Supreme Court decisions for 1948 and 1949 with respect to public school administration

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SUPREME COURT DECISIONS FOR 194S AND 1949 WITH RESPECT TO PUBLIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

A T h e s is P r e s e n te d t o t h e F a c u lty o f th e S c h o o l o f E d u ca tio n The U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia

In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r t h e D eg ree M aster, o f _ S c ie n c e in E d u ca tio n

Raymond F r e d e r ic k E llerm an June 1950

UMI Number: EP56129

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Th is thesis, w r it te n und er the direction of the C hai rm an of the candidate’s G u id a n ce C o m m i t t e e a n d a p p r o v e d by all m e m be rs of the C o m m i t t e e , has been p r es e nt e d to an d a c c e p te d by the F acu lty of the S c h o o l o f E du c atio n of the Uni ve rsi ty of Sou ther n C alifornia in p a r t i a l fu lfi llm e nt o f the r equirements f o r the degre e of M a s t e r of Science in Ed ucation.

Dean Guidance Committee

Chairman

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.

PAGE

THE PROBLEM.................................................................. The purpose o f th e s t u d y . • • •

II.

1

.......................

3

L im it a t io n s o f th e s tu d y . « • • • • • • . • •

3

M a t e r ia ls u s e d ........................................................

5

Method o f p ro ced u re • • • • • • • • • • . • •

6

R e la te d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

................................................

7

D e f i n i t i o n o f term s ..........................................................

8

O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e rem ain in g c h a p te r s .

9

. . .

RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF PUPILS AND PARENTS............................................................................

10

Compulsory s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e ................... T r a n s p o r ta tio n o f p u p i l s ...................................... ....

.

Payment in l i e u o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ...............

12 15

T u i t i o n ............................

16

R ig h t t o a tte n d a p a r t ic u la r s c h o o l ..........

18

The s e p a r a tio n o f r a c e s f o r s c h o o l p u r p o se s.

.................................

20

V a c c i n a t i o n ...................................................................

22

R e lig io u s in s t r u c t i o n .....................................................

23

R e s i d e n c e ..........................................

23

T e x t b o o k s .........................................................................

..

24

E d u c a tio n a l p h ilo s o p h y ............................. -,V' . . . .

24

Summary

25

..............................................................

iii CHAPTER III.

PAGE

TEACHERS............................................................................

29

R equirem ents and. e l i g i b i l i t y .......................

29

S e l e c t i o n and term s o f em ploym ent.. . . . . . T e a c h e r s 1 c o n t r a c t s ...............................................

33 38

kZ

R e s ig n a t io n and abandonm ent. . . . . . . . . D isc h a r g e o f t e a c h e r s ..........................................

43

R ate or amount o f com p en sation . . . . . . . P e n sio n s . . . ......................................................... D u tie s and l i a b i l i t i e s

50 55

........................

60

Summary.................................................... IV .

6l

BOARDS OF EDUCATION, SUPERINTENDENTS, AND OTHER OFFICERS.........................

. .

P o w ers, d u t i e s , and l i a b i l i t i e s C o n tr a c tu a l a u t h o r it y .

64 in g e n e r a l .

64

...........................................

70

B id s f o r c o n t r a c t s ...............................................

V.

72

E l i g i b i l i t y and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . . . . . . .

J2

A ppointm ent o r e l e c t i o n in .g e n e r a l . . ... . •

74

L i a b i l i t y o f m e m b e r s.....................................

74

C o n s t it u t io n a l and s t a t u t o r y p r o v is i o n s . . .

75

Removal o r s u s p e n s io n ...... • • • • • • • • • .

78

Summary.

80

.................... . . . . . .

SCHOOL DISTRICTS ...................................................................

83

E s ta b lis h m e n t and d is c o n tin u a n c e o f s c h o o ls .

.....................................

R e g u la tio n and s u p e r v is io n o f s c h o o ls .

83 . . .

85

iv CHAPTER

PAGE S ta tu s , as c o r p o r a t i o n s ......................................

86

C o n s t it u t io n a l and s t a t u t o r y p r o v is i o n s . . .

8?

O r g a n iz a tio n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s

88

. ....................

92

Change o f b o u n d a r ies . ...................................... C o n s o lid a tio n . ................................................................... P e t i t i o n or c o n s e n t ...............................................

95

O rders f o r c o n s o lid a t io n or o r g a n iz a t io n . .

97

S u b m issio n o f q u e s tio n t o p o p u la r v o t e . . .

98

R eview o f p r o c e e d in g s ..........................................

101

L i a b i l i t i e s ..................................................................

103

H igh s c h o o l and graded s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s .

71.

93

. .

104

D i s s o l u t i o n ...............................................

106

Summary........................................................

108

DISTRICT DEBT, SECURITIES, ARB TAXATION.

. . .

I ll

....................

I ll

Power t o in c u r in d e b te d n e ss and e x p e n d itu r e s . . . . . . . . . .

C ustody and d isb u r sem en t o f fu n d s .............. A u th o r ity o f d i s t r i c t s t o i s s u e b o n d s. Bond e l e c t i o n s

118 . . .

120

.................................

The pow er and d u ty t o t a x . ............................

122 12?

Amount o f t a x .........................................................

129

P er so n s and p r o p e r ty l i a b l e .

131

♦ .............................

V a l i d i t y o f l e v y ....................................................

134

Tax e l e c t i o n s .............................................................

137

S ta te m e n t o f p u rp o se o f t a x ............................

140

V

CHAPTER

PAGE C o lle c t io n and e n f o r c e m e n t .......................................

141

D i s p o s i t i o n o f p ro ce ed s o f t a x e s and o th e r r e v e n u e ............................. .

V II.

. ...................

142

R ig h ts and rem ed ies o f t a x p a y e r s ........................

144

S t a t e a i d .............................................................................

146

Summary. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . .

147

DISTRICT PROPERTY , LIABILITIES, .AMD. CLAIMS AGAINST THE DISTRICT . . . . . ..................................

152

A c q u i s i t i o n , u s e , and d i s p o s i t i o n o f p r o p e r t y ............................

152

L o c a tio n o f b u i l d i n g s ..........................................

156

U se o f s c h o o l b u il d i n g s .

157

......................................

S c h o o l f u r n i t u r e , b o o k s, a p p a r a tu s , and o th e r a p p l i a n c e s .........................................................

158

T o r t s ...........................................................................................

158

R ig h ts o f a c t i o n and d e f e n s e s .

163

.............................

P r e s e n t a t io n and a llo w a n c e o f c la im s a g a in s t th e d i s t r i c t .............................

163

E v id e n c e • • • • ..............................................................

164

T r i a l ........................................... * ..........................................

166

Summary......................................................................................

16?

...........................................

170

S t a t i s t i c a l d a t a .............................................................

170

R eview o f j u d i c i a l in t e r p r e t a t io n s ...................

172

Trends

174

V I I I . SUMMARY AMD CONCLUSIONS.

*

vi CHAPTER

PAGE

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . .................................. . ..........................................

177

Prim ary

so u rces.

........................................................

17 8

G en era l

r e f e r e n c e s .................................................................

202

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM P u b lic s c h o o l a d m in is t r a t io n has become a t a s k o f utm ost p r o f e s s i o n a l im p o r ta n ce .

T o ta l e n r o llm e n t in p u b lic

s c h o o ls has in c r e a s e d from 1 4 ,5 3 9 ,2 2 8 p u p ils in 1890 t o 2 3 ,4 3 7 ,5 4 6 p u p ils in 1 9 4 6 , v e r y n e a r ly a one hundred p er c e n t in c r e a s e .

T o t a l e x p e n d itu r e s f o r a l l p u rp o ses h ave

in c r e a s e d from # 2 1 4 ,9 6 4 ,6 1 8 in 1900 t o # 4 ,1 6 7 ,5 9 7 ,1 1 0 in 1 9 4 6 , an in c r e a s e o f tw en ty t im e s .^

In a d d it io n t o t h e s e

enormous in c r e a s e s in t h e s i z e o f th e e n t e r p r i s e , sm a ll d i s t r i c t s have u n ite d t o form la r g e a d m in is t r a t iv e u n i t s .' T h ese s t a t i s t i c s

em p h asize th e ever, in c r e a s in g , im p ortan ce

o f th e s u p e r in t e n d e n t .

The s u p e r in te n d e n t sh o u ld be as w e l l

q u a l i f i e d and as w e l l inform ed o f t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s and tr e n d s in s c h o o l a d m in is t r a t io n a s any e x e c u t iv e o f any o th e r p r iv a t e b u s in e s s o f com parable s i z e . .

I t can be s a id

t h a t th e need i s even more im p e r a tiv e i n . t h e c a s e o f a s c h o o l s u p e r in te n d e n t in t h a t he i s a s e r v a n t o f th e p u b lic and i s r e q u ir e d by la w , in m ost c a s e s , t o r e p o r t p e r i o d i c a l l y on th e c o n d itio n o f t h e s c h o o ls t o th e p a tr o n s .

Edward G.

E l l i o t w r it e s :

1 U .S . O f f i c e o f E d u c a tio n , ’’B ie n n ia l. S u rvey o f Edu­ c a t i o n , 1 9 4 5 - 1 9 4 6 , ” S t a t i s t i c a l Summary o f E d u c a tio n , Chap­ t e r I . W ashington B .C . Government P r in t in g O f f i c e . , pp.. 6 - 3 5 .

At no p o in t may th e s c h o o l h e more p r o f ita b ly ., s& ud ied, a s a s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l in s tr u m e n t, than th rou gh th e j u d i c i a l d e te r m in a tio n o f i t s r i g h t s and i t s l i m i t a t i o n s . E s p e c i a l l y i s t h i s , tr u e in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w ith each o f th e s t a t e s o f th e U nion p o s s e s s i n g .a s o v e r e ig n a u t h o r it y o v e r e d u c a t io n .2 D isa g reem en ts w hich rea ch th e v a r io u s, s t a t e c o u r ts a r e m ost o f t e n b a sed on s t a t u t e s w hich o r i g i n a l l y w ere n o t w r it t e n c l e a r l y o r in w hich t h e i n t e n t , o f t h e l e g i s l a t o r s i s q u e s tio n a b le o r d e b a ta b le .

I t i s im p ortan t t h a t a d m in i­

s t r a t o r s know t h e c o u r t s 1 in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f t h e s e s t a t u t e s as a g u id e t o w is e a c t io n . A la r g e p a r t o f th e la w o f e v e r y s t a t e has b e e n d e t e r ­ m ined by j u d i c i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , rather., th a n . l e g i s l a t i o n . I t w ould b e im p o s s ib le f o r s t a t u t e s t o co v e r ev e ry s i t u a t i o n t h a t may a r i s e .

C ourts o f t e n look , t o e a r l i e r d e c i s io n s o f

n o t o n ly t h e i r o w n .s t a t e b u t e v e r y s t a t e i n . t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and by th u s d o in g , m a in ta in , a r e a s o n a b le d eg re e o f c o n fo r m ity . In as much, a s e d u c a tio n i s a lm o st e x c l u s i v e l y a s t a t e and l o c a l f u n c t io n , i t i s e x c e e d in g ly im portan t, t h a t t h o s e who a r e r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e d evelopm en t of. t h i s . a s p e c t o f our s o c ia l l i f e

in t h e s e v e r a l s t a t e s o f th e U nion b e f u l l y a c ­

q u a in ted w ith what i s b e in g s a i d and done by our. c o u r ts a l l o v er th e co u n tr y in in t e r p r e t in g th e la w .

2 Edward C. E l l i o t , The F i r s t Yearbook o f . S c h o o l Law . E d ite d and p u b lis h e d by M.M. Chambers. Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Columbus, O h io . 1 9 3 3 . Forew ord.

3 The n u rp ose o f t h e s t u d y #

The p u rp ose o f t h e stu d y

i s t o c o l l e c t , t o d i g e s t , and t o p r e s e n t a n a r r a t iv e summary o f d e c i s io n s o f t h e h ig h e r c o u r ts , in a l l th e s t a t e s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s o f. A m erica , th e D i s t r i c t o f. C olum bia, and p o s­ s e s s i o n s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s in c a s e s in v o lv in g .s c h o o l la w , as r e p o r te d d u rin g t h e ca len d a r , y e a r s 1948 and 1949*

S p e c ia l

em phasis i s p la c e d on j u d i c i a l in t e r p r e t a t io n s as th e y r e l a t e t o in c r e a s e d e f f i c i e n c y in s c h o o l a d m in is tr a tio n , and o b v io u s tr e n d s in t h e . i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p r o b le m s .in p u b lic , .ed u cation# An a tte m p t w i l l b e made t o d eterm in e, t h e a rea s, o f s c h o o l a d m in is t r a t io n in which, l i t i g a t i o n i s m ost l i k e l y . t o appear# I t i s hoped t h a t a handy r e f e r e n c e . gu id e.m a y be p ro ­ v id e d f o r s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s , more a c c e s s i b l e and w r it t e n in a more u n d e r sta n d a b le la n g u a g e than . th e. more t e c h n ic a l and volu m inou s r e p o r ts in th e Law L ib rary# L im it a t io n s o f t h i s s t u d y .

T h is stu d y i s l im it e d t o

a s y s t e m a t ic su rv e y of. the. o p in io n s and d e c is io n s , o f th e c o u r ts o f l a s t r e s o r t in a l l th e s t a t e s o f th e . U n ite d S t a t e s o f A m erica in c a s e s in v o lv in g s c h o o l: law d u rin g t h e c a le n d a r y e a r s 1948 and 1 9 4 9 .

C ases co n cern in g , p r iv a t e s c h o o ls .,. c o l ­

l e g e s , and u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e n o t in clu d ed #

In m ost s t a t e s ,

c o u r ts o f l a s t r e s o r t a r e th e S t a t e Supreme C o u r ts, h ow ever, s o m e .s t a t e s have c r e a te d d i s t r i c t - a p p e l l a t e , c o u r ts t o a s s i s t h a n d lin g th e o v e r lo a d on th e.S u p rem e C o u r ts.

O p in io n s o f

t h e s e d i s t r i c t c o u r ts a r e r e p o r te d . I t sh o u ld b e remembered t h a t a g r e a t number o f t h e s e c a s e s w ere judged on th e b a s is o f v a r io u s s t a t e s t a t u t e s , and may appear t o h ave m e r e ly .lo c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .

One m ust n o t

assum e t h a t a d e c i s i o n in one s t a t e w i l l , n e c e s s a r i l y , s e t th e p o l i c y f o r t h e n a t io n a lth o u g h i t i s v ery l i k e l y t h a t i t may e x e r c is e in f l u e n c e beyond s t a t e b o u n d a ries..

E l l i o t ^ makes

th e o b s e r v a tio n , t h a t , "The d e f i n i t i o n s o f th e . r i g h t s and d u t ie s o f th e few under our. l e g a l sy ste m e a s i l y become th e d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e r i g h t s and d u t ie s .o f th e..m an y.”... T h is stu d y i s meant t o g iv e one a. c l e a r e r c o n c e p tio n o f a c c e p te d p r a c t ic e s in th e s e v e r a l s t a t e s and t o b e h e l p f u l . i n . t h e g u id a n ce o f one in h i s own problem s a s w e ll, a s in .the con ­ t i n u a l f i g h t f o r b e t t e r s t a t e s c h o o l, law s in w hich th e ad­ m in is t r a t o r s th e m s e lv e s must b e le a d e r s .

O p in io n s .c a n n o t

th e n be a c c e p te d p e r s e b u t p r i n c i p l e s e s t a b l i s h e d . w i l l b e h e lp f u l in so f a r as th e y a r e a p p lic a b le t o o n e ’s own p e c u lia r s i t u a t i o n . T here w i l l . b e no a ttem p t t o make a h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y , how ever com p arison s o f methods., and p r a c t i c e s c h a n g e s o f o p in i o n s , and tr e n d s w i l l b e .n o te d when p o s s i b l e . A ls o no a tte m p t w i l l , be made t o r e v ie w a l l t h e . r e c e n t ­ l y e n a c te d s t a t u t e s . .

T h is would be e n t i r e l y to o ,v o lu m in o u s

3 E llio t , lo o , c i t .

5 f o r t h e p u rp ose o f t h i s s t u d y .

R e fe r e n c e i s made t o s t a t u t e s

o n ly as th e y a r e in v o lv e d in j u d i c i a l in t e r p r e t a t io n s * M a t e r ia ls u s e d .

The N a tio n a l R ep o rter System ^ was used

a lm o st e x c l u s i v e l y a s a s o u r c e o f in fo r m a tio n .

D e c is io n s o f

c o u r ts o f h ig h e s t a p p e a l in each o f th e f o r t y - e i g h t s t a t e s , D i s t r i c t o f C olum bia, and p o s s e s s io n s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s a r e r e p o r te d in t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n . . . S e c o n d a r y .s o u r c e s u sed w ere two te x tb o o k s , one .w r it t e n , by. Newton. Edw ards?.and th e o th e r by H a m ilto n .a n d M ort. ^

In a d d it io n t o t h e s e .t e x t b o o k s ,

s t u d ie s com p leted by H a rd in g ? , L in ley ^ * C asey ^ , and O g le10 ^ N a tio n a l R ep o rter S y stem (S a in t P aul.. M in n eso ta: W est P u b lis h in g Company). ? Newt on Edwards , The C ourts and th e P u b lic S..ohoo 1 s : The L e g a l B a s is o f S c h o o l 0 r g a n lz a t io n . and A d m in is tr a tio n (C h icago: U n iv e r s it y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 4 0 )., 591 p p . 6 R. H am ilton and P . M ort. The Lav/ and P u b lic . Educa­ t i o n (C h icago: The F ou n d ation P r e s s , I n c . 1 9 4 1 ) , 579 p p . 7 G eorge C. H a rd in g , ’’Supreme Court D e c is io n s f o r 1929 and 1930 w ith R e sp e c t t o S c h o o l A d m in is t r a t io n ,” (un­ p u b lis h e d M a s te r 's t h e s i s , U n iv e r s it y o f S o u t h e r n .C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g e le s , 1 9 3 2 ) , 99 pp. ® J . M. L i n l e y , ’’Supreme Court D e c is io n s f o r 1 9 3 1 , 1 9 3 2 , and 1933 w ith R esp ec t to . E d u ca tio n a l. A d m in is tr a tio n ,!1 (un­ p u b lis h e d M a s te r 's t h e s i s , U n iv e r s it y o f S o u t h e r n ,C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g e le s , 1 9 3 4 ) , 116 pp. 9 g . D. C a sey , "Supreme, Court D e c is io n s f o r 1 9 3 4 , 1 9 3 5 , and 1936 w ith R e sp e c t t o E d u c a tio n a l A d m in is t r a t io n ,” (un­ p u b lis h e d M a s te r ’ s t h e s i s , U n iv e r s it y , o f . S ou th ern . C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g e les., 1 9 3 7 ) , 143 pp. W. H. O g le , "Supreme Court D e c is io n s f o r 1934 and 1935 w ith R e sp e c t t o P u b lic S c h o o l A d m in is tr a tio n ," (unpub­ l i s h e d M a s te r ’ s t h e s i s . . U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g e le s , 1 9 3 9 ) , 274 p p .

a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia w ere u sed when ap­ p l i c a b l e t o t h i s stu d y as a b a s i s f o r com parison t o d eterm in e p o s s i b l e ch an ges o r tr e n d s in j u d i c i a l in t e r p r e t a t io n s * Method o f p r o c e d u r e *

The c a s e s w hich have b een d e­

c id e d d u rin g th e c a le n d a r y e a r s 1948 and 1949 w ere c o l l e c t e d and t o p i c a l l y g ro u p ed . th e stu d y .

T hese g ro u p in g s form th e c h a p te r s o f

Each c a s e was read and a n a ly z e d w ith t h e i n t e n t

t o d eterm in e th e f a c t s o f th e c a s e , th e o p in io n s w h ich a f f e c t ­ ed th e d e c i s i o n , th e p r in c i p l e o f s c h o o l law in v o lv e d , com­ p a r is o n w ith o th e r s i m i l a r c a s e s in t h i s s t u d y , and th e f i n a l d e c is io n .

F r e q u e n tly t h e a u th o r a ttem p ted t o p o in t ou t im­

p l i c a t i o n s w ith reg a rd t o s c h o o l a d m in is t r a t o r s .

A t t h e end

o f each c h a p te r t h e r e i s a summary o f th e im p o rta n t d e c i s io n s w ith a n o t a t io n a s t o th e s t a t e in w h ich su ch d e c i s i o n was made and th e page in t h e t e x t upon w hich t h a t p a r t ic u la r c a s e was d is c u s s e d . In th e p r o c e s s o f co n d en sin g and a b s t r a c t in g , i t i s q u it e p o s s i b l e t h a t a few e r r o r s w ere made o r t h a t an om is­ s io n o f some s e e m in g ly unim p ortant f a c t m ight change th e e n t i r e o p in io n .

T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r l y tr u e in a s much as t h e

common v e r n a c u la r was s u b s t it u t e d fo r t h e more e x a c t l e g a l te r m in o lo g y and p h r a s e o lo g y .

For t h i s r e a so n c a r e has. b een

ta k e n to in c lu d e t h e c i t a t i o n o f e v e r y c a s e d is c u s s e d . c i t a t i o n s have b e e n l i s t e d

T hese

in t h e b ib lio g r a p h y in t h e o rd er

in w hich th e e a s e s a p p e a r .in t h e c h a p te r s .

T hus, r e a d e r s

a r e a b le t o c o n s u lt th e prim ary s o u r c e w hen.an a d d it io n o r v e r i f i c a t i o n to th e m a t e r ia l h e r e p r e s e n te d i s d e s ir e d f o r t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r problem . R e la te d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ..

T here a r e many s t u d i e s r e ­

l a t i n g t o s p e c i f i c a r e a s o f s c h o o l.a d m in i s t r a t i o n ..

T h is

stu d y d i f f e r s s l i g h t l y from t h o s e in t h a t t h i s i s an. a ttem p t t o c o n s id e r a l l a s p e c t s o f s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r w hich t h e r e was ca u se f o r l i t i g a t i o n . .

T h ere.h a v e, b een fo u r su ch

s t u d i e s co m p leted a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , one by G. C. H ard in g-^ w h ich c o v e r s t h e y e a r s 1929 a n d .1 9 3 0 , and a n o th e r by L in le y 1 9 3 2 , and 1933*

l2

whose stu d y c o v e r s t h e . y e a r s 1 9 3 1 ,

Casey^^ made a s tu d y o f th e Supreme Court

c a s e s w hich w ere r e p o r te d d u rin g th e y e a r s 1 9 3 4 , 1 9 3 5 , and 1 9 3 6 , and O gle * sl^ su r v e y r e p e a te d t h e years. 1934 a n d .1935* T h is work is. a c o n t in u a t io n o f t h o s e fo u r , s u r v e y s . When changes, o f o p in io n o r tr e n d s in th e t h in k in g , o f .c o u r t s a re o b v io u s , t h e s e com parisons w ith , e a r l i e r s t u d i e s a r e n o te d . I f p r i n c i p l e s in v o lv e d have rem ained s u b s t a n t i a lly , unchanged

11 H a rd in g , l o c . c i t . . 12 L i n l e y , l o c . c i t .

8 th ro u g h th e y e a r s , com p arison s w it h e a r l i e r . s t u d i e s , a re o m it­ te d . D e f i n i t i o n o f te r m s. q u e n tly .

A few l e g a l term s are. u sed f r e ­

The r e a d e r w i l l f in d i t ad v a n ta g eo u s t o keep in

mind th e f o llo w in g - d e f in it io n s : Dem urrer.

A p le a d in g by a p a r ty t o an. a c t i o n ,. w h ich ,

assum ing th e t r u t h o f th e m a tte r a l l e g e d by. th e. o p p o s it e p a r t y , s e t s up t h a t i t

i s i n s u f f i c i e n t . in.. law . t o s u s t a i n h is

c la im , o r t h a t th e r e , i s some oth er, d e f e c t on th e .fa c e o f th e p le a d in g s c o n s t it u t in g , a l e g a l , r e a so n w h y .th e o p p o sin g p a r ty sh o u ld n o t be a llo w e d t o p roceed , f u r t h e r . Mandamus..

A common-law w rit, is s u e d , by a s u p e r io r

c o u r t and d ir e c t e d t o some i n f e r i o r t r i b u n a l , or t o some c o r p o r a tio n o r p e r s o n , to. e n fo r c e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f some p u b lic d u ty . L a c h e s.

M e g le c t t o do a t h in g a t th e p ro p er tim e;

undue d e la y in a s s e r t i n g . a r i g h t , o r in c la im in g or a sk in g fa r a p r iv ile g e . I n j u n c t io n .

An e q u it a b le w r it o r p r o c e s s , g r a n te d by

a co u rt o f e q u i t y , w hereby a p a r ty i s r e q u ir e d t o . do o r t o r e f r a in from d o in g c e r t a in a c t s ,. a c c o r d in g t o t h e e x ig e n c y o f th e w r it o r p r o c e s s . B i l l o f A t t a in d e r .

A l e g i s l a t i v e a c t w hich i n f l i c t s

punishm ent w ith o u t a j u d i c i a l t r i a l .

9 O r g a n iz a tio n , of. .the rem a in in g c h a p te r s .

C hapter I I

w i l l in c lu d e c a s e s a f f e c t i n g p u p ils and p a r e n ts b u t w i l l e x c lu d e t o r t s .

T ort c a s e s w ill_ .b e. d is c u s s e d in a l a t e r chap­

t e r c o n c e r n in g th e l i a b i l i t y

o f sch o o l d i s t r i c t s .-

C hapter I I I

w i l l in c lu d e a d is c u s s i o n o f t e a c h e r s * r i g h t s and., r e s p o n s ib ilitie s .

C hapter IV w i l l .p r e s e n t c a s e s w ith .r e fe r e n c e t o

b oard s o f ed u ca tio n .,. s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a n d _o th e r, o f f i c e r s co n n ected w ith th e o p e r a t io n . o f. s c h o o l governm ent a n d . a f f a i r s . C hapter V w i l l r e f e r t o t h e o r g a n iz a t io n ,, c o n s o l i d a t i o n , and t h e l e g a l s t a tu s , o f s c h o o l .d i s t r i c t s . . C hapter. VX w i l l p r e ­ s e n t an a n a ly s is o f c o u r t .c a s e s w hich r e l a t e to . d i s t r i c t d e b t, s e c u r i t i e s , and t a x a t i o n .

C h a p ter V II w i l l be a stu d y o f

c a s e s w ith r e s p e c t t o d i s t r i c t p r o p e r ty , l i a b i l i t i e s , and c la im s a g a i n s t .. t h e d i s t r i c t . . . . The . f i n a l c h a p te r , C hapter V III w i l l in c lu d e a p r e s e n t a t io n o f s t a t i s t i c s t o in c lu d e th e number o f c a s e s in each s t a t e , th e problem s m ost p r e v a le n t in each s t a t e , t h e problem s o f s c h o o l a d m in is t r a t io n w hich a r i s e m ost o f t e n , and g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s .- No...a tte m p t w i l l b e made t o r e p e a t th e su m m a riza tio n s w hich have been, made a t th e ends o f t h e v a r io u s c h a p te r s . The b ib lio g r a p h y , w i l l in c lu d e a c o n s e c u t iv e l i s t i n g , by c h a p t e r s , o f a l l . t h e co u rt c a s e s r e fe r r e d t o i n , t h i s s t u d y , w ith th e page r e f e r e n c e s in d ic a t e d so t h a t c a s e s - d i s c u s s e d in v a r io u s c h a p te r s may be e f f i c i e n t l y , l o c a t e d .

CHAPTER II RIGHTS AMD RESPONSIBILITIES OP PUPILS AND PARENTS The co n cep t o f f r e e e d u c a tio n has undergone a r e l a ­ t i v e l y im p ortan t ch a n g e.

What fo r m e r ly was c o n s id e r e d an

o p p o r tu n ity , t o he a c c e p te d o r r e je c t e d , as one w ish e d , i s now a m andatory d u ty im posed by t h e s t a t e upon a l l c h ild r e n . T h is r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f th in k in g s h a s b een .a cco m p a n ied by a g r e a t amount o f a c t i o n in th e c o u r t s .

I t i s in te r e s tin g to

n o te t h a t p u p ils * r i g h t s have., r e c e iv e d much l e s s , a t t e n t i o n in th e c o u r ts th a n h ave any. o th e r a r e a s o f s c h o o l.a d m in is ­ t r a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e a r e a s c o n c e r n in g money.

T h is...is one

i n d i c a t i o n . t h a t p e o p le o f t e n th in k o f c o s t f i r s t and v a lu e r e c e i v e d , se c o n d .

T h is may n o t be an e n t i r e l y f a i r com pari­

s o n , h ow ever, a s a c t i v i t i e s co n c e r n in g th e p u p ils , a r e con­ f in e d t o a narrow er and more d e fin e d a r e a .th a n a re su ch m at­ t e r s a s t a x a t i o n , change o f b o u n d a r ie s , bond i s s u e s and o t h e r s . Compulsory s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e .

E very s t a t e in th e

U n ite d S t a t e s has la w s co n ce rn in g com pulsory s e h o o l'.a tt e n d ­ ance.

Though th e F o u r te e n th Amendment of. th e U n it e d .S t a t e s

C o n s t it u t io n g u a r a n te e s in d iv id u a l l i b e r t y , com pulsory s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e has been, found t o be w it h in th e power o f th e s t a t e s t o prom ote t h e g e n e r a l w e lf a r e o f . t h e c i t i z e n r y and n o t in v i o l a t i o n o f th e C o n s t it u t io n .

"E xcept in v e r y u n u su al

c a s e s , no e x c e p tio n sh o u ld , be made t o t h e req u irem en t t h a t

11 c h ild r e n s h a l l b e ta u g h t in s c h o o l.

I f t h e c h ild r e n a re a b le

to a tte n d s c h o o l w ith o u t v ery g r e a t in c o n v e n ie n c e , o r danger t o t h e i r h e a lt h and s a f e t y , th e y sh o u ld -b e r e q u ir e d t o do s o . ”^ In V ir g in ia t h r e e f a t h e r s w ere f in e d f i v e d o l l a r s each f o r v i o l a t i o n o f the. com pulsory e d u c a tio n la w .

T h e s e .c h ild ­

ren w ere ta u g h t by t h e i r p a r e n ts who r e f u s e d . t o send t h e i r c h ild r e n t o s c h o o l b e c a u se o f t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s .

Hone

o f th e p a r e n ts had met th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f th e s t a t e board or had b een approved a s te a c h e r s by th e d i v i s i o n s u p e r in t e n ­ d e n t.

The c o u r t rea so n ed t h a t no amounts o f r e l i g i o u s , f e r v o r

one may e n t e r t a in in o p p o s it io n t o a d eq u ate in s t r u c t i o n sh o u ld be a llo w e d t o work a l i f e - l o n g in ju r y t o h i s c h i l d n o r sh o u ld h e , f o r t h i s r e l i g i o u s r e a s o n , be a llo w e d t o i n f l i c t a n o th e r illite r a te

c i t i z e n on h i s community or h i s s t a t e . 2

An In d ia n a farm er, who was a member o f th e r e l i g i o u s s e c t known as t h e Old Order o f Amish M e n n o n ite s, r e fu s e d t o send h i s s o n , age fo u r te e n .a n d _ a n . e ig h t h g r a d e -g r a d u a te , t o a h ig h s c h o o l in an a d j o i n i n g . to w n sh ip ,.... He con ten d ed , t h a t he c o u ld n o t b e . p r o s e c u te d on t h e g r o u n d s .th a t, t h e r e was no h ig h s c h o o l in t h e to w n sh ip in. w hich he r e s id e d and a l s o t h a t i t i s one o f t h e t e n e t s o f h is church th a t, c h ild r e n , s h a l l n o t r e c e i v e h ig h e r e d u c a tio n but. s h a ll- d is c o n t in u e ., t h e i r

tio n

1 R. H am ilton and P . M o rt,. The Law. and P u b lic . Educa­ (C h icago: The F o u n d a tio n P r e s s , I n c .. 1941)> P« 4&3.

2 R e fe r e n c e s t o c o u r t cases~ in C hapter I I a r e l i s t e d on p age 178

12 e d u c a tio n a t t h e c o n c lu s io n o f t h e e ig h t h g r a d e .

T h is con­

t e n t io n c o s t him a f i n e o f two hundred d o l l a r s and a. 6 0 -d a y s e n t e n c e t o th e In d ia n a S t a t e Farm .3 A g i r l , fo u r te e n y e a r s o f a g e , in fo r m e d .h e r p r in c ip a l t h a t sh e in te n d e d t o m arry.

On

t h e seco n d d a y , when sh e d id

n o t r e tu r n t o s c h o o l, h e r e p o r te d th e m a tte r o f h er. a b sen ce a s r e q u ir e d by la w .

A ch a rg e was m ade.by t h e p r o b a tio n o f ­

f i c e r t h a t sh e was a tr u a n t, and s h e was tafcen i n t o c u sto d y in a J u v e n ile D e te n tio n home. . The f o llo w in g Sunday sh e was r e le a s e d t o a tte n d ch u rch , w ith a p rom ise, t o r e t u r n . l a t e r t h a t d ay.

I n s t e a d sh e g o t m a rried .

The c o u r t *s o p in io n :

A 14 y e a r o ld m a rried woman was n o t a " c h ild ” under p a r e n t a l c o n t r o l and.w as n o t am enable to com pulsory s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e law and h en ce co u ld n o t b e .d e t a in e d in J u v e n ile D e te n tio n Home fo r. tr u a n c y . She n o t o n ly had th e r i g h t , b u t was r e q u ir e d t o . l i v e w ith .h e r . husband a t t h e i r m a tr im o n ia l d o m ic ile and t o f o llo w him .w herever he ch o se t o r e s i d e and. co u ld n o t be d e ta in e d in J u v e n ile D e t e n tio n H om e.for truancy.** Trans p o r t a t io n o f p u p i l s .

flThe c o u r ts have u n if o r a ly

s u s t a in e d th e a u t h o r it y o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e t o e n a c t l e g i s ­ l a t i o n p r o v id in g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .” 5 « in th e a b se n c e o f e x p r e ss l e g i s l a t i v e a u t h o r iz a t i o n , th e overw helm ing w e ig h t o f a u th o r­ i t y i s t h a t s c h o o l fu n d s may n o t b e u sed f o r t r a n s p o r t a t io n p u r p o s e s .” 0

In th e p a s t two y e a r s ab out one t h ir d o f th e

5 Hewton Edw ards, The C ourts and, t h e P u b l i c .S c h o o ls : The L e g a l B a s is o f S c h o o l O r g a n iz a tio n and A d m in is tr a tio n (C h ic a g o : U n iv e r s it y o f C hicago P r e s s., 1 9 4 0 ) , p . 520 6 R# H am ilton and P . M0r t , o p . c i t . . p . 219

13 c o u r t c a s e s which, w ere co n cern ed w ith t h e .p u p i l w ere cau sed by t r a n s p o r t a t io n d i f f i c u l t i e s . The N orth D akota Supreme Court d e c id e d t h a t th e ..s c h o o l board was o b lig a t e d t o fu r n is h , a d e q u a te , c o n v e n ie n t., and p rop er s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s , in c lu d in g t r a n s p o r t a t io n , f o r ev ery c h ild o f s c h o o l age, in th e d i s t r i c t , when i t c lo s e d i t s own d i s t r i c t s c h o o l b e c a u se t h e a v er a g e d a i l y a tte n d a n c e, was l e s s th an s i x . p u p i l s f o r t e n ..c o n s e c u t iv e d a y s .7

Q u ite s i m i l a r t o

t h i s c a s e in la w , b u t w ith s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t im p l i c a t i o n s , was th e A rkansas Supreme Court d e c is io n ..a u t h o r iz in g , a c t io n o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in c lo s in g , a w h ite s c h o o l, and .t r a n s p o r t ­ in g th e d i s t r i c t ’ s gra d e s c h o o l w h ite c h ild r e n t o a n o th e r d i s t r i c t w h ile k e e p in g t h r e e N egro s c h o o ls o p en .^ At an an n u al d i s t r i c t s c h o o l m e e tin g in W is c o n s in , e l e c t o r s v o te d a g a in s t f u r n is h in g t r a n s p o r t a t io n to . h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n ts t o a tte n d a h ig h s c h o o l in a n o th er d i s t r i c t .

N o t­

w ith s ta n d in g t h i s v o t e , th e s c h o o l, d i s t r i c t . b o a r d l e g a l l y v o te d t o f u r n is h t r a n s p o r t a t io n and th e d i s t r i c t was o b l i g a t ­ ed t o pay f o r th e t r a n s p o r t a t io n .

..The power t o c o n tr a c t and

c r e a t e a l i a b i l i t y a g a in s t t h e d i s t r i c t has ...been g iv e n t o t h e d i s t r i c t s c h o o l b o a r d .9 The Supreme Court o f N ebraska, h e ld . t h a t , a f a t h e r had ca u se f o r a c t i o n in demanding reim bursem ent c o s t s fo r . t r a n s ­ p o r t in g h i s c h ild r e n , t o s c h o o l.

The t r i a l , c o u r t was in e r r o r

in s u s t a in i n g t h e d e f e n d a n t ’s d e m u r r e r . T h i s l i t i g a t i o n was

14 ca u sed by th e n e c e s s i t y o f c h ild r e n g o in g t o some o th e r d i s t r i c t t o a tte n d s c h o o l by r e a so n o f. th e. f a c t t h a t th e e n r o llm e n t in th e home s c h o o l dropped b elo w f i v e and th e s c h o o l was s u b s e q u e n tly c l o s e d .

The N ebraska s c h o o ls code

p r o v id e s t h a t when a s c h o o l i s c lo s e d f o r la c k o f e n r o llm e n t, t h e board may u se s c h o o l funds t o p r o v id e f o r t r a n s p o r t a t io n o f p u p ils t o o t h e r d i s t r i c t s . * ^ T h is i s p ro b a b ly a c a s e , where may means s h a l l . I n a G eo rg ia s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n ts w ere g iv e n bus t r a n s p o r t a t io n , t o a c e r ta in ., in d ep en d en t s c h o o l. Grammar s c h o o l s t u d e n t s r e c e iv e d t r a n s p o r t a t io n t o .a n d from th e l o c a l d i s t r i c t s c h o o l .

G e n ia l by t h e cou n ty board o f

e d u c a tio n o f bus t r a n s p o r t a t io n t o grammar s c h o o l s t u d e n t s who d e s ir e d t o a tte n d t h e . in d ep en d en t, s c h o o l was n o t .a n ab u se o f d i s c r e t i o n d e s p it e t h e .c l a i m t h a t s u c h .s t u d e n t s w ould be d e p r iv e d o f g r e a t e r e d u c a t io n a l a d v a n ta g e s,

isven. where. gram­

mar s c h o o l s t u d e n ts and h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s l i v e d in t h e same h ou se or on th e same r o a d , . th e board was u p h eld in i t s r e f u s a l t o p r o v id e t r a n s p o r t a t io n f o r grammar s c h o o l s tu d e n ts t o th e in d ep en d en t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . H I t was a l l e g e d by c e r t a in t a x p a y e r s , t h a t .the s c h o o lboard was d is c r im in a t o r y i n la y in g o u t a b u s .r o u t e s o . t h a t some s t u d e n t s had t o w alk a s h ig h as t w o . m i l e s t o a p o in t a t w hich th e y w e r e .p ic k e d up and o th e r s tu d e n ts w ere p ic k e d up r i g h t in f r o n t o f t h e i r h o u s e s .,

The. s c h o o l d i s t r i c t was

15 f i n a n c i a l l y u n a b le t o g i v e b e t t e r s e r v i c e u n le s s th e s c h o o l term was s h o r te n e d .

The o p in io n o f t h e c o u r t was t h a t i t

was w ith o u t power t o c o n t r o l th e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l board when i t was a p p aren t t h a t th e . board had e x e r c is e d hon­ e s t y in p la n n in g t h e bus s c h e d u le s and t h a t any .d is c r im in a ­ t i o n was u n i n t e n t i o n a l . ! 2 The d r iv e r o f a s c h o o l bus was found t o be n e g lig e n t by t h e Supreme Court o f W is c o n s in .

More im p ortan t th an t h e

d e c i s io n o f th e c a s e , w ith r e s p e c t t o t h i s s t u d y , a re s e v e r a l p o in t s o f law or p r i n c i p l e s t h a t w ere made c l e a r .

A few a r e :

1 . A • s c h o o l b u s • i s a m otor v e h i c l e f o r t r a n s p o r t ­ in g s c h o o l c h ild r e n to and from s c h o o l and r e g u la t io n s f o r t h e i r o p e r a tio n a p p ly t o p r i v a t e l y owned b u se s o p er­ a t in g under arrangem ent w ith p a r e n ts o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t as w e ll as t h o s e o p e r a tin g u n d e r .c o n tr a c t w ith t h e s c h o o l d is tr ic t. 2 . Where s c h o o l c h ild r e n have r e c e n t ly r e c e iv e d f u l l in s t r u c t i o n s as to c a r e t h a t sh o u ld be e x e r c is e d in c r o s ­ s in g road a f t e r le a v in g s c h o o l, bus , t h e r e i s no need t o r e p e a t such, i n s t r u c t i o n s each tim e a c h ild i s d isc h a r g e d from b u s. 3 . Bus d r iv e r must s to p so t h a t c h ild r e n w i l l be a b le t o c r o s s road in f r o n t o f b u s. 4 . Bus d r iv e r m ust w a it u n t i l c h ild r e n have c r o s s e d t h e ro a d . 5 . Bus d r iv e r can n ot d is c h a r g e h i s o b l i g a t i o n s by o c c a s io n a l i n s t r u c t i o n s as to th e manner o f p ro ce d u re . 6 . Bus d r iv e r must o b lig e c h ild r e n t o walk, in f r o n t o f bus as th e y c r o s s t h e r o a d .l> Payment in l i e u o f t r a n s p o r t a t io n .

I t i s g e n e r a lly

con ceded t h a t reim bursem ent o f c o s t s f o r th e t r a n s p o r t a t io n

16 o f o n e fs own c h ild r e n i s w it h in th e la w .

H ow ever, a s c h o o l

h o a rd , a c c o r d in g t o th e Iowa Supreme C o u rt, can n ot f o r c e a p a r e n t to a c c e p t payment in l i e u o f t r a n s p o r t a t io n .

The

f a t h e r o f fo u r c h ild r e n , l i v i n g in a d i s t r i c t w here th e s c h o o l was c l o s e d , r e fu s e d t o c o n t r a c t w ith t h e s c h o o l... hoard f o r th e t r a n s p o r t a t io n o f h i s c h ild r e n ..

He d e m a n d e d .tr a n sp o r ta tio n

and t h e s c h o o l hoard r e fu s e d o n .t h e grounds t h a t i t was im­ p o s s i b l e t o a rra n g e f o r t r a n s p o r t a t io n . pay him t o tr a n s p o r t h i s own c h ild r e n .

They w o u ld , how ever, In th e words o f th e

c o u r t: The s c h o o l d i s t r i c t must p r o v id e t r a n s p o r t a t io n f o r a l l s c h o o l c h ild r e n e n t i t l e d . t h e r e t o under s t a t u t e and i t was no e x c u s e t h a t f a t h e r o f some - c h ild r e n , r e fu s e d t o c o n t r a c t w ith d i s t r i c t t o tr a n s p o r t h i s c h ild r e n or t h a t , in v iew o f su ch r e f u s a l , t r a n s p o r t a t io n o f su ch c h ild r e n w ould he c o s t l y and burdensom e t o th e d i s t r i c t .3*4 T u it io n .

The sy ste m o f f r e e p u b lic e d u c a tio n in t h e

U n ite d S t a t e s has r u le d out any p o s s i b i l i t y o f ch a rg in g t u i t i o n a s s u c h , a lth o u g h t h e ch a r g in g o f r e a s o n a b le i n c i ­ d e n t a l f e e s has b een u p h eld by c o u r ts in .so m e s t a t e s .

D if­

f i c u l t i e s a r i s e when p u p ils le a v e th e d i s t r i c t in w hich t h e i r p a r e n ts l i v e , to a t te n d s c h o o ls e ls e w h e r e .

Though p u b lic

s c h o o ls b e lo n g t o th e s t a t e , p u p ils a re e x p e c te d t o a tte n d th e s c h o o l p ro v id ed in t h e i r own d i s t r i c t and a r e n o t a llo w ­ ed t o a tte n d any o th e r s c h o o l u n le s s a p p r o p r ia te p r o v is io n s h ave b een made w hereby th e y may a tte n d e ls e w h e r e . In o rd er t h a t t h e i r c h ild r e n m igh t b e n e f i t , w ith o u t

17 t h e payment o f t u i t i o n , from b e t t e r s c h o o ls lo c a t e d in a nearby town w hich was in a n o th e r c o u n ty , th e p a r e n ts o f c e r ­ t a in . c h ild r e n r e n te d a room in t h a t town a n d . s l e p t t h e r e , c la im in g t h a t a s t h e i r d o m ic ile . t h e farm in th e o t h e r c o u n ty .

The c h ild r e n rem ained on

E v id e n c e s u s t a in e d f in d in g

t h a t t h e d o m ic ile o f th e c h ild r e n was. in th e c o u n ty . in w hich t h e farm was lo c a t e d even though th e p a r e n ts moved i n t o tow n , r e c e iv e d m a il t h e r e , v o te d t h e r e a s r e s i d e n t s , and th e fa m ily a t e in t h e f a t h e r ' s r e s t a u r a n t .

The r e f u s a l t o a llo w s c h o o l­

in g w ith o u t t u i t i o n , was p ro p e r . A p erso n h as b u t one d o m ic ile . To a c c o m p lis h a change o f d o m ic ile t h e r e must be th e i n t e n t io n t o abandon th e o ld d o m ic ile , th e i n t e n t i o n t o a c q u ir e .a n e w .o n e , and r e s id e n c e in th e new p l a c e . 15 P r io r t o 1 9 4 7 , c h ild r e n w hose p a r e n ts w ere employed in t h e D i s t r i c t o f Columbia c o u ld a tte n d D i s t r i c t p u b lic s c h o o ls f r e e o f c h a r g e .

In 1 9 4 7 , C ongress w ithd rew t h i s

p r i v i l e g e by a r e s t r i c t i o n on th e a p p r o p r ia t io n , o r d e r in g t h a t t h e a p p r o p r ia tio n be u sed f o r f r e e i n s t r u c t i o n o f o n ly t h o s e p u p ils who l i v e in t h e D i s t r i c t o f Columbia and t h o s e 16 a lr e a d y e n r o lle d on th e e f f e c t i v e d a te o f th e o r d e r . A c a s e in W isc o n sin g iv e s us a r u lin g c o n ce rn in g t h e e f f e c t i v e d a te o f an. amended s t a t u t e r a i s i n g th e. t u i t i o n r a t e s . The c o u r t d e c id e d t h a t, t h e amended ..s t a tu t e was. a p p lic a b le t o th e s c h o o l yea r, p r e v io u s t o t h e tim e i t was. p a s s e d .and when so a p p lie d was n o t r e t r o a c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n . .

The c o u r t rea so n ed

xa t h a t under th e unamended s t a t u t e , no payment had. come due. The f a c t t h a t th e p e r io d o f s c h o o l a t t endance Jiad .occu rred b e fo r e t h e p a s sa g e o f the. amendment w a s .n o t s u f f i c i e n t to d e f e a t t h e . c la im . c it y to f i l e

its

F u rth erm o re, when th e d ate, a r r iv e d ..f o r t h e c la im , th e . o n ly law under, w hich i t co u ld

a c t was t h e amendment.^-7 The Supreme Court o f Oklahoma u p h eld a s t a t u t e r e q u ir ­ in g a f e e , e q u iv a le n t t o maximum fu n d s a v a ila b le from a 1 5 m ill. le v y and o t h e r .m is c e lla n e o u s revenue., t o be. p a id by th e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in w hich no s c h o o l i s m a in ta in ed ., t o th e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t r e c e iv in g t r a n s f e r r e d p u p i l s .

I f t h e .tr a n s ­

f e r r in g d i s t r i c t , f e e l s ..t h is le v y .to be u n j u s t , t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e , p la n s o th er, th an t r a n s f e r r in g a l l o f i t s p u p ils : . ( l ) I t co u ld d is o r g a n iz e and become a p a r t o f th e r e c e iv in g d i s t r i c t s , in w h ich c a s e i t s p r o p e r ty would be s u b j e c t t o t h e t a x l a w f u ll y l a i d by th e a t t a c h in g d i s t r i c t . (2 ) I t co u ld m a in ta in a home s c h o o l f o r a l l i t s p u p ils and r e c e iv e s t a t e a i d . i f i t co m p lied . (3 ) I t co u ld t r a n s f e r some o f i t s p u p i l s , p a y in g t h e r e ­ f o r e on a p er c a p it a c o s t b a s is , as p r e s c r ib e d in su ch in s t a n c e s .R ig h t t o a t t e n d , a p a r t ic u la r s c h o o l .

When e n r o llm e n ts

drop t o t h e p la c e where i t would be more eco n o m ica l t o c l o s e th e s c h o o l and send, p u p ils to a n o th er d i s t r i c t i t

i s o fte n

done even though th e rem a in in g p u p ils m ay.be in c o n v e n ie n c e d . In a N eb rask a town th e e n r o llm e n t o f an elem en ta r y s c h o o l

19 dropped t o l e s s th a n f i v e p u p i l s .

The s c h o o l hoard c lo s e d

t h e s c h o o l , se n d in g th e c h ild r e n t o th e n e x t d i s t r i c t . P a r e n ts so u g h t a w r it o f mandamus r e q u ir in g t h e s c h o o l board to keep t h e elem en tary, s c h o o l op en , s t a t i n g t h a t t h e .c h i l d r e n now had t o w alk over, r a ilr o a d tr a c k s ., p a s t a b e e r . h a ll, and th rou gh t h e tow n.

The c o u r t d e c id e d i n fa v o r o f t h e .s c h o o l

board on t h e grounds t h a t th e s c h o o l . i s under, th e d i r e c t i o n and c o n t r o l o f t h e board o f e d u c a tio n .

The c o u r t h a s no

power by mandamus to c o n t r o l th e d e c i s io n s o f t h o s e .m a t t e r s w hich a re l e f t by s t a t u t e t o t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f th e g o v e r n in g body o f a g o v ern m en ta l a g e n c y .1 9 An Iowa s c h o o l board d e c id e d t o keep two r u r a l s c h o o ls op en .

C e r ta in ta x p a y e r s so u g h t t o e n j o in t h i s a c t io n by t h e

board on th e grounds t h a t the. a v er a g e d a i l y a tte n d a n c e would be b elow f i v e .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t th e s t a t u t e , p r o v id e s t h a t

a s c h o o l may b e k ep t open i f t h e p a r e n ts o f s e v e n c h ild r e n s u b s c r ib e t o a w r it t e n sta te m e n t c e r t i f y i n g t h a t such, c h ild r e n w i l l e n r o l l and w i l l a tte n d su ch elem en ta ry s c h o o l i f opened. The f a c t t h a t d u rin g December when t h e perm anent in j u n c t io n was s o u g h t , one s c h o o l had an e n r o llm e n t o f o n ly 4 .9 4 a v er a g e d a i l y a tte n d a n c e was n o t s u f f i c i e n t as s t a t u t e .a u t h o r i z e s th e co u n ty s u p e r in te n d e n t t o p erm it any s c h o o l t o rem ain open f o r t h r e e months i f o b s t a c le s t o th e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . o f t h e p u p ils t o a n o th er s c h o o l r e n d e r s i t in a d v is a b le t o c l o s e th e

s c h o o l.

^0

20 The s e p a r a t io n o f r a c e s f o r s c h o o l . p u r p o s e s .

I t is

an e s t a b lis h e d f a c t t h a t s e p a r a te s c h o o ls may be p ro v id ed f o r w h ite and c o lo r e d c h ild r e n so lo n g a s th e e d u c a tio n a l oppor­ t u n i t i e s in each a r e e s s e n t i a l l y - t h e sam e.

Edwards w r it e s :

.W hat i s r e q u ir e d i s e q u a lit y o f r i g h t s , n o t i d e n t i t y o f r i g h t s . The s t a t e , has. t h e r i g h t t o c l a s s i f y c h ild r e n in any way and f o r any p u rp o ses w hich w i l l prom ote th e e f f i c i e n c y and b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f th e p u b lic s c h o o l s . 21 Where t h e r e i s no s t a t u t o r y a u t h o r it y f o r r a c e . s e g r e ­ g a t i o n , lo c a l- b o a r d s a r e n o t empowered t o s e g r e g a t e p u p ils on th e b a s i s o f c o l o r .

In K ansas a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t has th e

a u t h o r it y t o d e s ig n a t e a tte n d a n c e a r e a s, b u t m ust h o t do t h i s in su ch a manner as t o make a d is c r im in a t o r y r a c i a l , s e g r e ­ g a t i o n .^ 2

C i t i e s o f t h e f i r s t c l a s s in . Kansas a r e a u th o r iz e d ,

by s t a t u t e , t o m a in ta in s e g r e g a te d e le m e n ta r y -s c h o o ls . The F o u r te e n th Amendment g u a r a n te e s th e r i g h t s o f c i t i z e n s w hich th e y h a v e a c q u ir e d by b e in g c i t i z e n s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s .

The r i g h t t o a tte n d s c h o o l i s c o n fe r r e d upon

th e i n d i v id u a l by th e s t a t e .

S e g r e g a tio n o f r a c e s in s c h o o ls

i s f o r t h a t r e a so n n o t a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e F o u r te e n th Amend­ m ent.

In g e n e r a l, r a c e .s e g r e g a t i o n .i n . s c h o o ls , has been up­

h e ld when a u t h o r it y has b een g iv e n by s t a t e s t a t u t e .

Where

4

t h e r e i s no su ch a u t h o r it y , th e w e ig h t o f e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s

21 Uewton Edw ards, The C ourts and th e. B .ublic S c h o o ls : The L e g a l B a s is of. S c h o o l O r g a n iz a tio n a n d -A d m in is tr a tio n (C h icago: U n iv e r sT ty o f C hicago P r e s s , 19X0}$ p . 5 l0

21 t h a t th e s c h o o l board h as no su ch a u t h o r it y .

When s e p a r a t io n

o f r a c e s i s made, e q u a l o p p o r t u n it ie s f o r e d u c a tio n must be p r o v id e d .

E qual o p p o r t u n it ie s d oes n o t mean i d e n t i c a l , oppor­

tu n itie s .

Under th e la w s o f V i r g i n i a , w h ite and c o lo r e d p e r ­

so n s may n o t b e ta u g h t in th e same .s c h o o l., b u t eq u a l f a c i l i ­ t i e s must be a ffo r d e d t o each ra ce in p u b lic s c h o o l s .

To

d is c r im in a t e on a c c o u n t o f r a c e o r c o l o r i s t o c o n tra v en e th e F o u r te e n th Amendment.23

The same d e c i s i o n was. handed down a -

g a in a t a l a t e r d a te by th e same c o u r t . 2^ Upon a demand m ade.by n e g r o e s t h a t t h e i r c h ild r e n b e a llo w e d t o a tte n d t h e same s c h o o l a tte n d e d by w h ite c h ild r e n , t h e s c h o o l board d e v is e d a scheme o f d iv id in g t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in t o a tte n d a n c e a r e a s so t h a t in e f f e c t a l l n eg ro c h ild r e n w ould b e a t t e n d in g one sc h o o l, and. a l l w h ite c h ild r e n a n o th e r .

To do t h i s t h e s c h o o l board d id n o t d iv id e th e

d i s t r i c t e a s t and w e s t , o r n orth , and. south.,, b u t meandered up s t r e e t s and a l l e y s .

I t was t h e c o n t e n tio n o f th e .b o a r d t h a t

r a c e s e p a r a tio n c o u ld n o t now be c l a i m e d .. H e e d le s s to sa y t h a t th e c o u r t r e a d i l y saw th rou gh th e p la n and d e c la r e d t h i s method o f d e s ig n a t in g a tte n d a n c e a r e a s u n la w fu l. 2 5

As has

b een m en tio n ed b e f o r e , o n ly c i t i e s o f t h e . f i r s t c l a s s in th e s t a t e o f Kansas may p r o v id e s e p a r a te s c h o o ls f o r s e p a r a te races. In a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in Oklahoma t h e .p a r e n t s , o f Negro c h ild r e n i n s i s t e d on m a in ta in in g t h e i r own s c h o o l .

The S t a t e

22 Board o f E d u ca tio n had d e c id e d t h a t in f i g u r i n g s t a t e a i d , th e n eg ro s c h o o l sh o u ld n o t h e f ig u r e d a s a u n it., f o r t h e r e a so n t h a t o th e r e d u c a t io n a l - f a c i l i t i e s , w ere a v a i l a b l e in a n o th e r s c h o o l , a d is t a n c e o f s i x t e e n m i l e s ,

A ca r e fu l in te r ­

p r e t a t io n o f th e s t a t u t e r e v e a le d t h a t a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w ould h e a u th o r iz e d t o c l o s e s c h o o l and sen d p u p ils to th e n e a r e s t s c h o o l o f t h e i r own c o l o r o n ly i f th e av era g e, d a i l y a t t e n d ­ an ce dropped b elo w t e n .

In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e th e a v er a g e

d a i l y a tte n d a n c e o f t h e p r e v io u s y e a r had b een f o u r t e e n . V a c c in a t io n .

V a c c in a tio n r e q u ir e m e n ts.h a v e b een u n i­

fo rm ly u p h eld a s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and as a v a l i d e x e r c i s e o f 27 t h e p o l i c e power o f t h e s t a t e . r The c o u r t h e ld t h a t th e r e s o l u t i o n o f th e board .r e q u ir in g v a c c in a t io n was. n o t i n v a l i d even thou gh a t th e tim e th e r e was no th r e a te n e d e p id e m ic . In K entucky we a g a in f in d t h e d e c i s io n t h a t th e a b se n c e o f sm a llp o x in a community and su rro u n d in g a re a f o r many y e a r s was i n s u f f i c i e n t t o show t h a t t h e r e was n o t su ch r e a s o n a b le b a s is f o r a p p r eh en sio n f o r o u t b r e a k .o f d i s e a s e a s w ould p r e ­ c lu d e v a c c in a t io n o f a l l s c h o o l c h ild r e n . - S u c h m a tte r s a s v a c c in a t io n o f s c h o o l c h ild r e n .a r e l e f t t o s o u n d - d is c r e t io n o f h e a lt h a u t h o r it ie s , r a t h e r th a n to .w h im s o f laym en.

Under

s t a t u t e s , a s c h o o l b o a r d .c a n p ro m u lg a te a n d .e n f o r c e . i t s own r u le s or can e n fo r c e th e r u l e s p rom ulgated by t h e co u n ty o r s t a t e board o f h e a l t h .

The c o n te n tio n , t h a t . g i r l s w ere p h y s i­

c a l l y u n a b le t o undergo v a c c in a t io n was n o t s u f f i c i e n t , in as

25 much as t h e y were a p p a r e n tly a b l e t o a t t e n d s c h o o l . R e lig io u s in s t r u c t io n .

The o n ly U nited. S t a t e s Supreme

Court d e c i s i o n i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l, a re a in t h e p a s t two y e a r s has t o do w it h t h e l e g a l i t y o f t h e Champaign, I l l i n o i s , p la n o f r e l e a s e d tim e , f o r r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n w i t h i n t h e s c h o o l p la n t.

Under t h i s , p l a n , r e l i g i o u s t e a c h e r s , employed by t h e

Champaign C o u n c i l . on R e l i g i o u s . E d u c a tio n .w e n t t o p u b l i c s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s f o r one p e r io d o f r e l i g i o u s , e d u c a t i o n . P u p i l s were grouped a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r f a i t h .

C h ild r e n .who d id n o t a t ­

te n d r e l i g i o u s c l a s s e s went t o stu d y h a l l s or w e r e .o t h e r w is e o c c u p ie d w it h r e g u l a r s c h o o l work.

The. c o u r t, found t h i s p la n

t o be in v i o l a t i o n of. t h e F i r s t Amendment .t o t he C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s .

It is

t h e u s e o f t a x - s u p p o r t e d p r o p e r ty

f o r r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n and an i n v a l u a b l e a id i n p r o v id in g p u p i l s f o r r e l i g i o u s c l a s s e s through the..use., o f the. s t a t e ’s com pulsory p u b l i c s c h o o l m a ch in ery .

T h is i s . n o t s e p a r a t i o n

o f Church and S t a t e as in te n d e d by t h e F i r s t Amendment. ^9 R esid en ce.

F or many y e a r s c h ild r e n .h a d been, p e r m itte d

t o a t t e n d s c h o o l s o u t s i d e t h e d i s t r i c t o f t h e i r a c t u a l, r e s i d ­ ence.

A board o f e d u c a t io n in .Hew. York ad opted a r e s o l u t i o n

t h a t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t l i n e s ..would_be a d h ered t o s t r i c t l y and a l l new e n t r a n t s t o th e s c h o o l sy stem would be a d m itte d o n ly t o t h e s c h o o l o f t h e d i s t r i c t in w hich t h e y a c t u a l l y l i v e d . An a p p e a l by s e v e r a l p a r e n t s was d is m is s e d b e c a u s e i t . c o u l d

24 n o t be shown t h a t t h e board a o te d c a p r i c i o u s l y , a r b i t r a r i l y , o r u n la w f u l ly and under su ch c ir c u m s ta n c e s a c o u r t may n o t su b stitu te i t s

judgment f o r t h a t . o f t h e members, o f the. s c h o o l

board* 30 T e x tb o o k s *

S e v e r a l members o f t h e . J ew ish . r a c e made

a p r o t e s t o f t h e d e c i s i o n o f t h e Board, o f . E d u c a t i o n . o f t h e C it y o f New York t o p erm it as approved r e a d in g a n d .s t u d y by p u p i l s , t h e books " O liv e r T w is t ” by C h a rles D i c k e n s . and "The Merchant o f V en ice" by S h a k e sp e a r e .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t

t h e r e had been no ab u se o f d i s c r e t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e board*

In t h e words o f th e c o u r t:

E xcep t where a book has b een m a l i c i o u s l y , w r i t t e n , f o r ap p a ren t p u rp ose o f prom oting, and fo m e n tin g a b ig o t e d and i n t o l e r a n t h a tr e d a g a i n s t a p a r t i c u l a r r a c i a l o r r e l i g i o u s g r o u p , p u b l i c i n t e r e s t i n a . f r e e and d em o c r a tic s o c i e t y does n o t w arrant s u p p r e s s io n o f any book in p u b lic s c h o o l s m e r e ly b e c a u se a c h a r a c t e r d e s c r ib e d i n su ch a book as b e lo n g in g t o a r a c e o r r e l i g i o n i s p o r tr a y e d i n a d e r o g a ­ t o r y o r o f f e n s i v e manner, and n e c e s s i t y f o r s u p p r e s s io n o f such, a book must c l e a r l y depend on i n t e n t and m o tiv e w hich has a c t u a t e d a u th o r i n making su ch a p o r t r a y a l* E d u c a t io n a l p h i l o s o p h y .

C e r ta in ta x p a y e r s in . P e n n s y l­

v a n ia d id n o t a g r e e w it h e d u c a to r s as t o e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s and p h il o s o p h y .

They so u g h t t o change t h e c o u r s e s o f s t u d y ,

t o change t h e methods, o f prom oting p u p i l s , and t o e x c lu d e c e r t a i n p u p i l s from p u b l i c s c h o o l s u n l e s s s p e c i a l s c h o o l s or c l a s s e s w ould b e .p r o v id e d f o r them*

They a tte m p te d t o have

t h e c o u r t demand th e t e a c h e r s t o t e a c h c e r t a i n s u b j e c t s and

25 t o u se r e p o r t ca rd s upon which t h e t e a c h e r s would grad e p u p i l s a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e p e r c e n t a g e s o f p r o f i c i e n c y and i n d i c a t e w h eth er t h e p u p i l s were e n t i t l e d to he prom oted. The c o u r t reasoned, t h a t i t would he presumptuous t o su p e r ­ impose j u d i c i a l c o n t r o l upon t h e e x e r c i s e o f d i s c r e t i o n by tr a in e d ed u ca to rs.

The. l e g i s l a t u r e has v e s t e d - w id e .powers

in t h e hoard o f s c h o o l d i r e c t o r s .

As lo n g a s i t can n ot be

shown t h a t ta x p a y e r s w i l l s u f f e r a p e c u n ia r y l o s s by t h e con­ t in u a n c e o f su ch p o l i c i e s , t a x p a y e r s d o -n o t have l e g a l c a u se f o r i n j u c t i o n t o e n f o r c e t h e i r e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c i e s or. p h i l ­ o s o p h ie s .^ In New York c e r t a i n p l a i n t i f f s so u g h t t o e n j o i n and r e s t r a i n t h e Board o f E d u ca tio n f r o m .a u t h o r iz i n g and p e r m it­ t i n g t h e g i v i n g o f d a n c in g l e s s o n s . i n th e p u b lic .- s c h o o l s o f t h e c i t y o f R o c h e s t e r , and from p e r m it t i n g u s e o f t h e p u b lic s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s f o r t h a t p u r p o se .

P l a i n t i f f s a lle g e d th a t

t h i s was a w a ste o f t h e p u b lic m oneys.

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t

t h e Board o f E d u c a tio n was a c t i n g as an a g en t o f t h e s t a t e and was n o t a " m u n ic ip a l c o r p o r a t io n ," and h en ce ta x p a y e r s co u ld n o t b r in g r e s t r a i n i n g a c t i o n under t h e s t a t u t e p e r m it­ t i n g a c t i o n s a g a i n s t o f f i c e r s a c t i n g on b e h a lf, o f a m u n ic ip a l c o r p o r a t io n .* ^ Summary.

In t h e p a s t .t w o y e a r s , d i s p u t e s a f f e c t i n g

p u p i l s and p a r e n t s h ave rea ch ed t h e c o u r t s o f l a s t r e s o r t

26 t w e n t y - e i g h t tim e s in 16 d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s and t h e D i s t r i c t o f Colum bia,

The m id w estern and s o u th e r n s t a t e s have b een

e s p e c i a l l y a c t i v e in t h e c o u r t s w h i l e . t h e f a r w e s t e r n s t a t e s produced no d e c i s i o n s .

A com parison w it h O gle34 and L i n l e y ^

i n d i c a t e s t h a t problem s a r i s i n g from t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and t u i ­ t i o n a r e m ost l i k e l y t o c a u s e t r o u b l e .

There w ere no c a s e s

c o n c e r n in g e x p u ls io n o r s u s p e n s io n o f p u p i l s . A tten d an ce,m ay b e made com pulsory w it h o u t reg a rd f o r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s u n l e s s approved i n s t r u c t i o n i s p ro v id e d in some o t h e r way. ( V i r g i n i a , p . 11) ( I n d ia n a , p . 12) A f o u r t e e n . y e a r o ld .m arried woman,was n o t a ” c h i l d ” under p a r e n t a l c o n t r o l and was n o t amenable t o com pulsory s c h o o l a t te n d a n c e la w s .

( L o u is ia n a , p# 12)

A d i s t r i c t s c h o o l, board may p r o v id e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f o r c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g any s c h o o l , w h eth er i t be w it h in , t h e d i s t r i c t o r t o a n o th e r d i s t r i c t . (A rk a n sa s, p . 13)

(North D a k o ta , p . 13)

( W is c o n s in , p . 13)

(N ebrask a, p. 14)

A s c h o o l board may, i n i t s d i s c r e t i o n , p r o v id e t r a n s ­ p o r t a t i o n t o an a d j o i n i n g d i s t r i c t f o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s b u t r e f u s e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o gra d e s c h o o l ..p u p i l s even though b o th may l i v e in t h e same house, o r on. th e same, roa d . p . 14) 34 O g le , p p. c i t . . pp. 6 9 - 7 2 . 35 L i n l e y . op. c i t . , pp. 41-43*

(G e o r g ia ,

27 A s c h o o l "board has a u t h o r i t y t o r o u t e b u s e s , so t h a t some p u p i l s have t o walk as f a r a s two m i l e s w h i l e o t h e r s a r e lo a d e d a t t h e i r d o o r s t e p s when t h i s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s u n i n t e n t i o n a l and t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t cannot- a ffo r d , more bus e s .

(Arkans a s , p . 15) A s c h o o l board cannot r e q u ir e a p a r e n t t o a c c e p t pay­

ment in l i e u o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . (Io w a , p . 1 6 ) R e f u s a l t o a llo w s c h o o l i n g w it h o u t t u i t i o n was. p rop er when i t was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e p a r e n t s .h a d e s t a b l i s h e d a tem porary d o m i c i l e in town t o a v o id payment o f t u i t i o n . ( I n d ia n a , . p . 17) The g o v e r n in g board has a u t h o r i t y t o c l o s e a s c h o o l when t h e e n r o llm e n t drops b e lo w f i v e p u p i l s and a c o u r t has no power t o c o n t r o l t h e s e d e c i s i o n s . . (N ebrask a, p . 19) Race s e g r e g a t i o n in s c h o o l s has b e e n .u p h e ld .w h e n a u th o r­ i t y has been g i v e n by s t a t u t e .

I n t h e a b se n c e o f su c h s t a t u t e ,

t h e s c h o o l board has no su ch a u t h o r i t y .

When, r a c e s a r e s e p ­

a r a t e d , e d u c a t i o n a l - b e n e f i t s must b e equal, but t h e y need n o t be i d e n t i c a l .

(K a n sa s, p . 20)

( V i r g i n i a , p. 21)

(K ansas, p . 21)

(Oklahoma, p . 22) V a c c in a t io n r e q u ir e m e n ts have b een u n ifo r m ly u pheld as c o n s t i t u t i o n a l .

(New J e r s e y , p . 22)

(K entucky, p . 23)

R e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n on r e l e a s e d tim e w i t h i n t h e s c h o o l p l a n t i s a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e . K i r s t Amendment t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s .

( I l l i n o i s , p . 23)

28 A board o f e d u c a t io n may r e q u ir e c h i l d r e n t o a t t e n d a s c h o o l in t h e d i s t r i c t in w hich th e y r e s i d e even though i t had been a lo n g e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e t o a t t e n d anywhere i n t h e d i s t r i c t t h e y w is h e d .

(Hew Y ork, p . 2 4 )

’• O liv e r T w is t ” and ”The Merchant o f V e n ic e ” were n o t w r i t t e n f o r t h e e x p r e s s p u rp ose o f p rom otin g i n t o l e r a n c e and h a tr e d a g a i n s t a p a r t i c u l a r r a c e even though a c h a r a c t e r d e s c r ib e d i s p o r tr a y e d in a d e r o g a t o r y and o f f e n s i v e .m a n n e r . T h ese books may be u se d in t h e s c h o o l s .

(Hew Y ork, p . 24)

E d u c a t io n a l p h ilo s o p h y i s l e f t t o t r a in e d e d u c a t o r s , th a t i s ,

c o u r ts w i l l n o t d e c id e .w h ic h c o u r s e s t o t e a c h , how

t o promote p u p i l s , and w h e th er or n o t t o u se r e p o r t c a r d s . ( P e n n s y lv a n ia , p . 2 5) A board o f e d u c a tio n , may a l l o w d a n c in g c l a s s e s t o b e h e ld in t h e p u b lic s c h o o l s .

(Hew Y ork, p . 2 5 )

CHAPTER III TEACHERS R eq uirem en ts and e l i g i b i l i t y . a p r i v i l e g e c o n f e r r e d by th e s t a t e .

The r i g h t t o t e a c h i s T eachers’ c e r t if ic a t e s

have none o f t h e e le m e n ts o f a c o n t r a c t and may b e revoked by s t a t u t e a t any t i m e .

Only t h e law -m aking body w hich s e t

up t h e re q u ir e m e n ts may change t h e re q u ir e m e n ts a s was d e ­ c id e d in P e n n s y lv a n ia w h e n .th e S t a t e Department, o f E d u ca tio n a tte m p te d t o revo k e t h e c e r t i f i c a t e o f a s u p e r v i s i n g p r i n ­ c i p a l when s u b j e c t s were added t o t h e cu rr icu lu m w hich s h e was n o t c e r t i f i e d t o t e a c h .

In t h e words o f t h e c o u r t :

The s ta n d a r d s adopted- by t h e S t a t e C o u n cil o f Educa­ t i o n f o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s and p r i n c i p a l s a r e n o t i r r e v o c a b l e , b u t when th e Departm ent o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c ­ t i o n has i s s u e d a c e r t i f i c a t e w hich i s b a sed upon s t a n ­ dards and r e q u ir e m e n ts adopted by t h e C o u n c il, su ch c e r ­ t i f i c a t e i s n o t , w it h o u t a p p r o v a l o f th e C o u n cil or change o f re q u ir e m e n ts f o r i t s i s s u a n c e by t h a t b o d y , s u b j e c t t o amendment, change or r e s t r i c t i o n b y . t h e Department o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t io n .^ When a f o u r y e a r h ig h s c h o o l.w a s added t o an elem en ta ry s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in P e n n s y lv a n i a , th e q u e s t i o n a r o s e as t o t h e e l i g i b i l i t y o f t h e incumbent s u p e r v i s i n g p r i n c i p a l .

I t was

d eterm in ed t h a t in t h e a b s e n c e o f a c t i o n by t h e S t a t e C o u n cil o f E d u c a tio n ch a n g in g sta n d a r d s and re q u ir e m e n ts f o r s u p e r ­ v i s i n g p r i n c i p a l s in su ch c a s e s , t h e h o ld e r o f a s u p e r v i s i n g p r i n c i p a l ’ s c e r t i f i c a t e was q u a l i f i e d t o a c t as s u p e r v i s i n g ^ R e f e r e n c e s t o c o u r t c a s e s in C hapter I I I a r e l i s t e d on page 179

30 p r i n c i p a l in b oth e le m e n ta r y and s e c o n d a r y . s c h o o l s . 2 In New York S t a t e ex a m in a tio n s a r e g iv e n for. th e pur­ p o se o f d e te r m in in g t h e a p p l i c a n t ’s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . . f o r c e r ­ ta in p o s itio n s .

One t e a c h e r f i l e d a. com plaint, a f t e r th e

Board o f E d u ca tio n had a d v i s e d . him t h a t he f a i l e d - t h e .exam i­ n a t i o n b e c a u s e h i s r e c o r d was u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .

The. c o u r t h e ld

t h a t t h i s e x a m in a tio n , b e in g q u a l i f y i n g and n o t c o m p e t i t i v e , d id n o t v i o l a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l . p r o v i s i o n s .

I t was f u r t h e r

p o in t e d ou t t h a t i t was. t h e d u ty of. t h e B o a r d .o f E d u c a tio n t o i n s p e c t t h e r e c o r d o f an a p p li c a n t b e f o r e i s s u i n g a l i c e n s e , t o d eterm in e e le m e n ts o f f i t n e s s , a s t r a i t s o f c h a r a c t e r , c o n ­ duct , p e r s o n a lit y , b u sin e ss, or e x e c u tiv e a b ilit y ., c a p a c ity f o r s c h o o l and c l a s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n an d _f o r s u p e r v i s i o n . 3 A noth er c a s e c o n c e r n in g t h e same problem was t a k e n t o t h e New York Supreme Court and i t was t h e r e d e te r m in e d t h a t a c a n d id a t e was r e q u ir e d t o a p p e a l t o t h e C om m issioner o f E d u ca tio n b e f o r e a c t i o n co u ld be rev iew ed in t h e Supreme Court Somewhat d i f f e r e n t i s t h e d e c i s i o n in th e f o l l o w i n g case.

Out o f n i n e t y - s e v e n a p p l i c a n t s , t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n ­

d i v i d u a l was one o f e i g h t who p a sse d a l l th e . w r i t t e n , t e a c h i n g , s u p e r v i s o r y , , i n t e r v i e w , and p h y s i c a l and m e d i c a l . t e s t s g iv e n i n an ex a m in a tio n , f o r t h e c o m p e t i t i v e p o s i t i o n o f f i r s t a s ­ s i s t a n t i n s o c i a l s t u d i e s i n t h e day h i g h . s c h o o ls , o f t h e C ity o f New York.

N e v e r t h e le s s ., th e board o f exam iners r e j e c t e d

t h e p e t i t i o n e r on t h e s t r e n g t h t h a t i n t h e i r o p in io n h i s re c o r d was " i n s u f f i c i e n t l y m e r i t o r i o u s . ”

The c o u r t f s d e c i s ­

io n was in f a v o r o f t h e p e t i t i o n e r , h o ld in g t h a t t h e c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n r e q u ir e s a ” c o m p e t it i v e e x a m in a tio n ” w h i c h . i s o b j e c t ­ i v e i n n a tu r e and t h a t b y -la w s r e q u i r i n g n o tio n s , and o p in io n s o f t h e exam in ers a r e i n v a l i d . 5

The d i s t i n c t i o n betw een t h i s

c a s e and t h e two c i t e d im m ediately, a b o v e , i s t h a t t h i s , was a c o m p e t i t i v e e x a m in a tio n f o r a t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n w h i l e t h e o t h e r two were q u a l i f y i n g e x a m in a tio n s f o r l i c e n s e s . A s u p e r in t e n d e n t o f s c h o o l s employed a t e a c h e r t o com­ p l e t e th e l a s t h a l f o f a s c h o o l y e a r .

He knew sh e had no c e r ­

t i f i c a t e a s r e q u ir e d by law but t o l d h e r i t would be a l l r i g h t i f sh e w ro te t o t h e s t a t e d epartm ent f o r an a p p l i c a t i o n form .

She had p r e v i o u s l y h e ld an a p p r o p r ia t e c e r t i f i c a t e

b u t had a llo w e d i t t o e x p i r e . d en t summarily d is c h a r g e d h e r .

Ten days l a t e r t h e s u p e r in t e n ­ l a t e r sh e i n s t i t u t e d a s u i t

f o r damages a s on b r e a c h o f c o n t r a c t , c la im in g f u l l s a l a r y fo r th e l a s t h a lf o f th e y ea r .

There was no e v id e n c e t h a t

s h e had a p p li e d fo r. o r r e c e iv e d a c e r t i f i c a t e .

On t h i s s t a t e

o f f a c t s , sh e was c o m p le t e ly d e f e a t e d by n o n s u it b e c a u s e a Maine s t a t u t e n o t o n ly , r e q u ir e s t e a c h e r s t o have c e r t i f i c a t e s b u t a l s o m a k es. i t i l l e g a l - t o t e a c h w it h o u t o n e .6 Most s t a t e s , have s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s w hich p e r m it t h e employment o f s u b s t i t u t e t e a c h e r s on em ergency c e r t i f i ­ c a t e s u n t i l such, tim e as. q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s , a r e a v a i l a b l e .

32 The r e c e n t war c r e a t e d need f o r many o f t h e s e emergency t e a c h ­ ers.

Such a t e a c h e r was h ir e d f o r th e s c h o o l t e r m -1 9 4 5 -4 6

b u t upon a p p l i c a t i o n t o th e s t a t e departm ent f o r an emergency c r e d e n t i a l was a d v is e d t h a t i t d id n o t w ish t o renew t h e emergency c e r t i f i c a t e s o lo n g in advance o f th e o p en in g o f s c h o o l but t h a t i f a d u ly q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r was n o t found by A u g u st, t h e emergency c e r t i f i c a t e would b e renewed a t t h a t t im e .

D uring t h e m id d le o f August t h i s t e a c h e r was n o t i f i e d

t h a t sh e would n o t b e em ployed, as a f u l l y q u a l i f i e d t e a c h ­ e r had b e e n s e c u r e d .

She made an u n s u c c e s s f u l a tte m p t t o

c o l l e c t s a l a r y f o r 1 9 4 5 -4 6 on t h e ground t h a t th e board had b rea ch ed h er c o n t r a c t .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t th e c o n t r a c t

e n t e r e d i n t o in May was c o n d it i o n e d on th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f f i n d i n g a f u l l y q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r f o r . th e p o s i t i o n .

When

su ch a t e a c h e r became a v a i l a b l e t h e b o a r d ’s d u ty t o t h i s t e a c h e r was d is c h a r g e d and t h e c o n t r a c t was no l o n g e r en ­ fo r c e a b le .? An i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e comes from H a w a ii. tiffs

C e r ta in p l a i n ­

so u g h t t o e n j o i n t h e co m m issio n er o f p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n

and o t h e r s from h o ld i n g a d i s m i s s a l h e a r in g o f w hich n o t i c e had b een r e c e i v e d p u rsu a n t t o ch a rg es o f b e in g members o f t h e Communist P a r t y .

The com m ission er charged t h a t th e s e , t e a c h ­

e r s , b e c a u s e o f b e in g com m unists, d id n o t p o s s e s s i d e a l s o f dem ocracy and t h a t t h e y co u ld be d is m is s e d p erm a n en tly from t h e i r te n u r e p o s i t i o n s .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s

33 o f t e a c h e r s a r e w i t h i n t h e p r o v in c e o f t h e commissioner- and t h a t t h e c o u r t would n o t e n j o i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e s s e x c e p t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s n o t h e r e e x i s t i n g . S e l e c t i o n and . term s - o f employment.

The..

a d m in is t r a ­

t i v e f u n c t i o n s ” e x e r c i s e d by a board o f e d u c a t i o n . i n a p u b l i c s c h o o l sy stem in c l u d e t h e h i r i n g o f t e a c h e r s , t h e i r , a s s i g n ­ ment in t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m , and th e management, and c o n t r o l o o f sch ool p r o p e r ty .7 In K en tu ck y , c e r t i f i e d p e r s o n n e l must be recommended by a cou n ty s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .b e f o r e t h e y may be c o n s id e r e d f o r employment by t h e co u n ty b o a rd ,

i n one c a s e a cou n ty s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t had recommended an i n d i v i d u a l f o r a t e a c h in g p o s i t i o n b u t t h e cou n ty b o a r d , w it h o u t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ’s recommend­ a t i o n and a g a i n s t h e r w i l l , e l e c t e d him p r i n c i p a l . .

The c o u r t

h e ld t h a t employment by t h e co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n w it h o u t t h e recommendation o f . t h e co u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t was n u l l and v o i d . 10 T enure la w s have b een p a s s e d in n e a r l y h a l f o f th e s t a t e s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , t h e t h e o r y b e in g t o p r o v id e s e c u r i t y f o r t e a c h e r s in t h e i r , p o s i t i o n s . and t o e l i m i n a t e p o litic s.

B eca u se o f t h e r e c e n t o r i g i n o f t e n u r e la w s , c o u r t s

a r e now f i l l e d w it h a c o n s t a n t stre a m o f c a s e s c o n c e r n in g t h e r i g h t s o f t e a c h e r s and t h e powers, o f s c h o o l boards in h i r i n g and f i r i n g .

The f i r s t c a s e b ro u g h t t o mind i s a

34 s i t u a t i o n in New M exico where a t e a c h e r made c la im s to te n u r e r i g h t s by v i r t u e o f employment b e f o r e t h e - t e n u r e law. had b een passed.

She had worked from 1925 t o 1941 when sh e r e s i g n e d .

In 1943 a te n u r e law was p a s s e d .

She was a g a in employed from

1945 t o 1947 a t w hich tim e sh e was n o t i f i e d t h a t her. s e r v i c e s were no lo n g e r d e s i r e d .

The c o u r t d e c la r e d t h a t sh e had n ot

s e r v e d t h e r e q u ir e d t h r e e y e a r p r o b a tio n a r y p erio d ., f o r t h e te n u r e law t h a t was p a s s e d in 1943 was p r o s p e c t i v e and n o t r e t r o a c t iv e in a p p lic a tio n .^ * I n M in n e a p o lis a t e a c h e r .who had. g a in e d t e n u r e r i g h t s a s a t e a c h e r was g i v e n a p o s i t i o n a s an a d m i n i s t r a t o r .

T h is

p o s i t i o n was a b o l i s h e d s e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r and t h e t e a c h e r was r e tu r n e d t o c la s s r o o m t e a c h i n g .

The board o f e d u c a t io n

t o o k t h e sta n d t h a t t h i s t e a c h e r was no more than a p r o b a t io n ­ a ry t e a c h e r .

The co u r t d e c la r e d t h a t th e t e a c h e r d id n o t

abandon t e n u r e r i g h t s by a c c e p t i n g employment o f an a d m in is ­ t r a t i v e n a tu r e i n t h e a b se n c e of. e x p r e s s m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f i n ­ t e n t i o n t o abandon su ch r i g h t s but had n ot g a in e d te n u r e r i g h t s a s an a d m i n i s t r a t o r .

A new t e n u r e law was e n a c te d in New York in 1945 ap­ p l i c a b l e t o d i s t r i c t s em p loyin g more than e i g h t t e a c h e r s but w it h a p o p u la t io n o f l e s s th a n 4 , 5 0 0 .

I n a r e v e r s a l o f a d e­

c i s i o n o f t h e lo w e r c o u r t , i t was h e ld t h a t i n a s c h o o l d i s ­ t r i c t o f t h i s s i z e and p o p u la t io n t h e p r i n c i p a l must in c lu d e names o f a l l t e a c h e r s in l i s t s and r e p o r t s he i s r e q u ir e d

35 t o f u r n i s h t o th e d i s t r i c t s u p e r in t e n d e n t .

D is c r e tio n to

d e te r m in e who s h a l l be recommended t o t h e board o f - e d u c a t i o n f o r appointm ent on t e n u r e i s v e s t e d i n t h e d i s t r i c t . s u p e r in ­ te n d e n t o f s c h o o l s .

A t e a c h e r h a s .n o v e s t e d r i g h t . t o te n u r e d u r in g th e p r o b a tio n a r y p e r i o d .

Four te a c h e r s, who w ere s e r v i n g t h e i r

t h i r d and f i n a l , p r o b a t io n a r y - y e a r w ere recommended.by t h e d i s t r i c t s u p e r in t e n d e n t t o t h e board o f e d u c a t io n f o r a p p o in t ment on t e n u r e .

The. board r e f u s e d .a n d .fu r th er m o r e, g ave

no r e a so n f o r i t s r e f u s a l . .

E v id e n c e produced on t r i a l i n ­

d i c a t e d t h a t t h e a p p e lla n t s .w e r e , com petent a n d . q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e ir r e sp e c tiv e p o s itio n s .

Even w it h t h e s e f a c t s b e f o r e

them , th e c o u r t h e ld t h a t th e s c h o o l board was..not. r e q u ir e d t o a p p o in t a l l t e n u r e , t e a c h e r s . recommended by t h e s u p e r i n t e n ­ d en t.

In t h e words o f th e co u rt:

The c o m p l e t i o n .o f t h e p r o b a tio n a r y s e r v i c e and t h e o b t a in in g o f th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ’s recom m endation make a t e a c h e r , e l i g i b l e t o e n t e r i n t o a permanent c o n t r a c t c a r r y in g t h e . r i g h t s o f te n u r e p r o v id e d t h e board i s w i l l ­ in g t o make su ch a c o n tr a c t., b u t. c o n f e r s no f u r t h e r r i g h t t o t e n u r e beyond t h a t o f e l ig ib ilit y .* * * ^ Two more c a s e s in New York r e q u ir e d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e e f f e c t o f t h e M i l i t a r y Law on te n u r e r i g h t s . - I n t h e f i r s t c a s e an i n d i v i d u a l demanded t e n u r e . r i g h t s as. l i b r a r y a s s i s t a n t in C it y C o l l e g e .

T h r e e f u l l y e a r s o f p r o b a tio n

a r e r e q u ir e d f o r th e a c q u i s i t i o n . o f . te n u r e i n t h i s . p o s i t i o n . D uring t h i s p e r io d t h e p e t i t i o n e r had b e e n .a b s e n t - .o n ..m il it a r y

36 le a v e #

I f h i s p e r io d o f m i l i t a r y l e a v e were c o u n te d , he

would have f u l f i l l e d t h e f u l l req u irem en t f o r t e n u r e s t a t u s . The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e M i l i t a r y Law r e q u ir e s, t h a t t h e p e t i ­ t i o n e r be g r a n te d t e n u r e s t a t u s s i n c e i t s t a t e s t h a t any p u b l i c em ployee r e s t o r e d t o h i s p o s i t i o n a f t e r t h e te r m in a ­ t i o n o f m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e “ s h a l l be. deemed t o have rend ered s a t i s f a c t o r y and e f f i c i e n t s e r v i c e in su ch a p o s i t i o n d u rin g t h e p e r io d o f h i s l e a v e o f a b s e n c e and s h a l l n o t be s u b j e c t e d d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y t o any l o s s o f t im e , s e r v i n g , . i n c r e ­ ment , or any o t h e r r i g h t o r p r i v i l e g e . f l l 5

The seco n d e a s e

i s n o t one o f t e n u r e r i g h t s but r a t h e r one o f p r o m o tio n a l r ig h ts.

W hile t h e p e t i t i o n e r was a member o f th e.a rm ed f o r c e s

an e x a m in a tio n had b een g iv e n f o r f i r s t . a s s i s t a n t , i n . h i s p o s i ­ tio n .

Upon h i s r e t u r n , t h e p e t i t i o n e r r e q u e s te d t o be g iv e n

a com parable e x a m in a tio n but t h e board r e f u s e d h i s r e q u e s t . S i n c e t h e e x a m in a tio n d eterm in ed a s a l a r y i n c r e a s e i t was c o n s id e r e d a p r o m o tio n a l ex a m in a tio n w hich comes under th e M i l i t a r y Law g u a r a n t e e in g t h a t p u b l i c em ployees on m i l i t a r y l e a v e s h a l l n o t l o s e any employment r i g h t s .

T h erefo re, the

board o f exam iners was requ ired , t o g iv e , th e e x a m in a tio n . ^ In F l o r i d a i t was d eterm in ed i n t h e c o u r t s t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s f te n u r e la w i s m ere ly a sta te m e n t, o f l e g i s l a t i v e p o l i c y , n o t c r e a t i n g c o n t r a c t r i g h t s , immunized from r e p e a l or m o d i f i c a t i o n by due p r o c e s s o f l a w . 1 ? The p r o b a tio n a r y p e r io d h as ca u sed l i t i g a t i o n

in I l l i n o i s

37 w here t h e s t a t u t e r e q u ir e s two f u l l c o n s e c u t i v e ca len d a r, y e a r s b e f o r e becom ing e n t i t l e d t o t e n u r e ,

A s u p e r in t e n d e n t had

com p leted one . f u l l y e a r but h i s secon d y e a r c o n t r a c t p ro v id e d f o r o n ly n i n e months employment,.

The. c o u r t h e ld , t h a t he had

n o t a c q u ir e d te n u r e r i g h t s as a t e a c h e r . 1 ** A n o t h e r .c a s e in Illin o is

co n cern s a t e a c h e r who had t a u g h t . i n t h e same s c h o o l

f o r many y e a r s , f i v e o f t h o s e y e a r s b e in g a f t e r t h e t e n u r e law had b een p a s s e d . sa l.

The board s e n t him a n o t i c e o f d i s m i s ­

The t e a c h e r ask ed f o r a h e a r in g b u t was den ied , on t h e

grounds t h a t he had n e v e r s e r v e d a p r o b a tio n a r y ..period as i t was n o t s o s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d i n h i s c o n t r a c t . T h e c o u r t h e ld in f a v o r o f th e t e a c h e r , s a y in g : A l l s e r v i c e by t e a c h e r s under c o n t r a c t e n t e r e d . i n t o a f t e r e f f e c t i v e d a te of. Tenure A c t , . even though c o n t r a c t s a r e s i l e n t as t o p r o b a tio n a r y p e r i o d , i s p r o b a tio n a r y u n t i l su c h tim e as t e a c h e r a c q u ir e s c o n t r a c t u a l c o n tin u e d se r v ic e s t a t u s .1^ A s u p e r v i s i n g p r i n c i p a l i n P e n n s y lv a n ia c la im e d r i g h t s under t h e t e n u r e law by r e a s o n o f th e f a c t t h a t *he was g iv e n a p r o f e s s i o n a l e m p lo y e e ’s c o n t r a c t and s e r v e d i n t h a t p o s i t i o n one y e a r .

The s c h o o l board con ten d s t h a t he was. m e r e ly a

tem porary p r o f e s s i o n a l em p lo yee.

The P e n n s y lv a n ia Tenure

Law o f 1939 s t a t e s t h a t a tem porary p r o f e s s i o n a l , em ployee can become a r e g u l a r p r o f e s s i o n a l em ployee by h a v in g h i s work " c e r t i f i e d by t h e county s u p e r in t e n d e n t o f s c h o o l s . . • d u r in g t h e l a s t f o u r months o f th e seco n d y e a r o f such, s e r ­ v i c e , as b e in g s a t i s f a c t o r y ."

T h is was n o t done; on t h e

38 c o n t r a r y , he was n o t i f i e d t h a t h i s work was u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . The co u r t h e ld t h a t he had g a in e d no te n u r e r i g h t s . 20 D e a d lin e d a t e s f o r n o t i f y i n g em ployees o f t h e i r d i s m i s ­ s a l or rea p p oin tm en t are, o f t e n s e t ou t in t h e S t a t e . E d u c a tio n C odes.

In Ohio i t was d eterm in ed t h a t a te a c h e r , in t h e e l e ­

m entary g ra d es who was a h o ld e r o f a l i f e c e r t i f i c a t e l i c e n s e was a u t o m a t i c a l l y employed f o r t h e se co n d y e a r by r e a s o n o f t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e s c h o o l board t o . g i v e him n o t i c e on or b e f o r e March 3 1 s t o f th e y e a r .

The s c h o o l board had made an

i n c o r r e c t a ssu m p tio n or i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t t h i s law p e r t a i n ­ ed o n ly t o s c h o o l s w it h more t h a n . e i g h t hundred p u p i l s . 21 T h is i n d i c a t e s q u i t e e m p h a t ic a lly t h a t s c h o o l.b o a r d members sh o u ld make t h e m s e lv e s a c q u a in te d w it h t h e e d u c a t i o n a l r e ­ g u l a t i o n s and s t a t u t e s . The Supreme Court o f F l o r i d a . determ ined, t h a t t h e r e ­ commendations o f t h e co u n ty s u p e r in te n d e n t.m a y not. be r e f u s e d by t h e d i s t r i c t s c h o o l t r u s t e e s u n l e s s good c a u se is , shown. I f t h e f i r s t recom m endation ..is. r e j e c t e d f o r good c a u s e , a op

se co n d and even a t h i r d recommendation m u st.b e c o n s id e r e d . ^ T eachers* c o n tr a c ts .

T ea ch ers a r e em ployees o f t h e

s t a t e and as such, g a in t h e i r r i g h t s th ro u gh s t a t u t o r y , p r o v i ­ sio n s.

In t h e a b s e n c e o f s t a t u t e s . , t h e l o c a l em p loyin g a g en cy

has im p lie d powers t o c o n t r a c t w it h and. d is m is s t e a c h e r s . The t e a c h e r s ’ c o n t r a c t must p o n f o m . t o a l l . t h e g e n e r a l req u irem en ts, o f c o n t r a c t s i n g e n e r a l . T h a t . i s , i t must

39 b e b etw e en com petent p a r t i e s , su p p o rted by a d eq u ate c o n s i d e r a t i o n , be s u f f i c i e n t l y d e f i n i t e t o i n d i c a t e what t h e p a r t i e s in te n d e d a n d . conform t o any s p e c i a l s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s th a t.m a y be a p p l i c a b l e . There must be o f f e r and a c c e p t a n c e , com m unication o f t h e a c c e p ta n c e t o t h e *" ■' s t a t u t e r e q u ir e s i t , t h e c o n t r a c t I t i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t a t e a c h e r may n o t . e n t e r i n t o a l e g a l c o n t r a c t t o t e a c h w it h o u t h a v in g a c e r t i f i c a t e as r e q u ir e d by la w .

The f o l l o w i n g c a s e is..a n . exam p le.

A

t e a c h e r h e ld an e le m e n ta r y t e a c h i n g c e r t i f i c a t e . w h i c h e x p ir e d June, 1946.

In May, 1 9 4 7 , t h e s u p e r in t e n d e n t recommended

s h e b e h ir e d f o r one y e a r .

The t e a c h e r s ig n e d and a c c e p t e d .

On June 4 , 1948, t h e t e a c h e r was n o t i f i e d by l e t t e r t h a t h e r employment would be t e r m in a t e d .

She read t h e l e t t e r and th e n

s t a t e d t h a t sh e r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t i t . .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t

t h e t e a c h e r , s t e n u r e c o n t r a c t e x p ir e d when h er t e a c h e r s ’ c e r ­ t i f i c a t e e x p ir e d and sh e co u ld c la im n o r i g h t s . 2 4 R e f u s a l t o a c c e p t a p o s i t i o n i n a p a r t i c u l a r sc h o o l in a d i s t r i c t does n o t a lw ays t e r m in a t e a t e a c h e r ’ s c o n t r a c t ­ ual r ig h ts.

In t h i s c a s e , th e t e a c h e r had a t t a i n e d s t a t u s

o f c o n t in u in g s e r v i c e .

She r e c e i v e d a l e t t e r a s s i g n i n g h e r

t o a s c h o o l t h i r t y - t w o m i l e s . from h e r home.

She w r o te t h e

co u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t t h a t , sh e was sorry, sh e. c o u ld n o t a c c e p t t h e p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e o f i t s d i s t a n t l o c a t i o n fr o m .h e r home,

tio n

23 R. H am ilton and P . M ort, The Law and P u b l i c Educa­ (C h icago: The F o u n d a tio n P r e s s , I n c . 1941) p p . 3 ^ 8 -2 9 .

40 b u t would a p p r e c i a t e a more c o n v e n ie n t t r a n s f e r .

To t h i s

sh e r e c e i v e d no r e p l y but l a t e r when s h e r e q u e s te d t h e board t o a s s i g n h er t o a s c h o o l , sh e was inform ed t h a t t h e y con ­ s i d e r e d s i n c e s h e d i d n ’t a c c e p t t h e s c h o o l o f f e r e d h e r , t h a t h e r r i g h t s were t e r m in a t e d .

The c o u r t r u le d t h a t . s h e had

done n o th in g t o - c a u s e h e r c o n t r a c t t o be t e r m in a t e d . A t e a c h e r employed, on M a r c h 2 2 , 1947 f o r t h e 1 9 4 7 - 4 # s c h o o l y e a r was d i s m i s s e d .o n August 1 9 , 1 9 4 7 .

He had r e ­

c e iv e d n o t i c e o f h i s ap poin tm ent w it h i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t e a r o f f th e a c c e p t a n c e form a t t h e bottom o f t h e s h e e t and r e t u r n i t t o th e s c h o o l b o a r d .

T h is he d i d , and con ten d ed t h a t h i s

a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e o f f e r c o n s t i t u t e d a c o n t r a c t w hich t h e board co u ld n o t b rea k b e f o r e he had commenced s e r v i n g t h e r e ­ u n d er , a lth o u g h he con ceded t h a t under t h e t e n u r e . la w t h e board co u ld d i s m is s a p r o b a tio n a r y t e a c h e r a t any t im e .

The

c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e enactm ent o f t h e t e n u r e la w changed t e a c h ­ e r employment from c o n t r a c t t o l e g i s l a t i v e s t a t u s and no c o n t r a c t was e n t e r e d i n t o by t h e b o a rd , nor was t h e board empowered t o e n t e r i n t o s u c h .a c o n t r a c t .

F u rth erm ore, t h e

power o f t h e .b o a r d t o d is m is s a p r o b a tio n a r y t e a c h e r a t any tim e d u r in g t h e p r o b a tio n a r y p e r io d i n c l u d e s power t o d is m is s su ch a t e a c h e r p r i o r t o . commencement. o f t h e p r o b a tio n a r y s e r v ic e . Where t h e s c h o o l board o r a l l y a g re ed t o pay a r e a s o n ­ a b l e amount f o r e x t r a work perform ed by r e m a i n in g .t e a c h e r s

41 when o t h e r s e n t e r e d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e w it h o u t r e p la c e m e n t, and c e r t a i n t e a c h e r s perform ed s e r v i c e s in a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e r e q u ir e d by t h e i r w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t s , t h e board c o u l d . l a w f u l l y a u t h o r i z e payments o f co m p en sation up t o amounts i t would have p a id a b s e n t t e a c h e r s tinder t h e i r c o n t r a c t s n o t w it h s t a n d ­ in g s t a t u t e g e n e r a l l y r e q u ir e d t e a c h e r s 1 c o n t r a c t s t o be in w r i t i n g and bond o f t h e t r e a s u r e r o f t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t was n o t l i a b l e f o r su ch p a y m e n ts .2 ? The c o n t in u in g c o n t r a c t law in o p e r a t io n in I l l i n o i s r e q u ir e s n o t i c e on o r b e f o r e A p r i l 25 in any y e a r i n .w h i c h a r e g u l a r employment c o n t r a c t e x p i r e s , w it h a s t a te m e n t o f r e a s o n s f o r n o n -re n e w a l o f th e c o n t r a c t ,

A p r o b a tio n a r y

t e a c h e r who was n o t i f i e d on A p r i l 22 o f h e r f i r s t y e a r o f employment t h a t sh e would n o t be re -em p lo y ed t h e e n su in g s c h o o l y e a r , con ten d ed t h a t s h e was e n t i t l e d t o a. s t a t e m e n t o f reasons.

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t 11r e g u la r , employment c o n t r a c t ”

r e f e r s t o employment a f t e r t h e p r o b a tio n a r y p e r io d and t h e r e ­ f o r e a s t a t e m e n t o f r e a s o n s i s n o t r e q u ir e d in t h e . d i s m i s s a l o f p r o b a tio n a r y t e a c h e r s . 2 ** The Supreme Court , o f N orth C a r o lin a , h e ld tJhat a t r a n s ­ f e r w i t h i n a d i s t r i c t i s n o t a b re a c h o f . c o n t r a c t . e r had ta u g h t in one s c h o o l f o r t h r e e y e a r s , g iv e n a c o n t r a c t f o r one more y e a r .

She was th e n

S i x t e e n days f o l l o w i n g

t h i s sh e g ave n o t i c e o f h e r a c c e p t a n c e . t h a t t h i s be done in t e n d a y s .

The t e a c h ­

The law r e q u ir e s

Just b efo re sch o o l s ta r te d

i n t h e f a l l , sh e was g iv e n n o t i c e by t h e board t h a t s h e had b een t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n o th e r s c h o o l in t h e d i s t r i c t .

I t was

b rou ght o u t t h a t s h e had b e e n , i n e r r o r in w a i t i n g lo n g e r than t e n days t o n o t i f y t h e board o f h e r a c c e p t a n c e , h ow ever, t h i s was n o t t h e d e te r m in in g p o i n t in t h e

c a s e .

The co u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t m a ile d a n d . r e g i s t e r e d a n o t i c e o f r e j e c t i o n b e f o r e t h e end o f t h e s c h o o l , t e r m .

The

f a c t t h a t t h e l e t t e r was n o t r e c e i v e d u n t i l a f t e r . c l o s e o f t h e term was n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o m a in ta in a c t i o n f o r b rea ch of con tract.

The Supreme Court o f N o rth C a r o lin a made t h e

f o l l o w i n g remarks c o n c e r n in g .t h e . r i g h t o f an. i n d i v i d u a l t o m a in ta in s u i t a g a i n s t t h e cou n ty board o f e d u c a tio n : Under s t a t u t e p r o v id in g t h a t County Board o f E d u ca tio n s h a l l be a body c o r p o r a te c a p a b le o f p r o s e c u t i n g and d e fe n d in g s u i t s f o r or a g a i n s t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n , . a c t i o n by t e a c h e r f o r b re a c h o f c o n t r a c t co u ld be m a in ta in e d a g a i n s t County, Board o f E d u c a t io n .30 B e s i g n a t i o n and abandonment.

Tenure law s o f L o u is ia n a

do n o t p r o h i b i t a s c h o o l board from r e q u ir in g w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t s . The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e t e a c h e r fs f a i l u r e t o s i g n te n d e r e d employment c o n t r a c t w i t h i n t h e r e a s o n a b le tim e f i x e d by t h e s c h o o l board was v o lu n t a r y t e r m in a t io n o f employment and t h e r e a f t e r t h e t e a c h e r c o u ld n o t compel t h e s c h o o l board t o employ h e r . 31 A l e t t e r w r i t t e n t o th e co u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t by a t e a c h e r in c o n t in u in g s e r v i c e s t a t u s , - t h a t s h e co u ld n o t

43 a c c e p t a t e a c h in g p o s i t i o n in w hich s h e had "been, p la c e d b e ­ c a u se o f i t s d i s t a n c e . from t h e t e a c h e r ’s r e s i d e n c e , but t h a t s h e would a p p r e c i a t e a more c o n v e n ie n t t r a n s f e r , was n o t a " r e s i g n a t i o n ” t e r m in a t i n g h er r i g h t s under, th e. t e a c h e r s 1 t e n u r e la w . A f t e r a t e a c h e r had te n d e r e d h i s r e s i g n a t i o n ., he cou ld n o t s u b s e q u e n t ly demand. t h a t th e s c h o o l , board w ithdraw t h a t r e sig n a tio n .

In t h e words o f t h e c o u r t:

A w ith d ra w a l o f a r e s i g n a t i o n i s a m a tt e r s o l e l y o f d isc r e tio n . R e in s ta te m e n t o r re a p p o in tm e n t. is. n o t man­ d a to ry . Custom o f Board o f E d u c a t io n , i f o n e . e x i s t e d , t o a c c e p t w ithd raw al, o f r e s i g n a t i o n w ith in , .one., y e a r co u ld c r e a t e no v e s t e d r i g h t in t e a c h e r . 33 D is c h a r g e o f t e a c h e r s .

A number o f c a s e s c o n c e r n in g

t h e d is c h a r g e o f t e a c h e r s may be summed up under one p r i n ­ c ip le .

A p r o b a tio n a r y t e a c h e r may be d is c h a r g e d w it h o u t

c a u se o r h e a r in g a t any tim e d u r in g , b e f o r e , o r a t t h e end o f t h e p r o b a tio n a r y p e r i o d . 3 4 > 3 5 ,3 6 ,3 7 A t e a c h e r had a c q u ir e d c o n tin u e d s e r v i c e s t a t u s n o t ­ w i t h s t a n d in g t h a t t h e r e was no p r o v i s i o n in t h e c o n t r a c t m e n tio n in g t h e p r o b a tio n a r y p e r i o d .

The. c o u r t s t a t e d t h i s

o p in io n : The o b j e c t s t o be a t t a i n e d , by t h e L e g i s l a t u r e in p a s ­ s i n g T ea ch er Tenure A ct w ere t o improve s c h o o l .s y s t e m s by a s s u r in g , t o t e a c h e r s o f e x p e r ie n c e , and. a b i l i t y a con ­ t in u a n c e o f s e r v i c e and t h e r e h i r i n g b a sed upon m e r it b u t r e s e r v i n g t o board o f e d u c a t io n r i g h t t o h a v e a s p e c i f i e d p e r io d t o ad ju d ge t e a c h e r ’s c h a r a c t e r and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s b e f o r e c o n t r a c t u a l, c o n tin u e d s e r v i c e s t a t u s was a c q u ir e d and. r i g h t to d i s m is s .o r r e f u s e t o r e h i r e a t e a c h e r f o r g o o d . c a u s e . 3®

44 A t e a c h e r in P e n n s y lv a n ia had b een a s s i g n e d . t o duty as th e p r in c ip a l, o f sc h o o ls but in th e r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l program a q u a l i f i e d s u p e r v i s i n g p r i n c i p a l was e l e c t e d and th e a p p e l l a n t was a s s i g n e d a s p r i n c i p a l o f t h r e e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls , w it h no r e d u c t io n i n s a l a r y .

C ontending

t h a t t h i s a ssig n m e n t c o n s t i t u t e d a demotion, in t y p e o f p o s i ­ t i o n , t h e a p p e l l a n t demanded a h e a r i n g .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t

t h i s change in d u t i e s d id n o t o p e r a t e t o change h i s . r e l a t i v e g ra d e or rank in t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m , and t h i s , b e in g s o , t h e r e had b een no d em otion i n . t h e s e n s e p r o h i b i t e d by t h e s t a t u t e . I t was n o t t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e " to c o n f e r any s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s or im m u n ities upon p r o f e s s i o n a l em ployees t o r e t a i n permanently, t h e i r p o s i t i o n and pay r e g a r d l e s s o f a p l a c e t o work” or " to h ave th e Tenure Act i n t e r f e r e w it h t h e c o n t r o l o f . t h e s c h o o l p o l i c y . " 39 Where a t e a c h e r was t r a n s f e r r e d from a p o s i t i o n o f s u p e r v i s i n g p r i n c i p a l t o t h e . p o s i t i o n o f p r i n c i p a l .o f an e lem en ta r y s c h o o l w it h a l a r g e r e d u c t io n in s a l a r y , t h e Su­ preme Court o f P e n n s y lv a n ia d eterm in ed t h i s t o b e a 11dem otion” b o th in s a l a r y and t y p e o f w ork .^ 0 A t e a c h e r h o l d i n g a c o n t in u in g c o n t r a c t can n ot be d is c h a r g e d f o r i n e f f i c i e n c y by mere w r i t t e n n o t i c e , w ith o u t a h e a r i n g , b u t t e n days’ n o t i c e and an o p p o r tu n ity t o be heard are e s s e n t i a l .^ 1 A t e a c h e r ca n n ot b e n e f i t by p a s s i n g an e x a m in a tio n f o r w hich s h e i s n o t e l i g i b l e .

T h is p o i n t was made e v i d e n t

in Mew York where an i n d i v i d u a l to o k t h e e x a m in a tio n f o r

45 c e r t i f y i n g and em p loyin g e le m e n ta r y t e a c h e r s a lth o u g h sh e d id n o t m eet t h e announced q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . .. She. p a sse d t h e e x a m in a tio n and had ta u g h t, f o r one s e m e s t e r when her, i n e l ­ i g i b i l i t y was d i s c o v e r e d whereupon th e board te r m in a te d h e r employment and revo k ed h er l i c e n s e . The Supreme Court o f Alabama h e ld t h a t a r u l e adopted by t h e board o f e d u c a t io n r e q u ir in g a l l c l a s s r o o m .t e a c h e r s t o t a k e a m en ta l a b i l i t y t e s t was r e a s o n a b l e , and t h e r e f u s a l t o comply t h e r e w it h would j u s t i f y c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t h e co n ­ t r a c t o f employment o f a t e n u r e t e a c h e r f o r i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n . ^ C ourts a re n o t alw ays i n agreem ent in i n t e r p r e t i n g the in te n t o f s t a t u t e s .

I n L o u is ia n a a c o u r t u p h eld t h e

a c t i o n o f a board o f e d u c a t io n i n d i s m i s s i n g . a t e a c h e r ap­ p r o x im a t e ly s e v e n t e e n days a f t e r t h e d a t e t h a t he com p leted h i s p r o b a tio n a r y t h r e e y e a r p e r io d on t h e grounds t h a t i t was w i t h i n a r e a s o n a b le tim e and s a t i s f i e d t h e law f o r d i s m i s s a l o f a p r o b a tio n a r y t e a c h e r a t th e end o f t h e p r o b a tio n a r y t i m e , ^ w h i l e in Alabama, a t e a c h e r whose p r o b a tio n a r y p e r io d had ended on t h e l a s t day o f s c h o o l co u ld n o t be d is m is s e d th e day a f t e r . ^ The r e t i r e m e n t age i n P e n n s y lv a n ia i s s i x t y - t w o y e a r s . When a t e a c h e r r e a c h e s t h i s age sh e may be d is m is s e d and need not be a f f o r d e d , a h e a r in g u n l e s s s h e p r e s e n t s a w r i t t e n r e ­ q u e st t h e r e f o r w i t h i n t e n days a f t e r r e c e i v i n g n o t i c e o f te r m in a tio n .^

46 The Tenure Law in New York r e q u ir e s t h e d i s m i s s a l o f p r o b a tio n a r y t e a c h e r s t o b e on. recommendation . o f t h e s u p e r ­ in t e n d e n t , n o t sub j e c t t o h i s approval,.

At. a c e r t a i n board

m e e tin g i t was d e c id e d t o r e q u e s t the. p e r m i s s i o n . o f , t h e s u p e r ­ in te n d e n t t o d i s m is s a t e a c h e r .

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t . t h e n w ro te

t o t h e board recommending t h e t e a c h e r ’s d i s m i s s a l . A*as .r e q u e s t­ ed in your l e t t e r . ”

The c l e r k .thereu p on, w r o te t o th e t e a c h e r

t e r m in a t in g h er s e r v i c e s im m e d ia te ly .

The board to o k no

a c t i o n on t h e d i s m i s s a l , e x c e p t a t t h e . f i r s t . m e e t i n g . .

The

c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e t e a c h e r was e n t i t l e d to . r e in s t a t e m e n t on t h e ground t h a t th e s c h o o l b o a r d ’s .p r o c e d u r e in d i s m i s s i n g a p r o b a tio n a r y t e a c h e r had n o t f o l l o w e d the. req u irem en t o f t h e Tenure Law and was i n e f f e c t u a l . ^ A te a c h e r , in Iowa was g iv e n a c o n t r a c t w it h i n s t r u c ­ t i o n s t o s i g n and r e t u r n i t by A p r il 1 5 .

The c o n t r a c t had

n o t been r e tu r n e d by May 3 when t h e board met a t i t s r e g u l a r m e e t in g .

At t h i s tim e t h i s c e r t a i n t e a c h e r was. d i s c u s s e d

and i t was d e c id e d t o t e r m in a t e h i s employment b u t no o f f i c i a l a c t i o n was t a k e n .

A week, l a t e r .a, s p e c i a l m e e t i n g .w a s . c a l l e d

a t w hich tim e t h e t e a c h e r was p r e s e n t and was inform ed t h a t h i s s e r v i c e s would n o t be n e e d e d .

The. t e a c h e r con ten ded t h a t

he had a c t u a l l y b een d is c h a r g e d May 3 , &t w h ich ..tim e he was n o t asked t o be p r e s e n t .

T h is would b e c o n tr a r y t o a u to m a tic

c o n tin u a n c e o f employment, la w .

However, t h e c o u r t h e ld t h a t

t h e d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e r n in g t h e t e a c h e r a t t h e f i r s t m e e tin g

47 d id n o t i n v a l i d a t e t h e .s u b s e q u e n t m e e tin g in which, t h e t e a c h ­ e r p a r t i c i p a t e d , f o r t h e r e a so n t h a t no o f f i c i a l a c t i o n had been ta k en a t t h e f i r s t . m e e t i n g * ^ A p r o b a tio n a r y t e a c h e r s e r v i n g h e r t h i r d y e a r was n o t i f i e d d u r in g March t h a t b e c a u se o f h er poor p h y s i c a l con­ d i t i o n h e r s e r v i c e s would n o t be r e q u ir e d f o r t h e . f o u r t h year* The c o u r t h e ld t h a t b e c a u s e sh e had f a i l e d t o i n d i c a t e t o th e board b e f o r e May 1 5 , w hich was t h e l a s t day upon w hich t h e board co u ld d e c i d e w h eth er t h e t e a c h e r would be employed f o r t h e e n su in g y e a r , t h a t sh e d e s i r e d a fo rm al h ea rin g ., sh e was e sto p p e d from t h e r e a f t e r r a i s i n g q u e s t i o n o f the. b o a r d ’s f a i l u r e t o g i v e h er a form al h e a r i n g * . The c a s e was in San F r a n c is c o where t h e f o l l o w i n g l e g i s l a t i v e r u l e i s i n e f f e c t : G overn ing b oard s o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s h a v in g .a n .a vera g e d a i l y a t t e n d a n c e o f 6 0 ,0 0 0 or more p u p ils , s h a l l d is m is s p r o b a tio n a r y em ployees fo r . c a u se only* (E d u c a tio n Code, S e c t i o n 13583 The p o s i t i o n o f s u p e r v i s o r o f e le m e n ta r y e d u c a t io n , w hich had been c r e a t e d . two y e a r s e a r l i e r . , was a b o lis h e d b e ­ ca u se t h e board o f e d u c a t i o n . f e l t t h a t i t had n o t r e s u l t e d in any p e r c e p t i b l e im p ro v em en t.in e d u c a t io n fu r n is h e d , in t h e d istr ic t*

The c o u r t h e ld t h i s t o be w i t h i n t h e power o f t h e

board and a l l t h a t i s . n e c e s s a r y i s t h a t t h e a c t i o n o f t h e board was in good f a i t h . 5°

A l i k e d e c i s i o n was rea ch ed in

West V i r g i n i a . ^ Formal n o t i c e t o a t e a c h e r , o f t h e d i s t r i c t s c h o o l

kS board *s r e s o l u t i o n . f o r d is c o n t in u a n c e o f s c h o o l , under s t a t u t e p r o v id in g t h e r e f o r when, t h e a v er a g e .a tte n d a n c e i s l e s s th a n s i x p u p i l s . f o r t e n c o n s e c u t i v e d a y s , i s p r e r e q u i­ s i t e t o t h e t e r m in a t i o n o f a t e a c h e r * s c o n t r a c t i n XMorth D ak o ta. The s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , by r e s o l u t i o n , p u r p o r te d f o r economy r e a s o n s t o a b o l i s h t h e p o s i t i o n o f p r i n c i p a l in t h e d i s t r i c t , and t e r m in a te d t h e . s e r v i c e s o f t h e p r in c ip a l..

They

t h e n c r e a t e d th e p o s i t i o n o f " t e a c h in g p r in c ip a l* 1 w hich was g iv e n t o a form er t e n u r e t e a c h e r , whose new d u t i e s in c lu d e d t h e d u t i e s o f p r i n c i p a l , in a d d i t i o n , t o t e a c h i n g .

The co u r t

h e ld t h a t t h e " p o s i t i o n o f p r i n c i p a l in t h e s c h o o l, d i s t r i c t was n o t a b o lis h e d i n . f a c t and th e p r i n c i p a l , was. e n t i t l e d t o r e in s t a t e m e n t as h a v in g been d is c h a r g e d w it h o u t a ch arge and h e a r i n g . 53 In M a s s a c h u s e tts , th e . c o u r t rea so n ed t h a t a h ig h .s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l i s o n ly a s u p e r i o r s o r t o f t e a c h e r , and h en ce h i s d em otion t o rank o f h ig h s c h o o l . t e a c h e r by v o t e o f t h e s c h o o l com m ittee was n o t a ^ d i s m i s s a l ” r e q u ir in g , n o t i c e and h e a r i n g , but t h e d em otion d id n o t a u t h o r iz e a r e d u c t io n in s a l a r y w it h ­ ou t h i s c o n s e n t , i n v ie w o f a s t a t u t e p r o h i b i t i n g th e . re d u c ­ t i o n o f s a l a r y o f any t e a c h e r w it h o u t h i s c o n s e n t e x c e p t by a g en era l s a la r y r e v is io n e f f e c t i n g e q u a lly a l l tea c h e r s o f t h e same s a l a r y grad e in t h e tow n. On t h e l a s t day o f s c h o o l , an In d ia n a t e a c h e r was

49 p r e s e n t e d a d i s m i s s a l n o t i c e by a s c h o o l t r u s t e e and t h e te a c h e r refu sed to accep t i t .

The t r u s t e e th e n s e n t a n o t i c e

by m a il b u t t o o l a t e t o s a t i s f y th e s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n o f a f i v e - d a y tim e l i m i t f o l l o w i n g th e c l o s e o f s c h o o l .

The

c o u r t h e ld t h a t th e t e a c h e r who knew t h e n a tu r e o f the. n o t i c e d i s m i s s i n g h e r co u ld n o t d e f e a t th e e f f e c t o f the. n o t i c e by r e fu sin g i t .

Two ju d g es d i s s e n t e d in t h i s o p in io n s a y in g

t h a t t h e n o t e o f f e r e d had t h e e f f e c t o f a r e s i g n a t i o n and not a d i s m i s s a l as t h e n o t e r e q u ir e d th e t e a c h e r ’s s i g n a t u r e . The n o t i c e o f d i s m i s s a l d id n o t f u l f i l l th e r e q u ir e m e n ts s e t out by law and was t h e r e f o r e n o t a d i s m i s s a l . ^ A New York s t a t u t e p r o h i b i t e d r e t e n t i o n i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s o f t h e s t a t e , members o f any o r g a n i z a t i o n ( e s p e c i a l ­ l y com m unists) w hich a d v o c a te s t h e o v er th ro w o f t h e f e d e r a l or s t a t e governm ents by f o r c e or by u n la w f ul., m ea n s, and p r o ­ v id e d f o r e l i m i n a t i o n o f s u b v e r s i v e p e r s o n s . from t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l sy ste m by h a v in g a l i s t , p rep a red by t h e board o f r e g e n t s , o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s w hich i t found t o . b e s u b v e r s i v e . The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n , c o n tr a v e n e s t h e . p r o v i ­ s i o n s o f . t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and o f t h e S t a t e o f New York.

Many r e a so n s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n w e r e - s t a t e d

in t h e o p in i o n but t h e r e were two o u t s t a n d in g p o i n t s : 1. In t h e a b se n c e o f p r o o f , i t w i l l n o t b e presumed t h a t membership in the-Communist B a r t y b e a r s any l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n t o su ch member’ s f i t n e s s as a t e a c h e r in t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l sy s te m .

50 2. A s t a t u t e w hich p e n a l i z e s an a c t i v i t y must h e d e ­ f i n i t e and c e r t a i n i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . To i n f l i c t a p e n a l t y in t h e a b s e n c e o f su c h d e f i n i t e . s t a n d a r d i s a d e n i a l o f due p r o c e s s . The words in t h e . s t a t u t e 11any t r e a s o n a b l e o r s e d i t i o u s word*1 o r ,ft r e a s o n a b l e o r s e ­ d i t i o u s act** do n o t e s t a b l i s h a d e f i n i t e sta n d a rd o f p r o s c r ib e d c o n d u c t . 56 A t e a c h e r in N orth D a k o ta , r e c e i v i n g no n o t i c e o f t h e d i s t r i c t s c h o o l b o a r d 's r e s o l u t i o n d i s c o n t i n u i n g s c h o o l ta u g h t by h e r , b e c a u s e o f a v e r a g e a t t e n d a n c e o f l e s s th a n s i x p u p i l s f o r t e n c o n s e c u t i v e d a y s , was j u s t i f i e d i n c o n t in u in g t o t e a c h f i v e c h i l d r e n , r e t u r n in g a f t e r . s u c h t im e , w i t h b e l i e f t h a t c l o s i n g t h e s c h o o l was abandoned, and was e n t i t l e d t o h e r s a l a r y f o r t h e w h o le s c h o o l term under h e r t e a c h in g c o n t r a c t . 57 R ate or amount - o f c o m a e n sa tio n .

The f i r s t c a s e o f f e r s

an e x c e l l e n t argument i n f a v o r o f t h e f i n a n c i a l in d ep en d en ce o f sch o o l boards.

The H a r t f o r d , C o n n e c tic u t Board o f Educa­

t i o n v o t e d " s u b j e c t t o r e c e i p t o f n e c e s s a r y a d d i t i o n a l , funds t o pay each t e a c h e r a c o s t o f l i v i n g ad ju stm en t of. 1450 f o r the year.

I t r e q u e s t e d an a p p r o p r ia t io n f o r t h a t p u rp o se

from th e c i t y c o u n c i l .

T h is was r e f u s e d .

The b a s i c q u e s t i o n

was w h eth er t h e t e a c h e r s had an e n f o r c e a b le , c o n t r a c t .

The

d e c i s i o n o f t h e c o u r t was: V ote by c i t y o f H a r tfo r d Board o f E d u c a tio n o f #450 c o s t o f l i v i n g a d ju stm e n t t o t e a c h e r s s u b j e c t t o . r e c e i p t o f n e c e s s a r y a d d i t i o n a l funds .was n o t a c o n t r a c t , but was a t b e s t a c o n d i t i o n a l o f f e r not. r i p e n in g i n t o con ­ t r a c t in v ie w o f f a i l u r e t o s e c u r e f u n d s . 5° An o p p o s i t e p o in t o f v ie w was h e ld by a c o u r t in

51 M a s s a c h u s e t ts a lt h o u g h t h i s p e r t a in e d t o t e a c h e r s * s a l a r i e s and n o t t o b o n u s e s . t h e town i t s

T here t h e s c h o o l com m ittee p r e s e n t e d t o

it e m iz e d b u d g e t .

The town r e f u s e d t o i n c l u d e

i n t h e a p p r o p r ia t i o n c e r t a i n ite m s am ounting t o a p p r o x im a te­ l y t h e s a l a r y i n c r e a s e s f o r t e a c h e r s and j a n i t o r s .

The c o u r t

h e ld t h a t t h e s c h o o l com m ittee o f a c i t y o r town h a s t h e ab­ s o lu t e r ig h t t o f i x th e s a l a r i e s o f p u b lic sc h o o l tea ch er s and o f s c h o o l j a n i t o r s . 59 I t has b een f a i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t p r i n c i p a l s may b e a s s i g n e d d u t i e s a s t e a c h e r s b u t t h e i r s a l a r i e s , m a y n o t be r e d u c e d .6 0 ,6 1 The S t a t e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f Kentucky p r o v id e s t h a t no o f f i c e r o f t h e s t a t e e x c e p t t h e g o v e r n o r s h a l l be p a id more th a n # 5 , 0 0 0 a y e a r .

Some p r i n c i p a l s and s u p e r v i s o r s i n t h e

L o u i s v i l l e S c h o o l D i s t r i c t r e c e i v e d more th a n t h i s amount. T h is was h e ld by t h e c o u r t t o b e l e g a l a s p u b l i c s c h o o l em­ p l o y e e s a r e n o t " o f f i c e r s o f t h e s t a t e " b u t e r e e m p lo y e e s.

A s a l a r y s c h e d u le i s n o t t o be c o n s id e r e d a s a con­ t r a c t b etw e en t h e t e a c h e r s .a n d t h e board o f e d u c a t io n .

It

may b e ch an ged , amended, o r a b ro g a te d by. t h e board o f ed u ca­ t i o n a t any t i m e . 63 The c u r r e n t b y -la w s o f t h e Board o f -Education o f New York C it y c o n t a i n s e p a r a t e s a l a r y s c h e d u le s f o r p r i n c i p a l s o f e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s and p r i n c i p a l s o f h ig h sch o ols.*

Pe­

t i t i o n e r , an e le m e n ta r y p r i n c i p a l , s e e k s an o r d e r t o compel

t h e hoard t o ad opt b y -la w s c o n t a i n i n g a u n i f o r m .s a l a r y s c h e d ­ u le fo r a l l s c h o o l.p r in c ip a ls .

T h e . d e c i s i o n ren d ered by th e

c o u r t was f o r t h e board r e a s o n in g t h a t s t a t u t e r e q u i r i n g s i n g l e s a l a r y s c h e d u le f o r c la ssr o o m t e a c h e r s d o es not. in c lu d e p r i n c i p a l s o r o t h e r members, o f t h e s u p e r v is o r y s t a f f s A g a in , in New York C i t y , t h e c o u r t d e c id e d t h a t ev e n in g h i g h . s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , n e v e r had b een and c o u ld n o t be c o n s i d e r ­ ed f u l l - t i m e t e a c h e r s b e c a u se o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e in t h e number o f hours o f s e r v i c e .

T h e r e f o r e t h e y co u ld n o t be c o n s id e r e d

in t h e s i n g l e s a la r y , s c h e d u l e ad opted by t h e board under t h e 1947 s a l a r y l a w , 65 On o r ab ou t November.2 0 , 1 9 4 7 , t h e board o f e d u c a t io n s e n t a l e t t e r t o a t e a c h e r o r d e r in g h e r t o t a k e a . s i c k l e a v e f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e y e a r or subm it t o a p h y s i c a l e x a m in a tio n . In h er r e p l y on November 2 5 , s h e v o ic e d t h e o p in io n t h a t sh e was com p lyin g w it h t h e f i r s t .s u g g e s t i o n o n ly b e c a u s e s h e d id n o t have t h e f i n a n c i a l su p p o rt t o f i g h t t h e c a s e in c o u r t . The board made no r e p l y t o t h a t . l e t t e r .

Four m onths l a t e r

t h e t e a c h e r brought, t h e p r o c e e d in g t o compel t h e board t o r e i n s t a t e h er and pay h e r f o r t h e f o u r months’ tim e t h a t s h e had l o s t .

The b o a r d f s d e f e n s e was t h a t t h e l e t t e r had m ere ly

b een an. i n v i t a t i o n t o t a k e a s i c k l e a v e a n d . n o t an o r d e r . They r e a d i l y a d m itte d t h a t t h e y had no a u t h o r i t y t o make su ch an o r d e r .

The o p i n i o n . o f t h e c o u r t was t h a t i f i t had b een

meant t o be a n . i n v i t a t i o n , t h e board sh o u ld have r e p l i e d t o

53

h e r l e t t e r w hich d e f i n i t e l y s t a t e d t h a t sh e was t a k in g t h e s i c k l e a v e a g a i n s t h e r w i s h e s . . The t e a c h e r was r e s t o r e d t o d u ty and p a id f u l l co m p en sa tio n ..

I n a d d i t i o n , a ccum u lated

s i c k l e a v e was r e s t o r e d t o h e r .^ 6 A te a c h e r r e c e iv e d ” s a la r y c r e d it ” fo r th r e e years o f p u b lic sc h o o l te a c h in g .

D urin g t h i s same p e r io d o f tim e he

had ta u g h t i n a p a r o c h i a l h ig h s c h o o l .

I n com puting s a l a r y

c r e d i t t h e d e f e n d a n t s were c o r r e c t i n g i v i n g one y e a r #s c r e d i t f o r s e r v i c e s ren d ered in any one c a le n d a r y e a r .

A teach er

i s n o t e n t i t l e d t o d o u b le c r e d i t f o r c o n c u r r e n t s e r v i c e . ^7 A t e a c h e r in a New York C it y v o c a t i o n a l s c h o o l had had many y e a r s f e x p e r ie n c e a s a journeyman in t h e m achine shop t r a d e a s w e l l a s p r i o r s e r v i c e in t h e p u b lic v o c a t i o n a l sc h o o ls o f P itts b u r g h .

At th e tim e o f h i s employment he was

a l l o t t e d a s a l a r y in cr em en t c r e d i t o f t h r e e y e a r s f o r p r i o r e x p e r ie n c e as a journeyman but n o th in g f o r h i s t e a c h in g ex ­ p erien ce.

The la w s t a t e s t h a t th e board i s a llo w e d t h e form­

e r b u t must comply w i t h t h e l a t t e r .

The b o a r d , b e in g under

t h e f a l s e im p r e s s io n t h a t t h r e e y e a r s* e x p e r ie n c e c r e d i t was t h e maximum, d e c i d e d . t h a t i t made no d i f f e r e n c e f o r w hich e x p e r ie n c e t h e y gave c r e d i t .

They w ere m ista k e n i n t h a t t h e

maximum was s e v e n y e a r s, and n o t t h r e e .

I t r e s u lte d in a

g r a n t in g o f t h a t w h ich t h e board had th e .p o w e r to. w it h h o ld and a w it h h o ld in g o f t h a t w hich i t was under l e g i s l a t i v e mandate to g ran t.

The t e a c h e r was g r a n te d back s a l a r y w hich had

54

a cc ru ed b e c a u s e o f t h i s e r r o r .

6&

When s e v e r a l t e a c h e r s were c a l l e d in to , m i l i t a r y s e r nr

v i c e , t h e s c h o o l board made an o r a l agreem ent w it h t h e rem ain­ in g t e a c h e r s t o t a k e e x t r a d u t i e s and t o be p a id e x t r a s a l a r y f o r t h e s e d u t ie s ..

In answ er t o a c o m p la in t made by a r e s i ­

d e n t t a x p a y e r , t h e c o u r t, h e ld t h a t tinder t h e e x i s t i n g con­ d i t i o n s t h e t e a c h e r s w ere n o t . e s t o p p e d from c la im in g in c r e a s e d pay o r a l l y a g re ed upon n o t w it h s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e y a c c e p te d 69 m onthly payments under w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t s . A cou n ty c o u r t in T e n n e s s e e e f f e c t e d payment o f a # 2 0 0 bonus t o t e a c h e r s

in t h e co u n ty s c h o o l s by d i r e c t i n g

t h e County T r u s t e e s t o t r a n s f e r money from t h e "G en eral fund" t o t h e " S c h o o l fund" and d i s b u r s e t h e bonus ch eck s from th e l a t t e r fu n d .

T e a ch er s in t h e c i t y s c h o o l s d id n o t b e n e f i t

from th e bonus and made c la im f o r i t th ro u gh t h e Supreme C ourt. The t r a n s f e r o f funds f o r t h i s p urpose was u n a u th o r iz e d i n the f i r s t p la c e .

The c o u r t would n o t a u t h o r i z e any more r a i d s

on t h e c o u n ty t r e a s u r y .

A s id e from t h i s , t h e money in t h i s

fund had b e e n l e v i e d and c o l l e c t e d f o r s p e c i f i c co u n ty p u r­ p o s e s , and payment t o c i t y t e a c h e r s would n o t b e a m a tt e r 70 o f r ig h t or le g a l o b lig a tio n but a g i f t . A F l o r i d a .enactm en t p r o v id e d t h a t t e a c h e r s r e c e i v e t h e i r s a l a r i e s in t w e l v e e q u a l m on th ly i n s t a l l m e n t s . . The q u e s t i o n now i s .w hether t e a c h e r s c o u ld be p a id b e g in n in g J u ly 1 , w h ich i s t h e b e g in n i n g o f t h e f i s c a l . y e a r , even

55

though, t h e y had re n d er ed no s e r v i c e s .

A d e c i s i o n was made

w hich a llo w e d t h o s e h i r e d b e f o r e t h e f i r s t o f J u ly t o have t h e i r payments b e g i n J u ly 1 , and t h o s e h ir e d a f t e r J u ly 1 , t o have t h e i r payments, b e g in in S e p t e m b e r . ^ O fte n in l i t i g a t i o n c o n c e r n in g a l l e g e d back s a l a r y due e m p lo y e e s, t h e l o c a l g o v e r n in g s t a t u t e o f l im it a t i o n s or la c h e s .

body b a s e s i t s d e f e n s e on Som etim es you w i l l f i n d

a s p e c i f i e d tim e w i t h i n w hich one must p r e s e n t h i s demands b u t more o f t e n c o u r t s w i l l d e c l a r e a show ing o f damage i s no d e f e n s e .

t h a t l a p s e o f tim e w it h o u t The r i g h t t o r e c o v e r

sta tu to ry te a c h e r s1 s a la r ie s i s a b s o l u t e . ^ » 7 4 Where e v id e n c e shows t h a t t h e r e i s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b etw een s a l a r i e s p a id w h i t e and c o lo r e d t e a c h e r s , in v i o l a t i o n o f t h e F o u r te e n th Amendment o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f the. U n ite d S t a t e s , a t e a c h e r i s e n t i t l e d t o an i n j u n c t i o n . e n j o i n i n g 75 f u r t h e r c o n tin u a n c e o f su ch d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . P e n sio n s.

The enactm en t o f p e n s io n lav/s f o r t e a c h e r s

has become u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d .

In t h e . p a s t , c o u r t s have

had t o d e te r m in e two main q u e stio n s, c o n c e r n in g p e n s io n l e g i s ­ la tio n .

Does t h e t a k i n g o f a p a r t o f a t e a c h e r ’s s a l a r y

c o n s t i t u t e a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e F o u rteen th . Amendment w hich d e c l a r e s t h a t no s t a t e s h a l l d e p r iv e any p e r so n of. l i b e r t y o r p r o p e r ty w it h o u t due p r o c e s s o f law?

I s t h i s . t h e expend­

i t u r e o f p u b l i c money f o r p r i v a t e g a in ?

The answ er t o t h e

56 f i r s t q u e stio n i s in th e n e g a tiv e .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een

t h e s t a t e and t h e t e a c h e r i s p u r e l y c o n t r a c t u a l .

The t e a c h e r

a c c e p t s t h e c o n t r a c t w it h t h e p r o v i s i o n s c l e a r l y o u t l i n e d f o r him.

No money i s a c t u a l l y t a k e n from a t e a c h e r b e c a u s e t h e

o n ly money b e lo n g in g , t o t h e t e a c h e r i s . t h a t w hich he r e c e i v e s a f t e r l e g a l d e d u c t io n s have b e e n made. se co n d q u e s t i o n i s a l s o i n t h e n e g a t i v e . lic

The answ er t o t h e E d u c a tio n i s

a pub­

a f f a i r and p e n s io n s a r e one o f t h e numerous, w ays i n w hich

t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e s c h o o l s i s m a in t a in e d . The c a s e s w hich re a ch ed t h e c o u r t s i n t h e p a s t two y e a r s were n o t a t e s t o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f p e n s io n la w s i n g e n ­ e r a l b u t r a t h e r were i n d i v i d u a l q u e s t i o n s p e r t a in in g , t o s p e ­ c i f i c r e g u la tio n s.

The f i r s t c a s e i s from -T exas where a r e ­

t ir e m e n t a c t was p a s s e d i n 1 9 3 7 •

An i n d i v i d u a l q u a l i f i e d f o r

r e t i r e m e n t and l e f t t h e t e a c h i n g s e r v i c e i n 1 9 3 9 .

No fun ds

had b e e n made a v a i l a b l e and so no b e n e f i t s w ere due u n t i l j u s t a f t e r t h e d e a th o f t h e r e t i r e d t e a c h e r .

.The b e n e f i c i a r y

co n ten d ed t h a t t h e t e a c h e r . s h o u l d be c o n s id e r e d r e t i r e d a s o f t h e d a t e s h e l e f t a c t i v e s e r v i c e , 1 9 3 9 , w hich would make him e l i g i b l e f o r a n n u it y p aym en ts.

The c o u r t d e c i d e d - a g a i n s t him

h ow ev er, s a y in g t h a t where no r e t ir e m e n t a llo w a n c e , had b een g r a n te d a n d .n o payment t h e r e o n had become d u e .w h e n . sh e d i e d , t h e t e a c h e r had n o t

r e t i r e d ” b u t was an ” a c t i v e member” s o

o n ly -the amount o f a c c u m u la te d . c o n t r i b u t i o n s s t a n d in g t o t h e c r e d i t o f h e r i n d i v i d u a l a c c o u n t sh o u ld b e p a id t o h e r

57 b e n e fic ia r y .* ^ The T e a c h e r s 1 R e tir e m e n t A ct i n U tah in c lu d e d t e a c h e r s o f p a ro ch ia l s c h o o ls as w e l l ,a s te a c h e r s o f p u b lic s c h o o ls . There were t h o s e who q u e s t i o n e d - t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h i s A ct in *

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n f o r b id d in g p u b l i c a i d t o church s c h o o l s .

The c o u r t r e a so n e d t h a t t h i s , d id n o t

c o n s t i t u t e a id t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r , s c h o o l s b u t was a method o f im proving t h e s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l sy s te m by b e t t e r com p en satin g t e a c h e r s and rew ard in g them f o r f a i t h f u l and c o n tin u e d s e r ­ v i c e , th u s making t h e p r o f e s s i o n , a t t r a c t i v e t o q u a l i f i e d p e r ­ so n s . 71 A New York s t a t u t e a llo w s a member t o r e t a i n h i s mem­ b e r s h ip i n a r e t i r e m e n t sy ste m f o r a p e r io d n o t . t o ex c ee d f i v e y e a r s , even th ou g h he i s unem ployed.

B u r in g t h e s e y e a r s

o f unemployment t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s o b l i g a t e d t o m eet r e ­ q u ir ed c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o keep and t o m a in t a in sound a c t u a r i a l p r a c tic e s.

I t would b e im p o s s ib le t o a l l o w a b e n e f i t u n l e s s

t h e sy ste m r e q u ir e d c o n t r i b u t i o n s from i t s members f o r t h i s l i a b i l i t y . 78 C e r ta in t e a c h e r s were members o f t h e New Haven R e t i r e ­ ment Fund a t t h e tim e i t was d i s s o l v e d and t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e S t a t e T e a c h e r s T R e tir e m e n t Fund.

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t on p ay ­

ment o f c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n a r r e a r s , t e a c h e r s would b e . e n t i t l e d t o d o u b le p e n s io n s upon r e t i r e m e n t *79 The W ashington Supreme Court d e c id e d t h a t s e r v i c e w it h

58 t h e C i v i l A ir P a t r o l and s e r v i c e a s an i n s t r u c t o r w it h t h e F e d e r a l C i v i l S e r v i c e d u r in g t h e r e c e n t war would n o t q u a l i ­ f y a s m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e f o r c r e d i t toward t e a c h e r s ’ r e t i r e ­ m en t.

A n n u ity c o n t r i b u t i o n s w hich a. form er t e a c h e r had made

d u r in g t h e s e y e a r s w ere r e tu r n e d t o him .

A l e t t e r from t h e

s e c r e ta r y -m a n a g e r o f t h e T e a c h e r s ’ R e tir e m e n t S y stem s t a t i n g t h a t t h i s t y p e work w ould be a c c e p t a b l e d id n o t c o n s t i t u t e a c o n t r a c t b e c a u s e t h e l e t t e r d id n o t p u r p o r t t o be t h e a c t i o n o f t h e board o f t r u s t e e s . ^ Membership i n any p e n s io n or r e t ir e m e n t s y ste m o f a s t a t e or o f a c i v i l d i v i s i o n t h e r e o f s h a l l be a c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e b e n e f i t s o f w hich s h a l l n o t be d im in is h e d o r im p a i r e d .**1 The Montana S t a t e T e a c h e r s ’ R e tir e m e n t System a s c r e ­ a t e d i n 1 9 3 7 , under w h ich t e a c h e r s th e n i n s e r v i c e autom at­ i c a l l y became members u n l e s s t h e y i n d i c a t e d a c o n t r a r y d e ­ s i r e , i s t o t h o s e t e a c h e r s an a n n u it y c o n t r a c t ., and n o t a g r a t u i t o u s p e n s io n s y s t e m .

T h e r e f o r e i t c o u ld n o t b e a b r o ­

g a t e d by a 1945 amendment w hich would have r e f u s e d t o pay t e a c h e r s t h e amounts t h e y had p a id i n i f t h e y w ere w ith d raw ­ in g f o r any o t h e r r e a s o n th a n d i s a b i l i t y o r r e t i r e m e n t .

The

amendment was i n v a l i d a s i n v i o l a t i o n o f b o th t h e U n ite d S t a t e s C o n s t i t u t i o n and t h e Montana S t a t e C o n s t i t u t i o n w it h re g a rd t o p r o h i b i t i n g t h e l e g i s l a t u r e from p a s s i n g any la w im p a ir in g t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f a c o n t r a c t . 0

59 W h ile i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e com m ittee o f a m e n t a ll y i n ­ c a p a b le , a e t i n g under t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e c o u r t , can un­ d o u b te d ly rev ok e one o p t io n and s e l e c t a n o th e r i f im m e d ia te ly n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e su p p o rt o f . t h e in com p eten t., n e v e r t h e l e s s e l e c t i o n s by co m m ittees a r e n o t fa v o r e d s o a s t o s u p e r s e d e p r e v io u s e l e c t i o n s made by in c o m p e te n ts w h i le i n t h e p o s s e s ­ s i o n o f t h e i r p o w e rs.

Even where no p r e v io u s e l e c t i o n has

b een made, t h e c o u r t must make t h e e l e c t i o n f o r . an in co m p e te n t w hich sh o u ld b e i n a c c o r d a n c e w it h what would have b een h i s m a n if e s t and r e a s o n a b le c h o ic e i f he were s a n e .

U rgent n e c ­

e s s i t y f o r t h e in c o m p e t e n t ’ s im m ediate n eed s m ust be c l e a r l y and u n e q u i v o c a l l y shown i n o r d e r t o re v o k e a p a s t c h o i c e . ^ E x p er t t e s t im o n y proved t h a t a t t h e tim e a c e r t a i n t e a c h e r r e t i r e d and made h i s . o p t i o n . c h o i c e , . he was m e n t a ll y in c a p a b l e o f u n d e r s ta n d in g p r o p e r ly t h e n a t u r e , q u a l i t y , and e f f e c t o f h is d e c is io n .

H is e l e c t i o n t h e r e f o r e was w it h o u t

e f f e c t and t h e e s t a t e was due t h e b a la n c e o f h i s accum u lated c o n t r i b u t i o n s a s i f he had d ie d w it h o u t making an y e l e c t i o n o f o p tio n s .^ A t e a c h e r i n N orth D akota became e l i g i b l e f o r r e t i r e ­ ment on May 3 1 , 1 9 4 7 - On A ugust 2 7 , 1 9 4 7 , 3ae w r o te t h e e x ­ e c u t i v e s e c r e t a r y o f t h e b o a r d , r e q u e s t i n g h i s a n n u it y on t h e b a s i s o f a new la w w h ich had b een p a s s e d i n J u l y , 1 9 4 7 , b e ­ tw een t h e tim e he co m p leted h i s r e q u ir e m e n ts and t h e tim e o f h is a p p lic a tio n .

The e o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e amount t o be p a id

t h e t e a c h e r i s . t o b e m easured by term s o f t h e s t a t u t e in e f f e c t on t h e day he co m p leted req u irem en ts, f o r r e t ir e m e n t and n o t . on t h e . day he made . h is . a p p li c a t io n * . unanimous d e c i s i o n *

T h is was n o t a

One judge d i s s e n t e d on t h e ground t h a t

t e a c h e r s do n o t have t o q u it t e a c h i n g , and when he f i n a l l y does h i s payments w i l l be h ig h er* D u t i e s and .11 a b 11i t i e s *

I n New York C i t y , b y -la w s

adopted by t h e Board o f E d u ca tio n r e q u ir e d t e a c h e r s w orking in v o c a t i o n a l h ig h s c h o o l s t o work more h ours a day th a n t e a c h e r s i n t h e academ ic h ig h s c h o o l s .

The t r i a l , c o u r t d i s ­

m is s e d a p e t i t i o n f o r an o r d e r c o m p e llin g t h e board t o e q u a l­ i z e t h e hours o f s e r v i c e r e a s o n in g , t h a t t h e y c o u ld n o t i n t e r ­ f e r e w it h t h e a c t i o n o f t h e b o a r d .u n l e s s i t had b een d i s c r i m /

in a t o r y o r a r b it r a r y *

I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y , t h a t t h e ” eq u a l

work f o r e q u a l pay” p r i n c i p l e b e a p p li e d in a l l c a s e s under any and a l l c o n d i t i o n s . 86 A t e a c h e r b ro u g h t s u i t a g a i n s t her. p r i n c i p a l f o r dam­ a g e s sh e s u s t a i n e d when s h e s l i p p e d on a w et h a l l . t h a t t h e j a n i t o r had j u s t f i n i s h e d washing*

She a l l e g e d t h a t i t was

t h e duty o f t h e p r i n c i p a l t o s e e t h a t t h e f lo o r , was n o t l e f t in a w et and dangerous c o n d i t i o n , and t h a t h e , h i s s e r v a n t s and a g e n t s , knew, o r in t h e e x e r c i s e o f due c a r e , ought t o have known o f su ch a d an gero u s c o n d i t i o n and ought t o have warned p e r s o n s l a w f u l l y w a lk in g in t h e c o r r i d o r .

. I t was

61 d e c id e d by t h e c o u r t t h a t t h e t e a c h e r had no c la im a g a i n s t t h e p r i n c i p a l and p a r t o f t h e o p in io n i s c o n t a in e d i n t h e fo llo w in g : A u t h o r it y o f p r i n c i p a l o f s c h o o l o v e r p e r s o n s employed t h e r e i n d id n o t c r e a t e r e l a t i o n o f m a ste r and s e r v a n t b etw een them,.. P u b l i c o f f i c e r s a r e n o t l i a b l e f o r th e n e g l i g e n c e o f t h e i r s u b o r d in a t e s u n l e s s . t h e y c o o p e r a te i n t h e a c t com p lain ed o f , o r d i r e c t e d o r encouraged i t . ' O th er e a s e s c o n c e r n in g t h e t o r t . l i a b i l i t y

o f school

t e a c h e r s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d in a su b se q u e n t c h a p t e r . Summary.

There w ere s e v e n t y - t h r e e c o u r t c a s e s a f f e c t ­

in g t e a c h e r s d i r e c t l y d u r in g th e p a s t two y e a r s , i n v o l v i n g t w e n t y - e i g h t d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s and H a w a ii.

The c o u r t s in t h e

s t a t e o f Hew York w ere e s p e c i a l l y a c t i v e , t r y i n g t w e n t y - t h r e e o f t h e 73 t o t a l . C o m p e t it iv e e x a m in a tio n s f o r t e a c h in g p o s i t i o n s must be o b j e c t i v e in n a t u r e .

Q u a lif y in g , e x a m in a tio n s f o r t e a c h ­

e r s * l i c e n s e s may, and g e n e r a l l y d o , c o n t a in s u b j e c t i v e r a t ­ in g s.

(Hew Y ork, p . 30) C o n tr a c ts a r e b in d in g o n ly when made w it h p e r s o n s

p r o p e r ly q u a l i f i e d t o t e a c h .

(M aine, p . 31)

( P e n n s y lv a n ia ,

P. 32) Tenure l a w s , when e n a c t e d , a r e p r o s p e c t i v e and n o t r e t r o a c t i v e in a p p l i c a t i o n .

(New M e x ic o , p. 3 4 )

T e a c h e r s do n o t abandon t e n u r e . r i g h t s by a c c e p t i n g p o s i t i o n s o f an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e n a t u r e .

(M in n e so ta , p . 34)

62 A t e a c h e r lias no v e s t e d r i g h t t o t e n u r e d u r in g t h e p r o b a tio n a r y p e r i o d ,

(New Y ork, p . 3 5 )

A t e a c h e r may n o t e n t e r i n t o a l e g a l c o n t r a c t t o t e a c h w it h o u t h a v in g a c e r t i f i c a t e a s r e q u ir e d by law^

(K entucky,

P. 39) A p r o b a t io n a r y t e a c h e r may be d is c h a r g e d w it h o u t c a u se or h e a r in g a t any tim e d u r in g , b e f o r e , o r a t t h e end o f t h e p r o b a tio n a r y p e r i o d ,

(New Y ork , pp. 4 0 ,4 3 )

(Alabama., p . 43)

( I l l i n o i s , pp. 4 1 , 4 3 ) Tenure la w s do n o t p r o h i b i t t h e s c h o o l board from r e q u ir in g w r itte n c o n tr a c ts .

(L o u isia n a ., p . 42 )

A f t e r t e n d e r in g a r e s i g n a t i o n , a t e a c h e r cannot l a t e r demand t h a t t h e s c h o o l board w ithd raw t h a t r e s i g n a t i o n .

(New

Y ork , p . 43) A h ig h s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l i s o n ly a. s u p e r i o r s o r t o f t e a c h e r and may be demoted t o t h e rank o f h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h ­ e r but t h i s d oes n o t a u t h o r i z e t h e r e d u c t io n o f h is . s a l a r y . ( P e n n s y lv a n ia , p . 44)

( M a s s a c h u s e t t s , p* 46)

A t e a c h e r can n o t b e n e f i t .by p a s s i n g an ..exam in ation f o r w hich sh e i s n o t e l i g i b l e . . (New Y ork , p . 45) The board o f e d u c a t io n may r e q u ir e a l l c l a s s r o o m .t e a c h ­ e r s t o t a k e a m e n ta l a b i l i t y t e s t .

(A la b a m a ,.p . 45)

A p o s i t i o n may b e a b o l i s h e d even though i t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s a te n u r e t e a c h e r . . (New J er sey ., p . 47) P. 47)

(West V i r g i n i a ,

63

Membership in t h e Communist P a r t y i s n o t i n i t s e l f s u f f i c i e n t r e a so n t o keep one from t e a c h in g i n .the p u b lic sc h o o ls .

(New Y ork , p . 50)

P u b lic sc h o o l tea ch ers are not ” o f f i c e r s o f th e s t a t e ” b u t a re e m p lo y e e s.

(K en tu ck y, p . 51)

S t a t e r e t ir e m e n t p la n s may in c l u d e t e a c h e r s o f p a r o ­ c h i a l s c h o o l s as w e l l as t e a c h e r s o f p u b lic s c h o o l s .

(U tah ,

P. 57) Membership in any p e n s io n or r e t i r e m e n t s y ste m o f a s t a t e s h a l l be a c o n tr a c tu a l r e la tio n s h ip ., th e b e n e f it s o f w h ich s h a l l n o t be d im in is h e d o r im p a ir e d .

(New Y ork, p . 53)

(Montana, p . 53) R e tir e m e n t b e n e f i t s a re t o be d eterm in ed by term s o f t h e s t a t u t e i n e f f e c t on t h e day a t e a c h e r c o m p le te s t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r r e t i r e m e n t and n o t on t h e day he makes h i s a p p lic a tio n .

(N orth D a k o ta , p . 60)

CHAPTER IV

BOARDS OF EDUCATION, SUPERINTENDENTS AND OTHER OFFICERS P o w ers, d u t i e s . and l i a b i l i t i e s e d u c a t io n p o s s e s s no in h e r e n t pow er.

in g e n e r a l*

Boards o f

C o n tr o l o v er t h e s c h o o l

s y s t e m o f t h e s t a t e i s v e s t e d i n t h e s t a t e board o f e d u c a t io n by s t a t u t e . * -

S c h o o l b o ard s and s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s have o n ly

su ch powers as a r e g r a n t e d by s t a t u t e . 2 ^

In M in n e a p o lis a

t e n u r e t e a c h e r was a s s i g n e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f " a d m in is tr a ­ t i v e a s s i s t a n t t o t h e s u p e r in t e n d e n t " o f s c h o o ls * s e v e r a l y e a r s t h i s p o s i t i o n was a b o l i s h e d . ed t e n u r e r i g h t s t o t h i s p o s i t i o n .

A fter

The t e a c h e r c la im ­

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h i s

p o s i t i o n , n o t b e in g e x p r e s s l y enumerated in t h e T eachers* T enure A c t , was n o t one s u b j e c t t o t e a c h e r s ’ t e n u r e r i g h t s and t h e r e f o r e t h e s c h o o l board was n o t a u t h o r iz e d t o g i v e t e n u r e even though t h e y w anted t o , and even though t h e y had r e p r e s e n t e d t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n was s u b j e c t t o t e n u r e , b e c a u s e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s have o n ly su ch powers as a r e g r a n te d by s t a t u t e .* * I t i s im p o rta n t f o r s c h o o l e m p lo y e e s, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and o t h e r s d e a l i n g w it h t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o a s c e r t a i n t h e a u t h o r i t y o f b oard s o f e d u c a t io n .

P e r s o n s d e a l i n g w it h t h e

d i r e c t o r s o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a r e presumed t o know and a r e 1 R e f e r e n c e s t o c o u r t c a s e s in C hapter IV a r e l i s t e d on p age 1 8 4

65

c h a r g e a b le w it h know ledge o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e i r p o w e r s .5 One sh o u ld n o t , h ow ever, c o n f u s e e x e r c i s e o f power w it h e x e r ­ c is e of d isc r e tio n .

The r i g h t t o d e te r m in e what is, b e s t f o r

s c h o o l p u p i l s i s v e s t e d in t h e board o f e d u c a t io n .^ I n M ic h ig a n , t h e S t a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t has. t h e l e g a l r i g h t t o d e te r m in e f i n a l l y , t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f t h e r e o r g a n ­ iz a tio n of sch ool d i s t r i c t s .

The s u p e r in t e n d e n t d isa p p r o v e d

a p e t i t i o n f o r an e l e c t i o n t o c o n s o l i d a t e s e v e r a l d i s t r i c t s . The a p p e l l a n t s co n ten d t h a t t h i s d is a p p r o v a l (1) d e p r iv e s t h e e l e c t o r s o f t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t t o have a v o i c e in t h e l o c a l governm en t,

( 2 ) t h e r u l i n g i s n o t b a sed upon

t h e r i g h t s o f th e i n t e r e s t e d p e o p l e , b u t i s a r b i t r a r y and o p p r e s s i v e in i t s n a t u r e , and ( 3 ) t h e r u l i n g was n o t s u p p o r t­ ed by e v i d e n c e , was made w it h o u t a p ro p er h e a r i n g , and amounts t o an ab u se o f power so sh o u ld n o t be c o n s id e r e d f i n a l .

The

c o u r t d is a g r e e d w i t h t h e s e c o n t e n t i o n s s a y in g : The s u p e r in t e n d e n t i s an o f f i c e r whose d u t i e s under t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s h a l l be p r e s c r i b e d by la w . L e g i s l a t u r e has power t o v e s t i n S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n t h e a u t h o r i t y t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r need e x i s t s and means are a v a ila b le fo r e s ta b lis h in g a ru ral a g r ic u ltu r a l, sc h o o l, and t o p r o v id e t h a t h i s a c t i o n i n t h e m a t t e r s h a l l be fin a l.7 An a p p e a l to th e C om m issioner o f E d u c a tio n i s t h e e x ­ c l u s i v e remedy where i t i n v o l v e s t h e e x e r c i s e o f d i s c r e t i o n b u t where t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s t a t u t e is

i n v o l v e d , one may p r o p e r ly t a k e t h e c a s e t o c o u r t . 0

A

p r o c e e d in g a g a in s t , a d i s t r i c t s u p e r in t e n d e n t o f s c h o o l s c o u ld

n o t be m a in ta in e d under t h e C i v i l P r a c t i c e A ct w here o rd er s so u g h t t o b e r e v ie w e d d id n o t . i n v o l v e t h e e x e r c i s e o f judg­ ment o r d i s c r e t i o n . b u t w ere d i r e c t e d by a s t a t u t e in t h e E d u c a tio n C ode.^

T here have b een o t h e r c a s e s n o t s u f f i c i e n t ­

l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e two c a s e s d i s c u s s e d im m e d ia te ly above t o w arrant t h e i r i n c l u s i o n .

10

11

*

In t h e s t a t e o f G e o r g ia , a co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n i s n o t a p a r t n e r s h ip o r a body c o r p o r a t e w it h a u t h o r i t y t o s u e o r b e s u e d , and so cannot a s s o l e . p l a i n t i f f m a in t a in a s u i t f o r i n j u n c t i o n t o r e s t r a i n an i n d i v i d u a l from i n t e r f e r in g w it h p o s s e s s i o n and u s e o f p r o p e r ty cla im e d by i t .

12

A p r i n c i p a l o f a s c h o o l i n G e o rg ia s ig n e d a c o n t r a c t , p u r p o r tin g t o be t h e a g e n t o f t h e s c h o o l . . One o f t h e term s o f t h e c o n t r a c t was t h a t t h e cu stom er would pay f o r any dam­ age w h ich m ight o c c u r t o t h e r e n t e d a u t o m o b ile s .

A damage

o f $ 4 0 0 was done t o one o f t h e v e h i c l e s and t h e p l a i n t i f f a sk ed t h a t th e p r i n c i p a l pay t h i s amount*

In th e .w o r d s o f

t h e c o u r t: A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s n o t a l e g a l e n t i t y . I t can n ot s u e o r be s u e d . One who p r o f e s s e s t o c o n t r a c t a s a g e n t f o r a n o t h e r , when h i s p u rp o rted p r i n c i p a l i s a c t u a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t , may b e h e ld p e r s o n a l l y l i a b l e on t h e c o n t r a c t . In N orth C a r o lin a a d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n e x i s t s where a s t a t u t e p r o v id e s t h a t a co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n s h a l l b e a body c o r p o r a t e , c a p a b le o f p r o s e c u t i n g and d e fe n d in g s u i t s f o r or a g a i n s t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n .

I n t h i s c a s e i t was

d eterm in ed t h a t a t e a c h e r c o u ld m a in t a in s u i t a g a i n s t t h e co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n f o r b rea c h o f c o n t r a c t . ^ An a c t p a s s e d i n G e o r g ia i n 1946 v e s t e d a l l t h e d u t i e s r i g h t s , and powers f o n a e r l y v e s t e d in t h e l o c a l s c h o o l d i s ­ t r i c t t r u s t e e s , in t h e co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n .

The q u es­

t i o n b e f o r e t h e c o u r t con cern ed funds o f t h e a b o l i s h e d l o c a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w hich had b een d e r iv e d from t h e s a l e o f bonds v o t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e . o f b u i l d i n g , r e p a ir in g ., and eq u ip p in g a s c h o o l h o u se i n t h a t d i s t r i c t .

The form er l o c a l t r u s t e e s

f e l t t h e y w ere l i a b l e f o r t h e fun ds and a tte m p te d t o compel t h e co u n ty board t o use t h e funds im m e d ia te ly for, t h e p u rp ose f o r w hich t h e funds w e r e .v o t e d .

T h e .c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e

co u n ty board o f e d u c a t i o n .i s . v e s t e d w it h w id e powers o f d i s ­ c r e t i o n and would n o t r e q u ir e t h e board t o p ro ce ed , im m ed iatel y a s r e q u e s t e d b y t h e form er l o c a l t r u s t e e s . 15 T axpayers o f a co u n ty s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n K entucky c h a lle n g e d t h e i r s c h o o l b o a r d ’s p u rch a se o f a t r a c t o f la n d c o s t i n g f 2 , 5 0 0 , l o c a t e d n ea r a l a k e i n a n o th e r co u n ty some tw e n ty m i l e s away. a t io n a l p urposes.

T h is l o c a t i o n was w e l l s u i t e d f o r r e c r e ­ The c o u r t s t a t e d t h a t a lth o u g h s t a t u t e

a u t h o r iz e d s c h o o l boards t o p r o m o te .th e h e a l t h and w e l f a r e o f p u b l i c s c h o o l p u p i l s , t h e r e i s no a u t h o r i t y f o r a cou n ty s c h o o l board t o buy a t r a c t o f la n d l o c a t e d in another, c o u n ty . An o p p o s i t e d e c i s i o n was handed down by t h e Supreme Court o f F lo rid a :

6S Under t h e F lo r id a S c h o o l Code o f 1 9 3 9 , a cou n ty board o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n may l a w f u l l y p u rch a se la n d s o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f t h e co u n ty i f th e y a re e s s e n t i a l , t o t h e p r o v i s i o n o f an a d eq u a te p u b l i c s c h o o l p rogram .^7 I t must be remembered t h a t an o p p o s i t e d e c i s i o n . b y . c o u r t s d o es n o t alw ays mean t h a t i t was a r e v e r s a l o f a d e c i s i o n b u t may m ere ly be an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s t a t e s t a t u t e s w hich in a l l p r o b a b i l i t y a r e worded d i f f e r e n t l y t o co n n o te v a r y in g im p lic a tio n s. County b oa rd s o f e d u c a t io n a r e g iv e n broad d i s c r e t i o n under s t a t u t e i n th e s e l e c t i o n o f s c h o o l s i t e s and i n t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f s c h o o l s as t h e y deem n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r o ­ m o tio n o f e d u c a t io n and t h e g e n e r a l w e lf a r e o f t h e p u p i l s . In Kentucky a co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n d e c i d e d - t o move t h e s c h o o lh o u s e a d i s t a n c e o f t h r e e f o u r t h s o f a m i l e t o a d r i e r site .

A few r e s i d e n t s to o k t h e c a s e t o c o u r t a l l e g i n g t h a t

t h e a c t i o n o f t h e board was a r b i t r a r y and an a b u se o f d i s ­ c r e tio n .

The c o u r t w ould n o t i n t e r f e r e w it h t h e p rop osed

p la n s in a b se n c e o f p o s i t i v e p r o o f o f f r a u d , c o l l u s i o n , o r a c l e a r abuse o f d i s c r e t i o n . A Texas s t a t u t e p r o v id in g t h a t t h r e e members o f a co u n ty board o f t r u s t e e s s h a l l - c o n s t i t u t e a quorum and t h a t a l l q u e s t i o n s s h a l l be d e c id e d by m a j o r it y v o t e , r e q u ir e s m e r e ly a m a j o r it y o f t h e q u o r u m .^ The " l e g i s l a t i v e f u n c t i o n ” o f a board o f e d u c a t io n in t h e o p e r a t io n o f a p u b l i c s c h o o l sy stem i n c l u d e s t h e

69 making o f r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s and t h e d e t e r m in a t io n o f p o l i c i e s g o v e r n in g t h e h i r i n g and a s s i g n i n g o f , t e a c h e r s and t h e u se o f s c h o o l p r o p e r t y .

A r u l e ad op ted by t h e board o f

e d u c a t io n r e q u i r i n g a l l c la s s r o o m t e a c h e r s t o t a k e a m e n ta l a b i l i t y t e s t was r e a s o n a b l e , a n d .t h e r e f u s a l t o comply t h e r e ­ w it h would j u s t i f y t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f a c o n t r a c t o f employ­ ment o f a t e n u r e t e a c h e r f o r in s u b o r d i n a t i o n .

However, i n

t h i s c a s e i t was f a i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e s u p e r i n t e n ­ den t had a p e r s o n a l d i s l i k e f o r t h i s t e a c h e r b e c a u s e o f h e r a c t i o n s w it h t h e u n io n a n d -th a t, other, t e a c h e r s had b een a l l o w ­ ed t o change t h e i r minds about t a k i n g t h e t e s t on or ab out t h e v er y day t h i s t e a c h e r ’s r e q u e s t was r e f u s e d .

The c o u r t

ord ered t h e em p loyin g board o f e d u c a t io n t o r e i n s t a t e t h e a p p e l l a n t as a t e a c h e r . 2^ In i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e g u l a t i o n s o f t h e C ity o f C hicago the court s a id : G e n e r a l l y , t r u s t e e s o f s c h o o l s a re i n v e s t e d w it h t i t l e t o s c h o o lh o u s e s and s c h o o l s i t e s , and s c h o o l, d i r e c t o r s i n v e s t e d w i t h c o n t r o l and s u p e r v i s i o n o f s c h o o ls .. T ru s­ t e e s a r e t h e n t h e o n ly a u t h o r i t y who can i n s t i t u t e and m a in t a in a s u i t t o condemn l a n d . f o r s c h o o l p u r p o s e s . The board o f d i r e c t o r s o f a c o r p o r a t e common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t o rd er ed and a u t h o r iz e d a s p e c i a l , e l e c t i o n as r e q u ir e d by s t a t u t e , f o r a p rop osed a n n e x a t io n .

I t was a l l e g e d . t h a t

t h i s e l e c t i o n was i n v a l i d b e c a u s e the. c l e r k o f t h e board con ­ cern ed had f a i l e d t o r e co r d t h e . m in u tes o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e b o a rd .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h i s d e f e c t was n o t f a t a l as t h e

70 d u t i e s o f t h e s e c r e t a r y o f t h e board o f d i r e c t o r s a r e m e r e ly c l e r i c a l , and t h e . s t a t u t e i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p erform ance o f a c l e r k ’s d u t i e s i s d i r e c t o r y and n o t m a n d a t o r y . F o r m a l i t y and a h ig h d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y o n .t h e p a r t o f s c h o o l t r u s t e e s and o f f i c i a l s a r e n o t e x a c te d by t h e c o u r t s .2 4 I n New York t h e b oard s o f e d u c a t io n a r e in d e p e n d en t b o d ie s beyond c o n t r o l o f m u n i c i p a l i t i e s and p o l i t i c s e x c e p t t h a t a common c o u n c i l o f t h e c i t y has t h e power t o r e d u c e , in i t s d i s c r e t i o n , t h e t o t a l e s t i m a t e p r e s e n t e d by su ch i n ­ d ep en d en t body f o r s c h o o l, p u r p o s e s . _ T h is . i s u n l i k e t h e . p o s i ­ t i o n h e ld by t h e f i r e board and o t h e r su ch b oa rd s f o r t h e y must subm it e s t i m a t e s t o -the.m ayor and t h e c o u n c i l who have t h e p r i v i l e g e o f lo w e r in g o r r a i s i n g t h e e s t i m a t e s . 2 5 C o n tra ctu a l a u t h o r it y .

There i s no in h e r e n t power t o

c o n t r a c t in su ch p u b l i c c o r p o r a t i o n s as s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . S c h o o l b oard s have o n ly su ch power as i s g i v e n t o them by la w , a s a r e i m p l ie d , or su ch as n e c e s s a r i l y grow o u t o f t h e p u r­ poses o f t h e ir c r e a tio n .

An exam ple o f t h e u s e o f im p lie d

power i s a c a s e i n Texas where a s c h o o l board engaged t h e s e r ­ v i c e s o f an a t t o r n e y t o c o n t e s t t h e v a l i d i t y o f an a n n e x a tio n o r d e r and su b s e q u e n t p r o c e e d i n g s . a f t e r th e e le c t io n .

The l i t i g a t i o n t o o k p l a c e

The c o u r t u p h eld t h e a n n e x a t io n , s o t h e

c o u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t r e f u s e d t o approve payment o f t h e a t ­ t o r n e y s f o r th e l o s i n g s c h o o l d i s t r i c t on t h e grounds t h a t a t

71 t h e tim e o f t h e l i t i g a t i o n t h e r e was a c t u a l l y no l e g a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o engage an a t to r n e y *

The c o u r t u p h eld t h e a c t i o n s

o f t h e t r u s t e e s o f t h e common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a y in g t h a t t h e payment must b e made a s a v a l i d and l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n and t h a t t h e t r u s t e e s o f a common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a r e v e s t e d w it h im­ p l i e d a u t h o r i t y t o r e t a i n t h e . s e r v i c e s o f a t t o r n e y s t o co n ­ t e s t t h e v a l i d i t y o f an a n n e x a tio n o r d e r . ^6 An in d e p e n d e n t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t may c o n t r a c t w it h a r a d io s t a t i o n , g i v i n g e x c l u s i v e r i g h t s t o b r o a d c a s t f i e l d s i d e p l a y - b y - p l a y a c c o u n ts o f t h e f o o t b a l l gam es.

T h is i s n o t a

v i o l a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t m onopoly, eq u a l r i g h t s , freedom o f s p e e c h o r p r e s s , o r t h e t a k i n g o f p r iv a te p r o p e r t y .^ B i s t r i c t s c h o o l d i r e c t o r s can e x e r c i s e d i s c r e t i o n i n d e te r m in in g w h e th er t o i n s u r e d i s t r i c t p r o p e r t y , t h e amount o f in s u r a n c e , and t h e c h o ic e o f in s u r a n c e co m p a n ies, b u t h a v in g so d e t e r m in e d , t h e d i r e c t o r s must o b t a in l e g a l l y v a l i d and e n f o r c e a b l e p o l i c i e s i n r e t u r n f o r p u b l i c moneys expended by way o f premiums on t h e p o l i c i e s accepted.^** A s c h o o l board in I l l i n o i s p u rch a sed a l o t from an i n d i v i d u a l w it h p r o v i s i o n s t o t a k e p o s s e s s i o n im m e d ia te ly and t o r e c e i v e a good t i t l e w i t h i n s i x . months t h e r e f r o m .

The o ld

b u i l d i n g s w ere removed from t h e grounds s i x months a f t e r th e t i t l e was t o have b e e n d e l i v e r e d .

The board s e n t a n o t i c e

n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u r ch a se had b een made, t h a t t h e

c o n t r a c t was t e r m in a te d and c a n c e l l e d a s . o f t h a t d a t e , owing t o t h e f a i l u r e t o d e l i v e r a good f e e - s i m p l e t i t l e .

The c o u r t

h e ld a g a i n s t t h e s c h o o l hoard r e a s o n in g t h a t t a k in g p o s s e s ­ s i o n o f t h e la n d , rem oving t h e o ld b u i l d i n g s , and g r a d in g t h e l o t lo n g a f t e r t h e e x p i r a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t s i x m o n th s, w ere i n d i c a t i o n s o f w a iv e r by t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t o f t h e tim e lim ita tio n *

The c o n t r a c t c o u ld n o t be

B id s f o r c o n t r a c t s .

b ro k en .

No mandatory o b l i g a t i o n i s im pos­

ed on a s c h o o l board t o c o n s i d e r t h e lo w e s t d o l l a r s and c e n t s b id a s b e in g t h e " l o w e s t r e s p o n s i b l e b i d ," t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f a l l oth er p e r tin e n t fa c ts*

The p h r a se " l o w e s t r e s p o n s i b l e

b id d er" i s meant t o i n c l u d e s k i l l , a b i l i t y , and i n t e g r i t y t o do f a i t h f u l , c o n s c i e n t i o u s work, and p rom ptly f u l f i l t h e con ­ t r a c t a c c o r d in g t o i t s l e t t e r and s p i r i t .

C ou rts g e n e r a l l y

w i l l n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e Judgment o f t h e b o a rd , even though t h e d e c i s i o n o f t h e b oard may ap pear t o some p e r s o n s t o b e erroneous.

I n F l o r i d a a c o u r t h e ld t h a t even thou gh t h e r e

was no e x p r e s s s t a t e m e n t , i n p u b lis h e d a d v e r t is e m e n t f o r b i d s , t h a t tim e o f c o m p le t io n o f t h e b u i l d i n g was a c o m p e t it i v e f a c t o r , t h e board o f p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n d id n o t ab u se i t s d i s ­ c r e t i o n i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e tim e elem en t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d e te r m in in g t h e l o w e s t r e s p o n s i b l e b i d d e r . 30 E l i g i b i l i t y and Q u a l i f i c a t i o n .

I n K en tu ck y, t o be

e l i g i b l e t o membership on a c o u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n , one

73 must have com p leted a t l e a s t an e i g h t h grade e d u c a t io n .

If

u n a b le t o show p r o o f o f t h i s e d u c a t io n by s c h o o l r e c o r d s o r t e a c h e r s * a f f i d a v i t s , one s e e k in g o f f i c e o f board.member may q u a l i f y by t a k i n g an e x a m in a tio n h e ld under, r u l e s ad opted by t h e S t a t e Board o f E d u c a t io n .

The Court o f A p p e a l s ..r u le d

t h a t a form er t e a c h e r ’ s t e s t im o n y was n o t s u f f i c i e n t a s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t e a c h e r t a u g h t o n ly t h e s e v e n t h g r a d e .

The a p p e l­

l a n t d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t he had r e g i s t e r e d - i n a normal s c h o o l i s p r o o f t h a t he f i n i s h e d t h e e i g h t h g r a d e , how ever t h e c o u r t n o te d t h a t he had n e v e r a c t u a l l y a t te n d e d t h e normal s c h o o l.^

The v e r b a l t e s t im o n y o f a .s c h o o lm a t e i s l i k e w i s e

n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h p r o o f o f an e i g h t h grad e ed u ca­ t i o n .*^2 A n o th er c a s e from K entucky seem s a t f i r s t t o be a r e v e r s a l o f t h e two im m e d ia te ly a b o v e .

C lo se r s c r u tin y r e ­

v e a l s t h a t i t sim p ly d e f i n e s a u t h o r i t y f o r rem oval o f a board member t o be t h a t o f t h e A tt o r n e y G e n e r a l and n o t t h e County Board o f E d u c a t io n .

A c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l was d u ly e l e c t e d

f o r a f o u r - y e a r term as a member o f t h e board o f e d u c a t io n . About a month a f t e r he had b een sworn i n , t h e board e n t e r e d an o rd er d e c l a r i n g a v a ca n cy f o r t h e r e a s o n . t h a t t h e new ly e l e c t e d member d id n o t q u a l i f y f o r membership b e c a u se he had n o t co m p leted more th a n f i v e g r a d e s in t h e elem entary- s c h o o l . I n t h e words o f t h e c o u r t: County board o f e d u c a t io n can n ot d e c l a r e v a c a n t t h e

74 s e a t o f a member who h as b een d u ly e l e c t e d and has q u a l i ­ f i e d , on ground t h a t member does n o t , p o s s e s s some s t a t u ­ t o r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r membership. T h is r i g h t o f a c t i o n i s f o r t h e A tt o r n e y G e n e r a l . ^3 Appointm ent o r e l e c t i o n i n g e n e r a l .

When s e v e r a l

d i s t r i c t s a r e c o n s o l i d a t e d t o form one s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , t h e board o f t r u s t e e s o f t h e new d i s t r i c t i s composed o f th e board o f t h e d i s t r i c t w h e re in t h e h ig h s c h o o l i s l o c a t e d and a l l t h e chairmen o f t h e o t h e r c o o p e r a t in g d i s t r i c t s .

T h is

i s an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e S o u th C a r o lin a r e g u l a t i o n s by t h e s t a t e Supreme C o u r t .^4 The N ebraska s t a t u t o r y re q u irem en t t h a t a s c h o o l d i s ­ t r i c t t r e a s u r e r s h a l l g i v e bond i s n o t a duty o f th e o f f i c e b u t r a t h e r a r e q u ir e d p r e c e d e n t elem en t o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e o f f i c e . ^5 l i a b i l i t i e s o f members.

T ru stees o f a c o n so lid a te d

s c h o o l a r e n o t s u a b l e f o r r e c o v e r y o f a m onetary judgment f o r su ch a c t s as a r e perform ed i n good f a i t h .

A M ississip p i

s c h o o l t e a c h e r c o u ld n o t r e c o v e r damages from t h e t r u s t e e s o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t f o r a b rea c h o f c o n t r a c t by n o t p e r m it ­ t i n g h e r t o t e a c h s c h o o l where e v id e n c e was n o t e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e t r u s t e e s w ere g u i l t y o f any t o r t i o u s co n d u ct a c t u a t e d 36 by m a l i c e or i l l w i l l or w ere g u i l t y o f any w i l f u l wrong. The p r o s e c u t i n g a t t o r n e y o f a cou n ty has t h e a u t h o r i t y t o b r in g a c t i o n i n b e h a l f o f t h e d i s t r i c t a g a i n s t t h e members

o f a board t o r e c o v e r t h e amount o f su ch fun ds w hich were i l l e g a l l y expended by members o f th e b o a rd .

The board mem­

b e r s b a sed t h e i r d e f e n s e on t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e p r o s e ­ c u t in g a t t o r n e y has no s t a t u t o r y o r common la w a u t h o r i t y t o i n t e r f e r e w it h t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e .s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s w it h o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e s c h o o l b o a rd .

I f t h i s w ere t h e

c a s e no a c t i o n c o u ld be ta k e n u n l e s s t h e s c h o o l board would su e i t s e l f and t h a t would b e q u i t e u n l i k e l y .

37

C o n s t i t u t i o n a l and s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s .

Four mem­

b e r s o f a s c h o o l board l e f t w r i t t e n r e s i g n a t i o n s w it h t h e s e c r e t a r y o f t h e b o a rd .

Upon t h e a d v ic e o f t h e co u n ty s u p e r ­

in te n d e n t, th e s e c r e ta r y p o sted a c a l l f o r a s p e c i a l e l e c t i o n t o e l e c t members t o f i l l t h e v a c a n c i e s .

The day f o l l o w i n g

t h e p o s t i n g o f t h e e l e c t i o n c a l l , , t h e members w ith d rew t h e i r r e s i g n a t i o n s and t h e s e c r e t a r y t o o k down t h e e l e c t i o n , n o t i c e s . I n t e r v e n o r s f i l e d a p e t i t i o n w h e r e in t h e y so u g h t t o h ave t h e c o u r t d e c l a r e v a c a n t t h e o f f i c e s o f t h e s c h o o l d i r e c t o r s who had r e s ig n e d and a l s o ask ed t o compel t h e s e c r e t a r y t o c a l l a sp e c ia l e le c tio n .

The c o u r t h e ld f o r t h e i n t e r v e n o r s .

The s t a t u t e r e l a t i v e t o o f f i c e r o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t c o n t in u in g in o f f i c e u n t i l . h i s s u c c e s s o r i s e l e c t e d and q u a l i f i e d i s n o t c o n f l i c t i n g w it h s t a t u t e t h a t s t a t e s r e s ig n a tio n o f o f f i c e r o f sc h o o l d i s t r i c t r e s u lt s in v a c a n c y .5° So much o f an a c t p a s s e d by t h e A r iz o n a l e g i s l a t u r e w hich r e a d s , "The S t a t e C i v i l S e r v i c e s h a l l c o n s i s t o f a l l

p o s i t i o n s in t h e s t a t e s e r v i c e e x c e p t • • • members o f t e a c h ­ in g s t a f f s o f a l l e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s m a in ta in e d o r su p ­ p o r te d by t h e s t a t e , 11 i s u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l .

T h is would mean

t h a t a l l em ployees o f e d u c a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s m a in ta in e d o r su p p o r te d by t h e s t a t e , e x c e p t members o f t h e t e a c h i n g s t a f f s , would f a l l under t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e c i v i l s e r v i c e board and i t s p e r s o n n e l o f f i c e r s *

T h is l e g i s l a t i o n i s u n c o n s t i t u ­

t i o n a l b e c a u s e t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y g i v e s t h e power o f t h e c o n t r o l o f s c h o o l s t o t h e Board o f R e g e n t s . ^ The p r o v i s i o n o f t h e G e o r g ia C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1945 c r e a t i n g a board o f e d u c a t io n f o r e a c h .c o u n t y , and p r o v id in g f o r number, method o f a p p o in tm e n t, and term s o f members o f su c h b o a r d , by r e a s o n o f i t s s i l e n c e as t o t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f members, d id n o t c r e a t e a c o n f l i c t w it h s t a t u t e s e x i s t i n g when t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n was a d op ted i n s o f a r as t h e y p e r t a i n t o q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f board members..

A l s o , su b s e q u e n t a d d i t i o n a l

q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r membership w ere r u le d t o be c o n s t i t u t i o n a l .*1'0 The p r o v i s i o n o f t h e 1947 p r i v a t e a c t o f a co u n ty i n T e n n e s s e e , t h a t members o f a co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n s h a l l h av e a h ig h s c h o o l diplom a or t h e e q u i v a l e n t t h e r e o f i s un­ c o n s t i t u t i o n a l as f i x i n g h ig h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s than. ”p r a c t i c a l e d u c a t io n ” a s r e q u ir e d by g e n e r a l l a w . ^ The t r e a s u r e r o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t f u r n i s h e d a s t a t u ­ t o r y bond i n t h e amount o f $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 .

A su b se q u e n t amendment

t o t h e s t a t u t e p r o v id e d t h a t a minimum bond was t o be $ 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 .

77 A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t h e n a tte m p te d t o m o d ify or c a n c e l t h e o r i g ­ i n a l bond f o r t h e rem ain d er o f t h e t r e a s u r e r s term i n o r d e r t o red u ce t h e c o s t o f t h e bond .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e

amended s t a t u t e was in te n d e d t o o p e r a t e p r o s p e c t i v e l y and n o t r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y , and t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t had no a u t h o r i t y t o c a n c e l , s u b s t i t u t e , change o r m o d ify an e x i s t i n g s t a t u t o r y bond . ^ 2 A s e c t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l la w o f T e n n e s s e e making t h e c o u n ty d i r e c t o r o f highw ays and p u b l i c works r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l b u s e s , and f o r t h e em p loy in g and d is c h a r g i n g o f . d r i v e r s , was found t o be c o n t r a r y t o t h e g e n ­ e r a l law i n t h e code w hich g i v e s t h i s d u ty t o t h e co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n and t h e co u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t o f s c h o o l s . 4-3 The Supreme Court o f M i s s o u r i a f f ir m e d t h e d e c i s i o n o f t h e lo w e r c o u r t ^ i n d e c l a r i n g t h a t t h e C i t y H e a lt h Commis­ s i o n e r , u n d er powers v e s t e d i n him by c i t y r e g u l a t i o n s , h as t h e r i g h t and d u ty t o i n s p e c t t h e c a f e t e r i a f a c i l i t i e s o f a s c h o o l and t o d eterm in e, w h e th e r o r n o t a p erm it t o o p e r a t e i t sh o u ld be g r a n t e d .

A lth o u g h t h e board o f e d u c a t io n must ap­

p o i n t a co m m issio n er o f s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s who s h a l l be charged w it h t h e c a r e o f t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s i n c l u d i n g s a n ­ it a r y c o n d itio n s, i t

can n ot b e s a i d t h a t t h i s v e s t s i n t h e

board su ch a c o m p lete and e x c l u s i v e c o n t r o l o f s a n i t a t i o n a s t o exempt i t from an o r d in a n c e r e l a t i n g t o t h e p r o p e r c l e a n s ­ in g o f v e s s e l s i n w hich fo o d i s cooked o r s e r v e d and t h e

78 o th er p r o v is io n s f o r th e c l e a n lin e s s o f food. Removal o r s u s p e n s i o n .

j. 5

I n a .p ro ceed in g a g a i n s t t h e

members o f a board o f e d u c a t i o n , t o have them removed from o f f i c e , t h e Supreme Court o f West V i r g i n i a d e fin e d , s e v e r a l im p ortan t p r i n c i p l e s ; ( 1 ) A member o f a cou n ty board o f e d u ca tio n , may b e removed from o f f i c e , under, s t a t u t e , f o r v a r io u s r e a s o n s , i n c l u d i n g " m isco n d u ct i n o f f i c e , " m a lf e a s a n c e i n o f f i c e , n e g l e c t o f d u t y , and w i l f u l o r n e g l i g e n t v i o l a t i o n o f any o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f s t a t u t e s d e a l i n g w it h t a x . l e v i e s on r e a l and p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y . (2 ) The board o f e d u c a t i o n , i n t h e i r o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y , f a i l e d t o g i v e heed t o a d v ic e o f t h e l o c a l p r o s e c u t i n g a t t o r n e y , b ro u gh t on c o s t l y l i t i g a t i o n , w hich t h e board lo st. T h is c o u ld n o t b e c o n s id e r e d w i l f u l and n e g l i g e n t w a s te o f p u b l i c m oneys. T h e.b o a rd was n o t bound t o r e l y on t h e p r o s e c u t i n g a t t o r n e y f o r a d v i c e in . t h e i r . p a r t i c u ­ la r in sta n c e . (3) The a p p r o v a l by members o f co u n ty board o f educa­ t i o n o f a c t s o f c o u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t o f s c h o o l s in t r a n s ­ f e r o f t e a c h e r s from one s c h o o l t o a n o th e r w i l l n o t j u s t i ­ f y t h e i r rem oval from o f f i c e , th ou gh b a se d on an e r r o r o f judgm ent. ( 4 ) I n p e t i t i o n f o r rem oval o f members o f c o u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n , s p e c i f i c a t i o n a v e r r in g t h a t , b o a r d , i n pur­ ch a se o f c o a l , f r a u d u l e n t l y and c o r r u p t l y awarded a con­ t r a c t t o a b id d e r a t a p r i c e h ig h e r t h a n t h a t su b m itte d by t h e lo w e s t r e s p o n s i b l e b i d d e r , was s u f f i c i e n t as a g a i n s t dem urrer. ( 5 ) The p u r c h a se o f a t h l e t i c equipm ent was n o t an ab u se o f d i s c r e t i o n a r y pow er. ( 6 ) The w i l f u l payment o f a t t e n d a n c e . o f f i c e r by cou n ty board o f e d u c a t io n i n d is r e g a r d o f p e r .d ie m b a s i s p r o v id ­ ed f o r in s t a t u t e c o n s t i t u t e s an " i l l e g a l e x p e n d it u r e o f money," w hich w i l l . f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r rem oval o f members o f board from o f f i c e .

(7 ) O r d i n a r i l y , a co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n may r a t i f y su c h a c t s o f a co u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t as i t co u ld have a u t h o r i z e d . i n advance* An e x c e p t i o n a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e comes from West V i r ­ g i n i a where a member o f t h e co u n ty board o f e d u c a t i o n - a c t e d i n good f a i t h i n t r y i n g t o s a v e t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t some money and f o r h i s e f f o r t s was removed from o f f i c e .

The board mem­

b e r , b e in g a l a r g e s t o c k h o l d e r i n a c o n s t r u c t i o n company and a hardware s t o r e , o f f e r e d t o gra d e t h e a t h l e t i c f i e l d f o r $ 1 , 4 6 5 * 3 # , an a d m itte d s a v in g o f a t l e a s t $ 4 , 0 0 0 .

D u rin g t h e

p r e v io u s f o u r y e a r s , s m a ll amounts o f m erch a n d ise had. b een p u rch a sed a t t h e hardware s t o r e , a t c o s t o r l e s s th a n r e g u l a r p r ic e .

He t e s t i f i e d

f u r t h e r t h a t he had inform ed t h e s u p e r ­

in t e n d e n t n o t t o p u r c h a se a n y th in g a t t h e hardware s t o r e i f i t were r e a s o n a b ly a v a i l a b l e e l s e w h e r e .

On t h e s t r e n g t h o f

t h e a v a i l a b l e in f o r m a t i o n , one would t h in k t h a t t h e board member was t o be commended r a t h e r th a n removed from o f f i c e , b u t i t was n o t s o .

A s t a t e s t a t u t e makes i t a m isdem eanor

and u n la w fu l f o r any member o f any cou n ty o r d i s t r i c t board t o b e o r t o become d i r e c t l y , p e c u n i a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d in t h e proceeds o f a con tract or s e r v ic e .

For t h i s r e a s o n , he and

t h e r e s t o f t h e board members who a u t h o r iz e d t h e c o n t r a c t s , w ere a l l removed from t h e c o u n ty b o a r d . ^7

E x a c t l y t h e same

d e c i s i o n was handed.down where a s c h o o l board member was d i r ­ e c t l y i n t e r e s t e d in. c o n n e c t io n w it h t h e s a l e o f s u p p l i e s f o r t h e s c h o o l lu n c h program.

He and t h e e n t i r e board w ere

so removed from o f f i c e . ^ I n an a tte m p t t o remove a member o f t h e board o f educa­ t i o n from o f f i c e , a K entucky c o u r t o f a p p e a ls, h e ld t h a t a d u ly e l e c t e d member o f t h e cou n ty board o f e d u c a t io n i s a s t a t e o f f i c e r and i f , a f t e r he has q u a l i f i e d by t a k in g o a th o f o f ­ f i c e , he i s t o be removed b e c a u s e he la c k s e d u c a t i o n a l q u a l i ­ f i c a t i o n s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t rem oval be by p ro p er p r o c e e d ­ i n g s by t h e commonwealth on t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e A tt o r n e y Gen­ e r a l o r under h i s a u t h o r i t y . ^9 Summary,

B oards o f e d u c a t io n have no in h e r e n t power

b u t have o n ly su c h powers as a r e g r a n te d by s t a t u t e . t u c k y , p . 64)

(Ken­

(N e b r a sk a , p . 6 4 ) (M in n e so ta , p . 64) How ever,

t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e b etw een e x e r c i s e o f power and e x e r c i s e of d isc r e tio n .

( G e o r g ia , p . 6 5 )

The S t a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t has t h e l e g a l r i g h t t o d e t e r ­ m ine f i n a l l y , t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s c h o o l d is tr ic ts .

(M ic h ig a n , p . 6 5 )

County b o a rd s o f e d u c a t io n a r e g i v e n broad d i s c r e t i o n in t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s c h o o l s i t e s and in t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f sc h o o ls.

(K en tu ck y, p . 6 8 )

Q u e stio n s w h ich are d e c id e d by a m a j o r it y v o t e o f t h e board r e q u ir e o n ly a m a j o r it y o f . a quorum. ( T e x a s , p. 6 8 ) A board o f e d u c a t io n may r e q u ir e t e a c h e r s t o t a k e m e n ta l t e s t s .

(Alabama, p . 69)

si F o r m a lit y and a h ig h d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y on t h e p a r t o f s c h o o l t r u s t e e s and o f f i c i a l s a r e n o t e x a c te d by t h e cou rts.

( I l l i n o i s , p . 70) An in d e p e n d en t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t may c o n t r a c t w it h a

r a d io s t a t i o n , g i v i n g e x c l u s i v e r i g h t s , t o b r o a d c a s t f i e l d s i d e p l a y - b y - p l a y a c c o u n ts o f t h e f o o t b a l l gam es.

( T e x a s ,, p . 71)

D i s t r i c t s c h o o l d i r e c t o r s can e x e r c i s e d i s c r e t i o n in d e te r m in in g w h eth er t o in s u r e d i s t r i c t p r o p e r ty and t h e amount o f in s u r a n c e and t h e c h o ic e o f in s u r a n c e co m p a n ies.

( P e n n s y l­

v a n ia , p. 7 1 ) In c o n s i d e r i n g b id s f o r c o n t r a c t s , t h e board o f ed u ca­ t i o n may a c c e p t t h e " lo w e s t r e s p o n s i b l e b id d e r ” r a t h e r th a n t h e l o w e s t b i d d e r , t h e " lo w e s t r e s p o n s i b l e b id d er" m eaning t o in c l u d e s k i l l , a b i l i t y , i n t e g r i t y t o do f a i t h f u l w ork, and t o p ro m p tly f u l f i l t h e c o n t r a c t a c c o r d in g t o i t s l e t t e r and sp ir it.

( F l o r i d a , p . 72) R equirem ent t h a t a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t r e a s u r e r s h a l l

g i v e a bond i s n o t a d u ty o f t h e o f f i c e b u t r a t h e r . a r e q u ir e d p r e c e d e n t elem en t o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e . o f f i c e .

(N eb ra sk a ,

p . 74) T ru stees o f a c o n so lid a te d sc h o o l are not su a b le fo r r e c o v e r y o f a m onetary judgment f o r su ch a c t s as a r e p erform ­ ed in good f a i t h .

( M i s s i s s i p p i , p . 74)

A p r o s e c u t i n g a t t o r n e y o f a co u n ty h as a u t h o r i t y t o b r in g a c t i o n in b e h a l f o f t h e d i s t r i c t a g a i n s t members, o f t h e

82 board t o r e c o v e r t h e amount o f su ch funds w h ich were i l ­ l e g a l l y expended by m em b ers.o f t h e b o a rd .

( M is s o u r i, p . 7 5 )

The r e s i g n a t i o n o f a s c h o o l board member-,,creates a v a ca n cy and he ca n n ot s u b s e q u e n t ly w ithd raw h i s r e s i g n a t i o n . (Iow a, p . 75)

A p r o v i s i o n t h a t members o f a cou n ty board o f ed u ca­ t i o n s h a l l have h ig h s c h o o l d ip lom a s o r t h e e q u iv a le n t , t h e r e ­ o f i s u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l as f i x i n g h ig h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s th a n " p r a c t i c a l e d u c a tio n " a s r e q u i r e d by g e n e r a l la w .

(T en n essee,

P. 76)

A member o f t h e cou n ty or d i s t r i c t b oard o f e d u c a t io n may n o t be d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y p e c u n i a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d in th e proceeds o f a c o n tr a ct or s e r v ic e .

(West V i r g i n i a , p . 79)

A member o f a co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n may b e removed from o f f i c e f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , i n c lu d in g " m iscond u ct in o f f i c e , " m a lf e a s a n c e in o f f i c e , n e g l e c t o f d u t y , and w i l f u l o r n e g l i g e n t v i o l a t i o n o f any o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f s t a t u t e s d e a l i n g w it h t a x l e v i e s on r e a l and p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y . V i r g i n i a , p . 79)

(West

CHAPTER V SCHOOL DISTRICTS The c r e a t i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n , and t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a r e e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h i n t h e p r o v in c e o f t h e sta te l e g i s l a t u r e . 1

I n a d o p tin g means t o e s t a b l i s h and t o

m a in t a in an e f f i c i e n t s c h o o l s y s t e m , t h e l e g i s l a t u r e must do s o w i t h i n t h e framework o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n .

2

For exam p le,

in N ebraska a l e g i s l a t i v e en actm ent p r o v id e s t h a t bonds on hand s h a l l be r e s o l d f o r t h e p u rp o se o f r e i n v e s t i n g i n U n ite d S t a t e s governm ent b o n d s, t h e p r o f i t on t h e t r a n s a c t i o n t o be s e t up a s a c a p i t a l r e s e r v e t o o f f s e t p a s t c a p i t a l l o s s e s . The c o u r t d e c l a r e d t h i s t o be an i n v a l i d e x e r c i s e o f l e g i s l a t i v e pow er.

*3

H ow ever, i n Alabama t h e J u s t i c e s o f t h e Supreme

Court h e ld t h a t fu n d s h e ld in t h e " S i x t e e n t h S e c t i o n Land Fund" c o u ld , th o u gh i t i s n o t r e q u i r e d , b e i n v e s t e d i n d i r e c t o b l i g a t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s g o v ern m en t.^ E s t a b lis h m e n t and d i s c o n t i n u a n c e . o f s c h o o l s .

C o n sti­

t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n t h a t t h e G e n e ra l A ssem bly s h a l l . p r o v i d e a th oro u gh and e f f i c i e n t s y ste m o f f r e e s c h o o l s , w hereby a l l c h i l d r e n may r e c e i v e a good common s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n , p l a c e s on t h e l e g i s l a t u r e o n ly t h e l i m i t a t i o n t h a t t h e s c h o o l s y ste m e s t a b l i s h e d . b e f r e e and t h e re q u ir em en t t h a t t h e sy ste m be 1 R e f e r e n c e s ’t o c o u r t c a s e s i n C hap ter V a r e l i s t e d on page 18?

open t o a l l w it h o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . 5

i n A rkansas t h e c o u r t

h e ld t h a t a co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n co u ld c l o s e a s c h o o l f o r w h i t e c h i l d r e n and t r a n s p o r t t h e m .t o a n o th e r s c h o o l , w h i l e a t t h e same tim e i t co u ld keep t h r e e n egro s c h o o l s op en .^ I n Oklahoma t h e S t a t e Board o f E d u c a tio n a tte m p te d t o c l o s e a s c h o o l f o r n egro c h i l d r e n and sen d them t o a n o t h e r , a d i s ­ tance o f s ix t e e n m ile s .

T h is a c t e x c e e d e d .t h e a u t h o r i t y o f

t h e board f o r t h e law r e q u i r e s o n ly t h a t t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t be r e g u l a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e p ro p er l o c a l o f f i c i a l s and have an a v er a g e d a i l y a t t e n d a n c e o f a s t a t e d number o f p u p i l s J On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e l o c a l board o f e d u c a t io n may c l o s e a s c h o o l and n e i t h e r t h e C om m issioner o f E d u c a tio n n or t h e Board o f E d u c a tio n o f t h e s t a t e has a u t h o r i t y - t o w it h h o ld t h i s d i s c r e t i o n a r y power even though i t m ight be found t h a t t h e l o c a l s c h o o l b o a r d Ts d e c i s i o n i s b a sed on e r ro n eo u s f a c tu a l m a te r ia l. 0 I n N ebraska a number o f p a r e n t s com p lain ed o f t h e a c t i o n o f th e board i n c l o s i n g an e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l , s a y in g t h a t now t h e c h i l d r e n had t o w alk o v e r r a i l r o a d t r a c k s , p a s t a b e e r h a l l , and th r o u g h t h e town.

A gain t h e c o u r t h e ld t h a t

th e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f c lo s in g a sc h o o l i s fo r th e d is c r e t io n o f t h e s c h o o l b o a r d .9 S e v e r a l e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s w ere annexed t o a h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t under t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a Educa­ t i o n Code.

Over a y e a r l a t e r p e t i t i o n e r s so u g h t a w r i t o f

85 r e v ie w t o d e te r m in e t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e board o f s u p e r ­ v i s o r s on t h e grounds t h a t c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e code w ere n o t f o l l o w e d .

The c o u r t g r a n te d a m o tio n t o quash t h e

w r i t o f r e v ie w on t h e ground o f l a c h e s . ^ 0 R e g u la t io n and s u p e r v i s i o n o f s c h o o l s . u n it sc h o o l d i s t r i c t ,

A community

e s t a b l i s h e d under e n a b lin g l e g i s l a t i o n ,

i s e n t i r e l y s u b j e c t t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e ’s w i l l t h e r e a f t e r , and, w it h or w it h o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f i n h a b i t a n t s o f a s c h o o l d i s ­ tr ic t,

o v e r t h e i r p r o t e s t s , and ev en w it h o u t n o t i c e o r h e a r ­

i n g , t h e s t a t e may t a k e t h e s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s o f t h e d i s t r i c t w it h o u t g i v i n g co m p en sa tio n t h e r e f o r , and v e s t them in o t h e r d i s t r i c t s or a g e n c ie s.

The a re a o f t h e d i s t r i c t may b e co n ­

t r a c t e d o r exp an ded, may b e d i v i d e d , may b e u n it e d in w h o le o r in p a r t w it h a n o th e r d i s t r i c t , o r may be a b o l i s h e d . ^ G e n e r a ll y , e q u i t y w i l l n o t i n t e r f e r e w it h t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f p u b l i c s c h o o l law s under w hich l o c a l c o n t r o v e r s i e s a r i s e , b u t w i l l l e a v e su ch c o n t r o v e r s i e s t o t h e co u n ty b oard s o f e d u c a t io n , w h ich a r e e s t a b l i s h e d under l e g i s l a t i v e scheme as t r i b u n a l s f o r t h e h a n d lin g o f s c h o o l a f f a i r s and t h e a d m in is 12

1 'I

t r a t i o n o f p u b l i c s c h o o l l a w s . 4, * ^

C ourts w i l l i n t e r f e r e

when t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e board i n v o l v e ap p a ren t frau d o r g r o s s abuse o f s t a t u t o r y d i s c r e t i o n . ^ The q u e s t i o n o f ch a n g in g t h e l o c a t i o n o f a s c h o o lh o u s e , as w e l l a s t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a s i t e f o r a new o n e , i s v e s t e d

86 i n t h e sound d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s , and t h e i r a c t i o n can n o t h e r e s t r a i n e d by c o u r t s u n l e s s i t i s

in v i o l a ­

t i o n o f some s t a t u t e , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s have b e e n in f l u e n c e d by im proper m o t i v e s , o r t h e r e has b e e n a m a n i f e s t a b u se o f d i s c r e t i o n . 1 '* The l e g i s l a t u r e has co m p le te power t o e s t a b l i s h . r u l e s and r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r s c h o o l e l e c t i o n s u n l e s s su c h power i s a b u s e d .1 ^ In t h e a b s e n c e of. s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n , c o u r t s do n o t p o s s e s s t h e c o n t r o l and s u p e r v i s i o n o f a s s e t s o f s c h o o l d i s ­ tr ic ts .

I n P e n n s y lv a n ia c o u r t s must approve t h e s a l e o f

unused s c h o o l la n d s b u t do n o t make t h e s a l e . 1 ^ S t a t u s as c o r p o r a t i o n s .

A sc h o o l d i s t r i c t i s not a

s o v e r e i g n p o w e r , o r a m u n ic ip a l c o r p o r a t i o n ; i t q

u

a

s

i

-

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o

r

p

o

r

a

t

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o

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.

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is a

A m u n ic ip a l c o r p o r a t i o n p ro p er i s a

c i t y o r town in c o r p o r a t e d p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e p u rp o se o f l o c a l governm ent; a q u a s i - c o r p o r a t i o n i s p u r e ly a p o l i t i c a l or c i v i l d iv is io n o f the s t a t e . A t a x p a y e r and r e s i d e n t o f t h e c i t y o f F a r g o , N orth D a k o ta , s e e k s t o e n j o i n t h e F argo Board o f JJducation from o ffe r in g fo r s a l e , s e l l i n g , e x e c u tin g , or d e liv e r in g c e r ta in bonds f o r t h e p u r p o se s o f o b t a in in g fu n d s t o e r e c t , e n l a r g e , im p rov e, f u r n i s h , and eq u ip s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s . in t h e t e r r i t o r y u nder t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e d e f e n d a n t .

The s o l e q u e s t i o n

87 i n c o n t r o v e r s y i s w h eth er t h e d e fe n d a n t i s a p u b lic c o r p o r ­ a t i o n , h a v in g a l e g a l e n t i t y s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t from t h e c i t y o f F a r g o , o r i s m e r e ly a hoard o r departm ent o f t h e governm ent o f t h e c i t y o f F a rg o .

The cou rt, d e c id e d t h a t un­

d er th e s t a t u t e s c r e a t i n g t h e Board o f E d u c a tio n o f t h e c i t y o f F a rg o , t h e Board i s n o t a mere d epartm ent o f t h e c i t y governm ent h u t i s a s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t p o l i t i c a l c o r p o r ­ a t i o n and h o th t h e Board o f E d u c a tio n and t h e c i t y o f Fargo may s e p a r a t e l y hond t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e b t l i m i t . C o n s t i t u t i o n a l and s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s .

22

L itig a tio n

in t h i s area o f s c h o o l a d m in istr a tio n i s cen tered p r in c ip a ll y around c u r a t i v e o r v a l i d a t i n g a c t s o f v a r io u s s t a t e s .

Con­

c e r n in g t h i s , Edwards w r i t e s : The g e n e r a l r u l e i s t h a t d e f e c t s in l e g a l p r o c e e d in g s may b e v a l i d a t e d by su b se q u e n t l e g i s l a t i o n i f . t h e d e f e c t c o n s i s t s in t h e d o in g o f so m eth in g w h ich th e . l e g i s l a t u r e m igh t have a u t h o r iz e d by p r i o r s t a t u t e , or i f t h e t h i n g f a i l e d t o be done i s so m eth in g w hich t h e l e g i s l a t u r e m ight have re n d er ed u n n e c e s s a r y in t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e . Of c o u r s e , c u r a t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n cannot d i s t u r b a b s o l u t e l y v e s t e d r i g h t s n or im p a ir th e o b l i g a t i o n s o f c o n t r a c t s . 3 In I l l i n o i s

i t was found t h a t t h e s t a t e s t a t u t e s w ere

i n c o n s i s t e n t as t o w h eth er a board o f e d u c a t io n o f a new ly formed community h ig h s c h o o l s h o u ld c o n s i s t o f f i v e o r s i x members.

T h is d id n o t i n v a l i d a t e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e

23 Newton Edw ards, The C ourts and t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l s : The L e g a l B a s is , o f S c h o o l O r g a n iz a t io n and A d m in is t r a t io n (C h icago: U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s 1 9 4 0 ) , p . 1 3 .

ss community h ig h s c h o o l f o r i t was w i t h i n t h e power o f t h e Gen­ e r a l A ssem bly t o h ave p r o v id e d i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e f o r t h e e l e c t i o n o f a board o f e d u c a t io n o f f i v e members, s o a s u b ­ s e q u e n t v a l i d a t i n g a c t cu red any u n c e r t a i n t y a s. t o ' t h e num­ b e r o f members o f s u c h b o a rd . The G e n e ra l A ssem b ly has no a u t h o r i t y t o l e g a l i z e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w hich i t c o u ld n o t have o r g a n iz e d in t h e f i r s t p l a c e , b u t where t h e s t a t e would have had f u l l power t o e s t a b l i s h a r e g io n a l, h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w h ich was e s t a b l i s h e d by t o w n s , t h e s t a t e c o u ld v a l i d a t e any i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e - d i s t r i c t . 2 5

Even

i f an i n j u n c t i o n has b een g r a n t e d e n j o i n i n g t h e a c t i o n o f a b o a r d , a v a l i d a t i n g a c t may c a u s e t h e a c t i o n o f t h e board t o become f i n a l .

26

A v a l i d a t i n g a c t a p p l i e s o n ly t o a c t s p e r ­

formed b e f o r e t h e a d o p t io n t h e r e o f .

A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t formed

a f t e r a v a l i d a t i n g a c t has b een p a s s e d can n ot c la im v a l i d i t y on t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h a t a c t .

27

O r g a n iz a t io n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s .

C ases w hich come

under t h i s g e n e r a l h e a d in g a r e m ost o f t e n q u e s t i o n s o f i n t e r ­ p r e ta tio n o f p a r tic u la r s t a t e s t a t u t e s .

I t i s d o u b tfu l th a t

any two s t a t e s have i d e n t i c a l law s g o v e r n in g t h e i r s c h o o l s , e s p e c i a l l y in r e g a rd t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . R a th e r th a n run t h e gamut o f a l l t h e c a s e s in t h i s a r e a , a number o f t y p i c a l d e c i s i o n s w i l l - b e p r e s e n t e d .

89 As u s u a l , c o u r t s have d e c id e d t h a t co u n ty b o a rd s o f e d u c a t io n a r e v e s t e d by la w w it h a sound d i s c r e t i o n i n t h e d e t e r m in a t io n o f m a t t e r s n e c e s s a r y t o t h e fo r m a tio n o r t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , w h ich i s s u b j e c t t o r e ­ v ie w o n ly when i t a p p e a r s t h a t . s u c h o r d e r s a r e a r b i t r a r y o r u n r e a s o n a b le * 2 ® I n New York t h e C om m issioner o f E d u c a tio n i s v e s t e d w i t h t h e power t o s e t t h e tim e f o r a s p e c i a l m e e t in g o f q u a l i f i e d v o t e r s t o c o n s i d e r t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t * 2^

I n I l l i n o i s a co u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t , o f s c h o o l s

h a s m andatory d u t y , under s t a t u t e p r o v id in g f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h ­ ment o f a community u n i t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , t o h o ld an e l e c t i o n when a p e t i t i o n s ig n e d by t h e r e q u i s i t e number o f v o t e r s i s f i l e d w it h him , and shows j u r i s d i c t i o n a l m a t t e r s upon i t s f a c e , an d , i n t h a t r e g a r d , t h e s u p e r in t e n d e n t a c t s i n an ad­ m i n i s t r a t i v e c a p a c i t y , n o t a s a j u d i c i a l o f f i c e r , and has no d i s c r e t i o n a r y pow er. The d e t e r m in a t i o n o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f a p e t i t i o n r e ­ q u e s t i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s f o r t h e Com­ m i s s i o n e r o f E d u c a tio n i n New Y o r k , ^ and f o r t h e c o u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n i n M i c h i g a n * ^2

I n t h e s e two c a s e s i t was d e c id e d

t h a t i r r e g u l a r i t i e s su ch a s p e t i t i o n s b e in g u n d a te d , names t h e r e o n n o t b e in g sworn t o a s q u a l i f i e d e l e c t o r s , o r t h e l a c k o f in f o r m a t io n a s t o t h e manner i n w h ich t h e same were c i r c u ­ l a t e d and s e c u r e d by whom, do n o t i n v a l i d a t e a p e t i t i o n * I n t h e e n la r g em en t o r e x t e n s i o n o f an e x i s t i n g o r o ld

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , by v o t e o f t h e e l e c t o r s , w h e t h e r - t h e d i s t r i c t be an in d ep en d en t, c i t y , to w n , o r v i l l a g e s c h o o l c o r p o r a t i o n , t h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t w it h e i t h e r t y p e o f s c h o o l i s t h e forma­ t i o n o f a new s c h o o l c o r p o r a t i o n ,, a n d .p r o p e r s t a t u t o r y s t e p s f o r form ing o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a s c h o o l c o r p o r a t i o n , by v o t e o f t h e e l e c t o r s , s h o u ld b e . f o l l o w e d .^ 3 A m e e tin g was h e ld i n New Y o r k .t o v o t e on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e f o r m a tio n o f a c e n t r a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t .

M ine.hundred

f o r t y - s e v e n q u a l i f i e d v o t e r s w ere p r e s e n t t h e r e a t . . Of t h e n in e hundred f o r t y - s e v e n p r e s e n t , 4 7 3 v o t e d i n f a v o r o f t h e r e s o l u t i o n ; 4 7 0 v o t e d i n t h e n e g a t i v e and f o u r b a l l o t s w ere b la n k .

I t th u s a p p e a rs t h a t o f t h o s e w h o .v o t e d , t h e r e was a

m a jo r ity o f th r ee in fa v o r o f th e r e s o lu tio n ; o f th e t o t a l number p r e s e n t , t h o s e f a v o r in g t h e r e s o l u t i o n . l a c k e d a m a jo r­ i t y o f one.

The q u e s t i o n o f w h e th er t h e p ro p o sed c e n t r a l

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a c t u a l l y _came i n t o b e in g h in g e d on t h e f o l ­ lo w in g q u e s t io n :

I s a m a jo r ity v o te o f a l l th o s e p resen t

n e c e s s a r y , or i s a mere m a j o r i t y v o t e o f t h o s e who v o t e d s u f ­ fic ie n t?

The c o u r t i n t e r p r e t e d t h e S e c t i o n o f t h e E d u c a tio n

Law t o b e c o n s tr u e d a s r e q u i r i n g t h e a f f i r m a t i v e v o t e o f a m a j o r i t y o f a l l t h e q u a l i f i e d v o t e r s p r e s e n t a t. t h e m e e t i n g , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e th er a l l q u a l i f i e d v o t e r s p r e s e n t v o t e . ^ The q u e s t i o n o f t e r r i t o r i a l b o u n d a r ie s was ta k e n to t h e c o u r t s i n I l l i n o i s and t h e d e c i s i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t may c o n s t i t u t e a community f o r o n ly s c h o o l

91 p u r p o s e s , and thou gh p e o p le o f t h e d i s t r i c t may go t o c e n t e r s w it h o u t t h e d i s t r i c t f o r p u r p o se s o f b u s i n e s s , w o r s h ip , or p l e a s u r e , su ch d o es n o t change t h e a s p e c t o f t h e community fo r sc h o o l purposes.

The c o u r t a l s o d e c l a r e d - t h a t though t h e

d i s t r i c t was f o u r t e e n and one h a l f m i l e s l o n g , and v a r y in g in w id th from two t o t e n m i l e s , i t met th e "compact and c o n t i g u ­ ous" r e q u ir e m e n ts .

I n t h e words o f t h e c o u r t:

W hether a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s compact and c o n t ig u o u s , must, be d eterm in ed by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n , of. a p r e s e n t day yard s t i c k , w hich has been m a t e r i a l l y le n g th e n e d - by th e a d v en t o f more and b e t t e r a l l weather- roads c o u p led w it h i n c r e a s i n g u s e o f s c h o o l b u s e s f o r t r a n s p o r t o f p u p i l s . 35 Three c o u n t i e s w hich form a t i e r c o n s t i t u t e a "combi­ n a t i o n o f c o n t ig u o u s c o u n t ie s " a s r e q u ir e d by s t a t u t e a u th o r ­ i z i n g a co m b in a tio n o f c o n t ig u o u s c o u n t i e s t o e s t a b l i s h a j o i n t co u n ty j u n io r c o l l e g e d i s t r i c t .

I t i s not n ecessa ry

t h a t each o f t h e t h r e e c o u n t i e s have a boundary common t o b o th o f t h e o t h e r s . 3^ A s c h o o l board in M i s s i s s i p p i u n d e r to o k , by s e p a r a t e o r d e r s , t o c r e a t e an a g r i c u l t u r a l h i g h s c h o o l, d i s t r i c t and a j u n io r c o l l e g e d i s t r i c t . . . The co u n ty board o f s u p e r v i s o r s in c o n ju n c tio n , w it h t h e s c h o o l b o a r d , b u t by s e p a r a t e , o r d e r s , a p p o in te d t r u s t e e s f o r t h i s h i g h . s c h o o l - j u n i o r c o l l e g e w i t h ­ out any r e c o r d i n t h e i r m in u te s o f e i t h e r of. t h e o r d e r s , or any show ing t h a t t h e t r u s t e e s had u n d er ta k en t o c o n v e r t t h e h ig h s c h o o l i n t o a j u n io r c o l l e g e o r had recommended su ch con ­ v e r s io n *

The c o u r t r u le d t h a t i n a s much as n o . r e c o r d

92 appeared in t h e m in u te s,' no h ig h s c h o o l - j u n i o r c o l l e g e d i s ­ t r i c t had been c r e a t e d and t h e r e f o r e bonds, c o u ld n o t be i s ­ sued or b e s o l d . 37 Change o f b o u n d a r ie s .

S ch ool d i s t r i c t s are c r e a tu r e s

o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e w hich has t h e power, to . a l t e r them o r t o do away w it h them e n t i r e l y . 3 9

W ithou t t h e c o n s e n t o f th e i n ­

h a b i t a n t s o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , o v e r t h e i r p r o t e s t s , and even w it h o u t n o t i c e o r h e a r i n g , t h e s t a t e may c o n t r a c t o r expand t h e area o f a d i s t r i c t , may d i v i d e i t , may u n i t e i t

i n w hole

o r i n p a r t w ith a n o t h e r d i s t r i c t , o r may a b o l i s h i t . ^ A c i t y i n K entucky annexed c e r t a i n a d j a c e n t t e r r i t o r y . I n c lu d e d i n t h i s a r e a was some v a l u a b l e i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y . I t was t h e c o n t e n t io n o f t h e s e h o o l d i s t r i c t t h a t t h e e x t e n ­ s io n o f th e c i t y l i m i t s a u to m a tic a lly exten d s th e d i s t r i c t lim its.

The c o u r t d e c id e d a g a i n s t t h i s o p in i o n s t a t i n g t h a t

t h e p rop er p ro ce d u re f o r a n n ex in g t e r r i t o r y t o s c h o o l d i s ­ tr ic ts

i s s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d in t h e s t a t u t e s and must be

e x p lic it ly fo llo w e d .^ A T exas s t a t u t e p r o v id e s t h a t a t e r r i t o r y may be d e ­ ta c h e d from one s c h o o l d i s t r i c t and annexed t o a n o th e r p ro ­ v id e d i t d o e s n o t e x c e e d t e n p e r c e n t o f t h e o r i g i n a l d i s ­ t r i c t , and provided, f u r t h e r t h a t i t i s approved by a m a j o r it y o f t h e q u a l i f i e d v o t e r s i n t h e t e r r i t o r y t o b e d e t a c h e d . The c o n so lid a tio n o f sch o o l d i s t r i c t s d estro y s t h e ir o r ig in a l

93 l e g a l e n t i t y , a f t e r w h ich t h e t e r r i t o r y may b e d e ta c h e d as t h e above s t a t u t e p r o v id e s even though t e n p e r c e n t o f t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d t e r r i t o r y a s k in g t o . b e d e ta c h e d i s more th a n t e n p e r c e n t o f t h e t e r r i t o r y as i t

e x iste d b efore c o n s o li­

d a t io n .^ 2 C o n so lid a tio n .

The power d e l e g a t e d t o s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s

t o d e te r m in e t h e q u e s t i o n o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s l e g i s l a t i v e i n c h a r a c t e r , and c o u r t s a r e r e q u ir e d t o g i v e t h e a c t s o f t h e p a r t i e s su ch a c o n s t r u c t i o n as w i l l re n d e r them v a l i d . ^ c a s e in M i s s o u r i d e m o n s tr a te s t h i s p r i n c i p l e . s e p a r a t e s two s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s .

A

A c o u n ty l i n e

A r i v e r runs t h r o u g h one

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t c u t t i n g o f f a 2 9 3 a c r e t r a c t o f la n d n e a r e s t t h e cou n ty l i n e .

F or many y e a r s t h i s 2 9 3 a c r e t r a c t o f lan d

has b een in c lu d e d in th e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in t h e o p p o s i t e coun­ t y f o r t h e re a so n t h a t t h e r i v e r made t h e s c h o o l s a lm o s t i n ­ a c c e s s ib le to the c h ild r e n .

A c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f n in e s c h o o l

d i s t r i c t s was a tte m p te d b u t t h e co u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t o f t h e co u n ty i n w h ich t h e 2 9 3 a c r e t r a c t l i e s r e f u s e d t o s i g n t h e co n so lid a tio n order. t i n g t h e 2 93 a c r e s .

C o n s o l i d a t i o n was th e n c o m p le te d , o m it­ A p p e l la n t s a l l e g e t h a t t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n

o f t h e new d i s t r i c t i s i n v a l i d b e c a u s e i t c u t s o f f an a r e a o f l e s s th a n e i g h t sq u a r e m i l e s , i t l e a v e s an a r e a w it h l e s s th an tw e n ty p u p i l s , and has l e s s th a n a f i f t y thousand, d o l l a r a s ­ se ssed v a lu a tio n .

I t was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e r e a r e no

94 l o n g e r c h i l d r e n l i v i n g in t h e d is p u t e d 2 9 3 a c r e t r a c t and s o no i n j u r y w ould r e s u l t from i t s e x c lu s io n *

The above men­

t i o n e d l i m i t a t i o n s were d e s ig n e d t o p r o t e c t the. p u p i l s .

T h is

i s c l e a r l y n o t v i o l a t i n g t h e p u rp o se o f t h e s t a t u t e , s o con­ so lid a tio n is v a l i d .^ In New Y o rk , a f t e r a c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f s e v e r a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , a d i s t r i c t s u p e r in t e n d e n t a tte m p te d to. e x c lu d e one d i s t r i c t from t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n on t h e grounds t h a t i t was n o t c o n tig u o u s t o t h e bounds o f t h e o t h e r d i s t r i c t s .

The

c o u r t r u le d t h i s t o b e an ab use o f a u t h o r i t y s i n c e c o n t i g u i t y o f d i s t r i c t s i s n o t r e q u ir e d . The S t a t e Com m issioner o f E d u c a tio n o f New York may, in h i s d i s c r e t i o n , l a y out new c e n t r a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s em­ b r a c in g t e r r i t o r y o f common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , u n io n f r e e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , and c e n t r a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , e x c e p t w i t h i n c e r t a i n m u n i c i p a l i t i e s w hose p o p u la t io n e x c e e d s 5 , 0 0 0 .

S t a t u t e s do

not p r o h ib it la y in g out a c e n tr a l sc h o o l d i s t r i c t becau se a component p a r t w i l l b e r e l i e v e d o f t h e payment o f t h e o b l i ­ g a t i o n s in cu rred , by t h e d i s t r i c t t o w hich i t was fo r m e r ly a n n ex ed , and do n o t l i m i t i t s

e s t a b lis h m e n t b e c a u s e a s c h o o l

s y s te m and a program s a t i s f a c t o r y t o i t s i n h a b i t a n t s i s i n 46 e f f e c t i n an e x i s t i n g s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . The Supreme C ourt o f Ohio, h e ld t h a t t h e S t a t e S u p e r in ­ t e n d e n t c o u ld a u t h o r i z e t h e " m o d i f i c a t i o n 11 o f a p la n f o r t e r ­ r i t o r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n su b m itte d t o him by a co u n ty b o a r d ,

95 w hich had b een v o t e d on an d.h ad b e e n p a s s e d by s e v e n t y - f i v e per cent o f th e r e s id e n t e l e c t o r s .

A " m o d i f i c a t i o n ” means an

a l t e r a t i o n in t r o d u c i n g new e le m e n ts i n t o t h e d e t a i l s , o r can­ c e l l i n g some o f them , b u t l e a v i n g t h e g e n e r a l- p u r p o s e and e f ­ f e c t o f th e s u b je c t m atter i n t a c t .

He can n ot su bm it a new

and d i f f e r e n t p la n o f t e r r i t o r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n su ch a s an ad­ d i t i o n o f two more s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s t o t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n p l a n . ^7 When a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t becom es d is o r g a n i z e d t e r r i t o r y w i t h i n t h e m eaning o f Oklahoma s t a t u t e s p r o v id in g f o r annex­ a t i o n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , t h e S t a t e Board o f E d u c a tio n i s a u t h o r iz e d t o an nex su ch d i s o r g a n i z e d t e r r i t o r y t o some o t h e r d is tr ic t.^

I n Iowa t h e Supreme Court h e ld t h a t t h e L e g i s l a ­

t u r e in t e n d e d t h a t s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e i n i t i a l form­ in g o f c o n s o l i d a t e d s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s s h o u ld be u sed i n t h e i r e n la r g e m e n t . ^ P e t it io n or c o n se n t.

"A p e t i t i o n s ig n e d by a d e s i g ­

n a te d p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e q u a l i f i e d e l e c t o r s i s f r e q u e n t l y made a c o n d i t i o n p r e c e d e n t t o t h e c a l l i n g o f an e l e c t i o n or t h e t a k in g o f a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r s w it h r e s p e c t t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f d i s t r i c t s o r t h e ch a n g in g o f b o u n d a r ie s . ” 50

Four c a s e s rea ch ed t h e Supreme C ourts i n t h e

Hewton Edwards, The C ourts and- t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l s : The L e g a l B a s i s o f S c h o o l O r g a n iz a t io n and A d m in is t r a t io n { C hicago: 0 n i v e r s 11 y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 4 0 J , p . ■

96 p a s t two y e a r s w h ich made r e f e r e n c e , t o p e t i t i o n s i n one way or an oth er* I n A rkansas t h e c o u r t h e ld t h a t a cou n ty hoard o f educa­ t i o n has t h e power t o t a k e any or a l l t e r r i t o r y o f a u n it e d d i s t r i c t and annex su ch t e r r i t o r y t o any l a r g e d i s t r i c t or d i s t r i c t s , c o n d it i o n e d o n ly on t h e c o n s e n t o f su ch l a r g e r d i s ­ t r i c t s s o a f f e c t e d and c o n d it i o n e d on a p p r o v a l o f t h e S t a t e Board o f E d u c a tio n i f t h e a n n e x a tio n he a c r o s s a co u n ty l i n e . The hoard d o es n o t h av e t o o b t a in t h e c o n s e n t o f any p a tr o n s i n t h e u n i t e d d i s t r i c t a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o su ch a n n e x a t io n . The number o f s i g n e r s on a p e t i t i o n may be redu ced by s i g n e r s f i l i n g a w r i t t e n r e q u e s t t o have t h e i r names ta k e n from t h e p e t i t i o n , b u t names may n o t be added n o r can su p ­ p le m e n ta l p e t i t i o n s f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n s ig n e d by e l e c t o r s n o t on t h e o r i g i n a l p e t i t i o n , thou gh f i l e d b e f o r e t h e o r i g i n a l p e t i t i o n was a c t e d on by t h e co u n ty b o a r d , be c o n s id e r e d .

52

When a common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n A riz o n a s e e k s t o change i t s b o u n d a r ie s , i t

i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t

w it h w hich i t i s c o te r m in o u s t o j o i n i n t h e p e t i t i o n , - o r t h e t r u s t e e s o f t h e h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ,

i f d if f e r e n t in .p e r so n ­

n e l from t h e common s c h o o l b o a r d , must b e g i v e n n o t i c e t h e r e 53 o f as r e q u ir e d by s t a t u t e . " S i g n a t u r e s f o r a p e t i t i o n may b e s e c u r e d i n a d i s t r i c t a t l a r g e and need n o t c o n t a i n a m a j o r i t y o f r e s i d e n t e l e c t o r s in each l i t t l e s e c t i o n o f t h e l a r g e r d i s t r i c t su ch a s t h e

97 v a r io u s t o w n s h i p s . ^ O rders f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n o r o r g a n i z a t i o n *

An o r d e r

o f a T exas c o u n ty board o f s c h o o l t r u s t e e s a t t a c h i n g t e r r i ­ t o r y o f dormant common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s t o independ en t, s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s was n o t v o id b e c a u s e t h e o r d e r d id n o t show t h e a u t h o r i t y under w hich t h e board a c t e d , s i n c e t h e b o a r d ’ s power t o a c t d e p en d e d .o n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e f a c t s r a t h e r 55 th a n on t h e r e c i t a l o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e i n t h e order# The M i s s i s s i p p i Supreme Court was n o t s o l i b e r a l *

There a co u n ty

s c h o o l b o a r d , in a t t e m p t in g t o e s t a b l i s h a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , f a i l e d t o a d j u d i c a t e t h a t t h e a r e a t o b e i n c lu d e d was n o t l e s s th a n t e n sq u a r e m i l e s .

The s c h o o l b o a rd co n ten d ed t h a t t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a r ie s w it h t h e s e c t i o n s t o b e i n c l u d ­ ed s p e c i f i c a l l y named, s e r v e d as an a d j u d ic a t io n , t h a t t h e d i s t r i c t c o n t a in e d n o t l e s s th a n t e n sq u a r e m i l e s , s i n c e i t c o u ld be checked by anyone i n t e r e s t e d .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t

cA

t h e board was i n e r r o r . J

Two e l e c t i o n s w ere h e ld on t h e same day t o d e te r m in e w h ich two o f t h r e e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s s h o u ld be c o n s o l i d a t e d . The c o u r t h e ld t h a t i t was p e r f e c t l y l e g a l f o r t h e c o u n ty judge t o h o ld t h e e l e c t i o n s on t h e same d a y even th ou gh one p e t i t i o n was r e c e i v e d s e v e r a l days b e f o r e t h e o t h e r , as t h e r e was no e v i d e n c e t h a t anyone was k e p t from v o t i n g by t h i s a rr a n g e m e n t . ^

98

S u b m is s io n o f q u e s t i o n t o p o p u la r v o t e *

A r e sid e n ts

r i g h t t o v o t e a t a s c h o o l - e l e c t i o n i s p u r e ly a p e r m is s iv e r i g h t b esto w ed by l e g i s l a t i v e g r a c e in fu r th e r a n c e , o f th e p o l i c y o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , and a r e s i d e n t has no in h e r e n t r i g h t o f f r a n c h i s e . 58 An e l e c t i o n was h e ld c o n c e r n in g t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e a n n e x a tio n o f one s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o a n o t h e r . . The e l e c t i o n c a r r ie d by a v o t e o f t w e n t y - s i x t o t w e n t y - f o u r .

A p p e lla n t s

s e e k t o d e c l a r e t h e e l e c t i o n v o id on t h e ground t h a t two q u a l­ i f i e d v o t e r s had n o t b een a llo w e d t o v o t e b e c a u s e o f an e r ­ roneous announcement t h a t o n ly t h o s e who had l i v e d in t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t n i n e t y days c o u ld v o t e ( s t a t u t e p r e s c r i b e s r e s i d e n c e o f o n ly t h i r t y d a y s) and two more q u a l i f i e d v o t e r s had n o t b een a llo w e d t o v o t e b e c a u s e t h e y a r r iv e d a t t h e p o l l s j u s t as t h e b a l l o t s were b e in g cou n ted and a f t e r t h e p o l l s had been o f f i c i a l l y c l o s e d .

The M i s s o u r i Court o f A pp eals

h e ld t h a t t h e e l e c t i o n was v a l i d * b rought o u t:

Three im p o rta n t p o i n t s were

( l ) The erroneous, announcement t h a t was made had

no e f f e c t a s t h i s f i r s t c o u p le d id n o t ask f o r b a l l o t s and s o , were n o t d e n ie d t h e r i g h t t o v o t e .

( 2 ) The p o l l s h a d .b e e n

c l o s e d b e f o r e t h e s e c o n d c o u p le a r r i v e d b u t t h e y t o o d id n o t o f f e r t o v o t e s o w ere a c t u a l l y n o t d e n ie d t h e r i g h t t o v o t e . (3 ) The t r i a l

judge d id n o t have t h e power t o d e te r m in e how t h e y would have v o t e d had th e y b een p e r m it te d t o v o t e . 59 A c o n s o l i d a t i o n e l e c t i o n w hich had r e s u l t e d in a t i e

99 v o t e was c o n t e s t e d on t h e grounds t h a t c e r t a i n p e o p le had v o t e d who had no- l e g a l r i g h t t o v o t e .

The c o u r t h e ld t h e

e l e c t i o n t o h e i n v a l i d upon f i n d i n g s o f t h e e v id e n c e t h a t s e v e r a l v o t e r s d id v o t e w it h o u t p r o p er a u t h o r i t y .

F or e x ­

a m p le, one v o t e r ’ s p o l l t a x r e c e i p t g a v e h i s a d d r e ss a s b e in g i n a p r e c i n c t w hich was n o t ev en c o n t ig u o u s t o t h e d i s t r i c t in w hich t h e e l e c t i o n was b e in g h e l d .

A n o th er v o t e r owned a

farm i n t h e d i s t r i c t b u t e v i d e n c e e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t he d id n o t liv e th ere.

A t h i r d v o t e r , whose r i g h t l e g had b e e n s e v e r e d

b elo w t h e k n e e , had n o t p a id p o l l t a x , w hich i s a l e g a l e x ­ em p tion from p o l l t a x l e v i e d by s t a t u t e but n o t from t h e § 1 . 0 0 t a x im posed by t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n . ^ Under s t a t u t e s o f s e v e r a l s t a t e s r e l a t i n g t o e l e c t i o n s f o r t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , t h e co u n ty judge must o f f i c i a l l y d e te r m in e -w h e th e r p e t i t i o n s a r e s u f ­ f i c i e n t t o c a l l e l e c t i o n s , and, i f p e t i t i o n s are s u f f i c i e n t , he must o r d e r t h e e l e c t i o n s and t h e n o t i c e s p o s t e d . 61

In

T exas a jud ge s ig n e d an o r d e r c a l l i n g an e l e c t i o n t h e n i g h t b e f o r e he r e c e i v e d t h e p e t i t i o n and l e f t t h e o r d e r i n t h e a tto rn ey ’s o f f ic e .

I t was d e l i v e r e d t o s c h o o l p a t r o n s f o r

p o s t i n g a f t e r t h e p e t i t i o n had b een p r e s e n t e d t o him.

The

c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e jud ge had n o t a c t u a l l y o rd er ed an e l e c ­ t i o n u n t i l i t had b e e n made p u b l i c o r p rom ulgated and so t h e 62 e l e c t i o n was v a l i d . Even thou gh a judge may a l l o w as much a s a m onth’ s l a p s e o f t i m e , t h e co u n ty board o f t r u s t e e s

ca n n ot o r d e r an e l e c t i o n * o f h is

T h is d e l a y d oes n o t d e p r iv e him

ju r is d ic tio n .^ Two p e t i t i o n s r e g u l a r i n . a l l r e s p e c t s w ere f i l e d w it h

t h e cou n ty judge on t h e same d a y .

The p e t i t i o n s prayed r e ­

s p e c tiv e ly fo r c o n so lid a tio n e le c t io n s .

School d i s t r i c t A

r e q u e s t e d c o n s o l i d a t i o n w it h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t C, and s c h o o l d i s t r i c t B r e q u e s t e d c o n s o l i d a t i o n w it h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t C a ls o but n e ith e r p e t i t i o n in d ic a te d th a t a t h r e e - d i s t r i c t c o n s o l i d a t i o n was d e s i r e d .

The ju d g e .o r d e r e d an e l e c t i o n

f o r th e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t A w it h s c h o o l d i s ­ t r i c t C.

About a month l a t e r he o rd ered t h e se co n d e l e c t i o n

on t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n - o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t B and C, s t i l l on the stren g th o f th e p e t it i o n .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e judge

had no a u t h o r i t y t o o r d e r t h e seco n d e l e c t i o n as t h e p e t i t i o n a sk ed f o r a c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f d i s t r i c t B and C but i n r e a l i t y d i s t r i c t C no l o n g e r e x i s t e d b u t was an e n t i r e l y new a re a _ 61^ . c o n s i s t i n g o f c o n s o l i d a t e d a r e a s A and C. I f an e l e c t i o n i s t o be h e ld t o d e te r m in e i f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t sh o u ld be d i s s o l v e d and annexed t o two o t h e r s c h o o l d istr ic ts,

e l e c t i o n s a r e a l s o r e q u ir e d i n t h e d i s t r i c t s t o

w hich t h e d i s t r i c t i s t o b e a n n ex ed .

65

Under A rkansas s t a t u t e , e l e c t o r s h ave a r i g h t t o f i l e a p e t i t i o n t o d i s s o l v e a s c h o o l rd i s t r i c t and annex i t s t e r ­ r i t o r y , t o a n o th e r d i s t r i c t , and t h e co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n has power t o g r a n t t h e p e t i t i o n , even th ou gh t h e p r o p o s a l

101 p r e s e n t e d had r e c e i v e d an a d v e r s e v o t e a t an e l e c t i o n h e ld s l i g h t l y more th a n a month b e f o r e t h e f i l i n g o f t h e p e t i t i o n . The l e g i s l a t u r e has n o t made t h e r e s u l t o f an e l e c t i o n con ­ c l u s i v e f o r any s p e c i f i e d l e n g t h o f t i m e .^ 6 A c a s e from M i s s o u r i i n d i c a t e s . c o m p l i c a t i o n s w hich m ig h t a r i s e i f a c c u r a t e m in u te s o f a b o a r d ’s m e e tin g a re n o t r e c o r d e d im m e d ia te ly . March 1 1 , 1 9 4 8 . an e l e c t i o n *

A c o n s o l i d a t i o n e l e c t i o n was h e ld

The law r e q u i r e s a f i f t e e n - d a y n o t i c e o f su ch

The p o i n t upon w hich t h e c a s e was d e c id e d was

t h e e v id e n c e e s t a b l i s h e d a s t o w h e t h e r .t h e m e e tin g d e te r m in ­ in g t o h o ld an e l e c t i o n was h e ld F eb ru ary 2 4 , o r F eb ru ary 2 6 . The l a t t e r d a t e would n o t come u nder t h e f i f t e e n - d a y s t a t u t e . The m in u te s showed t h a t t h e m e e tin g had b een h e ld F eb ru ary 2 6 , b u t t h e p rep o n d era n ce o f e v id e n c e showed t h a t i t had a c t u a l ­ l y b e e n h e l d on F eb ru ary 24•

The c l e r k o f t h e board d id n o t

p r e p a r e t h e m in u te s w h i l e a t t h e m e e t in g b u t r a t h e r a f t e r sh e had r e tu r n e d home.

The m in u te s o f a m e e t in g a r e n o t u s u a l l y

s u b j e c t t o q u e s t i o n i f p rep ared a t . t h e t i m e , b u t i t d o es n o t h o ld t h a t a r e c o r d , made a t a d i f f e r e n t t i m e , cannot be shown t o be w ron g.

The c o u r t h e ld t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n t o b e v a l i d . ^7

R eview o f p r o c e e d i n g s .

When an a c t i o n o f a s c h o o l

o f f i c i a l , su ch a s t h e S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , i s i n t h e form o f an o rd er o r a d e c i s i o n made u n d er t h e r u l e s o r r e g u l a t i o n s o f any s t a t e b o a r d , c o m m issio n , o r a g e n c y ,

102 t h i s a c t i o n ca n n o t b e a p p e a le d .

However, i f t h e a c t i o n i s

an e x e r c i s e o f d i s c r e t i o n a r y pow er, i t may b e a p p e a le d and i n su ch c a s e t h e a p p e l l a n t m u s t . e s t a b l i s h s u f f i c i e n t grounds f o r j u d i c i a l r e v ie w .6 & > 6 9 ,7 0

^

M ontana, d i s c r e t i o n a r y a c ­

t i o n on t h e p a r t o f a co u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t o f s c h o o l s may b e a p p e a le d t o t h e board o f cou n ty c o m m is s io n e r s .

I n one c a s e

w here t h e c h i l d r e n o f an abandoned s c h o o l d i s t r i c t had b een t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n o th e r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w h ic h , b e c a u s e o f a ra n g e o f m o u n ta in s , was a c c e s s i b l e o n ly by e n t e r i n g a seco n d s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , p a s s i n g a s c h o o l h o u se o f t h a t d i s t r i c t , and t r a v e l i n g an a d d i t i o n a l t e n m i l e s , t h e c o u r t d e c la r e d t h a t t h e board o f co u n ty c o m m issio n er s d id n o t a c t a r b i t r a r i l y i n o r d e r in g a t r a n s f e r o f su c h t e r r i t o r y t o t h e m ost a c c e s s i b l e sch ool d i s t r i c t . In s e e k in g r e l i e f from an o r d e r d i s s o l v i n g , c e r t a i n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s and a n n e x in g t h e s e d i s t r i c t s t o a n o th e r d i s ­ t r i c t , t h e f i r s t a c t i o n was t a k e n t h r e e months a f t e r t h e o r d e r s w ere made.

Mo r e l i e f was so u g h t f o r more th an t e n

months a f t e r t h e o r d e r s w ere made.

In t h e m eantim e, t h e d i s ­

t r i c t had in c u r r e d o b l i g a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from t h i s a n n e x a t io n . The c o u r t d e c l a r e d t h i s t o be an u n r e a s o n a b le d e la y o f tim e on t h e p a r t o f t h e a p p e a lin g e l e c t o r s .

72

In S ou th C a r o lin a a common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t se c e d e d from a c o n s o l i d a t e d h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t

t h e common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t was n o t e n t i t l e d t o a p r o p o r t i o n a t e

103

s h a r e o f funds w hich w ere s u r p lu s s c h o o l bond fu n d s . G e n e r a l­ l y , i n a b s e n c e o f s t a t u t e o r a g r e e m e n t, ow nersh ip o f , s c h o o l p r o p e r t y i s l e f t where i t i s found a f t e r d i s t r i c t b o u n d a r ie s are a lt e r e d .

T h is would i n c l u d e c a sh s u r p l u s e s . ^

L ia b ilitie s.

A bond i s s u e was p rop osed by a s c h o o l

d i s t r i c t i n F l o r i d a f o r t h e p u rp o se o f c o n s t r u c t i n g and e q u ip ­ p in g a gymnasium and a bandroom.

I t was shown t h a t t h e bonds

w ere approved by a m a j o r it y v o t e o f t h e f r e e h o l d e r s o f t h e d i s t r i c t i n a n . e l e c t i o n c a l l e d and h e ld a s r e q u ir e d by t h e c o n stitu tio n .

The f a c t t h a t t h i s s c h o o l d i s t r i c t l a t e r con ­

s o l i d a t e d w it h a n o th e r a f t e r t h e bonds w ere i s s u e d , had no e f f e c t on t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e b o n d s.

They rem ained t h e l e g a l

o b l i g a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i c t t h a t had i s s u e d t h e m .^ '

A sim ila r

d e c i s i o n was re a ch ed in I l l i n o i s . ^5 An A rkansas s t a t u t e , p r o v id in g t h a t a c o n s o l i d a t e d s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s l i a b l e f o r d e b ts o f c o n s t i t u e n t d i s t r i c t s and may be su ed t h e r e f o r , d oes n o t r e q u i r e t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d d i s t r i c t t o pay e v e r y o u t s t a n d in g w arrant i s s u e d by c o n s t i t u ­ en t d i s t r i c t s , r e g a r d l e s s . o f v a l i d i t y .

The r e a l p a r t y i n

i n t e r e s t i s t h e r e f o r e t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d d i s t r i c t whose funds w i l l be u sed t o pay t h e c l a i m s , s o i t

i s e r ro n eo u s t o p r o ce ed

d i r e c t l y a g a i n s t t h e eo u n ty s u p e r in t e n d e n t and t r e a s u r e r w i t h ­ ou t making t h e d i s t r i c t a p a r t y .

I t may be t h a t t h e w a rra n ts

now p r e s e n t e d a r e i n v a l i d f o r any o f s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s ,

104 su c h as f o r g e r y o f t h e d i r e c t o r s * s i g n a t u r e s , want o f co n ­ s i d e r a t i o n , e t c . , and s o t h e d i s t r i c t sh o u ld have an o p p o r76 tu n ity to present i t s d efen ses. High s c h o o l a n d .g rad ed s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s .

I n A r iz o n a

a h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t can n ot embrace o n ly a p a r t o f a common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , t h a t i s , when t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f a common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a r e e n la r g e d t o i n c l u d e a p o r t i o n o f a n o th e r common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f t h e h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o vdiich i t b e lo n g e d a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y e n la r g e d . B o u n d a r ie s o f a h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t must be c o ter m in o u s w it h a common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t o r o u t e r b o u n d a r ie s o f two o r more common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . 7 7 The f i r s t l e g a l a c t i o n r e q u ir e d i n t h e form ing o f a r u r a l h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s t h e o r d e r in g o f an e l e c t i o n by t h e co u n ty board o f s c h o o l t r u s t e e s , and t h e board f i r s t o r d e r in g su ch a c t i o n has e x c l u s i v e j u r i s d i c t i o n i n o r d e r in g a c o n s o l i d a t i o n e l e c t i o n o v e r any o t h e r board o f c o o r d in a t e ju r is d ic tio n .^ ^

I n I l l i n o i s t h e same was found t o be t r u e

w here t h e v i l l a g e o f W o r t h f ie ld was s i t u a t e d on a to w n sh ip l i n e , t h e m a j o r i t y o f r e s i d e n t s b e in g i n New T r i e r to w n sh ip and t h e m i n o r i t y in N o r t h f i e l d t o w n s h ip .

S t a t u t e p r o v id e s

t h a t a c i t y th u s s i t u a t e d s h a l l c o n s t i t u t e a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n t h e to w n sh ip i n w h ich t h e m a j o r it y o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s l i v e . However, t h i s s t a t u t e i s n o t s e l f e x e c u t i n g .

I t must b e

105 c r e a t e d by some fo rm a l e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n .

P e titio n s fo r or­

g a n i z a t i o n w ere r e c e i v e d from both, t o w n s h ip s , H o r t h f i e l d to w n sh ip b e in g f i r s t .

Hew T r i e r to w n sh ip h e ld i t s e l e c t i o n

f i r s t and t h e c o u r t h e ld t h i s e l e c t i o n t o be t h e v a l i d o n e .? 9 The a c t i o n s o f board members a r e som etim es q u e s tio n e d i n t h e m a t t e r o f fo r m a tio n o f h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s .

For ex ­

a m p le, i n T exas t h e members o f a board p a sse d an o r d e r t o h o ld an e l e c t i o n w h i l e s e a t e d i n a c a r parked o u t s i d e t h e c o u r th o u s e r a t h e r th a n g o in g i n s i d e t o t h e o f f i c e o f th e co u n ty s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

T h is d id n o t i n v a l i d a t e o r v o id t h e

o r d e r . A n o t h e r c a s e i n T exa s i s b a sed on an a l l e g a t i o n t h a t t h e c o u n ty s c h o o l board a c t e d i n an a r b i t r a r y and un­ r e a s o n a b le manner i n r e f u s i n g t o t r a n s f e r t e r r i t o r y i n a r u r a l h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o a n o th e r h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . I n commenting on t h e a p p e l l a n t s * m ain argu m en t, t h e c o u r t s a i d t h a t t h e mere e x i s t e n c e o f bad road c o n d i t i o n s i n muddy w e a th e r w ould n o t a u t h o r i z e t h e c o u r t t o s e t a s i d e a co u n ty sch o o l boardfs a c t i o n . ^

I n I l l i n o i s t h e c o u r t h e ld t h a t

t h e f a c t t h a t c e r t a i n c h i l d r e n may o c c a s i o n a l l y m is s s c h o o l . on a c c o u n t o f road c o n d i t i o n s , o r t h e f a c t t h a t some c h i l d r e n must t r a v e l g r e a t d i s t a n c e s o v e r w o rse roads th a n o t h e r s d o es n o t i n v a l i d a t e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a community h ig h s c h o o l d istr ic t The C a l i f o r n i a a p p e l l a t e c o u r t d e c l a r e d t h a t where a n ew ly c r e a t e d h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t had b een o r g a n iz e d f o r

106 n e a r l y a y e a r and was o p e r a t in g a s su ch p r i o r t o a p p l i c a t i o n f o r w r i t o f r e v ie w o f t h e a n n e x a tio n o r d e r o f t h e hoard o f s u p e r v i s o r s and no f a c t s w ere a l l e g e d by t h e .p e t i t i o n e r t o e x c u s e d e l a y , t h e q u a sh in g o f t h e w r i t o f r e v ie w on t h e ground o f l a c h e s was n o t an a b u se o f d i s c r e t i o n . ^ D isso lu tio n .

A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s f o r a p u b l i c pur­

p o s e , and, t h e r e f o r e , may be c r e a t e d , a l t e r e d , o r a b o l i s h e d a t th e w i l l o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e , a c tin g e ith e r d ir e c t l y or in ­ d i r e c t l y th rou g h a l o c a l board o f s u p e r v i s o r s t o w hich e x e r ­ c i s e o f su ch powers has b een d e l e g a t e d .

>86

-g,o r exaE1p]_e>

i n C o n n e c tic u t w here f o u r towns had formed a r e g i o n a l h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t and t h e G e n e ra l A ssem b ly had p a s s e d a s p e c i a l a c t w it h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d i s t r i c t , t h e f o u r towns co u ld n o t be d i s s o l v e d by t h e i r own a c t i o n s i n c e s o l e power t o d i s s o l v e a d i s t r i c t b e lo n g s t o t h e G e n e ra l A ssem b ly. On d i s s o l u t i o n o f a c o n s o l i d a t e d s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , t h e e n t i r e t e r r i t o r y becomes u n o r g a n iz e d t e r r i t o r y .

T h is r u l e

ca u se d some t r o u b l e in M is s o u r i r e c e n t l y when, a f t e r d i s s o ­ l u t i o n , ea ch d i s t r i c t w hich was a t t e m p t in g t o form ou t o f t h e

former l a r g e d i s t r i c t , d e s c r ib e d t h e i r boundary l i n e s to' i n ­ c lu d e some a r e a cla im e d by one o f t h e o t h e r d i s t r i c t s .

The

c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n sh o u ld n o t be b a se d on a f i r s t come, f i r s t s e r v e d b a s i s , but t h e boundary l i n e s f o r t h e r e o r g a n iz e d d i s t r i c t s would be th e . same as the. o r i g i n a l

107 boundary l i n e s w ere b e f o r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n . T here a r e o f t e n c o n t r o v e r s i e s c o n c e r n in g the. d i s t r i ­ b u t io n o f t h e a s s e t s and l i a b i l i t i e s d is t r ic t a fte r d isso lu tio n .

o f a c o n so lid a te d sc h o o l

The Supreme Court o f A rkansas

h e ld t h a t u n l e s s a r b i t r a r y or u n r e a s o n a b le a c t i o n was shown, t h e co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n c o u ld a p p o r t io n money on hand a c c o r d in g t o t h e r a t i o o f t h e a s s e s s e d v a lu e o f r e a l e s t a t e i n each new d i s t r i c t .

To t r a c e t h e money u sed d u r in g t h e

y e a r s o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n t o d e te r m in e how.much money from each d i s t r i c t had b e e n .u s e d and f o r t h e b e n e f i t , o f whom, and t h e n d i v i d e t h e rem a in in g fun ds on t h a t b a s i s . , was n o t w i t h i n t h e la w .

The c o n s o l i d a t e d d i s t r i c t d i s p o s e d o f a s c h o o l bus a t

a lo ss.

The board r i g h t f u l l y a p p o r tio n e d t h i s l o s s on t h e

b a s i s o f t h e s t a t e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a i d r e c e i v e d b y each d i s t r i c t . 89 C e r t a in r e s i d e n t ta x p a y e r s in .K an sas, s e e k t o e n j o i n t h e d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t on t h e grounds t h a t t h e chairm an o f t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n com m ittee had no a u t h o r i t y t o c o r r e c t a ” c l e r i c a l e r r o r ” w it h o u t c a l l i n g an­ o t h e r m e e tin g o f t h e c o m m i t t e e .. The c o u r t h e l d t h a t t h e u s e o f t h e f i g u r e s ” 9 8 ” i n t h e o r d e r w here t h e f i g u r e s ” 9 5 W sh o u ld h a ve b een u sed was a c l e r i c a l e r r o r w h ic h .c o u ld b e c o r r e c t e d by t h e chairman o f t h e co m m ittee w it h o u t c o n s u l t i n g o t h e r members o f t h e com m ittee and t h e o r d e r s o c o r r e c t e d was n o t v o id .

90

lo a Summary.

The c r e a t i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d r e g u l a t i o n

o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a r e e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h i n t h e p r o v in c e o f th e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e ,

(A r k a n sa s, p . 8 3 ) l i m i t e d o n ly by t h e

C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . a n d t h e S t a t e C o n s t it u t io n * ( V i r g i n i a , p . 83) S c h o o ls must b e f r e e and open t o a l l w it h o u t d i s c r i m i ­ n a tio n .

( I l l i n o i s , p . 84)

O ther than t h a t , much power i s

v e s t e d in. t h e l o c a l b oard s o f e d u c a t io n .

(Hew J e r s e y , p . 84)

(N eb rask a , p . 84) The s t a t e may t a k e t h e s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s o f a d i s t r i c t , w it h o u t g i v i n g c o m p en sa tio n t h e r e f o r , and v e s t them in o t h e r d i s t r i c t s o r a g e n c i e s , and t h e a r e a o f t h e d i s t r i c t may b e c o n t r a c t e d o r exp a n d ed , may b e d i v i d e d , may b e u n it e d in w h o le o r in p a r t w it h a n o th e r d i s t r i c t , o r may b e a b o l i s h e d . ( I l l i n o i s , p . 85) L o c a l s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s a re u s u a l l y v e s t e d w it h d i s ­ c r e t i o n a r y powers o f s e l e c t i n g s c h o o l s i t e s .

(N orth C a r o li n a ,

p. 8 6 ) The l e g i s l a t u r e has co m p lete power t o e s t a b l i s h r u l e s and r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r s c h o o l e l e c t i o n s .

( I l l i n o i s , p. 8 6 )

A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s n o t a s o v e r e i g n power ( P e n n s y l­ v a n i a , p . 8 6 ) o r a m u n ic ip a l c o r p o r a t i o n , p . 8 6 ) but ra th er a q u a si-c o r p o r a tio n .

(West V i r g i n i a ,

( I l l i n o i s , p. 8 6 )

(T exas, p. 8 6 ) V a l i d a t i n g s t a t u t e s can cu re i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in t h e

109 o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s i f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e would h av e had t h a t a u t h o r i t y i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e .

( C o n n e c t ic u t ,

p . 88) A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t may c o n s t i t u t e a community f o r o n ly s c h o o l p u r p o s e s , and th ou gh p e o p le o f t h e d i s t r i c t may go t o c e n t e r s w it h o u t t h e d i s t r i c t f o r p u r p o se s, o f b u s i n e s s , wor­ s h i p , o r p l e a s u r e , su ch d oes n o t change t h e a s p e c t o f t h e community f o r s c h o o l p u r p o s e s .

( I l l i n o i s , p . 91)

The e x t e n s i o n o f t h e c i t y l i m i t s d oes n o t a u t o m a t i c a l ­ l y ex ten d t h e l i m i t s o f t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t .

(K en tu ck y, p . 9 2 )

A r e s i d e n t ’s r i g h t t o v o t e a t a s c h o o l e l e c t i o n i s p u r e ly a p e r m i s s i v e r i g h t b esto w ed by l e g i s l a t i v e g r a c e i n f u r t h e r a n c e o f t h e p o l i c y o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , and a r e s i d e n t has no in h e r e n t r i g h t o f f r a n c h i s e .

( I l l i n o i s , p. 96)

When an a c t i o n o f a s c h o o l o f f i c i a l i s i n t h e form o f an o r d e r o r a d e c i s i o n made u nder t h e r u l e s o r r e g u l a t i o n s o f any s t a t e b o a r d , co m m issio n , or a g e n c y , t h i s a c t i o n cannot be a p p e a le d .

However, i f t h e a c t i o n i s an e x e r c i s e o f d i s ­

c r e t i o n a r y pow er, i t may b e a p p e a le d i f s u f f i c i e n t grounds are e s t a b lis h e d .

(M ich ig a n , p . 102)

(A r k a n sa s, p . 102)

(New

Y ork , p . 102) I n a b s e n c e o f s t a t u t e o r a g re em en t, ow nersh ip o f s c h o o l p r o p e r t y i s l e f t where i t i s found a f t e r d i s t r i c t b o u n d a r ie s are a lt e r e d .

(S o u th C a r o li n a , p . 103)

Bonds rem ain t h e l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i c t

110 t h a t i s s u e d them ev en i f t h e d i s t r i c t i s s u b s e q u e n t ly con­ s o l i d a t e d w it h another.*

( F l o r i d a , p* 103)

( I l l i n o i s . , p* 103)

When t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f a common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a re e n la r g e d t o i n c l u d e a p o r t i o n o f a n o th e r common s c h o o l d i s ­ t r i c t , t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f th e h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o w hich i t b e lo n g e d a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y en la r g ed *

(A r iz o n a , p . 104)

Upon d i s s o l u t i o n o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , t h e money on hand may be a p p o r tio n e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e r a t i o o f t h e a s s e s ­ se d v a lu e o f r e a l e s t a t e i n each new d i s t r i c t .

(A r k a n sa s,

P . 107) T here w ere a t o t a l o f s e v e n t y - o n e c o u r t c a s e s w it h r e fe r e n c e to sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s in tw e n ty -e ig h t d if f e r e n t sta tes.

Texas and I l l i n o i s le a d w it h f o u r t e e n and e l e v e n

c a s e s r e s p e c t i v e l y ; A rkansas f o l l o w s w it h a t o t a l o f t e n court c a s e s .

Most o f t h e t r o u b l e s w ere c e n t e r e d around t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s and s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s f o r h o ld i n g e l e c t i o n s .

CHAPTER VI DISTRICT DEBT, SECURITIES, AMD TAXATION As i n , e v e r y o t h e r s u r v e y o f Supreme Court d e c i s i o n s , problem s c o n c e r n in g t a x a t i o n , b o n d s , and t h e power t o in c u r in d e b t e d n e s s a r e f a r i n e x c e s s o f any o t h e r g e n e r a l c l a s s i ­ fic a tio n .

The g r e a t number o f c a s e s and volum inous o p in io n s

o f t h e c o u r t s make t h e i n c l u s i o n o f a l l p r o h i b i t i v e .

Oases

w hich h ave o n ly l o c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w i l l n o t b e p r e s e n t e d h e r e . Power t o i n c u r in d e b t e d n e s s and e x p e n d i t u r e s .

O rdina­

r i l y a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t can e x e r c i s e o n ly su ch a u t h o r i t y as has b e e n e x p r e s s l y o r i m p l i e d l y c o n f e r r e d upon i t by s t a t u t e . The t r u s t e e s o f a h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n S o u th C a r o lin a borrowed t e n th o u san d d o l l a r s t o e r e c t a r e s i d e n c e f o r t h e s u p e r in t e n d e n t o f t h e h ig h s c h o o l .

The s c h o o l was l o c a t e d

o u t s i d e t h e c o r p o r a t e l i m i t s o f t h e tow n, had no m u n ic ip a l p o l i c e p r o t e c t i o n , and was t h e s u b j e c t o f c o n s t a n t t r e s p a s s and d e p r e d a t io n , and t h e t r u s t e e s d e s i r e d t o have t h e s u p e r ­ in t e n d e n t r e s i d e on t h e grounds as a p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t r e s ­ p assers,

The c o u r t d e c l a r e d t h a t . t h e s c h o o l t r u s t e e s had

im p lie d power t o in c u r t h i s in d eb ted n ess.*^ S e v e r a l t a x p a y e r s o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n K entucky c h a l l e n g e d t h e i r s c h o o l b o a r d ’ s p u r c h a se o f a t r a c t o f la n d 1

R e f e r e n c e s t o c o u r t c a s e s i n C hapter VI a r e l i s t e d

on p a g e 1 9 2

112 f o r r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r p o se s b e c a u s e i t was l o c a t e d i n a n o th e r c o u n ty .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t a s c h o o l board has no a u t h o r i t y

t o u s e i t s s c h o o l t a x fu n d s t o p u r c h a s e , s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y , a l a k e s i d e t r a c t i n a n o th e r co u n ty f o r t h e j o i n t b e n e f i t o f p u b l i c s c h o o l p u p i l s and 4 -H clu b m embers, -even, th ou gh s t a t ­ u t e s do a u t h o r i z e a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o j o i n w it h a c i t y o r a c o u n ty in p r o v id in g a r e c r e a t i o n c e n t e r and t o prom ote t h e h e a l t h and w e l f a r e o f t h e p u p i l s .

2

In 1 9 2 6 -1 9 2 7 t h e t r u s t e e s o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in G e o rg ia borrowed a sum o f money from a bank f o r t h e p u r p o se o f p a y in g t e a c h e r s * s a l a r i e s .

The. lo a n was made a t a tim e

when t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t had no l e g a l a u t h o r i t y t o borrow money.

The c o u r t r e a so n e d t h a t even th ou gh t r u s t e e s o f t h e

l o c a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a r e n o t a u t h o r iz e d t o borrow money t o o p e r a t e s c h o o l s , t h e money borrowed from t h e bank had b een u sed i n d e f r a y i n g l a w f u l e x p en se s o f o p e r a t in g t h e s c h o o l . T h e r e f o r e t h e bank w ould b e s u b r o g a te d t o t h e r i g h t s o f h o ld ­ ers o f la w fu l l i a b i l i t i e s

a g a i n s t t h e t r u s t e e s , a n d .t h e bank

c o u ld m a in t a in an a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e t r u s t e e s f o r money had and r e c e i v e d . 3 The l i m i t o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in d e b t e d n e s s , i s o f t e n p r e s c r i b e d by s t a t e s t a t u t e .

T h is has b rou gh t many problem s

i n d e te r m in in g j u s t what c o n s t i t u t e s in d e b t e d n e s s .

I n Penn­

s y l v a n i a t h e p la n o f t h e S t a t e P u b l i c S c h o o l B u i l d i n g A uth or­ i t y t o b u i l d a s c h o o l b u i l d i n g and t o l e a s e i t t o t h e s c h o o l

113 d i s t r i c t f o r an an n u al r e n t a l o f f 2 4 ,1 1 0 , was q u e s tio n e d on t h e grou n ds t h a t i t e x c ee d e d th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d eb t l i m i t and t h a t i t

in c r e a s e d th e e x i s t i n g in d e b te d n e s s by more th an

two p e r c e n t o f th e a s s e s s e d v a lu a t i o n o f th e t a x a b le p rop ­ e r t y and s o sh o u ld have b een p r e s e n te d t o th e v o t e r s a t a pub­ lic

e le c tio n .

T h is p la n p r o v id e d t h a t a f t e r t h i r t y y e a r s th e

p r o p e r ty w ould be su r r e n d e r e d t o t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t .

The

c o u r t found t h a t t h e c u r r e n t r e v e n u e s w ere s u f f i c i e n t t o pay th e an n u a l r e n t a l and so t h i s " s e l f - l i q u i d a t i n g ” c o n t r a c t was n o t in v i o l a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d eb t l i m i t a t i o n s . ^ An in d iv id u a l lo a n e d money t o a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a t a tim e when th e t o t a l in d e b te d n e s s e x c ee d e d f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e v a lu e o f t h e t a x a b le p r o p e r ty in v i o l a t i o n o f th e c o n s t i ­ tu t io n a l d ebt li m it .

T h is lo a n was n o t made t o m eet c u r r e n t

e x p e n se s b u t r a t h e r f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a b u ild in g fu n d .

The

c o u r t re a so n e d t h a t t h i s lo a n c o u ld n o t be u p h eld a s a tem ­ p o ra ry lo a n p a y a b le ou t o f t a x e s l e v i e d f o r c u r r e n t s c h o o l p u rp oses.

The lo a n s w ere c o n s id e r e d i n v a l i d and th e le n d e r

c o u ld n o t r e c o v e r h i s m oney.5 A c e r t a in in d i v id u a l b ro u g h t a c t i o n t o e n j o in t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t and i t s

o f f i c e r s f r o m - is s u in g bonds i n th e a m o u n t

o f two hundred th o u sa n d d o l l a r s on th e g r o u n d t h a t an in d e b t ­ e d n e ss w ould b e c r e a t e d in e x c e s s o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l i m i t a ­ tio n .

The d e c i s i o n h in g e d on t h e v a l i d i t y o f in c lu d in g moneys

and c r e d i t s in th e t o t a l a s s e s s e d v a lu a t io n o f t a x a b le

114 p ro p erty .

The c o u r t found t h a t moneys and c r e d i t s c o u ld b e

p r o p e r ly in c lu d e d .

L i a b i l i t i e s in c u r r e d by c o u n ty , m u n ic i­

p a l i t y , s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , e t c . , d u r in g a f i s c a l , y e a r in an ­ t i c i p a t i o n o f re v en u e and w it h in t h e l i m i t s o f la w f u l t a x l e v i e s a r e n o t d e b ts w it h in t h e m eaning o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d eb t l i m i t . ^ In 1 9 3 7 , a t t h e tim e c o n s t r u c t io n o f a s c h o o l b u ild in g was in p r o g r e s s , t h e bank c lo s e d m aking i t im p o s s ib le - f o r t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o pay t h e c o n t r a c t o r . p o s s i b l e w ith o u t a s s i s t a n c e .

F u r th e r work was im­

F e d e r a l a id was o b t a in e d , b u t

in o rd er t o g e t i t . r e l e a s e from t h e .c o n t r a c t o r ’s c o n t r a c t was n e c e s s a r y , a n d .t h i s was o b t a in e d .

The s c h o o l d i s t r i c t

t r u s t e e s r e s o lv e d t o pay th e b a la n c e due a s so o n as p r a c t i c ­ a b le .

T w elve y e a r s l a t e r th e c o n t r a c t o r i n s t i t u t e d a e t io n

t o g e t h i s money and t h e s c h o o l board r e fu s e d t o p a y , s a y in g t h e y c o u ld n o t pay b e c a u se a t t h e tim e t h e r e s o l u t i o n was m ade, i t e x c ee d e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d eb t l i m i t a t i o n .

The

c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h i s d id n o t c a u se t h e c o n t r a c t t o b e v o id and o rd ered t h a t t h e c o n t r a c t o r b e .p a i d .

7

In d e t e r m in in g , t h e amount of...a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ’s i n ­ d e b te d n e s s , a s in k in g fu n d .r e s e r v e d and p le d g e d .f o r e x i s t ­ in g o b l i g a t i o n s i s d e d u c t i b l e . in com puting t h e o u ts ta n d in g bonded in d e b t e d n e s s .

A g ra d e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t and a h ig h

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a r e d i s t i n c t p o l i t i c a l u n it s and l i m i t a t i o n g on in d e b te d n e s s a p p l i e s s e p a r a t e ly t o t h e t w o . d i s t r i c t s .

115 L ik e w is e , w here a c i t y and a p u b lic s c h o o l c o r p o r a tio n a r e co ter m in o u s and occu p y t h e same t e r r i t o r y , b u t a r e s e p a r a te and d i s t i n c t c o r p o r a te e n t i t i e s ,

each i s q u a l i f i e d t o in c u r

s e p a r a t e in d e b t e d n e s s . up to t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d eb t l i m i t .

Q

M ost s t a t e s t a t u t e s r e l a t i n g t o s c h o o l f in a n c e s p ro ­ v id e t h a t , a s id e from c e r t a in c a p i t a l o u t la y e x p e n d it u r e s , s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s s h a l l o p e r a te on a ca sh b a s i s from y e a r t o year.

A b oard o f e d u c a tio n in K entucky p ro p o sed t h e e r e c ­

t i o n o f a new s c h o o l b u il d i n g and t h e is s u a n c e o f rev en u e bonds in t h e amount # 6 5 0 ,0 0 0 , a s a u th o r iz e d under s t a t u t e , in o r d e r t o f in a n c e t h e p r o jje c t.

They w ere e n jo in e d from

su ch a c t io n b e c a u se t h e c o u r t f e l t t h a t i t was an a b u se o f d is c r e tio n .

The p r i n c i p a l c o n tr o v e r s y co n c e r n s t h e d i s t r i c t ’s

a b ilit y to liq u id a te t h is

in d e b t e d n e s s .

A c l o s e e x a m in a tio n

by t h e c o u r t r e v e a le d t h a t t h e board d id n o t h a v e a n .a d e q u a te s o u r c e o f rev en u e t o f in a n c e t h i s u n d e r ta k in g ; t h a t t o do so m ig h t w e l l le a d t o t h e b a n k ru p tcy o f t h e p r o j e c t ; and t h a t 10 i t w ould im p e r il t h e e n t i r e s c h o o l s y s te m . T h is c a s e i s r a t h e r u n iq u e a s c o u r ts w i l l n o t o f t e n i n t e r f e r e w ith , th e a c t i o n o f a board when i t i s a m a tte r o f d i s c r e t i o n .

The

Supreme C ourt o f P e n n s y lv a n ia w ro te t h e f o llo w in g o p in io n : C ou rts w i l l n o t i n t e r f e r e w ith e x e r c i s e o f d i s c r e t i o n ­ a r y powers by p u b lic o f f i c i a l s , b u t e q u it y w i l l in t e r v e n e i f i t ap p ears t h a t t h e i r a c t i o n i s b a sed on m is c o n c e p tio n o f la w o r i s r e s u l t o f a r b it r a r y w i l l o r .c a p r i c e t o p r e ­ v e n t an a b u se o f e n tr u s te d power a d v e r s e t o t h e p u b lic w e l f a r e . 1-*-

116 The Supreme C ourt o f W isc o n s in d e c id e d .t h a t , a s c h o o l hoard co u ld c r e a t e a l i a b i l i t y a g a in s t th e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t f o r t r a n s p o r t a t io n o f p u p ils n o tw ith s ta n d in g t h a t t h e . v o t e r s had v o te d a g a in s t f u r n is h in g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .^ 2 A p rop o sed t r a n s f e r o f a la r g e sum o f money from t h e R e tir e m e n t S ystem fund t o t h e S t a t e Board o f E d u ca tio n t o e n a b le i t t o make lo a n s t o co u n ty s c h o o l b o a r d s , f o r w h ich t h e R e tir e m e n t S ystem w ould r e c e i v e bonds and i n t e r e s t b e a r in g n o t e s , was a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v is i o n p ro ­ h i b i t i n g t h e G e n e ra l A ssem b ly from a u th o r iz in g - c o u n t ie s o r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s o f c o u n t ie s t o c o n t r a c t lo n g term d e b ts w it h ­ ou t referen d u m . ^-3 A s c h o o l t e a c h e r in M is s o u r i was g iv e n w a r r a n ts f o r h er s a la r y in 1 9 3 3 .

The incom e and rev en u e d u r in g t h a t y e a r

w ere n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o a llo w paym ents o f t h e w a r r a n ts .

The

p r e s e n t board r e fu s e d t o pay th e w a rr a n ts on th e ground t h a t t o become in d e b te d t o an amount e x c e e d in g t h e incom e f o r th e y e a r 1933 was a v i o l a t i o n o f th e s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n .

The

c o u r t h e ld t h a t a lth o u g h t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v is io n d o es e x i s t , i t d o es n o t p r o h ib i t a n t i c i p a t i o n o f c u r r e n t r e v e n u e s and th e f a c t t h a t rev en u e i s n o t a s h ig h a s e x p e c t e d d o es n o t i n v a l i d a t e w a rr a n ts o th e r w is e v a l i d . 1** Many s t a t e s have p r o v is io n s i n t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n s , o r s t a t u t o r y p r o v is i o n s w hich a llo w o n ly t h o s e p e r s o n s hav­ in g p r o p e r ty a s s e s s e d f o r t a x e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n an e l e c t i o n

w h ich w ould r a i s e t h e amount o f t a x e s l e v i e d o r w h ich w ould in v o lv e t h e d i r e c t e x p e n d itu r e , o f p u b lic money#

M ich ig a n

i s one s t a t e w h ich l i m i t s t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f v o t e r s on q u e s t io n s c o n c e r n in g a d i r e c t e x p e n d itu r e o f money .to p e r ­ s o n s who own t a x a b le p r o p e r ty w it h in t h e d i s t r i c t .

An e l e c ­

t i o n was h e ld in D e t r o i t t o in c r e a s e th e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e amount o f t a x e s a s s e s s a b l e ea ch year#

The e l e c t i o n . c a r r i e d .

A l l e l e c t o r s in t h e d i s t r i c t d e s i r i n g t o v o t e o n .s a id p ro ­ p o s i t i o n , and p o s s e s s in g t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r g e n e r a l e l e c ­ t o r s , w ere p e r m itte d t o do so#

The c o u r t h e ld t h e e l e c t i o n

t o b e v a l i d , as r a i s i n g t h e l e g a l t a x l i m i t d o es n o t in i t ­ s e l f in v o lv e a d i r e c t e x p e n d itu r e o f p u b lic money#

The s c h o o l

b oard d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h ave t o a s s e s s t h e new maximum sim p ly b e c a u se i t was g iv e n th e pow er t o do. s o by t h e e l e c ­ t io n .1^ A p e t i t i o n f o r a bond e l e c t i o n in a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t was p r e s e n te d t o t h e co u n ty judge, on. J u ly 6 , 1 9 4 6 , a M t h e e l e c t i o n w h ich was h e ld on J u ly 1 8 , 1 9 4 6 , c a r r ie d #

Two days

p r i o r t o th e e l e c t i o n a c i t y p a s se d an o r d in a n c e a n n ex in g p a r t o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w h ich was in th e p r o c e s s o f h o ld in g t h e bond e l e c t i o n .

The s c h o o l d i s ­

t r i c t m a in ta in e d t h a t t h e c i t y s h o u ld assum e a p r o p o r t io n a t e p a r t o f t h e bonded i n d e b t e d n e s s . T h e c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e c i t y was n o t l i a b l e f o r bonded in d e b te d n e s s c r e a t e d a f t e r a n n e x a tio n .

Bonds do n o t c r e a t e a d eb t u n t i l t h e y a r e

118 i s s u e d , lit h o g r a p h e d , approved by t h e A tto r n e y G e n e r a l, r e g i s t e r e d by t h e S t a t e C o m p tr o lle r , s o ld and d e liv e r e d t o a p u r c h a s e r .1 ^ The Supreme C ourt o f P e n n s y lv a n ia d e c la r e d t h a t an a c t im p o sin g p e r s o n a l p r o p e r ty t a x upon r e s id e n t s , o f a f i r s t c l a s s s c h o o l d i s t r i c t f o r s c h o o l p u r p o se s i s n o t ..a wr e v e n u e r a i s i n g ” m e a su r e , and t h e r e f o r e i t was n o t n e c e s s a r y t h a t th e a c t o r i g i n a t e i n th e H ouse of. R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s . r a t h e r th a n i n t h e S e n a te .^ ? C ustod y and d isb u r se m e n t o f f u n d s .

I n N o rth C a r o lin a

a l l . e x p e n d itu r e s f o r c o n s t r u c t io n , r e p a i r , and equipm ent o f s c h o o l b u il d i n g s i n . a co u n ty m ust b e a u th o r iz e d by t h e board o f co u n ty c o m m iss io n e r s, a c t in g in good f a i t h , p u rsu a n t t o s t a t u t o r y and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y , b u t m ust n o t i n t e r ­ f e r e w it h t h e e x c l u s i v e c o n t r o l o f s c h o o ls v e s t e d in t h e c o u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n o r t r u s t e e s o f an a d m in is t r a t iv e u n i t . 18 A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s an a g en cy o f t h e s t a t e , and d e ­ r i v e s a l l o f i t s pow ers from s t a t u t e s , in c lu d in g t h e manner i n w h ich i t s fu n d s can b e d is b u r s e d .

T h e . c le r ic o f a s c h o o l

d i s t r i c t f r a u d u le n t ly s ig n e d , f o r g e d , and. en d o rse d a. number o f w a rr a n ts d u r in g t h e c o u r s e o f one y e a r , w h ich t o t a l e d # 3 4 ,8 4 8 .9 4 .

The s c h o o l d i s t r i c t f s money was d e p o s it e d i n a

bank and a t t h e end o f t h e y e a r when th e money was n o t ic e d

m is s in g , t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t su ed t h e bank t o r e g a in t h e e n t i r e am ount.

The d e c i s io n , was c e n te r e d around t h e . q u es-

t i o n o f w h e th er a "w arrant" i s a n e g o t i a b l e o r n o n - n e g o t ia b le in s tr u m e n t.

Banks a r e n o t l i a b l e fo r, fo r g e d ch eck s

u n le s s th e d e p o s it o r n o t i f i e s t h e bank w it h in t h i r t y days a f t e r t h e r e c e i p t o f c a n c e le d in s t r u m e n t s .

Under t h i s law

t h e bank co n ten d ed t h a t t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t cou ld , r e c o v e r o n ly t h e w a rra n t s w r it t e n d u r in g t h e l a s t t h i r t y , d a y s .

The

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t co n ten d ed t h a t t h i s la w was n o t a p p l i c a b l e , as a w a rra n t i s n o t a ch eck o r any o t h e r k in d o f n e g o t ia b l e in s tr u m e n t.

The c o u r t h e l d . t h e bank l i a b l e for. the- e n t i r e

sum.1 ^ The co u n ty board o f e d u c a tio n a d o p ted a r e s o l u t i o n w hereby fu n d s from " c a p i t a l o u tla y " w ould b e u sed t o in c r e a s e t e a c h e r s f s a l a r i e s tw e n ty -tw o d o l l a r s a m onth.

T h is was t o

c o n tin u e u n t i l fu n d s becam e a v a i l a b l e from o th e r s o u r c e s . L a t e r , t h e l e g i s l a t u r e made an a p p r o p r ia tio n f o r t h e p u rp o se o f su p p le m e n tin g t h e s a l a r i e s o f t e a e h e r s . T h e board f e l t t h a t fu n d s from t h e a p p r o p r ia tio n c o u ld now b e u sed t o pay t h e in c r e a s e w h ich had b e e n g iv e n t o th e t e a c h e r s .

The c o u r t

advanced t h e o p in io n t h a t no p a r t o f t h e l e g i s l a t i v e ap­ p r o p r ia t io n e v e r becam e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e s c h o o l b oard t o u s e f o r t h e p u rp o se o f p a y in g any p a r t o f t h e tw e n ty -tw o d o l l a r s a l a r y in c r e a s e t o th e t e a c h e r s .

The A p p r o p r ia tio n A ct was

c l e a r l y an a c t f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t e a c h e r s and n o t f o r t h e

120 b e n e f i t o f s c h o o l b o a r d s* 2 ^ A u th o r ity o f d i s t r i c t s t o i s s u e b o n d s,

The r i g h t t o

i s s u e bonds i s g r a n te d t o s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s by s t a t u t e . i s n o t an im p lie d p ow er.

It

As was s t a t e d by t h e Supreme C ourt

o f A r iz o n a , "A h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s a d i s t i n c t l e g a l e n t i ­ t y v e s t e d w it h su ch p o w ers_ a s . a r e c o n f e r re d .upon i t by. s t a t u t e in c lu d in g t h e r i g h t t o c r e a t e a bonded in d e b t e d n e s s .

21

In M i s s i s s i p p i t h e c o u r t r u le d t h a t w here a p e t i t i o n f o r iss u a n c e , o f bonds, was s ig n e d by a m a jo r ity o f q u a l i f i e d e l e c t o r s r e s i d i n g in su ch an a r e a , no e l e c t i o n was n e c e s s a r y t o a u t h o r iz e t h e is s u a n c e o f b o n d s , b u t i f t h e p e t i t i o n w ere s ig n e d by tw e n ty p e r c e n t a n d . l e s s th a n f i f t y p e r c e n t , an e l e c t i o n w ould b e n e c e s s a r y .

22

A f t e r r e c e iv in g t h e p e t i t i o n

s ig n e d by m ore th a n a m a j o r it y o f t h e q u a l i f i e d e l e c t o r s , t h e board o f s u p e r v is o r s p u b lis h e s an o r d e r g r a n tin g t h e p e t i t I o n , w h ich .mus t r e c i t e t h a t t h e p e t i t i o n was s ig n e d by t h e m a jo r ity o f q u a l i f i e d e l e c t o r s o f t h e d i s t r i c t , t h a t th e d i s t r i c t h as b een l e g a l l y o r g a n iz e d and i s e x i s t i n g , t h a t t h e amount o f bonds w i l l n o t e x c e e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r s t a t u t o r y l i m i t a t i o n , and t h a t t h e b o n d s, a r e i s s u e d f o r p u r 23 p o se s a u th o r iz e d b y la w . Bonds is s u e d f o r an u n a u th o r iz e d o r im proper u s e a r e v o id •

An e i g h t hundred th o u sa n d , d o l l a r b a n d .e l e c t i o n was

h e ld and c a r r ie d .

I t was d e c la r e d , h o w ev er, t h a t one o f th e

121 p u r p o se s f o r w hich s a id bonds w ere v o t e d , t o w i t , " th e p u r­ ch a se o f a s c h o o l la b o r a t o r y farm ," d o e s n o t. conform t o th e p u r p o se s f o r w hich a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t may i s s u e b o n d s.

The

c o u r t a g r e e d w ith t h i s a l l e g a t i o n : S e c t i o n o f E d u c a tio n Code p r o v id in g f o r bonds f o r p u rch a se o f s c h o o l l o t a d o es n o t is s u a n c e o f bonds f o r a s c h o o l " la b o r a to r y o p e r a t io n o f a "farm" i s n o t t r a d i t i o n a l l y and th e word " lo t" i s n o t a n a lo g o u s t o th e " fa rm ." 2^

is s u a n c e o f a u t h o r iz e farm ," s i n c e a " sch o o l" word

In b o th N orth C a r o lin a and M i s s i s s i p p i c o u r ts have d e c la r e d t h a t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s may i s s u e bonds and l e v y t a x e s f o r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t and the. m a in ten a n ce o f an a t h ­ le tic

sta d iu m when t h e y a r e a u th o r iz e d t o do so by a v o t e

o f th e m a jo r ity o f q u a l i f i e d v o t e r s in the, s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . T h is i s t o sa y t h a t a sta d iu m i s t o b e c o n s id e r e d a s c h o o l b u i l d i n g . 2 5 *26 In K entucky a c i t y and a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t c o o p e r a te d i n an in g e n io u s m ethod t o g e t around t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a s c h o o l bond e l e c t i o n .

The c i t y v o te d a bond i s s u e t o e r e c t

an a u d ito r iu m and gymnasium b u ild in g f o r u se by b o th t h e c i t y and t h e s c h o o l.

The s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a g r e e d t o . f u r n is h

t h e s i t e and pay r e n t a l on t h e b u ild in g from y ea r t o y e a r , w ith an o p t io n o f ren ew a l u n t i l 1 9 6 5 , a t t h e r a t e o f $ 3 ,5 0 0 a y e a r , and t o pay n e c e s s a r y in s u r a n c e premiums and a l l t h e m a in ten a n ce c o s t s , in r e tu r n f o r th e u s e o f t h e b u ild in g f o r i t s s c h o o l program o f p h y s i c a l e d u c a tio n and r e c r e a t i o n .

122 The c i t y w ou ld h a v e t h e u s e o f t h e b u ild in g a t su ch t im e s a s w ould n o t i n t e r f e r e w it h t h e s c h o o l p ro g ra m ,. and i n ..1 9 6 5 t h e c i t y would co n vey t h e e n t i r e p r o p e r ty t o t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n f e e s im p le , w ith o u t c o s t t o t h e d i s t r i c t *

The c o u r t h e ld

c o o p e r a tio n o f t h i s s o r t t o be l e g a l . 2 ? Bond e l e c t i o n s ♦

C ou rts, h a v e t a k e n d i f f e r e n t , p o in t s

o f v ie w in c o n s id e r in g i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in c o n d u c tin g bond e l e c t i o n s * .. I f s t a t u t e s do n o t e x p r e s s ly , d e c la r e t h a t t h e e l e c t i o n w i l l b e d e c la r e d v o id i f t h e s t a t u t o r y , r e q u ir e m e n ts a r e n o t s t r i c t l y o b s e r v e d , c o u r ts o f t e n u p h old , the.. v a l i d i t y o f bond e l e c t i o n s i f i t a p p ears t h a t t h e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s h ave n o t changed t h e f i n a l o u t come o f t h e e l e c t io n *

A p p e lla n t s

c o n t e s t e d th e r e s u l t s o f a bond e l e c t i o n in T ex a s a l l e g i n g t h a t t h e e l e c t i o n was n o t co n d u cted in , a. manner p r o v id e d by law*

The f o llo w in g c a m p le in ts . w ere r e g i s t e r e d :

(1 ) Only

one v o t in g b o x was s u p p lie d f o r t h e e n t i r e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t (3 8 0 sq u a re m i l e s ) , ( 2 ) n o t i c e o f th e e l e c t i o n was n o t s u f ­ f i c i e n t , and (3 ) t h e e l e c t i o n was v o id b e c a u s e , i t was c a l l e d and h e ld o n ly s e v e n t e e n days a f t e r t h e o r d e r c a l l i n g i t was e n te r e d •

T hough. o n ly th r e e , n o t i c e s o f t h e e l e c t i o n w ere

p o s t e d , and a l l o f t h o s e w ere p o s te d i n one c i t y , t h e e l e c t i o n co u ld n o t b e d e c la r e d i n v a l i d a s no one t e s t i f i e d he was d e p r iv e d o f n o t i c e o r o f v o t in g in t h e e l e c t i o n on a c ­ co u n t o f t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e e l e c t i o n o f f i c i a l s . t o , h a v e p o s te d

123 n o tic e s o ver th e d i s t r i c t .

In t h e a b s e n c e o f e v id e n c e t h a t

t h e r e w ould h ave b een a s u f f i c i e n t number o f a d d i t i o n a l v o t e s c a s t a g a in s t th e bond, i s s u e had t h e r e b een .m o re v o t in g b o x e s , t h e e l e c t i o n was r u le d v a l i d .

. I n th e w o rd s. o f t h e c o u r t:

F a ilu r e and i r r e g u l a r i t i e s . in o b se r v a n c e o f s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s , c o n c e r n in g manner o f h o ld in g e l e c t i o n - w i l l n o t i n v a l i d a t e an e l e c t i o n u n le s s th e y h a v e a f f e c t e d o r I t . from t h a t w h ich t h e r e tu r n s show i t t o A bond e l e c t i o n in New H am pshire n e g le c t e d any. men­ t i o n o f t h e term o f t h e b o n d s... E v e r y th in g e l s e was a c c o r d in g t o s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s . . The e l e c t i o n p a sse d w ith t h e r e ­ q u ir ed two t h ir d s m a j o r it y and t h e bonds w ere s o l d .

The

p l a i n t i f f s b ro u g h t s u i t t o h ave c a n c e le d and t o h a v e d e c la r e d i n v a l i d t h e s e bonds on t h e grounds, t h a t t h e board d id n o t h ave a u t h o r it y t o a r b i t r a r i l y d e te r m in e th e term o f t h e b o n d s. The c o u r t h e ld t h a t , t h e bonds w ere v a l i d f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t a u t h o r it y t o co n d u ct a t r a n s a c t io n in c lu d e s a u t h o r it y t o do a c t s w h ich a r e i n c i d e n t a l t o i t , u s u a l ly accompany i t , o r a r e r e a s o n a b ly n e c e s s a r y t o a c c o m p lis h i t , t o in c lu d e f i x i n g t h e tim e and p la c e o f payment a n d f i x i n g t h e . r a t e o f i n t e r e s t o f t h e bonds t o b e is s u e d f o r t h e im provem ent o f s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s , and p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e s a l e t h e r e o f . 2 ^ A bond i s s u e was p ro p o sed by a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in F lo r id a f o r t h e purpos e o f . c o n s t r u c t in g and e q u ip p in g a gymnas ium and a band room.

The r e s o l u t i o n c a l l i n g t h i s e l e c ­

t i o n was s l i g h t l y i r r e g u l a r in t h a t two o f t h e a n n u a l

124 paym ents w ere t o b e in sums l e s s , th a n t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e bonded in d e b t e d n e s s , w h ich was c o n tr a r y t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l req u irem en t* . T h is e r r o r , was c o r r e c t e d by. an amendment and t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s amendment was p a s se d a f t e r th e a p p ro v in g v o t e o f th e f r e e h o ld e r s was n o t m a t e r i a l * . The a p p ro v in g v o t e o f th e f r e e h o ld e r s was f o r t h e p u rp o se o f c o n s e n t in g to th e t o t a l is s u e . A C a lif o r n ia a p p e l l a t e c o u r t ,d e c id e d . th a t, t h e a l l e g e d i r r e g u l a r i t y in . an e l e c t i o n . a u t h o r i z i n g t h e is s u a n c e o f b o n d s , in t h a t a t h i r d p u b lic a t io n o f t h e n o t i c e , o f e l e c t i o n was made i n . t h e same c a le n d a r week a s t h e e l e c t i o n , and d id n o t com ply w it h t h e s t a t u t e r e q u ir in g p u b lic a t io n f o r t h r e e s u c c e s s i v e c a le n d a r w eeks, p r io r t o an e l e c t i o n , was cu red by a su b se q u e n t v a l i d a t i n g a c t , s i n c e t h e n o t i c e g iv e n w ould h ave s a t i s f i e d -a l l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l re q u ir e m e n ts *. The v a l i ­ d a tin g a c t co n cern ed t h e c o r r e c t io n o f d e f e c t s , i r r e g u l a r i ­ t i e s , o m is s io n s , and m i n i s t e r i a l . e r r o r s i n .. c a r r y in g ou t s ta tu to r y p r o v is io n s .- ^

H ow ever, u n a u th o r iz e d p u r p o se s f o r

w h ich bonds a r e v o te d can n o t b e cured by a v a l i d a t i n g a c t .

A c u r a t iv e a c t i s o n ly e f f e c t i v e t o cu re d e f e c t s r e s u l t i n g from a f a i l u r e t o com ply w it h p r o v is io n s t h a t a r e m e r e ly d ir e c t o r y o f t h e mode o f e x e r c i s i n g t h e p o w e r * ^ A co u n ty b oard o f co m m issio n er s a u th o r iz e d t h e i s s u ­ an ce o f bonds t o f in a n c e t h e c o n s t r u c t io n o f . a new s c h o o l b u ild in g .

They had no power t o do t h i s a s t h e c o u n ty had

125 n o t red u ced i t s bonded in d e b te d n e s s d u r in g t h e p r e c e d in g f i s c a l y e a r , and s o a d d it io n a l.in d e b t e d n e s s c o u ld n o t b e i n ­ cu rred w ith o u t th e . a p p r o v a l o f t h e v o t e r s .

A s p e c ia l e -

l e c t i o n was c a l l e d and t h e c o u r t h e ld , t h a t t h i s , e l e c t i o n , su b se q u e n t t o th e r e s o l u t i o n , a u t h o r iz in g th e ^ I s s u a n c e o f b o n d s, was s u f f i c i e n t t o v a l i d a t e t h e e a r l i e r a c t i o n o f th e b o a r d ,33 The r e w ere two c a s e s , w here t h e c o u r t s . found b ond e le c t io n s to be in v a lid .

The f i r s t was in K entucky w here

t h e r e s o l u t i o n p r o v id in g f o r .a s c h o o l ..bond e l e c t i o n s t a t e d t h a t t h e bonds, sh o u ld b e c a l l a b l e , a t .an y. tim e , b e f o r e , m a tu r ity w it h in d i s c r e t i o n o f . t h e b o a r d . o f e d u c a t io n .

The .b o a rd th e n

a tte m p te d , w ith o u t s u c c e s s , to ^ o m it elem en ts- o f c a l l a b i l i t y i n t h e r e s o l u t i o n and t o . s e l l n o n - c a l l a b l e b o n d s , T h e r e was no a u t h o r it y f o r t h e b oard t o do t h i s . ^

An O hio c o u r t d e ­

c la r e d a bond e l e c t i o n , i n v a l i d .b eca u se o f t h e f o llo w in g erro rs:

(1 ) N o t i c e . o f t h e e l e c t i o n f o r . th e bond i s s u e d id

n o t s t a t e t h e e s tim a t e d a v e r a g e a d d i t i o n a l t a x r a t e , e x ­ p r e s s e d in d o l l a r s and c e n t s , .fo r each one hundred d o l l a r s o f v a l u a t i o n , a s w e l l a s i n m i l l s f o r ea ch d o l l a r o f v a lu ­ a tio n .

( 2 ) The b a l l o t was d e f e c t i v e . i n . t h a t i t d i d . n o t d e ­

s c r i b e t h e em ergency and t h e a u t h o r it y under, w h ich i t was d e­ c l a r e d , and d id n o t in c lu d e a s ta te m e n t t h a t t h e bond I s s u e was b eyon d t a x l i m i t a t i o n p r e s c r ib e d by la w .

(3 ) The b a l l o t

f a i l e d t o s t a t e t h e p u rp o se f o r w h ich t h e em ergency s c h o o l

126 d i s t r i c t b u il d i n g bonds w ere t o b e is s u e d on t h e . e l e c t i o n b a l l o t i n b o l d - f a c e t y p e a t . l e a s t t w ic e th e , s i z e o f ~ t h e su rr o u n d in g t y p e . ^5

T h is d e m o n str a te s e f f e c t i v e l y t h e n e­

c e s s i t y f o r h a v in g b o n d .is s u e s p la n n ed and e x e c u te d by compe­ te n t a u th o r itie s . T h ere a r e o f t e n p r o v is io n s i n s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n s w h ich p r o v id e th a t,w h e n e v e r any q u e s t io n i s su b m itte d t o a v o t e o f th e e l e c t o r s w h ich in v o lv e s t h e d i r e c t e x p e n d itu r e o f p u b lic money o r th e is s u a n c e o f b o n d s, o n ly su c h p e r so n s h a v in g t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f e l e c t o r s , who h ave p r o p e r ty a s s e s s e d f o r t a x e s in., any p a r t o f t h e d i s t r i c t o r t e r r i t o r y t o b e a f f e c t e d by t h e r e s u l t o f su ch e l e c t i o n , o r t h e la w f u l husbands o r w iv e s o f su c h p erso n s., s h a l l b e e n t i t l e d t o v o t e t h e r e o n .^

An e l e c t i o n f o r a p p r o v a l o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t

bonds was n o t u n f a i r l y co n d u cted b e c a u se v e t e r a n s an d . w id o w s, who w ere exem pted u n d er th e c o n s t i t u t i o n f r o m - t a x e s , w ere n o t p e r m itte d t o v o t e .

The c o n s t i t u t i o n p r o v id e s t h a t

q u e s tio n s on bond i s s u e s o r s p e c i a l a s s e s s m e n ts s h a l l b e su b m itte d t o t h e v o t e o f r e a l p r o p e r ty " ta x p a y ers" o n ly . On J u ly 1 0 , 1 9 4 7 , a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n T exas v o te d on and p a s se d a bond i s s u e .

A month l a t e r . a p e t i t i o n was r e ­

c e iv e d r e q u e s t in g t h e board t o c a l l an e l e c t i o n f o r th e p u rp ose o f r e v o k in g t h a t bond e l e c t i o n .

When t h i s l a s t p e ­

t i t i o n was f i l e d , t h e bonds had n o t y e t b een s o ld o r co n ­ t r a c t e d t o be s o l d .

The c o u r t h e ld f o r t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t

12? s a y in g t h a t an e l e c t i o n can be h e ld t o re v o k e bonds d u ly v o t e d , a u th o r iz e d ,... and is s u e d o n ly when a l a t e r change in c o n d it io n s show s t h a t i t w ould b e u n n e c e ss a r y t o . sp en d t h e i r p ro ceed s*

I f t h i s w ere n o t t r u e , s u c c e s s i v e p e t i t i o n s s ig n e d

by tw e n ty ta x p a y e r s c o u ld c o n tin u e i n d e f i n i t e l y t o s to p bond is s u e s I n N orth C a r o lin a , s t a t u t e s p r o v id e t h a t an a c t io n can n ot b e m a in ta in e d a t t a c k in g t h e is s u a n c e ..o f p rop o sed s c h o o 1 bonds f o r i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n o f a v o t e r , f o r d e la y in p u b lis h in g th e . r e s u l t o f an e l e c t i o n , o r f o r o th e r c a u s e s r e l a t in g d i r e c t l y t o th e -c a l l i n g . o f o r h o ld in g o f an e l e c t i o n , more t h a n . t h i r t y d a y s a f t e r p u b li­ c a t io n o f th e r e s u l t o f t h e e l e c t i o n . ^9 Where any on e o f t h e s t a t e d .p u r p o s e s f o r w h ic h s c h o o l bonds a r e is s u e d i s u n a u th o r iz e d , and a s i n g l e a g g r e g a te sum i s s p e c i f i e d f o r a l l th e p u r p o s e s , t h e w h ole m ust f a i l .

It

w ould b e im p o s s ib le , t o s e p a r a t e t h e good fr o m ..t h e b a d • The power and d u ty t o t a x . in h e r e n t in s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s .

The power t o t a x i s n o t

I n t h e m a tte r o f a u t h o r it y t o

t a x , Edwards h a s t h i s t o sa y : The power o f th e s t a t e t o t a x i s e x e r c is e d by t h e l e g i s l a t i v e b ra n ch o f g o v ern m en t. U n le s s r e s t r a in e d by th e s t a t e or fe d e r a l c o n s t it u t io n , th e s t a t e le g is la t u r e has p le n a r y power o v e r t a x a t io n and may ta x . t o su ch an e x t e n t and in su ch manner and. th ro u g h su c h a g e n c ie s a s in i t s judgm ent w i l l , b e s t s e r v e t h e p u rp o ses, of. g o v e r n ­ m en t. I t m ay, in i t s d i s c r e t i o n , c o n s t i t u t e t h e s t a t e

12 8 a u n it f o r p u r p o se s o f s t a t e t a x a t i o n , o r i t m a y ,c r e a te q u a s i- c o r p o r a t io n s and m u n ic ip a l .c o r p o r a tio n s , and c o n fe r upon them th e power t o t a x . 41 A t y p i c a l exam ple i s th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v is i o n in Worth C a r o lin a , w h ich a u t h o r iz e s t h e G e n e r a l A ssem bly, t o v e s t c o r p o r a te a u t h o r i t i e s o f c o u n t i e s , .to w n s h lp s .,. s c h o o l, d i s t r i c t s, c i t i e s , to w n s , and v i l l a g e s , w ith th e power t o a s s e s s , l e v y , and c o l l e c t t a x e s f o r c o r p o r a te p u r p o s e s .42

U nder t h e I l l i ­

n o is S t a t e C o n s t i t u t i o n , w h ich r e q u ir e s t h e l e g i s l a t u r e t o p r o v id e a s c h o o l s y s t e m , t h e l e g i s l a t u r e h a s p o w er. t o .im p o s e t a x e s f o r p u r p o se s i n c id e n t t o th e .m a in te n a n c e , or. t o t h e im­ provem ent o f s c h o o l s , t o in c lu d e t a x a t i o n f o r p u r p o se s o f a t e a c h e r s 1 p e n sio n , s y s t e m * ^ A j o i n t common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n K ansas has. t h e au­ t h o r i t y t o con d u ct a h ig h s c h o o l , t o p r e p a r e a b u d g e t , and t o have a t a x l e v y t h e r e f o r , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e f a c t t h a t w it h in i t s t e r r i t o r y t h e r e i s a r u r a l h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , and t h e f a c t t h a t a. p a r t o f i t s t e r r i t o r y i s . w it h in a com­ m u n ity h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . ^4 I n P e n n s y l v a n i a ,.s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . m a y l e v y a p e r c a p it a t a x .

I t i s l e g a l , f o r th e G en era l. A ssem bly, t o p r o v id e

f o r th e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e s e t a x e s . o f b o th husband and w if e from t h e w ages o r e a r n in g s o f th e husband in . t h e hands o f

41 Newton E dw ards. The C ourts and t h e . P u b lic S c h o o ls : The L e g a l B a s is o f . S o h o o l. O r g a n iz a t io n . and A d m in is t r a t io n (C h ica g o : U n iv e r s i t y o f C h icago P r e s s , 1 .9 4 0 /,. p . 2 2 6 .

129 h i s em p lo y er, w ith o u t n o t i c e , o r

h e a r in g .^

A t a x im posed

m ust b e f o r a p u b lic b e n e f i t b u t i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t h a t a t a x m eet t h i s t e s t in any s p e c i f i c , t a n g i b l e f o r m . I t i s s e t t l e d t h a t ta x e s , e x a c te d f o r s c h o o l p u rp o ses w it h in t h e t a x in g d i s t r i c t a r e f o r - a p u b lic , u s e ev en though, t h e i n d i ­ v id u a l ta x p a y e r.m a y n o t s e c u r e any t a n g i b l e b e n e f i t from th e ta x . I t has b e e n .d e c id e d in s e v e r a l .d i f f e r e n t in s t a n c e s t h a t th e G e n e r a l A ssem b ly h a s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l pow er t o e n a c t a p p r o p r ia te s t a t u t e s a u th o r iz in g , a l e g a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d p u b lic s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o i s s u e bonds o r t o l e v y t a x e s f o r t h e e s ­ t a b lis h m e n t and m a in ten a n ce o f .a n a t h l e t i c sta d iu m when au ­ t h o r iz e d t o do s o by a v o t e o f t h e m a jo r ity of, t h e q u a l i f i e d v o te r s in th e sc h o o l d i s t r i c t . ^ In some s t a t e s , C a lif o r n ia f o r ex a m p le, s c h o o l d i s ­ t r i c t s can n o t pay c u r r e n t l i a b i l i t i e s t h e f o l l o w i n g . f i s c a l year.

In o th e r w o r d s , unpaid c u r r e n t l i a b i l i t i e s a r e ca n ­

c e le d a t t h e end o f each y e a r .

The s c h o o l code, o f I l l i n o i s

i s u n iik e t h a t , f o r i t p r o v id e s t h a t t h e an n u a l s c h o o l b u d get s h a l l in c lu d e a p p r o p r ia tio n s f o r l i a b i l i t i e s

in c u r r e d d u r in g

p r io r y e a r s and u n p aid a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e . f i s c a l y e a r . ^ Amount o f t a x .

A G e o r g ia s t a t u t e s t a t e s t h a t t h e

f i s c a l a u t h o r it y o f t h e s e v e r a l c o u n t ie s s h a l l l e v y a t a x f o r t h e su p p o r t and m a in te n a n c e .o f e d u c a t io n , o f n o t l e s s th a n

130 f i v e m i l l s n o r g r e a t e r th a n f i f t e e n m i l l s *

A n o th er s t a t u t e

a u t h o r iz e s a f i f t e e n m i l l .ta x l e v y t o b u ild and r e p a i r pub­ l i c b u ild in g s *

The c o m m issio n er s l e v i e d a t h i r t y m i l l t a x

r a t e u nd er t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t t h e words " p u b lic b u ild in g s " w ere m eant t o in c lu d e s c h o o l b u il d i n g s .and t h a t t h e . t a x . c o u ld b e u se d f o r b u il d i n g and r e p a ir *

The c o u r t .d e c la r e d t h a t

t h i s was n o t l e g a l , s a y in g : Where a co u n ty has l e v i e d a t a x o f f i f t e e n m i l l s f o r t h e su p p o r t and m a in te n a n c e o f t h e p u b lic s c h o o l s , i t c a n n o t, i n . a d d i t i o n t h e r e t o , le v y a n o th e r t a x o f f i f t e e n m i l l s t o pay f o r t h e b u il d i n g and r e p a ir in g o f p u b lic s c h o o l b u ild in g s * P u b lic b u il d i n g s in t h e se c o n d s t a t ­ u t e a r e m eant t o b e c o u r t h o u s e s , j a i l s . , and o t h e r l i k e b u ild in g s * ^ ° A s e c t i o n o f t h e I l l i n o i s s c h o o l la w , a u t h o r iz in g an e d u c a t io n a l t a x , t h e r a t e o f w h ich was changed b y . amendments from tim e t o t im e , was n o t r e p e a le d b e c a u s e t h e la w changed t h e a s s e s s e d v a lu e o f t h e p r o p e r ty from one h a l f o f f a i r 49 c a sh m arket v a lu e t o f u l l m arket v a lu e* Some s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n s p r o v id e t h a t o n ly p e r s o n s who h a v e p r o p e r ty w h ich i s a s s e s s e d f o r t a x e s may v o t e on q u e s t io n s r e l a t i v e t o r a i s i n g t h e t a x e s f o r a d i r e c t e x ­ p e n d it u r e o f money*

The Supreme C ourt o f M ich ig a n h e ld t h a t

t h o s e p o s s e s s in g q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r g e n e r a l e l e c t o r s , c o u ld v o t e on t h e q u e s t io n o f in c r e a s in g t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e amount o f t a x e s a s s e s s a b l e . e a c h y e a r b e c a u s e t h i s - d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t a d i r e c t e x p e n d itu r e o f money* 5°

P e r so n s and p r o p e r t y . l i a b l e *

I n P e n n s y lv a n ia , r e a l

e s t a t e p u rch a sed by t h e commonwealth in o r d e r .t o in s u r e a r e c o v e r y o f the- m oneys expended by g i v i n g a id . t o , t h e needy i s p u b lic p r o p e r ty u sed f o r a p u b lic p u rp ose*. A s s u c h , i t i s exempt from t a x a t io n by l o c a l t a x in g a u t h o r i t i e s in c lu d 51 in g c ount y , c i t y , and s c h o o l.. t a x e s * ^ C e r ta in la n d i n T e x a s,w a s s o ld t o th e. s t a t e f o r d e ­ lin q u e n t s t a t e and co u n ty t a x e s .

D u rin g t h e p e r io d t i t l e t o

th e la n d was in t h e s t a t e , th e c i t y and t h e in d e p e n d en t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t co u ld , n o t e n f o r c e t h e i r l i e n s a g a in s t th e la n d f o r c i t y and. s e h o o l . d i s t r i c t t a x e s w hich w ere due and u npaid a t t h e tim e o f s a l e .

The c i t y and t h e in d ep en d en t

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w ere a l s o n o t a b le t o t a x .t h e s t a t e f o r t h i s 52 la n d w h ile i t was in t h e p o s s e s s io n o f t h e . s t a t e . A j u n io r c o l l e g e a c q u ir e d r e a l e s t a t e , a h o u s e , t o b e u sed by t h e members o f t h e f a c u l t y and n o t .fo r g e n e r a l comm e r c ia l p u r p o s e s .. The s c h o o l d i s t r i c t n e v e r t h e l e s s was r e ­ q u ir ed t o pay t a x e s o n ~ th e p r o p e r ty a s p r o v id e d by Vermont s t a t u t e s .^ A v e r y q u e s t i o n a b l e . a c t w a s .p a s s e d by t h e Iowa l e g i s ­ la tu r e .

I t i s q u e s t io n a b le i n r e g a r d t o i t s l e g a l i t y a s th e

Supreme C ourt o f Iowa d e c la r e d i t l e g a l by a s i x t o . t h r e e v o t e and t h i s d e c i s i o n was a r e v e r s a l o f a. lo w e r c o u r t *s f i v e to fo u r d e c is io n .

The a c t p r o v id e d f i v e hundred th o u ­

sand d o l l a r s t o b e - a p p o r tio n e d a s a c r e d i t a g a in s t , t h e t a x

132 on each t r a c t o f a g r i c u l t u r a l la n d s in s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s w here t h e m illa g e f o r t h e g e n e r a l , s c h o o l fund ex c ee d e d f i f ­ teen m ills .

T h is was an a tte m p t by. t h e s t a t e o f Iowa t o

en co u ra g e a g r i c u l t u r e .

A g r ic u l t u r a l la n d s, a r e .d e f i n e d as

" a l l t r a c t s o f la n d o f t e n a c r e s o r m ore. and. u sed f o r a g r i ­ c u l t u r a l o r h o r t i c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s ,”

The a l l e g a t i o n s , b y t h e

p l a i n t i f f s w ere t h a t draw ing t h e lin e * a t t e n a c r e s t o b e c o n s id e r e d a g r i c u l t u r a l , la n d s . and t h e f i f t e e n m i l l f i g u r e w ere w h o lly a r b it r a r y .

As was s t a t e d b e f o r e , t h e Supreme

C ourt a c t e d t o make t h e la w l e g a l b u t t h e la w i s n e v e r t h e l e s s a v e r y d e b a ta b le b i t o f l e g i s l a t i o n , 54 The Supreme C ourt o f P e n n s y lv a n ia d e c la r e d t h a t th e l e g a l d u ty o f a husband t o p r o v id e f o r h i s w i f e fs„ su p p o rt and m a in ten a n ce may b e ex ten d ed by t h e l e g i s l a t u r e t o im pose l i a b i l i t y on him f o r h i s w if e * s d e lin q u e n t p e r c a p it a s c h o o l t a x and su c h l i a b i l i t y may be. e n fo r c e d a g a in s t t h e w ages o r s a la r y o f t h e husband in t h e hands o f h is , em p loyer and i s n o t a d e n i a l o f due p r o c e s s o f law* 55 A r e s id e n t te s ta m e n ta r y t r u s t e e , . upon t h e d e a th o f t h e l i f e b e n e f i c i a r y , . i s l i a b l e f o r a t a x on t h e u n d i s t r i b ­ u te d s e c u r i t i e s in i t s p o s s e s s io n w h ile i t i s s t i l X in t h e p r o c e s s o f w in d in g up t h e t r u s t and m aking an a c t u a l . p h y s i ­ c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e r e o f , and i s n o t t o b e c o n s id e r e d sim p ly c u s t o d ia n , exempt u nd er s t a t u t e s from p e r s o n a l p r o p e r ty ta x e s• ^

133 The Supreme C ourt , o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , d e c la r e d t h a t th e r e s o l u t i o n o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o im pose a. t a x on s t r i p m in in g equipm ent a t - t h e r a t e o f $ 1 * 5 0 p e r h o rs e-p o w er i s n o t a u th o r iz e d and . l e g a l f o r t h e re a so n , t h a t . t h i s , rep r.ese n t s a p r o p e r ty t a x and t h e p r o p e r ty h as, a lr e a d y b e e n ta x e d , on ce by t h e s t a t e on a c a p i t a l s t o c k ta x *

L o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s ca n n ot

le v y any t a x on p e r s o n a l p r o p e r ty w h ich i s sub j e c t , t o a s t a t e t a x . ^7 The q u e s t i o n . o f t h e l e g a l i t y o f ta x in g , t h e p r i v i l e g e o f m in in g c o a l h a s . b e e n b e f o r e . t h e .Supreme C ourt o f P e n n s y l­ v a n ia f i v e t im e s i n t h e p a s t two. y e a r s ., .S c h o o l b o a rd s f e l t t h a t th e y c o u l d . l e g a l l y t a x t h e p r i v i l e g e o r o c c u p a t i o n o f s t r i p m in in g, a s t h a t w ould be c o n s id e r e d .a n - e x c is e , t a x and n o t a p r o p e r ty t a x .

I n t h e f i r s t c a s e t h e .c o u r t h eld - t h a t a

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t c o u ld . l e v y , a s s e s s , and c o l l e c t t a x e s on p e r s o n s , t r a n s a c t i o n s , o c c u p a t io n s , p r i v i l e g e s , s u b j e c t s , and p e r s o n a l p r o p e r ty b e c a u se i n t h i s c a s e i t was m e e tin g an e x i s t i n g em ergen cy. 5? o f t h is d e c is io n .

The r e m a in in g ... f o u r c a s e s a r e r e v e r s a ls

The c o u r t , re a so n ed t h a t , c o a l i n p la c e i s

t a n g i b l e p r o p e r ty , and c o a 1 when s e v e r a d from t h e ground i s t a n g i b l e p r o p e r ty and i s . t h u s s u b j e c t t o a s t a t e t a x .

The

la w e x p r e s s ly s t a t e s t h a t a n y th in g ,-ta x e d , b y . t h e s t a t e can n o t be ta x e d b y ,t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t .

T h e r e fo r e , th e sc h o o l

d i s t r i c t may n o t t a x t h e p r i v i l e g e o f n em ploying" i t , t h a t i s , d e v e lo p in g i t f o r com m ercial p u r p o se s w hich in . tu r n

134 in c lu d e s m in in g i t . 5 9 ,6 0 ,6 1 ,6 2

j n a d d it io n t o t h e d e c i s i o n

j u s t n o t e d , two more p o in t s w ere b ro u g h t out*

A sch o o l d is ­

t r i c t may n o t t a x an amount p e r to n f o r t h e p r i v i l e g e o f dumping o r u n lo a d in g s l a t e , s t o n e , s l a g , cem ent., , and, o th e r w a s te m a t e r ia l from , t h e , m ining, o f c o a l o r th e ..m a n u fa c tu r in g o f s t e e l b e c a u s e t h i s would, c o n s t i t u t e a. t a x . on “ t a n g i b l e p r o p e r ty ” a s d e s c r ib e d above*

The s e c o n d , a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t

may n o t im pose a t a x on t h e t r a n s p o r t a t io n o f c o a l th ro u g h t h e borou gh s i n c e o n ly su ch p r o p e r ty i s t a x a b le a s h a s an a c t u a l, s i t u s w it h in t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f t h e b o r o u g h .^ 3 I n no e v e n t d o e s p e r s o n a l l i a b i l i t y

c o n tin u e t o a t ­

ta c h f o r t a x e s a s s e s s e d .a n d l e v i e d a f t e r t h e o w n e r's t i t l e t o t h e la n d h a s b een te r m in a te d , by a t r e a s u r e r ’ s s a l e o f th e p r o p e r ty t o a n o th e r , ev en th o u g h a r i g h t o f red em p tio n d o e s e x i s t f o r a tim e i n t h e form er owner*

Upon x ed em p tio n o f

t h e l a n d , t h e redeem er i s r e q u ir e d t o pay t h e a g g r e g a te amount o f a l l u n p aid t a x e s on t h e p r o p e r ty in c lu d in g th e ch a r g e s f o r t a x a t i o n , made, and n o t p a id , d u r in g t h e p e r io d o f r e d e m p tio n .

The l i a b i l i t y , h o w ev er, a c c r u e s a s a c o n d it io n

o f t h e r i g h t t o redeem and n o t b e c a u se o f any c o n t in u in g p e r ­ s o n a l l i a b i l i t y o n , t h e form er owner a s s u c h . ^ V a lid ity o f le v y *

I n P e n n s y lv a n ia , a s s e s s o r s a r e

g iv e n t h e r i g h t by s t a t u t e t o r e v i s e any a s s e s sm e n t, o r v a l ­ u a t io n a c c o r d in g t o r i g h t and e q u it y by c o r r e c t in g e r r o r s .

135 In c a s e a p e r so n o r c o r p o r a tio n f e e l s , t h e a s s e s s m e n t i s t o o h ig h , h e may a p p e a l w it h in s i x t y . d a y s .

The f a c t t h a t t h e

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . ’s . b u d g et has .been made on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f i r s t a s s e s s m e n t i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t -c a u se T or. t h e a s s e s s m e n t t o s t a n d . ^^

Some s t a t e s ,. f o r exam ple I l l i n o i s , and N orth

D a k o ta , a llo w a t a x p a y e r t o pay- t a x e s .under p r o t e s t .and f i l e ob j e c t i o n s .

I t w i l l , th e n b e d e c id e d i f th e ..ta x p a y e r h a s a

l e g i t i m a t e c la im . ^

^

A co u n ty c o l l e c t o r in I l l i n o i s a p p lie d f o r a judgment and o r d e r o f s a l e o f. Wabash. R a ilr o a d .Company r e a l e s t a t e f o r 1946 d e lin q u e n t t a x e s . ... T h e .r a ilr o a d , .company . f i l e d two ob­ j e c t io n s ... F i r s t , i t

co n ten d ed .t h a t a le v y f o r t h e . y e a r 1946

made on May 1 , 1 9 4 6 , i s

in v a lid as th e f i s c a l y e a r b e g in s

o n ly .July,. I , 1946., and. l e v i e s m ust b e made w it h in th e . y e a r . The s econd ob je c .tio n . co n cern s a. le v y , t h a t . was .m ade. and. f i l e d b u t was n o t s i g n e d by t h e p r e s i d e n t . o f t h e b o a r d ., .The c o u r t u p h eld t h e s c h o o l . . d i s t r i c t s a y in g t h a t le v ie s - m a d e a f t e r t h e tim e , p r o v id e d ~by s t a t u t e a r e v o id b u t l e v i e s made .p r io r t o t h e tim e p ro v id ed , by s t a t u t e , a r e n o t .. ..The. f a c t , t h a t th e c e r t i f i c a t e o f l e v y was n o t s ig n e d by. t h e p r e s id e n t o f t h e s c h o o l .b oard a s r e q u ir e d by s t a t u t e , d id . n o t- v i t i a t e , t h e t a x . T here i s a d i f f e r e n c e .b etw een a " l e v y , ”- w h ich i s t h e a c t io n o f a b oard when a l l a r e p r e s e n t , and a - ” c e r t i f i c a t e o f * l e v y . * 1 A p p e lla n t s c la im t h a t t h e v a lu a t io n o f f 3 .5 0 p e r a c r e f i x e d by a p p e l l e e s on -th e s a i d la n d fo r - t a x p u rp oses, was

136 g r o s s l y e x c e s s i v e , a r b i t r a r i l y m ade, and d is c r im in a t o r y , r e s u l t i n g , in an a tte m p t t o com pel t h e a p p e lla n ts , t o pay more th a n t h e i r j u s t p r o p o r tio n o f ta x e s *

The. co u rt, d eterm in ed

t h a t e v id e n c e d id . n o t e s t a b l i s h t h e a l l e g a t i o n made a b o v e , s o a s t o j u s t i f y t h e c o u r t in c a n c e lin g th e , a sse ssm e n t* E x c e s s iv e v a lu a t io n s , can b e c o n s id e r e d as e v id e n c e o f fra u d on t h e p a r t o f a board o f e q u a liz a t io n o n l y . i f a s s e s s m e n ts a r e s o g r o s s l y e x c e s s i v e a s t o a u t h o r iz e t h e c o u r t t o con ­ c lu d e , a s a m a tte r o f la w , t h a t t h e board d id n o t a c t h o n e s t lt y .

69

The n e x t two c a s e s a r e f rom. P e n n s y lv a n ia , and. cone ern wage t a x e s o f t h o s e w ork in g in a d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l su b ­ d i v i s i o n th a n t h a t in w h ich th e y l i v e .

F i r s t i t w a s .d e c id e d

t h a t le v y in g a t a x on w ages by b o th a b o ro u g h and a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t o f th e . b orou gh w a s. n o t ” d o u b le t a x a t i o n , ” . a s th e same t a x i s n o t im posed by t h e same t a x in g ..power upon t h e same s u b j e c t .

A w age t a x may b e l e v i e d by t h e p o l i t i c a l su b ­

d i v i s i o n o r s u b d iv is io n s in w h ich one l i v e s b u t in t h a t e v e n t m ust n o t b e l e v i e d by t h e p o l i t i c a l s u b d iv is io n in w h ich t h e w ages a r e e a r n e d , i f th e y a r e .n o t o n e .a n d . th e s a m e .^

In t h e se c o n d c a s e , a r e s id e n t o f one borough was

ta x e d on h i s w ages by b o th t h e b o rou gh and t h e s c h o o l d i s ­ t r i c t o f t h e b o ro u g h in w h ich h e worked b u t d id n o t r e s i d e . The c o u r t h e ld t h i s t o b e i l l e g a l . a s a w ork er i s r e q u ir e d t o pay wage t a x e s o n ly in t h e p o l i t i c a l s u b d iv is io n in w h ich

he r e s i d e s * '71 I n Oklahoma a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendment p r o v id e s f o r t h e a d d i t i o n a l t a x l e v y f o r s e p a r a t e s c h o o ls f o r w h ite and n eg ro c h ild r e n n o t t o ex c e e d one m ill* .

T h is .c o n s t it u t e s a

g r a n t o f power t o g o v e r n in g b o a rd s and c o u n ty e x c i s e b o ard s w it h a l i m i t a t i o n o n ly a s t o t h e amount o f l e v y .

When t h e

g o v e r n in g b o a rd c e r t i f i e d n eed f o r s u c h .a l e v y , t h e e x c i s e board was r e q u ir e d t o make t h e l e v y and f u r t h e r it e m iz a t io n and p u b lic n o t i f i c a t i o n was u n n e c e s s a r y .72 An A riz o n a , c o u n ty s c h o o l s u p e r in te n d e n t, r e fu s e d t o draw a w a rra n t u p o n .th e . c o u n ty t r e a s u r e r f o r p a r t i a l , payment on equipm ent fo r . a c a f e t e r i a on th e ,.g ro u n d s t h a t t h e hardware company y and n o t t h e s c h o o l b o a r d ,. s h o u ld .h ave c a r r ie d t h e e a s e t o c o u r t and t h a t t h e s c h o o l, d o e s n o t o p e r a te a c a f ­ e t e r i a b u t r e n t s th e equipm ent t o an u n -in c o r p o r a te d , a s s o c i ­ a t i o n o f h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s .

The c o u r t d e c id e d , a g a in s t

t h e co u n ty s u p e r in te n d e n t on b o th , c o u n t s .7 3 Tax e l e c t i o n s .

C e r ta in r e q u ir e m e n ts m ust b e fo llo w e d

i n s u b m it t in g t h e q u e s t io n o f t a x l e v i e s t o th e . v o t e r s .

If

t h e s e r e q u ir e m e n ts a r e n o t fo llo w e d i t i s t h e . u s u a l p ro ce d u re o f t h e c o u r t s t o d e c la r e t h e e l e c t i o n s i n v a l i d .

In Alabama

t h e Supreme C ourt d e c la r e d , an e l e c t i o n t o b e i n v a l i d . when i t was shown t h a t t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t f a i l e d t o com ply w ith th e s t a t u t o r y re q u ir em en t w h ich p r o v id e s t h a t n o t i c e o f an

13S e l e c t i o n m ust b e p u b lis h e d i n a new spaper f o r t h r e e s u c ­ c e s s i v e w e e k s, commencing a t l e a s t t h i r t y d ays b e f o r e t h e e le c tio n .

The s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ’ s n o t i c e had a p p eared i n t h e

p a p er o n ly once*T V

I n Oregon an e l e c t i o n was d e c la r e d i n ­

v a l i d b e c a u se t h e n o t i c e o f. e l e c t i o n .h a d f a i l e d t o c o n ta in th e ite m iz e d b ud get, sh ow ing c o n tem p la ted e x p e n d it u r e s .

The

c o u r t c l a r i f i e d a n o th e r p o i n t ; b la n k p i e c e s o f p a p er in s t e a d o f r e g u la r b a l l o t s w ere s u f f i c i e n t f o r a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t o f t h e se co n d c l a s s . ? 5

A n o th er e l e c t i o n h e ld i n A rk an sas f o r

a t a x t o su p p o rt a bond i s s u e f o r new c o n s t r u c t io n and im­ provem ent o f s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s was d e c la r e d i n v a l i d b e c a u se i t was a s p e c i a l e l e c i o n , c o n tr a r y t o th e A rk an sas C o n s ti­ t u t i o n w h ich p r o v id e s t h a t a q u e s tio n su ch a s t h i s b e su b ­ m it t e d a t th e tim e, o f t h e a n n u a l s c h o o l .e l e c t i o n .? ^ The v o t e r s o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i n W est V ir g in ia v o te d t o a u t h o r iz e a d d i t i o n a l l e v i e s f o r s p e c i f i e d p r o j e c t s . The amount t o b e s p e n t f o r each p r o j e c t was s t a t e d in t h e o rd ers fo r th e e l e c t 1 on•

U n ex p ected in c r e a s e s i n t h e c o s t

o f b u ild in g made i t im p o s s ib le t o co m p lete a l l t h e p r o j e c t s s o t h e co u n ty board p la n n ed t o co m p lete t h e p r o j e c t s th e y deemed m ost u r g e n t , and a l s o t o , add new p r o j e c t s n o t men­ t io n e d i n th e e l e c t i o n o r d e r s •

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h i s

was an i l l e g a l e x p e n d itu r e o f t a x m on ies w h ich had b een c o l l e c t e d a s a r e s u l t o f a t a x above t h e l e g a l l i m i t .

The

co u n ty board o f .e d u c a t i o n was a u th o r iz e d t o d e te r m in e w h ich

139 p r o j e c t sh o u ld b e f i r s t commenced-and co m p leted b u t d id n o t a u t h o r iz e an e x p e n d itu r e , f o r c o m p le tio n , o f some, p r o j e c t s t h a t had n o t b een s p e c i f i e d in . t h e e l e c t i o n o r d e r s •71 In I l l i n o i s th e f a ilu r e o f b a llo t s to bear f a c s im ile s ig n a tu r e o f t h e p u b lic o f f i c e r c a u s in g them t o - b e p r in t e d makes b o th b a l l o t s and e l e c t i o n i l l e g a l and void *

H ow ever,

two p r i n t e r , s sa m p les and one unused m a ile d b a l l o t w ere i n s u f f i c i e n t e v id e n c e t o i n v a l i d a t e t h e e l e c t i o n when t h e s e c r e t a r y o f t h e b oard o f e d u c a tio n c o u ld n o t remember t h a t he had s e n t a b a l l o t i n th e m a i l , , t h e r e was no r e tu r n ad ­ d r e s s on t h e e n v e lo p e , and n e i t h e r t h e owner o f t h e p r in t i n g company n o r t h e p r i n t e r em ployed c o u ld remember e v e r h a v in g p la c e d t h e two sa m p les on f i l e * ^

A ta x p a y er, a s s e r tin g th e

i n v a l i d i t y o f a s c h o o l t a x .o n t h e ground t h a t t h e b a l l o t s u sed a t t h e e l e c t i o n s a u th o r iz in g , in c r e a s e d t a x e s w ere d e ­ f e c t i v e , h a s t h e b urden o f p r o v in g th e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s com­ p la in e d o f , and e v id e n c e m ust b e s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e b a l l o t s , in tr o d u c e d in t h e e v id e n c e a r e i d e n t i c a l w it h t h o s e a c t u a l l y u sed a t t h e e l e c t i o n s q u e s t io n e d .^ 9 An amendment becom es e f f e c t i v e on t h e d a te v o t e s a r e ca n v a sse d and c o u n t e d ,. n o t , on th e . day o f t h e e l e c t i o n .

Mere

f a i l u r e t o c a n v a ss r e tu r n s o f a s c h o o l t a x e l e c t i o n on t h e d a te d e s ig n a t e d t h e r e f o r d id n o t v i t i a t e th e e l e c t i o n , s in e e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and s t a t u t o r y . p r o v i s i o n s - a s t o t h e tim e and p la c e f o r m aking and c o m p le tin g t h e c a n v a ss s h o u ld -b e

IkO co m p lied w it h , b u t su c h p r o v is io n s a r e d ir e c t o r y and a d e­ p a r tu r e th e r e fr o m i s

i m m a t e r i a l .^

S ta tem en t o f p u rp ose o f t a x . preme C ourt in I l l i n o i s

A d e c i s i o n o f t h e Su­

i s o f th e u tm ost im p o rta n ce t o s u p e r ­

in te n d e n t s who a r e ch a rg ed w it h th e d u ty o f making o u t th e b u d get a p p r o p r ia tio n s ea ch y e a r .

A p l a i n t i f f o b j e c t e d t o th e

i n c l u s i o n in th e b u ild in g - f u n d l e v y o f item s f o r j a n i t o r s 1 s a l a r i e s , new f i x e d equipm ent and in s u r a n c e , w hich amounted t o a c o s t o f $ 9 3 ,7 1 0 .

The d e fe n d a n t d e c la r e d t h a t s in c e th e

m u n ic ip a lit y had th e power t o t a x f o r t h e ,c h a lle n g e d ite m s and c o u ld h ave in c lu d e d them in t h e e d u c a t io n a l fund w ith o u t e x c e e d in g th e l e g a l r a t e f o r t h i s fund f o r , t h e y e a r , th e item s w ould have b een t r a n s f e r r e d upon an o b j e c t io n t im e ly made u nd er t h e s t a t u t e .

U n la w fu l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f an item

in an in a p p r o p r ia te fund i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r a ta x p a y e r t o r e &1 c o v e r p e r s o n a l p r o p e r ty t a x e s p a id under, p r o t e s t . I n a c a s e p r e s e n te d t o th e Supreme C ourt o f T e n n e s s e e , e v id e n c e was c o n c lu s iv e t h a t w h ereas t h e s p e c i a l t a x l e v y o f t h e co u n ty c o u r t p u r p o r te d t o be f o r e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s , th e le v y was in f a c t f o r th e repaym ent o f c e r t a i n fu n d s t o th e s in k in g fund o f t h e c o u n ty .

T h e -ta x p a y e r was e n t i t l e d t o

m a in ta in s u i t a g a in s t th e co u n ty t o have t h e l e v i e s d e c la r e d v o id and, t o e n j o in co u n ty o f f i c i a l s from f u r t h e r - p r o c e e d in g t o c o l l e c t t a x e s on t h e l e v i e s . ^

141 C o l l e c t i o n and e n fo r c e m e n t.

C e r ta in ta x p a y e r s in

I l l i n o i s a p p e a le d from a judgm ent f o r d e lin q u e n t, s c h o o l t a x e s on th e g r o u n d -th a t t h e e l e c t i o n p u r p o r tin g t o a u t h o r iz e a s c h o o l t a x in c r e a s e was v o id b e c a u se th e b a l l o t s u sed w ere n o t p r in te d in t h e form r e q u ir e d by s t a t u t e , - The judgment was s u s t a in e d f o r la c k o f e v id e n c e t h a t - t h e b a l l o t s used w ere th e same b a l l o t s t h a t w ere produced a s e v id e n c e f o r t h e co u rt. The c o l l e c t i o n o f t a x e s o u t o f a t a x p a y e r ’ s w ages d i r e c t l y from th e em p loyer i s l e g a l , and d o es n o t d e p r iv e t h e ta x p a y e r o f p r o p e r ty w ith o u t due p r o c e s s o f la w .

T h is m ethod

o f c o l l e c t i o n i s common and c u s t o m a r y .^ A c i t y and a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in T exas a c q u ir e d a l o t by way o f judgment a g a in s t th e l o t f o r d e lin q u e n t, t a x e s . T axes w ere due t h e s t a t e and th e co u n ty o n -th e same l o t , th ou gh th e y w ere n o t p a r t i e s t o th e s u i t .

The l o t , w h ile

h e ld by t h e c i t y and t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t f o r p u b lic p u r p o s e s , was n o t s u b j e c t t o s e i z u r e and s a l e t o s a t i s f y a judgment f o r ta x e s , l e v i e d by th e s t a t e and th e co u n ty , d u r in g t h e tim e i t was. p r i v a t e l y o w n ed .^5

The t a x l i e n s o f c i t i e s , s c h o o l

d i s t r i c t s , c o u n t i e s , and the, s t a t e have e q u a l d i g n i t y .

O rd i­

n a r i l y a l l t a x in g u n it s a r e n e c e s s a r y p a r t i e s in f o r e c lo s u r e s u its . The t a x a s s e s s o r - c o l i e c t o r f o r an in d e p e n d en t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in T ex a s h as no a u t h o r it y t o le v y on and t o s e l l

142 r e a l e s t a t e f o r d e lin q u e n t t a x e s w ith o u t f o r e c lo s u r e o f t a x l i e n by a c o u r t a s p r o v id e d by. la w . p a sse d no t i t l e

H is purported, s a l e

t o t h e p u r c h a se r b u t s a i d p u r c h a se r c o u ld

r e c o v e r f o r im provem ents p la c e d . on t h e l o t in good f a i t h . ^ A p l a i n t i f f owned s i x s e c t i o n s o f la n d which, w er e s o ld f o r d e lin q u e n t t a x e s .

L a t e r th e . p l a i n t i f f a l l e g e d t h a t

t h e t a x s a l e was i n v a l i d b e c a u se o f er ro n eo u s and e x c e s s i v e ite m s in t h e s c h o o l t a x l e v y .

I t . was h e l d , assu m in g t h e in ­

v a l i d i t y o f t h e e x c e s s i v e p o r t io n o f t h e t a x , t h a t t h e e r r o r d id n o t i n v a l i d a t e t h e e n t i r e t a x l e v y ; t h a t t h e ta x p a y e r had t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o h a v e t h e le v y c o r r e c t e d ; t h a t he sh o u ld h ave in v o k ed t h e p ro ced u re a f fo r d e d t o t h a t end; t h a t h e a l s o had th e.rem ed y , by a c t io n f o r a refu n d o f t h e . e x c e s s i v e p o r t io n o f t h e t a x ; a n d , t h a t h i s f a i l u r e . t o p u r s u e e i t h e r c o u r s e amounted t o a w a iv e r o f t h e ob j e c t i o n .

An

e x c e s s i v e t a x r a t e i n v a l i d a t e s n e it h e r , t h e e n t i r e l e v y , n or t h e d e lin q u e n t t a x p r o c e e d in g s , n o r t h e s t a t e ’ s ta x . t i t l e #

37

D i s p o s i t i o n , of. p r o c e e d s o f .ta x e s and, o t h e r r e v e n u e . When fu n d s h ave b een r a i s e d th ro u g h s p e c i a l t a x e s o r bond i s s u e s , t h e fun ds m ust b e u sed f o r t h e p u r p o se s f o r w h ich t h e y w ere r a i s e d .

A t t i m e s , s c h o o l b o a rd s u s e p u b lic , money

f o r p u r p o se s w hich some ta x p a y e r s may f e e l a r e i l l e g a l e x ­ p e n d it u r e s #

T h ese and. o t h e r p rob lem s c o n c e r n in g t h e rem e­

d i e s o f ta x p a y e r s h a v e been, t h e c a u s e o f a g rea t, d e a l o f

143 litig a tio n * A c o n s o lid a t e d s c h o o l, d i s t r i c t in -G e o r g ia v o te d an i s su e o f b onds.. a f t e r w hich- tim e, t h e r e .w as., a., g e n e r a l- r e o rg a n ­ i z a t i o n m ergin g a l l d is tr ic t*

s c h o o ls i n .the.

c o u n ty

The bond money was. tu r n e d o v e r

in t o one s c h o o l to.

t h e co u n ty

board o f e d u c a tio n b u t . t h e board .co u ld la w f u l l y u s e t h e money o n ly t o b u il d

a sc h o o lh o u se ., w h ich , was t h e

p u rp o se o f th e bond

is s u e *

T h ere i s a l i t t l e

o r ig in a l

d i f f e r e n c e i n o p in io n i n c o u r t s a s

t o t h e l e g a l u s e o f fu n d s o b ta in e d .th r o u g h bond e l e c t i o n s « The overw h elm in g m a jo r ity co n ten d t h a t t h i s , money can b e u sed o n ly f o r t h e e x a c t p u rp o se f o r w h ich i t was v o t e d ♦

If

t h e money i s n o t to . b e u sed -im m e d ia te ly , a b o a r d . m ay. i n v e s t and r e - i n v e s t i t i n governm ent, bonds, f u l l y g u a r a n te e d by t h e f e d e r a l governm ent* ^

The Supreme C ourt o f N o r th ;C a r o lin a

h e ld t h a t fu n d s . fro m „a bond e l e c t i o n c o u ld b e t r a n s f e r r e d from one p r o j e c t t o a n o th e r p r o v id e d . t h a t t h e b o a r d .o f co u n ty c o m m is sio n e r s , on i n v e s t i g a t i o n , - d oterm in ed . t h a t . s i n c e t h e bonds w ere a u t h o r iz e d , - c o n d it io n s had s o changed a s t o j u s t if y t r a n s f e r .^ 0 A tow n i n V i r g i n i a s e p a r a te d from t h e co u n ty and form ­ ed i t s own s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ♦

At t h e tim e o f s e p a r a t io n t h e r e

was money in t h e s c h o o l fund and t h e r e w ere d e lin q u e n t t a x e s due*

The co u n ty co n ten d ed t h a t t h i s money s h o u ld be d iv id e d

a c c o r d in g t o t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y a tte n d a n c e o f t h e p r e v io u s

y ea r#

The town co n ten d ed t h a t i t s h o u ld b e d iv id e d in p r o ­

p o r t io n t o th e way i t h a d b e e n r e c e i v e d , t h a t i s , a c c o r d in g to th e l e v i e s •

The c o u r t a g re ed w ith t h e to w n •

The S t a t e C o n s t it u t io n o f Oklahoma p r o h ib i t s a le v y o f ad va lo rem t a x e s f o r s t a t e p u r p o s e s .

The l e g i s l a t u r e

e n a c te d a s t a t u t e p r o v id in g t h a t i f no s c h o o l i s . m a in ta in e d i n a d i s t r i c t from w h ich p u p ils , a r e t r a n s f e r r e d , maximum fu n d s from a f i f t e e n m i l l le v y sh o u ld b e a p p r o p r ia te d f o r t r a n s f e r f e e s t o h e p a id t o s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s t o .w hich p u p ils are tr a n sfe r r e d .

T h is w ould i n e f f e c t o p e r a te t o l e s s e n

t h e amount o f s t a t e a id t o be p a id t o th e l a t t e r s c h o o l. The c o u r t h e ld t h a t e v e n .th o u g h t h i s i s t r u e , i t w ould n o t make t h e a p p r o p r ia tio n s f o r t r a n s f e r f e e s one f o r a s t a t e p u r p o s e .^ R ig h ts and r e m e d ie s o f t a x p a y e r s .

F or t h e r e s t r a i n t

o f w rongs com m itted b y m u n ic ip a l o f f i c e r s a g a in s t t h e p u b lic i n t e r e s t , a ta x p a y e r i s a cc o rd ed a s ta n d in g i n e q u it y b e c a u se o f t h e r e a s o n t h a t h e i s a ta x p a y e r .a n d h e w i l l . b e in ju r e d p e c u n i a r i l y , and n o t upon t h e grounds t h a t h e i s sim p ly a c i t i z e n , o r an i n h a b i t a n t , o r an e l e c t o r . 93»94>95

^ court

o f e q u it y may e n j o in a co u n ty board o f e d u c a tio n w here t h e f a c t s show i t s a c t i o n s t o be a r b i t r a r y , and c o n s t i t u t e an a b u se o f t h e b o a r d f s b road d i s c r e t i o n a r y p o w e rs.? ^ H ow ever, t h i s i s n o t o f t e n d o n e.

C e r ta in ta x p a y e r s in K entucky

145 b rou gh t s u i t t o e n j o in t h e b o a r d .o f. e d u c a tio n from c o n s t r u c t ­ in g a c e n t r a l h ig h s c h o o l on t h e grounds, t h a t t h e .b o a r d a b u sed i t s d i s c r e t i o n in t h e s e l e c t i o n . o f a s i t e in g .

f o r t h e b u il d ­

The s t a t u t e r e q u ir e s t h e board t o s e e k t h e a d v ic e o f

t h e s t a t e s u p e r in te n d e n t o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n and when h i s a p p r o v a l h as b een o b t a in e d , t h e c o u r ts w i l l n o t i n t e r f e r e w ith p ro p o sed p la n s u n le s s t h e r e i s p o s i t i v e p r o o f o f f r a u d , c o l l u s i o n , o r a c l e a r a b u se o f d i s c r e t i o n . 97

In th e fo llo w ­

in g c a s e from K e n tu c k y , th e c o u r t d id i n t e r f e r e and d e c la r e an ab u se o f d i s c r e t i o n by t h e s c h o o l board, when i t p u rch ased la n d in a n o th e r co u n ty t o b e u sed a s a r e c r e a t io n c e n t e r f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f p u b lic s c h o o l p u p ils and 4 -H m em bers.

The

board was r e q u ir e d t o s e l l su ch la n d s and r e s t o r e t h e p u r 98 c h a se p r i c e t o t h e s c h o o l fun ds o f t h e c o u n ty . Where e v id e n c e i s s u f f i c i e n t t o show t h a t an e l e c t i o n f o r t h e is s u a n c e and s a l e o f s c h o o l bonds was n o t c a r r ie d o u t a c c o r d in g t o s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n , t h a t i s , t h a t t h e p e t i t i o n was s ig n e d b y l e s s th a n one t h ir d o f t h e q u a l i f i e d e l e c t o r s , t h e c o u r t w i l l d e c la r e t h e e l e c t i o n i n v a l i d •99 The burden o f p r o o f o f fra u d in an e l e c t i o n i s on t h e p a r ty b r in g in g s u i t When bonds h ave b een is s u e d f o r t h e p u r p o se o f e r e c t ­ in g and e q u ip p in g n e w . s c h o o l b u ild in g s ., ta x p a y ers. may e n j o in t h e s c h o o l board from u s in g t h e bond fu n d s f o r r e p a i r , e n 101 la r g e m e n t, and a l t e r a t i o n o f o ld b u i l d i n g s . F u rth erm o re,

a d d i t i o n a l p r o j e c t s may n o t b e in c lu d e d , t o t h e e x c lu s io n o f p r o j e c t s w h ich w ere s p e c i f i e d i n t h e bond e l e c t i o n , and t h e i n e l u s i o n o f su ch p r o j e c t s w i l l b e p r o h ib it e d i n a p r o c e e d ­ in g i n s t i t u t e d by a ta x p a y e r o f t h e d i s t r i c t , 102

T axp ayers

may n o t e n j o in th e is s u a n c e o f bonds f o r t h e , e r e c t i o n o f a new s c h o o lh o u s e on t h e grou n ds t h a t t h e s i t e s e l e c t e d i s lo c a t e d in a p a r t o f t h e co u n ty w here some w i l l n o t b e b e n e f i t e d . 103 M ost s t a t e s p r o v id e a tim e l i m i t , under, w hich s u i t s m ust b e i n s t i t u t e d w h ich h a v e r e f e r e n c e t o bond e l e c t i o n s . In L o u is ia n a a .t a x p a y e r i s w ith o u t r i g h t t o q u e s t io n t h e l e g a l i t y o f an e l e c t i o n o r v a l i d i t y o f a bond i s s u e a f t e r s i x t y days from t h e . d a te o f t h e p r o m u lg a tio n of. t h e r e t u r n s • 10^ S ta te a id ,

A L o u is ia n a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v is io n

c r e a t e s a s t a t e p u b lic s c h o o l fund o f n o t l e s s th a n t e n m i l ­ l i o n d o l l a r s p er annum t o in s u r e m a in te n a n c e , o f a minimum s t a t e e d u c a t io n a l program .

T h ree fo u r th s o f t h e fund i s t o

b e a p p o r tio n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e number o f e d u c a b le c h i l d ­ ren and t h e rem a in in g one f o u r t h . i s t o b e d i s t r i b u t e d f o r e q u a liz a tio n .

Any e x c e s s may b e s i m i l a r l y a p p o r tio n e d o r

o t h e r w is e d i s t r i b u t e d f o r t h e su p p o rt o f p u b lic s c h o o ls in su ch manner a s t h e l e g i s l a t u r e d e e m s .a d v is a b le *

T h er efo re,

fu n d s a p p r o p r ia te d from t h e s t a t e , p u b lic s c h o o l fund t o t h e t e a c h e r s f s a l a r y fund t o c a r r y i n t o e f f e c t a t e a c h e r s *

147 minimum s a l a r y s c h e d u le n eed n o t h e d i s t r i b u t e d a c c o r d in g t o t h is - f o r m u la ,b e c a u s e - i t

i s i n e x c e s s o f , t h e te n . m i l l i o n

d o l l a r minimum. The common s c h o o l fu n d s in I l l i n o i s w ere found t o b e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o pay c la im s, o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . - i n f u l l .

The

a u d i t o r o f p u b lic a c c o u n ts d e c la r e d h i s i n t e n t i o n t o pay th e " g e n e r a l a p p o r tio n m en t” I n f u l l and r e d u c e t h e e q u a l i z a t i o n q uota w it h in t h e b a la n c e , o f .s u c h a v a i l a b l e , fu n d s . . The c o u r t u p h eld t h e p e t i t i o n o f t h e ta x p a y e r s -d e m a n d in g -th a t t h e a u d i­ t o r r e d u ce t h e g e n e r a l g r a n ts and e q u a liz a t io n quotas., on a u n iform p e r c e n ta g e b a s i s . The s t a t e o f T e n n e sse e p a id a c e r t a i n a p p r o p r ia tio n t o t h e co u n ty t r e a s u r e r who in tu r n p a id t h e e n t i r e amount t o t h e co u n ty b oard o f e d u c a t io n .

T h is w r o n g fu lly e x c lu d e d

th e c i t y board o f com m ission ers-.

The co u n ty board o f ed u ca­

t i o n u sed t h e fu n d s in th e o p e r a tio n , o f t h e .county s c h o o ls t o t h e co m p le te e x c lu s io n o f t h e h ig h s c h o o l o p e r a te d by t h e m u n ic i p a li t y . . The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e co m m issio n er o f ed u ca­ t i o n , upon t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e G o v ern o r, may c a l l , upon s t a t e d o f f i c i a l s t o r e c o v e r i l l e g a l l y d is p o s e d o f s c h o o l- f u n d s . H ow ever, t h e -G overnor c a n ,: by w ith h o ld in g - h i s a p p r o v a l, l e t t h e r e s u l t s o f a m is ta k e r e s t w here t h e y a r e , i f c o r r e c t io n 107 o f t h e m is ta k e w ould cau s e -more, d is a d v a n t a g e .th a n g o o d . .

The s t a t e o f P e n n s y lv a n ia had..more c o u r t

148 a c t io n i n t il i s a r e a o f s c h o o l la w th a n d id any o t h e r s t a t e in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , t h e c o u r ts h a v in g h a n d e d ,d o w n .s ix te e n d iffe r e n t d e c is io n s . ca ses each.

T exas and I l l i n o i s f o llo w e d w ith e ig h t

T h ere was a t o t a l o f e i g h t y - s e v e n c a s e s in

tw e n t y - n in e d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s .

The s p e c i f i c a r e a c a u s in g t h e

m ost a c t io n in t h e c o u r ts was t h e power, o f a , s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o in c u r in d e b te d n e s s and t h e l e g a l i t y o f c e r t a i n e x p e n d i­ tu r e s. A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t can e x e r c i s e o n ly su ch a u t h o r it y a s h as b een e x p r e s s ly o r im p lie d ly c o n fe r r e d upon i t by sta tu te .

(S o u th C a r o l i n a ,.p . I l l )

wS e l f - l i q u i d s t i n g "

c o n t r a c t s a r e n o t t o b e c o n s id e r e d

in d e b te d n e s s in t h e d e te r m in a tio n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d eb t lim it.

(P e n n s y lv a n ia , p . 1 1 3 ) An in d i v i d u a l can n ot r e c o v e r a lo a n m a d e .to a s c h o o l

d i s t r i c t t h a t e x c e e d s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e b t l i m i t u n le s s it

i s a tem porary lo a n p a y a b le -o u t o f t a x e s l e v i e d f o r c u r ­

ren t sch o o l p u rp oses.

(W is c o n s in , p . 1 1 3 )

Moneys and c r e d i t s , may b e in c lu d e d when d e te r m in in g t h e t o t a l a s s e s s e d v a lu a t io n o f t a x a b le p r o p e r ty . tie s

L ia b ili­

in c u r r e d d u r in g a f i s c a l y e a r a r e n o t d e b ts w it h in t h e

m eaning o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e b t l i m i t .

(S o u th D a k o ta ,

p . 114) Where a c i t y and a p u b lic , s c h o o l c o r p o r a tio n a r e co ter m in o u s and occu p y t h e same t e r r i t o r y , b u t are. s e p a r a t e

149 and d i s t i n c t c o r p o r a te e n t i t i e s ,. each i s . q u a l i f i e d . t o .,in c u r s e p a r a t e in d e b te d n e s s up t o . t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e b t , l i m i t . (N orth B a k o ta ,-.p . 1 1 5 ) A "w arran t” i s n o t a n e g o t ia b l e in s tr u m e n t... . (O regon , P, 119) The r i g h t t o c r e a t e bonded in d e b te d n e s s i s n o t an im p lie d power b u t . r a t h e r is., g r a n te d -b y s t a t u t e * .(A r iz o n a , p . 120) Bonds i s s u e d . f o r an u n a u t h o r iz e d .o r im proper, u s e a r e v o id .

( M i s s i s s i p p i , . , p . 121) An a t h l e t i c sta d iu m i s . c o n s id e r e d , a. s c h o o l b u i l d i n g ,

t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t, and m a in te n a n c e ..o f-w h ich c o n s t i t u t e s a l e g a l e x p e n d itu r e o f p u b l i c .m oney. (N orth C a r o lin a ., p . 121) ( M i s s i s s i p p i , p . 121) O r d in a r ily c o u r t s , w i l l uphold, t h e .v a l i d i t y o f bond e l e c t i o n s i f i t a p p ea rs t h a t t h e . i r r e g u l a r i t i e s h ave, n o t changed t h e f i n a l outcom e. o f t h e . . e l e c t i o n .

(T e x a s , p . 123)

( F l o r id a , p . 124) A v a lid a t in g , a c t w i l l c u r e d e f e c t s , . i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , o m is s io n s , and m i n i s t e r i a l . e r r o r s . i n c a r r y in g , o u t s t a t u t o r y p r o v is i o n s

( C a l i f o r n i a , p . . 1 2 4 ) b u t ca n n o t .make, l e g a l bonds

v o te d f o r an u n a u th o r iz e d p u r p o se .

( C a lif o r n ia ., - p • 124)

An e l e c t i o n can b e h eld , t o rev o k e bonds d u ly v o t e d , a u t h o r iz e d , and i s s u e d , . o n ly when a l a t e r c h a n g e , i n con­ d it i o n s . shows, t h a t . i t w ould b e u n n e c e ss a r y to. sp en d t h e i r

p ro ce ed s*

(T e x a s , p* 1 2 7 )

The power, t o t a x f o r s c h o o l p u rp o ses i s v e s t e d in d i s t r i c t s by s t a t u t e .

(N orth C a r o lin a , p . 1 2 8 )

T h ere i s a p r o v is i o n in many s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n s w h ich p r o v id e s t h a t o n ly p e r s o n s who h a v e . p r o p e r ty w h ich i s a s s e s s e d f o r , t a x e s may v o t e on q u e s t io n s r e l a t i v e t o r a i s i n g t h e t a x e s f o r a d i r e c t e x p e n d itu r e o f m oney. (M ic h ig a n , p . 126)

(M ic h ig a n , p . 130) A husband m ay, b e h e ld l i a b l e f o r h i s w i f e ' s d e lin q u e n t

p e r c a p it a s c h o o l t a x and su ch l i a b i l i t y may b e e n fo r c e d a g a in s t t h e w ages o r s a la r y , o f . t h e husband in t h e hands o f h i s e m p lo y er• (P e n n s y lv a n i a , p . 132) A n y th in g ta x e d by t h e s t a t e ca n n o t b e ta x e d by t h e sch o o l d i s t r i c t .

(P e n n s y lv a n ia , p . 1 3 4 )

A wage t a x may b e l e v i e d by t h e p o l i t i c a l s u b d iv is io n in w h ich one l i v e s b u t in t h a t e v e n t m ust n o t b e l e v i e d by t h e p o l i t i c a l s u b d iv is io n in w hich t h e w ages a r e e a r n e d , i f th e y a r e n o t one and t h e sam e• (P e n n s y lv a n ia .,... p . .1 3 6 )

(Penn­

s y l v a n i a , p . 137) S t a t u t o r y r e q u ir e m e n ts c o n c e r n in g t a x e l e c t i o n s m ust b e f o llo w e d o r e l e c t i o n s w i l l b e h e ld i n v a l i d . p . 1 3 8 ) (O regon , p . 1 3 8 )

(Alabam a,

(A r k a n sa s,. p . 138)

A t a x p a y e r , a s s e r t i n g . i n v a l i d i t y o f a s c h o o l . t a x on t h e ground t h a t b a l l o t s u sed a t e l e c t i o n s a u t h o r iz in g i n c r e a s e d t a x e s w ere d e f e c t i v e , . has. t h e burden o f p r o v in g

151 ir r e g u la r itie s .

( I l l i n o i s , p . 139)

U n la w fu l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f . a n .ite m in an in a p p r o p r ia te fund i s s u f f i c i e n t -fo r , a , ta x p a y er., t o r e c o v e r p e r s o n a l, p r o p e r ­ t y t a x e s p a id under p r o t e s t .

( I l l i n o i s , p . 140)

P r o p e r t y , w h ile h e l d .b y , a. c i t y and a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t f o r p u b lic p u r p o s e s , . i s n o t s u b j e c t t o s e i z u r e and s a l e t o s a t i s f y a judgment f o r t a x e s le v ie d , by. t h e s t a t e and t h e co u n ty d u r in g t h e time-JLt .was p r i v a t e l y .ow ned. (T exas ,_ p . 141) Though d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n p r e v a i l , . t h e u s u a l in t e r p r e t a t i o n , p r o v id e s t h a t , bond funds, m u st-b e

ju s

ed s p e ­

c i f i c a l l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e s . f o r w h ich th e y ,.w e r e v o t e d . (H orth C a r o lin a , p . 145) T axp ayers may n o t e n j o in t h e . is s u a n c e ,.o f bonds f o r t h e e r e c t i o n o f a . new s c h o o lh o u s e on t h e grounds t h a t t h e s i t e s e l e c t e d i s l o c a t e d i n a p a r t , o f t h e co u n ty w here some w i l l n ot be b e n e fite d .

(T e n n e s s e e ,, p . 146)

CHAPTER VII DISTRICT PROPERTY, LIABILITIES , . MB CLAIMS AGAINST THE DISTRICT A c q u i s i t i o n . . u s e , and d i s p o s i t i o n o f p r o p e r t y .

A

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t owns no p r o p e r t y , a l l s c h o o l , f a c i l i t i e s , su c h a s g r o u n d s, b u i l d i n g s , eq u ip m en t, e t c . , b e in g i n f a c t and la w th e , p r o p e r ty o f t h e s t a t e .a n d sub j e c t t o l e g i s l a t i v e w ill.1

F or p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , . th e , board o f e d u c a tio n h o ld s

t i t l e t o p r o p e r ty o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t in t r u s t f o r s c h o o l p u rp oses.

I t i s incum bent o n a board o f e d u c a tio n t o p r e ­

s e r v e t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h i s p r o p e r ty .f o r sch o o l, p u r p o se s w here a p r e s e n t o r . a p r o b a b le f u t u r e need t h e r e f o r e x i s t s « or i s

l i k e l y ,

to

a r i s e .

^

When a s c h o o l , d i s t r i c t i s o r g a n iz e d

i n t e r r i t o r y w hich was p r e v io u s ly a p a r t o f t h e to w n sh ip s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , th e o w n ersh ip and l e g a l t i t l e

t o th e. t r a c t

and s c h o o l b u il d i n g s s i t u a t e d th e r e o n becom es v e s t e d i n t h e board o f e d u c a tio n o f th e .n e w s c h o o l d i s t r i c t • ^ I t was found i n T ex a s t h a t t h e t r u s t e e s . o f a common s c h o o l d i s t r i c t may s e l l any p r o p e r ty b e lo n g in g t o th em , w it h t h e a p p r o v a l o f th e co u n ty board o f t r u s t e e s , b u t i f t h e t r u s t e e s o f th e common s c h o o l, d i s t r i c t s e e f i t t o make an o i l and g a s l e a s e upon th e . p r o p e r ty i t . i s n e c e s s a r y , t h a t

R e fe r e n c e s t o c o u r t c a s e s , i n C hap ter V II a r e l i s t e d on p age 1 9 #

153 th e y a d v e r t is e f o r b id s in c o n fo r m ity w ith t h e s t a t u t e a u t h o r iz in g p o l i t i c a l s u b d iv is io n s t o l e a s e la n d s f o r m in­ e r a l d e v e lo p m e n t.^

In P e n n s y lv a n ia a s c h o o l . board must r e ­

c e iv e th e a p p r o v a l o f t h e c o u r t b e f o r e i t may s e l l unused and u n n e c e ssa r y s c h o o l la n d s , how ever t h e .b o a r d makes t h e s a l e and n o t th e c o u r t .

T h is means t h a t th e c o u r t co u ld

p r o p e r ly r e f u s e t o ap prove t h e s a l e t o one p e rso n b u t c o u ld n o t d i r e c t th e board t o s e l l t o a h ig h e r b i d d e r . 5 n e s s e e th e a p p r o v a l o f a c o u r t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y .

In Ten­ Where a

town p r o p e r ly and l e g a l l y a c q u ir e s ow n ersh ip o f r e a l t y f o r s c h o o l p u r p o se s b u t u se f o r su ch p u r p o se s h as b een abandoned, th e town h as a u t h o r it y e i t h e r to s e l l t h e p r o p e r ty o r to r e n t i t t o a p r iv a t e co n ce rn f o r su ch an amount as. i s commensu­ r a t e w ith i t s v a lu e and u s e .^ D if f e r e n c e s in j u d i c i a l o p in io n p r e v a i l in reg a rd t o th e p u rch a se o f la n d f o r r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r p o se s o u t s id e t h e c o u n ty .

In F lo r id a t h e c o u r t r u le d t h a t la n d c o u ld .b e p u r- ‘

ch ased o u t s id e t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f t h e co u n ty i f . e s s e n t i a l t o t h e p r o v is io n o f an a d eq u a te p u b lic , s c h o o l program ,? b u t in K entucky th e c o u r t ru le d , t h a t t o buy a t r a c t - o f . la n d f o r th e u se o f t h e p u b lic s c h o o ls , and- th e 4 -H . c lu b ..a s r e c r e a t io n a l grounds was o u t s id e th e a u t h o r it y o f th e s c h o o l b oard .® The one s i n g l e q u e s t io n w hich h as ca u se d t h e g r e a t e s t amount o f l i t i g a t i o n d u rin g th e p a s t two y e a r s has been th e problem o f th e p r o p e r d i s p o s i t i o n o f . s c h o o l la n d s w hich w ere

154 o r i g i n a l l y a g i f t from a p r iv a t e p a rty , and which, s i n c e have b een abandoned o r a l l e g e d t o h a v e b een abandoned f o r s c h o o l p u rp oses•

M ost o f t h e s e g r a n t s . o f la n d c o n t a in t h e c l a u s e ,

" f o r e v e r o r a s lo n g a s u sed f o r s c h o o l p u r p o s e s w h i c h h as t h e e f f e c t o f a r e v e r t e r c la u s e , s o t h a t w h e n .t h is la n d c e a s e s t o be u sed f o r s c h o o l p u r p o s e s , th e la n d becom es t h e p r o p e r ty o f t h e o r i g i n a l g r a n to r o r h i s h e i r s W h a t

c o n s titu te s

abandonment o f la n d f o r s c h o o l p u r p o se s and l e g a l o w n ersh ip o f t h e b u ild in g s th e r e o n a r e f o r c o u r t s t o d e c id e .

C e r ta in

p r o p e r ty in M i s s i s s i p p i was con veyed t o t h e t r u s t e e s o f a s c h o o l f o r one d o l l a r , w ith t h e s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t sh o u ld i t c e a s e t o b e u sed f o r s c h o o l p u r p o s e s , i t w ould r e v e r t t o t h e o r i g i n a l owner o r h e i r s .

E v id e n c e e s t a b l i s h e d th a t, t h e la n d

had b e e n abandoned a lth o u g h t h e t r u s t e e s o f t h e s c h o o l f e l t t h a t a lth o u g h p h y s i c a l l y abandoned, t h e y s t i l l r e t a in e d an a t t i t u d e o f d o m in io n , and t h a t t h e abandonment was o n ly a tem porary em ergen cy.

The la n d was le a s e d t o an o i l company

a f t e r o i l had b e e n d is c o v e r e d and. t h e c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h e h e i r s w ere e n t i t l e d t o t h e p r o c e e d s o f t h e l e a s e . 11 I n K entucky t h e c o u r t h e ld t h a t when l a n d r e v e r t e d t o t h e o r i g i n a l g r a n to r o r . t h e g r a n to r * s s u c c e s s o r , t h e .c o u n t y b oard o f e d u c a tio n was e n t i t l e d t o remove t h e . s c h o o lh o u s e and o t h e r im p rovem en ts.

12

I n I l l i n o i s t h e c o u r t handed down

t h e same d e c i s i o n s i n two i n s t a n c e s , s a y in g t h a t thou gh title

t o la n d s and b u il d i n g s was h e ld by th e s c h o o l t r u s t e e s ,

155 t h e r e a l o w n ersh ip was in t h e p e o p le and s o th e t r u s t e e s 1 3 .1 4 co u ld n o t g i v e away a b u ild in g even . . i f th e y w anted to* An o p p o s it e d e c i s i o n was rea ch ed in .A r k a n sa s, where, a d i s t r i c t was d i s s o l v e d a n d . i t s t e r r i t o r y an nexed by a n o th er , d i s t r i c t w hich a llo w e d t h e b u ild in g t o f a l l i n t o d i s r e p a i r and a n e ig h ­ b o r u sed t h e b u ild in g f o r s t o r a g e o f sch o o l d is t r ic t

h a y . The f a c t t h a t t h e

u sed t h e b u ild in g as, a .bus ..sto p and t h a t oh

r a in y d ays t h e c h ild r e n w ould s e e k s h e l t e r in t h e o ld b u i l d ­ in g was n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o m a in ta in t h a t t h e s c h o o lh o u s e was s t i l l b e in g u sed f o r s c h o o l p u rp o ses.. p r e s e n t owner t o rem ove t h e b u i l d i n g . C ourt i s

The c o u r t a llo w e d t h e 15

The New York Supreme

in a g reem en t w it h t h i s d e c i s i o n a s th e y a l s o s a id

t h a t when la n d r e v e r t s t o t h e o r i g i n a l owner o r h i s s u c c e s s o r s , T6 t h e abandoned b u il d i n g m ust go w ith i t . In 1 8 9 9 , an in d i v id u a l co n v ey ed one to th e tr u s te e s

o f a sch ool d is t r ic t .

r e v e r s io n a r y c l a u s e .

h a l f a c r e o f la n d

The d eed c o n ta in e d a

The la n d o u t o f w h ich t h i s .s c h o o l l o t

was t a k e n , s u b s e q u e n tly changed hands, s e v e r a l t im e s . t h i s l o t was abandoned.

In 1946

The p r e s e n t owner co n ten d ed t h a t t h e

r e v e r s io n a r y c l a u s e i s a co v en a n t ru n n in g w ith t h e la n d ou t o f w h ich t h i s s c h o o l ..l o t w as t a k e n , and i t i s n o t p e r s o n a l t o t h e o r i g i n a l g r a n t o r . . The co u rt, awarded t h e l o t t o t h e o r i g i 17 n a l g ra n to r. A N orth C a r o lin a c o u r t d e c la r e d t h a t . a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t c o u ld con vey la n d w h ich had b een p u rch a sed w ith s c h o o l - fun ds

156 t o a c i t y in f e e s im p le w ith o u t m o n e ta r y .-c o n sid e r a tio n -, f o r us© a s . a p a r t o f t h e c i t y park sy ste m .a n d as. a s i t e

fo r a

co n tem p la ted a t h l e t i c sta d iu m . - T h is sta d iu m w ould b e .s u b j e c t t o r e a s o n a b le u se. by s c h o o ls fo r , a t h l e t i c - a n d . r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r p o se s •

T h is, -was , n o t . an . in f r in g e m e n t . o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

p r o h ib i t io n a g a in s t t h e d iv e r s io n o f . s c h o o l p r o p e r t y .1 ** The p ro p er u s e o f t h e a t h l e t i c s t a d i u m i s t h e s o u r c e o f some t r o u b le .

The board o f e d u c a tio n d o e s h ave a u t h o r it y

t o l e a s e a s c h o o l sta d iu m and i t s f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e p u rp ose o f c o n d u c tin g m id g e t a u t o m o b ile . r a

c e s

A sch o o l d is t r ic t

a l s o h a s t h e r i g h t t o make p r o f it s ., o u t o f games p la y e d on i t s p r e m is e s , su ch p r o f i t s t o go. fo r. th e . b e n e f i t o f t h e d i s t r i c t , and h a s t h e same freedom o f a c t i o n a s a. p r i v a t e p e r so n o r c o r p o r a t io n . i n p u t t i n g o n su c h gam es.

The d i s t r i c t co u ld

p r e v e n t a r a d io s t a t i o n from e n t e r in g i t s e x h ib it io n - g r o u n d s t o make f i e l d s i d e b r o a d c a s t s o f f o o t b a l l games and c o u ld u s e su ch f o r c e a s was n e c e s s a r y t o . e j e c t s t a t i o n em p lo y ees from t h e f i e l d . 20 L o c a tio n o f b u i l d i n g s .

A co u n ty board o f e d u c a tio n

v o te d t o change th e l o c a t i o n o f a one-room s c h o o l b u i l d i n g , a d is t a n c e o f a p p r o x im a te ly t h r e e f o u r t h s o f a m i l e .

A p e­

t i t i o n by t h e r e s i d e n t s a v e r r e d t h e board was a r b i t r a r i l y ch a n g in g t h e l o c a t i o n , o f th e s c h o o l b u ild in g f o r t h e con­ v e n ie n c e o f M rs. Y ancy A m is, who t e a c h e s i n t h i s , s c h o o l and

who i s t h e w i f e o f a member o f t h e b o a r d .

I t was a g re ed

t h a t s e v e r a l tim e s a y e a r h ig h w a te r d id e n t e r t h e b u ild in g b u t i t was n o t a g r e e d t h a t t h e new l o c a t i o n w ould b e b e t t e r . P e t i t i o n e r s m a in tain ed - t h a t , t h e s c h o o lh o u s e co u ld be- lo c a t e d f a r t h e r up t h e h i l l a t t h e p r e s e n t s i t e .

The c o u r t h e ld

t h a t w here a co u n ty b o a r d o f e d u c a tio n h as o b ta in e d a p p r o v a l o f t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n o f i t s p la n s f o r a new b u i l d i n g , c o u r t s w i l l n o t i n t e r f e r e w it h p ro p o sed p la n s u n le s s t h e r e , i s p o s i t i v e p r o o f o f fr a u d , c o l l u s i o n , o r a c l e a r ab u se o f d i s c r e t i o n .

23

O th er c a s e s have p o in te d

tow ard t h e same g e n e r a l, r u l e , t h a t . t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s i t e i s p a r t i c u l a r i l y f o r th e . u n f e t t e r e d good f a i t h and judgment o f th e b o a rd s o f e d u c a t io n .2 2 12 3 U se o f s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s .

Boards, o f e d u c a tio n h ave

d i s c r e t i o n a s t o t h e a llo w a b le u se o f s c h o o lh o u s e s . w it h in l i m i t s p e r m itte d by t h e E d u c a tio n Law, and c o u r t s may n o t i n t e r f e r e w ith t h e w isd o m .o f t h e d i s c r e t i o n e x e r c i s e d .

The

New York C ity Board o f E d u c a tio n r e fu s e d t o adopt, a r e s o ­ l u t i o n w h ich w ould deny t h e u s e o f s c h o o l . b u il d i n g s and g r o u n d s, a f t e r s c h o o l h o u r s , t o n (1 ) t h e Communist P a r t y , • (2 ) t h e o r g a n iz a t io n p r e s e n t ly known a s t h e A m erican Y outh f o r D em ocracy, (3 ) any o t h e r group o r o r g a n iz a t io n w h ich t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t o f s c h o o ls s h a l l h ave r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e i s a C o m m u n is t N a z i, o r F a s c i s t g r o u p , or an o r g a n iz a t io n t h a t

158 f o s t e r s r a c i a l o r r e l i g i o u s i n t o l e r a n c e . . . tt

D e s p it e a

w id esp re a d p u b lic , a v e r s io n , com m unists, may l e g a l l y f u n c t io n a s a p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o r e n t i t y and s o t h e board o f e d u c a tio n l e g a l l y e x e r c i s ed t h e i r r i g h t and., c o u r t s w ere n o t , a llo w e d t o in te r f e r e .^ S c h o o l f u r n i t u r e , b o o k s , a p p a r a tu s « and o t h e r , a p p l i ­ an ces.

A c i t y may e s t a b l i s h a p u r c h a sin g d ep artm ent t o p ur­

c h a se a l l t h e s a p p li e s ... needed- by t h e e i t y , i n c l u d i n g . s u p p lie s f o r t h e p u b lic s c h o o l s .

H ow ever, i f t h e a r t i c l e t o b e p u r­

ch a sed i s p e c u l i a r t o t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a t io n , t h e s c h o o l c o m m itte e fs d e te r m in a tio n a s t o q u a li t y a s d i s c l o s e d in i t s r e q u i s i t i o n w i l l b e c o n c l u s i v e upon t h e p u r c h a sin g d e p a r t ­ ment , f o r ex a m p le, te x tb o o k s

A s c h o o l board may p u rch a se equipm ent f o r a c a f a t e r i a and r e n t su ch eq u ipm en t, a n d , f a c i l i t i e s t o t h e a s s o c ia t e d 26 stu d en ts. T o r ts.

S c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , a s a g e n ts o f t h e s t a t e , a re

immune from l i a b i l i t y u n le s s l i a b i l i t y i s p r o v id e d by s t a t u t e . S t a t u t e s p r o v id in g t h a t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s may su e o r be su ed do n o t overcom e t h e common-law im m unity in reg a rd t o l i a b i l i ­ ty fo r in ju r ie s . p le .

S ev er a l ca ses w ill ill u s t r a t e t h is p r in c i­

A m in o r , and s t u d e n t , in h ig h s c h o o l, was s e r i o u s l y

in ju r e d by h a v in g h i s r i g h t arm and hand la c e r a t e d and b r u is e d and h i s f i n g e r s s e v e r e d w h ile m a n ip u la tin g an o ld

m od el p r in t i n g p r e s s w h ich t h e b oard o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n had p ro cu red f o r a id in i t s m anual t r a in in g , program ..

The

c o u r t h e ld t h a t . t h e b oard was immune from t o r t , a c t io n *

The

m ere f a c t . t h a t , a board o f p u b l i c I n s t m e t io n . i s c r e a t e d a s a body c o r p o r a te w ith , power t o su e and b e su ed .d o es n o t a f f e c t its by

immunity, from t o r t * la w .27

B oards are. o n ly , l i a b l e , w hen made s o

The W is c o n s in ,Supreme C ourt handed in a s i m i l a r

d e c is io n in .a s im ila r c a s e . A f t e r a t t e n d in g a f o o t b a l l game f o r w h ic h . a d m is sio n was c h a r g e d , a h ig h s c h o o l g i r l , aged, f i f t e e n , f e l l t o h er d e a th from a ramp in t h e p a r k in g l o t .

T h e .s c h o o l d i s t r i c t

was su ed on t h e grou n ds t h a t by c h a r g in g f o r gam es, th e y w ere e x e r c i s i n g a " p r o p r ie t a r y f u n c t io n " a n d th u s w ere l i a b l e f o r d am ages, . and t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s o v e r e ig n immunity- d id n o t a p p ly .

"G overnm ental f u n c t i o n s " a r e d is t in g u is h e d from "p ro­

p r ie t a r y fu n c tio n s " o f m u n i c i p a l i t y , in t h a t . t h e form er f u n c t io n s a r e e x e r c is e d i n t h e . a d m in is t r a t io n , o f a f f a i r s w h ich a f f e c t th e p u b lic g e n e r a l l y , and. a r e perform ed by v i r t u e o f powers c o n fe r r e d u p o n .th e c i t y a s an a g en cy o f th e s t a t e , w hereas, t h e l a t t e r p e r t a in t o b u s in e s s a f f a i r s admin­ i s t e r e d f o r t h e s p e c i a l b e n e f i t o f t h e urban community em­ b ra ce d w it h in th e c o r p o r a te b o u n d a r ie s , in c lu d in g t h e owner­ s h ip and o p e r a t io n o f p u b lic u t i l i t i e s .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t

t h e f a c t t h a t th e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t was m aking a p r o f i t on t h e games was no d i f f e r e n t th a n i f a l i k e amount had b e e n r a is e d

by ta x a tio n .

The s c h o o l d i s t r i c t was engaged in a ”g o v e r n ­

m e n ta l f u n c t io n ” and so was n o t l i a b l e . 2 ^

An a lm o st e x a c t

d e c i s i o n was handed down by t h e Supreme C ourt o f T e n n e s se e when a s p e c t a t o r , who was in ju r e d when a b le a c h e r c o l l a p s e d , a tte m p te d t o r e c o v e r damages from t h e b o a r d .. Even thou gh t h e a c t s may n o t h ave b een p erform ed i n a manner, m ost co n ­ d u c iv e t o s a f e t y , in t h e a b se n c e o f s t a t u t e , t h e board c o u ld n o t b e h e ld l i a b l e . 30 Em ployees o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a r e l i a b l e f o r a c t s o f n e g lig e n c e . . In W is c o n s in , a bus d r iv e r was su ed f o r dam­ a g e s when a g i r l , aged t h i r t e e n , was in ju r e d a s sh e a l i g h t e d from h i s b u s .

S h e a l l e g e d t h a t t h e bus sto p p e d so c l o s e t o

t h e ed ge o f t h e road t h a t when i t s t a r t e d up s h e became alarm ed f o r f e a r t h a t t h e r e a r o f th e bus w ould sw in g o v e r and h i t h e r .

B e c a u se o f t h i s , sh e to o k a s t e p b a ck w a rd s,

f e l l i n t o t h e d it c h co v e re d w ith w eeds and o n to a . c u lv e r t a t t h e end o f w h ich was a sh a rp s t e e l prong w hich e x te n d e d upward a d is t a n c e o f some, t h r e e in c h e s .

The Supreme C ourt

d id n o t d e c id e t h e c a s e o n ly t o d e c la r e t h a t t h e c a s e i s f o r a ju ry and i f t h e d r iv e r i s

found n e g l i g e n t , h e i s l i a b l e

t o dam ages.^ A p u p i l , aged t h i r t e e n , in a p u b lic s c h o o l was s t r u c k in t h e ey e by a p e n c i l thrown in t h e c la ssr o o m by a n o th e r p u p il t o a t h ir d p u p i l , who s te p p e d a s i d e .

The te a c h e r was

a b se n t from t h e room a t th e t im e , b e in g en gaged i n p la c in g

161 s u p p lie s in a su p p ly c l o s e t a s h o r t d i s t a n c e down t h e h a l l . C laim ed n e g lig e n c e i s p r e d ic a te d upon t h e f a i l u r e a d e q u a te ly t o s u p e r v is e t h e c l a s s .

The c o u r t h e ld , t h a t t h e a b se n c e o f

t h e t e a c h e r from t h e .c la s s r o o m was n o t t h e .p r o x im a t e c a u se o f t h e in ju r y , s o a s to . i m p o s e . l i a b i l i t y f o r . t h e in j u r y on th e . board o f e d u c a t io n . ^ A b o y , aged s e v e n , drowned in a n a tu r a l d r a in a g e d i t c h o r c a n a l a d jo in in g t h e s c h o o l g ro u n d s.

The p a r e n ts f i l e d

s u i t f o r damages a l l e g i n g t h a t t h e s c h o o l-b o a r d was n e g lig e n t in p u r c h a sin g a s c h o o l s i t e a n d . e r e c t in g a s c h o o l b u ild in g th e r e o n so n e a r a h azard ou s and a t t r a c t i v e n u is a n c e w ith o u t h a v in g had a f e n c e e r e c t e d in o r d e r t o keep c h ild r e n away from t h e c a n a l.

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t a n a tu r a l d r a in a g e d it c h

i s no more an " in h e r e n t ly d angerou s t h in g ” th a n a p u b lic highw ay o r a b u sy s t r e e t , o r amusement parks, a lo n g . s tr e a m s . The s c h o o l had b een in t h i s l o c a t i o n f o r f i f t e e n y e a r s and no one had e v e r co m p la in ed .

The f a c t , t h a t th e . s c h o o l board

c o n s tr u c te d a f e n c e a f t e r th e . a c c id e n t was n o t t o b e ta k e n a s an a d m is sio n o f n e g lig e n c e on t h e p a r t o f t h e s c h o o l board b u t r a th e r t o s a t i s f y s e v e r a l a p p r e h e n s iv e p a r e n t s .

The

s c h o o l b o a r d , th ro u g h , p r i n c i p a l s o r te a c h e r s .,, i s e x p e c te d t o ta k e r e a s o n a b le p r e c a u t io n s and c a r e t o . a v o id in ju r y t o s t u d e n ts.

33

I t was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h i s had- b e e n . d o n e . ^

S t a t u t o r y p r o v is i o n in t h e s t a t e o f W ash in gton p r o ­ v id e s t h a t a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t may b e su ed f o r an in ju r y t o t h e

162 r i g h t s o f t h e p l a i n t i f f a r i s i n g from some a c t o r o m is s io n o f t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , and re n d e r s a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t l i a b l e f o r th e to r tio u s

a c t s o r o m is s io n s o f i t s

o f f ic e r s , a g e n ts, or

s e r v a n t s , a c c o r d in g t o t h e norm al r u le s o f t o r t la w .

When

a h o y , aged e l e v e n , was in ju r e d w h ile p la y in g ” keep away” f o o t b a l l w ith no s u p e r v is io n , t h e Supreme Court d e c id e d t h a t t h e e v id e n c e

was f o r a ju r y .

The c o u r t s a id :

I t i s common k now ledge t h a t when a p u p il a t te n d s a p u b lic s c h o o l , th e p u p il i s s u b j e c t t o t h e r u le s and d i s c i p l i n e o f t h e s c h o o l , and th e p r o t e c t i v e c u sto d y o f th e t e a c h e r s i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h a t o f t h e p a r e n t. P r e c a u tio n s s h o u ld b e ta k e n t o p r o t e c t p u p ils from dan­ g e r in c u r r e d from p la y in g games in h e r e n t ly d an gerou s f o r t h e age group in v o lv e d , o r l i k e l y t o become d a n g er­ ous i f a llo w e d t o b e engaged in w ith o u t s u p e r v i s i o n . 34 A h ig h s c h o o l b o y , aged s i x t e e n , b ro k e h i s l e g in a f a l l on a s c h o o l ramp w h ich was s li p p e r y b e c a u se o f t h e worn c o n d it io n o f t h e f l o o r c o v e r in g .

A l l t h e s t u d e n t s and f a c u l ­

t y knew o f t h i s s l i p p e r y s p o t ; many s t u d e n t s had. f a l l e n on i t and t h i s boy had s lip p e d b u t n o t f a l l e n in t h e p a s t .

He

t e s t i f i e d t h a t he f o r g o t m o m en ta rily b e c a u s e h i s mind was on c h o ir p r a c t i c e , and a t t h e same, tim e was d i s t r a c t e d by g r e e t ­ in g a p a s s in g f r ie n d on t h e ramp.

The q u e s tio n was w h eth er

a b s t r a c t io n o r momentary f o r g e t f u l n e s s o f a known d a n g er c o n s t i t u t e s c o n t r ib u t o r y n e g lig e n c e w h ich w ould r e l i e v e th e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t from l i a b i l i t y .

The c o u r t h e ld t h a t t h i s

was a q u e s t io n o f f a c t f o r a ju ry and n o n s u it g r a n te d by t h e lo w e r c o u r t was r e v e r s e d . 35

163 A b o y , aged s i x , was in ju r e d when a la r g e two hundred pound b ox f e l l on h i s l e g .

The. a c c id e n t o cc u r re d on Sunday

a fte r n o o n when. th e . p laygrou n d , was c l o s e d .

E v id e n c e .w a s n o t

s u f f i c i e n t t o f in d t h e s c h o o l board n e g l i g e n t and s o . t h e r e was no l i a b i l i t y

c o n n e c t e d .36

A c tio n a g a in s t a board o f e d u c a tio n m ust b e ta k e n in t h e co u n ty w h ich i s t h e p la c e o f r e s id e n c e , o f t h e b o a rd . Where a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t c o v e r s more th a n one c o u n ty , p la c e o f r e s id e n c e o f th e b oard i s a t . t h e l o c a t i o n . o f i t s p r in c ip a l o f f i c e or p la c e o f b u s i n e s s . ^ R ig h ts o f . a c t i o n a n d . d e f e n s e s .

C a lif o r n ia law p ro ­

v id e s t h a t a c la im f o r p e r s o n a l i n j u r i e s m ust b e . f i l e d w it h in n in e t y d a y s .

When an o r a l c la im was m ade, t h e a p p e lla n t was

a d v is e d t h a t t h e in su r a n c e company w ould ta k e c a r e o f e v e r y ­ t h in g and t h e r e was no n e c e s s i t y f o r f i l i n g a c la im .

The

c o u r t h e ld t h a t even th ou gh t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t was, in s u r e d , and r e f e r r e d c la im s a g a in s t , i t t o th e i n s u r e r , t h e . a p p e lla n t was. n o t ex c u sed from f i l i n g a v e r i f i e d c la im . *■ P r e s e n t a t io n and a llo w a n c e o f c la im s f a g a in s t th e d is tr ic t.

I n New Y o rk , s t a t u t e p r o v id e s a s i x t y - d a y l i m i ­

t a t i o n on s e r v in g n o t i c e o f c la im s a g a in s t t h e d i s t r i c t f o r d is a b ility .

A p l a i n t i f f c a n n o t .r e ly on h i s d i s a b i l i t y t o

e x c u s e h i s f a i l u r e t o s e r v e t h e n o t i c e w it h in th e p r e s c r ib e d t im e . ^

.

164

I t was cla im e d by t h e f a t h e r o f R ich ard . F e r r i s , an in f a n t aged t e n , t h a t t h e boy r e c e iv e d s e r io u s p e r s o n a l i n j u ­ r i e s a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e n e g lig e n c e .o f t h e board o f ed u ca ­ tio n .

More th a n one y e a r had e la p s e d b etw e en th e d a te o f t h e

in j u r y and th e tim e o f m aking a p p l i c a t i o n f o r dam ages.

The

p e t i t i o n e r co n ten d ed t h a t t h i s d e la y sh o u ld b e ex c u sed b e ­ ca u se o f t h e im m a tu rity o f t h e c la im a n t , and b e c a u se t h e s e r io u s n e s s o f t h e i n j u r i e s was n o t more p rom p tly r e c o g n iz e d . The a p p l i c a t i o n was d e n ie d by th e,N ew York c o u r t b e c a u s e t h e d i s c r e t i o n a r y power o f t h e c o u r t e x p ir e s in one y e a r .^ 0 I n a n o th e r c a s e i n New Y ork , th e . c o u r t d e c la r e d t h a t a c la im c o u ld b e f i l e d a f t e r t h e s ix t y - d a y t i m e . l i m i t had e x p ir e d b u t was w it h in a y e a r ’ s t im e , w here t h e c la im was f o r a b o y , aged t h i r t e e n .

The r i g h t s a cco rd ed by law t o

i n f a n t s a r e n o t f o r f e i t e d b e c a u se a p a ren t, d id . n o t p erform f o r t h e in f a n t E v id e n c e .

A c e r t a i n p a r ty in New Y ork , s lip p e d and

in ju r e d h e r s e l f on t h e waxed e n tr a n c e way t o a s c h o o l, b u ild in g .

I t was a d m itte d t h a t th e u se o f wax on t h e f l o o r

d id n o t c o n s t i t u t e n e g lig e n t and im proper m ain ten a n ce*

For

t h i s r e a s o n , i t rem ained f o r th e p l a i n t i f f t o p ro v e t h a t t h e e x c e s s i v e a c c u m u la tio n o f wax a t th e p la c e o f t h e a c c id e n t was t h e r e s u l t o f n e g l i g e n t and unw orkm anlike a p p l i c a t i o n . In t h i s c a s e t h e c o u r t r u le d i n s u f f i c i e n t e v id e n c e .

165 Where a b o y , aged s i x , was in ju r e d , w h ile p la y in g on a s c h o o l g ro u n d , e v id e n c e had t o show n e g lig e n c e , o f, th e . s c h o o l b oard t o m a in ta in a c t io n and th e . r e s ip s a l o q u i t u r d o c t r in e was i n a p p l i c a b l e , t h a t i s , m ere p r o o f t h a t t h e a c c id e n t to o k p la c e was. n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o throw t h e burden o n .t h e s c h o o l b oard o f p r o v in g t h a t i t was n o t d u e .t o i t s n e g l i g e n c e . ^3 In a c a s e , t e s t i n g th e a u t h o r it y of. a s c h o o l board in M i s s i s s i p p i t o b r in g s u i t , e v id e n c e a c t u a lly .s h o w e d t h a t t h r e e t r u s t e e s met a t a s c h o o lh o u s e , .v o t e d t o b r in g s u i t , and made a w r i t t e n r e c o r d o f th e m e e tin g w h ich was s ig n e d by t h e o l d e s t t r u s t e e a n d .tu r n e d o v er t o th e s u p e r v is o r o f a l l n egro s c h o o ls i n . t h e c o u n ty , w hich was a l l t h a t .was r e q u ir e d by s t a t u t e *

E v id e n c e t o th e c o n tr a r y was i n s u f f i c i e n t * ^

K a th e r in e Murry tr ip p e d o v er a s to n e f e n c e fo u n d a tio n w h ich ex ten d ed f o u r and one h a l f in c h e s on t o t h e sid e w a lk * S h e su ed f o r m e d ic a l e x p e n s e s .a n d l o s s o f s e r v i c e s . . T here was no e v id e n c e o f n e g lig e n c e a g a in s t t h e board o f e d u c a tio n o f th e c i t y , and t h e c o u r t d is m is s e d t h e c a s e s a y in g t h a t

uz

t h e r e was i n s u f f i c i e n t e v id e n c e o f n e g lig e n c e f o r t h e j u r y . ' A g i r l , aged s i x , was k i l l e d when s t r u c k by a b us in t h e s c h o o l zon e t h i r t y m in u tes a f t e r s c h o o l had b een d i s ­ m issed *

E v id e n c e was e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e ju r y t h a t t h e d r iv e r

was e x c e e d in g t h e f i f t e e n m ile p e r hour sp ee d l i m i t , and th e a p p e lla n t was awarded, a # 6 ,5 0 0 judgm ent. ^

166 T r ia l.

A p u p i l , aged s e v e n , r e c e iv e d a s e v e r e l e g

in j u r y when sh e f e l l u n d er a s c h o o l bus a t t h e lo a d in g p o i n t . The d r iv e r was a p p r o a ch in g t h e p o in t a t ab out s i x t o t e n m ile s p e r h o u r , in t e n d in g t o s t o p t h r e e o r fo u r f e e t from th e head o f t h e l i n e o f c h ild r e n q u i e t l y form in g t h e r e .

He ob­

s e r v e d t h a t no a d u lt was in a t te n d a n c e , b u t h e had no i n ­ s t r u c t i o n s a s t o t h a t , and no d is o r d e r among th e c h ild r e n was a p p a r e n t.

A sudden s c u f f l e and a push s e n t th e l i t t l e

g i r l u n d er t h e bus b e f o r e t h e d r iv e r co u ld s t o p i t . A

ju r y

d e c id e d t h e r e was no e v id e n c e o f n e g lig e n c e on th e p a r t o f th e d r iv e r .

A damage s u i t a g a in s t him was d is m is s e d f o r no

c a u se o f a c t i o n .

I n i t s o p in io n , t h e c o u r t s t a t e d a g e n e r a l

c o n c e p t t h a t w ould p r o b a b ly b e co n cu rred w ith by m ost modern a d m in is t r a t o r s , and t h a t w a s, "A s t a t e w id e s c h o o l a c c id e n t in s u r a n c e sy stem i s th e humane, e f f e c t i v e and e c o n o m ic a l answ er t o problem s o f t h i s n a t u r e .w^7 A s c h o o l p la y g ro u n d was u sed by t h e c i t y p la y g ro u n d d ep artm en t a f t e r s c h o o l h o u r s .

A t r u c k was h a u lin g d i r t t o

f i l l i n lo w p la c e s on one s i d e o f t h e p laygrou n d and a k in d e r ­ g a r te n p u p il was in ju r e d by t h e t r u c k .

E v id e n c e showed t h a t

w a rn in g s o f danger had b e e n .s u f f i c i e n t , t h a t a p la y g ro u n d s u p e r v is o r was p r e s e n t on th e grounds a t th e tim e o f t h e a c c i d e n t , and t h a t he had c a l l e d t o t h e l i t t l e boy immedi­ a t e ly b e fo r e th e a c c id e n t.

S u it was b ro u g h t a g a in s t th e

tr u c k d r iv e r and t h e ow ner, t h e p la y g ro u n d s u p e r v is o r , t h e

16? s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , and th e c i t y .

The c o u r t h eld , t h a t t h e

e v id e n c e d id n o t su p p o rt n e g lig e n c e on t h e p a r t o f any o f t h e d e f e n d a n ts .

A c h ild o f le s s . t h a n .s ix y ea rs o f age i s

l e g a l l y c a p a b le o f c o n t r ib u t ory, n e g lig e n c e ,, and- c om p lete d is r e g a r d o f w a rn in g s in t h i s in s t a n c e c o n s t i t u t e d a d eq u a te d efen se.

A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t owns no p r o p e r t y , a l l

Summary.

s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s , su ch a s grounds., b u ild in g s ., eq u ip m en t, e t c . , b e in g in f a c t and la w t h e p r o p e r ty o f th e s t a t e and su b jec t to l e g i s l a t i v e w i l l .

( I l l i n o i s , p . 152)

The s c h o o l board h o ld s t i t l e sch ool d i s t r i c t .

(O h io , p . 152)

t o t h e p r o p e r ty o f a

(New J e r s e y , p . 152)

O fte n la n d i s g iv e n t o a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t by a p r iv a t e p a r ty w ith t h e p r o v is i o n t h a t when i t c e a s e s t o b e u sed f o r s c h o o l p u rp o ses i t s h a l l r e v e r t t o th e o r i g i n a l owner o r h i s h e ir s .

T h is has le d t o t h e q u e s tio n o f t h e p ro p er d is p o ­

s i t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l b u ild in g s on su ch la n d . d i f f e r e d s h a r p ly .

C ourts h ave

T h ere a r e t h o s e who s a y th e b u ild in g s

sh o u ld b e removed and sh o u ld rem ain t h e p r o p e r ty o f t h e sch ool d is t r ic t

(K en tu ck y, p . 154) ( I l l i n o i s , p . 1 5 5 ) , and

o th e r co u rts, co n ten d t h a t th e b u ild in g s m u st go w ith t h e r e ­ v e r te d la n d .

(New Y ork, p . 155)

(A r k a n sa s, p . 155)

A s c h o o l board h as a u t h o r it y t o l e a s e th e s c h o o l sta d iu m and i t s

fa c ilitie s

f o r t h e p u rp o se o f c o n d u c tin g

I6g m id g e t a u to r a c e s ,

(Oklahom a, p . 156)

I t may a l s o make

p r o f i t s from f o o t b a l l games by s e l l i n g b r o a d c a s tin g r i g h t s t o one s t a t i o n w h ile r e fu s in g - th e same, p r i v i l e g e t o o t h e r s ta tio n s .

(T e x a s, p . 156)

The s e l e c t i o n o f a s c h o o l s i t e

is p a r tic u la r ly fo r

t h e u n f e t t e r e d good f a i t h and judgment - o f th e . b oard s o f e d u c a t io n .

(K en tu ck y, p . 157)

(T e n n e s s e e , p . 157)

D e s p it e a w id esp re a d .p u b lic a v e r sio n .,- com m unists may l e g a l l y f u n c t io n a s a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y o r e n t i t y and s o a b oard o f e d u c a tio n may a llo w them t h e u s e o f a s c h o o l, b u i l d ­ in g .

(New Y ork, p . 158) S c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , as a g e n ts o f t h e s t a t e , a re immune

from l i a b i l i t y u n le s s l i a b i l i t y ( F l o r id a , p . 159)

i s p r o v id e d f o r b y s t a t u t e .

(W is c o n s in , p . 159)

The m ere f a c t t h a t a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t is .m a k in g money on an a c t i v i t y , su ch a s a f o o t b a l l game d o e s n o t in c r e a s e th e l i a b i l i t y fo r a c c id e n ts .

(M ich ig a n , p . 160)

(T e n n e s s e e ,

p . 160) Em ployees o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a r e l i a b l e f o r a c t s o f n e g lig e n c e .

(W is c o n s in , p . 160)

C o n tr ib u to r y n e g lig e n c e w i l l r e l i e v e a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t from l i a b i l i t y .

( C a l i f o r n i a , p . 162)

Y/hen s t a t u t e p r o v id e s, t h a t a c la im m ust b e f i l e d w it h in a c e r t a i n s p e c i f i e d t im e , t h i s m ust be done even th ou gh t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s in s u r e d a g a in s t l i a b i l i t y .

( C a l i f o r n i a , p . 163)

A p l a i n t i f f can n o t r e l y on h i s d i s ­

a b i l i t y t o e x c u s e h i s f a i l u r e to . s e r v e th e n o t i c e w it h in t h e p r e s c r ib e d tim e#

(Hew York., p# 163)

The r i g h t s a cco rd ed by la w t o in f a n t s , a r e .n o t f o r ­ f e i t e d b e c a u se a p a r e n t d id n o t p erform f o r . t h e in f a n t * (New Y ork, p . 1 6 4 ) The c o u r ts in New York handed-dow n n in e d e c i s i o n s in t h i s a r e a of. s c h o o l .l a w .

K entucky and C olorad o f o llo w e d

c l o s e l y w it h f i v e and fou r- e a s e s- r e s p e c t iv e ly #

As w ould b e

e x p e c t e d , m ost l i t i g a t i o n w a s „c e n te r e d on two s p e c i f i c q u e st i o n s , f i r s t , t h e t o r t l i a b i l i t y o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s and e m p lo y e e s, and s e c o n d , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n , u s e , and - d i s p o s i t i o n o f sc h o o l p ro p erty .

CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY AM). CONCLUSIONS As was in d ic a t e d in C hap ter I , t h e p u r p o s e .o f t h i s s tu d y was t o c o l l e c t , t o d i g e s t , and t o p r e s e n t a n a r r a t iv e summary o f d e c i s io n s o f t h e h ig h e r c o u r t s in a l l t h e s t a t e s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s o f A m erica, t h e D i s t r i c t o f C olum bia, and p o s s e s s io n s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , in c a s e s in v o lv in g s c h o o l la w , a s r e p o r te d d u rin g th e c a le n d a r y e a r s 1946 and 1949*

T h is was t o be done w ith s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s and p ur­

p o s e s i n m ind, nam ely:

t o d eterm in e, th e a r e a s o f s c h o o l law

i n w h ich l i t i g a t i o n i s m ost l i k e l y t o ap p ear and t h e s t a t e s in v o lv e d ; t o p la c e em p h asis on j u d i c i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a s th e y r e l a t e t o in c r e a s e d e f f i c i e n c y i n s c h o o l a d m in is t r a t io n and w here p o s s i b l e , t o i n d i c a t e tr e n d s in j u d i c i a l - i n t e r ­ p r e t a t io n s * S t a t i s t i c a l d a ta * r e p o r te d in t h i s s t u d y .

T h ere was a . t o t a l o f 309 c a s e s As. m ig h t b e e x p e c t e d , and in a g r e e ­

ment w it h p r e v io u s s t u d i e s , d is a g r e e m e n ts c o n c e r n in g d i s ­ t r i c t d e b t , s e c u r i t i e s , and t a x a t io n w ere b ro u g h t t o c o u r t more th a n any o th e r g e n e r a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .

T here w ere

e i g h t y - s e v e n su ch c a s e s r e p o r te d in C h ap ter VI i n c o n t r a s t t o o n ly t w e n t y - e ig h t c a s e s c o n c e r n in g t h e r i g h t s and d u t i e s o f p u p ils and p a r e n ts a s r e p o r te d in C hapter I I .

New York

l e d a l l t h e s t a t e s i n th e number o f c o u r t a c t io n s w ith

171 f o r t y - t h r e e c a s e s b e in g , record ed *.

This., i s l o g i c a l , in v ie w

o f New York* s trem endous p o p u la t io n * . However.,, i t i s i n t e r ­ e s t i n g t o n o te h e r e t h a t th e . v e r y h e a v i l y p o p u la te d , s t a t e ,o f C a lif o r n ia was r e p o r te d h a v in g only., f i v e c o u r t c a s e s in t h e two y e a r s w h ile c o n s id e r a b ly l e s s , p o p u la te d s t a t e s had. much more t r o u b le , a s f o r exam p le,. K entucky.,, w it h , e ig h t e e n e a s e s* C a l i f o r n i a has b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r i t s v o lu m in ou s E d u ca tio n Code*

C ould i t be t h a t i t h a s . k ep t C a lif o r n ia s c h o o ls away

from c o s t l y l i t i g a t i o n ?

The r e l a t i o n s h i p , b etw een t h e s i z e

o f t h e v a r io u s s t a t e E d u c a tio n .C o d e s and th e . number o f c o u r t c a s e s t h e r e i n m ay.b e a w o r th w h ile r e s e a r c h s t u d y . A n oth er i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t , t o n o te i s t h a t one s t a t e may b e p a r t i c u l a r l y a c t i v e in one a r e a o f s c h o o l law w h ile a n o th e r s t a t e i s h a v in g more th a n i t s s h a r e .o f - l i t i g a t i o n in a n o th e r a r e a •

To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s , New York c o u r ts handed

down tw e n t y - th r e e d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n in g t e a c h e r s and. n o t one s i n g l e d e c i s i o n c o n e e r n in g s c h o o l m on eys, w h ile c o u r ts in P e n n s y lv a n ia d e c id e d s i x t e e n c a s e s c o n c e r n in g s c h o o l money and o n ly f i v e i n t h e a r e a o f t e a c h e r s * r ig h t s .-

fiv e sta te s,

D e la w a r e , M arylan d ,. Id a h o , Wyoming, and Nevada r e p o r te d no cases. A c o n s id e r a b le number o f s t a t e s a r e s o h e a v i l y popu­ l a t e d , th ro w in g su c h a trem endous lo a d on t h e Supreme C o u r ts , t h a t lo w e r a p p e l l a t e c o u r t s h ave b e e n .e s t a b l i s h e d .

The d e ­

c i s i o n s o f t h e s e lo w e r a p p e lla t e c o u r ts, a r e r e p o r te d in t h i s

172 stu d y .

D e c is io n s o f th e lo w e r a p p e lla t e c o u r ts may he ap­

p e a le d t o t h e Supreme C ourt in .some i n s t a n c e s d e p e n d i n g upon t h e f a c t s o f th e c a s e . To name a few o f t h e s e lo w e r a p p e lla t e - c o u r ts :

New

York h as a Supreme C ourt f o r ea ch co u n ty in a d d it io n t o d i s ­ t r i c t a p p e l l a t e c o u r t s ; T exas has a C ourt o f C i v i l A p p e a ls; New J e r s e y has a Court o f E rro rs and A p p e a ls, a S u p e r io r C o u r t, and a Court o f C hancery; C o n n e c tic u t h as a Supreme C ourt o f E r r o r s ; L o u is ia n a , O h io , G e o r g ia , M is s o u r i, and K entucky h ave C ourts o f A p p eal; and I l l i n o i s and C a lif o r n ia have A p p e lla t e C o u r ts. R eview o f .j u d ic ia l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

To rep ro d u ce th e

d e c i s i o n s o f th e c o u r ts in t h e i r e n t i r e t y in t h i s c h a p te r would s e r v e no v a lu a b le p u r p o se .

They a r e d e a l t w ith r a t h e r

e x t e n s i v e l y a t th e ends o f t h e v a r io u s c h a p te r s .

H ow ever, a

b r i e f comment on th e m ost im p o rta n t c a s e s in th e s tu d y w i l l b e made. A tten d a n c e may be made com p ulsory w ith o u t reg a rd f o r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s u n le s s approved i n s t r u c t i o n i s p r o v id e d in some o t h e r w ay. Race s e g r e g a t io n in s c h o o ls .h a s . been u p h eld when au ­ t h o r i t y has b een g iv e n by s t a t u t e .

In t h e .a b s e n c e o f su ch

s t a t u t e , t h e s c h o o l board h as no su ch a u t h o r it y .

When r a c e s

a r e s e p a r a te d , e d u c a t io n a l b e n e f i t s m ust be e q u a l-b u t th e y

173 need n o t be i d e n t i c a l . V a c c in a t io n requirem en ts., have b een u n ifo r m ly u p h eld as c o n s t i t u t i o n a l . E d u c a tio n a l, p h ilo s o p h y i s l e f t t o t r a i n e d e d u c a t o r s , th at i s ,

c o u r t s w i l l n o t d e c i d e w hich c o u r s e t o t e a c h , what

books t o u s e , how t o p r o m o t e .p u p i l s , and w h e th er o r n o t t o u se rep ort ca rd s. T e a c h e r s may b e r e q u ir e d t o t a k e a m e n ta l a b i l i t y test. Membership i n t h e C om m unist-Party i s n o t i n i t s e l f s u f f i c i e n t r e a so n t o k eep one from t e a c h i n g i n . t h e p u b l i c ; / sc h o o ls.

y/fi

Membership i n any p e n s io n o r r e t ir e m e n t s y s te m o f a s t a t e s h a l l be a c o n tr a c tu a l r e la t io n s h ip ,, th e b e n e f it s o f w hich s h a l l n o t b e d im in is h e d o r im p a ir e d . A h ig h s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l . i s o n ly a s u p e r i o r s o r t o f a t e a c h e r and may b e demoted t o t h e rank o f h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h e r b u t t h i s d o e s n o t a u t h o r i z e t h e r e d u c t io n o f h i s s a l a r y . A p o s i t i o n may be a b o l i s h e d even though i t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s a ten ure te a c h e r . Boards o f e d u c a t io n have no in h e r e n t power b u t have o n ly su ch powers a s a r e g r a n te d b y s t a t u t e . County b o a rd s o f e d u c a t io n a r e g iv e n broad d i s c r e t i o n i n t h e s e l e c t i o n - o f s c h o o l s i t e s a n d .in . t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f sc h o o ls.

174 Q u e stio n s w h ich a r e d e c id e d by a m a j o r i t y v o t e o f t h e board r e q u ir e , o n ly a m a j o r i t y o f a quorum* T r u s t e e s o f a c o n s o l i d a t e d s c h o o l a r e n o t s u a b le f o r r e c o v e r y o f a m onetary-jud gm en t f o r su ch a c t s as. a r e p e r ­ formed i n good f a i t h . A member o f a board o f e d u c a t io n may n o t be d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y p e c u n ia r ily in t e r e s t e d in th e p roceed s o f a con tract or s e r v ic e . A member o f a co u n ty board o f e d u c a t io n .may be r e ­ moved from o f f i c e f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , in c lu d in g - " m is c o n d u c t i n o f f i c e , 11 m a lfe a s a n c e i n o f f i c e , n e g l e c t o f d u t y , and w i l ­ f u l o r n e g l i g e n t v i o l a t i o n o f any. o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f s t a t ­ u t e s d e a l i n g w it h t a x l e v i e s on r e a l and p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y . The c r e a t i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n , and r e g u l a t i o n o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a r e e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h i n th e p r o v in c e o f th e . s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e , l i m i t e d o n ly by t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and t h e S t a t e C o n s t i t u t i o n s . The s t a t e may t a k e t h e . s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s

of a d is tr ic t,

w it h o u t g i v i n g co m p en sa tio n t h e r e f o r , and v e s t , them i n o t h e r d i s t r i c t s o r a g e n c i e s , and t h e a r e a o f t h e d i s t r i c t may be c o n t r a c t e d or exp an d ed ,. may be d i v i d e d , m ay.be u n i t e d i n w h o le o r i n p a r t w it h a n o th e r d i s t r i c t , o r may be a b o l i s h e d . A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t i s n o t a s o v e r e i g n power o r a m unic­ i p a l co rp o r a tio n but r a th e r a q u a s i-c o r p o r a tio n . I n a b s e n c e o f s t a t u t e or a g r e e m e n t, ow nersh ip o f . .

175 s c h o o l p r o p e r t y i s l e f t where i t i s found a f t e r d i s t r i c t b o u n d a r ie s a r e a l t e r e d . Where a c i t y a n d , a p u b l i c s c h o o l c o r p o r a t i o n ,a r e c o ­ term in o u s ,and occupy t h e same t e r r i t o r y , b u t a r e . s e p a r a t e a n d . d i s t i n c t c o r p o r a te e n t i t i e s , each i s q u a l i f i e d t o in c u r s e p a r a t e in d e b t e d n e s s up t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e b t l i m i t . The r i g h t t o c r e a t e bonded i n d e b t e d n e s s i s .not an im­ p l i e d power b u t r a t h e r i s g r a n te d by s t a t u t e . Bonds i s s u e d f o r an u n a u th o r iz e d o r im proper u s e a r e v o id . The power t o t a x f o r s c h o o l p u rp oses, i s v e s t e d i n d i s ­ t r i c t s by s t a t u t e . A n yth in g t a x e d by th e s t a t e can n ot be t a x e d by t h e sch ool d i s t r i c t . U n la w fu l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f an ite m i n an in a p p r o p r i­ a t e fund i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r a t a x p a y e r t o r e c o v e r p e r s o n a l p r o p e r ty t a x e s p a id under p r o t e s t . A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t owns no p r o p e r t y , a l l s c h o o l f a c i l i ­ t i e s , su ch a s g r o u n d s , b u i l d i n g s , eq u ip m en t, e t c . , b e in g in f a c t and la w t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e . s t a t e and s u b j e c t t o l e g i s ­ la tiv e w ill. D e s p i t e a w id e sp r e a d p u b l i c a v e r s i o n , communists may l e g a l l y f u n c t i o n a s a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y o r e n t i t y and so a board o f e d u c a t io n may a l l o w them t h e u s e o f a s c h o o l b u i l d ­ in g .

176 S c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , a s a g e n t s o f t h e s t a t e , a r e . immune from l i a b i l i t y u n l e s s l i a b i l i t y i s p r o v id e d by s t a t u t e . Em ployees o f a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a r e l i a b l e f o r a c t s o f n e g lig e n c e . The r i g h t s a c c o r d e d by law t o i n f a n t s are. n o t f o r ­ f e i t e d b e c a u s e a p a r e n t d i d n o t perform f o r t h e . i n f a n t . T r e n d s.

No s i g n i f i c a n t tr e n d s, in j u d i c i a l i n t e r p r e ­

t a t i o n s w ere fo u n d .

T h is i s n o t t o sa y t h a t t h e r e a r e no

t r e n d s b u t r a t h e r an a d m is s io n t h a t a s tu d y o f t h i s k in d i s t o o a t o m i s t i c t o be a s a t i s f a c t o r y b a s i s f o r v a l i d c o n c lu ­ sio n s.

To d e te r m in e t r e n d s w o u ld n e c e s s i t a t e a th orou gh

s t u d y o f a narrow a r e a o f s c h o o l la w , n o t f o r t e n y e a r s , b u t f o r tw e n ty o r t h i r t y y e a r s , b e in g e s p e c i a l l y c o g n iz a n t o f ch an ges i n s t a t u t e s w hich, m ight h a v e .a b e a r in g on d e c i s i o n s .

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33

11.

Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C ity o f l a s Vegas v . Boarman, 199 P . (2d) 9 9 8 , New M exico . .

34

12.

13.

.

Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C ity o f M in n e a p o lis v . S a n d , 34 N.W. (2d) -689. M in n e so ta . . .

.

3 4 ,6 4

M i l l i c k e r v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 8 8 N .Y .S . (2d) 7 5 9 . New Y ork.......................

35

14.

McMaster v . Owens, 90 N . Y . S . (2d) 4 9 1 . New York.

35

15.

W einberger v . Board o f H ig h er E d u c a t io n , 80 N .Y .S . (2d) 507. New Y ork. ... . .

36

16.

17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

.

.

P r e n d e r g a s t v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f New Y ork, 80 N .Y .S . (2d) 7 3 9 . New York . Crawford v . S a d l e r , 34 S o . (2d) 3 8 . F lo r i d a . Haag v . Board o f E d u c a tio n , 84 N . E . (2d) 8 3 3. I l l i n o i s

.

.

.

.

.

.

3 6 ,6 5

.

36

.

B e te b e n n e r v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 84 N .E . (2d) 569. I l l i n o i s ........................ R a ls t o n v . D er ry Twp. S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 69 A . ( 2 d) 6 9 . P e n n s y lv a n ia . . .

.

37 3 7 ,4 3

.

.

38

.

38

S t a t e ex r e l F o s t e r v . M adison Twp. Board o f E d u c a t io n , 86 N . E . (2d) 598. Ohio . . .

22.

A rm istea d v . S t a t e , 41 S o . (2d) 8 7 9 . F l o r i d a .

24.

R edding v . F i n c e l , 2 2 4 S .W .(2d) 6 7 1 . K e n tu c k y . .

.

38 39

181 25.

F a i r o l o t h v . F o lm er, 40 S o . (2d) 6 7 9 . Alabama.

.

4 0 ,4 3

26.

W a le o tt v . F i s h e r , 83 N . Y . S . (2d) 536. New York •

4 0 ,4 3

27.

J o i n t C o n s o lid a te d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 2 v . J o h n so n , 203 P . (2d) 2 4 2 . K a n sa s. . .

28. 29. 30. 31.

P e o p le ex r e l R u ff v . S c h o o l D i r e c t o r s , 82 N .E . (2d) 2 0 3 . I l l i n o i s . . . . . .

.

. • 4 i,5 4 ’

.

.

4 1 ,4 3

K irby v . S t o k e s County Board o f E d u c a tio n , 55 S . E . (2d) 3 2 2 . N orth C a r o lin a . . . . .

.

42

D a v is v . M o s e le y , 55 S . E . (2d) 3 2 9 . N orth C a r o lin a .

4 2 ,6 7

S t a t e v . C a ld w e ll P a r is h S c h o o l B oard, 41 S o . (2d) 4 6 1 . L o u is i a n a . . . .

.

.

.

42

32.

F a i r e l d t h v . F o lm e r , 40 S o . (2d) 6 7 9 . Alabama.

.

4 0 ,4 3

33*

Korey v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f New Y ork, 88 N .Y .S . (2d) 1 6 0 . New Y ork.

.

43

34.

W a lc o tt v . F i s h e r , 83 N .Y .S . (2d) 536. New York .

4 0 ,4 3

35.

H ick ey v . C a rey , 86 N .Y .S . (2d) 8 1 3 . New York.

36.

S t a t e ex r e l S t e e l e v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f F a i r f i e l d , 40 S o . (2d) 6 8 9 . Alabama 3 3 ,4 3 ,4 5 ,6 9

37.

P e o p le ex r e R u ff v . S c h o o l D i r e c t o r s , 82 N . I . (2d) 2 0 3 . I l l i n o i s . . . . . . .

.

.

.

.

43

4 1 ,4 3

38.

B e te b e n n e r v . Board o f E d u c a tio n , 84 N .E . (2d) 5 6 9 . I l l i n o i s . .......................................... 3 7 ,4 3

39.

A ppeal o f H o u tz , 65 A . (2d) 4 2 0 . P e n n s y lv a n ia .

.

40.

A ppeal o f Dugan, 59 A . (2d) 888. P e n n s y lv a n ia .

2 9 ,3 0 ,4 4

41.

Green, v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 56 S . E . (2d) 1 0 0 . .West V i r g i n i a .

42. 43.

.

.

.

Gorodner v . Board o f E d u ca tio n o f th e C it y o f New Y ork, 78 N .Y .S . (2d) 8 3 8 . New York. .

.

44

44 .

45

S t a t e ex r e l S t e e l e v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f F a i r f i e l d , 4 0 S o . (2d) 6 8 9 . Alabama. 3 3 ,4 3 ,4 5 ,6 9

182 44. 45* 46.

47. 48.

S t a t e ex r e l P i p e r v . E a s t B a ton Rouge P a r i s h S c h o o l B oa rd , 36 So* ( 2 d) 80 4 . L o u is ia n a ..

45

W h it t in g t o n v . Barbour County Board o f E d u c a tio n , 36 S o . (2d) 83* Alabama. . . . . . .

45

Cary v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Lower M erio n , 66 A . (2d) 7 6 2 . P e n n s y lv a n ia . . . .

4$

.

P e o p le e x r e l Graves v . B a r b e r , 83 N .Y .S . (2d) 52 0 . New Y o r k .............................

46

Van Peursem v . C o n s o lid a te d In d e p e n d e n t-S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 36 N .W .(2d) 6 1 5 . Iow a. . . .

47

4 9 . Keenan v . San F r a n c is c o U n i f i e d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t ,

50. 51.

204 P . (2d) 4 0 4 . C a l i f o r n i a .............................

47

W erlock v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 6 8 A. (2d) 547. New J e r s e y ....................................

47

B a t e s v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 55 S . E . (2d) 7 7 7 . West V i r g i n i a .

47

.

.

.

52.

MeWithy v . H eart R iv e r S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 2 2 , 32 N.W. (2d) 8 8 6 . N orth D akota . . . .1 3 , 4 6 , 5 0

53.

V i e m e i s t e r v . Board o f E d u c a tio n , 6 8 A. (2d) 7 6 8 . New J e r s e y . .

54.

.

.

.

M cCartin v . S c h o o l Committee o f L o w e ll, 79 N .E . (2d) 1 9 2 . M a s s a c h u s e t ts . ...

. .

48 .

4 8 ,5 1

•

49

55.

S t a t e v . Edwards, 8 8 N .E . (2d) 7 6 3 . I n d ia n a

56.

Thompson v . W a l l i n , 93 N .Y .S . ( 2 d) 2 7 4 . NewYork

57.

MeWithy v . H ea rt R iv e r S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 2 2 , 32 N.W. (2d) 8 8 6 . N orth D akota ...... . . .1 3 , 4 8 , 5 0

58.

B i a l e c k v . C it y o f H a r t f o r d , 66 A . (2d) 6 1 0 . C o n n e c tic u t

59. 60. 61 .

.

Watt v . Town o f C h elm sfo rd , 84 N .E . (2d) 2 8 . M a s s a c h u s e t ts

.

. .

. .

.

• .

W illia m so n v . C a s s id y , 224 S .W .(2d) 935* Kentucky M cCartin v . S c h o o l Committee o f L o w e l l , 79 Nh.E . (2d) 1 9 2 . M a s s a c h u s e t ts . . .

.

50

50 51 51 4 8 ,5 1

183 62. 63. 64. 65.

S ch ran z v . Board o f E d u c a tio n , 211 S.W*(2d) 8 6 l . K entucky.

.

.

F ederbush v . Board o f E d u c a tio n , 70 A . (2d) 88. Hew J e r s e y . .....

.

.

.

.

51

.

.

.

51

L a P o lla v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y ..of New Y ork, 90 N .Y .S . (2d) 4 2 4 . Hew York . . . . .

52

P h i l l i p s v . Board o f E d u ca tio n o f C it y o f Hew York, 81 N .Y .S . (2d) 827. Hew York .

52

.

66.

Dushane v . K a zm ierczak , 79 N .Y .S . (2d) 2 9 3 . Hew York

53

67.

S t o r c h v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f New Y ork, 84 N .Y .S . (2d) 4 7 0 . New York . . . . .

53

68. 69. 70.

W a k e fie ld v . Board o f E d u ca tio n o f C it y o f New Y ork, 79 N .Y .S . (2d) 4 2 0 . New York ..

.

5 4 ,5 5

J o i n t C o n s o lid a t e d S c h o o l , D i s t r i c t N o . 2 v . J o h n so n , 203 P . (2d) 2 4 2 . Kansas . . .

.

4 1 ,5 4

Board o f C om m issioners o f .U n io n C it y v . Obion C ounty, 222 S .W .(2d) 7 . T e n n e s s e e ... . •

54

71.

W eiss v . L eon ard y, 36 S o . (2d) 1 8 4 . F l o r i d a .

55

72.

W a k e fie ld v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f New Y ork, 79 N .Y .S . (2d) 4 2 0 . New York .

.

Harman v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f New York, 82 N .Y .S . (2d) 1 5 7 . New York .

.

73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79.

•

P u llu m v . C o n s o lid a t e d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 5 , 211 S .W .(2d) 3 0 . M is s o u r i . . . . . . Freeman v . County S c h o o l , 82 F. Supp. 1 6 7 . V i r g i n i a

.............................

Woods v . R e i l l y , 2 18 S.W. (2d) 4 3 7 . Texas

.

5 4 ,5 5 55 5 5 ,1 1 6 2 1 ,5 5

.

57

G u b ler v . Utah S t a t e T e a c h e r s • R e tir e m e n t B oard, 192 P . (2d) 5S0. U ta h . . . . . . . .

57

Moore on b e h a l f o f New York R e tir e m e n t System v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 84 N . Y . S . (2d) 4 1 7 . New York

57

S t a t e ex r e l James v . R a p p o rt, 69 A . (2d) 6 4 5 . C o n n e c t ic u t .

.

.

.

.

.

57

184 80*

C arp en ter v . B u t l e r , 201 P . (2d) 704* W ashington*

$8

81.

Cashman v . T ea ch ers* R e tir e m e n t B oard, 84 N .Y .S . (2d) 1 4 2 . New Y o r k . .............................

58

82.

C larke v . I r e l a n d , 199 P . (2d) 9 6 5 . Montana .

58

83*

S ch w a rtzb erg v . T each ers* R e tir e m e n t Board o f C it y o f New Y o rk , 76 N .Y .S . (2d) 4 8 8 . New York

59

Beism an v . New York C it y Employees* R e tir e m e n t S y ste m , 81 N .Y .S . (2d) 3 7 3 . New York . . .

59

Payne v . Board o f T r u s t e e s o f t h e T each ers* R e tir e m e n t Fund, 35 N.W. (2d) 553. N orth D akota

60

B e e r v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f New Y ork, 83 N .Y .S . (2d) 4 8 5 . New Y o r k . .............................

60

Gray v . Wood, 6 4 A. (2d) 1 9 1 . Rhode I s l a n d

6l

84. 85.

86. 87.

.

.

CITATIONS TO CHAPTER IV 1.

B e l l v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 215 S.W. (2 d ) 1 0 0 7 . K en tu ck y ............................. 6 A ,1 1 5 ,1 4 4

2.

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Omaha v . Adams, 39 N.W. (2d) 5 50 . N ebraska . .

3. 4. 5.

F o s t e r v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 40 N.W. (2d) 3 1 0 . M ich ig a n

.

.

. .

. .

.

6 4 ,7 4 ,7 7

.

64

Board o f E d u c a t io n o f C it y o f M in n e a p o lis v . S a n d , 34 N .W .(2d) 6 8 9 . M in n eso ta . . . Lynn S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . S m i t h v i l l e S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 211 S .W .(2d) 6 4 1 . A r k a n sa s.

3 4 ,6 4

.

6 5 ,1 0 2

6.

P a ss v . P i c k e n s , 51 S . E . (2d) 4 0 5 . O e o rg ia

♦

1 4 , 6 5 ,8 5

7.

Bridgeham pton S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 2 v . S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , 36 N.W. (2d) 1 6 6 . M ich ig a n . . . .

.

6 5 ,1 0 2

P r e n d e r g a s t v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C i t y o f New Y ork , 80 N .Y .S . (2d) 7 3 9 . New York .

3 6 ,6 5

8. 9.

B e r g e v . H o l l i s t e r , 89 N .Y .S . (2d) 1 8 5 . New York

66

185 10.

S lo a n v . Hawkins, 86 N . E . (2d) 1 1 7 . I l l i n o i s . -

11.

Altman v . In d ep en d en t. S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 32 N.W. (2d) 3 9 2 . Io w a . . . . .

.

.

6 6 ,9 7

V ern er v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 47 S .E . (2d) 50 0 . G e o r g ia .

.

.

66

12. 13 • 14.

.

.

D i x i e D r iv e I t Y o u r se lf.. S y stem , v . L e w i s , 50 S . E . (2d) 843. G e o r g ia . . . . . D a v is v . M o s e le y , 55 S . E . (2d) 3 2 9 . N orth C a r o lin a . • • • • •

•

•

6 6 ,7 0 ,8 5

.

66

•

4 2 ,6 7

15.

W illia m s v . R a g s d a le , 53 S . E . (2 d ) 3 3 9 . G e o r g ia .

16.

W ilso n v . G ra v es County Board o f E d u c a t io n , 210 S.W. (2d) 3 5 0 . K entucky. . ^ 67* 1 1 2 ,1 4 5 ,1 5 3

17.

I n r e Board o f P u b lic . I n s t r u c t i o n o f A lach u a C oun ty, 35 S o . (2d) 579. F l o r i d a . . .

6 8 ,1 5 3

P e r r y County Board o f E d u c a tio n v . D e a to n , 223 S.W. (2d) 88 2. K entucky . .... . . .

6 8 ,1 5 7

18. 19.

W hite v . J e n k i n s , 209 S.W. (2d) 4 5 7 . A rk a n sa s.

20.

Kerm it In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . S t a t e , 2 0 8 S .W .(2d) 7 1 7 . T exas . . . . . .

21. 22.

23.

S t a t e ex r e l S t e e l e v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 40 S o . (2d) 6 8 9 . Alabama . .... . .

6 7 ,1 4 3

.1 3 , 6 8 , 8 4 6 8 ,9 7

3 3 ,4 3 ,4 5 ,6 9

Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C ic e r o - S t i c k n e y Township H igh S c h o o l v . C it y o f C h ic a g o , 83 N .E . (2d) 7 1 4 . I l l i n o i s ..............................

69

Lowland S c h o o l . D i s t r i c t No. 32 v . W oold rid ge S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 3 4 , 2 1 6 S .W .(2d) 5 4 5 . M is s o u r i . . . . .

70

24.

S lo a n v . Hawkins., 86 N .E . (2d). 1 1 7 . I l l i n o i s

6 6 ,7 0 ,8 5

25.

H u t t o n .v . G o o d s e l l , 84 N .Y .S . (2d) 7 3 4 . New. York

70

26.

C a r l i l e v . B r a d l e y , 2 2 3 S .W .(2 d ) 56 4. T e x a s .

71

27.

S o u th w e ste r n B r o a d c a s t in g Co. v . O i l C e n te r B road­ c a s t i n g . Co. , 2 1 0 . S .W .(2d). 2 3 0 . T exas ..... ♦ 7 1 , 8 6 ,1 5 6

186 28* 29.

Downing v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 61 A . (2d) 1 3 3 . P e n n s y lv a n i a .

.

.

T r u s t e e s o f S c h o o ls v . C l i p p i n g e r , 88 H.E. (2 4 ) 451* I l l i n o i s

.

V

.

7 1 ,1 1 5 ,1 4 4

„

.

72

30.

C ulpepper v . M oore, 40 S o . (2d) 3 6 6 . F l o r i d a .

72

31.

Commonwealth by Dammit- v . A tt o r n e y G e n e ra l M u l l i n s , 211 S .W .(2d) 133* K entucky •

73

32.

Commonwealth, v . C la r k , 225 S.W. (2 d ) 1 1 8 . K entucky

33.

Board o f E d u c a tio n o f M a rtin . v.. C a s s e l l , 220 S.W. (2d) 552. Kentucky . . .

.

7 4 ,8 0

34.

C raig v . B e l l , 4 6 S .E . (2d) 52. S o u t h .C a r o lin a --

35.

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Omaha v . Adams, 39 N.W. (2d) 550. .Nebraska. . .

36•

.

.

.

73

7 4 ,1 1 1

6 4 ,7 4 ,7 7

M u llin a x T r u s t e e s D * I b e r v i l l e C o n s o lid a te d S c h o o l , 38 S o . (2d) 9 3 . M i s s i s s i p p i . .

74

37.

S t a t e v . P o w e l l , 2 2 1 .S.W. (2d) 508. M i s s o u r i . .

75

38.

Board o f D i r e c t o r s o f Menlo S c h o o l v . B l a k e s l e y , 36 N .W .(2d) 7 5 1 . Iow a.

75

.

.

39.

Hernandez v . F r o h m i l l e r , 204 P « (2d) 85 4 . A r iz o n a .

76

40.

E s t e s v . J o n e s , 48 S . E . (2d) 9 9 . G e o rg ia .

.

76

41.

P h i l l i p s v . W est, 213 S .W .(2d) 3 . T e n n e s s e e .

?6

42.

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Omaha v . Adams, 39 N.W. (2 d ) 550. N ebraska . .

43. 44. 45* 46.

Dona th a n v . McMinn C ounty, 213 S .W .(2d) 1 7 3 . T e n n e s s e e .

.

. .

. .

B red eck v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f S t . L o u i s , 213 S .W .(2d) 8 8 9 . M is s o u r i

.

6 4 ,7 4 ,7 7

.

77 .

77

S m ith v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C i t y o f S t . L o u i s , 221 S .W .(2d) 2 0 3 . M i s s o u r i . . . . .

78

Wysong v . W alden, 52 S . E . (2d) 3 9 2 . West V i r g i n i a .

79

187 47.

A le x a n d e r v . R i t c h i e , $2 S .E . (2d) 7 3 5 . West V i r g i n i a . •

79

48.

Hunt v . A l l e n , 53 S . E . (2d) 509. West V i r g i n i a

80

49.

Board o f E d u c a tio n o f M a r tin v . C a s s e l l , 220 S .W .(2d) 552. K entucky .............................

7 4 ,8 0

CITATIONS TO CHAPTER V 1.

W a lla c e S c h o o l D i s t r i c t Mo. 1 v . County Board o f E d u c a t io n , 216 S .W .(2d) 7 9 ° . A rk a n sa s.. . 8 3 ,1 0 1

2.

Almond v . G ilm e r , 49 S . E . (2d) 4 3 1 . V i r g i n i a .

3.

S t a t e ex r e l B o t t c h e r v . B a r t l i n g , 3 1 M .W .(2d) 4 2 2 . N eb rask a. . .

4.

I n r e O p in io n o f t h e J u s t i c e s , 39 S o . (2d) 2 9 4 . Alabama .

.

.

. .

. .

8 3 ,1 1 6

.

83

.

83

5.

P e o p le v . D e a t h e r a g e , 81 N . E . (2d) 581. I l l i n o i s ..................................... 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 6 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 8 , 1 0 6 , 1 5 2

6.

W hite v . J e n k i n s , 209 S.W. (2d) 4 5 7 . A rk a n sa s.

7.

S t a t e ex r e l C hapel v . S t a t e Board o f E d u c a t io n , 198 P . (2d) 4 1 2 . Oklahoma . . . . . .

8.

B o u lt v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f P a s s a i c , 57 A. (2d) 1 2 . New J e r s e y . . . . . .

1 3 ,6 8 ,8 4 2 2 ,8 4 84

9.

S t a t e e x r e l S t r a n g e v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Nebraska C i t y , 33 N .W .(2d) 3 5 8 . N eb ra sk a . . . . 1 9 ,8 4

10.

Hammond Lumber Company v . Board o f S u p e r v i s o r s , 193 P . (2d) 50 3. C a l i f o r n i a . . . . . 8 5 , 9 2 ,1 0 6

11.

P e o p le v . D e a t h e r a g e , 81 N . E . (2d) 581. 8 4 ,8 5 ,8 6 ,9 1 ,9 2 ,9 8 ,1 0 6 ,1 5 2 I l l i n o i s ....................................

12.

P a ss v . P i c k e n s , 51 S .E . (2d) 4 0 5 . G e o r g ia .

•

1 4 ,6 5 ,8 5

13.

Regan v . S to d d a r d , 65 A . (2d) 2 4 0 . P e n n s y lv a n ia

2 5 ,8 5

14.

S lo a n v . H aw kins, 86 N . E . (2d) 1 1 7 . I l l i n o i s .

15.

A tk in s v . McAden, 51 S .E . (2d) 4 8 4 . N . C a r o l i n a 8 6 , 1 1 8 ,1 4 3

6 6 ,7 0 ,8 5

188 16. 17.

18. 19.

P e o p le ex r e l Funk v . H a g i s t , 82 N .E . (2d) 6 2 1 . I l l i n o i s .....................................

86

P e t i t i o n o f S c h o o l Board o f S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Borough o f McKees R o ck s, 62 A . (2d) 2 0 . P e n n s y lv a n ia . . . . .

8 6 ,1 5 3

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Borough o f F r e e p o r t v . Armstrong C ounty, 57 A. (2d) 6 9 2 . P e n n s y lv a n i a .

86

S t a t e ex r e l K oontz v . Board o f Park C o m m issio n ers, 47 S .E . (2d) 6 8 9 . West V i r g i n i a ................................

86

20.

P e o p le v . D e a t h e r a g e , 81 N . E . (2d) 581. I l l i n o i s ....................................... 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 6 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 8 , 1 0 6 , 1 5 2

21.

S o u th w e ste r n B r o a d c a s t in g Co. v . O i l C e n te r B road­ c a s t i n g Co. , 210 S.W. (2d) 2 3 0 . T exas • • 7 1 , 8 6 ,1 5 6

22.

B ald w in v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f F a rg o , 33 N .W .(2 d ) 4 7 3 . N orth D akota . . . .

24. 25.

P e o p le v . Community High S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 2 2 3 , 77 N . I . (2d) 1 5 4 . I l l i n o i s . . . . . . . R e g io n a l H igh S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 3 v . Town o f N ew ton, 59 A . (2d) 527. C o n n e c t ic u t . . .

26.

Rempel v* K ob s, 199 P . (2d) 1 9 4 . K an sa s.

27.

R o b e rts v . Caddo P a r i s h S c h o o l B oa rd , 34 S o . (2d) 9 1 6 . L o u is i a n a . . . .

.

L y e r ly v . M a n ila S c h o o l D i s t r i c t N o. 1 5 , 215 S .W .(2d) 7 7 3 . A rkansas . . .

.

28.

.

.

8 7 ,1 1 5 88 8 8 ,1 0 6

.

88 8 8 ,1 4 4

.

8 9 ,1 0 2

29.

D onlan v . S p a u ld in g , 93 N .Y .S . (2d) 2 1 3 . New York.

89

30.

Radford v . W ithrow, 81 N . E . (2d) 4 1 7 . I l l i n o i s .

89

31.

H e f f e r v . S p a u ld in g , 92 N .Y .S . (2d) 83. New York.

89

32.

B lu e v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f O a k la n .C o u n ty, . . . . . 36 N .W .(2 d ) 2 2 2 . M ic h ig a n .

89

33. 34.

Cook v . C o n s o lid a t e d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 38 N.W. (2 d ) 2 6 5 . Iowa . . . . .

.

.

F i n l e y v . S p a u ld in g , 81 N .Y .S . (2d) 89 0. New York.

9 0 ,9 5 90

189 35.

P e o p le v . D e a t h e r a g e , 81 N . E . (2d) 581. Illin o is. . . . . . 8 4 ,8 5 ,8 6 ,9 1 ,9 2 ,9 8 ,1 0 6 ,1 5 2

36.

W illia m s v . W h ite , 2 2 3 S .W .(2d) 2 7 8 . T e x a s .

.

91

37.

G entry v . Board o f S u p e r v i s o r s , 33 S o . (2d) 7 9 1 . M i s s i s s i p p i .............................

92

Board o f E d u c a tio n v . M e sch er, 2 2 0 S.W. (2d) 1 0 1 6 . K e n t u c k y .............................

9 2 ,1 0 6

38. 39.

Hammond Lumber Company v . Board o f S u p e r v i s o r s , 193 P . (2d) 5 03 . C a l i f o r n i a . . . . . . 8 5 ,9 2 ,1 0 6

40.

P e o p le v . D e a t h e r a g e , 81 N . E . (2d) 581. 8 4 ,8 5 ,8 6 ,9 1 ,9 2 ,9 8 ,1 0 6 ,1 5 2 I l l i n o i s ....................................

41.

Thomas v . S p r a g e n s , 213 S.W. (2d) 4 5 2 . K en tu ck y.

92

42.

C o n s o lid a te d E a g le Lake v . Columbus In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 219 S .W .(2d) 7 4 1 . T e x a s.

93

43.

44* 45. 46.

Hhea Common S c h o o l D i s t r i c t Wo. 3 v . B o v in a In dep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 5 , 214 S .W .(2d) 6 6 0 . T e x a s. . . . . . . S t a t e v . P r e te n d e d C o n s o lid a te d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 1 , 223 S .W .(2d) 4 8 4 , M i s s o u r i .

94

C ity o f New York v . P o r t e r , 80 N .Y .S . (2d) 6 6 7 . New Y ork................................................................................

94

A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Board o f E d u c a tio n , 93 N .Y .S . (2d) 4 9 2 . New Y o r k .............................

9 4 ,1 0 2

47.

S m ith v . Ray, 79 N .E. (2d) 1 1 6 . Ohio .

48.

George v . R a n d e l s , 207 P . (2d) 2 4 8 . Oklahoma

49.

9 3 ,9 7 ,9 9

.

Cook v . C o n s o lid a t e d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 38 N .W .(2d) 2 6 5 . Iowa . . . . .

.

.

. •

.

S tr o u d v . F r y a r , 225 S .W .(2d) 2 3 . A r k a n s a s.

52.

Horn v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t . N o . 2 3 , 2 1 1 S.W. (2d) 107* A r k a n s a s . ............................. Boyd v . B e l l , 203 P* (2d) 6 1 8 . A riz o n a

.

.

95

9 0 ,9 5

51.

53.

95

.

96 96

.9 6 ,1 0 4 ,1 2 0

190 54. 55.

Altm an v . In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 32 H,W.(.2d) 3 9 2 , I o w a . ....................................

6 6 ,9 7

Kerm it In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . S t a t e , 208 S.W. (2d) 7 1 7 . T e x a s ....................................

6 8 ,9 7

56.

R en fro v . G i v e n s , 42 S o . (2d) 7 3 4 . M i s s i s s i p p i .

57*

Rhea Common S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 3 v . B ov in a In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 5 , 214 S.W. ( 2 d) 6 6 0 . T e x a s ....................................

97

9 3 ,9 7 ,9 9

58*

P e o p le v . D e a t h e r a g e , 8 1 .N .E. (2d) 5 8 1 . .............................. 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 6 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 8 , 1 0 6 , 1 5 2 Illin o is .

59.

S t a t e e x i n f W alker ex r e l W agster v . C o n s o lid a te d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 2 1 7 S .W .( 2 d) 500. M i s s o u r i .

98

60.

Tondre v . H e n s l e y , 223 S.W. ( 2 d) 6 7 1 . T e x a s.

99

61.

Rhea Common S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 3 v . B ovin a In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 5 , 214 S.W. (2d) 6 6 0 . T e x a s .....................................

9 3 ,9 7 ,9 9

62.

Popnoe v . C o rb in , 215 S.W. (2d) 1 9 7 . T e x a s .

63.

G a r r e t t v . U n ity Common S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 211 S.W. (2d) 2 3 8 . T e x a s .....................................

100

West End R ural H igh S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . Columbus C o n s o lid a te d In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 211 S.W. (2d) 7 7 7 . T exas . .............................

100

H a le v . Hope S p e c i a l S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 1-A , 208 S .W .(2d) 4 3 1 . A rk an sas . . . . .

100

64.

65.

99

66.

W a lla c e S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 1 v . County Board o f E d u c a t io n , 216 S .W .(2d) 7 9 0 . A rkansas . 8 3 ,1 0 1

67.

C o n s o lid a te d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 8 v . H o ok s, 222 S.W. (2d) 3 5 5 . M i s s o u r i .............................

68.

69.

101

B ridgeham pton S c h b o l D i s t r i c t No. 2 v . S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , 36 N.W. (2d) 1 6 6 . M i c h i g a n .............................

6 5 ,1 0 2

L y e r ly v . M a n ila S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 1 5 , 215 S.W .$2d) 7 7 3 . A r k a n s a s ..............................

8 9 ,1 0 2

191 70.

A p p l i c a t i o n of- t h e Board o f E d u c a t io n , 93 N .Y .S* (2d) 4 9 2 . New York. . .

.

.

9 4 ,1 0 2

71.

Read v . S t e p h e n s , 193 P . (2d) 6 2 6 . Montana . ...

102

72.

Lynn S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 76 v . S m i t h v i l l e S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 3 1 , 2 2 1 S .W .(2d) 6 4 1 . A rk a n s a s. 6 5 ,1 0 2

73•

Gamble v . D u B o se, 54 S . E . (2d) 8 0 3 . S o u th C a r o lin a

74.

F l e t c h e r v . Board o f D u b lin I n s t r u c t i o n , 35 S o . (2d) 1 2 1 . F l o r i d a . . . . . .

103

1 0 3 ,1 2 4

75.

S p en ce v . S e l c k e , 88 N . E . (2d) 4 1 .

Illin o is.

103

76.

H e s k e t t v . McRee, 220 S .W .(2d) 4 2 2 . A rkansas

104

77.

Boyd v . B e l l , 203 P . (2d) 6 1 8 . A r iz o n a .

78.

London In d e p e n d en t S chool. D i s t r i c t v . Thomerson, 223 S.W. (2d) 3 1 4 . T exas . . . ... . .

104

P e o p le ex r e l B o y in g to n v . N orth f i e l d . Twp. H igh S c h o o l , 84 N .E .( 2 d ) 553. I l l i n o i s . . .

105

F a i r f i e l d In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . S tr e e tm a n In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 222 S.W. (2d) 6 5 1 . Texas . . . . .

105

79. 80.

81. 8 2.

.

. 9 6 ,1 0 4 ,1 2 0

.

H igginbotham v . Concho County S c h o o l T r u s t e e s , ............................. 220 S.W. (2d) 2 1 3 . Texas

105

P e o p le ex r e l Sandbach v . Weber, 86 N . E . (2d) 2 0 2 . I l l i n o i s .

105

.

.

.

.

83.

Hammond Lumber Company v . Board o f . S u p e r v i s o r s , 193 P . (2d) 50 3 . C a l i f o r n i a . . . . . 8 5 ,9 2 ,1 0 6

84.

P e o p le v . D ea th era g e., 81 N .E . (2d) 581. Illin o is. . . . . . 8 4 ,8 5 ,8 6 ,9 1 ,9 2 ,9 8 ,1 0 6 ,1 5 2

85.

Hammond Lumber.-Comp any v . Board o f S u p e r v is o r s , 193 P . (2d) 5 0 3 . C a l i f o r n i a . .. . . . 8 5 ,9 2 ,1 0 6

86.

Board o f E d u c a tio n v . M e sc h e r , 220 S.W. (2d) 1 0 1 6 . K entucky.............................

9 2 ,1 0 6

R e g io n a l H igh S c h o o l D i s t r i c t N o. 3 v . Town o f Newton, 59 A . (2d) 527* C o n n e c tic u t • •

8 8 ,1 0 6

87.

192 88.

89* 90.

Hydesburg Common S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . R e n s s e la e r Common S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 2 1 8 S.W. (2d) 883* M i s s o u r i ...............................................................................

107

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t Ho. 5 v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t Ho. 3 , 216 S.W. (2d) 8 8 2 . A rk a n sa s. ...... . • .

107

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 95 v . M arion County S c h o o l R e o r g a n iz a t io n Com m ittee, 208 P . (2d) 2 2 6 . K a n s a s ...............................................................................

107

«

CITATIONS TO CHAPTER VI 1.

C raig v . B e l l , 46 S . E . (2d) 52. S o u th C a r o lin a .

2.

W ilso n v . Graves County Board o f E d u c a tio n , 210 S .W .(2d) 3 5 0 . K entucky. . . ... 6 7 , 1 1 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 5 3

3.

Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C and ler County v . F r a n k l in , 4 8 S . E . (2d) 80 4 . O e o rg ia

4* 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

. .

.

7 4 ,1 1 1

112

O reen h alg h v . W oolw orth, 64 A. (2d) 659* P e n n s y l v a n i a ..........................................

113

Walker v . J o i n t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t Ho. 5, 39 N.W. (2d) 38 2 . W i s c o n s i n . .............................

113

Farrar- v . B r it o n In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 32 N.W. (2d) 6 2 7 . S o u th D ak o ta. . . . . .

114

E s s e r v . Community S c h o o l D i s t r i c t N o. 6 2 , 81 N . E . (2d) 2 7 0 . I l l i n o i s . . . . .

114

Morgan v . Board o f S u p e r v i s o r s , 192 P . (2d) 2 3 6 . A r iz o n a . .

.

.

. .1 1 4 ,1 2 6 ,1 4 5

B a ld w in v . B o a r d . o f E d u c a tio n o f F a r g o , 33 N .W .(2d) 4 7 3 . N orth D a k o ta. . . B e l l v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 215 S .W .(2d) 1 0 0 7 . Kentucky

.

.

.

.

.

. .

8 7 ,1 1 5

6 4 ,1 1 5 ,1 4 4

11.

Downing v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f C it y o f E r i e , 6 1 A . (2d) 1 3 3 . P e n n s y lv a n ia . . . . 7 1 ,1 1 5 ,1 4 4

12.

Van N e ss e t a l v . R in d le e t a l , 31 N .W .(2d) 1 6 8 . W is c o n s in .

.

.

.

.

.

1 3 ,1 1 6

193 13*

Almond v . G ilm e r , 49 S . E . (2d) 4 3 1 . V i r g i n i a

8 3 ,1 1 6

14.

P ullum v . C o n s o lid a t e d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 5, 211 S.W. (2d) 3 0 . M i s s o u r i . . . . .

5 5 ,1 1 6

15*

R e n t s c h l e r v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C i t y o f D e t r o i t , 37 N .W .(2d) 6 4 5 . M ic h ig a n . . 1 1 7 ,1 2 6 ,1 3 0

16.

R ic e C o n s o lid a t e d Common S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 13 v . C i t y o f T y l e r , 219 S .W .(2d) 558. T e x a s.

118

17*

M ilc e ll v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f P h i l a d e l p h i a , 58 A. (2d) 339* P e n n s y lv a n ia . . . .

118

» to H

A tk in s v . McAden, 51 S .E . (2d) 4 6 4 . N orth C a r o lin a . . . . .

19.

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . U n ite d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l Bank, 211 P . (2d) 7 2 3 . Oregon. . . . . . . .

20.

Dunn v . A l l e n , 215 S .W .(2d) 9 5 7 . K entucky.

.

21.

Boyd v . B e l l , 203 P . (2d) 6 1 8 . A riz o n a .

.

.9 6 ,1 0 4 ,1 2 0

22.

A s h c r a f t v . Board o f S u p e r v is o r s o f H inds C ounty, 36 S o . (2d) 82 0. M i s s i s s i p p i .

120

Board o f S u p e r v is o r s v . S t a t e , 38 S o . (2d) 3 1 4 . M i s s i s s i p p i .

.

.

.

120

Board o f S u p e r v is o r s v . C oth ran , 191 P . (2d) 5 06 . C a l i f o r n i a .

.

.

.

1 2 1 ,1 2 4 ,1 2 7

23. 24. 25.

. . .

Boney v . Board o f T r u s t e e s , 4 8 S . E . (2d) 5 6 . N orth C a r o lin a .

.

.

119 .

120

1 2 1 ,1 2 9 ,1 5 6

26.

N i c h o l s v . C a lh ou n , 3 7 S o . (2d) 3 1 3 . M i s s i s s i p p i .

121

27.

H i l l v . C it y o f P r o v id e n c e , 211 S .W .(2d) 846. Kentucky

122

28.

W aters v . Gunn, 218 S .W .(2d) 2 3 5 . Texas

29.

Amey v . P i t t s b u r g h S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 6 4 A. (2d) 1 . New Hampshire . .

.

123

30.

F l e t c h e r v . Board o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , 35 S o . (2d) 1 2 1 . F lo r i d a . . . . .

1 0 3 ,1 2 4

.

.

.

.

. .

123

194 31.

C ontra C osta County v . P a s s c h , 193 P . (2d) 4 8 2 . C a l i f o r n i a .

.

.

.

.

.

124

32.

Board o f S u p e r v is o r s v . C othran, 191 P. (2d) 5 06 . C a l i f o r n i a ................................1 2 1 ,1 2 4 ,1 2 ?

3 3.

Mason v . Moore County Board o f C o m m issio n ers, 51 S . E . (2d) 6 . N o rth C a r o lin a . . . . .

125

Howard v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 223 S .W .(2d) 7 2 1 . K entucky.

125

34. 35. 36. 3 7. 38. 39. 40.

.

.

.

.

.

S t a t e v . W h e e le r , 8? N . E . (2d) 2 4 7 . O hio.

.

.

R e n t s c h l e r v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f _ D e t r o i t , 37 N .W .(2d) 6 4 5 . M ich ig a n . . 1 1 7 ,1 2 6 ,1 3 0 Morgan v . Board o f S u p e r v i s o r s , 192 P . (2d) 2 3 6 . A r iz o n a

1 1 4 ,1 2 6 ,1 4 5 ^

H u n t s v i l l e In d ep en d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . McAdams, 221 S .W .(2d) 546. T e x a s. . .

.

Waldrop v . H od g es, 53 S . E . (2d) 26 3. N orth C a r o lin a . Board o f S u p e r v is o r s v . C oth ran , 191 P . (2d) 506. C a l i f o r n i a . .

.

.

. 1 2 1 ,1 2 4 ,1 2 ?

Gaud v . W alker, 53 S .E . (2d) 316. N orth C a r o lin a .

43.

P e o p le ex r e l N e ls o n v . J a ck so n -H ig h la n d B u i l d i n g C o r p ., 81 N . E . (2d) 578. I l l i n o i s . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t N o. 2 v* S a r u i s , 210 P . (2d) 8 2 8 . Kansas . . .

12? 1 2 7 ,1 4 5

42.

44.

126

.

.

.

.

128 1 2 8 ,1 2 9 128

45.

Hartman v . Columbia M a l le a b le C a s t in g s C o r p ., 63 A . (2d) 4 0 6 . P e n n s y lv a n ia . . ♦ . 1 2 9 ,1 3 2 ,1 4 1

46.

Boney v . Board o f T r u s t e e s , 4 8 S . E . (2d) 56. N orth C a r o lin a

47. 48.

.

.

.

1 2 1 ,1 2 9 ,1 5 6

P e o p le e x r e l N e ls o n v . J a ck so n -H ig h la n d B u i l d i n g C o r p ., 81 N .E . (2d) 578. I l l i n o i s - . Board o f C om m issioners o f Roads and R evenues o f Twiggs County v . Bond, 47 S . E . (2d) 511. G e o rg ia . . . . .

1 2 8 ,1 2 9

130

195 49*

P e o p le ex r e l W illa r d v . C hicago and N.W. Ry. Co. 83 N . I . (2d) 2 8 7 . I l l i n o i s .............................

130

50.

R e n t s c h l e r v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C it y o f D e t r o i t , 37 N .W .(2d) 6 4 5 . M ich ig a n . .1 1 7 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 0

5 1.

Commonwealth v . S c h u y k i l l , 62 A . (2d) 9 2 2 . P e n n s y lv a n i a .

52.

.

.

.

.

131

Lubbock In d e p e n d en t S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . Owens, 217 S.W. (2d) 1 8 6 . T e x a s ....................................

131

53.

Troy C o n feren ce Academy and Green M ountain J r . C o l l e g e v . Town o f P o u l t n e y , 66 A . (2d) 3 8 1 . V e r m o n t ............... 131

54.

D ic k in s o n v . P o r t e r , 35 N .W .(2d)

55.

Hartman v . Columbia M a l l e a b l e C a s t in g s C o r p ., 63 A. (2d) 4 0 6 . P e n n s y lv a n i a . . . . . 1 2 9 , 1 3 2 ,1 4 1

56.

I n r e Thaw’ s E s t a t e , 63 A . (2d) 4 1 7 . P e n n s y lv a n ia

132

57.

A .E . D ic k C o n t r a c t in g Company v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 65 A . (2d) 3 8 1 . P e n n s y lv a n i a . . . . .

133

A pp eal o f C e r t a in T a xp a yers o f Dunkard Township, Greene C oun ty, 60 A . (2d) 3 9. P e n n s y lv a n ia

133

A ppeal o f J o n e s and L a u g h lin S t e e l C o r p o r a tio n , 67 A . (2d) 3 7 8 . P e n n s y lv a n ia

134

A pp eal o f S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Hampton T ow nship, 67 A . (2d) 3 7 6 . P e n n s y lv a n i a . . . . .

134

I n r e Lawrence Township S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 1947 T a x e s , 6 7 A. (2d) 3 7 2 . P e n n s y lv a n ia . .

134

Jam ison C oal and Coke Company v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 66 A. (2d) 7 5 9 . P e n n s y lv a n i a . . . . .

134

A pp eal o f J o n e s and L a u g h lin S t e e l C o r p o r a tio n , 67 A . (2d) 3 7 8 . P e n n s y lv a n ia . . . . .

134

F r a i l e y Township S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . S c h u y k i l l M ining Company, 6 4 A . (2d) 7 8 8 . P e n n s y lv a n ia

134

58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

6 6 . Iowa

.

132

S c h o o l D i s t r i c t v . Board o f R e v is io n - a n d A sse ssm e n t o f T a x e s , 58 A. (2d) 2 6 . P e n n s y lv a n i a . . 135

196 66.

67* 68.

P e o p le ex r e l P r in d a b le v . Hew York C e n t r a l R a ilr o a d C o . , 81 N . E . (2d) 2 0 1 . I l l i n o i s .

1 3 5 ,1 3 9

G reat N o rth e rn R ailw ay Company v* M u stad , County A u d it o r , 33 N.W. (2d) 4 3 6 . N orth D akota

135

P eop le, ex r e l W illia m s v . Wabahh R a ilr o a d Company, 85 N . E . (2d) 14* I l l i n o i s . .

135

.

69* B e l l v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 214 S .W .( 2 d) 834* T e x a s . 70.

G len A ld en C oal Company v . Thomas e t a l , 6 7 A. (2d) 7 5 4 . P e n n s y lv a n ia . .- . .

.

136

.

136

71*

Morgan v . G len A lden C oal Company, 67 A. (2d) 7 5 6 . P e n n s y lv a n i a .............................................. 1 3 7

72.

S t a d i s h P ip e L in e Company v . Okmulgee C oun ty, 203 P . (2d) 8 8 7 . Oklahoma...........................................

73* 74. 75* 76.

77.

B arry v . P h o e n ix U n io n H igh S c h o o l , 197 P . (2d) 533* A r iz o n a . . . .

.

.

137

.1 3 7 ,1 5 *

McAdams v . Ne S m it h , 4 0 S o . (2d) 84. Alabama.

•

138

Zeek v . Union S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 5 , 2 1 1 P . ( 2 d) 7 4 0 . O r e g o n .............................................

138

Sims v . Hazen S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 2 , 221 S.W. (2d) 4 0 1 . A r k a n s a s .....................................

138

J a r r e l l v . Board o f E d u c a tio n , 50 S . E . ( 2 d) 4 4 2 . West V i r g i n i a .

.

.

.

.

1 3 9 ,1 4 6

78.

P e o p le ex r e l L a u t h .v . W ilm in gton C oal Company, 83 N . E . (2d) 7 4 1 . I l l i n o i s . . . . . . . 1 3 9 ,1 4 1

79.

P e o p le ex r e l P r in d a b le v . New York C e n tr a l R a ilr o a d C o . , 81 N . E . (2d) 2 0 1 . I l l i n o i s .

. 1 3 5 ,1 3 9

80.

O p in ion o f t h e J u s t i c e s , 36 S o . (2d) 4 9 9 . Alabama.

140

81.

C e n tr a l I l l i n o i s P u b l i c S e r v i c e Co. v . L a w l e s s , 82 N . E . (2d) 4 6 7 . I l l i n o i s . . . . . .

140

S o u th e r n R a ilr o a d Company v . Hamblen C ounty, 222 S .W .(2d) 9 . T e n n e s s e e . . . . .

14G

82.

.

83.

P e o p le ex r e l Lauth v . W ilm in g to n ,G o a l Company, 83 N . E . (2d) 7 4 1 . I l l i n o i s . . . . . 1 3 9 ,1 4 1

84.

Hartman v . Columbia M a l le a b le C a s t in g s - C o r p o r a t io n , 63 A . (2d) 4 0 6 . P e n n s y lv a n ia . . . . . .1 2 9 , 1 3 2 , 1 4 1

85.

S t a t e v . C i t y o f S a n .A n to n io , 209 S.W. (2d) 7 5 6 . T e x a s ....................................

141

86.

Amaimo v . C a r t e r , 212 S .W .(2d) 9 5 0 . T exas

•

142

87.

W all v . M and R Sheep Company, 205 P . (2d) 1 4 . C a l i f o r n i a .

.

142

88. 89. 90. 91. 92.

93.

.

.

.

B o a r d .o f E d u c a tio n v . Gray, 47 S . E . (2d) 508. G e o r g i a . .............................

143

W illia m s v . R a g s d a le , 53 S . E . (2d) 3 3 9 . G e o rg ia

6 7 ,1 4 3

A tk in s v . McAden, 51 S .E . (2d) 4 8 4 , N orth C a r o lin a .......................................................... 8 6 ,1 1 8 ,1 4 3 S c h o o l Board o f Town o f N orton v . S c h o o l Board o f W ise C o u n ty, 52 S .E . ( 2d) 1 2 2 . V i r g i n i a

144

S t . L o u is San F r a n c is c o R a ilr o a d Company v . T illm a n County E x c is e .B o a r d , 208 P . (2d) 576. Oklahoma....................................

1 8 ,1 4 4

Downing v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f C it y o f E r i e , 6 l A . (2d) 1 3 3 . P e n n s y l v a n i a . . . . . 7 1 ,1 1 5 ,1 4 4

94.

Murry v . H a r r i s , 208 S .W .(2d) 6 2 6 . T e x a s .

•

144

95.

R o b e rts v . Caddo P a r i s h S c h o o l B oa rd , 34 S o . (2d) 9 1 6 . L o u is ia n a .... . .

•

.

8 8 ,1 4 4

B e l l v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 215 S.W. (2d) 1 0 0 7 . K en tu ck y.

. . . . 6 4 ,1 1 5 ,1 4 4

96.

.

.

97.

J u s t i c e v . C lem en s, 215 S .W .(2d) 9 2 2 . K entucky

1 4 5 ,1 5 7

98.

W ilso n v . G raves County Board o f E d u c a tio n , 2 1 0 S .W .(2d) 3 5 0 . K en tu ck y. . ... 6 7 ,1 1 2 , 1 4 5 ,1 5 3

9 9.

K irk v . H arjo C o n s o lid a te d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t - N o . 1 9 6 P . (2d) 8 4 5 . Oklahoma. . ... . . . . .

5, 145

i9 a 100. 101. 102. 103* 104.

Morgan v . Board o f S u p e r v i s o r s , 192 P . (2d) 2 3 6 . A r i z o n a . . .

.

.

.1 1 4 ,1 2 6 ,1 4 5

W a ld ro p .v . H od ges, 53 S . E . (2d) 2 o 3 . N o rth C a r o lin a .

..

1 2 7 ,1 4 5

J a r r e l l s . Board o f E d u c a tio n , 50 S .E . (2d) 4 4 2 . West V i r g i n i a .

.

1 3 9 ,1 4 6

B aker v . M ilam,

.

2 0 7 . S*W. (2d) 1 0 1 4 . •

B a r r e l v . Winn JP arish S c h o o l B oard , 39 S o . (2d) 743• L o u is i a n a .. . .

. .

.

146

.

146

105.

O rlean s P a r i s h S c h o o l Board v . L o u is ia n a S t a t e Board o f E d u c a t io n , 41 S o . (2d) 509* L o u i s i a n a . 147

106.

P e o p le v . C ooper, 89 N . E . (2d) 4 0 . I l l i n o i s .

147

107*

S t a t e v . Ohion C ounty, 221 S .W .(2d) 705* T e n n e s s e e

147

.

.

.

.

CITATIONS TO CHAPTER V II 1.

P e o p le v . B e a t h e r a g e , 81 N . E . (2d) 581. I l l i n o i s .................................... 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 6 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 8 , 1 0 6 , 1 5 2

2.

S t a t e v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C le v e la n d , 88 N .E . (2d) 8 0 8 . Ohio . . . . .

3.

Board o f E d u c a tio n o f B ern ars Township v . B o a r d - o f E d u c a tio n - of. B e r n a r d s v i l l e , 59 A. (2d) 8 6 4 . New J e r s e y . ... . .

.

.

152

.

152

4.

C u lv er v . M i e a r s , 220 S.W. (2d) 2 0 0 . Texas .

.

153

5.

P e t i t i o n o f S c h o o l Board o f S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f McKees R o c k s , 62 A . (2d) 2 0 . P e n n s y lv a n ia ..

8 6 ,1 5 3

6.

7. 8.

A z b i l l e t a l v . L e x in g to n . M a n u fa ctu rin g Company, I n c . , 2 2 1 S.W. (2d) 5 2 2 . T e n n e s s e e . I n re Board o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n o f A lach u a C ounty, 35 S o . (2d) 579* F l o r i d a . .. .

.

153 6 8 ,1 5 3

W ils o n v . G raves County Board o f E d u c a tio n , 210 S.W. (2d) 3 5 0 . K entucky. . . 6 7 , 1 1 2 , 1 4 5 ,1 5 3

199 C o f f e l t v . D e c a tu r S c h o o l D i s t r i c t Wo. 1 7 , 2 0 8 S.W. (2d) 1 . A rk a n sa s. . . ... . .

.

154

.

V anndale S p e c i a l S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 6 v . F e l t n e r , 220 S .W .(2d) 1 3 1 . A rkansas . .

..

154

11

.

James v . G u lf R e f i n i n g Company, 41 S o . (2d) 2 . M i s s i s s i p p i .....................................

154

12.

C o le v . S h o c k le y , 21? S.W. (2d) 6 4 9 . Kentucky

.

154

13.

lo w v . B la k e n e y , 85 N . E . (2d) 7 4 1 . I l l i n o i s . . . . .

155

14.

Brown v . T r u s t e e s o f S ch o o ls, o f Twp. No. 5 , 85 N .E . (2d) 7 4 7 . I l l i n o i s , ... ... .... . .

155

15.

T a y lo r v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 45 o f S e a r c y C oun ty, 216 S.W. (2d) 7 8 9 . A r k a n s a s ...................................

155

H a sk in s v . K e l l y , 7 8 N .Y .S . (2d) 9 1 2 . New York .

155

9. 10

.

16

.

17.

l y k i n s v . W olfe County Board o f E d u c a t io n , 209 S.W. (2d) 7 1 7 . Kentucky . . . .

.

18.

Boney v . Board o f T r u s t e e s o f K in g s t o n , 4 8 S .E . (2d) 56. N o rth C a r o lin a . . ..

.1 2 1 ,1 2 9 ,1 5 6

S m i l i e v . T a f t S ta d iu m Board, o f C o n t r o l, 205 P . (2d) 3 0 1 . Oklahoma. . . . .

.

19. 20

.

21 . 22

.

.

155

156

S o u th w e s te r n B r o a d c a s t in g Company v . O i l C en te r B r o a d c a s t in g Company, 210 S .W .(2d) 2 3 0 . Texas . . .......................................................................7 1 , 8 6 , 1 5 6 F e r r y County Board o f E d u c a tio n y .D e a to n , 223 S.W. (2d) 8 8 2 . K e n t u c k y .............................

. J u stice

6 8 ,1 5 7

v . C lem en s, 215 S.W. (2d) 992. K entucky. 1 4 5 ,1 5 7

23.

Bandy v . S t a t e , 207 S.W. (2d) 1 0 1 1 . T e n n e s s e e

.

157

24.

S t a n t o n v . Board New Y ork , 76

.

158

25.

S c h o o l Committee o f G l o u c e s t e r v . C it y o f G l o u c e s t e r , 85 N . E . (2d) 4 2 9 . M a s s a c h u s e t t s .

26

.

o f E d u c a tio n o f C ity o f N .Y .S . (2d) 559. New York

.

158

B a r ry v . P h o e n ix U nion High S c h o o l , 197 P. (2d) 533. A r i z o n a ...............................................1 3 7 ,1 5 8

200

27. 28. 29.

Bragg v . Board o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , 36 S o . (2d) 2 2 2 . F l o r i d a . . . •

.

.

159

K i r c h o f f v . G ity o f J a n e s v i l l e , 38 N.W. (2d) 6 9 8 . W is c o n s in .............................

X59

Watson v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Bay G i t y , 36 N.W. (2d) 1 9 5 . M ich ig a n . . . .

160

.

30.

Reed v . Rhea C ounty, 225 S .W .(2d) 4 9 . T e n n e s s e e .

160

31.

Lemple. v. Cummings-, 34 N.W. (2d) 673* W is c o n s in .

160

32.

Ohman v . Board o f E d u c a tio n o f C i t y o f New Y ork, 8 8 N .Y .S . (2d) 2 7 3 . New York . . . .

l 6l

W h i t f i e l d v . E a s t B a to n Rouge, 43 S o . ( 2 d ) . 47* L o u is ia n a .

l 6l

33. 34.

.

.

.

.

B r i s c o e v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t No. 1 2 3 , 2 0 1 P . (2d) 6 9 7 . W ash in g to n .............................

162

35.

Andre v . A l l y n n , 190 P . ( 2 d) 9 4 9 . C a l i f o r n i a

162

36.

Novack v . Los A n g e le s S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Los A n g e le s C ounty, 206 P . (2d) 4 0 3 . C a l i f o r n i a . . 1 6 3 ,1 6 5

37.

S ch oen v . Board o f E d u c a tio n , 87 N .Y .S . (2d) 589. New York

38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

.

.

.

.

163

Brown v . S e q u o ia U nion High S c h o o l , 201 P . (2d) 6 6 . C a l i f o r n i a . . .

.

.

163

R u s s e l v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 80 N .Y .S . (2d) 6 3 4 . New York

.

.

.

163

F e r r i s v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 92 N .Y .S . (2d) 8 8 4 . New York

.

. .

..

.

I 64

Young v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 79 N .Y .S . (2d) 2 0 6 . New York

.

.

.

.

164

A hl v . Board o f E d u c a t io n , 84 N .Y .S . (2d) 6 9 3 . New York

.

.

.

.

164

43.

Novack v . Los A n g e le s S c h o o l D i s t r i c t o f Los A n g e le s C ounty, 206 P . (2d) 4 0 3 . C a l i f o r n i a . . 1 6 3 ,1 6 5

44.

K e l l y v . W ils o n , 36 S o . (2d) 817 . M i s s i s s i p p i -

165

201

45. 46.

Murry v . G it y o f New Y ork, 92 N . Y . S . (2d) 5 39 . New Y ork.

.

.

.

.

165

G ity T r a n s p o r t a t io n C o r p o r a tio n v . S e c k l e r , 225 S .W .(2d) 2 8 8 . T e n n e s s e e . . . . . .

165

47.

Kawaguchi v . B e n n e t t , 189 P . (2d) 1 0 9 . U tah .

166

48.

S m ith v . H a rg er,- 191 P . (2d) 2 5 . C a l i f o r n i a .

167

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