The Excavation of an Enclosed Middle Bronze Age Cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, 9781407307244, 9781407321929

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Abstract
Resumé
Zusammenfassung
Samenvatting
Sammendrag
Acknowledgments
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of figures
List of plates
List of tables
INTRODUCTION
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS
Site 13
Site 14
Site 17
Site 18
Site 19
CONCLUSIONS
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: RADIOCARBON DETERMINATIONS FROM GRANSHA
APPENDIX 2: REPORT ON THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGE FROM GRANSHA, SITE 17
APPENDIX 3: REPORT ON THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGE FROM GRANSHA, SITE 19
APPENDIX 4: REPORT ON THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGE FROM GRANSHA, SITE 19: ADDENDUM
APPENDIX 5: THE ANIMAL BONE FROM GRANSHA, SITE 19
APPENDIX 6: ANALYSIS OF THE LITHIC COLLECTION, GRANSHA SITES 14, 17 AND 19-20
APPENDIX 7: ANALYSIS OF NON-WOOD PLANT MACRO-REMAINS FROM GRANSHA
REFERENCES

Citation preview

BAR 521 2010 CHAPPLE THE EXCAVATION OF AN ENCLOSED MIDDLE BRONZE AGE CEMETERY AT GRANSHA

B A R

The Excavation of an Enclosed Middle Bronze Age Cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland R. M. Chapple with appendices by

Sean Denham Catherine M. Dunne, Meriel McClatchie Maria B. O’Hare artefact illustrations by

Stephanie Godden

BAR British Series 521 2010

The Excavation of an Enclosed Middle Bronze Age Cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland R. M. Chapple with appendices by

Sean Denham Catherine M. Dunne, Meriel McClatchie Maria B. O’Hare artefact illustrations by

Stephanie Godden

BAR British Series 521 2010

ISBN 9781407307244 paperback ISBN 9781407321929 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407307244 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

This BAR is dedicated to my father, Robert F Chapple, the first archaeologist in the family.

Abstract This volume details the excavation of a remarkably well preserved, enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery in the townland of Gransha, Co Londonderry, Northern Ireland (Site 19). The cemetery comprised a series of atypical cists, cut into the bedrock and lined with slabs. In a small number of cases, the original covering slabs survived in situ. While relatively few cists contained human bone, many produced large quantities of charred grain, especially barley. While a number of explanations for this form of deposition are explored, it appears consistent with the tradition of cenotaphic burial and commemoration current in later Irish prehistory. The cists were enclosed within a segmented circle, which may have included a number of alignments between a central stakehole and various other features in its construction. A short distance to the north a second segmented circle, though not associated with burial or grain deposition, was investigated. The whole was enclosed by a narrow, rock-cut, ditch with a possible southern entrance. This ditch showed a pronounced kink to the north-east where it was diverted to cut through the fills and post-pipe of a large, ceremonial/ritual posthole. A series of high-precision AMS radiocarbon determinations, many on barley from the cists, conclusively dated the activity to the Middle Bronze Age period and ranged from 3350±21 BP to 3062±22 BP. Later activity on the site included the construction of a remarkably rare iron-working structure, dated to the Iron Age (dated to 2187±46 BP), and the twentieth century AD disposal of a sheep carcass. While many aspects of the enclosed cemetery may be paralleled at other sites within Ireland, the Gransha site is, by far, the best preserved and most completely excavated. The presence of such large quantities of charred grain, at a site of this date and type, is also unique within the published record. The excavations of a number of other, smaller sites, discovered as part of the same development, are also detailed. These include two isolated pits, one undated (Site 13) and one of Bronze Age date, based on the recovered pottery (Site 14). At Site 17 a dispersed group of pits, which produced Early Bronze age vase/bowl food vessel pottery, was associated with a complex of stakeholes. Although the stakeholes were undated, they appear to form a small structure and are likely to be of similar date to the adjacent pits. Only a few metres to the north of Site 19 an undated, but likely prehistoric, group of features produced charred hazelnut shells.

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Resumé Ce volume décrit des fouilles dans un cimetière de l’âge de bronze et remarquablement bien préservé, situé dans le Gransha, comté de Londonderry, en Irlande du Nord. Le cimetière est compose de cistes atypiques coupées dans la roche de fond et revêtîtes de blocs de pierres. Dans quelques cas les blocs couvrants les cistes étaient toujours en place. Quelques cistes contenaient des ossements humains. Plusieurs contenaient de grandes quantités de grains carbonises, surtout de l’orge. Ce cimetière reste dans la tradition d’enterrement et de commémoration de la préhistoire Irlandaise. Les cistes sont entourées d’un cercle segmenté avec antre autres un piquet centrale. Un peu plus au nord se trouve un deuxième cercle segmenté sans vestiges d’os ou de grains. Le tout est entouré d’un fossé étroit coupé dans la roche avec une entrée présumée au sud. Des déterminations définitives AMS ont révélé que les grains trouvés dans les cistes datent de 3350±21 AP à 3062±22 AP. Un édifice sidérurgique très rare datant de 2187±46 AP et la carcasse d’un mouton datant du vingtième siècle ont aussi été trouves. Le site Gransha est de loin le mieux préservé et le plus fouillé de ce type de site en Irlande. La présence de larges quantités de grains est aussi unique pour un site de cette date et de ce genre documenté jusqu'à maintenant. Les fouilles dans plusieurs autres sites découverts aux alentours en même temps sont aussi décrites.

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Zusammenfassung Vorgestellt wird die Ausgrabung des bemerkenswert gut erhaltenen mittelbronzezeitlichen (Middle Bronze Age) Gräberfeldes im Townland von Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Nordirland (Site 19). Das Gräberfeld umfasst eine Reihe von atypischen, in den gewachsenen Fels gehauenen und mit Steinplatten ausgekleideten, Kistengräbern. In einigen wenigen Fällen blieben die Decksteine in situ erhalten. Während nur relativ wenige Steinkisten menschliche Knochen enthielten, erbrachten viele der Kisten große Mengen an verkohltem Getreide, hauptsächlich Gerste. Nach Untersuchung verschiedener Erklärungsansätze für diese Getreidefunde, erscheint es plausibel diese in Zusammenhang mit Scheinbestattungssitten und Erinnerungsbräuchen zu sehen, wie sie auch in späteren Phasen der irischen Vorgeschichte üblich waren. Die Grabstellen befinden sich innerhalb eines segmentierten Ringgrabens mit zentraler Pfostensetzung, auf die sich eine Anzahl weiterer Konstruktionsbefunde innerhalb des Grabens zu beziehen scheinen. Nördlich dieses Ringgrabens befindet sich in geringer Entfernung ein weiterer segmentierter Ringgraben. Die Untersuchung ergab keine weiteren Befunde. Beide Ringgräben befinden sich im Inneren eines weiteren schmalen, in den Fels geschnittenen Ringgrabens, an dessen Südseite sich ein Eingang befunden haben könnte. Der Graben zeigt im Nordosten eine deutlich Ausbuchtung, wo er durch die Füllung und Pfostenspur eines großen zeremoniellen (?) Pfostens schneidet. Eine Serie von hochpräzisen AMS Radiocarbondaten, die meisten aus den Getreideresten der Steinkisten, datieren den Schwerpunkt der Aktivitäten schlüssig in die mittlere Bronzezeit, zwischen 3350±21 BP und 3062±22 BP. Spätere Aktivitäten an dieser Fundstelle schließen einen außerordentlich seltenen, in die Eisenzeit datierenden (2187±46 BP), Befund von Eisenverarbeitung ein, sowie die vergrabenen Überreste eines Schafes aus dem 12. Jahrhundert. Obwohl sich für viele Einzelaspekte des Fundkomplexes zahlreiche Parallelen in Irland finden, ist Gransha eine der besterhaltenen und am vollständigsten ergrabenen Fundstellen dieser Epoche Irlands. Besonders die großen Mengen verkohlten Getreides an einer Fundstelle dieses Alters und Typs ist in der Literatur bisher einzigartig. Weitere Fundstellen in der unmittelbaren Umgebung wurden während der Ausgrabungsarbeiten entdeckt. Diese schließen zwei isolierte Gruben ein: Die eine (Site 13) undatiert, die andere (Site 14) aufgrund der Keramikfunde bronzezeitlich. Site 17 umfasst eine Gruppe verstreuter Gruben, die frühbronzezeitliche vase/bowl food vessel Keramik produzierten, die mit einem kleinen Pfostenlochkomplex in Verbindung gebracht werden konnte. Obwohl sich die Pfostenlöcher selber sich nicht datieren ließen, liegt eine Datierung ähnlich der zugehörigen Gruben nahe. Nur wenige Meter nördlich von Site 19 produzierten einige undatierte aber wahrscheinlich prähistorische Befunde verkohlte Haselnussschalen.

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Samenvatting Dit boek beschrijft in detail de opgraving van een uitzonderlijk goed behouden begraafplaats uit het MiddenBronstijdperk, in het gehucht Gransha, County Londonderry, Noord-Ierland (Lokatie 19). De begraafplaats bestaat uit een serie atypische crypten, uitgehouwen uit de rotsbodem en bekleed met steenplaten. In een gering aantal gevallen is de afdekkende steenplaat in de oorspronkelijke positie behouden gebleven. Relatief weinige van de crypten bevatten menselijke beenderen, maar vele bevatten grote hoeveelheden aangebrand graan, voornamelijk gerst. Mogelijke verklaringen voor deze vorm van depositie worden verkend, en deze lijkt overeenkomstig met de traditie van cenotaphische begravenis (dwz een grafmonument waarbij het lichaam elders begraven is) en herdenking zoals gangbaar in de latere Ierse prehistorie. De crypten waren gearrangeerd binnen een gesegmenteerde cirkel, waarbij in de constructie mogelijk een aantal uitlijningen bestonden tussen een centraal paalgat en diverse andere objecten. Op kleine afstand richting het noorden werd een tweede gesegmenteerde cirkel onderzocht, die geen betrekking tot begraving of graan-depositie bleek te hebben. Het geheel was omsloten door een smalle, uit de rotsen gehouwen greppel, met mogelijk een ingang aan de zuidkant. Deze greppel vertoonde een uitgesproken kronkel aan de noordoostkant, waar deze werd omgeleid om door de invulling en paalschacht van een groot ceremonieel/ritueel paalgat te passeren. Een serie zeer precieze AMS radio-koolstof bepalingen, vele van de gerst uit de crypten, dateerden de activiteiten overtuigend tot het Midden Brons-tijdperk met bepalingen tussen 3350±21 en 3062±22 jaar geleden. Latere activiteiten op de lokatie betroffen de constructie van een opmerkelijk zeldzaam ijzerbewerkings-bouwsel, gedateerd to het IJzertijdperk (gedateerd tot 2187±46 jaar geleden), en de stort van een karkas van een schaap in de 20e Eeuw AD. Terwijl diverse aspecten van de omsloten begraafplaats overeenkomsten vertonen met andere begraafplaatsen in Ierland, is de Gransha lokatie veruit het best behouden en meest compleet opgegraven toonbeeld. De aanwezigheid van dergelijke grote hoeveelheden aangebrand graan, van een lokatie van dit type en deze oudheid, is ook uniek in de gepubliceerde documentatie. De opgravingen van een aantal andere, kleinere lokaties, ontdekt in het kader van hetzelfde project, worden ook in detail beschreven. Deze betreffen twee alleenstaande opgravingen, de ene ongedateerd (Lokatie 13) en de andere uit het Brons-tijdperk, gebaseerd op het aangetroffen aardewerk (Lokatie 14). Op Lokatie 17 werd een verspreide groep uitgravingen gevonden die verband hadden me een complex van paalgaten; hier werd vaas- of kom-type aardewerk voor levensmiddelen uit het Vroege Brons-tijdperk aangetroffen. Hoewel de paalgaten zelf ongedateerd blijven, lijken ze een kleine structuur te vormen die waarschijnlijk uit hetzelfde tijdsbestek dateert. Enkele meters ten noorden van Lokatie 19 is een ongedateerde, maar waarschijnlijk prehistorische, groep objecten waar aangebrande doppen van hazelnoten aangetroffen werden.

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Sammendrag I dette bindet fortelles det om utgravningen av et særs godt bevart gravfelt med innhegning fra midten av bronsealder i landsbyen Gransha i Londonderry, Nord-Irland (felt 19). Gravfeltet omfattet en rekke utypiske steinkister som var skjært ut i grunnfjellet og dekket med heller. I noen få tilfeller var de opprinnelige dekkhellene in situ. Mens relativt få steinkister inneholdt menneskebein, inneholdt mange av steinkistene forkullet korn, og da spesielt bygg. Senere i den irske forhistorien forekom slike nedleggelser av korn ofte blant annet i kenotafer og minnesmerker. Rundt steinkistene var det en ukomplett sirkulær voll som kan ha inneholdt en gruppering med et sentralt staurhull og flere andre strukturer. Litt lengre nord ble en annen ukomplett voll undersøkt. Denne ble ikke forbundet med gravlegging eller oppbevaring av korn. Rundt hele gravfeltet var det en smal grøft med mulig inngang i sør som var hugget ut i grunnfjellet. Grøften hadde et tydelig brudd i nord-øst hvor den skar gjennom jordmassen og stolpen i et stort rituelt stolpehull. Det ble tatt flere radiokarbonprøver blant annet fra byggkornet i steinkistene. Prøvene ga dateringer fra midten av bronsealder, i tidsrommet 3350±21 BP til 3062±22 BP. Det har også vært aktivitet på området etter dette. Det ble blant annet funnet en sjelden struktur forbundet med jernproduksjon som ble datert til jernalder. I tillegg ble det funnet kadaver av sau fra moderne tid. I Irland finnes det mange paralleller til gravfeltet i Gransha, men dette gravfeltet er hittil det best bevarte og mest fullstendig undersøkte gravfeltet. Forekomsten av slike mengder forkullet korn på et slikt felt fra denne perioden er enestående. Det fortelles også om utgravningen av mange andre felt innenfor det samme området. Blant annet kan det nevnes to isolerte groper, en er udaterbar (felt 13) og en er med grunnlag i funn av keramikk datert til bronsealder (felt 14). På felt 17 ble en gruppe av spredte groper med keramikk fra eldre bronsealder forbundet med en samling av staurhull. Selv om staurhullene ikke er daterbare, virker det som de former en liten struktur og de er høyst sannsynlig fra samme periode som de omliggende gropene. Bare et par meter nord for felt 10, finnes en udaterbar, med likevel forhistorisk gruppe av strukturer som inneholdt forkullet hasselnøttskall.

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Acknowledgments I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to the following for their support and assistance: the management and office staff of Northern Archaeological Consultancy Ltd, especially Stephen Gilmore and Lianne Heaney. The Board of Governors and staff of Oakgrove Integrated College. Hughes McMichael Ltd and their site workers and subcontractors for making every facility available to ensure the smooth running of the excavation. The site supervisors: Colin Dunlop, Lianne Heaney, Simon J Large and Trevor Rice. The site crew and post-excavation team: Will Adam, Jonathan H Barkley, Diana McCormack, Linda McKee, Laura Wright (nee Rogan), Leilanie Stewart, Seamus Walls and Neil Yeaman for their hard work and good humour, often in inclement weather. Stephanie Godden for the excellent artefact illustrations. Sinéad McCartan, UM; Gill Plunkett, QUB; Richard Warner, UM and Prof P C Woodman, UCC, for many and varied discussions and providing valuable advice. In particular, the late David Smith who spent many hours thinking about this unusual site and offering his wisdom, insights, kindness and multiple cups of coffee. Nick Maxwell and the editorial team at Archaeology Ireland for their willingness to publishing the first summaries of these sites and bringing them to wider attention. Similarly, Cormac Bourke and the Ulster Journal of Archaeology for facilitating the detailed publication of Mesolithic, Neolithic and Early Bronze Age portions of this project (Sites 1-12). BAR, for accepting this manuscript for publication. My parents Robert F. and Maureen Chapple, along with my ‘Belfast Parents’ Jim and Arlene Erwin for so much encouragement when it was most needed. Catherine M. Dunne, Sean Denham, Maria B. O’Hare and Meriel McClatchie for their excellent specialist reports. Those who prepared the foreign language translations of the abstract: Peter Paul van Dijk (Dutch), Frances Cruden (French), Daniel Büchner (German) and Sean Denham (Norwegian). Cóilín Ó Drisceoil for generously supplying offprints of his work at short notice. Many of the above took time to read and edit early drafts of this work, in particular Jacky Sommerville, Stephen Gilmore, Meriel McClatchie, Jonathan H Barkley and Brian Dolan offered valuable direction and advice. I thank you all for your efforts and hope that, together, we have spotted all the errors, though any remaining ones are mine alone – no matter how much I would like to share any blame! My sons Bertie and Oscar, for assisting with the writing and proof-reading … in ways that only a three- and one-year-old can … mostly with crayons, toy trains, and dinosaurs! As with everything I publish, my final thanks go to my wife, the lovely and wonderful Jeanne, for her ever appreciated encouragement, support, patience, cups of coffee, good food and stimulating conversation … not to mention allowing me to shirk child-minding duties for hours at a time. Thank you all.

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CONTENTS

List of figures List of plates List of tables

1 3 4

Introduction Setting and access

6 6

Archaeological excavations Previous development

7 7

Site 13 Excavation Discussion

8 8 9

Excavation Discussion

9 9 9

Site 14

Site 17 Pits: excavation Pits: discussion Stakehole complex: excavation Stakehole complex: discussion

10 11 15 15 19

Excavation Discussion

19 19 21

Site 18

Site 19 External features: excavation External features: discussion Pit, posthole and stakehole structure: excavation Pit, posthole and stakehole structure: discussion Interpreting the form of the structure Interpreting the function of the structure Features predating the C1915 ditch: excavation Features predating the C1915 ditch: discussion The C1915 ditch and related features: excavation Intermediate features: excavation The inner ditch: excavation Internal features: excavation Ritual complex: discussion Discussion of the physical remains: the segmented inner ditch The features enclosed by the segmented inner ditch The Function of the cists The original appearance of the cists Parallels for the unfinished macehead Other features enclosed by the segmented inner ditch The central stakehole and possible alignments The pottery from the internal features Discussion of the intermediate features The second segmented circle The external ditch Analysis of artefact deposition in the outer ditch Entry through the outer ditch Overview of the pottery Overview of the charred grain and seeds Overview of the lithic collection The Bronze Age in Co Londonderry

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23 24 29 30 38 38 38 39 39 42 57 67 68 83 83 83 86 90 90 90 91 92 92 93 94 96 97 98 102 102 102

Radiocarbon dating Parallels for the radiocarbon determinations Parallels for Middle Bronze Age burial Phasing of the site construction and activity Features post-dating the C1915 ditch: excavation Features post-dating the C1915 ditch: discussion Modern features: excavation Modern features: discussion

104 105 107 108 109 109 109 110

Conclusions

111

Appendices Appendix 1: Radiocarbon determinations from Gransha Appendix 2: Report on the ceramic assemblage from Gransha, Site 17 Appendix 3: Report on the ceramic assemblage from Gransha, Site 19 Appendix 4: Report on the ceramic assemblage from Gransha, Site 19: Addendum Appendix 5: The animal bone from Gransha, Site 19 Appendix 6: Analysis of the lithic collection, Gransha sites 14, 17 and 19-20 Appendix 7: Analysis of non-wood plant macro-remains from Gransha

112 113 116 117 125 127 128 140

References

144

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List of figures Figure 1: Locations of archaeologically investigated Sites 1-20. Figure 2: Location of Gransha, Londonderry within Northern Ireland. Figure 3: Sites in the vicinity of Gransha Hospital, showing LDY 14:13 Ecclesiastical Site. Oakgrove Integrated College development site is outlined in black. Figure 4: Overview plan of excavated sites 13-4 & 17-9. Figure 5: Main: Post-excavation plan of pit C1300. Inset: half section of pit C1300. Figure 6: Main: post-excavation plan of pit C1400. Inset: half section of pit C1400. Figure 7: Broken, pierced schist fragment (AE/02/76: 80). Figure 8: Flint end scraper (AE/02/76: 85). Figure 9: Post-excavation plan of Site 17. Figure 10: Detailed post-excavation plans of Site 17 pits C1700, C1702, C1726, C1728, C1731 & C1735. Figure 11: Half sections through Site 17 pits C1700, C1702, C1726, C1728, C1731 & C1735. Figure 12: Post-excavation plan of Site 17 stakehole complex: C1704, C1706, C1708, C1710, C1712, C1714, C1716, C1718, C1720, C1722, C1737, C1739, C1741, C1743, C1745, C1747, C1749, C1751, C1753, C1755, C1757, C1759, C1761, C1763, C1765, C1767, C1769 & C1771, and posthole C1733. Figure 13: Profiles across Site 17 stakeholes C1704, C1706, C1708, C1710, C1712, C1714, C1716, C1718, C1720, C1722, C1737, C1739, C1741, C1743, C1745, C1747, C1749, C1751, C1753, C1755, C1757, C1759, C1761, C1763, C1765, C1767, C1769 & C1771, and posthole C1733. Figure 14: Interpretative plan of Site 17 stakehole complex: C1704, C1706, C1708, C1710, C1712, C1714, C1716, C1718, C1720, C1722, C1737, C1739, C1741, C1743, C1745, C1747, C1749, C1751, C1753, C1755, C1757, C1759, C1761, C1763, C1765, C1767, C1769 & C1771, and posthole C1733. Figure 15: Post-excavation plan of Site 18. Figure 16: Half sections through Site 18 pits C1800, C1802, C1804, C1806, C1812, C1826 & C1836, and profiles across Site 18 stakeholes C1828, C1830, C1832, C1834 & C1838. Figure 17: Unfinished mace head (AE/02/76: 422). Figure 18: Pointed flint flake (AE/02/76: 425). Figure 19: Possible rubbing stone for saddle quern (AE/02/76: 423). Figure 20: Post-excavation plan of Site 19. Figure 21: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 external features, to the north-east of the C1915 ditch. Figure 22: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 external features, to the north of the C1915 ditch. Figure 23: Half sections through Site 19 external features: pits C1900, C1947, C1950, C1952, C1954 & C19207, depression C1949; and profiles across stakeholes C1902 & C1907 Figure 24: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:55), sherd AE/02/76: 366. Figure 25: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 pit, posthole and stakehole structure. Figure 26: Half sections through Site 19 pit, posthole and stakehole structure: pits C19164 & C19166; pit/hearth C19108; postholes C19152, C19154, C19156, C19168 & C19170, profiles across posthole C19172 and stakeholes C19111 & C19113. Figure 27: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 stakehole cluster (C19111, C19113, C19115, C19117, C19119, C19121, C19123, C19125, C19127, C19129, C19131, C19133, C19140, C19142, C19144 & C19146) associated with pit C19108. Figure 28: Interpretative plan of Site 19 pit, posthole and stakehole structure. Figure 29: Interpretative plan of Site 19 stakehole cluster associated with pit C19108. Figure 30: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 linear features (C1958 & C1960) predating the C1915 external ditch. Figure 31: Half sections through Site 19 linear features (C1958 & C1960) predating the C1915 external ditch. Figure 32: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 intermediate features, showing possible alignment of linear gullies C1958 & C1960, pit C19135 and postholes C1925, C1917 & C19137. Figure 33: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:01), sherd AE/02/76: 346. Figure 34: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:04), sherds AE/02/76: 110-1. Figure 35: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:05), sherd AE/02/76: 299. Figure 36: Flint side scraper (AE/02/76: 240). Figure 37: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:17), sherd AE/02/76: 221. Figure 38: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:10), sherds AE/02/76: 143/5 (from top), 158, 280 & 162. Figure 39: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:06), sherd AE/02/76: 666. Figure 40: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:13), sherd AE/02/76: 680. Figure 41: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:02), sherds AE/02/76: 722/4. Figure 42: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:03), sherd AE/02/76: 693. Figure 43: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:12), sherd AE/02/76: 244. Figure 44: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, showing locations of Box Sections A-AU. Figure 45: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:14), sherd AE/0276: 665.

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Figure 46: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915 and post pit C1935, Box Sections A-D and midexcavation plan of post-socket C1938 within post pit C1935 in Box Sections A-B. Figure 47: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections F-N. Figure 48: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections N-V. Figure 49: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections X-AH. Figure 50: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections AJ-AR. Figure 51: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections AR-AV. Figure 52: Polishing/grinding stone (AE/02/76: 490). Figure 53: Perforated Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:07), sherds AE/02/76: 580 (top) & 584 (bottom). Figure 54: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:46), sherd AE/02/76: 178. Figure 55: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 intermediate features. Figure 56: Section drawings through Site 19 intermediate features: postholes C1904 & C1931; pits C1920, C1922, C1929, C1933, C1939, C1942 & C1984, and spread F1941. Figure 57: Section drawings through Site 19 intermediate features: pits C19106, C19135, C19150, C1916 & C19230; postholes C1925, C1927, C19137 & C19205; post pipe C19137a and modern posthole C19162. Profiles across stakehole C19234 and possible stakehole C19232. Figure 58: Detailed plan of Site 19 segmented inner ditch and internal features. Figure 59: Section drawings through Site 19 segmented inner ditch (C19190, C19212 & C19258). Figure 60: Section drawings through Site 19 internal features: cists C1962, C1964 & C1976; pits C1966, C1970, C1986, C1989 & C1993; stakehole C1968; and depression C1974. Figure 61: Section drawings through Site 19 internal features: Pits C1990 & C1998; post pipe C1972; stakehole C19188; posthole C19101 and cists C19186, C19192 & C19197. Profiles across stakeholes C19178, C19180, C19182, C19184 & C19188; modern posthole C19104 and cist C19192. Figure 62: Section drawings through Site 19 internal features: pits C19201, C19228, C19238 & C19240; stakeholes C19203 & C19220; cists C19214 & C19244, and possible gully C19142. Profiles across cists C19217 & C19214; stakeholes C19222, C19224 & C19236, and pit C19228. Figure 63: Section drawings through Site 19 internal features: pits C19246, C9249 & C19251; cists C19256, C19263 & C19274. Profiles across cists C19266 & C19269, and stakehole C19272. Figure 64: Sub-circular quartz scraper (AE/02/76: 404). Figure 65: Sub-circular flint scraper (AE/02/76: 397). Figure 66: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:18), sherds AE/02/76: 466 (top), 467 (bottom). Figure 67: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:31), sherd AE/02/76: 711. Figure 68: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 segmented inner ditch and internal features, showing circles laid out from the central C19272 stakehole. Figure 69: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 segmented inner ditch and internal features, showing positions of cists, possible cists and features producing Bronze Age artefacts. Figure 70: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 segmented inner ditch and internal features, showing directions of possible alignments from the central C19272 stakehole. Figure 71: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 intermediate features, showing positions of features producing Bronze Age artefacts. Figure 72: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 intermediate features, showing possible segmented ditch comprised of pits C1920, C1922, C1933, C1939 & C19106. Figure 73: Interpretive plan of Site 19 modern postholes C19104, C19158 & C19162 (circled), showing line of projected fence (dashed) and sheep burial C19261 (shaded). Figure 74: Simplified graph showing Oakgrove dates at 1σ and 2σ intercepts. Figure 75: Simplified graph of radiocarbon dates comparable to 3350±21 BP (1730-1536 cal BC, UBA-9323) from the fill of the post-pipe within the C1935 post pit (C1938). Figure 76: Simplified graph of radiocarbon dates comparable to 3263±24 BP (1613-1461 cal BC, UBA-9324) from the fill of one portion of the segmented inner ditch (C19212). Figure 77: Simplified graph of radiocarbon dates comparable to 3095±22 BP (1424-1312 cal BC, UBA-9318) (C19197); 3059±21 BP (1398-1268 cal BC, UBA-9319) (C19192); 3062±22 BP (1404-1269 cal BC, UBA9320) (C19214); 3082±22 BP (1416-1297 cal BC, UBA-9321) (C1976); 3081±20 BP (1414-1302 cal BC, UBA-9322) (C19186) from fills of cists and 3124±20 BP (1442-1320 cal BC, UBA-9325) from northern pit circle (C1920).

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List of plates Plate 1: Post-excavation view of pit C1300, from the south. Plate 2: Post-excavation view of pit C1400, from the west. Plate 3: Post-excavation view of pit C1702, from the north-west. Plate 4: Post-excavation view of pit C1726, from the north. Plate 5: West facing section through pit C1731. Plate 6: Post-excavation view of pit C1735, from the east. Plate 7: Quarter section through pit C1800 showing stones (F1843), from the south. Plate 8: Post-excavation view of pit C1804, from the north. Plate 9: North facing section through pit C1812. Plate 10: North-east facing section through pit C1826. Plate 11: Post-excavation view of pit C1836, from the west. Plate 12: Post-excavation view of pit C1947, from the south-east. Plate 13: South facing section through depression C1949 and posthole C1950. Plate 14: South-east facing section through pits C1952 and C1954. Plate 15: South-east facing section through pit/hearth C19108. Plate 16: Post-excavation view of pit/hearth C19108 and stakehole complex, from the north-west. Plate 17: South-facing section through posthole C19154. Plate 18: South-west facing section through posthole C19156. Plate 19: North-west facing section through pits C19164 and C19166. Plate 20: Post-excavation view of linear gully C1960, from the north-east. Plate 21: Mid-excavation view of Box Section A-B showing F1909 stones within ditch C1915, from the north-east. Plate 22: Post-excavation view of Box Section A-B showing post pit C1935 and post socket C1938, from the east. Plate 23: Box Section A-B, section face DE-DF through post pit C1935 and ditch C1915, from the north-west. Plate 24: Box Section A-B, south-east facing section DL-DK through post pit C1935 and ditch C1915. Plate 25: Box Section D, post-excavation view of ditch C1915, from the east. Note the placement of stones against the face of the ditch. Plate 26: Box Section F, post-excavation view of ditch C1915, from the east. Plate 27: Box Section F, north facing section DU-DV through ditch C1915. Plate 28: Box Section H, post-excavation view of ditch C1915, from the east. Plate 29: Box Section H, north-west facing section DW-DX through ditch C1915. Plate 30: Section R, south-west facing section ER-EQ through ditch C1915. Plate 31: Box Section AR, south-west facing section GS-GT through ditch C1915. Plate 32: Box Section AT, north-east facing section GU-GV through ditch C1915. Plate 33: Post-excavation view of pit C1920, from the west. Plate 34: Post-excavation view of pit C1922, from the south-west. Plate 35: Post-excavation view of posthole C1925, from the north. Plate 36: Post-excavation view of posthole C1927, from the north. Plate 37: Post-excavation view of posthole C1931 and pit C1929, from the south-west. Plate 38: Post-excavation view of posthole C1931, from the north-west. Plate 39: Post-excavation view of pit C1933, from the north. Plate 40: Post-excavation view of pit C1984, from the east. Plate 41: Post-excavation view of pit C1984, from the west. Plate 42: Post-excavation view of pit C19106, from the west. Plate 43: Post-excavation view of pits C19135 and C19137, from the east. Plate 44: South-west facing section through pit C19150. Plate 45: Post-excavation view of pit C19160 and modern posthole C19162, from the south-east. Plate 46: South-west facing section through pit C19230. Plate 47: South-west section IM-IN through ditch segment C19212. Plate 48: West facing section IO-IP through ditch segment C19212. Plate 49: North-east facing section JA-JB through ditch segment C19258. Plate 50: Post-excavation view of cist C1962, from the south. Plate 51: Mid-excavation view of cist C1964 with F1965 stones in situ, from the south-west. Plate 52: Post-excavation view of cist C1964, after the removal of F1965 stones, from the south-west. Plate 53: Post-excavation view of pit C1970, from the north-west. Plate 54: Mid-excavation view of cist C1976, showing stone facing F1982 in situ, from the west. Plate 55: East facing section through pit C1986. Plate 56: North facing section through pits C1989 (left) and C1993 (right). Plate 57: Mid-excavation view of pit C1990 and post pipe C1972, from the south-west. Plate 58: Detailed mid-excavation view of post pipe C1972 within pit C1990, from the south-west. Plate 59: Post-excavation view of cist C19186, from the south. 3

Plate 60: Post-excavation view of cist C19192, from the south. Plate 61: Mid-excavation view through cist C19197, showing slabs F19199 in situ, from the west. Plate 62: Mid-excavation view through pit C19201, from the south-west. Plate 63: Post-excavation view of cist C19217, from the north. Plate 64: Post-excavation view of cist C19217, from the north. Plate 65: Post-excavation view of stakeholes C19220, C19222, C19224, C19236 and C19254; pit C19238 and cist C19217, from the north-east. Plate 66: Mid-excavation view of pit C19228, from the south-west. Plate 67: Post-excavation view of cist C19214, from the east. Plate 68: Mid-excavation view through pit C19246, from the north-west. Plate 69: Mid-excavation view through pit C19249, from the north-west. Plate 70: Post-excavation view of cist C19263, from the west. Plate 71: Post-excavation view of cists C19266 and C19269, from the west. Plate 72: Post-excavation view of cist C19274, from the south. Plate 73: Post-excavation overview of Site 19 segmented inner ditch, from the north. Plate 74: Post-excavation overview of Site 19, intermediate features, from the north. Plate 75: Post-excavation overview of Site 19, from the north. List of tables Table 1: Tabulation of morphological characteristics and artefacts recovered from Site 19 cists. Table 2a: Tabulation of chipped flint artefacts recovered from Site 19 cists. Table 2b: Tabulation of quartz artefacts recovered from Site 19 cists. Table 3: Weights of burnt bone recovered from Bronze Age ring ditches and related features at Loughbrickland, Co Down (data tabulated from Chapple et al 2009). Table 4: Distribution of vessels 19:01-17 across the C1915 ditch, by Box Section. Vessels represented by a single sherd are indicated by ‘1’. Grey-shaded areas indicate possible entrance. Table 5: Distribution of flint and stone artefacts across the C1915 ditch, by Box Section. The area (Box Sections AIAJ) shaded in grey indicates the possible entrance into the enclosure, a portion of the ditch with smoothed base and sides. Table 6: Radiocarbon determinations from Gransha. Calibration performed using Calib 5.1 beta computer programme, using IntCal04 calibration curve (Stuiver & Reimer 1993; Reimer et al. 2004). Table 7: Range of sherd forms from Site 19. Table 8: Range of context groups producing pottery from Site 19. Table 9: Ceramic material recovered from Gransha Site 19 during soil flotation. Table 10: Comparison of methods for estimating shoulder heights from various elements, based on Teichert (von den Driesch & Boessneck 1974). Table 11: Lithic quantities from Gransha, Sites 5, 6/7, 7, 9-12 (2002 excavation), 14, 17 and 19-20 (2003 excavation). Phases and periods based upon lithic types established in the present analysis and where these have been phased by the excavator, this indicated by †. Table 12: Non-wood plant macro-remains from Site 19 .

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 1: Locations of archaeologically investigated Sites 1-20.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

name of Gransha, along with its variant form of Granshagh, derive from the Irish Grainseach, a place for the storage of grain, in particular a monastic granary (Joyce 1912, 388). This is undoubtedly derived from the former presence of a large, Early Christian and Medieval monastic establishment directly to the south of the development site (see below).

INTRODUCTION The following is a report on the archaeological investigation and excavation of eight areas (Sites 13-20) at the site of Oakgrove Integrated College, Gransha, Londonderry, county Londonderry, prior to its development for school buildings, games pitches and ancillary features (C 4607 1993). The report presents the results of these archaeological excavations, in particular the unique Middle Bronze Age enclosed cemetery (Site 19). The work was carried out in two phases between Monday 7th and Friday 25th July 2003 (Sites 13-17) and between Monday 13th October 2003 and Wednesday 28th January 2004, under consent from the Environment and Heritage Service (EHS), now the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA), and the stipulation of the Planning Authority (Planning ref: A/2000/0885/F) that an archaeologist be contracted to oversee all disturbance to the underlying strata. A licence for this work was originally granted to C McSparron, NAC Ltd (AE/01/89) in January 2001, and was transferred to the present author in June 2002 (AE/02/76). This licence was further extended in October 2003 to cover the current series of excavations. Two earlier series of excavations (Sites 112) (Figure 1) were conducted between 17th and 18th June 2002 and between 9th September and 6th November 2002. The excavation of Sites 1-12 have been written up, first to preliminary-report stage, then to the level of a final report and submitted to NIEA (Chapple 2003b; 2009a). Reports on these excavations have also been published (Chapple 2004c; 2008a). The series of excavations described in this report (Sites 13-20) have previously been submitted to NIEA both as preliminary and final reports (Chapple 2004b; 2009b) and two summaries of various aspects of the discoveries have also been published (Chapple 2004a; 2007). One further paper (Chapple 2008b) details the radiocarbon dates from Site 19.

Figure 2: Location of Gransha, Londonderry within Northern Ireland.

Setting and access The site lay on the outskirts of the city of Londonderry, on the eastern ‘Waterside’ bank of the river Foyle (Figure 2). The historic centre of the city lay c 4 km to the southwest of the development site. The building footprint for the school consisted of an area of c 9500² m within a total development site of c 40 acres (Reilly 2001, Sections 2 and 4).

Figure 3: Sites in the vicinity of Gransha Hospital, showing LDY 14:13 Ecclesiastical Site. Oakgrove Integrated College development site is outlined in black.

The townland of Gransha is part of the Civil Parish of Clondermot, in the Barony of Tirkeeran. The townland

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 4: Overview plan of excavated sites 13-4 & 17-9.

107-109; Connellan & MacDermott 1846, 26)). The site is also mentioned by Archbishop Colton as late as 1397 (Reeves 1850, 31) (Figure 3).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS Previous development Prior to topsoil stripping taking place on the Gransha site, no upstanding archaeological remains survived within the area. However, aerial photographic evidence suggested that a large enclosure survived as a cropmark, touching the southern boundary of the development site (LDY 14:13) (Reilly 2001 Sections 7.4 & 10). This enclosure, c 300m in diameter, has been tentatively identified as the enclosing ditch, or vallum, surrounding the ecclesiastical site of Dearg-Bruach (ie the red brink). Although it was most likely an Early Christian foundation, the earliest extant reference is in the Annals of the Four Masters as one of three churches in the vicinity plundered in 1197 by John De Courcy and “the English of Ulidia” (the others being Cluain-I (Clooney) and Enagh (O’Donovan 1851,

Topsoil stripping during the first phase of the development revealed the presence of 12 areas of archaeological potential (Sites 1-12). When fully investigated, three of these sites (Sites 10-12) produced archaeological features. Site 10 was identified as an Early Bronze Age burnt mound, or so-called fulacht fiadh (c 2350/2200-1700 BC), while Sites 11 and 12 were demonstrated to be of Early Neolithic date (c 4000-3500 BC) and probably represent both domestic and ritual/funerary activity (Chapple 2008a; 2009a). A further area, Site 7, although not possessing archaeological features, did produce two flint artefacts of Bann flake type, indicating human activity on the site during the Late 7

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Mesolithic period (c 5400-4000 BC). Thus, there was a high expectation that further archaeological remains would be discovered as part of the second phase of development works, discussed in this report.

were identified (Sites 13-20) (Chapple 2003a; 2009a) (Figure 1). Of these, Sites 15, 16 and 20 proved to be of natural or modern origin, and will not be detailed further. Sites 13-14 and 17-19 produced archaeological material and form the substance of this report (Figure 4).

During the course of the second phase of monitored topsoil stripping, eight areas of archaeological potential

Figure 5: Main: Post-excavation plan of pit C1300. Inset: half section of pit C1300. enclosed an area of 15.70m2. During the monitoring of topsoil removal, this area was identified as containing one pit or spread, along with four other, rather ephemeral, potential features. On excavation, only one feature was found to be of archaeological interest. During the cleaning down of the site surface, one piece of clay pipe stem (AE/02/76: 76) was recovered.1

Site 13 Site 13 lay at the north-eastern end of line of archaeological sites (14 & 17-19) which stretched along the crest of a north-east to south-west running ridge that lay between Lough Foyle and Lough Enagh (Western). Further to the north and north-east lay the previously excavated sites 11 and 12, respectively (Chapple 2003a; 2008a; 2009a). Site 12 lay 39.81m to the north-east, with Site 14 23.18m to the west-south-west. This ridge provided good views towards the River Foyle in the west and Lough Enagh (Western) in the south-east. As with all the areas described within this report, Site 13 lay between the 20m and 30m OD contours. The area investigated measured 3.52m (north-east to south-west) by 4.53m and

Excavation C1300 was a sub-circular pit with steeply to moderately sloping, irregular shaped sides and a tapered, rounded 1

At the time of writing, the site archive and all recovered artefacts are held by NAC Ltd.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

base (0.60m x 0.32m x 0.18m) (Figure 5; Plate 1).2 C1300 cut the subsoil and contained three fills (F1301-3). The lowest of these was friable, light yellow-orange clayey silt (F1303), which contained occasional small, angular stones and a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal. F1303 was overlain by soft to friable, orangebrown clayey silt (F1302), which contained occasional small, angular stones and a moderate amount of small pieces of charcoal. F1302 was itself overlain by friable, dark grey-brown clayey silt (F1301), which contained occasional small, angular stones and frequent medium sized pieces of charcoal.

produced one very roughly flaked bipolar flint chunk (AE/02/76: 77) and a large scalar flint flake (AE/02/76: 78). One piece of the butt portion of a stone axe, possibly of siltstone, was also recovered from this fill (AE/02/76: 79) along with a deliberately pierced, but broken, piece of schist (AE/02/76: 80) (Figure 7). Discussion Similar to the C1300 pit, this feature was an isolated pit not associated with any other archaeological remains. The recovery of pieces of worked flint (AE/02/76: 77-8) would suggest a prehistoric date, although such an artefact as the piece of pierced schist (AE/02/76: 80, Figure 7) may be relatively modern. O’Hare’s analysis of the lithics (Appendix 6) indicates that a date in the Bronze Age is the most likely. O’Hare also argues that the lithics recovered at Site 14 are easily comparable to those excavated at Site 19 and that both areas may be closely contemporary, if not part of the same ritual focus which characterises the Site 19 evidence. The inclusion of the broken butt end of a siltstone axe head, with evidence of wear along its broken edge, recovered from pit C1400 is in keeping with the range of materials expected from a ritual or ‘non-secular’ site of Bronze Age date, again leading to comparisons with the adjacent Site 19.

Discussion It is difficult to ascribe any date or function to such an isolated pit, which produced no artefactual remains. Comparison with adjacent sites and features is of little assistance as the excavated remains from within the Gransha development site date from both the Neolithic and Bronze Age to modern times.

Plate 1: Post-excavation view of pit C1300, from the south. Site 14 Site 14 lay 23.18m to the west-south-west of Site 13 and 15.38m to the north-east of Site 17. The area investigated measured 8.08m (north-west to south-east) by 4.20m and enclosed an area of 33.95m². During the monitoring of topsoil removal this area was identified as containing three potential pits or spreads, one linear feature along with 10 to 20 other, more ephemeral remains of uncertain origin. On excavation, only one feature was found to be of archaeological interest.

Plate 2: Post-excavation view of pit C1400, from the west. The size and weight of the schist piece would argue against its use as a ‘net sinker’ (P C Woodman pers. comm.), while an extrapolation of the piece’s dimensions would produce an object too large to be an effective loom-weight. It is also possible that the object functioned as a thatch weight, to keep a straw or reed roof in position. This thesis is not beyond the bounds of possibility as this feature lies relatively close to Site 17, a collection of one pit and numerous stakeholes which are interpreted as the remains of a small house. Although the structure is undated, it is likely to have been thatched and would have required a number of thatch-weights for solidity and stability. However, the object is undated and could conceivably be of any time from the prehistoric to the post-Medieval periods. At Altanagh, Co Tyrone, a pierced stone found near the megalith was interpreted as a pendant as the hole was placed close to one edge, while a second, centrally pierced, stone was recovered from pit burial F137 (Williams 1986, 64, 69). Burial F137 was a

Excavation C1400 was an oval pit with gently to steeply sloping, irregularly shaped sides and a flat base (2.54m x 1.85m x 0.26m) (Figure 6; Plate 2). This pit cut through the subsoil to the underlying bedrock and was filled by firm, yellow-brown clayey silt (F1401), which contained moderate amounts of fine, medium sized and coarse, angular pebbles; occasional small, angular stones, plus occasional flecks and small pieces of charcoal. F1401 2

Throughout this report the prefix letter ‘F’ is used to indicate a fill or deposit, while the prefix letter ‘C’ is used to indicate a cut feature. All dimensions are presented in the format length x width x thickness/depth, or diameter x thickness/depth unless otherwise stated.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

partially slab-lined pit which contained the cremated bones of an adult female and male associated with Western Neolithic and ‘stab-decorated’ pottery and

various flints, and which returned a radiocarbon date of 4590±80 BP (3627-3030 cal BC, GrN-10557) (Williams 1986, 39, 78; Wilkinson 1986, 74).

Figure 6: Main: post-excavation plan of pit C1400. Inset: half section of pit C1400. by 31.95m and enclosed an area of 840.30m2. During the monitoring of topsoil removal, this area was identified as containing 30-50 potential archaeological features, along with up to 80 further, more ephemeral, features. During the cleaning down of the site surface, two body sherds of post-Medieval pottery (AE/02/76: 81) were recovered, along with a well-made tanged flint blade (AE/02/76: 82) and an equally well produced flint end-type scraper (AE/02/76: 85) (Figure 8). O’Hare argues that the latter two flint pieces are indicative of Neolithic activity on the site (Appendix 6).

Figure 7: Broken, pierced schist fragment (AE/02/76: 80). Site 17 Site 17 lay 15.38m to the south of Site 14 and 11.34m to the south-west of Site 16 (Figure 9). The area investigated measured 32.27m (north-east to south-west) 10

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vessel (17:01); though the style of decoration and limited profile suggested closer affinities to the vase tradition (Appendix 2). C1702 was a sub-circular pit with smooth, vertical sides and a concave base (0.28m x 0.26m x 0.14m) (Plate 3). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm to friable, brown clayey silt (F1703), which contained a moderate amount of medium sized, angular pebbles and occasional flecks of charcoal. Figure 8: Flint end scraper (AE/02/76: 85).

C1726 was a sub-circular pit with variably sloping, irregular sides and a concave base (1.60m x 1.40m x 0.46m) (Plate 4). This feature cut the subsoil and contained two fills (F1727 and F1730). The earliest of these was friable, brown-orange clayey silt (F1730), which contained occasional small, angular pebbles; moderate amounts of medium sized and large, angular stones and occasional flecks of charcoal. F1730 was overlain by friable, dark grey-brown clayey silt (F1727), which contained occasional small and medium sized, angular stones; frequent large, angular stones and a moderate amount of small pieces of charcoal. C1728 was an oval pit with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (0.36m x 0.28m x 0.12m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm to friable, brown silty clay (F1729), which contained occasional medium sized, angular pebbles.

Plate 3: Post-excavation view of pit C1702, from the north-west.

C1731 was an oval pit with variably sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (2.20m x 1m x 0.20m) (Plate 5). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, brown clayey silt (F1732), which contained frequent fine, medium sized and coarse, angular pebbles; occasional small, angular stones; occasional medium sized, subangular stones; moderate amounts of flecks and small pieces and occasional medium sized pieces of charcoal.

Plate 4: Post-excavation view of pit C1726, from the north. Pits: excavation C1700 was a sub-linear pit with gently to moderately sloping, irregularly shaped sides and a tapered, pointed base (0.72m x 0.34m x 0.18m) (Figures 10-11). C1700 cut the subsoil and contained friable, dark grey-brown clayey silt (F1701), which contained frequent small, angular stones; occasional medium sized, angular stones and a moderate amount of small pieces of charcoal. F1701 also produced one rim sherd and three crumbs of pottery (AE/02/76: 83). Analysis of the pottery identified the sherd as part of an Early to Middle Bronze Age food

Plate 5: West facing section through pit C1731.

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Figure 9: Post-excavation plan of Site 17.

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Figure 10: Detailed post-excavation plans of Site 17 pits C1700, C1702, C1726, C1728, C1731 & C1735.

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Figure 11: Half sections through Site 17 pits C1700, C1702, C1726, C1728, C1731 & C1735.

C1735 was an oval pit with gently to moderately sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (1.55m x 0.40m x 0.07m) (Plate 6). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, dark brown-grey clayey silt (F1736), which contained frequent fine, angular pebbles; a moderate amount of medium sized, angular pebbles; frequent flecks and small pieces and a moderate amount of medium sized pieces of charcoal. F1736 produced a single body sherd (AE/02/76: 84) of undiagnostic Bronze Age type (vessel 17:02).

Plate 6: Post-excavation view of pit C1735, from the east.

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feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, dark brown silty clay (F1707).

Pits: Discussion This group of six pits is relatively divergent in terms of morphology, and probably also in function and date. There is a strong possibility that, at least some of the Site 17 pits are associated with the pit and stakehole structure (see below). However, neither the central pit, nor any of the 28 stakeholes that comprise this complex produced any artefactual evidence which could be used to date it. In the absence of any other evidence, including radiocarbon determinations, it is suggested that the sherds of prehistoric pottery found in pits C1700 (vessel 17:01) and C1735 (vessel 17:02) are broadly contemporary with the Site 17 stakehole structure.

C1708 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (0.06m x 0.055m x 0.06m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, dark brown silty clay (F1709). C1710 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (0.06m x 0.05m x 0.05m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, dark brown silty clay (F1711). C1712 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (0.13m x 0.105m x 0.13m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, dark brown silty clay (F1713).

Dunne’s analysis of the recovered pottery, in particular the fragment of either a vase food vessel or a bowl food vessel (17:01) indicates a period of site activity from the Early to Middle Bronze Age (c 2200-1000 BC), with a date in the earlier part of this range being most likely. However, recent work by Brindley indicates that close examination of determinations from secure burial contests, in combination with the radiocarbon calibration curve, allows the general date range for vases to be refined to c 2020-1980 BC and the type had ceased to be used by c 1740 BC (Brindley 2007, 264). By the same method Brindley argues that the date range for bowls ranges from c 2160 to c 1930/1920 BC (Brindley 2007, 250). By this rationale, the sherd recovered from pit C1700 could fall anywhere in the range from c 2160 to c 1740 BC. Parallels for this form of decorated rim sherd may be found at Woodside Road, Co Londonderry (Dunne unpublished specialist report for ADS Ltd, 2003; McConway 2006). Vessel 17:02, represented by a single sherd from pit C1735, is of an undiagnostic Bronze Age type. Such an undiagnostic sherd may be paralleled with similar undecorated body sherds from the nearby Enagh Site 1 (McSparron 2000, 2003). Dunne (Appendix 2) emphasises the relative proximity of Site 17 to the significantly richer Site 19, suggesting that both may have formed part of a much larger Bronze Age ritual landscape. It is also worthy of note that O’Hare’s analysis of the unstratified lithics recovered from the surface of this area are indicative of earlier activity, during the Neolithic period.

C1714 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.065m x 0.05m x 0.025m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, dark brown silty clay (F1715). C1716 was a sub-oval stakehole with vertical to gently sloping, smooth sides and a pointed base (0.065m x 0.045m x 0.08m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, dark brown silty clay (F1717). C1718 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.075m x 0.07m x 0.085m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, dark brown silty clay (F1719). C1720 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.07m x 0.05m x 0.05m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, dark brown silty clay (F1721). C1722 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.07m x 0.05m x 0.05m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1723. C1733 was a sub-circular posthole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (0.24m x 0.19m x 0.15m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled F1734. Unfortunately, wet sieving of this material failed to yield sufficient charcoal to produce a radiocarbon determination.

Stakehole complex: excavation This section describes one posthole (C1733) and 28 stakeholes (Figures 12-13). Unless stated otherwise, the stakeholes were filled by soft, dark brown sandy clay containing occasional fine, angular pebbles and occasional flecks of charcoal.

C1737 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.10m x 0.06m x 0.045m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled F1738.

C1704 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (0.07m x 0.06m x 0.08m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, dark brown silty clay (F1705), which contained occasional coarse, angular pebbles and occasional flecks of charcoal.

C1739 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.08m x 0.08m x 0.06m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1740.

C1706 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.075m x 0.07m x 0.068m). This

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C1741 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.09m x 0.09m x 0.09m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled F1742.

C1743 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.05m x 0.05m x 0.04m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled F1744.

Figure 12: Post-excavation plan of Site 17 stakehole complex: C1704, C1706, C1708, C1710, C1712, C1714, C1716, C1718, C1720, C1722, C1737, C1739, C1741, C1743, C1745, C1747, C1749, C1751, C1753, C1755, C1757, C1759, C1761, C1763, C1765, C1767, C1769 & C1771, and posthole C1733.

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Figure 13 (previous page): Profiles across Site 17 stakeholes C1704, C1706, C1708, C1710, C1712, C1714, C1716, C1718, C1720, C1722, C1737, C1739, C1741, C1743, C1745, C1747, C1749, C1751, C1753, C1755, C1757, C1759, C1761, C1763, C1765, C1767, C1769 & C1771, and posthole C1733.

Figure 14: Interpretative plan of Site 17 stakehole complex: C1704, C1706, C1708, C1710, C1712, C1714, C1716, C1718, C1720, C1722, C1737, C1739, C1741, C1743, C1745, C1747, C1749, C1751, C1753, C1755, C1757, C1759, C1761, C1763, C1765, C1767, C1769 & C1771, and posthole C1733. C1745 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a concave base (0.08m x 0.05m x 0.06m). It cut the subsoil and was filled by F1746.

C1755 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (0.10m x 0.06m x 0.035m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1756.

C1747 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.11m x 0.07m x 0.06m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled F1748.

C1757 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (0.09m x 0.08m x 0.11m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1758.

C1749 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.08m x 0.075m x 0.08m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled F1750.

C1759 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (0.05m x 0.04m x 0.06m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1760.

C1751 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.07m x 0.06m x 0.055m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1752.

C1761 was a sub-circular stakehole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.045m x 0.04m x 0.04m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1762.

C1753 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.06m x 0.06m x 0.04m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1754.

C1763 was a sub-circular stakehole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (0.05m x 0.045m x 0.02m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1764.

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C1765 was a sub-circular stakehole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.055m x 0.04m x 0.03m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1766.

Site 18 Site 18 lay 13.37m to the west of Site 17 and 2.99m to the north of Site 19. The area investigated measured 21.52m (north-west to south-east) by 16.11m and enclosed an area of 343.28m2. During the monitoring of topsoil removal, this area was identified as containing five pits or spreads, 12-15 potential stakeholes, along with up to 1520 further more ephemeral features. After cleaning and investigation, these resolved themselves into seven pits and five stakeholes (Figure 15).

C1767 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.05m x 0.03m x 0.035m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1768. C1769 was a sub-circular stakehole with vertical to moderately sloping, smooth sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.045m x 0.04m x 0.02m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1770.

Excavation C1800 was an irregularly shaped pit with gently to steeply sloping, irregularly shaped sides and a concave base (2.50m x 2.50m x 0.03m) (Figure 16; Plate 7). This feature cut the subsoil and contained three fills (F1801, F1843 & F1844). The lowest of these was firm, yellowbrown silty clay (F1801), which contained frequent fine, medium sized and coarse, angular pebbles and frequent flecks of charcoal. F1801 contained within it F1843 and F1844. F1843 was a layer of compact, grey stones (shale) which was composed of frequent medium sized, angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded and rounded stones. F1844 was a layer of firm, dark blue-black silty charcoal.

C1771 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.06m x 0.045m x 0.04m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F1772. Stakehole complex: discussion This collection of 28 stakeholes and one posthole are interpretable in any one of a number of ways. The one proposed by this author is that the features represent the remains of a sub-rectangular house or hut which would have measured 2.10m (north-east to south-west) x 1.88m and enclosed an area of 3.82m2 (Figure 14). The suggested reconstruction of this structure is a series of walls (most likely of wattle and daub construction) supported by a central post (C1733). The evidence may be read to suggest that the structure was divided into two rooms with an intervening partition (C1739, C1747 & C1749) with an entrance to the north-east (0.60m wide). The more north-easterly of the two rooms was a subrectangular area (1.88m (north-west to south-east) x 1.22m (2.06m2)), while the second, south-western, room was a trapezoidal space (1.88m (north-west to south-east) x 1.18m (1.76m2)). A series of five stakeholes along the northern edge of the structure (C1710, C1712, C1714, C1720 & C1771) are interpreted as forming a short length (1.30m) of fencing or a windbreak. Admittedly, this suggested reconstruction does not take account of two of the stakeholes (C1718 & C1737). Indeed, any number of alternative arrangements of walls and internal divisions may be suggested with equal validity to the proposed reconstruction. Alternatively, the pattern of stakeholes could represent two or more separate structures, indicating a rebuilding or reconstruction of the structure (D Smith pers. comm.).

Plate 7: Quarter section through pit C1800 showing stones (F1843), from the south. C1802 was a sub-circular pit with gently to moderately sloping, smooth and convex sides and a flat base (1.58m x 1.06m x 0.12m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F1803) containing frequent coarse, angular pebbles; occasional medium sized, angular stones and occasional flecks of charcoal. C1804 was an oval pit with variably sloping, variably shaped sides and a flat base (0.52m x 0.50m x 0.08m) (Plate 8). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F1805), which contained frequent coarse, angular pebbles; moderate amounts of small, angular stones and occasional flecks of charcoal.

As none of the excavated features produced any form of direct dating evidence, it is impossible to give a definitive assessment of the period to which this structure belongs. At present it is suggested that at least some of the Site 17 pits (C1700, C1702, C1726, C1728, C1731 & C1735) are associated with this structure and, based on the recovery of the sherds of Bronze Age pottery from pits C1700 (vessel 17:01) and C1735 (vessel 17:02), a broadly Early Bronze Age date is proposed. Following Brindley’s (2007) work on these pottery forms a date in the period from c 2160 to c 1740 BC is suggested.

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frequent coarse, angular pebbles; a moderate amount of small, angular stones and occasional flecks of charcoal. C1812 was a sub-circular pit with moderately sloping, concave sides and a concave base (0.90m x 0.70m x 0.12m) (Plate 9). This feature cut the subsoil and contained two fills (F1813 & F1840). The earlier of these was a deposit of loose, red-orange sand (F1840), which contained moderate amounts of small, sub-angular stones; occasional medium sized sub-angular stones; occasional flecks and medium sized pieces of charcoal and a moderate amount of small pieces of charcoal. F1840 was overlain by soft, grey-brown sandy silt (F1813) containing occasional small and medium sized, subrounded stones; a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal and occasional small and medium sized pieces of charcoal.

Plate 8: Post-excavation view of pit C1804, from the north. C1806 was a sub-circular pit with steeply sloping to vertical, concave sides and a concave base (1.00m x 0.78m x 0.30m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F1807), which contained

Figure 15: Post-excavation plan of Site 18. (F1841) containing occasional small and medium sized, sub-angular stones and frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal. This was overlain by compact, light blue- to grey-white silty sand (F1827), which contained occasional flecks and medium sized pieces of charcoal. C1828 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (diam.: 0.10m x 0.20m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F1829), which contained occasional flecks of charcoal. C1830 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (diam.: 0.12m x 0.23m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F1831), which contained occasional flecks of charcoal.

Plate 9: North facing section through pit C1812. C1826 was a sub-circular pit with moderately sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (1.60m x 1.50m x 0.25m) (Plate 10). This feature cut the subsoil and contained three fills (F1827, F1841 & F1842). The earliest of these was compact, red-orange sand (F1842), which contained occasional flecks and medium sized pieces of charcoal. F1842 was overlain by compact, brown-black silty sand 20

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Plate 10: North-east facing section through pit C1826.

Plate 11: Post-excavation view of pit C1836, from the west.

C1832 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (diam.: 0.12m x 0.08m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F1833).

C1838 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (diam.: 0.10m x 0.20m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F1839) containing a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal.

C1834 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (diam.: 0.10m x 0.18m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F1835). Three fragments of charred hazelnut shell (AE/02/76: 88) were recovered from this fill.

Discussion This collection of seven pits and five stakeholes presents little in terms of either dating evidence or cohesive patterning. Two pits (C1812 & C1826) both had lower layers (F1840 & F1842 respectively) which are interpreted as the remains of in situ burning. While it may be argued that the collection of five stakeholes (C1828, C1830, C1832, C1834 & C1838) are related to each other, it is difficult to envision what exact relationship they would have had. Again, the presence of three hazelnut shell fragments (AE/02/76: 88) from F1835 within pit C1834 may be of any date and gives no indication of function, other than to indicate that it was among the range of foods consumed by people at this site.

C1836 was an irregular pit with variably sloping, variably shaped sides and a concave base (2.78m x 1.46m x 0.25m) (Plate 11). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by very soft, yellow-brown sandy silt (F1837), which contained occasional fine and medium sized, subangular pebbles; occasional medium sized, rounded pebbles; frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal and occasional medium sized pieces of charcoal.

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Figure 16: Half sections through Site 18 pits C1800, C1802, C1804, C1806, C1812, C1826 & C1836, and profiles across Site 18 stakeholes C1828, C1830, C1832, C1834 & C1838.

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Figure 17: Unfinished mace head (AE/02/76: 422). Site 19 Site 19 lay 2.99m to the south of Site 18 and 21.85m to the south-west of Site 17 (Figure 20). The area investigated measured 36.73m (north-east to south-west) by 26.87m and enclosed and area of 800.27m2. During the monitoring of topsoil removal, this area was identified as containing approximately 20 to 30 archaeological features of various kinds, along with up to 40 other potential features. During the manual cleaning down of the site surface the following finds were recovered: three flint scrapers (AE/02/76: 95, 408 & 488); one retouched scalar flint flake, employed as a scraper (AE/02/76: 407); one pointed flint knife with a faceted butt, possibly intended to be hafted (AE/02/76: 425, Figure 18); one poor quality flint scraper (AE/02/76: 489); one subcircular flint scraper (AE/02/76: 657); one utilised chunky flake portion (AE/02/76: 89); one elongated sub-

Figure 18: Pointed flint flake (AE/02/76: 425).

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circular flint scraper (AE/02/76: 90); one distal portion of a flint flake (AE/02/76: 91); two scalar flint flakes (AE/02/76: 92-3); one sub-circular flint scraper with slight evidence of utilisation (AE/02/76: 94); one beaked scalar flint flake (AE/02/76: 115); two broken flint flakes (AE/02/76: 127 & 410); one flint fragment (AE/02/76: 409); one retouched flint flake portion (AE/02/76: 411); one very crude flint chunk, possibly utilised as a scraper (AE/02/76: 426); one flint débitage flake (AE/02/76: 427); one fully patinated flint flake (AE/02/76: 428); one pointed flint splinter (AE/02/76: 429); three flint cores (AE/02/76: 412-4); 15 body sherds (AE/02/76: 117, 11920, 378-86, 424, 491 & 585); one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 387); five pieces of metal slag (AE/02/76: 332 (one piece), 415 (three pieces) & 430 (one piece)); one large unfinished possible perforated macehead made from a dense green igneous stone, with a heavily damaged bladeend (AE/02/76: 422, Figure 17) and one natural stone, in the vague shape of an axe head, though this may be the rubbing stone for a saddle quern (AE/02/76: 423) (Figure 19). The locations of many of these artefacts are shown on the Site 19 post-excavation plan (Figure 20). Analyses of the ceramics collected during this process indicate that the prehistoric pottery sherds represent three vessels (19:58-19:60), all of which have been identified as Bronze Age coarse ware vessels with well fired fabrics and containing basalt/dolerite grits (Appendix 3). All of these vessels may be interpreted as having derived from underlying features.

containing occasional fine and medium sized, sub-angular and sub-rounded pebbles.

For the purposes of convenience, coherence and clarity the results of the excavation of Site 19 will be presented in the following manner: features external to the C1915 ditch; the Site 19 pit, posthole and stakehole structure; features which predate the C1915 ditch; features which post-date the C1915 ditch; the C1915 ditch and related features; intermediate features between the C1915 ditch and the C19190/C19210/ C19212/C19258 segmented inner ditch; the segmented inner ditch; features enclosed by the segmented inner ditch and, finally, modern features. Features not directly related to the C1915 and segmented inner ditches will be discussed directly following their description, while a full discussion of the former will be reserved until the final portions have been described.

Figure 19: Possible rubbing stone for saddle quern (AE/02/76: 423). C1907 was a circular stakehole with steeply sloping, concave sides and a tapered, round pointed base (diam.: 0.07m x 0.10m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by very soft, grey-brown sandy silt (F1908), which contained occasional fine and medium sized, sub-angular and sub-rounded pebbles. F1911 was an oval spread of compact, dark brown siltysand which contained a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal (0.70m x 0.70m x 0.10m). This feature lay directly on the subsoil surface and produced a single body sherd (AE/02/76: 124), the only recovered piece of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:56).

External features: excavation C1900 was a sub-circular pit with moderately sloping, concave sides and a concave base (0.35m x 0.30m x 0.09m) (Figures 21 & 23). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by very soft, brown sandy silt (F1901), which contained moderate amounts of fine, medium sized and coarse, sub-angular and sub-rounded pebbles and moderate amounts of medium sized, angular, sub-angular and sub-rounded stones.

F1912 was an L-shaped spread of compact, dark brown silty sand which contained a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal (0.50m x 0.50m x 0.02m). This feature lay directly on the subsoil surface and produced one bipolar flint core (AE/02/76: 116).

C1902 was a circular stakehole with steeply sloping, concave sides and a tapered, round pointed base (diam.: 0.10m x 0.16m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by very soft, dark grey-brown sandy silt (F1903)

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Figure 20: Post-excavation plan of Site 19.

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Figure 21: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 external features, to the north-east of the C1915 ditch. from its surface. F1914 was overlain by a spread of firm, dark brown sandy silt (F1906), which contained a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal (1.40m x 1.30m x 0.02m). Excavation of this feature led to the recovery of seven body sherds (AE/02/76: 96-9 & 121-3); three crumbs (AE/02/76: 100 (one piece) & 125 (two pieces)) of pottery; one possibly broken, poorly struck flint flake (AE/02/76: 112) and one burnt scalar flint flake (AE/02/76: 113). The seven body sherds were identified as part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:57). F1906 is seen as contemporary with the fill of the C1915 ditch, F1916 (see below). C1945 was a circular posthole with moderately sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (diam.: 0.40m x 0.07m) (Figures 22-23). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, dark brown silty sand (F1946), which contained a moderate amount of fine, angular pebbles; a moderate amount of medium sized, sub-angular pebbles and occasional small, sub-angular stones.

Plate 12: Post-excavation view of pit C1947, from the south-east. F1914 was a sub-circular area of pebbling, composed of sub-rounded and rounded pebbles (2.25m x 1.74m x 0.06m). This feature lay directly on the subsoil and produced a single piece of metal slag (AE/02/76: 114) 26

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 22: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 external features, to the north of the C1915 ditch. 27

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 23: Half sections through Site 19 external features: pits C1900, C1947, C1950, C1952, C1954 & C19207, depression C1949; and profiles across stakeholes C1902 & C1907.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

C1947 was an irregular pit with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (1.50m x 0.75m x 0.07m) (Plate 12). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F1948) containing a moderate amount of fine, angular pebbles and occasional medium sized, sub-angular pebbles. Excavation of this feature allowed the recovery of six body sherds (AE/02/76: 367-72) and one crumb of pottery (AE/02/76: 373). The six body sherds were identified as part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:54). C1949 was a sub-circular depression with gently sloping, smooth sides and a concave base (0.70m x 0.61m x 0.07m) (Plate13). C1950 lay near the northern end of this feature. C1950 was a sub-circular posthole with gently sloping, smooth sides and a concave base (0.29m x 0.24m x 0.11m). Both C1949 and C1950 cut the subsoil and were filled by soft, mid to dark grey-brown peaty silt (F1951). Within the confines of the C1950 posthole, a single body sherd was recovered (AE/02/76: 335), representing the only recovered portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:55) (Figure 24). In all likelihood, both C1949 and C1950 are constituent parts of the same feature.

Figure 24: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:55), sherd AE/02/76: 366.

Plate 15: South-east facing section through pits C1952 and C1954.

Plate 13: South facing section through depression C1949 and posthole C1950.

C19207 was an irregular pit with moderately to steeply sloping, smooth and convex sides and a flat base (0.50m x 0.30m x 0.15m). This feature cut the subsoil and contained two fills (F19208 & F19209). The earliest of these was compact, yellow-orange sand (F19209), which contained occasional small, sub-angular stones and frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal. F19209 was overlain by compact, dark brown-black silty sand (F19208) containing occasional small, angular stones and frequent flecks of charcoal.

C1952 was a sub-oval pit with variably sloping, irregularly shaped sides and an irregular base (1.95m x 0.60m x 0.25m) (Plate 14). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by weakly cemented, light red-white silty sand (F1953), which contained moderate amounts of small, sub-angular and sub-rounded stones, and frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal. F1953 was cut by C1954. C1954 was a sub-rectangular pit with vertical to steeply sloping, smooth and concave sides and a flat base (1.46m x 1m x 0.20m). This feature was filled by firm, brown pebbly silt (F1955), which contained moderate amounts of fine and medium sized, sub-rounded and rounded pebbles; occasional coarse, sub-rounded and rounded pebbles; occasional small, angular and subangular stones; frequent flecks and occasional small pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this feature allowed the recovery of one broken flint flake (AE/02/76: 405); one large, chunky scalar flint flake (AE/02/76: 406) and 40 pieces of metal slag (AE/02/76: 418).

External features: discussion This collection of 14 features does not form a single, cohesive group. The recovery of sherds of prehistoric pottery from pit C1947 (AE/02/76: 367-73) and posthole C1950 (AE/02/76: 335) appears to suggest a Bronze Age date for this collection, although what relationship they had to each other and to the main focus of Site 19 is undefined. The two stakeholes (C1092 & C1907) and pit (C1900) which lay outside the north-eastern edge of the C1915 ditch produced no dating evidence, nor may any 29

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

definite function be ascribed to them. Similarly, the C19207 pit, outside the south-eastern edge of the C1915 ditch can neither be dated nor ascribed a particular function. However, the colouration of the F19209 layer within this pit may be indicative of burning activity.

occasional medium sized pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this layer allowed the recovery of more than 48 pieces of metal slag (AE/02/76: 420 (33 pieces plus very small pieces) & 421 (15 pieces)). Wet sieving of material from this fill led to the recovery of 25 further pieces of metal slag (AE/02/76: 757) along with 17 pieces of ferric metal which may be the remains of worked iron fragments (AE/02/76: 756). Charcoal from this fill returned a radiocarbon determination of 2187±46 BP (385-113 cal BC, UBA-9326).3 F19109 was overlain by friable, dark brown-pink silty sand (F19110), which contained a moderate amount of medium sized, sub-rounded stones and a moderate amount of charcoal flecks. A series of 16 stakeholes lay directly to the south-west of the C19108 pit; these will be described in detail at the end of this section.

While the C1952 pit did not produce any artefactual dating evidence, it is stratigraphically earlier than the C1954 pit. This feature produced two pieces of flint (AE/02/76: 405-6) and 40 pieces of metal slag (AE/02/76: 418). The presence of metal slag could indicate a date from the Bronze Age to, at least, the Early Christian period. While this material has not been professionally analysed, it appears that it is derived from iron working, suggesting a date closer to the end of this timescale. In this scenario, the pieces of flint are residual items, redeposited into a later cut. In addition, the proximity of this feature to the pit, posthole and stakehole structure, which produced similar material, suggests that the two are related (see below). The F1911, F1912 and F1906 spreads all appear to be the result of outwash from the F1916 fill of the C1915 ditch. Initial examination of the recovered artefacts from these spreads suggests contemporaneity with the ditch (F1906: pottery AE/02/76: 96-100, 121-3, 125; flint AE/02/76: 112-3. F1911: pottery AE/02/76: 124. F1912: flint AE/02/76: 116). This would also suggest that this was the ground level at the time of the filling of the C1915 ditch. The F1914 pebbling is difficult to interpret adequately. This discrete area was overlain by the F1906 spread, making it stratigraphically earlier than the outflow or spread of material from the C1915 ditch. It should be noted that the single piece of metal slag (AE/02/76: 114) was discovered lying on the surface of this area, and not embedded into it. Given the relatively greater mass of metal slag, in relation to other artefact types, it is argued that it would easily have sunk through the thin F1908 spread (0.02m), coming to rest on the impenetrable, F1914, interface surface. In this way, the slag may be explained as detritus from the industrial workings associated with the pit, posthole and stakehole structure, which lay 12.31m to the west. Thus, from stratigraphic evidence alone it may argued that the F1914 surface was contemporary with an early phase of the site, before the C1915 ditch was filled, although what its exact purpose was is difficult to ascertain. Its genesis may have been in the in the perceived requirements of the rituals associated with the main focus of Site 19. Alternatively, the construction of F1914 may have stemmed from a much more prosaic need and desire to provide an area of relatively dry, solid ground.

Plate 15: South-east facing section through pit/hearth C19108. C19148 was a sub-circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, round pointed base (0.09m x 0.08m x 0.15m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by loose, brown silty sand (F19149), which contained occasional flecks of charcoal.

Pit, posthole and stakehole structure: excavation C19108 was an oval pit, or possibly a hearth, with vertical to steeply sloping, variably-shaped sides and a flat base (1.15m x 0.70m x 0.30m) (Figures 25-26; Plates 15-16). This feature cut the subsoil and contained two fills (F19109 and 19110). The lowest of these was friable, black silty sand (F19109), which contained a moderate amount of small, sub-rounded stones; frequent flecks and

3

All calibrated dates cited are at 2σ intercepts and use the conventional radiocarbon age. To allow more meaningful comparisons between dates, all radiocarbon determinations cited in this report have been recalibrated using the Calib 5.1 beta computer program, using the IntCal04 calibration curve (Reimer et al 2004). Thus, some previously published dates may differ slightly in their calibrated values.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 25: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 pit, posthole and stakehole structure.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 26: Half sections through Site 19 pit, posthole and stakehole structure: pits C19164 & C19166; pit/hearth C19108; postholes C19152, C19154, C19156, C19168 & C19170, profiles across posthole C19172 and stakeholes C19111 & C19113.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 27: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 stakehole cluster (C19111, C19113, C19115, C19117, C19119, C19121, C19123, C19125, C19127, C19129, C19131, C19133, C19140, C19142, C19144 & C19146) associated with pit C19108.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Plate 16: Post-excavation view of pit/hearth C19108 and stakehole complex, from the north-west.

Plate 18: South-west facing section through posthole C19156.

C19152 was a sub-circular posthole with smooth and stepped, steeply sloping to vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.19m x 0.17m x 0.16m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, brown-orange silty sand (F19153) containing occasional small, angular and sub-angular stones and occasional flecks of charcoal.

C19164 was a sub-oval pit with steeply to moderately sloping, concave sides and a concave base (0.53m x 0.42m x 0.15m) (Plate 19). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, light brown-orange silty sand (F19165), which contained moderate amounts of small, angular and sub-angular pebbles. F19165 was cut by C19166. This was a sub-circular pit with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.85m x 0.76m x 0.22m) and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19167) containing frequent small and medium sized, angular and subrounded stones; frequent small, sub-angular stones, and frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of a single piece of metal slag (AE/02/76: 417).

C19154 was a sub-oval posthole with smooth, vertical sides and a concave base (0.23m x 0.21m x 0.23m) (Plate 17). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19155), which contained moderate amounts of fine and medium sized, angular and sub-angular pebbles and a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal.

Plate 17: South-facing section through posthole C19154.

Plate 19: North-west facing section through pits C19164 and C19166.

C19156 was a sub-circular posthole with vertical to steeply sloping, smooth to irregularly shaped sides and a flat base (0.18m x 0.17m x 0.11m) (Plate 18). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19157) containing moderate amounts of fine and medium sized, angular and sub-angular pebbles and a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal.

C19168 was a circular posthole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a concave base (diam.: 0.15m x 0.07m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, dark brown silty sand (F19169), which contained occasional small, angular stones and occasional flecks of charcoal. C19170 was a circular posthole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a concave base (diam.: 0.15m x 0.11m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, dark brown silty sand (F19171) containing occasional small, angular stones.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

C19172 was a circular posthole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (diam.: 0.16m x 0.20m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, dark brown silty sand (F19173) containing occasional fine, subrounded pebbles and a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal.

0.07m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19122. C19123 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, round pointed base (diam.: 0.02m x 0.05m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19124. C19125 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, round pointed base (0.04m x 0.03m x 0.08m). On its south side, C19125 was conjoined with the C19123 stakehole, though no appreciable difference in their fills could be discerned to show that one was later than the other. This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19126.

C19174 was an oval stakehole with steeply sloping, concave to smooth sides and a tapered, pointed base (0.11m x 0.10m x 0.22m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, brown-black silty clay (F19175), which contained occasional flecks of charcoal. The group of stakeholes at the south-western end of pit C19108 are as follows (Figure 27). Unless stated otherwise, all were filled by loose, brown silty sand containing occasional flecks of charcoal.

C19127 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, pointed base (0.04m x 0.03m x 0.07m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19128. F19128.

C19111 was an oval stakehole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.08m x 0.07m x 0.15m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by (F19112).

C19129 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, pointed base (diam.: 0.05m x 0.07m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19130.

C19113 was an oblong stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.12m x 0.05m x 0.10m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by friable, brown sandy silt (F19114) containing occasional flecks of charcoal.

C19131 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, round pointed base (0.05m x 0.03m x 0.05m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19132.

C19115 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, pointed base (0.06m x 0.04m x 0.07m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19116.

C19133 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, round pointed base (diam.: 0.04m x 0.07m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled F19134.

C19117 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (diam.: 0.04m x 0.07m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19118.

C19140 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.09m x 0.07m x 0.14m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19141.

C19119 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, round pointed base (0.04m x 0.03m x 0.08m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19120.

C19142 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (diam.: 0.04m x 0.08m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled F19143. C19144 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.05m x 0.04m x 0.09m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled F19145.

C19121 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, round pointed base (diam.: 0.04m x

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 28: Interpretative plan of Site 19 pit, posthole and stakehole structure.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 29: Interpretative plan of Site 19 stakehole cluster associated with pit C19108.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

C19146 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.06m x 0.03m x 0.12m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by F19147.

this island, and the same side of the C19108 pit as its stakehole windbreak. Interpreting the function of the structure The fact that the C19166 pit and the C19108 pit/hearth, along with the C1954 pit to the north-east, all produced pieces of metal slag, would suggest an industrial function for the structure (C1954: AE/02/76: 418 (40 pieces). C19108: AE/02/76: 420 (33 pieces plus very small pieces) & 421 (15 pieces). C19166: AE/02/76: 417 (one piece)). As smelting pits are generally circular in plan, ranging from 0.30m to 0.60m in diameter and from 0.20m to 0.30m deep, it is unlikely that C19108 would have functioned in this manner (B. Dolan pers. comm.). Instead it is proposed that this structure functioned as a smithy or secondary workshop for the production of iron objects. As was argued in discussing the C1954 pit (see above), the presence of metal slag would indicate a date from the Bronze Age to at least the Early Christian period. Although this material has not been subjected to specialist analysis, a preliminary inspection suggests that it is derived from iron working. If the C1915 ditch and related features are accepted as of Early Bronze Age date, the fact that this structure does not appear to respect the line of the ditch suggests that they are of different periods. While this may appear to be an obvious point, a secondary inference may be drawn from it, namely that the C1915 ditch did not present a significant surface profile at the time of the building of the structure.

Pit, posthole and stakehole structure: discussion Interpreting the form of the structure An analysis of the distribution of the postholes (C19152, C19154, C19156, C19168, C19170 & C19172) and stakeholes (C19148 & C19174) within this group allows the relatively reliable reconstruction of a sub-rectangular building (Figure 28). In this scenario, the stakeholes C19148 and C19174 would have articulated with the postholes C19172 and C19168 to form a north-west to south-east running wall. The postholes C19152, C19154 and C19151 would have articulated with each other to form a parallel wall to the south-west. The south-eastern wall of the structure is represented by the C19170 stakehole, articulating with the C19168 and C19156 postholes. Such a building would have had a somewhat irregular, or lopsided, appearance in plan. Thus, it is possible to postulate that one further posthole existed, within the line of the F1916 fill of the C1915 ditch. Although a careful search of this area was made, no discernable differences could be found. Alternatively, such an additional feature may have been destroyed by the digging of the C19176 pit (see below). As no structural posthole was found in the area between the C19166 pit and the stakehole complex to the south-west of the C19108 pit, it is argued that this structure would have been open to the north-west. Such a structure would have measured 5.93m (north-east to south-west) by 5.39m and had an internal floor space of 24.61m2, or 26.85m2, if the theorised additional posthole is taken into account.

The 16 stakeholes which cluster around the south-western end of C19108 are here interpreted as a windbreak for a hearth (Figure 29). The surviving layout of these stakeholes allows them to be rationalised as a series of four distinct lines, each running north-west to south-east. The first of these lines is composed of four stakeholes, running from C19140 to C19119 and articulating with C19115 and C19117 in between. The second line is composed of two stakeholes, C19113 and C19121. The third line is composed of five stakeholes, running from C19142 to C19127, and articulating with C19111, C19125 and C19123. The fourth line is also composed of five stakeholes, running from C19144 to C19129, and articulating with C19146, C19133 and C19131 in between. Obviously, a number of alternate configurations may also be postulated for these features, although the author believes this to be the most viable one. It is envisioned that these stakeholes would have been bound together with wattle and, possibly, covered with daub to act as a screen against the prevailing south-westerly wind. It is because of the additional protection afforded to the C19108 pit that it is interpreted as a hearth, as opposed to a refuse pit, or similar feature. One other aspect of importance is the question of contemporaneity of the various stakeholes. It is possible that each line of stakeholes represents a single windbreak, replacing an earlier one that had either decayed or been burnt down. In this interpretation, it would be reasonable to assume that each wattle panel was covered in daub to create a wholly

Considering the abundant survival of small stakeholes to the south-west of the C19108 pit or hearth, similar features should have been expected to survive between the structural postholes to form walls. In the absence of such, this structure is interpreted as having been built without walls, ie the structural posts were only intended to support a roof, with no attempt to fully enclose the building. Two observations support this interpretation. In the first case, the positioning of the C19108 hearth towards the edge of the structure, as opposed to at the centre would suggest that there were no adjacent walls to ignite. Secondly, the presence of lines of stakeholes, here interpreted as a windbreak for the C19108 feature, would not be a necessity if the structure had walls to shelter it. A parallel of Early Christian date may be found for this at Structure I, Balgatheran 1, Co Louth, where three sides of the structure were open (Chapple 2001, 33-61, fig 45; Chapple in preparation b). Three lines of stakeholes formed wattle walls between structural postholes only along the south-western side of the building. This is both the direction of the most frequently prevailing wind on

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

wind-proof structure. Alternately, it may be that all four lines are contemporaneous and that a series of wattle panels, without daub, were erected to screen the C19108 pit and the activities that were carried out there. At present, no definitive statement can be offered as to which is more likely. If the structure functioned as a smithy or similar workshop, it is possible that a windbreak for a hearth would not be necessary. Instead these stakeholes may have acted as part of, or support for, a bellows. Unfortunately no such devices are known to survive from this period in Ireland and the suggestion must remain tentative in the extreme.

comparative evidence for industrial activity is remarkably slight. This paucity of comparable evidence should only serve to underline the importance of the Gransha discovery.8 Features predating the C1915 ditch: excavation C1960 was a linear gully with moderately to gently sloping, variable sides and a flat base (4.85m x 0.55m x 0.10m) (Figures 30-31; Plate 20). This was orientated north-east to south-west. C1960 cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, light orange-brown silty sand (F1961), which contained occasional fine and medium sized, angular and sub-angular pebbles. Excavation of this feature allowed the recovery of one roughly-flaked piece of flint which had been utilised as a scraper (AE/02/76: 389); one fragment of Bronze Age coarse ware pottery (AE/02/76: 388) and one piece of metal slag (AE/02/76: 390). F1961 was cut through by the insertion of the C1915 ditch (see below).

As noted above, wood charcoal from the hearth (C19108) returned a radiocarbon determination of 2187±46 BP (385-113 cal BC, UBA-9326), placing it in the Iron Age period (c 450 BC-400 AD). This period is conventionally seen as a time of decreased human activity on this island (Mallory & McNeill 1991, 140-141; Raftery 2005, 135138). While this is often regarded as the result of a potentially catastrophic population decline or downturn in climatic conditions, it has also been suggested that the character of the Iron Age was one of general mobility which left few archaeological traces (Lynn 2003, 20-23). Nonetheless, this industrial activity may be paralleled at Johnstown 1, Co Meath, where charcoal (Quercus sp) from a layer within the furnace returned a date of 2220±70 BP (401-97 cal BC, Beta-176806) (Carlin et al 2008, 135). Ash (Fraxinus sp) charcoal from a stonelined industrial feature at Muckerstown, Site 13b, Co Meath, dated to 2175±38 BP (372-112 cal BC, Wk16279) (O'Sullivan & Stanley 2006, 130); while charcoal (Quercus sp) from within a furnace at Hardwood 3, Co Meath, dated to 2170±50 BP (378-61 cal BC, Beta177445) (Carlin et al 2008, 135). Although contemporary radiocarbon evidence has been returned for other aspects of the Iron Age, including Royal sites,4 linear earthworks,5 trackways, platforms6 and burials7 the

Plate 20: Post-excavation view of linear gully C1960, from the north-east. C1958 was a linear gully with gently sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (3.00m x 0.30m x 0.05m). This was orientated from north-east to south-west, parallel to the C1960 linear gully, and lay 2.58m south-east of it. C1958 cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, red-brown silty sand (F1959) containing moderate amounts of fine and medium sized, angular pebbles. F1959.

4

Navan fort, Co Armagh: 2220±70 BP (401-97 cal BC, UB-778); 2195±80 BP (396-53 cal BC, UB-774); 2187±66 BP (390-59 cal BC, UB-4492); 2185±55 BP (387-98 cal BC, UB-782); 2175±45 BP (378106 cal BC, UB-752); 2175±45 BP (378-106 cal BC, UB-772); 2170±75 BP (388-47 cal BC, UB-972) (Lynn 2000, 14; Raftery 1994, 229; Warner 1997, 192; Gault 2002, 27; Warner et al 1990, 48; Mount 1995, 87). Dún Ailinne/Knockaulin, Co Kildare: 2200±50 BP (390-116 cal BC, SI-984); 2165±70 BP (384-50 cal BC, SI-977) (Raftery 1994, 230; Warner et al 1990, 48; Mount 1995, 87; Lavell 1971, 5C.4). 5 The Black Pig's Dyke, Co Monaghan: 2190±55 BP (389-106 cal BC, UB-2601); 2165±55 BP (376-56 cal BC, UB-2600) (Raftery 1994, 230; Walsh 1987, 9; Warner et al 1990, 49; Mount 1995, 87). The Dorsey, Co Armagh: 2171±33 BP (364-114 cal BC, UB-6174); 2163±30 BP (359-111 cal BC, UB-4894) (Hurl & McSparron 2004, 47). 6 Co Tipperary: Cooleeny 178, 2200±20 BP (361-200 cal BC, GrN21817); Derryfadda 13, 2200±50 BP (390-116 cal BC, Beta-102736); Killoran 75, 2190±20 BP (360-192 cal BC, GrN-21947), 2190±60 BP (390-94 cal BC, Beta-102763) and 2170±60 BP (381-56 cal BC, Beta102766); Derryfadda 203, 2190±60 BP (390-94 cal BC, Beta-102761); Killoran 301, 2160±35 BP (360-95 cal BC, UB-4185); Derryfadda 6 2160±70 BP (383-46 cal BC, Beta-102737)(Cross May et al 2005, 69, 72). Co Longford: Edercloon, 2199±39 BP (381-174 cal BC, Wk20201) (O'Sullivan & Stanley 2008, 164). 7 Killow (AR104), Co Clare, 2220±40 BP (387-197 cal BC, Beta211592); Gallagh, Castleblakeney, Co Galway, 2220±90 BP (504-3 cal BC, Ha-6908); Cookstown, Site 25, Co Meath, 2192±40 BP (384-124 cal BC, Wk-16314); Manusmore (AR102), Co Clare, 2190±40 BP (383121 cal BC, Beta-211585); Ardsallagh 1, Co Meath, 2190±40 BP (383-

Features predating the C1915 ditch: discussion Both the C1960 and C1958 linear gullies are enigmatic features. Stratigraphically, the former predates the C1915 external ditch, suggesting an Early to Middle Bronze Age date, if not earlier. Although the C1958 linear gully is not stratigraphically related to any other feature, because it is morphologically similar to, and on an identical 121 cal BC, Beta-229294); Borris in Ossory, Co Laois, 2189±34 BP (372-171 cal BC, OxA-10046); Clogher (Castle Hill), Co Tyrone, 2185±45 BP (383-113 cal BC, UB-2037); Rathdooney Beg, Co Sligo, 2183±38 BP (379-118 cal BC, UB-3826) (Hull & Taylor 2007, 28; Taylor 2006, 26; Raftery 1994, 230; O'Sullivan & Stanley 2006, 131; Hull 2006, 22; O'Sullivan & Stanley 2008, 169; Delaney & Woodman 2004, 10; Warner et al 1990, 49; Pearson 1979, 277; Kerr 2007, 90; Mount 1995, 85). 8 However, see recent discoveries at Carrickmines Great, Co. Dublin (Ó Drisceoil 2007) and Monganstown 1, Co. Westmeath (Lehane & Johnston 2009).

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

orientation to, the C1960 gully, the two are thought to be contemporary.

insertion of the C1915 ditch, the structure would have had a maximum length of 3.71m and a maximum floor space of 3.61m2. A second hypothesis is that these linear features (either with or without the C1925 and C1927 postholes) were part of a processional way into this larger ritual site, prior to the cutting of the C1915 ditch. However, the hypothesis put forward regarding the C1920, C1922 and C1933 pits (see below (suggesting that the three are related and may have functioned either as a segmented, palisaded trench, or as the sockets for orthostats, predating the insertion of the C1915 ditch)) would mean that the two sets overlap to a degree which would have not allowed the two to function simultaneously. Finally, and more prosaically, it is possible that the two linear features (not related to the two postholes) are the remains of cultivation ridges of Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age date. Although superficially similar to some of the plough marks excavated at Site B (Phase 2) at Navan Fort, Co Armagh, (Waterman & Lynn 1997, 13-4, fig 9; pl 5) the fact that only two minor fragments should be preserved, would argue against this interpretation. Also, the apparently deliberate nature of their construction makes this interpretation unlikely. Of the three hypotheses presented here, this last seems to have the least validity. One further detail which may be remarked upon here is that if the alignment of the C1960 linear gully is continued 7.28m to the south-west it aligns almost exactly to the orientation of the C19160 pit (see below). Unfortunately, this pit did not produce any further dating evidence.

The only potential, artefactual dating evidence for these features was recovered from the C1960 gully. The rough scraper (AE/02/76: 389) and the fragment of coarse ware pottery (AE/02/76: 388), suggest a Bronze Age date, although the presence of the piece of metal slag (AE/02/76: 390) suggests a degree of intrusion and contamination. Similar to the piece of slag recovered from the F1914 pebbled surface (see above), it is likely that the material is derived from the later industrial structure, which lay 2.55m to the south-west. The question of function for these linear features is also problematic. It is possible that they are related to the C1925 and C1927 postholes, which lie between them (see below), although these did not produce any artefactual dating evidence of their own (Figure 32). In addition, even if these four features are related to each other, they present such a small amount of evidence that it is impossible to present a viable theory of function. Three possibilities may be given, none of which are particularly convincing to this author. Firstly, the two gullies may be associated with the C1925 and C1927 postholes and represent the drip trenches for a building. However, this would have resulted in a building with an average width of a mere 1.12m. Supposing that a second set of postholes existed, set back from the north-eastern end of the C1960 gully as the others are from the southwestern end (1.05m to 1.39m), and were destroyed by the

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 30: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 linear features (C1958 & C1960) predating the C1915 external ditch.

Figure 31: Half sections through Site 19 linear features (C1958 & C1960) predating the C1915 external ditch.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 32: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 intermediate features, showing possible alignment of linear gullies C1958 & C1960, pit C19135 and postholes C1925, C1917 & C19137. C19258 ditch segment, appears to have been heavily truncated. Thus, 21 box sections (Box Sections W-AQ), over a length of 29.91m, are affected. Considering that the majority of artefacts recovered from C1915 were discovered within the upper third of the F1916 fill, this truncation may have impacted heavily on the amounts of material retrieved. This has the result of potentially giving a false impression of the finds distribution pattern within the ditch (but see below).

The C1915 ditch and related features: excavation The C1915 ditch was excavated using a series of 47 box sections (BSs: A-AV) (Figure 44). The total length of the ditch was 70.42m, which enclosed an area of 366.86m2. In plan, the ditch had the form of a slightly irregular oval. In general, the C1915 ditch had steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat to concave base, although these varied to a certain degree along its length. The ditch cut through the thin subsoil, into the shale bedrock and had maximum dimensions of 0.79m in width and 0.68m depth. C1915 was filled by loose, dark brown sandy loam (F1916), which contained frequent coarse, angular pebbles and a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal. Unfortunately, wet sieving of a number of samples of this material failed to yield sufficient charcoal to produce a radiocarbon determination. Contained within F1916 was F1909, which was composed of frequent small, medium sized and large, angular stones, derived from the shale bedrock (Plate 21). This arrangement continued through the entire length of the ditch with only minor variations. For this reason, individual box sections will only be commented on for specific reasons, such as the recovery of artefacts and to note relationships with other features. The only major observation relating to the survival of the ditch is that the entirety of the south-western portion of Site 19, on an approximate line from the western end of the C19212 ditch segment and the southern end of the

Plate 21: Mid-excavation view of Box Section A-B showing F1909 stones within ditch C1915, from the north-east.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Box Sections A and B Within Box Sections A and B, pre-dating the construction of the C1915 ditch, a large post pit (C1935) had been excavated (Figure 46; Plates 22-24). C1935 was a subcircular pit with vertical to steeply sloping, smooth to concave sides and a concave base (1.24m x 1.24m x 1.25m). It cut the bedrock and was filled by soft, orangeto yellow-brown sandy clay (F1936). Excavation of this feature allowed the recovery of a single body sherd from a coarse ware vessel (AE/02/76: 126). F1926 contained within it F1913, which was composed of occasional to moderate amounts of medium sized, sub-rounded stones and frequent large, sub-rounded and rounded stones. F1913 was distinguishable from F1909, the stone fill of C1915, as the F1913 stones were sub-rounded to rounded field-stones, different from the angular shale bedrock of F1909. This is of importance, as the digging of the C1935 pit would itself have produced large quantities (c 2.67m3) of broken shale. Obviously, a decision was taken not to use this material, instead collecting fieldstones from the vicinity. The only exception to this was the use of angular, shale slabs to form the C1938 post socket. F1936 and F1913 contained within them C1938. This feature is interpreted as a circular post pipe with moderately sloping, concave sides and a concave base (diam.: 0.26m x 0.73m). C1938 was filled by soft, dark brown silty to sandy clay (F1937). Charcoal from this fill returned a radiocarbon determination of 3350±21 BP (1730-1536 cal BC, UBA-9323). F1937 was cut by the insertion of the C1915 ditch. It is reasonable to presume that the C1938 post pipe would originally have been level with the top of the C1935 posthole, thus having a total depth of 1.25m.

Plate 23: Box Section A-B, section face DE-DF through post pit C1935 and ditch C1915, from the north-west.

Plate 24: Box Section A-B, south-east facing section DLDK through post pit C1935 and ditch C1915. As noted above, the F1937 post pipe was cut by the C1915 ditch. Within Box Section A, F1916 produced seven body sherds (AE/02/76: 101-5 & 108-9); one abraded sherd (AE/02/76: 107); one body sherd/crumb (AE/02/76: 106) and two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 110-1). Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 105 & 108) were part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:01) (Figure 33). Portions of the same vessel were also recovered from Box Sections D-E, G-I, W and AU-AV. A second coarse ware vessel (19:04) was represented by two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 110-1) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 102) (Figure 34). Portions of the same vessel were also recovered from box sections E-G, AE and AU. A third vessel (19:05) was represented by one body sherd (AE/02/76: 109), though other portions were recovered from box sections E-H, R and AU (Figure 35). One body sherd (AE/02/76: 101) represented a final coarse ware vessel (19:11), parts of which were also recovered from box sections E, G, W, AR and AT-AU. Excavation of Box Section B allowed the recovery of one fully patinated flint side scraper (AE/02/76: 240) (Figure 36); one heavily utilised flint end and side scraper (AE/02/76: 241); one slightly retouched flint flake (AE/02/76: 128); one flint end scraper, made on a very crude flake (AE/02/76: 129); one flint scalar flake (AE/02/76: 242); one broken flint flake (AE/02/76: 243); and two body sherds (AE/02/76: 239 & 221). One of the body sherds (AE/02/76: 221) was the sole recovered portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:17) (Figure 37). The

Plate 22: Post-excavation view of Box Section A-B showing post pit C1935 and post socket C1938, from the east.

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second body sherd (AE/02/76: 239) represented a portion of a second coarse ware vessel (19:09), parts of which were also recovered from box sections E, AR and ATAU. As discussed above, the F1906 spread, and probably the F1911 and F1912 spreads, is derived from the out flowing, or spreading, of this F1916 fill.

Figure 36: Flint side scraper (AE/02/76: 240).

Figure 33: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:01), sherd AE/02/76: 346.

Figure 37: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:17), sherd AE/02/76: 221. Box Section D Excavation of F1916 within Box Section D allowed the recovery of four body sherds (AE/02/76: 131-4) and one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 130), together representing a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:01) (Figures 33 & 46; Plate 25). It was noted that some portions of the ditch, both within this box-section and others, in the northern and north-eastern portions of the C1915 ditch, appeared to have been deliberately faced with slabs of the F1909 stones. However, if these were deliberate actions, it is difficult to speculate as to what function they served, or why they were confined to one portion of the ditch. It is possible to suggest that these slabs represent packing stones for a palisaded fence. However, this does not explain their placement in this area of the ditch alone.

Figure 34: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:04), sherds AE/02/76: 110-1.

Figure 35: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:05), sherd AE/02/76: 299. 44

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Plate 25: Box Section D, post-excavation view of ditch C1915, from the east. Note the placement of stones against the face of the ditch. Box Section E Excavation of F1916 within Box Section E allowed the recovery of one pointed, bipolar flint core (AE/02/76: 278); 29 body sherds (AE/02/76: 281-298 & 300-310), one base sherd (AE/02/76: 299) and two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 279-280). Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 285, 294 & 310) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:01) (Figure 33). One of the rim sherds (AE/02/76: 279) represented the sole recovered portion of a second coarse ware vessel (19:16). Four body sherds (AE/02/76: 286, 298, 302 & 305) represented a portion of a third coarse ware vessel (19:02) (Figure 41). Portions of vessel 19:02 were also recovered from box sections F-I, AT & AV. Five body sherds (AE/02/76: 281, 289, 293, 301 & 306) formed part of a fourth coarse ware vessel (19:04, Figure 34). A fifth coarse ware vessel (19:05) was represented by one base sherd (AE/02/76: 299) and six body sherds (AE/02/76: 283, 291-2, 295 & 308-9) (Figure 35). One body sherd (AE/02/76: 288) represented part of a further coarse ware vessel (19:06), parts of which were also recovered from box sections G, K, AR and AU (Figure 39). Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 287, 296 & 304) represented a portion of a seventh coarse ware vessel (19:09). A further coarse ware vessel (19:10) was represented by one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 280) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 290) (Figure 38). Portions of the same vessel were also recovered from box sections FH, AR and AU-AV. One body sherd (AE/02/76: 297) formed part of coarse ware vessel 19:11. Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 282 & 303) represented a portion of a final coarse ware vessel (19:13) (Figure 40). A further portion of vessel 19:13 was recovered from box section AU. Within Box Section E, F1916 was cut by the C1918 pit (see below).

Figure 38: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:10), sherds AE/02/76: 143/5 (from top), 158, 280 & 162.

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Box Section F Excavation of F1916 within Box Section F allowed the recovery of one fully patinated, broken flint flake (AE/02/76: 172); eight body sherds (AE/02/76: 161 & 165-171) and three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 162-4) (Figure 47; Plates 26-27). Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 161 & 168) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:02) (Figure 41). Five body sherds (AE/02/76: 165-7 & 169-70) represented a portion of a second coarse ware vessel (19:03, Figure 42), parts of which were also recovered from box sections G-H, AR and AU. A portion of a third vessel (19:04) of the same type was represented by a body sherd (AE/02/76: 171) (Figure 34). Part of a fourth coarse ware vessel (19:05) was represented by one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 163) (Figure 35). One rim sherd (AE/02/76: 162) represented a final vessel (19:10) of the same form (Figure 38).

Figure 39: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:06), sherd AE/02/76: 666.

Plate 26: Box Section F, post-excavation view of ditch C1915, from the east.

Figure 40: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:13), sherd AE/02/76: 680.

Plate 27: Box Section F, north facing section DU-DV through ditch C1915.

Figure 41: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:02), sherds AE/02/76: 722/4.

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Figure 42: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:03), sherd AE/02/76: 693. Box Section G Excavation of F1916 within Box Section G allowed the recovery of one, ad hoc sub-circular flint scraper (AE/02/76: 222); one poorly struck flake (AE/02/76: 223); one fully patinated, large chunky, scalar flint flake (AE/02/76: 224); one bipolar flint core (AE/02/76: 225); 46 body sherds (AE/02/76: 245-254, 256-73 & 313-31), four rim sherds (AE/02/76: 244, 255 & 311-2) and two crumbs (AE/02/76: 274-5) (Figure 47). Four body sherds (AE/02/76: 247, 263, 270, 324) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:01) (Figure 33). Twelve body sherds (AE/02/76: 248, 254, 258, 260, 262, 264, 269, 272, 316, 318, 327 & 329) represented a portion of a second coarse ware vessel (19:02) (Figure 41). Four body sherds (AE/02/76: 256, 267-8, 326) represented a third coarse ware vessel (19:03) (Figure 42). A fourth vessel (19:04) was represented by four body sherds (AE/02/76: 245-6, 257 & 266) (Figure 34). A fifth coarse ware vessel (19:05) was represented by five body sherds (AE/02/76: 250, 265, 314 & 320-1) (Figure 35). Four body sherds (AE/02/76: 259, 261, 322 & 328) represented a portion of a sixth coarse ware vessel (19:06) (Figure 39). One rim sherd (AE/02/76: 311) represented a portion of a further vessel (19:08), parts of which were also recovered from box sections AT-AV. An eighth vessel (19:10), also of coarse ware, was represented by three body sherds (AE/02/76: 251-2 & 271) (Figure 38). Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 249, 315, 319) formed part of a similar vessel (19:11). A final coarse ware vessel (19:12) was represented by three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 244, 255 & 312) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 273) and was confined to this box section (Figure 43).

Figure 43: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:12), sherd AE/02/76: 244. Box Section H Excavation of F1916 within Box Section H allowed the recovery of one flint débitage flake (AE/02/76: 159); one fully patinated, poorly struck flint flake (AE/02/76: 160); one base sherd (AE/02/76: 158), 11 body sherds (AE/02/76: 147-57) and four rim sherds (AE/02/76: 1436) (Figure 47; Plates 28-29). Three of the body sherds (AE/02/76: 148-9, 156) were part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:01) (Figure 33); one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 144) was the sole recovered portion of another coarse ware vessel (19:15). Four body sherds (AE/02/76: 150, 153, 155, 157) represented a portion of a third coarse ware vessel (19:02) (Figure 41). One body shred (AE/02/76: 154) represented a portion of a further coarse ware vessel (19:03) (Figure 42). A fifth coarse ware vessel (19:05) was represented by the one base sherd (AE/02/76: 158) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 152) (Figure 35). Two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 143 & 145) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 147) were part of a further vessel (19:10) of similar form (Figure 38). A final coarse ware vessel (19:14) was represented by one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 146), a further portion of which was recovered from box section AU (Figure 45).

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Box Section I Excavation of F1916 within Box Section I enabled the recovery of two body sherds of pottery (AE/02/76: 3334). One sherd (AE/02/76: 333) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:01) (Figure 33), while the other derived from a second vessel of similar form (19:02) (Figure 41). Box Section K Excavation of F1916 within Box Section K allowed the recovery of one notched, retouched, edge-damaged flint flake (AE/02/76: 277). One body sherd (AE/02/76: 276) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:06) (Figure 39). Box Section R Excavation of F1916 within Box Section R allowed the recovery of one scalar flint flake (AE/02/76: 393) and one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 366) (Figure 48; Plate 30). The rim sherd formed part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:05) (Figure 35). Figure 45: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:14), sherd AE/0276: 665.

Plate 30: Section R, south-west facing section ER-EQ through ditch C1915. Plate 28: Box Section H, post-excavation view of ditch C1915, from the east.

Box Sections T and U Within Box Sections T and U, F1916 was cut by the insertion of pit C19176 (see below) (Figure 48).

Plate 29: Box Section H, north-west facing section DWDX through ditch C1915.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 44: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, showing locations of Box Sections A-AU.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 46: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915 and post pit C1935, Box Sections A-D and midexcavation plan of post-socket C1938 within post pit C1935 in Box Sections A-B.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 47: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections F-N.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 48: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections N-V.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 49: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections X-AH.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 50: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections AJ-AR.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 51: Section drawings through Site 19 outer ditch, C1915, Box Sections AR-AV.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Box Section W Excavation of F1916 within Box Section W enabled the recovery of one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 346) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 345). Rim sherd (AE/02/76: 346) was part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:01, Figure 33), while the body sherd (AE/02/76: 345) was part of a second vessel (19:11) of similar form.

31). Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 639-40 & 647) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:02) (Figure 41). One sherd (AE/02/76: 642) represented a portion of a second coarse ware vessel (19:03) (Figure 42). A third coarse ware vessel (19:04) was represented by two sherds (AE/02/76: 630, 646) (Figure 34). A base sherd (AE/02/76: 637) and three body sherds (AE/02/76: 627-9 & 641) represented a portion of a further coarse ware vessel (19:09). Four body sherds (AE/02/76: 632, 634, 638 & 650) represented a fifth vessel (19:06) (Figure 39). One body sherd (AE/02/76: 649) represented a portion of a further coarse ware vessel (19:10) (Figure 38). One body sherd (AE/02/76: 648) was part of coarse ware vessel 19:11. A perforated coarse ware vessel (19:07) was represented by two body sherds (AE/02/76: 643-4) and a further portion in box section AT (Figure 53). Wet sieving of material from this fill led to the recovery of one flint fragment (AE/02/76: 737) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 763, which was a possible match to any of the vessels 19:1-16).

Box Section AE Excavation of F1916 within Box Section AE allowed the recovery of one sherd (AE/02/76: 475), part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:04) (Figure 34). Box Section AJ Excavation of F1916 within Box Section AJ allowed the recovery of a broken, polishing/grinding stone, possibly of siltstone, with a superficial axe blade end (AE/02/76: 490) (Figures 50 & 52). One peculiarity of this boxsection was the nature of the base of C1915. Within Box Section AJ, and to a certain extent within the adjoining Box Sections AI and AK, for approximately 3m in length, the C1915 base exhibited evidence that it had been ground away, leaving a smooth, even surface. This was in stark contrast to the remainder of the ditch which was rough and relatively uneven, indicating that it had been hacked out. The only comparable feature within Site 19 was C1925 (see below).

Plate 31: Box Section AR, south-west facing section GSGT through ditch C1915.

Plate 32: Box Section AT, north-east facing section GUGV through ditch C1915.

Figure 52: Polishing/grinding stone (AE/02/76: 490). Box Section AR Excavation of F1916 within Box Section AR allowed the recovery of 22 body sherds (AE/02/76: 625-34, 638-44 & 646-50), one base sherd (AE/02/76: 637) and three crumbs (AE/02/76: 635-6 & 645) (Figures 50-51; Plate 56

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

the exterior surface, and have an average diameter of 5mm. Box Section AU Excavation of F1916 within Box Section AU allowed the recovery of one base sherd (AE/02/76: 666), 34 body sherds (AE/02/76: 651-2, 658, 667-79, 681-692 & 69498); three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 665, 680 & 693) and six crumbs (AE/02/76: 659-64). One body sherd (AE/02/76: 695) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:01) (Figure 33). One rim sherd (AE/02/76: 693) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 689) represented a portion of a second coarse ware vessel (19:03) (Figure 42). A third coarse ware vessel (19:04) was represented by two body sherds (AE/02/76: 686 & 696) (Figure 34). Four body sherds (AE/02/76: 668, 671, 673 & 688) represented a fourth coarse ware vessel (19:05) (Figure 35). Vessel 19:06 was represented by one base sherd (AE/02/76: 666) and four body sherds (AE/02/76: 669, 682-3 & 697) (Figure 39). One body sherd (AE/02/76: 694) formed part of a further coarse ware vessel (19:08) and two sherds (AE/02/76: 681 & 684) represented part of vessel 19:09. Six body sherds (AE/02/76: 651, 670, 672, 679, 690, 698) represented coarse ware vessel 19:10 (Figure 38). A similar vessel (19:11) was represented by six body sherds (AE/02/76: 658, 674, 685, 687 & 691-2). Coarse ware vessel 19:13 was represented by one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 680) (Figure 40). A final coarse ware vessel (19:14) was represented by one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 665) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 667) (Figure 45). Box Section AV Excavation of F1916 within Box Section AV allowed the recovery of seven body sherds (AE/02/76: 725-31) and three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 722-4) (Figure 51). One body sherd (AE/02/76: 727) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:01) (Figure 33). The three rim shreds and two body sherds (AE/02/76: 726 & 728) represented a portion of a second coarse ware vessel (19:02) (Figure 41). A third vessel (19:08) of similar form was represented by one body sherd (AE/02/76: 730). A final course ware vessel (19:10) was represented by two body sherds (AE/02/76: 729 & 731) (Figure 38).

Figure 53: Perforated Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:07), sherds AE/02/76: 580 (top) & 584 (bottom). Box Section AT Excavation of F1916 within Box Section AT allowed the recovery of 15 body sherds (AE/02/76: 569-76, 580-83 & 653-5), three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 578-9 & 584) and one crumb (AE/02/76: 577) (Plate 32). Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 569-570) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:02) (Figure 41). A second vessel (19:08) was also represented by two body sherds (AE/02/76: 581-2). A third vessel (19:09) of the same type was represented by four body sherds (AE/02/76: 573, 653-5 & 675). One body sherd (AE/02/76: 571) represented a final coarse ware vessel (19:11). Three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 578-9 & 584) and two body sherds (AE/02/76: 580 & 583) form part of a perforated coarse ware vessel (19:07) (Figure 53). Dunne (Appendix 3) notes that the rim exhibits a series of circumferential manufactured holes located between 10-17mm below the surface of the rim and are spaced 16mm apart. These perforations are cylindrical in profile, were pierced from

Intermediate features: excavation C1904 was an oval posthole with steeply sloping, concave sides and a flat base (0.60m x 0.42m x 0.18m) (Figures 55-57). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by soft, brown silt (F1905), which contained frequent fine, medium sized and coarse, sub-angular and sub-rounded pebbles. F1905 contained within it F1910, a collection of frequent large, angular, sub-angular, subrounded and rounded stones. C1920 was a sub-oval pit with variably sloping, variably shaped sides and a flat base (1.80m x 0.40m x 0.18m) (Plate 33). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, red-brown silty sand (F1921), which contained frequent small, angular stones; moderate amounts of medium sized, angular and sub-angular stones; a

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moderate amount of large, angular stones; occasional medium sized pieces and a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal. Excavation of F1921 allowed the recovery of one broken flint flake (AE/02/76: 184); one bipolar-type flint core (probably originally from an amorphous core) (AE/02/76: 185); two scalar flint flakes (AE/02/76: 1867); one bipolar flint chunk, utilised on its natural concavities (AE/02/76: 188); one amorphous, bipolartype flint core (AE/02/76: 189); one bipolar flint core (AE/02/76: 190); three pieces of flint débitage (AE/02/76: 191-3); eight body sherds (AE/02/76: 176-178 & 180-3) and four rim sherds (AE/02/76: 173-5 & 179). Four rim sherds (AE/02/76: 173-5 & 179) and six body sherds (AE/02/76: 176-8 & 180-3) were identifiable as part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:46) (Figure 54). Wet sieving of material from this fill led to the recovery of one abraded body sherd (AE/02/76: 758, which was a possible match to vessel 19:46). Charcoal from this fill returned a radiocarbon determination of 3124±20 BP (1442-1320 cal BC, UBA-9325).

containing frequent small, angular stones. This fill produced one base sherd (AE/02/76: 140), five body sherds (AE/02/76: 135-9) and two crumbs (AE/02/76: 141-2). Two sherds (AE/02/76: 136-7) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:40). One base sherd (AE/02/76: 140) and three body sherds (AE/02/76: 135 & 138-9) formed part of a second coarse ware vessel (19:41).

Plate 34: Post-excavation view of pit C1922, from the south-west. C1925 was a circular posthole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a concave base (diam.: 0.33m x 0.25m) (Plate 35). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, orange-brown silty sand (F1926), which contained occasional small, sub-angular stones. It is important to single out the construction technique used on this feature, as it was not hacked out of the bedrock, like almost all other features. Instead, it had smooth, evenly shaped sides indicating that it had been ground out of the bedrock. The only comparable feature within Site 19 was Box Section AJ within C1915, which also appeared to have been ground down, not hacked out of the bedrock (see above).

Plate 33: Post-excavation view of pit C1920, from the west.

C1927 was a circular posthole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (diam.: 0.40m x 0.20m) (Plate 36). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, orange- to grey-brown silty sand (F1928). C1931 was a sub-circular posthole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.31m x 0.28m x 0.38m) (Plates 3738). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by soft, dark brown sandy silt (F1932), which contained moderate amounts of fine, medium sized and coarse, sub-rounded pebbles; occasional small, sub-angular stones and a moderate amount of charcoal flecks. Excavation of F1932 allowed the recovery of one flint splinter fragment (AE/02/76: 207); four body sherds (AE/02/76: 203-6). The pottery was all from a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:44). F1932 was cut through by the insertion of C1929. C1929 was a sub-oval pit with gently to steeply sloping, irregularly shaped sides and an irregular base (1.20m x 0.57m x 0.18m). This feature was filled by loose, brown silty sand (F1930) containing moderate amounts of fine, medium sized and coarse, sub-rounded pebbles; moderate amounts of small and medium sized, angular stones; occasional large, angular stones and

Figure 54: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:46), sherd AE/02/76: 178. C1922 was a sub-oval pit with steep to gently sloping, smooth to irregularly shaped sides and a flat base (1.50m x 0.60m x 0.10m) (Plate 34). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, brown silty sand (F1923)

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occasional flecks of charcoal. Excavation of F1930 allowed the recovery of one flint scraper (AE/02/76: 208); one fully patinated, poorly struck flint flake (AE/02/76: 209); one bipolar flint core (AE/02/76: 210); nine body sherds (AE/02/76: 211-19) and one crumb (AE/02/76: 220). The nine body sherds (AE/02/76: 2119) were identified as part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:42).

Plate 38: Post-excavation view of posthole C1931, from the north-west. C1933 was a linear pit with variably sloping, smooth to concave sides and a concave base (1.50m x 0.50m x 0.07m) (Plate 39). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, yellow-brown silty sand (F1934) containing occasional small, sub-angular stones; a moderate amount of charcoal flecks and occasional medium sized pieces of charcoal. This fill contained one piece of metal slag (AE/02/76: 194), seven body sherds (AE/02/76: 195-201) and one crumb (AE/02/76: 202). Five body sherds (AE/02/76: 195-9) were identified as part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:49).

Plate 35: Post-excavation view of posthole C1925, from the north.

Plate 36: Post-excavation view of posthole C1927, from the north. Plate 39: Post-excavation view of pit C1933, from the north. C1939 was a circular pit with moderately sloping, concave sides and a concave base (diam.: 0.70m x 0.17m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, dark red-brown silty sand (F1940), which contained a moderate amount of medium sized, subrounded pebbles; occasional medium sized, sub-rounded stones; frequent flecks and a moderate amount of small pieces of charcoal. Excavation of F1940 allowed the recovery of six body sherds (AE/02/76: 118, 231-5) and three crumbs (AE/02/76: 236-8). The six sherds were identified as part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:45). F1940 was overlain by spread F1941 (see below).

Plate 37: Post-excavation view of posthole C1931 and pit C1929, from the south-west.

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Figure 55: Detailed post-excavation plan of Site 19 intermediate features.

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Figure 56: Section drawings through Site 19 intermediate features: postholes C1904 & C1931; pits C1920, C1922, C1929, C1933, C1939, C1942 & C1984, and spread F1941.

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Figure 57: Section drawings through Site 19 intermediate features: pits C19106, C19135, C19150, C1916 & C19230; postholes C1925, C1927, C19137 & C19205; post pipe C19137a and modern posthole C19162. Profiles across stakehole C19234 and possible stakehole C19232.

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C1984 was a sub-oval pit with steeply sloping to vertical, convex and irregularly shaped sides and an irregular base (2.40m x 1.80m x 0.60m) (Plates 40-41). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, orange-brown silty sand (F1985), which contained occasional small, sub-angular stones, occasional flecks of charcoal, one broken quartzite pebble which appears to have been deliberately smoothed on one side (AE/02/76: 342) and three body sherds (AE/02/76: 339-41), part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:43). F1984 was overlain by spread F1941 (see below).

C19106 was an oval pit with steeply to moderately sloping, irregularly shaped sides and an irregular base (0.80m x 0.60m x 0.10m) (Plate 42). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, brown silty sand (F19107) containing moderate amounts of small and medium sized, angular stones, frequent flecks and a moderate amount of small pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of six body sherds (AE/02/76: 347-52), all part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:47).

Plate 40: Post-excavation view of pit C1984, from the east.

Plate 42: Post-excavation view of pit C19106, from the west. C19135 was an oval pit with steeply sloping smooth sides and a flat base (0.50m x 0.30m x 0.12m) (Plate 43). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19136), which contained occasional small, sub-angular stones.

Plate 41: Post-excavation view of pit C1984, from the west. F1941 was a spread of compact, mid pink-brown silty sand which contained a moderate amount of large, angular stones. F1941 was cut through at its southern end by C1942. C1942 was an irregular pit with gently to steeply sloping, variably shaped sides and a flat base (1.98m x 1.04m x 0.14m). This feature cut the F1941 spread and contained two fills (F1943 & F1944). The lowest of these was compact, light yellow-orange sand (F1944) containing occasional coarse, angular pebbles. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of one wellstruck flint flake scraper (AE/02/76: 226) and four body sherds (AE/02/76: 227-30). Three of the body sherds were identified as part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:50). F1944 was overlain by loose, brown silty sand (F1943), which contained moderate amounts of medium sized and large, angular stones and a moderate amount of charcoal flecks.

Plate 43: Post-excavation view of pits C19135 and C19137, from the east. C19137 was a sub-circular posthole with moderately to steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (0.60m x 0.45m x 0.40m) (Plate 43). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, orange-brown clayey sand (F19138) containing moderate amounts of small and medium sized, sub-angular stones. Within F19138 was C19137a. C19137a was a circular post pipe with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (diam.: 0.25m x 0.36m). This feature was filled by compact, dark orangebrown silty sand (F19139) containing moderate amounts of small and medium sized, angular stones. 63

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C19150 was an oval pit with variably sloping, convex and smooth sides and a concave base (1.00m x 0.60m x 0.30m) (Plate 44). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, yellow-brown silty sand (F19151), which contained frequent coarse, angular pebbles and a moderate amount of medium sized, sub-angular stones.

C19205 was an oval posthole with variably sloping, concave and smooth sides and a tapered, pointed base (0.25m x 0.20m x 0.20m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, dark brown silty sand (F19206) containing occasional small, angular stones. C19230 was an irregular pit with vertical to steeply sloping, convex and smooth sides and an irregular base (0.90m x 0.47m x 0.34m) (Plate 46). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19231), which contained moderate amounts of fine and medium sized, sub-rounded pebbles; occasional small, sub-angular stones and occasional flecks of charcoal. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of three body sherds (AE/02/76: 512-4), all part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:48).

Plate 44: South-west facing section through pit C19150. C19160 was an oval pit with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (1.90m x 0.60m x 0.10m) (Plate 45). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, brown silty loam (F19161), which contained moderate amounts of small and medium sized, sub-angular stones, a moderate amount of flecks and occasional small pieces of charcoal. F19161 was cut through by the insertion of the C19162 modern posthole (see below). Plate 46: South-west facing section through pit C19230. C19232 was a possible, irregular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (0.26m x 0.13m x 0.24m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19233) containing moderate amounts of fine, sub-angular and sub-rounded pebbles and moderate amounts of small, angular, sub-angular and sub-rounded stones. C19234 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, pointed base (diam.: 0.09m x 0.16m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19235) containing occasional fine, sub-angular and sub-rounded pebbles.

Plate 45: Post-excavation view of pit C19160 and modern posthole C19162, from the south-east.

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Figure 58: Detailed plan of Site 19 segmented inner ditch and internal features.

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Figure 59: Section drawings through Site 19 segmented inner ditch (C19190, C19212 & C19258).

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The inner ditch: excavation The inner ditch was a segmented circle, surviving as four distinct cut features (C19190, C19210, C19212 & C19258) (Figures 58-59). C19190 was a curvilinear ditch segment with steeply to gently sloping, smooth sides and a concave base (1.75m x 0.60m x 0.30m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, brown silty clay (F19191), which contained a moderate amount of coarse, angular pebbles, frequent medium sized, angular stones and occasional flecks of charcoal. C19210 was a curvilinear ditch segment with gently sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (2.50m x 0.25m x 0.01m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, dark brown-black silty sand (F19211), which contained a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal. As this area appears to have been heavily truncated, the C19210 ditch segment and its F19211 fill appeared as little more than a thin spread on the subsoil surface.

Plate 48: West facing section IO-IP through ditch segment C19212. C19258 was a curvilinear ditch segment with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (1.98m x 0.36m x 0.19m) (Plate 49). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, brown sandy silt (F19259), which contained occasional fine and medium sized, sub-angular and sub-rounded pebbles; occasional small, angular, subangular, sub-rounded and rounded stones and occasional small flecks of charcoal. For the purposes of finds recovery, the northern portion of C19258, above the JAJB section line was labelled as box section 1, with box section 2 to the south. Excavation of F19259 within box section 1 allowed the recovery of one broken flint flake (AE/02/76: 560); one flint scraper, made on a scalar flake (AE/02/76: 561); two flint fragments (AE/02/76: 562-3); one flint débitage flake (AE/02/76: 564); 26 body sherds (AE/02/76: 523-5, 529-38, 545-51 & 554-59), two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 522-3) and nine crumbs (AE/02/76: 526-8 & 539-44) of pottery. Nine body sherds (AE/02/76: 529-30, 532, 534-5, 555 & 557-9) were identified as part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:32). Wet sieving of material from this fill led to the recovery of one bipolar core; one piece of natural quartz (both AE/02/76: 745) and five crumbs of pottery (AE/02/76: 777 (two pieces) & 778 (three pieces), all possibly from vessels 19:32-37), but failed to yield sufficient charcoal to produce a radiocarbon determination. Excavation of F19259 within box section 2 allowed the recovery of two flint flakes (AE/02/76: 623-624); 21 body sherds (AE/02/76: 589-94, 599-601, 607-16 & 621-2), three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 587-8 & 595) and 12 crumbs (AE/02/76: 596-8, 602-6 & 617-20) of pottery. Two sherds (AE/02/76: 601 & 621) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:35). Five body sherds (AE/02/76: 531 & 548-51) from box section 1 and two from box section 2 (AE/02/76: 590-1) represented a portion of a second coarse ware vessel (19:33). Coarse ware vessel 19:34 was represented by six body sherds (AE/02/76: 523-5, 547, 554 & 556) from box section 1 and by four (AE/02/76: 589, 594 & 599-600) from box section 2. Similarly, a further coarse wear vessel (19:36) was represented by two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 552-3) from box section 1 and three (AE/02/76: 587-8 & 595) from box section 2. A final vessel of similar form (19:37) was represented by eight sherds (AE/02/76: 593 & 607-13) from box section 2.

C19212 was a curvilinear ditch segment with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a concave base (10.95m x 0.35m x 0.25m) (Plates 47-48). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by soft, dark brown silty clay (F19213), which contained moderate amounts of small and large, angular stones and occasional medium sized, angular and rounded stones. Six body sherds (AE/02/76: 714-9) and two crumbs (AE/02/76: 720 & 721) of pottery were recovered from this fill. Two sherds (AE/02/76: 716-7) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:39). Three further sherds (AE/02/76: 714-5 & 719) were identified as a portion of a similar coarse ware vessel (19:38). Charcoal from this fill returned a radiocarbon determination of 3263±24 BP (1613-1461 cal BC, UBA-9324).

Plate 47: South-west section IM-IN through ditch segment C19212.

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Plate 50: Post-excavation view of cist C1962, from the south.

Plate 49: North-east facing section JA-JB through ditch segment C19258.

C1964 was a sub-square possible cist with steeply sloping to vertical, smooth sides and a concave base (0.35m x 0.35m x 0.20m) (Plates 51-52). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F1965 & F1981). F1981 was a series of four medium sized, angular slabs (average dimensions: 0.30m x 0.20m x 0.05m). F1981 was overlain by compact, black silty sand (F1965), which contained moderate amounts of fine, angular pebbles and medium sized, angular stones; frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal and occasional medium sized and large pieces of charcoal.

Internal features: excavation The segmented inner ditch contained within it a series of 45 features. These comprised a series of 13 pits (C1966, C1970, C1986, C1989, C1993, C1998, C19201, C19228, C19238, C19240, C19246, C19249 & C19251); one post pipe (C1972); two postholes (C1990 & F1991); 13 stakeholes (C1968, C19178, C19180, C19182, C19184, C19188, C19203, C19220, C19222, C19224, C19236, C19254 & C19272); one possible gully (C19242); one depression (C1974) and 14 atypical cists (C1962, C1964, C1976, C19186, C19192, C19197, C19214, C19217, C19244, C19256, C19263, C19266, C19269 & C19274) (Figures 58 & 60-63). C1962 was a sub-oval possible cist with steeply sloping to vertical, smooth sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (0.60m x 0.45m x 0.40m) (Plate 50). This feature cut the bedrock and contained three fills (F1978, F1963 & F1983). F1983 was a series of five stone slabs (average dimensions: 0.24m x 0.25m x 0.04m), which, although slightly disturbed, appeared to have originally acted as a lining for a cist, though this could not be conclusively ascertained. Within this setting, the earliest material was compact, yellow-brown silty sand (F1978) which contained occasional medium sized, sub-rounded stones. This was overlain by compact, dark brown-black silty sand (F1963) containing occasional fine, angular pebbles, a moderate amount of coarse, angular pebbles and occasional charcoal flecks. Flotation of this material allowed the recovery of 381 charred cereal grains and grain fragments, most of which were barley, including naked and 6-row varieties, along with a number of indeterminate cereal fragments.

Plate 51: Mid-excavation view of cist C1964 with F1965 stones in situ, from the south-west.

Plate 52: Post-excavation view of cist C1964, after the removal of F1965 stones, from the south-west.

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Figure 60: Section drawings through Site 19 internal features: cists C1962, C1964 & C1976; pits C1966, C1970, C1986, C1989 & C1993; stakehole C1968; and depression C1974.

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Figure 61: Section drawings through Site 19 internal features: Pits C1990 & C1998; post pipe C1972; stakehole C19188; posthole C19101 and cists C19186, C19192 & C19197. Profiles across stakeholes C19178, C19180, C19182, C19184 & C19188; modern posthole C19104 and cist C19192.

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Figure 62: Section drawings through Site 19 internal features: pits C19201, C19228, C19238 & C19240; stakeholes C19203 & C19220; cists C19214 & C19244, and possible gully C19142. Profiles across cists C19217 & C19214; stakeholes C19222, C19224 & C19236, and pit C19228.

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Figure 63: Section drawings through Site 19 internal features: pits C19246, C9249 & C19251; cists C19256, C19263 & C19274. Profiles across cists C19266 & C19269, and stakehole C19272.

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C1966 was a circular pit with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a concave base (diam.: 0.30m x 0.15m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, dark brown-black silty sand (F1967), which contained a moderate amount of fine, angular pebbles and a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal.

Plate 53: Post-excavation view of pit C1970, from the north-west.

flecks of charcoal. Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of two bipolar quartz cores (AE/02/76: 744) and approximately 3000 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. Analysis of a 75% subsample of the grain identified the presence of barley, including naked and 6-row varieties. Charred barley from this fill returned a radiocarbon determination of 3082±22 BP (1416-1297 cal BC, UBA-9321). F1979 was overlain by a series of seven large, angular, shale slabs (F1982) (average dimensions: 0.25m x 0.20m x 0.05m), placed to form the walls of the cist. Placed within the space created was a deposit of loose, black silty sand (F1977) containing frequent charred grain. Excavation of F1977 allowed the recovery of one poorly struck, retouched flint flake (AE/02/76: 395), which may be an arrowhead; and two body sherds (AE/02/76: 364 & 365). One of the body sherds (AE/02/76: 364) was the only recovered portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:23), while the other represented a portion of a similar vessel (19:22). A further portion of vessel 19:22 was recovered from linear depression C1974. Flotation of this material allowed the recovery of approximately 20,000 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. Analysis of a 10% subsample indicated that the majority of the grain was barley, with naked and 6-row varieties included, along with two seeds of knotgrass. At the bottom of F1977 a small area (c 0.05 x 0.05 m) was found to contain approximately 10 pieces of cremated bone (c 2g) (AE/02/76: 391). The location of the bone indicates that it was put in position prior to the deposition of the grain-rich F1977. Unfortunately, the amount of cremated bone was too small and fragmentary to identify. Covering F1977 was F1982a, a single slab of stone (0.55m x 0.50m x 0.05m), which acted as the cist lid. Mechanical stripping of this area had pushed F1982a slightly down, into F1977.

C1974 was a natural linear depression with gently to steeply sloping, irregular sides and a flat base (3.00m x 1.00m x 0.25m). This feature was a natural depression in the bedrock which was filled by compact, brown-black silty sand (F1975) containing frequent, medium sized pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this feature allowed the recovery of 11 body sherds (AE/02/76: 353-63). Ten sherds (AE/02/76: 353-5 & 358-63) represented a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:22). A further sherd of vessel 19:22 was recovered from cist C1976. Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of one crumb of pottery (AE/02/76: 772, possibly from vessel 19:22) along with three charred cereal grains. The grains included two of barley and one indeterminate cereal fragment.

Plate 54: Mid-excavation view of cist C1976, showing stone facing F1982 in situ, from the west.

C1976 was a circular cist with smooth, vertical sides and a concave base (diam.: 0.50m x 0.30m) (Plate 54). This feature cut the bedrock and contained five fills (F1977, F1979, F1980, F1982 & F1982a). The earliest fill in this sequence was compact, dark blue-black silty sand (F1980) containing frequent flecks and medium sized pieces of charcoal. F1980 was overlain by loose, dark brown-orange sand (F1979) which contained occasional

C1986 was a linear pit with gently sloping, irregularly shaped sides and a concave base (1.70m x 1.00m x 0.20m) (Plate 55). This feature cut the bedrock and contained three fills (F1987, F1988 & F1988a). The earliest of these was firm, brown sandy silt (F1988a). F1988a was overlain by compact, brown-black sand (F1987), which contained frequent medium sized pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery

C1968 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, round pointed base (0.20m x 0.12m x 0.18m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, brown-black silty sand (F1969), which contained moderate amounts of small, angular stones. C1970 was an oval pit with moderately sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (0.70m x 0.45m x 0.20m) (Plate 53). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, brown-black silty sand (F1971) containing a moderate amount of medium sized, angular stones and occasional flecks of charcoal.

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of one possibly utilised flint flake with edge damage (AE/02/76: 394) and four body sherds (AE/02/76: 374-7), the latter representing a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:21). Wet sieving of material from this fill led to the recovery of one abraded sherd (AE/02/76: 773, possibly from vessel 19:21), but failed to yield sufficient charcoal to produce a radiocarbon determination. F1987 was overlain by firm, brown sandy silt (F1988).

produced one body sherd (AE/02/76: 338), the only recovered portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:24). Flotation of this material produced nine charred cereal grains and grain fragments, including naked barley. F1996 was overlain by compact, dark brown-black silty sand (F1994), which contained moderate amounts of fine, angular pebbles; frequent medium sized, angular pebbles; occasional coarse, angular pebbles and frequent flecks and medium sized pieces of charcoal. Flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of 54 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. The majority of these were identified as barley, with naked and 6-row varieties present.

Plate 55: East facing section through pit C1986. C1989 was an oval pit with steeply sloping, irregularly shaped sides and an irregular base (1.30m x 1.00m x 0.30m) (Plate 56). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F1992 & F1995). The earliest of these was compact, orange-brown silty sand (F1995), which contained occasional small, angular stones. Wet sieving and flotation of this deposit led to the recovery of two flint fragments (AE/02/76: 732-3), one pointed bipolar core and one scalar flake (both AE/02/76: 747) along with one crumb of pottery (AE/02/76: 771, probably from vessel 19:27) along with 16 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. Most of the grain was identified as barley, with naked and 6-row varieties present. F1995 was overlain by compact, dark brownblack silty sand (F1992) containing a moderate amount of medium sized, angular pebbles, and frequent flecks and medium sized pieces of charcoal. This fill also contained one body sherd (AE/02/76: 336) and one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 337), a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:27). Dry sieving of material from this fill led to the recovery of one body sherd (AE/02/76: 782, possibly part of vessel 19:27). F1992 was cut by the insertion of C1993.

Plate 56: North facing section through pits C1989 (left) and C1993 (right). C1990 was an irregular posthole with irregularly shaped, vertical sides and a flat base (2.07m x 1.80m x 1.00m) (Plate 57). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, light orange-yellow sandy silt (F1991). Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of one quite rough, subcircular flint scraper (AE/02/76: 397, Figure 65); one fully patinated sub-circular flint scraper (AE/02/76: 396); one fully patinated split-pebble bipolar core, possibly a blank for a sub-circular scraper (AE/02/76: 398); one scalar flake (AE/02/76: 399); one large, fully patinated, sub-circular flint scraper (AE/02/76: 400); one broken flint blade (AE/02/76: 401); one broken, fully patinated, retouched flint flake (AE/02/76: 402); one fully patinated scalar flake (AE/02/76: 403) and a sub-circular quartz scraper with smooth, flat surfaces (AE/02/76: 404, Figure 64). Within F1991 was C1972. C1972 was a circular post pipe with steeply sloping, concave sides and an irregular base (diam.: 0.50m x 0.51m) (Plate 58). This feature was filled by loose, dark brown silty sand (F1973) containing occasional coarse, angular pebbles and small, medium sized and large, angular stones, and five pieces of metal slag (AE/02/76: 416). Flotation of this material allowed the recovery of two charred cereal grains, both of barley, one of the 6-row naked variety.

C1993 was an irregular pit with gently sloping, irregularly shaped sides and a concave base (1.40m x 0.80m x 0.30m) (Plate 56). This feature cut F1992, and contained three fills (F1994, F1996 & F1997). The lowest of these was loose, brown-yellow silty sand (F1997), which contained occasional medium sized, angular pebbles; frequent coarse, angular pebbles and a moderate amount of small, angular stones. Unfortunately, flotation of this material failed to yield sufficient charcoal to produce a radiocarbon determination. F1997 was overlain by compact, yellow-brown silty sand (F1996) containing a moderate amount of medium sized, angular pebbles and occasional flecks of charcoal. This fill

C1998 was an oval pit with gently sloping, smooth sides and a tapered, round pointed base (0.60m x 0.30m x 0.25m). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F1999 & F19100). The earlier of these was a deposit of compact, brown silty sand (F19100). F19100

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contained within it a layer of compact, dark brown-black sandy silt (F1999).

0.30m). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19102 & F19103). The earliest of these was compact, yellow-brown silty sand (F19103) containing frequent medium sized, angular pebbles; a moderate amount of coarse, angular pebbles and a moderate amount of small, sub-angular stones. Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of one body sherd and one crumb of pottery (AE/02/76: 775 & 776, possibly from vessel 19:51) along with four charred barley grains, including the 6-row variety. F19103 was overlain by compact, dark blue-black silty sand (F19102), which contained occasional medium sized, angular pebbles; occasional fine, sub-angular pebbles and frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of two body sherds (AE/02/76: 343-4). One sherd (AE/02/76: 343) was the only recovered portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:51). Flotation produced 16 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. These included naked and 6row barley varieties. F19102 was cut through by a modern posthole, C19104 (see below).

Plate 57: Mid-excavation view of pit C1990 and post pipe C1972, from the south-west.

C19178 was an oval stakehole with steeply sloping to vertical, smooth sides and a flat base (0.10m x 0.10m x 0.10m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by soft, dark brown silty clay (F19179) containing occasional flecks of charcoal. Figure 64: Sub-circular quartz scraper (AE/02/76: 404).

C19180 was an oval stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.08m x 0.06m x 0.08m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by soft, dark brown silty-clay (F19181). C19182 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (diam.: 0.08m x 0.08m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by soft, dark brown siltyclay (F19183). C19184 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, round pointed base (diam.: 0.09m x 0.18m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19185), which contained occasional small, angular and sub-angular stones.

Plate 58: Detailed mid-excavation view of post pipe C1972 within pit C1990, from the south-west.

C19186 was a sub-square cist with steeply sloping to vertical, smooth sides and a flat base (0.38m x 0.35m x 0.28m) (Plate 59). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19187 & F19187a). The earliest of these was F19187a, which was composed of two large, angular, shale slabs (average dimensions: 0.38m x 0.28m x 0.10m) lining two of the side walls of the C19186 cut, the other sides being left bare. Deposited within the space created by the bedrock sides and the stone slabs was friable, dark brown-black sandy silt (F19187), which contained occasional fine, angular stones and frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of in excess of 100 grains of carbonised barley (AE/02/76: 515) and one possible fish scale (AE/02/76: 783) (G Plunkett pers. comm.). Further flotation of this material allowed the recovery of approximately 70,000 charred cereal grains and grain

Figure 65: Sub-circular flint scraper (AE/02/76: 397). C19101 was a circular posthole with moderately sloping, smooth and convex sides and a flat base (diam.: 0.50m x 75

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fragments, eight body sherds (AE/02/76: 765) and 25 crumbs (AE/02/76: 766) of pottery, which could not be identified as an individual vessel. A 3% subsample of the grain (2215 grains) included two of wheat, with the majority of the remainder being barley. Varieties of identified barley included naked and, 6-row. Thirteen knotgrass seeds were also recorded. Although no cremated bone was recovered from the excavation of this feature, it is argued that C19186 was a cist based on a comparison with the grain recovered from the C1976 cist. Charred barley from this fill returned a radiocarbon determination of 3081±20 BP (1414-1302 cal BC, UBA9322). Plate 60: Post-excavation view of cist C19192, from the south. During the cleaning down of this area a large unfinished macehead of a dense green igneous stone (AE/02/76: 422, Figure 17) was discovered lying on the surface 0.10m to the north-west of C19192. A possible rubbing stone from a saddle quern, made of sandstone, (AE/02/76: 423, Figure 19) also lay on the surface, 0.59m to the southeast. Although they may easily have derived from any particular feature and may have been moved about considerably during centuries of agriculture and during the topsoil stripping phase, their presence and possible connection to the segmented inner enclosure, if not the C19192 cist, cannot be ruled out.

Plate 59: Post-excavation view of cist C19186, from the south.

C19197 was an irregularly shaped cist with steeply sloping, smooth to irregularly shaped sides and a flat base (0.60m x 0.48m x 0.38m) (Plate 61). This feature cut the bedrock and contained three fills (F19198, F19199 and F19200). The earliest was a series of four slabs (average dimensions: 0.38m x 0.30m x 0.10m), which were used to form the sides of the cist (F19199). The area formed by F19199 was filled by firm, dark brown sandy silt (F19198) containing frequent charred grain. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of one, possibly burnt, slightly flaked flint scraper, made on a quartered pebble (AE/02/76: 487). Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of one fully patinated, poorly struck, flint flake (AE/02/76: 748) and approximately 2,500 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. Analysis of a 75% subsample of the grain (1979 grains) identified naked and 6-row varieties of barley, along with three knotgrass seeds. A sample of the barley grains returned a date of 3095±22 BP (1424-1312 cal BC, UBA-9318). The C19197 cist and its fills were closed over with a single slab, F19200 (dimensions: 0.25m x 0.25m x 0.08m).

C19188 was a sub-oval stakehole with moderately sloping to vertical, smooth to convex sides and a concave base (0.25m x 0.15m x 0.18m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, orange-brown silty sand (F19189) containing moderate amounts of small, angular and sub-angular stones and occasional medium sized, angular and sub-angular stones. C19192 was a sub-square cist with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (0.36m x 0.35m x 0.25m) (Plate 60). This feature cut the bedrock and contained three fills (F19193, F19193a & F19193b). The earliest of these was a series of four large, angular, shale slabs (average dimensions: 0.20m x 0.10m x 0.03m), which were used to form the cist walls (F19193a). Within the space created by these four slabs, F19193 was deposited. F19193 was soft, dark brown-black sandy silt which contained moderate amounts of small, angular stones; occasional medium sized, angular stones along with frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal. Wet sieving and flotation enabled the recovery of three pieces of quartz débitage and one bipolar quartz core (all AE/02/76: 750) and approximately 3,500 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. A 75% subsample of the grain was analysed and produced barley of naked and 6row varieties. Other material identified included one knotgrass seed and one wheat grain. Charred barley from this fill returned a radiocarbon date of 3059±21 BP (1398-1268 cal BC, UBA-9319). The C19192 cist and its fills were closed over with a single slab, F19193b (dimensions: 0.25m x 0.20m x 0.03m).

C19201 was a sub-oval pit with variably sloped, irregularly shaped sides and a flat base (0.95m x 0.60m x 0.30m) (Plate 62). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19202) which contained moderate amounts of fine and medium sized, sub-angular and sub-rounded pebbles; moderate amounts of small, sub-angular and sub-rounded stones along with occasional flecks of charcoal. Excavation of this fill 76

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allowed the recovery of two scalar flint flakes (AE/02/76: 485 & 486); 44 body sherds (AE/02/76: 431-453, 459-64, 468-71, 473-4 & 476-84); four rim sherds (AE/02/76: 465-7 & 472) and six crumbs (AE/02/76: 453-8) of pottery. Four rim sherds (AE/02/76: 465-7 & 472) and 11 body sherds (AE/02/76: 444, 451, 459, 463-4, 468a-b, 469-70, 474 & 481) were identified as part of a Bronze Age cordoned vessel (19:18) (Figure 66). Fifteen body sherds (AE/02/76: 431-2, 435-6, 440, 443, 445, 447-9, 462, 479-80, 482 & 484) represented a coarse ware vessel (19:19), while 16 sherds (AE/02/76: 434, 437-8, 439, 441-2, 446, 450, 452, 460-1, 473, 476-8 & 483) represented a second coarse ware vessel (19:20). Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of one poorly struck flint flake (AE/02/76: 735), two bipolar flint cores and one piece of flint débitage (all AE/02/76: 746) and three crumbs of pottery (AE/02/76: 764, possible match to vessels 19:18-20), along with 22 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. Most of these grains were identified as barley, including naked and 6row varieties.

Plate 63: Post-excavation view of cist C19217, from the north. C19217 was a square cist with smooth, vertical sides and a concave base (0.40m x 0.30m x 0.30m) (Plates 63-65). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19218 & F19219). Of these, the earliest was a series of six large, angular, shale slabs (average dimensions: 0.20m x 0.14m x 0.08 m), which were used to form the sides of the cist (F19219). The area formed by F19219 was filled by firm, dark brown silty clay (F19218), which contained a moderate amount of coarse, angular pebbles along with a moderate amount of charcoal flecks. This fill produced one body sherd (AE/02/76: 510), the only recovered portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:52). Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of one broken, flint flake (AE/02/76: 738), one piece of, possibly struck, flint (AE/02/76: 739), one quartz débitage flake (AE/02/76: 752) and three abraded sherds (AE/02/76: 779, possibly from vessel 19:52) along with 40 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. Where identifiable, the grains were of barley and included naked, 6-row and possible hulled varieties.

Plate 61: Mid-excavation view through cist C19197, showing slabs F19199 in situ, from the west.

Plate 62: Mid-excavation view through pit C19201, from the south-west. C19203 was an oval stakehole with moderately to steeply sloping, smooth sides and a tapered, pointed base (0.18m x 0.14m x 0.14m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19204) containing a moderate amount of medium sized, sub-angular pebbles and occasional medium sized, sub-angular stones.

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Figure 66: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:18), sherds AE/02/76: 466 (top), 467 (bottom). C19220 was a sub-circular stakehole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a tapered, round pointed base (0.10m x 0.09m x 0.19m) (Plate 65). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F19221). C19222 was a sub-circular stakehole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a tapered, round pointed base (0.09m x 0.08m x 0.14m) (Plate 65). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F19233). C19224 was an oblong stakehole with steeply sloping to vertical, variably shaped sides and a flat base (0.21m x 0.12m x 0.17m) (Plate 65). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F19225), which contained one body sherd (AE/02/76: 509), the only recovered portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:26). C19228 was a linear pit with steeply sloping, concave to irregularly-shaped sides and a flat base (1.35m x 0.48m x 0.21m) (Plate 66). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by soft, black sandy silt (F19229) containing occasional fine and medium sized, sub-angular and subrounded pebbles; occasional small, sub-angular stones, and occasional flecks of charcoal. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of one scalar flint flake (AE/02/76: 656) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 511). The body sherd was the only recovered portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:25). Flotation of this material allowed the recovery of three charred barley grains, including naked and 6-row varieties.

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Plate 64: Post-excavation view of cist C19217, from the north.

Plate 65: Post-excavation view of stakeholes C19220, C19222, C19224, C19236 and C19254; pit C19238 and cist C19217, from the north-east. 79

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could be made between this fill and F19241 within C19240. At its south-western end F19243 was cut through by the insertion of C19214. C19214 was a subcircular cist with smooth, vertical sides and a concave base (0.60m x 0.50m x 0.40m) (Plate 67). This feature cut F19243 and contained two fills (F19215 & F19216). Of these, the earliest was a series of six large, angular, shale slabs (F19216) (average dimensions: 0.20m x 0.15m x 0.15m), which were used to form the sides of the cist. The area formed by F19216 was filled by firm, dark brown-black silty clay (F19215), which contained a moderate amount of small, angular stones; a moderate amount of charcoal flecks and frequent small pieces of carbonised grain. Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of one quartz scalar flake (AE/02/76: 751) and approximately 2,500 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. Analysis of an 80% subsample (1995 grains) identified the vast majority as barley, including, naked and 6-row varieties. One grass seed and four knotgrass seeds were also identified. Charred barley from this fill returned a radiocarbon determination of 3062±22 BP (1404-1269 cal BC, UBA9320).

Plate 66: Mid-excavation view of pit C19228, from the south-west. C19236 was an oval stakehole with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a tapered, pointed base (0.10m x 0.08m x 0.16m) (Plate 65). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F19237). C19238 was a possible sub-square cist with steeply sloping to vertical, smooth to concave sides and a flat base (0.50m x 0.38m x 0.26m) (Plate 65). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19239 & F19253). The earliest of these was a layer of frequent medium sized, angular shale stones (F19253) (average dimensions: 0.15m x 0.10m x 0.06m), partially covering the base and sides of the C19238 pit. F19253 was overlain by firm, brown silty clay (F19239) containing occasional small, angular stones and a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal. Unfortunately, flotation of this material failed to yield sufficient charcoal to produce a radiocarbon determination. C19254 was discovered in the western edge of C19238. This was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (diam.: 0.08m x 0.23m) (Plate 65). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by firm, brown silty clay (F19255), which contained occasional flecks of charcoal. No clear definition could be observed between F19255 and F19239, and both are thought to derive from the same material. Consequently, C19254 and C19238 are regarded as contemporary.

Plate 67: Post-excavation view of cist C19214, from the east. C19244 was a sub-square cist with steeply sloping to vertical, smooth sides and a concave base (0.60m x 0.55m x 0.60m). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19245 & F19245a). The earlier fill was a series of five large, angular, shale slabs (F19245a) (average dimensions: 0.25m x 0.20m x 0.08m), which were used to form the sides of the cist. The area formed by F19245a was filled by a stiff, dark brown-black silt (F19245), which contained occasional fine, angular pebbles; moderate amounts of medium sized and coarse, angular pebbles; frequent small, angular stones; occasional medium sized, angular stones and frequent flecks, small, medium sized and large pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this feature allowed the recovery of one body sherd (AE/02/76: 516), three abraded sherds (AE/02/76: 517-9) and three crumbs (AE/02/76: 520-2) of pottery. The body sherd (AE/02/76: 516) was the only recovered portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:53). Flotation allowed the recovery of 20 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. The majority of the

C19240 was an oval pit with gently to steeply sloping, stepped and smooth sides and a flat base (0.65m x 0.15m x 0.16m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by firm, dark brown-black peaty silt (F19241), which contained occasional fine and medium sized, angular pebbles; occasional medium sized, angular stones plus frequent flecks, small, medium sized and large pieces of charcoal. C19242 was a possible linear gully with gently sloping, irregularly shaped sides and a flat base (2.40m x 0.80m x 0.06m). This feature was conjoined with the C19240 pit and appeared to be contemporary with it. C19242 was filled by hard, dark grey-brown, mottled to black, silt (F19243) containing occasional fine, medium sized and coarse, angular pebbles; frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal along with occasional medium sized and large pieces of charcoal. No clear distinction 80

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

grain was identified as barley, with naked and 6-row varieties present. C19246 was an irregular pit with steeply sloping, irregularly shaped sides and a pointed base (0.80m x 0.30m x 0.31m) (Plate 68). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19247 & F19248). The earliest of these was a deposit of soft, black sandy silt (F19247). It was overlain by strongly cemented, orange-brown pebbly sand (F19248) containing frequent fine and medium sized, angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded and rounded pebbles along with frequent small, angular subangular, sub-rounded and rounded stones. Plate 69: Mid-excavation view through pit C19249, from the north-west. C19251 was a sub-square pit with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.40m x 0.36m x 0.23m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by firm, dark brown-black peaty silt (F19252), which contained occasional fine, medium sized and coarse, angular pebbles; frequent small, angular stones; a moderate amount of medium sized, angular stones along with frequent flecks, small, medium sized and large pieces of charcoal. C19256 was an oval cist with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.35m x 0.30m x 0.28m). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19257 & F19260). The earliest of these was a series of four large, angular, shale slabs (F19260) (average dimensions: 0.18m x 0.12m x 0.02m), which were used to form the sides of the cist. The area formed by F19260 was filled by firm, dark brown-black peaty silt (F19257) containing occasional fine and medium sized, angular pebbles; a moderate amount of coarse, angular pebbles; a moderate amount of small, angular stones; and occasional medium sized stones, along with frequent flecks, small, medium sized and large pieces of charcoal. Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of one scalar cortical flint flake (AE/02/76: 736) and one piece of quartz débitage (AE/02/76: 753), along with five charred cereal grains. The latter included naked and 6-row barley varieties and one indeterminate cereal grain fragment.

Plate 68: Mid-excavation view through pit C19246, from the north-west. C19249 was a sub-linear pit with gently sloping, irregularly shaped sides and a tapered, blunt pointed base (1.76m x 0.80m x 0.30m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, dark brown-black clayey sand (F19250), which contained a moderate amount of medium sized, angular stones along with a moderate amount of small pieces of charcoal. Excavation of this feature allowed the recovery of one poorly struck flint flake (AE/02/76: 492); one flint flake (AE/02/76: 493); one scalar flint flake, which was possibly heat affected (AE/02/76: 494); one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 505); 11 body sherds (AE/02/76: 495-504 & 506) and two crumbs (AE/02/76: 507-8) of pottery. Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 499 & 503) were identified as part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:29). A portion of a second vessel (19:28) of the same type was formed of one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 505) and six body sherds (AE/02/76: 496, 500-2, 504 & 506). A third coarse ware vessel (19:30) was represented by three body sherds (AE/02/76: 495 & 497-8). Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill produced three crumbs of pottery (AE/02/76: 774, possibly from vessels 19:28-30) along with four charred cereal grains. These were identified as two grains and one fragment of barley and a single grain of wheat/barley.

C19263 was a pear-shaped cist with steeply sloping, smooth sides and a concave base (0.89m x 0.45m x 0.40m) (Plate 70). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19264 & F19265). Of these, the earliest was composed of two large, angular, shale slabs (F19265) (average dimensions: 0.78m x 0.38m x 0.15m), which were used to form two of the sides of the cist, the remainder being left bare. The area formed by F19265 and the remaining bedrock sides was filled by friable, light brown-orange silty clay (F19264), which contained frequent small and medium sized, angular stones along with occasional flecks of charcoal. This fill also contained one flint fragment (AE/02/76: 567) and one flawed bipolar core, which was possibly heat affected (AE/02/76: 568). Unfortunately, flotation of this material failed to yield sufficient charcoal to produce a radiocarbon determination. 81

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

clay (F19270), which contained frequent flecks of charcoal. Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of one broken, poorly struck, flint flake (AE/02/76: 743) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 770) along with two charred grains of 6-row barley and two charred fragments of hazelnut shell. C19272 was a circular stakehole with smooth, vertical sides and a tapered, pointed base (diam.: 0.08m x 0.17m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by compact, dark brown silty-sand (F19273) containing occasional fine, sub-rounded pebbles. C19274 was a square cist with steeply sloping to vertical, smooth to irregularly shaped sides and an irregular base (0.35m x 0.35m x 0.30m) (Plate 72). This feature cut the bedrock and contained four fills (F19275, F19276, F19277 & F19278). The earliest of these was a series of four large, angular, shale slabs (F19277) (average dimensions: 0.30m x 0.30m x 0.08m), which were used to form the sides of the cist. The area formed by F19277 was filled by firm, dark orange-brown sandy peat (F19278). Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of three body sherds (AE/02/76: 711-3) and two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 709 & 710), all part of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:31) (Figure 67). F19278 was overlain by firm, dark brown sandy silt (F19275) containing frequent flecks and small pieces of charcoal, and frequent charred grain. Wet sieving and flotation led to the recovery of two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 761), 24 body sherds (AE/02/76: 760 & 762) and 40 crumbs (AE/02/76: 759) of pottery, along with approximately 2,500 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. Analysis of an 80% subsample of the grain (2063 grains) identified the majority as barley, including naked and 6-row varieties. Other elements included one wheat grain, four wheat/barley grains, six indeterminate cereal grains, 247 indeterminate cereal grain fragments and one seed of knotgrass. Further dry sieving of this material led to the recovery of 13 body sherds (AE/02/76: 780 (12 sherds) and 781 (1 sherd). Analysis of the pottery recovered from sieving indicates that it is a possible match for vessel 19:31 from this feature. F19275 was overlain by strongly cemented, orange-brown stony-sand (F19276), which contained occasional small, angular stones and a moderate amount of medium sized, angular stones. This fill also contained six body sherds (AE/02/76: 700-5) and three crumbs (AE/02/76: 706-8) of pottery along with a small quantity of cremated bone (AE/02/76: 699 (+5 pieces)). One piece of pottery (AE/02/76: 700) had some flecks of bone adhering. Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 700, 702 & 705) were identified as part of the same coarse ware vessel (19:31) recovered from fill F19278 (Figure 67). Wet sieving and flotation of material from this fill led to the recovery of one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 767), seven body sherds (AE/02/76: 768) and 19 crumbs (AE/02/76: 769) of pottery along with 608 charred cereal grains. The majority of the grain was identified as barley, with naked and 6-row varieties included. Other elements included one grain of wheat/barley and 57 indeterminate cereal grain fragments. Dunne noted that the ceramic material

Plate 70: Post-excavation view of cist C19263, from the west. C19266 was a sub-square cist with smooth, vertical sides and a concave base (0.60m x 0.58m x 0.50m) (Plate 71). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19267 & F19268). The earliest of these was composed of frequent medium sized and large, angular stones (F19268), which were used to form the sides of the cist. The area formed by F19268 was filled by firm, dark brown silty-clay (F19267) containing frequent small, angular stones, frequent flecks of charcoal and a moderate amount of medium sized pieces of charcoal. Wet sieving and flotation led to the recovery of one pointed bipolar flint core (AE/02/76: 740), one flint splinter (AE/02/76: 741), one burnt flint fragment (AE/02/76: 742); one piece of burnt flint débitage (AE/02/76: 755); four scalar quartz flakes and one piece of quartz débitage (all AE/02/76: 754) along with 37 charred cereal grains and grain fragments. Excluding 12 indeterminate cereal grain fragments, the remainder were identified as grains and grains fragments of barley, including the 6-row and naked varieties.

Plate 71: Post-excavation view of cists C19266 and C19269, from the west. C19269 was a circular cist with smooth, vertical sides and a pointed base (diam.: 0.45m x 0.30m) (Plate 71). This feature cut the bedrock and contained two fills (F19270 & F19271). Of these, the earliest was composed of frequent medium sized, angular stones (F19271), which were used to form the sides of the cist. The area formed by F19271 was filled by firm, dark brown silty 82

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

recovered from F19275 and F19276 within this feature is identical in terms of fabric, form and colour to vessel 19:31, from fill F19275, below, and may form part of the same vessel. This also suggests a close degree of contemporaneity between the depositions of the two fills. Analysis of the pottery recovered from sieving indicated that it too probably originated from vessel 19:31. Unfortunately, the bone recovered from both the F19276 fill and that adhering to the pottery sherd (AE/02/76: 700) were too small and fragmented for identification.

However, the remaining two segments (C19190 & C19210) appear to have used the inner line of this first circle as their outer limit, but again drawn from the central stakehole (C19272). Although this portion of the site appears to have suffered some truncation (especially through its south-western half), it seems that this inner ditch was originally envisioned and executed as a segmented feature. This suggestion is supported by the observation that where the ends of the C19212 and C19258 ditches face each other (across the C19228 pit) they deviate from a true circle, and are slightly in-turned. As the widths of these ditch segments range from a mere 0.25m up to 0.60m, it is argued that even if accompanied by a bank, such an arrangement would have provided only a minimal barrier. Instead, it is suggested that, in its original form, this ditch contained a palisaded fence. Using the standard 1:3 ratio of below ground to above ground lengths of posts (Gibson 1998, 75) would suggest that such posts or planks had a total length of 1.20m, of which 0.90m would have projected above the ground. However, this calculation does not take into account the original depth of topsoil cover extending across the site, which would have given the ditch added depth, thus potentially increasing the heights of the timbers that could have been used. Unfortunately, no evidence for timber planks or posts was recovered from the excavation of these ditch segments. This may be taken as evidence that such an arrangement did not exist, or that, similar to the case argued for the C1915 ditch, the posts were removed and the ditch deliberately refilled. It is possible that the deposition of the flint and pottery within these ditch segments was part of the ritual associated with the backfilling of these features.

Plate 72: Post-excavation view of cist C19274, from the south.

Ritual complex: discussion

Excavation of these ditch segments allowed the recovery of three flint flakes (AE/02/76: 560 & 623-624); one flint scraper, (AE/02/76: 561); two flint fragments (AE/02/76: 562-3); one flint débitage flake (AE/02/76: 564); one bipolar core and one piece of natural quartz (both AE/02/76: 745). Formal examination of the recovered pottery by Dunne (Appendix 3) allowed the identification of the fragmentary remains of eight distinct vessels (19:32-39), all of coarse ware type which may be dated to the Middle to Late Bronze Age (c 1700-650 BC). In general the vessels recovered from this area of the site were well made and well fired. The fabrics are hard with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits. Vessel surface finishing was predominantly in the form of basic wet smoothing of both exterior and interior surfaces with the interior exhibiting a finer finish.

Discussion of the physical remains: the segmented inner ditch The central focus of this complex was, undoubtedly, the segmented inner ditch, composed of four discrete segments (C19190, C19210, C19212 & C19258), with a diameter of c 12.2m and enclosing a maximum area of c 116m2 (Plate 73). Two of these ditch segments (C19212 & C19258) appear to have been laid out in a single action from the central stakehole (C19272) (Figure 68).

The features enclosed by the segmented inner ditch Whatever its original form, this inner segmented ditch enclosed some 45 features of varying kinds. By far the most important of these were the 14 cists (C1976, C19186, C19192, C19197, C19214, C19217, C19244, C19256, C19263, C19266, C19269 & C19274). It must first be noted that these are not ‘classic’ cists of Early Bronze Age type (c 2350/2200 to 1700 BC) (see Waddell 1990; Ó Ríordáin & Waddell 1993), although their

Figure 67: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (Vessel 19:31), sherd AE/02/76: 711.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

morphology clearly indicates that they stem from the same tradition.

C19269 & C19274) contained either flint or pottery. Only three cists did not possess either flint or pottery (C1962, C1964 & C19186). In all cases the cists were constructed by cutting a pit into the bedrock and lining some or all of the sides, but not the base, with shale slabs. An apparent exception is cist C19214 which stratigraphically cuts the fill of a possible linear gully (C19242), but physically cuts into the bedrock. With regard to the sides of the cist features being lined with slabs of shale prior to their use, an exception was the C1976 cist, into which two layers (F1979 & F1980) were deposited prior to the slab sides being put into position.

The Site 19 cists are a disparate collection which are only drawn together by their use of slabs to form their sides (Figure 69; Tables 1-2). Only three (C1976, C19192 & C19197) possessed capstones, 12 contained carbonised grain (C1962, C1976, C19186, C19192, C19197, C19217, C19214, C19244, C19256, C19266, C19269 & C19274) and two contained cremated bone (C1976 & C19274). Of these, 11 (C1976, C19192, C19197, C19214, C19217, C19244, C19256, C19263, C19266,

Figure 68: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 segmented inner ditch and internal features, showing circles laid out from the central C19272 stakehole.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Plate 73: Post-excavation overview of Site 19 segmented inner ditch, from the north.

Figure 69: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 segmented inner ditch and internal features, showing positions of cists, possible cists and features producing Bronze Age artefacts.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The function of the cists As has been noted above, the location of the cremated bone (AE/02/76: 391) at the base of the F1977 fill, but largely encompassed by it, suggests that it was placed in position prior to F1977 being deposited. The fact that the bone was concentrated in one single area suggests that it was deposited within a leather, wooden, textile or similarly perishable container, which has since decayed. Following on from this interpretation is the argument that the ritual employed here relied upon the deposition of token amounts of cremated bone, not entire cremated bodies. For example, the average weight of surviving bone from the cremation of an adult male is 2288g, although this may range from 1534g to 3605g, and the average weight of bone from the cremation of an adult female is 1550g, though this may range from 952g to 2278g (Mays 1998, 220). In contrast, the bone recovered from C19274, the larger of the two cremated bone deposits from the cists, weighed a mere 8g. As a comparison the recovered bone from the series of excavations at Loughbrickland, of broadly similar date, may be examined (Chapple et al 2009) (Table 3). Although minute fragments of bone were recovered from some features, these did not necessarily appear to have been primary receptacles for human remains. Instead, with one exception (C118), the recovered human remains from obviously designated burial contexts ranged from 12.2g to 1602.7g, with a mean of c 557g. It should also be noted that the bone from Gransha was in such a fragmentary state that no distinction could be made as to whether it derived from a human or animal source (P Furfy pers. comm.). The fact that a number of these features possess traits, such as the survival of capstones, which unequivocally argue that they were cists (if of an atypical nature), and not stone lined pits or postholes, and yet lack any traces of cremated bone may suggest that they the rituals observed on the site did not necessarily involve the deposition of any human remains. In these cases, it may be speculated that the carbonised grain, flint pieces or pottery sherds acted as a substitute corpse in token burial or synecdochic cists. In particular, the presence of grain in 12 out of 14 cists raises the distinct possibility that the ritual involved at Gransha Site 19 only incorporated the deposition of bone as a minor element. Instead it may be posited that the more significant ceremonial focus centred on the deposition of charred grain. It may be that this represented a token portion of the grain harvest, symbolically put beyond human use by burning, and placed in cist-like structures as a means of returning a share of nature’s bounty back to the earth. As cremation is regarded by some cultures as not only a sanitary means of disposing of a corpse, but also as a way of allowing the ‘soul’ or spirit to escape and transcend to some form of afterlife (eg Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism), the charring of the grain may work in an analogous manner, transferring it to the spirit realm. The deposition of the burnt remnants into cist-like structures may have only further strengthened the symbolism of transference. While this theory may appear somewhat fanciful it is, in many ways, paralleled in the modern Christian practice of the Harvest Festival, where the

putative deity is thanked for a successful crop by the presentation of a token portion within the church. This practice is itself based on the Hebrew tradition of giving thanks to the deity in the form of a burnt offering (eg the grain offering forms detailed in Leviticus 1-7; Genesis 8; 22 and Exodus).9 One excavated example may also be seen at the early to mid 1st century AD levels in the peristyle garden of the house of Amarantus, at Pompeii (Robinson 2002). Here the charred remains of grain, domestic fowl, stone-pine cones and a portion of a charred bread or pastry were identified as the remains of burnt offerings to the Lares, or household gods. While some of this material was disposed of in conventional pits, in one instance the detritus was deposited in a cist created from a charred box. Even if the thesis of the Gransha cists being used as the places for the deposition of the remains of some early harvest festival are accepted, the process involved would not have been a simple one. McClatchie notes that while large portions of the charred grain were identifiable, significant portions showed evidence of abrasion. Such damage to the grain is unlikely to have occurred if it was charred and then directly deposited within the cists. This suggests that there was a relatively significant period of time between the initial charring and the eventual deposition which resulted in partial damage to the grain. This form of complex curation could have taken many forms from allowing the charred material to be exposed to the elements, to having been collected and stored for a period. One possibility is that grain ‘sacrificed’ or disposed of in this manner was collected and stored until the occurrence of a further death in the community when it was interred with in the later cist. Although tentative, the rationale behind such an act could be construed as having strong ritual significance, symbolising the interconnectedness of the community in both death and life, or between this reality and the supposed afterlife. A further interpretation is based on the possibility that the ceremony and ritual associated with the funeral rites was a complex process, carried out as a multi-phased activity, over a considerable period of time (see below). In such an interpretation there may have been a period between the initial cremation and the final burial of a token amount of cremated bone where a portion of the skeletal remains and the pyre material were curated by the community. Although speculative, this mechanism would provide an explanation for the abraded nature of much of the recovered grain, where it had been gathered up, packaged in some way and transported either to a domestic setting or carried about for longer periods. The reasons for such activities may have been manifold and suffused with significance for the community. It may only be suggested that transportation to a domestic setting may have been seen as providing protection – either real or spiritual – for a settlement. It may also have been viewed as an intermediate stage for the spirit of the deceased to transcend fully from the temporal to a supposed afterlife. Longer periods of transportation may have been intended 9

New grain was specifically sanctioned for sacrifice during the Feast of Weeks, the Feast of Trumpets and celebrating the arrival of the new moon (Numbers 28-9).

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

to bring the luck or spiritual guidance of the deceased to bear on anything from hunting expeditions to inter territorial conflicts. A further possibility may be that a substantially larger portion of the human remains and the pyre material were originally collected and transported to be informally deposited at points in the landscape which were of significance to the deceased or the community as a whole. One further possibility that may be mentioned, if only in passing, is the idea that the dearth of surviving bone relates to the purposeful abandonment of the site where a deliberate effort was made to disinter the cremated remains of the ancestors (J H Barkley pers. comm.). One possible scenario involves the deliberate retrieval of the human remains by the group associated with the site as part of a formalised abandonment or ‘closing ritual’ where the kin group were permanently moving away from the area. In this way, little if any human bone fragments would remain within the cists and the charred grain may be interpreted as an appropriate ritual substitute. The reasons for such a move may have been manifold and included elements such as the aforementioned climatic downturn during the Bronze Age and an implied associated loss of soil fertility. This in turn may have precipitated population movements and

changes in social and ritual polity. Thus, a second scenario may have involved the forced displacement or subjugation of the established community and a process of deliberate (perhaps ritualised) desecration of the ancestral dead to demonstrate and consolidate the power of the newly ascendant group. It is also possible that changes in ritual practice, demonstrated in the removal of the dead from their cists, did not require large external stimuli, but resulted from the natural evolution and development of the established community. While such speculations are tentative, and are presented as such, a similar interpretation has been put forward for the apparent desecration of a ring ditch at Gortlaunaght, county Cavan (Chapple 2009c; 2010). Barkley’s observation (pers. comm.) that the number of recovered pottery vessels from the enclosure ditch (C1915) (Vessels 19.01-17) closely resembles the number of cists and possible cists (14) is of potential significance. One interpretation of this correlation may be in terms of inurned cremations removed from their cists and their containers disposed of within the enclosing ditch. While this apparent correlation is of interest, the sequences of events that could have led to this structured deposition are compatible with any of the scenarios laid out above.

Pottery Cist

Slabs

Cap stone

Grain10

Hazelnut shell

Bone

Coarse Ware Vessels

Vessel No

C1962

5

N

Y

N

N

0

-

C1964

4

N

N

N

N

0

-

C1976

7

Y

Y

N

Y

2

19:22-23

C19186

2

N

Y

N

N

0

-

C19192

4

Y

Y

N

N

0

-

C19197

4

Y

Y

N

N

0

-

C19217

6

N

Y

N

N

1

19:52

C19214

6

N

Y

N

N

0

-

C19244

5

N

Y

N

N

1

19:53

C19256

4

N

Y

N

N

0

-

C19263

2

N

N

N

N

0

-

C19266

frequent

N

Y

N

N

0

-

C19269

frequent

N

Y

Y

N

0

-

4

N

Y

N

Y

1

19:31

Totals:

3

12

1

2

5

-

C19274

Table 1: Tabulation of morphological characteristics and artefacts recovered from Site 19 cists.

10

For numbers and percentage of sample identified, see McClatchie (Appendix 7).

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Flint Cist

Retouched flake

Scraper

Flake

Possibly struck

Fragment

Splinter

Débitage

Bipolar core

C1962

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

C1964

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

C1976

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

C19186

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

C19192

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

C19197

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

C19217

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

C19214

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

C19244

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

C19256

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

C19263

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

C19266

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

C19269

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

C19274

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Totals:

1

1

4

1

2

1

1

2

Table 2a: Tabulation of chipped flint artefacts recovered from Site 19 cists. Quartz Cist Flake

Débitage

Bipolar core

C1962

0

0

0

C1964

0

0

0

C1976

0

0

2

C19186

0

0

0

C19192

0

3

1

C19197

0

0

0

C19217

0

3

0

C19214

1

0

0

C19244

0

0

0

C19256

0

1

0

C19263

0

0

0

C19266

4

1

0

C19269

0

0

0

C19274

0

0

0

Totals:

5

8

3

Table 2b: Tabulation of quartz artefacts recovered from Site 19 cists. 88

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Feature

Type

Cut

Fill

Bone (g)

RD 1

Central burial

C28

F66

16.6

RD 1

Central burial

C28

F5

616.4

RD 1

Central burial

C94

F132

588.3

RD 2

Central burial

C86

F82

419.6

RD 2

Central burial

C153

F112

539.3

RD 2

depression

C134

F135

0.8

RD 2

posthole

C84

F80

0.3

RD 2

posthole

C85

F136

0.7

RD 3

Central burial

C72

F72

122.7

RD 4

Central burial

C183

F146

1042.9

RD 4

Central burial

C118

F168

0.8

RD 4

Central burial

C118

F115

3.9

RD 5

ditch fill

C129

F144

9.1

RD 5

ditch fill

C129

F128

2.4

RD 5

Central burial

C131

F200 and F201

402.2

RD 5

Central burial

C666

combined

347.6

RD 6

Central burial

C122

F121

670.3

RD 7

Central burial

C198

F197

1148.9

RD 8

Central burial

C166

F181

1602.7

4-poster burial

Central burial

C138

F149

272.6

Four-poster burial

Central burial

C138

F151

12.2

Four-poster burial

post pit

C142

F126

0.4

-

pit

C20

F19

15.6

Maximum

1602.7

Minimum

0.3

Mean

340.7

Table 3: Weights of burnt bone recovered from Bronze Age ring ditches and related features at Loughbrickland, Co Down (data tabulated from Chapple et al 2009).

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

While the above is a worthwhile exercise in objectively assessing the evidence presented, it is something of a departure from the more acceptable possibility that the whole site is an enclosed flat cemetery of Middle Bronze Age date. Within this paradigm, the survival of tiny quantities of bone is of significance as it represents genuine burial practices of the period, with the charred barley included as a grave good. Parallels for such activity are particularly rare, being confined to Duntryleague Site 2, Co Limerick (Gowen 1988).

known from a megalithic chamber at Ballynahatty, Co Down. Other features enclosed by the segmented inner ditch A number of features enclosed by the segmented ditch produced artefacts thought to be of contemporary date with the digging of the cists, but which did not have slabcovered sides. These are: pits C1986 (one possibly utilised flint flake with edge damage (AE/02/76: 394) and a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:21)); C1989 (two flint fragments (AE/02/76: 732-3), one pointed bipolar core and one scalar flake (both AE/02/76: 747), a quantity of charred grain (mostly barley), and a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:27)); C1993 (portions of two Bronze Age coarse ware vessels (19:24 and 19:27), and a quantity of charred grain (mostly barley)); C19201 (two scalar flint flakes (AE/02/76: 485 & 486), one poorly struck flint flake (AE/02/76: 735), two bipolar flint cores and one piece of flint débitage (all AE/02/76: 746), a quantity of charred grain (mostly barley), a portion of a cordoned urn (19:18, Figure 66), and portions of two Bronze Age coarse ware vessels (19:19-20)); C19228 (one scalar flint flake (AE/02/76: 656), three charred grains (all barley) and a single sherd representing a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:25)); C19249 (one poorly struck flint flake (AE/02/76: 492), one flint flake (AE/02/76: 493), one scalar flint flake, possibly heat affected (AE/02/76: 494), four charred grains (mostly barley) and fragments of three Bronze Age coarse ware vessels (19:28-30)); and posthole C19101 (a quantity of charred grain (mostly barley) and a single pot sherd representing a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:51). Although none of these features produced cremated bone, which would imply a funerary function, their concentration within the precinct of the segmented ditch must raise questions as to their ritual significance. As all of these features were cut through the bedrock, the placing of shale slabs to define the sides of the cist group was, at best, an aesthetic rather than a functional consideration. As the argument has been made that some of the cists may have been cenotaphic in function, the absence of human remains from this ‘second tier’ of internal features may not preclude a similar functional explanation. Alternatively, if the overriding ritual focus was on the deposition of charred grain, which all of the above features produced, if only in small amounts, they may be regarded as of an equal ceremonial status.

The original appearance of the cists While the cist features do not form a particular pattern, a distinct clustering may be noted around the south-eastern quadrant of the segmented inner ditch. It may also be of significance that the central area, around the C19272 stakehole, was kept free of all features, perhaps suggesting that it was kept apart for ritual or ceremonial use. Excavation has shown that a number of the cists possessed in situ capstones, and the presumption must be that all such features once possessed coverings. As the three cists (C1976, C19192 & C19197) which retained their capstones had them on the level of the bedrock, it can be argued that they originally possessed aboveground markers, such as small cairns of stones to identify their locations. Although purely speculative, it may be suggested that the unfinished macehead (AE/02/76: 422, Figure 17) and the possible rubbing stone (AE/02/76: 423, Figure 19) discovered near the C19192 cist derived from such a form of marker. In the context of the deposition of large quantities of grain within these features, the presence of a rubbing stone from a saddle quern may have added symbolic value. Parallels for the unfinished macehead With regard to the unfinished macehead, an ‘axehammer’ of similar form was discovered at Site D, Grange More, Co Londonderry. Frustratingly, this artefact too came from an undated context (May & Batty 1948, 144, plate 23: 7). An unfinished macehead was also recovered during excavations at Maynooth Castle, Co Kildare, (Hayden 2000, 132); a partly polished, but unfinished example was discovered in burnt mound material at Harristown, Co Louth, (Duffy 2000); at Colp West, Co Meath, a broken portion of a macehead was redeposited into an Early Christian kiln (Murphy, D 2002, 254); and a pit down slope from the megalithic remains at Crossreagh West, Co Londonderry, produced half of a crudely executed macehead of mudstone (Hurl 1995, 15). While unfinished maceheads of different kinds have been excavated in recent years, there appears to be no underlying pattern to their occurrence. Stone battleaxes/maceheads are also known from a number of burials from the end of the Early Bronze Age and into the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age and include Laheen, Co Donegal; Ballintubbrid, Co Wexford; The Mound of the Hostages, Tara, Co Meath; and, possibly, Tullymurray, Co Donegal (Grogan 2004, 63-64, table 10.2). Two further, but poorly documented, examples are

The C1974 linear depression also produced a number of sherds of pottery which, along with one (AE/02/76: 365) from cist C1976, represent a single Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:22); and three charred grains (mostly barley), and may have been associated with the funerary and ritual activity carried out within the segmented ditch, although in what exact capacity is difficult to say. A further five pits (C1966, C1970, C1998, C19246 & C19251) were excavated within the precinct of the segmented ditch, but did not produce any dating

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would have had a volume of c 0.30m3 and a weight of 321.36kg. The F1973 fill of the C1972 post pipe contained two charred grains of barley and five pieces of metal slag (AE/02/76: 416), indicating a relatively late intrusion of material, possibly for the same reasons as given in relation to the presence of metal slag sitting on the F1914 pebbled surface (see above). If this post may be accepted as contemporary with the other funerary and ritual activities associated with the segmented ditch, it may have functioned in the same way as suggested for the C1938 post (see below). In this way, it may have acted as the central point in an alignment from the central C19272 stakehole via the edge of the C19212 ditch segment. One further function, not amenable to archaeological recovery, is the possibility that the large C1972 post may have been decorated, possibly in the manner of a Native American totem pole. While no wooden carvings survive on this scale from this period, smaller works include the crude and sexually ambiguous figure from Ralaghan, county Cavan (Coles 1990). Other examples include Corlea, county Longford, and Ballachulish in Scotland (Coles 1989). A fine example of the quality workmanship that could be achieved in early carving is the stag from Fellbach-Schmiden, Germany, though this dates slightly later, to the La Tene Iron Age (Planck 1982; 1985).

evidence. Once again, their physical association and grouping with the central concentration of features may suggest that all are related, although this cannot be proven. In the same way, none of the 12 excavated stakeholes (C1968, C19178, C19180, C19182, C19184, C19188, C19220, C19222, C19224, C19236, C19254 & C19272) in this area produced any kind of dating evidence, although it is likely that they played some function in the ritual life of this complex. Certainly, they do not form any pattern that is interpretable in terms of a structure. However, the majority are clustered in two distinct groups. The first of these is in the southern portion of the central area (C19178, C19180 & C19182) while the second, formed of six stakeholes (C19220, C19222, C19224, C19236, C19236 & C19254) centres on the C19238 stone-lined pit. Of these, C19254 is thought to be contemporary with the C19238 feature as both appeared to share the same fill (F19239/F19255). The C19240 pit and the C19242 linear gully produced no dating evidence, save that they were stratigraphically later that the C19214 cist. For this reason they are interpreted as being later than the main focus of Bronze Age activity within the segmented ditch. The central stakehole and possible alignments As mentioned above, the C19272 stakehole appears to have been put in place to act as the central point from which the lines of the segmented ditch were drawn, in the manner suggested by Ó Ríordáin (1951, 44) for the laying out of the embanked stone circle at Grange, Co Limerick, albeit on a smaller scale. However, while a purely functional explanation may be given for the placement of this stakehole, an additional explanation may also be mooted. A line may be drawn from the C19272 stakehole, passing between the in-turned terminal of the C19212 ditch segment and the C19228 pit, and through the C1938 post pipe (Figure 70). While no formal testing has been carried out on this alignment to assess potential astronomical alignments etc, this is worthy of further consideration.

The C1935 post pit was stratigraphically earlier than the C1915 ditch and returned a radiocarbon determination of 3350±21 BP (1730-1536 cal BC, UBA-9323), placing it at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, and the earliest element in the site sequence. It was most likely associated with an early phase of activity on this site. Similar to the C1990 feature, this is interpreted as having held a large post. The F1936 fill of C1935 produced a single body sherd from a coarse ware vessel (AE/02/76: 126). As has been noted above, the excavation of the C1935 post pit would have produced c 2.67m3 of broken shale bedrock, although this was not used to backfill the cut and the C1938 post pipe. Instead, rounded fieldstones were used for this purpose. Given the overall ceremonial or ritual character of the site, it may only be speculated that the filling of the C1935 post pit had a similar significance, which required one particular type of stone, as opposed to another.12 Again using the formulae published by Gibson (1998, 75) a timber with a diameter of 0.26m and a post pipe length of 1.25m would allow the inference that the original timber had a total length of 5m, of which 3.75m was visible above ground. Such a post may be calculated to have had a volume of c 0.27m3 and a weight of 284.06kg. Obviously, there are a number of potential caveats embedded in the assumptions behind these calculations, although the central point remains that this, like the C1972 post, would have been a substantial timber, which would have been difficult to manoeuvre, but once in position would have been visible for some

Finally, the large C1990 pit is anomalous and difficult to interpret adequately. The finds recovered from this feature are broadly consistent with a Bronze Age date: three sub-circular flint scrapers (AE/02/76: 396-7 & 400), one bipolar core, possibly a blank for a sub-circular scraper (AE/02/76: 398), one scalar flake (AE/02/76: 399), one broken flint blade (AE/02/76: 401), one broken, retouched flint flake (AE/02/76: 402), one scalar flake (AE/02/76: 403) and sub-circular quartz scraper (AE/02/76: 404, Figure 64). Within the F1991 fill was the C1972 post pipe. The 1:3 ratio of below ground to above ground lengths of posts (Gibson 1998, 75) would suggest that its post would have had a minimum length of 2.04m, with 1.53m of this visible above the ground. Taking the approximate weight of 1m3 of green oak (presuming that the C1972 post was indeed oak11) as 1.07 tonnes (Mercer 1981, cited in Gibson 1998, 75) indicates that the post

12

A more prosaic explanation may be that rounded fieldstones were deliberately sourced as they could have provided a more stable packing for a large timber post than the looser less secure shale? (Johnny H Barkley, pers. comm.).

11

Considering that the earliest recorded name of this county was DaireCalgaich, the oak-wood of Calgach, (Joyce 1901, 503) this may be a reasonable assumption.

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considerable distance around.13 Although no archaeological evidence may be presented to support this contention, it is worth considering that such an obviously ‘special’ timber may have been richly decorated. While a parallel with carved Native American Indian totem poles, has been suggested, other alternatives may have included painted decoration and/or adornment with fabric or some other form of token. If the proposed alignments from the central C19272 stakehole through the C1935 and C1990 post pits are accepted, the logical conclusion is that both pits and their respective posts were in existence at the time of the laying out of the segmented inner circle.

basalt/dolerite grit inclusions. Charred residues were noted adhering to the interior surface of vessel 19:20.

Discussion of the intermediate features The features lying between the inner and outer ditches are a disparate collection, which are difficult to form into any cohesive group (Figure 71; Plate 74). Of this group of 20 features, some 10 produced artefactual evidence of Bronze Age date. These included nine pits: C1920 (one broken flint flake (AE/02/76: 184), one bipolar-type flint core (AE/02/76: 185), two scalar flint flakes (AE/02/76: 186-7); one bipolar flint chunk (AE/02/76: 188), one amorphous, bipolar-type flint core (AE/02/76: 189), one bipolar core (AE/02/76: 190), three pieces of flint débitage (AE/02/76: 191-3), and a portion of a Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (19:46, Figure 54); C1929 (one flint scraper (AE/02/76: 208), one poorly struck flint flake (AE/02/76: 209), one bipolar flint core (AE/02/76: 210), and a portion of one vessel of Bronze Age coarse ware type (19:42); C1933 (one vessel of Bronze Age coarse ware type (19:49) and one piece of metal slag (AE/02/76: 194); C1939 (a portion of one vessel of Bronze Age coarse ware (19:45)); C1984 (one quartzite pebble, which appears to have been deliberately smoothed on one side (AE/02/76: 342) and a portion of a single vessel of Bronze Age coarse ware type (19:43)); C1942 (one well-struck flint flake scraper (AE/02/76: 226) and a portion of a vessel of Bronze Age coarse ware (19:50)); C19106 (a portion of a single vessel of Bronze Age coarse ware with charred residues on its interior surface (19:47)); C19230 (a portion of a single vessel of Bronze Age coarse ware (19:48)); and one posthole C1931 (one flint splinter fragment (AE/02/76: 207), and a portion of a single vessel of Bronze Age coarse ware (19:44)). As noted above, all the recovered pottery represents Bronze Age coarse ware vessels. As with other areas of the site, the dominant fabric inclusions were basalt/dolerite grits.

The pottery from the internal features Analysis of the recovered pottery from the internal features identified 88 sherds, representing 15 vessels (Figure 71). With one exception, all the pottery was in the form of undecorated Bronze Age coarse ware vessels. Vessel 19:18, from pit C19201 exhibited three evenly set horizontal cordons on its external surface, just below the rim (Figure 66). For this reason it has been classified as belonging to the cordoned urn tradition. Recent research by Brindley (2007, 291) indicates that cordoned urns were manufactured and used in the period from c 17301500 BC, ie from the end of the Early Bronze Age and into the Middle Bronze Age. Vessel 19:27 from posthole C1989 is represented by two sherds and has a diameter of 180-200mm. Vessel 19:28 from pit C19249 is represented by seven sherds and has a diameter of 260280mm. The fabric of both vessels was hard with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits. Vessel 19:31 from cist C19274 consisted of eight sherds and had a diameter of 200-220 mm (Figure 67). The fabric of this vessel is also hard but contains moderate inclusions of a sedimentary rock, which is possibly a siltstone. Vessel 19:53 was represented by a single very thick sherd (AE/02/76: 516) from stakehole C19244. The fabric was hard and tempered with basalt/dolerite, quartz and schist grits, with infrequent charcoal flecking. This sherd appears to represent two pieces of bonded/fired clay from the base of a large pot with the uppermost (interior) portion being more highly fired. The altered appearance of this piece is possibly the result of contact with very hot cremated material. During use the interior lining of this vessel may have started to fracture and a large piece of clay was crudely placed in its base in an attempt to preserve its integrity. The remainder of the pottery recovered from the internal features comprised body sherds representing 10 vessels. All had hard fabrics with

The remainder of the intermediate features (four postholes C1904, C1925, C1927 & C19137; three pits: C19135, C19150 & C19160 and two stakeholes: C19232 & C19134) produced no dating evidence, and cannot be conclusively linked to the Middle Bronze Age activity on the site, although it is most likely that at least a portion are of similar date. The C1984 pit, while morphologically similar to the C1990 post pit, did not produce any evidence of a post pipe, although three sherds of pottery, representing a single vessel of Bronze Age coarse ware type (19:43), were recovered from its fill (F1985).

13

It has been suggested to this author that it would have been unlikely that an oak timber of these dimensions could have been found, as it is unusual for oak to grow in this manner (D Smith pers. comm.). In dense prehistoric forests, oaks would tend to grow taller and straighter than they do today as their present distribution is limited to small stands with greater access to light and nutrients. However, the central post at Navan Fort (Feature 195) had a diameter of 0.50 m and is believed to have been approximately 10 m in length (Waterman & Lynn 1997, 38-9), twice the diameter and length suggested by the C1938 post pipe, but in the same proportions. There is also a possibility that the act of entering close forest and returning with such a timber may itself have been laden with additional meanings beyond the functional provision of a structural timber.

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Figure 70: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 segmented inner ditch and internal features, showing directions of possible alignments from the central C19272 stakehole. One feature, which must be singled out for a more detailed discussion, is the C1925 posthole. This feature was unlike any other within the entire site as it was not hacked out of the bedrock, but appeared to have been ground out. At the very least, its sides were subjected to a determined polishing and finishing. It is for this reason that it is probably best not to regard this feature as a posthole in any conventional sense, but as something more akin to a bullaun stone or ‘bedrock mortar’ (Kelleher & O'Brien 2008; Dolan 2009; Corlett 2009). Unfortunately, the purpose it served (be it ritual or otherwise) cannot be determined. One theory proposed earlier, in relation to the parallel C1960 and C1958 linear gullies (see above) was that they might have articulated with the C19160 pit to form a processional way. While such a hypothesis is extremely tentative, it is worth nothing that the unconventional C1925 ‘posthole’ lies between the two linear gullies and is paired with the C1927 posthole. This arrangement is duplicated 3.68m to the south-west, where the posthole C19137 and the C19135 pit lie in a similar configuration. Both sets of features are on the same alignment as the two linear gullies. However, there is no stratigraphic evidence to prove that all of these features are in any way directly

comparable in terms of either date or function, and it is for these reasons that this ‘processional way’ hypothesis must be treated with extreme caution. The second segmented circle One further hypothesis which may be raised with regard to the intermediate features is the possibility of the existence of a second segmented circle. The pits C1920, C1922, C1933, C1939 and C19106 all produced Bronze Age artefacts and may be interpreted as having formed a single collection of contemporary features. It is possible that these features articulated with each other to form a segmented circle, either with an associated bank or with a palisaded fence. One other possibility is that these discrete pits acted as the sockets for orthostats forming a small stone circle (Figure 72). Such a circle may be envisioned as similar to the Late Bronze Age recumbent circle of 14 boulders excavated by Brannon at Ballycraigy, Co Antrim (Brannon 1986a; 1988a), which produced quantities of ‘flat-rimmed ware’ pottery and cremated bone from an associated ditch.

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Figure 71: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 intermediate features, showing positions of features producing Bronze Age artefacts. If such an interpretation is correct, it is important to note that none of the evidence recovered from this area related in any way to funerary/ceremonial activity, nor was any charred grain recovered. Thus, if this area did have a ritual function during the Middle Bronze Age lifetime of this site, it was not associated with the same form of ritual, ceremonial or funerary activity as the southwestern segmented circle. To draw an analogy with some forms of modern Christian worship, it may also be interpreted as evidence for a demarcation between varying levels of ritual exclusivity, where access is controlled between various grades of sanctified space and more public places. In any case, the rough circle formed by these features would have had an internal diameter of 5.07m and enclosed an area of c 20.16m2.

further to the north-east than such a work of enclosure would have required. Thus, the extension of this ditch must have been designed to also enclose features of importance. In the same way that the C1915 ditch runs parallel to south-western curve of the segmented inner ditch, it also appears to follow the notional curve created by the C1920, C1922 and C1933 pits. While the interpretation proposed for the postulated second segmented circle may not be correct in all of its specifics, the fact that the C1915 ditch was deliberately extended to encompass these features must indicate that they possessed a suitable degree of significance (and visibility) to the creators of the enclosing ditch. Similarly, the ‘kink’ in the eastern portion of the C1915 ditch may be interpreted as the result of the perceived need to physically link the C1935 post pit with the rest of the site. Obviously, the digging of the C1915 ditch through the top of the F1937 pit fill must represent a later phase of activity. From this it may be inferred that the digging of the C1915 ditch was conceived as a response to the weathering or decay of the C1938 post, the palisaded fence or screen associated with the segmented inner circle and whatever form the north-eastern pit circle may have possessed. Such a rejuvenation of the site may have held manifold meanings and significances for those who planned and executed the work. For example, such a delimiting of the ritual area may have been intended simply to define and protect features which were in

The external ditch The single largest feature within Site 19 was the C1915 ditch (Plate 75). It would appear that the primary functions of this ditch were to enclose and to define the funerary/ritual area of the site, possibly at a relatively late point in its lifetime, although insufficient charcoal was recovered for a radiocarbon determination. This interpretation would explain some of the irregularities of its shape. If an enclosure were required to further define the locations of the cists and the segmented inner ditch, only a further concentric ditch would have been necessary. However, the C1915 ditch extended much 94

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danger of being lost due to natural decay or erosion, although it is likely that it also contained significant social and religious symbolism. The digging of the ditch may also have heralded a change in ritual practice, or

even social polity (cf Brannon 1986a; 1988a). Unfortunately, without substantive excavated proof, all such theories must remain in the realm of speculation.

Figure 72: Post-excavation plan of Site 19 intermediate features, showing possible segmented ditch comprised of pits C1920, C1922, C1933, C1939 & C19106. ditch shale slabs had been carefully laid along the edges of the cut (eg Box Section D). It is proposed that these slabs were intended to act as supports for an original palisaded fence. In the same way as the digging of the C1915 ditch is interpreted as a ritual response to the natural decay of the timber structures of an earlier phase of the site, it is argued that when the palisaded fence held by this ditch began to decay, the posts were removed and C1915 was backfilled with F1916 soil and F1909 shale. The deposition of large quantities of pottery, flint etc may also be construed as part of the ritual of finally ‘closing’ the site. Similar to the hypothesis proposed for the Ballycraigy site, it is possible to argue that since the pottery recovered from the C1915 ditch was in a fragmentary condition that it had been derived from elsewhere and redeposited within the ditch (Brannon 1986a; 1988a cf Chapple in preparation a). In some sections of the C1915 ditch this backfilling seems to have been a relatively haphazard affair, while in others (such as the C1935 post pit in Box Sections A and B) it appeared to have been carefully and deliberately placed in position.

One functional question which must be addressed is that of the form that the C1915 ditch originally took. Such a narrow ditch (maximum width: 0.79m) would have presented little in the way of a barrier in its own right. As discussed in relation to the segmented inner ditch, it is possible that the ditch was accompanied by a bank. Even if such an earth and stone rampart was put in place along the exterior, down slope, edge of the ditch it would be plausible to expect that some evidence of silting, run-off or slippage would have been encountered during the excavation (eg Brannon 1986a; 1988a). Unfortunately, no evidence either for a bank, or for the silting up of the ditch, was encountered. A second possibility is that the C1915 ditch was intended to hold a palisaded fence of timbers or split planks. At an early stage in the excavation, this possibility was considered and, thus, the individual box-sections were excavated by longitudinal section in an attempt to recover any such evidence. Despite this careful approach to the excavation of the ditch, no evidence for upstanding timbers was discovered. Instead, it was noted that in many portions of the C1916

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Plate 74: Post-excavation overview of Site 19, intermediate features, from the north.

With regard to the recovered pottery from the external ditch, analysis by Dunne (Appendix 3) has identified 17 vessels (19:1-19:17), each represented by between one and 33 sherds. Where measurements could be made from rim sherds (13 vessels) these ranged in rim diameter from 200mm to 260mm, the mean being 240mm. Where rim sherds for individual vessels were not recovered, basal diameters were estimated at between 180mm and 200mm. The vessel rims were usually of a simple, rounded form with some flat examples. Vessel 19:02 possessed a slight ridge, 12mm thick, located 14.5mm below the rim on the exterior surface. Similar slight ridges were noticed on vessels 19:15 and 19:16. The fabrics of the vessels were generally hard with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits, although one vessel (19:16) had additional inclusions of mica. Residues of charred materials were identified on the interior surfaces of three vessels (19:01-02 & 19:05). All but one of the vessels was identified as plain Bronze Age coarse ware. One vessel (19:07) possessed a perforated rim and was identified as a cinerary urn (Figure 53). This particular vessel may be paralleled with one from Mullaghmore, Co Down, recovered from a ring barrow and also associated with other coarse ware (Mogey & Thompson 1956). Unfortunately, the dating of the Mullaghmore site is problematic, with interpretations ranging from the Early Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

Analysis of artefact deposition in the outer ditch As noted above, the pottery recovered from the C1915 ditch represents 17 individual vessels (19:01-17) However, all sherds of the same vessel were not placed together in the same portion of the ditch. For example, fragments of vessel 19:10 were discovered in nine different box sections (clockwise: Box Sections I, H, G, E, D, A, AV, AU & W) (Figure 38; Table 4). The sherds were dispersed across several contiguous box sections in what appeared to be three distinct clusters (Box Sections I-G, E-D & A-AU), with an ‘outlier’ recovered from Box Section W. Excluding the latter sherd, this one vessel was distributed over a length of c 14.37m. Similarly, vessel 19:02 was deposited in two clusters across Box Sections I-E, and Box Sections AV, AT and AR, covering c 19.61m of the C1915 ditch. Table 4 demonstrates that this pattern is repeated across the majority of recovered vessels, where sherds are generally distributed across Box Sections K to AR, a distance of some 25.28m. Occasional outliers from these vessels were recovered from box sections Box Sections W (vessels 19:01 & 19:11), R (vessel 19:05) and AE (vessel 19:04). Three vessels (19:15-17) were represented by single sherds and were, obviously, confined to single box sections. However, one vessel (19:12), which was represented by four sherds, were all recovered from a single box section (Box Section G) (Figure 43). It has been noted that the southern portion 96

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of the C1915 ditch appears to have suffered a degree of truncation. Although the lower portion of the ditch survives, the majority of the recovered pottery emanated from the upper portions of the F1916 fill. In general terms, the affected area is thought to run from Box Section AQ, clockwise, to Box Section AB. Therefore, this c 23m stretch of the ditch should not be expected to produce any pottery; although a portion of vessel 19:04 was recovered from Box Section AE. However, this leaves a significant length (c 25.28m) from Box Section AA, clockwise, to Box Section L which did not produce any large scale deposition of pottery. The situation is even more extreme when the distribution of the recovered flint and stone from the C1915 ditch is examined (Table 5). Here the distribution of flint is, essentially, confined to box sections Box Section K, clockwise, to Box Section B, a length of 9.38m. Individual flint items were recovered from Box Sections R and AR in the northwestern and south-eastern regions of the ditch, respectively. Although the likely truncation of southern portion of the ditch appears to have removed most evidence of artefact deposition, it is clear that the

surviving pattern strongly favours the placement of both flint and pottery in the northern and eastern portions. However, there remains the anomaly of the lack of any form of large scale deposition in the western to northwestern portion of C1915. In terms of the survival of this length of the ditch, there is nothing to indicate truncation or any form of differential preservation of artefacts. It may only be suggested that the rituals that took place here were in some cultural way biased in favour of differential deposition. Although not amenable to testing, it may be suggested that different lengths of the ditch held different ritual or ceremonial significances that, in the minds of the participants, required varying responses. In this scenario it may be theorised that the northern and eastern portions of the ditch were seen as appropriate for the deposition of flint artefacts and fragmented pieces of pottery. At the same time the western and north-western section could have been ritually and culturally designated as suitable for the pouring of libations or the deposition of perishable materials such as wooden, leather, wicker, basketry/rushwork or textiles which leave no surviving traces.

Plate 75: Post-excavation overview of Site 19, from the north. Entry through the outer ditch One final aspect of the C1915 ditch which must be addressed is the possibility of an entranceway onto the site. Despite changes in width and depth of the C1915 ditch, no single area could be positively identified as an original entrance feature. However, in the southernmost

area of the ditch, a 3m length from Box Sections AI to AK, the sides and base of the cut were not hacked out of the bedrock, as in the other areas of the ditch. Instead, the cut faces appeared to have been carefully ground down, leaving a smooth, shallow, linear depression. Here the maximum dimensions of the ditch measured 0.42m wide

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

by 0.08m deep. If this was the original entranceway into the enclosure, the presence of a deliberated shaped polishing/grinding stone (AE/02/76: 490, Figure 52) recovered from Box Section AJ may have had particular significance. In fact, this is the only coarse stone artefact to be recovered from the entirety of the C1915 ditch. O’Hare indicates that the piece is broken and appears to be made of siltstone. The artefact is unusual in that although she believes it to have been employed as a polishing or grinding stone, it superficially resembles the body and blade end of a stone axe.

discovered in Sussex (Abercromby 1912, Plate xxix 13) and at Derby (Abercromby 1912, Plate xxii 67). The identified vessels from Site 19 possess a, generally, smooth profile (with the exception of the cordoned urn), and do not fall into the bipartite and tripartite vessel forms. The construction method employed was coil building and this was particularly noticeable in two vessels (19:04 & 19:06), although slab construction was undoubtedly used on some of the larger vessels. Surface finishing was mostly in the form of basic wet smoothing, with 34 vessels (56.7%) having both interior and exterior surfaces smoothed. Some 17 vessels (28.3%) had a more finely finished interior surface and eight (13.3%) were more finely finished on their exterior surfaces. The fabric types are usually hard and well fired, with basalt/dolerite grits and mica being the general forms of temper. Dunne (Appendix 3) argues that this indicates that the majority of the Site 19 pottery was not manufactured locally, but came from the north coast, possibly from north-east Ulster where such geological types are most common. Dunne also argues that the recovered vessels are compatible with the ceremonial function ascribed to the site, although given that they are undecorated, a domestic element may not be ruled out. The pottery forms are also indicative of a period of site use spanning the Early to Middle Bronze Age periods (c 2350/2200-1200 BC). However, Dunne sees the greater significance of the ceramic assemblage as the fact that a range of undecorated wares are so unequivocally associated with ceremonial and funerary functions.

Overview of the pottery The pottery assemblage from Site 19 is comparable in size with a number of other excavated sites which have produced a range of undecorated vessels in the food vessel/cinerary urn tradition. These vessel types are generally confined to the northern and eastern portions of this island and are classed as ‘anomalous or unclassifiable pots’ (Waddell 2000, 145; Ó Ríordáin & Waddell 1993, 31). Parallels for this assemblage are to be found at the nearby Gransha Site 17 (Appendix 2); Rough Island, Lough Enagh (Davies 1941); Site 1, Enagh, Co Londonderry (McSparron 2000, 2003); Woodside Road, Co Londonderry (Dunne unpublished specialist report for ADS Ltd, 2003; McConway 2006); Kilcroagh, Co Antrim (Williams et al 1991-92, 52); Timakeel, Co Armagh (Large 2006); Dunloy, Co Antrim (Conway & Williams 1994, 14, Fig 8); Dungonnel, Co Antrim; Ballon Hill, Co Carlow (Ó Ríordáin & Waddell 1993, 286, Figs 628 & 630); and Tankardstown 2 (Gowen 1988). Outside of Ireland similar vessels have been

98

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ BS A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AA AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ AK AL AM AN AO AP AQ AR AS AT AU AV

19:01 •

19:02

19:03

19:04 •

19:05 •

19:06

19:07

19:08

19:09

• • • • • •

• • • • •

• • •

• • •

• • • • •

•

•

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

•

•

•

• • • •

• •

Table 4: Distribution of vessels 19:01-17 across the C1915 ditch, by Box Section. Grey-shaded areas indicate possible entrance.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

BS A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AA AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ AK AL AM AN AO AP AQ AR AS AT AU AV

19:10

19:11 •

19:12

19:13

19:14

19:15

19:16

19:17 ◊

• • • •

•

•

•

• •

•

•

◊

• •

• •

•

◊

•

Table 4 (continued): Distribution of vessels 19:01-17 across the C1915 ditch, by Box Section. Vessels represented by a single sherd are indicated by ‘◊’. Grey-shaded areas indicate possible entrance.

100

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ BS A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AA AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ AK AL AM AN AO AP AQ AR AS AT AU AV Totals

Scraper

Retouched flake

Flake

3

1

2

Bipolar core

Débitage flake

Fragment

Polishing/ grinding stone

1 1 2 1

1

1 1

1

1

1

1

4

1

8

2

1

1

1

Table 5: Distribution of flint and stone artefacts across the C1915 ditch, by Box Section. The area (Box Sections AIAJ) shaded in grey indicates the possible entrance into the enclosure, a portion of the ditch with smoothed base and sides.

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

use history and that the material was not freshly knapped at the point of deposition.

Overview of the charred grain and seeds McClatchie’s analysis of the charred plant remains identified large quantities of cereal remains from the cist features inside the central enclosure (C1976, C19186, C19192, C19197, C19214 & C19274). In the main, the identified cereal was naked barley, including some of the six-row variety. It is estimated that the barley sample from cist C19186 would have contained in excess of 50,000 whole grains. Small quantities of barley were also present in other cists (C1962, C19217, C19244, C19256, C19266 & C19269), posthole (C19101), a post-pipe (C1972), pits (C1989, C1993, C19201, C19228 & C19249) and one linear depression (C1974). McClatchie argues that the fact that all these ancillary features produced the same range of species as the cists suggests that a range of other features were open and in use during the period of the filling of these cists. Three cists (C19186, C19192 & C19274) also produced small quantities of wheat. McClatchie also indicated that the examined samples included large quantities of cereal grain fragments which she interpreted as evidence that the deposits suffered considerable movement prior to their final placement within the cists. She also noted that it has been the general view that naked barley was the dominant cereal during the Irish Bronze Age, but that recent research suggests a more diverse range was grown, including hulled barley and wheat. However, only a small number of grains from Gransha could be identified as either of the latter types. Hazelnut shell fragments were recovered from cist C19269, in stark contrast to their frequency at the adjacent Neolithic Sites 11 and 12 (Chapple 2008a; 2009a). Overall, McClatchie interprets the presence of such large quantities of cereals within the cists as the remains of meals consumed by the living during burial ceremonies, or as charred materials deliberately placed into the cists to accompany or even represent the dead.

The Bronze Age in Co Londonderry Although not particularly frequent, a number of upstanding Bronze Age monuments are still represented near the Gransha site. At Ballynashallog, at the opposite end of the Foyle Bridge, there is a concentration of Bronze Age sites including several cist burials and a probable barrow cemetery (LDY 14:42-50). Material of this period was also located during excavations at Rough Island in Lough Enagh (LDY 14:11) (Davies 1941), including a bronze ‘socketed and looped’ spearhead and a great deal of pottery. This island, in Lough Enagh (Eastern) may have been utilised as a form of lake dwelling during the Bronze Age. Finally, a group of circular enclosures noted from aerial photography in Enagh townland (LDY 14:65) could be funerary monuments of this period. There is a wealth of excavated evidence for all periods of the Bronze Age across Co Londonderry. For example, at Straid four cists were investigated and produced all or parts of four early Bronze Age bowls and the remains of seven individuals. The human remains were in the form of three skeletons and four cremations and represented individuals aged from 3-4 years to a male of c 35 years (Brannon 1986b; 1988b; Brannon et al 1990). Long bone fragments from each of Cists I, III and IV returned radiocarbon determinations as follows: Cist I: 3810±40 BP (2457-2137 cal BC, GrN-15491); Cist III: 3840±35 BP (2459-2201 cal BC, GrN-15492); Cist IV: 3845±40 BP (2462-2201 cal BC, GrN-15493) (Brannon et al 1990, 32, 36 & 38; Waddell 2000, 164). However, recent reexamination of this work (Brindley 2007, 73) argues that all three dates are anomalous, possibly due to dietary factors, and should not be used in determining the dates of use for Irish Bronze Age ceramics. Instead, she introduces two new dates, derived from bone carbonate, which may be considered to be more reliable for dating purposes. In the first instance, the burial from Cist III (associated with bowl pottery) is redated to 3690±40 BP (2198-1959 cal BC, GrA-14825) (Brindley 2007, 76). The human remains from Cist II (associated with vase urn pottery) were dated to 3580±40 BP (2034-1775 cal BC, GrA-14823). A cist burial excavated at Shantallow contained the poorly-preserved remains of an adult male and a near-completer tripartite bowl (Brannon et al 1988; Brannon 1989). At a development site also in Shantallow townland, a small cremation burial was discovered associated with a broken tripartite vase food vessel (McCooey 2004; 2006; 2007; Chapple & McCooey in preparation). Radiocarbon dating of charcoal associated with the cremation returned a determination of 3710±80 BP (2397-1888 cal BC, Beta-210953) (Chapple 2008c). A segmented ring ditch (c 10m in diameter) with a large central cremation pit at Drumacrow produced sherds of Bronze Age pottery from one of its segments and one of the enclosed features (Crothers 2007c). The investigation of a barrow at Ballygroll, in advance of land reclamation works, returned a radiocarbon determination of 2680±50

Overview of the lithic collection O’Hare notes that the vast majority (c 80%) of the lithics recovered from the entirety of the Gransha series of excavations derives solely from the Site 19 complex of features. She also notes that although the activity here is believed to have taken place over a number of centuries, there is a marked stylistic conservatism to the lithics. Nonetheless, the general character of the lithics is undoubtedly of the Bronze Age and in agreement with the dating of the pottery and that supplied by the radiocarbon determinations. The chief forms recorded were scrapers, in particular subcircular types indicative of a Bronze Age date. However, there were a small number of end/side scrapers along with well-produced flakes and a single platform blade which were of Neolithic type. O’Hare argues that these may not be residual deposits, but instead represent genuine ‘heirloom deposits’. An examination of the surviving cortex on the lithics, O’Hare suggests that a relatively ad hoc reduction strategy was employed, using pebble flint from the local vicinity. Also, the patination on a number of the flint pieces suggests that they had a

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

BP (967-786 cal BC, UB-2430) from the basal fill of the ditch (Williams 1981-82, 34; Pearson 1981-82, 41). The same series of excavations also produced evidence of a number of pre-bog field walls, and although not dated, may too be of Bronze Age date. A small cemetery of two cremations and two inhumations deposited in cists along with at least two further pit cremations was excavated ‘just outside Derry’ (McConway & Donnelly 2006). The larger of the cists contained the remains of an adult male with a sheathed, bronze dagger across his chest and the pelvis of a piglet placed at his feet. The smaller of the two cists contained the badly preserved remains of a child without any form of grave goods. The child was approximately four years of age at the time of death and had a full set of milk teeth, but with molars beginning to erupt. The excavator dated the six burials at this site to the Early Bronze Age. At Killeague a cordoned urn was discovered in an inverted position, covering a large volume of cremated human bone, but without any accompanying artefacts (Anon. 1987-88). At Gortfad workmen digging a drain uncovered two cordoned urns (May & Collins 1959; Morton 1959). Pot 1 was originally found inverted over c 3lb 5oz [c 1,503g] of incompletely cremated bone. Pot 2 was found upright and contained 2lb 10¼ oz [c 1,205g] of much more fragmented bone. The bones from Pot 1 were identified as containing at least one adult male, and a second individual which could not be conclusively aged or sexed. The individual in Pot 2 was identified as an adult, possibly female. While the remains in Pot 1 were incompletely cremated, the remains in the second urn were comprehensively broken and apparently pulverised or comminuted. Morton (1959, 41) argues that this processing of the skeletal remains was done at the time of the cremation or shortly after. At Magheraboy, near Dungiven, the cremated bones of a single adult male were discovered in an ‘enlarged food vessel’ type urn; although today this is more commonly described as a vase urn (Morton & Waterman 1960). Although the remains were discovered by workmen while digging a trench, it appears that the cremated remains were placed on a flat stone and the urn then inverted over them. In 1962 at Claragh, near Kilrea, a cordoned urn placed in a slight depression in the ground and was found to contain cremated bones (Collins 1965). As the urn was missing its base, it may have originally been placed in an inverted position over the bone. Analysis of the bone indicated that one, small but sturdily built, adult female was represented (Morton 1965). In 1971 while digging a trench for a storm drain, workmen uncovered a portion of an urn (apparently of cordoned urn type) at Roemill Gardens, Limavady (Waterman 1977). Although much broken and dispersed, the urn appeared to have been inverted over the bone. In total 677g of bone was recovered and was identified as representing two individuals (Wells 1977). The first of these was probably a lightly built male aged between 20 and 30 years, while the second appears to have been a female or an adolescent of uncertain sex.

1998; 2001). A sample of burnt bone from pit 27, at the front of the forecourt, returned a radiocarbon determination of 3580±50 BP (2119-1770 cal BC, GrN13254), while burnt bone from layer 95, within the burial chamber, dated to 3630±50 BP (2187-1881 cal BC, GrN13273) (Hurl 2001, 23). Analysis of the cremated bone indicated the presence of at least seven individuals. This included the remains of at least one adult male, one adult female, a 2-5 year old child and infant (Murphy E M 2001). A two-chambered court tomb at Knockoneill was originally excavated by Herring (1949) and was later reexcavated by Flanagan (1980a). Although this monument was originally constructed during the Neolithic, in the Bronze Age it was remodelled as a round cairn, and an urn and sherds of a pygmy cup were deposited. Although undated, it is likely that the standing stone excavated at Dungiven was of the Bronze Age period (Bratt 1976). Here the stone had been placed on the summit of a small, natural hummock and appeared to have been originally enclosed by a circular palisade fence. The hummock was later enlarged with material to form a circular platform surrounding the stone. At Gortenny, Eglinton, excavation uncovered evidence for prehistoric settlement from all periods since the Mesolithic (Gilmore 2001; 2003). Of particular relevance to the current discussion is the fact that the basal fill of a possible hearth (Cut 706, Fill 710) returned a date which fell in the range from the Late Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age (3830±50 BP (2463-2142 cal BC, Beta230118)) (Chapple 2008c). A large oval pit (Cut 711, Fill 713) also returned a date in the Early Bronze Age (3770 ±50 BP (2398-2031 cal BC, Beta-230119)). However, the largest excavation of Bronze Age settlement in this county, and on this island as a whole, was at Corrstown, Portrush (Conway 2003; 2004a&b; 2005). Here testing revealed the presence of extensive Bronze Age settlement, in the form of over 40 houses and/or enclosures, along a cobbled roadway. The majority of the excavated pottery was of Late Bronze Age coarse ware type, though a number of sherds of cordoned urn type pottery were also recovered. Other significant finds included a mould for a Middle Bronze Age palstave axe and a large stone macehead. At Ballyarnet evidence for lakeside settlement was discovered and excavation produced quantities of cordoned urn pottery, coarse ware pottery, lithics, possible evidence for metalworking, fragments of saddle querns, hammer stones and a portion of a polished axe head (Ó Néill & Schulting 2004; Ó Néill 2007). Four phases of activity were identified, which were initiated by the creation of a palisaded timber platform. This was followed by the erection of a circle (c 6m in diameter) of posts with a centrally placed hearth. The presence of two larger postholes is taken to suggest that the structure was originally roofed. The outer rings of one of the palisade posts returned a date of 3344±39 BP (1737-1525 cal BC, UB-4893). Woodside Road Site 1 produced evidence of two linear gullies and a small collection of pits, some of which produced Bronze Age pottery (McConway 2006). At Cashandoo/Caslandoo,

A Wedge tomb was excavated at Ballybriest and produced cremated bone, flint and beaker pottery (Hurl

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Glebe, portions of a large ditch with a metalled basal surface, and indications that it had once possessed an accompanying bank, were investigated (Bowen 2006; 2007). A number of flint artefacts and badly damaged pottery, apparently of Early Bronze Age type, was recovered from the ditch. Further excavations allowed the identification of a curving slot, interpreted as the remains of a structure, which produced some sherds of Early Bronze Age pottery. The investigation of Site 1 at the Grangemore Dunes, Grange More, revealed the presence of a stone setting, partially filling a depression in the sand (Plunkett 2004; 2006). Radiocarbon dating of charcoal from between these stones returned a date of 3512±37 BP (1932-1744 cal BC, UB-6275), in the Early Bronze Age. Two roundhouses were excavated at Atherton Road, Portstewart (Linnane 2006). One (Structure A) was oval and measured c 9m x 7m, while the other (Structure D) was c 6.5m in diameter. A D-shaped structure (Structure C) was appended to a boundary ditch associated with Structures A and D. Structure B was a circular complex of postholes and ditch segments which appeared to form an internal posthole circle of c 8.5m in diameter, surrounded by a segmented circular ditch of c 11m in diameter. The excavator argues that the ‘complex and purposeful arrangement of features’ suggests that this was less a house than a form of wooden henge-like monument. Some 50m to the south of this complex there was a cremation pit containing the remains of a child (c 6-12 years). Although no formal dates are available, the excavator dates the entirety of this complex to the Late Bronze Age. At Otterbank, Strathfoyle, five areas which are interpreted as the remains of Bronze Age structures produced both flint and pottery (Heaney 2006). Pit C101 in Area 2A at Soldier’s Hill, Wattstown, produced a sherd of pottery of Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age date, along with seven pieces of flint débitage (Dempsey 2006). At Ballynacally Beg the wall slot of a sub-circular house (9.6m x 9m) with a porch and an entrance to the south-west was excavated (Crothers 2007a). Two sherds of Late Bronze Age pottery were recovered from the fills of two associated pits, while a ring ditch lay 4m to the east of the house. A large quantity of Late Bronze Age pottery, probably representing a single vessel, was recovered from one of a number of pits at Dernagross which are interpreted as evidence of settlement (Crothers 2007b).

Museum (now the Ulster Museum) is labelled as ‘from Co. Derry’ (Jope 1958). Jope argues that this is an import from Italy and dates to the sixth and fifth centuries BC. Specifically, he parallels it with a type, frequently recovered from women’s graves in the Picene area, east of the Apennines. Although he raises the possibility that the piece may be a late import, he also suggests that is not inconceivable that this represents a genuine import from Hallstatt Europe into Ireland during the Late Bronze Age/Iron Age transition phase. Glover (1978) notes the finding of a hoard of bronze rings by a Francis Sweeny in the townland of Annagh in 1834. Although these artefacts cannot now be found, they do appear to be of Bronze Age date. A bronze trunnion axe of the Bishopsland Phase of the Bronze Age (c 1350-1000 BC) was found in Cloughfin in about 1918 (Flanagan 1980b, 22), while at Gortnamoyagh a socket-looped bronze spearhead, from approximately eighth century BC, was discovered in a bog (Flanagan 1980b, 21). In 1959 a hollow-based arrowhead of Bronze Age type was found in the Bann Valley (Flanagan 1960, 43). A decorated, flat, flanged bronze axehead was recovered from the River Bann at Coleraine (Collins 1960). In 1903 a local man working at Kurin Moss, in the townland of Kurin, near Garvagh discovered 421 amber beads which formed a substantial Late Bronze Age necklace. The beads eventually passed into the collection of Rev G R Buick of Cullybackey, Co Antrim, before being auctioned in 1905. In 1962 the Ulster Museum was able to acquire 303 of these amber beads (Flanagan 1964, 92). In 1966 the museum was able to acquire a further 19 beads thought to be part of the same necklace (Flanagan et al 1968, 52). In the same year, the museum also acquired a flanged axe with straight sides and the remains of a cable decoration, also from the Buick collection (Flanagan et al 1968, 51). Collins, in his catalogue of Bronze Age moulds from Ulster, lists a two-part stone mould for casting socketlooped spearheads as probably coming from Maghera (1970, 32). He also notes a two-part stone mould for a socket-looped spearhead and a oval razor, and a two-part stone mould for a socket-looped spearhead that, he suggests, came either from Co Antrim or Co Londonderry (1970, 27-30 & 32-34). What may be taken from the forgoing survey of known sites is that county Londonderry has a rich and diverse array of excavated evidence for the Bronze Age as a whole. However, this evidence is particularly concentrated in the Early and Late phases of the period, with little surviving from the Middle phase.

Other activity from this period includes the recovery of sherds of Bronze Age pottery from some pits discovered at Maydown (Gahan 2004). However, there was no indication as to the function of these pits which varied in size and were spread across a 4ha site.

Radiocarbon dating Eight radiocarbon dates were returned from features from Site 19 (Appendix 1). Analysis of these shows a reasonably robust chronology for some of the aspects of the site formation. The earliest identifiable event on-site was the erection of the north-eastern post. Here charcoal from the post-pipe returned a date of 3350±21 BP, approximately 1650 cal BC. The similarity between it and the large post-pit within the segmented circle (C1990) may be taken to suggest that both were erected

Although without sound provenance, a bronze dagger found in an antiques shop in Londonderry has been argued to emanate from the north of Ireland in general, if not the Londonderry area specifically (Flanagan 198182). It is of Early Bronze Age manufacture and appears to belong to Harbison’s ‘miscellaneous’ class of daggers. Also without sound provenance is a heavy cast bronze ring, decorated with six bi-conical knobs in the Belfast

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

at the same time. A date of 3263±24 BP was returned from charcoal in the fill of the segmented circle, suggesting that this was constructed approximately a century later, around 1550 cal BC. A charcoal sample from the fill of the northern pit circle dated to 3124±20 BP, or c 1410 cal BC, showing that it was broadly contemporary with the creation and filling of the cists within the segmented circle. Charred barley from five cists was chosen for dating purposes and returned dates from 3095-3059 BP, suggesting that all were contemporary and filled at approximately 1410 cal BC. Although issues may be raised with the relative chronology that this series of dates implies, chiefly from the possibility of ‘old wood’ contamination of the dates carried out on wood charcoal. While it is possible to argue for these dates appearing somewhat older that they actually are, the returned determinations are fully in keeping with the evidence of the ceramics, lithics and the dates from the charred barley. Nonetheless, it is difficult to accept the early date for the construction of the segmented circle, placing its construction well over a century before the insertion of the cists it appears to have been designed to enclose.

The earliest date returned from Site 19 was from the fill of the post-pipe within the C1935 post pit (C1938). Here charcoal returned a determination of 3350±21 BP (17301536 cal BC, UBA-9323). This may be paralleled with a date of 3370±60 BP (1873-1506 cal BC, UB-2174) from ritual site at King's Stables, in Tray townland, Co Armagh (Lynn 1977, 53). Another comparable date, from what is arguably a ritual context, is a determination of from 3330±50 BP (1739-1501 cal BC, GrN-9346) from the stone alignment at Dromatouk, Co Kerry (Waddell 2000, 178). There is a relatively substantial body of contemporary radiocarbon dates from burial sites. These include a burial from the Mound of the hostages, Tara, Co Meath, which contained a razor and a composite necklace with an amber bead and dated to 3370±60 BP (1873-1506 cal BC, GrA-19180) (O'Sullivan 2006, 292; Brindley 2007, 80, 370, 372); burials with cordoned urns, from Altanagh, Co Tyrone, returned dates of 3360±30 BP (1739-1535 cal BC, GrN11449) and 3330±60 BP (1750-1458 cal BC, GrN10556) (Williams 1986, 78; Brindley 2007, 153, 370, 372); a burial with a collared urn from Castlerichard, Co Cork, dated to 3360±50 BP (1766-1517 cal BC, GrA14613) (Brindley 2007, 141); a burial at Ballyman, Co Dublin, associated with a cordoned urn, dated to 3350±30 BP (1736-1531 cal BC, GrA-14291) (O'Brien, E 2005, 295; Brindley 2007, 153); later activity at the portal tomb at Ballykeel, Co Armagh, returned a date of 3350±45 BP (1741-1525 cal BC, UB-239) (O'Kelly 1989, 347; Waddell 2000, 105; Smith et al 1970, 292); a cist burial at Coney Island, Lough Neagh, Co Tyrone, returned a date of 3350±80 BP (1877-1454 cal BC, UB43) (Williams & Robinson 1983, 33; O'Kelly 1989, 349; Smith et al 1971, 104); material from the wedge tomb at Toormore, Co Cork, returned a date of 3330±70 BP (1860-1447 cal BC, GrN-18492) (Brindley & Lanting 1991-92, 21; Waddell 2000, 106; O'Brien, W 1999, 182); at Ballymacdermot, Co Armagh, Bronze Age activity around a Neolithic tomb dated to 3360±60 BP (18701500 cal BC, UB-207) (Case 1969, 22; Smith et al 1970, 292); a posthole marking and sealing an urn burial, excavated as part of the A1 dualling programme (Area 9, Derrycraw townland, Co Down), dated to 3330±70 BP (1860-1447 cal BC, Beta-216908) (Chapple et al 2009; Chapple 2008c). Other dates of interest include the burial at Kilpaison burrows, Wales, which dated to 3370±35 BP (1745-1536 cal BC, GrA-27618) (Brindley 2007, 319). Brindley (2007, 313) also notes three burials from Scotland, of comparable date, and all associated with cordoned urns: Slikmafilly urn 24, which dated to 3360±40 BP (1742-1531 cal BC, GrA-26565); Mill of Marcus 3350±40 BP (1739-1528 cal BC, GrA-average of 2 dates); and Raigmore which returned a date of 3350±40 BP (1739-1528 cal BC, GrA-24014).

Parallels for the radiocarbon determinations Although it is argued that the atypical cists themselves owe their genesis to the ‘classic’ cists of the preceding Early Bronze Age, there is little comparable evidence for the entirety of the Site 19 evidence of circles and enclosures. Burials of the Middle (c 1700-1220 BC) and Late Bronze Age (c 1250-650 BC) are particularly rare (Harbison 1988, 149-50; Waddell 2000, 273; Grogan 2004) and the excavated evidence displays little in the way of a sound parallel for the Site 19 evidence. For example, the ‘enclosed cremation cemetery’ at Carnkenny, Co Tyrone (Lynn 1973-74) produced a radiocarbon date of 2815±50 BP (1161-843 cal BC, UB599) from material associated with cremated bone from a series of 17 pits, beneath a stone cairn. Raftery’s (1971; 1973a&b) excavation at Rathgall, Co Wicklow, uncovered a circular ditch, enclosing an area of c 19m in diameter, with a number of cremations contained within pits, again of Late Bronze Age date. Two simple pit burials of this period were also excavated at Area 3, Mounthawk, Tralee, Co Kerry, which produced cremated human bone and sherds of coarse pottery (Dunne, L 1998, 88). To gain a fuller appreciation of the place of Gransha Site 19 within the period it is proposed to examine the broad array of radiocarbon evidence from other parts of the island.14 For convenience, and owing to their contemporaneous nature, the radiocarbon dates from the cists and the northern pit circle will be dealt with together, while the dates from the north-eastern post-pipe and the segmented circle will be dealt with separately.

Charcoal from the fill of one portion of the segmented inner ditch (C19212) returned a radiocarbon determination of 3263±24 BP (1613-1461 cal BC, UBA9324). Few, if any, radiocarbon dates may be directly paralleled with this phase of activity. The only exception to this appears to be dates of 3265±55 BP (1678-1432

14

The methodology chosen in the selection of dates for comparison was to take all which fell within a bracket of 20 radiocarbon years on either side of the returned date BP.

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cal BC, GrN-9280) and 3265±55 BP (1678-1432 cal BC, GrN-8281) from the stone alignment at Maughanasilly, Co Kerry (Brindley 1995, 8). Again, there are a number of comparable dates from burial contexts. These include a burial with a cordoned urn at Gorteen, Co Louth, which returned a date of 3285±35 BP (1663-1460 cal BC, GrA-24831) (Brindley 2007, 153); a burial associated with a cordoned urn and a razor, from Pollacorragune, Co Galway, dated to 3280±40 BP (16641454 cal BC, GrA-14818) (Brindley 2007, 153, 372); a burial at Newcastle, Co Wicklow, also associated with a razor, dated to 3280±40 BP (1664-1454 cal BC, GrA14776) (Brindley 2007, 372); a pit burial (C27) at the flat cemetery at Kiltenan South (Phase 2), Co Limerick produced only 8g of cremated bone returned a date of 3260±31 BP (1615-1454 cal BC, UB-6018) (Grogan 2007, 292); grave 3, an irregular cist, placed into the cairn at Poulawack, Co Clare, dated to 3260±60 BP (1681-1427 cal BC, OxA-3259) (Brindley & Lanting 1991-92, 16); bone from the wedge tomb at Lough Gur, Co Limerick, dated to 3260±70 BP (1729-1410 cal BC, OxA-3271) (Brindley & Lanting 1991-92, 24); cremated human bone from a pit (Site 78) close to a burnt mound at Laughanstown, Co Dublin, dated to 3259±29 BP (1613-1455 cal BC, OxA-12774) (O'Sullivan & Stanley 2005, 151); at White Rocks Site I, Ballymacrea Lower townland, Co Antrim, human bones from a pit grave returned a date of 3255±730 BP (3498 cal BC-209 cal AD, UB-666), although the standard deviation is so large as to make the date useless for all practical purposes (Pearson & Pilcher 1975, 226; Collins 1977, 22); charcoal from the wedge tomb at Toormore, Co Cork, dated to 3250±70 BP (1690-1399 cal BC, GrN-18493) (Brindley & Lanting 1991-92, 21; Waddell 2000, 106; O'Brien, W 1999, 182); a cremation burial from Ballygalley, Co Antrim, returned a determination of 3248±57 BP (1664-1415 cal BC, no laboratory code cited) (Simpson et al 1994, 1); a ring barrow at Briggs Rock Area 5 (Portavoe townland), Co Down returned a radiocarbon determination of 3240±40 BP (1611-1433 cal BC, Beta-232777) (Dunlop 2007; Chapple 2008c). There are also two dates, both on bone carbonate, from Scottish burials associated with cordoned urns: Magdalen Bridge EA 42 which dated to 3280±40 BP (1664-1454 cal BC, GrA-18025) and Saxe-Coburg place which returned a date of 3275±40 BP (1661-1450 cal BC, GrA-18020) (Brindley 2007, 313).

charcoal from Site B at Navan Fort, Co Armagh, returned a date of 3140±90 BP (1620-1131 cal BC, UB974) (Mallory 1995, 85; Warner 1997, 192). While this is dismissed by Gault (2002, 27) as being possibly derived from residual material, it does provide a tentative argument for activity at this significant ritual site at this period. Similarly, at Clogher, Co Tyrone, charcoal from the old soil layer sealed by debris derived from the construction of the ‘inauguration mound’ dated to 3045±75 BP (1451-1055 cal BC, UB-837) (O'Kelly 1989, 349; Pearson 1979, 276). While far from conclusive, it is does provide a tantalising symmetry to Navan Fort, where an important site with strong ritual and ceremonial overtones showed evidence of Middle Bronze Age activity. A stake (C183) from a possible pathway at the enigmatic site of Killymoon, Co Tyrone, returned a radiocarbon determination of 3130±50 BP (1501-1270 cal BC, GrN-22675) (Hurl 1999, 5; Hurl et al nd, 3, 23, 48, 104). Although yet to be fully published, this site does appear to have functioned as a ceremonial centre, within which the charring of grain appeared to form a major component. At Ballymackeamore, Co Limerick, charcoal from one pit (C9) of a pair, returned a date of 3070±40 BP (1429-1217 cal BC, Beta-179178) (Grogan 2007, 249). The pits contained small pieces of burnt animal bone (including pig humerus), charred emmer wheat, barley and sloe stones. This pair of isolated pits was interpreted as the postholes for a house which had been sufficiently truncated as to leave no other trace; and their fills as the remains of votive deposits, placed at the threshold. However, given the context of the Site 19 evidence, it is possible to reinterpret these as purely ritual deposits, without any additional domestic elements. At Rath, Co Meath, charcoal from the fill of the F1 enclosure returned a date of 3083±30 BP (1424-1270 cal BC, UB-6167) (Grogan 2007, 329). This site comprised four intercutting, roughly circular, univallate enclosures which contained two hearths and three cremation pits. The enclosures themselves were not easily comparable to the Site 19 evidence as they ranged in width from 0.6m to 1.9m and 0.16m to 1.0m deep, and contained a silting deposit along with discrete deposits of both human and animal bone. However, the site was associated with a sizeable amount of cordoned urn pottery, representing at least four vessels. Similarly to Site 19, there was evidence of deliberate dispersal of pottery sherds with portions of a vessel (urn 2) from one of the cremations being recovered from the earliest recut (F20) of the primary ditch segment (F21), associated with enclosure F1. Sherds of urn 1 were recovered from the fill of ditch F2 and burial F28.

The final group of dates to be examined are five contemporary dates from charred barley from the atypical cists within the segmented circle (3095±22 BP (1424-1312 cal BC, UBA-9318) (C19197); 3059±21 BP (1398-1268 cal BC, UBA-9319) (C19192); 3062±22 BP (1404-1269 cal BC, UBA-9320) (C19214); 3082±22 BP (1416-1297 cal BC, UBA-9321) (C1976); 3081±20 BP (1414-1302 cal BC, UBA-9322) (C19186)) along with one, broadly contemporary date from one pit (C1920) which formed part of the northern pit circle (3124±20 BP (1442-1320 cal BC, UBA-9325)). Again, parallels to these dates from contexts which may be described as ritual or ceremonial are few. For example, oak and alder

The majority of comparable dates to this phase of the development of the Gransha Site 19 complex, however, are related to burial. These include a date of 3140±55 BP (1519-1270 cal BC, UB-2561) from pyre material associated with burial F172 from Altanagh, Co Tyrone (Williams 1986, 43, 78); at Pubble (Loughermore townland), Co Londonderry, the basal 50mm of peat within the ditch of a round barrow returned a date of

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3135±90 BP (1616-1130 cal BC, UB-193) (Smith et al 1971, 104-105; Lavell 1971, 4B.4).15 Excavations at Derrycraw, Co Down, part of the A1 dualling project, returned a date of 3130±70 BP (1604-1135 cal BC, Beta216910) from the upper fill of the central burial within ring ditch RD5 (Area 9) (Chapple et al 2009; Chapple 2008c). Also within Area 9, a token burial or possible cremation within cairn F118 returned a date of 3100±60 BP (1499-1212 cal BC, Beta-217348). Charcoal from the basal fill of a second cremation pit inserted into cairn F118 dated to 3050±70 BP (1489-1058 cal BC, Beta217344). Charred timber from ring ditch RD2 (Area 9) dated to 3090±70 BP (1500-1130 cal BC, Beta-213588). Material from the possible ring ditch at Cloncowan, Co Meath, returned a date of 3104±40 BP (1450-1267 cal BC, UB-4991) (Grogan 2007, 126, 321). Charcoal from a posthole in the base of a ring ditch at Magheramenagh, Portrush, Co Londonderry, dated to 3100±50 BP (14931220 cal BC, Beta-186553) (Gilmore et al 2000; S Gilmore pers. comm.; Chapple 2008c). At the cremation cemetery at Rathcannon, Co Limerick, charcoal from the fill of pit 5 dated to 3120±70 BP (1530-1133 cal BC, Beta-179184); while the fill of pit 29 returned a date of 3082±30 BP (1422-1269 cal BC, UB6125) (Grogan 2007, 304). One of the cremation burials within the flat cemetery at Killoran 10, Co Tipperary, returned a date of 3090±50 BP (1491-1214 cal BC, Beta117546) (Cross May et al 2005, 64); while a sample from pit 1 at the cremation cemetery at Croagh, Co Limerick, dated to 3054±41 BP (1423-1136 cal BC, UB6014) (Grogan 2007, 270). A boulder burial at Cooradarrigan, Co Cork, dated to 3080±35 BP (14241266 cal BC, GrN-1516) (Brindley 1995, 9). Charcoal from a hearth at the wedge tomb at Island, Co Cork, was originally dated to 3110±140 BP (1690-980 cal BC, D49) (Brindley & Lanting 1991-92, 20; McAulay & Watts 1961, 34; Case 1969, 22; Lavell 1971, 3K.1).16 This same material was later redated and returned a determination of 3050±35 BP (1413-1213 cal BC, GrN10631) (Brindley & Lanting 1991-92, 20; O'Kelly 1989, 350; Waddell 2000, 106). Charcoal from the socket of stone H of the same monument was dated to 3090±30 BP (1430-1273 cal BC, GrN-10632).

in the use of trackways. It is at this period that coarse domestic vessels were introduced into the burial record, replacing the cordoned urn by 1500-1400 cal BC. While cremated remains were frequently placed within such vessels, it became an emerging trend to include only a small portion of a vessel with the buried remains. A further feature of this tradition is the general decrease in the proportion of the skeletal remains collected and preserved within the burials, dated by Grogan (2004, 69) to the period from c 1300-1000 cal BC. Although burials containing a large percentage of the cremated individual still occur during the Middle Bronze Age (eg the remains from the Loughbrickland/A1 dualling excavations, discussed above), there is a marked tendency towards a reduction in the quantity of bone collected and selected for formal burial. Where bone is preserved, it is frequently so heavily processed or comminuted, through crushing or pounding, as to be unidentifiable. Such burials generally include skeletal remains in the order of less than 1% of the original skeleton, reduced to portions smaller than 5mm; along with what is generally interpreted as the remains of pyre material. Cooney and Grogan (1994, 137) note that the degree of comminution of the skeletal material may be paralleled in the deposition of individual sherds as opposed to complete vessels. They argue that portions of the cremated remains and other sherds may have been used and dispersed as part of an extended or multi-stage funerary ceremony. Such phased funerary activity could have placed much of the focus on the actions of cremation and funeral ritual as opposed to the deposition within a grave. It is also possible to see that this form of phased ceremonial activity could have occurred over a relatively lengthy period of time with cremated remains being curated by community members in the interim. If the charred grain from Site 19 is interpreted in terms of food offerings added to the pyre, the parallels with other burials of the period are marked. Grogan (2004, 67) also points to a number of formal barrows at Mitchelstowndown West, Co Limerick, and in the Lissard-Ballynamona complex which produced no evidence of any cremated bone and suggests that such funerary monuments commemorated the dead, in a cenotaphic manner, without the necessity of human remains for formal deposition. While the majority of burials of this period were unaccompanied cremations in unlined pits, a number are known from stone-lined pits, occasionally covered by small capstones, comparable to the atypical cists of Site 19. These include Baurnadomeeny, Co Tipperary (O’Kelly 1960), Monknewtown, Co Meath (Sweetman 1976), Lough Gur, Co Limerick (Cleary 1995), and Moylisha, Co Wicklow (Ó h-Iceadha 1946).

Parallels for Middle Bronze Age burial The foregoing has concentrated on the ritualistic and ceremonial aspects of the Gransha Site 19 evidence, relegating the possibility of funerary parallels to a secondary level of importance. However, this funerary aspect must now be examined. Cooney and Grogan (Cooney & Grogan 1994; Grogan 2004) argue that there is a strong element of continuity between the burials of the Early Bronze Age to the Late Bronze Age, through the Middle Bronze Age. Grogan (2004) notes that by the Middle Bronze Age there is an apparent downturn in climatic conditions, evidenced by an increase in votive deposition within wetland areas, coupled by an increase

The closest parallel for the Gransha Site 19 complex of features may be found at Duntryleague, Co Limerick, where an atypical ring barrow (F1), defined by a ‘gapped trench’ was apparently enclosed by a curvilinear ditch (F12) (Gowen 1988). The area between the gapped ring barrow and the external ditch contained a number of features, including a hearth (F3) and a number of pits,

15

Lavell (1971, 4B.4) cites the laboratory code as UB-193A. Brindley (1991-2, 20) gives the date as 3110±140 BP, while both McAulay & Watts (1961, 34) and Lavell (1971, 3K.1) give the source material as charcoal sampled from the bases of the orthostats. 16

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including one which produced a small quantity of unidentifiable, burnt bone (F11). A quantity of coarse, undecorated pottery was also recovered from the site. The excavator argued that while no evidence of formal burial was discovered within the area enclosed by the ring barrow, this may be because the entirety of the area was not available for excavation. Although only partially excavated, this arrangement of features does bear close comparison with the evidence from Site 19. Here the segmented inner circle may be compared with the atypical ring barrow at Duntryleague, both being, apparently, located off-centre within a larger enclosing element. Directly adjacent to Duntryleague Site 2 was Site 2a (Gowen 1988). Although partially destroyed during trenching operations, two lengths of concentric, curvilinear ditches (F72 & F73) appeared to enclose a single pit (F71). The innermost of the ditches (F72) and the pit both produced small quantities of unidentifiable, cremated bone. This ditch also produced two sherds of coarse ware pottery from two different vessels. Again, the central area described by the curvilinear ditches was unavailable for excavation, and no definitive statement as to the function of the site could be made. However, the proximity of Duntryleague Sites 2 and 2a suggests that both are elements within a larger complex. While slightly more tenuous, the arrangement of features at Site 2a, does bear a certain resemblance to the segmented inner enclosure at Gransha. At Raheen, Co Limerick, two sets of curvilinear ditches (F1/19 and F2 & F17) produced undecorated coarseware pottery and appeared to enclose a number of features (Gowen 1988). While the pottery indicated a date contemporary with the previously mentioned sites, the enclosed features were undated and could not be comprehensively linked to the ditches. Despite this Gowen (1988, 93-94) argues that the morphological similarities, and the near identical characteristics of the pottery, are such that they may be regarded as not only contemporary, but also as having shared similar purpose or range of functions. Also within the same grouping is Adamstown, Co Limerick, where a curvilinear length of ditch (F1) ‘enclosed’ a range of pits and related features (Gowen 1988). The three fills of the ditch all produced flecks of burnt bone. While some elements were identified as of animal origin, none could be positively identified as human. A number of the apparently enclosed features (F2 & F7) produced small fragments of burnt bone. One pit (F2) produced an unburnt human mandible and three sherds of undecorated coarse ware pottery, while pit F7 produced sherds of coarse ware pottery. At Shanaclogh, Co Limerick, an annular or ‘horseshoe-shaped’ ring ditch (F1) which enclosed a small group of cremation pits was investigated (Gowen 1988). Excavation of the ditch fill produced a small quantity of burnt bone and sherds of a single, possibly bowl-shaped, coarse ware vessel. The features enclosed by this ditch were five cremation pits (F11, F12, F13, F16 & F23) and a possible posthole (F15), all of which produced quantities of cremated human bone. While this site appears to owe more to the standard ring barrow morphology, it is included here based on its lack of circularity and its gapped opening. In

this way it seems to be related, not just to the series of Limerick sites above, but to the Gransha site too, where it may parallel the segmented circle enclosing the atypical cists. Cooney and Grogan (1994, 131) argue that the evidence from various sites in Munster suggests a distribution pattern for Middle Bronze Age burials occurring on poor soils, along the flood plains of rivers. Many occur in groups, on either sides of rivers, and this is argued as evidence of territoriality where the cemeteries lay on the peripheries of land units stretching up from the valley floor. While no comparable sites are known from the opposite bank of the Foyle, the position of the Gransha site – on a ridge overlooking a river – certainly conforms to the pattern outlined above. Cooney and Grogan (1994, 132) argue that this arrangement allows us to see the people who created and used these cemeteries having a localised sense of identity, expressed in both the use and location of these sites. With some exceptions, such as Raheen, Co Limerick, there is a general separation between domestic and funerary spaces. This is again paralleled at Gransha where, although a large area of the landscape was investigated, no evidence for contemporary settlement was discovered. Cooney and Grogan follow the arguments of Hodder (1982) in regarding the peripheral placement of cemeteries as a parallel to the peripheral or diminished importance of the ancestors within contemporary society. In this way, the focus of mortuary practice may have been on the ceremonial treatment of the cremation process and disposal of the remains, rather than on the cemeteries themselves. An alternative approach may be to view the placement of cemeteries on the edges of putative territorial units as demonstrating the vitality and power still commanded by the ancestral dead in protecting the community from external forces. It has been argued that the large posts at Gransha may have been visible for a considerable distance. In this way they may have been designed to be seen by other communities, either as a claim to the land, or as a statement that the Gransha group were actively protected by their dead. Phasing of the site construction and activity Based on the radiocarbon dates and the site stratigraphy a phasing of the site may be proposed. Unfortunately, owing to a lack of dateable materials, portions of the site, in particular the enclosing ditch (C1915), are not as well dated and defined as would be desirable. Phase 0, Bronze Age? Parallel linear gullies and postholes/bullaun constructed. Function unknown-possibly ritual/ceremonial. Phase Ia, c 1730-1536 cal BC, Middle Bronze Age Erection of the large north-eastern post (C1935) and, possibly, the post in pit C1990. Phase Ib, c 1613-1461 cal BC, Middle Bronze Age Setting out of segmented inner ditch, with palisaded fence, based on C19272 central stakehole. Position of

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site determined by desire for alignments (stellar, lunar, astronomical or landscape?) based on existing posts in pits C1935 and C1990.

C1915 ditch within Box Section T and was filled by firm, brown sandy silt (F19177), which contained frequent small and medium sized, angular and subangular stones.

Phase Ic, c 1442-1268 cal BC, Middle Bronze Age Token/cenotaphic burial in cists and pits within segmented circle. Laying out of north-eastern pit circle, overlying Phase 0 activity. Suggests that these features were no longer of importance/visible.

Features post-dating the C1915 ditch: discussion As neither pits C1918 nor C19176 produced any datable material, it is impossible to analyse their true relationship with the C1915 ditch and the rest of Site 19. At present, the opinion held by this author is that both pits are spatially and chronologically independent of each other and, most likely, date to many centuries after the cessation of activity associated with the C1915 ditch.

Phase Id, Middle Bronze Age Working lifetime of ritual site (Phase I), during which time (50-100 years?) timber structures and alignment posts decay.

Modern features: excavation Four features (C19104, C19158, C19161 & C19162) were excavated and, on investigation were revealed to be of unequivocally modern date. As with the features postdating the C1915 ditch (above), it was thought most convenient to describe the modern features separately.

Phase IIa, End of Middle Bronze Age (?) Digging of C1915 ditch to enclose segmented inner circle, north-eastern pit circle and C1935 post-pit behind palisaded fence. Possible removal of palisaded fence from segmented circle and backfilling with redeposited flint and pottery.

C19104 was a modern, square posthole with steeply sloping to vertical sides and a flat base (0.35m x 0.35m x 0.25m). This feature cut F19102, a fill of posthole C19101 (see above), and was filled by loose, grey silty sand (F19105) containing a moderate amount of medium sized, sub-angular stones. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of one body sherd of a nineteenth or twentieth century stoneware preserve jar (AE/02/76: 392).

Phase IIb, End of Middle Bronze Age (?) Working lifetime of ritual site (Phase II), during which time (50-100 years?) palisaded fence decays. Phase IIc, End of Middle Bronze Age (?) Removal of decaying posts from C1915 ditch and careful refilling of ditch with F1916 soil, F1909 shale stones and redeposition of pottery and flint artefacts, including deposition of natural, rounded stone at possible entrance way.

C19158 was a modern, square posthole with smooth, vertical sides and a flat base (0.29m x 0.27m x 0.24m). This feature cut the subsoil and was filled by compact, brown silty sand (F19159), which contained frequent fine and medium sized, angular stones.

Phase III, Iron Age Bronze Age ritual centre no longer visible on ground surface. Partially built over by industrial structure. Phase IV, nineteenth-twentieth centuries (see below) Post-built fence constructed across site and sheep carcass buried.

C19162 was a modern, square posthole with gently sloping, smooth sides and a flat base (0.40m x 0.40m x 0.20m) (Plate 45). This feature cut F19161, the fill of pit C19160 (see above) and was filled by loose, brownblack silty sand (F19163) containing moderate amounts of small and medium sized, angular stones along with occasional flecks of charcoal. Excavation of this feature allowed the recovery of one modern, metal staple (AE/02/76: 419). Wet sieving of material from this fill led to the recovery of two bipolar quartz cores (both AE/02/76: 749) that are thought to be residual.

Features post-dating the C1915 ditch: excavation Two features (C1918 & C19176) were found to postdate the C1915 ditch stratigraphically, and could not be directly ascribed to the broad functional life of the ditch. For this reason it was thought most convenient to describe them separately. C1918 was a circular pit with moderately to steeply sloping, concave sides and a concave base (diam.: 0.25m x 0.12m). This feature cut the F1916 fill of the C1915 ditch within Box Section E. C1918 was filled by loose, brown-black silty sand (F1919), which contained occasional fine, sub-angular pebbles; a moderate amount of medium sized, sub-rounded pebbles; a moderate amount of small, sub-rounded stones and a moderate amount of flecks of charcoal.

C19261 was an oval pit with moderately sloping, irregularly shaped sides and a concave base (0.80m x 0.51m x 0.30m). This feature cut the bedrock and was filled by loose, brown stony clay (F19262), which contained occasional coarse, angular pebbles and occasional medium sized and large, angular stones. Excavation of this fill allowed the recovery of two decorated body sherds of nineteenth or twentieth century sponge ware pottery (AE/02/76: 565-6) and an articulated animal skeleton. Some 194 pieces of bone (AE/02/76: 586) were recovered from this skeleton. Analysis by Denham (Appendix 5) indicates that the

C19176 was a sub-circular pit with gently sloping, concave sides and a tapered, round pointed base (1.43m x 1.10m x 0.28m). This feature cut the F1916 fill of the

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skeletal remains were those of a sheep buried relatively soon after death.

The animal skeleton (AE/02/76: 586) in pit C19261 is, on the basis of both the sponge ware pottery (AE/02/76: 565-6) and the condition of the surviving bones, also of nineteenth or twentieth century date. Although no degree of contemporaneity can be shown between the fence and the burial, it is of interest to note that had the fence continued, the burial would have been just inside its eastnorth-eastern face. However, the chain of events which led an individual to bury a sheep in this location cannot be ascertained.

Modern features: discussion The three modern postholes (C19104, C19158 & C19162) may be taken together to form a fence, running west-north-west to east-south-east across the central portion of Site 19. The metal staple (AE/02/76: 419) recovered from C19162 and the body sherd of a stoneware preserve jar (AE/02/76: 392), would both indicate a nineteenth or twentieth century date for the fence.

Figure 73: Interpretive plan of Site 19 modern postholes C19104, C19158 & C19162 (circled), showing line of projected fence (dashed) and sheep burial C19261 (shaded).

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bone. In this scenario, Site 19 may represent a ceremonial site without any reference to human burial. However, a small body of broadly contemporary sites have been excavated that show a similar treatment of the dead, where only a small volume of cremated bone was formally buried and accompanied by broken sherds of undecorated, coarse ware pottery. In this instance it is more likely that Site 19 represents the best preserved and most fully excavated example of a Middle Bronze Age enclosed flat cemetery yet discovered.

CONCLUSIONS Site 13 was an isolated, un-datable pit, which produced no artefactual evidence, and may have been of any date or function. Site 14 was also an isolated pit, thought the recovery of pieces of worked flint and a broken, pierced stone, a possible thatch weight, suggests a very broad date from the prehistoric period to, at least, the Early Christian period (c 400-1100 AD), if not later. However, O’Hare argues that the lithics indicate a general date in the Bronze Age (c 2350/2200-650 BC).

By the Iron Age (c 450 BC-400 AD) it appears that the earlier monument presented no surface profile and the area was built over by the pit, posthole and stakehole structure, which was involved in the working of iron.

Site 17 comprised a series of a series of six pits and 28 stakeholes. Two of the pits produced prehistoric pottery, though there is no evidence that all were contemporary. Although the sherd (vessel 17:02) recovered from pit C1735 was of undiagnostic type, the sherd from pit C1700 (vessel 17:01) was identified as either a vase food vessel or a bowl food vessel. Following Brindley (2007) a date range from c 2160 to c 1740 BC is likely. Although the 28 stakeholes did not produce any form of dating evidence, they are considered to be of broadly prehistoric date and may be rationalised to form, among other configurations, a two-roomed hut, supported on a central posthole. The recovery of two pieces of flint also argues for Neolithic activity in this vicinity. Site 18 comprised a series of seven pits and five stakeholes, though they neither formed a cohesive pattern, nor produced any datable materials. Two of these pits are interpreted as having experienced in situ burning. The recovery of three fragment of hazelnut shell, although suggestive of a date in the prehistoric period, is inconclusive. The focus of Site 19 was a ritual/ceremonial/funerary complex of Middle Bronze Age date (c 1700-1200 BC). The initial activity here centred on the erection of two large posts (C1935 & C1990). This was followed by the creation of the segmented inner ditch, which may have held a palisaded fence, approximately a century later. This segmented ditch was eventually used to enclose 14 atypical cists which contained few traces of unidentifiable bone, but produced large quantities of charred grain, barley in particular. Contemporary with this phase of activity was the creation of a small circular arrangement of five segmented pits in the northern portion of the site (C1920, C1922, C1933, C1939 & C19106). It is likely that the final phase of activity was the digging of the C1915 ditch, enclosing the entirety of the ritual monuments. Although this ditch is wholly annular, without any defined entrance feature, the shallow, ground down appearance of the ditch near Box Sections AH-AK, may be interpreted as the most likely point of entry into the enclosed area. It is also argued that, for the remainder of its length, the C1915 ditch held a palisaded fence, further visually enclosing the site. It is possible to see the chief emphasis of the activity here placed on the deposition of charred grain, with only a minor focus on the extremely limited volume of burnt

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX 1: RADIOCARBON DETERMINATIONS FROM GRANSHA Laboratory code UBA-9318 UBA-9319 UBA-9320 UBA-9321 UBA-9322 UBA-9323 UBA-9324 UBA-9325 UBA-9326

Cut 19197 19192 19214 1976 19186 1938 19212 1920 19108

Fill 19198 19193 19215 1979 19187 1937 19213 1921 19109

Years BP 3095±22 3059±21 3062±22 3082±22 3081±20 3350±21 3263±24 3124±20 2187±46

1σ calibration 1412-1320 cal BC 1385-1309 cal BC 1386-1312 cal BC 1407-1316 cal BC 1405-1317 cal BC 1681-1619 cal BC 1605-1498 cal BC 1428-1394 cal BC 358-192 cal BC

2σ calibration 1412-1320 cal BC 1398-1268 cal BC 14041269 cal BC 1416-1297 cal BC 1414-1302 cal BC 1730-1536 cal BC 1613-1461 cal BC 1442-1320 cal BC 385-113 cal BC

Table 6: Radiocarbon determinations from Gransha. Calibration performed using Calib 5.1 beta computer programme, using IntCal04 calibration curve (Stuiver & Reimer 1993; Reimer et al. 2004). Laboratory code UBA-9318 UBA-9319 UBA-9320 UBA-9321 UBA-9322 UBA-9323 UBA-9324 UBA-9325 UBA-9326

AMS δ 13C -26.9 -25.7 -26.0 -24.1 -23.4 -24.3 -25.0 -26.5 -26.2

% modern 68.0230±0.1940 68.3310±0.1860 68.3010±0.1880 68.1330±0.1930 68.1370±0.1750 65.8950±0.1740 66.6120±0.19990 67.7750±0.1740 76.1620±0.4380

Material Charred barley grains Charred barley grains Charred barley grains Charred barley grains Charred barley grains Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal

Pre-treatment Acid only Acid only Acid only Acid only Acid only AAA AAA AAA AAA

Table 6 (continued): Radiocarbon determinations from Gransha. Calibration performed using Calib 5.1 beta computer programme, using IntCal04 calibration curve (Stuiver & Reimer 1993; Reimer et al. 2004).

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0 -200 -400

UBA-9326

UBA-9325

UBA-9324

UBA-9323

UBA-9322

UBA-9321

UBA-9320

-800

UBA-9319

UBA-9318

years cal BC

-600

-1000 -1200 -1400 -1600 -1800

Figure 74: Simplified graph showing Oakgrove dates at 1σ and 2σ intercepts.

-1300 Beta-177431

Beta-216908

GrN-18492

GrN-10556

GrN-28199

GrN-9346

Beta-201051

UCD-0241

Beta-117553

GrN-24730

GrN-13981

OxA-12751

UB-4893

Beta-194435

UB-43

Beta-188379

UB-90

Beta-229405

UB-239

GrA-24014

GrA-average of 2 dates

GrN-14736

GrA-14291

GrN-15965

UBA-9323

Beta-208665

UB-207

Beta-201050

GrA-14613

GrA-26565

GrN-11449

GrA-19180

UB-2174

GrN-13878

GrN-14724

GrA-27618

GrN-13979 -1400

-1500

-1600

-1700

-1800

-1900

-2000

Figure 75: Simplified graph of radiocarbon dates comparable to 3350±21 BP (1730-1536 cal BC, UBA-9323) from the fill of the post-pipe within the C1935 post pit (C1938).

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Beta-218633 Beta-232777 GrN-16572 no lab ref I-4083 GrN-18493 GrN-21262 GrN-16633 GrN-15885 UB-6135 GrN-18377 OxA-12774 GrN-14185 OxA-3271 Beta-111370 OxA-3259 UCD-0239 UB-6018

UB-6225 Fra-65 Beta-210955 UB-837 no lab ref GrN-15488 UB-6048 Beta-111375 Beta-217344 OxA-4567 Beta-111377 GrN19471 GrN-11437 GrN-10631 GrN-14730 UB-6014 UBA-9319 GU-7032 UBA-9320 OxA-2451 GrN-13741 Beta-179178 GrN-19467 GrN-15716 UBA-9322 UB-6125 UBA-9321 UB-4188 UB-6167 GrN-19472 UB-6157 Beta-111368 Fra-60 Beta-179176 Beta-213588 UB-3996 Beta-117546 GrN-12915 GrN-10632 UBA-9318 Beta-217348 Beta-186553 GrN-12916 Beta-219468 Beta-211564 GrN-18381 UB-4991 GrN-18383 D-49 GrN-16567 GrN-11438 GrN-14729 UB-6138 Beta-179184 GrN-18384 GrN-12618 GrN-16638 UB-6162 UBA-9325 GrN-13688 BM-2336 Beta-216910 GrN-22675 Beta-218636 UB-4187 UB-193 UB-974 Beta-194433 UB-2561 GU-11492

115

GrN-13980 UBA-9324 GrN-16635 GrN-18751 GU-11490 UB-473 GrN-8281 GrN-9280 UB-6044 UB-6093 GrA-18020 GrN-16623 GrN-16571 GrN-16569 GrN-16564 GrA-14776 GrA-18025 GrA-14818 GrN-21259 GrN-15967 UB-6139 GrA-24831 -1100

-1200

-1300

-1400

-1500

-1600

-1700

-1800

-1900

Figure 76: Simplified graph of radiocarbon dates comparable to 3263±24 BP (1613-1461 cal BC, UBA-9324) from the fill of one portion of the segmented inner ditch (C19212). -2000

-900

-1000

-1100

-1200

-1300

-1400

-1500

-1600

-1700

Figure 77: Simplified graph of radiocarbon dates comparable to 3095±22 BP (1424-1312 cal BC, UBA-9318) (C19197); 3059±21 BP (1398-1268 cal BC, UBA-9319) (C19192); 3062±22 BP (1404-1269 cal BC, UBA-9320) (C19214); 3082±22 BP (1416-1297 cal BC, UBA-9321) (C1976); 3081±20 BP (1414-1302 cal BC, UBA-9322) (C19186) from fills of cists and 3124±20 BP (1442-1320 cal BC, UBA-9325) from northern pit circle (C1920).

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

impression set 3 mm below the surface of the rim and 5 mm apart. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with the exterior exhibiting a finer finish.

APPENDIX 2: REPORT ON THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGE FROM GRANSHA, SITE 1717 Catherine M Dunne Abstract An assemblage of two sherds of pottery, representing an Early Bronze Age vase food vessel and an undiagnostic coarse ware vessel was recovered during excavations at Gransha Site 17, Co Londonderry. The single decorated rim sherd of vase food vessel type indicates a focus of minimal activity during the Early Bronze Age.

Summary The decorated rim sherd (vessel 17:01) of vase food vessel type and an undiagnostic body sherd recovered from Site 17 provide very little information regarding the nature of the site. All that can be reliably stated is that the decorated rim sherd indicates activity in the Early to Middle Bronze Age with a date more likely in the earlier period (Ó Ríordáin & Waddell 1993).

Introduction The excavation of two archaeological features at Gransha Site 17, Co Londonderry, produced a very small quantity of pottery. Two sherds, representing two individual early Bronze Age vessels were recovered and analysed. In general, the two sherds were of fresh condition and weighed 13g with a further 3g of fragments also retrieved. A full description of each vessel is given in the appendix.

Parallels for the decorated rim sherd occur at the site of Woodside Road, Co Londonderry, (McConway 2006). At this site, a range of Early-Middle Bronze Age vessels were recovered consisting of well-fired decorated and undecorated vase food vessels, a decorated cordoned urn and a range of undecorated coarse wares (Dunne unpublished specialist report). Undecorated body sherds (rim sherds) also occur at Enagh Site 1 (McSparron 2000; 2003).

Methodology Each sherd was washed and assigned a unique find number (physically numbered) and bagged by context. The details were entered into a database catalogue, which recorded the physical characteristics of each sherd, ie form, weight (g), thickness (mm), colour and surface finish.

In conclusion, the decorated rim sherd recovered from pit C1700 provides slight evidence of Early Bronze Age activity at Site 17. However, its relative proximity to Site 19 may indicate that Site 17 was part of a greater Bronze Age landscape. Vessel descriptions Vessel 17.01: Bronze Age vessel (1 sherd) One rim sherd (AE/02/76: 83a) weighing 5g represents this vessel. The fabric is hard with infrequent basalt/dolerite grits (13mm). The rim is flat in form giving a vessel rim diameter of 220mm. The exterior of this vessel exhibits two horizontal circumferential lines of twisted cord impression set 3mm below the surface of the rim and 5mm apart. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with the exterior exhibiting a finer finish. Colour: light brown interior and exterior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 9.5mm.

The assemblage was examined macroscopically and sorted by context into groups based on surface texture and fabric inclusions. These groupings were further refined by microscopic analysis under x10 or higher binocular microscope and assigned to a given fabric or vessel grouping. Particular emphasis was placed on the recognition and reconstruction of individual vessels both within each context and cross context matches. The vessel reconstructions and sherd joins, where possible, enabled an analysis of size ranges and potential vessel function to be assessed. This allowed for a clearer picture of vessel construction, surface finish and decoration, which in turn would contribute to a better understanding of the overall chronology of pottery usage at this site.

Vessel 17.02: Bronze Age vessel (1 sherd) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 84) weighing 8g represents this vessel. The fabric is hard and densely tempered with angular basalt/dolerite grits (1-3mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are smoothed but appear weathered. Colour: homogenous light brown throughout. Thickness: 12.2mm.

The assemblage The recovery of the two sherds from two separate contexts at Site 17 only suggests that there was activity occurring in the Early-Middle Bronze Age. Only the rim sherd (vessel 17:01) is particularly diagnostic in that the style and form of decoration, the flat rim and the fabric indicates that it likely belongs to a vessel of the bowl food vessel/vase food vessel tradition. The style of decoration and limited profile does suggest affinities with vase food vessels (Ó Ríordáin & Waddell 1993). The rim is flat in form giving a vessel rim diameter of 220 mm. The exterior of this vessel exhibits two horizontal circumferential lines of twisted cord 17

Adapted from Dunne (2009a).

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(vessels 19:07 and 19:18) exhibiting slight modifications. The first modification took the form of a series of perforations below the surface of the rim (vessel 19:07) and the other in the form of cordons (vessel 19:18). A single sherd of a glazed post-Medieval vessel was also recovered from a topsoil context. Body sherds dominate the assemblage with comparatively small numbers of rim and base sherds (Table 7).

APPENDIX 3: REPORT ON THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGE FROM GRANSHA, SITE 1918 Catherine M Dunne Abstract An assemblage of coarse ware pottery numbering 416 individual sherds representing 61 vessels was recovered from a range of features forming an enclosed ceremonial site at Gransha. All of the pottery consisted of undecorated coarse wares of vase food vessel/cinerary urn form with the exception of a portion of an undecorated cordoned urn retrieved from a cist burial and a perforated vessel of cinerary urn type from the large enclosing ditch. Based on the range of vessels recovered, the date of the assemblage suggests use of the site during the Early Bronze Age and into the Middle Bronze Age. Introduction The excavation of a large complex of archaeological features, designated Gransha Site 19, east of the River Foyle in Co Londonderry (Chapple 2004b) produced a large assemblage of pottery. Four hundred and sixteen sherds, representing 61 individual vessels were recovered and analysed. Of these, 60 vessels are of Bronze Age date, with a single sherd representing a post-Medieval vessel. In general, the ceramic assemblage survived in a fresh but somewhat fragmentary state of preservation, with a total weight of 4608g and a further 169g of fragments being retrieved. A full description of each of the vessels is given at the end of this appendix.

Rim

Body

Base

Total

Bronze Age coarse ware (59 vessels)

40

353

6

399

Bronze Age cordoned urn (1 vessel)

4

12

0

16

Post Medieval (1 vessel)

0

1

0

1

Total

44

366

6

416

Table 7: Range of sherd forms from Site 19. The Bronze Age coarse ware vessels are flat-bottomed bucket and urn-shaped vessels and were recovered from a large range of contexts consisting of pits, postholes, cist features and ditches. For ease of reference, the vessels identified have all been placed within various context groupings identified from the stratigraphic report (Chapple 2004b) (Table 8). Ritual complex ditch segment Two of the inner ditch segments (C19212 & C19258) produced 46sherds of undecorated pottery. The fill of C19212 (F19213) produced five sherds representing two vessels (vessels 19:38 and 19:19). The fill of C19258 (F19259) produced 36 body sherds and five rim sherds. The rim sherds represent one vessel (vessel 19:36) with a rim diameter of 240-250mm, while the body sherds represent a further five vessels (vessels 19:32-35 and 19:37). In general, the vessels recovered from this area of the site are well made and fired. The fabrics are hard with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits. Vessel surface finishing was predominantly in the form of basic wet smoothing of both exterior and interior surfaces with the interior exhibiting a finer finish.

Methodology Each sherd was washed and assigned a unique find number (physically numbered) and bagged by context. The details were entered into a database catalogue, which recorded the physical characteristics of each sherd ie form, weight (g), thickness (mm), colour and surface finish. The assemblage was examined macroscopically and sorted by context into groups based on surface texture and fabric inclusions. These groupings were further refined by microscopic analysis under x10 or higher binocular microscope and assigned to a given fabric or vessel grouping. Particular emphasis was placed on the recognition and reconstruction of individual vessels both within each context and also cross context matches. The vessel reconstructions and sherd joins, where possible, enabled an analysis of size ranges and potential vessel function to be assessed. This allowed for a clearer picture of vessel construction, surface finish and decoration, which in turn would contribute to a better understanding of the overall chronology of pottery usage at this site.

Internal features The group of features designated as internal features, which comprised a series of cist features, produced 88 sherds representing 15 vessels. Pit C19201 produced 54 sherds representing three vessels (vessels 19:18-20). Vessel 19:18 is unusual among the whole assemblage as it is slightly modified (Figure 66). It exhibited three evenly set horizontal cordons located on the exterior surface just below the rim indicating affinities with the cordoned urn tradition. This vessel had a rim diameter of 220-240mm and a hard fabric with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits.

The assemblage The large assemblage of pottery recovered from the excavations at Site 19 comprised a range of coarse undecorated Bronze Age wares with only two vessels 18

Form

Adapted from Dunne (2009b).

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Vessel 19:27 from pit C1989 is represented by two sherds and has a diameter of 180-200mm. Vessel 19:28 from pit C19249 is represented by seven sherds and has a diameter of 260-280mm. The fabric of both vessels was again hard with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits. Vessel 19:31 from cist C19274 consisted of eight sherds and had a diameter of 200-220mm (Figure 67). The fabric of this vessel is also hard but contains moderate inclusions of a sedimentary rock, which is possibly a siltstone. No of

No of

Sherds

Vessels

Vessel Numbers

Ritual complex ditch segment

46

8

19:32-39

Internal Features

88

15

19:18-31, 19:53

Intermediate Features

58

13

19:40-52

Main Enclosure Ditch

199

17

19.01-17

External Features

15

4

19:54-57

Topsoil

10

4

19:58-61

Total

416

61

Type

Vessel 19:40, represented by two body sherds, differed slightly from the other vessels in this area in terms of fabric inclusions. The fabric was hard with basalt/dolerite inclusions and occasional inclusions of sedimentary rock - possibly siltstone. Charred residues were identified on the interior surface of vessel 19:47. Main enclosure ditch The main enclosure ditch feature produced the largest quantity of pottery from the whole excavation. In total, 199 sherds, representing 17 vessels (vessels 19:01-17) were recovered. Of these 13 vessels, represented by rim sherds, have rim diameters which range between 200260mm with the average being 240mm. The vessels defined by rim sherds predominantly have simple rounded rims with some flat examples. Overall, the fabrics of the vessels recovered from the ditch feature were hard with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits. One vessel (vessel 19:16) also had additional inclusions of mica. Charring residues were identified on the interior surfaces of three vessels from this area of the site (vessels 19:01-02, 19:05). One thick-walled vessel (vessel 19:07) which has the form of a large cinerary urn was rather unique at this site as it is slightly modified (Figure 53). The modification took the form of a series of circumferential manufactured perforations located between 10-17mm below the surface of the rim and spaced 16mm apart. These perforations are cylindrical in profile, were pierced from the exterior surface before firing, and have an average diameter of 5mm.

Table 8: Range of context groups producing pottery from Site 19.

External features The group of contexts designated external features produced 15 sherds representing four Bronze Age coarse ware vessels (vessels 19:54-57). The fabrics were well fired and hard with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits. Charred residues were noted on the interior surface of vessel 19:57.

An unusual vessel (19:53) represented by a single very thick sherd (AE/02/76: 516) was recovered from cist C19244. The fabric was hard and tempered with basalt/dolerite, quartz and schist grits with infrequent charcoal flecking. This sherd appears to represent two pieces of bonded/fired clay from the base of a large pot with the uppermost (interior) portion being more highly fired. The altered appearance of this piece is possibly the result of contact with very hot cremated material. During use, the interior lining of this vessel may have started to fracture and a large piece of clay was crudely placed in its base in an attempt to preserve its integrity.

Topsoil Four vessels were retrieved from areas of clean-up/topsoil contexts. Three of these vessels (19:58-60) were Bronze Age coarse wares and can be said to be derived from the range of underlying features. Vessel 19:60 had a rim diameter of 140-160mm. Basalt/dolerite grits occurred in all fabrics with vessel 19:58 having only inclusions of black doleritic mineral grits. This vessel also displayed evidence of charred residues on its interior surface.

The remainder of the pottery recovered from the internal features comprised body sherds representing 10 vessels. All had hard fabrics with basalt/dolerite grit inclusions. Charred residues were noted adhering to the interior surface of vessel 19:20.

The post-Medieval period is represented by a single vessel of black glazed ware (vessel 19:61) which was retrieved from a topsoil context.

Intermediate features Fifty eight sherds, representing 13 vessels (vessels 19:4052), were recovered from the intermediate features (between the segmented ditch and the main enclosure ditch). Vessel 19:46 had a rim diameter between 260280mm and vessel 19:41 had a smaller diameter of between 200-220mm. Again, the dominant fabric inclusions were basalt/dolerite grits.

Summary The relatively large assemblage of pottery recovered from Gransha Site 19 is one of a number of archaeological sites which have produced a range of undecorated vessels of the food vessel/cinerary urn tradition. The range of

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vessel forms previously recovered is predominantly found in the north and east of Ireland (Waddell 2000, 145). It is interesting to note that in the literature undecorated Bronze Age vessels comparable with those from Site 19 are classed as “Anomalous or unclassifiable pots” (Ó Ríordáin & Waddell 1993, 31). In recent years many sites, particularly in the northern part of this island have yielded just such undecorated vessels, which adds much weight to the premise that the distinctly decorated assemblages so diagnostic of the Early to Middle Bronze Age are only one component of the Bronze Age ceramic repertoire.

Ríordáin & Waddell 1993, 286, fig 628, 630) and a unprovenanced example (Ó Ríordáin & Waddell 1993, 289, fig 644). Also comparable are a small group of coarse undecorated vessels associated with ring ditches and burials at Tankardstown 2 (Gowen 1988). Outside Ireland, similar vessels have been noted in Sussex (Abercromby 1912, pl XXIX 13) and at Derby (Abercromby 1912, pl XXXII 67). The vessels at Site 19 all have a generally smooth profile (with the exception of the cordoned urn) and do not fall into the bipartite or tripartite vessel forms. The predominant vessel construction method was coil building noted particularly on two vessels (vessels 19:04 & 19:06) recovered from the main enclosure ditch. Construction using clay slabs was undoubtedly used on some of the larger sized vessels. Vessel surface finishing was predominantly in the form of basic wet smoothing with 34 vessels (56.7%) displaying smoothing on both exterior and interior surfaces; 17 vessels (28.3%) display a finer finish on the interior surface; and eight vessels (13.3%) with a finer finish on the exterior surface. Vessel 19:53 was the only vessel to display little or no evidence of surface finishing, however it is more likely that this is due to post depositional weathering. The fabrics were generally hard and well fired with the predominant temper being basalt/dolerite grits and mica plates. This indicates that much of the pottery recovered from Site 19 was probably not made on site but may have instead come from further east along the north coast, as the north east of Ulster, particularly the Antrim Plateau is geologically rich in these rock and mineral types.

The large assemblage of predominantly undecorated Bronze Age coarse wares has a number of parallels within the general vicinity of the site. Site 17, which was excavated to the north of Site 19, produced only two sherds of Bronze Age pottery. Oliver Davies encountered similar undecorated and decorated Bronze Age wares during his excavations close by at Rough Island in Lough Enagh in 1940 (Davies 1941). More recently, the excavations of a series of sites by McSparron, particularly Site 1 in Enagh townland, just east of Lough Enagh (McSparron 2000; 2003) produced a quantity of undecorated coarse ware sherds in association with a vessel with applied cordons from a series of pits and postholes. The fabrics of these vessels were hard and tempered with basic igneous inclusions most likely basalt/dolerite. The site of Woodside Road, Co Londonderry, (McConway 2006) produced a range of Early Bronze Age vessels. These consisted of well-fired decorated and undecorated vase food vessels, a decorated cordoned urn and undecorated coarse wares tempered with basalt/dolerite grits and occasionally small mica plates (Dunne unpublished specialist report).

The function of the recovered vessels from Gransha Site 19 would likely suggest a ceremonial function, particularly those associated with the cist features such as those found with a series of cists at Straid, Co Londonderry (Brannon et al 1990) within the confines of the segmented ditch. As this assemblage is essentially undecorated, a possible domestic context cannot be ruled out for the vessels from the other context groupings but only examination of the surviving charred residues and other associated finds will help to clarify this.

Other parallels for this undecorated assemblage of food vessel/cinerary urn forms occur at the site of Kilcroagh, Co Antrim (Williams et al 1991-92, 52) and the site of Timakeel, Co Armagh (Large 2006). At Kilcroagh, an undecorated cordoned urn and a portion of a plain urn were recovered from a single burial (burial 3) and Timakeel produced a range of undecorated food vessel/cinerary urn forms from the fill of a ring ditch. Another notable example of an undecorated vase urn was recovered from a secondary cist burial placed into the side of the court tomb at Dunloy, Co Antrim (Conway & Williams 1994, 14, Fig 8).

In conclusion, the ceramic assemblage recovered during the excavations of Site 19 although not defining a precise sequence of activity, does suggest that, based on the range of vessel forms and in particular the cordoned urn vessel (19:18, Figure 66), that occupation of the site occurred during the Early to Middle Bronze Age. However, what is of more importance is the occurrence of a range of undecorated wares on a site, which had as its primary function major elements of the ceremonial and funerary.

A parallel for the large perforated vessel (vessel 19:07, Figure 53) is a vessel from the site of Mullaghmore in Co Down (Mogey & Thompson 1956). Here a large vessel with similar perforations was recovered from a ring barrow in association with other coarse ware. Unfortunately, the dated sequence at this site is problematic with various interpretations ranging from the Early Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

Vessel Descriptions Vessel 19:01: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (22 sherds) (Figure 33) Two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 130 & 346) and twenty body sherds (AE/02/76: 105, 108, 131-4, 148-9, 156, 247, 263, 270, 285, 294, 310, 324, 333, 695 & 727) with a combined weight of 125g

Further undecorated examples have also been noted at Dungonnell, Co Antrim, and Ballon Hill, Co Carlow (Ó

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represent this vessel. The fabric is fine and well fired with infrequent basalt/dolerite grits (5-8mm). The rim is simple rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 200-220mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Charred residues are present on the interior surface of four sherds from this vessel. Colour: orange/brown exterior with a brown core and black interior. Thickness: 7.3-11.6mm.

697) represent this vessel with a combined total weight of 186g. The fabric is hard and densely tempered with basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). This thick walled vessel has an approximate base diameter of 200mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the exterior surface. One sherd (AE/02/76: 669) displays a fracture along a coil join. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a black core. Thickness: 10-12.9mm.

Vessel 19:02: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (33 sherds) (Figure 41) Three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 722-4) and thirty body sherds (AE/02/76: 150, 153, 155, 157, 161, 168, 248, 254, 258, 260, 262, 264, 269, 272, 286, 298, 302, 305, 316, 318, 327, 329, 334, 569-70, 639-40, 647, 726 & 728) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 216g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm) throughout. The rim is flat in form giving a vessel diameter of 240mm. There is a slight ridge 12mm thick located 14.5mm below the rim on the exterior surface. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Charred residues are present on the interior surface of five sherds from this vessel. Colour: orange/brown exterior with a dark brown core and interior. Thickness: 6-13.5mm.

Vessel 19:07: Perforated Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (7 sherds) (Figure 53) Three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 578-9 & 584) and four body sherds (AE/02/76: 580, 583 & 643-4) represent this vessel with a combined total weight of 332g. The fabric is hard and coarsely tempered with basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). The rim is simple rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 300mm. This thick walled vessel exhibits a series of circumferential manufactured holes located between 10-17mm below the surface of the rim and are spaced 16mm apart. These perforations are cylindrical in profile, were pierced from the exterior surface, and have an average diameter of 5mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 9.4-15.4mm.

Vessel 19:03: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (15 sherds) (Figure 42) One base sherd (AE/02/76: 693) and 14 body sherds (AE/02/76: 154, 165-7, 169-70, 256, 267-268, 326, 642 & 689) represent this vessel with a combined total weight of 176g. The fabric is hard and coarsely tempered with basalt/dolerite and infrequent quartz grits (2-5mm) and minute mica flecks. This thick walled vessel has an approximate base diameter of 180mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are smoothed but the exterior exhibits a finer finish. Colour: orange/brown exterior with a brown core and interior. Thickness: 9.5-12.7mm.

Vessel 19:08: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (5 sherds) One rim (AE/02/76: 311) and four body sherds (AE/02/76: 5812, 694 & 730) represent this vessel with a combined total weight of 90g. The fabric is hard and coarsely tempered with basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). The rim is simple rounded in form and tapers towards the upper surface giving a vessel diameter of 200mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 11-14.7mm. Vessel 19:09: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (16 sherds) One base sherd (AE/02/76: 637) and 14 body sherds (AE/02/76: 239, 287, 296, 304, 573, 627-9, 641, 653-5, 675, 681 & 684) represent this vessel with a combined total weight of 191g. The fabric is hard and coarsely tempered with basalt/dolerite grits (2-7mm). This thick walled vessel has an approximate base diameter of 220mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the exterior. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a buff core. Thickness: 7.8-18.5mm.

Vessel 19:04: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (18 sherds) (Figure 34) Two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 110-1) and sixteen body sherds (AE/02/76: 102, 171, 245-6, 257, 266, 281, 289, 293, 301, 306, 475, 630, 646, 686 & 696) represent this vessel with a combined total weight of 176g. The fabric is hard and coarsely tempered with basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm) also present are decayed dolerite inclusions (cream coloured) (1-4mm). The rim is rounded in form and gives a vessel diameter of 240mm. This thick walled vessel has an approximate base diameter of 180mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. One sherd (AE/02/76: 266) displays a fracture along a coil join. Colour: homogenous orange/brown throughout. Thickness: 9.517.3mm.

Vessel 19:10: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (18 sherds) (Figure 38) Four rim sherds (AE/02/76: 143, 145, 162 & 280) and fourteen body sherds (AE/02/76: 147, 251-2, 271, 290, 649, 651, 670, 672, 679, 690, 698, 729 & 731) represent this vessel with a combined total weight of 264g. The fabric is hard and coarsely tempered with basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). The rim is simple rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 240mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 9.9-14.5mm.

Vessel 19:05: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (21 sherds) (Figure 35) Two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 163 & 366), two base sherds (AE/02/76: 158 & 299) and seventeen body sherds (AE/02/76: 109, 152, 250, 265, 283, 291-2, 295, 308-9, 314, 320-1, 668, 671, 673 & 688) represent this vessel with a combined total weight of 315g. The fabric is hard and very coarsely tempered with basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). The rim is simple and ranges from rounded to flat in form giving a vessel diameter of 240mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are smoothed but the interior exhibits a finer finish. Charred residues are present on the interior surface of just one sherd from this vessel. Colour: homogenous orange/brown throughout. Thickness: 6.8-15.9mm.

Vessel 19:11: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (14 sherds) Nine body sherds (AE/02/76: 101, 249, 297, 315, 319, 345, 571, 648, 658, 674, 685, 687 & 691-2) represent this vessel with a combined total weight of 73g. The fabric is hard and coarsely tempered with basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). The interior surface is smoothed but the exterior remains rough with temper protruding through the surface. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 8.3-14mm.

Vessel 19:06: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (17 sherds) (Figure 39) One base sherd (AE/02/76: 666) and 16 body sherds (AE/02/76: 259, 261, 276, 288, 322, 328, 632, 634, 638, 650, 669, 682-3 &

Vessel 19:12: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (4 sherds) (Figure 43)

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Three rim sherds (AE/02/76: 244, 255 & 312) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 273) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 66g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-9mm) and minute flecks of mica throughout. The rim is flat in form giving a vessel diameter of 240mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: homogenous dark brown throughout. Thickness: 6-13.5mm.

Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 10.5-13.3mm. Vessel 19:19: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (15 sherds) Fifteen body sherds (AE/02/76: 431-2, 435-6, 440, 443, 445, 447-9, 462, 479-80, 482 & 484) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 110g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 9.7-13.7mm.

Vessel 19:13: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (3 sherds) (Figure 40) One rim sherd (AE/02/76: 680) and two body sherds (AE/02/76: 282 & 303) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 48g. The fabric is hard and densely tempered with basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). The rim is rounded in form and is rolled inwards giving a vessel diameter of 220mm. The exterior surface is very rough with the temper protruding through the surface but the interior surface is well smoothed. Colour: homogenous dark brown to black throughout. Thickness: 7.614.1mm.

Vessel 19:20: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (16 sherds) Sixteen body sherds (AE/02/76: 434, 437-9, 441-2, 446, 450, 452, 460-1, 473, 476-8 & 483) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 145g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the exterior. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 9-14.7mm.

Vessel 19:14: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (3 sherds) (Figure 45) Two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 146 & 665) and one body sherd (AE/02/76: 667) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 76g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (25mm). The rim is rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 240mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: homogenous orange/brown throughout. Thickness: 1213.6mm.

Vessel 19:21: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (4 sherds) Four body sherds (AE/02/76: 374-7) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 48g. The fabric is fine with moderate inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits (2-4mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: brown/orange exterior orange interior with a brown core. Thickness: 8.412.8mm. Vessel 19:22: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (10 sherds) Ten body sherds (AE/02/76: 353-5, 358-63 & 365) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 83g. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of basalt/dolerite and decayed dolerite (2-4mm) with infrequent black mineral grits. The interior surface is well smoothed and the exterior is quite rough. Colour: orange exterior with a dark brown core and interior. Thickness: 7.6-14.3mm.

Vessel 19:15: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One rim sherd (AE/02/76: 144) represents this vessel weighing 38g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (26mm). The rim is rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 260mm. There is a slight ridge located 22mm below the surface of the rim on the exterior surface. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with the exterior retaining a finer finish. Colour: homogenous orange/brown throughout. Thickness: 11.3-13.5mm.

Vessel 19:23: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 364) represents this vessel weighing 6g. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of decayed basalt/dolerite (2-4mm). The interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a brown core. Thickness: 13.1mm.

Vessel 19:16: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One rim sherd (AE/02/76: 279) represents this vessel weighing 39g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (26mm) with minute mica flecks throughout. The rim is rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 240mm. There is a slight ridge below the rim on the exterior surface but not as pronounced as vessel 19:15. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: homogenous orange/brown throughout. Thickness: 11.3-13.5mm.

Vessel 19:24: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 338) weighing 13g represents this vessel. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of basalt/dolerite and dolerite (2-5mm) with infrequent minute mica plates. Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 13.2mm.

Vessel 19:17: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) (Figure 37) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 221) represents this vessel weighing 54g. The fabric is hard with basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). The rim is rounded in form giving a vessel diameter 240mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange/brown exterior and core with an orange interior. Thickness: 15.3mm.

Vessel 19:25: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 511) represents this vessel weighing 4g. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of siltstone (25mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior with a dark brown interior and grey core. Thickness: 10.3mm.

Vessel 19:18: Bronze Age Cordoned vessel (16 sherds) (Figure 66) Four rims (AE/02/76: 465-7 & 472) and twelve body sherds (AE/02/76: 444, 451, 459, 463-4, 468a-b, 469-70, 474 & 481) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 199g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). The rim is rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 220-240mm. There are three evenly set cordons on the exterior surface below the rim. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed.

Vessel 19:26: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 509) represents this vessel weighing 12g. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of basalt/dolerite (2-6mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 11.6mm. Vessel 19:27: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (2 sherds)

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One body sherd (AE/02/76: 336) and one rim sherd (AE/02/76: 337) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 41g. The fabric is dense with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite (210mm). The rim is simple rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 180-200mm. Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior with a dark brown core and interior. Thickness: 12.2-14.7mm.

exterior, orange/brown interior with a brown core. Thickness: 713.1mm. Vessel 19:35: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (2 sherds) Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 601 & 621) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 61g. The fabric is coarse with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite (2-8mm). The exterior surface is coarse with a well-smoothed interior. Colour: orange exterior brown/black interior and core. Thickness: 10.411.7mm.

Vessel 19:28: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (7 sherds) One rim sherd (AE/02/76: 505) and six body sherds (AE/02/76: 496, 500-2, 504 & 506) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 130g. The fabric is dense with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite (2-6mm). The rim is flat to round in form giving a vessel diameter of 260-280mm. Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the interior. Colour: orange exterior with a brown interior and dark brown core. Thickness: 7.7-15.4mm.

Vessel 19:36: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (5 sherds) Five rim sherds (AE/02/76: 552-3, 587-8 & 595) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 39g. The fabric is dense with inclusions of basalt/dolerite and siltstone (2-6mm). The rim is rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 240-250mm. Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the interior. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 8.5-11mm.

Vessel 19:29: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (2 sherds) Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 499 & 503) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 11g. The fabric is dense and sandy with moderate inclusions of decayed basalt/dolerite (2-4mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior with a brown/orange interior and brown core. Thickness: 12.2-12.4mm.

Vessel 19:37: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (8 sherds) Eight body sherds (AE/02/76: 593 & 607-13) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 46g. The fabric is dense with inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits, much of which are decayed (2-4mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange/brown exterior with a dark brown interior and core. Thickness: 9.4-10.4mm.

Vessel 19:30: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (3 sherds) Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 495 & 497-8) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 15g. The fabric is coarse with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite (2-4mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the interior. Colour: orange exterior with a brown/orange interior and dark brown core. Thickness: 9.3-10.2mm.

Vessel 19:38: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (3 sherds) Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 714-5 & 719) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 17g. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits (2-4mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange/brown exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 10-11.7mm.

Vessel 19:31: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (8 sherds) (Figure 67) Two rim sherds (AE/02/76: 709-10) and six body sherds (AE/02/76: 700, 702, 705 & 711-3) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 37g. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of siltstone (2-6mm). The rim is flat in form giving a vessel diameter of 200-220mm. Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the exterior. Colour: mottled orange/black throughout. Thickness: 12.212.4mm.

Vessel 19:39: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (2 sherds) Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 716-7) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 8g. The fabric is coarse with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite and siltstone grits (2-4mm). Coarse exterior surface with a well smoothed interior surface. Colour: orange exterior and interior with a grey core. Thickness: 7.710.4mm. Vessel 19:40: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (2 sherds) Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 136-7) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 19g. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of basalt/dolerite and siltstone grits (2-4mm). Coarse exterior surface with a well smoothed interior surface. Colour: orange exterior and interior with an orange/brown core. Thickness: 11-11.1mm.

Vessel 19:32: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (9 sherds) Nine body sherds (AE/02/76: 529-30, 532, 534-5, 555 & 557-9) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 87g. The fabric is dense with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite (2-6mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 7.8-10mm.

Vessel 19:41: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (4 sherds) One base sherd (AE/02/76: 140) and three body sherds (AE/02/76: 135 & 138-9) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 24g. The fabric is coarse with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits (2-4mm). The base of this vessel has an approximate diameter of 200-220mm. Generally smooth exterior and interior surfaces. Colour: orange exterior with a dark brown interior and core. Thickness: 7.7-17.7mm.

Vessel 19:33: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (7 sherds) Seven body sherds (AE/02/76: 531, 548-51 & 590-1) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 35g. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of basalt/dolerite (2-4mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the interior. Colour: orange exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 7.8-10.5mm. Vessel 19:34: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (10 sherds) Ten body sherds (AE/02/76: 523-5, 547, 554, 556, 589, 594 & 599-600) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 125g. The fabric is dense with moderate inclusions of siltstone and basalt/dolerite (2-6mm). Both interior and exterior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the interior. Colour: orange

Vessel 19:42: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (9 sherds) Nine body sherds (AE/02/76: 211-9) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 73g. The fabric is coarse with frequent inclusions of basalt/dolerite grits (2-8mm). The exterior surface is well smoothed and the interior varies between coarse and smooth. Colour: orange/brown exterior with an orange interior and a dark brown core. Thickness: 9-12.6mm.

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exterior with a dark brown interior and core. Thickness: 11.2mm.

Vessel 19:43: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (3 sherds) Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 339-41) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 40g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 11.5-11.7mm.

Vessel 19:52: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 510) weighing 4g represents this vessel. The fabric is hard with moderate basalt/dolerite grits (23mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior with a dark brown interior and core. Thickness: 9.8mm.

Vessel 19:44: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (4 sherds) Four body sherds (AE/02/76: 203-6) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 29g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior, brown interior and core. Thickness: 8-12.3mm.

Vessel 19:53: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 516) weighing 85g represents this vessel. The fabric is dense mixed fabric with frequent basalt/dolerite, quartz and schist grits (2-9mm) with infrequent charcoal flecking. This material appears to represent two pieces of bonded fired clay from the base of a large pot with the uppermost red/brown portion being more highly fired possibly being due to contact with hot cremated material. All surfaces are rough and uneven. Colour: homogenous orange/ brown throughout. Thickness: 34.1mm.

Vessel 19:45: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (6 sherds) Six body sherds (AE/02/76: 118 & 231-5) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 99g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). The exterior is coarse and the interior is well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior and interior with a dark brown core. Thickness: 10.7-15.2mm.

Vessel 19:54: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (6 sherds) Six body sherds (AE/02/76: 367-72) represent this vessel weighing 18g. The fabric is hard with moderate basalt/dolerite grits (2-4mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the interior. Colour: orange/brown exterior with a dark brown interior and core. Thickness: 6.5-11mm.

Vessel 19:46: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (10 sherds) (Figure 54) Four rim sherds (AE/02/76: 173-5 & 179) and six body sherds (AE/02/76: 176-8 & 180-3) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 187g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-6mm). The rim is rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 260-280mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: mottled orange/brown exterior and interior with a light core. Thickness: 8.5-14mm.

Vessel 19:55: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) (Figure 24) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 335) represents this vessel weighing 5g. The fabric is hard with moderate decayed basalt/dolerite grits (2-3mm). The exterior surface is coarsely textured and the interior is well smoothed. Colour: homogenous brown throughout. Thickness: 7.4mm.

Vessel 19:47: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (6 sherds) Six body sherds (AE/02/76: 347-52) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 24g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior with a dark brown core and black interior. Thickness: 8.0-11.5mm.

Vessel 19:56: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 124) weighing 7g represents this vessel. The fabric is hard with moderate basalt/dolerite grits (24mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange/brown exterior with a black interior and core. Thickness: 9mm.

Vessel 19:48: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (3 sherds) Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 512-4) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 59g. The fabric is dense with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-4mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the interior. The base diameter is 180mm. Colour: orange exterior with red/orange interior and a brown core. Thickness: 9.7-15.7mm.

Vessel 19:57: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (7 sherds) Seven body sherds (AE/02/76: 96-9 & 121-3) weighing 11g represent this vessel. The fabric is hard with moderate basalt/dolerite grits (2-3mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Charred residues were noted on the interior surface of one sherd from this vessel. Colour: orange exterior with a black interior and core. Thickness: 8.5-17mm.

Vessel 19:49: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (5 sherds) Five body sherds (AE/02/76: 195-9) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 39g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-5mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the interior. Colour: orange exterior with an orange/brown interior and brown core. Thickness: 7.4-11.3mm.

Vessel 19:58: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (6 sherds) Six body sherds (AE/02/76: 380, 383-4, 386, 424 & 491) weighing 33g represent this vessel. The fabric is hard with frequent doleritic grits and black minerals (2-3mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior with a brown interior and core. Thickness: 6.8-11.2mm.

Vessel 19:50: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (3 sherds) Three body sherds (AE/02/76: 228-30) represent this vessel with a combined weight of 22g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-6mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the exterior surface. Colour: orange exterior with a brown interior and core. Thickness: 6.7-12.2mm.

Vessel 19:59: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (2 sherds) Two body sherds (AE/02/76: 381-2) represent this vessel weighing 29g. The fabric is hard with frequent basalt/dolerite grits (2-3mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior with a red/orange interior and grey core. Thickness: 6.8-11.2mm.

Vessel 19:51: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One body sherd (AE/02/76: 343) represents this vessel weighing 7g. The fabric is hard with moderate basalt/dolerite grits (24mm). Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed with a finer finish on the interior surface. Colour: orange

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Vessel 19:60: Bronze Age coarse ware vessel (1 sherd) One rim sherd (AE/02/76: 387) represents this vessel weighing 6g. The fabric is hard well fired with frequent decayed basalt/dolerite grits (2-4mm). The rim is rounded in form giving a vessel diameter of 140-160mm. Both exterior and interior surfaces are well smoothed. Colour: orange exterior with a brown interior and core. Thickness: 10.6mm. Vessel 19:61: Modern vessel (1 sherd) One orange-red body sherd (AE/02/76: 382) represents this vessel weighing 4g. The fabric is dense and devoid of any inclusions. One intact surface retains black glaze. Thickness: 15.5mm.

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APPENDIX 4: REPORT ON THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGE FROM GRANSHA, SITE 19: ADDENDUM

Intermediate Features Four pieces of pottery were recovered from soil samples taken from intermediate features. One body sherd was retrieved from F1921 (the fill of pit C1920) while one body sherd and a crumb were recovered from F19103 (the fill of posthole C19101). Pottery was recovered from F19102 of this feature and designated vessel 19:51 in the original analysis. A few small pottery crumbs were also recovered from F19218, the fill of a second cist (C19217).

Catherine M Dunne Introduction A small quantity of ceramic material was recovered from Gransha Site 19 during the processing of soil samples taken during the excavation (Table 9). As this pottery was not included in the original analysis, it is presented here as an addendum.

Main Enclosure Ditch A single sherd of pottery was recovered from F1916 the main enclosure ditch (C1915). In the original analysis, 16 vessels (vessels 19:1-16) were identified from this context and this body sherd compares well with many of them in terms of fabric and colour.

Fifty-four pieces of pottery (264g) were recovered from the soil samples taken from fifteen contexts from thirteen individual features from four areas of the site. Of these features, only two (C19186 & C19269) had not produced pottery during the excavation. Context of the assemblage The ceramic material recovered during the flotation of soil samples is described here by the feature areas outlined in the main ceramic report.

Summary This small range of additional ceramic material recovered from soil samples taken during the excavation of Gransha Site 19 is comparable with the Bronze Age pottery forming the bulk of the main assemblage. This material is identical in terms of fabric, form and surface finish and many of the sherds, fragments and crumbs from the soil samples belong to these original vessels.

Ritual complex ditch segment Five crumbs were retrieved from F19259 (the fill of a ditch segment C19258) in the ritual complex.

The ceramic material recovered from the internal features C19186 and C19269 represent the only material derived from soil samples that produced no pottery in the original analysis. Both small quantities of pottery represent undecorated Bronze Age coarse wares and are similar in form and date to the other identified vessels recovered.

Internal Features Forty-seven pieces of pottery were recovered from soil samples taken from the internal features. Of these features, three were cist burials, one of which (F19275 the fill of C19274) produced the highest incidence of ceramic material comprising two rim sherds, 20 body sherds, fragments and crumbs. F19276, another fill of C19274, produced one rim, two body sherds, fragments and crumbs. The ceramic material recovered from both fills from this cist are identical in terms of fabric, form and colour to vessel 19:31 recovered from the same feature and may form part of the same vessel.

What this small assemblage does highlight is the importance of soil sampling, not only in providing additional artefactual material but also in providing evidence of the presence of ceramic material in hitherto aceramic deposits particularly if the ceramic material is friable and not visible on site.

F19187, the fill of cist C19186 produced five body sherds, a fragment and a crumb. The vessel fabric was coarse in nature with angular basalt/dolerite grits and flat slate fragments throughout. Three sherds from this vessel were found to join (AE/02/76: 765, 765.1 & 765.4) and provide a part reconstruction of the mid wall giving an approximate diameter of 80mm. A single body sherd was recovered from F19270 the fill of C19269. Very small quantities of material were also recovered from the remaining features consisting of a single crumb of pottery recovered from F1975 (the fill of a depression C1974) and one fragment recovered from F1987 (the fill of a linear pit C1986). A single crumb was recovered from F1995 (the fill of an oval pit C1989) and also from this feature, a small basal fragment was found in F1992. Single crumbs of pottery were each recovered from F19202 (the fill of a pit C19201) and F19250 (the fill of a pit C19249).

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Cut

Context

Context Type

SFN:

No of Sherds

Possible vessel matches

1920

1921

Pit

758

1 body sherd

Vessel 19:46

19274

19275

Cist

759 – 761.2, 780-781

2 rim, 20 body sherds, 2 fragments and 2 crumbs

Vessel 19:31

1915

1916

Ditch

763

1 body sherd

Vessel 19:1-16

19201

19202

Pit

764

1 crumb

Vessel 19:18-20

19186

19187

Cist

765-765.5

5 body sherds, 1 fragment

19186

19187

Cist

766

Crumbs

19274

19276

Cist

767

1 rim sherd

Vessel 19:31

19274

19276

Cist

768-769

3 body, 1 fragment and crumbs

Vessel 19:31

19269

19270

Cist

770

1 body sherd

1989

1995

Oval pit

771

1 crumb

Vessel 19:27

1974

1975

Depression

772

1 crumb

Vessel 19:22

1986

1987

Linear pit

773

1 fragment

Vessel 19:21

19249

19250

Pit

774

1 crumb

Vessel 19:28-30

19101

19103

Posthole

775

1 body sherd

Vessel 19:51

19101

19103

Posthole

776

1 crumb

Vessel 19:51

19258

19259

Ditch segment

777

2 crumbs

Vessel 19:32-37

19258

19259

Ditch segment

778

3 crumbs

Vessel 19:32-37

19217

19218

Cist

779

3 crumbs

Vessel 19:52

1989

1992

Oval pit

782

1 base fragment

Vessel 19:27

Table 9: Ceramic material recovered from Gransha Site 19 during soil flotation.

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represents a modern, improved breed. The one exception seen in these results are those shoulder heights calculated from tibiae. These are much larger than the main distribution and it is most likely that the error is in the conversion factor itself rather than the measurement of the element.

APPENDIX 5: THE ANIMAL BONE FROM GRANSHA, SITE 1919 Sean Denham The animal bone from this site consisted of a single articulated skeleton, uncovered in the fill (F19262) of a pit (C19261) just below the topsoil. The excavator has suggested that this cut and its fill date to the modern period. Although the preliminary excavation report tentatively identifies the animal as dog, it is in fact a sheep (Chapple 2004b). A majority of the skeleton is present and preserved to a high standard, although it seems to have suffered slightly from exposure to a wet environment. The skeleton is more or less complete; although some of the small, less dense elements have either not survived or were not recovered. All long bones, complete left and right mandibles, the skull, as well as a majority of the vertebral column and rib cage, were present. While all first and second phalanges were recovered, only five of the eight third phalanges were present. This element, however, is small and particularly prone to destruction.

Overall, there is little to say about this individual. As mentioned above, the age-slaughter pattern indicates that it was being raised for wool exploitation. The completeness of the skeleton suggests that the body was buried soon after death. Had the carcass been left exposed, one would expect a certain amount of scavenging and thus a less complete skeleton. This, as well as the lack of butchery evidence, also indicates that the individual was not consumed. These points, taken together, suggest that the individual died from a disease of some sort, the body being buried for hygienic purposes.

As would be expected, both left and right mandibles show the same level of tooth eruption/wear. These were assigned to Higham wear stage 16 (Higham 1967) indicating an age-at-death of somewhere over thirty months. All long bones were fused, although the visibility of the line of fusion on older fusing epiphyses, particularly proximal tibia and distal femur, indicates that individuals were at or slightly older than fusion age. This suggests that the individual was just over thirty-six to forty-two months old at death (Silver 1969). The completely fused pelvis, which itself fuses around fortytwo months of age, supports this. Most vertebral epiphyses were unfused. While it is not clear at what age this fusion occurs in sheep, Silver (1969) states that in cattle fusion occurs at sixty months. As all other sheep elements fuse at a slightly earlier age than those of cattle, it may be suggested that this individual was around fortyeight months of age. This undoubtedly represents an individual raised for wool and possibly breeding (although there is no sexing information available to verify this latter suggestion).

Teichert multiplica tion factor

Estimated shoulder height (cm)

Femur

178

3.53

62.8

Femur

178

3.53

62.8

Humerus

147

4.28

62.9

Metacarpal

127

4.89

62.1

Metacarpal

124

4.89

60.6

Metatarsal

137

4.54

62.2

Metatarsal

135

4.54

61.3

Radius

154

4.02

61.9

Radius

153

4.02

61.5

Tibia

228

3.01

68.6

Tibia

228

3.01

68.6

Table 10: Comparison of methods for estimating shoulder heights from various elements, based on Teichert (von den Driesch & Boessneck 1974).

The fact that all long bones are present and fused, as well as the fact that they all come from the same individual, provide a unique opportunity to test the precision of equations for the estimation of shoulder height based on the greatest length measurements of various elements. The conversion factors suggested by Teichert (von den Driesch & Boessneck 1974), based on adult sheep from Germany, were used. Table 10 displays the results. The estimated shoulder heights returned by the various conversion factors are remarkably consistent, ranging between 60.6cm and 62.8cm. This is slightly larger than the main distribution of shoulder heights from Medieval Irish sheep, which cluster around 52-58cm (Denham forthcoming), reinforcing the fact that the individual 19

Element

GL (mm)

Adapted from Denham (2009).

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APPENDIX 6: ANALYSIS OF THE LITHIC COLLECTION, GRANSHA SITES 14, 17 AND 192020

The lithic collection from Gransha Introduction A total of 164 lithic pieces were recovered as part of a series of archaeological excavations under licence number AE/02/76 at Gransha, Co Londonderry. The total quantity of lithic material recovered from the excavations was considerably increased at post-excavation stage via sieving; extending the original recorded lithic material recovered by 28%. The entire lithic collection derived from the 2002 and 2003 excavations has been recorded and analysed by the present writer. The raw data was statistically analysed employing SPSS for Windows version 13 and the main patterns and results of this analysis are discussed, followed by a fairly extensive comparanda for the main Bronze Age features from Gransha.

Maria B O'Hare Statement of significance The archaeological lithic collection from Gransha, Co Londonderry, consisted of 164, predominantly flint, pieces. These were recovered as part of excavations from several sites under Licence No AE/02/76. The vast majority of lithic material was derived from multiple features at Site 19, which have been interpreted collectively as a ritual/funerary complex belonging to the Middle Bronze Age (Chapple 2004b). This present analysis of the lithic artefacts and nature of their deposition within these features strongly concurs with this assessment. Only two flint blades could be tenuously associated with burnt mound activity (typically of the Bronze Age period) within Site 10. There is also an indication of further Bronze Age activity associated with a very small quantity of lithic material characteristic of this period from Site 14 at Gransha.

The first excavations took place in 2002 and revealed lithic material near Site 5, between Sites 6/7, Site 7 and Sites 9-12 (Table 11). A small quantity of fairly nondiagnostic lithic material dating to the prehistoric period was derived from near Site 5 and between Sites 6/7. Two Later Mesolithic type-fossils were recovered from Site 7. Site 10 accounts for 2.4% of the total of 164 lithic pieces from Gransha, although only two flint blades could be tentatively related to the main features from this site – a level/layer broadly corresponding to burnt mound activity which typically dates to the Bronze Age as indicated by the excavator (Chapple 2008a; 2009a).

In addition to the main Bronze Age activity at Gransha, earlier phases of prehistoric activity are indicated as seen in the general thrust of lithic technology from Sites 11 and 12 associated with a number of pit features, possibly of a non-secular nature. The main activity at Sites 11 and 12 have been interpreted as belonging to the Early to Middle Neolithic (Chapple 2008a; 2009a); which is again strongly supported by the nature of the lithic material from these sites. The nature of this lithic technology is quite distinct from the main thrust of lithic technology at Site 19 and has allowed for a meaningful comparison between these two lithic industries. There is an indication of further earlier Neolithic activity as seen in the small but characteristic lithic collection of this period from Site 17. In addition to the Neolithic and Bronze Age lithic traditions, earlier traditions are indicated as seen in the two Later Mesolithic Bann-type butt trimmed flakes found within Site 7.

Most of the lithic material recovered during the 2002 excavations was derived from Sites 11 and 12. The total lithic material from these sites accounts for almost 11% of the entire collection from Gransha, where the vast majority of these were derived from Site 11 (c 8%). Both sites appear to belong to the earlier part of the Neolithic. For instance, pit C501 was associated with the vast majority of lithics from Site 11 and Chapple (2009a) comments upon the similarities of the presence of flint, carbonised hazelnut shell and pottery and their deposition within a number of pits from Balgatheran 1, Co Louth (Chapple 2001). At this latter site, the pottery was identified as Early to Middle Neolithic by A Brindley and the actual pottery from the Gransha pits from Site 12 (which have paralleled with those from Site 11), have been dated by C M Dunne to the Neolithic period. The lithic technology from these sites is entirely in keeping with these assessments.

The analysis of the Gransha lithic collection has been fairly productive as indicating multi-period activity of distinctive prehistoric lithic traditions from the Later Mesolithic through to the Later Bronze Age period, c 5500-800 BC. The main Middle to Later Bronze Age activity at Gransha is perhaps the most significant aspect of the lithic collection, as it appears to confirm, and add to the continuing corpus of contemporaneous Middle to Later Bronze Age non-secular lithic-rich sites rapidly emerging from across the island of Ireland (O’Hare 2005).

As a result of the 2003 excavations of Sites 14, 17, 19 and 20, the quantity of lithic material from Gransha greatly increased, with almost 80% of the total Gransha collection being recovered from Site 19 (Table 11). Site 14 revealed a few lithic pieces within a pit feature which may be tentatively assigned to Bronze Age. This is based upon two flint items and two interesting coarse stone objects that would appear to belong to a Bronze Age type industry. At Site 17 although there was evidence of prehistoric activity possibly relating to the Neolithic

20

Adapted from O’Hare (2009). This report details finds from two different series of excavations (ie Sites 1-12 (Chapple 2008a) & 13-20) at the Gransha development site, though only the latter are dealt with in this volume. For the sake of completeness, the portions of the report comparing and contrasting the material from Sites 1-20 is presented in full, though the sections dealing exclusively with material from Sites 112 have been omitted and are published elsewhere (Chapple 2008a).

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period, unfortunately the lithic material was quite sparse and it was essentially unstratified. This included two flint artefacts – a well-made tanged blade and an equally well executed end-type scraper; both pieces were made of good quality flint and are tentatively assigned to the Neolithic period based entirely upon the characteristic lithic technology of this period.

Season of excavation

Site

2002

Nr Site 5, Between Sites 6/7 + Site 9

No of lithics

%

It should be pointed out there was a small quantity of lithics found in direct association with a significant quantity of metal (possibly iron) slag in some instances within Site 19. However, the excavator has interpreted the slag in these contexts, due to number of postdepositional processes, as possibly intrusive (Chapple 2009b). It would seem likely that this is the case, as the lithic material was not unlike the characteristically Bronze Age lithic material generally derived from within less contaminated contexts within Site 19.

Period indicated by lithics and/or pottery, etc

Nature of the collection

3

1.8%

Sites = No archaeological significance General prehistoric lithic pieces

2002

7

2

1.2%

Later Mesolithic (no archaeologically significant features)

2002

10

4

2.4%

†Early/mid Bronze Age (burnt mound)

2002

11+12

18

10.9%

†Early/mid Neolithic (pits etc)

2003

14

4

2.4%

Possible BA

2003

17

2

1.2%

Possible Neolithic

2003

19

130

79%

†Mainly phases Ia –IIa/mid to LBA

2003

20

2

1.2%

†Phase IV Modern

164

100%

Total lithics

Raw material and sources From the total of 164 lithic pieces, the vast majority is of flint (134 pieces) accounting for just over 80% of the total. There were 24 pieces of quartz (16.5%), a small quantity of coarse stone pieces (6) (3.6%) and a single piece of chert and one miscellaneous piece. The Gransha site is situated a short distance from and in view of both Lough Foyle and Lough Enagh and this location would seem ideal, particularly in prehistoric times, for the sourcing of flint and quartz material, although much of the lithic material appears to be derived from within the general glacial till of the Gransha site. However, several of the well executed flint pieces indicate fresher, translucent, honey-coloured type material indicative of perhaps coastal sources further afield. Interestingly, this fresher type flint material was found, in the main, beyond the complex of Bronze Age features from within Site 19. And conversely, the more localised flint material is predominant within the datable Site 19 features. Perhaps this is suggestive of the well-established trait of employing highly localised lithic material within the Bronze Age period compared to the specific sourcing of lithic material, sometimes much farther afield, within the earlier prehistoric industries (O’Hare 2005). The Gransha lithic collection showed that out of 134 flint pieces, half of the flint collection has no cortex; 48 pieces (36.5%) has cortex coverage of 50%; combined, the flint pieces from Gransha showing some degree of cortex accounts for half the flint assemblage. The degree of cortex coverage on the flint is a useful diagnostic to infer knapping sequences typically relating to platform technology. However, as much of the collection from Gransha relates to the Bronze Age period and the knapping strategy is significantly more ad hoc and quite a distinctive non-platform technology compared to the earlier prehistoric period (which will be outlined presently), the identification of the degree of cortex coverage has been used instead to assess the type of flint employed within the collection. For instance, nodular type flint has very chalky thick coverage where the cortex coverage curvature is typically flatter, indicative of large nodular type flint; whereas, pebble type flint has typically a cortex that is much less chalky and thinner and the curvature on the piece is much greater indicating smaller

Table 11: Lithic quantities from Gransha, Sites 5, 6/7, 7, 9-12 (2002 excavation), 14, 17 and 19-20 (2003 excavation). Phases and periods based upon lithic types established in the present analysis and where these have been phased by the excavator, this indicated by †. As noted above, the vast majority of the total lithic collection was derived from Site 19 (79%). These were deposited mainly within a complex of ditches, atypical cists, postholes and post-pits, which have been interpreted as ritual/funerary in nature and broadly relating to the Middle to Late Bronze Age period (c 1500-600 BC) based upon the examination of the flint artefacts, pottery rim, base and angle sherds by McCartan and Richard Warner (UM) and Woodman, (UCC) as noted by Chapple (2004b) and again, this is entirely in keeping with the findings from this present lithic assessment.

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pebble type flint; this latter material would best describe the vast majority of lithic pieces exhibiting cortex from Gransha.

A significant quantity of the flint was grey, light or dark (66 pieces), the majority (72 pieces) were either white/creamy colour reflecting the predominance of patination. The vast majority of pieces had no flaws or inclusions, although 14 pieces did show some inclusions that would indicate poor quality flint. Where it could be established from the total of 134 flint pieces from Gransha, the vast majority are opaque (65%), 11% is semi-opaque and a very small percentage (8%) are fully translucent with the remainder being unspecified. The predominance of opaque pieces within the Gransha assemblage is also indicative of Bronze Age assemblages and conversely, the semi and fully translucent type flint is typically indicative of earlier industries particularly of the Neolithic period. It is therefore, perhaps not coincidental, that the relatively small quantity of flint material from Gransha that was not opaque is from outside Site 19 or not stratified in relation to datable Bronze Age features within the site.

There was a single piece of black chert from the entire excavation which was derived from Site 11, where the lithic and other material belongs to the Early Neolithic period. This well-made broken retouched blade (AE/02/76: 60) would therefore be entirely in keeping with the period assigned to the rest of the collection from these features as although chert artefacts are not unheard of within the northern regions of Ireland, they are fairly rare and appear to be relatively exotic as these would have most likely have been imported presumably in their finished form from a significant distance. This piece therefore appears to be perfectly at home within a Neolithic assemblage both in terms of its type and exotic material employed. Quartz does not exhibit cortex, patination, or obvious signs of burning and, in addition to this; it cannot be worked in the conventional manner via platform reduction as it does not have a predictable conchoidal fracture. As quartz is frequently found, albeit more marginally than flint, within Bronze Age non-secular contexts (O’Hare 2005) it is interesting that out of the total of 24 quartz pieces recovered from the Gransha excavations, almost all were from the general Bronze Age contexts within Site 19. For instance, almost half of the total lithics from Phase Ib are of quartz with the greatest concentration being derived from the cist features relating to this phase. Three quartz pieces were from Phase Ia associated with the segmented ditch and the remaining quartz pieces included two from a modern context noted above.

The evidence for burnt flint is quite marginal within the Gransha lithic collection. There were 10 pieces that appear to have been exposed to heat. The low incidence of burnt pieces may be accounted for by the fact that there is very marginal evidence for cremation deposits within the Gransha ritual/funerary complex. For instance there was only one cremation deposit as such within one of the contexts from Site 19 relating to the ritual/funerary Bronze Age aspect of the site. The paucity of burnt material within the ritual/funerary features of Site 19 in particular may be due therefore to the sparse evidence for cremated/burnt material that is typically found within these types of Bronze Age contexts. For instance, out of the atypical cists excavated within Site 19, corresponding to Phase Ib, ten contained lithic material and only one cist contained evidence of cremated bone along with carbonised grain and one other cist also contained carbonised grain. Otherwise there was no other clear evidence of burning within these funerary/ritual features although most of the fills produced flecks of charcoal. There was only one instance of a burnt piece (an end scraper) from the potential Early Neolithic pit features, some associated with carbonised hazelnut shell from Site 12.

The condition of the lithic material Flint, unlike quartz, is particularly informative in terms of exhibiting characteristics indicative of pre- and postdepositional processes and indicating type of reduction technology employed. The condition of the flint assemblage showed that out of 134 pieces, over half were extensively patinated and a further 29% showed partial patination. Out of the 134 flint pieces, well over 80% were patinated to some extent. Therefore as the vast majority of flints are patinated to some degree and although it is not a chronological indicator, as pointed out by Schmalz (1960), it does demonstrate that the majority of pieces were exposed to the elements for a significant period of time. The important point regarding this extensive patination on the lithic pieces from Gransha is that these appear to have become patinated after the pieces were created and before they were deposited in this condition within their respective contexts, ie within cists, ditches and pits etc. Therefore, as much of the material is patinated to some extent and was found within sealed features, the inclusion of this material must indicate previously owned/used tools and manufacturing debris created at some point significantly earlier than the deposition of material within these features.

The different lithic traditions within the Gransha sites The distinctive technologies of prehistoric industries There would appear to be a clear distinction between the lithic technology derived in the main from within Site 19 in association with the Bronze Age features and those from Sites 11 and 12, relating to the Early Neolithic. This can be seen in terms of the different type of flint used, as noted above, and the distinctive approaches to knapping and tool production within these collections. Therefore, in order to fully understand the main variations between these different lithic traditions indicated within the Gransha sites, these will be outlined below. For instance, the characteristic knapping strategy within the entire Irish Bronze Age, commencing with the Beaker period and

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perhaps sees its genesis within the Final Neolithic industries ie Irish Grooved Ware assemblages, is fully represented within the lithic material from Site 19 at Gransha and notable by its absence particularly within Sites 11 and 12.

to lend further support to the lithic material being essentially Neolithic within these sites. The actual platform cores, characteristic of the earlier lithic traditions were derived from Site 19, although they were unstratified within the site. Débitage flakes, fragments, splinters and micro-débitage pieces are relatively non-diagnostic in terms of cultural affinities and their related knapping strategies, and are the result of either platform or bipolar reduction, although the débitage flakes in particular are found relatively infrequently within the Bronze Age features from Site 19 and proportionally more significant within the postulated Neolithic contexts from within Site 11.

The characteristic Irish Bronze Age lithic strategy is nonplatform technology and would best be described as a bipolar technique as outlined by Kobayashi (1975); Ahler (1989); Knight (1993); Kuijt et al (1995) and Whittaker (1994), and would appear to be fully applicable to the technology of the later prehistoric period throughout much of Ireland (O’Hare 2005). This knapping strategy is distinct and fundamentally different from platform reduction that characterises most of the earlier prehistoric lithic industries as outlined by Clark et al (1960); Inizan et al (1999) and applying Woodman’s (1984; 1992 & 1994) scheme for platform cores, their related platform struck flakes and blade technology and observations and detailed assessments of the existing literature and lithic reports for Irish Neolithic material in general.

There were a total of 24 flakes with platform attributes from the Gransha excavations and many of these were broken. Two-thirds of these were from datable contexts relating to the Bronze Age. However the vast majority of these exhibited scalar attributes or were generally poorly struck with variable end fractures and diffuse/flat bulbs of percussion and an array of crushed, pointed butts, indicative of a lack of control over the knapping technique; or, simply an unintentional by-product of the bipolar technique, which is more likely. Although it should be pointed out that at least a few of the platform flakes appeared to be produced intentionally and skilfully from platform cores which were found in particular within Phase Ib-a funerary/ritual context at Site 19; this is not unusual within this context and may represent a marginal component of heirloom deposition. The remaining platform flakes were mainly unstratified within Site 19 and one was unstratified within Site 10 and one from a datable feature from Site 12.

The platform technique contrasts with the characteristic Irish Bronze Age bipolar knapping strategy as essentially bipolar-on-anvil technique results in bipolar cores and scalar flakes-where the technique involves resting a nodule or block of lithic material on an anvil (hard stone) and hitting it from above at about 90° producing ‘relatively uncontrolled flake removals’ (Knight 1993, 57). However, it is also worth noting that occasionally pseudo-platform reduction might be present within a bipolar assemblage; a point that has been highlighted by Kuijt et al (1995, 119), who observed that these two reduction strategies are not mutually exclusive and that aspects of these respective technologies can occur sporadically within each. These pseudo-platform flakes were found associated with the Bronze Age material from Gransha Site 19, whereas, these were notable by their absence along with more obvious bipolar reduced material from Sites 11-12.

Another aspect of platform technology can be seen in blade production. Blade technology is fairly rare within later prehistoric industries and when blades are intentionally produced, these tend to be very formal types; within later industries these are typically wellexecuted knives and are frequently of the plano-convex variety (O’Hare 2005). Essentially, blade production is not a typical product of the bipolar reduction strategy per se and when blades are produced as part of the platform technique these are typically indicative of a high level of control over the removal. This describes many of the blades from the Gransha assemblage, where the vast majority were derived from outside Site 19 – the Middle Bronze Age contexts.

The distinctive primary (reduction material) technologies within different sites from Gransha Out of the 24 scalar flakes, indicative of bipolar reduction from the entire excavation, there were 19 scalar flakes from known contexts and these were from Bronze Age features. The remaining scalar flakes were unstratified from Site 19, one was unstratified from near Site 5 and the remaining scalar flake was derived from Site 14; which could belong to the Bronze Age period judging by the other lithic types. In addition to this, 16 from a total of 19 of the entire collection of bipolar cores from Gransha were found associated with the mid to later Bronze Age features from Site 19. Two more were of quartz and from a modern context in Site 20. The only other bipolar core was unstratified from within Site 19. Again, the paucity of these Bronze Age diagnostics outside the Bronze Age features from within Site 19 and in particular their absence from within the Neolithic features from Sites 11-12 is of interest and would appear

Of the eight blades and knives from Gransha, three were derived from Site 11 (the Early Neolithic site), which is significant given the fact that only one broken blade was derived from a dateable feature from Site 19. Out of the remaining blades, one was a stray find, another was derived from Site 17, which may also be Neolithic, and two well-made blades were derived from a tentative context that may or may not relate to the Bronze Age period at Site 10. Interestingly, however, if these do relate to the Bronze Age period, the deliberate deposition of heirloom or contemporaneously manufactured formal

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lithics is not without parallels within a burnt mound context.

the mainstay scraper of the Bronze Age, particularly of the domestic sphere and relatively predominant type within funerary/ritual contexts. For instance, five of the nine sub-circular types were found associated with Phase Ib (four) and one from Phase IIa. Otherwise, the remaining four sub-circular scrapers were derived from Site 19, but were unstratified within it, but not located anywhere else within the Gransha excavation and most importantly none were ever associated with the Early Neolithic activity.

The distinctive secondary (modified material) within different sites from Gransha The secondary technology (tools and functional pieces) from Gransha, and in particular from the datable features within Site 19, can be seen in the frequency of basic scrapers, typically non-end scraper types and in particular, the relatively high frequency of sub-circular scrapers. Roughly modified and non-modified pieces employed without retouch and a fairly frequent occurrence of utilised pieces, all of which reflects the mainstay technology of contemporaneous Irish lithic collections (O’Hare 2005). On the other hand, the main thrust of secondary lithic technology from Sites 11-12 and Site 17 reflects a very different tool-kit of the Neolithic period and this can be seen in the range of wellexecuted retouched knives/blades, end or end/side type scrapers and overall better finish and formality of the few retouched/flaked pieces with a paucity of utilised pieces and total absence of sub-circular scrapers.

The two possible Late Mesolithic type-fossils, namely the Bann-type flakes assigned on the criteria outlined by Woodman (1977 & 1994) may represent earlier activity at Site 7 and it is perhaps significant that none of the later lithic traditions were found within this site. Furthermore, the fact that these two distinctive type-fossils were derived from the same site may be indicative of further Later Mesolithic activity. Overall, there would appear to be a pattern emerging indicative of distinctive lithic industries within their respective periods as postulated by Chapple (2003b; 2004b; 2009a&b). One thing is clear and that is the lack of bipolar technology and characteristic tool-types such as sub-circular scrapers from the collections indicated as Early Neolithic and the predominance of this characteristic Bronze Age technology within the postulated Bronze Age features.

Out of the seven end-type scrapers from the entire excavation at Gransha, most of these are outside the main Middle Bronze Age activity there. For instance, one end scraper type (steep-nosed) appears to be intrusive within Site 10 found within a post-Medieval ditch and another of this type was derived from a pit within a Neolithic context at Site 11 and another characteristic end type scraper (burnt) was derived from Site 12, also potentially relating to the Early Neolithic. Site 17 also had an associated end type scraper, and this implement in association with the other characteristic tanged knife and lack of Bronze Age type lithic material would strongly indicate a Neolithic date. Although end and side scrapers are known from the Bronze Age contexts, these are invariably from non-domestic contexts and where they are present-which is relatively infrequent – these are invariably within funerary/ritual contexts; like some of the well produced platform flakes noted above and may represent heirloom deposits. For example, three out of the seven end scrapers where derived from Phases pre IIa and Phase IIa Bronze Age features within the ritual/funerary complex of Site 19. Although proportionally speaking; this would account for a mere 2.8% of the total end scrapers within the Bronze Age identifiable assemblage (105 pieces), compared to 15% for end scrapers within the identifiable Neolithic assemblages (20 pieces). Another Neolithic type-fossil can also be seen in the endof-blade scrapers, there was one found at Gransha and unfortunately this was unstratified, although it was from Site 19. The retouched blades (knives) from the excavation accounted for three out of the eight blades. One of these was a stray find, another was from Site 11 and the third was derived from within Site 10 in possible association with the Bronze Age burnt mound activity.

Discussion of the type fossils from Gransha sites 14, 17 and 20 Site 14 and related lithic material A pit feature (C1400) filled by F1401 from Site 14 produced a few interesting lithic artefacts that could be linked to the main activity at Site 19. For example AE/02/76:77 is a very roughly flaked bipolar flint chunk with evidence of heavy use; this may have been employed as a scraper. AE/02/76:78 is a large scalar flint flake. Although both bipolar cores and scalar flakes are typically Bronze Age, it is still difficult to be absolutely certain of the date of this context. However, the general inclusions and fill of this pit feature is similar to other pit features from Site 19 such as having charcoal flecks. Furthermore, a postulated stone loom weight AE/02/76:80 or possibly a local shale stone roof-slate (Chapple 2004b; 2009b) would appear to be a flat (? schist) stone which has been deliberately perforated but is unfortunately quite broken. However, if the dimensions are extrapolated; this would seem too large a piece to be a loom-weight. Although it is uncertain what this artefact actually is due to its broken condition it could belong to the Bronze Age, Early Christian or an even more modern period. In addition to these lithic items from Site 14 there was a butt portion of a stone axe possibly made from siltstone (AE/02/76:79). It is worn along the broken portion. However, this is not an unusual deposit within a non-secular Bronze Age context. Therefore, the bipolar core worked as a rough scraper, the scalar flake, the

End, side and blade type scrapers are relatively diagnostic of the pre-Bronze Age industries, particularly within the domestic sphere, whereas, the sub-circular scrapers are

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perforated stone and the stone-axe portion and the similarity of the fill of pit C1400 to those found throughout Site 19, on the weight of evidence would tend to suggest a Bronze Age date for this feature within Site 14.

Phase Ia: the segmented ditch and related feature containing lithic material There were 18 lithic pieces relating to Phase Ia, the earliest period of activity from the ritual complex from Site 19. The main feature relating to this phase is a segmented ditch. F19259 from C19258 produced nine lithic pieces. The quartz technology can be seen in the bipolar core and an interesting quartz pebble which appears to have been deliberately smoothed. The remainder of the pieces were of flint and included three platform-type flakes and a débitage flake along with a fragment; which could have been bipolar produced. The only modified piece was a flint scraper.

Site 17 and related lithic technology At Site 17 there was evidence of prehistoric activity from pits C1700 and C1735 associated with prehistoric pottery. However, the small quantity of lithics from this site was found during the cleaning of the surface along with two body sherds of post-Medieval pottery. AE/02/76:82 is an end and side flint scraper which appears to be platform produced and made on good quality flint and AE/02/76:85 is also of flint and an equally well executed platform produced blade with a tang. What is interesting about these artefacts is that they may indicate some Neolithic rather than Bronze Age activity within Site 17; although without other diagnostics and better stratigraphic evidence it is difficult to be certain.

Based upon the stratigraphic relationship of the segmented ditch and the large pit C1991, this latter feature is thought to be contemporary with the ditch and therefore has also been assigned Phase Ia. The lithic material is more informative as this feature produced four sub-circular scrapers, one of which was of quartz and, as highlighted earlier, these are characteristically Bronze Age types. The Bronze Age lithic technology can also be seen in three scalar flakes and one bipolar core made from a split-pebble. However, there is an indication of earlier lithic types such as the broken platform blade. Although blades/knives are frequently deposited within funerary/ritual contexts of the Bronze Age and very often these are broken, this blade indicates parallels with Neolithic types. Therefore, this should perhaps be viewed as an heirloom deposit as they are very distinct from the high quality Bronze Age blades such as plano-convex knives. There was also a retouched broken platform flake which may indicate another significantly earlier typefossil.

Site 19 and the ritual/funerary contexts Phases Ia-IIa and related lithic technology As seen within Table 11, the vast majority of lithic material was derived from Site 19 (c 80%). This was mainly from within features dated to the Middle Bronze Age, a range that is strongly supported by the recovered lithic types. Most of the sites have been detailed above in relation to features and lithic material outside Site 19. Almost a quarter of the lithic material from Site 19 was unstratified. The excavator has assigned the complex of features from Site 19 based upon stratigraphy within phases. The earliest Phase Ia for example relates to the laying out of the ritual site marked by a segmented ditch and the later Phase Ib relates to the vast majority of internal features such as pits, post-holes and cists partially enclosed by the segmented ditch feature. Towards the latter part of the full use of this ritual/funerary complex, is an external ditch (C1915) relating to Phase IIa (Chapple 2009b). The lithic material from these various phases was assessed by type and condition etc to establish variability within these phases. Although the complex as a whole was probably used over several generations of the Middle Bronze Age, the lithic material remains remarkably conservative throughout.

Before discussing the general nature of the lithic material within the next phase (Phase Ib), there were a few items found that may have some reference to the features under discussion. For instance, there were two interesting coarse stone finds from the general vicinity of the internal complex of Site 19, mainly relating to Phase Ib. These were discovered during the clean-up adjacent to C19192, a cist feature, although these were unstratified the excavator has indicated that these may have originally been associated with some of the activity within the area. AE/02/76: 422 is a large unfinished possible perforated mace-head made on a dense green igneous stone (Figure 17). This would appear to be an essentially unfinished artefact; both in terms of being polished, which most artefacts of this type typically are, and in terms of the perforation. The perforation has been made partially into each face of the artefact; where, if it had have been completed, this would have met in the middle forming the typical hour-glass perforation found on these stone artefacts. This object also appears to have a heavily damaged blade-end. The second coarse stone artefact (AE/02/76: 423, Figure 19) appears to be made of sandstone and although its shape is superficially like an over sized axe blade, judging by the striations and

A number of contexts from within the complex of features at Site 19 had associated metal slag, which has been tentatively identified as iron slag, although the excavator has indicated how this material could have been intrusive due to outwash material etc within some of these contexts (Chapple 2009b). Otherwise, almost all of the contexts from Phase Ia to IIa within Site 19 – the Middle Bronze Age ritual/funerary complex – contained associated Bronze Age ceramic material and general flecks and inclusions of charcoal is reflected in the fairly homogenous lithic collection from these same features and phases within Site 19.

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smoother convex face, this may be a rubbing stone perhaps as used in conjunction with a saddle quern.

scraper from the linear gully C1960/F1961, where a pot sherd was derived along with a piece of metal slag. Another pit contained sherds of pottery, a piece of metal slag and a basic flint scraper along with a poorly struck flake and a bipolar core from within pit F1929/C1930. The third scraper is a well executed platform type end scraper found in a pit C1942/F1944 along with some pot sherds. In this context, the scraper may be an heirloom deposit. There was an interesting broken and possibly deliberately smoothed quartzite pebble derived from a pit (C1984).

Site 19 complex of features from Phase Ib The stratified lithic material has been assigned to Phase Ib, a complex of features. These features were mainly associated with the internal area between the early segmented ditch outlined above and a later feature. Several features from this area containing lithic material are described as atypical cists (Chapple 2009b). There were twelve cists excavated within Site 19 and ten of these contained lithic materials along with some pottery sherds, frequent flecks of charcoal and most surprisingly, the evidence for human remains/cremations was extremely sparse. There was 29 lithic pieces distributed amongst the cists.

Site 19 complex of features from Phase IIa - the external ditch C1915 The latest phase belonging to the general Bronze Age period assigned by the excavator is Phase IIa relating to the enclosing ditch feature C1915. This ditch feature produced 18 lithic finds. The lithic material was all of flint except for one coarse stone object. There were three scrapers from the external ditch, two of which are end/side type scrapers along with a sub-circular type. As noted above, the sub-circular is a classic Bronze Age type and the end/side type scrapers are probably heirloom deposits within these funerary/ritual contexts of the Bronze Age. There were two retouched platform flakes, some utilised pieces and various bipolar types.

One of the important points to bear in mind is that some of these cists did not appear to yield any obvious archaeological lithic material at the time of excavation and it was only at post-excavation stage via sieving that some of these contexts did indeed produce quite informative lithic artefacts. For instance, cist C19266 produced nine lithic pieces that was originally believed to be devoid of finds. Ten of the 12 excavated cists contained 29 lithic pieces distributed within these features and reflect typical Bronze Age artefacts along with a fairly high incidence of quartz material. As highlighted earlier, there is surprisingly little evidence for burnt lithic (flint) material which is typically quite frequent within these ritual/funerary contexts of the developed Bronze Age. This paucity of burnt lithic material may be accounted for by the fact that there is very little evidence of human cremated remains, which is unusual and the excavator has indicated that these contexts and particularly the cist features may be almost devoid of such remains apart from one cist, and these features may be cenotaphic and the material deposits within them may be substitute burials.

There was one coarse stone which would appear to be a deliberated shaped polishing/grinding stone (AE/02/76: 490, Figure 52). It is broken and would appear to be made of a siltstone. Although it may have been employed as a grinding/polished stone, it superficially resembles the body and blade end of a stone axe; however the blade is not thin enough to be used as an axe, although it does however have deliberated shaped lateral edges. Site 19 - a general Bronze Age feature The general Bronze Age period has been assigned by the excavator to a pit feature (C1920) and although this feature appears to belong to the main complex of features in Site 19, it cannot be specifically phased. This pit produced 11 lithic pieces, all of flint, typifying Bronze Age technology in the form of bipolar pieces. However, there is an amorphous core and another bipolar piece with amorphous type flaking and an unusually high incidence of débitage flakes. This assemblage is slightly different to much of the other material and has no associated tooltypes. It may therefore have a slightly different function to the other pits etc, although it was associated with prehistoric pottery presumably of the same type associated with the other more certainly phased features relating to the Middle Bronze Age period.

There were a range of pit features assigned to this Phase that produced 15 lithic pieces. There was the usual range of bipolar type pieces and a few quartz pieces. The postpit C19201/F19202 is of interest as it produced the cordoned urn sherds relating to the Middle Bronze Age period, although the other prehistoric pottery appears to relate to the overlapping and subsequent coarse ware tradition. Again the typical array of Bronze Age lithic technology can be seen from this and the other contexts relating to Phase Ib. Site 19 complex of features from pre-Phase IIa The excavator has assigned a number of features between the inner segmented ditch (Phase Ia) and the later outer ditch (Phase IIa) to pre-phase IIa. There were seven lithic items in all. The lithic material on the whole would appear to represent Bronze Age activity as seen in the bipolar pieces within these pits, post-holes and a linear gully. There were three scrapers from as many features. One was a natural roughly flaked piece of flint used as a

Site 19 possibly relating to the Bronze Age period Pit C1954/F1955 produced a characteristic flint scalar flake and a fairly non-diagnostic broken platform flake. However these were associated with 40 pieces of metal (possibly iron) slag, suggestive of possible Early Christian industrial activity as suggested by the excavator and the lithics may be residual (Chapple 2009b). This seems a likely scenario and given the weight of evidence

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for the Bronze Age activity at Site 19, it would seem reasonable to infer that these are Bronze Age lithics.

Discussion of lithic material from Gransha and comparanda The nature of the lithic material revealed as a result of the excavations, plus the additional lithic material produced as a result of sieving, would appear to correlate very strongly with the two main prehistoric periods assigned to a range of features from various sites within Gransha. The vast majority of lithic material, almost 80% of the total 164 lithic pieces appears to be related to Site 19 where most of the complex of features has been assigned to the Middle Bronze Age and interpreted as ritual/funerary activity over several phases. There was some indication of similar lithic technology from Site 14. The two blades within a context level from Site 10 cannot be assigned with certainty to the Bronze Age, the period to which these burnt mounds belong.

Site 19 possibly relating to modern material A modern posthole (C19162/F19163) produced two quartz pieces. Although these appear to be two bipolar cores, they may represent the remains of unintentionally fractured quartz via more modern means. If, for instance lithic material is in the plough-zone, it is likely to be compacted between large stones and a mechanical digger or perhaps a plough; resulting in pseudo-bipolar produced pieces. This may be an explanation for the apparent bipolar pieces being in a modern context. On the other hand, these could have been prehistorically produced pieces that became dislocated from their original contexts into a modern one. Summary of main activity at Site 19 The main features from Site 19 indicate that the nature and type of deposition of this lithic material within this complex of features would strongly concur with this date range proposed by the excavator. The main thrust of the lithic technology is that of bipolar reduction pieces as seen in the high incidence of bipolar cores, scalar flakes and poorly produced flakes and paucity of blade-types within these features.

In addition to the predominantly Bronze Age lithic technology from Gransha, a much smaller quantity of lithic material (c 11%) was derived from Sites 11 and 12, which appears to belong also to ritual/funerary features of the Early/Middle Neolithic period. Some characteristic lithic material also of this period is discernable from Site 17. There is also evidence to suggest some Later Mesolithic activity within Site 7, although not from within an archaeological horizon. The two quartz pieces with bipolar attributes from Site 20 may have been created unintentionally, or are from an earlier horizon than the modern one they were found in. The few other lithic pieces derived from between Sites 6 and 7, adjacent to Site 5 and within Site 9, were all unstratified and fairly non-diagnostic prehistoric lithic types.

The tool-kit is represented by a range of scrapers, mainly the sub-circular types that are diagnostic of the Irish Bronze Age period and general purpose types along with utilised and flaked pieces. There is slight evidence of earlier lithic type-fossils being deposited within some of the Bronze Age contexts as seen perhaps in the small quantity of end/side-type scrapers, well produced flakes and the single instance of a platform blade. These may be heirloom deposits otherwise, the lithic material is quite characteristic of the Bronze Age period assigned to the complex within Site 19.

The main thrust of activity indicated by the lithics from Gransha shows a non-secular focus, perhaps ritual/funerary activity belonging to the Middle Bronze Age and although separated by millennia, the small lithic quantity associated with the Early Neolithic appears to also represent non-secular activity. These two different lithic traditions became quite clear during analysis and correlate with the conclusions of the final reports (Chapple 2009a&b). The Bronze Age lithic technology in particular has added to the growing catalogue of sites emerging from all over Ireland and conforms to both the nature of lithic types and technology and their deposition within comparable contexts to that of Site 19 at Gransha. The range of multi-period activity highlighted by the lithics from Gransha can also be paralleled to some extent with various sites - some quite close to Gransha.

By far the predominant lithic material employed was that of flint. The nature of the flint employed within Site 19, based upon degree and nature of the cortex and the predominance of opaque pieces would tend to suggest a more ad hoc reduction strategy employing pebble flint from freely available local sources. In addition to this, the high incidence of patinated pieces from within these features indicates that these could have only been deposited in this condition within the funerary/ritual feature which would tend to suggest that the lithic material that already had a use-history and that this was not freshly knapped material produced for the purpose of burial or ritual deposition.

For instance, visible from the Gransha Site is Lough Enagh, Co Londonderry (Davies 1941), where an excavation during the 1940s revealed multi-period activity associated with lithic material. The later Bronze Age strata were associated with coarse wares (more recently understood to belong to this period as opposed to the original Iron Age date assigned to it). A looped bronze spearhead is noted as being found near the site but not directly from the excavation. The excavator describes the lithic material as being derived from the base of the sand and charcoal which the present writer would

Quartz material appears to be deposited on regular basis within Bronze Age ritual/funerary contexts, which perhaps has some symbolic reference and the relatively frequent inclusion of quartz within the Site 19 complex may also reflect some symbolic reference.

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interpret as either habitation or ritual/funerary activity with the latter interpretation preferred based upon the number of burnt lithics from this layer (O’Hare 2005). Davies’ description of the lithic material from the later Bronze Age layer reflects similar lithic technology consistently found associated with this period in the following:

regionally diverse range of funerary/ritual contexts clearly established for the latter part of the Irish Bronze Age (O’Hare 2005). Characteristic lithic material, fragmentary pottery and ‘token-type’ or symbolic type burials within pits, pit clusters, ditches, barrows and earthen and stone structures, which would best be collectively described as ritual complexes, is a widespread phenomenon from within the earliest (Beaker) period in Ireland, with a shift to more formal burials typically within a defined grave, itself within a demarcated cemetery area in the Early Bronze Age. Most significantly, the burials or cremations are typically fully represented along with complete pots and often relatively formal and complete lithic items. By the Middle Bronze Age period this formality and complete deposition appears to reach its apex and at the same time a significant trend towards less formal burial deposits can be clearly seen as the Irish Bronze Age develops (O’Hare 2005).

‘their rough trimming is characteristic of the iron-age, while some are battered as if used for heavy woodworking … There are probably two rounded scrapers. One is much burnt; the other (no. 3, fig. 3) is probably struck from a pebble …' (Davies 1941, 92). All in all this early description of lithic material, now assigned to the Late Bronze Age, characterises the everincreasing lithic material being revealed through excavations from a wide range of regions within Ireland dating to this general later prehistoric period which is described as bipolar (O’Hare 2005).

The Gransha lithics and their deposition within comparable features conform to this general pattern and would therefore fully support the interpretation of a ritual/funerary complex of features from Site 19 as belonging to the Middle Bronze Age. Specific parallels may be seen for ritual deposition of lithic material likely to be broadly contemporaneous with the main activity at Gransha. For instance at Site 3 Limavady, Co Londonderry, (McSparron 2005; O’Hare 2006) the excavations produced an assemblage of just over 100 lithic pieces; the vast majority of which were flint and, like the Gransha assemblage, a small percentage were of quartz along with some coarse stone. Almost 80% were derived from a fill of a large irregular depression which also contained burnt bone. A further c 20% of the total assemblage from Site 3 at Limavady was derived from fills of a large pit and the remainder of the assemblage was derived from a fill of a small pit. The excavator of the Limavady site has interpreted these features as ritual (O’Hare 2006) based upon a number of lithic finds relating to burnt cremated bone and confirmed by the lithic analysis. The deposition and nature of this lithic material is reminiscent of some of the pit deposits from Gransha.

It should be pointed out that much of this lithic material in reality was quite mixed from within the Lough Enagh site. However, below the Bronze Age horizon Neolithic pottery and flint was also identified (Davies 1941, 90). In addition to this, Later Mesolithic material was also found. This seemingly multi-prehistoric activity within a neighbouring site, with some potential contemporary activity would seem significant in the overall discussion of the Gransha lithics. At least some of this otherwise mixed assemblage from Lough Enagh appears to indicate broadly contemporaneous activity in the vicinity of Gransha and the fact that it is multi-period is also of interest as indicating fairly extensive prehistoric activity adjacent to the Foyle river. A more modern excavation in Enagh townland, Co Londonderry, has also produced evidence of multi-period prehistoric lithic material (McSparron 2003). For example at Site 1, Late Bronze Age coarse ware sherds were associated with pits and postholes. Although a small amount of lithic material was also found at Site 1, its direct association is difficult to establish as much of it was from the topsoil. However, the main thrust of the activity as this site appears to be associated with pits and posthole that may be related to a structure (domestic), but could equally represent another type of focus for the site. Perhaps these pits and postholes reflect a similar complex of features as identified at Gransha, Site 19. Again, like the earlier excavation at Lough Enagh, this more modern excavation also produced clear evidence of Neolithic activity. This was within Site 2, where lithic material and Western Neolithic pottery were associated with a house structure.

However, the main variation between the lithic material from Gransha and Limavady was that at Site 3 from Limavady, there were a number of broken portions of polished stone axes, which are quite common within both secular and non-secular contexts throughout the Bronze Age in Ireland (which have been interpreted as heirloom deposits as the evidence for contemporaneous manufacture is lacking) (O’Hare 2005). Although there are slight references to stone axes within the Gransha ritual/funerary complex, none of these are convincing. However all of the more obvious Bronze Age type-fossils from the Limavady features can be seen in the typical array of bipolar produced material and specifically the relatively time-sensitive lithic diagnostic indicate Bronze Age activity with a Later Bronze Age date preferred,

Parallels for the main activity at Site 19 The main thrust of lithic technology and the nature of its deposition which was derived, in the main, from Site 19 at Gransha - interpreted as a ritual/funerary features belonging to Middle Bronze Age, can be mirrored by a

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based upon the specific dimensions and morphology of the scrapers from this site (McSparron 2005; O’Hare 2006). This is all mirrored within the ritual/funerary complex from Site 19 at Gransha. Although the main variation between the lithics from Gransha and Limavady was that nature of deposition of broken polished stone axes and significant quantity of burnt bone and associated high incidence of burnt flint from Limavady, otherwise the assemblage was dominated by flint, supplemented by quartz and had the typical array of bipolar reduced lithic material. The essential point is that the Limavady activity from Site 3 appears to be similar and broadly contemporaneous in terms of the ritual/funerary complex with a range of pits and fills containing a fairly similar range of lithic material comparable to Gransha, Site 19. Specifically, Bronze Age scrapers show equal average/mean, length/breadth dimensions, although by the later period within the Bronze Age, the dimensions diverge from this pattern, where the scrapers become slightly thicker at 8 mm and the length increases slightly but not the width. The Limavady and Gransha scrapers associated with the later prehistoric period all fall within these dimensions established for contemporaneous assemblages from over Ireland (O’Hare 2005).

types within these ritual/funerary contexts from the mid to later Bronze Age. It is interesting to note that although the more formal funerary type features at Gransha were atypical cists described by the excavator as cenotaphic (Chapple 2009b), that at Loughbrickland, these formal funerary features were represented by eight ring-ditches. Seven of these ring-ditches produced lithic material, mainly of bipolar type (several of which are of quartz) which is directly comparable to the lithic material from the atypical Gransha cists. Although the Loughbrickland ring-ditches produced most of the typical Bronze Age type scrapers; these scraper types from Gransha were actually derived from pit C1990, assigned by the excavator as possibly contemporary with Phase Ia – the earliest phase of the main Bronze Age activity. There was only one other sub-circular type scraper from a Bronze Age context and the others were unstratified within Site 19. Irrespective of the variation in deposition, the subcircular type scrapers, their dimensions etc and morphology are directly comparable between the Loughbrickland Bronze Age types and, indeed, the Limavady types, discussed above, with those from the broadly contemporaneous features at Gransha.

Beyond the county of Londonderry, further parallels can be drawn between the main activity at Gransha in terms of the lithic types and nature of deposition with broadly contemporary funerary/ritual. The evidence for earlier activity within an adjacent site has been noted above. For example, Loughbrickland, Co Down, (Chapple et al 2009) had associated pottery from a series of funerary/ritual features relating to the developed Bronze Age and would be broadly contemporary with the main activity indicated for the Gransha site.

Another potentially contemporaneous funerary/ritual complex is worth noting at Timakeel, Co Antrim (Large 2006). The Timakeel lithic assemblage of 300 pieces was derived from a single feature – a ditch/barrow with various fills. In terms of dimensions and character of the flint, these mirror any Bronze Age assemblage, although there were no obvious tools such as diagnostic type scrapers. A similarly dated ring-barrow at Mullaghmore A, Co Down (Mogey & Thompson 1956) was generally associated with coarse ware pottery (later Bronze Age), a cremation and some flint material (O’Hare 2005). The lithic material consisted of a possible leaf-shaped arrowhead portion, a round and well-made sub-circular scraper and other cruder type scrapers. There was the usual array of bipolar reduction pieces in the form of three scalar flakes one of which was burnt and a single bipolar core.

The pottery material is described as derived mostly in a fragmentary state from the ring-ditches and although the morphology of the funerary/ritual features from Loughbrickland is different; the lithic material is very similar compared to that from Gransha. Furthermore, the Loughbrickland excavation also produced a number of pits that appear to be funerary/ritual in nature and may relate to the ring-ditches and basically form a focused ritual complex, not unlike the main area of activity at Gransha.

Burial structures, both earthen and stone, are frequently associated with pits. For example at Mitchelstowndown West, Co Limerick, a barrow cemetery revealed a range of pits with an array of lithic material with several of the pits containing later Bronze Age coarse wares (Daly & Grogan 1993). This was also similar to the Loughbrickland, Co Down, complex. At Shanaclogh, Co Limerick, a ring-ditch enclosing several cremation pits was associated with later Bronze Age coarse ware (Gowen 1988, 68-72). Here a single fragmentary lithic piece (the tip of an arrowhead) was recovered. Another burial structure was also associated with a range of pits at Carnkenny, Co Tyrone (Lynn 1973-74). Although the formal and obvious burial structure from this site is a penannular ditch, what is interesting is that this cairn is

Specifically, the range of sub-circular scrapers, utilised pieces, fragmentary material and lack of obvious earlier prehistoric lithic type-fossils within the main features of the cemetery area at Loughbrickland and the dimensional ranges for these, along with the predominance of bipolar lithic material is directly comparable to the main thrust of lithic technology from the ritual/funerary complex at Gransha, Site 19. Furthermore, the use of highly localised lithic material such as the predominance of flint, marginal but significant use of quartz and elements of coarse stone can be paralleled between these sites. It will become apparent as this comparative discussion unfolds that bipolar technology, sub-circular scrapers and quartz technology are fairly commonly the mainstay of lithic

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set on top of multiple pits. These produced a radiocarbon date of 2815±50 BP (1116-843 cal BC, UB-599) from material associated with cremated bone. The lithic material (O’Hare 2005) was derived, in the main, from the ditch feature and was of a ‘token’ nature and associated with small fragments of burnt bone and coarse ware pottery. There was also a porcellanite polished stone axe and a number of stone discs. The other lithic material consisted mainly of flint and consisted of two scrapers (both end types), along with three scalar flakes and two blade segments. It seems that because of its context within a funerary setting, that some of this material may have been deposited as heirlooms and are, perhaps, comparable to some of the earlier lithic type-fossils from the Gransha complex.

four from another. There were also general finds of lithic material distributed about these features, two of which included chert cores (Scannell 1992, 157-159; Gowen 1988, 109-110, fig 58). A number of pits, again from the Limerick region, contained fragmentary material, described as ‘flint knapping debris’, which may or may not belong to this period. However, based upon the morphology of many of the pits that do contain datable material, these may actually be contemporaneous with some of the later pits (Gowen 1988). A series of pits found at Mitchelstowndown North, Co Limerick, produced a small amount of lithics (Scannell 1992, 152-153) from within a group of unenclosed cremation pits containing 'token' burials along with a small amount of lithic material and Coarse Ware pottery. The radiocarbon date ranges for these broadly correspond to c 1400-1300 BC (3000-3100 BP, Woodman in Scannell 1992, 152-153; Gowen 1988, 98-103). A number of other pits adjacent to this site contained fragmentary material, described as ‘flint knapping debris’ which may or may not belong to this period.

Other parallels of more obvious covering/enclosing funerary features and related pits can be seen at Duntryleague, Co Limerick, where a ring-barrow was associated with pits containing coarse ware pottery, cremation fragments and c 10 lithics. These consisted of flakes and cores, flakes from the hearth pit and a flake from fill of a post hole. A quartz crystal core was derived from one posthole (Scannell 1992, 147-150; Gowen 1988, 72-78). Raftery’s excavation at Rathgall, Co Wicklow (1971; 1973a&b), uncovered a circular ditch (ring-ditch), enclosing an area, not unlike the Gransha complex with a number of cremations contained within pits. Although the main thrust of cultural activity at Rathgall dates to the Later Bronze Age, some of the lithic material (over 100 pieces, mainly of flint) (O’Hare 2005) appear to also belong to this general horizon. However, it is difficult to assign these to the actual funerary and and/or secular activity at this site. The important point is that much of this lithic material would be consistent with many other domestic or non-secular lithic collections from the general later Bronze Age period as it is dominated by bipolar technology. The lithic collection also included the typical array of sub-circular scrapers and basic scraper types, falling within the dimensional ranges for contemporaneous collections.

At Ballynatona, Co Limerick another pit burial with fragmentary cremated remains and coarse ware pottery was associated with a small quantity of lithic material (Gowen 1988, 103-105, fig 53; Scannell 1992, 154-155). One pit at Spittle, Co Limerick, produced cremation fragments, coarse ware pottery and lithic material (46 struck flakes). The latter included two bipolar cores of poor quality pebble type flint with a number scalar flakes (Gowen 1988, 105-106; Scannell 1992, 155-156). At the same site another pit produced three heavily patinated flint flakes (Gowen 1988, 109; Scannell 1992, 57). At Adamstown, Co Limerick, a fragmentary burial was associated with coarse ware pottery and produced a radiocarbon determination of c 800 BC and lithic material was derived from a pit. The burial consisted of a human mandible of a male of c 20 years of age. This was associated with a few struck flint fragments and one flint chip; two could be natural, and one pebble core was derived from the subsoil (Gowen 1988, 94-98; Scannell 1992, 152-152).

A number of contexts in the form of cremation pits, isolated pits and pit clusters with no other obvious burial structures containing relatively ad hoc and/or fragmentary lithic material are known from a wide range of areas in Ireland. For example, at Ballygortgarve 1, Co Antrim, a flint assemblage, including a broken porcellanite axe, was associated with coarse ware pottery derived from a pit cluster (Reilly 1998, 2). It is interesting that these pit clusters may have originally been related to other features such as ditches and mounds that have since been ploughed-out or simply the larger ritual focus and evolved complexes have not been added to these initial burials. Another parallel from Duntryleague, Co Limerick, was a pit cluster contained lithic material. There was, however, no direct association with coarse ware pottery such as the type found within the surrounding pits. The similar morphology of these features suggests that this material is contemporaneous. Two struck pieces of flint were derived from one pit and

There are other later Bronze Age funerary/ritual contexts that would best be described as ritual complexes that are quite different to those discussed above, although again the lithic material from within them is quite similar. For instance, another type of ritual/funerary complex can be seen with lithic material corresponding again to the developed period of the Irish Bronze Age. At Drombeg, Co Cork, a cremation burial, broadly associated with the stone circle, was associated with coarse ware pottery, a small quantity of lithic material and produced a radiocarbon determination of c 1124-794 BC (Fahy 1959). At a stone circle and alignment at Cashelkeelty, Co Kerry, the lithic material consisted of 13 pieces of débitage (Lynch 1981). This included five flakes and core waste, some of which were pointed and a few were burnt. There were six ‘struck’ flakes and a quartz crystal and a

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sandstone point also derived from this complex that may belong to a slightly earlier phase (Lynch 1981, 65-69, fig 8, a-g + l; Scannell 1992, 205-207, fig 41). Perhaps therefore, these ritual complexes can be broadly paralleled with the type of ritual/funerary features seen at Gransha Site 19, although quite different morphologically speaking. The similarly of lithic material and deposition of fragmentary pots may reflect an essentially analogous symbolic activity.

activity and particularly the nature of the Early Neolithic period are limited, the many parallels for the vast majority of lithic material from Gransha Site 19 in direct association with the ritual/funerary cenotaphic burials dating to the mid to later Bronze Age are reflected throughout this period within Ireland. Although the complex of features does not represent actual burials with the exception of one context, it is believed that the lithic material was deposited in a similar manner to other contemporaneous sites within many regions. Although the main variation would be the lack of cremated ‘token’ type burials from these features, with the exception of one of the cists, otherwise the nature of deposition within these seemingly ritual type pits etc segmented ditch and ultimately the enclosing ditch would all mirror aspects of similar ritual/funerary behaviour from a wide range of regions throughout Ireland dating to the Middle to Later Bronze Age period.

The Middle Bronze Age token and non-formal burials As much of the complex of features within Gransha Site 19 is assigned to the general latter part of the Bronze Age, commencing with the Middle Bronze Age, parallels for both the lithic material and contemporaneous ritual/funerary practices have been outlined with an emphasis upon the Later Bronze Age dates and associated coarse ware vessels within these lithic-rich contexts. Although much of the pottery from Gransha Site 19 appears to be characterised by coarse plain types, which had certainly become current around the Middle Bronze Age in Ireland, there was a Middle Bronze Age type pottery ie cordoned urn sherds found within Site 19. These were derived from a post-pit C19201/F19202 which was assigned by the excavator to Phase Ib and contemporary with the cenotaphic cist burials and other pits within the interior of Site 19. The lithics associated with these Middle Bronze Age sherds included six pieces representing bipolar reduction and are essentially in keeping with the nature of the other datable contexts from the site and broadly correspond to the preliminary dating proposed by the excavator.

Therefore, the Gransha lithic collection and in particular the vast majority of lithic material from Site 19 is another welcome addition to the significantly increasing body of lithic-rich sites emerging from every region of Ireland and belonging to the later prehistoric period. More importantly, it adds further support to the growing evidence for later Bronze Age burial traditions within Ireland that have up until more recent times appeared elusive. Just as important is the strong indication of Early Neolithic activity from Site 11 and 12 and, possibly, Site 17. Although parallels for the nature of the lithic material within the earlier/middle Neolithic non-secular features is rather limited, compared to those for the mid to later Bronze Age lithics, the actual assessment between the lithic collections from the Neolithic sites and the Bronze Age site was very productive.

The funerary/ritual parallels are too numerous to list here for the cordoned urn associated and/or related Middle Bronze Age lithic-rich contexts. Although some of the contexts broadly associated with this Middle Bronze Age tradition are significantly more formal than those outlined above in relation to the later Bronze Age contexts, there is a clear indication of a significant trend towards ‘tokentype’ burials within significantly less formal grave features. There are several other lithic-rich stone circles and alignments, pit and pit clusters etc which also belong to the Middle Bronze Age period and the lithic material within them is virtually indistinguishable from that described above in relation to the Late Bronze Age ritual/funerary contexts. Although there is some variation in the morphology of these complexes, it would appear that the important point is that from the Irish Middle Bronze Age onwards, the funerary tradition associated invariably with lithic material both ad hoc and formal becomes quite diverse and much less defined in terms of the formal and complete deposition of material and remains within a formal grave; this would appear to reflect much of the activity dating to the Middle to the Late Bronze Age period within the Gransha ritual/funerary complex.

The two Later Mesolithic type-fossils (Bann flakes) from Site 7 are particularly interesting and indicate yet another distinctive prehistoric tradition. The Gransha excavation and separation of prehistoric lithic traditions could be broadly compared to other multi-period sites within the surrounding region of Gransha. It would seem that the Gransha excavation has produced lithic material indicative of three very different periods in Irish prehistory, where the main activity appears to be funerary/ritual in orientation from both the earlier and significantly later prehistoric periods.

Conclusions Hopefully it has been demonstrated from the above discussion that although the parallels for multi-period

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

APPENDIX 7: ANALYSIS OF NON-WOOD PLANT MACRO-REMAINS FROM GRANSHA21

Non-wood Plant Macro-remains Recorded Site 18

Meriel McClatchie Site 18 Plant Remains Site 18 was interpreted as a pit and stakehole complex of unknown date. The complex comprised seven pits and five stakeholes. These features did not appear to form any discernable pattern and did not contain any datable artefacts. Three hand-collected Corylus avellana L. (hazelnut) shell fragments were recorded in a stakehole, C1834, providing evidence for food-stuffs that may have been gathered.

Methodology The soil samples had previously been processed by Mr John Davison of the School of Geography, Archaeology and Palaeoecology, Queen’s University, Belfast. Samples were processed using conventional flotation methods; with the smallest sieve mesh-aperture measuring 300 µm. Davison also scanned all flots (the floated material) and extracted all non-wood plant macro-remains that were observed. This extracted material was presented to the author for identification. In order to ensure that all plant macro-remains had been extracted, the author requested that the flots should also be presented for analysis, so that they could be checked again for the presence of previously unrecognised remains. The flots from the majority of samples were, however, unavailable (see Discussion sections below for further comment).

Site 18 Discussion Hazelnuts may have been collected by the site’s inhabitants for consumption, in order to provide a nutritious foodstuff. Alternatively, hazelnuts may have been inadvertently introduced to the site along with hazel wood, which could have been used as fuel or in structures. The presence of (hazelnut) shell fragments at Site 18 provides no immediate indication as to the date of activities in this area – while hazelnut shells are often associated with prehistoric sites in Ireland, they can also be found at sites dating to the historic period.

The identification of the archaeobotanical material in all samples was carried out using a stereo-microscope, with magnifications ranging from x6.3 to x50. Each sample was scanned in order to confirm the presence of archaeobotanical material, which was then extracted and sorted into general groupings on the basis of visual comparison of morphological features. The archaeobotanical material was identified by comparison to reference material in the collection of modern diaspores held at the Department of Archaeology, University College Cork, as well as the drawings and photographs from various seed keys (Anderberg 1994; Beijerinck 1947; Berggren 1969; 1981; Katz et al 1965). Cereal grains were recorded as ‘whole’ if the embryo was present. Some of the material was distorted or fragmented, and was identified to genus or family level only. With the exception of cereals, botanical names are listed following the order and nomenclature of Flora Europaea (Tutin et al 1964-83), and common names follow those provided in New flora of the British Isles (Stace 1991). The achenes of plants are referred to as ‘seeds’ throughout the text for convenience.

Site 19 Site 19 Plant Remains Site 19 was interpreted as a burial/ritual complex, dating to the Middle Bronze Age. A segmented ditch enclosing at least 12 cist burials was recorded. The ditch may have held a palisaded fence. Two large post-pits and five segmented pits are also thought to be contemporary with the ditch. A series of features enclosed by the ditch produced cereal remains. Large quantities of Hordeum vulagre var. nudum L. (naked barley) grains, some of which were of the six-row variety, were recorded in six of the cists C1976, C19186, C19192, C19197, C19214 and C19274 (Table 12). Each of these cists contained several thousand cereal grains, and representative sub-samples of each deposit were examined. The deposit recovered from cist C19186 was the largest – more than 1500 whole barley grains were recorded in the 3% sub-sample that was examined, indicating that the whole sample contains approximately 50,000 whole barley grains. In addition to the large barley assemblages, three of these cists (C19186, C19192 & C19274) also produced small quantities of Triticum sp. (wheat) grains. It should be noted that substantial quantities of cereal grain fragments were also recorded, indicating that these deposits may have been subject to considerable movement before their final deposition. Cereal chaff was absent from all deposits.

21

Adapted from McClatchie (2009). This report details finds from two different series of excavations (ie Sites 1-12 (Chapple 2008a) & 13-20) at the Gransha development site, though only the latter are dealt with in this volume. For the sake of completeness, general discussion of the totality of evidence from Sites 1-20 is included here, though the sections dealing exclusively with material from Sites 1-12 have been omitted and are published elsewhere (Chapple 2008a).

The recovery of such large quantities of naked barley grains at an Irish Bronze Age funerary site is unparalleled

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The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

in Ireland, at least in the published record.22 One must instead look to the Late Bronze Age hillfort at Haughey’s Fort, Co Armagh, for a comparable assemblage, where large quantities of naked barley (with few other plant remains) were recovered from pits within the hillfort enclosure. Other Middle and Late Bronze Age funerary and burial sites in Ireland have produced barley and wheat remains – such as the cremation deposits excavated recently on the Bord Gáis Pipeline to the West (Johnston 2007) – but usually in much smaller quantities.

Site 19 Discussion The presence of food remains in many of the features at Site 19, sometimes in large quantities, demonstrates the important role of cereals in activities at this site. The recovery of substantial cereal assemblages in a number of the cists may represent the remains of meals consumed by the living during burial ceremonies. Cereal remains may also have been deliberately placed into the cists in order to accompany or represent the dead.

Small quantities of barley grains, mostly naked with some six-row, were also present in other cists (C1962, C19217, C19244, C19256, C19266 & C19269), a posthole (C19101), a post-pipe (C1972), pits (C1989, C1993, C19201, C19228 & C19249) and a linear depression (C1974) within the ditch at Site 19. The plant types recorded in these smaller assemblages are similar to the large cereal deposits recovered from the cists, perhaps indicating that a range of other features around the cists were also in use when activities were taking place at the cists.

Site 19 produced a very small quantity of weed seeds and no cereal chaff. It should be noted that extraction of nonwood plant remains from most of the flots was not carried out by the author; flots were only available from the six cists that contained large quantities of cereal grains. It is possible that not all weed seeds and chaff were recognised during extraction - with a focus instead on cereal grains - which may explain the relative lack of weed and chaff remains from Site 19. It is clear that cultivated foods played an important role in activities at Site 19, with gathered foods being less well represented. This is in contrast with the Early Neolithic deposits at Sites 11 and 12 at Gransha, where gathered foods such as hazelnut appear to have been much more significant. This evidence reflects a more widespread trend – it has often been recognised that there seems to have been a decrease in hazelnut consumption during the Bronze Age in Ireland when compared with earlier periods (McComb & Simpson 1999).

Barley, particularly the naked variety, has traditionally been viewed as the predominant cereal of the Bronze Age in Ireland (Jessen & Helbaek 1944; Monk 1986). Recent research carried out by the author has clearly demonstrated, however, that cereal economies of Middle and Late Bronze Age Ireland are often more mixed, with regular evidence for hulled barley and wheat being recorded at recently excavated sites (Fuller et al. in press).

Conclusions The analysis of archaeobotanical material from excavations at Gransha has provided an insight into food choices over several millennia at this site. There is evidence for changing strategies relating to the types of foods being consumed and crops cultivated, and these changes are likely to be associated with social choices, as well as economic concerns and environmental constraints. At Gransha, foods appear to have represented an important element of both the domestic and ceremonial spheres, if such a distinction can be made.

Two hazelnut shell fragments were recorded in cist C19269. Weed seeds were only recorded in deposits where the flots were made available to the author (those containing the large barley assemblages). Almost all of these flots contained a small number of seeds of Polygonum sp. (knotgrass), representing a genus that can be found growing in a variety of environments, for example around settlements and in arable fields. Knotgrass may have been growing locally around the site, or may have been introduced along with the cereals, being inadvertently collected during harvesting of the crops. A single seed of Gramineae (grass) was also recorded in C19214, representing a plant family that could have been growing locally.

The Early Neolithic deposits at Sites 11 and 12 regularly produced hazelnut shells, with grains of wheat and some barley also being recorded. Cereals were more often associated with Site 12, with increased numbers of hazelnut shells being recorded at Site 11. If these sites are contemporaneous, this contrast in the plant remains record may represent different activity areas. By the Bronze Age, when Site 19 was in use, barley becomes the predominant foodstuff, with much smaller quantities of wheat grains being recorded and hazelnut shells being almost absent from the archaeological record. All of the material recorded in deposits at Gransha was preserved by charring. It should be noted that this method of preservation is often biased in favour of plants that are more likely to come into contact with fire. Cereals, for example, can be directly exposed to fire during the drying

22

Although Killymoon, county Tyrone, produced vast quantities of charred grain, and is broadly contemporary with the Gransha evidence, it has yet to be fully published (Hurl 1999, 5; Hurl et al nd, 3, 23, 48, 104).

141

Table 12: Non-wood plant macro-remains from Site 19.

142

grains

grain fragments barley

grains

grains

Hordeum vulgare L.

Hordeum vulgare L.

Triticum/Hordeum spp.

Cerealia

Gramineae

Cerealia

grains

Hordeum vulgare L.

% identified

Total

wheat/barley indeterminate cereal indeterminate grain fragments cereal seeds grass

barley

6-row barley

cf. hulled barley

grains

Hordeum vulgare L. …

… …

52 … 2

…

381

…

…

…

1

…

…

…

16

80

12

3

…

1

…

…

…

2

…

…

…

…

10%

2078

…

200

…

4

26

66

16

…

98

951

75%

2229

…

229

5

2

4

41

11

…

208

1297

…

432

…

…

…

114

1979

1976

16

…

1

…

…

…

4

…

…

3

5

…

3

…

…

…

119

1995

1989

54

…

5

…

1

2

8

1

…

6

24

…

7

…

…

…

113

1994

1993

9

…

…

…

…

…

4

…

…

3

2

…

…

…

…

…

112

1996

1993

16

…

3

…

…

4

4

3

…

…

1

1

…

…

…

…

105

4

…

…

…

…

…

2

2

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

116

3%

2228

…

402

2

4

23

89

10

…

165

1115

…

403

2

13

…

145

75%

2562

…

256

5

17

33

29

1

…

487

1285

…

447

1

1

…

144

75%

1982

…

138

6

7

4

87

15

…

156

1279

…

287

…

3

…

146

19102 19103 19187 19193 19198

19101 19101 19186 19192 19197

of crops and cooking activities. Such plants are therefore more likely to be represented in charred assemblages when compared with plants that are more often eaten raw or boiled, such as fruits and vegetables. It is therefore

52

…

…

715

…

1 …

2

…

115

1977

1976

…

…

…

136

1975

1974

…

…

…

…

…

…

grain fragments naked barley

knotgrass

…

118

1973

Hordeum vulgare var. nudum

achenes

shell fragments Hazelnut

…

135

Sample number

PLANT PART COMMON NAME

1963

Context number

1972

… Triticum sp. grains wheat Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare var. 6-row naked 50 grains nudum barley Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare var. 6-row naked … grain fragments nudum barley 119 Hordeum vulgare var. nudum grains naked barley

GRAMINEAE

Polygonum sp.

POLYGONACEAE

Corylus avellana L.

CORYLACEAE

BOTANICAL NAME

1962

Cut number

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

likely that the inhabitants of this site would have made use of an even wider range of plants than that represented in the examined deposits.

143

Table 12 (continued): Non-wood plant macro-remains from Site 19. grains grain fragments barley grains grains

Hordeum vulgare L.

Hordeum vulgare L.

Triticum/Hordeum spp.

Cerealia

Gramineae

Cerealia

grains

% identified

Total

wheat/barley indeterminate cereal indeterminate grain fragments cereal seeds grass

barley

6-row barley

cf. hulled barley

grains

Hordeum vulgare L.

…

80%

2000

1 22

181

3

2

…

…

…

7

93

10

…

2

8

6

…

1310

Hordeum vulgare L.

…

…

221

171

…

2

…

4

…

150

…

1

…

grain fragments naked barley

knotgrass

…

Hordeum vulgare var. nudum

achenes

shell fragments Hazelnut

PLANT PART COMMON NAME

Triticum sp. grains wheat Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare var. 6-row naked grains nudum barley Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare var. 6-row naked grain fragments nudum barley Hordeum vulgare var. nudum grains naked barley

GRAMINEAE

Polygonum sp.

POLYGONACEAE

Corylus avellana L.

CORYLACEAE

BOTANICAL NAME

147

40

…

8

…

…

6

10

9

1

1

3

…

2

…

…

…

154

3

…

…

…

…

…

1

1

…

…

1

…

…

…

…

…

159

20

…

5

…

…

2

4

6

…

…

2

…

1

…

…

…

158

4

…

…

…

1

1

2

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

152

5

…

1

…

…

…

1

2

…

…

1

…

…

…

…

…

162

23

…

8

…

…

6

6

3

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

164

14

…

4

…

…

3

5

1

…

…

1

…

…

…

…

…

168

4

…

…

…

…

…

…

2

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

2

169

80%

2064

…

247

6

4

6

38

6

…

185

1198

…

372

1

1

…

170

608

…

57

…

1

43

113

44

…

37

203

…

110

…

…

…

171

19202 19215 19218 19229 19245 19250 19257 19267 19267 19270 19275 19276

Context number Sample number

19201 19214 19217 19228 19244 19249 19256 19266 19266 19269 19274 19274

Cut number

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The excavation of an enclosed Middle Bronze Age cemetery at Gransha, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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