Bank of Upper Canada 9780773580763

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Introduction
A Colony without a Bank
A. Getting Started, 1817-22
B. Personnel, Principles and Practice: The Allan Era, 1822-35
C. Search for a Focus: 1835-48
D. Underwriting Structural Change: The Bank and the Union, 1849-57
E. A Casualty of Change: 1858-66
Conclusion: A Colonial Bank: The Upper Canadian Financial System and the Imperial Centre
Documents
A. Getting Started, 1817-1822
B. Personnel, Principles and Practice: The Allan Era, 1822-35
C. Search for a Focus, 1835-48
D. Underwriting Structural Change: The Bank and the Union, 1849-57
E. A Casualty of Change: 1858-66
Bibliography
Index
Appendixes
1A. Alphabetical List of Directors of the Bank of Upper Canada
1B. Bank of Upper Canada Directorates, 1823-65
2. Bank of Upper Canada: Selected Statutes, 1821-62
i) An Act to incorporate sundry persons under the style and title of the President, directors and Company of the Bank of Upper Canada [Revised Statutes of Upper canada, 59 Geo m, c. 24]
ii) An Act to extend the Charter of the Bank of Upper Canada and to increase the Capital Stock there of [6 Victoria, c. 27, October 12, 1842]
iii) An Act to Amend and Consolidate the Acts Forming the Charter of the Bank of Upper Canada[19-20 Victoria, c. 121]
iv) An Act further to amend the Charter of the Bank of Upper Canada, june 9, 1862 [25 Victoria, c. 36]
3. Bank of Upper Canada: Branches and Agencies
Tables
Table 1. Operating Ratios of Selected Chartered Banks, 1823-41
Table 2. Reserve Ratio, 1841-66
Table 3. Profit and Loss Statement: Selected Chartered Banks, 1818-58
Table 4. Bank of Upper Canada: Sale of Exchange on London, Profit and Loss, 1824-41
Table 5. The Bank of Upper Canada as a Holder of Government Debentures, 1822-41
Table 6. Financial Data: Bank of Upper Canada, 1837-39
Table 7. Summer Note Issue as a Percent of Yearly Issue
Table 8. Government Money at Deposit: Bank of Upper Canada, 1851-56
Table 9. Province of Canada: Railway and Municipal Loan Fund Debentures Issued, 1851-55
Table 10. The Great Western Railway's Bank of Upper Canada Debt, 1852-55
Figure 1 Average Monthly Note Issue as a percent of Yearly Issue, 1842-1848.
Table 11. Bank of Upper Canada: Financial Standing within the Canadian Banking Sector, 1841-66
Table 12A. Bank of Upper Canada Financial Statements, 1823-31
Table 12B. Bank of Upper Canada Financial Statements, 1833-66
Table 12C. Bank of Upper Canada: Additional Financial Information, 1823-65

Citation preview

WILLIAM ALLAN, c. 1850 Metropolitan Toronto Library T 15159

1 The B A N Kof UPPER C A N A D/ A

Carleton Library Series No. 141

CARLElQN UNlVERSrrY PRESS ChTAWA, CANADA 1987

/" THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

/

A Collection of Documents

Edited with an Introduction by

Peter Baskerville 4

TORONTO THE CHAMPLAIN SOCIETY IN COOPERATION WITH THE ONTARIO HERITAGE FOUNDATION CARLETON UNIVERSITY PRESS 1987

Champlain Society jointly with Carleton University Press, c43 @ The 1987 C35 ISBN (188629-059-7 (paperback) v. \3

C.2

Printed in Canada

All rights reserved - no part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the Champlain Society, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper.

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Baskerville, Peter A. (Peter Allan), 1943The Bank of Upper Canada (The Carleton library ; 141) (The Publications of the Champlain Society. Ontario series ;XIII) Co-published with: Champlain Society. Includes index. Bibliography: p. 1/33 / 7 ') ISBN (188629-059-7 1. Bank of Upper Canada-History . 2. Banks and bankingantagio-History . I. Champlain Society. 11. Title. III. Series. IV. Series: The Publications of the Champlain Society. Ontario series ; XIII.

Distributed by: Oxford University Press Canada 70 Wynford Drive DON MILLS, Ontario, Canada M3C IS9 (416) 441-2941 Major funding towards this publication was provided by the Ontario 4eritage Foundation, Ontario Ministry of Citizenship and Culture

FOREWORD HE Bank of Upper Canada was founded through political T manoeuvring by which interests at tiny York defeated a group at Kingston, then the province's largest urban centre. One-quarter of its shares were initially held by the Government of Upper Canada, which also appointed four of its fifteen directors. For many years under the Union of the Canadas, the bank acted as banker to the Canadian government. Its story offers one of the first Canadian cases of government-business relationships in the development and regulation of financial institutions. More than just the study of a bank, this is an extended account of the financial politics and practices of two governments, those of Upper Canada and of the Province of Canada. When the bank opened, Ontario was largely a forest frontier. By the time the bank failed, Ontario was a growing industrial economy, focused on Toronto by railroads in which the bank was much involved. Because it was at once one of the province's largest businesses and a major source of credit for other businesses, the bank's story tells much about how that more complex business world developed. This volume is the latest in the Ontario Series of the Champlain Society, which is Canada's oldest publisher of historical documents. The Series began in the 1950s, sparked by the interest of then Premier Leslie Frost in developing a more informed understanding of the province's heritage. The Society publishes the Series which is largely funded by the Government of Ontario, through the Ontario Heritage Foundation. Volumes in the Series present the main documents for their particular subjects, thereby giving readers direct access to the original materials of history. The Society selects volume editors for their particular knowledge of the subject matter, and the editors select, organize, and annotate these materials and provide an extensive introduction. The Series includes volumes of both regional and thematic character, the latter having lately predominated. The next volume, the fourteenth in the Series, will return to a regional

.

viii

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

approach, as it will be on the Upper Ottawa Valley to 1854. Volumes are also in preparation on the early history of the Niagara area and on the region at the head of Lake Ontario. Professor Peter Baskerville , who prepared this volume, has studied and taught in Ontario, and now teaches at the University of Victoria. He is well known for his publications on the history of Upper Canada, many of which have focused on its business history; and he is currently organizing the second Canadian Business History Conference. In preparing this volume, he has had to exercise great ingenuity, for the Bank of Upper Canada's own records, as the volume sadly records, were destroyed in the 1870s. It is a tribute to the editor's achievements, and also to the political and regulatory processes which resulted in publication of a good deal of information about provincial banks, that so much of the story can nevertheless be told. Queen's Park, Toronto March 1987

DAVID PETERSON Premier of Ontario

PREFACE INCE the pioneering work of Adam Shortt at the turn of the S century, little of a scholarly nature has been written on the Bank of Upper Canada. This is unfortunate, but easily understandable. The Bank of Upper Canada, unlike many nineteenth-century banks, was not taken over by any other bank and thus has no direct corporate successor in today's world. Its papers, instead of being preserved by a "parent" bank, were destroyed, sold in the 1870s at $20 a ton to a paper manufacturer. Doubtless many private and public figures breathed a sigh of relief after the sale. But posterity has been cheated. It is now impossible to reconstruct on a systematic and disaggregated level a coherent picture of the bank's routine business. Thus, while we can infer and surmise from fragmentary data and some aggregate figures (which must be used with great caution and sensitivity) the general nature of the bank's loan portfolio and corporate strategy over time, a detailed depiction and analysis of everyday lending activity is impossible. Given that no central archive of the bank's papers exists, I have attempted to collect materials from the other end. A list of the bank's probable major customers by economic sector, company, government, and individual was compiled and an attempt to survey the relevant surviving papers carried out. This involved searching many repositories in Ontario, Quebec, the United States, and Great Britain. Representative selections from good runs of information on the bank's relations with government, other financial institutions, and financiers and major corporations (especially railways) are reproduced in this volume. This material is supplemented by extracts from a rich series of published sessional papers and legislative assembly reports. Comparable material related to "representative" individuals seems unavailable. While I have made every reasonable attempt to secure permission to publish the documents included here, I would appreciate being informed of any oversights in this regard. Invariably the custodians and archivists in charge of the sources consulted have been of great help. It was especially pleasant to work in the congenial and professional surroundings of the Public Archives at Ottawa and the Provincial Archives of Ontario at Toronto. The staff of the Metropolitan Toronto Library's Baldwin

Room, of the Queen's University Archives, and of the Regional History Collection, University of Western Ontario, were equally attentive. Funds from the University of Victoria's administered Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council research grants helped defray the costs of research travel. The late Max Magill assured me that a study of this sort could be done. I believe him now and thank him for pointing the way. Angela Redish, a member of the Economics Department at the University of British Columbia, read an early draft of the introduction. Subsequent drafts have profited from her careful review. While this study commenced under the editorship of William Ormsby, his successor, Doug McCalla, had to confront and comment on the submitted material. Doug is an exemplary editor: professional, assiduous, thought-provoking, and supportive. It has been a pleasure working with him. Diane Mew helped assure stylistic consistency and trimmed loose ends. June Belton and Eleanor Lowther shared the burden of typing a manuscript which was, in the beginning, even fatter than it is now. They made the chore appear easy. Fran did more than keep me sane and Ian, Leslie, and Danielle provided the necessary perspective. It is to my family that this book is dedicated.

CONTENTS FOREWORD TO THE ONTARIO SERIESBY THE HONOURABLE ~ i i DAVID PETERSON,PREMIEROF ONTARIO ......... Preface

.......................................

Illustrations

ix

.................... facing pages lxiv and xcvi

Introduction xv A Colony without a Bank ...................... ................... A. Getting Started, 1817-22 xxvii B. Personnel, Principles and Practice: The Allan Era, 1822-35 ..................... xxxvii C. Search for a Focus: 1835-48 ................ lxxiv D. Underwriting Structural Change: The Bank and the Union, 1849-57 .................. cv ... E. A Casualty of Change: 1858-66 .............cxxvm Conclusion A Colonial Bank: The Upper Canadian Financial System and the Imperial Centre ............................ cxlix

-

Documents A. Getting Started ............................ B. Personnel, Principles and Practice: The Allan Era, 1822-35 ..................... C. Search for a Focus: 1835-48 ................ D. Underwriting Structural Change: The Bank andtheUnion,1849-57 .................. E. A Casualty of Change: 1858-66 .............

.................................. ........................................

3

21 103 161 215

Bibliography

377

Index

387

APPENDIXES Alphabetical List of Directors of the Bank of Upper Canada Bank of Upper Canada Directorates, 182345 , . . . . . . . Bank of Upper Canada: Selected Statutes, 1821-62 .. . i) An Act to incorporate sundry persons under the style and title of the president, directors and company of the Bank of Upper Canada .. , . . . . . . , . . . ... ii) An Act to extend the Charter of the Bank of Upper Canada and to increase the Capital Stock thereof . . . , iii) An Act to Amend and Consolidate the Acts Forming the Charter of the Bank of Upper Canada .. , ... . . . . iv) An Act fwther to amend the Charter of the Bank of Upper Canada, June 9, 1862 . . . . . . . . , . . .. . . . . . . . . Bank of Upper Canada: Branches and Agencies . . . . . . . . .

. ..

.. ..

.. . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . ..

TABLES

..

Operating Ratios of Selected Chartered Banks, 182341 . . Reserve Ratio, 184 1-66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Profit and Loss Statement: Selected Chartered Banks, 18 18-58 Bank of Upper Canada: Sale of Exchange on London, Profit and Loss,1824-41 ...................................... The Bank of Upper Canada as a Holder of Government Debenture~,1822-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Financial Data: Bank of Upper Canada, 1837-39 . . . . . . Summer Note Issue as a Percent of Yearly Issue . . . . . . . . . . Government Money at Deposit: Bank of Upper Canada, 185 1-

.

. ..

.

. . . . .. . .

. ..

. 56 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Province of Canada: Railway and Municipal Loan Fund Debentures Issued, 185 1-55 (fitg) . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . The Great Western Railway's Bank of Upper Canada Debt, 1852-55 (Ecy) . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . Bank of Upper Canada: Financial Standing within the Canadian Banking Sector, 184146 (Scy) . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bank of Upper Canada Financial Statements, 1823-3 1 (E cy) Bank of Upper Canada Financial Statements, 1833-66 (E cy) Bank of Upper Canada: Additional Financial Information,

..

.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842-1848. ........................................ 1823-65

Fig. 1 Average Monthly Note Issue as a percent of Yearly Issue,

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

INTRODUCTION

A COLONY WITHOUT A BANK FORFORTY-FOUR YEARS Upper Canada had as its central financial institution the Bank of upper Canada. In its origins, as in its subsequent operations, the bank reflected the tensions inherent in the coiony's economic and, to a lesser degree, political and social development. The-bank was not the central agency behind that development; on the contrary, i ~ K o f t e n e e ~ o ~ r ~ j . 0 7 i- i X i i i ~ -&%ivitie;-iiiiiiated -by-others-, oeen- Eom-forces-exteri~r-to-the. ---co!py. f i e Birikof Upper Canada was pre-eminently a colonial bank. It did not create the economic and political context within which it operated. It emerged from it. what gives to the study of this institution its greatest fascination, however, is the fact that the Bank of Upper Canada did not always follow rules that others set for it. Through its deviations, itdid f o s t e ~ c h g ewithin-a. colonial context. Appropriately, then, the study of such an institution should begin with an overview of that environment: an examination of the economic, political, and social milieu within which the bank commencek~he Constitutional Act of 1791 provided the legislative underpinnings for this context. That act approved a division of the old province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada and gave to each section an appointed legislative and executive council and an elected assembly. A governor general represented the monarch in Lower Canada and a lieutenant-governor did the same in the initially less populated colony, Upper Canada.' All legislation was subject to the sanction of His Majesty's local representative, a sanction which could be overruled by the crown, if done within two years. The colonies thus created were very much a part of what has been called Great Britain's formal empire. Ultimate legislative control rested with the monarch. Yet within this fonnal structure there was some possibility of flexibility and freedom concerning various local issues. The 1791 act granted representative assemblies the right to levy local taxes. Consistent with the self-denying ordinance of 1778, the British government remained aloof from that important function. The extent to which flexibility existed in other economic areas was less clear. A minority opinion held that C I

'The division of the two resulted from an order-in-council.

xvi

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

the clause which allowed the crown on the recommendation of the local legislatures "to make laws for the peace, welfare and good government" of the colonies was limited only by the stipulation that those laws could not be "repugnant to this Act." On fiscal matters the single power specifically reserved for Britain concerned external trade and navigation. Did this mean that the colonies were not subject to existing British banking legislation? Some, both outside and within the Colonial Office, answered in the affirmative: in a legal/constitutionalsense it did seem possible that colonists could establish a banking system of their own ch~osing.~ As we shall see, other more pragmatic realities dictated that variance from British ideals would be difficult. Not that there existed, in the early years of the nineteenth century, a homogeneous British banking system to which the colonials could, even if they so desired, aspire. At the formative period of colonial banking, British banking consisted of several disparate elements. While there was a general consensus, the exact pattern for the future was the subject of much heated discussion. The largest and most powerful of the British banks was, of course, the Bank of EnglanQConceived in the late seventeenth century as a mechanism to provide money for government expenditure and to facilitate increased circulation of a limited amount of specie, the bank prospered in this role for the & next century. While the bulk of its business remained with the government, it increasingly dealt directly with London mer, chants, and, as the official bank of issue, its note circulation gradually extended beyond London into the provinces. Because of the bank's respectability and standing - occasioned in large part by its close government connections - the public came to accept the idea of paper serving the function of specie. And, related to this, bankers came to realize that "the privilege of legal tender for notes . . . had to be gained by the public approval of a prudent administration of the bank over time. "' A. This prudence, coupled with the bank's primary focus on government finance, left the door open for the emergence of other banking institutions. Yet because the bank had been granted near monopolistic control the early eighteenth century, alternatives London itself there already existed were slow to *Paul Knaplund, "James Stephen on Canadian Banking Laws, 1821-46," Canadian Historical Review [hereafter CHR1, xxxi (1960), pp. 177-87. 3B.L.Anderson and P.L. Cottrell, Money and Banking in England, 16944914 (London, 1974), pp. 17-1 8.

lNTRODUCllON

xvii

private banks primarily involved with the financing of their own particular international mercantile pursuits. By the mideighteenth century these firms began to specialize and to finance the business of others in addition to their own. Glyn, Mills, the Baring Brothers, and the Rothschilds were pre-eminent examples. Despite the restrictions on private banking - such firms were limited to six partners, all subject to unlimited liability - such institutions began to emerge outside London after 1750. These country banks provided a variety of local services including, in many cases, the underwriting of industrial development. During the two decades prior to the formation of the Bank of Upper Canada, however, dramatic failures occurred in this sector of the financial community. Partly because of this, investigations into the state of British banking parallelled the emergence of banks in ,the Canadas. In one sense prospective colonial bankers had available to them odels other than those provided by Great Britain. Following Adam Shortt's publications on Canadian banking in the 1890s, most writers have argued that the origin of Canadian banks lay in e United States, not in England. As Shortt painstakingly demonstrated, the actual model for both the Bank of Montreal and the Bank of Upper Canada was the charter of the first Bank of the United States drawn up by Alexander Hamilton. It is also true that both the Canadian banks solicited advice from American bankers with regard to their early operations. Finally, reflecting southward trade and financial flows, one of the first foreign agents of both banks was the New York firm of Prime Ward and S a n d ~ . ~- g. What this process really led to, however, was not the complete Americanization of Canadian banking, but rather, the introduction into the Canadas via the United States of one particular variant of the British banking system. The Bank of England's charter provided the model for Al' ander Hamilton's bank. Hamilton followed the British example by establishing a close relationship with the government, requiring that only an incorporated company could issue notes, and providing for periodic

t

-

2

*For histories of Glyn, Mills and the Baring Brothers, see respectively, Roger Fulford, Glyn's: '1753-1953 (London, 1953); R.W.Hidy, The 'House of Baring in American Trade and Finance, 1 763-186 I (Cambridge, 1949). SL.S Presnell, Country Banking in the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1956), passim. 6A. Shortt, "Origin of the Canadian Banking System," Journal of the Canadian Bankers Association [hereafter JCBA] IV (1896), pp. 1- 19.

.

xviii

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

revision of the bank's charter. All these factors were to be central aspects of the Bank of Upper Canada. e one important refinement to the Bank of England adopted fr m Hamilton by Canadian banks was the practice of branch banking Even in this case the Bank of England had established brano albeit not to any great extent. Equally influential in the operations of Canadian banks were the practices of the private banking sector in London. Prime Ward and Sands was, after all, the American agent for the Baring Brothers. The Baring Brothers advised the Bank of Montreal on their choice of British agents.' Both the Bank of Montreal and the Bank of Upper Canada followed Baring's suggestion and operated through Thomas Wilson and Company in London. It is important to note that the only sector of early nineteenthcentury British banking without influence in the Canadas was that of the country banks. And, as suggested above, the operations of these banks tended to differ from those of the London private bankers and the Bank of England. The former often provided capital for industrial or long-term, speculative (at least in the sense of new and untried) ventures. By contrast, both the latter institutions ascribed to what has been called the real bills doctrine in the transaction of their non-governmental business. This meant that they would lend money - i.e., discount bills - only to legitimate mercantile traders who were engaged in the exchange of actual goods. Speculative dealings or discounting notes not backed by such goods were to be avoided. Transactions were to be short term in nature and if this policy was consistently followed, it was believed that the amount of money in actual circulation would correspond exactly to the needs of the e nomy. This perception of the proper fiscal system underlay the econ ic policies of the Tory governments in England between 1815 and 1830. As Boyd Hilton has demonstrated, the Tories did not wish to initiate a period of unlimited growth or "progress"; rather, they desired to stabilize and balance an economy that they feared was ''working too fast - building too fast. " 9 Whenever these leaders considered the issue, they concluded that a fiscal system designed to achieve stable and balanced growth in the

5

L

'Menill Denison, Canada's First Bank (Toronto, 1966), I , pp. 97, 125. 8The Bank of England would lend to country banks which in turn lent to industry, however. Boyd Hilton, Corn, Cash and Commerce: The Economic Policies of the Tory Governments, 1815-30 (Oxford, 1 977), p. 204. 91bid., 229, n. 1 13. The quote is from Robert Peel in 1825.

INTRODUCTION

X ~ X

mother country was equally appropriate for the achievement of the same general ends in her colonies. The fact that British country banking was held in disrepute in the early years of the nineteenth century, however, only partly accounts for its lack of influence on the genesis of Canadian banks. Of more importance was the primary economic role accorded to t hat role was simpbr-tn was one which facilitated the movement of goods, not one which encouraged the growth of local industry. These two factors - the disrepute of B n i h countqhnkngand have often been -%em-=, ._ Canada's staple colo~~uole--sufficientfiuses for the emergence of UpperC&ada>-comer'cid-&king system. As heewntiips of Joseph Schumpeter and Friti Redlich make clear, however, commercial banking struc-tures also emerged in non-colonial countries.1° This broader perspective syggests that similar local conditions fostered similar fin~ci&responses.~ In Canada's case, the role of thefn~ther... country and Canada's staple colonial structure may have prolonged; rather thm created, &is system. l2 In fact, imperial authorities only slowly became aware of the ways in which a financial system could, if not create original wealth, at least distribute existing wealth to the mother country's advantage. To appreciate this, it is necessary to look more closely at the mechanics of colonial trade. By the last quarter of the eighteenth century, the financing of North America's trade was a matter of considerable complexity. In the first place only British coins of standard weight and fineness could be legal tender and all trade transactions had to be reckoned in terms of that currency. The specie which the Canadas possessed was of three main types: French coins introduced prior to the British conquest, British specie from England, and the Spanish dollar, obtained via trade with the American seaboard colonies. In order to equate the ___----I-

,

I__----

I0For the influence of the colonial structure on the development of Canadian banking, see Tom Naylor, "The Rise and Fall of the Third Commercial Empire of the St. Lawrence," in Gary Teeple. ed.. Cavitalismand the National Ouestion in Canada (Toronto, 1972), pp. 1 4 2 . For a broader perspective, see Fritz Redlich, The Moulding of American Banking I, (New York, 1968, reprint) and Joseph Schumpeter, Business Cycles, abr. ed., R. 'Fels, ed. (Toronto, 1964), pp. 85-97. "This is explored in more detail in Section B. 'This is returned to in Section C.

XX

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

relative value of these coins, Great Britain legislated what contemporaries referred to as ''the par of exchange. '' After 1777 the Spanish dollar was rated at 4s. 6d. in England and 5s. in British North America. This meant that for a British colonist to acquire El 00 sterling he had to pay E 111.11 of his local currency. Not all coinage received the same rating. Because of this it is quite probable that only low-quality specie circulated in the Canadas. Good-quality coinage - i .e., that which was highly rated - tended to be hoarded or shipped out to satisfy international creditors. This differential rating of coinage had the effect of allowing bad money to drive good money away and led to continual colonial complaints concerning the scarcity and uneven quality of local coinage. l 3 Due to the expense, dangers, and simple inconvenience of shipping specie, trade was usually transacted via bills of exchange. A mechanism which enabled an individual "to satisfy an obligation in some distant place,"I4 the bill of exchange closely resembled a modern post-dated cheque. Thus individual A in Upper Canada might ask B in England to pay a certain sum to C in England at a particular time - usually thirty to ninety days after sight - that is, after the bill reached England. There are, however, two differences between a post-dated cheque and a bill of exchange. The latter was used for purposes of external trade and could be made payable in any currency; it could also be bought and sold. If individual A in Upper Canada did not have an English contact on whom he could draw to pay C, he could purchase a bill from D in Upper Canada who did have such a contact (0who could pay, at the appropriate time, the proper sum to C. Of crucial importance, from both the imperial and colonial points of view, was the fact that the buying and selling of these bills did not always occur at the official rate or "par of exchange." While many factors could cause exchange to fluctuate, one of the more important of them centred on the colony's balance of payments. In a period of heavy imports the rate of exchange was high and the colonist had to pay a sum above par in order to purchase a sterling bill. In a time of heavy exports, the 13Foran extended discussion of this, see Angela Redish, "Why Was Specie Scarce in Colonial Economies? An Analysis of the Canadian Currency, 17961830,'' Journal of Economic History [hereafter JEW xuv (1984), pp. 7 13-28. I4John J. McCusker, Money and Exchange in Europe and America, 1600-1775;A Handbook (Chapel Hill, 1978), p. 19; A.B. McCullough, Money and Exchange in Canada to 1900 (Toronto, 1984), pp. 17-23.

xxi

INTRODUCTION

rate was low or below par and the colonist paid less to purchase the same bill. The exchange rate also varied according to the amount and quality of specie available in the colony. When little or poor-quality specie existed, the rate was low. If good specie was readily available, the rate usually rested at par or above. Severe fluctuations in the exchange rate were usually looked on with disfavour by both the colonial commercial community and the imperial government. Generally speaking, both groups desired a stable financial context within which the exchange of goods and money could be conducted. The seasonal nature of Canada's trade made this difficult.Is The importation of specie at times when the exchange rate fell was one way to maintain stability. For obvious reasons this was impossible to accomplish on a regular basis. A second way was for individuals or institu-, tions to sell bills in the colony, not for actual goods or money, but on credit - for goods or money to be received at a later date. As Julian Gwyn has shown, this actually occurred in the 1770s and early 1780s at Quebec, Halifax, and New York. Agents for the British army contractors who were responsible for paying and supplying the British army in America were continually hampered in their work by the lack of good local specie. To augment this, they sold bills on credit, despite written instructions to the contrary from London. The precipitous calling in of these debts in 1783led to a celebrated series of local bankruptcies at Quebec and indicated that the imperial government failed to understand the relationship between credit and a stable exchange rate in a trading economy characterized by dramatic seasonal fluctuations. l Following the Revolutionary War, increased trade between Quebec and the United States further complicated the financial and trade exchange of the colonies with England. In general terms, imports from Great Britain into Quebec were more than offset by the combination of colonial exports to Great Britain plus British direct expenditure on military establishments, Loyalist claims, and pensioners. Beginning in the 1790s and most dramatically during the first decade of the 1800s, the colonies experienced a balance of payments in their favour and there was, ,

'SProfessorDouglas McCalla suggests, and he may very well be correct, that the seasonal issue only "threatened" to make matters difficult and in reality provided money-making opportunities for merchants "in smoothing the fluctuations." I6JulianGwyn, "The Impact of British Military Spending on the Colonial American Money Markets, 1760-1 783, " Canadian Historial Association, Historical Papers [hereafter HP] ,pp. 77-99.

xxii

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

therefore, a surplus of sterling bills for sale. l7 The exchange rate was further weakened by the fact that Canada's trade with the United States was at an imbalance and this deficit had to be paid for by the existing metallic currency. The southward flow of specie made the sale of bills in the colony even more difficult. Because America ran a deficit in her trade with Great Britain, however, this specie did not remain in the United States. With bills of exchange more costly in New York and Boston, Americans sent money across the border to purchase below par bills at Montreal for use or resale in the two American cities (A 1). Through this process some balance was maintained in the colonial exchange system. l Within this general context, however, available evidence suggests that much fluctuation and instability persisted in the exchange market. l9 From an imperial point of view - the British lost money when the exchange was low - some mechanism which would exert greater control over that market was required. Despite contemporary criticism (A l), the imperial centre once again did nothing to remedy the situation.*OIn the fiscal sector, colonial policy on the eve of the War of 1812 remained, as it had been in 1783, out of touch with both colonial economic realities and its own best interest. It remained for the colonials themselves to initiate change in this area. For several reasons the first attempts, including the first successful attempt, to establish a bank in the Canadas emerged from Lower Canada. Especially in the early nineteenth century, Upper Canada was merely an economic tributary to the lower province. As Adam Shortt has said, what the former lacked was not simply good currency, but capital.21 Yet the actual beginning of banking in both colonies was only a little over a year apart and the Bank of Upper Canada _ was the- first _____. chartered _._-___ _-bank--to opexate, _ _ _ _ _ Z

I7The suspension of specie payments by Great Britain in 1797 also affected the exchange rate. Currency that remained tied to silver or gold rose in value when compared to the irredeemable bank notes issued by Great Britain between 1797 and 1820. See McCullough, Money and Exchange, pp. 81,252-53,265. I8A. Shortt, "The Early History of Canadian Banking, 1791-1812," JCBA rv (1 897). pp. 235-52; R.C. Mclvor, Canadian Monetary Banking and Fiscal Development (Toronto, 1958), chapter 2. '9McIvor, Canadian Monetary Banking, pp. 17-1 8; McCullough, Money and Exchange, p. 262. 20A.Shortt, "The First Banks in LowerCanada," JCBA IV (1897), pp. 34243. It is possible that colonial demand for British goods increased when the exchange rate favoured the colonies and thus in a general sense Britain did not lose money at all. Z'A. Shortt, "The First Banks in Upper Canada," JCBA v (1897), pp. 1-21.

xxiii

INTRODUCTION

in either of the.colonies. -.--... To understand how this came about it is necessSWItoexamine with care the aims and mentalit6 of the local colonial leaders who participated in the imperial economic sysOnce again the Constitutional Act of 1791 provides a good starting point. The act was not a measure designed to foster the interests of the mercantile element in either of the colonies. In Lower Canada, English merchants dominated the import-export sector. But these merchants were in turn but a small minority of the colony's population and had to function within what was, from their point of view, an antiquated French civil law code for the transaction of their provincial business. As events demonstrated, they had little hope of ever dominating the assembly and thus changing this situation from within. Nor was the mercantile element in Upper Canada especially favoured. Lacking a direct outlet to the sea, Upper Canadian merchants depended on Lower Canadians to handle imports from and exports to Great Britain and in this situation the Upper Canadians were generally the junior partners. As was true of almost all frontier colonies within the British Empire, the major source of governmental revenue was customs duties. Upper Canada depended on a share of the customs revenues collected by Lower Canada. For various reasons this dependence became increasingly intolerable and, as will be seen, controversy over thedistribution of._customs _ .*-. duties contributed to t h e - e s___-t a b l i s m f - tliegank of Upper Canada at York. ----If the-Constitutional--kc€mmadeecapital accumulation in Upper Canada, whether for mercantile or other pursuits, problematic, it also accorded little social recognition to mercantile endeavour. Nor should this be surprising for, as Pierre Tousignant has made clear, that act reflected the social, economic, and political precepts of its framers. Those involved in its genesis and implementation gave primacy to the values of a landed-military elite. The future of Lower Canada was vested in the seigneurial class and Upper Canada's future rested with half-pay officers and Loyalists as landholder^.^^ Yet it is often pointed out that John Graves Simcoe, Upper Canada's first lieutenant-governor, succeeded in +

*

r

-.-

____I_-. ---------L___-__-----5--

--.-----a

22For a review of literature on the relationship between colonial leaders and the imperial government, see R.W. Winks, "On Decolonization and Informal Empire," American Historical Review LXXXI (1976), pp. 5-56. =Piem Tousignant, "ProblCmatique pour une nouvelle approche de la constitution XXVII (1973), pp. 18 1-234. de 1791 ," Revue d'histoire de I'Am&riquejkan~aise

xxiv

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

establishing only a pale imitation of a society imbued with the values of the British squirearchy. Despite clergy and administrative land reserves, early land abundance acted as a social leveller. Servants, as Mrs. Simcoe complained, were hardly to be found. By the early nineteenth century, Americans, or, as they were called, late Loyalist land-grabbers, bulked large in Upper Canada's population. The establishment of an Anglican Church became quickly threatened by Methodist circuit-riders from the south. Nor, much to Simcoe's chagrin, did a purely landedmilitary elite ever emerge to dominate Upper Canadian affairs. Rather, men engaged in mercantile matters gradually assumed positions of prominence and power. The local financial and marketing systems both gave to the merchant his power and severely limited his potential growth. In the absence of a sufficient circulating medium, Upper Canadian merchants followed a practice begun in the lower province and issued their own paper notes, known as bons, to the local settlers. They would redeem these notes at par only in October of each year: at any other date the settler had to pay a 12% per cent discount.24The merchant sold the produce he obtained to one of three outlets: the British commissariat, for local consumption; his controlling partner in Lower Canada, for consumption there, or re-export to England; or across Lake Ontario to New York State for American consumption. In the early 1790s the British commissariat probably provided the single largest market. In return for goods (including some imports), the commissariat issued sterling bills of exchange. This enabled the merchant to turn his capital over much more quickly than the average settler could and facilitated his emergence to a position of economic power in the colony. . Those merchants who did gravitate to the centre of power, however, were merchants of a certain sort. As Bruce Wilson has clearly shown in his case study of the Hamiltons at earlymgara, to succeed such men required the right bearing, the appropriate

24McIvor,Canadian Monetary Banking, p. 17; McCullough, Money and Exchange, pp. 76-77,97, n.9. 2SJohn McGill to J.G. Sirncoe, 8 Jan. 1793, in E.A. Cruikshank, ed., The Correspondence of Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe, I (Toronto, 1923), pp. 272-75. For a challenging interpretation of this era, see Douglas McCalla, "The 'Loyalist*Economy of Upper Canada," Histoire socialelSocial History [hereafter HSI SH) XVI (1983). pp. 279-304.

INTRODUCTION

xxv

contacts, and the proper beliefs.26 In this sense, the precepts underlying the Constitutional Act of 1791 blended with local circumstances to produce an elite that possessed many of the values of the British landed class - social stability, social deference, balanced and orderly growth - but applied these values to the pursuit of mercantile ends. Not surprisingly, their general views on the appropriate fiscal arrangement for the colonies accorded well with British Tory ideas on the proper financial complex for the mother country. The initial system employed by the commissariat in the letting of contracts acted as a prism through which the appropriate economic leaders could emerge. Since no pretence was made of open bidding, several long-settled merchants tended to dominate this activity and, due to this advantage, were able both to maintain their superior position when open bidding was instituted and to extend their influence over the gradual expansion of Upper Canada's trade into the export of wheat, potash, and lumber to Quebec and New York." As John S. Cartwright acknowledged in 1841: Anyone acquainted with the trade of the Canadas . . . must be aware that prior to 1820

[Upper Canada] was but a slight degree removed from a system of barter - long credit and large profits were the order of the day. The Country Merchant received from the farmer the products of his toil, and he sent them to his correspondent in Lower Canada . a few only had capital, it was the [custom?] of them to meet together, affix the price at which they would receive the product of the country.28

. .

He spoke on good authority: his father, Richard, was one of the pre-eminent Upper Canadian merchants in that era. . Yet it would be misleading to overemphasize the extent of the merchants' economic power in this period. Research by Douglas McCalla W c C W s c m has pointed to the degree of failure and uncertainty in even the highest economic ranks and suggested that competition rather than monopoly characterized the overall system.29As the local merchant moved from being a supplier of the commissariat to an exporter of produce, he became more 26Bruce Wilson, "The Struggle for Wealth and Power at Fort Niagara, 17751783," Ontario History LXVIII (1976), pp. 137-54, and The Enterprises of Robert Hamilton: A Study of Wealth and Influence in Early Upper Canada: 17761812 (Toronto, 1983). W n the relationshipbetween length of settlement and economic standing, see D.A. Noms, "Household and Transiency in a Loyalist Township: The People of Adolphustown, 1784-1 822," HSISH XIII (1980), pp. 399-416. 28KingstonChronicle and Gazette, 4 Sept. 1841. 3 e e the works by McCalla and Wilson cited in footnotes 25 and 26 supra.

xxvi

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

firmly a part of an international system of long credit. He became, in a sense, doubly dependent. His controlling partner in Lower Canada handled his British business and to receive a return on goods sent to Great Britain, the Upper Canadian merchant had often to wait for two years. This, coupled with the unstable market for sterling bills, gave him little, if any, control over what his actual rate of return would be. As the colony gradually became part of this international trading system, its merchants began to press, in 1809-10, for a mechanism through which they could obtain local short-term credit and a more stable exchange market.30 They also, especially following the War of 1812, began to press for a more rational and widely accepted circulating medium. During the war, army bills, totalling over f 1,200,000, had been issued by the Lower Canadian government under imperial guarantee. These bills quickly became the main circulating medium of both Canadas and facilitated the smooth operation of the relatively buoyant economy occasioned by the war. In fact, many contemporaries erroneously believed that the sound paper currency caused rather than aided the economic boom of those years. Following the redemption of the bills and the abrupt return of the British garrisons to England at war's end, Upper Canadian merchants found themselves overstocked and overcommitted in terms of current orders. As a temporary stop gap, they resorted to auction^.^' As a long-term measure, they pressed again for the founding of a local banking facility to issue notes, provide credit, and manage a market for bills of exchange.

30Kingston Gazette, Dec. 18 10 and Jan. 181 1 . Upper Canadian merchants were receiving some short-term credit from their controlling partners in Lower Canada. 3'Provincial Archives of Ontario [hereafter PAO], Ridout Papers, T.G.Ridout to Thomas Ridout, 8 June 18 16.

A.

GETTING STARTED,18 17-22

THEEVENTS leading to the opening of the Bank of Upper Canada at York in July 1822 underline the difficulties of initiating economic change within an imperialycoloni~ fr;?mewor@n&pgin_t,tothe emergence.of regional conflict and-a+.Ransferof economic power within Upper Canada. They mark the gradual congruence at an economic level ~f imperialinterests and-theaims-ofthe ~ o r k elite, Against a backdrop of languishing trade, scarce specie, iiiil' a complicated circulating medium composed of local merchants' bons and depreciated American nonconvertible bank notes (A 2), Upper Canadians presented two petitions to the Assembly in 1817. One (3 March) pleaded for the establishment of a bank at Kingston, the colony's largest trading centre; the second (17 March) asked for a separate bank at York, the colony's capital. The Assembly ignored the York petition and passed, with Legislative Council approval, the Kingston bill. According to the act, the charter would be "forfeited for nonuser" if the company did not commence operations before 1 January 18 19. Favourably impressed, Lieutenant-Governor Gore forwarded the bill in early May to London for the Colonial Office's consideration.l In passing the Kingston rather than the York bank bill, the Assembly had acted sensibly. Kingston was probably twice York's size in 1817 and, thanks to its position at the junction of the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario and to the existence of a large military establishment at that point, Kingston was Upper Canada's leading commercial centre.* That the Legislative Council, often said at this time to have been under the control of the Reverend John Strachan, the chief petitioner for the York bank and a leading member of Upper Canada's political elite, acquiesced in the Assembly's decision, accentuates Kingston's commercial superiority. In part the preponderance of Loyalists and well-established merchants amongst the incorporators of the Kingston bank helped make that institution palatable to both the *

/+"

'Journalsof the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada (hereafter JUC], Mar.and Apr. 1817, Report of the Bureau of Archives for the Province of Ontario, 1912 [hereafter Report of Archives]. *G.Stelter, "Urban Planning and Development in Upper Canada," in G. Stelter et al., eds., Urbanizationin the Americas: The Background in Comparative Perspective (Ottawa, 1980), p. 147.

,

xxviii

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

lieutenant-governor and to the colony's small governing elite clustered at York. Indeed, some of the promoters had been students of Strachan him~elf.~ Of more importance, however, the York group realized that without ~ingston'sfinancial assistance, they-lackedthe necessary capital to initiate such a venture. Nor, in 1817, could York look to the lieutenant-governor for aid. Since the relationship between York 6 d the lieutenant-governor was crucial in determining York's ultimate success in acquiring a bank, the situation in 1817 requires some explanation. From the imperial point of view, the lieutenant-governor saw no need for establishing a close relationship with any bank in that year. In fact Gore believed that the government's financial situation was strong enough to support additional responsibility for some civil government expenses traditionally paid from imperial sources. Since 75 to 80 per cent of Upper Canada's revenue came from its share of the customs duties levied in Lower Canada, the signing of a two-year agreement in May 1817 whereby Upper Canada would receive one-fifth of all such duties contributed to the lieutenant-governor's optimism. From 1797 to 1817 the division of these monies had been determined on a yearly basis. Although not all disputes over prior allocations had been settled, the agreement seemed a step toward both stability and the recognition by Lower Canada of the upper province's just requirement^.^ In this context, then, it is not surprising that the Kingston bank's charter contained no mention of government participation. Nor should it be surprising that York received no imperial preferment. Several weeks after Gore had forwarded the Kingston bill to England, promoters of the Bank of Montreal published their Articles of Association in the Quebec Gazette. Frustrated for the past three years in their attempts to push a bill through the Lower Cpnadian Assembly, that bank's promoters decided to commence operations as an unchartered institution. The bank opened its doors in November and, by June 1818, had established agencies at Kingston and York, Upper Canada? Alarmed by this intrusion and unwilling to wait longer for 3Arnongst the Loyalists and well-established merchants were Thomas Markland, Peter Smith, Lawrence Herkimer, John Kirby, Allan McLean, and Thomas Graham. For information on all the above, see Richard Preston, ed., Kingston Before the War of 1812 (Toronto, 1959), passim. 4G.M. Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784-1841 (Toronto, 1963), p. 100, JUC, 24 Nov., 22 Dec. 1821, in Report of Archives, 1914, pp. 18, 104, 108, 109. SDenison, Canada's First Bank, I , chapters 5 and 6.

INTRODUCTION

xxix

Colonial Office sanction, a Kingston group followed suit and published similar Articles of Association on 14 July 18 18.6 There was almost no overlap between the incorporators of the 18 17 bill and the promoters of the unchartered, or what came to be known as the Pretended Bank, in 1818. Included in the 18 18 promoters were Americans, relatively minor Kingston merchants, political This contrast in perreformers, and independent conser~atives.~ sonnel alarmed both the new lieutenant-governor, Sir Peregrine Maitland, and members of the York elite. Strachan, for example, remarked on "the want of respectability in the Members" (A 10) and Maitland pointed with distaste to the bank's American ~haracter.~ Perhaps because of this lack of acceptance in important circles, it took the promoters until April 18 19 to acquire the f 10,000 paid in capital required to commence operations. By that time a branch of yet another Lower Canadian bank, the Bank of Canada, had appeared in Kingston. By that time, too, competition was about to re-emerge from within Upper Canada. The receipt in May 18 19 of the royal assent to Kingston's 18 17 bank bill provided the opportunity for this re-emergence. It is not clear why the Colonial Office took over two years to return the bill, thus causing forfeiture. It is doubtful that the York elite played any part in this. Review procedures concerning colonial fiscal matters were complex involving the Board of Trade, the Treasury Board, and the Colonial Office. One student of the Colonial Office has claimed that ten or eleven separate steps were taken before a final recommendation appeared. Certainly the Treasury Board was notorious for its dilatoriness in such matters. Very likely the time taken simply reflected the low priority Upper Canada possessed at the Colonial Office in the early nineteenth century. lo Whatever the reasons for the delay, York's elite quickly 6Kingston Gazette, 14 July 18 18. 'Benjamin Whitney, the bank's president, was American. Peter Smythe was a representative minor merchant. Thomas Dalton was reformist in politics and C.A. Hagerman, an independent conservative, defeated the candidate who was Strachan's choice in the 1820 provincial elections. BPublicArchives of Canada [PAC], Colonial Office Papers, vol. 42, [hereafterCO 421, p. 362, Maitland to Goulburn, 1 May 1819. 9For the establishment of the branch, see Kingston Gazette, 20 Oct. 1818. For the bank's start-up, see ibid., 23 Apr. 1819. loPaul Knaplund, James Stephen and the British Colonial System 1813-47 (Madison, 1953). p. 209; D. B. Swinfen, Imperial Control of Colonial Legislation, 181345 (Oxford, 1970), p. 13; A.S.J. Baster, The Imperial Banks (New York, 1929, reprint 1977). chapter 2.

.

xxx

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

attempted to take advantage of it. A scant four days after Kingston interests had submitted a petition to the Assembly to revive their bank, the York group, led by William Allan, a rising member of the local elite, reactivated their old 1817 petition. Once again although by only three votes - the Assembly passed the Kingston bill and ignored the York petition. This time, however, the Yorkdominated Legislative Council requested a conference with the Assembly. The appointed delegates produced two bills both of which were immediately passed by the council. The first bill differed from the Kingston act in four ways: the names of the Kingston promoters had been replaced by York promoters, the head office was to be at the seat of government, the government was given power to own stock, and the charter was not to expire for nonuser until 1 January 1822. A second bill, to incorporate "the Bank of Kingston," was also sent down to the Assembly. Unlike the first, it was to have its head office in Kingston, it contained no provisions for government participation, and it was to expire for nonuser 1 January 1821. By such means did the York elite hope to pacify Kingston and at the same time acquire their own dominant banking institution. The Assembly passed both bills. On 12 July LieutenantGovernor Maitland gave the royal assent to the second bill and, much to York's chagrin, reserved the first for the consideration of the Colonial Office. Maitland acted as he did for several reasons. In the first place the original 18 17 bill which had received the belated royal assent provided for a bank at Kingston and did not provide for the right of government participation. In a strict constitutional sense, Maitland acted correctly in sanctioning the bill which most closely resembled the original Kingston act and reserving the York bill, with its substantially different clauses, for royal review. Although some members of the unchartered Pretended Bank were actually promoting the 18 19 bill, so, too, were many of the original 1817 incorporators and in fact, the latter outnumbered the former. l2 Maitland did have confidence in the bank's promoters. Beyond these points, however, it seems clear that Maitland did

-

"JUC,8, 9, and 12 July 1819, in Report of Archives, 1913. Journal, Legislative Council of Upper Canada, 8 , 9 , 1 2 July 1819, in Report of Archives, 1911. For the York bank's charter, see 59 Geo. 111, c. 24, and Appendix 2 in this volume. 'Tompare Kingston Gazette, 15 July 1 8 17 and 23 Apr. 1 8 19 with JUC, 8 July 18 19 in Report of Archives, 1913, p. 191.

INTRODUCTION

xxxi

not feel any pressing need for a bank with close government connections. Once again the government's financial context helps to explain his position. The two-year agreement with Lower Canada concerning the division of customs duties had only expired on 1 July. There was every reason to expect that a new arrangement could be effected and that Upper Canada's share, reflecting its growing population, would be increased. In 18 19 the lieutenant-governor remained sanguine concerning his colony's financial future. The economic needs of the lieutenant-governor and the economic aims of the York elite had yet to merge. Making the best of an undesirable situation, John Strachan advised his former pupil and Kingston contact, John Macaulay, that once the Kingston bank commenced operations an amendment could be passed providing for government participation (A 5). In this way, presumably, he hoped to gain control of the Kingston bank's operations through the Legislative Council. For his part, William Allan went quietly back to being the Bank of Montreal's York agent and awaited further developments. l 3 For their part the Kingston promoters tried valiantly to raise the £20,000 paid in capital as required by their charter in order to commence operations before forfeiture on 1 January 182 1. They failed. Funds of that magnitude were simply unavailable. Upper Canada's economy, never terribly buoyant after the war, was at the beginning of an even more dramatic downturn. Between 1819 and the end of 1822 the prices of wheat, livestock, and land fell by at least 50 per cent. l4 In part this was an inevitable consequence of an international recession involving both of Upper Canada's major trading associates, Great Britain and the United States. This impact was intensified by the operation of the British Corn Law of 1815. That act provided for the competitive entry of colonial wheat and flour into the British market only when British prices were at 67s. per quarter or above. This price range had been maintained through 18 16-19. But in 1820 British farmers enjoyed a bumper crop, prices fell and colonial wheat was excluded. Thus did the situation remain until a revision of the act in 1822 allowed greater freedom of entry in 1823. By that "He had been so appointed in June 18 18. PAC, Bank of Montreal Resolve Book 1, 16 June 1818,63. 14R.L. Jones, History of Agriculture in Ontario, 1613-1880 (Toronto, 1946), pp. 39-40; T.W. Acheson, "The Nature and Structure of York Commerce in the 1820s," in J. K. Johnson, ed., Historical Essays on Upper Canada (Toronto, 1975). pp. 180-84.

xxxii

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

time, too, the general economic situation in Great Britain and the United States was on the upturn. From the point of view of the Kingston bank promoters, however, it was a case of too little, too late. Capitalizing on Kingston's failure to raise the required funds, the York group once again moved into action. This time they enjoyed the eager support of the lieutenant-governor. Maitland, in fact, was quite desperate and ready to seize on almost any means to raise capital for his government. A general disruption of Lower Canadian politics led by Louis-Joseph Papineau had been used as a pretext by the Lower Canadians to postpone negotiating a new settlement of customs receipts. As a result, in 18 19 and again in 1820 Upper Canada had received little money from its major source of revenue. Nor, as 1821 progressed, did Lower Canada seem at all in a huny to commence negotiations.15 Severely pressed, Maitland sanctioned laws that authorized public borrowing to meet government obligations (A 6). And while it is true that the Pretended Bank at Kingston continued to operate through all this, Maitland also continued to view that bank with considerable distrust. Although the bank enjoyed a large note circulation, especially in eastern Upper Canada, the government generally refused to accept its paper in payment of government accounts. l6 This decision had a deleterious effect on the bank's operations which, coupled with bad and perhaps dishonest management and poor economic conditions, led to its collapse in 1822. In these circumstances the notion of the government actually borrowing from the existing Kingston bank was never entertained. Maitland looked to a new bank for financial assistance. It is worth emphasizing this point. His and, by extension, his government's involvement in the Bank of Upper Canada at York was not undertaken simply to feather the nest of a private elite. He and his predecessor had, after all, twice resisted pandering to York. Certainly the personnel in command of the bank had to be of appropriate background and standing in the colony. Equally certainly, had the chartered bank at Kingston been successful Maitland would have happily dealt with it. The unstated but very real precepts which underlay the Constitutional Act of 1791 still ISJUC,22 Dec. 1821, in Report of Archives, 1913, pp. 96-1 14. I6PAC, RG 19 B2b, Department of Finance, Receiver General of Upper Canada, Letterbooks, vol. 1 172, J.H.Dunn to C.A. Hagerman, 21 Dec. 1820; Dunn to J. Spencer, 28 July 1821.

INTRODUCTION

xxxiii

set the ground rules for activity within Upper Canada. Yet no matter what private advantage might accrue - and one obviously did and only certain private groups could realistically aspire to it the lieutenant-governor viewed the bank as a means of improving a desperate financial situation. This distinction of interest persisted, much to the bank's dissatisfaction, well into the future. In 1821, however, the economic interests of both the lieutenantgovernor and York's elite could best be achieved through mutual cooperation. The ultimate result was better than even the York promoters could have legitimately anticipated. In order to forestall a move to amend the Kingston bank's charter by lowering the required paid up capital and in the process reactivating the company, they supported, but did not initiate, a bill creating a "Provincial Bank" to be called the Bank of Upper Canada. To qualify for a branch, Kingston had first to subscribe for fourteen hundred shares.'' On 14 April 1821, the lieutenant-governor gave it his assent. It was stillborn. A scant few days later news was received that the royal assent had been given to the bill of 1819 setting up the Bank of Upper Canada at York (A 8). The York promoters proceeded under the bill. And why not? It gave them what they wanted: a bank at York, government participation, no requirement for a Kingston branch and no need for concern about any "Provincial" interest. It remained to put it in operation. According to the charter, £50,000 (four thousand shares) had to be taken up before directors could be elected. The bank could commence operations only when £20,000 in gold or silver was actually paid in. The government could subscribe for a maximum of two thousand shares. This the government did on 16 October 1821 and by early November the bank announced that four thousand shares had been taken up (A 14). At this point, York's bank ran into the same problem that had faced the defunct chartered bank at Kingston: capital to the extent of £20,000 was simply not available for investment in Upper Canada in the early 1820s. Like the Kingston effort, York's bank did not, therefore, commence operations before its charter became forfeit for nonuser on 1 January 1822. Unlike Kingston, York successfully exercised its political power, reactivated the bank and in the

.

I7JUC, 12 Apr. 1821, in Report of Archives, 1913, pp. 484-85. The bill resulted from a petition from Prince Edward County.

xxxiv

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

process amended the charter to allow business to commence upon the payment of E10,000.18Maitland gave the royal assent to the amended bill on 17 January 1822. One week later the first directorate was chosen (A 15, A 16) and on 29 January the first request for a 10 per cent payment was issued to all subscriber^.^^ After the mandatory sixty-day wait a second call for 10 per cent was issued, due 10 June 1822.20Business commenced in July. The fact that the bank obtained the necessary start-up money at a time of severe specie shortage and absence of ready investment capital has led to the claim, first published in 1885, that the bank obtained a shortfall in specie from the imperial military chesta2I Writing in 1897 Adam Shortt embellished on this and, on the basis of some dubious calculations, asserted that the bank received at least f 1,500 over and above the government's subscription from that source. Those in the twentieth century who .~~ have written on the bank have generally echoed S h ~ r t tThe temptation to do so is understandable. The lieutenant-governor, despite imperial reluctance, had himself drawn on the military chest to meet pressing provincial needs. 23 Moreover, the alleged activity corresponds neatly with a traditional view of the York elite, or Family Compact, as grasping, unethical, and in complete control of all government activity. It provides corroboration for the future criticisms made by William Lyon Mackenzie and other reformers of the bank as a "political engine of dangerous power. "24 What seems to have actually transpired, while somewhat less colourful than the picture painted by Shortt, is nonetheless revealing of the nature of bank-government and, to a degree, Family Compact-government relations in the early 1820s. The bank's charter stipulated that the paid-in capital had to be in specie. I8JUC, 4 Jan. 1822, in Report of Archives, 1914. I9PAC RG 19 B2a, Department of Finance, Receiver General of Upper Canada, Letters Received, vol. 1131, T.G.Ridout to J.H. Dunn, 29 Jan. 1822. *OUpperCanada Gazette, 2 Apr. 1822. 21SeeR.M. Breckenridge, "The Canadian Banking System, 1817-90," JCBA II (1894-95), p. 139, n. 1, for 1885 reference. 22Shom,"The First Banks in Upper Canada," pp. 20-21. He claims only £ 10,640 was paid up at the end of 1823 and this after a third call for 5 per cent. In fact, £13,415 had been paid up on 4,293 shares. As each share was worth £12 10S, the paid-in capital was exactly 25 per cent. See Journals of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada [hereafterJLA], 1841, Appendix 0, Section G; Acheson, "York Commerce," pp. 186-87; Denison, Canada's First Bank, p. 158; C.L. Vaughan, "The Bank of Upper Canada in Politics, 1817-40,'' Ontario History, LX (1968), p. 187. =PAC, CO 42, vol. 369, Dalhousie to G. Harrison, 11 Oct. 1821. 24JUC,1829, Appendix, First Report of the Committee of Finance, 8 Mar. 1829.

INTRODUCTION

xxxv

Notes were not sufficient. Yet, as has been suggested, that amount of gold and silver was simply not readily available in Upper Canada. Even the government rarely received specie in the conduct of its general business and accepted Montreal bank notes instead (A 21). Out of necessity York's bank, too, accepted these notes in lieu of coin from its subscribers. Evidently it intended to collect and present them either to the Bank of Montreal for redemption in specie or exchange them in American markets for gold and silver. While the bank was willing to accept notes from private subscribers, it was less willing to do so from the government. Sympathetic to the bank's problem, but without ready specie in Upper Canada, Receiver General DUM, the government's principal financial figure and an imperial appointee, offered to change some of the bank's holdings of paper currency into specie at Montreal (A 22). He made a special trip to Lower Canada for that purpose and by 19 June he had converted f 2,500 of government-owned notes (the government's second instalment) into American half-dollars. Since this was the only coin he could obtain and since it was obviously quite bulky to transport, he refused to exchange any of the notes the bank had obtained from private subscribers (A 23). The available evidence strongly suggests that Dunn used his contacts at the military commissariat in Montreal to effect this exchange and therein lies the origin of the story as developed by Shortt. While hardly a routine transaction - the commissariat was itself always in search of coin to pay salaries and supplies - it is none the less clear that the military chest did not provide the bank extra money. Both the timing and method of conversion employed by the bank concerning its notes from private subscribers remain, however, unknown. Very likely the bank, in violation of its charter, commenced operations with a combination of specie and Bank of Montreal notes in its vault. Since no audit, independent or otherwise, was made of the bank's holdings before it commenced operations, one will never really know. This episode points up, yet again, the severe fiscal problems besetting Upper Canada in' the early 1820s. It also suggests the extent to which the government was willing to assist the bank. In 1817 it had failed to raise a finger. In 1819 York was again bypassed. By 1821 the government, in a straitened financial condition, allowed the sudden receipt of the royal assent to York's 181%bill to take precedence over all else. There can be no doubt but that the lieutenant-governor wanted the bank to commence opera-, ,i

I

\,I' ,? 'v.

xxxvi

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

i

tions as soon as possible. In'fact on Maitland's orders, the receiver general had delayed borrowing in private quarters in the I hopes that the bank could soon meet the govemment's needs? Thus to fulfill the letter of the govemment's obligations, Dunn / went to a great deal of trouble and some expense. In the end, however, he did no more. To place the York elite in the role of master manipulator oversimplifies a more complex series of ! events. Colonial Office sanctions floated in at totally unexpected ; moments: they could be reacted to; they could not be anticipated. I The lieutenant-governor had his own agenda and his actions can only be understood in relation to it. Rather than assuming that an intimate relationship existed between the bank and government, i one should be aware that a real distinction of interests persisted 1 throughout this era. One should also remember that the govemi ment with which the bank had to deal was a complex and often ! i discordant apparatus. Given its multi-level structure, a one-toi, one relationship could rarely be effected. ,.'

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: : I

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=PAC, RG 19 B2b, vol. 1 172,Dunn to Thomas Clark, 14 July 1821.

B. PERSONNEL, PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE: THE ALLAN ERA, 1822-35

ECONOMIC THEORY POSITS that the basic functions of financial intermediaries are to "allocate financial resources efficiently and augment the flows of savings and investments. For two reasons banks are especially suited to fulfill these functions. They have an advantage over other financial institutions in that their liabilities in this period, bank notes - circulate as money. Banks also have power to do more than simply collect money from some and distribute it to others. Because they can issue notes in excess of specie on hand, banks can also create money and thereby stimulate growth and development in the area they serve. Historians have generally concluded that the Bank of Upper Canada achieved only partial success in carrying out its role as a financial intermediary in the pre-Union era. It has been charged with excessively favouring Upper Canada's political elite, locking up its funds in government debentures, and pursuing a narrow mercantile-oriented discount policy. While Upper Canada grew rapidly in this period, its economic growth was not diversified nor well-dispersed geographically. For these reasons, some economic historians have concluded that the Bank of Upper Canada and indeed the whole nineteenth-century Canadian banking system did not "fit' ' well with Canada's developmental needs. A close look at the bank's early years suggests, however, that much of the above interpretation stands in need of some degree of revision. This is especially true of the bank's political and government dealings. And while it is less true of the bank's discount policies, the strategies adopted by the bank in this area require clarification. "

The men who directed the Bank of Upper Canada's affairs in the 'Richard Sylla, "American Banking and Growth in the Ninetenth Century: A Partial View of the Terrain, " Explorations in Economic History rx ( 197 1-72), p. 2 1 1 . ?3ee, for example, Acheson, "York Commerce," pp. 185-9 1 ;Naylor, "The Rise and Fall of the Third Commercial Empire of the St. Lawrence," pp. 6 7 ; and H.C. Pentland, "The Role of Capital in Canadian Economic Development Before 1875," Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science xv1(1950), pp. 472-74.

xxxviii

THE BANK OF UPPER CANADA

1820s were closely associated with an elite -which, after three decades of internal growth and consolidation, stood poised to extend its power throughout Upper Canada.' The political and social aspects of that group's expansion have been well documented; its economic side has been relatively ignored. Demographic forces external to Upper Canada coupled with fortuitous geographical conditions within York's hinterland, the Home District, are seen as sufficient explanations for that area's strong population and economic growth in the 1820s and early 1830s. York's elite, the Family Compact,--so - -active --..--. and -- -dornineeringinh ---&61 lea ~nd.-~wial. .sense,-.IS .ch.ara-ctenzed