The evolution of integrated marketing communications : the customer-driven marketplace 9781315872728, 1315872722, 9781317979609, 1317979605, 9780415668927

Table of contents :
Content: Introduction: the evolution of IMC: IMC in a customer-driven marketplace --
Integrated marketing communications: from media channels to digital connectivity --
Integrated marketing communications measurement and evaluation --
Apples, oranges and fruit salad: a Delphi study of the IMC educational mix --
Building strong brands in a modern marketing communications environment --
The primacy of the consumer in IMC: espousing a personalist view and ethical implications --
Rethinking marketing communication: from integrated marketing communication to relationship communication --
IMC: new horizon/false dawn for a marketplace in turmoil?

Citation preview

The Evolution of Integrated Marketing Communications The Customer-driven Marketplace

Edited by Don E. Schultz, Charles H. Patti and Philip J. Kitchen

*

The Evolution of Integrated Marketing Communications

This book assesses updates and enhances the basic concepts surrounding the academic theory and practice of Integrated Marketing Com m unication (IM C). Since the intro­ duction of IMC in the late 1980s, the concept has spread around the world. In that expansion, m any authors have written about IM C; practitioners have adopted and adapted the concept to fit their own m arket situations. Further, dram atic changes have occurred in the technologies used in marketing com munications which consumers have accepted and employed in their consum ption of marketers' messages and incentives. Thus, there have been dram atic changes in how IM C was initially envisioned and how it has developed over time. The editors identify and discuss these changes, how they have occurred and w hat they mean going forward for all types of marketers around the world. Thus, IM C, and indeed integration o f com munications at all organisational levels is essential in the 21st century organisations. This book was published as a special issue o f the Journal o f M arketing C om m u­ nications. Don E. Schultz, Emeritus Professor-in-Service, The Medill School, Northwestern U ni­ versity is generally acknowledged as the founding father of Integrated Marketing C om m unication (IMC). He was the founding editor of the Journal o f D irect M a rke t­ ing, has researched and written extensively in the trade and academic press, while publishing 24 books and over 150 journal articles. Charles H. Patti, James M. Cox Professor o f Custom er Experience M anagem ent, University o f Denver, and Professor Emeritus, Queensland University of Technology (Brisbane, Australia). He is the au th o r o f ten books and dozens o f articles, book chapters, and cases on integrated marketing com munication, marketing managem ent, and customer experience. He serves on thirteen editorial boards and was nam ed the Marketing E ducator of the Year by the Marketing E ducators’ Association. Philip J . Kitchen is D ean of the Faculty of Business and Professor of Marketing at Brock University in C anada. Previously he has held Professorships at Hull University and Q ueen’s University, U K. He is the Founder and current E ditor of the Journal o f M arketing Com m unications (Taylor & Francis). He has published 13 books, and over 100 academic jo urn al articles. He is also Associate Professor of Marketing at ESC Rennes, France.

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The Evolution of Integrated Marketing Communications The Customer-driven Marketplace

E dited by

Don E. Schultz, Charles H. P atti and Philip J. Kitchen

13 Routledge Taylor & Francis Group; -QNDON AND NEWYORKI

First published 2011 by Routledge 2 P ark Square, M ilton P ark, A b in g d o n , O xon 0 X 1 4 4 R N Simultaneously published in the U S A an d C a n a d a by Routledge 711 T h ird Avenue, New York, N Y 10017 R outledge is an im print o f the T aylor & Francis G roup, an inform a business €> 2011 T aylor & Francis This b ook is a reproduction o f the Journal o f M a rke tin g C om m unications, vol. 15, issue 2-3. T h e Publisher requests to those a u th o rs w ho m a y be citing this book to state, also, the bibliographical details o f the special issue on which the b o o k was based. All rights reserved. N o p a r t of this b o o k m ay be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now know n or hereafter invented, including photo c o p y in g and recording, o r in any inform ation storage or retrieval system, w ith o u t permission in writing from the publishers. T radem ark notice: Product or co rp o rate nam es m ay be tra d e m a r k s or registered trad e m arks, and are used only for identification an d explanation w ithout intent to infringe. B ritish L ibrary C ataloguing in P ublication D ata A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-415-66892-7 Typeset in T im es New R om an by Taylor & F rancis Books Disclaimer T h e publisher would like to m ake readers aw are th a t the ch a pte rs in this book are referred to as articles as they had been in the special issue. T h e publisher accepts responsibility for any inconsistencies that m ay have arisen in the coursc o f p repa rin g this volum e for print.

Contents

N o tes on C ontributors

vii

1. Introduction: The evolution of 1MC: I M C in a customer-driven m arketplace D on E. Schultz, Charles II. P a tti and P hilip J. K itchen

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2. Integrated m arketing communications: From media channels to digital connectivity Frank M ulhern

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3. Integrated m arketing communications m easurem ent and evaluation M ichael T. Ew ing

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4. Apples, oranges and fruit salad: A Delphi study of the I M C educational mix G ayle Kerr

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5. Building strong brands in a modern m arketing communications environment Kevin L ane Keller

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ft. The prim acy of the consum er in I M C : Espousing a personalist view and ethical implications Jerry G. K liatchko

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7. Rethinking m arketing communication: From integrated marketing communication to relationship communication A k e Finite and Christian Gronroos

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8. I M C : New horizon/false dawn for a m arketplace in turmoil? Philip J. K itchen and D on E. S chultz

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In d ex

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V

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Notes on Contributors

Michael T. Ewing is Professor and Head of the D ep a rtm en t of Marketing in the Faculty o f Business & Economics, M onash University, Melbourne, Australia. He has published more than 80 articles in refereed journals, such as Inform ation S y s­ tem s Research, the Journal o f the A cadem y o f M arketing Science, the Journal o f Advertising Research, the Journal o f Advertising, the Journal o f Business Research, Business Horizons, Industrial M arketing M anagem ent, the European Journal o f M arketing and the Journal o f S m all Business M anagem ent. He serves on the edi­ torial boards of the Journal o f Service Research, the Journal o f Business Research, the International Journal o f Advertising and Industrial M arketing M anagem ent and is a m em ber o f the Board of G overnors of the A cademy o f Marketing Science. Akc Finnc, PhD. is senior lecturer at H anken Swedish School of Economics Finland. His research interest is marketing com munication focusing on the consumer. Christian Grfinroos is Professor at H anken Swedish School o f Economics Finland. His research interests are related to service marketing and customer relationship m a n ­ agement. Being one o f the pioneers in this research area, he was one of the early developers of the service m anagem ent and marketing school o f thinking, later labelled the N ordic School of Service Marketing. He is also the founder of C E R S Centre for Relationship Marketing and Scrvicc M anagem ent. Kevin Lane Keller is the E.B. O sborn Professor of M arketing at the Tuck School of Business at D artm o u th College, Hanover. Keller’s academic resume includes degrees from Cornell, D uke and Carnegie-Mellon universities, award-winning research and faculty positions at Berkeley, Stanford and U N C . T hrough the years, he has served as brand confidant to marketers for some of the w orld’s most successful brands, including Accenture, American Express, Disney, Ford, Intel, Levi-Strauss, Procter & G am ble and Starbucks. His textbook, Strategic brand m anagem ent, in its third edi­ tion, has been adopted at top business schools and leading firms around the world and has been heralded as the ‘bible o f bran d in g ’. He is also the co-author with Philip Kotler o f the all-time best selling introductory MBA marketing textbook, M arketing m anagem ent, now in its 13th edition. Gayle Kerr, PhD (Queensland University of Technology), is a senior lecturer in adver­ tising and IM C in the School o f Advertising, M arketing and Public Relations, Queensland University o f Technology. Kerr worked in the creative side o f advertis­ ing, before joining academia m ore than a decade ago to leach and research in

N O T E S ON C O N T R I B U T O R S

advertising and integrated marketing communication. H er areas o f research interest include advertising ethics and self-regulation, advertising m anagem ent and strategic research, integrated marketing communication and advertising and IM C education. Philip J . Kitchen, is D ean of the Faculty of Business and Professor of M arketing at Brock University in C an ada. Previously he has held Professorships at Hull U ni­ versity and Q ueen’s University, U K . He is the F ounder and current Editor o f the Journal o f M arketing Com m unications (Taylor & Francis). He has published 13 books, and over 100 academic journal articles. He is also Associate Professor of M arketing at ESC Rennes, France. Jerry G. Kliatchko is the Vice President for C orporate C om m unications and Academic AlTairs, University of Asia and the Pacific (UA&P), M anila, Philippines. He is also a professor o f IM C at the School o f Com m unication of UA&P and founded the IMC program in the same university in 1997. Frank Mulhern is Professor and Associate D ean for Research, Medill School, N o rth ­ western University, Illinois. Charles II. Patti, James M. Cox Professor of Custom er Experience M anagem ent, University of Denver, and Professor Emeritus, Queensland University of Technology (Brisbane, Australia). He is the au th o r of ten books and dozens of articles, book chapters, and cases on integrated marketing communication, marketing m a n ag e­ ment, and customer experience. He serves on thirteen editorial boards and was nam ed the Marketing E ducator of the Year by the M arketing E ducators’ Associa­ tion. Don E. Schultz. Emeritus Professor-in-Servicc, The Mcdill School, Northwestern U ni­ versity is generally acknowledged as the founding father o f Integrated Marketing Com m unication (IMC). He was the founding editor of the Journal o f D irect M a r­ keting, has researched and written extensively in the trade and academic press, while publishing 24 books and over 150 journal articles.

Introduction: The evolution of IMC: IMC in a customer-driven marketplace D on E. Schultz, Charles H. Patti and Philip J. Kitchen

One of the advantages of career longevity is the ability to see and experience change. In the academic area, the changes are not immediately obvious or radical. In marketing communications, w e’ve seen the development of new models of learning, the globali­ zation of higher education, increased emphasis on research, the call for m easurem ent of marketing productivity and the resulting emphasis on marketing metrics. Many of these changes have been profound. They have changed what we in the academic com munity think and theorize, as well as w hat practitioners do, forever. Certainly, earlier periods in marketing, which we often refer to as “ the good old days”, do set the stage for the present and the future. But, that only happens for those who accurately read the environment and assess the impact o f how we think about and practice marketing, and, especially marketing communications. During the past 50 years, many marketing m anagem ent concepts and frameworks have emerged. For example, the ‘4Ps’ (product, price, place and promotion), the pro­ duct life cycle, buyer behavior models, positioning, supply chains and a host of others. These frameworks often help shape the way we think about marketing, stimulate research questions, influence w hat is taught, and typically guide (and sometimes p ro­ scribe) marketing practice. Some o f these frameworks influence marketing practice for a long lime. Others are more short-lived, being replaced by new observations, innova­ tions and practices. This new book is focused on the development, m aturation and future of one o f these managerial frameworks - integrated marketing com munications (IMC). At this point, there is little doubt that IM C has become one of the most influential marketing m a n ­ agement frameworks o f our time. Today, IM C is the subject o f professional works and textbooks; trade and academic conferences; higher education curricula; academic journals and industry magazines; and the actual practice o f IM C in the marketplace. Along with this research and learning, there has been an on-going, lively discussion about how to shorten the gap between what is happening with 1MC and w hat should happen. For example, how did the IM C evolution occur? W h at are the primary drivers? W h a t changes have resulted? And, where do we go from here? All these areas and more, make up the on-going discussion of IM C. And, that is what this text is all about.

T h e ‘good old d a y s ’ The world, consumers, com munications systems and the study o f Integrated Marketing Com m unications (1MC) have all changed dramatically in the last dozen years. When

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INTRODUCTION

IM C first entered the scene, through managerial articles, and the iconic text Integrated M arketing Com m unication: Pulling It Together and M aking It W ork (Schultz, Tannenbaum and Lauterborn, 1993), integration of marketing com munications was initi­ ally seen to be a rather simple managerial task. M ost marketing communication methodologies were focused on four areas: advertising, sales prom otion, direct m a r ­ keting and public relations. And, those were then separated into above-and below-theline expenditures. Thus, the m a nage r’s integrating task was perceived to be aligning and coordinating messages and incentives delivered through those four functional areas to consumers. The goal was to present a dear, cohesive and comprehensible whole that moved or persuaded consumers along the com munication and purchasing continuum. In this rather simple, outbound, mass communication approach, marketers generally controlled the system: i.e., the product/service being prom oted, the media forms being used, the com munication timing, content and so on. Thus, the marketing organization and the internal marketing com munication managers developed and managed most of the com munication elements being sent through the media. As a result, the focus of most marketing com munication was on identifying target markets, developing mass media com munication forms and then, delivering messages and incentives that had been developed, as efficiently as possible. N o one thought very much about m easure­ ment, what we now call accountability, nor, indeed was this perceived as a necessary part of the system. Thus, integration at that time, at least as perceived by the professional and academic communities, was essentially all about tactical coordination, that is, making sure the same corporate colors were used in all com munication, the logo was correct and cor­ rectly placed, the aural elements o f brands were properly aligned and the like. All of this was internally focused, reflecting w hat marketers wanted, or hoped to deliver to audiences whoever and wherever they might be. In short, initially, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, integration was fairly simple and often simplistic. N o wonder the early critics of integration saw nothing new in the idea or the concept. It was w hat skilled and practiced marketing com m unicators had been doing ad nauseaum. The process simply codified what many perceived to be the “ best practiccs” or w hat the best practices should be. M ost research on integration and IM C , since the focus was on tactical alignment and integration, was on the “ how to ” or “ how it was being d one” . Therefore, much of the early research on IM C focused on com parative studies o f how agencies were doing integration or how clients were doing it or how advertising and public relations agen­ cies could work together to make integration happen or make that happening easier. It was primarily reporting the “ h ow ” rather than the underlying “ what or why” . U n fo r­ tunately, in too many instances, that focus on application research still exists. In the marketplace, the same tired processes and approaches still seemed to work. Television advertising was still the d om in ant tool used to persuade consumers to buy. And, even though it didn’t convince or persuade as well as it once did, it was “ good e n ou gh” . Therefore, for many marketers, there was no need to change. O r was there?

E n te r new tech n o lo g y In the mid 1990s, new digital technology burst on the scene in the forms o f the internet and World Wide Web. Along with digitalization came a large num ber o f ancillary

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INTRODUCTION

com m unication devices, products and services. First, there were fax machines and computers, then cell phones, then iPods and Blackberries and now social networks such as YouTube, Facebook, MySpace and the like. These new tools essentially offered consumers new ways to com municate with each other, and, increasingly gave them new ways to access inform ation and even to talk back to marketers who were trying to influence their purchases. Consumers were no longer passive recipients of messages sent by marketing organizations through traditional media forms: the former receivers had suddenly become active com munication generators. The digital revolution w'as not just limited to com m unication devices. It enabled the capture and use of vast am ounts of information in the form o f customer databases. T h a t data spawned C ustom er Relationship M anagem ent (C R M ) and a host of allied fields, all designed to give marketers better insights into customers and prospects and, enable them to sell more. Initially, marketers controlled most o f these tools and tech­ niques which enabled them to better target their messages. But, today, increasingly, consumers are employing what is now being called V R M or Vendor Relationship M anagem ent, that simply means consumers now have access to and are beginning to use technology in much the same way marketers have used it in the pas t...to identify, evaluate and build relationships with the suppliers they have identified as being the most relevant and practical for their needs. Thus, we have seen digital technology now come full circle, from usage by marketers to influence consumers to consumers now using the same tools to m anage marketers.

U n e v e n d e v e lo p m e n t One o f the m ajor integration challenges in the development of IM C is that the digital technology capabilities have not expanded or developed evenly around the world. For example, some o f the emerging markets such as China, India, Nigeria, Brazil and others arc much more advanced in digital technology than what have traditionally been considered as established markets, i.e. the USA, U K , C a n a d a and Western Europe. The emerging market model was simple. If there arc no telephone lines in place, simply build cell phone towers. Thus, many of the newly developing economies have jumped from very limited com m unication systems to the most sophisticated in the world, often in incredibly short time frames. For example, China and India now dom inate cell phone usage. Consum ers have generally accepted and embraced these leaps into the future. So, countries that would once have been considered “ poor relations” such as South Africa, Chile and Finland are leading the way in digital com m unication development. M any of the developed countries are now struggling in trying to integrate internet and online with the established old line, traditional media. Thus, there are widely varying levels of integration across the globe and widely disparate approaches to IM C. M ost o f these cannot be explained in any other way than com m unicators struggling mightily, trying to make some sense out of systems that d id n ’t even exist as recently as 10 years ago. T h at in part, we argue, is why research and understanding of integration and 1MC has developed so unevenly around the globe. The issues faced in integrating offline and online com munication, such as the task that marketers in the USA, U K , and Australia face are radically different from those which are focused primarily on digital systems built on telecommunication backbones. In both instances, however, the old, traditional

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INTRODUCTION

marketing and marketing com munication research applications used in the past are often irrelevant. Emerging markets such as China, Korea and Singapore have the most cellular and telecommunications experience with these new media forms. At the same time, in developed markets, practitioners and academics alike are trying to resolve the issues created by the slowly emerging digital and interactive systems while trying to rid themselves of the historical and traditional media concepts and approaches based on mass marketing, from ‘the good old days’. The challenge, of course, is that it is this traditional, mass media delivered, outbound or “ pu sh ” system, in which almost all marketers have been trained, is now colliding with the new', inbound and customer controlled systems o f web search, new media and instant, electronic word-of-mouth. These new systems, often term ed “ pull” c o m m u ­ nication are just developing, but, they give the consum er huge am oun ts o f power in defining the marketplace. Integration and the issues of developing integrated marketing com munication pro­ grams simply are not the same in any of the systems around the world (see Kitchen, Kim & Schultz, 2008). T h a t’s w hat creates many o f the challenges in research and in practice. And, those are some of the topics addressed in this book

D evelo ping the b o o k c o n c ep t

The evolution o f 1MC follows a maturity pattern similar to that of other marketing m anag em ent frameworks. For example, when Peter D rucker wrote about the marketing concept in 1954, and T heodore Levitt provided additional views in 1960, they were reacting to observable environmental changes in the USA that were making product and sales orientation increasingly irrelevant. M any academic concepts evolve in a more or less predictable way as show'n in Figure 1. This figure traces the evolution o f IM C thinking and research, from environmental m onitoring (Step 1) to the observations and initial concepts (Steps 2 and 3) that flowed from that environmental monitoring (articulated in the Schultz et al. 1993 book). Next were the first attempts to define IM C (Step 4). Much early 1MC research focused on specifying the m an agem en t process within IM C and identifying the various obstacles to IM C implementation (Step 5). Over lime, measuring IM C outcomes (Step 6) was seen as the key to m ore widespread adoption and adaptation of the IMC framework. Today, several issues (Step 7) have emerged from that framework. Those then become the next steps in IM C development. These issues, as well as the revisiting of selective initial concepts and definitions, form much of this b o o k ’s content. The three editors have long and varied experience in the development of IMC. We have studied the environmental changes that have forced the new developments. We have considered IM C from many different views and perspectives. In short, we have been there from the beginning. All of us have worked and taught extensively in a num ber of markets. Thus, we believe we know the m ajor topic areas that should be included in this text and even had ideas o f who the most capable authors might be.

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INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.

D evelopm ent of IMC.

But, in spite o f o u r own expertise, we started this bo ok, and the chapters that c o m ­ prise it, in the sam e way a research pape r m ight be developed, with a literature review. Wc hoped to do a global literature review o f I M C since the conccpt has grown so rapidly a ro u n d the world. U nfortunately, since all o f us speak only English, we were limited to th a t language. So, m o st o f o u r IM C literature review, has a western m a rk e t O ne thing we also did was to look far beyond w hat h ad been published in the m ainstream jo u rn a ls an d ex tan t books. We reviewed convention proceedings, from both academ ic and p ractitioner meetings. We identified the m a jo r unresolved topics in I M C research and theory developm ent. O u r focus was on where I M C was headed, rather th a n where it had been. This extensive review led to a b ro a d range o f potential topics and a wide array o f potential authors. From this prelim inary analysis, the IM C topic areas that had not been adequately covered in the literature, and , even some that had not even been addressed, but, wc felt were critical to on-going succcss, were iden­ tified. Clearly, an acceptablc or at least well-accepted, definition o f 1MC has n o t yet been developed. Nor, has the m e a su re m e n t o f 1MC progra m s or the relationship between b ran d s a n d I M C been clearly articulated. All o f these were considered. Figure 2 illustrates the topics which we believe need the m o st add itio n a l d evelopm ent to build the on-going m a tu rity o f IM C theory, research an d practice. We were helped considerably in this review process by two new areas o f emerging IM C research. T ho se are (a) how IM C is being ta u g h t in colleges an d universities aro u n d the world; and (b) the resources used in those courses (i.e. books, articles and other learning materials). T h re e papers were very helpful. In 2004, Kerr, Patti an d Chicn c onduc te d a syllabi review o f the te aching o f I M C in A ustralia and New Z ealand. T h a t pape r was published in the Proceedings, A ustralia and N ew Z e a la n d M a rketin g A ca d em y C onference an d provided a base level o f w hat I M C really m e a n t to the academ ic c o m m u n ity in that geography.

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INTRODUCTION

r

4

DEFINITIOIN OF IMC

w e ****

Figure 2.

IMC topics for development.

Spinning off that initial study in Asia-Pacific, Schultz, Kerr, Patti and Kim (2007) expanded the teaching universe to include 17 countries. They too used the course syl­ labus as the basis for understanding w hat academicians believed constituted IMC. T hat study was based on the title and location of the course, that is, in w hat school or departm ent it was located, the texts the instructor had selected, the course title and, from the syllabi, and, the specific topics covered. This gave a very clear view of what the academic com m unity believed at that time to be the key elements in IM C , i.e. professors and instructors tend to teach what they think is im portant and that is evi­ dent in their classroom topics and lectures. A third study which used much of the same syllabi review approach was used for guidance. T h at paper ‘A n Inside-Out A pproach to Integrated M arketing C o m m u n ic a­ tion: An International Analysis’ (Kerr, Waller and Patti 2009). The authors used the syllabi analysis approach to identify the key issues in IM C and how they thought those concepts and approaches could or might lead to the development of a more com p re­ hensive theory base. All this provided the fodder for the topics we thought should be included in this book and in the preceding issue o f the Journal o f M arketing Com m unications (2009). We then shared our topic areas with other m ajor writers in IM C in the USA, U K and Belgium. Here, the professors we contacted had wide and extensive experience in researching writing and teaching IMC.

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INTRODUCTION

F in d in g the rig h t a u t h o r s an d su g g e stin g c o n te n t In the development of a compiled book, the correct identification of chapter authors is critical. To make ccrtain we got the contributions we wanted in the areas wc had identified, we began by identifying the leading a uth or or thinker in that area and inviting that person to provide a contribution. Fortunately, all the identified authors agreed to participate. Inherent in our process of topic and a uthor identification was the development o f a precis o f what was wanted from each author. Thus, each prospective a uthor was pro­ vided with a brief overview of the topic area they were to develop. They were then asked to respond in their contributions to the issues and questions in their specific overview. In some cases, the authors agreed totally. In others, there w»as negotiation and, ultimately consensus. Overall, however, the resulting content was acceptable to both the authors and editors. Below is a brief sum m ary of the overviews provided to the prospective authors. If read separately and concurrently, they provide an overview of the ongoing issues that IM C researchers and practitioners should address, now, and into the future.

O verview o f su g g e sted c o n t e n t for invited c o n trib u tio n s

Definition The definition of IM C continues to challenge development and im plementation o f the concept. M any have argued that IM C lacks a theory base, but, until w hat is m eant by 1MC is clearly defined and, there is some consensus am ong both academics and prac­ titioners, it will continue to be difficult to develop theory or even theoretical under­ pinnings. Today given the changes in com munication systems and the marketplace, this definition issue becomes even more im portant. As consumers increasingly gain control of the systems, what does that mean for integration and an integrated approach? A uthors therefore, had to address the issues of developing a relevant and useful defi­ nition o f IM C in tod ay’s rapidly changing marketplace

Brands and branding Branding has become one of the key elements of marketing in the post-modern world. Yet, there is little agreement on how brands and branding can, should, or will be developed in an interactive marketplace. Historical approaches to brand and branding development place heavy emphasis on advertising and promotion. T h at methodology seems questionable today, and perhaps inadequate. In a ‘push-pull’ marketplace, where customers have access to massive am ou nts o f information about the brand, the co m ­ pany, its products, and, in which social networks have, in some cases, replaced brand networks, the entire topic of branding needs additional development. For example, questions of how brands can and should be developed, maintained and expanded in to d a y ’s interactive marketplace continue to arise. Do current concepts and approaches

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INTRODUCTION

slill work and are they slil! workable? Clearly, there is a need for an integrated and aligned approach to brands and branding. W hat is that, and, how should it be devel­ oped going forward?

M easurem ent Marketing com munication planning and results have historically been measured on a functional or a mcdium-by-mcdium basis - one measure for advertising, another for public relations, yet ano th er for sales prom otion and so on. The new electronic co m ­ munication systems have fallen into the same trap, one measure for web, ano th er for word-of-mouth, another for mobile. Yet, consumers seem to use all these co m m unica­ tion systems concurrently, simultaneously and one would assume, synergistically. Indeed, new words for media consum ption such as ‘synasthesia’ have been coined. If this is true, what are the challenges in measuring the impact and effect o f these inte­ grated systems? How should synergy between com munication forms be considered and measured? W hat measures should be used, that is, should we use attitudinal shifts, financial returns, long term or short-term measures or what? All these questions con­ tinue to exist in the broad area of marketing and marketing com munications account­ ability.

M edia Media, media proliferation and the resulting audience fragmentation seem to typify the twenty first century marketplace. Where once media was the backwater o f marketing com munication, it now has become the primary concern. The explosion o f new media forms is only part of the challenge. Media planning, buying and development have all become legitimate fields of endeavor with some now arguing for a return to the c o m ­ bined media/crcativc agency approach to assure integration. How should or will media and media planning and buying develop in the ‘push-pull’ marketplace? W ho docs it specialists, generalists, clients, agencies, or others? W h at impact have the new media forms had on traditional media planning? Is there a com m on thread that permeates all forms of media that can be used by planners to develop truly integrated marketing com munication programs? These are am ong a plethora o f challenges in the broad field of media and IMC.

M arketing Theory Traditional marketing theory grew out of a manufacturing concept, primarily focused on consumer packaged goods. Indeed, the prim ary pioneer marketers of the twentieth century m anufactured products and then found ways to distribute and then promote them in the marketplace. T hat is the basis for the 4Ps concept, which has dominated marketing thinking for the past 60 years. Yet, today, services or service-driven organi­ zations are generally the rule. Many o f the issues services-dominated organizations face are unlike those o f the manufacturer, where integration of product and support services provides the base for ‘solution-selling’. In this emerging interactive marketplace, how

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INTRODUCTION

should marketing theory be adapted, adjusted or revised? Clearly, the entire field of marketing is being re-thought (see Kitchen, 2011). Much of that re-thinking is being driven by developments in the broad field of integrated systems and IMC. For example, are current marketing frameworks and their underlying theory still relevant? If they are, should they be adapted or adjusted to accom m odate a marketplace where the customer is rapidly gaining control? Or, do we need to totally re-think the concept of marketing? These are challenging issues that need a coherent viewpoint stemming from an integrated approach.

Em erging m arkets IM C was developed for and in a highly sophisticated western marketing system. It assumes a num ber of marketing variables, that is, established distribution channels, stable and extensive financial systems, competition, yet with semi-controlled com peti­ tors and so on. In the emerging markets that are so critical today, many o f these assumed systems and processes either do not exist or are only in the developmental stage. How does IM C relate to and develop in these emerging new markets? Are the existing m eth­ odologies and processes appropriate for these markets or do they need to be adapted and/or adjusted? Questions that continue to be asked are those such as how IMC can be used in emerging markets and what needs to be adapted or adjusted to make the concept m ore relevant and useful.

Culture IM C was developed in and for western markets with all focus on western thought patterns, that is, individualism, survey research, analysis, segmentation and categoriza­ tion. Thus, the IM C concept is culturally biased, and most likely, culturally biased as well. IM C assumes that the market elements arc separate and unique from products that arc separate from customers who arc also separate from media. Yet, in many markets, holistic systems are the n o rm , not the exception. W h at role does culture play in the development and implementation of an integrated marketing communication approach in these emerging markets? Can IM C develop in the same way and at the same speed in culturally different markets? Ideally, solutions to these questions will suggest m ethods and approaches that might be used to make IM C m ore culturally relevant around the world.

Tea citing/learning

The primary disciplines o f marketing com m unication such as advertising, public rela­ tions, direct, sales prom otion and the like have developed separately and independently, both in research and teaching and in actual practice. Indeed for the most part, teaching and training in m ost colleges and universities have been activity-based that is, how to develop advertising campaigns, how to prepare sales promotion programs, etc. Courses and entire curricula have been developed along those lines and faculty and students

9

INTRODUCTION

have pursued these programs to their ultimate end - a degree, diploma, certificate or other official recognition. Yet, IM C is most likely a form of generalist-genre. How can an IM C advocate combine, coordinate, align and integrate all marketing com m unica­ tion activities? Academically, how should IM C curricula be developed? W h a t m eth­ odologies should be employed to assure students understand and can operate in a professional practice? How should IM C be taught in the current and future m arket­ place and what should students expect to learn? This is critically im portant to the future of IM C as emerging leaders need a firm foundation in the concept and some practical application in performance. These issues continue to plague IM C , even some twenty years after it was first developed. As you will see, most of these topics arc addressed in this text. But, not all. Quite honestly, finding authors who could or would address some of these issues proved more difficult than we had imagined. Therefore, eight topic areas were identified. At least six of those topics are more than adequately covered in this book. So, while all the areas we believe are im portan t are not covered, the contributions m ade do provide a sub­ stantial am ou nt of new knowledge, inform ation and thinking. Perhaps readers of this text will develop solutions to the areas we have not covered. T hat, quite honestly, is the purpose of this book...to provide a base of what we know and d o n ’t know about IM C. Only from this base can we hope to grow the field. Moreover, the field of marketing, communications and integrated is continually exposed to the winds o f technological acceleration. And these advancements are rapidly embraced by consumers everywhere.

R e fe re n c e s Drucker, P. (1954), The Practice o f M anagem ent, New York: H a r p e r Collins. Kerr, G.F., Patti, C .H. and Chien, M. (2004), Integrated m arketing c om m un ica tio n (IMC): A New Discipline With An Old Learning Approach: A Syllabi Analysis. In Proceedings. A u s­ tralia and N ew Z ea la n d M arketing A cadem y Conference, November. 44-51. Kerr, G.F., Waller, G. a nd Patti, C .H . (2009), An Inside O u t A p proa ch to Integrated M arketing Com m un ication: A n International Analysis. Journal o f M arketing E ducation, Vol. 31 (3), 264-272. Kitchen, P.J. K im , I. and Schultz, D.E. (2008), ‘Integrated M arketing Com m unicatio ns: Practice Leads T h e o r y ’ Journal o f Advertising Research, 48 (4), 531-546. Kitchen, P.J. (Editor). (2011), The D om inance o f M a rketing in the 21s' Century: The M arketing L eviathan, Palgrave-M acm illan, Basingstoke, Septem ber 2011, in press. Levitt, T. (1960) M arketing M y opia , H arvard Business Review. Schultz, D.E., Kerr, G.F., Patti, C.H. and Kim, I. (2007), 'In Search o f a T h eo ry o f Integrated M arketing C o m m u n ic a tio n s’, Journal o f Advertising Education 11(2), 32-48. Schultz, D.E., T a n n e n b au m , S. and L auterbo rn. R.F. (1993), Integrated m arketing C om m unica­ tion: Pulling it Together and M akin g it W ork. New York: M cGraw-Hill.

10

Integrated m arketing com m unications: F rom media channels to digital connectivity F rank M u lh e rn Northwestern University, M edill School, 1845 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, USA Media is in the midst of a digital revolution that frees news, information and advertising from the technological limits of print and broadcast infrastructures. The digitization and networking of information transform marketing communications into a vastly different set of practices for connecting consumers and brands. This paper overviews the transformation in media and describes the implications for integrated marketing communications (IMC) practice and scholarship. Digital media brings about infinite reproduction of content, consumer networking, user-generated content and an expansion of media from news and entertainment to almost any technology that has a digital interface with people. The role of media in marketing communications practices shifts from the execution of message strategies into an extension of consumer understanding. Media planning, the practice of allocating a media budget across a set of vehicles, will be replaced by a dynamic, automated process that serves ads based on information streams of consumer intentions and actions. Several of the core principles of IMC - consumer insight, data-driven decision making, cross-mcdia integration and communications with multiple stakeholders - represent an improved framework for managing communications in a digital world.

In tro d u ctio n T h e curren t rev o lu tio n in in fo rm atio n te c h n o lo g y and digital c o m m u n ic a tio n fits the sa m e pattern as the p rev io u s industrial revolutions, in cluding the m ost recent o n e that g av e us m ass p ro d u ctio n , m ass m a rk e tin g and m ass c o m m u n ic a tio n s . In her bo o k , T e c h n o lo g ic a l re v o lu tio n s a n d fin a n c ia l c a p ita l, C arlota P erez (2 0 0 2 ) d es c rib e s h o w te c h n o lo g ic a l rev o lu tio n s progress thro ugh four stages - interrup tion, frenzy, sy nergy and m atu rity - all stages closely tied to the allo catio n o f financial capital. T h e digital rev o lu tio n has b lo ss o m e d into the p o st-fre n zy synergy stage w h ere a w ell-fina nce d te c h n o lo g y dep lo y s itself acro ss the e c o n o m y . In an in terview ab out the p r o p o se d M ic ro s o ft a c q u isitio n o f Y ah o o !, M ic ro s o ft C E O S teve B a llm e r re m a rk e d that ‘offline ad v e rtisin g will all be online within 10 y e a r s ’ ( W all S tre e t J o u r n a l 2008, B l ) . T h is sim p le sta te m e n t reflects the e n o r m o u s tra n sfo rm a tio n o f ad v e rtisin g as it m ig ra tes from a print and b ro a d c a st w orld to a digital one. It is difficult to o v e re stim a te the im p a c t o f this transition on the w ay c o m p a n ie s interact w ith co n s u m e rs. O f all the d iffe ren ce s b e tw e e n tradition al ad v e rtisin g and m e d ia and the em e rg in g w orld o f digital c o m m u n ic a tio n s , non e is g rea ter than the f u n d a m e n ta l diffe ren ce b e tw e e n

11

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS the idea of co m m unications being about the delivery of messages through m edia channels versus com m unications being about an electronic world o f networks, algorithms and autom ated system s for m anaging the connections between inform ation and people. W hile creative messages remain at the core o f com m unications, the e nc roachm ent of automated advertising networks such as G oogle search advertising and data-driven ad placem ent will shift much of m edia planning into a process that looks m ore like business logistics. This transform ation poses a serious challenge for m edia com panies, agencies and brand m arketers w ho have constructed a sophisticated infrastructure to send messages to target audiences through m edia channels but do not have the m indset nor the technical expertise to m aster the data analysis and m odeling o f the digital m edia world. T raditional advertising long has been im m ersed in the process o f aggregating large audiences and delivering m essages to them. W hile that approach to advertising continues to dom inate m edia spending, a parallel world is developing that focuses on search, spiders, social networks, cloud com puting and algorithms that filter and serve information (P lum m er et al. 2007). T hese capabilities are working their way through everything digital - that is, all information. It will include all of w h at we have know n as media and advertising. Rem arkably, the traditional m arketing com m unications business still places m u ch more em phasis on branding and creative w ork than on data, metrics, quantitative m odels and digital technology (Ha 2008). T his paper overview s the transformative shifts in m edia and discusses what they mean for the integrated m arketing com m un ication s (IM C ) and for scholarly research in m arketing and advertising. T he digitization of m edia represents a phase change in the history of com m unications. A dvertising, with its well developed business m odels and processes for targeting consum ers with brand m essages, is being reinvented for a world w here dem ographically targeted print and broadcast messages are supplanted with datadriven, contextually relevant brand com m unications that no longer have to be paired with news or entertainment. For exam ple, some brand messages will migrate to mobile devices that directly reach con sum ers w ithout a connection to news or entertainment. The implications of the current revolution for m edia and marketing com m u nications are systemic, profound and unlike anything the field has experienced, not even the advent of television. W hile television brought on a revolution in advertising content and provided an avenue for powerful messages and creative content, its inclusion in the m edia mix operated with the same business model as radio - the selling o f broadcast time slots based on dem ographically defined target audiences. Before exam ining w hat advertising m edia is b ecom ing, we consider w hat is has been for the past few' decades. M odern m arketing com m unications has evolved from a mass co m m unications world that rested on a few key prem ises that underlie how m arketing co m m unications arc done, and how they are received by consumers: • A udiences can be aggregated into monolithic entities with hom og enous tastes (Napoli 2003). • Advertising can attach itself to m edia content and project itself onto audiences by interrupting the delivery of that content (M althouse, Calder, and T am h an e 2007). • C onsum ers will accept the intrusive delivery o f com m ercial m essages in exchange for free, or nearly free, content (M oorm an, Neijens, and S m it 2005). • Brand m essages generate brand aw areness and preferences that translate, h ow ever loosely, into co n su m er spending (Tellis 2005). • Brand com m unications can be bundled into media plans that span multiple vehicles which constitute a relevant array of exposures to target consumers (Lee and Park 2007).

12

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS These prem ises rem ain the bedrock of m odern advertising and m edia planning. They have served the industry well by building brand differentiation and driving co n su m er spending. H ow ever, in the digital, interactive world that is em erging, these prem ises becom e less appropriate. M ass com m u nicatio n, m atched with mass production and mass distribution, gave us the m odern era of m arketing and its focus on brand aw areness, intensive distribution and aggressive promotions. The Internet replaces this industrial era m odel of com m un ication with a netw orked inform ation system that has as its bedrock a set o f properties that look more like an open, free m arketplace than the centrally controlled, top-dow n rigid one o f mass com m unications.

T h e n e t w o r k e d in f o r m a t i o n e c o n o m y One can approach the changes in media in a variety of ways. At the core, two related things, both technological, underlie all o f the changes taking place. The first is the digital codifying of information. The web of the 1990s was the conversion o f print content into digital formats in the form of web pages and electronic files. The second is the networking of that digital content. O nce things are digital and networked, a w hole host of things take place that com prise w hat B enkler (2006) calls the netw orked information econom y. B enkler describes how a digital, netw orked m edia enables: (1) the production and distribution of inform ation through nonproprietary processes m uch like those in the arts, education and sciences; (2) a blend of market and n onm arket m e chanism s for m aking inform ation available to the public; and (3) large-scale, cooperative efforts that generate output from many providers, best exemplified by wikis. Unlike the mass production econom y of the tw entieth century, a networked inform ation econom y features:

In fin ite re p ro d u ctio n a n d sh a rin g A print new spaper or magazine can only be consum ed when it is physically in the hand o f a reader. Television can only be watched when the consum er is physically positioned in front of a screen. H owever, in a digital world, media content is free o f the physical constraints of print and broadcast and can be copied and shared repeatedly, at little or no cost and with no loss o f quality. Infinite reproduction destroys the business models o f m edia com panies that make money selling duplicates o f content (Hum phreys and Messaris 2005).

M o d u la rity o f c o n te n t In traditional media, news, entertainm ent and advertising are bundled by editors and producers into relevant packages for audiences. A digital, networked infrastructure enables individual pieces, new s stories for exam ple, to be unbundled and freely distributed separately from packaged content. Advertising can attach itself to a new s story without being associated with a new spaper. No one needs to buy the entire new spaper to get one story. T he modularity of content has several ramifications: • W hen information is unbundled and open, barriers to entry disappear. As more participants produce content, large m edia firms lose control o f content and distribution. • M odular inform ation is more efficient than bundled inform ation because it provides people with w hat they want without extraneous content. • A dvertisem ents also becom e m odular and travel with pieces o f inform ation, no longer having to be packaged and sold in big bundles.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS • Content aggregation happens on the dem and side as consum ers construct content bundles to suit their desires.

C o n su m e r n etw o rk s The field of co nsum er behavior has produced an enormity of research about individual co nsum er decision making, essentially (and largely implicitly) adopting the fram ew ork of psychology that holds that the individual person, not the group, household or com m un ity, is paramount. C on sum ers have always operated in social netw orks as dem onstrated by research on household buying behavior. H ow ever, the absence of an ability to track person-to-person connections has kept network effects largely off-limits. Today, Internetenabled networks provide social graphs - depictions of who talks to w hom , that promise to rem ake the w hole idea of who a c onsum er is. The centrality of the individual decision m aker will give way to m eaningful social clusters that make purchase decisions and effectively constitute the target audiences for advertisers (Barabasi 2003).

U ser-co n tro l a n d c o n te n t p ro d u c tio n M edia com panies and advertising agencies have long operated in a centralized environm ent w here content producers and distributors serve as gatekeepers for w hat gets produced and dissem inated. T echnologies now em p o w e r consum ers to control what information they receive and to produce text, images, audio and video c onten t for others to access (Shirky 2008).

C u sto m ized co n te n t O nce users are in control, they will create w hatever consum ption experience they desire. The m edia content, ads and all, will be custom ized - not by the m edia com pany or marketer, but by the user. This shifts the marketing co m m unic ations role from one of aggregating audiences to one o f responding to consum er desires with relevant information and services that are highly custom ized (Gal-Or and G al-O r 2005).

I n fo rm a tio n strea m s One byproduct o f digitization is continuous streams of data about how people interact with information. M arketing c om m unic atio ns has built an enorm ously large set of business practices on a very small am o unt of inform ation from survey research and consu m er panels for things such as grocery shopping. T he torrent of digital inform ation now produced by digital m edia will reorient m arketing co m m unic ations m uch the way it has done for business logistics and operations research. O ngoing tracing of m edia use and buying behavior will parallel, and to som e degree replace, the static m ethods of market research and qualitative research. N icholas C arr (2008) draws parallels between the Internet and the origins of the electricity grid. He claim s that the web is progressing toward the concentration of com puting p ow er and storage with a few, m ajor suppliers, just as electricity production consolidated into a few, large utility com panies. T he declining cost o f processing, storage and transm ission will contribute to the digitization of not ju st m edia but o f all inform ationbased aspects of industry and governm ent. Digitization overhauls entertainment, health care and education and in many ways will m ake those industries operate with many of the properties of m edia - inform ation archiving and sharing, audience aggregation and

14

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS co m m unity developm ent. For exam ple, the ongoing process of digitizing medical records created a media-like entity within the medical com m unity. In a nondigital world, m edia is inform ation distributed on physical devices; in a digital world, m edia becom es the hum an interface with the vast and expanding digital universe.

A d v e r tis i n g as a service T he p la ce m ent of advertisem ents in media has long relied on fairly well-developed softw are systems that allocate advertising budgets across m edia alternatives based on expected audience profiles. The digitization o f m edia has brought on a higher level o f autom ation in advertising allocation. A lgorithm s now place ads based on key word m atches identified by search term s or context-specific placem ents based on web content. While ad placem en t often suffers from a lack o f contextual relevance, the continued evolution of the Internet, particularly the d eve lop m e nt of the semantic w eb, will im prove advertising targeting dramatically. The semantic web will feature interpretations of inform ation that m im ic the hum an mind; this will be an e n orm ous im p ro vem ent over to d a y ’s keyw ord-based systems for search, re c o m m end a tions and advertising. Such interpretive capabilities are, to a limited extent, in use by online dating services that evaluate a wide range of detailed information to generate overall profiles. T he digital transform ation m eans that m edia and entertainm ent com panie s can no longer financially prosper by sim ply charging for content or m onetizing audiences for advertisers. W hile consum ers are reluctant to pay for information they can get for free, they will pay for ancillary services and intangibles such as trust and authenticity guarantees that the inform ation is w hat it purports to be. So too, co nsu m ers will pay for services, mostly digital ones, that are matched with com m ercial m essaging and brand connectivity. The m odel is already in place with advertising-supported search engines, online maps, social netw orking cites such as M y S p ac e and Facebook and recom m endation and filtering services typified by G o o g le ’s inclusion of ads with RSS news feeds. Advertising will continue to align itself with services that users value (P lum m er et al. 2007). In fact the present rush to develop w idgets - digital service applications represents a small but significant advance tow ard advertising as a service. T he shift to advertising-supported services opens up enorm ous opportunities for advertisers to expose co nsu m ers to brand m essages and, m ore im portantly, to interact with them. A m ong the em erging advertising-as-service models are what Reubel (2008) calls a d ve rtisin g -su p p o rted a d vertising - essentially brand co m m unication and interaction platforms that bypass m edia com panies. Brand m anufacturers and retailers are beginning to create online com m unities that feature inform ation, gam es and social netw orks that work much like digital m edia com panies. One consequ ence of this is a reduction in the need for advertisers to rely on m edia organizations. This enables organizations of all types to operate as media entities - connecting information to co nsum ers in relevant ways. C om m ercial m essages and interactions with co nsum ers will be partnered writh media, events, entertainm ent, retailers and digital services of all types. In to d a y ’s com m ercially laden econom y, advertising is extending itself into countless forms to the point that anything digital can host advertising. From an econom ic perspective, advertising as a service represents an expansion of the three-party econo m ic model for m edia - free content to attract an audience that is sold to advertisers - into other domains. In fact we are seeing a progression from product marketing to service marketing and from service m arketing to digital services, including those for information. The Internet enables the extension o f a m edia eco nom y because

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS it drastically reduces the costs o f reproducing and sharing information and forces businesses to partner with m arketers to find a workable business model. T he variety of advertising-as-service exam ples noted above constitute a new advertising econom y, one not particularly married to traditional media, and one that is more pervasive, exact and efficient than what we have known in the past.

M e d ia p la n n in g In 1974, the Jo u rn a l o f M arketing published a paper about m arketing theory written by W .T. T u cker (1974). T u ck e r chastised marketing scholars for adopting a singular perspective of a ‘channel c a p ta in ’ - a m aster of the marketing universe, fine tuning the outbound m arketing mix variables to suit the m a rk e te r’s interests. In what has b eco m e one of the more provocative quotations in the m arketing literature. T ucker (1974, 31) noted: T h e c o n su m e r w as a lw ays c onsidered the c o n s u m e r at the m icro level. T hat is, he w as alw ays studied in the w ays that fishermen study fish rath er than as m arine biologists study them . . . . T h e point of view o f the m ark e ting theorist was virtually identical to that o f the m arketing m ana g er, and particularly the c h ann e l captain, even when his conce ptu a l analysis was without im m e dia te practical conse quenc e.

T u c k e r went on to advocate alternative approaches to m arketing scholarship, nam ely from the perspectives o f consum ers or the general econom ic perform ance and well-being o f society. M arketing theorists d id n ’t follow T u c k e r ’s advice. T he channel captain perspective prevails in the literature, particularly with respect to advertising and media planning. For exam ple, the prevailing view of advertising and promotion is that of outbound m essaging designed to elicit a response (Tcllis and Franses 2006). The premise o f media planning is that a m anager can, with the aid o f dem ographic profiles of media vehicles and som e software, allocate advertising budgets in w ays that purportedly optim ize advertising to, using T u c k e r ’s term inology, catch som e fish. T he netw orked information econom y obviates the channel captain. M arketers no longer control the entire m edia environm ent. Accordingly, they m ust learn to participate in the c o n s u m e r ’s world. M edia planning does not just change; it goes away and is replaced by an entirely different mindset. That m indset will reflect the way co nsum ers actually use media, not the dem ographically defined m edia audiences. Current media planning grew out o f an era where audiences sat in front of televisions or sat at h om e or on trains perusing new spapers and m agazines. C onsider the follow ing facts about media use today: • The continued adoption of m ore m edia technologies has led to a large increase in the am ount of time people spend with m edia - a total estimated to be about 9.5 h ours per day ( C o m m u n i c a tio n s Industry F o re c a st from V e ro n is S uhler S tephenson 2007). • In addition to consum ing more media, people arc con su m in g the media sim ultaneously. Pilotta ct al. (2004) dem onstrate the prevalence of sim ultaneous media consum ption. They find that over one-fourth of TV viewers are also online and 10% are reading a new spaper. They note that, ‘T he existence o f sim ultaneous m edia exposures underm ines most current m edia m easurem ent systems as they are defined as isolated e n v iro n m e n ts’ (Pilotta et al. 2004, 291). • The geographic locating of wireless phones and other handheld devices enables advertising to person-based locations. This form of mobile direct m arketing represents a m ajor adv ance in advertising precision that will match ads to w here co nsu m ers are and w hat they are doing.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS Carlin (2005) describes how the framew ork for traditional media planning - the sequential delivery o f messages to fit into the supposed A wareness, Interest, D em and and Action model - no longer applies (if it ever did). ‘P lanning’ may no longer be a useful metaphor. First, planning implies that one lays out a well-defined set o f practices and then executes them over a sustained period o f time. This is a mass media concept; and applies only to the t o p - d o w n channel captain described by Tuckcr. Planning also reflects an outbound point of view featuring centralized control o f messages to target consumers. At some level, there will always need to be plans for how to allocate budgets across m edia alternatives. However, the idea o f completely planning which messages go to which vehicles is giving way to automated systems that make allocations based on real-time information streams. W hat is em erging is a contingency system where m essages are placed with respect to context as done with online advertising networks. For example, Takoni, an A O L property, conducts behavioral targeting that serves ads based on a person’s online behavior at a broad array o f websites participating in T a k o n i’s advertising network. C onsider the difference in how media are purchased using G oogle A dSense com pared to television. With television, media buyers purchase predicted audiences for TV shows that will run several m onths later. The m edia com pan ie s sell the predicted audiences, defined by dem ographic descriptors. If the m easured audience turns out to be substantially sm aller than what was sold, the media com pany com pensates the advertiser with ‘make g o o d s ’. In this world, planning consists of using som e fairly w ell-developed software tools to allocate an advertising budget across m edia alternatives to m a xim ize exposures o f the dem ographic target. W ith A dSense, an advertiser authorizes G oogle to use an advertising serving algorithm to place online ads in contextually relevant web locations. T he only planning that happens is determ ining what context the ad should be attached to and how m uch m oney should be set as a cap on spending. Ads are placed with a real-tim e, dynam ic process controlled by an algorithm that gets sm arter every time som eone clicks on an ad. D em ographies, which more or less drive the entire traditional m edia planning business, diminish in im portance. Even more, the prom ise of linking ad serving to custom er databases and online behavior represents an even higher level of precision in targeting. By the lime this m odel migrates to television, it is already partially in place for secondary print markets, the traditional m edia planning business will becom e much less important as it is too slow to serve ads in a dynam ic, digital m edia world. Advertising allocation is evolving into a software system, perhaps even an artificial intelligence, w hich tracks continuous streams of in com ing data and serves ads to the p roper person at the p roper time and location. In such an environm ent, G oogle and its contem poraries will constitute what Eric Schmidt, CE O of G oogle, calls an advertising operating system. T he driving force in digital media will be autom ated system s that allow for scale in the placem ent o f ads. Since it is impossible for a planner to decide w hich of the millions of websites an ad should be placed on, G oogle and other search engines developed the autom ated ad serving systems noted above. As more com putational systems com e into play, the process o f serving ads ex pands to incorporate not ju st the Internet but also interactive television (Kastidou and C ohen 2006). T he planning and execution m etapho r is giving way to m edia as a com p lex adaptive system (Holland 1996). In such a system what matters are the connections, the patterns of media pieces, content and ads, that con sum ers assemble for them selves and share with others. U nderstanding how to operate in this world will allow m arketing to becom e that which it has claim ed to be - c onsum er oriented. M edia planning becom es much less about picking am ong m ed ia alternatives and more about establishing p a tte rn s o f in tera ctio n s with consum ers. T his shift from m edia planning to digital services is depicted in Table 1.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS T able 1.

From m edia planning to digital services.

C on c ept

Traditio nal

Digital

Planning process T arg etin g C o n su m e rs Partner Pricing

L inear/batch D e m ographics A u d ie n ce o f individuals N e w s and ente rta inm e nt CPM

D y n a m ic /o n g o in g C o n s u m e r an d/o r context Users in social unit All m edia, digital services and places C on ting e nc y

N ote : C P M m e a n s c o s t pe r th ousand.

Note that the stepwise process of deciding objectives, target audience, m essage and media placem en t gets replaced with a dynam ic process that does not decide all these beforehand; it decides w hen it executes, using current inform ation on c on sum er interests or behaviors. Instead of batch-like cam paigns, advertising becom es a continuously evolving system o f m atching ads to people and contexts. In existing form ulations of media planning, media decisions have long been relegated to the later stages of marketing co m m unications planning. M arketing m anagers and agencies have long thought of strategy as com prising c on sum er understanding, target m arketing, brand positioning messages and creative content. M edia com e into play for execution as depicted in the linear m arketing c om m u nic ation s planning process. In a digital world w here consum ers have num erable access points, m edia understanding m ust occur early in the process along with co n su m er insight and m arket research. This leads to a more dynam ic process that continually m onitors consum ers and their use o f media. T he changes brought on by digital m edia have m any effects on advertising agencies. Historically, the advertising industry has been dom inated by the view of the creative directors and brand strategists. W hile brand insights and creative messages will always be im portant, advertising planning is gravitating more to be about matching the m essages to individuals and contexts in ways unthinkable in the past. As such, the message is not as important because it is in the right place at the right time (as in targeted direct mail) and therefore docs not have to be as profane and attention getting as to d a y ’s interruption-based advertising. Agencies are in the m idst o f a m ajor transformation. T his is not the first tim e they have done so. Originally created to sell the advertising inventories of m edia organizations, agencies evolved to becom e strategic partners of their clients, offering high-level services in research, strategy and creative output. T oday, agencies are rem aking them selves again to adapt to a digital world. Agencies incorporated digital m edia by adding stand-alone digital units. As more m edia go digital, these units are taking on a m ore central role. Nevertheless, agencies rem ain seriously challenged because their talent base, with its strength in qualitative research and creative m essaging, may be ill suited for the datadriven, com putational world em erging in digital media.

Im p lic a ti o n s of d ig ita l m e d i a fo r I M C IMC has provided a consum er-oriented fram ew ork for strategic com m unication processes that drive organizational perform ance (Schultz and Schultz 2003). T he transformation to digital m edia described here has en orm ous ramifications for IMC and how it is practiced. In this section, we describe how digital m edia are influencing four important elem ents on IM C - c on sum er insight, data-driven planning, cross-m edia integration and c o m m u n i­ cations to multiple stakeholders.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS C o n s u m e r in sig h t Sciences advance in accordance with the quality o f their metrics. Data made available from digital m edia are greatly im proving co n s u m er understanding. C o n s u m e r insight is typically thought of as the qualitative understanding of the m otives and behaviors of consum ers. As such, co n su m er insight analysis is conducted with qualitative research m ethods and c onsu m er surveys. In a digital world, extensive data on con sum er behavior and media use provide another avenue for co n su m er insight. Digital m edia data represent a c om p lem en t to existing approaches. Digital m edia data arc unobtrusive and behavioral. W hile they do not provide interpretations, they can be used to make inferences about such things as preferences, price-sensitivity and brand choice decisions in situations w here privacy concerns enable m arketers to track behaviors. A key challenge for marketing com m unications has been fully utilizing co n su m er insight in planning processes. A disconnect frequently occurs betw een c onsum er insight research and the planning process - often because there are different people, even different com panies, perform ing those two things. By providing a continuous flow of inform ation about consum ers, digital m edia provide the opportunity for m ore detailed and continuously monitored c onsum er insight. In a digital environm ent, co n s u m er insight becom es not something that is done at a certain point in time - say prior to a major advertising undertaking - but something that is always taking place. This represents a more natural and com plete way to process and m ake adjustm ents to com m unication practices. As a field that prides itself on having consu m er insight as a foundation, IMC must ac com m o date information from digital sources. IMC m ust develop dynam ic analytic systems that turn raw data from digital m edia into relevant c onsu m er insights. T he pairing of such information with the traditional qualitative research provides a level of understanding heretofore unknow n in the field. W hat is required is an integrated approach that leverages this higher form o f c o nsum er insight into strategic planning, tactical execution and com m unication metrics. For exam ple, recent research shows that many consu m ers engage with multiple media devices at the same time (Pilotta ct al. 2004). A ccordingly, the interpretation of those patterns of m edia use can be used to modify media execution to optim ize the presence of a brand in multiple m edia devices. D a ta-driven p la n n in g IMC has distinguished itself as a practice that uses evidence-based decision making. Central to IMC is the use o f custom er databases as a source o f information on actual co nsum er behavior - in contrast to the over-reliance on attitudinal inform ation typical of traditional approaches to m arketing com m unications. T he presum ption in a data-driven approach to m arketing co m m un ic ation s is that detailed custom er databases are available. O ver the years, limitations in the availability of cu stom er databases have continued to diminish as exemplified by grocery store frequent shopper databases. T he m ove toward digital m edia greatly advances the availability of cu stom er data by providing data in real-time. As noted above, digital m edia provide continuous streams of data that provide an unending flow of information. The availability of such data im proves the ability of organizations to im p lem ent as follows: • C ustom er valuation and segm entation - an IMC approach involves assessing the financial value of custom ers and constructing market segm ents accordingly. Data from digital media make possible more accurate and more frequent analyses of cu stom er valuation. T raditional ‘b a tc h ’ custom er valuation studies that take place

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS once or twice a year can be replaced with m uch m ore frequent analyses that provide an ongoing tracking of cu stom er valuation. M arketing c om m unic ations can thus be adjusted on a regular basis to better reach the custom ers based on their actual and potential purchase behavior. • C ustom er response analysis - measures of custo m er response to m arketing co m m unic ations im prove with in a digital world. T racking of com m unication tactics and their im pact bring about the closed loop o f direct marketing. The continuous data in digital m edia enable ongoing reassessm ents o f spending and adjustm ents to achieve better efficiency. This will have to be done by analytic systems that capture data and adjust allocations accordingly. Behavioral targeting does this and offers great prom ise because it drives custom ization of digital media content and ads. • M arket intelligence - data from digital m edia provide num erous opportunities to understand consum ers, com petitors and m arketplace interactions better than ever. W e are now seeing the developm ent o f data mining m ethods and know ledge m a n age m ent system s that harness information for digital media to build more robust and informative market intelligence. A pro m inen t ex am ple is the way A m azon.com uses a recom m endation algorithm that analyzes co n su m er preferences and makes recom m endatio ns for future purchases. • Financial m odels - data from digital m edia will bring about a major boost in the financial metrics used in marketing. T he dom inance o f m easures such as aw areness and attitudes will give way to financial metrics such as increm ental profit, RO I and cu stom er value. Financial m odels based on data from digital m edia can guide media spending decisions far more precisely than the budgeting models used today, which are largely based on m ass-m edia audience metrics. Data from digital m edia help IMC move tow ard greater efficiency and accountability. This represents a m ajor re-orientation of the practice of m arketing toward evidence-based decision making. As such, m arketing takes on some of the qualities of other business facets such as operations and distribution w here im pro vem ents in processes and execution have enhanced business practice. IMC is uniquely positioned to lead m arketing through this transition by keeping the focus on consum ers and the financial gains firms can achieve harnessing data to drive strategy. C ross-m edia integ ra tio n IMC originated around the idea of connecting objectives and m essages across multiple m edia vehicles. As m ore and more vehicles becom e available, connecting across them becom es more challenging. Digital technologies allow for unlim ited options in the placem ent o f advertisements. As such, m edia planning becom es something that planners cannot m anage w ithout automation. M edia planning software has long provided ways to m atch ads to dcm ographically defined target markets. O nline, advertising serving algorithms provide ways to match ads to topics con sum ers are searching (search engine marketing) and to web page content. Increasingly, these algorithms will also match ads to individual consum ers done with direct m arketing m odels that prioritize households for receiving offers. From an IMC perspective, the key problem is that algorithm s that optim ize placem ents based on search, context or user identity do not ‘in tegrate’ those placem ents over time or media formats. Hence, consum ers are likely to see bundles of brand m essages that do not systematically com e together in a coherent way. The challenge rem ains for academ ics and

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS practitioners in IM C to develop systematic approaches to placing and m onitoring brand m essages across multiple digital m edia platforms. Doing so requires formalizing principles of integrated media planning into algorithms that analyze c onsu m er m edia use. As a field, IMC has developed many principles that help guide decision making. How ever, formalizing them into m odels represents a much higher level o f sophistication. W hat is needed is a set of axiom s about relevance, exposure, timing, behavioral response and other precepts o f m edia planning. A xiom s do exist for m any aspects o f mass media planning and direct marketing. H ow ever, since digital m edia consum ption is new and constantly changing because o f technology and usage protocols, axiom s are not well developed. By bringing a focus on consum ers, m ed ia integration and m easured outcom es, IMC is in the right position to lead the developm ent o f the next generation of media planning tools. C o m m u n ic a tio n s with m u ltip le sta k eh o ld ers One of the most im portant distinctions of IMC com pared to traditional m arketing is the inclusion o f multiple stakeholders in com m unication planning. IMC ac com m odates internal audiences such as em ployees, as well as business partners and professionals such as retailers, vendors, franchisees, regulators and reporters. Cross-stakeholder integration incorporates the interests and desires o f different stakeholders in the way organizations manage com m unications. Digital media affect multiple stakeholders in many ways. Various stakeholders, often with vastly different interests, com e to the same corporate websites. C o m panies must present them selves in ways that arc relevant to all stakeholders while providing navigation for each stakeholder to the inform ation of interest. Stakeholders can now talk to each other in ways impossible before. For exam ple, em plo yee s can blog to the consum ing public or investors. Shareholders can com m u n ic ate to m a n ag e m en t more easily. An in te g ra te d a p p r o a c h to c o m m u n ic a ti o n s help s c o n n e c t and c o o r d in a te c o m m u n ic a tio n s across m ultiple sta keholders. In so m e w ays, new av e nues to com m un ication opened up by digital m edia challenge existing approaches to interacting with audiences. For exam ple, corporate com m unication departm ents typically w ant to control all co m m unic ations with news reporters. H ow ever, w hen em plo yee s can blog to the public or e-m ail reporters, central control is no longer possible. An integrated approach represents that each stakeholder deserves a voice and connectivity across stakeholders can provide opportunities for building com m unities and strengthening brands. IMC, having long supported cross-functional planning, provides a perspective that allows organizations to m anage and participate in com m unications with all relevant stakeholders. Here, digital m edia act to facilitate such cross-functional and cross­ stakeholder c om m unic ations by providing platforms and tools - blogs, wikis, social networks - that foster participation. An integrated approach to com m unicating with multiple stakeholders is far more preferable than the entirely outbound, centrally controlled ways o f mass media. S c h o la rly r e s e a r c h f o r a dig ital m e d ia w o rld T o ac com m odate a digital world, scholarly research must adopt new approaches to theory and method. O ver the last several years there has been so m e research on consum er behavior in the digital media context. U nfortunately, most o f the research about digital m edia deals with small behavioral questions regarding online behavior (e.g. Ratchford, T alukdar, and Lee 2007). Because of the rapid changes in the Internet, m any published

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS articles on digital m edia are outdated before they are printed. For exam ple, D anaher (2007) provides an excellent study of how page views relate to reach and frequency. T he problem is that web software now allows content to change within a given page, more or less obviating a page view as a relevant metric. The main areas of scholarly w ork that need to ch a n g e to a c c o m m o d a te digital m edia are: (1) c o n s u m e r m edia use; (2) com putational m odels for advertising allocation; (3) network effects of brand com m unications; and, m ost im portantly, (4) a theory for m arketing with digital media. W e consider each of these in turn.

C o n s u m e r m ed ia use With traditional media, until recently, m edia consum ption followed fairly straightforward patterns o f behavior, and m edia research concerned itself with the size and com position of audiences. Today, the proliferation o f media devices and user controls has m ade media consum ption far more com plicated and nuanced. Research is needed to ascertain the ways consum ers participate in m edia to construct their mediated experiences. O f particular interest is the blending of personal and mass media. W hile mass and direct media, including print and broadcast, have long been com m ercialized, personal m edia such as telephone and personal written com m unications have not. T he digitization o f personal m edia as e-mail, wireless phones and instant m essaging provides opportunities for advertisers to attach messages to personal com m unications. This practice will increase substantially in the years ahead as advertisers subsidize wireless com m u nicatio n services now largely financed by custo m er fees. T he proper way to understand m edia consum ption is from the c o n s u m e r ’s perspective. Schultz, Pilotta, and B lock (2005) show how m edia research is m uch more valuable if it adopts a c o nsum er perspective and tracks m edia use across all platforms. Importantly, research should not approach c o n s u m er media use from the narrow view of cognitive psychology that has dom inated co n su m er research for decades. T heoretical approaches are needed to consu m er media use that explain how people assemble personal m ythologies for them selves and their social groups. Jenkins (2006) describes how co nsum ers p articipate in co m m unities to vastly extend content and brands beyond w hat m edia com p anies produce. Sports fantasy teams, Stars W ars conventions and Harry Potter com m u nities exem plify the kinds of phen o m en a consum ers create for themselves and each other, all built on what were originally m edia experiences. Such undertakings fall outside existing theories o f m edia production and consumption. Accordingly, theoretical developments should include both com m unication content as well as interpersonal connectivity made possible through digital media and social networks. These developments bring into question exactly what the boundaries of media are. As digital content and advertising expand into digital services, media becom e far broader than the set of com munication channels heretofore controlled by m edia organizations. S om e existing research addresses consum er construction o f m edia experiences. Beaudoin (2002) and Beaudoin and Thorson (2003) develop such a theory for new spaper consum ption. T h at approach evaluates the determ inants of n ew spa p er readership and the relevance o f new spapers in the c o n s u m e r ’s life. Glasser (2000) describes news consum ption as play - som ething undertaken for its own reward. C onceptual approaches to m edia consum ption such as these can provide a starting point for theories o f media consum ption. T he proliferation o f m edia options now available vies for c o n s u m e r s ’ attention. L anham (2006) describes how the econom ic model for allocating scarce resources across

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS a set o f alternatives gets reversed in to d a y ’s m edia world because of the abundance o f low cost m edia content. T he m ore pressing econom ic m odel is the c o n s u m e r ’s allocation of scarce attention across m edia alternatives. R esearch is needed to con n e ct the characteristics of media content, including social aspects, to the allocation of consum er attention. An understanding of this can address the em erging paradox between the multitasking practice of people allocating continuous partial attention to multiple media options versus the deeply im m ersive experiences o f video gam es and online social networks. Im m ersive environ m ents in particular represent extensions o f consum ers into digital w orlds where inform ation, entertainm ent, social connectivity, digital services and advertising converge.

C o m p u ta tio n a l a d vertisin g T he literature in m arketing and advertising has had a fairly w ell-developed stream of w ork on advertising allocation m odels (e.g. Little 1970, 1979; Lodish 1975). This literature includes probabilistic m odels of advertising effectiveness as well as qualitative models for allocating budgets. Separately, an extraordinarily important literature on advertising allocation system s is now developing. It differs from the existing literature in two striking ways: (1) the m odels are based on data m ining and artificial intelligence, not probabilistic statistics: and (2) the m odels are being developed largely by com p u ter scientists and software engineers, not m arketing or advertising academ ics. For exam ple, research on advertising p lacem en t m odels for digital media is m u ch more evident in electrical engineering journals (Yang et al. 2006). Yahoo! (2008) has coined the term co m p u ta tio n a l a d vertisin g to refer to the software systems that serve ads. They define com putational advertising as: a new scientific sub-discipline, at the intersection o f inform ation retrieval, m ac h ine learning, optim ization, and m ic ro ec o n o m ic s. Its central ch allen ge is to find the best ad to present to a user e ngage d in a given conte xt, such as que ry ing a search engin e, reading a web page, w atching a m ovie , and IM-ing.

A nagnostopoulos et al. (2007) provide an algorithm that serves ads based on a tracking o f consum er online behavior. T his approach is exem plary o f the kinds o f allocation systems that will dom inate advertising placem ent in digital media. A dvertising allocation algorithms are at the heart of w hat m edia planning is b ecom ing and they represent the only way that digital m edia can scale. Scholars in m arketing and advertising need to join the developers of these algorithm s in com puter science and softw are engineering. W hile an understanding of how these m odels w ork should be part and parcel of advertising scholarship, the models are scarcely m entioned in the traditional academ ic journals and textbooks. Research on advertising algorithm s needs to be paired closely with the understanding o f c onsum er m edia use described above. Advertising algorithms, like m uch of the software behind the web, attem pt to m im ic how consum ers think. For exam ple, algorithm s allocate ads based on website content on the presum ption that the content o f web pages visited reflects the intentions o f the user. This practice o f m im icking the intentions o f the co nsum er represents a vastly superior approach to modeling c on sum er b ehavior than the isolated, controlled experim ent approach that prevails in c o nsum er research. The data streams produced by digital media provide an enorm ous recourse for understanding consum ers. H arnessing these data for research will lead to enorm ou s gains in our understanding o f consum er behavior.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS N e tw o rk effe c ts N etw ork effects - the connections am ong people - are not well understood in marketing. W ith m ass media, network effects could be ignored because the advertising and media industries could do no better than identify broadly aggregated clusters o f consum ers. H ow ever, with digital media, network effects are p aram o unt and measurable. N etw ork effects are well represented in econom ic models. T he network effects represent the linkages o f buying and selling through multiple parties. For exam ple, a c on sum er purchase of an autom obile yields substantial m onies that go into paying for steel, upholstery and co m p o n en t parts. The m akers of those parts use their revenues to pay for their raw materials, etc. This is know n as the m ultiplier effect in ec o nom ic s (Auerbach and K otlikoff 1998). M edia and m arketing research conceptualize m ultiplier effects including content sharing, viral m arketing and w ord-of-m outh. While those ideas have been around in the literature for quite some time, the formal m odels of m edia planning and the m easures o f the effects of m e d ia co m m u n ic a tio n s only m inim ally include them. T he poor representation of m ultiplier effects for marketing c om m unic atio ns stems from a lack o f data - a problem that is quickly d isa ppea ring in a n etw orked w orld w here co m m unications am ong co nsum ers can be tracked.

M a rk e tin g w ith d ig ita l m ed ia - tow ard a th eo ry T he theoretical foundations of m ost research for m arketing c om m unic ations were developed for mass com m un ication s, and are o f limited value in providing a proper framew ork for research on digital m edia and co m m u n ic atio n s strategy. There is a dire need for a theoretical fram ew ork for the em erging world of digital m edia and digital services that is emerging. W hile trying to establish a theoretical foundation is beyond the scope of this paper, we can set forth som e characteristics such that a foundation should have: • D em and-based - m arketing com m unications have been about the creation and delivery of messages to consum ers; digital m edia e m p o w e r con sum ers to pull and aggregate content to satisfy their needs. • Social - digital m edia blend inform ation and interpersonal connectivity. A useful theory for m arketing with digital m edia must incorporate social networks and other manifestations on interpersonal relationships. • Interactivity - overly sim plistic mass c om m unic ations m odels depict senders and receivers o f messages. In an interactive, social media landscape, interpersonal connections are m ore im portant than inform ation. T heories must incorporate network effects that represent all possible interactions am ong consu m ers and between con sum ers and organizations. • Metrics - the theoretical foundation should support a breadth o f metrics that represent the variety o f digital m edia experiences in p e o p le ’s lives, as well as the value o f com m un icatio n expenditures to organizations. W hen television advertising was new, agencies treated it as a separate entity from print and radio. Similarly, until recently, m edia com pan ies and agencies have regarded digital m edia as a separate entity, particularly because it required skill sets different from those of print and broadcast. T he distinction between online and offline m edia disappears as digital sw allow s all other media. W e are also witnessing the migration of m edia from places such as hom es, office and trains to people themselves. Personal media devices allow m edia to travel with consum ers. Digital media must be approached as the interaction with

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS individual con sum ers and social clusters, not the m a nage m ent of m edia channels. As such, digital media, rather than being a m anageable set of channels should be viewed as an em erging ecosystem - an interactive web of patterns and connections that seem ingly has a life o f its own, which can be m onitored and participated in, but not entirely managed. Advertising in such a system becom es a matter o f 'finding the right custom er in the vast web of infinite c o m m u n ic a tio n s’ (Kelly 1994, 201). T he w eakening of the control o f m edia content by the m ajor m edia organizations brings forth an era of a digital, netw orked world that blends com m ercial and noncom m ercial content, digital services o f m any types and, perhaps m ost im portantly for consum ers, interpersonal connectivity. The onus is on scholars and practitioners in marketing and advertising to develop the theories, concepts and m ethods to allow brands to successfully participate in this world.

C o n c lu sio n For marketers, m edia have long been construed as a set o f co m m u nicatio n channels through w hich m arketing m essages are sent. W ithin that fram ew ork, media institutions are intermediaries that provide access to desired audiences. The econom ic function of media institutions is producing and packaging bundles of inform ation and entertainm ent that attract audien ces for advertisers. In a digital era, the vie w p o in t o f m edia as co m m unications channels cannot be sustained. One reason is that there are too many com m un ication channels now available for any m edia planner to effectively allocate co m m unications across them. M ore im portantly, the m edia-as-channels fram ew ork fails to incorporate several of the dim ensions described in this paper. These include: • The evolution of m edia beyond inform ation and entertainm ent to includc other digital services and experiences. • The ability of organizations of all types to com m u n ic ate directly with consum ers and other stakeholders, w ithout the need for traditional m edia organizations. • The netw orking o f c om m unic atio ns am ong audience m em bers and the ability o f people to exchange inform ation directly with each other. • The availability of continuous stream s of data about co n su m er p urchase and media use behaviors. • The expansion of m ediated experiences beyond what m edia com p anies generate and control. • The replacem ent o f outb ound m edia channels with m ulti-dim ensional c o m m u n i­ cation networks. • The blending o f com m ercial and noncom m ercial content - not ju st branded entertainm ent but the inclusion of nonco m m ercial inform ation in ads. As more aspccts of everyday life converge toward digital, opportunities for organizations to interact with co nsum ers expand dramatically. W h a t wc have know n as m edia broadens to potentially include any digital experience - using a mobile phone, playing a video gam e, w alking past electronic billboards, even p ro g ra m m in g o n e ’s m icrow ave. As com m ercial messages spread into all things digital, organizations can co m m unicate with people in vastly m ore ways than those typically thought of as media. It rem ains for academ ics and practitioners to establish theories, concepts and m ethods that organize the digital landscape into a hyper-m edia ecosystem that subsum es traditional brand co m m unications into a networked world of instantaneous and archived information.

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T H E EV OLUTION O F IN TEG R A TED M A R K ETIN G CO M M U N ICA TIO N S

References A nagnostopoulos, A., A.Z. Broder, E. G abrilovich, V. Josifovski, and L. Riedel. 2007. Just-in-tim e contextual advertising. Proceedings o f the Sixteenth ACM C o nference on Information and K now ledge M a nage m ent, Lisbon, Portugal. A uerbach, A.J., and L.J. Kotlikoff. 1998. M a cro eco n o m ics: A n in teg ra ted app ro a ch . Boston, MA: M IT Press. B arabasi, A.-L. 2003. L inked: H ow everyth in g is co n n e cted to everyth in g else a n d w h a t it m eans. New York: Plume. Beaudoin, C.E. 2002. A m arketplace theory o f m edia use. M a ss C o m m u n ica tio n s a nd S o ciety 5, no. 3: 2 4 1 - 6 2 . Beaudoin, C., and E. Thorson. 2003. Retesting the m arketplace theory o f use. Proceedings of the International C om m unication Association, July 22, 2003, San Diego, CA. B enkler, Y. 2006. The w ealth o f n etw orks: H ow so cia l p ro d u c tio n transform s m a rkets an d fre ed o m . N ew Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Carlin, I. 2005. A vision of media planning in 2010. Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g R esea rch , 45, no. 1: 2-4. Carr, N. 2008. The big sw itch: R ew iring the w orld fro m Edison to G oogle. New York: W .W . Norton & Co. D anaher, P.J. 2007. M odeling page views across multiple w ebsites with an application to Internet reach and frequency prediction. M arketin g Scien ce 26, no. 3: 4 2 2 - 3 7 . Gal-Or, E., and M. Gal-Or. 2005. C usto m iz ed advertising via a co m m o n m edia distributor. M arketing Science 25, no. 5: 2 4 1 - 5 3 . G lasser, T.L. 2000. Play and the p ow er o f the news. Jou rn a lism 1, no. 1: 2 3 - 9 . Ha, L. 2008. O nline advertising research in advertising journals. J o u rn a l o f C urrent Issu es an d R esearch in A dvertisin g 30, no. 1: 3 1 - 4 8 . Holland, J.H. 1996. H idden order: H ow ada p ta tio n builds co m p lexity. N ew York: Helix Books. H um phreys, L., and P. Messaris. 2005. D ig ita l m edia: T ra n sfo rm a tio n s in hum an co m m u n ica tio n . London: Peter Lang Publishing. Jenkins, H. 2006. C onvergence culture: W here o ld a nd new m edia collide. N ew York: N Y U Press. K astidou, G., and R. Cohen. 2006. An approach for delivering personalized ads in interactive TV custom ized to both users and audiences. Proceedings o f E uropean C onference on Interactive Television, M ay 2 5 - 2 6 , Athens, Greece. Kelly, K. 1994. O ut o f control: The new bio lo g y o f m achines, so c ia l system s a n d the eco n o m ic w orld. N ew York: Basic Books. L anham , R.A. 2006. The eco n o m ics o f attention, style a n d su b sta n ce in the a g e o f inform ation. Chicago, IL: U niversity o f Ch icag o Press. Lee, D.H., and C. W ook Park. 2007. Conceptualization and m e asu rem en t of m u ltidim ensionality of integrated m arketing com m unications. J o u rn a l o f A d vertisin g R esea rch 45, no. 1: 2 2 2 - 3 6 . Little, J.D.C. 1970. M odels and managers: T he concept o f decision calculus. M a n a g em en t Scien ce 16: B 4 6 6 - 8 5 . Little, J.D.C. 1979. A ggregate advertising models: T he state o f the art. O pera tio n s R esearch 27, no. 4: 6 2 9 - 6 7 . Lodish, L.M . 1975. Advertising planning: M athem atical m odels in advertising media planning. J o u rn a l o f M arketing R esearch 12, no. 1: 120 - 131. M althouse, E.C., B.J. Calder, and A. T am h ane. 2007. T he effects o f m edia context experiences on advertising effectiveness. J o u rn a l o f A d vertisin g 36, no. 3: 7 - 1 8 . M oo rm an, M.. P.C. Neijens, and E.G. Smit. 2005. T he effects of program responses on the processing o f com m ercials placed at various positions in the program and the block. J o u rn a l o f A dvertisin g R esearch 45, no. 1: 4 9 - 5 9 . N apoli, P. 2003. A u d ie n ce econom ics: M edia in stitu tio n s a n d the a u d ien ce m a rketp la ce. New York: C olum bia U niversity Press. Perez, C. 2002. T ech n o lo g ica l revolutions a nd fin a n c ia l capital: The d yn a m ics o f b u b b les an d golden ages. L ondon: E d w ard E lgar Publishing.

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T H E EV OLUTION O F IN TEG R A TED M A R K ETIN G CO M M U N ICA TIO N S Filotta, J.J., D.E. Schultz, G. D renik, and F. Rist. 2004. Sim ultaneous media usage: A critical c o n su m er orientation to media planning. Jo u rn a l o f C o n su m er B eh a v io u r 3, no. 3: 2 8 5 - 9 2 . Plum m er, J., S. Rappaport, T. Hall, and R. Barocci. 2007. The o n lin e a d vertisin g p la y b o o k: P roven strategies a n d tested tactic. N ew York: T he Advertising Research F oundation, Wiley. Ratchford, B.T., D. T alukdar, and M. Soo Lee. 2007. T he impact o f the Internet on c o n s u m e r s ’ use of inform ation sources for autom obiles. Jo u rn a l o f C o n su m er R esea rch 34, no. 1: 1 1 1 - 1 9 . Reubel, S. 2008. Three digital business m odels that could rock you r world. h ttp ://w w w . m ic ro p ersu asion.com /20 08/0l/thrcc-d igital-b.htm l (accessed January 30, 2008). Schultz, D.E., J. Pillota, and M.P. Block. 2005. Im plem enting a media consum ption model. E S O M A R W A M Conference, June 20, M ontreal, Canada. Schultz, D.E., and H. Schultz. 2003. IM C : The n ext g en era tio n . New York: M cGraw -H ill. Shirky, C. 2008. H ere com es everybody: The p o w e r o f o rg a n izin g w ithout o rg a n iza tio n s. New York: Penguin. Tellis, G.J. 2005. A dvertisin g ’s role in capitalist markets: W h a t do we know and w here do we go from here? J o u rn a l o f A d vertisin g R esearch 45, no. 3: 1 6 2 - 7 0 . Tellis, G.J., and P. H ans Franses. 2006. O ptim al data interval for estimating advertising response. M arketing Science 25, no. 3: 2 1 7 - 2 9 . T ucker, W .T. 1974. Future directions in m arketing theory. J o u rn a l o f M a rketin g 38, April: 3 0 - 5 . V eronis Suhler Stephenson. 2007. C o m m unic ations Industry Forecast, http://w w w .vss.com / industry_research/index.asp (accessed A ugust 1, 2008). W all S tre et Journal. 2008. B allm er on his big bet: A im ing for next level. February 4: B l. Yahoo! 2008. C o m putation al advertising. http://research.yahoo.com /C om putationalA dvertising (accessed A ugust 7, 2008). Y ang, W .-S., J.-B. Dia, H.-C. C heng, and H.-T. Lin. 2006. M ining social networks for targeted advertising. In P roceedings o f the 39th A n n u a l H a w a ii In tern a tio n a l C on feren ce on System S c ie n c e s, p. 137.

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Integrated marketing communications measurement and evaluation M ichael T. Ewing Department o f Marketing, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia M ark etin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s have historically been m ea su re d on a m e d iu m - b y - m e d iu m basis. The new electronic c o m m u n ic a tio n s syste m s are in d a n g er o f falling into the sam e trap. Yet c o n su m e rs seem to use all these c o m m u n ic a tio n s system s c oncurrently, sim ultaneou sly and one w ould assum e, sy nergistically. If this is true, what are the c h allen ge s in m ea su ring the im pa c t and effe ct o f these integrated c o m m u n ic a tio n s system s? H ow should synergy be tw ee n c o m m u n ic a tio n s form s be considere d and m e a su re d ? For it is ultim ately c o nsu m ers, not m an a g ers , w ho integrate (m arketing) c o m m u n ic a tio n s. In re sponse to these and oth er challenges, this article identifies five areas o f integrated m arke tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s (IM C ) m ea su re m e n t worth y o f future research. It then goes on to e x p an d on each o f the areas, notin g so m e o f the fou ndation al w ork that has already taken place and signalling possib le aven ue s for future research. In c o nclusion, it considers the theoretical im p lication s o f the research ag en da and postulates how a bro a der view o f theory c ould in fact assist scholars in tackling the research ch alleng es as they currently stand.

In tro d u ctio n M easurem ent has dom inated the m arketing landscape for the past decade. It consistently tops the M arketing S cien ce In stitu te 's list o f research priorities and has been the subject of countless conferences, books, blogs, journal special issues, lectures, articles, dissertations, podcasts and boardroom debates. Despite the frenetic energy afforded the topic, it would be fair to say that the m arketing com m unications profession still faces some formidable challenges. T his is not to imply that no progress has been made, but rather, that the road ahead is long, w inding and quite om inous-looking in places. Indeed, IMC m easurem en t in the twenty-first century is not a journey for the faint-hearted. H o w ev er tempting it m ight be to fixate m yopically on so-called ‘h a r d ’ (i.e. behavioural or financial) measures, there is an inherent danger o f the pendulum swinging too far from one extrem e to the other. For exam ple, w hen L eh m an n (1999) extols us to link (marketing) results not to aw areness or attitude but to m easures that are relevant to chief financial officers (such as stock market value, custom er value or brand value), I am not convinced that he is actually suggesting we ignore attitudinal measures altogether. Financial metrics alone are no silver bullet. Inasmuch as self-reported propensity to rec o m m en d is a pow erful predictor o f firms’ future fiscal fortunes, surely share of m ind or share of heart is as important as share o f market or share o f custom er? Past criticisms o f marketing being too m uch o f a ‘black b o x ’ activity were often well justified. In many instances, the only m easures ever used were distinctly ‘soft’ and seldom related to any tangible business

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS outcom es. A key challenge going forward will be to avoid false dichotom ies and to integrate both ‘h a r d ’ and ‘so ft’ m easures, both attitudinal and behavioural measures, both short- and long-term effects (or cum ulative vs imm ediate): separating cause from effect, and being able to distil both singular and co m b in ed (or integrated) m arketing co m m unications effects. In other words, it is not either or, it is all (of the aforementioned). W orldw id e marketing c om m u nic ation s expenditure continues to increase, but is it yet an investm ent worthy of balance sheet status? In response to this question, a student once said to me, w hen m arketing c om m unications w orks it is an investment, when it fails it is an expense. I think there is some truth in this off-handed retort. I also think I can guess how shareholders in Apple or H arley-D avidson view m arketing com m unications. Effective IMC is potentially critical to organisational perform ance because it has the ability to provide com petitive advantage (Eagle and Kitchen 2000). It therefore stands to reason that every effort should be m ade to better dem onstrate I M C ’s contribution to organisational perform ance (W ang 1994), despite the fact that the extant literature on IMC has, for the m ost part, failed to dem onstrate this link (Baker and M itchell 2000; C ornelissen 2000; Low 2000). This is arguably the biggest obstacle hindering I M C ’s broader acccptancc am ong both pragmatic practitioners and sceptical scholars. M arketing com m unications results have historically been m easured on a m cdium -bym edium basis: one measure for advertising, another for publicity, still another for sales prom otion and so on. The new electronic com m un ication systems are in danger of falling into the sam e trap, one measure for web, another for ‘w o rd -o f-m o u se’, another for mobile and so on. Yet, co nsu m ers seem to use all these co m m unication systems concurrently, sim ultaneously and one w ould assume, synergistically. Indeed, the latest M a rketin g Scien ce Institute research priorities encourage scholars to exa m in e not only new m edia per se, but also how ‘o ld ’ m edia and new m edia are interacting. So, what exactly are the challenges in m easuring the im pact and effect of these integrated systems? How should synergy betw een co m m unication form s be considered and m easured? In response to these and other challenges, the rem ain der of this article is set out as follows: first, I identify five cognate areas in need of well-designed future research. This is not to discount the many other areas worthy o f scholarly attention. H ow ever, I am aw are o f som e promising groundw ork having already taken place in these five areas, and I therefore feel that they can be realistically and systematically tackled in the short-to-m edium term. T he article then goes on to expand on each of the five areas, detailing some of the foundational w ork that has already taken place and signalling possible avenues for future research. In conclusion, I ponder the theoretical im plications o f the research agenda and postulate how a broader view of theory could in fact assist us in em pirically tackling the research challenges as they currently stand. T o w a r d s a n a g e n d a f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h into I M C m e a s u r e m e n t a n d e v a lu a tio n T o reiterate a point already made, this agenda is not exhaustive nor are the topics mutually exclusive. W h ile it is certainly ambitious, it is also not unrealistic. For the most part, a promising foundation has already been laid and thus the path forward has been at least partially paved. In no particular order, the five areas include: (1) Better understanding of how consum ers process marketing stimuli (singularly at first, but ultimately, in concert) - draw ing on insights from neural science. (2) Better understanding of how (integrated) m arketing com m un icatio ns stimuli interact with one another. In other words, w h at (if any) mixed m edia synergies can be realised and how?

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS (3) Better insights into how and why technology has em pow ered consum ers and how this asym m etry impacts on m arketing com m u nications planning and evaluation. Specifically, we urgently need to understand the antecedents and consequen ces of c o n s um er-to-c onsum e r com m un icatio n, consu m er-gen erated content, m- and u-co m m erce and brand co-creation: and how this shift in com m unication pow er and purpose fits into currcnt/futurc IMC framew orks. (4) Better understanding of the relationships betw een IMC stimuli and m arketing capabilities. In other words, it is not enough know ing w hat the Intel brand is worth or some o f the drivers of that brand value: but Intel (for exam ple) ideally needs to know w hat it can achieve (or not achieve) in the future based on its brand strength today - and then it actually needs to achieve that potential. Or expressed differently, M arcom budgeting and financial evaluation needs to shift from being ex p o st to ex a n te , because binoculars are potentially m ore useful to astute m anagers than rear-view mirrors. (5) Finally, better understanding o f w hen, why and how to im plem en t IMC. A ssum ing that IMC is a good strategy, w ho should do it, w hen and how exactly? In sum, the above cannot occur in an atheoretical or haphazard manner. I therefore conclude with a discussion of the theoretical and m ethodological challenges that will need to be overcom e if real progress is to be made in these exigent but exciting endeavours.

B e tte r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h ow c o n s u m e r s p r o c e s s m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s stim u li How exactly does advertising work? W hile the jury is still out on som e levels, we certainly know far more today than we did 10 or even five years ago. V akratsas and A m b le r ’s (1999) excellent meta-analysis and the recognition o f E h re n b e rg ’s ‘weak th e o ry ’ (Ehrenberg 1974, 1997) in the USA (Tellis 2006) signal significant progress, particularly for understanding how advertising w orks in more mature econom ies with experienced, mediasavvy consum ers. T hat said, we have probably now learned close to as much as we are going to from content-analyses, self-report measures/surveys and experim ents with undergraduates (the favourite tools o f the university advertising researcher). If there is to be a ‘K uh nian-like’ breakthrough or dare I say, a ‘para d ig m -sh ift’, it is likely to com e via the field o f neuroscience, through the use of neuro-im aging technology to exam ine how the brain processes advertising (Lee, B roderick, and C h a m b e rla in 2007). This m ethodological shift reflects the ongoing shift from rationality to affect. T he gifted practitioner Erik du Plessis (1995) was one o f the first to recognise the potential in this regard, albeit his early (aw ard-w inning) conference paper would not have been widely read, his book (du Plessis 2005), published a decade later, has reached a far wider international audience. There have also been a few recent articles in both the Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g R esearch and the In tern a tio n a l Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g on this topic, and an entire IJA special issue was published in 2008 (Vol. 27, no. 3). Early empirical progress in this dom ain has been promising. A m bler has identified three pathw ays for the transferral of advertising into long-term m em ory: advertising that requires pure m em ory; m em ory in conjunction with em otion; and m em ory, emotion and cognition (A m b ler and Burne 1999; A m bler 2000; A m bler, Ioannides, and Rose 2000). Parts of this approach, using standard neuropsychological testing m ethods (beta blockers such as Propranolol), have been tested to understand how em otion affects recognition and free-recall from long term m em ory (A m bler and Burne 1999). E m otionally based advertisem ents are better recalled than cognitively based advertisem ents after a single

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS presentation, and com parison s o f brain activity during cognitive and em otional advertisem ents show ed differences in both area, and strength, of brain activation for each type o f advertising (A m bler et al. 2000). Additionally, A m b le r ’s work on brain activity while m aking purchasing decisions shows familiarity is a good predictor of purchasing choice (and speed of choice) in a sim ulated shopping en v ironm ent w here participants make ‘virtual’ shopping choiccs (A m bler ct al. 2004). Brain im aging has also exam ined the encoding process from short- to long-term m em ory. Rossiter and S ilberstein’s (2001) exam ination o f television advertisem ent encoding found that left hem isphere response tim es were responsible for correct recognition of previously presented advertisem ents (giving support to A m b le r’s findings for the activation of semantic regions in the left hem isphere w hen consum ers com p are presented products to previously viewed advertisements). T he above studies indicate the involvem ent of neural com p onen ts in processing advertising and brands, yet further em pirical w ork is needed to provide a cohesive and systematic understanding o f these processes (Plassm ann et al. 2007). The potential for expan ding present know led ge about advertising processes is apparent, yet such investigations m ust procccd ethically with due carc. The L a n cet N eu ro lo g y (2004) has already highlighted issues that future rcsearchcrs need to consider w hen using neuroscience to study advertising. Others highlight the need for careful, com prehensive and responsible com m u nicatio n o f research findings in this area, to avoid engendering panic in the broader com m un ity about the use o f neuroscience in advertising (Fins 2002; P lassm ann et al. 2007). W hile all of the neuroscience research thus far has focused on advertising, the approach can, and should be, expanded to other m ore interactive media such as the Internet, virtual worlds and co m p u ter games. If neuroscience can provide the tools, perhaps psychology can provide a new paradigm atic lens for this work. Bagozzi, Gopinath, and N yer (1999) and du Plessis (2005) note that the extant m arketing (let alone ec ono m ic) literature has grossly understated the role and im portance of em otions in co nsum er behaviour. I would even go so far as to suggest that most o f our more widely accepted m arketing research m ethodologies suffer from an overly cognitive bias and, as a co nsequence, we have b ecom e quite adept at soliciting post-rationalised co n su m er responses. C ustom er satisfaction and intention to purchase are classic exam ples of (over-researched) cognitive m easures with negligible predictive validity. If we are truly to raise the know ledge bar we need to begin tapping into higher order em otions such as love, hate, joy, em pathy, com passion, fear and integrating these em otions with our understanding of co m m un ic ation s effects. It is no longer sufficient to think wc know w hat consum ers think they think about advertising.

B e tte r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how ( in te g r a te d ) m a r k e t i n g stim u li i n t e r a c t w ith one a n o t h e r (i.e. m ix e d m e d ia sy n e rg y ) M arketing com m unications planning and results have historically been m easured on a m e d ium -by -m edium basis. One measure for advertising, another for publicity, still another for sales prom otion and so on, even though we know that ‘one plus one (can potentially) equal th ree’. This dictum is often used to explain the concept o f synergy to the uninitiated. It also, to my mind, gets to the very core of I M C ’s implied promise. Beyond the rhetoric, for IMC to have street credibility and genuine com m ercial im pact, it needs to make business sense. For this to happen, a strategically selected com bination of prom otional tools/m edia should ideally (and dem onstrably) deliver a greater return (both in term s of attitudinal and behavioural im pact and in terms o f return on investm ent (ROI)) than any

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS one of those tools used in isolation. All things being equal, and assum ing some sound m edia and strategic planning, the whole (integrated) cam paign should be greater than the sum of the individual parts. This is not to say that IMC is about saving money. It is h ow ever potentially about making m arketing expenditure work harder - which could even entail spending a little more to make a lot more (i.e. reaping efficiencies). M oreover, the relationship is probably not linear, but the returns should tend tow ards exponential. By way o f sim ple exam ple, if $ l m spent on advertising alone delivers x return, then $0.5m spent on advertising, in com bination with $0.3m spent on direct marketing and $0.2m spent on PR m ig ht deliver 1.2x. But a $ 1.5m IMC budget ($0.8m on advertising; $0.4m on direct, $0.3m on digital m arketing and $0.1 m on PR) might potentially deliver a 3x return. W ell - tha t’s the idea anyw ay. It is indeed an intuitively appealing notion, but does it have em pirical support? T he first point worth m aking is to lament the sheer paucity of published em pirical w ork in this area. Ew ing, du Plessis, and Foster (2001) have dem onstrated a significant cinem a advertising/TV advertising synergy. In other words, using both media in co m bination is considerably more effective than using either in isolation. N aik and Ram an (2003) have dem onstrated a T V /print synergy, and concludcd that this synergy can be further m ax im ised by spending m ore m oney on the ‘w e a k e r ’ m edium . Similarly, du Plessis (2005) has independently verified the T V /print synergy. In fact, for 17 target cam paigns he reports TV advertising recall am ong Sunday n ew spa p er readers to be double that of non-readers. So, from these three studies we can form ulate two tentative empirical generalisations: (1) a cinem a/T V synergy exists; and (2) a print (new spaper)/T V synergy exists. This provides a prom ising foundation, but we need considerably m ore published and verifiable evidence. Not only do we need more ‘E m p G e n s ’ on paired m edia synergies (as above), but also on additional (i.e. more than tw o) m edia and also, on the interaction effects am ong multiple, mixed media. This will no doubt require highly com plex, and indeed expensive (full and partial) factorial experim ental designs (see A lm quist and W y n c r 2001). Internet-enabled mobile devices hold the short-term key to m a jor breakthroughs in this regard. They provide the ability to link em pirically and independently print m edia with advertising with search engines (e.g. Yellow Pages) with actual purchases: i.e. to link individual m edia con sum ption with actual search and purchase behaviour. This previously unheralded tracking and m atching ability potentially elevates IMC m easurem ent research to a new level.

B e tte r in sig h ts into th e effects of te c h n o lo g y - e n a b le d c o n s u m e r e m p o w e r m e n t I tend to think o f M a r c o m ’s evolution in terms of four periods or eras: (1) p re-W W II (i.e. pre-M adison avenue/full-service agencies; pre-mass com m unication); (2) 1950 to 1990 (advertising/mass m a rk e tin g ’s ‘hey d a y ’, primary focus on custom er acquisition); (3) 1990 through to the early 2000s (shift in focus from one-to-m any com m u n ic atio n s to one-toone, direct m arketing renaissance, growing em phasis on custom er retention in addition to cu stom er acquisition, relational databases, m edia fragm entation/proliferation, em ergence o f interactive Internet technologies); and (4) the present ( > 2005) era, which could perhaps be labelled ‘post W eb 2.0 m a rk e tin g ’ for the time being (i.e. em ergence o f interactive m obile technologies, online social networks, virtual worlds). IMC is very m uch a product of the third era. T he obvious question today relates to (re)defining the role, scope and applicability (if any) of IM C in a post-W eb 2.0 world. In the third era, firms (and their M arcom agencies) still had a fair am o unt of pow er (albeit less than in the second era), but they still attem pted to control (or so they thought) brand meaning and the many (one-way)

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS co m m unications with consum ers. By the latter stages o f the twentieth century, Internet technologies had em pow ered consum ers on all levels. In this twenty-first century there is every likelihood that consum ers will have all the power: a com plete role reversal from the pre-1990s mass media era. Specifically, let us briefly consider five enablers-facilitatorsmanifestations o f c onsum er em p o w e rm en t, nam ely: (1) mobile devices and potentially ubiquitous wireless networks; (2) ‘v ira l’ (pccr-to-pccr, custom cr-to-custom cr) m arketing; (3) consum er-generated content (e.g. Y ouT ube); (4) virtual w orlds (e.g. Second Life); and (5) co-created brand m eaning (if effect, the sum total o f (1) through (4) above).

M o b ile te ch n o lo g ies Third and fourth generation integrated mobile devices represented a significant leap ahead of desk-bound broadband Internet PCs or even subscription/digital TV. Not only will many consumers have all the pow er and connectivity of powerful desktops quite literally in the palm of their hands, but they will be able to com m unicate with friends and firms in real time (at their leisure), play games, watch movies or live sport, search for products and services and then actually order, buy and pay for those products or services - all with the same, uniquely identifiable handheld device. Moreover, technological enhancem ents coupled with ever more stringent data privacy legislation will em pow er consumers to filter out, screen and indeed block unsolicited marketing com munication - heralding the long-awaited coming of age o f permission-based marketing. This represents about as different a media landscape to the pre-1990 (and even pre-2000) era as one could possibly imagine. Yet, most IMC writing pre-dates this new com m unications landscape and we therefore appear to yet again be facing John Philip Jon e s’ worst scholarly nightm are whereby the theoretical horse is trailing well behind the com mercial cart. In a rare exception to the well-worn path o f academ e following industry, W atson et al. (2002) provide an insightful and at times even chilling glimpse into a world wherein co nsum ers’ limited capacity to process information (bounded rationality), coupled with their desire/need to attenuate some information provide the contextual backdrop for the use of ubiquitous networks to support personalised and uninterrupted com m unications and transactions between a firm and its various stakeholders to provide a level of value over, above and beyond traditional e- or even m-com m erce. This entails all consum er durable devices being networked, intelligence and information being widely dispersed and readily accessible, as well as being customised to a person, device, context, location, time and role. Moreover, they contend that all information will be synchronised in real time, transparent to ow ner and always available. Needless to say, this brave new world makes a mockery of the oft-cited cliche ‘inform ation is p o w e r’. But w here does it leave IMC practitioners and scholars? Recent studies have suggested that no other form of com mercial com m unication shares the same essential elements with the mobile form, making it truly unique and deserving of more rigorous research (Tahtincn and Salo 2008). I am not convinced ‘w e ’ fully appreciate the full marketing ramifications o f a mobile, permanently connected, wireless world yet.

‘V i r a l ’ m a r k e t i n g The term ‘viral m arketing’ appears to have first been coined by venture capitalist Steve Jurvetson in 1996 to describe the marketing strategy of free e-mail service Hotmail (Kaikati and Kaikati 2004). Term s such as ‘w ord-of-w eb’, ‘w ord-of-m ouse’, ‘custom er-to-custom er’ (C2C) or ‘peer-to-peer’ (P2P) com m unication and ‘buzz m arketing’ are now com m onplace in contemporary marketing parlance. Viral marketing broadly describes any strategy that

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS encourages individuals to propagate a message, thus creating the potential for exponential growth in the m e ssage’s exposure and influence. Kaikati and Kaikati (2004) view it as, ‘word of mouth via a digital platform . . . spreading the message via “word of m ouse” and ensuring that the receivers have the interest to pass along the message to their acquaintances’ (p. 9). Viral approaches have numerous advantages over more traditional mass media. For example, there is a natural selection process em bedded in the way the message is propagated. This reduces redundancy in the sense that com munication is more targeted. Other advantages include speed o f diffusion and a reduced likelihood for the message to be altered by senders (in other words, a high degree of message integrity). And, if the message has an em bedded call-toaction, then the conversion rate (i.e. behavioural response) is potentially more quantifiable than in other forms of mass communication. Viral com munication also affords the m arketer a greater degree of creative licence through a message delivery medium that is more intimate and personalised, thereby increasing the likelihood of reaching ‘hard-to-get’ audience members. Conventional wisdom holds that the viral marketing process is both random and unmanageable. Australian rcscarchcrs have been challenging this received wisdom in this regard for the past five years (Stewart ct al. 2004; B am po ct al. 2008). They have attempted to deconstruct the viral process and investigate the formation of the activated digital network as distinct from the underlying social network. Specifically, they have identified alternative social network models to understand the mediating effects o f the social structures o f these models on viral marketing campaign performance. They have also analysed an actual viral marketing cam paign and used the empirical data to develop and validate a com puter sim ulation model for viral marketing. They then conducted a num ber o f simulation experim ents to predict the spread of a viral message within different types o f social network structures under different assumptions and scenarios. Their findings confirm that the social structure of digital networks plays a critical role in the spread of a viral message. Managers seeking to optimise campaign performance should give consideration to these findings before designing and im plementing viral marketing campaigns. They also demonstrate how a simulation model can be used to quantify the im pact of campaign m anagem ent inputs and how such organisational learning can support managerial decision making (B am po et al. 2008). In sum (and in contrast with much of the received w isdom ), this work appears to suggest that unlike w ord-of-m outh, ‘w o rd -o f-m o u se’ (including future mobile derivations) can in fact be m easured, and therefore potentially m anaged.

C o n s u m e r - g e n e r a t e d a d v e r tis in g Berthon, Pitt, and C am pbell (2008) recently published an engaging article that richly describes the phen om en on w hereby consum ers are now generating, rather than merely consum ing, promotional advertising and then details the consequences o f this trend for marketers. P rom otional advertising was traditionally generated by, or on b ehalf of, the firm and then broadcast to relatively passive consum ers. W ith the rise of digital media, the Internet and inexpensive m edia software, considerable creative and distributive pow er has been handed to the consum er; liberated from the exclusive control o f the firm, ads now express myriad different voices. Som e ads are subversive, others laudatory, but the fact rem ains that the firm is no longer in exclusive control of the m essage. Using a num b er of high profile cases, their paper explores the motivations that drive consum ers to create their own ads and then develops a typology of the ads created. T he paper then goes on to develop a m odel for the various strategic stances that a firm can adopt in response to this phenom enon, so that m anagers can anticipate and thus deal more effectively with some of the extrem e

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS consequences of liberated advertising. N eedless to say, these rec om m en de d strategies will need to be verified em pirically. Indeed the brewing tug of w ar betw een so-called am ateur and professional content providers is far from over. S c h a u ’s w ork on c o n s u m e rs’ identities and the com m unication o f those identities through associations with brands (Schau and Gilly 2003) dem onstrates the ‘c on sum er a g e n c y ’ (Schau and M uniz 2002) that is em erging and strengthening in cybcrspace. S c h a u ’s further work dem onstrates the ‘v igilante’ style of consum er-created com m unications, w here co nsum ers are no longer ‘co-c re atin g’, but solely creating brand co m m unic ations (M uniz and Schau 2007). Professional content com panies are aggressively acquiring user-generated sites (New s Corp ow ns M yS pace, A O L owns Bebo and the N ew York Tim es ow ns A bout.com and Blogrunner). H ow ever, W harton experts such as Fader, W erbach, W aldfogel, and T urow see the am ateur vs professional show dow n as a false dichotom y and suggest that the focus should shift to understanding future business m odels in this space (K no w le d g e@ W h a rto n 2008). At present, it is still unclear what content co nsum ers will be willing to pay for, regardless o f how good it is. E m p o w ered con sum ers generating and sharing their ow n prom otional advertising certainly docs not fit into any currcnt model o f IMC that I am aware of and thus raises a raft o f research questions - som e o f which will hopefully be addressed in a forthcom ing M a rketin g Scien ce special issue (Fader and W iner 2009) on user-generated contcnt. V ir tu a l w o rld s Virtual w orlds are becom ing increasingly sophisticated, enabling organisations and individuals to ‘step into the Internet’. A virtual world is a com puter-based sim ulated environm ent w here individuals assum e an identity as an avatar (Jarvcnpaa ct al. 2008). V irtual worlds are co m m o n in m ultiplayer online gam es, virtual environm ents (such as S econd Life) and role-playing g am es (such as Lineage). Due to increasing b roadband Internet access, virtual worlds are rapidly em erging as an alternative m eans to the real world for com m un icatin g, collaborating and organising econom ic activity (Sw am inathan 2007). In Second Life for exam ple, dozens o f com panies cond uct business and over 6.5 million m em bers are participating in this virtual landscape (Sw am inathan 2007). Virtual worlds have risen so quickly that there has been limited tim e to exam ine im pacts on the w orkplace. A critical question for organisations and investors burned by the dotcom era is ‘are we seeing a new Internet revolution or is this sim ply another bubble of irrational ex u b e ra n c e ? ’ F und am ental research questions includc: w hat new business m odels and strategics arc likely to thrive in virtual worlds (or not)? Do virtual worlds represent a disruptive innovation for organisations, or ju st an additional channel to support electronic c o m m erce and co m m u n ic atio n ? W h a t products and services translate effectively to virtual worlds? W hat are the im plications for image, branding and advertising, especially in the areas o f product and concept developm ent and testing in virtual worlds? W hat are the dynam ics underlying co n su m er behaviour and c onsum er acceptance in virtual w orlds? How do organisational boundaries blur through custom er integration and collaboration in virtual worlds? H ow /w hy do com m unities develop in virtual worlds and w hat are their d ynam ics? W here could we see convergence between real and virtual w orlds? I look forward to the M IS Q uarterly special issue on virtual worlds to be guest edited by Jarvcnpaa, Lcidncr, Tcigland, and W asko. C o - c r e a te d b r a n d m e a n in g W hat are the im plications o f the above for brand/m arketing m anagers? Brands are created primarily through various forms of com m unication, which can include any vehicle, strategy or technique that helps transfer m eanin g from one person to another or from a

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS product to a custo m er (Schultz and Barnes 1999). Early conceptualisation of ‘successfu l’ brand m a n ag e m en t revolved around operationalising a selected brand m eaning and reinforcing that meaning over tim e (G ardner and Levy 1955). This view stems from the belief that a c o n s u m e r ’s learning process is facilitated when all co m m unication s surrounding a brand, w hether controlled by a sponsor or not, deliver a clear and consistent message regarding a b ra n d ’s identity and m eaning (Urde 1994). From this perspective, brand m an ag e m en t can be viewed as the process o f creating, co-ordinating and monitoring interactions that occur between an organisation and its custom ers (Schultz and Barnes 1999), such that there is consistency between the o rganisa tion’s vision and c u s to m e rs’ beliefs about a brand. H ow ever, in to da y’s so-called ‘post-m odern e r a ’, it has becom e increasingly evident that brand m eaning is not controlled by m anagers alone, but is instead co-created through ongoing interactions am ong brand users (Cova and Cova 1997). C o nsum ers engage in a dialogue with not only the organisation but also other consum ers and brand users to cocreate mutually beneficial and loyalty-sustaining m eaning. H ow ever, the process of brand meaning co-creation docs entail some risks (Holt 2002; T ho m pson, Rindflcisch, and Arscl 2006). C o m m unicative or rich environm ents such as the Internet accentuate the com plexity o f brand m eanings and em phasise the co-invention o f brand interpretations (de Chernatony 2001). T hus, increasing connectivity m akes it more im portant to understand the associations and m eanings ascribed to a brand by consum ers (Jevons, Gabbott, and de C hernatony 2005). C onsu m ers also derive different m eanings from what a sponsor may have intended. Further, different con sum ers construct multiple m eanings depending on their personal background, social variables, context of consum ption and fram es of reference (Mick and Buhl 1992; Ritson and Elliott 1999: Kates and G oh 2003). In response, m arketers have begun to acknow ledge and appreciate the benefits of organisations and custom ers co-crcating value (Vargo and L usch 2004). Consum ers today have becom e active participants in the co-creation of brand m eaning. They do not simply record the world, but create it, ‘mixing in cultural and individual expectations as they construct their personal narratives’ (Escalas 2004, 169). One m ight even view consum ers as equity partners in the brand (Blackston 2000).

B e tte r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of th e r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n m a r k e t i n g / I M C stim u li a n d m a r k e t i n g c a p a b ility Tim A m b le r (A m bler et al. 2002) argues that a ‘broad holistic v ie w ’ is important when evaluating how m arketing activities create value for a firm. Indeed, the inability of marketers to dem onstrate how expenditure in m arketing adds to shareholder value is seen as an underm ining of m arketers (Rust ct al. 2004). By exam ining the brand, custom er and capability dim ensions of the firm ’s intangible assets, the firm can ascertain w here the greatest am ou nt of growth can occur, and where the greatest am ount o f resources should be expended (A m bler et al. 2002). Capabilities are som etim es referred to as the distinction between ‘k n o w in g ’ and ‘k n o w le d g e ’ (Ryle 1949; Polanyi 1967); or as Schoen (1983) states: ‘our know ing is in our action' (p. 49). W hat is relevant in S c h o e n ’s observation is the essential role o f human agency in know ledgeable perform ance (O rlikow ski 2002). At the core of the approach is the theoretical question: ‘Should the valuation of assets be based on what one has or what one can d o ? ’ If the answ er is the latter, then IM C activities w ould be seen as w hat an organisation does to enhance its brand equity, and ultimately its econom ic value. At this

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS point it is important to contrast brand equity, brand capability and brand capability value. Brand equity is the asset (i.e. ‘what one has’), brand capability is what can be achieved (or ‘what one can d o ’) when tangible and intangible assets are combined in a contextual situation. Brand capability value (BCV) is the economic value of the capability. Ratnatunga and Ewing (2005) demonstrate how BCVs can be derived for budgeting and valuation purposes using a multivariate model incorporating all of the IMC variables that are the preconditions required for brand capability enhancement. They then extend this framework by developing a more robust multivariate model and apply it within a blue chip multinational (Ratnatunga and Ewing 2009). In sum, the BCV measure offers a pragmatic approach to enhancing intangible capability assets within an organisation by utilising the Expense Leveraged Value Indexes (ELVI) to calculate the values of these assets. Most brand measurement systems are either survey-based or largely based on ex-post historical values. Their refined model (Ratnatunga and Ewing 2009) incorporates specified brand strength variables (as antecedents) for brand strength capability enhancement and thereby provides an approach for obtaining BCVs that can be applied for budgeting and valuation purposes. The model is still very much a work-in-progress, but hopefully the underlying theoretical and methodological rigour will provide a basis for organisation-specific refinement and application. Their approach attempts to provide a structure for managers to calculate the value of their brands in order to invest successfully in the appropriate brandbuilding endeavours. By applying a method that integrates the intangible and tangible components of a brand, managers have a more realistic tool to apply to the valuation of their brands. Additionally, the incorporation of multivariate analysis provides a more robust model for managers to calculate, and justify, their brand budgeting needs and expenditure. This functionality of the model allows managers to present clearer, and statistically supported, arguments to their organisation when justifying brand budget expenditures and facilitates the calculation of targeted, and more accurate, future investments in the organisation’s brands.

B e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g of why, how a n d w hen to im p le m e n t a n d m e a s u r e IM C Cornell economist Maureen O ’Hara (1999) once commented that we know how the stock market works in practice, but not in theory. Sadly, I am not convinced we can say the same about IMC. Integration is an intuitively appealing concept that is still not universally well understood nor implemented. In fact, 1 am constantly amazed at how few marketing communications practitioners are even aware of the acronym. O f course, this could also mean that some are doing 'it’, without consciously realising what exactly ‘it' is that they are doing. IMC has always been an intuitively easy concept to both understand and teach. In other words, we have a fairly good idea of how it could work in theory, but not necessarily in practice. Schultz and Kitchen (2000) sec IMC as being in the ‘pre-paradigm’ period. As such, the conccpt needs further examination and further querying. For example, who is currently adopting IMC? Is Jones’ (1999) assertion that IMC will be most widely adopted by those organisations that face the greatest dislocations unless they are able to change correct? How have IMC programmes developed? Has IMC evolution to date simply been traditional mass media advertising changing, adjusting and refining as a result of new technology - or is there substantially more to it than that? Is IMC just a hollow m anagement fad (Cornelissen and Lock 2000) or does it have substance and credibility as both a m anagement philosophy and practice? How have firms restructured to support IMC? Do matrix approaches work in practice? How have Marcom agencies responded? Is the one-stop-shop the way of the future, or do specialists still have a role to play?

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS We urgently need more descriptive, prescriptive and explanatory research into IMC implementation. More research is needed to delineate firm-specific aspects relating to IMC. What are the best practices? Exactly who is doing what, why and how well? What are the commonly agreed upon critical success factors and barriers to successful implementation? Is IMC amenable to balanced scorecard-type frameworks? While it is all very well to measure the success of IMC through achievement at the consumer end, the value of examining the ‘process’ by which IMC is created and managed within the firm is often marginalised. Pickton and Broderick (2005) highlight some of the more relevant process areas in IMC, which, if not attended to, can become a barrier to the successful execution of IMC within a firm. There are a raft of these process ‘dim ensions’, including promotional marketing mix integration, creative integration, intra- and interorganisational integration, information and database systems, integration of com m un i­ cations targeted towards internal and external audiences, integration of corporate and ‘unitised' communications and geographical integration (Pickton and Broderick 2005).

Th eo ry - bu i l d in g implications For all of the above to take place, we will need a stronger theoretical base for IMC - and that implies more, better and bolder empirical research. One of the reasons why IMC could still lack theoretical credibility in certain quarters is because of the marketing discipline’s traditionally narrow view of theory: that is, both to explain and predict a phenomenon (e.g. Hunt 2002). In principle, I subscribe to and indeed aspire to the ‘explain and predict’ goal, and I am equally sympathetic towards continued application of the scientific method in marketing. However, on a practical and pragmatic level, I see the ‘explain and predict’ definition as the apex of a theory-building hierarchy and thereby also acknowledge other forms of contributions to theory - especially in an applied profession like marketing. Indeed, I suspect that narrow Huntian view underpins Pitt et al.’s (2005) ‘disappointing’ findings that most articles in the three major advertising journals are not ‘theory-driven’. A taxonomy recently proposed by Gregor (2006) distinguishes between five interrelated types of theory: (1) theory for analysing; (2) theory for explaining; (3) theory for predicting; (4) theory for explaining and predicting; and (5) theory for design and action. Indeed, IMC can benefit from all five types rather than aspiring only to type (4). The distinguishing attribute of theories for design and action is that they focus on 'how to do something’ (i.e. create brand associations in the consum er’s memory) and give explicit prescriptions (e.g. methods, techniques, principles of form and function) for constructing an artefact (i.e. a campaign). What constitutes a contribution to knowledge with theory of this type, you might ask? Some criteria include utility to a community of users (agencies, clients), the novelty of the artefact and the persuasiveness of claims that it is effective. Models and methods can be evaluated for completeness, simplicity, consistency, ease of use and the quality of results obtained through use of the method (Gregor 2006). On the methodological front, L ehm ann’s (1999) suggestions largely support the argument I have put forward above and I will therefore rehearse them rather than attempt to reinvent the wheel. Specifically, he calls for good not perfect studies, more metaanalytic work, decreased emphasis on statistical proof and more emphasis on beta co-efficients, elasticities and Bayesian updating. In addition to calling for method pluralism, he also challenges qualitative researchers to demonstrate rather than argue for contribution, to focus on points of view rather than point of view and on testable propositions rather than thick descriptions. I for one have been more impressed by some of

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS the qualitative w ork reported in M IS Q u a rte rly , A ca d e m y o f M a n a g em en t R eview and A d m in istra tive S ciences Q uarterly than I have been with (som e) articles published in some m arketing journals. For exam ple, Sarker and L e e ’s (2003) longitudinal positive case study m ethod for exam ining enterprise resource planning (ER P) im plem entation could easily be adapted to an IMC context. T his is the kind of qualitative explanatory (type 2) research IMC needs more of. A long with more prescriptive research (type 5), a better foundation will be built for ‘explain and predict’ studies (i.e. type 4 research).

C o n cl us i o ns T he future o f m easurem ent in IMC looks to be rife with avenues and opportunities for academ ics and practitioners to assess how best to com m u n ic ate with custom ers in the new era of co n s um er-em pow ered, technology-enabled marketing. M e asu rem en t in m arketing has alm ost exhausted the traditional form s of assessing c onsum er characteristics and co nsum er qualities. New m ethodologies will need to be harnessed. W hile this paper has presented five areas for consideration in the challenges that lie ahead for integrated marketing com m unications, this list does not purport to be com prehensive or exhaustive. To stay contem porary with the changing m arketing environm ent, m easures o f IM C will need to em brace em erging technologies, and com prehend the em erging co nsum er-driven uses of those technologies, in order to provide m eaningful assessments. Additionally, this will require increasingly more sophisticated understandings of the links betw een market capabilities and m arketing/IM C stimuli. All these em erging areas are challenges for marketing, and the m e asurem ent of IMC, but there are im m ediate research strategies to hand and researchers who are developing applicable m odels and m ethodologies to undertake further research in these areas. In practical terms, this translates to developing rigorous theoretical underpinnings to IMC, and, in doing so, engaging in strong and insightful em pirical research. Consideration should also be given to utilising tools from other disciplines, such as neuroscience, to provide the data that cannot be accessed through traditional m arketing m e asurem ent strategies. Using the previous know ledge gathered from the more traditional form s of m arketing m e asurem ent as a strong basis for future research, academ ics and practitioners can more than adequately adapt to the em erging era of m arketing. T he myriad opportunities for the d eve lopm e nt o f m easurem ent in marketing, and in IMC in particular, will ensure that future research in this area will be both interesting and provocative.

Acknowledgements I w ould like to thank Tim A m bler, L eylan d Pitt, Erik du Plessis and two a n o n y m o u s re v ie w e rs for their useful c o m m e n ts on an earlier draft. I also thank my research assistant, L y dia W in d isc h , for her help with this m anuscript. Despite this g enero us support, any m ista k e s or m is rep resentatio ns are mine alone.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS Schultz, D.E., and B.E. Barnes. 1999. Stra teg ic b ra n d co m m u n ica tio n ca m paigns. L incolnw ood, IL: N T C Business Books. Schultz, D.E., and P.J. Kitchen. 2000. A response to ‘Theoretical concept or m a n ag e m en t fash io n ?’ Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g R esearch 40, no. 5: 1 7 - 2 1 . Stewart, D., M. Ew ing, and D. M ather. 2004. e-A udience estimation: M odelling the spread o f viral advertising using branching theory. Institute for O perations R esearch and the M a nage m ent Sciences A nnual M eeting, O ctober 2 4 - 2 7 , D enver, USA. Sw am in athan, K.S. 2007. Virtual worlds, real business? In O utlook. h ttp://w w w .accenture.com / G lo b a l/R e s e a r c h _ a n d _ I n s i g h t s / O u t l o o k / B y _ I s s u e / Y 2 0 0 7 / V i r t u a l W o r ld s R e a l B u s in e s s .h tm (accessed S epte m ber 20, 2008). Tahtinen, J., and J. Salo. 2008. Call for papers special issue: M obile advertising and com m unication. In tern a tio n a l Jo u rn a l o f Internet M arketin g an d A d vertisin g (IJIMA). h ttp ://w w w .inderscience. co m /b row se/callp aper.php?callID = 820 (accessed S epte m ber 30, 2008). Tellis, G.J. 2006. E ffective a dvertising: U nderstanding when, how a n d w hy a d vertisin g w orks. Thou sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. The L a n cet N eu ro lo g y. 2004. Editorial. V olum e 3, no. 2. T h o m p so n , C.J., A. Rindfleisch, and Z. Arsel. 2006. E m otional branding and the strategic value of the doppelgiinger brand image. J o u rn a l o f M a rketin g 70, no. 1: 5 0 - 6 4 . Urde, M. 1994. Brand orientation - a strategy for survival. Jo u rn a l o f C o n su m er M a rketin g 1 1, no. 3: 18-32. Vakratsas, D. and T. A mbler. 1999. How advertising works: W hat do we really know ? The Jo u rn a l o f M arketing 63, no. 1: 2 6 - 4 3 . Vargo, S.L., and R.F. Lusch. 2004. E volving to a new d om inant logic for marketing. Jo u rn a l o f M arketing 68, no. 1: 1 - 1 7 . W ang, P. 1994. M easuring R O l. In In teg ra ted M a rketin g C o m m u n ica tio n s S y m p o siu m , ed. R. Kaatz, 3 2 - 4 4 . L incolnw oo d, IL: N TC Business Books. W atson, R.T., L.F. Pitt, P. Berthon, and G .M . Zinkhan. 2002. U -com m erce: E xpanding the universe o f m arketing. Jo u rn a l o f the A ca d e m y o f M a rketin g S cien ce 30, no. 4: 3 3 3 - 4 7 .

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Apples, oranges and fruit salad: A Delphi study of the IMC educational mix Gayle Kerr School o f Advertising, Marketing and Public Relations, Queensland University o f Technology, Brisbane, Australia O n ce, we thought that c o m p a rin g a dvertising and public relations was a bit like c o m p a rin g apples and oranges. But with integration the new flavour, m any a ca d em ics are trying to cut and c o m b in e and create a fruit salad that will entice their c u sto m e rs and satisfy their stakeholders. W h ile this has p rodu ced som e culinary trium phs, it has also pro d u c ed heartburn in equal quantity. T h is p a p e r seeks the perfect recipe for integrated m arketing c o m m u n ic a tio n (IM C ) e duca tion by asking a Delphi panel o f IMC c h a m p io n s questions relating to the place of IM C in the university setting: the teaching, researc h and curriculu m d e v e lo p m e n t issues and the future for IM C education. T he panel dra w s a chaotic picture of IM C edu cation and identifies som e im po rta nt obstacles to curriculu m d e v elop m en t. It also predicts a n u m b e r o f key c h allen ge s for the future, including tu rf wars; the lack of faculty exp erienc e and e nthusiasm to e m b ra ce 1MC and the desperate need to g row the IM C brand. But perhaps the greatest challenge is how to create a generalist education in a culture of specialisation that exists both in the university and in the work place.

Introduction Once, we thought that com paring advertising and public relations was a bit like comparing apples and oranges. W hile they both belonged to the broad general category of communications, they looked and sounded different and were even very different in practice. Then in the 1980s, som eone suggested fruit salad. Since then, educationalists have sought the ideal combination o f advertising, public relations, marketing, com m unication and planning units to create the perfect integrated marketing com m unication (IMC) programme. Despite the enorm ous am ount of w ork done by acad em ics to realign their curriculum with pedagogical changes, university dem ands and em p loyer expectations, very little has been published on IMC education, with a particular sparsity of em pirical investigation (Roznow ski, Reece, and D augherty 2004). Much of the early w ork on IMC education focuses on two issues - first, how advertising and public relations curricula m ust change (or not) and second, w here IMC courses should be located - in business or in c o m m u n i­ cation faculties (Rose and Miller 1994; W ig htm an 1999). T he educational approach to date has largely focused on changing what already exists. T hat is, what is the best way to com bin e the apples and oranges we already have, rather than what is the best way to make fruit salad. O r to use the IMC vernacular, IMC education appears to take an inside-out approach (Schultz, T a nne nbaum , and L auterborn 1993).

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS This paper seeks a recipe to guide academ ics in the preparation of IMC curriculum. It begins by sampling the w ork done on IM C education to date, as well as giving us a taste o f the future. Using a Delphi panel of leading IMC academ ics globally, three main areas of IMC education are explored: (1) the place of IMC in the university environm ent; (2) the curriculum content, teaching and learning and research issues; and (3) the challenges and the future o f IMC education. T his paper adds to the body of know ledge because it seeks answers to the questions of previous studies by posing them to a panel of IM C cham pions. W hile other studies have audited w hat is being taught in IMC courses internationally (Schultz et al. 2008) or ex am ined the diffusion o f IMC education (Kerr et al. 2008) to give us a current picture of w hat is happening in IMC education, there is a need to exam ine strategies for best practice or how to produce an en vironm ent conducive to integration (R oznow ski et al. 2004). In doing this, the paper seeks to understand the intentions of those w ho teach IMC (Kerr et al. 2008) - w hether their goal truly is to make fruit salad or just to present the same apples and oranges in a new way. This process begins with a review of the IMC educational literature.

L i t e r a t u r e r ev i e w: t he f r u i t of I M C e d u c a t i o n a l st udi es Schultz et al. (1993, iv) wrote in the introduction to their revolutionary 1993 book. The new m arketing pa ra d ig m : In teg ra ted m a rketin g co m m u n ic a tio n s, M a ss advertising is dying. M a ss m edia is in deep trouble. Big, p o nde ro us advertising agencies are sinking in the ooze. T h e 1990s call not just for a re -en gineered a pproach to c o m m u n ic a tio n s but for a re-invention o f the entire m ark e ting c o m m u n ic a tio n s process. T he f unctionally isolated, silo-ed organization o f the past is truly dying. The 1990s call for integrated, coo rdinated, cohesive m arke tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s pro g ram s w hich inform , assist, involve and, yes, persuade custo m e rs and prospects.

T he authors w arned the m arketers and advertisers of their time that the traditional m arketing process had been irrevocably altered by social, econo m ic and te chnological change. IMC was conceptualised as a more holistic, strategic and c ustom er-focused way of planning and m anaging the m arketing com m unication process. It was ‘the integration of specialized com m un ication functions that previously have operated with various degrees o f a u to n o m y ’ (Duncan and Everett 1993, 30). It was described by some marketers as a ‘m agic b u lle t’ to gain com petitive advantage and m axim ise return-on-investm ent (Reilly in Schultz et al. 1993, ix). It was even cham pion ed by C E O o f D D B, Keith Reinhard in 1990 as ‘the N ew A d v ertising’ and by Ogilvy and M ather as ‘O rchestration ’ (Duncan and Everett 1993). T here w ere also those w ho would call it ‘nothing n e w ’ or even ‘opportunistic’. Spotts, L am bert, and Joyce (1998, 210) suggest that ‘M any in m arketing hold the perception that IMC is simply a new phrase for som ething wc know has existed for a long tim e.’ To them, IMC was a blurring of boundaries and a redefinition o f m arketing concepts. Others felt that many small agencies had always integrated messages and co-ordinated more than one marketing com m unication discipline (Duncan and Everett 1993). Even strong supporters o f IMC such as Hartley and Pickton (1999) and D uncan (2002) declared that IMC was not a new concept. Certainly the idea o f integrating advertising and sales is as old as the 1930s (Spotts et al. 1998). W hat m ade integration an im plem entable concept in the 1990s was the technology, the database, to facilitate the IMC process. D uncan (2002, 25) notes, ‘A lthough the concept of IMC - m anaging cu sto m e r relationships - is not new, the processes used in m anaging IMC are n e w .’

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS This conceptual divide between IMC as a ‘magic bullet’ compared to ‘nothing new ’ is less evident in the literature in recent years. Part of this is due to the evolution of IMC from the tactical co-ordination of marketing communication disciplines to the strategic and stakeholder focus, evident in the more recent definitions of IMC (Duncan and Caywood 1996). Support for IMC grows with the body of literature, which addresses issues of concept definition such as explanations of IMC, stages of IMC and message typologies, as well as implementation issues such as structure, organisational responsibility, attitudes towards IMC and integration of IMC disciplines. Much IMC theory has emerged from observations of IMC practice, conceptualised in models such as Schultz’s Outside-in Planning or D uncan’s IMC Message Typology and now it is being extended through empirical investigation. However, there is some suggestion that despite the advances in IMC theory development and the growing sophistication of its conceptualisation, the understanding of some industry practitioners and academics has not advanced past the tactical level (Eagle, Kitchen, and Bulmer 2007; Kitchen, Spickett-Jones, and Grimes 2007). The growing implementation of IMC in practice raised conccrns of how it should be implemented in the university environment. The very first papers on IMC education reflected many of the obstacles to IMC implementation in the workplace - organisational structure, leadership and turf wars (Caywood and Ewing 1991; Duncan, Caywood, and Newsom 1993; Rose and Miller 1993, 1994; Griffin and Pasadeos 1998). The debate focused on the perceived threat to advertising and PR education from IMC and also turf wars over the disciplinary home of IMC, whether it should be housed in business or communication (Rose and Miller 1994; Griffin and Pasadeos 1998). A catalyst for this debate was the report of the taskforce on integrated communications, which declared ‘advertising and public relations students must be offered a more conceptually unified and integrated program of communication study’ (Duncan et al. 1993, I). The taskforce recommendations to integrate public relations curricula with advertising and/or marketing raised the ire of the Educational Affairs Committee of the Public Relations Society of America. The society, representing the views of many public relations practitioners and academics, contended that public relations fulfilled many organisational functions apart from marketing and hence its educational mandate was broader than IMC and more discipline-specific (Rose and Miller 1994). In addition to public relations academics, other academics also concurred that the more generalist approach of IMC would hamper the in-depth instruction and specialisation of many discipline-specific courses (Griffin and Pasadeos 1998). While some saw it as a threat, other academics looked to IMC as a means of making their advertising or public relations programmes more contemporary and their enrolments more attractive (Griffin and Pasadcos 1998). IMC champions felt that because IMC had been introduced into practice, it should also be part of the curriculum. Many communication graduates worked in corporations, where integration was encouraged through staffing arrangements and budget limitations (Caywood and Ewing 1991). Many felt that integration was not only necessary but inevitable. In fact, as early as 1991, Caywood and Ewing ( 1991, 243) noted 'professional schools training for the traditional past will find their graduates ill-equipped to enter the new world of integrated communications.’ A couple of benchmark studies have explored the debate from the perspective of practitioners and academics. Rose and Miller (1994) surveyed 564 advertising and public relations practitioners in eight cities across the USA. They found that advertising practitioners, who equated training with carccr advancement, were most interested in direct marketing and promotions/event planning. Public relations practitioners were more

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS interested in com m unications managem ent, consulting and strategy planning. While both practitioner groups believed that the skills needed by advertising and public relations practitioners were different, they strongly agreed that advertising and public relations professionals needed to broaden their skills to becom e com m unication generalists. They supported the notion o f training programmes, particularly at the executive education level, for both advertising and public relations consultants in the area of IMC. This was especially true in the smaller markets where interest in IMC was significantly greater. Rose and Miller (1994, 52) sum up, ‘Change for the better is always disquieting; however, the message is clear advertising and public relations professionals see the need for continuing professional education that provides an integrated curriculum in integrated com m unications and/or I M C / In 1998, Griffin and Pasadeos looked at the other stakeholders in the educational process, the academ ics themselves. T hey surveyed 222 US educators (110 advertising and 112 public relations) w ho felt that their current advertising and public relations p rogram m es covered content effectively and adequately prepared students for the w orkplace. Despite this, 73% of advertising academ ics and 81% of public relations acadcm ics ac know ledged that em ployers were d em anding skills outside the traditional disciplinary areas. Som e acadcm ics felt that IMC m ight provide the answer, with 67% o f advertising acadcm ics reporting an interest in IMC curricula. Public relations acadcm ics were resoundingly negative, with 62% indicating a lack o f interest in IMC. W ightman (1999, 18) sum m ed up the perspective of many public relations faculty, saying: ‘It is feared that integrated marketing com m unications is only an excuse for advertising agencies to engulf public relations in order to deal with the reduction in client budgets for mass m edia com m unications.' W hile some suggested that marketing schools were imperialist, others blamed journalism schools. Spotts et al. (1998, 210) declared, ‘IMC is an opportunistic move - a marketplace survival strategy - developed by advertising agencies and schools of journalism and mass com munication to respond to an industry shift toward marketing com munication in a broad sense and away from advertising.’ W ig htm a n (1999), how ever, considered that the problem was bigger than any school alone and proposed that the culture o f specialisation within universities, w here students were encouraged to take advertising or public relations majors and specialise in a particular field o f com m unication study was to blame. W ightm an (1999, 22) suggests, T h ese students study hard and b e c o m e the best specia lised c o m m u n ic a to rs m o n e y can buy. H o w ev e r, they have no c o n c e p t o f the overall picture o f the c o m m u n ic a tio n s e n v iro n m en t within a corporatio n. T hey are also not p repared with the essential business principles that are crucial to success in earning a place a m ong the d o m in a n t coalition.

L ater studies still struggle with the balance between com m u nication specialist and com m un ication generalist and som etim es show little change in alm ost a decade of academ ic endeavour. In a 2004 study by R o znow ski ct al., w hich surveyed 94 m arketing and co m m unications professionals in Fortune 500 com panies, 96% thought that all m arketing and com m u nications students should be taught the principles o f IMC. More than half of those thought that IM C should be offered at the undergraduate as well as the graduate level. In terms of the disciplinary hom e, 41% thought IM C should be housed in co m m unications schools, 31 % in business, while 24% thought it should be housed in both. Their sentim ent is not so different from that echoed a decade earlier: ‘If IM C is truly interdisciplinary, educators need to find ways to break dow n our o w n institutional barriers and functional-m yopic walls in order to create a better w ell-rounded student who is prepared to take on the integrated business w o rld ’ (R oznow ski et al. 2004, 54).

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS T ak in g this a step further, a study conducted in A ustralia (Kerr, Beede, and Proud 2007) exam ined the content of IMC education that m ost interested advertising and public relations practitioners. Strategic areas such as strategy planning, c o m m un ication planning, c o n s u m e r b e h a v io u r and creative strategy w ere ranked hig h e st by advertising professionals, while strategic planning, crisis and issue m a nage m ent and agency m a n age m ent topped the list for public relations practitioners. In terms o f professional training, preference for an IMC course was ranked sixth by advertising practitioners and fifth by their public relations counterparts. Supporting the findings o f the Rose and Miller study more than a decade earlier, IMC tools such as direct m arketing and prom otion were o f more interest to advertising than public relations practitioners. T hese findings are also supported by a recent study by Battle, M orim oto, and Reber (2008), which found that advertising em ployers sought recruits with a more jo b specific education to m inim ise need for in-house training than their public relations counterparts. Most of the advertising m anagers reported that their e m p lo y e e s ’ duties often cross into public relations and marketing, mainly because other areas are short staffed or in need of certain skills such as strategic planning. Som e public relations respondents said that budget conccrns or the outsourcing of advertising w ork elim inated the need for a more com m un ication generalist. T he study concluded that m any c o m m u nic ation fields shared co m m on skills and needs, supporting the notion o f a more integrated curriculum . Reber et al. (2003) also found students supported the teaching o f broad er com m unication skills, with 73% of students believing a com bined co m m unic atio ns degree w ould be more beneficial than more specialised education. Clearly, IM C education presents a challenge to many advertising, public relations and IMC academ ics as well as university administrators. In the IMC special issue, editor in the Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g in 2005, Charles Patti enum erated three such challenges to IMC educators. T he first he declared was a need for an integrated, interdisciplinary approach to encapsulate the skills, expertise and talent in business, m arketing and com m unication faculties. W e have seen this same sentim ent expressed repeatedly in the w ork o f Rose and Miller (1994), Griffin and Pasadeos (1998), W ig htm an (1999), R oznow ski et al. (2004) and Battle et al. (2008). Secondly, there is a need for learning materials that lead students into the future, and finally, but perhaps most o f all, there is a need for com m itm en t to push IMC developm ent. Patti (2005, 5) said, One of the m o st exciting aspects about w ork ing in IM C is that there is so m u c h yet to d iscover. T his ‘early d a y s ’ status o f IM C should enco ura ge us to re -exam in e what we are teaching, how we are teach ing, and how we are preparing our students for productive and satisfying careers.

So how have educators responded to these challenges? Perhaps the best description of the state o f IMC education globally com es from an audit o f IMC courses in six countries by Kerr et al. (2008). T he study looked at the nam e, level of the program m e, w hether it was a single course or an entire program m e and its disciplinary home. It found that most courses were called IMC in the USA (79%), T aiw an (60%) and Korea (40%). They were more co m m o n ly know n as m arketing com m u nicatio ns in the UK (75%), Korea (57% ) and Australia (50%). Typically, they were single IMC courses, rather than IMC p rogram m es, running at the undergraduate level in Korea, Australia and New Z ealand and aim ed at the graduate level in the USA (46% ), the UK and T aiw an. The USA also dem onstrated a strength in executive education prog ram m es, suggesting that most IMC education in the USA targeted the professional or the higher-degree student. IMC progra m m e s were mainly housed in the business schools in Australia, New Zealand and the UK and in the com m unication school in Korea. In the USA, IMC courses are

49

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS located in business (58%), com m unication (29%) and liberal arts (usually journalism 13%) (K err et al. 2008). Understanding the current state o f IMC education, the study then sought to address one of P atti’s challenges by looking for IMC ch am pio ns who w ould push for IMC developm ent. T he study benc h m a rk e d curriculum d eve lop m e nt using the factors of diffusion (Rogers 1995) and suggested that: the d e v elo p m en t and diffusion o f IM C curriculu m is based on c haracteristics sim ilar to all in novation (com plexity, com patibility, relative a dvantage , observability , trialability), as well as the personal interests and social influences o f those a ca d em ics w h o may be in a position to a dopt an IM C curricu lum . (Kerr et al. 2008, 542)

It reported little evidence o f academ ic leadership, apart from some IMC cham pion s in the USA such as Schultz and D uncan and Kitchen in the UK. It identified faculty familiarity and com fort levels with materials in previous courses, which created a reluctance to abandon material that has taken years to develop, as an obstacle to IMC diffusion. To this, it added a lack of appropriately qualified staff and textbooks, which were IM C in content, rather than ju st in name. A subsequent study by Schultz et al. (2008) sought to define IMC from an e d u c a to r’s perspective by using a syllabi analysis to explore the content of the units, the delivery of IM C and the audience. W h ile the views o f practitioners have led to the developm ent of IMC m odels and theory, it was hoped that w hat was being taught in the classroom would help define the discipline and build IMC theory. In terms o f content, five modules of content - m a rk e tin g , communication, IMC, planning com ponents and marketing com m unication tools - em erged from the syllabi analysis: T h e c o n te n t o f the units studied ap pears to p resen t IM C prim arily as a process de signed to assist in the co ord ination o f m arketing c o m m u n ic a tio n d iscip lines . . . sadly, the conte nt analysed was a lm ost devoid o f any IM C constructs or theory. It was very re m inisc ent o f a traditional m ark etin g c o m m u n ic a tio n course or prom otion m a n a g e m e n t program rath er than one dev oted to the teaching understandin g and practice o f current-day IM C. (S ch ultz et al. 2 0 08,25)

Based on the analysis, Schultz et al. (2008) proposed a three circles m odel of IMC theory developm ent, as show n in Figure 1. They suggest that integration at its most sim plest is the ‘developm ent, organisation, alignm ent and im plem e n ta tio n ’ of the three circles o f audiences (people, organisations or stakeholders for w hom the projects have been developed, the target of the IM C prog ram m es); delivery systems (method through w hich the program m es will be delivered); and the content (the inform ation, messages or incentives). Each circle encom passes substantial theory and all three com bined generate the magical synergy inherent in IMC. In conclusion, more recent studies on IMC education have m oved away from the territorial debates to the more strategic issues of educational developm ent. They have announced the expectations of stakeholders in the curriculum d evelopm ent process, investigated the process o f curriculum developm ent, identified the factors in IMC curriculum diffusion and developed a m odel for IMC education developm ent. They have also audited current IMC teaching practice. W hat we are still missing, perhaps, are som e ideas of how the concepts explored in these papers may be im plem ented as best practice (R oznow ski et al. 2004). How we can create an integrated approach from the im m ovable sandstone of university structures and w hat the future may hold for IMC education. Using the Delphi method, the key questions raised by past studies have been asked of a panel of IM C cham pions, w ho understand and arc actively involved in IM C education.

50

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS

Content Acquisition News Knowledge Entertainment Opinions Culture Management

Form and Format Channels Origin - Source Conf Logistics \

Audience

\

Identification Individuals Commercial Influencers Regulators Society Maintenance

Figure 1.

Schultz et a l.’s (2008) three circle s o f IM C th eory d e v e lo p m e n t model.

R e s e a r c h q ue s t i on s a n d m e t h o d o l o g y T he research questions have been draw n from the literature review and cluster around three reoccurring yet central them es - I M C ’s place in the university, the teaching, learning and research issues and the future o f IMC education.

P a rt A : I M C ’s p la c e in the u n iv ersity e n v iro n m e n t As early as 1993, academ ics were debating the disciplinary hom e o f a discipline that has both marketing and com m unication in its title (Duncan et al. 1993; Rose and Miller 1994; Griffin and Pasadeos 1998; W ightm a n 1999). T he debate continues today (Roznow ski et al. 2004). Therefore, research question 1 explores I M C ’s hom e within the university setting. R Q 1 : H ow should IM C be p ositio ned and structured as an a ca d em ic d iscip line in a university setting?

Is it a business coursc or a part of the arts, liberal arts, c om m u nicatio n departm ents? W here does it sit in relation to m arketing or advertising? Is it a major study area in its own right or a m inor or elective area o f another discipline such as m arketing?

P art B : IM C c u r r ic u lu m , le a rn in g a n d te a c h in g a n d resea rch issu es Regardless o f w here IMC is positioned within the university, academ ics still face the same challenges o f m aking it work - h o w to develop the curriculum , w hat to teach and how to teach it. As the literature review showed, many studies looked at different aspects o f these IMC educational issues (C ayw ood and E w ing 1991; D uncan et al. 1993; Rose and M iller 1994; Griffin and Pasadeos 1998; W ightm an 1999; Roznow ski et al. 2004; Patti 2005; Battle et al. 2008; Kerr et al. 2008; Schultz et al. 2008). This literature raises the following three research questions.

51

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS RQ2: How should IMC curricula be developed?

Should IMC be developed as a new course or is it a matter of modifying existing courses such as promotion management or ad management? Where should the content, the core constructs and the assessment come from? Is there an exemplary role model to borrow? What arc the organisational or other obstacles to good IMC curriculum? W hat external stakeholders should be active in the development of IMC programmes? RQ3: W hat should students learn in an IMC course?

What do you think should be in an ideal IMC course? How can we measure if students are learning? RQ4: How should we teach IMC?

Our leaching in marketing communication areas such as advertising and PR has largely been discipline specific, skills driven and activity based. Given that IMC is a more generalist discipline, how do we teach a discipline that combines, aligns and integrates? A related and perhaps equally important issue is how the current research in the discipline is shaping the curricula (or not) and how research is incorporated into textbooks and other learning materials such as class resources (Patti 2005; Kerr et al. 2008; Schultz et al. 2008). RQ5: W hat is the role o f IM C research in IMC curricula?

Do you believe current IMC research is informing IMC practice? Why or what not? How do you introduce academic research or key IMC writers into your IMC course? P art C: The challenges a n d the fu tu r e f o r IM C education The literature has highlighted the challenges and even issued challenges to educators. Many of these challenges are similar to the complexities o f implementing the discipline in practice (Rose and Miller 1994; Griffin and Pasadeos 1998; Schultz et al. 2008). Some relate to the challenges of trying to implement any change in the rigid and immovable structure on which universities arc inevitably founded (Wightman 1999). Others arc perhaps part of the diffusion process that hampers any new idea (Kerr et al. 2008). These challenges are explored in the following three research questions. RQ6: W hat challenges do you encounter in teaching an IMC course? RQ7: W hat challenges do you see occurring in teaching an 1MC course over the next 10 years? RQ8: W hat does the future hold for 1MC educators?

A D elphi approach To explore the research questions and gain enlightenment and maxim um consensus on these important issues in IMC education, a Delphi study was developed (Clark 2006). Pioneered by the RAND Corporation as a tool for technological forecasting, the Delphi method has been frequently applied in marketing research, tourism and sales forecasting and even advertising research (Richards and Curran 2002). Kelley (2007) and Kelley, Connant, and Smart (1998) have successfully applied this method for marketing education research. The Delphi method uses an expert panel to deliver a collective, anonymous judgem ent on an issue or a problem. This judgem ent is precipitated by a number of waves of

52

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS questionnaires, w hich are first open-ended and then seek calibration to find consensus. T he series of responses converge tow ards a m id-range or total group response, which is thought to be the true or correct answ er to solve the problem (Best 1974; Larreche and M on tgom ery 1977; T aylor and Judd 1994; Kelley 2007). T here are a num ber o f advantages in using the Delphi method. Firstly, the respondents arc experts in the area. W hile this is the greatest benefit, it can also be the biggest downfall if a strong panel is not recruited (Kelley 2007). Secondly, the process of reasoned consensus encourages thinking to m ove tow ards the best answer. And thirdly, all responses are an onym ou s, encouraging free thought and also allowing respondents to c hange their mind (Taylor and Judd 1994). This also eliminates some of the problem s associated with face-to-face decision making, such as the halo effect, w here som e group m em bers are intimidated by the key thinkers or dom inant people in the group. It also elim inates the bandw agon effect, w here coalitions form and influence decision m aking (Best 1974). T he main disadvantage in using the Delphi m ethod is the cost in tim e and resources, as the m eth od requires m ultiple in fo rm an ts and m ultiple w a v e s of q u es tio n n a ire s (Bruggcn, Lilicn, and K ackcr 2002). The use o f em ail as a Delphi tool quickens the process from m onths to w eeks and carries the m om entum o f group discussion (Richards and Curran 2002; Kelley 2007).

S elec tio n a n d re c ru itm e n t o f e x p e rt p a n e l T he selection o f the panel is possibly the m ost crucial decision in using the Delphi method (Kelley 2007). U ndoubtedly, the key criteria m ust be the p a n e l's expertise in the particular area. A challenge arises here as often the most experienced or qualified people are the most time poor. In terms of recruitm ent, 10 to 15 seem s an appropriate size for an hom ogenous group (Taylor and Judd 1994). H eterogeneous groups require a larger panel from 15 to 30 (Larreche and M ontgom ery 1977; T aylor and Judd 1994). T he Delphi panel were recruited on the basis of two criteria. Firstly, their teaching and research expertise in the area of IMC. Secondly, their current teaching university to ensure a global representativeness. Four of the 11 respondents were US based, although all had taught internationally. The rem ainder were key teachers in the UK, Asia, Australia and New Zealand. A pool o f 15 people was selected for invitation to participate in the study. T he tim efram e did not suit three o f these respondents, one accepted but did not participate, and the rem aining 11 IMC educationalists contributed their expertise to the discussion. T able 1 show s the expertise of the panel in term s o f its teaching experience, authorship of te xtbooks in the area and publication of journal articles on IMC and IMC education. It also shows their location by disciplinary hom e (business, journalism or com m un icatio n) and geographically in the USA, UK, Asia, Australia and N ew Zealand. T he panel were sent the first open-ended questionnaire in D ec em b e r 2007, w hich they were asked to return within the week. R esponses were analysed in the follow ing week and a n u m b e r o f the pan e l’s statements relevant to the research question were collated and incorporated into a second questionnaire. Participants were asked to rate their agreem ent with this series o f panel-generated statements and to rate the probability of a future scenario on a scale o f 0 (no agreem ent) to 100 (total agreement). T he m edian response was sought and the statements ranked in terms of probability. Clarification was sought of any responses that fell outside the quartile range, although this was often supplied in the panel m e m b e r ’s attached com m ents.

53

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS T able 1.

Descrip tion o f D elphi panel.

T e xtb ook Publishes L eadin g in related Publishes in IM C Discipline teacher area e ducation h om e in IM C 1- -J

•j

■j

V

2. >/

V

V

V

3. V

V

V

4. V 5. -J

V V

V V

6. V 7. V 8. 7

V V

9. V i o. 7 11. v

V

V V

V

Journalism

Course Y ears or p ro g ram m e o f teaching Region

P ro g ra m m e / executive education Business C ou rse / pro g ram m e Journalism C o urse / prog ram m e Journalism Course Business C ou rse / pro g ram m e C o m m u n ic a tio n P ro g ra m m e C om m u n ic atio n Course C ou rse / Business p ro g ra m m e C om m u n ic atio n Course Business Course Business Course

20+

US

20+

US

20+

US

5-10 10-2

UK

10-2 5-10 10-2

ASIA ASIA AUST

5-10 5-10 20+

AUST NZ NZ

US

Fi n d i n g s R Q 1: H ow s h o u ld IM C be p o sitio n e d a n d stru c tu re d as an a ca d e m ic d iscip lin e in a u n iv ersity se ttin g ? There is not strong consensus that IMC is a study area in its ow n right, or even a separate discipline. It is seen, instead, as a key area of marketing, although the panel w arned that ‘m arketing needs to broaden its th in k in g ’. Even am ong our expert panel, there was no consensus on where IMC should be positioned in the university environm ent. H ow ever, there was strong agreem ent that IMC is often taught by both business and journalism . This arrang em ent was often seen as more ‘conflict’ than ‘c ollaboration ’, with continued dispute over w ho ow ns ‘m a rk e tin g ’ or ‘c o m m u n ic a tio n ’ and ultimately, who ow ns IMC. As a panel m e m b er com m ented, ‘M arketing is a term ow ned by the business school, so it raises problem s w hen we try to offer IMC in a journalism sch o o l.’ In terms o f I M C ’s relationship with advertising and public relations, most o f the panel felt very strongly that advertising and public relations degrees may be replaced by IMC, although there were two w ho disagreed equally as strongly. The same polarisation was evident w hen the o verw helm ing majority felt that courses like prom otion m a nage m ent or advertising m a n ag e m en t could be scrapped if faculty had sufficient expertise to teach all aspects of IMC. Tw o of our panel felt that IMC could coexist w ithout infringing upon the more discipline-based areas of advertising and public relations. As one com m ented, ‘I d o n ’t believe that IMC should be part o f anything. It should sit beside advertising, m arketing and public relations, as it is a m ajor study area in its own right.’ Perhaps the biggest obstacle to I M C ’s claim for university turf appears to be the IMC brand. It was felt that ‘few students (or professionals) know what IMC is, but they understand what they are getting with an advertising or PR d eg ree’. This lack of awareness often translates into a reduced demand for an IMC major, particularly at the undergraduate level. Table 2 shows the p an e l’s thinking and median response to the place o f IMC in the university setting.

54

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS T able 2.

M e dian re sponse to discip linary hom e of IMC.

Statem ent

M edian

IMC is often taught in both business as prom otio n m a n a g e m e n t and in journalism by advertising and PR faculty IMC should be treated as key area in m arketing IMC is a part of m arketing, but m arke tin g needs to broaden its thinking O ften IM C is a conflict betw een business and c o m m u n ic a tio n schools as to w ho o w n s ‘m a r k e ti n g ’ or ‘c o m m u n i c a ti o n ’ o r ‘I M C ’ C ourse s like p r om o tion m a n a g e m e n t and advertising m a n a g e m e n t could be scrapp ed if, and I repeat if, the faculty kn ow s en o u g h to teach all aspects o f IM C IMC should take a m anagerial perspectiv e and teach the su bject from point of view of the organisation Ad and PR degrees may be replaced with an IM C m ajor O n e o f the negatives o f an IM C m ajo r is brandin g. T h at is, few students (or professionals) know w h a t IM C is, but they un derstand what they are getting with an a dvertising or PR degree IMC is a m ajo r study area in its ow n right I do not believe that IM C is a discip line unto itself O ften IM C is a collaboratio n b etw een business and c o m m u n ic a tio n schools IMC can be positio ned as any and all of these - arts, liberal arts, business, c o m m u n ic a tio n , j o urn alism

95 90 90 80 80 80 75 70

60 55 50 10

R Q 2: H ow sh o u ld IM C cu rricu la be develo p ed ? T here was strong consensus that the teaching of IMC had em erged from existing courses in advertising and promotion m anagem ent. H ow ever, this was not felt to be the ideal path for curriculum dev e lo p m e n t and the preference was to develop IMC as a new course, with new material, separate and distinct from advertising or public relations. IMC was seen as broader and m ore strategic than either of these more skills-oriented areas. It was also felt that IMC could save course and staff time by rem oving the duplication of having to take research, planning and cam paigns courses in both advertising and public relations. It was strongly agreed that for the sake of the student, the curriculum must be integrated. One panel m e m b e r co m m ented, M a k in g sure the IM C course i s n ’t sim ply duplicating p rom o tion m a n a g e m e n t or ad or PR c a m paigns. Hopefully the students get so m e th ing new and different, but often they co m plain, ‘W e ’ve heard this b e f o re .’ T h a t ’s w hy the w hole curriculu m needs to be o ve rhauled in order to elim inate duplication.

T he panel agrees that there was no single model for IMC curriculum developm ent, although some educators supported the m odel developed by N orthw estern University in Chicago. It was also suggested that in smaller and em erg en t markets such as Australia, N ew Zealand and Asia, perhaps a couple o f universities in the region should specialise in IMC. This sentiment was not shared in the larger, more mature markets o f the USA and UK. T he panel identified the main obstacle to IMC curriculum d eve lop m e nt as the faculty themselves. They adapt, rather than em brace. Faculty lack the IMC know ledge and experience or even the willingness to m ove outside their com fort zone. They find it hard to move away from the class notes, Pow erpoints and relevant resources they have invested years to develop. N or do they have the support o f dedicated IMC texts and resources to guide them, as these arc little more than rebadged advertising or prom otions m anagem ent books. As one panel m e m b e r c om m ented, ‘The problem with faculty is that many pigeon

55

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS hole them selves into a very narrow discipline and are unwilling to expand their own horizons . . . I t's the age old question of turf.’ Again, we see som e of the problem s of im plem enting IMC in practice echoed in the academ ic environm ent. T he panel note a lack of faculty understanding of what IMC is and an im perative for faculty to hold their own turf. Faculty adapt or build on w hat they have always taught, w hat they feel fam iliar with or even w hat they have been required to teach, rather than em brace the substantive ideas and evolving concepts o f IMC. This does not appear to be a rejection o f IMC by faculty, but rather a rejection o f change or a survival m echanism . This turf w ar is am plified by the university culture o f specialisation and inter­ departm ental conflict with other schools teaching sim ilar subjects. This leads to an unproductive use of university resources as well as an annoying duplication for students. In terms of external stakeholders who may m ake a worthy contribution to IMC curriculum developm ent, the expert panel put alum ni top of the list (m edian response 85% ), followed by senior industry people (75%). The school advisory board was seen to be less effective in this role (60% ) and external auditors a last resort (50%).

R Q 3: W hat s h o u ld stu d e n ts learn in an IM C co u rse? An IMC course should not only address the contem porary and the generic, but also look ahead o f practice to explore the em erging issues. It should be structured around the em ergence of the IMC concept and its theoretical developm ent, the strategic foundations of IMC, tools o f IMC and look towards the future of IMC. In doing so, it should include customers, con sum ers and stakeholders, insight methods, behav iour metrics and a planning model. T he consensus was that this should be a true IM C course, focused on IM C principles and practice, rather than taking a modified advertising or public relations perspective. U n fortunately, the teaching o f IM C has e m e r g e d from existing courses in advertising, a dvertising m a n a g e m e n t and prom otio n m a n a gem e nt. T his has certain lim itations b ecau se few instructors (and texts) break co m p le te ly a w ay from these areas. T his results in IM C courses being essentially p r om otio n m a n a g e m e n t courses with a lecture or two a b out integration. T ea ch in g true IM C is e x trem ely difficult and I susp ec t done only at a very few universities.

T he panel differentiated between the teaching o f som ething called IMC, which was largely a repackaging of existing prom otion m a nage m ent or advertising m anagem ent courses, and a curriculum that represented the true nature o f IMC. They defined the repackaged prom otions m a n age m ent as part of the lack of understanding of the discipline and the faculty resistance to change mentioned earlier. T he true IMC course was broader and more strategic, covering em ergin g issues, IM C theoretical developm ents, strategic fo u n d a­ tions, key concepts and models. This was only being taught at a handful o f universities, as the panel ac know ledged that most faculty do not understand IMC conceptually. Like the discipline itself, it was felt that IMC education should be measurable. It was suggested that the best measure of studen ts’ learning were clear and concrete course objectives, directly linked to assessm ent outcom es (median agreem ent 90% ). A nother m easure m ight be em p lo y er feedback or reports from internship placem ent, although support for this was stronger in courses that contained an internship com ponent.

R Q 4: H ow s h o u ld we teach IM C ? W e are not only teaching integration, but we must integrate what we teach. T he culture of specialisation in many universities encourages students to think in differentiated term s, looking for a point of difference, rather than a measure o f consistency.

56

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS T he generalist approach o f IMC is often foreign to the more discipline-specific content in advertising and public relations or even m ost university pro g ra m m e s and hence, the culture o f specialisation invades the student mindset. IMC may require a consistent and em pathic approach to guide the students to understanding, w hich may be enhanced by draw ing on cross-disciplinary and integrative teaching strategies, including lecturers from multiple disciplines. A nother w ay to bring it all together is to include a capstone or a client project that dem ands an integrated solution. One panel m e m b er com m en ted, It is easy to teach the c haracteristics and m a n a g e m e n t o f advertising, publicity, sales p rom otio n, personal selling, etc. Students see the re le van c e o f this. H ow eve r, they are only m oderately interested in the c on ce pts o f IM C. T h is then requires the instructor to dem on strate its value.

T eaching IMC may take time to integrate new ideas and concepts, according to another panel mem ber: ‘I do find that students take several class sessions to understand w hat w e ’re doing and how and w hy it’s different than promotion or advertising m anagem ent. But seeing this progress is satisfying in itself.’ So how should we teach IM C? Slowly, giving students time to absorb and integrate the ideas of a more generalist discipline. D em onstrate how integration works. Use capstones and projects and cases. Use multidisciplinary team s in the educational process to show how cross-functional teams m ight be cham pion ed in the organisational environm ent. This is sum m arised in T able 3.

Table 3.

M edian re sponse to how IM C should be taught.

Statem ent

M ed ian

Instructor need s to understand that the integration o f ideas needs to take place and m ust be able to guide students in this process o f understanding Build a capstone that d e m a n d s a fully integrated plan Project based. Use client projects that require a m ore integrated solution U sin g detailed case studies o r interactive w e b -b as ed studies to solve a problem Effective cross-disciplinary and integrative teach ing strategies, using m ulti-disciplin ary teachin g team s W e should leach a discipline-specific, skills-driven and activity-b ased course Integrate the key e le m ents o f the functional fields and spice it up with interdisciplinary fields such as textual m etrics, databases, descriptive and analytical stats

90 90 90 85 80 80 70

R Q 5: W h a t is th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een te a c h in g IM C a n d IM C re sea rch ? The consensus is that IM C research is not inform ing IMC practice. The industry neither cares nor finds value in w hat acadcm ics are researching. It is felt that the industry has borrow ed the la nguage and the concepts of IMC, w ithout really understanding a c a d e m ia ’s interpretation o f IMC. W hile the in dustry’s view of IMC may be different, the panel felt that it still may be valid. In fact, practice could even be ahead o f theory. One panel m e m ber observes, ‘Perhaps the question of agencies getting IMC (or not) is more relevant if rephrased in term s o f what acad em ics are not getting about practitioner-based IM C .’ A nother com m ents, ‘M uch academ ic research seem s irrelevant to practitioners, just as a lot o f p rac titione r’s research seem s to be ignored by academ ics (for exam ple, the tracking studies reported by UK Journal A d M a p ).’ T his brings our own view of IMC into question. Perhaps we seek to define IMC too much and end up limiting our view of IMC - e s p e c ia lly IMC research, w hen it is thought

57

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS there is much to borrow from traditional research tools or even from related disciplines such as relationship m arketing or direct marketing. Perhaps as one panel m e m b e r suggests, ‘all that is IMC may not be called I M C ’. T able 4 presents the p a n e l’s responses. T able 4.

Incorporation o f IM C research in curri culu m design.

S tatem ent

M edian

T here is a large a m o u n t of traditional m ark e ting and m ark etin g c o m m u n ic a tio n and PR research that can be used to support an IM C course Industry has opportunistically used the IM C lang uag e and con ce pts without internalising the basic philo sophy Industry m ay ha ve adopte d a different but no less valid interpretation o f IM C in practice Practice m ay be ahead o f theory All that is IM C m ay not be called IM C I doubt that IM C research is affecting IM C practice P ractitioners m ay find little value in a ca d em ic research I d o n ’t think the industry cares w ha t a ca d em ics are researchin g W hile research is re levant to practice, there are m any obstacles to IM C im ple m e ntation T h ere is concern a m o n g a ca d em ics that real world IM C practice is not e volving or m ovin g throu gh e xpected de v e lo p m e n ta l stages A c ad e m ia may not be pre pare d to m odify its vision o f IM C on the basis o f real world practice

90 85 85 80 80 75 75 70 70 70 50

Strategics for incorporating academ ic research into courses include the provision of readings, em bed ding the research into lecture and tutorial materials, student projects or discussions centred on research topics and through nom inated text books. Based on the findings so far, a mind map has been developed to bring together a visual sum m ary the p a n e l’s thinking and agreem ent on the com p lex and interrelated issues of IMC curriculum. This is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

F u n d a m e n ta ls o f IM C education.

R Q 6: W h a t ch a llen g e s do y o u e n c o u n te r in te a c h in g a n IM C co u rse? The teaching challenges today do not appear much different to those raised in the initial papers on IMC. They include keeping up-to-date, territorial claim s on IMC from business and journalism and resulting duplication o f courses and a lack of understanding of IMC by faculty. A panel m e m b e r com plains, M a n y a dvertising and public relations faculty d o n ' t und erstan d IM C c on ceptu ally . M o s t w e r e n ’t trained within the IM C p a rad igm . If a p ro fessor w ho taught advertising and PR is now

58

TH E EVOLUTION O F INTEG RA TED M ARKETING COM M UNICATIONS ex p e c te d to teach w ithin an IM C c u rric u lu m . I ’ll bet m o st o f the c o u rse s will actu a lly be the sa m e a d v e rtisin g and PR classes, j u s t w ith a diffe ren t na m e . It w ill take tim e to hire IM C e x p e r ts to teach the IM C cu rric u lu m and re p la c e tradition al ad and PR profs.

T h e p a n e l c o n s e n s u s on t h e s e c h a l l e n g e s is p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5.

T a b le 5.

C h a lle n g e s in te a c h in g an I M C course.

S ta te m e n t

M e d ia n

K e e p in g up w ith the latest d e v e lo p m e n ts B rin g in g a b u sin e ss a p p r o a c h w ith c o r p o r a te g o als not ju s t c o m m u n ic a ti o n goals M a rk e tin g is a term o w n e d by the b u sin e ss schoo l, so it raises p r o b le m s w h e n w e try to o ffe r IM C classes in a jo u r n a lis m school M a n y faculty d o n ’t u n d e rsta n d IM C c o n c e p tu a lly M a k in g sure the IM C c o u rse i s n ’t sim p ly d u p lic a tin g p r o m o tio n m a n a g e m e n t or a d v e rtisin g or PR c a m p a ig n s If a p r o fe s s o r w h o tau g h t ad v e rtisin g and PR is n o w e x p e c te d to teach IM C , I ’ll b et m o st o f the c o u rse s will actu a lly be the s a m e a d v e rtisin g and PR classes M a k in g sure I k n o w e n o u g h a b o u t all as p e c ts o r h a v e so m e o n e to g ive a specific lecture on ce rtain aspec ts (e.g. d ata m ining ) D esire by s tu d e n ts to run to tactics or to get overly h u ng up on strategy S a m e c h a lle n g e s as for any o th e r c o u r s e in te rm s o f m a in ta in in g c u r r e n t k n o w le d g e and teac h in g an in c re asingly div e rse ra n g e o f students U n te a c h in g so m e traditional m a rk e tin g (note not m a rk e t) values It takes stude nts s e v eral class se ssio n s to u n d e rsta n d w h a t w e ’re d o in g and w h y it is diffe ren t from p r o m o tio n or ad v e rtisin g m a n a g e m e n t S tu d en ts strugg le to u n d e rsta n d the d if fe r e n c e s b e tw e e n IM C an d ad v e rtisin g and PR

85 85 85 80 80 80 80 75 70 70 40 25

KQ7: What challenges do you see occurring in teaching an IM C course over the next 10 years? T h e r e a r e i n h e r e n t p r o b l e m s f a c i n g all u n i v e r s i t y c o u r s e s o v e r the n e x t 10 y e a r s , s u c h as f u n d i n g , s h o r t a g e s o f r e s e a r c h p r o f e s s o r s a n d a l a c k o f f a c u l t y l e a d e r s h i p . B u t in a d d i t i o n to t h e s e , I M C e d u c a t o r s m u s t a d d r e s s s o m e u n i q u e c h a l l e n g e s o f t h e i r o w n . E m e r g i n g te chnologies,

t he

changed

media

landscape,

t he

consumer-empowered

marketing

e n v i r o n m e n t a n d I M C m e a s u r e m e n t a rc all c o n t e m p o r a r y c h a l l e n g e s n o t e x p e c t e d to be r e s o l v e d in the s h o r t t e r m . B u t like all a c a d c m i c s w i t h t o o m a n y c h a l l e n g e s a n d t o o little t i m e , s o r t i n g o u t the tri vi al f r o m t h o s e t h a t arc s i g n i f i c a n t m a y be the k e y . A s e c o n d m i n d m a p h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d f r o m the f i n d i n g s to s h o w t he o b s t a c l e s to s t r o n g a n d p r o g r e s s i v e I M C c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s m a p o f the c h a l l e n g e s a n d o b s t a c l e s f a c i n g I M C c h a m p i o n s is s h o w n in F i g u r e 3.

C u ltu r e o f s p e c ia lis a t io n D iffic u lt t o Im p le m e n t change D u p lic a tio n in c o u r s e s E n r o lm e n t im p e r a tiv e

Turf Wars

e x p e r ie n c e o f IM C D is c ip lin a r y H o m e -

L a c k o f k n o w le d g e a n d

o u ts id e c o m f o r t z o n e

c o o p e r a tio n

F a c u lty n e e d to e m b r a c e it

L a c k o f d e d ic a te d IM C t e x ts L a c k o f q u a lifio d te a c h e r s

S t u d e n ts n e e d to u n d e r s ta n d it In d u s tr y n e e d s lo s h a r e it

R e s o u r c e s w a s t e d in d u p lic a tio n o f u n its

Faculty

O b sta c le s fo r IM C c h a m p io n s .

59

IMC Brand

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS

RQ8: What does the future hold fo r IMC educators? S o m e d e g r e e o f o p t i m i s m , p er ha p s . I nt e gr a tion b e c o m e s i ne vi t a bl e a nd the disc ip li ne b e c o m e s m o r e a c c e p t e d by the i ndus tr y and st udent s. A c a d e m i c s will r e a c h c o n s e n s u s on key I M C c o ns t r u c t s and s o m e r e se ar ch g a p s will be filled. A c a d e m i c s and p ra ct i t io ne rs will find c o m m o n g ro u nd . T h e r e is also t he t h o u g h t that m a y b e I M C will c h a n g e in n a m e or b l e nd in wi t h a m o r e m a i n s t r e a m b u s in e ss c o n c e p t , w h i c h will p ut it at the f o r ef ro n t o f b u s i n e s s e d u ca t io n . S e e T a b l e 6 for the p a n e l ’s vi ew o f the future. O n e panel m e m b e r c o m m e n t s , I’m optimistic. W hen TV advertising was all you had to do, top m a n ag e m en t could do marketing c o m m un ic ations them selves w-ithout relying on experts. N ow no com p an y can ignore the integration o f TV and new media, and this only heightens the need to integrate, from the perspective o f each individual custom er, the c o m m un ic ations they receive along the buying funnel. Experts able to do this, and still generate a return on marketing investm ent, will be in big dem and.

A n o t h e r o bs er ve s , It is im possible to know w hat the future landscape will look like, but it will be different. So, in m any w ays a good IMC teacher must be a futurist, tuned into co n su m er trends, keeping pace with cool hunters, the wired segm ents and fast com p an y m agazines. There are m any w ays to

Table 6.

M ean probability o f future challenges.

Statement

M edian probability

No com pany can ignore the integration o f TV and new m edia and this only heightens the need to integrate from the perspective o f each individual custom er, the c o m m unic ations they receive along the buying funnel IMC lecturers will update their know ledge o f IMC US universities are not set up to provide newly m inted PhDs w ho know anything about a broad picture T he future for IMC educators is bright as the discipline receives better acceptance in industry and better e m p lo y m e n t prospects for students University p rog ra m m e s will either offer a broad strategic com m unication degree such as IMC or an intense creatively focused advertising degree (like portfolio schools do in the U SA ) If IMC becom es blended with a more mainstream business them e/ideas/ concept, it m ight truly be on the forefront o f business education Some o f the challenges and m ajor research gaps will be filled A cadem ia and practitioners m ay find som e co m m o n ground A cad em ics will reach consensus on key IMC concepts and definition There will be continue to be confusion on what IMC can do for curriculum and for students T he co urses may be called som ething other than IMC - m aybe strategic c om m unic atio n or brand com m unication There will be a false belief that IMC replaces advertising, PR and other functional areas T he US academ ic system is not set up to co m bine advertising, PR and marketing IMC will experience slow growth, with som e acceleration as adoption grows As long as people continue to teach prom otion or advertising m anagem ent, their jo b s will be secure because the student population has little idea what IMC is There will be traditional longing for traditional fields Unless IMC m erges with other discipline areas or business/m arketing areas, the future for IMC educators is not very bright

60

95

80 80 75 75

70 70 70 70 60 60 50 50 50 45

40 40

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS do this - t h e point is that it m ust be done in order to und erstan d w h a t the e n v iro n m e n t is for IM C and how IM C m ig h t be influencing this e n viro nm ent.

T he final m indm ap is plan for the future and is shown in Figure 4. W hen assembled together, the three m indm aps draw on the collective insight and experience o f the panel to give us the recipe for an integrated IMC educational environm ent, identify the problem s inherent in its d evelo pm en t and then provide us with a plan o f attack.

Figure 4.

W h ere to from here?

L i m i t a t i o n s a n d c onc lu s i on As m entioned in the m ethodology section, the recruitm ent o f the Delphi panel is one o f the most critical tasks in this research project. W hile the selection of IMC cham pions was justified as a global representation o f som e of the leading IMC educators, it m ust be acknow ledged that they are only a sam ple and there are undoubtedly other alternative views that have not been raised by the panel. There are also other IMC educational issues outside the parameters of this study and certainly m any of the issues raised within this broad-based study are deserving of more in-depth investigation. H ow ever, the m ethodology as m uch as possible allow ed the panel to direct the discussion. So hopefully, the issues uncovered are relevant, contem porary or even em ergent, as well as universal. T he m ost confronting issues are visualised in the last m indm ap. T he first and perhaps most difficult issue to resolve is the culture of specialisation at m ost universities and many w orkplaces. How can a generalist degree exist alongside a university im perative to specialise ? Does this require a student to incorporate a n u m b e r of specialisations in order to becom e a generalist? For exam ple, if you take an advertising major plus a public relations major, does that m ake you more equipped to understand or practise IM C? T his culture of specialisation also fuels the turf wars between departm ents, ham pers cross-disciplinary collaboration and escalates the duplication in teaching materials. The faculty, or course, m ust take some responsibility for this. Clearly, a know ledgeable faculty, motivated to em brace IMC, will not only e m p o w e r student learning, but also break down university silos. O ne way to support faculty w ould be to create a dedicated IMC text that included IMC theory, constructs, models and exam ples of practice to support lecturers less fam iliar with the content area. A noth er is collaboration and the creation of an IMC academ ic com m unity. T he creation of the Delphi panel dem onstrated a likeness o f mind and purpose that would be well shared across IMC educators. And finally, we need to grow the IMC brand, so that faculty understand and em brace it and students list it as their preferred area o f study. So it appears that som e will continue to serve up apples and oranges. Som e will even call an apple or an orange, or an apple and an orange, IMC. O ther IMC cham pions,

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS h o w e v e r , p ati en tly cut and m i x and c o m b i n e to c re a te the p e r fe c t fruit s al ad, d e li v e r in g s o m e t h i n g far gr e a t e r t han w e e x p e c t e d to find on the me n u .

References Battle, T., M. M o rim o to, and B. Reber. 2008. C o nsid eratio n s for integrated m arketing co m m unic atio ns education: The needs and expectations from the c o m m u nic ation s workplace. J o u rn a l o f A d vertisin g E ducation 11, no. 2: 3 2 - 4 8 . Best, R. 1974. An experim ent in Delphi estim ation in m arketing decision making. J o u rn a l o f M arketing R esearch 1 1, no. 4: 4 4 8 - 5 2 . B ruggen, G., G. Lilien, and M. Kacker. 2002. Inform ants in organizational m arketing research: W hy use m ultiple inform ants and how to aggregate responses. Jo u rn a l o f M a rketin g R esearch 39, no. 4: 4 6 9 - 7 8 . Cayw ood, C., and R. Ew'ing. 1991. IMC: A new M a ste r’s degree concept. P u b lic R ela tio n s R eview 17, no. 3: 2 3 7 - 4 4 . Clark, K. 2006. Practices for the use of technology in high school: A Delphi study. Jo u rn a l o f T echnology a n d T eacher E ducation 14: 481 - 9 9 . Duncan, T. 2002. IM C : U sing a d vertising a n d p ro m o tio n to b u ild brands. Boston, M A: M cG raw -H ill. Duncan, T., and C. C ayw oo d. 1996. The concept, process and evolution o f integrated marketing co m m unication . In In teg ra ted com m un ica tio n : A syn erg y o f p ersu a siv e v o ic e s, ed. E. Thorson and J. M oore, 1 3 - 3 4 . N ew Jersey: L aw renc e Erlbaum Associates. Duncan, T., C. C a yw o od, and D. N ew som . 1993. Preparing advertising and public relations students for the c o m m u nic ation industry in the 21st century. R eport o f the Task Force on Integrated C o m m unications. P aper presented at the A nnual C onvention o f the A ssociation for Education in Journalism and Mass C om m unication, K ansas City. Duncan, T., and S. Everett. 1993. Client perceptions of integrated m arketing com m unications. J o u rn a l o f A dvertisin g R esearch 33, no. 3: 3 0 - 9 . Eagle, L., P. Kitchen, and S. Bulmer. 2007. Insights into interpreting integrated marketing c om m unications. E uropean Jo u rn a l o f M a rketin g 41, no. 7/8: 9 5 6 - 7 0 . Griffin, W ., and Y. Pasadeos. 1998. The im pact of IMC on advertising and public relations education. Journalism and M ass C o m m u n ica tio n E d u ca to r 53, no. 2: 4 - 1 8 . Hartley, B., and D. Pickton. Integrated m arketing c o m m u nic ation s requires a new way o f thinking. J o u rn a l o f M arketing C om m unications 5, no. 2: 9 7 - 1 0 6 . Kelley, C. 2007. Assessing the trends and challenges of teaching marketing abroad: A Delphi approach. Jo u rn a l o f M arketing E duca tio n 29, no. 3: 2 0 1 - 1 0 . Kelley, C., J. Connan t, and D. Smart. 1998. M arketing education in the 21st century: ADelphi approach. A m erica n M arketing A sso cia tio n S u m m er E d u c a to rs ’ C on feren ce 9: 2 0 4 - 10. Kerr, G., P. Beede, and W . Proud. 2007. D esigning executive education curricula to fitthe professional developm ent continuum : The case o f advertising and public relations practitioners in Australia. J o u rn a l o f A d vertisin g E ducation 1 1, no. 1: 3 3 - 4 6 . Kerr, G., D.E. Schultz, C. Patti, and I. Kim. 2008. An inside-out approach to integrated marketing co m m unication: An international analysis. In tern a tio n a l Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g 27, no. 4: 5 11-48. Kitchen, P., T. Spickett-Jones, and R. Grimes. 2007. Inhibition o f brand integration am idst changing agency structures. Jo u rn a l o f M arketin g C o m m u n ica tio n s 13, no. 2: 1 4 9 - 6 8 . L arreche, J., and D. M ontgom ery . 1977. A fram ew ork for the com parison o f marketing models: A Delphi study. Jo u rn a l o f M arketing R esea rch 14, no. 4: 4 8 7 - 9 8 . Patti, C. 2005. IMC: A new discipline with an old learning focus. Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g 34, no. 4: 5 - 1 0 .

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS Reber, B., C. Frisby, and G. C am eron 2003. Changing direction: A ssessing student thoughts and feelings about a new program in strategic co m m unic ation. Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g E ducation 1, no. 1: 3 2 - 4 6 . Richards. J., and C. Curran. 2002. Oracles on advertising: Searching for a definition. J o u rn a l o f A dvertisin g 31, no. 2: 6 3 - 7 7 . Rogers, E. 1995. D iffusion o f innovations. 4th ed. N ew York: The Free Press. Rose, P., and D. Miller. 1993. Integrated c o m m un ic ations and practitioners’ perceived needs. The Journalism E d u ca to r 48: 2 0 - 7 . Rose, P., and D. Miller. 1994. M erging advertising and PR: Integrated m arketing com m unications. The Journalism E d u ca to r 49, no. 2: 5 2 - 6 8 . R oznow ski, J., B. Reece, and T. D augherty. 2004. Perceptions o f IMC education am ong practitioners. J o u rn a l o f A d vertisin g E ducation 8, no. 1: 4 8 - 5 5 . Schultz, D.E., G. Kerr, I. Kim, and C. Patti. 2008. In search o f a theory o f integrated marketing co m m unication . J o u rn a l o f A d vertisin g E d u ca tio n 11, no. 2: 2 1 - 3 1 . Schultz, D.E., S. T an n e n b au m , and R. Lauterborn. 1993. The new m a rketin g p a ra d ig m : In teg ra ted m arketing co m m unications. L incolnw ood, IL: N T C Publishing. Schultz, D.E., S. T an n e n b au m , and R. Lauterborn. 2003. The n ew m a rketin g p a ra d ig m : In teg ra ted m arketing co m m unications. Illinois: N T C Business Books. Spotts, H., D. Lam bert, and M. Joyce. 1998. M arketing deja vu: T he discovery o f integrated marketing com m unications. Jo u rn a l o f M a rketin g E d u ca tio n 20, no. 3: 2 1 0 - 8 . T aylor, R., and L. Judd. 1994. Delphi forecasting. In Tourism m a rketin g a n d m a n a g em en t h a n d b o o k, ed. S. W it and L. M outhinho, 5 3 5 - 9 . L ondon: Prentice Hall. W ig htm an, B. 1999. Integrated com m unications: O rganization and education. P ublic R elations Q uarterly 44, no. 2: 1 8 - 2 3 .

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Building strong b ran ds in a m odern m arketing communications environm ent K evin L ane K eller E.B. Osborn Professor o f Marketing. Tuck School o f Business, Dartmouth College, 100 Tuck Hall, Hanover, NH, USA T o h e lp m a r k e te r s to b u ild a n d m a n a g e their b r a n d s in a d r a m a ti c a l l y c h a n g i n g m a r k e ti n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e n v ir o n m e n t , the c u s t o m e r - b a s e d b r a n d e q u ity m o d e l that e m p h a s i z e s the i m p o r t a n c e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o n s u m e r b ra n d k n o w l e d g e str u c tu re s is put forth. S p e c ifica lly , the b ra n d re s o n a n c e p y r a m i d is r e v ie w e d as a m e a n s to track h o w m a r k e ti n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c an c rea te in te n se , a ctiv e loyalty r e la tio n s h ip s and a ffe c t b ra n d e q u ity . A c c o r d i n g to this m o d e l , in te g r a tin g m a r k e ti n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i n v o lv e s m ix i n g an d m a t c h in g d if f e re n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n o p tio n s to e stab lish the d e sire d a w a r e n e s s a n d i m a g e in the m in d s o f c o n s u m e r s . T h e v ersatility o f o n -lin e , i n te r a c tiv e m a r k e ti n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s to m a r k e te r s in b ra n d b u ild in g is also a d d re ss e d .

Introduction T h e m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s e n v i r o n m e n t has c h a n g e d e n o r m o u s ly from w h a t it w as 50, 30 o r p erh a p s even as few as 10 years ago. T e c h n o lo g y and the Intern et are f u n d a m e n ta lly ch a n g in g the w ay the w orld interacts and c o m m u n ic a te s . A t the sa m e tim e, b ra n d in g has b e c o m e a key m a rk e tin g priority for m o st c o m p a n ie s (A a k e r and J o a c h im s th a le r 20 0 0 ; K a p fe re r 2005). Yet, there is little c o n s e n su s on how b ran d s and b randin g can or should be d e v e lo p e d in the m o d e rn in teractive m a rk e tp la ce . T ra d itio n a l a p p ro a c h e s to bran d in g that pu t e m p h a s is on m ass m e d ia te c h n iq u e s seem q u e s tio n a b le in a m a rk e tp la c e w h ere c u s to m e rs have a c ce ss to m a ssiv e a m o u n ts o f in form ation ab o u t b ran d s, p ro d u c ts and c o m p a n ie s and in w h ich social n e tw o rk s h av e , in so m e ca se s, s u p p la n te d brand netw orks. N ew p ersp e ctiv es arc n e e d e d to un d ersta n d bran d in g g u id e lin e s in this rapidly ch a n g in g c o m m u n ic a ti o n context. In this p ap e r, w e co n s id e r h o w b ran d s can and sh o u ld be built and m a n a g e d in to d a y ’s m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s e n v iro n m e n t. W e begin by c o n s id e rin g the im p o rta n c e of b ra n d in g and the d ifferent w ay s that the m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s e n v iro n m e n t has c h a n g e d . N ex t, we p ro v id e som e in sight into the c o n c e p t o f cu s to m e r- b a s e d brand equity and the variou s w a y s that m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s can build brand equity. W e then focus on inte ractiv e m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s and how it should best be integrated to build stro ng brands. W e c o n c lu d e by offering s o m e notio ns as to how m a rk e te rs can take a b r o a d e r persp e ctiv e in their m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a ti o n strategies to build bran d equity.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS T he role of b r a n d i n g One of the most popular and potentially important marketing topics to arise in recent years has been the concept of brand equity and the important intangible value that brands bring to organizations. Although marketers may approach the concept differently, there is some agreement that brand equity should be defined in terms of marketing effects uniquely attributable to a brand. That is, brand equity relates to the fact that different outcomes result in the marketing of a product or service because of its brand, as compared to if that same product or service was not identified by that brand. There is also basic agreement in the following: these differences arise from the ‘added value’ endowed to a product as a result of past investments in the marketing for the brand; there are many different ways that this value can be created for a brand; brand equity provides a com mon denominator for interpreting marketing strategies and assessing the value of a brand; and there are many different ways as to how the value of a brand can be manifested or exploited to benefit the firm. The value of a brand to an organization can be seen by recognizing some of the marketplace benefits that are created from having a strong brand. One review of academic research documented a wide range of possible benefits (Hoeffler and Keller 2003); • • • • •

improved perceptions of product performance; greater customer loyalty; less vulnerability to competitive marketing actions and marketing crises; larger margins; more elastic customer response to price decreases and inelastic customer response to price increases; • greater trade or intermediary cooperation and support; • increased marketing communication effectiveness; • additional licensing and brand extension opportunities. Firms will vary in their ability to realize these benefits depending on their own marketing skills and resources and the marketplace circumstances and context in which they operate. Some firms face strong competitive challenges that reduce the likelihood and nature of these branding benefits. Other firms are confronted by tough-minded or fickle consumers who similarly inhibit brand value creation. Nevertheless, if individual consumers or companies are making choices between different products and services, brands and thus brand management will matter to an organization. One key benefit of building a strong brand, as noted above, is increased marketing communication effectiveness. In a general sense, as a result of the strength and equity of the advertised brand, consumers may be more willing to attend to additional communications for a brand, proccss these communications more favorably and have a greater ability to later recall the communications or their accompanying cognitive or affective reactions. Brand equity is thus central to the way advertising works, either as a goal in itself or as a mediator to other goals. These communications benefits and other possible benefits, however, only arise as the result of having a strong brand. Building strong brands is thus a management priority (Aaker 1991, 1996; Kapferer 2005). To build a strong brand, the right knowledge structures must exist in the minds of actual or prospective customers so that they respond positively to marketing activities and programs in these different ways. Marketing communications can play a crucial role in shaping that knowledge.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS The changing marketing communications environment M arketing c om m un ic ations are the means by w hich firms attem pt to inform, persuade and rem ind co nsum ers - directly or indirectly - about the products and brands they sell. In a sense, m arketing com m unications represent the ‘v o ic e ’ of the com pany and its brands and are a means by which it can establish a dialogue and build relationships with and among consum ers. The m arketing c om m u nic ation s mix consists of eight m ajor m odes of co m m unication (see Table 1): the first four can be seen as more mass m edia types of com m unications; the latter four arc more personal m odes o f com m unication (Bennett 1995; Kotler and Keller 2009). These different types of m arketing com m un ication s perform many functions for consum ers. M arketing c om m unic atio ns can tell or show con sum ers how and why a product is used, by w hat kind of person and where and when. C on sum ers can learn about who m akes the product and what the com pany and brand stand for; and get an incentive or reward for trial or usage. M arketing com m unications allow com panie s to link their brands to other people, places, events, brands, experiences, feelings and things. M arketing co m m unications can create experiences and build com m unities both on-line and off-line. T hey can contribute to brand equity - by establishing the brand in m em ory and creating a brand image - as well as drive sales and even affect shareholder value (Luo and Donthu 2006). Although marketing com munications can play a num ber of crucial roles, it must do so in an increasingly tough com munication environment. The media environm ent has changed dramatically in recent years. Traditional advertising m edia such as TV, radio, magazines and newspapers are losing their grip on consumers. Technology and other factors have profoundly changed when, where and how consumers process com munications, and even whether they choose to process them at all. The rapid diffusion of powerful broadband Internet connections, ad-skipping digital video recorders, multi-purpose cell phones and portable music and video players have forced marketers to rethink a num ber of their traditional practices (Kaplan Thaler and Koval 2003; Kiley 2005). T hese dram atic changes have eroded the effectiveness of mass m edia ( O ’Leary 2003; Bianco 2004; Pendleton 2004). In 1960, Proctcr & G am ble (P& G ) could reach 80% of US w om en with one 30-second Tide com m ercial aired sim ultaneously on only three TV

T able 1.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(7) (8)

M a jo r c o m m u n ic a tio n types.

Advertising - any paid form of n on-personal presentation and p rom otion of ideas, goo ds or se rvices by an identified sponsor. S a les p ro m o tio n - a variety o f short-term in centiv es to en cou ra ge trial or purc h ase o f a product or service. E ve n ts a n d e xp e rien c e s - c o m p a n y - sp o n s o re d activities and prog ram s de sig ned to create daily or special brand-related interactions. P u b lic re la tio n s a n d p u b lic ity - a variety o f pro g ram s de signed to p ro m o te or protect a c o m p a n y ’s im age or its individual products. D irect m a rke tin g - use o f mail, telephone, fax, e m a il or Internet to c o m m u n ic a te directly with or solicit response or dialogue from specific cu sto m e rs and prospects. In tera ctive m a rke tin g - on-line activities and p ro g ram s d e sign ed to e ngage cu stom e rs or prospects and directly or indirectly raise aw are ne ss, im pro ve im ag e or elicit sales o f p roducts and services. W ord -o f-m o u th m a rke tin g - peo ple -to-pe o ple oral, written or ele ctronic c o m m u n ic a tio n s which relate to the m erits or e xp erien c e s o f pu rch asing or using pro ducts or services. P erso n a l sellin g - face-to -face interaction with one or m ore prospective purc hase rs for the purpose o f m akin g p resentations, an sw ering questions and pro curing orders.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS networks: N BC , A BC and CBS. T oday, the same ad would have to run on 100 channels to achieve this m arketing feat. So although 90% of P & G ’s global ad spending was on TV in 1994, one of its m ost successful brand launches in history, for Prilosec O T C in 2003, allocated only about one-quarter of its spending to TV. A num ber of forces have contributed to the decline o f TV advertising (Briggs and Stuart 2006; Klaasscn 2006; Story 2007b). One is the fragm entation of US audicnccs and, with the advent o f digital technology and the Internet, the m edia used to reach them. There is a proliferation o f m edia and entertainm ent options, from hundreds o f cable and satellite T V and radio stations and th ousands of m agazines and w ebzines to uncountable websites, blogs, video gam es and cell phone screens. Digital video recorders (D V R s) or personal video recorders (PV Rs) allow consum ers to elim inate com m ercials with the push of a fast forward button and are estimated to be in 40% to 50% of US households by 2010. And the Internet is estimated to have a US penetration of 200 million users who can choose whether to view an ad by clicking on an icon. For all these reasons and others, M cKinsey projects that by 2010, traditional TV advertising will be one-third as effective as it was in 1990. In this new media environ m ent, the c onsum er is increasingly in control. Co nsu m ers not only have more choices o f m edia to use, they also have a choicc about w hether and how they w ant to receive co m m ercial content. C om m ercial elutter is rampant, and it seems the more consum ers tune out m arketing appeals, the more m arketers try to dial them up. T he average city dw eller is now exposed to 3000 to 5000 ad messages a day. Ads in almost every m edium and form have been on the rise, but m any con sum ers feel they are becom ing increasingly invasive and actively avoid or ignore them (Petrecca 2006; Story 2007a), reducing their effectiveness. Although advertising is often a central element of a marketing com m unications program in this new com m unication era, it is usually not the only one - or even the most important one - in terms o f building brand equity and driving sales. Consider how one of the most widely admired advertisers, Nike, chose to launch one o f their new brands of shoes (Elliott 2006). W hen Nike introduced the latest version of its successful line of sneakers endorsed by basketball star LeBron James, it was supported by a wide range of traditional and nontraditional communications: the first episode of ‘Sports C enter’ on ESPN to be sponsored by a single advertiser; the distribution of 400,000 copies o f D V D s about the making of the shoe and the ad campaign; saturation advertising on espn.com, mtv.com and some other sites; a ‘pop-up retail store’ in Manhattan; video clips appearing as short programs on the M T V 2 cable network; a retro-chic neon billboard near Madison Square Garden that showed a continuously dunking M r James; as well as television and print ads and on-line videos featuring James as ‘the L cB rons’, characters w ho represent four sides o f his personality.

I n t e g r a t i n g m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s to build b r a n d equ i ty A m o d e l o f b ra n d eq u ity f o r m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s U nquestionably, marketers are em ploying more varied marketing com munication options than ever before. To understand the role o f all the different types of marketing com m unications for brand building, a com prehensive, cohesive model o f brand equity is needed. One such model is the customer-based brand equity model (Keller 2001a, 2008). According to the customer-based brand equity model, brand equity is fundamentally determined by the brand knowledge created in consum ers’ minds by marketing programs and activities. Specifically, custom er-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect that consum er know ledge about a brand has on their response to marketing for that brand.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS A ccording to this view, brand know ledge is not the facts about the brand - it is all the thoughts, feelings, perceptions, images, experiences and so on that b ecom e linked to the brand in the minds of consu m ers (individuals and organizations). All o f these types o f information can be thought of in terms o f a set of associations to the brand in c onsu m er m em ory. The basic premise o f the custom er-based brand equity (C B B E ) model is that the pow er o f a brand lies in the m inds of custom ers and the m eaning that the brand has achieved in the broadest sense (Janiszewski and van O sselaer 2000). T w o particularly im portant c o m p onents o f brand know ledge are brand aw areness and brand image. Brand aw areness is related to the strength of the brand node or trace in m em ory as reflected by c o n s u m e rs’ ability to recall or recognize the brand under different conditions. Brand image is defined as c on sum er perceptions o f and preferences for a brand, as reflected by the various types of brand associations held in c o n s u m e rs’ m emory. Strong, favorable and unique brand associations are essential as points-of-difference that can serve as sources of brand equity to drive the differential effects. These effects include enhanced loyalty; price prem ium s and more favorable price elasticity responses; greater com m un ication and channel effectiveness; and growth opportunities via extensions or licensing (Hoefflcr and Keller 2003; Keller 2008).

T h e b ra n d re so n a n ce p y r a m id The custom er-based brand equity model has been extended to address more specifically how brands should be built in terms of c o nsum er know ledge structures (Keller 2001a). Specifically, the C B B E m odel views brand building as an ascending scries o f steps, from bottom to top: (1) ensuring identification of the brand with custom ers and an association of the brand in c u s to m e rs’ minds with a specific product class or custom er need; (2) firmly establishing the totality o f brand m eaning in the m inds o f custom ers by strategically linking a host o f tangible and intangible brand associations; (3) eliciting the proper cu stom er responses in term s o f brand-related ju d g m e n t and feelings; and (4) converting brand response to create an intense, active loyalty relationship b etw een custom ers and the brand. A ccording to this model, enacting the four steps m eans establishing a pyram id of six ‘brand building b lo c k s’ with custom ers, as illustrated in Figure 1. T he C B B E model em phasizes the duality of brands - the rational route to brand building is the left-hand side o f the pyram id, w hereas the em otional route is the right-hand side. The creation of significant brand equity requires reaching the top or pinnacle o f the brand resonance pyramid, which occurs only if the right building blocks are put into place (see Figure 2 for m ore detail on each building block). • B rand salience is how easily and often custom ers think o f the brand under various purchase or consum ption situations. • B rand p erfo rm a n ce is how well the product or service meets cu s to m e rs’ functional needs. • B rand im agery describes the extrinsic properties o f the product or service, including the ways in which the brand attem pts to m e et cu s to m e rs’ psychological or social needs. • B rand ju d g m e n ts focus on cu s to m e rs’ own personal opinions and evaluations. • B ra n d fe e lin g s are cu s to m e rs’ em otional responses and reactions with respect to the brand.

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TH E EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED M ARKETING COMM UNICATIONS

F ig u re I.

•

Custom er-based brand equity model pyramid.

B rand resonance refers to the nature o f the relationship customers have with the brand and the extent to which they feel t h e y ’re ‘in s y n c ’ with the brand.

R e s on an c e reflects the intensity or depth o f the ps yc ho lo gi c al bond that customers have with the brand, as well as the level o f activity engendered by this loyalty. Certain

LOYALTY \ ATTACHMENT COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT

/ / / /

/ / / / / / / ✓

WARMTH \ FUN \ EXCITEMENT \ SECURITY \ SOCIAL APPROVAL \ SELF-RESPECT \

QUALITY CREDIBILITY CONSIDERATION SUPERIORITY

PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS & SECONDARY FEATURES PRODUCT RELIABILITY, DURABILITY & SERVICE ABILITY SERVICE EFFECTIVENESS. EFFICIENCY, & EMPATHY STYLE AND DESIGN PRICE

USER PROFILES PURCHASE & USAGE SITUATIONS PERSONALITY & VALUES HISTORY HERITAGE, & EXPERIENCES

CATEGORY IDENTIFICATION NEEDS SATISFIED

F i g u r e 2.

S u b - d i m e n s i o n s o f b r a n d b u i l d i n g b loc ks .

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\ \ \ \ \ \ \

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS product or service categories potentially allow for more resonance because they have inherently high levels o f interest and activities. Som e brands with high resonance include Harley-D avidson, Apple and eBay. Brand resonance has four dim ensions, which each capture a num ber of different aspects of brand loyalty: (1) B e h a v io r a l l o y a l t y - cu s to m e rs’ repeat purchases and the am ount or share o f category volum e attributed to the brand. • How often do custom ers purchase the brand? • How m uch do custom ers purchase of the brand? (2) A ttitu d in a l a tta c h m en t - when custom ers view the brand as being som ething special in a broader context. • Do custom ers ‘lo v e ’ the brand? • Do custom ers describe the brand as one of their favorite possessions? • Do custom ers view the brand as a ‘little p le asure’ they look forward to? (3) S e n s e o f c o m m u n i t y - w hen custom ers feel a kinship or affiliation with other people associated with the brand. • Do custom ers interact with fellow brand users or em p loyees or representatives of the com pany? • Does this custom er interaction occur on-line and/or off-line? (4) A ctive eng a g em en t - when custom ers are willing to invest personal resources on the brand - time, energy, m oney, etc. - beyond those resources expended during purchase or consum ption of the brand. • Do custom ers choose to join a club centered on a brand? • Do custom ers receive updates, exchange c orrespondence with other brand users or formal or informal representatives of the brand itself? • Do customers visit brand-related websites, participate in chat rooms and so on? T o create brand resonance, m arketers m ust first create a foundation on w hich resonance can be built. A ccording to the custom er-based brand equity model, resonance is m ost likely to result w hen m arketers are first able to create: • proper salience and breadth and depth of awareness; • firmly established points-of-parity and points-of-difference; • positive ju d g m e n ts and feelings that appeal to the head and the heart. With a firm foundation in place, m arketers can then optim ize the four dim ensions of brand resonance. There are a num b er of m arketing com m unication activities that can be put into place to im pact any one dimension o f resonance. A ny m arketing com m unication may also affect more than one dim ension of brand resonance. For exam ple, w hen BM W created its on-line video series, The d riv e r, featuring top film actors and directors, it arguably enhanced brand attachm ent, com m unity and engagem ent. In fact, there may be interactive effects such that, for exam ple, higher levels of attachm ent lead to greater engagem ent. To m a xim ize brand resonance, levels o f both the intensity and activity of loyalty relationships must be increased.

M a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n e ffe c ts on b ra n d eq u ity From a custom er-based brand equity perspective, marketing c om m u nic ation s activities contribute to brand equity and drive sales in many ways (Keller 2007): by creating awareness of the brand; linking the right associations to the brand image in c o n s u m e r s ’

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS m em ory; eliciting positive brand ju d g m e n ts or feelings; and/or facilitating a stronger c o n s u m e r - b r a n d connection. T he m anner in which brand associations are form ed does not matter. In other words, if a teenage male has equally strong, favorable and unique brand associations with Axe body spray to the concepts ‘m asculinity’, ‘sex a p p e a l’ and ‘f u n ’ because o f exposure to a viral video that shows w om en attracted in an exaggerated fashion to young males because of their use o f Axe, or because of TV or print ads with sim ilar m essages, the im pact in term s of A x e ’s brand equity should be identical (Duncan 2005; Duncan and Moriarty 2006). But these marketing com m unications activities must be integrated to deliver a consistent message and achieve the strategic positioning. T he starting point in planning marketing com m unications is an audit of all the potential interactions that customers in the target market may have with the com pany and all its products and services. For example, someone interested in purchasing a new laptop com puter m ight talk to others, see television ads, read articles, look for information on the Internet and look at laptops in a store. M arketers need to assess w hich experiences and im pressions will have the m ost influence at each stage of the buying process. This understanding will help them allocate c o m m u n ic a tio n s dollars m ore efficiently and design and im p l e m e n t the right co m m unications programs. A rm ed with these insights, m arketers can judge m arketing co m m unic ations according to its ability to affect experiences and im pressions, build brand equity and drive brand sales. For exam ple, how well does a proposed ad cam paign contribute to aw areness or to creating, m aintaining or strengthening brand associations? Does a sponsorship cause consum ers to have more favorable brand ju d g m e n ts and feelings? To what extent does a prom otion encourage con sum ers to buy more of a product? At what price prem ium ?

M ix in g a n d m a tc h in g m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s In developing an integrated marketing com m unication (IM C ) program , a num ber of factors com e into play (Schultz, T an n e n b au m , and L auterborn 1993). M arketers must consider several factors in developing their com m u nications mix, such as the type of product m arket, c onsu m er readiness to make a purchase, stage in the product life cycle and the b r a n d ’s market share and positioning. From the perspective o f building brand equity, m arketers should be ‘m edia neutral’ and evaluate a ll the different possible com m unication options according to effectiveness criteria (how well does it work?) as well as efficiency considerations (how m uch does it cost?). This broad view o f brand-building activities is especially relevant w hen marketers are considering strategies to im prove brand awareness. Anything that causes the c onsum er to notice and pay attention to the brand - such as sponsorship and out-of-hom c advertising - can increase brand aw areness, at least in terms of brand recognition. To enhance brand recall, how ever, more intense and elaborate processing may be necessary, so that stronger brand links to the product category or co nsum er needs are established to im prove m em ory perform ance. In terms o f brand im age, the question becom es w hat effects are created by the com m unication option, how strongly are they linked to the brand and how do the effects that are created affect, either directly or indirectly, c o n s u m e rs’ propensity to purchase and use brands? M arketers should ‘mix and m atch' com m unication options to build brand equity - that is, choose a variety o f different com m unication options that share com m on meaning and content but also offer different, co m plem entary advantages so that the w hole is greater than the sum of the parts (Naik and R am an 2003; D uncan and M ulhern 2004;

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS Na ik , R a m a n , a nd W i n e r 2 0 0 5 ; N a i k 20 07) . F o r e x a m p l e , as part o f the h i gh l y su cc es s f u l ‘D r i v er s W a n t e d ’ c a m p a i g n , V W used t ele vi si on to i n t r od u c e a story line that it c o n t i n u e d and e m b e l l i s h e d on its we bs it e. D if f er e nt b r a n d a ss oc i at i o n s m a y be m o s t e ff e ct iv el y e s t a b l i s h e d by c a pi ta li zi ng on those m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n o p t i on s bes t suit ed to el iciting a p a rt i c u l a r c o n s u m e r r e s p on s e o r e s t a b li sh i n g a p a r ti c u la r t y p e o f b r a n d a ss o ci a ti o n (Edcl l a nd K e l l e r 1989, 1999). F o r e x a m p l e , s o m e m e d i a are d e m o n s t r a b l y be tt er at g e n e r a t i n g trial t han e n g e n d e r i n g l on g - t e rm loyal ty (e.g. s a m p l i n g o r o t h e r f o r m s o f sales p r o m o t i o n ) .

Brand building with interactive marketing communications T o c o m m u i c a t e ef fe ct i vel y a n d efficiently, m a r k e t e r s h a v e to g o w h e r e the c u s t o m e r s are a nd i n cr e as i ng l y that is on-line. F o r e x a m p l e , y o u n g , h i g h - i n c o m e , h ig h - e d u c a t i o n c u s t o m e r s ’ total on -l i ne m e d i a c o n s u m p t i o n has e x c e e d e d t hat o f T V f or sever al y e ar s n o w ( On - l i ne P u b l i s h e r ’s A s s oc i a t i o n 2 002) . M a r k e t e r s h a v e r e s p o n d e d . O n- l i n e a dv e r t i si n g w a s e s t i m a t e d at a little less than 6 % o f g lo ba l ad s p e n d i n g in 2 0 0 6 , b ut is e x p e c t e d to j u m p to 10% to b e c o m e a $25 billion b u s i ne s s by 2 009. H e l p i n g fuel that g r o w t h is the e m e r g e n c e o f rich m e d i a a ds that c o m b i n e a n i m a t i o n , v i d e o and s ou nd with i nt er act ive fe at ur es ( A c o h i d o 2 0 04) . M a n y o t h e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n o p t io n s , h o w e v e r , a ls o exi st on-line. T a b l e 2 d is p la y s a r e p r e s en ta t iv e set o f 11 d if fe re nt i nt er act ive m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n opt ions. Table 2.

A brief overview of som e interactive marketing c o m m unic ation options.

(1) W ebsites - com panies must design websites that em bo dy or express their purpose, history, products and vision. A key challenge is designing a site that is attractive on first viewing and interesting enough to encourage repeat visits. (2) M icro sites - a microsite is a limited area on the W eb m anaged and paid for by an external advertiser/com pany. Microsites are individual W eb pages or cluster of pages that function as supplem ents to a primary site. (3) Search ads - paid-search or pay-per-click ads, represent 40% o f all on-line ads. Thirty-five percent o f all searches are reportedly for products or services. The search term s serve as a proxy for the c o n s u m e r ’s consum ption interests and trigger relevant links to product or service offerings alongside search results from G oogle, M SN and Yahoo!. Advertisers pay only if people click on the links. (4) D isplay ads - display ads or banner ads are small, rectangular boxes containing text and perhaps a picture that com panies pay to place on relevant websites. T he larger the audience, the m ore the placem ent costs. S om e banners are accepted on a barter basis. (5) Interstitia ls - interstitials are advertisem ents, often with video or animation, that pop up betw een changes on a website, e.g. ads for Johnson & J o h n so n ’s Tylenol headache reliever w ould pop up on b ro k ers’ websites w h en ever the stock m arket fell by 100 points or more. (6) Internet-specific ads a n d videos - with user-generated content sites such as Y ouT ube, M yS pace V ideo and G o ogle Video, consum ers and advertisers can upload ads and videos to be shared virally by millions o f people. (7) S p o nsorships - many c om panie s get their nam e on the Internet by sponsoring special content on w ebsites that carry news, financial inform ation and so on. (8) A llia n ces - w hen one Internet com pany w orks with another, they end up advertising each other through alliances and affiliate programs. (9) O n-line co m m u n ities - many com p anies sponsor on-line c om m unities w hose m em bers co m m u n ic ate through postings, instant m essaging and chat discussions about special interests related to the c o m p a n y ’s products and brands. (10) E -m a il - e-mail uses only a fraction o f the cost of a ‘d -m ail’, or direct mail cam paign. (11) M obile m arketing - in developing countries especially, mobile phone m arketing will becom e increasingly important.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS B ra n d in g a d va n ta g es a n d d isa d va n ta g es o f in te ra c tive m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s T he Internet provides m arketers and consu m ers with opportunities for m uch greater interaction and individualization (Smith and M cF ee 2003). Few brand m arketing program s are considered com plete without some type of prom inent on-line com ponent. Visa blanketed the W eb with rich media ads as a m ajor com pon ent o f its first new brand cam paign in 20 years, ‘Life Takes V isa ’. To reinforce its im age as a technology innovator. IBM launched an on-line cam p aign for two new B2B platforms, ‘W hat M akes You S p ecial?’ and ‘T ake B ack C o n tro l’. A m gen and W ye th P harm aceuticals used a series of on-line ads to build brand aw areness for the rheum atoid arthritis drug Enbrel (Applebaum 2006). On-line, com pan ie s can send tailored m essages that can engage different segments of consum ers by reflecting their special interests and behavior. T he Internet offers the advantage of contextual placem ent, or sites for ad placem ent that are related to the m a rk e te r’s offerings. T he Internet is highly accountable and its effects can be easily traced. Eddie B auer cut its m arketing cost per sale 74% by concentrating on higherperform ing ads (Judge 2001; Hein 2007). On-line, advertisers can gauge response instantaneously by noting how many unique visitors or ‘U V s ’ click on a page or ad, how long they spend with it, w here they go afterw ards and so on (Roberts 2006; Steel 2007). Interactive marketing c om m unic ations does have its challenges though. C ustom ers define the rules of en g a g em en t and can insulate them selves with the help o f agents and intermediaries if they so choose. C ustom ers define what information they need, what offerings they are interested in and what they are willing to pay. M arketers can lose some control over w hat consum ers will do with their on-line messages and activity. Consum ers could place a video in undesirable or unseem ly places. In that regard, traditional m edia can offer greater control in that the m essage is m ore clearly formulated and expressed.

In te ra c tiv e m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d b ra n d re so n a n ce U nquestionably, how ever, the p ow er o f interactive m arketing co m m unic ations as a brand building tool is its versatility. Basically every aspect o f the brand resonance pyram id can be positively impacted by interactive marketing, as follows.

Sa lience Interactive marketing can im prove both breadth and depth of brand aw areness. The Internet permits very specific targeting o f potentially difficult to reach groups, facilitating the crcation o f strong brand aw areness for those market segments who arc on-line. Light consu m ers of other media, especially television, can be reached on-line. The W eb is especially effective at reaching people during the day. T he obvious caveat is that it will be totally ineffective for those target custom ers w ho are strictly off-line, at least in a direct sense. In terms o f salience, one of interactive marketing c o m m unic ation’s key advantages is the ability to reach customers as they seek information, thus heightening awareness at potential purchase opportunities. For example, marketers can place advertising based on keywords from search engines to reach people when they have actually started the buying process. On the downside for breadth, however, it is difficult for interactive marketing to have as much off­ line im pact at potential consumption opportunities for already purchased brands.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS P erform ance an d im agery Interactive m arketing co m m unic ations can help to establish a n um b e r of key perform ance and imagery points-of-parity and points-of-difference versus com petitors. On websites, marketers can provide much detail and supporting reasons-to-believe for any advertised claim s, even providing direct com parisons to com petitors on prices, designs and perform ance. W ebsites can also convey rich accounts o f history, heritage and experiences, a key dim ension of brand imagery. Interactive m arketing co m m unic ations can also help to establish brand personality by its tone and creative content.

Jud g m en ts an d fe e lin g s Interactive marketing com m unications can encourage attitude formation and decision m aking, especially w hen com bined with off-line channels. Because o f the ability to deliver sight, sound and motion in all forms, interactive m arketing com m unications can create impactful experiential and enduring feelings.

R esonance Interactive marketing com m unications is perhaps most useful in term s o f creating resonance in that it permits daily or frequent encounters and feedback opportunities for consumers with a brand. These interactions can help to strengthen brand attachment. Via bullutin boards, blogs and other means, interactive marketing com m unications also helps to build brand com m unity among consumers and between the com pany and consumers. Perhaps the area o f resonance where interactive marketing com m unications can have the most im pact is with active engagment. Interactive marketing com m unications allows consumers to learn from and teach others about a brand, as well as express their com m itm ent to a brand and observe the brand loyalty o f others. C om panies can explain their rationale for brand marketing activities and how they treat their customers. Customers can bond with other customers.

In te g ra tin g in te ra c tive m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s A com p any chooses w hich forms o f interactive m arketing com m u nicatio ns will be most cost-effective in achieving com m un ication and sales objectives. In developing an integrated interactive m arketing co m m unication program , m arketers m ust take both a micro and m acro perspective. T hat is, in m aking their choices, marketers m ust make sure that, in a micro sense, their interactive m arketing com m un ication activities are designed to be as effective and efficient as possible in isolation, but in a m acro sense, well integrated with other on-line m arketing com m unication activities as well as with off-line activities. W e next briefly review both micro and macro considerations by exam ining three notable on-line approaches being used by m any marketers: (1) websites; (2) on-line ads and videos; and (3) blogs and bulletin boards.

M icro p ersp ec tiv es Each interactive com m un ication option can be evaluated according to its ability to build brand equity and drive sales. Successes with the form er would presum ably be reflected some in the latter. A lthough any interactive m arketing com m unication may affect more

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS than one dim ension of brand resonance, most options have greater effects in certain areas. Here are a few considerations for each of the three interactive m arketing com m un ication options. • W ebsites have a range o f functionality that allows them to be a potentially highly effective and efficient com m unication option to affect brand resonance and equity. M arketers can com m u n ic ate directly with actual and potential custom ers to provide m ore inform ation than can be found in any other m edium. • O n-line ads a n d videos perm it highly targeted, tim ely messages that can expand salience. M oreover, on-line ads and videos can extend the creative or legal restrictions of traditional print and broadcast m edia to persuasively co m m un icate brand positioning and elicit positive ju d g m e n ts and feelings. • B logs an d bulletin boards can help to im prove salience, perform ance and imagery, depending on the discourse involved, but are m ore likely to be valuable at higher levels of the resonance pyramid. By permitting personal, independent expression, blogs and bulletin boards can create a sense o f com m u n ity and foster active engagem ent. They also perm it feedback that can im prove all aspects o f a b ra n d ’s m arketing program.

M a cro p ersp ec tiv es A nu m b e r of factors need to be considered in developing the most effective and efficient m arketing com m u nicatio n program possible. In particular, six criteria may be relevant, as follows (Keller 1996, 2001b): (1) C overage. C overage relates to the proportion of the audience that is reached by each com m u nicatio n option em ployed, as well as how m uch overlap exists am ong c o m m u n i c a t i o n o p tio n s . In o th e r w o rd s , to w h a t e x te n t do d if fe r e n t co m m unication options reach the designated target market and the same or different consum ers m aking up that market? (2) C ontribution. C ontribution relates to the inherent ability of a marketing co m m unication to create the desired response and co m m unication effects from consu m ers in the absence o f exposure to any o th e r co m m u n ica tio n option. In other words, contribution relates to the ‘main effec ts’ of a m arketing com m unication option in term s of how it affects c o n s u m e rs’ processing o f a com m un ication and the resulting outcom es (e.g. building aw areness, enhancing image, eliciting responses, inducing sales). (3) C om m onality. C om m o nality relates to the extent to w hich com m on associations are reinforced across com m unication options, that is, the extent to which information conveyed by different com m unication options shares meaning. (4) C om plem entarity. C om plem en tarity relates to the extent to which d ifferen t associations and linkages arc em phasized across com m unication options. The ideal m arketing com m unication program w ould ensure that the com m unication options chosen are mutually com pensatory and reinforcing to create desired c on sum er know ledge structures. (5) V ersatility. Versatility refers to the extent that a m arketing com m unication option is robust and effective for different groups of consum ers. A m arketing com m u nicatio n option is d eem ed versatile w hen it achieves its desired effect regardless o f c o n s u m e rs’ past com m u nicatio n history, level of brand or product know ledge or processing goals and so on.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS (6) Cost. Finally, evaluations of m arketing com m u nications on all of the preceding criteria m ust be weighed against their cost to arrive at the m ost effective a n d efficient com m u nication program. As with any type o f m arketing com m unications, interactive marketing c o m m u n i­ cations must be fully integrated with other m arketing com m u nicatio n options. C overage, cost, contribution and com m onality are relatively straightforward with interactive marketing com m unications. In other words, like other types of marketing c o m m u n i­ cations, interactive m arketing c o m m unic ations can be designed to effectively and efficiently deliver a brand m essage to a target market. T he two integration criteria w here interactive com m unications arc most notable, how ever, are co m plem entarity and versatility. In te rm s o f com plem entarity, interactive marketing c om m unic atio ns often work well together and with other off-line com m unications. Attention-getting on-line ads and videos can drive consum ers to a b ra n d ’s website w here they can learn and experience more about the brand. C o m p an y -m an a g ed bulletin boards and blogs may help to create more engagem ent. In term s of versatility, different market segments will have different levels of know ledge and interest about a brand. A well-designed website can effectively co m m unic ate to consum ers regardless o f their personal brand or c om m un ic ations history.

Discussion S u m m a ry The basic prem ise of this paper is that the m arketing co m m unic ations environm ent has changed d ram atically in recent years, resulting in new challenges to m arketers to build and manage their brands. The custom er-based brand equity m odel - which em phasizes the im portance of understanding co n su m er brand know ledge structures - was put forth as a m eans to help m arketers interpret the branding effects o f m arketing c om m un ic ations in this com plex new m arketing world. T o better understand c onsum er brand know ledge structures, the brand resonance pyram id was identified as a m eans to track how m arketing co m m unic atio ns can create intense, active loyalty relationships and affect brand equity. A ccording to this model, any marketing com m unication can affect c o nsum er brand know ledge in one or m ore ways and thus im pact brand equity. Integrating m arketing co m m unic ations thus involves mixing and m atching different co m m un icatio n options to establish the desired awareness and image in the minds of consumers. On-line, interactive m arketing co m m unic ations were identified as an im portant growth area in marketing. Interactive m arketing co m m un ic ations offers m arketers m uch versatility in that virtually any aspect o f brand building can be addressed via interactive marketing c om m u nic ation s to potentially im pact brand equity.

Im p lic a tio n s A n um be r of im plications arise from this discussion in terms o f how m arketers should build strong brands in a modern m arketing com m u nications environm ent. In particular, three key im plications are that marketers must: (1) be media neutral and consider all possible co m m unication options; (2) mix and match the co m m unication options chosen to m axim ize their respective strengths and w eaknesses; and (3) ensure that interactive

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS marketing can play a significant - but appropriate - role in the total m arketing co m m unications program. Perhaps the most com pelling implication of all of this discussion, though, is how much marketers must re-think their com m unication strategies to build a loyal custom er base. In to d a y ’s changing and more com plex marketing environm ent, marketers must develop a different mind set as to how to build custom er loyalty and establish brand resonance. Unlike days gone by, custom ers know more about the com panies behind a brand, they co m m unic ate more freely with each other and they can have strong opinions about what they w ant co m pan ies to be doing with their brands. T o achieve intense, active loyalty relationships and brand resonance, m arketers must incorporate consum ers differently into their brand planning. To better account for the different forces that now exist in the m arketing environm ent and the role that they play in the formation of brand resonance, another fram ew ork, the brand resonance network, is helpful (see Figure 3). T he brand resonance netw ork depicts four key relationships that profoundly influence the four dim ensions o f brand resonance. A lthough from a m a rk e te r’s perspective, the most important relationship may be ultimately between the consum er and the brand, the fact is that it is increasingly the case that relationships am ong consum ers, between consum ers and the com pany and between the com pany and the brand strongly influence that c o n s u m e r - b r a n d relationship. M anaging these relationships thus b ecom es of primary im portance too. For each type of relationship, the focus is on the m a n n er or form of the interaction involved. Here are just a few key considerations for each o f the four types of relationships in the brand resonance network. (1) C o n s u m e r-C o m p a n y re la tio n sh ip : what do consum ers know and feel about the co m pany behind the brand and how it treats consum ers? (2) C o n s u m e r - C o n s u m e r re la tio n s h ip : how m u c h interaction o ccu rs am ong consu m ers on-line and off-line such that they can learn from and teach others, as well as express their loyalty and observe the loyalty of others?

Consumer—Consumer relationship Figure 3.

Brand re son an ce netw ork.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS (3) C o m p a n y -B r a n d relationship', is the com p any viewed as a good brand steward and ensuring that the brand lives up to its promise, delivers on co n su m er expectations and exhibits the right brand values in the marketplace? (4) C o n s u m e r-B r a n d re la tio n sh ip : finally, how much and how often do consum ers use the brand, and how strongly do they feel attached to it? Different com m unication options can differentially affect these four types of relationships and connections. For exam ple, a T V ad that is also placed by a com pany on its w ebsite and that ends up being voluntarily passed along by many consum ers on-line as a result may actually help all four types of relationships. Strengthening each of these relationships and connections singularly or in com bination increases custo m er loyalty and brand resonance. F u tu re research o p p o rtu n itie s a n d ch a llen g e s Adopting the key conceptual tools introduced above - custom er-based brand equity, the brand resonance pyramid and the brand resonance network - should give marketers insight into how their different m arketing co m m unication s ‘w o r k ’. U nderstanding co m m unications from these different perspectives should help m arketers design and im plem ent more im pactful co m m unication program s and increase the likelihood that the best possible marketing com m u nication program s are put into place. Although these different conceptual templates are helpful, given the com plexity involved, much research still needs to be conducted to better understand how all the different types o f m arketing com m unication options can be effectively and efficiently em ployed to collectively m axim ize short-term profitability as well as long-term brand equity. Tw o key priorities are helpful in guiding that pursuit. T he first priority takes more o f a micro point o f view. There needs to be a more com plete understanding of the range of com m un ication effects created by different com m un ication options. In other words, how does c on sum er brand k now ledge change as the result of an exposure to a com m unication and how does that changed know ledge, in turn, affect how consum ers respond to the brand itself and how it is m arketed? T he brand resonance m odel provides som e insights, but an even fuller picture o f brand know ledge that recognizes the type, strength, valence and uniqueness o f all brand associations engendered by different types o f com m unication options is still needed. This is particularly true for on-line, interactive m arketing, which has received less academ ic scrutiny and study and is exploding with a diverse array of different types o f com m un ication activities that were not even available to marketers a m ere few years ago. In part because of the Internet, consum ers are taking a more active role in shaping the m eaning of brands in the marketplace. U nderstanding if and how the brand resonance model captures this more socially constructed reality of brand building is clearly an im portant priority. Is it necessary to develop new or refined concepts of brand know ledge and meaning to better understand the effects of blogs, social com m un ities and com panysupported consum er forums? T he second priority takes m ore o f a macro view. There needs to be an understanding of the role of different com m unication options and how they co m p le m e n t and substitute for each other. T he unique aspects of each com m unication option need to be carefully delineated, but also contrasted with the more co m m o n aspects that are shared with other com m un ication options. At the same time, it is important to have a clearer picture as to how different com m un ication options w ork in com bination to create enhanced effects. C oordinating c o m m unic ations and m edia to create synergistic effects would seem to be

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS o n e o f the m o s t po te nt w a y s to i n c r ea s e m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s pr od u c ti vi t y . Ul t i ma t e l y , m a r k e t e r s ne e d to h a v e d et ail ed, c o n c r e t e g u i d e l i n e s that he lp t h e m d e v e l o p fully in te gr at ed c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o g r a m s s uch t hat the right m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n o p ti o n s are c h o s e n and m a x i m u m ma in a nd int eracti on ef fect s are r eal ized for e ach m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n o pt io n that is e m p l o y e d .

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The primacy of the co n s u m e r in IMC: Espousing a personalist view and ethical implications Jerry G. Kliatchko Vice President, University o f Asia and the Pacific, Pearl Drive, Ortigas Center, Pasig City, Philippines T he review o f literature on integrated m arke tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s (IM C ) show s that its ethical dim e n sio n s have not been explore d m uch since its inception. W ith the prim acy that IM C gives to c o n su m e rs and relevant publics, this article ex plo res the ethical issues associated with the portrayal o f c o n su m e rs in m arke tin g c o m m u n ica tio n s reflected in previous studies. It provides an understand ing o f the con ce p tua l differences be tw ee n personalism and indiv idualism and its applicatio n to m arketing c o m m u n i ­ cations and prop oses that IM C espou ses the personalist view o f the c o n s u m e r in planning and im p le m e n ting IM C program s.

Ba ckg rou nd T he centrality of the consum er, audience, stakeholders or relevant publics in the conceptualization of the integrated m arketing co m m unication s (IM C ) construct has been highlighted in IMC literature since its inception 20 years ago (Kliatchko 2005, 2008). The articulations of IM C definitions in the late 1990s to 2000s have likewise given param ount em phasis on con sum ers and relevant publics (Schultz and Schultz 1998: Kliatchko 2005, 2008). C o n su m er orientation, how ever, is not exclusive to the IMC concept. Even as early as the 1960s onw ards, the prom inence given to c o nsum er orientation becam e a muchcelebrated phenom enon in m arketing academ ic literature, and especially so with the articulation of the classic ‘m arketing c o n c e p t’ popularized by Kotler (Houston 1986). W hile the goal o f being a custom er centric organization - that is, understanding and responding to co n su m er needs and desires and being able to com m u n ic ate with custom ers at the individual level - has always been a key concept in marketing, it was not until the diffusion of inform ation technology in the 1990s that made this dream a reality and enabled mass marketers, in a very real sense, to get closer to their custom ers (Schultz and Schultz 2004). Kliatchko (2008) affirms that the IMC audience-driven business process em anates and develops from a deep understanding o f consu m ers or target audiences as a core foundation for crafting m arketing co m m un ic ations objectives, strategies and executions. T he IMC planning model developed by Schultz and Schultz (2004) likewise em phasizes the inherent difference o f this model from traditional m arketing and advertising planning m odels in that the IMC approach utilizes multiple com m unication methods that give

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS prom inence to custom ers, with the end goal o f acquiring, maintaining, growing or m igrating consum ers to obtain greater incom e flows over a period of time. Clearly, the plethora o f IMC literature over the last two decades signify that the era of IMC is the era of the consum er, the target audience or relevant stakeholders (Schultz and Schultz 1998; Duncan and M ulhern 2004; Kliatchko 2005). An important question, how ever, arises with the prim acy o f the c onsum er in IMC: that is, w hat view docs the IM C concept have o f the c o nsum er? And depending on w hat that view is, a corollary question w ould be, w hat then are some ethical im plications o f that view point w hen developing IMC program s? This present study seeks to address the paucity o f academ ic research on ethical issues surrounding the IMC concept, and m o re specifically, one that focuses on the c o n s u m er as a hum an p e rso n . It takes on a m a c ro /n o rm ativ e ap p ro a ch follow in g the topical categorization schem e (which are not necessarily rigid categorizations) suggested by Nill and Schibrow sky (2007) in their study on m arketing ethics research. T he objectives o f this article are three: first, to understand the ethical issues associated with the portrayal o f con sum ers in m arketing com m unications as reflected in previous studies through the rcvicwr o f related literature; second, to understand the conceptual differences between personalism and individualism and their application to m arketing com m unications; and third, to propose that IMC espouses the pcrsonalist view o f the co nsum er in planning and im plem enting IM C programs.

Li t er a tu r e review C ritica l e th ic a l issues in m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s T he extensive study by W ilkie and M oore (1999) on the contributions of the m arketing field to society for the last 100 years provides an overview of the criticisms and problem s that have plagued the m arketing system over time. They affirm that criticisms such as the prom otion of materialism , social com petitiveness, envy, underm in ing families, creation of artificial wants and needs, cultural im perialism , targeting vulnerable groups like children and the elderly, m arketing of dangerous or controversial products, intrusive and deceptive advertising and so on, are am ong the many issues that m arketing com m u nications professionals have had to confront through time. In fact, these issues continue to be a daunting challenge to marketers. C om m en tin g on the current definition of m arketing adopted by the American M arketing Association (A M A ) in 2004, Mick (2007) claim s the A M A definition ignores the moral responsibility o f marketers, and proposes that the goal of m arketing must be the prom otion of the com m on good. He also posits that while som e people may contend that m arketing is amoral, m any philosophers would think otherw ise and affirm that there is nothing that exists that is am oral (Mick 2007). A nother recent work of Nill and Schibrow sky (2007) on a systematic and co m prehensive literature review on the subject of marketing ethics from 1981 to 2005 asserts that research on ethical issues in m arketing continues to be an im portant challenge to both practitioners and academ ics, especially in to d a y ’s business environm ent, as the focus of m arketing shifts greatly toward building and m aintaining relationships through c o m m itm en t and trust. T hey observe that analysis on norm ative research in m arketing ethics (such as this article) is underrepresented and perhaps som ew hat neglected in marketing ethics studies due to the difficulty o f articulating the practice o f proper ethical standards in the field. D ru m w righ t and M urphy (2004) conducted a study on advertising professionals on how they perceive, process and think about ethical issues. A m o n g other findings,

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS their study shows that ethical concerns are rarely taken into consideration or talked about by advertising practitioners, especially those issues referring to the social consequ ences o f advertising. They also observe an attitude of w hat they call ‘moral m y o p ia ’ and ‘moral m u te n es s’ am ong advertising practitioners, that is, the form er referring to failure to discern the moral dim ensions of problem s, having a distorted view o f morals brought about by rationalization or sheer unw illingness to face up to a problem , and the latter referring to one w ho rem ains silent w hen recognizing an ethical issue and avoids confronting it. M oon and Franke (2000) likewise did a com parative study on ethical perceptions o f ad agency practitioners in K orea and the USA and report that the most co m m on ethical problem s practitioners face in both countries have to do with creating honest and socially responsive advertising. Reference books on marketing and advertising generally provide ethical perspectives on marketing co m m unic ations and tackle the most com m o n ethical and moral issues surrounding this field such as, puffery, need for good taste, stereotyping in ads particularly w om en, racial issues, advertising to children, advertising controversial products, sex and violence in ads, subliminal advertising, deception, com parative ads, regulation and selfdiscipline issues (see, for exam ple, W ells, Burnett, and Moriarity 1995; Kotlcr 1996, 2007; W ells et al. 2007).

P a u city o f research on IM C a n d ethics A review of related literature in IMC also show s that since its inception as a field o f study in the late 1980s up to the present, there is a void of research that deals with the ethical dim ensions of IMC, except for a few. Grein and Gould (2007) is one, w hose study on codes of ethical con duct suggests that firms tend to perform better (i.e. they are perceived to have a better brand image and fewer ethical problem s or crises) w hen ethics and codes of condu ct are im plem ented across countries and incorporated into global IMC programs. A n other is Kliatchko (2008) in his article revisiting the IMC construct that discusses briefly the im portance of view ing consum ers with respect, in keeping with their hum an dignity as persons. M urphy (1999) likewise confirms that the area of character or virtue ethics focusing on individuals as perso n s is an area that has strikingly been neglected in m arketing ethics literature.

P o rtra ya l o f co n su m e rs in m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s A group of researchers e xam in ed various conceptualizations of the co n su m er that are quite different from the personalist view proposed in the latter part of this article. Shankar and Fitchett (2002) analyze consum ers from the perspective of motivations, states of being and the changing nature of co n su m er identity and behavior, founded on a humanistic philosophy inspired by the neo-M arxist, neo-Freudian, academ ic and psychoanalyst Erich From m , w ho em phasized w hat he called humanistic drives based on existential and culturally determ ined needs. In a study on the sociology o f c onsum ption, Cherrier and M urray (2004) observe the multiple and com plex co n su m er m otivations when purchasing products and present Jean B a udrillard’s view point o f the structural approach to marketing and suggest the need for greater critical reflection on the virtue o f m arketing. Chatzidakis et al. (2004) explore the concept of ‘neutralization’ by S ykes and M atza and exam ine why c o nsum er behavior seems to contradict the c o n s u m e r ’s professed ethical concerns and dim inish the negative effects on self-image.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS An im portant w ork that supports som e of the pivotal ideas of this paper is a relatively recently published article by L aczniak and M urphy (2006) on ethical and socially responsible marketing. T hey propound the idea that m arketing practice and m arketing ethics are inextricably linked and propose w hat they call the seven basic p ersp ec tiv es (BP) for evaluating and improving m arketing ethics. The first am ong the BPs states that ethical marketing puts people first - especially the co n su m er - conscious that the market system exists prim arily to serve the people. L aczniak and M urphy (2006) highlight the fact that persons should in no circum stances be treated as mere m eans to a profitable end. A m ong exam ples given for treating persons as m eans to an end is the sexual exploitation o f w om en in advertising materials. T he use o f controversial them es in marketing com m un ication s or offensive advertising has also been a co m m o n subject of research am ong scholars. T he discussion below briefly exam ines studies done in this area, sub-categorized under offensive concepts and executions, and the prom otion of offensive products.

O ffensive a d vertising: o ffensive concepts an d execution A m ong other results of a study done by Prcndcrgast, Ho, and Phau (2002) on offensive advertising in an Asian context (in H ong Kong), sexist themes, indecent la nguage and nudity were the m ajor reasons of respondents for considering ads to be offensive and cause controversy, insofar as the m a n n er o f executing advertising materials is concerned. Selection on the type o f media used was also considered an im portant factor in considering the offensiveness of ads. M ore im portantly, the study reports that consum ers were not inclined to purchase products prom oted through offensive advertising themes. Parallel results w ere reported by Shen (2001) in his study on the effects of violence and brand familiarity on TV ads in that extrem e violence causes negative attitudes on audiences and m akes them tune out ad m essages from fam iliar or know n brands. Smith and C ooper-M artin (1997) affirm that ethical controversy arises as regards target m arketing strategies w hen consum er vulnerability and product harm fulness taken together, may produce undesirable effects. A m on g the findings of Chan (2003) in her work on materialism am ong children in H ong Kong, she suggests that parents and educators restrict the allow ance of children, educate children that friendship is not about possessions and instruct them that not all ads necessarily tell the truth, to safeguard their children from b ecom ing materialistic. T ufte (2003) likewise did a study on how the interactive digital culture and increasingly m edia-saturated environm ent today affects the levels o f consum erism am ong D anish children. Her study reveals that m arketing and advertising professionals have an important duty to uphold ethical and responsible marketing approaches w hen targeting children.

O ffensive advertising: o ffensive pro d u cts Kotler (2004) provides insights on the w ell-know n form ula o f the m arketing concept that states: ‘Give the custom er w hat he w a n t s / He posits that this raises two public concerns: first, the fact that custom ers may w ant something that is not good for them; and second, that a product or service may be perceived by custom ers to be good for them but may not necessarily be good for society or other groups. A study conducted by L aczniak, Lusch, and Strang (1981) show s how consum ers criticize m arketers as ‘p ropaga ndists’ or ‘m a n ip u la to rs’ not so much because of the 86

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS marketing campaign created for a certain product but because they ethically or morally oppose the very product or social issue being promoted (e.g. contraceptive products, birth control, abortion). They posit that marketers should engage in marketing controversial social products with extreme caution as irresponsibility in this regard may result in increased criticism and regulation for the marketing profession itself. As regards studies on controversial products, Lancaster and Lancaster (2003) for instance analyze substantial published evidence globally (at least 4 1 articles) on the effects of advertising bans on cigarette and tobacco consumption, and conclude that there is little proof to indicate that consumption of tobacco products am ong children and adults results from tobacco ads. Likewise, Dorsett and Dickerson (2004) put forward that their study on alcohol consumption and advertising shows that there is no statistical relationship that may be established between advertising and consumption of alcohol for young consumers aged 18 to 24 and those beyond 25 years of age. An earlier similar study on developing advertising campaigns to dissuade the young from smoking was conducted by Pcracchio and Luna (1998). They concludc (like previous researches have shown) that the compulsory warning messages by government to inform adolescents about the health risks of smoking arc not effective, and that greater emphasis must be put in creating persuasive messages on antismoking and responsible drinking. As the citations above show, previous research on understanding the ethical issues associated with the portrayal of consumers in marketing communications programs - such as materialism, consumerism, sexual content, stereotyping and so on - have been, and continue to be, a subject of much debate between academics and industry professionals. I contend that the fundamental issue that underlies ethical problems confronted by marketing communication programs, such as those exemplified in the literature reviewed above, has to do with the viewpoint with w'hich consumers arc portrayed, specifically through the messages or content delivered in those marketing communications programs or campaigns. The next section explores two contrasting perspectives or viewpoints on the human person (in this context, the consumers) namely, personalism and individualism. The discussion in this section is subdivided into three: first, conceptual description of personalism and individualism: second, present the model of ‘sins and virtues’ as an operative framework and depicter of personalism and individualism in analyzing themes and ways of portraying customers and prospects in IMC programs; third, focus on two of the most com mon cthical issues in marketing and advertising that arc reflective of the individualist perspective (versus personalism ) of portraying consum ers namely, consumerism and sexual advertising.

P erso n alism versus individualism C o n su m er as p erson: a p erso n a list view Personalism is that branch of philosophy that highlights, among others, the inherent dignity and value of the human person (Wojtyla 1993). The foundational principle of personalism is to affirm the person, for her or his own sake, seeking to understand the meaning and nature of personal existence, without reducing the person to a mere economic phenomenon (Gronbacher 1998). In the forefront of this view are philosophers like the French Gilson and Maritain, the German Scheler and the Polish Wojtyla (Zuniga 2001). Without intending to present an exhaustive philosophical exegesis on this rich subject, it is

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS helpful to underscore a few o f its fundam ental tenets, more specifically the personalist view of W ojtyla, and exam ine practical im plications for IMC. W ojtyla (1993) explains that the natural basis of the dignity o f the hum an person is rooted in the fact that man is a rational and free being, with intellect and will. This perspective of viewing the hum an person follows a w ell-know n and widely used classical definition o f the person, posited by the R om an philosopher Boethius in the sixth century that states: p ersona est rationalis n aturae individua su bstantia (a person is an individual substance of a rational nature). T he hum an person has an inherent desire to search for the m eaning o f life beyond sim ply the biological sphere and material satisfaction. There exists, so to speak, an inner tension in the hum an person that m akes her or him yearn for, and reach out into, the infinite dim ension o f o n e ’s life. De Torre (2005) explains that because man is rational, that is, he is capable of understanding (the existence of infinite goodness) and willing (the capacity to love), the hum an person seeks transcendence and is oriented toward infinity. De Torre (1981) also affirms that the will of man directs him toward his end, that is, his good. The attainm ent of this good results in m a n ’s happiness - the possession of the good that fills w hat the will desires. The desire for happiness in every hum an person is a natural, inborn desire. This happiness within man is also com m u n ic atc d to others, seeking the c o m m o n good o f others, such as family and society as a whole. G ronb a che r (1998) further posits that personalism is relational and fosters solidarity; that is, it underscores the social ch aracter o f hum an existence in that the d evelopm en t of hum a n persons entails engaging in relationships with others. M o reno-R ia no (2005) affirms that hum an beings are moral creatures who have a natural hum an inclination to seek goodness, family life, self-preservation, love for neighbor, intellectual and moral education and so on, and that the anthropology of classical natural law exemplifies that these hum an desires are only fulfilled through n oneconom ic objects and that no material value or price can ever be placed on them. W ojtyla (1993) explains, for instance, that persons do not live for the sake of technology or culture; these things are m eans in the pursuit of their proper end, that is, the truth (precisely because man is a rational being) and the g o o d (because the good is the object o f free will). M a n ’s capacity for transcendence over what is purely material is also explained by M aritain (1985) in his distinction between the concept o f the individuality o f corporeal things and the concept of personality, w hich he affirms is rooted in the spirit, that is, the deepest and highest dim ensions of being. W o jty la ’s personalist view o f the person co m plem ents the predom inant cosm ological understanding of man (Crosby 2004). T he cosm ological view point considers man, as it were, ‘from w ith o u t’, while the personalist view considers man ‘from w ith in ’, as man consciously experiences living his own being from within himself. Crosby (2004) explains that the cosm ological view may be said to experience man objectively (or externally), while the personalist view may be said to ex perience man subjectively. This subjectivity, according to W ojtyla, may also be referred to as m a n ’s ‘interiority’. M a n ’s subjectivity refers to the p erso n ’s inner conscious life. He expounds this idea further by saying that it is only by understanding man in his interiority that he can be truly or properly viewed as a person. This is not to say, how ever, that the objective (external) view of man is all together valueless. In fact, W ojtyla affirms that there is a unity betw een the two, w hereby the objective com plem en ts the subjective (Crosby 2004). It is, therefore, this balanced unity between m a n 's exteriority and interiority - the whole person - that lends to an understanding of man not as an object, but as a person with a dignity of his own.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS Individualism : anti-thesis o f personalism O 'B oyle (2003) clarifies the concept of personalism by contrasting it with its opposite view, that is, individualism, discussed in the context o f economics. O 'B oyle (2003) claims that individualism puts emphasis on the individual (homo econom icus) or human individuality, one who is thoroughly rational, autonomous, aware of self and inwardlooking, self-interested and competitive for individual reward or gain. Individualism is opposed to solidarity as it tends to a self-centered attitude and view of life that is directed inwardly toward oneself (Gronbachcr 1998). In contrast, the personalist view focuses on the person and takes on a holistic unified view of the human being, possessing an inherent dignity. A person’s individuality is unified with his or her sociality - one who is both inward-directed and outward-reaching, autonomous and yet dependent, aware of self while at the same lime aware of others and has concern for their well-being, free to make choices due to on e’s intellect and free will, governed by objective ethical standards originating in human experiences and competitive but cooperative at the same time. A person, therefore, is not something but som eone, with the capacity for self-knowledge and of giving herself or him self freely, and entering into a communion with other persons, and above all, communion with a transcendent being. De Torre (2005) further explicates the opposing viewpoints between individualism (also known as liberal individualism) and personalism, in that individualism or the individualist anthropology is a degeneration of the value of the individual since it fails to recognize that the human individual (as a person) possesses a natural inclination to go out of him self and interact and communicate with other persons, through self-transcendence. The individualist anthropology, De Torre (2005) explains, views m a n ’s pursuit to happiness as very easily reduced to finite terms, a hedonistic mindset that equates happiness with mere sensual pleasure and comfort, purely material well-being, physical health and so on, since individualism stresses the individual’s self-interest. Individualism is m a n ’s reduction or self-devaluation into self-centeredness, egotism and idolatry. M a n ’s worth is measured in terms o f his or her usefulness, that is, a utilitarian approach to viewing man, instead of valuing him or her for who he or she is. Nill and Schibrowsky (2007) explain the error of utilitarianism (popularized and introduced by John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham) as leading one to choose a course of action that provides the greatest happiness of the greatest number.

P ersonalism a nd IM C The preceding discussion on personalism (and its diametrically opposing view of individualism) and its viewpoint of the human person is consistent with, or at the very least, not opposed to, the underlying principles of IMC. In the pioneering work on IMC by Schultz, Tanncnbaum, and Lautcrborn (1996, 13), they affirm that the age of integration is more ‘rcspcctful, not patronizing; dialogue-seeking, not monologuic; responsive, not formula-driven.’ This conviction that IMC is more responsive and respectful of consumers versus the traditional mass marketing paradigm of the past is due to the fundamental principle that animates IMC thinking, that is, a deep consumer understanding - their mindsets, wants and desires, behavior, motivations, decision-making processes and so on - as the driving force behind the planning and implementation of IMC programs. Taking this conviction a step further, Kliatchko (2008), in his recent article re-examining the IMC construct, affirms and espouses the need for a heightened awareness of the ethical dimensions of IMC, advocating in particular, a viewpoint of consumers or

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS prospects that treats them with respect and upholds their dignity proper o f hum an persons. T his viewpoint, as the previous discussions show, is in fact consonant with a personalist view of the consumer. As the discourse on personalism above further explains, the personalist view is consistent with yet another underlying principle o f IMC: the need to build custom er relationships over time. Building long-term relationships in IMC implies that a com pany, through its brands, forges a m eaningful enga g em en t betw een the brand (as well as the com pany behind the brand) and the consum er. A review o f IMC literature show s how the im portance o f building and nurturing ongoing relationships with custom ers and prospects over time is a core and pivotal tenet o f IMC (see, for exam ple, Hutton 1996; Schultz et al. 1996; Duncan and Moriarty 1998; Kliatchko 2005). O f particular relevance to personalism is H u tto n ’s (1996) work, w ho am ong other things, underscores the im portance of developing enduring m arketing relationships that are based on trust, com m itm en t and shared values. I opine that for lasting and m eaningful relationships to be built with consum ers, brands and the com panies behind them m ust exude credibility, trustw orthi­ ness, sincerity, transparency, responsibility, social responsiveness and a plethora of other virtues and societal values that arc intrinsically and essentially the em b o d im e n t of a pcrsonalist perspective. I maintain, that a conscious and deliberate attitude o f taking on a personalist view o f consu m ers in developing IMC program s will guarantee a positive, ethical portrayal of consu m ers in marketing c om m unic atio ns materials. M oreover, a personalist view of IMC will preclude it from falling into the pitfalls o f individualism, the antithetical perspective of personalism. T he foregoing conceptual discussion on personalism and individualism, as well as the parallelism between the personalist view and the IM C concept, is further exemplified in the model for advertising analysis of ‘sins and virtues’ proposed by C ay w o o d and L ang rchr (1989). This model serves as an operative fram ew ork and depictcr of personalism and individualism in analyzing them es and w ays of portraying custom ers and prospects in IMC program s. This model is briefly discussed in the next section.

S in s a n d virtues m o d e l f o r a d ve rtisin g a n a lysis a n d its a p p lica tio n to IM C C ay w o o d and L angrehr (1989) propose a model for advertising analysis using what they identify as seven sins (greed, lust, sloth, pride, envy, gluttony and anger) and seven virtues (wisdom, justice, tem perance, courage, faith, hope and love). A m on g other objectives, their study seeks to define a fram ew ork for a descriptive analysis o f values depicted in advertising (values, they affirm, are cornerstone concepts of h um an nature), and exam ine definitions for each o f the sins and virtues they propose. In essence, virtues are stable attitudes and dispositions, habitual perfections o f intellect and will that govern the actions of man and put order in o n e ’s passions and conduct. These virtues arc good habits that arc acquired through repetition o f good acts. Sins on the other hand, arc the opposite: they are actions regarded as serious or regrettable faults, offenses or om issions against reason, truth and right conscience. C ayw ood and L angrehr (1989) posit that the rationale for the sins and virtues proposition is not due to tw entieth-century thought, religion or practice. Rather, this paradigm is rooted in classical Greece and has been further enriched through the centuries. A parallelism may be observed between the proposed model of sins and virtues and the contrasting views of personalism and individualism. I maintain that the hum an values reflected in the seven virtues are consistent with a personalist view of the hum an person,

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS while the seven sins express individualistic tendencies in viewing man. I propose that for an IM C program to reflect a personalist perspective, its objectives, strategies, creative concepts and executions o f m essages be anchored on values reflective of the seven virtues and the other related virtues interconnected or linked with these seven foundational ones. T he prom otion of values in IMC p rogram s - both personal and societal values - may be effectively and concretely im plem ented and shown by advocating virtues. A lthough it may be stating the obvious, encouraging the practice o f hum an virtues in persons through advertising messages for exam ple, fosters good qualities in people, self-mastery and personal fulfillment in leading ethically and morally upright lives. As previously m entioned, the seven virtues m ay be expanded to reflect other related or interconnected virtues. In the same vein, the seven sins also link to other related vices. The interconnection of related virtues and sins (drawn from dictionary m eanings) to the seven virtues and sins suggested by C ayw ood and L ang rehr (1989) are shown in Figures 1 and 2. W hile these lists are not exhaustive, they provide sufficient them es from which IMC program s may base some of their thematic concepts (in the case of virtues), and vices to avoid (in the case o f sins). It is also important to note that C ayw oo d and L angrehr affirm from their research that this list of virtues and sins - p rin c ip ia vita - are unchanging and not tim e-bound. T he review o f related literature in the area of m arketing c om m u nicatio ns ethics reveals that much o f the research done by scholars have focused on the criticisms and problem s besetting the marketing field, especially on how consu m ers are portrayed in advertising m aterials and the use of controversial and offensive them es (W ilkie and M oore 1999). The preponderance in the use of these them es in m arketing c o m m unic ations program s is reflective of the concept of sin in the C ayw ood and L angrehr model, and at the same time indicative o f the individualist view of the consum er. I have chosen to discuss in the following section, two of the more co m m on ethical issues that are reflective of the individualist perspective in m arketing c om m u nic ation s nam ely, consum erism and sexual advertising.

C o n su m e rism : an in d iv id u a listic view As the review o f literature above shows, m arketing and advertising have been accused of prom oting consum erism since very early on (see, for exam ple, Patterson 1966; Barksdale and Darden 1972; B orgm ann 2000). Kotler (2004) states that com pan ie s have the natural drive to expand consum ption for its products and services while putting the blam e of w hatever negative consequen ces there may be to the so-called ‘free c h o ic e ’ o f consum ers. M oreover, Kotler (2004) adds that no com pany will ever desire to diminish or restrain consum ption of their products as that would result in reduced profits. T hat being the case, consum erism nevertheless remains to be a polemical ethical issue that m arketing co m m unications professionals need to address, as the following discussion dem onstrates. B eabout and E chcverria (2002) explain that consum erism may be understood as an excessive desire for material consum ption, an obsession for possessing material goods and an im m oderate attachm ent to the goods of this world. They posit that consum erism is founded on a materialist and reductionist anthropology that gives primacy to possessing things and gives more im portance to having rather than being instead o f subordinating having over being. C onsu m erism is anchored on a materialist and reductionist philosophy of man because it reduces the p e r s o n ’s being to econom ic realities and the satisfaction of his or her material needs. The so-called ‘culture o f c o n s u m p tio n ’ prom otes a continual desire for w hat is new, favors im m ediate gratification rather than tem perance, to answ er

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Peace

Joy Good taste

Sympathy

Appreciation

Benevolence

Passion for the good

Relationship

V Kindness

/

/

Adoration

Altruism

Generosity

Forgiveness

Refinement

J -| Understanding i Modesty

Endearment

Devotion warmth

Philanthropy Affection

Goodwill Fnendship Compassion

F id e lity

Conviction

H

Loyalty

Docility

Optimism

Cheerfulness

Confidence

FAITH

Trust

Prudence

E n thusiasm

LOVE

WISDOM

Goal-setting

Valor

Virtues: 1 Personalist View i

Intelligence

Judiciousness

I

HOPE

Audacity

Heroism

Boldness

Wellness

TEMPERANCE

JUSTICE

Fairness

Equity

Hard work

Poverty 1 —

Abstinence / Moderation 1 /

\

Patience

Figure 1.

Bravery

Danno

COURAGE

Scholarship

Sobnety

A m b itio n

Expanded list o f virtues: personalist view.

Morality Sincerity

/ Chastity

Selfdommion Self-control >-

Honesty

Justness

Righteousness Good grooming G ra titu d e

Frugality

Objectivity

Boastfulness

r \

Ostentation

Big-heactedness

I

Vanity

{_ Self-love

Narassism Egotism

Arrogance s '

Conceit*idness

PRIDE

Sins: Individualist

V iew

Figure 2.

Expanded list o f sins: individualist view.

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS the feeling of discontent in an individual (see Lasch in Beabout and E cheverria 2002). In the personalist view of the consum er, consum erism runs contrary to the dignity and irreplaceable worth of the hum an person as it treats the hum an being as a mere com m odity (see K avanaugh in B eabout and E cheverria 2002). This way of understanding consum erism seems to imply that more than it being merely a result of a capitalist e conom ic system or m arket econom y, consum erism seems to be a cultural and moral problem (see N euhaus in B eabout and E cheverria 2002). If co nsum erism is a cultural and moral attitude as N euhaus affirms, then industrialization, capitalism , mass production, mass m arketing and mass m edia do not, and should not, necessarily give rise to consum erism . M ore than in an econom ic system, therefore, this problem lies in consum ers them selves - in persons. T hat is, w hen persons erroneously use their freedom by choosing to give primacy to th in g s, and w here they begin to love things instead o f people, and use peo p le instead of things (Beabout and E cheverria 2002). B orgm ann (2000) likewise observes that insatiable acquisitiveness, indulgence in pleasurable things and over consu m ption of material goods leaves an individual feeling defeated, dejected and sullen. B o r g m a n n ’s view is supported by K avanaugh (in Bcabout and E ch everria 2002) w hen he explains that behind the real objects that consum ers buy, for exam ple, liquor bottles, vehicles and other branded items they consum e are in fact deep hum an hopes, longings and values such as love, friendship, happiness and joy, which unfortunately, no product is, nor will ever be able to satisfy. This prevalent consum erist mentality replaces the pursuit of the good life with the pursuit o f the good things in life (see W ells in B eabou t and E cheverria 2002). At the core o f this consum erist approach to life is the liberation that m an seeks from ‘history, tradition, society, nature, and God, but this freedom has been purchased at the price of em ptiness, and sensing this em ptiness, consum ption is offered as a m eans to fill the em ptiness of the m odern s e l f (Beabout and E cheverria 2002, 346). In a study on m aterialism and w ell-being by B urroughs and Rindfleisch (2002), they assert that a materialistic lifestyle produces negative effects on individuals and society at large. They report that studies done by social scientists show that materialism brings about dim inished life satisfaction, unhappiness and higher probabilities for depression in persons. They claim that there exists an inherent opposition between the self-centered nature of materialism and collective-oriented values such as religious or family values. Burroughs and Rindfleisch (2002) also cite a study done by Belk who show ed evidence that m aterialism brings about undesirable traits such as envy, lack of generosity and greed. M arcel (1965) provides an insightful analysis on the concepts of being and having that lends clarity to the ill consequences o f consum erism , even if he did not formally tackle the concept of consum erism in his philosophy. M a rc e l’s pivotal idea in distinguishing betw een being and having is the irreducible character o f the person. A hum an person is not, and cannot be defined by what he or she possesses or is capable o f buying and consum ing, or w hat he or she can do or is capable o f doing. M arcel (1965) posits that the m ania for having initially leads to the desire to c onsum e more; but as one keeps craving to have more, a person gets even more enslaved by o n e ’s possessions. One then begins to fall into a vicious circle of voraciously w anting to possess more and more, only to realize that this unquenchable desire for material acquisition and consum ption creates a radical and progressive dissatisfaction in oneself while paradoxically, still leaving the hum an p e rso n ’s deepest and m ost transcendent aspirations unsatisfied (W ojtyla 1987). This e nslav e m en t is precisely w hat dim inishes m a n ’s being when one allows oneself to be reduced and defined sim ply by w hat one possesses and prohibits the experience of authentic pcrsonhood.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS C onsum erism blinds a person from the suprem e good and ultim ate goal o f hum an life: o n e ’s true happiness. In his criticism of consum erism , W ojtyla (1991) further clarifies that it is not necessarily wrong to have good things in life or desire a better quality of life. He takes on M a rc e l’s view point in this regard and opines that w hat is w rong is to define or equate good life to having rather than b ein g , and w anting to have more n ot in order to be more but in order to enjoy the good things in life as ends in themselves. The danger o f consum erism lies in getting a person obsessed with having and enjoying things while slowly, perhaps w ithout realizing it, losing control o f his or her passions and instincts. W ojtyla (1991) affirms that it is therefore necessary to create lifestyles that m ake possible the realization of the p e rso n ’s basic hum an vocation or reason for being - the quest for truth, beauty, goodness and co m m unio n with others. M arketing and advertising cam paigns certainly do stimulate consum ption of goods and services. There is also that tendency to go beyond the m ere dissem ination of information about brands and instead sell a lifestyle or a vision o f life that disregards the more com plete vision of the human person w here the instinctive and material dim ensions of man arc subordinated to his or her interior dim ensions (W ojtyla 1991). C o nsum erism breeds a culture of m aterialism and seem s to reduce and subordinate everything into a m arketable co m m odity (Beabout and E cheverria 2002). W ojty la (1991) likens a consum erist society to M arxism w here the vision of man is reduced merely to the sphere o f econom ics and the satisfaction of o n e ’s material needs. M oreover, he asserts that man has certain hum an needs, needs that are at the kernel of m a n ’s interior dim ension, goods that are not, and cannot be com m od itized - such as friendship, goodness, truth, intimacy, love, happiness, virtue and so on - that the market m echanism is unable, and will never be able to provide. B eabout and E cheverria (2002) confirm that consum erism focuses solely on the econom ic dimension of man as a p roducer and co n s u m er of goods rather than as a subject who produces and co nsum es for the purpose o f living and experiencing his personhood authentically. A final aspect o f consum erism or the excessive consum ption of goods that draws criticism from som e sectors is its effects on social injustice. B orgm ann (2000) opines that excessive or extravagant consum ption o f wealth should instead be used to aid the poor or the underprivileged. A lthough this fact applies to all societies, it has a special significance for developing nations. How then can the problem o f co nsum erism be addressed from the personalist standpoint? B eabout and E cheverria (2002) suggest the following: first: understand that the desire to possess and consum e material goods is in itself neither good nor bad; it becom es bad w h en it is not tem pered through moderation and self-mastery; second: need to control, tem per and discipline intelligently o n e ’s desires, lest these lead to greed (vice of accum ulating material goods w ithout limits), avarice (passion for riches and powder) and envy (im m oderate desire to acquire goods of others even in unjust ways) - all contrary to prom oting the dignity of the hum an person.

S e x u a l th e m e s in m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s: ro o ts in in d iv id u a lism Indecency and the use o f sex in advertising often, if not always, degrades the image of the hum an person to that of an object, w here man is reduced to a thing from w here carnal pleasure is derived. Phillips (1997) suggests various approaches of sex ads such as nude or partially nude models, physical attractiveness, sexual suggestiveness and decorative models (more often than not fem ale models), used to adorn a product as a stimulus.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS Various studies cited by Phillips (1997) on sex advertising seem to show that while such ads may enhance recall of the ad itself and attract attention, they nevertheless do not increase brand recall or advertising copy recall, and may even detract from it. W o m en, in particular, seem to be m ost averse to sexually explicit materials since they are often the objects of sexism, nudity and stereotyping. Consistent with the hedonistic individualist perspective, these depictions of persons, particularly w om en, in sexual advertising are obviously anti-personalist. Foley (1997) affirms that advertising m aterials that use or depict w om en as objects of pleasure - for exam ple, portraying them in lustful or outright pornographic situations in ads - dow nplay or offend their dignity as persons and their capacity as professionals, m others, wives and the beauty o f their femininity. Unfortunately, easy access to technology today has made pornography very readily accessible to anyone, including children. This m arketing approach that appeals to base instincts o f man such as sex, corrupts culture and its values; it enforces unrealistic sexual ideals and gender stereotypes that more often than not. fem ale subjects are enticed to follow. M oreover, sex in m arketing and advertising (e.g. recent cam paigns o f global brands Axe and Lynx by Unilever) prom ote promiscuity and perm issiveness in sexual activity am ong the young through openly pornographic and offensive depictions of w om en that violate the right to privacy of the hum an body, reducing a hum an person to a mere object for personal gratification. T he National O rganization for W o m en (N O W ) Foundation (w w w .lo v ey o u rb o d y . now foundation.org) explains that H ollyw ood and certain industries such as fashion, cosm etics and diet, m ake consum ers believe that their bodies are unacceptable and need a constant m ake-over. Som e advertising m aterials tend to de-hum anize or reduce persons, more specifically w o m en , into body parts (e.g. obsession for breasts, legs, lips), peddling and displaying flesh, instead of prom oting positive values about them. The N O W Foundation also opines that the w o m a n ’s body is treated like public property, especially her sexuality and reproductive status. T hey report for exam ple, that the m edia seem to follow the same process in m arketing fem ale pop stars as sexual com m o dities at a very young age (at puberty) and are monitored for their subsequent scandals. To counteract this negative tendency, the N O W Foundation also provides some exam ples o f positive m essages about w om en that m arketers may exem plify in their cam paigns: being proud of o n e ’s natural beauty instead of forcing on eself to m eet som eone e lse ’s idea o f beauty; beautiful w om en com e from all shades and sizes; w om en w ho are leaders, dream big, are sports-minded, confident; decency in com fortable-looking clothing; beauty in old-age as in the ‘wrinkled is w o nderful' D ove cam paign; and so on. T he N O W F oundation launched the ‘Love Y our B o d y ’ cam paign as a m eans to com bat the abuses and dehum anization done on w om en and young girls depicted in the media, including m arketing c om m unic atio ns cam paigns. At the core o f the cam paign is the thrust tow ard upholding the dignity o f the hum an person, specifically w om en. T he cam paign laments the fact that w om en are portrayed in advertising materials as sexual exhibitionists who seem to be on display for the benefit of the male gaze. W o m en are also som etim es depicted as m ere body parts for male consum ption, functioning like accessories to men. T he cam paign further claim s that male objectification of w om en seem s not only to be accepted as a matter of fact, but to a certain extent, even expected. A w o m a n ’s value seems to be m easured by her ability to attract the attention of men. T he N O W Foundation believes that avoidance of beauty and sexual stereotyping of w om en in ads and in the m edia in general will enhance w o m an h o o d and provide w om en the following advantages: greater confidence by celebrating their natural shapes, sizes, skin tones, ages and so on; cause less stress; cut dow n expenses on beauty products, plastic surgery, g im m ick s on

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS various ways of dieting; provide more time for school, work, sports, other hobbies, politics, involvement in the community, spirituality and personal fulfillment. The Advertising Standards Authority, an institution based in the UK that monitors advertising, provides examples of offensive advertising in their report on the top 10 most controversial ads in 2006 showing themes such as violence, sexual suggestiveness and pornography using women as subjects, violence and sex combined, insensitivity to religion, citizenship and so on (w ww.asa.org.uk). In an extensive literature review on offensive advertising, W aller (2004) reports that unfortunately, offensive advertising brings about a variety of results from negative publicity to attracting the attention of regulatory bodies, declining sales and product boycotts among others. In the same article, Waller also makes reference to a previous study that generated four general groups or types of advertising that often contain controversial content: gender or sex-related products (e.g. condoms, contraceptives, male and female undergarments, feminine hygiene); social or political groups (e.g. political parties, religious denominations, racial groups, guns); addictive products (e.g. alcohol, cigarettes, gambling); and health products (e.g. charities, sexual diseases, weight loss programs). The foregoing discussion on the conceptual understanding o f personalism and individualism, the sins and virtues model of advertising analysis and the focus on consumerism and sexual advertising as evident exemplifications of the individualist versus the personalist perspectives, underpin the proposition for IMC to deliberately espouse the personalist view of the consumer or relevant publics in developing IMC programs. A personalist perspective that regards the consumer in an integrated, integral view of the whole person - one who is not only concerned with what is material, but more importantly, one capable of transcendence. The personalist perspective considers the dignity of the human person who is rational, with intellect and will, oriented toward the good of others, and not one who is used, rcduccd or objectified for personal or someone else’s gain or pleasure, driven by hedonistic and egoistic desires.

A pp lication of the p erso n a list view in IM C The final section of this paper shows how the personalist perspective may be incorporated into the development of an IMC strategy. The 1MC strategy is founded on a five-step IMC planning process introduced by Schultz and Schultz (2004). Schultz and Schultz (2004) contend that this planning model is a series of interconnected and customer-focused steps in a process that lead to an IMC program. The following steps comprise the planning process: (1) identifying customers and prospects; (2) valuation of customers/prospects; (3) creating and delivering messages and incentives; (4) estimating return on customer investment; and (5) budgeting, allocation and evaluation. Developing the communication strategy for an IMC program falls under step three of the IMC planning process. Schultz and Schultz (2004) argue that the strategy form (sec Table I) recommended and developed for the purpose of coming up with an IMC strategy helps Marcom managers go through a disciplined thinking process resulting in a strategy. The form poses a series of questions on the consumer, consumer insights, reality of the product or service, competition, brand personality, main messages or incentives, perceptual effects of the communication, brand contact points and so on. An examination of the various components and sections of the strategy form, and following the structure of posing questions at each part of each section, the personalist viewpoint in IMC may be incorporated at certain sections of the form through at least five

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Table 1.

IM C strategy developm ent form from Schultz and Schultz (2004).

I. W ho is the consum er?

II. D oes the product o r service fit the group?

III. How will the com petition affect our objectives?

IV. W hat is the com petitive consum er benefit?

A. W hat is the cu sto m er’s target buying incentive? W hat is the general product c a te g o r y :________________ 1. H ow do m em bers o f this group perceive the products o r service in this category? 2. W h at do they buy now ? H ow do they buy and use the product(s)? 3. W hat are their lifestyles, psychographics and attitudes tow ard the category? B. W hat is the key co n su m er insight? C. W hat do these custom ers w ant from the product category that they are not now getting? T arget buying incentive: ‘I will buy a product t h a t _________ than any other product in the category.’ D. W hich would best achieve the IM C goal: m essage, incentive or com bination o f the two? E. Do the consumer insight and target buying incentive promote virtues or values? Which virtues or values? A. W h at is the reality o f the product o r service? 1. W h a t’s in it? 2. W hat does it do? 3. W hy is it different? B. H ow docs the consum er perceive the product or scrvice? C. H ow does it look, feel, taste, work and so on? D. H ow does the custom er perceive the com pany behind the product? E. W hat is the ‘naked tru th ’? F. Docs the product or service fit the group? R e c o m m e n d a tio n :_________________________ A. W hat is the brand netw ork, the com petitive fram e? W hy? B. W h at do com petitors now com m unicate to custom ers or prospects? C. H ow will the com petition retaliate against our program ? D. H ow vulnerable is the com petition? From w hom will w e take business? • M ust be a true benefit (solve a consum er problem , better the co n su m er’s way o f life, etc.) • M ust focus on one benefit for each group • M ust be com petitive (that is, ‘better th an ’the com petitive frame) • M ust not be a slogan or an ad phrase • M ust be one sentence (e.g. ‘Sanka tastes better than any other instant co ffee.’/ ‘H oliday Inn gives you a better night’s sleep than any other hotel.’)

•

Must promote virtue (values)

V. H ow will m arketing com m unication pertaining to each o f the follow ing m ake the benefit believable to the custom er or prospect? VI.

VII. W hat m ain m essage do w e w ant the consum er to take aw ay from the com m unication?

VIII. W hat will the perceptual or prom otional effect o f the com m unication be? IX.

A. Product or service it s e l f :_______________________ B. Perceptual s u p p o r t:____________________________ C. C om m unication s u p p o r t:______________________ • •

• Is the brand personality consistent with the virtues or values previously identified for the brand? Is the main message respectful of the dignity of the consumer as person? Does the message promote virtue? Is the creative execution decent and done with good taste? A. W hat m ain incentive will be offered? B. W hat action do w e want the consum er to take as a result o f the com m unication: • T ry the product or service • Send for m ore inform ation • Use the product m ore often • Try other products in the line O t h e r : _____________________ A. If the com m unication is successful, how will the custom er perceive the product as com pared to the com petition (in m onths/years)? B. If the incentive is successful, w hat custom er o r prospect action will occur? • Wrhat are the consum er brand contact points? • To m ost effectively reach the consum er w ith a believable persuasive m essage or incentive, what consum er contact points should be considered? W hy?

• X.

W hat should the personality o f the brand, com pany or product be? W h at unique personality will help further define the product or service and discreetly differentiate it from the com petitive fram e?

Are the contact points chosen consistent with the chosen virtues and values espoused by the brand?

How will we handle future research? (List the types o f future research needed to further develop the IM C strategy and your reasons for each)

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS additional questions as follows (the proposed questions have been added in the form in bold typeface as shown in T able 1): First: a fifth question may be added in part I (m arked as nu m b e r I letter E in Table 1) referring to the target buying incentive and the key cu stom er insight: D o the co n su m er insight an d target buying incentive p ro m o te virtues or v a lu e s? W hich virtues o r values? G iven any brand category, it is always possible to choose to highlight the positive or negative m otives and insights that drive consum ers to buy a product and capitalize on either one. As in the case of cologne, perfum e and clothing apparel advertising materials for exam ple, instead of prom oting values such as elegance, decency, confidence, sleekness, friendship, cam araderie and social acceptance, som e brands prefer to indulge in them es like lust, sensuality and outright po rnography by dem ean ing w om en as objects o f pleasure (e.g. Calvin Klein, Dolce et G abana, Guess). Second: a final bullet point may be added to the list enum erated in section IV on the com petitive c onsu m er benefit: M ust p ro m o te virtue (values). It may be argued that if something does not inspire or encourage virtuous actions in persons, then w hatever that is cannot really be considered a benefit even if it may be pcrccivcd to be such. An exam ple w ould be the global Axe deodorant cam paign of U nilever that has run through 2007 up to the present (versions from all over the world may be viewed through G oogle scarch by typing ‘Axe deodorant TV a d ’) arousing sexual pleasure in men through the celebration of the objectification of w om en through blatant insinuations and trivialization o f the sexual act. From a personalist standpoint, the so-called ‘axe e ffec t’ in men debases him, as well as w om en, and cannot, therefore, be considered a c onsum er benefit. Instead, values such as m anliness, strength and pow er, sportive spirit, social belongingness, w holesom e m ale/fem ale attractiveness and relationships w ithout the typical depictions of lustful undertones, and so on, may be viable alternatives from w hich c onsum er benefits may be derived for such brands. Third: consistent with the two questions on promoting virtues and values already posed in earlier sections o f the strategy form, it therefore follows that the brand personality in part VI should reinforce those virtues and values. An additional question may be asked as follows: Is the brand p erso n a lity co n sisten t w ith the virtues o r values p revio u sly identified f o r the b ra n d ? Fourth: additional questions may im m ediately be added to the one posed in part VII on the messages delivered in the com m unication: Is the m ain m essa g e resp ectfu l o f the d ig n ity o f the co n su m er as person? D oes the m essage p ro m o te virtue? Is the crea tive execution d ecent an d done w ith g o o d taste? At this point, all creative inputs - concepts, m essages, incentives, executions and so on - must all be integrated and consistent with the choscn virtues (values) previously identified in the preceding sections o f the strategy form. Fifth: finally, the choice of contact points in part IX is also an important elem ent in safeguarding the consistent im plem entation of a personalist perspective in developing an IMC strategy. An additional question may be added as follows: A re the co n ta ct p o in ts chosen co n siste n t with the chosen virtues a n d values esp o u sed by the brand? This step exam ines all chosen channels both in form and content to assure that the brand does not support (via advertising spots) those channels peddling contrary values and virtues espoused by the brand. T his exam ination would include for exam ple, content o f TV programs, nature of TV and radio programs, reputation of certain bars, pubs used for some event m arketing program s, plot or storyline of m ovies and other forms o f branded entertainm ent including reputation of models, actors and actresses chosen, to appear in such programs, nature and content of Internet sites, blogs, m agazines, broadsheets and other publications and so on. 10 0

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS

Conclusions Et hi cal a n d m o r a l i ssues in m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s h a v e long b e e n d e b a t e d a b o u t si nce the early y e ar s o f m a r ke t i n g. W i t h the e m e r g e n c e o f

IMC

and the c ent ra li ty it g i ve s to the

c o n s u m e r - that is, s e e k in g gr e at e r i n t i m a c y with t he m in o r d e r to u n d e rs ta n d t h e m better and p r o v i d e so lu ti on s to th ei r p r o b l e m s - the re is an e ve n g r e a t e r r e as on t od ay to be e v e r m o r e s o li c it ou s o f u p h o l d i n g h ig h e thical val ues. I o pi ne that m u c h o f t he e thi cal p r o b l e m s f aced by m a r k e t i n g and a d v e r ti si n g in the pas t d e c a d e s , s uc h as c o n s u m e r i s m , m a t e r i a l i sm a nd s ex u a l a dv er t is i n g , has b e e n b r o u g h t a b o u t by an u n s o u n d o r f lawed t r e a t m e n t o f c o n s u m e r s , v i e w i n g t he m as m e r e s u bj ec ts for financial g ain at a ny cos t a b o ve all o t h e r c o ns i d e r a t i o n s , r at he r than u p h o l d i n g who t hey are, t hat is, as h u m a n p e r s o ns with a dig ni ty w o r t hy o f r es pect, a n d n ot w h a t they are, o r can do, o r can be useful for. T h u s , I p r o p o s e a nd r e c o m m e n d the p e r s on a li st ver sus the i nd iv id ua li st p e rs p e c t i v e in v i e w i n g c o n s u m e r s o r r e l ev a nt p u bl i c s in d e v e l o p i n g d e v e l o p m e n t f orm for c r ea t i n g

IMC

IMC p r o g r a m s

as a p p li e d in the

IMC s trategy

strategies.

Rcfcrcnccs Barksdale, H.C., and W .R. Darden. 1972. C o n s u m e r attitudes toward marketing and consum erism . J o u rn a l o f M arketing 36, no. 4: 2 8 - 3 5 . B eabout, G .R ., and E.J. Echeverria. 2002. T h e culture of consum erism : A catholic and personalist critique. Jo u rn a l o f M a rkets a n d M o ra lity 5, no. 2: 3 3 9 - 8 3 . Borgm ann, A. 2000. T he moral com plexion of consum ption. J o u rn a l o f C o n su m er R esearch 26, no. 4: 4 1 8 - 2 2 . B urroughs, J.E., and A. Rindfleisch. 2002. Materialism and well-being: A conflicting values perspective. Jo u rn a l o f C onsum er R esearch 29, no. 3: 3 4 8 - 7 0 . C ay w o o d , C.L., and F.W . Langrehr. 1989. Definitional issues related to using the seven sins and seven virtues as a m odel for advertising analysis. C urrent Issu es a n d R esea rch in A d vertisin g 12, no. 1: 4 3 - 6 2 . C han, K. 2003. Materialism am ong C hinese children in Hong Kong. In tern a tio n a l Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g and M arketing to C hildren 4, no. 4: 4 7 - 6 1 . C hatzidakis, A., S. Hibbert. D. Mittusis, and A. Smith. 2004. Virtue in co nsum ption? J o u rn a l o f M arketing M a n a g em en t 20, nos. 5/6: 5 2 7 - 4 4 . Cherrier, H., and J.B. M urray. 2004. The sociology of consum ption: T he hidden facet o f marketing. J o u rn a l o f M a rke tin g M a n a g em en t 20, nos. 5/6: 5 0 9 - 2 5 . C rosby, J.F. 2004. P erso n a list p a p ers. W ashington, DC: Catholic U niversity of A m erica Press. De Torre, J.M. 1981. C hristian p h ilo so p h y. M anila, Philippines: V era-Reyes. De Torre, J.M. 2005. B eing is p erson. Manila, Philippines: University of Asia and the Pacific Foundation. D orsett, J., and S. D ickerson. 2004. Advertising and alcohol consum p tion in the UK. In tern a tio n a l J o u rn a l o f A d vertisin g 23, no. 2: 1 4 9 - 7 0 . D rum w right, M.E., and P.E. M urphy. 2004. How advertising practitioners view ethics. Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g 33, no. 2: 7 - 2 4 . Duncan. T.R., and S.E. Moriarty. 1998. A co m m unication-based m arketing model for m anaging relationships. J o u rn a l o f M arketing 62, no. 2: 1 - 1 3 . Duncan, T.R ., and F. Mulhern. 2004. A white p aper on the status, scope and future o f IMC. IMC S ym posium co-sponsored by IMC program s o f N orthw estern University and University o f D enver, March. Foley, J.P. 1997. E th ics in advertising. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Foley, J.P. 2000. E thics in com m unication. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS Tufte, B. 2003. C hildren, media and consum ption. In tern a tio n a l Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g an d M arketing to C hildren 5, no. 1: 6 9 - 7 6 . W aller, D.S. 2004. W hat factors m ake controversial advertising offensive? A prelim inary study. Paper presented at the A N Z C A C onference. July, Sydney, Australia. W ells, W ., J. Burnett, and S. Moriarity. 1995. A d vertisin g : P rin cip les an d p ra c tic e. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Wells, W ., S. Moriarty, J. Burnett, and M. Lwin. 2007. A d vertisin g p rin c ip le s a n d effective IM C p ra c tic e. Singapore: Prentice-Hall. Wilkie, W .L., and E.S. M oore. 1999. M a rk e tin g ’s contributions to society. Jo u rn a l o f M a rketin g 63, no. 4: 1 9 8 - 2 1 8 . W ojtyla, C. 1987. Sollicitudo R ei Socialis. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. W ojtyla, C. 1991. C entessim us A nn u s. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Wojtyla, C. 1993. P erson and com m unity. Trans. T. Sandok. N ew York: Peter Lang. Z uniga, G.L. 2001. W h a t is econom ic personalism ? A p h en om enological analysis. J o u rn a l o f M arkets and M o ra lity 4, no. 2: 1 5 1 - 7 5 .

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Rethinking marke ting communication: Fro m integrated mar keting communication to relationship communication o

A ke F inne and C h ristian G ro n ro o s CERS Centre fo r Relationship Marketing and Service M anagement, Hanken Swedish School o f Economics Finland, Helsinki, Finland U s in g as a sta r tin g -p o in t the m o d e l o f in te g r a te d m a rk e ti n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( IM C ), w h ic h is b a se d on the ten e t that the c o m p a n y in te g ra te s the m a r k e ti n g m e s s a g e c o n v e y e d to the c o n s u m e r , this p a p e r s w it c h e s the f o c u s by h i g h lig h tin g the c o n s u m e r ’s m e s s a g e in te g r a tio n . A re v ie w o f the m a r k e ti n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n literature on m e a n i n g c re a tio n u n c o v e r e d fou r c en tral factors in flu e n c in g the p r o c e ss o f m e a n i n g c rea tion: h isto ric a l; fu ture; e x te r n a l; a n d in te rn al factors. H o w e v e r , the literature s e e m s to be l a c k in g a b ro a d m o d e l th at in c lu d e s all th e s e fa c to rs as well as a specific study o f the n atu re and im p a c t o f fu tu re facto rs. C o m b in in g in sig h ts from m ark e tin g c o m m u n i c a t i o n with findings from r e s e a r c h in r e la ti o n s h ip m a r k e ti n g , this p a p e r p r e se n ts a holistic m o d e l th at is b a se d on the c o n s u m e r p e r s p e c t iv e a nd ta k e s into a c c o u n t the i m p a c t o f all fo u r fa cto rs on m e s s a g e in te g ratio n . B y sh e d d i n g light on the influ e nce o f the fu tu re tim e fa c to r on m e s s a g e re c e p tio n , the p a p e r p r e se n ts an e m e r g in g R e la t io n s h ip C o m m u n i c a t i o n M o d e l ( R C M ) . It o ffers re s e a r c h e r s and m a r k e te r s a u se fu l tool fo r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a nd m a n a g i n g m a r k e ti n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n m o r e e f fe c tiv e ly .

D u ring the last tw o d ec ad e s, the c o n c e p t o f inte g rate d m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a ti o n (IM C ) has rapidly gro w n in im p o r ta n c e (S c h u ltz and B a rn e s 1999; S ch u ltz 20 03; K itchen, B rignell, and Jo n e s 2004 ; K itchen et al. 2004; S h im p 2007). D u rin g the sa m e period rela tio n sh ip m a rk e tin g has d e v e lo p e d into a w id ely ac c e p te d m a rk e tin g p ara d ig m ( G ro n ro o s 2000; S heth and P a rv a tiy a r 2 0 0 0 ; G u m m e s s o n 2 0 0 2 ; H a rk e r and E gan 2006). A c ro ss-d isc ip lin ary c o n c e p t c o m b in in g the tw o fields has been sug ge sted: the c o n c e p t o f rela tio n sh ip c o m m u n ic a tio n (D u n c a n and M o ria rty 1997; L in d b e rg - R e p o and G ro n ro o s

1999; L in d b e rg - R e p o 200 1). H o w e v e r , so far this co n c e p t has been

disc u sse d in a traditional i n s i d e - o u t co ntext. In o u r view a m o re c o n s u m e r - c e n tric ap p ro a ch to m a rk e tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n is needed. Such an ap p ro a c h is taken in the p rese n t articlc. In IM C the central idea is that c o m m u n ic a tio n d o es not take place in a v a c u u m , bu t in a b r o a d e r c o n te x t w hich in c lu d es not only traditional m e d ia bu t also o th e r c o m m u n ic a tio n efforts, as w ell as p ro d u c t and service e n c o u n te rs (D u n c a n and M o riarty 1997). H o w e v e r, m o st o f the IM C literature has a c o m p a n y (send er) p e rsp e c tiv e based on an i n s i d e - o u t view , that is, the c o m p a n y d riv es the in te gration and a c o n s iste n t m e ssa g e is c o n v e y e d

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS to the consum er. A look at the latest IM C textbooks (Duncan 2005; Pickton and Broderick 2005; S him p 2007) confirms that the com pany perspective prevails. In these texts the com pany produces the integration of the message. A com parison with other recent marketing com m unication textbooks reveals the lack o f a strong o u ts id e - in focus on the co nsum er (e.g. Fill 2005; Percy and Elliott 2005; de Pelsm acker, Geuens, and van den Bcrgh 2007). In this paper wc propose an o u t s i d e - i n consum cr-ccntric pcrspcctivc, which allows the co n su m er to perform the integration. W h e n the focus switches to the consum er, interesting and previously neglected questions arise: w here does integration take place, what is integrated and how ? T he main purpose of this paper is to present a conceptual framew ork that m akes it possible to answ er these questions. Instead of studying integrated outgoing messages only, we switch the focus to co nsum er activity, that is, the consum er p erform s the integration of messages. In doing so, one concept suggested in the literature, the concept of m eaning becom es crucial (Buttle 1995; G ayeski 2000). T he need to focus on the co n s u m er instead of only on the m essage sent has been pointed out by several researchers who have studied the im portance of m eaning in m arketing com m unication (M ick and Buhl 1992; Scott 1994; Stern 1996). Instead of the traditional m arketing com m un ication conccpt, w here a sender convcys a m essage to a rcccivcr through coding, noise and decoding processes (e.g. Schram m 1971; Vakratsas and A m bler 1999), marketing com m unication should focus more on the receivers and the m eaning crea ted by the receiver in the com m u nicatio n process. In the extensive literature on m eaning, the message is usually com bined with some other factor that has an im pact on m eanin g creation (Osgood, Suci, and T an ne nbaum 1961; Belk 1975; M c C rac k en 1986, 1987; F riedm ann and Z im m e r 1988; D om za l and K ernan 1992; Scott 1994; Stern 1996; Padgett and Allen 1997; G rier and B rum baugh 1999). H ow ever, a m odel putting all these factors together into a holistic fram ew o rk has been lacking. In the literature, four categories of factors were found: historical, external, internal and future factors. F riedm ann and Z im m e r (1988), D om zal and Kcrnan (1992), Mick and Buhl (1992) and Padgett and Allen (1997) included historical factors in their analysis, w hereas for ex am ple M cC racken (1986, 1987) and Stern (1996) took into account external factors in the m essage analysis, and Scott (1994) and Grier and Brum baugh (1999) studied the message considering internal factors as well. H ow ever, to our k now ledge no studies have explicitly included fu tu r e factors. Interestingly, a discussion of the im pact of future factors can be found in the relationship m arketing literature (Edvardsson and Strandvik 2000; O jasalo 2001). Thus, building on concepts from both m arketing c o m m un ic ation and relationship marketing research, our objective was to develop a m arketing com m u nication fram ew o rk that includes all the four factors mentioned above as an integral part of cu s to m e rs’ meaning crcation. This model represents a broader approach than is provided by m odels focusing solely on outgoing messages and the integration of these. T he purpose of this article is to present a consum er-centric perspective on IM C by com bining the different factors influencing c o n s u m e rs’ m eaning creation into a single conceptual m odel for understanding and m an aging m arketing com m u nicatio n. T hus the m odel offers a more inclusive approach to m arketing com m unication. It also develops and extends the em erging con cep t of relationship co m m unication into a relationship com m un ication model. Based on our research as well as the analysis presented in this article, we offer the follow ing definition of relationship com m unication: Relationship c o m m u n ic a tio n is any type of m arke ting c o m m u n ic a tio n that influences the re c e iv e r’s long-term c o m m i tm e n t to the se n d e r by fa cilitating m ea n in g creation th rough integration with the r e c e iv e r ’s tim e and situational context. T h e tim e con te xt refers to the

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS r e c e iv e r’s perception of the history and envision e d future o f his/her relationship with the sender. T h e situational co nte x t refers to o ther e le m en ts internal or external to the receiver.

As the receiver o f com m unication messages, the cu sto m e r perform s the integration, and in this integration proccss m eaning crcation takes place. T he integration and m eaning creation process is usually triggered by the com m u nicatio n message.

P r e v io u s r e s e a r c h Previous research in marketing co m m unication has traditionally focused on conveying inform ation, message transfer and hierarchical sequence models (e.g. A ID A , Vakratsas and A m bler 1999). T he traditional approach has focused on an active sender and has seen the receiver as a passive object in the com m u nication process (Percy and Elliott 2005). In relationship marketing, where both parties in the process should m eet on more equal term s, the view of a passive consum er has been considered inappropriate for m arketing com m un ication (Gronroos and L indberg-R epo 1998; L indberg-R epo 2001; Finne 2004). Thus IMC has been suggested as a suitable concept for the relationship m arketing paradigm. H ow ever, as IMC mostly focuses on outgoing messages reaching the receiver, albeit messages from several sources integrated into one consistent message (see Figure 1), this concept still considers the consum er as an object rather than a subject in the com munication process. In order to overco m e the problem of considering outgoing messages only, we propose a change of focus. The concept that links m arketing com m unication with relationship marketing is m eaning. H ow ever, meaning as a concept is frequently used in a variety of disciplines, w hich m eans that the co ncept has at least as m any interpretations as there are disciplines (Osgood et al. 1961). A ccording to Friedmann and Z im m e r ( 1988, 3 1) m eaning can be described as follows: ‘M eaning is one outcom e of perception; m eaning formation is a process within the perceptual process.’ In their view the creation o f m ean ing cannot be seen as a sequence model such as A ID A , but rather as a descriptive frame o f reference treating the receiver as a subject. A ccording to W illiam son (1987), m eaning as a concept becom es interesting because it does not focus on the transaction per se but on w hat the p ro d u c t m eans to the consum er. Also Fiske (1982), in his semiotic approach to com m unication, em p hasizes the receiver’s role in the com m unication process. In Christensen et al.’s (2006) words, the m arketer should be interested in what jo b a product might do for the consum er. C o m m unicative stimuli in com bination with experience (D om zal and Kcrnan 1992) and expectations (Friedm ann and Z im m e r 1988) form a whole. Therefore, factors representing time as including both experiences in the past and expectations about the future should not be neglected in studying the com m un ication process.

Planned marketing communication A d v e rtisin g B ro ch u res P ersonal selling

Product messages

Service messages

Unplanned communication

Absence of communication

U se fu ln ess D e sig n R aw m ateria ls

In terac tio n s D e liv e ries C la im s h an d lin g

W o rd -o f-in o u th N e w s sto ries R efe ren c es

S ile n ce afte r s e rv ic e b re ak d o w n L ac k o f in fo rm a tio n

Figure 1. T rad ition al perspective on IM C: five sources of m es sa g es (based on C a lon ius 1989; D u ncan and M oriarty 1997: G ro n ro o s and L in d b e rg -R e p o 1998).

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS A nother category o f factors in the m arketing com m u nicatio n literature has been introduced by M cC rac k en (1986, 1987): the M eaning Transfer M odel, w hich describes how meaning is transferred from the surrounding society, an external factor, to the individual, an internal factor, through c o nsum er goods. In this model m arketing com m unication plays a central role. M eaning occurs at different levels: in society, in products and in individuals. O ther situational factors have been presented by Grier and B ru m bau gh (1999), w ho describe differences in planned and actual m eaning. In their model the com pany com m u nic ate s p la n n e d m ea n in g , w hereas the c o n s u m er perceives a ctual m eaning. They found differences in perceptions between target groups and non-targets groups. T arget groups understood elements in ads better than non-target groups (Grier and B rum baugh 1999). Thus, from a m eaning creation perspective factors relating to the c o n s u m e r ’s context cannot be neglected in the com m unication process. A com m on characteristic of all streams of research reported above is that they com bine the com m un icated m essage with one category o f factors, either historical, future, external or internal factors, in order to understand the individually perceived m eaning. These factors can be categorized into two major dimensions: a tim e d im ension and a situ a tio n a l dim ension. T he time dim ension com prises historical factors (Friedm ann and Z im m er 1988; M ick and Buhl 1992; Padgett and Allen 1997) and future factors, and the situational dim ension com prises external factors (M cC racken 1986, 1987) and internal factors (Scott 1994; Stern 1996; G rier and B rum baugh 1999). H ow ever, in the m arketing com m un ication literature future factors have only been touched upon briefly. On this issue the concept of relationship m arketing can offer interesting insights. Both tim e and situational dim ensions have been included in a m odel about critical incidents in relationships (the C IRC M odel) presented by Edvardsson and S trandvik (2000), and future factors and their im pact on expectations have been discussed by Ojasalo (2001). H ow ever, to our know ledge there is no model that com b ines all four types o f factors. According to M ick and Buhl (1992), if the history o f a consu m er in com bination with his/her goals and m eans are know n by the com pany , the individual m eaning of a com m un ication for that co n su m er does not have to com e as a surprise. Thus, the focus of interest should be on the person who receives a m essage and his/her individual m eaning creation. Next, we will exa m in e what the relationship marketing perspective can add to this approach.

Adding the c ont ribut ion of relationship ma rk e ti ng As m entioned in the previous sections, the relationship m arketing perspective includes both time and situational aspects. R elationship marketing is based on on-going co-operation between the custo m er and the supplier, and in this approach the time dim ension is essential. Previous experiences have an im pact on current interactions and, for exam ple, feelings of trust and c o m m itm en t can be expected to carry over into the future and create expectations for future interactions. Hence, the time dim ension is crucial in relationship m arketing (Edvardsson and Strandvik 2000; G ronroos 2000: H olm lu nd 2004; Rindell 2008). Further, the ongoing relationship is influenced by the relationship context. Edvardsson and Strand vik’s situational dimension is based on research by L ayder (1993), w ho describes the situational dim ension as levels including context, setting, situated activity and self. These levels represent a continuum o f varying factors both outside and inside the individual. Russell and M ehrabian (1976) distinguish between these factors in the follow ing way: external factors are com p osed of everything outside the person and internal factors are those factors that are independent o f external factors. In this paper the

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS situational dim ension has been categorized into two main groups, nam ely external factors and internal factors. T he M eaning-B ased M odel of M ick and Buhl (1992) show s similarities with E dvardsson and S tra n d v ik ’s model, because it also includes time and situational dim ensions. In their study Mick and Buhl interview ed three Danish brothers about five ads. Essential in their m odel is that each person sees the world in a subjective way, and therefore m eaning cannot be ‘transported’ by an ad, only created from it. Despite the fact that these brothers had the same history and social background, that is, represented the same segm ent, the ads triggered quite different creations of m eaning. Mick and Buhl concluded that the m eanings created from the ads were influenced by personal interests, am bitions and goals driven by individual interestbased life them es and life projects. H ow ever, while Mick and B u h l’s model lacks the relational perspective, E dvardsson and S tra n d v ik ’s m odel lacks the com m un ication perspective. T o our know ledge, relationship com m u n ic atio n has rarely been discussed in the m arketing com m unication literature. L indbcrg-R cpo (2001) exam ines the notion of relationship co m m unication, proposing that it represents a holistic perspective which focuses on both parties in the com m unication process. She offers the follow ing definition: ‘Relationship com m unication is defined as the sum o f all actions that convert the message and m eanin g in a mutually beneficial way and affects the know ledge base b etw een parties’ (L indberg-R epo 2001, 19). T he key features o f relationship co m m unication are that: two parties take part in the process, it has a long time perspective, it is a sum of actions and it should lead to a shared k now ledge base. H ow ever, even L in d b e rg -R e p o ’s definition is largely geared tow ards an inside-out view. In contrast, we argue that the c o n s u m er alone creates the m eaning of all actions taken by the marketer. T o sum up the discussion of previous research, a substantial am oun t o f research can be found where m eaning and co m m unication are discussed (see Table 1). In some o f this research one category o f factors, for ex am ple, historical or external factors solely, is taken into account. In only a few cases a relationship m arketing perspective can be found. H ow ever, in no cases was the holistic approach we propose found, that is, a model com bining all the reported factors was lacking. In order to com bin e all four types o f factors with the relationship m arketing and m eaning creation approaches into a m arketing com m un ication fram ew ork, the Relationship C om m u n ic atio n M odel was developed. This m odel is presented in the next section.

R e la tio n s h ip c o m m u n ic a ti o n T he Relationship C o m m unication M odel builds mainly on the two m odels presented by M ick and Buhl (the M eaning-B ased M odel) and Edvardsson and Strandvik (the CIRC M odel, sec Table 2). Mick and Buhl (1992) bring in the individual aspect and Edvardsson and Strandvik (2000) provide the relationship perspective. By draw ing on these two m odels both an individual as a person and the firm ’s relationship with that individual can be exam ined. T he Relationship C o m m unication M odel has two dimensions: a tim e dim ension based on both historical and future factors, relating to the c o n s u m e r ’s perception o f a given relationship, and a situ a tio n a l d im ension based on external and internal factors, relating to the c o n s u m e r ’s individual context. W e suggest that some or all of these factors may influence the c o n s u m e r ’s creation of m eaning out of m arketing com m un ication messages.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS Table 1. T h e occu rre nce o f the key c o n ce p ts o f this study in m arke tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n or relationship m ark e ting research. M e a n ing in c o m m u n ic a tio n D o m z al and K ernan (1992) E dv ardsson and Strandv ik (2000) Frie d m a n n and Z im m e r (1988) G rier and B r u m b a u g h (1999) L in d b e rg -R c p o (2001) M c C r a c k e n (1986) M c C ra ck e n (1987) M ick and Buhl (1992) Padgett and Allen (1997) Scott (1994) Stern (1996)

Rela tio nship perspective

X

Historical factors

External factors

Internal factors

Future factors

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

A m ong h isto rica l factors, all kinds o f m essages from the past have an im pact on the c o n s u m e r ’s m eaning creation. Such factors can be found in the c o n s u m e r ’s personal history, mainly but not only relating to n on-co m m ercial issues (M ick and Buhl 1992) and experiences but also m em ories and stories heard som ew here relating to a com m ercial relationship-based history (Edvardsson and Strandvik 2000). F u tu re factors can be em bedd ed in the expectcd future o f the relationship (Edvardsson and Strandvik 2000) or in the p e rso n ’s life them es (M ick and Buhl 1992). T he form er arc co m m ercially related, w hereas the latter are broad er in scope, but may include com m ercially related aspects as well. Such future factors can be expectations, goals, hopes or visions (Zeithaml, Parasuram an, and Berry 1990; G ronroos 2000; Ojasalo 2001). T hese time factors together constitute a continuum from the past to the envisioned future o f the consum er. Traditional m arketing com m un icatio n has usually been situated in the present only. H ow ever, in relationship m arketing the time factor is central. An in d ividual’s perception o f a relationship is constructed over tim e (H olm lund 2004; Rindell 2008) or in an ongoing dialogue (Ballantyne 2004). Thus, the time elem ent is crucially important. T he situ a tio n a l dim ension consists of external and internal factors. A ccording to Bclk (1975) both external and internal factors have to be included. External factors can be T able 2. Sim ilarities be tw ee n the M e a n in g -B a se d M o d e l (M ic k and Buhl 1992), the C IR C M od el (E d vardsson and Strand vik 2000) and the R elatio nship C o m m u n ic a tio n M odel. T h e M e a n in g -B a se d M odel Individual life history Life themes: goals and m ean s C ultu rally situated Personal life projects T h e o u tc o m e o f m eaning

T h e C IR C M odel

T h e Rela tio nship C o m m u n ic a tio n M odel

R ela tio nship history Future o f the relationship

Historical factors (relationship-based) Future factors (relationship-based)

E xternal conte xt Internal conte xt Critical incident

External factors (contextual) Internal factors (contextual) M e a nin g creation

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS culturally situated factors (M ick and Buhl 1992) or the personal context of the individual (cf. E dvardsson and S trandvik 2000). Such external factors can be trends, traditions, econom ic situation, the fam ily and alternative choices, including advertising from com peting com p anies and other com m unications in the surrounding society perceived by the individual. Internal factors are life projects related to the self (M ick and Buhl 1992) or the internal context (cf. E dvardsson and Strandvik 2000). Such internal factors can be attitudes, capabilities, identity or personal interests. In order to understand m eaning creation in a relationship, it is necessary to take both dim ensions presented above into account. H ow ever, the im pact of all factors taken together can be different from the im pact of one factor taken out o f context. It is important to consider to w hat extent the factors suggested here are part o f m eaning creation, and to what extent a com m unication effort alone can bring about this process. In this paper, an ad or any other type of co m m unication message is considered as one elem ent am ong several other factors influencing m eaning creation. Therefore, in our view the effect of an ad cannot be analysed w ithout taking the context into account. Som e of the messages co m m u n ic ate d by a firm may be integrated with one or several of the factors in m eaning creation, w hereas some messages may not be integrated with any other factor but are interpreted at face value. In the c o n s u m e r ’s m eaning creation the four factors have differing impacts in different situations. Hence, the interplay o f factors has to be recognized. If m eaning is based on the interplay betw een, for exam ple, an ad and several factors, the c o n s u m e r ’s meaning creation occurs in a relationship context, and therefore it is a case of relationship com m unication. Thus, w hen considering w hether com m unication efforts are perceived in a relationship context or not, both time and situational factors have to be taken into consideration sim ultaneously. T he R elationship C o m m unication Model, schem atically presented in Figure 2, represents a broader view on com m unication than the traditional IMC view (cf. Figure 1). M oreover, the m odel is custom er-centric. A focus on outgoing integrated m essages alone is not sufficient, because the scope of w hat is included in the integration process has to be extended beyond the sources o f com m unication messages. W hen planning m arketing com m un ication and the use of various types of messages in com m unication activities, the influence on c o n s u m e r s ’ meaning creation of the two time (historical and future) and the two situational (internal and external) factors has to be considered. W hen doing so, marketing com m unication will be truly integrated with the cu sto m e rs’ point of view, and planning m arketing com m u nicatio n becom es a truly o u ts id e - in process.

F r o m I M C to r e la tio n s h i p c o m m u n ic a ti o n T he Relationship C om m un icatio n Model helps in conceptualizing and hcncc also in taking into acco unt the im pact o f factors influencing the m essages in IMC originating from various sources. In som e cases several factors may have an im pact, that is, arc integrated with a com m u nication m essage, w hereas in other cases their im pact is more limited. T he varying levels o f integration o f the four factors with a com m un icatio n m essage in custom ers’ meaning creation can be viewed as a m eaning creation continuum (see Figure 3). At one end of this continuum is a situation w here the m essage is m ore or less taken at face value by the con sum er, and at the other end the co n su m er integrates the message with aspects o f all four time and situational factors. W hen m oving from the form er end of the continuum tow ards the latter, more factors and more aspects o f each factor at play are influencing the c o n s u m e r ’s m eaning-m aking process. In Figure 3 it is also indicated how

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS

External factors ----------- Fj ------------

Historical factors

V

Meaning creation

A ■n

V

Future factors

—

¥

—

Internal factors

Time frame

-------------- ► Figure 2.

T h e R elationship C o m m u n ic a tio n M o d e l with tim e and situational dim ensions.

cases illustrated in Table 3 placed them selves on the m eaning creation continuum based on the factors integrated by the consumer. If a c o m m u n ic a tio n ’s m essage is not integrated with any o f the factors (one end o f the continuum ), the situation can be described as one-dim ensional com m unication. This type of com m unication is close to the traditional view o f com m unication: a specific m essage is form ulated, sent and received. A typical situation w hen no factors are integrated with a m essage is a plain price m essage or an offer to buy a new product sent by a seller unknow n to the consum er. A factor that often influcnccs the co n su m er is an internal factor, e.g. a negative attitude tow ards an illustration used in an ad. or limited abilities to interpret the ad. A typical situation o f this type is w hen the co n su m er dislikes a m essage so much that he or she im m ediately stops thinking of it or has no readiness to understand the message (Finne and G ronroos 2006). T hus, in this part o f the continuum the im pact o f factors on m ean ing creation is limited or non-existent.

Case A

Case B

C aseC

Case D

Case E

Relationship communication No integration

Figure 3.

Integration of many factors

T h e m ea n in g creation co ntin uum : im pact o f factors integrated.

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T able 3.

M eaning creation from ads: A case study (Finne 2004; Finne and G ronroos 2006).

Case

Perceived m essage/situation

Coding

Factors at play

Integration

A

A price m essage from a provider outside the consideration set

A price ad N o other reaction

B

Disliking a m essage very strongly

N egative attitude

Internal factor External factor

A lm ost no integration

C

U nclear m essage from unknow n source A clear m essage from a preferred provider (existing relation­ ship)

No ability to understand

Internal factor External factor Internal factor External factor Internal factor Historical factor Historical factors Internal factors External factors Future factors

Som e, lim ited integration

D

E

A pleasing m essage from the foremost provider in the business, enhanced by a long, strong, on-going relationship

Ability to understand Positive attitude Earlier experience M em ories, earlier experience A positive attitude and a delighted custom er N orm s by friends Good ability to understand m essage R anking o f com petitors’ m essages and products Vision o f a shared future

—

N o integration

Integration o f several factors

Integration o f m any factors

M eaning Som e m eaning based on one factor only: the ad only M eaning creation stops im m ediately, based on two factors No m eaning, based on two factors M eaning based on factors from both dim ensions Substantial m eaning based on several factors from both dim ensions

THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS At the opposite end of the continuum the m essage is integrated with m any o f the factors in the Relationship C o m m unication Model. This can be described as dynam ic m ulti-dim ensional com m unication, m ulti-dim ensional m eaning that both time and situational factors contribute to meaning creation. This type of com m unication is far from the traditional in s i d e - o u t view of com m unication. It is even far from traditional IMC. O f course, since an IMC analysis brings consistency into m essages, traditional efforts made by the firm to unify its outgoing messages should not be neglected. H ow ever, according to the Relationship C om m un icatio n Model the c onsum er also integrates elem ents outside the control of the com pany (cf. D uncan and Moriarty 1997). Here the relationship notion plays a central role in providing tim e and situational factors. The relationship is established, m aintained and enhanced over tim e (Gronroos 2000, 243). Good m em ories and positive earlier experiences or future expectations related to a trusted provider and similarities in visions are possible influencing factors belonging to the time dimension. Such factors have not previously been seen as relating to the messages sent to consum ers, and therefore, they have not been given enough consideration. H ow ever, this type of im pact can be significant and should be taken into account. A typical situation where factors belonging to the time dim ension arc integrated with a com m unication message is w hen the co n su m er rem em bers the first w arm w clcom c he or she received in an encoun ter with a firm, follow ed by several trust-enhancing contacts com bined with confident expectations about a shared future, that is, a strong belief in an enduring relationship, based on past and future factors. Similarly, factors from the situational dim ension can be integrated with a message. Internal factors h aving an im pact are, for exam ple, feelings such as having confidence, that is, having a positive attitude or good abilities to absorb a message based on earlier interpretations o f sim ilar messages in the past. E xternal factors can be other messages from the com pany (typical IMC), but also messages from com petitors, or other inputs from the surrounding society. O th er external factors may be the influence o f family or friends or the fact that the com pany in focus plays a m ajor role in society. A typical exam ple of the situational dim ension occurs w hen a co nsum er is interpreting an ad while m aking a com parison with a co m petitor (external factors) or is a pleased and delighted regular cu stom er (internal factors). M eaning creation in co m m un ication is based on this logic. Therefore it is im portant to consider the im pact o f time and situational factors. Table 3 displays a sum m ary of how consum ers interpreted five different ads. The cases presented in the T able are taken from a study o f how m eaning is created from advertising when the analysis takes into account both time and situational factors (Finne 2004; Finne and G ronroos 2006). These data arc provided as illustrations only. T he study itself and the analysis o f the ads are not discusscd in any detail in the present articlc. T he second colum n of Table 3 (perceived m essage) show s the c o n s u m e r ’s perception of the message in the ad. The third colum n (coding) provides the nature of the perception and the c o n s u m e r ’s reflections about the ad. In the fourth colum n (factors at play) the types of factors influencing m eaning creation are listed. T h e fifth colum n (integration) assesses to what extent the integration o f factors with the ad took place. Finally, the sixth colum n (m eaning) displays w hat m eaning was created from the ad. In Cases A and B very little integration took place. In the first case there was none, because the source was unknow n and the m essage uninteresting to the consum er, w hereas in the second case there was some, although very limited integration. The co n s u m er made some reflections, but due to a negative attitude tow ards the message the ad was left w ithout much attention. In Case C the m essage was considered to be unclear and the sender was unknow n, but the c o n s u m er had some ability to understand the m essage. Here some

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS limited integration with situational factors took place. H ow ever, time factors relating to a relationship with the sender were not present. T he analysis show ed that no m eaning was created in these cases. On the meaning creation continuum (Figure 3) these three cases are situated tow ards the ‘no integration’ end. This type of com m unication is more or less one-dim ensional and can be categorized as non-relational com m unication. Cases D and E represent ads that were perceived in favourable ways and w hich, to varying degrees, triggered positive m em ories and reflections. A larger n u m b e r of factors, including relationship-oriented time factors, were at play. In Case D m ean ing was created from the ad through the integration o f its message with factors from both the situational and the time dim ensions. In Case E this process w ent even further and m eanin g was created based on even more factors. T hese two cases can be placed tow ards the relational com m un ication end o f the continuum . The ads represent m ulti-dim ensional relationship com m unication. Som e special cases not included in T able 3 can here be briefly described. There may be a strong im pact o f several factors, in fact so strong that the message sent from the com pany as such has limited or even no im pact on m eaning creation. T ypically, this can occur in a situation w hen a firm is very visible in society, w hen consum ers have m any contact points with the firm and the firm is frequently exposed in the m edia (Finne 2004). In such cases the im pact o f advertising is so insignificant that less expansive m arketing com m unication is sufficient. T he reason for this is that other factors are already doing the job of com m unication. As a result the com pany can reduce the com m un icatio n budget and allow the time and situational factors to do the job. H ow ever, a c o m m unic ation m essage may function as a trigger enhancing favourable m eaning creation. A nother type of special case is the opposite of the one described above. Con sum ers may have m ixed perceptions of the firm and its goods or services. Because one factor is signalling som ething and another factor som ething else, the situation is confusing. Such a situation may occur w hen the firm fails to integrate the outgoing messages from various sources (planned, product, service, unplanned com m u nicatio n, absence o f c o m m u n i­ cation; cf. Figure I, Finne 2004, 143) An exam ple of this is when a w ell-planned advertising cam paign accidentally co-occurs with a widely publicized corporate scandal, or a strongly critical debate is running in the press at the same time as the ad cam paign. O ther sim ilar situations can be caused by po or m anagem ent, bad planning or weak com m un ication strategies.

Using the Relationship C om mu n ic a ti on Model as a tool in r es ear ch and commu ni ca ti on m a n a g e m e n t T he Relationship C om m unication M odel w orks as a tool for the analysis of meaning crcation from com m unication messages. By categorizing the way consu m ers crcatc meaning for them selves from a message, differences in meaning o u tcom es can be predicted. Som e consum ers may crcatc meaning based on the message in, for exam ple, an ad only; others may create m eaning based on the ad integrated with several factors simultaneously. The factors to be exam ined are the historical, future, external and/or internal factors, such as earlier experiences, m em ories, ongoing strong relationships, expectations or visions, im portance of the firm in the surrounding society, a personal project in the family, positive or negative attitudes to the firm or the com m un icatio n message, the sender or the brand or difficulties in understanding a message. A variety o f factors that have influenced co nsum er perceptions o f m eaning have to be assessed. If the meaning creation is influenced by many factors, and the findings indicate

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS that shared m eaning between the com pany and the co n su m er has been created, then the co m m unication is classified as relationship com m unication. A m utual k now ledge base in a relationship can form a successful platform for such com m un ication . If the findings show that shared meaning was not created, for exam ple because of negative attitudes or difficulties in interpretation or some other reason, the com m u nicatio n is non-relational. If the findings indicate that shared m eaning was created, but no factor had an im pact, that is, shared m eaning is based on the m essage only, according to our m odel the com m un ication cannot be classified as relationship com m unication. T he special cases described above can also occur: The influence of the ad is minor, but the influences o f the other factors are stronger. If the findings indicate that shared m eaning is created from these factors, for exam ple based on a strong relationship, the com m unication is classified as relationship com m unication. In this special case the ad itself functions more as a trigger than as anything else. T he Relationship C o m m unication M odel is also a tool for operative m anagem ent. By using the m odel as a fram ew ork for sorting data and know ledge about custom ers in the com pany database, marketers can identify factors that infiucncc c o n s u m e r s ’ m eaning creation. The identification of such factors m ay reveal new sources of com m u nication m essages, w hich arc outside the firm ’s direct control. Thus m arketers arc enabled to develop new types o f argum ents for com m unication cam p aigns that will fit the c o n s u m e rs’ situation better. Information about historical factors can be found in cu stom er databases and loyalty program m es, but also from frontline personnel and elsew here in the organization. Inform ation about external factors can be found in reports about econom ic cycles, technology developm ents, fashion trends and in com petitor analyses. M arketers can contribute top-of-the-m ind surveys. Internal factors can be found in studies about co nsum er attitudes, satisfaction surveys, data from com plaint handling and custom er response marketing. Information on possible future factors can be detected among expectations and visions on several levels: custom ers, personnel and shareholders, as well as c o n s u m e r s ’ envisioned future prospects. By com bining these factors in a holistic analysis, more effective m arketing com m unication can be developed. H ow ever, such a holistic analysis requires that data sources in the organization are used across functions and departm ents in an unprejudiced way. This can be a challenge for many organizations, but on the other hand it can form a foundation for future relationship com m u nication and the creation o f shared m eaning between the com pany and its custom ers, and in the final analysis, more effective m arketing com m unication.

Discussion T he R elationship C om m un icatio n M odel represents a new perspective on integrated marketing com m unication. The changc in perspective is ccntral. Instead of looking at outgoing messages, and assuming that they all or at least most of them arc conveyed to the receiver, the focus is on the consum er. In the case study reported, this switch in focus turned out to be fruitful. W e identified several factors influencing c o n s u m e r s ’ m eaning creation from m arketing com m unication and categorized them along a time dim ension and a situational dimension. T he result was a tw o-dim ensional m odel providing a consum er perspective, a need stated by several researchers (M ick and Buhl 1992; Scott 1994; Stern 1996). Our model is far from the traditional concept of conveying a m essage from an active sender to a passive c o nsum er that is only seen as an object in the process. By taking the c o n s u m e rs’ multi-factor situation as a starting-point, the R elationship C om m unication M odel adds a genuine consum er-centric elem ent to IMC. It should be noted that the model

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS has been developed based on some initial em pirical work, but at this point it is basically a conceptual m odel that needs further em pirical testing. In the relationship m arketing literature, com m un ication has not previously been studied to any great extent, but a first step towards filling this gap is the introduction of the m eaning creation concept. As the body of meaning literature in m arketing is extensive, we focused on researchers that have sim ilar com binations of factors (M cC racken 1986, 1987; F riedm ann and Z im m e r 1988; D o m za l and K ernan 1992; M ick and Buhl 1992; Scott 1994; Stern 1996; Padgett and Allen 1997; Grier and Brum baugh 1999), that is, a com bination of at least one type o f factor with a message. H ow ever, in this body of literature a broad m odel organizing the different kinds o f factors has been lacking. Therefore, the Relationship C o m m unic ation M odel should be of interest to researchers of meaning. A ccording to the Relationship C o m m unication M odel, there are differences in the im pact of different factors in com m unication. A bove we have discussed these differences, highlighting opposite ends of w hat we described as a m eaning creation continuum . W e described the characteristics o f the opposite ends in the continuum and, using a case study of c o n s u m e rs’ crcation of m eaning out of five ads as an illustration, dem onstrated how the continuum can be used. At the end of the continuum where several factors influence m eaning creation, the c o n s u m e r ’s perception o f an existing relationship has a considerable im pact on meaning creation. T he role of the time dim ension alongside the situational dim ension is especially important here. C o m m u nic atio n that can be placed tow ards this part of the continuum is labelled relationship com m unication. This type of com m un ication differs in structure from other kinds o f com m unication. C om m unication that can be placed tow ards the other end of continuum is not interpreted in a relational context, and here situational factors may have less influence on m eaning creation as well. At this end meaning creation is non-relational, and the type of m arketing com m u nication that belongs to this part of the continuum is non-relational com m unication. T he im plem entation of the Relationship C om m u nication M odel docs not mean that com m un ication m essages should be loaded with relational buzzw o rd s or include them es portraying good relationships or other quick fix tactics. Instead, by being exposed to a long-term co m prehensiv e com m unication process rich in time and situational factors based on m essages from a variety o f sources, for exam ple, planned com m unication and product and service sources, con sum ers create a relational context with which com m un ication m essages are integrated, and subsequently relationship com m unication effects em erge. The com m u nicatio n process, including a flow of m essages, becom es relational. In other words, relationship c o m m un ic ation takes place. H ow ever, it is the co n su m er w ho integrates the time and situational factors that have been developing along with com m u nicatio n messages. T hrough com prehensive com m unication efforts the m arketer can only crcatc the circum stances needed for com m unication m essages to be perceived in a relational context. In one of the cases reported earlier, the initial message in an ad as such had no impact on the consum er, w hereas existing time and situational factors had a strong impact. This was an interesting finding, because it dem onstrates that, based on existing factors in the c o n s u m e r ’s context, co m m unicational effects can occur in spite o f a com m u nication effort that as such has no influence. In this case, though the ad itself had no direct effect on the consum er, it functioned as a trigger creating a com m u nication impact. F avourable circum stances existed for a positive relational co m m unication im pact to occur. Hence, there are possibilities for m arketers to keep, for exam ple, advertising costs at a minim um level and still create the w anted com m unication effects. If favourable contextual circum stances including time and situational factors have been developed in the minds

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS of consum ers, the time and situational factors can do most of the com m un ication job, and the com pany need not invest heavily in m arketing c o m m u nic ation campaigns. T o sum up, our article shows how the Relationship C om m u nication M odel can be used as a tool in research and m anagem ent. T hus, the model appears to be a useful tool for analysing m eaning creation in m arketing com m unication as well as for analysing m arketing com m un ication itself.

Conclusions a nd implications In this paper the focus on the receiver as an active part in the com m unication process is o f central im portance. Instead of focusing solely on the outbound m essage, several factors have been taken into consideration. C o m pared with other broader approaches, fir exam ple, integrated m arketing com m u nicatio ns or analysing m essages in com bination with one type o f factors (M cC racken 1986; D om zal and Kernan 1992; D uncan and M oriarty 1997; Padgett and Allen 1997; G rier and Brum baugh 1999), the concept introduced in this article, integrating com m u nication messages with consumer-specific historical, future, external and internal factors into a single model, considerably broadens the view on m arketing com m un ication . In our view, the c o nsum er is the only source that can perform the integration of com m un ication m essages with factors that arc o f im portance to him or her. T herefore, what we have called relationship com m u nicatio n cannot be planned and created w ithout m aking the c o n s u m e r s ’ perceptions an integral elem e nt of the planning and im plem entation process. Also, the concept suggested here w orks as a conceptual b ridge-build er in linking two different research traditions, integrated m ark eting com m un ication and relationship m arketing, and the com bination o f the two traditions appears to be highly productive. T he R elationship C om m unication M odel sheds light on the em erging concept o f relationship com m u nicatio n. Instead of focusing on a planned integrated message unmodified by receiver-specific circum stances, this model takes a step further by including inform ation on consum er-relevant time and situational factors in com m unication planning. W e have proposed that relationship com m unication differs from other types of com m un icatio n, in the sense that several factors influence m eaning creation. Relationship com m unication is characterized by a situation w here two parties take part in the com m unication process as active participants in the creation of m eaning. T he time perspective is essential, and several factors are included in the creation process. Using the Relationship C om m unication M odel as an instrument o f analysis m akes it possible for the researcher or m arketer to take into account these factors. By integrating approaches from different streams of research, the model makes a contribution to the literature on traditional communication, integrated marketing com m unication and relationship marketing. T o the best of our know ledge, one category o f factors, future factors, has not previously been discussed in the com m unication literature. Nevertheless, especially in relationship com m unication the im pact o f this specific factor seem s to be ccntral. How to m easure the occurrence and im pact of future and other factors is an area for further research. In our analysis we have only briefly indicated where inform ation needed for such m easuring can be found. A n other task for further research is suggested by one of the cases described, w here relationship com m unication seem s to occur despite a negative perception o f the ad. An ad, or any other type of marketing com m unication, may function as a trigger that engenders m eaning creation, w ithout providing any substantial input. If parts of expensive cam paign s can be cancelled, with cost savings as a result, and relationship com m unication can still

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS be c re a te d, the r e la t i on s hi p c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n c e p t m a y e n a b l e c o n s i d e r a b l e c o st - s a v i n g s f or c o m m u n i c a t i o n strategies.

From integrated marketing communication to relationship communication O u r a na ly s i s d e m o n s t r a t e s that in te gr at ed m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n is an i n s i d e - o u t a p p r o a c h to m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , w e o f f er the f o l l o w i n g c o n s u m e r cent ric defi nit i on o f m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n : Relationship c om m unic ation is any type o f m arketing c o m m unic ation that influences the receiver’s long-term c o m m itm en t to the sender by facilitating meaning creation through integration with the rec eiv e r’s tim e and situational context. T he tim e context refers to the receiver’s perception o f the history and envisioned future o f his/her relationship with the sender. The situational context refers to other elem en ts internal or external to the receiver.

A s the r e c e i v e r o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e s s a g e s , the c u s t o m e r p e r f o r m s the in te gr ati on , a nd in this

integr ati on

p r o c e ss

meaning

cr ea t io n

t ak es

place.

Hence,

whereas

in te gr at ed

m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n refers to an int eg ra ti on o f m e s s a g e s that t akes p l a c e at the c o m p a n y level, i nt eg r a ti on a c c o r d i n g to the R e la t i o n s h i p C o m m u n i c a t i o n M o d e l refers to i n t eg ra ti ng the m e s s a g e wi th the c o n s u m e r ’s t i me and situation. T h e in te gr a ti on t akes p l a c e at the c o n s u m e r level. I nst ead o f i nte gr ati ng o u t b o u n d m e s s a g e s the f ocus is shifted to the c o n s u m e r ’s i n t eg ra ti on o f i n b o u n d m e s s a g e s . B e c a u s e the t ime a nd si tuat ional c o n t e x t s arc u n i q u e for a ny g iv en p e r so n , the i n t eg ra ti on a nd m e a n i n g c rc a ti o n p r o c e s s e s dif fer b e t w e e n i ndi vi dua ls . T h e s a m e m e s s a g e m a y t r ig ge r di f fe re nt m e a n i n g s . H e n c e , r e la t io ns hi p c o m m u n i c a t i o n is not an i n p u t that is p l a n n e d as s uch and by definition di ff er s f r om s o m e o t he r t ype o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Instead,

relationship comm unication is an outcome. It is the r e c e i v e r w h o d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h e r a c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e s s a g e or c a m p a i g n is r e l at i o n s hi p c o m m u n i c a t i o n o r not. A m e s s a g e or campaign

that

t ri ggers

an

i nt eg ra ti on

a nd

meaning

c re a ti o n

p r o c e ss

r esu lt in g

in

r el a ti ons hi p c o m m u n i c a t i o n for o ne p er s on m a y not resul t in r e l a ti on s hi p c o m m u n i c a t i o n f or a n o t h e r p er son. Its suc c es s d e p e n d s on the t i me and s i tua tiona l c o n t e x t o f t he c u s t o m e r , as d e s c r i b e d by the R e la t i o n s h i p C o m m u n i c a t i o n M o d e l p r o p o s e d in the p r e s e n t article. A l t h o u g h the r e c e i ve r o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e s s a g e s d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h e r o r not a c o m m u n i c a t i o n effort or c a m p a i g n f u n ct i o ns as re la ti ons hi p c o m m u n i c a t i o n , the m a r k e t e r m a y , and if it is c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o pr i at e , s ho u l d a t t e m p t to plan a nd e x e c u t e the f i r m ’s m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n efforts or c a m p a i g n s in a w a y t hat le ad s to a r e l at io n s hi p c o m m u n i c a t i o n o u t c o m e . T h is , h o w e v e r , r eq u i re s that the m a r k e t e r has o b t a i n e d sufficient i n f o r ma t i on a b o u t the r e le v a n t t i me a nd s it ua ti ona l d i m e n s i o n s o f its t ar get c u s t om e r s .

Acknowledgements T he authors would like to thank their colleague Professor Tore Strandvik at Hanken Swedish School o f E co nom ics Finland for his most useful c o m m en ts and suggestions.

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IMC: New horizon/false dawn for a marketplace in turmoil? Philip J. K itchena and Don E. S chultzb “The Business School, University o f Hull, Hull, UK; bIntegrated Marketing Communications Department, The Medill School, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA Is inlegrated m arketing c o m m u n ic a tio n s (IM C ) a new horizon or sim ply anothe r false d a w n for m arke tin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s that has failed to live up to its pro m ises? This issue b e co m es critical in a m arke tp la ce in e co n o m ic turmoil. T w o leading IMC r esearchers and writers argue for a totally new view and a new a gen da for IM C going forw ard to m atch the new e co n o m ic realities faced by m ark e ting o rganizations. T h eir view s are driven by m ark e tp la ce , c o n s u m e r and techno logy ch ang e s enhanc ed by increasin g globalization and a shift o f m ark e tpla ce p o w e r to the c o n su m er, all heavily influenced by the current econom ic conditions.

T he last decade o f the twentieth century w itnessed the em ergence, d ev e lopm e nt and w idespread global adoption o f w hat has co m e to be term ed ‘integrated m arketing c o m m u n ic a tio n s’ or IMC. T oday, how ever, questions about the concept and im ple­ m entation still remain: was this, as its advocates proclaim, a ‘new horizon in corporate and m arketing c o m m u n ic a tio n ’? Or, with hindsight, was it, in fact ‘a false d a w n ’ which prom ised much, and, so far, has delivered little? T he discussion continues to gather speed in both academ ic and professional co m m un ities around the world as m arketing organizations struggle to m ake sense of the new econom ic realities. T w o of the m ajor thinkers and writers in IMC explore both sides of this question from both a practitioner and acadcmic perspective. On the following pages, some rather definitive new conclusions are reached which argue for a new set o f parameters in keeping with the new econom ic reality faced by all marketing organizations. In the following sections, we suggest the concept o f IMC likely needs to be re-thought, but using a different set o f parameters given the global changes that have occurred since the origin of the concept. Further, we argue our conclusion is only starting to be explored by either advocates or detractors of IMC. Therefore, we conclude that the present marketplace provides a fertile field for research and exploration in the developm ent of new know ledge for the years ahead.

New horizon? It is now com m o nly accepted that IMC was initially based on the situations existent in the US m arket in the late 1980s and early 1990s. T h ose c a m e as a result o f the widely noted ch anges in the c onsum er and custo m er landscape (Court, G ordon, and Perry 2005; Kessler

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS 2004; M asker and S om osa 2004). These w ere accom panied by the ever-expanding, and som etim es radically new m edia system s available in the m arketplace (Elms 2007; Fasse 2007). Thus, m arketers and their agencies began to believe it was necessary for all co m m unications em anating from the organization to ‘look alike and sound alike’ to be effective. Indeed, Peppers and R ogers (2 0 0 1 ,4 ; see also Kotler and Keller 2006) argued that: the old paradigm, a system o f mass production, . . . media, . . . and . . . marketing is being replaced by a totally new paradigm , a one-to-one eco nom ic system . . . products will be tailored to individual tastes, . . . m edia will be inexpensively addressed to . . . individual customers.

In the marketing com m unications dom ain, this led to the now infam ous catch phrase: ‘one sight, one so u n d ’, which typified the first stage of IMC developm ent. The premise was clearly based on assum ptions that marketing co m m un ic ation s was essentially an outbound system, developed and controlled by the m arketing organization (see Gould 2004; G rove, Carlson, and Dorsch 2007; Keller 2001; Kitchen and Li 2005) and consum ers were at least willing, if not eager, to hear from m arketers about their products and services. H ow ever, IM C proved to be m uch m ore than sim ply an alternative to the internally focused planning m ethodologies o f the day. W hile IM C was proclaim ed to have w idespread relevance for how com m unication program s should be developed and im plem ented, its advocates argued it also linked neatly into the perceived need for com panies and organizations to install and m anage sophisticated consum er information technologies such as C R M (custom er relationship m a nagem ent) and various loyalty programs. All this, of course, tied in with the increasing focus on such m anagem ent systems as balanced scorecards and six sigma. All these m a n ag e m en t initiatives required that all organizational functions, including m arketing and m arketing com m unication, be able to provide evidence o f some type o f return-on-investm ent on allocated resources or assets. This, it was argued, would lead to closer internal alliances between finance and m arketing w hich w ould provide the necessary objective o utco m es increasingly required by senior m a nage m ent (see Kitchen and De Pelsm acker 2005; Schultz and Schultz 2003). Perhaps the greatest value, how ever, was that integrated m arketing com m u nications inherently underpinned and led to the term inology and concepts associated with the broader conccpt of integrated marketing. T hus, for the first time in m arketing history, consu m ers were finally perceived to be a driving force in m arketing activities and crucially important to the overall success o f the entire organization. In the original con cep t o f IMC, there was an implied em phasis on the custom er, that is, the assum ption that integrating com m un ication elem ents would be of value to both consum ers/end users and the m arketing organization as well. T oday, we know the co n su m er is essentially driving the m arketplace and will likely continue to do so, perhaps even more so in the future. And, that co nsum er pow er will only increase as a result of the econom ic downturn. T hus, we argue that far from being a fad or fashion, today and in the foreseeable future, IMC has been em b raced intellectually, if not practically, by all marketing and com m unication theorists, by many co m pan ies o f all sizes and types and by agencies and marketing com m u nicatio n supplier organizations in their usual supportive and orchestrating role around the world. The question of course is: will that support continue when econom ic systems, as we have generally known them in m any parts of the world, have been turned upside dow n? W e believe IMC will continue to be the one beacon that m arketing and m arketing com m unication can and m ust follow for the present-day systems to survive and to provide the foundation for any new approaches in the days ahead. T he challenge, of course, is that integrated m arketing c om m unic ations is much more than was originally envisioned by its first advocates. T he co n s u m er has changed.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS T he m arketplace has changed. T he m edia systems have changed. T he m arketing organization has changed. T hus, we believe it is necessary to review and re-cast IMC for the interactive, p u s h - p u l l m arketplace for the next decade of the twenty-first century. And, that recasting seems particularly im portant as all organizations are review ing w here and how they should and must adapt to the changing econom ic times.

False da wn? Despite the roseate glow cast by the furor o f excitem ent and activity generated by IMC since its founding approxim ately 20 years ago, as with all new paradigm s, som e critical voices have been raised about the concept and its application (see C ornelissen 2001, 2003). For exam ple, there is still: • No w idespread, agreed upon definition of what IMC is, how it w orks and/or what it does. Every advocate and detractor seems to have their own idea of the concept, based, in m any cases, on their own localized views. And, as the IMC concept has expanded into the em erging markets, there are m ore IMC voices than ever before. • No w idespread consensus on a m ethodology for m easuring or evaluating the return on the d eve lopm e n t and im plem entation of an IMC program. Yet, one must also rccognizc this same issue continues to plague traditional m arketing and m arketing com m unication. Even though the d em and for accountability has grown, the alternatives developed seem to provide no consistent approach or solution. • An inexorable anchoring of IMC at the very early stages o f conceptual d eve lo pm e nt that is, tactical coordination a la ‘one sight, one s o u n d ’, one of the initial premises of IMC continues to rule the day. This tactical coordination requires little in the way of c onsum er insights, m arket analysis or database building. Thus, there has been little connection between IMC and C R M and other prim ary custom er-based m arketing initiatives. One corollary o f this is that m any IMC studies have studied the topic with an external advertising agency view. It is now accepted that agencies are not the prime m overs in d eve lo pm e nt of integrated program s, but their principals (i.e. client businesses) are. H ence the switch to in-com pany analyses and com parative and best practices studies o f IMC practice around the world. Yet, those studies were developed during tim es of boom , not of doom and gloom. • A perception that IMC was widely accepted and em braced initially by m arketing and m arketing com m unication service and support groups for fairly obvious reasons. T hat occurred sim ply because o f their reliance on one or two prom otional tools, that is, advertising and/or public relations. This has becom e increasingly unrealistic in a world of m ulti-m edia and increased m arketer usage of multi-level information technologies, and m ulti-prom otional options including sales prom otion, direct m arketing. Intcrnct-bascd com m u nicatio ns and the new social networks. The reality was that IMC afforded a new um brella term that allow ed previous functional specialists to move with the tim es into com m unication in its broadest dim ensions while at the same time protecting their individual specialties. • The fact that, as IMC has received critical attention and criticism, its parent, the practice o f general m arketing has also been widely challenged as being ‘in need of [significant] r e fo rm ’. T hat seems ever more so today w hen it is clear that m arketing continues to be considered a ‘cost ce n te r’ in most organizations and is continuously subject to dow nsizing, reductions and d ow nright cancellations as organizations try to balance their income and outgoings in increasingly difficult econom ic situations.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS W hile many agree the m anagerial school of m arketing, as it is know n and practiced today, is ‘b ro k e n ’, there is no clear direction on how to ‘fix’ the basic concept (see Kitchen 2008a; Sheth and Sisodia 2007) and that seem s particularly true w hen the traditional value o f m arketing as an investm ent in the future is increasingly challenged by short-term issues. As a result o f these issues and others, perhaps IMC was really nothing more or less than another ‘false d a w n ’, which has been exposed by the financial dem ands of to d a y ’s marketplace. A ccepted, yes. A llegiance widely proclaim ed, yes. N eed for, clearly, yes. But, but as to w h ether it w orks and delivers on its proclaim ed promises, then, the answer has to be cou ched in cavcats (Patti 2006; Schultz 2004a, 2004b, 2006a). In this paper wc critically exam ine both sides of the arg u m e n t before arriving at a conclusion.

Reconsidering I MC M any of the basic argum ents for and against the initial views o f IMC are still valid. Yet, the world has changed dram atically in the past 20 years and even more-so in the past 18 months. T hus, we argue IMC really needs to be evaluated under the current circum stances and under a new set of parameters. Som e o f those issues are: • The rise of a ‘p u s h - p u l l ’ marketing com m unication m arketplace in which the co nsum er controls much of the com m unication acceptance over which m edia and m edia forms they consum e. W hile the m arketer can still send out a seemingly unrestricted nu m b e r o f messages and incentives, through a num ber of new media channels, that is, traditional ‘p u s h ’ m arketing com m unication, the co n su m er or intended audience can reject those messages and alternatively, access or ‘p u ll’ inform ation from the Internet, social networks, blogs and the like at their convenience. Thus, increasing cu stom er control over m essaging, channels and networks are leading to revolutionary changes within m arketing com m unications. This change to a ‘p u s h - p u l l ’ m arketplace radically changes the initial views of IMC which were initially focused entirely on a marketer-initiated and controlled outbound, push co m m unication system (Leaders Forum 2008; Schultz 2006b). • T he rise of co n su m er-to -c o n su m e r m arketing c o m m unic ation through such electronic facilities as social networks, blogs, RSS (Really Sim ple Syndication), m obile and the like. T hus, the m arketer is not the only source or resource o f inform ation on products or services being vended in the marketplace. These new systems create even m ore questions about how integration is developed and how it o cc u rs. F or e x a m p le , h ow d o e s a m a r k e tin g c o m m u n i c a t o r ‘i n t e g r a t e ’ com m u nication about a com pany, product or service w hen he or she has no control over the information or, in som e eases, is not even aware the com m unication exists, and thus, has no inform ation about it. The ‘new m illcnials’ (people born betw een 1981 and 2000) are leading the drive to utilize social mobile networks, where the total nu m b e r of users (currently 210 million) will ju m p to nearly one billion by 2012. A dvertising revenue equates already to US$1.5 billion and further rises are anticipated (M obile web 2.0). G iven that the millenials will form the major proportion o f to m o rro w ’s full nest m arkets, the rising trend spells further change for marketing and integrated approaches (CIO 2008). • Brands and branding have becom e ever more critical as the m arketplace has becom e increasingly com m oditized. Historically, m arketers have had some sort of product

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS or service advantage w hich could be trum peted through com m unication programs. W hen the critical variable becom es the brand, integration must m ove beyond the coordination of the visual and graphic elem ents of com m un ication to b ecom e more strategic and m anagerially oriented. Perhaps m ost im portantly, branding has em erged as a separate functional unit in many organizations. Not so long ago business strategy drove functional organizational units such as marketing, HR, sales and others. Thus, branding was left in the hands o f m arketing and m arketers. Today, business strategy drives branding and branding drives everything else. Branding is too close to the core o f the business to be left solely in the purview of marketing. T hus, there m ust be closer alignm ent betw een the new brand and branding unit and traditional and new m arketing com m unicators. T he real asset ow ned by com p anies was never the brand per se, but the loyalty of custom ers to the brand. H ow ever, loyalty can only be generated and sustained if the brand delivers w hat the c om m unication promises. Professor L uiz M outinho (2008) recently said: Companies are dispensing with the mass economy tactics of old and replacing them with tactics more suited to the customer economy. Brands are moving from a marketing model that says, T m going to talk to you and you better listen up’ to an experiential model. The experience conveys the essence of the brand! • The challenge o f m easurem ent continues. Marketing m anagem ent has m ade some progress in determining the importance o f their activities in the overall success of the organization. The same is true of marketing com m unication m easurem ent with the development o f brand equity measures, short-term incremental sales increases through the use o f Marketing Mix models and other evaluation tools. But, the question of the value of IMC still remains. Should IMC be measured based on the value to the consum er or customer, or, to the marketing organization? Is IMC a cost-saving activity for the firm or a growth generator? These simple bits of evaluative logic have continued to elude both academicians and practitioners, yet, they seem to be at the heart o f the issue. Moreover, practitioners are buying into evaluation as never before. While we can see the contribution of marketing and com m unications via brand value chains and longitudinal studies utilizing primary and secondary data (see Cain 2008; Kitchen 2008b; Lindeman 2008), there is little to record brand performance with immediacy during and after specific integrated campaigns. • Perhaps the most critical issue in the on-going developm ent of integrated marketing com munications is how the com m unicator can understand, explain or manage the perceived synergy between various com m unication alternatives. For example, practically no marketing com m unication campaign today consists of only one com m unication element, that is, advertising or public relations or sales promotion or the like. T he same is true in term s of delivery systems, most generally broadcast is com bined with print and may also include on-line and blogs plus events and sponsorships. Historically, all the elements have been considered separately, planned and developed separately and then implemented and measured separately. There is a need for some measure(s) o f synergy or the com bined effect of the elements being used. U nderstanding how various com munication activities work together or in combination is one o f the most critical issues facing IMC today. • The recent radical changes that have occurred in the economic markets have challenged all forms of marketing and com m unication as never before. W hat should an organization do in declining economic times? Clearly, the concepts of new customer

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS development and continual acquisition are likely no longer valuable or useful. But, how does IMC work in a marketplace w here custom er retention is the nam e o f the gam e and market growth is a memory of the past for many organizations? Does IMC work in a hunkered-dow n system or was it, like so many other marketing concepts only a ‘fair w eath er’ approach that crumpled in the face o f economic difficulties? Clearly, there are other elem ents to be considered in determ ining w hether IM C is a new horizon or sim ply a false dawn. In the final section, we co m m e n t on how IM C should or could be considered given these new parameters. These are the issues we believe that set a new direction for thinking about, researching and even im plem entin g any type of IMC program going forward.

T o w a r d s o me new c o nc l u si ons Plainly, IMC or some type o f integrated com m unication has underpinned, spearheaded or augm ented the w idespread review of the marketing com m u nicatio ns, and even, the marketing praxis. And, that occurred prior to the current econom ic situation. One of the striking facts has been how IMC has shed light on the questionable c onsum er or custom er focus o f the entire field of m arketing itself. T he deve lo p m e n t of the ‘4 P s ’ that is, product, price, place and prom otion in the 1950s, and the codifying of that rubric into the standard for m arketing m a nagem ent, practicc and rcscarch for the past 30 years has driven the entire field - perhaps unintentionally - in a non -consum er or non-custom er, internally focused direction. IMC, with its initial intent on identifying the recipient o f the com m un ication activity, has done m uch to point out the flaws in such traditional, outbound m arketing com m unications and the use of such outm oded tools as A ID A (attention, interest, desire and action) and other H ierarchy o f Effects m odels such as that proposed by L avidge and Steiner (1961). O bviously, in an interactive, custom er-driven and rapidly evolving m arketplace and m arketspace, new concepts and approaches are urgently needed. W e believe IM C is one of the tools that can be used. If one evaluates the com m unication practices of the majority of twenty-first-century public and private sector organizations, most co m m un ication is now inexorably ‘one sight’, ‘one so u n d ’, and ostensibly ‘o n e ’ in terms o f integrated messages across various promotional venues and delivery systems. T hat w ould seem to be an obvious success for Phase One o f IMC. But, such com m unication - while often couched in the language o f the listener, is not particularly dependent on: (1) (2) (3) (4)

understanding the dynam ics of the served market; hard and soft data derived iteratively from databases over time; seeking to understand behavioral data, save in the sim plest o f ways; understanding w hat m edia forms consum ers and custom ers use, not just the ones the m arketing organization wants to use.

All these, in their turn, spell an evident failure. Note, however, this is not a failure of IMC per se, but, of com panies failing to fully understand, im plem ent and evaluate a new and unique concept o f com munication, one in which both the marketer and the consum er must participate. This is particularly true at a deeper, and more dam ning level o f engaging in w hat could be called the trappings or frippery of marketing and marketing com munication without ever engaging in its full organizational philosophy or implementation. The reality of how good or bad firms really are at marketing, alm ost irrespective of em blazoned promises via com munications, is encountered day-after-day, week-after-week in many

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS countries around the world. Plainly, marketing and marketing com m unications do deliver som ething. W hether this is now, or ever was, reflective of customer or consum er centrality is extremely debatable. If, at the very least, IMC has encouraged marketing to re-examine itself, then this is perhaps its major accom plishm ent to date. But not its only accom plishm ent for we now need to move forward. T h u s . . .

W h a t n ee ds to h a p p e n n o w? First, we would argue for a w holesale review of integrated m arketing com m unications, research, m an ag e m en t and practice, under the following headings: (1) B ackground, dev e lo p m e n t and history. (2) E vidence of in-com pany organizational structures necessary to successfully im plem ent, manage and em ploy IMC on a national, international and w orldwide scale. (3) E vidence o f wholesale or partial adoption by different sectors such as: (a) com panies; (b) agencies; (c) academia; (d) media; (e) support organizations. (4) W h a t such adoption means: (a) for marketing com m unications; (b) for marketing; (c) for support organizations. (5) W hat ch anges are likely required to align and system atize IMC within the twentyfirst-century o rganiz ation, particularly in a m a rk e tp la c e w hich is being econom ically re-organized on an almost daily basis. (6) The future o f IMC - what should be done and in what order. Thus, these new directions will then enable us to begin to determ ine if IMC is truly a new daw n, focused on the dramatically different, global, interactive m arketplace o f the twentyfirst century, or, sim ply another false horizon which continues to attem pt to em ploy IMC practices and traditions to support the concepts and approaches developed for a m arketplace which likely is gone forever. U ndoubtedly the journey is not yet over, but has scarce begun.

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THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS References Cain, P. 2008. M easuring short and long term marketing investments: The M arketing Mix Model. Paper presented at the A M E C conference, M arch. London. CIO. 2008. M obile 2.0: Gen Y em b races mobile social networks, http://w w w .cio.com /article/ 3 7 1 71 4/ (accessed N o v em b e r 22, 2008). C ornelissen, J.P. 2001. IMC and the language o f m arketing developm ent. In tern a tio n a l Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g 20, no. 4: 4 8 3 - 9 8 . Cornelissen, J.P. 2003. Change, continuity and progress: The concept of IM C and marketing com m un ication practice. Jo u rn a l o f Stra teg ic M a rketin g 1 1, no. 4: 2 1 7 - 3 4 . Court, D.C., J.W. G ordon, and J. Perry. 2005. Boosting returns on marketing investment. M cK in sey Q uarterly 2: 3 6 - 4 7 . http://w w w .m ckinseyq uartcrly.com (acccssed D ec em b e r 11, 1998). Elms, S. 2007. T he long m edia tail: Are you w agging it? Or, is it w agging you? P aper presented at W o rld w ide M u lti-M edia M easurem ent, E S O M A R , June, Dublin. Fasse, J. 2007. This could be heaven: How to m easure m edia in a frag m en ted world. P aper presented at W o rldw ide M u lti-M ed ia M easurem ent, E S O M A R , June, Dublin. Gould, S.J. 2004. IM C as theory and as a poststructural set of practices and discourse. Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g R esearch 44, no. 1: 6 6 - 7 0 . Grove, S.J., L. Carlson, and M.J. D orsch. 2007. C o m p arin g the application o f integrated marketing co m m unic atio ns (IM C ) in m agazine ads across product type and time. Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g 36, no. 1: 3 7 - 5 4 . Keller, K.L. 2001. M astering the marketing c o m m unic atio ns mix: M icro and m acro perspectives on IMC program s. Jo u rn a l o f M arketing M a n a g em en t 17, nos. 7/8: 8 1 9 - 4 7 . Kessler, C. 2004. B randing in store: M arketing in the 21st century. J o u rn a l o f B ra n d M a n a g em en t 11, no. 4: 2 6 1 - 4 . Kitchen, P.J., ed. 2008a. M arketing m etaphors a n d m etam orphosis. Basingstoke: Palgrave-M acmillan. Kitchen, P.J., ed. 2008b. An introduction and overview o f integrated brand marketing and communications: Challenges and issues. Paper presented at the A M E C conference, March, London. Kitchen, P.J., and T. Li. 2005. Perceptions of IMC: A Chinese AD and PR perspective. In tern a tio n a l Jo u rn a l o f A d vertisin g 24, no. 1: 5 1 - 7 8 . Kitchen, P.J., and P. De P elsm acker. 2005. IM C : A p rim er. London: Routledge. Kotler. P.. and K.L. Keller. 2006. M arketing m anagem ent. 12th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Lavidge. R.J., and G.A. Steiner. 1961. A model for predictive m easurem en ts o f advertising effectiveness. Jo u rn a l o f M arketing 25, no. 6: 5 9 - 6 2 . Leaders Forum . 2008. A ddressed m any o f the issues concerning the paradigm o f p u s h - p u l l m arketing. February 2 5 - 7 . h ttp://w w w .the-dm a.o rg/conferen ces/dm aleadersforum / (accessed M arch 1, 2008). Lindem an, J. 2008. Building brand value through integrated marketing. P aper presented at the A M E C conference, March, London. M asker, S.J., and T. Som osa. 2004. M arketing to teens online. M cK in sey Q u a rterly, no. 4: 4 - 9 . M outinho, L. 2008. T he branding and m arketing com m unication molecule. Invited keynote address presented to staff and students at the Centre for M arketing, C om m u n ic atio n s, and International Strategy (C M C IS ), May, University o f Hull. Patti, C. 2006. IMC: A new discipline with an old learning approach. Jo u rn a l o f A d ve rtisin g 34: 7 - 9 . Peppers, D., and M. Rogers. 2001. The o n e-to -o n e fu tu re : B u ild in g rela tio n sh ip s one cu sto m er at a tim e. L ondon: Piakus. Schultz, D.E. 2004a. IMC receives more appropriate definition. M a rketin g N ew s 38, no. 15: 8 - 9 . Schultz, D.E. 2004b. More questions than answers. M a rketin g M a n a g em en t 13, no. 1: 1 0 - 1 1 . Schultz, D.E. 2006a. Integration’s new role focuses on customers. M a rketin g N ew s 40, no. 15: 8. Schultz, D.E. 2006b. IM C is do or die in new pull m arketplace. M a rketin g N ew s 40, no. 1 3 :7 . Schultz, D.E., and H. Schultz. 2003. IM C : The n ext g en era tio n . N ew York: M cG raw Hill. Sheth, J.N., and R.S. Sisodia. 2007. D oes m a rketin g n eed reform ? F resh p er sp e c tiv e s on the fu tu re . Boston: M.E. Sharpe.

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Index

Page numbers in Italics represent tables. Page numbers in Bold represent figures.

communication in 65-80; meaning in 36-7; role of 66 Broderick, A.: on IM C process areas 39; and Pickton, D. 39 B rum baugh, A.: differences in planned/actual meaning 108; and Grier, S. 108 Buhl, C.: consumer goals and companies 108; and Mick, D. 108 Burroughs, J.E.: on materialism and well­ being 94; and Rindfleisch, A. 94

Journal o f Advertising 49 advertising: meaning as a concept 107; and m emory 31; as service 15-16; television decline in 68, see also offensive advertising advertising analysis model 90 advertising professionals 84-5 Advertising Standards Authority 97 alcohol consumption study 87 Ambler, T.: on advertising and memory 31; on brain activity and purchasing 32; on marketing activities 37; and Vakratsas, D. 31; ‘weak theory’ recognition 31 A merican Marketing Association (A M A ) 84 attention, interest, desire, action (AID A ) 128

Carlin, I. 17 Carr, N. 14 Caywood, C.L.: and Ewing, R. 47; and Langrehr, F.W. 90; model for advertising analysis 90 Christensen, C . M . 107 CIRC model 109; com munication models similarities 110 communication: m ajor types o f 67; meaning creation continuum 1 1 2 ; meaning creation from ads 113; traditional view of 112 com munication study: specialist fields 48 com putational advertising 23; definition of 23 consumer goals: and companies 108 consumer goals and companies 108 consumerism 91, 95; idealistic views o f 95 consumers: activity o f 106; advertising 35-6; and communities 22; and motivations 85 consumption 91 Custom er Relationship M anagem ent (C R M ) 3, 124 customer-brand equity (CBBE) model 69

Ballmer, S.: on advertising 11 Beabout, G.R.: on consumerism 91, 95; and Echeverria, E.J. 91 Benkler, Y.: on networked information economy 13 Borgmann, A.: on insatiable acquisition 94 brain activity: and purchasing 32 brand: meaning in post-modern era 37 brand building: with IM C 73-4; sub­ dimensions of 70 brand capability value (BCV) 38 brand equity: creation o f 69-70; and marketing com munication 68-9; marketing communication effects on 71-2; model pyramid 70 brand resonance: four dimensions o f 71; and IM C 74-5; network o f 78; network relationship types 78-9; network and resonance dimensions 78; pyramid 69-71 branding: advantages/disadvantages o f IMC 74; as m anagem ent priority 66; marketing

De Torre, J.M.: M an and rationality 88 Delphi panel: description of 54 Dickerson, S.: and Dorsett, J. 87 digital culture study 86 digital media: advertisement placements 20; advised approach toward 24-5; customer data availability 19; data availability effects 19-20; marketing with 23-5; and multiple

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INDEX

Integrated M arketing Com m unications (Schultz, T annenbaum and Lauterborn) 2 interactive marketing communication: options overview o f 73 Internet: effect on interaction 65; parallels with electricity grid origin 14

stakeholders 21; scholarly research for 212; technology rise in 2-3 digital services: and media planning 18 Dorsett, J.: and Dickerson, S. 87 Drucker, P. 4 D rum wright, M.E.: and Murphy, P.E. 84-5 du Plessis, E. 31, 33 D uncan, T.: IM C concept 46

Jenkins, H. 22 Jurvetson, S.: viral marketing 34-5

Echcvcrria, E.J.: and Bcabout, G.R. 91 education: challenges in IM C teaching 59; curriculum o f IM C 51-2; fundamentals of IMC 58; IM C curricula development 55-6; IM C fundamentals 58; obstacles for cham pions of IM C 59; research in IMC curriculum design 58; research/teaching in IM C 57; stakeholders 48 Ehrenberg, A.: ‘weak theory’ concept 31 enterprise resource planning (ER P) 40 Ewing, M.T.: BCV for budgeting/valuation 38; IMC and evaluation 29-40; and Ratnatunga, J. 38 Ewing, R.: and Caywood, C. 47 Expense Leveraged Value Indexes (ELVI) 38

Kaikati, A.M .: and Kaikati, J.G. 35 Keller, K.L. 65-80 Kerr, G. 45-62 Kitchcn, P.J.: and Schultz, D.E. 123-9 Kliatchko, J.G. 83-101 Kotler, P.: on consumption 91; marketing concept 83; marketing concept insights 86 Laczniak, G.R.: and Murphy, P.E. 86 Lancaster, A.R . 87 Lancaster, K .M . 87; and Lancaster, A.R. 87 Langrchr, F.W.: and Caywood, C.L. 90 Lanham , R.A. 22-3 Lauterborn, R.F.: Integrated M arketing Com m unication 2; The new m arketing paradigm 46 Lavidge, R.J.: and Steiner, G.A. 128 Lee, A.S.: and Sarker, S. 40 Lehm ann, D.R. 29 Levitt, T. 4 Lindberg-Repo, K. 109

Finnc, A.: and Gronroos, C. 105-19 Fitchctt, J.A.: consumers and motivations 85; and Shankar, A. 85 Foley, J.P.: on sex advertising 96 Franke, G.R.: and M oon, Y.S. 85 Glasser, T.L. 22 Gregor, S. 39 Grier, S. 108; and Brumbaugh, A. 108 Griffin, W.: and Pasadcos, Y. 48 G ronroos, C.: and Finne, A. 105-19

McCracken, G. 108 management: branding as priority 66; concepts o f 1 M ankind: and materialism 88 Marcel, G. 94 marketers: and products/consumers 107 Journal o f M arketing 16-18 marketing: branding 7-8; communication and measurem ent 8; consumer portrayal in 857; IM C stimuli relationship 37-8; and media 8; and society 84; theory of 8-9 marketing communication 65-80; effects on brand equity 71-2; environment o f 67-8; ethical issues in 84-5; methods of 2; mixing and matching 72-3; moral issues in 101; rethinking 105-19; sexual themes in 95-7; study key concept occurrence 110 marketing communication (modern): evolution of 12; methods o f 12 Journal o f M arketing Com m unications 6 marketing concept 4, 83, 86 marketing ethics research study 84 marketing results 29 M arketing Science Institute: research priorities 30; research priority list of 29

Hierarchy o f Effects models 128 IM C education: future challenges o f 60; future o f 60-1, 61; limits of 61-2 individualism 89; sin view of 93; versus personalization 87-97 inform ation streams 14-15 insatiable acquisition 94 integrated marketing communication (IMC): consumers 83-101; cross-media integration 20-1; development of 5; educational mix 45-62; future research agenda o f 30-1; literature review o f 46-51; median response to disciplinary home o f 55; median response to teaching 57; and professional schools 47; study of 1-2; three circles of theory model 50, 51; topics for development of 6; traditional perspective on 107

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INDEX

Reinhard, K. 46 relationship com munication 109 relationship com munication model 106; and com munication research 115-16; different factors in communication 116; meaningbased and CIR C model similarities 110; as operative m anagem ent tool 116; perspective on IM C 116; and time/ situational dimensions 112 responsible marketing 86 Reubel, S. 15 Rindfleisch, A.: and Burroughs, J.E. 94 Rogers, M.: and Peppers, D. 124 Rose, P.: and Miller, D. 47 Rossiter, J.R.: and Silberstein, R.B. 32 Russell, J.: and M ehrabian, A. 108

markets: emergence of 9 materialism: and M ankind 88; and well-being 94 meaning transfer model 108 meaning-based-model: relationship/CIRC models 110 media: consumer networks 14; consumer use 22-3; digitization o f 12; institutions and audience access 25; modularity o f content 13-14; reproduction and sharing o f 13; three-part economic model 15; transformative shifts in 12 media planning 16-18; and digital services 18; framework 17 media-as-channels framework 25 Mehrabian, A.: and Russell, J. 108 Mick, D.: and Buhl, C. 108 M icrosoft 11 Miller, D.: and Rose, P. 47 M IS Quarterly 36 mobile technologies 34 M oon, Y.S.: and Franke, G.R . 85 Moore, E.S.: and Wilkie, W.L. 84 m oral issues: in marketing communications

Sarkcr, S.: and Lee, A.S. 40 Schibrowsky, J.A. 89; and Nill, A. 84 Schmidt, E. 17 Schultz, D.E.: IM C planning model 83; IMC strategy development 98-9; Integrated M arketing Com m unications 2; and Kitchen, P.J. 123-9; and Patti, C.H. 1-10; and Schultz, H.F. 83; The new m arketing paradigm 46; three circles model o f IMC 50, 51 Schultz, H.F.: IM C planning model 83; IMC strategy development 98-9 sex advertising 95, 96 Shankar, A.: and Fitchett, J.A. 85 Shen, F.: violence and brand familiarity 86 Silberstein, R.B.: and Rossiter, J.R. 32 Steiner, G.A.: and Lavidge, R.J. 128

101

M outinho, L. 127 Mulhcrn, F.: on IM C and media 11-25 Murphy, RE.: and D rum wright, M.E. 84-5; and Laczniak, G.R. 86 N aik, P.A.: and R am an, K. 33 N ational Organization for Women (NOW ) F oundation 96; ‘Love Your Body’ campaign 96 networked inform ation economy 13, 13-15 news consumption 22 Nill, A. 89; and Schibrowsky, J.A. 84

Takoni: behavioral targeting 17 T annenbaum , S.: Integrated M arketing Com m unications 2; The new m arketing paradigm 45 Technological revolutions and financial capital (Perez) 11 technology: effect on interaction 65 television: advertising encoding 32; and print synergy 33 The new m arketing paradigm (Schultz et a I) 46 tobacco advertising ban 87 traditional advertising media 67 Tucker, W.T. 16 Tufte, B. 86

O ’Boyle, E.J. 89 offensive advertising 86, 97; concepts and execution of 86; products 86-7 O ’H ara, M. 38 Pasadeos, Y.: and Griffin, W. 48 Patti, C.H. 49; and Schultz, D.E. 1-10 Peppers, D.: and Rogers, M. 124 Perez, C.: Technological revolutions and financial capital 11 personalism 89; and individualism 89; virtue view o f 92 personalization: versus individualism 87-97 Phillips, M.J. 95 Pickton, D.: and Broderick, A. 39 planned/actual meaning: differences 108

universities: IM C place in 51 utilitarianism error 89 Vakratsas, D.: and Ambler, T. 31; ‘weak theory’ recognition 31 Vendor Relationship M anagem ent (V R M ) 3

R am an, K.: and N aik, P A . 33 R atnatunga, J. 38; and Ewing, M.T. 38

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INDEX

word of m outh 35 worldwide marketing communication: expenditure increase 30

viral marketing 34-5 virtual worlds 36 Waller, D.S. 97 ‘weak theory’ recognition 31 W ightm an, B. 48 Wilkie, W.L.: and Moore, E.S. 84 Williamson, J. 107 Wojtyla, C.: hum ans and lifestyle 95; Man and technology 88; natural basis o f dignity 88

Yahoo!: com putational advertising 23; com putational advertising definition 23

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