ecclesiology: An Introduction, Enugu, 1999, 47.

71

Ibid.

72

J. G. HEALEY, “Inculturation of Liturgy and Worship in Africa,” in Worship, No. 60, 1986, 412.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

(Aristotelian, Platonic, and currently, existential) philosophies and theologies.73 This concept of inculturation became popular in the wake of Vatican II (Lumen Gentium, Gaudium et Spes, and Ad Gentes – though extensively developed in Paul VI’s Evangelii Nuntiandi). John Paul II treats inculturation in his encyclical letter on the permanent validity of the Church’s missionary mandate, Redemptoris Missio. Here, the Pope connects inculturation with the incarnation of the Gospel: “through inculturation the Church makes the Gospel incarnate in different cultures and at the same time introduces peoples, together with their cultures, into her own community.”74 Accordingly, inculturation is the process of incarnating the good news in a particular cultural context. Specifically, it is a process by which people of a particular culture become able to live, express, celebrate, formulate and communicate their Christian faith and their experience of the paschal mystery in terms (linguistic, symbolic, social) that make most sense and better convey life and truth in their social and cultural environment.75 In the words of Joseph G. Donders, speaking about Africa, “Inculturation is a matter of living a life as a Christian in Africa. It is Jesus Christ at the center of a new dance in a new rhythm, wholly African and wholly for Africans.”76 For the biblical theologian and historian, John Waliggo, inculturation is the ‘reformulation of Christian life and doctrine into the very thought patterns of each people.’77 Inculturation includes two dimensions: on the one hand, “intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in Christianity” and on the other, “the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures.”78 The operational word in this latter sentence, 73

Worship, No. 60, 290.

74

Redemptor Missio, No. 52.

75

PAUL VI, Evangelii Nuntiandi, 1975, No. 63.

76

J.G, DONDERS, “Ambiguity about Africa: From Council to Synod,” in America, No. 170, 1994, 10.

77

S, ASKIN, “African Church Seeks Ways of Inculturation,” in National Catholic Reporter, No. 22, 1986, .36.

78

JOHN PAUL II, The Church in Africa. Post-synodal Apostolic Exhortation, 1995, No. 59.

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‘insertion’, seems problematic. One would naturally raise a rhetorical question here: what does it mean “to insert Christianity into various human cultures”? What is the implication of this for African church and her cultures? In this regard, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger of the Congregation for the Propagation of Faith prefers to use the word, interculturality as against inculturation. By the former, he implies that there should be a dialogue between the Church and culture. As much as the Church remains open to people’s culture, on one hand, the culture also has something to learn from the Church. This too is not as simple as it sounds. This would be considered more in a subsequent chapter. Be that as it may from the foregoing, inculturation implies that “the Gospel penetrates a particular culture and that culture penetrates the Gospel; … when the Gospel encounters any culture, something of that culture will live and something must die. Every culture has elements compatible as well as conflicting with the Gospel; finally, the Gospel must be preached to all nations; the liturgy must be celebrated according to cultures.”79 The word ‘inculturation’ may be new, but it will remain until the end of the ages, as the Church reaches to all cultures and makes its home in every culture.80

C. Theologigal and Biblical Foundation of inculturation God wills the salvation of humankind. He could not have done this in a vacuum. This takes place within a historical moment, within a historical and cultural setting. Thus “when the time had fully come,” the Word, the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, the only Son of God, “by the power of the Holy Spirit … became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man”(Gal 4:4). This is the sublime mystery of the Incarnation of the Word, a mystery which took place in history: in clearly defined circumstances of time and space, amidst a people with its own culture, a people that God had chosen and accompanied throughout the entire

79 80

“What is ‘inculturation’ really all about?”, in The Catholic Spirit (July 22, 1999), 14. E. LaVerdiere, “God in Our Midst,” in The Catholic Spirit (July 22, 1999), 14.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

history of salvation, in order to show through what He did for them what He intend to do for the whole human race.81 In the four Gospels we have a model of inculturation. For example, Mark told the Gospel of Jesus to communities who were mostly gentile by birth but quite close to their Jewish cultural roots. That is the reason many times he gave the traditional Hebrew or Aramaic of Jesus’ words, for example the word “Abba!” The Incarnation of the Word of God is at the base of understanding the theology of inculturation. In John’s Gospel we read a basic truth: “And the Word became flesh for all cultures and dwells in each culture.”82 Accordingly, just as the “Word became flesh and dwelt among us” (Jn 1:14), so too, the Good News, the word of Jesus Christ proclaimed to the nations must take root in the life-situation of the hearers of the word. “Inculturation is precisely this insertion of the Gospel message into cultures.”83 The Vatican II Constitution on Divine Revelation gives the basis of inculturation: “Indeed the words God expressed in the words of men are in every way like human language, just as the Word of the eternal Father, when he took on himself the flesh of human weakness, became like men.”84 In the phraseology of John Paul II, the incarnation of the Son of God precisely because it was complete and concrete was also an incarnation in a particular culture.85 Thus, through the incarnation of Christ and the Pauline mission to the Athenians as we saw earlier, we see that inculturation has both a theological, biblical basis and that the Gospel of Jesus Christ is capable of speaking to every people, though tongue and tribe may differ but in the unity of the Gospel of Christ all should stand together.

81

JOHN PAUL II, The Church in Africa: Post-synodal Apostolic exhortation, No. 60, 87.

82

LaVerdiere, “God in Our Midst”, in The Catholic Spirit (July 22, 1999), 14.

83

JOHN PAUL II, Apostolic exhortation, Catechesi Tradendae, No. 53: (AAS 71), 1979, 1319.

84

Vatican II Council, Constitution on Divine Revelation, No. 13.

85

Ibid.

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Towards an African Theology

D. The Church Position on Inculturation This concept of inculturation became very popular in the wake of Vatican II as we stated earlier (Lumen Gentium, Gaudium et Spes, and Ad Gentes Divinitus) – though extensively developed in Paul VI’s Evangelii Nuntiandi. This text, Gaudium et Spes which occupies our attention in this book because of the aforementioned reason, spoke about inculturation through discussing culture. In the text, the Council focused on various aspects of culture and its relationship to the Church (Nos. 5362). As we have already mentioned, the text began with the explanation of the notion of culture. It says that: “The word ‘culture,’ refers ‘to all those things which go to the refining and developing of man’s diverse mental and physical endowments.’”86 From here, the text dwelt on the diversity of cultures, observing that “culture necessarily has historical and social overtones, and the word ‘culture’ often carries with it sociological and ethnological connotations; in this sense one can speak about a plurality of cultures.”87 According to Eugene LaVerdiere: “The participants in the council were able to view this plurality very dramatically. During the council, the Eucharist was celebrated in St. Peter’s Basilica in every rite, including the Ethiopian rite with its drums and cymbals.”88 What is the theological implication of this? Does it portend that the gospel of Jesus Christ must be preached to all nations, and the Liturgy must be celebrated in each culture? The obvious answer is in the affirmative. The inference from this fact is the call for inculturation! The text underscored that Culture affects every aspect of the Church, including evangelization, catechesis, the liturgy and prayer life, even the language used in various regions of the globe. The Church is one but it has to express itself in various cultures. Consequently, through inculturation, the Church, for her part, becomes a more intelligible sign of what she is, and a more effective instrument of mission.89 “In this way the Church carries out its mission 86

Gaudium et Spes, No. 53.

87

Ibid.

88

E. LaVerdiere, “God in Our Midst”, in The Catholic Spirit, 14, 1999.

89

Gaudium et Spes, No. 57.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

and in that very act it stimulates and advances human and civil culture, as well as contributing by its activity, including liturgical activity, to man’s interior freedom.”90 The Vatican II decree on the Church’s missionary activity – Ad Gentes Divinitus reads in part: “ In order to be able to offer to all men the mystery of salvation and the life brought by God, the Church must become part of all these groups for the same motive which led Christ to bind Himself, in virtue of His Incarnation, to the definite social and cultural conditions of those human beings among whom He dwelt.”91 The Church had since endured by this act of becoming part of all groups for the same motive, which led Christ to bind Himself, in virtue of His incarnation through inculturation. Accordingly, the Church must be inculturated throughout the world if it is to be a world Church. Then, the issue is: “either the Church sees and recognizes these essential differences of other cultures for which she should become a World Church and with a Pauline boldness draws the necessary consequences from this recognition, or she remains a Western Church and so in the final analysis betrays the meaning of Vatican II.”92 Paul VI in his apostolic exhortation, Evangelii Nuntiandi given on 8 December 1975 links evangelization to inculturation. The text focuses on the Evangelization in the Modern World (Evangelii Nuntiandi). The document defines evangelization in terms of the preaching of hope in the promises God has made in the new covenant through Jesus Christ. The preaching is based on God’s love for us and our love for God. It focuses on the preaching of brotherly love for all men (an ability to give and forgive, to deny ourselves and help our brothers), a love that derives from love for God and is the very heart of the Gospel. This preaching of the mystery of iniquity aims at the active search for the good. It includes the always necessary preaching of the quest for God himself through prayer, especially of adoration and thanksgiving, but also through communion with the visible sign of union with God, namely, the Church of Jesus Christ. This communion is, in turn, manifested through the use of

90

Gaudium et Spes, No. 58.

91

A. FLANNERY (ed.), “Ad Gentes Divinitus”, in Vatican II Council. The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents, Minnesota, 1979, 813-814.

92

E. LaVerdiere, “God in Our Midst,” in The Catholic Spirit (July 22, 1999), 14.

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the sacraments, those other signs of Christ who lives and acts in the Church.93 The text states categorically, that, “evangelization cannot be complete, however, unless account is taken of the reciprocal links between the Gospel and the concrete personal social life of man.”94 In this direction the document is making an allusion to the fact of inculturation. For this reason then, evangelization requires a message which is explicit, adapted to varying situations and constantly related to the rights and obligations of each individual, to family life without which the development of the individual becomes extremely difficult, to common life in society and to international life and to peace, justice and development.95 In this way, the document proposes the application of the Gospel message to the concrete life situation of man. In the case of Africa, it stresses the fact of the Gospel’s use in overcoming the conditions which force its people to live such a marginal life: hunger, chronic illnesses, illiteracy, penury, injustice at the international level and especially in commercial relations, and economic and cultural neocolonialism which is sometimes as cruel as political colonialism.96 By adapting to this method of evangelization, the Pope is aware of the cultural differences of peoples and cultures – “because methods of evangelization change according to circumstances of time, place and culture. Thus, they challenge our capacity to find and adapt new ones.”97 Inculturation is one of the ways the Church has chosen as a form of adapting to new forms and ways of evangelization. Consequently, “in this process, cultures themselves must be uplifted, transformed and permeated by Christ’s original message of divine truth, without harming what is noble in them. Hence, worthy African traditions are to be preserved. Moreover, in accordance with the full truth of

93

PAUL VI, Evangelii Nuntiandii: Evangelization in the Modern World, 1975, No. 28, 17. Henceforth, E.N.

94

E.N No. 29, 17.

95

E.N. No. 29, 17.

96

E.N. No. 30, 18.

97

E.N. No. 40, 21.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

the Gospels and in harmony with the magisterium of the Church, living and dynamic Christian traditions are to be consolidated.”98 This kind of evangelization is anchored in the fact that the universal Church is concretely embodied in the local churches. These in turn comprise one or other concrete sector of mankind. They speak each other’s own language. They possess, and are limited by, a certain cultural heritage, a way of viewing the world, a human substance since; the sensibility of contemporary man requires openness to the riches of these local churches.99 Furthermore, John Paul II treats inculturation in his encyclical letter on the permanent validity of the Church’s missionary mandate, Redemptoris Missio. Here, he connects inculturation with the incarnation of the Gospel: “through inculturation the Church makes the Gospel incarnate in different cultures and at the same time introduces peoples, together with their cultures, into her own community.”100 These texts were already pre-empting and heralding the inauguration of African bishops synod of 1994.

E. African Bishops Synod 1994: Quest for Contextual Theology? On the Octave of Easter, April 10, 1994, John Paul II inaugurated the synod for Africa with a Song Mass in St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome.101 There was great effort to turn the Synod for Africa into a Synod of Africa, one which African bishops host, instead of that in which they are hosted. This is not unconnected with the fact that the Africans themselves tended to see it differently. It was a synod and they wanted to make the most of it. They felt unjustly neglected since the collapse of communism.102 Unfortunately, this dream did not come true. The deployment of the ablative(case) term “for” to convoke the synod of Afri98

JOHN PAUL II, “Address to the Bishops of Ghana”, in L’Osservatore Romano, English edition, (June 2,1980), 10-11.

99

E.N. No. 62, 35.

100

Redemptoris Missio, No. 52.

101

HEBBLETHWAITE, (Vatican Affairs Writer), “Uneasy pope eyes joyous dance of African church”, in National Catholic Reporter (April 22, 1994), No. 6, 6.

102

HEBBLETHWAITE, “A Synod ‘of Africa,’ for Africa,” or “New Pentecost”?, in loc. cit.

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can bishops in Rome, instead of the possessive(case) term ‘of’ meant a lot for the African church. Some hermeneutics are possible here. It seemed out of place that a synod “for Africa” was held outside Africa land for Africans. How does one interpret this? What explanation? Could this depict the fact that ‘cultures do not penetrate the Gospel (read Church) but that the reverse should be the case?’ Thus ‘African culture’ represented by the bishops of African had to go to Rome? Or as John Paul II explained in contrast that: “This synod has a totally African character and at the same time participates in the full universality of the Church as she is represented by the ministry of the Successor of St. Peter. Therefore, we wish this to be a real African Synod that goes to the roots. Hence, the church in Africa is African and at the same time universal.”103 Consequently, based on this universality of the Church in which the African church participates, the synod aimed at integrating the entire Church into the fabric of true African culture and way of life. Thus, in the opening address of the synod, Archbishop Thiandoum, of Dakar, Senegal, stated that the aim of the synod was that of enhancing faith, since “faith is shallow and needs to become more rooted … in largely illiterate society, new ideas move and sink in slowly. Thus the teachings of Vatican II are applied with a rather slow rhythm. This must be coupled with the reluctance and fear of new converts in relation to recent reforms in the church.”104 He stressed the fact of inculturation in the sphere of liturgy: “More attention should be paid to these rites, as we try to evolve new ones in other parts of Africa. In this regard, the experience of Zaire, approved by the Holy See, is a step in the right direction. The emergence of such rites is a right and not a concession.”105 One may recall that Africa has ancient rites in Egypt (the Coptic rite) and Ethiopia.106 With this kind of proposal, the synod was likened to the Medellín conference in 1968, of the Latin-American church, the foretaste of a

103

Loc. cit.

104

HEBBLETHWAITE, in National Catholic Reporter, No. 6, 7.

105

Loc. cit.

106

Loc. cit

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

“new Pentecost,” but with caveat that one “cannot anticipate the Holy Spirit,” in the words of Nigerian Archbishop, John Onaiyekan.107 The theme of the assembly was – evangelization, with five areas of emphasis: proclamation, inculturation, interreligious dialogue, justice and peace and means of social communication.108

1. Lineamenta of the Synod (Synod Outline) John Paul II released the working outline for the synod on February 9, 1989, while he was in Uganda, one of the three nations visited on his tenth visit as Pope to Africa. The text assesses positive and negative signs of the times in today’s Africa, the development of new catechisms, the formation of seminarians, the roles of priests, religious and laity, the contributions of catechists, small Christian communities, special movements and numerous other matters related to the life of the church in Africa.109 The interest shown at the synod represents the general attitude of concern for the synod. It is on record that of the 34 Episcopal conferences in Africa and Madagascar, 31 sent in responses. The remaining three were under very difficult circumstances at the time.110 One of the three, Rwanda, was engrossed in the mayhem of the genocide. The object of the synod would be to assist the church in Africa to deepen, in communion with Peter and the other particular churches, her commitment to the mission of evangelization, taking into account her history and development as well as the whole cultural, social, political and economic context in which she lives.111 Through calling a special synod assembly, John Paul II intended to promote in a particular way the proclamation of the Gospel in Africa

107

Loc. cit

108

R.T. EDWARDS, “African bishops offer wish lists to synod,” in National Catholic Reporter (April 29, 1994), No. 30, 7.

109

Loc. cit.

110

Loc. cit.

111

CNS Documentary Service, “Evangelizing Mission of the Church in Africa”, in Origins, Vol. 22, Art. 1 (March 11, 1993), 655.

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during those closing years of the 20th century, which, in many ways, will mark a turning point in the history of the continent.112 In this regard, the synod for the church in Africa shows the universal nature of the Church and that the latter is committed to the welfare of her children all over the world. A clear indication of this fact is discoverable, also, from the way and manner issues pertaining to Africa and Africans were addressed in the working outline. The central theme of the synod outline (lineamenta) was: The Church in Africa and Her Evangelizing Mission Toward the Year 2000: ‘You Shall Be My Witnesses’ (Acts 1:8). In addition to inculturation and dialogue, the synod outline examines how the promotion of justice and peace is linked to evangelization and the vital role social communications can fulfill in communicating the Gospel.113 On evangelization, which seems to form the crux of the synod, the lineamenta links it with the life of the Trinity. It says in part, ‘Evangelization draws humankind into the very life of the Trinity.’114 The text goes on to explicate the concept of evangelization…“For the church, evangelizing means bringing the good news into all the strata of humanity and, through its influence, transforming humanity within and making it new.”115 The purpose of evangelization is precisely this interior change – seeking to convert, solely through the divine power of the message she proclaims, both the personal and collective consciences of people, the activities in which they engage and the lives and concrete milieu, which are theirs. 116 In sum, the text links evangelization with the human promotion, the transformation of cultures and unjust structures of society. It acknowledges, “Inculturated evangelization will help peoples give flesh to evangelical values in their language and symbols, their history, politics, business life and own ways of developing. In addition, it will relate the problem of the sects, enabling the African Christian to express his faith in his own tongue and in attitudes and gestures natural to him, in

112

Ibid.

113

CNS Documentary Service, “Evangelizing Mission of the Church in Africa”, in Origins (March 11, 1993), Vol. 22, No. 39, 654.

114

Ibid.

115

Ibid.

116

Ibid.

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catechesis, liturgy and pastoral work as well as in theological reflection.” 117 Thus, Inculturation forms part of a central unifying theme of evangelization, on which the bishops will focus at the special assembly.

2. Instrumentum Laboris of the Synod (The Instrument of Work) The Instrumentum laboris is a synthesis of the responses to the lineamenta, which came from the Episcopal bodies in Africa both of the Latin and Oriental rite, from the concerned departments of the Roman Curia and from other concerned organs of the Church. This working document has endeavored to be faithful to the contents of these documents. It has, of course, not been possible to include everything submitted, but the essential concerns and questions raised have been represented and were being proposed for consideration by the synod.118 The synod, which ran officially from April 10 to May 8, 1994, was formally called ‘The Special Assembly of the Synod of Bishops.’ It included 170 African bishops and 13 African cardinals. The theme of the synod was evangelization and the 120-page working paper for the synod, known in Latin as Instrumentum laboris, painted the challenge in stark terms: “There are millions of people on the African continent who have still not been evangelized. The Church ought to face up to the enormous and urgent mission that it has on this continent: that of bringing them the saving message of Jesus Christ.”119 In the opening section of the synod, Cardinal Hyacinthe Thiandoum, of Dakar, Senegal, narrated the general situation in Africa that called for sympathy. He added, “The church is part of this society in distress.”120 He said, “The church in Africa and Madagascar ought to be in ongoing dialogue with the society in which it finds itself … a church in transition between a mission church and a church on a mission, testing its wings and seeking its way toward full maturity … there are many areas where

117

Loc. cit.

118

Ibid., Art. 5, 656.

119

P. MCDONNELL, “In Rome, African bishops look to their future”, in Our Sunday Visitor (April 10, 1994), No. 17, 17.

120

CARDINAL THIANDOUM, “The Task of the Special Synod for Africa”, in Origins, (April 21, 1994), Vol. 23, No. 44, 761.

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the Christian faith is shallow and needs to become more rooted.”121 This was the essence of the convocation of the special synod to make the faith take a deep root in the African environment and situation evangelization. The text explained evangelization in terms of building up the family of God on earth. In this direction, it expressed profound appreciation of the Christian and African values of communion, fraternity, solidarity and peace. In a truly African family, joys difficulties and trials are shared in a trusting dialogue.122 It is in this spirit that the gospel has been incarnated into Africa. The Instrumentum laboris has an introduction and two parts. The introduction seeks to locate the synod for Africa within the dynamism of the synodal process in the church. Part I is a theological framework, which highlights the central concern of the synod – namely, the theme of evangelization – and which shows how the five sub-themes are related to the central theme. Part II considers each of the five sub-themes: proclamation, inculturation, dialogue, justice and peace, and means of social communication. On the issue of inculturation as such, this was handled in Chapter 2, article 49 of the Instrumentum laboris of the special synod. The text opens with an allusion to the gospel of John: “And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us” (Jn 1: 14). This content of what would in time come to be called ‘inculturation’ is contained in these words of the Gospel according to John. The text defines inculturation as “the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their integration in Christianity and the insertion of Christianity in the various human cultures.”123 Here we see the problematic word, “insertion” reoccurring in the definition of inculturation in the synod text. But it follows from a literal, but uncritical interpretation of the text that inculturation does not consist only in the transforming of the mentality of human beings or groups of people, but also implies approaching cultures in such ways that they are enabled, 121

Ibid.

122

Ibid., Origins, No. 2, 763.

123

SPECIAL SYNOD OF BISHOPS’ WORKING PAPER, “Evangelizing Mission of the Church in Africa” Insturmentum Laboris, in Origin (March 11, 1993), Vol. 22, No. 39, Art. 49.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

from within themselves, to be fertile. A critical interpretation of the lines above with the problematic word, ‘insertion’ would imply that without considering the culture of a people the Gospel simply imposes herself on the people. This could portend that the Gospel is imperialistic, but we know that the Gospel of Jesus Christ is not so and should not be construed to be so. The result of some of these oversights with regard to the peculiarity of the culture of a people, especially in most parts of Africa where the missionaries had failed to: See, Judge before Acting had left till date the culture of the people in conflict with the local church. Christianity itself becomes enriched when, through inculturation, it enters into dialogue with peoples and with their cultures. In view of this, the synod text said that an inculturated evangelization would help peoples give flesh to evangelical values in their language and symbols, their history, politics, business life and own ways of developing.124 This would equally make the faith long lasting and answerable to the situation of the people. The text goes on to consider the necessity of inculturation, which it considers to be drawn from the very mystery of incarnation. Thus, following the part set out by her Master, Christ, who came not to abolish but to complete (Mt.5: 17), the Church journeys on the same road and through her work. Whatever good is in the minds and hearts of men, whatever good lies latent in the religious practices and cultures of diverse peoples is not only saved from destruction but is also healed, ennobled and perfected unto the glory of God.125 On the issue of agents of inculturation, the text states, “The work of inculturation involves the entire church community, because it is the whole church that must be missionary … the drive for inculturation is therefore a movement with which everyone is associated. In cases where there is conflict, it is the duty of the bishop to make a decision.”126 In spite of the rapid quest for inculturation, the text underscores some salient questions that arise, among which is the diversity of peoples in most African countries, many of who host over 100 indigenous languages. Furthermore, as most countries of Africa are striving toward

124

Ibid.

125

Ibid.

126

Ibid., Art. 61.

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Towards an African Theology

national unity and national identity on the psychological level, a stress on inculturation would seem to be detrimental to such identity.127 In all, the text notes the possible syncretism that the liturgy may run into in the quest for inculturation. But it looks into the future with optimism, whereby inculturation will help the particular churches of Africa make their evangelizing more extensive and of greater depth.128 Yet, critics say that the synod working paper, which was drawn up in consultation with all the bishops’ conferences on the continent, still reflected Roman and European sensibilities and ignored the heritage and contributions of the African church. For example, the Jesuit Father Meinrad Hebga of Cameroon, said reading the working paper gave him a sense of frustration because the document showed “intolerance on the part of the Church toward African cultural patrimony.”129 This is in regard of the negligence to integrate African values into the Church’s entire life. Cardinal Francis Arinze, in defense of the text, said, “All the decisions were made by African representatives … out of the 19 different bishops who compose the synod’s preparatory committee, only three are non-African.”130 Cardinal Arinze added that holding the synod in Rome reflects the Pope’s keen concern to be actively engaged in its deliberations. Throughout the first week of ‘interventions’ during the Special Assembly for Africa of the Synod of Bishops, many prelates spoke forcefully of their desire to do things in ways more consistent with their cultures.131 The bishops’ request for greater inculturation was repeated throughout the special assembly sessions. For instance, Bishop Peter Sarpong, of Kumasi, Ghana, said part of the problem is that the traditional Roman forms of liturgy and worship are just not at home with many African Catholics. The churches are packed on Sunday in his 127

Ibid.

128

Ibid., Art. 74.

129

MCDONNELL, “In Rome, African bishops look to their future” in Our Sunday Visitor (April 10, 1994), No. 82, 17.

130

Ibid.

131

R.T. EDWARDS, “Inculturation is Africa’s Ecclesial Crux”, in National Catholic Reporter (April 29, 1994). Vol. 30, 8.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

diocese, but after Mass, many parishioners typically head straight to a “sect” or “another religious movement.” Sarpong says the pastors of Africa should be given the freedom to adopt formats that can lead to a better understanding of liturgy and worship – a sentiment echoed by many of the African prelates.132 The talk in Rome about the issue of inculturation in Africa centered on more than just liturgy and worship, although they were clearly focal points. Other aspects of African life touched by inculturation included marriage, family, healing sickness and initiation rites.133 The synod aimed at integrating these into the life of the African church. But how far it succeeded seem to be far from the reality on the ground in the Continent today. Conflicts still abound in most of these areas of the people’s life on one hand and on the other, the attitude of the local churches toward them – What and how to address these issues? The reality of poverty, hunger, vocation boom to the priesthood and religious lives, injustice, famine, wars and appropriation of authentic cultural values of the people seem to be far away from being accommodated by the synod. These are still staggering facts before our faces in the continent today.

F. The Vatican Response – ‘Ecclesia in Africa’ of John Paul II Peter J. Henriot, in his famous article “Hopes for the African Synod” in America, wrote: “The significance of the African synod is great, not only for the African church but for the universal church…. Africa is the scene of the fastest-growing population of Christians in the world.”134 This sentence seems to have captured in a short form the gist of papal post-synod exhortation of John Paul II, Ecclesia in Africa. After the week-long deliberation on the issue of evangelization in Africa in the 21st century in the synod for Africa, John Paul II, based on the deliberation and outcome of the deliberations, issued a post-synodal document named: Ecclesia in Africa – The Church in Africa. In this 144-paragraph document, John Paul II recaptured the essential aim of

132

EDWARDS, Loc. cit.

133

Ibid.

134

P. J. HENRIOT, “Hopes for the Synod”, in America (April 9, 1994), No. 170, 12.

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Towards an African Theology

the synod: “The challenges and future prospects of evangelization in Africa on the threshold of the third millennium of the Christian faith.”135 In the text, he drew attention to the remotest preparation for the just concluded synod for Africa, which he described as an historic moment of grace: “the Lord visited His people in Africa. Indeed, this continent is today experiencing what we can call a sign of the times, an acceptable time, a day of salvation. It seems that the hour of Africa has come, a favorable time which urgently invites Christ’s messengers to launch out into the deep and to cast their nets for the catch (Lk5: 4).”136 The text takes a historical excursus on the journey of Africa, through the earliest period of the reception of the faith, and gives credence to all who made the impacting of the faith into Africa possible – “It is a history which goes back to the period of the Church’s very birth. The spread of the Gospel has taken place in different phases.”137 The text attests to the richness of African cultural values which could enhance the growth of the Church and the spreading of the gospel message, enabling it to take a deep root in Africa – “In African culture and tradition the role of the family is everywhere held to be fundamental. Open to this sense of the family, of love and respect for life, the African loves children, who are joyfully welcomed as gifts of God…they believe intuitively that the dead continue to live and remain in communion with them. Is this not in some way a preparation for belief in the Communion of the Saints?”138 On another note, he praised the African sense of solidarity and community life. This, he thought, is worthy of keeping and integrating into the Church. He says, “In Africa it is unthinkable to celebrate a feast without the participation of the whole village. Indeed, community lives in African societies express the extended family. It is my ardent hope and prayer that Africa will always preserve this priceless cultural heritage and never succumb to the temptation to individualism which is so

135

JOHN PAUL II, “The Church in Africa: Post-synodal apostolic exhortation of John Paul II”, in The Pope Speaks, (September 14, 1995), Vol. 41, No. 2, Art. 1.

136

POPE JOHN PAUL II, op. cit., Art. 6.

137

Ibid., Art. 30.

138

Ibid., Art. 43, (italics mine).

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alien to its best traditions.”139 But the text failed to see the fact that urbanization is also going on in Africa so rapidly and that Africans are not mere living a rural life “of the whole village.” How can this be handled? A text given at the threshold of the 21st century still failed to take care of these developments (urbanization and globalization and their consequences) on African church, and that the possible adverse effect of modernity and its concomitant, post modernity are already having on Western church are already possible in Africa church? “So too must we think the transformation of historical consciousness it has apparently brought about. Many theologians throughout history have resisted the very qualities that seem most characteristic of postmodernism: ephemerality, fragmentation, pastiche, pleasure, and consumption. About the only thing they have embraced is nostalgia for the past, but without the irony that makes it entertaining. A rigorous historicism, however, demands that we revise our understanding of human historicity in light of the cards history has dealt us.”140 The Church is no stranger to some of these ‘cards of history’ – the Reformation, the French Revolution and so on. Furthermore, the text calls for the use of modern means of communication to enhance and promote evangelization of cultures in Africa – “an issue which is of the greatest importance because it concerns both the instruments of evangelization and the means of spreading a new culture which needs to be evangelized.”141 John Paul II advocates that by reason of its deep conviction that the synthesis between culture and faith is not only a demand of culture, but also of faith, because a faith that does not become culture is not fully accepted, not entirely throughout, not faithfully lived. Only in this way he argues, can the Gospel be firmly implanted in the continent’s Christian communities. Following in the footsteps of the Second Vatican Council.142

139

Ibid., Art. 43.

140

M. UNDERWOOD, “Watching the World Wake Up From History: The Postmodern Challenge to Historicist Theology”, in D. A. CROSBY & C. D. HARDWICK (eds.), Religion in a Pluralistic Age: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Philosophical Theology, New York, 2001, 384.

141

Ibid., Art. 52.

142

JOHN PAUL II, Ecclesia in Africa, Art. 78.

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Practically, the post-synodal text calls for inculturation of liturgy which, provided it does not change the essential elements, should be carried out so that the faithful can better understand and live liturgical celebrations.143 From the concrete example of Zaire this was already happening before the general intersession of the Second Vatican Council on the liturgy were begun and the later synod of African Bishops. The bishops of Zaire were already talking about how to “adapt” the Christian liturgy to their people.144 The bishops themselves in one of their sessions then maintained, “The liturgy introduced in Africa is not yet adapted to the proper character of our populations, and therefore has remained foreign to them. The return to the authentic traditions of the liturgy greatly opens the way to a fundamental adaptation of the liturgy to the African environment. Such an adaptation is very necessary for the edification of the traditional (pagan) community on religious grounds, since worship is the most important element that unites the entire community. Only a living and adapted form of worship can generate the indispensable deepening of the faith, which cannot be given through instruction alone … An elaborate study and critique of the religious customs as well as a living contact with the people will reveal the fundamental cultural needs and will furnish the necessary elements for the elaboration of a living African liturgy sensitive to the aspirations of the populations.”145 However, it could be said that the message of the synod may have intensified this effort of the Zairean Bishops in this regard. Since then, the bishops have worked out concrete modalities of inculturation. For example, in the liturgy of Eucharist, they adapted it to integrate some of the Zairean people’s way of life. Consequently, a look at a comparative outline of the Roman and the Zairean liturgies reveals that their basic structures are almost the same. For instance, in order to approach the Eucharist, the sacred action par excellence, the assembly recognizes its poverty in the presence of the Almighty God, the source of salvation. From the beginning of the sacred action, the living members invoke the 143

Ibid., Art. 64.

144

E. C. NWAKA, The Power of Africentric Celebrations: Inspirations from the Zairean Liturgy, New York, 1996, 33.

145

Conference Episcopale du Congo, (1961). “Apostolat liturgique – adaptation du culte,” in Actes de la vie-assemble plnire de l’Episcopat du Congo (Leopoldville: secretariat general de L’Episcopat), 362-63.

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Can the Gospel Speak to Concrete Human Situations?

saints, friends of God, as intercessors. The communion between the Christians on earth finds fulfillment in communion with the saints in heaven. It is in this that union with Christ (from whom flows the grace and the life of the people of God) is achieved. In the same way it is justified to invoke ancestors of sincere heart who are, in virtue of the merits of Christ, in communion with God, just as the Roman liturgy evokes from antiquity Abel the just, Abraham, and Melchizedek. 146 In details, the Zairean Eucharistic celebration follows the traditional order of the Eucharist except that the penitential rite follows the gospel. The prayers use many features from African tradition. These include an invocation of the saints and of the ancestors who have served God with a good conscience; many gestures such as the whole community raising up their hands during the prayers and everyone bowing their heads and crossing their arms on their breasts, during the penitential rite; and concrete imagery taken form real life, rather than abstract imagery. Sin is described as the insect that sticks onto our skin and sucks our lifeblood. The Word is the One through whom God has created our river, the Zairean, our forests, our rivers, our lakes.” Drums or gongs are beaten at particular moments during the celebration, and during the Gloria there is a dance led by the main celebrant. The celebration concludes with a final dance after the penitential rite, the stress is on bright colors – especially red for joy.147 Apart from the Liturgy of the Eucharist, the Zairean bishops also incorporated those concepts that were truly African – family and community values, justice, peace, human condition, hospitality, life, wholeness and healing, women, ancestors, local imagery, local sacramental elements, music, song, dance, oral tradition and other local products for worshipping. In the case of Nigeria, the move toward accepting and integrating the message of the Second Vatican Council and the concomitant synod of African Bishops on inculturation may have started later than in the case of the Zairean church. Inculturation in the church in Nigeria is anchored on the fact that there is widespread conviction that ancestors had a certain self-understanding, a view of their world and of their place 146

NWAKA, op. cit., 58.

147

J.G. HEALEY, “Inculturation of liturgy and Worship in Africa,” in Worship, No. 60 (September 1986), 415.

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Towards an African Theology

within it, a life-style that was their own making and in which they felt at home, a religious attitude that responded to their experience of transcendence and that satisfied their expectations of the transcendent in the immanent. It is generally admitted that they possessed a self-contained and independently developed cultural integrity that was suffering from coping with the realities of their world of experience.148 Consequently, the church in Nigeria started the process of adaptation and indigenization: Mass in the vernacular, adaptations in the rite of infant baptism, use of native musical instruments and indigenous art were the main developments. The use of meaningful native names also became popular.149 For example, such meaningful and theologically enriched Igbo names like, Uchechukwu, – God’s will, Onyedikachi – Who is like God, the English equivalent of Michael, started featuring as names that could be given at baptism. In a bid to consolidate this principle of inculturation of the gospel message after the injunction of Ecclesia in Africa, the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Nigeria took a decisive step to promote inculturation by setting up a National Committee on Inculturation. Its main duty is to initiate and sustain inculturation in the Nigerian church. However, in the case of the church in Igboland this fact of inculturation is more visible in the area of baptism and marriage. In these two instances, cultural ceremonies are interwoven within the context of the celebration of these sacraments. For instance, baptism of children (the Church’s sacrament of initiation) is now being performed within the context of the cultural naming ceremony, which takes place a few weeks after the birth of the child. This marks the traditional initiation of the child into the traditional community. The same is true of marriage. Today, the Church’s marriage ceremonies are held within the context of the traditional marriage called in local Igbo parlance – Igbankwu, a cultural ceremony in which the dowry is officially paid and the bride is formally given away in marriage to the bridegroom. But should the Gospel only answer to the liturgical life and faith of the people and not have praxis in their day-to-day existential engagement? Should the faith be separated from the life in the society of hu148

L. MBEFO, “Theology and Inculturation: The Nigerian Experience,” in Cross Currents, No. 37 (Winter 1987-8), 394.

149

BISHOP OBOT, “Inculturation in Nigeria”, in Origin (April 28, 1994), Vol. 23, 790.

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man persons? Are not Christians considered as human persons integrally and adequately members of the human society? Should their faith also not extend and answer to their sufferings, joys, sorrows, despairs, and yearnings in the society and even in the relationship with other brethren and religions? An alternative means of addressing this issue must be sought through theological conversation.

61

CHAPTER TWO

Theology: Unity in Diversity Basically, theology as such is universal or pluralistic, “to call theology ‘pluralistic’ is to say that there are different ways of speaking of God, and therefore of seeking to understand faith. This we have established via the different efforts in this regard in the last chapter. However, faith, although may be singular, theology is pluralistic, because it recognizes that the different circumstances in which people speak about God will naturally lead to different statements.”1 On the other hand, there are basic, generic realities about theology (theologies). Uppermost is the fact of the Resurrection of Christ,2 which is the basis of our faith; of which Paul says without this Resurrection victory, our faith would not have anchorage, thus we would have nothing to proclaim or witness to before people. This follows from that fact that it is in Christ that we live, move and have our being.3 This is the patrimony of the Church. Consequently, every theology worth the name rotates around this fulcrum. Be it Feminist, Black, European, Asian, Liberation theologies and so on. Thus these contextual theologies flow from the above ecclesialuniversal hermeneutics, although each with its own mannerism. In this sense there is a kind of unity in diversity! Another factor of this universalism hinges on the fact of the audience of theology (theologies). Every theology goes across the border of its context to speak like a text that leaves its author to speak to another audience.4

1

G. JONES, loc. cit.

2

THE CATECHISM OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH, Vatican City, 1992, Art. 852.

3

J. T. A ROBINSON, “The Ground of Our Being”, in Honest to God, London, 1962, 45-49.

4

RICOEUR, loc. cit.

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Towards an African Theology

The other important aspect of this universalism is that no matter what the theology – it must be ready to go beyond her borders to dialogue with other theologies. In this sense, theology may be said to be ‘social.’5 God spoke in the historical situation of humankind. This is what incarnation is all about. He still speaks in the ‘histories of peoples.’6 This is why we found Latin American bishops, African bishops and European brethren appropriating this historical manifestation of God (incarnation) in concrete through their different theologies as shown in the first chapter of this book. In this direction we must recognize the fact that “The real difficulty in the relationship between history and theology, consequently, is not so much whether evidence can be verified or falsified (though this is important). It is, rather, that any form of historical analysis is inherently selective: it discovers what was already present in its own methods of investigation. It is like wearing a particular set of spectacles to look at a particular question: what one sees will always be framed by what one is looking through. The historical Jesus one ‘sees’ in the New Testament is always conditioned by the Christ of faith one sees in one’s belief and community.”7 Be that as it may, every people speak through her history and this is not without some implication for theology and the kind of theological hermeneutics that they resort to. Another way of putting this is that there is no theology outside a people’s history and Weltanschauung. In this way, it seems paradoxical to argue that every theology develops from the historical situation of a people and then finds its anchorage on the Bible, tradition and some kind of spirituality.8 In the case of the Bible the question arises, is it the Word of God? Yes – “But that conviction is meaningful only to the extent that this mystery of faith is made pertinent to the lives of individuals and communities. Words, including the Word, must be spoken; speech must be heard; hearing must be interpreted; interpretation must be acted upon. For theology, if not for all forms of

5

G. JONES, op. cit., 89-92.

6

Ex. 3: 7. God spoke to Israelites within their historical situation – the plight at Egypt. See also JONES, ibid., 78. “Importantly for liberation theology, it is possible, on the basis of historical-critical research, to identify the key ingredients of Jesus’ message about God’s will and its expression in the gospel as the kingdom of God.”

7

Ibid., 79.

8

GUTIERREZ, loc. cit.

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Theology: Unity in Diversity

practice, therefore, the most pertinent task is to continue the process of speaking, hearing and interpreting which has itself been going on for over 1,900 years, and which continues today wherever Christian communities meet to speak of their faith and its consequences for their lives: namely, the Christian tradition.”9 But in the case of Christian tradition, theology does not simply live from tradition, therefore. It also lives towards tradition. And in so far as tradition always successfully manifests its dynamic quality as the home of any faith, which seeks understanding, so theology can speak with justification of tradition’s own authority as the principal raison d’être for speaking of God. In this way the Bible is to tradition as text is to interpretation.10 In this regard for example, Thomistic theology, which is biblical and based on the Christian tradition and Aristotelian logic, Physics and cosmology, has the Dominican spirituality as its ground. In the same vein Karl Rahner’s theology, which is also very biblical and founded on Christian tradition is anchored on the spirituality of St. Ignatius. The ‘Ecclesial theology’ has developed in the direction of historical situations by way of ‘appropriation.’ For instance, it is known that the theology of the sacrament of reconciliation we have today had developed along the line of the penitential services of the Irish Monks in the Middle Ages.11 In the European context, the historical situation of the French Revolution12 and the liberalism brought about by Philosophers of the 18th century coupled with the experiences of the ‘cold war’ were very big factors in formulating the European liberal theology (contextual theology), which has had a lot of influence on the Vatican II Council.13 This historical situation gave a lot of background to the theologies of

9

JONES, ibid., 67.

10

Ibid., 68.

11

See J. MAHONEY, The Making of Moral Theology: A Study of the Roman Catholic Tradition, Oxford, Clarendon, 1987.

12

G. ALBERIGO, “The Christian Situation after Vatican II,” in G. ALBERIGO, J-P, JOSSUA, and J. A. KOMONCHAK (eds.), The Reception of Vatican II, M. J. O’CONNELL (trans.), Washington D.C. 1987, 14-15.

13

D. DORR, Option for the Poor: A Hundred Years of Vatican Social Teaching, (Revised edition), Cork, 1992, 150-152.

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M.D Chenu, Gérard Philips,14 Yves Congar,15 Suenens,16 Edward Schillebeecx, Karl Rahner,17 Hans von Balthasar, Johannes Baptist Metz, and Jürgen Moltmann and so on. The historical situation of poverty and oppression in Latin America context led to the development of liberation theology,18 which found its theological gratification at the discussions at the Vatican II Council session (Gaudium et Spes draft) in the context of “Jesus, the Church and the Poor” group19 headed by Professor Gauthier, with members like, Lercaro, Leger, Dom Camara etc. Liberation theology taking its point of anchorage on Gaudium et Spes final draft is championed by prominent names like, Gustavo Gutierrez, Leonardo Boff, Jon Sobrino, Dom Helder Camara, Oscar Romero, and is a contextual theology qua tale. From the foregoing we realize that these theologies deriving their content from the Ecclesial content of the Resurrection of Christ reflect uniquely contextual, historical situations. Thus the reality of the ‘pluralistic’ nature of theology creates the condition for an Igbo theology that answers to the historical faith and identity struggle, existential engagement20 and yearnings of the Igbo as a very religious, illustrious people in search of a self-reliant church, of meaning and self-identity. The theol-

14

See G. PHILIPS, The Role of the Laity in the Church, J. R. GILBERT and J.W. MOUDRY (trans.), Cork, 1955.

15

See Y. M-J. CONGAR, Jalons pour une théologie du laïcat, Unam Sanctam 23, Paris, 1953.

16

L. J. SUENENS, Théologie van het apostolaat, Antwerpen, 1951.

17

See K. RAHNER, Theological Investigations: Man in the Church, Vol. 11, K-H. KRUGER, (translated), Baltimore, London, 1963, 318-352.

18

See. GUTIERREZ, loc. cit. According to Gutierrez the paradox of liberation theology is that it was not developed in the theology faculty in Latin America but instead in the faculty of Social Sciences.

19

D. PELLETIER, “Une marginalité engagée: Le groupe Jésus, l’Église et les pauvres,” in M. LAMBERIGTS, C. SOETENS, J. GROOTAERS (dir.), Les Commissions Conciliaires à Vatican II, Leuven, 1996, 63.

20

J. VERSTRAETEN, Beyond Business Ethics: Leadership, Spirituality and the Quest for Meaning, Pro manuscripto, Leuven, 2000, 8 “The experience of the world as milieu divin transforms the secular into a locus of divine presence and in this perspective everything, every aspect of life, even work and business, become sacred for those who distinguish, in each creature and each human activity, an aspect of being attracted to the fulfillment of the world.”

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Theology: Unity in Diversity

ogy of inculturation cannot be an option here in view of the hermeneutics being articulated here and more so because of the fluidity it has fallen into. Paradoxically, since we cannot do without ‘theologies’ as such in the Church, since truth could also be found in combination of concept and context, which are home run to truth. Yet, these theologies apart from their expressing the richness of our faith, hope and aspirations as Christians, they go also a long way to reveal God, the ultimate reality, the true nature of things among peoples, but most effectively the richness and meaning of Christianity for peoples.21 Thus, Igbo theology remains uniquely ‘contextual’ and important in view of the coming of age of the Igbo in the Church; more so based on their entire history – religious, economic, political, moral, social, so on, without any exceptions that surrounds this people.22 The spirituality of this theology is founded on the age-long religiosity of this people, which the Gospel has nurtured and which gave birth to the making of unknown and known Igbo Saints and Blessed like, Cyprian Iwene Tansi.

21

M. H. SUCHOCKI, “Pragmatic Pluralism” in D. A. CROSBY & C. D. HARDWICK, Religion in a Pluralistic Age: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Philosophical Theology, New York, 2001, 65.

22

See A. E. AFIGBO (ed.), Groundwork of Igbo History, Lagos, 1992.

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CHAPTER THREE

Understanding the Igbo The effort here is not to retrace the entire history of the Igbo, the complexity of their ‘religiosity,’ culture and values. But suffice it to say that the present Igbo are among the main three tribes in Nigeria, whereas, the other two are Hausa and Yoruba. Majority of the Hausa are Muslims and have their concentration in the Northern part of Nigeria. The Yoruba are mostly Christians too, but live mainly in the Southwestern part of Nigeria. On the other hand, the Igbo are mainly located in what may be called today the Southeastern part of Nigeria, although they are scattered all over the Country, this makes them often victims of the Muslim-Christian Political power game that often manifests itself in Religious riots and mutiny in the Northern part of Nigeria. The Igbo could be said to form the greatest majority of Christians in Nigeria. And could also be found in every part of the world. The Igbo are religious people. This is to say that they carry their religion wherever they are, in the field of sowing seeds or harvesting crops to ceremonies – parties, funerals and so on. It is this fact that makes the Igbo so religious. In fact, religion occupies their whole system of being. This fact evolved through centuries as they experienced life and reflected upon realities and mysteries. Their religiosity is integrated into their whole worldview. In this sense their worldview is to be seen within their contexts in which they developed, so that taken out of their contexts – historical, economic, cultural, religious and social factors they might not make much sense and so lose something about their naturalness and wholeness. Their forbears believed in God, the Creator of all things who they addressed as Chukwu Abiamiri; who might be seen today in the Igbo Christian parlance as, God – Chineke (Chukwu, Cukwu), the Supreme Being and the Ultimate explanation of the genesis and sustenance of both human persons and all things. For the Igbo, God does them only what is good, so they have no reasons to complain. They hold firmly, that ‘He is good, for He has never 69

Towards an African Theology

withdrawn from us the good things which He gave us.’1 These good things include life, good health, children (Omumu), good harvest and other good things. They encapsulate these in celebrations which express praise, thanksgiving, and joy. In a way for the Igbo to live is to celebrate in thanksgiving to God, Chineke – for his goodness, life, children, good harvest and so on. Consequently, they give their children such beautiful native names as: Amarachi (God’s gift), Chiemela (God wrought wonders), Chinyere (God gave), Chikeluba (God created wealth), Chima (God knows), Chidube (God protect!). Essentially, about 80% of Igbo native names begin with ‘Chi’ (God) and are centered on God’s goodness. Based on this strong belief in God, they could not imagine evil coming from a good God! Furthermore, these celebrations which are expressed through dances, festivals, and rituals, are times too related to agricultural year and keeping of livestock which too have been made possible by Chineke. In these celebrations, which are to great extent communal, they express their togetherness, warmth and friendship, which they also show so much in their sense of hospitality for strangers. With this kind of background it is inconceivable for the Igbo to see the Christian Eucharistic celebration (the Mass) today, for instance or any other church service as nothing but ‘celebration.’ Thus, their forebears had always placed God and religion at the heart of their culture, values and life. More so, the traditional Igbo family before the coming of the early white missionaries had sacred spots in their families – here household altars where set up for family prayers, offerings and sacrifices.2 So that it was not surprising to see most Igbo accepting Christianity, in spite of the initial difficulties and cultural differences. Paradoxically, as we said elsewhere, the Igbo Christianity was part of the long history of Christianity in Africa that had flourished in North Africa until Islam overran it in the 8th century. St. Augustine, the most influential Latin father of the church, was an African bishop. Councils

1

2

D. WESTERMANN, The African Today and Tomorrow, London, 1939, 197. J. S. MBITI, African Religions and Philosophy, (second edition), Oxford, 1997, 73.

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were held at Carthage under St. Cyprian in the 3rd century. The last was in 534 A.D. under Bishop Boniface.3 Even after the earliest Christianity in African in the North had been overran by the encroachment of Islam, history still reckoned the Igbo (Igbo Ukwu) in the 9th century as one of the sacred kingdoms in Nigeria and thus was approximate center of political influence. This atmosphere of sacredness and religiosity essentially influenced the Igbo in their receptivity of missionaries who came after the first epoch of Christianity in Africa was overran by the Islamic incursion from North Africa. A chronologically recorded Catholic Christian missionary activity into the Igboland as such seems to have started by 5 December 1885 when Fr Joseph Lutz arrived at Onitsha to start the first Catholic Mission east of the River Niger in Nigeria. This historical fact does not becloud the fact of other Christian missionaries from other Christian denominations, like the Anglicans coming earlier or later. For the fact of our essential Catholic concern and theology here; this first recorded Catholic Missionary activities in Igboland span from the 1885 to 1967 (before the Nigerian-Biafran civil war: 1967-1970); first under Prefects Apostolic (Lutz, 1885-1895; Reling, 1896-1898; Pawlas, 1890-1900; Lejeune, 1900-1905; and Shanahan, 1905-1920), then under Vicars Apostolic (Shanahan, 1920-1931; Heerey, 1931-1950) and finally under diocesan Bishop and Archbishop (Heerey, 1950-1967).4 From the Onitsha at the coast Christianity had spread to other parts of the hinterlands in Igboland courtesy of the missionaries who were predominantly Irish. Just as Thomas Cahill acknowledged about the Irish, “For, as the Roman Empire fell, as all through Europe matted, unwashed barbarians descended on the Roman cities, looting artifacts, and burning books, the Irish, who were just learning to read and write, took up the great labor of copying all of Western literature – everything they could lay their hands on. These scribes then served as conduits through which the GrecoRoman and Judeo-Christian cultures were transmitted to the tribes of Europe, newly settled amid the rubble and ruined vineyards of the civilization they had overwhelmed Without this Service of the Scribes, everything that happened subsequently would have been unthinkable. 3

HEBBLEWAITE, No. 30, 7.

4

I. R.A. OZIGBOH, Igbo Catholicism: The Onitsha Connection 1967-1984, Onitsha, 1985, 6.

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Without the Mission of the Irish Monks, who single-handedly refounded European civilization throughout the continent in the bays and valleys of their exile, the world that came after them would have been an entirely different one – a world without books. And our own world would never have come to be.”5 This historical paradox is comparable to what the Irish missionaries did in Igboland. This Irish missionary endeavor in Igboland consolidated and strengthened the religiosity of this people, which as we saw above was inherent in their forbears, but rather now nurtured in the Christian way. They encouraged vocation to Christian religious life among the Igbo since the Irish themselves were religious and had numerous vocations to the religious and priestly life in their homeland. Yet these missionary activities were not without some difficulties and cultural clashes – since the evangelizers came also with their own cultures and peculiar mannerism. Consequently, because this mission Christianity was not from the start prepared to face a serious encounter with both the traditional religions and philosophy of life of the Igbo. The Church here now finds itself in the situation of trying to exist without ‘a contextual theology’ adapted to the values, culture and general Sitz im Leben of the Igbo people. It is worth reiterating here that the result of this has been, when the missionaries left the Igboland, that “Mission Christianity has come to mean for many Igbo simply a set of rules to be observed, promises to be expected in the next world, rhythmless hymns to be sung, rituals to be followed and a few other outward things. It is a Christianity which is locked up six days a week, meeting only for two hours on Sundays and perhaps once during the week. It is a Christianity, which is active in a church building. The rest of the week is empty. The Igbo who traditionally do not know religious vacuum, feel that they don’t get enough religion from this type of Christianity, since it does not fill up their whole life and their understanding of the universe. Furthermore, Igbo Christians in general, whether Catholic, Anglican or Protestant, often feel complete foreigners in mission churches. For example, much of formal Christianity is based on books but there are older Christians who do not read; the hymns are translated from European, English and American versions and are sung to foreign tunes which have little

5

T. CAHILL, How the Irish Saved Civilization: The Untold Story of Ireland’s Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe, New York, London, 1995, 3-4.

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rhythm and without bodily movements like clapping the hands or twisting the loins as a religious expression. Worship in mission churches is simply dull for most Igbo. Independent churches (what we see today in numbers around us – the Pentecostal churches) are an attempt to find ‘a place to feel at home,’6 not only in worship but in the whole profession and expression of Christian Faith. Beneath the umbrella of independent churches or the so called Pentecostal churches today, Igbo Christians can freely shed their tears, voice their sorrows, present their spiritual and physical needs, respond to the world in which they live and empty themselves before God.”7 As a people who have had checked political history of civil war with Nigeria (1967-1970); the Igbo – “Biafra had fought a war of selfdefense with virtually nothing and yet survived for almost three years, under a total blockade and complete isolation from the rest of the world.”8 For this people such an account of the civil war which had left them forlorn in their own country, Nigeria, calls for ‘a theology’ and modality of expression of their faith in the Risen Christ, who had liberated His people from the tolls of death and extermination, restored them to life and sustains them in being – economically, politically, socially and morally. In spite of the above, as a forbearing people, the Igbo in expression of their continual religiosity, which as seen above is in line with their forbears religiosity – this is what the later Igbo generation have channeled into great commitment to the support of the Church today with their limited resources, talents, more so, giving their children – boys and girls to religious and priestly vocations for the service of the universal Church. John Mbiti clarifies this fact more through a succinct historical background as against the long running suspicion of the genuineness of vocation boom today in Igboland, he writes: “There are priests reported among many societies including the Ankore, Yoruba, Igbo, Akan, Shona, Baganda, Basoga, Ewe, Sonjo and others. The tradition of priests is stronger in West Africa than in other parts of the continent.”9 This 6

F.B. WELBOURN and B.A. OGOT use this phrase in their study: A place to feel at home, Oxford, Nairobi, 1966.

7

MBITI, op. cit., 228.

8

A. A. MADIEBO, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, Eungu, 1980, xii.

9

MBITI, op. cit., 182.

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could explain an aspect of the reason for the vocation boom today among the Igbo in Nigeria. In 1984, they celebrated a hundred-year of Catholicism in their Society. As of today it is arguable if there is any other society in West Africa or even in the entire African continent that has as much vocation to the Priesthood and Religious life as the Igbo. They are among those who have the highest density of Christians, especially Catholics in Africa. It seems too that they have the highest number of Priests and Religious in Nigeria and arguably in Africa. But politically they have been marginalized in Nigeria, since after the civil war, in spite of their illustriousness and contributions to the polity. Being characteristically, and essentially hardworking, they have produced illustrious sons and daughters inter alia: Blessed Cyprian Iwene Tansi, Chinua Achebe (novelist), Francis Cardinal Arinze, Emeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, Emeka Anyaoku (former Secretary of the Commonwealth), Nnamdi Azikiwe, the Nigerian foremost nationalist, Michael Okpara and a host of other unsung men and women (some were early native missionary catechists) who have contributed to building up the Church and humanity. The Igbo are adventurous; this has its history in the worldview of their forbears. “They believed that mystical forces cause disease, accident, and calamity. It is not enough to explain that bad sanitation is responsible for a variety of intestinal infections. The People want to find out who (but equally the why of things), and not just what, makes a particular person contract an intestinal infection. They want to know who and not what has caused someone to fall from a tree while picking fruit; who, and not what has caused the young calves to die or the fields to produce poor crops.”10 This fact could explain their diversifications and interests today in different areas of sciences and humanities. The Igbo as part and parcel of humanity and people of God that has been liberated by the Risen Lord, today, they need an apt theology to articulate their worldview, their sorrows, their joys, their yearnings and their prospects. There is no more cogent and appropriate time other than now in their history that seems very bleak. 10

J. MBITI, “African Religion and World Order” in P. M. MISCHE & M. MELISSA (eds.), Toward a Global Civilization? The Contribution of Religions, New York, 2001, 366.

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A development of a contextual theology model like the one being advocated for here needs some tools and basic groundwork. For the Igbo theology this writer assumes that the tools are already embedded in the tradition, culture, Christian patrimony and value systems of the Igbo society. What remains is the ‘appropriation’ – where ‘appropriation’ is understood by the German term Aneignung. “Aneignen means ‘to make one’s own’ what was initially alien.”11 Furthermore, the development and enhancement of these values are a necessary backup to this appropriation. The first available tool is the fact that the Igbo are part and parcel of the sea of humanity redeemed by Christ. The implication of this salvation victory is in the words of St. Paul, “that you are no longer slaves but free”; the consequence of this reality is an onward match toward a practical realization of this fact in their Sitz im Leben; and the Igbo church remains an agent for Christ in taking people to God in this regard. The applicability of this is that, “it is to the needy that we dedicate our services and our lives. But we recognize the need, on our own part, to make a humble examination of conscience. It is not sufficient that we be men of moderate personal expenses in our own private lives; we must also let it publicly appear to men that this is so. Our hearts are given to the poor and we accept that we must be careful to ensure that the poor sees this and accepts it as true. We must be careful that external appearances do not seem to give the lie to our private good intentions, and that externals do not seem to align us with the powerful and privileged classes. In this, as in other things, it is Christ who must be our model … we direct our concern to the needs of the lowly ones, the poor in our land. They suffer many injustices. And these injustices seem to branch out from one deep core or centre.”12 Furthermore, since theology begins where there is a Church – people of God, thus the natural inclination of the Igbo toward religious worship, vocation boom and solid Christian faith, is a credit to a theology in context. This search for the transcendent and for a relevant ‘Otherness’ may lead people into many different areas, to a better living heritage

11

P. RICOEUR, Hermeneutics and the human sciences, trans and edited by J.B. Thompson, New York, 1980, 185.

12

CATHOLIC BISHOPS CONFERNCE OF NIGERIA, “The Church and Nigerian Social Problems”, Lagos, 1973, 14-15.

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which is a pearl of great price that remains buried in the ground of fertile Igbo soil.13 Another necessary tool in this quest are the Igbo theologians. Theologians are necessary think tanks for every developing and progressive faith-community. Igbo sons and daughters have enormously studied theology – home and abroad. As explained above, the Igbo are characteristically adventurous. Part of this can be seen today in the interest of their sons and daughters in theological studies. This intellectual interest apart from being for personal intellectual enrichment, but is also anchored on the bid to think for the people and the Igbo church toward self-reliance; to help them find meaning for the faith and existence especially since the advent of foreign missionaries and the horrendous incident of the civil war. We acknowledge those of them without mentioning names that had contributed immensely to nurturing more theologians and also to concrete welfare actions for the Church and Igbo society. But much needs to be done in regard of the challenges before the Igbo church toward self-reliance and the Christian challenge of selfidentity today in the Igbo society and Nigeria at large. Since according to Cardinal James Francis Stafford, President of Pontifical Council for the laity, “the greatest challenge the Church is facing in the 21st century is to recall the Catholic people to their Christian identity”.14 Part of this quest for Christian identity for the Igbo would cut across religion, politics, moral, social and economic well being. There is the need to stand up and to make the Risen Lord manifest and boldly so in every strata of the Nigerian society. To stand up against marginalization and injustice in the society; to vouchsafe toward a self-reliant church that would have the more privileged brethren in the society support the church, but not allow the poor to pay through their nose or be deterred from their sacramental lives in the church because of contributions and levies. To stand up and stand against bribery, corruption and inordinate means of amassing wealth; truthfulness and trustworthiness seen in the leadership as their representatives in the modern society of their age long titled men and women – Eze, Chief, Ndi-Okenye, Nze, Di-ji, Lolo, who were

13

C. DODD, Called to Mission: A workbook for the decade of Evangelization, London, 1991, 30.

14

J. F. STAFFORD, “Catholic Laity Future of the Church”, in R. MOYNIHAN (ed.), Inside The Vatican, May 18 2000, 58.

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noted for their distinguished honesty and concern for the interest of their people. It is worth reminding Igbo theologians that the fact remains that fortitude and resoluteness to a good cause is what is necessary for a theological growth and maturity of any Church and society. Their endeavors of now would actually benefit the present and future generations. Of course, theologians know how important language is, and how difficult or even impossible it is to speak about God or about transcendence, without making skilful use of literary devices such as poems or metaphors.15 Igbo have a very rich language that is nourished and flavoured with proverbs, songs, folktales, visual Art, customs and patterns of expressions16 times inform of ‘pantomimes,’ that only an insider can grasp, for an outsider needs to ask questions. Most of the words and proverbs are deeply rooted in unraveled theological and existential meaningfulness that express deep yearning, religious and existential worldview of the Igbo. In this regard, Chinua Achebe in Things Fall Apart attests, that “Among the Igbo the art of conversation is regarded very highly, and proverbs are the palm oil with which words are eaten.”17 Thus ‘words’ have weight and carry in-depth meaning among the Igbo. Take for example the word, Chineke,18 literally expresses wonderment and means marvel at the ‘omnicreativity’ of God; it has a deep unexplored theological, philosophical and hermeneutical richness and relevance to the Sitz im Leben of the people. Thus when the Igbo calls Chineke something is really in the offing and it is with reverence. 15

J. HAERS, “A Risk Observed” in T. MERRIGAN, Louvain Studies 21 (1996), 46.

16

R. B. FISHER, West African Religious Traditions: Focus on the Akan of Ghana, New York, 1998, 47-50. See also G. O. EHUSANI, An Afro-Christian Vision. “Ozovehe!” Toward A More Humanized World, Lanham, New York, 1991, 122.

17

C. ACHEBE, Things Fall Apart, New York, 1989, 10. See FISHER, op. cit., 48.“Nonliterate societies from ancient times have produced proverbs. The book of Proverbs in the Bible is a collection of the wisdom of the Israelite people from their oral traditions.”

18

Chineke is the Igbo word for ‘God.’ The Igbo ancestors were great philosophers like the Ionian philosophers who having seen the wonderment of God’s creation exclaimed: CHI-NEKE! (Literally means, God creates!).

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In reality then, in order to get things working in this direction of Igbo theology, the Igbo language needs to be developed more as a necessary tool for theologizing. In this direction, it is worth appreciation the efforts of personalities like, Ogbalu. U. Ogbalu, Chinua Achebe, A. E. Afigbo and his Coterie of Igbo Professionals, Rev. Emmanuel Jinehu, Bishop Emmanuel Otteh, Archbishop Anthony Obinna and the yearly popular Odenigbo Lectures given in Igboland that attracts national and international persons, the International Igbo-Ahajioku lectures, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Abia State University and the Whelan Academy for Society and Culture in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria and so on. These persons, groups and institutions had really shown the good use Igbo language could be in terms of resourcefulness for the Church, the Igboland, Nigeria and the entire human society in general. Thus the enhancement of Igbo Language and literature become means at the service of what theologians already know and want to communicate, without any possible misunderstanding, to those who do not know.19 Thus the deployment of languages like Igbo in theologizing and not a single historic language as a global language, German or English, would make, to a large extent, the richness of human cultural history accessible. Since languages do not correspond on a one-to-one basis in distinctions and meanings expressed, each language allows for a slightly different angle at reality. Translations are possible even if they never completely cover the content of the original. Languages are influenced by each other and exchange words and phrases. We cannot coexist without interacting. We should do so, preferably, with sensitivity and respect for the variety of languages.20 Igbo language is a momentous factor in this regard. Since every theology is first of all at home to the language of her people. Thus, in order to be able to grasp the theological implications of the meaning-loaded words of each of these theologies mentioned above one is at advantage knowing the language of the very theologian in question. Igbo theologians should be at home with the semantics and hermeneutics of Igbo language. This is important as a tool for theological Conversation. For example, a good knowledge of German is an advantage to reading Karl Rahner’s original theological reflections. Since one cannot always

19

HAERS, loc. cit.

20

DREES, loc. cit.

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depend on translations for serious theological research. Sometimes translations are betrayal of some sort of the original, but at the same time they are far more better than having nothing at all for theological interaction. A heightened interest in the development of Igbo language is a big credit in this regard for more meaningful and original theological reflections for the people. One may not use foreign language to articulate a meaningful theology for its own people. Of course this may not be ruled out totally today because of dialogue between theologies. But the fact remains that every theologian is first and foremost a theologian for the people of God where he lives and theology begins where the people are. Although the use of Igbo language may not be very easy at the onset as is already being tested by persons, groups, institutions and churches mentioned above, but its appropriation in Igbo theology is a sine qua non. This is founded on the fact that language is the key to the expression and articulation of a people’s Weltanschauung.21 Igbo thought-form, like that of Hebrew, is concrete while the Greek thought pattern is abstract.22 Igbo catechetical vocabulary could, and should, be vivid and evocative. Some of the current catechetical terminologies not only lack psychological punch but also are manifestly ‘miseducative’ and not too good as theological tools. Take for example words like, “ENIGWE”(a transliteration rather than a translation of “HEAVEN”), “UKA”, (literally means, Church), “NDI UKA”,(literally means, the people of Church) “UNO UKA”, “NDI OGO MUO”,23 “NDI OBODO”(literally, people of the city) readily come to mind. Even in cases where ‘Igbonisation’ of the English equivalents, “CHOOCHI” (Church) or “NDI CHOOCHI”, (literally, people of God) as being practiced in some parts of Igboland, is not a suitable alternative.24 More so,

21

EHUSANI, op. cit., 219-224.

22

I. R. A. OZIGBOH, Igbo Catholicism: The Onitsha Connection 1967-1984, Onitsha, 1985, 73.

23

MUO, literally means, ‘Spirit’; thus NDI OGO MUO, literally means, the people who worship Spirit; whereas it is a term used by Christians to cajole the so called ‘pagans.’ But the argument stands, if God is Spirit, are Christians in a way not themselves, NDI OGO MUO, because they also worship SPIRIT? This shows the tinkering that needs to be made in the language to make apt for theologizing.

24

OZIGBO, loc. cit.

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words adapted from traditional cultures of the West, like Christmas, Easter, Sunday, Paschal do not express as such the deep meaningfulness of these feasts to the people and may not fall into good place for use in Igbo theology. Again, the development and enhancement of the language as a theological tool makes it a mandate that Igbo Bible (complete version) should be in place. Since the biblical narratives, which would form hermeneutical metaphors for Igbo theology need to be read, understood, digested and assimilated in the language of the people by the people. Since every theology cannot be self-content, Igbo theologians must be ready to enter into open dialogues with other theologies – a cross fertilization of thoughts is very necessary. A listening to other theologies and what they have to offer is of importance in this ‘age of globalization.’25 Finally, the content of this theology is of necessity the hopes, joys and sorrows of the Igbo as a people of God in the Risen Christ and as a part of humanity that is moving towards a fulfillment and self-identity.

25

Z. BAUMAN, Globalization: The Human Consequences, Cambridge, 1998, 17.

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CHAPTER FOUR

Developing the Hermeneutics of Igbo Theology “Jesus’ life itself can also be understood as the hermeneutic adventure of a human being attempting to name God and thereby to value life. Jesus himself takes the risk of entering into the narrative and culture created by the authors of the Old Testament, who attempted to unfold the history of God and God’s people. In taking that risk, Jesus attempts to discover and uncover God, and to make a claim concerning what is worth living for.”1 In this vein, Paul Ricoeur writes, “I assume that the primary sense of the word ‘hermeneutics’ concerns the rules required for the interpretation of the written documents of our culture.”2 In a way ‘Culture’ and ‘values’ are like a ‘text.’3 Since according to Jacques Haers S.J. the concept of ‘Text’ is a difficult one in Ricoeur, this is based on the fact that Ricoeur does not necessarily mean “written text” when he talks about ‘Text’; but refers to ‘an entity that is there and challenges one at the same time.’4 “To explain a text was essentially to 1

J. HAERS, “A Risk Observed,” in T. MERRIGAN (ed.), Louvain Studies 21(1996), 55.

2

P. RICOEUR, Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences, trans and edited by J. B. Thompson, New York, 1980, 197. The phrase ‘written documents of culture’ could also be applied to ‘archives.’ Culture has archives.

3

“By the expression of ‘self-understanding,’ I should like to contrast the self which emerges from the understanding of the text to the ego which claims to precede this understanding. It is the text, with its universal power of unveiling, which gives a self to the ego.” Ibid, 193. HAERS, “A Risk Observed”, op. cit. 47. ‘Text refers more clearly to the receptive and creative dynamism of the hermeneutical process of appropriation.’

4

Professor Jacques Haers (S.J), in a discussion of Paul Ricoeur on “Metaphors”, K.U.Leuven, 19th April 2001. The consequence of this is that here creativity and objectivity mingle. In this regard culture is like a text, it projects a ‘world,’ a moving away from “umwelt” into a “welt” according to Ricoeur. So the ‘text’ (read Culture)

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consider it as the expression of certain socio-cultural needs and as a response to certain perplexities localized in space and time.”5 Thus ‘Text’ in the words of Haers, “refers more clearly to the receptive and creative dynamism of the hermeneutical process of appropriation.”6 This is in agreement with the fact that we cannot read a texts or narratives, we cannot seriously relate to others, without in one way or another getting involved. Neither can we put on glasses without our perception of reality changing.7 Thus, it would be a fallacious view that hermeneutical task is governed by the original audience’s understanding of the text, so also would it be more fallacious for any original audience’s understanding of culture and value become the measurement for accessing cultures and values. Accordingly “the culture with which we are concerned cannot be simply that of a particular society, such as the Greco-Roman, the medieval, or the modern Western.”8 For instance, the letters of Saint Paul are no less addressed to me than to the Romans, the Galatians, the Corinthians, and the Asians. For instance, from the moment that the text escapes from its author and from his situation, it also escapes from its original audience. Hence it can procure new readers for itself. This is as a result of the fact that the ‘text’ imposes itself on the community and the interpreting community is alive and not in coma, even if she may be comatose, the ‘realities’ and ‘signs of the time’ could revive her.9 Thus the moment the Gospel of Jesus Christ crosses borders it procures a different set of disciples and congregation living in a different cultural situation with different value system, yet the same

projects a possibility that allows one to create a world and in this way gives one the clarification to see how the world will look like. Of course one does not have monopoly over the interpretation of the text in this sense one enters into dialogue. Above, faithful to the text (read Culture) is being “creative,” concludes Prof. Haers. 5

Ibid., 184.

6

J. HAERS, “A Risk Observed,” op. cit, 47.

7

Ibid., 51.

8

RICHARD H. NIEBUHR, Christ and Culture, New York, 1975 (edition), 30.

9

HAERS, loc. cit.

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CHRISTIAN10 so that the Gospel ipso facto makes new disciples for itself.11 The technical term to denote this activity is “hermeneutics” or perhaps also “encounter”.12 Consequently, “Faith is based on such encounters. It is a human activity: there is no way to speak about the transcendent or about God outside its or God’s relation to the world or to human life. If one wants to speak about transcendence, if one wants to speak about God, one cannot but speak about the universe and about human experiences. There is no other space for the “revelation” of transcendence. The word “revelation” here shares the hermeneutical complexity: it is not some message communicated “out of the blue”; it is an invitation to unfold being in a commitment to the seriousness of life.”13 The dialectics of distanciation and appropriation apply. “Where appropriation ceases to appear as a kind of possession, as a way of taking hold of,14 it implies instead a moment of dispossession of the narcissistic ego. This process of dispossession is the work of the sort of universality.”15 Where ‘appropriation’ is understood by the German term Aneignung, “Aneignen means ‘to make one’s own’ what was initially alien.”16 In this sense Igbo values that are kept at a distance, as suspicious, could 10

P. C. OKUMA, A Call to Authentic Living in Christ: The Challenge of the Third Millennium, Enugu, 1998, 4; “…‘CHRIST-IAN’: a follower of Christ, a disciple of Christ, a member of the family of Christ, a soldier of Christ, a witness to Christ – by words and deeds (Eritis mihi testes – Luke 24:47).”

11

K. SEYOON, “The Origin of Paul’s Concept of Reconciliation” in R. N. LONGENECKER, The Road from Damascus. The Impact of Paul’s Conversion on His Life, Thought, and Ministry, Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge, 1997, 123; for instance, “the way in which Paul developed the doctrine of reconciliation has a paradigmatic significance for our theologizing today. For as our personal experience of being encountered by Christ leads us to confirm the truth of the apostolic kerygma, we will interpret that kerygma by means of a new category drawn from our experience, thereby making the kerygma more relevant to our situation today.”

12

HAERS, op. cit., 47-48.

13

loc. cit.

14

Often the term ‘Inculturation’ has been used in the sense of the Gospel ‘penetrating’ an ‘uncivilized’ Culture to Christianize it. This should not be the case. This makes the Gospel imperialistic and ‘UnChristlike.’ Of course the use of the term Inculturation shows the historical missionary situation in which the concept was born which needs remembering.

15

RICOEUR, loc. cit.

16

Ibid., 185.

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be integrated (appropriated – ‘made one’s own,’ made Church’s own, instead of seeing them as alien) to make the faith evergreen in Igboland and beneficial to the Universal Church as the Medieval monastic practice of historical sacrament of penance became beneficial to the Church, or the Greek thoughts assisted the Church in formulating her Creed in the Nicea Council.17 This is au courant with the fact that “the aim of hermeneutics is to struggle against cultural distance and historical alienation.” In his book, African philosophy: A Historico-Hermeneutical Investigation of the Conditions of its possibility, Theophilius Okere argues succinctly that, “the ongoing artistic and intellectual renaissance in Black Africa includes the search for an African Philosophy. But designating what is African Philosophy needs some criteria. Philosophy is a unique cultural form and, despite affinities, is not to be confused with other forms such as myth, Weltanschauung and religion. But it grows out of a cultural background and depends on it; discovering and studying this relationship will also be the condition for the development of a black African Philosophy.”18 This fact is not only relevant for an African Philosophy, but more so for an African Theology, but peculiarly to an Igbo theology that will answer to the faith and life-situation of the people. A hermeneutical appreciation and appropriation of cultural values of Igbo people and their integration in faith-worship and existential engagement will go a long way in enhancing the faith and making it longlasting, otherwise what seems like a booming Christianity in Igboland today will only be ‘a mere accident without a substance’ in the near future; the Church may likely be the loser.

17

N. P. TANNER, s.j. “An Interview with Norman Tanner SJ” in J. O. IBHAKEWANLAN, s.j (ed.), Hekima Review. Journal of Hekima College. Jesuit School of Theology Nairobi, No. 25, May 2001, 102. “Earlier the Church had less fear of other institutions; it was readier to adapt for itself the good elements in them, to use and then go beyond them, to give a lead in society rather than to follow reluctantly or to distant itself unnecessarily. We saw a revival of this leadership in government, on the part of the Church, at the time of Vatican II, but the momentum does not seem to have been maintained. The councils open people’s eyes to hopeful possibilities for the future.”

18

T. OKERE, African Philosophy: A Historico-Hermeneutical Investigation of the Conditions of its Possibility, Lanham, New York, London, 1983.1.

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Today in Europe one of the basic problems confronting the Church is the acute insufficiency of ordained ministerial Priests to attend to the People. Among their hierarchy and theologians, there is now an urgent quest of finding an ‘alternative means’ – a rethinking among scholars of who should actually administer the sacraments – a rethinking of the theology of ministry to suit their unique situation. These are likely questions confronting European theologians today in the Church. This is based on the peculiar cultural situation, post modernity in which the people find themselves today. And on this they are trying to find an immediate solution of readdressing the entire issue of ‘communal service or Sunday celebration’ in the Church of their situation. As we see today because of this unique problem the Church is reacting towards their peculiar plight and situation with the integration of the laity in most apostolate that would have been impossible before Vatican II. In the case of Igbo theology in the words of Nathenial I. Ndiokwere, “the main problem is not that of ‘coining’ an expression or a term that expresses the aspirations of the ‘liberationist thinkers and theologians,’ but an ideology, a theology or philosophy of life that can bring about a successful implementation of the expressed aspirations.”19 But this author is not ‘coining an ideology’ nor developing one either, but instead opting for a hermeneutics for an Igbo theology that is already possible with some of the realities mentioned in this work so far and some yet to be mentioned. In so doing here, a hermeneutics is deemed as a better option for this quest. According to Edith Stein, “the truth wherever it is to be found belongs to God.” A dialogue with some Western and African minds in this area will occupy us in the quest for this peculiar hermeneutics of Igbo theology. Accordingly, “ ‘Appropriation’ is the key idea, which governs the methodology of interpretation.”20 But as it is said, “an interpretation is not authentic unless it culminates in some form of appropriation (Aneignung), if by that term we understand the process by which one

19

N. I. NDIOKWERE, The African Church Today and Tomorrow: Prospects and Challenges, Vol. I, Onitsha, 1994, 301-302.

20

P. RICOEUR, Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences, trans and edited by J.B. Thompson, New York, 1980, 182.

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makes one’s own (eigen) what was initially ‘other’ or alien (fremd).”21 The Dutch equivalent of the German (Deutsch) word, fremd is vreemd meaning: strange. The noun form of the verb vreemd is ‘Vreemde’ meaning, ‘Stranger’; vreemdling literally means, I spy. All these put together illustrate the fact that what is not familiar to a stranger (vreemde) remains strange (vreemd) and the stranger (vreemde) only spy (vreemdling) the ‘strange thing’ because it is not his own (eigen). The stranger looks at the object with eigenaardig (suspicious). Sapere Aude! But, ‘What we appropriate for ourselves, is not an alien experience or a distant intention, but the horizon of a world.’22 Let me speak, like Jürgen Manemann in his pro manuscripto, “Interruptions: A Christian Perspective on Idolatry”(Leuven, 2001)”, “The history of salvation, we Christians are talking about, is the world history (Weltgeschichte). Every way of distancing ourselves from this history, from our society and from the suffering of others is in danger of creating idols instead of speaking of God. We don’t know anything of God in advance, without facing our situation.”23 This challenges us to an appropriation of one’s situation, which “culminates in the self-interpretation of a subject who thenceforth understands himself (herself) better, understands himself differently, or simply begins to understand himself (herself). This culmination…in self-understanding is characteristic of the kind of reflective philosophy which, on various occasions…called ‘concrete reflection.’”24 Paradoxically, years after the African bishops’ synod of 1994 on Inculturation, Africa church still seem to live rather in a ‘distanciation’25, still suspicious of most of our patrimonies – traditions, cultures, and values,26 instead of an involvement in this kind of ‘concrete reflection.’ 21

Ibid., 178.

22

Loc. cit.

23

MANEMANN, op. cit., 1.

24

P. RICOEUR, op. cit., 158.

25

This word is here used in the sense of what Ricoeur describes, as a condition of prejudice that has to be overcome in order to reach what he termed ‘aude sapere or mundigkeit’ – age of adulthood (ibid., 67).

26

See Paul RICOEUR, “Le problème du fondement de la morale,’ in Sapienza 28 (1975) 313-337; Here Ricoeur comes to the conclusion, after a long period of research on the problem, that the value concept is the “central antimony” of philoso-

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Developing the Hermeneutics of Igbo Theology

The result is that some of these values and patrimonies, we have by way of ‘our belief,’ without properly applying some proper study and introspection, are branded as monstrous. The result is that some of these momentous patrimonies are thrown away or at most neglected, instead of enhancing them for the faith and humanity in the Church and society of humankind at large. This situation is most pathetic for the Igbo of Nigeria. In the words of Ikenga R. A. Ozigboh, “European forms of praying and singing, European names, mores and mannerisms were extolled and inculcated. The less Igbo a convert appeared, the more Christian he was deemed to be.”27 For example, at the Synod for Africa in 1994 (April 8th - May 10th), Bishop Peter K. Sarpong, of Kumasi, Ghana, reiterated that the distorted image of traditional religion should be corrected. Derogatory terms such as polytheism, paganism, animism, fetishism, heathenism, ancestor worship and idolatry, should be dropped as a way to describe traditional religion, he said, “The truth is that traditional religion is no more fetishism, because in it one finds the use of sacred objects or animism, because it believes that certain objects and creatures have souls that Catholicism called ‘incensism,’ because we use incense at high Mass or ‘aquatism,’ because we believe in the cleansing value of holy water. Do we accept this fact? Or are we not often our own persecutors?”28 In another instance with reference to the distortion of the image of African values and indeed the Igbo, Mbiti argues, “African Religion concerns human relations with the world of nature. Humans are not masters over nature to exploit it without feeling or treat it without respect … this posture of the human person vis-à-vis nature is not ‘nature phy, even stronger: the dead point of it and also one of the most difficult problems of philosophy today. This theological and philosophical reflection on the concept has become even more current with the socio-political discussion about Grundwerte in Germany again. In this regard see F. BOECKLE, Fundamentalmoral, München, 1977, p. 23. See also Paul SCHOTSMANS, “Value theory as an Exponent of a Secularized Society: An Hermeneutic approach of the value theory of Milton Rokeach,” In Sylloge Excerptorum E Dissertationibus. Ad gradum Doctoris in Sacra Theologia vel in iure Canonico Consequendum Conscriptis, Vol. LIV, Leuven, 1990, pp. 69-85. 27

I. R. A. OZIGBOH, Igbo Catholicism: The Onitsha Connection, 1967-1984, Onitsha, 1985,72.

28

R. T. EDWARDS, (NCF Staff), “African bishops offer wish lists to synod”, in National Catholic Reporter, April 29, 1994, p.7

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worship’ – a term wrongly used by ignorant outside observers when they wrote about Africa religious life. Nature is potentially a friend with whom humans may communicate, whose cooperation they may solicit, and whose generosity is a benefit for them.”29 Thus it is a truism as a pathway to Igbo theology that in spite of differences with other traditions in regard to some values, those traditions, which differ in the most radical way over certain subject matters, may in respect of others share beliefs, images, and texts.30 This makes every theology eschew solipsism. Since, it is in the created world and in the concreteness of human life, viewed through the loving eyes of God, and not through a selfish desire for conquest and subjection of the otherness of creation, that Christians discover and live their commitment to God.31 Consequently, we discover that “We enter upon a stage which we did not design and we find ourselves part of an action that was not of our making. Each of us being a main character in his own drama plays subordinate parts in the dramas of others, and each drama constrains the others.”32 In contrast with this ‘engagement’ and enhancement of faith with our patrimonies and values; we have resorted condemnation and throwing away of some of our important values, artifacts and sculptures in the name that the devil inhabits them – even after driving away the so-called ‘devil’ and ‘exorcising’ some of these values and objects.33 It is true that giving images an important place carried with it the risk of returning to idolatry.34

29

J. MBITI, “African Religion and World Order”, in P. M. MISCHE & M. MELISSA (eds.), Toward a Global Civilization? The Contribution of Religions, New York, 2001, 368.

30

A. MacINTYRE, Whose Justice? Which Rationality?, Indiana, 1988, 350.

31

J. HAERS, “A Risk Observed”, in T. MERRIGAN (ed.), Louvain Studies 21(1996), 47.

32

A. MacINTYRE, After Virtue. A Study in Moral Theory, (second edition), London, 1997, 213.

33

S. ROBINSON & A. LABI, “Endangered Art”, in A. MORRISON (ed.), Time magazine, June 18, 2001, 68-74.

34

J. MANEMANN, pro manuscripto, “Interruptions: A Christian Perspective on Idolatry,” Leuven, 2001, 6.

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Developing the Hermeneutics of Igbo Theology

Today in some parts of Europe there is a rediscovery of paganism and idolatry. Jurgen Manemann writes: “We can diagnose in the German society an increasing interest in polytheism and paganism by some intellectuals and groups. They blame monotheism or more precisely Jewish monotheism for being intolerant and polytheism, by contrast, by its very nature would include an abundance of gods and models of ritual worship and as such would have more room for different viewpoints and belief and therefore it would be compatible with a pluralistic, democratic society. Polytheism is regarded as the deep basis for tolerance. In addition to these challenges paganism becomes more and more influence (sic), even by famous intellectuals, for example Martin Walzer and Peter Sloterdijk.” From this point of view, it is understandable that the reason for rejecting some of the representations of our people – the artifacts – was not linked to their nature in the sense that the medium images would not be appropriate to spread the Christian message, but to their external affinity with the so called ‘paganism’35 (do people actually mean ‘prejudice,’ but instead prefer to write ‘paganism’? Sapere aude!) within the dominant cultural context? But God is never made of ‘wood.’ As Leo Tolstoy says, ‘When a pagan debunks his false god made of wood for the living God, it is not that god is made of wood, but that something was basically wrong with his belief.’ John Paul II in his address to Bishops of Ghana in 1980 said, “…Cultures and values themselves must be uplifted, transformed and permeated by Christ’s original message of divine truth, without harming what is noble in them. Hence, worthy traditions are to be preserved as patrimonies for theologizing. Moreover, in accordance with the full truth of the Gospels and in harmony with the magisterium of the Church, living and dynamic Christian traditions are to be consolidated.”36 35

36

How does one describe the concept of paganism? What is paganism? Are there no room for ‘mysteries’ in Igbo culture and even in every other culture or what Ludwig Otto could describe as: ‘mysterium tremendum’; Do people not mean ‘prejudice’ when actually the write, ‘paganism.’ In this vein, the words of Paul Ricoeur have a good admonition here: “Prejudice is what must be put aside in order to think, in order to dare to think – according to the famous adage sapere aude – so that one may reach the age of adulthood or Mundigkeit;” in P. RICOEUR, Hermeneutics and the human Sciences, edited and translated by J. B. THOMPSON, Cambridge, 1980, 66-67. POPE JOHN PAUL II, “Address to the Bishops of Ghana,” L’Osservatore Romano, English ed. June 2, 1980, pp 10-11.

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In a pure ecclesiastical context, we know that, historically, there was a change over time when Christian leaders and artisans transformed the classical visual narratives and used it to tell Christian stories in stone, glass and fresco and to enrich liturgical spaces.37 During the Middle Ages, the visual representations of Bible narratives in churches functioned as popular explanations of faith for the less literate. But even more than serving as visual expressions of rational theological thoughts, they appealed to another dimension of the human person. They wanted to touch the heart. ‘What is a cathedral but a vast, global image that impresses people and gradually transforms them as they go forward?’ Studies have shown that architects who were alchemists built many of the cathedrals on the way to Compostella and the Shrine of Saint James. They wanted pilgrims to enter their cathedrals as if they were going into the alchemist’s egg, to be transformed from their old selves into new ones.38 In similar vein, could the cultural values of the Igbo not be appropriated to speak to the Soul and Body of the Igbo Christian? Equally, there were elements in Western civilization and cultures that were not Christian, and some that were de-Christianized over time. For example, the Western traditions of politics and war are not Christian in origin. Christianity grew up under Roman rule, and its adherents were marginalized within the Roman Empire. They had no political power, nor were they, by the tenets of their faith, to participate in military service. In the same vein, no culture should be made synonymous with Christianity or should Christianity be over-identified with, one civilization?39 Today, the major world religions have adherents from many diverse cultures and civilizations and from diverse races and ethnic groups. These religions are global communities in microcosm. Their networks and activities bridge many cultures.40 In this regard, could some African values – Igbo cultural values not have been appropriated to the growth 37

G. GOETHALS, “The Church and the Mass Media: Competing Architects of our Dominant Symbols, Rituals and Myths,” in J. McDONNELL – F. TRAMPIETS (eds.), Communicating Faith in a Technical Age, Middle Green, 1989, 56-77.

38

P. BABIN, The New Era in Religious Communication, Minneapolis, 1991, 24.

39

TOYNBEE, Christianity Among the Religions of the World, 66-67.

40

P. M. MISCHE, “Toward A Civilization Worthy of the Human Person,” in P. M. MISCHE & M. MERKLING (eds.), Toward A Global Civilization? The Contribution of Religions, New York, 2001, 4.

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of Christianity among the people in their concrete existential reality and situation, since the Igbo are part of this microcosm that make up the one Church. Furthermore, it is known that the sacrament of reconciliation we have today started with the Irish Monks in the Middle Ages.41 But this practice was received by the Church and enhanced for the salvation of Souls. Could the good aspects of the culture and values of Africans – the Igbo not be received by the local church and enhanced for the good of our people, since reception is not a process an individual makes, but that of the community – the local church is this community in a way, and the people of God form part and parcel of this community?42 Could we not then enhance some of what our people have and through them contextualize the gospel message? Do we not suppose that this would make more impact on the faith of our people than we have done in the past? 43 Is something not wrong with our belief and the way we received faith and handle faith today? Amid our claims to discovering Godliness by seeing the devil everywhere and burning the objects and detesting what to us accommodates the devil, have we become better Christians? Or even more religious than our forebears? We need to change our attitude and ethos to the faith – put the priorities in proper perspectives. Is there no possibility of enhancing some of our traditional heritage to spread the gospel with them – some of the priceless and enriching traditions and ethos of our people? Are they all devilish and evil? What are we left with at the end of the day, when we have scorned all these? Without patrimonies and tradition (a way of life of a people) our emotions and thoughts would not be much more than fleeting unarticulated happenings (as Wittgenstein has demonstrated). Only within a tradition is it possible to ascribe attitudes and beliefs and emotions that transcend the momentary brain states supposedly underpinning them. Only within 41

See J. MAHONEY, The Making of Moral Theology: A Study of the Roman Catholic Tradition, Oxford, Clarendon, 1987.

42

See L. M. CHAUVET, Symbol and Sacrament, trans. by P. Madigan and M. Beaumont, Collegeville, Minnesota, 1995.

43

V. A. NWOSU, The Laity and The Growth of Catholic Church In Nigeria: The Onitsha Story 1903-1983, Onitsha, 1990, 142.

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a tradition, in which values and meanings transcend subjective opinions and preferences is there room for symbolic efficacy that is the real impact on a people’s life and destiny of certain crucial words, symbols, and rites. Traditions or the patrimony of a people, it must be underscored, are not the fossilized opposite of a steadily continuing life, but the processes of continuing life itself. That is why passing on certain ways of understanding life and coping with it are also part of the passing on of life. This happens through customs and traditions, conventions, rituals, symbols, wisdom, life experience and, in particular, through human language. Just as the world is opened to us through language, so also an appropriation of the essences of the patrimonies of our people will en-route the faith to an evergreen position on our land and lead to an Igbo theology. ‘Appropriation’ underlines two features here, “One of the aims of … hermeneutics (of value-appropriation) is to struggle against cultural distanciation.44 This struggle can be understood in purely temporal terms as a struggle against secular estrangement, or in more genuinely hermeneutical terms as a struggle against the estrangement from meaning itself, that is, from the system of values … In this sense, interpretation ‘brings together,’ equalizes, renders contemporary and similar,’ thus genuinely making one’s own what was initially alien.”45 This paradigm will lead to an understanding and appreciation of the African values, since in ‘hermeneutical reflection – or in reflective hermeneutics – the constitution of the self (here read, the Igbo) is contemporaneous with the constitution of meaning.’46 The result should be an attitude of ‘openness’ to the values of our people. Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, defends rather a theology of interculturality.47 By the technical concept of interculturality he endorsed this ‘openness to cultures’ and values of the people. The Church is always at home to cultures of humankind. She has a lot to teach the cultures, yet she enters into relation with the cultures of humankind, to awaken dialogue and 44

Here read, prejudicare – ‘prejudgment, prejudice’; See RICOEUR, p.67.

45

RICOEUR, op. cit., 159.

46

Loc. cit.

47

G. DE SCHRIJVER, (1999-2000), Contextual Theology. Developments in Third World Theologies of Liberation, Leuven, 87.

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understanding – reflexivity.48 What Alvin Toffler calls ‘culture shock.’ Yet the reflexivity does not mean relaxivity of the faith and the gospel message. But ‘Faith,’ in a way, is a social behavior. It wells in confrontation with a tradition that is borne by a social group and it requires structural plausibility. One is more than ever convinced of the truth of the old adage: “Unus christianus nullus christianus”. In this regard then, Christian faith as revealed might well be seen in a context in which people can live and make sense of the mystery. This context itself is experienced as given, not simply of man’s own making, but also as a gift entrusted to us and which we can transmit to others, also within the traditional milieu for a good appropriation and assimilation. In this regard, then, there is a more urgent need for a good integration of the faith we have received into the patrimony of our people, or vice versa toward a theology. This is the only way the faith can answer a deep call, enrich, and make long-lasting sense in the lives of our people, today and in time to come. Otherwise, whatever we have today may not withstand the current when it begins to blow. According to John Stuart Mill (1806-73), when democracy is fully developed two things will be the consequences, autonomy principle will be in place, and the no harm principle will be enthroned (cf. Essay: On liberty, 1859). When the wind of democracy that is blowing now across the country, Nigeria and other parts of Africa, begins to blow better, leading to economic development, life improvement and modernization in science and technology (science and technology inevitably leads to a society in which religion is often no longer the integrating factor as we see already across the borders in some developed countries) in the lives of our people – the leisure industries growing up here and there as in Europe and America – the Church may no longer be a place where people come for UKA-MGBEDE (literary means, the evening Church Sunday catechetical instruction accompanied by the benediction) – to spend the rest hours. Instead, secular activities for enjoyment and relaxation will take its place. We are seeing the tip of the iceberg being manifested, already, in most youths. What are we doing to consolidate the patrimony of this massive turnout we seem to enjoy now in our churches? What are we doing to consolidate the faith of our People through what we have? 48

DE SCHRIJVER, op. cit., 87.

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One needs to recognize the effort of the Archdiocese of Owerri in Southeast of Nigeria for taking up the initiative of what she calls the Whelan Research Academy for Culture and Society49 – that is directed towards research and enhancement of our tradition, culture and societal patrimonies for the betterment of the Church, our people and the wider society. At least a research program is a good starter. Furthermore, in this direction could we not do more inside looking (introspection) – seeking to understand our patrimonies than outright condemnation and throwing away some of these patrimonies? At times, we have the feeling that everything that is traditional is evil-in-itself. We may end up, finally, throwing away ‘the bath water’ and the child. Indeed, we need to enhance for good and keepsake our laity and those priceless traditional patrimonies they have that could enhance their faith.50 “As a matter of fact, Christians search and explore reality. They are profoundly, lovingly, and even passionately interested in human life and human experiences. How could they not be committed to creation? The word “creation” itself indicates God’s commitment. How could they not promote human life and culture?”51 Already, the Vatican II decree, Apostolicam Actuositatem, on the apostolate of the laity calls for this recognition.52 Thus, the American Bishops’ Committee on the laity 49

T. OKERE, the pioneer of the Academy, in a celebrated lecture in K.U.LEUVEN (27th March, 2001) on the said Research Academy opined that the goal of the Academy is to create a reflective atmosphere in the Gospel-Culture dialogue as a way of stabilizing the Gospel message and stopping Christianity from being a mere ‘winter coat’ (‘winter coat’ is usually a very heavy overall which is dropped all in the Western and Cold hemispheres once winter is over and summer is in place) among Christians essentially in Nigeria and environs.

50

See V. A. NWOSU, The Laity and The Growth of Catholic Church In Nigeria: The Onitsha Story 1903-1983, Onitsha, 1990. Here he takes a historical excursus on the toils and pains of the laity in enhancing the faith in Nigeria and Onitsha in particular.

51

J. HAERS, “A Risk Observed” in T. MERRIGAN (ed.), Louvain Studies 21(1996), 46-47.

52

See P. C. OKUMA, The Political Mission of the Laity in Nigeria in the light of Vatican II apostolicam actuositatem, decree on the apostolate of the laity, (Licentiate pro manuscripto), Leuven, 2001. Here through a historical critical methodology, I retraced in depth the entire historical situation of the “laity” from the Old Testament through the New Testament Church via the different epochs in the history of the Church from the early Church through the Patristic period till Vatican II and into the post-Vatican II period, the synod of Bishops of 1987 till John Paul II’s Christifideles Laici which is the apostolic exhortation based on the synod of bishops and today’s realities concerning the laity. This research-project remains very revealing. It shows

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with lay advisors developed the pastoral statement, ‘Called, and Gifted’ in it; they identified four main aspects of the call to the laity in the modern time, as embedded in the decree, as: -

-

The call to ‘adulthood’ The call to holiness The call to ministry (both to the world and in the Church). The call to community53

Accordingly, these key issues may be explicated further this way: ‘The call to adulthood reveals a decided shift in the identity of the layperson from the preconciliar to the post-conciliar Church; the call to holiness implies that resources would be available within the Church for nourishing and encouraging spiritual growth and development of the laity. The call to ministry, perhaps the most ‘conflictual area’ to emerge since Vatican II, challenges the Church regarding theological clarity; concerning valuation of lay roles within the Church and the secular world. Finally, the call to community life; leads to a review of parish size, organization, priorities, and identity. It had already led to intentional communities, basic communities, and some revitalized parish communities.’54 What theological challenges do these demand of the Igbo church and for Igbo theology? It calls for more openness and appreciation of the role laity could play in the local church and in the Igbo society, if given the necessary tools and encouragement. Indeed, the Church of Europe and America were like us sometime ago – even better. Today, they are screaming and worried over so many things, among which is ‘the state of their laity’ today, and the loss of their age-long traditional patrimonies. Accordingly, Cardinal Godfried Danneels, of Belgium, was quoted as saying that the European Church may soon end up becoming a non-sacramental Church – where only

the work and challenges that need be done in regard of the laity in general – in the Universal Church and in Nigeria as a case study. 53

Secretariat, Bishops committee on the laity, National Conference of Catholic Bishops, Consulting the American Catholic laity, MOIRA MATHIESON (ed.), United States Catholic Conference Publications, Washington DC. 1986, NB: ‘Adulthood,’ here, is to be understood to mean, knowledge, experience and awareness, freedom and responsibility, and mutuality of relationship, loc. cit.

54

V.S. FINN, Laity: Mission and Ministry in L. RICHARD, O.M.I (eds.), Vatican II: The Unfinished Agenda, New York, Mahwah, 1987, 148.

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Bible services are held because there are no priests and even lay people to minister and be administered.55 In the case of Igbo, even the so-called vocation boom for now,56 may not be an afterwards boom. Soon the countdown may begin and all may not be the same again. Do these not challenge us to an Igbo theology that aims at consolidation of these patrimonies? Paradoxically, we need to do some soul-searching. Why does our local churches seem to be losing so much to Pentecostalism? Youths have more interest in the charismatic groups than any other set-up now in the Church? What has gone wrong? We may not notice this, because the Church always seems to be filled up on Sundays in our own case for now. Could it be that our people – or just the youths – have a patrimony of worshipping God that we neglected or are about to neglect? We need to do our homework well and enhance what we have to the growth of the faith and into a theology for the future. One is not arguing here for a radicalized form of Igbo contextual theology or a seeming radicalized inculturation or even interculturality, which is very strange to the Church, but for a situation, which integrates both the faith and lives of people – toward a Christian maturity. One witnesses that most of our Christians in the Church on Sunday are often different persons in the world on Monday. It behooves to say that part of the reason is that the faith merely took flesh. We have some good patrimonies with us; let us endure and endeavor to keep them. John Paul II attested to this fact – “In African culture and tradition, the role of the family is everywhere held to be fundamental. Open to this sense of the family, of love and respect for life, the African loves children, who are joyfully welcomed as gifts of God. The sons and daughters of Africa love life. It is precisely this love for life that leads

55

12th May, 2000 in EWTN NEWS BRIEF

56

The vocation boom in South-east of Nigeria, especially in Igboland dumbfounds some people. The basic question remains: who knows why there is vocation boom in this part of the hemisphere (it seems paradoxical to say that if ‘nothing has shifted at least Christianity seems to have shifted demographically’ to the Southern hemisphere via Southern Asia, Southern America, South of Africa etc., this seems to be a truism that is verifiable) and vocation set back in Europe and America etc.? In spite of some pleasant and times prejudiced reasons that had been given in this regard by some people. Yet the unanswered question remains: Who knows?

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them to give such great importance to the veneration of their ancestors … The peoples of Africa respect life, which is conceived and born. They rejoice in this life. They reject the idea that it can be destroyed, even when the so-called ‘progressives civilizations’ would like to lead them in this direction. Practices hostile to life are imposed on them by means of economic systems, which serve the selfishness of the rich. Africans show their respect for human life until its natural end and keep elderly parents and relatives within the family.”57 Is it not true that some of these and likes for which our people are noted are fast going away? ‘What are we doing to nurture them, to recover some thrown away and the least, lying supine? One does not dispose of tradition as an ensured possession. One is only part of this tradition to the degree in which one experiences it and, as such, hands it on. It is only a gift that a group shares with her members and times across the border with other people. Christians do not live on their own possibilities. They are Christians to the degree in which they live out their faith, as received, enhanced, and interpreted by what they have as a people in the context. History has the capacity of repeating itself across countries and continents, when the errors made in history at one corner of the globe are not learnt or corrected by another. History repeats and replays herself to the unwary. Igbo church and society must learn from history and enhance the Church, our people, and the society. One does not always appreciate what one has until he or she loses it. Thus a hermeneutics of value-appropriation, which we propose here, places emphasis on ‘opening up a world.’58 ‘Opening up’ here has to do with, an ‘appreciation’ that leads to an appropriation of ‘Igbo worldview,’ which leads to an existential internalization, ‘humanization,’59 57

JOHN PAUL II, (September 14, 1995) “The Church in Africa; Post-synodal apostolic exhortation”, in The Pope Speaks, Vol. 41, No. 2, Article 43.

58

RICOEUR, op. cit., 181.

59

Alternatively one may prefer to use the word, ‘incarnate’ of course this in a way runs contrary to the Ratzingerian idea of ‘interculturality, but this is the way some people construe ‘inculturation’; Be that as it may, this writer prefers the word, ‘humanisation’ with the word, humanum at its root (a kind of contextualization of Teilhard de Chardin’s ‘Hominization’) – ‘crossing the threshold’ in which authentic Igbo values and patrimonies become in harmony with authentic Christian fellowship that enhances true witnessing with one’s life for Christ in African-Igbo Sitz im leben.

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and consolidation of the Christian faith for the Igbo in their Sitz im Leben; which now throws more challenges on them to bear true witness for Christ with their whole valor and persons in the Church and Society in concrete.

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CHAPTER FIVE

Faith goes Further The Church and the World vis-à-vis Igbo Church and Society: Witnessing in Concrete

The quest for Igbo theology is ‘a mission of witnessing.’ In this sense this kind of mission does not take place in a vacuum. It seems to say that there is always some ‘locale’ for mission, here, the ‘Church’ and ‘World’ in its totality becomes the locale of this mission, and specifically the Igbo society. All the traditional values and patrimonies of the people are brought in to bear in this quest of witnessing. It is possible to assume that the Church and the World are incompatible (or Religion and Politics do not mix?). “Citizenship as a form of service was recognized in scripture. “God so loved the World,” adds scriptural assurance that God’s work is directed toward the fulfillment of this World. The Church is in and for the World. Its mission is to remind the World that the kingdom of God has not yet come to its fullness and to invite people to participate in the vision of what might be. Despite the Marxists’ claim that religion anesthetizes one to the needs of the Earth, we find that persons who are strongly religious make the best citizens. Working to improve the society in which we live is not worldliness but love. When you love something, you take it seriously.” 1 Of course this depends sometimes on the model at stake. From a conflict model perspective, the Church and World could be considered as two opposing societies. In this regard, the Church tends to be either a fortress besieging the hostile secular forces or a triumphal kingdom seeking to conquer the World. Consequently, following this line of 1

G. FOLEY, Empowering the Laity, Kansas City, 1986, 104. See Vatican II Document, Gaudium et Spes, Art. 43). See also J. METZ (ed.), Faith and the World of Politics. Concilium Theology in the Age of Renewal, Vol. 36, New York, 1968.

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thought those who profess special loyalty to the Church set themselves in opposition to a threatening and perverse World.2 Going into the dialogical model the relationship seems more sneering, since it would not be enough to say that the Church and the World are two societies that are to establish a cordial relationship. The Church would then be extrinsic to the world.3 The servant model – that is the Church as servant to the World is not even free of some problems. It gives the impression of a material location of the Church in the World.4 We need to go beyond this understanding to a better understanding of the ‘World’ with Teilhard de Chardin as a milieu divin – a sphere of God without radicalizing its meaning. This is in agreement with Karl Rahner, who articulates this understanding better as ‘the World’ is not merely constituted by sinful and rebellious opposition to God, Christ, grace and the Church; the World is also God’s creation, a reality which can be redeemed and must be sanctified (i.e. the kingdom of God); and even in this respect the World is not simply identical with the Church, but rather the Church is the historically tangible and socially constituted instrument used by Christ for the coming of the kingdom of God through the redemption and sanctification of the World. In this World the Igbo has his determined place according to his historical situation, his people, and family and calling, the individual possibilities furnished by his gifts and capabilities. And the Igbo have their place-in-the-world, basically independently of and prior to their Christianity; after all, they were born before they were re-born. This original independence of the Igbo place-in-the-world is the element of truth in the notion of being in the world.5 This world has to be experienced in a ‘unique way,’ thus as – milieu divin6 of mission. Consequently, it is, “The experience of the World as milieu divin transforms the secular into a locus of divine presence and in this perspective eve2

K. KUNNUMPURAM, S.J & L. FERNANDO (eds.), Quest for an Indian Church. An Exploration of the Possibilities Opened up by Vatican II (Jesuit Theological Forum Reflections), India, 1993, 49.

3

KUNNUMPURAM & FERNANDO, loc. cit.

4

Loc. cit.

5

K. RAHNER, Theological Investigations. Man in the Church. Vol. II transl. by K. H. KRUGER, Baltimore, London, 1963, 323.

6

Cf. Gen. 1: 31.

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rything, every aspect of life, even work and business, become sacred for those who distinguish, in each creature and each human activity, an aspect of being attracted to Christ on his way to fulfill the World.”7 This way of experiencing the World connects us with everything that is, which means: without exclusion of what we normally consider as ‘profane’ as such,8 since, “to live is to read and interpret. In the ephemeral, we can read the permanent; in the temporal, the Eternal; in the world, God. Then the ephemeral is transfigured into a sign of the presence of the Permanent, the temporal into a symbol of the reality of the Eternal, the world into a great and grand sacrament of God. The sacramental structure emerges when things begin to hear their voices. On the frontispiece of this structure is inscribed the phrase: all of reality is but a sign. A sign of what? Of another reality, a Reality that founds and grounds all things: God.”9 This has to be the case because: “nothing is alien to God except sin. The transcendent is truly in our midst. God is not to be limited to a spiritual realm, but is fully present to all historical reality.”10 Thus, the Igbo-Christian cannot withdraw into an ‘individualistic search of God,’ but must commit himself or herself to responding to the current needs of the World; since, “The Christian vocation does not ask a person to flee from the World. In fact, ‘in all the churches’ (2Cor.7, 17) Saint Paul gave his exhortation: “so brethren, in whatever state each one was called, there let him remain with God”(1Cor.7: 21).”11 The tension and the approach of Vatican II Fathers to the World and Church vis-à-vis mission gave rise to this dichotomy between Church’s mission: “official” and “unofficial.” In this regard, “The ordained have

7

P. T. DE CHARDIN, “Le milieu divin essai de vie intérieure,” Paris, 1957, 47, in J. VERSTRAETEN (trans.), in pro manuscripto, The Rediscovery of Meaning in Professional life: Perspectives for Spirituality of the Laity in the Twenty-first Century, Leuven, 1999, 12.

8

Loc. cit.

9

L. BOFF, Sacraments of Life. Life of the Sacraments. Story Theology, J. DRURY (trans), Beltsville MD, 1987, 1-2.

10

RICHARD, op. cit., 66.

11

SYNODS OF BISHOPS, Instrumentum Laboris. The Vocation and Mission of the Laity in the Church and in the World. Twenty years after the Second Vatican Council, Rome, 1987, 19.

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the “official” mission while the layperson must be concerned with the “unofficial” mission. Most fundamentally, the discussion on the primary and secondary mission of the Church raises the fundamental theological problem of the nature of that which is religious, and therefore the relation between the Church’s religious identity and the nature of its mission. Religious identity becomes the focusing point. Is what is religious a separate and isolated experience, a specific realm, or is it an intrinsic dimension of its human realm?”12 Be it as it may, ‘the composite nature’ of human person13 makes him a being astride of ‘two worlds:’ spiritual and physical, yet these are not in opposition to each other. They are inextricably united, as the human person does not entertain a dualism. The result of this, is that, “Rather than be in contrast with the World, we must ‘rediscover’ the World, through a mystical return to the World, starting from an experience of the World and of God, and experience in which, as Pedro Arrupe said, we allow God to be all in all and through which we can abandon any pretensions to attempt to confine God or the World in the prison of our narrow and ambiguous frameworks of thought”.14 Seen in its concrete existential situation, the World is therefore not so much an opponent in competition with the Church as the material of the Church itself, capable of becoming Church,15 the World is not simply the power of the State, it is humankind at work; it is capable of becoming Church and is called by the Church, if the Church is understood to be what reveals to the World its own ultimate meaning.16 In this way, then the world is not ‘secular’ in the sense of that which is ‘profane’ and ‘ungodly;’ but it is a ‘locus of divine presence.’ Consequently, the praxis of the mission cannot be limited to some exclusive “spiritual sphere”; it embraces also the whole sphere of secular existence.17 “The entire World as realm of God’s creation and all of nature, 12

RICHARD, op. cit., 62-63.

13

St. Thomas Aquinas conceives man as a ‘composite being’ – this means a being made up of body and soul.

14

VERSTRAETEN, op. cit., 11.

15

CONGAR, op. cit., 212.

16

Loc. cit.

17

RICHARD, op. cit., 68.

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including human nature, was created in the first place for grace, and hence it was created to be the fundamental sacrament of God’s presence in the world and in history. It is this presence that the Church exists to serve, for it came into existence not for its own sake, but rather to continue Jesus’ proclamation and inauguration of the reign of God.”18 In this way, the domain of mission – the World is a manifestation of God’s goodness, ipso facto eschews to be derogated as ‘profane’ and ‘secular.’ It is the ‘Church’ and this World as symbiotic elements in which the integral Christian Igbo exist that is the target of this theology.

I. Igbo Theology at Home in Igbo Society and Nigeria Yves Congar raises a momentous question: ‘why should the ‘Church’ (read, people of God) pay attention to secular things at all?’ He answers in the positive, “Because faith19 and charity require it, for they cannot come to terms with just anything that turns up: some states of things are in themselves contrary to love and to faith in God, the Father of all men. Faith and love make demands, which can be met in various ways, but they impose a certain minimum and absolutely refuse to condone certain situations.20 This is in agreement with the Church’s

18

W. V. DYCH, S.J, “Karl Rahner’s Theology of the Eucharist,” in P. ROSSI et al. (eds.), Philosophy and Theology. Marquette University Journal, 11, n.1, 1998, 141142.

19

J. VERSTRAETEN, “The ‘World’ of the Bible as Meta-Ethical Framework of Meaning for Ethics: An Interpretation” in H.M. VROOM & J.D. GORT (eds.) Currents of Encounter. Holy Scriptures in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: Hermeneutics, Values, and Society, Amsterdam/Atlanta, 1997, 139. Professor J. Verstraeten commenting on Alfons Auer reflects eruditely, that “…faith perspective has at least a double influence: with regard to moral norms it has an integrating, stimulating and critical function, while with regard to moral practice it plays a motivating role.”

20

J. A. DWYER et al. (ed.), The New Dictionary of Catholic Social Thought, Collegeville, Minnesota, 1994, 612-613. “Since the 18th century leaders of popular movements such as Frederic Ozanam and the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, Peter E. Dietz and the Militia of Christ for Social Service, Dorothy Day and the Catholic Workers movement, and Cesar Chavez and the National Farm Workers’ Association have had a strong impact on Catholic Social thought. Other movements less identified with a single leader – for example, Pax Christi and the Latin American base communities – have done the same, as have movements inspired by Catholicism’s many religious institutes such as the Jesuits Action populaire, the Franciscan Third Order, Benedictine liturgical reform, and Mother Teresa’s sisters of Charity. Thus modern Catholic Social Thought is the product of the whole church: professionals and non-professionals, hierarchs and nonhierarchs, clergy and laity.” (Italicised

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prophetic mission, at which the Igbo theology is aimed and for which the Igbo are called to partake. There is another reason, whose cogency and importance are more and more recognized…people cannot be made Christians unless they have first been ‘made men’”… “What is the use of preaching the Gospel to men whose whole attention is concentrated upon a mad, desperate struggle to keep themselves alive?”21 In retrospect, it is in the light of this understanding that Vatican II in its prior discourse on the hierarchy and the laity deployed the all-encompassing biblical image, ‘people of God’ – which includes all the baptized. Thus, “The important implication of this is not only for ecclesiology, but also for the Church’s approach to the social order. The Church as ‘people of God’ who have prophetic mission lifts the faithful from a passive role to an active role in defining and shaping their history in the contemporary world.”22 For the Igbo this has a lot of implication in their quest for self-reliant church and self-identity in the Nigerian polity. Paradoxically, it seems to say that, “the Church is not so much the agent of the mission as the locus of the mission. It is God who acts in the power of his spirit, doing mighty works, creating signs of a new age, working secretly in the hearts of men and women to draw them to Christ. When they are so drawn, they become part of a community that claims no masterful control of history, but continues to bear witness23 to stress mine). It is worth noting that most of these movements sprang up as result of ‘certain situations,’ which they could not in charity condone. 21

Y. CONGAR, Laity, Church and World: Three Addresses by Congar, translated by D. ATTWATER, Baltimore, Maryland, 1960, 46-47. Congar argues, that “A world consistent with God’s will, or at any rate made less contrary to it, can be offered to God, dedicated and turned towards him. This means that, God being Father of all, we must do our best to get rid of everything that fosters antagonism between men and exploitation of one by another, and try to bring about whatever encourages fellowship and service, justice and brotherhood.” This is as it were the task of the Catholic Social Teaching and in fact, its content.

22

P. J. HENRIOT, E. P. DeBERRI & M. J. SCHULTHEIS (eds.), “A shifting Social Approach” in Catholic Social Teaching: Our Best Kept Secret, New York, Melbourne, 1985, 18.

23

According to Prof. Johan Verstraeten, “The concept of witness must be handled with care,” since there is a real danger that the unilateral stress on the role of bearing ‘witness’ can lead to a reaffirmation of a sharp distinction or even separation between the Church and the world and that the witnessing of the faithful would have a logic apart from the concrete historical construction and humanisation of the world (in politics,

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the real meaning and goal of history by a life – in Paul’s words – by always bearing in its body the dying of Jesus becomes the place where the risen life of Jesus is made available for others.”24 This fact is what Lesslie L. Newbigin refers to as the “logic of mission”.25 For J. Verstraeten this could be construed in terms of a type of, “spirituality as general anthropological attitude”.26 Charles Handy equates this to the fact that, “you must become the change you want to see in the world.”27 Perhaps then, the question of the Church’s mission, in relation to the World cannot be resolved at the level of ecclesiology.28 As Cardinal W. Kasper puts it, “If we are to find a way out of the impasse and the related polarization in the Church, we have to reflect more profoundly on the real basis and meaning of the Church and its task in the modern World. The basis and meaning of the Church is a person, but one with a specific name: Jesus Christ.”29 It is worthy to note that indeed in Jesus Christ, the divine is ‘Jesus-like,’ that is, fully immersed in the human, while the human is again ‘Jesus-like,’ that is, able to share in the divine. “God is not to be limited to a spiritual realm, but is truly present to all historical reality.”30

family, professional life, business etc. (Cf. pro manuscripto, The discovery of Meaning in Professional life: Perspectives for spirituality of the laity in the Twenty-first Century, Leuven, 1999, 2). 24

L. NEWBIGIN, The logic of Mission in J. A. SCHERER and S. B. BEVANS (eds.), New Directions in Mission and Evangelization, Theological foundations, 1994, 18.

25

Loc. cit. Newbigin has also thought of mission as “an acted–out doxology”. That which its purpose is that God may be glorified. See also ibid., 24.

26

J. VERSTRAETEN, Pro manuscripto, “Beyond Business Ethics: Leadership, Spirituality and the Quest for Meaning,” Leuven, 2000, 6.

27

C. HANDY, The Hungry Spirit. Beyond Capitalism: A Quest for Purpose in the Modern World, New York, 1998, 103. “Charles Handy has rightly pointed to the fact that we need ‘cathedral builders,’ people with a sense of purpose, which goes beyond the limits of a role, a job, a career or even a life.” See VERSTRAETEN, op. cit., 8. It is worth noting that this fact of ‘cathedral building’ remains a task for the laity in the world of mission and even in the Church.

28

G. LOBO, S. J, Church and Social Justice, India, 1993, 11.

29

W. KASPER, Jesus Christ, New York, 1977, 15.

30

L. RICHARD, O.M.I, Vatican II and the Mission of the Church: A Contemporary Agenda, in L. RICHARD et al. (ed.), Vatican II: The unfinished Agenda, New York, 1987, 66.

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A mission ambience in Igbo church and society of today calls for less reflection on the crisis of no power, and more reflection on the crisis of the misuse of power against justice by the small number of citizens who are empowered in all strata – the church and society at large. Other crises of meaning that provide the potential for fertile and fruitful mission in Igbo society and church include: z

The crisis of commitment in personal relationships – the regard for the young, the aged, the handicapped, and the poor. A church that should show affinity for the cause of the poor and cares for the spiritual welfare of the rich too – not only to take their ‘gold’ and enquire little about the welfare of their souls, but an enhancement of both to the growth of the whole human person.

z

The crisis of economic hedonism which causes suffering to the poor, especially in the Igbo society and in Nigeria at large and the weakening of the middle class in favor of small upper class.

z

The crisis of global survival and viable environment exacerbated by linkages among the defense establishment, corporate life, and scientific-technologically biased education.

z

The instability of government in Nigeria – Christians could contribute to some mission of stability within the general context of their mission in the Church and in the World at large.31 The church should give encouragement. The Muslims-Christians clashes and religious riots, that always see the Igbo always as victims and the wounded, need attention, with its concomitant political power game.

z

A spirituality for the people of God that is integral without timidity and fanatical piety, which is suspicious and seemingly hypocritical.

z

A clerical set up that gives example to the faithful and sympathies – so that anti-clericalism inaugurated by the French revolution, very much in vogue in the world today, may be avoided in future.

These and more are the necessary challenges facing Igbo theology and the entire Igbo society. Having said all these so far, could these inferences not show that Igbo theology is also relevant to other facets of the wider society? Under what aim and goal could this be done: ‘common good’? This is to be 31

This author is developing an in depth research in this area.

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done for the cause of ‘common good’ of human persons in the Igbo society and Nigeria at large. Since according to Cardinal James Francis Stafford, President of Pontifical Council for the laity, “the greatest challenge the Church is facing in the 21st century is to recall the people to their Christian identity”32 in their day-to-day existential engagement.33 This ‘existential engagement’ is most challenging today, especially in a complex society where, for example, politics has become very outstanding and the saying, “seek you first the political kingdom and every other thing shall be yours” becomes a verifiable paradox. In this regard, this existential engagement places an onus on the Christian “to live, to speak, and to make present the Gospel wherever they are, in order, to achieve their task directed to the Christian animation of the temporal order in the sense of serving persons and society, Christians are never to relinquish their participation in public life, that is, in the many different economic, social, legislative, administrative and cultural areas which are intended to promote organically and institutionally the common good.”34 ‘Politics’35 is this art of promoting the ‘common good’. Thus, seen from this perspective, the Vatican II Council decree on the laity, Apostolicam Actuositatem (A. A) encourages, “Catholics versed in politics and, as should be the case, firm in the faith and Christian teaching, 32

J. F. STAFFORD, “Catholic Laity Future of the Church,” in R. MOYNIHAN (ed.), Inside The Vatican, May 18 2000, 58.

33

J. VERSTRAETEN, Beyond Business Ethics: Leadership, Spirituality and the Quest for Meaning, Pro manuscripto, Leuven, 2000, 8 “The experience of the world as milieu divin transforms the secular into a locus of divine presence and in this perspective everything, every aspect of life, even work and business, become sacred for those who distinguish, in each creature and each human activity, an aspect of being attracted to the fulfillment of the world.”

34

JOHN PAUL II, op. cit., n.42.

35

‘Politics’ may be understood in two senses. According to the Sacred Congregation for Religious and Secular Institutes, No. 12, a & b: “Politics” can be understood in wider and fuller sense as the dynamic organization of the whole society”; in another sense, as “direct involvement in a political party (party politics). Commenting on this understanding of Politics, T. C. BACANI, in his work, says that in the first sense of this understanding of Politics, “Priests can be involved in politics taken in the wider and fuller sense, since this kind of politics “is something in which all citizens should be involved, actively and responsibly (RHD, No. 12a). But the laity are legible for involvement in both understanding of politics, [The Church and Politics, Quezon City, 1987, 43].

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should not decline to enter public life; for by a worthy discharge of their functions, they can work for the common good and at the same time prepare the way for the Gospel.”36 This fact is very relevant to the local churches in Africa and Igboland in particular to encourage the laity in this regard, since in the African and Igbo societal set up today the Church seems to be the only trustworthy hope for the people, she is looked upon to show the way and to lead the way – of course, she has to do this without being partisan, but with a sense of critical concern and disinterestedness. In the same vein, Christifideles laici of John Paul II, in regard of politics, sees it as ‘that part of human endeavor which is at the service of the ‘common good,’’ where common good may be understood in terms of that which contributes to treating human persons humanly. The basis of this postulation is the dignity of the human person which enables him with rights; Hans Kung sees it as based on the humanum – ‘that which is truly human; so that, that would be morally good which allows human life to succeed and prosper in the long term in its individual and social dimension: which enables the best possible development of men and women at all levels in the Igbo society and Nigeria at large (including the levels of drives and feelings) and all their dimensions (including their relationship to society and to nature).’ 37 Since today, the art of politics in the post-modern paradigm consists in combining political calculation (of modern real politics) convincingly with ethical judgment (ideal politics);38 accordingly, politics is at the service of the common good where ‘common good’ according to Oswald von Nell-Breuning, may be used in two senses, ‘As a value in itself and as a means to an end. As a value in itself (as in art. 63, Gaudium et Spes), it is a comprehensive term for all the values which belong to fully-developed humanity, the full exercise and realization of all the potentialities and faculties inherent in man and woman in the society; as a relative value and means to an end, it is the sum of all the general presuppositions or conditions which the individual cannot provide for himself or herself and which must be already available for him or her if

36

A. A. No. 14.

37

H. KÜNG, Global Responsibility. In Search of A New World Ethic, London, 1990, 90.

38

H. KÜNG, Global Politics and Global Ethic (abstract), Brussels, March 9, 2000, 2/2.

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he or she is to develop in a fully human way, at all, or without too much difficulty.’39 Igbo theology is at the service of ‘common good’ and so should act in the church and society. In Mater et Magistra, John XXIII defines this ‘common good’ and interest in terms of ‘the value on itself; as against its secondary and instrumental sense – only of interest for the sake of the common good itself.’40 In the light of this Matthew Hassan Kukah argues,41 “Unless governance is anchored on the platform of the common good, governance can turn the commonwealth into personal fiefdoms”.42 In fact, it is crystal clear on the faces of millions of hungry and homeless Igbo people and Nigerians at large that their governance had not faired well. According to the Newswatch43 editor, Ray Ekpu, it is very clear that “The economy is in a pathetic shape, made even more pathetic by the massive deficit and the political crisis. For instance, the budget surplus for 1992 was forecast to be N2 billion but we recorded a rumbling N44 billion deficit. The 1993 deficit was expected to be N28 billion but by June we had already gone into a hole with a N41 billion deficit. Even years later and as of the time this book is going to the press this situation has not improved. These cold statistics may not make sense to the layman but all they need to know is that they spell trouble

39

O. Von NELL-BREUNING, “Nature and Goal of Politics,” GS Art. 74, in H.VORGRIMLER et al. (ed.), Commentary on the documents of Vatican II (Vol. V), Pastoral Constitution of the Church in the Modern World, New York, 1969, 318.

40

JOHN XXIII, Mater et Magistra, Art. 65 (AAS, 53), 1961, 8, 401-464.

41

Matthew Hassan Kukah, until January 30, 2001 was the General Secretary of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Nigeria. Presently, he is the Secretary of the Human Rights Commission in Nigeria instituted by the present democratic government of President Olusegun Obasanjo of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

42

M. H. KUKAH, Democracy and Civil Society in Nigeria, Ibadan, 1999, XVI.

43

Newswatch: International Award-winning Magazine published by Newswatch Communication Nigeria Limited is Nigeria’s foremost independent news magazine. Founded in 1979 by a cream of the best Nigerian Investigative and freelance journalists: Dele Giwa, Ray Ekpu, and Dan Agbese. This publication had gone through series of ‘baptism of fire’ under series of military regimes without giving up. In 1986, a military regime sent a letter bomb to Dele Giwa, which killed him in his house. The perpetrators are yet to be brought to face the law.

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for everyone except the very, very rich who have a cushion to sit on”.44 The situation seems to get so bad on daily basis. The issue is that Nigeria is good at talking about diversification but not too good practicing it. For example, an oil-producing country like Nigeria,45 Indonesia’s non-oil export was only 20 % in 1983 today it is 60 %. In 1983 Nigeria’s non-oil exports was less than 10 %; today it is still less than 10 % or something like that.” Education, health, transportation, agriculture sectors, and other infrastructures are all in sorry states.46 The practical reasons behind these are lack of interest and selfishness on the part of the leadership47 who at assumption of office promise the people selfless services only for the people to realize that, “Gradually, the common good gave way to personal aggrandizement as each decided to turn their fiefdoms into gardens where they could personally bloom where they were planted. The result is that citizens were alienated, everyone had to fend for himself or herself and the bureaucracy suffered a psychological dent. Policemen began to extort money by erecting illegal checkpoints, civil servants began to charge for processing files, and everywhere became a battlefield of wits. The result is the collapse

44

R. EKPU, “Dreams, Shattered Dreams,” in Newswatch, loc. cit., October 4, 1993, 21.

45

P. C. OKUMA, Understanding Human Work and Dignity. The Nigerian Perspective, Enugu, 1997, 55-57. In this work, I present a synoptic survey of Nigeria’s resourcefulness, ranging from untapped oil wells, to natural gas, coal, and manpower etc.. In spite of her resourcefulness, there are many hungry mouths and homeless human persons in the Country.

46

Loc. cit.

47

C. ACHEBE, The Trouble with Nigeria, (Revised edition), Enugu, 1985, 2. “The trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership.” It is worth noting that these leaders do not fall from heaven. They are born and baptised into the Church. It is some laity who vote them into power by all means and support them in power; at times they accept money and allied tokens from the leadership at the detriment of the majority, the poor and underprivileged. Quid a casu? See also W. SOYINKA, (Nobel Laureate For Literature), The Open Sore Of A Continent. A Personal Narrative of Nigerian Crisis, Oxford, New York, 1996, 9. “The military committed the most treasonable act of larceny of all time: It violently robbed the Nigerian people of their nationhood! A profound trust was betrayed, and only a community of fools will entrust its most sacred possession-nationhood-yet again to a class that has proven so fickle, so treacherous and dishonourable.”

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of national life and a battlefield rises in national corruption.”48 These issues strike at the heart of the ‘common good’ and those who practice it; how Igbo theology can relate to this type of situation is very crucial. The answers to these ugly situations would attempt to focus the debate and define what role the Igbo should fulfill in government and in the Nigerian political society. Because, as Paul Cammack, David Pool and William Tordoff argue succinctly, “The actions of Third World governments cannot all be explained by pressure from outside…they act under structural constraints, but in their own interests. Even in the most vulnerable of states, Third World leaders have not simply been the victims of either international market forces or impositions of more powerful states. Events have taken the course they have (very often) because of a commitment on the part of Third World leaders to patterns of development which have tightened their links with the international market, with little regard to issues of social justice or sustainability.”49 These are challenges for the hierarchy, theologians and the laity.

II. Igbo Theology: the Tasks before the Hierarchy, Theologians and Laity Igbo theology is a quest for a Conversation between the people of God – the laity, the hierarchy and the theologians. Of greater importance in this quest then is the active cooperation and mutual exchanges between the hierarchy, the theologians, and the laity. As Hans Heimerl notes: ‘the hierarchy is not set up to take upon itself the entire salvific mission of the Church in the World; its role is rather to ‘lead the faithful… so that all according to their proper roles may cooperate in this common undertaking with one mind’ For the distinction that the Lord 48

M. KUKAH, “Disengaged Nigerians” (Guest Essay), Newswatch, op. cit., July 6, 1998, 6.

49

P. CAMMACK, D. POOL, & W. TORDOFF, Third World Politics. A Comparative Introduction, (Second edition, Revised, updated and expanded), London, 1993, 318319. There is some veracity in the argument of these authors. It has been the in-thing for people to cast stones on foreigners for some of the woes of the Third World. As true as this is to some extent, we must agree with Shakespeare, that the ‘problem is often with our stars?’ – our Leadership! (As Chinua Achebe has proven). For this writer, times too, the ‘followership’ could also take some share of the blame. How? Future research would also reveal this ‘passing of buck.’ Instead of casting blames across borders, would it not be wise to begin to put the home front in order for now by way of confronting the problems militating against the ‘common good’ of human persons in the Nigerian political society?

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made between sacred ministers and the rest of the People of God bears within it a certain union, since pastors and the other faithful are bound to each other by a mutual necessity. Pastors of the Church, following the example of the Lord, should minister to one another and to the faithful.’50 Thus in their diversity all bear witness to the wonderful unity in the body of Christ as people of God.51 This witnessing is to be manifested in the local church and in the concrete situation of the people as expressed in the Igbo society and in the Nigeria society at large. Thus, it is worth reiterating that the Church pay attention to the so called ‘secular things.’ Based on the fact that faith calls the Christian to such a commitment and charity also requires it. Faith and love require from each one of us day-to-day existential engagements. This is in agreement with the Church’s prophetic mission, of which the hierarchy and laity are called equally to partake. There is another reason, whose cogency and importance are more and more recognized, the fact that people cannot be made Christians unless they have first been ‘made men’…“What is the use of preaching the Gospel to men whose whole attention is concentrated upon a mad, desperate struggle to keep themselves alive?”52 It is in the light of this understanding that Vatican II Council (Lumen Gentium, Chapter II) in its prior discourse on the hierarchy and the laity deployed the allencompassing biblical image, ‘people of God’ – which includes all the baptized. Thus, it is worth reiterating, “the important implication of this is not only for ecclesiology, but also for the Church’s approach to the social order. The Church as “people of God” who have prophetic mission lifts the faithful from merely setting at the fence to being active 50

H. HEIMERL, “The Concept of Laity in the Constitution on the Church”, in K. RAHNER, Re-thinking the Church’s Mission. Concilium theology in the Age of Renewal, Vol. 13, New York, 1966, 139-140.

51

Ibid., 140. See also G. ALBERIGO, Announcing and Preparing Vatican Council II, op. cit., 122; Archbishop Alfrink of the Netherlands could have been among the first to think in the light of all ‘Christians’ as “people of God.”

52

Y. CONGAR, Laity, Church and World: Three Addresses by Congar, translated by D. ATTWATER, Baltimore, Maryland, 1960, 46-47. Congar argues, that “A world consistent with God’s will, or at any rate made less contrary to it, can be offered to God, dedicated and turned towards him. This means that, God being Father of all, we must do our best to get rid of everything that fosters antagonism between men and exploitation of one by another, and try to bring about whatever encourages fellowship and service, justice and brotherhood.” This is as it where the task of the Catholic Social Teaching and in fact, its content.

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participants in the onerous role of defining and shaping their history in the contemporary world and in the Church. These challenges are most cogent to the hierarchy, the theologians and laity of the Igbo society and Nigeria at large today, since ‘developments’ can only come not only through principles and theories but above all through their applications in the concrete. The hierarchy, the theologians and the laity are necessary means and ends for embarking on this theological Conversation and achieving its concomitant goals in the concrete.

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CHAPTER SIX

The Prospect of Igbo Theology

Theology in the Service of God’s People To articulate about God requires perspicacity. And this judgment takes place in the heat of human life and human commitment. God is not, therefore, presented as someone coming from outside and unexpectedly disrupting or irrupting into human life. God is, rather, an encounter, which can only be understood within the hermeneutical play of receptivity and creativity. The stress on creativity in the encounter with the transcendent is very important, if one wants to understand Christianity. Creativity is not to be avoided, it is to be sought. It is God’s own movement towards human beings; it expresses God’s own commitment to human beings and love for them. It is also the human attempt to answer God’s commitment and the human attempt to “name” God. The one important metaphor to understand God, therefore, is human life in its dynamism of encounter, in its unfolding in and building of history. If we are going to discover God, it is in the concreteness of human life, even if sometimes we have to be reminded that, inevitably we have to put on ‘spectacles’ (our contexts) to look at that human life. 1 This is au courant with the words of Kierkegaard that “In order to experience and understand what it means to be a Christian, it is always necessary to recognize a definite historical situation.” In this case integration of the historico-cultural background and values of Igbo into a theology that answers for their Sitz im Leben is momentous today. This is for the fact “That Christians are embedded in a tradition, the fact that they are willing to trust the vocabulary entrusted to them by previous generations of Christians. But, the meaning of this vocabulary and of this frame of reference can never be fixed outside of human experience,

1

J. HAERS, “A Risk Observed” in op. cit., 48.

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ever new and ever concrete.”2 This is the way forward for the Igbo church, society and Nigeria at large in the new millennium. Evangelization and the so-called booming Christian faith in Igboland have merely taken place on the ‘flesh and not in the soul’ of the Igbo. When the law of diminishing return sets in as we see already across borders in developed countries, that of Igbo may be worse off, and the Church will be the loser. A return and proper integration of the people’s authentic cultural values and existential facticity to the faith they have received is very urgent for authentic worship. Christian faith, expressed through authenticity of worship, was a resource for shaping a sensus catholicus, a Catholic communitarian ethos. Would not worship that encourages the active participation of the people help to overcome the dichotomy between worship and work and would lead to a continuous living out of the Christ-life in one unceasing act of worship?3 Theology should not only enhance active participation in singing and dancing with gusto in the Church but equally engaging the whole person in the mystery of Christian redemption, reenacted in and outside the place of liturgy. By this way, it provides the inspiration and the power that enables Christians to give themselves over to the mystery of the Christ Risen in their midst.4 In addressing the entire question now and onward into the future, nothing can be more gratifying as putting the existential life-situation of the people in focus, making Christ alive and concrete in their day-to-day existential milieu. This is in agreement with the fact that “the only way we encounter Jesus is through a thoroughly historical process. We arrive at our Christian identity through a process of socialization.”5 We need also education, information and mastering of minds and in this direction 2

HAERS, op. cit., 60.

3

P. MARX, Virgil Michel and Liturgical Movement, Collegeville, 1957, 263.

4

M. BAXTER, “Reintroducing Virgil Michel: Towards a Counter-Tradition of Catholic Social Ethics in the United States,” Communio, Fall, 1989, p185.

5

L. RICHARD, O.M.I, “The Mission of the Church: A Contemporary Agenda” in L.RICHARD, O.M.I et al. (eds.), Vatican II: The Unfinished Agenda, New York, Mahwah, 1987, 66. The understanding here will include meeting and addressing lifeissues of the human person who is astride of two worlds – spiritual and physical in which he interacts with other humans, cultures, and peoples etc.

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to develop and understand more about our Christian identity, in this direction Igbo theology is also a discipline that should be taught and takes the following into consideration as guidelines. Igbo theology as a discipline: curriculum and prospects: z z z

z z z

History of the Igbo before the coming of Europeans: The Igbo tradition/Societal set up and Religion European advancement era: Missionary era and Political Governance The Igbo, post-independence era: The Society and Christian faith (booming vocation and Political instability – its effects on the Igbo Christian faith and Well-being). The Igbo: A Church and Society in the making – triumphs, errors and prospects for the future Other theologies (European, American, Asian, Indian, Islamic etc.) in dialogue with Igbo theology Initiatives and prospects

Suggested Texts: 1.

AFIGBO, A. E. (ed.), Groundwork of Igbo History, Lagos, 1992.

1.

ACHEBE, C. The Trouble with Nigeria, (Revised edition), Enugu, 1985.

1.

ACHEBE, C. Things Fall Apart, New York, 1989.

1.

OZIGBOH, IKENGA. R, Igbo Catholicism: The Onitsha Connection (1967-1984), Onitsha, 1985.

1.

OBI, C. et al. (eds.), A hundred years of the Catholic Church in Eastern Nigeria (1885-1985), Onitsha, 1985.

1.

OMAKU, G. E, An Afro-Christian vision “Ozovehe” Toward a more humanized World, New York, 1997.

1.

OMAKU, G. E, A Prophetic Church, Ede, 1996.

1.

KUKAH, M. H, Democracy and Civil Society in Nigeria, Ibadan, 1999.

1.

NWOSU, V. A., The Laity and the growth of Catholic Church in Nigeria: The Onitsha Story 1903-1983, Onitsha, 1990.

1.

NDIOKWERE, N. I, The African Church Today and Tomorrow: Prospects and Challenges, Vols. 1&2, Onitsha, 1994. 117

Towards an African Theology

1.

ALBERIGO, G. History of Vatican II: Announcing and Preparing Vatican Council II. Toward a new Era in Catholicism, Vol. I, Maryknoll, Leuven, 1995.

1.

ALBERIGO, G. & KOMONCHAK, J. A. et al. (eds.), History of Vatican II, The Formation of the Council’s Identity: First Period and Intersession, October 1962-September 1963, Vol. II, Leuven, 1997.

1.

ALBERIGO, G. (eds.), History of Vatican II. The Mature Council, Second Period and Intersession, September 1963September 1964, Volume III, Maryknoll, Leuven, 2000.

1.

MCGRATH, A.E (ed.), The Christian Theology Reader, Oxford, Cambridge, 1995.

This educative aspect of the theology will also include active participation and involvement in the community’s worship, in the development of a spirit of love and mutual sacrifice, rooted in a personal commitment and in the free giving of oneself to others.6 Which would lead to having honest, dedicated and selfless leadership in the different facets of the Igbo society and the church and a hopeful and brighter Igbo generation. The hard work of our forbears in this direction, their goodwill, and the support for the Church and society of humankind must not be allowed to go down the drain. We must enhance these through authentication, dialogue, and creativity. These are evergreen qualities that would serve us well as we face the enormous realities and challenges before the Igbo church for self reliance on the one hand and, on the other, of the complex socio-political, moral, economic, and religious issues of the future in the Igbo church, society and Nigerian society at large in this new millennium. This is necessary since one does not need to wait in order to experience the grace of God after. One has to survive life for now. The victory of Christ’s Resurrection has to have a meaning in what we are going 6

One recalls the confrontation Leo XIII gave to the problems of his pontificate, especially the immediate situations that led to the encyclical letter, Esti Nos (1882) – the suspicion which was placed on the media and communication at this time in the Church, Leo XIII had written, ‘an activity which can do harm can be put into good use for man’; Cf: Les médias. Textes des Eglises. Documents réunis et présentés par le groupe médiathec de la faculté de théologie de Lyon, Paris, 1990. Rerum Novarum (1891) and to mention but a few of his encyclical letters.

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through now. This has to be realistic, justifying and liberating in the existential situation of the people and calls for reflective expression through a theology in context. Igbo need such a theology to integrate and enhance these truisms. This theology would not only safeguard and lead the people to good well being on earth here that is necessary for the integral human person adequately considered, but hereafter to the eternal throne of the heavenly bliss that needs our attention equally but which must begin here in a context. The journey to this project has only been introduced; it challenges the hierarchy, theologians and laity to further reflections and actions in concrete that has to been integral (body and soul) in this allimportant project for the growth of the Igbo church, well being in the Igbo society and Nigeria at large. Since the proof of the commitment to transcendence lies in the life lived out of it and towards,7 and it is on this that hinges the prospect of Igbo theology now and for the future.

What can Igbo Theology offer the Church, Humanity and World Order? In fact the task facing theology for the future is enormous, that of transposing theoretical beliefs into practical imperatives, so that the theological as such becomes a principle of action. Consequently, in this ‘transpositioning,’ theology is saved from the ‘el dorado’ of sheer intellectualism into becoming, a ‘reality’ to be lived out, based on its proper understanding and integration into a spirituality that gives answer to faith of the people in the concrete. For this writer, this remains the most august and authentic way today for a theology that answers to the postmodern Christian spirituality for the 21st Century – a Christianity that is moving toward a ‘World-Church’ and a humanity that is moving toward becoming a ‘global village.’ Igbo theology would not be a stranger to these developments. The Church upholds the value of human life – born and unborn. Igbo theology coming from an African background that has a worldview and regard for human life and values would contribute to the quest for a responsible protection of human life; ‘According to African tradition, therefore, the protection of life and nature is a common and joint responsibility of the entire community. The right to live is considered one 7

J. HAERS, “A Risk Observed,” loc. cit.

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of the most fundamental human rights of the African people and for the Igbo in particular. Through the traditional extended-family system, children are always assured of protection and full parental care because a child has more than just one pair of parents.’8 In this way, the Igbo give such beautiful names to their children as, Nwoha (Child is for all); Nwabuwa (World-Child), Nwabuihe (Child is a treasure) and so on. In a world that has witnessed the ethical humanism of Jean-Paul Sartre inviting a hatred for the ‘Other as a hell’ to my ‘absolute freedom,’9 the Igbo theology suggests to care not only for my life, but life as significant as the life of the ‘Other’ too. In the Igbo theology of understanding of human life – the child, and every human life as a responsibility of humanity, the fact of human solidarity, which is what humanity needs today and which John Paul II articulated in his encyclical Solicitudo Rei Socialis could be reinforced. Through understanding our care and concern for all, we could come to find a way of crushing the rising inequalities and mentalities of domination and bring about equality and respect to all, as well as the spirit of sharing,10 which is already what we do at the Eucharist. This could also be transposed to become the world basis for global economic development and growth – ‘I care and take responsibility for hungry brothers and sisters in the other part of the globe, for their economic well-being because I care for the life of humanity that could be at stake if so many lives are uncared for, being left out because of no care for human life.’ Thus, Igbo theology “places great value on individual freedom in relation to the freedom of others and the need to be people-centered. The global economy must recognize and take into account equity and maintenance of human-centered development. This also refers to policies on industrialization and investments.”11 On the issue of nature, Africans value nature and indeed Igbo theology that is rooted in African values with their concerns of human rela-

8

M. J. MWINGIRA, “Toward a Shared Global Ethic: The Contribution of African Culture,” in P. M. MISCHE & M. MERKLING (eds.), Toward A Global Civilization? The Contribution of Religions, New York, 2001, 371.

9

J. P. SARTRE, Existentialism is a Humanism, translated by P. MAIRET, London, 1960, 45.

10

MWINGIRA, op. cit., 374.

11

Ibid., 375.

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The Prospect of Igbo Theology

tions with the world of nature would connect humankind with the fact that humans are not masters over nature, free to exploit it without feeling or treat it without respect. “Instead, people are one with nature, responsible toward nature, able to communicate with nature. But this posture of the human person vis-à-vis nature is not ‘nature worship’ – as we said earlier – a victim of untold misconstruction by ignorant outside observers who wrote about African religious life. Nature is potentially a friend with whom humans may communicate, whose cooperation they may solicit, and whose generosity is a benefit for them.” 12 In this way, the Igbo theology captures the global quest today for respect of the human environment and prevention of dissipating the environment from global warming. Since these are unfriendly acts to nature and human environment. Igbo theology through appropriating the values of the Igbo for the Gospel message leads us to believe that we cannot build a world that is God and values-free: this tendency leads to our own doom where man becomes the measure of all things. More so, in a situation today where the global structures seem to create room for dominant cultures and survival of the fittest,13 the Igbo theology with her inbuilt values deriving from Igbo culture show the world and indeed the Church that values and cultures of minority peoples are also resourceful and could have good morals, and that the so called dominant cultures could learn from with some humility in a world order that needs a global ethic of responsibility14 – for the sake of peace among humankind at both a local level (in countless ‘multicultural’ and multi-religious cities) and global level (in global communication, the global economy, global ecology and global politics). A fundamental reflection on an ethic common to all human beings is more than ever necessary.15 Of course, it would make more sense to build up such a global ethic from spiritual roots, helping

12

MBITI, “African Religion and World Order,” op. cit., 368.

13

MWINGIRA, op. cit., 376.

14

This common ethic is what the Parliament of the World’s Religions in her Declaration toward a Global Ethic (September 4, 1993, Chicago, U.S.A) called Global Ethic, and by that they meant: “fundamental consensus on binding values, irrevocable standards, and personal attitudes.”

15

H. KUNG (ed.), Yes To A Global Ethic, London, 1996, 1.

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people find it and ground it from within their culture and tradition, rather than apart from it.16

16

P. M. MISCHE, “Toward A Civilization Worthy of the Human Person,” in P. M. MISCHE & M. MERKLING (eds.), Toward A Global Civilization? The Contribution of Religions, New York, 2001, 33.

122

CONCLUSION

Reinstating the Theological Conversation? This book remains only an introduction to the big project of the quest for an Igbo theology. As an introduction it is meant to be provocative and incisive to further inquiries and theological Conversations. We have been able to initiate it so far through a historical, critical methodology in the quest to developing a hermeneutics for the Igbo theology. The following six key stages have emerged in this quest: z

z

z

z z

z

From the history of the Gospel answering to concrete human situations to Gaudium et Spes of Vatican II, Medellín Conference, the quest of African Bishops (Synod 1994) for contextual theology. From the unity of theology in the proclamation of the resurrection of Christ and its diversity in the application of this resurrection victory to concrete human situations, we see its realization in theologies. We argued that ‘Igbo theology’ is a possibility in the light of contextual theologies that propose answers to the concrete situation of the people. We exposed these concrete situations of the Igbo. We went on to develop a hermeneutics for this possibility via ‘appropriation’ of African values – the Igbo values. We took the faith further into witnessing in the concrete situation of Africans and the Igbo in Nigeria today in particular. Here we posited the challenges and prospects of such witnessing in concrete. We saw the prospects of the Igbo theology. It is capable of becoming a discipline and so able to enter into dialogue with other theologies. We developed guidelines for this as a way of showing its prospect and contributions to the Church, Humanity and World Order.

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Our conclusions go a little beyond these six stages. In an age when ‘secularism’ is moving into Africa and Igbo society fast as across other parts of the world; when after so many years of the foreign missionary evangelization of Africa and the Igboland in particular; when still the general situations in the continent of Africa and Igboland are still at variants with some elements of Christianity – African theology and indeed Igbo theology are geared toward witnessing in concrete for Christianity with the appropriation of the values of the peoples in the modern (postmodern) society in the light of the unique message of Vatican II. The enhancement of societal peace and world peace, justice in the society and the improvement of the quality of life of the people must go hand in hand with the task of encouraging a deeper spirituality for the people, which is what the church in Africa and Igboland should aim at. Theology must have the hard task today of helping peoples to find this deeper meaning in their life and situations, working in harmony with one another and enhancing their values toward authentic living of the Gospel. It is our conviction that theology is well placed to be the defender of justice, speaker for the Church and the voiceless in the human society. Of course this can be done through pastoral messages, sermons, documents; through workshops, lectures, and seminars, through theological texts, through concrete programs of development, aids, social services and retreats, but above all through concrete actions. In this on-going project towards African theology, in the context of Igbo theology of Nigeria, our aim has been to show that it is not easy to separate it from other contextual theologies – the ‘Europeanness,’ the ‘Latin Americanness,’ more so, ‘the Africanness’ or ‘the Igboness’ of the Igbo from their Christianity. Indeed, to suppress the culture, the values and overlook the concrete situation of a people does not answer the great problems which Christianity faces today, or would face in the future. It would instead lead to spiritual impoverishments of the richness of those cultures and values which could be enhamed by the Gospel, as a people of faith. So great is the mystery of Jesus Christ who is Risen in Victory and yet is fully with His own in their existential engagements – “Behold I am with you till the end of the World!” Or did the Lord ever detach himself from the concrete situations of His day? Would He opt out today in any people’s cultural and concrete life situation?

124

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Index

Culture, 11, 13, 15, 18, 21, 23, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 69, 70, 71, 72, 75, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 110, 116, 121, 122, 124 de Chardin, Teilhard, 24, 97, 100 De Schrijver, George, 21, 36, 92, 93 Dodd, Christine, 76 Donders, Joseph G., 41 Dorr, Donal, 20, 26, 28, 29, 31, 65 Drees, Willem B., 33, 78 Dwyer, Judith A., 103 Dych, W. V., 103 Ehusani, Georges, 77, 79 Ekpu, Ray, 109, 110 Ela, Jean-Marc, 38 Enculturation, 40 Ethiopia, 31, 37, 44, 48 European, 15, 16, 20, 26, 38, 40, 54, 63, 64, 65, 72, 85, 87, 95, 117 Evangelii Nuntiandi, 11, 16, 41, 44, 45 Existential engagement, 60, 66, 84, 107, 112, 124 Fernando, L., 100 Flannery, Austin, 45 Foley, Gerald, 99 Fragnière, Gabriel, 15, 22 French Revolution, 15, 57, 65, 106 Gaudium et Spes, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 44, 66, 108, 123 Goldie, Rosemary, 27

Achebe, Chinua, 74, 77, 78, 110, 111, 117 Ad Gentes Divinitus, 44, 45 Afigbo, 18, 67, 78, 117 African Synod, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 86, 87, 123 Alberigo, 27 Alberigo, Guiseppe, 19, 26, 27, 30, 33, 65, 112, 118 Anglican, 16, 39, 72 Apostolicam Actuositatem, 94, 107 Appiah, A. K., 18 Arinze, Cardinal Francis, 54, 74 Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 74 Bauman, Zygmunt, 80 Biafra, 17, 18, 71, 73 Bimwenyi-Kweshi, Oscar, 39 Boff, Leonardo, 66, 101 Boniface, Bishop, 37, 71 Bujo, Benezet, 39 Cahill, Thomas, 71, 72 Camara, Helder, 25, 66 Cammack, Paul, 111 Catholic, 16, 17, 28, 36, 54, 60, 71, 72, 74, 76, 103, 107, 116 Chauvet, Louis Marie, 91 Christian Faith, 16, 17, 41, 52, 56, 73, 75, 93, 98, 116, 117 Christianity, 16, 32, 33, 37, 38, 41, 42, 52, 53, 67, 70, 71, 72, 84, 90, 91, 94, 96, 100, 115, 119, 124 Congar, Yves, 24, 29, 30, 66, 102, 103, 104, 112 133

Towards an African Theology Lumen Gentium, 19, 29, 33, 41, 44, 112 Lutz, Joseph 71 MacIntyre, Alasdair, 88 Madiebo, Alexander, 18, 73 Magesa, Laurenti, 39 Mahoney, John, 65, 91 Manemann, Jürgen, 86, 88, 89 Mbefo, Luke, 60 Mbiti, John, 17, 39, 70, 73, 74, 87, 88, 121 Medellín Conference, 15, 34, 36, 37, 48, 123 Metz, Johannes Baptist, 66, 99 Mische, Patricia M., 74, 88, 90, 120, 122 Mission Christianity, 16, 72 Missionaries, 16, 18, 53, 70, 71, 72, 76 Moeller, Charles, 25, 28 Moltmann, Jürgen, 66 Muslim, 17, 69, 106 Mveng, Engelbert, 38 Mwingira, Mary J., 120, 121 Ndiokwere, Nathenial, 37, 85, 117 Newbigin, Lesslie, 105 Niebuhr, Richard H., 82 Nigeria, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 39, 59, 60, 69, 71, 73, 74, 76, 78, 87, 93, 94, 103, 106, 107, 108, 110, 112, 113, 116, 117, 119, 123, 124 Nigeria-Biafra civil war, 17, 18, 71, 73, 74, 76 Nolan, Albert, 38 Nwaka, Egbulem, 58, 59 Nwosu, Vincent A., 91, 94, 117 Obinna, Archbishop Anthony, 78 Obot, Bishop, 60 Ochiagha, Gregory, 21 Ogbalu, Ogbalu. U., 78 Ojukwu, Emeka Odumegwu, 74 Okere, Theophilius, 84, 94 Okpara, Michael, 74

Government, 13, 17, 84, 106, 109, 111 Gutierrez, Gustavo, 66 Haers, Jacques, 20, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83, 88, 94, 115, 119 Handy, Charles, 105 Hausa, 18, 69 Healey, Joseph G., 40 Hebblethwaite, Peter, 37, 38, 39, 47, 48 Hebga, Meinrad, 54 Heerey, Bishop, 71 Heimerl, Hans, 111, 112 Henriot, Peter J., 55, 104 Hierarchy, 21, 85, 104, 111, 112, 113, 119 Igbo, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 60, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124 Inculturation, 21, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 51, 59, 60, 83, 86 Interculturality, 40 Jansen, G. M. A., 18 Jinehu, Emmanuel, 78 John Paul II, 35, 41, 43, 47, 48, 49, 55, 56, 57, 89, 96, 107, 108, 120 John XXIII, 25, 28, 34, 109 Jones, Gareth, 20, 63, 64, 65 Kasper, Cardinal Walter, 105 Krier Mich, Marvin L., 28 Kukah, Matthew Hassan, 109, 111, 117 Küng, Hans, 108 Kunnumpuram, K., 100 Laity, 21, 26, 29, 49, 76, 85, 94, 95, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, 119 Lamberigts, Mathijs, 22, 25, 66 LaVerdiere, Eugene, 31, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45 Leo XIII, 118

134

Index St. Cyprian, 37, 71 Stafford, Cardinal James Francis, 76, 107 Suchocki, Marjorie Hewitt, 67 Suenens, Cardinal, 25, 28 Tanner, Norman P., 39, 84 Tansi, Cyprian Iwene, 67, 74 The Second Vatican Council, 57, 58, 59 Theologians, 21, 26, 27, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 57, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 85, 111, 113, 119 Theology, 11, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 47, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 88, 92, 93, 95, 96, 99, 103, 104, 106, 109, 111, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124 Thiakale, Buthi, 38 Thiandoum, Cardinal Hyacinthe, 48, 51 Tordoff, William, 111 Toynbee, Arnold, 32, 33, 90 Tschibangu, Tharcisse, 39 Tutu, Desmond, 38 Ukpong, Justin, 39 Verstraeten, Johan, 22, 66, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107 von Balthasar, Hans, 66 von Nell-Breuning, Oswald, 108, 109 Vorgrimler, Herbert, 109 Waliggo, John, 41 Westermann, D., 70 Yoruba, 18, 69, 73 Zaire, 39, 48, 58

Okuma, Peter Chidi, 11, 13, 83, 94, 110 Onaiyekan, John, 49 Onwubiko, Oliver, 40 Otteh, Emmanuel, 78 Ozigboh, Ikenga R. A., 71, 79, 87, 117 Ozo, 17 Paul the Apostle, 24 Paul VI, 11, 16, 25, 27, 41, 44, 45 Pentecostal churches, 16, 73, 96 Philips, Gérard, 66 Philosophy, 39, 72, 84, 85, 86 Pool, David, 111 Pottmeyer, Hermann, 30 Protestant, 16, 72 Rahner, Karl, 19, 34, 65, 66, 78, 100, 103, 112 Ratzinger, Cardinal Joseph, 11, 42, 92 Redemptoris Missio, 41, 47 Reformation, 57 Richard, Lucien, 30, 34, 95, 101, 102, 105, 116 Ricoeur, Paul, 19, 63, 75, 81, 83, 85, 86, 89, 92, 97 Robinson, J. T. A., 63 Romero, Oscar, 66 Sarpong, Peter, 54, 55, 87 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 120 Schillebeecx, Edward, 66 Schotsmans, Paul, 87 Schwöbel, Christoph, 23 Shanahan, Bishop, 71 Sheen, Fulton J., 24 Sobrino, Jon, 15, 23, 24, 32, 66 Soyinka, Wole, 110 St. Augustine, 37, 70

135

Gods, Humans and Religions

While most traditional world religions seem to face a fundamental identity and cultural crisis, signs are indicating that there is a universal need for new spiritual demands and revival, new awakenings of religious practices and feelings. What are the facts beyond these movements? Is there a new human religiosity in the making? This series will try to bring together witnesses, thinkers, believers and non-believers, historians, scientists of religion, theologians, psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and general writers, from different cultures and languages, to offer a broader perspective on one of the key issues of our new world civilisation in the making. Series Editor : Gabriel FRAGNIÈRE, Former Rector of the College of Europe (Bruges) and Professor at the Central European University (Warsaw)