The Early Microlithic Assemblages of Southern Africa 9780860545026, 9781407346656

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN PALAEOENVIRONNENT
CHAPTER THREE THE EARLY MICROLITHIC ASSEMBLAGES OF THE BASUTOLIAN ECOZONE
CHAPTER FOUR EARLY MICROLITHIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM THE CAPE PROVINCE
CHAPTER FIVE EARLY MICROL1THIC ASSEMBLAGES FROM NATAL AND THE TRANSVAAL
CHAPTER SIX SPATIAL VARIABILITY IN THE EARLY LATER STONE AGE OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
CHAPTER SEVEN A PALAEOECOLOGICAL MODEL FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE DISTRIBUTION DURING THE UPPER PLENIGLACIAL AND LATE GLACIAL
CHAPTER EIGHT TEMPORAL VARIABILITY WITHIN THE EARLY LATER STONE AGE OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
CHAPTER NINE THE END OF THE EARLY LATER STONE AGE - A NEW MODEL FOR THE ROBBERG/ALBANY TRANSITION
CHAPTER TEN THE ORIGIN OF THE EARLY LATER STONE AGE - A MODEL FOR THE MSA/LSA TRANSITION
CHAPTER ELEVEN CONCLUSIONS AND GENERAL DISCUSSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

The Early Microlithic · Assemblages of Southern Africa

P. J. Mitchell

BAR International Series 3 8 8

1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S388,1988 'The Early Microlithic Assemblages of Southern:Africa' @ P.J.Mitchell,1988 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545026 paperback ISBN 9781407346656 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545026 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

A CKNOWLEDGMENTS

T he

m aterial

p resented

a nd

d iscussed

i n

t his

m onograph

r epresents p art o f a D . P hil. T hesis, s ubmitted t o t he U niversity o f O xford i n 1 987, w hich l ooked a t t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom S ehonghong, L esotho, w ithin t he c ontext o f t he S outhern A frican L ater S tone A ge. D etails o f t he a nalysis o f t he S ehonghong s equence i tself a re t o b e p ublished l ater a nd t his v olume t herefore c oncentrates o n r eviewing a nd d iscussing t he e vidence f or t hose e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages f rom S outhern A frica k nown a t t he t ime o f i ts w riting. T he b asic f ormat o f t he t hesis h as b een k ept, a nd t his e xplains t he l ack o f i llustrations o f m any o f t he a ssemblages d iscussed, a lthough t he r eferences g iven s hould a llow t hese t o b e e xamined. T he l ack o f a ny l argescale r eview o f t he e vidence f or t he e arly L ater S tone A ge i n S outhern A frica w as f elt t o w arrant p ublication i n t heir a bsence.

M any p eople h ave h elped i n t he c ourse o f m y r esearch. M y f irst e xpressions o f g ratitude m ust g o t o R . R . I nskeep f or h aving b rought t o m y a ttention t he r esearch p otential o f t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica a nd t o D r. P . L . C arter o f t he U niversity M useum o f A rchaeology a nd A nthropology, C ambridge, f or h aving m ade a vailable t o m e t he m aterial f rom h is e xcavations a t S ehonghong.

I a lso o we p articular t hanks t o P rof. H . J . D eacon a nd D r. J . D eacon o f t he D ept. o f A rchaeology o f t he U niversity o f S tellenbosch. N ot o nly d id t hey a llow m e a ccess t o m aterial f rom t he k ey s ites o f B oomplaas, K angkara, M elkhoutboom a nd N elson B ay C ave, b ut t hey o ffered a h ighly s timulating i ntroduction t o t he r ichness o f c ontemporary a rchaeology i n S outh A frica.

F or p ermission t o m ake r eference t o u npublished d ata

o n

e arly

m icrolithic a ssemblages I a m g rateful t o P rof. H . J . D eacon ( Boomplaas M embers L P, L PC a nd Y OL); P rof. J . E . P arkington ( Elands B ay C ave); D r. L . W adley ( Cave J ames, J ubilee S helter a nd B ushman R ock S helter); H euningneskrans).

a nd

P .

B .

B eaumont

F or a ccess t o o ther e arly m icrolithic a nswering q uestions a bout t hem I a m g rateful

( Border

C ave

a nd

a ssemblages a nd f or t o t he f ollowing:

P rof. R . M ason ( Rose C ottage C ave); D r. H . O pperman ( Ravenscraig); M . L . W ilson ( Byneskranskop-1); a nd J . S . B rink a nd K . D reyer ( for o rganising a ccess t o m aterial f rom Z eekoegat 2 7). D r. F . M usonda k indly a llowed m e t o s ee s ome o f t he m aterial f rom N achikufu C ave.

F inancial s upport f or m y r esearch w as p rovided b y t enure o f a M ajor S tate S tudentship f rom t he B ritish A cademy. R esearch i n S outhern A frica d uring 1 985 was m ade p ossible b y a D epartment

o f

N ational

S outh

A frican

E ducation Overseas P ostgraduate R esearch

1 .

S cholarship a nd b y a g rant U niversity o f S tellenbosch.

f rom

t he

W ilcocks

F und

o f

t he

L astly, b ut m ost i mportantly, I s hould l ike t o e xpress m y g ratitude f or t he s upport a nd e ncouragement w hich I h ave r eceived f rom m y f amily t hroughout m y w ork .

11

C ONTENTS

A cknowledgements C ontents

i ii

L ist o f F igures

v i

L ist o f T ables

v iii

C HAPTER ONE - I NTRODUCTION 1 :1 T he H istorical

1

B ackground t o t he S tudy o f t he E arly

L ater S tone A ge

3

1 :2 T heoretical O rientation

9

1 :3 D efinitions U sed

1 2

C HAPTER T WO - T HE SOUTHERN A FRICAN P ALAEOENVIRONMENT

1 6

2 :1 T he I nter-Pleniglacial c .

4 0,000 - 2 5,000 B P

1 6

2 :2 T he Upper P leniglacial c .

2 5,000 - 1 6,000 B P

1 8

2 :3 T he L ate G lacial c . 2 :4 T he Post-Glacial

1 6,000 - 1 0,000 B P

s ince c .

1 0,000 B P

2 0 2 1

C HAPTER T HREE - T HE E ARLY M ICROLITHIC A SSEMBLAGES O F T HE B ASUTOLIAN E COZONE 3 :1

2 2

I ntroduction

2 2

3 :2 S ehonghong 3 :3 R avenscraig

2 7 4 7

3 :4 R ose C ottage C ave

5 4

3 :5 Z eekoegat 2 7

5 7

C HAPTER F OUR - E ARLY M ICROLITHIC A SSEMBLAGES F ROM T HE C APE P ROVINCE 4 :1

6 1

B oomplaas - The E arly M icrolithic A ssemblage f rom Members L P,

L PC a nd Y OL

6 1

4 :2 B oomplaas - T he R obberg I ndustry

6 9

4 :3 N elson B ay C ave

7 9

4 :4 M elkhoutboom

8 6

4 :5 K angkara

9 1

4 :6 B yneskranskop

9 5

4 :7 E lands B ay C ave

1 01

4 :8 B uffelskloof

1 10

4 :9 D ikbosch 1

1 12

C HAPTER F IVE - E ARLY M ICROLITHIC A SSEMBLAGES F ROM N ATAL A ND T HE T RANSVAAL 5 :1

1 17

B order C ave

1 17

5 :2 H euningneskrans

1 22

5 :3 J ubilee S helter a nd C ave James

1 29

5 :4 B ushman R ock S helter

1 33

5 :5 S hongweni

1 37

i ii

C HAPTER S IX - S PATIAL VARIABILITY I N T HE E ARLY L ATER S TONE A GE O F S OUTHERN A FRICA 6 :1

1 42

I ntroduction

1 42

6 :2 S patial P atterning i n t he E arly L SA - t he I nterr elation o f R aw M aterial a nd F laking Technology

1 42

6 :3 V ariation b etween S ites - U tilised A rtefacts a nd E dge angle S tudies

1 55

6 :4 T he E arly L ater S tone A ge i n E ast a nd S outh-Central A frica 6 :5 C onclusions

1 66 1 74

C HAPTER S EVEN - A P ALAEOECOLECOLOGICAL M ODEL F OR A RCHAEOL OGICAL S ITE D ISTRIBUTION I N T HE U PPER P LENIGLACIAL A ND L ATE G LACIAL

1 78

7 :1 I ntroduction 7 :2 T he L ast G lacial M aximum Palaeoenvironment a nd t he D istribution o f A rchaeological S ites 7 :3 A T entative E cological M odel

1 78 1 85

o f L ast G lacial M aximum

S ite D istribution 7 :4 T he R ole o f H unting i n L ast G lacial A daptations

1 90 1 94

7 :5 T he D istribution o f A rchaeological S ites i n S outhern A frica d uring t he L ate G lacial a nd P ost-Glacial

2 00

C HAPTER E IGHT - TEMPORAL V ARIABILITY W ITHIN T HE E ARLY L ATER S TONE A GE OF S OUTHERN A FRICA 8 :1

2 03

I ntroduction

2 03

8 :2 C hronological P atterning w ithin t he E arly L SA 8 :3 T he F unction(s )

2 03

o f U nretouched B ladelets i n E arly L SA

A ssemblages 8 :4 T emporal Variability a t a s ingle S ite - The C ase o f B oomplaas

2 11 2 15

C HAPTER N INE - T HE E ND O F T HE E ARLY L ATER S TONE A GE - A N EW M ODEL F OR T HE R OBBERG/ALBANY T RANSITION 9 :1 I ntroduction 9 :2 T he D eacon M odel

o f t he R obberg/Albany T ransition

2 22 2 22 2 22

9 :3 T he D ating o f t he R obberg/Albany T ransition

2 25

9 :4 F aunal C hanges a nd t he R obberg/Albany T ransition 9 :5 T he A rticulation o f F aunal a nd I ndustrial C hange i n

2 38

t he D eacon M odel

2 43

C HAPTER T EN - T HE O RIGINS OF T HE E ARLY L ATER S TONE A GE - A M ODEL F OR T HE M SA/LSA T RANSITION 1 0:1

I ntroduction

2 52 2 52

1 0:2 T he D ating o f t he T ransition

2 53

1 0:3 H ow R ecent a re t he L atest M SA A ssemblages ?

2 55

1 0:4 T he A ge o f

2 57

t he M SA/LSA T ransition

1 0:5 T he L ithological T ransition

2 57

1 0:6 F urther A spects o f t he M SA/LSA T ransition

2 67

1 0:7 C onclusions

2 72

i v

C HAPTER E LEVEN - C ONCLUSIONS A ND G ENERAL D ISCUSSION

2 74

1 1:1Introduction

2 74

1 1:2The E arly M icrolithic A ssemblages o f S outhern A frica

2 74

1 1:3Key A reas f or F uture R esearch 1 1:4The W ider S ignificance o f t he E arly M icrolithic

2 80

A ssemblages o f S outhern A frica B IBLIOGRAPHY

2 85 2 88

L IST O F F IGURES

1 :1

2 :1

S outhern A frica s howing m ajor g eographical f eatures a nd p olitical d ivisions r eferred t o i n t he t ext

2

L ocation o f s ites i n S outhern A frica w hich h ave p rovided i mportant p alaeoenvironmental e vidence r eferred t o i n t he t ext 1 7

3 :1

S outhern A frica s howing s ites d iscussed i n C hapters 3 , 4 a nd 5 2 3 3 :2 S ehonghong. S outh f ace o f t he s ection ( after C arter 1 978 a nd n .d.) 2 9 3 :3 S ehonghong. N orth f ace o f t he s ection ( after C arter n .d.) 3 0 3 :4 S ehonghong. B ladelet c ores f rom t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage 4 0 3 :5 S ehonghong. C ore-reduced p ieces f rom t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage 4 1 S ehonghong. U 3 :6 nmodified b lades a nd b ladelets f rom t he e arly ssemblage 4 2 m icrolithic a pikes ( lames a c rete) f rom t he e arly 3 :7 S ehonghong. S m icrolithic a ssemblage 4 3 3 :8 S ehonghong. U tilised p ieces f rom t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage 4 4 ormally r etouched a rtefacts f rom t he e arly 3 :9 S ehonghong. F m icrolithic a ssemblage 4 5 ehonghong. S crapers f rom t he e arly m icrolithic 3 :10 S a ssemblage 4 6 avenscraig . S ection ( after O pperman 1 987 ) 4 8 3 :11 R 4 :1 4 :2

4 :3 4 :4 4 :5 4 :6 4 :7 4 :8

5 :1 5 :2 5 :3

B oomplaas. G eneralized c omposite s ection ( after D eacon , H . J . a nd B rooker 1 976 ) 6 2 N elson B ay C ave. P rofile o f 1 970 e xcavations a long t he l ine s eparating t he a a nd b s eries o f s quares ( after 8 0 K lein 1 972a) M elkhoutboom. S ection a long g rid-line 2 3/20 - 3 0 ( after 8 7 D eacon, H . J . 1 976 ) K angkara. S ection a round t wo s ides o f t he t est-pit ( after 9 2 D eacon, J . 1 984b) B yneskranskop 1 . S ection i n s quares 2 9 a nd 3 0 ( after 9 6 S chweitzer a nd W ilson 1 982) E lands B ay C ave. S chematic s ection ( after P arkington 1 02 1 980b ) B uffelskloof. S ection o f t he e xcavation ( after O pperman 1 11 1 978) D ikbosch 1 . W est a nd s outh f aces o f t he t est-pit 1 14 e xcavated i n 1 973 ( after H umphreys 1 974) B order C ave. S ection a long t he e ast w all o f s trip 1 6 ( after B eaumont e t a l. 1 978) B ushman R ock S helter. S ection o f l evels 1 21, l ine C /6 - B /6 ( after P lug 1 981) S hongweni. S chematic s ection ( after D avies 1 975)

v i

1 18 1 35 1 38

6 :1 6 :2 6 :3 6 :4

6 :5

6 :6 7 :1 7 :2 7 :3 7 :4

7 :5

7 :6

8 :1 8 :2 8 :3 8 :4

9 :1 9 :2 9 :3 9 :4 9 :5

T he d ivision o f S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i nto C CS- a nd q uartz-dominated p rovinces B ladelet m anufacture s howing d etachment o f s pikes ( after B ordaz 1 970) D istribution o f l ithic r aw m aterials i n S outhern A frica ( after C lark 1 959) E dge-angles o f u tilised p ieces i n t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages f rom B oomplaas ( Robberg I ndustry o nly), K angkara, N elson B ay C ave a nd S ehonghong T ypes o f e dge d amage o f u tilised p ieces i n t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages f rom B oomplaas ( Robberg I ndustry o nly ), K angkara, N elson B ay C ave a nd S ehonghong E arly L SA s ites i n E ast a nd S outh-Central A frica

1 43 1 51 1 53

1 61

1 62 1 67

D istribution o f a rchaeological s ites i n S outhern A frica d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial c . 2 5,000 - 1 6,000 B P 1 79 D istribution o f a rchaeological s ites i n S outhern A frica d ating t o t he L ate G lacial c . 1 6,000 t o 1 2,000 B P 1 81 T he d istribution o f r ecent L SA r esearch i n S outhern A frica 1 83 A pproximate p osition o f t he c oast w ith a 1 40 m d epression i n m ean s ea-level c . 2 0,000 B P ( after D ingle a nd R ogers 1 972) 1 86 D istribution o f a rchaeological s ites d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial i n r elation t o p resent m ean a nnual s urface t emperature ( °C) 1 88 D istribution o f a rchaeological s ites d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial i n r elation t o p resent m ean a nnual p recipitation ( mm ) 1 89 R adiocarbon d ates a nd s uggested r e-datings o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica P ossible u ses o f t he u nmodified b ladelets f ound i n S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages T emporal v ariation i n t he e dge-angles o f u tilised p ieces i n t he R obberg a ssemblages a t B oomplaas T emporal v ariation i n t he r elative f requencies o f d ifferent b ovid s ize c lasses i n t he f aunas f rom M embers C L, L P, L PC a nd Y OL a t B oomplaas ( after K lein 1 978b; 1 983; D eacon, J . 1 984b ) n t he R obberg a nd A lbany T rends i n r aw m aterial u sage i a ssemblages a t B oomplaas T rends i n f laking t echnology i n t he R obberg a nd A lbany a ssemblages a t B oomplaas T rends i n r aw m aterial u sage a nd f laking t echnology i n t he R obberg a nd A lbany I ndustries a t N elson B ay C ave P rincipal c omponents a nalysis o f t he a ssemblages f rom M embers B RL, C L, L P, L PC a nd Y OL a t B oomplaas F actors w hich m ay b e r esponsible f or c hanges i n r aw m aterial u sage

1 0:1 R adiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t he M SA/LSA t ransition

v ii

2 05 2 12 2 18

2 19

2 28 2 30 2 34 2 37 2 45 2 58

L IST O F T ABLES 3 :1 3 :2

3 :3 3 :4 3 :5 3 :6 3 :7

3 :8 3 :9

A bbreviations o f s ite n ames u sed i n F igs . 3 :1, 6 :1, 7 :1, 7 :2 a nd T able 1 0:1 R adiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t he a ge o f S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages r eferred t o i n C hapters 3 , 4 a nd 5 S ehonghong - t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage. R aw m aterial f requencies S ehonghong - t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage. U nmodified a rtefacts S ehonghong - t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage. U tilised a rtefacts S ehonghong - t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage. F ormally r etouched a rtefacts S ehonghong . C omparison o f t he f aunas a ssociated w ith t he e arly m icrolithic a nd M iddle S tone A ge a ssemblages ( after C arter 1 978:293-94 ) R avenscraig - L ayer 5 . R aw m aterial u sage ( after C pperman 1 987) R avenscraig - L ayer 5 . C ore a nd u nmodified b ladelet f requencies ( after Opperman 1 987)

B oomplaas - r esults o f e dge-angle m easurements f or u tilised a rtefacts f rom M embers L P, L PC a nd Y OL 4 :2 B oomplaas - t he R obberg I ndustry. M etric a ttributes o f s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores a nd c ore-reduced p ieces f rom t he C IA u nit 4 :3 B oomplaas - t he R obberg I ndustry. C ore f requencies ( after J . D eacon ( 1984b :207) a nd p ersonal o bservation ) 4 :4 B oomplaas - t he R obberg I ndustry. B ladelet f requencies ( after J . D eacon ( 1984b :207) a nd p ersonal o bservation) 4 :5 B oomplaas - t he R obberg I ndustry. U tilised a rtefacts ( after J . D eacon 1 984b :193) 4 :6 N elson B ay C ave - c ore a nd c ore-reduced p iece f requencies 4 :7 N elson B ay C ave - u nmodified b ladelet f requencies 4 :8 M elkhoutboom - r aw m aterial a nd a rtefact f requencies f or t he R obberg I ndustry ( Basal U nit) a ssemblage ( after H . J . D eacon 1 976) 4 :9 E lands B ay C ave - t he R obberg I ndustry. R aw m aterial f requencies ( after D avis 1 980) 4 :10 E lands B ay C ave - t he R obberg I ndustry. C ore a nd u nmodified b ladelet f requencies ( after D avis 1 980) 4 :11 E lands B ay C ave - t he R obberg I ndustry. U tilised a rtefacts ( after D avis 1 980) 4 :12 E lands B ay C ave - t he R obberg I ndustry. F ormally r etouched a rtefacts ( after D avis 1 980)

2 4

2 5 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8

3 9 5 2 5 3

4 :1

5 :1

5 :2

6 :1

H euningneskrans - c ore a nd u nmodified b ladelet f requencies i n t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence ( from e xamination o f a o ne-third s ystematic s ample) A rtefacts a ttributable t o a n e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage i n L ayers 1 5-18 a t B ushman R ock S helter S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages - r aw m aterial, b ladelet c ore , s pike a nd c ore-reduced p iece

v iii

6 6

7 2 7 3 7 3 7 5 8 3 8 3

8 9 1 08 1 08 1 09 1 09

1 26 1 36

6 :2 6 :3 6 :4

6 :5

6 :6

6 :7 6 :8

7 :1 7 :2 7 :3

7 :4

8 :1 8 :2

8 :3

8 :4 8 :5

9 :1 9 :2 9 :3 9 :4 9 :5 9 :6

f requencies A dvantages o f t he w rapped b ipolar f laking m ethod u sed b y t he D una o f P apua-New G uinea ( after W hite 1 968) B oomplaas - c ore-reduced p ieces ( from e xamination i n 1 985) S uggested c orrelation o f e dge-angle c ategories a nd p articular a ctivities ( after S emencv 1 964; W ilmsen 1 968 a nd 1 974 ; G ould e t a l. 1 971) E dge-angles a nd t ypes o f e dge d amage o f u tilised p ieces ( all m aterials) f rom t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages a t B oomplaas ( Robberg I ndustry o nly), K angkara, N elson B ay C ave a nd S ehonghong R esults o f o -tailed K olmogorov-Smirnov a nd t wo-sample X tests c arried o ut o n d ata g iven i n T able 6 :5 S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages b ladelet f requencies E arly L ater S tone A ge s ites i n F ast a nd S outh-Central A frica A rchaeological a ssemblages f rom S outhern A frica d ated t o t he U pper P leniglacial, c . 2 5,000 - 1 6,000 B P A rchaeological a ssemblages f rom S outhern A frica d ated t o t he L ate G lacial, c . 1 6,000 - 1 2,000 B P V ariation i n e cological d iversity w ithin s ite t erritories ( radius = 5 0 k m) a s m easured b y v ariation i n t he n umber o f d ifferent v eld t ypes w ithin t hem ( after A cocks 1 975) N orth A merican t ribal p opulations a nd a reas ( after K roeber 1 939)

1 44 1 46 1 48

1 57

1 59

1 64 1 65 1 68

1 80 1 82

1 93 1 98

T he t hree c hronological s ub,divisions o f t he E arly L SA a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica 2 06 A pplicability o f B eaumont a nd V ogel's ( 1972) d efining c riteria f or t he L ater S tone A ge t o t he 1 WA/lBS.LR a ssemblage f rom B order C ave 2 08 T rends i n r aw m aterial u sage a nd f laking t echnology i n t he u pper p art o f t he B order C ave s equence ( after B eaumont 1 978 ) 2 10 B oomplaas. T echnological a nd r aw m aterial t rends i n t he a ssemblages f rom M embers Y OL , L PC , L P, G WA a nd C L 2 16 B oomplaas. L arge m amnul f auna i n M embers C l, G WA , L P, L PC a nd Y OL 2 20 R adiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t he R obberg/Albany t ransition i n t he S outhern C ape E dge-angles o f u tilised p ieces i n t he C L a nd B RL M embers a t B oomplaas V ariables u sed i n t he p rincipal c omponents a nalysis o f t he R obberg a nd A lbany u nits f rom B oomplaas D ata u sed i n t he p rincipal c omponents a nalysis o f t he R obberg a nd A lbany u nits f rom B oomplaas F aunal c hange a t E lands B ay C ave ( after D avis 1 980) F requencies o f b one p oints f rom N elson B ay C ave ( after J . D eacon 1 984b :238)

1 0:1 R adiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t he M SA/LSA t ransition i n S outhern A frica

i x

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1 0:1 R adiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t he M SA/LSA t ransition i n S outhern A frica

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C HAPTER O NE I NTRODUCTION

T he r esearch, t he r esults o f w hich a re p resented i n t his m onograph, g rew o ut o f t he a nalysis o f t he l ate P leistocene b ladelet-dominated a ssemblage f rom t he s ite o f S ehonghong i n L esotho ( Carter e t a l. i n p ress ) a nd t he u se m ade o f t his i nvestigation t o c arry o ut a n e xtensive s urvey o f t he o ther e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences o f S outhern A frica. T he a im o f t his s urvey w as t o d etermine t o w hat e xtent, a fter f ifteen t o t wenty y ears o f f airly i ntensive r esearch, i t i s p ossible t o i dentify a nd a ccount f or s patial a nd t emporal v ariability w ithin t hese a ssemblages. T wo m ajor s yntheses o f r elevance t o t his t opic h ave r ecently b een p ublished ( Deacon , J . 1 984b; P arkington 1 984), a nd a f urther o bjective w as t herefore t o a ssess t he v iews p ut f orward i n t hese w orks, p articularly i n s o f ar a s t hey c oncern t wo m ajor t echnological s hifts - t he t ransition f rom a M iddle S tone A ge ( MSA ) t o a L ater S tone A ge ( LSA ) l ithic t echnology, a nd t he e ventual r eplacement o f m icrolithic b y n on-microlithic a ssemblages , a p rocess w hich o ccurred, a pparently t hroughout S outhern A frica, c . 1 2,000 B P.

T he r emainder o f t his c hapter p rovides, t hrough a d iscussion o f t he d evelopment o f L SA r esearch , a n h istorical b ackground t o t he s tudy o f l ate P leistocene e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica. T his i s f ollowed b y a d efence o f t he a pproach u sed, w hich s tresses t he s tudy o f s tone t ools a nd t he e xplanatory v alue o f e cological f actors, a nd t his i ntroductory c hapter e nds b y d efining a n umber o f k ey t erms u sed s ubsequently. C hapter T wo t hen p resents a b rief s ummary o f t he e xisting e vidence f or t he r econstruction o f t he p alaeoenvironments o f S outhern A frica f or t he p eriods i n q uestion .

C hapters T hree t o F ive p rovide t he e xtensive r eview o f t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica r eferred t o a bove. T hey i ncorporate t he r esults o f p ersonal e xamination o f m any o f t hese o ccurrences, n otably i n p resenting a ccounts o f t he p reviously l argely u ndescribed e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages f rom t he s ite o f S ehonghong i n E astern L esotho. T he d ata p resented i n t hese c hapters a re t hen u se d C hapter S ix t o d efine p atterns o f s patial v ariability w ithin t he E arly L ater S tone A ge o f S outhern A frica. I n a ddition t o s uggesting w hy s uch v ariation s hould b e a pparent , r eference i s a lso m ade t o t he o ldest k nown L SA a ssemblages f rom E ast a nd S outh-Central A frica. I n C hapter S even a m odel i s d eveloped t o e xplain i n e cological t erms t he r estriction o f a rchaeologically v isible l ate P leistocene s ites i n S outhern A frica t o o nly s ome p arts o f t he s ub-continent , w hile i n C hapter E ight t he s ignificance o f t emporal v ariability w ithin t he E arly L SA i s c onsidered. C hapter N ine t hen o ffers a c ritical a ssessment o f t he m ost c omprehensive m odel o f c ultural a nd e nvironmental c hange y et a pplied t o L SA s tudies ( that o f J . D eacon 1 984b), a nd e nds b y p utting f orward a n h ypothesis t o a ccount f or t he o rigin o f

1

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f eatures a nd

L SA l ithic t echnology i tself. C hapter T en b rings t his g eneral d iscussion t o ac lose b y c onsidering t he d ate o f t he t ransition b etween M iddle a nd L ater S tone A ge t echnologies a nd b y s uggesting a n e xplanation o f t his s hift. L astly, C hapter E leven r ecapitulates t he p rincipal c onclusions r eached i n p revious c hapters, p laces t hem i n a b roader c ontext a nd i dentifies k ey a reas f or f uture r esearch.

1 :1 T he H istorical B ackground t o t he S tudy o f t he S tone A ge

E arly

L ater

A rchaeological r esearch i n S outhern A frica h as a n a ncestry w hich e xtends b ack i nto t he l ate N ineteenth C entury w hen , f or e xample, G ooch ( 1881) a nd K annemeyer ( 1890), p resenting s ome o f t he e arliest s cientific d escriptions o f p rehistoric s tone a rtefacts f rom t he s ub-continent, d rew a ttention t o t he i nterpretative p arallels o ffered b y t he s tone t ools s till b eing m ade a t t hat t ime b y s ome s urviving i ndividuals o f t he s outhern S an . T he f ounding s ynthesis u pon w hich a ll s ubsequent w ork h as b een b ased w as n ot, h owever, f ormulated u ntil 1 929 w hen G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe ( 1929) p roposed a t ripartite d ivision o f t he S outhern A frican S tone A ge i nto E arlier , M iddle a nd L ater S tone A ges. T he L SA w as e xplicitly a ssociated w ith a natomically m odern h uman p opulations i dentified w ith t he S an h unter-gatherers o f t he e thnographic p resent.

W ithin t he L SA a b road d istinction w as d rawn b etween t wo i ndustries, n amed S mithfield a nd W ilton a fter t he r espective l ocalities f rom w hich t he e arliest c ollections o f t heir a rtefacts h ad b een m ade. A f urther s eries o f s ub-divisions ( e.g . S mithfield A , Ba nd C ) w as m ade w ithin t hese. I nskeep ( 1967), J . D eacon ( 1984b ) a nd P arkington ( 1984) h ave r eviewed t he f actors w hich, i n t his f irst p hase o f a rchaeological s tudy i n S outhern A frica, w ere t hought t o c ondition v ariability i n t he p rehistoric m aterial c ulture r ecord. M ost f undamental o f t hese w as t he a ssumption t hat t he o rigin o f t he L SA , a nd p articularly o f t he W ilton I ndustry , w as t o b e s ought i n t he i mmigration o f p eople f rom f urther n orth, a n a ssumption g rounded u pon t he o ccurrence o f m icrolithic a ssemblages i n m any o ther p arts o f A frica a nd o n t he c onviction t hat s imilarity b etween a rtefact a ssemblages w as a r eflection o f a s hared i deational s ystem. G iven t hat s uch b elief-systems w ere t hought t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith s pecific p eoples " the a nalyst i s a lmost i nevitably t rapped i nto a m igratory e xplanation t o e xplain t he r eplacement o f o ne c ultural m anifestation b y a nother i n t ime o r s pace" ( Parkington 1 984:93).

S ide b y s ide w ith t his e mphasis o n p opulation m ovements a s t he m otor o f p rehistoric c hange, a b elief w hich C lark ( 1966 ), i n t he c ontext o f B ritish p rehistory, h as d isparagingly r eferred t o a s a n " invasion h ypothesis," w as a r ecognition o f t he i nfluence o f r aw

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m aterial a vailability o n a ssemblage c omposition . A lready i n 1 929 G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe s aw t he o rigins o f t he S mithfield I ndustry i n t erms o f a n i nteraction b etween i ncoming " Neoanthropic" p opulations, t he p re-existing M SA i nhabitants o f S outhern A frica, a nd t he " excellent f racturing p roperties" o f a n ew , a nd w idely a vailable, r aw m aterial, h ornfels. T he c ontrast b etween S mithfield A a nd Ba ssemblages o n t he o ne h and a nd t he m ore m icrolithic S mithfield C o n t he o ther w as p ut d own t o t he n ear e xclusive u se o f h ornfels b y t he m akers o f t he f ormer , w ith C s eeing a p artial s ubstitution f or t his o f c rypto-crystalline s ilicas ( agates , c halcedonies a nd j aspers), w hich w ere m uch m ore s uit a ble f or p roducing i ts d istinctive s mall c onvex ( or " thumbnail") s crapers. W ith t he r ecognition s oon a fterwards o f y et a nother S mithfield v ariant ( N ) i n N atal a f urther f actor, t hat o f a ctivity v ariation , w as i ntroduced a s a n e xplanatory v ariable . T he h igh f requency o f n otched s crapers ( spokeshaves ) c haracteristic o f t hese N atal a ssemblages w as a ccounted f or b y ar egional e mphasis o n w ood-working a ctivities ( Van R iet L owe 1 936 ).

I t i s n ot n ecessary t o d iscuss h ere t he f urther c omplexities i ntroduced i nto G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe 's ( 1929) o riginal c lassificatory s cheme b y t he f urther w ork o f s uch r esearchers a s S tein ( 1933) i n t he C athkin P eak a rea o f t he N atal D rakensberg, C hubb e t a l. ( 1934) i n T ranskei a nd G oodwin ( 1938) h imself i n t he S outhern C ape. T he t wo m ost i mportant c onclusions t o b e b orne i n m ind a re, f irstly, t hat t he e vidence f or m aking t hese v arious s ub-divisions o f t he a rchaeological r ecord w as g enerally p oor, b eing o ften b ased u pon p artial s urface c ollections , i nadequately q uantified o bservations a nd u ndated a ssemblages ( Inskeep 1 967), a nd, s econdly, t hat a n ormative m odel o f c ulture w as e mployed t o o rder t hese d ata, e ven w hile t here w as s ome a ppreciation o f t he s ignificance o f r aw m aterial v ariability a nd a ctivity v ariation i n i nfluencing a ssemblage m ake-up .

T hirty y ears o n f rom t he i nitial f ormulation o f G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe 's ( 1929) s cheme, C lark 's ( 1959 ) s ynthesis o f S outhern A frican p rehistory s till r eflected a n e mphasis u pon d iffusion a nd m igration a s e xplanations f or s imilarities a nd d ifferences b etween S tone A ge " cultures." A lthough t he 1 965 B urg-Wartenstein C onference o n A frican p rehistory ( Bishop a nd C lark 1 967 ) b rought t o a f ore t he d ifficulties c reated b y a l oosely a pplied t erminology i ts r ecomendation o f a n o rdered h ierarchical s et o f t erms t ackled o nly t he s ymptoms o f t he u nderlying p roblem ( Parkington 1 984). T he t erms s uggested f or g eneral u se w ere t hemselves n ot w ell-defined, a nd u nderlying t he d efinition o f t he t erm " industry," a s " represented b y a ll t he k nown o bjects t hat a g roup o f p eople m anufactured i n o ne a rea o ver s ome s pan o f t ime" ( Clark e t a l. 1 966:115), w as t he c ontinued a ssociation b etween a rtefact a ssemblages a nd e thnicity.

I n r eaction t o t he p ractical d ifficulties w hich h e p erceived t o l ie i n t he w ay o f i dentifying e thnic g roups i n t he a rchaeological r ecord w ith a ny d egree o f p lausibility, a nd w hich h ad b een c reated b y t he l ooseness w ith w hich t axonomic t erms h ad b een a pplied, I nskeep ( 1967:571) a rgued t hat

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" our u ltimate a im i s t o s ay s omething s ignificant a nd o bjective a bout t he p rogress o f h uman b iological a nd c ultural e volution a nd i t m ay w ell b e t hat t his i s p ossible w ithout u sing c ultural l abels a t a ll, b y s imply w riting i n t erms o f w hat i s k nown f or p articular a reas t hrough p articular p eriods o f t ime."

A n o bvious p recondition f or a ttaining t his g oal, a nd f or d eveloping a ny n ew t axonomic s ystem w hich m ight m ore a ccurately m easure a nd r eflect t he m ulti-dimensional n ature o f a rchaeological d ata , i n p reference t o o ne b ased u pon a n ormative m odel o f c ulture, ( cf. B inford 1 965 ), w as a n e xpansion i n t he r ange a nd q uality o f t he a rchaeological d ata-base.

S ome t wenty r egional r esearch p rojects h ave b een c arried o ut i n L esotho, S outh A frica a nd S waziland s ince t he l ate 1 960 's, a nd i n a ddition t o d eveloping a b adly n eeded s patial c omponent t o b alance t he e arlier e mphasis o n s ingle s ites , t hey h ave l ed t o s ubstantial g ains i n t he r econstruction o f p rehistoric p alaeoenvironments a nd s ubsistence e conomies ( e.g. D eacon, H . C r . e t a l. 1 984; K lein 1 984a ). W e m ay s ingle o ut t he w ork o f S ampson ( 1972; 1 985a ) i n t he M iddle O range R iver V alley a nd m ore r ecently i n t he S eacow V alley, o f P arkington ( 1977) i n t he W estern C ape, a nd o f H ilary a nd J anette D eacon ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976 ; 1 979; D eacon , J . 1 974; 1 984b ) a t a n umber o f s ites i n t he E astern a nd S outhern C ape a s b eing o f p articular i mportance.

A mong t he m ost s ignificant p oints t o e merge f rom S ampson 's w ork w as a n a ttempt a t a s ynthesis o f S outhern A frican a rchaeology ( Sampson 1 974) u sing t he t erminology p roposed b y t he B urg-Wartenstein C onference. F our s uccessive i ndustrial c omplexes w ere i dentified w ithin t he L SA a nd v arious r egional i ndustries a nd t heir s ub-divisions w ere r ecognised w ithin t hese ( e.g. t he t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene O akhurst C omplex w as d ivided i nto a P omongwan I ndustry i n Z imbabwe, a L ockshoek I ndustry i n t he S outh A frican i nterior , a nd a n A lbany I ndustry i n t he S outhern a nd E astern C ape). A s J . D eacon ( 1984b:9 ) h as p ointed o ut, h owever, S ampson 's e xplanation o f t echnological s hifts c ontinued t o i nvoke p opulation m ovements a nd r aw m aterial a vailability, w hile s pecifically d iscounting t he r ole o f e nvironmental c hange a s a p rime m over. W here S ampson 's ( 1974) s ynthesis d iffered f rom p revious o verviews w as t hat t he r elatively l arge n umber o f r adiocarbon d ates o btained b y t hat t ime e nabled h im t o p lace h is c lassification u pon a m uch b etter s ubstantiated f ooting. T his i s r eflected, f or i nstance, i n h is d ating o f t he O akhurst C omplex, t he o ldest o f t he c omplexes i nto w hich h e d ivided t he L ater S tone A ge, t o b etween 1 2,000 a nd 8 ,000 B P.

T he l ack o f e mphasis g iven t o e nvironmental v ariables c an b e s een t oo i n J . D eacon 's r e-investigation o f t he W ilton t ype-site, a lthough a n i mportant m ethodological a dvance w as m ade i n a ttempting t o a nalyse s eparately c hange i n f unctional a nd s tylistic a ttributes . N evetheless, t he " explanation" o ffered,

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w hich w as c ouched i n t erms o f C larke 's ( 1968 ) o ntogenetic m odel o f s uccessive s hifts r epresentative o f t he " birth," " maturity" a nd " death " s tages o f a n a rtefact m anufacturing t radition, e ffectively o nly r estated t he o bserved c hanges i n n ew l anguage; i t d id n ot p ropose a h ypothesis e xplaining t hese c hanges b y c hanges i n o ther v ariables ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:9-10).

R esearch a t o ther s ites i n t he E astern C ape, p articularly M elkhoutboom w ith i ts e xcellent c onditions f or t he p reservation o f a rtefacts m ade f rom o rganic m aterials, l ed H . J . D eacon ( 1972; 1 976 ) t o a dvance a m ore p owerful s ynthesis o f L SA a rchaeology t han a ny t hat h ad e xisted b efore. A t t his s ite, a nd a lso a t N elson B ay C ave o n t he S outhern C ape c oast ( Klein 1 974), e xcavations l ed, b y t he e arly 1 970 's , t o t he r ecognition o f a s tage i n t he L SA p re-dating t he i ndustries w hich S ampson ( 1974) h ad a ssigned t o t he O akhurst C omplex. T his s tage w as r epresented i n t he S outhern a nd E astern C ape b y t he R obberg I ndustry, n amed f rom t he R obberg P eninsula o n w hich N elson B ay C ave i s l ocated, a nd d escribed b y K lein ( 1974:258) a s a n i ndustry

" characterized p articularly b y d istinctive a rtefacts w hich s uperficially m ay b e c lassified a s e ither s mall c arinate s crapers o r b ladelet c ores."

A long w ith t hese b ladelet c ores w ent l arge n umbers o f u nmodified b ladelets a nd a n a bsolute, a nd r elative, s carcity o f f ormally r etouched t ools. T he u ndeniably L SA c haracter o f t his i ndustry w as c onfirmed b y f inds f ram t he s ite o f B oomplaas , n ear O udtshoorn, s howing i t t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he u se o f o strich e ggshell a nd b one b eads, o strich e ggshell f lasks, b one p oints a nd t ortoise-shell b owls, a ll i tems w hich o ccur i n m ore r ecent a ssemblages a nd i n t he m aterial c ulture o f m odern S an h unter-gatherers ( Deacon, J . 1 984a:221-22).

H . J . D eacon ( 1976 ) o ffered a s a n a lternative t o t he p revious m odel o f c ultural c hange, i n w hich m igration a nd r aw m aterial a vailability h ad p layed t he k ey r oles , o ne w hich l inked t he c omplexes i dentified a mong s tone t ool a ssemblages w ith t he g rowing w ealth o f e conomic a nd p alaeo-environmental d ata . H e s uggested t hat t he R obberg, A lbany a nd W ilton I ndustries o f t he S outhern a nd E astern C ape r epresented r elatively s ta ble p eriods, o r " homeostatic p lateaux," o f a daptation , w hich w ere s eparated b y r elatively s hort-lived t ransitional e pisodes a t a bout 1 2,000 a nd 8 ,000 B P. T he t erms " Robberg," " Albany" a nd " Wilton" w ere, i n P arkington 's ( 1984:104 ) p hrase " upgraded" t o r efer t o t he p articular a daptive s trategies a ssociated w ith e ach k ind o f l ithic a ssemblage. T hus t he W ilton w as t aken t o c orrelate w ith a n e conomy b ased u pon c atching s mall g round g ame, i ncluding t erritorial a ntelope, a nd e xploiting p lant f oods, e specially g eophytes , a nd w ith a d emographic s ystem c haracterized b y r elatively s mall g roups, l iving a t c omparatively h igh d ensity i n f airly c ircumscribed a reas. T he R obberg, b y c ontrast, w hich w as a ssociated w ith a f auna d ominated b y l arge, m igratory g razers ( Klein 1 978b ), w as c onceptualized i n t erms o f " large l ocal g roup

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o rganization, l ow p opulation d ensity, l arge t erritorial r ange a nd t he a bsence o f f ixed t erritorial b oundaries" ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976:163). T he c hronologically i ntermediate A lbany I ndustry a ppeared t o h ave w itnessed t he b eginning o f t he s hift f rom o ne s trategy t o t he o ther . P arkington ( 1984:104 ) c orrectly a ssesses t he s ignificance o f t his m odel a s " easily t he m ost i mportant r efinement o f t he c ulture c oncept i n t hat i t t ranslates w hat w as a d escriptive t ime-space d evice i nto a u nit o f a daptation ."

A s t he r esults o f a n umber o f r egional r esearch p rogrammes b ecame a vailable, e vidence f or a n a ntiquity f or t he L SA g reater t han t he 1 2,000 y ears i ndicated i n S ampson 's ( 1974) s ynthesis e merged. O ccurrences s imilar t o t he R obberg I ndustry w ere i dentified a t B yneskranskop i n t he S outh-Western C ape ( Schweitzer a nd W ilson 1 982), a nd a t E lands B ay C ave o n t he W est C ape c oast, w ithin a n a rea t hat h as f ormed t he f ocus f or a c ontinuing s tudy e mphasizing s ynchronic v ariability d uring t he l ater H olocene ( Parkington 1 977; 1 980a). T he w ork o f B eaumont ( 1978; 1 981) h as a lso b een n oteworthy, w ith l ong s equences a t t he t wo i mportant s ites o f B order C ave, c lose t o t he N atal/Swaziland b order , a nd H euningneskrans, i n t he E astern T ransvaal, l eading h im t o a rgue f or a n o rigin o f L SA s tone-working t echniques , w ith c oncomitant m anufacture o f i tems s uch a s o strich e ggshell b eads, b etween 4 0 a nd 6 0 ,000 y ears a go ( Beaumont e t a l. 1 978). A f urther i mportant c onsequence o f w ork a t B order C ave h as b een t he d emonstration t hat a natomically m odern H omo s apiens s apiens p opulations h ave b een p resent i n S outhern ÄNT E a f or a t l east 1 15,000 y ears ( Beaumont e t a l. 1 978), t hus i nvalidating t he e arlier s pecific c orrelation b etween t he L SA a nd m odern h umans , a nd r aising i nteresting q uestions a s t o t he e xtent t o w hich M SA p opulations m ay a lso h ave b een o rganized i n w ays s imilar t o t hose k nown f rom e thnographic s tudies o f m odern h unter-gatherers.

I n E astern L esotho t he f irst s ystematic i nvestigation o f t hat c ountry 's p rehistory b y P . L . C arter ( 1978) r esulted i n t he i dentification a t t he s ite o f S ehonghong o f a f urther l ate P leistocene a ssemblage c haracterized b y a s trong e mphasis o n t he p roduction o f u nmodified b ladelets ( Carter a nd V ogel 1 974:561). A lthough d etailed a nalysis o f t he a rtefacts f rom t his o ccurrence w as n ot c arried o ut ( because C arter 's c hief i nterest l ay i n t he i nvestigation o f p rehistoric e conomic e xploitation p atterns ) i t w as n evertheless p ossible t o p oint t o t he c lose s imilarities b etween i t a nd t he " Pre-Wilton" a ssemblage f ram t he s ite o f R ose C ottage C ave, i n t he E astern O range F ree S tate, e xcavated b y M alan ( 1952) a nd B eaumont ( 1978).

D espite t he g radual i ncrease i n t he k nown n umber o f t hese e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences f ew d etails w ere p ublished f or s ome t ime, l eading I nskeep ( 1978:80) t o r efer t o t hem a s " an e nigma" a bout w hich " we c an o nly r eserve j udgement u ntil m ore e vidence i s a vailable." T he f irst m ove t o r ectify t his s ituation c ame w ith J . D eacon 's ( 1978) p resentation o f h er i nitial r esults f ram a s tudy o f t he R obberg, A lbany a nd W ilton a ssemblages f rom N elson B ay C ave. T hese r esults h ave s ubsequently b een a mplified i n a m ajor w ork u sing d ata f rom b oth N elson B ay a nd t he t wo i nland s ites o f

7

B oomplaas a nd K angkara t o i nvestigate i n d etail " the a ssumption t hat t here i s a c orrelation b etween e nvironmental c hange a nd c hanges i n s tone a rtefact m anufacture d uring t he L ater S tone A ge i n s outhernmost A frica" ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:3). B ecause o f t he e mphasis p laced o n t he a nalysis o f e volutionary c hanges i n a rtefact m anufacturing t raditions , d escription o f t he R obberg I ndustry a ssemblages a t t hese t hree s ites i s i mplicit, r ather t han e xplicit, a nd i t i s f or t his r eason t hat d etails o f t hese o ccurrences a re i ncluded i n C hapter 4 .

T he m ost i mportant c onclusion t o b e r eached b y D eacon a s f ar a s t he R obberg I ndustry i s c oncerned i s t hat t he t ransition b etween i t a nd t he s ucceeding A lbany I ndustry i s c losely c orrelated w ith c hange i n t he a ccompanying f aunal r ecord, a lbeit n ot i n m ore g eneral e nvironmental p arameters s uch a s t he l evel o f r ainfall. H er c onclusions c onfirm t he v iew p ropounded b y H . J . D eacon ( 1976 ) t hat t he t wo i ndustries c an b e s een a s h omeostatic p lateaux, e ach w ith t heir o wn a daptive s trategy, a nd t hat t he t ransition b etween t hem w as r elatively s hort-lived a nd i ntimately l inked t o s hifts i n t hese p atterns o f a daptation . T he " lag" n oted b etween c limatic a nd v egetational s hifts a nd c hange i n t he a rtefact a ssemblages i s n ot t aken t o i nvalidate t his c orrelation , b ut r ather s trengthens i t b y e mphasizing t he c lose c onnection b etween t echnological c hange a nd t he d isappearance o f m any o f t he l arge m ammals t he h unting o f w hich H . J . D eacon ( 1976:163) h as s een a s o f k ey i mportance i n l ate P leistocene e xploitation p atterns. T hese m odels a re c ritically c onsidered i n C hapter 7 .

M ore r ecently t wo n ew s yntheses o f S outhern A frican p rehistory h ave a ppeared, o ne o f t hem b y J . D eacon ( 1984a) a nd t he o ther b y P arkington ( 1984). I n t he f irst o f t hese a f ourfold c lassification o f t he L SA i n S outhern A frica h as b een f ollowed, t he o ldest o f w hich, d esignated " late P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages ," i ncludes a ll L SA a ssemblages d ating t o o lder t han 1 2,000 B P. H ere e xplicit r ecognition h as b een g iven f or t he f irst t ime t o t he c haracteristics b elieved t o h ave b een s hared b y t hese E arly L SA a ssemblages , a mong w hich a re i ncluded n ot o nly t he R obberg I ndustry a nd t he b ladelet-dominated a ssemblage f r o m S ehonghong, b ut a lso t he E arly L SA o ccurrences f rom B order C ave, H euningneskrans a nd R ose C ottage C ave ( Beaumont 1 978; 1 981). J . D eacon ( 1984a:228) r efers a lso t o t he s imilarities w hich m ay e xist b etween t hese S outhern A frican a ssemblages , t he N achikufan I o f Z ambia ( Miller 1 969) a nd o ccurrences f ram M atupd C ave, Z aire ( Van N oten 1 977 ), a nd K isese I I i n T anzania ( Inskeep 1 962); t his t opic i s b riefly r e-addressed i n C hapter 6 . W hile r eviewing t he e vidence f or t he d ating o f t hese l ate P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages a nd t he a ssociated d ata b earing o n l ithic t echnology a nd s ubsistence p atterns , J . D eacon ( 1984a ) h as r efrained f ram c onsidering w hether t he e xisting e vidence a llows a ny s patial o r t emporal p atterning t o b e d iscerned a mong t hem, a nd w hat t he s ignificance o f t his m ight b e .

8

P arkington ( 1984) h as s uggested t hat a m ore r adical r eappraisal o f t hese e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages , a nd o f t he R obberg I ndustry i n p articular, m ay b e i n o rder. I n h is s uggestions t he i nfluence o f L . R . B inford's ( 1978; 1 981) w ork o n t he i mportance o f u nderstanding h ow c ultural s ystems m ay h ave b een d ifferentially o rganized t o p erform a v ariety o f a ctivities i n d ifferent s ituational c ontexts i s c learly a pparent, a s i ndeed a re t he c onnections w ith h is o wn r esearch i nto t he s ignificance o f s patial p atterning, f or e xample, i n f ormal t ool f requencies, i n t he W estern C ape ( Parkington 1 980a; M azel a nd P arkington 1 981). A s a t hought-provoking a lternative t o t he v iew i mplicit i n e arlier r esearch t hat t he S outhern C ape s hould b e s een a s t he f ocus o f t he R obberg I ndustry , h e h as a rgued t hat i t o ught p erhaps r ather t o b e s een a s a m arginal p henomenon, p eripheral t o a c entre o f o ccupation i n t he S outh A frican i nterior w hich w ould b e r epresented a rchaeologically b y t he L ockshoek I ndustry , a ssigned b y S ampson ( 1974), w ithout a ny c lear s tratigraphic p roof, t o t he l ater , t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene O akhurst C omplex. W hile p ainting t o t he i mportance o f c onsidering t he p ossibility t hat m arkedly d ifferent a ssemblages m ight h ave b een p roduced b y t he s ame g roup o f p eople d epending u pon t he d ifferential a vailability o f r aw m aterials, i t w ill b e a rgued l ater i n t his t hesis t hat t his i s a n u nlikely i nterpretation o f t he d istribution o f t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica. P arkington ( 1984:120) h as a lso a dvanced t he p roposition t hat t he f aunal a ssemblages a ssociated w ith t hese l ithic o ccurrences a re t he r esult o f h uman s cavenging o f c arnivore k ills r ather t han o f a ctive h unting, t hereby c asting d oubt u pon H . J . D eacon 's ( 1976 ) m odel o f a w ide-ranging, l arge g ame h unting a daptive s trategy. T he l ikelihood o f t his s ubsistence p attern h aving b een f ollowed i n t he l ate P leistocene i s d iscussed i n C hapter 7 .

1 :2 T heoretical O rientation

F ro m t his d escription o f t he h istorical b ackground t o t he s tudy o f t he E arly L ater S tone A ge i n S outhern A frica i t w ill b e s een t hat t he n umber o f r elevant o bservations h as n ow r isen t o t he p oint a t w hich i t m ay b e p ossible t o e valuate a nd r efine o n am ore s ystematic b asis t he i nterpretations o ffered b y P arkington a nd t he D eacons. P arkington ( 1984:120) h as h imself s tated t hat,

.. t he n ature o f t he l ate P leistocene a daptation i n t he C ape a nd i ts r elationship t o l ike-aged s amples s uch a s t hose f rom A pollo 1 1 c ave i n N amibia , S ehonghong i n L esotho, a nd e lsewhere r emain v ery m uch a c urrent r esearch f ocus."

T he w idespread a nd q uite f undamental n ature o f t he t ransition i n l ithic t echnologies f r o m t he M SA t o t he L SA , a nd t he f act t hat t his m ay h ave b een l inked t o o ther c hanges i n s ocial o rganization ( see C hapter 1 0), e mphasizes t he i mportance o f e xamining t he E arly L SA . C omments s uch a s t his p rovide t he j ustification f or u ndertaking t he p resent r esearch.

9

A s i s e vident f rom c onsidering t he h istorical d evelopment o f a rchaeology i n S outhern A frica t here h as , i n t he l ast t wenty o r s o y ears, b een a q uite c lear m ovement a way f rom a p re-occupation w ith t he s tudy o f l ithic a rtefacts t owards a n i nterest i n t he i nvestigation o f p rehistoric h uman e cology, t he r esults o f w hich m ay b e b est e xemplified i n t he w ork o f H . J . D eacon ( 1976 ; 1 983) a t B oomplaas a nd M elkhoutboom. M ore r ecently , L SA s tudies h ave w itnessed m ajor s trides m ade i n t he u nderstanding o f r ock a rt ( Vinnicambe 1 976 ; L ewis-Williams 1 981), a nd t his h as u ndoubtedly c ontributed t o ag rowing i nterest i n t he a nalysis o f p rehistoric s ocial f ormations a nd i deologies. T his h as l ed s ome w orkers t o c riticize h eavily m odels w hich e mphasize t echno-economic f actors o n t he g rounds t hat t hey i nvolve a v iew o f h umans a s p assive r ecipients o f e xternal t echnological a nd e cological p ressures , c hanging o nly i n r esponse t o e xternal f orces . T he c ontrary a rgument w hich i s a dvanced i s t o s ee c hange a s b eing c onstantly b rought a bout b y t he i nterplay o f s ocial r elations w ithin a g iven s ociety, w ith c hoices b eing a ctively m ade a nd p ursued w ithin a n i deologically s tructured a nd m aintained e nvironment ( Mazel 1 985). A ttempts a re n ow b eginning t o b e m ade t o i nterpret i nter-site l ithic v ariability a long t hese l ines ( e.g . W adley 1 986a).

T hese s hifts i n a nalytical f ramework h ave n ot, h owever , a ltered t he f act t hat i t i s l ithic a rtefacts w hich c onstitute b y f ar t he l argest c omponent o f t he m aterial r emains i n L SA o ccurrences , a nd t hat t here i s t herefore a v ery r eal n eed t o m ake t he m ost e ffective p ossible u se o f t hem, t aking i nto a ccount a ny p articular d ifficulties w hich t his m ay e ntail. A n ecessary p recondition f or s uch s tudies i s t hat i nformation a bout t he r elevant a ssemblages b e b rought t ogether , e mploying a s n early a s p ossible a s ingle t ypological s cheme f or t his p urpose, s o t hat r esearchers w ill h ave a c ommon b asis f rom w hich t o p roceed. N owhere i s t he l ack o f s uch a r eview m ore o bvious t han i n t he c ase o f t he m icrolithic a ssemblages o f t he l ate P leistocene s ince t heir r ecognition h as p ost-dated t he l ast m ajor o verview o f S outhern A frica 's l ithic a ssemblages ( Sampson 1 974). R ectification o f t his p roblem w as s een a s o ne o f t he p rincipal o bjectives o f t his t hesis , b ut o nly a s a p reliminary t o t he c onclusions r eached i n C hapters 6 a nd 8 o n t he s ignificance o f s patial a nd t emporal v ariability w ithin t he E arly L SA .

T he e xplanations o ffered f or t he c hronological a nd g eographical p atterning e vident i n t hese e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages a re d eliberately f ramed i n t echno-economic t erms, i .e. w ith a n e mphasis o n t he r ole o f t echnological a nd e cological v ari a bles. T his w ill b e p articularly e vident, f or e xample, i n e xplaining t he l ocalized d istribution o f a rchaeological s ites d uring t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial, a nd i n t he h ypotheses a dvanced t o a ccount f or t he t ransition f rom M SA t o L SA l ithic t echnologies . I n C larke 's ( 1972) t erms, t his t herefore r epresents a n a ttempt t o i ntegrate t he m orphological a nd e cological p aradigms w hich h e i denitified, a n a ttempt t he v alue o f w hich h as b een p ointed o ut b y C arter 's ( 1978:5) c omment t o t he e ffect t hat " to b e p roductive i t ( the e cological p aradigm ) m ust b e c arried o ut i n c onjunction w ith a s tudy o f t he c oncomitant a rtifactual e vidence."

1 0

T he r eason f or e mphasizing t he c omplementarity o f t hese t wo a pproaches r ather t han i nvestigating t he p otential u sefulness o f s ociological e xplanations o f l ithic v ariability i s t hat t he m aterialistic b ias o f a rchaeological d ata f avours s uch a n a pproach. T his i s a n a rgument a dvanced b y G ould ( 1980), w ho h as s uggested t hat w e m ay b egin i nvestigating a p roblem b y c onsidering f irst t he " utilitarian" a spects o f h uman b ehaviour, i .e. t hose m ore-or-less d irectly g overned b y t echnological a nd e cological f actors. W hen t he e xplanatory c ontent o f t hese v ariables h as b een e xhausted w e m ay e nd u p w ith a r esidue o f v ariability f or w hich o ther f actors, s uch a s s hared s tylistic n orms o r t he s election o f r aw m aterials f or t heir r itual s ignifiance r ather t han t heir p hysical p roperties , m ay b e r esponsible. A doption o f t his " method o f r esidues" i s n ot t o d eny t hat c ultural s ystems a re h olistic a nd c omplexly i ntegrated, b ut s imply t o s uggest t hat t his m ay o ffer t he b est w ay o f a nswering a p articular q uestion b ecause i t i s d ata i n w hich t hese " utilitarian" f actors a re m ost a pparent t hat t end t o s urvive i n a rchaeological c ontexts.

S ackett ( 1982) h as , f or e xample, s trongly d iscounted t he p ossibility o f i dentifying i n m ost l ithic a rtefacts t he r esults o f p urposive s tylistic m essages , s ince t he f orm o f s tone t ools i s v ery l argely c onditioned b y r aw m aterial, t echnological a nd f unctional f actors; i n h is t erms " utilitarian s tone a rtefacts t end t o b ear l ittle o r n o a djunct f orm" ( Sackett 1 982:71). I t i s b y n o m eans c lear , h owever, t hat h is f urther a rgument, t hat e thnicity c an b e i nferred f ram a l ithic a ssemblage b ecause o f " the c ultural-historical c ontext o f i ts m anufacture a nd e mployment" ( Sackett 1 982:59 ), i s v alid, s ince t he p atterns w hich t his m ethodology p roduces c ould a lso b e t he c onsequence o f t echno-economic v ariables, a nd a " method o f r esidues" w ould b e r equired t o b egin d etermining i f t his i s s o.

T o a pproach t his " method o f r esidues" q uestion f ram a nother a ngle, m uch a ttention h as b een g iven o ver r ecent y ears t o t he m ost a ppropriate m eans o f e st a blishing t he v alidity o f t he i nferences w hich w e m ake a bout t he p ast . D evelopment o f t his " middle-range t heory" ( Binford 1 976 ) h as p roceeded f urthest w here t he c ontemporary d ata e xamined a s a b ase-line f or i nterpreting t he a rchaeological r ecord c an b e a ssumed t o h ave r emained u nchanged i n t he i ntervening t ime, i n o ther w ords i n c ontexts i n w hich u niformitarianism i s m ost l ikely t o h old t rue. S uch i s t he c ase, f or e xample, w here s tudies h ave b een b ased o n t he a nalysis o f b utchery p ractices i n t he i nterpretation o f f aunal a ssemblages ( e.g. S peth 1 981), o r o n t he d etermination o f s tone t ool f unction t hrough m icrowear s tudies a nd e xperiment ( Binneman 1 982; P rice e t a l. 1 982).

B ailey ( 1983:3) h as d escribed t he u niformitarian a ssumptions m ade i n t hese c ases a s " a l iberating i nfluence o n a rchaeological r esearch" b ecause t hey p rovide a " known f ramework w hich c an s erve a s a r eference p oint f or m easuring v ariation i n t he p atterns o f p rehistoric" b ehaviour. I f, a s B ailey ( 1983:4) h as g one o n t o

1 1

a rgue, a nd J . D eacon ( 1984b ) h as a ttempted t o d emonstrate w as t he c ase i n t he L SA o f t he S outhern C ape, o ur i dea o f h uman b ehaviour a nd o f h istorical c hange s hould b e o ne o f " an i ntegration o f p rocesses o perating a t d ifferent t ime-scales a nd w ith d ifferent p eriodicities ," t hen t he l onger t ime-span o ver w hich e cological a nd e nvironmental p rocesses t ranspire , c oupled w ith t he g enerally p oor q uality c hronological c ontrols t hat a re c haracteristic o f P leistocene c ontexts i n p articular, s hould f urther e ncourageus t o c oncentrate , a t l east i nitially , o n t he d evelopment o f h ypotheses w hich e mphasize s uch t echno-economic v ariables. T hey a re n ot o nly m ost l ikely t o b e i n e vidence i n t he E arly L SA , b ut i mportant a dvances h ave a lready b een m ade i n b uilding t he m iddle-range t heory w hich t hey w ill r equire .

I t i s f or t hese r easons t hat t he f ollowing d iscussion o f s patial a nd t emporal p atterning i n t he E arly L SA , a nd o f t he t echnological t ransitions w hich m ark b oth i ts b eginning ( microlithization a nd c oncomitant d isappearance o f aM SA p repared c ore t echnology) a nd i ts e nd ( effective a bandonment o f b ladelet p roduction ), c oncentrates u pon t echnological a nd e cological v ariables. G ould ( 1980:159) h as e xpressed t his l ine o f r easoning c oncisely b y s aying t hat:

" By l ooking f irst a t t he u tilitarian r elationships o f m aterial r esidues w e c an a void t he p itfalls o f p rematurely i mputing h igh-level s ymbolic o r i deational e xplanations , t herdby m aking i t p ossible t o i nfer a ccurately w hen a nd u nder w hat c onditions t hese i deational v ariables w ere o perating t o a ccount f or t he t otality o f t he m aterial r esidues."

w e m ay e nd t his s ection b y s uggesting t hat t he g reatest a dvances w ill b e m ade b y f irst l earning t o w alk r ather t han t o r un. W ith s o m uch s till t o b e d one i n t he w ay o f e stablishing a s trong b ody o f t heory c apable o f j ustifying o ur i nferences a bout t he p ast, e xplanations o f v ariability i n L SA l ithic a ssemblages o ught t o e mphasize t hose h ypotheses w hich c an m ost r eadily b e c hecked. S uccessful a pplication o f t he " method o f r esidues" o utlined a bove m ay u ltimately m ake t he t esting o f m odels i ncorporating s uch s ociological v ariables e asier t o a chieve. 1 :3 D efinitions U sed

1 .

S an

T his t erm i s u sed i n p reference t o " Bushmen" t o r efer t o t he i ndigenous h unting-gathering p opulation o f S outhern A frica , f ollowing h ere t he p ractice o f m uch r ecent a rchaeological a nd e thnographic r esearch ( e.g. L ee 1 979; D eacon, J . 1 984a). I t i s

1 2

r ecognised, h owever , t hat t his t erm t oo h as s ome d erogatory c onnotations a nd w as n ot o ne u sed t o r efer t o t hemselves b y t he p eople o f w hom i t i s u sed ( Wilson 1 985).

2 .

E arly m icrolithic

T his t erm i s e mployed a s a n e xact e quivalent f or t he l onger " late P leistocene m icrolithic a ssemblages" i n t he s ense i n w hich t his h as b een u sed b y J . D eacon ( 1984a:227 ) t o r efer t o o ccurrences d ating t o b efore 1 2,000 B P a nd c haracterized b y s ome o r a ll o f t he f ollowing f eatures :

a ) p roduction b ladelet c ores ;

b )

o f

b ladelets ,

g enerally

f rom

s ingle-platform

o ccurrence o f s pecialized f lat a nd s mall b ladelet c ores ;

c ) o ccurrence i n s ome q uantity o f b ipolar c ores , w hich m ay b e s o r educed b y f laking t hat t hey a re c lassified a s c ore-reduced p ieces , p i kes e squillges , o utils e caillgs o r s caled p ieces ;

d ) p referential u se o f q uartz, o r o ther f ine-grained t he m ajor l ithic r aw m aterial;

r ocks,

a s

e ) a v ery l ow f requency o f f ormally r etouched a rtefacts, a lthough m ost o f t he c lasses r epresented i n l ater H olocene a ssemblages ( e.g. a dzes , b acked b ladelets , b orers, s crapers, s egments ) d o o ccur;

f ) s poradic o ccurrence o f i tems a ssociated w ith t he m aterial c ulture o f l ater H olocene , o r e thnographically r ecorded S an, a ssemblages , e .g. o strich e ggshell a nd b one b eads, o strich e ggshell c ontainers a nd b one p oints.

3 .

E arly L ater S tone A ge

T his p hrase w as c oined b y B eaumont a nd V ogel ( 1972:155 ) b efore t he w idespread r ecognition o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica , a nd w as a pplied t o ag eographically w ide r ange o f i ndustries , f rom t he l ate P leistocene o ccurrence a t I shango , Z aire, t o w hat w as s ubsequently n amed t he L ockshoek I ndustry o f t he S outh A frican i nterior . S ome o f t he a ssemblages t o w hich t he t erm h as b een a pplied, e .g. H euningneskrans a nd R ose C ottage C ave, h ave n ot y et b een a dequately p ublished, b ut s everal o f t he f eatures u sed i n t he t erm 's d efinition , s uch a s t he o ccurrence o f o utils e caillgs/scaled p ieces a nd o f u nmodified b ladelets, a re c ommon t o J . D eacon 's ( 1984a ) c haracterization o f S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages.

1 3

W ithin t he a rea i nvestigated i n t his t hesis i t i s t herefore p roposed t o r edefine t his t erm t o m ake i t s ynonymous w ith " early m icrolithic a ssemblages ," w ith t he a dditional p roviso t hat w hen u sed i n a w ider g eographical c ontext i t i ncludes o ther L SA a ssemblages w hich c an b e s hown t o p redate t he P leistocene/Holocene b oundary .

4 .

S outhern A frica

T his t erm r efers s pecifically t o t he a rea c overed b y t he p resent d ay s tates o f L esotho, S waziland a nd t he R epublic o f S outh A frica , a nd i s s ynonymous w ith t he p hrase " Africa s outh o f t he L impopo." W hen e xclusive r eference i s b eing m ade t o t he R epu l = o f S outh A frica, t he t erm " South A frica" o r " South A frican" i s e mployed. T he p hrase " South-Central A frica - r g- ü ged t o r efer t o c ountries f urther n orth , s pecifically i ncluding Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe.

5 .

S outhern D rakensberg

T his t erm i s u sed t o e ncompass b oth t he L esotho H ighlands a nd t he N orth-Eastern C ape a nd r eflects t he g eneral e nvironmental s imilarity o f t he t wo r egions.

6 . A n umber o f t erms i s u sed w hich d erive f rom p alaeoclimatic s tudies a nd c an b e u sefully e mployed t o r efer t o s pecific p hases o f t he l ast g lacial/interglacial c ycle. T hese t erms a re:

I nter-Pleniglacial, u sed t o r efer t o t he p eriod b etween 4 0,000 a nd 2 5,000 B P, i .e. b etween t he t wo c oldest p hases o f t he L ast G laciation .

U pper P leniglacial, u sed t o r efer t o t he p eriod 2 5 - 1 6,000 B P t he m ost r ecent t ime w hen f ully g lacial c onditions w ere e xperienced i n t he N orthern H emisphere , w ith t he c oldest a nd m ost a rid c onditions o ccurring a t t he L ast G lacial M aximum ( LGM ) c . 1 8,000 B P.

L ate G lacial, u sed t o r efer t o t he p eriod b etween 1 6,000 a nd 1 0,000 B P w hich s aw a g radual a melioration i n c limatic c onditions a s t hey a pproached t he t emperature a nd p recipitation p atterns o f t he p resent i nterglacial p hase.

7 .

B P

A ll r adiocarbon d ates c ited i n

1 4

t his

t hesis

a re

u ncalibrated

d ates , e xpressed i n r adiocarbon y ears b efore t he p resent ( = A D 1 950 ) a nd c alculated u sing t he L ibby h alf-life o f 5 ,568 y ears.

T he a rtefact t ypology f ollowed i n t he r eanalysis o f t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence a nd a dhered t o i n t he f ollowing d iscussion i s b ased o n t hat o f J . D eacon ( 1984b ). P articular t erms w hich i t i s u seful t o d efine a t t he o utset a re:

8 .

U nmodified

T he t erm " waste" i s a voided i n r eferring t o t hose a rtefacts l acking m acroscopically v isible s igns o f u tilisation o r s econdary f laking b ecause i t a voids t he i mplication t hat s uch a rtefacts w ere d iscarded w ithout e ver h aving b een u sed. T here i s, i n f act, f ram b oth B oamplaas i n t he S outhern C ape P rovince ( Binneman 1 982) a nd t he s ite o f C hiwemupula i n Z ambia ( Phillipson a nd P hillipson 1 970 ), a mple e vidence f or t he u tilisation o f s o-called " waste" f lakes a nd c ores i n a ctivties s uch a s s kin-scraping, w ood-working a nd b one-working. T he t erm u nmodified i s t herefore e mployed h ere.

9 .

B lades

T hese a re f lakes w ith p arallel s ides , w ith a w idth n o g reater t han h alf t heir l ength . B roken b lades a re c onsidered a s s uch w here t heir p ossession o f o ne o r two d istinct d orsal r idges l eaves n o d oubt a s t o t heir p roper c lassification . T he t erm b ladelets i s r eserved f or t hose b lades w ith a l ength o f u nder 2 5 m m .

1 0. U tilised

T he u tilised a rtefact c ategory c omprises a rtefacts w ith m ac: .)scopically v isible e vidence o f d amage o r s econdary f lake r em, a1 i nterpreted a s t he r esult o f u tilisation , r ather t han o f d eliJerate m odification o r p ost-depositional d amage.

1 1. F ormally r etouched

T his t erm, f or w hich t he p hrase f ormal t ools i s s ynonymous, r efers t o t hose a rtefacts w hich h ave b een r etouched, g enerally d eliberately, e ither t o m odify a f lake o r b lade b lank t o p roduce a d esired s hape o r t o g ive a p articular f orm t o t he w orking e dge.

1 5

C HAPTER T WO T HE S OUTHERN A FRICAN P ALAEOENVIRONNENT

A w ide r ange o f e nvironmental d ata h as b een u sed t o d evelop a p icture o f p alaeoenvironmental c hange i n t he l ater s tages o f S outh A frican p rehistory . T he s ources e mployed i nclude s tudies o f m ammalian m icrofauna ( Avery 1 979 ), p ollens ( Scott 1 984), c harcoals ( Scholtz 1 986 ), s ediments ( Butzer 1 984b ) a nd t he o xygen-isotope a nalysis o f s peleothems ( Talma e t a l. 1 974). T hese s tudies a re i n a greement w ith t he r esults o f t he C LIMAP p roject ( CLIMAP 1 976 ) a nd w ith g lobal g eneral c irculation m odels ( Gates 1 976 ; M anabe a nd H ahn 1 977; H eath 1 979 ) i n t hat, o n t he w hole, c onditions w ere c ooler a nd d rier d uring t he L ast G lacial M aximum c . 1 8,000 B P. T he r elevant d ata h ave r ecently b een s ummarized f or S outhern A frica a s a w hole b y J . D eacon, e t a l.(1984). T he f ollowing d iscussion a ims t o p rovide a n o utline o f t he e nvironmental b ackground t o t he a rchaeological d ata d iscussed i n s ucceeding c hapters, a nd F ig. 2 :1 i llustrates t he l ocation o f t he m ost i mportant s ites .

2 :1 T he I nter Pleniglacial c . 4 0,000 - 2 5,000 B P

T his p eriod, e quivalent t o o xygen-isotope s tage 3 , w as m arked b y t emperatures i ntermediate b etween t hose o f t he H olocene a nd t hose o f t he L ast G lacial M aximum, a lthough v ery c old c onditions a re i ndicated b y f rost-shattering s ome t ime b efore 3 0,000 B P a t W onderwerk C ave i n t he N orthern C ape ( Butzer 1 984b ). O xygen-isotope a nalysis o f s peleothems f ram W olkberg C ave, T ransvaal s uggests t hat b etween 3 0,000 a nd 2 0,000 B P t emperatures w ere 8 -9°C c older t han n ow ( Talma e t a l. 1 974), b ut o therwise s edimentary d ata f rom B order C ave, H euningneskrans a nd R ose C ottage C ave ( Butzer 1 984b ), t ogether w ith p ollen a nalyses o f s ediments f rom W Onderkrater , T ransvaal ( Scott 1 982) a nd s tudies o f m icromammalian s amples f rom B order C ave ( Avery 1 982b ), i ndicate t hat g enerally m ild c onditions p revailed i n t he i nterior o f S outh A frica. C ompared w ith t he L ast G lacial M aximum , p recipitation l evels s eem t o h ave b een h igh f or m ost, i f n ot a ll, o f t his p eriod, w ith h igh l ake l evels i n t he K alahari ( Heine 1 978; H elgren a nd B rooks 1 983) a nd t ufa d eposition o n t he G aap E scarpment p ossibly d ating t o b etween 3 0,000 a nd 2 5,000 B P ( Butzer e t a l. 1 978b ). T he W i onderkrater p ollen s equence a nd B utzer 's s edimentary a nalyses , w hich h ave a lready b een r eferred t o, a lso i ndicate r elatively m oist c onditions f or t his p eriod.

T he p icture b uilt u p f rom t hese d isparate d ata i n t he S outhern A frican i nterior i s c onfirmed b y t he e vidence f rom B oomplaas A , w hich o ffers a s o f ar u nparalleled s equence o f p alaeoenvironmental o bservations . M icrofaunal s amples c onfirm l owered t emperatures a nd g enerally m oister c onditions ( Avery 1 982a), w ith c harcoals s uggesting a s hift t o d rier c onditions a fter 3 2,000 B P ( Deacon , H . J . e t a l. 1 983). A very 's ( 1982a) a nalysis o f m icromammalian

1 6

Fig. 2 :1 L ocation o f s ites i n S outhern A frica which have p roduced i mportant p alaeoenvironmental e vidence. K ey t o AL AP B C B NK BPA

s ite-names:

A lexandersfontein Pan Apollo 1 1 Cave B order Cave Byneskranskop-1 B oomplaas Cango Caves euningneskrans HNK H Kathu V lei K V

R CC S IP VRS WLK WK W NK

1 7

Rose Cottage Cave Siphiso S helter Uitenhage Vanriebeeckstrand W olkberg Cave W onderwerk W onderkrater

c ommunity s tructure f rom a n ear c ontemporary s ample a t D ie K elders a lso i ndicates t hat c ooler , d rier c onditions w ere p revalent b y 3 0,000 B P.

2 :2 T he U pper P leniglacial c .25,000 - 1 6,000 B P

A ll r elevant p alaeoclimatic i ndicators c onfirm t hat t his p eriod w as t hat o f m aximum c old w ithin t he l ast 1 25,000 y ears , a nd g eneral c irculation m odels a gree i n s uggesting a t emperature d epression o f 4 - 6 °C . O xygen-isotope a nalysis o f a s peleothem f rom t he C argo C aves h as p rovided a n e stimate o f a5 °C t emperature d epression a t t he L ast G lacial M aximum c . 1 8,000 B P ( Vogel 1 983), a nd t his i s c onfirmed b y as imilar s tudy o f g roundwater a quifers n ear U itenhage ( Heaton 1 981; V ogel 1 983). T alma e t a l. ( 1974) h ave, h owever , s uggested t hat c onditions m ay h ave b een s till c older i n t he i nterior .

A s w ith t emperature , g lobal g eneral c irculation m odels a nd t errestrial p alaeoclimatic d ata a gree t hat L ast G lacial M aximum r ainfall p atterns d iffered c onsiderably f rom t hose o f t he p resent. N evertheless , C -13 i sotope a nalysis o f e quid t eeth f rom t he s ite o f A pollo 1 1 C ave i n s outhern N amibia s uggests " that t he w inter r ainfall a rea a long t he w est c oast w as n ot e xtended a ppreciably f urther n orthwards d uring t he L ast I ce A ge" ( Vogel 1 983:393). E arlier m odels ( e.g. V an Z inderen B akker 1 976 ), w hich p osited a s traightforward n orthward d isplacement o f t he w inter r ainfall z one m ust t herefore b e r ejected. W hat r emains a t i ssue i s t he e xtent t o w hich p recipitation w as r educed o ver a ll, o r o nly p art, o f S outh A frica.

J . D eacon ( 1984a:35), i n ad iscussion o f t he p alaeoenvironm ental e vidence f or t he S outhern C ape, m akes i t p lain t hat c ooler o cean t emperatures c . 1 8,000 B P, c oupled w ith a w eakening o f t he A gulhas C urrent ( both o f w hich a re a ttested f ro m s tudies o f d eep-sea c ores , e .g. P rell e t a l. 1 979 ) w ould h ave r educed o rographic p recipitation i n t his a rea . T he e xposure o f t he c ontinental s helf, w hich w ould h ave p laced t he S outhern C ape m ountains s ome 7 0 t o 9 0 k m i nland, a nd t he r eduction o f t he m oisture c arried b y w esterly w inds p assing o ver c ooler o ceans , w ould h ave e nhanced t his e ffect. A f all i n m ean a nnual t emperature o f 6 °C c ould t hus h ave d ecreased t he a mount o f p recipitäble w ater b y 3 0 t o 5 0 %a long t he c oast, a f igure i n l ine w ith t hat i nferred f or t he S outhern C ape b y G ates ' ( 1976 ) g eneral c irculation m odel. M icrofaunal, c harcoal a nd p ollen d ata f rom B oomplaas A a ll s upport t his b y d ocumenting m arkedly d rier c onditions d uring t he L ast G lacial M aximum ( Deacon , H . J . e t a l. 1 984).

I n t he i nterior , p ollen a nalysis o f s ediments f rom W bnderkrater ( Scott 1 982) a lso i ndicates d rier c onditions , d escribed a s " cooler

1 8

t emperate , d ry s ubhumid o r s emiarid " d uring t he U pper P leniglacial, a lthough s ome p roblems d o e xist w ith t he s ite 's d ating ( Deacon , J . e t a l. 1 984). S edimentary e vidence f rom B order C ave o n t he N atal/Swaziland b order ( Butzer e t a l. 1 978a) i ndicates a c ool t o c old , p ossibly d rier , e nvironment f rom a bout 2 7,000 t o 1 3,000 B P, a nd a s tudy o f t he m ammalian m icrofauna b y A very ( 1982b ) c onfirms t his i nterpretation .

C laims h ave, h owever , b een a dvanced o n g eomorphological g rounds f or a n i ncrease i n p recipitation d uring t he L ast G lacial M aximum i n t wo a reas o f S outh A frica. I n t he S outh-Western C ape, B utzer ( 1984a ) h as i nvestigated d unes a t V an R iebeeckstrand r esulting f rom t he m arine r egression o f t he U pper P leniglacial a nd h as f ound t hem t o b e i nterrupted b y t hree p alaeosol h orizons. H e a ttributes t hese t o t hree s ubhumid c limatic p hases b etween 2 5,000 a nd 1 5,000 B P, b ut J . D eacon (p ers. c omm.) p oints o ut t hat h is d ating o f t hese p hases i s b ased u pon o nly a s ingle o bservation g iving a t erminus a nte q uem f or t he s equence. W hile t here i s n o c onfirming b lologica rgUidence, t his i s c onsistent w ith t he v iew e xpressed b y V an Z inderen B akker ( 1983:375 ) t hat " this r egion i s d ominated b y t he w esterlies ( and) d uring c older p eriods t his i nfluence w ill h ave b een a ggravated s o t hat t he s outh-western C ape r eceived m ore w inter r ain."

T he o ther a rea i n q uestion i s t he N orthern C ape P rovince, w here B utzer e t a l. ( 1973) h ave s uggested t hat, a ssuming a t emperature d epression o f 6 °C , t he p alaeolake l evel o f A lexandersfontein P an n ear K imberley w ould h ave r equired f or i ts m aintenance a t 1 6,000 B P a m ean a nnual r ainfall s ame 1 15 % g reater t han t oday 's f igure o f 4 00 m m p .a. H owever , i t i s n ot a t a ll c lear t hat h igher l ake l evels n ecessarily i mply h igher p recipitation ( H. J . D eacon p ers. c omm.). S uch p ans m ight h ave b een f ed b y i ncreased g roundwater d ischarge, w hich m ight h ave d erived f rom m uch e arlier r ains , d epending u pon t he t ime r equired f or t he w ater t o p ass t hrough t he s ystem. A s n oted a bove, t here i s i n f act w idespread e vidence f or i ncreased r ainfall i n t he s ummer r ainfall r egion o f S outhern A frica b efore t he L ast G lacial M aximum ( Deacon , J . e t a l. 1 984). I t i s e ven p ossible i n a rid e nvironments f or l ake I eT iels t o i ncrease u nder d rier c onditions w here p lant c over, a nd h ence t ranspiration , a re r educed s o t hat m ore w ater c an r emain i n t he s oil ( H. J . D eacon p ers. c omm.).

S uggestions o f i ncreased r ainfall h ave a lso b een m ade a s t he r esult o f s tudies o f t ufa d eposits o n t he G aap E scarpment ( Butzer e t a l. 1 978b ). W hereas m odern r ainfall i n t his a rea i s 3 00 t o 4 00 m m p .a., t ufa f ormation i s s aid t o p roceed o n a ny s cale o nly w here p recipitation i s a t l east 6 00 m m p .a., a nd t hese d eposits m ust t herefore i mply c onsiderably i ncreased r ainfall. B racketed b etween d ates o f 2 1,000 a nd 1 4,000 B P, h owever , T ufa V b c annot b e c onsidered t o d emonstrate i ncreased p recipitation a t t he L ast G lacial M aximum. I nstead i t m ay d ocument h igher r ainfall i n t he L ate G lacial, i mmediately a fter t he L ast G lacial M aximum , i .e. i n t he p eriod p ostdating 1 8/16,000 B P. S imilarly , d oubts e xist o ver t he c orrect i nterpretation a nd d ating o f t he s ediments o f t he R iverton F ormation i n t he V aal R iver V alley ( Butzer e t a l. 1 978b;

1 9

B utzer 1 984a ).

G eneral c irculation m odels a re a lso c ontradictory, w ith s ome ( e.g. G ates 1 976 ) s uggesting t hat t he n orthern b order a reas o f t he R epublic o f S outh A frica d id r eceive g reater r ainfall t han a t p resent a nd o thers ( e.g. W illiams e t a l. 1 974) i mplying t he c ontrary . A f urther c omplication i s i ntroduced b y B utzer 's ( 1984a) r ecent s tudy o f t he s edimentary s equence a t K athu V lei i n t he N orthern C ape. H ere a quifers s eem t o h ave b een l ess p roductive t han d uring t he H olocene , s uggesting " that p recipitation w as a ctually l ess .. b ut s omehow q uite e ffective, p ossibly a s a r esult o f m ore, l ow-intensity w inter r ains a nd r educed e vaporation ," ( Butzer 1 984a:258). I f ac onclusion i s t o b e d rawn f rom s uch d ata , i t m ust b e t hat t he e vidence i s t oo l imited a nd c ontradictory t o a llow u s t o a ccept t he i dea o f a w etter L ast G lacial M aximum c limate i n t he N orthern C ape.

T o s ummarize t his d iscussion , g lobal g eneral c irculation m odels a nd l ocal p alaeoclimatic d ata a gree i n s uggesting t hat t he L ast G lacial M aximum w as m arkedly c older t han t he p resent. M ean a nnual t emperatures a re l ikely t o h ave b een d epressed b y a t l east 5 °C, a nd p ossibly b y a s m uch a s 9 °C o n p arts o f t he i nterior p lateau. A d istinctly d rier c limate i s a lso i ndicated f or t he S outhern C ape, N atal a nd p arts o f t he T ransvaal, a s w ell a s p erhaps f or m uch o f t he r est o f t he c ountry . G eomorphological e vidence a nd s ome g lobal g eneral c irculation m odels s uggest t hough t hat r ainfall m ay h ave i ncreased o ver t he S outh-Western C ape a nd p ossibly t he N orthern C ape, b ut b oth t he d ating a nd i nterpretation o f t his e vidence c an b e q uestioned. I n a ny e vent t he b oundary b etween s ummer a nd w inter r ainfall z ones d oes n ot s eem t o h ave a ltered s ignificantly .

2 :3 T he L ate G lacial c . 1 6,000 - 1 0,000 B P

T his p eriod i s o ne o f m arked c hange i n c limate b etween t he v ery s evere c onditions o f t he L ast G lacial M aximum a nd t he a pproximately m odern c onditions o f t he e arly H olocene . T emperatures r ase r apidly a fter a bout 1 0,000 B P, a s i s i ndicated f or e xample b y c harcoal a nd m icrofaunal s amples f ro m B oomplaas A , a s w ell a s b y p ollen a nalyses f r o m t he N orth-Eastern C ape ( Coetzee 1 967) a nd t he T ransvaal ( Scott 1 982). C onfirmation t hat t he r ise i n t emperatures o ccurred s o r elatively r ecently i s p rovided b y a n a nalysis o f t he d istributional p atterns o f p lanktonic f oraminiferal a ssemblages f rom d eep-sea c ores i n t he S outh M ozambique C hannel ( Vincent 1 972).

T here i s c onsiderable e vidence f or a s ubstantial i ncrease i n p recipitation d uring t his p eriod, w ith t ufa f ormation o ccurring o n t he G aap E scarpment ( Butzer e t a l. 1 978b ), a nd a r ange o f r elevant g eomorphological d ata b eing r eported f ro m t he K alahari D esert ( Lancaster 1 979; C ooke 1 980). T he r e-establishment o f w oodland s pecies s uch a s O lea i n t he C ango V alley o f t he S outhern C ape b y c . 1 4,200 B P ( Deacon, H . J . e t a l. 1 984), w hich i s a ccompanied b y c hanges i n t he d iversity a nd c omposition o f m icramammalian

2 0

s amples, d emonstrates t hat t his i ncrease i n r ainfall h ad b egun b y t hat d ate . D etailed s tudies o f c harcoal w ood a natomy d o i n f act s uggest t hat t his p eriod s aw h igher p recipitation l evels t han w ere r eached d uring t he H olocene i tself ( Scholtz 1 986 ).

2 :4 T he P ost-Glacial

S ince c . 1 0,000 B P

T his p eriod s aw a r eturn t o t he h igh t emperatures o f t he L ast I nterglacial, w ith c limatic f luctuations o n a f airly s mall a nd s hort-term s cale. A r elatively w arm a nd d ry e arly H olocene i s i ndicated b y t he s edimentary r ecord f rom t he S outhern C ape ( Butzer 1 984a), f ollowed b y s omewhat c ooler c onditions w ithin t he l ast 2 3 000 y ears, a ccording t o A very 's ( 1982a) s tudy o f m icromammalian r emains f rom B oomplaas A a nd B yneskranskop 1 . T hese c onclusions a re s upported b y p ollen s tudies f rom t he T ransvaal ( Scott 1 982; 1 984) a nd b y c harcoal a nalyses f rom B oomplaas ( Deacon, H . J . e t a l. 1 984) a nd t he N orth-Eastern C ape ( Tusenius 1 986 ). T he p recise I If ang o f t his s hift t o c ooler , m oister c onditions s eems t o h ave v aried, h owever , f rom o ne r egion t o a nother .

T hat c onditions w ere n ot i dentical i n a ll p arts o f t he s ub-continent s eems l ikely . I n N amibia a nd o n t he G aap E scarpment, f or e xample, d eposition o f s ilts a nd t ufa s uggests t hat p recipitation w as h igher i n t he e arly H olocene t han l ater o n ( Butzer e t a l. 1 978b ; V ogel a nd V isser 1 981). A r elatively m oist, b ut w arm, e arly H olocene , w ith c onditions b ecoming d rier o nly i n t he m id H olocene, i s a lso s uggested b y t he a nalysis o f c harcoal s amples f rom S iphiso S helter , S waziland ( Price-Williams a nd P rior 1 985), w hile i n t he N orthern C ape a c ombination o f p alynological a nd m icramammalian d ata s uggests t hat a d ry e arly a nd m iddle H olocene w as i nterrupted b y am oister i nterval b etween 7 000 a nd 5 000 B P ( Avery 1 982a; V an Z inderen B akker 1 982). I t i s t herefore p ossible t hat p arts o f t he e ast a nd n orth ( Northern a nd E astern T ransvaal, t he N orthern C ape a nd S waziland) w ere c limatically o ut o f p hase w ith t emperature a nd p recipitation s hifts i n t he r est o f S outh A frica.

2 1

C HAPTER T HREE T HE E ARLY M ICROLITHIC A SSEMBLAGES O F T HE B ASUTOLIAN E COZONE

3 :1 I ntroduction

A rchaeological r esearch d uring t he l ast t wenty y ears h as, a s i ndicated i n C hapter 1 , p ushed b ack t he a dvent o f a ssemblages c lassifiable a s L ater S tone A ge w ell i nto t he l ate P leistocene. M ore t han 1 5 s ites h ave p rovided d efinite o r p robable e vidence o f L SA o ccupation b etween 2 5,000 a nd 1 2,000 B P, a nd " Early L SA" o ccurrences h ave a lso b een i dentified i n h orizons w hich h ave b een c laimed t o b e s till o lder ( most n otably a t B order C ave - B eaumont 1 978). U nfortunately, d ata f or s everal o f t hese s ites h ave n ot b een p ublished i n s ufficient d etail e ither t o d efine t he a ssemblages i n q uestion o r t o a llow c omparison t o b e m ade w ith o ccurrences a t o ther s ites. T he r eliability o f t he d ates a ssociated w ith s ome o f t hem i s a lso d oubtful.

F or a ll o f t hese r easons t his c hapter a nd t he t wo s ucceeding c hapters o ffer a n o verview o f t he r elevant a ssemblages b ased u pon b oth p ublished d ata a nd, i n m any c ases, p ersonal o bservation o f t he m aterial. F uller i nformation o n e ach o f t hese s ites c an b e o btained f rom t he r eferences i ndicated a nd o nly t he m ost s alient p oints o f e ach a ssemblage a re r eferred t o a nd d iscussed h ere . I t i s f elt t hat t his i s b oth a u seful a nd a n ecessary p reliminary t o t he c onsideration , i n C hapter 6 t o 8 , o f t he e vidence f or s patial a nd t emporal v ariability a mong t hese a ssemblages . I t w ill a lso p rovide t he n ecessary b ackground f or t he d evelopment a nd c ritique, i n C hapters 9 a nd 1 0, o f p ossible m odels o f t he t ransitions b etween t he t echnologies o f t he M iddle a nd L ater S tone A ges a nd t hose o f l ate P leistocene e arly m icrolithic a nd t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene n on-microlithic a ssemblages.

F or e ach s ite i nformation i s p rovided o n i ts s tratigraphy a nd c hronology i n s o f ar a s t hese a re r elevant t o t he a ssemblage d iscussed. E ach o ccurrence i s c onsidered u nder t he s ame f our h eadings, n amely r aw m aterial u sage, f laking t echnology, u tilisation p atterns a nd p resence o f f ormally r etouched t ools. W here a ppropriate, r eference i s a lso m ade t o t he o ccurrence o f n on-lithic a rtefacts a nd o f f aunal a nd b otanical r emains o f p alaeoenvironmental o r p alaeoeconomic s ignificance . F inally, t he p oints r aised a re s ummarized a nd f urther c omments m ade w hich r elate t he s ite t o o ther a ssemblages a nd t o i ssues d iscussed i n g reater d epth l ater o n. T ypological t erms u sed i n t his a nd t he f ollowing c hapters t o d escribe t he a rtefacts d iscussed a re d efined i n C hapter 1 .

T he f irst s ite c onsidered, S ehonghong, i n E astern L esotho , i s t hat f or w hich t he m ost d etailed i nformation i s p resently a vailable, a nd a t w hich c onsiderable p otential a lso e xists f or

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B eaumont e t a l.

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L ayer 1 9

S chweitzer a nd W ilson 1 981

C L1 C L1 C L4 GWA L PC L PC L PC L ayer 1 4 L ayer 1 4 L ayers 1 5/16 L ayer 1 6

D eacon, J .

T 100 T9 00 T1 000 T -1 500

1 2060 + 1 05 1 2480 T 1 30 1 4200 7 2 40 1 7830 T 1 80 2 1070 T 1 80 2 1110 7 4 20 2 1220 T 1 95 1 2090 T -9 5 1 2310 T 1 20 1 2160 T 9 5 1 2470 T 1 20 1 2510 T 1 05 1 2800 T -7 5 4 0 1 2950 2 7400 3 1900 1 1875 2 2575 2 2800

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S tratigraphic R eference U nit 1 BS.LR 1 WA 1 WA 1 WA 1 BS.LR 1 WA

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P ta-1177 P ta-1178 T 1600 UCLA-1755B T1 800 U CLA-1755C T1 15 P ta-1805 T2 70 P ta-1807 T8 5 U W-339 T -1 00 P ta-1067 T1 P ta-1068 30 T1 25 P ta-1200 80 T2 G aK-4335 T2 20 T1 30 L J-3150 T1 10 P ta-100 T2 70 L J-3135 T -3 00 L J-3136 T3 00 L J-3137 P ta-101 T3 00 L J-3138 T -8 00 P ta-782 10 T -1 P ta-782 T1 30 U W-223 20 T1 T1 50 U W-218 2 4 0 1 6516 T _

L ayers 1 6/18 L ayer 1 7 L ayer 1 8 L ayer 1 4 L ayer 1 8 L ayer H E2 L ayer H E2 L ayer H E2 L evel I V L evels V /VI L evel V I L ayer 1 6 L ayer 2 1 S tratum 3 b S tratum 3 b S tratum S tratum S tratum S tratum S tratum

1 984b

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H umphreys 1 974

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J .

1 984b

D eacon , H . J . 1 976 D eacon , J . 1 984b

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S ite

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1 8100 1 8660 1 0200 2 5640 2 9430 1 2250

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U W-175 G rN-5884 P ta-3451 G rN-5300 P ta-211 Q -3175

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1 7820 + 2 70 1 1870 T 1 30

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D eacon, J .

O pperman 1 987 B eaumont 1 978 C arter e t a l. i n p ress

C arter a nd V ogel 1 974 C arter e t a l. i n p ress C arter 1 978 D avies 1 975

S ite n ames c an b e i dentified f rom T able 3 :1

2 6

1 984b

f urthering o ur u nderstanding o f t he M SA/LSA t ransition . T his i s f ollowed b y a c onsideration o f t he a ssemblages f rom R avenscraig a nd R ose C ottage C ave w hich a re, b oth g eographically a nd t ypologically, t he c losest t o t he l ate P leistocene b ladelet-dominated o ccurrence f rom S ehonghong. A fter d iscussing t hese s ites a nd t he s tatus o f t he Z eekoegat I ndustry o f t he S eacow V alley ( Sampson 1 985a ), w e t urn n ext ( in C hapter 4 ) t o t he s outhern h alf o f t he C ape P rovince w here o ccupation a t s ix s ites h as s o f ar b een f ound t o d ate t o t he p eriod i n q uestion . A t a ll o f t hese m aterial d ating t o b etween 1 8,000 a nd 1 2,000 B P h as b een a ttributed t o t he R obberg I ndustry , b ut a t o ne o f t hem, B oomplaas, a s till e arlier L SA a ssemblage i s a lso p resent. I t i s d iscussed h ere i n g reater d etail t han t he o ther a ssemblages a s a lmost n o d ata b earing u pon i t h ave b een p ublished h itherto.

F inally, o ther a ssemblages a re c onsidered ( in C hapter 5 ) f or w hich a n E arly L ater S tone A ge a ffiliation i s p ossible. O f t hese s ites , f our l ie i n t he T ransvaal w hile t wo o ccur i n N atal. T he s ites o f B uffelskloof, i n t he S outhern, a nd D ikbosch 1 , i n t he N orthern C ape, a re b riefly c onsidered a t t he e nd o f t his c hapter s ince, a lthough b oth h ave e vidence o f o ccupation b efore 1 2,000 B P, t he e xtent t o w hich t he l ithic m aterial p resent c an b e a ttributed t o t his p eriod i s u ncertain. F ig. 3 :1 s hows t he g eographical d istribution o f t he s ites d iscussed a nd T able 3 :2 l ists a ll t he r elevant r adiocarbon d ates f or t he a ssemblages c onsidered.

I n t his c hapter t he a ssemblages f rom t he s ites o f S ehonghong i n E astern L esotho, R avenscraig i n t he N orth-Eastern C ape a nd R ose C ottage C ave i n t he E astern O range F ree S tate w ill b e d iscussed. T hey a ll l ie w ithin t he B asutolian e cozone, d efined b y d e V os ( 1975:89) a s e ncompassing t he " High-Veld " o f t he S outhern T ransvaal, t he O range F ree S tate, L esotho a nd T ranskei). T hat t his i s o ne o f t he f ew p arts o f S outhern A frica i n w hich c rypto-crystalline s ilicas a re r elatively a bundant f or p otential u se i n s tone t ool m anufacture s uggests t hat t he a ssemblages f rom t his r egion m ay d iffer f rom t hose i n t he S outhern C ape a nd e lsewhere i n w hich q uartz w as a r aw m aterial o f m ajor i mportance . T he l ithic a ssemblage f rom t he s ite o f Z eekoegat 2 7 i n t he M iddle O range R iver V alley w ill a lso b e d iscussed s ince S ampson ( 1974) h as p roposed t hat t his i s s imilar t o t he " Pre-Wilton" o ccurrence a t R ose C ottage C ave.

3 :2 S ehonghong

I ntroduction

T he s ite o f S ehonghong l ies i n t he Q acha 's N ek D istrict o f E astern L esotho, s outh o f t he v illage o f M ashai. A n a rea o f e ight s quare m etres w as e xcavated i n 1 971 b y D r. P . L . C arter o f t he U niversity o f C ambridge ( Carter 1 978) a nd r evealed a l ong s equence

2 7

o f b oth M iddle a nd L ater S tone A ge o ccupation . T he p resence o f a n e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence a t t he s ite w as f irst r eported b y C arter a nd V ogel ( 1974), a nd a s ummary a ccount o f a ll t he a rtefact a ssemblages p resent w as g iven b y C arter ( 1978). T hey h ave s ubsequently b een m ore e xtensively a nalysed b y M itchell ( 1987) a nd w ill b e p ublished i n C arter e t a l. ( in p ress ).

S tratigraphy

T he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom S ehonghong d erives f rom C arter 's L ayer 9 w hich w as d escribed a s c onsisting o f as eries o f h earth c omplexes w ith a bundant a rtefacts a nd m any o rganic r emains ( Carter a nd V ogel 1 974). L ayer 9 c an b e s ubdivided i nto m any s maller n atural s tratigraphic l ayers , w hich i nclude n umerous s mall a sh f eatures a nd l enses a nd t he r emains o f s everal s takeholes. T he s ite w as d ug i n s pits o f 1 0 c m d epth s ince t he s tratigraphy w as t oo u nclear t o f ollow n atural s tratigraphic d ivisions - o nly i n s ection a nd a fter d rying o ut c ould t hese b e s een c learly ( Carter pers. c omm.). T he d isadvantage o f t his m ethod i s t hat s pits m ay c rosscut t he n atural s tratigraphic l ayers o f w hich t he d eposit i s m ade u p . Ac ombination o f s tratigraphic e vidence a nd m ultivariate s tatistical a nalyses w ith n ew r adiocarbon d ates h as , h owever , b een s uccessful i n d efining t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage i n s tratigraphic t erms. T he c onsensus o f t he r esults o f t hese t echniques i s t hat t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage d erives f rom n atural s tratigraphic l ayers 3 7 t o 5 4 a nd i ncludes m aterial f rom s pits 4 t o 6 i nclusive ( Mitchell 1 987 ). T he n orth a nd s outh f aces o f t he s ection a re i llustrated i n F igs. 3 :2 a nd 3 :3.

D ates

B efore t he r ecent r eanalysis o f t he S ehonghong a rtefact s equence t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom t his s ite w as d ated b y t wo r adiocarbon d eterminations t o b etween 1 7,820 + 2 70 B P ( Q-1452) i n l ayer 5 4 a nd 1 3,000 + 1 40 B P ( Pta-884) i n l ayer 5 0 ( Carter 1 978; C arter a nd Vo gel 1 974). F our m ore d ates h ave n ow b een o btained a nd s how t hat a lmost a ll t he e arly m icrolithic o ccupation o f t he s ite ( layers 3 9 t o 5 2) f alls b etween 1 3,200 a nd 1 2,200 B P ( Carter e t a l. i n p ress ). A ll t hese d ates f rom S ehonghong a re l isted i n T able 3 :2.

T he L ithic I ndustry

A nalysis o f t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage w as c arried o ut u sing t he t ypology e mployed b y J . D eacon ( 1984b ) i n h er s tudy o f c hange i n L SA o ccurrences f rom t he S outhern C ape. T his c hoice w as m ade t o f acilitate c omparison b etween t hese a ssemblages a nd o thers , s uch a s t hose f rom R avenscraig ( Opperman 1 987) a nd t he M agaliesberg ( Wadley f orthcoming), w here i t h as a lso b een u sed. T he f ollowing i s a s ummary o f t he m ajor f eatures o f t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence, a nd f ull d etails o f t he

2 8

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i ndustrial s equence f rom t he s ite a re p ublished e lsewhere ( Carter e t a l. i n p ress ).

R aw m aterial

C rypto-crystalline s ilicas a re b y f ar t he d ominant r aw m aterial i n t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage, a ccounting f or s ome 8 0 % o f a ll t he a rtefacts p resent ( Table 3 :3). H ornfels, w hich o ccurs a s b oth f ine-grained l ydianite a nd c oarse-grained d yke m aterial, a ccounts f or a lmost a ll t he r emaining l ithics, w ith n one o f t he o ther r aw m aterials ( among w hich q uartzite i s t he m ost c ommon ) r eaching a p ercentage f requency o f e ven 1 .0 % .

V ariation i s a pparent b etween a rtefact c ategories i n t he r elative p roportions o f d ifferent r aw m aterials, w ith c rypto-crystalline s ilicas ( CCS ) b eing n oticeably l ess c ommon a mong u nmodified f lakes a nd u tilised a rtefacts. C orrespondingly t he f requency o f f ine-grained m aterials ( CCS a nd l ydianite ) i s s omewhat e nhanced a mong f ormal t ools a nd i n t he b ladelet, b ladelet c ore a nd s pike a rtefact c lasses. T he r easons f or t hese p atterns m ay i nclude t he s ize i n w hich t he v arious r aw m aterials o ccur i n t heir n atural s tate , t he e ase w ith w hich t heir f laking c an b e c ontrolled a nd t he d eliberate s election o f t ougher , l ess b rittle, c oarser-grained m aterials ( dyke m aterial a nd q uartzite ) f or p articular h eavy-duty a ctivities .

F laking t echnology

A lthough t he m ajority o f t he c ores p resent i n t his a ssemblage c an b e d efined a s i rregular, a lmost o ne-third a re o f b lade/bladelet t ype, a nd m ost o f t hese h ave s ingle p latforms. B ladlet c ores , o n w hich t he b lanks a re l ess t han 2 5 m m l ong, o utnumber b lade c ores b y a lmost f ive t o o ne, a nd m any a re o f t he h igh-backed k ind i dentified b y J . D eacon ( 1984b) i n t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f t he S outhern C ape. T he s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores w hich a re a lso c ommonly f ound i n t hese l atter a ssemblages, a nd w hich J . D eacon ( 1984b:103-07) h as s uggested m ay b e t he e nd-products o f ab ipolar f laking t echnique i n w hich t he c ore i s w rapped i n b ark o r l eather t o f acilitate b ladelet p roduction , a re v ery r are a t S ehonghong ( Table 3 :4). C ore-reduced p ieces h ave a lso b een i nterpreted a s r esidues o f t his t echnique, a nd t heir s carcity a t S ehonggong, t ogether w ith t he s mall n umbers o f c ores i n t he S ehonghong a ssemblage t hat c an b e p ositively i dentified a s b ipolar, c onstitute f urther a rguments a gainst t he e mployment t here o f t his w rapped b ipolar f laking t echnique.

T he s trong e mphasis o n b ladelet p roduction s uggested b y t he n umbers o f b ladelet c ores p resent i s c onfirmed b y t he f requency o f u nmodified b lades a nd b ladelets . T hey a ccount f or 3 5.0 % o f a ll

3 1

u nmodified f lakes, e quivalent t o 1 3.7 % o f t he e ntire e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage. W ithin t he b lade a rtefact c lass t he s tress o n b ladelet m anufacture c an b e s een f rom t he f act t hat o f as ample o f 9 50 u nbroken b lades n o f ewer t han 7 9.8 % h ave a l ength o f l ess t han 2 5 m m . T he l ikely f unctions o f t hese b ladelets , w hich f orm s uch a d istinctive p art o f m any S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages, w ill b e d iscussed i n C hapter 8 .

A p articular f eature o f t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage which d oes n ot s eem t o h ave r eceived c omment i n a nalyses o f s imilar a ssemblages f rom e lsewhere i n S outhern A frica i s t he p resence o f s pikes, w hich a ccount f or 2 .2 %o f a ll u nmodified f lakes . T hese a rtefacts , a lthough s uperficially s imilar t o b urin s palls, h ave b een i dentified a s b y-products o f t he i nitial p reparation o f b ladelet c ores a nd a re t hus i dentical t o t he l ames ä c rate o bserved b y W est ( 1981) i n t he B eringian U pper P alaeolithic. T his i nterpretation i s s upported b y t he f act t hat i n t he S ehonghong s equence t hey s how a s imilar p attern o f t emporal v ariation t o b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores .

U tilisation

U tilised a rtefacts a ccount f or 1 .5 % o f t he t otal e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage, t he v ast m ajority o f t hem b eing u tilised f lakes, b lades a nd b ladelets ( Table 3 :5). O f t he r arer a rtefacts , a nvils a nd h ammerstones p redominate, b oth b eing m ade e xclusively i n e ither b asalt o r q uartzite. T he o ccurrence o f ag rindstone ( in b asalt) a nd a m uller ( in C CS) i s o f i nterest i n c onfirming t he e vidence f rom B oomplaas a nd N elson B ay C ave ( Deacon . J . 1 984b ) a nd f rom E lands B ay C ave ( Davis 1 980) t hat s uch a rtefacts h ave l ate P leistocene o rigins.

N o m icrowear a nalysis h as y et b een u ndertaken o f t he l ithic a ssemblages f rom S ehonghong, a lthough t he p redominance o f C CS a nd h ornfels i n t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence s uggests t hat u seful r esults c ould b e o btained. S ome i nformation o n t he k inds o f a ctivities c arried o ut h as , h owever, b een o btained b y e xamining t he a ngle a nd s hape o f t he u tilised e dges o f u tilised a rtefacts a nd t he k ind o f e dge d amage p resent o n t hem. R esults a re d iscussed i n g reater d etail i n C arter e t a l. ( in p ress ) a nd c omparisons a re m ade w ith R obberg a ssemblages f ram t he S outhern C ape i n C hapter 6 . H ere w e m ay n ote t hat t here s eems t o h ave b een a m arked e mphasis o n c utting a ctivities , p robably r esulting f rom t he h unting a nd b utchery o f g ame, a nd r elatively l ittle s tress o n t he w orking o f b one, s kins o r w ood.

F ormally r etouched a rtefacts

A ll e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica c haracterised b y a l ow f requency o f f ormal t ools, a nd o ccurrence f rom S ehonghong, i n w hich t hey f orm o nly 0 .6 % o f t he l ithic a rtefacts p resent, i s n o e xception ( Table 3 :6).

3 2

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s mall s ize o f t he f ormal t ools s ample m akes i t d ifficult t o d raw d efinite c omparisons w ith o ther a ssemblages, a lthough t his i s l ess t rue o f t he s craper c lass , w here a s ample o f 5 3 a rtefacts i s t he l argest o f a ny e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage e xcept f or t hat f rom B oomplaas.

A lmost a ll s crapers a re m ade i n C CS, m ostly o n f lake b lanks. H igh r etouch a ngles p redominate ( mean = 7 2.9°), s uggesting t hat m ost o f t hose f ound r epresent a rtefacts d iscarded a t t he e nd o f t heir u seful l ives w hen t hey w ere t oo b lunt f or f urther u se. T heir g enerally s mall s ize i mplies t hat t hey m ust h ave b een h afted d uring u se, b ut n o t race o f m astic i s p resent. G rouping o f s crapers a ccording t o t he p lan a nd p osition o f r etouch c ategories s uggested b y J . D eacon ( 1984b ) s hows t hat f or n either v ariable i s t he d iversity a mong t hese l ate P leistocene s crapers a s g reat a s i t i s i n t he l ater H olocene a ssemblage a t S ehonghong; t his p oints t o a n i nteresting c ontrast w ith t he s ituation i n t he S outhern C ape ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:134).

T he r emaining r etouched a rtefacts i nclude a n umber o f r etouched a nd b acked f lakes , b lades a nd b ladelets , a s w ell a s f our a dzes. A c rudely p ressure-flaked p oint i s p resent, b ut i s c learly n ot i dentical t o t he b arbed a nd t anged p ressure-flaked p oints k nown f rom t he l ate H olocene. W hile t his t ends t o i ncrease c onfidence i n i ts b eing g enuinely a ssociated w ith t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage a t S ehonghong, i t i s t he o nly s uch a rtefact k nown f rom E arly L SA c ontexts i n S outhern A frica a nd i ts i nterpretation i s c onsequently d ifficult. T he f inal c omponent o f t he f ormal t ools c lass w hich m erits a ttention i s t he p resence o f as ingle n aturally b acked k nife i n t he s ense i n w hich t his a rtefact c lass h as b een d efined b y P arkington ( 1984:127 ). T he s ignificance o f t his f or P arkington 's ( 1984) a rguments a bout t he r elation b etween t he L ockshoek a nd R obberg I ndustries w ill b e d iscussed i n C hapter 6 .

N on-lithic a rtefacts

O nly t hree b one b eads a nd a s ingle b one p oint o ccur i n t he u nits a ssigned a t S ehonghong t o t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage u nder d iscussion h ere. W hile i t i s p ossible t hat a ll f our o f t hese a rtefacts m ight b e i ntrusive f rom o verlying H olocene l ayers, n one o f t hem w ould b e o ut o f p lace i n o ther e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences , s uch a s t hose f rom B oomplaas. O therwise, n on-lithic a rtefactual m aterial a t S ehonghong i s l imited t o as mall n umber o f p ieces o f o chre a nd t o as mall p ainted f ragment o f s tone. A lthough t his d erives f ro m a n e xcavated u nit a ttributed t o t he l ate P leistocene e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage, i t i s, b arring f urther c omparable d iscoveries a t S ehonghong o r e lsewhere, m ore p arsimonious t o c onsider i t i ntrusive f ro m t he l ater , H olocene d eposits. T he p resence, h owever , o f p ainted s tone s labs i n M SA c ontexts a t A pollo 1 1 C ave i n S outhern N amibia , d ating t o c . 2 7,000 B P ( Wendt 1 976 ; F reundlich e t a l. 1 980), l eaves o pen t he p ossibility t hat p arietal a rt i n S outhern A frica w ill b e s hown t o b e o f a s imilar a ntiquity.

3 3

F auna

T he f auna f rom S ehonghong h as b een a nalysed b y C arter ( 1978). W hile i t i s n ot p ossible t o p rovide a d etailed q uantitative a ccount o f t he f aunal r emains a ssociated w ith t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage, T able 3 :7 o ffers a p resence/absence l ist o f t he s pecies c oncerned. I n c omparison w ith t he u nderlying M SA a ssemblages a w ider v ariety o f s pecies o ccurs, s till i ncluding e land a nd e qulds, b ut a lso f eaturing m ountain r eedbuck a nd v aalribbok . T his f auna e xhibits t raits c ommon t o b oth t he l ate H olocene a nd t he U pper P leniglacial/Interpleniglacial f aunas a t S ehonghong, a s w ould b e e xpected g iven t he p robably r elatively w et, b ut s till c old , c limate o f t he L ate G lacial ( Carter e t a l. i n p ress ).

D iscussion

B efore c ompletion o f t he r esearch u pon w hich t he p resent w ork i s b ased, l ittle i nformation w as a vailable o n t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence f rom S ehonghong, w hich C arter ( 1978:162) h as m ore f ormally r eferred t o a s E astern L esotho L SA I ndustry I II. C ontrary t o h is i nitial a ssessment ( Carter 1 978:163), i t i s b y n o m eans a " contemporary t ypological a lternative" t o t he m acrolithic O akhurst C omplex, t he o ldest d ates f or w hich f all a fter 1 2,500 B P. I nstead, n ew r adioxarbon d ates ( Table 3 :2) s how t hat t he m ain f ocus o f t his a ssemblage 's a ctivity a t S ehonghong f ell b etween 1 3,200 a nd 1 2,200 B P, w ith a n e arlier , s hort-lived o ccupation a t t he p eak o f t he L ast G lacial M aximum.

D etailed a nalysis o f t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage s hows t hat i n t he r aw m aterials p resent, f laking t echniques u sed a nd g eneral c omposition i t i s m ost s imilar t o t he o ther a ssemblages f ro m t he B asutolian e cozone d iscussed b elow. O n a m ore g eneral l evel, t he e mphasis o n b ladelet p roduction a nd g eneral l ack o f f ormal t ools a re a mong a n umber o f f eatures l inking i t w ith o ther a ssemblages s uch a s t hose a ttributed t o t he R obbery I ndustry o f t he C ape P rovince. I t i s p articularly s ignificant i n b eing t he o nly l arge a nd e xtensively s tudied e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom t he i nterior o f S outhern A frica, b ut h as a w ider i mportance b ecause r adiocarbon d ates f rom S ehonghong s uggest t hat t his s ite m ay s pan t he t ransition b etween M SA a nd L SA t echnologies ( Carter e t a l. i n p ress ).

A p riori i t i s u nlikely t hat S ehonghong i s t he o nly s ite i n L esotho w ith a n e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage, a nd m aterial f rom t he s ites o f M elikane a nd M oshebi's S helter , a lso e xcavated b y C arter ( 1978), w as e xamined w ith t his i n m ind. A t n either s ite w as a rtefactual m aterial p lentiful, b ut a t b oth a n umber o f u nmodified b ladelets a nd h igh-backed b ladelet c ores w as f ound w ith , a t M oshebi's, a h int o f r aw m aterial d ifferences c ompared w ith t he o verlying l ayers. A ttempts t o d ate t he r elevant l ayers u sing a nimal b one w ere u nsuccessful b ecause t he c arbon c ontent o f t he b ones w as t oo l ow f or c onventional r adiocarbon d ating m ethods

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D ates

T wo r adiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t hese l ayers h ave b een o btained f rom t he E lands B ay C ave s equence . T he o ldest o f t hese d ates t he u nderlying L ayer 2 1 t o 2 0,180 + 2 20 B P, w hile L ayer 1 6 i tself d ates t o 1 2,450 + 2 80 B P ( GaK-4335) :: A d ate o f 1 1,070 + 1 40 B P ( UW-192) f rom t he b ase o f L ayer 1 5 m ay b e t aken t o p roviae a t erminus a nte q uem f or t he e nd o f t he R obberg I ndustry a t E lands B ay C ave, u sing t he s tratigraphic d efinition o f t his i ndustry p rovided b y P arkington ( 1980b ). T he o verall s imilarity o f t he a rtefactual m aterial f rom L ayers 1 6-20 w ould s uggest t hat a ll f ive o f t hese l ayers a re o f r oughly t he s ame a ge, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t he s ite e xperienced o nly m inimal o ccupation d uring t heir d eposition .

T he L ithic I ndustry

A n o verall i mpression o f t he a ssemblage f rom L ayers 1 6-20 w as o btained d uring a n e xamination o f i t c arried o ut i n 1 985, b ut t he c onclusions r eached d o n ot d iffer s ignificantly f rom t hose o f D avis ( 1980), a lthough t hey d o p rovide g reater t erminological c onsistency w ith t he S outhern C ape s ites. A rtefact f requencies a re l ow i n e ach o f t he l ayers u nder d iscussion h ere, p articularly i n L ayers 1 6 a nd 1 7, a nd t his m ust b e b orne i n m ind w hen d educing c onclusions a bout t he a ssemblage p resent .

R aw M aterial

Q uartz i s r eadily a vailable n ear t he s ite i n v eins i n T able M ountain S andstone ( Sievers 1 977:25), a lthough t he o ther m aterials u sed ( quartzite, h ornfels, s ilcrete a nd c rypto-crystalline s ilicas ) c ould h ave b een o btained e ither f rom t he n earest ( 10 k m d istant ) o utcrop o f t he M almesbury F ormation o r e lse h ave b een w ashed u p i n r ivers a nd o n t he b each . T he o verwhelming d ominance o f q uartz i n t he l ithic a ssemblage f rom l ayers 1 6 t o 2 0 i s t herefore u nsurprising. A t emporal t rend i n r aw m aterial f requencies s eems n evertheless t o b e d iscernible. F rom L ayer 2 0 t o L ayer 1 3/14, t he f requency o f q uartz d eclines f rom 9 5.3 t o o nly 6 8.1 % o f t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts i n e ach l ayer , w hile t he f requencies o f q uartzite a nd h ornfels s how a c orresponding i ncrease ( from 0 .7 t o 1 0.8 % a nd f rom 1 .3 t o 1 6.8 % r espectively ). T hese d ata a re s ummarized i n T able 4 :9.

T he f requency o f q uartz i s a lso c onsistently l ess a mong u tilised a nd f ormally r etouched a rtefacts t han i t i s i n t he u nmodified a rtefact c ategory . T his c an b e e xplained b y t he l arge n umber o f c hips , c hunks a nd s mall, u nusable f lakes w hich r esult f rom t he w orking o f q uartz, c oupled w ith t he p referential u se o f l arger , l ess b rittle r aw m aterials f or a rtefacts d esigned f or m ore

1 03

s ustained u se. A s imilar p attern i s c haracteristic o f t he R obberg I ndustry a ssemblages f rom B yneskranskop ( Schweitzer a nd W ilson 1 982) a nd s ites i n t he S outhern 1 984b; D eacon, H . J . 1 976 ).

a nd E astern C ape ( Deacon, J .

F laking t echnology

D avis ( 1980:4) d istinguishes t hree k inds o f b ladelet c ore i n t he E lands B ay C ave a ssemblages , o f w hich h is " stooped" c lass c orresponds t o t he h igh-backed b ladelet c ore-type i dentified b y J . D eacon ( 1984b:372). M ost o f t hese c ores h ave f lat, s ingle p latforms. H is " rice-grain" c ores c an b e e quated w ith t he s mall b ladelet c ores i dentified b y J . D eacon ( 1984b:207; 3 73) i n s ome o f t he B oomplaas R obberg a ssemblages , a nd n ow k nown a lso f rom t he o ther R obberg I ndustry o ccurrences i n t he S outhern C ape ( this c hapter ). T he f lat c ores , w hich D avis ( 1980:5) h as d efined a s

u..microbladelet c ores w hich h ave b een s ystematically i n s ize a nd a re f lat a nd a lmost r ectangular i n s hape,"

r educed

a re, h owever , i dentical i n s ize a nd s hape t o J . D eacon 's ( 1984b) c ore-reduced p ieces , a c ategory o f a rtefacts w hich, o f c ourse, a lso i ncludes t hose w hich D avis ( 1980:6 ) h as r eferred t o a s p ieces e squillees. A m ore d etailed d iscussion o f a ll o f t hese c ore-types a nd t heir l ikely r elations w ith e ach o ther a nd w ith t he f laking o f q uartz i s r eserved f or C hapter 6 . T he l arge n umber o f c ore-reduced p ieces , a ll b ut t wo o f w hich a re i n q uartz, i s a c lear r eflection o f t he e xtensive u se m ade o f t his r aw m aterial.

A s T able 4 :10 i ndicates , a s trong e mphasis o n b ladelet p roduction i s t hus s uggested b y t he f requency w ith w hich b ladelet c ores a re p resent i n t he l ithic a ssemblages f rom L ayers 1 6-20. T his i s p articularly s o g iven t hat m any o f t he c ore-reduced p ieces p resent s how c lear e vidence o f b ladelet r emoval.

N evertheless , t he f requency o f u nretouched b ladelets s eems r ather l ow i n c omparison w ith t he n umbers o f c ores p resent, a lthough w hen e xpressed a s ap ercentage o f a ll t he f lakes i n e ach u nit i t i s c omparable t o t hose f rom o ther R obberg I ndustry o ccurrences . A s w ith o ther e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n w hich b ladelet:bladelet c ore r atio i s l ow w e a re p robably d ealing w ith a c omplicated s ituation t o w hich s uch f actors a s s mall s ample s ize, t he s patial p atterning o f a rtefact d istributions , o ff-site r emoval o f b ladelets a nd d ifferential u se o f t he s ame c ore t o p roduce b oth f lakes a nd b ladelets m ay a ll b e c ontributing.

U tilisation

A ccording t o D avis ( 1980), u tilised a rtefacts a re r are i n t he E lands B ay C ave s equence, a ccounting f or n o m ore t han 0 .71 % o f

1 04

t he t otal l ithic a ssemblage f rom L ayers 1 6-20 ( Table 4 :11). F urthermore, m any o f t he u tilised a rtefacts w hich h e r ecognises a re, i n f act, p ieces e squillees, a n a rtefact-type i ncluded w ithin t he c ore-reduced p iece c lass b y J. D eacon ( 1984b:123) " because o f t he d ifficulty o f b eing c ertain , w ithout m icrowear a nalysis, t hat t he d amage i s i ndeed d ue t o u tilization ." T his v iew i s f ollowed i n t he p resent t hesis , w ith t he r esult t hat t he u tilised c ategory a t E lands B ay C ave L ayers 1 6-20 c omprises o nly a f ew g rindstones, h ammerstones , a nvils, h eavy e dge-damaged p ieces o r c ombinations o f t hese.

F lakes a nd b ladelets s howing e vidence o f u tilisation, w hether o f t he s imply e dge-damaged, s teeply d amaged o r n otched v arieties, a re n ot s pecifically r ecorded a s b eing p resent . T his s eems u nlikely , b ut m ay b e a s m uch a r eflection o f a h ighly e xpedient t echnology p roducing f ew a rtefacts e xperiencing s ustained u se c oupled w ith t he d ifficulty o f r ecognising u tilisation o n v ein q uartz, a s o f t he c lassificatory t erminology w hich D avis ( 1980) h as e mployed. N o m icrowear s tudies h ave y et b een c arried o ut. T he e xtent t o w hich q uartz d ominates t he a ssemblage w ould s eem t o l imit t he p otential a pplicability o f t his m ethod ( but s ee S ussman 1 985).

F ormally R etouched A rtefacts

A s i s t he c ase w ith o ther S outh A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages, f ormal t ools a re r are c ompared w ith t heir f requencies i n l ater H olocene s amples. F or L ayers 1 6-20 c ombined t hey a ccount f or n o m ore t han 0 .37 % o f t he a rtefacts p resent, a nd m ost o f t hem a re m iscellaneously r etouched p ieces. V ery f ew a dzes , b acked m icroliths ( blades a nd b ladelets ) a nd s crapers o ccur ( see T able 4 :12).

P arkington ( 1984) h as r eferred t o m aterial f rom t hese l ower l ayers a t E lands B ay C ave i n c onnection w ith t he h ypothesis t hat t he L ockshoek I ndustry o f t he S outh A frican i nterior a nd t he R obberg I ndustry w ere c ontemporary e xpressions o f t he s ame a rtefact t radition , t heir d ifferences b eing c onditioned b y v ariation i n t he a vailability o f d ifferent r aw m aterials ( principally h ornfels a nd q uartz). T he t ypological i ndicator o f t his r elation i s t he n aturally b acked k nife, d efined a s b eing a l arge, s ide-struck h ornfels f lake w ith n atural b acking a nd w ith o verlapping s tep r etouch w hich h as p roduced a g ently c onvex e dge ( Parkington 1 984:127 ). N ine e xamples o ccur i n t he l ayers u nder d iscussion h ere.

E xamination o f t hese a rtefacts s uggests t hat t he d egree t o w hich s emi-invasive, h eavy s tep r etouch i s p resent i s q uite v ariable, w ith s ome s howing w hat , i n t he c ontext o f t he S ehonghong a rtefacts, h as b een d escribed a s c ontinuous m arginal u tilisation o r a t m ost l ight n ibbling r etouch . T his s uggests t hat, a s w ith a dzes ( Binneman 1 982:132), t his m ay b e a n a rtefact-type o n w hich s econdary f lake r emoval s traddles t he d ividing l ine b etween

1 05

u tilisation a nd i ntentional r etouch. R e-examination o f t he f ormal a nd u tilised a rtefacts f rom R obberg o ccurrences i n t he S outhern a nd S outh-Western C ape f ailed t o l ocate m ore t han a s ingle e xample o f a n aturally b acked k nife i n a ll o f t hem c ombined ( see t he B oomplaas , B yneskranskop, K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave s ections o f t his c hapter ).

N on-lithic a rtefacts

T hese a re l isted f or t he E lands B ay C ave s equence b y P ettigrew ( 1977 ), w ho h as r ecorded t he p resence i n L ayers 1 6-20 t ogether o f 2 1 b one b eads a nd a p erforated D onax s hell, a s w ell a s o f 5 6 f inished a nd 1 0 u nfinished o strich e ggshell b eads. S ingle d ecorated f ragments o f o strich e ggshell a nd t ortoise s hell a lso o ccur, a s d oes a s mall n umber o f f ragments o f o chre .

F auna

T he f auna f rom E lands B ay C ave h as b een a nalysed b y R . G . K lein a nd p ublished b y P arkington ( 1977; 1 980b ) b ut h as b een d iscussed i n t erms o f a c ontinuous c hronological s equence r ather t han o f d istinct a rtefact a ssemblages. R elevant c omments i nclude t he o bservation t hat b efore c . 1 3,000 B P t here i s v ery l ittle e vidence a t t he s ite f or t he e xploitation o f r iverine f oods a nd n o e vidence f or t hat o f c oastal r esources . T he r eason f or t his u ndoubtedly l ies i n t he s ite 's l ocation s ome 3 0 k m i nland o f t he s ea a t, a nd i mmediately a fter , t he L ast G lacial M aximum. E land, t ogether w ith s mall g round ( lassie , d une-rat ) a nd t erritorial ( grysbok a nd s teenbok ) g ame a nd t ortoises , a re t he m ost c ommon s pecies p resent.

A s t he p ost-glacial s ea-level r ose t he e xploitation o f f ish ( haarder) f rom t he s ite b egan, a nd l arge g razing u ngulates m ay h ave b ecome i ncreasingly c oncentrated o n t he r emaining 1 0-15 k m w ide s tretch o f c oastal p lain t o t he w est o f t he c ave. T he e xtinct h orse E quus c apensis i s t hus r epresented i n t he f auna f rom l ayers 1 9 a nd 1 6-17, c ontinuing d own t o l ayer 1 2, w hich p robably d ates t o c . 1 0,500 B P, w hile t he e xtinct b uffalo P elerovis a ntiquus o ccurs i n l ayer 1 7. T he C ape b uffalo S yncerus c affer a lso o ccurs m ore f requently i n l ayers p re-dating c . 1 0,000 B P, s uggesting t hat m ore l arge u ngulates w ere h unted b efore t han a fter t his d ate ( Parkington 1 978:89). I n g eneral, h owever , t he c hanges i n t he c omposition o f t he E lands B ay C ave f auna t hrcugh t ime s eem t o h ave b een m ore g radual t han h as b een s uggested f or t he S outhern C ape, a nd t his i s l ikely t o r eflect m ore g eneral e nvironmental a nd c limatic d ifferences b etween t he t wo r egions ( see t he g eneral p alaeoenvircnmental d iscussion i n C hapter 2 ).

B otanical r emains

J . D eacon ( 1984a:312) h as r eferred t o t he o ccurrence i n t he l ate P leistocene l evels a t E lands B ay C ave o f c arbonised p lant

1 06

r emains , b ut t hese h ave n ot s o f ar b een a nalysed. T hey a re n evertheless p otentially i mportant i n b eing o ne o f t he v ery f ew d ata w hich m ight i ndicate t he e xtent o f p lant c onsumption b y E arly L SA p opulations.

D iscussion

I n t he e xtensive u se m ade o f q uartz r elative t o o ther r aw m aterials, i n t he h igh f requency o f b ladelet c ores , i ncluding t he s mall-bladelet t ype, a nd o f c ore-reduced p ieces , a s w ell a s i n t he p resence o f m any m ore u nretouched b ladelets a nd f ewer f ormal t ools t han i n t he H olocene l evels a t t he s ite, t he l ithic a ssemblage f rom E lands B ay C ave L ayers 1 6-20 c an b e s een t o s hare m any s imilarities w ith t he R obberg I ndustry a s i t i s k nown f rom o ther p arts o f t he C ape P rovince . T o w hat d egree c ontinuity c an b e t raced b etween i t a nd t he s o f ar u nstudied l ithic a ssemblage f rom b elow L ayer 2 0 i s u nknown, b ut t his w ould b e a n i nteresting f ocus f or f uture r esearch , p articularly w ith a v iew t o c omparison w ith t he s equence a t B oomplaas.

T he i mpression d erived f rom D avis ( 1980) i s o ne o f c onsiderable t echnological c ontinuity b etween t he l ate P leistocene l ayers d iscussed h ere a nd t he e arly H olocene o nes ( Layers 1 0-15) which o verlie t hem. C aution m ust b e e xercised i n c laiming t his, h owever , s ince t he a rtefact f requencies a re l ow i n e ach c ase, a nd i n L ayers 1 0, 1 0a, 1 0b, 1 0c a nd 1 3a a re s o s mall a s t o r ender c onclusions a lmost m eaningless . N evertheless , s mall b ladelet c ores ( = D avis ' " rice-grain" c ores ) o ccur s poradically a s f ar a s L ayer 1 1, w ith i solated e xamples c oming e ven f rom t he l ater H olocene h orizons. T his, i t m ay b e n oted, i s d ifferent f rom t he s ituation a t B yneskranskop a nd a t t he S outhern C ape s ites t he l ithic a ssemblages f rom w hich h ave b een a nalysed b y J . D eacon ( 1984b ); i n a ll o f t hese c ases s mall b ladelet c ores o ccur e xclusively i n l ate P leistocene o ccurrences . H igh-backed b ladelet c ores a re a lso p resent i n t he e arly H olocene l evels a t E lands B ay C ave t o a g reater d egree t han i s t he c ase i n c ontemporary a ssemblages f rom B oomplaas ( BRL M ember ) o r N elson B ay C ave ( CS, B SBJ, J a nd R B u nits ).

A p ossibly s ignificant d eparture f rom t his c ontinuity i n a rtefact m anufacturing t rends i s p rovided b y c hanges i n r aw m aterial f requencies. L ayers 1 0 a nd 1 2-17 h ave m uch h igher h ornfels ( and q uartzite ) f requencies t han d o o ther p arts o f t he E lands B ay C ave s equence, a lthough i n n one o f t hese l ayers d oes t he s ample s ize e xceed 1 ,500 a rtefacts. A s imilar p henomenon h as b een n oted b y P arkington a t t he v ery b ase o f t he d eposit a t D e H angen , a nother , i nland s ite i n t he W estern C ape, w here i t h as b een d ated t o c . 1 2,500 B P ( Parkington p ers. c omm.). F rom t he a vailable d ata o n t he E lands B ay C ave a rtefacts i t i s n ot, h owever , c lear i f t his c oincides w ith a s hift i n a rtefact s ize c omparable t o t hat s een i n t he A lbany I ndustry o f t he S outhern

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1 984b), o r i ndeed i f i t r epresents a s ignificant

r e-orientation i n t he m ovements o f t he g roups o ccupying t hese s ites . F urthermore, t he e xtremely s mall s ize o f t he a rtefact s amples i n s ome o f t hese l ayers r aises t he s trong p ossibility t hat s ample e rror m ay b e p laying a r ole h ere .

P ettigrew ( 1977 ) h as i ndeed t ried t o a pply t he t ripartite R obberg/Albany/Wilton s ub-division o f t he L ater S tone A ge t o t he E lands B ay C ave s equence, b ut t he c ontinuities i n a rtefact m anufacture, a nd t he m ore g radual p attern o f f aunal c hange n oted a bove, s uggest t hat s uch a s ub-division m ay n ot b e s o w idely a pplicable. T he d egree t o w hich c ontinuities c an b e t raced i n a rtefact m anufacture a nd r aw m aterial u se i n t he B oomplaas a nd N elson B ay C ave s equences i s c onsidered i n C hapter 9 . I f p rocesses o f e conomic a nd t echnological c hange b etween t he W estern C ape a nd t he S outhern C ape w ere n ot i dentical, t hen t he p ossible d ifferences i n r esponse t o p alaeoclimatic c hange w hich w ere m entioned i n C hapter 2 m ay p rovide p art o f t he c ontext f or e xplicating t his s ituation .

4 :8 B uffelskloof

I ntroduction

E xcavation o f t his s ite w as c arried o ut i n 1 974-75 b y H . O pperman a nd r eported i n O pperman ( 1978). I t l ies o n t he e dge o f t he L ittle K aroo , i nland o f t he F old M ountain B elt o f t he S outhern C ape P rovince. I t i s o f i nterest i n t he c ontext o f t he E arly L SA b ecause i t h as p roduced i n t he l owermost s tratigraphic u nit r ecognised ( HE2) a l ithic a ssemblage d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial. I mmediately b elow t his a re t wo M SA o ccurrences o f p robable e arly U pper P leistocene a ge, w hile a bove H E2 i s as eries o f l ayers d ating t o t he e arly a nd m iddle H olocene w hich w ill n ot b e d iscussed h ere.

S tratigraphy

L ayer H E i s d escribed a s b eing b etween 4 0 a nd 5 0 c m t hick a nd c onsisting o f a f ine a sh d eposit ( Opperman 1 978:19). I t i s d ivided i n t wo b y a b rown h orizon a nd t he a rtefacts o f i nterest h ere c ome f rom t he l ower p art o f t he l ayer ( Fig. 4 :7 ).

D ates

T hree r adiocarbon d ates w ere o btained f rcm l ayer H E2 ( see Ta ble 3 :2), t he t wo o ldest f rom a d epth o f 1 90 a n i ndicating a n

1 10

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I m S ection o f t he e xcavation

V ertical s cale i n m etres.

1 11

o ccupation d ating t o a bout 2 3,000 B P, a lthough n o m ore t han 5 c m a bove t hese a f urther s ample ( Pta-1805) g ave a d ate o f 1 1,875 + 1 15 B P . K lein ( 1978c:35) p oints o ut t hat t hese d ates i ndicate t hat t here m ust h ave b een a l ong p eriod o f n on-deposition b etween 2 2,000 a nd 1 2,000 B P, w hich i s n ot c learly r epresented i n t he s ection p rofile.

D iscussion

O pperman ( 1978:21) h as s tated t hat d espite t he l ong p eriod c overed b y l ayer H E2 a ll t he a rtefactual m aterial f rom i t i s " typologically h omogeneous a nd c onforms t o t he e xpected t erminal P leistocene I ndustry ." T here i s t herefore n o a pparent b asis f or s eparating m aterial w ithin t his l ayer w hich d ates t o c . 2 3,000 B P f rom t hat d ating t o c .12,000 B P. N o d escription o f t he H E2 a rtefacts w ill t herefore b e o ffered h ere .

I n t he l ight o f t his i t i s d ifficult t o k now w hat t o m ake o f O pperman 's ( 1978) a ttribution o f a ll t he H E2 m aterial t o t he A lbany I ndustry , w hich w as d one b y c orrelation w ith t he c ontents o f L evel 4 a t t he W ilton t ype-site ( Deacon , J . 1 972) a nd b y c onsidering s craper m orphology a nd t he p aucity o f f ormally r etouched a rtefacts. I t s eems u nlikely , g iven t he e vidence f or i ts t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene a ge f rom o ther s ites i n t he S outhern C ape, s uch a s B oamplaas ( only 4 0 k m a way ), t hat t he A lbany I ndustry w as b eing p roduced a s e arly a s t he U pper P leniglacial.

I nstead , w e m ay s uggest t hat t he b ottom p art o f l ayer H E2 c ontains a n a rtefact s ample s o n on-descript t hat i t c annot b e d istinguished, i n t he a bsence o f v isible s tratigraphic s ub-divisions , f rom t he A lbany o r , w e m ight a dd , f rom a ny o ther L SA i ndustry . T he s ignificance o f B uffelskloof f or t he E arly L SA l ies r ather i n i ts f orming p art o f ag eographical p attern o f s ite d istribution w hich s uggests s omething o f t he e cological c onstraints a ffecting E arly L SA p opulations ( see C hapter 7 ).

4 :9 D ikbosch 1

I ntroduction

T he s ite o f D ikbosch 1 l ies i n t he G aap E scarpment o f t he N orthern C ape P rovince a nd w as e xcavated b y A . H umphreys ( 1974) i n 1 973. A f urther e xcavation w as s ubsequently c arried o ut b y D . M orris ( Humphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:159). E xcavation t ook p lace m ainly i n a s eries o f h orizontal s pits r ather t han b y n atural

1 12

s tratigraphic l ayers s ince t hese p roved v ery d ifficult t o r ecognise ( Humphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:142). A f airly s mall s ample o f a rtefacts r ecovered f rom t he l ower p art o f t he 1 973 e xcavation w as f ound t o d ate t o c . 1 3,000 B P a nd i s d iscussed h ere .

S tratigraphy

T he a ssemblage o f i nterest h ere w as f ound o nly i n t he 1 973 e xcavation a nd t his a lone w ill t herefore b e d escribed ( Fig. 4 :8). T he l ower o f t he t wo m ain s tratigraphic u nits i s a " 'brown s oil u nit ' r esting o n s hale b edrock" ( Humphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:146 ) a nd c omprises f our l evels, t ermed L evels I II - V I. T his u nit c ould b e s eparated f rom t he o verlying t wo l evels b y i ts l ower a rtefact f requencies a nd b y am uch l ower a sh a nd c harcoal c ontent.

D ates

F our r adiocarbon d ates w ere o btained f rom t he l ower , b rown s oil u nit a nd t hese a re l isted i n T able 3 :2. T hey s uggest a n o ccupation o f t he s helter t owards t he e nd o f t he L ast G lacial, c . 1 4,000 1 2,500 B P, a nd a lso d ocument a m ajor d epositional b reak b etween t his p eriod a nd t he b eginning o f t he H olocene o ccupation . M orris ' l ater e xcavation h as s hown t hat t his h ad b egun b y c . 8 ,000 B P ( Humphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:159-60 ).

T he L ithic I ndustry

T he l ithic a ssemblage f rom L evels I II - V I i s n ot l arge a nd t he p ossibility t hat i t i s u nrepresentative o f t he t radition t o w hich i t b elongs m ust t herefore b e b orne i n m ind w hen c onsidering t he f ollowing c omments .

R aw m aterial

C rypto-crystalline s ilicas ( "chert ") f orm t he d ominant r aw m aterial e mployed a t D ikbosch 1 , a nd s how a c lear t en dency t o b e m ore c ommon a mong f ormally r etouched a nd u tilised t han a mong u nmodified a rtefacts. W ithin t he u nmodified c ategory t he g reater f requency o f C CS a mong f lakes a nd b lades a s o pposed t o t he c hunk a nd c hip a rtefact c lasses i s a c lear r eflection o f t he m uch s maller q uantity o f u nusable d ebitage w hich i ts f laking p roduces r elative t o t hat o f q uartz. A lthough s ome v ariation i s a pparent f rom o ne l evel t o a nother , q uartz, i s o n t he w hole, t he s econd m ost c ommon m aterial u sed, w ith q uartzite a nd b anded s hale a ccounting f or t he r emainder o f t he l ithic a rtefacts ( Humphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:149; 2 18).

1 13

Ash B at g uano B rown s oil S oil w ith d ecomposed s hale

Fig. 4 :8 Dikbosch 1 . W est and s outh faces o f the t est-pit excavated i n 1 973 ( after Humphreys 1 974).

1 14

F laking t echnology

B ladelet c ores a re p resent i n t he D ikbosch 1a ssemblage, o utnumbering i rregular c ores i n b oth t he a ssemblage a s aw hole a nd i n t he t wo l evels ( III a nd I V) i n w hich t hey o ccur. N o i nformation i s g iven a s t o t he f requency w ith w hich b lades a nd b ladelets , a s o pposed t o f lakes i n t he s tricter s ense o f t he t erm, o ccur a nd n either d o t he m etric d ata p resented h elp t o d etermine t his. I t c annot t herefore b e s tated w hether t his a ssemblage c an b e g rouped w ith t hose e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences f rom o ther p arts o f S outh A frica i n w hich b ladelets a re c ommon ( e.g. S ehonghong; t he R obberg I ndustry ). T he p resence o f t wo p i kes e squillges ( cf. c ore-reduced p ieces ) i s n oted ( Humphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:217), b ut t his c an b e e xpected g iven t hat q uartz w as o ne o f t he r aw m aterials u sed.

U tilisation

T he f requency o f u tilised f lakes a nd b lades r ecorded f or t he b rown s oil u nit i s v ery l ow ; t hey a mount t o n o m ore t han 0 .2 % o f t he t otal l ithic a ssemblage. N o d iscussion o f t he t ype o f u tilisation p resent, o r w hy t he f requency o f u tilised a rtefacts s hould b e s o l ow , i s g iven .

F ormally r etouched a rtefacts

T hese a re a lso r are i n t he b rown s oil u nit a nd m ake u p 1 .0 % o f t he a rtefacts p resent i n L evels I II - V I. T he m ajority o f t hese f ormal t ools a re s crapers, a nd b ecause t hey " were b asically s imilar" t o t hose f rom t he o verlying l ate H olocene u nit t hey w ere a ll c onsidered t o h ave b een i ntroduced i nto t he b rown s oil u nit f rom a bove ( Humphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:151). P resumably t he s ame m ight a lso b e t rue o f t he b acked b lades , a dze a nd b orer w hich a re a lso p resent i n t he b rown s oil u nit . I t m ay b e n oted, h owever , t hat t he S ehonghong d ata s uggest o nly m inimal d ifferences i n s ize a nd f orm t o h ave d ifferentiated s crapers o f t he l ate P leistocene b ladelet i ndustry f rom t hose o f t he o verlying l ate H olocene L SA o ccurrence ( Chapter 3 :2). S ome o f t he f ormal t ools f ound i n t he b rawn s oil u nit a t D ikbosch 1 m ight t herefore b e g enuinely a ssociated w ith t he 1 3,000 B P a ssemblage.

N on-lithic a rtefacts

F ive b one p oints a nd r ecovered f rom L evel p aragraph m ight a lso o ccupation ( Humphreys

t wo o ther w orked f ragments o f b one w ere I II, b ut i n t he l ight o f t he p revious b e a ttributable t o t he l ate H olocene 1 974:119). A l arge n umber o f f ragments o f

1 15

o strich e ggshell, i ncluding t hree w ith e vidence o f d ecoration , a nd a s mall n umber o f w hole a nd u nfinished b eads, a s w ell a s t hree f ragments i dentifiable a s f lask a pertures , a lso c ame f rom L evels I II - V I ( Humohreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:152-56 ). S ome a t l east o f t his m aterial c ould p resumably b e a ttributable t o t he 1 3,000 B P o ccupation .

F auna

T he m acramammalian f aunal r emains f rom D ikbosch 1 h ave b een a nalysed b y R . G . K lein ( Humphreys 1 974:117-18; H umphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:158). T he i dentification o f s heep i n L evel I II c onfirms t hat t his l ayer h as e ither h ad l ater m aterial i ntruded i nto i t o r t hat a t l east p art o f i t i s n ot o f l ate P leistocene a ge. A nalysis o f t he s mall m ammal f auna b y D . M . A very a nd N . D ippenaar i dentified t he m oisture-loving s hrew C rocidura f lavescens i n t he b rown s oil u nit o nly , s uggesting t he o ccurrence o f aw etter p eriod s ometime b efore t he l ate H olocene o ccupation o f t he s ite ( Humphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:158).

D iscussion

T he v ery s mall s ize o f t he a ssemblage f rom t he b rown s oil u nit a t D ikbosch 1 a nd t he p ossibility t hat a t l east a ll o f t he f ormally r etouched a rtefacts i n i t a re i ntrusive a nd d erive f rom t he o verlying H olocene o ccupation o f t he s ite m ake i t v ery d ifficult t o d raw f irm c onclusions. H umphreys a nd T hackeray ( 1983:278) h ave s uggested t hat i t m ight p erhaps b e a ttributable t o t he K uruman I ndustry, a s ub-division o f t he O akhurst C omplex, w hich h as b een i dentified a t W onderwerk C ave, a nd p ossibly a t L ittle W itkrans s helter a nd t he s urface s ite o f K oning; a ll o f t hese s ites a re a lso l ocated i n t he N orthern C ape. B ut i f t he b ladelet c ores f ound i n t he b rown s oil u nit d o b elong t here r ather t han w ith t he l ater H olocene o ccurrence, t hen m ight n ot t he p ossibility a lso e xist o f s ome k ind o f c onnection w ith t he b ladelet-dominated e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages r eviewed i n t his c hapter ? F urther r esearch i n t he N orthern C ape m ay h elp t o p rovide a c ontext f or t he D ikbosch 1 a ssemblage, b ut a t t he p resent t ime i t i s e qually s ignificant i n d emonstrating L SA o ccupation o f t his p art o f S outh A frica f rom a s e arly a s 1 3,500 B P.

1 16

C HAPTER F IVE E ARLY M ICROL1THIC A SSEMBLAGES F ROM N ATAL A ND T HE T RANSVAAL

5 :1 B order C ave

I ntroduction

T his s ite i s l ocated i n t he I ngwavuma D istrict o f N orthern N atal v ery c lose t o t he S outh A frican/Swaziland b order a nd w as f irst e xcavated b y D art i n 1 934 a nd t hen b y C ooke i n 1 941-42. A ll r ecent d iscussion o f t he s ite, h owever, i s b ased u pon t he e xtensive e xcavations c arried o ut b y P . B . B eaumont i n 1 970-71 ( Beaumont 1 978;

B eaumont e t a l.

1 978).

S tratigraphy

T he s ite h as a n e xtensive s equence o f d eposits r anging f rom r ecent I ron A ge o ccupation a t t he t op t o M SA l ayers i n e xcess o f 1 00,000 y ears o ld a t t he b ase. M aterial a ttributed t o t he E arly L SA c omes f rom t wo u nits, 1 BS.LR a nd 1 WA, n ear t he t op o f t his s equence ( Fig. 5 :1). T he s ite 's l ithostratigraphy h as b een c omprehensively d escribed b y B utzer e t a l. ( 1978a) a nd t he r elevant d escription i s a s f ollows:

1 BS.LR/1WA . T his i s a n i mportant g boulis h orizon w ith e ffective f rost-weathering h aving t aken p lace d uring i ts p eriod o f d eposition , f irst a ccelerating a nd t hen d ecelerating, s uggesting a m ainly c old , a nd a gain p ossibly w et, c limate.

D ates

S everal r adiocarbon d ates h ave b een o btained f or l ayers 1 BS.LR a nd 1 WA ( Beaumont e t a l. 1 978:412) a nd t hese a re l isted i n T able 3 :2. V ogel h as s uggested t hat t he o ldest o f t hese d ates ( Pta-1190, 4 5,000 B P) m ay b e d ue t o m ixing w ith c harcoal f rom t he u nderlying l evel 2 BS.UP a nd t hat t he w hole o f l ayer 1 WA i s t herefore o f a s imilar a ge t o 1 BS.LR. B eaumont e t a l. ( 1978 ) h ave c onsequently a rgued t hat b oth l ayers d ate t o a bout 3 8,000 B P. A t erminus a nte q uem f or t he e nd o f t his E arly L SA o ccupation m ay b e g iven b y a f urther d ate o f 2 8,500 + 1 ,800 B P f or t he b ottom o f t he l ayer 1 BS.UP.

o verlying

H owever, a c autionary n ote a bout t he a cceptability o f t hese d ates m ay b e s ounded b y A very 's ( 1982b:196 ) s uggestion t hat t he m icromammalian s amples a ssociated w ith t he E arly L SA l evels i ndicate c limatic c onditions s uggestive

1 17

o f

t he

t ransition

f rom

4 C D 4 ) c • i c d . . . . . , \ .0 • • a . 4 g i 4 ) C O 4 4 0 r 4 r 1 c C 1 i t 4 ) t n « I a ) a ) . 0 4) h 0 0 ✓ I c d 0 9 1 + I 0 0 c i )

.

•. . Q ) c o i > c d C 7 • C . . ) . g A a )

rö g • O al

•I r 1 C d +3 1 an

e• +) •• Z LA

• t e

. 1 4

1 18

0 H c d

a )

o xygen-isotope s tages 3 t o 2a nd m ay t hus d ate t o n earer t o t he a dvent o f t he U pper P leniglacial, w hich b egan c . 2 5,000 B P, t han t he r adiocarbon d ates w ould i ndicate. S uch a r edating w ould a lso b e m ore c onsistent w ith t he g eneral p attern o f r adiocarbon d ates n ow e merging f or e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica ( Chapter 8 ), a nd i t i s t he d egree t o w hich B order C ave s eems a nomalous i n t erms o f t his p attern t hat s uggests t hat i ts E arly L SA o ccurrence i s u nlikely t o d ate t o a s o ld a s + 3 8,000 B P.

L ithic I ndustry

B eaumont ( in B eaumont e t a l. 1 978:411) h as d escribed t he l ithic a ssemblage f rom l ayers 1 BS.LR a nd 1 WA a s o ne i n w hich

" minute s caled p ieces o f q uartz a nd c halcedony a re p articularly d istinctive. F lakes a re p artly c omprised o f c rude r hyolite i rregulars w ith p reponderantly p lain p latforms."

H e h as a lso s tated t hat

" Formal t ools a re e xtremely r are a nd c onfined t o s crapers, w hile g eometric m icroliths a re s eemingly e ntirely a bsent. D etachment w as p reponderantly b y w ay o f t he b ipolar t echnique..." ( Beaumont 1 978:170).

T he f ollowing, m ore d etailed c omments a re h is M .A . t hesis ( Beaumont 1 978).

d rawn

l argely

f rom

R aw m aterial

C rypto-crystalline s ilicas a re b y f ar t he m ost c ommon r aw m aterial e mployed i n t he p roduction o f t he 1 BS.LR a nd 1 WA a ssemblages , a ccounting f or o ver 6 0 % o f t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts. Q uartz i s t he n ext m ost c ommon m aterial, w ith q uartzite a nd t wo d ifferent v arieties o f r hyolite b eing i ncluded a mong t he o ther m aterials p resent . T hese c omments a pply t o t he a ssemblages a s c omplete e ntities a nd t o t he u nmodified a rtefacts i n p articular. F ormally r etouched a rtefacts a re m ade e xclusively f rom r hyolite a nd c rypto-crystalline s ilicas, d emonstrating a t endency t owards a r educed u se o f m ore b rittle q uartz t hat i s c ommon t o m any o f t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica.

F laking t echnology

B eaumont 's c lassification o f t he m aterial d emonstrates t hat t he

1 19

b ipolar t echnique w as v ery c ommonly u sed, w ith b ipolar c ores a ccounting f or 9 4.3 % o f a ll q uartz a nd 8 2.0 % o f a ll c rypto-crystalline c ores. N o f lat o r s mall b ladelet c ores w ere r ecognised b y B eaumont i n t he c ourse o f h is a nalysis ( having b een i ncluded i n h is b ipolar c ore c lass ), a lthough a f ew , i n b oth q uartz a nd c halcedony, w ere n oted d uring a p artial e xamination o f t hese a ssemblages c arried o ut a t t he M cGregor M useum, K imberley i n N ovember 1 985. G iven t hat t hese c ore-types a re q uite c ommon i n t he q uartz-dominated a ssemblages , n ot o nly o f t he S outhern a nd S outh-Western C ape b ut a lso o f t he M agaliesberg, t heir p resence a t B order C ave s hould n ot o ccasion s urprise.

C ore-reduced p ieces , w hich a re r eferred t o i n B eaumont 's t hesis a nd p ublications o n t he s ite a s " scaled p ieces ," a re v ery c ommon, m aking u p a lmost 2 % o f t he t otal E arly L SA a ssemblage. U nusually, t he m ajority o f t hem a re i n c halcedony r ather t han q uartz, s uggesting t hat t he s ame m ethods o f w orking w ere b eing a pplied t o b oth r aw m aterials. A t rend t owards t he s ame p attern i s a lso n oticeable i n s ome o f t he R obberg I ndustry u nits a t B oomplaas. B ladelet f requency i s v ery l ow a nd t his i s c onsistent w ith t he s mall n umber o f b ladelet c ores w hich s eem t o b e p resent . T he r arity o f b ladelets a t B order C ave c an c learly n ot b e a ccounted f or b y p ositing a n a bsence o f r aw m aterials s uitable f or t heir m anufacture , a s B eaumont ( 1978:133 ) h as s uggested m ay h ave b een t he c ase a t H euningneskrans. T he h igh f requency o f c rypto-crystalline m aterials i n t he E arly L SA a ssemblages m akes t his p lain. S ome o ther r eason m ust t herefore b e s ought ( see C hapter 8 ).

T wo f eatures o therwise c haracteristic o f M SA r ather t han o f L SA o ccurences a re f ound i n t he 1 BS .LR a nd 1 WA a ssemblages. F irstly, B eaumont ( 1978:102) r ecords t hat a pproximately 1 0 %o f t he f lakes i n t hese t wo l ayers r etain f aceted p latforms a nd s econdly h e m entions t he p resence o f " a f ew v ery c rude r adial p repared c ores ." M SA f lake-blades a nd p oints a re , h owever , a bsent . T he s ignificance o f t hese o bservations w ill b e d iscussed b elow a nd i n C hapter 8 .

U tilisation

N o i nformation i s g iven i n B eaumont ( 1978) a s t o t he f requency w ith w hich u tilised a rtefacts a ppear , a nd m ore g enerally i t i s u nclear f rom h is a ccount o f t he e ntire B order C ave s equence t o w hat e xtent a d istinction h as b een d rawn b etween u tilised a nd f ormally r etouched a rtefacts . I t m ay b e s uggested, h owever , t hat t he h igh f requency o f c rypto-crystalline s ilica a rtefacts w ould l end i tself t o t he a pplication o f m icrowear a nalysis.

F ormally r etouched a rtefacts

A s a lready i ndicated, t hese a re r emarkably f ew i n t he B order C ave E arly L SA a ssemblages. O nly f ive s crapers w ere r ecovered, a nd

1 20

b acked a rtefacts o r o ther r etouched p ieces a re c ompletely a bsent.

N on-lithic a rtefacts

A s w ell a s t he o ccurrence o f o chre f ragments a nd s ix A cacia t horns , w hich s eem t o h ave b een u sed a s i mplements , t he p resence i n t hese l ayers o f g round b one p oints , s mall b ored s tones a nd o strich e ggshell b eads i s p articularly s ignificant s ince a ll a re t ypical o f t he L ater S tone A ge ( Beaumont e t a l. 1 978:411).

F auna

T he m acromammalian f auna f rom B order C ave h as b een a nalysed b y R . G . K lein ( 1977 ), w hile t he p alaeoenvironmental i mplications o f t he s mall m ammal f auna h ave b een i nvestigated b y D . M . A very ( 1982b ). B ecause o f i ntense f ragmentation o f t he b ones p resent, t he m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals w hich i t w as p ossible t o i dentify a re f ew , b ut t hey a re s ufficient t o i ndicate t he p resence o f a b ush-loving f auna ( bushpig, C ape b uffalo , t ragelaphine a ntelopes a nd i mpala). T his s uggests a m ore c losed v egetation t han t hat w hich o ccurs n ear t he s ite t oday ( Klein 1 977:18-19). T hat a ll t he s pecies r epresented, w ith t he e xception o f t he e xtinct s pringbok A ntidorcas b ondi, w ere p resent i n t he a rea h istorically s uggests , n evertheless , t hat a m osaic o f t hickets, g rassland a nd s avanna h as b een a c onstant f eature o f t he U pper P leistocene e nvironment n ear B order C ave ( Klein 1 977 :18-19).

I t i s i nteresting t hat t he B order C ave l arge m ammal f auna d oes n ot s how t he s ame c ontrast b etween M SA a nd L SA i n t he r elative f requencies o f e land a nd s uids a s d o f aunas f rom t he S outhern C ape. T his m ay i ndicate, a lthough s ample s izes a re s mall, t hat t he i mprovement i n h unting a bilities w hich K lein h as p ostulated t o e xplain t his c ontrast d eveloped o nly a fter t he E arly L SA o ccupation o f B order C ave ( Klein 1 977 :21-23).

T he U nderlying M SA A ssemblage i n L ayer 2 BS a t B order C ave

T his a ssemblage i s e stimated f rom b oth f inite a nd i nfinite r adiocarbon d ates , a s w ell a s f rom c orrelations w ith o xygen-isotope s ubstages b ased o n s edimentary a nd m icrofaunal d ata , t o d ate t o a bout 5 5 - 6 5,000 B P. T he d ata p resented b y B eaumont ( 1978) i ndicate t hat i t i s q uite d ifferent f rom t he 1 BS.LR a nd 1 WA a ssemblages. A mong r aw m aterials f or i nstance, r hyolite i s m ost c ommonly u sed, w ith c halcedony b eing e mployed t o l ess t han h alf t he e xtent i t w as u sed i n t he E arly L SA . F laking t echnology i s a lso d ifferent, w ith l ess t han 1 3 %o f a ll c ores b eing d escribed a s b ipolar. I nstead , r adially p repared c ores , w hich a re a d istinctive f eature o f M SA t echnology, a ccount f or a lmost a q uarter o f t he c ores p resent . B lade f requency i s a lso m uch i ncreased o ver t hat o f t he E arly L SA a nd a s mall n umber o f p oints o ccurs. F inally , t he n umber o f u tilised/retouched a rtefacts

1 21

i s g reater t han i n l evels 1 BS .LR/1WA , w ith t rimmed p oints , d enticulates a nd a s mall n umber o f b acked p ieces b eing r ecorded.

D iscussion

T he s ignificance o f t he B order C ave a ssemblage i n t he t ransition f rom M SA t o L SA l ithic t echnologies w ill b e c onsidered i n C hapters 8 a nd 9 a nd t he c omments w hich w ill b e m ade h ere w ill t herefore b e r estricted t o o nly a f ew p oints . F oremost a mong t hese i s t hat w hile t he a ssemblages f rom 1 BS.LR a nd 1 WA h ave b een a ttributed t o t he E arly L SA , t he n ear a bsence o f b ladelets a nd o f a ny i ndication i n t he c ore-types p resent o f ap articular i nterest i n t heir p roduction s uggest t hat t hese o ccurrences , l ike t hose f rom t he M agaliesberg, d iffer q uite s ignificantly f rom o ther e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outh A frica. T his w ould b e c onsistent w ith a d ate f or t he B order C ave E arly L SA a ssemblage e arlier t han t hose f or t he b ladelet-dominated e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences s uch a s t hat f rom S ehonghong a nd t hose a ssigned t o t he R obberg I ndustry . K lein 's ( 1977 ) a nalysis o f t he l arge m ammal f auna , w hich d id n ot s how a ny s ignificant d ifference b etween E arly L SA a nd M SA h unting p roficiency m ight s upport t his. T he p ossibility t hat t here m ay b e s ome c onflict b etween t he r adiocarbon c hronology f or t he s ite a nd t he m icromammalian e vidence h as a lso b een r aised, a nd t his i ndicates t hat i t w ould b e u seful t o d evelop t he a nalysis o f o ther s ources o f p alaeoenvironmental d ata a s a f urther c heck u pon b oth t hese s ets o f o bservations.

5 :2 H euningneskrans

I ntroduction

T he s ite o f H euningneskrans l ies i n t he L ydenburg d istrict o f t he E astern T ransvaal n ear t he f oot o f t he D rakensberg M ountains . E xcavations w ere c arried o ut b y P . B eaumont i n 1 968 a nd h ave b een r eported b y h im ( Beaumont 1 978; B eaumont 1 981), a lthough f ull d etails o f t he a ssemblages f ound h ave n ot y et b een p ublished. T he s ite i s o f p articular i nterest i n a s m uch a s i t i s o ne w here c laims h ave b een m ade f or a v ery e arly d ate , i n e xcess o f 3 0,000 B P, f or t he a dvent o f t he L ater S tone A ge ( Beaumont a nd V ogel 1 972). T he f aunal r emains f rom t he K lein ( 1984b).

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T he f ollowing d escription i s b ased l argely u pon B eaumont 's ( 1978; 1 981) a ccounts , s upplemented w here a ppropriate b y t he r esults o f t he e xamination o f a s ystematic o ne-third s ample o f a ll o f t he e xcavated a rtefacts w hich w as c arried o ut i n t he M cGregor M useum, K imberley i n N ovember 1 985.

1 22

S tratigraphy

T he e xcavated d eposit, w hich w as d ug i n a rbitrary s pits o f a t hickness o f 7 .5 c m " parallel t o t he h orizontal m odern s urface" ( Beaumont 1 981:134 ), w as d ivided b y t he e xcavator i nto t hree z ones. E ach o f t hese w as s ubsequently s ub-divided o n t he b asis o f t he h orizontal s pread o f t he a rtefacts r ecovered. A m ore d etailed a nalysis o f t he d eposit 's s ediments h as b een c arried o ut b y B utzer ( 1984a:59-62). M aterial a ttributed t o t he L SA c omes m ainly f rom B eaumont 's s trata 2 a nd 3 , d escribed r espectively a s " interdigitating w hite-black a sh a nd b rown s and l enses" a nd a " perceptibly c alcified b rown s and w ith o ccasional a sh l enses" ( Beaumont 1 981:135).

D ates

A n e xtensive s eries o f r adiocarbon d ates h as b een o btained a t t his s ite ( Vogel a nd M arais 1 971) a nd t hese h ave b een c omplemented b y f ive a mino-acid r acemization d ates ( Beaumont 1 981:137 ). A ll o f t hese d ates a re l isted i n T able 3 :2, t o w hich r eference s hould b e m ade. T he r adiocarbon d ates s uggest t hat s trata 3 e a nd 3 f d ate t o a pproximately 2 4 ,000 B P a nd t his i s i n g ood a greement w ith t he c orresponding r acemization d ates . T he u nderlying s tratum 3 g i s d ated, b y t he a mino-acid m ethod a lone , t o 3 1,000 B P a nd B eaumont ( 1981:137) h as e xtrapolated t he r ate o f s edimentation i n t he u pper p art o f t he d eposit t o e stimate t hat L SA o ccupation b egan a t t his s ite c . 3 2,000 B P.

B efore s uch a n e arly d ate c an b e a ccepted a n umber o f c autionary r emarks m ust b e m ade. T he f irst o f t hese c oncerns t he n ature o f t he a mino-acid r acemization t echnique i tself, o ne o f t he b asic a ssumptions o f w hich i s t hat r acemization h as p roceeded u nder c onditions o f c onstant t emperature ( Sherratt 1 980:417). C learly , h owever , t his i s n ot l ikely t o h ave b een t he c ase f or a ny s ample p urporting t o d ate t o a ny p art o f t he L ast G lacial, d uring w hich t emperatures i n t he T ransvaal h ave b een e stimated t o h ave f allen t o a s m uch a s 7 .5°C l ower t han t hose o f t oday ( Talma e t a l. 1 974).

B utzer 's ( 1984a:59-62) a nalysis o f t he H euningneskrans s edimentary r ecord m ay a lso c ast d oubt u pon t he v alidity o f t he e arly d ate c laimed b y B eaumont f or t he b eginning o f t he L SA h ere . H e r eports t hat t he l ower s trata o f t he d eposit a re f ormed b y m uch s ilty m aterial d erived f rom a k arst s pring e xit. I n t he a bsence o f a d ate f or t hese l owermost s trata u sing a m ethod, s uch a s r adiocarbon, w hich i s i ndependent o f p alaeoclimatic a ssumptions , t he p ossibility c annot b e o verlooked t hat t he s edimentation r ate i n t he l ower p art o f t he d eposit h as b een a ffected b y t he m uch i ncreased a ctivity o f t his s pring r esurgence.

T wo o ther p oints a lso d eserve m ention . T he f irst o f t hese c oncerns t he m anner i n w hich t he s ite w as e xcavated. A lthough

1 23

B eaumont ( 1981:134 ) s tates t hat e xcavation i n a rbitrary s pits w as r esorted t o b ecause o f t he a bsence o f a ny " easily i dentifiable s tratification ," t he a bsence o f a p ublished s ection d oes n ot a llow a n a ssessment t o b e m ade o f t he s tratigraphic i ntegrity o f t he u nits i n t erms o f w hich t he a rtefacts w ere a nalysed. T he r esult o f t his i s t hat o ne c annot b e s ure t hat t he d ated s amples o f b one, m ollusc s hell a nd c harcoal a re c orrectly a ssociated w ith t he a rtefacts w hich t hey a re s upposed t o b e d ating. S ince, a s n oted a bove, B eaumont ( 1981:134-35) n ot o nly r ecords t hat t he s pits w ere h orizontal t o t he m odern c ave s urface, b ut t hat t he o ccupation l enses i n a t l east p art o f t he d eposit i nterdigitated w ith o ne a nother t his m ust c learly b e r eckoned t o b e a s trong p robability .

L astly, d iscussion o f t he n eighbouring s ite o f B ushman R ock S helter , w here W adley ( pers. c omm.) h as i dentified a s mall, b ut d efinite , e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage, w ill s how t hat t his p ermits a r eassessment t o b e m ade o f t he c onflicting r adiocarbon d ates f or t hat s ite . T hough r e-excavation w ould b e n eeded t o c onfirm t his h ypothesis , i t i s n evertheless p ossible t o a rgue t hat t he M SA a t B ushman R ock p ersisted u ntil a t l east 2 7,400 + 1 ,600 B P ( UCLA-1755B). I f t his i s c orrect t hen i t i s i nherently i mplausible t hat a c ompletely d ifferent l ithic t echnology s hould h ave b een p ractised s ome 5 ,000 y ears e arlier a t H euningneskrans , n o m ore t han 4 k m a way . T o s ummarize t hese r emarks, w e m ay s ay t hat a lthough t he L SA o ccupation a t H euningneskrans m ay w ell e xtend b ack t o t he o nset o f t he U pper P leniglacial, s erious o b jections c an b e r aised a gainst t he c laim t hat i t h ad i n f act b egun s everal m illenia e arlier a t c . 3 2,000 B P.

T he L ithic I ndustry

R aw m aterial

A s B eaumont ( 1981) m akes e vident, v ein q uartz i s t he d ominant m aterial u sed i n a ll t he s trata i dentified i n t he H euningneskrans s equence, w ith h ornfels a ccounting f or m ost o f t he r emainder o f t he a rtefactual m aterial. C rypto-crystalline s ilicas, q uartzite a nd a v ery w eathered f orm o f s hale ( Beaumont 1 978:607) a re a ll o f r are o ccurrence . T he s ample i nvestigated d uring t he c ourse o f t he p resent r esearch c learly i ndicates , h owever , t hat n on-quartz m aterials a re d ominant a mong b oth u tilised a nd r etouched a rtefacts, d emonstrating o nce a gain a p attern t hat i s c ommon t o m any q uartz-dominated a ssemblages. A lthough r aw m aterial f requencies d o v ary s omewhat f rom o ne s tratum t o a nother ( Beaumont 1 978:609-20) n o c onsistent l ong-term t rends a re e vident .

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1 24

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m icro-bladelets o ccur i n t he u pper u nits o f s tratum 3 , b ut h as n ot r emarked u pon a ny o ther c haracteristics o f t he E arly L SA a ssemblage 's f laking t echnology. T he p resence o f a h igh f requency o f b ipolar c ores i s , h owever , i ndicated o n e xamination o f t he t ables a ccompanying B eaumont ( 1978) a nd t hese a lso i ndicate t hat m any s caled p ieces ( = c ore-reduced p ieces ) a re p resent. I n t he l ight o f r esearch b y D ickson ( 1977 ) a nd o thers a nd o f c omments m ade i n C hapter 6 , h igh f requencies o f t hese a rtefact-types a re t o b e e xpected i n a q uartz-dominated a ssemblage s ince t he b ipolar t echnique i s t he o nly s atisfactory m anner i n w hich q uartz c an b e w orked. I t m ay b e n oted t hat t he d ominance o f t he b ipolar t echnique i s u naffected b y t he c hanges i n c ore-type f requencies r evealed b y T able 5 :1.

T hese c omments c an b e a mplified b y c onsidering t he r esults o btained f rom e xamination o f a s ystematic o ne-third s ample o f t he H euningneskrans m aterial. T his i ndicates t hat t he c ore-types i n s tratum 3 a re d ominated b y av ariety o f b ladelet c ores , i ncluding n ot o nly h igh-backed f orms b ut a lso b oth f lat a nd s mall b ladelet c ores. S everal o f t he c ore-reduced p ieces p resent h ave a lso c learly h ad b ladelets , a s w ell a s f lakelets , s truck f rom t hem. C ore f requencies a s o bserved i n t his s ample a re l isted i n T able 5 :1. I t c an b e s een t hat t here i s ad istinct a nd c onsistent f all i n t he r atio o f b ladelet t o n on-bladelet c ores f rom t he b ottom t o t he t op o f t he s equence.

I t i s n oteworthy t hat f lat b ladelet a nd s mall b ladelet c ores a ppear t o i ntergrade w ith o ne a nother a s f ar a s s ize i s c oncerned, i n c ontrast t o t he m arked s ize d istinction b etween t he t wo c ore-types w hich i s p resent, f or e xample, i n t he R obberg I ndustry a t B oomplaas. N evertheless , a ll t hose c ores i dentified a s f lat-bladelet c ores a t H euningneskrans d o s how t he c haracteristic f lat p latform r ather t han t he t ypically c ylindrical s hape o f t he s mall b ladelet c ores .

O ne m ay n ote t hat d espite t he o bviously l arge n umbers o f b ladelet c ores p resent, t he f requency o f b ladelets i s s till l ow i n a ll s trata , a s i s i ndicated b y t he f requencies r eported i n B eaumont ( 1978:609-20; a nd s ee T able 5 :1). E rror i n t he s ampling o f s patial v ariability o n-site o r t he r emoval o f b ladelets o ff-site c ould , o f c ourse, a ccount f or t his a nomaly , b ut i t m ay b e n oted t hat a s imilar d iscrepancy b etween b ladelet c ore f requency a nd b ladelet f requency w as a lso o bserved f or t he E arly L SA a ssemblages f rom t he t wo M agaliesberg s ites o f C ave J ames a nd J ubilee S helter . A n a lternative p ossibility m ight b e t o s uggest t hat t he f requencies o f t he s pecialized ( flat a nd s mall) b ladelet c ores a re n ot a lways a ccurate p redictors o f b ladelet f requency. T his c ould a rise i f t hese c ores h ad i n f act b een u sed m ainly f or t he p roduction o f f lakes , w ith a s witch t o a c oncentration o n b ladelet m anufacture o nly a s t hey r eached t he e nd o f t heir u se-lives a nd n othing e lse c ould b e p roduced f rom t hem.

I t m ay b e n oted t hat B eaumont ( 1981:139) i s n ot c orrect t o i mply t hat t he p resence o f c hert b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores i s

1 25

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" characteristic" o f t he u pper p arts o f s tratum 3 . I n t he s ample e xamined d uring t he p resent r esearch b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores m ade f rom c rypto-crystalline s ilica m aterials a ccounted f or n o m ore t han 1 .2 a nd 0 .4 % o f a ll s uch a rtefacts r espectively .

B eaumont ( 1978:621-35 a nd F igs. 2 -5; 1 981:140-42) h as p resented d ata r elating t o c hanges t hrough t ime i n v arious m etric a ttributes f or b oth q uartz a nd h ornfels f lakes. T hese s how s ignificant t rends w hich t end t o c onfirm h is t ypological s ubdivision o f t he s equence. U tilisation

B eaumont ( 1978 ) p rovides n o i nformation o n t he o ccurrence o f u tilised a rtefacts o ther t han h ammerstones, a lmost a ll o f w hich a re m ade f rom e ither h ornfels o r q uartzite . A ll t hree k inds o f u tilised f lakes ( simply u tilised, s teeply u tilised a nd n otched) d o o ccur, h owever , t hough o nly t wo b lades w ere i dentified a s b earing a ny v isible t race o f u tilisation . M icrowear s tudies h ave n ot b een u ndertaken , b ut r esults r eported b y S ussman ( 1985) d o s uggest t hat t hey c an b e a pplied s uccessfully t o t he a nalysis o f a t l east s ome q uartz a rtefacts .

F ormally r etouched a rtefacts

B eaumont ( 1978) r eports t he o ccurrence o f n o m ore t han 1 9 s crapers i n u nits 3 b t o 3 h i nclusive, a nd o f n o o ther f ormal t ools a t a ll. E xamination o f o ne-third o f t he m aterial f rom t hese u nits w as a ble, h owever , t o e xtend t his s lightly b y n oting t he p resence o f a s ingle a dze, a r etouched b lade a nd a b acked b ladelet m ade f rom c halcedony . B ut t he c onclusion t hat t he o verall f requency o f f ormally r etouched a rtefacts i n t he H euningneskrans E arly L SA a ssemblage i s l ow i s n ot a ffected b y t hese o bservations. M uch h igher s craper f requencies a re r eported b y B eaumont f or t he o verlying s trata a nd t he p resent e xamination i dentified a f urther a dze i n u nit 3 a.

N on-lithic a rtefacts

B eaumont ( 1981:139-42) r ecords t he o ccurrence i n s tratum 3 b o f a s lightly g round b ut f ragmentary b ushpig l ower c anine s imilar t o s pecimens f ound i n b oth E arly L SA a nd M SA l evels a t B order C ave. T he e xamination o f o ne-third o f t he H euningneskrans s ample a lso i dentified t he p resence o f ap olished b one f ragment i n u nit 3 f a nd o f a g rooved p iece o f o chre i n u nit 3 e. B eaumont ( 1978:609-20) n otes t he p resence o f a s mall n umber o f s hell b eads i n u nits 3 b, 3 c a nd 3 h a s w ell a s i n t he u pper p arts o f t he s equence.

1 27

F auna

T he H euningneskrans f auna h as b een a nalysed b y K lein ( 1984b) w ho h as s hown t hat i t i ncludes t he s ame s pecies a s a re r epresented i n t erminal P leistocene a nd H olocene f aunas i n t he E astern T ransvaal a nd S waziland. T his i ndicates t hat g lobal d epression o f t emperature d uring t he l ate L ast G lacial, a nd w hatever c hanges i n p recipitation p atterns t hat m ay a lso h ave t aken p lace, d id n ot h ave a s s ignificant a n i mpact o n p lant a nd a nimal d istributions i n t his r egion a s t hey d id i n t he S outhern C ape P rovince. A nalysis o f t he h unting t echniques w hich m ay h ave b een e mployed i s d ifficult b ecause o f t he s mall s ample s ize, b ut d oes d emonstrate a c oncentration o n t he h unting o f s mall- a nd m edium-sized u ngulates.

B otanical r emains

B eaumont ( 1981:142) h as r eported t he o ccurrence i n s tratum 3 o f r are b otanical r emains . T he p resence o f a n ut a nd a p robable l egume s eed a re a mong t he v ery f ew p otentially e dible p lants h itherto k nown f rom l ate P leistocene c ontexts , b ut u nfortunately t heir v ery s carcity a t H euningneskrans m eans t hat t hey c an a dd l ittle t o o ur k nowledge o f L ast G lacial s ubsistence p atterns .

D iscussion

B eaumont ( 1981:139-42) h as i dentified f our s uccessive a ssemblages i n t he H euningneskrans s equence, t he l owermost o f w hich, a t t he b ase o f s tratum 3 h, c onsists o f n o m ore t han s ix p atinated h ornfels f lakes. T hese a re d efinitely o lder t han t he o ther h ornfels a rtefacts p resent a nd a re p robably o f M SA o rigin. T he L SA h e d ivides i nto t hree a ssemblages o ccurring i n s trata l a-lb, 2 -3a a nd 3 b-3h r espectively . T hey h ave b een l abelled " Albany-like," " intermediate" a nd " Robberg-like," ( Beaumont 1 981:139). I t s hould b e n oted, h owever , t hat t he t erm " Albany-like" m ay b e s omething o f am isnomer, s ince t he A lbany I ndustry o f t he S outhern C ape i s p articularly a ssociated w ith t he u se o f q uartzite a s a r aw m aterial, w ith t he p roduction o f l arge s crapers a nd s ide-struck f lakes a nd w ith t he i ncreased d evelopment o f b one t ools ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976 ; D eacon , J . 1 978:100 ); n one o f t hese f eatures i s s trongly r epresented a t H euningneskrans .

A s f ar a s t he l ithic a rtefacts a re c oncerned, t he o nly c omment m ade i s t hat t he " Robberg-like" a ssemblage i s c haracterised i n i ts u pper u nits b y c hert b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores ( Beaumont 1 981:139), b ut, a s w e h ave a lready s een , c rypto-crystalline s ilicas a re a lmost e ntirely a bsent f r o m t he H euningneskrans s equence . A h igher b ladelet c ore f requency i s , h owever, f ound i n t his l owermost o ccurrence, a lthough a s s uggested a bove t his m ay n ot n ecessarily i mply a s imilarly h igh f requency o f b ladelet p roduction . I t i s n ot c orrect t o i mply t hat t his l ow b ladelet f requency i s d ue t o t he r arity o f s uitable ( crypto-crystalline ) r aw m aterials ( pace B eaumont 1 978:133 ) s ince t he R obberg I ndustry

1 28

o f t he S outhern C ape a mply d emonstrates t hat b ladelets c an b e m ade f rom q uartz. B eaumont ( 1978:134 ) h as s uggested t hat t he s hifts i n m etric p arameters a re c onsistent w ith a g radual c hange f rom h is " Robbery-like" t o h is " intermediate" a ssemblages a nd h as a lso s tated t hat t he l atter " is b est r egarded a s a n a utochthonous d evelopment f rom t he p receding i ndustry" ( Beaumont 1 981:139 ). C ontinuities b etween t he a ssemblages w hich h e h as i dentified a re a lso e vident i n b oth t he r aw m aterial a nd a rtefact f requencies w hich h e r eports a nd t hose w hich a re p resented h ere . T hus q uartz a nd, t o a m uch s maller d egree, h ornfels d ominate a ll t he s trata f rom 3 h t o l a a nd u tilised a nd r etouched a rtefacts a re r are i n b oth t he 2 a-3a a nd 3 b-3h a ssemblages. T hough l ess a pparent i n t he l ater o ccurrences, f lat a nd s mall b ladelet c ores c ontinued t o b e p roduced i nto t he t erminal P leistocene a nd H olocene , i n c ontrast t o t he p attern t hat h as b een r eported f rom t he S outhern C ape ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:373).

T he s ignificance o f t he H euningneskrans s equence w ithin t he S outh A frican E arly L SA a s aw hole w ill b e c onsidered m ore f ully i n s ubsequent c hapters. H ere i t i s o nly n ecessary t o s tate t hat t here a re p otentially s erious p roblems i n a ccepting t hat L SA o ccupation a t t his s ite h ad b egun a s e arly a s 3 2 ,000 B P a nd t hat a d ate c loser t o t he s tart o f t he U pper P leniglacial m ay b e m ore a ppropriate .

5 :3 J ubilee S helter a nd C ave J ames

I ntroduction

B oth o f t hese s ites a re l ocated i n t he M agaliesberg r ange n orth-west o f J ohannesburg. J ubilee S helter l ies i n a s mall k loof i n t he n orthern f oothills o f t he M agaliesberg w hile C ave J ames l ies o n t he t op o f t he m ountains. A t b oth s ites a n E arly L SA a ssemblage o ccurs a t t he b ottom o f as equence o f L SA d eposits o f H olocene a ge, i ncluding m aterial a ttributed t o b oth t he O akhurst a nd W ilton C omplexes ( Wadley 1 987 ), a nd o verlies f urther , s o f ar u nexcavated M SA d eposits .

S tratigraphy A t J ubilee E arly L SA a rtefacts o ccur i n s ix u nits , c onsisting o f an umber o f g rey a nd w hite g ravels, a t t he b ase o f t he L SA s equence a nd o verlying M SA d eposits o f w hich o nly t wo u nits h ave a s y et b een d ug ( Wadley 1 986b). A t C ave J ames t hey a re f ound i n t hree s uccessive b lack l enses a nd t wo f urther u nits a ll l ying b elow a s tony, g rey, h ard l evel b elieved t o i ndicate a r ockfall ( Wadley f orthcoming).

1 29

D ates

O nly o ne r adiocarbon d ate i s a vailable a s y et f or t hese t wo E arly L SA o ccupations. I t c omes f rom t he u ppermost o f t he E arly L SA o ccupation h orizons a t C ave J ames a nd d ates t his l ayer t o 2 9,000 B P ( Wadley 1 986b ). A f urther s mall c harcoal s ample a lso e xists f or t he E arly L SA o ccupation a t C ave J ames a nd o ffers t he p ossibility o f o btaining a f urther d ate, b ut t he o therwise t otal l ack o f o rganic p reservation i n t hese l ayers a t b oth s ites p recludes t he u se o f p alaeoenvironmental d ata a s a f urther c hronological c heck . W adley ( pers. c omm.) t herefore s uggests t hat t he s ingle d ate o btained s o f ar s hould b e t reated w ith s uitable c aution.

T he L ithic I ndustries

I n t he f ollowing d iscussion, d ifferences b etween t he a ssemblages f rom C ave J ames a nd J ubilee S helter a re o nly r emarked u pon w here n ecessary. A ll o ther c omments a pply e qually t o b oth s ites a nd d erive f rom a n e xamination o f t he c ores a nd u tilised a nd r etouched a rtefacts c arried o ut i n N ovember 1 985. A f ully d etailed a ccount o f t he c omplete c ultural-stratigraphic s equences f rom b oth s ites, a nd t heir i mplications f or t he L ater S tone A ge o f t he T ransvaal, i s p rovided b y W adley ( forthcoming).

R aw m aterial

Q uartz i s f ar b y t he m ost c ommon r aw m aterial u sed a t b oth s ites, m ost o f i t b eing v ein q uartz, a lthough s mall a mounts o f c rystal q uartz a re a lso p resent. O ther r aw m aterials, n amely c rypto-crystalline s ilicas ( chalcedony), a methyst, h ornfels, q uarzite a nd b aked s iltstone f orm t he r emainder o f t he a rtefact s amples e xcavated. T hese o ther m aterials, a lthough l ow i n f requency i n t he a ssemblages a s a w hole, a re r elatively m ore c ommon a mong t he u tilised a nd r etouched a rtefact c ategories .

F laking t echnology

I n a ddition t o i rregular ( generally s ingle-platformed) a nd h igh-backed b ladelet ( generally b ipolar) c ores , s pecialized s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores a lso o ccur. M ost c ores a re, h owever, i rregular. T he f lat a nd s mall b ladelet c ores a re c learly d istinguishable f rom t he c ore-reduced p ieces p resent a t b oth s ites b y t he s hape o f t heir p latforms, t he f ormer h aving t hin, n arrow a nd f lat s triking p latforms i n c ontrast t o t he c hisel-ended f orm o f t he l atter . T hey a re t hus m orphologically i dentical t o t he i dentically n amed c ore-types a t B oomplaas ( Deacon , J . 1 984b). T heir p resence h ere w ould s eem t o i ndicate t hat t hese c ore-types a re n ot n ecessarily i ndicative o f ap articular r egion b ut m ay i nstead b e o f aw ider t echnological s ignificance , o ccurring i n

1 30

m any a ssemblages w here q uartz i s t he d ominant r aw m aterial w orked.

C ore-reduced p ieces , a lmost a ll i n q uartz o r a methyst, w hich h as s imilar f laking p roperties , a re c ommon i n b oth a ssemblages. T his i s o f c ourse t o b e e xpected w here q uartz i s t he d ominant r aw m aterial. T he m ajority h ave c learly b een w orked i n b ipolar f ashion s ince t hey s how d ouble a nd o pposed p latforms. T hat m ost a t l east a re p rincipally w orked-out c ores r ather t han u tilised t ools i s s uggested b y t he e vidence f or b ladelet, a nd m ore o ften f lakelet, r emoval t hat i s v isible o n t hem.

A s trong e mphasis o n b ladelet p roduction i s s uggested b y t he h igh f requency w ith w hich b ladelet c ores o ccur ( 58.0 % o f t he t otal n umber o f c ores p resent), b ut c omparatively f ew u nmodified, u tilised o r r etouched b ladelets o ccur a t e ither o f t he t wo s ites . I t i s p ossible t hat b ladelets m ight h ave b een r emoved o ff-site, b ut t he a rea o f e xcavation w as l imited a t t his d epth a t b oth C ave J ames a nd J ubilee S helter , a nd t he q uestion o f t he a dequacy o f t he c overage o f s patial v ariability h as t herefore a lso t o b e c onsidered.

Av ery s mall n umber o f f lake-blades a nd f lakes , i ncluding o ne b orer , o ccurs a t C ave J ames w ith f aceted b utts. T he s ignificance o f t his t rait, w hich t ends t o b e c haracteristic o f M SA a ssemblages ( Beaumont a nd V ogel 1 972:157-58), i s d iscussed b elow.

U tilisation

U tilised a rtefacts a re f ew i n t erms o f t otal a ssemblage s ize a t b oth s ites , b ut i nclude s imply u tilised a s w ell a s b oth s teeply u tilised a nd n otched f lakes . E xamples o f s imply u tilised b lades , a nd a s ingle n otched b lade, a lso o ccur. A s ingle o chre-stained f lake, t ogether w ith f our s lightly c rushed o r b attered q uartz c rystals a re a lso p resent a t J ubilee S helter a nd a g rindstone o ccurs a t C ave J ames. E xamination o f t he n on-quartz a rtefacts f or p ossible m icrowear s howed t hat n one o f t he a rtefacts w ere s uitable f or s uch a n a nalysis ( Toth p ers. c omm. t o W adley).

F ormally r etouched a rtefacts

T hese o ccur i n m uch h igher n umbers t han i n a ny R obberg I ndustry a ssemblage s o f ar k nown, a lthough t heir p ercentage f requencies i n t he t otal E arly L SA a ssemblages a t C ave J ames a nd J ubilee S helter a re m ore c omparable. S ome e xamples, s uch a s b acked b ladelets , o ther b acked o r b roken b acked p ieces a nd r etouched b lades s how i ndisputable e vidence o f s econdary r etouch , a s d o t hose a rtefacts w hich h ave b een c lassified a s s crapers. H owever , t his i s n ot t rue o f a ll t he a rtefacts w hich W adley h as p laced i nto t he f ormal t ools c ategory . F or e xample, t he " borers" f ound i n t he E arly L SA a ssemblages a re u nlike t hose f rcm n ot o nly t he R obbery I ndustry, a s a t B oomplaas , b ut a lso f rom t hose f ound i n l ater W ilton

1 31

c ontexts a s a w hole. T hey d o n ot s how a ny c onsistent d egree o f r etouch, a nd C lark ( pers. c omm. t o W adley) h as s uggested a u se a s " sinew-frayers." O f t he m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces m any w ould s eem m ore p lausibly c lassifiable a s u tilised o r e ven u nmodified p ieces , a nd W adley ( pers. c omm.) s uggests t hat a t l east s ome o f t he u tilised/retouched a rtefacts p resent a t J ubilee S helter a nd C ave J ames h ave e xperienced s econdary f lake r emoval a s a r esult o f t rampling, a brasion w ithin t he d eposit a nd o ther n on-use f actors. T he i dentification o f t hree " segments" a t C ave J ames s eems u nlikely s ince t he a rtefacts c oncerned a re c ertainly n ot a s r egularly r etouched a nd s haped a s l ater H olocene s egments .

P ossible e vidence f or a t ransitional M SA/LSA i ndustry J ames a nd J ubilee S helter

a t

C ave

I n u nit C a t C ave J ames a nd u nits E a nd M M a t J ubilee S helter a ssemblages a re p resent w hich m ay b e t ransitional b etween t he E arly L SA a ssemblages j ust d escribed a nd t he u nexcavated M SA d eposits w hich u nderlie t hese a t b oth s ites . N o m arked s tratigraphic b reak s eems e vident a t e ither s ite b etween t hese u nits a nd t he E arly L SA u nits a bove t hem . I n t he c ase o f a ll t hree u nits , h owever , a rtefact f requencies a re v ery l ow a nd n o a ssociated o rganic m aterial h as b een p reserved. T hey a re t herefore u ndated.

T he a ssemblages c oncerned a re a ll q uartz-dominated a nd m ostly o f m icrolithic p roportions , i ncluding 1 6 b ladelets a nd 1 f lat b ladelet c ore a t J ubilee S helter a nd a s ingle s mall b ladelet c ore a t C ave J ames . P ointing, h owever , t o p ossible M SA a ffiliations a re t he p resence o f M SA f lake-blades ( in v ein q uartz a t b oth s ites a nd i n b aked s iltstone a t J ubilee S helter a nd q uartzite a t C ave J ames ). A c rude c halcedony p oint w ith m arginal r etouch o n b oth l ateral e dges c onverging t owards t he t ip a lso o ccurs i n u nit E a t J ubilee S helter , a nd a p ossibly u tilised q uartzite f lake w ith a d istinct t ri-faceted p latform i s p resent i n u nit C a t C ave J ames . T he f aceting o f f lake p latforms, a s a m eans o f t rying t o c ontrol t he s ize a nd s hape o f f lakes , i s aw ell-known M SA t rait a nd i s n ot f ound i n t ypical L SA a ssemblages ( Beaumont a nd V ogel 1 972:157-58, I nskeep 1 978:54 , 5 9).

M ention s hould a lso b e m ade o f t he o ccurrence w ithin t hose u nits a t C ave J ames w hich W adley h as a ssigned t o t he E arly L SA o f t wo f urther f lakes w ith f aceted p latforms, o f ab orer s howing t he s ame c haracteristic a nd o f a t otal o f 9 f lake-blades , 3 o f t hem u tilised, m ade i n av ariety o f m aterials.

I t i s d ifficult t o b e c ertain w hat t o m ake o f t hese f indings, p articularly s ince n o e xcavation o f t he u nderlying M SA d eposits h as y et b een u ndertaken a t e ither s ite. I t w ould b e m ost e conomical t o s uppose t hat t he o ccurrence o f t hese a pparently t ransitional m icrolithic y et f lake-blade c ontaining a ssemblages a t C ave J ames a nd J ubilee S helter i s t he r esult o f am ixture a t e ach s ite o f a n E arly L SA a ssemblage w ith M SA a rtefacts l ying o n a n

1 32

e roded s urface. H owever , t he s poradic o ccurrence o f M SA a rtefacts t hroughout t he E arly L SA l ayers a t C ave J ames m ight s uggest t he p ossible c ontinuity o f t he t wo t raditions s ide b y s ide f or s ome u nknown l ength o f t ime. C ontinued e xcavation o f b oth s ites m ay a llow a m ore-informed a ssessment o f t he s ituation t o b e m ade, b ut i t c an b e e xpected t hat t heir p otential f or r esolving s ome o f t he p roblems a ttendant u pon t he M SA/LSA t ransition m ay b e l imited b y t he a bsence o f p alaeobiological s ources o f e nvironmental d ata .

D iscussion

I n b oth r aw m aterial c omposition a nd g eneral s carcity o f b ladelets, t he E arly L SA a ssemblages f rom J ubilee S helter a nd C ave J ames a ppear t o b e c omparable t o t he a ssemblages f rom M embers L P , L PC a nd Y OL a t B oomplaas ( Chapter 4 :1) a nd t o t he E arly L SA a ssemblage f rom H euningneskrans i n t he E astern T ransvaal ( Beaumont 1 981). T hey d iffer m arkedly f rom e ach o f t hese, h owever, i n t heir m uch h igher f requencies o f f ormally r etouched a rtefacts , a lthough t his s eems p artly t o b e d ue t o t he w ay i n w hich t he c lassification o f a rtefacts a s f ormal t ools h as b een a pplied. M any o f t hose p laced w ithin t he r etouched c ategory s eem t o b e n on-deliberately m odified p ieces o r b ear s uch s light e vidence o f s econdary f lake r emoval a s t o s uggest t hat t hey s hould m ore p roperly b e c lassified a s u tilised. T he d ifficulty w ith w hich f ormal t ool t ypes c an b e r ecognised i n b oth M agaliesberg a ssemblages ( with t he e xceptions o f b acked b ladelets a nd s crapers), t he v ery l ow n umber o f n on-quartz a rtefacts w ith i dentifiable u tilisation o r r etouch ( making t he a ssumption t hat l ack o f s ustained s econdary f lake r emoval i mplies a s hort u se-life) a nd t he o verall h igh a rtefact f requency a ll g o t o s uggest a b asically e xpedient i ndustry. I n t his c haracteristic, b oth t he J ubilee S helter a nd C ave J ames a ssemblages s hare a c ommon f eature w ith t he R obberg I ndustry o ccurrences r eferred t o a bove.

T he c onsensus o f s uch c omments , t ogether w ith t he p ossibility t hat a t ransitional M SA/LSA a ssemblage i s a lso p resent a t b oth s ites i mmediately u nderlying t he E arly L SA u nits a nd w ithout a ny s ign o f am ajor s tratigraphic b reak, m ay i ndicate t hat t hese E arly L SA o ccurrences i n t he M agaliesberg s hould b e r eferred t o t he v ery b eginning o f t he L SA i n S outh A frica. I t a lso s uggests t hat t hey d efinitely p redate t he b etter-known b ladelet-dominated e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages w hich p ostdate t he L ast G lacial M aximum i n b oth t he D rakensberg a nd t he s outhern h alf o f t he C ape P rovince.

5 :4 B ushman R ock S helter

I ntroduction

T his s ite w as e xcavated b y t eams f rom t he U niversity o f P retoria d uring t he 1 960 's ( Louw 1 969; E loff 1 969) a nd t he a rtefact a ssemblages f rom i t w ere s ubsequently a nalysed b y P lug ( 1981), w ho d istinguished a L SA o ccupation i n t he u pper 1 3 l ayers,

1 33

r eferred t o t he O akhurst C omplex, f rom a n e xtensive s eries o f M SA d eposits b elow ( Fig. 5 :2). R adiocarbon d ates f rom t he i nterface b etween t hese M SA a nd L SA o ccupations h ave, h owever , p roduced c onflicting r esults, w ith o ne s eries ( on c harcoal) s uggesting t hat t he M SA c ontinued d own u ntil c . 1 2,000 B P a nd t he o ther ( on b one ) i ndicating t hat i t h ad e nded s ome t ime a fter 2 7,000 B P ( Table 3 :2). T he p resence o f a n e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage a t t he n eighbouring s ite o f H euningneskrans ( Beaumont 1 981) s uggested t hat t his f irst p ossibility w as u nlikely , a nd t he a rtefacts h ave r ecently b een r e-examined b y W adley ( pers. c omm.).

T he L ithic I ndustry

W adley 's r e-examination o f t he a rtefacts f rom t his s ite h as r evealed t he p resence o f a s mall n umber o f h igh-backed b ladelet c ores , f lat b ladelet c ores , b ladelets a nd c ore-reduced p ieces , t he m ajority o f t hem b eing i n q uartz a nd h ornfels, w ith o nly a f ew i n c rypto-crystalline s ilicas ( Table 5 :2). T hese a rtefacts o ccur i n l ayers 1 8 t o 1 5, b ut t he r emainder o f t he a rtefacts f rom t hese l ayers a re u nquestionably o f M SA a ffiliation , b eing m ade e ntirely f rom h ornfels a nd i ncluding m any l arge, w ell-made f lake-blades a nd t riangular p oints ; t he f lakes m ostly h ave f aceted p latforms ( Plug 1 981:16 ). I n L ayer 1 7 W adley ( pers. c omm.) h as n oted i n p articular t he p resence o f t wo s mall p dINEJ7 t he o ne i n h ornfels b eing u nifacially f laked a nd f oliate, a nd t he o ther i n c rypto-crystalline s ilica b eing b ilaterally t rimmed. B oth a re o f a t ype w hich P rice-Williams h as t ermed " terminal M SA " i n S waziland a nd w hich a re r epresented t here a t S ibebe S helter a s l ate a s 2 2,000 B P ( Price-Williams 1 981).

D iscussion

A lthough t he a mount o f a vailable m aterial i s a s y et v ery s mall, i t s eems c lear t hat a n e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage, s imilar t o t hose k nown f rom S ehonghong a nd t he R obberg I ndustry o f t he S outhern C ape, i s p resent a t B ushman R ock S helter . I f W adley 's i dentification o f t wo s mall p oints a s " terminal M SA " i s c orrect t hen i t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he s ite m ay h ave a n ear u nbroken o ccupation e xtending f rom b efore t he e nd o f t he M SA t o a fter t he c ommencement o f t he L SA . T he i dentification o f t his e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage a t B ushman R ock a lso s uggests t hat t he v ery y oung d ates w hich h ave b een o btained f or t he M SA a t t his s ite a re i ncorrect, a nd m ight i n f act b e d ating a n e arly m icrolithic o ccupation i nstead. T his i s s upported b y B utzer 's s tatement, b ased o n a n e xamination o f t he s ite 's s tratigraphy, t hat:

" As t o t he q uasi-constant 1 4-C d ates t hrough l evels 1 3 - 1 8, t he s and s tatistics c hange t oo m uch t o b e c onsistent w ith a s hort s pan o f r apid s edimentation . M ore p robable i s d ownward m ovement o f c harcoal t hrough r odent b urrows."

I n

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a c ase t he U CLA-1755B d ate o f 2 7,400 + 1 ,600 B P ( Plug

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1 35

T able 5 :2 A rtefacts a ttributable t o a n e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage i n L ayers 1 5-18 a t B ushman R ock S helter A rtefact c lass

R aw m aterial Q uartz

H ornfels

T otal C CS

C ores H igh-backed b ladelet F lat b ladelet T otal

2 9 1 0 3 9

C ore-reduced p ieces B ladelets S mall p oints T otal

1 9 1 5 0

1 36

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1 981:14) m ight b e a ssociated w ith t he e nd o f t he M SA o ccupation .

T he o bvious m ixing o f L SA a nd M SA m aterial w hich h as o ccurred i n l ayers 1 5 t o 1 8, a nd w hich i s c onfirmed b y B utzer 's ( 1984a ) e xamination o f t he s ite 's s edimentary r ecord, i s n ot l ikely t o b e d ue t o a ny e xcavational o r p ost-excavational d isturbance. I t i s t herefore p resumably d ue t o a c ombination o f i nterlensing o f m aterial a nd/or s ome k ind o f o n-site e rosional a nd/or d epositional p rocess . R e-excavation o f t he s ite w ith t his p ossibility i n m ind c ould t hus h elp t o d efine m ore c learly t he t ransition b etween M SA a nd L SA t echnologies a s w ell a s c onfirming t he p resence o f t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage w hich h as b een i dentified b y W adley. I n c ombination w ith t he s ite o f H euningneskrans , B ushman R ock S helter m ight t hen o ffer a n i mportant o pportunity t o i nvestigate c ontemporary E arly L SA b ehaviour p atterns a t t wo n earby s ites .

5 :5 S hongweni

I ntroduction

S hongweni C ave, l ying i n t he M lazi V alley n ear D urban , N atal, w as e xcavated i n 1 971 i n a s eries o f 1 0 c m t hick s pits b y 0 . D avies ( 1975 ). i n a ddition t o a l ate H olocene a ssemblage w hich h as r ecently b een r e-investigated b y M azel, o ccurrences d ated t o t he l ate U pper P leistocene w ere f ound i n t he l ower p art o f t he d eposit .

S tratigraphy

T he U pper P leistocene L ower O ccupation a t S hongweni c onsists o f s even w hite a sh l ayers s eparated b y i nterdigitating l enses o f p ink d ust b elieved t o d enote p eriods i n w hich t he s ite w as n ot o ccupied b y m an ( Davies 1 975 :636 ). T he l ate H olocene U pper O ccupation i n c ontrast i s m ade u p o f a n umber o f g rey, d usty l ayers w ith m any r ock-spalls a nd p reserved b otanical r emains ( Davies 1 975 :631). T here i s n o s uggestion i n t he s tratigraphy o f t he l ong h iatus b etween t he t wo o ccupations ( Fig. 5 :3).

D ates

T hree r adiocarbon d ates h ave b een o btained f or t he L ower O ccupation a nd a re l isted i n T able 3 :2. O f t hese, t wo ( Pta-682 a nd P ta-822 ) r efer t o t he L ate G lacial, a nd i ndicate o ccupation a t 1 1,870 + 1 30 a nd 1 4,760 + 1 30 B P r espectively . T he o ldest o f t he t hree d ates , h owever , i s o f early U pper P leniglacial a ge ( Pta-966 2 2,990 + 3 10 B P), b ut t here i s n o m ajor s tratigraphic m arker s ep arating t he t wo s ets o f d ates. T he v ast m ajority o f t he

1 37

Layer l a l b 2 a

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= Grey dust N MPink/red d ust W IBrown s and Fig. 5 :3 Schematic section of Shongweni ( after Davies 1 975).

1 38

3 10 BP

a rtefacts f ound i n t he L ower O ccupation c ome f rom l ayers p ost-dating P ta-822 ( Davies 1 975 :654 ) a nd s ample s izes a re t herefore t oo s mall t o p rovide a ny b asis f or a ssuming t he e xistence o f a ny d ifference b etween t he l ithic a ssemblages o f U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial a ge.

T he L ithic I ndustry

D avies ' ( 1975 :654-56 ) r eport o f t he l ithic a ssemblage f rom t he L ower O ccupation a t S hongweni i ndicates t hat t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts r ecovered w as v ery s mall, a mounting t o o nly 6 95 i n a ll. A ny c omparisons o r c onclusions m ade o n t he b asis o f i t c an t herefore o nly b e c onsidered p rovisional. T he c omposition o f t he l ithic a ssemblage, u sing t he c lassification a dopted b y D avies ( 1975 ), i s g iven i n T able 5 :3.

R aw m aterial

H ornfels a nd t o a l esser e xtent q uartz a re t he d ominant r aw m aterials f ound, w ith o nly s mall q uantities o f d olerite a nd q uartzite p resent. A ll o f t hese m aterials a re s aid t o b e l ora lly a vailable a t o r n ear t he s ite w ith t he e xception o f h ornfels, t he n earest s ource o f w hich i s p ut a t 3 0-40 k m a way ( Davies 1 975 :639). T he c omplete a bsence o f " unworked c hips" o f q uartz i s t herefore s urprising, b ut i t i s u nclear i f t his r eflects t he r ecovery m ethods u sed o r s patial p atterning o f a ctivities a t t he s ite . T hat q uartz i s d ominant a mong " shaped t ools" i s a lso s urprising, b ut m ay b e a ccounted f or b y t he v ery s mall s ize o f t he a rtefact s amples.

F laking t echnology

D avies ( 1975 :654-55 ) r efers t o t he p resence o f a s mall n umber o f b ladelets f rom l evels I - I V o f t he L ower O ccupation, b ut i mplies t hat b ladelet c ores a re r are . A gain, i t i s u nclear , g iven t he s mall s ize o f t he e xcavated s ample, h ow m uch r eliance s hould b e p laced u pon t his. N o m ention i s m ade a s t o w hether c ore-reduced p ieces o ccur; o ne w ould e xpect t hem t o d o s o g iven t he p resence o f q uartz c ores, a nd i n f act t he " gouges" a nd " chisels" i llustrated i n h is F ig. 1 0 ( Davies 1 975:655 N umbers 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 1 3 a nd 1 4) w ould a ppear r ather t o b e s mall b ladelet c ores a nd/or c ore-reduced p ieces , a ll b ut o ne b eing i n q uartz.

U tilisation

O nly a s ingle q uartz f lake i s s tated ( Davies 1 975 :654 ) t o s how s igns o f w ear , b ut n o m icrowear s tudy h as b een c arried o ut a nd i t

1 39

i s n ot c lear w hat c riteria h ave b een e mployed i n t he d efinition o f u tilised p ieces.

F ormally r etouched a rtefacts

J udging f rom h is d escription o f t he a rtefacts c oncerned, t his c ategory c orresponds t o D avies ' " shaped t ools." T hey a ppear t o i nclude s crapers a nd p oints a nd p ossibly s egments . I t i s p ossible t hat w hat a re d escribed a s " chisels" a nd a s " slightly c urved, g ouge-shaped b lades" a re i n f act s mall b ladelet c ores a nd/or c ore-reduced p ieces. T hose i llustrated i n D avies ( 1975 :655 F ig. 1 0) w ould s eem t o b e s o.

N on-lithic a rtefacts

A n umber o f b one p oints w ith i ndications o f " trimming," " polishing" a nd " wear ," t ogether w ith t wo " blades" a nd a " scoop" w ere i dentified b y D avies ( 1975 :656-57 ). H owever , C arter , i n h is a nalysis o f t he f aunal m aterial f rom t he s ite, c onsidered n one o f t he b ones p resent t o h ave b een m odified i n a ny w ay . I t i s t herefore d oubtful t hat a ny n on-lithic a rtefacts a re p resent .

F auna

T he f aunal r emains f rom t he s ite w ere i dentified s eparately b y b oth P . L . C arter a nd R . G . K lein, w ith g enerally c onsistent r esults. S mall a ntelope ( including d uiker , g rysbok/steenbok a nd k lipspringer) a re m ost n umerous a mong t he b ovids, b ut b ushbuck, m ountain r eedbuck a nd k udu a lso o ccur. T he r emaining s pecies i nclude b ushpig a s w ell a s a v ariety o f s mall g round g ame ( hyrax, h are, t ortoise a nd c rab). A w ide-ranging s ubsistence s trategy i s t herefore s uggested, w ithout a m arked c oncentration o n l arge g razing u ngulates s uch a s i s s een i n t he S outhern C ape. I f c orrect, t his i s p resumably d ue t o e cological d ifferences b etween t he t wo r egions a nd p ossibly t o c oastal N atal h aving e xperienced a s maller d egree o f e nvironmental v ariation b etween t he l ate P leistocene a nd t he H olocene .

D iscussion

I n h is i nitial p ublication o f t he s ite , D avies ( 1975 :656) h as r eferred t o t he o ccurrence o f b ladelets n ot o nly a t S hongweni b ut a lso a t b oth R ose C ottage C ave a nd S ehonghong i n l ayers p re-dating c . 1 0,000 B P. B eaumont ( 1978) a nd J . D eacon ( 1984b:309 ) h ave b oth s tated e xplicitly t hat t he a rtefacts f rom t he L ower O ccupation r elate t o t he o ther e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages k nown f rom t he l ate P leistocene o f S outh A frica. T he s uggested e quation o f D avies ' " chisels" a nd " gouges" w ith s mall b ladelet c ores a nd/or c ore-reduced p ieces , t ogether w ith h is i dentification i n t his a ssemblage o f a s mall n umber o f b ladelets , d oes i ndeed i ndicate

1 40

t his t o b e t he c ase. W hether r e-excavation o f t he s ite c ould i ncrease o ur k nowledge o f t his a ssemblage i s u ncertain f rom t he p ublished a ccount, b ut i t i s c lear t hat t he N atal l owlands w ere o ccupied i n t he L ate G lacial, a nd a pparently b y t he m akers o f a b ladelet t radition s imilar t o t hose k nown i nter a lia f rom E astern L esotho a nd t he S outhern C ape.

1 41

C HAPTER S IX S PATIAL V ARIABILITY I N T HE E ARLY L ATER S TONE A GE O F S OUTHERN A FRICA

6 :1

I ntroduction

I n t his a nd t he n ext f our c hapters t he d ata p resented i n C hapters 3 , 4 a nd 5 w ill b e u sed t o i nvestigate p atterns o f s patial a nd t emporal v ariability a mong t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern e vidence f or g eographic

A frica. H ere w e s hall c onsider t he v ariation w ithin t he E arly L ater S tone

A ge, p aying p articular a ttention t o m aterial a nd f laking t echnology,

t he t hree b ladelet

t opics o f f requency

r aw a nd

u tilisation p atterns. T his w ill b e f ollowed b y a b rief r eview o f w hat i s k nown o f E arly L SA a ssemblages f rom a reas o f A frica n orth o f t he L impopo, w ith c omments o n t heir s ignificance f or t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences o f S outhern A frica.

6 :2 S patial P atterning i n t he E arly L SA - t he I nterrelation o f R aw M aterial a nd F laking T echnology

I mplicit i n t he r eview o f e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences p resented a bove w as a d ivision o f t hem i nto t wo b road p rovinces, o ne d ominated b y t he u se o f q uartz a nd o ne b y t hat o f c rypto-crystalline s ilicas ( Fig. 6 :1). W ithin t he f irst o f t hese g roups w e c an p lace t he R obberg I ndustry a ssemblages f rom B oomplaas, B yneskranskop a nd E lands B ay C ave, a s w ell a s t he t wo M agaliesberg o ccurrences f rom C ave James a nd J ubilee S helter e xcavated b y W adley, t he H euningneskrans a ssemblage f rom t he E astern T ransvaal a nd p ossibly t he U pper P leistocene f rom a ssemblage S hongweni. S mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores t end t o b e p articularly c haracteristic o f t hese a ssemblages. T he s econd a nd s maller p rovince c onsists o f t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom S ehonghong t ogether w ith t he L ayer 5 occurrence a t R avenscraig a nd t he " Pre-Wilton" o f R ose C ottage C ave. T he p osition o f o ther a ssemblages, s uch a s t hose f rom B order C ave, M elkhoutboom a nd N elson B ay C ave i s m ore d ifficult t o d etermine. D ata t o s upport t hese g roupings a re p resented i n T able 6 :1.

T he s mall b ladelet c ores w hich J . D eacon h as c onsidered t o b e p articularly d istinctive o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n t he S outhern C ape h ave b een i dentified b y h er w ith t he r esidues p roduced b y a p articular f laking t echnique o bserved a mong t he D una o f t he H ighlands o f N ew G uinea ( White 1 968). I n t his m ethod, a s trip o f b ark i s w rapped a round t he n odule t o b e f laked w hich i s t hen p laced o n a n a nvil, a nd i t i s t his b ark w rapping r ather t han t he c ore i tself w hich i s h eld d uring f laking. T he c ore i s s truck h ard, t he b ark u nwrapped a nd s uitable f lakes s elected f rom t he d ebitage p roduced, t he r emainder b eing d iscarded. T he c ore i s t hen r e-wrapped a nd f laked a gain, g enerally u sing t he s ame p latform a s

1 42

Fig. 6 :1 The d ivision o f S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i nto C CS- and q uartz-dominated provinces. a oCCS- d ominated

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b efore . T he a dvantages o f t his m ethod a re s ummarized i n T able 6 :2. O ne o f t he m ost i mportant o f t he c onsequences o f t his f laking t echnique i s t hat i t f acilitates t he p roduction o f b ladelets b ecause t he b ark w rapping d irects t he f orce o f t he b low d own t he c ore.

T he f lat b ladelet c ores w hich o ccur i n s ome e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages p robably d erive f rom t he u se o f t he s ame w rapped b ipolar f laking m ethod, b ut t heir l arge s ize ( Table 4 :11) s uggests t hat i n t heir c ase i t m ay n ot h ave b een e mployed t o t he s ame e xtent, p erhaps b ecause f ewer b ladelets w ere r equired. T hey a lso l ack t he c ompact c ylindrical s hape c haracteristic o f s mall b ladelet c ores , b ut s hare t he t ypical c hisel-ended p latform s hape.

D ickson ( 1977 ) h as r eviewed t he p roblems a ssociated w ith t he w orking o f q uartz, a nd h as s hown t hat t he b ipolar h ammer a nd a nvil t echnique i s t he o nly o ne w hich c an s atisfactorily b e a pplied. H is c omment t hat i ndirect p ercussion i s n ot l ikely t o b e u sed i n i ts f laking t ends t o c onfirm N . T oth 's o bservation t hat R obberg I ndustry b ladelets f rom B oomplaas a re m ost l ikely t o h ave b een s truck b y d irect p ercussion , p robably u sing a s mall s tone h ammer ( Toth p ers. c omm.). W hite a nd T homas ( 1972:278) s tate e xplicitly t hat d irect p ercussion u sing a s tone h ammer w as t he o nly f laking m ethod o bserved a mong t he D una t hemselves. D ickson ( 1977:99 ) a lso n otes t hat t he u se o f s ome f orm o f p adding b etween t he s toneworker 's h and a nd t he c ore b eing f laked w ould c ertainly d ecrease t he d iscomfort w hich i s o therwise c aused b y v ery s mall c hips o f s tone b eing d riven i nto t he f ingers, a nd t he w rapping o f t he c ore i n b ark o r l eather w ould h ave t ended t o a void t his. S imilar r esults h ave b een o btained i n a S outhern A frican c ontext f rom a n e xperimental s tudy o f b ipolar f laking o f q uartz a nd c halcedony n odules c arried o ut b y B arham ( 1987 ). H e p oints t o t he e xtreme b rittleness o f q uartz, t he g reater f orce w hich i s n eeded t o f lake i t c ompared w ith o ther s iliceous r aw m aterials, t he a bsence o f s triking p latforms o n, a nd t he s mall s ize a nd m ass o f, m any n odules a s r easons f or t he a doption o f ab ipolar t echnique. H is e xperiments a lso s how t hat p i ces e squillges, o utils g cailles a nd c ore-reduced p ieces c an a ll b e o btained a s b y-products o f b ipolar f laking a nd t hat t he m orphological d istinctions d rawn b etween t hem d o n ot , t herefore, h ave a ny t echnological s ignificance .

S uch r esults c onfirm t he o pinion e xpressed b y J . D eacon ( 1984b:100) t hat c ore-reduced p ieces a re " another i ndicator o f a d istinctive f laking t echnique," a t echnique w hich s he h as, h owever, s uggested d id n ot i nvolve t he p roduction o f b ladelets b ecause

1 45

T able 6 :2 A dvantages o f t he w rapped b ipolar f laking m ethod u sed b y t he D una o f P apua - N ew G uinea a fter W hite 1 968 ) 1 ) B ark w rapping r esults i n t he s triking o f l onger a nd t hinner f lakes b ecause i t d irects t he f orce o f t he b low d own t he c ore . T he t echnique t herefore f acilitates b ladelet p roduction . 2 ) A llows s maller p ieces o f s tone t o b e f laked t han w ould o therwise b e p ossible a nd t herefore i ncreases t he e fficiency w ith w hich a g iven v olume o f s tone c an b e w orked, s o r educing r aw m aterial p rocurement c osts. 3 ) T he w rapping k eeps a ll t he f lakes t ogether a nd p revents t hem f rom b eing s cattered a nd l ost . 4 ) U se o f w rapping p rotects t he s tone-worker 's h ands f rom s mall c hips b eing d riven i nto t he f ingers ( Dickson 1 977 ).

1 46

" when t hey a re i ncluded w ith b ladelet c ores a nd p lotted a gainst t he f requency o f b ladelets , t he r atio o f b ladelets t o c ores i s s o l ow a s t o s uggest t hat c ore-reduced p ieces a re i n n o w ay r elated t o b ladelet p roduction" ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:103).

E xamination o f c ore-reduced p ieces f rom R obberg a ssemblages a t B oomplaas, K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave d oes , h owever, r eveal t hat a t l east s ome o f t hem h ave q uite d efinite b ladelet s cars a nd w ere t herefore c ontributing t o t he p roduction o f t he l arge n umbers o f b ladelets c haracteristic o f t hese o ccurrences.

W ithin t he B oomplaas s equence t he o ccurrence o f h igh r elative a nd a bsolute n umbers o f c ore-reduced p ieces c oincides c losely w ith t he p roduction o f s mall b ladelet c ores , a nd t hus w ith t he u se o f a w rapped b ipolar f laking m ethod, b ut c ore-reduced p ieces a re n ot e xclusive t o t he R obberg I ndustry . T hey a re, h owever, s ignificantly s maller t hen t han l ater o n, a nd t his s mall s ize e quates w ith a m uch l ower i ncidence o f l ateral c rushing, a lthough i t d oes n ot c orrespond t o s hifts i n r aw m aterial u sage ( Table 6 :3). T hese d ifferences m ay, p erhaps , b e i ndicative o f v ariation i n t he p articular b ipolar t echnique u sed b y l ate P leistocene s tone-workers c ompared t o t hose e mployed b y H olocene p opulations.

A lthough m any, i f n ot m ost, c ore-reduced p ieces m ay b e n o m ore t han w orked o ut c ores d erived f rom a b ipolar f laking t echnique, t here h as b een s peculation t hat t hey m ay h ave h ad a nother f unction . J . D eacon ( 1984b:378), f or e xample, h as d istinguished p ieces e squillees f rom c ore-reduced p ieces b y t he o ccurrence o n t he f ormer o f s econdary c rushing a long t he c hisel-like s triking p latform a nd s he h as f urther p roposed t hat t his m ay h ave r esulted f rom t heir u se i n w orking a m aterial s uch a s w ood. S uch c rushing h as b een s uggested b y I nskeep ( n.d.) t o b e d erivable f rom a n a tempt t o f orce t he d etachment o f a f inal f lake f rom a n a lready m uch r educed q uartz o r C CS c ore, a nd B arham ( 1987:48) h as s hown e xperimentally t hat i t m ay o ccur a s a r esult o f b ipolar r eduction a nd w ithout f urther u se o f t he a rtefact. C onfirmation t hat a t l east s ome p ieces e squillees w ere l ater u sed i s, h owever, p rovided b y B inneman77— ( 1782:318) m icrowear a nalysis o f a s pecimen f rom B oomplaas , a nd h e h as a lso s hown t hat s ome c ore-reduced p ieces b ear p olish a nd m icrowear c onsistent w ith t heir u se " as s mall w edges f or t he s plitting o f w ood, a nd p erhaps a lso o f o ther m aterials s uch a s b one" ( Binneman 1 982:318; m y t ranslation ).

T hat p ieces e squillges w ere u sed a s t ools i n s ome w ay h as b een s uggested i n m any a rchaeological c ontexts. S emenov ( 1964:109 ; 1 48-49), f or e xample, h as s tated t hat t he t ype o f p olish a nd s triations p resent o n t hem c losely r esembles t hat o n k nives u sed f or c utting b one o r w ood a nd t hat t hey w ere p robably u sed a s c hisels a nd g ouges f or w orking t hese m aterials. L ampert ( 1971) h as , h owever, n oted t hat u se-polish o n s pecimens f rom t he

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A ustralian s ites o f B urrill L ake a nd C urrarong o ccurs o n t he u nscaled m argins, s uggesting t hat t he m acroscopically v isible e vidence o f s econdary f lake r emoval w as u nconnected w ith u tilisation , b ut t hat t he a rtefact h ad s ubsequently b een u sed f or w ood-working. T his c onclusion i s a lso i mplicit i n t he r esults o btained f rom a n e xperimental a nd m icrowear s tudy o f t hese a rtefacts c arried o ut b y R anere ( 1975 ) f or p receramic a ssemblages f rom P anama. H e n otes t hat:

" Most s mall w edges w ere m ade f rom c halcedony o r q uartz c rystals, m aterials m ost o ften w orked w ith b ipolar f laking t echniques. B ipolar c ore r emnants a nd f lakes a re i deally s uited t o f unction a s w edges w ithout m odification , a lthough a b ipolar r etouch t echnique m ight a lso b e u sed f or f inal s haping" ( Ranere 1 975:191).

T he c rushing a nd e xtension o f u se-polish t he f ull l ength o f t hese a rtefacts a rgue a gainst t heir h aving b een h afted, a c onclusion i ndependently a rrived a t b y B inneman ( 1982:318). R anere ( 1975) h as , h owever, s hown e xperimentally t hat h afting t hese w edges p roduces s uperior r esults i n s plitting w ood. F rom t his b rief e xamination o f s ome o f t he s tudies c arried o ut o n t hese a rtefacts w e m ay c onclude t hat t he p resence o f s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores m ay b e d istinctive o f a s pecialized w rapped b ipolar f laking m ethod, t hat t he c ore-reduced p ieces a nd p i ces e squillges f ound i n S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages a re a lso i ndicative o f t he e mployment o f ab ipolar t echnique, a nd t hat, w hile s ome o f t hem m ay h ave b een u sed a s w ood- o r b one-splitting w edges, t hey a re u nlikely t o h ave b een p roduced w ith t his o bjective i n m ind. I t i s a lso c lear t hat b ipolar f laking a s am eans o f p roducing b ladelets i s l inked c losely w ithin t hese a ssemblages t o a d ependence o n q uartz a s t he m ajor l ithic r aw m aterial.

S o f ar w e h ave c oncentrated u pon f eatures c haracteristic o f t he q uartz-dominated p rovince i dentified a bove, b ut w hat o f t he f laking t echnology o f t he t hree s ites i n t he B asutolian e cozone I t w as s hown i n C hapter 3 t hat s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores a nd c ore-reduced p ieces a re r are o r a bsent i n t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages f rom R avenscraig, R ose C ottage C ave a nd S ehonghong. I t t hus s eems l ikely t hat a w rapped b ipolar f laking m ethod w as n ot o f a ny s ignificance i n t heir p roduction . T he e ffective l ack o f q uartz i n t hese o ccurrences i s n o d oubt o ne o f t he c hief e xplanations f or t his, b ut w e m ay a lso s uggest t hat m any o f t he r aw m aterial n odules u sed w ere o f a s ize t hat d id n ot r equire t he u se o f a b ipolar t echnique. I nstead, t he p resence o f a l arge n umber o f s pikes i n t he S ehonghong b ladelet i ndustry p oints t o t he u se o f a d ifferent f laking m ethod i n t he p roduction o f b ladelets . I n C hapter 3 :2 w e n oted t hat t hese s pikes s eem t o b e i dentical w ith t he l ames ä c rate i dentified b y W est ( 1981:122) i n t he U pper

1 50

1 .

3 .

2 .

4 .

6 .

8 .

F ig. 6 :2 B ladelet manufacture s howing d etachment o f s pikes ( after Bordaz 1 970). A v ertical r idge i s f laked a long the s ide o f the n odule. The s pike, o r c rested blade ( lame h c rete), i s r emoved by a b low o n the broken e nd o f h e n odule s erving a s the s triking p latform ( 1). This l eaves p arallel r idges t o g uide t he knapping o f t he f ollowing bladelets ( 2 and 3 ). The o verhang and s purs f ormed o n the e dge o f the c ore by d eep bulbar s cars l eft by t he f irst s eries o f b ladel ets a re c hipped a way b efore a n ew s eries i s r emoved ( 5 a nd 7 ). The arrows i n 6 a nd 8 s how t he progression o f knapping w hich " unwraps" the b ladelet c ore. N ote that t he s ection o f the r emoved b ladelets d epends o n w here the knapping f orce i s a pplied: i t w ill b e t rapezoidal w hen the b low i s a pplied b etween t wo v ertical r idges ( 5), a nd t riangular when i t i s applied j ust a bove o ne v ertical r idge ( 7).

1 51

P alaeolithic o f B eringia. I n f act t hey a re o f m uch w ider d istribution a s ab y-product o f t he p reparation o f b ladelet c ores ( Bordaz 1 970), i n am anner w hich i s i llustrated a bove i n F ig. 6 :2.

W hile s ome s pikes w ere i dentified i n t he L ayer 5 occurrence a t R avenscraig, o nly o ne ( from t he C L3 u nit a t B oomplaas ) w as n oted i n t he o ther e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages e xamined i n S outh A frica. T his s uggests a v ery s trong g eographical s eparation b etween t he t wo f laking m ethods, w hich c an b e c learly r elated t o t he d ifferential g eographical a vailability o f t he m ain r aw m aterials u sed ( Fig. 6 :3). T his i n t urn a llows u s t o s uggest t hat t he " Lubombo" a ssemblage r ecently e xcavated a t S iphiso S helter , S waziland ( Price-Williams a nd P rior 1 985), a nd a ny e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages f ound i n t he N atal D rakensberg, o ught t o b elong t o t he s pike-producing, C CS-dominated p rovince w hich i ncludes S ehonghong.

B efore p roceeding t o a c onsideration o f t he m ore s pecific c ontrats b etween t he S ehonghong b ladelet i ndustry a nd t he R obberg a ssemblages f rom B oomplaas , K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave, i t i s a ppropriate t o t ry a nd e xplain s ome o f t he a nomalies i n t he d ivision o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages b etween t hese t wo t echnological p rovinces t hat w ere i dentified a bove. W ithin t he C CS-dominated p rovince, B order C ave i s a nomalous i n h aving p roduced n o s pikes b ut a v ery h igh f requency o f c ore-reduced p ieces . O ne p ossible e xplanation f or t his w ould b e t hat t he n odules o f t his r aw m aterial a re s ufficiently s mall h ere t o w arrant t he m uch m ore e xtensive u se o f a b ipolar f laking t echnique. H owever, r easons w ill b e a dvanced i n C hapter 8 f or t hinking t hat t his B order C ave a ssemblage i s s ubstantially o lder t han t he o ther e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i nvestigated h ere a nd t his m ay b e a n a dditional r eason f or t he d ifference .

W ithin t he q uartz-dominated p rovince t hree s ites a re a nomalous i n p ossessing v ery f ew s mall b ladelet c ores. I n t he c ase o f M elkhoutboom, t he a bsence o f b oth c ore-reduced p ieces a nd s mall b ladelet c ores m ay b e d ue t o t he m ore e xtensive u se m ade t here o f q uartzite a nd t o t he v ery s mall s ize o f t he a rtefact s ample ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976 ). A t N elson B ay C ave t he n umber o f s mall b ladelet c ores i s a lso q uite l ow , b ut t his m ay b e b ecause u nits Y SL a nd Y GL d ate t o a n e arly p hase o f t he R obberg I ndustry . A t B oomplaas t oo s mall b ladelet c ores a re v ery r are i n t he a pproximately c ontemporary G WA u nit, s uggesting t he a doption o f a w rapped b ipolar f laking m ethod o ccurred o nly a fter t he L ast G lacial M aximum i n t he S outhern C ape ( see C hapter 8 ). F or K angkara a ll t hree o f t hese e xplanations m ay b e a ppropriate, s ince n ot o nly i s s ample s ize v ery s mall, b ut t he a ssemblage i s q uartzite, r ather t han q uartz, d ominated a nd d ates t o n ear t he e nd o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica.

1 52

F ig. 6 :3 D istribution o f l ithic r aw m aterials i n S outhern A frica ( after Clark 1 959). EEE 3 Quartz; Q uartzite Quartzite; Lavas; S andstone; Chert andstone; Q uartzite; S ilcrete; Chert I ; 1S ornfels; D olerite; Lavas I ZZ H C CS; Q uartz; Lavas Q uartzite; Q uartz C CS; S ilcrete L ocally d erived r ocks

1 53

A t a h igher l evel t han t hat o f t he t echnological p rovinces c onsidered h ere, P arkington ( 1984:128-29) h as r aised a n i nteresting p ossibility f or o ur u nderstanding o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages b y s uggesting t hat t he L ockshoek I ndustry o f t he M iddle O range R iver V alley ( Sampson 1 974:270-74) m ay b e a c ontemporary i nland v ariant o f t he R obberg I ndustry , w ith n aturally b acked k nives s truck i n h ornfels b eing t he t ypological i ndicators o f t his r elation . T his p ossibility h as a lso b een a ddressed b y W adley ( 1986a ). P arkington 's a rgument t akes i ssue w ith t he " established" v iew o f t he R obbery a s a p henomenon c entred i n a nd a round t he C ape F old M ountain B elt a nd p roposes i nstead t hat t he k nown R obbery a ssemblages a re m arginal e xpressions o f a c ultural e ntity c oncentrated o n t he i nterior p lateau. H e s uggests t hat w hile i nterior p opulations c oncentrated i n t he i nterior m ade e xtensive u se o f r eadily a vailable h ornfels f or p roducing s tone t ools t hey w ere f aced w ith a p roblem o f r aw m aterial a vailability w hen m aking, f or w hatever r eason , o ccasional u se o f t he F old M ountain B elt i n w hich h ornfels i s s carce . T heir r esponse, i t i s a rgued, w as o pportunistically t o u se w hatever r ocks, m ainly q uartz, w ere a t h and ( witness t he i nformal n ature o f R obberg a ssemblages ), a nd t o i ntroduce r eady-made h ornfels t ools f rom t he i nterior.

A s w ill b e d emonstrated s hortly, t his m odel r ests u pon t he u ncertain a ssumption t hat t he i nterior e xperienced a w etter p alaeoclimate, b ut i t c an a lso b e d iscounted o n o ther g rounds. F oremost a mong t hese i s t he f act t hat t he L ockshoek I ndustry i s i tself u ndated ( although r e-excavation o f t he B lydefontein S helter p romises t o r emedy t his p roblem - B ousman 1 985), a nd t he c urrent s tatus o f t he i ndustry a s a h omogeneous w hole i s d oubtful ( Humphreys 1 979 ). S econdly , i t i gnores t he m icrolithic c omponent o f t he R obbery I ndustry, w hich s urely d enotes a v ery d ifferent k ind o f s tone-working a nd t ool-making t radition f rom t hat a ssociated w ith t he m acrolithic L ockshoek - t his m ay b e p articularly s ignificant s ince s uch a c omponent c ould e asily h ave b een p roduced f rom t he c rypto-crystalline m aterials w hich o ccur i n t he O range R iver g ravels, a nd y et w as n ot . I nstead , t he m odel c oncentrates u pon o nly a s ingle a rtefact t ype, a nd o ne w hich, a s h as b een s hown, i s r are o r a bsent i n a ll t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages d iscussed i n C hapters 3 - 5 . S ehonghong i s o f k ey i mportance h ere s ince t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence t here i s d emonstrably v ery s imilar t o t he R obbery a ssemblages o f t he S outhern C ape, a nd y et, w hile o ccurring i n a n a rea i n w hich h ornfels i s p lentiful, i ncludes o nly a s ingle n aturally b acked k nife ( Chapter 3 :2). S ehonghong t herefore c ontradicts a ny s uggestion t hat t he L ockshoek a nd R obberg a ssemblages b e s een a s c ontemporary p roducts o f a s ingle p opulation , t he d ifferences b etween w hich d epend o n d ifferences i n t he a vailability o f r aw m aterials b etween t he C ape F old M ountain B elt a nd t he i nterior p lateau. A n a lternative i nterpretation w ould b e t hat t here i s a c hronological r elation b etween e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages ( where n aturally b acked k nives a re f ew ) a nd t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene o nes ( where t hey a re m ore c ommon ).

1 54

A f inal p oint i s t hat o verall c omparisons w ould r ather s uggest t hat t he L ockshoek r epresents o ne v ersion o f t he t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene O akhurst C omplex, w hich i s a lso r epresented b y t he A lbany I ndustry o f t he S outhern C ape ( Sampson 1 974) a nd b y t he K uruman I ndustry o f t he N orthern C ape ( Humphreys 1 979; T hackeray, A . 1 981). W hile a t hought-provoking a lternative m odel o f t he E arly L SA , t he b alance o f p resently a vailable e vidence s uggests t hat i t i s n ot o ne w hich c an b e e asily s upported. I t i s , h owever, v aluable i n p ointing t o t he i mportance o f c onsidering t he i nfluence o f r aw m aterial a vailability o n l ithic t echnology a nd t hus o n t he d efinition o f t he i ndustries r ecognised b y a rchaeologists. T he i dentification h ere o f t wo t echnological p rovinces w ithin t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica i s c arried o ut i n t he s ame s pirit.

6 :3 V ariation b etween S ites - U tilised A rtefacts a nd E dge-angle S tudies

I n r ecent y ears t he e xamination o f l ithic a rtefacts , u sing b oth i ncident l ight a nd e lectron m icroscopy f or t he d etection o f w ear-polishes a nd o ther t races o f u tilisation h as r esulted i n a m ajor s tep f orward i n t he s tudy o f s tone t ools ( e.g. O dell 1 979; K eeley 1 980). I n S outhern A frica p rogress h as c ome f rom B inneman 's p ioneering a nalysis o f a rtefacts f rom B oomplaas i n t he S outhern C ape ( Binneman 1 982; 1 984; B inneman a nd D eacon 1 986 ). A c onsiderable a mount o f t ime i s, h owever, r equired f or t he e xperimentation a nd s kill a cquisition n eeded t o c arry o ut m icrowear a nalysis, a nd p reparation o f a rtefacts f or e lectron m icroscopy i s a nother t ime-consuming p rocess . T hese f actors i mpose l imits o n t he e xtent t o w hich l arge n umbers o f a rtefacts c an b e e xamined.

I n t he p resent s tudy i t w as d ecided t hat u seful i nformation m ight b e o btained b y f ocusing a ttention o n t he u tilised e dges o f u tilised a rtefacts, a nd p articularly b y c onsidering t heir a ngle a nd s hape a nd t he t ype o f u tilisation d amage o n t hem. T he v alue o f d oing t his w as s uggested i n p art b y e thnographic d ata , f or e xample f rom P apua N ew G uinea ( White 1 969 ), a nd i n p art b y t he r esults o btained i n a n umber o f a rchaeological s tudies. W ilmsen ( 1968; 1 974) h as , f or i nstance, u sed t he e dge-angles o f a rtefacts i n h is i nterpretation o f p rehistoric b ehaviour a t t he L indenmeier s ite, C olorado , w hile b oth F erguson ( 1980) f or t he Q uininup B rook s ite i n A ustralia a nd R ick ( 1980) f or s ites i n t he P eruvian H igh A ndes h ave c ombined t he e xamination o f e dge-angles a nd e dge s hape t o i nterpret t he a ctivities i n w hich t he a rtefacts s tudied h ad b een e ngaged.

D ibble a nd B ernard ( 1980) h ave r eviewed t he f our m ethods w hich h ave b een e mployed i n t he m easurement o f a rtefact e dge-angles a nd h ave s uggested o n t he b asis o f t heir e xperimental r esults t hat t he

1 55

c aliper m ethod i s t he m ost c onsistently r eliable. T he m ethod i nvolves p lacing t he f lake t o b e m easured b etween t he n eedle p oints o f t he c aliper i n s uch a w ay t hat t he e dge o f t he a rtefact r ests a gainst t he f ixed v ertical b ar o f t he c alipers a nd t he t wo o pposing s urfaces o f t he e dge a re a ligned s ymmetrically a bout t he e dge. G iven t he t hickness o f t he a rtefact m easured i n t his w ay a nd t he k nown c onstant d istance f rom t he b ar t o t he e nd o f t he n eedle p oints ( 10.0 m m i n t he p resent s tudy), e dge-angle i s g iven b y t he f ormula

0= 2 [ Tan

-

1( 0.5T )]

w here D i s t he c onstant d istance a nd T t he t hickness m easured. A ll c alculations w ere p erformed b y h and o n a C asio f x-21 c alculator . T he c hief a dvantage o f t his m ethod, t o w hich D ibble a nd B ernard ( 1980) p oint, i s t hat t he f ixed v ertical b ar k eeps c onstant t he m edial d istance b etween t he e dge o f t he a rtefact a nd t he p oint a t w hich t he m easurement i s m ade. T his h as t he e ffect o f e liminating t he m ain s ource o f e rror p resent i n t he o ther m ethods w hich t hey d iscuss.

B oth W ilmsen ( 1968; 1 974), u sing e xperimental d ata , a nd G ould e t a l. ( 1971), o n t he b asis o f e thnographic e vidence f rom t he W estern D esert o f A ustralia , h ave s uggested p ossible c orrelations b etween p articular a ctivities a nd p articular e dge-angle c ategories. G ould e t a l, d raw a b road d istinction b etween a rtefacts u sed f or s ki r7Ing a nd c utting, w ith e dge-angles r anging f rom 1 9° t o 5 9° ( mean = 3 9.5°) a nd t hose u sed a s a dzes i n w orking w ood, t he e dge-angles o f w hich r ange f rom 4 0° t o 8 9° ( mean = 6 7.0°). W ilmsen h as s uggested t hat s everal m ore s ub-divisions c an b e m ade a nd t hese a ppear i n T able 6 :4. H e a lso n otes t hat w hile m ost u nmodified f lakes h ave e dge-angles o f b etween 2 0° a nd 4 0°, t hose w ith a ngles o f l ess t han 2 0° w ere p robably n ot u sable . T his m ay n ot b e t rue, h owever, w here a rtefacts w ere u sed a s t he b arbs o f w eapons r ather t han a s, o r i n, h and-held i mplements. H ere , i f s ufficiently s harp , t hey w ould n o d oubt s till h ave b een e ffective i n c utting a nimal t issues.

F or t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom S ehonghong e dge s hape w as a lso n oted, u sing a s imple t hreefold c lassification i nto c onvex, c oncave a nd s traight e dges. T he a ssumption h ere w as t hat s traight e dges w ere b est s uited f or c utting a ctivities a nd c onvexly c urved e dges t o s craping a ctvities. T he r ationale f or t his b elief i s p ut c oncisely b y R ick ( 1980:117-18) w ho s tates t hat:

" Straight e dges a re n ot w ell s uited f or s craping, s ince p ressure w ill c oncentrate a t t he e nds o f t he e dge w hen a pplied

1 56

T able 6 :4 S uggested c orrelations b etween e dge-angle c ategories a nd p articular a ctivities ( after S emenov 1 964; G ould e t a l. 1 971; W ilmsen 1 968 a nd 1 974) E dge-angle C ategory 2 6

3 5°

S uggested A ctivities C utting m eat a nd s kins ( almost a ll a ngles o ccur o n l ateral e dges )

3 5 - 4 0°

W hittling w ood

4 6 - 5 5°

S kinning a nd h ide s craping S inew a nd p lant-fibre s hredding H eavy c utting ( e.g. o f b one a nd h orn) T ool b ack b lunting

6 6 - 7 5°

W oodworking B oneworking S kin s oftening H eavy s hredding

1 57

a gainst a f lexible m aterial l ike a h ide. S craping w ill b e u neven, a nd t he s oft m aterial w ill b e c ut o r t orn a t t hese p oints o f h igh t ension . A c onvexly c urved e dge w ill d istribute t he c ontact p ressure e venly, m aking i t m ore u seful f or s uch t asks."

B y a nalogy w ith s pokeshaves, n otched e dges m ay r esult f rom a s craping o r p laning a ction a gainst w ood o r b one, b ut t he n otches a re o ften s o m uch s maller t han o n f ormally r etouched s pokeshaves t hat t he h ypothesis o f a c ommon o rigin m ust r emain d oubtful.

T able 6 :5 p resents t he r esults o btained f or t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence f rom S ehonghong. T hese r esults s how t hat a lmost t hree-quarters o f t he u tilised p ieces h ave e dge-angles o f 4 5° o r l ess, s uggesting a m arked e mphasis o n c utting a nd s licing a ctivities. T his h olds t rue i rrespective o f w hich o f t he t hree m ain r aw m aterials u sed ( CCS, l ydianite a nd d yke m aterial) i s c onsidered, a lthough t he f ew a rtefacts m ade f rom b asalt a nd q uartzite a ll h ave e dge-angles i n e xcess o f 5 6°. T his m ay r eflect t he s election o f t hese r aw m aterials f or u se i n m ore h eavy-duty t asks.

H olding r aw m aterial c onstant, w e c an c onsider t he d istribution o f e dge-angles b etween d ifferent a rtefact c lasses ( flakes , b lades a nd b ladelets ) a nd d ifferent t ypes o f e dge d amage. A s w as a rgued a bove, i t i s p robable t hat m any o f t he b ladelets w ere u sed a s s pear a rmatures, a nd i t m ight t herefore b e e xpected t hat s ome d ifference w ould b e n oticeable b etween t he e dge-angles o f b ladelets a nd t hose o f o ther b lank t ypes. T wo-tailed K olmogorov S mirnov t ests i ndicate, h owever , t hat t here a re n o s tatistically s ignificant d ifferences b etween t he e dge-angle d istributions , a nd t his t ends t o c onfirm t he s trong e mphasis o n c utting a ctivities a mong u tilised p ieces a s aw hole. T he s ample s izes o f n otched a nd s teeply d amaged e dges a re v ery s mall a nd p reclude s tatistical t esting, b ut i t m ay b e n oted t hat s teeply d amaged e dges a ll h ave e dge-angles i n e xcess o f 5 6°, w hich s trengthens t he a rgument m ade a bove f or a n a ssociation b etween t his k ind o f e dge d amage a nd a ctivities s uch a s w ood-working.

E xamination o f t he r elative f requencies w ith w hich s traight, c onvex a nd c oncave e dges o ccur a lso i ndicates a m arked p redominance o f c utting a ctivities a mong u tilised a rtefacts, a nd a gain s hows l ittle d ifference b etween t he t hree c hief r aw m aterials u sed. A lthough o nly a p reliminary i ndication o f t he l ikely a ctivity e mphasis o f t he b ladelet i ndustry o ccupation o f t he s ite, t hese r esults d o s uggest o ne p articular h ypothesis t hat c ould b e e xamined i n a ny f uture m icrowear o r r esidue a nalysis p rogramme a nd, a s d iscussed b elow , c an s uggest p ossible a ctivity d ifferences w ith o ther a ssemblages i n t he S ehonghong s equence .

1 58

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A s p art o f t he e xamination o f t he R obberg I ndustry a ssemblages f rom B oomplaas , K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave c arried o ut i n 1 985 t he e dge-angles o f a ll u tilised a rtefacts w ere m easured i n t he s ame w ay. T he r elative f requencies o f s imply d amaged, n otched a nd s teeply d amaged e dges w ere a lso r ecorded ( Table 6 :5 a nd F igs. 6 :4 - 6 :5). E xamination o f t hese d ata s uggests t hat s ome d ifferences a re d iscernible b etween t hese s ites a nd b etween t hem a nd t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic o ccurence, b ut c omparisons h ave g enerally t o b e m ade b y c ombining a ll r aw m aterials t ogether . T his i s b ecause b oth q uartz a nd s ilcrete a re w holly a bsent f rom, a nd q uartzite v ery r are i n, t he S ehonghong o ccurrence , w hile C CS a nd h ornfels w ere c orrespondingly o nly r arely u sed i n t he R obberg a ssemblages e xcept t hat f rom B oomplaas.

F rom T able 6 :5 i t c an b e s een t hat t he R obberg a ssemblages a re n ot c haracterised t o t he s ame e xtent a s t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage S ehonghong b y a h eavy e mphasis o n a rtefacts w ith e dge-angles o f 3 6° o r l ess . T hese a rtefacts a ccount f or n o m ore t han 3 6 %o f t he K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave s amples, a nd t he f requency o f e dges o f m ore t han 5 5° i s c orrespondingly q uite h igh a t 2 4.1 a nd 2 1.9 % r espectively. A rtefacts w ith t hese h igher e dge-angles a re l ikely t o h ave b een u sed m ainly f or w ood- a nd s kin-working, c ompared w ith t he s kin- a nd m eat-cutting a ctivities w hich m ay b e i nferred f or t hose w ith e dges o f l ess t han 3 6° ( Wilmsen 1 968 ). T he d istribution o f t he e dge-angle c ategories a t B oomplaas d iffers s omewhat, w ith a n e ven g reater p roportion o f e dges h aving a ngles o f 5 6° o r m ore .

I t w as s hown e arlier t hat t he u tilised p ieces i n t he S ehonghong b ladelet i ndustry a re m arked b y av ery h igh f requency o f a rtefacts w ith e dge-angles o f u nder 3 6°, a nd t hat t his i s l ikely t o r eflect a v ery s trong e mphasis o n t he h unting a nd b utchery o f g ame. T able 6 :6 s hows t hat s ignificant d ifferences ( p = 0 .01) e xist b etween S ehonghong a nd a ll t hree R obberg s amples, a nd t hat i n t he c ase o f B oomplaas t hese d ifferences r emain s ignificant i f c omparison i s r estricted t o C CS a nd h ornfels a rtefacts o nly . A t l east i n t his i nstance t he d ifference i s t herefore l ikely t o b e a g enuine o ne r ather t han o ne d etermined b y d ifferential r aw m aterial u se. T he r esults o f t ests c omparing B oomplaas w ith K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave a re m ore e quivocal, s uggesting t hat r aw m aterial v ariation m ay p lay a m ajor r ole i n p roducing t he o bserved c ontrasts , b ut t he d ifference b etween t he q uartz a rtefacts f rom B oomplaas a nd t hose f rom N elson B ay i s s tatistically s ignificant ( p = 0 .01).

W e c an e xpect t hat a h igh f requency o f a cutely-angled u tilised p ieces s hould c orrelate w ith a h igh f requency o f a rtefacts w ith s imply-damaged e dges. T his i s b ecause b oth p henomena h ave b een a ttributed t o c utting a ctivities. , Examination o f T able 6 :5 c onfirms t his, w ith t wo-sample X t ests d emonstrating t hat s ignificant d ifferences e xist b etween t he S ehonghong a ssemblage a nd e ach o f t he R obberg s amples ( p = 0 .001).

1 60

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c ategories a t B oomplaas d iffers s omewhat, w ith a n e ven g reater p roportion o f e dges h aving a ngles o f 5 6° o r m ore. I t w as s hown e arlier t hat t he u tilised p iecs i n t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage a re m arked b y av ery h igh f requency o f a rtefacts w ith e dge-angles o f u nder 3 6°, a nd t hat t his i s l ikely t o r eflect a s trong e mphasis o n t he h unting a nd b utchery o f g ame. T able 6 :6 s hows t hat s ignificant d ifferences ( p = 0 .01) e xist b etween S ehonghong a nd a ll t hree R obberg I ndustry s amples, a nd t hat i n t he c ase o f B oomplaas t hese d ifferences r emain s ignificant i f c omparison i s r estricted t o a rtefacts m ade f rom o nly C CS a nd h ornfels. A t l east i n t his i nstance t hen t he d ifference i s l ikely t o b e a g enuine o ne r ather t han o ne d etermined b y d ifferential r aw m aterial u se. T he r esults o f t ests c omparing B oomplaas w ith K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave a re m ore e quivocal, p ossibly s uggesting t hat r aw m aterial v ariation m ay p lay a m ajor r ole i n p roducing t he o bserved c ontrasts , b ut t he d ifference b etween t he q uartz a rtefacts f rom B oomplaas a nd t hose f rom N elson B ay C ave i s s tatistically s ignificant ( P = 0 .01).

W e c an e xpect t hat a h igh f requency o f a cutely-angled u tilised p ieces s hould c orrelate w ith a h igh f requency o f a rtefacts w ith s imply-damaged e dges. T his i s b ecause b oth p henomena h ave b een a ttributed t o c utting a ctivities ., E xamination o f T able 6 :5 c onfirms t his w ith t wo-sample X 'tests d emonstrating t hat s ignificant d ifferences e xist b etween t he S ehonghong a ssemblage a nd e ach o f t he R obberg I ndustry s amples ( p = 0 .001).

I t i s p ossible t o s uggest a n e xplanation o f t his p henomenon b y c onsidering t he p alaeoenvironmental e vidence d iscussed i n C hapter 2 . T here i t w as s hown t hat t he L ast G lacial M aximum m ay h ave r esulted i n a s ubstantial l owering o f v egetation b elts i n t he D rakensberg ( Van Z inderen B akker 1 976 ), a nd o ne c onsequence o f t his i s l ikely t o h ave b een a d rastic r eduction i n t he l ocal a vailability o f p lant f oods. I n s o f ar a s c old w as t he p rincipal l imiting f actor o n t he v egetation i n t he e nvirons o f S ehonghong, t his s ituation p robably r emained l ittle c hanged u ntil t he v ery e nd o f t he P leistocene . I t w ould t hus h ave b een n ecessary f or a h untng-gathering g roup m aking u se o f S ehonghong t o h ave i ntensified i ts h unting a ctivities. I ndeed, t he e xtreme u nlikelihood o f y ear-round o ccupation o f t he L esotho H ighlands a t t his t ime ( Carter 1 978) l eads o ne t o a dvance t he p ossibility t hat S ehonghong m ay h ave b een u sed a s a s pecial p urpose h unting s tation , a s uggestion w hich s hould b e c onsidered i n a ny f uture a nalysis o f t he a ssociated f aunal r emains .

I n t he S outhern C ape, o n t he o ther h and, a l ess h arsh c limate m ay h ave l ed t o ag reater u se o f p lant f oods a t a ll t imes , a nd t he o rganically r ich, c arbonized bar ns o f t he C L M ember a t B oomplaas m ay p rovide e vidence o f t his ( Deacon , H . J . 1 983:191). B ladelet f requency i s a lso c onsiderably g reater i n t he e arly m icrolithic

1 63

T 4b1e 6 :6 R esults o f t wo-tailed K olmogorov-Smirnov a nd t wo-sample X4 t ests c arried o ut o n d ata g iven i n T able 6 :5 E dge-angles A ll M aterials S H/BPA S H/KRA

D Dma>

S H/NBC B PA/KRA

Dma = 0 .155 Dm ax = 0 .152 Dmax = 0 .153

B PA/NBC K RA/NBC C CS o nly S H/BPA H ornfels o nly S H/BPA S ilcrete o nly B PA/KRA B PA/NBC

= 0 .278 = 0 .243

S ignificant a t p = 0 .01 S ignificant a t p = 0 .01 S ignificant a t p = S ignificant a t p = S ignificant a t p = N ot s ignificant a t

D Dm = 0 .088 m ax

0 .01 0 .05 0 .01 p = 0 .05

D = 0 .262 m ax

S ignificant a t p = 0 .01

D = 0 .257 m ax

S ignificant a t p = 0 .05

D = 0 .153 Dm ax = 0 .124 m ax

N ot s ignificant a t p = 0 .05 N ot s ignificant a t p = 0 .05

Dm ax

S ignificant a t p = 0 .01

Q uartz o nly B PA/NBC

= 0 .310

Q uartzite o nly D = 0 .069 m ax

N ot s ignificant a t p = 0 .01

S H/BPA S H/KRA S H/NBC

X2 = 5 2.8, d f = 2 X2 = 5 1.3, d f = 2 X2 = 5 7.5, d f = 2

S ignificant a t p = 0 .001

B PA/KRA B PA/NBC K RA/NBC

X2 = 6 2.4, d f = 2 X2 = 9 3.7, d f = 2

S ignificant a t p = 0 .001 S ignificant a t p = 0 .001 N ot s ignificant a t p = 0 .05

K RA/NBC E dge D amage

X2 =

1 .9, d f = 2

1 64

S ignificant a t p = 0 .001 S ignificant a t p = 0 .001

T able 6 :7 S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages b ladelet f requencies A ssemblage

B oomplaas L P,

B ladelets a s P ercentage o f A ssemblage

B ladelets a s P ercentage o f F lakes

R eference

L PC, Y OL

B oomplaas R obberg

1 .5 2 .1

6 .7 9 .2

B order C ave

0 .07

0 .08

B yneskranskop

0 .7

5 .4

C hapter 4 :1 D eacon , J . 1 984b B eaumont 1 978 S chweitzer a nd W ilson 1 981

E lands B ay C ave R obberg K angkara M elkhoutboom N elson B ay C ave R avenscraig R ose C ottage C ave S ehonghong S hongweni

1 .2 2 .3

6 .8 4 .2

2 .3

3 .4

5 .9 C ommon 1 3.7

C ave J ames J ubilee S helter H euningneskrans 3 b - 3 d

7 .7 C ommon 3 5.0

n = n =

3 6 2 9

D avis 1 978 C hapter 4 :5 D eacon , H . J . 1 976; D eacon, J . 1 984b O pperman 1 987 C hapter 3 :4 C hapter 3 :2 D avies 1 975 C hapter 5 :3 C hapter 5 :3

n = 122

B eaumont 1 978 C hapter 5 :2

n=

B eaumont 1 978; C hapter 5 :2

H euningneskrans 3 e - 3 h

1 65

3 1

I t i s p ossible t o s uggest a n e xplanation f or t his p henomenon w hich a lso p rovides f urther c ircumstantial e vidence i n i ts s upport. I t w as s hown i n C hapter 2 h ow p alaeoenvironmental d ata s uggest t hat t he L ast G lacial M aximum m ay h ave r esulted i n a s ubstantial l owering o f v egetation b elts i n t he D rakensberg ( Van Z inderen B akker 1 976 ), a nd o ne c onsequence o f t his i s l ikely t o h ave b een d rastically t o r educe t he l ocal a vailability o f p lant-food r esources. I n s o f ar a s c old w as t he p rincipal l imiting f actor o n t he v egetation o f t he e nvirons o f S ehonghong, t his s ituation i s l ikely t o h ave r emained l ittle c hanged u ntil t he v ery e nd o f t he P leistocene . I t w ould t hus h ave b een n ecessary f or a h unting-gathering g roup m aking u se o f S ehonghong a t t his t ime t o h ave i ntensified i ts h unting a ctivities . I ndeed, t he e xtreme u nlikelihood o f p ermanent y ear-round o ccupation o f t he E astern L esotho H ighlands a t t his t ime ( Carter 1 978) l eads o ne t o s uggest t he p ossibility t hat S ehonghong m ay h ave b een u tilised a s a s pecial p urpose h unting s tation , a s uggestion w hich s hould b e c onsidered i n a ny f uture a nalysis o f t he a ssociated f aunal r emains.

I n t he S outhern C ape o n t he o ther h and, l ess s evere c limatic c onditions a re l ikely t o h ave l ed t o ag reater u se o f p lant f oods a t a ll t imes, a nd t he o rganically r ich, c arbonized bar ns o f t he C L M ember m ay p rovide e vidence o f t his ( Deacon , H . J . 1 983:191). B ladelet f requency i s a lso c onsiderably g reater i n t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom S ehonghong t han i n a ny o f t he R obberg o ccurrences ( Table 6 :7) a nd i f w e a re c orrect i n a ssuming t hat m any o f t hese b ladelets w ere u sed t o a rm h unting w eapons t his p rovides f urther c onfirmation o f t his h ypothesis . A s r esearch p roceeds i t m ay b ecome p ossible t o d evelop s uch h ypotheses m ore f ully a nd t o i nvestigate f urther t he d ifferences i n a ctivity p erformance b etween B oomplaas a nd K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave s uggested a bove.

T he E arly L ater S tone A ge i n E ast a nd S outh-Central A frica

A ssemblages d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial o r e ven e arlier s tages o f t he U pper P leistocene a nd a ttributed t o t he L SA h ave b een r eported f rom a n umber o f s ites i n t he e astern a nd s outh-central p arts o f t he c ontinent ( Fig. 6 :6). A mong t hese s ites a re t hose o f M atup i C ave, Z aire ( Van N oten 1 977 ), M unyama, U ganda ( Van N oten 1 971), L ukenya H ill, K enya ( Gramly 1 976 ), K isese I I, T anzania ( Inskeep 1 962) a nd, m ost e xtensively, s everal i n v arious p arts o f Z ambia ( Miller 1 969 ; P hillipson 1 976 ; M usonda 1 984). T he s ituation i n Z imbabwe i s c omplicated b y t he a pparent s urv ival i n M atabeleland u ntil a fter 2 0,000 B P o f T shangulan a ssemblages w ith a M SA t echnology ( Cooke 1 963, b ut s ee W alker 1 980), b ut a n e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage h as b een c laimed f or D uncombe F arm i n t he e ast o f t he c ountry ( Walker a nd W adley 1 984). A f ull l ist o f t hese a ssemblages w ith a ccompanying d ates i s g iven i n T able 6 :8. I n t his s ection w e a re i nterested i n c onsidering t he e xtent t o w hich

1 66

I ndian O cean

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1 67

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1 69

s imilarities m ay e xist b etween t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica a nd t hose k nown f rcm f urther n orth , a nd i n p articularly w hether t here i s a ny i nformation a vailable f rom t hese r egions r elevant t o t he t ransition b etween M SA a nd L SA t echnologies.

E ast A frica

M atup i i s s o f ar u nique a mong t hese s ites i n t hat i t h as b een c laimed t o d emonstrate t he p resence i n E astern Z aire o f av ery e arly L SA a ssemblage d ating b ack t o b eyond 4 0,000 B P. I f t his i s s o , t hen i t m ight l end c redence t o s imilar c laims a dvanced w ith r espect t o t he M SA/LSA t ransition i n S outh A frica ( e.g. B eaumont a nd V ogel 1 972; B eaumont 1 978), c laims w hich a re d iscussed l ater i n t his c hapter .

A ccording t o V an N oten 's ( 1977) d escription , t he i ndustry i s a lmost e ntirely m ade i n v ein q uartz a nd c an b e s ub-divided i nto f our p hases o f w hich t he t wo e arliest , d escribed a s " poor ," b oth p redate 2 1,000 B P. T hese a re b oth f ully m icrolithic a ssemblages , w ith a v ery s mall n umber o f g eometric p ieces r estricted t o t he u pper o f t he t wo. T he m ajority o f c ores a re b ipolar a nd " pi kes e squillees" a re c ommon . T his b ipolar t echnology i s s aid t o h ave b een u sed t o p roduce s mall f lakes a nd b ladelets u sed a s i nsets i n c omposite t ools, b ut b ladelet f requency f or t he i ndustry a s a w hole i s v ery l ow ( less t han 0 .8 % ). T he p ublished d escription d oes n ot, u nfortunately, a llow a q uantitative b reakdown a nd c omparison o f t he i ndustry 's d ifferent p hases t o b e m ade, b ut i t i s c lear f rom V an N oten 's o wn c omments t hat i t i s b ased u pon a v ery s mall s ample. F or t his r eason i t i s d ifficult t o p lace t oo m uch s trength u pon i ts i dentification a s a L SA a ssemblage d ating t o a s f ar b ack a s 4 0,000 B P. I ndeed, d e M aret ( 1985:132-33 ) s tresses t hat t he s mall s ize o f t he q uartz p dbbles u sed w ould h ave n ecessitated a m icrolithic t echnology a nd t hat " for t he t ime b eing i t s eems p referable t o s peak o f a n a typical i ndustry r ather t han a t rue L ate S tone A ge."

M ore s ecure e vidence f or t he a dvent o f t he E arly L ater S tone A ge i n E ast A frica c omes f rom e xcavations a t s ites i n K enya, T anzania a nd U ganda. L ukenya H ill, K enya ( Gramly 1 976 ) i s t he b est d escribed o f t hese a ssemblages a nd i s d ivided i nto t wo o ccurrences , o f w hich t he y oungest d ates t o c . 1 8,000 B P. A h eavy e mphasis o n b ladelet p roduction i s i ndicated b y t he f requency o f b lade a nd b ladelet r elative t o f lake-blade c ores, a nd w hile u tilised b ladelets a re m ore c ommon t han b acked o nes i n t he o lder o ccurrence, t he r everse i s t rue o f t he y ounger o ne. T he h igher f requencies o f f ormal t ools ( 0.99 a nd 3 .73 % r espectively ) p oint t o a f urther d ifference f r o m t he e arly m icrolithic c omplex o f S outh A frica. T he b rief p ublished d escription o f t he M unyama a ssemblage a s " fully m icrolithic," w ith b acked b ladelets

1 70

p redominating a mong f ormal t ools ( Van N oten 1 971) s uggests t hat, t hough l ater i n d ate , i t i s b asically s imilar t o t he L ukenya H ill o ccurrences. R eports o f t he E arly L SA o ccurrence a t K isese I I r ockshelter i n C entral T anzania ( Inskeep 1 962; P hillipson 1 979 ) a lso f it t his p attern, w ith a m icrolithic a ssemblage c learly p resent b y c . 1 7,000 B P ( Deacon, J . 1 966 ).

T he N achikufan I I ndustry o f Z ambia

T his i ndustry, d efined b y M iller ( 1969 ), i s k nown f rom a t otal o f s ix s ites a nd i s d ated t o b etween c . 1 7,000 a nd c . 1 0,500 B P. T he a ssemblages f rom L eopard's H ill a nd N achikufu C ave o ffer t he m ost c omprehensive g uide t o t he i ndustry a s o nly i n t he c ase o f t hese s ites w ere t he e ntire a ssemblages k ept a nd a nalysed.

A s e xpected f or a ssemblages m ade a lmost e ntirely f rom q uartz, e squillges" a re p resent, a lthough a t l east s ome o f t hese a re c learly r educed b ladelet c ores ( Miller 1 969:112). B ladelet c ores a re , i n f act, t he m ost c ommon c ore-type p resent ( forming a bout o ne-third o f a ll c ores u sing M iller 's o wn c lassification ) a nd b ladelets a ccount f or a l ittle o ver 1 % o f t he t otal a ssemblages ( 1.2 % a t N achikufu a nd 1 .4 % a t L eopard's H ill). I n s harp c ontrast t o t he S outh A frican s ituation , h owever , m any o f t hese a re b acked o r w holly o r p artially r etouched a long o ne o r b oth l ateral m argins. F ormally r etouched a rtefacts a s aw hole, a lthough r epresenting t he s ame g eneral t ypes ( scrapers, b orers, s egments ) a s f ound i n S outh A frica, a re n evertheless c onsiderably m ore c ommon, w ith a p redominance o f b acked b ladelets a mong t hem b eing c haracteristic o f N achikufan I a ssemblages ( Miller 1 969:437 ). T he L SA c haracter o f t he i ndustry i s f urther c onfirmed b y t he p resence o f o ther a rtefact-types , i ncluding b ored s tones, g rindstones a nd b one p oints.

" pieces

M usonda ( 1984) h as o btained d ates f or a n e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage a t M wambacino i n t he L unsemfwa D rainage B asin ( LDB ) o f C entral Z ambia r anging f rom c . 1 8,000 t o c . 1 0,000 B P, a nd h as i dentified t he s ame a ssemblage i n t he u ndated l owermost l evel a t t he n earby s ite o f M ufulwe. M etrical d ifferences b etween t hese a ssemblages a nd t he N achikufan I m ay b e d ue t o n o m ore t han v ariation i n r aw m aterial n odule s ize, a nd t he o verall o ccurrences o f d ifferent m icrolithic t ypes a re s imiliar , w ith t he L DB s ites a lso d isplaying h igh f requencies o f b acked b ladelets a nd l ow f requencies o f s egments a nd s crapers ( Musonda 1 984:30 ). B ladelet c ores a re , h owever , r are i n t he L DB a ssemblages, o ccurring a t M ufulwe a lone a nd t hen o nly i n s mall n umbers.

P receding t he N achikufan I i n t he Z ambian s equence a re s o-called " Proto-LSA " a ssemblages f rom L eopard's H ill C ave ( Miller 1 969) a nd K alemba ( Phillipson 1 976 ). S ix r adiocarbon d ates d ate

1 71

t hese t wo a ssemblages t o t he a dvent o f t he U pper P leniglacial, i .e. 2 3,600 - 2 1,500 B P. T he L eopard's H ill a ssemblage s hows n o i ndication o f ap repared c ore a nd f aceted p latform t echnique, b ut n evertheless d oes i nclude t hree b ifacial, f oliate p oints . B ladelets a re r emarkably r are c onsidering t hat b ladelet c ores a ccount f or o ver 4 0 % o f a ll t he c ores p resent, b ut m ay b e e xplained p erhaps b y t he s mall s ample s ize ( n = 1 178) a nd/or t heir r emoval o ff-site .

A t L eopard's H ill t he e xtreme r arity o f m icrolithic f ormally r etouched a rtefacts a nd t he g reater s ize o f t he f lakes , a s w ell a s o f s uch s crapers a nd m icroliths a s d o o ccur, l ead M iller ( 1969:493) t o r efer t o t his a ssemblage a s a " macrolithic L SA " a nd t o s uggest t hat i t " seems t o b e a l ogical a ncestor f or t he t ypical L ater S tone A ge i ndustries o f t he a rea." O n t he a nalogy o f t heir p resence i n t he t erminal M SA o f S waziland ( Price-Williams 1 981) a nd i solated o ccurrence i n M ember Y OL a t B oomplaas a nd i n t he E arly L ater S tone A ge a ssemblage f ro m C ave J ames i n t he M agaliesberg ( Chapter 5 ), t he p resence o f f oliate p oints a t b oth o f t hese Z ambian s ites m ay a lso i ndicate t heir t ransitional p osition b etween M SA a nd L SA t echnologies .

P hillipson 's g eneral d escription o f t he p eriod I I a ssemblage f rom K alemba f urther i ndicates t hat i t m ay b e t ransitional b etween M SA a nd N achikufan I a ssemblages. T hus , w hile c ores a re p redominantly r adial a nd p oints , t he m ajority o f t hem u nifacial, c ontinued t o b e m ade, b acked t ools ( in t he f orm o f l arge, c onvex-backed f lakes ), w hich a re a bsent f rom t he u nderlying M SA , g radually a ppear a nd i ncrease i n f requency d uring t he h orizons a ssigned t o t his a ssemblage. H e f urther n otes t hat s crapers, w hich a re t he m ost c ommon f ormally r etouched a rtefact-type, s how a p rogressive d iminution i n s ize c ompared w ith t he M SA . T hese p atterns s how f urther c hange i n t he s ucceeding N achikufan I h orizons w hen b acked f lakes c ontinued t o i ncrease r elative t o s crapers a nd p repared c ores d eclined i n f requency .

Z imbabwe

T he s ituation i n Z imbabwe i s c onfused a s t he k ey s ites w ere i nitially d ug i n s pits , m aking i t l ikely t hat s ome m ixing o f o riginally d istinct a ssemblages h as o ccurred. P reviously i t h as b een a rgued ( Cooke 1 963) t hat a t b oth P omongwe a nd T shangula, i n t he M atopo H ills o f w estern Z imbabwe , a M SA p repared c ore t echnology i ncorporating s ome m icrolithic e lements ( the s o-called " Tshangulan I ndustry") p ersisted u ntil a s l ate a s 1 2,000 B P. W alker 's ( 1980) r econsideration o f t he e vidence s uggests , h owever , t hat i n t he p ast t he t erm " Tshangulan" h as b een a pplied t o t wo i ndustries , o f w hich o nly t he o lder c an b e r eferred t o t he M SA . A t N swatugi, a lso i n t he M atopos, t his a ssemblage, d ating t o m ore t han 4 2,000 B P, m ay b e s imilar t o t he H owiesons P oort o f S outh A frica ( Volman 1 984:210).

T he

m ore

r ecent

a ssemblage,

1 72

w hich i n t he p ast h as a lso b een

t ermed " Tshangulan ," i s a l ess f ormal s craper d ominated i ndustry . B one t ools a nd s hell o rnaments , b ladelets a nd r are g round a nd b ored s tone a rtefacts a re n oteworthy e lements , w hile b acked t ools a re n ot c ommon ( Walker 1 980:23 ). D ates a ssociated w ith t his a ssemblage p lace i t w ithin t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial, a nd i t m ay b e s ignificant t hat a t l east o ne o f t he i llustrations o f q uartz c rystals i n C ooke 's o riginal s ite r eport f or P omongwe a nd T shangula ( 1963:14/24 ) s eems t o b e o f a b ipolar b ladelet c ore, p ossibly o f t he s mall b ladelet v ariety k nown f rom e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica. I n E astern Z imbabwe a f urther " Tshangulan" a ssemblage h as b een e xcavated a t Z ombepata , n orth o f H arare , a nd a gain s hows a m ixture o f p repared c ores a nd p oints w ith a s craper-dominated m icrolithic a ssemblage. R adiocarbon d ates s uggest c ontemporaneity w ith t he M atopos a ssemblages ( Cooke 1 971) a nd, a s w ith t hem, t he m ixed n ature o f t he a ssemblage i s m ost l ikely a c onsequence o f t he e xcavation t echniques e mployed.

O ne h undred k ilometres s outh o f Z ombepata t he p icture i s s till f urther c omplicated b y t he p resence a t D uncombe F arm o f a m icrolithic a ssemblage d ated t o 1 8,970 + 2 75 B P ( Walker a nd W adley 1 984:4). P repared c ores a nd p oints a re a bsent, a nd i nstead b ladelet c ores a re a s ignificant f eature o f t he a ssemblage, w ith u nmodified b ladelets f orming 1 3.0 % o f t he t otal s ample. C ore-reduced p ieces a lso o ccur, a s i s t o b e e xpected f or a l argely q uartz a ssemblage, a nd t he p ercentage o f f ormally r etouched a rtefacts i s, a t 5 % , m uch l ower t han i n t he H olocene a ssemblages a t t he s ame s ite .

W alker a nd W adley ( 1984:11) s uggest t hat t his m icrolithic a ssemblage i s a Z imbabwean e xpression o f t he S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic c omplex a nd t hat i ts p redecessor , w hich i s a ssociated w ith a s till l ower f requency o f f ormal t ools , a l ower f requency o f b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores a nd t he p resence o f a " terminal M SA " p oint, m ay b e a n E arly L SA o r t ransitional a ssemblage. B efore , h owever , a ccepting W alker a nd W adley 's c onclusions i t m ust b e r emembered t hat t he s ample s izes u pon w hich t hey a re b ased a re s mall i n t he e xtreme, a mounting t o n o m ore t han 7 85 a nd 5 34 a rtefacts r espectively . C onsequently, i t i s p ossible t hat t he e xcavation o f l arger s ized s amples w ould m inimize t he d ifferences b etween D uncombe F arm a nd t he T shangulan a ssemblages f rom P omongwe, T shangula a nd Z ombepata . I n t his c ontext, w ork c urrently b eing c arried o ut a t R uchera C ave, a lso i n t his p art o f Z imbabwe, m ay p rove i lluminating ( Bollong 1 986 ). S hould i t b e c onfirmed t hat t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica a nd Z imbabwe d o s hare s everal f eatures i n c ommon ( e.g. t he p resence o f s mall b ladelet c ores a nd a n e xtreme r arity o f f ormal t ools ), f eatures w hich s erve t o d ifferentiate t hem f rom t he N achikufan I I ndustry o f Z ambia , t hen t his w ould s uggest t hat t he t echnological c ommunity b etween a reas n orth a nd s outh o f t he L impopo, b ut s outh o f t he Z ambezi, w hich i s e vident i n t he d istribution o f t he O akhurst a nd W ilton C omplexes o f t he H olocene

1 73

( Sampson 1 974), P leistocene .

e xtends

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b ack

i nto

E ast a nd S outh-Central A frican A ssemblages a nd t he t he L ater S tone A ge

t he

O rigins

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o f

A vailable d ates i ndicate t hat t he e arliest L SA a ssemblages i n t hese r egions o f A frica w ere a lready b eing m ade b y 1 8,000 B P f rom K enya i n t he n orth t o t he Z ambezi i n t he s outh . A lthough b ladelets a re a p ersistent f eature o f t hese a ssemblages , t he r elatively h igh f requency o f t hem w hich i s b acked m ay i ndicate, m inimally, a d ifferent h afting s trategy f rom t hat e mployed i n S outh A frica. A l ess c onservative v iew w ould s ee t his a s a s ign o f ad ifferent u se f or t he b ladelets , a nd P hillipson ( 1976 ; 1 984) h as a rgued t hat t he o ccurrence o f b acked b ladelets i s s ynonymous w ith t he a ppearance o f t he b ow a nd a rrow .

C ertainly i t i s e vident i n Z ambia t hat t here i s n o m arked s eparation i n t he L SA s equence a s t he e arly m icrolithic / O akhurst C omplex / W ilton C omplex d ivisions i ndicate f or A frica s outh o f t he Z ambezi i n g eneral, a nd f or S outh A frica i n p articular. R ather i s am ore g radual d evelopment a pparent. I f P hillipson i s c orrect, t hen i t m ay b e d oubted t hat t he r easons f or t he a doption o f a m icrolithic t echnology n orth o f t he Z ambezi w ere p recisely t he s ame a s t hose i n S outhern A frica. A lternatively , t he b ow a nd a rrow m ight h ave b ecome p art o f L SA h unting t echnology i n t hese a reas o f t he c ontinent w ithout t his r esulting i n a d etectable c hange i n t he l ithic c omponent o f p rojectile p oints - b acked b ladelets w ould t hus h ave b een u sed t o a rm b oth s pears a nd a rrows. T he r adiocarbon d ates w hich e xist , w hile n ot c ontrary t o t he p lacing o f t he a dvent o f E arly L SA t echnologies i n t he U pper P leniglacial, d efinitely d o n ot g ive g rounds f or b elieving t hat t he o rigin o f t he L SA i n S outh A frica w as t he c onsequence o f a s outhward d iffusion o f t echnology a nd/or m ovement o f p eople.

6 :5 C onclusions

I n t he l ight o f t he d iscussion s o f ar, w hat s ort o f e ntities a re w e t alking o f w hen w e r efer t o " early m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica" o r " the R obbery I ndustry" ? T he t erm " industry ," i n t he s ense i n w hich i t i s u sed i n S outhern A frican a rchaeological l iterature , f ollows t he d efinition a dopted b y t he B urg-Wartenstein C onference o f 1 965 f or a u nit " represented b y a ll t he k nown o b jects t hat a g roup o f p rehistoric p eople m anufactured i n o ne a rea o ver s ome s pan o f t ime" ( Bishop a nd C lark 1 967:893). T he t axonomy d eveloped a t t his c onference m ay b e c ompared w ith t hat d eveloped b y C larke ( 1968 ) a t a bout t he s ame t ime. B oth a re e laborations o f t he c oncept o f a n a rchaeological c ulture , d efined b y C hilde ( 1929:vi) a s " a c omplex o f a ssociated t raits... ( which) w e a ssume... i s t he m aterial e xcpression o f w hat t oday w ould b e c alled a p eople," a nd b oth a re " lumping" s ystems o f c lassification i n w hich p otentially d ifferent t ypes o f s ociocultural v ariability h ave b een c ompounded i nto a s ingle h ierarchical s ystem. I t h as

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b een p ersuasively a rgued b y B inford ( 1965 ), h owever , t hat s ince t he a rchaeological r ecord i s a b y-product o f a w ide r ange o f b ehaviours, w hich m ay b e c onceptualized i n t erms o f s everal s ub-systems ( e.g. R enfrew 1 972), t he u se o f a m ultidimensional t axonomic f ramework

" will f acilitate i solation o f t he c auses o f v arious k inds o f c hanges a nd d ifferences a nd p rovide t he b asis f or s tudying c omparatively t he r ates a nd p atterns o f c hange i n d ifferent c lasses o f c ultural p henomena. S uch a n a pproach w ould , i t i s a rgued, f acilitate a nd i ncrease o ur u nderstanding o f c ultural p rocesses" ( Binford 1 965 :209 ).

T he i dentification i n t his c hapter o f t wo t echnological p rovinces a mong t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica, o ne a ssociated w ith t he e xtensive u se o f q uartz a nd b ipolar f laking m ethods, i ncluding a s pecial w rapped b ipolar t echnique, a nd t he o ther a ssociated w ith t he e mployment o f C CS a s t he m ajor l ithic r aw m aterial a nd a c ore p reparation t echnique p roducing s pikes ( lames ä c rate), i s a c ase i n p oint. I t i s n ot p roposed, a nd i t w ould b e i ncorrect , t o u se t his d ivision a s a b asis f or t he e stablishment o f t wo i ndustries w ithin t he l ate P leistocene o f S outhern A frica. T his i s b ecause i t i s o nly a t echnological d ivision, o ne c onditioned b y d ifferential r aw m aterial a vailability, a nd s aying n othing a bout o ther a spects o f p rehistoric l ifeways s uch a s s ubsistence s trategies. T he l atter w ill h ave b een s trongly i nfluenced b y v ariation i n t he a vailability o f ar ange o f p lant a nd a nimal r esources , a nd l ess d irectly b y d ifferences i n v egetation , c limate a nd t opography . T here i s e very r eason t o e xpect t hat a s r esearch p rogresses i t w ill b e p ossible t o d istinguish w ithin t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages a n umber o f e ntities w hich p ursued d ifferent e conomic a daptations, a nd t hat t hese w ill c ross-cut t he t echnological p rovinces i dentified h ere. I t s eems u nlikely, h owever , t hat t he g enerally i nformal a nd e xpedient l ithic a ssemblages o f t he l ate P leistocene w ill p rove s uitable f or t he d efinition o f s tyle-conscious e thnic g roups ( cf. S ackett 1 982; a nd s ee C hapter 1 0).

I f o ur d ata-base i s a s y et i nsufficient f or i nvestigating r egional v ariation i n s ubsistence s trategies a mong e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages, i t i s s till p ossible t o i nfer t he e xistence o f h igher-order e ntities b y c omparing A frica s outh o f t he L impopo w ith a reas t o t he n orth . T he p enultimate s ection o f t his c hapter h as b riefly c onsidered t he e xisting e vidence f or E arly L SA a ssemblages i n E ast a nd S outh-Central A frica, a nd a lthough t he n umber o f o bservations i s r elatively s mall s ome r egional v ariation i s a pparent. F ig. 6 :6 i llustrates t his a nd a llows u s t o d istinguish n ot o nly t he w ell-studied N achikufan I a ssemblages o f Z ambia , b ut a lso t he L ower T shitolian o ccurrences o f N orth-Eastern A ngola a nd a djacent p arts o f Z aire , t he T shangulan a ssemblages o f Z imbabwe a nd p ossibly a f urther g roup i n K enya, T anzania a nd U ganda. T he m acrolithic a ssemblages r ecovered b y W endt ( 1976 ) f rom A pollo 1 1 C ave, P ockenbank a nd Z ebrarivier i n S outhern N amibia f orm a f urther s uch g roup .

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I t i s i n t hese r egional u nits t hat w e m ay m ore p lausibly l ook f or a c oincidence o f t echnological v ariation w ith d istinct p atterns o f s ettlement a nd s ubsistence, s ince P eterson ( 1976 :90) h as r emarked t hat w here a c ommon e xploitative e conomy ( in t his c ase h unting a nd g athering) i mposes c onsiderable u niformity o n m aterial c ulture a nd s ocial o rganization " only w ith m ajor v ariation i n h abitat w ill t here b e f ound t o b e c oncomitant v ariations i n c ultural b ehaviour." A lready, f or e xample, H . J . a nd J . D eacon ( 1980) h ave l ooked a t t his p ossibility b y c omparing t he r elative f requencies o f s crapers a nd b acked m icroliths i n a ssemblages n orth a nd s outh o f t he Z ambezi w ith i nteresting r esults. T he d istribution o f s craper-dominated a ssemblages c oincides b roadly w ith a reas i n w hich c lothing w as m ade t raditionally f rom l eather a nd i ndeed s crapers a re k nown, b oth f rom e thnohistoric o bservations a nd f ro m m icrowear s tudies , t o h ave b een u sed p rincipally i n w orking s kins . B acked m icroliths t herefore d ominate b y d efault i n a reas i n w hich b ark c loth w as t he t raditional s ource o f g arments , a lthough H . J . D eacon ( 1972) h as a lso s uggested t hat t he i mportance o f h unting r elative t o g athering m ay h ave b een g reater t o t he n orth o f t he Z ambezi.

W hile f uture r esearch m ay s how t he s pecifics o f t his s uggestion t o b e i ncorrect, i t r epresents a n i nitial a nd i mportant m ove t owards e xamining t he r elationship b etween h abitat a nd t echnology o n t he l arge s cale a dvocated b y P eterson . I t i s a cceptance o f t his r elationship a s a w orking h ypothesis t hat w arrants t he i dentification o f e ach o f t hese r egional g roups a s a t echnocomplex, i n t he s ense i n w hich t his t erm i s u sed b y C larke ( 1968 :330 ) t o p oint t o s imilarities a mong a ssemblages w hich r eflect " a w idely d iffused a nd i nterlinked r esponse t o c ommon f actors i n e nvironment, e conomy a nd t echnology ."

I n t he c ase o f t hose e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica w hich d ate t o, o r a fter , t he L ast G lacial M aximum o ne o f t he d istinguishing f eatures , a s s ection t hree o f t his c hapter s hows, i s t he o ccurrence o f l arge n umbers o f u nretouched b ladelets a nd t he c oncomitant b ladelet c ores , w hether u se w as m ade o f a w rapped b ipolar o r am ore c onventional, s pike-producing f laking t echnology. I f t he s uggestion a dvanced i n b elow i n C hapter 8 i s c orrect , a nd m any o f t hese b ladelets d id s erve t o a rm b arbed h unting s pears, t hen t heir a bsence f rom , f or e xample, c ontemporary a ssemblages i n Z imbabwe a nd N amibia m ay p oint a lready t o r egionally v arying h unting s trategies. S hould a n ame b e s ought f or t his S outhern A frican t echnocomplex i t m ight n ot b e i nappropriate t o u pgrade o ur u se o f t he t erm " Robberg" a nd d esignate i t t he " Robberg T echnocomplex," f ollowing h ere a s uggestion m ade i nitially b y B eaumont ( 1978:133 ). S ince t hose f eatures w hich a re p articularly c haracteristic o f t he R obberg I ndustry a s c urrently d efined a re e ither s hared w ith a ll m embers o f t his t echnocomplex ( e.g. e mphasis o n b ladelet p roduction, r arity o f f ormal t ools ), o r w ith t hose a ssemblages w hich a re q uartz-dominated i n o ther p arts o f S outh A frica ( e.g. o ccurrence o f m any c ore-reduced p ieces a nd s mall b ladelet c ores ), t his w ould n ot o nly m ore a ccurately r eflect t he s tatus o f t his p articular " industry ," b ut a lso p ay a ppropriate

1 76

r ecognition t o t he p re-eminence o f t he S outhern C ape i n t he d evelopment o f t he s tudy o f t he E arly L SA i n S outhern A frica.

1 77

C HAPTER S EVEN A P ALAEOECOLOGICAL M ODEL F OR A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITE D ISTRIBUTION D URING T HE U PPER P LENIGLACIAL A ND L ATE G LACIAL

7 :1 I ntroduction

D uring t he L ast G lacial M aximum a nd t he p eriods i mmediately l eading u p t o a nd f ollowing i t, i .e. f rom c . 2 5,000 t o c . 1 6,000 B P, h uman o ccupation o f S outh A frica s eems t o h ave b een l imited b oth q uantitatively a nd s patially . S ites d ated t o t his p eriod a re l isted i n T able 7 :1. T he d efinite g eographical l ocalization o f t hese s ites, a long t he r im o f t he i nterior p lateau i n t he S outh-Western a nd S outhern C ape P rovince, t he D rakensberg M ountains o f L esotho a nd t he E astern T ransvaal, N atal a nd S waziland i s s hown i n F ig. 7 :1. N o s ites o ccur i n t he i nterior o f t he R epublic o f S outh A frica, w ith t he s ingle e xception o f R ose C ottage C ave. T his s ame g eographical p attern r emains n oticeable e ven i n t he p eriod f ollowing t he L ast G lacial M aximum, i .e. f rom 1 6,000 t o 1 2,000 B P, a s b oth T able 7 :2 a nd F ig. 7 :2 i ndicate. D ated s ites c ontinue t o b e r estricted t o a r im r unning a long t he s outhern a nd e astern m argins o f t he i nterior p lateau, a lthough t he n umber o f d ated o ccupations d oes i ncrease c onsiderably . T he o nly i ndication o f a n e xpansion i n t he a rea o f s ettlement i s g iven b y d ates f rom t he t wo s ites o f D ikbosch I a nd W onderwerk, b oth i n t he N orthern C ape P rovince, b ut i n n either c ase d oes L SA o ccupation e xtend b ack b eyond 1 3,500 B P ( Humphreys 1 979; T hackeray, A . 1 981).

I t w ould b e i ncorrect t o i mply t hat t he i nterior o f S outh A frica w as n ot i nhabited b y h uman p opulations a t t he L ast G lacial M aximum. F ollowing H . J . D eacon a nd F . T hackeray ( 1984), w e c an, h owever , s uggest t hat t he s patiotemporal d istribution o f r adiocarbon d ates, l imited i n s ize t hough t he s ample i s, n evertheless r eflects t he d ensity o f p opulation o ver t he s ubcontinent. I f i t c an b e s hown t hat t he d istribution i n q uestion i s n ot a f unction o f t he l ocalization o f a rchaeological r esearch t hen i t c hallenges u s t o s eek a n a lternative e xplanation .

F ig. 7 :3, a dapted f rom P arkington ( 1984), i llustrates t he l ocation o f r esearch p rogrammes c arried o ut i n L SA a rchaeology o ver t he l ast t wenty y ears. I t i s t rue t hat t here i s a c orrelation b etween t he r elatively l arge n umber o f s ites i n t he S outhern C ape a nd t he e xtensive f ieldWork c arried o ut t here b y H . a nd J . D eacon ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976 ; D eacon, H . J . a nd B rooker 1 976 ; D eacon, J . 1 984b), K lein ( 1974) a nd S chweitzer ( Schweitzer a nd W ilson 1 981), a nd c ontinued n ow b y w orkers f rom G rahamstown ( Binneman 1 985; H all 1 985). B ut i t i s e qually t rue t hat o ther c omparatively w ell r esearched a reas, 1 979; T hackeray,

s uch a s t he N orthern A . 1 981) a nd t he

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C ape P rovince ( Humphreys M iddle O range R iver V alley

Fig. 7 :1 D istribution o f archaeological s ites i n S outhern A frica d ating t o the Upper Pleniglacial c . 2 5,000 - 1 6,000 B P. N ote t hat R ose Cottage Cave o ccurs b oth h ere a nd i n F ig. 7 :2 b ecause, a lthough i ts Pre-Wilton a ssem blage c annot b e a ccurately d ated, d iscussion i n Chapter 3 h as s hown i t t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom S ehonghong. ( Site n ames a re

g iven i n f ull

1 79

i n Table

3 :1).

T able 7 :1 A rchaeological a ssemblages f rom S outhern A frica d ated t o t he U pper P leniglacial c . 2 5,000 - 1 6,000 B P S ite

D ate ( BP)

A ssociated a ssemblage

R eference

B PA

2 1,220 + 1 95

E arly m icrolithic L SA

2 1,110 + 4 20

E arly m icrolithic L SA

2 1,070 + 1 80

E arly m icrolithic L SA

1 7,830 + 1 80

R obberg I ndustry

2 2,800 2 2,575 2 0,180 2 4,630 2 3,900 2 1,100 2 0,500

U nnamed i ndustry U nnamed i ndustry U nnamed i ndustry E arly m icrolithic E arly m icrolithic E arly m icrolithic E arly m icrolithic

D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon, J . 1 984b O pperman 1 978 O pperman 1 978

B UF E BC H NK

M LK N BC

S H

S HO S IB

+ 8 50

7 4 72 70 71 7

2 20 3 00 7 4 :9 00 T 3 00 T 1 60 71 :

L SA L SA L SA L SA

2 0,000 7 -7 1 70 1 8,660 74 :1 10

P ostdating M SA R obberg I ndustry

1 8,100 + 5 50

R obbery I ndustry

1 6,700 + 2 40

R obberg I ndustry

2 0,900 + 2 70

M SA

2 0,240 + 2 30

M SA

1 9,860 + 2 20

M SA

1 7,820 + 2 70 2 2,990 T - 3 10

E arly m icrolithic L SA E arly m icrolithic L SA M SA

2 2,850

T 160

P arkington 1 977 B eaumont 1 981 B eaumont 1 981 B eaumont 1 981 B eaumont 1 981 C arter 1 978 D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon, J . 1 984b C arter a nd V ogel 1 974 C arter a nd V ogel 1 974 C arter a nd V ogel 1 974 C arter 1 978 D avies 1 975 P rice-Williams 1 981

N ote 1 . R easons h ave b een a dvanced i n C hapter 3 :4 f or s uggesting t hat t he e arly m icrolithic " Pre-Wilton" a ssemblage f rom R ose C ottage C ave i s o f t he s ame a ge a s t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom S ehonghong.

1 80

F ig. 7 :2 D istribution o f a rchaeological s ites i n S outhern Africa dating t o t he Late G lacial c . 1 6,000 - 1 2,000 B P. N ote t hat Rose Cottage Cave o ccurs b oth h ere a nd i n F ig. 7 :1 b ecause, a lthough i ts Pre-Wilton a ssem blage c annot b e a ccurately d ated, d iscussion i n Chapter 3 has s hown i t to b e c ontemporary w ith the e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage from S ehonghong. ( Site n ames a re

g iven i n f ull

1 81

i n Table 3 :1).

T able 7 :2 A rchaeological a ssemblages f rom S outhern A frica d ated t o t he L ate G lacial, c . 1 6,000 t o 1 2,000 B P S ite

D ate ( BP)

A ssociated A ssemblage

R eference

B NK

1 2,730 + 1 85

R obberg I ndustry

1 4,200 + 2 40

R obberg I ndustry R obberg I ndustry

S chweitzer a nd W ilson 1 982 D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon, J . 1 984b H umphreys 1 979

B PA

D IK

E BC H NK

1 3,210 1 2,480 1 2,060 1 3,770 1 3,510 1 3,240 1 2,450 1 2,450 1 3,100

T 55 T 130

1 05 7 130 T1 20 T -1 25 T 100 T2 80 71 10

R obberg I ndustry R obberg I ndustry U nnamed i ndustry U nnamed i ndustry U nnamed i ndustry U nnamed i ndustry R obberg I ndustry E arly m icrolithic L SA

M HB

1 2,590 T 1 30 1 2,550 7 . 1 10 1 2,330 7 1 30 1 5,400 T 1 20

S H

1 3,200 + 1 50

E arly m icrolithic L SA

1 3,000 + 1 40

E arly m icrolithic L SA

1 2,800 + 2 50

E arly m icrolithic L SA

1 2,250 + 3 00

E arly m icrolithic L SA

1 2,200 + 2 50

E arly m icrolithic L SA

S HO S IP

1 4,760 + 1 30

icrolithic L SA E arly m " Lubcmbo I ndustry"

W NK

1 2,380 + 9 5

A lbany I ndustry

1 2,160 + 1 15

A lbany I ndustry

1 2,130 + 1 10

A lbany I ndustry

R easons

b een

K RA

1 3,000

N ote.

-

h ave

E arly m icrolithic L SA R obberg I ndustry R obberg I ndustry R obberg I ndustry

H umphreys 1 979 H umphreys 1 979 H umphreys 1 979 P arkington 1 977 B eaumont 1 981 B eaumont 1 981 D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon , J . 1 984b D eacon, H . J . 1 976 C arter e t a l.in p ress C arter a nd V ogel 1 974 C arter e t a l. i n p ress C arter e t a l. i n p ress C arter e t a l. i n p ress D avies 1 975 P rice-Williams a nd P rior 1 985 H umphreys a nd T hackeray, A . 1 981 H umphreys a nd T hackeray, A . 1 981 H umphreys a nd T hackeray, A . 1 981

a dvanced i n t he t ext f or s uggesting

t hat t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages f rom B ushman R ock S helter ( Wadley f orthcoming; C hapter 5 :4), R avenscraig ( Opperman 1 987; C hapter 3 :3) a nd R ose C ottage C ave m ay a lso d ate t o t his p eriod.

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( Beaumont

1 978;

C hapter

3 :4)

P ig. 7 :3 The distribution of recent LSA research in S outhern A frica ( after Parkington 1 984). AP B C K RM 1 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0

A pollo 1 1 Cave - W endt B order Cave - B eaumont K lasies R iver M outh - B inneman; S inger and Wymer W endt S mith B eaumont; Thackeray and Thackeray H umphreys W adley B eaumont; P lug Price-Williams M azel Carter Parkington a nd P oggenpoel O pperman S ampson R obertshaw; S . Hall D eacon, D eacon a nd Brooker D eacon a nd D eacon; Inskeep; K lein D eacon, D eacon a nd Brooker O pperman Avery; M . H all; S chweitzer a nd W ilson S mith P arkington a nd P oggenpoel

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( Sampson 1 972; 1 985a), h ave s ignally f ailed t o p rovide e vidence o f h uman o ccupation d uring t he U pper P leniglacial.

C ertainly c aves , w hich m ight h ave a cted a s r epeated f oci o f s ettlement a nd w hich c ould h ave p reserved e xtensive s equences o f o ccupation , a re , o n t he w hole, r are i n s uch a reas c ompared w ith t he C ape F old M ountain B elt a nd t he D rakensberg. M ost s ites i n t hese r egions c onsequently t ake t he f orm o f s urface a ssemblages , g enerally c onsist o nly o f l ithic a rtefacts a nd a re u ndateable b y r adiometric m eans. T here i s, t oo , a p roblem o f r ecognition a s m any e arly m icrolithic s urface s ites m ay r epresent o nly a l imited r ange o f a ctivities a nd/or a t ransient o ccupation , a nd a l ithic c omponent r estricted t o f lakes , b ladelets , a nd p erhaps c ores i s l ikely t o b e d ifficult t o d istinguish f rom l ater H olocene a ssemblages. S prings, p ans a nd s imilar f eatures c ould , h owever , b e e xpected t o h ave r epeatedly a cted a s f oci o f o ccupation a nd t hus t o h ave s een t he b uild u p o f a l arger , m ore r epresentative, a nd h ence m ore e asily i dentifiable, a ssemblage. N evertheless , w hile a ssemblages o f b oth S mithfield a nd W ilton c haracter a re w ell k nown, a nd w hile b oth M iddle a nd E arly S tone A ge o ccurrences a re a lso c ommon , n o a ssemblages o f e arly m icrolithic k ind h ave b een r eported f rom s uch a n e xtensively w ell-surveyed a rea a s t he S eacow V alley ( Sampson 1 985a).

T he a lternative p ossibility w ould b e t hat w hile t he e arly m icrolithic L SA a ssemblages w ere r estricted t o a r im a round t he i nterior p lateau, t he p lateau i tself w as o ccupied b y t he m akers o f a w holly d ifferent l ithic t radition . P arkington ( 1984:128-29) h as i ndeed s uggested t hat t he L ockshoek I ndustry o f t he M iddle O range R iver V alley ( Sampson 1 974:270-74) m ay b e a c ontemporary i nland v ariant o f t he R obberg I ndustry, w ith n aturally b acked k nives s truck i n h ornfels b eing t he t ypological i ndicators o f t his r elation . S ites i n t he S outhern a nd S outh-Western C ape w ould t hen r epresent o nly o ccasional f orays i nto t he C ape F old M ountain B elt b y g roups c oncentrated i n t he i nterior . D iscussion o f t his h ypothesis i n t he p revious c hapter h as s hown, h owever , t hat, f or a n umber o f r easons , i t i s u nlikey t o b e c orrect . T he c ase f or t he k nown d istribution o f r elevant s ites a round t he r im o f t he i nterior p lateau r epresenting t he r eal d istribution o f e arly L SA p opulations i s c orrespondingly s trengthened.

G iven t he a mple d ocumentation i n t he e thnographic r ecord o f a f airly d irect r elation b etween t he d ensity a nd d istribution o f h unter-gatherer p opulations o n t he o ne h and a nd t he a vailability, p redictability a nd r eliability o f s ubsistence r esources o n t he o ther ( e.g. B irdsell 1 953; L ee a nd D e y ore 1 968; N etting 1 971), i t s eems r easonable t o a ttempt t o e xplain i n e cological t erms t he d istribution o f s ites d ating t o t his p eriod. T he m odel w hich i s d eveloped i n t he f ollowing s ections s uggests s trongly, o n p alaeoclimatic a nd p alaeoecological g ro unds t hat, s mall a s t he s ample s ize i s, t hese s ite d istributions d o a pproximate t o t he

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r eal d ensity o f h uman p opulations i n S outh A frica a t t his t ime d epth, a nd t hus s upports t he a rgument t hat t hey a re n ot m erely a f unction o f t he l ocation o f L SA r esearch .

7 :2 T he L ast G lacial M aximum D istribution o f A rchaeological S ites

P alaeoenvironment

a nd

t he

E vidence r elating t o t he S outh A frican p alaeoenvironment d uring t he U pper P leniglacial h as a lready b een r eviewed a nd d iscussed i n C hapter 2 , a nd o nly a s ummary o f t he k ey p oints w ill t hus b e r epeated h ere . B oth g lobal g eneral c irculation m odels a nd l ocal S outh A frican d ata a gree t hat t he U pper P leniglacial s aw a m arked r eduction i n m ean a nnual t emperatures , w hich w ere p robably a t l east 5 °C l ower t han t oday, a nd m ay h ave b een u p t o 9 °C l ower i n p arts o f t he i nterior . A d istinctly d rier c limate i s a lso i ndicated f or t he S outhern C ape, N atal a nd p arts o f t he T ransvaal, a s w ell p erhaps a s f or m uch o f t he r emainder o f t he c ountry . G eomorphological e vidence a nd s ome g eneral c irculation m odels s uggest t hough t hat r ainfall m ay h ave i ncreased o ver t he S outh-Western C ape a nd p ossibly a lso o ver t he N orthern C ape, b ut b oth t he d ating a nd t he i nterpretation o f t his e vidence c an b e q uestioned. I n a ny e vent t he b oundary b etween s ummera nd w inter-rainfall z ones d oes n ot s eem t o h ave s hifted s ignificantly . E nvironmental i ndicators, s uch a s c harcoals, p ollens a nd m icrofauna, f rom a n umber o f s ites , b ut p articularly f rom B oomplaas i n t he S outhern C ape, c onfirm t hat c onditions d uring t he U pper P leniglacial w ere t hen a t t heir m ost s evere , i n t erms o f b oth c old a nd a ridity, o f a ny p eriod d uring t he l ast 1 25,000 y ears ( Deacon, H . J . e t a l. 1 984).

O ne f urther f actor w hich r equires c omment i s c hanges o n s ea-level d uring t his p eriod. A c onservative e stimate o f a n 8 5 m l owering a t 1 8,000 B P h as b een o ffered b y C LIMAP ( 1976 ), b ut d ata f rom t he w estern a nd s outhern c oasts o f A frica ( Dingle a nd R ogers 1 972; M artin 1 972), a s w ell a s f rom B arbados a nd N ew G uinea ( Shackleton a nd O pdyke 1 973), i mply t hat a f igure o f c loser t o 1 20 o r 1 30 m m ay b e c orrect. T he d ifference i n c oastal c onfiguration w hich t his w ill h ave p roduced i s i ndicated i n F ig. 7 :4. O f p articular i nterest i s t he f inding t hat t he r idge-and-vale n ature o f t he T ertiary c alcareous r ocks u nderneath t he a rea s o e xposed w ould h ave e ncouraged t he f ormation o f d unes a nd l agoons ( Birch 1 979 ), w hich a re l ikely t o h ave b een t he m ost c onspicuous t opographic f eatures o n t he A gulhas B ank ( Deacon , J . 1 984 1o:43 ). S uch l agoons a nd m arshes c ould h ave c ombined w ith t he p roximity o f t he c oast t o o ffer a v ariety o f f ood-resources u nobtainable i nland.

I t i s n ot y et p ossible t o a ttempt r econstructions o f t he p alaeoecological s ystems o f S outh A frica d uring t he L ast G lacial M aximum , b ut m aps o f p resent d ay t emperature a nd r ainfall p atterns c an o ffer a s tarting p oint i n t rying t o r elate t he p alaeoenvironmental e vidence t o t he a rchaeological e vidence. E ven w here , a s i n t he c ase o f p alaeoprecipitation , q uantitative e stimates a re n ot p ossible, t he c ombination o f p alaeoclimatic d ata

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. . .- . -. Keurbooms R iver

Breede . R iver

I

G ouritz R iver

N

1 00 k m

F ig. 7 :4 Approximate p osition o f the c oast w ith a 1 40 m d epression i n m ean s ea-level c . 2 0,000 BP ( after D ingle a nd Rogers 1 972).

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w ith a n u nderstanding o f t he g eneral p rinciples g overning t he m odern c limate s hould p ermit t he i dentification o f r elatively w etter a nd d rier o r c older a nd w armer r egions . T his w ill a llow s ome i dea t o b e g ained o f r egional d ifferences i n r esource p roductivity.

F ig. 7 :5 i llustrates t he d istribution o f s ites d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial i n r elation t o t he p resent t emperature r egime o f S outh A frica. F rom t his i t c an b e s een t hat s ites t end t o c oncentrate i n c older a reas w ith m ean a nnual t emperatures r anging a t p resent f r o m 1 8° t o 1 2°C . T emperature v ariation o n a r egional s cale i s l argely c ontrolled b y t wo f actors, n amely a ltitude a nd l atitude ( Wellington 1 955 :219), n either o f w hich c an b e e xpected t o h ave b een s ignificantly d ifferent f r o m t he p resent. T he s ame r elative p attern o f c older a nd w armer a reas m ay t herefore b e i nferred f or t he P leistocene . I t f ollows t hen t hat h uman p opulation d ensity w ould s eem t o h ave b een g reatest i n t he c older p arts o f S outh A frica. T his s eems c ounter-intuitive, a s e xtensive c old c an b e e xpected, a nd i s k nown, t o h ave h ad a d eleterious e ffect o n t he d ensity, d istribution a nd d iversity o f a nimal a nd p lant p opulations ( Deacon, H . J . a nd T hackeray , F . 1 984). W hat i t p robably s ignifies, h owever , i s t hat s ome o ther f actor o r f actors w ere m ore i mportant i n r egulating p opulation d ensity .

O ne s uch f actor i s l ikely t o h ave b een t he a vailability o f w ater . T his i s t he p rincipal l imiting f actor f or p lant g rowth, a nd h ence f or p lant a nd a nimal b iomass , i n S outh A frica t oday ( Tainton 1 981), a nd m ay a lso b e e xpected t o h ave b een s o d uring t he U pper P leistocene, e ven a llowing f or t he e ffects o f g enerally l ower t emperatures, i ncreased f rost f requency a nd i ntensity a nd i ncreased w ind s trengths. F ig. 7 :6 i llustrates t he d istribution o f a rchaeological s ites d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial i n r elation t o p resent m ean a nnual p recipitation . A g ross c orrelation c an b e d iscerned b etween s ite d istribution a nd t hose a reas w hich e xperience m oderate t o h igh r ainfall t oday. T he p roblem i s h ow t his p attern c an b e t ransformed q ualitatively t o a pproximate t hat o f t he L ast G lacial M aximum.

I t i s a pparent f rom e arlier r emarks t hat d uring t he U pper P leniglacial r ainfall d ecreased o ver t he S outhern C ape, N atal a nd p arts o f t he T ransvaal, a nd i ndeed p robably d id s o o ver m ost o f S outh A frica 's i nterior , a nd t hat t he b oundary b etween s ummer- a nd w inter-rainfall z ones d id n ot m ove s ignificantly . I ncreased p recipitation i s p ossible, b ut b y n o m eans c ertain, t o h ave o ccurred i n t he S outh-Western C ape a nd, l ess s o, i n t he N orthern C ape. L owered t emperatures w ill, o f c ourse, h ave b alanced t he c oncomitant d rop i n p recipitation ( Sarnthein 1 978:46), e xcept p erhaps i n d esert o r s emi-desert a reas, s uch a s t he S outhern N amib, w here a n i ncrease i n e ffective p recipitation m ay b e e xpected t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith g reater p lant p roductivity .

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U pper P leniglacial s ite Late G lacial s ite U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial s ite

z /

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F ig. 7 :5 Distribution o f a rchaeological s ites d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial i n r elation t o p resent m ean a nnual s urface t emperature ( *C).

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I n t he p resent w inter-rainfall a rea p recipitation i s a ssociated w ith t he e asterly m ovement o f c yclones a nd a nticyclones o riginating i n t he S outh A tlantic O cean ( Wellington 1 955 :259 ). O rographic e ffects a nd t he p roximity o f t he C ape F old M ountain B elt t o t he s ea r esult i n " the h igh c oncentration o f r ainfall o n t he m ountains b acking t he c oast a nd t he l imitation o f t he h eavier l owland r ainfall t o t he c oastal f orelands," w hile " to t he l eeward o f t he m ountain r anges t he r ain s hadow i s a ccompanied b y s emi-aridity a nd x erophyllous v egetation" ( Wellington 1 955 :240). I n t he s ummer-rainfall r egion, w here p recipitation d erives m ainly f rom t he i nflow o f o ceanic a ir-streams f rom e ast c oast h ighs, o rographic e ffects ( caused h ere b y t he D rakensberg M ountains ) a nd d istance f rom t he I ndian O cean a lso c ombine t o r ender N atal, S waziland, E astern L esotho a nd t he E astern T ransvaal t he w ettest p arts o f S outh A frica ( Wellington 1 955).

A llowing f or m ost ( or p ossibly a ll) o f S outh A frica t o h ave e xperienced a d rier c limate t han t hat o f t oday d uring t he U pper P leniglacial, o rographic e ffects a nd d istance f rom t he s ea a re s till l ikely t o h ave r esulted i n a reas s uch a s N atal a nd t hose o n t he w indward s ide o f t he D rakensberg a nd t he C ape F old B elt h aving b een t he r elatively w ettest p arts o f t he c ountry .

7 :3 A T entative E cological M odel o f L ast G lacial D istribution

M aximum

S ite

R ainfall a nd t emperature , t ogether w ith o ther f actors n ot d iscussed h ere , s uch a s h umidity , w ind v elocity a nd e vaporation r ate, p rovide t he c limatic f ramework w ithin w hich t he r esources e xploited b y a h unting-gathering p opulation e xist . A lthough t he a vailability o f s helter a nd o f i norganic r aw m aterials, p articularly i sotropically f racturing s tone , a re o f s ome i mportance i n d etermining t he c hoice o f p articular s ettlement l oci, i t i s t he p roductivity o f a nimal a nd p lant r esources , c oupled w ith t he a vailability o f f resh w ater , t hat p rincipally i nfluence t he d ensity o f p opulation o n t he l arger s cale ( Jochim 1 976 ).

D irect m easures o f p alaeoproductivity a re n ot o btainable , b ut e stimates c an n onetheless b e m ade f rom c orrelations o bserved a mong c ontemporary d ata . T hus, W hittaker ( 1970:82) d emonstrates t hat a n early l inear p ositive c orrelation e xists b etween m ean a nnual p recipitation a nd n et p rimary p roductivity i n a reas r eceiving u p t o 8 00 m m o f r ain a y ear , a lthough d ifferences i n v egetation t ype m ay m odify t he r elationship ( Thackeray, F . 1 977 ). S imilarly , C oe e t a l. ( 1976 ) h ave f ound t hat t here i s as tatistically s ignificant p ositive c orrelation b etween h erbivore b iomass o n t he o ne h and a nd m ean a nnual p recipitation o n t he o ther i n a reas w hich r eceive up t o 7 00 mm o f r ain p er y ear ; i t i s p ossible t hat t his c orrelation m ay r emain v alid i n a reas o btaining u p t o 1 400 mm o f p recipitation

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p er a nnum ( cited i n T hackeray, F . 1 977 ). A s a f irst g eneralization , i t m ay t herefore b e s uggested t hat t he r elatively w etter r egions , i n w hich s ites d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial o ccur, w ere a lso t he m ost e cologically p roductive p arts o f S outh A frica a t t hat t ime.

S tudies o f r ainfall r eliability a nd d rought o ccurrence h ave s hown t hat t he w ettest p arts o f S outh A frica t end t o b e t hose w hich s uffer l east f rom d rought ( Wellington 1 955 :255 ) a nd t hat r ainfall p redictability i s, i n g eneral, s trongly p ositively c orrelated w ith m ean a nnual p recipitation ( Harris 1 980). T he o verall e ffect o f t his w ill h ave b een t o i ncrease a nimal a nd p lant p roductivity a nd t hus e nhance f urther t he s ecurity o f h unter-gatherer p opulations i n a reas r eceiving h igher p recipitation c ompared w ith t hose r eceiving l ess.

R e-examination o f F ig. 7 :6 w ill s how t hat, e ven w ithin t hose a reas l ikely t o h ave b een r elatively w ettest a t t he L ast G lacial M aximum , s ome r egions a re a pparently d evoid o f a rchaeological s ites a nd m ay t herefore h ave s upported a s maller h uman p opulation . T he e astern h alf o f t he O range F ree S tate a nd t he T ransvaal w est o f t he D rakensberg M ountains a re e xamples o f s uch a reas. I n e xplaining t his, a ttention s hould b e p aid t o a f urther f actor a lready c ommented u pon b y J . D eacon ( 1984a:322), n amely " that t he d istribution o f s ites o f t his t ime r ange i n t he C ape e cozone a nd t he e astern h alf o f s outhern A frica s uggests t hat r egions o f m oderate t opographic v ariability .. w ere p referred." T he a pparent c oncentration o f s ites i n a reas w ith g reater v ariability i n r elief, e ven w ithin t he w etter p arts o f S outh A fica, s uggests t hat t opographic d iversity i tself o ffered s ome a dvantages f or t he m aintenance o f h uman p opulations u nder L ast G lacial M aximum c onditions.

C learly a ny s ociety c an o nly e xploit a n a rea o f a g iven s ize i n t he c ourse o f o ne y ear b ecause o f l imits i mposed b y t he p revailing l evel o f t echnology o n t he t ransport o f p ersons, f ood a nd r aw m aterial. R eynolds a nd Z iegler ( 1979 ) h ave a lso d rawn a ttention t o t he f act t hat, i n t he a bsence o f c entralized d ecision-making ( which i s a typical o f h unter-gatherer s ocieties ), c onstraints i mposed b y t he n eed t o o btain a nd p rocess i nformation o n r esource d istribution m ay r estrict t he s ize o f t he a rea t hat c an b e e xploited. H ayden ( 1981:382), i n a n o verview o f h unter-gatherer e cology, s uggests t hat a s a r esult o f s uch f actors " the m aximum r ange u tilized b y h unter-gatherers h aving,no t ransportation a ids i s p robably i n t he n eighbourhood o f 2 500 k m`."

T his f igure i s b roadly c onsistent w ith o thers p rovided f or p edestrian h unter-gatherers b y F oley ( 1979 ) a nd b y i ndividual e thnographic s tudies s uch a s t hose o f S ilberbauer ( 1981a) a nd T anaka ( 1980). T he n ecessary i mplication o f t his p roposition i s t hat w here r esources a re i nsufficiently p lentiful, r eliable o r p redictable p ermanent o ccupation o f a n a rea i s u nlikely b y h unter-gatherers w ho l ack s uch t ransportation a ids a s h orses , s leds o r c anoes a nd/or w ho l ack t he t echnology t o s tore f ood o ver

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l ong p eriods o f t ime.

I n t he c ontext o f t he d ensity o f H olocene p opulations i n S outh A frica , H umphreys ( 1979 ) h as d rawn a ttention t o t he " unstructured" n ature o f e nvironments i n S outh A frica 's i nterior , a nd h as s uggested t hat t his w ould h ave r esulted i n t his b eing a m arginal r egion f or h uman s ettlement u nder p articularly s evere c onditions , s uch a s t hose o f t he U pper P leniglacial, b ecause i t l acked " the d iversity a nd c oncentration o f r eliable r esources t o m aintain c ommunities w ithin d efined h ome r anges t hr o ugh t he s easonal r ound" ( Deacon, H . J . a nd T hackeray, F . 1 984:385).

L ee ( 1979 ) h as f urther p ointed o ut t hat i t i s n ecessary t o c onsider h unter-gatherer a daptations n ot j ust i n t he c ontext o f a s ingle y ear b ut r ather o ver s everal d ecades. A ccess t o t he v ariety o f r esources r equired t o s upport a p opulation u nder r are b ut e xtremely a dverse c onditions i s t hus o f g reater i mportance t han t heir s hort-term a bundance i n a reas w hich a re m arginal o ver t he l onger t erm. T he s ame p oint h as b een m ade b y H assan ( 1975:32 ). I t m ay b e s uggested t hat t he u nstructured e nvironments o f t he i nterior p lateau w ere i nsufficiently v aried t o o ffer t he d iversity o f r esources w hich c ould h ave p rovided a s ecure b asis f or l ong-term , l arge-scale h uman p opulation m aintenance.

I ncreasing t opographic d iversity o n t he o ther h and c ould b e e xpected t o h ave f avoured a g reater d iversity o f h abitats, a nd h ence o f e xploitable r esources , a nd t o h ave c oncentrated t his d iversity w ithin a c omparatively s mall a rea. H arpending a nd D avis ( 1971) h ave s hown t hat t he s ize o f ag roup 's s ubsistence t erritory w ill v ary i nversely w ith e nvironmental d iversity. A t entative i ndication o f i nter-regional d ifferences i n e cological d iversity m ay b e g iven i f w e c onsider t he d istribution o f v eld-types i n S outh A frica a s d escribed b y A cocks ( 1975 ). V ariety i n t he n umber o f v eld-types o ccurring w ithin a reas o f t he s ame s ize i n d ifferent p arts o f t he c ountry i s d ue t o v ariation i n c limate, t opography a nd l ithology, a nd, a s a lready s tated, c limatic v ariations a re g overned b y f actors s uch a s a ltitude a nd l atitude w hich a re l ikely t o h ave b een i mportant e ven u nder t he v ery d ifferent c onditions o f t he U pper P leistocene . A reas s howing g reat v ariation i n t he n umber o f v eld-types p resent t oday m ay t herefore a lso h ave b een m ore d iverse i n t he p ast . E xamination o f T able 7 :3 w ill s how t hat a reas i n t he en virons o f H euningneskrans i n t he E astern T ransvaal a nd o f B oomplaas i n t he S outhern C ape, f or e xample, a re m ore d iverse t han t hose i n t he N orthern C ape o r t he M iddle O range R iver V alley.

L arge m igratory o r n omadic u ngulates f orm a n i mportant p art o f t he f aunal s amples f rom t he s ites u nder c onsideration ( Klein 1 978a; 1 978b; 1 984b). I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t hese m ay h ave b een e asier t o l ocate a nd h unt s uccessfully i n s ituations w here b roken t opography r esulted i n f ragmentation o f g razing r esources a nd

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i mpeded, o r e xercised a c ontrolling i nfluence o ver , t heir m ovements ( Jacobson 1 984), a nd w here p articular t opographic f eatures c ould h ave b een o f u se i n s ighting a nd t rapping p rey .

I n c onsidering t he s ize o f a rea t hat c ould b e e xploited b y a h unting-gathering b and, i t i s a lso n ecessary t o c onsider , i f o nly i n t he p resent s tate o f r esearch a t t he t heoretical l evel, t he s ocial, a s w ell a s t he n atural, e nvironment o f s uch a b and. G amble ( 1984:250 ) p uts i t i n t his w ay :

" While r esource a vailability, a nd h ence t he e nvironment, m ay d etermine t he l evel o f c osts t he s ocial s ystem w ill u ltimately d etermine w hat c onstitutes a cceptable c osts ....Social s olutions t o e nvironmental p roblems a re a s i mportant a s a ny t echnological a dvance."

T he e thnographic r ecord c ontains m any e xamples o f h ow h unter-gatherers i n m arginal a reas h ave i nstitutionalized m eans f or p ermitting i ndividuals a nd g roups t o r elocate i nto n eighbouring a reas s o a s t o s urvive e conomic s tress . T his i s i ndeed p robably a s ine q ua n on o f t he s ettlement o f s uch a reas ( Yengoyan 1 976 :127 ). I f , a s s eems p ossible ( see C hapter 1 0), t he M SA/LSA t ransition w as a ssociated w ith a n i ncrease i n t he u se o f v isual d isplay i tems, s uch a s b eads a nd o ther p ersonal o rnaments , a s w ell a s w ith t he d evelopment o f r epresentational a rt, t hen i t m ay i ndicate t hat E arly L ater S tone A ge p opulations h ad b egun t he p rocess o f f ormalizing i n r itual a nd d isplay b oth i nter- a nd i ntra-group r elations i n w ays s imilar t o t hose r ecorded e thnographically . I f s o , t hen t he d evelopment o f t hese a lliance n etworks m ay h ave c ontributed t o t he s urvival o f h uman p opulations i n t he h arsh e nvironment o f t he U pper P leniglacial.

7 :4 T he R ole o f H unting i n L ast G lacial A daptations

E thnographic d ata d erived f rom s tudies o f m odern S an i ndicate t hat " in e nergy r eturns h unting i s a l ess r ewarding a ctivity t han g athering a nd ve get a ble f oods p rovide t he m ajor p art o f t he d iet" ( Lee 1 979 :205). W orldwide, t ropical, s ubtropical a nd t emperate h unter-gatherers h ave b een o bserved t o d epend m ore u pon c ollected f oods, m ainly p lants b ut a lso s mall g round g ame a nd s hellfish , t han o n h unting ( Lee 1 968). T he r eason f or t his i s t hat w hile p lant c ollecting i s a r elatively h igh-yield a nd l ow-risk a ctivity ( since p lants a re i mmobile, m ore p redictable i n o ccurrence a nd g enerally e asier a nd s afer t o e xploit ), h unting i s a r elatively l ow-yield b ut h igh-risk a ctivity. A s W ebster ( 1981:577 ) p oints o ut, g eneralized s ubsistence s trategies i n w hich p lants p lay a m ajor r ole a re a lso m ore e fficient, b oth t rophically a nd i n t erms o f t he e nergy c osts a ssociated w ith r esource p rocurement a nd g roup m ovement, t han m ore s pecialized o nes w hich e mphasize t he h unting

1 94

o f l arge g ame. I n f act, t he p rincipal i mportance o f m eat f or m ost h unter-gatherers a s f ar a s n utrition i s c oncerned m ay b e l ess t o p rovide c alories t han t o a ct a s ap rotein s upplement a nd t o s upply c ertain e ssential n utrients , s uch a s f ats , t hat c annot b e o btained b y o ther m eans ( Hayden 1 981:397 ).

T here i s l ittle o r n o e vidence t hat t he b ow a nd a rrow o r t he a tlatl w ere a vailable t o h unter-gatherers i n S outh A frica b efore t he e nd o f t he P leistocene a nd h unting w eapons a re t herefore l ikely t o h ave b een r estricted t o a n u naided t hrowing o r t hrusting s pear . I f a nything, t his s hould h ave r esulted i n a n e ven l ower s uccess r ate f or h unting t han t hat r ecorded e thnographically f or t he m odern S an b y L ee ( 1979 ) a nd S ilberbauer ( 1981a). A s H ayden ( 1981:374) p oints o ut, s ocial m echanisms , s uch a s a n i ncrease i n g roup s ize a ccompanied b y p ooling o f k ills a nd t heir s haring a mong a ll g roup m embers, a p ractice w ell d ocumented f or t he S an , c ould h ave g one s ome w ay t o c ounteract t his a s c ould t he i ncreased u se o f a lternative h unting m ethods s uch a s p it-traps . N evertheless , t he r elative u nreliability o f h unting a s a m ajor s ubsistence s trategy i s n ot g ainsaid. T he s ignificance o f t his i s t hat a n a bundance o f l arge g ame w ithin a n a rea, p articularly o f m igratory o r n omadic s pecies, m ay b y i tself h ave b een i nsufficient t o h ave r endered a n a rea s uitable f or m aintaining a h uman p opulation . T he e xistence o f m ore s tationary a nd r eliable r esources , s uch a s p lant f oods, g round g ame a nd s hellfish , w ould t hen h ave b een c ritical.

O n a b road ( Grimes 1 977 ):-

l evel,

p lants

c an

b e d ivided i nto t hree g roups

1 ). t hose w ith u nderground s torage o rgans, w hich t end t o d ominate i n a rid e nvironments w ith l ess t han 5 00 m m o f r ainfall a y ear ;

2 ). g rasses , w hich c an m ore q uickly r espond t o i ncreases i n t he a vailability o f w ater a nd n utrients a nd w hich t end t o d ominate i n a reas w ith m ean a nnual p recipitations o f b etween 5 00 a nd 1 500 m m p er a nnum;

3 ). t rees a nd o ther d ominate w hen a n a rea 1 500 m m .

h erbaceous v egetation , w hich t end t o r eceives a n a nnual r ainfall o f m ore t han

F oley ( 1982), w ho f irst d rew a ttention t o t he i mportance o f t his c lassification a s a n a id i n t he m odelling o f h unter-gatherer e conomies, s tresses t hat t he s econd c ategory o f g rass-dominated c ommunities , a lthough t hey a re a ssociated w ith a h igh a nimal b iomass , a re " unsuitable f or d irect h uman c onsumption ." T he h ighveld o f t he i nterior p lateau i s b elieved t o h ave b een c overed b y s uch g rassland e nvironments d uring t he l ate U pper P leistocene ( Van Z inderen B akker 1 982) a nd t his m ay t herefore b e a f urther r eason i n e xplaining t he s parse o ccupation o f t he r egion b y h unter-gatherer g roups. W here t here i s p alaeoenvironmental

1 95

e vidence f or t he e xpansion o f s uch c ommunities u nder L ast G lacial c onditions , a s i n t he S outhern C ape ( Deacon, H . J . e t a l. 1 984), d enser h uman o ccupation m ay h ave b een p ermitted b y t he e xistence o f t he g reater e cological d iversity o ffered b y am ore b roken t opography a nd/or b y t he p roximity o f t he c oast .

D irect e vidence o f p lant u tilisation b y L ate P leistocene h unter-gatherers i n S outh A frica i s e xtremely l imited, b ut t he o ccurrence o f e dible s eeds a nd l eaves a t B order C ave ( Beaumont 1 978), a nd p ossibly a lso a t H euningneskrans ( Beaumont 1 981), a s w ell a s o f s o f ar u nanalysed c arbonised r emains a t B oomplaas a nd E lands B ay C ave ( Deacon , J . 1 984a:312) h ints a t t heir u se. W hile i t i s i mportant n ot t o p lace u nequivocA l r eliance o n t he c ontemporary e thnographic r ecord a nd t hus r efuse t o a dmit t he l ikeli h oo d o f s ubstantial d ifferences b etween t he l ifeways o f t he m odern S an a nd t hose o f t heir p rehistoric a ncestors, i t i s e qually i mportant n ot t o b e b linded b y t he s urvival o f f aunal r emains i n a rchaeological a ssemblages i nto t hinking t hat L ate P leistocebne p opulations d epended s olely u pon " big-game" h unting.

I n t he l ater H olocene , f or i nstance, r egional d ifferences i n t he a vailability o f l arge m ammals c onditioned v ariability i n t he a nimals e xploited a nd t he p rocurement m ethods e mployed t o o btain t hem. T hus, i n t he S outhern C ape s mall, b ush-loving s pecies ( e.g. g rysbok a nd s teenbok ) p redominated, w ith r elatively l ittle u se o f l arge b ovids, w hile i n t he g rassland e nvironments o f t he i nterior p lateau ( Deacon , J . 1 984a:256-57 ) e quids, f or e xa r pple, w ere m ore c ommon a nd i n t he K alahari m argins s till o ther s pecies , s uch a s g emsbok , p layed a n i mportant r ole ( Steyn 1 984). I n a ll a reas, h owever , t he b asis o f t he e conomy i s l ikely t o h ave b een f ormed b y t he e xploitation o f p lant f oods a nd o ther h ighly d ependable r esources . T he s ame w as m ost p robably a lso t rue o f l ate P leistocene h unter-gatherers , w ith e nvironmental f actors p rincipally r esponsible f or d etermining t he d ifferential a vailability o f g ame s pecies a nd t hus t heir r epresentation i n a rchaeozoological s amples.

O ne e xtremely i mportant r esource k nown t o h ave b een e xploited b y l ater H olocene g roups i s g eophytic p lants s uch a s C yperus, H ypoxis, M oraea a nd e specially W atsonia ( Deacon , H . J . 1 976 ). T hese p lants t end t o o ccur o n n utrient-poor s oils, f or e xample w ithin t he f ynbos b iome o f t he S outhern C ape, a nd a re e xtremely p roductive, a lthough t aking a l ong t ime t o r each m aturity ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:258-59 ). F urthermore, t heir p roductivity i ncreases s ubstantially a fter f iring o f t he l andscape. T his s eems t o h ave b een a c ommon p ractice a mong H olocene h unter-gatherers a nd t he f act t hat t he c ontrolled u se o f f ire ( as e videnced b y t he p resence o f h earths i n M SA c ontexts ) d ates b ack s ome 1 00 ,000 y ears o r m ore i n t he S outhern C ape m ust l eave o pen t he p ossibility o f a g reat a ntiquity f or s uch " firestick f arming" ( Deacon , H . J . 1 983). A lthough t heir a bundance i s l ikely t o h ave b een r educed a s t he f ynbos w as f ragmented b y g rassland e xpansion , s uch g eophytic p lants m ay w ell h ave b een a n i mportant r esource t o L ate P leistocene g roups . T hat t his w as t he c ase a t l east f or t he L ate G lacial g roups w ho o ccupied t he s ite o f B oamplaas b etween 1 4,000

1 96

a nd 1 2,000 B P s eems c lear f rom t he s tratigraphic c omposition o f t he C L M ember i tself, w hich i s l argely m ade u p o f c arbonized p lant r emains ( Deacon, H . J . a nd B rooker 1 976 ).

I t c an a lso b e s uggested t hat t he a dditional r esources o ffered b y p roximity t o t he c oast a nd t o c oastal l agoons m ay h ave a cted a s a nother f ocus o f d enser h uman p opulations, i n a ddition t o t he t opographic d iversity o ffered b y t he C ape F old B elt a nd t he D rakensberg. H uman e xploitation o f s hellfish i s a lready a ttested i n M SA d eposits a t K lasies R iver M outh i n l ayers p robably d ating b ack b eyond 1 25,000 B P ( Singer a nd W ymer 1 982), a nd t here i s n o r eason w hy t his r esource s hould n ot a lso h ave b een u sed d uring t he L ast G lacial, e ven t hough e vidence o f t his w ill h ave b een l ost b y t he P ost-Glacial r ise i n s ea-level. A s i ndicated b y t heir u se i n o ther p arts o f t he w orld ( Bailey 1 975), s hellfish m ay h ave b een a s upplemental r esource a t a ny s eason o r ap rimary o ne w hen o ther h igh-return r esources w ere t emporarily u navailable. T heir p ossible s ignificance i n s upporting c oastally o riented p opulations o ught n ot t o b e i gnored, a s M eehan, r eferring t o a n A ustralian e xample, p oints o ut:

" Because s hellfish w ere c ollected c onsistently, t hey p rovided a s mall, c onstant s ource o f f resh p rotein, t he i mportance o f w hich s hould n ot b e u nderestimated. C ertainly o ne w allaby p rovided a l arger q uantity o f f lesh , p rotein a nd e nergy t han a s ingle h aul o f s hellfish , b ut e ven i n g ood s easons s uch m ammals m ay o nly h ave b een a vailable e very f our o r f ive d ays a t m ost ." ( Meehan 1 977:256 ).

T he i mpact w hich t he u tilisation o f c oastal r esources c an h ave o n h uman p opulation m aintenance m ay a lso b e i llustrated b y N orth A merican d ata t aken f rom K roeber ( 1939). H e p rovides i nformation o n p opulation s ize a t t he t ime o f E uro-American C ontact, a s w ell a s o n t ribal a rea a nd p opulation d ensity, f or a t otal o f 1 41 t ribes. T hese d ata s how ( Table 7 :4) t hat, o n a verage, c oastal t ribes h ad l arger p opulations a nd l ived i n s maller a reas a t h igher d ensity t han d id t ribes l iving i n t he c ontinental i nterior . T his c onfirms t he s imilar c onclusions r eached b y B irdsell ( 1953) i n a n a nalysis o f d ata f rom A ustralian A boriginal t ribes. C oastal m argins m ay i ndeed h ave o ften b een " the m etropolitan a reas o f t he e arly d ays o f m odern m an 's e xistence ," ( Tindale 1 974:111).

T he m odel w hich h as b een d eveloped h ere s hows t hat t he d istribution o f h uman p opulations i n S outh A frica d uring t he U pper P leniglacial, i ncluding t he L ast G lacial M aximum, c an b e u nderstood i n t erms o f t he e ffects w hich p recipitation a nd t opographic d iversity a re l ikely t o h ave h ad o n t he a vailability, r eliability a nd p roductivity o f s ubsistence r esources. S ites a re c oncentrated i n t hose a reas o f S outh A frica w hich w ere p robably r elatively w etter e ven u nder L ast G lacial M aximum c onditions, a nd w ithin t hese a n e mphasis o n a reas m arked b y c onsiderable

1 97

0 L C )

after K roeber 1 939) p opulations a nd a reas (

r I

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( Y ) • C O

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1 1 • ( 1. 1

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1 98

v ariability i n r elief a nd e cology c an b e d iscerned. I t i s i n t hese a reas t hat r esource p roductivity a nd d iversity a re l ikely t o h ave b een h ighest.

T he m odel t herefore s ubstantiates t he p attern s een i n t he d istribution o f d ated a rchaeological s ites ( Fig. 7 :1), a nd i n p articular s trengthens t he c ase a gainst i ntensive o ccupation o f t he i nterior a t t his t ime. T hus, a lthough t he c onverse h as r ecently b een a rgued, n amely t hat " the R obberg a ssemblages a nd a ssociated f aunal r emains a re o ccasional, p eripheral a nd p erhaps a typical r eflections o f a s ystem c entred e lsewhere, i n t he i nterior f or e xample," ( Parkington 1 984:120), e cological c onsiderations i mply s trongly t hat t he S outhern C ape w as o ne o f t he f ew r egions o f S outh A frica p roductive e nough t o h ave s upported a l arge h unter-gatherer p opulation u nder L ast G lacial c onditions.

P reviously i t h as b een s uggested t hat h uman a daptive s trategies d uring t he L ast G lacial M aximum s aw r elatively m ore t ime i nvested i n o btaining l arge, m igratory u ngulates a nd r elatively l ess i n e xploiting u nderground p lant f oods a nd t erritorial a nd g round g ame t han w as t he c ase i n t he l ater H olocene ( Deacon, H . J . 1 972). T he s uggestion ( Deacon, H . J . 1 972; 1 976 ; 1 983) t hat L ast G lacial p opulations m ay c orrespondingly h ave b een o rganized d ifferently f rom t heir H olocene s uccessors, w ith l arger-sized g roups m oving o ver l arger a reas, a s a c onsequence o f t heir u se o f l arge g ame r ather t han s mall t errestrial g ame a nd g eophytic p lants , m erits m ore d iscussion . I t i s p articularly i nteresting i n t hat i t s uggests t here m ay h ave b een q uite m ajor d ifferences i n s ocial o rganization b etween H olocene a nd l ate P leistocene p eoples.

T he e vidence w hich m ight b e b rought t o b ear u pon t his p oint i s, h owever, e ntirely i ndirect, a nd D eacon 's o wn s uggestion i s b ased o nly u pon t he e xistence o f t his c orrelation a mong t he e nvironmentally v ery d ifferent A thabaskan I ndians o f N orthern C anada. M ore r elevant e cological c omparisons w ould b e t hose w ith p edestrian h unter-gatherers i n s pecifically g rassland e nvironments , b ut t hese a re f ew . E wers ( 1955), f or e xample, r ecords t hat, a ccording t o L a V erendrye, w ho v isited t hem i n 1 738 w hen t hey h ad n ot y et o btained t he h orse, t he A ssiniboin o f N orth A merica h ad v illages o f 4 0 a nd 1 02 l odges, i mplying p opulations i n e ach c ase o f a t l east 1 00. H owever , i t i s u nclear h ow r epresentative s uch f igures a re o f t he e ntire s easonal r ound. I f o ne l ooks s pecifically a t m odern S an h unter-gatherers i n t he K alahari, i t s eems t hat l ow m ean a nnual r ainfall i s n ot b y i tself e nough t o g enerate t he n eed f or v ery l arge a reas f or t he s upport o f e ither m inimal o r m aximal b ands. T hus L ee ( 1979 ) r ecords t hat a g roup o f 4 30 ! Kung i n t he D obe a rea o f B otswana , w hich r eceives o e 4 00 mm o f r ain a y ear o n a verage, o ccupied n o m ore t han 9 000 k m a nd S ilberbauer ( 1981a) s hows t hat t he 3 43 G /wi o f t he C entral K alahari, w hich h as a m ean a n r wal r ainfall o f o nly 3 50 mm , o ccupy a n a rea o f n o m ore t han 4 678 k m'.

M ore g enerally ,

H assan ( 1975:38) 1 99

h as n oted t hat h unter-gatherer

g roup s ize s eems t o r emain f airly c onstant o ver a w ide r ange o f e nvironmental v ariability a nd t hat " the 2 5-person-size m ode i s e ssentially a f unction o f t he o ptimal s ize f or e ffective f eeding s trategy, i nterpersonal i nteraction a nd d efense...." J ohnson ( 1982) h as a lso s hown h ow e mpirical s tudies o f g roup s ize d emonstrate t hat t here i s a l imit ( of a bout s ix i ndividuals) o n t he m aximum s izes o f t ask-oriented, n onhierarchically o riented g roups . T his n umber c orresponds t o t he n umber o f a dult m ale h unters l ikely t o h ave b een a vailable i n a n a verage-sized ! Kung m inimal b and o f 4 0 i ndividuals.

W hile a n i ncrease i n b and s ize c ould h ave i ncreased t he n umber o f h unters a vailable a nd i mproved t he a cquisition o f i nformation o n r esource a vailability ( Yellen 1 977a:69), i t w ould a lso h ave l ed t o t he d evelopment o f p roblems, n ot o nly i n o rganizing a n i ncreased n umber o f p eople a s a f unctioning u nit, b ut a lso i n i ncreasing t he s peed w ith w hich l ocal r esources w ere u sed u p a nd t hus t he f requency w ith w hich r esidential s hifts h ad t o o ccur. F urthermore, i f w e c onsider t he f requency w ith w hich l arge g ame h as b een d ocumented t o h ave b een k illed b y b oth t he ! Kung ( Lee 1 979 ) a nd t he H adza ( Woodburn 1 968 ), t he f igures a re r em ark a bly l ow - o ne o r t wo l arge a ntelope p er h unter p er y ear , o r 9- 1 8 l arge a nimals p er b and p er y ear r espectively . E ven f or h unters l acking t he b ow a nd a rrow , a s w as p robably t he c ase f or t hose o f t he l ate U pper P leistocene, a n i ncrease i n t he t ime d evoted t o h unting c ompared w ith t hat i nvested b y m odern h unters c ould p robably h ave m aintained o r h ave i ncreased t his n umber o f k ills, w ithout r equiring m ajor c hanges i n o verall g roup s ize.

I t i s t herefore s uggested h ere t hat p redictable, i mmobile r esources , p rincipally p lant f oods, w ill s till h ave p layed a f undamental r ole i n s ubsistence s trategies d uring t he l ate P leistocene a nd t hat t his w ill h ave c oncentrated h uman s ettlement i nto t he m ore p roductive a nd e cologically m ore d iverse a reas a long t he r im o f t he i nterior p lateau a nd a long t he c oast . G roup o rganization m ay t herefore n ot h ave d iffered s o m uch f rom t he l ater H olocene p attern a s h as b een p reviously s uggested. A b roadly b ased a daptive s trategy, m arked b y c onsiderable b ehavioural f lexibility a nd o nly l oose f orms o f t erritoriality ( Yellen 1 977b) w ill h ave o ffered t he b est m eans o f c oping w ith t he r educed q uantity a nd d iversity o f f oods c haracteristic o f h arsh e nvironments , r ather t han s pecialization i n t he d irection o f t he h unting o f " big-game."

7 :5 T he D istribution o f A rchaeological S ites d uring t he L ate G lacial a nd P ost-Glacial

i n

S outh

A frica

I t i s n ot n ecessary t o r epeat i n t his s ection d etails o f t he p alaeoenvironmental e vidence f or t he p eriod 1 6,000 t o 1 0,000 B P a s t hese h ave a lready b een g iven i n C hapter 2 . B riefly , h owever , t his p eriod s aw t emperatures r ising r apidly o nly a t i ts e nd, a bout 1 0,000 B P, a nd t hus a fter t he d isappearance o f t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages w ith w hich w e a re h ere p rincipally c oncerned. A s ubstantial i ncrease i n r ainfall o ver t he l evels o f

2 00

t he U pper P leniglacial s eems t o h ave o ccurred i n m any p arts o f S outh A frica d uring t his p eriod, b ut i t i s u nclear t o w hat e xtent s uch i ncreases m ay h ave b een d ue t o c hanges i n t he r elative p ositions o f s ummer- a nd w inter-rainfall r egions ( Deacon, H . J . 1 983).

A n i ncrease i n e cological p roductivity w ould b e e xpected t o h ave o ccurred a s ar esult o f t his i ncrease i n p recipitation , g iven t hat a ridity i s t he m ain l imiting f actor f or a nimal a nd p lant b iomass i n S outh A frica ( Tainton 1 981), a nd i s i ndeed i ndicated b y d ata f rom B oomplaas i n t he S outhern C ape. D iversity i ndices f or c harcoals, s mall m ammals a nd p ollens a ll i ncrease a t t his t ime ( Deacon , H . J . e t a l. 1 984). T he i ncrease i n t he n umber o f r adiocarbon d ates f or t his s ame p eriod c ompared w ith t hose k nown f or t he U pper P leniglacial f urther s uggests t hat t here m ay h ave b een a c oncomitant i ncrease i n t he l evel o f t he h uman p opulation . A s w ell a s t he e ver-present p ossiblility t hat c hanges i n s ubsistence-settlement s trategy m ay h ave r endered a rchaeological s ites m ore v isible, t here i s a lso t he s pecific p roblem p osed b y t he g lobal r ise i n s ea-level w hich b egan a t t his t ime b ecause o f t he m elting o f t he c ontinental i ce-sheets. B y 1 2,000 B P s ea-levels w ere w ithin 7 k m o r s o o f t heir p resent p osition ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:45), a nd t he c hanges w hich b rought t his a bout m ust u ndoubtedly h ave p roduced r eadjustments i n d emographic a rrangements a s l and w as l ost t o t he s ea.

N evertheless , i t s eems t hat p opulation r emained d uring m ost o f t he L ate G lacial l argely r estricted t o t he s ame a reas a s t hose i n w hich i t s eems t o h ave b een h ighest d uring t he U pper P leniglacial ( see F igs. 7 :5 a nd 7 :6). P erhaps o nly w hen t hese a reas r eached a l evel o f s aturation d id p opulation e xpand s ignificantly i nto t he n ow b etter-watered a nd i ncreasingly p roductive a reas o f t he i nterior p lateau f rom w hich i t h ad p reviously b een l argely a bsent. A rchaeologically , t his m ay b e s een i n t he d ates f rom D ikbosch I a nd W onderwerk c onfirming h uman o ccupation i n t he N orthern C ape b y c . 1 3,500 B P ( Humphreys 1 979; T hackeray, A . 1 981).

W e m ay n ote t oo t hat t here s eems t o b e a r elatively s mall n umber o f s ites d ated t o t he p eriod 1 8,000 t o 1 3,000 B P c ompared w ith n ot o nly t he s ucceeding m illenia b ut a lso w ith t he e arlier p art o f t he U pper P leniglacial ( Fig. 8 :1). D espite t his, a nd a s d iscussion i n t he f ollowing s ection w ill m ake p lain, t here i s a c ontinuity i n a rtefact m anufacturing t radition a cross t he i ntervening p eriod, w ith b oth t he R obbery I ndustry a nd t he S ehonghong b ladelet i ndustry o ccurring o n e ither s ide o f t his " gap ." T his p atterning c an a lso b e e xplained i n t erms o f t he e cological p ressures l ikely t o h ave b een c reated b y t he h yper-aridity o f t he L ast G lacial M aximum, i f t hese p ressures i ntensified q uite m arkedly a round 1 8,000 B P. T he r esulting " crash " i n p opulation s ize m ay h ave t aken s everal m illenia t o o vercome, u p t o, i n f act, t he p eriod a fter 1 4,000 B P w hen t he n umber o f d ated s ites b egins t o s how a m arked i ncrease a gain.

I t i s a lso i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he m id-Holocene s eems t o

2 01

h ave b een a nother p eriod o f a cute s tress f or S outh A frican h unter-gatherers, w ith t he i nterior o f b oth t he T ransvaal a nd t he O range F ree S tate l argely d evoid o f o ccupation b etween 9 000 a nd 4 500 B P ( Deacon , J . 1 974). A reas s uch a s t he S outhern C ape a ppear o nce m ore t o h ave a cted a s r efuge f oci o f d ense h uman s ettlement ( Deacon, J . 1 984a:322). F urther b ack i n t ime t he p eriodicity o f c old a nd w arm , w et a nd d ry p hases t hroughout t he P leistocene s uggests t hat r egional p ulses o f o ccupation a nd n on-occupation c an b e e xpected t o h ave a ffected E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge p opulations t oo ( Deacon, H . J . a nd T hackeray, F . 1 984; B eaumont 1 986 ). A s till u nresearched q uestion i s t he e xtent t o w hich s uch d iscontinuities i n p opulation d istribution m ay h ave i nfluenced t he p hysico-genetic d ifferentiation o f K hoisan p opulations f rom a b roader , a ncestral A frican b ase.

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C HAPTER E IGHT T EMPORAL V ARIABILITY W ITHIN T HE E ARLY L ATER S TONE A GE O F S OUTHERN A FRICA 8 :1 I ntroduction

P revious c hapters h ave c onsidered s patial v ariability a mong S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages a nd h ave d eveloped a p alaeoecological m odel t o a ccount f or t he l imited g eographical d istribution o f s ites d ating t o t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial. T hey h ave a lso i ncluded a b rief r eview o f o ther E arly L SA o ccurrences i n E ast a nd S outh-Central A frica, p ointing t o d ifferences b etween t hese a nd t hose f ound s outh o f t he L impopo, a nd s uggesting t hat e ach g roup o f s ites m ay f orm a r egionally a dapted t echnocomplex. I n t his c hapter w e s hall i nvestigate t emporal v ariability a mong t hese a ssemblages. T wo p articularly i mportant p roblems c oncerning t he a ppearance, a nd e ventual d isappearance, o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages a nd m odels f or t he t ransition b etween M iddle a nd E arly L SA t echnologies o n t he o ne h and, a nd t hat b etween t he R obberg a nd O akhurst C omplexes o n t he o ther, a re c onsidered l ater. H ere, m aking u se o f t he d ata p resented i n C hapters 3 , 4 a nd 5 , w e a ddress c hronological v ariability w ithin t he E arly L SA .

t he

q uestion

o f

8 :2 C hronological P atterning w ithin t he E arly L SA

B efore p roceeding f urther i t i s n ecessary t o r ecapitulate s ome p oints m ade e arlier a bout t he d ating o f s pecific a ssemblages. I t w as s hown i n C hapter 3 , f or i nstance, t hat t here w ere s trong g rounds f or b elieving t he " Pre-Wilton" a ssemblage f rom R ose C ottage C ave t o b e o f a pproximately t he s ame a ge a s t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence f rom S ehonghong, r ather t han c . 2 7,000 y ears o ld a s B eaumont ( 1978) h as s uggested. T ypological c omparisons w ith S ehonghong a lso c onfirm O pperman 's ( 1987 ) s uggestion t hat t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence a t R avenscraig i s o lder t han i ts a ssociated r adiocarbon d ate o f 1 0,200 + 1 00 B P. F or t he T ransvaal i t w as n oted, i n C hapter 5 , t h at the two M agaliesberg a ssemblages a re d ated b y o nly a s ingle d etermination a nd t hat c onfirmation o f t his 2 9,000 B P d ate w ould b e w elcome ( Wadley p ers. c omm.). T he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence n ow i dentified a t B ushman R ock S helter m ay a lso e ventually b e f ound t o b e a ssociated w ith t he c harcoal d ates ( o f + 1 2,000 B P) o btained f rom t hat s ite. C laims t hat t he E arly L SA - o ccupation o f t he n eighbouring s ite B P ( Beaumont 1 981)

o f H euningneskrans d ates a s f ar b ack a s 3 2,000 a re w eak, a nd a vailable r adiocarbon d ates

s uggest a n a ntiquity o f l ittle m ore t han 2 4,000 B P. F inally, i t w as r emarked t hat A very 's ( 1982b) a nalysis o f t he m ammalian m icrofauna f rom B order C ave m ay i ndicate t hat t he E arly L SA o ccupation o f t hat s ite d ates c loser t o t he a dvent o f t he U pper P leniglacial, a t c . 2 5,000 B P, t han t o t he a ssociated r adiocarbon d ates, w hich a verage t o c . 3 8,000 B P ( Beaumont e t a l. 1 978). T he c hronological p osition o f a ll e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages,

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i ncorporating t hese a mendments ,

i s i llustrated i n F ig. 8 :1.

T hese a ssemblages c an , I w ould s uggest , b e d ivided c hronologically i nto t hree g roups ( see T able 8 :1), a nd i t i s e asiest t o c ommence w ith t he m ost r ecent o f t hese s ince h ere d ata a re m ost p lentiful. T hose a ssemblages w hich f all b etween a pproximately 1 9,000 a nd 1 2,000 B P, i ncluding n ot o nly t he R obberg I ndustry o f t he E astern, S outhern , S outh-Western a nd W estern C ape, b ut a lso t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage f rom S ehonghong a nd t he L ayer 5 o ccurrence a t R avenscraig, a re c haracterized b y n otably h igher f requencies o f u nretouched b ladelets t han t heir p redecessors. T his c an b e m ost c learly s een a t B oomplaas w here b ladelets a ccount f or 1 6.6 % o f a ll u nmodified f lakes i n t he C L M ember, a s o pposed t o o nly 2 .4 % , o r l ess , i n t he t hree u nderlying m embers ( LP, L PC , Y OL). A longside t his p attern i n t he S outhern C ape t here i s f urther e vidence f or t he i ntensification o f b ladelet p roduction i n t he a ppearance f or t he f irst t ime o f s mall b ladelet c ores a nd a c oncomitant r eduction i n t he s ize o f c ore-reduced p ieces ( see T able 6 :3). T hese c hanges s uggest t he a doption o f a D una-like, w rapped b ipolar f laking t echnique t o f acilitate b ladelet p roduction . T he S ehonghong s equence ( Mitchell a nd C arter i n p ress ) a lso i ndicates a m arked i ncrease i n b ladelet p roduction a t t his t ime, b ut m aking u se o f ad ifferent f laking t echnique i n w hich p reparation o f t he b ladelet c ores l ed t o t he p roduction o f s pikes ( lames A c rate ) .

O ther a ssemblages, t he c hronological p osition o f w hich s uggests t hat t hey m ight b e c lassifiable a s p art o f t his s ame g roup , a re t he " Lubombo I ndustry" o ccurrence i dentified a t S iphiso S helter, S waziland, i n w hich h igh-backed b ladelet c ores, s imilar t o t hose f ound a t B oomplaas a nd S ehonghong, a re p resent ( Price-Williams a nd P rior 1 985); t he " Pre-Wilton" a ssemblage a t R ose C ottage C ave; a nd p ossibly t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence f rom B ushman R ock S helter. T he H euningneskrans s equence a lso a ppears t o s how a n i ncrease i n b ladelet p roduction i n u nits 3 b - 3 d, w hich, i f i t w ere c onfirmed b y t he t horough r e-analysis o f t he r elevant a ssemblages, w ould a lso s uggest t hat t hese u nits s hould b e c lassified a s p art o f t his g roup . T he l ikely f unctions o f t he l arge n umbers o f u nretouched b ladelets w hich c haracterise t he a ssemblages a ttributed t o t his g roup a re d iscussed a t l ength i n t he f ollowing s ection .

T he n umber o f o bservations r elevant t o t he d efinition o f e arlier c hronological f acies a mong t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica i s m uch s maller , p robably b ecause o f t he h arsher e nvironmental c onstraints i mposed b y t he f ull s tadia l c onditions o f t he U pper P leniglacial ( see C hapter 7 ). T wo f urther g roups c an, h owever, b e d istinguished. I mmediately p rior t o t he b ladelet-rich g roup j ust d escribed i s a b ladelet-poor o ne i n w hich c an b e i ncluded t he a ssemblages f rom M embers L P , L PC a nd Y OL a t B oomplaas ( see C hapter 4 :1). H ere b ladelet f requency i s n oticeably l ess t han i t s ubsequently b ecame, a nd w e m ay t hus a lso i nclude i n t his g roup t he t wo a ssemblages i dentified b y W adley i n t he M agaliesberg M ountains o f t he W estern T ransvaal, a s w ell a s t he a ssemblage f rom t he 3 e - 3 h u nits a t H euningneskrans . O ther

2 04

D ate B P 1 2,

E BC B NK B UY B PA K RA N BC N UB e

•

• •

• •

• 1 4,

S H S HO • 0 • • R AV • R C C • --•

B C S IP } I NK • •

C J/ D IK J S B RS

•

• • •

4

0

• 1 6,000 •

•

1 8,000

•

• •

2 0,000

•

0

0 2 2,

0 0

2 4,

2 6,000

2 8,

0 3 0,000

3 21

3 4,000

3 6,000

5 8,000

Fig. 8 :1 Radiocarbon dates a nd s uggested r e-datings o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica. • Phase I ( Transitional w ith N SA) o Phase I I ( Bladelet p oor) • Phase I II ( Bladelet r ich) Underlining r epresents s uggested r e-datings ( see Chapters 3 a nd 5 ). ( Site n ames a re g iven i n f ull i n Table 3 :1).

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T able 8 :1 T he t hree c hronological s ub-divisions o f t he E arly L SA a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica G roup I T ransitional M SA/LSA

G roup I I B ladelet P oor

G roup I II B ladelet R ich

p re-25,000 B P

2 5 - 1 9,000 B P

1 9 - 1 2,000 B P

B order C ave - 1 WA/lBS.LR J ubilee S helter - U nits E a nd M C ave J ames - U nit C

J ubilee S helter - U nits A - B C C ave J ames - U nits G - B L3 H euningneskrans - L ayers 3 e - 3 h B oomplaas - Members L P , L PC a nd Y OL E lands B ay C ave -p re-Layer 2 0 a ssemblage

H euningneskrans - L ayers 3 b - 3 d B oomplaas - R obbery I ndustry E lands B ay C ave - R obbery I ndustry B yneskranskop - R obbery I ndustry N elson B ay C ave - R obbery I ndustry M elkhoutboom - R obbery I ndustry K angkara - R obbery I ndustry

B uffelskloof - U nit H E2 ? S ehonghong - B ladelet I ndustry R avenscraig - L ayer 5 R ose C ottage C ave - " Pre-Wilton" S iphiso - L ubombo I ndustry B ushman R ock S helter - E arly m icrolithic o ccurrence D ikbosch 1 - L ayers I II - V I ? ower O ccupation S hongweni - L

2 06

o ccurrences w hich m ight a lso f orm p art o f t his g roup a re t he s o f ar u ndescribed a ssemblage f rom b elow L ayer 2 0 a t E lands B ay C ave, a nd t he n on-descript, b ut b ladelet-poor , a ssemblage f rom B uffelskloof ( Opperman 1 978). W ithin t he S outhern C ape t his g roup m ay h ave l acked t he s pecialized w rapped b ipolar f laking m ethod u sed l ater , b ut s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores d o o ccur a t b oth C ave J ames a nd J ubilee S helter i n t he M agaliesberg ( Wadley 1 987 ), a s w ell a s a t H euningneskrans, s uggesting r egional v ariation i n t he a doption o f t his t echnique.

T he t hird a nd o ldest f acies w hich i t i s p ossible t o d istinguish a t t he p resent t ime i s o ne f ormed b y t hose a ssemblages w hich m ay b e t ransitional b etween M SA a nd L SA t echnologies. T his p ossibility w as r aised i n C hapter 5 i n c onnection w ith t he, a dmittedly s mall, o ccurrences f rom u nit C a t C ave J ames a nd u nits E a nd M M a t J ubilee S helter. A lthough m ostly m icrolithic, t hese a ssemblages d o i nclude a n umber o f c learly M SA f lake-blades, t ogether w ith s ome a rtefacts w ith f aceted b utts. T he s ize o f t hese s amples, h owever, a nd t he f act t hat t hey a re u ndated, m akes i t d ifficult t o j udge i f t hey a re g enuinely t ransitional b etween t he t wo t echnologies i nstead o f r epresenting a m ixture o f t wo o riginally s eparate a ssemblages.

T his i s n ot t he c ase w ith t he a ssemblage f rom l ayers 1 WA a nd 1 BS.LR a t B order C ave. A s w as s hown i n C hapter 5 , a lthough B eaumont ( 1978) h as d escribed t his a s a n E arly L SA o ccurrence i t i ncludes a s urprisingly h igh n umber o f f aceted-platformed f lakes a long w ith s ome r adial p repared c ores, b oth o f w hich a re c haracteristic f eatures o f M SA t echnology. I ndeed, o f t he s ix c riteria w hich h e h as a dvanced f or t he d efinition o f a n a ssemblage a s E arly L SA ( Beaumont a nd V ogel 1 972) o nly t hree , a t m ost, c ould b e s aid t o a pply t o B order C ave ( Table 8 :2), a nd i t i s u nclear h ow m uch s tress o ught t o b e p laced u pon t he o ccurrence o f a f ew b one a nd o strich e ggshell a rtefacts a t t he e xpense o f l ithic-technological l inks w ith M SA a ssemblages. T his i s p articularly s o s ince t here a re s ome g rounds f or b elieving s uch a rtefacts t o h ave o riginated d uring t he M SA i tself ( see C hapter 1 0 ).

M errick ( 1975) h as i dentified f our c riteria w hich a n a ssemblage t ransitional b etween t wo d ifferent t raditions s hould s how. T hese a re:

1 )

t hat i t m ust b e i n t he r ight t ime p eriod;

2 ) t hat i t m ust s hare a n umber o f f eatures w ith " ancestral" a ssemblages;

3 )

t he

p receding

t hat i t m ust s hare a n umber o f f eatures w ith t he s ucceeding

2 07

T able 8 :2 A pplicability t o t he 1 WA/lBS.LR a ssemblage f rom B order C aveof B eaumont a nd V ogel's ( 1972) d efining c riteria f or t he L ater S tone A ge 1 . P resence o f u nretouched b ladelets T hese a re e xtremely r are, a r arity c onfirmed b y t he v ery s mall n umber o f c ores w hich c an b e c lassified a s h igh-backed, f lat o r s mall b ladelet c ores ( see C hapter 5 :1). A s i s a lso t he c ase w ith c riterion 4 , t his r arity c annot b e e xplained b y s ample e rror o r b y a n a bsence o f r aw m aterials s uit a ble f or t heir m anufacture . 2 . A bsence o f e vidence o f a p repared c ore t echnology I n f act, t he 1 WA/lBS .LR a ssemblage n ot o nly c ontains s ome r adial p repared c ores , b ut a lso h as a q uite h igh f requency ( 10 % ) o f f lakes w ith f aceted p latforms. B oth t hese f eatures a re c haracteristic o f M SA s tone-working t echniques. 3 . A bundance o f p ieces e squillges M any o f t hese a rtefacts d o o ccur i n t he 1 WA/lBS .LR a ssemblage, b ut a re s urely o nly d oubtfully d iagnostic o f E arly L SA a ssemblages. R ather t hey a re t o b e e xpected i n a ny a ssemblage i n w hich q uartz i s e xtensively w orked, a nd t he e xtreme r arity o f s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores a rgues a gainst a ny s ubstantial e mployment o f a w rapped b ipolar m ethod, w hich i n s ome p arts o f S outhern A frica a t l east ( e.g. t he S outhern C ape) i s d istinctive o f e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences . 4 . P resence o f b acked a rtefacts T hese a re c ompletely a bsent, e ven t hough s uit a bly f ine-grained r aw m aterials w ere w orked a nd s ample s ize i s l arge e nough f or t hem t o b e r epresented h ad t hey b een o riginally p resent. 5 . D ominance o f s crapers a mong f ormally r etouched a rtefacts A lthough s crapers a re t he o nly f ormal t ool c lass p resent i n t his a ssemblage, a s ample o f o nly f ive a rtefacts c annot f orm a n a cceptable b asis f or g eneralization . M ore s ignificant i s s urely t he o verall r arity o f f ormally r etouched a rtefacts , a nd h ere t he 1 WA/lBS .LR a ssemblage s hares a c haracteristic c ommon t o e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages a s aw hole, a s w ell a s m any M SA o nes ( e.g. t hose f rom S ehonghong - M itchell a nd C arter i n p ress ).

6 . P resence o f b one a nd o strich e ggshell a rtefacts W hile t hese a rtefacts a re c ommonly f ound i n m any L SA a ssemblages, t he o ccurrence o f b one p oints a nd o strich e ggshell b eads a lone h ardly s eems s ufficient t o a ccept u nreservedly t he L SA a ffiliation o f t his a ssemblage g iven t he q ualifications a lready m entioned.

2 08

" descendant" a ssemblages;

4 ) t hat i t m ust s how a f orwards p rojection o f t rends p resent i n t he " ancestral" a ssemblages a nd a b ackwards p rojection o f t rends p resent i n t he " descendant a ssemblages."

H ow d oes t he 1 WA/1BS.LR a ssemblage f rom B order C ave f it i nto t his m odel ? C hronologically i t i s c ertainly i n a n a ppropriate p osition s ince t here i s n ow c onsiderable e vidence f or t he c ontinuance o f M SA o ccurrences d own t o a t l east 3 0 ,000, i f n ot 2 5,000, B P ( see C hapter 1 0). T his w ould b ecome e ven m ore l ikely i f, a s A very ( 1982b ) i mplies t he r eal d ate o f t his B order C ave o ccurrence l ies c loser t o t he b eginning o f t he U pper P leniglacial t han t he a ssociated r adiocarbon d eterminations s uggest . T hat i t d isplays t wo t ypically M SA f eatures ( radial p repared c ores ; f lakes w ith f aceted p latforms) h as a lready b een m entioned, a nd t he g enerally s mall s ize o f t he a rtefacts a nd t he p resence o f a f ew b ladelets a nd s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores s uggests c onnections w ith l ater e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages. F urthermore, a s T able 8 :3 i llustrates , t he e xistence o f an umber o f t rends l inking i t w ith p revious, M SA o ccurrences c an a lso b e d emonstrated.

A ll i n a ll i t d oes n ot t herefore s eem t oo f ar-fetched t o s ee t his B order C ave o ccurrence a s h aving m ore i n c ommon w ith w hat o ne m ight e xpect o f a n a ssemblage t ransitional b etween M SA a nd L SA t echnologies t han w ith e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages a lone . D e M aret 's r ecent c omments o n t he m icrolithic " LSA " a ssemblages f rom M atupi C ave, Z aire, f or w hich c laims o f a s imilarly h igh a ntiquity h ave b een m ade ( Van N oten 1 977 ), m ay b e c orrect h ere t oo , n amely t hat w e a re d ealing w ith a s ituation i n w hich t he c hoice o f r aw m aterial d ictated t he m icrolithic n ature o f t he a ssemblage, s o p roducing " an a typical i ndustry r ather t han a t ypical L ate S tone A ge" ( de M aret 1 985:132-33).

T his c an b e n o m ore t han a p reliminary s ketch o f t he l ikely m ain l ines o f c hronological v ariability w ithin t he S outhern A frican E arly L SA . W hile i ts c onfirmation w ill r equire t he e vidence o f m any m ore s ites , i t w as s till f elt t hat w e c an n ow d o m ore t han a ccept t he p roposition t hat n o m eaningful s ubdivisions, s patial o r t emporal, c an b e m ade a mong t hese a ssemblages ( pace B eaumont 1 978:133). I n f act, w e m ay e ven s uggest a n e xplanation f or t he s uccession o f b ladelet-poor b y b ladelet-rich a ssemblages , w hich i s a ccompanied a lso, i n t he S outhern C ape, b y t he d evelopment o f m ore s pecialized b ipolar f laking t echniques . T his i s d iscussed i n g reater d etail i n C hapter 1 0, a s p art o f am odel t o a ccount f or t he M SA/LSA t ransition , b ut, p ut b riefly, w e m ay s uggest t hat, b ecause o f t he v irtual a bsence o f u tilised a nd f ormally r etouched a rtefacts i n t he b ladelet-poor a ssemblages, h afted m icrolithic c omposite t ools m ust a lready h ave b een i n u se. C onsequently, t he c hanges m arking t he a ppearance o f b ladelet-rich a ssemblages c an b e s een a s p art o f a s hift f rom t he u se a s

2 09

T able 8 :3 T rends i n r aw m aterial u sage a nd f laking t echnology i n t he u pper p art o f t he B order C ave s equendj-r after B eaumont 1 978) 1 ) A p rogressive i ncrease i n t he u se o f C CS, q uartz a nd r hyolite 2 , w ith a c orresponding p rogressive d ecline i n t he u se m ade o f q uartzite a nd r hyolite 1 . 2 ) f lakes

A p rogressive d ecline i n t he l ength o f i rregular C CS t hroughout t he M SA o ccupation a nd c ontinuing i nto t he

1 WA/lBS .LR a ssemblage. 3 ) A d ecline i n t he f requency o f b oth r adial p repared c ores a nd a djacent p latform c ores. 4 ) f lakes.

G radual

d isappearance

o f

t rimmed

p oints

a nd

5 ) A n i ncrease ( beginning i n u nits 2 BS.LR a nd 2 WA ) f requency o f c ore-reduced p ieces ( pieces e squillees).

2 10

b acked

i n t he

m icrolithic i nserts o f u nsystematically p roduced q uartz p ieces t o t hat o f s tandardized, m ass-produced b ladelets , a nd p robably r epresent a n i ncrease i n t he o verall e fficiency w ith w hich s tone w as b eing e xploited ( cf. L eroi-Gourhan 1 943 ).

8 :3 T he F unction (s ) A ssemblages

o f

U nretouched

B ladelets

i n

E arly

L SA

A s s hown i n t he p revious s ection, u nretouched b ladelets a re p articularly d istinctive o f t he m ost r ecent f acies o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages t hat c an b e i dentified i n S outhern A frica a nd t heir p resence i n s uch n umbers c alls f or a n e xplanation . T he s tarting p oint f or s uch a c onsideration m ust b e t he r ecognition t hat v ery f ew b ladelets h ave b een u sed a s b lanks f or m aking o ther t ools a nd t hat t heir s mall s ize e vidently r equires t hat t hey m ust h ave b een h afted i n s ome w ay f or t hem t o h ave b een u sed. A lthough n one o f t hose f ound a t S ehonghong, o r i n t he R obberg I ndustry o ccurrences o f t he S outhern C ape, b ears m acroscopic e vidence o f t he p resence o f m astic, h afting p olish m ight b e d etected b y a m icrowear e xamination ( Keeley 1 982).

W here t hey o ccur i n l ate P leistocene a ssemblages, b ladelets t end t o d o s o i n f airly l arge n umbers a nd t his s uggests t hat m any o f t hem m ight h ave b een u sed a s p art o f a s ingle a rtefact. O ne o f t he o bvious s ources f or s uit a ble a nalogies i s A boriginal A ustralia , s ince h ere h unter-gatherer s ocieties c ontinued i nto t he e thnographic p resent w ith r elatively l ittle c ontact w ith t echnologically m ore a dvanced s ocieties. P arkington ( 1984:128) h as a lready r aised t he p ossibility t hat " large n umbers o f n eedle-sharp s livers o f q uartz o r, f ailing t hat, o ther f ine-grained r ocks, w ere m ounted i n m astic a s m ass i nserts i n a s ta bbing t ool s omewhat l ike t hat r eported f rom A ustralia ," a nd H . J . D eacon ( 1983:192) h as a lso s uggested t hat R obberg I ndustry b ladelets w ere u sed a s s pear a rmatures i n t he h unting o f l arge g ame.

T he s pecific a rtefact w hich c ould s erve a s a n a nalogy i s t he " death s pear" ( Fig. 8 :2) i n w hich s tone i nserts w ere m ounted i n g um i n r ows o n t he s ides o f aw ooden s haft, u p t o 4 0 b arbs b eing p resent o n t he f ew s urviving e xamples ( Flood 1 980:189). T he b arbs i n t hese s pecimens a re s harp , u nretouched q uartz f lakes , a lthough b acked b lades m ay h ave b een u sed u ntil a bout 2 ,000 y ears a go ( McBryde 1 974). T he h igh a ntiquity o f s uch b arbed s pears i s a ttested b y t he p resence o f t wo o f t hem a mong a g roup o f w ooden a rtefacts f rom W yrie S wamp, S outh A ustralia , w hich a re d ated t o 1 0,200 - 9 ,000 B P ( Flood 1 980:190).

H ow e ffective m ight s uch a w eapon h ave b een ? F lood ( 1980:189 ) r ecords t hat d eath s pears w ere u sed i n b oth f ighting a nd h unting a nd t hat t hey w ere l ethal, c ausing g reat l oss o f b lood, p articularly s ince " when t hey p enetrated t he v ictim 's b ody, o ften

2 11

a )

b )

.: * !; . ' " :•

• * ' ••••

F ig. 8 :2 P ossible u ses o f u nmodified b ladelets i n S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages a s s uggested by e thnographic d ata. a a nd b - " death-spears" a fter F lood 1 983 c taap s aw-knife a fter M ulvaney 1 969

2 12

t hey c ould n ot b e e xtracted e xcept b y b eing p ulled r ight t hrough." E ylmann ( 1908:327), i n a s tudy o f S outh A ustralian A borigines , n otes t hat t hey w ere u sed " mainly f or k illing t he l arger w ild a nimals." C lark ( 1959 :171-72) h as g iven e xamples o f s imilar w eapons f rom N orth A frica a nd h as p ointed t o f urther a dvantages o f a b arbed s pear , f irst t hat i t w ould t end t o h inder t he s tricken a nimal i n i ts e scape, a nd s econd t hat i f t he b arbs w ere p oisoned t hen t his w ill h ave f acilitated t he s pread o f t he p oison w ithin t he a nimal's b ody .

T here i s s ome l imited e thnographic e vidence f rom S outhern A frica i tself f or t he u se o f s pears i n h unting g ame b y m odern S an h unters, d espite t heir w idespread e mployment o f t he b ow a nd p oisoned a rrow . T hus C lark ( 1959:226 ) r efers g enerally t o t he u se o f s pears i n k illing l arge g ame a t c lose q uarters, w hile F ourie ( 1928:99) a nd S ilberbauer ( 1981a ) r ecord t heir u se i n k illing a nimals s uch a s e land, h artebeest a nd k udu w hich h ave b een r un d own b y a g roup o f h unters. S tow ( 1905:71) n otes i n p articular t he u se o f s pears a rmed w ith " chipped a nd s harpened p ieces o f l ydite" ( = h ornfels) a nd " poisoned i n a s imilar m anner t o t heir a rrows" f or h unting l arge g ame s uch a s h ippopotamus a nd e lephant a t s hort d istances o r c lose q uarters.

F urther e vidence f or t he u se o f s uch a w eapon a t s ome t ime i n t he L ater S tone A ge o f S outhern A frica m ay b e p rovided b y o ne o f t he f igures i n t he f amous s cene d epicting t he W hite L ady o f t he B randberg. T he t all f igure t o t he r ight o f t he W hite L ady h olds i n i ts r ight h and a n e xtended s tick w hich s eems t o h ave a s eries o f b arbs i nset a long b oth s ides f or a bout a t hird o f i ts l ength. T hese a re c learly v isible i n B reuil's ( 1955 P late V ) d rawing o f t he s cene, a nd e ven t he a ccompanying b lack-and-white p hotographs ( Breuil 1 955 F igs. 5 a nd 5 d) c learly s how t he s tick a nd w hat m ay b e ab lurred s eries o f i nserts . B reuil ( 1955:21) h imself c ommented o n t he p arallels w ith s imilar " death-spears" u sed b y t he A ztecs a nd b y M elanesian a nd M icronesian i slanders. A lthough t he q uartz i ndustry i n t he M aack S helter , w ithin w hich t he p aintings o ccur, i s n ot d escribed ( Breuil 1 955:8), a nd t he a ge o f t he p ainting i tself i s u nknown, i t, l ike t he s lotted w ooden h afts f rom M elkhoutboom ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976 :59) r eferred t o b elow , m ay i ndicate t hat s uch w eapons h ad a m ore w idespread d istribution i n b oth t ime a nd s pace. T his v iew r eceives a dditional s upport f rom C ooke 's ( 1958 F ig.3:8) i llustration o f w hat a ppears t o b e ab arbed s pear i n a p ainting f rom C hiremi,

Z imbabwe.

A l imited a mount o f e xperimental w ork h as a lso b een c arried o ut w hich i s r elevant t o t he p ossible u se o f s uch s pears i n l ate P leistocene S outhern A frica. I n p articular w e m ay n ote G uthrie 's ( 1983) e xperiments w ith o sseous a nd w ooden p rojectile p oints a nd t hose o f O dell a nd C owan ( 1986 ) u sing s pears a nd a rrows a gainst a nimal t argets. T he l atter s et o f e xperiments i s e specially i nteresting b ecause t he a uthors r elate t heir r esults t o o ther a rchaeological e vidence ( e.g. W Andorf 1 968, C lark e t a l. 1 974) f or

2 13

t he u se o f u nretouched c hips a nd f lakes a s p rojectile p oint a rmatures, b y p ointing o ut t hat a s w ell a s r equiring l ittle t ime f or t heir m anufacture " they a re s uitable i n t hose s ituations f or w hich t he p oint i s m eant t o d islodge i nside t he b ody o f t he a nimal," c learly a n a dvantage i n m aximizing t he d amage c aused b y a h it. F urthermore, t hey s how t hat s uch i nserts h ave u se-lives c omparable t o m ore e laborate, f or e xample b ifacially r etouched, p oints ( Odell a nd C owan 1 986:209 ). F rison ( 1978) a lso c oncludes t hat n on-metal p rojectile p oints s hould b e r elatively d isposable a s f ew s urvive a m iss o r a n i mpact o n b one a nd t hat t here m ay t herefore b e l ittle r eason t o i nvest m ore t han t he m inimum a mount o f t ime a nd e ffort i n t heir m anufacture .

G uthrie 's o bservations d emonstrate t hat w hile o sseous p rojectile p oints h ave s uperior p enetrating p owers t o t hose o f w ood, t his i s i ncreased s ubstantially w hen t he p oints a re i nset w ith s tone, p articularly i n t heir " being a ble t o p enetrate d eeply , c ause h emorrhage a nd r esist b reakage" ( Guthrie 1 983:292). T his s uggests a n a lternative p ossibility t o t he u se o f b ladelets a s s pear b arbs. T hey m ight i nstead h ave b een s ide-hafted i nto s lotted p oints , s imilar t o t hose k nown t o h ave b een u sed i n t he U pper P alaeolithic o f B eringia ( West 1 981). W yatt ( 1970:104 ) s uggests t hat, u sed i n t his w ay, b ladelets w ould n ot h ave n eeded t o b e r etouched b efore b eing i nset.

T he f ew B eringian p oints o f t his k ind k nown a re a ll o f m aterials s uch a s a ntler a nd b one, s cracely s urprising i n a v irtually t reeless e nvironment. B ut i n S outhern A frica w ood w ould a lso h ave b een a vailable, a lthough l ocally ( e.g. t he L esotho D rakensberg) i t m ight h ave b een o f v ery r estricted o ccurrence d uring t he U pper P leniglacial. N o s lotted b one p oints o r w ooden s pear h afts h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he d ozen o r s o s ites w ith o ccupation i n t his t ime-range, a lthough a f ew s lotted w ooden p oints a re p resent i n t he W ilton a ssemblage f rom u nit W ( which d ates t o b etween 7 ,000 a nd 6 ,000 B P) a t M elkhoutboom i n t he E astern C ape ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976 :59). T he a bsence o f b one p oints c ould b e a ccounted f or p erhaps b y a c ombination o f e xtensive c uration o f t he m ore v aluable h afts ( cf. N ewcomer i n C ahen e t a l. 1 979 ) a nd t he d iscard, i n w ounded a nimals o r a t k ills, o f b roken a nd u nreparable o nes. N evertheless , i t i s s tretching c redibility f ar t o a ssume t hat t hese f actors w ould h ave c onspired t o p revent t he d iscovery o f e ven a s ingle s lotted b one p oint, d espite t he s mall s ample o f s ites e xcavated s o f ar. T he a bsence o f b urins f rom t hese e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i s a f urther , i f n egative, a rgument a gainst t he u se o f s lotted b one-points. I t s eems m ore l ikely t hen t hat w ooden s pears w ould h ave b een e mployed w ithout a b one c omponent. T he p recise w ay i n w hich t he b ladelets m ight h ave b een h afted ( e.g. i nset a s b arbs o r s lotted i nto p lace, h eld i n b y m astic o r n ot) r emains t o b e i nvestigated, w ith m icroscopic e xamination o f a l arge, c arefully e xcavated s ample a nd e xperimental w ork t he o nly l ikely a venues o f a pproach.

I t i s o f c ourse q uite p ossible t hat u nmodified b ladelets w ere u sed a s c omponent e lements i n o ther t ools, e ven i f m ost w ere d esigned f or u se i n h unting g ame. A ustralian e thnography o ffers a

2 14

f urther i nteresting a nalogy i n t he f orm o f t he t aap-sawknife f rom W estern A ustralia ( see F ig. 8 :2), i n w hich u nretouched q uartz f lakes o r c hips w ere s et i n g um i n aw ooden h andle a nd u sed i n b utchering a nimals ( Mulvaney 1 969:93). T hat s imilar a rtefacts m ay h ave b een u sed i n S outhern A frica i s s uggested b y B inneman 's ( 1982:266 ) a nalysis o f ab acked b ladelet f rom H olocene l evels a t B oomplaas w hich s hows p olish a nd m icrowear s uggestive o f h aving b een u sed t o c arve w ood. H e s uggests t hat i t m ay h ave b een m ounted l aterally i n a h andle, e ither o n i ts o wn o r i n s eries w ith o thers, a nd C lark ( 1959 :170) h as s uggested h ow s uch a n a rtefact m ay h ave l ooked. C onsidering a l arger s ample o f b acked b ladelets f rom t he M agdalenian s ite o f P incevent, F rance, M oss ( 1983) h as i dentified a w ider r ange o f u ses f or t hese a rtefacts , i ncluding c utting m eat a nd h ides a nd d rilling b one, w hile C lark a nd P rince ( 1978), u sing e thnographic d ata f rom E thiopia , a dd c utting p lant m aterials. A s imilar r ange o f u ses m ay e ventually b e i dentified f or t he b ladelets o f S outhern A frica 's e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages, a nd s hould b e o ne p riority i n f uture r esearch.

8 :4 T emporal V ariability B oomplaas

a t

a

s ingle

S ite

-

T he

C ase

o f

B efore c oncluding t his c hapter i t m sy b e u seful t o l ook b riefly a t t he o ne s ite f or w hich a n e xtensive w ell-studied s equence o f o bservations c overing t he p eriod i n q uestion e xists . T his s ite i s, o f c ourse, t hat o f B oomplaas, i n t he C ango V alley o f t he S outhern C ape, w here o ccupation d uring t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial i s r epresented b y t he c ontents o f t he Y OL, L PC, L P , G WA a nd C L M embers ( Deacon, H . J . a nd B rooker 1 976 ). A s r emarked i n C hapter 4 , n ot o nly h ave t he l ithic a ssemblages b een s tudied i n d epth ( Deacon, J . 1 984b), b ut p lentiful p alaeoenvironmental d ata a re a lso a vailable ( e.g. D eacon, H . J . e t a l. 1 984).

T able 8 :4 s hows t he m ain t rends w hich c an b e d iscerned w ithin t he l ithic o ccurrences p resent b etween 2 5,000 a nd 1 2,000 B P. T hey a re n aturally n ot e asy t o e xplain, b ut s ome p reliminary s uggestions m ay b e h azarded. T hus, H . J . D eacon e t a l. ( 1984) h ave a rgued t hat t he u psurge i n t he u se o f s ilcrete c . 1 8,000 B P m ay p oint t o a n e xpansion i n t he s ize o f t he s ite 's c atchment, a nd m ore g enerally t o c hanges i n g roup m ovement, a s i t i s t he o nly r aw m aterial w hich i s d efinitely d erived f rom o utside t he C ango V alley ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:97). W hether i ts l ow f requency b efore a nd a fter t his t ime p oints t o s imilar p atterns o f r aw m aterial p rocurement a nd g roup m obility b efore a nd a fter t he L ast G lacial M aximum i s a n i ntriguing q uestion w hich l ogically f ollows f rom t his. A m ore d etailed s urvey o f r aw m aterial s ource l ocations m ight a lso h elp t o m odel s uch c hanges a s t he c onsistent i ncrease w ith t ime i n t he u se o f o ther m aterials, e .g. h ornfels a nd C CS, w hich c annot b e w holly a ccounted f or b y a s hift t o t hose m aterials w hich w ould f acilitate b ladelet p roduction .

C hanges i n f laking t echnology a t B oomplaas h ave b een r eferred t o a bove, w ith s mall b ladelet c ores b eing r estricted t o u nits G WA t o C L1 i nclusive. W e m ay a lso n ote, h owever , t hat w hile b ladelet

2 15

T able 8 :4 B oomplaas. I mportant M embers Y OL, L PC, L P, G WA a nd C L

t rends

i n t he a ssemblages f rom

1 . D ecline i n t he u se o f q uartz r elative t o o ther r aw m aterials, w ith c oncomitant i ncreases i n t he r elative i mportance o f C CS, h ornfels a nd q uartzite . 2 . I ncreasing a bsolute a nd r elative n umbers o f b ladelets f rom t hrough i nto C L4, w ith a g radual d ecline t hereafter .

Y OL

3 . I ntroduction o f s mall b ladelet c ores a s a n ew c ore-type i n G WA . T hese c ores a re r estricted t o u nits G WA t o C L1 i nclusive. 4 . A ppearance i n u nits C L1 a nd B RL7 o f f lat b ladelet c ores . 5 . S hift a way f rom a n a lcelaphine-dominated t o am ore v aried l arge m ammal f auna o n m oving f rom t he " pre-Robberg" a ssemblages t o t he C L M ember.

2 16

f requency i s m uch h igher i n t he R obberg t han i n t he u nderlying a ssemblages , i t f alls c onsistently f rom u nit C L4 o nward. M ight t his r eflect a c hange i n t he u se m ade o f t he s ite i f, a s a rgued a bove, o ne o f t he p rincipal f unctions o f u nretouched b ladelets w as t he a rming o f h unting w eapons ? S uch " changes o f p lace" ( Parkington 1 980a) m ight a lso b e i dentified t hrough a c omprehensive m icrowear/residue a nalysis o f u tilised a rtefacts . A lthough t he g eneral i mpression f rom t he e xamination o f e dge-angles ( Fig. 8 :3) i s t hat t here w as n o c onsistent l ong-term c hange, a s aw-tooth p attern o f v ariation f rom o ne u nit t o a nother c an b e d iscerned, w hich m ight e ventually p rove t o h ave b ehavioural s ignificance. T hat t here i s n o e vident c hange t o c ompensate f or t he g radual d ecline i n b ladelet f requency i n C L4 t o B RL7 m ay i tself i ndicate t hat t he w ay i n w hich t he s ite w as b eing u sed a ltered t hrough t ime.

T he s ignificance o f B oomplaas f or p alaeoenvironmental s tudies i s g reat, a nd d ata p resented b y H . J . D eacon e t a l. ( 1984) s uggest c hanges i n e conomic a daptation o ccurred a t t he s ite o ver t he p eriod 2 5 - 1 2,000 B P. T hus, t he a ssemblages f rom M embers L P, L PC a nd Y OL d iffer f rom t he C L M ember i n b eing a ssociated w ith a m uch m ore h eavily a lcelaphine d ominated f auna , a nd o ne i n w hich l arge b ovids a re m uch m ore i nfrequent a nd l arge-medium s pecies m uch m ore c ommon t han w as l ater t he c ase. E land a nd b uffalo, i n p articular, a re g enerally a bsent f r o m t he L P , L PC a nd Y OL M embers ( see F ig. 8 :4 a nd T able 8 :5). T his s hift i n e mphasis i n t he s pecies h unted, w hich p robably r eflects a d ifference b etween U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial e nvironments , m ight h ave a ffected t he a ctivities c arried o ut a t t he s ite.

Am ajor e nvironmental c hange d oes i n f act s eem t o h ave o ccurred d uring t he d eposition o f t he C L M ember , w ith c harcoal, p ollen a nd m icromammalian s amples a ll s uggesting t hat r ainfall b etween 1 4,200 a nd 1 2,000 B P e xceeded t he l evel o f t oday ( Deacon , H . J . e t a l. 1 984). S choltz ( 1986 ) h as f urther s uggested t hat t his w as l inked t o a s ignificant e xpansion i n t he o verall s ize o f t he a rea o f w inter r ainfall. S uch a g reat i ncrease i n p recipitation i s l ikely t o h ave a ffected t he d istribution o f p lant f ood r esources , a p rocess a ssisted b y t he b eginning o f t he p ost-LGM r ise i n g lobal t emperatures . w e m ay i nfer t hat s ome i mpact o n h uman s ettlement a nd s ubsistence s trategies m ay h ave b een a c orollary o f t hese e nvironmental c hanges, a nd t he u psurge i n a rtefact d ensity i n t he C L1-4 u nits ( more t han 1 20 a rtefacts p er b ucket c ompared t o l ess t han 5 0 p er b ucket i n G WA - D eacon , J . 1 984b:286 ) a nd t he e xtensive u se o f p lant r emains s uggested b y t he c arbonized bar ns f orming t he C L M ember ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:82) s upport t his. H . J . D eacon ( 1983:191) h as g one o n t o c ontrast t hese o rganically r ich, c arbonized d eposits w ith t he p receding m assive l eached a sh l enses o f G WA, w hich h e s uggests m ay b e t he r esidues o f m eat-drying o perations. S uch a s witch f r o m u se o f t he s ite a s a m eat-processing c amp t o a b ase c amp w ould b e c onsistent n ot o nly w ith t he i ncreased a rtefact d ensity o f t he u pper u nits o f t he C L

2 17

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2 19

T able 8 :5 B oomplaas.

L arge m ammal f auna i n M embers C L, GWA ,

L PC a nd Y OL ( after K lein 1 983) M inimum n umber o f i ndividuals C L L epus c apensis B unolagus m onticularis

3 5

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2 4

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M ember , b ut a lso w ith t he d ecline i n b ladelet f requency i n C L3 B RL7 n oted a bove. T he s ignificance o f r aising t hese p oints i s t hat, a lthough w e c annot y et s atisfactorily l ink s hifts i n a rtefact a ssemblages o r s ettlement p atterns t o s uch c hanges, w ith a l arger s ample o f w ell-excavated s ites a nd g ood q uality p alaeoecological i nformation w e m ay b e a ble t o g o b eyond t he c hronological a nd s patial s ubdivisions o f t he E arly L SA o utlined h ere a nd i nterpret a ssemblage v ariability i n t erms o f a daptive c hanges i n p rehistoric e conomic a nd s ocial s ystems.

2 21

C HAPTER N INE T HE E ND O F T HE E ARLY L ATER S TONE A GE - A N EW M ODEL F OR T HE ROBBERG/ALBANY T RANSITION

9 :1 I ntroduction

I t h as b een n oted ( e.g. I nskeep 1 978; D eacon, J . 1 984a ) n umber o f c hanges o ccurred a round 1 2,000 y ears a go i n t he

t hat a l ithic

a ssemblages p roduced i n m any p arts o f S outh A frica. I n t he S outhern C ape, w here t hey w ere f irst o bserved, t hese c hanges h ave b een g iven f ormal r ecognition i n t he d istinction t hat h as b een d rawn b etween t he p re-12,000 B P R obberg I ndustry a nd t he p ost-12,000 B P A lbany I ndustry . S o f ar, t his i s a lso t he o nly r egion f or w hich a n a ttempt h as b een m ade t o e xplain t hese c hanges a nd t o l ink t hem w ith p enecontemporanaeous c limatic a nd e cological v ariations.

a nd

I t i s t his m odel, i nitially s uggested b y H . J . D eacon ( 1972) s ubsequently d eveloped a nd e laborated b y J . D eacon ( 1984b)

t hat w ill b e c onsidered i n t he f irst p art

o f

t his

c hapter .

T he

e xtent t o w hich i t c an b e s upported b y c urrently a vailable d ata w ill a lso b e e valuated a nd p articular a ttention g iven t o t he d efinition o f t rends i n t he l ithic a ssemblages f rom t he S outhern C ape w hich m ay t ranscend t heir d ivision i nto s eparate R obberg a nd A lbany I ndustries. F inally, a n a lternative m odel w ill b e o ffered t o a ccount f or t hese c hanges.

9 :2 T he D eacon M odel o f t he R obberg/Albany T ransition

I n a c omprehensive a nalysis o f t he L SA l ithic a ssemblages f rom B oomplaas, K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave i n t he S outhern C ape, J . D eacon ( 1984b) h as e xpanded u pon e arlier s uggestions m ade b y H . J . D eacon ( 1976 ) t o a ccount f or t he r eplacement o f t he m icrolithic R obberg I ndustry b y t he n on-microlithic A lbany I ndustry a round 1 2,000 y ears a go. C hanges w hich d efine t his t ransition i nclude o scillations i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f u ntrimmed f lakes, p articularly t owards a n i ncrease i n m ean l ength b etween 1 2,000 a nd 8 ,000 B P w hen c ompared w ith b oth p receding a nd s ucceeding p eriods, a nd s hifts i n t he i ncidence o f r aw m aterial u sage, n otably a n i ncrease i n t he u se m ade o f q uartzite. I t i s, h owever, t o c hanges i n t he d imensions o f f ormal t ools, e specially g reatest a ttention h as b een p aid, w ith

" short,

r ou n d

a nd

h igh

s crapers

t ogether

s crapers,

w ith

t hat

a f ew l arge

D -shaped o nes c haracteristic o f l ate P leistocene a ssemblages t o c . 1 2,000 B P, ( while) l onger, w ider a nd m ore e longated f orms p redominate b etween c . 1 2,000 a nd 7 ,000 B P." ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:282).

2 22

A ll o f t hese c hanges h ave b een l abelled " post-innovative" o r " stylistic" a nd h ave b een c onsidered t o b e t he r esult o f m icro-evolutionary p rocesses w hich r eversed t he e xpected c hanges t owards m ore c omplex a rtefacts , s maller t ools a nd i ncreased s tandardization ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:282; 2 85).

B one f ish g orges , w hich o ccur a t b oth N elson B ay C ave ( Deacon , J . 1 978) a nd E lands B ay C ave ( Parkington 1 977 ), a re t he o nly n ew t ool-type w hich i t h as b een c laimed w as i ntroduced a t t his t ime, b ut t he a bsence o f a ny r ecord o f p re-12,000 B P o ccupation o f c oastal s ites , b ecause o f p ost-glacial f looding o f t he c ontinental s helf, m eans t hat t his o bservation m ay b e i ncorrect . T he o ther c hange r eported f or t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene n on-microlithic a ssemblages i s t he e ffective d isappearance o f b oth u nretouched b ladelets a nd o f t he s pecialized b ladelet c ore-types u sed t o p roduce t hem i n t he l ate P leistocene , b ut t he s ignificance o f t hese c hanges h as n ot b een i ntegrated i nto t he m odel w hich h as b een p roposed f or t he R ob b ery/Albany t ransition .

P rehistoric c hange i n t he S outhern C ape h as b een c onceptualised b y H . J . D eacon ( 1976 ) i n t erms o f t hree s uccessive h omeostatic p lateaux ( Robberg, A lbany a nd W ilton I ndustries ), w ithin w hich c hange i s s aid t o h ave b een a t t he l evel o f s mall-scale a djustments , a nd w hich a re s eparated f rom e ach o ther b y s horter p eriods o f m ore r apid c hange. F urthermore, e ach o f t hese p lateaux h as b een a ssociated w ith a p articular e conomic a daptation , m ost n ot a bly a n e mphasis o n t he h unting o f l arge g razing u ngulates i n t he c ase o f t he R obbery I ndustry a nd o n t he e xploitation o f g eophytic p lants a nd s mall t erritorial o r g round g ame i n t hat o f t he W ilton . T hus, i t h as a lso b een a rgued t hat t he p eriod o f m aximum c hange i n t he l arge m ammal f aunas a t a rchaeological s ites i n t he S outhern C ape w as c oincident w ith t hat o f m aximum c hange i n t he a ssociated a rtefact a ssemblages " particularly t hose i nvolving p ost-innovation c hanges i n t he f requency, s ize a nd s hape o f a rtefacts" ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:285). H owever , t he c oincidence i s b y n o m eans e xact a nd D eacon ( 1984b:285-87 ) f urther n otes t hat " these s tylistic s hifts a re n ot a pparently r elated t o s pecific c limatic/environmental c haracteristics." I n f act:

" There w as a t ime l ag o f a bout 2 - 4 ,000 y ears b etween t he m ajor s hifts i n v egetation a nd c limate i n t he s outhern C ape ( as e vident f rom t he c hanges i n w ood c harcoals, p ollens a nd m icromammalian f auna ) a nd a m ajor s hift i n h unting p attern a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene . T he t echnological r esponse i s b roadly c oincident w ith t he t iming o f t he c hange f rom l arger t o s maller m ammals ( or j ust p redates i t)" ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:287 ).

I nstead, t hese s tylistic c hanges a re s een a s t he r esult o f s ociocultural c hanges g enerated b y e nvironmental v ariations , p articularly i n t he a vailability o f l arge m ammals, w hich d isrupted t he e xisting s ociocultural s ystem. I nstability i n a rtefact s tyle i s t herefore a m easure o f t he " scale o f d islocation g enerated w ithin a t echnological s ystem a t a t ime o f e conomic a nd s ocial

2 23

a djustment" ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:287 ), b ut n o m echanism i s p ostulated t o l ink t he t wo. T he a nalogy f rom w hich t his i nterpretation i s d erived a nd w ith w hich i t i s c ompared i s t he h istorically d ocumented v ariation i n E uropean w omen 's d ress-style ( Richardson a nd K roeber 1 947:149 ), e ven t hough t he p eriodicities o f t he t wo p rocesses ( 4 ,000 a nd 1 00 y ears r espectively) a re g reatly d ifferent.

T hree a ssumptions a re c ritical t o t his m odel, a nd e ach w ill b e c onsidered b elow. T hey c entre u pon t he p resumed s uddeness o f t he c hanges i n b oth h unting p attern a nd a rtefact a ssemblages, u pon t he c oincidence b etween t hese t wo a nd u pon t he s uggestion t hat t he o bserved t echnological s hifts a re n ot f unctionally a daptive b ut r ather p urely s tylistic i n o rigin. C omparison w ith o ther r egions o f S outh A frica o ffers a f urther s ource o f f ruitful c omment.

A s a lready m entioned, t he c hangeover f rom R obberg t o A lbany I ndustries h as b een p ortrayed b y J . D eacon ( 1984b ) a s a f airly r apid a nd s udden p rocess , w ith t he s hifts i n a rtefact a ssemblages d etailed e arlier c oncentrated b etween 1 2,000 a nd 1 1,000 B P. P arkington ( 1980a:81) h as , h owever, r aised t he p ossibility t hat:

" regardless o f t he s trong e vidence f or c hronological c hange i n t oolkits, t he b oundaries b etween p lateaux ( the e pisodes o f r apid c hange o r p ositive f eedback) h ave t ended t o b e d rawn a long t ime b reaks."

I n o ther w ords, t he s tratigraphic s equences c oncerned a re n ot c ontinuous b ut a re i nstead t he r esult o f t he s uperimposition o f s everal d istinct o ccupations, s ome o f w hich m ay h ave b een s eparated f rom e ach o ther b y l ong p eriods o f s ite a bandonment. S ampson ( 1985b) h as m ade s imilar c omments i n a r eview o f J . D eacon 's ( 1984b) a nalysis o f t he B oomplaas, K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave l ithic a ssemblages.

T here a re t hree q uestions w hich m ust b e a nswered b efore a ccepting t hat t he c riticisms m ade b y P arkington a nd S ampson a re w ell-founded:

F irstly, H ow w ell-dated i s t he e nd o f t he R obberg t he a dvent o f t he A lbany I ndustry ?

I ndustry

a nd

S econdly , a nd r elated t o t his , I s t here a ny s tratigraphic e vidence t hat d iscontinuities a re a pparent i n t he a rchaeological s equences a t i ssue w hich m ight h elp t o i nvalidate c laims f or a v ery r apid, p unctuated p attern o f c hange ?

2 24

A nd l astly, A re t he c hanges u sed t o d efine t he R obberg/Albany t ransition p refigured b y e arlier t rends w ithin t he R obberg I ndustry i tself a nd i s i t i ndeed p ossible t o e stablish c ontinuous t rends i n t he a rtefact a ssemblages w hich m ight t ranscend t he R obberg/Albany b oundary ? A re t here , i n s hort, a ny p ossible " transitional a ssemblages" ?

D iscussion w ill c oncentrate u pon t he t wo b est k nown s ites , B oomplaas a nd N elson B ay C ave, b ut w ill a lso r efer w here a ppropriate t o t he o ther s ites w hich h ave p roduced R obberg I ndustry a ssemblages ( Melkhoutboom, K angkara , B yneskranskop-1 a nd E lands B ay C ave).

9 :3 T he D ating o f t he R obberg/Albany I ndustrial T ransition

T he d ates f or t he m ost r ecent R obberg I ndustry o ccupation a nd t he o ldest A lbany I ndustry o ccupation a t e ach o f t he s ix s ites i n t he C ape P rovince w here b oth o ccur a re g iven i n T able 9 :1.

A t n one o f t hese s ites , w ith t he p ossible e xception o f N elson B ay C ave, i s a R obberg o ccurrence a ssociated w ith a d ate o f y ounger t han 1 2,000 B P, b ut w ithout e xception t he o ldest A lbany o ccurrence i s d ated t o a t l east 1 ,400, a nd i n s ome c ases t o a s m uch a s 3 ,900, y ears a fter i ts R obberg p redecessor . T his s uggests t hat a v ery r apid a nd s udden c hange f rom t he o ne i ndustry t o t he o ther m ay n ot n ecessarily a lways b e s ubstantiated, a nd t hat p art o f t he r eason f or d istinguishing t he t wo i ndustries f rom e ach o ther m ay b e t hat t he a ssemblages w hich h ave b een c ontrasted a re c hronologically q uite f ar a part .

C onfirmation t hat t he a vailable s equences a re n ot f ully c ontinuous i s p rovided b y s tratigraphic i nformation f or t he s ites o f B oomplaas, M elkhoutboom a nd N elson B ay C ave. A t t he f irst o f t hese, f or e xample, u nits B RL7YA , B RL7YA2 a nd B RL5 a re a ll v irtually s terile a nd p robably r epresent n on-occupation d eposits s eparating t he o ccupation h orizons o f B RL7, B RL6 a nd B RL4 ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:82). T he r ockfall u nit a t M elkhoutboom h as b een " in v iew o f t he c ommon a ssociation o f s uch f eatures w ith d isconformable b reaks i n d eposition" i nterpreted a s " representing a p eriod o f s law o r n on-accumulation o f d eposits" a nd t hus a s i ndicating a p ronounced c hronological b reak b etween t he R obberg a nd A lbany I ndustry o ccupations o f t he s ite ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976 :25). F inally , a t N elson B ay C ave u nits Y SL a nd B SL a re s eparated b y a c lear e rosional d isconformity, w hich B utzer ( 1973) h as r eferred t o a s O xidation H orizon 3 , i ndicating a d epositional b reak b etween c . 1 6,700 a nd c . 1 2,000 B P.

T ogether t hese c hronological a nd s tratigraphic d ata d emonstrate t hat t he s equences w ith w hich w e a re d ealing i n t he C ape P rovince d o n ot c ontinuously d ocument t he c hange f ram R obberg t o A lbany I ndustries, b ut t hat s everal, p ossibly s ignificant, e pisodes i n t his p rocess a re m issing f rom t hem. T he l imited n umber o f s ites

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a nd t heir w ide g eographical s pread a lso r ender i t d ifficult t o b elieve t hat a c omplete r ecord o f t his t ransition f rom m icrolithic t o n on-microlithic i ndustries c ould b e b uilt u p b y c ombining t he v arious s equences i nto o ne. T he s harp d istinction b etween R obberg a nd A lbany I ndustries t herefore r ests, a t l east i n p art , o n s amples w hich a re d erived n ot f rom a c ontinuous, b ut r ather f rom a d iscontinuous, s equence o f c ultural u nits . T he a rgument t hat t his c hange w as r apid a nd s hort-lived m ay t herefore b e e rroneous.

D espite t he b roken n ature o f t he s ite s equences , a f urther a rgument a gainst a s udden t ransition f r o m t he R obberg t o t he A lbany I ndustry c an b e a dduced, n amely t hat i n s everal r espects t hey s uggest t hat i t r epresents t he s ummation o f an umber o f l ong-continuing t rends e xtending b ack i nto t he l ate P leistocene a nd c arrying o n i nto t he e arly H olocene. E vidence i n s upport o f t his s tatement w ill b e d rawn m ainly f rom t he s ite o f B oomplaas, c iting d ata f rom J . D eacon 's ( 1984b) a nalysis o f t hat s ite. T hese t rends w ill b e c onsidered u nder t he s ame h eadings a s h ave b een u sed i n e arlier d iscussion o f S outhern A frica 's e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages.

B oomplaas

R aw m aterial

I n t he B oomplaas s equence a n umber o f t rends ( summarized i n F ig. 9 :1) c an b e i dentified i n r aw m aterial u sage, c hange i n w hich d oes n ot c oincide w ith t he b oundary b etween t he B RL7 a nd B RL6 u nits. F or e xample, w hile t he f requency o f q uartz s hows a p rogressive d ecline f rom C L3 t hrough B RL6, t hose o f b oth h ornfels a nd q uartzite s how a c orresponding i ncrease; o nly t he i ncrease i n t he f requency o f c rypto-crystalline s ilicas p eaks i n B RL7. T hese p atterns a re d iscernible i n t he a ssemblages a s aw hole a nd i n t he u nmodified a rtefact c ategory i n e ach c ase. T rends i n t he u tilised a nd f ormally r etouched a rtefact c ategories a re l ess c lear, p artly p erhaps b ecause t hey a re a dversely a ffected b y t he s mall s ize o f t he s amples a vailable, a lthough i t m ay b e n oted t hat a c ontinuous d eclining t rend i n t he u se o f C CS f or u tilised a rtefacts e xtends f rom u nit C L1 t hrough t o B RL3 a nd t hat b oth h ornfels a nd q uartzite i ncrease c ontinuously, b eginning w ith u nit B RL7 a nd e xtending u ntil B RL5 a nd B RL3 r espectively .

F laking t echnology

I t h as a lready b een s hown t hat d uring t he R obberg I ndustry o ccupation a t B oomplaas a s equence o f c hanges i n f laking t echnology i s a pparent. T wo s pecialized t ypes o f c ore a re p resent ( small- a nd f lat-bladelet c ores ) a nd s eem t o r epresent t he e mployment o f ab ipolar b ark- o r l eather-wrapped f laking t echnique

2 27

P ercentage C C E I

A ll A rtef acts . P er centage n om i na l ,

P ercentage Q uartzite

P ercentage Q uartz

B RL2 B RL3 B ALL B RL5 B RL 6 B RL7 C L1 C L2 C L3 C I4 C IA 0 0

5 0

U tilised A rterao P ercentage C CS

P ercent age H ornfels

1 00 0

P ercentage 5 0

Q u iz P ercentage 4 uartsi t o

B RL1 B RL2 B RL 3

B AL4 B RL 5 B RL6 B RL7 C L1 C L2 C L3

L I e . C C iA

0 5 0

0

5 0

P ercentage

F ig. 9 :1 Trends i n r aw m aterial u sage i n t he R obberg a nd A lbany a ssemblages a t B oomplaas.

2 28

f or t he p urpose o f f acilitating b ladelet S mall-bladelet c ores a re a lready a bsent f rom B RL7

p roduction . a nd d o n ot

a ppear i n a ny o f t he u nits o f t he B RL M ember. T he l arger, f lat-bladelet c ore-type w hich m ay d erive f roM a l ess-skilled a nd l ess e xtended a pplication o f t he s ame f laking t echnique, d oes , h owever, o ccur s poradically i n u nits B RL6, B RL4 a nd B RL2 a fter i ts i nitial a ppearance i n t he t wo R obberg I ndustry u nits C L1 a nd B RL7. T his i s s uggestive o f o ne f urther e lement o f c ontinuity b etween l ate P leistocene m icrolithic a nd t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene n on-microlithic a ssemblages. A n o verall a nd g radual d ecline i n t he f requency o f b ladelet c ores o f a ll k inds i s a lso e vident f rom t he h igh p oint r eached i n u nit C L2 ( 76 .7 % o f a ll c ores ) t o t he l ess t han 1 0 %o f u nits B RL 1 , 2a nd 3 . N one o f t hese p atterns i ndicates a s harp o r a brupt c hange a t t he j unction o f t he B RL a nd C L m embers ( see F ig. 9 :2).

M ore g radual s hifts i n f laking t echnology a re a lso i ndicated b y a n umber o f o ther p arameters, i ncluding b ladelet f requency . F rom v ery h igh l evels o f a lmost 3 0 %o f a ll u ntrimmed f lakes i n u nits G WA a nd C L4, b ladelet f requency f ell t hereafter r eaching 8 .4 % i n u nit B RL7 a nd o scillating a round o nly s lightly l ower l evels t hroughout t he B RL M ember . W hen m easured a s ap ercentage o f t otal a rtefacts , b ladelet f requency c an a gain b e u sed t o d istinguish t he t wo o ldest u nits f rom t he o thers i n t he C L M ember p lus t hose o f t he B RL M ember. A d ivision b etween C L a nd B RL m embers i s , however, d ifficult, i f n ot i mpossible, t o m ake u sing t hese c riteria , e ven t hough t he a bsolute n umber o f b ladelets i s g reater i n t he C L M ember u nits t han i n a ny o f B RL1 - 6 .

A f urther f eature o f f laking t echnology w hich h as r eceived c onsiderable a ttention i n t he m odel d eveloped b y J . D eacon ( 1984b ) t o e xplicate a nd a ccount f or t he R obberg/Albany t ransition i s t he c hange i n t he s ize o f u ntrimmed f lakes b etween t he t wo. E xamination o f t he D ice-Leraas d iagrams w hich s he p resents f or t he B oomplaas a rtefacts s uggests , h owever, t hat t here i s g reater s imilarity b etween B RL7 a nd C L1-2 o n t he o ne h and a nd t he B RL M ember o n t he o ther , t han t here i s b etween e ither o f t he f irst t wo o f t hese a ssemblages a nd t hose f rom t he o ther C L M ember u nits ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:115). I n o ther w ords, a p ronounced d iscontinuity a t t he B RL/CL i nterface i s n ot a pparent.

U tilisation

C omparison o f t he f requencies w ith w hich e ither d ifferent t ypes o f u tilised a rtefacts , a s d efined f ormally b y J . D eacon ( 1984b), o r d ifferent e dge-angle c ategories a re p resent i n t he B RL a nd C L m embers s uggests l ittle i mmediately o bvious d ifference b etween t he t wo. T he d ifference i n e dge-angle c ategories b etween t he t wo s amples i s o nly j ust s ignificant a t t he p = 0 .05 l evel ( Table 9 :2). T his i s i n a greement w ith t he o ther l ines o f e vidence p resented h ere t hat t he t ransition m ay n ot h ave b een a s s udden a s

2 29

P ercentage

U ) ; c d c t i r 1 t a 4 0 0 P r 4

0 L C1

C f )

c t l r I c r i c r )

a ) C l )

c 0

c o a ) a ) a )

r d

c t

0

O

r A P C I P 4 F r 4

s—

a i 0 r 1 < 4

B ladelets a s

r d c x ) 4 0

o , c ) 0 0 o a )

0

0 t . C 1

4 0 0 r 4 0 0

b ß

0 0 e -

0

• r 4 0 , ) rd

E 4 .• C T \

"

a P I

P : : 1

P C 1

; C I

P C I

1 3: 1

2 30

L )

C N 1 4 C . _ )

t el

a

C . )

a

C . )

< 4

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0

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4 )

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4 . 3

( N I 0 ( I 0

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u )

0

T able 9 :2

N

2 31

s ignificant a t p= 0 .05.

i n c ) ( Y )

h as b een p reviously i mplied, b ut i s i nteresting i n s uggesting t hat t he u ses t o w hich m odified, b ut n ot f ormally r etouched, a rtefacts w ere p ut r emained p retty m uch t he s ame i n b oth t he l ate P leistocene a nd t he t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene . U sing W ilmsen 's ( 1968 ) i nterpretations o f e dge-angle c ategories ( see C hapter 6 :3), t he m ajority o f t hese a rtefacts, f or b oth i ndustries, w ere p robably u sed i n m aintenance r ather t han e xtractive a ctivities ( e.g. i n s kin-scraping a nd s oftening a nd i n t he w orking o f b one a nd w ood).

F ormally r etouched a rtefacts

A s i n t he d iscussion o f f laking t echnology, f ormal t ools i n t he B oomplaas s equence c an b e c onsidered i n t erms o f b oth t heir f requency o f o ccurrence a nd i n t erms o f t heir m etric a ttributes , b ut t he f requencies o f f ormal t ools a re r eally t oo l ow i n a ll o f t he C L o r B RL u nits t o e st a blish a ny s ignificant p atterns o f c hange t hrough t ime. I t m ay b e n oted, h owever, t hat i t i s i n u nit B RL3 t hat t heir f requency b egins t o p ick u p , a lthough e ven i n u nits B RL1, 2 a nd 3 i t i s s till m uch l ower t han i n a ny o f t he m ida nd l ate H olocene a ssemblages.

O ne o f t he k ey e lements i n t he a rguments d eveloped b y J . D eacon ( 1984b ) f or e xplaining t he R obberg/Albany t ransition i s t he c laim t hat a r apid a nd d istinct s hift i n s craper s ize o ccurred b etween 1 2,000 a nd 1 1,000 y ears a go. T here i s c ertainly s ome v alidity i n t his a s t he e vidence f or s hifts i n m ean l ength, w idth a nd w idth/length r atio b etween t he B RL a nd C L m embers d emonstrates , b ut t he s ample s izes a re t oo s mall ( under 2 0) i n a ll b ut u nits C L3 a nd B RL1 a nd 2 f or a ny a ttempt s uccessfully t o b e m ade t o d elineate t his s ize s hift w ith g reater p recision . F ar f rom b eing c onfined t o a s ingle m illenium, t hese c hanges c ould h ave t aken p lace o ver a m uch l onger p eriod b etween c .13,000 a nd 9 ,000 B P.

W hile n ot s eeking t o i gnore t he d ifference i n m ean s ize b etween B RL a nd C L m ember s crapers, f requency d istributions o f s craper a ttributes ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:144-45) s uggest t hat t hey a re m uch m ore s imilar t o e ach o ther t han e ither i s t o t he l ater H olocene s crapers f rom m embers B LA, B LD a nd D GL. T Wo p articular p oints o f s imilarity a re t he m uch g reater r ange o f t he v alues r ecorded f or t he B RL a nd C L m embers a nd t heir d istinctly n onunimodal d istributions w hen c ompared w ith t he t hree m ore r ecent m embers. E ven t hen i n c onsidering t his f eature o f t he l ithic a ssemblages, a n u nequivocally s harp s eparation o f t he R obberg a nd A lbany I ndustries a long t he B RL/CL i nterface c annot b e s ustained a nd n either c an t he r estriction t o a s ingle m illenium o f t he c hangeover f rom t he o ne i ndustry t o t he o ther .

2 32

N on-lithic a rtefacts

A w ide r ange o f a rtefacts o f o strich e ggshell a nd b one i s p resent i n b oth t he B RL a nd C L m embers a t B oomplaas , a nd i ncludes b eads m ade i n b oth m aterials, o strich e ggshell w ater c ontainers a nd d ecorated f ragments o f o strich e ggshell a s w ell a s v arious p olished b one i tems, a mong t hem p oints , t ubes , c hunks a nd o ther p ieces. N one o f t hese o ccurs, h owever , i n s ufficiently l arge n umbers t o a llow t he d etection o f s ignificant t emporal t rends a nd J . D eacon ( 1984b:169) i s p robably c orrect t o s tate t hat :

" the i ncidence o f t hese a rtefacts i s t he r esult o f s ampling a r andom d istribution o f a n a rtefact c lass d iscarded r arely a t l iving s ites a nd ( their) .. f luctuations p robably h ave n o c ultural s ignificance."

P erforated s hell b eads m ade f rom t he e stuarine m ollusc N assarius k raussianus a re, h owever , s eemingly r estricted t o t he B RL M ember a nd a bove; t hey d o n ot o ccur i n a ny o f t he l ate P leistocene u nits a t B oomplaas.

E vidence h as b een p resented w hich s uggests t hat t he t ransition f ram R obberg t o A lbany I ndustries a t B oamplaas i s n ot n ecessarily d escribable a s a n a brupt, p unctuated e vent w ith a p eriod o f r apid c hange c oncentrated i nto l ittle m ore t han a m illenium t owards t he e nd o f t he l ate P leistocene . I nstead, i t i s a rgued t hat s everal s ources o f d ata i ndicate t hat t his t ransition w as a n e xpression o f s everal t rends i n r aw m aterial u sage, f laking t echnology a nd o ther v ariables a nd t hat b oth i ndustries s hare a n umber o f i mportant f eatures , s uch a s l ow f ormal t ool f requency, w hen c ontrasted w ith l ater H olocene a ssemblages a scribed t o t he W ilton I ndustry . F urthermore, t he B SL a nd G SL o ccurrences a t N elson B ay C ave m ay, a s w as i nitially s uggested f or t he o ldest o f t hem b y J . D eacon ( 1978), b e t ransitional i n p recisely t hese s ame v ariables b etween u nderlying R obberg a nd o verlying A lbany a ssemblages. T hey w ould t hus o ccupy a c ultural-stratigraphic p osition a nalagous t o t hat h eld b y s uch u nits a s B RL7 a nd 6 i n t he B oamplaas s equence . F ig. 9 :3 i llustrates t he d ata w hich s upport t his b elief.

C onfirmation o f t hese c onclusions i s p rovided b y t he r esults o f m ultivariate a nalyses o f t he r elevant p arts o f t he B oomplaas s equence . D etails o f t hese a re g iven i n T ables 9 :3 a nd 9 :4 a nd i n F ig. 9 :4 r espectively, b ut, p ut b riefly, e ach c onsisted o f a p air o f p rincipal c omponents a nalyses. T he f irst a nalysis w as c arried o ut u sing a t otal o f 1 9 v ariables, b oth t echnological a nd r aw m aterial, b ut t he s econd w as c arried o ut w ith t he s even r aw m aterial v ariables e xcluded.

T he t wo a nalyses s how t hat f ive o f

2 33

t he

s ix

C L

M ember

u nits

P ercentage Q uartz

B SBJ

-

C S

-

P ercentage Q uartzite

P ercentage U tilised F lakes

G SL B SL

-

Y SL

-

YGL

, p ( )

0 P ercentage B ladelet C ores

' o

0

B ladelets a s P ercentage A ssemblage

l o b

1 00

B ladelets a s P ercentage A ll F lakes

B SBJ CS G SL

-

B SL

-

Y SL

-

YGL

-

0

5 0 0

0 2 0

1 0

F ig. 9 :3 Trends i n r aw m aterial u sage a nd f laking t echnology i n t he R obberg a nd A lbany I ndustries a t N elson B ay Cave.

2 34

T able 9 :3 V ariables u sed i n p rincipal c omponents a nalysis o f R obberg a nd A lbany u nits f rom B oomplaas V ariable

D escription

%C CS %H o %Q uartz %Q zte %S il D I ndex %S BC %F BC %H BC %B C % I rreg %C RP %B lades

P ercentage o f C CS i n t otal a ssemblage P ercentage o f h ornfels i n t otal a ssemblage P ercentage o f q uartz i n t otal a ssemblage P ercentage o f q uartzite i n t otal a ssemblage P ercentage o f s ilcrete i n t otal a ssemblage R aw m aterial d iversity i ndex P ercentage o f c ores t hat a re s mall b ladelet c ores P ercentage o f c ores t hat a re f lat b ladelet c ores P ercentage o f c ores t hat a re h igh-backed b ladelet c ores P ercentage o f c ores t hat a re b ladelet c ores o f a ll t ypes P ercentage o f c ores t hat a re i rregular c ores P ercentage o f c ore-reduced p ieces i n t otal a ssemblage P ercentage o f u nmodified b lades ( of a ll s izes ) i n t otal a ssemblage P ercentage o f u tilised a rtefacts i n t otal a ssemblage P ercentage o f f ormally r etouched a rtefacts i n t otal a ssemblage

%U til %R et

2 35

• c o

•

c o

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•

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d i ) d i, d i, ä P d i, d i, o s t o o ` P d f)

d P d i) 2

2 36

i n D eacon ,

( N

0 or . 1 I - IC . )

C L I

D ata a re d erived

2

0 C \ 1 • • • r I r I r 1

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0

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BRL5

P C1

0 B RL4 0

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BRL3

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a )

Raw material and t echnological variables

P C2 BRL7

• CL1 • CL2

0

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BRL30 0 BRL4 BRL2

o

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b )

P C1

• GWA

Technological variables o nly

Fig. 9 :4 Principal c omponents a nalysis o f Robberg and A lbany units a t B oomplaas.

2 37

c luster t ogether b ut t hat B RL7 i s g rouped q uite o n i ts o wn. O f t he u nits o f t he B RL M ember , B RL5 a lso o ccurs a s a n i solated u nit, a nd w ithin t he r emaining u nits B RL6 i s c learly d istinct f rom B RL1 - 4 . A s harp d iscontinuity b etween R obberg a nd A lbany u nits i s t herefore n ot s upported b y t hese a nalyses.

L ooking n ow a t o ther s ites i n t he C ape P rovince, e vidence o f c ontinuity b etween R obberg a nd A lbany I ndustries m ay b e i dentified i n t he s equence f rom E lands B ay C ave, a nd h as a lso b een s uggested t o b e p resent a t B yneskranskop ( Chapter 4 ). T he s equences f rom K angkara a nd M elkhoutboom h ave e ither y ielded a rtefact s amples o f t oo s mall a s ize o r a re t oo i ncomplete t o b e o f m uch u se f or t his p urpose. L imited a s t he e vidence i s, i t y et s uggests t wo t hings ( see C hapter 4 f or m ore d etailed d iscussion o f i ndividual s ites ). F irstly, t he D una-like b ipolar f laking t echnique i s n ot ( pace D eacon , J . 1 984b:373) e xclusive t o t he l ate P leistocene b ut d oes i n f act o ccur, a lbeit v ery s poradically, i n a ssemblages o f t erminal P leistocene o r e ven H olocene a ge ( also , f or e xample, a t S ehonghong; s ee C hapter 3 :2). I ts r arity i n s uch o ccurrences i s p resumably a r eflection o f t he l ack o f e mphasis o n b ladelet p roduction i n t hese a ssemblages. S econdly , t he E lands B ay C ave d ata a re n ot i nconsistent w ith a m ore g radualistic m odel o f c ontinuous c hange i n l ithic a ssemblages b eginning i n t he l ate P leistocene a nd c ontinuing t hrough i nto t he e arly H olocene , s uch a s h as b een a rgued f or h ere o n t he b asis o f e vidence f rom B oomplaas a nd N elson B ay C ave.

I t h as n ow b een s hown t hat n ot o nly w as t he t ransition f rom t he R obberg t o t he A lbany I ndustry n ot a s s udden , r apid a nd c learly d ated a s hift a s t he e xisting m odel f or i t i mplies, b ut t hat i n m any r espects i t c an b e v iewed a s e xpressing t he s ummation o f a n umber o f t rends w hich a re a lready d iscernible i n t he l ater s tages o f t he R obberg i tself. F urthermore, a t b oth N elson B ay C ave a nd B oomplaas t ransitional a ssemblages ( such a s B RL6 a nd 7 o r B SL a nd G SL) h ave b een i dentified. T hey t oo s erve t o i ndicate t hat t he c hanges i n a rtefact f requencies a nd f orm w hich h ave b een u sed t o d efine t he d ifferences b etween t he t wo i ndustries a re n ot c oncentrated i nto a s ingle m illenium a s h as b een p reviously s tated ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:366 ). A s P arkington ( 1980a) h as o bserved, t he d iscontinuous n ature o f o ur s tratigraphic s equences h as b een e rroneously a ssumed t o i mply a c orrespondingly d iscontinuous p attern o f p rehistoric c hange a t t he e xpense o f n oting e vidence f or m ore g radualistic a nd c ontinuous s hifts. I nvestigation o f t he d ata r elating t o t he d ating o f t he s hift i n l arge m ammal f requencies, w ith w hich t he R obberg/Albany t ransition h as b een a ssociated, w ill a lso s how t hat a m ore c omplex p attern o f c hange s eems t o b e d etectable.

9 :4 F aunal C hanges a nd t he R obberg/Albany T ransition

J .

D eacon ( 1984b:285)

h as c onsidered t he p eriod 1 2 -

2 38

8 ,000

B P

t o b e t hat o f m aximum c hange n ot o nly i n m any a rtefact v ariables b ut a lso i n t he a ssociated l arge m ammal f aunas , a nd h as s tated t hat t he R obberg/Albany " technological r esponse i s b roadly c oincident w ith t he t iming o f t he c hange f rom l arger t o s maller m ammals ( or j ust p redates i t)" ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:287 ). A t i ssue h ere i s t he a ccuracy w ith w hich t his c oincidence b etween t echnological a nd e nvironmental/economic c hange c an b e m easured i n t he C ape P rovince, l eaving u ntil l ater t he q uestion o f h ow t he t wo m ay h ave b een a rticulated.

C laims f or t he t emporal c oincidence o f t he t wo p rocesses a re m ost a ccurate w hen c onsidering t he s ite o f B oomplaas i n t he C ango V alley o f t he S outhern C ape. H ere t he u ngulate f aunas s how a c lear s witch i n d ominance f rom g razing s pecies t o b rowsers a nd m ixed f eeders, a nd c orrespondingly a d ecline i n t hose a nimals p referring ag rassland h abitat i n f avour o f t hose p referring m ontane o r b ush-covered h abitats. T his s witch o ccurs b etween u nits B RL5 a nd B RL4. R adiocarbon d ates s uggest t hat t his c hange p robably l ay c loser t o 9 ,000 t han t o 1 0,500 B P, b ut d o n ot a llow a m ore p recise e stimate t o b e m ade. I f t he b ovids a lone a re c onsidered, i n t erms o f t he f our s ize c ategories i nto w hich t hey h ave b een g rouped b y K lein ( 1978a), t hen a s lightly l onger p eriod o f c hange c an b e i dentified. T his s pans t he t ransition f rom a l arge a nd l arge-medium b ovid d ominated p attern i n B RL7 t o o ne i n w hich s mall b ovids a re d ominant i n B RL4.

O f o ther i nland s ites , t he e xcavation c arried o ut a t K angkara w as t oo s mall t o r ecover a l arge e nough f aunal s ample f or a ny r eliable i ndications o f c hange t hrough t ime i n t he d ifferential r epresentation o f u ngulate s pecies t o b e o btained. A t M elkhoutboom, h owever , t he s ame p attern h as b een i dentified. H . J . D eacon 's ( 1976 ) e xcavation o f t his s ite d id, i ndeed, l ed t o t he i nitial r ecognition o f t his d ifference b etween t he l ate P leistocene a nd h istoric f aunas o f t he S outhern C ape. A lthough t he r elatively s mall s ize o f t he f aunal s ample m ade i t n ecessary t o l ump t ogether t he m aterial a ssociated w ith t he R obberg a nd A lbany o ccurrences , i t i s c lear t hat t he m ajor s hift i n t he s pecies p resent, f rom l arge g razers t o s mall b rowsers, o ccurred t owards t he e nd o f t he A lbany a nd t he b eginning o f t he W ilton o ccupation , i .e. c . 7 ,500 B P ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976:187 ). I n t he E astern C ape i t w ould t hus s eem t hat w hatever s tress m ay h ave b een c aused b y t his c hange i n h unting p atterns o perated o ver a m uch l onger p eriod t han i s e vident a t B oomplaas , a nd t hat i t s ubstantially p ost-dated t he R obberg/Albany t ransition .

T he f aunal s ample f rom B yneskranskop i s a lso t oo s mall t o a llow R obberg a nd A lbany f aunas t o b e t reated s eparately, b ut K lein ( 1981) h as s hown t hat t he s hift f rom l arge, m igratory g razing s pecies t o s maller , t erritorial b rowsing s pecies o ccurred a s l ate a s t he 7 th m illenium B P, s ome 5 - 6 ,000 y ears a fter t he t ransition b etween t he R obberg a nd A lbany I ndustries h ad t aken p lace. A s i n t he E astern C ape, t hese d ata d o n ot s upport t he c laim f or e ven a b road c oincidence b etween t he i ndustrial t ransition a nd t he s hift i n h unting p atterns.

2 39

A t t he t wo r emaining s ites , E lands B ay C ave a nd N elson B ay C ave, c hange i n t he l arge m ammal f aunas i s c omplicated b y v ariation i n t he s ites ' l ocations v is-a-vis t he c oast a s t he p ost-glacial r ise i n s ea-levels l ed t o t he p rogressive d rowning o f t he e xposed c ontinental s helf. T he E lands B ay f auna ( Table 9 :5) s uggests t hat l arge g razers, s uch a s t he C ape h orse ( Equus c apensis) a nd t he b loubok ( Hippotragus l eucophaeus) p ersisted i n t his p art o f t he W estern C ape u ntil a t l east 9 ,600 B P, b ut a longside a n i ncrease i n t he f requency o f s mall b roWsing s pecies s uch a s s teenbok ( Raphicerus c ampestris) a nd g rysbok ( Raphicerus m elanotis). T his m ay h ave b een b ecause c ontraction o f t he c oastal p lain r esulted i n t he c oncentration o f l arge g razers i n an arrow b and i mmediately t o t he w est o f t he s ite . A ssessment o f t he r ate o f c hange i n t his f auna i s h indered b y t he s mall s ample s izes f rom m any o f t he l ayers, b ut c omparison o f l ayers 2 0 - 1 6 w ith l ayers 1 5 - 1 0 d oes s how t hat t he l atter a ssemblage h as a n i ncreased f requency o f b oth s mall b ovids a nd o f m ixed a nd b rowse f eeders , s uggesting t hat t he s ame f aunal c hange o ccurred h ere a s f urther s outh a nd e ast .

A t N elson B ay C ave t he m acromammalian f auna s hows a t ransition f rom a p attern d ominated b y l arge, m ainly m igratory, g razers t o o ne i n w hich s mall b rowsing o r m ixed-feeding a ntelope a re p redominant, s imilar t o t hat a lready o bserved a t B oomplaas. C lassification o f t he u ngulates p resent b y d iet a nd b y h abitat i ndicates , h owever , t hat t he c hangeover f rom o ne p attern t o t he o ther p ost-dated t he t ransition f rom t he R obberg t o t he A lbany I ndustries , w hatever t he p recise s ignificance a ttached t o t he l ithic a ssemblages f rom u nits B SL a nd G SL. W hen c onsidering s pecies i n t erms o f t heir d ietary p references , g razers c eased t o b e d ominant a t t he i nterface b etween u nits B SBJ a nd J a bout 9 ,500 B P, w hile e mploying h abitat p reference a s t he r elevant c riterion p laces t he s hift s ome t ime b etween B SBJ a nd l ayer R B ( 10,000 t o 8 ,500 B P). T he d isappearance o f g rassland f rom t he s ite 's v icinity a nd i ts r eplacement b y am ore c losed v egetation s eems t o h ave b een l inked c hronologically w ith t he a ttainment o f a n e ssentially m odern s ea-level a nd t o a s witch t owards t he e xploitation o f c oastal a nd m arine f oods. T his i s r eflected i n t he l arge n umbers o f C ape f ur s eal ( A rtcocephalus p usillus ) p resent i n a nd a fter u nit B SBJ ( Klein 1 972b), a nd i n t he p resence o f l arge q uantities o f s hellfish a nd f ish r emains i n a nd a fter u nit C S ( Deacon, J . 1 978).

T his r eview o f t he e vidence f or t he t iming o f

t he

c hanges

i n

t he f aunal r ecord i n t he C ape P rovince a round t he P leistocene/Holocene b oundary i ndicates t hat t he p osition i s c onsiderably m ore c omplicated t han t he D eacon m odel w ould s uggest . I n t he S outhern a nd W estern C ape, d ata f rom B oomplaas , N elson B ay C ave a nd E lands B ay C ave i mply t hat t he s hift i n d ominance f rom l arge g razers t o s mall b rowsers a nd m ixed f eeders h ad o ccurred b y 9 ,500 B P o r s oon t hereafter , b ut t he e vidence f ram b oth B yneskranskop a nd M elkhoutboom p laces i t l ater i n b oth t he S outh-Western a nd E astern C ape ( about 6 ,500 a nd 7 ,500 B P r espectively ). A s b est a s c an b e s aid, t he s hift i n l ithic a ssemblage c omposition s eems t o h ave b een u nderway w ell b efore

2 40

L I )

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T able 9 :5 F aunal c hange a t E lands

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2 41

1 2,000 B P a nd a ssemblages a ttributed t o t he A lbany I ndustry a re a pparent a t a ll f ive s ites , a s w ell a s a t K angkara , b y c . 1 0,000 o r 9 ,500 B P.

W hile t he t erm " coincidence" m ight b e s tretched t o a ll i t t o r emain v alid i n t he c ase o f B oomplaas i t b ecomes c learly u ntenable i n c onnection w ith e ither B yneskranskop o r M elkhoutboom. T o s uggest t hat s ociocultural s tress p roduced b y c hanges i n r esource a vailability w as a p rincipal f actor i n g enerating t he c hanges w hich h ave b een r ecognised i n d istinguishing t he R obberg f rom t he A lbany w ill c learly n ot w ork a s a n e xplanation i n s ituations w here s uch i ndustrial c hanges o ccurred i n t he a bsence o f c oncomitant f aunal c hange. T his i s t rue n ot o nly o f t hese t wo p arts o f t he C ape P rovince b ut a lso o f o ther r egions o f S outh A frica. I n t he B asutolian e cozone, f or i nstance, t he n ew r adiocarbon d ates f or t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence f rom S ehonghong w hich a re r eported h ere , t ogether w ith t he s tratigraphic e vidence f rom t he s ite o f R avenscraig, s uggest t hat e arly m icrolithic b ladelet-dominated a ssemblages w ere n o l onger b eing p roduced i n t his r egion b y 1 2,000 B P o r s hortly t hereafter . Y et t he f aunal s amples f rom s ites i n t he N orth-Eastern C ape ( Opperman 1 985; 1 987 ) i ndicate t hat o nly i n t he m id- t o l ate H olocene , i .e. c . 6 ,000 B P o r l ater , w as t here a m ajor s hift i n t he s pecies r epresented. E vidence f rom o ther s ites a t w hich e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages h ave b een f ound i s g enerally t oo f ragmentary f or f urther c omparisons t o b e m ade, b ut r elevant i nformation i s a vailable f rom t he E astern T ransvaal. H ere, K lein 's ( 1984b:113 ) a nalysis o f t he l arge m ammal f auna f rom H euningneskrans a nd f rom L eopard's H ill i n Z ambia s uggests t hat:

" the c limatic c hange f rom g lacial t o i nterglacial c onditions h ad m uch l ess i mpact o n p lant a nd a nimal d istributions i n t he Z ambezian a nd T ransvaalian E cozones t han i t d id i n t he C ape E cozone."

Y et i t i s c lear f rom t he c ultural s tratigraphic s equences a t H euningneskrans a nd B ushman R ock S helter t hat t here w as a l ocal r eplacement o f a n e arly m icrolithic b y an on-microlithic t radition b etween 1 2,000 a nd 1 0,000 B P ( Beaumont 1 981; P lug 1 981).

T he a rgument t hat t he R obberg/Albany t ransition w as l inked w ith a c hange i n t he c omposition o f t he f auna a t a rchaeological s ites i mplicitly a ssumes t hat n o s ignificant e nvironmental c hange o ccurred p rior t o t his t ransition . T his t oo c an b e q uestioned. C onsideration o f t he a vailable p alaeoecological e vidence s hows t hat t he R obberg I ndustry c overed p art o f b oth t he U pper P leniglacial a nd t he L ate G lacial, a nd t hat w hile t he f ormer w as a p eriod o f a cutely c old a nd d ry c onditions t he l atter s aw a m arked i ncrease i n p recipitation i n t he S outhern C ape ( see C hapter 2 ). T hat t he a mount o f g rassland i n t he v icinity o f a s ite s uch a s B oomplaas s eems a lready t o h ave b een d iminishing b y 1 4,200 B P

2 42

( Deacon, H . J . e t a l. 1 984) s uggests t hat e ven w hile R obberg a ssemblages w ere b eing p roduced t heir m akers m ay h ave h ad t o c ontend w ith c hanges i n t he a vailability o f c ertain g ame s pecies , a lthough o n a s cale n ot d iscernible i n t he f aunal r ecord. W hat d oes s eem p ossible, h owever , i s t hat t he i mportance o f p lant f oods i n t he d iet m ay h ave i ncreased a t t his t ime, a s a c onsequence o f a meliorating c limatic c onditions , b ut t his s eems t o h ave h ad l ittle v isible i mpact o n t he l ithic a ssemblages m ade ( see C hapter 8 ). A ssuming t hat, a s w as t he c ase e thnohistorically , p lant f ood c ollection w as p rimarily t he w ork o f w omen r ather t han o f m en t his r aises t he i ntriguing p ossibility t hat l ithic a ssemblages m ay i nform u s m ore o n m ale e xtractive a ctivities t han o n f emale o nes .

S o f ar i t h as b een s hown h ow t he c hronological a nd s tratigraphic d ata , a s w ell a s t he e vidence o f t he s uccessive l ithic a ssemblages t hemselves , i ndicate t hat n ot o nly w as t he t ransition f rom t he R obberg t o t he A lbany I ndustry s pread o ver a l onger p eriod t han t he D eacon ( 1984b ) m odel a llows, a nd t hat i t d oes n ot t herefore c orrespond t o a r ap id, p unctuated p attern o f c hange, b ut t hat o nly a t s ome s ites d oes i t e ven b roadly c oincide w ith a s hift i n h unting p atterns b rought a bout b y t he i mpact o f e nvironmental c hange o n r esource a vailability . T his p oint b ecomes p articularly c lear w hen a reas , s uch a s t he S outhern D rakensberg, w hich l ie o utside t he S outhern C ape a re c onsidered. I n t hese a reas e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages d isappeared w ithout a ny m ajor c hange i n t he c omposition o f t he a ssociated f aunal a ssemblages.

9 :5 T he A rticulation D eacon M odel

o f

F aunal a nd I ndustrial C hange i n t he

T wo a spects o f t he m odel u nder d iscussion a re t hus h ighly a menable t o c riticism. W e t urn f inally t o a n e xamination o f t he l ink w hich h as b een s uggested t o c onnect t hem, a nd t hus t o a c onsideration o f t he m echanism o f c hange. T his w ill l ead t o t he p resentation o f ad ifferent h ypothesis f or t he e xplanation o f w hat i s s een h ere a s t he k ey d ifference b etween t he R obberg a nd t he A lbany I ndustries , n amely t he e ffective c essation i n t he l atter o f t he p roduction o f u nretouched b ladelets.

A lthough J . D eacon ( 1984b:291) h as i dentified t he c hanges m arking t he R obberg/Albany t ransition a s " post-innovative" o r " stylistic" a nd h as s tated t hat t hey a re i ndicators o f t he s tress a ssociated w ith t he s ociocultural a djustments m ade n ecessary b y s hifts i n t he a vailability o f s ubsistence r esources , am echanism c ap able o f l inking t he t wo o bserved c hanges i n a n e xplanatory m anner h as n ot b een p roposed. T his m ust b e ak ey w eakness o f t he e ntire m odel.

J . D eacon ( 1984b:282) i s q uite e xplicit i n s tating t hat " changes i n t he s ize, s hape a nd r aw m aterials o f t he a rtefact .. a re r elated t o q uestions o f s tyle." H owever , l ittle e vidence i s b rought f orward t o s ubstantiate t his c laim o ther t han t he a rgument t hat s uch s eems t o h ave b een t he c ase i n a n umber o f m odern

2 43

a rtefact t ypes ( womens ' d ress d esigns, g ravestones a nd g randfather c locks) a nd i n a n a ssemblage o f p rojectile p oints s tudied b y B inford ( 1963). A p riori t here w ould s eem t o b e l ittle r eason t o e xpect t hat s imilar c auses s hould b e o perating o n t he l ithic a ssemblages o f t he S outhern C ape, w here t he p eriodicities o f t he c ycles i n t hese " stylistic" v ariables a re o f t he o rder o f s everal t housand i nstead o f o ne o r t wo h undred y ears. O therwise, i t i s p ointed o ut t hat t he e vidence o f m icrowear a nalyses o f s crapers f rom B oomplaas ( Binneman 1 982) s uggests t hat, r egardless o f t heir s ize a nd s hape, s crapers, a s d efined b y t he m orphology o f t heir w orking e dges, f orm a f unctionally i ntegrated c lass ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:283-85). H owever , n o a ttempt h as b een m ade t o c onsider s uch p ossibilities a s w hether t he i ncrease i n s craper s ize i n t he B RL M ember w as d ue t o a s maller p roportion o f s crapers b eing h afted r ather t han h and-held , o r w hether s mall a nd l arge s crapers m ay h ave b een u sed i n d ifferent w ays o r o n t he s kins o f d ifferent a nimals ( cf. D eacon, H . J . a nd D eacon , J . 1 980). S uch i nformation m ight b e f orthcoming f rom a c ombination o f e xperimental, m icrowear a nd r esidue a nalyses, a nd o nly w hen s uch f unctional p ossibilities h ave b een d iscounted c an t he a ttributes c oncerned b e a ccepted a s n o m ore t han " stylistic" ( cf. S ackett 1 966:321).

T o a ssume t hat v ariation i n t he f requency w ith w hich d ifferent r aw m aterials w ere u sed w as n o m ore t han a " question o f s tyle" ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:282) c an a lso b e q ueried. A s F ig. 9 :5 s hows, m any f actors m ay i nfluence r aw m aterial v ariability a nd t hus b e i mplicated i n t he c hanges a ssociated w ith t he R obberg/Albany t ransition . O f f undamental i mportance t o t he a nalysis o f t his k ind o f v ariability w ould b e a n a ppreciation o f t he k inds o f r aw m aterials a vailable a t e ach s ite a nd o f t he s ources f rom w hich t he d ifferent m aterials u sed w ere o btained, b ut t his k ind o f s ite c atchment w ork h as n ot y et b een c omprehensively a ttempted, a lthough , a s h as b een s hown i n C hapter 4 , l ess s ystematic d ata a re a vailable i n t he c ases o f B oomplaas , E lands B ay C ave a nd N elson B ay C ave.

T wo p articular v ariables m ight h ave b een i mportant i n c ontributing t o c hanges i n r aw m aterial u sage, o ne e conomic a nd t he o ther t echnological. E thnographic a ccounts ( e.g. B inford 1 979 ) s uggest t hat l ithic r aw m aterials m ay o ften b e c ollected i n t he c ourse o f s ubsistence a ctivities. C hanges i n t he n ature o r f requency o f t hese a ctivities, o r i n t he t erritorial r ange o ver w hich t hey a re c arried o ut, m ight t hus h ave a ffected t he c osts a nd b enefits a ssociated w ith t he a cquisition o f p articular r aw m aterials. A lteration o f a h unting-gathering g roup 's p atterns o f s easonal m ovements w ould r epresent a m ore e xtreme v ersion o f t his. C onflicts i n t he t ime-scheduling o f t he c ollection o f o ne r aw m aterial r elative t o t hat o f a nother o r r elative t o o ther a ctivities w ould o bviously b e c ritical h ere .

O n t he t echnological f ront, r aw m aterials v ary i n t heir h ardness , r esistance t o f racture, e ase o f c onchoidal f racture a nd t he s ize i n w hich t hey o ccur. T he c hoice o f r aw m aterials w ill b e d etermined b y t he c ombination o f s uch f actors . S ince d ifferent r aw m aterials m ay b e m ore a ppropriate f or t he m anufacture o f

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c ertain a rtefact t ypes r ather t han o f o thers, c hanges i n t he f requency w ith w hich p articular a rtefacts a re m ade c ould b e e xpected t o a lter t he f requency o f r aw m aterial u sage.

T he p oint o f t his d iscussion h as b een t o s uggest t hat t he c hanges i n t he l ithic a ssemblages w hich d efine t he R obberg/Albany t ransition c annot s imply b e a ssumed t o b e " stylistic" i n o rigin, b ut t hat a w ide r ange o f t echno-economic f actors m ay a lso h ave b een i nvolved. I n p articular , t he v irtual a bsence f rom t he A lbany I ndustry o f w hole a rtefact c lasses s uch a s u nretouched b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores, i s l ikely t o i ndicate a m ore f ar-reaching c hange, w hich m ay w ell h ave h ad i mportant t echnological a nd e conomic c onsequences . I t i s p recisely t his c hange w hich h as n ot b een s atisfactorily i ntegrated i nto e arlier m odels o f t his t ransition .

A f inal p oint c oncerns t he c oncept o f " stress" a s t his h as b een e mployed b y J . D eacon ( 1984b ). A s t he l ack i n h er m odel o f a ny m echanism w hich w ould l ink c hanges i n f aunal p atterns w ith t hose i n a rtefact a ssemblages s uggests , n o c lear d efinition o f t his " stress" i s o ffered. F urthermore , n o e vidence i s p resented t o c onfirm t he e xistence o f t his s tress b eyond t he v ariation i n a rtefact a ssemblages w hich i t p urports t o e xplain . T he d ata-base r ecovered s o f ar i s, u nfortunately, n ot a dequate f or t he i dentification a nd m easurement o f t his s tress i n o ther w ays, f or e xample b y t he a pplication o f i sotope a nalyses t o h uman s keletal m aterial t o i ndicate c hanges i n d iet o r p rovide d irect e vidence o f m alnutrition .

S o f ar i n t his c hapter t he m odel w hich h as b een d eveloped t o a ccount f or t he R obberg/Albany t ransition i n t he S outhern C ape b y H . J . D eacon ( 1976 ) a nd, m ore e specially , b y J . D eacon ( 1984b) h as b een c riticised o n a n umber o f c ounts. T hese c an b e b riefly s ummarized a s f ollows:-

1 . T he c hanges i n t he r elevant l ithic a ssemblages w ere n ot a s r apid, n or a s s udden , a s h as b een i mplied. I nstead o f b eing c oncentrated i nto b arely m ore t han a s ingle m illenium b etween 1 2,000 a nd 1 1,000 B P, t hey h ave b een s hown t o h ave b een t he e xpression o f l ong-continuing t rends i n r aw m aterial u sage, f laking t echnology a nd o ther v ariables. T hese t rends e xtend f urther b ack i nto t he R obberg, a nd c ontinue w ell i nto t he A lbany I ndustry , a t b oth B oomplaas a nd E lands B ay C ave. A n umber o f a ssemblages ( e.g. B SL a nd G SL a t N elson B ay C ave) c an , f urthermore, b e s pecificallly i dentified a s t ransitional b etween t he t wo i ndustries a nd t heir d ates s upport t he c ase f or a m ore g radual p attern o f c hange. T he a rgument t hat c hange c orresponded t o a p unctuated e quilibrium m odel ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:366 ) r ests h eavily u pon t he d iscounting o f s uch e vidence a nd u pon t he i nterpretation o f t he r elevant a rchaeological s tratigraphies a s e xpressing a c ontinuous r ecord o f v ariation . T hey a re, h owever , a s

2 46

P arkington ( 1980a) h as p ointed o ut, m arked i n m any c ases b y p ronounced g aps b etween t he m ost r ecent R obberg a nd t he o ldest A lbany a ssemblages.

2 . C oincidence b etween t he c hanges i n l ithic a ssemblages w hich m ark t he R obberg/Albany t ransition a nd t he s hift f rcm a l arge g razer d ominated f auna t o o ne d ominated b y s mall b rowsers a nd m ixed f eeders c an b e a ccepted o nly t o a l imited d egree . A t a ll s ix s ites a t w hich t he R obberg I ndustry h as b een i dentified, t he l atter s hift o ccured a t l east 1 ,000 y ears a fter t he l ikely d ate o f t he R obberg/Albany t ransition, a nd a t b oth B oomplaas a nd N elson B ay C ave i t o ccurred d uring t he A lbany I ndustry . E ven m ore c learly i s t his t he c ase f or M elkhoutboom a nd B yneskranskop w here s ignificant c hange i n t he l arge m ammal f aunas w as a f eature o f t he m iddle H olocene . Ac onnection b etween t he t wo p rocesses t herefore b ecomes d ifficult t o m aintain, e ven i n t he C ape P rovince. C onsideration o f t he c omparative e vidence f rom t he S outhern D rakensberg a nd f rom t he E astern T ransvaal s hows t hat e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages c eased t o b e p roduced i n t hese r egions s hortly a fter 1 2,000 B P, y et t his w as a ccompanied b y l ittle o r n o d etectable c hange i n t he a nimals h unted.

3 . N o m echanism h as b een p ut f orward t o l ink t he o bserved c hanges i n a rtefact a nd f aunal a ssemblages o ther t han t hat t he f ormer a re a m easure o f t he s tress g enerated b y s ocio-cultural a djustments t o n ew r esources. T he i dentification o f t he a rtefact c hanges a s " stylistic" h as n ot b een a dequately d emonstrated a nd t he c oncept o f " stress" h as r emained i ll-defined a nd u nsupported b y a ny i ndependent e vidence. I n p articular, t he r easons f or t he d isappearance o f u nretouched b ladelet p roduction a s a s ignificant f eature o f s ome L SA l ithic a ssemblages h ave n ot b een c onsidered.

I t i s e specially t his r eplacement o f a c omplex i n w hich b ladelets a re c ommon b y o ne i n w hich t hey a re r are , i ndeed a lmost a bsent, i n n ot j ust t he S outhern C ape b ut i n o ther p arts o f S outh A frica t oo , w hich m ay b e u sed a s t he k ey p oint o f d eparture f or a n ew i nterpretation o f t he R obberg/Albany t ransition . I t h as a lready b een s hown ( in C hapter 8 ) t hat t he u nretouched b ladelets c haracteristic o f l ate P leistocene e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages m ay h ave b een u sed, a t l east t o av ery g reat e xtent, a s c omponents o f m ulti-barbed h unting s pears. I f t his w ere s o , t hen t heir d isappearance m ust s urely r eflect t he r eplacement o f s uch s pears b y a n a lternative p rojectile w eapon . T he b ow a nd a rrow , w hich h istorically a nd e thnographically w as t he p rincipal h unting w eapon o f t he S outh A frican S an, i s t he o bvious c andidate t o f ill t his r ole.

D irect a rchaeological e vidence o f t he a ntiquity o f t his w eapon i s l imited t o t he o ccurrence o f f ragmentary o r c omplete b ows a nd a rrows a t a f ew s ites , t ogether w ith t heir r epresentation i n u ndated r ock p aintings. T wo a rrows o ccur i n s ixth m illenium B P l evels a t M elkhoutboom ( Deacon , H . J . 1 976 :45) a nd a b ow i s p reserved a t t he s ite o f G wisho i n Z ambia f rom t he f ifth m illenium B P ( Fagan a nd V an N oten 1 971), a lthough i n A frica s outh o f t he

2 47

L impopo t he o ldest b ow f ragment, f rom D ikbosch I i n t he N orthern C ape, i s l ess t han 3 ,000 y ears o ld ( Humphreys a nd T hackeray 1 983:156 ). w e a re o therwise l eft d ependent o n t he i nterpretation o f b acked a nd u nbacked m icroliths a s a rrow p oints o r b arbs a nd o f b one o bjects a s l inkshafts o r a rrow p oints .

A rchaeologically , t he a ppearance o f t he b ow a nd a rrow m ay b e r eflected n ot o nly i n t he d ecline i n b ladelet m anufacture a nd i n t he v irtual d isappearance i n t he S outhern C ape o f a s pecialized b ark- o r l eather-wrapped b ipolar f laking t echnique, b ut a lso b y t he r elatively l arge n umbers o f b one p oints a ssociated w ith s uch O akhurst C omplex a ssemblages a s t hose f rom N elson B ay C ave ( Deacon, J . 1 984b:238) a nd B ushman R ock S helter ( Plug 1 981). T able 9 :6 i llustrates t hat s uch p oints a re m uch m ore p lentiful i n t he p ost-Robberg l ayers a t N elson B ay C ave.

A rchaeozoological d ata m ight h elp t o d etermine i f t his a rgument i s v alid s ince a s hift t owards a m ore c atastrophic f orm o f m ortality p rofile m ight b e e xpected, g iven t hat t he b ow a nd a rrow m ay h ave a llowed h unters t o k ill p roportionately m ore a dult a nimals t han w as p ossible u sing s pears a lone. T his i s b ecause t he g reater a bility o f t hese a nimals t o r eact m ore q uickly t o d anger c ompared w ith y oung, i nexperienced o r o ld , d ecrepit i ndividuals w ould h ave b een l ess o f a n a dvantage t o t hem w hen f aced w ith a m ore a dvanced h unting t echnology . K lein ( pers. c omm.) c onsiders, h owever , t hat t he a vailable f aunal s amples a re t oo s mall t o e valuate t his s uggestion i n t erms o f d etecting d ifferences i n m ortality p rofiles b etween R obberg a nd A lbany o r R obberg a nd W ilton a ssemblages. A s r esearch c ontinues i t m ay y et b ecome p ossible t o e valuate t his s uggestion f urther .

T he a doption a nd s pread o f t he b ow a nd a rrow c ould h ave b een f acilitated b y ag radual d ecline i n t he a vailability o f l arge, g razing m ammals, b ut c ould a lso h ave c ontributed t o t his v ery d ecline b y i mproving t he h unting a bilities o f t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene h unter-gatherers. T his i s o f p articular s ignificance i n t he S outhern C ape s ince K lein, i n a n umber o f a rticles ( 1980; 1 983a; 1 984a), h as p roposed t hat a n i mprovement i n h uman h unting s kills w as a c ritical f actor i n p romoting t he e xtinction o f an umber o f s pecies a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene . F our s uch s pecies " apparently m ade t heir l ast a ppearance b etween 1 2,000 a nd 9 ,500 y ears a go" ( Klein 1 984a:557). T he s pecies c oncerned a re t he g iant b uffalo ( Pelerovis a ntiquus), t he g iant h artebeest ( Megalotragus p riscus), t he C ape h orse ( E quus c apensis) a nd t he s outhern s pringbok ( Antidorcas a ustralis). T hat t he p eriod o f t heir e xtinction c oincides w ith o ther c hanges i n u ngulate c ommunity c omposition s uggests t hat i t m ust i n p art h ave b een r elated t o c limatic a nd e nvironmental c hange, b ut K lein h as a rgued t hat:

xplanation f or e xtinctions , h owever , t erminal " As a c omplete e olocene e nvironmental c hange i s i nsufficient P leistocene/early H pecies c learly s urvived e arlier p eriods o f s ince t he e xtinct s o ccurring f rom a t l east t he M iddle P leistocene ." s imilar c hange,

2 48

T able 9 :6 F requencies o f b one p oints f rom N elson B ay C ave a fter D eacon, J .

( 1984b:238)

I ndustry

W ilton

A lbany

R obberg

U nits

I C-RA

R BCS

G SL-YSL

B lunted p oints/ l inkshafts ( whole ) B roken p oints/linkshafts P oints S patulate p oints

1 3 1 5 -

5 1 0 1 0 2

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1 9

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4

1 280

2 140

B uckets e xcavated P oint d ensity

( x 1 00)

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( Klein 1 984a:559).

K lein ( e.g. 1 983a ) h as s uggested t hat L SA h unting a bilities w ere e nhanced r elative t o t hose o f M SA h unters, b ut i f t he b ow a nd a rrow w as i ntroduced i nto t he L SA t ool-kit f or t he f irst t ime t owards t he e nd o f t he P leistocene t hen a b etter c riterion f or s eparating h unting p roficiencies w ould b e t hat b etween e arly m icrolithic a nd l ater h unters.

E thnographic p arallels c an , i ndeed, b e c ited f or t he e xtensive o ver-exploitation o f w ild r esources b y h unter-gatherers o nce t hey h ad a cquired a n ew a nd u pgraded h unting t echnology ( Zeisberger 1 910; K elsall 1 968; P a licki 1 970 ), a nd t he e mployment o f t he b ow a nd a rrow a gainst t he l ate P leistocene l arge u ngulate f auna c ould h ave h elped s eriously t o r educe t he p opulation n umbers o f s ome s pecies. F or a ny s pecies a lready f acing s evere p roblems o f s urvival b ecause o f e nvironmental c hange t his n ew f actor c ould h ave b een s ufficient t o h elp p ush i t t owards e xtinction . T hat s uch s urvival p roblems m ay h ave e xisted i s s uggested b y t he d entition a nd d istribution o f t he s pecies w hich b ecame e xtinct, a s w ell a s b y c omparisons w ith t heir n earest l iving r elations. U sing s uch e vidence a ll o f t hese s pecies w ere c learly g razers a nd w ould b e p redicted t o h ave d eclined i n n umbers a s g rassland w as r eplaced b y f ynbos, b ush a nd f orest i n t he S outhern C ape a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene . T he p ossible k nock-on e ffect o f t he e xtinction o f j ust o ne s pecies h as b een c ommented u pon b y K lein ( 1984a:563), w ho h as h ypothesized t hat t he C ape h orse, t he g iant h artebeest a nd B ond's s pringbok c ould h ave b een i nterdependent i n a g razing s uccession . T hus:

" A t echnological, s ocial o r i deological i nnovation t hat a llowed h unters t o p ut m ore p ressure o n a ny o ne o f t he t hree s pecies m ay h ave b een s ufficient t o i mperil o thers t oo , e ven i f t hey w ere h unted n o m ore i ntensively t han b efore" ( Klein 1 984a:563).

W hile t he h ypothesis t hat i t w as t he i ntroduction o f t he b ow a nd a rrow w hich w as a c rucial f actor i n b ringing a bout t he c hanges s een i n S outh A frican l ithic a ssemblages a t t he e nd o f r he P leistocene c annot e xplain a ll o f t he o bserved s hifts , i t m ay a ccount f or t he t echnologically m ost s ignificant o f t hese, i .e. t he e ffective c essation o f u nretouched b ladelet p roduction s oon a fter 1 2,000 B P. T he s ame m echanism c an a lso e xplain t he v irtual d isappearance o f t he s pecialized s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores a nd m ay a lso b e i mplicated i n t he d ecline i n s ome a reas i n t he u se o f f ine-grained a nd s mall, n odular r aw m aterials ( silcrete, c rypto-crystalline s ilicas , q uartz). W ith f ew b ladelets n ow n eeding t o b e p roduced, a cquisition o f s uch r aw m aterials w ould h ave b ecome l ess i mportant . T he r esult o f t his w ill h ave b een t o e nhance t he r elative i mportance i n a ssemblages o f o ther r aw m aterials, s uch a s q uartzite i n t he c ase o f N elson B ay C ave, e ven

2 50

t hough t he a bsolute f requency w ith w hich t hese c oarser-grained m aterials w ere u sed m ay h ave r emained t he s ame. T his s uggestion m ay a lso b e v alid f or K angkara ( Deacon , J . 1 984b:93), b ut i s u nlikely t o b e t he s ole e xplanation o f t he t endency t owards a g reater u se o f q uartzite a nd h ornfels i n t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene a ssemblages.

T his p oint, t ogether w ith c hanges i n a rtefact s ize, c annot b e a ccounted f or b y p ositing t hat t he b ow a nd a rrow w as i ntroduced i nto S outh A frica c oincident w ith t he R obberg/Albany t ransition . F urther r esearch , s ome o f i t a long t he l ines a lready i ndicated, i s c learly n ecessary, b ut t he h ypothesis p resented h ere d oes h ave t he a dditional m erit o f h elping t o t ie t ogether c hange i n l ithic a ssemblages a nd c hange i n f aunal a ssemblages i n am ore c onvincing m anner t han t he p ostulation o f " style" a s a n i ndicator o f u nspecified s ociocultural " stress ." A s K lein ( 1983a ) h as s uggested, t he i ntroduction o f t he b ow a nd a rrow m ay h ave h ad a p articularly s ignificant i mpact o n c ertain l arge m ammal p opulations , e ven t o t he p oint o f c ontributing t o t heir e ventual e xtinction a nd m ay a lso h ave h ad p rofound c onsequences i n n on-technological a nd s ubsistence s pheres. V innicombe ( 1972), f or e xample, s uggests t hat m uch o f S an a rt a nd r itual d eveloped w ithin t he f ramework o f i ts i ntroduction , w hile W adley ( 1986a) r elates t he a doption o f t he b ow t o t he d evelopment o f n ew p atterns o f s ocial r elations. A t w orst t he d evelopment o f t his h ypothesis o ffers a n a lternative t o t he D eacon m odel w hich m ay b e e valuated a gainst i t a s t he p rogress o f r esearch c ontinues.

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C HAPTER T EN T HE O RIGIN O F T HE E ARLY L ATER S TONE A GE - A M ODEL F OR T HE M SA/LSA T RANSITION 1 0:1 I ntroduction

I t i s t o G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe ( 1929), t he f ounding f athers o f S outh A frican a rchaeology, t hat w e o we t he t ripartite d ivision o f t he S tone A ge s equence i nto a n E arly , a M iddle a nd a L ater S tone A ge. T o t hem, t oo , w e o we t he f ormulation o f t he f irst e xplanations f or t he t ransition f rom a M SA t echnology ( where , i n t heir w ords ( Goodwin a nd V an R iet L owe 1 929:147 ) " lance-head a nd p oint t ypes p redominate, f aceted b utts a re c ommon , a nd l ongitudinal f laking c omes i nto i ts o wn") t o t hat o f t he L SA . T he i nterpretation o ffered, a s f or o ther c hanges f rom o ne i ndustry t o a nother , w as c ouched i n t erms o f i nvasions a nd m igrations d erived f rom f urther n orth ( see C hapter 1 ). S pecifically, t hey s uggested t hat t he W ilton I ndustry w as a n o ffshoot o f t he C apsian I ndustry o f N orth A frica a nd t hat t he S mithfield d erived f rom t he i mpact o n t hese " Neo-anthropic w aves" o f t he i deas o f t he p re-existing M SA " folk", c oupled w ith t hat o f t he e xcellent f racturing p roperties o f " a n ew , d esirable a nd e minently s uitable m aterial" i n t he f orm o f h ornfels ( Goodwin a nd V an R iet L owe 1 929:150 ). A v ery c lear l ink w as d rawn b etween t he m aterial c ulture a nd p hysical c haracters o f m odern S an o n t he o ne h and a nd t hose o f t he L ater S tone A ge a nd i ts m akers o n t he o ther , w ith t he M SA b eing r eferred t o a d ifferent p hysical t ype, t he s o-called " Boskopoid R ace."

T he s ubsequent e xpansion o f a rchaeological r esearch l ed, a nd n ot o nly i n S outh A frica, t o t he i dentification o f v arious a ssemblages t ransitional i n c haracter a nd d ate b etween t he M SA a nd t he L SA , w hich w ere c ollectively r eferred t o a s " Magosian " a fter a t ype-site i n U ganda. I n S outh A frica , f or e xample, t he s ite o f R ose C ottage C ave i n t he O range F ree S tate w as t hought t o d emonstrate b oth t he s tratigraphically i ntermediate p osition o f t he M agosian a nd t he g radual i ntroduction i nto a n i ndustry w ith p repared c ores , p oints a nd f lake-blades o f s mall n umbers o f b lades a nd s crapers o f m icrolithic p roportions ( Malan 1 952). W hile i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t his r epresented a n a utochthononous t ransition f rom t he M SA t o t he L SA , i t w as c onsidered m ore p robable t hat t he M agosian r esulted f rom a t ransformation o f t he l ocal M SA c ultures u nder t he i mpact o f c ontact w ith a s outhward-moving p opulation ( Clark 1 959:183-84).

E ven t hough t he m odel n ow p ointed t o t he " improved" n ature o f t he n ewly i ntroduced t echnology ( e.g. t he a dvantages a ccruing f rom t he d evelopment o f c omposite a rtefacts w ith i nset m icroliths ), t he c ontext i n w hich t his w as s een t o h ave d eveloped w as s till o ne o f u nspecified p opulation m ovements o r " influences", i rrespective o f t he r ole w hich s uch d evelopments m ight h ave p layed w ithin a n o ngoing c ultural s ystem o r t he r easons i nternal t o t hat s ystem w hich m ight h ave f acilitated t heir a doption . F urthermore, a

2 52

c ombination o f v ery f ew r adiocarbon d ates w ith t he n ow d iscredited P luvial s ystem r esulted i n t he d ating o f t hese M agosian a ssemblages t o t he c omparatively r ecent p eriod o f c . 1 2,000 - 8 000 B P.

I n t he c ourse o f t he 1 960s i ncreasing a ttention c ame t o b e f ocused o n r egional r esearch p rogrammes w hich e mphasized i n p articular q uestions o f s ubsistence a nd e conomic o rganization , a p rocess d iscussed m ore f ully i n C hapter 1 . O ne r esult o f t his w as t he c onceptualization, a t l east i n t he S outhern C ape, o f t he L SA i n t erms o f s uccessive h omeostatic s ystems c haracterized b y p articular k inds o f e cological a daptation ( Deacon , H . J . 1 976 ). A t t he s ame t ime t his c oncentration o f r esearch o n t he L SA a nd a s hift f rom a l ithological t o a n e cological p aradigm t urned a ttention a way f rom t he q uestion o f t he o rigin o f t he L SA i tself.

A f urther c onsequence o f t his g rowth i n r esearch a nd o f t he i ncrease i n t he s uccessful a pplication o f r adiocarbon d ating w as a d ramatic a lteration i n t he t ime-frame w ithin w hich S outh A frican a rchaeology w orked. A s i ndicated i n C hapter 1 , e xcavations i n t he S outhern C ape, e .g. a t B oomplaas ( Deacon, H . J . 1 979 ) a nd N elson B ay C ave ( Deacon, J . 1 978), d emonstrated t he e xistence p rior t o t he W ilton o r S mithfield a ssemblages i dentified b y e arlier w orkers, o f m uch e arlier m icrolithic a ssemblages , c ollectively r eferred t o a s t he R obberg I ndustry ( Klein 1 974), f or w hich d ates n ow e xtend b ack a s f ar a s c . 1 8,000 B P. R e-excavation b y B eaumont ( 1978; 1 981) o f R ose C ottage C ave a nd h is e xcavations a t B order C ave a nd H euningneskrans p roduced d ates a ssociated w ith m icrolithic a ssemblages w hich w ere i nterpreted a s m eaning t hat " the ' Early L SA '/'final M SA ' t ransition t ook p lace a t a n e ven e arlier d ate , o r t hat a n a lready d eveloped ' Early L SA ' i ntruded i nto S outh A frica s hortly b efore 3 5,000 B P" ( Beaumont a nd V ogel 1 972:156 ). T his " Early L SA " w as a n ew t erm c oined t o i nclude n ot o nly t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages f rom B order C ave a nd H euningneskrans b ut a lso t he " Pre-Wilton" a ssemblage f rom R ose C ottage C ave, t he v arious O akhurst C omplex i ndustries f rom S outh A frica a nd Z imbabwe a nd a n umber o f e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences i n E ast a nd S outh-Central A frica, i ncluding t hose f rom L eopard's H ill a nd I shango. S ubsequently, r adiocarbon d ates f r o m B order C ave w ere u sed t o s uggest t hat t his t ransition o ught t o b e p ushed s till f urther b ack i nto t he U pper P leistocene , i ndeed t o a s f ar b ack a s 4 0 - 6 0,000 B P ( Beaumont e t a l. 1 978:414).

T he p urpose o f t he f ollowing d iscussion i s t hreefold :t o e valuate t he a rchaeological e vidence b earing u pon t he d ate o f t he M SA/LSA t ransition , t o s uggest a m odel w hich c ould , a t l east p artly , a ccount f or t he l ithological a spects o f t his t ransition , a nd t o a ttempt t o l ink t his t o t he p atchy d ata f or t he d evelopment i n S outhern A frica o f a rt a nd p ersonal a dornment.

1 0:2 T he D ating o f t he T ransition

B eaumont a nd V ogel

( 1972),

i n a r eview o f d ates f or

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e arly

L SA

a ssemblages i n S outhern a nd E ast A frica, h ave s uggested t hat t he t ransition f rom M SA t o L SA t echnologies m ust h ave o ccurred a t o r b efore c . 3 5,000 B P, a nd B eaumont ( 1978) h as s ubsequently a rgued t hat i t s hould i n f act b e s et s till e arlier a t b etween 4 0 a nd 6 0,000 B P. T his c hronology r ests h eavily u pon d ates f rcm t hree k ey s ites , t hose o f R ose C ottage C ave i n t he O range F ree S tate ( Malan 1 952; B eaumont 1 978), B order C ave i n N atal ( Beaumont 1 978; B eaumont e t a l. 1 978) a nd H euningneskrans i n t he T ransvaal ( Beaumont 1 978; 1 981). B eaumont h as a rgued t hat t he o nset o f t he E arly L ater S tone A ge c an b e d ated a t t hese s ites t o c . 2 7 ,000, c . 3 2 ,000 a nd c . 3 8,000 B P r espectively . H owever , n ot o nly c an t he s pecific c laims f or s uch h igh a ntiquity b e q uestioned a t e ach o f t hese s ites , b ut e vidence f rcm o ther r egions o f S outhern A frica i mplies o n t he c ontrary t hat M SA t echnologies p ersisted u ntil a t l east 2 5,000 B P ( e.g. W endt 1 976 ; P rice-Williams 1 981), m uch l ater t han i s a llowed f or b y t he B eaumont a nd V ogel m odel. I n t he f ace o f s uch d isparate c laims i t i s n ecessary t o e valuate t he a vailable c hronometric e vidence b efore o ne c an p roceed t o t he d evelopment o f a m odel f or t he t ransition .

A n a ssessment o f t he r eliability o f t he d ating e vidence f or e ach o f t hese s ites h as a lready b een p resented i n C hapters 3 a nd 5 w hen t he l ithic a ssemblages f ram t hem w ere d iscussed a s p art o f a g eneral r eview o f E arly L SA o ccurrences i n S outh A frica. O nly t he s alient p oints n eed t herefore t o b e s ummarized h ere .

A t R ose C ottage C ave t he f our r adiocarbon d ates w hich a re p otentially r elevant t o t he e stimation o f t he a ge o f t he " Pre-Wilton" o ccurrence t here a re s tratigraphically i nconsistent w ith e ach o ther a nd n o a ccurate s ection o f t he s tratigraphic s equence a t t he s ite h as e ver b een p ublished. F urthermore, t he t ypologically m ost s imilar a ssemblages t o t he " Pre-Wilton" a re t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages f rcm R avenscraig a nd S ehonghong w hich p ost-date t he L ast G lacial M aximum a nd, m oreover , f all m ainly t owards t he e nd o f t he L ate G lacial c . 1 3,200 - 1 2,000 B P.

A t H euningneskrans , a s d iscussion o f t he s ite i n C hapter 5 h as i ndicated, s erious p roblems w ith i ts d ating a lso e xist . H ere t hey c entre p artly o n t he p otential u nreliability o f t he a mino-acid r acemization d ate s equence a nd p artly u pon B utzer 's ( 1984b) i nterpretation o f t he s edimentary r ecord w hich m ay c ontradict B eaumont 's ( 1981) a ssumption o f a n e ven r ate o f d eposit b uild-up . F urthermore, H euningneskrans u nhappily s hares w ith R ose C ottage C ave t he a bsence o f ap ublished s ection o r a ny d etailed d iscussion o f t he r elation b etween t he a rtefact a ssemblages f ound a nd t he s tratigraphy o f t he s ite. T he p ossibility t hat t he r adiocarbon d ates f rom t he n eighbouring s ite o f B ushman R ock S helter g enuinely d ate a M SA o ccupation t o a s l ate a s 2 7,400 + 1 ,600 B P a lso c reates d oubt a s t o t he c orrectness o f a 3 2,000 B P p oint o f o rigin f or t he E arly L SA a t H euningneskrans.

E ven i n t he c ase o f B order C ave, w here s tratigraphic d ata a re m ore a bundantly d ocumented, t he h ypothesis o f a v ery e arly d ate f or t he a dvent o f t he E arly L ater S tone A ge ( in t he r ange o f +

2 54

3 8,000 B P o r b efore ) d oes n ot r est u pon f irm f oundations . T his i s b ecause A very 's ( 1982b ) s tudy o f t he r elevant m icromammalian f aunal s amples h as l ed h er t o s uggest t hat l ayers 1 BS .LR a nd 1 WA ( from w hich t he E arly L SA o ccurrences w ere r ecovered) m ay d ate t o n earer t he a dvent o f t he U pper P leniglacial c . 2 5,000 B P t han t he r adiocarbon d ates w ould s uggest .

C onsideration o f t he d ates f or t he l atest k nown M SA a ssemblages f ram o ther r egions o f S outhern A frica o nly s trengthens t he v iew t hat t here i s a s y et n o u nimpeachable e vidence f or p lacing t he a dvent o f L SA a ssemblages a s f ar b ack i n t ime a s 4 0 - 6 0,000 B P.

1 0:3 H ow R ecent a re t he L atest M SA A ssemblages ?

W hile o ne c onsequence o f t he g rowth o f r esearch o ver t he l ast t wenty y ears h as b een t o p ut f orward t he c laims f or a v ery e arly M SA/LSA t ransition d iscussed a bove, a nother h as b een t o p rovide d ates f or l ate M SA a ssemblages f rom s everal p arts o f S outhern A frica. T hese o bservations a re b est s ummarized r egion b y r egion.

T he S outhern C ape T he k ey s ite i n t his r egion i s t hat o f B oamplaas ( Deacon , H . J . 1 979 ) w here , i n a l ong s equence i ncluding b oth M SA a nd L SA d eposits , t he l atest d ate f or a M SA a ssemblage i s t hat a ssociated w ith u nit B P4, o f 3 2 ,400 + 7 00 B P ( OW-304 ). T hree f urther s tratigraphic u nits ( BP1, 2 , 3-7 o ccur a fter t his d ate a nd b efore t he e arliest L SA a ssemblage i n M ember Y OL. T he t op o f t he f ollowing L SA M ember ( LPC) h as t hree d ates ( Pta-1810 a nd 2 298 a nd U W-300 ) w hich g ive a m ean a ge o f 2 1,130 B P. T aken t ogether t his e vidence s uggests t hat t he E arly L ater S tone A ge a t B oomplaas m ay h ave b egun a round 2 5,000 B P, a nd a t t he v ery l east t hat t he M SA c ontinued f or s ome t ime a fter 3 2 ,000 B P.

S waziland I t h as b een a rgued ( Price-Williams a nd W atson 1 982) t hat M SA a rtefacts o ccur w idely i n t his c ountry i n e xposed c olluvial s ediments i n d ongas , a nd t hat t he o ccurrence o f c hipping s tations , c omplete w ith h ammerstones, c ores a nd d ebitage, s hows t hat t he a rtefacts w ere b eing m ade w hile t he c olluvia w ere a ccumulating. D ates o n c alcrete n odules f rom t hese s ediments r ange f rom 3 0 2 0,000 B P, b ut h ave s ince b een d emonstrated t o r efer t o p ostdepositional f eatures , w ith t he r esult t hat t he c olluvia t hemselves a re s ubstantially o lder ( Eutzer 1 984a:244 ). N evertheless , t he i nvalidation o f t hese d ates f rom o pen s ites d oes n ot a ffect t he r eliability o f a d ate o f 2 2,850 + 1 60 B P ( GrN-5314) f or a M SA o ccupation f rom t he s ite o f S ibe lb.j S helter . T his d ate i s s ubstantiated b y t wo o f a s eries o f t hree f ram t he n earby L ion C avern h aematite m ine - c harcoal s amples a ssociated w ith M SA a rtefacts y ielded d ates o f 2 2,250 + 4 00 a nd 2 8,130 + 2 60 B P ( Y-1829 a nd G rN-5020 r espectively ) TEbaumont a nd jshier

2 55

1 972:6 ). T hese d ates w ere l ater d ismissed b y B eaumont a nd V ogel ( 1972) i n t he l ight o f t heir c onviction t hat t he M SA/LSA t ransition m ust h ave t aken p lace m uch e arlier , b ut t he v alidity o f t heir a ssociation w ith a n M SA a ssemblage w as n ot d oubted. T here s eems n o o ther r eason w hy t hese d ates s hould s imply b e d ismissed o ut o f h and.

T he M agaliesberg

W adley ( 1987 ) h as o btained a d ate o f 2 9,000 B P a ssociated w ith a m icrolithic E arly L SA a ssemblage a t t he s ite o f C ave J ames i n t he M agaliesberg M ountains o f t he W estern T ransvaal, a nd a v ery s imilar , t hough u ndated, a ssemblage c omes f rom t he n earby s ite o f J ubilee S helter . S he l eaves o pen , h owever , ( Wadley p ers. c omm. ) , t he p ossibility t hat t his s ingle d ate m ay b e e rroneous , i n t he a bsence o f c onfirmation b y a s econd s ample f rom t hese s ites .

L esotho

D etails o f t he M SA s equence f rom S ehonghong a nd i ts r elations t o o ther s ites i n E astern L esotho a re d iscussed i n M itchell a nd C arter ( in p ress ), a nd d ates r elevant t o t he d ating o f t he e nd o f t he M SA i n t his r egion o f S outhern A frica c ome f rom t he s ites o f M elikane a nd S ehonghong ( Carter a nd V ogel 1 974). A t t he f irst o f t hese s ites , a s ingle d ate o f 2 0,000 + 1 70 B P f rom L ayer 2 p rovides a t erminus a nte q uem f or t he u nderlying M SA s equence. A t S ehonghong a d ate o f 2 0,240 + 2 30 B P f rom a l ayer o nly j ust a bove a nother d ated t o 3 0 ,900 ± 5 50 B P s eems s uspiciously y oung a nd c ould b e e rroneous. H owever , t wo o ther d ates ( of 2 0,900 + 2 70 a nd 1 9,860 + 2 20 B P) f rom o nly j ust b elow t he u nits c ontaining t he b laelet 2ach e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage m ay g enuinely d ate t he e nd o f t he M SA o ccupation . W hile o n t he y oung s ide, t hey a re n evertheless c ompatible w ith t he d ata f rom S waziland r eported a bove.

N amibia

A n e xtensive r esearch p rogramme ( Wendt 1 976 ) i n N amibia h as p roduced i mportant n ew e vidence b earing o n t he M SA/LSA t ransition w hich w ill b e c onsidered m ore f ully b elow. A t t he m oment i t i s o nly t he c hronological e vidence w hich r equires d iscussion . A pollo 1 1 C ave i n S outhern N amibia h as y ielded t he l ongest s equence o f d eposits a nd t hese s how q uite c learly t hat a b lade-containing M SA h orizon p ersisted u ntil a lmost t he s tart o f t he U pper P leniglacial - r elevant d ates a re 2 8,400 + 4 50 ( KN2056 ) a nd 2 6,700 + 6 50 B P ( KNI.813 ), w hich a re r eported b y F reundlich e t a l. ( 196 '5 ), a nd 2 6,300 + 4 00 B P ( Pta-1040), w hich i s r eported b y V ogel a nd V isser ( 1981). -E arliest d ates f or t he o verlying L SA a ssemblage a re g iven a s 1 9,760 + 1 75 B P ( KNI.812) a nd 1 8,500 + 2 00 B P ( Pta-1039)

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r espectively,

i ndicating

t hat

t he

M SA must h ave c ome t o a n e nd

s ome t ime b etween t hese t wo s ets o f d ates.

O ther r elevant o bservations f rom t his p rogramme o f r esearch c ome f rom N os, w here a n a ssemblage o f i ndeterminate s tone a rtefacts, s imilar t o t hose o f t he f inal M SA a t A pollo 1 1 C ave, h as b een d ated t o 2 2,100 + 2 20 B P ( Vogel a nd V isser 1 981). A f urther c omparable a ssemblage f rom P ockenbank h as d ates o f 3 1,200 + 4 50 ( Pta-544 ) a nd 3 3,500 + 7 50 B P ( KNI.628) ( Vogel a nd V isser 7. 9 81;

F reundlich e t a l.

1 980) -7

1 0:4 T he A ge o f t he M SA/LSA T ransition

A d iagrammatic s ummary o f t his s urvey o f d ates f rom S outh A frica, L esotho, N amibia a nd S waziland w hich a re r elevant t o e stimating t he a ge o f t he M SA/LSA t ransition i s p resented i n F ig. 1 0:1. T he d ates t hemselves a re l isted i n T able 1 0:1. I t i ndicates t hat p resent d ata a re n ot s ufficient u nequivocally t o s upport t he c ase f or t he v ery e arly t ransition i n t he r ange o f 4 0 - 6 0,000 B P a rgued f or b y B eaumont a nd V ogel ( 1972) a nd B eaumont ( 1978). A t e ach o f t he s ites w hich a re c entral t o t heir v iews d oubts c an b e r aised o ver t he r eliability o f t he d ating e vidence a nd/or o f i ts a ssociations w ith t he a ssemblages i n q uestion.

I t h as a lso b een s hown t hat i n a t l east f ive o ther r egions o f S outhern A frica M SA a ssemblages h ave b een d ated t o w ithin t he p eriod 3 0 - 2 0,000 B P, a nd t hat o nly i n t he o ne p ossible c ase o f t he M agaliesberg s ite o f C ave J ames i s a n E arly L SA a ssemblage d ated t o b efore 2 3,000 B P. T he g eneral t rend o f t he e vidence i s t hus t o p oint t o t he c hange-over f rom a M SA t o a L SA l ithic t echnology h aving o ccurred a t + 2 5,000 B P. W ith s uch a t ime-depth i n m ind, t he m ore i nteresting q uestion o f w hy t his c hange o ccurred c an n ow b e a pproached.

1 0:5 T he L ithological T ransition

T he m ost r ecent s urvey o f t he S outhern A frican M iddle S tone A ge s tates i t t o b e c haracterized b y f lake a nd b lade t ools, s crapers a nd d enticulates , a lthough a ny o f t hese t ypes m ay b e r are o r a bsent i n a p articular a ssemblage ( Volman 1 984:193). B acked p ieces t end t o b e r are o utside o f t he H owieson 's P oort C omplex, w hile a s ignificant p roportion o f c ores s hows e vidence o f r adial p reparation a nd a s ignificant f requency o f f lakes h as f aceted p latforms ( Beaumont a nd V ogel 1 972:57-58). T he p rincipal d ifferences w ith t he E arly L ater S tone A ge w ould i nclude:-

1 .

A rtefact s ize.

M icrolithization i s o ne o f t he

t he m ajority o f L SA a ssemblages.

2 57

h allmarks

o f

C APE D ate BP 1 8,000

•

N ATAL/ E T RANSVAAL

O RANGE N AMIBIA F REE S TATE

-

• • • 0 • •

2 2,000

S WAZILAND D ate BP

• • • • •

•

20 ,000

LESOTHO

•

-

1 8,000

20,000 00

•

2 2,000

•

A 0 A

2 4,000

-

2 6,000

-

2 8,000

-

2 4,000

•

2 6,000

0 0 0 0 1 ?

2 8,000

0 0 •

3 0,000

3 0 ,000 0

0 0 3 2,000

0

0

3 2,000

0

3 4,000

I

A

3 4,000

A 0

3 6,000

3 6,000

0

3 8,000

-

3 8,000 0

40,000

-

0 40 ,000

Fig. 1 0:1 Radiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t he N SA/ LSA t ransition. ( Site names a re g iven i n f ull i n Table 1 0:1). • L SA a ssemblage ( '?' d enotes d oubt o ver a n a ssemblage's c lassification a s LSA, s ee t ext). O N SA a ssemblage

2 58

T able 1 0:1 R adiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t he a ge o f t he M SA/LSA t ransition i n S outhern A frica S ite

D ate

( BP)

I ndustry

R eference

C APE P ROVINCE N BC N BC E BC B PA

1 8,100 1 8,660 2 0,180 2 1,070

+ 5 50 T•11 0 T 2 20 T 1 80

B PA B PA B UF B UF H IG B PA

2 1,110 2 1,220 2 2,575 2 2,800 3 0,840 3 2,400

T•19 5 7 4 2 7 70 . 1 8 7 50 T•48 0 T•70 0

T - 420

U W-175 G rN-5884 P ta-2298

L SA L SA L SA L SA

D eacon, J . D eacon, J . P arkington D eacon, J .

1 984b 1 984b 1 977 1 984b

U W-300 P ta-1810 U W-309 P ta-1807 P ta-537 U W-304

L SA L SA L SA ? L SA ? M SA M SA

D eacon, J . 1 984b D eacon, J . 1 984b O pperman 1 978 O pperman 1 978 D eacon, H . J . 1 976 D eacon, H . J . a nd B rooker 1 976

L 3-3135 L 3-3136 L 3-3137

L SA L SA L SA

B eaumont 1 981 B eaumont 1 981 B eaumont 1 981

P ta-966 L 3-3138

L SA L SA

D avies 1 975 B eaumont 1 981

P ta-101

L SA

B eaumont 1 981 S ee N ote 1

N ATAL/EASTERN T RANSVAAL H NK H NK H NK

1 9,840 + 2 70 2 0,500 71 1 3 00 2 1,100 T•30 0

S HO H NK

2 2,990 T -3 10 2 3,900 T•80 0

H NK

2 4,630

B RS

2 7,400 + 1 ,600 U CLA-1755B

M SA

P lug 1 981 S ee N ote 2

B RS

3 2,900 + 1 ,800 U CLA-1755C

M SA

P lug 1 981 S ee N ote 2

B C

3 3,000 + 2 ,000 L 3-2892

L SA

B eaumont e t a l. S ee N ote 3

B RS

3 4,375 + 4 ,300 U CLA-1755D

M SA

B C

3 5,700 + 1 ,100 P ta-424

L SA

P lug 1 981 S ee N ote 2 B eaumont e t a l. S ee N ote 3

B C

3 6,100 + 9 00

P ta-433

L SA

B C

3 6,800 + 1 ,000 P ta-422

L SA

B C

3 8,600 + 1 ,500 P ta-704

L SA

T - 300

2 5,640 + 2 20

G rN-5300

L SA

R CC

2 9,430 + 5 20

P ta-211

L SA

2 59

1 978

B eaumont S ee N ote B eaumont S ee N ote B eaumont S ee N ote

e t a l. 1 978 3 e t a l. 1 978 3 e t a l. 1 978 3

B eaumont S ee N ote B eaumont S ee N ote

1 978 4 1 978 4

O RANGE F REE S TATE R CC

1 978

T able 1 0:1 R adiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t he a ge o f t he M SA/LSA t ransition i n S outhern A frica ( continued)

S ite

D ate

( BP)

I ndustry

R eference

L ESOTHO S H M LK M LK S H S H S H S H S H M LK M LK H S

1 9,860 2 0,000 2 0,200 2 0,240 2 0,900 2 8,870 3 0,900 3 2,150 3 3,100 3 5,830 3 8,800

+ T T T T T T T T T T

2 20 1 70 1 50 2 30 2 70 5 20 5 50 7 70 6 00 9 20 2 ,200

P ta-918 P ta-1406 P ta-1407 P ta-919 P ta-789 P ta-920 P ta-787 P ta-785 P ta-1408 P ta-1331 P ta-741

M SA M SA M SA M SA M SA M SA M SA M SA M SA M SA M SA

C arter C arter C arter C arter C arter C arter C arter C arter C arter C arter C arter

a nd V ogel 1 978 1 978 a nd V ogel a nd V ogel a nd V ogel a nd V ogel a nd V ogel 1 978 1 978 a nd V ogel

1 974

V ogel a nd V isser 1 981 F reundlich e t a l. 1 980 F reundlich e t a l. 1 980 V ogel a nd V isser 1 981 F reundlich e t a l. 1 980 V ogel a nd V isser 1 981 V ogel a nd V isser 1 981 F reundlich e t a l. 1 980 F reundlich e t a l.

1 974 1 974 1 974 1 974 1 974

1 974

N AMIBIA A P A P

1 8,500 + 2 00 1 8,660 T 2 10

P ta-1039 K N2057

L SA L SA

P OC

1 9,320 + 3 20

K NI.625

L SA

P OC A P

1 9,700 + 2 20 1 9,760 T 1 75

P ta-1203 K NI.812

L SA L SA

N OS A P A P

2 2,100 + 2 20 2 6,300 71 7 4 00 2 6,700 T 6 50

P ta-1750 P ta-1040 K NI.813

L SA M SA M SA

A P

2 8,400 + 4 50

K N2056

M SA

P OC

2 9,900 + 1 ,600 K NI.627

L SA ?

P OC

3 1,200 + 4 50

K N2056

M SA

A P

3 2,700 + 8 60

K N2115

M SA

A P

3 3,370 + 5 50

K NI.869

M SA

P OC

3 3,500 + 7 50

K NI.628

M SA

A P

3 9,800 + 1 ,700 P ta-1041

M SA ?

1 980 F reundlich e t a l. 1 980 F reundlich e t a l. 1 980 F reundlich e t a l. 1 980 F reundlich e t a l. 1 980 F reundlich e t a l. 1 980 V ogel a nd V isser 1 981

S WAZILAND L C

2 2,250 + 4 00

Y -1829

M SA

S IB L C

2 2,850 + 2 60 2 8,130 T 2 60

G rN-5314 G rN-5020

M SA M SA

2 60

B eaumont a nd B oshier 1 972 P rice-Williams 1 981 B eaumont a nd B oshier 1 972

T able 1 0:1 R adiocarbon d ates r elevant t o t he a ge o f t he M SA/LSA t ransition i n S outhern A frica ( continued) N otes 1 . R easons a re a dvanced i n C hapter 5 :2 f or d isputing t he s uggestion t hat t he b ase o f t he L SA s equence a t H euningneskrans d ates t o a s e arly a s 3 2,000 B P ( pace B eaumont 1 981). D ates L J-3138 a nd P ta-101 a re s tratigraphically i nverted. 2 . R easons a re a dvanced i n C hapter 5 :4 f or s uggesting t hat t he d iscrepancy b etween t he c harcoal a nd b one d ates f rom B ushman R ock S helter ( see P lug 1 981) c an b e r esolved i f t he t hree U CLA d ates l isted a bove a re a ssigned t o t he M SA , w ith l ater d ates f rom t he s ame l ayers a ttributed t o p ost-depositional c ontamination . 3 . R easons a re a dvanced i n C hapter 5 :1 f or s uggesting t hat t he r adiocarbon d ates r eported f rom B order C ave ( Beaumont e t a l. 1 978) a re s o a nomalous i n t erms o f a ll t hose l isted i n t his T able t hat t hey s hould b e r egarded a s e rroneous). 4 . T he t wo d ates f or R ose C ottage C ave a re s tratigraphically i nverted. R easons a re a dvanced i n C hapter 3 :4 f or b elieving t hat t he a ssemblage a ssociated w ith t hese t wo d ates i s o f p ost-18,000 B P a ge ( pace B eaumont 1 978).

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2 . C hanges i n p roduction t echnology; d isappearance o f f aceted p latformed f lakes a nd o f p repared c ores.

3 . D isappearance o f r etouched p oints a nd f lake-blades, s uggesting t he u se i n t he E arly L ater S tone A ge o f ad ifferent k ind o f p rojectile w eapon.

A ssociated w ith t hese c hanges m ay g o c hanges i n t he r elative f requency w ith w hich d ifferent r aw m aterials w ere u sed a nd, p ossibly, o f f ormally r etouched a rtefacts w ithin a ssemblages.

I n a c onsideration o f t he r elation b etween t echnology a nd e nvironment, T orrence ( 1983) h as d rawn a ttention t o w hat s he h as t ermed " time-stressed" e nvironments, i .e. e cologically s pecialized z ones w hich h ave a l imited r ange o f r elatively m obile a nd u npredictable r esources. D iversity i ndices f or a n umber o f e nvironmental i ndicators, s uch a s c harcoals, p ollen a nd m icrofauna, d emonstrate t hat t he L ast G lacial M aximum w as a p eriod o f m arkedly r educed e cological d iversity a nd p roductivity i n S outh A frica c ompared w ith b oth t he I nter-Pleniglacial a nd t he H olocene ( Deacon, H . J . e t a l. 1 984). I n s uch a n e nvironment a cquisition o f s ubsistence r esources m ay b e a t a p remium. T he e fficient u se o f t ime w ill b e f avoured b y s uch b ehaviours a s t he s cheduling o f r esource e xploitation a nd b y i ncreasing t he s peed a nd e fficiency o f c ritical a ctivities s uch a s c apturing a nd p ursuing p rey ( Torrence 1 983).

T wo f urther s uggestions c an b e a dded t o t his m odel. R educing t he t ime i nvested i n r aw m aterial p rocurement b y e xpanding t he r ange o f m aterials t hat c ould b e e xploited o ught a lso t o h ave i ncreased t he t ime t hat c ould b e d evoted t o r esource p rocurement. D ecreasing t he t ime n eeded f or a rtefact m aintenance a nd m anufacture s hould h ave l ed t o t he s ame r esult, a nd i t m ay b e n oted t hat e thnographic e vidence ( e.g. S ilberbauer 1 981b:482) s uggests t hat s uch a ctivities c an b e p articularly t ime-consuming a mong m odern h unter-gatherers. E xperimental w ork b y F rison ( 1978) w ith s tone p oints s hows t hat f ew s urvive a s ingle m iss a nd f ew e ven a s ingle i mpact o n b one, w hile o nly s eldom c an t hey b e r e-used m any t imes e ven w hen h itting s ofter t issues. I n s o f ar a s t his i s l ikely t o h ave b een t rue o f M SA s tone-tipped s pears, i t r einforces t he a dvantages a m icrolithic t echnology m ay h ave o ffered i n c utting d own o n m anufacture a nd r epair c osts .

H ow d oes t he a doption o f am icrolithic t echnology a ppear s een i n t he c ontext o f s uch a m odel ? C larke ( 1976 :13) h as i dentified f our p rincipal a dvantages w hich s uch a t echnology p ossesses o ver a n on-microlithic o ne. I n t he f irst p lace, i t a llows t he m aximum l ength o f c utting e dge a nd t he m aximum n umber o f u tilisable p ieces t o b e e xtracted f rom a g iven v olume o f s tone. L eroi-Gourhan ( 1943 ) s uggests t hat t his r epresents a 1 000 % i ncrease i n e fficiency o ver

2 62

a n U pper P alaeolithic B ordaz 1 970).

( cf. M SA )

b lade-based t echnology ( see a lso

S econdly, a m icrolithic t echnology p ermits r egular e xploitation o f s mall, n odular p ebbles f or t he m anufacture o f e ven l arge a rtefacts v ia t he d evelopment o f m ore c omplicated c omposite t ools. R elated t o t his i s t he f urther a dvantage o f a llowing m ore e ffective e xploitation o f s mall s ources o f e xtremely h ard a nd/or s harp s tone s uch a s a gate a nd c halcedony. O ne c onsequence o f t hese f actors m ay h ave b een t o f acilitate t he e xploitation o f t erritories l acking, o r p oor i n, a lternative r aw m aterials. W here s mall, n odular m aterials a re m ore w idely d istributed t han t hose w hich o ccur i n l arger-sized p ieces, t hen t heir i ncreased e xploitation c ould h ave r educed t he t ime r equired f or l ithic r esource p rocurement. L esotho c ould b e o ne i nstance o f t his s ince h ornfels o ccurs i n s pecific d yke o utcrops, w hereas c rypto-crystalline s ilica m aterials a re m ore w idely d istributed i n e roded f orm i n r ivers a nd s treams.

F inally, w hile t he N SA t ool-kit a lmost c ertainly i ncluded c omposite a rtefacts s uch a s w ooden-hafted, s tone-tipped s pears ( Inskeep 1 978:58), i t b ecame p ossible w ith a m icrolithic t echnology t o c onstruct " composite t ools i n t erms o f s mall, r apidly r eplaceable a nd i nterchangeable, s tandardized a nd m ass-produced u nits , m anufactured i n a dvance a nd k ept i n r eadiness f or i nevitable w ear-and-tear a p ull-out a nd p lug-in c onstruction" ( Clarke 1 976:13). R eferring t o E uropean e xamples, C larke f urther p oints o ut t hat w hile " a b roken S olutrean s pearhead o r a s plintered M agdalenian h arpoon r equired a c omplete, s pecially d esigned r eplacement ( in) m ost c omposite t ools t he b reakage w ould b e l ocalized t o o ne o r t wo e lements" a lone ( Clarke o p. c it.).

C oncentrations o f b ladelets f ound i n R obberg I ndustry l evels a t t he s ite o f B oomplaas, s uggesting t hat t hey m ay h ave b een k ept i n s ome k ind o f c ontainer ( Deacon , H . J . 1 983:192), p ossibly f or t ransport f rom p lace t o p lace, w ould b e c onsistent w ith t his a spect o f C larke 's h ypothesis , a s w ould t he v ery l arge n umbers o f b ladelets c haracteristic o f R obberg a ssemblages a s aw hole - t hese c ould h ave b een m ade i n p reparation f or f uture u se a nd f itted e ither a t r esidential s ites o r a t o ther , t ask-specific l oci, s uch a s h unting s tations. R estriction o f t heir m anufacture t o o nly s ome s ites h as t he i mportant i mplication o f r endering i t d ifficult t o i dentify o ther c omponents o f t he R obberg s ettlement s ystem s ince e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages l acking l arge n umbers o f b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores c ould b e i ndistinguishable f rom o ther L SA o ccurrences .

A s i s c lear f rom t heir s mall s ize ( length u nder 2 5 m m a nd w idth o f l ess t han 1 0 m m ), t he b ladelets c haracteristic o f e arly m icrolithic L SA a ssemblages m ust h ave b een h afted, a lthough d irect e vidence s uch a s t races o f m astic o r p olish ( Keeley 1 982) h as n ot y et b een f ound. T he a bsence o f b one h afts f rom t he a ssemblages e xcavated s o f ar i s u nlikely t o b e d ue t o p roblems o f p reservation s ince b oth f aunal r emains a nd o ther b one a rtefacts h ave b een

2 63

f ound. I t s hould t herefore b e a scribed t o t he u se o f w ooden h afts a nd/or t o e xtensive c uration, w ith l oss t ending t o o ccur a way f rom t he p resumably r esidential c ave s ites ( cf. B inford 1 976 ). T he a dvantages o ffered b y h afting m ay h ave i ncluded t he f ormation o f c utting e dges o f a s ize a nd s hape o therwise u nobtainable a nd a n i ncrease i n t he f orce t hat c ould b e e xerted d uring w ork ( Keeley 1 982). A n e xample o f t his w ould b e t he h afting o f s everal b ladelets i n s equence t o f orm t he c utting e dge o f a k nife. M icrowear s tudies o f b ladelets f rom H olocene l evels a t B oomplaas s how t hat s ome a t l east w ere u sed i n t his w ay t o c ut w ood ( Binneman 1 982:266).

N o a rtefacts a re k nown f rom l ate P leistocene a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica t hat c an u nequivocally b e a ccepted a s a rrowheads, a nd e ven s mall " terminal M SA " p oints o f t he k ind r eported b y P rice-Williams ( 1981) f rom S ibebe S helter , S waziland, c ould h ave b een u sed a s s pear-points , r ather t han a s a rrowheads, a s i s i ndicated b y t he s mall s ize o f s ome A ustralian K imberley p oints r eported b y M ulvaney ( 1975). I nstead, i t h as b een s hown i n C hapter 8 t hat u se o f ab arbed s pear w ould g o s ome w ay t owards a ccounting f or t he l arge n umber o f b ladelets p resent i n e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages. A s t he e thnographic e vidence r eviewed i n C hapter 8 d emonstrates , s uch a w eapon c ould h ave i ncreased b oth t he d epth o f aw ound a nd t he l oss o f b lood f rom i t, w hile t he b arbs c ould h ave h elped t o h old t he s pear i n t he a nimal a nd t hus i mpede i ts e scape ( Flood 1 983:189-90; H ayden 1 979 :82). I f p oison w ere a lso u sed, t hen h olding t he s pear i n t he a nimal w ill h ave f acilitated i ts e ntry a nd s pread t hrough t he c irculatory s ystem ( Clark 1 959:171-72). M SA s tone-tipped p oints , e ven w hen b asally t hinned, a re l ikely t o h ave b een o f r educed p enetrating p ower , t aking i nto a ccount t he p resence o f m astic a nd l ashing, t han a s tone-inset o r b arbed p oint ( cf. G uthrie 1 983:289-90). T his c ould h ave b een a f urther f actor f avouring a c hange i n p rojectile w eapons a nd t hus t he s hift t o am icrolithic t echnology.

T he h ypothesis p ut f orward h as, t herefore , t wo c omponents . F irstly, a m icrolithic t echnology i s a dvantageous i n e xploiting s mall, n odular m aterials m ore e ffectively, i n m aximizing t he e fficiency w ith w hich a g iven v olume o f s tone c an b e e xploited a nd i n e ncouraging t he m anufacture o f c omposite a rtefacts w hich c an i ncrease t he f orce a vailable d uring w ork, g ive g reater f lexibility t o t he l ength a nd s hape o f t he c utting e dge a nd a re m uch e asier t o r epair. T he n et e ffect o f s uch a dvantages w ill h ave b een t o r educe t he t ime r equired f or r aw m aterial p rocurement a nd a rtefact m anufacture a nd m aintenance a nd t hus t o i ncrease t he t ime t hat c ould b e d evoted t o s ubsistence a ctivities. T his, c oupled w ith t he i ncreased e ffectiveness o f b arbed w eapons f or k illing a t c lose q uarters, i s a rgued t o h ave b een s electively u seful i n t he c ontext o f a t ime-stressed e nvironment s uch a s t hat o f t he L ast G lacial M aximum. I n t erms o f t he e ffectiveness o f t he o verall l ithic t echnology, t hese t wo d evelopments w ould , f ollowing W hite ( 1959 ), r epresent a n i ncrease i n b oth e conomy, i .e. t he n umber o f u nits o f e nergy e xpended i n t ool p roduction, a nd e fficiency , i .e. t he r ate o f a ppropriation o f e nergy f rom f ood r esources.

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T he B oomplaas s equence, w hich i s t he b est-studied a nd m ost-detailed a vailable, s hows t hat a n L SA t echnology w as i n u se p rior t o t he o ccurrence o f a ssemblages w hich h ave b een g rouped t ogether a s t he R obberg I ndustry ( Deacon , H . J . 1 979; C hapter 4 a bove). I t i s t empting t o s uggest , i n t he v irtual a bsence o f b oth u tilised a nd f ormally r etouched a rtefacts f rom t he a ssemblages i n M embers L P, L PC a nd Y OL, t hat h afted m icrolithic c omposite t ools w ere a lready b eing p roduced a nd t hat t he g radual i ncrease i n t he f requency o f b ladelets, a nd, i n t he R obberg i tself, t he a ppearance o f s pecial c ore-types ( small a nd f lat b ladelet c ores ), c an b e r elated t o a s hift f rom t he u se a s m icrolithic i nserts o f u nsystematically p roduced p ieces o f q uartz t o t hat o f s tandardized, m ass-produced b ladelets . I n t erms o f t he h ypothesis a dvanced h ere t his w ould r epresent t he d evelopment o f a f urther e conomizing b ehaviour, s till w ithin t he c ontext o f a t ime-stressed U pper P leniglacial e nvironment.

O f t he t hree p rincipal d ifferences b etween M SA a nd L SA l ithic t echnologies o utlined a t t he b eginning o f t his s ection, m icrolithization h as b een e xplained i n t erms o f e conomizing b ehaviours i n t he l ength o f t ime r equired f or r aw m aterial p rocurement a nd a rtefact m anufacture a nd r epair. T he d isappearance o f r etouched f lake-blades a nd p oints h as b een e xplained b y s uggesting t hat s tone-tipped, w ooden-hafted s pears w ere r eplaced a s p rojectile w eapons b y m ulti-barbed s pears , w ith s ystematically a nd m ass-produced b ladelets l ater r eplacing u nretouched c hips a nd f lakes a s t he s ource o f t hese b arbs. T he t hird c hange, i .e. t he d isappearance o f p repared c ores a nd o f f lakes w ith f aceted p latforms, m ay b e i nterpreted a s t he c onsequence o f t hese o ther t wo d evelopments , s ince t hese t wo t echniques s eem t o h ave b een u sed t o t ry a nd c ontrol t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he f lakes s o p roduced ( Inskeep 1 978:54).

I t m ay b e u seful t o c ompare d ata f rom t wo o ther r egions o f t he w orld w ith t his m odel. F irstly, b oth t he D yuktai C ulture o f N orth-Eastern S iberia a nd t he A merican P aleo-Arctic T radition a re c haracterized i nter a lia b y w edge-shaped m icroblade c ores a nd a ccompanying m icroblades ( Morlan a nd C ing-Mars 1 982:373), t he l atter p roduced f or t he p urpose o f a rming s lotted a ntler o r b one p oints ( Anderson 1 968). A r ecent r eview o f e arlier f indings b y Y i a nd C lark ( 1985:18) s uggests t hat t hese i ndustries m ay d ate b ack t o 1 8 - 1 5,000 B P a nd c ould h ave d eveloped w ithin a t undra-steppe b iome. P alaeoecological d ata c an b e t aken t o i ndicate t hat r esources m ay a lso h ave b een d ifficult t o e xploit i n s uch a n a rea a nd t hat t he e nvironment w ould h ave b een " time-stressed" i n T orrence 's ( 1983) u se o f t he t erm. W ithout f alling i nto t he t rap o f e xcessive e nvironmental d eterminism, i n b oth B eringia a nd i n S outh A frica s imilar s elective p ressures i n t he d irection o f t ime-economizing b ehaviours a nd i mproved h unting t echnology m ay h ave h elped t o p roduce s imilar l ithic t echnologies.

A lso o f i nterest i s M arks' ( 1983) d iscussion o f t he M iddle U pper P alaeolithic t ransition i n t he L evant, w here i ncreasing a ridity i s h ypothesized t o h ave n ecessitated i ncreased g roup m obility, a nd l ess c ontinuous o r r epeated u se o f t he s ame a rea.

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S uch " increased m obility, w ith l ess a nd l ess s ecurity a s t o t he p redictability o f a vailable f lint s ources n ear a ny o ne s ite p robably w as m et w ith a dditional ' economizing b ehaviour " ( Marks 1 983:92). T he n et r esult o f s uch c hanges a s i ncreased p roduction o f e longated b lanks a nd a s hift t owards a s pecialized o pposed p latform r eduction s trategy w as t o r educe c ores u sing o nly a s ingle p latform, b ut w ith c areful s election o f r aw m aterial s o t hat t hey w ere " preformed" t o p roduce t he e longated b lanks ( blades) t ypical o f t he U pper P alaeolithic. I n t his c ase i t i s t he t ime r equired f or r aw m aterial p rocurement a lone w hich i s b eing m inimized, b ut t he p rinciple i s t he s ame a nd s uggests t hat o ther t echnological t ransitions c ould p rofitably b e i nvestigated a long t he l ines d eveloped b y T orrence .

T hree i mplications o f t his m odel s hould b e m entioned a s e ach c arries t est i mplications f or t he a rchaeological r ecord. T he f irst o f t hese i s t hat a t rend t owards i ncreasing m icrolithization m ay b e d iscernible f or s ome t ime b efore a d efinitely L SA t radition i s a pparent. T his i s b ecause S outh A frican e nvironments c an b e e xpected t o h ave b ecome i ncreasingly t ime-stressed o ver a p eriod o f s everal m illenia p rior t o t he L ast G lacial M aximum a s a r esult o f g lobally d eteriorating c limatic c onditions. T he p rogressive d iminution o f b lade s ize w hich c an b e d emonstrated t o h ave o ccurred i n t he M SA s equence a t S ehonghong o ver a n e xtended p eriod b efore 2 0,000 B P ( Mitchell a nd C arter i n p ress ) p rovides p reliminary s upport f or s uch a n i dea .

S econdly , t he t ransition t o a m icrolithic t echnology m ay h ave f irst o ccurred i n t hose p arts o f S outh A frica w here e nvironmental c onditions w ere m ost t ime-stressed a nd e conomizing b ehaviours t he m ost a dvantageous. I t m ust b e r emembered t hat c onditions a t 1 8,000 B P m ay h ave d iffered q uite r adically f rom t hose p revailing a t 2 5,000 B P ( Deacon, J . e t a l. 1 984), b ut i t i s n evertheless t empting t o s uggest t hat s uch a reas m ay h ave b een t hose w hich s ubsequently p rovide l east e vidence f or h uman o ccupation d uring t he L ast G lacial M aximum. I n o ther w ords, a m icrolithic t echnology m ay f irst h ave d eveloped o n t he i nterior p lateau a nd o nly l ater h ave s pread t o t he s urrounding C ape F old M ountain B elt/Drakensberg r egion.

L astly , w here e nvironmental c onditions a re b ecoming i ncreasingly h arsh o ver a w ide a rea, i nnovations w hich r epresent e conomizing b ehaviours t hat c an i ncrease t he t ime a vail a ble f or, a nd t he e fficiency o f, f ood p rocurement m ay b e r eadily d iffused a nd a dopted. T he t ransition f rom M SA t o L SA t echnologies i f, a s s uggested h ere, i t c onferred d efinite a dvantages o n t he m akers o f t he l atter , m ay h ave b een r estricted t o a r elatively b rief p eriod o ver t he w hole o f S outh A frica a nd t hus n ot h ave b een m arkedly r egionally t ime-transgressive. T he d ating e vidence d iscussed a bove w ould s uggest t hat t his m ay i ndeed b e c orrect , w ith t he p eriod i n q uestion f alling a round t he o nset o f t he c older , d rier c onditions w hich w ere a t t heir m ost s evere c . 1 8,000 B P.

O f

p revious

c onsiderations

o f

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t he a doption o f am icrolithic

t echnology i n S outhern A frica, o nly P hillipson ( 1976 ; 1 979 ; 1 984) h as d eveloped a m odel w hich v iews t his p rocess w ithin a n e cological f ramework. H e h as a rgued t hat t he a dvent o f aL SA s tone-tool t radition i s c orrelated w ith a s hift f rom l arge, g regarious p rey t owards t he h unting o f s maller g ame. T he r ationale f or t his i s t hat t he b ow a nd m icrolith-tipped a rrow w ere a dopted a s m ore e ffective h unting w eapons i n t he m ore d ensely v egetated e nvironment w hich d eveloped i n t he w armer a nd w etter c onditions o f t he L ate G lacial.

W hatever t he m erits o f t his h ypothesis i n t he Z ambian c ase, i t i s c learly i nsufficient w hen a pplied t o t he S outh A frican d ata. H ere t he f aunal r ecord d emonstrates q uite c learly t hat e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages s uch a s t hose a t B oomplaas a nd N elson B ay C ave a re a ssociated w ith f aunas d ominated b y e quids a nd b y a lcelaphines a nd o ther l arge b ovids ( Klein 1 978a; 1 978b). F urthermore, P hillipson 's h ypothesis d eals o nly w ith t he a doption o f b acked b ladelets n ot w ith t hat o f am icrolithic t echnology p er s e. I t i s c haracteristic o f S outh A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages ( Deacon, J . 1 984a ) t hat n ot o nly a re b acked a nd r etouched m icroliths a lmost c ompletely a bsent, b ut a lso t hat t hey e xtend b ack i nto t he U pper P leniglacial a nd a re n ot r estricted t o t he L ate G lacial. B acking w ould s eem r ather t o b e o nly o ne l ithic r eduction s trategy a nd t he e vidence i s l acking t hat i t o ffers a m ore s ecure f orm o f h afting. A n h ypothesis w hich d eals o nly w ith t his a spect o f L SA t echnology o ught n ot t o b e g eneralized t o a ccount f or t he m ore f undamental c hange f rom a m acrolithic t o a m icrolithic t radition . I nstead, t he a rguments d eveloped h ere f rom t he s uggestions m ade i nitially b y T orrence ( 1983) a re f elt t o h ave g reater e xplanatory s cope a s t hey f ocus o n b roader t echnological t raits w hich a re a menable t o f urther i nvestigation n ot o nly b y c onventional a rchaeological r esearch b ut a lso b y e xperimental w ork .

1 0:6 F urther A spects o f t he M SA/LSA T ransition

W hile i t h as b een c orrectly a nd r ecently s tated t hat t he p rincipal f actor i n t he c hange f rom M SA t o L SA t echnologies w as " the t echnique o f s tone t ool m anufacture a s e vident i n t he r ange o f c ore t ypes a nd t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he f lakes ," ( Deacon , J . 1 984a:221), i t i s a lso t he c ase t hat i t i s w ith t he o nset o f t he L SA t hat o ther f eatures s howing c lear c ontinuities i nto t he e thnographic p resent ( e.g. f ormal b urial, p ersonal o rnament a nd r ock a rt ) h ave l ong b een s trongly a ssociated. I t i s t he a im o f t his s ection t o r eview t he e vidence f or t he a ntiquity o f s uch i deational b ehaviour p atterns a nd t o s uggest l inks b etween t hese d evelopments a nd t he l ithological t ransition d iscussed a bove.

O ne o f t he c rucial q uestions c oncerning t he e volution o f t hese i deational a spects o f h uman b ehaviour i s , w ith w hat k ind o f h ominid a re w e d ealing, a natomically m odern h umans o r am ore

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a rchaic f orm n ot, p erhaps, p ossessed o f t he s ame r ange o f i ntellectual a bilities ?U pper P leistocene h uman r emains a re n ot c ommon i n S outh A frica a nd, e xcept f or i solated t eeth f rom D ie K elders ( Schweitzer 1 979 ), o ccur o nly a t B order C ave a nd, m ore c ertainly, a t K lasies R iver M outh . B roken c ranial m aterial a ssociated w ith t he M SA I a nd I I a ssemblages a t K lasies , s ome o f w hich d ates t o a s o ld a s c . 1 00,000 B P ( Deacon , H . J . 1 987 ), h as b een r eferred t o H omo s apiens s apiens, a nd i s c ertainly l ess a rchaic t han t he F lorisbad s kull. F rom B order C ave c ome t he c ranial a nd m andibular r emains o f t hree a dults a s w ell a s a n a lmost c omplete i nfant s keleton . A ssociated a rtefacts a nd s tratigraphic o bservations s uggest t hat t he i nfant a nd o ne o f t he a dults p robably d ate t o c . 1 05 - 9 0,000 B P, w hile n itrogen a nd a spartic a cid t ests f or t he r emains o f t he o ther t wo a dults, a s w ell a s a nalysis o f s oil a ttached t o t he c rania , s uggest a d ate f or t hese i ndividuals o f c . 1 10,000 B P ( Beaumont e t a l. 1 978:414). A ll s pecimens a re o f a natomically m odern H omo s apieng 7de V illiers 1 973) a nd m ay b e c losely r elated t o m odern K hoisan g roups ( Rightmire 1 979 ), b ut t he f act t hat n one c omes f rom a c ontrolled e xcavation m ust l eave a q uestion m ark o ver t heir e xact a ge.

I t s eems l ikely , h owever , t hat a natomically m odern h umans h ave i nhabited S outhern A frica f or a t l east t he l ast 1 00,000 y ears , t hat t hey w ere t he m akers o f a t l east s ome M SA a rtefacts a nd t hat t hey m ay h ave b een a ncestral t o l ater K hoisan p opulations . C ertainly t here i s n o e vidence f or a ny a brupt d emographic c hange i n t he c ourse o f t he U pper P leistocene o f t he t ype p ostulated a round t he M iddle - U pper P alaeolithic t ransition i n E urope t o a ccount f or t he r eplacement o f H . s apiens n eanderthalensis b y H . s apiens s apiens ( cf. M ellars 1 577 ). - I nstead, t he p hysical a nthropological d ata a re i n c oncord w ith r ecent m olecular b iological s tudies o f m itochndrial a nd n uclear D NA i n m odern h uman p opulations ( Johnson e t a l. 1 983; W ainscoat e t a l. 1 986 ). T hese s how t hat A frican p opulations a re t he m ost d iverse a mong m odern h umans a nd t hat t he S an i n p articular h ave l ong b een s eparated f rom o ther g roups, t hereby a ttesting t o a h igh a ntiquity f or m odern m an i n S outhern A frica.

W hile H . J . D eacon ( 1972) h as s uggested t hat t he p resence o f a natomically m odern m an a t s uch a n e arly t ime-depth d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply t he e xistence o f m odern b ehaviour p atterns , i t a t l east l ends c redibility t o t he v iew t hat t hese h ominids h ad m odern i ntellectual a bilities, e ven i f t hese m ay h ave b een e xternalized i n d ifferent w ays. G owlett ( 1984), i n p articular, h as e mphasized t he i mportance o f n ot u nderestimating t he m ental c apacities o f e arly m an.

A rchaeologically t his m ay b e d ocumented, f or e xample, b y t he b urial o f t he i nfant k nown a s B order C ave h ominid 3 i n a ssociation w ith a C onus s hell a nd t races o f o chre ( Beaumont 1 978). S uch a b ehaviour m ust h ave i mportant, t hough a s y et i ll-defined, i mplications f or t he c omplexity o f t he b elief-systems o f t he s ociety i nvolved. I t r emains , h owever , t he o nly b urial d efinitely a ttributable s o f ar t o t he S outh A frican M iddle S tone A ge, a lthough o thers, p erhaps i ncluding t hose f rom w hich t he r emains a t

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K lasies R iver M outh m ight d erive, m ay h ave b een d estroyed b y c arnivore a ctivity ( Deacon, H . J . p ers. c omm.). E qually t antalizing i s t he o ccurrence, n ot o nly a t B order C ave b ut a lso a t A pollo 1 1 C ave a nd K lasies R iver M outh, o f n otched b one f ragments , w hich m ay r elate t o s ome f orm o f c alendrical r ecord-keeping ( Marshack i n B eaumont 1 978) a nd t hus a lso a ttest t o t he d evelopment b y t he e arly U pper P leistocene o f c onsiderable s ymbolizing c apacities.

O chre i s q uite w idely k nown f rom M SA c ontexts , o ccurring, f or e xample, f rom B oomplaas t o S ehonghong t o B order C ave. T he s cale w ith w hich i t w as u sed c an b e g auged f rom t he e xtensive a dit m ine a ssociated w ith M SA a rtefacts a t L ion C avern i n S waziland ( Beaumont a nd B ashier 1 972), w hich, a s h as a lready b een r emarked u pon, d ates b ack t o a t l east a s e arly a s 4 8,000 B P. O chre m ay h ave b een u sed i n p owdered f orm f or b ody d ecoration a nd/or o n s kins , p erhaps p artly t o h elp p reserve t hem f rom b acterial d ecay ( Keeley 1 980:170-71), o r o n o ther o rganic a rtefacts. T here i s, h owever , n o e vidence t hat p arietal a rt w as p roduced b y M SA p eoples, a lthough p ainted s labs h ave b een r ecovered f rom a n u ndoubtedly M SA a ssemblage i n L ayer E a t A pollo 1 1 C ave ( Wendt 1 976 ) which d ates t o c . 2 8,400 - 2 6 ,700 B P ( Freundlich e t a l. 1 980). T his i ndicates t hat t he e xecution o f r epresentational a rt w as n ot r estricted t o t he m akers o f L SA a rtefacts.

T he f inal o b jects b earing e vidence o f i deational b ehaviour w hich r equire m ention c onsist o f t he s parse d ata f or t he o ccurrence o f p ersonal o rnament. I n a ddition t o t he p erforated C onus s hell f rom B order C ave, t here a re o nly s ome m arine s hell f ragments f rom M SA h orizons d ating t o o lder t han 4 5,000 B P a t A pollo 1 1 C ave ( Wendt 1 972:22), w hich, g iven t he s ite 's d istance o f m ore t han 1 00 k m f rom t he s ea , s uggest a p ossible u se a s o rnaments r ather t han a s f ood. R are b eads, s ome o f o strich e ggshell, h ave a lso b een r eported f rom d efinitely M SA c ontexts a t B ushman R ock S helter ( Louw 1 969; P lug 1 982) a nd C ave o f H earths ( Mason 1 962:236 ), b ut, l ike e xamples k nown f rom M ember O LP a t B oomplaas ( H. J . D eacon p ers. c omm.), m ight d erive f rom l ater , L SA d eposits.

W e m ay c onclude t hat, a lthough t he d evelopment o f f ormal b urial a nd r epresentational a rt d oes n ot n ecessarily c oincide w ith t he s witch f rom M SA t o L SA l ithic t echnologies a t c . 2 5,000 B P, a part f rom t he p resumed u se o f o chre , i nferred m ost c ompellingly f rom L ion C avern, e vidence f or p ersonal o rnament i s e xtremely s carce c ompared w ith t he p rolific f requencies w ith w hich b one a nd o strich e ggshell b eads b egin t o o ccur i n L SA c ontexts.

I t h as a lready b een s hown ( Chapter 2 a nd t his c hapter ) t hat t he e nvironmental c ontext w ithin w hich t he M SA/Early L SA t ransition o ccurred w as o ne o f f alling t emperatures , i ntensifying a ridity a nd a n o verall r eduction i n e cological p roductivity i n m any p arts o f S outh A frica, a nd t hat t he t echnological c hanges w hich m ark i t, i .e. m icrolithization a nd t he a ppearance o f n ew p rojectile w eapons, m ay h ave h ad t heir d evelopment a nd a doption f acilitated

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b y t he i ncreasingly t ime-stressed n ature o f t his e nvironment. G amble, i n a s eries o f p apers d ealing w ith t he U pper P alaeolithic o f E urope ( 1980; 1 982; 1 984), h as d iscussed t he d evelopment o f p ortable a rt, s uch a s t he w ell-known V enus f igurines , i n a c omparably d eteriorating e vironmental s etting. H e h as d rawn a ttention t o t he i mportance o f s ocial a lliance n etworks a mong h unter-gatherers, n ot o nly i n t he a cquisition o f m arriage p artners ( a t opic c onsidered b y W obst 1 974), b ut a lso i n t he e xchange o f i nformation r egarding t he d istribution o f s ubsistence r esources a nd i n t he s trengthening o f t ies b etween i ndividuals a nd g roups w hich m ay p ermit o r f acilitate s hared a ccess t o r esources i n t imes o f s carcity . T he h xaro s ystem o f t he ! Kung S an i s a n e xample o f e xchange r elationships t hat w ould p artly f it t his p attern ( Weissner 1 977), a nd G ould ( 1980) h as m ade s imilar o bservations a mong t he W estern D esert A borigines o f A ustralia .

G amble ( 1982:103 ) m akes t he p oint t hat o pen s ocial n etworks h ave p robably a lways b een a f eature o f p oor e nvironments , b ut t hat t he e l a boration o f m aterial c ulture s een i n t he E uropean U pper P alaeolithic o ccurred a s p art o f t his s ystem o f i nformation e xchange a nd a lliances a nd t hat i t m ay h ave c onferred b enefits f or t he l ong-term s urvival o f h unter-gatherers i n a reas t hat w ould o therwise h ave b een t oo m arginal f or h uman s ettlement . T he c ontinuance o f t hese a lliance n etworks w ill h ave d epended, h e a rgues, o n t he e ase w ith w hich e ncounters b etween d ifferent g roups c ould b e h andled a nd h e s uggests ( 1982:99 ) t hat " visual c ommunication m ay b e s ufficient t o s anction a nd d irect b ehaviour a t m oments o f c ontact," t hereby m inimizing t he l ikelihood t hat m essages, v erbal o r o therwise, w ould b e m isunderstood.

T he e xpansion o f p ersonal o rnament i n t he E arly L SA a nd l ater i mplies t he d evelopment o f n ew f orms o f v isual d isplay t hat m ay h ave b een c haracterized b y p articular t ypes o f d ress a nd o rnamentation, i ncluding t he d ecoration o f u tilitarian o b jects s uch a s o strich e ggshell w ater c ontainers ( e.g. D eacon , J . 1 984b:171). S uch v isual d isplay i tems m ight h ave e ncoded i nformation i dentifying p articular g roups o r d etailing t he g roup a ffiliation o f i ndividuals a nd c ould t hus h ave s erved i n t he w ay G amble s uggests. T heir e xchange a mong i ndividuals c ould a lso h ave f ormed a nd s trengthened s ocial t ies w hich c ould h ave b een c apitalized o n i n a dverse c onditions.

I f t his v iew o f t hese a rtefacts i s c orrect, t hen t heir o ccurrence i n t he E arly L SA c an b e s een a s t he d evelopment o f a f urther m echanism f or c oping w ith t he i ncreased m arginality o f U pper P leniglacial e nvironments. T he d iscovery o f a rt m obilier a t A pollo 1 1 C ave a lso s uggests t he p ossibility o f a p enecontemporaneous o rigin f or t he a dvent o f m ural a rt, t he s ignificance o f w hich i n S an s ociety h as b een i llustrated b y V innicambe ( 1976 ) a nd b y L ewisValliams ( 1981; 1 982; 1 983), p articularly i n t he m ediation a nd r esolution o f s ocial t ensions. W ithout s eeking t o i mply t hat a ll S outhern A frican r ock a rt p ossessed t he s ame s ignificance, r egardless o f t he t ime a nd p lace o f i ts e xecution, s uch o bservations s uggest t he i mportance o f c onsidering t he p ossible s ocial r amifications o f t he o rigins o f

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p ainting

( e.g.

L ewis-Williams 1 985).

T he o penness o f s ocial n etworks i n t he E arly L SA m ay a lso b e a ttested b y t he w idespread d istribution o f p articular t echno-complexes, o f w hich t he b ladelet-dominated e arly m icrolithic, o r R obberg, t echnocomplex i s, f or e xample, m uch t he s ame f rom t he E astern T ransvaal t hrough N atal a nd L esotho t o t he S outhern a nd S outh-Western C ape. T he m ost o bvious v ariations a re i n t he d ifferential u se o f r aw m aterials a nd t he i mpact w hich t his h as h ad o n t he d etails o f m anufacture ( the p articular c ore-types p roduced; s ee C hapter 6 ). O ne e ffect o f s uch o pen n etworks m ay h ave b een t o f acilitate t he s pread o f t echnological i nnovations a nd t hus t he o verall r ate a t w hich t he t ransition b etween M SA a nd L SA l ithic t echnologies o ccurred. T he r eview o f t he c hronological e vidence a t t he b eginning o f t his s ection h as a lready s uggested t hat t his m ay h ave b een l imited t o a f airly b rief p eriod a round c . 2 5,000 B P.

T he q uestion m ay b e a sked, d o t hese h ypothesized n etworks o f a lliance a nd i nformation e xchange e quate w ith e thnic u nits ? R eview o f t he r elevant l iterature i ndicates t hat t he i dentification o f e thnic u nits f rom m aterial c ulture i s a c omplicated m atter a nd t hat i t i s o ne c losely t ied t o t he r elated i ssue o f d istinguishing " function" a nd " style" ( e.g. S ackett 1 977 ; D unnell 1 978; H odder 1 982; W eissner 1 983). W hile S ackett ( 1977:370) h as u sefully p ointed o ut t hat s tyle a nd f unction t ogether e xhaust a ll p ossible m orphological v ariation i n a rtefact d esign a nd t hat a ny o b ject h as b oth s tylistic a nd f unctional a spects t o i t, a n i mportant d ifference c an n evertheless b e d rawn b etween t wo a spects o f s tyle ( Sackett 1 982). T he f irst a nd m ore g eneral o f t hese i s e xpressed b y t he f ormula t hat s tyle i s a p articular w ay o f d oing s omething c haracteristic o f a p articular t ime a nd o f a p articular p lace. I n t his s ense, f or e xample, t he m anufacture o f b ladelets f rom s mall b ladelet c ores c ould b e c onsidered d istinctive, i n t he S outhern C ape, o f a ssemblages d ating t o c . 1 8,000 t o c . 1 2,000 B P. W hile t his i s i n s ome s ense d emarcating a n a rea w ithin w hich i nteraction w as c learly t aking p lace, i t m ore n early c orresponds t o B inford's i dea o f a n a daptive a rea, i .e. " one w hich e xhibits t he c ommon o ccurrence o f a rtefacts u sed p rimarily i n c oping w ith d iversity i n t he p hysical e nvironment" ( Binford 1 965 :208-09), t han t o t he e xpression o f t he i dentity o f s elf-conscious g roups . T he a daptive a rea, o r i nteraction s phere, i s, i n t urn, t he s patial e xpression o f w hat C larke ( 1968:330) h as t ermed a t echnocomplex.

T he m ore s pecific m eaning w hich S ackett a ttaches t o s tyle d evelops f r o m t he d eliberate i nvestment o f e ffort i n a rtefact p roduction b y s ocially c onscious g roups i n o rder t o d enote a nd d isplay t heir e xistence. H e t erms t his " lithic-sociological," ( Sackett 1 982:82). A n e xample w ould b e t he d istinction t hat i s v isible b etween t he a rrows p roduced b y s peakers o f t he ! Kung, G /wi a nd ! Xo l anguages a mong t he K alahari S an ( Weissner 1 983). O nly i n r are c ases, h owever , d oes i t s eem l ikely t hat l ithic a rtefacts w ill b e s uitable f or t he c reation o f t his k ind o f s tyle. T his i s p artly b ecause t he r ange o f s pecific s tyle-denoting v ariables

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w hich c an b e i ncorporated i nto a l ithic a rtefact w ithout h indering i ts f unctional v alue i s o ften m ore l imited t han i s t he c ase w ith a rtefacts m ade i n m ore p lastic m edia , e .g. p ottery . T he o ther r eason m ay b e t he c ontext w ithin w hich l ithics a re u sed. M any a rtefacts w ill b e m ade v ery e xpediently a nd e mployed w ithin a l imited s ocial c ontext. O nly a f ew , p rojectile p oints f or e xample, a re l ikely t o b e u sed i n s ettings w here i ndividuals f rom d ifferent g roups a re p resent a nd t hus i t i s o nly t hese w hich m ay b e d eliberately i nvested w ith s ymbolic s ignificance. E ven h ere i t m ay b e t he n on-lithic p arts o f t he a rtefacts w hich o ffer g reater o pportunities f or d ecoration .

A lthough t he i nformal n ature o f E arly L SA a ssemblages m akes i t u nlikely t hat s ocially c onscious g roups c an b e i dentified w ithin t hem, t his m ay n ot b e t rue o f M SA a ssemblages. T he i solation o f s tylistic p arameters a mong, f or e xample, M SA f lake-blade a nd p oint m orphologies , w ill r equire , h owever , c lose d ating o f a n e xtensive s equence, a nd c ontinuing r e-excavation a nd r e-analysis o f t he K lasies R iver M outh c omplex o f s ites m ay o ffer t his p ossibility . T he d emonstration o f t he e xistence o f s uch u nits i n e ven p art o f t he M SA w ould b e h ighly e xciting a s i t w ould i mply a s imilar o rganization o f s ocial u nits a s i n t he L SA . T he p ossibility o f d ating t he n umerous M SA s urface s ites w hich i t w ould o pen u p w ould b e e qually s ignificant, a s a s tart m ight t hen b e m ade o n m apping t he g eographical d istributions o f h uman p opulations i n S outhern A frica d uring v arious s tages t hroughout t he l ast i nterglacial-glacial-interglacial c ycle, t hus l eading t o a n a ssessment o f h ow i ncreasingly s uccessful i n c oping w ith e nvironmental o pportunities a nd c onstraints h ominids h ave b ecome t hrough t ime.

1 0:7 C onclusions

T he v ery e arly d ates f or E arly L SA a ssemblages o f g reater t han 2 5,000 B P c ome f rom s ites w here t hey a re e ither u nsupported a t p resent b y a dditional d ates a nd p alaeoclimatic d ata ( Cave J ames ), o r f rom s ites w here d ifficulties e xist o ver t he t he s ite 's s tratigraphy ( Rose C ottage C ave), t he r eliability o f t he a vailable d ates ( Heuningneskrans) o r t heir c orrelation w ith p alaeoenvironmental e vidence ( Border C ave ). A t t he s ame t ime t here i s e vidence f rom a n umber o f r egions o f S outhern A frica, s uch a s S waziland, L esotho, N atal, S outhern N amibia a nd t he S outhern C ape, f or t he s urvival o f t echnologically M SA a ssemblages u ntil c . 3 0 2 5,000 B P, w ith t he p ossibility t hat t he t ransition f rom M SA t o L SA l ithic t echnology w as a ssociated w ith t he e nvironmental d eterioration m arking t he o nset o f t he U pper P leniglacial c . 2 5,000 B P.

I t i s a rgued t hat m icrolithization a nd t he a doption o f a n ew k ind o f h unting w eapon , m arked a rchaeologically b y t he d isappearance o f M SA f lake-blades a nd p oints a nd, e ventually , b y t he o ccurrence o f l arge n umbers o f u nretouched b ladelets, w ere t he t wo p rincipal f eatures o f t his t ransition . T he o ther c hanges i n l ithic a ssemblages, s uch a s t he d isappearance o f r adially p repared

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c ores a nd f aceted p latformed f lakes , a re d ependent u pon t hese t wo f actors, o r, i n t he c ase o f s hifts i n r aw m aterial f requencies , m ay a lso i ndependently r elate t o r eadjustments o f s ettlement-subsistence s ystems t o c ope w ith c hanging e nvironmental c onditions. T he a doption o f am icrolithic t echnology a nd o f b arbed w eapons i s s een a s b eing a daptive i n a n i ncreasingly t ime-stressed e nvironment, t he o ne r educing t he t ime n eeded f or a rtefact m anufacture a nd r epair r elative t o f ood-procurement, a nd t he o ther o ffering a m ore e ffective h unting w eapon . T he a pparent r apidity w ith w hich M SA t echnology w as r eplaced o ver S outh A frica i s s triking a nd m ay h ave b een f acilitated b y a n e xpansion o f a lliance n etworks b etween g roups a s a f urther m eans o f i ncreasing s ecurity i n t he f ace o f d eclining e cological p roductivity. A p ossible a rchaeological m anifestation o f t his e laboration o f i nformation e xchange s ystems m ay b e t he i ncreased f requency w ith w hich i tems o f v isual d isplay, s uch a s b eads, n ow b egin t o o ccur i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T he d evelopment o f r epresentational a rt , s een a lready i n a l ate M SA c ontext a t A pollo 1 1 C ave, c ould b e a nother .

T he d evelopment o f m ore c omplicated s ystems o f i nformation e xchange p oints t o t he i mportance o f c onsidering c hanges i n s ocial o rganization a s a n i ntegral f actor i n t he M SA/LSA t ransition . S poradic d iscoveries , s uch a s t he B order C ave 3 h ominid b urial f rom c . 1 00,000 y ears a go a nd t he e xtensive u se o f h aematite i ndicated b y t he L ion C avern m ine , s uggest t hat b asic a spects o f t he p rojective s ystems o f m ore m odern s ocieties m ay e xtend w ell b ack i nto t he U pper P leistocene . A t t he s ame t ime t he e laboration o f a lliance n etworks i n t he L SA c ompared t o t he M SA s uggests t hat i nter-group r elations m ay h ave b een d ifferently s tructured a t s ome t ime b efore 2 5,000 B P. W hile t he i nformal n ature o f E arly L SA l ithic a ssemblages m akes i t d ifficult t o b elieve t hat s ocially c onscious g roups c ould b e i dentified f rom t hem, t he m ore f ormal a rtefacts o f t he M SA , i f t ightly d ated a nd a ppropriately a nalysed ( cf. C lose e t a l. 1 979 ) m ight o ffer s cope f or s uch a n a pproach. R einvestigation o f t he s ites a t K lasies R iver M outh ( Deacon, H . J . 1 985a; 1 987 ) s hould s how w hether t he s ame k ind o f t emporal p atterning i n a ssemblages w hich h as a lready b een d emonstrated f or t he L SA c an b e e xtended b ackwards t o t he b eginning o f t he U pper P leistocene.

T he d elineation o f c hanging s ocial p atterns t hrough t he U pper P leistocene s hould b e o ne o f t he u ltimate g oals o f S tone A ge r esearch . A lready t he S outh A frican s equence i s i mportant i n d emonstrating t he p resence o f a natomically m odern m an a t ad ate m uch e arlier t han i s k nown i n E urope a nd i n s uggesting t hat t he M SA/LSA t ransition m ay h ave b een q uite d ifferent f rom t hat b etween t he M iddle a nd U pper P alaeolithic. T he i mportance a ttached i n t raditional a rchaeological n omenclature t o l ithic t echnology h as t ended t o o veremphasize t he d istinctiveness o f t he e arlier a nd l ater p arts o f t he U pper P leistocene . A ttempting t o e xplain t he l ithological a spects o f t he t ransition m ay h elp t o p oint u p a m ore c ontinuous p attern o f c ultural e volution t hroughout t he U pper P leistocene a s a w hole, a s w ell a s s uggesting l inks b etween t echnological a nd s ocial c hange.

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C HAPTER E LEVEN C ONCLUSIONS A ND G ENERAL D ISCUSSION

1 1:1 I ntroduction

T his c hapter s ets o ut t o s ummarizethe c hief c onclusions d erived f rom t he p resent s tudy o f t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica. I n s uggesting i mportant a reas t o b e i nvestigated b y f uture r esearchers i t w ill a lso a ttempt t o e stablish t he w ider s ignificance o f s tudying t he l ate P leistocene p rehistory o f S outhern A frica.

1 1:2 T he E arly M icrolithic A ssemblages o f S outhern A frica

T he d ata-base c reated b y t he r eview o f S outhern A frica's o ther e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n C hapters 3 - 5 h as s erved a s t he f oundation f or t he i nvestigation , i n s ubsequent c hapters, o f p atterns o f s patial a nd t emporal v ariability w ithin t he E arly L ater S tone A ge o f S outhern A frica. P articular a ttention h as a lso b een g iven t o d eveloping e xplanations f or t he t ransition f rom M SA t o L SA l ithic t echnologies a nd f or t hat b etween e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences a nd t heir n on-microlithic s uccessors.

E arlier r eviews o f e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica ( e.g. D eacon , J . 1 984a ) h ave n ot d ealt w ith t he q uestion o f d efining s patial a nd t emporal p atterning a mong t hem a nd i nvestigating t he p ossible s ignificance o f t his. I ndeed, B eaumont ( 1978:133) h as s pecifically s tated t hat n o s uch p atterning c an b e d iscerned. W ith a m ore e xtensive d ata-base t han w as a vail a ble e ight y ears a go i t s eemed w orthwhile t o m ake t he a ttempt, a nd C hapter 6 d emonstrates t hat s ome s ignificant p atterning i s a lready a pparent .

T he m ost o bvious e xample o f s patial v ariability a mong t he a ssemblages s tudied i s a d ivision i nto t wo b road t echnological g roupings, w hich v ary a ccording t o t he f laking m ethod u sed t o p roduce b ladelets . T he m ore n umerous g roup i s a ssociated w ith r elatively l arge n umbers o f s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores a nd c ore-reduced p ieces , i ndicative o f t he u se o f ab ipolar t echnique, a nd s pecifically o f a m ethod i n w hich t he c ore w as w rapped i n l eather o r f ibre d uring f laking; t he d istribution o f t his g roup c oincides w ith t he a rea w ithin w hich q uartz w as t he d ominant r aw m aterial w orked. I t t hus i ncludes t he R obbery I ndustry o ccurrences f rom B oomplaas w here t hese p articular c ore-types w ere f irst i dentified ( Deacon , J . 1 984b ), b ut c an n ow b e s een t o e xtend b eyond t he S outhern C ape, f or e xample i nto b oth t he E astern a nd W estern T ransvaal ( Beaumont 1 981; W adley f orthcoming).

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T he s maller p rovince, c overing t he B asutolian e cozone, a nd p robably e xtending i nto S waziland a nd t he N atal D rakensberg, h as o nly r are e vidence f or t he u se o f t his b ipolar t echnique, b ut i s c haracterized b y t he p resence o f m any m ore s pikes ( lames g c rgte), a f eature w hich p oints t o c areful p reparation o f b ladelet c ores a s a p reliminary t o f laking. T his p rovince i s d ominated b y t he u se o f c rypto-crystalline s ilicas f or t he m anufacture o f s tone t ools, a nd t he a lmost c omplete a bsence o f q uartz f rom t hese a ssemblages i s l ikely t o a ccount f or t he l ack o f t he s pecialized b ipolar f laking m ethods k nown i n o ther a reas o f S outhern A frica. R ecently c ompleted a nalysis o f t he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence f rom S ehonghong m akes t his t he o nly l arge a nd w ell-documented a ssemblage t o b e a ttributable t o t his p rovince, b ut i t i s c lear f rom C hapter 3 t hat t he o ccurrences f rom R avenscraig ( Opperman 1 987 ) a nd R ose C ottage C ave m ust a lso b e a ttributed t o i t. I t m ay b e a nticipated t hat f uture w ork i n t he N orth-Eastern C ape a nd t he N atal D rakensberg, a s w ell a s i n L esotho, w ill a dd t o t he n umber o f s ites k nown.

A t a l ower l evel o f a nalysis , c onsideration o f t he r elative f requencies o f d ifferent e dge-angle c ategories a nd t ypes o f e dge d amage a mong u tilised a rtefacts f rom B oomplaas , K angkara , N elson B ay C ave a nd S ehonghong s uggests t hat s ome s ignificant d ifferences e xist b etween t hem. I n p articular, t he S ehonghong e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage i s a ssociated w ith a g reater e mphasis o n c utting a ctivities t han i ts R obberg c ounterparts a nd t his m ay b e i nterpreted a s t he r esult o f ag reater s tress o n h unting, b rought a bout b y t he d ifferential a vailability o f p lant a nd a nimal f oods b etween t he L esotho D rakensberg a nd t he S outhern C ape. T he S ehonghong o ccurrence a lso h as a m uch h igher f requency o f u nmodified b ladelets t han a ny o ther e arly m icrolithic a ssemblage, a nd t his i s a lso c onsistent w ith t his h ypothesis i f w e w ere c orrect i n C hapter 8 t o a ssume t hat m any o f t hese b ladelets w ere u sed t o a rm h unting w eapons.

L ooking a t t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica a s aw hole b etween c . 2 0,000 a nd 1 2,000 B P, w e c an s ee t hat t hey f orm o ne o f an umber o f c ontemporaneous r egional t echnocomplexes a long w ith, f or e xample, t he N achikufan I I ndustry o f Z ambia , t he T shangulan o f Z imbabwe a nd t he m acrolithic e arly L SA k nown f rom s ites i n C entral a nd S outhern N amibia . T hese a re l ikely t o r eflect r egional d ifferences i n e conomic s trategies , t he S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic ( or R obberg) c omplex p ossibly b eing d istinguished b y t he u se o f am ulti-barbed s pear i n h unting g ame.

W e t hus h ave t he b eginning o f a t hree-level a nalysis o f s patial p atterning w ithin t he E arly L SA . B etween i ndividual s ites , d ifferences m ay b e c aused b y a ctivity v ariations , l inked p erhaps t o i nter-regional d ifferences i n t he r elative f requency w ith w hich s uch a ctivities m ay h ave b een c arried o ut. O n a h igher p lane, m ajor t echnological p rovinces c an b e d iscerned, r eflecting d ifferent a rtefact-manufacturing t raditions c onditioned b y t he r elative a vailabilities o f t he r aw m aterials u sed. F inally, a nd o n a s till h igher l evel, v arious t echnocomplexes c an b e i dentified, w hich m ay r eflect r egional d ifferences i n e conomic s trategies a nd

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t he t echnologies e mployed t o p ursue t hese.

I n r ecent y ears s everal w orkers ( e.g. D eacon , H . J . a nd T hackeray, F . 1 984; B eaumont 1 986 ) h ave s uggested m odels t o a ccount f or r egional v ariation i n t he d ensity a nd d istribution o f p rehistoric p opulations. W ithin t he c ontext o f t he E arly L SA , J . D eacon ( 1984a:322) h as p articularly n oted a t endency f or e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages t o o ccur i n t he C ape F old M ountain B elt a nd t he D rakensberg M ountains. I n C hapter 7 I h ave s uggested w hy t his p atterning s hould e xist, a nd w hy t here s hould s o f ar b e n o i ndication t hat t he i nterior p lateau w as i ntensively o ccupied d uring t he U pper P leniglacial a nd L ate G lacial.

U sing p resent d ay t emperature a nd r ainfall p atterns t o s uggest w hich a reas w ould h ave b een r elatively w etter a nd d rier , w armer a nd c older , a nalysis o f t he g eographical p atterning o f s ites d ating t o b etween 2 5,000 a nd 1 2,000 B P s uggests t hat m ean a nnual p recipitation, r ather t han t emperature , w as t he p rincipal c onstraint o n t he d istribution o f E arly L SA p opulations. W ithin a reas l ikely t o h ave e xperienced h igher r ainfall, t he f urther c onstraint o f l ocally h igh e cological d iversity, b ringing w ith i t a ccess t o a l arge n umber o f r esources w ithin a r elatively c ircumscribed a rea, s eems t o h ave o perated t o r estrict s ites t o t he m ore t opographically v aried a reas o f t he C ape F old M ountain B elt, t he D rakensberg a nd N atal. I t i s p robably f or t his r eason t hat t he r elatively w ell-watered a reas o f t he T ransvaal H ighveld s eem t o h ave b een u noccupied. A nother f avoured a rea o f s ettlement m ay h ave b een p rovided b y c oastal a reas, w here a r ange o f m arine a nd l ittoral r esources c ould h ave i ncreased t he d iversity, a nd r eliability, o f a vailable f oods. S ubsequent d rowning o f t hese a reas b y t he p ost-glacial r ise i n g lobal s ea-levels m akes i t d ifficult, i f n ot i mpossible, t o t est t his s uggestion d irectly , b ut t here i s w idespread e thnographic e vidence ( e.g. f rom A ustralia - T indale 1 974, a nd A merica - K roeber 1 939) f or s uch a reas h aving s upported l arger p opulations t han i nland a reas.

P arkington ( 1984) h as r aised a n a lternative p ossibility f or o ur u nderstanding o f S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages b y s uggesting t hat t he R obberg a ssemblages o f t he C ape s hould b e s een a s p eripheral t o, a nd c ontemporary w ith, a c oncentration o f s ettlement i n t he i nterior , m arked a rchaeologically b y t he L ockshoek I ndustry . P alaeoecological d ata r eviewed i n C hapter 2 i ndicate, h owever , t hat t he i nterior p lateau o f S outhern A frica d id n ot w itness a n i ncrease i n p recipitation a t t he L GM , a nd a s p ointed o ut i n C hapter 7 , i t i s t he a reas a long t he r im o f t his p lateau t hat w ere m ost e cologically f avourable t o h uman s ettlement. T he a rchaeological e vidence w hich h e h as p resented t o s upport t his h ypothesis i s a lso w eak, s ince t he h ornfels n aturally b acked k nives u pon w hich h e l ays s tress m ay i ndicate a r elatioin o f " ancestry" a nd " descent," r ather t han o f c ontemporaneity , b etween t he a ssemblages i n w hich t hey o ccur. T he e arly m icrolithic o ccurrence f rom S ehonghong i s p articularly s ignificant i n c ontradicting t his h ypothesis a s i t i s a l ate P leistocene, i nterior a ssemblage, f rom a n a rea r ich i n h ornfels, b ut o ne w hich i s c haracterised b y s ystematic b ladelet p roduction t o a n e ven

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g reater e xtent t han t he R obberg o ccurrences o f t he S outhern C ape, a nd h as p roduced o nly a s ingle n aturally b acked k nife ( Chapter 3 :2).

I n p revious c onsiderations o f t he p ossible e cological a daptation o f l ate P leistocene h unter-gatherers , p articular s tress h as b een p laced u pon t he c ontrast b etween t he f aunas a ssociated w ith R obberg o ccurrences i n t he S outhern a nd E astern C ape a nd t hose a ssociated w ith t heir H olocene s uccessors. T hus, H . J . D eacon ( 1976 ) h as a rgued t hat h unting l arge, m igratory g ame p layed a m ajor r ole i n l ate P leistocene a daptations , a nd m ay h ave b een l inked t o a p attern o f l arge m igratory s ocial g roups w ith o nly l oose f orms o f t erritorial b ehavour. I w ould s uggest , h owever , t hat t his r ests u pon t oo l iteral a n i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeozoological r ecord w ith i ts e mphasis o n l arge, r ather t han s mall, b ovids. I nstead, e xploitation o f f ixed, p redictable r eources , s uch a s p lants a nd s hellfish , i s l ikely t o h ave b een o f f undamental i mportance i n l ate P leistocene , a s w ell a s i n H olocene , e conomies b ecause o f t he d ifficulties p edestrian h unter-gatherers , a rmed o nly w ith s pears , a re l ikely t o h ave f aced i n p ursuing a " big-game" s ubsistence s trategy .

A nalysis o f t emporal v ariability w ithin t he E arly L SA , a s o f s patial p atterning, h as b een s low t o d evelop, b ut t he c onsideration o f i t i n C hapter 8 s uggests t hat t hree c hronological s ub-divisions c an b e d rawn a mong S outhern A frican e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages. T he o ldest , a nd l east c lear , o f t hese i s t hat f ormed b y t he 1 WA/lBS.LR o ccurrence f rom B order C ave, a nd p ossibly s ome o f t he u nits a t C ave J ames a nd J ubilee S helter . I t i s s uggested t hat t hese a ssemblages m ay r epresent t he t ransition b etween N SA a nd L SA l ithic t echnologies. A s econd g roup , d ating t o t he e arlier p art o f t he U pper P leniglacial, b efore c . 2 0,000 B P, a nd o f w hich t he o ccurrence f rom B oamplaas M embers L P, L PC a nd Y OL i s t he b est d escribed e xample, i s u nquestionably o f L ater S tone A ge c haracter b ut i s n oticeably d eficient i n b ladelets , w hile t he t hird g roup , d ating t o 2 0 - 1 2,000 B P, i s b ladelet-rich. I n t he S outhern C ape t his t hird g roup a lso s ees a c hange i n f laking t echnology w ith t he a doption f or t he f irst t ime o f a w rapped b ipolar f laking m ethod. A n e xplanation f or a t l east p art o f t his s ituation c an b e o btained b y c onsidering t he t ransition b etween N SA a nd L SA l ithic t echnologies . T he s pecific f unctions w hich t he b ladelets t hat f orm s uch a c haracteristic f eature o f t he b est d efined o f t hese f acies m ay h ave f ulfilled a re a re a lso d iscussed i n t his c hapter , w ith p articular e mphasid b eing p laced u pon t he l ikelihood t hat m any m ay h ave b een e mployed i n b arbing h unting s pears.

R eview o f t he a vailable e vidence f or t he a ge o f t he M SA/LSA t ransition s uggests t hat c laims o f av ery e arly c hange, i n t he o rder o f 4 0 - 6 0,000 y ears a go ( Beaumont a nd V ogel 1 972; B eaumont 1 978), c annot b e s upported. I n p articular, s pecific c riticisms a re d eveloped i n C hapters 3 , 5 a nd 1 0 o f t he c laims m ade a t t he s ites o f B order C ave, H euningneskrans a nd R ose C ottage C ave. A d ate f or t he M SA/LSA t echnological t ransition m uch c loser t o t he b eginning

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o f t he U pper P leniglacial s eems m ore p robable, i n s upport o f w hich t he e vidence o f B oomplaas ( Deacon , H . J . a nd B rooker 1 976 ), a s o ne o f t he v ery f ew s ites w ith a n ear c ontinuous s equence c overing t his p eriod, i s p articularly i mportant . I t i s s upported b y a g rowing b ody o f e vidence f rom s everal r egions o f S outhern A frica, a mong t hem S waziland, L esotho a nd S outhern N amibia .

D efinition o f a l ikely c hronological a nd e nvironmental c ontext f or t his t ransition f acilitated t he d evelopment o f am odel t o a ccount f or i t. T he s pecific c hanges i n l ithic t echnology i nvolved i n t he t ransition , p articularly m icrolithization , c an b e i nterpreted a s m oves t owards t he m ore e fficient e xploitation o f l ithic r aw m aterials a nd t hus a r eduction i n t he t ime n eeded f or t heir p rocurement. T he d evelopment o f c omposite t ools f eaturing m icrolithic i nserts c an b e v iewed a s a f urther e conomizing b ehaviour, r educing t he t ime n eeded f or a rtefact m anufacture a nd r epair. A ll o f t hese c hanges a re l ikely t o h ave b een a dvantageous a s e nvironmental c onditions d eteriorated t owards t he b eginning o f t he U pper P leniglacial s ince t hey w ould h ave h elped m aximize t he t ime t hat c ould b e d evoted t o o ther a ctivities , e .g . o btaining f ood. T he a doption o f an ew h unting w eapon, t hought t o h ave b een a b arbed " death-spear ," m ay h ave f urther c ontributed t o a n i ncreased s uccess r ate i n h unting.

I t i s s uggested t hat t his m odel, p reliminary a s i t i s, r epresents a s ignificant i mprovement o n t he p revious s ituation i n w hich c ompartmentalization o f p rehistory i nto s eparate M iddle a nd L ater S tone A ges ( cf. V olman 1 984 a nd D eacon , J . 1 984a ) h as l ed t o t he p roblems p osed b y t his t ransition b eing e ither i gnored, o r e xplained b y h ypothesizing i ll-substantiated m igrations ( e.g. G oodwin a nd V an R iet L owe 1 929, C lark 1 959 ). W ithin t he f ramework p rovided b y t his m odel c an b e f itted n ot o nly t he c ontinuous t rend i n t he S ehonhong s equence f or m ean b lade s ize t o d ecline, w ith a ccompanying s hifts i n r aw m aterial p references ( Carter e t a l. i n p ress ), b ut a lso t he t emporal p atterning w ithin t he E arly L SA d iscussed a bove. T hus, L eroi-Gourhan ( 1943 ) h as s hown t hat b ladelet p roduction a llows t he m aximum l ength o f c utting e dge t o b e o btained f rom a g iven q uantity o f r aw m aterial. W e m ay t herefore s uggest t hat t he s hift f rom b ladelet-poor t o b ladelet-rich e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages m ay b e l inked t o a n i ncreasing e mphasis o n e fficient u se o f t ime a nd r aw m aterial. I n t he S outhern C ape, i t i s s ignificant t hat t his s hift s hould c oincide w ith t he d evelopment o r a doption o f m ore s pecialized f laking m ethods ( using s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores ) which f urther f acilitated s ystematic, e fficient b ladelet p roduction .

A lthough t here i s e vidence f or t he o ccasional p resence o f i tems o f p ersonal o rnament, s uch a s o strich e ggshell b eads, i n M SA c ontexts , s uch a rtefacts o nly b ecome m ore c ommon i n t he L SA . I t i s p ossible t hat t his r epresents t he d evelopment o f n ew f orms o f s ocial o rganization , e .g. m ore f ormal e xchange a nd a lliances b etween i ndividuals a nd g roups, a s af urther m echanism t o c ope w ith t he r educed e cological p roductivity o f U pper P leniglacial e nvironments. T he a ppearance o f t he f irst e vidence f or r ock p ainting ( Wendt 1 976 ) a t a lmost t he s ame t ime m ay b e v iewed i n t he

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s ame c ontext, p articularly i f L ewis-Williams ( 1985) i s c orrect t o s ee l inks b etween i t a nd l ater S an a rt w ith i ts a ccompanying s ocially i ntegrative t rance-dances a nd r ituals.

I f l ittle a ttention h as b een g iven u ntil n ow t o t he M SA/LSA t ransition o r t o t emporal v ariability w ithin t he E arly L SA , t his i s n ot t he c ase f or t he t ransition b etween t he R obberg a nd A lbany I ndustries o f t he S outhern C ape. H . J . D eacon ( 1976 ) h as s uggested t hat t hese i ndustries, a nd t heir W ilton s uccessor , m ay e ach h ave b een a ssociated w ith a p articular e conomic a daptation , a nd t hat c hange b etween t hem w as l inked t o e conomic, a nd t hus u ltimately , t o e nvironment a l s hifts. J . D eacon ( 1984b) i n am ore d etailed t reatment o f t he e vidence f rom B oomplaas, K angkara a nd N elson B ay C ave h as a rgued t hat t here i s ad efinite t emporal c oincidence b etween c hange i n a rtefact m anufacturing t raditions a nd f aunal c hange a t t he R obberg/Albany i nterface, a nd t hat t hese s hifts o ccurred r elatively r apidly a round 1 2,000 B P.

R eview o f t hese a rguments i n C hapter 9 i ndicates , h owever , t hat t hey d o n ot a ttach s ufficient i mportance t o t he e vidence f or c ontinuity b etween t hese t wo i ndustries a nd f or t he p resence i n t he R obberg a ssemblages o f a n umber o f t rends w hich c arry o n a fter 1 2,000 B P. N or d o t hey t ake i nto a ccount t he d iscontinuous n ature o f t he k ey s tratigraphic s equences , a p oint w hich b oth P arkington ( 1980a) a nd S ampson ( 1985b) h ave e mphasized. F urthermore , i t w as s hown t hat i t i s v ery d ifficult t o s ubstantiate t he c laim t hat c hange i n l ithic t echnologies a t t his t ime c oincided w ith c hange i n t he a nimals h unted b y p rehistoric m an . D ifferences a re a pparent b etween a ll o f t he C ape s ites w hich h ave y iel d R obberg a nd A lbany o ccurrences , a nd o nly a t o ne o f t hem ( Boomplaas) c an e ven b road c oincidence b e s uggested. T his b ecomes e ven m ore e vident w hen d ata f r o m t he E astern T ransvaal a nd t he S outhern D rakensberg a re c onsidered. I n t hese r egions e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences c eased t o b e p roduced b y c . 1 2,000 B P, y et l ittle o r n o c hange o ccurred i n t he a ccompanying a rchaeozoological a ssemblages u ntil t he m iddle H olocene a t t he e arliest ( Klein 1 984b; O pperman 1 985). F inally i t w as p ointed o ut t hat k ey n otions i n t he D eacon ( 1984b ) m odel, s uch a s t he i dentification o f c ertain a rtefact a ttributes a s s tylistic r ather t han t echno-economic, a nd t he u se o f " social s tress" a s a n e xplanatory v ariable, w ere d ifficult t o a ccept.

A n a lternative m odel, a pplicable t o o ther e arly m icrolithic/non-microlithic s uccessions o utside t he S outhern C ape, ay o f f urther w as t herefore a dvanced. W hile r equiring m uch i n t he w f t he b ow a nd t esting, i t w as f elt t hat p ositing t he i ntr o duction o ffer a m ore a rrow t o h ave o ccurred a t t his t ime c ould o s atisfactory l ink b etween t echnological a nd e cological c hange, a s w ell a s e xplaining, f or t he f irst t ime, t he c hief d ifference b etween e arly m icrolithic a nd t erminal P leistocene/early H olocene n on-microlithic a ssemblages, n amely t he v irtual a bsence f r o m t he l atter o f b ladelets a nd b ladelet c ores. A s h as b een r ecently e mphasized ( e.g. K lein 1 983a ) t he s pread o f t he b ow a nd a rrow m ay

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h ave h ad i mportant c onsequences f or t he r ole w hich h uman h unters m ay h ave p layed i n p romoting t he e xtinction o f an umber o f l arge u ngulates c lose t o t he P leistocene/Holocene b oundary, a nd m ay a lso h ave h ad s ignificant e ffects o n S an s ocial o rganization a nd r itual ( e.g. V innicambe 1 972; W adley 1 986a).

1 1:3 K ey A reas f or F uture R esearch

S everal i mportant a reas f or f uture r esearch c an b e i dentified a s a r esult o f t he c onclusions r eached i n t he p receding s ection , a nd s ome h ave a lready b een a lluded t o i n p revious c hapters. H ere w e s hall m ention t hose p roblems r esolution o f w hich s eems m ost c ritical f or f urther a dvances t o b e m ade i n t he s tudy o f t he E arly L SA .

P erhaps t he m ost s ignificant o f t hese p roblem a reas i s t he p aucity o f o bservations w ith w hich w e m ust d eal a t p resent. A s C hapters 3 , 4 a nd 5 h ave s hown, n o m ore t han s ixteen s ites , f rom t he w hole o f S outh A frica, S waziland a nd L esotho, h ave p rcduced e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages d ating t o t he l ate P leistocene , a nd n ot a ll o f t hese h ave y iel d ed h igh-quality d ata . S ome, f or e xample H euningneskrans, s till a wait d etailed p ublication , w hile o thers , s uch a s B ushman R ock S helter , r equire r e-excavation i f c rucial s tratigraphic a nd c hronological p roblems a re t o b e r esolved. H ere i ndeed c an C larke 's ( 1973:17) d escription o f a rchaeology a s " the d iscipline w ith t he t heory a nd p ractice f or t he r ecovery o f u nobservable h ominid b ehaviour p atterns f rom i ndirect t races i n b ad s amples" b e a ptly a pplied.

B efore e xisting m odels, s uch a s t he s patial a nd t emporal s ub-divisions o f t he E arly L SA o utlined a bove, c an b e a dequately t ested m uch m ore f ieldWork a nd e xcavation w ill t herefore b e r equired. I n t his, b asic p rinciples, s uch a s e xcavation b y n atural s tratigraphic l ayers, r ather t han i n a rtificially i mposed s pits, a nd a t a s cale l arger t han t he d igging o f s mall t est-pits , o ught t o b e a dhered t o. F or i nformation r etrieval t o b e m aximised p alaeo-ecological d ata s hould b e s earched f or a nd r ecovered - t he w ork o f H . J . D eacon e t a l. ( 1984) a t B oomplaas n ot o nly i llustrates w hat c an b e a chieved i n t his r egard, b ut s ets h igh s tandards f or f uture w ork .

T o m ake t hese p oints i s n ot t o d etract f rom t he e normous e xpansion i n a rchaeological r esearch a nd k nowledge w hich S outhern A frica h as w itnessed o ver t he l ast 2 0 y ears. N or i s i t t o i gnore t he d ifficulties i mposed o n r esearch b y a n i nsufficiency o f f unding a nd t rained p ersonnel, p roblems w hich a re o nly a ggravated w here s ites a re r emote a nd d ifficult o f a ccess . I t i s, h owever , t o p oint t o a v ery r eal n eed f or s ample s ize t o b e i ncreased b y t he e xcavation o f n ew s ites , o r t he r e-investigation o f o ld o nes, w here i t s eems l ikely t hat g ood s tratigraphic c ontrols, l arge n umbers o f a rtefacts a nd c onditions o f o rganic p reservation i ndicate t hat m aximum r eturns c an b e o btained f or t he i nvestment m ade.

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G iven t his f undamental r equirement m ore u seful s uggestions c an b e m ade a s t o w here t he m ost u seful a reas t o s earch f or s ites m ay b e a nd w hat m ethodologies s hould b e e mphasized i n t he a nalysis o f t he a rtefacts a nd e cofacts r ecovered. I t w as a rgued i n C hapter 7 t hat h uman s ettlement i n S outhern A frica d uring t he U pper P leniglacial i s l ikely t o h ave b een o verwhelmingly c oncentrated i n t he C ape F old M ountain B elt, N atal, S waziland a nd t he D rakensberg M ountains o f t he N orth-Eastern C ape, L esotho a nd t he E astern T ransvaal. I t w ould b e u seful t o c heck t his b y d irecting f uture r esearch i n t wo d irections , t o f ill i n g aps , s uch a s t he N atal l owlands, a nd t o c onfirm a n a bsence, o r v ery l ow l evel, o f o ccupation i n o ther p arts o f S outh A frica, p articularly o n t he p robably c omparatively w ell-watered, b ut e cologically r elatively u ndiverse, h ighveld .

H owever , t he r arity o f r ock-shelters i n s ome o f t he a reas t o b e i nvestigated r aises a m ajor p roblem o f i dentification . A ll e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences k nown t o d ate c ome f rom c ave s ites . T his i s a c ritical s tumbling b lock f or a ttempts t o u nderstand t he c ultural s ystems o f t he l ate P leistocene i n S outhern A frica. I t i s w ell-nigh i nconceivable t hat t he m akers o f t hese a ssemblages u sed c aves a nd r ock-shelters t o t he e xclusion o f o pen s ites , e ven g iven t hat t he f ormer m ay o ften h ave a fforded s ome p rotection f rom t he c older L ast G lacial c limate. T he p roblem i s r ather t o l ocate t he o pen s ites.

I t i s p ossible t hat m any m ay a lready h ave b een i dentified, b ut h ave b een e rroneously c lassified a s a ttributable t o t he m icrolithic i ndustries o f t he l ater H olocene . C omparison o f t hese l atter a ssemblages w ith l ate P leistocene e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences ( e.g. i n t he S outhern C ape ( Deacon , J . 1 984b ), a nd a t S ehonghong ( Mitchell a nd C arter i n p ress )) s uggests t hat t hey a re d ifficult t o d ifferentiate b y t he p resence o r a bsence o f t ime-specific t ype f ossils. E ven w here t his h as b een s uggested ( in t he c ase o f s mall a nd f lat b ladelet c ores i n t he S outhern C ape D eacon, J . 1 984b:378), s ome o f t he a rtefacts c oncerned o ccur s poradically i n l ater , A lbany a ssemblages ( see C hapters 4 a nd 9 ), a nd t hey a re c learly r egionally t ime t ransgressive ( Chapter 8 ). I nstead , i t i s r ather t he f requencies w ith w hich d ifferent a rtefact t ypes a nd r aw m aterials o ccur, a nd t o s ome e xtent t heir m etric a ttributes , w hich a llow a ssemblages o f o ne a ge t o b e d istinguished f rom t hose o f a nother .

F or t his s trategy t o b e s uccessful r equires l arge s amples t o b e a vailable f or s tudy , b ut t his m ay n ot b e t he c ase o n m any o pen s ites , e ither b ecause o f t he a ctivities p erformed a t t hem o r b ecause o f s ubsequent e rosional o r d epositional p rocesses. H ow f or i nstance w ould o ne b e a ble t o i dentify a s l ate P leistocene, r ather t han l ate, o r e ven e arly , H olocene, a h unting o r b utchery s tation p roducing o nly a n umber o f b ladelets a nd u tilised f lakes , a nd p erhaps s ome c ores a nd a ssociated d ebitage ? F ailure t o d o s o i nevit a bly l eads t o a n e masculated v iew o f t he s ettlement/subsistence s ystem c oncerned. O ne w ay o ut o f t his

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d ilemma w ould b e t o i nvestigate t he s ourcing o f r aw m aterials ( for e xample h ornfels) t o s ee i f c ertain o utcrops w ere u sed e xclusively o r p referentially a t c ertain t imes. P aradoxically a nother w ould b e t o e mphasize s till f urther t he e xcavation o f r ock s helter d eposits i n t he h ope t hat a l arger s ample o f a rtefacts f rom s ecurely d ated c ontexts m ight b e a ble t o p rovide t ype-fossils i ndicative o f p articular f laking t echniques, e .g. b y am ore d etailed b reakdown o f b ladelet c ore t ypology ( cf. W est 1 981).

T wo f urther c onsiderations i n t he c hoice o f s ites t o b e i nvestigated m ay a lso b e m entioned. T he f irst o f t hese i s t hat t here a re s trong g rounds f or r equiring a r egional p erspective t o b e a dopted w hen i nvestigating h unter-gatherer a rchaeology . E thnographic a ccounts ( e.g. B inford 1 983) e mphasize t hat t his i s h ow m odern h unter-gatherers o rganize t hemselves , a nd i t i s a n ecessary r equirement i f a n e cological c ontext i s a dopted f or t heir a nalysis. O nly t hus c an w e " attempt t o g ain r eliable a nd r epresentative i nformation c oncerning t he i nternal s tructure a nd e cological s etting o f s uccessive c ultural s ystems" ( Binford 1 965 :209 ). T his i s b ecause o nly b y s ampling w ithin a r egional f ramework c an t he m ultiplicity o f a ctivity-differentiated s ites p roduced b y a s ociety a dapted t o a n e cologically d iverse e nvironment b e i nvestigated. W hile t his h as l ong b een r ecognised w hen t he f ocus h as b een o n H olocene h unter-gatherers o r l ong-term d iachronic c hange ( e.g. P arkington 1 977 ; C arter 1 978; O pperman 1 987 ), i t h as r arely, i f a t a ll, b een a pplied f or t he l ate P leistocene . T hat e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages h ave n ow b een r ecognised a t s ites a s c lose t o o ne a nother a s B ushman R ock S helter a nd H euningneskrans s uggests t hat i t i s t ime f or s uch a n a pproach t o b e e xtended t o t hem t oo .

S econdly w e m ay n ote t hat t here i s a c ritical n eed f or f uture r esearch t o e mphasize t he t ransition f rom t he M SA t o t he L SA . I t h as b een a rgued i n C hapter 1 0 t hat t his p robably o ccurred c lose t o t he b eginning o f t he U pper P leniglacial, r ather t han a t s ome t ime i n t he I nter-Pleniglacial a s B eaumont a nd V ogel ( 1972) h ave s uggested. C onfirmation t hat t his w as s o r equires , h owever , t he e xcavation o f s ites a t w hich a r eason a bly c ontinuous s equence o f o bservations c an b e i dentified s panning t he c hanges i n q uestion . A t p resent B oamplaas s tands a lmost a lone i n t his r egard, a lthough S ehonghong s eems a lso t o f it t his r equirement. S uch s equences c an a lso b e e xpected, i f c onditions o f p reservation p ermit, t o y ield s ignificant p alaeo-environmental d ata w hich, t ogether w ith t he a nalysis o f a ssociated f aunal r emains a nd l ithics, c ould h elp t o d evelop t he m odel f or t he M SA/LSA t ransition a dvanced i n C hapter 1 0. T hey m ight a lso h elp t o s ettle t he e xtent t o w hich a rtefacts m ore t ypical o f t he L SA , s uch a s o strich e ggshell a nd b one b eads, b one p oints a nd r epresentative a rt, h ave a M iddle S tone A ge a ncestry .

T urning n ow t o t he a nalysis o f t he a rtefacts w hich m ay b e r ecovered b y e xcavation, t he d evelopment o f m icrowear s tudies ( Binneman 1 982) i s c learly o ne o f t he m ost s ignificant a dvances m ade i n t he s tudy o f s tone t ools i n S outhern A frica i n r ecent y ears. A s u se o f t hese t echniques s preads a nd m ore d ata a re

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p ublished w e m ay e xpect a n i ncrease i n t he i mportance o f t he i nformation w hich t hey c an p rovide. S ussman 's ( 1985) r ecent d emonstration t hat i t i s p ossible t o a pply m icrowear a nalysis t o q uartz a rtefacts i s p articularly s ignificant a s t his r aw m aterial w as u sed e xtensively b y L SA p opulations i n S outhern A frica.

A t a l ess t echnical l evel, t he m easurement o f e dge-angles a nd t he c lassification o f u tilised p ieces b y t he s hape o f t heir u tilised e dges a nd b y t he k ind o f d amage p resent o n t hem h ave b een e mployed i n C hapter 6 t o i nfer t he k inds o f a ctiviies i n w hich u tilised a rtefacts m ay h ave b een u sed. A n e xperimental s tudy t o c onfirm t he c orrectness , i n a S outhern A frican c ontext, o f t he a ssumptions w hich w ere u sed i s n ow u rgently n eeded, a nd c ould l ead t o t he c loser c orrelation o f a ttribute s ets w hich m ight p rove m ore a ccurately d iangostic o f u se i n p articulsr a ctivities. T esting t he r esults o f s uch e xperiments a gainst m icrowear o f t he s ame a rtefacts w ould o ffer a f urther c heck.

A t hird m eans o f i ncreasing t he i nformation t hat m ay b e e xtracted f rom s tone t ools l ies i n t he p otential o f o rganic r esidue a nalysis. M ork h as b een c arried o ut i n N orth A merica ( e.g. B riuer 1 976 ; B roderick 1 979; S hafer a nd H olloway 1 979 ) a nd A ustralia ( H. J . D eacon p ers. c omm.) w ith p ositive r esults , a nd c ould b e u sefully a pplied t o l ithic a rtefacts f rom a t l east s ome S outhern A frican s ites. S imple c olour t ests m ay p rove a dequate f or d istinguishing b etween p lant a nd a nimal t issues, a nd b etween w oody a nd n on-woody p lants , w ith c hromatography a nd m ass s pectrometry o ffering t he p ossibility o f m ore d etailed i dentifications. A lthough s uch t echniques c ould n ot i dentify t he a ctivity i n w hich a n a rtefact h ad b een u sed, o nly t he m aterial w orked, a c ombination o f r esidue a nalysis a nd e dge-angle/shape/damage s tudies c ould o ffer a l ess t ime-consuming, a nd p erhaps e qually a ccurate, m eans o f i nvestigating p rehistoric b ehaviour a s d oes t he a nalysis o f m icrowear.

E ssential t o t he s uccess o f a ll t hese a nalytical t echniques i s e xperimentation w ith r eplica a rtefacts , o bservations o n w hich p rovide t he n ecessary g uidelines f or m aking i nferences a bout t he u ses o f p rehistoric t ools. E xperimental a rchaeology i s a nother f ield w hich c ould b e u sefully e xplored a s p art o f f uture r esearch i nto l ate P leistocene e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages. T wo m ain a reas c an b e i dentified, t he f irst b eing t he e xperimental i nvestigation o f s tone f laking t echniques. T his m ight a llow a g reater a ppreciation t o b e o btained o f t he p recise c onstraints a cting o n t he p roduction o f d ifferent c ore-types, i ncluding c ore-reduced p ieces , w ith o ne s pin-off p erhaps b eing r ecognition o f a w ider v ariety o f t ime- a nd s pace-specific f laking m ethods t han i s p resently t he c ase.

A s econd s et o f i ssues w hich m ight b e r esolved t hrough a n e xperimental a pproach i s t he d etermination o f t he w ays i n w hich t he u nmodified b ladelets t hat a re c haracteristic o f p ost-LGM e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences w ere u sed. I n C hapter 8 e thnographic d ata w ere e mployed t o s uggest t hat o ne m ajor u se w ould h ave b een a s t he

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i nserts o f ab arbed h unting w eapon o r " death-spear ," w hile o thers m ay h ave b een u sed t o f orm t he c utting e dges o f c omposite k nives. I t o ught t o b e p ossible t o e stablish e xperimentally h ow e ffective s uch w eapons m ay h ave b een a gainst a nimal t argets , a nd, i n p articular , t he p recise a dvantages a nd d isadvantages t hat t hey m ay h ave h ad r elative t o t he u nbarbed s pears h ypothesized t o h ave b een u sed i n t he M SA a nd t o t he b ow a nd a rrow , w hich w as s uggested i n C hapter 9 t o h ave b ecome a vailable o nly l ater . E stimates o f t he m anufacture a nd m aintenance c osts f or s uch c omposite a rtefacts c ould a lso b e o btained, a nd w ould h ave a b earing o n t he m odel f or t he M SA/LSA t ransition a dvanced i n C hapter 1 0. D etermination o f t he h afting t echniques u sed f or t hese a rtefacts i s a f urther , s till t o b e r esearched q uestion . Am ore t horough c onsideration o f e thnographic d ata m ight a lso p rove u seful i n t ackling t hese p roblems.

T hese s uggestions p oint t o w ays i n w hich t he i nformation c ontent o f s tone t ools , w hich f orm t he o verwhelming m ass o f t he l ate P leistocene a rtefactual r ecord, c an b e i ncreased. I n f avourable c ircumstances a nd w ith g ood s tratigraphic c ontrols t hey o ught e ven t o b e a ble t o s uggest h ow a g iven s ite m ay h ave u ndergone s everal " changes o f p lace" ( Parkington 1 980a) t hrough t ime, t hus p ointing, w here a r egional p erspective c an b e g ained, t o m ore l arge s cale c hanges i n s ettlement a nd s ubsistence s trategies. T he a nalysis o f p alaeo-environmental d ata , o ften f rom t he s ame a rchaeological s ites , c an h elp t o r econstruct a n e cological c ontext f or t hese c hanges, b ut t he a rchaeozoological r ecord p rovides a f urther , v ery i mportant s ource o f e vidence. T he w ork o f R ichard K lein ( 1974; 1 978a; 1 978b; 1 983a ) h as b een f undamental i n e xploiting t hese d ata , b ut h as t ended t o c oncentrate o n t he e cological i mplications o f t he r epresentation o f p articular s pecies a nd o n t he p rocurement s trategies w hich m ay b e i nferred f rom t he r econstruction o f m ortality p rofiles.

A c omplementary s tudy c ould f ocus u pon w hat m ay b e c alled " economic a natomy," w hich w ould i nvolve t he " investigation o f f ood m anagement s trategies t hrough t he a nalysis o f f ood r esidues" ( Gamble 1 986:290). I mportant s tudies u tilising t he a natomical c omposition a nd b ehaviour o f p rey s pecies t o p rovide a f urther b asis f or i nferring p rehistoric d ynamics f rom t he s tatics o f t he c ontemporary a rchaeological r ecord ( Binford 1 981; 1 983) h ave a lready b een u ndertaken i n N orth A merica ( Speth 1 983) a nd E urope ( Spiess 1 979; V oros 1 982), b ut d etailed w ork r emains t o b e c arried o ut f or l ate P leistocene a ssemblages i n S outhern A frica. B inford ( cited i n P arkington 1 984:120) h as a lready s uggested t hat t he d ominance o f l ow u tility b ody-parts , s uch a s s kulls a nd f eet, m ay i mply t hat t hese l arge a nimals w ere s cavenged f rom a bandoned c arnivore k ills r ather t han a ctively h unted, w hile t he e xtreme f ragmentation o f b one t hat i s c haracteristic o f m any A frican a rchaeological f aunas ( e.g. K lein 1 978b; 1 984b) m ay b e a r eflection o f i ntensive m arrow e xtraction , a l ow q uality f ood t he e xploitation o f w hich c ould b e a n i ndication o f t he d egree o f e nvironmental p ressure f aced b y a h unting-gathering p opulation

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( Gould 1 980; C rader 1 984). A lthough t hese s uggestions h ave i mportant i mplications f or t he b ehaviour o f l ate P leistocene p opulations t he r esearch n ecessary t o e valuate a nd s ubstantiate t hem r emains t o b e d one.

1 1:4 T he W ider S ignificance A ssemblages o f S outhern A frica

o f

t he

E arly

I n t he p revious s ection w e h ave i dentified a reas , p rogress i n w hich w ould f acilitate u nderstanding o f t he l ate P leistocene i n S outhern f rom t hat s ection , h owever , w as a n e xplanation o f

M icrolithic

an umber o f k ey o ur i ncreased A frica. M issing w hy w e s hould

s tudy t he a rchaeology o f t his p eriod. W hat p articular s ignificance d oes i t h ave, o ver a nd a bove t he i ntrinsic m erits o f d iscovering m ore a bout t he p ast ? W e m ay s uggest t hat t here a re a t l east f ive p rincipal r easons f or i nvestigating f urther t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f S outhern A frica.

F irstly , i t i s c lear t hat t hese e arly m icrolithic o ccurrences a re t he o ldest L SA a ssemblages k nown i n S outhern A frica, a nd t hat t he p resence i n t hem o f an umber o f a rtefacts, i ncluding n ot o nly m icrolithic s tone t ools, b ut a lso o strich e ggshell b eads a nd c ontainers, b one b eads a nd p oints , a nd t ortoise s hell b owls p oints t o c ontinuities w ith t he m aterial c ulture o f t he S an h unter-gatherers o f t he e thnographic r ecord ( Deacon , J . 1 984a ). A lthough i solated e xamples o f s ome o f t hese a rtefacts m ay a lso o ccur i n M SA c ontexts ( Chapter 1 0), t hey a re n ot c onsistently f ound t ogether u ntil t he L SA . I t i s t herefore t o t he o rigins o f t he L ater S tone A ge t hat w e s hould l ook f or t he d evelopment o f n ew p atterns o f b ehaviour w hich s ubsequently c haracterised t he h unting-gathering w ay o f l ife i n S outhern A frica. W endt's ( 1976 ) d iscovery o f p ainted s tone s labs i n t erminal M SA c ontexts a t A pollo 1 1 C ave, a nd L ewis-Williams ' ( 1985) s uggestion t hat s ome o f t he s cenes s hown m ay b e l inked w ith m ore r ecent r ock a rt, c onfirms t he s ignificance o f t he p eriod c . 3 0 - 1 2,000 B P f or e xplaining t hese d evelopments.

O n a m ore g eneral p lane t he p rogress o f s uch r esearch i n S outhern A frica s hould i ncreasingly a llow f ruitful c omparisons t o b e m ade w ith o ther p arts o f t he w orld . B oth A ustralia a nd S outhern A frica , f or e xample, s eem t o h ave e xperienced d uring t he L ast G lacial m arkedly m ore a rid c onditions t han t hose w hich p revail t oday ( Vogel 1 984), a nd i t w ould b e i nteresting t o c ontrast t he h uman r esponse t o e nvironmental c hanges i n t he t wo c ontinents. A nother a rea i n w hich s uch c omparisons c an b e, a nd h ave b egun t o b e m ade, i s i n t he e xplanation o f t he l arge m ammal e xtinctions w hich o ccurred n ot o nly i n S outhern A frica, b ut a lso i n A ustralia a nd N orth A merica, a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene ( Martin a nd K lein 1 984). K lein 's r esearch i s p roducing a s trong d ata-base f rom w hich t o i nvestigate t he p rocesses r esponsible f or t hese c hanges i n S outh A frica, a nd S chrire ( 1980) h as a lready p ointed t o t he u tility o f c ontrasting t hese d ata w ith t he A ustralian e vidence.

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A s w ell a s h elping t o e xplain h ow m ore r ecognisably m odern p atterns o f b ehaviour d eveloped, s tudy o f t he e arly m icrolithic a ssemblages o f t he l ate P leistocene o ught a lso t o i nform o n t he s imilarities a nd d ifferences b etween t he s ocial a nd e conomic o rganization o f S outhern A frican h unter-gatherers u nder f ull g lacial c onditions a nd t hat o f t he r ecent S an w ho l ived u nder f ully i nterglacial c onditions. H . J . D eacon ( 1972; 1 976 ) h as a rgued f or m ajor d ifferences b etween t he t wo b ased o n t he p ursuit o f d ifferent e conomic a daptations , t he h unting o f l arge, m igratory g razers i n t he l ate P leistocene c ompared t o t he t rapping o f s maller , t erritorial s pecies a nd i ntensive e xploitation o f p lant f oods i n t he l ater H olocene . I t w as s uggested i n C hapter 7 t hat t his c ontrast h as b een o verplayed, a nd t hat i t i s l ikely t hat a t b oth p eriods i t w as t he u se o f s table, f ixed r esources , s uch a s p lants , w hich u nderpinned t he e conomy; t he a bsence o f s ites d ating t o t he L GM o r L ate G lacial f rom t he h ighveld o f t he T ransvaal a nd t he O range F ree S tate w as t aken t o p rovide p reliminary s upport f or t his. M uch m ore d etailed r esearch w ill, h owever , b e r equired b efore i t i s p ossible t o p rovide a w ell-grounded a ssessment o f t he e xtent t o w hich s uch d ifferences m ay h ave e xisted.

I nvestigation o f h unter-gatherer a daptations i n t hese t wo c ontrasting e nvironments , o f t he l ate P leistocene o n t he o ne h and a nd o f t he l ater H olocene o n t he o ther , m ay a lso s erve a m ore g eneral p urpose. I n a ll a rchaeological r esearch t here i s a lways a d anger t hat t he i nterpretations o ffered w ill s erve o nly t o b uttress w hat W obst ( 1978) h as t ermed t he t yranny o f t he e thnographic r ecord, w hereby o ur e xplanations o f t he p ast a re n o m ore t han p ale r eflections o f w hat w e a lready k now f rom a nthropology. T o o vercome t his d anger i t i s n ecessary t o d evelop m ethodologies w hich p ermit i nferences t o b e m ade a bout t he p ast t hat a re i ndependent o f t he a rchaeological r ecord ( Binford 1 977 ). S ome o f t he a reas f or f uture r esearch ( e.g. m icrowear a nd r esidue a nalyses, e xperimental a rchaeology a nd t he s tudy o f " economic a natomy") o utlined i n t he p revious s ection s uggest w ays i n w hich t his c an b e d one. T he d emonstration, u sing s uch a nalytical t ools, o f h ow h uman p opulations i n t he l ate P leistocene o f S outhern A frica d iffered f rom t heir H olocene s uccessors w ill t hus a dd c onsiderably t o o ur g eneral k nowledge a bout h unter-gatherer b ehaviour.

F inally , w e r eturn t o ap oint m ade i n C hapter 1 . T here i t w as a rgued t hat i t i s m ethodologically u seful t o c ommence t he a nalysis o f t he L SA r ecord b y c onsidering f irst t he " utilitarian " a spects o f h uman b ehaviour, l eaving u ntil l ater a ny i nvestigation o f i deological o r s tylistic v ariation, s ince t he m aterialistic b ias o f a rchaeological d ata m ay m ake i t e asier a nd m ore e ffective t o p roceed i n t his w ay . B ailey ( 1983) h as , h owever , p ointed o ut t hat, g iven t hat t he s ocial a nd t he m aterialist p erspectives o perate b est t o e xplain c hange o ver s hort a nd l ong t imescales r espectively , t heories r elating b oth p erspectives t ogether m ay b e m ost s uitable f or t he l ate P leistocene a nd e arly H olocene . T his i s b ecause i t i s i n t his t ime r ange t hat n ot o nly d id s ignificant c limatic c hanges o ccur, b ut t hat c hronological c ontrol m ay b e s ufficiently w ell-developed t o i nvestigate b oth l onger t erm e conomic p rocesses a nd s horter t erm s ocial o nes. A ll t hree l evels

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o f d ata , e cological, e conomic a nd s ocial, c an t herefore b e e xpected t o h ave l eft a rchaeologically r ecoverable t races o f t hemselves. A lready w e c an s ay t hat t he a rchaeological a nd p alaeoenvironmental d ata-base o f S outhern A frica i s r ich a nd d iverse e nough t o b e m aking a p owerful a nd s ignificant c ontribution t o t he i nvestigation o f a ll t hese q uestions , a nd w e c an e xpect t hat i t w ill c ontinue t o d o s o.

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