The Early Farmers of Transkei, Southern Africa: Before A.D. 1870 9780860544869, 9781407346540
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Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Series List
Preface
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Transkei - Land and People
Chapter 3: Methods
Chapter 4: The Northern Transect
Chapter 5: The Central Transect
Chapter 6: The Southern Transect
Chapter 7: Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Early Farming Settlement in the Northern, Central, and Southern Transects of Transkei
Chapter 8: The History of Transkei Vegetation: Outlines of an Alternative Model
References
Citation preview
The Early Farmers of Transkei, Southern Africa Before A.D. 1870
J. M. Feely
Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 24
BAR International Series 378 1987
B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR S378 , 1987 : 'The Early Farmers of Transkei,Southern Africa' @ J.M.Feely,1 987
The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544869 paperback ISBN 9781407346540 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544869 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
C AMBRIDGE M ONOGRAPHS I N A FRICAN A RCHAEOLOGY G eneral E ditor J ohn A lexander , M .A ., P h .D., F .S.A . S t. J ohn 's C ollege C ambridge C B2 1 TP, E ngland M anuscripts s hould b e s ubmitted t o D r . A lexander i n t he f irst i nstance . T itles a lready p ublished : 1 .
q ll e N iger D elta : N wanna N zewunwa .
2 .
A spects
o f
i ts P rehistoric E conomy a nd C ulture ' b y
B AR-S75.
' Prehistoric I nvestigations i n t he R egion o f J enne , M all ' b y S usan K eech M cIntosh a nd R oderick J . M cIntosh .
3 .
4 .
' Off-Site A rchaeology a nd H uman A daptation i n E astern A frica : A n A nalysis o f R egional A rtefact D ensity i n t he A mleseli , S outhern K enya ' b y R obert F oley. B AR-S97. ' Later P leistocene C ultural A daptations i n S udanese N ubia ' b y Y ousif M ükhtar e l A min .
5 .
' Settlement
B AR-S114.
P atterns
i n t he I ron A ge
I nterpretation ' b y M artin H all . 6 .
o f Z ululand :
A n E cological
B AR-S119.
' The N eolithic P eriod i n t he S udan , M ohammed-Ali.
7 .
B AR-S89.
c . 6 000 - 2 500 B .C . ' b y A bbas S .
B AR-S139.
' History a nd E thnoarchaeology i n E astern N igeria :
A S tudy o f I gbo-Igala
r elations w ith s pecial r eference t o t he A nambra V alley ' b y P hilip A digwe O guagha a nd A lex I kechukwu O kpoko . B AR-S195. 8 .
9 .
' Meroitic S ettlement i n t he C entral S udan : A n A nalysis o f S ites i n t he N ile V alley a nd t he W estern B utana ' b y K hidir A bdelkarim A hmed . B ARS 197. ' Economy
a nd T echnology
C harles C able . 1 0 .
' Frontiers :
i n
t he L ate
S tone A ge
S outhern A frican A rchaeology T oday '
D .M . A very , M .L . W ilson a nd A .J .B . H umphreys . 1.
o f
S outhern N atal '
b y
B AR-S201. e d . M . H all , G . A very , B AR-S207 .
' Archaeology a nd H istory i n S outhern N igeria :
T he a ncient l inear
e arthworks o f B enin a nd I shan ' b y P .J . D arling . B AR-S215 .
1 4.
' The A rchaeology
o f
C entral D arfur
b y I brahim Musa M ohammed . 1 5.
( Sudan ) i n t he i st M illennium A .D . '
B AR-S285 .
' S table C arbon I sotopes a nd P rehistoric D iets i n t he S outh-Western C ape P rovince, S outh A frica' b y J udith S ealy.
1 6 .
' Cart r upestre p rghistorique d es m assifs c entraux s ahariens ' b y A lfred M uzzolini .
1 7.
' Spheroids
B AR-S318 . a nd B attered S tones
A ge' b y P amela R . W illoughby . 1 8. 1 9.
' The L ater S tone A ge o f
B AR-S338
t he D rakensberg R ange a nd
£ 12.00 p ost f ree. i ts
f oothills ' b y H .
B AR-S339.
' Socio-Economic H aaland .
2 1.
i n t he A frican E arly a nd M iddle S tone B AR-S321.
' The R oyal C rowns o f K ush ' b y L . T örök .
O pperman . 2 0 .
B AR-S293.
D ifferentiation
i n
t he
N eolithic
S udan '
b y R andi
B AR-S350.
' Later S tone A ge S ettlement P atterns i n t he S andveld o f t he S outhWestern C ape P rovince, S outh A frica ' b y A nthony Manhire .
B AR-S351.
P REFACE
T hree-quarters o f T ranske i i n s outheastern A fr ica ( f igure 1 ) i s c overed b y g rass land , m ost o f w h ich i s t hought b y m any b otanists t o b e s econdary t o f orest d estruct ion b y B antu s peak ing f armers. B ut, t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd h istor iographic e v idence f or f arm ing s ett lement e lsewhere i n s outhern a nd e astern A fr ica , s uggests t hat c omparab le ' secondary ' g rass land w as p robab ly d istr ibuted m uch a s i t i s a t p resent a t t he t ime o f t he e ar liest f arm ing s ett lement ( dated t o a bout 17 50 B P ). E v idence t o t est t hese a lternative h ypotheses i n T ranske i w as i ndirect , i ncomp lete , a nd c onf ined a lmost e ntire ly t o t he s hore line o f t he I nd ian O cean. T herefore , ap roject w hose m a in o bject ive w as t o d eterm ine t he p robab le s patiotemporal d istr ibution o f f arm ing s ett lement i n T ranske i p r ior t o 1 870 A .D ., w as i n itiated b y J .E . G ranger i n t he D epartment o f B otany , U niversity o f T ranske i. Iw as e ngaged o n t h is w ork f rom M arch 1 983 t o M arch 1 987. As trat if ied r andom s amp ling p rocedure w as d eve loped , b ased u pon t he e xper ience o f a rchaeo log ica l s urveys e lsewhere . R epresentat ive t rans ects w ere s e lected t o i nc lude p roportionate ly t he m ajqr p hysica l v ar iab les b e low 1 8 00m a .s.l. i n a n a rea o f s ome 4 0 0 00 k m' . M ost o f t hese v ar iab les a re p resent ly a ligned a pprox imate ly p ara lle l t o t he c oast line . C onsequent ly , t ransects w ere a ligned f rom t he o cean s horel ine t o T ranskei's i n land b oundary , a cross t hree o f t he l argest r iver d ra inage b asins i n t he n orth , c entre a nd s outh o f T ranO ce i. I n t hese t ransects t we lve d isjunct s tudy a reas 4 00 - 1 4 00k e , w ere d ef ined . W ithin e ach s tudy a rea , s amp le u n its a pprox imate ly 4 km' w ere r andom ly s e lected f or s earch ing a t a f requency o f 2 0% i n a r egu lar g r id d eterm ined b y f ive b road l and t ypes. M y m ot ives f or u ndertak ing t his w ork s temmed f rom o bservation a nd d eduction d ur ing n ear ly t hirty y ears ( 1954-82) w ork ing i n n ature c onservat ion, m ost ly a foot i n t he v e ld i n Z u lu land , T ransvaa l, B otswana a nd Z amb ia . T hrough t hose y ears t he i nstruct ion, a dv ice a nd e ncouragement o f k now ledgeab le a nd c r it ica l f r iends - R .I.G . A ttwe ll, N .N . D eane , I .C. P layer , K .L . T in ley a nd C .J . W ard - h e lped m e t o f orma lise m y t hink ing . F rom s uch e xper ience c ame t he r ea lisat ion t hat s ome l ong-standing h ypotheses c oncern ing t he r o le o f m an a nd a nima l i n t he e vo lut ion o f p lant f ormations i n s outhern A fr ica , w ere l ess a nd l ess c ompat ib le w ith n ew f ind ings i n h uman p reh istory . O n o ne h and t he c onsistent a ssoc iat ion o f p art icu lar p lant f ormations w ith s pec if ic l and f orms w as b ecom ing m ore e vident - w here g eomorpho logy s eemed t o o verr ide t he r ecent c l'mat ic , b iotic o r a nthropogenic f actors w ide ly t hought t o b e c ruc ia l. T his i dea b ecame c lear t o m e i n 1 962 w hen I w as t ry ing t o e xp la in t he d istr ibut ion o f v ar ious a ge c lasses o f t he t ree A cacia a lb ida i n Z amb ia 's L uangwa V a lley . O n t he o ther h and , t he l arge a reas o f s upposed ly " pr ist ine w ilderness" i n t he s outhern A fr ican n ature r eserves a cross w h ich I w as
w a lk ing y ear i n a nd y ear o ut , w ere r evea ling t he p r ior s ett lement o f i ron-sme lting f armers. A ll o f t hese " pr ist ine" a reas s eemed t o m e m ore-and-more t o r ef lect n ot o n ly e ar lier l and u se b y f armers, b ut a lso t he c essat ion o f t he ir u se o f t he " South A fr ican E den" f or w ide ly v ary ing l engths o f t ime . I ndeed , Ih ave c ome t o b e lieve t hat t he i dea o f a ' pure ' e cosystem , o f a' pr istine ' f orm , a n ' or ig ina l' o r ' v irg in' c ond ition o f t he v e ld , m ay r evea l m ore a bout b io log ists t han a bout t he v e ld i tse lf . S hou ld m ank ind b e t hought n o l onger t o b e ap art o f n ature? I f s o , w hen d id t his c hange o ccur ; o n o ur e xpu lsion f rom E den, a t t he b eginning o f t he I ndustr ia l R evo lut ion, o r a t s ome o ther t ime? T hese q uest ions s eem t o l ie m ore w ith p sycho logy , p hilosophy o r t heo logy t han w ith e co logy . T he i dea g rew t hat f arm ing w as b e ing g iven t oo l itt le e mphas is i n w ide ly h e ld v iews o f t he h istory o f s ome s outhern A fr ican v egetat ion . B ut f arm ing w as a lso b e ing g iven t oo m uch o f ar o le i n e xp la in ing t he v egetation o f o ther a reas . I n c onsequence , s ome o bject ives i n l and m anagement c ou ld p ossib ly b e b ark ing u p t he w rong t ree . T he c onvent ions a nd a bbrev iat ions w hich I h ave a dopted i n a re i n u se i n r e levant l iterature , a nd a re :
t h is
s tudy
D ates: ( a )
T he n umber o f c a lendar y ears A .D .; o r w hen e xpressed a s x BP = n umber o f c a lendar y ears b efore t he p resent, i .e . 1 950 A .D . ( a ll B .C . d ates a re e xpressed i n B P e quiva lents).
( b )
R ad iocarbon (1 4 C ) d ates , l aboratory .
( c )
N umbered c entur ies a re A .D . i n a ll
i nstances.
( d )
T he c ho ice o f t he d ate 1 870 A .D . r ested o n t he f act t hat :
i n t he
a s
p ub lished
o r o ffered
t it le o f
b y
ad ating
t h is s tudy
( i )
A d ate f or t he e nd o f t he a rchaeo log ica l I ron A ge i n T ranske i p resent ly r ema ins a m atter o f o p inion , u nsupported b y a ny h istor ica l o r o ther d ate f or t he l ast i ron s me lter . P e ires ( 1981) c onc luded t hat t he 8 th F ront ier W ar ( of M lanjeni, 1 851 - 5 2 A .D .) m arked t he d isso lution o f t he o ld X hosa o rder . B ut f rom t he M bashe r iver d ra inage b asin n orthwards t he e qua lly o ld T ranske ian s ociet ies o f T hembu , B omvane , M pondom ise , X esibe a nd M phondo w ere s ubj ected t o B r it ish I mper ia l r u le b etween 1 875 a nd 1 894 A .D . ( K ilp in , 1 909; S tanford , 1 958 , 1 962).
( i i)
T hus 1 870 A .D . w as c hosen a rb itrar ily a s am idpo int b etween 1 851 a nd 1 894 ( mathemat ica lly 1 872/3) t o r epresent t he e nd o f e ar ly f arm ing s ett lement i n a l l o f T ranske i. I t i s a d ate w hich h as t he p resent m er it o f b e ing y ounger b y t he r ound f igure o f 14 00 y ears t han t he o ldest p resent ly k nown f arm ing s ett lement l ocat ion i n T ranskei ( 470 + 100 A .D .).
P eop les : ( a )
T he f armers i nhab it ing t he e ast c oast f ore lands o f s outhern A fr ica f rom t he e ar liest p er iod o f w r itten r ecord c ommenc ing i n 1 497 A .D ., a re k nown t o h ave s poken B antu l anguages ( Ha ir , 1 980). T he b io logica l a ff init ies o f B antu s peak ing p eop les t oday a re N egro ( Nurse , W e iner & J enk ins, 1 985 ; T ob ias , 1 974 ), a nd t he p hysica l r ema ins o f p eop le o f N egro a ff inity h ave b een r eported t ogether w ith t he o ther a rchaeo logica l e v idence f or f arm ing s ett lement i n s outhern A fr ica , w hich i s t ermed I ron A ge ( Maggs , 1 984c). N everthe less H a ll a nd M orr is ( 1983) h ave a rgued t hat t he e v idence i s i nadequate t o c onf irm a n a ssoc iat ion b etween s ke leta l f eatures, b io log ica l a ff inity a nd c u lture . I n t h is s tudy i t i s n ot p resumed t hat B antu l anguages k nown t oday i n s outhern A fr ica , w ere s poken b y p eop les o f N egro a ff inity t hroughout t he f irst a nd s econd m illenia A .D . i n s outhern A fr ica . T his i dea c an b e m istaken ly i nferred f rom p roposa ls ( e .g . P hillipson , 1 977a , b ) t hat t he s pread o f t he a rchaeo logica l E ar ly I ron A ge i nto s outhern A fr ica i nd icates t he c om ing o f B antu s peakers. I n c onsequence t hese f armers a re h ere r eferred t o a s N egro i n c ontexts w here n e ither t he l anguage s poken w as r ecorded a s B antu , n or a n I ron A ge m ater ia l c u lture i s c oncerned . T here i s a v ar iety o f e v idence s upport ing t he p roposa l t hat t he X hosa l anguage , a nd t he b io log ica l a ff inities o f i ts s peakers, a re a n i nd igenous d eve lopment i n T ranske i a nd C iske i ( chapters 2 a nd 8 ).
( b )
L SA h erders/pastora lists; t he t erms ' Kho i', ' Kho i-kho r o r ' Kho i-kho in', a re f requent ly u sed t o r efer t o t hese p eop le a nd t he ir l anguage i n a nthropo log ica l, a rchaeo logica l a nd h istor ica l l iterature s ince 1 970 . N everthe less ' Khoe ' a nd ' Khoe-khoen' a re t he s pe llings a dopted i n t he c urrent o rthography o f t he N ama l anguage; t he f ormer b e ing u sed a dject iva lly ( Ha ll & S m ith , 1 986) a nd t he l atter a s ap roper n oun. T his o rthography i s f o llowed h ere w ith r eference t o t he h istor ica lly r ecorded p eop le a nd t he ir l anguage . T he p ronunc iat ion o f t hese a lternative s pe llings i s hwe a nd hwe-hhwen ( fo llow ing t he p ronunc iation s ystem o f C hambers C onc ise 2 0th C entury D ict ionary ). T he n ame ' Hottentot ' w as g enera lly u sed i n t he h istor ica l r ecord t o r efer t o t he p eop le a nd t he ir l anguage . T he ir n ames i n X hosa a re a maLawu o r a maQhakancu ( F ischer , 1 985);
( c )
L SA h unter/foragers; t he n ame ' San ' h as b een w ide ly u sed i n a rchaeo log ica l, h istor iographica l a nd a nthropo log ica l l iterature i n r ecent y ears a s t he a lternat ive p referred t o t he o lder n ame ' Bushman '. T he o lder n ame m eant ' bandit ' i n i ts o r igina l N ederl ands f orm o f ' Bossiesman ', a nd ' San ' i s aK hoe t erm w ith t he s ame m eaning ( Penn , 1 985). C onsequent ly , i n t he a bsence o f a n eutra l s ynonym ' Bushman ' i s r eta ined h ere , a s t he o n ly a ppropr iate E ng lish t rans lation o f b oth t he N eder lands a nd K hoe t erms. I t i s t he E ng lish n ame m ost w ide ly k nown w hen r eferr ing t o t hese h istor ica lly d ocumented p eop le . O ne o r t wo o f t hese p eop le s urviv ing t oday a re n ot a shamed o f t he n ame ( Steyn , 1 984). T he n ame o f t he B ushman i n X hosa i s a baThwa ( F ischer , 1 985). T he d aughter o f o ne o f t he l ast B ushman t o l ive i n T ranske i ( her m other w as M pondom ise) c ou ld s t ill r emember v ery r ecent ly m uch o f
h er f ather 's B ushman ( abaThwa) t rad it ion , w hich h e t o ld t o h er w hen s he w as a c hild ( Jo lly , 1 986, L ew is-W illiams, 1 986). ( d )
F armers o f E uropean d escent a nd C aucasian a ff inity a re r eferred t o a s ' White', i n l ine w ith c ommon p ar lance a t p resent .
A bbrevat ions: E IA
- E ar ly I ron A ge , t he m ater ia l c u lture o f A fr ican f armers d ur ing t he f irst m illenium A .D . a s r evea led b y a rchaeo logy .
L IA
- L ate I ron A ge, t he m ater ia l c u lture o f A fr ican f armers d ur ing t he s econd m illenium A .D . a s r evea led b y a rchaeo logy , e thno logy a nd h istor iography .
L SA
- L ater S tone A ge .
R SA
- R epub lic o f S outh A fr ica .
>
- m ore t han.
, -
-
‚ ' ''• •
. . . e
7—
e
. . Lr.
. . . .
„ zs ., -S .e .>
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r
, , . . -. • -
: _ . Z . --i
A 2 5
2 0
• • • z - i
b e d % d e l Ye t
LI
0
n ortheast C ape P rov in ce
› -
G ene ra l ised b l o ck d i ag ram i l us tra t ing s ome m a jor t opograph ic
_ . -
N ATAL
P ort a rd
Kokstad
F lagstaff
Mt F r•r•
Lusikisiki
Ngq•l•ni
Mc ianduli
B arkly E ast
E lliotdale
E lliot • C lark•bury
Engcobo
Willo wvale
D o rd re ch t Butter worth
Cofi mvab
Kentani
N qamakwe
C APE
P ROV INCE
Cathcart
Queenstown
S tutterhei m E ast L ,,ndon K ing ›o
M F eely
K ilo metres
F i gure 3 .
T ranske i -t owns , v i l lages a nd r oads
( Exc lud ing Hersche l & Mz imku lu d istr icts)
2 1
1 986
1 , 132 1, 1f l Earn ee ... M .
I Kmz
J dr
4
CPT r
1 0
. Um be r«
o - Quaternary i rns MI
5 0 ./ . •
a lluviu m , s and
-C retaceous l i mestone , c lay /
Karoo Dolerite s ill, dyke
I dr - D rakensberg F or mation basalt CPI - Karoo S equence t illite , s andstone , s iltstone, mudstone, s hale,coal 0 -S - Natal
F i gure
G roup quartsitic s andstone
4 . T ranske i -m a jor l i t hos trat ig raph ic u n i ts
( f rom Geo log ica l S urvey , 1 984) .
2 2
F i gure 5 . T e r ra in m orpho logy
2 , 3
( f rom K ruger , 1 9 83 )
F igure 5 .
L egend
1 4
I rregu lar u ndu lat ing l ow lands w ith h ills.
1 5
S trong ly u ndu lat ing i rregu lar l and .
1 6
L ow lands w ith m ounta ins .
2 0
U ndu lating h i lls w ith l ow lands.
2 5
H igh ly d issected h ills.
2 6
U ndu lat ing h i lls.
2 7
L ow m ounta ins .
2 8
H igh ly d issected l ow u ndu lat ing m ounta ins .
2 9
H igh m ounta ins.
3 0
T ab le-lands. E scarpments, d ist inct .
v-> „c r
E scarpments, i nd ist inct a nd/or d iscont inuous.
N ote . a .
I rregu lar r efers t o u neveness i n t erra in f orm c aused b y s tructura l v ar iat ions ( e .g . a lternate l ayers o f m udstones a nd s andstones).
b .
H ills g enera lly h ave s lopes > 5% a nd r e lief < 450m .
c .
M ounta ins g enera lly h ave s lopes > 5% a nd r e lief > 450m .
d .
L ow lands a nd p la ins g enera lly h ave s lopes < 5% a nd r e lief < 210m .
F i gure
6 . T ranske i -m a jor r i vers a nd d r a inage b as ins
- R.d & Yello w/Bro wn
s oils
w ith o rthic •pip•don . ( Hutton , C lov•1ly , G riffin) . -S oils w ith h u mic •pip•don ( Magwa, I nanda , T ranskop, No manci) . C - Duplex s oils ( Estcourt S terkspruit) .
-P artially h ydro morphic s hallo w t o moderately s hallow , s andy g rey s oils ( Iroonstad , Cartr•f) . E - Weakly d eveloped s oils o n r ock ( Glenrosa , M ispah , Swartland) . -S teep & s tony l i thosols ( undif f er•ntiat•d) . G -S t•ep & s tony s oils mainly d•riv•d f ro m b asalt ( Mayo , M ilk wood) . 1 0 0 5 0 1 1L . .m m mm _ i 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 K i lo .M i tres
F i gure 7 _ T ranske i -g ene ra l ised s o i l m ap v an S choor , 1 9 76 )
( f rom W ood &
1 0
0
11 :3 11 1 1 1
5 0 C1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
K i lome tres
o
S•condary
g rassland
( ' veld
t yp..
3 ,
5 ,
7 ,
44,
48, 65)
. .•••••••••••• •• 1 1
C li max g rassland
Wooded g rassland
Coastal Forest
F i gure
( v•ld t ypos 80, 56,
( veld
( veld
t ypes
t ype
22,
58,
60)
23)
1 )
8 . T ranske i -m a jor v ege tat ion u n its
( f rom A cocks , 1 9 53 )
C hapter 2
T RANSKEI
- L AND A ND P EOPLE
T he h uman a nd p hysica l g eography o f T ranske i's c ont iguous d istr icts c over ing s ome 4 0 00km' i s d iverse , a nd h as n ot b een i ntensive ly d ocumented . M uch t hat h as b een w r itten c oncerning t he h istory a nd d istr ibution o f t he p eop le b efore 1 50 B P ( 1800 A .D .) i s s pecu lat ive , a nd i s s eem ing ly i n n eed o f c r it ica l r e-eva luat ion . F urthermore , i nformation o n t he p hysica l f eatures o f T ranske i r ests o n v ar iab le a nd o ften v ery i ncomp lete d ata . W ith in t hese l im its t he f o llow ing g enera l d escr iption h as b een c omp iled . G eo logy a nd g eomorpho logy T he d escr iption b y A .L . d u T o it ( 1917) o f t he m a in g eo logica l a nd g eomorpho log ica l f eatures o f m uch o f T ranske i a nd p arts o f n ortheast C ape P rov ince a djacent i n R SA , h as n ot b een b ettered i n a ny s ubsequent p ub lication i n t he w r iter 's v iew . D u T o it 's d escr ipt ion n eeds b ut s light a mendment t o : m etr ic m easurement , c urrent l ithostrat igraphic n ames ( SACS , 1 980 , G eo logica l S urvey , 1 984), a nd t o t he p resent s pe lli ng a nd u sage o f p lace n ames. A lso , m ere ly b y t he i nc lusion o f a dd it iona l p laces, t he d escr iption c an b e e xtended t o c over s im ilar a reas i n T ranske i b eyond t hose w hich d u T o it ( 1917) m apped . H is a ccount i s r epeated h ere w ith t hese m inor a mendments . ( See f igures 2 , 3 -6 ). " The o utstand ing t opographica l f eature i s t he g reat e scarpment o f t he D rakensberg ( the B erg), w hich r ises f rom 1 20 t o 15 20 m etres a bove t he g round a t i ts f oot . T he g eodet ic b eacons o n i ts c rest r ange f rom o ver 2 4 40 t o o ver 3 0 00 m etres a bove s ea l eve l, w hile a t B ark ly P ass, N aude 's N ek , O nge luk 's N ek a nd Q uacha 's N ek , r oads l ink t he r iver b asins d ra ining t o t he I nd ian O cean w ith t hat o f t he O range r iver d ra ining t o t he A t lantic O cean. An umber o f b r id le p aths e ffect t he s ame l ink , o f w hich L ehana 's p ass i s a mongst t he b etter k nown. " The c liff b ound ing t he e scarpment , w hich t rends a l itt le e ast o f n orth i n t he s outh a nd t hen t urns s harp ly t o al itt le n orth o f e ast n ear M atatie le , i s f ormed o f b asa ltic l avas a nd r ises a bove a s er ies o f s purs e xtend ing o utwards f rom t he B erg f or a d istance o f 2 4 k i lometres i n p laces, a nd w hich s eparate t he h eadwaters o f o ne r iver f rom t hose o f a nother . T hese s purs a re c omposed p r inc ipa lly o f t he C larens a nd E l liot F ormations, t hough i n t he n orthern e nd o f M ac lear d istr ict a nd t he n eighbour ing p ort ion o f M ount F letcher d istr ict t he l owest p art o f t he v o lcan ic D rakensberg F ormat ion f orms a w ide b ut f urrowed p lateau a t a n a ltitude o f f rom 1 8 30 t o 19 80 m etres a bove s ea l eve l. T his s urface i s r epeated n orthward m ore n arrow ly o n s purs b e low t he B erg a s f ar a s t he b oundary o f T ranske i w ith N ata l.
" Ow ing t o as light d ip o f t he b eds i n aw est-north-wester ly d irection, t he e nds o f t he s purs a re f requent ly h igher i n l eve l t han t he ir r oots, w here t hey u n ite w ith t he m a in m ass, s o t hat w e f ind a f ew p laces a way f rom t he D rakensberg r eaching a c onsiderab le a lt itude , n ame ly , C ast le R ocks 2 1 41 m etres a nd P aarde B erg 2 1 39 m etres i n M ount F letcher d istr ict a nd t he o ut-ly ing m ass o f t he P rentjies B erg 2 0 22 m etres n ear U gie i n M ac lear d istr ict . " The M o lteno F ormat ion f orms c haracter ist ica lly t erraced a nd l ower c ountry s tretching p ara lle l t o t he B erg , a dvantage o f w hich h as b een t aken i n t he c onstruction o f t he r a ilway a nd r oad f rom D ordrecht t o M ac lear , b ut o n t he e ast t hese s trata t erm inate a lmost e verywhere i n a n e scarpment l oca lly k nown a s t he Z uurberg T his F ormation, p robab ly a bout 50 m etres t hick i n t he s outh a nd 4 30 m etres t h ick i n M ount F letcher d istr ict , c onsists o f c oarse p ebb ly f e lspathic s ands tones, s eparated b y b lu ish a nd g rey s ofter-weather ing , f ine-gra ined s andstone , m udstone , a nd s ha le . O w ing t o t his a lternat ion o f h arder a nd s ofter b eds, t he l andscape p ossesses i ts t erraced c haracter ( f igure 5 , u nits 1 5 a nd 2 0) a nd t he s lopes a re o ften s trewn w ith l arge a ngu lar b locks b roken o ff f rom t he s andstone s carps. T he s urface o f t he s ands tones a re b roken i nto n umerous k nobs a nd p rojections a nd o ften p ossess f antastic r ugged o ut lines; c oncret ionary n odu les o f p yr ite a nd m arcasite p roduce b y t he ir w eather ing f errug inous s andy b a lls o r i rons ta ined h o llows. O n g ent le s lopes t he f e lspathic s andstones c rumb le d own t o f orm d eep s andy s o ils, e ither g rey o r r edd ish , s omet imes a d eep b r ick -red , i n c o lour " " Th is b e lt o f g round a t a bout 1 2 50 m etres a .s.l. m ay b e t ermed t he I n land P lateau ( f igure 2 ). I ts e dge i s e xtreme ly i ndented o w ing t o t he g reat g orges o f t he l arger t r ibutar ies o f t he G reat K e i, M bashe , M thatha , T sitsa , T ina , a nd K in ira R ivers, a nd t he e nds o f t he s purs p roject i n g reat p romontor ies, s uch a s G u landoda , B az iya , e tc ., w hile m asses, i so lated o r p art ia lly s evered b y e rosion, f orm c onspicuous p eaks, s uch a s B e le , T hree C rowns, H angk lip , a nd E twa . " A g reat t ongue s tretches b etween t he T ina a nd K inira R ivers f rom n ear M ount F letcher a lmost t o M ount F rere; i ts t erm ination f orms t he U mgano R ange . O ther t ongues s tretch n orth o f t he K in ira r iver a long t he J umb la R ange n ear M atatie le o n t he T ranske i b order w ith N ata l, a nd i n t he s outh b etween t he I ndwe a nd t he T somo r ivers f rom n ear E l liot p ast t he L ub isi d am t hrough T r ichard 's K op , b oth o f t he l ast t wo n ames c ommemorat ing L ouis ( Lub isi) T regardt w ho l ived b e low t he K op ( Pe ires, 1 981; S tanford , 1 958 ) b efore t rekk ing n orthward i n 1 835 A .D . " From t his r ugged e scarpment t o w ithin s ome 2 4 k i lometres o f t he I ndian O cean t here e xtends w hat m ay b e c a lled t he C oasta l P lateau ( f igure 2 ), w ith g enera l a ltitude f a lling s eawards t o a bout 6 00 m etres. " It i s g enera lly u ndu lating ( f igure 5 , u nit 1 4 ), b ut a ll t he l arger r ivers h ave c ut g orges t hat a re o ften o f c onsiderab le d epth , a nd t he r av ines o f t he T sitsa , T ina , M z imvubu , M z int lava , M thatha , M bashe , G cuwa , T somo , a nd G reat K e i R ivers a re o ften c anyon-like a nd p icturesque , w hile t he c ountry a djo in ing i s d iff icu lt o f a ccess. I t c ompr ises f ormations m a in ly i n t he B eaufort G roup , t ogether w ith t he E cca G roup a nd D wyka F ormat ion i n t he n ortheast . T owards t he c oast
2 9
s outh o f t he M z imvubu r iver t he p lateau h as b een d issected i nto n arrow s errate r idges; f urther t o t he n orth t he s purs a re a pprox imate ly f lat t opped , w hile i n t he n orth-east t here a re t he i so lated T abanku lu ( "Great M ounta in") N tsizwa , T ont i a nd N ge li r anges, w h ich a re c onsp icuous l andmarks . " The d istr ibution o f t he g eo log ica l f ormat ions i s s imp le; t he o lder f ormations c rop o ut o n t he e ast a nd p ass w estward b e low y ounger o nes , e ach i n i ts t urn , w h ile t he K aroo d o ler ites p enetrate a l l t he f ormat ions". H owever , d o ler ite o utcrops a re r are i n t he D wyka F ormat ion a nd t he N ata l G roup i n t he n ortheast ( cf . f igures 2 a nd 4 ). I n c onsequence , f ormations i n a l l t he G roups o f t he K aroo S equence , f rom t he o ldest ( Dwyka) t o y oungest ( Drakensberg) o utcrop i n T ranske i. O f t hese t he m ost w ide ly r epresented a re t he f ormations i n t he B eaufort G roup . I n a ddition t he s andstones o f t he N ata l G roup u nder ly ing t he K aroo S equence , o utcrop i n az one a djacent t o t he n ortheast c oast . O ver ly ing C retaceous f ormat ions a lso o ccur i n s cattered n arrow l oca lities a long t he s eashore , f rom t he M ngazana r iver m outh n orthw ard; w hile n arrow a nd i nterm ittent Q uaternary d unes f r inge t he c oast . O n ly s ome o utcrops o f t hese y ounger f ormations a re e xtensive e nough t o m ap a t t he s ca le o f f igure 4 ( units : K mz a nd Q ). B eyond t he m ajor p art o f T ranske i w hich d u T o it ( 1917) w as d escr ib ing , l ie r egions w ith g eomorpho logy a nd g eo logy s uff icient ly d ifferent f rom t hose w hich d u T o it ( 1917) c overed , t o w arrant m ention . T hese c ompr ise : ( 1 )
T he a rea d e lim ited b y K ruger ( 1983) ( f igure 5 , u nit 3 0 ) a s e xhib it ing ' Tab le land ' t erra in m orpho logy a long t he c oast o f n ortheast P ondo land n orth o f t he E goso f au lt , w h ich i n e ffect e xtends t he C oasta l P lateau t o s ea l eve l. T h is t ab le land i s u nder la id b y t he w ho le o utcrop o f q uartz it ic s andstones o f t he N ata l G roup , a nd i n land o f i t b y p art o f t he o utcrop o f t i llites o f t he D wyka F ormation ( Geo log ica l S urvey , 1 984; a nd s ee f igures 4&5 ) . B e low c .500m a .s.l. t his t erra in i s l ight ly s tepped d own t o t he s eashore , e ach ' step ' p robab ly r epresenting a m ar ine t errace a bandoned a s ar esu lt o f e ither e pe irogenet ic u p lift , o r t he w or ld-w ide l ower ing o f s ea l eve ls d ur ing t he P le istocene ( Tankard e t a l, 1 982). T he m ost e xtensive o f t hese t erraces i s t he u ppermost , p robab ly r epresenting t he l andward m arg in o f t he c ont inenta l s he lf d ur ing t he N eogene . I t s lopes g ent ly d own b etween c .250m a nd c .200m a .s.l.
( 2 )
I n s outhwestern T ranske i l ies t he t erra in m apped b y K ruger ( 1983) a s ' low lands w ith m ounta ins ' i n t he d ra inage b asins o f t he W hite K e i a nd T somo r ivers ( f igure 5 , u nit 1 6 ). T he ' low lands' i n t his t erra in a re a pparent ly a n e xtension o f t he C oasta l P lateau s urface . T he m ounta ins, o n t he o ther h and, r esu lt l arge ly f rom s tructura l c ontro l b y " basin-shaped i ntrusions w ith r ing-like o utcrops" o f K aroo D o ler ite ( du T o it , 1 917).
( 3)
I n T ranske i f au lts o f s uff ic ient m agnitude t o e xpose r ocks o f d ifferent l ithostratigraphic G roups o n t he ir o pposite s ides , a re m apped o n ly i n ab e lt w ithin 3 5km o f t he o cean i n t he n orth , a nd 3 0
5 km o f t he o cean i n t he s outh ( Geo log ica l S urvey , 1 979a , b , 1 981, 1 984). I n t h is f au lted z one t o t he s outh o f t he E goso f au lt, t he s ed imentary f ormations i n b oth t he K aroo S equence a nd t he N ata l G roup d ip a t m any p laces f rom 1 0° t o m ore t han 3 0° i n a v ar iety o f d irect ions, b ut m a in ly s eaward . I n land o f t his f au lted z one s outh o f t he E goso f au lt a nd e verywhere n orth o f t he f au lt , t he r eg iona l d ip i s o f l ow a ng le ( 900 B P ) t o h ave b een f ound i n T ranske i d ur ing t his s tudy ( cf . c hapters 5 & 6 ). S earches u pstream a long t he M z imvubu a nd K inira r ivers r evea led n o o ther ; b ut d ownstream o f t his s ite a n umber o f E IA s ett lement l ocations w ere f ound i n s tudy a rea 2 B . I t w as n ot p ossib le t o d eterm ine w hether t he y ounger s ites f ound w ere r eferrab le t o t he B haca , i .e . l ess t han 1 25 B P , o r t o o lder f arm ing c ommunities , e .g . M pondom ise . B ut t he f act t hat t he M z imvubu r iver v a lley i n t his s tudy a rea h ad b een o ccup ied b y f armers m ore t han 9 00 B P , s trong ly s uggested t hat s ett lements o f t he i ntervening p er iod
6 1
L and 1 S urface a rea , k m 2, l and t ype
I
H
k m 2, s amp le u n its
1 450 - 9 00 B P = 50 y rs(x 1) , n o . s ites d ensity(y 1)
9 00 - 8 0 B P
= 8 20 y rs(x 2) , n o . s ites d ens ity(y 2)
2 00 - 8 0 B P
= 1 20 y rs(x 3 ) , n o . s ites
2
T ype 4
5
T ota l
98 ,9 49 ,2 1 2 3 ,2 1
3 71,3
-
9 ,1
3 2 ,7
3 7 ,8
7 9 ,6
---
1
-
---
1
---
9 ,1
--. 1 -
1
1
7
3 2 ,7
3 7 ,8
----
5 1 ,8
0
d ensity(y 3 )
1 30 - 8 0 B P
= 5 0 y rs(x 4) , n o . s ites
0
d ens ity(y 4 )
1 00 - 8 0 B P
= 2 0 y rs(x 5) , n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 5)
T ab le 8 . S tudy a rea 2 C , s urface a rea n umber , o f f arm ing s ett lement s ites f ound , a nd m ean s ite d ens ity ( km‘ .s ites 1 ) , i n t he s amp le u n its o f e ach l and t ype . T he p resence o f s ett lement d ur ing t he f irst a nd s econd m illen ium A .D . a t a lt itudes o f 9 00 - 1 0 00m a .s .l. i nd icate , f arm ing l and u se i n a l l t he e ntrenched s ectors o f t he M z imvubu r iver d ra inage b as in f or m ore t han a t housand y ears .
( c .900 - 1 25 B P ) w ou ld h ave e x isted t here . I n c onsequence s ome i f n ot a l l o f t he s econd m illen ium s ett lement l ocat ions f ound m ay h ave b een o f s uch a n a ge . I n t his e vent t he s econd m illenium A .D . s ites r ecorded i n t he p resent ly w ooded p arts o f t he v a lleys o f t he K inira a nd M z imvubu r ivers, w ou ld b e m ore l ike ly c and idates f or a n a ge e xceed ing 1 25 B P . T he s ett lement l ocat ion p atterns e ar lier r ecorded i n T ranske i a nd N ata l ( chapter 2 ), t ogether w ith t he M pondom ise t rad it ion , s upport t his c ontent ion. F urthermore t he r e lat ive d earth o f s ett lement l ocations ( tab le 8 ) pay f rom v a lley b ottoms ( 1 :32,7km') c ompared w ith a d ensity o f 1 :1,8km i n v a lley b ottom a nd f oots lope s ituat ions c ou ld b e c onstrued a s a dd it iona l s upport . T he d iscovery o f af irst m illen ium A .D . f arm ing s ett lement l ocation o n t he M z imvubu r iver s o f ar i n land, a dds a f urther d imension t o t he t radition f or t he p lace o f o r igin o f t he o lder T ranske ian p eop les ( cf . s tudy a rea 2 D ). T hat t he D edesi s tream m ay g o u nder a nother n ame i n a n a rea w hich t oday w ou ld b e d escr ibed a s o n t he m idd le r eaches o f t he M z imvubu r iver ( e .g . w ithin o r b etween s tudy a reas 2 C a nd 2 B ), n eeds t o b e c onsidered . I f t he t rad ition h ad g eographica l s ubstance t hen t his w ou ld s eem t o b e am ore p robab le l oca lity , t han i s ap osition i n t he D rakensberg m ounta ins n orthward o f C edarv ille w here t he s ources l ie . S oga ( 1930) c ou ld f ind n o o ra l e v idence f or a s tream o f t his n ame i n t he s ource r egion o f t he M z imvubu r iver , b ut d id n ot s earch l ower d own. S tudy A rea 2 B . T he r o lling u p lands o f t he p rev ious s tudy a rea h ere g ive w ay t o a l andscape i n T abanku lu a nd F lagstaff d istr icts, w here t he M z int lava a nd M z imvubu r ivers a re e ntrenched s ome 2 00 - 4 00m b e low t he u p land s urface . T he u p land s urface i s i tse lf s urmounted b y t he g abbro ic i nse lberg ( du T o it , 1 9 17) o f T abanku lu m ounta in s o t hat , w here t he t wo r ivers a but u pon i t r e lief o f m ore t han 1 0 00m o ccurs. I n c onsequence a r e lat ive ly h igh p roport ion ( 45 ,4% ) o f t he s tudy a rea w as c lassif ied a s l and t ype 3 ( s lopes > 30% ) a nd n ot s earched . T h is s pectacu lar s cenery d id n ot a ssist f ie ld w ork , e ffect ive ly p rec luding a ccess t o m any v a lley s ituat ions. N on-random s e lect ion o f s ome s amp le u nits a ccessib le t o t he t hree r oads w hich r each t hese r ivers, w as i nescapab le . R andom s e lect ion h ad i dent if ied i naccessib le u n its o n l and t ypes 2 ( va lley b ottoms) a nd 4 ( s lopes 1 2 -3 0% ). T he s tudy a rea 's p resent i nhab itants . are M phondo a nd h ave b een t hroughout t he p er iod o f h istor ica l r ecord ( Hunter , 1 979). T hey f a ll u nder t he p aramountcy o f E ast P ondo land w hich c ame u nder C ape c o lonia l r u le i n 1 894 A .D . ( Stanford , 1 962). Af eature w h ich d istingu ished M phondo a rch itecture d ur ing t he p er iod o f h istor ica l r ecord , w as t he u se o f c lay p laster o n t he i nter ior o f t he ir h em i-spher ica l, t hatch-on-wooden-frame d we llings ( Hunter , 1 979; S haw & v an W arme lo , 1 972 ). T h is p ract ice i t w as f ound h as l eft a rchaeo log ica l t races i n t he p resence o f s ma ll, b urnt c lay f ragments
6 3
L and 1 1 2 S urface a rea , k m2, l and t ype
I
I
k m 2, s amp le u nits
5
T ota l
3 6 ,3 2 65 ,3
5 4 ,1
3 55 ,7
-
1 4 ,0
3 8 ,8
1 5 ,0
6 7 ,8
7
-
---
7
2 ,0
-
-
d ensity(y 1)
= 8 20 y rs(x 2) , n o . s ites
4
---
1 450 - 9 00 B P = 50 y rs(x 1) , n o . s ites
9 00 - 8 0 B P
T ype
-
4
2
3
9
d ensity(y 2 ) 3 ,5
2 00 - 8 0 B P
= 1 20 y rs(x 3 ) , n o . s ites
1 9 ,4
5 ,0 0
d ensity(y 3 )
1 30 - 8 0 B P
= 5 0 y rs(x 4 ) , n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 4 )
1 00 - 8 0 B P
= 2 0 y rs(x 5) , n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 5)
T ab le 9 . S tudy a rea 2 B ; s urface a r ie4 , n umbQr o f f arm ing s ett lement s ites f ound , a nd m ean s ite d ensity ( km'.s ites 1 ) , i n t he s amp le u nits o f e ach l and t ype . T he d ensity o f f arm ing s ett lement o lder t han 9 00 B P o bserved i n t his s tudy a rea w as h igher t han i n a ny o ther s tudy a rea s amp led i n t he t hree t ransects. T wo o ther s ites o f t his a ge w ere f ound o n t he M z int lava r iver u pstream o f t he s tudy a rea .
r eta ining t hatch a nd f ramework i mpressions w here d we llings h ad b een f ired . S uch a f ate w as a w idespread o ccurrence d ur ing t he Z u lu r a ids o n P ondo land c .125 B P ( Hunter , 1 979), a nd t he r a ids b y B haca a nd X esibe p eop les c .80 - 7 0 B P ( Stanford , 1 962). A nother c ause w as p robab ly v e ld f ires. S ett lement l ocations p robab ly d at ing t o b oth t he f irst m illenium A .D . ( seven s ites) a nd t he s econd m illenium ( n ine s ites) w ere f ound . A t f ive f irst m illen ium s ites e v idence f or i ron s me lt ing w as f ound . S me lter s lag f rom o ne o f t hese s ites ( 4050), w hich l ay w ithin 3 km o f a s urface o utcrop o f c opper o re ( Geo log ica l S urvey , 1 981) w as a na lysed f or C u a nd F e ( atom ic a bsorpt ion, D epartment o f C hem istry , U niversity o f T ranske i). C opper w as p resent i n t races ( 50km ) f rom o utcrops o f c oa l i n t he M o lteno F ormat ion, r ecorded a round t he e scarpment b e low t he I n land P lateau ( Geo logica l S urvey , 1 979a , 1 981, 1 982). T his f ue l w ou ld h ave b een t he o n ly p ract icab le a lternat ive t o c harcoa l, b ut t here i s n o e v idence m entioned t hat c oa l w as u sed f or s me lting i ron b y f armers a nywhere i n s outhern A fr ica ( Maggs, 1 980a , 1 984c , d ). S ummary F arm ing s ett lement l ocat ions w ere f ound i n a l l t hree s tudy a reas o f t he c entra l t ransect . H owever , n o c onf irmed s ites w ere f ound o n t he I n land P lateau i n s tudy a rea 1 C . T he o n ly s ett lement l ocat ions f ound i n s tudy a rea 1 C w ere o f t he s econd m illen ium A .D . n ear t he M bashe r iver a nd i ts l arger t r ibutar ies b e low t he e scarpment o n t he C oasta l P lateau . O n h istor ica l e v idence i t i s p robab le t hat n one o f t hese s ites i s l ike ly t o b e o lder t han 2 00 t o 3 00 B P . I n s tudy a rea 1 A , f irst m illenium A .D . s ett lement l ocat ions ( f ive) w ere f ound a long t he l arger e ntrenched r ivers a s f ar a s 2 5km i n land . T wo f urther f irst m illenium s ites w ere a lso f ound o n w atersheds. O ne o f t hese w as e xcavated ( Lujojoz i, 3 027) b y T .S . R obey w ith t he S pat ia l A rchaeo logy R esearch U nit , U niversity o f C ape T own. T wo 1 4 Cd ates w ere o bta ined o n c harcoa l; t he o lder d ate b e ing 1 4 80 + 100 8 P , a nd t he y ounger 1 2 40 + 70 B P . F urther s urvey o f t he s ite i s n eeded t o r eso lve w hether t hese d ates i nd icate t wo p er iods o f o ccupat ion , o r ac ontinuous o ccupation o ver o ne o r t wo c entur ies , o r i f o ne o f t he d ates m ay b e a berrant .
8 0
S econd m illen ium A .D . s ett lement l ocat ions w ere f ound t hroughout s tudy a reas 1 A a nd 1 B . I n s tudy a rea 1 B a nd 1 C , a t s ome o f t hese s ites t he r ema ins o f s tone w a ll c att le b yres w ere t hought t o i nd icate m id-19th c entury A .D . o r l ater o ccupat ion. T his a ssessment w as b ased o n h istor ica l i nformat ion , w hich s howed t hat t his f orm o f a rchitecture w as n ot o bserved i n T ranske i b efore 1 00 t o 9 0 B P , a lthough i t i s c ommon ly u sed a t p resent . S uch u se o f s tone w as p robab ly a n i mported a rch itectura l f eature a pparent ly a ssoc iated w ith t he i mm igrat ion o f f arm ing p eop les f rom w estern N ata l b etween c .130 a nd 7 0 B P . T he s pat ia l d ens ity o f s ett lement l ocat ions w ithout s tone a rchitecture w as h ighest o n l and t ype 2 ( va lley b ottoms) i n a l l t hree s tudy a reas. I n s tudy a reas 1 A a nd 1 B as im ilar ly h igh d ensity o f s ett lement l ocat ions w ithout s tone a rchitecture w as f ound o n l and t ype 4 ( s lopes 1 2 -3 0% ). T he c oasta l s tr ip b e low 1 00m a .s.l. i n s tudy a rea 1 A a lso r evea led a c omparab le d ensity o f s econd m illenium A .D . s ett lement l ocations, b ut n o f irst m illenium s ett lement l ocat ions w ere f ound i n t he c oasta l s tr ip ( land t ype 1 ) . A t o ne o f t he s econd m illen ium A .D . s ett lement l ocations ( Nkanya , 3 057) a 1 d ate o f 12 00 + 6 0 B P w as o bta ined o n s ea s he lls f rom a m idden . Ac orrect ion o f -c .400 y ears i s p robab ly n ecessary f or d ates o bta ined o n m ar ine s he ll a s a r esu lt o f c arbon f ract ionat ion , i nd icat ing a n o ccupat ion a round 8 00 B P . S uch a n a ge w as s upported b y t he c ompar ison o f t he p ottery f rom N kanya 3 057 w ith s ites o f c omparab le a ge i n N ata l ( Robey & F ee ly , i n p rep .). I n a l l s tudy a reas t he s patia l d ensity o f t he f ew s econd m illen ium A .D . s ett lement l ocations f ound o n l and t ype 5 ( gent ly s lop ing, < 12% ) w as f ar l ower t han o n t he o ther l and t ypes s earched . T he v egetat ion o n l and t ype 5 f rom 1 00m a .s.l. t o a l l h igher e levations w as u niform ly a g rass land t hroughout t he t ransect . O n t he o ther l and t ypes, p lant f ormations d om inated b y t rees a nd s hrubs o ccur e xtensive ly o ther t han o n r ecent ly c u ltivated f ie lds. H owever a t t he s outhwestern e nd o f t he c oasta l s tr ip ( land t ype 1 ) g rass land w as o bserved u niform ly t o t he h igh t ide m ark . T here w ere v irtua lly n o p resent d ay s ett lements, a nd n o o lder s ett lement l ocations f ound i n t he s amp le u nits s earched t here . T he s outhwestern e nd o f t he c oasta l s tr ip b ordered a n e xtensive a rea o f g ent ly s lop ing t erra in ( land t ype 5 ), w here t rees a nd s hrubs w ere n oticed o n ly o n u nentrenched s tream b anks. T h is s outhwestern p ortion o f t he c oasta l s tr ip ( land t ype 1 ) c ou ld b e i nterpreted a s a c ont inuat ion o f l and t ype 5 d own t o p resent s ea l eve l.
C hapter 6
T HE S OUTHERN T RANSECT
T he T ranske ian p ort ion o f t he G reat K e i r iver ( Xhosa : N c iba ) b asin t ogether w ith t he b asin o f t he W h ite K e i r iver ( Xhosa : X onxa) w ere s amp led i n f ive s tudy a reas ( 3A , 3 B , 3 C , 3 D , a nd 3 E ) d ur ing 1 985 . A n umber o f g eograph ica l a nd h istor ica l f eatures, d ist ingu ished t h is t ransect f rom t he o thers, m a in ly i n i ts i n land h a lf ( study a reas 3 C , 3 D a nd 3 E). T he o ccurrence o f a v e ld t ype t hought t o h ave b een a g rass land a s r ecent ly a s 8 0 B P a nd s ubsequent ly i nvaded b y t rees ( Invasion o f G rassve ld b y T horn, v e ld t ype 2; A cocks, 1 953), i s i n s harp c ontrast t o t he s ituation i n t he r ema inder o f T ranske i w here t he o pposite p rocess w as t hought t o h ave h appened o ver a w ide a rea . T his v iew o f t he h istory o f v e ld t ype 2 w as e xp la ined a s p robab ly r esu lting f rom v ery r ecent c limatic c hange , i .e . i ncreased t emperature m inima s ince 8 0 B P . C onverse ly t he g rass land , s upposed ly i nvaded b y t horn t rees A cac ia k arroo i n t he l ower W hite K e i r iver d ra inage b asin, w as t hought b y A cocks ( 1953) t o s urv ive h igher u p i n t he b asin w here h e m apped ' Pure ' g rass land ( 50d , D ry C ymbopogon-Themeda V e ld). C limat ica lly , t he i n land s ector o f t he t ransect r ece ives a l ower m ean a nnua l r a infa ll t han a ny o ther T ranske ian r eg ion, b e ing a t t he w esternm ost e nd o f t he e ast-west r a infa ll g rad ient ( chapter 2 ) . I n a dd it ion ' low lands w ith m ounta ins' t erra in ( Kruger , 1 983) ( f igure 5 , u nit 1 6) i s a s et o f p hysica l f eatures e ncountered i n T ranske i o n ly i n t he i n land s ector o f t his t ransect . M any o f t he m ounta ins ( re lat ive r e lief > 450m ) c ou ld b e s een t o c ompr ise t he r ims o f p robab ly s aucer-shaped d o ler it ic s i lls ( du T o it , 1 917; G eo log ica l S urvey , 1 976), s uch a s o ccur w ith m ore s ubdued r e lief i n t he c entra l t ransect ( study a rea 2 B ). I nvasion o f G rass land b y T horn i s m apped i n t he l ower p arts, g rass land i n t he h igher p arts o f t hese l ow lands, w h ile m ost o f t he m ounta ins a re m apped a s S ourve ld ( ve ld t ype 4; A cocks, 1 953). F rom t he h istor iograph ic r ecord D err icourt ( 1974 , 1 977) c onc luded t hat f arm ing s ett lement i n t he W h ite K e i r iver d ra inage b asin h ad c ommenced c .120 B P b y T hembu f rom a reas i n T ranske i e ast o f t he T somo r iver , M fengu ( F ingo) f rom N ata l v ia m odern C ape P rov ince a nd O range F ree S tate , a nd W hites f rom C ape C o lony 1 20 - 9 0 B P . A mong t he l ast w as L ou is ' Lub isi' T regardt , w hose f armstead w as l ocated a t m odern S outheyv ille n ear t he I ndwe r iver b etween 1 833 a nd 1 835 A .D . ( Pe ires, 1 981; S tanford , 1 958 ; v an d er W a lt , n d). T he a bor igina l B ushman i nhab itants ( LSA h unters) c ont inued i n o ccupat ion a t p laces u nt il 7 0 B P ( Stanford , 1 958 ; S tow , 1 905), t he ir f ormer p resence s till b eing e videnced b y p a inted r ock s he lters ( Derr icourt , 1 977). T he b est k nown o f t he B ushman , w as t he c lan l eader M adoor ( Afr ikaans) o r M ado lo ( Xhosa), w ho w as m et a nd p ortrayed b y T homas B a ines n ear L ady F rere i n 1 848 A .D . ( Ba ines , 1 961). M ado lo 's l ast k nown r esidence , 8 2
t he ' Cave o f t he S pr ingboks ' ( Stow , 1 905 ), w as r ed iscovered o n t he W h ite K e i r iver n ear S t M arks i n s tudy a rea 3 C d ur ing f ie ld w ork . M any o f t he s pr ingbok p a int ings w ere s t ill w e ll p reserved i n O ctober 1 985 . P rev ious ly u nrecorded p a inted r ock s he lters w ere a lso f ound i n s tudy a rea 3 E , s ome e nc losed w ith s tone w a lls . A nother p eop le w ho m ay h ave k ept c att le , a nd w ere d escr ibed a s t he ' Snese o r S inese ' ( = C h inese ) H ottentots o r a s T ambuk i, h ave b een t hought f rom t he h istor iograph ic r ecord o f t he 1 8th c entury A .D . t o h ave l ived i n t he b as ins o f t he W h ite K e i a nd u pper T somo r ivers ( Ma ingard , 1 931; S tow , 1 905 ). N ineteen L SA s ites w ith d ist inct ive t h in , d ecorated p ottery w ere f ound o n t he b anks o f p erenn ia l s treams i n s tudy a reas 3 C , D , a nd E , a nd w ere p oss ib ly a ttr ibutab le t o s uch a p eop le . H owever D err icourt ( 1977 ) p referred a T hembu a ttr ibut ion f or a s im ilar s ite h e f ound o n t he W h ite K e i r iver a t G len G rey F a lls , i n t he a rea b etween s tudy a reas 3 D a nd E . T he n ame T ambuk i i n v ar ious s pe llings w as a lso a pp lied ( or w as t hought t o h ave b een a pp lied ) t o T hembu p eop le i n t he h istor iography o f t he 1 8th a nd 1 9th c entur ies A .D . ( W ilson , 1 959 ). T hese r eports l ed S tow ( 1905 ) t o s uppose t hat K hoe-khoen a nd T hembu w ere b ecom ing i ntegrated i n t he W h ite K e i a nd T somo r iver d ra inage b as ins d ur ing t he 1 8th c entury A .D . T h is p rofusion o f n ames c ou ld h ave r esu lted f rom t he i ntegrat ion o f L SA h erders a nd/or h unters w ith s econd m illen ium f armers , o r f rom a m isunderstand ing o f s econd-hand r eports o f s eparate p eop les l iv ing i n t he s ame b road r eg ion , o r m ay h ave s ome o ther e xp lanat ion . I t i s n oteworthy i n c onsequence t hat i ntegrat ion o f K hoe p astora lists w ith X hosa f armers i n C iske i t o t he w est d ur ing t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c entur ies A .D . h as b een w e ll a ttested ( Pe ires , 1 981), w h ich s upports t he f irst p oss ib ility . F urther s upport ing e v idence i s o ut lined i n c hapter 2 . S tudy A rea 3 E C over ing t he s ources o f t he W h ite K e i r iver n orth o f Q ueenstown, t h is s tudy a rea w as u n ique i n r evea ling n o s ett lement l ocat ions w h ich c ou ld c onf ident ly b e a scr ibed t o t he p reco lon ia l e ra . R u ined s tone w a ll c att le b yres w ere f requent ly s een a nd w ere a lso v is ib le o n a ir p hotos . Y et a l l t hose e xam ined s howed e v idence o f p robab ly b e ing y ounger t han 8 0 B P , e .g . e arth w a ll d we llings ( cf . c hapter 3 ) o r m odern t rade g oods . T hat o lder s ites m ust e x ist i s a ttested b y S tanford ( 1958 ), w ho o bserved f arm ing p eop les f lee ing w ith t he ir l ivestock f rom t he Q oqoda la b as in ( in t he s tudy a rea ) t o t he G len G rey m iss ion n earby d ur ing 1 858 A .D . A d ecade e ar lier i n 1 848 A .D ., T homas B a ines ( 1961) o bserved t hat M fengu w ere s ett led b e low t he H ang lip ( Lukanji) m ounta in j ust w est o f t he p resent T ranske i b oundary . M fengu p eop les w ere i mm igrants f rom N ata l t he ir m igrat ions h av ing b een a r esu lt o f t he M fecane u pheava ls b etween c .130 a nd 10 B P ( Omer -Cooper , 1 966 ; W ilson , 1 969 ). A ll
o f
t he a rchaeo log ica l s ites f ound a nd r ecorded w ere L SA , 8 3
i n
t wo
c ategor ies . T hese w ere : o pen s ites w ith c eram ics ( two) o n t he W hite K e i r iver a nd r ock s he lters w ith p a int ings a nd s tone w a lls ( three). T he l atter w ere b uilt t o ap lan w h ich s uggested t he k raa ling o f d omestic s tock i n f ront o f t he s he lter a nd t he a ccommodat ion o f h erdsmen w ithin. W hether t he a rt ists w ere t he h erders, o r t he a rt a nd t he w a lling w ere a rtefacts o f s eparate p eop les c ou ld n ot b e d eterm ined b y t he s uperf icia l e xam inat ion w hich w as p ossib le . D eta iled a rchaeo logica l s urvey c ou ld b e e xpected t o u nrave l t his s ituat ion. A c omparab le s ite w as f ound i n s tudy a rea 2 D , w here t he p a int ings i nc luded t he f ish ing s cene i l lustrated b oth b y D err icourt ( 1977 : 8 4) a nd b y M aggs & M aze l ( 1985)(T . M aggs p ers . c omm ., 1 985). Ap a inted r ock s he lter ( Oak le igh Q 0B ) l ess t han 0 ,5km b eyond t he s tudy a rea a nd T ranske i b oundary w as e xcavated a nd d escr ibed b y D err icourt ( 1977). H e c onc luded o n t he b asis o f r ad iocarbon d ated s tratigraphy t hat : ( 1 )
p ottery h ad b een a cqu ired b y 10 40 B P i n c ommenc ing e ar lier t han 2 0 00 B P ,
al onger L SA s equence
( 2 )
c att le h ad f ormed p art o f t he h unter 's d iet p ossib ly f rom C .500 4 50 B P b ut n ot l ater t han 3 60 + 50 B P ,
( 3 )
d omest ic c apr ines ( sheep/goat) h ad b een a f ood i tem p ossib ly f rom c .1 7 60 B P .
H e p resumed t hat t he d omest ic s tock w ere a cqu ired b y t heft , p resumab ly f rom f armers l iving t o t he e ast , s outh o r s outhwest , o r f rom p astora lists. N everthe less i t s hou ld b e c onsidered t hat s ome l ivestock m ay h ave b een a cqu ired f rom f armers i n e xchange f or r a in-mak ing b y h unters. T h is w as a r e lig ious r itua l i n w hich r ock p a inting w as p robab ly a v ita l e lement ( Lew is-W illiams , 1 981). B ecause o f t he ir a pparent s uccess i n c ausing r a in , t he B ushman w ere e steemed b y s ome f armers i n s outhe astern A fr ica d ur ing t he 1 9th c entury A .D . S uch a r e lationship e x isted b etween h unter a nd f armer i n t he T so lo d istr ict o f T ranske i t o t he n ortheast o f t he s tudy a rea d ur ing t he l ate 1 9th a nd e ar ly 2 0th c entury A .D . ( Jo lly , 1 986 ; K ingon, 1 916; L ew is-W illiams, 1 986; S tanford , 1 962). I n t he e nd , h owever , s tock t heft m ay h ave b een t he r eason f or t he e xpu lsion o f M ado lo t he l ast k nown B ushman f rom t he d ra inage b as in o f t he W hite K e i r iver , b y c hief N d le la o f t he Q wati t r ibe . T hat w as a fter t he Q wati h ad i mm igrated i nto t he W hite K ei d ra inage b asin c .100 B P ( Stanford, 1 958 ). T he Q wat i w ere a nd a re a T hembu c hiefta incy ( Pe ires, 1 981). S tow ( 1905 ) s tated , h owever , t hat M ado lo r etreated v o luntar ily r ather t han b y c ompu lsion t o t he D rakensberg m ounta ins, w hen f arm ing s ett lement c ommenced i n t he W h ite K e i r iver b asin c .100 B P . A bout t he s ame t ime c .90 - 1 00 B P a nother B ushman l eader N qapay i ( Kapaa i) b ased i n t he D rakensberg m ounta ins n ear m odern U g ie , w as r a id ing d omestic s tock f rom W hite a nd T hembu f armers o ver d istances o f u p t o 2 00km , a lthough t he n earest s ources w ere l ess t han 6 0km a way a nd a lso b e ing r a ided ( Stanford , 1 962). A s im ilar s ituation e x isted i n N ata l d ur ing t he 1 9th c entury A .D . ( Wr ight , 1 971).
8 4
L and 1
2
T ype 4
5
54 ,8 3 6 ,2 1 29 ,3 2
S urface a rea , k m 2, l and t ype k m 2, s amp le u nits 1 450 - 9 00 B P = 5 50 y rs(x 1) , n o . s ites
1 0 ,1: 3 3,0 : 3 6 ,5 :
T ota l 4 20 ,3
7 9 ,6 0
d ens ity(y 1)
9 00 - 8 0 B P
= 8 20 y rs(x 2) , n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 2)
2 00 - 8 0 B P
= 1 20 y rs(x 3 ) , n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 3 )
1 30 - 8 0 B P
= 5 0 y rs(x 4 ) , n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 4 )
1 00 - 8 0 B P
= 2 0 y rs(x 5) , n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 5 )
T ab le 1 4 . S tudy a rea 3 E , s urface a rea n umber o f f arm ing s ett lement s ites f ound , a nd m ean s ite d ensity ( km 2 . s ites 1 ) , i n t he s amp le u nits o f e ach l and t ype . T he a pparent a bsence o f f arm ing s ett lement l ocat ions o lder t han 8 0 B P , i s i n f act b e lied b y h istor ica l d ata d emonstrat ing t he p resence o f M fengu i mm igrants f rom N ata l b etween 10 a nd 9 0 B P .
T his i ndicates t hat h unters a cqu ir ing d omest ic s tock f or f ood , c ou ld h ave b een r esid ing a t s ome d istance f rom t he ir s ource o f s upp ly . I n c onsequence t he e v idence f or d omest ic s tock a cqu isition a t a n e ar ly d ate b y h unters l iv ing o n t he b order o f s tudy a rea 3 E , d oes n ot n ecessar ily s uggest t hat f armers o r h erders w ith s heep w ere l iv ing n earby , e .g . i n t he s tudy a rea . F rom c .1 7 60 B P h erders m ay h ave b een p resent , f or t hey a re k nown t o h ave o ccup ied t he s outhern C ape P rov ince w ith s heep f rom c .2 0 00 B P ( Deacon , J , 1 984a ). S ites w ere f ound i n s tudy a rea 3 E s uggest ing t he p ossib ility o f t he f ormer p resence o f h erders, a nd w ithin 5 0km i n s tudy a reas 3 C a nd D . S tudy A rea 3 D C over ing p art o f t he c entra l W hite K e i r iver a nd a s ma ll s ector ( Imvani r iver ) o f t he B lack K e i r iver d ra inage b asins , t his s tudy a rea ( 3D ) w as n otab le i n t hat l andscape d escr ipt ions e x ist i n t he p a int ings a nd j ourna l o f T homas B a ines o f p rec ise ly i dent if iab le l oca lities r ecorded 1 02 B P , i .e . A pr il 1 848 ( Ba ines, 1 961; F ee ly & G ranger , 1 986; F ee ly , B e ll-Cross & G ranger , i n p rep .). T hese d emonstrate t hat w ooded g rassl and d om inated b y A cacia k arroo e x isted m ore t han a 1 00 B P i n a s ignif icant f raction o f t he a rea m apped a s v e ld t ype 2 b y A cocks ( 1953). B a ines ' j ourna l a nd p a intings a lso i nd icate t hat : ( 1 )
f armers ( Thembu) w ere s ett led i n ar e lat ive ly s ma ll a rea o f t he W hite K e i r iver d ra inage b asin i n 1 848 A .D .;
( 2 )
a t l east o ne v a lley c .8km x l km ( Kundu lu s tream ) p resent ly v ery s evere ly e roded b y g u llies w as t hen b e ing e xtensive ly c u lt ivated f or m illet b y T hembu p eop le a nd g razed b y t he ir w e ll-cond it ioned c att le;
(3 )
s ome h i ll-s lopes n ow c overed b y t he w oody s hrub E urvops f lor ibundus ( resin b ush, h arpu isbos, u lwapesi), am ajor p resent d ay s ource o f d omest ic f ue l, t hen s upported a g rass land i n a reas m apped a s as econdary g rass land ( H igh land S ourve ld , v e ld t ype 4a), a nd s upposed ly c leared o f f orest b y f armers ( Acocks, 1 953).
T hese c ompar isons s uggest a c ontrast ing h istory o f t he p resent v egetat ion f ormat ions a nd t he r o le o f f armers i n o ne o f t hem , t o t hat w h ich A cocks ( 1953) t hought p robab le . F irst, i f t he t hornve ld ( ve ld t ype 2) d id r esu lt f rom a n i nvasion o f t rees i nto a f ormer g rass land ( ve ld t ype 5 0d ), t hen t his i s a n o lder p henomenon t han c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y c limatic a me lioration s ince c .80 B P . S econd , t hat t he e ffects o f f arm ing l and u se i n ag rass land s upposed ly s era l t o f orest c learance f or c u lt ivat ion, a ppears t o h ave b een t he i nvasion o f w oody p lants a fter 1 02 B P r ather t han t he ir d isappearance . T his d ate w as b ut a d ecade o r t wo a fter i n itia l s ett lem ent o f p arts o f t he a rea b y f armers, w hen m oreover n one o f t hese g rass lands w as s een t o b e c u ltivated . W hat h as r esu lted i s a m ore w idespread w ood f ue l s ource t han e x isted w hen f armers a rr ived , a nd i s
8 6
L and 1 S urface a rea , km 2,
la nd
2 3 6 ,2
t ype
k m 2, s amp le u n its
6 ,9
T ype 4
5
98 ,5 6 0 ,2 1
9 ,9
2 7,7
1 450 - 9 00 B P = 50 y rs(x 1) , n o . s ites
T ota l 2 94 ,9
4 4 ,5
0
d ensity(y 1)
9 00 - 8 0 B P
= 8 20 y rs(x 2) , n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 2)
2 00 - 8 0 B P
= 1 20 y rs(x 3 ) , n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 3 )
1 30 - 8 0 B P
= 5 0 y rs(x 4 ) , n o . s ites
3
2
5
d ensity(y 4 ) 2 ,3 1 00 - 8 0 B P
= 2 0 y rs(x5), n o . s ites
1 3 ,6 0
d ensity(y 5)
T ab le 1 5 . S tudy a rea 3 D ; s urface a rea , n umber o f , f arm ing s ett lem ent s ites f ound , a nd m ean s ite d ensity ( km`.sites 1 ) , i n t he s amp le u nits o f e ach l and t ype . T he s ites f ound o n l and t ype 5 w ere o n t he b ank o f a m inor s tream , c lose t o t he W hite K e i r iver . T hey a re p robab ly b etter a ssoc iated w ith l and t ype 2 .
o ne w hich y ie ld .
i s t oday h eav ily u t ilised w ithout n ot iceab le e ffect o n
i ts
E uryops w as o bserved d a ily d ur ing f ie ld w ork b e ing t ransported t o h omesteads a s h ead loads, a nd o n s ledges , o x-wagons a nd m otor v eh ic les s o t hat o utside n ear ly e very h ome l arge b und les o f i t w ere m uch i n e vidence . Y et t here w ere f ew a pparent s igns o f s uch h eavy u se o ther t han t he s ma ll s ize o f t he p lants i n t he e xtensive h ill-slope s tands . I t i s as hrub w hose s pread p articu lar ly o n e nt iso ls, a ppears t o h ave b een f avoured b y c ont inuous g raz ing p ressure . F or i t w as n ot iceab ly a bsent i n f ie lds o n s uch s o ils f rom w hich s tock w as e xc luded b y f enc ing , b ut a bundant w herever g rasses w ere g razed o n c ommonage t o n o m ore t han a f ew c entimetres h igh. T his w as a fter a s ummer o f g ood r a infa ll ( March - M ay 1 985). T he s ituat ion i n s tudy a rea 3 E w as v ery m uch t he s ame . F ive f arm ing s ett lement l ocations w ere f ound w hich p robab ly d ated t o t he 1 9th c entury A .D . A t o ne o f t hese a s ma ll s me lter s lag f ragment p rov ided s l ight e v idence t hat i ron s me lt ing m ay h ave b een p ract ised . A na lysis s howed 3 8% F e0 2 a nd 0 ,9% C a0 ( Transke i M in ing C orporation , p ers . c omm ., 1 986). T he p auc ity o f s me lter r e lics s uggests t hat t he s lag f ound m ay h ave b een b rought t o t he s ite f rom a s me lter e lsewhere , ap ract ice n ot iced i n N ata l ( T . M aggs , p ers . c omm ., 1 986). A ll o f t he s ites w ere f ound w ithin l km o f t he W hite K e i r iver , t hough n ot a l l w ere i n i ts v a lley b ottom . T hey p robab ly r epresent l ocat ions o f e ar ly T hembu s ett ler h omesteads c .120 - 8 0 B P . I n t he l ight o f t he h istor iographic e v idence r eferred t o a bove t hey a re u n like ly t o h ave b een o lder . S tudy A rea 3 C T he s tudy a rea c ompr ised t he l ower s ector o f t he W hite K e i r iver d ra inage b asin, a nd b e low i ts j unct ion w ith t he B lack K e i r iver t hat o f t he G reat K e i r iver . E ntrenchment o f t he W hite K e i c ommences a f ew k i lometres d ownstream o f S t M arks a nd i ncreases i n d epth r ap id ly . T his i s e v idenced b y t he d istr ibution o f l and t ype 3 . I n c onsequence a f urther e lement i s i ntroduced t o t he ' low lands w ith m ounta ins' t erra in , t he e astern b oundary o f w hich c o inc ided w ith t he s tudy a rea 's e astern l im its . T h is e lement c ompr ised l ow lands ( land t ype 5 ) p erched 5 0 -1 50m a bove t he W hite K e i a nd G reat K e i r ivers. T hey w ere t hemse lves s urmounted b y t he C amamma m ounta ins i n t he s tudy a rea . A ccess t o t he e ntrenched v a lley b ottoms o f t he K e i r ivers i n t he s tudy a rea w as i mpeded t o t he e xtent t hat a v a lley b ottom s amp le u n it o n t he G reat K e i r iver , a ccessib le b y av ehic le t rack o n t he S outh A fr ican s ide o f t he i nternationa l b oundary ( the r iver 's t ha lweg), w as s ubjective ly s e lected d ownstream o f t he s tudy a rea . T his u nit w as t he o n ly p racticab le a lternative t o o ne r andom ly s e lected u pstream . I t h as b een r egarded h ere a s ad isjunct p ort ion o f t he s tudy a rea . Ac lose a ssoc iat ion o f t he m ajor p lant f ormat ions w ith t hese g eomorph ic e lements w as a pparent. L ow lands s upported I nvasion o f G rass land b y T horn ( ve ld t ype 2), t he e ntrenched v a lleys V a lley B ushve ld ( ve ld t ype 2 3a , h ere a t i ts u pper l im it i n t he W hite K e i r iver d ra inage b asin),
8 8
a nd t he m ounta ins D ohne S ourve ld ( ve ld t ype 4 4a ). E astward o f t he u nentrenched p ort ion o f t he l ower W hite K e i r iver t he l ow lands f rom t he S t M arks a rea t o t he f oot o f t he m ounta ins, a re t oday e xtensive ly c leared o f t rees f or a m ajor i rr igat ion s cheme . Ap eop le w ho m ay h ave v anished r e lat ive ly r ecent ly ( 18th c entury A .D .), w ere L SA p astora lists w hose p resence w as p ossib ly a ttested a t t he e ight L SA s ites r ecorded w ith p ottery . T hese w ere f ound a long e ach p erennia l s tream b ank s earched u pstream o f t he ir e ntrenched s ectors. S uch a p eop le m ay h ave i nc luded t he e nigmat ic ' Snese H ottentots' w ho M a ingard ( 1931) m apped i n t h is a rea a nd m uch o f t he n ortheastern C ape P rov ince , f rom t he h istor iographic r ecord o f t he 1 8th c entury A .D . ( cf . c hapter 1) . T he s tudy a rea w as o ccup ied b y G ca leka p eop le i n 1 844 A .D ., a fter t hey h ad d efeated t he T hembu w ho h ad s ett led i n t he a rea a bout 1 835 ( Pe ires, 1 981). T he G ca leka c hief S arhili k aH intsa e stab lished h is G reat P lace o n t he H ohita s tream ( Pe ires, 1 981) i n t he s tudy a rea . L oca l o ra l t radit ion i dent if ies t he s ite o f t he G reat P lace a s b eing a bout 0 ,5km n orth-northeast o f t he p resent d ay H ohita s tore ( M .B . M abentse la , p ers. c omm ., 1 986). D ur ing t he 8 th F rontier W ar ( of M lanjeni) t he G reat P lace w as b urnt b y B r it ish a nd C o lonia l f orces o n 1 2th A ugust 1 852 ( Kennedy , f ootnote i n B a ines, 1 961), w hereafter c hief S arh ili r e-estab lished h is G reat P lace i n K entani d istr ict ( study a rea 3 A) . A t t wo o f t he f arm ing s ett lement l ocations o f t he s econd m illenium A .D ., f ound i n t he v a lley b ottom s amp le u nit a long t he G reat K e i r iver , n umbers o f b roken b ored s tones w ere a lso f ound . T his f eature w as n oticed e lsewhere a t s ites o f t he s ame a ge d ownstream o n t he G reat K e i r iver i n s tudy a rea 3 B , i n s tudy a rea 1 A n ear t he M bashe r iver; a nd a t f irst m illenium s ett lement l ocat ions o n t he M z imvubu a nd M z int lava r ivers i n s tudy a rea 2 6 ( northern t ransect). N everthe less t here w as n o e v idence f or a n E IA a ttr ibution f or s uch s ites i n t he s outhern t ransect . A ccord ing t o M cLaren ( 1919 , q uoted b y S haw & v an W arme lo , 1 974) X hosa f armers u sed b ored s tones a s d igg ing s t ick w e ights d ur ing t he h istor ica l p er iod , a n i dea b orrowed f rom t he B ushman . O n t he o ther h and G oodw in ( 1947 : 2 08 - 2 10; r eferred t o b y D err icourt , 1 977) t hought t hat t hey h ad b een u sed b y s econd m illenium f armers a s d agga ( mar ijuana , C annab is s pp) s mok ing p ipes . T he ir p robab le u se b y f armers d ur ing t he s econd m illenium A .D . i s , t herefore , a cceptab le p ossib ly f or b oth p urposes m entioned . R e lative ly v ery s ma ll e xamp les ( largest d iameter < 6cm ) a s w ere f ound a t t wo L IA s ites s eem u n like ly t o h ave s erved t o w e ight d igg ing s t icks, a lthough t hese w ere c once ivab ly u sed a s t he h eads o f k nobst icks. T here i s n o e thnographic e v idence t hat t he s tones w ere b ored b y f armers t hemse lves, w ho m ay h ave p icked u p L SA e xamp les t o u se f or t he ir o wn p urposes ( Shaw & v an W arme lo , 1 974). N or w as t here e v idence o f o ther L SA a rtefacts o n a ny o f t hese s ites, a lthough a f ew p otsherds a t as ite i n s tudy a rea 3 6 w ere d ecorated i n am anner r em iniscent o f t he L SA w are s een i n s tudy a reas 3 C , Da nd E .
L and 1
1 8 ,8
S urface a rea , k m 2, l and t ype I
I l
2
7 ,8
k m 2, s amp le u n its
t ype 4
5
T ota l
79 ,5 9 4 ,3 1
2 92 ,6
3 0 ,8
5 9 ,1
2 0 ,5
0
1 450 - 9 00 B P = 50 y rs(x 1) , n o . s ites d ens ity(y 1)
9 00 - 8 0 B P
= 8 20 y rs(x 2) , n o . s ites d ensity(y 2)
2 00 - 8 0 B P
= 1 20 y rs(x 3 ) , n o . s ites
---
2
--
--
---
3 ,9
---
---
2
0
d ensity (y 3 )
1 30 - 8 0 B P
= 5 0 y rs(x 4) , n o . s ites
0
d ens ity(y 4)
1 00 - 8 0 B P
= 2 0 y rs(x 5) , n o . s ites
0
d ens ity(y 5)
T ab le 1 6 . S tudy a rea 3 C , s urface a rea n umber o f f arm ing s ett lement s ites f ound , a nd m ean s ite d ens ity ( km 2. s ites 1 ) , i n t he s amp le u n its o f e ach l and t ype . B oth s ites f ound a re l ocated i n t he d eep ly e ntrenched v a lley o f t he G reat K e i r iver , a nd m ay r epresent o lder f arm ing s ett lement l ocat ions t han w ere f ound i n t he u nentrenched s ectors o f t he K e i r iver d ra inage b as in u pstream .
D agga g rown i n T ranske i b y f armers w as t raded t o K hoe p astora lists, i n e xchange f or c opper a cquired b y K hoe-khoen f rom T swana ( in m odern B ophutatswana ) d ur ing t he 1 8th c entury A .D . ( Pe ires , 1 981). P resent d ay p o lice r eports i n t he d a ily p ress d emonstrate t hat t he o ld t rade c ontinues t o f lour ish , a lbe it n ow i l lega l a nd m a in ly t o t he s outhw estern C ape . I t w as t hus t hought p rudent d ur ing f ie ld w ork n e ither t o n ot ice n or t o a pproach t he b r ight g reen ' dagga ' f ie lds i n e ntrenched v a lleys ( as i n s tudy a rea 2 6 ). I t w as t hought t hat t he ir c u ltivators w ou ld p robab ly h ave r esented a s tranger i n s ight o f t he ir c rop . T hese c onsiderat ions a s w e ll a s s teepness o f t erra in w ere a lso i mpediments t o r andom s amp ling i n t hese v a lleys. S tudy A rea 3 B M uch o f t his s tudy a rea c ompr ised t he d eep ly e ntrenched m eanders o f t he G reat K e i a nd T somo r ivers i n N qamakwe a nd T somo d istr icts . U nd issected s urfaces, r epresented b y l and t ype 5 w ere r are a nd o ccurred i n b ut 4 ,5% o f t he s tudy a rea . M agnif icent r iver c liffs a re a r egu lar f eature o n t he o uts ide o f m eanders a long b oth s treams, w ith r e lief o f 1 50 - 2 50m a t an umber o f t hem . T owards t hese r ivers' c onf luence , w here t he ir i nterf luv ia l r idge n amed t he D ev il's B ackbone i s l ess t han 1 ,5km w ide , s pot h e ights 4 00m a bove b oth s treams a re m apped . H ere , a s a long t he M z imvubu a nd M z int lava r ivers i n s tudy a rea 2 B , s pectacu lar s cenery w as a b ar t o r andom s amp ling o f v a lley b ottom u nits i n t he t ime a va ilab le . V a lley b ottom u nits ( land t ype 2 ) w ere t heref ore s e lected w here a ccessib le b y v ehic le o n t he G reat K e i r iver f rom t he r oad b etween T somo v i llage a nd S tutterhe im . A nother t hree r oads g ave a ccess t o t he v a lley b ottom o f t he T somo r iver . O n t he G reat K e i r iver t he o n ly a ccess ib le v a lley b ottom u nit c ompr ised b oth s ides o f t he i nternat iona l b oundary ( the r iver 's t ha lweg). S uch r estr ictions t o a ccess d o n ot h owever a pp ly t o t he p resent d ay i nhab itants, w ho u se f ootpaths t o h omesteads a nd f ie lds i n a ll o f t he v a lley b ottoms a nd h i ll-s lopes, n o m atter h ow s trenuous t he ir a ccess m ay b e . T his t hey a lso d o e verywhere e lse i n T ranske i. T here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t h is s ituat ion d id n ot o ccur t hroughout t he p er iod o f f arm ing s ett lement i n T ranske i. N or d id s uch r ugged c ountry i mpede L SA h unters . F or e xamp le S tow ( 1905) v isited t he l ast k nown B ushman ( re lat ives o f t he r edoubtab le M ado lo) i n 1 868 A .D . o n t he G reat K e i r iver , v ia a p rec ip itous r oute w hich n ecessitated d ismounting f rom h is h orse . B ushman w ere s t ill l iv ing t here d ur ing t he s ummer m onths i n 1 874 - 7 6 A .D . ( Stanford , 1 958 ). Ap a inted r ock s he lter , p o inted o ut b y R . A cton i n ab are ly a ccessib le c liff c .100m a bove t he r iver n ear t he B o lo-Ke i b r idge , a lso p rovided d ramat ic e v idence o f B ushman a g ility . T en s econd m illen ium A .D . f arm ing s ett lement l ocat ions w ere f ound , m ost i f n ot a ll o f w h ich p robab ly r epresented t he X hosa o r e ar lier s ett lement ( before 1 852 A .D .) w hich p receded t hat o f t he M fengu i n 1 865 . T hese l ater i mm igrants w ere s ett led t here b y t he C ape c o lonia l g overnment i n 1 865 ( K ilp in, 1 909). T he X hosa h ad b een s ett led i n p arts o f t he s tudy a rea u ntil d ispossessed d ur ing t he 8 th F rontier W ar ( of M lanjeni, 1 851 - 5 2) b y B r it ish f orces. T he p reva lence o f
9 1
i
S urface a rea , k m 2, l and t ype I
"
k m 2, s amp le u n its
L and 1
2
--
3 6 ,0
---
8 ,4
T ype 4
1 5 i
T ota l
2 15 ,8 1,8
2 63 ,6
0 ,9
4 3 ,3
3 4 ,0
0
1 450 - 9 00 B P = 50 y rs(x 1) , n o . s ites d ens ity(y 1)
9 00 - 8 0 B P
= 8 20 y rs(x 2) , n o . s ites d ens ity(y 2)
2 00 - 8 0 B P
= 1 20 y rs(x 3 ) , n o . s ites
---
6
-
-
1 ,4
---
-
6
0
d ens ity(y 3 )
1 30 - 8 0 B P
= 5 0 y rs(x 4 ) ,
n o . s ites
0
d ensity(y 4 )
1 00 - 8 0 B P
= 2 0 y rs(x 5) ,
n o . s ites
0
d ens ity(y 5)
T ab le 1 7 . S tudy a rea 3 B ; s urface a rga , n umblr o f f arm ing s ett lement s ites f ound , a nd m ean s ite d ens ity ( km£ .s ites 1 ) , i n t he s amp le u n its o f e ach l and t ype . T he s ix s ites f ound a re t hought t o r epresent o ccupat ions d at ing f rom t hroughout t he p ost 9 00 B P p er iod . T hese s ites a re l ocated i n t he v a lleys o f t he G reat K e i a nd T somo r ivers w here e ntrenched 3 00 - 4 00m b e low t he C oasta l P lateau .
a bandoned s tone w a ll c att le b yres , s uch a s a re s t ill i n u se a t m any p resent d ay h omesteads , w as t hought p robab ly t o b e e v idence f or t he M fengu o ccupat ion a nd n ot t he X hosa ( cf . c hapter 3 ). S uch a rchitecture w as n ot f ound a t t he s ites r ecorded a s o lder t han 1 870 A .D ., a l l o f w hich w ere i n v a lley b ottom ( land t ype 2 ) s amp le u nits ( tab le 1 7 ). W oody v egetat ion o f t he V a lley B ushve ld ( ve ld t ype 2 3a ; A cocks, 1 953) c ontinues t o b e a bundant i n t hese d eep v a lleys. C att le b yres a t t he s ett lement l ocat ions w ere t hus p robab ly m ade f rom t horny b rushwood i n t he m anner w e ll a ttested i n t he h istor iographic a nd e thnographic r ecord ( Shaw & v an W arme lo , 1 972). T his o lder a rchitecture w as a lso o bserved a t p resent d ay h omesteads, w hile a t a f ew o f t hem a b yre m ade w ith b rush w as p laced a longside o ne b u ilt i n s tone . T he a bsence o f s tone w a lls a t s ett lement l ocat ions i s t herefore n ot n ecessar ily e v idence o f L IA o ccupation i n p laces w here b rushwood c ont inues t o b e r ead ily a va ilab le . I t n eeded t o b e a ssociated w ith t he a bsence o f a ny o ther e v idence o f C ape c o lon ia l o r m ore m odern i nf luences a t as ite , f or a n a ttr ibution o f al ocat ion t o t he p re 1 870 A .D . p er iod t o b e a dopted w ith c onf idence .
S tudy A rea 3 A A lthough m apped b y K ruger ( 1983) a s ' h igh ly d issected h ills' a long w ith t he r est o f t he E astern C oast F ore lands i n T ranske i s outh o f t he E goso f au lt , a n oticeab le f eature i n t his s tudy a rea i s t he c onsiderab le e xtent o f l and t ype 5 o ccurr ing b e low 3 00m a .s.l. E xtensive a reas o ccur , f or e xamp le , b etween t he G reat K e i a nd Q o lora r ivers w here t raversed b y t he r oad b etween K entani a nd T renner ies, a s w e ll a s b etween t he Q o lora a nd K obonqaba r ivers ( more c orrect ly Q obonqaba; K ingon, 1 919). T hese l and t ype 5 s amp le u nits w ere a djacent f or r e lat ive ly l ong d istances t o l and t ype 1 ( the c oasta l s tr ip < 100m a .s .1.), w hich a t p laces w as b road e nough t o c onta in s amp le u n its n ot f ront ing o n t he o cean. T hese c oasta l s tr ip u n its w ou ld a lso h ave b een c lassed a s l and t ype 5 b ut f or t he ir a rb itrary d ef inition a s l and t ype 1 . A nother f eature n ot r epeated i n s tudy a reas 1 A a nd 2 A t o t he n orth , i s t he e xtensive a rea o f Q uaternary s ands a long t he c oast . A lthough f ormed i nto p arabo lic d unes c lose t o t he s hore w here t hey a re f orested ( T in ley , 1 985), l andward o f t hese d unes t he s and m ant le o n t he o ld land s urface i s g ent ly u ndu lat ing . R egu lar ly s paced l arge t erm itar ia ( M icrotermes s pp ) b u ilt f rom t he u nder ly ing r ed s o il o f t he B erea F ormation a re c onsp icuous. T hicket c lumps o n t hese t erm itar ia f orm a c haracter ist ic p attern i n t he g rass land o n t he g ent ly u ndu lat ing s and s urface . G rass land c ont inues i n land o n l and t ype 5 w ithout a b reak , w hereas M icrotermes t erm itar ia c ease a brupt ly a t t he j unction o f t he s ands a nd t he B erea F ormat ion w ith t he o ld land s urface . A s t he l and s urface r ises i n land e ntrenchment o f t he m a in s treams d eepens. T his i s s pectacu lar ly e v idenced a long t he l ower G reat K ei a nd G cuwa r ivers, w ith s im ilar e ffect o n t he s amp ling o f v a lley b ottom u n its a long t hem a s d escr ibed f or s tudy a reas 2 6 , 3 B a nd 3 C.
9 3
L and 1 S urface a rea , k m 2, l and t ype I
I
k m 2, s amp le u n its
1 450 - 9 00 B P = 50 y rs(x 1) , n o .s ites d ens ity(y 1)
9 00 - 8 0 B P
= 8 20 y rs(x 2) ,
2 00 - 8 0 B P
= 1 20 y rs(x 3 ) ,
n o .s ites
4
5
T ota l
4 0 ,3
53 ,0 3 6 ,5 21,8 1
1 ,5
1 2 ,0
3 6 ,3
2 9 ,0
8 8 ,8
---
2
---
---
2
---
6 ,0
-
--
n o .s ites d ens ity(y 2)
2
T ype
-
6
4
2 ,0
9 ,1
1
4 51,6
1
2 9 ,0 0
d ensity (y 3 )
1 30 - 8 0 B P
= 5 0 y rs(x 4 ) ,
n o .sites
0
d ens ity (y 4)
1 00 - 8 0 B P
= 2 0 y rs(x 5) ,
n o .s ites
0
d ens ity(y 5)
T ab le 1 8 . S tudy a rea 3 A , s urface a rea , n umber o f f arm ing s ett lement s ites f ound , a nd m ean s ite d ens ity ( km' .s ites-1), i n t he s amp le u n its o f e ach l and t ype . T he a bsence o f s ites o n L T 1w as p robab ly d ue i n p art t o p oor v is ib ility , b ut i t i s t hought t hat o ccurrence o f g rassl and o n u nentrenched s urfaces w idespread d own t o s ea l eve l m ay h ave m ade t he c oasta l s tr ip u nattract ive t o e ar ly f armers . T he f irst m illen ium A .D . s ites p resent ly r epresent t he s outhernmost o f t h is a ge i n A fr ica .
E ntrenchment o f l esser s treams s uch a s t he Q o lora a nd K obonqaba o n t he o ther h and i s p ronounced o n ly w here t hey t raverse t he m inor s carp n ear K entan i v illage . T hroughout t he p er iod o f h istor iographic r ecord X hosa p eop le a re k nown t o h ave l ived i n t he s tudy a rea ( Derr icourt , 1 974 , 1 977), s upp lemented b y M fengu i mm igrants a fter 1 828 A .D . ( Pe ires, 1 981; S haw & v an W arme lo , 1 972). T he c onnect ion w ith t he X hosa i s e v idenced , f or e xamp le , b y t he s ite w here N ongqawuse e xper ienced h er c e lebrated ( ? n otor ious) v ision i n 1 856 A .D ., o n t he G xara s tream i n t he s tudy a rea ( Brown lee , 1 977; P e ires, 1 981). T he c att le k i lling w hich w as a c onsequence i n 1 857 l ed t o t he g reat ly i ncreased m ater ia l a nd r e lig ious i nf luence o f E uropean m iss ionar ies t hereafter ( Paauw , 1 975), e .g. c one-on-cy linder h uts , u se o f p loughs, e tc . ( Shaw & v an W arme lo , 1 972, 1 974 ). B oth f irst m illenium A .D . ( two) a nd s econd m illenium ( e leven) s ett lement l ocat ions w ere f ound , t he f ormer o n l and t ype 2 a nd t he l atter o n l and t ypes 2 a nd 4 . N o s ett lement l ocations w ere f ound o n l and t ypes 1 a nd 5 . T he s ing le v a lley b ottom ( land t ype 2 ) u nit s earched o n t he G reat K e i r iver c onta ined o nly L IA s ites. N o E IA s ite w as f ound t here , w hich w as u nexpected . N everthe less t he n ear p rox im ity o f t he E IA s ites f ound i n t he e ntrenched s ectors o f t he K obonqaba a nd Q o lora r ivers, l eads t o t he e xpectat ion t hat E IA l ocations a re p robab ly t o b e f ound i n t he v a lley b ottoms o f t he l ower G reat K e i a nd G cuwa r ivers. T he E IA s ites f ound r epresent t he s outhernmost f irst m illenium f arm ing s ett lement l ocat ions r ecorded i n A fr ica t o d ate . T hese s ites a re f urther c onf irmat ion f or I nskeep a nd M aggs' ( 1975) a nd M aggs' ( 1980a ) p red iction t hat f arm ing p eop les w ere p resent e ar lier t han 9 00 B P i n t he h inter land o f s ea s he ll m iddens c onta in ing L ydenburg T rad it ion p ottery o n t he s eashore o f T ranske i, C iske i a nd C ape P rov ince . T he a bsence o f v isib le s ites o n l and t ype 5 w as n ot u nexpected , b ut t he p resence o n ly o f f armers' s ea s he ll m iddens a long t he s eashore o n l and t ype 1 i s e nigmatic . M uch o f t he s urface o f l and t ype 1 w as o bscured b y v egetation , a nd t h is u ndoubted ly r esu lted i n s ett lement l ocat ions b e ing i nvisib le . N everthe less i t w as n ot iceab le t hat e ven a t t he p resent t ime , l arge p ortions o f l and t ype 1 d o n ot c onta in m odern h omesteads. I n c onsequence t he o bserved s ituation p robab ly d oes r ef lect a p reference b y e ar ly f armers f or s ett lement l ocat ions a bove 1 00m a .s .l. i n t he s tudy a rea . T his i s s upported b y t he f act t hat n o s ites c ou ld b e f ound i n t he s ing le v a lley b ottom ( land t ype 2 ) u nit s earched ( on t he Q o lora s tream ) b e low 1 00m a .s.l.
S ummary a nd d iscussion T he p attern o f f arm ing s ett lement l ocat ion f ound i n t he G reat K e i r iver d ra inage b asin, i s c omparab le t o p atterns f ound i n t he n orthern a nd c entra l t ransects. T he m ost p ronounced c haracter istic o f t hese p atterns w as t he c oncentrat ion o f s ett lement i n t he v a lleys e ntrenched b e low t he C oasta l P lateau . I n t he s outhern t ransect , h owever , s uch c oncentrated s ett lement w as f ound o n ly b etween 1 00m a nd 3 00m a .s.l. o n s treams. N orthwards t he a ltitud ina l l im it o f c oncentrated s ett lement
9 5
w as f ound a t c .1 0 00m a .s .l. o n s treams i n t he M z imvubu r iver d ra inage b asin , w here t h is d atum m arks t he l im it o f e ntrenchment b e low t he C oasta l P lateau . T he G reat K e i r iver a nd i ts m ajor t r ibutar ies ( B lack K e i, W hite K e i, T somo , G cuwa) a re d eep ly e ntrenched i n t he C oasta l P lateau u p t o c .700m a .s.l. a long t hese s treams. B ut s ett lement c oncentrat ion d id n ot e xtend t o t he l im it o f e ntrenchment i n t he s outhern t ransect , a s i t d id i n t he n orthern t ransect . T h is a noma ly s uggests t hat t he f actors l im it ing f arm ing s ett lement i n t he s outhern v a lleys m ay h ave d iffered f rom t hose o perat ing i n t he n orthern v a lleys o f T ranske i. W hat t hese f actors m ay p ossib ly h ave b een c an b e i nferred . W hereas v egetation, t erra in a nd s o ils a re g enera lly c omparab le a t p resent i n v a lleys f rom n orth t o s outh i n T ransek i, t he p resent d ay e ast-west r a infa ll g rad ient o f d ecreasing r a infa ll ( chapter 2 ) e nsures t hat t he i n land s ector o f t he G reat K e i r iver d ra inage b asin r ece ives m uch l ower a nd m ore v ar iab le a nnua l r a infa ll t han d oes t he b as in o f t he M z imvubu r iver . D ur ing t he 2 0th c entury a nnua l r a infa ll w ith a 9 0% p robab ility o f a pprox imate ly 4 00mm h as o ccurred i n t he s outhern t ransect , a nd w ith a 9 0% p robab ility o f 6 00mm t o 7 00mm i n t he n orthern t ransect ( Tyson , 1 986). A d ichotomy o f t h is m agnitude c ou ld h ave b een i n e x istence s ince 1 5 00 B P , t he a pprox imate t imespan o f f arm ing s ett lement i n p arts o f T ranske i. C limat ic c hange i n s outheast A fr ica s ince 2 00 B P , a s r eviewed b y T yson ( 1986), s upports t his p oss ib ility . B ut t he p resent d ay c limate m ay b e g enera lly w armer ( and d r ier ) t han a t a ny t ime i n t he p ast 2 0 00 y ears . N otw ithstand ing t his c hange , al arge d ifference i n r a infa ll a nd s aturation d ef ic it, b etween t he n orth a nd t he s outh o f T ranske i, i s l ike ly f or l ong t o h ave b een a f eature o f t he T ranske ian c limate . H owever , t he a noma ly r ema ins t hat t he n orma l a nnua l r a infa ll r ecorded d ur ing t he 2 0th c entury , i n t he v a lley o f t he G reat K e i r iver , i s i dent ica l t owards b oth t he l ower a nd u pper l im its o f e ntrenchment a long t his s tream ( Ke i B r idge , l ower v a lley , 5 02mm ; K e ilands M ission, u pper v a lley , 5 01mm ; c f . t ab le 2 , c hapter 2 ). T h is s uggests t hat c limate w as n ot t he o n ly f actor l im it ing t he e xpansion o f f arm ing s ett lement i n t he s outhern t ransect . I t i s t empt ing t o s uggest t hat t he p resence o f L SA p astora lists o n t he C oasta l P lateau a nd i ts e xtensions d own-fo lded t o t he c oast, m ay a lso h ave h ad a r o le . S uch p eop le m ay h ave b een p resent n ot o n ly i n t he i n land s ector b ut a lso i n t he r est o f t he s outhern t ransect , f rom e ar ly i n t he f irst m illenium A .D .
C hapter 7
S PATIAL A ND T EMPORAL D ISTRIBUTION O F E ARLY F ARMING S ETTLEMENT I N T HE N ORTHERN , C ENTRAL A ND S OUTHERN T RANSECTS O F T RANSKEI
I t i s a pparent t hat t he s pat ia l d ensity o f f arm ing s ett lement l ocations v ar ied b oth w ithin a nd b etween t he s evera l s tudy a reas. T hese d ifferences m ay r ef lect ( see f igure 1): ( I )
t he s pat ia l d ensity o f c ontemporary s ett lements ( A ), o r
( 2 )
as equence o f s ett lements o f d ifferent a ges ( B ), o r
( 3 )
p robab ly b oth ( C , D ), p lus
( 4 )
v ar iab le v isib ility a nd p reservat ion o f l ocat ions ( A/B , C /D ).
R eso lut ion o f t hese a lternat ives i s c oarsened b y t he f act t hat t he a ge o f s ites c ou ld b e e stimated o n ly w ithin v ery b road l im its, o ther t han i n t he i n land s tudy a reas 1 C , 2 D , 3 D , 3 E . I n t hese f our i n land s tudy a reas h istor iographic d ata a re a va ilab le . I n a dd ition t he n umber o f i nv isib le l ocations w as i mpossib le t o e stimate i n a ny s tudy a rea , b ut t hey m ust b e p resumed t o h ave e x isted .
B 1 P 'i • •
T ime
1 1 -1 i i 1 1
x
C
D
• . • ( . ). ( : ) :• • : ( :)( : ) •
x
x
I
*
x
0
x
x
0
B P
0
x x0
•.
x
x0
x
Ox
x x
x x
x
S pace F igure 1. P ossib le ( A ,B ) a nd p robab le ( C ,D ) e xp lanat ions f or d ifferences o bserved i n t he s patia l d ensity o f v isib le f arm ing s ett lement l ocations . K ey := v isib le l ocation o f y ounger a ge; ( : ) =v isib le l ocation o f o lder a ge; 0=i nv isib le l ocation; x=a ge o f v isib le l ocation; y = a pprox imate ly k nown d ate f rom ( a ) b reak b etween d ifferent c eram ic t rad itions o f k nown a ge , o r ( b ) 1 4 Cd eterm ination a t e xcavated s ite , o r ( c ) h istor iograph ic r ecord .
9 7
T he o bserved d ifferences i n t hese e xamp les c ou ld b e b etween t he l and t ypes i n o ne s tudy a rea , o r b etween t he s ame l and t ype i n t wo o r m ore s tudy p seas B etween e xamp les A a nd B t he q bsevved d ifference x km` .3 1 / 4 -1 i s r ea l, w hile b etween C a nd D x km'.5 1 / 41 i t i s n ot d ue t o v ary ing v isib ility a nd p reservat ion o f l ocat ions. A t t he s ca le o f t his s tudy i t w as i mpossib le t o a scerta in w hether o bserved d ifferences a nd s im ilar it ies i n d ensity r epresented t he A /B o r C /D m ode ls. B oth p robab ly o ccurred . F arm ing s ett lement ' intensity ' D esp ite t hese c onstra ints u pon c ompar ison , i t w as n everthe less t hought t hat a n i ndex o f t he ' intensity ' o f f arm ing s ett lement o n t he l and t ypes o f e ach s tudy a rea , c ou ld b e d er ived . T his i ndex i t i s p roposed w ou ld b e m ore u sefu l f or c ompar ison t han t he s patia l d ensity o f s ites a lone . S uch a n i dea r ests o n t he a ssumpt ion t hat s pace a nd t ime a re m ore-or-less e qua lly r e levant t o a n e xp lanat ion o f f arm ing s ett lement d istr ibution . T hus w here t he o bserved s pat ia l d ensity o f s ett lement l ocat ions w as s im ilar o n t wo o r m ore l and t ypes w ithin a s tudy a rea ( or o n o ne l and t ype i n m ore t han o ne s tudy a rea), t hen t he p reference o f f armers f or a p art icu lar s et o f p hysica l f eatures w ou ld p robab ly b e d emonstrated b y t he l and t ype(s) w ith a n otab ly l onger d urat ion o f s ett lement . C onverse ly , w here t he d urat ion o f s ett lement w as p robab ly s im ilar , p references w ou ld p robab ly b e e xpressed o n t he l and t ype(s) w ith a n otab ly g reater s patia l d ensity o f s ett lement l ocat ions. I t w as a lso t hought t hat s uch a n ' intensity ' i ndex w ou ld i l lustrate , m ost c lear ly , t he p robab le v ar iat ion i n t he d egree o f i mpact t hat f arm ing m ay h ave h ad o n t he e nv ironments o f T ranske i. A t t he b road s ca le o f t h is r ecconna issance t hese i deas m ust b e r egarded m ere ly a s at entative ' f irst a pprox imation'. T he i ndex o f s ett lement i ntensity ( I ) p roposed i s : d uration i n y ears o f I ron A ge s ett lement ( x ) I=
s patia l d ensity o f I ron A ge s ett lements
( y )
xi =
x2 +
x5 . ..---
y 2
Y 5
t o t he n earest w ho le n umber f or e ach l and t ype i n e ach s tudy a rea , w here : ( 1 )
xl i s ac onstant f or a l and t ype w ith E IA s ites a nd i s t he p robab le d urat ion i n y ears o f E IA s ett lement i n T ranske i, i .e . 1 450 - 9 00 B P = 50 y ears, w hile yl, is t he o bserved s patia l d ensity o f E IA s ites o n al and t ype ( km` .sites -' ) .
( 2 )
x2 i s a c onstant f or a l and t ype w ith L IA s ites w here L IA s ett lement w as p robab ly a lready i n e x istence a t t he b eg inning o f t he h istor iograph ic r ecord c .350 B P , a nd i s t hus t he p robab le m ax imum d urat ion i n y ears o f L IA s ett lement i n T ranske i, i .e . 9 00 - 8 0 B P = 8 20 y ears, wile y2 i s t he d ens ity o f t hese s ites o n al and t ype ( km'.sites -I ) .
9 8
( 3 )
x3 , x4 , x5 a re c onstants f or a l and t ype w ith L IA s ites w here t he p robab le d urat ion o f L IA s ett lement i s k nown f rom t he h istor iog raph ic r ecord i .e . x3 , 2 00 - 8 0 B P = 1 20 y ears; x4 , 1 30 - 8 0 B P = 5 0 y ears; x5 , 1 00 - 8 0 B P = 2 0 y ears; a nd yl , y4 a n l y5 a re t he r espect ive d ens it ies o f t hese L IA s ites ( km' .s ites -' ) o n t he l and t ype .
T he v a lue o f yi n r espect o f e ach x v a lue i s g iven i n t he t ab les ( 7 -1 8 ) f or e ach s tudy a rea , t ogether w ith t he p r imary d ata ( n umber o f s ites , s urface a reas) f rom w h ich yl . . y5 w ere c a lcu lated . T he v a lues o f t he f arm ing s ett lement i ntens ity i ndex ( I ) i n t he s tudy a reas o f t he t hree t ransects a re g iven i n t ab le 1 9 . T hese v a lues c an b e c ategor ised a s: ( 1 )
v ery
l ow ,
I =
< 15 , i nc ludes l and t ype 3 i n a l l s tudy a reas ,
( 2 )
l ow ,
I =
1 5 -5 0 ,
( 3 )
m oderate ,
I =
5 1 - 10 ,
( 4 )
h igh ,
I =
11 - 3 20 ,
( 5 )
v ery h igh ,
I = > 320 .
V ar iat ion o f f arm ing s ett lement i ntens ity T hese c ategor ies o f i ntens ity , b e ing d irect ly r e lated t o m apped a reas , c an a lso b e i l lustrated a s m app ing u n its . T he ir d istr ibut ion i s s hown o n t he m ap o f e ach s tudy a rea ( f igures 1 2 -2 3). T ab le 1 9 s hows t he s urface a rea o f e ach c ategory o f s ett lement i ntens ity a nd i ts p roport ion t o t he w ho le ( of t he 1 2 s tudy a reas). T he f requenc ies o bserved s uggest t hat a h igh t o v ery h igh i ntens ity o f e ar ly f arm ing s ett lement i s t o b e e xpected o n 2 4% a nd a l ow t o v ery l ow i ntensity o n 7 2% , o f T ranske i's s urface a rea . I n f ive o f t he s ix s tudy a reas w here v ery h igh i ntensit ies w ere f ound o n l and t ype 2 ( tab le 2 0 ) t hese v a lues
C ategory
I
V . l ow < 15
k m2 %a rea
1
L ow 1 5 -5 0
M oderate
H igh
5 1 - 10 1 11 - 3 20 1
4 126 ,6
1 574 ,7
2 71,6
5 2 ,5
2 0 ,0
3 ,5
1
V . h igh > 320
1 585 ,5
2 96 ,6
2 0 ,2
3 ,8
T ab le 1 9 . P roport ions o f a l l s tudy a reas c overed b y t he f ive c ategor ies o f f arm ing s ett lement i ntens ity . 9 9
L and t ype
S tudy a rea 1
5
4
2
N orthern t ransect 2 D
1
( 20)
1
( 2 )
< 1
( 1 )
2
( 43)
2 C
5 16 ( 687)
2 5
( 50)
2 8
5 09 ( 599)
4 2
( 64)
2 A
7 0 ( 139)
3 98 ( 652)
28 ( 249 )
1 64 ( 2 16) 5 8
( 73)
C entra l t ransect ( 6 )
7( 13)
2 83 ( 373)
18 ( 135 )
7 ( 8 )
3 56 ( 4 11)
2 13 ( 228 )
4 4 ( 66)
1 C
7 1 ( 133)
1 6 1 A
1 86 ( 249)
4
S outhern t ransect 3 E
< 1
3 D
2
< 1
< 1
( 29)
< 1
3 C
2 10 ( 3 15)
< 1
< 1
3 8
5 86 ( 683)
< 1
< 1
3 A
< 1
5 02 ( 620)
9 0 ( 112)
4( 5 )
2 8 ( 57)
T ab le 2 0 . V a lue o f t he f arm ing s ett lement i ntensity i ndex ( I ) o n e ach l and t ype s earched ( ca lcu lated f rom d ata i n t ab les 7 - 1 8 ). V a lues i n p arentheses w ou ld b e o bta ined i f t he s pat ia l d ensity o n e ach l and t ype w as i ncreased b y a dd ing o ne l ocat ion t o t he n umber r ecorded i n e ach a ge c lass r epresented i n t ab les 7 - 1 8 .
d epended o n t he p resence o f f irst m illenium s ett lement l ocat ions ( I =3 98 - 5 09; s tudy a reas l A f ig 1 8 ; 2 A f ig 1 5 ; 2 6 f ig 1 4; 2 C f ig 1 3; 3 A f ig 2 3). N everthe less t he h ighest v a lue o f a l l ( I =5 86 ; s tudy a rea 3 6 f ig 2) w as d ue t o t he p resence o n ly o f L IA s ett lement l ocat ions. T he i nd ices o f f arm ing s ett lement i ntensity ( I ) o n t he l and t ypes t he t we lve s tudy a reas ( tab le 1 9 ) a lso i nd icate t hat : ( 1 )
o f
v a lley b ottoms ( land t ype 2 ) w ere t he m ost p referred s ituat ions b etween 1 00 a nd 6 00m a .s.l. i n t he s tudy a reas n orth a nd s outh o f t he M z imvubu r iver d ra inage ( 2A f ig 1 5; l A f ig 1 8 ; 1 B f ig 1 7 ; 3 A f ig 2 3; 3 6 f ig 2; 3 C f ig 2 1), a nd u p t o a lmost 1 0 00m a .s.l. i n s tudy a reas i n t he M zimvubu r iver d ra inage b asin ( 26 f ig 1 4 ; 2 C f ig 1 3 ) ( a lt itudes d eterm ined w here c ontours c ross t he m a in s treams);
( 2 )
g ent ly s loping s urfaces a t a ll a ltitudes ( land t ype 5 ), w hether o ccurr ing a s l ow lands b e low h ills a nd m ounta ins ( study a reas 1 6 f ig 1 7 ; 1 C f ig 1 6 ; 2 C f ig 1 3 ; 2 D f ig 1 2 ; 3 C f ig 2 1; 3 D f ig 2 0; 3 E f ig 1 9 ) o r a s u p lands a bove e ntrenched v a lleys ( study a reas l A f ig 1 8 ; 1 6 f ig 1 7 ; 2 A f ig 1 5 ; 2 6 f ig 1 4; 3 A f ig 2 3; 3 6 f ig 2) w ere a vo ided f or s ett lement;
( 3)
m oderate t o s teep s lopes ( land t ype 4 ) w ere f avoured f or s ett lem ent w ithin 3 0km o f t he c oast line a nd b e low 6 00m a .s.l. ( determ ined o n i nterf luve s umm its).
I n e very s tudy a rea t he o bserved s ett lement i ntensity o n l and t ype 2 e xceeded t hat o n t he l and t ype w ith t he n ext h ighest s ett lement i ntensity b y af actor o f 1 ,7 o r m ore . I n p art , t hese d ifferences a re e xp licab le b y t he f act t hat a rchae logica l v isib ility i n v a lley b ottoms w as w ithout e xception b etter , o ver a h igher p roportion o f t he ir s urface , t han i t w as o n t he o ther l and t ypes . T his w as d ue t o t he g reater e xtent o f r ecent c u ltivation o n t his l and t ype a nd l ess p ro lif ic h erbaceous g rowth, i n c ompar ison w ith l and t ypes 1 , 4a nd 5 . N everthe less t he c ontrast i n i ntensity i ndex v a lues i s s uff ic ient ly m arked t hat i t m ost p robab ly d oes d emonstrate a d ec ided p reference f or s ett lement l ocat ions i n v a lley b ottoms, e spec ia lly b etween 1 00m a nd 6 00m a .s.l. i n t he s tudy a reas n orth a nd s outh o f t he M z imvubu r iver d ra inage , a nd b etween 1 00m a nd 1 0 00m a .s.l. i n t he M z imvubu r iver d ra inage b asin. T his s upposition i s s upported b y t he r esu lts o f m uch m ore i ntensive r ecconna issance i n p arts o f s tudy a reas l A a nd 1 6 b y t he U CT t eams. F our p hysica l f eatures c ou ld b e s een t o b e c onsistent ly a ssoc iated w ith l and t ype 2 , e xcept w ithin 2 0km o f t he s ources o f t he T ina a nd W hite K e i r ivers ( study a reas 2 D , 3 E): ( 1 )
a n a bundance o f w oody p lants, i n v e ld t ypes l a ( study a reas 1 A ; 2 A ; 3 A ), 2 3a ( study a reas 1 A , 6 , C ; 2 A , 6 , C ; 3 A , 6 , p art o f 3 C), 2 ( study a rea 3 D , m ost o f 3 C a nd E );
( 2 )
a l luv ia l s oils;
( 3 )
r e lat ive ly w armer a nd d r ier l oca l c l imates t han o n a djacent l and t ypes, a nd l ess e xposed t o p reva iling w inds a nd o rographic f og;
(4 )
l ow s lope g radients (