The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image [1 ed.] 9783954896202, 9783954891207

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Anke Jobsky

The Body-Image-MeaningTransfer Model

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

Jobsky, Anke: The Body-Image-Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image. Hamburg, Anchor Academic Publishing 2014 Buch-ISBN: 978-3-95489-120-7 PDF-eBook-ISBN: 978-3-95489-620-2 Druck/Herstellung: Anchor Academic Publishing, Hamburg, 2014 Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek: Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. Bibliographical Information of the German National Library: The German National Library lists this publication in the German National Bibliography. Detailed bibliographic data can be found at: http://dnb.d-nb.de

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Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulässig und strafbar. Dies gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und Bearbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Die Wiedergabe von Gebrauchsnamen, Handelsnamen, Warenbezeichnungen usw. in diesem Werk berechtigt auch ohne besondere Kennzeichnung nicht zu der Annahme, dass solche Namen im Sinne der Warenzeichen- und Markenschutz-Gesetzgebung als frei zu betrachten wären und daher von jedermann benutzt werden dürften. Die Informationen in diesem Werk wurden mit Sorgfalt erarbeitet. Dennoch können Fehler nicht vollständig ausgeschlossen werden und die Diplomica Verlag GmbH, die Autoren oder Übersetzer übernehmen keine juristische Verantwortung oder irgendeine Haftung für evtl. verbliebene fehlerhafte Angaben und deren Folgen. Alle Rechte vorbehalten © Anchor Academic Publishing, Imprint der Diplomica Verlag GmbH Hermannstal 119k, 22119 Hamburg http://www.diplomica-verlag.de, Hamburg 2014 Printed in Germany

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

ABSTRACT The following investigation deals with the impact of the sociocultural environment on bodyimage in Western consumer culture. Based on McCracken’s (1986) meaning-transfer model, the author has created a body-image meaning-transfer (BIMT) model. It suggests how cultural discourse and interactions can shape individual consumers’ understanding of socially ‘good’ and ‘bad’ bodies. It emphasizes the notable impact of mainstream advertising, media, and celebrity culture that commonly promote a thin-and-muscular beauty-ideal, and the process of normalization which implies feelings of guilt, anxiety, public observation, and failure. Both can ultimately lead to negative body-images and body-dissatisfaction among individuals. In contrast, alternative campaigns against the current beauty-ideal and towards healthier body-images are introduced. Two focus group discussions among young adults from the UK and Germany gave insight to the timeliness of the topic concerned, and prove the validity of BIMT in contemporary Western consumer culture. Also, they reveal the general longing for more normality and identification in media-imagery as attempted by alternative campaigners. Consequently, recommendations suggest to rather portraying the existing sociocultural multiplicity in order to create positive body-images, and to build sustainable relationships of mutual value between marketers and customers.

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Key Words: Body-Image; Meaning; Self-Concept; Culture; Body/Mind Dualism.

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The topic of body-image has ever touched and concerned me. Adolescence and young adulthood helped me realize how crucial it is to further research in this field and to spread the word about this sensitive and vulnerable topic. Indeed, I believe we all long for a society in which we are accepted and can love ourselves just as we are. Why is this so difficult though, almost impossible? Where does the immense body-image pressure stem from? Is it the continuing progress in science and medicine that enables human beings to strive actively for increased perfection? Is it the growing impact of pervasive media messages? Is it the lack in religious faith that makes body-culture a new religion in modern society? Or do we all just scream for attention? Why is it obviously impossible to be satisfied with the way we are? Admittedly, these are questions one could expect to be asked by a child and not by an adult. Still, I dare asking them with all confidence whilst addressing everybody in today’s society to be less ignorant towards the problems caused by these tendencies, and to care for happiness and self-love in our society, also for the sake of future generations. It is my honest wish and my aspiration to contribute to a change towards the social acceptance of more realistic, natural, and diversified body-images, to realize the existing problems and to work for solutions, even though I may only deliver small steps. I wish to emphasize that writing this text fulfilled me with great motivation and increasing passion for the topic concerned. Having said this, I would like to thank all the people who have inspired and encouraged me to write about this sensitive topic. Big thanks to my friends from Germany and the UK who agreed to contribute to my focus group discussions and to share their experiences on this field. Your contributions clearly enriched my work, and it’s been a pleasure working with you all! Thanks also to my parents, Jutta and Ulrich Jobsky, for supporting me during my studies and for providing a strong fundament of familiar love that helped me go through the heights and depths of that time.

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Moreover, big thanks to my boyfriend Sebastian Kleim for your invaluable discussions about the topic, for your patience, for all those moments you made me smile, and for your relentless support. It all means so much to me! I would also like to thank my residual friends for always being there for me, most notably Sophie McCarter, for your great contributions, inspirations, and especially for proof reading this text. Last but not least, special thanks to my supervisor Julie McKeown at Aberystwyth University, and to Dr. John Follet who shared his own passion in this field with me and thus reminded me of my own ambitions.

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract

V

Acknowledgements

VI

Table of Figures

VIII

1. Introduction

1

2. Self, Identity, and Meaning-Transfer in Consumer Behaviour The Self-Concept McCracken’s Meaning-Transfer Model

6 6 7

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2.1. Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Body/Mind Dualism Consumer Culture Theory 2.1.1.First Location of Cultural Meaning: The Culturally Constituted World 2.1.2.Instruments of Meaning Transfer: World to Body-Image: Mainstream Advertising, Media, and Celebrity Culture 2.1.3.Second Location of Cultural Meaning: Body-Image 2.1.4.Instruments of Meaning-Transfer: Body-Image to Individual Consumer: Normalization The Feeling of Anxiety and Guilt The Feeling of Public Observation The Feeling of Failure 2.1.5.Third Location of Cultural Meaning: The Individual Consumer Behavioural Responses to the Exposure of Body-Ideals among Women Behavioural Responses to the Exposure of Body-Ideals among Men

8 8 10 10 12 13 15 15 16 17 17 19 20

3. Approaches against the Current Mainstream Body-Image 3.1. Bans against Delusive, Surreal Body-Images 3.2. Campaigns on Healthier Body-Images 3.3. Can Mainstream BIMT Be Changed Through These Campaigns?

22 22 24 26

4. Research Methodology Methods of Data Collection Participants

27 27 28

5. Analysis and Findings Key Findings for BIMT in Group A Key Findings for BIMT in Group B Participants’ Perceptions of Approaches against Mainstream AMCC in Group A Participants’ Perceptions of Approaches against Mainstream AMCC in Group B

30 30 34 38 40

6. Conclusion and Recommendations

42

7. Limitations and Further Research Research Methodology Participants Scope

46 46 46 47

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

VII

8. Bibliography Books and Articles Online Works

48 48 54

9. Appendices Appendix A: Focus Group Discussion Questions Appendix B: Questionnaire Appendix C1: Findings Group A (UK) Appendix C2: Findings Group B (Germany) Appendix D: Quantitative Data generated by Questionnaire

58 58 60 61 82 99

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TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 01: Body-Image Meaning Transfer (BIMT) Model

3

Figure 02: McCracken’s Meaning-Transfer Model

7

Figure 03: Contemporary Male and Female Body-Ideals

13

Figure 04: Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty

24

Figure 05: APPG’s Campaign on Body-Confidence

25

Figure 06: Jocelyn Wildenstein

31

Figure 07: Anorexic Model

35

Figure 08: Campaign by Isabelle Caro

40

Figure 09: Obese Man

66

Figure 10: Katie Price

67

Figure 11: ‘Fat Bastard’

68

Figure 12: Body Advert I

77

Figure 13: Body Advert II

77

Figure 14: Daniela Katzenberger

87

Figure 15: Bogdanoff Brothers

87

Figure 16: Harald Glööckler

88

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

1. INTRODUCTION “Ideas about what the body is, what it means, its moral value and the values of its constituent parts, the limits of the body, its social utility and symbolic value, in sum, how the body is defined both physically and socially, vary widely from person to person and have changed dramatically over time” (Synnott 1993, p.7).

In the 21st century, the increasing importance of body-image in consumer culture must not be ignored. It has become a perpetual issue affecting an ever-increasing number of people, governmental institutions, industries, and marketers.

Body-image can broadly be defined as the picture an individual forms in his/her mind that constitutes beliefs, feelings, sensations, behaviours, and self-perception concerning the own body (Schilder 1935; Slade et al. 1973: Grosz 1994; Garner et al. 1997). It plays a crucial role as to self-concept since it relates to an individual’s selfesteem and psychosocial adjustment (Cash et al. 1995). Accordingly, Belk (1988) argues that body parts and vital organs can be essential parts of human selves and therefore of human identity. Polhemus (1988, p.6) highlights the meaning of the body describing it as an “essential part of our most fundamental ground of being.”

The way the body appears to oneself merely results from sociocultural interactions, especially discourse, and individual experiences that form an understanding of how the body ought to be in comparison to how the body actually is. The interrelation between individuals’ meanings and social context is summarized by Thompson et al. (1994) saying that personal meanings and intentions are inseparable from a network of socio-historic meanings that basically stem from cultural knowledge and socialization.

Today, body-image is increasingly afflicted with negative features such as social Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

pressure, eating disorders, depression, and more or less desperate steps to bodymodification. Pictures of ‘social victims’ whose attempt to look perfect went wrong are well-known. The skeleton-like images of those who starved themselves, and pictures of those who strive to attain ideal beauty, and ended up looking like plastic dolls rather than human beings. Despite the increase in awareness of risks and negative side-effects caused by contemporary body-image in Western countries, the thin-ideal is still pervasive in mainstream advertising, media, and celebrity culture (AMCC). It is

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

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adopted as social norm people measure up against, and to which they - often unconsciously - compare their bodies to (Festinger 1954; Bordo 1993; Grogan 2008).

It seems like never before people have been both so aware of body-image, and so helpless to defend themselves against this invisible force. Clearly, body-image comprises a contemporary phenomenon. It is good and bad at the same time, and individual consumers are consistently challenged to deal with both sides by either going with the mainstream, or resisting, which entails the consequence of being different from all others. The profound subject of body-image meaning is at the roots of this investigation.

It argues that body-image is afflicted with meanings constituted within the sociocultural environment. Thereby, thin-idealized bodies are attributed with selfcontrol, success, and discipline, and therefore proclaimed as being desirable and socially valued. Being slim means resisting the temptations that surround consumers in countries of overabundance and wealth (Thompson et al. 1995; Halliwell et al. 2004). Being slim means having one’s life under control and being successful. And to marketers being slim means to trigger an effect of attractiveness onto consumers, which in turn means that they will likely adopt more favourable brand attitudes and generate more profit (Yu et al. 2011).

But are these valid assumptions, or do consumers ultimately long for more down-toearth, average-sized models with little blemishes rather than digitally enhanced and artificially idealized images of surreal beauty? This question will certainly occupy the minds of researchers and marketers in the realm of body-image in the next decades. On this, the following research seeks to deliver an approach that may help understand the process of how individuals consume culturally constituted meanings Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

of body-image. It identifies factors that can enhance body-dissatisfaction, and gives an idea of how individual consumers react to the exposure of ideal-images. Therefore, it suggests that individuals can consume bodily meaning in a similar way as through goods, based on McCracken’s (1986) meaning-transfer model.

Respectively, the author has created a ‘body-image meaning-transfer’ (BIMT) model based on the fact that body-image is afflicted with changing cultural meaning that 2

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

every individual adopts as possession and controls as an essential part of the selfconcept. Since an increasing number of people in Western cultures tend to pursue culturally approved attributes such as slimness, muscularity, and youth, it is justified that body-image meaning can be transferred from a culturally constituted world to individual consumers. The BIMT model suggests that this takes place in two steps as illustrated in the following figure and explained more detailed in the upcoming literature review:

Figure 01: Body-Image Meaning-Transfer (BIMT) Model.

Firstly, meaning that originally resides in the culturally constituted world, is transferred by the entity of advertising, media, and celebrity culture (AMCC) with the outcome of a visual manifestation of body-image as it ought to look like. Resulting from that is a thin-idealized beauty ideology to promote products, services, and Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

brands claiming that the desirable and socially appreciated state of “thinness is accessible through diet, exercise, fashionable clothing and accessories, make-up, plastic surgery, and weight management drugs” (Yu et al. 2011, p.58). Although this text explicitly does not blame any of these sources for body distortion or eatingdisorders, which are multidimensional and highly complex constructs, one can say that the overall body cult promoted by AMCC is likely part of the negative afflictions of body-image.

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

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The visual manifestation of the mainstream ideal-image is then transferred to the individual’s own body-image through a process of normalization that determines to what extent body-image serves as standard for an individual to measure up against. The outcome is the individual consumer’s body-image that shall be described with studies on preferably negative reactions of people towards ideal-imagery. It must be noted that body-image meaning-transfer can be a lifelong process underlying the perpetual changes in the sociocultural environment, its cultural meanings, bodyimage trends, and pervasive media beauty ideologies (Yu et al. 2011).

This study proceeds as follows: The literature review provides a brief overview on topic-relevant consumer behaviour theory. Thereby, findings about the self-concept, including Belk’s (1988) concept about the Extended Self, McCracken’s (1986) Meaning-Transfer Model, and the impact of the sociocultural environment on individuals are described. Subsequently, basic assumptions underlying BIMT are introduced under consideration of body/mind dualism as theoretical framework for shaping people’s view on the body as a controllable object, and aspects of Consumer Culture Theory. Then, every individual component shown in the above model is proven with relevant findings of consumer behaviour research.

The third chapter illustrates alternative approaches and initiatives against the current mainstream thin-idealized body-images in the contemporary advertising and media landscape. Proving the timeliness and importance of contemporary issues caused by negative body-images, both bans of delusive imagery and recent launches of campaigns on healthier body-images are introduced.

The fourth chapter presents the research methodology. For this, two online focus groups at the same age and of equal size, from the UK and from Germany, are Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

constituted in order to generate particularly qualitative data proving the validity of BIMT. Both countries are critically affected by negative side-effects of body-image and thus appropriate for this research1.

  1

In the UK, cosmetic surgery rates have risen by almost 20% in the last four years, and girls aged five worry about their weight and appearance (Smithers 2012). Research in 2007 revealed that one third of teenage girls admitted to be on a diet or tried to lose weight, whereas 14% of boys admitted to dieting as well, a quarter of them consuming less than 800 calories a day (Smithers 2007).

4

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

Findings are described and analysed in the fifth chapter. They will reveal the awareness of body-image among young adults in both countries, and the pervasiveness of cultural constitutions of bodily meaning that individuals are – mostly unconsciously - exposed to. Particularly stereotypical gender images will be identified, and give interesting views on consumers’ opinions of body-image in AMCC. Subsequently, conclusion and recommendations will be formulated. The research finishes with a brief chapter about limitations and further research in the covered area.

The research is supported by contributions and epistemological assumptions in the realm

of

consumer

behaviour,

psychology,

anthropology,

and

sociology.

Philosophical, poststructuralist and postmodernist writings will be considered as well as views of feminist writers, although the author is aware that feminist writers are often seen as contradictory to the contributions by certain philosophers and poststructuralist writers. However they are essential to create a multi-faceted view on body-image. Apart from that, recent studies and campaigns on body-image will complete the picture of what significant role body-image plays in contemporary

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consumer culture.

     In Germany, a survey on health conditions of children and youth found that 56% of 13- to 14-year-olds wished themselves thinner, and 63% wished to look better. Also, every fifth child at the age of 11 to 17 was found to suffer from the symptoms of an eating disorder (Riegger 2007).

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

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2. SELF, IDENTITY, AND MEANING-TRANSFER IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR Consumption merely serves to create identity in contemporary consumer culture or as Belk (1988) puts it ‘We are what we possess’. Therefore, consumer behaviour theory assumes that needs and motivations which lead to certain consumption activities happen in a purposeful and consistent manner that stem from an individual’s self-concept (Sirgy 1982).

THE SELF-CONCEPT Rosenberg (1979, p.7) defines self-concept as the “totality of the individual’s thoughts and feelings having reference to himself as an object.” In literature, self-concept has been treated in various ways within personality theories including Freud’s (1927) Psychoanalytic Approach, Horney’s (1950) Neo-Freudian Personality Theory or Type Theory, Trait Theory (Evans et al. 2009), and Epstein’s (1980) Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory.

The self-concept is a multidimensional, highly complex construction. Normally, literature distinguishes between the actual, ideal, and social/public/ought domain of the self. One approach is provided by Higgins (1987, p.320f.):

“(a) the actual self, which is your representation of the attributes that someone (yourself or another) believes you actually possess; (b) the ideal self, which is your representation of the attributes that someone […] would like you, ideally, to possess (i.e. a representation of someone’s hopes, aspirations, or wishes for you); and (c) the ought self, which is your representation of the attributes that someone […] believes you should or ought to possess (i.e. a representation of someone’s sense of your duty, obligations, or responsibilities).”

Facing the multiplicity of the self-concept, Evans et al. (2009) agree that individuals possess ‘multiple selves’, i.e. multiple identities. Divergent perceptions of actual, Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

ought, and ideal self-image can lead to discrepancies and feelings of discomfort, failure, and disappointment (Higgins 1987). Another important finding is provided by Belk (1988) in his concept about the ‘Extended Self’. It emphasizes that any possessions of an individual can become part of the self. Consequently, the individual can extend or enhance his/her self by active consumption of goods with attributes that match the person’s personality.

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

MCCRACKEN’S MEANING-TRANSFER MODEL This is picked up in McCracken’s (1986) meaning-transfer model that constitutes the fundamental base for the suggested BIMT model. By describing culture as the lens through which people see the world and as the blueprint of human activity, McCracken concludes that “culture constitutes the world by supplying it with meaning” (McCracken 1986, p.72). He argues that there are three locations of cultural meaning: the culturally constituted world, the consumer good, and ultimately the consumer. In order to be transferred from one to the other he defines advertising and fashion systems, and possession, exchange, grooming, and divestment rituals as instruments for meaning-transfer, as the following illustration shows:

Figure 02: McCracken’s Meaning-Transfer Model (McCracken 1986).

In completion to McCracken’s model it is found that consumers tend to consume

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goods they identify with and that match with the perception of their own personality (Engel et al. 1995).

This ‘self-image congruence’ is typically based on motives such as the need for selfconsistency, self-esteem, social consistency and social approval (Sirgy et al. 1997). They are referred to as psychogenic drives that accrue from the sociocultural environment and group interactions, and can thus be both personally and socially created (Evans et al. 2009). Indeed, Engel et al. (1986) suggest that individuals’

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

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internalized values stem from the environmental impacts of society, family, religious institutions, school, and peers. Escalas et al. (2005) argue that the degree of association with a reference group can also affect the strength of the connection an individual perceives between his/her self-concept and a brand. However, it is the consumer’s susceptibility to interpersonal influences, and his/her need for group coherence that finally determines the degree of external influence on his/her decision-making and identity-creation (Evans et al. 2009).

McCracken’s model can be considered an important contribution to consumer behaviour theory. Nonetheless goods are not the only means by which an individual can extend his/her identity and acquire cultural meaning that may be congruent with his/her self-concept. As Firat et al. (1995) rightly argue the consumption of images becomes increasingly important, too. This can include body-image and thus strengthens the justification for BIMT.

2.1.

BODY-IMAGE MEANING-TRANSFER

BODY/MIND DUALISM Body-image would not have such a profound effect on individuals if they did not expect their bodies to be malleable and controllable in order to adopt culturally and socially accepted features. Likewise Belk (1988) argues that the body is a possession of the self because an individual can exert control on it. As a possession, the body can help create, enhance, and preserve an individual’s self as to a certain

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meaning. Arciszewski et al. (2012) reveal that:

“Body malleability beliefs could […] be regarded as a specific locus of control, empowering either the person (internal control) or her genetic background (external control). Moreover the beliefs we have about our ability to change our body could either be a consequence of our body-image or a cause of it” (Arciszewski et al. 2012, p.7).

This assumption is manifested in the theoretical framework of body/mind dualism that suggests a clear distinction between an objectified body and a superior mind, and builds a crucial precondition for the consumption of meaning through body-image.

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

Body/mind dualism is a “practical metaphysic that has been deployed and socially embodied in medicine, law, literacy and artistic representations, the psychological construction

of

the

self,

interpersonal

relationships,

popular

culture

and

advertisements” (Bordo 1993, p.13f.).

Initial thoughts on this concept can be found in Ancient Greece. Platonic Dualism considers the ephemeral human bodies as imperfect copies of the eternal, intelligible Forms. Seeing the body as a ‘tomb’ in which the mind is imprisoned, Plato argues that it hinders the mind from attaining its highest level of knowledge, and prevents it from seeing the truth2 (Plato 1963). He concludes that body and mind are two separate, even opposed and unequal instances and, the body may lead towards or away from God and can thus be considered responsible for human fate3 (Plato 1963; Synnott 1993).

Descartes (1641) found a more recent form of body/mind dualism, the Cartesian Dualism. It builds a central philosophical and ideological base on how the body is viewed today. Considering himself a ‘thinking thing’, Descartes (1641, p.28f.) claims that “my soul by which I am what I am […] is entirely and absolutely distinct from my body, and can exist without it.”4

As opposed to Plato, Descartes acknowledges an intermingling of mind and body, and concludes that the self is an entirety composed of mind and body (Descartes 1641). Viewing the body as integral part of the self-concept has considerably shaped research in the field of body-image (Blood 2005). Under the assumption of a changeable body that is inferior to the human mind, body-image adopts

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characteristics of an object that can be provided with attributes of meaning.

  2

The resulting conflict, which is referred to as ‘body-negative dualism’, is considered a permanent and total process (Synnott 1993). Accordingly, the mind must be liberated and separated from the body by attaining ‘purification’. This is referred to as ‘body-positive dualism’. 3 Plato’s view got criticized because he did not clarify how the union between body and mind came about when solely considering them as two distinct things. Nevertheless his ideas inspired later philosophies such as the Stoics and Christian asceticism as well as thinkers such as Descartes (Synnott 1993). 4 This clear distinction underlies the idea of the mind being an entirely indivisible thing, a source of meaning and knowledge of the truth and about the body. In contrast the body is considered a ‘machine’ that is by nature divisible and an object to the mind’s knowledge (Descartes 1641; Blood 2005).

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CONSUMER CULTURE THEORY Furthermore, BIMT supports assumptions of Consumer Culture Theory by seeking to “address the dynamic relationships between consumer actions, the marketplace, and cultural meanings” (Arnould et al. 2005, p.868). It focusses merely on experiential and sociocultural dimensions of body-image consumption that are seen to further an individual’s identity goals. The culturally constituted world can be aligned to Arnould and Thompson’s identification of ‘marketplace cultures’ and the resulting ‘sociohistoric patterning of consumption’. The manifestation of body-image by media, advertising, and celebrity culture resembles their ‘mass-mediated ideologies’ and the individual consumer can be equalized with what they refer to as ‘consumer identity’.

2.1.1. FIRST LOCATION OF CULTURAL MEANING: THE CULTURALLY CONSTITUTED WORLD McCracken (1986, p.72) suggests that “by investing the world with its own meaning, culture ‘constitutes’ the world.” Poststructuralists such as Michel Foucault, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida, and Jean-François Lyotard examine the social field as composure of linguistic phenomena (Poster 1989). Likewise, morals, norms, values, and beliefs as well as conceptions of ‘body’, ‘mind’, and ‘self’ are constructed within sociocultural discourse (Thompson et al. 1995). One outcome of those works is that truth is regarded a multiplicity, a transcendent unit, whose meanings can be (re-) interpreted, and interrogated.

Particularly ‘talk’ about body-image affects the way individuals think about their bodies and how they perceive bodies within their sociocultural environment (Blood 2005). Thereby it is significant for Western cultures that language is based on binaries. Regarding the human body, there are many highly-polarized dichotomies such as male/female, old/young, beautiful/ugly, fat/thin, etc. (Synnott 1993). Those Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

dualistic verbal distinctions are often associated with meanings of good and bad in Western culture.

Respectively, physical beauty is commonly linked to ‘good’ meanings such as social acceptance, fame, success, and moral goodness. In contrast fatness is regarded as indicative for ‘bad’ personality traits such as laziness, lacking discipline, unwillingness to conform, and inability to manage the body (Bordo 1993; Featherstone 2010). Also, 10

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

Polhemus (1988) equalizes young with ‘good’ and old with ‘bad’. These strong social messages might shape the cultural view on ‘good’ versus ‘bad’ body-images fundamentally, and affect individuals’ way of seeing themselves.

Moreover, dualistic distinctions enable regulation, organization, and social structure, or what Thompson and Hirschman (1995) refer to as ‘conditions of intelligibility’. This can be aligned with McCracken’s (1986) identification of cultural categories that he characterizes as the invisible ‘conceptual grid’ and ‘scaffolding’ of a culturally constructed world, and with Arnould and Thompson’s (2005) ‘socio-historic patterning of consumption’.

Horrocks (1995) claims that narratives or myths, here defined as collective fantasies, help structuring both the cultural and the individual’s existence. They embody - owing to the lack in truth and multiplicities in meaning - unconsciously constructed imaginative realities in human discourse. On this Firat and Venkatesh (1995, p.251) claim that “the construction of reality […] suggests that reality is not always treated as a given but is subject to manipulation for aesthetic or commercial purposes.”

Narratives are especially common with regard to food-consumption, dieting, cosmetics, and health. Typically they include moral indications on self-control and discipline promising individuals that their efforts will be rewarded through better health, freedom, attractiveness, or pure enjoyment of life (Thompson et al. 1995). Mythical narratives can also entail the meaning of icons that is legendary, heroic figures, which serve as religious symbols and role models in culture (Horrocks 1995). Indeed, contemporary beauty-myths include icons telling people how they ought to look and be like (Wolf 1990; Bordo 1993; Kilbourne 1999).

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The correlation between imaginary myths and social structure has been discussed in terms of gender roles, especially during feminist movements claiming that images of ideal female beauty were objectified and sexualized (Probyn 1993; Horrocks et al. 1996), and used as ‘political weapons’ or ‘currency systems’ to maintain social and institutional power structures dominated by men (Wolf 1990). Synnott (1993) argues that the body can be both subject and object, since it is symbol of the self on the one

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hand and symbol of society on the other hand. Further, it is something an individual possesses and that defines him/her.

Therefore, he concludes that the body is both individually unique and private, but also culturally produced in its systems and thus public. This proves the strong dynamic between individuals and the culture they are living in, and suggests that bodies are inevitably anchored in both which explains the vulnerability and complexity of body-image.

2.1.2. INSTRUMENTS

OF

MEANING-TRANSFER – WORLD

TO

BODY-IMAGE: MAINSTREAM

ADVERTISING, MEDIA, AND CELEBRITY CULTURE McCracken (1986) states that advertising and product design of fashion systems move meaning from the world to goods. Owing to a study of the All Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) the entity of advertising, media, and celebrity culture (AMCC) account for almost 75% of impact on body-image in society, and are therefore considered instruments of body-image meaning transfer in this model (YMCA 2012).

In accordance, Yu et al. (2011, p.60) state that “social and cultural values, myths, symbols, and images, as well as appearance information, are distributed through media such as television, fashion magazines, and the Internet.” It is through these instruments, that mere imaginations of body-image adopt a visually tangible, more realistic form. This is a sensitive component concerning marketers since bodyimages projected by AMCC not only affect the individual consumer’s view on him/herself, but also his/her identification with and loyalty to a brand (Meenaghan

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1995; Firat et al. 1995).

Contemporary mainstream AMCC is literally obsessed with illustrations of beautiful bodies, models, and celebrities bringing across socially approved meanings of moral goodness, success, fame, respect, and reputation (Featherstone 2010). Although body-image messages through AMCC are widely criticized for being delusive, surreal, and contradictory, e.g. magazines claiming slimness alongside the mass consumption of fast food, or ‘curves’ alongside diet trends (Wolf 1990; Kilbourne 12

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

1999), a way of life grounded in ‘the look’ is perpetually communicated in numerous ways including commodities and services (Goldman 1992).

Indeed, the rising means of body-modification promise ‘Cinderella-like life-changing experiences’ while spreading a ‘look good: feel good mentality’ (Featherstone 2010). This ideology is repetitively picked up and communicated by mass media showing before-and-after effects of both celebrities and ordinary people suggesting that everybody can own it.

Diet products, cosmetic surgery, and related techniques appear as problem-solvers, and promise liberating, healing, comforting, and easing effects5. It becomes clear that individuals can hardly escape from the pervasiveness of the ways body-image is communicated as duty, lifestyle, and precondition for social acceptance in contemporary consumer culture.

2.1.3. SECOND LOCATION OF CULTURAL MEANING: BODY-IMAGE The outcome of meaning-transfer by mainstream AMCC is the portrayal of a bodyimage that is considered ideal in Western culture. Polhemus (1988) claims that there are tendencies towards neutralization of bodily differences towards a uniform ideal appearance and that there is a remarkable homogeneity of opinion about what constitutes the ideal body in Western cultures. The British All Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) has tried to summarize and portray a number of common and current ‘ideal’ bodily attributes in the following illustration:

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X Removed due to copyright Figure 03: Contemporary Male and Female Body-Ideals (APPG 2012).

 

5

This is referred to as Hedonic Consumption by Hirschman and Holbrook (1982), and is strongly in line with the postmodern belief that everybody can adopt any identity s/he wishes (Firat et al. 1995).6 Öberg et al. (2001) state, that youthfulness has become a central value in modern societies. They claim that it can be seen as “denial of aging and resistance to inclusion in a stigmatized old age” (Öberg et al. 2001, p.16).

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This mainstream ‘ideal-image’ shows thin, tight, toned, and almost hairless bodies. Indeed, especially thinness is characteristic in contemporary beauty-ideologies (Yu et al. 2011). Youthfulness implies that the naturally visible process of aging including wrinkles, greying, and saggy skin is to be avoided. Furthermore, the face ought to be symmetrical, unmarked and uncluttered, almost expressionless, and preferably showing Caucasian features (Featherstone 2010; APPG 2012).

What cultural meaning is linked to these ideals though? In general, it is assumed that the visible body will reflect inner characteristics through a beautiful appearance (Featherstone 2010). Thereby youthfulness may promote or even replace the desire for eternal life and counter the fear of perishing6 (Öberg et al. 2001). Slimness is identified as indicator for discipline, willpower, energy, and self-control in an environment of overabundance and mass consumption (Thompson et al. 1995; Halliwell et al. 2004; Arciszewski et al. 2012). A fit and disciplined person is seen as someone who cares about him/herself and his/her appearance. Muscles – typically aligned with ideal men - embody stereotypical cultural meanings of masculine power, sexuality7, and physical strength (Bordo 1993).

These descriptions align with the majority of visualizations observed in Western AMCC in the last decades, but they are also heavily criticized. Wielding (2012) criticizes that discipline has become a ‘hobbyhorse’ in modern society that is seen to be advancing success and money. Bordo (1993) claims that these ‘cultural ideals’ are far from any sense of average human bodies and that they problematize human deviations from these ideals. Resulting negative side-effects will be described more detailed in the subsequent chapters. In contrast, recently evolving alternative campaigns against the pervasive mainstream-ideology of thin-idealized body-images

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will be provided in chapter 38.   6

Öberg et al. (2001) state, that youthfulness has become a central value in modern societies. They claim that it can be seen as “denial of aging and resistance to inclusion in a stigmatized old age” (Öberg et al. 2001, p.16). 7 The ideology ‘sex sells’ is commonly picked up by AMCC, and can additionally affect an individual’s view on his own sexuality (i.e. “how do I look naked?”) by social comparison. Bodily features such as hair underline ever-changing contemporary fashion trends, and can enhance this process (Synnott 1993; Crooks et al. 2010). 8 The alternative approaches being described in chapter 3 do clearly separate from mainstream AMCC and are therefore introduced in a single chapter. Owing to the actuality of these campaigns the resulting meaning-transfer is yet to be empirically proven. However reactions of individuals on such campaigns will be examined in the subsequent research study in chapter 4ff.

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

2.1.4. INSTRUMENTS

OF

MEANING-TRANSFER - BODY-IMAGE

TO INDIVIDUAL

CONSUMER:

NORMALIZATION The consumption process linking body-image and consumer can take place on a largely unconscious level. This may involve the perceived pressure to normalize and discipline the body as to socially accepted standards (Thompson et al. 1995). The modes of setting up standards of ideal beauty against which cultural inhabitants measure, judge, and adapt their behaviour and appearance are referred to as ‘normalization’ (Bordo 1993). Normalization can be identified as instrument of meaning transfer since it moves the cultural meaning of body-image into the individual consumer’s mind in a fairly affective way. It finally determines to what extent the individual internalizes visualizations by AMCC as his/her personal bodyimage standard depending on an individual’s susceptibility and interpersonal influences that vary from person to person.

By trying to pursue the standardized ideal image, consumers may reach out to goods (as aforementioned) that enhance the cultural constitution of a ‘good’ body. This will likely take place within the consumption rituals proposed by McCracken (1986). For that reason the process of normalization is decisive to the extent in which bodyimage affects the actual consumption behaviour of individuals. It is found that more than one third of women aim to look like female models shown in adverts. A similar number of men want to look like the male models shown in magazines despite the awareness of digital alterations creating surreal media imagery (APPG 2012).

The process of normalization can serve as some kind of ‘emotional filter’ triggered by feelings of anxiety, guilt, public observation, and failure that can influence the degree

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of control an individual is willing to exert on his/her body.

THE FEELING OF ANXIETY AND GUILT An increased willingness to control the body is powerfully driven by anxiety. It is the anxiety not to conform to a group, to be an outcast of femininity/masculinity and appeal, to be socially unaccepted, and to be judged while being linked to a culturally constituted ‘bad’ meaning. Ultimately, it is the anxiety to fail the norms and therefore to be considered being somewhat ‘abnormal’ (Kilbourne 1999; Blood 2005; Featherstone 2010). Feelings of guilt for the transgression of cultural norms such as

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eating ‘incorrectly’, being obese, or not exercising are widely manifested and part of what is perceived as normal in contemporary consumer culture (Thompson et al. 1995). Likewise, body-image issues such as disappointment about body shape or appearance, and distorted self-perception are described as ‘normal’ daily concerns (Duenwald 2003; Blood 2005).

Additionally, it is a shared belief in Western culture that bodies can be shaped at will and that imperfect bodies reflect imperfect people; these are the two most common beliefs causing body dissatisfaction (Duenwald 2003). Blood (2005) claims that it has thus become almost impossible to view and accept the body as it really is. As a consequence, “dissatisfaction with physical appearance appears to be more the rule than the exception” (Sarwer et al. 2005, p.69), and the general cultural preoccupation with fat, diet, and slenderness can be summarized as one of the most powerful normalizing mechanisms in contemporary consumer culture (Bordo 1993). Resulting from that are strong power-relations between society and individuals that can create knowledge and drive individuals’ behaviour. This area is further investigated by poststructuralist writers such as Foucault (1977) and Baudrillard (Horrocks et al. 1996).

THE FEELING OF PUBLIC OBSERVATION Anxiety is additionally triggered by the feeling of being constantly monitored and judged by public. Shields et al. (2002) state that gazing upon the body as object of beauty seems natural, whereas the subsequent assessment clearly relies on cultural factors. Foucault (1977) investigated this problematic when analysing the behaviour of prisoners. Owing to his study, the phenomenon of constantly feeling looked at is referred to as ‘panopticism’, or ‘the power of the disciplinary gaze’ (Thompson et al.

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1995).

In his research, Foucault observed conscious feelings of constant surveillance amongst imprisoned inmates and concluded that this was as powerful as the use of arms, physical violence, or material constraints. Bartky (1990) complements this finding by describing strong tendencies to self-surveillance owing to the conscious awareness of the public gaze. She identifies typical indicators as regular looks into the mirror or resilient concerns about appearances e.g. about looking ‘bad’ in the 16

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

sense of looking fat or ugly. This implies that normalization does not only concern desirable features of a culturally positive body-image but also, and most notably, features of a negative body-image that ought to be avoided.

THE FEELING OF FAILURE The ideology of pursuing an ideal-image comprises a paradox which is worth emphasizing here: Artificially created body-images are usually physically unattainable for the majority of people. It is noted that the aesthetic ideal of women in the media has become constantly thinner whereas average women’s weight has increased (Duenwald 2003; Fallon et al. 2004; Connolly 2009; APPG 2012). Similarly, the extremely muscular and toned visualization of male ideals does not comply with the natural constitutions of the majority of men (Daily Mail Reporter 2012). In fact, 95% of the population will physically never achieve the ‘body ideal’ (Smithers 2012).

Consequently, when trying to attain or enhance the ideal cultural meanings, most people are automatically condemned to fail, and as a consequence the discrepancy between actual and ideal self-image causes body-dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and body-related anxiety that can have profound consequences on individual consumers’ body-image (Polhemus 1988; Dove 2004; Halliwell et al. 2004). A recent study by the Department of Public Health and General Practice in Norway even suggests that the normalization of an unrealistically thin body-image in adolescence that makes young people feel bigger than they actually are can entail obesity in adulthood9 (Cuypers et al. 2012). The negative outcome of normalization is referred to as ‘problematization’ by Thompson et al. (1995).

2.1.5. THIRD LOCATION OF CULTURAL MEANING: THE INDIVIDUAL CONSUMER

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The adoption of shared cultural meaning to the context of an individual consumer’s life depends on the individual’s degree of compliance to his/her sociocultural environment and tendency to social comparison with the thin-idealized models in AMCC10 (Thompson et al. 1994; Yu et al. 2011).   9

Cuypers et al. (2012) state that the self-perceived overweight can lead to mental health issues and unhealthy dietary behavior in adulthood that finally goes along with weight gain instead of weight loss and can reinforce body-dissatisfaction even more. 10 The Theory of Social Comparison was first proposed by Festinger (1954) who argued that people evaluate themselves by comparing with others. The more similar they perceive others the more likely

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Researchers face two challenges here: Firstly, the process of normalization can greatly differ among individuals. Secondly, body-image is invisibly manifested in individual consumers’ minds and thus difficult to be measured. To facilitate this process, the author argues with scholars such as Jones (2004) and Engeln-Maddox (2005) that consumers who are satisfied with their bodies will not internalize culturally constituted body-images as their individual standards. Behavioural adaption is unlikely here. Consequently, research must focus on those consumers who are not necessarily satisfied with their bodies. Owing to the aforementioned statement by Sarwer et al. (2005) that dissatisfaction was more the rule than the exception, one can justify, however, that most ordinary people likely constitute suitable research objects in this realm.

As McCracken (1986) acknowledges, meaning transfer with goods can go wrong to the cost of individual and society. Likewise, the adoption of a culturally constituted thin-idealized body-image can cause a state of tension among individual consumers resulting from a discrepancy between the actual self, and the culturally constituted ideal self that stems from social comparison. Thereby, consumers with a greater discrepancy are more likely to develop negative body-images and bodydissatisfaction that can, in extreme cases, result in disorders or dysfunctions (Cash et al. 2002; Blood 2005; Yu et al. 2011). Consequently, the more consumers internalize realistically unattainable body-images as their personal standard, the more likely they are to feel dissatisfied about their own bodies11 and reach for products or services to modify their looks.

Research in consumer behaviour, anthropology, sociology, and psychology has dealt with individual consumers’ reactions and behaviour when being exposed to thinidealized body-images presented by AMCC. Some of those will be described below Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

in order to illuminate the possible negative side-effects of these images on the bodyimages of the audience.      they are to compare with them as opposed to those who seem completely different, even oppositional. Social comparison can positively enhance self-esteem when comparing with an inferior image or lead to dysfunctions and dissatisfaction when comparing with an unattainable, unrealistic image. (Yu et al. 2011). 11 This dissatisfaction may stem from the aforementioned emotions such as anxiety, failure, etc. The degree of internalization and awareness of body-images as promoted by AMCC is mostly measured with the ‘Sociocultural Attitudes to Appearance Questionnaire’ by Heinberg et al. (1995).

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BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES TO THE EXPOSURE OF BODY-IDEALS AMONG WOMEN It is agreed that women are especially vulnerable and cutting-edges to react on culturally constructed thin-idealized body-images, and there are notably more studies on women than on men. Indeed few women are positively influenced by thin-ideal images whereas a third of women have been found to be dissatisfied with their body weight, and feel a strong pressure to try and achieve the ‘ideal’ picture of beauty assuming that society expects them to enhance their physical attractiveness for being socially more valued12 (McKie et al. 1993; Mussweiler et al. 2000; Dove 2004). This may stem from past decades when women used to be publicly defined by means of their bodies in order to achieve social status13 (Orbach 1988; Wolf 1990; Bordo 1993; Kilbourne 1999). One significant contribution is provided by Halliwell and Dittmar (2004, p. 114)14 revealing that “body-focused anxiety was strongly correlated with internalization of sociocultural attitudes […] particularly in the exposure conditions that showed an attractive model.” Images of attractive, thin-idealized models activated bad feelings especially among women with greater self-discrepancy. Likewise, Fallon et al. (2005)15 found that the exposure to models with an ideal physique can cause bodyimage disturbance, enhanced body-dissatisfaction, anger, depression, and anxiety. Thereby, an individual’s body-image state can already be negatively affected by a five minutes exposure to thin-and-beautiful media imagery16 (Yamamiya et al. 2005). Intterestingly, the greater the awareness of discrepancy, the more likely it is that women react selectively and critically towards those images, and finally towards the brand promoting them (Festinger 1954; Grogan 2008; Yu et al. 2011).  

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12

Dove (2004) did a global survey on 3,200 women from Northern and Southern America, Asia, Europe in collaboration with professionals in the research of body-image. For more information see chapter 3. 13 Bodies empowered women to represent cultural meanings such as self-discipline, trimness, and control (Bordo 1993). For more information see early feminist writings who conceptualize the body from its physical form to a construction of history and medium of social control (Wolf 1990; Kilbourne 1999; Blood 2005). 14 Halliwell et al. (2004) investigated the relation between media images and body-focused anxiety among women who were exposed to images showing no models, traditional thin models, and average-size models. Amongst the sample of 202 women,96% of the respondents were Caucasian and 88% resided in the UK, the average age was 30.8 years, median age was 28 years with an age range between 19-67, and 80% being younger than 35. Average BMI was 23.31. 15 Fallon et al. (2004) analysed the mood reactions of 63 Caucasian female undergraduate students when being exposed to 60 pictures of ‘ideal’ Caucasian models in relation to exercising. 16 Yamamiya et al. (2004) did research on 123 white female students at the age of 18 to 29 at Old Dominion University. Average BMI of participants was 24.1. The study is therefore comparable to Halliwell et al.’s (2004).

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BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES TO THE EXPOSURE OF BODY-IDEALS AMONG MEN Increasing vulnerabilities towards body-image and tendencies to body-control have recently been found among men (Flament et al. 2011; Daily Mail Reporter 2012). Male consumers have become inevitable components of accurate and current bodyimage research. However the internalization of ideal body-images amongst men has not been subject to many research studies yet, so that there are few findings.

Nonetheless it is found that, similar to women, male stereotypes normally do not fit the vast majority of men and therefore evoke feelings of discomfort and failure (Daily Mail Reporter 2012). Flament et al. (2011) propose that muscularity and thinness are often wished to be pursued simultaneously among boys. This is supported by the results of another recent study revealing that 10% of boys aged 11-16 are willing to abuse anabolic steroids to look more muscular (Watts 2012a).

Also, a remarkable impact on men’s body-image was found by images in male magazines. Particularly single men are found to react vulnerable to pictures of flawless muscular bodies. By striving to attain that, numerous young men tend to exercise and work-out excessively, which is referred to as ‘athletica nervosa’17 (Giles cited in Mail Online 2008, Featherstone 2010). Although the known cases of eating disorders amongst men is said to be on increase (Flament et al. 2011), Watts (2012b) claims that statistics are not accurate since numerous cases are misguided. Another interesting research on the willingness toward aesthetic surgery among men is provided by Holliday and Cairnie (2007).

Clearly, male body-images as shown in AMCC exert much pressure on stereotypical gender-roles and behavioural attributes18. This affects especially in men who cannot respond adequately to gender-specific social norms such as power, strength, and Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

masculinity owing to their natural physical state, and can lead to similar consequences as with women.

  17

Originally, the term ‘athletica nervosa’ stems from a research by Winchester University psychologist Dr David Giles. 18 Thereby it is found that non-masculine features, e.g. body-hair in contemporary consumer culture, are commonly joked about. This view is often enhanced by movies that trivialize men with female attributes (Crooks et al. 2010).

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

These findings show that the proliferation of thin-idealized body-images by the majority of contemporary AMCC will likely transfer negative body-images to both women and men that can ultimately trigger a number of dangerous side-effects. In

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contrast, alternative approaches will be illuminated in the following chapter.

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3. APPROACHES AGAINST THE CURRENT MAINSTREAM BODY-IMAGE Cuypers et al. (2012) argue that environmental impacts that cause negative bodyimages may be reversed by publicly focusing on healthy body shapes and the dissemination of health messages. Definitions of what a healthy body-image is can be broadly summarized as invariably loving the actual self the way it is (PawlikKienlen 2007). Since body-image is one important component of self-esteem and self-concept all constructs can likewise be affected positively through a satisfied and optimistic body-perception (APPG 2012).

Therefore, Organizations, celebrities, governments, and individuals campaign against the pressure perceived from ideal body-images by fostering a healthier body-image. Amongst these initiatives, two trends can be observed: First of all, bans against surreal, delusive body-images, and secondly the proliferation of advertising campaigns on healthy body-images. Both approaches against mainstream thinidealized and muscular body-images will be described and exemplified in the following paragraphs.

3.1. BANS AGAINST DELUSIVE, SURREAL BODY-IMAGES Initially, controversies about body shape kicked-off in fashion and modelling industry after the death of some models owing to anorectic self-starvation. As a consequence, the Madrid Fashion Week banned size-zero models from their catwalks in 2006, and imposed a minimum BMI of 18 in order to promote healthier images (Rogers 2006). Subsequently, Brazil and Argentina joined in, and also the Italian fashion couture reacted with a code of conduct to stop the use of anorexic-looking models on catwalks (Rogers 2006; Derbyshire 2007). After being reluctant towards catwalk bans, the British Fashion Council passed a Model Health Inquiry in 2007 that

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determines that catwalks are not permitted for models under 16, that healthy food and drinks as well as a model relaxation zone are available, and that Equity becomes a representative body for models (Milligan 2012).

However the topic has led to numerous controversies in fashion world, politics, media, and public. Especially fashion designers’ unrealistic sample sizes have been concerns of the discussions. On that an anonymous designer holds: “I have to make my samples in a size eight. If I make them any bigger […] no one will use the 22

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

samples in the fashion magazine shoots afterwards because magazines nearly always use size eight-or-under models” (Kay 2006).

Against those arguments ‘Brigitte’ one of Germany’s best-selling women’s magazines announced to ban professional models from its pages and to replace them with pictures of ‘real life’ ordinary women in 2009. They stated to be reacting on an increased number of readers who had complained they could not identify with the models shown who weigh around 23% less than an average woman (Connolly 2009). In 2012, the fashion magazine ‘Vogue’ responded with a health initiative between its 19 international editors. The magazine announced to work with models representing a healthy body-image in order to promote the importance of well-being to their readers (Milligan 2012). Israel19 is the first country that passed a country-wide law banning underweight models from local advertising obliging them to provide proof that a minimum BMI of 18.5 are met and a medical certificate about their health state when applying for model jobs. Moreover, publications are required to disclose when they use altered images to make female and male models appear thinner (BBC 2012). In response, a member of the Fashion Industry Action Group prompted to follow this example in the UK one month before the start of the London Fashion Week, claiming that size zero models in catwalk shows were partly to blame for women developing eating disorders (Waterlow 2012).

Indeed, requests for campaigns against digitally altered advertising images (so-called ‘anti-Photoshop laws’) have also been raised in other countries such as the US, and Austria (Abraham 2011; Riegler 2012). In the UK, Highly airbrushed ‘delusive’ advertisements, such as by famous cosmetic brands showing actress Julia Roberts Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

and model Christy Turlington have already been banned for misleading by the Advertising Standards Authority (BBC 2011; Waterlow 2012).

  19

The author is aware that Israel does not belong to Western culture. However its actions against thinidealized body-images serve as an important example in this research, and illustrate that body-image is a current and controversial issue beyond the borders of typical Western countries.

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3.2. CAMPAIGNS ON HEALTHIER BODY-IMAGES Yu et al. (2011) state that brand attitudes are more positive when participants experience a similarity with advertising images as opposed to the tense state resulting from self-discrepancy caused by unattainable images. Also, the advertising effectiveness of attractive average-sized models is perceived equal to their slim counterparts which thus rejects the wide-spread argument that ‘thinness sells’20 (Halliwell et al. 2004; Yamamiya et al. 2004; Fallon et al. 2005). Indeed, some organizations have recently tried to benefit from this by swimming against the current mainstream of thin-idealized body-images.

The organization Unilever with their wide-spread ‘Campaign for Real Beauty’ under the umbrella of their cosmetic brand Dove is a cutting-edge in this. In September 2004, Dove first published a global report under the heading ‘The Real Truth about Beauty’. Prior to that, an internal research study revealed that 40% of the 3,200 female respondents from 10 different countries21 did not feel comfortable describing themselves as beautiful. Moreover, 75% declared they wished media images varied more in shape, age, and size. Subsequently, the brand started a global advertising campaign against the perceived media pressure on body image. Thereby, they picked up stereotypical indicators that do not comply with the contemporary beautyideology: aging, greying, wrinkles, curves, small breasts, boyish looks, and different skin colours as the following example shows:

X Removed due to copyright Figure 04: Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty (Clegg 2005).

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A similar self-esteem campaign had formerly been launched by The Body Shop against a stereotyped Barbie doll-like body-image on women in 199822. Also, several   20

However it must be acknowledged that these findings cannot be proven with absolute profit figures yet, and thus need to be handled with care. 21 The study was carried out in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, France, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portugal, the UK and the US (Datamonitor 2005). 22 The campaign showed a curvy Barbie doll under the strapline “There are 3 billion women who don’t look like supermodels and only 8 who do”. The Anti-Barbie doll was called Ruby as to symbolize a rubenesque, generously proportioned body-shape. Ruby appeared in shops in Asia, Australia and the

24

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

celebrities campaign for curvier body-images, including Beyoncé, Jennifer Lopez, Kim Kardashian, Jennifer Hudson, Mariah Carey, Tyra Banks, America Ferrara, and Janet Jackson (The Richest 2012).

Apart from Israel, an increased number of governments are involved in the bodyimage discussion. With regard to the subsequent research study, two initiatives from the UK and Germany can be mentioned: In the UK, the Central YMCA’s All Party Parliamentary Group (APPG 2012) recently conducted 28 empirical studies investigating 4000 women and men from the UK, North America, and Australia. Apart from proving that negative body-image is the biggest single worry for millions of children and young people in society, they also revealed that body-satisfaction increased after the exposure to average-size male and female models as opposed to slim and muscular ones (YMCA 2012). Therefore, a campaign is to be launched in autumn 2012 proactively spreading adverts showing a diverse range of multicultural people holding heart-shaped signs in front of their naked bodies saying ‘I j me’ in order to reinforce body-confidence among groups of all ages, nationalities, and sizes in the UK23.

X Removed due to copyright Figure 05: APPG’s Campaign on Body-Confidence (YMCA 2012).

In Germany, politicians and celebrities – including fashion designer Jette Joop – have launched a nation-wide campaign that can be translated as ‘Life needs more weight – altogether against the obsession with body-image’ (Riegger 2007). This campaign focuses on the prevention of negative body-images through education and financial Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

support of national health- and sports initiatives. Although most campaigns do not appear strikingly in Germany, body-image is a prevailing topic. This proved recently when a blogger on twitter accidentally raised a big discussion about culturally

     US. However the campaign got banned as an insult against the real Barbie doll very quickly (Roddick 2001). 23 Information to the campaign and a full copy of the report can already be found on the Central YMCA’s website.

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constituted ‘ideal’ body-proportions24 (Tanriverdi 2012). However this is only one example for a large number of initiatives by individuals for healthier and more realistic body-images that prove the topicality of body-image all over the world.

3.3. CAN MAINSTREAM BIMT BE CHANGED THROUGH THESE CAMPAIGNS? Despite the attempts to portray healthier, natural, and more realistically attainable body-images that dissociate from the message of ‘imperfect bodies = imperfect people’, it must be clarified that the aforementioned campaigns still constitute the minority of initiatives within the vast and global media landscape, and their effectiveness is not analysed sufficiently yet. Therefore, it cannot be said with certainty whether or not a shift in the way people think about body-image can be achieved. However owing to previous findings suggesting that people feel more comfortable and satisfied when being exposed to average-sized models, one can reason that these approaches can trigger a trend towards more positive body-images as opposed to their thin-idealized counterparts. But can the meanings linked to healthy body-images prevail over meanings that have been associated with slimidealized bodies over decades?

Opinions about this are controversial. On the one hand it is believed that the recent campaigns and initiatives have already encouraged people to feel less dissatisfied with their bodies. On the other hand images of thin-idealized beauty-ideals have been culturally constructed and manifested in people’s psyche over generations. Therefore a shift towards a healthier body-ideal will definitely need time. Although the likelihood for a zeitgeist change is generally acknowledged, it is not expected to happen immediately (Duenwald 2003). Certainly, approaches towards a positive body-image are yet regarded brave, but they may offer great opportunities for both marketers and people. At the end, consumers will decide whether a new look at Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

body-image will become accepted. The following research study will therefore not only examine BIMT based on mainstream AMCC but also offer alternative approaches.   24

In Germany, the ideal proportions for women are known as 90-60-90. This ‘aesthetic norm’ concerns the sizes of breast, waist, and hips of women measured in cm, and are commonly applied to be ideal body-proportions. Owing to a spelling mistake, the blogger incorrectly referred to 60-90-60 though. Immediately, hundreds of bloggers raised a critical discussion about body-norms in society, and strengthened their opinions with pictures of their own bodies. This got positive feedback by many other bloggers since it revealed that nobody seems to look that way (Tanriverdi 2012).

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In the previous chapters the BIMT model was introduced as well as initiatives for healthier and more realistic and diversified body-images in contemporary AMCC. Both components are picked up and examined by the author in the following primary research study.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION The identification of sources of data and the collection of data of sufficient quality and quantity aim to prove the validity of the BIMT model. The author focused especially on the collection of qualitative data rather than quantitative figures in order to provide a multifaceted and profound view on opinions, feelings, and perceptions of consumers on the highly philosophical, subjective, and controversial topic given.

Two independent online focus groups, from the UK (group A) and Germany (group B) consisting of ten participants each were built in order to discuss body-image-related questions over a two-weeks-period. The research method chosen enables to gather a large amount of information in real-time to low cost and is therefore especially advantageous. It was assumed that group interaction may stimulate new thoughts from respondents and make participants feel secure to speak out (Aaker et al. 2004).

Indeed, it is found that participants react very open in online discussion groups because the interviewer is not staring at their face or pushing for an immediate answer in front of the group, and peer pressure is not perceived (McDaniel et al. 2006). Moreover, when respondents rely on words and complete sentences rather than gestures or facial expressions, they have to express their thoughts in more concise ways. Finally, the group moderator can directly interact and ask questions without interrupting possible group dynamics which was applied in this research, too Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

(ibid.). This was important with regard to the vulnerability and sensitivity of the subject of discussion.

Prior to the discussion the author described the purpose of the inquiry as an exploration of the body-image. Participants were asked to sign up under an anonymous Facebook profile. Using the social network offered the possibility to invite people from a wide geographic distance into a closed group in order to discuss

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anonymously, and independently from time and space. By using the internet, stimulating interactivities such as uploading pictures and videos, and the Facebook typical click-liking were facilitated in order to create a lively discussion on multiple communication levels. All respondents were active Facebook users so that they were familiar with technological treatments. Being anonymous improved the general sense of well-being during the whole discussion. Moreover, each group was given the same surname25 in order to create a feeling of belongingness, familiarity, and group coherence.

During the two weeks of research, both groups were exposed to nine relatively broadly formulated open questions, with sub questions where applicable (App. A). This enabled respondents to answer in their own terms and enabled the researcher to examine the salience of the body-image issue among the target group with regard to BIMT.

In completion, quantitative data were collected by means of a one-page individual questionnaire at the end of the research (App. B). The questionnaire investigated personal factual questions in order to generate quantitative data about gender, age, BMI, and relationship status (Bryman et al. 2007). Also, respondents were asked about their attitudes towards their own and other people’s appearance, and the impact of adverts on their own body-image on a six-point Likert scale. Closed questions were used to examine opinions about alternative body-image campaigns.

PARTICIPANTS Based on Sarwer et al.’s (2005) argument that body-dissatisfaction was common in contemporary consumer culture, a sample of 20 participants were randomly chosen in order to investigate the validity of BIMT among ordinary young people. All Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

respondents were acquaintances of the author who moderated the discussion. Therefore reliability and confidentiality in the handling of data was granted. 60% of respondents were female and 40% male owing to literature findings that revealed the growing importance of men in this field. In group A 70% were in a relationship, and 30% single, whereas in group B 80% had a partner and 20% were single.   25

In group A the surname was Churchill whereas group B was called Müller according to their nationality.

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

Participants’ ages ranged from 20 to 30 with a total average age of 24.45, and both median and mode of 24. Thereby, every possible age within the rank was represented. People of the same generation were chosen because it was believed to be more comfortable for them to discuss in the language common for their age group. Moreover, they were found to use similar brands, which were preferably fashion labels such as Hugo Boss, Tommy Hilfiger, Hollister, and FCUK among males and fashion and cosmetic labels such as H&M, Dove, Nivea, and No7 among females. Moreover, all participants had Caucasian features and normal weight. Thereby group A was on average slightly younger with a mean of 23.1 as opposed to group B with an average age of 25.8. Respectively the Body-Mass Index varied and was slightly lower in group A with an average of 22.9 whereas average BMI in group

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

B was 23.73 (App. D).

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5. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS The following paragraphs summarize key findings that prove the validity of the BIMT model in both groups alike. Moreover, the reaction of participants on alternative campaigns as described in chapter 3 against mainstream ideal-images will be examined.

KEY FINDINGS FOR BIMT IN GROUP A: The cultural constitution and manifestation of body-image in group A can be proven sufficiently. Indeed, social discourse can be identified as central source for consumers to acquire an understanding of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ bodies in their sociocultural environment. Accordingly, the majority of participants confirm that within their sociocultural environment fat people are generally regarded unattractive and responsible for their own imperfections. A male respondent justifies this by saying that “everybody knows which foods are fatty and subsequently, to some extent, being fat is a choice as well as choosing to not exercise enough” (Gerry Churchill, App.C1.2).

However, most respondents show strong general tendencies to not blame individuals but

the

sociocultural

environment

including

diet

and

cosmetic

industries,

governments, media, celebrities, and Hollywood for a somewhat distorted view on body-image, as the following citation shows:

“From experience, I’ve observed those who exercise regularly to regard fat people as lazy and unhealthy, whereas those who may simply be naturally skinny tend to regard fat people as ‘ugly’. Perceptions are often influenced by the media however – television today often depicts fat people as stupid, incompetent, lazy, etc.” (Borris Churchill, App.C1.2).

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

It is acknowledged that especially cosmetic surgery appears as the ultimate answer to all things that are perceived wrong with the body and that notably formed the perception of individuals on aesthetic imperfections.

“People can often be looked down upon if people’s appearance comes across as unkempt and people can often believe that when this person could have done something to alter that, but have chosen not to, they are conceived as responsible for their own imperfections” (Gertrude Churchill, App.C1.4).

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

This shows a strong confirmation of beliefs in body/mind dualism saying that a body can be controlled and modified by mankind (Descartes 1641; Thompson et al. 1995), and confirms Arciszewski et al.’s (2012) findings about the impact of bodymalleability beliefs.

The cultural impact becomes further visible when participants are asked to upload a picture of a person they would be afraid to look like (the avoidable self-image). Thereby, the majority of men in the UK group choose pictures of overweight men arguing that “being overweight, or even obese, can often mean they will likely have issues elsewhere, especially in confidence” (Gerry Churchill, App.C1.3). Interestingly, all women go for pictures of celebrities that had undergone extreme plastic surgery, such as the following picture shows:

X Removed due to copyright Figure 06: Jocelyn Wildenstein (Picstopin 2012).

Respondents clearly encompass artificial, standardized beauty with a ‘frozen’ look and ‘plastic image’ as opposed to natural beauty suggesting that it is uniqueness and naturalness that make a person special. It becomes clear that plastic surgery – in extreme cases and particularly in cases where it had gone wrong – is seen as indicator for shallowness. These findings confirm Wolf’s (1990) and Featherstone’s (2010) statements that people are commonly judged by their appearance and indicate the correlation between beauty and social acceptance or even status in this group. It reveals that personality is commonly deduced from bodily attributes. Clearly, cultural discourse comprises strong components of identification and self-concept, Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

particularly concerning ideal and ought self which individuals react to (Higgins 1987). Moreover, and in accordance to Polhemus’ (1988) statement, a clear awareness of standardization of female beauty in media and among celebrities, notably Hollywood actresses, is recognizable in the UK group. A male respondent expresses his disapproval towards the normalization of stereotypical ideal-images among women in the following way:

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“I remember looking through an FHM calendar not long ago and pretty much every girl looked the same, and that’s what I kind of think is the problem. Companies obviously found a look that was profitable I guess, especially in the 1990s, with the likes of Britney Spears and Jennifer Aniston or whoever, and kind of mass produced it, so now a lot of ‘sexy’ actresses, popstars, and models, all seem to be minor alterations to a well-entrenched paradigm and aesthetics.” (Archibald Churchill, App.C1.1)

However in strong confirmation with BIMT he argues that what people see as the ideal body-image is not what they define as apparently beautiful themselves but what is developed by AMCC. This reminds of McCracken’s (1986) identification of culture as the lens through which people see the world, and proves the impact of this perpetual driving-force on individual consumers’ opinion formation. Interestingly, respondents seem to be well-aware of both this problematic itself and their helplessness against it. Indeed, vast sociocultural pressure on body-image, particularly among women is perceived to be normal which confirms former research by Thompson et al. (1995), Duenwald (2003), and Blood (2005) in this field. A female states that she feels continually judged by everyone to ‘be presentable and attractive’ at all times. This aligns with Foucault’s (1977) finding about the power of the disciplinary public gaze that makes individuals feel being looked at. Emotions within the process of normalization reveal.

Looking at the end of the meaning-transfer, what does the ideal body-image of individuals look like though? Female participants emphasize perfect teeth and lips, straight noses alongside toned and well-shaped bodies, and healthily-shining hair of their individual beauty-ideals who describe exclusively celebrities. The impact of AMCC on an individual’s body-image exists doubtlessly. Meaningful attributes including intelligence, education, career, commitment, friendliness, gentleness, youth, naturalness, timeless elegance, mannerisms, style, and classiness are

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

connected with these images. One female respondent admits that “it is almost seen as successful to be incredibly skinny and maintain a ‘beautiful’ look” (Emily Churchill, App.C1.4).

This confirms research by scholars such as Thompson et al. (1995), Halliwell et al. (2004), and Wielding (2012) that thinness symbolizes success. Indeed, a clear correlation between the special status of a celebrity, which comprises being successful and rich, and the ideal look is observable. A male respondent justifies that 32

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“as religion is on the way out in Western societies, many have taken to worship these ‘celebrities’” (Gerry Churchill, App.C1.6). This proves Horrocks’ (1995) view on mythical icons. Under this condition, the ideal-image adopts the character of a luxury good that is clearly not attainable and affordable to everybody. Most notably, it is something that is perceived to be not naturally given to the majority of people. In contrast, its somewhat surreal and artificial character described in postmodernist and poststructuralist writings reveals.

As opposed to their female counterparts male respondents claim to feel less concerned by body-image pressure. Interestingly, their favourite brands are solely high-quality, often conspicuously consumed striking fashion-labels such as FCUK, Calvin Klein, Hollister, or Hugo Boss. These are typically related to status or imageconsumption (Evans et al. 2009). Moreover it becomes clear that male participants show a trend-awareness, seeking to fulfil the image of a ‘real’ man: masculine and straight. Notably, they distance themselves from male fashion models who they describe as gay-looking or metro-sexual ‘gigolos’ who embody the ‘feminization of men’. Respectively, one male respondent admits that “caring about your appearance too much makes you quite effeminate and maybe even a bit gay” (Archibald Churchill, App.C1.9). Summer Churchill (App.C1.9) reports:

“From my own experience with talking with guys a lot of them commented or made jokes that the men who advertised these products, clothes, etc. were homosexual or metrosexual and these guys didn’t feel the need to be influenced or want to be like them, therefore didn’t identify with the product or man advertising in the product.”

Consequently, a need for identification or social comparison can be found with men but is obviously lacking in current adverts (Festinger 1954). Owing to these findings it can be agreed that men play an increasingly important role on the marketplace as to

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body-image (Mail Online 2008; Flament et al. 2011).

Not surprisingly after these findings and in accordance with Bordo (1993) the male beauty-ideal is described with features such as masculinity, confidence, strength, and ‘heroism’ as indicator for the ability of providing safety. Thereby, specific characteristics are often concluded from the roles actors played in movies. This aligns with poststructuralist and postmodernist assumptions that there is a multiplicity

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of constructed truths that can be interpreted by individuals in many ways (Poster 1989; Firat et al. 1995).

Moreover, regarding participants’ own beauty perception the questionnaire revealed that how an individual perceives him/herself relies greatly on the relationship status. This suggests individuals need the positive self-confirmation and appreciation by a person in order to feel beautiful. This confirms Blood’s (2005) finding that it is almost impossible to see and accept the body as it actually is, and Belk’s (1988, p.146) statement that “others are an important mirror through which we see ourselves.” Interestingly with regard to other people’s beauty, it is bodily self-confidence and uniqueness that participants most notably approve with their beauty-ideals and that obviously lacks with them. This suggests that self-confidence obtains a similarly surreal and somewhat unattainable character as beauty itself.

In summary, it becomes evident that an individual’s body-image relies greatly on cultural discourse and images produced by AMCC, notably celebrities that construct a somewhat surreal and perhaps distorted perception of the desirable and socially accepted ideal-look in individual minds. Interestingly, the visualization of both ‘good’ and ‘bad’ bodies is affected by celebrities. Consequently, both male and female respondents in this group are concerned by the perpetual and pervasive impacts within their sociocultural environment that arguably shapes their own view on bodyimage. Consequently, BIMT can be proven.

KEY FINDINGS FOR BIMT IN GROUP B: Similarly to group A, profound impacts of culture and most notably AMCC can be proven in group B. Most respondents in Germany confirm that fatness is seen as indicator for laziness and lacking discipline in their culture, and that an imperfect Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

appearance is linked to an imperfect character in line with physical or psychological illness. Participants acknowledge that people will automatically stand out if they do not fulfil the norm and confirm Duenwald’s (2003) statement. Also fat people are said to have an automatically more difficult rank in society because they are widely associated with stereotypical prejudices such as poverty. These findings confirm the assumption by group A that ideal beauty adopts a somewhat surreal luxury character which is largely seen to rely on money. 34

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

In accordance with group A, the avoidable self-image in this group depicts people with extreme cosmetic surgery or obesity. Only one exception can be emphasized: A female respondent uploads the following picture of an extremely anorectic female model saying that this picture triggered nightmares in her by blaming the general beauty obsession in society for those consequences:

X Removed due to copyright Figure 07: Anorexic Model (Treborg 2007).

In fact, during the whole discussion both female and male participants in group B clearly separate from ultra-thin ideal-bodies saying that it is curves and little blemishes that make a person unique. Notably, this group shows a particular awareness of negative side-effects caused by negative body-images. However, similar to their British counterparts helplessness towards the contemporary mainstream trend towards thinness and artificial perfection is noticeable.

Also the topic about standardization of beauty rises and becomes heavily discussed in this group:

“Do we really want to live in a world in which we all look more or less the same due to plastic surgery, etc. and in which we adapt permanently only because someone has defined this as perfect?!” (Adam Müller, App.C2.4).

Clearly, the group’s answer to this is no. Respondents share the opinion that ideal beauty typically comprises little imperfect blemishes such as freckles, wrinkles, or scares since these are seen as a person’s unique characteristics, i.e. symbols that Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

make someone stand out.

Although this group’s opinion seems to differ greatly from group A, the physical features of an ideal-beauty show almost the same characteristics as in the British group and align with typical images produced by AMCC: long, blond hair, slightly tanned skin, kempt teeth, shaved legs and armpits, slimness, but with slight female curves. However, the German female respondents are more hesitant to link their descriptions to certain persons. They argue that beauty does not restrict to one single

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person but consists of an intermingling of inner and outer beauty as an entity. This agrees with Descartes’ (1641) findings about the eventual intermingling between the distinct components body and mind, and hence confirms the validity of Cartesian dualism in contemporary consumer culture.

The German male counterparts are even more modest in this context and refer rather to personality traits than physical features, claiming that ideal beauty was rather a female issue that they did not feel extraordinarily concerned of. Nevertheless the pictures they upload do constantly show famous, young, and stereotypically ‘handsome’ Hollywood actors, and thus align with their British counterparts.

Again these findings prove nicely that body-image meaning-transfer can occur unconsciously to a large extent. A male respondent states “I think in the most cases you don’t notice the impact, and that’s the way it is wanted” (Heiko Müller, App.C2.5). A female counterpart agrees with that saying “unconsciously you always go with the flow, whether you want it or not” (Elena Müller, App.C2.2). This is an important finding in this group, suggesting that even though individuals try to have independent opinions, their views are ultimately influenced by meanings, and values proliferated in their sociocultural environment.

The process of normalization can be proven in this group either. Leonie Müller (App.C2.2), a female respondent claims that she frequently feels fat despite her completely normal BMI:

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“Even to me as non-overweight woman, there are shops in which I cannot buy jeans because they just don’t fit me. […] Then it is less surprising that you leave the shop thinking ‘Oh god, now I really have to lose weight, when I cannot fit into any trousers anymore.”

Increased criticism addressing fashion, dieting, and entertaining industries in the whole group confirms Goldman’s (1992) findings that commodities promote a way of life based on the look, and Featherstone’s (2010) identification of a ‘look good: feel good’ mentality.

Cultural meanings related to ideal beauty are described similar as in group A. Selfconfidence, positive charisma, naturalness, honesty, vitality, openness, gentleness, 36

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

authentic presentation, uniqueness, and personality are linked to females whereas male characteristics are connected with masculinity, strength, humour, charm, respectful behaviour, and intelligence.

“Men are defined by attributes such as power, success, money, reputation, job, whereas women are probably defined by some of those attributes either, but the main characteristic is definitely beauty” (Tanja Müller, App.C2.9).

In this context the group addresses the topic of stereotypical gender-role in society and confirms the typically dualistic dichotomies in relation to cultural meaning as suggested by Synnott (1993), Wolf (1990), and Kilbourne (1999).

In fact, the same patterns as in group A can be observed concerning men: Idealimages of men in AMCC are commonly connected with metro-sexuality and gayness and it is criticized that male models rather corresponded to the requests of homosexual fashion designers that are not desirable for ‘masculine’, sexually straight men. Nevertheless, male respondents preferably consume fashion brands of a similarly conspicuous and self-defining character as in group A. By trying to brave the appearance of ‘gay’ media images they do not want to identify with (which lets deduce the cultural constituted meaning of gayness = ‘abnormal’ in itself), they pursue a very masculine body-image. And by so doing they ultimately perceive and embrace body-image pressure similar to women. Therefore here again, body-image meaning-transfer can be seen valid with both genders, even though the conscious and affective perception may differ strongly between individuals.

Although participants in group B raised slightly different topics than their British counterparts, it can be concluded that their body-image is ultimately affected by sociocultural impacts to similar extents. The strength and pervasiveness of Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

mainstream AMCC and the subsequent process of normalization is revealing in both groups. Despite the awareness of this problematic it becomes clear how hard it is for individuals to escape this ‘flow’ and to be brave enough to stand out. One important message can be concluded from these findings: a change towards a more open and flexible body-image can only be triggered efficiently by a perpetual flow of similar size and pervasiveness as mainstream AMCC.

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PARTICIPANTS’ PERCEPTION OF APPROACHES AGAINST MAINSTREAM AMCC IN GROUP A Previous findings revealed that participants of both focus groups were likewise aware of

negative

side-effects

caused

by

negative

body-image

pressure.

The

standardization of stereotypical beauty-ideals, e.g. by Hollywood, was clearly criticized. The next paragraphs investigate how respondents imagine a change towards healthier-looking body-images within their sociocultural environment, and how they perceive already existing campaigns.

It is agreed that only a holistic approach including the systematic education in childhood and early adolescence by parents, governments, and school institutions could bring about a shift towards a more realistic and healthy body-image. In this context it is suggested to raise health initiatives such as exercising accessible and affordable to everybody. This suggestion shows again the financial affordability as condition for health and beauty. Moreover, respondents claim to proliferating unaltered images with people in various sizes, heights, and with different proportions and body shapes in AMCC. As given by Pawlik-Kienlen’s (2007) definition of a healthy body-image, they describe the importance of accepting the body as it actually is by understanding that each body is different and has its own shape. Notably, this is missed in existing campaigns. As suggested previously respondents in the UK also require to banning advertisers from using computer software to alter models digitally.

Apart from this, respondents are well-aware of campaigns against the current mainstream. Especially Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty is mentioned alongside a couple of national TV campaigns and the use of athletes in advertisements26. These concerns are greatly appreciated. Nevertheless consumers observe a couple of issues that hinder the efficiency of these campaigns. Fifi Churchill (App.C1.6) admits that “whilst I know a lot of media is trying to promote positive self-image, it does feel Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

like there’s always someone telling you how you ‘should’ feel about yourself.”

This crucial statement gives insight as to why body-image is often afflicted with dissatisfaction and why consumers, despite their educative backgrounds and general risk-awareness, appear so helpless against the powerful but often negative sociocultural impacts that shape their own self-concept, particularly during the   26

This was possibly enhanced with the Olympic Games taking place in London in 2012.

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

process of normalization. Blood’s (2005) claim that it is almost impossible to see and accept the actual self the way it is, validates. Without doubt, body-image pressure drives individuals in the process of identity-seeking. Escape seems to be difficult or almost impossible to individuals. Clearly,

only a movement of particular

pervasiveness and support by many instances could counter this.

Apart from this another criticism points to the controversies in contemporary consumer culture, criticizing that the documentaries about healthier body-images are widely moderated by people who personally embody the pervasive traditional beautyideals by wearing extreme make-up and being particularly slim. This described ambiguity of media messages aligns with criticism by Wolf (1990), Kilbourne (1999), and Bordo (2003).

How are healthy body-images requested to look like though? On this, respondents list a lot of features that clearly differentiate from the pervasive thin-idealized mainstream body-image. One male respondent approves that “there was a plus sized model in the London metro the other week that looked fantastic” (Reginald Churchill, App.C1.7). In accordance, respondents request models to look more realistic and naturally-shaped rather than skinny and ultra-perfect as it is the case in mainstream AMCC. They suggest that a balanced healthy lifestyle can be promoted by athleticlooking models. Apart from a wide range of body-shapes, models should embody confidence, happiness, and pride about their bodies. This indicates that consumer long for more body-satisfaction in their sociocultural environment rather than increasing body-pressure and negative side-effects.

Reactions to the APPG campaign are diverging though. Three female respondents clearly like it. They connect it with self-acceptance, happiness, confidence, and state Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

that it is a realistic, non-airbrushed portrayal of how people look. In contrast, others claim to like the message “I j ME” but they do not find the visual realization appropriate.

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PARTICIPANTS’ PERCEPTION OF APPROACHES AGAINST MAINSTREAM AMCC IN GROUP B In accordance with group A, German respondents suggest that a collective and perpetual approach by politicians, media, fashion, school institutions, sports clubs, and parents could help altering the current ideal-image. This confirms the former finding that a healthy body-image can only trigger a shift in people’s minds when being promoted as pervasively as the mainstream-ideal. The disclosure of digitally altered images in advertisements is approved as well. Interestingly, female participants suggest the use of shock advertisements to raise the awareness onto eating disorders. In this context, the following famous campaign of the model Isabelle Caro against the proliferation of anorexia27 is mentioned:

X Removed due to copyright Figure 08: Campaign by Isabelle Caro (Daily Mail Reporter 2010).

In clear contrast to this campaign, a healthy body-image is described as slim- but healthy-looking. Models should visibly feel well in their bodies and spread vitality in the sense of a healthy lifestyle. As it was the case previously, respondents call for models they can realistically identify with. These claims prove Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory nicely, and provide an important starting point to campaigners for a healthier body-image.

Moreover, a move away from the ‘sex sells’ ideology in advertisements and towards the promotion of mere product features in AMCC is required. Bastian Müller raises the claim for intelligent power women who can spread the message that they are great women even without make-up or model-size. This confirms Halliwell et al.’s Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

(2004) findings that neutral objects and average-sized models in advertisements are perceived more positively and of a similar effectiveness than thin-idealized models.

Reactions towards the APPG campaign vary as seen in group A. Some respondents approve of people’s friendly, authentic, and genuine appearance whereas others   27

Isabelle Caro was a French fashion model who died at the age of 28 in 2010. Under the headline ‘No Anorexia’, she tried to raise awareness of the risks of this disease after years of anorexia (Daily Mail Reporter 2010).

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criticize they looked artificial and constrained. Nevertheless the majority connect with the campaign the bodily satisfaction and happiness, and approve the likeable, easily identifiable look of the typical ‘neighbour’ from next-door. Similar to group A, participants approved of the media message “I j me” very much. Finally, quantitative data (App. D) revealed that each of the 20 participants in Germany and the UK wished there were more campaigns against air-brushed, thinidealized models in his/her home country. Also, more than half of respondents declared they would publicly plead for campaigns on healthier body-images, and 75% said they would look at a brand more positively if it used more realistically-sized models. Consequently, there is a clear request for more normality in AMCC, and for images that enable a higher degree of self-identification and positive bodily meanings for different people. Therefore, one can say with confidence that the APPG campaign might demonstrate a right step towards a healthier and more realistic body-image in AMCC. Nevertheless the complexity and challenge connected with a shift against the

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manifested mainstream-image must not be underestimated.

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6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study investigated the formation of body-image under the perpetual impacts of the Western sociocultural environment. Based on the idea of McCracken’s (1986) meaning-transfer model that proposes how meaning can be transferred from the culturally constituted world to the individual consumer by means of goods, the author argued that body-image-related meaning can be adopted in a similar way, and proved the suggested Body-Image Meaning-Transfer (BIMT) model in a primary research study.

The divergent and highly qualitative findings generated by two independent focus group discussions among ten adults in the UK and Germany confirmed several findings of previous body-image research as identified in chapter 2 and 3. Interestingly, both groups showed similar contributions which suggests that young adults in Western countries share similar opinions while growing up in a globalized environment with equal trends, brands, and media messages.

Indeed, an understanding of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ bodies clearly resides in the culturally constituted world. It could be found that the way in which Western individuals interact through discourse and social life clearly shapes the awareness of culturally accepted standards, but most notably gives individuals an idea of what does not comply with the norms and is therefore commonly considered ‘abnormal’. Male participants claimed that they did not feel addressed by body-image issues.

However findings suggest that they – unconsciously - underlie a similar body-image pressure as their female counterparts. These findings confirm the importance of men in contemporary body-image research (Daily Mail Reporter 2012). Nonetheless, it

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can be stated that women are more consciously affected by body-image pressure. Even though they seem to perceive the pressure consciously and are aware of dangerous risks, research shows that they felt to a certain degree helplessly at the mercy of sociocultural norms that makes them ‘go with the flow’.

Meaning is then transferred through AMCC with the result of a visual manifestation of body-image, pervasively in form of thin-idealized and muscular bodies. Clearly, imaginations of a typical beauty-ideal were mainly exemplified through celebrities. It 42

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

can be assumed that they affect the view on body-image to a very large extent. Perfect facial expressions, body shapes, and uniqueness in line with approved character traits were emphasized to make a person ideal. Interestingly, the perfect look was in clear correlation with money and success, as suggested by Wielding (2012). Consequently, ideal beauty appeared as a luxury good that is not affordable to everybody and most likely not naturally given.

Everybody who does not comply with these ideal norms is likely to feel bodily dissatisfaction. Controversially, both groups explicitly disagreed with cosmetic alterations though that led to standardized, artificial, ‘plastic’ looks. Nevertheless they connected the ideal – but not naturally given - beauty of celebrities to naturalness. This is paradox since celebrities are usually shown when using make-up and/or after their images have been digitally improved, and thus proves the multiplicity of clearly surreal, culturally constructed realities in contemporary consumer culture as assumed by poststructuralist and postmodernist writers (Poster 1989; Firat et al. 1995).

The subsequent BIMT-process of normalization which defines to what extent the ideal-body shown in the cultural environment of individuals is set up as a standard to measure up against could be proven, too. Especially feelings of helplessness towards the social power, public observation, or failure could be concluded. This process may logically lead to (re-) actions, and shape of consumption patterns, e.g. in the realm of cosmetics, aesthetic treatments, etc.

As to the last location of meaning in the BIMT model, individual consumers’ general awareness of risks and negative side-effects caused by thin-idealized body-images (e.g. anorexia) in contemporary consumer culture and their openness towards Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

alternative campaigns on healthier body-images suggest that this generation may be more receptive towards counter-movements in this realm such as Dove’s Campaign on Real Beauty or the APPG’s Campaign on Body Confidence. Indeed, the claim for more normality and identification especially in advertisements became clear.

Therefore, the recommendation resulting from this research addresses marketers, individuals, and institutions that have influence on the development of the cultural

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constitution of body-image. It recommends stigmatizing the rich diversity given in our multicultural and globalized environment, and to create more positive attributes apart from self-control and discipline. APPG’s campaign message “I j me” can be applied as overall strapline for suitable approaches since a healthy body-image seeks to encourage people to accept their body as it actually is in a satisfied way (PawlikKienlen 2007).

This offers the opportunity to marketers to escape from stereotypical limitations through mere black-or-white, right-or-wrong reductions in the contemporary media landscape, and therefore to stand out from the mass. In order to address the needs of the majority of people and in order to enhance self-identification between individual and advertising- or brand-image, sustainable marketing is proposed to be as multiple as individuals in contemporary consumer culture. Imagery should be ethically correct, and media messages may embrace meanings onto a health-conscious lifestyle.

It might be countered that a change in body-image may lead to a million-high loss in certain industries including diet and cosmetic industries whose success literally relies on the dissatisfaction of individuals. However this concern can be lessened: Firstly, a possible change in culturally constituted manifestations of body-image will unlikely take place from one day to the other as rightly pointed out by Duenwald (2003). Therefore, a complete zeitgeist change will not happen immediately and consequently will not lead to vast economic losses from one day to the other. Secondly, since it originates in mankind to constantly search for possibilities to become increasingly perfect and god-alike, there will always be people who may continue reaching for body-modifying products and services to alter their look and take on a new identity.

Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

This involves those who are paid for certain looks such as actors, and those who are dissatisfied with their body-image or have a distorted self-perception for other reasons independently of imagery spread through AMCC, alongside those who are used to consume simply when seeking for comfort. Finally, dissatisfaction about the self and particularly the body is something one cannot erase completely, and especially women are likely to continue measuring up against each other. Therefore, it is safe to say that the obsession with body and beauty will never vanish completely. 44

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

Nonetheless, the proliferation of healthier body-images and education about possible damaging side-effects e.g. through shock adverts as suggested by group B, could help create a more positive body-image. Reconsidering Belk’s (1988) and Polhemus’ (1988) suggestions that the body is an essential part of the human self-concept, one can state that with the ability to view and accept the body (as part of the actual self) as it really is, in addition to more realistically attainable ideal and ought to selves, people will more rarely suffer from negative feelings caused by self-discrepancies. Overall it can be assumed that with a higher self-identification of individuals with a brand or an advert, the probability of a mutually beneficial relationship in long-term is likely to happen.

In summary, swimming against the current mainstream of stereotypical thin-idealized body-images in contemporary consumer culture is brave, and it can certainly have both advantages and disadvantages, but it offers the chance to pick up the perhaps unconscious, perhaps tacit, and perhaps invisible wishes of millions of consumers who suffer from negative body-images. Only the small sample of individual consumers in this research shows how up-to-date and crucial body-image is, and how many people are willing to act for changes. Therefore promoting realistic-sized and diverse body-images offers the possibility to lay a cornerstone for future

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generations of marketers and consumers alike.

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7. LIMITATIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH Most importantly, findings generated from this research cannot be generalized since consumers are considered as critical agents:

“whose meaning-creating activities range from those that tacitly embrace the dominant representations of consumer identity and lifestyle ideals portrayed in advertising and mass media to those that consciously deviate from these ideological instructions” (Arnould et al. 2005, p.874).

In addition, three types of limitations and resulting implications for further research shall be discussed regarding research methodology, participants, and scope of this paper.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Body language or facial expressions of respondents could not be observed. Respectively it could not be analysed how individuals reacted to certain questions or responses given by other participants. Aaker et al. (2004, p.202) state that “generally, respondents compose their answers before reading others’ postings and express only their own opinions, avoiding the peer pressure sometimes experienced in traditional groups.”

Also, qualitative data generally presume the subjective analysis of the researcher, and is thus not generalizable or objective. Despite the confidentiality and reliability of respondents chosen, bias cannot be excluded. This implies that in order to generate more representative results, researchers may try to prove assumptions or test hypothesis by means of more quantitative data. Professional questionnaires, rating scales or mirror-studies as introduced by scholars like Blood (2005) and Grogan (2008) may help differentiating and further defining subjective attributes such as thin, Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

slim, fat, muscular, etc. and help developing clear visualizations of an individual consumer’s body-image which was not sufficiently possible in this research.

PARTICIPANTS The small number of participants chosen cannot be seen representative for a whole generation in two different countries. Therefore, results can merely be considered as randomly chosen sample to get a feel about what people at the defined age group 46

Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on

possibly think. There are still accumulated needs for further body-image research among older generations, and most notably among men.

Moreover all respondents in this research had Caucasian features that naturally more correspondent to Western beauty-ideals. Therefore, it is important to pursue what pressure Western features exert on non-Caucasian individuals. A collection of suitable research in this area is provided by Cash and Pruzinsky28 (2002). Apart from that, research investigating body-image pressure with gay and lesbian consumers will likely increase in importance.

SCOPE Body-image is a highly complex, dynamic, and multidimensional construct that offers numerous further research possibilities that could not find sufficient attention in this investigation owing to limitations in scope.

With regard to this research the necessity to investigate the effects of realistic-sized body-images in AMCC on consumers as in comparison to the reactions described in chapter 2.4 emerges. Also, further methods to trigger body-satisfaction can be tested. A number of crucial psychological factors to activate positive body-image are identified by Grogan (2008, p.193) as “self-esteem, resistance to internalization of the thin ideal, and beliefs about personal control and mastery over the body.” This can serve as promising approach for campaigners on the road towards a healthier, more realistic body-image in contemporary consumer culture. A body-image that reflects culture in its multiplicity, breadth, and uniqueness, embracing a body that is ‘good’ the way it is, that enables marketers to be creative and to stand out, and that finally helps fight against the negative side-effects of the thin-idealized beauty-ideal in

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mainstream AMCC.

  28

Cash and Pruzinsky‘s ‘Body Image – A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice‘ (2002) comprises studies about African American Body Images by Celio, Zabinski and Wilfley, Asian American Body Images by Kawamura, and Hispanic Body Images by Altabe and O’Garo.

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RIEGLER, B. (2012). Gebräunte Models: Zuviel Photoshop Bei H&M Kampagne? [Der Standard Online] available at: http://derstandard.at/1336696875865/Tanorexie-GebraeunteModels-Zu-viel-Photoshop-bei-HM-Kampagne [date of access: 05.07.2012]

RODDICK, A. (2001). Dispatch: Ruby, the Anti-Barbie. [Anita Roddick Online] available at: http://www.anitaroddick.com/readmore.php?sid=13 [date of access: 03.08.2012]

ROGERS, A. (2006). Prada Joins Versace To Ban Size Zero Models. [Metro Online] available at: http://www.metro.co.uk/news/28715-prada-joins-versace-to-ban-size-zeromodels [date of access: 20.07.2012]

SEPABHI (2011). Katie Price Photo Gallary. [Online]

available

at:

http://bollywood-hollywoodnews.blogspot.de/2011/08/katie-price-photo-

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gallary.html [date of access: 28.07.2012]

SMITHERS, R. (2007). Third of Teen Girls Admit Dieting In Poll. [The

Guardian

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SMITHERS, R. (2012). Girls Aged Five Worry About Their Body Image, Say MPs. [The Guardian Online] available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2012/may/30/girls-aged-fiveworried-about-body-image/print [date of access: 03.06.2012]

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TANRIVERDI, H. (2012). 60-90-60. [Spiegel

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TELEGRAPH (2012). Bogdanoff Brothers. [Telegraph

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TREBORG, I.M. (2007). Isabelle Caro Er Død. [TV2 Online] available at: http://www.tv2.no/underholdning/gkn/isabelle-caro-er-doed-3376355.html [date of access: 10.09.2012]

WATERLOW, L. (2012). ‘Women Should Be Slim For Their Men But Not Size Zero’ Says A Founder of London Fashion Week. [Daily Mail Online] available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2195266/London-FashionWeek-founder-Achilleas-Constantinou-says-women-slim-men-Size-Zero.html

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WIELDING, M. (2012). Schönheitsideale: Mein Waschbrettlächeln, Dein Zahnpastabauch. [FAZ

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9. APPENDICES APPENDIX A: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION QUESTIONS QUESTION 1: ‘Magic mirror on the wall – Who is the fairest of them all?’ Snow White is probably one of the first persons we were told to be ideally beautiful in early childhood. The story was written in 1812. 200 years later, in 2012, who is your beauty ideal? Please describe with as many attributes as possible what defines ideal beauty to you.

QUESTION 2: In the past, fatness used to be seen as sign for wealth. This is still valid in numerous cultures, e.g. in Africa. However since Western countries developed to societies of abundance, thinness became a symbol for self-control and discipline. Taking this into account, please discuss the following statement and complete your opinion with your own experiences: ‘In our society, fat people are regarded as 29

unattractive .’

QUESTION 3: Imagine, a mirror showed you a reflection of yourself you wouldn’t like at all. What would it be like? You may also reinforce your descriptions with a suitable picture.

QUESTION 4: The proliferation and progress in the realm of cosmetic possibilities, such as beauty treatments, diet products, plastic surgeries, etc. have led to the common assumption that ugliness is something that can be changed by putting enough efforts. Therefore, people who don’t comply with common ideals are widely considered responsible for their unattractive appearances. Rather, they are evaluated as ‘imperfect’ in the broader sense30. What do you think?

QUESTION 5: Who influences you the most the way you look? Please think about family, friends, colleagues, celebrities, media, etc. and state why.

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QUESTION 6: Group A only: Recent studies in the UK found that a large number of girls aged 5 are concerned about their weight and appearance31. Also, research in 2007 revealed that a third of teenage girls admitted to dieting as well, a quarter of them consuming less than 800 calories a day32.

  29

Halliwell et al. (2004, p.107). Duenwald (2003). 31 Smithers (2012). 32 Smithers (2007). 30

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Group B only: A German survey examining the health conditions of children and youth found that 56% of 13- to 14-year-old teenagers wish themselves to be thinner, and 63% wish to look better. Furthermore, every 5th child at the age from 11 to 17 suffers from the symptoms of an eatingdisorder33.

Similar results can be found in other Western countries. We could be potential parents of future generations. a) How could future generations be protected effectively from the immense pressure caused by ‘ideal’-images in advertisements alongside other factors? b) Do you think there will be a successful change in the next 10 years? Why/Why not?

QUESTION 7: Owing to those shocking survey results brands, institutions, magazines, celebrities, and governments in many countries stand up for the use of healthier body-images in advertisements. Israel, as the first country tries to fight the spread of eating disorders by banning underweight models from local advertising and requiring publications to disclose when they use altered images to make women and men appear thinner. a) How would you imagine models with ‘healthy body-images’ to look like? b) What campaigns and initiatives of that kind have you noticed in your country yet and how do you feel about them?

QUESTION 8: How does the following advert make you feel? Which body would you choose to look like? Why? (see Figure 05, p.25)

QUESTION 9: This is the final question: ‘Men are exposed to male fashion models but do not see them as role models. Why do women react so strongly to nothing, really – images, scraps of paper? Is their identity too weak? […] Why do women react to the ‘ideal’ whatever form she takes at that moment, as if she 34

were a non-negotiable commandment? ’ Do you think these thoughts are still valid today or have men Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

become more involved in the body-image debate?

  33 34

Riegger (2007). Wolf (1990, p.58f.)

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APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE

x

Gender:

x

Age:

x

Body Mass Index [calculation: mass (kg) / height (m)²]:

x

Relationship status:

¾

How beautiful do you feel at the moment? (1 = not at all, 6 = very much) 1

female

2

3

male

single

4

in a relationship

5

What alters this (in a positive and/or negative way)?

¾

How important is your own appearance to you?

¾

4

5

6

2

3

4

5

6

How much pressure do you think body-images shown in advertisements exert on you? 1

¾

3

How important is it to you what other people think of your appearance? 1

¾

2

married

6

¾

1

engaged

2

3

4

5

6

Would you wish there were more campaigns against air-brushed, skinny models in adverts in your country? yes

¾

If answered with “no”, please skip the next question.

Would you publicly plead for a campaign advancing healthier body-images on adverts? yes

¾

no

no

Do brands using more realistic-sized models affect your view on a brand? Yes, I’d look at it more positively. Yes, I’d look at it more negatively.

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Not at all. ¾

Please list five of your favorite brands:

Please send the completed questionnaire back to me by 5th August 2012. Thanks a lot for attending, you’ve been great help!!! -

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APPENDIX C1: FINDINGS GROUP A (UK) "DIRECT TRANSCRIPT OF PARTICIPANTS' LANGUAGE. NO ALTERATIONS MADE."

APPENDIX C1.1: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 1 Fifi Churchill: Drea de Matteo. I think she's absolutely beautiful. She's thin, but athletic. You can tell she works out. Perfect teeth and lips. Straight nose. Lovely defined but not masculine jaw. She's got a sort of edgy style too. As beautiful as she is, I don't find her intimidating. I think that's because she has lovely warm eyes. I imagine she'd be very friendly. Ideal beauty for me includes a range of things Facial features in proportion. Nice nose and smile are very important. In addition, a lean but curvy body is what I think is ideal.

Gertrude Churchill: Emma Watson. I chose her as my ideal because I think she has a great natural beauty about her. She has a flawless, light complexion which is enhanced by her deep brown eyes. She is slim, though this is not something I think is essential to pair with beauty. I think her beauty is also enhanced by her intelligence and gentle personality, as well as her commitment to her career and academia. Myfanwyn Churchill likes this.

Myfanwyn Churchill: Zara Philip. She may not be your idea of beauty - but to me, she embodies the beauty within the sport industry (Eventing). She has long aquiline nose, blue eyes, and a lovely, lovely smile. She is the classical beaut with a fabulous body - toned by years of riding. Her personality does shine through and to me that is the attractiveness factor. the smile.

Archibald Churchill: I think, after long deliberation I'd have to go for Rachel Weisz. I think primarily this is because she kind of epitomises the 'English Rose' look which I guess is what I like. A kind of 'classical beauty' - dark hair, eyes, but quite light skin - which for some reason we've associated with England. I suppose maybe in response to the kind of 'beauty ideals' we get from America. I don't personally think it is unique to England but I suppose I think the beauty is more refined and sophisticated than the 'blonde hair, big boobs, tiny waist' kind of stuff that seems to predominate (or at least used to). If you would have asked me this question when I was about 16 I'd probably said

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someone like Elisha Cuthbert or Sarah Michelle Gellar, but now that kind of look does nothing for me. In fact I'm increasingly put off by that kind of thing. I remember looking through an FHM calendar not long ago and pretty much every girl looked the same, and that’s what I kind of think is the problem. Companies obviously found a look that was profitable I guess, especially in the 1990s, with the likes of Britney Spears and Jennifer Aniston or whoever and kind of massed produced it, so now a lot of 'sexy' actresses, popstars, models all seem to be minor alterations to a well-entrenched paradigm and aesthetic. Although I think this might kind of be on the decline now. Reginald Churchill likes this.

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Anke Müller: Would you say there are similar trends amongst guys (a standardized beauty-ideal) and if so, what does it look like? Archibald Churchill: Hmmm. I think people think there is maybe. I mean if you look at magazines like Zoo and Nuts and FHM they all seem to have the same standardised models, which would seem to suggest that's what men find attractive. By standard models I usually mean long blonde hair, big boobs, slim waist, pale skin. If a model breaks from this norm its kind a novelty, so for example if someone is brunette or dark skinned or something it’s kind of unusual and warrants mentioning purely because it doesn't conform to the majority of girls in those magazines. I'd be cautious of thinking those magazines actually inform men’s practical opinion of beauty I think those magazines are mostly just bought by teenage guys who want to see boobs. However in reality I think men in general have a much broader idea of beauty or attractiveness, not just the stuff they see in magazines or TV. I think, perhaps, some guys see those sort of super-models as fantasy y'know? Not a real representation of what most people really look like. So they probably think the girls in magazines are attractive, but I don't think many actually apply that when trying to find a partner. So for example if a guy meets a girl he's not thinking "Oh she's not as good-looking as Kate Moss so she's automatically unattractive" but probably judges the persons looks on a more 'real' scale, based not on a comparison to super models but to other people around them and personal preference.

Summer Churchill: Rachel Weisz, too. Have been a fan for years and she has never done anything drastic with her looks, she seems comfortable with herself. She has such a natural, flawless quality. I think the phrase "timeless elegance" can be used for her, she always looks classy and elegant. I love how even though she has dark hair she has pale skin, which is quite rare. She is proud to be fair skinned and doesn't fall prey to being tangoed like many celebs. She has beautiful cheekbones and eyes. Love the fact that she can wear her hair many different styles and it always suits her. I know it sounds silly but she always looks intelligent, not sure why (maybe because some of the films I’ve seen her in she plays an educated woman).

Olympia Churchill: I have to admit, I would pick Rachel Weisz too- ever since I saw here in the film The Mummy, I have always been struck by her. She looks healthy, has a lovely figure rather than the a stick-thin look. Her looks (and the way that she presents herself- both in mannerisms and style in interviews etc) are elegant, classic and refined. She seems to have a confidence regarding herself which is very appealing. The way she dresses is chic and I have always loved her thick and glossy

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hair- it looks so healthy. I also feel that she has aged very well, without resorting to botox etc (or atleast as far as I am aware....!) For me in this instance, it is not just the facial profile that determines beauty but their charactistics, dress sense and manners.

Borris Churchill: I selected Ryan Carnes. He has the perfect chizzled jaw which defines the face, matched with the strong dark eyebrows which helps share the face. His clear skin tone goes well with his natural dark hair, or the often dyed-blonde. Overall he has a masculine appearance, conveying confidence. Granted some work may have been done – teeth whitening, eyebrow shaping etc, but I acknowledge that ideal beauty is often aided by intervention, as opposed to coming naturally.

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Gerry Churchill: I think Eric Bana is a handsome chap. He has well chiselled facial features, a nice smile and always has well styled hair. However, the thing that most stands out for Eric Bana, is his aura of masculinity that a lot of other men don't have. This is not necessarily just big muscles, but you get the feeling that he would be able to provide safety. This is why he was well cast for the role Hector in the film Troy.

Reginald Churchill: I would have to go with Berenice Marlohe. She has a great face with strong cheek bones and an exotic look of French-Italian heritage, similar to Monica Bellucci. She has perfect olive skin that makes her look far younger than 33. Furthermore she is a relatively unknown actress at the moment and has therefore not yet succumbed to the Hollywood stupidly-thin rule (Sara Chalke from Scrubs and Angelina Jolie seem to be victims of this, getting less attractive as they followed this odd and sexist rule of losing curves and getting thinner as they got older). It also means that in interviews she still appears humble and very likable, with a lovely European accent which always sounds great. Hopefully appearing in the new Bond film won't result in her losing her curves, as she looks brilliant, and definitely my beauty ideal.

Emily Churchill: I'm quite a unique person and I like beauty in many different ways. I like to combine beauty and intelligence. My ideal beauty would have to be Emma Watson. I've chosen her because she is incredibly well groomed, classy and has the most beautiful eyebrows and hair. So I agree with Gertrude.

APPENDIX C1.2: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 2 Fifi Churchill: I think society sees being fat as a failure and weakness. The fact they are overweight means they are the cause of their unattractiveness. I think there is a perception that they are less attractive in various aspects of their lives, which ultimately makes them unattractive on lots of levels. For example, "They are fat, therefore lazy. They have no motivation." Whilst someone could be overweight, and very driven and successful, someone else could be thin and lazy (too lazy to cook perhaps??). The weight loss industry is huge, and I'm sure promotes this idea that fat is unattractive and thin is attractive.

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Myfanwyn Churchhill: I'm dithering here in terms of opinions. 'In our society, fat people are regarded as unattractive'. I can see Fifi's point 'fat=failure +weakness' but the fat people are only attractive as far as their personality goes. Queen Latifah for example - she is curvaceous lady with bubbly personality bubbling through and in spite of the pressure (that comes with celebrity status if you like') she stays true to her curvy self. these really fat people, (or should I say curvy?) their unattractiveness comes through the levels (as mentioned by Fifi) such as their eating lifestyle (KFC), clothing (baggy and downright ugly), the way they walk and down to their personality (grumpy and sour - i suppose is a way of dealing with the 'world' outside their homes. The weight loss industry may be huge - but this wasn't like this way back like 100 years ago. We just simply have TOO MUCH FOOD and TOO MUCH

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FOOD may be portrayed as being greedy and FAT. It looks like I am going a bit off the tangent. I wouldn't want to think that in 'our society' fat are unattractive (people look fab 'curvy') and skinny are just as unattractive (bones sticking out). Ultimately we all must look to the moderate exercise and moderate food intake. We do have the society to blame too. The government (particularly here in UK) are allowing so many others to take advantage of the benefits scheme. For allowing so many to get the housing benefits without having to work your arse to have that piece of house. No one works just as hard anymore and this equals lack of discipline and pride. food and body image then becomes a fixture in our 'too easy' lifestyle to focus on ourselves. isn't this a bit too lazy or rather too selfish to think about ourselves and instead think of others, focus on the planet earth, make everyone work and earn their bread and butter. I'm shutting up now. I am clearly gone of the tangent (unless someone thinks otherwise!)

Archibald Churchill: I think there has been a bit of a decline in the attitude that 'fat=unattractiveness' or at least an attempt to change this attitude. I think part of the change is perhaps due to the general backlash against various unhealthy food industries etc. This has kind of taken the responsibility of being fat away from the overweight individual and instead it’s the fault of the companies who supply the food. So for example documentaries such as 'Supersize Me' combined with a generally increasing intolerance and suspicion of what's in our food may have made overweight people appear less as 'lazy, greedy people' and more as victims to multi-billion dollar global corporations spewing out unhealthy food combined with mass advertising of their products. So I think you can recognise in some some companies, for example Dove, a move towards embracing the 'bigger body image' with their various natural beauty campaigns, and those TV shows presented by Gok Wan such 'Miss Natural Beauty' etc. This change might further be associated with a decrease in profitability of the 'super-thin model' image. I think basically beauty ideals are closely associated to their profitability for companies who utilise image to sell goods. With the bigger image becoming more tolerated in society is might also become more profitable, or at least decrease the effectiveness of previously aspirationalbased advertisements using size 0 super models.

Borris Churchill: I think that for a large portion of society today, fat people are often looked down upon for their appearance. It can be seen that beauty and fat do not go together. Marketers have of course risen to the increase in fat people by devising campaigns carrying messages linking ‘large’ to ‘beautiful’. Perceptions do vary within society – from experience, I’ve observed those who exercise

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regularly to regard fat people as lazy and unhealthy, whereas those who may simply be naturally skinny, tend to regard fat people as ‘ugly’. Perceptions are often influenced by the media however – television today often depicts fat people as stupid, incompetent, lazy etc. which goes to contribute to perceptions of the youth in regard to weight and appearance. On the whole however, I would agree with the given statement of the question – society does indeed regard fat people are unattractive.

 Summer Churchill: Attractiveness to me is based on personality and image. If you have a good personality it certainly reflects in your looks. I don't think it is fair to say that someone who is fat must be unattractive. My friend is quite large yet has such a bubbly infectious personality and is very

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attractive, she has always had a queue of suitors :) Personally, I think the link between being fat and unattractive is based on personality. This is only from my experience, but I found that people who are quite large (which society would probably term obese or fat) have quite defensive attitudes about their size and often ridicule others in order to gain self-esteem or feel better about themselves. I am a size 10, eat quite a lot and although I exercise I should do more. I was recently eating with my boyfriend had tucking into my oh-so-healthy mixed grill I commented to my partner that all I had done was eat all day and really had the munchies. A group of four ladies sat on the next table must have overheard me and started yelling that I obviously never ate, I was a skinny cow, and I looked like I had never eaten a proper meal in my life. I was so shocked and embarrassed but these ladies who were quite large, really showed an ugly side to their personality and I have found this defensive attitude quite common. Therefore I don't think it’s related to size, but a defensive personality that is emerging amongst larger people as retaliation against the size zero media hype, and this ugly attitude affects attractiveness. Just to clarify, (realised how my comment might have come across) I'm not saying fat people are unattractive but some people have an unattractive quality based on their attitude to size. However, this can occur on the other side where "skinnier people" can call others names etc. therefore my main point was that unattractiveness can come from personality and not size.

Gerry Churchill: I agree with the statement that fat people are unattractive. I am myself slim and enjoy exercise multiple times a week. Therefore, in looking for a partner, I want a partner who is also slim. Being fat also alters the shape of the face and facial features in a negative way. I also agree that being fat implies a lack of discipline and self-control which I find very unattractive. It is no longer possible to plead ignorance. Everybody knows which foods are fatty and subsequently, to some extent, being fat is a choice as well as choosing to not exercise enough.

Reginald Churchill: I'm more attracted to skinnier people, but that doesn't mean someone who is fat is always going to be unattractive. I don't think that to be fat is to be unattractive, because there are varying degrees of being overweight, and the yardsticks of what is overweight vary between genders. It isn't as simple as fat = unattractive, thin = attractive. Unfortunately there are some big double standards concerning weight between the genders. Personality goes a long way, but there is larger judgement on the looks of a woman considered to be overweight than a male. Celebrities have gone some way to confirm the view that to be fat is to be unattractive sadly. As I mentioned in the first question, there is a strict ideal in movies, specifically Hollywood, pertaining to women being

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unnaturally skinny. What is unfair is that leading males are not subjected to the same pressures. Take acting Oscars.... The Best Actor award often goes to older actors in their 40s and 50s, most of whom have not kept in shape by any means (De Niro even won an Oscar for a film in which he gained 60 pounds!) whereas the Best Actress Award often goes to young actresses who have appeared in a showy role, often with superfluous nudity. This displays the importance of being considered attractive as a woman in order to be acceptable. While overweight males such as Philip Seymour Hoffman and Forrest Whittaker win oscars, women like Kathy Bates or Gabourey Sidibe do not get a look-in over Alist thin stars. I'm just using the movies as an example to reflect a general point, mostly because many idolise movie stars and try to emulate them and because they are representative of the change from

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fatness being a sign of wealth. Resultantly there is less stigma attached to being an overweight male than an overweight female, and they are less often viewed so sweepingly as 'unattractive' because they are overweight (with women I feel people are more immediately lookist). This shows that in our society, fat people are indeed often regarded as unattractive, but it is more socially acceptable to be an overweight male than an overweight female, which is pretty unfair.

Emily Churchill: I think most people would say that fat people are unattractive....however i think most people would say overall thin people are also attractive. I personally see weight and beauty as a reflection of people's relationship with food and their health. I think being 'fat' or a 'twig' is a very broad term as people can be extreme cases of both. I know a number of very attractive women who are obese but they're very well groomed and dress beautifully. My view of their unattractiveness is not on their appearance it is mainly their lifestyle.

Olympia Churchill: Weight for me is not a determining factor in seeing beauty. I don't put the two together. I think the need to be comfortable with oneself, regardless of size is essential and so often overlooked. In magazines and TV, the message is that to be fat means to be unhappy- whereas being slim is something to attain. So many of the 'role models' on TV, films, music videos and mags are slim already and many pictures have been tampered with to make the models slimmer- this has created a level of unattainability and distortion on how we view them. For me, if you are not at peace with yourself, then it does not matter what weight you are- size 8 or 18-- if you are happy, then that is the main issue.

APPENDIX C1.3: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 3 Borris Churchill: Unfortunately it will have to be an image of an overweight person. My confidence is channelled through my clothing, and I feel confident wearing clothing which depicts a decent body shape. Things such as beer-bellies, man-boobs and large hips are unattractive features for me personally, and I would hate to look like that. I would not be able to dress in the style I enjoy, and my confidence would slip. In my type of work, confidence and appearance and key to being successful!

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X Removed due to copyright Figure 09: Obese Man (Photobucket 2012).

Summer Churchill: Very difficult but I'd have to say Katie Price. I am not saying she is not attractive (personally i think pre-surgery she was very attractive) but I'd hate to see this image staring back in the mirror. I wouldn't enjoy building my successes around my looks, as one day they will vanish, I'd much rather have something long term. The hassle of feeling under pressure every day to look perfect

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in society's eyes would not be enjoyable. I'd be afraid that people would only be interested in the image and not the personality. I think you put yourself on a pedestal for people to comment on your looks and that would breed unhappiness and insecurity.

X Removed due to copyright Figure 10: Katie Price (Sepabhi 2011).

Myfanwyn Churchhill: For Q3 I dithered for ages. I think the face I wouldn't want to see staring at me from the mirror is someone like Joan Rivers. Simply, because I don't agree with Botox and all sorts of artificial 'improvements'.... She looks old and puffy and her skin just doesn’t look great at all. You have an instinctive feel when you look at other peoples face to know what are natural beauty and artificial beauty. Clearly ladies are exploited on the market on so many levels. Do we conform to what is beauty in the eyes of men? As men are visually turned on (or off) by what they see, we skewed up idea of what is beautiful and lengths to go to achieve that.

Gertrude Churchill: I struggled with this question, but have chosen Jocelyn Wildenstein. She has had numerous cosmetic alterations which I think has left her looking incredibly unnatural and fake. To me this seems somewhat of a permanent, irreversible process, which I would see in a mirror and look at with regret whereas obese people (in most circumstances) can diet and exercise to alter that. I think each instance of plastic surgery or obesity is case specific, and may include a number of psychological motivations such as depression.

X Removed due to copyright

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See Figure 06 (p.30).

Fifi Churchill: Jackie Stallone. Not only does all the plastic surgery makes her look like a mutant, but I think the fact that she is still clinging to youth and glamour is makes her seem shallow as well. It is perfectly possible to grow old gracefully, you can still look great.

Olympia Churchill: This was a really hard question to answer, but I think I would choose someone like Kylie Minogue. She has had so much work done to herself with the botox, that her face is stuck, it just looks fake and fixed in a permanent surprised expression. When she was younger she was so

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fresh and natural but in her quest to be youthful she has distorted her appearance, freezing her facial features almost. It appears so unnatural. Growing old is a natural progression of life and doesn't .

equate to ugliness. Role models such as Helen Mirren and Judi Dench highlight that you can grow old gracefully, naturally and still be radiant.

Reginald Churchill: Most of all it'd be some sort of disfigurement to my face. While there are hundreds of body-related concerns to think of, wearing clothes often can hide these. Your face is the most on-show part of your body, and it is also what makes you different-looking to other people, what makes you an individual. The first time I'd ever thought of this was most likely from the famous picture from the Vietnam war of a napalm attack (thankfully the girl was ok and a documentary was made about her meeting the photographer again when she was an adult). I have seen news articles about people having been caught in a fire or one woman who had acid poured on her and I feel terrible for them. That would be the worst thing I can think of.

Emily Churchill: I would not like to look like Nicki Manj. I've chosen her because she has created in my opinion a fake/alter ego beauty. I feel she doesn't embrace her natural beauty. I also feel like she exploits her figure to young girls and I find this very difficult to find as real beauty. I feel in her video for Starships she is particularly fake and uses her 'plastic image' to sell herself as a product. I would be very upset if people thought I was incredibly fake and overpowering with my image and looks.

Gerry Churchill: Well I think the below image speaks for itself. Although a fictional character, the level of obesity implies a lack of discipline and control which is extremely unattractive. I do not necessarily judge people's physical characteristics as much as weight, as your weight is something you have to have control over. Being overweight, or even obese, can often mean they will likely have issues elsewhere, especially in confidence. People that have no confidence are not attractive at all.

X Removed due to copyright

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Figure 11: ‘Fat Bastard’ (Price Network 2012).

APPENDIX C1.4: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 4 Gertrude Churchill: I would say that lifestyle and financial circumstances play a huge role in contributing to the willingness and ability to make changes such as cosmetic surgery and beauty treatments. I think people can often be looked down upon if people's appearance comes across as unkempt and people can often believe that when this person could have done something to alter that, but have chosen not to, they are conceived of as responsible for their own "imperfections". Again,

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personally it comes back to feeling good and comfortable. I think when people identify others’ imperfections it has a lot to do with their own insecurities.

Borris Churchill: Yes to an extent. Society has a large view of cosmetics as a sign of change – and the wide availability of these creates the expectations of their usage. I often have noticed a person’s appearance and thought “A little bit of [product] would soon sort that out”. A more realistic view is that they may be happy that way, or just do not care – but for the appearance-obsessed among us, that stated view would not be uncommon.

Fifi Churchill: To a certain extent, I think people are expected to look a certain way. Or at least be seen to be making an effort with their appearance. I think a woman who has beautiful features, but scruffy clothes, no makeup, broken nails, messy hair etc. would be view more negatively than a woman with less attractive features, with nice clothes, makeup, manicured nails, and hair done nicely. There is a product or procedure for everything. However these rarely seem to bring about the desired change. Personally I do buy in to some of these things. I also would have cosmetic surgery, even though I know it may not change how I view myself.

Olympia Churchill: Personally, I would never consider surgery but regarding the rest, I have drawers full of lotions and potions (for face, hands, body, hair...) to make sure that I keep my body in good condition. I go to the gym a minimum of 3 times per week for different classes/workouts and I like to look after myself. I want to make sure that I am physically fit, and from that, I then feel happy and to a certain extent attractive too. However, I do think that there is a difference between vanity and pride in one’s appearance. You need to respect your body- you only have one- I want to take care of it, maintain it and make sure it lasts as long as possible. For this same reason I do not smoke and I am not a heavy drinker. I'm not sure how much I have answered this question though. Originally this question did put me in mind of women who do not shave or wax and are embracing their hairiness. There was a good BBC program about it a year or two ago called F*ck Off I'm Hairy. It's a life style choice and one that I would certainly not attain too. I'm ashamed to admit that I find it rather horrid. This could be viewed as an imperfection that can easily be changed. But, it's a lifestyle choice and in that sense I respect them for it. But for me, I don't think I could personally feel attractive with hairy armpits, legs...etc. I couldn't embrace it.

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Myfanwyn Churchhill: Cosmetic surgery seems to be the option of the richest people who could afford it (and take the highest risks). Being tanned and risk the whole new level of cancer (but vast majority of people seem to be quite happy to take on the risk). I myself down own a lot of lotions. Just moisturising cream to keep my skin hydrated and facial wash in the mornings is more than enough to keep me happy. Common sense (which is something that a lot of people seem to lack these days) dictates if you would like a flawless skin, good body is to eat well, with lots of fruit and vegetables and to exercise in moderation. For some of us this isn't enough. For some of us, we wear our dreadlocked hair with pride. For some of us, we embrace hairiness (as Olympia mentioned). For some of us, cosmetic surgery is the ultimate answer to all things wrong (as perceived) with the body. Ultimately, as

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long as people are happy with themselves and are not a pain in the ass for anyone else, why should they be branded as imperfect just simply because they are not following the beauty regime of lotions/hairdo/sunning beds etc. How about these 'perfect' people (people who invested an awful lot of time into expensive lotions that may or may not do what it promises to do, surgery, gym passes etc.) should be viewed as the extreme end of people who pursue perfection and beauty?

Summer Churchill: Well I must definitely be responsible for my ugliness ^^. I'd much prefer, rather than spending 3 hours getting ready in the morning do it in 20 min and spend the next 2hours and 40 min doing something I enjoy that makes me happy. There are so many options to perfecting your body and look, but (maybe I am being negative) the canvas remains the same. You are merely just covering up the parts you don't like and accentuating the parts you do. I have the attitude that nothing will change my face, I can put make up on to enhance features but at the end of the day it is the same person staring back, therefore using the time to enjoy life and have fun is better. Personally I have more respect for people who look good naturally and carry on with their lives rather than being absorbed into trying to fit a picture/ following common ideals. The idea that you are responsible for your own unattractiveness... why waste money, time and effort trying to perfect yourself on the outside if you don't feel any different/ confident / happier on the inside.

Reginald Churchill: Nope. I think plastic surgery is a pointless thing, and doesn't really help because it looks unnatural and eventually looks awful (Has any seen Katie Price try to raise her eyebrows!? She can no longer do it!!)... I think the other things have a bit more validity, and it's good that everyone can now make themselves look good. I don't think it's a case of responsibility but prerogative.

Emily Churchill: This is an incredibly difficult question to answer! We all live in a very judgemental society where we are judged continually by everyone. As a woman I think you're judged by both gender to 'be presentable and attractive' at all times. If you're not this then you're letting yourself and others down. However men don't appear to have the same pressure or at least they don't in the same sections of society. A quote that always sticks with me is by Madonna, "Girls can wear jeans, cut their hair short and wear shirts and boots because it’s okay to be a boy but for a boy to look like a girl is degrading but you think being a girl is degrading." I would use this quote to interpret people's view of ‘perfection’ in society.

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Gerry Churchill: I do not think people are responsible for their appearance in that way. Cosmetic surgery has improved in quality and availability, but it is still extremely expensive. Many people could not justify thousands of pounds getting bigger boobs, bum or reshaping their nose, which I believe are the most common. In addition, many of the beauty products are also expensive, with strong branding. In consistence with my other answers however, weight is a choice. It is possible to lead a healthy lifestyle regardless of the level of income. Moreover, people who are in good shape will likely be thought appealing by someone.

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Appendix C1.5: Answers to Question 5 Gertrude Churchill: I would say family have a big impact on the way I look, as they are more likely to take into consideration health and wellbeing into the equation. I would also say friends and peers have an impact, I think it's difficult to digress too far away from mainstream trends & appearances without facing criticism. I'd say that friends have the biggest influence, especially in social events. But it is also important to me to feel good. I wouldn't say celebrities have any direct impact on the way I look though no doubt play a small part with some styles.

Borris Churchill: Two main influences for me. My family – many of them do not take care of their appearance, wearing comfortable clothes instead of fashion, putting on weight, and dressing way out of their age. I aim to distance myself from them by careing for my appearance. Secondly, colleagues – they always look so smart in the office, which I attributed to professionalism, something which I aim to develop through my smart clothes.

Myfanwyn Churchhill: I always had two sisters telling me what not to wear, what to wear until I got rather exasperated with them! They were worried about how to 'fit' with the society' and i have since then taught them that if you make your personality shine, who cares what you wear?? I would tend to wear what i would like to wear and defy the rules of dress code. But given my practical profession, I do end up wearing practical clothes anyway. boots, long trousers, sleeves causally rolled up and hair tied up and out of the way. Celebrities and politician doesn't really feature widely in my clothing selection (although who could fault Kate?) and it is through the work that tends to influence how i wear and dress (and most recently my man has been a good influence! :)

Fifi Churchill: I would say my friends and family. I also have AS (Asperger syndrome) and really struggle with uncomfortable clothes/high heels. I love how a lot of things look but simply cannot cope with certain fabrics and restricting clothes. I suppose I wear for comfort. I have no idea how to put a fashionable outfit together, so I rely on friends and family to help me. I'm not very good with makeup, so I keep it simple. Same with hair. I try to exercise a lot, to keep healthy and active.

Archibald Churchill: I just wear stuff which I find comfortable; my wardrobe is kind of small really. I only own two pairs of shoes for example - casual and smart - and most modern fashion just kind of

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annoys me. Especially when they charge ridiculous prices for stuff made in Bangladesh or something. I just find fashion really stupid sometimes and overly concerned with trying to present an image, especially this new kind of hipster 1950s vintage craze - which just seems incredibly shallow. So I don't think I consciously take influence for how I look from anywhere, I try to avoid clothes which have massive brand names or logos on them because I find it strange to walk around like I'm some kind of billboard. When I was younger I used to be really into skateboarding and things like that which I guess influenced me a bit, it was just shirt and jeans basically, and we didn't really care about standing out or being 'fashionable'. I don't really wear the same stuff but I kind of feel people who are too overly concerned with fashion have kind of lost grip on what’s important a bit.

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Summer Churchill: For me clothes build part of a character. I have to dress smartly for work in order to be seen as serious and professional. I don't enjoy following fashion trends and would prefer not to be seen in certain clothes due to the stigma associated with groups of people that wear certain clothes etc. Depending on what I'm doing, my clothing for the day depends on the audience and practicalities.

Olympia Churchill: Family (mum and dad) have definitely had a large impact. We were not financially well off when growing up, but they always instilled in us to take pride in ourselves and to present ourselves well- to take care of our body as best as we can. Ads have impacted me- if I see something and I'm interested I will find it and buy it and see what it's like. I would also say actors such as Audrey Hepburn have inspired me too in regards to style... and if I am being honest, I do have a little crush on Kate Middleton.

Reginald Churchill: People I'm dating or myself. I often appear how whoever I'm dating prefers because I am not fussed with having long hair / short hair / this pair of jeans / that pair, etc. If anything I find it interesting to find new things and styles, and in the meantime it makes them happy. In terms of physical appearance (exercise), I get into shape for myself because it's fun to set targets and reach them.

Gerry Churchill: I feel quite strongly about this as you are about to find out. I can genuinely say that I really couldn't give two flying fucks what others wear and I wear what I feel is comfortable and makes me feel good. The latest fashion tends to be a heap of utter bullshit. Most of the fashion makes men look like total morons, with their tight trousers and semi female clothing. I also tend to wear clothes that mean something to me rather than to someone else.

Emily Churchill: The biggest influences on the way I look come from my mother mostly. I have a very similar personality to my mother and she has a great attitude towards life and she is not afraid to tell me when I’m not looking my best or appropriate for a situation. She has always showed me how to flatter my figure and look incredibly classy. She has taught me to dress like a woman.

APPENDIX C1.6: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 6 Archibald Churchill: a) I'm really not sure how it can be changed. Like I said in a different question I

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think 'ideal' body images, which I see as the ones which predominate in media is majorly powered by the profitability of that look. So I find in many ways what people see as the ideal body is developed by various companies etc. and it is they, not people in general, who define what is apparently beautiful. So I guess if people stop buying their stuff it might force a change, although that seems pretty unlikely. Basically I think if you leave it to the market these kind of body images will always predominate. But then again it’s not really something you can regulate at all because of the subjective nature of what’s considered beautiful. b) I think there's been a bit of a recent backlash against the traditional supermodel look with various natural beauty campaigns, but I'm not really sure how effective they have

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been, so maybe that might show the profitability of the super-model type image is decreasing, but then again Kate Moss and her ilk still predominate in advertising.

Summer Churchill: An ideal body shape should be a healthy body shape for your body. I think this needs to be recognised, there is not a one size fits all. Your body needs to be healthy for your lifestyle, height etc. Whilst there have been campaigns against the size zero body, obesity is still on the rise. Therefore I think it would be interesting to see research the differences in people who feel under pressure and why etc. a. showing healthy people in a range of sizes, heights etc. Not quite sure how to go about it but educate people that each body is different and healthy for your own proportions is your own ideal body shape.

Gertrude Churchill: I think it would be incredibly difficult to protect completely from body image pressures. I think a completely sheltered approach would even have a negative effect on my children. I would always encourage my children to live a healthy and active lifestyle - but would be keen to remind them that everyone is different, some people could be naturally bigger (due to biological factors like metabolism etc.). I would also point out (and expect their education to point out) the dangers of dieting and various eating disorders. As far as body images are displayed in the media, I think there has been a shift away from the whole "size zero" ideal - with campaigns such as the Dove Campaign for Real Beauty and I can imagine this would remain the same over the next ten years.

Borris Churchill: a) This is difficult, as these pressures have grown immensely over recent years. It would require a massive paradigm shift in the media mostly in order to remove such pressures. I would start by removing references common in the media today that ugly people are somewhat dimwitted or slow – stop making comedy of them as such. Adverts wise – more legislation could be enforced to represent a more ‘real’ image as opposed to the digitally enhanced images commonly used. b) Not in the next 10 years. It will most likely require the current generation to evolve before real changes are seen. ‘Ideal’ images transcend boundaries and are present globally, and any radical changes will require time to settle in, become accepted and used as best-practice.

Myfanwyn Churchhill: Future generations to be effectively protected from the pressures of what is 'ideal body images' would be next to impossible. Children are having a worryingly ease of access to all things on the internet - from images in porn industry to articles showing thin models. I think there

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would have to be a rather radical changes and on a large scale in terms of magazines, newspapers, online articles. 50 years ago (or something like that) models are on average have 8% less body fat than the rest of population. Now, well - it is shown that models are on average 23% less body fat. This extreme desire to be thinner and the pressure is just enormous to conform. Magazines are now starting to print out the pictures of models just as they are without resorting to the photo shopping. But would that be enough? I doubt it. In the next ten years? Unlikely - at least 20 years I think before we see any form of change. But such is the technologies that are changing all the time. soon the cosmetic surgery won't have to rely on inflatables for the boob implant, but instead use stem cell technique to improve the ageing look, the plastic surgery may have got so much better that the days of Michael

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Jackson would soon be a bad moment in the plastic surgery's past. So it’s uncertain times that are facing our future generations. Probably that is what is scary is how to be a mother and face all the pressure that could face our children!

Fifi Churchill: a) I think an end to the general media obsession with weight and beauty would be a start. Whilst I know a lot of media is trying to promote positive self-image, it does feel like there's always someone telling you how you “should” feel about yourself. I think having lots of different body shapes in media, unaltered images etc. would make a difference. In addition to this, I feel exercise is really important. Not just for physical reasons, but it improves mood and self-esteem. So making exercise accessible and affordable would have a positive impact. b) Yes I do, perhaps not a dramatic change, but some change at least. There is more effort to promote healthy self-image and acceptance. Eventually this will begin to work.

Reginald Churchill: a) stop de-sensitizing kids with all these images of what they should look like. The first 10-12 years are the one stage in their life where that shouldn't be an issue and they should just be having fun! Don't let them get stressed by these ideals when they are too young to understand the problems with trying to attain them. b) Unfortunately I think it will get worse, because they will become more and more subjected to advertising and such pressures sadly. No-one will pull advertising because it makes too much money. So I don't know how it can change, as more and more will become de-sensitized (although not if I can help it!).

Emily Churchill: a) I think this is a very difficult question because every child is different and think many generations have been weight conscious. I don't think there is a magic wand that can improve things however that doesn't mean we shouldn't try. I think parents of the next generation need to take note of their responsibility to educate their child about such issues. I think part of the problem is that parents are younger than ever now and they're still lacking life experience to pass onto their children. I also think that there is a responsibility for charities and other organisations and food companies to inform parents better. b) I HOPE things will improve in the next 10 years, however I am not overly confident that they will do. I think the pressure on young western girls to dress in a certain way and be a specifically thin weight is all consuming in modern society. It is almost seen as successful to be incredibly skinny and maintain a ‘beautiful’ look. I think young girls will become increasingly pressure

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by their own gender, adults and the media to look a certain way.

Gerry Churchill: I'm not sure how they could be protected. I guess you could move the advertising off of peak viewing time of television when young people watch. However, I think increasingly younger people are staying up later and watching more TV so that may not be effective. Ultimately, I don't think young people or children can be protected. Maybe through education intervention as they are at school they can be told not to take it overboard and eat 3 grains of rice a day or something like that. I am pessimistic about the future prospects. As religion is on the way out in Western societies, many have taken to worship these "celebrities", most of whom have nothing worth taking note of. As the cameras are constantly following these people and there is a cruel culture of tearing apart their body

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image in glossy magazines, this feeds through to the younger generation. For many people now, dieting is no longer a stage but a life-long goal.

Olympia Churchill: I don't think we will ever be fully able to protect the youth from perceptions of ideal beauty- throughout the centuries there have been various concepts of beauty that people have strove to embrace. The arts will always challenge society and perpetuate their ideals of the body/beauty that then winds itself into society. I do think that greater education is essential though- to guard against extreme diets and promote healthy living. As for changes over the next 10 years- I do hope that we continue to challenge (and get rid of) the size 0 culture, as well as (I hope) banning mags, films from using computer software to slim/elongate models further, or remove blemishes/imperfections/change skin tone/lash length...etc. By getting rid of these unattainable (fake) figures in society, I think it will go some way to generating more positive, healthy figures in society.

APPENDIX C1.7: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 7 Olympia Churchill: a) I just want models to look realistic. Yes, I have no problem with models being physically beautiful. That really does not bother me- what I do object to are models being tampered with to be über-slim. Models should be healthy, and physically fit to promote what a healthy living can do. You know eat well, be active and look after yourself. Indeed, I have enjoyed a lot of the recent adverts with Olympians in them (yes, they might have been touched up slightly) but I much prefer these models to some of the usual rakish thin models we normally see. b) As for movements in my country- the only one I can really think of just now is the Dove campaign. It was using normal women from the public to promote its products to show the effects. It was very popular and it was good to see a range of ages, body types and women on the screen and to see women who have not been tampered with, looking confident, healthy and elegant. It was good role models and attainable.

Archibald Churchill: a) There seems to be a bit of a return to a more curvaceous image, more akin to the 1950s/60s - people always seem to reference Marilyn Monroe as the ideal image now. Someone who was considered widely beautiful was by no means skinny. b) Well as someone who doesn't really follow these issues it’s mostly just the odd advert I've seen, in particular Dove, and those 'documentaries' made by Gok Wan. Although I can't help viewing these with a large amount of cynicism, for example as explained brilliantly by Charlie Brooker they continually state how the

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predominant super-model body image is bad while simultaneously using Gok Wan (perhaps the slimmest looking man in the world) and Myleen Klass, (a woman who gained fame from showering in a bikini) to present the show, both of which are heavily clad in makeup and seem to conform to the traditional beauty ideals. It's almost as if the show is saying 'Yeah, big people can be beautiful too, but not beautiful enough to actually appear on television regularly, only in shows where we discuss how they look' - which just seems incredibly patronising and hypocritical.

Summer Churchill: In the UK certain companies like dove have used "real women" to advertise their products. However, this term can cause problems as people that are naturally skinny have felt put out

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that they are not real as they do not have curves. Therefore, like I said earlier, advertising should promote a natural body healthy shape for your body. It should be stipulated when images have been doctored, either by changing size, shape and airbrushed, or ideally not done at all. For me personally a healthy body is hourglass shape, bust, waist and going out again at the hips.

Borris Churchill: a) I’d imagine they look like a normal person, instead of the usual airbrushed model. To me, this would resonate a lot stronger and appeal to me. b) The UK has certainly had debates in parliament about the use of altered images in publications. However, there has not been as much activity as say Israel. I’m all for these campaigns if it leads to change.

Fifi Churchill: a) I think they would be athletic looking. Someone who you can see eats well and exercises. Not only that, but someone who looks content, confident and happy in themselves. They would be a healthy weight for their height. b) To be honest I don't really read that many magazines etc. I have noticed Gok did something but I didn't see it. I also saw that Jo Frost was looking in to how young girls percieve themselves, and how they feel they should be. I love Jo Frost, she's a bigger lady, who looks fantastic. She's incredibly confident as well. She's exactly the type of person who should lead that sort of campaign. I like her ability to teach children in a way they really understand and can relate to, I think that is vital. She can give parents the skills to promote healthy self-image too.

Reginald Churchill: a) There was a plus sized model in the London metro the other week who looked fantastic and made a mockery of models having to be thin. Also Sara Chalke circa 2001 looked a lot healthier (Maybe just in comparison to how much skinnier she is now). b) I'm afraid I don't know of any movements, but I hope they do exist because it's good to promote healthy bodies.

Gertrude Churchill: a) I can imagine/hope that "healthier body-images" models to be sports people. This is because they would be more likely to promote a healthy lifestyle that would include the entire package of a healthy diet and exercise. Sports people are often not as skinny as most of the current models found in advertising because it's in their best interests to remain healthy and fit than to look good. b) As noted in one of my previous comments, I think the Dove campaign for real beauty is a great initiative that heads in the direction of moving away from traditional "size zero" models. I've also noticed a growing number of sports people have been used in advertising and have also been involved in modelling (some tennis players for example). These sports stars are often also linked to

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charities and foundations, which I find to be another motivation for children to idolise them over often anonymous models found in the media.

Gerry Churchill: I think our society has become so fat that we no longer know what normal is. I think a little bit of fat, or cuddly is normal but if people are over this and telling themselves and others that it is normal then they lying to themselves and others. I would also imagine a healthy body frame, i.e. a little bit of muscle and not skin and bone. I think the campaign to eat more fruit and vegetables is really picking up and I am really supportive of it. It’s a great way to stay healthy.

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Emily Churchill: a) I think it is a fantastic question, I have recently noticed in the British advertising industry the DOVE brand attempting to show ‘real’ women and their ‘real beautiful figures’. This advert really sticks to my mind. b) I think the Dove advert really improves confidence and keep faith in the advertising industry to embrace women with realistic, health figures.

Myfanwyn Churchill: These two images I had chosen for my idea of healthy body image – it’s the acceptance that everyone can be different, different in sizes and shape. There is a tall slender girl, a curvy girl, thick thigh to not quite flat belly. The image below has scribbles on the body, telling a story of what the body did. However, I would like to point out the lack of face or even, a full picture doesn't dampen the fact that you should be proud of your body, by taking the step to list what your body did, and feel happy about it. The other campaign I am thinking of was back in my childhood of various countries in Africa. The campaigns for healthy body, but in a different context, a HIV/AIDS campaign: It attempts to abolish the concept that if you are skinny, it must mean that you have HIV. Likewise if you are fat and healthy, you must be in best of health (which we all know is totally untrue). To me, this campaign teaches us to recognize that we are all of different bodies, but no different from one another in terms of immunity, in terms of contraction of diseases and no different in terms of worries that we all have about our bodies. I know it’s a different take but that is the only campaigns that I’m aware of.

X Removed due to copyright Figure 12: Body Advert I (Healthy Body Guru 2012).

X Removed due to copyright Figure 13: Body Advert II (Monsbiz 2010).

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APPENDIX C1.8: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 8 Gertrude Churchill: When I look at this image I get a positive feeling as all the people are smiling and look happy (the eldest lady reminds me of a nice grandparent!). I'd pick the first image if I was to look like one of them - she's not as skinny as some of the others, and has the best smile!

Myfanwyn Churchhill: This advert I am yet to see. It really hard to pick which body I would chose to have due to a massive cover up for the body - ladies in particular. But out of the 6 as shown here, I would pick either the lady on the top left corner or the rather amped, curvy lady bottom right. How does this make me feel? I can see that they are all smiley (apart from the geezer) and they are all no

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supermodels! I feel that there could be more variety in terms of body shape. This advert is a little too bland to really pass on the message of 'I LOVE me'.

Summer Churchill: Lady in the top right corner, she looks happy and glowing therefore healthy. I love the idea of "I love me" but then feel it’s contradicted as they are all very covered up so you aren't really seeing the range of body types that exist (not saying I want to see a naked picture, but maybe less of the sign or size of the sign so it’s evident why they love their picture).

Borris Churchill: I like it. The advert conveys a realistic, non-airbrushed image. It shows confidence in the models about their appearance. I would prefer the 3rd image from the left on the top – it is a good shape, with a bit of muscle, and no flat! That is my target and ideal body appearance.

Reginald Churchill: The advert is a nice idea, but it only seems to incorporate people are in shape or relatively in shape (even the old dude isn't doing badly for his age), which sends a mixed message. I see what it's trying to say (just be yourself etc.), but without more variety in the people it's almost saying get in shape to love yourself. I’d probably pick the one bottom left. Fifi Churchill: I like this. This seems like an advert promoting self-acceptance. It implies that these people, who are all very different in appearance, are happy with themselves. This is a realistic portrayal of how people look.

Emily Churchill: I think the fundamental message of this photo is to be happy with who you are and your shape. I think that is brilliant but the figures of the people are quite similar so better representation I feel would have a more positive message. I honestly couldn’t pick one person to be in this image as all of the people look incredibly willing to participate and show who they are and why they are happy.

Gerry Churchill: I'm afraid this advert doesn't evoke any feelings. Probably the girl in the top right is the cutest and would be my favourite. She appears to have a nice smile and I can tell she has a nice body shape

Olympia Churchill: I like the following advert- presenting a range of figures in people who generally

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look happy and confident in their bodies. As to what body I would choose- I guess the two girls on the top row at both ends - they seem young, similar to my age, healthy, happy and at ease with themselves.

APPENDIX C1.9: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 9 Archibald Churchill: I'm not sure really, but as a guy I don't feel any pressure at all to conform to any male fashion icons. In fact I think there might still be a residual idea that caring about your appearance too much makes you quite effeminate and maybe even a bit 'gay'. I know the whole metro-sexual thing

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has diminished that somewhat but in Britain especially where I'm from, which is a rural working class area, the 'bloke' ideal still dominants. I must admit when I see some guys decked out in modern fashion, especially 'hipsters' I can't help but think "What a dick" because I think it emphasises style over substance, which is just a bit sad. You kind of expect that kind of thing in cities or in university towns but if a guy like that walked into most the pubs round back home he'd certainly get starred at and probably openly mocked. I mean that’s just one pretty narrow example though.

Summer Churchill: Traditionally, advertising was used to coax women to buy products to make themselves beautiful so that a man would choose and marry them. Although the reason for using products may not be for a man to marry you etc. I think if a lot of women were really honest they would say they use products not just for themselves but to impress either fellow women or men. Whereas men never had the same level of insecurity associated with needing products..... from my own experience with talking with guys a lot of them commented or made jokes that the men who advertised these products / clothes etc. were homosexual or metrosexual and these guys didn't feel the need to be influenced or want to be like them therefore didn't identify with the product or man advertising the product.

Borris Churchill: I would disagree. As a male, I often look up to models with an appearance similar to what I desire for myself. Certainly in this period of metro-sexuality where males care more about their appearance, role models are common.

Gertrude Churchill: From guys I know - I think men react to models quite a lot, though are possibly more reluctant to admit it than women, because of the traditional "taboo" sort of attitude as shown in the quotation. I think some women can be too easily negotiated, but I think this is something that is applicable to many more aspects of life than fashion. I think the quote is dated and quite narrow minded in its generalisations.

Fifi Churchill: I think this is somewhat true. Men are judged much less on their appearance than women. Although this is not a good example, I hope it will make my point clearer. If a man is physically “unattractive” but has a very attractive partner, people will assume he must have other attractive qualities (wealth perhaps?). However if a a woman is physically unattractive but has a very attractive partner, there will be an assumption that the man must be in some way damaged in other ways. Men

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are judged much more on their successes. This isn't my opinion, it's a very broad generalisation. I think men feel a certain amount of pressure to look a certain way, but not to the same extent as women. Women are not weak at all. I think it comes down to the differences in how society judges men and women

Reginald Churchill: This statement is in some ways true, although I don't think girls have weaker identities. It is a lot easier to be a guy. There are way less pressures and a far greater range of role models. This is because most male role models have nothing to do with looks, but stuff they're good at like sport music or whatever. This of course also applies to women and role models but with the added

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pressure of appearance. The pressure of appearance, to reach this 'ideal', is because girls compare themselves and how they look with each other, in a way that guys don't always do.

Myfanwyn Churchwill: Male exposure? More like gigolos. No, I jest. I think the 'rules' whatever they may be, are a little bit more relaxed in men's world. Actually this world that ladies and gent all live in, is on many levels, a male dominated world. Male are incredibly a visual animals (It’s part of male basic instincts!) and are understandable turned on by what they see. Consequently the media plays a lot on women's mind and their portrayal of what women should in general look like - why? I may be going slightly off the tangent here, but it’s true. Role models for men don't really exist do they? Men who are in fashion themselves are fashioned by the media, by the artist simply because they have an ideal body that the fashion wants to have and exploit. If you were to strip men down to their nakedness, it wouldn't be their body-shape, and it wouldn't be their 6 pack (or one pack). It ultimately comes down to the size of their genitals. So, as I can see what Archibald is coming from: When you look at the magazine, of men, you just think - gay! Or bit too metrosexual. Or just men who are obsessed with body building. But you do see men are more involved in the fashion industry, as it has become a more acceptable environment for men to work in, along with women. And not be seen any less manly. Women - well aren't we unfortunate to have breast that are openly gazed at, our butts to be commented on, it’s no wonder that some women take offence at any magazine that their eyes happen to spy on, to criticize the front page model, anything to make themselves feel better. It’s a bitter, bitter world.

Gerry Churchill: I think women do react far more to fashion models because women are interested in being beautiful. Throughout practically all of history there is evidence of women using some form of make up or the like. Men have always been more interested in being able to provide for the family. However I do think that some men are more involved in body image now. I think this is a result of the feminization of men. I would also add that many men really look down upon this, and I think some women do also. There was a study done when the financial crisis hit and with the harder economic times, women became more interested in rugged men. Orlando Bloom was out.

Emily Churchill: I don’t think women have weaker identities, I do argue though that they have a greater pressure to conform to a certain ‘image’. I think women have a very diverse role in society so they need to be everything to everyone and that is incredibly difficult. I would have said that men won’t

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have the same pressure. However I think modern young men feel a certain amount of pressure to look in a certain way. Young people are incredibly looks conscious and I think that men equally want to impress other men and women with their ‘style’. Ultimately women feel more of a pressure to look great at all times which I suspect men don’t. However I think men feel equal amounts of pressure on social occasions or other events to look their ‘best’.

Olympia Churchill: Hmm, I wouldn't class the models (just now) as role models. I don't aspire to be like them- I might want to wear what they wear, or have my hair that little bit shinier, but I don't see that as being a role model. However, I do think more guys now are open to advertisement and are trying

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products- you go into boots and there are tons of guy products in 'masculine' dark gray and burnt orange packaging (and they generally are a little more expensive then the female equivalent). I know my boyfriend has picked up a few things (maybe at my encouragement- I don't know) like the caffeine eye roller as he doesn't sleep well, hand moisturizer (he's a climber and his hands are normally shred to bits), body lotion and he went out recently and bought himself a £70 shaver!! Guys wanted to look/feel good too, just as many have body insecurities as women sadly. And, I certainly would not say that I am weak because I read mags and buy stuff that I see. I'm a postgrad and in my area, there is generally a view that if you dress vaguely feminine (or act feminine-whatever that may be), then you can't be taking your research seriously. As if my brain is too small to handle both make up, clothes and

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theory.

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APPENDIX C2: FINDINGS GROUP B (GERMANY) "DIRECT TRANSCRIPT OF PARTICIPANTS' LANGUAGE. NO ALTERATIONS MADE."

APPENDIX C2.1: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 1 Tanja Müller: Hello Anke and all other members of the Müller-family! ‘Beauty-ideal’ is a strong word. What does it mean to me? First of all, I’d like to point out that to me, the term ‘beauty-ideal’ consists of the interaction between inner and outer beauty. A beauty-ideal is a person who leaves a strong mark and a solid effect on others. Actually, I can’t even limit this to one particular person. I can’t say that my personal beauty-ideal has black, blonde, long, or short hair, is 1.80m or 1.60m tall, and stems from Africa or Europe. However there are a couple of things I perceive as absolute no-go’s: 1.) People with size zero, whose only ambition serves the goal to avoid weight gain. 2.) Aesthetic perfectionism, i.e. plastic surgery in an extreme form, Botox, etc. I don’t like that. 3.) Lack in any weaknesses or mistakes. This is boring. All of these named attributes have a negative impact on a person’s aura. In contrast, there are a couple of things that lead to a positive appearance making me thinking: Wow, what a beautiful, great person! Predominantly, this means being you to me. Show your strengths, but don’t hide your weaknesses. A beauty-ideal is someone with self-confidence who knows what he wants and who is in line with his body and his self. It is someone who feels well, who seems to be happy, who laughs often, and who transfers a positive appearance. Someone who does not constantly try to be perfect to 100%, but who also does mistakes and laughs about them afterwards. Someone who might have a very big nose or jug ears, curves or muffin tops, but says with confidence: ‘So what?! It’s me!’ All these little things lead to a special and great aura. Consequently, it’s not necessarily bodily appearance that makes a person a beauty-ideal. Rather, it is what a person brings across with what you may identify. Anyway, I hope I didn’t annoy you guys with my comment nor did I miss the topic. Have a good night, everybody.

Anke Müller: Well, I don’t think that was a tedious comment. Thanks a lot for this first detailed contribution. I look forward to hearing more opinions. @ Tanja: It would be great if you went one step further by saying how you’d imagine a person with a positive aura, self-confidence, etc. to look like in advertising. In order to embody the attributes you perceived as being ideal, should the model move

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and talk, or are there clear indices on a picture that could ultimately trigger the same effects?

Tanja Müller: I believe the effect could be more intense and better with a person in a TV commercial… Then you can see more personality traits… However I’d prefer a neutral background with focus on the person. Leonie Müller: Hello Anke, that’s not an easy question we’re facing here - First of all, I noticed that I’ve never wondered who my personal beauty-ideal is before. Therefore it’s difficult for me to focus on a particular person. However I’d have to go with the German model Lena Gercke at the end. She possesses many properties I personally consider as ideal. I’d describe it as follows: To me, the

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beauty-ideal of a woman is slim – but not too skinny, i.e. she may have curves at the right spots, because I think that’s what makes a woman. Length should be not more than 1.80m, she may have long, blonde hair and lightly tanned skin. Even though this description may resemble a Barbie doll, I imagine a natural beauty who reflects vitality and energy rather than an artificial beauty. My beautyideal is sporty, active, and feels completely well in her body.

Elena Müller: Hello everybody! I don’t have a particular person I consider a beauty-ideal either. I like women who are natural, who have a honest smile (with kempt teeth), nice skin and don’t look too tanned (rather, her skin color fits to her type of person). Also, I prefer women with shaved legs and arm pits, long legs (however, not too long), and a height from 1.68m to 1.80m. I like them to be slim but with female curves and I like small hands. Regarding hair, I really like long hair in a natural colour. Also, she shouldn’t look perfect but have little blemishes such as freckles or pimples, little wrinkles or scars – I think that makes a face look more interesting. With men I like those who don’t look like body builders but still have a muscular body, even if they have a tummy. I think body hair is attractive to a certain extent. I perceive men who have normal hair growth but shave as gay. In contrast, I like big hands and a nice butt. However the most important thing to me is a respectful behavior and that the guy has his own personality.

Adam Müller: Hello dear Müllers! Well, overall I agree to the descriptions I have read so far. Someone can be very attractive in terms of appearance, but that is not the most important criteria. Someone with vitality, natural self-confidence, openness, and warmth is perceived much more positive than someone who’s lacking all that. Respectively, I prefer people with small blemishes rather than those beauty-ideals promoted by advertisers. I admit that they may have a certain effect – especially on men – on the first sight, but in long-term inner values are more important and more attractive. What I think is important mentioning here is that this topic normally doesn’t concern men. I’d say it is a typical women’s thing. Therefore I find it difficult to describe what my male beauty-ideal looks like. I haven’t thought about this yet to be honest. But I think there are some handsome actors I’d refer to, e.g. Ryan Reynolds.

Simone Müller: Hey Anke & co. Neither have I asked myself yet who my personal beauty-ideal is. In general I believe that beauty cannot be defined at all, because it means something different to everybody. In my opinion, for instance, beauty comes from the inside of a person, and reflects in

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strength and self-confidence. Attributes including charm, humor, intelligence, etc. play another crucial role in this. Consequently, beauty does not depend on body shape, facial expression or skin colour. Each person can be beautiful in her own way. It’s a pity though that beauty and attractiveness are all so often equalized or even confused in our society. For example, I think celebrities are attractive – but are they beautiful? I cannot answer this because I don’t know them. However Khloe Kardashian could be my personal beauty-ideal. She has a strong personality, self-confidence, and openness. Apart from that, she bring the message across that thick can also be chic.

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Anke Müller: May I ask briefly, who of you connects ideal beauty automatically with Western features (as opposed to Asian, African, etc.)? If you do so, please click-like this post. Responses: Elena, Adam, Siegfried, and Bastian Müller like this. Bastian Müller: I’d have to go with Bradley Cooper because I think he is authentic. I like the combination of personality, masculinity, and humour. Regarding women, I like Alisha Moore because she looks really hot without being too skinny.

Siegfried Müller: Ideal beauty is when appearance and character match. When I wake up next to a woman I don’t like as to her appearance, something is wrong. However when I wake up to a woman with a great body but once she starts talking, bothers me to hell, something’s wrong either. Therefore, it’s an intermingling of these two components. Beautiful men and women without little blemishes are boring. Blemishes and spleens are those things that make a person unique and special. In general, it is the intermingling of everything. More concretely, I like a three-day beard as opposed to receding hairlines among men. I’d have to go with Jude Law here, because I am impressed by his eyes.

Karoline Müller: My female beauty-ideal is Cheryl Cole. She is a natural beauty, and her features are rather dark, what I personally find attractive. With men, I’d have to go with Baptiste Giabiconi. He’s got a significant face and dark features, too.

Heiko Müller: I agree with Adam, that this is a rather female topic. With women I really like curves, when they are not too skinny. Regarding men, I think there are some actors I think are attractive. But I couldn’t choose one of them as my beauty-ideal.

Lisa Müller: I think in our society ideal beauty is so much connected with thinness, especially regarding women. I’d say it is normal that every woman feels a certain pressure. However personally, I particularly agree with the other females in this group, that it is curves and little blemishes that make a person interesting. Although the picture I’m going to upload doesn’t have any of these visible ‘weaknesses’ I must say I’ve ever been fascinated by Angelina Jolie’s lips and her facial features. So I’d have to go with her.

APPENDIX C2.2: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 2

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Tanja Müller: Good evening everybody! In general, I wouldn’t agree to this statement personally, but I can confirm that in our society fat people are indeed regarded as unattractive rather than slim people. However this concerns only the external examination. When you see a person for the first time you build your first impression on the features you can see from the outside. And in this case, it is surely more difficult for fat people. Of course fat people can have a fantastic aura, but they have one big mistake: they are fat. And often, this can lead to a disadvantage in times of size zero. Consequently, fat people have to prove their strengths more than their thin counterparts. And I’m sure they have to put more efforts. Let’s take an example: A job interview. There are 2 applicants with equal competences. The difference is: one of them is thin and beautiful, and the other one is fat, but also

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beautiful. Still I’d say that the majority of bosses would likely choose the thin, beautiful one. Another example: A date between man and woman. Here, the first impression often determines whether or not people want to get to know each other. Say 2 women sit in a pub, one of them is slim and beautiful, but lacks in inner appearance. The other one is thick but has a fantastic aura due to her inner beauty. Who do you think would the majority of men choose in this case?! Well… admittedly, this depends on the guy, but I think most men would choose the thin beauty. In fact, it’s not easy for fat people in our society. This is reinforced by questionable beauty-ideals as promoted by the media, e.g. Germany’s next top model. We receive the message: You’re fat! You have to lose weight! Then, the risk for eating disorders and diets increases, you feel unhappy and uncomfortable, frustrated and depressed. I’d wish people would be seen more in their entity and not only judged from their appearance.

Elena Müller: @ Tanja: Honestly, I wouldn’t employ a fat person as boss either. Of course it depends on what job it is and what qualification is needed. Also, there is a bit difference between being well-fed and fat. Being fat is a signal to me that this person must be sick: either mentally or physically. Briefly, healthy human beings cannot be fat. Quite simply. I don’t like fat people, and I feel a pity for them. However I still have respect towards them and I would deal with a fat person in the same way I’d deal with a thin person. Also, there are many reasons why a person is fat (e.g. after pregnancy, psychological diseases, etc.) and I don’t think it was ever considered beautiful. Unconsciously, you always go with the flow, whether you want it or not. One example: Let’s say, red is not a fashion colour anymore and has got a bad reputation whereas green has become trendy. Shortly, everybody wears green in order to follow the mainstream trend. If there is one person who still wears red, she is likely to be mocked.

Leonie Müller: I agree that fat people (i.e. people who have obviously more than 20kg too much) are regarded as unattractive, and that life it more difficult to them as opposed to slim people. However I think one reason is that obese people don’t feel very well in their own bodies and thus do not appear vital and energetic. In this context one shouldn’t forget that in most cases an unhealthy lifestyle leads to fatness. How is one supposed to be happy, satisfied, and attractive when a person doesn’t move much and eats unhealthy food? And once you’re fat it becomes hard to lose weight. Especially dating becomes more difficult then. I’ve got a good friend who is obese since her early childhood. She is a great person, intelligent, funny, and she has a pretty face. But she hasn’t had a boyfriend yet – she’s 24 now – and I think this is because of her obesity. I think it makes her shyer and many men consider

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fatness as unattractive. However obese people are more concerned by these side-effects than people with a few kilos more on their hips. In any case I think that society influences our view on ideal beauty and our understanding of thick and thin. Fashion in particular contributes to construct certain norms. Even to me as non-overweight woman, there are shops in which I cannot buy jeans because they just don’t fit me. That’s really depressing! Then it is less surprising that you leave the shop thinking ‘Oh god, now I really have to lose weight, when I cannot fit into any trousers anymore’. I imagine this situation to be far worse for those who are fat. For this reason, my friend mostly orders her clothes online. Consequently, fat people cannot feel well in our society anymore.

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Adam Müller: No doubts, fat people are regarded as unattractive by the majority of our society. Certainly, this depends on appearance. The problem in today’s society is that due to the existing abundance (also in food) thinness is more connected to self-discipline and strength. Therefore, it’s seen positively. Respectively, fat people are seen in the opposite way. In this context I always think of the beauty-ideal during the French renaissance. Back then, thinness symbolized poverty, whereas fatness showed that people could afford food in abundance. It was a sign for economic wealth. This has changed a lot… At the end I think everybody should make up his own mind about his appearance and how he feels well. I think it is not my job to judge about other people’s appearance since there are multiple reasons for a person to be obese. Not always it can be linked to lacking discipline but has reasons that cannot be influenced easily.

Bastian Müller: The media work very effectively to let only edited and optimized people to count as beautiful. This leads to a great pressure that concerns particularly those who have bodily disadvantages. Defending yourself presupposes a lot of self-confidence. In worst case self-confidence is already destroyed by social pressure though. And then, it’s hard to get out of depression.

Siegfried Müller: There are people who are really fat and whether they are ill or not, I wouldn’t consider them as attractive either. Then, there are fat people who are still attractive (e.g. Adele). It depends on your behaviour, and how you feel in your own body.

Simone Müller: I can mostly agree to the statement. Fatness is often associated with unhealthy, undisciplined, and ugly. Fat people are mostly linked to prejudices such as sitting on the couch eating burgers, chips, and chocolate in front of the TV. Indeed, obesity can lead to serious health issues such as heart diseases and diabetes. Nevertheless that doesn’t imply that fat people are unattractive. Beauty relies mostly on inner values – and those are invisible. At the end, the entity of internal and external beauty is decisive. Without aura an attractive body doesn’t help.

Heiko Müller: I absolutely agree with the statement. Lacking discipline is always presumed.

Karoline Müller: I agree with the statement, too. Indeed, a fat person is often considered as undisciplined. Fat people are linked to many prejudices, as Simone already said. I’d also say that

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fatness is often linked to poverty. Rich people are usually slim and take more care of their look.

Lisa Müller: I agree, too. Fat people are considered as lazy. That’s sad because – as the others said – you can’t conclude the character from a person’s mere appearance. However I remember fat people being mocked back in school time already. Apart from that, I also agree that it’s hard to decide what the difference is between being well-fed and fat.

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APPENDIX C2.3: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 3 Elena Müller: I wouldn’t like looking like the woman on the following picture because I think she looks extremely artificial! I associate the porn industry with such hair, makeup, and facial expression. She looks cheap.

X Removed due to copyright Figure 14: Daniela Katzenberger (Monstersandcritics 2012).

Tanja Müller: I have chosen the following picture because I get nightmares when looking at it. She looks so vulnerable, so ill… Clearly, these are the visible consequences resulting from today’s obsession with beauty and thinness. Thin, thinner, the thinnest! No thanks!

X Removed due to copyright See Figure 07 (p.34). Leonie Müller: I agree with the others. However I’d have to go with the picture of a very obese and unkempt woman because I’d never like to be that fat. I don’t think this is beautiful and I cannot imagine a person to feel comfortable in an extremely obese body. You are so much at risk to become seriously ill…

Adam Müller: I’d have to go with these two guys. They look really artificial, and it’s obviously the opposite of how they intended to look like. Especially any mimics such as happiness, sadness, or satisfaction have got lost completely.

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X Removed due to copyright Figure 15: Bogdanoff Brothers (Telegraph 2012).

Bastian Müller: Harald Glööckler is the pure reflection of artificial and falsified metro-sexuality! And honestly, to me this is the peak of superficiality and character emptiness. Who covers his real Ego in such ways, really has a problem with his self!

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X Removed due to copyright Figure 16: Harald Glööckler (Harald Glööckler Fans 2010).

Lisa Müller: I agree with both Leonie and Tanja. I neither agree with anorexia nor with obesity. This is all not healthy, and there is no beauty in these pictures at all. I feel a pity for those people…

Siegfried Müller: I’d have to go with Michael Jackson. I think we all know this guy. His face looks like plastic. Any mimics are lacking. It’s completely distorted. The only scars are those around the nose, and I’m sure those are the doctor’s mistake!

Karoline Müller: I’d have to go with Jocelyn Wildenstein. I find only one attribute to describe the way she looks: completely sick!

Simone Müller: I agree with all the others! Even in my worst nightmares I would never like to look so distorted. In this case I’d probably consider plastic surgery in order to look normal again. The first person that came to my mind is Sylvester Stallone. In fact, youthfulness is important in showbiz. I assume Mr Stallone has tried to follow this trend, but the result is shocking! This is all a question of psyche and age – ignorance?!

Heiko Müller: I’d have to go with Siegfried. To me, there is nobody who looks as artificial and nonhuman as Michael Jackson did!

APPENDIX C2.4: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 4 Tanja Müller: The question is: Do we want to change at all? Do we want to be perfect and pursue current imaginations of ideal beauty? When I think of scars, for example, then I don’t necessarily see this negatively. They remind us of experiences, and memories of our lives. Of course they can remind us of negative things, but also of beautiful things such as the scar of a caesarean. The scar serves as Copyright © 2013. Diplomica Verlag. All rights reserved.

a reminder of my child’s first cry. Should I really try to get rid of this? However I think it is important to distinguish between surgeries for purely aesthetic reasons and surgeries for the matter of perfection. In those cases it is questionable whether it’s worth to face all those risks and possible side-effects of surgeries, diet pills, etc. only for beauty’s sake. The risk for addiction, failure (in the surgery), or sickness is so big! Is this worth it? In the end our body belongs to us for the whole lifetime, grows with us, and alters with us. My body is part of my self – and I think that’s most important.

Elena Müller: I personally disagree with plastic surgery. Of course, it’s great that you can make people more ‘beautiful’, but the risk for them to want more and more increases. It’s like an addiction! In

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contrast I think it’s okay if someone decides to do an aesthetic correction because he suffers from his situation, e.g. after an accident or for health reasons. However if there is an 18-years-old girl who wants bigger breasts to look better, then I believe this is a person who doesn’t love herself very much. And that’s exactly what this person should learn first! Every day we observe how celebrities do face lifting, augmentation mammoplasty, or incredible diets. Celebrities profit from something like this. They are paid for their appearance, for looking young, perfect, slim, and attractive. This is a broad topic we could discuss endlessly. What is important is that people outside from Hollywood should never forget that celebrities live in a different kind of world. Everything is superficial. Bodily appearance determines your luck. We must realize that this is not a real world that is presented here. It merely serves for entertainment and distraction from the important things in life. I exemplified celebrities because I think they (unfortunately) have the most impact on people.

Leonie Müller: I don’t think there is the ideal human being at all – not even with regard to appearance. Even if society claims a certain beauty ideal which many people pursue, everybody has his own imagination of beauty. The problem is that we cannot see a person’s character from the outside. The first impression we get is whether a person is tall or small, thin or fat, what clothes he or she wears, and the way he or she behaves. Many people conclude certain character traits from this superficial observation. And people, who do not respond to social norms, do stand out. At the end I think it’s up to the person how to deal with her blemishes. If they suffer too much, the only way left is undertaking plastic surgery. I think we mustn’t judge those people. Largely, it is the fault of our society to bring them that way because the media promote plastic surgery as the only ‘exit’, e.g. in TV reality shows such as RTL2 Extremely Beautiful!

Lisa Müller: I agree with Leonie. There is no perfection in human beings. But I think this is the reason why everybody strives to become perfect. It is like people try to look like goddesses. Perfect, without any mistakes – and I think that’s the effect they’d like to attain: That people think they are pure from the inside and outside. Poor world.

Adam Müller: It is sad that people are made responsible for their appearance. This is one of those things in our society, I cannot understand. In my opinion, the imperfections are those things that make a person special. Do we really want to live in a world in which we all look more or less the same due to plastic surgery, etc. and in which we adapt permanently only because someone has defined this as

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perfect?! Honestly, I wouldn’t like that at all! This thought is really irritating. Of course plastic surgeries can be useful and supportive, e.g. after an accident. But apart from that, I don’t support this at all. Regarding diet pills, I always think of the product marketing and its related manipulation. Most of those pills turn out to be dazzlers in the end.

Bastian Müller: Notably through the aforementioned pills, treatments, and abbreviations beauty is more related to money and the stupidity of doing this to your body rather than to any ‘efforts’. From an evolutionary point of view it makes sense to care for a healthy and attractive body. Normally, this leads

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to better chances. However someone who forces his body into an unhealthy condition intentionally – and I exclude any health reasons here – is responsible for any consequences!

Siegfried Müller: Plastic surgeries are good for medical reasons. But only because I feel uncomfortable in my body?! – Never! However I blame the media for this impact. They promote ideal beauty perpetually. I agree with Adam’s opinion about diet pills – this is all about money-making!

Simone Müller: Where do people take the right to judge about the (im-) perfect appearance of a person?! First of all, I think it’s sad that numerous women and men have become slaves of beauty treatments. Many of them become obsessed and addicted in the attempt to gain perfect beauty. In the end they look worse than plastic dolls! Secondly, everybody is unique. Everybody has a unique body and a unique character that exists only once in this world. Therefore I can’t understand why people undertake plastic surgery in order to attain a certain beauty ideal or simply because they can’t deal with their own appearance. Thirdly, when undertaking plastic surgery, people look more and more the same. I claim to love yourself and to accept yourself as you really are. Then, you are likely to be called beautiful by family, friends, and even from strangers without any artificial alternations.

Heiko Müller: It’s true. Those institutions want to gain profit. And for this reason they tell people they are ugly. I think nobody has real interest in an individual’s appearance. Only in the profit that can be generated through the customer’s resulting dissatisfaction.

Karoline Müller: Surprisingly, there are exceptions in the media landscape. Calvin Klein, Levis, and Diesel have successfully launched campaigns with extraordinarily ugly models. I think you must either be outstandingly beautiful or ugly to get attention in the fashion world.

APPENDIX C2.5: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 5 Elena Müller: I am influenced by people who are close to me, mostly my mum. I cannot explain why that is though. Maybe it is because I accept her. She’s my role model. She can see what suits me best with one view, as opposed to me. I always need more time. But it hasn’t ever been this way. When I was younger, celebrities gave me much orientation in trends and looks. I experienced that the more

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you accept yourself the less you look at celebrities.

Leonie Müller: This question is difficult to answer. I think my friends and the media influence me most in the way I look. I find media influential in terms of fashion, especially clothes trends. Although I don’t follow any trend, I’m sure we’re all led into a certain direction, perhaps unconsciously. My friends often inspire me to pick a certain brand label, especially when doing shopping together.

Tanja Müller: Hmmm that’s difficult indeed… On the one hand there are millions of magazines, media, advertisements, etc. I see every day and that certainly have effects on me. On the other hand there are the people in your environment who may affect me. That’s how you pick up trends, e.g. hair

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styles or clothes, and decide what you think fits best to yourself. Family and friends are important factors as well. They can tell you more or less critically what suits you best.

Lisa Müller: I feel mostly influenced by the media. When I sit on the train and look at an advert in the train station, I often make up my mind about the trend, clothes, or style shown.

Bastian Müller: I’d say that’s the inner circle of the 50 persons you see the most in your life. In addition to that are public, visual portrayals of beauty in those media you’re interested in. This varies from person to person though.

Siegfried Müller: There is no particular person I’m influenced by. Or I haven’t noticed it yet ;) However, when walking through our city centre I often observe people wearing clothes I really like.

Adam Müller: I think it’s a mixture of many components. I’m sure, family and friends have big impacts, but this can also result from other factors. The times in which I pursued trends are thankfully over, I guess… Also, I agree with Siegfried’s statement: Often, you see people in town wearing clothes you like and get inspired.

Simone Müller: I am influenced by trends, display dummies, friends, family, random persons on the train or in the streets… briefly, you can constantly get inspiration everywhere! I cannot relate this to one particular celebrity. However I believe they set trends. Overall, I agree with Adam though, that it is a mixture of everything.

Heiko Müller: Clearly, advertising! I think in the most cases you don’t notice the impact, and that’s the way it is wanted.

Karoline Müller: My clothes style is definitely influenced my media and advertising. My friends play an important role, too. The thing is you talk about clothes, and trends! That’s normal as a girl.

APPENDIX C2.6: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 6 Siegfried Müller: a) Not at all, because the media are everywhere and children get access to them

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earlier and earlier. I think the situation will deteriorate rather than improve. Maybe there is a chance when excluding them from the media completely – but that means you will exclude them from society as well. The consequences are that they cannot contribute in social life, cannot talk to their fellow students about what is up-to-date. b) I don’t think there will be a successful change. Technique is getting better, faster, and bigger. It’ll be difficult to protect children from this. However this all depends on whether there will be a change in media. They have a big responsibility today. 10 years ago, it’s been the same already. But today, media focus solely on profit-making. That’s why I don’t think there will be a shift into a more positive direction.

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Lisa Müller: a) I don’t think you can protect them either. As Siegfried said, you can’t exclude your children from everything in order to save them from being an outsider. b) A successful change – whether possible or not - will definitely be challenging to all of us. We will need a mainstream campaign. You know, the new beauty-ideal must be visible, so that people know: this is beautiful, this is normal.

Leonie Müller: a) I also think it’ll be difficult to protect our society, particularly children and young adolescents from advertisements and media. The internet has become accessible through mobile phones. That makes it even more complicated to screen children from those ideal-images reflected in media and co. Therefore it becomes increasingly important to educate children to strong characters with self-confidence and self-esteem. b) A successful change in the media would mean a shift towards more normal people and away from the typical beauty-ideal. I don’t think this is wanted by fashion designers, media, etc. because normal could mean showing average people, who do not particularly stand out and might even look boring?! To come back to our previous topic about plastic surgeries once again: I think there will be an increasing number of people who will be willing to undertake aesthetic corrections in the future. I believe the pervasive beauty-ideal could only be changed if media and fashion transferred different messages. Sadly, I don’t find a reason why they should do that…

Heiko Müller: a) As the others, I believe that education and enlightenment will be the key. b) No, I don’t think there will be a change because of the media. That’s the way it is, and I don’t think it’ll change. Clearly, we mustn’t ignore that there is a certain peer pressure.

Elena Müller: a) I think nobody can protect us from this mainstream unless you emigrated to the deepest jungle. Only the social environment can lead children and young people to a healthy and conscious view. Parents should make up their minds about what kind of people they’d like to bring up. Personally, I have no idea how to educate children correctly so that they don’t end up in being zombies. b) If change is claimed by the minority of people, this certainly won’t happen. Most of us will follow their herd instincts. Honestly, I have observed that people are as manipulative as animals. No matter what we’re talking about, war, fashion, beauty, people are manipulated. Nobody is interested in the consequences. A couple of weeks ago I found a girls magazine in a shop at the airport. The title said ‘How I lost 20kg’. In the inside they explained how to do a good blowjob and how to look like a sex bomb – this is incredible! I was shocked! Actually, I could have cried! I even wrote a comment to

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the editors of this magazine, but I still haven’t got a response yet. Therefore I think we should all make up our minds critically about whether we want children at all. And if we decide to have some, we should know how to save them from these powers!

Tanja Müller: a) As Leonie said, the only way to protect young people is to change the ideal-image in media completely. Away from size-zero, and from plastic bodies towards normal and natural idealimages. But like the others, I don’t believe that is going to happen. Maybe it’ll even deteriorate with ever new media that continue proliferating images of a surreal world. Of course as future parents we can try to protect our children. But I imagine this to be fairly complicated, particularly in young

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adolescence when teenagers focus on friends rather than parents. b) I believe there could be a change if everybody contributes: media, public, politics, advertisers, fashion, parents, etc. But this is not likely to happen in the next 10 years or so. Today, this wish still feels very utopic. Personally, I hope we will change something, so that future generations can profit from a healthier and more realistic beauty-image, and don’t have to fight against those negative side-effects anymore. Maybe a change is possible if public calls attention to the risks of today’s beauty-ideal. Still, it is a Dave against Goliath fight. But step by step we could improve things.

Bastian Müller: a) It is important to educate children that what they see in fashion and media is not real but edited and artificially improved. Also, children can gain a healthy relationship to their bodies and self-confidence by doing sports and attending sports clubs. Unfortunately, many parents fail here. b) It is difficult to effect a change actively. But I could indeed imagine the general trend to get back to healthy bodily proportions. I think that’s already visible in our society. Nobody wants size-zero models anymore. Instead, I have observed women to gain more bodily self-confidence.

Adam Müller: a) To stand the existing pressure, I agree with Bastian, that a targeted education beginning in early childhood, is inevitable. Children must gain more self-confidence and understand the difference between reality and the world shown in media. I think it is even more important though, that parents talk to their children about the risks and consequences shown in the above figures. I think once you take your children’s sorrows seriously while talking about the possible negative side-effects, a positive development can be achieved. b) I think there are some movements against size-zero already, so yes, there might be a change in long-term. But I don’t think either that this is going to happen in the next couple of years. It’ll be a long process. Simone Müller likes this.

Simone Müller: a) Unfortunately, I don’t see a way to protect future generations either unless vast and effective campaigns will be launched by media that have a big impact on the target group! However advertising and media are only brokers in this process. As Adam said, parents and relatives must educate their children and act as role models. A change is possible but it clearly depends on the strong will of both institutions and our society. b) As aforementioned, institutions and society have to contribute actively to a change. I think it is extremely difficult to find a start and to make a plan. Also, many efforts have to be put in such a campaign. But there might be change in beauty-ideal in the next

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10 years anyway due to the multiplicity of generations living in Germany by now. The German idealimage may have blue eyes and blonde hair, but this will have changed in 10 years.

Karoline Müller: a) I think it’ll help to foster education at school. Children can be educated about health and nutrition, they can do sports together, and cook together. Also, parents should definitely act as examples in healthy eating, and they should get their children away from excessive time spent in front of TV and computer. b) On the one hand, there is a clear trend towards health-consciousness. People do much sports, and they like doing wellness. On the other hand, everybody spends many hours in front of computers. Children move comparably less. This scissor may go apart even more.

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APPENDIX C2.7: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 7 Leonie Müller: a) I’d imagine realistic-sized models to present fashion. But of course they should be visible in other advertisements on TV, in magazines, and on billboards, too. b) Spontaneously, I remember Dove’s Campaign on Real Beauty. They show realistic-sized models with curves in underwear in their adverts. I like this campaign because the women show bodily confidence and look great despite a few kilos more.

Tanja Müller: First of all, I’d like to say that I don’t think it is bad to campaign with ultrathin or anorexic models in order to shock people (see the picture of model Isabelle Caro). She got popular in many countries with her campaign against anorexia.

X Removed due to copyright See Figure 08 (p.40).

a): It should be a diverse mixture of healthy-looking people who bring across vitality and satisfaction. Notably, they should look more realistic! I’d like to see models I can identify with! There should be a trend away from ultrathin models who present clothes in children’s sizes. Fashion business has a big impact on this. They could also produce more clothes that fit women with curves. So that you can still wear trendy clothes without being size-zero. b) I like campaigns that confront children in kindergarten and school with the topic ‘healthy nutrition’. In this context it is crucial to raise awareness about both the risks of junk food (because most children think that’s cool) and of eating too less. I’d even like this to become a compulsory class at school.

Siegfried Müller: a) In any case, models should have more weight! b) I don’t watch much TV, so I haven’t noticed many campaigns yet. Indeed, I have heard about Isabelle Caro as well, but I think this is really extreme! People don’t have to die to effect a change.

Bastian Müller: a) I’d like to see more women who are not only reduced on their bodies in

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advertisements. I'd prefer to see more campaigns with intelligent and powerful women who do not only loll around their mascara but transfer the message that they are great even without any make-up. b) I agree with Leonie: The Dove is a good example. In Germany, I also remember a nice campaign by ‘Du Darfst’ that said ‘Fuck the Diet’.

Adam Müller: a) I believe as long as models generally look healthy, this is a good step into the right direction. It would be an interesting option to sign digital alterations by Photoshop etc. Another step would be away from ‘sex sells’ towards a greater focus on the product itself. There should be more attention on product features rather than the perfectly-faked advertising-family. If there are steps

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towards more reality in adverts, we are on a good way. b) I agree with Bastian’s examples: Dove and Du Darfst. There might be more campaigns, but I can’t recall them anymore. Nevertheless I find these two campaigns effective. Especially Dove clearly stands out from other campaigns and attains a positive advertising effect.

Lisa Müller: a) They should look more normal, like you and me. I’d like to identify with them either. b) Dove’s campaign is a great step into the right direction. I think they pick up what many women think!

Heiko Müller: a) I hate seeing images of female models where you can see solely flesh and bones! Is there anything more attractive than curves?! b) Honestly, I can’t remember any of them… I might have seen them, but not consciously.

Elena Müller: a) I’d not like to see models that are ultra-thin, anorexic or artificially altered. b) I like the campaign by Dove, too.

Simone Müller: a) I define perfect and healthy bodies as those where you can’t see any bones. I agree with Tanja, that a variety of different people would be great. Also I agree with her that the employment of shock-adverts with anorexic models could be very effective in today’s society. Anorexia is a taboo-topic, and this could be changed by campaigns like this. b) I also remember the Dove’s campaign. It’s brilliant! Finally a global advertisement that shows women with normal, slightly chubby bodies and curves! By wearing underwear the effect is even better. Normally, more campaigns should react on this and copy Dove’s idea in order to increase the effect on individuals and society.

Karoline Müller: a) I agree with the others. They should have more weight. b) I remember Dove, too. But I must say I don’t feel addressed by this campaign so much because the models are on average 40 years old, and I don’t belong to this target group yet.

APPENDIX C2.8: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 8 Leonie Müller: a) The advert is unusual, I’d say. It stands out by showing ‘normal’ people. The effect on me is authentic and nice. You believe those people they could live next door. b) I’d choose the

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person in the upper-right corner. She has a friendly smile.

Tanja Müller: a) I find the advert somewhat simple. It focuses on individuals and their own personality. There is no distraction so that you can concentrate on the message ‘I love me’. The effect is that you start thinking of this message, and perhaps identify with a person on the advert. As Leonie said, they look real. You can see the pictures are not edited. It’s a suitable example for real and authentic advertising. b) I tend to choose the person on the top-left. She has a nice aura, selfconfidence, and shows healthy vitality.

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Elena Müller: a) Honestly, I associate this advert with doctors… Maybe it’s because of the background and because they are naked. I don’t know. I don’t like it. b) I’d have to choose the woman top-right, as Leonie. Although you cannot see her whole body, she looks friendly.

Simone Müller: a) I think this advert is quite cool and simple. It shows normal people who could be our neighbours. I think it’s great that you don’t know what these people are campaigning for because you cannot see the promoted product. I really like this! The advertising message ‘I love me’ has a very positive effect on me, too. This message is put in the center, which is great. It reminds me of Michael Jackson’s video ‘Black and White’. b) I’d select the girl on the top-right, too. She looks happy and satisfied with herself. You notice her positive aura and smile, and don’t get distracted by her body.

Bastian Müller: Nice advert yet a bit artificial and constrained. In general, I like the advert because you don’t know about the social status of any of these models. However as I said, it looks very constrained. b) I’d have to go with the guy bottom-left. He has my smile and looks like he’s in the center of his life and healthy.

Adam Müller: a) Happiness and satisfaction. This advert stands out very positively from the mainstream campaigns… It’s simple but nice. Of course adverts by global players such as Coca Cola or Nike have a better quality, but this might result from their big budgets. As we can learn from this campaign: sometimes, less is more! b) Bottom-left, too. The guy has a friendly appearance and looks happy and satisfied with him and his life.

Heiko Müller: a) I associate this advert with satisfaction. That’s a positive thing. b) I’d have to go with the guy bottom-left either. He looks the healthiest.

Lisa Müller: a) I like the message, but I don’t think it comes across very effectively. People look happy in general, but maybe it’s the fact that they don’t move, don’t act, etc. That would have a better effect on me. b) I’d select the girl on the bottom right, too. She has nice smile, and looks self-confident.

Siegfried Müller: a) I must say I don’t feel addressed by this advert. It looks boring to me. b) Bottomleft. He comes across very positively.

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Karoline Müller: a) It’s funny. But I’ve got the impression there are campaigns that look similar. Unfortunately I can’t recall an example. Maybe adverts like this don’t stick to people’s mind very well. b) I’d have to go with the old granddad. The female models don’t affect me whereas the granddad looks like he’s enjoying himself and having fun in life! I like that.

APPENDIX C2.9: ANSWERS TO QUESTION 9 Leonie Müller: I think the author is partially right. Men tend to seek less orientation with beauty ideals. They don’t try actively to be like them. A reason for this might be that male fashion models often look

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very thin, less masculine. I don’t think men want to look like this. They like to look muscular, wellshaped, and sporty. Certainly there are male beauty-ideals in typical men’s magazines such as GQ. But I think overall, there are more beautiful women than men. I am always confused how many beautiful and rich women are allied to really unattractive men. As opposed, you rarely see a handsome male celebrity with an average-looking girlfriend. There is much more pressure on women than on men, I guess. But this doesn’t have to do with weakness it is rather the image society has of a beautiful and attractive woman. It is much stronger than the imagination of a beautiful man.

Tanja Müller: Men are defined by attributes such as power, success, money, reputation, job, whereas women are probably defined by some of those attributes either, but the main characteristic is definitely beauty. Today, it’s all about beauty and richness, sex and power, female and male. However I can see that there are more men affected by beauty-ideals. Even plastic surgery, manicures or pedicures among men have become normal.

Simone Müller: In my opinion it depends pretty much on where men live, what kind of friends he has, and what job. In a city for example, men tend to follow beauty-ideals or trends (tall, muscular, kempt, stylish) rather than in rural areas. Appearance and clothes are also often influenced by peers. And the job can decide about a certain body-image either. Nevertheless women are definitely more affected by the problematic of body-image than men. We have to stand much more pressure. The complex picture of the middle-ages and beyond of men having power and women looking pretty, hasn’t really changed. There are exceptions, but in general women care more about beauty than men - that’s natural.

Bastian Müller: I think, despite the female emancipation, women are defined very much through their appearance. Among men, values such as power, intelligence, status, etc. dominate. Moreover, the image of the male model responds more to the imaginations and desires of homosexual designers rather than to the desires of women (no offense, but think about this!). I think men prefer the masculine type.

Karoline Müller: I have observed many men who try to pursue beauty-ideals the same way as women do. Many of them care extremely about their appearance. I think they are or become increasingly affected by beauty-ideals.

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Lisa Müller: My boyfriend buys a lot of crèmes, lotions, etc. for his skin. Also, he’d never leave the house with un-styled hair. I think men do care more about their appearance than they admit to do.

Adam Müller: I think the statement is partially valid. The fashion awareness among men has clearly increased in the last years. Think about the growing numbers of gym members, the endless discussions about metro sexuality, etc. However the pressure is less than with women. At the end, the inner values are more important among men.

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Elena Müller: I think women learn that they have to look good in order to attain something from early childhood on. If you want the man of your dreams, you have to look attractive. It is like in fairy-tales. Women ought to be pretty whereas men ought to be successful and rich. However I believe that men will pursue the same beauty-ideals as women, 50 years ahead.

Heiko Müller: I think self-confidence is an issue in most cases. Men have more of it than women. Maybe we are a bit stronger, and thus are not as affected by messages promoted by media and co as

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women.

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APPENDIX D: QUANTITATIVE DATA GENERATED BY QUESTIONNAIRE Gender (both groups): 60% female

40% male

Age Group A: 21

21

22

22

22

23

23

24

26

27

24

24

25

26

28

28

29

30

22

22.8

22.9

23

24

24

24.5

24.6

22.4

22.9

24.5

24.8

25

25.7

26.8

Rank: {21; 27} Mean: 23.1 Median: 22.5 Mode: 22

Age Group B: 20

24

Rank {29; 30} Mean: 25.8 Median: 25.5 Mode: 24

BMI Group A: 20

21.6

Rank: {20; 24.6} Mean: 22.9

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Median: 22.95

BMI Group B: 21

22

22.23

Rank: {21; 26.8} Mean: 23.73 Median: 23.7

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Relationship status: Group A: Single: 30% (2m + 1f)

In a relationship: 70%

Group B: Single: 20% (2f)

In a relationship: 80%

How beautiful do you feel at the moment? (Group A) 2

3

3

3

3

4

4

5

5

5

4

4

5

Mean: 3.7 Median: 3.5 Mode: 3

How beautiful do you feel at the moment? (Group B) 2

3

3

4

4

4

4

Mean: 3.7 Median: 4 Mode: 4

What alters this? (Group A) Being in a relationship or not; girlfriend saying I look nice; boyfriend kissing me however I look; work stress; constant changes in the weather affecting my skin; period; weight fluxing; unhappiness; clothes; exercising (2x) Æ feeling skinnier afterwards; boyfriend; healthy eating

What alters this? (Group B) Mood; experiences; day; sport (5x); stress; friends; partner (2x); shower; compliments; hair; makeup; clothes (2x); weight loss (2x);

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How important is your own appearance to you? (Group A) 3

3

4

4

4

4

4

4

5

6

Mean: 4.1 Median: 4 Mode: 4

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How important is your own appearance to you? (Group B) 4

4

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

Mean: 4.8 Median: 5 Mode: 5

How important is it to you what other people think of your appearance? (Group A) 1

3

4

4

4

4

4

4

5

6

Mean: 3.9 Median: 4 Mode: 4

How important is it to you what other people think of your appearance? (Group B) 2

3

4

5

5

5

5

5

5

6

Mean: 4.5 Median: 5 Mode: 5

How much pressure do you think body-images in advertisements exert on you? (Group A) 1

1

1

2

3

3

3

4

4

5

Mean: 2.7 Median: 3 Mode: 1 and 3

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How much pressure do you think body-images in advertisements exert on you? (Group B) 2

2

2

2

3

3

4

4

5

5

Mean: 3.2 Median: 3 Mode: 2

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Would you wish there were more campaigns against air-brushed, skinny models in adverts in your country? (Both groups) 100 % yes

Would you publicly plead for a campaign advancing healthier body-images on adverts? Group A: 60% yes

40% no (3 out of 4 males)

Group B: 50% yes

50% no (3 out of 4 males)

Do brands using more realistic-sized models affect your view on a brand? (Group A)   

Yes I’d look at it more positively:70% Yes, I’d look at it more negatively: 0% No, not at all: 30%

Do brands using more realistic-sized models affect your view on a brand? (Group B)  

Yes I’d look at it more positively: 80% No, not at all: 20%

Favorite brands of male respondents (Group A) CK, FCUCK (2x), Hugo Boss, Playboy, Tom Baker, Charles Tyrwhitt, Nike, H&M, Adidas, A&F, Ralph Lauren, Hollister, TopMan, G-Star.

Favorite brands of male respondents (Group B) Joop; Hilfiger (3x); Bugatti; Boss (2x); VW, Samsung; Axe; Esprit; American Eagle Outfitter; Adidas; Nike, Scotch and Soda; Replay; Marc’o’Polo

Favorite brands of female respondents (Group A)

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Nivea (2x), Tresemme, Dove (4x), Loreal, Sanex, Palmers Coco Butter, No7 (2x), Herbal Essences, Benefit, Clinique, ASDA George, Asics, Lush, Long Tall Sally, Bodyform, Simply Be, Olay, St Ives, Maybelline

Favorite brands of female respondents (Group B) Lagerfeld; Estee Lauder; Zara (3x); Marc Jacobs; Mango; H&M (2x); Vero Moda (2x); S.Oliver (2x); Esprit (x); MAC; Adidas; Bershka; Tamaris (2x); Lancôme; Nivea; G-Star; Hallhuber; Victoria’s Secret

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Jobsky, Anke. The Body-Image Meaning-Transfer Model: An investigation of the sociocultural impact on individuals‘ body-image : An investigation of the sociocultural impact on