The Prehistory of the Upper Churchill River Basin, Saskatchewan, Canada 9781840580006, 9781407349787

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FIGURES
PLATES
TABLES
PREFACE
ABSTRACT
PART I: THE CHARTIER SITES:TWO STRATIFIED CAMPSITES ON KISIS CHANNEL NEAR BUFFALO NARROWS, SASKATCHEWAN
INTRODUCTION
BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS
NATURE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE IN THE UPPER CHURCHILL BASIN
RESEARCH DESIGN
MARTIN CHARTIER SITE - GIOc 20
BERNADETTE CHARTIER SITE - GIOc 21
CULTURAL-HISTORICAL INTEGRATION
CULTURAL PATTERNS
CULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS
PART II: THE CHARTIER SURFACE COLLECTIONS
INTRODUCTION
COLLECTIONS
ANALYSIS
INTERPRETATION
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX 2
APPENDIX 3
APPENDIX 4
APPENDIX 5
APPENDIX 6
APPENDIX 7
APPENDIX 8

Citation preview

The Prehistory of the Upper Churchill River Basin, Saskatchewan, Canada

James F V Millar

BAR International Series 668 1997

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 668 The Prehistory of the Upper Churchill River Basin, Saskatchewan, Canada © James F. V. Millar and the Publisher 1997 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781840580006 paperback ISBN 9781407349787 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781840580006 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1997. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Figures Plates Tables Preface Abstract

vi vii viii ix X

PART I THE CHARTIER SITES: TWO STRATIFIED CAMPSITES ON KISIS CHANNEL NEAR BUFFALO NARROWS, SASKATCHEWAN

I.

2.

3.

4.

5.

INTRODUCTION BIOSPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS Introduction Past Biophysical Environments Present Environments NATURE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Introduction Cultural Ecology Site formation Effects of Time Summary RESEARCH DESIGN Kisis Channel - Environmental Circumstances Previous Archaeological Work Research Design MARTIN CHARTIER SITE - GIOc 20 Excavation Plan and Procedure Geological Stratigraphy Cultural Stratigraphy Component GIOc 20.1 Sedimentary Stratigraphy Cultural Stratigraphy Cultural Evidence Interpretation Component GIOc 20.11 Introduction Sedimentary Stratigraphy Cultural Stratigraphy Cultural Evidence Interpretation Component GIOc 20.III Stratigraphy Cultural Evidence Dating Interpretation

lll

I 5 5 5 6 11 11 11 15

18 19 21 21

22 23

29 29 29 31 32

34

38

6.

8.

9.

BERNADETTE CHARTIER SITE - GlOc 21 Excavation Plan and Procedures Geological Stratigraphy Cultural Stratigraphy Component GlOc 21.1 Introduction Stratigraphy Cultural Evidence Interpretation Component GlOc 21.11 Stratigraphy Cultural Evidence Interpretation Component GlOc 21.11/111 Introduction Stratigraphy Cultural Evidence Interpretation Component GIOc 21.III Stratigraphy Cultural Evidence Interpretation Component GIOc 21 .IV Introduction Stratigraphy Cultural Evidence Interpretation CULTURAL-HISTORICAL INTEGRATION Introduction Cultural Integration CULTURAL PATTERNS Introduction Descriptions Patterns Discussion CULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS Background Comparative Data Base Northern Plains Region Upper Mackenzie Region Northwestern Shield Region Middle Churchill Region Relationships with the Chartier Complexes

iv

45 45 45 47 48

50

54

57

63

69. 69 69 75 75 75 80 83 85 85 85

92

PART II THE CHARTIER SURFACE COLLECTIONS

I.

2.

3. 4.

97 97 97

INTRODUCTION Background Methodology COLLECTIONS Sites Artifact Descriptions Plains Related Points Northern Forest Related Points Forest and/or Plains Related Points ANALYSIS Petro types Frequencies INTERPRETATION

121 121 122 125

BIBLIOGRAPHY

131

APPENDIX

101 101 104 104

107 118

141

APPENDIX 1 - Tabulation of Artifacts by Industry APPENDIX 2 - Discussion of Lithic Artifact Analysis APPENDIX 3 - Descriptions of Lithic Artifacts I. Projectile Points 2. Bifaces 3. End Scrapers 4. Lateral Unifaces 5. Marginal Retouched Tools 6. Worked Flakes 7. Cryptocrystalline cores 8. Crystalline Coarse Lithic Tools 9. Crystalline Cores 10. Bipolar Technology APPENDIX 4 - Ceramic Industry APPENDIX 5 - Bone Industry APPENDIX 6 - Miscellaneous Industries APPENDIX 7 - Descriptions of Features APPENDIX 8 - Descriptions of Faunal Collection

V

143 147 151 151 157 161 166 169 170 171 173 180 182 187 197 201 203 213

FIGURES No.

Title

Page

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

Map of Central Canada Map of Upper Churchill River Basin Map of Kisis Channel & Archaeological Sites Map of Terrain & Excavation Plan for the Sites Terrain Profiles of Martin Chartier Site GlOc 20 Plan of Features & Bone Distribution GlOc 20.1 Plan of Lithic Distribution GlOc 20.1 Plan of Features & Bone Distribution GlOc 20.11 Plan of Lithic Distribution GlOc 20.11 Drawings of Artifacts in Assemblage GIOc 20.11 Plan of Features & Bone Distribution GIOc 20.III Plan of Lithic Distribution GIOc 20.111 Drawings of Artifacts in Assemblage GlOc 20.III Drawings of Artifacts in Assemblage GIOc 20.III Isometric Drawing of profile through Bernadette Chartier Site Plan of Features & Bone Distribution GIOc 21.I Plan of Lithic Distribution GlOc 21.I Plan of Features & Bone Distribution GlOc 21.11 Plan of Lithic Distribution GlOc 21.11 Drawings of Artifacts in Assemblage GlOc 21.11 Plan of Features & Bone Distribution GIOc 21.11/III Plan of Lithic Distribution GlOc 21.11/111 Plan of Features & Bone Distribution GlOc 21.III Plan of Lithic Distribution GlOc 21.111 Drawings of Artifacts in Assemblage GlOc 21 .III Drawings of Artifacts in Assemblage GlOc 21 .III Drawings of Artifacts in Assemblage GlOc 21 .III Plan of Features & Bone Distribution GlOc 21.IV Plan of Lithic Distribution GIOc 21.IV Drawings of Artifacts in Assemblage GlOc 21.IV Map Showing Regional Divisions Used for Artifact Comparisons Cultural Chronology - Northern Plains Cultural Chronology - Upper Mackenzie Basin Cultural Chronology - Northwestern Shield Cultural Chronology - Middle Churchill Basin Map of Surface Collection Sites Drawings of Plains Related Lanceolate Points Drawings of Plains Related Notched and Stemmed Points Drawings of Northern Forest Related Lanceolate Points Drawings of Northern Forest Related Lanceolate & Leaf Points Drawings of Northern Forest Related Side-waisted & Notched Points Drawings of Northern Forest Related Corner-removed Points Drawings of Northern Forest Related Stemmed Points Drawings of Northern Forest Related Stemmed Points Drawings of Northern Forest Related Stemmed Points Drawings of Northern Forest Related Stemmed Points Drawings of Northern Forest and/or Plains Related Points Cultural Chronology - Upper Churchill River Basin Drawings of Ceramic Specimens Drawings of Bone Artifacts

vi

2 3 4 25 30 32 33 35 35 37 39 39 42 43 46 48 49 50 51 52 55 55 58 58 60 61 62 64 65 67 86 88 89 90 92 103 105 106 108 109 111 112 114 115 116 117 119 126 192 199

PLATES No.

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

Page

Title

Aerial View of Typical Terrain in Upper Churchill Basin Aerial Photograph of Buffalo Narrows & Kisis Channel Aerial View of Location of Chartier Sites Ground View of Vegetation on Sites Excavation Procedures Sedimentary Profile Through Linear Depression - Feature GlOc 20.1 Sedimentary Profile GlOc 21 Feature GlOc 21.3 Small Side Notched Points Medium Side Notched Points Medium Corner Notched Points Small Straight Stem Points Contracting Stem Points Small Expanding Stem Points Pointed to Round-based Lanceolate Points Large Lanceolate points Square-based Bifaces Triangular Bifaces Pointed Bifaces Contracting Bifaces Plano-convex Discoidal Bifaces Medium Rectangular Scrapers Flat & Ridged Contracting Scrapers Very Small Thin Scrapers Very Small Snub-nosed Scrapers Straight Smooth Lateral Unifaces Straight Serrated Lateral Unifaces Convex Lateral Unifaces Triangular Lateral Unifaces Polyhedral Acute Cores Linear Flake Acute Cores Boulder Chip Tools Small Discoidal Smoothers D-Shaped Smoothers Elongate Smoothers Coarse Smoothers Flaking Tools Slab Choppers Bipolar Pebble Cores Bipolar Flake Cores A-1 Type Ceramics A-2 Type Ceramics B Type Ceramics C Type Ceramics E Type Ceramics Pipe Bowl Two Pieces of Iron Stock

Vll

7

21 22 23 26 31 46 54

151 152 152 153 154 154 155 155 157 158 158 159 159 162 163 164 165 166 166 167 168 171 172

173 174 175 176 177

178 179 182 183 187 187 190 191 195 202 202

TABLES No.

I 2

3 4

5 6 7 8 9

10 11

12

13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20

Title

Artifacts Assemblage - Component GIOc 20.11 Artifacts Assemblage - Component GIOc 20.III Artifacts Assemblage - Component GlOc 21.11 Artifacts Assemblage - Component GlOc 21.11/111 Artifacts Assemblage - Component GIOc 2 1.III Artifacts Assemblage - Component GIOc 21.IV Chronological Sequence of Components GIOc 20 & GIOc 21 Lithic Artifact Distribution in Percentages Tabulation of Sites Represented in the Chartier Collections Tabulation of Sites by Area Reference Sources for Artifact Styles Petrotype Representation in the Chartier Surface Collections Relative Frequencies of Point Varieties in the Chartier Collections Tabulation of Artifacts by Industry Distribution of Lithic Artifacts by Component Distribution of Petrotypes by Component List of Features Allocated To Component Allocation of Unburned Bone Material to Component Faunal Inventory - GIOc 20 Fauna! Inventory - GIOc 21

Vlll

Page 36

40

53 56 59

66 73

75 101 102 102

121 122

143 147 150 203 214

215 217

PREFACE This study owes a great deal to number of people directly and indirectly concerned with its success. Thanks must go to the council members of the Local Community Authority of Buffalo Narrows for the foresight to support archaeological work in this very important region, and for their willingness to back up that interest with funds, in spite of many other pressing demands. In particular, Mr. Ross McLeod, the Town Manager, deserves credit for his interest in the heritage of the area and his very valuable assistance throughout the project.

It is unusual to find two such interested, and interesting, people in a community as Martin Chartier and his cousin Thomas Chartier. It was Thomas who first developed an interest in the past, passing it on to Martin and through him to Martin's wife Bernadette. Martin appeared on the first day of our first field season and nursed us through three sessions and numerous meetings and visits. He also patiently helped several graduate students who followed up on the first work. He was always available with enthusiastic assistance, advice and endless vignettes about the Narrows area as it was in the past. We benefited in many ways from his fund of knowledge about history and prehistory, as well as his familiarity with the community and the local people. I am particularly appreciative of the discussions of early human adaptive patterns to the region, for which I also thank his mother, a remarkable woman. The project and these results owe him a debt that is impossible to adequately acknowledge, must less repay. I hope that, in this work, he will find some satisfaction for his interest and labours. In addition to Stella Gromadko's critical assistance in the field and laboratory, I sincerely appreciated her good humour, her patience, and the several years of association. We had the assistance of a number of people from the village during our years of work there and would like to thank in particular, our excellent crew, who were recruited locally and will be remembered with fondness. For the mundane day-to-day operation of the crew we depended on the foremanship of David Chartier. For the short visits and field assistance we would thank Mr. and Mrs. Don McCann, Dr. Pat Brown and Mr. Dale Reid, the last of whom also helped in the collection of the background data for the project. I appreciate the very generous help and advice that I received from Dr. David Meyer with respect to the sample of ceramics. Needless to say perhaps, but its good to have experts in this specialized field so cooperative. I must also express my thanks to Ms Ginger Scanlon who helped with the laboratory work and eventually went back to Buffalo Narrows to continue the investigations. The finished monograph was read and edited by Mr. Thomas Richards, a good friend and excellent Archaeologist. Of course, I append the usual caveat on responsibility for the contents, which is mine. Probably the only thing on which most of my colleagues and I would agree unequivocally is my debt my wife for her patience and understanding. In addition to providing the ideal environment for academic study, she has assisted in very practical ways, from such tasks as undertaking a botanical survey of the main site areas of the peninsula to helping with the bibliographic compilation. During the years of the project, we worked with the community towards establishing a local museum for the upper Churchill River basin. While it is still in the planning stage i have been assured that it has not been abandoned. I would hope that it will someday be the repository for the data and collections that form the basis of this report.

ix

ABSTRACT Like much of the northern interior of Canada, very little serious archaeological survey has been done in the upper Churchill River basin. What work has been done has indicated that the overall story of human occupation to this region was unlike that of the Canadian Shield to the east and northeast . The impression has been substantiated by the excavation of two stratified campsites and with access to two valuable surface collections with site provenience . The two campsites, the Martin and Bernadette Chartier sites, are strategically located near the town of Buffalo narrows and close to the junction of the two main drainage basins of the upper Churchill River. They contained three and four components respectively , and covered the period from A. D. 700 to the Historic Period . The artifact collections , made by Martin and Thomas Chartier , included 246 projectile points suitable for comparative study . Using the points and a sample of the ceramics , the rudimentary local sequence based on stratigraphy was expanded to a tentative chronology that spans most of the Holocene. While more excavated data would be preferable, these data provide a strong indication of the vitality of the cultural dynamics in this part of the boreal forest over a considerable period. The point sample contains evidence of very early occupation by people from the plains, which continued through almost every complex in the culture sequence from the northern plains from the early through the Middle Prehistoric period. The only evidence of any occupation from the northern forests appears several thousand years ago, probably by way of the upper Mackenzie River basin that adjoins the upper Churchill to the west. Making up the bulk of the collections are a number of point styles that represents the arrival of the Dene in the region. From data to the north, west and northeast, this was part of a general expansion to the south and east from the middle Mackenzie river basin a little over 2,000 years ago. Whereas in the northeast they continued through to the time of contact, the excavated data from the Chartier sites show that there was a late prehistoric plains occupation, followed by considerable evidence of the westerly movement of the Cree from the middle Churchill River region very late in prehistoric times, possibly as some would insist, a movement in response to fur trade activities during the Protohistoric Period.

X

PREHISTORY OF THE UPPER CHURCHILL RIVER BASIN SASKATCHEWAN.CANADA PART I THE CHARTIER SITES: TWO STRATIFIED CAMPSITES ON KISIS CHANNEL NEAR BUFFALO NARROWS, SASKATCHEWAN.

INTRODUCTION The Churchill River system provided direct access for the early explorers and traders from Hudson's Bay through the southern part of the coniferous forest and into the headwaters of the Mackenzie River system. These rich but difficult areas were occupied by hunters and fishermen who became expert trappers and the production end of a trading network that extended from here to Europe using the Churchill River as the main transportation artery. Over its thousand kilometer length, the Churchill River traverses several similar, but distinct, environmental zones. In its lower section, it winds slowly across the Hudson's Bay Lowlands and through the tundra and scrub forest transition zone. Through its middle section it traverses the full coniferous forest as a series of linear lakes, broken by periodic rapids and low falls, as it passes through the irregular topography of the Canadian Shield. The upper Churchill Basin extends from the edge of the shield, west into the rounded, glacial topography underlain by Paleozoic sediments (Figure I).

Figure 1 - Map of Central Canada

The Upper Churchill River drains a large part of central-western Saskatchewan (Figure 2). One branch rises in the north and northeast, flowing through a complex of lakes and streams into Churchill (Clear) Lake (local names are bracketed). The other originates to the west and north, draining a very broad, shallow basin formed between the edge of the Shield and the Moostoos Hills, a northwesterly-trending highland divide from the Athabasca Drainage to the west. This western branch consists of a multitude of smaller streams flowing from the hills into a series of large lakes that ultimately drain to the east through Kisis Channel into Churchill Lake. From there the combined flow of both branches flows to the southeast as the Churchill (Deep) River.

J4Edge

I

Shield

of Canad~ ·an Topo1rahpy

-t --1~=:r -

~ I ~., I

'

,·

'

Figure 2 - Map of the Upper Churchill River Basin

Kisis Channel follows a short, s-shaped course through the low hills separating Little Peter Pond Lake (Little Buffalo) from Churchill Lake (Figure 3) . It varies in width from 130 to 300 m in width, and with the nearly imperceptible current it is more a connection between the two lakes than a river. The present community of Buffalo Narrows grew around the Roman Catholic mission near the outlet of the channel during the latter part of the nineteenth century . Since then it has spread along the shore of Churchill Lake to the north and along the channel to the south. When incorporated in 1974, the Local Community Authority included the two opposing peninsulas formed by the channel through the low hills. 2

Town of BUFFALO NARROWS

o@ @ CHURCHILL (CLEAR) LAKE

_

SITES __

o __

_

1. 2. 3.

Martin Chartier Bernadette Chartier Bi& Hill

5.

Halverson's

6. 7.

Ice House R. C. Mission

8.

Chuck

4.

Old Beach

's

9. Waite's 10. Norton/Nordstrom

11

CK

LITTLE PETER

POND

(BUFFALO)

©

LAKE

Scale

0 meters

250

500

Figure 3 - Map of Kisis Channel and Archaeological Sites

With completion of the paved highway into the area from the south in 1980, the Buffalo Narrows Local Community Authority sought advice in the design of a regional development plan. Toward that end a feasibility study into potential land-use was carried out by a local architectural planner (Samson 1980). Based on the recommendations from that work, the land areas of the two peninsulas bordering Kisis Channel were designated for active development into residential building lots. Although it was carried out prior to the passage of legislation requiring such research, the original planning study included a literature search to evaluate the potential of the Kisis Channel area for heritage resources (Millar 1980). This preliminary study showed that the

3

area, and specifically the channel, was strategically located for human occupation during both prehistoric and early historic times. It was recommended that each parcel intended for development should be intensively surveyed to inventory the heritage resources, that these be systematically evaluated and that mitigation be undertaken where necessary. The eastern peninsula was surveyed during the summer of 1981 and twelve historic and prehistoric archaeological sites were discovered (Millar and Gromadko 1981). The survey used a pattern of random, sub-surface tests, with no attempt to "weight" any particular part of the area relative to another. The simple microenvironmental pattern (lake littoral and peninsular interior) and the paucity of information on past settlement systems in the area made any stratification of the parcels premature. All but two of the sites were found in the narrow littoral zone. The artifacts came from a considerable range of depths in the various sites, from the surface organic layer down into the glacio-lacustrine silty-clays, indicating that we could expect some time depth to the regional occupation sequence. This work was followed by a second survey that, based on the results of the first survey, was focussed on the lakeshore area and resulted in the discovery of twelve additional sites. With the completion of the preliminary environmental and community planning study , the local council decided to proceed the development of the eastern peninsula . This required a saturation survey of the channel side and the excavation of the most important known sites , both of which were done during the late spring and summer of 1982. A total of 95 person-days was spent in the field during this period, 36 by supervisors and 59 by excavators who were recruited locally. The laboratory analysis was started in the field and completed at the University of Saskatchewan. The collections and accompanying data are stored in the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University, pending provision of suitable facilities at Buffalo Narrows . This report covers the results of both the excavation program on the Chartier sites and a study of the most informative items in the extensive surface collections that had been made by Martin and Thomas Chartier. Part I covers the excavation of the two sites, the Martin and Bernadette Chartier sites (GlOc 20 and 21 in the Canadian site nomenclature scheme designed by Borden in 1952). The past and present biophysical environments are described in some detail as a backdrop for the prehistory. As an interpretive system for the prehistory of this region. A tentative analysis of the nature of archaeological data was developed as a theoretical framework for the research, and is presented. This includes a distillation of a series of discussions with local elders with the available regional ethnological and ethnohistoric information, that made up a very preliminary adaptive model for the late prehistoric period, at least. Included are discussions of the culture ecology, site formation and the effects of time. Using the main elements of the model applied to the circumstances of Kisis Channel, a research design was developed and is outlined. The two sites are then described and the results of the excavation are presented, analysed and interpreted in the light of the parameters used in the research design. The results of the excavation are integrated into a short segment of a regional chronology, then analysed for the patterns in the data from each of the components, and finally examined in the context of the prehistory of the adjacent regions. Part II describes the Chartier Collections and, based on certain morphological comparisons of certain specimens makes a tentative expansion of the basic sequence for the upper Churchill River basin.

4

•

BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS INTRODUCTION

Although humans have always had to compromise with their environments, the forests of the subarctic are perhaps the most difficult. Successful adaptations to the climate and resources required special techniques for mobility and for exploiting the wide local and seasonal variation in seasonal subsistence. This section will describe briefly the essential character of the country to provide an appropriate backdrop against which the archaeological evidence can be examined. Of particular concern are those special factors that always threatened the very survival of the system. PAST BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS

The present physical environments of the area are the result of processes active over the Holocene, and developed in the wake of the receding front of the continental glacier. The topography reflects the geomorphic molding by the last glacial advance into the region about 24,000 years ago, modified by the thin till deposited prior to 12,000 years ago (Christianson 1979: Fig. 18). In common with much of this section of the periphery of the continental glacier, the early post-glacial period was characterized by several generations of glacial-front and proglacial lakes. By 11,000 years ago, Glacial Lake Meadow Lake extended north along the ice front as far as the present Clearwater River and may for a time have drained both southeasterly into the Mississippi River system by way of Glacial Lake Agassiz, as well as north into the Arctic Ocean by way of the Mackenzie River (Fig. 1). By 10,000 years ago the Arctic drainage had developed its current general configuration and the upper Churchill took on its present pattern of lakes and streams, which are thought to have changed very little since that time (Christianson 1979: 916). The very early vegetation history of the recently-vacated terrain is controversial, with clarification hampered by conflicting evidence. Recent work has suggested that the fresh lacustrine sediments may have been occupied by a steppe tundra, dominated by artemesia and dwarf birch (betula nana) with grassy open spaces (Slater 1978: 176). Vitt and Horton (1978) note that the present boreal forest includes species from Beringia, and from refugia to the north and to the south of the ice sheet. Ritchie (1976) has proposed an evolutionary model for the vegetation of the Subarctic, based on a series of pollen studies from the northern plains and down the Mackenzie. This shows an early 'primitive' boreal forest derived from the southern refugia and occupying the periphery of the ice sheet immediately behind the receding front. As the front withdrew from the plains the present boreal pattern evolved with the addition of pine ( Pinus sp.) from the west and other minor elements from the east. Two palynalogical studies that appear particularly relevant to the schedule and character of vegetation change in the upper Churchill area are those of Lichti-Federovich (1970) at Lofty Lake, Alberta, and Wilson (1981) in the La Ronge area of north central Saskatchewan. Both indicate that the very early vegetation on the freshly exposed glacio-lacustrine sediments likely resembled that described by Lichti-Federovich for the Lofty Lake site, some 250 km to the southwest - a poplar-dominated ( Populus sp.) deciduous forest with willow ( Salix sp.), and Artemesia ( sp.) Spruce ( Picea sp.) may have arrived in the area by 10,500 years ago, alder ( A/nus regosa) and pine ( Pinus sp.) by 7,000 years ago and generally modern conditions by 3,500 years ago.

5

It is unlikely that the region was materially affected by post-glacial climatic oscillations. There are suggestions that the extent of semi-open grassland may have fluctuated, but within limits too narrow to influence the recoverable pollen spectra. The question of the origin and history of the grassland enclaves within the forest continues to be arguable, but is highly relevant to the nature of early human adaptation. Opinions differ as to whether these grassland communities developed independently within the forest or were remnants of formerly more extensive prairies that may have occupied much of the upper Mackenzie Basin during the Altithermal. These are thought by some to be extensions north of the main prairies of the northern plains (Hanson 1950, 1952; Moss 1952, 1955, 1974; Webb et al 1967). On the basis of research further north in the basin and in the Yukon, Raup (1930, 1946) postulated that they had developed independently and included grass species from both the north and the south . While the data fr om Loft y Lake seem to support Raup 's view (Lichti - Federovich 1970), other data indicate that they may be remnants of a more northerly grassland forest ecotone during the Altithermal (Ritchie 1964, 1969; Bryson et al 1965).

In summary , the region was accessible when Glacial Lake Meadow Lake drained and the Mackenzie system opened , abou t ll,000 years ago . As for the character of the emerging terrain there are few data; although the ice front lying close to Cree Lake at 10,000 years ago may have discouraged year - around human occupation. On the other hand, accumulating evidence suggests that the summer temperatures may have been sharply warmer during that period of the terminal Wisconsin (McCulloch and Hopkins 1966; Broecker et al 1960; Delorme et al 1977, etc .). The glaciated topography is low in relief with hills reaching only a few hundred meters above the general level of the land. The terrain is composed of a basal till, subsequently modified by local outwash sediments and later covered by lacustrine clays and silts, deposited while inundated by the several generations of glacial lakes. The present patterns of lakes and streams are residues of the once much-more extensive glacial lakes, and, like the topography, must have become established by about 10,000 years ago. The prevailing vegetation patterns had evolved by about 3,500 years ago. Active post-glacial sedimentary processes included aeolian sorting and duning of the lacustrine sediments, colluvial redeposition in areas of irregular topography and reworking of all deposits by alluvial and lacustrine beach formation processes. During the Holocene, deep organic deposits accumulated in bogs and other poorly drained depressions in the glacial terrain, and thin to medium deposits developed on the mineral soils of the upland surfaces. PRESENT ENVIRONMENTS

In contrast with younger geological provinces, the topography of the upper Churchill has but an indirect influence on human occupation and movement. Of much more direct relevance is the character of the drainage pattern. While fresh water is essential for human survival in any environment, it had particular importance here in the boreal forest. In addition to the strategic fish resources found in all surfi cial waters, the lakes, streams and wetland bogs are controls on the movement and behaviour of aquafauna and land mammals, including humans. During most times of the year, the lakes and streams provide an avenue for communication, transport and access to hinterland areas. In summer, the extensive bogs virtually precludes human move ment and hinder that of most other mammals , making the waterways even more important . Winter travel across the wetlands is much easier and, rather than a hin drance, during breakup and freezeup they become the main avenues for movement. Implicit in this is that effective human survival in the boreal forest depended on tech nologies for travelling on the water in summer and on ice and snow in winter . The northern border of the boreal forest coincides with the summer position of the Arctic front and the southern border with its winter position (Bryson et al 1970), giving the forest belt the deep southerl y loop toward s the east. The climate of 6

the upper Churchill is close to the mean for the zone, with some 80 frost-free days and 2,200 degree-days. The summers are cool, with mean daily July temperatures between 15 and 19 degrees C, and winters are cold, with mean January temperatures of -16 to -20 degrees C. Unlike the open plains to the south, blizzards are uncommon with mean wind velocities only 8 to 14 km/hr. Precipitation is mainly in the summer but about a quarter falls as snow, that comes both in the early and late on the winter. The low hills and dense forests tend to trap the modest snowfall and increase the dif ficulties for movement of humans and other fauna. In winter the open, frozen lakes, streams and muskegs become arteries for hunting and the transport of game. On the other hand, the forests provide some degree of protection and fuel, both essential for winter survival. Both the soil types and the vegetation communities are related closely to the local topography (Plate I). The well-drained areas develop eluviated and non-eluviated brunisols on the aeolian sand and silt deposits, supporting a series of vegetation types related to topographic location. The xeric areas of the best drainage carry jack pine ( Pinus banksiana) with subarboreal varieties that include blueberry (Vaccinium myrtilloidea) and a ground cover of bearberry ( Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) and various lichens. Locally, these are found on the higher parts, such as the ridges that form the backbones of the peninsulas and the sand-dune areas common around all of the lakes of the west branch of the upper part of the Churchill system.

Plate 1 - Aerial View of Typical Terrain in Upper Churchill Basin

In the slightly less well-drained upland areas of mesic or submesic character the vegetation is dominated by aspen ( Populus tremuloidea) with an understory of willow ( Salix bebbione) and blueberry. A further drop in elevation and slightly poorer drainage produces a white spruce ( Picea glauca) forest, with minor black spruce ( Picea mariana), and a dispersion of white birch ( Betula papyri/era) and aspen. This is accompanied by such shrub species as balsam fir ( Abies balsamea), alder, willow, cranberry (Viburnum edule) and a ground cover of bunchberry (Cornus canadiensis) and mosses. 7

The lowest and poorest drained areas are uniformly covered by relatively deep organic deposits - fibric mesisols in peat bogs and fibrosols in areas of fen bog . Black spruce, tamarack ( Larix larixina), swamp birch ( Betula glandularif era) and swamp willow ( Salix pedicellaris) are frequent arboreal types with such ground varieties as sphagnum moss, labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), bog cranberry (Oxycoccus palustris) and cloudberry ( Rubus chamaemorus). In the wet fen bogs these are present but water plants such as reeds and sedges are more common. The lower bog areas are generally encircled by bands of transitional forms where the ground is periodically wet and the drainage is variable. The vegetation includes black spruce, bog birch and willow with some low shrubs including blueberry and a ground cover of labrador tea and cinq-foil ( Potentilla cinquefoil). Vegetation patterning in zones of similar topography and drainage are evidence of the influence of periodic forest fires in creating the present floral mosaic. Following fire destruction of a patch of mature spruce or pine forest the area is occupied rapidly by a pioneering aspen growth, with minor willow and birch (Plate 1). As the ground litter accumulates and the arboreal canopy spreads , the aspen seedlings are suppressed and the white spruce becomes established, soon to dominate the understory . This produces a mixed forest of young white spruce and old aspen, of which the former eventually dominates to develop into a mature forest which once again becomes vulnerable to fire. The patchwork character of the boreal forest is a function of the basic terrain character and the type of drainage, modified according to the stages of this cycle. Sharp differences are common over short distances and the contiguity of different combinations of the variables produce the whole range of vegetation types in relatively small areas. Of relevance to the human hunter was the correlative patchwork distribution of the land mammals and the contiguity of all vegetation habitats to streams and lakes. In addition to being important for survival in this climate the wood resources of a number of trees were used in numerous artifacts and in medicines, potions and applications (Leighton 1982). A plethora of berries were welcome as a food supplement, collected during late summer or early fall; some were dried and stored for winter use. Included were the following: strawberry low bush cranberry high bush cranberry blueberry saskatoon chokecherry pin cherry

( Fragaria glauca) (Viburnum edule) (Viburnum trilobum) (Vaccinium caespitosum) ( Amelanchier alnif olia) ( Prunus virginianus) ( Prunus pennsylvanica).

The upper Churchill Basin is in the distributional range of moose ( Alces alces), woodland bison ( Bison bison athabascae), elk (Cervus elaphus), woodland caribou ( Rang if er tar and us caribou), mule deer ( odocoileus hemi onus spp.) and in the northeastern sector, the winter range of a few barren land caribou ( Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus). The particular combination of these ungulates at any one time varied with the climatic cycles. For those on the limits of their ranges (caribou, deer and bison) we would expect adverse climatic variations to shift their ranges outside the upper Churchill (Banfield 1974), while other species would have been unaffected by the limited scope of change over the post-Pleistocene. Moose, still the most common and most frequently hunted ungulates in the northern forests, are considered by many as the mainstay of the forest hunters existence (Banfield 1974:396). They are solitary animals often occupying overlapping home ranges of up to several hundred hectares, depending on the amount of browse available. Thus, the population fluctuates greatly both spatially and through time as the habitat varies with the fire cycle and particularly with changes in snowfall . The deep 8

snow makes ground-feeding difficult for the moose as it is not habitually a 'muzzler' and does not 'paw' or 'crater' the snow for access to the ground vegetation, which is essential for winter survival (Leresche et al 1980:157-8). The forest mosaic of the upper Churchill is ideal habitat for moose with extensive areas of browse easily accessible from the shores of the numerous lakes and stream networks. Over the past hundred years there have been periodic sightings of members of a small herd of woodland bison in various parts of a large area extending from as far south as Primrose Lake (Figure 2) to as far north as Dillon River (Figure 36). Bison bones have been collected from sedimentary deposits in various parts of this area. The names of the two largest lakes, the channel, and the village further evidence the presence of bison, probably the woodland subspecies. In this region of glaciolacustrine silts and sands there are scattered enclaves of grassland usually occupying the sandy, welldrained terrain and up to several square kilometers in extent. While some may represent a phase in the forest cycle, others appear relatively permanent, and both may be essential for bison survival. Periodic collections of fossil Bison from around Big Peter Pond Lake tends to support both these reports and the antiquity of the grassland enclaves. Of the small fur-bearing mammals, the rabbit was probably the most important, although the cyclic nature of its population density precluded total dependency. They are found in all of the vegetation zones of the forests but most frequently in the xeric and mesic parts. During periods of population maxima they could be particularly numerous and represented the single most important available subsistence resource. The beaver represent a somewhat different problem. Left to themselves and with the vast extent of the favourable beaver habitat, their population would expand rapidly. There are few hard data on the use of beaver prehistorically, but there is no good reason not to expect them to have been exploited, and possibly quite extensively if they were as numerous as suggested (Mair 1908: 252-253). Porcupine are less common but are easily killed and the meat is pleasing; as well, the quills were used as decoration work by many peoples of the subarctic. In terms of seasonal dependability and return for effort expended, the varied fish resources of the lakes and streams were probably the most important resource. According to Jarvenpa (1980: 22) the important species in the Patuanak area of the Upper Churchill, listed in descending order, were the whitefish (Coregonus clupeoformis ), tulibee ( Leucichtys sp.), pickerel ( Stizostedion vitreum), jackfish or northern pike ( Esox lucius), suckers (Catostamus catostamus and C. commersonni) and lake trout (Cristivomer namaycush). While fishing was one of the most productive activities, it demanded a modest labour input and much of the work could be done by members of the group other than men. Of more importance for interpretive purposes was the influence that this resource had on the settlement pattern, and consequently on the location of archaeological sites. Not only were the fish seasonally essential for survival but the reliable fisheries served as semi-permanent bases from which many other activities were undertaken. In this way, the fish resources shaped seasonal movement and were major factors in the positioning and sizes of base camps and indirectly of other supplementary camp locations. Numerous early accounts attest to the need of a reliable "fishery" in locating a "wintering" establishment (e.g. Back 1836; Morton 1939) and the hardships that would result if the fishery failed. In summary, the critical elements for human occupation of this environment were the combined influences of the low terrain, complex drainage patterns, and the climate, mainly through their combined effects on faunal behaviour. Successful adaptation to the region required a technology suitable for travel over snow and ice in winter and along the water ways during summer. Some kind of woodworking capability was necessary to take advantage of the generous supply of wood resources that could be found anywhere in the region. The animal populations were, for the most part, suitable for stalking methods involving individuals or small groups of hunters, in 9

contrast to the mass hunts of bison often possible on the plains to the south. Even the wood buffalo spend part of the year dispersed in small groups. The numerous varieties of small mammals found in the forest are well suited for trapping and snaring, and in some places these methods were also used for moose and caribou. Finally, any adaptation to the boreal forest required an ability to exploit the fish resources as they varied through the year and with their habitats. Where and when the necessary technologies were developed is not clear at present, but at least an elementary ability would be necessary for even the earliest occupation of the region. Another critical aspect of the forest animals is the cyclic variation in population densities in certain critical species . Although any animal species suffers from extravagant hunting practices and long term diminution of its habitat , many forest species experience natural cyclic variations. The impact of this on human adaptations is profound . A human population of hun ter - collectors is thought to tend to reach a balance, albeit unsteady , according to the technological adaptation and the biomass that can safely be removed from its territory . Cyclic variations create a constant pressure for instability and the potential for periodic disaster. Other than ensuring access fish as they became available seasonally, the only protection was to maintain flexibility in both movement patterns and technology , capable of adjusting both when necessary .

NATURE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE IN THE UPPER CHURCHILL BASIN INTRODUCTION

An important aspect of the maturation of archaeology as a science has been the recognition of the need for a better understanding of the relationship between our recovered data and the extinct culture systems that they represent. The transformation of human behaviour to the archaeological record involves a number of cultural, chemical and physical processes acting through time. Some are universal while other such influences are specific to certain kinds of environments. This section will examine the human and natural processes that have contributed to the formation of the archaeological record as it appears in the Upper Churchill Basin. Sites represent concentrations of human activity whose locations and characters reflect the adaptive strategy of the society involved. Abandonment of a site left a debris pattern that underwent certain disturbances and deterioration through time leaving a pale image of the original culture (Schiffer 1972). For an analogic model to base any interpretation of the ancient adaptation from our recovered archaeological evidence we must turn to the best data available for this region, the culture ecology as seen in the ethnographic and ethnohistoric record. To estimate the possible effects of time on the fragile record we must first recognize the processes of change involved and then apply those to what we can discern about the terrain history of the site area (Wood and Johnson 1978). To provide an adequate analogic model for estimating the character of the original culture it is often useful to examine the cultural ecology of the area for a hunting and collecting group, to make some postulates about the processes of site formation, and to estimate some of the effects of time on those remains. CULTURAL ECOLOGY

The basis for logical inference in archaeology continues to be models derived from ethnographic or equivalent records. These are applied directly to explain archaeologically recovered patterns or indirectly to formulate hypotheses for testing. To be acceptable for any particular task, ethnographic models must meet certain criteria with respect to the archaeological data or topic (Ascher 1961). The data should refer to groups at the same level of technological adaptation in the same environmental circumstances, preferably representing historic continuity from prehistoric times. The boreal forest of northern Canada should be a suitable area for the use of ethnographic models if we can accumulate sufficient background information on early historic adaptations. Although some border fluctuation is known to have occurred, most of the forest belt has been intact since the middle Holocene. Much of the area has a demonstrable cultural continuity from the late prehistoric and the basic subsistence technology has changed only moderately for some three or four thousand years. At the present time the population of the region is predominantly of mixed and native ancestry, distributed in two main centres and a number of reserves belonging to five bands, four Dene-speaking Chipewyan and one Algonkian-speaking Cree. In contrast to the situation in the middle and lower Churchill basin, the reserves and settlements of the two groups are proximate and the two main communities of Buffalo Narrows and Ille-a-la-Crosse are made up of mixtures of both groups with a scattering of Euro-Canadians.

11

Recently, the documents relating to the history of this demographic interface have been re-examined and plausible explanations have been proposed for its evolution (Gillespie I 975, I 976), for the pressures that led up to it (Smith I 975), and for its nature (Smith 1976). Up to this time it was generally accepted that the Cree had expanded westward and northward into the upper Churchill and Athabasca systems during the early part of the fur trade era. Gillespie (1976:353) presented convincing evidence that the Cree had not invaded the upper Churchill basin at that time and that they were not newcomers to the area at the time of the early exploration. further, she showed that the present demography resulted from Chipewyan movements south into the upper Churchill basin as the fur trade evolved. Yerbury (1976, 1980) takes issue with both the traditional view of pre-contact Chipewyan distribution and that of Gillespie and Smith. The original concept of a protohistoric Cree aggression into the upper Churchill basin can be traced to the following often-quoted passages of Mackenzie's (1970:238) When this country was formerly invaded by the Knisteneaux, they found the Beaver Indians inhabiting the land about Portage La Loche; and the adjoining tribe were those whom they called slaves. They drove both these tribes before them; .... and Who the original people were that were driven from it, when conquered by the Knisteneaux, is not now known, as not a single vestige remains. The controversy and a discussion of the problems in interpreting are given in Gillespie ( 1981:162-164 ). She concluded that -

the passage

The ambiguities of tribal names and unknown effects that the fur trade had in the western interior before any direct contact make it impossible to state with any definiteness whether Athabascan people were permanently displaced from any areas by the Cree . (Gillespie 1981:168) For the Churchill Basin the end of the prehistoric came with the arrival of the traders in Hudson's Bay during the seventeenth century (see Yerbury I 986). From that time until the turn of the eighteenth century there was a very slow increase in the level of contact as the establishment of posts proceeded up the river system. During this protohistoric, or transitional period, direct contact was limited, with secondary contact the more frequent (Yerbury 1986: Fig.2). Lifeways are thought to have changed only slightly as the acquisition and trading of furs became a byproduct of a continued hunting and collecting pattern. The establishment of the posts in strategic locations had a focusing effect on settlement patterns, tying the movements of various groups to those places for certain times every year. The technology was gradually impacted by the addition of trade goods, mainly axes, guns, knives, kettles and a few other minor items. There is no doubt that these replaced some prehistoric tools over a period of time, rendering them obsolete, or at least less common. For the upper Churchill region the process of increasing sedentism involved several stages. Throughout most of the historic period, from about 1785 on, there were a few permanent settlements attached to the posts, but most people lived in small dispersed temporary camps for most of the year until late in the nineteenth century. Although there were no eth nographic studies of the people of the area until very recently (Jarvempa 1975, 1976, I 977, 1980), there are numerous accounts by explorers (e.g. Mackenzie I 802; Thompson 1916; Tyrell 1911, 1934), missionaries (0. M. I. Records) and traders (e.g. Hudson Bay Archives; Harmon 191 l; McLeod 1972; Rich 1958; Rich and Johnson 1952). These works are very useful but were not based on systematic methods or rigorous collection standards. Nor were they thorough in the range of information that would be useful for constructing a set of models for abstractive inference. In addition to their use in designing testable hypotheses, they are also of some secondary value where they give

12

us some indirect hints as to human population and resource distributions. Criteria for selection of locations for seasonal activities during the protohistoric and through most of the early historic period must have been similar to those of the prehistoric. Given the problems of supply and the cyclic nature of the resources the location of the posts must have had comparable constraints. Information gleaned from long talks with Martin Chartier and his mother forms a partial base for the following tentative model for early adaptive patterns to the Upper Churchill Basin, although notes and references collected by Virginia Scanlon from the Hudson's Bay archives have been used to supplement that picture. Rather than an inclusive model for prehistoric adaptation of this region it is intended as a point of departure, to be tested and detailed as further data are collected. Descriptions of settlement-subsistence patterns observed in the northern forests resemble a central-based wandering pattern in which the seasonal occupation and reoccupation of certain localities was complemented by a dispersion to other sites that combined various activities and people. Small groups of families identified with certain fishing stations from which they operated seasonally to exploit other resources. There appear to have been a number of such centres in the Upper Churchill region and in every case they were on lakes and at major inlets or outlets. Examples of the former are La Loche at the mouth of the Sileski River, Buffalo Narrows at the mouth of Kisis Channel on Churchill Lake, and examples of the latter are Whitefish, or Niska, at the mouth of the Niska River, Dillon at the mouth of the Dillon (or Buffalo) River, Bull's House at the mouth of the La Loche River (Figure 23 ). Further, in every case these older locations are occupied by small groups of one or two families; permanently until recently and now during hunting or fishing seasons. Several of the more productive locations that were occupied from prehistoric times have become modern centres of population. Martin Chartier's mother lived at Niska village (Whitefish), and the following is a reconstruction of settlement and subsistence systems based on her recollections of that community and the life ways with comments on the "early ways". She was born late in the nineteenth century and these comments include her own experiences and some of what was then 'lore' in her family. Base camp locations appear to have been selected on a number of criteria, probably the most important of which was a good, reliable fishery that was productive all winter and into the spring. Other considerations included the length of the open water season, availability of timber for heat and shelter, and convenient access to the hinterland trapping and hunting areas. All of the known base-camp locations combine these attributes with lakeshore locations, adjacent to the main inlets and outlets of the major streams with seasonally varied fish resources. At Niska, spring found a small group of related families at their traditional base camp location where patches of open water appeared early and occasionally lasted through the winter. As the stretches of open water extended up the Niska Channel the pickerel started their spawning run into Niska Lake from the Upper Churchill system. During the best years the fish were so plentiful that the dark waters of the channel are reported to have 'run like gold'. The open water also attracted early flights of ducks and geese and concentrated them for a few weeks in the small patches of open water. Men fished with nets of willow bark, weighted by grooved stone cobbles and supported by wooden floats. They hunted the birds with bolas and bunt arrows. Women and girls 'made' the fish by splitting them and splaying them over willow-stick racks above smoke hearths; a number of small hearths were spaced roughly evenly in a row and about a meter apart. Fish were also boiled in baskets until the fat floated to the surface, and could be collected for later cooking or use with the very lean meat from the spring moose or caribou. The women also collected and boiled birch syrup for summer use. As the weather warmed, hides stored from the winter hunts were defleshed, stretched, cleaned, smoothed, thinned and smoke-cured. The jackfish spawning-runs up several of the smaller creeks and streams into the smaller shallow lakes 13

of the tributaries were intercepted with willow-stick traps and weirs, and the fish were split, smoked and dried. An excellent example of such a stream is the small Sileski Creek at the town of La Loche, draining MacLean and Sileski Lakes (Figure 36). During the late spring of 1982, the southeast bank of the creek was littered with scraps from filleted jackfish, small hearths and miscellaneous camp debris. No discrete camps could be defined although the debris was only a month or so old and was distributed over several hundred meters of the bank. In other areas, birds eggs were collected during the spring. Churchill Lake was occasionally called Egg Lake by the Chipewyan as some of the islands in the south end were favoured nesting grounds for ducks of various kinds. Short trips from the base camps were made for such activities. As the ice disappeared and fishing slowed in early June , the band split into small family groups and most left the base camp, moving out by canoe along the lakeshores or up the tributaries. A few of the older people were left to care for the dogs and to maintain custody of the base-camp territory. Summer and fall were the best times for hunting moose as they could be spotted along the shore or while swimming across narrow sections of the lake or stream. They could be drowned by covering their heads with a hide while swimming or killed from canoes by intercepting them close to shore. Although forays were made into the bush away from the shore, the dense clouds of insects and ubiquitous muskeg made inland travel laborious and tedious except along bedrock ridges. This peripatetic pattern was followed until late summer when the berries began to ripen. In late summer or early fall the people either returned to the base camp or close to some particularly productive berry patch or other special resource. The women collected the berries, dried some and made pemmican. It was a time when the moulting ducks congregated at small lakes back from the main ones and up some of the tributary streams. The down was collected and the relatively immobile ducks could be clubbed or shot with blunt arrows. They were dried or boiled for their fat, which was stored for winter in baskets. By mid-September the family groups moved to the better moose hunting areas along the lakeshores and up the tributaries. They kept on the move, killing as many moose, caribou and bear that they could. Much of it they dried for winter and carried back to base camp for storage. The large mammals were fat and the hides in good condition after a good summer. When an animal was killed it was skinned and cleaned, and the hides roughly cured with the hair on. The dried meat was then put into a bag made of the hide and tied with the hair laid backward for transport. If the kill was made quite some distance from the base camp, the meat was cached by tying it up in a tree and camouflaging it with sticks and branches. These extended hunting trips usually involved a variety of temporary camps, some with the whole hunting party and others involving only a hunter or two. As the fall continued and the days shortened the people collected in the base camp locations for longer periods. They spent much of the time hunting mammals but the ducks that were gathering for their fall migrations. These were reportedly so numerous at times that the bays were nearly covered with them. As the ice formed and further constrained the ducks movement the hunters could corner them in the bays where they were shot with arrows or caught in nets. Ducks were slow with the summer accumulation of fat and the decreasing temperatures, and with the constraints of crowding in the ice-locked bays. Some ducks were actually caught in the ice as freeze-up came early or suddenly. The people also gathered wood for the winter at their main campsite on the Niska. They made their winter camp in a patch of large spruce for protection on the west shore of Niska Channel at its confluence with the main part of Little Peter Pond Lake (Little Buffalo Lake). With freeze-up, winter arrived and all of the families of the band were now installed in the base camp. A water hole was made in the ice and was maintained through the winter. After freezeup, they fished with nets through the ice where the whitefish were numerous. During the occasional spells of milder weather the men 14

would occasionally make forays to hunt along the frozen streams or lakeshores. They would generally follow the same routes as taken during the fall hunts, particularly if they took their families. They could then camp at the fall meat caches, and if unsuccessful with the hunt, could haul the cached meat back to base camp. The general strategy was toward efficiency in effort, hauling back if the whole camp was short of meat or using it in the bush if on a hunting expedition. Expeditions to the north were occasionally made by pairs of men to hunt the small groups of barrenland caribou that penetrated the edge of the forest. If successful they might return for the rest of the group or part of it, or they might stop, dry the meat and haul it back to the base camp. January and February were the worst times of year, with the intense cold and difficulties in moving very far. Supplies began to run out and hunting was more difficult, creating a critical point in the yearly cycle that could extend until the early spring in bad years. While it is thought that fish was the single most important staple required for survival, small mammals were often very necessary supplements. Rabbit snares were set out by at least one person in any group as soon as they stopped, even if only for an overnight stay. When numerous they were often the difference between survival and disaster. Snares were used for all mammals including moose and caribou, with the exception of bison. Willow bark cordage was used to make snares for the smaller animals and sinew for the larger mammals. Other animals exploited at all times of the year were porcupines, beaver, muskrat, squirrels, and various kinds of forest birds . Bison were killed most often in the fall and were reported to be quite easy to kill compared to moose. If the bison was shot in the stomach they could travel some distance but once they fell they usually could not get back up. They could then be killed with a spear. Moose could go for a long way when wounded and would rest and keep going for some time. The settlement-subsistence pattern of the early historic Chipewyan of the Upper Churchill would result in a very regular, but widespread, distribution of sites of various sizes. Substantial sites should located on the larger lakes, close to the outlets of the main streams, particularly those that drained productive catchment basins. These base camps should have evidence of repeated occupations by the same band. Other systematically-used locations are those along the creeks that had spawning runs of jackfish, where there should also be campsites and sets of drying hearths. Other regular camping locations might be found in the areas of very productive berry bushes or in some of the tributary lakes where secondary camp locations were used as bases while hunting in summer or fall. Much more numerous were small, temporary camps and butchering sites that could be found along all of the lakes and canoe-navigable streams. Small winter, and more rarely summer, camps might also be located in the forests away from the lakes and streams, but even at the time of abandonment, they would have been barely recognizable. SITE FORMATION

Typically, Dene settlements were made up of a number of single camps with little or no inter-camp patterning, except that the camps of permanent members of a little band were more closely spaced than those of any non-members that might be present. Individual camps were spread out in a linear fashion along the lower parts of the tributary streams or channels, or more frequently along the edge of the lake adjacent to the outlet of a stream. From observations in comparable circumstances in the territory of the Dene, the individual camps are seldom less than 30 or 40 m apart and generally over 50 or 60 m. If prehistoric camps had a similar spacing it would be very doubtful if two such camps would be recognized as contemporary in any excavation program ever carried out in the Boreal Forest. The settlement and seasonal movement patterns make the base camps particu15

larly dominant in the archaeological record, although they were occupied for only part of the year. The other sites are widely scattered and at much less predictable locations, although the necessity to travel along the waterways tended to concentrate even the short-term camps into the shoreline and adjacent terraces. The base camps were reported to have been weakly defined so that repeated occupations of the same exact location were infrequent. This conforms to my observations over many years in the subarctic. If they did not have a cabin or house, the actual location selected for a camp by any one family or group was conditioned more by circumstance than by habit. From an archaeological perspective, repeated re-occupation of approximately the same space on successive seasons would be difficult or impossible to discriminate, unless there was some periodic sedimentation. Previous observations also show that there was considerable internal mobility even during one "occupation". In a bush camp at Fisherman Lake, in one two month period , 40 percent of the camps were moved at least once and one was moved as many as four times (Millar, unpublished field notes 1966). Most of these moves occurred when new relatives moved into the camp location, perhaps an unusual situation in prehistoric times. There was a tendency for two related families to be adjacent, although this was not universal. Very occasionally , two brothers made camp by setting tents on opposite sides of a common fireplace. Early historic cabins with a similar configuration were reported in the Yukon by Johnson and Raup (1964:174-75, 184, Figure 49). A common pattern observed and recorded in photographs in the National Archives was the use of the active floodplain of a lake or stream on which to pitch the tents (Millar and Fedirchuk 1974), a practice that offers some clear advantages over the adjacent treed terraces, at least during the summer. The slightest breezes provides some relief from the persistent flies. There is ample driftwood available and water is close at hand. In addition, there is little danger from the frequent forest fires and the essential canoe could be kept easily available. The locations provided excellent views of the lake or stream shores for spotting game on or near the banks, or on the water. The yearly scouring by spring floodwaters served to clean the site, an advantage to the occupants but devastating to the archaeological record. These places were more likely occupied in transit by the mobile hunting groups. The frequent artifacts found on the shores of so many of the lakes and river banks in the forest regions are testimony to the antiquity of this practice. Single campsite organization can be described from more recent observations in the northern parts of the provinces, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories. Although the shelters themselves and the artifacts are clearly 'store bought', the regularity of the intra-site patterns produced can give us a model for use in interpreting prehistoric and protohistoric camps. Single shelters are now rectangular, floorless tents of white canvas, with small 'prospectors' stoves immediately inside the front flaps. Large hearths up to 2 m in diameter are placed several meters in front. The tent is generally oriented parallel to the lakeshore or stream-edge with the opening to the south. Three activity zones can be seen in virtually all summer camps. One zone of concentrated activity is noted in the tent itself, with a second, only slightly less intense zone extending in a lobate fashion down both sides of the tent from the front, and out to the south to include several meters outside the hearth area. A third much larger zone, centred on the tent and circumscribing the others, is roughly circular in shape but is modified by the topography, shape of the shoreline, and the presence of an equivalent zone around another tent . The inside of the tent is used for sleeping by the mother and father, and the children until they set up their own tent and camp. When the weather is pleasant it is used only for storage. During periods of inclement weather an inside steel drum, or prospector, stove is used and the tent space is the centre of activity. Even for short camps there is a fairly strict pattern for storage of food, utensils, clothes, sewing materials, and firearms. For the most part this inner activity zone is considered the territory of the mother, although used by the rest at night and in bad weather . 16

During most of the summer period the outside hearth is the centre of the area of intense activity that has a diameter of only about 10 to 12 m. This part of the camp usually includes a table or some kind of work bench or chair. It is here that the family activities are focussed and visitors gather while eating, talking and undertaking minor tasks. Food preparation takes place either inside the front of the tent or between the tent and the hearth. The outer zone is used for activities that require more space and storage, and are more job-specific, including places to carry out such work as net repairs, canoe repairs or construction, butchering, fish drying and smoking, etc. The actual distribution of the tasks and the extent of the zone depend on a complex variety of factors such as the nature of the tasks themselves, the topography of the area, the closeness of the water source, the season, the size and demographic makeup of the group, the length of stay, etc. During winter, the intensity of the inside occupation increases and the sizes of the outer ones decrease. The inside stove becomes more important as do such activities as wood collection, preparation and storage, that become concentrated in the middle zone (see Stevenson 1981:99-114 for an expanded theoretical treatment of this pattern). Even during protohistoric times the conical tipi was the most common form of shelter. Made of poles lashed into a conical shape, it was covered by hides, or in the cases of the poorer hunters, by a shingled matrix of spruce bark or birch bark. The same structures were set up in winter with larger floor areas and less headroom. At those times the sides, with their lower slopes, were built-up with bark and moss which accumulated snow cover for insulation and draught reduction during the minus 40 to 50 degree nights. The areas varied from 4 to 6 m in diameter. The fires were placed in the centre with smoke holes left in the peaks of the shelters. On the broadest level we could expect to find considerable uniformity in the artifact character and the basic technologies present in the boreal forest. The nature of the resources and the country imposed a set of conditions that limited the hunters to a relatively narrow range of options at any one time. Variation in the assemblages and the artifact classes must be related to seasonal differences in subsistence activities and the particular problems that needed confronting at any one time. Other factors in the variability of assemblages reflected differences in site location, settlement sizes, demography, convenience and availability of certain resources. Rather than registering culture change as suggested by Wright (1972), frequency changes in artifact classes more likely represent alteration in emphasis due to seasonal activity changes (Hanna 1980; Pokotylo 1982). Unexplainable variations within classes may also be due to differing individual motor habits, natural ability, patience, pressures of time and the suitability of the available raw material. Certain kinds of expedient tools were made of local, easily available lithic materials and were discarded close to where they were made and used. Quite often they made up a large part of an assemblage of tools in the short term and special activity sites (e.g. animal kills and butchering locations). In contrast, other artifact classes more critical for survival were more frequently made of special materials, often exotic to the region of the site. These would require some kind of trading or expedition to obtain and must have combined certain characteristics thought to be essential for success and survival. Seasonal or logistic differences in the availability of the raw material would impose some variation in the resulting artifact forms, and this may not be readily apparent in the archaeologically recovered data (Millar 1978; White and Thomas 1972). Published journals (Mackenzie 1802; Wentzel 1822) and even some ethnographic reports (Honigmann 1946) note that the very early post-contact Dene used lithic materials very sparingly. During a program of ethnographic data and artifact collection among the Fisherman Lake Slave, I noted that the craftsmen with whom I was working were very competent in dealing with bone, horn or wood, but that their use of stone was quite limited. The only lithic tool that the best woodsman could make was a crudely-flaked, bifacial smoothing tool that was 17

hafted and used to thin hides while on a smoking rack during the curing process. This is the functional equivalent of the 'chi thos' that is common among most of the people of the boreal forest. Mrs. Chartier volunteered a confirming remark, noting that the Chipewyan of the Upper Churchill preferred to use tamarack for points, awls and even knives. When fire hardened, they were considered stronger and required less care than stone. Bone was considered good but much more difficult to work. She mentioned that the tamarack was a popular trade item when dealing with the people of the "south", possibly meaning the plains. Hearths are considered important to the archaeologist in addition to supplying samples useful in dating and distinguishing subsistence patterns. As foci for human attention, interaction, and comfort they provide interesting clues for intrasite organizational analysis. At the level of the field archaeologist they are often essential for the verification of cultural stratigraphy or revealing discontinuities. They represent the primary centres of food preparation activities and sometimes the butchering of smaller animals. Hearths of the more recent Dene fall into several patterns, varying in their sizes and in the design of the pole frameworks that were common to almost all Dene camps. For the temporary camps in the bush, the hearth was small and the cooking done by either blanketing the meat in clay before placing it directly into the fire, or by roasting it on forked sticks punched into the ground and angled over the small fires. In camps occupied for more than a few days it was more common to erect a complicated and ingenious arrangement of four poles lashed into a rigid frame. The poles were planted vertically in the ground to make a rectangle about two m in length and one and a half m in width, oriented to subtend the hearth. Four other lighter poles were then lashed horizontally, about two m above the ground, to make the frame solid as well as serving as a rack, against which a number of poles could be rested. These poles, about two and a half m in length and from five to eight cm in diameter, had a number of short forks at various heights and could be moved at will in the frame as the fire changed or as the task varied from drying everything from clothes to meat, and for cooking. Occasionally fish were dried and smoked on this fire but the usual practice was to "make" fish on special hearths with brush canopies situated separate but adjacent to the main camp. This fishrack with its series of small smoking hearths is a good example of the activities of the outer activity zone, that often extended to the flood plain adjacent to a camp. Two somewhat related stratigraphic problems, common in the boreal forest, are the micro-topographic characteristics of a terrain and the depth and nature of the surface organic unit. Both result in absolute and relative variations in elevation of artifacts of an assemblage that are seldom apparent during excavation and result in misinterpretations unless recognized. This is particularly problematic when dealing with hearths that burned down into organic soil units. An extension of this problem is the effect of occupational activity on a living surface. Hughes and Lamport (1977) and Gifford and Behrensmeyer (1977) demonstrate the sorting effect on artifacts by size and specific gravity from later occupational activity, or 'moccasin tromp'. In their tests the displacement varied with the slope of the ground, and the moisture content and grain size of the sedimentary matrix. EFFECTS OF TIME

With the abandonment of the site another set of influences were introduced, inextricably linked to the passage of time and entirely deleterious to the data. Some are cultural, others are natural and the processes include both chemical and physical changes. Some are easily recognized and corrected while others are more subtle and seldom considered by archaeologists. Most kinds of disturbance described in detail by Wood and Johnson (1978) are active in the sub-Arctic forests, including faunalturbation, floralturbation, cryoturbation, graviturbation, argilliturbation and aquaturbation. Some are particularly serious problems in the northern coniferous forest and deserve 18

elaboration. Certain natural processes are operative during occupation and continue long after abandonment of the site. Slow rates of sedimentation in areas of frequent use result in mixed components that are usually recognizable for what they are and appropriate interpretive tools can be employed to at least partially correct the problem. More difficult to identify, and therefore more misleading when undetected, are the products of casual or occasional use of a site. Under these circumstances, individual or small assemblages of artifacts would become mixed with earlier or later assemblages with a distinct chance of not being identified as "cultural erratics". Another form of cultural erratic results from the "curiosity factor". The same interest in the natural environment that is essential for survival, makes the hunter/collector an excellent archaeological surveyor in the northern forests. The first archaeologists were attracted into the north by small bags of artifacts collected by native hunters (MacNeish 1952) who recognized them as anomalies. John Klondike, who helped me for many years at Fisherman Lake, got his name from the gold seekers who were ascending the Liard River at the turn of the century. Even as a child, his natural curiosity led him to make collections of rocks and other natural phenomena. He always had a small bark box with artifacts in the corner of the tent that would thoroughly distort his culture in an archaeological context as he neither makes or uses stone tools now. That collecting anomalous curiosities was not uncommon in the past is evidenced by the frequent fossil shells found in many assemblages in many areas. While these are obvious, similar collections of stone artifacts would be difficult or impossible to sort out unless typologically distinctive. This cultural admixture would render any attempt to reconstruct culture patterns or chronology very difficult (Stockton 1973; Matthews 1965; Hughes and Lampert 1977). A significant variation on floralturbation, very obvious in areas of the coniferous forest, is "tree throw", resulting in stratigraphic disruption. When a tree dies or when the root network is inadequate to withstand heavy weather, it falls over, raising the root pad with its adhering soil to the near-vertical. The sediments wash from the pad into the depression through time, creating a stratigraphic anomaly that can be identified only by perceptive excavation. With a forest rotation cycle of several hundred years, such as that in the full boreal forest, this has been a widespread form of terrain disturbance. Also common in the forest is "root channelling", whereby artifacts are dislocated both vertically and horizontally during the repeated development of complex root systems. The changes to hearths through time are partly chemical and partly physical in their effects. Particularly in the forest, where fire is such an important mechanism in the vegetation cycle, there is an extraordinary opportunity for contamination of hearths, and consequently of radiocarbon samples. Shallow, buried hearths and charcoal lenses are favoured growth strata for the heavy root systems common in the subarctic forests. When the tree is burned in a forest fire or under a hearth the roots burn well down into the mineral soil where there is always a chance of mixture with a culturally-derived charcoal deposit (J. S. Rowe, personal communication). A similar possible source of contamination comes from superimposed hearths in the forest where the root matte is dense and deep, and burning often extends deeply into the profile. SUMMARY

There are two important benefits accruing to the discipline from the recent demands for a clearer perception of the archaeological data base. When used in the development of a conceptual framework for research it can serve to minimize the retardant effects and make the process more effective, whatever the objectives. 19

Ethnographic adaptation to the Boreal Forest combines a capabilities to exploit the available fauna with the technology for seasonal mobility and manipulation of the ample wood resources. Two kinds of sites are related to different parts of the seasonal round; a base camp location was occupied during the winter by a band made up of related families, and temporary camps were used at other times by single families or activity groups. Where the former were constrained and systematic in their placement , the latter were stochastic in their distribution and very limited in size and density . This would result in site patterns for the base camps that are generally predictable, but for the itinerant camps the site locations would be unsystematic , and limited in size and density . While the former involved a complicated mixture of activities the latter were much more restricted in variety and intensity , often involved only a single activity by a small group in a location not likely to be reoccupied . Thus , the base camp sites are both easier to find and more informative , but do not provide a full view of the culture by any means. It is apparent that sites in the boreal forest are particularl y susceptible to dis tortion of the archaeological record by various processes of change through time . Some of the problems can be reduced by awareness during excavation and analysis of the data . There is no question that lack of cognizance of these effects has led to fallacious archaeological constructs in the past; and these have proven much more difficul t to dispose of than to introduce. Recognition of artifacts that were dislocated by natural or cultural processes is almost always problematical, if not impossible, unless a detailed culture sequence has been previously been developed for the region.

Along with the problems confronting the Boreal archaeologist are a few strengths to their data. Cultural adaptations have been fairly straightforward and responsive to the limitations of the environment. With the low population density there was relatively limited contact with distant groups, with a consequent conservativeness to change. There is a demonstrated continuity from late prehistoric times, at least, to the present native inhabitants, which should make abductive models relatively reliable and straightforward to use. Although overlain by a veneer of modern tools and equip ment, there are some people in the region following lifeways not unlike that of the past. While we may have little good and timely ethnographic information, there are a variety of observations by perceptive people who were in the area very early in the historic period. Up until a few years ago there were still a few native individuals who could remember the "old ways" and most archaeologists who do work in this environment will have had the opportunity to collect some ethnoarchaeological observations of this kind. These records, combined with the few ethnographic works and limited archaeological information available make it possible to identify some intriguing problems about the prehistoric past of this region.

20

RESEARCHDESIGN KISIS CHANNEL - ENVIRONMENTAL CIRCUMSTANCES

For a group of people adapted to the forest environment Kisis Channel would be a strategically favourable location for a base camp. The channel remains open until late in the fall and open water appears very early in the spring; and local reports indicate that some parts remain open all winter. The channel acts as a constraining funnel on fish movement patterns, particularly on the spawning migrations of the pickerel to their grounds on the Niska system, and the lake trout to the sandy shallows of Thompson Peninsula. The shapes of the two adjoining peninsulas influence to some extent the summer movement of land fauna. For the hunter, the bank above the flood plain offers excellent visibility along the channel and out to the lake (Plate 2).

Plate 2 - Aerial Photograph of Buffalo Narrows and Kisis Channel

Kisis Channel flows from the bottom-right to the top-left, the outlet at Churchill Lake. The Bernadette and Martin Chartier Sites lie toward the south end of the channel (Plates 2 & 3; Figure 3) but are still protected from the open sweep of the lake by the opposite peninsula. From either site, the sides of the channel are clearly visible for several kilometers to the north and across the bay to the south. The topography flattens to the south but rises steadily to the north of the sites, where it reaches a height above the narrowed flood plain of about twelve m. The edge of the terrace is a cut-bank that varies from less than a meter in height to over ten; while reasonably stable, it has been eroding from wave action during periods of floodwater along the channel. 21

Plate 3 - Aerial View of Location of Chartier Sites on the East Side of Kisis Channel Sites are on terrace just beyond the beached barge.

All of the water of the west branch of the Churchill passes through Kisis Channel and the combined flow with the east branch must pass through the narrow outlet of Churchill Lake. Under certain ice and weather conditions during breakup, the outlet becomes choked by ice and the lower terraces are flooded. Erosion of the present surface of the flood plain has left a boulder pavement along the edge of the water with a narrow band of sand at the back against the cut-bank. The active flood plain has a light vegetation cover of grass with scrub willow tangled with drift wood. Both sites are covered by a growth of dispersed poplar with an understory of willow and blueberry bushes, and a ground cover of moss and labrador tea. The surface organic matte consists of a thick layer of leaves, dried branches and twigs over a deep fermentation layer and humus that varied from five to fifteen cm in thickness. Rootlets from the shrubs and bushes are woven into a dense matte with the larger root systems of the poplar and occasional old spruce, extending as deep as 25 cm (Plate 4). PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL WORK

During a regional survey in 1964, Ranere and Watson recorded four sites along the channel, GlOc 1 and 4 on the beach in the village and GlOc 2 and 3 on the south side (Ranere and Watson 1964). Steer (1977) carried out a survey for some early historic sites in the La Loche area, and excavated one post. A survey of part of the channel area prior to the construction of the new section of highway and the bridge by Meyer (1977) resulted in the location of two additional site, GlOc 6 and 7 (Figure 3). In 1978, Meyer returned and surveyed a part of the Thompson Peninsula and found another six sites; although he found nothing that could be considered di agnostic (Meyer 1978c). Again surveying ahead of highway construction in 1980 in the Beauval-Pinehouse area, he located two sites that were thought to exhibit vague relationships to the north (Meyer 1980). 22

Plate 4 - Ground View of Vegetation on the Sites

During the following summer, one of those sites was test-excavated and found a biface that was might be the basal section of a stemmed point. Prior to construction of the resource road to Cluff Lake, Wilson (1979) surveyed the route and found six isolated artifacts. RESEARCH DESIGN

Mitigation of endangered heritage resources is much more effective when carried out with ample time and with clear objectives that can be related to some archaeological purpose. Previous work had shown that the two Chartier sites were stratified and that at least two of the contained components represented different cultural traditions. Further, one component included traditional artifacts with historic trade goods and offered promise for some better information on the protohistoric period in the area. As both sites were in the area of probable disturbance from both the clearing and the beach-access activities, the primary objective of the excavation was to salvage the data from these sites. In addition, we were able to identify a series of more specific problems in the prehistory of the region. The first archaeological objective for an unknown region should be to develop a cultural chronology, which can then be used as a framework for more anthropologically-pleasing reconstructions. The cultural resource management work has contributed little that is useful for this purpose, but even a cursory examination of the Chartier collection (Part II) indicated that the region had been occupied by a variety of complexes over a considerable time. Needed for this region has been even a short 23

sequence based on excavation of a stratified site or two with some dates. A second objective was to collect data that would ultimately permit us to speculate on the changing environments and human adaptations. Supplementary to the general objectives, there are some questions that are specific to this region, towards which no single study can do more than contribute some data. They can be used to focus some analysis if suitable data become available. Considering the hypothesis concerning the change from bison to caribou hunting it would be interesting to study the place of both animals in the culture of the upper Churchill at various times in the past. Similarly, the ethnohistoric data supports the probability that the fish resources form the mainstay for survival in most of the boreal forest. It would be valuable to be able to confirm that supposition with good archaeological evi dence. It would be equally interesting to know when and where fishing technology developed . There are indications that this upper Churchill basin was occupied by people from the plains, from the west, from the north, and from the east. What were the fac tors that led to that diverse pattern of demographic change in this area? There are differences of opinion among ethnohistorians with respect to changes in ethnic distri butions , adaptations , and settlement patterns towards the last part of the prehistoric period and into the protohistoric . It would be of interest if archaeology could be used to clarify some of these questions that remain from the ethnohistorical research . Our survey work had shown that much of the terrace and adjacent shoreline along the channel had been occupied or used as far south as the Chartier sites. Systematic testing further south along the terrace was not productive, even though some very impressive collections have been made from the active flood plain all the way south to the main lake. The only known sites on the terrace in that section is a small historic graveyard and one site. It may be that the exposure of that section of the channel to the full force of the winds across the sweep of Little Peter Pond Lake made it a poor place for a winter camp, but that the exposed active flood plain was an attractive spot for summer camping. The preliminary testing of the Chartier sites indicated that they were concentrations of artifacts of the type that might be found at a base camp, and that they were likely occupied at several different times in the past by different cultural traditions. The excavation program of 1982 was designed to test the stratigraphy and to remove samples of each components on which to build a chronological segment and to tell us something about the various adaptations represented. This required both the careful excavation of the relatively fine stratigraphy and the removal of a contiguous area large enough to expose at least one full occupation. As they were only about ten m apart a single coordinate system was used with a connecting baseline which was surveyed and staked across each site. The surveys were carried down to the edge of the channel and back in the interior some 50 m to connect with the tote road and provide a topographic framework for the sites (Fig ure 4). The limits of the excavation for each site were established with a series of one-meter exploration squares placed to bracket the "discovery squares" . These were then connected into latitudinal and longitudinal trenches. The exposed walls were then advanced to the limits of the best-represented of the components; while to some extent arbitrary this satisfied our minimum requirements. From information on the nature of the sites in the region it seemed likely that the central zone of a single winter occupa tion would be circumscribed by an area with a breadth of about five m. That of a fall or spring occupation would be somewhat larger, with that zone of concentrated occupation debris in the order of seven m in breadth. In retrospect, we are not alto gether sure that we successfully removed a full occupation 'floor' . However , we feel that the recovered sample should be satisfactory for our purposes.

24

Scale 0 meters

5

10

Figure 4 - Map of Terrain and Excavation Plan for the Sites The procedures for excavating a square were designed to contend with the very tough surface organic matte and the prof us ion of rootlets laced among the larger roots. All squares were laid out with a one-meter square aluminum grid, installing survey pins at each corner. Using a root saw, the surface organic matte was cut on the perimeter of the square and the loose leaves and branches raked up and removed. The matte was then split horizontally into the fermentation layer and the lower humus by working from one corner and edge, cutting roots and rootlets as they were encountered. This was checked for any contained cultural material. The underlying humus was then carefully trowelled and screened through one-quarter inch screen cloth. Where the fermentation layer or the humus contained any sand lenses or 'partings', the layers were removed as separate sedimentary units. When the top of the mineral soil was completely exposed it was drawn for topographic irregularities, colour or fracture patterns, and any root grooves that may indicate disturbance of the sediments. The top two or three cm of the mineral soil was then trowelled by carving along a sloping face of the profile, oblique to the present surface. This preserved an undisturbed plane of reference for depth and stratigraphic measurements. 25

Plate 5 - Excavation Procedures

Each of the sedimentary units was excavated separately where they were less than ten cm in thickness; if greater, they were excavated in a series of arbitrary levels of five cm each. The top 30 cm of the lower silty-clay unit was excavated by trowel, followed by shovelling down to the top of the boulder pavement. All of the excavated matrix from the mineral soil section was screened. While the small rootlets and roots were more of a nuisance, the larger roots were potential agents of disturbance. The latter were mapped and care was taken in the excavation and recording of all artifacts in contact with them. Two recording notebooks were kept, one by each supervisor, each dealing with similar data but oriented more specifically to different squares and from two perspectives. Profiles of all squares were drawn at a scale of 1:20 to give the extra degree of control in the presence of such fine stratigraphy. All features were plan-viewed and almost every square had at least one such drawing. All artifacts were located stratigraphically to the nearest and most convenient stratigraphic boundary - the top of the mineral soil, the top of one of the sand units, etc. Control was sufficient to allow us to locate any item found in screening to the quarter square and to the stratigraphic unit. All features and many profiles were photographed. Analysis of the recovered data followed a system developed for a similar ecosystem in the western boreal forest (Millar 1968). The collections were first divided into industrial groups according to the raw material, and then into different technologies, where applicable. As an example, the Lithic Industry was divided into a Fine Tool Technology, a Coarse Tool Technology and a Bipolar Technology. A hint of a Core and Blade Technology is also present in one component. Each technology represents a different set of processes used in the preparation and manufacturing steps. Within each of the technologies the materials were then separated into worked artifacts and manufacturing waste or debitage materials. Among the worked artifacts of each technology a number of tool classes can be identified; for

26

example, in the Fine Tool category we can find pointed bifaces, transverse unifaces, lateral unifaces, etc. By convention these are often named according to perceived function as points, scrapers, knives, etc. For each of these it is possible to identify certain common characteristics, or clusters of attributes, that can be used to make subgrouping of the classes. These are thought to have cultural significance, representing popular styles, and are therefore useful in identifying different social groups. Some of these characteristics are clearly important morphologically and some were probably functionally significant. In some cases it is possible that the differences were imposed by the raw material in use. Where possible, the technologies can be reconstructed by a study of the artifacts and debris from their manufacture. As the collections from these two sites are the only comparable data-set from excavations in the region, they are described in detail in the appendices. For the purpose of this study the term "component" will be used for a single manifestation of a particular cultural entity, a phase or complex, at a particular geographic locus (Willey and Phillips 1956; Millar 1968). It is my hope and certainly an inference that a single component represents one occupation by the same social group over a short period; although this is seldom assured in such locations as this. Component identification is an essential exercise that must precede sequencing or the analysis of intrasite character and variability. Both sites were stratified and the collected data permitted us to separate the artifacts and samples into assemblages representing each component. There was evidence of stratigraphic disturbance in several places, noted in the site descriptions. The only serious problem, although not one of disturbance, resulted from the merging of two components in the northern half of GlOc 21. Individual components are defined on the basis of the recovered artifacts and characteristics of the features. These were compared and combined into cultural complexes, which were then correlated with the results of other archaeological research in the region. The research program was under the direct supervision of James F. V. Millar and S.M. Gromadko. The records and artifacts are stored temporarily at the University of Saskatchewan, but will ultimately become part of the collections of a local museum facility in the Upper Churchill.

27

MARTIN CHARTIER SITE - GIOc 20 EXCAVATION PLAN AND PROCEDURES

When the coordinate system for the excavation controls was extended north to the Martin Chartier Site, the southeast corner of the original discovery square was found to be located as 115.65 N and 108.l W on the excavation grid (Figure 4). The results of that original test indicated that there were at least three components present: Component GIOc 20.I - a few jackfish bones, lithic flakes, broken rocks and artifacts in the bottom part of the fermentation layer. Component GIOc 20.11 - a sample of similar material from the top of the mineral soil, below a thick humus and humic sand. Component GIOc 20.111 - several projectile points, a biface, a chi thos and a number of flakes from 5 to 10 cm into the lacustrine silts that formed the upper sedimentary unit at the site.

The excavation commenced on June 25th and concluded on July 6th of 1982 with the excavation of 30 one-meter squares. This area was sufficient to provide data for both the chronological framework and for tentative reconstructions of occupation patterns. We commenced the excavation with a series of further test squares excavated well to the north, south and west of the original unit. These were then connected to give a complete cross-section through the site and stratigraphic control for the full excavation. We then proceeded to work out from these developed latitudinal and longitudinal faces to complete the block of 30 squares. GEOLOGICAL STRATIGRAPHY

The undisturbed sedimentary stratigraphy is quite simple with a sandy-clay till as a basal unit, the upper part of which was reworked, mainly to sandy or silty-clay. This was overlain by lacustrine sands and silts and a surf ace mantle of organic deposits (Figure 5). The only observed pedological development is at the present surface where a strong Ah zone overlies Ae and Bt zones on the sands and silts. This Orthic Gray Luvisol is typical of a moderately well-drained terrain in a mixed-forest environment. The original test square was put at the south end of an anomaly in the surface topography. During the early survey of the terrace area we noted a linear depression, some 4 m. in length and a meter wide, with a long straight northerly section and a southern end that curved slightly to the east (Figures 5 and 6; Plate 6). The longitudinal control trench for the excavation of the site followed north along the centre of the depression as the most effective way of viewing the structure in profile. As the stratigraphy was exposed, it was found that the deep trough seen on the surface was the expression of a stratigraphic depression that extended through the sand and silt units and, in some places, into the top of the reworked till . The bottom of the linear trough exposed the top of the underlying till in places and left generally less than 5 cm. of silts. The silt and sand of the two upper units were in part lacustrine and partly colluvial. Along the east side of the depression the profile revealed a distinct reversal of the normal stratigraphy with the upper unit an ashy mixture of the sands and silts with minor till with the only internal structure a series of short lenses and patches. These lay on top of the relatively undisturbed sand

29

unit. Appearing in the east profile was the only appearance of any pedological alteration below the present top of the mineral soil. This apparent soil maturation ultimately proved to be the edge of a hearth area within the silts and below the till material.

:t

1

;I Lens

burned SECTION

of

1

mixed cla;y. silt , - bone and ••h

LEGEND

THROUGH CIO c 2 0 - 1

FEATURl:j

I LONGITUDI NAL

PRO I LE ALONG

l 0 4 1fEST

..

,

'

oc:1'""M .

Figure 5 - Terrain Profiles of Martin Chartier Site - GIOc 20

The linear depression was initially thought to represent an exceptional case of 'root throw', but this explanation was discarded as the profiles were exposed and the full extent and regularity of the feature became clear . The depression was found to be fairly constant in section throughout its length and very regular in plan except at its southern extremity. The trough is considered to be cultural in origin. The absence of any pedological development in the base of the trench indicates that it must have been excavated prior to the maturation of the present terrain surface. Although modified to some extent by micro-colluvial processes, it is estimated that the linear depression was about a meter in width and up to 35 cm in depth. It must have been about four m in length, of which a three m section was straight and the southern meter curved gently toward the east. Most of the sediment removed from the hole had been thrown into a pile on the east side where its present expression reached nearly 40 cm in depth, tapering off toward both the depression and the east. The deepest part of the trench was found to be about the latitudinal middle, and adjacent to the highest part of the mound to the east, through the 117 north coordinate line. Three other areas of disturbance were noted in the surficial sediments. Lenses of white silty-sand were found within the fermentation layer in Squares 2 and 16. These were small areas less than a meter in diameter and asymmetrical in cross section . They were interpreted as "root throw" remnants and the artifacts that may have been affected were appropriately "flagged" for analysis. The surfaces of the organic matte and the top of the mineral soil are generally irregular and occasionally corrugated in the Boreal Forest. This seems to be related directl y to the nature of the re - vegetation processes. In the profile exposed in Square 9 this was particularly noticeable and may have been a further result of the root disturbance noted for the square adjoining to the south. 30

Plate 6 - Sedimentary Profile Along 119 North Latitude and Through Linear Depression - Feature GIOc 20.1

CULTURAL STRATIGRAPHY

As the excavation proceeded the original interpretation of the stratigraphy was confirmed. The three components were clearly separated stratigraphically except where disturbed. Adequate samples were recovered from only two of them, the earlier two, from the top and from within the upper unit of the mineral soil (Figure 5). The allocation of the recovered artifacts and other remains was straightforward for the most part, and based on the excavation notes and profiles. The only complications were introduced by the several examples of 'root throw' and the ancient excavation of the trench. As might be noted in the description of the lowest component, there is a possibility that there was more than one prehistoric occupation of the site prior to the deposition of the upper sand unit. There is a noticeable variation in depth of the artifacts even below the base of the mound of fill material east of the trench, and in the underlying, apparently undisturbed silts. Admittedly, this is not that uncommon in the boreal forest (e.g. Millar 1968; Noble 1971; Ives 1981) and with the absence of any positive structure within the silt unit, the whole collection from the silts is considered a single component. In the central section of the trench the ancient excavators actually removed a portion of the lowest component, as the artifacts from this area were found distributed like "plums in a pudding" in the mound of fill material to the east, overlying the undisturbed strata. A fine dissemination of charcoal was noted in the humus and the fermentation layer. It is an interesting and baffling anomaly that there is no clear structure within the upper sedimentary unit, either

31

pedological zonation or even separation of the units by organic bands . This is all the more surprising for a terrain as old as this is thought to be. In the following section the components of the site will be described in some detail. The artifacts are tabulated in Appendix I, and are described and pictured in Appendices 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. The features are described in detail in Appendi x 7 and the faunal remains are tabulated in Appendix 8. Component GIOc 20.1 Sedimentary Stratigraphy -

The few artifacts of this component were all recovered from the fermentation layer . There is no evidence of any sedimentary activity during or since this period of use, and the development of a present surface organic layer was well underway during the occupation .

cJO

r)o"'l:f :.·:·:::::::,•·::::.•:::::.·

LEGEND BONE - UNBURNED BONE BURNED

li&AMKAL-

F

0 0

VNDJFFER'D

ASH -

UCHT

AS H -

HEAVY CONCENTR.U ON

BEARTB

-

S CATTEJt

CHARCOAL k ASH

0 N

D

E2illl 888)

us

N

Figure 6 - Plan View of Features and Bone Distribution Component GIOc 20.1 Cultural Stratigraphy -

Apart from the area of the hearth there is a clear separation of the artifacts of this component from those of the levels below. While the hearth and the related fish bones are clearly related , most of the rest of this meagre collection appears more likely the disparate remains of casual use by people crossing this easily accessible location .

32

Cultural Evidence -

Feature GlOc 20.5 consisted of a hearth and ash layer found in the northwest part of the site (Figure 7). The charred remains of the hearth extended down into the humus but the ash was distributed outwards in the middle of the fermentation layer. Several clusters of fish-bones were recovered from the ash layer adjacent to the hearth. with a number of unused cobbles and three pieces of lithic detritus, including two spalls from a bipolar core. About three meters to the east were a number of burned fragments of small mammal bone with a pointed biface (possibly a portion of a projectile point). Another small scatter of burned and calcined bone lay some three meters to the south. These were mainly fish bones with a few fragments of small and large mammals and bird bones. The only lithics or other non organic materials found were the biface and two spalls.

~

"'

0

0

LEGEND

2 n.lJCES

-

ISmCLE

-

I

I

BlrACE W'ORICED

TBICIC s

ASB

SLUI S OF ST ONE

B.uuc

·::::: .11 · ·: .

(

l,

I , Uppe~

I \

/~0

OJ1li

C

I \ \

"

---------

M"ddl

~---- Churchill

\

--r-I

I

ill

I

I

"----~

·-_____ I Plajps

,

Region

~

Figure 31 - Map Showing Regional Divisions Used for Artifact Comparisons

The geographic variation between regions makes it difficult to apply a single system to all the regions under consideration. The use of the stages proposed by Willey and Phillips (1958) and used throughout most of North America, including the central plains (Frison 1978), is not found acceptable to researchers on the northern plains (Vickers 1986; Dyck 1983). The reasons lie in the differing adaptations during the later prehistoric periods and the unsuitability of the term "Archaic" applied to that of the northern plains at any time. On the other hand, the concept of the "Archaic" is suitable for at least certain parts of the northern forest regions (Millar 1978). The issue becomes complicated when we consider the extent of environmental change over the period of human use, through the entire spectrum from tundra to grasslands and back. Thus, it is unlikely that any one system of units would be entirely acceptable. As the upper Churchill River basin, as in the rest of the southern boreal forest, reflects the cultural developments in both the northern plains as well as the Mackenzie basin, the 86

frameworks for both areas will be used for their respective correlates in this transitional zone. It will follow the general stage system of Willey and Phillips (1956). The purpose of this discussion is to create a chronological sequence and not develop a stage or period structure for the boreal forest; that will be done later. Considering the dif ferences in the adaptations and histories between the subarctic forest regions and the plains that process will be complicated, and appropriate and defendable categories require additional deliberation . The Lithic Stage in the northern forest zones will cover the same three paleoin dian traditions found in the plains, although only the earlier two, the Fluted Point and Plano Traditions have been identified as yet. The northern extension of the latter is termed the Northern Plano, and no attempt can be made at this time to differentiate the internal changes as the culture became adapted to the northern conditions. Just how long these early subarctic hunters were able to sustain the big game hunting adaptation of the plains is not clear as we have few data on the prevailing environments and resources during this period. More importantly, it is impossible to distinguish the pure bison hunting pattern that could have lasted for some period in the north from some later adaptation that included other mammals such as caribou. It is occasionally possible to see much closer resemblances between some specimens and assemblages than others, which might someday be a means of measuring the degree of adaptation away from the plains. The sizes of the known sites and the distribution of both the sites and the typical artifacts fit well with our perception of the settlement patterns and technologies of nomadic hunters. Subsequent cultural adaptations in the northern forests are much like those that Willey and Phillips (1956) considered "Archaic". They are thus subsumed under the term Northern Archaic, and where possible, they are subdivided in the time-honoured way into early, middle and late segments. In the forest the lifeways typical of this stage continued into the Protohistoric. Lifeways are thought to have shifted to a broader range of fauna, that included bison in some parts of the north such as the Peace River lowlands but in others, shifted to barrenland caribou . In all regions hunting was accompanied by fishing and trapping, and the seasonal dependency on one or another of the resources required a more flexible lifestyle and settlement pattern. It is thought that the pattern changed from free-wandering to central-based wandering. Whether these should be called stages, periods, adaptations, or patterns is irrelevant at this point, but they are not synonymous with "tradition". This is typically reserved for specific combinations of characteristics that can be traced through time (Willey and Phillips 1956). The Historic Period covers the time during which direct contact was maintained between the European explorers and traders and the indigenous occupants of the region. This followed the Protohistoric Period during which the European presence in the east imposed an indirect influence on the native movement patterns and lifeways (Yerbury 1986:12, Fig. 2). Northern Plains Region

The culture sequence for the Northern Plains region is based on Dyck (1983) and Vickers ( 1986), covering the grasslands of Saskatchewan and Alberta respectively (Figure 32). The two areas include dated, excavated components representing almost the entire Holocene sequence for the plains ecozone (Vickers 1986: Fig. 3). The Paleoindian Period is characterized by the use of large lanceolate projectile points hafted to heavy shafts for thrusting and stabbing (Frison 1978:333). On the basis of differences in point style it is divided into three parts, the Fluted, Plano and Late Lanceolate. The Fluted Point group include the Clovis, Folsom and Midland styles, while the Plano covers two point traditions, broadly classified under Agate Basin/Hellgap and Alberta/Cody. The Late Lanceolate Tradition include variations on 87

the Frederick/Lusk style, occasionally accompanied by varieties of early plains notched points. The latter are thought by some to represent the arrival of the atlatl on the northern plains during the late sixth and early fifth millennium B. C. Reeves (I 978) has suggested that this sequence represents only two traditions, with the Agate Basin developing into the Frederick group in some peripheral ecozone to the plains, the mountains and northern forests. With the departure of the Cody tradition the people of the Agate Basin Tradition returned to the plains around 8,000 years ago. The Early Plains Archaic stage represents the replacement of the spear by the throwing board or atlatl, either by diffusion of migration from the eastern fringe of the plains (the Early Prehistoric of Reeves 1978; the Early Plains Indian of Dyck 1983). The character istic points of the period are those of the Mummy Cave complex but the basic adaptation is a continuation of the classic plains bison hunting culture . The Middle Plains Archaic stage includes two basic traditions, the one a continuation of the earlier Mummy Cave complexes, known sequentially as the Oxbow and Sandy Creek Complexes, and the somewhat later but possibly symbiotic, McKean (McKean, Duncan and Hanna point styles) Complex . These two traditions appear to share the northern plains into the Late Plains Archaic stage with the development of the first into the Besant and later Old Women's Complexes, roughly covering the past 2,000 years. About 3,000 years ago, the McKean Complex appears to have been replaced by a third tradition, commencing with the distinctive Pelican Lake complex and continuing with the interesting Avonlea complex. The latter is thought to signal the appearance of both pottery and the bow and arrow onto the northern plains .

NORTHERN •

•

AD 2000

AD 1 00 0

-

IDSTORIC

-

PLAINS PERIOD _

_

_

_

_

_ ':

Q

.:0

.s~

UTz: SMALL SID E-NOTCHED P OINT COMPLEXES

-

4 VONLE4

-

:J~

-

it ,.._...

- o

Cl

j

•

JOOO B C

-

2 000

u

;:: BC

3 00 0 BC

~Cl Q,

.. ; •

4000

BC

-0000

BC

•

6000

BC

•

7000

BC

SAND Y CREEK

PEUCAN LAKE - J!ANR A- :

DUNCAN

.s

McKEAN

.. ~

•

BESANT

't,

Sl

Cl

't,

OXBOYr

i

. .

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FREDERICK

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~

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.

.,

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BC

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FOLSON

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t'Jnd6

-

surrace

~ CLOVIS - :,ur/ace l1nd• a.ad 1;: excaYated tro1Dt1 Sibbald Cr. and

ELPJ 93 •lte•

Figure 32 - Cultural Chronology Northern Plains

The point styles of most enough described to permit fairly problems, the Mummy Cave and graphic context , specimens of either

of the plains complexes are distinctive and well reliable comparisons. Only two should give serious Besant complexes; unless found in dated or stratican challenge even experts in those assemblages .

Of somewhat more significance to the northern forests than the plains is the anomalous appearance of a fully developed microblade technology in at least three locations on the western Canadian plains (Sanger 1968; Taylor 1969; Pettipas 1981). Little is known of its origin or fate, but it appears to be intrusive into the region, probably between 4,000 and 2,000 B. C. The migrants responsible for this technology came from either the north or the west, most likely the former. They represent the only identifiable northern influence on the grassland cultures , and consequently may have some interesting implications for the future interpretations of the prehistory of both ecozones. Upper Mackenzie Basin

This region covers the drainage basins of the upper , southerly , tributaries of the Mackenzie River , between the Cordillera and the Shield . These include the Atha 88

basca, Peace and Hay Rivers, and the territory immediately adjoining the upper Churchill River basin to the west. They share a number of environmental characteristics, mainly the moderate topography and coniferous forest cover with the occasional grassland enclave. Although no firm chronology has yet been assembled for the region, there is ample evidence of both antiquity and continuity of occupation in most parts. The following discussion is based primarily on Ives (1981) supplemented by the relevant sections of Vickers (1986). The few data available suggest that the region was thinly populated from early Holocene times by people from the south, but that there was a progressive incursion from the north into the upper Peace and middle Athabasca Rivers (Figure 33). The actual extent and nature of this invasion and just when it occurred is obscured by the limited work. It appears that for at least 2,000 years, the ancestors of the ethnographic Dene groups have occupied most of the basin. A few fluted points have been found in both surface collections (Donahue 1976) and in excavation (Fladmark et al 1984), and most of the Plano varieties are well represented (Spurling 1980:361; Ives 1981:47-48). Variations in frequencies and distribution of each are difficult to evaluate with the limited sample. As noted, the Mummy Cave sequence is not too clearly defined and the early notched point styles are indefinite, so the occurrence of the early middle Archaic in the upper Mackenzie is only speculative. Later in the middle Archaic we see evidence of connections both to the plains as well as to the north into the middle Mackenzie. Evidence of both the Oxbow-Sandy Creek and McKean-Pelican Lake traditions are found in excavated contexts and surface finds representing some kind of occupation of at least the southern and western part of the basin up to about 2,000 years ago (Spurling 1980:364-65; Ives 1981:50-51). A number of microblade sites have been identified through both the Athabasca (Ives 1981:49-50) and Peace drainages (Spurling 1980:363; Fladmark et al 1984).

MACKENZIE

UPPER AD 2000

-------------HISTORIC

OLD

Late

AD

1000

I)

35~ ~~

z

0

JrOMEN'S

6

~-2

T.ALTHElLEI

MACKENZIE

~

Early PELICAN

1000

LlKE

BC

HANNA DUNCAN 2000

BC

3000

BC

4000

BC

5000

BC

6000

BC

7000

BC

McKEAN OXBOW

MUMMY CAVE ?

(I

t

3 11

PLANO

contezt.

:cl variety ~

8000

.most

POINTS

cover

fou;od

in

surlace

tun ra:o.1re

but A,l'ate frequent.

1n

Bas.i;o form

BC

QOOO BC

The microblade component at the stratified Charlie Lake cave site has been dated to 4,400 to 4,800 years ago, which corresponds well with the dated range of the early Northern Archaic in the middle Mackenzie region. The microblade-bearing component is sandwiched between two components clearly related to the plains, an earlier one dating about 5,500 B.P. that is thought to correlate with the late Mummy Cave Complex, and a later one that contains a point that Fladmark has assigned to the Pelican Lake Complex (Fladmark et al 1983). In the Peace Point site, located at the junction of the Peace and Athabasca Rivers, Stevenson (1986:91-92) reported a component containing a linear flake/core tool technology that occurs with the early Northern Archaic in the middle Mackenzie region. As the respective traditions are roughly contemporary in the adjoining regions it is difficult to tell if these occurrences represent temporal limits of 'penetration' from the south and north, or simply evidence some degree of influence.

Figure 34 - Cultural Chronology Upper Mackenzie

89

Given the later prehistory, it seems more likely that the components record some kind of territorial extension from the middle Mackenzie region during some part of the 5th to 3rd millennium. Any relationship between these and the anomalous microblade sites on the northwestern plains is obscure at this time. The Christian era brought the ancestors of the ethnographic Dene into the region and the full sequence of the Northern Archaic Tradition, indicating continuity with the northern forest cultures found in the middle and eastern Mackenzie, and Keewatin regions (Ives 1981:49-51; Conaty 1977, 1980; Pollock 1977, 1978, 1981) . Similarities can be noted with both the Taltheilei Tradition and River of the Mountains Phase (ROM) of the eastern and middle Mackenzie regions respectively. There are also hints of subtle differences with both. There is evidence of later intrusive influences in the form of components containing the small side notched arrowheads , as for example, in the upper levels of the Charlie Lake and Peace Point sites. These could register the arrival of people from the northern plains, simply the northerly diffusion of the bow and arrow, early trading activities, or all three , representing the dy namism of the population shifts during the protohistoric. Northwestern Shield Region

The northeastern sector of the upper Churchill River basin extends into the ir regular lake-swamp-rocky outcrop country of the Canadian Shield. Apart from a large area underlain by Proterozoic sandstones, the Shield continues north from there to the Arctic Ocean. The limited archaeological data from the immediate north of the upper Churchill makes it necessary to extrapolate from further north, where some excellent work was done and detailed chronologies have been published. This summary is based primarily on Noble (1971, 1977, 1981), supplemented by Gordon (1975, 1976, 1977a, 1977b). Surveys of the Lake Athabasca-Black Lake area (Wright 1975; Minni 1976) and the Protoerozoic sandstone area (Wilson 1979; Meyer 1979a, 1979b, 1983) will be used to bring the sequences closer to the upper Churchill River basin (Figure 34 ). Topographically, this is an area low in profile but difficult to traverse unless one travels on the waterways, or is willing to move southwest or northeast along the rocky ridges. It is within the northern part of the Boreal Forest, but with some local variation; for example, the Proterzoic sandstone is a pine parkland. It is in the range of the moose and winter range of the barrenland caribou. The earliest known occupation of the region was that of the Northern Plano, evidenced by a few surface finds of Agate Basin-like points at Black Lake (Minni 1976: PL 1.I), on the south shore of Lake Athabasca (Meyer 1983: Table 11-1 ), northern barrengrounds (Harp 1962), northern Manitoba (Nash 1975:163-4), and the large site at Acasta Lake with dates around 5,000 B. C. (Noble 1971; 1981:97-8). The latter represents a slightly atypical . Northern Plano with predominantly lanceolate points, but accompanied by some with long stems and a few notched forms. There are distinct similarities to the late Northern Plano sites found recently in the extreme northern part of the northern plains; for example, Boss Hill dated at about 6,000 B.C. (Doll 1982; Vickers 1986:45- 7).

90

NORTHWESTERN SHIELD AD 2000

~

~ ~~

Reliance

J~~~Xi1 - - - ;,.t:- -

~ .JC Lockhart

AD 1000

~

~e::;Narrow

f

~Q

..:i:9 ~~

s

Waldron

Jrindy

Rfrer

Middle

Point

~ E--E-- Taltheilei

0

Early

2:i------.......,...........,....-------f l 000

BC

~ PEUCAN

-~

'5

2000

BC

3000

BC

~ CARIBOU

< ~~

~ ~

~

f~LlJn ~~!1:!Ii:~

Z

~~f1~~:~

r.-J

~

and

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northern in not

OXBOW' ?

ARTILLERY

SJ

Mackenzie. 4000

BC

~000

BC

~

5g ~~

ACASTA .lAKE and found

- From Acasta Site in Keewatin sites

Figure 35 - Cultural Chronology Northwestern Shield

These data reinforce the old supposition that the deglaciated territory of the Mackenzie basin was occupied by hunters from the plains. It is thought that the wasting ice formed glacial front lakes that left deep and widespread silt deposits that supported early grasslands that were shared by bison and caribou. This was followed by a period during which the chronologies across the northwestern Shield were quite different if the present data are reasonably complete (Figure 35). The late Northern Plano appear to have abandoned the eastern Mackenzie basin and, up to about 3,000 years ago, the region was sparingly visited by people from the plains, representing the Middle and Late Plains Archaic. This is evidenced entirely by surface finds (Noble 1971:98-100) of Oxbow, late McKean, and Pelican Lake point styles. Like all other parts of the Shield, archaeological surveying away from the waterways is difficult, so this perception may be a function of discovery rather than reality. Southern Keewatin and northern Manitoba are thought to have been occupied by descendants of the Northern Plano who became adapted to the northern edge of the Boreal Forest, gradually acquiring an Archaic way of life (Gordon 1975; Wright 1981:88-89). Wright extended this postulate to include most of the remainder of the Shield from Keewatin to northern Quebec in this process of change, which he terms the Shield Archaic. The ethnographic Algonkian groups are thought to have developed from this antecedent in the same ecozone somewhere to the south and east (see Hanna 1980 for a detailed critique). In the Keewatin and northern Manitoba, they are thought to have withdrawn to the south sometime around 3,000 years ago (Wright 1981:91). About 2,600 years ago the ancestors of the ethnographic Dene commenced an apparently rapid spread from the Mackenzie region across the eastern Mackenzie, through Keewatin and into the northern part of Manitoba. From a series of river and lake traverses, Noble ( 1971) developed a detailed sequence of culture change in his Taltheilei Tradition, that reflects the process of adaptation during and following this movement. Later, this chronology was extended to the east into the Keewatin by Gordon (1975; 1977) and northern Manitoba by Nash (1975). The work by Minni (1976) at Black Lake, Wright (1975) on the east end of Lake Athabasca, and Meyer (1979a, 1979b) to the south of Lake Athabasca found evidence of a similar, possibly parallel, spread of the Dene to the east from this part of the upper Mackenzie region. No dates are available, nor is it clear whether the latter came directly from the upper Mackenzie or by a southerly movement from the eastern Mackenzie or Keewatin. From the known distribution of the Taltheilei Tradition and certain differences found in the Keewatin, it seems that there was some regional differentiation across the Shield and between regions. Thus, the detailed sequence of Noble (I 971, 198 I) probably should be applied to the eastern Mackenzie, and the less specific sequence used by Gordon (I 977) for the Keewatin is felt to be more useful when viewing the tradition across the Shield. Middle Churchill Region

This region covers the area drained by the Churchill River as it crosses the Canadian Shield between the upper and lower parts of the basin. The majority of the archaeological research has been done in the process of mitigation surveys and excavations for dam and highway construction. This managed to cover only a fraction of the area of the whole region. The available data have been described and analysed by Meyer (I 983), who has identified three separate overlapping traditions in the basin, coming from the plains, the north, and the southeast (Figure 35). 91

MIDDLE ~AD

2000

- Q

~AD

1000

!c,.C: ~ .,;jt

CHURCHILL

-

HISTORIC ~

"l'IEARlvil'~

"?..AKE-- - - - - -

BLACKDUCK LAUREL

0

z

-o -

1000

BESANT

PEUCAN

BC

McKEAN

(l

-2000

BC

~i:

;;3

"O !.! ~

3000

~4000

BC

BC

Like the Mackenzie and Shield regions to the west and north, the earliest prehistoric evidence consists of surface finds of plains related points, but ones that reflect occasional use of the area by middle Plains Archaic complexes. Oxbow, McKean and Besant are recognized, but occur in very small numbers and the precise nature of the "occupation" is obscure (Meyer 1983: Figs. 11.8 & 14). Other than a possible Plano point found in the extreme southerly edge of the drainage (Forsman 1976), there is no sign of any use by the Paleoindians from the plains.

?

LAKE

_

-

The next set of influences came from the north and west with the spread of the ethnographic Dene of the Taltheilei Tradition, who penetrated only into the upper drainage systems of the northern tributaries (Meyer 1983: Fig. 11.14). Projectile point styles of all three phases of the Taltheilei Tradition have been identified (Meyer 1983:150).

I

'"'.C: ~~

..

OXBOW

Cl,

I I

-

Figure 35 - Cultural Chronology Middle Churchill

The general impression from these data is that the upper parts of the northern tributaries were used periodically by Taltheilei people working south from the Lake Athabasca basin. There seems to have been no sustained occupation along the middle section of the Churchill River until about two thousand years ago. Related ultimately to Middle Woodland complexes of southern Manitoba and northwestern Ontario, the Laurel complex appeared in the eastern part of the middle Churchill River basin about 2,000 years ago. Neither Laurel or the later Blackduck pottery is common, and neither are known much west of the Reindeer River (Meyer 1983: Figs. 14 & 17). The only widespread evidence of permanent prehistoric occupation of the middle Churchill River basin is that of the Clearwater Lake Complex, the ancestors of the ethnographic Algonkian-speaking Cree. It is well dated in northern Manitoba with an occupation range of from 600 to 200 years ago, and slightly earlier in the lake district of central Manitoba. As stated by Meyer (1983:165), ".. the general impression is that the Clearwater Lake complex on the Churchill River is a protohistoric and historic phenome non." RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE CHARTIER COMPLEXES

The excavated data from the Chartier sites can only be referred directly to the immediate area of Buffalo Narrows without additional data from the rest of the upper Churchill region. A tentative correlation can be made with the contiguous regions and the resulting suggestions can be incorporated into an expanded sequence. The Chartier Complex reflects a connection into the Shield to the north, with most characteristics consonant with the middle to late phases of the Taltheilei Tradition. As research continues into the late prehistoric Dene it seems more apparent that there was some differentiation across the north from the Mackenzie to the Hudson Bay drainage. This has led to the definition of two possible variants of the Taltheilei Tradition, one in each area. Comparing the artifacts of the Chartier Complex with those 92

of the northern edge of the forest reveals some strong similarities but several sharp differences. The side and corner notched points resemble the later part of the tradition, more like the Frank Channel Complex, with the discoidal chi thos-smoothers, bifaces, bipolar technology (Noble 1981: 104,Fig. 6). These contrast with the clear parallels with the middle of the tradition in the various stemmed points and the radiocarbon date of AD 600 to 750. With the lanceolate bipoints represented only as a "unique bipoint" (Noble 1981:Fig. 6.d) and no reported small discoidal chi thos-smoothers, there is possibly a third variant of the Taltheilei Shale Tradition that developed to the south of the Shield in the sand dunes of the Athabasca drainage. The earlier appearance of the projectile point styles implies that the late phase of the tradition may have evolved in the south and spread to the north. It is not clear in Gordon (I 977:75) just when the notched points actually appear in the sequence although he attributes them to contact between the Chipewyan and the Cree area, the northern plains and the Mackenzie Basin. The Late Taltheilei Tradition in the east and northeast is thought to begin about AD 800, continuing to the time of contact. With respect to the question of origins and dispersion, data for this period based on excavation from the critical parts through northern Saskatchewan and into northern Alberta. The are only typologically related and do not give us the temporal any clinal perspectives.

there are few reliable of northern Manitoba, majority of the finds connection to provide

There are some general resemblances between the Chartier Complex and contemporary developments in the upper Mackenzie River basin to the west, but differences in raw materials obscure at least some of the technological and stylistic parallels at the present level of the data. This point will be discussed in more detail in Part II of this monograph where the additional data from the Chartier collections provide a broader view. The Narrows Assemblage has its underlying similarities to the plains to the south but the precise relationship is obscure. There are several aspects that appear almost indigenous as they are common to all the identified constructs - the bipolar technology, very small end scrapers, the small, discoidal chi thos, the hearth features and numerous bifaces. The present evidence for plains connections lies exclusively in the ceramics and the small side notched projectile points, perhaps the drill and graver classes. The influence and population movements from plains into the north are evidenced back well into paleoindian times (see Part II), and virtually every point style and many other characteristics from the plains have been found in collections made by Martin Chartier from the upper Churchill River basin. This is evident in other parts of the upper Mackenzie River basin from earliest period (Noble 1981:98, Fig.I; Millar 1968) , through the middle periods (Noble 1981:99; Millar 1968; Gibson 1982) and into the late prehistoric (Millar 1968). It is significant that most of the penetration has been in the west, through the upper Mackenzie drainage, rather than to the east through the difficult topography and drainage networks of the forested terrain of the Shield. While there is a Plains flavour to the Narrows Assemblage there is also an underlying similarity with both the earlier and later cultures of the forests. This can be seen in the chi thos-smoothers, the bipolar technology, the organization of the site and the features, and the moose-fish-small mammal subsistence. It is not an unreasonable premise that Plains bison hunters occasionally ventured north and east into the edge of the forests, particularly where there were even isolated patches of semi-open grassland and small pockets of bison. This is particularly true if the Archaic and later hunters habitually used the parkland as a wintering zone, as has been suggested by a number of researchers (Morgan 1979). It would also be reasonable to expect that they would have accumulated some adaptive measures for forest living, but would occasional or even seasonal forays result in such a fundamentally forest-oriented culture? It is worthy of note that further study may show that the 'Plains' characteristics may have resulted from acculturative influences from the plains. These late prehistoric occupants of Kisis Channel may have been people from the transitional forests or parklands with an 93

overlay of Plains character. Recently, Meyer (1981) has suggested that the parklands of central Saskatchewan were occupied by Algonquin-speaking people from the forests during late-prehistoric times. They are thought to have carried a basic character of the forest adaptation but to have also acquired some Plains traits. While the time period is the same and the general traits of this southeastern development are similar in some respects to those of the Narrows Assemblage, there are too many differences to propose any connection; however, it might represent a comparable situation. A not incomparable situation has been proposed for the introduction of ceramics and other plains characteristics to the Cree in the parklands of southern Manitoba.

It has been well documented over the past few years that the north central parts of Manitoba and Saskatchewan were occupied during the late prehistoric period by Algonquin-speaking Cree of several dialects. Usually identified with the Clearwater Lake Phase, they are thought to have developed from, and overlapped in time with, the late Laurel Phase in north-central Manitoba. The earliest appearance with any general acceptance is in the AD 850 range (Dickson 1976:42). Clearwater Lake Phase sites are by far the most frequent of those found in the Shield part of the Churchill River drainage (Figure 33). They are distinguished by several ceramic types of the same name, but also include side-notched and triangular projectile points, ground adzes and grooved mauls, barbed bone harpoon points, antler adzes and flakers and shaft straighteners (Meyer 1978a:39). The characteristic pottery has been recognized as far west as Lac La Biche (McCullough 1977) and to the north as far as Lake Athabasca (Minni 1976). The phase is thought to have commenced an expansion into east central Saskatchewan along the Churchill River, some time in the 15th century. The Kisis Complex is clearly related to this westerly movement of the Cree and may represent another regional variant. There are no dates to indicate just when they reached the upper Churchill but were established there when the area was explored by the first European traders. It is noteworthy that the prehistoric complex appears to have reached a limit in the Buffalo Narrows area, and that it did not reach even as far as Lac La Loche. There have been no reports of the characteristic pottery of the Clearwater Lake Phase from research in the extreme upper part of the basin or in the Athabasca lowlands.

94

PREHISTORY OF THE UPPER CHURCHILL RIVER BASIN SASKATCHEWAN.CANADA PART II

THE CHARTIER SURFACE COLLECTIONS

INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND Over a period of twenty years or so, Martin and Thomas Chartier of Buffalo Narrows have assembled an impressive collection of artifacts from 22 sites located in the upper Churchill River drainage area (Figure 36). It was obvious from a cursory examination of the range of industries and artifact styles that the region had been occupied for a considerable time by a succession of people with varied cultural connections. Some clearly reflected a direct plains influence, others could be correlated to the northern forests, while still others had eastern connections. This cultural diversity may be due to the strategic location of the upper Churchill River basin, between the northern parklands and plains to the south, the Canadian Shield to the east and north, and the upper reaches of the Mackenzie River basin to the west. This transitional position may have been made more important by the environmental changes it underwent during the terminal Pleistocene and Holocene. This part of the report will make the information contained in the collection available in the form of drawings of the artifacts with short descriptors. This will be preceded by a discussion of the comparative study of the diagnostic items that refers to the description of the cultural chronologies for the contiguous regions included in the last section of Part I. Using the short sequence based on the excavations at the Chartier sites, an expanded chronology for this region will be developed. Finally, that sequence will be set in the context of the prehistory of the northern interior.

METHODOLOGY Using comparative formal morphology to infer cultural relationships from artifacts found out of context or from undatable surface sites presents some obvious problems. At issue is the question of whether a few such specimens can be assumed to represent a "population" that can be then be compared with a population from another location. In addition to the normal variation in a contemporary artifact population, we must allow for differences across time, space, and ecological boundaries. Thus, to date a small sample of a population, we must assume that it adequately reflects the fundamental culturally significant character of the population. Correlatively, we must assume that the model population is well enough understood, in all of its variation, to permit an accurate comparison. As well, it is necessary to keep a degree of geographical and cultural continuity between the provenience of the sample and that of the comparative collection. There are two problems inherent in the nature of the Chartier collections. As most specimens were gathered from the active flood plains of rivers or lakes, some show the distinctive polish associated with gentle abrasion. Most of the items are made from indigenous materials on which flaking characteristics are often difficult to distinguish, even when fresh. Consequently, the general forms of all points are well defined but the details of the flaking and evidence of grinding is occasionally vague. These comments bring up the question of the influence of raw material on the technological quality of a finished artifact in any industry. The prevalence of long distance travel and trade for favourable lithic raw materials, or petrotypes, lends support to the premise that some value was placed on the availability of a material with good flaking characteristics, and that selection was a cultural choice. Although fashion may have been a factor, survival depended on having good hunting tools; thus, utility must have been an important factor. This point is illustrated vividly in assemblages from the

97

plains in which the petrotypes are used for "survival" artifacts are generally imported from afar, while the local quartzites and greenstones found in the till and alluvium are used for the larger and cruder artifacts. Although this is by no means universal but it is very obvious in most assemblages. This becomes more important as we move north, away from the regions with access to the preferable materials, such as Knife River chalcedony, Swan River silicified limestone, even the chert pebbles, and into the Shield from which the till in the south derived. For a variety of reasons, most of the quartzites and metamorphosed rocks of the Shield are less easily flaked than many of those commonly found on the Plains or western Mackenzie basin, and are difficult to reduce to finely-flaked and delicately-shaped implements. Consequently, it is possible that at least some of the differences in character between the points from the northern plains and those later forms from the forests are due to the petrotypes available. The main cultural indicators in the northwestern interior of North America are the projectile point styles, and the presence or absence of microblade and ceramic technologies. Although the Chartier surface collections total about 1,000 items and include everything from worked flakes to projectile points, there is no evidence of the microblade technology and all the ceramics specimens belong to one tradition, the Clearwater Lake Punctate. Consequently, the basis for any correlations in the collections must be the projectile point varieties present, while the absence of microblades and the presence of the one ceramic tradition do provide some broad limits. Frison (1978:77-84) has noted that of all recovered artifacts in assemblages on the plains, projectile points provide the best reflection of cultural chronology and identity. Hence, rightly or wrongly, the culture history of the plains is generally portrayed as a sequence of projectile point styles. While a considerable range of variation can be seen between specimens of one variety found in various parts of the northern plains, there is a reasonably well-documented sequence for the region, and a pretty good knowledge of the range of variation in point styles. While the data base is not nearly as large, the situation in the middle and eastern Mackenzie is comparable, with a pretty good understanding of the nature and schedule of culture change in those areas. Unfortunately, the earliest recognized human movement into the north has led to a problem when trying to discern cultural antecedents from undated surface finds. As noted in the discussion on the adjoining regions, the earliest well-defined traditions in the northern interior can be traced back to the south and the plains hunters. While in the western regions they were replaced by people from the west, in the eastern interior their descendents became part of a widespread shift to caribou hunting and permanent adaptation to the subarctic. The process of adaptation involved a continuation in the use of the lanceolate points, that gradually changed in form through time and space. To compound the problem, the evidence from all regions, but particularly the upper Mackenzie, shows that people from the plains made occasional forays into an area that now has a forest environment. Although few in number, artifacts representing all the major plains complexes can be found in most parts of the north. Thus, we have the problem of trying to discern the proper correlation for surface collections, specifically whether a specimen relates to a northerly movement, resulted from development in the north, or was brought in by later seasonal hunting bands. Fortunately, there is considerable evidence of both continuity and regular change that has given us a reasonably good culture sequence for both Keewatin and Mackenzie districts. Sufficient differences evolved to give us some temporal discretion, and the later plains influences show up quite clearly against the indigenous cultures. In each case, these differences are carried by the projectile point styles. In general, there are three groups of point styles that can be expected in this region. Of the three only the second should present substantial difficulties in identification. 98

(i) specimens left during the earliest plains movement north through the upper Churchill and Mackenzie basins along the edge of the Shield, six or seven thousand years ago, (ii) those that reflect the cultural changes that evolved among the descendents of these early occupants, (iii) ones that can be traced directly to the middle Mackenzie River basin and represent more westerly cultures that moved into the basin about 6,000 years ago, and evolved into the ethnographic inhabitants of the northern interior. Those of the earliest occupants, the Paleoindians, while poorly represented in excavated context, are common among surface collections from throughout the northern periphery of the plains. They are found in both excavated and surface finds in the upper, middle and eastern parts of the Mackenzie Basin. They are generally very well flaked lanceolate points, often with distinctive collateral parallel flaking. They are formed into thin blades with straight, smooth lateral edges, that are almost always ground along the proximal parts of the lateral edges. They are thought to have been spear points and the styles varied through a sequence that, when extended to the northern periphery, provides us with a good framework for cross-dating. A gross comparison between these and the subsequent lanceolate varieties from the northern forests shows that, while similar in gross morphology, the latter lie in one extreme of the total range of variation. They are usually less-well finished, with less-regular lateral-edges that are more biconvex in outline, significantly thicker in cross-section, and seldom show any edge-grinding. The occasional specimen has been found in the north that fits into the centre of the variation of southern samples, and likely represents the earlier migrants. The case of the late prehistoric point styles on the plains is a good example of the problem. The acquisition of the bow and arrow by the plains people early in the Christian era coincided with the appearance of the A vonlea Complex and the midpoint of the Besant period. The small arrow points were either triangular or leafshaped, generally with finely chiselled notches placed low on the lateral edges. They are widespread on the northern plains and have been found as far north in the Mackenzie basin as the mouth of the Great Bear River, although not in large numbers. They are normally thought to be attributes of the plains cultures, although they are found with late prehistoric Cree remains in the parkland and the middle and lower Churchill River basin. While the sample from there is small and has yet to be studied in any detail, the specimens reported from the forest vary in similar ways from the much larger and more varied sample from the northern plains. It is not yet clear whether these small arrow points found in the forest resulted from diffusion or migration from the plains. It was most likely some of both.

99

COLLECTIONS SITES

Although the Chartier surface collections include a wide range of artifacts of every kind, the 246 projectile points and sample of sherds were selected for their diagnostic value. With the preceding discussion and caveats in mind, the individual specimens were classified into one of three groups - those more-probably plains related, those more-probably northern-forest related and those that were indeterminate or could as easily be from either of the two directions. The diagnostic points found in the collections were distributed among the sites as shown in the following tabulation of sites that are located as shown in Table 9. For a regional perspective this sample can be consolidated into the grouping shown in Table 10 that follows. Table 9 - Tabulation of Sites Represented in the Chartier Collections Sites Old Beach Ice House La Loche Sileski Lake Chuck Waites McCusker Lake RC Mission North Big Hill South Big Hill Halverson Nordstrom Dillon River New Airport

CK

Locations

Artifacts

Southeast side of entrance to Kisis Channel from Little Buffalo Lake - sand beach South side of outlet from Kisis Channel at Clear (Churchill) Lake on low terrace, active and extinct flood plains Flood plains and adjacent terrace of Lac La Loche both in and to the south of the village Flood plains and adjacent terraces of lake on both sides of the main inlet and the outlet North side of lower end of Kisis Channel on the lowest terrace and eroded from bank on active flood plain North side of lower Kisis Channel east of Chuck site on lowest terrace and eroding from the bank on the active flood plain East side of outlet on the low terrace and adjoining flood plain Northwest side of Kisis Channel west of Chucks site, on lowest terrace and adjoining flood plain East side of middle Kisis Channel on the active flood plain East side of middle Kisis Channel on active flood plain West side of middle Kisis Channel on sloping terrace above flood plain North side of outlet of Kisis Channel on active flood plain South side of outlet of river in the village of Dillon, on terrace above river flood plain On northerly-sloping terrace of Clear Lake 4 km southeast of Buffalo Narrows at airport North side outlet of Kisis Channel on active flood plain JOI

73 46 36 23 18 10 7

5 4 3 3 3 2 2 2

Norton Deep River Clear Lake Village Bull's House

GW FP Brooch Lake

North side of outlet of Kisis Channel on active flood plain West side of Deep River outlet from Clear Lake on terrace and adjacent active flood plain East side of main inlet to Clear Lake on the terrace occupied by Clear Lake village East side of outlet of La Loche River at the north end of Big Buffalo Lake, on sandy terrace on both sides of the river West side of Big Buffalo Lake on the active flood plain West side of Big Buffalo Lake on active flood plain On shore of Brooch Lake, north of Big Buffalo Lake, on active flood plain

I

Table 10 - Tabulation of sites by Area Area

Kisis Channel La Loche Mccusker Lake Buffalo Lakes Churchill Lake Brooch Lake

Specimens

Percent Dist

171 59

69.0% 23.8% 2.8% 2.4% 0.8% 0.4%

7 6 2

I

The frequencies shown in the table are not necessarily significant indicators of the intensity of prehistoric use. Rather, they reflect the concentration of collection activity and the numbers probably measure the convenience of the site location. In a few cases the terraces adjoining the sites areas have been tested and undisturbed components found. For the purpose of this study any diagnostic items from these tests are included with the surface collections. As a sample, this collection exceeds by a factor of ten all the other diagnostic prehistoric artifacts from the remainder of northern Saskatchewan, making it an important data-set in any consideration of northern prehistory. In the following description certain collections, assemblages and complexes can be referenced by sources to save numerous specific citations, even though they may have been referenced in the regional summaries. Where possible, references to sites and assemblages in the parklands were used for plains relationships. Table 11 - Reference Sources for Artifact Styles Area

Western Mackenzie Liard Fisherman Lake Eastern Mackenzie Keewatin barrengounds Lake Athabasca Black Lake Northern Alberta Karpinsky site Birch Hills Calling Lake Lac La Biche Clearwater River Wentzel Lake

Bibliographic Reference

Millar and Fedirchuk 1974, Dice 1974, Millar 1968, 1981 Noble 1971 Gordon 1975, 1977 Wright 1975, Meyer 1983 Minni 1976 Ives 1981 Bryan and Conaty 1975 Donahue 1976, Ives 1977 Gruhn 1981 McCullough 1977, Pollock 1977, 1978, 1979, 1981 Conaty 1977 102

Settlement Sites Reported

•

0

Referenced A Sileski Lake & La Loche B C D E F

Bull's House Dillon River New Airport Deep River McKusker L.

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Figure 36 - Map of Surf ace Collection Sites

In the following descriptions the points are classified first as to their probable relationship, to the plains, to the northern forest, or to either. Within those groupings they are then divided by their general shape - lanceolate, leaf-shaped, notched and stemmed, with the usual overlap between corner notched and expanding stemmed forms. Each of these classes are then divided by certain obvious and significant features, using basal shapes, cross section, or size. Site proveniences are then given for each variety described and then referenced to relationships. Drawings are lettered to follow the classification system in the description; for example, specimen 6a is Group 6 and style a. Letters in parenthesis by the drawings identify the collector and present location of the collection. The numerals following the names of the sites indicate the number of specimens identified in each of the collections. In this discussion the term 'point' will refer to a hafted bifacial tool, whether it be a projectile or an end-blade. 103

ARTIFACT DESCRIPTIONS PLAINS RELATED POINTS (Figures 37 and 38) (Figure 37)

Group 1 - Lanceolate group -

Lanceolate shaped with smoothly-retouched lateral biconvex edges, generally thin in profile with fine bilateral transverse or diagonal flaking, with subdivisions based on base design. a. Deep concave base with sharp, pointed ears - Old Beach 2, Norton 1 - resemble basal-thinned points shown in Frison (1978:Fig. 4.5e). b. Straight to slightly concan base - Old Beach 2, RC Mission 1, Ice House 1, Chuck 1 - resemble late Paleoindian points from the northern plains as shown in Dyck (I 983:Figs. 10.9 & IO. IO). c. Narrow based with rounded corners, all small and probably reworked - Ice House 2, Old Beach 1, Halverson l - probably Agate Basin as shown in Dyck (1983:Fig . 4) and some from Acasta Lake (Noble 191: Fig.2), Fisherman Lake (Millar 1968:Fig. 59.c,d&j), and a number of surface finds in the north. d. Indented base with rounded basal corners - Chuck 2, Old Beach 2, Sileski l - probably McKean (Dyck 1983:Fig. 10.19). Not common in the north but occurs occasionally as isolated finds; for example, Meyer (1983b:Fig. 11.12), specimen from Martin Chartier collection from Mccusker Lake. e. Very convex to rounded base - Ice House 2, RC Mission 2, Waites 1, Chuck 1, Old Beach l - probably a variant of Agate Basin as in Frison (1978:Fig. 5.7e) and Dyck (1983:Fig. 10.4) but at least one or two could be early Taltheilei of eastern Mackenzie or Keewatin. Group 2 - Notched Group -

(Figure 38)

Leaf shaped to triangular bodies with side or corner notches, from very fine to coarse and variable profiles from thin to thick.

with variable

flaking

a. Basal and side notched - La Loche 2, Chuck 1, Old Beach 1, Mccusker Lake l - probably Oxbow as shown in Dyck (I 983:Fig 10.17) and throughout northern Alberta and rare further north or in northern Saskatchewan. b. Small side notched and triangular - Ice House 8, L Loche 5, Old Beach 3, Chuck 2, Mccusker Lake 2, Sileski 2, Clear Lake Village 1 - mostly late plains varieties as shown in Dyck (1983:Fig. 10.35 & 10.36), but some may be late Clearwater Phase from the middle Churchill River basin, as in Hlady ( 1971) of Pehonan Complex (Meyer 1983 ). c. Corner notched triangular - Sileski Lake 4, Ice House 3, Chuck 2, Old Beach 2, La Loche 1, Waites 1 - probably Pelican Lake as shown in Dyck (I 983:Fig. 10.22) and a few isolated finds in the Lake Athabasca area (Meyer l 983b: Fig. 1 LB). Group 3 - Stemmed Point

(Figure 38)

Single specimen of large end-blade knife with leaf shaped body and sharp shoulders with straight stem and straight base, well made with fine thin flaking and very smooth lateral retouch on the lateral edges - Nordstrom site l - resembles the Alberta Scottsbluff group but appears to lie in the larger size range as in Frison (1978: Fig.5.19,26) and Dyck (1983: Fig.10.6)

104

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NORTHERN FOREST RELATED POINTS (Figures 39 to 46)

(Figures 39 & 40)

Group 4 - Lanceolate Group -

Broad thick and crudely-flaked lanceolate points often with irregular edges and an asymmetry in profile or plan, any of these could be related to early plains lanceolate points but, as a group they are technologically cruder and more similar to the northern variants. a. Straight to slightly concave base - Ice House 4, Old Beach 4, La Loche 2, Sileski Lake 1, Chuck l, Nordstrom 1 - common throughout the complexes of the River of the Mountains (ROM) Phase in the Liard basin, in the Taltheilei Tradition of the eastern Mackenzie and Keewatin areas, and found in several sites in Alberta, for example, the Karpinsky site. b. Deep concave base on thickly biconvex section - Ice House 2 - both specimens worked into other artifacts, a scraper and a burin. Resemble specimen from Artillery Lake found by MacNeish (1951: Pl.VII) and included in Noble's Artillery Lake Complex, and found in Mackenzie Complex of early ROM Phase in the middle Liard basin, and attributed to middle Taltheilei in the eastern Keewatin. c. Bipointed symmetrical and asymmetrical, sometimes with a slight shoulder - Dillon River 1, Mccusker Lake 1, Old Beach 1 - resemble those of the Chartier Complex and are found through the complexes of the Taltheilei Tradition in eastern Mackenzie and Keewatin, and in the Lakeshore Complex at Fisherman Lake in the Liard basin. Group 5 - Leaf Group - (Figure 40)

Small group consisting of leaf-shaped and elongate leaf -shaped bodies and fully round bases, moderately-well flaked but with thick profiles and generally irregular edges. These could be considered hafted end blades or knives. a. Leaf shaped with round base - Old Beach 4, Ice House 2, North Big Hill 1, Sileski 1, New Airport l - rare in the literature but found throughout the ROM Phase at Fisherman Lake. b. Elongate leaf with round base - Old Beach 2, Ice House 1, Sileski 1, Deep River 1, La Loche 1, FP 1, Chuck 1 -common in northern Alberta in surface collections and in assemblages from Calling Lake and Leland Lake, in the ROM Phase at Fisherman Lake and contemporary sites in Mackenzie basin, and through the Taltheilei Tradition in the Mackenzie.

(Figure 41)

Group 6 - Side-Waisted Group

Specimens with basic lanceolate shapes but with lateral strangulation and flaring towards the basal corners, bases are straight to slightly concave a. Large Leaf - Sileski Lake 3, Chuck 1 - occurs in Middle Taltheilie in the barren grounds of the Keewatin, but not in the eastern Mackenzie, and found at Blackwater Lake in the middle Mackenzie, in the ROM Phase at Fisherman Lake in the Liard basin, and in the Karpinski and Friesen sites in northern Alberta. b. Small leaf - Ice House 1 - rare in the north but possibly comparable with specimen from northern Alberta shown in Ives (1981:Fig 7).

107

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Figure 40 - Northern Forest Related Lanceolate and Leaf Points 109

(Figures 41 & 42)

Group 7 - Side- Notched Group

Specimens with a variety of body shapes from leaf to triangular and with notches removed from low on the lateral edges, notches vary in width and depth and bases differ in shape. a. Large with wide notches and massive straight base - Ice House 1, Chuck 1 - very similar specimens in the Late Taltheilei in the Keewatin, Fairchild Bay Complex in eastern Mackenzie, in Wentzel Lake site in northern Alberta. b. Leaf shaped with low, wide side notches - La Loche 2, Ice House 1, Sileski 1, - found in the Chartier Complex and at Black Lake in northern Saskatchewan, in the Frank Channel Complex in the eastern Mackenzie and among surface finds from Fisherman Lake . c. Trianguloid with wide side notches and straight bases - La Loche 3, Old Beach 1, Ice House 1, Dillon River 1, Waites 1 - found in Chartier Complex and in late Taltheilei in the Keewatin and Frank Channel in eastern Macken zie, as well as in the middle complex of the ROM Phase at Fisherman Lake, in the Clearwater River area, Calling Lake , Karpinsky and Freisen collections in northern Alberta, and within the range of variation of the Besant form (Dyck 1983: Figs. I 0.27 & 10.30). d. Leaf with low, medium-wide side notches and slightly con vex base- La Loche 2, Old Beach 2, Ice House 1, North Big Hill 1, Waites l, Sileski I common in Frank Channel Complex in eastern Mackenzie, Late Taltheilie in Keewatin, and resembles points in the broadest definition of the Besant complex. e. Large leaf shaped with side/corner notches and round bases - La Loche 3, Old Beach 1, Waites l - Late Taltheilei in the Keewatin, Frank Channel to Snare River complexes in the eastern Mackenzie, and middle of the ROM in the Fisherman Lake sequence of the Liard basin. f. Round based and side notched - McCusker Lake I, North Big Hill 1 found among the surface finds at Fisherman Lake, in Late Taltheilei in both the eastern Mackenzie and Keewatin Districts, and in northern Alberta at Calling and Musreau Lakes. g. Wide, shallow side notches with straight bases - Ice House 2, Mccusker Lake 1, Waites 1, La Loche 1, Sileski l - found in the Chartier Complex, in Late Taltheilei in both the eastern Mackenzie and Keewatin, and middle ROM Phase in the Liard basin.

(Figure 42)

Group 8 - Corner-Removed Group -

Various shaped bodies with basal corners removed leaving slightly concave notches with straight to slightly concave or convex bases and often with sharp corners at the base, generally merge into forms resembling expanding stems, with varying degrees and shapes of shoulders from gradually rounded to sharp. All of the specimens of this group lie in the range of variation of the Besant series as shown by Dyck ( 1983:Figs. 10.27-10.30) but more closely resemble the northern varieties. a. Sharp to angular shoulders - La Loche 4, Old Beach 4, Chuck 1, Sileski Lake I - Found in the Chartier Complex, and common through late Taltheilei Tradition in eastern Mackenzie and Keewatin, and occurs late in Grand River Phase in the middle Liard basin, at Eaglenest Lake in HkPa 4, Leland Lake, Beaver River Quarry site and others in northern Alberta.

110



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b. Smoothly rounded gradual shoulders - La Loche I, Sileski I, South Big Hill 1, Old Beach I - found in the Chartier Complex, the Late Taltheilei in both the Keewatin and eastern Mackenzie, in the Pointed Mountain complex at Fisherman Lake, at Black Lake in northern Saskatchewan, and in the assemblage from Leland Narrows site, in the Birch Hills, the Karpinski and others in northern Alberta. c. Sharp shoulders, pointed corners, commonly with slight basal indentation - La Loche I, Ice House 1, Bulls House 1 - resembles specimens found in collections from Caribou Island in the eastern Mackenzie, in the Friesen collection and Calling Lake in northern Alberta. Some similarities to the Hanna style from the northern plains as in Dyck (1983: Fig. 10.21)

(Figures 43 to 46)

Group 9 - Stemmed Group -

Various shaped bodies with lateral edges modified at the basal ends to produce stems of various shapes, lengths and widths, also varying in the shapes of the bases and shoulders. a. Straight, sub-parallel stems with shallow stemming and gradual, rounded shoulders, straight to slightly concave bases - Old Beach IO, Waites 3, Ice House 2, Sileski 2, RC Mission I, La Loche I - common in late Taltheilei in Keewatin and eastern Mackenzie, in early ROM Phase at Fisherman Lake, and a number of sites in northern Alberta. b. Straight, expanding stem with slightly convex base and sharp basal corners and shoulders - Old Beach I - similar to specimens in the Frank Channel Complex of the late Taltheilei of eastern Mackenzie, Late Taltheilei of Keewatin, with some resemblances to those of the middle Shield Archaic at Migod site or even Acasta Lake in the eastern Mackenzie. c. Small to medium sized with slender bodies with narrow, short and of ten asymmetric stems - Old Beach 7, La Loche 4, Chuck 2, Ice House 2, North Big Hill 1 - found in the Chartier Complex and Frank Channel Complex in the eastern Mackenzie and has a faint resemblance to some in the Late Taltheilei of Keewatin. Also found in a small collection from northern Saskatchewan and attributed to Late Taltheilei by Meyer (I 983:Fig. 11.6), in the Karpinsky site, Birch Hills, Calling Lake and other sites in northern Alberta. d. Short, stubby base - Old Beach I e. Small to medium in size with short straight-sided stems, g ently-rounded shoulders and round bases - Old Beach 2, Chuck I, CK 1 - found in Late Taltheilei in Keewatin and northern Alberta as shown in Ives (1981: Fig.7). f. Large with straight to slightly converging stems, no shoulders and rounded bases - Old Beach 3, New Airport 1, GW 1 - early Taltheilei in both eastern Mackenzie and Keewatin. g. Medium to large with straight to slightly converging stems with distinct angular shoulders - Dillon river 1, Halverson I, Old Beach I, South Big Hill I found at the Larson site on Clear Lake in Meyer (1983:Fig. 11.7c), in early Taltheilei assemblages in eastern Mackenzie and Keewatin. h. Elongate tapering stems, generally asymmetric - Old Beach 6, Ice House 5, Brooch Lake 1, La Loche 1, Mccusker Lake 1, Chuck 1 - symmetrical form resembles some from early Taltheilei in Keewatin and the asymmetrical form may be a local variant as it is rare in the published reports.

113

0 .

.

-

.

0

:

.

4?..60'0"~ ~)

-

. ... . .

t·" .. i

9a

O'd~

~-~

~

9o

Od~ !Mc)

rrcJ

_CM_ -

Figure 43 - North ern Forest Related Stemmed Points 114

9c H~-"( I!!,~ #,~/r~)

9~ ~ CK

0

ere)

-CM-

Figure 44 - Northern Forest Related Stemmed Points

115

-CM-

-

Figure 45 - Northern Forest Related Stemmed Points

116

~

~

c::::::::: lee .l./t0~

~}

9;(

c:::==> O'cr'~QG( (;+1CJ

-CM- Figure 46 - Northern Forest Related Stemmed Points 117

FOREST AND/OR PLAINS RELATED POINTS (Figure 47)

(Figure 47)

Group 10 - Lanceolate and Leaf Group -

A widely different treatment.

group with generally leaf to trianguloid bodies and different

basal

a. Wide, concave bases with rounded basal corners - Ice House 2, La Loche 1, South Big Hill 1 - resembles unnotched Oxbow forms common in Oxbow assemblages on the plains, but also some Middle Taltheilei in the Keewatin, and specimen from HaQi 2 in northern Alberta. b. Small pentagonal with slightly concave base - La Loche 1 c. Small bipoint - Old Beach I. d. Long slender, thick bi point - Old Beach 1 e. Small leaf with convex base - Old Beach 2, Ice House 2, RC Mission 1, probably related to the late plains triangular form , found also in the late ROM Phase at Fisherman Lake in the Liard basin . f. Small triangular with straight to slightly concave base - Old Beach 2 probably related to late plains triangular form but also found in the late ROM Phase at Fisherman Lake in the Liard basin , and , in sporadically elsewhere in the northern forest during the late prehistoric. g. Leaf with narrow concu·e base - Old Beach I. h. Large triangular with straight to slightly convex base and sharp to rounded basal corners - Ice House 2, Sileski 2, Old Beach 1, La Loche 1 found among surface finds at Fisherman Lake and among specimens from the Warren site HcQj 2 in the National Museum of Canada accessions. Group 11 - Notched and Stemmed Group -

(Figure 47)

A few leaf shaped specimens with various hafting modifications. a. Small with corner notches and round base - La Loche I b. Slightly asymmetric expanding stem with rounded basal corners and shoulders and slightly concave base - Waites 1, La Loche 1, Halverson 1 - similar forms are considered related to late McKean-Hanna series, as shown in Dyck (I 983: Figs. 10.20 & 21 ), but are included with Late Taltheilei in Keewatin, with Caribou Island in eastern Mackenzie, and resembles the possible point base from the Bogedge site on Lac La Plonge. c. Small with short wide stem and concave base - Old Beach I

CERAMICS

The ceramics collected by the Chartiers came mainly from two sites, the Ice House and Mccusker Lake. While most of the collections from the upper Churchill are thought to be Selkirk ware and to belong to two complexes within that composite, Clearwater Lake Punctate and Pehonan, they have yet to be studied in detail. One set of sherds from the Mccusker site has recently been reported as Pehonan (Smith 1984), a complex hitherto recognized only for the southern part of the Boreal Forest of north-central Saskatchewan (Meyer 1987 Personal Communication) .

I 18

@ .

.

/

.

.

.

-

lt:Jt:2

Ice ~c~r"MC)

L'.

I'd

S,'ks-~ , · /4,,:-)

0

./fc

.::::::=::::> O'd~/'Mcj

Figure 47 - Forest and/or Plains Related Points 119

I CM

I

ANALYSIS PETROTYPES A number of different petrotypes are represented in the collections, but only a few are informative. The following tabulation shows the distribution of the total sample by percentage: Table 12 - Petrotype Representation in the Chartier Surf ace Collections Petro type Miscellaneous chert Vein quartz Quartzite Fused sandstone Beaver River quartzite Black chert Fossiliferous gray chert Miscellaneous Dark gray felsite Swan River 'chert' Knife River chalcedony Rhyolite Fossilized wood Shale

Percent

Probable Source

25.2 21.2 13.6 12.4

ubiquitous in small amounts common in Shield & drift common in Shield & drift from Athabasca formation Athabasca River valley locally common in drift unknown various, probably mainly local Shield & drift east central Saskatchewan Dakota Shield & drift south Saskatchewan drift drift

7.6 5.6 5.2

3.6 1.2 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2

Of these, only the Knife River chalcedony and Beaver River quartzite are reasonably specific as to source or quarry locations, although the distributions of the Beaver River sandstone, the fused Athabasca sandstone and the Swan River chert (silicified limestone) in the glacial drift are reasonably well defined. There are several important features in the statistics. Less than two percent of the specimens were made on materials foreign to the region, if we consider the Beaver River and fused sandstones to be local. It suggests that the various groups of people who occupied the region stayed long enough to become familiar with local materials and to use them to make tools as important for survival as projectile points. The Knife River chalcedony and the silicified limestone were both used for plains-related point styles and were found only in the sites in the Buffalo Narrows area. The use of Beaver River sandstone in this sample was restricted to the specimens from the La Loche area, and all but one was used in points thought to be northerly-related. Although there have been a few artifacts made on this material found in the Buffalo Narrows area, they are rare. The significance of the petrotypes used can be discussed with respect to the discussion under the Methodology section of this part. The heavy use of local materials indicates either that the local material is very high quality, it is very easy to obtain, or that the accessible supplies of better material are unavailable. Over the past few years we have identified several petrotypes from the northern interior that can be traced over fair distances. Examples are the obsidians from the upper Skeena River in the Coast Range of British Columbia, the fused tuff from the middle Mackenzie, the Beaver River quartzite from the Athabasca. The former is found in archaeological context as far east as Fisherman Lake in the middle Liard River basin (Millar 1968) and in the 121

Charlie Lake cave site (Fladmark et al 1984:108). The fused tuff is found as far south as the middle Liard River, where it is one of the more common varieties at certain times. The quartzite is distributed as far east as La Loche, south into the upper Athabasca and throughout the middle and lower Peace River. In the upper Mackenzie basin the most common raw material through much of the middle and upper Peace was a black argillaceous shale, highly silicified. It must have come from the mountains west of the Liard River, but is found as far south as the upper Peace River (e.g. Ives 1981:44; Bryan and Conaty 1975:70; Fladmark et al 1984:105-108) . The only material that might be considered both local and unique is the "pepper" fused sandstone from the Athabasca sandstone deposits. It was present in the Chartier sites at about the same percentage as shown in Table 12, and is found in the La Loche area, although there are no data on the frequency. While the quality is highly variable , this material is found throughout the area south of Lake Athabasca , although outcrops are rare in some parts . Recognition of the distribution depends on having a good sample of the raw material and making researchers aware of its possible significance . So far the fused sandstone has been recognized only in the Athabasca River valley and upper Churchill basin . There are several varieties , but the most com mon in the Chartier sites and collections is a fine grained sandstone containing trans lucent sand grains with about 5 to IO percent of a black silicate , possibly augite. The sand grains remain clearly discernable and are contained in a silica matrix , but the whole rock was metamorphosed to the extent that the sand grains are sheared when a specimen is broken. The popular vein quartz and quartzite varies in quality from adequate to very poor, but is found in the till on the active flood plain or from bedrock in any of the large sedimentary belts in the Shield. Subjectively, the use of metamorphosed coarse sediments in this collection, at 34 percent, is substantially higher than in comparable collections from the plains. FREQUENCIES

The preceding data can be summarized in the following tabulation of the rela tive frequencies of varieties in the collections. Table 13 - Relative Frequencies of Point Varieties in the Chartier Collections Relationships

Style

Numbers

Plains

66 Lanceolate Notched Stemmed

24 41 I

Lanceolate Leaf Side-waisted Side- notched Corner-removed Stemmed

18 17 5 34 17 65

Lanceolate /Leaf Notched / Stemmed

20 4

Forest

156

Plains/Forest?

24

122

Taken by themselves, with no considerations of sample adequacy, these data suggest that either the length or the intensity of occupation by northern forest-related peoples was greater than that by the plains groups by a factor of at least two. This is not surprising in the light of the environment of the region, now well within the Boreal Forest, albeit with grassland enclaves and reports of a remnant woods bison population.

123

INTERPRETATION This section will develop an expanded culture chronology for the upper Churchill River basin, using the short sequence from the Chartier excavations as an anchor and incorporating the data contained in the Chartier collections. Relationships are inferred from the comparative analysis, but the nature and the longevity of the relationships cannot be discerned. In most discussions of relationships between the plains and the north there is an assumption of a long lag time between the two to allow for time for the movement or diffusion. This might be a valid supposition, but it should be applied with some caution and with the understanding that there are a number of variables that influence the speed of either movement or diffusion. In this connection, it is worthy of note that the dates on the fluted points in the upper Peace of 10,300 and 10,460 years ago are within a thousand years of the dates for Clovis on the southwestern plains. At the other end of the scale, the dates for the occurrence of the small side notched and triangular arrow points at the confluence of the Peace and Slave are about 1,000 years, or within a few hundred years of their appearance in southern Alberta. A continuous or even, semi-continuous grassland ecozone extending into the upper Mackenzie or beyond, would accelerate diffusion or band movement into these latitudes. The earliest recognizable occupation of the upper Churchill River region was from the plains and is represented by the variety of lanceolate points (Figure 48). Variety I .a resembles, at least in outline and flaking, the Folsom-Midland style of point, thought to be the late phase of the fluted point tradition of the Paleoindian stage. It seems that both of the early Plano traditions were present, quite possibly in the same order as in the adjoining northern plains; that is, Agate Basin followed by the Alberta-Cody complex. The frequency of the respective points of the two different traditions are quite different, with a preponderance of the general Agate Basin styles. This may indicate a more successful or longer occupation by the earlier tradition. There are several points that fit into the range of the Late Lanceolate Tradition of the stage. Thus, the collections include points that could represent the full sequence of Paleoindian traditions with the exception of the earliest, the Clovis. Comparable sequences of plains related points have been recovered in surface finds and a few excavations all along the southern edge of the Shield from northern Ontario (MacNeish 1952; Lee 1957), northwest through Manitoba (Pettipas 1970; Pettipas & Buchner 1983), Saskatchewan, and into the lower Mackenzie (MacNeish I 953; Noble I 97 I). They also penetrate well into the Shield, but in considerably smaller numbers, in northern Manitoba (Nash 1975:163-5), northern Saskatchewan (Minni 1975:82, Pl.I.I; Meyer 1983:147), and along some of the rivers draining north into the Arctic (Harp 1962; Wright 1981:87-8). The specimens range from some that are very close in design and manufacturing technology to the classic plains varieties to others that are less similar, varying in one or more characteristics. To at least some extent, this range of variation must reflect distance in time and distance from the plains. It should also be clear that most of these specimens are surface finds, with little or no contextual data, and, from the drawings or photographs, many could be remnants of much later forest hunters. The time of this earliest recognized occupation of the upper Churchill River basin was probably similar to that of the adjoining upper Mackenzie region, but no undisturbed sites have yet been found and dated in either region. Dated sites further north in the middle Mackenzie at Fisherman Lake and Acasta Lake indicate that the Northern Plano was established in those areas by nearly 9,000 and 7,000 years ago, respectively. Presumably, the antecedents passed through the intermediate regions sometime before that. 125

The fates of the various groups that made the northern migrations varied with the circumstances that they found. Archaeological interpretations or speculations vary from a gradual in situ change into an Archaic pattern by about 6,000 years ago (Wright 1972, 1981:88), to a withdrawal to the south due to climatic changes by 8,000 years ago or so (Vickers 1986:51-2). The truth is probably some combination of the two extremes . For the most part the specimens found in the upper Churchill appear to fit more closely the early northerly movement than they do the later lanceolates of the derivative traditions in and from the north . For the following period, from the disappearance of the late Paleoindians up to about 2,500 years ago, the upper Chu rchill was occupied by a succession of cultures from the plains, represented by points of the Oxbow , McKean , and Pelican Lake Complexes . During this 3 to 4,000 year period the upper Churchill River basin was clearly the east end of a zone, stretching west as far as the upper Peace River basin , that was occupied by this series of plains oriented hunters. To a large extent this distribution of plains cultures closely follows that of the earlier Paleoindian incursion, but with a slightly better representation in the archaeological record. No excavated components of these complexes have been excavated north of the Peace drainage, although they are reasonably well represented by surface finds. The point styles of the series are fairly distinct so that even surface finds can be assigned with some confidence. The only exceptions, the early Mummy Cave and Besant Point styles, are serious problems as they both have very wide ranges of variation on the plains . Further, in that range are forms that resemble numerous contemporary or lapping styles in adjacent areas, including the north. Many of the questionable items in the Chartier Collections fall into the latter category.

UPPER

CHURCHILL

- AD 2 000

HISTORI C ,u;::u

,_ AD

100 0

e~

u te~

ID ._.qi.

~:l~

~~

.... 0

;::,

/J

CHARTIER

-

TALTHEILEI

/J

-

E ar ly

PEUCAN -

1000

LAKE

BC (J

"i: -2000

BC

.3 Ill

No evidence of Ea r ly or Middl e

Northern

Archaic

:a

HANNA DUNCAN

-

McKEAN

II)

r.,

..., 3000

BC

..., 4000

BC

..., 5000

BC

~

OXBOW

q)

:;;

-

6000

7000

CHARTIER

BC

BC

CAVE

::i

CJ

-

MUMMY

"O

a:: .3 Ill ~II)

r., Q,

-

8000

BC

..., 9000

BC

~CII r.i

COLLECTIONS

i nclude

13 apecimena with the balric character of the A,cate Basill type and J specimen that i a close to that of th e Alberta type.

?

-

-

CHARTIER COLLECTION S in c lude 3 s p e cunen. s th a t fall in to t.h e / Midland llroup, on e o f could be a Folsom .

Fobo:rn wh1ch

Figure 48 - Cultural Chronology Upper Churchill Rh·er Basin

Fortunately, there are a number of excavated assemblages or systematic collections that adequately demonstrate that these plains complexes extended into the upper Peace River (Buchner 1977; Ball 1978, 1979), west end of Lake Athabasca (Wright I 975), Slave River (Pollock I 977), and Clearwater River (Pollock I 978). Other specimens of these Plains Archaic points occur in the northern forest as anomalies in other wise perfectl y acceptable northern assemblages; an example of this is the appearance of two Oxbow end - blades with a late Early Archaic assemblage in the Fisherman Lake chronology (MacNeish 1954; Millar 1968). Most occur as simple surface finds and indicate only the territorial dispersion of the style and nothing about the context of the occurrence , whether it was a part of a whole assemblage from plains , or simply an er ratic . Like the Paleoindian point styles, these middle period forms are also found in small numbers , scattered in the Shield (Nash 1975, northern Saskatchewan (Meyer 126

1983), eastern Mackenzie (Noble 1971), and Keewatin (Harp 1962, Gordon 1975; 1976). They are even rarer in the middle and lower parts of the Mackenzie basin, possibly due to the paucity of survey in that difficult environment, but more likely because this part of the basin was occupied during that period by people from the west. The nature of the complexes represented by these occurrences is obscure. It is unclear whether they were seasonal incursions into the forest by particularly adventuresome plains hunters, or mainly diffusion of a technology by a few bands operating from the periphery of the Shield or from the upper Mackenzie basin. In a few of these assemblages, appearing essentially "plains" in character, we can see elements that are considered forest traits, such as bipolar technology and chi thos. This either represents cultural borrowing or exchange with the forest cultures. Reports describing assemblages from the plains do not seem to recognize these crude and simple artifacts. The distribution of both the Paleoindian and middle Archaic artifacts within the present outlines of the Boreal Forest raises an interesting point with respect to the paleo-environments and possible presence of grasslands in the upper Mackenzie basin during the middle Holocene. The very early spread of the Clovis bison hunters into the upper Peace by 10,000 years ago (Fladmark 1984 et al) indicates that there was no special hindrance to human population movement at that time, and just possibly, circumstances were very favourable. Similarly, the later Paleoindian and Archaic hunters of the plains must have had some inducement to penetrate the north, and they presumably met with no particular resistance or met with no serious impediment. One could see these data as support for Raup's (I 930, 1935, 1946) hypothesis, based on phytogeography, that the grasslands extended north as far as Great Bear Lake. He postulated that they evolved as a combination of grasses from both the northern plains and the tundra, and thrived on the rich silts of the extensive glacio-lacustrine silt deposits that were left along the edge of the Shield during the wasting of the Wisconsinan continental glaciers. Among the specimens from the Chartier collections attributed to this period are those of style 4b (Figure 39). They are reminiscent of Noble's Artillery Lake complex; undated, they were assigned by him to the early part of the Archaic Period. While they have some of the attributes of the plains lanceolates, they were made into other artifacts, a burin and scraper, a practice common among the contemporary micro blade cultures from the western Mackenzie basin and Yukon. This practice is also found on some points from the barrengrounds and assigned by Harp (1961:53) to his Complex B which Noble (1971:105) considered another expression of the Northern Plano. In this study they are included with the Northern Forest related group, but cannot be assigned to a time period or northern complex. The earliest sustained occupation of the upper Churchill region appears to have been the ancestors of the Dene, evidenced by the proliferation of points representing the Taltheilei tradition and earlier related complexes from the west. There is similar question as to the origin of these complexes in the upper Churchill as there is to those in the Athabasca Lake basin; whether they came directly east from the upper or middle Mackenzie, or from the north along the Shield from Great Slave Lake. The range of point styles represented in the Chartier collections spans the entire range from early to late as defined by Noble for the eastern Mackenzie, but the total range of variation showing in either the eastern Mackenzie or the Keewatin is not found in the Chartier collections. There are three potentially important observations that can be made on the collections, the representation, the dating, and the evidence for differentiation of the Taltheilei Tradition. Of the 246 diagnostic specimens in the Chartier collections, fully 148 can be assigned to the Taltheilei or related Traditions. Within that assignation, 66 correlate with the early complexes from Hennessey to Windy Point, only 16 with the middle 127

complexes, and 61 fall into the styles attributed to the later complexes of Frank Channel to Fairchild Bay. The only complex not represented is the last, the Snare River Complex. From this it would seem that the ancestral Dene occupied the upper Churchill River basin from about 2,600 years ago until late in prehistoric times. Noble (197 I; I 977) placed the appearance of the Taltheilei Tradition in the eastern Mackenzie at about 2,600 years ago with the Hennessey Complex. Dates for the Keewatin version of the tradition in the Migod, Junction, and Rennie sites are in the same order (Gordon 1977:74). Implied in this is a fairly rapid spread across this difficult, but reasonably homogeneous, environment. There is a similar correlation between the two regions during the later phases, but there are some distinct differences in details. As noted in Part I of this monograph, the Chartier complex, dated at about 1300 years ago, makes its best fit with the Frank Channel and Lockhart River complexes, which are dated to A. D. 1100 to 1500 (Noble 1977: Table 2). Thus there appears to be a 400 to 800 year lag between the upper Churchill and the eastern Mackenzie. With respect to the dating question, the only dated site in the upper Mackenzie basin is the Karpinsky site on the middle Peace River area . Dated at A. D. 880 the assemblage includes several varieties of points, including one small stemmed point that resembles closely the styles exampled by specimen GlOc 20.17.4 (Fig . 13) from the Martin Chartier site and with the style 9c in the collections. The remainder are broad lanceolate points with slight strangulations and slightly flared basal lateral edges (Bryan and Conaty 1975). These have been compared to Taltheilei (Bryan and Conaty 1975:8I) and to those from comparable assemblages from central British Columbia (Donahue 1976). Several of the styles show strong similarities to roughly contemporary points in the Mackenzie Complex of the River of the Mountains Complex from the lower Liard River area. It is noteworthy that the match is not complete by any means, even if we look only at the small sample of the Chartier Complex. Most of the varieties of notched and stemmed points in the Chartier Complex match reasonably well with those of the Frank Channel Complex, but not those of the contemporary Late Taltheilei from Keewatin. However, there are no bipointed bifaces or points such as those that are prominent in the Chartier Complex in the Keewatin Taltheilei. These very tentative data give the impression of a widespread tradition with regional differentiation in its details, and a distinct temporal cline easterly from the Mackenzie Basin. The presence of the occasional very widely distributed but distinctive style suggests that a certain amount of contact must have been maintained between each region for much of the span of the tradition. An example is the style 6a, that can be found in the Karpinsky Complex in the middle Peace, in the 7a assemblage of the ROM Phase in Fisherman Lake, at about the same time period in the middle Mackenzie (Millar 1975), in the Late Taltheilei Complex in Keewatin (Gordon 1977: Pl. 8). The late prehistoric period on the northern plains is marked by the appearance of the small delicately side-notched and triangular projectile points, usually thought of as arrow tips . They are found in large numbers throughout the northern grasslands from about 1300 years ago into the protohistoric period. They are also found in the adjoining parkland with complexes that seem to be essentially plains oriented, and further north in the Shield and Mackenzie basin, where they seem to be attached to indigenous cultures. While those that appear at this time in the Mackenzie and Churchill basins almost surely came directly from the plains, they were part of a very widespread phenomena that occurred over most of the continent at about this time . They are found in the upper Churchill River basin in the Narrows Complex with the sherds of plains pottery and other plains attributes but with some forest-adapted traits. They are also found in numerous sites in the upper Mackenzie Basin, along the upper Peace River (Spurling 1980), the middle Peace River (Gruhn 1981), and at the Peace Point site, where they are dated about 1,000 years old (Stevenson 1986:79). They are found in assemblages from sites along the middle Churchill that are attributed to the late spread of the Cree west into central Saskatchewan (Meyer 1983:163-65) . The sites 128

of this category appear to represent several different kinds of occurrences, some that were occupied by plains-related people during an incursion into the forest, and others that were forest adapted people with the bow and arrow and the associated small side notched and triangular points. The associated sample of plains pottery places the Narrows Complex in the first category. The last complex in the upper Churchill River basin is the Kisis Complex that represents the appearance of the Cree into the region, and the transition from the prehistoric into the protohistoric in the upper Churchill River basin. The radiocarbon dates for the westerly spread of the Clearwater Lake Complex shows a steady cline from east to west, from about 500 years ago along the Manitoba border, about 200 years ago along the Churchill in central Saskatchewan (Meyer 1983:165), and here in the upper Churchill the otherwise prehistoric assemblage associated with a few historic artifacts in one of the assemblages of the Chartier sites. Previously, Clearwater Lake punctate pottery has been found at Black Lake (Minni 1975), far to the northeast and Lac La Biche (McCullough 1977), far to the southwest. In the upper Churchill basin, Buffalo Narrows is the northwestern limit of dispersion, but is found in numerous sites around Kisis Channel, and is well represented in the Chartier collection. This evidence supports the perception of a late Cree occupation of the Churchill west of the Manitoba border, giving perhaps a time depth of a few hundred years. Further, the distribution of the pottery supports the premise that they did not penetrate beyond Buffalo Narrows to any extent or in any sustained way; in fact there is no evidence that they made permanent settlements even as far as La Loche, much less into the Mackenzie drainage. There are historical references to their traveling in the Mackenzie as far north as Peace Point (Mackenzie 1927), but so far no prehistoric correlates have been found this far north. The contrast between the lengths of the archaeological records in the middle and upper Churchill River basins could be significant in speculating on the time and nature of both the early northern movement and later influence into the north from the plains. From the site density and range of point styles found in the excavations and collections from the upper Churchill basin, the area experienced a sustained occupation for at least 7 or 8,000 years and possibly more. This is in stark contrast to the record of the middle Churchill basin where only a few scattered sites have been found prior to a few hundred years before the time of contact. While the amount of work is not great in either area, more has been done in the middle than the upper by a considerable margin. Of course, we must assume that there are no geomorphological constraints that limit the finding of sites and that the various surveys have been competently conducted. As noted previously, archaeological survey away from the main watercourses is very difficult anywhere on the Shield. If there were raised beaches or alluvial terraces back from the Churchill River, it may be that these would be productive survey targets for the middle prehistoric and earlier. Our data to this point certainly suggests that the main route of movement between the plains and the north was through the upper Mackenzie Basin, and that the dispersed plains points found in the Shield resulted from occasional excursions into the Shield from the plains or were erratics, plains artifacts traded to forest-adapted groups that occasionally travelled in the Shield. Meyer noted that Agate Basin was rare or absent between Prince Albert National Park (in the southern edge of the middle Churchill basin) and Lake Athabasca, and that "...continuity in Agate Basin occupation from south to north is more likely to be present in Alberta where both the Athabasca and Peace rivers provide north-south travel corridors." (Meyer 1983:147). The data from the upper Churchill River basin strongly supports this proposition. Penetration of the Canadian Shield topography was yet another matter. Eastwest travel through the Shield crosses the very strongly developed glacial lineation that alternates rocky ridges with deep, muskeg swamps or lakes. From considerable 129

personal effort any part of the this region is difficult to traverse except along the major waterways. The basins of Lake Athabasca and Great Slave Lake provide the only good natural routes into the Shield. The Churchill River, skirting the Shield as it does, provides another route but not of the ease and directness of the others. As noted previously, a successful attempt to travel through the country, much less to settle in it, would require certain prerequisites; essential would be equipment for moving about on water in summer and snow in winter, some fishing techniques, a trapping capability, and experience in tracking and stalking single large mammals in the bush. With respect to the question of the late prehistoric demographic changes in this region, the data support the proposition that the Cree were late arrivals in the upper Churchill, as suggested by Mackenzie. However, the very sparse evidence from the Chartier sites and collections indicate that they may have replaced people from the south, at the moment unidentified. The Chartier collections add nothing directly to the question of the use of bison ar caribou in this region. The abundance of projectile points attests to the importance of hunting, and the point forms are those normally associated with big game. However, in the absence of contextual information there are no supporting data on the other aspects of culture. There are also no direct data on the suspected role of fish in survival in the region. Again, the presence of the number and variety of points would tend to be negative evidence. While the data from the collections show strong ties with the plains through most of prehistory, no explanations emerge except the probability that the environment and resources could not have been sharply different. This question of the extent of post-glacial grasslands is crucial to the better understanding of Holocene [prehistory in this transition zone. It is always tempting to attempt to correlate a cultural sequence with an environmental sequence for the same region. Unfortunately, as discussed previously, the data from this ecozone show a simple unidirectional change from glacial conditions to the present boreal pattern, even for the profiles in the upper Mackenzie River basin. The fact that the archaeological data are not consistent with that sequence should make us re-examine the evidence, or the interpretation of the evidence. gradual change from post glacial tundra

130

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Pp 317-25 in Southwestern Jour-

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140

APPENDIX

1

Tabulation of Artifacts by Industry

2

Discussion of Lithic Analysis

3

Description of Lithic Industry

4

Description of Ceramic Industry

5

Description of Bone Industry

6

Description of Miscellaneous Industries

7

Descriptions of Features

8

Description of Faunal Assemblage

141

APPENDIX I TABULATION OF ARTIFACTS BY INDUSTRY

LITHIC ·I

FINE TOOLS

I

PART A

INDUSTRY I

GlOc 20 II III

II

GlOc 21 II/III

III

IV

!PROJECTILE POINTS ) SIDE NOTCHED Small Medium CORNER NOTCHED STEMMED Small Straight Med Contr'g Small Expanding LANCEOLATE Round Based Bipointed - Large FRAGMENT

1

3

2 1

3 1 2

1

3 5

1

3

1 1

IBIFACESI STRAIGHT - Small SQUARE BASED TRIANGULAR POINTED -Small CONTRACTING D-SHAPED DISCOIDAL CRUDE -Large FRAGMENT & SPALLS

6 2 2 1

1 1

2 1 4

1 1

2

2

4

1

1

1

4

1

1

7

3

2

1 1

1

2

2

7 5

IEND SCRAPERS I RECTANGULAR RECTANGULAR CONTRACTING CONTRACTING FLAKE Very Small Very Small Medium FRAGMENTS

-Ridged - Flat -Ridged - flat Thin Thick

1 2 1 1 1

2 3

1 1

!LATERAL UNIFACESI STRAIGHT STRAIGHT STRAIGHT CONVEX CONCAVE TRIANGULAR FRAGMENTS

Bilateral Unilateral Serrated -Bilateral

1

1 1

4 4

1

2

1

1 1 1

2

1

2 2 2 2

1 2

IMARGINAL RETOUCHI DRILL PIERCING TOOL GRAVER - Single Tip GRAVER - Corner GRAVER - Beaked

2 1

1 1 2

143

LITHIC

INDUSTRY

FINE TOOLS

I

lcoRES

GlOc 20

II

III

B

PART I

II

GlOc 21 II/III

III

IV

2

2 1 1 5

& FLAKEsl

CORES Bifacial Acute Linear Flake Spall Miscellaneous

1 3

Fragments SPALLS - Normal FLAKES - Worked FLAKES - Linear FLAKES

1 8 2

555

8

1

6 3 20 3 1177

1

4

1

3

2

1 4 4

1

12

3 13

21

12

27

431

734

1151

287

7

2

7

COARSE TOOLS HAMMERSTONE COBBLES Boulder Chips

2 24

Broken Fire Cracked CHI THOS -Smoothers Discoidal - Medium Discoidal - Small D-shaped Elongate Elong. Plano-convex Spatulate Rectangular Coarse CHOPPERS Slab Cobble NET SINKERS FLAT ROCK SLABS Fragments FLAKING TOOLS CORES & SPALLS Bifacial Acute Normal Spalls Fragments

2 4

1

4 2

1

1

9

21

21 1

23 6 5

1

2 1

2

1 2 3

1 3 2

1

2

10 7

3 3 1 6

1 12

2

1

1 3 6

1

3

2

4 4

4

5

I BIPOLAR TOOLS CORES Bipolar Bipolar SPALLS Pebble Flake

Linear PEBBLES

Pebble Flake

1

5

1

2

4

2 3

a 4 2

2

12 5

11

1

2

2

3

3

16

42

11

5 3

3 4

NOTE - THIS CHART INCLUDES A NUMBER OF ITEMS IN THE COARSE TOOL TECHNOLOGY THAT ARE NOT INCLUDED IN THE DETAILED ARTIFACT DESCRIPTIONS THAT FOLLOW. EXAMPLES WOULD BE COBBLES, SOME CORES, COARSE SPALLS, AND BIFACE.

144

CERAMIC, BONE INDUSTRIES ICERAMIC VARIETY VARIETY VARIETY VARIETY VARIETY VARIETY VARIETY VARIETY

I BONE

INDUSTRY I

I

GlOc 20 II

III

MISC.

&

GlOc 21 II II/III

I

III

IV

159

A-1 A-2

8

A-3

2

10

3

B C

D E F

2

37

2 2 3 1

2

INDUSTRY 1

SIDE BEAMER POINTED TOOL SPATULATE TOOL SQUARED SLIVER WEDGE GROOVED LONG BONE RABBIT INCISOR

~ MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES HEMATITE Carved Uncarved CONCRETIONS BARK FLOORS SHELL WOOD TOOL FRAGS PIPE BOWL METAL ITEMS 22 Cartridge Tin Can Frag Iron Pieces

1

3 2

1

1

1

1 1 9

1

2

2 4

1

I 1

3

4

X 2

1 4 1

3 4 1 2 X Indicates

numerous

145

pieces,

not

counted

.

APPENDIX 2 DISCUSSION OF THE LITHIC ANALYSIS ANALYTICAL OBJECTIVES

There were several objectives for the analysis of the Lithic Industry represented in the assemblages. Although supplemented by the other artifacts and features, the Lithic Industry was used as an base for defining the character of the separate components in the sites, and for allocating the parts of the mixed assemblage from GlOc 21.11/111. The artifact varieties and petrotypes present were useful in broadening the interpretation of the components and in comparisons between them. The universal use and resistance to weathering processes provide an opportunity for correlations outside the upper Churchill River basin. The analysis and subsequent description were designed to make these data useful for future extrapolation when further work is done in the northern parts of the province. STATISTICS

The lithic collection from excavation totals 4850 items, broadly distributed tween the following components:

be-

Table 15 - Distribution of Lithic Artifacts by Component

Component GlOc 20.1 GIOc 20.11 GlOc 20.111 GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc

21.1 21.11 21.11/111 21.111 21.IV

Total

Worked

Debitage

2 22 90

4 563 1177

31

3

550

77 77

28 473 816 1201 300

6

585 1284

893 1355 341

154 41

METHODOLOGY

The classification system used in this analysis is based on the following criteria technology, gross morphology and finishing technique. Three technological traditions appear to be present, identified as follows 1. Fine Tool Technology based on the use of cryptocrystalline petrotypes, with controlled flake removal and final shaping by fine retouch, quite of ten by pressure flaking. 2. Coarse Tool Technology based on the use of crystalline petrotypes, with both primary and secondary flaking by coarse percussion.

147

3. Bipolar Technology using a mixture of petrotypes, varieties such as quartzite or vein quartz, but also on pebbles.

primarily

crystalline

Within each of the technological divisions the collections were further sorted into 'classes' based on general morphology and the specific area of final modification. There is an implication of 'function' in the names given to some of the classes , but most should be interpreted with caution as the identification in those cases are not supported by any local direct ethnological data. Where they were obtained the supporting references are provided in the artifact descriptions. Below the class level the artifacts were sub - divided into 'varieties' that might be considered the equivalent of incipient 'types' ; that is, with somewha t less than the usu al inference s normall y associated with the latter term. Further research in the area might eventually warrant formulation of certain varieties into true artifact types. DESCRIPTIONS OF TECHNOLOGIES

Two broad kinds of rock types are recognized in the collections from these sites, and fo r that matter , in most such sites in northwestern Canada. The two kinds, crystalline and cryptocrystalline, reflect their geological origins in their basic character which in turn defines the possible use for human technology at the level of hunting and collecting. The differences between the groups are complex combinations of their formation, the sizes of the particles or crystals present, and the degree of subsequent metamorphic alteration . The two terms used are not good descriptions of the rock kinds but are common in the archaeological literature (Table 10). The crystalline group includes various colours and textures of quartzites, hornblendite, granites and granodiorites, all kinds that are found in the local till and are exposed as the boulder pavement on most active flood plains including that in front of the Chartier sites. They were transported from the Canadian Shield exposures to the northeast by glacial action. As implied there is a strong correspondence between the crystalline petrotypes and the sample of coarse tools found in the collections. The Coarse Tool Technology is based on the removal of large flakes or spalls from cobbles or boulders of crystalline rocks by hard hammer percussion or, more probably, block-on-block percussion. The large spalls produced were roughly formed into crude tools by one or a combination of several methods; they were either roughly flaked by hard hammer percussion around part of their peripheries to form a shape or edge that suited some purpose, or were battered by heavy percussion against an anvil stone to form a very rough , crushed edge. Several varieties of artifact were formed in this way and then roughly finished by rasping or grinding against another rough-surfaced rock . The cryptocrystalline petrotypes are much more rare in nature than the crystal line kinds, but do occur in the Canadian Shield and Proterozoic formations to the north and east of the upper Churchill River basin, sometimes in very generous amounts. Thus, they do occur in the till and alluvial sediments locally, but are much rare. The most common varieties include clear , smoky and white vein quartz , various kinds of very fine grained fused - sandstone , a dark grey vitreous fused-quartzite, several kinds of jasper and chalcedony found as pebbles , fossilized wood, and a distinctive brown chalcedony that comes in two varieties in Saskatchewan. While the first four general varieties are found in the north and occasionally in the till and alluvium , the latter two must have been traded into the area from the south . The fossilized wood is found throughout the alluvium of southwestern Saskatchewan , while the chalcedony comes from the Dakotas of the northern United States and was traded throughout the northern Plains and into the southern fringes of the Boreal Forest . The source of one variety of fused - quartzite , present in small quant ities in the Chartier site assemblages , 148

has been localized to a quarry in the Athabasca lowlands to the northwest of the upper Churchill River basin. This represents the most southeasterly occurrence of this material known. The Fine Tool Technology is based on the selection of suitable flakes of the cryptocrystalline material with further form-flaking to produce a functional tools or a useful flake. The tools are considered the most important for survival and include weapons, as well as cutting and scraping tools. From the appearance of the debitage the primary flake removal was by hard or soft hammer percussion and the secondary flaking by pressure. The Bipolar Technology used either pieces of vein quartz or small, ellipsoidal stream pebbles of jasper and fine chert. In the case of the pebbles they were split longitudinally by placing the pebble on one end on an anvil stone and giving the opposite end a sharp blow with a hard hammer. This resulted in a wedge-shaped core with a number of linear spalls that resemble microblades. The core, in turn, is left with the negative impressions of the spalls and sometimes resembles a microblade core. The linear spalls frequently have a geometric cross-section and show crushing at both ends, thus no clear striking platform. Occasionally specimens retain only one crushed end with the other showing a hinge fracture, even more closely resembling microblades. The tools made from this technology are enigmatic. The spalls do not seem to have been used, or those that were have not been recovered, possibly because of the use-pattern. The wedge-shaped cores may be splitting wedges, such as those described by MacDonald ( 1968). It is possible, although difficult to be sure with the samples available, that the whole technology is nothing more than the use of tabular pieces of stone as wedges in splitting bone or wood; in which case the linear flakes are simply use-spalls and therefore byproducts. A similar technology has been reported by Binford and Quimby (1963) for the Great Lakes region. Forsman (1976) noted the presence of both cores and spalls in his survey of the Montreal Lake area and Meyer (Beak Consultants 1979; SRC 1981) mapped some pebble splitting stations north of the Churchill on the Haultain river drainage. With respect to the plates accompanying the decriptions of the artifacts, it should be noted that the black bars are each equal to one cm.

149

TABLE 16 - DISTRIBUTION OF PETROTYPES BY COMPONENT Petro type

I Quartzite Shield Erratics Beaver River Sandstone Friable Fused - pepper Fused - dark gray Siltstone Chert Miscellaneous Swan River Quartz vein White Clear Smokey Chalcedony Knife River Petrified Wood Gneiss Granite Feldspar crystals Rhyolite Phyllite Shale Miscellaneous Totals

GIOc 20 II

III

I

II

GIOc 21 11/111

III

IV

1

32 6

146 2

3

39 2

78

90

27

1

17

37

2 1

39 12

81 205

59

50

134

2

I

28

26

26

10

17

2

1

52

122

33 1

124 1

131

41

I

310 15

640

165 132 2

215

537

140

1

1

2 4 83

36 6

585

7 15

IO 4

2

4

3 190

106 1284

150

161 21

96 12

160 31

2

5

5

8

31

3 45

52

46

31

550

893

1355

341

10

77

8 3 1

APPENDIX 3

DESCRIPTIONS OF LITHIC ARTIFACTS

1.0 PROJECTILE POINTS

(Plate 9)

1.1 Small Side Notched Points

Form and Modification: These specimens have leaf-shaped bodies with lateral notching located low on the slightly convex edges. Two are complete while the other two are fragments, one basal and the other missing most of the base. The bases of three are clearly convex in plan and the inside of the notches are crushed, resembling grinding; the latter may be related to the notching process whereby the finished leaf-shaped, bifacial blank is pressed against a sharp edge to form the notch. Although all four specimens fit comfortably into the formal category and come from the same component, GlOc 21.111, they are quite different in many details. Specimen GlOc 21.4.4, although the base is missing, retains one prominent tanged shoulder and has abroad body, while GlOc 12.21.2, made on the same petrotype, has square tangs, is short and proportionately thicker. Specimen GlOc 21.9.10 has wide V-shaped notches in contrast to all others and GlOc 21.3.16 has an elongate body and the notches are very low on the edge and could be considered within the range of variation of the corner notched style.

Plate 9 - Small Side Notched Points Distribution and Petrotypes: GlOc 21.3.16 Component GlOc 21.4.4 Component GlOc 21.9.10 Component GlOc 21.21.2 Component

II/III III III III

Fused sandstone Vitrified sandstone Brown chert Fused sandstone

151

Measurements: (cm) L Spec No.

w

3.0 2.6 1.6 2.7

2.5 1.9 1.5 1.5

21.3.16 21.4.4 21.9.10 21.21.2

Tip T Angle Width 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4

Base Depth Wit

70 75 85

Ear

Notch h Ht

1.2

.2/.3

.3/.3

.3/.3

1.6 1.5

.3/ .3 .3/.3

.5/ .8 .3/.3

.4/.3 .4/.3

(Plate IO)

1.2 Medium Side Notched Points

Form and Modification: These points have wide , low notches worked into the lower lateral edges , one on a leaf shaped body (20.1.33) and the other on a triangular body (20.9.7). The basal edges on both are straight, formed by bifacial trimming and are not ground. The notches are wide, of medium relative depth and are ground. The shoulders on each are rounded and slightly ground. Although generally symmetrical, a flake was removed from GlOc 21.9.7 that reduced the length of the base and gives it a distinct basal asymmetry. In cross section, GlOc 21.1.33 is biconvex while the other is planoconvex. Both lie in the medium sized range. -CM

-

Plate 10 - Medium Side Notched Points Distribution and Petrotypes GlOc 20.1.3 Component GlOc 20.111 GlOc 20.9.7 Component GIOc 20.111

White quartz Grey chert

Measurements

Spec No 20.1.3 20.9.7

L

w

T

3.8 3.4

1.9 1.8

0.8 0.6

Tip Angle

85 75

Base Width 1.4 1.5

Notch Depth Width .3/.2 .7/.8 .8/.7 .2/.3

Ear Ht .4/.4 .2/.4

(Plate 11)

1.3 Medium Corner Notched Point Form and Modification: This specimen was recovered in two pieces and lacks the tip section from about midway up the sub-triangular body. The edges are very slightly convex, terminating in sharp, slightly tanged shoulders. The corner notches deep and asymmetrical with the proximal sections straight and about 40 to the centreline of the body. The basal corners are slightly rounded and lead to a medium convex basal edge formed by bif acial thinning. It is asymmetrical in plan and in its thickly biconvex transverse section. Bifacial retouch extends all over both sides of the body . The notches have been formed by bifacial flaking and are not ground. A "potlid" spall (GlOc 20.1.37) was found with the point.

°

Plate 11 - Medium Corner Notched Point

152

Distribution and Petrotype GIOc 20.1.36 Component GlOc 20.III Measurements (cm) Spec No L

20.1.36

3.4

w

T

2.4

0.8

Black chert

Tip Angle

Base Width 1.5

Notch Depth Width .8/.8 1.1/1

Ear Ht .5/.2

{Plate 12)

1.4 Small Straight-Stemmed Points

Form and Modification: These are the three straight-stemmed specimens among the stemmed points found in Component II of Site GIOc 20. Only one is complete (GlOc 20.14.1), one is missing most of the distal end above the shoulders (GlOc 20.10.2), and the other is missing one basal corner (GIOc 20.18.5). The other two, that retain complete body segments, are sub-triangular in plan, terminating in rounded shoulders that are indistinct in GIOc 20.14.1 but prominent in GIOc 20.18.5 and GIOc 20.10.2. The stems are straight with rounded basal corners and nearly straight bases. All lie in the small size range, although specimen GlOc 20.14.1 is shorter than the others. All appear symmetrical in plan and thickly biconvex in section. The basal edges and stems are all bifacially flaked and the lateral edges of the CM -stems of all specimens except GlOc 20.14.1 are ground. Only the basal edge of GlOc 20.14.1 was ground. There is a hint that a better sample of these points might reveal two different, but related, varieties. Variation in stem widths and shoulder prominence could reflect differences in hafting techniques and arrow shaft design. Flaking styles on all are very similar. Plate 12 - Small Straight Stem Points Distribution and Petrotype GIOc 20.10.2 Component III Grey chert GIOc 20.14.1 Component III Grey fine quartzite Component III Grey chert GIOc 20.18.5 Measurements ( cm) Spec No L W

20.10.2 20.14.1 20.18.5

1.4 2.6 3.1

1.4 1.6 1.9

T

Tip Stem Base Angle Length Width 0.5 1.3 .7/.7 0.6 75 1.1 .8/.7 0.6 85 .7/ -

1.5 Medium Contracting Stemmed Point

(Plate 13)

Form and Modification This specimen was recovered with GIOc 20.1.33 and GlOc 20.1.36/37 from a single meter square area. The body is broad leaf-shaped with the maximum width well up on the body (2.1 cm from the shoulder), narrowing proximally to a rounded, excurvate junction with the distal part of the stem. The sides of the stem converge at a low angle toward the base and are slightly asymmetrical, as is the transverse angle of the base to the centreline of the point. One basal corner is sharp, the other rounded and the base is slightly convex. The base appears to have been formed with the general shaping of the point rather than a modification by retouch of the lower edges of a

153

blank. The form-flaking is bifacial with large flakes on one surface and an original flake scar on the other, while the edges were all formed by bifacial retouch. Distribution and Petrotype GlOc 20.IX.l Component GlOc 20.III Measurements (cm) Spec No L w

20.IX.l

5.0

2.5

Fine grey quartzite

T

Tip Stem Base Angle Length Width 0.7 95 1.3 1.2/1.4

CM

Plate 13 - Contracting Stem Point

Plate 14 - Small Expanding Stem Points

(Plate 14)

1.6 Small Expanding Stemmed Points

Form and Modification: Both specimens in the group are complete with lanceolate bodies, differing in tip shape and angle. The lateral edges are distinctly convex terminating proximally at prominent shoulders, tanged on GlOc 20.17.4 and sharp on the one complete edge of GlOc 20.16.5, from which a thin flake had been removed from the lower part of one side. The stem indentations on each side are moderate, but obvious, with the stem edges straight and expanding at 20 degrees to the centreline to sharp basal corners and medium convex bases. The general shape of the stem development on each is similar but the basal width of GlOc 20.17.4 is significantly narrower than that of GlOc 20.16.5 which is nearly as wide as the body . Both are between small and medium in length but are relatively narrow and thin. Specimen GlOc 20.17.4 is symmetrical in plan but asymmetrical in its biconvex transverse section , while GlOc 20.16.5 is slightly asymmetrical in transverse section and in plan with the tip skewed to one side. The stems are flaked bifacially and only GlOc 20.16.5 has lateral grinding. The original flake-detaching scars are retained on one surface of each specimen . Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 20.16.5 GlOc 20.17.4

Component GlOc 20.111 Component GlOc 20.111

154

Grey chert Gre y- pink cher t

Measurements (cm) L w Spec No

20.16.5 20.17.4

3.9 3.5

Tip Base Stem T Width Angle Length 1.2 1.7 0.6 85 .8/.8 70 0.9 1.6 0.6 .6/.6 (Plate 15)

1.7 Large Round-Based Lanceolate Point Form and Modification: This is the basal fragment of a broad lanceolate end-blade. From the point of maximum width on the missing portion the edges converge to a rounded base from which a small piece has been removed by fracturing. The specimen appears symmetrical in plan and thinly piano-convex in transverse section. Most of one surface is made up of the scar of the original detaching scar. The form flaking is coarsely bifacial and none of the retained edges are ground. It seems most likely that it was a knife or a blank for a bipointed projectile point.

Plate 15 - Round based Lanceolate Point Distribution and Petrotype GlOc 21.6. l 2A Component GlOc 21.II/III

Dark grey chert

Measurements: (cm)_ Spec No Length Width Thickness 21.6.12A 3.0 2.7 0.6

(Plate 16)

1.8 Large Lanceolate Points

Form and Modification: These specimens are the basal portions of end-blades recovered from the lower levels of both sites. All are lanceolate in body form and thickly biconvex in transverse section. All appear symmetrical and are large in size.

Plate 16 - Large Lanceolate Points

155

None of the basal edges are ground and all converge proximally to a dull point. The basal tip of GlOc 21.10.24 is slightly rounded and that of GlOc 20.20.6 is facetted. All are form-flaked by coarse bifacial flaking but the trimming was well-controlled and the resulting edges are smooth; thus, they are more likely tools than blanks. Distribution and GlOc 20.12.2 GlOc 20.20.6 GlOc 20.28.2 GIOc 21.10.24

Petrotypes Component Component Component Component

GlOc GIOc GlOc GlOc

Measurements: (cm) Length Spec No 2.4 20.12.2 4.2 20.20.6 2.9 20.28.6 21.10.24 4.5

20.111 Brown fused Sandstone 20.111 Brown fused sandstone 20.III White quartz 21.IV Grey quartz

Width 1.9 2.6 2.1

Thickness 0.6 0.9 0.6 1.1

2.5

1.2 Projectile Point Fragments Form and Modification: The IO fragments of finely flaked bifacial tools include six tip portions, two body portions and two possible base portions. Although the tip fragments vary in the angle of convergence and thickness, five of the six are made on the light grey, pepper fused sandstone that was also used for several of the small side notched points. The chert tip, GIOc 21.26.8, from the lower component appears to be from a thin, leaf-shaped body. The two body fragments are thick and crudely flaked, and are roughly biconvex in transverse section. The two basal fragments are worthy of additional notes. Specimen GlOc 21.6.12~ remnant of a basal corner, is thick and asymmetrically biconvex in transverse section. The shape of the one retained lateral-edge resembles that of small-medium expanding stem category. The other specimen, GlOc 21.12.15, is even smaller, but appears to be the basal corner from a lanceolate, straight based end-blade or biface. Distribution and Petrotypes

GlOc GlOc GIOc GlOc GlOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc

20.30.1 21.1.2 21.3.12A 21.4.5 21.6.12B 21.8.l0H 21.8.101 21.12.15 21.20.14 21.26.8 21.30.1

Measurements: (cm) Spec No Length 20.30.1 2.6 21.1.2 2.3 21.3.12A 1.2 21.4.5 1.3 21.6.12B 1.7 21.8. lOH 1.3 21.8.101 1.5

Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Width 1.9 1.5 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.4

GlOc 20.1 GIOc 21.111 GIOc 21.11/111 GlOc 21.111 GlOc 21 .11/111 GlOc 21.11/111 GlOc 21.11/111 GlOc 21.111 GlOc 21.11/111 GIOc-21 .IV GIOc 21.11

Thick 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.4 156

Tip Angle 65 90

85 65

White quartz Vitrified sstne Fused sandstone Sandstone Vitrified sstne Sandstone Sandstone Grey vein quartz Sandstone Grey mottled chert White quartz Type Body Tip Body Tip Tip Tip Tip

Spec No 21.12.15 21.20.14 21.26.8 21.30.1

Length 1.7 1.8 2.7 2.6

Width 2.8 1.4 1.6 1.9

Tip Angle

Thick 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.6

65 85

Type Basal Tip Tip Body

2.0 BIFACES 2.1 Small Straight-edged Bifaces Form and Modification: Either one or both the lateral edges of these specimens have been worked bifacially to form working edges. The edge angles vary from 40 to 65 degrees and the sharper, lower angles of convergence, occur on the smaller specimens. Only one specimen, GlOc 21.9.7B, has been finely retouched to a smooth regular edge, while the remainder are functional but crude. The lengths of the working edges are about the same , between 2.2 and 2.7 cm. Distribution and Petrotypes: GlOc 21.3.19 Component GlOc 21.4.6 Component GlOc 21.8.1 IC Component GlOc 21.9.7B Component GlOc 21.10.13M Component GlOc 21.12.17 Component GlOc 21.15.15 Component GlOc 21.15.28 Component GlOc 21.25.28 Component Measurements: Spec No Length 21.3.19 3.7 21.4.6 3.6 21.8.1 lC 1.9 21.9.7B 2.6 21.10.13M 2.5 21.12.17 4.5 21.15.15 2.8 21.15.28 2.4 21.25.28 3.7

Width 3.0 3.3 1.9 1.4 1.8 3.4 2.5 2.0 3.3

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

21.11/III 21.III 21.11/III 21.111 21.III 21.III 21.III 21.III 21.11/111

Thickness 1.0 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.5 1.6

I.I 0.6

I.I

Grey felsite Fused sandstone White vein quartz White vein quartz Vein quartz Fused sandstone White vein quartz Vein quartz Pink vein quartz Type Bilateral Unilateral Bilateral Unilateral Bilateral Unilateral Unilateral Bilateral Unilateral

Edge Angle 50 50 40 40 40 65 50 45 60

2.2 Square Based Bifaces

(Plate 17)

Form and Modification: The two specimens in this group are both broken portions but both retain very similar working edges. They have roughly parallel sides with rounded basal corners and straight working edges formed on the transverse edge. Although they might be considered special cases of straight-edged bifaces they fall into category well known in the northern Boreal Forest. They appear to be symmetrical and the flaking is coarse with no retouch. Both appear to have been used extensively. -

CM

-----

Plate 17 - Square Based Biface

157

Distribution and Petrotypes: GlOc 20.1.35 Component GlOc 20.III GlOc 20.21.6 Component GlOc 20.III Measurements: Spec No 20.1.35 20.21.6

Length 3.8 2.4

Width 5.2 3.6

Thickness 2.3 1.3

Grey quartzite White quartz Edge Angle 80 65 (Plate 18)

2.3 Triangular Bifaces

Form and Modification: Both specimens in this group are complete and appear to be finished artifacts. They are clearly trilateral with rounded corners, and have single sides with unifacial retouch with the other two bifacially finished. The smaller specimen , GlOc 21.24.18 , is equi lateral but the other is elongate with one of the long sides the working edge. They are both symmetrical in plan and in their sections . Distribution and Petrotypes: GlOc 21.11.19 GIOc 21.24.18

Component GlOc 21.111 Component GlOc 21.III

Measurements: Spec No Lengt;}l Width Thickness Edge Angle 21.11.19 3.7 2.7 0.7 21.24.18 2.4 2.3 0.9

Plate 18 - Triangular Bifaces

Vein quartz Vein quartz

55 60

Plate 19 - Pointed Bifaces

(Plate 19)

2.4 Small Pointed Bifaces

Form and Modification: These two specimens are quite possibly distal portions of end blades, hafted bifaces, although one could be a blank for a point, GlOc 20.26.2. Although both are tip sections they are clearly from different tools. Specimen GIOc 20.26.2 is thick in the proximal end and asymmetric in plan with one edge irregular with coarse secondary flaking. The other is retouched to a fine convex edge. Specimen GlOc 21.18.10 is thinly biconvex in transverse section with both edges well formed by regular retouch.

158

Distribution and Petrotypes: GIOc 20.26.2 Component GIOc 20.1 GIOc 21.18.10 Component GIOc 21.11/111 Measurements: Spec No Length 20.26.2 3.2 21.18.10 2.4

Width

Thickness 1.8 2.4

Vein quartz Fused sandstone

1.0 0.6 (Plate 20)

2.5 Contracting Bifaces

Form and Modifications These specimens are all quite different in general shape but have contracting lateral edges terminating in round corners with round to convex distal transverse edges. All appear to be complete and show signs of use-wear on the contracting lateral edges. None show any special retouch beyond the secondary form-flaking but the edges are regular and fairly smooth. Specimen GIOc 20.4.2 is planoconvex in transverse section, while the others are symmetrically biconvex. Distribution and GIOc 20.4.2 GIOc 21.9.32 GIOc 21.15.9

petrotypes: Component GIOc 20.I Vein quartz Component GIOc 21.111 Vein quartz Component GIOc 21.III Vein quartz

Measurements: Spec No Length 20.4.2 3.2 21.9.32 3.4 21.15.9 2.3

Width 3.2 3.1 2.7

Thickness 0.9 1.2 1.0

Edge Angle 55-60 65 80

-cM-

Plate 20 - Contracting Bif aces

Plate 21

159

-

Plano-convex Discoidal Bifaces

2.6 Small-Medium Plano-Convex Discoidal Bifaces

(Plate 21)

Form and Modification: The ten items in this group have rounded working edges form-flaked to shape and most have either retouch or use-wear on all or on part of those edges. In all cases a segment of the periphery retains crude primary flake scars and in six cases they are original facets removed at right angles to the plane of the striking platform. In one case, GlOc 20.9.9, there is a similar facet, but it may have been formed by a burin blow. All but two, GlOc 20.2.6 and GlOc 20.10.3 are biconvex in transverse section. All appear to be finished tools. Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 20.IX.13 GlOc 20.2.6 GlOc 20.9.9 GlOc 20.10.3 GlOc 21.5.41 GlOc 21.12.28 GlOc 21.12.31 G 1Oc 21.15 .17 GlOc 21.15.20 GlOc 21.19.7

Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component

Measurements: Spec No Length 2.4 20.lX.13 20.2.6 4.9 2.1 20.9.9 2.7 20.10.3 21.5.41 3.5 21.12.28 4.0 5.1 21.12.31 21.15.17 2.0 21.15.20 2.9 21.19.7 2.6

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GIOc GIOc GlOc

Width 1.3 1.3 2.0 2.9 4.0 3.8 4.4 1.8 2.3 2.2

White vein quartz Swan River chert White vein quartz Smoky vein quartz Swan River chert Dark grey chert Pink quartzite Mottled chert Vein quartz Vein quartz

20.111 20.111 20.111 20.111 21.11 21.III 21.IV 21.III 21.111 21.111

Thickness 0.9 1.4 0.8 0.9 1.9

I.I 1.9 0.7

Edge Angle

55-65 55 60

55-65 80 40-50 65-70

55

I.I

60

0.9

55-60

2.7 Bifacial Spalls Form and Modifications: These spalls are edge portions from acute cryptocrystalline bifaces that retain some parts of both bifacially-flaked surfaces and the edge of the original artifact. Surprisingly infrequent considering the number of bifaces in the collection, these are usually considered the waste products of bifacial tool production. The lateral spalls were removed by blows parallel to the working edges, presumably to improve the platforms. The longitudinal spalls were formed by blows to the edges, removing asymmetric flakes, extending across one surface. In this latter cases the platform edges were ground and crushed. Distribution and GlOc 20.4.13 GlOc 20.23.6 GlOc 21.12.11 GlOc 21.15.10

Petrotypes: Component Component Component Component

GlOc GIOc GlOc GlOc

20.III 20.III 21.111 21.III

Grey chert White vein quartz Vein quartz Vein quartz

160

Measurements: Length Spec No 1.3 20.4.13 20.23.6 3.4 21.12.11 2.2 21.15.10 2.3

Width 1.6 1.4

Thick 0.3

I.I

0.8 0.8

1.0

I.I

Type Long Lateral Lateral Long

Edge Angle 50 65 55 50

2.8 Bifacial Fragments Form and Modifications: These specimens vary widely in size and character but are fragments or portions of bifacial tools that cannot be allocated to more specific categories. All have at least some bifacial flaking on a peripheral segment. Distribution and Petrotypes: GlOc 20. 7.4 Component GlOc 20.24.1 Component GlOc 21.4.21 Component GlOc 21.7.15 Component GlOc 21.7.29 Component GlOc 21.7.37G Component GlOc 21.9.2 Component GlOc 21.10.25B Component GlOc 21.12.4 Component GlOc 21.12.14 Component GlOc 21.14.14 Component GlOc 21.15.27 Component GlOc 21.18.7 Component GlOc 21.19.2 Component GlOc 21.25.10 Component Measurements: Spec No Length 20.7.4 6.2 20.24.1 2.1 21.4.21 2.2 21.7.15 4.3 21.7.29 2.6 21.7.37G 3.5 21.9.2 5.6 21.10.25B 4.0 21.12.4 3.3 21.12.14 3.1 21.12.14 3.9 21.15.27 1.4 21.18.7 1.6 21.19.2 1.6 21.25.10 3.3

Width 6.2

I.I 1.6 2.8 2.2 3.5 4.2 2.8 2.7 2.1 4.8 1.4 1.6 2.2 2.1

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GIOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

20.11 20.11 21.IV 21.11 21.IV 21.111 21.111 21.IV 21.11 21.111 21.111 21.111 21.11 21.11 21.11/111

Thickness 1.6 0.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.6 0.9 1.2 0.8 1.7 0.6 0.7 0.4

I.I

White vein quartz Smoky vein quartz Smoky vein quartz Vein quartz Vein quartz Fused sandstone White vein quartz White vein quartz Vein quartz Vein quartz Grey-red quartzite Grey vein quartz Vein quartz Fused sandstone Vein quartz Edge Angle 65 50 70 60 75 60 55-70 65 65 70 65-70 60 70 30 60

END SCRAPERS 3.1 Medium Rectangular Scrapers

(Plate 22)

Form and Modifications: All but one of this group of scrapers are made on flat flakes, some of which are thick producing a snub-nosed working edge, such as GlOc 20.8.1. GlOc 21.22.7 was made on a ridged flake. Two, GlOc 21.1.1 and 21.8.1 lB, were made on spalls from chert pebbles. All have retouched edges to give them rectangular forms. 161

Distribution and Petrotypes:

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

20.8.1 20.23.5 21.3.3 21.8.1 IB 21.11.1 21.14.16 21.22. 7

Component GlOc 20.11 White vein quartz Component GlOc 20.III White vein quartz Component GlOc 21.11/111Fine grey quartzite Component GlOc 21.11/111White vein quartz Component GlOc 21.11 Black chert Component GlOc 21.III White vein quartz Component GlOc 21.III Fine grey chert

Plate 22 - Medium Rectangular Scrapers

162

Measurements: Spec No Length 2.7 20.8.1 2.9 20.23.5 21.3.3 2.0 21.8.1 lB 1.9 21.11.1 1.9 21.14.16 3.1 21.22.7 3.7

Width 2.5 2.0 2.2 1.9 1.6 2.5 2.9

Thick 1.7 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.8

Edge Angle 75 75 70 65 70 70 75

Length/W .E. 2.1 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.4 2.3 2.1 (Plate 23)

3.2 Flat and Ridged Contracting Scrapers

Form and Modifications: These six specimens have distinct contracting lateral edges formed by retouch (GlOc 20.3.5, GlOc 20.11.4 & GlOc 21.7.31), or were made on flakes of that shape (GlOc 20.31.2, GIOc 21.7.32, GIOc 21.25.20). Scraper edges were unifacially worked into the distal edge of each flake. Three specimens were also flaked to some extent on their dorsal surfaces to thin the flake to a ridged form. Specimen GIOc 20.3.5 is a special case with most of the dorsal surface worked and both lateral edges retouched to form spurs on both ends of the working edge. The points on all spurs are polished from use. The other special case is GlOc 20.11.4 which retains the original cortex of the cobble on one half of the dorsal surface .

Plate 23 - Flat and Ridged Contracting Scrapers Distribution and petrotypes: GIOc 20.3.5 GlOc 20.11.4 GlOc 20.31.2 GIOc 21.7.31 GIOc 21.7.32 GlOc 21.25.20

Component Component Component Component Component Component

GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc

Measurements: Spec No Length 20.3.5 1.8 20.11.4 2.4 20.31.2 1.7 21.7.31 2.3 21.7.32 2.6 21.25.20 2.4

Width 1.9 2.1 1.8 1.8 2.3 2.3

Thickness 0.6 0.8 0.6

163

20.11 20.III 20.11 21.III 21.III 21.11/III

Brown chert White vein quartz Grey chert Black chert Fused sandstone White vein quartz Length/W.E. 1.7 2.1 1.4

0.5

1.5

0.5 0.6

2.2 2.0

(Plate 24)

3.3 Very Small Thin Flake Scrapers

Form and Modifications: All but specimen GlOc 21.12.13 are all made on very small flakes with no other retouch except the working edge. That one was made on a thin bifacially-prepared flake or possibly, a broken projectile point.

CM

Plate 24 - Very Small Thin Flake Scrapers Distribution and GlOc 20.16.6 GlOc 21.7.24 GlOc 21.9.19 GlOc 21.9.37 GIOc 21.10.10 GlOc 21.11.29 GlOc 21.12.13 GlOc 21.14.12

Petrotypes: Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component

Measurements: Spec No Length 20.16.6 1.7 21.7.24 1.0 21.9.19 1.5 21.9.37 1.4 21.10.10 1.6 21.11.29 1.9 21.12.13 1.3 21.14.12 1.9

GlOc GIOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

Width 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.9 2.1 1.6 2.2

20.11 21.111 21.111 21.111 21.111 21.111 21.111 21.111

Grey chert Fused sandstone Grey chert Translucent chert Fused sandstone Fused sandstone Fused sandstone Fused sandstone

Thickness 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6

3.4 Very Small Snub-nosed Scrapers

Length/W.E. 1.6 1.2 1.4 0.7 1.3 1.2 1.6 0.3

Edge Angle 65 75 60 85 70 50 60 75

(Plate 25)

Form and Modifications: This group of nine scrapers were made on thick flakes and resulted in high, steep working edges. Other than that they are similar in most respects to the previous variety. Whether there was any functional difference in the two is not clear in this sample.

164

-CMPlate 25 - Very Small Snub-Nosed

Scrapers

Distribution and Petrotype:

GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc

21.9.33 21.10.6 21.10.8 21.12.12 21.17.4 21.18.13 21.20.6/8 21.22.1 21.25.21

Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component

GIOc 21.111 White vein quartz GIOc 21.111 Black chert GIOc 21.III Fused sandstone GIOc 21.III White vein quartz GIOc 21.11 Fine quartzite GIOc 21.111 Grey vein quartz GIOc 21.11/111Dark brown chert GIOc 21.1 White vein quartz GIOc 21.11/III White vein quartz

Length 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.4 1.2 2.0 1.7 1.8

Width 1.3 1.0 1.9 1.3 1.6 1.4 1.9 1.6 1.9

Measurements:

Spec No 21.9.33 21.10.6 21.10.8 21.12.12 21.17.4 21.18.13 21.20.6/8 21.22.1 21.25.21

Thick 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.6

Length/W .E. 1.3 1.0 1.8 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.8 1.5 1.7

Edge Angle 90 80 75 80 55 60 65 80 75

3 .S Flake Scrapers Form and Modifications:

These three specimens were all made on primary spalls, retaining cortex on the dorsal surfaces. Other than the steep working edge preparation no other retouch was applied to these irregular flakes. Distribution and Petrotypes:

GIOc 20.6.9 Component GIOc 20.III GIOc 20.25.14 Component GIOc 20.III GIOc 20.31.3 Component GlOc 20.11

Grey chert Yellow quartzite White vein quartz

Measurements:

Spec No 20.6.9 20.25.14 20.31.3

Length 3.3 2.0 2.9

Width 2.3 1.4 2.8

Thick 1.0 0.4 0.8 165

Length/W.E. 1.6 2.0 1.7

Edge Angle 80 70 70

3.6 Scraper Fragments Form and Modifications: This category includes fragments showing steep unifacial retouch on small portions that are not otherwise assignable to one of the varieties. Distribution and GlOc 20.lX.8 GlOc 20.4.12 GlOc 20.12.3 GlOc 21.10.3

Petrotypes: Component Component Component Component

Measurements: Spec No Length 20.lX.8 3.1 20.4.12 2.1 20.12.3 3.1 21.10.3 2.1

GlOc 20.III GlOc 20.III GlOc 20.111 GlOc 21.II

Width 1.0 1.5 2.4 1.6

Grey chert White vein quartz Smoky vein quartz White vein quartz

Thick

0.5 0.5 1.4

0.5

Length/W.E. 1.0 1.3 2.4 1.9

Edge Angle 40 60 45

70

4.0 LATERAL UNIFACES

(Plate 26 & 27)

4.1 Straight-Sided lateral Unif aces

Form and Modifications: This group includes all those tools with unifacial retouch along one or both of their straight lateral edges. One specimen is set apart from the rest with very fine unifacially-retouch along both parallel edges of an elongate flake of Knife River chalcedony. The remainder fall into two sub-groups, smooth (Plate 26) and serrated straight (Plate 27), with 4 and 10 respectively. Whether the serrated style was made for some special function or capability, or whether it was simply a consequence of the technology, is problematical. In the latter case it ·may have been a early stage in the retouch process. Several of the serrated specimens show use wear on the 'teeth' and were evidently used for some purpose.; e.g., specimen GlOc 20.29.3.

I

CM

-CMPlate 26 - Straight Smooth Lateral Unifaces

Plate 27 - Straight Serrated Lateral Unifaces

166

Distribution and Petrotypes: Bilateral Specimen GlOc 21.27.2 Component Unilateral Smooth Group GlOc 20.1.5 Component GlOc 20.lX.14 Component GlOc 20.25.7 Component GlOc 20.25.16 Component GlOc 21.18.21 Component GlOc 21.20.13 Component Unilateral Serrated Group GlOc 20.1.14 Component GlOc 20.1.34 Component GlOc 20.6.6 Component GlOc 20.9.3 Component GlOc 20.29 .3 Component GlOc 21.13.6 Component GlOc 21.14.2 Component GlOc 21.16.8 Component GlOc 21.16.13 Component Measurements Spec No Bilateral 21.17.2 Unilateral Smooth 20.1.5 20.lX .14 20.25.7 21.18.21 21.20.13 Unilateral Serrated 20.1.14 20.1.34 20.6.6 20.9.3 20.29.3 21.13.6 21.14.2 21.16 .8 21.16 .13 21.21.17

Length

GlOc 21.111

Knife River 'flint'

GlOc GIOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

20.111 20.111 20.III 20.111 21.IV 21.111

Fused sandstone White vein quartz Grey fine quartzite White chert White vein quartz Brown quartzite

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

20.111 20.111 20.111 20.11 20.111 21.111 21.11 21.11 21.111

Smoky vein quartz White vein quartz Grey quartzite Black greenstone Greens tone White vein quartz Vein quartz Grey chert Grey chert

Width

Thickness

Edge Angle

2.4

1.4

0.4

20

4.9 3.5 8.7 4.1 4.5

2.6 1.6 5.7 3.4 2.6

1.5 0.8 2.4 1.4 1.0

60 60 40 45 40

6.8 7.3 5.1 7.5 3.7 4.6 3.8 3.8 4.2 2.5

3.8 4.9 3.6 4.6 3.2 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.0 1.9

2.1 1.7 1.3 1.5 0.7 1.0 1.4

80 65 40

I.I 1.3 0.6

55 50

65 65 70 80 80 (Plate 28)

4.2 Convex lateral Unifaces

Plate 28 - Convex Lateral Unifaces

167

Form and Modification: Made on a variety of medium-sized flakes, these specimens have distinctly convex working edges, generally symmetrical although one is J-shaped. The convergence angles of the working edges fall into two groups, 50 and 70 degrees, but there is no consistent cluster of other characteristics that would warrant any sub-division based on form. It is possible that the different angles were a function of the intended use. Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 20.4.6 Component GlOc 20.21.2 Component GlOc 21.11.28 Component GlOc 21.11.34 Component GlOc 21.11.39 Component GlOc 21.19.5 Component Measurements Spec No 20.4.6 20.21.2 21.11.28 21.11.34 21.11.39 21.19.5

Length 4.0 5.1 3.1 3.9 4.9 3.0

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

Width 2.7 3.6 1.8 2.8 3.1 1.8

20.11 20.111 21.111 21.IV 21.IV 21.111

Grey quartzite Brown sandstone Grey vein quartz White quartz White quartz Fused sandstone

Thickness 0.8 1.3 0.9 1.3 1.2 0.7

Edge Angle

50 55 70

50 70

50

4.3 Concave Lateral Unifaces Form and Modification: All of these specimens have some degree of concavity to the retouched working edge. Specimen GlOc 21.14.3 is a portion of a tool and shows heavy grinding on its relatively steep working edge, likely from heavy use. Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 21.3.17 Component GlOc 21.11/111 GlOc 21.11.12 Component GlOc 21.111 GlOc 21.14.3 Component GlOc 21.11 GlOc 21.16.14 Component GlOc 21.111 Measurements: Spec No 21.3.17 21.11.12 21.14.3 21.16.14

Length 5.2 3.1 3.1 3.7

Width 4.2 1.6 1.4 3.2

Thickness

Black chert Fused sandstone White vein quartz Brown quartzite Edge Angle

I.I 0.7 0.8 1.7

4.4 Triangular Bilateral Unifaces

50 50 85 65 (Plate 29)

-CMPlate 29 - Triangular Lateral Unifaces

168

Form and Modification:

The tools of this group are unifacially retouched to some extent on both lateral edges of a roughly triangular flake. Normally the two retouched edges converge at about 60 degrees but one approaches 90 degrees. In all cases it seems that one edge was used and the other was simply blunted as a handle. Distribution and Petrotype:

GIOc GlOc GIOc GlOc GIOc

20.15.1 20.29.5 21.5.5 21.15.1 21.29.5

Component Component Component Component Component

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

20.111 20.111 21.11 21.111 21.111

Fused sandstone Grey vein quartz White vein quartz Fused sandstone White vein quartz

Measurements:

Spec No 20.15.1 20.29.5 21.5.5 21.11.33 21.25.29

Length 3.4

3.9 3.0

3.9 4.1

Width 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.9 3.2

Edge Angle 60 60 20 55/65

Thickness 1.2

I.I I.I 0.9 0.9

40

S.O MARGINAL RETOUCH TOOLS

S.1 Drills Form and Modification:

The first of these specimens, GIOc 21.12.21, is triangular in plan and the tip and one basal corner are missing. Its lateral edges are symmetrical, slightly concave, and bifacially retouched to an edge angle of about 45 degrees. The other specimen, GlOc 21.9.38, also lacks the tip and base. It is piano-convex in section, bifacially flaked, primarily on the ridged dorsal surface. The lateral edges are sub-parallel and converge to the broken point. Distribution and Petrotype:

GIOc 21.9.38 GlOc 21.12.21

Component GlOc 21.111 Component GlOc 21.111

Quartz crystal Banded quartzite

Measurements:

Spec No 21.9.38 21.12.21

Length 1.7 2.2

Width 1.0 1.1

Thickness

Edge Angle

0.4

40

0.5

35

S.2 Piercing Tool Form and Modification:

This fragmental specimen was made on a very thin flake by developing a fine isometric sided point on one end. Distribution and Petrotype:

GlOc 21.21.23 Component GlOc 21.11

Dark brown chert

Measurements:

Spec No 21.21.23

Length 1.7

Width 1.3

Thickness 0.4

169

5.3 Gravers Form and Modification: The four specimens are variations on a common theme in which sharp pointed tips were developed on the periphery of a flake. The three sub-varieties vary in the location of the point and the form of retouch. On the specimen GlOc 21.4X.9 the tip was formed by removal of the thin edge of the flake adjacent to a snapped notch. GlOc 21.25.22 is a straight sided lateral uniface and the graver tips are located at the ends of that retouched edge. The other two specimens, GlOc 21.9.7C and GlOc 21.22.8, have prominent "beaks" formed by retouch on one corner of triangular flakes , both of which show some use-wear. Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 21.4X.9 GlOc 21.9.7C GlOc 21.22.8 GlOc 21.25.22 Measurements: Spec No 21.4X.9 21.9.7C 21.22.8 21.25.22

Component Component Component Component

Length 2.5 2.2

Width 2.2 0.7

2.4 3.6

2.2

GlOc GIOc GlOc GlOc

21.IV 21.III 21.III 21.11/III

Petrified wood Clear vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz Sub-variety Single-tip Beaked Beaked Corner

Thickness 0.4

0.5 0.8 1.0

2.6

6.0 WORKED FLAKES

Form and Modification: The petrotypes common in archaeological sites in the upper Churchill River basin are characteristically difficult to identify flaking patterns much less fine retouch or usewear. The items in this group are all worked to some extent or have clear evidence of use on some part of their periphery. The vary widely in size and shape and presumably in function. Distribution and Petrotype:

Component 20.1 20.11 20.111 21.1 21.11 21.11/111 21.111 21.IV FS

-

QX SRC Q KRC -

FS

VQ

1 1 2

12

QX

CH

1

2 3

6

1 2

SRC

FW

Q

2

1 1

10

9 14 9

1 3

s

KR

TOTAL

1

8 0 1 2 13 21

3

2 2

I

I

Fused sandstone Quartz crystal Swan River chert Quartzite Knife River chalcedony

VQ CH FW -

ss -

170

Vein quartz Chert Fossilized wood Siltstone

Measurements: (cm) Length Component Mean SD

Full 20.11 20.111 21.11 21.11/111 21.111 21.IV

3.1 3.7 3.4 3.0 2.9 3.0 2.6

11.1 0.8 1.3

I.I 1.2 1.0 0.7

Width Mean SD 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.0 2.2 1.7

0.8 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.7 0.7 1.0

Thickness Mean SD

Area Mean SD

0.9 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9

7.4 9.6 8.3 7.4 6.2 7.2 12.5

0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7

4.7 3.7 4.7 6.3 4.9 4.1 6.8

Thick/Area Mean SD 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 1.3

0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.8

7.0 CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE CORES (Plate 30)

7 .1 Large Bif acial Acute Core

Form and Modification: This specimen is a smoothed cobble, probably from the adjacent lakeshore area, which is flaked bifacially on two opposite edges. At least seven flakes were removed from one platform area and four from the other. Four of the flakes hinge-fractured from one side and may have discouraged the knapper. A number of tools found in the site were on this same petrotype. Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 21.8.4 Component GlOc 21.11/III Fused sandstone

Plate 30 - Large Bif acial Acute Core

171

Measurements: Spec No 21.8.4

Length 7.7

Width 6.5

Edge Angle 70/80

Thickness 4.5

(Plate 3 I)

7 .2 Linear Flake Acute Cores and Normal Spalls

Form and Modification: This small group includes two different pairs of cores, combined because they both have parallel facets representing the removal scars of linear flakes. The acute linear flake cores strongly resemble microcores but do not in themselves demonstrate the presence of a micro blade industry. The striking platforms of both were crushed and each seem to have yielded two linear flakes 3 to 5 mm in width and 2 cm in length. Both striking platforms are flake facets at angles of 70 and 65 degrees to the facetted faces .

-CM-

:5t:JALLS

Plate 31 - Linear Flake Cores Specimen GlOc 20.25.4 was made on a thick flake with a blunt base opposite the platform, while GIOc 20.4.11 has a bifacial, wedge-shaped edge opposite the face. Two of the specimens in this category are actually spalls removed from the facetted faces of polyhedral cores somewhat larger than those described. Both retain two or more elongate negative flake scars representing linear flakes. Specimen GlOc 21.25.11 has been worked on its distal end, and the platform was smoothed by grinding . The other specimen, GlOc 20.8.3, is unworked and the platform was crushed and broken by a number of blows parallel to the facetted face. Distribution and Petrotype: GIOc 20.4.11 GIOc 20.8.3 GlOc 20.25.4 GlOc 21.25.11 Measurements: Spec No 20.4.11 20.8.3 20.25.4 21.25 .11

Length 2.7 2.8 3.7 3.4

Component Component Component Component

Width 2.0 4.4 2.8 4.4

GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc

20.111 20.111 20.111 21.IV

Thickness 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.1

172

White vein quartz Grey quartzite Gray vein quartz Yellow quartzite

Edge Angle 65 70

8.0 CRYSTALLINE COARSE LITHIC TOOLS

(Plate 32)

8.1 Boulder Chips

Form and Modification: These specimens are all large flakes removed from the cortical edges of large boulders. They are roughly piano-convex and discoidal in shape. All show evidence of use and the following show some modification of the periphery - GlOc 21.4.1, GlOc 21.11.6, GlOc 21.18.9, and GlOc 21.24.26.

-a,1Plate 32 - Boulder Chip Tools Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 21.4.1 Component GlOc 21.4.32 Component GIOc 21.7.37B Component GIOc 21.10.12C Component GlOc 21.11.6 Component GlOc 21.18.9 Component GlOc 21.24.26 Component Measurements: Specimen No 21.4.1 21.4.32 21.7.37B 21.10.12C 21.11.6 21.18.9 21.24.26

Length 13.2 9.0 7.7 9.4 7.4 6.8 6.7

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

21.11 21.111 21.11 21.11 21.11 21.11/111 21.IV

Width 5.6 8.1 6.3 6.8 6.7 4.5

5.3

173

Siltstone Brown vein quartz Granite gneiss Grey sandstone Hornblende gneiss Hornblende gneiss Sandstone Thickness 2.0 2.9 1.9 3.5 1.8 0.9 2.2

(Plate 33)

8.2 Chi Thos - Discoidal Smoothers

Form and Modification: These small, roughly round to spatulate tools are all made on granular, abrasive rocks and are considered variations on the chi thos ("large stone" in Dene). All show more or less wear from use on the surfaces and outside edges. The basic shape of the tools appears to have been formed by battering, probably by striking the edge of the flat stone against a larger anvil stone.

-CM-

Plate 33 - Small Discoidal Smoothers Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 20.1.18 GlOc 20.6.4 GlOc 20.6.5 GlOc 20.9.14C GlOc 20.9.42 GlOc 20.19.4 GlOc 21.4.29 GlOc 21.8.IOK GlOc 21.9.5 GlOc 21.9.18 GlOc 21.9.43 GlOc 21.13.4 GlOc 21.19.3 GlOc 21.23.10 GlOc 21.26.2 Measurements: Specimen No 20.1.18 20.6.4 20.6.5 20.19.4 21.4.29 21.8.I0K 21.9.5 21.9.14C 21.9.18

Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Length 3.9 10.6 IO.I 2.9 3.4 4.3 4.5 5.2 6.3

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

20.III 20.III 20.III 20.III 20.III 20.III 21.III 21.III 21.III 21.III 21.III 21.11 21.11 21.11 21.11

Width 3.1 10.1 6.2 2.7 2.6 3.8 3.8 3.9 4.4 174

Sericite schist Sillimonite schist Sillimonite schist Sericite schist Sericite schist Phlogopite schist Gneiss Granite gneiss Phyllite schist Sandstone schist Sericite schist Phyllite schist Quartz gneiss Brown sandstone Granite gneiss Length 0.9 1.5 1.4 0.6 1.2 1.1 0.7 1.0 1.5

Length 4.8 4.4 3.9 6.3 5.2 4.4 5.4

Specimen No 21.9.42 21.9.43 21.9.44 21.13.4 21.19.3 21.23.10 21.26.2

Length 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.3

Width 4.0 3.6 3.6 4.8 4.2 4.3 4.6

(Plate 34)

8.3 Chi Thos - D-Shaped Smoothers Form and Modification: Like the other varieties of chi thos these are slabs of schistose or granular metamorphosed rock that have been battered on the edges to give a stepped and rasp-like surface. These are D-shaped in plan with the convex edge shaped and used, while the straight edge was not modified.

Plate 34 - D-Shaped Smoothers Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 20.5.3 Component GlOc 21.4x.8B Component GIOc 21.7.38 Component GIOc 21.10.20 Component GlOc 21.18.22 Component GlOc 21.21.26 Component GIOc 2121.30 Component GlOc 2123.9 Component Measurements: Specimen 20.5.3 21.4X.8B 21.7.38 21.10.20

L 7.4 7.7 8.2 9.0

w 5.3 7.0 7.0 0.1

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

Sericite schist Quartz gneiss Brown gneiss Brown gneiss Sandstone Granite gneiss Brown sandstone Hornblende gneiss

20.11 21.III 21.III 21.11/III 21.IV 21.11 21.IV 21.11 Specimen 21.18.22 21.21.26 21.21.30 21.23.9

T 1.3 1.5 2.0 1.8

L 9.6 7.3 9.4 7.5

w 5.3 6.7 6.3 8.5

T 2.4 2.4 3.1 2.5

8.4 Chi Thos - Spatulate Smoothers Form and Modification: These smoothing tools differ slightly from the other varieties in their spatulate working end. The sides are not used and the working end is thinned on both surfaces from use wear. The material used is particularly granular with the sand grains easily dislodged by scraping. Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 21.13.10 Component GlOc 21.IV GlOc 21.24.28 Component GlOc 21.IV Measurements: Specimen No 21.13.10 21.24.28

Sandstone Sandy quartz schist

Length 6.4

Width 5.2 3.4

4.3

175

Thickness 2.4 1.1

8.5 Chi Thos - Rectangular Smoothers Form and Modification: These specimens vary in size but are all sub-rectangular developed at both the ends. Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 20.7.3 Component GlOc 21.19.19 Component GlOc 21.25.38 Component GlOc 21.25/39 Component Measurements: Specimen No 20.7.3 21.19.19 21.25.38 21.25.39

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

Length 6.2 5.3 10.5 8.7

20.11 21.IV 21.IV 21.IV Width 5.2 3.7 7.2 6.5

8.6 Chi Thos - Elongate Smoothers

with square working edges

Sandy quartz schist Phyllite schist Biotite schist Biotite schist Thickness 1.9 0.7 1.7 1.4 (Plate 35)

Form and Modification: This group of chi thos is characterized by their elongate shape and thin cross section. All show extreme wear on the edges of the working ends. Three, GlOc 20.26.5, GlOc 21. l 0.1 and GlOc 21.24.14, are biconvex in transverse section while the other is piano convex. The latter, GIOc 20.9.6, has one end with a distinct gouge shape.

-CMPlate 35 - Elongate Smoothers

176

Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 20.9.6 Component GlOc 20.26.5 Component GlOc 21.10.l Component GlOc 21.24.14 Component

GlOc 20.11 GlOc 20.111 GlOc 21.11 GlOc 21.111

Measurements: Specimen No 20.9.6 20.26.5 21.10.l 21.24.14

Length 7.0 7.0 9.5 15.3

Sandy quartz schist Sandstone Sericite schist Sericite schist Width 5.7 5.1 4.6 6.4

Thickness 1.6 1.5 1.5 2.2 (Plate 36)

8. 7 Chi Thos - Coarse Smoothers Form and Modification: These resemble chi thos in form and probable manufacturing technique, but were made of a tough, non-friable stone with a high content of crystalline quartz. When the raw slabs of stone were battered against the anvil stone, the edges produced became coarse and rasp-like. Each has some part of the peripheral edge worn to some extent.

Plate 36 - Coarse Smoothers Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 21.8.5A Component GlOc 21.11/111 Granite gneiss GlOc 21.8.5B Component GlOc 21.11/111 Granite gneiss GlOc 21.23.25 Component GlOc 21.11/111 Fragmental volcanic Measurements: Specimen No 21.8.5A 21.8.5B 21.25.25

Length 7.2 8.5 10.2

Width 6.8

5.5 4.5

Thickness 1.8 2.4 1.9

(Plate 37)

8.8 Flaking Tools

Form and Modification: These two cobbles were not modified in any way except by pecking marks clustered at the tips of the dull points. Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 20.6.2 Component GlOc 20.III GlOc 20.25.18 Component GlOc 20.111

177

Granite gneiss Diabase

-

CM -

Plate 37- Flaking Tools Measurements: Specimen No 20.6.2 20.25.18

Length Width 9.3 7.2 9.2 3.9

Thickness 3.7 2.2 (Plates 38)

8.9 Slab Choppers

Form and Modification: This group consists of two whole specimens of 'ullu-like' tools made on thin slabs of sandstone and fragments of the working edges of 4 others (F in following list). The bifacially worked edges on all are round in plan and the opposite sides are more or less straight. All show some degree of wear. Specimen GlOc 21.10.16 is smaller but similar in every other respect. Specimen GlOc 20.3.3 is a very thin slab of granite gneiss, crudely bifacially retouched to form parallel sides and a rounded end. These slab choppers are similar to the flat slabs of rock found as a mosaic beside several fireplaces in the sites and discussed later in this section. Distribution and Petrotype: GIOc 20.3.3 Component GIOc 20.13.1 Component GlOc 20.30.3 Component GlOc 21.5.20 Component GlOc 21.8.IOJ Component GIOc 21.9.22 Component GlOc 21.10.16 Component GlOc 21.25 .18 Component GlOc 2 1.25.27 Component

GlOc 20.111 Quartzite GlOc 20.11 Quartz gneiss GlOc 20.11 Granite gneiss GlOc 21.11 Sandstone GlOc 21.11/111Sandstone GlOc 21.111 Sandstone GlOc 21.11 Sandstone GIOc 2 1.11/ 111Shale GlOc 21.11/ 111Shale

178

_OM_

-CMPlate 38 - Slab Choppers Measurements: Specimen No 20.3.3 20.13.1 20.30.3 21.5.20 21.8.IOJ 21.9.22 21.10.16 21.25.18 21.25.27

Length 8.3

IO.I 19.2 12.0

4.7 7.7 7.9 8.4 15.2

Width 6.3 6.3 10.0 11.7 2.4

5.5 6.5 5.2 10.3 179

Thickness

I.I 1.3 2.5 1.6 0.4 0.9 1.2 0.7 0.7

9.0

CRYSTALLINE CORES

9 .1 Bif acial Acute Flake Cores Form and Modification: This category includes a variety of cores and core fragments that have at least a portion of their peripheries bifacially facetted with the removal of broad random flakes. None are discoidal in the true sense of the term, but all have the acute convex edge like the segment of a discoidal core. None show any use wear on these edges. They are all similar in size and none appear to have been exhausted. No platform preparation is noted. One specimen, GIOc 21.25.23, is bifacially flaked along one edge and rotated , where a normal edge is flaked unif acially. Distribution and Petrotype: Component GlOc 20.111 GlOc 20.25.13 Component GlOc 21.11 GlOc 21.5.39 Component GIOc 2 I.II GIOc 21.13.3 Component GIOc 21.11 GIOc 21.13.5 Component GIOc 21.IV GIOc 21.18.23 Component GIOc 21.11 GIOc 21.23.8 Component GlOc 21.IV GIOc 21.25.23 Measurements: Specimen No 20.25.13 21.5.39 21.13.3 21.13.5 21.18.23 21.23.8 21.25.23

Length 6.9 5.3 8.6 6.3

5.5 7.8 8.8

Width 4.4

4.2 5.4

2.5 2.8 4.6 5.3

Sandstone Grey vein quartz Grey quartzite Grey vein quartz Sandstone Brown vein quartz Greens tone Thickness 3.1 2.2 3.0 2.0 1.9 3.0 4.5

9 .2 Normal Spalls Form and Modification: These spalls are large and carry an angle of 90 degrees between the platform and facetted face. On several specimens, smaller flakes were removed from the dorsal surface using the same platform and after the removal of the large flake. Others were also used as flake cores but the flakes were removed from the ventral surface . Al except GIOc 20.14.2 were struck from the broad face of a large core; that one was taken from the narrow end of an elongate core. Distribution and Petrotype: GIOc 20.8.3 Component GlOc 20.III GlOc 20.14.2 Component GlOc 20.111 GlOc 20.17.5 Component GlOc 20.111 GlOc 21.8.8 Component GlOc 21.111 GlOc 21.11.30 Component GIOc 21.111 GlOc 21.15.29 Component GIOc 21.111 GIOc 20.25.11 Component GlOc 21.111 Measurements: Spec No 20.8.3 20.14.2 20.17.5 21.8.8

Length 3.6 3.8 4.2 3.5

Width 4.3 1.6 4.2 3.0 180

Fused sandstone White vein quartz Pink vein quartz Fused sandstone White vein quartz White vein quartz Yellow quartzite Thickness 1.0 0.9 1.6 0.9

Spec No 21.11.30 21.15.29 21.25.11

Length

Width 3.4 3.6 3.5

5.5 4.3 4.2

Thickness 1.1 1.1 1.0

9.3 Core Fragments Form and Modification: These specimens are coarse primary spalls and fragments resulting from core preparation. Of the total only seven have no retained cortex. A few are large secondary flakes with one or two negative flake removal scars retained on their dorsal surfaces. All appear to be random portions removed before the core was regularized and usable flakes were taken. Specimens GlOc 20.13.3 and GIOc 21.9.3 show some evidence of having been used as hammerstones. Distribution and Petrotype: GlOc 20.1.39 GlOc 20.9.5 GlOc 20.11.6 GIOc 20.13.3 GIOc 20.13.4 GlOc 20.22.3 GlOc 20.29.6 GlOc 21.9.3 GlOc 21.11.38 GIOc 21.12.29 GlOc 21.13.7 GlOc 21.16.16 GlOc 21.20.20 GlOc 21.21.18 GlOc 21.23.14 GlOc 21.24.27 GlOc 21.25.2 Measurements: Specimen 20.1.39 20.9.5 20.11.6 20.13.3 20.13.4 20.22.3 20.29.6 21.9.3 21.11.38

L 7.4 4.8 5.1 6.7 6.6 3.3 6.3 6.9 5.1

Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component

w 6.5 2.5 4.8 4.3 5.2 2.4 2.9 4.2 4.4

GlOc GIOc GlOc GlOc GIOc GIOc GlOc GIOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GIOc GIOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

Grey quartzite Grey mottled chert White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz Brown quartzite White vein quartz White vein quartz Brown vein quartz Grey chert

20.III 20.11 20.III 20.III 20.III 20.III 20.III 21.III 21.IV 21.III 21.III 21.III 21.IV 21.IV 21.IV 21.IV 21.1

T 3.3 2.4 1.7 2.0 2.5 1.1 1.1 3.2 1.7

Specimen 21.12.29 21.13.7 21.16.16 21.20.20 21.21.18 21.23.14 21.24.27 21.25.2

181

L

w

5.6 4.1 4.6 5.2 4.9 3.9 3.4 2.8

3.1 2.6 2.8 4.1 3.8

3.2 2.2 1.8

T 2.4 1.7 1.4 1.8 2.0 1.4 1.1 0.9

10.0 BIPOLAR TECHNOLOGY

The cores and spalls of this technology are distinguished by their elongate shape, the heavy crushing usually present at both ends, and the linear scars extending from one or both ends and representing the removal of linear spalls. The cores include both small, flat, chert pebbles and flat, rectangular flakes, and were placed with one end an anvil stone and struck with a hammerstone . Technologically there appears to be no material difference between the use of the pebbles or flakes as cores. The grouping shown in the following is for descriptive convenience. (Plate 39)

10.1 Bipolar Pebble Cores Form and Modification:

Each of these specimens is either a whole exhausted core or a good portion of a pebble from which a number of spalls were removed by bipolar percussion. Each exhibits the heavy battering at both ends and retain at least an identifiable portion of the cortex. Several specimens were made on halves of pebbles split by a bipolar blow , and one of these, specimen GlOc 20.IX.19 has a relatively narrow platform and the opposing end is wedge-shaped, suitable as a chisel or splitting tool.

Plate 39 - Bipolar Pebble Cores Distribution and Petrotype:

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

20.IX.19 20.19.3 20.25.15 20.30.2 21.6.12C 21.12.16 21.14.15 21.15.16 21.15.18 21.16.12 21.21.16 21.24.20

Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component

GlOc 20.III GIOc 20.11 GlOc 20.III GlOc 20.III GlOc 21.11/III GlOc 21.III GlOc 21.III GlOc 21.III GlOc 21.III GlOc 21.III GlOc 21.11/III GlOc 21.11/ III 182

Grey quartzite Brown quartzite Grey vein quartz Mottled vein quartz Black chert Brown chert White vein quartz Yellow vein quartz Grey quartzite Greywacke White vein quartz Grey quartzite

Measurements: Spec No 20.IX.19 20.19.3 20.25.15 20.30.2 21.6.12C 21.12.16 21.14.15 21.15.16 21.15.18 21.16.12 21.21.16 21.24.20

Length 4.8 5.0 2.9 4.2 3.1 2.2 4.4 4.6 4.6 4.6 5.8 3.6

Width 4.0 4.2 2.2 2.9 2.4 1.7 2.7 3.3 2.2 2.5 3.6 2.7

Thickness 2.8 3.3 1.2 2.0

0.7 0.7 2.0 2.5 1.7 0.9 2.9 1.8 (Plate 40)

10.2 Bipolar Flake Cores

Form and Modification: Morphologically similar in all respects to the pebble cores, these differ only in that they were made on flakes and exhibit no retained cortex. They are somewhat more regular in section and the elongate flake scars generally extend from platform to distal end. Each end is sharp and wedge-shaped, or pointed. The nature of the technology makes it virtually impossible to tell if an item was used, particularly on the ends. Most of these would produce spalls very much like microblades, but the flake scars on some make them almost identical to the polyhedral surfaces of microblade cores; for example, specimens GlOc 21.11.22, GlOc 21.25.3 and GlOc 21.26.12. This group is different from the "Bipolar Flake Spalls" in that the linear flake scars are found on both surfaces and are consequently biconvex in longitudinal section. They can be sorted into two sub-groups according to the shapes of the ends, whether they were battered flat or wedge-shaped.

Plate 40 - Bipolar Flake Cores Distribution and Petrotype: Bipolar Spalling GlOc 21.6.12E GlOc 21.11.22 GlOc 21.11.37 GlOc 21.15.19 GlOc 21.15.21 GlOc 21.16.4 GlOc 21.17.3 GlOc 21.20.3 GlOc 21.24.16 GlOc 21.25.4

Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component Component

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GIOc GlOc 183

21.11/111 21.III 21.IV 21.111 21.111 21.11 21.11 21.11/111 21.IV 21.11/111

Brown chert Fused sandstone White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz Smoky vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz

GlOc 21.26.4 Unipolar Spalling GlOc 21.15.25 GlOc 21.15.26 GlOc 21.16.5 GlOc 21.17.2 GlOc 21 .24.22 GlOc 21.26.12 Measurements: Spec No 21.6.12E 21.11.22 21.11.37 21.15.19 21.15.21 21.15.25 21.15.26 21.16.4 21.16.5 21.17.2 21.17.3 21.20.3 21.24.16 21.24.22 21.25.4 21.26.4 21.24.22

Length 3.3 3.2

4.1 2.7 2.8 2.4 3.5 3.2 3.0 4.1 2.5 2.0 2.4 2.9 4.2 2.6 2.9

Component GlOc 21.III

White vein quartz

Component Component Component Component Component Component

Brown chert White vein quartz Grey vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz Fused sandstone

GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc GlOc

Width 2.3 3.2 2.8 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.7 2.1 2.2 2.4 1.8 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.2 1.4 2.1

21.III 21.III 21.II 21.II 21.II/III 21.II Thickness 0.8 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.4 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.0 1.1

1.2 1.6 1.1

1.2

10 .3 Flake Core Spalls Form and Modification: These specimens are lateral spalls from the bipolar technology, showing crushing on one or both ends, a concave ventral flake scar. Some are simply large spalls from cores while others are discarded split cores that were too small to be flaked. Some specimens may have been used as wedges, with clear wedge-like ends opposite heavily crushed ends. Distribution and Petrotype: Petrotype (N) I Vein Quartz (26) Chert (1) Measurements: Component Length Mean Full 3.1 20.11 3.7 20.111 3.4 21.11 3.0 21.11/111 2.9 21.111 3.0 21.IV 2.6

SD 1.1 0.8 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.0 0.3

GlOc 20 III

II

GlOc 21 I II

4

Width Mean 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.0 2.2 1.7

SD 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.5

5 l Thickness Mean SD 0.9 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.2 0.9 0.3 0.6 1.1

184

II/III III IV 11 5

Area Mean SD 7.4 4.7 9.6 3.7 4.7 8.3 7.4 1.2 6.2 1.5 7.2 1.4 12.6 3.8

Thick/Area Mean SD 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.7 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.6 0.3 1.3 0.4

1

10.4 Pebble Spalls Form and Modification: This group includes end and side spalls from the bipolar percussion breaking of small pebble cores. Most have a characteristic convexity to the dorsal surface and most have slightly concave dorsal surfaces. Others make up about one half a pebble and specimens GIOc 21.16.9 and IO are two halves of the same pebble. Some show evidence of use as wedges and one has a small area of unifacial retouch on one end and may have been a scraper. Distribution and Petrotype: Petro type

Total III

I

Quartzite Vein quartz Chert Siltstone Fused sst

I 2

10

I 1

I

I

Width 4.1 3.0 3.9 2.9 4.2 2.3 2.4 3.2 3.4 2.5 3.7 3.6 3.3 2.5 2.5 2.9 2.2

I I Length 4.2 2.8 2.0 2.3 1.6 0.9 0.6 2.2 1.8 1.8 2.6 2.1 1.5 1.6 1.2 1.3 1.7

9 3

I 13

I I

I

Polarity Bipolar Unipolar Measurements: Spec No 20.17.5 21.2.7 21.3.8 21.3.18 21 .3.21 21.6.7 21.6.12C 21.8.llA 21.15.23 21.15.24 21.16 .9 21.16.10 21.21.11 21.21.28 21.22.10 21.25.7 21.25.9

GIOc 21 II 11/111

GIOc 20 III

I I

12 5

Thickness 1.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.4

I.I 0.7 1.0 0.7

I.I 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7

10 .S Linear Flakes Form and Modification: These specimens are special flake spalls that have triangular transverse sections that, because of their gross character might be confused with microblades in some contexts . In these assemblages and the presence of the cores and other flakes of the Bipolar Technology, it is more likely that these are simply specimens in one end of a range of flake distribution.

185

Distribution and Petrotype: GIOc 20.4.7 Component GIOc 20.16.2 Component GIOc 21.4.22 Component GIOc 21.4X.6 Component GIOc 21.10.13K Component GIOc 21.11.10 Component GIOc 21.15.12 Component GIOc 21.19.6 Component GIOc 21.20.19 Component GIOc 21.23.15 Component Measurements Spec. No. 20.4.7 20.16.2 21.4.22 21.4X.6 21.10.13K 21.11.10 21.15.12 21.19.6 21.20.19 21.23.15

Width 0.4 0.35 0.5 0.45 0.5 0.45 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.4

GIOc GIOc GlOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc GIOc

20.1 20.1 21.IV 21.II 21.III 21.II 21.111 21.111 21.IV 21.IV

Dark grey chert White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz White vein quartz Grey chert Grey quartzite Grey chert Grey vein quartz White vein quartz

Length 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.4 1.8 1.7 1.9 1.8

Thickness 0.15 0.2 0.3

186

0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4

0.35 0.3

APPENDIX 4 CERAMIC INDUSTRY

Specimens of ceramics were recovered from three of the seven components in the two Chartier Sites, with the bulk of the sample coming from what was probably a single vessel in component II of GlOc 21. The ceramics were analysed on the following criteria - outside finish, cross-section, inside finish, temper, rim shape, decoration and vessel shape. The collections can be allocated to six main types, one of which has been subdivided into three varieties to emphasize some subtle differences that may or may not be culturally significant. (Plates 41 & 42, Figure 34)

TYPE A

Best represented in raw numbers this type is also found in both sites. It is also set apart from all others in almost all categories of analysis. The three varieties that are identified share the general characteristics but vary in details that are summarized in a separate section below. -OM-

Outer Surface

-

CM .,__

-CM-

Inner Surf ace

Plate 41 - Type A-1

Plate 42 - Type A-2 187

Outside Finish Smoothed Fabric Impressions - The vessel was made by paddling with a fabric-covered paddle producing a medium textured surface that was then smoothed by wiping, probably while the clay was still damp. The smoothing was thorough on the middle part of the body, becoming less towards the rim so that only the raised portions of the fabric impressions were smoothed from the punctates to the rim. The surface is mottled light and dark brown, to black in places, indicating variable atmospheric conditions during firing. Section Although occasionally massive, the section is most commonly laminated , toned from grey to black , and with a tendency to split parallel to the surfaces. Where the surface is light brown in colour the core is usually grey, poorlyfired, and particularly platey. In section, Subtype A-2 tends to be more fissile than the others. Inside Finish Distinct striations on the inner surface parallel to the rim indicate that it was wiped while damp . It was fired to a light to dark brown . Temper Common to all specimens was the use of crushed granitic rocks containing fine quartz and feldspar pieces that made up between 10 and 30 % of the material by volume. Grain sizes up to 0.25 cm were noted. A minor constituent of Subtype A-3 temper is crushed vein quartz. Rim Shape Rims are smooth and flattened with a slight swelling on the inside edge and both edges are rolled. Decoration The main difference between the three varieties lies in the rim treatment. In the case of variety A-1 the rims are decorated with impressions made by pressing narrow, cord-wrapped sticks obliquely into the rims of wet clay pots. The differences in depths across the impressions suggests that they were applied with a slight rolling action from outer to inner edge. The impressions are oriented at about 25 degrees to the rim-line and spaced at 1 cm intervals. The sticks must have been about 0.25 cm in thickness.

The rims of the recovered sherds of Subtype A-2 are not decorated, rather they were scraped, either green or when dry, probably by a sharp stone tool. No rim sherds of Subtype A- 3 were recovered. The walls are decorated by single rows of punctates punched from the outer surfaces at 1.3 to 2.2 cm below the edges of the rims. They are spaced from 1.5 to 1.8 cm apart. Two of 11 holes recovered actually penetrated the inner surface of the vessels. The bosses formed by the punch are prominent, nearly all 2 mm in height. The punch was about 0.25 cm in diameter at the collar, narrowing to 0.14 at the tip. The specimens of A-3 recovered lacked the punctates; either the appropriate segments are missing or they were not decorated in this way. Vessel Shape

Most of the recovered specimens of the type show an excurvate side-profile producing a large opening, a neck several centimeters narrower and a wide globular body several centimeters wider than the opening . No basal 188

wide globular body several centimeters wider than the opening. No basal fragments could matched with the type so basal shape is indeterminate. The opening diameter of the vessel represented by the small sample sherds assigned to Subtype A-3 was smaller and the absence of any excurvate sherds indicates that the side-profile was likely simply convex rather than excurvate. Subtype Notes The three subtypes can be separated on the basis of the rim decoration, wall thickness, tendency to part, and vessel shape. All subtypes share the outside finish and all have some tendency to part in section but A-2 more than the others, which must have been a function of the particular manufacturing process or the firing temperature. In contrast to the "cord-wrapped stick" decoration of A-1 the rims of A-2 are smooth and undecorated. While the sample is small the shape of the A-3 vessel was convex rather than excurvate in side profile, and its temper included some crushed vein quartz. Technological Notes The vessels were evidently fired on the surface in a wood fire in which the atmosphere was poorly controlled and the heat was variable, but low. It seems likely that the bases were set in the fuel. The nature of the walls and the impressions on the inner surfaces and the bases suggest that they were hand-molded. Distribution The Subtype A-1 probably represents the remains of what was a single vessel scattered over three contiguous squares of GlOc 21 and assigned to Component II. From the recovered sherds the diameters of the opening was between 23 and 30 cm. The sherds for Subtype A-2 were likely another single pot of which only a small portion was recovered. It was found dispersed through three squares in GIOc 20 and assigned to Component II. The remains of Subtype A-3 may be parts of two vessels and found in the northern part of GlOc 21 and considered part of Component II. Metrics Vessel No

Rim A-1 .7-.9 A-2 .9-1 A-3 Ind Measurements in cm Ind - Indeterminate

Thickness Neck .7-.8 .8 .9 Ind

Wall .6-.7

.8 .4-.7

Diameter Rim Body 23-34 21 Ind

26-37 23 Ind

(Plate 43, Figure 34)

TYPE B

This variety includes a relatively small number of sherds that are likely fragments of two vessels from Component III of GlOc 21. They are unique in nearly every other way from the other types. Outside Finish Smoothed Fabric Impression - The impressions are linear in shape, variable in depth and coarse compared with those of the Type A specimens. The degree of smoothing varies from very light to almost entirely masking the paddle impressions. Like Type A, the smoothing becomes less towards the rim area. The linearity resembles cord-wrapped marking but is much less regular and the individual marks are irregular and shorter, and lie at an angle of

189

about 15 degrees to the vertical. The colour is light to medium brown mottled. Section The sherds are massive with some platey structure but no tendency to part. It is light brown in colour through the section which is rough in texture.

/A.I'S/De

-

cu-

Plate 43 - Type B Ceramics Inside Finish The inside is smooth with the impressions of hand molding and no obvious marks from wiping. The colour is light brown and grey with subtle mottles of darker brown. Temper The matrix has a high percentage of temper which is almost entirely sand, mostly fine grained, with a little angular sand, possibly crushed sandstone. In content it reaches 35 to 40% by volume. Rim Shape The few rim sherds recovered are all smoothly flat and in at least one vessel the wall thickens towards the rim from a thin body section . Decoration The rims are undecorated but several body sherds show a single line of punctates about 1.5 cm below the rim. They are round to oval in shape, 0.35 to 0.5 cm in diameter ans 0. 7 cm in depth. The punches used were more pointed than in those used for the Type A holes and thinned to 0.2 cm in diameter at the ends. The resulting bosses are lower than those in Type A, about 0.1 cm in height. Vessel Shape The body fragments recovered are all convex in pro file with no excur vate sections . While the sample is not generous and no complete wall can be reconstructed there is no reason to suspect that the shape would be other than convex - conical.

190

Technological Notes The pots of this type were fired on an open fire but with better heat and atmospheric control than those of Type A. The firing was in an oxidizing environment and was consistent and thorough. From the palm and finger impressions on the inside, base and rim, the basic shape was achieved by hand molding. Distribution The sherds represent at least two vessels but al came from parts of five squares in the southwest part of GlOc 21. All specimens can be allocated to GlOc 21.111. Metrics Vessel No

A&B

Rim 0.9-1

Thickness Neck 0.85-.9

Wall 0.4-.7

Rim 15

Diameter Body ll3-18

Measurements in cm. (Plate 44, Figure 34)

TYPE C

This small group of sherds is clearly different from either of the previous groups, separated on the basis of outside finish, rim shape, decoration, and vessel shape. There are probably several vessels represented, at least three. Outside Finish Cord marking impressions are carried slight smoothing erasing the rougher areas deep and sharp, lying at about 15 degrees markings are particularly distinct suggesting ration after the vessel was complete. Finish is

up the body to the rim with a on the main body. Markings are to the vertical. On one sherd the that they were added as a decolight to dark brown.

Plate 44 - Type C Ceramics Section The matrix of the sherds are light brown and massive throughout with no lamination or parting. Inside Finish In colour, the inside is light brown with some medium brown mottling. It was smoothed but there is only a vague hint of wiping parallel to the rim.

191

Sub-type A-2 Rim Decoration

,

...

A-2 Horizontal Body Section -.inner Surface

·

A-2 A-2

Vertical Section

e

SUB-TYPE

Body

A-1

A-1

C Rim.

Decoration Profile

Body

B Horizontal

C Horizontal

r

Body

Section SUB-TYPE

B Outer C

Rim

Body Section

C

Surface

B

SUB-TYPE CM 1

Vertical Section

&

..,~, .~

SUB-TYPE

A.-1

...

.-.~~

Punch

Profiles

2

3

SUB-TYPED

Sub-types A-1 & A-2

V

Outer

Sub-type A-3 Types B & C

Surf ace Vertical Body ,. Section

_, ·.

.··""'

Horizontal

Figure 49 - Drawing of Ceramic Specimens 192

Body·

Section

Temper The temper consists of a mixture of fine and medium quartz sand and medium to coarse crushed vein quartz. Decoration The rims are smooth and undecorated except for one specimen that has elongate, small rectangular grooves pressed into the rim towards the outer edge. These are irregular in size and spacing and may have been related to the manufacturing process rather than an attempt at decoration. The suggestion might be noted that some of the cord wrapped marking may have been decoration in that they were added after the completion of the vessel. Vessel Shape The very few body sherds recovered make it difficult to reconstruct the vessel shape with any authority. The rims are all different in many ways, but are smooth and flattened with rounded edges and with the wall thickness on the thin side and about the same from the bodies to the rims. One sherd shows the presence of a distinct shoulder created by a swelling of the thickness at that point. The vessels are all small, from 9 to 12 cm in diameter. Technological Notes The technology represented by these sherds is unusually well-developed for this region. The vessels are neat and the walls delicate, evenly formed and consistent in thickness. There is no evidence of hand-forming or pressing, but there is also no clear evidence of coiling or wheel-forming. The vessels are small and firing is even and thorough with a well-controlled fire. Distribution The sherds of this type are all found in two squares in GlOc 21 and are assigned to Component III. Metrics Vessel No 21.7.7 21.10.1 21.10.2

Rim 0.7

0.5 0.6

Thickness Neck

0.5 0.45 0.45

TYPED

Wall

0.5 0.45 0.7

Diameter Rim Body 13 9 9

10

(Figure 34)

This type is represented by only 8 sherds from one square in GlOc 21 and could be a sub-type of Type C. The main differences that identify it are the rim design, temper, firing, decoration and possible vessel shape. Outside Finish Cord Wrapped Impressions - The outer surface of the sherds is densely covered with cord-wrapped paddle impressions, with some minor smoothing around the middle of the body. The regularity and evenness of the markings gives the impression that they were decorative rather than simply a result of the manufacturing technique, possibly added after the vessel had been completed. At least some of the smoothing appears to have been done with the fingers, possibly by handling while still damp. In colour it is dark brown to black.

193

Section The broken section is black from surface to surface and massive, with no partings or laminae. Inside Finish The inner surface is black to dark brown with finger impressions clearly preserved.

very

Temper A very fine sand makes up all of the temper, about 20 to 25% by volume. Rim Shape The wall of the vessel is drawn up to a gradual flare at the rim, which is flattened with sharp edges. Decoration The rim top is smoothed and regular and a row of cord wrapped paddle marks immediately below the rim . These are oriented about 15 degrees to the vertical but the marks are even and aligned around the wall. The width of the paddle is · difficult to estimate but it appears to have been about 2.5 cm in width . It looks as if the paddle was held horizontally and the inclination of the markings was due to the angle of the wrapping. A single line of punctates were punched about 2 cm below the rim, with holes about 0.5 cm in diameter. Both of the two examples actually pierce the wall of the vessel. Vessel Shape Only a small section was recovered but it appears that it was a small convex-conical vessel with a slightly flaring rim area. No excurvate or basal sherds were recovered. Technological Notes The pot from which these specimens came was unusually well-made for the Parkland area. The walls are relatively thin and the finish is delicate and fine. The pot is well-formed and the matrix is massive and consistent. It seems to have been molded by hand-pressing and squeezing in the rim area where the walls were drawn up. The firing appears to have been even and well-controlled in a reducing atmosphere. Distribution Eight sherds were found in two small areas of square 5 of GlOc 21 where they are assigned to Component III. Metrics Vessel No A

Rim 0.65

Thickness Neck 0.45

TYPE E

Wall 0.45

Diameter Rim Body 12 (Plate 45)

This group of sherds may be nothing more than parts of the same vessel identified as Type D, and consequently, it could represent a subtype of Type C. The main points of difference are the coarser cord markings, platey structure, firing character, slightly larger size as indicated by the rim diameters. All of these could be variations between parts of the same vessel, particularly considering the fragmentary nature of the sample.

194

Outside Finish Cord Wrapped Impression - The surface is marked by medium-coarse, cord-wrapped impressions and the surface was smoothed unevenly; in some areas the markings are nearly obscured and in others, the burrs were removed. The colour is light grey to nearly black, with an overall mottled light brown cast .

-

CM--

Plate 45 - E Type Ceramics Section The texture is only slightly platey in places, otherwise massive. The section is a medium grey from both surfaces where the outer one is grey or black, and where a surface is light brown in colour the section shows that this is a thin skin over the otherwise grey matrix. Inside Finish It is light to dark grey in colour and hand-molding marks can be seen on most sherds. Temper In most cases the temper is a fine quartz sand but in one sherd, it is too fine to be discernable under a hand lens or there is none. Rim Shape No rim sherds were recovered. Decoration Impressions of the edge of a cord-wrapped stick was noted on several sherds, oriented roughly perpendicular to the curve of the sherd. These are not smoothed and resemble the cord marked decoration on the Type D sherds. Vessel Shape The sample is too small to reconstruct but there are no excurvate sherds so the pot may have been convex-conical in shape. The walls are thin in section and the diameters indicated by the sherds vary from 15 to 19 cm probably reflecting different parts of the vessel. Technological Notes All sherds of this type are thin and massive in section. The firing appears well-controlled and in a reducing atmosphere. They were likely hand-molded.

195

APPENDIX 5 BONE INDUSTRY

From a total 1315 faunal specimens collected from excavation 13 were found to have been modified to form a tool or for use. In addition, there were 10 rabbit incisors, 9 of which were found in a group in an area of some 12 square cm, suggesting a cache for some purpose. Three other bones were noted with evidence of gnawing or use with no other sign of modification. The fauna! collection is tabulated in Appendix 8. The Bone Industry is divided into seven classes on the basis of the nature of the working edge or point preparation. Except where the function is clear from ethnographic data no attempt has been made to infer use. CLASS 1 -

SIDE BEAMER

N=l

(Plate 50)

Form and Modification:

A moose metapodial was split longitudinally to produce a long slender tool with the split edges sharpened and smoothed to act as a hide-scraper. The ends were shaped and smoothed for handles. The whole tool is weathered and the bone is checked. The tool resembles ethnographic tools still in use in many Dene communities. They are used to remove the hair from a hide during the curing process. The hides are spread across a knee or padded log with the hair side up. The beamer is drawn across the hide to scrape the hair form the curing hide. The lateral edges are bevelled and could be sharpened when dull. It is from a moose (Alces alces) and is a medial proximal portion of a right metatarsal. Distribution

GIOc 21.11/111 Metrics

Specimen GlOc 21.2.8 Length 26 cm Width 3 cm Thickness 1.5 cm CLASS 2 -

POINTED TOOLS

N=5

(Figure 50)

Form and Modification:

All but one of these specimens are made on segments of long bones from medium to large mammals. Specimen GIOc 21.15.7 was made on a rib. The bone sections were worked into sharp points, each slightly different in shape and preparation. Three specimens were made by rounding the lateral edge of an already pointed bone fragment, but with different angles at which the sides converge, from 15 to 38 degrees. Specimen GIOc 20.17.3 is merely a bone fragment with a natural fractured point that was rounded by removal of two lateral flakes, one from each surface. The pointed rib, GIOc 21.15.7, was made by carving and grinding the adjacent convex edges to form a point. From the bone thickness and character, all specimens could have come from a moose or woodland elk. Distribution:

GIOc 20.11, GIOc 21.11, & GlOc 21.111

197

Measurements: Specimen 20.17.3 21.9.16A 1.9.34 1.15.7 1.22.2

Length (4.0) 7.6 (6.6) 7.0 8.4

Width 3.1 1.5 1.8 1.8 2.8

Thickness 1.1 0.6 2.1 0.7 0.7

measurements are in cm.

Note - brackets indicate broken specimen and

N=2

SPATULATE TOOLS

CLASS 3

Tip Angle 40 21 15 28 38

(Figure 50)

Form and Modification: The ends of both these specimens have been worked into slightly asymmetrical rounded edges on the end of a flattish bone portion. In both cases this edge shows use-wear and polish. Specimen GIOc 21.9.15 may be a whole tool but GIOc 21.12.9 is clearly a tip of a broken implement . The former is bevelled back from the outside , cortical surface toward the inner surface of the long bone, while the other is rounded on the edge. Distribution: GlOc 21.III Measurements: Specimen 21..9.15 21.12.9

Length 15.3 (5.4)

CLASS 4 -

Width 2.8 2.0

Thickness

0.5 0.5

SQUARED SLIVERS

N=2

Form and Modification: These are two small fragments of long bones that were squared and were likely larger tools of some kind. Specimen GlOc 21.11.32 is rectangular in section and GIOc 21.2.20 was squared on one edge while the other is round. Both specimens were made from portions of long bones from medium or large mammals. Distribution: G IOc 21 II/III & IV Measurements: Specimen 21.2.12 21.11.32 CLASS 5

-

Length (3.8) (2.7)

Width 1.0 0.8

Thickness

WEDGE

0.55 0.45

N=l

(Figure 50)

Form and Modification: This mid-shaft of a femur was split and trimmed along the ends of the split edges, where the bone was worked into flat surfaces. One end was broken and the other was flaked bifacially to a thin wedge-shaped working edge. Distribution: GIOc 21.11 Measurements: Specimen GlOc 21.16.2 Length 15.5 cm Width 1.8 cm Thickness 0.9 cm

198

.c

21.22.2

21.9.34

21.9.16A Pointed

Tools

--------------~-------- ------··· ....

- ·-- ... . ..... . .

. ...

21.16.2

.ii:)

Wedge Ocml

21.9.15

Spatulate

Figure SO - Drawing of Bone Artifacts 199

2

Tool

3

4

CLASS 6 - GROOVED BONE FRAGMENTS

N=2

Form and Modification:

These are small fragments of long bone on which small grooves have been worked into one surface . Distribution :

GlOc 21.11 & GlOc 21.III Measurements:

Specimen 21.11.7 2 1.12.17 CLASS 7 -

Length

4.2 3.2

Width 1.0 0.7

RABBIT INCISORS

Thickness 0.4 0.4

N=lO

Form and Modification:

All but one show no modification but their provenience indicates that they were collected for some purpose . Nine were collected from a small area in the lower humus of GIOc 21, square 3. Specimen GlOc 21.6.1 was thinned by the removal of a spall from the inner edge, possibly by accident when the tooth was snapped. They may have been a variation on the Beaver - Tooth Gouge tool common among ethnographic inhabitants of the northern forests and used to carve wood, particularly for grooving and slotting . Distribution:

GlOc 21.11 or III

200

APPENDIX 6 MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES

This category covers a variety of raw materials with different manufacturing techniques, from prehistoric wood to historic metal. Each has a very limited number of items some of which are not modified in any clear manner but are obviously cultural from their provenience. 1. Hematite and Limonite

All are small fragments of iron oxide and two may be oxidized iron pyrite, used with flint to strike a spark for a fire. Only one specimen shows any modification; GlOc 21.23.1 was grooved with a sharp tool leaving a number of deep scratches on one surface that fan out from one side of a vee-shaped notch on the other. Three unmodified specimens were found in GIOc 20.111, two in GIOc 21.11/111,and the carved specimen in GIOc 21.1. 2. Concretions Ten concretions were recovered, two from GlOc 21.11, four from GlOc 21.11/111 and four from GlOc 21.111. All are irregular but the shapes, while interesting, lack any apparent significance. 3.

Bark Floor

Mosaics of bark were found in components GIOc 21.11 and GlOc 21.11/111, and are included in Features GIOc 21.5 and 9. They are made of spruce bark broken into shingles from 12 to 28 cm long and 6 to 20 cm in width, placed in an overlapping mosaic to cover the ground up to 8 cm in thickness. Both were about the same sized areas and were oriented at right angles to one another, that of Feature GlOc 21.5 to the north and that of GIOc 21.9 more westerly. The close similarity of the two mosaics was an important factor in allocating Feature GlOc 21.9 to component GlOc 21.III in the final analysis; it lay in the north of the site and was excavated from component GIOc 21.11/III. 4. Shell Fragments Small fragments of clam shell were found in GlOc 20.11 and in GlOc 21.11/111. All are mere fragments and no evidence of any modification can be distinguished.

5. Wood Tools Seven fragments of wood were recovered that showed some modification. All are small and were cut or shaped in various ways, but none can be recognized as any particular type of tool. Two appeared to have been burned prior to modification. They were recovered from components GIOc 21.1 and GIOc 21.11. 6. Pipe Bowl The single specimen of this class was found during the first season in the exploratory test square. It is a portion of a bowl from a clay pipe. The material is hard and smooth, the walls thin and delicate. The vitreous surface, the hardness and the absence of decoration mark it as an early trade item different in those respects from more recent times. Unfortunately the recovered portion is not sufficient to permit more accurate dating. On stratigraphy it was allocated to GlOc 21.1.

201

I I

CM

Plate 46 - Pipe Bowl

-cM-

Plate 47 - Rectangular Pieces of Iron Stock

7 . Metal - 22 shells

The four recovered specimens include three different brands and most likely were discarded at three different times , from three different weapons and events . All came from component GIOc 21.1. The two shells of the same brand were found within a meter of each other, have no milling marks on the bodies and were fired from a gun with a half-round firing pin. These specimens, GIOc 21.20.1 and 2, were considerably more oxidized than the others. The other two were also found in the same square but were fired from different guns and are different brands. Specimen GIOc 21.24.6 appears to be a little older, has two milling rings on the body, and was fired from a gun with a half-round firing pin. The other specimen has a single milled ring and was used in a gun with a square firing pin . It is also much less oxidized than the others. 8. Metal - Tin While removing the loose upper organic material from Square 8 of GIOc 2 I a small tin can was found. The manufacturers name and brand has been weathered and obliterated by rust. Now, squashed, the original shape was rectangular in plan and nearly square in lateral section. The top had been removed by twist-key about a centimeter from one end. The base measured five by eight cm and the height about nine cm. It resembles in most respects the Spam cans so common during the first half of this century. 9. Metal Fragments Two specimens of iron, GIOc 21.12.3 and 4, were found in the same strati graphic level as the pipe fragments and have been allocated to component GIOc 21.1. Both are heavily oxidized , the smaller one nearly solid rust. The latter specimen measures 2.6 cm by 1.4 cm by 0.4 cm, and weighs 5.7 grams. It is nearly rectangular, squared off at one end and with a notch at the other. The notch is 0.1 cm wide and 0.4 cm long with half-round profile and looks not unlike half of a hole, although the end appears to be manufactured not broken. The larger measures 4 cm by 3.1 cm by 0.9 cm and weighs 37.3 grams. It is roughly rectangular in plan, with a depression in one surface matched by a boss on the other. Rather than cast, it seems to have been forged by hand . Both of these fragments of iron are probabl y represent strike - a- lights , not-uncommon as trade items during the protohistoric and early historic .

202

APPENDIX 7 DESCRIPTIONS OF FEATURES

Table 17 - List of Features Allocated To Component Features Mission

21.1 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9

Pond

20.1

Kisis

Analysed Component GIOc 21 Narrows

20.11 21.11

11/111

21.III

Chartier

21.IV

20.111

X X X X X X