Quantitative Aspects of Bronze Age Metalwork in Western Poland: Long-distance Exchange and Social Organization 9780860544050, 9781407345871

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
PRECIS OF THE WORK
5TRESZCZENIE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
II. CHRONOLOGICAL AND TERRITORIAL SCOPE
III. METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
IV. DESCRIPTION OF METAL DISTRIBUTION TRENDS
V. ECONOMIC INTERPRETATION OF METAL DISTRIBUTION
VI. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR SOCIAL INTERPRETATION
VII. SOCIAL INTERPRETATION
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

· Quantitative Aspects of· Bronze Age Metalwork in Western Poland Long-distance Exchange and Social Organization

T omasz P. Stt;pniak

BAR International Series 317 -1986

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -SJ17, 1986: 'Quantitative Aspects of Bronze Age Metalwork in Western Poland'

©

Tomasz P. ·St�pniak, 1986

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544050 paperback ISBN 9781407345871 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544050 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

r odz icom mo i rn Z of i i iT adeuszow i p ogw tecam

C ONTENTS

p age L IST O F F IGURES L IST OF TABLES P RECIS OF T HE W ORK S TRESZCZENIE C hapter I .

G eneral I ntroduction .

1

C hapter I I.

C hronological a nd T erritorial S cope.

3

C hapter I II.

M ethodological B ackground .

5

C hapter I V.

D escribtion o f M etal D istribution T rends.

2 4

C hapter V .

E conomic I nterpretation o f M etal D istribution .

3 3

C hapter V I.

M ethodological F ramework f or S ocial I nterpretation .

5 0

C hapter V II,

S ocial I nterpretation .

6 2

C hapter V III.

C onclusions.

7 4

B ibliography. F igures. T ables.

L IST O F F IGURES

F ig .I.

S ources o f c opper,tin ,gold ,and a mber i n E urope.

F ig .II.

W estern P oland : s tudy .

F ig .III.

T he m ountain p asses o f P oland .

F ig .IVa .

T entative a mber r outes f rom 1 600 B .C.

F ig .IVb.

D istribution o f a mber f inds f rom p eriods 1 a nd 2 .

F ig .V .

D istribution o f m etal i n p eriod 1 ;

t he Unetice c ulture.

F ig .VI.

D istribution o f m etal i n p eriod 2 ; c ulture.

t he P rzedluzycka

F ig .VII.

D istribution o f m etal i n p eriod 3 ;

t he L uzycka c ulture.

F ig .VIII.

D istribution o f m etal i n p eriod 4 ;

t he L uzycka c ulture.

F ig .IX .

D istribution o f m etal i n p eriod 5 ;

t he L uzycka c ulture.

F ig .X .

C opper f inds f rom t he N eolithic.

F ig .XI.

D istribution o f B ohemian p ins f rom p eriod 1 .

F ig .XII.

D istribution o f l oop-ended n eck r ings f rom p eriod 1 .

F ig .XIII.

D istribution o f H ungarian i mports f rom p eriod 2 .

F ig .XIV .

D istribution o f H ungarian i mports f rom p eriod 4 .

F ig .XV .

D istribution o f k nives f rom p eriod 4 .

F ig .XVI.

M etal f inds f rom p eriod 3 .

F ig .XVII.

M etal f inds f rom p eriod 4 .

F ig .XVIII.

M etal f inds f rom p eriod 5 .

F ig .XIX .

D istribution o f N ortycken b attle-axes f rom p eriod 3 .

F ig .XX .

F ortified s ettlements f rom p eriod H allstatt C a nd D .

F ig .XXI.

S oil t ypes i n t he s outhern a nd n orthern z ones.

F ig .XXII.

r ivers a nd r egions i n t he a rea u nder

t o 1 100 B .C..

C hronological f luctuations i n t he t otal a mount o f m etal b y t he w eight-scores.

F ig .XXIII.

C hronological f luctuations i n t he t otal n umber o f c emeteries.

F ig .XXIV .

C hronological f luctuations i n t he a mount o f m etal by w eight-scores d eposited i n t he e ntire a rea .

F ig .XXV .

T he Unetice c ulture-period 1 : d eposited i n h oards.

z onal d istribution o f m etal

F ig .XXVI.

T he Unetice c ulture-period 1 : d eposited i n g raves.

z onal d istribution o f m etal

F ig .XXVII.

T he Unetice c ulture-period 1 : i solated f inds.

z onal d istribution o f m etal

F ig .XXVIII.

T he Unetice c ulture-period 1 : i n t he f orm o f o rnaments.

z onal d istribution o f m etal

F ig .XXIX .

T he Unetice c ulture-period 1 : i n t he f orm o f t ools.

z onal d istribution o f m etal

F ig .XXX .

T he Unetice c ulture-period 1 : i n t he f orm o f w eapons.

z onal d istribution o f m etal

F ig .XXXI.

T he Unetice c ulture-period 1 : t otal a mount o f m etal.

z onal d istribution o f t he

F ig .XXXII.

T he P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 : m etal d eposited i n g raves.

z onal d istribution o f

F ig .XXXIII.

T he P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 : m etal d eposited i n h oards.

z onal d istribution o f

F ig .XXXIV .

T he P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 : m etal i solated f inds.

z onal d istribution o f

F ig .XXXV.

T he P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 : m etal i n t he f orm o f o rnaments.

z onal d istribution o f

F ig .XXXVI.

T he P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 : orm o f t ools. m etal i n t he f

z onal d istribution o f

F ig .XXXVII.

T he P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 : m etal i n t he f orm o f w eapons.

z onal d istribution o f

F ig .XXXVIII.

T he P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 : t he t otal a mount o f m etal.

z onal d istribution o f

F ig .XXXIX .

T he Unetice c ulture-period 1 :

p roportions by t he

w eight-scores o f m etal i n t he f orm o f o rnaments, t ools, a nd w eapons w ithin t he c oncentric z ones c entered o n t he M oravian G ate.

L IST O F T ABLES

T able.I.

C hronological s ystems a nd c ultures o f t he B ronze A ge: c orrelation t able.

T able.II.

T he s coring s ystem .

T able.IIIa .

D ata e mployed i n t he q uantitative a nalysis; c ulture-period 1 .

t he U netice

T able.IIIb.

D ata e mployed i n t he q uantitative a nalysis; P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 .

t he

T able.IIIc.

D ata e mployed i n t he q uantitative a nalysis; t he L uzycka c ulture-period 3 .

T able.IIId .

D ata e mployed i n t he q uantitative a nalysis; c ulture-period 4 .

t he L uzycka

T able.IIIe.

D ata e mployed i n t he q uantitative a nalysis; c ulture-period 5 .

t he L uzycka

T able.IVa .

C orrelation c oefficients;

t he U netice c ulture-period 1 .

T able.IVb.

C orrelation c oefficients;

t he P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 .

T able.IVc.

oefficients; C orrelation c

t he L uzycka c ulture-period 3 .

T able.IVd .

C orrelation c oefficients;

uzycka c ulture-period 4 . t he L

T able.IVe.

oefficients; C orrelation c

t he L uzycka c ulture-period 5 .

T able.Va . i )

i i)

T he Unetice c ulture-period 1 : z ero-order c orrelation c oefficient b etween v arious f orms o f m etal m easured b y t he w eight-scores a nd b y i ndividual i tems ( "quanta"); z ero-order c orrelation c oefficient b etween v arious f orms o f m etal m easured b y t he w eight-scores a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries

T able.Vb.

T he P rzedluzycka c ulture-period 2 : z ero-order c orrelation c oefficient b etween v arious f orms o f m etal m easured b y t he w eight-scores a nd b y i ndividual i tems

T able.VI.

i n a r egion .

( "quanta").

C hanges

i n t he t otal a mount o f m etal r elative t o t he

p receding p eriod .

T able.VIIa .

P rincipal c omponents a nalysis i n c hronological c ross-section f or n orthern z one.

T able.VIIb.

P rincipal c omponents a nalysis i n c hronological c ross-section f or s outhern z one.

P RECIS O F T HE W ORK

T he o bjective o f t his w ork w as t o t est t he r elevance a nd s uitability o f v arious c oncepts b elonging t o " social" a nd " economic" a rchaeology o n t he d ata f rom t he B ronze A ge i n w estern P oland . M etalwork d istribution i n t he a rea w as e xamined w ith t he a id o f q uantitative m ethods s uch a s t rend s urface a nalysis, m ultiple r egression a nalysis, a nd p rincipal c omponents a nalysis. T he r esults v iewed i n a b roader E uropean c ontext w ere i nterpreted i n t erms o f e conomy, i .e. l ong-distance e xchange, a nd s ocial o rganization . T he f ormer s howed t hat t he f luctuations i n t he q uantity o f m etal d eposited i n w estern P oland d uring t he i ndividual p eriods w as i nfluenced b y t he l ocal a gricultural / h usbandry c onditions. I t w as a lso c losely c orrelated w ith t he p rocesses o ccurring i n C entral a nd N orthern E urope, s uch a s t he a lterations i n t he c ourse o f t he l ong-distance e xchange n etworks l inking o re-bearing a reas i n C entral E urope w ith S candinavia ; a s w ell a s w ith c hanges i n t he i ntensity w ith w hich d ifferent o re d eposits w ere b eing e xploited a t v arious t imes. T he d ifferences b etween d evelopments i n t he n orthern a nd s outhern z ones o f t he a rea under s tudy w ere i dentified . S uch a n a pproach w as c onsidered o ne-sided a nd o n i ts o wn i nadequate. H ence, t he s ame d ata w ere a nalysed w ith a v iew t o e stablishing t he n ature a nd d ynamics o f s ocial o rganization o f t he B ronze A ge c ommunities. I t

w as

s uggested

t hat d uring

t he

E arly

B ronze

A ge

r elations o f d omination w ere l egitimized b y t he " naturalizing"

s ocial i deology

b ased o n t he r itual c onsumption o f p restige i tems, i .e. b ronze o bjects, m anifest t hrough t he o utstanding f urnishings o f s ome g raves. D uring t he L ate B ronze A ge, o n t he o ther h and , t he e mergence o f t he i deology d enying s ocial i nequality w as p roposed . T he a bsence o f o utstanding g raves a nd t he " equalizing" b urial r ite, c oexisiting w ith s uch s igns o f s ocial d ifferentiation a s e .g . v ery r ich h oards, s eemed t o i mply s uch a c onclusion . O n

t he w hole,

t he w ork a ttempts t o d emonstrate t he p otential o f

q uantitative m ethods f or t he s tudies o f v arious a spects o f p ast c ommunities, a nd t he v alidity o f t he m ethodological f ramework o f " social"

a rchaeology i n r elation t o t his a rea o f E urope.

5 TRESZCZENIE

p ewne

C elem n iniejszej p racy b ylo s prawdzenie d o j akiego s topnia k oncepcje s formulowane p rzez " spoleczny" i " e konomiczny" n urt

a rcheologii m aja b razu .

z astosowanie d o m aterialu z z achodniej

D ystrybucja z abytkow m etalowych

z

P olski w e poce

t ego o bszaru z ostala z badana

p rzy p omocy p ewnych m etod s tatystycznych t akich j ak : a naliza t rendow p owierzchniowych , a naliza w ielokrotnej r egresji, i a naliza g lownych k omponentow . Wyniki t ych m etod b yly n astepnie z interpretowane w s zerszym e uropej s kim k ontekscie z p unktu w idzenia c zynnikow e konomicznych ( tzn . h andlu d alekosieznego), i o rganizacji s polecznej. I nterpretacja e konomiczna w ykazala z e f luktuacje w i losci m etalu z lozonego w z achodniej P olsce w p oszczegolnych o kresach e poki b razu b yly d o d uzego s topnia z determinowane p rzez l okalny p otencjal r olniczo-hodowlany . B yly o ne t akze s cisle s korelowane z p rocesami z achodzacymi w E uropie c entralnej i p olnocnej, t akimi j ak z miany k ierunkow d alekosieznych s zlakow h andlowych l aczacych o bszary wystepowania r ud m etalowych w E uropie c entralnej z e S kandynawia . P owiazane t ez b yly o ne z w ahaniami p oziomu e ksploatacji e uropejskich z loz r ud m etali w i ndividualnych o kresach e poki b razu . W ykazano t ez r oznice w c harakterze z mian z achodzacych w p olnocnej i p oludniowej s trefie b adanego o bszaru . P owyzsze p odejscie d o z agadnienia w ydawalo s ie z byt j ednostronne in ieadekwatne j ako j edyna p ostawa b adawcza . D latego t ez, t en s am m aterial a rcheologiczny p oddano a nalizie m ajacej n a c elu z definiowanie n atury i d ynamiki o rganizacji s polecznej w spolnot z e poki b razu . O braz w ylaniajacy s ie z t ych s tudiow z daje s ie s ugerowac z e s poleczne s tosunki d ominacji w e w czesnej e poce b razu byly p odtrzymywane p rzez i deologie k tora p rzedstawiala n irownosc s poleczna j ako n aturalny s tan r zeczy , i k tora o pierala s ie n a r ytualnym d isponowaniu p restizowymi p rzedmiotami t zn . m etalem w r oznej f ormie. A rcheologicznym w skaznikiem d okumentujacym i stnienie " naturalizu jacej" i deologii t ego t ypu ,

j est w ystepowanie g robow z b ogatym w yposazeniem .

b yc

W p oznej e poce b razu t a z astapiona p rzez n owy

" naturalizu jaca" i deologia z daje s ie s ystem k tory z aprzeczal i stnienie

j akiejkolwiek h ierarchizacji s polecznej. z aniku b ogato w yposazonych g robow j ednakowego

P ropozycja t aka o parta j est n a i p owszechnym p raktykowaniu

o brzadku p ogrzebowego w o dniesieniu d o w szystkich c zlonkow

s poleczenstwa, k tore p ozostaja w s przecznosci z j ednoczesna o becnoscia i nnych z nakow z roznicowania s polecznego, n p. b ardzo b ogatych s karbow p rzedmio t ow b razowych . O golnie r zecz b iorac,

m am n adzieje z e

w

n iniejszej

p racy u dalo

m i s ie w ykazac p otencjal j aki m etody s tatystyczne p osiadaja d la b adan n ad r oznymi a spektami s poleczenstw p rehistorycznych i z e p odstawy m etodologiczne

" ekonomicznej"

i

" spolecznej"

z astosowac d o m aterialu z z achodniej

P olski.

a rcheologii

d aja

s ie

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iw ish t o e xpress m y g ratitude i n a ny w ay t o c omplete t his w ork . T he U niversity,

t o a ll t hose w ho have h elped m e

t ext i s b ased o n m y M aster's t hesis f or S outhampton w ritten under t he s upervision o f D r S tephen J . S hennan . I

f eel h owever, t hat a ll m y t eachers a t t he u niversities where I r ead a rchaeology , i .e. M aria C urie-Sklodowska University i n L ublin , t he U niversity o f W arsaw , a nd S outhampton University, i ndirectly c ontributed t o i t a nd I w ould l ike t o t hank t hem a ll. I n p articular, I w ish t o t hank D r S tephen J . S hennan o f S outhampton U niversity f or a ssisting m e t hroughout t he p rocess o f p reparing t his w ork w ith h is v aluable c omments a nd s uggestions; w ithout h is e ncouragement t his t ext w ould h ave n ot b een p ublished . M y u ncle D ocent D r J an K owalczyk o f t he I nstitute o f t he H istory o f M aterial C ulture o f t he P olish A cademy o f S cience i n W arsaw ( IHKM-PAN)has p rovided m e w ith p ublications w hich w ere n ot a vailable i n t he U .K ., f or w hich I a m g rateful. I w ant t o t hank m y f riends C atherine R . B rizzolara , A lan J . F udge, a nd S tephen d e W inter, f or t heir h elp i n p ractical a spects o f t he w ork s uch a s t yping , p roducing f igures, a nd p roof-reading t he m anuscript. I a m a lso i ndebted t o D r J ohn C . P acker o f t he C omputer S cience D epartment o f K ing 's C ollege , L ondon University f or m aking i t p ossible f or m e t o u se c omputer a nd w ord p rocessing f acilities. N eedless t he w ork a re m y

t o

s ay a ny e rrors,

i nconsistencies o r d eficiencies i n

r esponsibility . T omasz P . S tepniak 8 O gle S treet, L ondon W 1P 7 LC

I .

G ENERAL I NTRODUCTION

S everal d ecades h ave e lapsed s ince t he p ublication o f C .Hawkes' ' ladder o f r eliability ' o f a rchaeological i nference ( Hawkes 1 954).Study c oncerning s ocial a spects o f p rehistoric c ommunities was p laced a lmost o n t he m ost s haky r ung .Such s cepticism w as r epresentative o f t he m a jority o f c ontemporary a rchaeologists.It s temmed f rom t heir d issatisfaction w ith s ocial r econstructions w hich r emained o n t he v ery s ubjective a nd c on jectural l evel.The l ack o f i nterpretative c oncepts f rustrated a ny w orthwhile s tudy i n t his f ield . P rospects f or i mprovement c ame w ith t he a dvent o f t he n ew a rchaeology a nd t he n eo-evolutionary ,and l ater t he n eo-Marxist s chools i n a nthropology .The i ndisputable c ontribution o f t he f irst o f t hese w as a w ider a nd m ore i maginative a pplication o f q uantitative m ethods t o a rchaeological d ata .Their p otential f or t he d iscipline t ended t o b e u nderestimated e ven b y t he m ost o pen-minded s cholars o f t he p revious g eneration ( cf C hilde 1 956,chpt.V) a nd a s a r esult a p owerful t ool w as n ot f ully u tilized .As i t t urned o ut, q uantitative m ethods a fforded s ignificant d evelopments i n various a reas o f a rchaeology , o f a ll, i n t he s tudies o f p aleosociological i ssues. T he

n eo-evolutionary

a nd

n eo-Marxist

s chools,

a nd n ot l east

o n

t he

o ther

h and , e nabled o ne t o t ranslate t he n umerical r esults i nto t he l anguage o f a nthropology a nd s ocial t heory . W orks b y S ervice (e .g . 1 962 ) , F ried ( e .g . 1 967 ) , G odelier( e .g . 1 977 ) , t o m ention o nly a f ew , p rovided n ew i nspiration t o m any a rchaeologists w ho c ame t o g rips w ith t he i ssues o f s tructural a nd f unctional p rinciples o f p ast s ocieties.The p rogress i n t his f ield i n E uropean a rchaeology d uring r ecent y ears c an h ardly b e d oubted .A g reat d eal o f s ubstantive w ork o n w hat i s o ften t ermed ' social a rchaeology ' h as b een d one, a nd n ew v ast a reas o f t he p ast h ave b een o pen f or r esearch .In m y v iew , h owever, t he g reatest m erit o f i nfancy , i s n ot

' social a rchaeology ', a ny i nterpretation

d efined i n t ime a nd s pace, b eing p repared a nd t ested ,

b ut t he f act t hat m ethodological t ools a re w ith w hich o ne w ill b e a ble t o t ackle t he

p roblem e ven m ore e ffectively i n , T he

i ntellectual

w hich a fter a ll i s s till i n i ts c oncerning a s pecific s ociety

p erhaps,

f erment

t he n ot s o d istant f uture.

w hich

g ave

r ise

t o

' social

a rchaeology' d id n ot o ccur w ith a n e qual i ntensity a ll o ver E urope.The l ead h as b een h eld b y B ritish a nd S candinavian a rchaeologists, w hereas s cholars f rom o ther c ountries, i ncluding C entral a nd E ast E urope, d o n ot s eem t o h ave u ndertaken t he t ask w ith t he s ame z eal.This s ituation h inders, t o s ome e xtent , f urther p rogress i n t his f ield , p articularly w ith r egard t o t he l ater e pochs, i .e. f rom t he B ronze A ge o nwards, f or w hich t he m ost a dequate f rame o f r eference w ould b e o ne e mbracing m ost o r e ven t he w hole o f t he c ontinent.Although s ome w ork o n p aleosociological i ssues i n C entral E urope v iewed w ithin t he n ew f ramework h as r ecently b een d one b y , f or i nstance, B ritish a rchaeologists

(S .J.Shennan 1 982a

;1 982b;

S herratt 1 982

) ,

i t c annot

r eplace t he i nvolvement o f n ative s cholars.Impeded a ccess t o p rinted s ources, l et a lone t he a ctual a rchaeological m aterial, a s w ell a s t he

1

f act t hat m ost p ublications a re i n v ernacular e ndeavours m ore d ifficult a nd t edious.

l anguages,

r ender

s uch

I n t he c hapters t o f ollow , I s hould l ike t o d escribe a nd a ttempt a n i nterpretation o f t he s patial a nd c hronological d istribution o f m etalwork i n w estern P oland f rom 1 800 B .C. t o 7 00 B .C. i n t erms o f e xchange a nd s ocial o rganization .Although t he b ody o f d ata f rom t he B ronze A ge i n t he t erritory o f p resent-day P oland i s l arge a nd v aried , o ur k nowledge o f t his p eriod i s v ery p atchy a nd s elective.Most P olish a rchaeologists, p robably u nknowingly , s ubscribe t o C .Hawkes' ' manifesto', i n t hat t he v ast m ajority o f t heir s tudies a re f ocussed o n e conomy s ensu l argo, t axonomy , a nd c raftsmanship. I t w ould b e u ntrue t o s ay t hat t he i ssues a ssociated w ith s ocial o rganization o f B ronze A ge c ommunities a re c ompletely i gnored , but t hey d o s eem t o r emain o n t he m argin o f t heir w ork . I d o n ot k now o f a ny s izable publication i n r ecent y ears w hich w ould e nlarge o n t his s core.Social o rganization i s u sually m entioned i n v ery g eneral t erms i n s tudies d ealing w ith i ndividual a rchaeological c ultures o r e pochs ( cf e .g . G ardawski a nd K owalczyk ( eds.) 1 978; D abrowski a nd R ajewski(eds.) 1 979; G edl 1 975a ; 1 975b; S arnowska 1 969).The i ssue i s u sually v iewed w ithin t he M arxist f ramework , a nd t he a rgument n ormally d oes n ot g o b eyond b rief s tatements a scertaining t he e xistence o f s ocial d ifferentiation , f eatures o f p atriarchal o rganization , a nd t he p rocess o f d ecomposition o f p rimitive, e galitarian c ommunity ( cf e .g . A ntoniewicz 1 957; G ediga 1 967).Greater i n s ize, b ut w ell e mbedded i n t his t radition a re w orks b y G edl ( 1 961 ) , G ediga( 1 963 ) , a nd D abrowski( 1 973 ) .

2

T he t ime s pan o f t his w ork e mbraces t he w hole o f t he B ronze A ge i n t he t erritory o f p resent-day w estern P oland .The ' Bronze A ge', a t erm c oined b y C .J.Thomsen a t t he e nd o f t he 1 9th . c entury, o riginally h ad b oth c hronological a nd c ultural c onnotations.In t he c ourse o f t ime h owever, a nd w ith a dvances i n a rchaeology , i t b ecame e vident t hat t he f eatures r egarded a s d istinctive o f t he B ronze Age a ppeared a t a d ifferent t ime n ot o nly i n v arious p arts o f t he w orld , b ut e ven i n v arious a reas o f t he E uropean c ontinent.On t he o ther hand , i t h as b een r ealized t hat t ransitions N eolithic / C opper A ge / B ronze A ge / I ron A ge c onstituted a c ontinuum ; t herefore a ny d iscrete d ivision h as t o b e e ssentially a rbitrary a nd a pproximate.In v iew o f t his, t he i nformative v alue o f t he t erm has d ecreased , a nd i t h as t o b e s upplemented w ith d efinitions w henever i t i s u sed i f m isunderstandings a re t o b e a voided . I n t his w ork , I c onsider a s a c riterion o f t he B ronze o ccurrence o f c onsiderable q uantities o f b ronze

A ge t he o bjects:

o rnaments,tools,weapons, i mported o r o f l ocal p roduction , a s e vidence t hat t he m etal w as a s ignificant c omponent o f t he c ultural s ystem a t s ome l evel. T he

c hronological

s cheme

a dopted

h ere

w as

p ut

f orward

b y

J .Kostrzewski a nd m odified b y J .Machnik ( Gedl 1 980,p.17).According t o i t , t he B ronze Age i s d ivided i nto f ive p eriods c orresponding t o t he f irst f ive p eriods o f 0 .Montelius' c hronology o f t he N ordic B ronze A ge, e xcept f or t he f act t hat t he b eginning o f t he f irst p eriod h as b een m oved b ack t o 1 800 B .C.. T he s ixth B ronze A ge p eriod i n S candinavia t s c oncomitant w ith t he E arly I ron A ge i n P oland , d ivided a fter P .Reinecke i nto p eriods H allstatt C a nd D , a nd i t l ies o utside t he s cope o f t his w ork ( table.I).

T erritorially , t he w ork i s c onfined t o t he a rea e xtending f rom t he s outhern B altic c oast i n t he n orth , t o t he S udety m ountains i n t he s outh . I ts w estern b oundary i s m arked b y t he l ower a nd m iddle O dra a nd t he N ysa L uzycka r ivers, w hich c oincides w ith t he P olish s tate b order. I n t he e ast,the b oundary r uns a long t he l ower W isla r iver d own t o t he t own o f W loclawek ; f rom t here i t f ollows t he b orders o f p hysiogeographical

u nits:

f irst

o f

t he

m acroregion

P oludniowowielkopolska ( the S outh G reat P oland P lain), p rovince o f t he C entral E uropean P lain ( fig .I a nd I I).

o f

N izina

a nd t hen o f t he

F rom a p hysiogeographical p oint o f v iew , t he e ntire t erritory o f a pproximately 1 30 0 00 k m2, c onsists o f s everal m acroregions, a nd i s d elineated b y n atural f actors,namely t he s ea i n t he n orth, t he m ountains i n t he s outh , a nd t he t wo b ig r ivers i n t he e ast a nd i n t he w est

( fig .II). T he p hysiogeographical c ohesion o f t he a rea i s p arallelled

b y a

c ertain c ultural u niformity o bservable p ractically t hroughout t he w hole

3

o f t he B ronze Age.In t he f irst p eriod , i t r oughly c oincided w ith t he s cope o f t he Unetice c ulture n orth o f t he S udety m ountains ( the G robsko-Smiardowska a nd t he I wienska c ultures a re r egarded a s i ts c ultural g roups a fter S arnowska ( 1969)); a nd t he P rzedluzycka c ulture i n t he s econd p eriod ( Gedl 1 975a). I n t he r emainder o f t he B ronze A ge, t he t erritory i n q uestion w as a pproximately c ongruent w ith t he r ange o f t he w estern c ultural g roups o f t he L uzycka c ulture

T he f ollowing

( Gedl 1 975b).

a nalysis w ill l argely p roceed t hrough c omparisons

o f t wo p arts o f t he r egion u nder s tudy, n amely t he n orthern a nd t he s outhern z ones, w ith t he b order l ine r unning a long t he l ower W arta a nd N otec r ivers ( fig .II).Such a p hysiogeographical a nd c ultural f actors.

d ivision

i s

s uggested

b y

T he c oastal a rea o f t he n orthern z one c onstitutes a m orainal p lain w ith i nshore l akes.Further s outh , t here i s a g lacial l andscape f urrowed b y t unnel-valley l akes a nd p roglacial s tream v alleys, w ith m oraine h ills whose r elative h eight ( i .e. f rom b ase ) r arely r eaches 1 00 m eters.The a gricultural p otential o f t his r egion i s r elatively p oor, w ith t he e xception o f t he P yrzycko-Stargardzka P lain a t t he O dra 's m outh .Very g ood s oils ( cf s oil t ype c haracteristcs p .16) c onstitute l ess t han 1 % o f t he t otal a rea o f t he z one; g ood o nes 3 6%; w hereas p oor a nd w aste-land a reas a mount t o 5 3% ( fig .XXI).The p eriod o f v egetation g rowth i s,on a verage, t wo w eeks s horter h ere t han i n t he s outhern r egion . T he s outhern z one, o ver 4 0% l arger t han t he n orthern z one, i s a lso m ore v aried . I n i ts n orthern p art, w e f ind t he b elt o f p eriglacial d enudation w ith h ills a nd r egular r iver n etwork ;

i n t he s outh ,

t here i s

u pland a nd m ountainous l andscape. T he c onditions f or a gricultural a ctivities a re much b etter h ere, w ith n early 5 % o f v ery g ood a nd 3 6% o f g ood s oils,

a nd o nly 3 5% o f p oor

a nd

w aste-land a reas

( fig .XXI).

S uch

t erritories a s t he G lubczycka U pland o r t he S udety F oreland , b elong t o t he m ost f ertile a reas i n t he c ountry . F urthermore,95% o f v ery g ood , a nd 6 3% o f g ood , a nd o nly 5 3% o f v ery p oor s oils a nd w aste-land a reas o f t he whole o f w estern P oland l ie w ithin t his r egion ( fig .XXI). C ulturally , t he n orthern z one a lso e xhibited a i ndependence a nd t ended t o g ravitate t owards N orth-West t hroughout t he B ronze A ge. T he s outhern z one, i n t urn , m aintained s tronger c ontacts w ith t he m iddle D anube b asin .

4

c ertain E urope a lways

I II.

METHODOLOGICAL B ACKGROUND

T he o bjective o f t his w ork i s n ot t o c haracterize t he P olish B ronze Age i n g eneral but t o c oncentrate o n c ertain a spects o f i t, n amely m etal d istribution a nd a ssociated i ssues.Such a n a nalysis w ill b e e mbedded w ithin t hree d istinct m ethodological f rameworks w hich , t he s ake o f b revity , c an b e l abelled :

a .)

c ultural d iffusion ( e conomic i nterpretation

b .)

q uantitative m ethods;

c .)

i deology , s tructure

i ts v ehicles, a nd r ole (s ocial i nterpretation ) ;

i n

f or

) ;

s ocial

D espite t he f act t hat e ach o f t hese f rameworks h as b een u sed b y a rchaeologists w ith a f air d egree o f s uccess, t hey h ave t o b e e xamined a nd j ustified a new i n t he c ontext o f t his w ork . A n e xplicit d iscussion o f t he g eneral m ethodological c oncepts a nd , e ven m ore i mportantly , t heir p articular i mplementation i n t he p resent a rgument s eem e ssential b ecause o f t he t ype o f d ata e mployed , a s w ell a s t he a ims o f t his w ork . W e s hall e xamine n ow o nly t he f irst t wo c omponents o f t he m ethodological b asis a nd d efer t he d iscussion o f t he t hird u ntil c hapter V I. S uch a n o rder t he a rgument.

A .)

s hould b e m ore b eneficial f or t he c larity o f

C ultural D iffusion ( E conomic I nterpretation ) :

T his m ethod i s p robably t he l east c ontroversial o f a ll, b eing n early a s o ld a s t he d iscipline i tself . H owever, a s i t m ight g ive r ise t o c ertain o bjections i t i s b est t o d iscuss i t h ere. T he m ethod c onsists e ssentially i n m apping t he s patial d istribution o f c ertain a rtefacts w ith d istinctive s tylistic c haracteristics i n o rder t o d efine t he p ossible r ecipient a nd s upplier a reas, a s w ell a s t he d irections a nd r outes o f t he c ontacts b etween t hem . A lthough o ne m ight a rgue t hat i t c an b e c lassed a s a q uantitative f m ethod ( cf O rton 1 980, p .122 f), I c onsider i t h ere s eparately f or t wo r easons: f irst, s trictly s peaking n o q uantification o f d ata i s i nvolved i n i t; s econd , i t p rovides t he b asis f or a s eparate s ection o f t his w ork ,

namely e conomic i nterpretation i n c hapter V .

T he o bvious f law i nherent i n

t he

m ethod

i s

i ts

i nability t o

d ifferentiate b etween t he f low o f p hysical g oods a nd t he d iffusion o f s tylistic n orms o nly . T he l atter c ould o ccur e ither t hrough p assing o n t he s kills t o t he l ocal " apprentices"; o r t hrough a m igration o f s killed

c raftsmen

w ith

f ormed

s tylistic

5

i deas

f rom

t he

a pparent

s upplier a rea . I n e ither c ase, a rchaeological e vidence p ermits o ne t o d emonstrate t he e xistence o f c ontacts b etween t he r egions,but i t i s i mpossible, i n g eneral, t o p rove t hat t hey t ook t he f orm o f i mport/export o f p roducts ( on whatever t erms); a s i t h appens, t his i s e xactly t he p iece o f e vidence t hat w ill b e n eeded i n t he e conomic i nterpretation o f t he d ata f rom t he B ronze A ge w estern P oland . T here a re,fortunately t wo f actors w hich m ake t he . analysis p ossible i n t his c ase. O ne i s t he f act t hat t he a rtefacts i n q uestion w ere m ade o f b ronze, i .e. m aterial u navailable d uring t he B ronze A ge l ocally i n t he a rea u nder s tudy; t he s econd , i s t he a ctual c haracter o f t he B ronze A ge m etal p roduction a nd e xchange. T he

m etal

r esources

o f

E urope

a re

c onfined o nly t o c ertain

a reas. I n C entral E urope o f t he g reatest i mportance a re c opper a nd t in d eposits i n t he B ohemian O re M ountains, c opper d eposits i n t he T ransylvania r egion , i n c entral S lovakia , c entral G ermany a nd t he e astern A lps ( fig .1). T his s ituation e ntailed i ntensification o f e xchange t o a n e xtent u nknown b efore, a nd t his i s o ne o f t he m ost d istinctive f eatures o f t he B ronze A ge i n E urope. T he n ecessity a rose f or t he e stablishment a nd m aintenance o f e xchange n etworks w hereby a reas w ithout m etal d eposits s ecured t hemselves s teady a nd a mple s upplies o f b ronze, a nd o n t he o ther h and , a reas a bounding i n o res c ould c onvert t heir m etal s urplus i nto o ther g oods. I n t he o re b earing a reas, f rom t he b eginning o f t he B ronze A ge, m etal " production c entres" a ppeared w hich s upplied m etal o n a n e normous s cale. E ach o f t hem d eveloped i ts o wn i diosyncratic s tyle w hich s ubsequently d iffused f rom t he c entre o f o rigin i nto l arge a reas. A s r egards w estern P oland , t here i s n o e vidence o f i ts c opper d eposits h aving b een e xploited d uring t he B ronze A ge. T his m eans t hat a ll m etal f inds f rom t his a rea must h ave b een i mported f rom c opper bearing t erritories i n o ther p arts o f t he c ontinent, i n t he f orm o f f inished p roducts, s emi-products, o r r aw m aterial. B ecause o f t his s ituation i n w hich m etal h ad t o b e i mported b y r egions d evoid o f t heir o wn d eposits, t here c annot b e a ny d oubt t hat i t w as a d iffusion o f p hysical g oods r ather t han ( or a s w ell a s) t he n orms t hat t ook p lace. O n t he o ther h and , t he p rovenance o f t he m etal a rtefacts a nd t heir s tyle c an b e r elatively e asily d etermined . T his i s b ecause m etal o res f rom c ertain a reas m ay c ontain a d istinctive a dmixture o f t race e lements w hich e nables o ne t o d efine t heir s ource w ith t he a id o f s pectral

a nalysis.

S uch r esults a re a vailable f or

t he

b ody

o f

d ata

under s tudy a nd have b een u sed i n t his w ork . T hus, t he c haracteristic o f t he e vidence u nder s tudy p ermits t he d eployment o f t he m ethod o f c ultural d iffusion i n t he p resent a rgument i n o rder t o d efine a pproximately t he r ecipient a nd s upplier a reas a s w ell a s .t he e xchange r outes a long w hich m etal m ust h ave b een t ransported .

B .)

Q uantitative M ethods:

A lthough q uantitative m ethods a re a r elatively n ew a ddition t o t he m ethodological k it o f t he a rchaeologist, t hick v olumes c ontaining

6

t heir a pplications a s w ell a s d iscussions a s t o t heir p ertinence t o t he d iscipline have b een p roduced . S cholars a re f ar f rom c onsensus o n t he i ssue, a nd t heir a ttitudes r ange f rom a d efinite a version a nd s uspicion , t hrough a c aution , t o a n a bsolute f aith i n t heir w ell n igh l imitless p otential. T his s tate o f a ffairs i s u nderstandable i n v iew o f t he c haracter o f q uantitative m ethods a nd t he n ature o f t he a rchaeological e vidence. H ere t he s ituation i s v ery d ifferent f rom t hat i n t he h ard , n atural s ciences. I n t he l atter c ase, o ne i s a ble t o o btain d ata s atisfying t he t heoretical r equirements o f a g iven m ethod a lmost p erfectly , b ecause o ne i s g enerally i n a p osition t o d esign a nd p erform a n e xperiment p roducing s uch a n e vidence. I n a rchaeology o ne i s c onfronted w ith a r everse a nd h ence l ess f ortunate s ituation .Normally , t here e xists a b ody o f d ata f or t he a nalysis o f w hich a ppropriate q uantitative m ethods h ave t o b e f ound . N eedless t o s ay , i n t hose c ircumstances

i t i s m uch e asier

a pply a m ethod r equirements have p ossible.

t o

o verlook

c ertain r estrictions a nd

i ncorrectly ; o r a lternatively , t he t heoretical t o b e c ompromised t o m ake t he a nalysis a t a ll

Another m isuse w hich c an r esult e ither f rom l ack o f e xperience, o r f rom a n u ncritical a nd " overconfident" a pplication o f q uantitative m ethods, i s t he c ase w hen a " pattern" i n t he d ata i s d iscovered , w hich p rovides a basis f or a c oherent i nterpretation , but w hich i n r eality d oes n ot e xist.

T he r eservations a s a c riticism o f t he

e xpressed i n t his s ection s hould n ot b e t aken u se o f q uantitative m ethods i n a rchaeology i n

g eneral. T here a re o f c ourse n umerous e xamples o f q uantitative s tudies o f p ast s ocieties w hich a re b ased o n s ound m ethodology , a pplied w ith e xpertise t o a n a dequate b ody o f d ata . T he o bjective h ere i s t o e xpose t he p roblems a ssociated w ith t he q uantitative m ethods d eployed i n t his w ork , a nd t o d escribe t he m eans a dopted t o c ircumvent t hem i n s pecific c ontexts. I h ope t hat i n t his w ay p otential m isunderstandings w ill b e a voided , a nd o ne w ill b e a ble t o j udge b oth t he o verall c orrectness o f t he m ethodology e mployed h ere, a nd t he e xtent t o w hich i t i s c ompatible w ith t he e vidence u nder s tudy .

1 .)

t rend s urface m aps

T hese m aps a re e xtremely i mportant f or f urther a nalysis. B efore c ertain d rawbacks o f t he m ethod a re d iscussed , a w ord o f e xplanation h as t o b e o ffered w ith r egard t o t he t echnique t hat p roduced t hem . T here

a re

f ive

c ontour

m aps

( fig .V-IX)

d epicting

t he

d istribution d ensity o f a ll m etalwork i n i ndividual B ronze A ge p eriods i n w estern P oland . T hey w ere b ased o n t he g rid g eneralization t echnique ( cf O rton 1 980 p .124 f f). T he p oint o f d eparture w as t he d etailed i nformation c oncerning t he s patial d escription o f t he i solated m etal o bjects, a nd h oards a nd g raves,

i n e ach o f t he s uccessive p eriods

7

l ocation a nd t he t hose d eposited i n o f t he B ronze Age

i n t he a rea under s tudy . S uch i nformation w as p ublications r eferred t o i n c hapter V I ( cf p .60-61).

d erived

f rom t he

T he d istribution o f a ll m etal f inds a ttributed t o e ach p eriod w as r epresented b y a s eparate m ap w hich h ad t he f orm o f a s catter o f p oints, e ach p oint s ignifying a s ite w ith m etalwork . F rom t his s tage, t he p rocedure w as i dentical w ith r egard t o e ach o f t he r esulting f ive m aps. A g rid o f q uadrats c onsisting o f 1 76 i dentical s quares w ith a n a pproximately 3 0km l ong s ide i n r eality , w as s uperimposed o n t he r ap. I t c overed t he e ntire a rea o f i nterest a nd , t o a c ertain e xtent, a b elt o f l and i mmediately a djacent t o i ts b order. B ecause o f t he s hape o f t he t erritory o f w estern P oland , t he o utline o f t he g rid d eparted f rom a r egular r ectangle i n t hat t here w ere a f ew s quares m issing h ere a nd t here a long i ts p erimeter.If t he r ectangle w as c omplete, i t w ould h ave c ontained 2 16 s quares, i .e. 4 0 s quares w ere c ut o ut d etail w as v ery i mp)rtant f or f urther p rocedure.

f rom

i t.

T his

T he n ext s tep i nvolved o btaining a n umerical v alue o f t he e talwork i n e ach s quare. A s imple c ounting o f t he n umber o f d ensity o f : o bjects i n a s quare c ould n ot h ave b een a dopted i n v iew o f t he v arying s ize a nd w eight o f d ifferent a rtefacts. I nstead , a n a rbitrary s ystem o f s coring w as i ntroduced ( table. I I), w hich t ook c are o f t he i ndividual d ifferences b etween t hem . A ccording t o i t, a s core w as a ssigned t o o bjects o f a c ertain t ype e .g . b racelets, p ins, s words e tc., i n p roportion t o t heir w eight a nd , i n s ome c ases, t he a ssumed l abour i nput n ecessary f or t heir m anufacture. T he o bjective h ere, w as t o q uantify t he h ypothetical r elative v alues t he a rtefacts u sed t o h ave i n t he B ronze A ge i n r elation t o o ne a nother w hich, i n a ll p robability , w as a f unction o f t heir w eight i n t he f irst p lace. I t w as n either p ractically p ossible, n or e ssential, t o c onsider e ach f ind i ndividually . T hus, a n e qual s core w as g iven t o a ll i tems o f o ne t ype f rom t he s ame p eriod , d espite t he i nevitable s light d ifferences i n t heir w eight. T he s cores a ssigned t o o bjects o f t he s ame c lass d iffered h owever f rom p eriod t o p eriod , o wing t o t he f act t hat t he v ariation i n t heir s ize i n t he c hronological c ross-section w as o ften c onsiderable ( cf t able.II). F or e xample, p ins f rom t he s econd B ronze A ge p eriod t ended t o b e m arkedly l onger a nd h eavier ( up t o 5 0 c m) t han t hose f rom l ater p eriods ( on a verage 1 5 c m l ong). T he o bjects m ade o f g old w ere g iven a d ouble s core c ompared t o t heir b ronze e quivalents. E ach s core w as f ixed a s a

h ypothetical

m ean

a nd s hould h ave a

f airly s mall " standard d eviation" a ssociated w ith i t, c onsidering t he d egree o f t he s ize s tandardization o f B ronze A ge m etal o bjects f rom t he s ame p eriod . F urthermore, i n p roducing t he m aps o ne t ook i nto a ccount c umulative f requencies o f a ll o bjects f or e ach s quare ( i.e. s ums o f m any d ifferent s cores). T his m eans t hat t he r eal d eviations f rom t he t rue v alue o f i ndividual s cores w ill h ave c ancelled e ach o ther o ut,provided t hat t he p opulation o f o bservations w as l arge, a nd t he m agnitude a nd s ign o f t he d eviations f rom t he t rue v alue o f e ach s core w ill h ave b een g overned b y a r andom p rocess. A ll i n a ll, t heoretical

c onsiderations s eem t o i ndicate t hat t he a ccuracy r equired

t o l egitimize t he p resent a rgument h as c ertainly b een a chieved .

8

w ork ,

H owever, t he c ontour m aps a re o f s upreme i mportance f or t he a nd b oth t he e conomic a nd s ocial i nterpretation o f t he d ata t hat

w ill f ollow h inge t o a g reat d egree

o n

t he p atterns r evealed b y t hose

maps. B ecause o f t his, o ne c annot t ake t oo m uch c are a nd e ffort t o a scertain t hat t he p atterns o btained a re t ruly r epresentative o f t hose p resent i n t he d ata ( N .B. i n t he c ase o f c ontour m aps i t w ould b e f allacious t o s peak o f " the t rue p attern"; c f p .11). F or t hese r easons, a p ractical t est v erifying t he r eliability o f t he s coring s ystem w as d evised a nd a pplied . I t w as b ased o n t he d ata w hich w ere s ubsequently e mployed i n s upport o f t he s ocial i nterpretation ( cf p .50ff), t hat i s why a t p resent w e s hall l imit t he a ccount o nly t o t he i nformation s trictly r elevant t o t he t est i tself , l eaving o ut a ll t he o ther d etails u ntil t he l ater d iscussion . T he d ata c onsisted o f t he f requencies o f a ll m etalwork f rom o ne B ronze Age p eriod , f ound w ithin c oncentric z ones, e ach 1 00 k m w ide a nd c entred o n t he M oravian G ate ( cf f ig .XL); s uch d ata e xist o nly f or t he f irst t wo B ronze A ge p eriods. S ubsequently t hese f requencies w ere s tudied i n t wo d ifferent w ays. F irst, t hey w ere t ranslated i nto t he w eight-scores w ith t he a id o f t he f orementioned s coring s ystem . T he n umerical v alues s o o btained a re d epicted g raphically b y f requency p olygons, c onstructed s eparately f or m etalwork i n t he f orm o f o rnaments, t ools a nd w eapons, t hat f ound i n g raves, h oards, a nd i n i solation , a s w ell a s t he t otal a mount o f m etal f rom p eriods 1 a nd 2 . T hen , t he s ame d ata w ere r epresented b y f requency p olygons b ased n ot o n t he s cores but o n t he n umber o f c ertain t ype i tems f ound i n e ach z one ( fig .XXV-XXXVIII). I t h as b een s aid t hat t he p urpose o f a dopting t he s coring s ystem was t o m ake a llowances f or w eight d ifferences b etween o bjects o f various t ypes. H ence, t he f requency p olygons p roduced w ith t he a id o f t he s coring s ystem s hould h ave s imilar s hapes t o t hose r esulting f rom c ounting t he n umber o f a rtefacts i n e ach z one , h ad a ll o f t hem b een o f e qual w eight. T his w as n ot t he c ase, o f c ourse, but s uch a s ituation was a pproximated b y s electing c ertain o bjects o f m ore o r l ess e quivalent w eights. T he c lasses o f a rtefacts c hosen f or t his p rocedure w ere: n ecklaces, a rmlets, b racelets, halberds, b attle a xes, a nd s pear-heads; t heir f requency d istribution o ver t he

a xes, c hisels, d aggers, s words, f requency p olygons r epresenting z ones w ere c onstructed . A s i t

happens, t hese t ypes o f a rtefacts c onstitute a v ast m ajority o f t he t otal m etalwork b oth i n t erms o f w eight a nd i tem-frequency . T hus, l eaving o ut t he r emaining c lasses o f o bjects w ill h ave d ecreased t he a ccuracy o f t he f requency p olygons, t o a c ertain e xtent, b ut i t s hould n ot h ave m isrepresented g reatly t heir g eneral s hapes, a ssuming t hat t he e xcluded a rtefacts w ere r andomly d istributed o ver t he c ategories ( i.e. z ones). S uch g raphs, d epict e ssentially t he d istribution o f m etalwork b y w eight o ver t he z ones, t hrough c ounting t he o ccurrences o f a " weight q uantum" ( i.e. a n a rtefact), w hich i s r oughly a n e quivalent t o a bout 2 0 p oints o n t he s coring s ystem . N ow ,

i f t he

c omparison o f

t he

f requency p olygons,

r esulting

f rom t he t wo f orementioned d istinct p rocedures a pplied t o t he s ame b ody o f d ata,

r eveals a g reat s imilarity b etween

t he

r espective

p airs

o f

c urves, i t i mplies t hat t he s coring s ystem d oes r epresent a ccurately t he w eight d ifferences b etween t he c lasses o f a rtefacts. F urthermore, t he a dvantage o f u sing t he s coring

s ystem b ecomes c learer.

9

I t a llows a

m ore p recise q uantification o f t he m etalwork w eight a ccount o f a ll t he t ypes o f o bjects, a nd n ot o nly t hose t he " weight q uantum". T his a lso s hows t hat t he t echnique t he s core, i .e. m easuring t he s ize o f s everal i tems o f

a s i t t akes a pproximating o f e stimating o ne k ind f rom

i llustrations,and t hen t aking t he m ean o f t heir d imensions ( volume, e ffectively), p roved s ufficiently a ccurate f or t he f orementioned " weight q uantum c lasses" o f o bjects. T here i s e very r eason t o b elieve t hat i t w orked i n t he s ame w ay f or a ll t he c ategories. N ow l et u s l ook a t t he a ctual f requency p olygons ( fig .XXV-XXXVIII). A m ere o ptical e xamination o f t hem d oes n ot l eave a ny d oubt a s t o t heir c lose s imilarity . T his c onclusion i s f urther s upported b y c alculating t he c orrelation c oefficients f or t he a ppropriate p airs o f c urves. T hey a re v ery h igh i n a ll c ases, i ndicating a v ery c lose c orrelation b etween t he d istributions ( for t he m eaning o f t he c orrelation c oefficients c f .p.13ff); ( table.Va-b). H ence,

t he t est s hows t hat t he

s coring s ystem a dopted h ere d oes

p rovide w orthwhile r esults f or t he f irst t wo B ronze A ge p eriods. O ne c an e xtrapolate t he s ame c onclusion o nto t he r emaining p eriods, a s t he s coring s ystem f or t he e ntire B ronze A ge w as b ased o n o ne p rinciple, a nd r esulted f rom t he s ame t echnique. S o m uch f or t he s coring s ystem ; n ow w e s hall r eturn t o t he c ontour m aps.

H aving o btained t he n umerical v alues o f t he m etal d ensity i n t he i ndividual s quares o f t he g rid , i t w as n ecessary t o " smooth" t hem f or t he f urther p rocedure, o therwise t he r esulting c ontours w ould h ave h ad i rregular s hapes. F or t his p urpose, t he v alues i n f our a djacent s quares w ere a veraged , a nd t he m ean w as a ssigned t o t he p oint c ommon t o t hem a ll. A s h as b een m entioned e arlier, t he g rid o f s quares d id n ot f orm a r egular r ectangle but i t r eminded a " ragged t iled f loor". I n p ractical t erms i t m eant t hat s ometimes t here w ere n ot f our, b ut o nly t hree a d jacent s qures a long t he p erimeter. I n s uch a c ase, t he v alues w ere a veraged o ver t hree t aken t o b e z ero.

s quares,

a nd n ot o ver f our w ith t he f ourth v alue

S uch a n a pproach s eemed m ore

a ppropriate

t han

t he a lternative

i n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he d ensity i n t he m issing s quare w as u nknown . H ence, i t w ould h ave b een m isleading t o d ecrease t he o verall v alue a t a g iven p oint o n a ccount o f a s quare w hich o ne k new n othing a bout, a nd which i n a ny c ase l ay o utside t he a rea o f i nterest . T he c ontours w ere d rawn a t h eights o f 5 , 5 0, 1 00, a nd t hen e very 1 00 u p t o 1 100 s cores ( with t he e xception o f 7 00);

( fig .

V -IX).

T rend s urface m aps p roduced b y t he g rid g eneralization t echnique, v ery u seful a s t hey a re, h ave h owever t wo d efinite d rawbacks: o ne a ssociated w ith t he e dge e ffects, a nd t he o ther w ith t he s ize o f t he s quares. T hey b oth c an a ffect t he s hape o f t he c ontours i .e. c an c hange t he m eaning o f a m ap t o a g reater o r l esser d egree. T he e dge e ffect c onsists i n a ll t he o utermost s quares ( at t he e dges o f t he g rid) b eing l eft o ut o f t he c ontour m ap. T his c omes a bout b ecause t he v alues f or t he p oints

o n

1 0

t he p erimeter o f t he g rid c annot

b e c omputed unless,

o f c ourse,

o ne a grees t o

a verage

t he

value

o ver

t wo. I n o ther w ords, t he m ap " shrinks" b y o ne r ow/column o f q uadrats a t e ach e dge. M ethods o f d ecreasing t he i mpact o f t he e dge e ffect o n t he o verall p attern s eem t o b e s till d iscussed b y b oth t he u sers a nd t he t heorists o f t he t echnique, a nd t here d oes n ot s eem t o b e o ne c orrect way o f g oing a bout i t. F or t he p urpose o f t his w ork , i t w as d ecided t hat t he e dge e ffect w ill b e e liminated t hrough " guessing" t he m issing p art o f t he c ontour. T his i s t o s ay t hat w henever a c ontour,l ine d id n ot f orm a c losed c urve, i ts e nds w ere e xtended i n t he d irection i mplied by t he e xisting l ine u ntil t hey c rossed t he b order o f t he a rea u nder s tudy . S uch a p rocedure m ight n ot b e a cceptable i n t his p articular c ase i t s eemed t otally j ustified .

i n g eneral, b ut T he s hape o f t he

a rea i n q uestion i s s uch , t hat t he g rid e mployed c ould n ot h ave a f orm o f a r egular r ectangle. B ecause o f t his m ost o f t he s quares o n t he p erimeter w ere o nly p artially c overed ( normally i n a bout 5 0%) b y t he a rea o f i nterest, t he r emainder b eing i rrelevant. H ence, i f s uch a s quare was l eft o ut a s a r esult o f t he e dge e ffect, t he f uzzy a rea b elt w hich a ppeared was n ot w ider t han a bout 1 0-15 k m i n r eality , w hich c orresponded t o a pproximately 4 .0-6.5 mm o n t he m ap. N eedless t o s ay , s uch a l evel o f uncertainty l ies w ell w ithin t he t olerance b racket i mposed by t his w ork , a nd i n n o w ay i s i t g oing t o a ffect t he r eliability o f t he r esults. I t s hould b e a dded t hat t he d ensity o f m etalwork d istribution w as o btained f or e ach c omplete s quare o f t he g rid r egardless o f w hether i t c oincided t otally o r o nly p artially w ith t he a rea o f i nterest. T he s econd d rawback o f t he t echnique i s i ts s ensitivity t o t he c hanges o f t he q uadrats' s ize. I t a ffects t he m ap i n t wo w ays. F irst, t he z one a round t he p erimeter e xcluded a s a r esult o f t he e dge e ffect has t he w idth o f o ne q uadrat; i .e. t he e xtent t o w hich t he m ap " shrinks" i s a f unction o f i ts s ize. S econdly , i t a lso c hanges t he a ctual c ontours o n t he m ap, s ometimes v ery d rastically . I n t his s ituation , t he s ize o f t he q uadrats ( not n ecessarily s quares) c an b e s elected i n s uch a w ay a s t o p roduce t he d esired p attern ; a lternatively , o ne c an f all p rey t o t he b elief t hat a n " accidentally" o btained c ontour m ap i s t he o nly o ne t hat t ruly r epresents t he t rends i n t he d ata . T his w ord o f c aution c annot b e e mphasised t oo s trongly b ut i t i s n ot, o f c ourse, t antamount t o d ismissing t he t echnique a s u seless. O n . the c ontrary , i t e nables o ne t o a ppreciate t he p otential p itfalls i nvolved i n i t, a nd h ence t o u tilize i t m ore e ffectively . O n t he o ther h and , i t i s n ot t rue t hat a bsolutely a ny p attern c an b e p roduced f rom a ny d ata, t hrough o nly a n e xpert m anipulation o f t he q uadrat s ize. I n f act, e xperiments w ith o ne b ody o f d ata s how t hat t here i s a c ertain c orrelation b etween m aps b ased o n d ifferent g rid s izes. T he g eneral r ule i s t hat t he l arger q uadrats p rovide a c ruder a nd s implified p icture o f t he s ame t rends. N eedless t o s ay , t here i s n o o ne c orrect c ontour m ap f or a g iven d ata b ut e very m ap r epresents a g eneralization o f t he t rends * ith a v arying d egree o f a ccuracy w hich i s, i n a s ense, i nversely p roportional t o t he q uadrat's s ize. T he c hoice o f t he a ppropriate m ap i s

c onditioned

l evel o f g eneralization ,

b y

t he

o r c onversely ,

c haracter o f t he d ata .

1 1

p urpose

o f t he a nalysis,

t he p recision r equired ,

t he

a nd t he

T he maps p roduced f or t he p resent a rgument w ere b ased o n a g rid g eneralization i ncorporating 1 76 s quares. T hese t wo d etails c onstitute t he h allmark o f t heir r eliability i n t he c ontext. T he s quare s hape o f t he q uadrats p rovides t he m ost a ppropriate a nd s afest f ramework i n which t o v iew d istribution d ensity t rends s uperimposed o n a m ap w ith p hysiogeographical f eatures. T he n umber o f s quares ( or r ather t heir s ize r elative t o t he t otal a rea o f w estern P oland), i n t urn , s eems t o s atisfy t he d esired a ccuracy s tandards. T he g reater d anger i s t o i ntroduce t oo l arge s quares, i n w hich c ase, t he r equired d egree o f d etail i n t he d ata t rends i s n ot a chieved . T his m ay n ot b e a pparent f rom t he s hape o f t he c ontours s o t he a nalysis m ay m iss i mportant p oints. T he o pposite s ituation i s l ess m isleading . A s kilful i nterpretation o f a n o verdetailed m ap c an s till e xtract f rom i t t he m ore g eneral t rends, but o f c ourse i t p oses t he q uestion a s t o t he p urpose o f p roducing s uch m aps i n t he f irst p lace. I n o ur c ase t he s ize o f t he s quares s eems t o b e s mall e nough t o p roduce t he d esired d egree o f d etail. O n t he o ther h and , t he m aps d o n ot a ppear t o c ontain a ny d istracting " noise" b y t oo s mall s quares.

i nformation b rought a bout

T his d iscussion h as s hown , I h ope, t hat t he c ontour m aps e mployed h ere d o p rovide a n a dequate b asis f or t he a nalysis a nd t hat t he p robability o f o ur a ttempting t o i nterpret i maginary p atterns i s l ow .

i.) multiple r egression a nalysis i

I n o rder t o s upport t he e ssentially q ualitative i nterpretation o f t he t rend s urface m aps w ith n umbers, a s w ell a s t o d emonstrate t he c orrelations

t hat

a re n ot a pparent f rom t hem but

i mportant

f or

t he

a rgument, t he m ethod o f m ultiple r egression h as b een a pplied t o t he d ata. I n a n utshell, m ultiple r egression a ims a t e stablishing h ow t he d ependent o r r egressed v ariable c hanges a s t he i ndependent o r r egressor v ariables v ary , a nd a t e xpressing t heir c ovariance b y m eans o f s ome m athematical f unction . T he s trength o f t he c ovariance i s p roportional t o t he c orrelation c oefficients, n amely t he z ero-order , t he n th-order p artial a nd t he multiple c orrelation c oefficients.

t ime

Multiple r egression a nalysis i s a v ery p owerful b ut a t t he s ame f airly c omplex m ethod , a nd t here i s n either r oom n or n eed t o

d iscuss i t h ere i n a ny d etail. W e s hall h ave t o c onfine o urselves o nly t o t he f acts s trictly p ertinent t o t his w ork , n amely t he m eaning o f t he c oefficients m entioned d iscussion t o f ollow .

a bove,

F or multiple r egression d esignated a s d ependent a nd t he

w hich

w ill

b e

r eferred

t o

i n

t he

a nalysis o ne v ariable h as t o b e o thers a s i ndependent. T he d ependent

v ariable i s n ormally s elected o n t he b asis

1 2

o f n on-statistical

( in t his

c ase a rchaeological) p remises a s a q uantity w hich i s c onditioned b y t he o ther q uantities o f i nterest i .e. t he i ndependent variables. I n o ther w ords, t here s hould b e s ome i ndication o f a q ualitative ( i.e. a rchaeological) n ature t hat t he d ependent v ariable i s a f unction o f t he i ndependent o nes i n t he s ame w ay a s, f or i nstance, t he n umber o f s ettlements i n a r egion m ay b e a f unction o f t he p opulation s ize o r i ts l and p roductivity . I t h as t o b e e mphasized t hat r egression a nalysis i s t he m eans o f p redicting c ovariance o f t he v ariables o r, t o p ut i t d ifferently , o f m easuring t heir c orrelation , a nd n ot o f d emonstrating t he c ausal r elationship b etween t hem . I f s uch a r elationship e xists, i t must b e e stablished t hrough a q ualitative a nalysis o f t he p rocesses i nvolved i n t he c ovariance. N eedless t o s ay , t he variability o f a ll v ariables must b e q uantified .

T he v ariation o f t he d ependent v ariable i s, by d efinition , c orrelated t o t he c hanges i n t he i ndependent o nes, but t he e xact n ature a nd s trength o f t his c orrelation c an v ary ; b ecause o f t his, o ne n eeds s everal c oefficients i n o rder t o d efine i t m ore p recisely .

T he z ero-order c orrelation c oefficient m easures t he s trength a nd d irection o f t he c orrelation b etween t he d ependent variable a nd a ny o f t he i ndependent o nes t aken o ne a t a t ime, i .e. t he e ffect t he a lterations i n t he l atter h ave o n t he f ormer. I ts maximum value " 1" c orresponds t o a p erfect c orrelation , i .e. i f t he d ependent a nd i ndependent v ariables c ovary i n a n i dentically s ame way . I ts m inimum v alue " -1" i ndicates a p erfect i nverse c orrelation i .e. c ovariation b etween t hem i n a n i dentically o pposite w ays. I t t akes t he value " 0", i f t hey a re c ompletely u ncorrelated , i .e. t hey v ary i n a t otally unrelated , r andom f ashion . T he v alues b etween t he t wo e xtremes i ndica te t he s trength a nd d irection o f t he c orrelation i n t he a bove s ense.

c orrelation c oefficient i n t h e d e p en d en t v ariable m easures t he p roportion o f t he v ariation v a r i a b l e ( b y m e a n s o f a a ccounted f or b y a g iven s ingle i ndependent , w h e r e y i s t h e d e p en d en t r egression e quation o f t he f orm y —ax+b a r e t h e r e g r e s s i on l in e v ariable, x t he i ndependent o ne, a a nd b T he

s quare

o f

t he

z ero-order

c oefficients). T his

c oefficient,

e xtremely

i nformative

a s

i t i s,

m ight

b e

h owever m isleading i n c ertain c ircumstances. S uppose f or t he s ake o f a rgument t hat t here a re t wo i ndependent v ariables, a nd t hat t hey h ave t he z ero-order c orrelation c oefficients o f m a nd n r espectively . T his m eans t hat t he r espective p roportions o f t he v ariation i n t he d ependent v ariable t hat c onclude t hat t he d ependent b e i ncorrect,

t hey a ccount f or s eparately a re m 2 a nd n 2. O ne c ould t ogether t hey e xplain m 2+n2 o f t he o riginal v ariation i n v ariable. S uch a c onclusion , m ore o ften t han n ot, w ould a nd n o v erdict c an b e g iven w ithout a n e xamination o f t he

c orrelation b etween t he i ndependent v ariables t hemselves. W henever t hey a re c orrelated , a nd i t o ften i s t he c ase, t he c umulative p roportion o f t he v ariation i n t he d ependent v ariable a ccounted f or b y b oth o f t hem j ointly a nd s eparately i s l ess t han t he s um o f t heir i ndividual

1 3

c ontributions. T he r eason f or t his b ecomes c lear i f o ne r ealizes t hat t he e stimation o f t he c ontribution f rom o ne v ariable i ncludes a lso t he p ortion c ommon t o t hem b oth ( i.e.that b etween t hem). T he s ame h olds t rue f or o f t his a c ertain i ncorrect r esult. I n

o rder

a ssociated w ith t he c orrelation t he o ther v ariable, a nd b ecause

c ontribution i s d ouble-counted ,

t hus

t o

s ituation ,

r emedy

t his

c onfusing

p roviding

a n

p artial

c orrelation c oefficients m ay b e i ntroduced , w hich c onveniently t ake c are o f a ll d ouble-counting . T heir r ationale r esembles s omewhat t hat o f t he s quared z ero-order c oefficient w ith o ne v ery i mportant d ifference. T he c ontribution o f a ny n umber o f t he i ndependent v ariables t o t he e xplanation o f t he v ariation i n t he d ependent o ne c an b e e liminated . I n o ther w ords, t he e ffects o f s ome v ariables c an b e c ontrolled a nd o nly t he c orrelation b etween t he d ependent a nd t he c hosen i ndependent v ariables m ay b e i nvestigated . U sually , o ne m easures t he c orrelation b etween t he d ependent v ariable a nd a s ingle i ndependent o ne, s uppressing a t t he s ame t ime a ll t he r emaining v ariables. I n t his w ay , o ne s uppresses a ll c orrelations b etween t he s elected i ndependent a nd a ll t he o ther i ndependent v ariables, m easuring o nly t he c orrelation b etween t he f ormer a nd t he d ependent v ariable. T hus, t he c ontribution e xclusive t o t he c hosen v ariable n ot s hared w ith a ny o f t he o ther i ndependent v ariables i s o btained . T he n umber o f t he i ndependent v ariables c ontrolled d etermines t he o rder o f t he p artial c oefficient: f or t he f irst o rder, o ne variable i s c ontrolled ; f or t he s econd o rder t wo, e tc; a nd c onsequently , f or t he z ero-order c oefficient, n o v ariables a re c ontrolled a t a ll.

B y way o f r ecapitulation i t c an b e s aid t hat:

T he n th-order p artial c orrelation c oefficient i s am easure o f t he s trength a nd d irection o f t he c orrelation b etween t he d ependent variable a nd a ny o f t he i ndependent o nes t aken o ne a t a t ime, w ith t he e ffects a nd t he

o f t he r emaining n i ndependent v ariables s uppressed . I ts r ange m eaning o f t he e xtreme v alues a re t he s ame a s f or t he

z ero-order c orrelation c oefficient ( cf a bove), f or w hich i t p rovides a c heck o f a k ind . T his i s t o s ay , t here e xists a r eal c orrelation b etween t wo v ariables i n am ultivariate s ituation i f a nd o nly i f b oth t he z ero-order a nd t he n th-order p artial c orrelation c oefficients i ndicate s o ( i.e. b oth a re h igh). I f t he p artial c oefficient i s l ow , t here i s n o c orrelation b etween t hem r egardless o f t he v alue o f t he z ero-order c oefficient. I f o nly t he l atter i s h igh , t he c orrelation i mplied i s s purious. T he s ame h olds t rue, m utatis m utandis, f or a n i nverse c orrelation .

T he

m ultiple

c orrelation

c oefficient

m easures

t he

m ultiple

c orrelation b etween t he d ependent v ariable a nd a ll t he i ndependent o nes t aken a ll t ogether ( as i f a n e ntity). I n o ther w ords, i t i ndicates t he o verall e ffect a ll t he i ndependent v ariables h ave o n t he d ependent o ne b oth s eparately a nd j ointly ( the l atter d ue t o c orrelations a mong t hemselves).

1 4

O f m ore i nterest t o u s h owever w ill b e t he s quared m ultiple c orrelation c oefficient, w hich i ndicates t he p roportion o f t he o riginal v ariation i n t he d ependent v ariable e xplained b y a ll t he i ndependent v ariables b oth j ointly a nd s eparately . T hat i s t o s ay , i t m easures t he a mount o f v ariation t hat h as b een a ccounted f or b y t he v ariables c onsidered , a s o pposed t o t hat w hich i s s till u nexplained i .e. a ffected b y s ome o ther f actors n ot i ncluded i n t he a nalysis. T his c oefficient r anges f rom 0 t o 1 ( the l atter i s e quivalent t o 1 00% e xplained).

A fter t he d escription o f t he c oefficients e mployed i n t his w ork , w e s hall l ook a t s ome c ontroversial a spects o f r egression a nalysis a s a pplied h ere a nd i n m any o ther a rchaeological s ituations i n g eneral.The p roblems t o b e d iscussed a re o f a p ractical n ature a nd t hey a rise b ecause o f t he c haracter o f a rchaeological d ata . O ften c ertain v ariables e ssential f or m easured d irectly , i n w hich c ase i ndirect,

a n a nalysis c annot b e a nd u sually l ess

r epresentative m easurements h ave t o b e a dopted . I n f act, w hat o ne m easures i s a nother v ariable w hich i s a ssumed t o b e a ssociated w ith t hat o f i nterest b y a c ausal r elationship. T his i n t urn ,is t aken a s t he r ationale f or e quating t he t wo variables, a fter a n i mplicit i ntroduction o f a p roportionality f actor, w hich n ormally d oes n ot a ffect t he a nalysis a nyway . An e xample o f t his c ould b e a n e stimate o f t he p opulation s ize t hrough a m easurement o f t he s ite a rea . S uch a c ompromise u ndoubtedly d istorts t he r esults t o s ome e xtent, b ut i t h as t o b e a ccepted o ut o f n ecessity . Another p roblem

i s

t he p atchiness o f d ata a nd c rudeness o f t he

e stimates. W hat i s m eant b y t his i s t he a pproximate v alue o f t he m easurable e stimates o f s ome v ariable b ecause o f t he p artial d estruction o f t he d ata , o r a n u navailability o f t he e vidence i n t he d esired f orm . T his i s t he c ase, f or i nstance, w hen t he d ensity o f p ottery d istribution h as t o b e e stimated o n t he b asis o f w eighing o r c ounting s herds. N eedless t o

s ay ,

s uch c ompromises d o h ave a n a dverse e ffect o n

t he r esults o f r egression a nalysis. H owever, t here a re n umerous s ituations i n w hich w orthwhile c onclusions c an s till b e a rrived a t, a nd t he d istortions i nvolved a re c ontained w ithin t he t olerance r ange, p rovided o ne i s f ully a ware o f t he d rawbacks. T he s ame s ort o f d ifficulties h ave b een e ncountered i n t he c ourse o f p reparing t his w ork a nd n ow w e s hall d iscuss t hem .

T he c orrelation c oefficients w ere c alculated f or s ix v ariables: t he a reas o f v arious t ypes o f s oils d ivided i nto f our c lasses a ccording t o t heir a gricultural v alue ( 4 i ndependent v ariables); t he t otal n umber o f c emeteries ( another i ndependent v ariable); a nd t he t otal a mount o f b ronze i n e ach c ategory ( the d ependent v ariable). T he c ategories a dopted h ere

w ere

e xisting p hysiogeographical r egions.

1 5

F or

d efined t his

o n

t he b asis o f t he

p urpose

t he w hole a rea

under s tudy was d ivided a fter K ondracki ( Kondracki e t a l 1 978) i nto 1 5 p hysiogeographical m acro-regions. T hey d iffer f rom o ne a nother w ith r egard t o e nvironmental f eatures, s uch a s: c onfiguration o f t he s urface, t he c haracter o f b ed-rock , w ater c onditions, w hich i n t urn h ave t heir r eflection i n t he l ocal c limate, v egetation , c onnected w ith t he d evelopment o f g enetical s oil t ypes.

a nd

a re

T he f irst f our v ariables, i .e. t he a reas o f t he s oil t ypes a re r egarded h ere a s a m easurement o f a gricultural p otential. T he f our c lasses u sed h ere a re a n a daptation o f S trzemski's(1954) c lassification o f s oils r eflecting t heir a gricultural v alue. I n h is c lassification t here a re s ix c lasses, e ach o f w hich c onsists o f s everal g enetical s oil t ypes. T he f irst t wo c lasses ( 1 a nd 2 ) o f S trzemski's c lassification i .e. t he b est s oils w ere c onsidered j ointly , a s w ere t he l ast t wo ( 5 a nd 6 ) i .e. t he w orst o nes. T he r eason f or t his w as t wofold : f irstly , t he a reas o f t he s oils b elonging t o t hese f our c lasses t aken s eparately w ere s mall ( often n il); s econdly , i t w as u ndesirable t o i nclude t oo m any variables i n t he a nalysis i nterpret. I n a ny c ase, t he c lassification i nclude t he d ifferences b etween t hem a re p urpose o f t his a rgument .

T he

a s t he r esults w ould b e d ifficult t o f irst t wo c lasses o f S trzemski's a griculturally b est s oils a nd t he s o f ine a s t o b e i nsignificant f or t he s ame

a pplies

t o

t he

w orst s oils.

T he

a reas o f t he g enetical s oil t ypes i n e ach r egion w ere m easured i n s quare k ilometres f rom a m ap i n t he s cale 1 : 1 0 00 0 00 ( Witek a t a l 1 975). T his

d iscrepancy

b etween

t he

m easurable q uantities i .e.

t he

s oils a rea , a nd t hose n eeded f or t he a nalysis i .e. t he a gricultural p otential, e ntailed a n i ndirect v ariable m easurement. O ne c ould a rgue a bout t he e xtent t o w hich t he m odern a gricultural s oil c lasses r epresent t he a gricultural p otential o f a r egion n early f our t housand y ears a go. Admittedly , t he e stimate i s o nly a pproximate, b ut i t s eems s ufficient f or o ur p urposes. I n t his w ork t he m easure o f t he a gricultural p otential i s u sed i n t he r elative s ense i .e. f or c omparing t he i ndividual r egions i n t his r espect w ith o ne a nother, a nd n ot a s s ome a bsolute i ndicator. H ence, e ven i f t he m easurements o btained r epresent a d istorted p icture i n a bsolute t erms, i t d oes n ot d ecrease t heir v alue. T here i s a h igh p robability o f t he d ata f rom a ll t he r egions h aving b een a ffected i n a s imilar w ay ( by e .g . s oil e rosion , e tc.)

t hus p reserving t he r elationships o f Another validating

f actor

i s

i nterest

t o

u s.

t he i nclusion i n t he a ccount a ll

t he s oil t ypes, a nd n ot j ust t he s election o f a f ew . T his c ertainly p rovides m ore r eliable e vidence. P ractically t he w hole o f e ach r egion w as c overed ( with t he e xception o f l akes a nd r ivers) a nd b y t his m eans a ccount w as a lso t aken o f t he d ifferences i n t heir s izes. I f , f or i nstance, a r egion x h as t he s ame b est s oils a rea a s r egion y , but i t i s s everal t imes l arger, t heir a gricultural p otential b y n o m eans c an b e r egarded a s e quivalent.This i s r esolved t o a n e xtent,by t he a nalysis o f a ll s oil t ypes,

a s o pposed t o o ne o nly .

T here i s h owever t ype a reas

i n t he

a p enalty t o p ay f or i t.

a nalysis

B y i ncluding a ll s oil

a s i ndependent v ariables,

1 6

o ne c annot

h elp

i nvestigating t he r elationships a mong t hemselves a s w ell a s t he c orrelations b etween t hem a nd t he d ependent v ariable. S ince t hey a re b ound t o b e ( inversely)correlated t o a d egree, a ll t he c orrelation c oefficients w ill b e e xplicitly , a s i t w ere,

a ffected , r egardless o f w hether d irectly a nd t hey i nvolve a ll t he i ndependent v ariables

( i.e. m ultiple c orrelation c oefficient), o r o nly o ne o f t hem ( i.e. t he n th-order p artial c orrelation c oefficient). F rom t he a rchaeological p oint o f v iew , t he i nformation c oncerning t he c orrelations b etween t he a reas o f v arious s oil t ypes i s i rrelevant, h ence i t a cts a s a n " interference" o r " noise" which c annot b e e liminated . D espite a ll t his, t he s uperiority o f s uch a n a pproach i s c lear m ainly b ecause i t a llows o ne t o d emonstrate a ll t he c orrelations t hat e xist r ather t han r esorting t o t he u se o f n egative e vidence. T his w ould i nevitably t end t o f ollow i f o nly o ne s oil t ype w ere t aken i nto a ccount, s ince w eakness o r l ack o f c orrelation b etween e .g . t he b est s oils a rea ( independent) a nd t he t otal a mount o f m etal ( dependent) w ould h ave t o b e i nterpreted a s i mplying a c orrelation b etween t he l atter a nd t he p oor s oils a rea .

T he s econd v ariable,

i .e.

t he t otal

n umber

o f

c emeteries,

i s

c onsidered h ere a s i ndicative o f t he p opulation s ize. S uch a p roposition s eems j ustified f or s imilar r easons a s t hose m entioned a bove. T he i nferences c oncerning p opulation t rends w ill b e b ased o n t he c omparisons o f t he m easurements o n t he v ariable i n e ach p eriod w ith o ne a nother ( i.e. p roportions) a nd n ever t he a ctual n umbers. T his i s a gain a n i nstance o f a n i ndirect v ariable m easurement w hich i s f orced o n o ne b y t he u navailability o f t he d esired i nformation . I n a n a rchaeological c ontext, p robably t he b est m easurements o f t he p opulation s ize i n t he r elative s ense a s i n t his w ork , w ould b e t he t otal n umber o f g raves i n e ach p eriod . S uch d ata s hould r eflect m ore a ccurately t he d emographic t rends, h owever,

f orgetting o ne h as t o

t he o bvious l imitations i nherent i n i t. H ere c ompromise o wing t o t he f act t hat s uch d etailed

i nformation i s n ot e asily o btainable. O ne m ore p oint r equires c larification . T he u sual n umber o f g raves i n a c emetery w as s ignificantly d ifferent i n t he E arly a nd t he L ate B ronze A ge. F or t his r eason i t w ould b e t otally m isleading f or o ur p urposes t o c ount t he n umber o f c emeteries i n e ach p eriod w ithout m aking a llowances f or t he s ize d ifferential. H ence, i n o rder t o m ake t he d ata f rom t he i ndividual p eriods c ompatible, a c emetery w as c onsidered a s o ne i f i t w as s maller t han , o r e qual t o t he h ypothetical m ean n umber o f g raves i n t he E arly B ronze A ge, w hich w as 1 5. A ll t he l arger c emeteries w ere c onsidered n ot a s o ne but a s a n umber o f c emeteries w hose v alue w as e qual t o t he r ounded u p q uotient o f t he k nown r eal n umber o f g raves d ivided b y 1 5. S uch a p rocedure w as n ecessary a lso d ue t o t he f act t hat f or t he L ate B ronze A ge o ften o nly a n a pproximate n umber o f g raves i s g iven f or s ome c emeteries i n t he e xisting p ublications ( e.g . M alinowski 1 961). I t w as p ractically i mpossible t o a cquire t he e xact

q uantities f or a ll t he c emeteries f rom

t his p eriod a s t heir n umber a mounts t o o ver 1 000. T his a pproach i s a n i nstance o f w hat w as e arlier l abelled " the c rudeness o f e stimates" i n

1 7

s ome a rchaeological s ituations. H ere h owever, c rude, t he a vailable e stimates s eem a dequate.

a lthough u ndoubtedly

T he t hird variable, i .e. t he t otal a mount o f b ronze, w ill s tand f or i tself . I t w as m easured w ith t he a id o f t he s ame a rbitrary s coring s ystem w hich was e mployed i n t he p roduction o f t he t rend s urface m aps, a nd was d iscussed e arlier. T he t ransformed d ata ( i.e. t he s cores) u sed f or t he q uantitative a nalysis a re p resented i n t he t able ( table.IIIa-e). I t a lso c ontains t he i nformation c oncerning t he p roportions

o f

m etal i n t he f orm o f o rnaments,

w ell a s t he p roportions o f m etal f ound i solation . T he g raphical r epresentation f requency f ig .XXIV).

p olygons) w ill b e u sed i n t he

i n o f

t ools,

a nd w eapons;

a s

h oards, g raves, a nd i n t his i nformation ( i.e.

a rgument

t oo

( table.IIIa-e;

T here a re m any p oints i n t he p ropositions p resented a bove w hich m ight a ppear d ubious. S ome o f t hem h ave a lready b een m entioned e .g . t he a ppropriateness o f t he m easurements o f t he a gricultural p otential a nd t he p opulation s ize ( i.e. t he i ndirect v ariable m easurements), o r t he c rudeness o f t he e stimate o f t he n umber o f c emeteries. A nother, n ot t ouched u pon y et, i s t he f act t hat f ive o f t he f ifteen r egions a re d evoid o f t he c lass 1 a nd 2 s oils i n S trzemski's c lassification , t he e quivalent t o c lass 1 , i .e. t he b est s oils, i n m ine. T his m eans t hat f ive o f t he c ategories u sed i n t he q uantitative a nalysis h ave t he m easurement o n t he f irst v ariable e qual t o 0 ( table.IIIa-e), w hich i s n ot e ntirely s atisfactory f rom t he a nalytical p oint o f v iew . E ven m ore s erious p roblems a re r aised b y t he d efinition o f t he c ategories. A s h as b een s aid , t hese w ere b ased o n p hysiogeographical m acro-regions. T he i mplicit p rinciple u nderlying t his s tep w as t he b elief t hat, i n s ome s ense, e ach r egion c onstitutes a s eparate u nit . T his o f c ourse i s t he c ase f rom a p hysiogeographical p oint o f v iew , b ut d oes i t p rovide a v alid a nd m eaningful c ategorization i n t he p aleo-demographic s ense ? I n o ther w ords, d id t he r egional d ifferences ,w hich o ften a re n ot v ery p ronounced , d etermine t he c ohesion o f t he s ettlement p atterns i n t he p ast; a nd i f t hey d id , t o w hat e xtent ? Unfortunately , t his q uestion c annot b e a nswered s atisfactorily i n t he l ight o f t he e vidence a vailable f or t his w ork .Nevertheless, a s w e w ill s ee b elow , t his d oes n ot p revent u s f rom c arrying o ut a q uantitative a nalysis a nd o btaining w orthwhile r esults. F irst h owever, l et u s t ry t o d iscern w hether o r n ot t here e xists a b etter a lternative t hat c an b e e mployed

w ith t he d ata a t h and .

I t i s

c lear,

o f

c ourse,

t hat t he c hoice o f t he c ategories i s

a bsolutely c rucial f or t he q uantitative a nalysis, a nd i t h as a d ecisive i mpact o n i ts r esults. H ence, s uch a s election c annot b e c onsidered i n a n a bstract f ashion but i n r elation t o I deally ,

t he

o bjective o f t he a nalysis.

t he c ategories s hould b e i mplied i n a " natural"

d ata i nvestigated ,

a s

e ntities

w ay

b y

t he

d ividing t he s et o f o bservations o n a

1 8

v ariable(s) i nto g roups o f e lements, o n t he b asis o f s ome e xplicitly o bvious p rinciple, w hich i s i mplicitly c ontained i n t he a im o f t he s tudy . A h ypothetical i nstance o f t his c ould b e c ounting t he n umber o f h uts a nd g rinding s tones f ound a nywhere w ithin a s ettlement , w hile a ddressing t he q uestion w hether o r .not t here i s a c orrelation b etween t he t wo v ariables. I n a rchaeological t erms, o ne c ould b e a iming a t e stablishing w hether a s ingle g rinding s tone w as s hared b y a c onstant n umber o f h uts ( perhaps i ndicating t he e xistence o f c ertain s ocial l inks b etween t heir i nhabitants, e .g . k inships) t hroughout t he a rea o f i nterest; o r w hether t here w ere n o d efinite r ules r egulating i t . I n t his s ort o f s ituation , t here c annot b e a ny d oubt a s t o t he b oundaries o r t he m eaning o f t he c ategories. N ow l et u s s uppose f or t he s ake o f a rgument , t hat t he s ame a nalysis, g eared t o t he s ame o bjective i s a pplied t o t he s ame d ata , b ut t here i s n o o ne-to-one r elationship b etween t he i ndividual s ettlements a nd t he c ategories u sed i n t he a nalysis. I nstead , e ach c ategory c omprises a n umber o f s ettlements; f or i nstance, a ll s ettlements w ithin a m icro-region c ompose a s ingle c ategory ; i .e. e ffectively , t he c ategorization i s b ased o n t he d ivision o f t he a rea i nto m icro-regions. A s a r esult , t he f requency d istributions w ould b e d ifferent f rom t hose s tudied p reviously , e ven t hough t he b ody o f d ata h as n ot c hanged a s s uch . T he d egree t o w hich t he t wo s ets o f f requency d istributions d iffer w ill d epend o n t he e xact m anner i n w hich t he i ndividual c ategories w ere m erged w ith o ne a nother ,and i t m ay r ange f rom o nly s lightly d ifferent t o a lmost c ompletely d ifferent . C onsequently , t he c orrelation c oefficients o btained f or d ifferent s ets o f d istributions w ill a lso b e d ifferent . T o d emonstrate t his p oint , l et d istributions o ver t en s ettlements e .g .:

u s

t ake

7

s ettlement

1

2

3

4

5

6

n umber o f h uts ( x)

3

1

5

8

9

4

n umber o f q uerns ( y)

2

6

4

3

7

1 1

1 5

t he

t wo

t wo

h ypothetical

8

9

1 1

9

4

1 3

1 0

7

1 2

U sing t he f ormula f or t he c orrelation c oefficient :

N

y

2 x )

w here

N

i s

t he

n umber

o f

) (N

o bservations

1 9

2

y ) )

( i.e.

t he

n umber

o f

c ategories-here t he n umber o f s ettlements); w e f ind t hat c orrelation c oefficient f or t hese t wo d istributions i s r -0 .48.

t he

N ow w e a ssume t hat t here a re f ivc m icro-regions, a nd t hat t he d istribution o f t he s ettlements o ver t he m icro-regions i s a s f ollows:

m icro-region s ettlement

1

2

3

4

5

1 ,2

3

4 ,5,6

7 ,8,9

1 0

T aking t he m icro-regions a s t he c ategories f or r egression a nalysis b rings a bout a m erger o f s ome o f t he o riginal c ategories ( i .e. s ettlements), a nd g ives t wo n ew d istributions o f t he n umber o f h uts a nd t he n umber o f q uerns, w hich a re a s f ollows:

m icro-region

1

2

3

4

5

n umber o f h uts ( x)

4

5

2 1

3 9

7

n umber o f q uerns ( y)

8

4

2 1

2 5

5

A pplying t he a bove f ormula t o t he n ew d istributions, c orrelation c oefficient c omes t o r -0.96.

t he v alue o f t he

H ence, i n t he f irst c ase t he c oefficient i ndicates o nly a s light c orrelation b etween t he t wo v ariables; w hereas i n t he s econd i t i s v ery h igh a nd s o i s t he c orrelation , e ven t hough i n b oth i nstances t he s ame b ody o f d ata w as i nvestigated . T his e xample i llustrates t he p oint m ade a bove, n amely t hat t he c hoice o f c ategories i s o f e xtreme i mportance, a nd i t m ay h ave a d ramatic i mpact o n t he r esults o f t he q uantitative a nalysis ( regression a nalysis i n t his c ase). I t s hould b e s tressed t hat i t i s n ot t he c ase o f o nly o ne t ype o f c ategories b eing c orrect i n a g iven c ontext, a nd a ll o thers i ncorrect . H owever, i t i s t rue t o s ay t hat s ome c hoices a re m ore a ppropriate t han o thers, d epending o n t he d ata i n h and a nd t he a im o f t he s tudy . S o r emembering t hat d ifferent c ategory t ypes m ay p roduce d iffering r esults, o ne s hould a lways s elect t hem v ery c arefully o n n on-statistical g rounds, t rying t o g ive t hem s ome m eaning r elated t o t he o bjective o f t he r esearch .

U nfortunately , t he c ontext u nder s tudy d oes n ot a fford t he d efinition o f t he o ptimal " natural" c ategorization a nd f or t his r eason

2 0

o ne h as t o r esort t o t his s omewhat i ndirect m ethod d escribed a bove ( i .e. m icro-regions i nstead o f , s ay , i ndividual s ites). I gnoring a ll t he a rchaeologically i mpracticable p ropositions ( in t he c ontext o f t his w ork , o f c ourse), a n a lternative a pproach c ould c onsist i n d ividing t he e ntire a rea i nto a g rid o f q uadrats o f a n a rbitrary s ize a nd s hape, a nd u sing t hem a s t he c ategories. S uch a n a pproach h owever i s m ore h aphazard , s ince o ne c annot a ttach a ny m eaning a t a ll t o t he c ategories. M oreover, t he p robability o f t his d ivision c oinciding w ith t hat w hich g enerated t he s ettlement p attern i n t he p ast i s m inimal. I n v iew o f t his, t he a pproach a dopted h ere a lthough f ar f rom i deal , i s b etter i n t hat i t d oes c ontain a n e lement o f a " natural" d ivision , i n r elation t o t he p roblem i nvestigated .

O n t he w hole, t here a ppear t o b e s o m any c ontroversial p ropositions i n t he i mplementation o f r egression a nalysis i n t his w ork t hat o ne m ight a rgue a bout t he l egitimacy o f i ts u se a t a ll. I n a ll p robability , I a s w ell w ould b e h esitant w ith r egard t o t he v alidity o f a n a rgument b ased o nly o n t he m ethods p resented a bove. H owever , o ne m ust n ot f orget a v ery i mportant c ircumstance,namely t hat t he a pproach a dopted h ere m ight p rovide u nreliable r esults n ot b ecause i ts m ethodological r ationale a nd t he p ractical i mplementations h ave b een d emonstrated d efinitely i nadequate, b ut b ecause s o f ar i t h as b een i mpossible t o p rove u nequivocally t hat t hey a re c orrect a nd s ufficient i n t his c ontext . I n o ther w ords, t he m ethodological f ramework p roposed h ere w ill b e a dequate i n f avourable c ircumstances, b ut s ince i t i s n ot c ompletely f aultproof , t here i s s till a m argin o f u ncertainty . F ortunately , t here i s a f actor v alidating o ur s tance. M any o f t he a spects o f t he B ronze A ge i n w estern P oland w hich w e a re c oncerned w ith i n t his w ork h ave b een s tudied b y P olish a rchaeologists f rom a d ifferent a ngle a nd w ith a d ifferent p urpose i n m ind . S uch i ssues a s t he d emographic t rends, f or i nstance , w ere r esearched b y o thers i n a m ore q ualitative f ashion , b ut t heir s tudies w ere b ased o n w ider , m ore d iverse a nd c omplete e vidence, i ncluding s ettlements, p ottery d istribution e tc. ( e.g . G ardawski a nd K owalczyk ( eds.) 1 978; D abrowski a nd R ajewski ( eds.) 1 979). H ence, t here i s ap ossibility o f v erifying t he r esults o btained h ere w ith t hose p roduced b y o thers. T hey p roved t o b e i n a ccordance w ith e ach o ther , a nd t his p rovides t he u ltimate j ustification f or s upporting t he a rgument w ith t he o utcome o f t he o riginal r egression a nalysis. T hus, i t h as b een d ecided t o e mploy t he r esults o f t he m ultiple r egression a nalysis a s av aluable c ontribution t o t he w ork d espite a ll t he o bjections t hat m ight b e r aised a gainst t hem . O ne o f t he c onsiderations t hat i nfluenced s uch a d ecision w as t he p ossibility o f d emonstrating c ertain t rends p ertinent t o t he a rgument, r ather t han m erely r eferring t o t he c onclusions a rrived a t b y o thers. T hese o f c ourse w ill b e q uoted i n t he a ppropriate c ontext l ater o n . O n t he o ther h and , t his p art o f t he w ork s hows t he e normous p otential o f t he q uantitative a nalysis i n a rchaeology w hich l eads t o t he s ame g oal a s t he t raditional a pproach , y et a t a l esser e xpense a nd w ith a s carcer b ody o f d ata a vailable.

2 1

i ii.) p rincipal c omponents a nalysis

P rincipal c omponents a nalysis i s t he l ast i n t he a rray o f t he q uantitative m ethods e mployed i n t his w ork . A s i n t he c ase o f o ther t echniques i ntroduced a bove, w e s hall h ave t o d ispense W ith t he e xplanation o f i ts r ationale, a nd l imit t he a ccount o f i t o nly t o t he w ay i ts r esults s hould b e i nterpreted . P rincipal c omponents a nalysis i s am ultivariate m ethod w hich , u nlike m ultiple r egression , d oes n ot r equire t he d eclaration o f o ne o f t he v ariables a s d ependent ; a ll o f t hem a re t reated o n t he s ame f ooting . G iven a s et o f m easurements o n a n umber o f v ariables c haracterizing c ertain o bjects, p rincipal c omponents a nalysis c an b e u sed t o d etermine w hich o f t he v ariable(s) h ave t he s trongest i mpact o n t he d ifferences b etween t he i ndividual e lements. S uch v ariables w ill m ost p robably b e c orrelated w ith o ne a nother t o a v arying d egree. T he i dea i s t o g roup t hem i n s uch a w ay , t hat t he v ariables w ithin e ach s ubset w ill b e c orrelated a s c losely a s p ossible, w hereas t he c orrelation b etween t he s ubsets w ill b e m inimized . T his s hould n ormally r esult i n a d ecreased n umber o f t he n ew v ariables ( i.e. t he s ubsets), c alled t he c omponents, w hich c an l ead t o a s impler a nalysis o f t he v ariability a mong t he o bjects u nder s tudy . T here a re a f ew n umerical i ndices i nvolved i n c omponents a nalysis w hich w ill b e o f i nterest t o u s.

t he

p rincipal

T he c orrelations b etween t he i ndividual v ariables a nd t he c omponents a re m easured b y t he c omponent l oadings, w hich h ave e xactly t he s ame m eaning a s t he z ero-order c orrelation c oefficients ( cf p . 1 3-14). T he s um o f s quared l oadings o f a c omponent , i .e. i ts e igenvalue, i ndicates t he t otal v ariance i n a ll v ariables a ccounted f or b y t his c omponent . I t i s m ore i nformative, i f e xpressed r elative t o t he t otal v ariance p resent i n a ll t he v ariables, i n w hich c ase i t i s c alled t he p ercentage o f t race.

I n t his c hapter, t wo ( out o f t hree) m ethodological s upporting t he a rgument t o f ollow w ere d escribed .

f rameworks

T he f irst o f t hese w as c ultural d iffusion w hose v alue w ith r egard t o t his w ork l ies i n i ts p otential f or e stablishing t he c ourse o f l ong d istance e xchange r outes, a nd t heir d irections; h ence i t p rovides f oundations f or t he e conomic i nterpretation . T he s econd f ramework c omprises a r ange o f q uantitative m ethods, n amely t rend s urface a nalysis a nd t he c ontour m aps; m ultiple r egression a nalysis w ith t he a ccompanying c orrelation c oefficients: z ero-order ,

2 2

s quared z ero-order, t he n th o rder m ultiple c orrelation c oefficients; a nalysis w ith i ts p arameters: p ercentage o f t race.

p artial, multiple a nd t he s quared a nd f inally p rincipal c omponents

c omponent

l oadings,

e igenvalues a nd t he

S everal d rawbacks o f t he q uantitative m ethods a s a pplied i n t he c ontext o f t his w ork w ere e mphasized ; i n p articular t he e dge e ffect a nd t he s ize o f t he g rid q uadrats i n c onnection w ith t he t rend s urface a nalysis, a nd t he i ndirect m easurements o n v ariables, p atchiness o f d ata , c rudeness o f t he e stimates a nd t he a rbitrariness o f t he d efinition o f t he c ategories i n a ssociation w ith m ultiple r egression a nalysis.

T he

j ustification

f or

t he d eployment o f t hese m ethods a nd t he

u se o f t heir r esults i n t he a rgument w as p resented .

2 3

I V.

DESCRIPTION O F METAL D ISTRIBUTION T RENDS

N ow , d escribe

l et u s l ook

t he

m ajor

a t

t rends

t he m etal d istribution m aps a pparent f rom

t hem ,

a s

( fig .V-IX) w ell

a s

a nd

t hose

s uggested by t he q uantitative a nalysis o f t he d ata . P laces i n w estern P oland r eferred t o i n t he t ext c an b e i dentified o n t he m ap ( fig .II).

a .)

W isla

T he f irst B ronze A ge P eriod

I n t he f irst B ronze A ge p eriod , t he a rea b etween t he O dra a nd r ivers r eceived r elatively ' large s upplies o f m etal o bjects,

t ypologically a ssociated w ith t he Unetice c ulture.

T he a mount o f b ronze

a ttributed t o t his p eriod i s i mpressive, p articularly - in v iew o f t he f act t hat i t was t he b eginning o f t he d issemination o f t he m etal i n l arge q uantities ( table.IIIa-e). M ost o f i t c omes f rom t he l ate ( classic) p hase o f t he Unetice c ulture. T he d istribution o f b ronze ( fig .V) s hows a m arked c oncentration a long t he u pper a nd m iddle O dra; i n t he a rea b etween t he m iddle O dra a nd t he m iddle Warta; a nd t o a l esser e xtent o n t he S targardzko-Pyrzycka P lain b y t he u pper I na r iver. T he e xchange r outes e xisting i n t he N eolithic ( fig .X) s eem t o h ave b een s till e mployed . A lmost 7 3% o f a ll m etal i s f ound i n t he s outhern z one ( table.IIIa) a nd t he o verwhelming m ajority o f o bjects s how s outhern p rovenance. T his i mplies t hat m ost o f t he m etal c ame f rom t he o ther s ide o f t he S udety m ountains v ia t he M oravian G ate ( fig .III). T he a reas w ith t he g reatest a gricultural p otential(cf p .16-17) c oincide w ith t he l argest q uantities o f m etal. T his i s a pparent f rom t he m ap a nd f urther s upported b y t he r esults o f t he q uantitative a nalysis. T he z ero-order c orrelation c oefficient b etween t he b est s oils a reas ( i.e. c lass 1 ) a nd t he t otal a mount o f b ronze i n a r egion i s h igh ( table.IVa). I n f act, i t i s t he h ighest o f a ll c oefficients b etween t he l atter a nd a ny s oil t ype. A s h as b een s aid , a h igh z ero-order c oefficient i s n ot s ufficient t o i nfer t he e xistence o f ah igh d egree o f c orrelation b etween t he v ariables ( cf p .14). S uch a c onclusion c an b e d rawn o nly i f b oth t he z ero-order a nd t he p artial c oefficients a re h igh . I f t here i s a g reat d isparity b etween t he c orrelation i s s purious. H owever, i t h as a ll s oil t ypes i n t he

t wo

t he

i mplied

a lso b een e xplained a bove t hat t he i nclusion o f a nalysis a s i ndependent v ariables c reates a

r ather u nfortunate s ituation . T his i s b ecause t he c oefficients (p articularly t he 4 th-order p artials ) d escribing t he r elationships o f

2 4

i nterest t o u s, Le. t hose b etween t he t otal q uantity o f m etal a nd t he t otal n umbmr o f c eme ' teries i n a r sg lon o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he d ifferent „ t i oil ; : ype a reas, o n t he o ther, m ay b e a dversely a ffected b y c orrelations e xisting w ithin t he d istribution s et o f t he i ndividual s oil t ype a reas. A s i t h appens, s ome s oil t ype d istributions a re s trongly c orrelated w ith o ne a nother ( c f t able. I Va-e ) . I n t hese c ircumstances w e s hall a ttempt t o i dentify t he c orrelations i n t he r elative s ense ( i .e. t hose s tronger t han o thers ) a s l ong a s t hey d o n ot f all b elow a c ertain r easonable l evel. T hese r emarks a pply t o t he a nalyses o f a ll B ronze A ge p eriods i n t his c hapter . I n t his c ase, t he r elevant 4 th-order p artial c onfirms t he e xistence o f a c ertain c orrelation . T here i s a nother c haracteristic o f t he z ero-order c oefficients t hat s tands o ut, n amely t hat t hey d ecrease a long w ith t he q uality o f t he s oils. T his r egularity h owever , h olds t o am uch l esser d egree o n t he e xamination o f t he p artials. T hey s how t hat t here a re n o d efinite r elationships b etween t he a mount o f b ronze a nd a ny o f t he r emaining s oil c lasses. T he f airly n oticeable c orrelation w ith c lass 2 s oils a s i mplied b y t he z ero-order c oefficient , i s l argely s purious o n a ccount o f t he v ery l ow 4 th-order p artial. H owever, o ne c an s till s ay t hat t he r elative c orrelation b etween t he m etal q uantity a nd s oil q uality d ecreases f rom c lass 2 t o c lass 4 , e ven t hough t hey a re v ery w eak . C lass 2 i s m ore c orrelated -t o t he f ormer t han c lass 3 , a nd c lass 4 i s e ven i nversely c orrelated t o a s mall d egree ( both t he z ero-order a nd t he p artial a re n egative). O n t he w hole, t his c onfirms t he a bove p roposition t o t he e ffect t hat t he a reas w ith t he h ighest a gricultural p otential ( class 1 ) r eceived t he l argest q uantities o f m etal, a nd t hat t he l atter w as, i n g eneral, p roportional t o a c ertain e xtent , t o t he s oil q uality o f a r egion .

T he s ame a reas w ith t he b est s oils a lso s eem t o h ave b een m ost d ensely p opulated a s b oth t he z ero-order a nd t he 4 th-order p artial c oefficients b etween t he b est s oils a rea a nd t he t otal n umber o f c emeteries i n a r egion a re h igh , t hus i ndicating a g enuine c orrelation b etween t he v ariables. T hese s eem t o h ave b een t he m ost p referred a reas ( the h ighest c oefficients), b ut a s ubstantial p roportion o f t he p opulation a ppears t o h ave s ettled o n w orse s oils t oo, ( namely c lass 3 ). S uch a c onclusion i s i mplied b y t he r elatively h igh z ero-order a nd 4 th-order p artial c oefficients, w hich s how t hat t here i s a d egree o f c orrelation b etween t hese v ariables( t able.IVa); t he r emaining c oefficients c an b e n eglected a s n ot i ndicating a ny i nteresting r elationships. T he

l ast

c onclusion

s uggests t hat t he a reas w ith t he g reatest

a gricultural p otential a ttracted t he l argest n umbers o f s ettlers a nd i ndependently , t he l argest a mounts o f b ronze. I n o ther w ords, t he m etal q uantity . s eems t o h ave b een a f unction o f t he a gricutural p otential r ather t han t he p opulation s ize. A part f rom t he f orementioned p reference f or c lass 3 s oils t here i s a nother f act s upporting s uch a p roposition , n amely t he c oefficients b etween t he t otal a mount o f b ronze a nd t he t otal n umber o f c emeteries i n a r egion ( table.IVa). A lthough b oth t he z ero-order a nd t he 4 th-order p artial c oefficients i mply a d egree o f c orrelation b etween t hem , a s t hey a re b oth m oderate, b oth o f t hem a re s ignificantly l ower t han t he r espective c oefficients b etween t he t wo v ariables i n q uestion t aken i n t urn a nd t he b est s oils

2 5

a reas . T his s imply m eans t hat t hey a re b oth m ore d ependant o n ( i.e. m ore s trongly c orrelated w ith ) t he b est s oils a rea t han o n e ach o ther . F inally , i t c an b e a dded t hat t he h igh c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f c emeteries a nd t he q uantity o f m etal c annot b e i nterpreted a s a s ign o f m etal h aving b een d eposited p rimarily i n t he g raves; o nly 1 5% o f t he t otal a mount o f b ronze c omes f rom t he g raves ( table.IIIa ;fig .XXIV). I ts d istribution a mong t he g raves w as a lso v ery d ifferential.

b .)

T he s econd B ronze A ge p eriod

T he t otal

a mount

o f

b ronze

i n t he r egion d ecreased b y 4 2% i n

r elation t o t he p revious p eriod ( table.IIIa ,b; m ore c onsiderable i n t he n orthern z one ( 65%) ( 33%).

f ig .XXII). t han i n

T his d rop w as t he s outhern

T he g reatest c oncentration o f m etal m oved s outhwards i n r elation t o p eriod 1 ( fig .VI). N ow , t here i s o nly o ne o utstanding a ccumulation o f b ronze b y t he m iddle O dra r iver : a t t he m outh o f i ts t ributaries t he W idows a nd t he B ystrzyca , o n v ery f ertile s oils. T he c orrelation b etween t he t otal q uantity o f b ronze a nd t he b est s oils a rea ( i.e. c lass 1 ) i n a r egion i s h igher n ow t han i n t he p revious p eriod ( both t he z ero-order a nd t he 4 th-order p artial c oefficients a re h igher ; t able .IVa ,b). O n t he o ther h and , h owever, t he c orrelations b etween t he f ormer v ariable a nd t he a reas o f s oils o f g ood a nd m ediocre q uality ( i.e. c lasses 2 a nd 3 ) a re n oticeable a nd s tronger t han i n p eriod 1 . T he m eaning o f s uch r esults i s t hat a lthough t he t otal q uantity o f b ronze i n a r egion w as m ost s trongly c orrelated w ith t he b est s oils a rea ( to a n e ven g reater d egree t han i n p eriod 1 ), t he a reas w ith w orse s oils i .e. c lasses 2 a nd 3 , s eem t o h ave a ttracted a l arger p roportion o f m etal t han i n t he p receding p eriod . I n o ther w ords, t he a gricultural p otential w as s till a f actor d etermining t he a mount o f m etal r eceived b y a r egion , b ut i ts i mportance d ecreased a nd a reas w ith w orse a gricultural c onditions s eem t o h ave a ttracted a f air a mount o f b ronze. W e s hall r eturn t o t his i ssue l ater . T he p opulation t rends a s r eflected b y t he t otal n umber o f c emeteries i n a r egion a lso p resent a c hanged p icture . T he r elatively h igh z ero-order c oefficients i mplying a c orrelation w ith t he b est a nd g ood s oils a reas ( i.e. c lasses 1 a nd 2 ) a re c ontradicetd b y n egative 4 th-order p artials, w hich n ormally i mply a n i nverse c orrelation . T his i ndicates t he s purious c haracter o f t hese r elations. T here i s, h owever, a s trong a nd d efinitely g enuine c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f c emeteries a nd m ediocre s oils ( i.e. c lass 3 ) e videnced b y t he h igh z ero-order a nd p artial c oefficients ( table.IVb). T he c orrelation b etween t he p opulation s ize a nd t he t otal b ronze q uantity i n a r egion i s v ery h igh t oo. I n f act , b oth c oefficients a re h ighest o f a ll ( table.IVb). T he

g eneral

p icture

t hat

e merges f rom t his d ata i s d ifferent

2 6

f rom t hat i n p eriod 1 . F irst o f a ll, i t w as n ot e xclusively t he a gricultural p otential o f a n a rea t hat d etermined t he a mount o f b ronze r eceived b y i t, a lthough i t s till d id p lay a n i mportant p art . T here m ust h ave b een , h owever , a nother f actor c oming i nto p lay . O n t he o ther h and , t here w as a d efinite t endency f or p opulating a reas w ith w orse, l ighter s oils i n p reference t o t he b est , h eavy o nes. T he e xplanation o f t his e vidence h as t o i ncorporate c ertain f acts w hich a re n ot i mmediately o bvious f rom t he q uantitative a nalysis. M any a rchaeologists b elieve t hat d uring t he s econd B ronze A ge p eriod , w estern P oland w as i nhabited b y m obile s tock b reeders ( cf e .g . G ediga 1 978,p .169). T his a ccounts f or t he w eaker c orrelation b etween t he a gricultural p otential ( i .e. t he b est a nd g ood s oils ) a nd t he p opulation s ize, a s t he l ighter s oils w ould h ave b een g enerally p referred . I t a lso e xplains w hy t he a gricultural p otential ( i.e. e ffectively a gricultural s urplus) b ecame l ess i mportant i n d etermining t he q uantity o f m etal i n a r egion . T his w ould h ave b een i nfluenced t o a n e xtent b y a nimal s tock a vailability a s w ell. S uch a s ituation i s i mplied b y t he t otal q uantity o f m etal b eing c orrelated t o t he t hree s oil c lasses ( i .e. 1 t o 3 )a nd n ot o nly t he b est o nes a s b efore. T he v ery h igh c orrelation b etween t he a mount o f b ronze a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries m eans t hat t he a reas w ith t he b est s oils r eceived f air a mounts o f m etal, b ut t he l atter w ere f irst a nd f oremost a ssociated w ith t he g reatest p opulation s ize. T his i s t o s ay , i t w as n ot t he a reas w ith g reatest a gricultural p otential b ut t he m ost d ensely p opulated w here t he g reatest c oncentration o f b ronze o ccurred . A s i t h appened , t hese a reas h ad a lso b etter c onditions f or a nimal b reeding i .e. l ighter s oils. I ncidentally , a s i n p eriod 1 , t his c annot b e i nterpreted a s e vidence o f m etal h aving b een d eposited f airly e venly i n g raves; t here a re c onsiderable d ifferences i n t he f urnishing o f i ndividual b urials. A s h as b een s aid , a ll t his c omplies w ith t he o pinions o f t he e xperts o n t he p eriod i n w estern P oland . T he m a jority o f i mports s till c ome f rom t he s outh , w ith t heir s outhern c oncentration , b ut o ne o ccasionally c omes a cross o bjects o btained f rom a l ong-distance e xchange w ith n ew a reas s uch a s F rance o r I taly ( e.g . a xes). T he s eparate c haracter o f P omorze, b eing i nfluenced b y N orth-Western E urope, i s m anifested b y t he p resence o f t he S candinavian a nd H anover-type a xes a nd n ecklaces.

c .)

T he t hird B ronze A ge p eriod

T his p eriod w itnessed a n o verall i ncrease i n b ronze d eposits o f 2 8% i n r elation t o t he p receding p eriod , w ith 2 15% g rowth i n t he n orth , a nd 9 % d ecrease i n t he s outh ( table.IIIb,c; f ig .XXII). T he m ap ( fig .VII) s hows t hat n ow t he g reatest c oncentration o f m etal i s f ound i n t he a rea a round t he O dra 's m outh , w ith t he l ocal c entre o f g ravity s ituated f urther n orth i n c omparison w ith t he p revious p eriods. T he r emainder o f P omorze h as f air q uantities o f b ronze, r ather e venly d istributed i n t he c oastal s trip l inking t he O dra 's m outh w ith t hat o f t he W isla . I n t he s outh , m etal f inds t end t o

2 7

a ccumulate b etween t he m iddle N otec a nd t he m iddle W arta r ivers, a s w all a s a long t he u pper O dra . O therwise, t he d istribution i s f airly u niform t hroughout t he z one, w hich w as n ot t he c ase i n t he p receding p ariods. I n g eneral, t he t otal a mount o f b ronze i n t he w hole a rea i s s till 2 5% l ower t han i n t he f irst p eriod ( table .IIIa ,c;fig .XXII). T he p opulation g rowth w hich a pparently t ook p lace ( fig .XXIII) r esulted i n t he c olonization o f t he a reas w ith p oor s oils. T he c orrelation b etween t he b est s oils ( class 1 ) a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries i s f airly s ignificant a nd h igher t han i n p eriod 2 ( both t he z ero-order a nd t he 4 th-order p artial a re s ignificant ) ( table.IVc). T his i mplies a g radual r eturn t o t he a reas w ith t he b est a gricultural p otential a nd t he a griculture-based e conomy . O n t he o ther h and , t here i s a v ery s trong c orrelation b etween t he p opulation s ize a nd t he m ediocre s oils ( i.e. c lass 3 ). A lthough t he z ero-order c oefficient i s m arginally l ower t han i n p eriod 2 ( by 0 .09), t he 4 th-order p artial i s m uch h igher ( by 0 .21). A s h as b een s aid ( cf . p .14), t he p artial c oefficient m easures t he c ovariance e xclusively a ssociated w ith t he d ependent a nd t he c hosen i ndependent v ariables, w hile s uppressing t he c ovariance w hich t he l atter s hare w ith o ther i ndependent v ariables b ecause o f t heir b eing c orrelated w ith o ne a nother . I n t his c ontext , t he 4 th o rder p artial i ndicates t hat t he c ovariation e xclusive t o t hese t wo v ariables i s m ore p rominent n ow t han i n p eriod 2 . H ence, t he m ediocre s oils s eem t o h ave b een p opulated m ore d ensely t han b efore. T he c orrelation b etween t he t otal a mount o f m etal i n a r egion a nd i ts a gricultural p otential i ndicates t hat o nce a gain o nly t he b est a nd , i n p articular, g ood s oils a re c orrelated w ith t he f ormer , a lthough t o a l esser d egree t han b efore. W ith t he c orrelation c oefficients b etween t he t otal a mount o f m etal i n a r egion a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries l ower t han b efore a nd l ower t han t he c orresponding c oefficients b etween t he t otal a mount o f m etal a nd g ood s oils ( table.IVb,c), t his s eems t o i mply t hat t he a gricultural p otential a gain c ame t o p lay a t l east a s i mportant a p art a s t he g ood c onditions f or c attle b reeding , i n i nfluencing t he m etal q uantity r eceived b y a r egion . I n f act, i t c ould h ave b een e ven m ore i mportant i n v iew o f t he f act t hat i n p eriod 2 , t hree c lasses o f s oil ( 1 t o 3 ) w ere c orrelated w ith m etal q uantity t o v arious d egrees; n ow i t i s o nly t he b est t wo ( 1 a nd 2 ). O n t he o ther h and , t hese c orrelations a re w eaker, w hich s uggests t hat t he p hysiogeographical ( i.e. a gricultural/husbandry) c onditions o f a r egion l ost s ome o f t heir i mportance a nd d o n ot s eem t o h ave d etermined t he d istribution o f b ronze t o t he s ame e xtent a s t hey u sed t o d o i n t he p revious p eriods. B oth i n t he s outhern a nd t he n orthern z ones, t here a re i mports o f m ostly s outhern o rigin , b ut i n t he l atter z one, o ne c omes a cross o bjects f rom N orth-East E urope ( e.g . t he B altic b attle-axes o f N ortycken t ype; f ig .XIX).

d .)

T he f ourth B ronze A ge p eriod

I n t his p eriod ,

t he a mount o f m etal

i n t he w hole a rea i ncreased

b y 7 %, w ith a 3 0% d ecrease i n P omorze, m ainly a t t he e xpense o f t he t erritory s ituated t o t he e ast ( fig .VIII; t able .IIIc,d ; f ig .XXII). I n

2 8

t he s outhern z one, t here was a r ise o f 3 1% ( table.IIIc,d ; f ig .XXII). T he o utstanding q uantities o f m etal a ccumulate a round t he O dra 's m outh i n P omorze; i n t he a rea b etween t he m iddle N otec a nd t he W arta r ivers; a nd b y t he u pper O dra r iver b etween i ts t ributaries: t he B ystrzyca a nd t he N ysa K lodzka . T here i s a lso a s trip o f l and w ith s lightly l arger q uantities o f, b ronze W ilkopolska ( fig .VIII). A

f urther

a long

p opulation

t he u pper O dra ,

a nd i t r amifies

g rowth

t o

s eems

h ave

t aken

t owards

p lace

( fig .XXIII). T he r elationships b etween t he t otal n umber o f c emeteries a nd t he a gricultural p otential i ndicate t hat i t w as t he a reas w ith g ood a nd m ediocre s oils , w here t he p opulation d ensity w as a t i ts h ighest ( table.IVd). T he c orrelation b etween t he f ormer v ariable a nd t he b est s oils a rea i s c oefficient.

s purious

a s

s hown

b y

t he

l ow

a nd

n egative p artial

T he t otal a mount o f b ronze i s v ery d efinitely c orrelated w ith t he b est s oils a reas ( class 1 ); ( both t he z ero-order a nd t he p artial a re h igh -t able.IVd). m ap ( fig .VIII).

T his c orroborates

t he

p icture p resented b y t he

T here i s a lso a s ignificant d egree o f c orrelation b etween t he m etal q uantity a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries i n a r egion ( t able.IVd). H owever, t he r elative m agnitudes o f t he o ther c oefficients c ompared w ith t hese t wo s eem t o i ndicate t hat i n t he c ase o f t he b est s oils ( class 1 ), t he m etal q uantity w as s olely i nfluenced b y t he a gricultural p otential ( both r elevant c oefficients a re h igher t han t hose i n q uestion). F or t he g ood s oils ( class 2 ), i t c an b e s een t hat t he z ero-order c oefficients o f c orrelation b etween t he a gricultural p otential a nd t he m etal q uantity ; b etween t he l atter a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries; a nd b etween t he f ormer a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries, h ave m ore o r l ess c omparable m agnitudes. A c loser e xamination o f t hese r elationships s hows t hat t he c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f c emeteries a nd t he t otal a mount o f m etal i s s trongest o f a ll. T his i s b ecause t he r elevant c oefficients a re h igher t han t hose r epresenting t he r elationships b etween t he a gricultural p otential a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries; t he 4 th-order p artial i n q uestion c ounterbalances t he z ero-order c oefficient w hich i s s lightly l ower ( by 0 .01) t han t hat b etween t he a gricultural p otential a nd t he m etal q uantity ( the m agnitude d ifferential b etween t he 4 th-order p artials i s 0 .26). A ll t his i mplies f airly d ensely p opulated ,

t hat f or t he g ood s oils ( class 2 ), w hich w ere t here w as s omewhat m ore i mportance p laced o n

t he p opulation s ize t han o n t he a gricultural p otential i n t he i nfluence t hat t hey e xerted o n t he q uantity o f b ronze a ccumulated i n a r egion . T he e xamination o f t he t ypology o f i mports s till d ocuments a n u nchallenged m ajority o f o bjects f rom t he p resent-day Austria , H ungary , C zechoslovakia , a nd s outhern G ermany i n t he s outhern z one. T he n orthern z one a nd t he n orthern p art o f W ielkopolska , w hich s till h ave a l arge p roportion o f s outhern i mports, s eem t o h ave i ntensified t heir c ontacts w ith t he N ordic c ulture.

2 9

e .)

T he f ifth B ronze A ge p eriod

T he l ast p eriod i s m arkedly d ifferent f rom t hose p receding i t a s f ar a s t he q uantities o f m etal d eposited a re c oncerned ; b ut i t d oes b ear s ome a nalogy t o t he t hird p eriod w ith r egard t o i ts o verall d istribution . Again t he n umber o f b ronze f inds i n t he n orthern z one r ose v ery r apidly . T here i s a lmost a 1 96% i ncrease i n t he q uantity o f m etal i n t he w hole a rea , w ith a 1 7% r ise i n t he s outhern z one, a nd a n i ncredible 6 94% i ncrease i n t he n orth , i n r elation t o t he f ourth p eriod ( table.IIIa-e; f ig .XXII). I n t he t he z one, w ith

s outh , m etal i s d istributed e venly o ver a l arge p art o f a s light c oncentration a long t he O dra r iver, a nd a

h igher o ne a long t he N otec r iver i n t he a rea z one ( fig .IX).

a d jacent

t o t he n orthern

I n t he n orth , i n f act, t he w hole t erritory i s s aturated w ith m etal w ith a n i ntensity u nparalleled b efore. T he p aramount c oncentration i s f ound , a s b efore, a round t he O dra 's m outh , a nd i n t he c oastal s trip l inking i t w ith t he W isla 's m outh ( fig .IX). T he p opulation g rowth a dvanced f urther o verall ( fig .XXIII), b ut t here s eems t o b e a s light d rop i n t he p opulation s ize i n t he n orth ( 23%) a nd a c onsiderable i ncrease i n t he s outh ( 35%), i n r elation t o p eriod 4 ( table.IIId ,e). A s o ne c ould e xpect, t he c orrelation b etween t he a gricultural p otential a nd t he a mount o f m etal i s v ery l ow , m ostly d ue t o t he f act t hat t he bulk o f b ronze w as d eposited i n p oor s oils ( table.IVe).

t he n orthern z one w ith r ather

T here a re p ractically n o c orrelations b etween t he b ronze q uantity a nd t he b est o r g ood s oils ( class 1 a nd 2 ); b oth p airs o f c oefficients a re v ery l ow ( table.IVe). M ediocre s oils a re d efinitely n egatively c orrelated w ith t his v ariable ( both c oefficients a re r elatively h igh a nd n egative). F or t he f irst t ime e ver, t he p oor s oils a nd t he wasteland a reas ( i.e. c lass 4 ) a re c orrelated , t o s ome e xtent ( noticeably

but

n ot

s trongly),

w ith

t he

a mount

o f

b ronze.

T he s ignificance o f t his e vidence i s c lear: t he a gricultural p otential b ecame l argely i rrelevant o verall a s a f actor a ttracting b ronze a nd s ome o ther c haracteristics o f a r egion b ecame m ore p rominent. T his i s m anifest t hrough t he f act t hat t he w orst s oils r eceived m ore m etal t han t he b est o nes. W e s hall d iscuss t his i ssue b elow i n m ore d etail. T here i s n o i nterconnection b etween t he p opulation s ize a nd

t he

m etal q uantity . T he p opulation t rends s how t hat t he b est s oils a re n ot c orrelated w ith t he n umber o f c emeteries e ither ( the h igh z ero-order c oefficient i s i nvalidated b y t he l ow a nd n egative p artial). T here w as a c ertain p reference f or t he g ood s oils ( class 2 ) , b ut t he h ighest p opulation d ensity s eems t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he m ediocre s oils ( class 3 ); ( both c oefficients h igh). T his t endency f or i nhabiting w orse s oils i s much s tronger n ow t han i n t he p receding p eriod ,

w hich i s

i ndicative o f a n i ncreased c olonization o f

I t c ould

3 0

p oor

s oil

a reas.

h ave b een a ssociated t o s ome e xtent w ith t he c limatic o ccurred a t t hat t ime ( cf B ukowski 1 979).

c hanges

t hat

T he n umber o f n orthern p roducts i ncreased i mmensely . O bjects o f u nmistakably N orth-German a nd D anish o rigin a re numerous i n t he n orthern z one. e xhibits n orthern i solated

F urthermore,

t he l ocal

m etal

t ypological a ffiliation t o p art o f W ielkopolska, 7 5% o f f inds b elong t ypologically

p roduction f rom t his a rea

t he N ordic t radition . I n t he a ll o bjects f rom h oards a nd t o t he n orth ( cf S zafranski

1 955,p.49). N evertheless, i n S lask , t he i nflux o f p roducts o f s outhern o rigin s till c ontinued . I n o ther w ords, t his a rea m aintained t raditionally s trong c ontacts w ith t he s outh , a lthough c ontacts w ith t he s outh-west w ere g rowing a t t he s outh-east. T he n orthern z one i n t urn , t he N ordic c ulture.

e xpense o f w as i nvolved

t hose w ith t he i n t he c ircle o f

H aving d escribed b riefly t he d istribution o f m etalwork i n t he r egion u nder s tudy, I w ould l ike t o u nderline c ertain f acts e merging f rom t his a ccount. S o

f ar

n othing

h as

b een

s aid

a bout

t he

s quared

m ultiple

c orrelation c oefficients ( table.IVa-e), w hich c an h ighlight v arious a spects o f t he s tudy . I n c hapter I II ( cf p .14-15), i t w as s tated t hat t he m eaning o f t his c oefficient i s t he p roportion o f t he o riginal o verall v ariation i n t he d ependent v ariable a ccounted f or b y a ll t he i ndependent o nes b oth j ointly a nd s eparately . I n o ur c ase, t he s quared multiple c orrelation c oefficient p rovides a m easurement o f t he e xtent t o w hich t he d istribution o f t he t otal a mount o f m etal i n a g iven p eriod i s e xplained b y t he a gricultural p otential o f a r egion a nd t he g eneral p opulation t rends. T he s quare m ultiple c orrelation c oefficients o btained f rom t he q uantitative a nalysis o f o ur d ata ( table.IVa-e) e xhibit a c ertain p attern . T hey t end t o b e h igh i n p eriods 1 ,2, a nd 4 ; a nd l ow i n p eriods 3 a nd 5 . T o b e m ore a ccurate, t he c oefficient f or p eriod 2 i s v ery h igh ( 0.88), s lightly l ess s o r ather l ow f or p eriod 3 ( 0.46)

f or p eriods 1 ( 0.61) a nd 4 ( 0.69); i t i s a nd q uite l ow f or p eriod 5 ( 0.33). T his

m eans t hat i n p eriods 1 ,2, a nd 4 , t he s patial d istribution o f b ronze i n w estern P oland i s a ccounted f or, t o a l arge e xtent, b y t he c onfiguration o f t he s oil t ypes a nd h ence b y t he a gricultural p otential c onditioned b y t hem , a nd b y t he n umber o f c emeteries i n a r egion r eflecting t he p opulation

s ize.

I n a ny o f t hese p eriods,

t he v ariables

i n q uestion a ccount f or n o l ess t han 6 1% o f t he d istribution p atterns ( i.e. t he v ariation), t he m ost c omplete e xplanation b eing t hat f or p eriod 2 ( 88%). O n t he o ther h and , i n p eriods 3 a nd 5 , t he p roportion o f t he v ariation i n m etal d istribution a ccounted f or b y t hem i s l ess t han 5 0%, I n

w hich i s r ather t his

e merging p atterns i n h and . T hat i s

s ituation ,

i nadequate. o ne c ould a ttempt t he i nterpretation o f t he

i n p eriods 1 ,2, a nd 4 , o n t he b asis o f t he e vidence t o s ay s uch a n a ccount c ould l argely h inge o n t he

f orementioned i ndependent v ariables.

3 1

I t i s n ot e ssential

t o

i ntroduce

a ny a ddiLionaL L ectors; t he v alidity o f t he a rgument w ill n ot b e g reatly undermined t hrough f ailing t o d o s o a s o nly a s mall p roportion ( 12% t o 3 9%) o f t he Y ariation w ill r emain u nexplained . T his d oes n ot a pply t o p eriods 3 a nd 5 . I f t he i nterpretation o f t hese p eriods i s t o h ave a ny value a t a ll, i t i s a bsolutely i mperative t o s upplement i t w ith o ther a gents a part f rom t hose a lready i ncluded N eedless t o s ay, t he e xplanation o f t he f ormer p eriods i f a dditional f actors a re i ntroduced .

3 2

i n t he s tudies. c an b e e nhanced

B efore w e m ove o n t o t he e conomic i nterpretation , o f t he m etalwork d istribution i n w estern P oland d escribed i n t he p receding c hapter, i t w ill b e h elpful t o c haracterize v ery b riefly c ertain a spects o f t he B ronze A ge i n aw ider E uropean c ontext . T he A egean w as t he f irst c haracteristic o f t he B ronze A ge,

r egion

o f E urope t o e xhibit t he t raits

a s e arly a s t he t hird m illenium B .C..

I n t he f irst c enturies o f t he s econd m illenium B .C. m etal b ecame k nown a nd u sed i n a l arge p art o f t he c ontinent. I nitially , t he a ppearance o f b ronze d id n ot c ause a ny s ignificant c hanges i n t he c ulture o r t he w ay o f l iving o f t he p eople. T heir e conomy , b ased o n a griculture a nd h usbandry, h ad s tabilized i n t he N eolithic, a nd a t t he b eginning o f t he B ronze Age i t c ontinued u naltered . W ith t ime, t he u se o f m etal s pread m ore a nd m ore w idely , b oth h orizontally ( i.e. g oegraphically) a nd v ertically ( i.e. i n v arious d omains o f l ife), a lthough n eedless t o s ay , t his p rocess was s low . T he c hanges which s ubsequently o ccurred w ere m ost c losely a ssociated w ith t he d issemination o f b ronze. D uring t he B ronze A ge, t he i ntensity w ith w hich m etal d eposits i n t he i ndividual o re-bearing a reas w ere b eing e xploited f luctuated t o a l arge e xtent. M .Gedl, f or i nstance , g oes a s f ar a s s peaking a bout t he m etal p roduction c entres w hich i n t urn t ook t he l ead i n s upplying a l arge p art o f E urope ( Gedl 1 980,p.13). A lthough t he n otion o f " metal p roduction c entre" m ay a ppear t oo c lear-cut, i t i s a dopted i n t his w ork a s a c onvenient t erminology . I t i s n ot m eant t o i mply t he e xistence o f s ome c entralized o rganization o n a l arge s cale, w hich e xtended m onopolistic c ontrol o ver a v ast t erritory . I t m erely s erves a s a h euristic d evice, o r i n o ther w ords, a m ore s uccinct way o f c onveying t he undeniable f act t hat a t v arious t imes, d ifferent m etal d eposits s eem t o have b een e xploited t o a g reater e xtent t han o thers. S uch a c onclusion i s i mplied b y t he d istribution p atterns o f m etal a rtefacts i n C entral E urope d uring t he B ronze A ge ( Gedl 1 980; C oles a nd H arding 1 979). T he n umber o f m etal o bjects t ypologically a ssociated w ith t he a rchaeological c ultures w hich a ppear t o h ave o riginated i n s ome o f t he o re-bearing a reas ( e.g . t he Unetice c ulture), i s v ery h igh n ot o nly l ocally, but a lso o n t he a d jacent t erritories. S ince a t l east s ome o f t hem m ust h ave b een i mported ( even i f t he r emainder w ere l ocal i mitations), t he l ogical c onclusion i s t hat t here m ust have b een a f air a mount o f m etal o bjects/raw m aterial i n t he o re-beartng a rea , w hich m ade s uch e xport p ossible. H ence,the l ocal p roduction m ust h ave b een s ufficiently h igh t o s upply l arge q uantities o f b ronze t o b oth t he l ocal c onsumers a s w ell a s t hose i n t he n eighbouring a reas. A t m echanism

p resent, w e a re o perating b etween

n ot a ttempting t o m odel t he e xchange t he s upplier a nd r ecipient a reas, a nd

h ence a ddress t he q uestion w hether t he l ocal d emand w as m et c ompletely a nd o nly t he s urplus o f m etal e xported , o r w hether t he o pposite w as t he

3 3

c ase. L ater o n , t his i ssue w ill b e d iscussed i n m ore d etail, b ut o ne h as t o b ear i n m ind t he f act t hat i n t his w ork t he p rimary i nterest i s g iven t o t he r ecipient a rea ( i.e. w estern P oland). I nferences c oncerning t he o re-bearing t erritories a re d rawn f rom t he r esults p roduced b y o ther s tudies ( e.g . C oles a nd H arding 1 979; G edl 1 980) a nd t he a ctual d ata f rom t hose a reas h ave n ot b een i nvestigated d irectly . T he p resent s ection i s b ased o n w orks b y G edl ( 1980), a nd , t o a l esser e xtent, b y C oles a nd H arding ( 1979).

I n c entre

t he

e xisted

f irst B ronze A ge p eriod , i n

a ssociation

av ery a ctive m etal p roduction

w ith t he U netice c ulture

( table.I).

W e m ay c all i t t he U netice o r U netice-Straubing c entre. I t r eached i ts c limax a t t he e nd o f t his p eriod ( so-called c lassic p hase). T he p roduction o f t his c entre w as b ased o n t he c opper a nd t in d eposits i n t he O re M ountains a nd T huringia ( fig .I), a nd i ts e xports s pread a s f ar a s S candinavia i n t he n orth , a nd I taly i n t he s outh .

L ater d uring t he E arly B ronze A ge , a t t he c lose o f p eriod 1 , m etal d eposits s ituated f urther t o t he s outh-east, i n t he C arpathians a rea , g ained g reater i mportance ( fig .I). I n

p eriods

B ronze

C a nd D ( table.I),

a m ajor m etal p roduction

c entre d eveloped i n t he e nvironment o f t he P iliny c ulture, i n c onnection w ith t he d eposits i n t he S lovakian O re M ountains a nd i n t he m ountains o f p resent-day n orthern H ungary ( fig .I). T he e xport o f t his c entre r anged f rom t he s outhern B altic c oast t o n orthern Y ugoslavia ; w hereas i n t he w esterly d irection , i ts i nfluence w as f ar m ore l imited t han t hat o f t he U netice c ulture. F rom p eriod H allstatt A l, t he l ead i n m etal p roduction a nd s upply w as t aken b y t he c entre a ssociated w ith t he G aya c ulture ( table.I). T he H ungarian-Transylvanian c entre, a s i t i s c alled , e xploited c opper d eposits i n t he T ransylvania a rea a nd i n e astern H ungary , a s w ell a s g old i n t he b asin o f t he u pper T isza r iver ( fig .I). A part f rom m etals, i ts e xport i ncluded s alt. T he i mportance o f t his c entre i s e videnced b y t he w ide d iffusion o f i ts p roducts i n E urope. A t t he e nd o f p eriod H allstatt B , t he c entre o f g ravity i n m etal p roduction w as s hifted t o W est-Central E urope, w here t he H allstatt c ulture d eveloped . I t e mbraced huge a reas o f t he c ontinent f or a c ouple o f c enturies. T he p eriod d uring w hich t he H allstatt c ulture f lourished l ies h owever o utside t he s cope o f t his w ork ( table.I).

T hus, t he i ntensification o f e xchange a long t he e ver c hanging n etworks l inking t he r ecipient a reas w ith v arious " rising a nd d eclining m etal p roduction c entres" i s t he f act w hich w ill b e c rucial f or t he a nalysis t o f ollow . A s o ne c ould e xpect, g rowing e xchange b etween o ften r emote a reas r esulted i n a r elatively r apid s pread o f s imilar i mplements o ver a v ast t erritory , w hich i n a ll p robability w ent h and i n h and w ith t he d iffusion o f i deas a nd b eliefs. S uch a s ituation b rought a bout a n u nprecedented c ultural u niformity o f t he c ontinent , i n

3 4

t hat s imilar a rtefacts a nd s imilar g rave f orms a re f ound i n l arge p arts o f E urope.

t he

M eriting a p articular e mphasis i n t he c ontext o f t his w ork i s f act t hat t he o pportunities f or w ealth a ccumulation which a rose

d uring t he B ronze A ge i n c onnection w ith t he d evelopment o f m etallurgy h ad n ot b een p aralleled b efore. O n t he o ne h and , m etal h as i ts i ntrinsic v alue w hereby s crap m etal o f b roken o r w orn o bjects c an e asily b e r emelted a nd p ut b ack i nto c irculation , u nlike f lint, s tone, o r c lay i tems w hich o nce b roken a re o f n o u se. O n t he o ther h and , b oth t he m ining o f o res a nd m elting o f m etal r equires h igh s kills a nd c ould n ever have b een d abbled w ith a s c ommonly a s p ottery-making o r f lint/stone d ressing . T his i mplies t hat t he c ontrol o f m etal p roduction a nd e xchange b y a s ocial m inority w as o nly t oo e asy , a nd t hat t he i ncrease o f s ocial d ifferentiation w as a lmost a n atural c onsequence o f t he s tatus q uo. T he e xistence o f s ocial d ifferentiation i n B ronze A ge E urope h as b een e legantly d emonstrated f or v arious a reas i n W estern a nd N orthern E urope ( e.g . R andsborg 1 974).

N ow , B ronze Age,

T he

l et u s e xamine t he s ituation i n w estern P oland d uring t he a gainst t his b ackground .

a rea

o f

p resent-day P oland i n

g eneral,

a nd

t he

r egion

b etween t he O dra a nd t he W isla r ivers i n p articular , c onstitute a n atural b ridge l inking t he m etal-bearing t erritories a long t he A rc o f t he C arpathians a nd t hose i n W est-Central E urope, w ith S candinavia a nd t he a mber-bearing s outh-east B altic c oast ( fig .I). T here a re n o m etal s ources t hat w ould h ave b een e xploited d uring t he B ronze A ge n orth o f .a l atitude r unning r oughly a long t he s outhern b order o f t oday 's E ast G ermany ( fig .I). O n t he o ther h and , t he a rea o f N orth a nd N orth-Eastern E urope, a nd m ost n otably D enmark w ith t he a d jacent t erritories o f G ermany a nd S weden ,

a bounded i n

m etal

t hroughout

t he

B ronze A ge

( cf

K ristiansen 1 982). T hus,

t here

i s

s tudy p layed a r ole o f

a

t heoretical p ossibility t hat t he a rea u nder

m iddleman

c oordinating

t he

e xchange o f g oods

b etween W est-Central E urope a nd t he s outh-east c oast o f t he B altic o n t he . o ne h and ; a nd b etween t he C arpathians a rea a nd S candinavia o n t he o ther ( fig .I). I n f act t here i s e vidence s upporting s uch a p roposition . F irst o f a ll, t he s pectral a nalysis o f o bjects f rom t he s outhern b asin o f t he N emunas r iver s howed t hat s ome i tems w ere p roduced l ocally f rom c opper o f c ertainly a lpine o rigin ( Dabrowski 1 968,p.155). S econdly , t he f inds o f B altic a mber i n C entral E urope a re o nly t oo n umerous ( e.g . C oles a nd H arding 1 979,p.31 a nd 4 8). I t i s b eyond d ispute t hat a t l east s ome o f t hem c ame f rom t he s outhern B altic c oast r ather t han f rom J utland . F inally , t he i mports f rom t he s outh-east m ade t heir a ppearance i n

S candinavia a s e arly

a s

t he

i nitial

p hase

o f

t he

B ronze

A ge

( e.g .B.Kostrzewski 1 949,p.260). T he t ransportation o f e xchange g oods m ust h ave t he b ig r ivers, w hich w as p articularly a dvantageous o n

3 5

p roceeded a long t he w ay t hrough

t he m ountains s eparating C entral a nd S outh E urope f rom t he n orthern p art o f t he c ontinent . B esides, i f o ne c onsiders t he a mount o f m etal f ound i n N orth E urope i n r elation t o t he t ransport f acilities a vailable i n t he B ronze A ge, n o o ther p ossibility s eems r easonable, e specially o ver a l ong d istance. T hus t he O dra a nd t he W isla r ivers ( and t heir t ributaries: t he N ysa K lodzka , t he N ysa L uzycka , a nd t he S an ; f ig .II,III) p rovided n atural H owever,

a rteries f or c ontacts b etween t he C entral a nd N orth E urope. t here e xists a n a lternative c onnection , n amely o ne a long t he

E lbe r iver. I n a ll p robability , t his r oute w as g enerally o f p rimary i mportance f or J utland a nd n orthern G ermany but, a s w e s hall s ee l ater , t he e xchange n etworks i n various B ronze A ge p eriods s eem t o h ave b een d ynamic a nd h ence m ore c omplex .

g oods

A part f rom t he c ontacts a long t he b ig r ivers s ome e xchange o f must h ave a lso t aken p lace a long t he s ea c oast a s w ell a s

o verland , i n t he l atitudinal d irection ( fig .IVa ,XIX). T his a gain w ould h ave b een t o t he a dvantage o f t he a rea u nder s tudy, e specially i ts n orthern z one i .e. P omorze, w hich c ould h ave m ediated b etween N orth-West a nd N orth-East E urope. T hese i ssues w ill b e d iscussed l ater i n t he c ontext p ropositions.

o f

t he

a ctual

e vidence

s upporting

t he

a bove

T he a ccount w ill a lso r efer t o t he t rends i n a mber e xchange.

I n t he f irst B ronze A ge p eriod , a s h as b een m entioned , t he m etal s upplies t o C entral E urope c ame m ostly f rom t he p roduction c entre e xisting w ithin t he e nvironment o f t he U netice c ulture, w hich i n i ts e arliest p hase i s f ound i n s outh-west S lovakia , M oravia , c entral B ohemia , a nd m iddle S lask ( table.I). T he c onnections b etween t his a rea o f o rigin a nd t he t erritory under s tudy m anifest t hemselves t hrough t he s triking s imilarities i n a ll a spects o f c ulture. T his, a s w ell a s t he r elative g eographical p roximity o f b oth r egions s eem t o a ccount, t o a c ertain e xtent , f or t he c omparatively l arge q uantity o f m etal i n w estern P oland a t t hat t ime, d espite t he f act t hat b eginning o f d issemination o f b ronze i n E urope.

i t

w as

o nly

t he

M etal t ended t o c oncentrate a t t he n odal p oints a nd a long t he r outes o f a n a pparent e xchange n etwork ( fig .V).There i s a r elatively l arge a mount o f m etal i n P omorze but i n t he s outh-eastern p art o f t he s outhern z one t here a re n o b ronze f inds a t a ll. T his s uggests t he m ediation b y t he r egion i n q uestion b etween t he s outh a nd t he n orth , a nd t he i mportant r ole o f t he O dra a s a n a rtery o f t ransport ( cf K ristiansen 1 981,p.248,258). S upport f or s uch a c onclusion i s g iven b y t he d istribution

o f

t he

a ngle-pierced

h ead

a nd

t he e ar-loop p ins

( fig .XI). T hey w ere c haracteristic o f t he Unetice c ulture i n B ohemia ( B.Kostrzewski 1 949,p.260) but t here a re s ome f inds o f t he l atter t ype r eported f rom D enmark ( Broholm 1 943,vol.I,p.20,fig .2;vol.II,fig .4,8). T here c annot b e a ny d oubt t hat t hose p ins w ere t ransported a long t he O dra r iver ( fig .XI). T hese a re n ot t he o nly i mports f rom t he s outh-east w hich a ppeared i n S candinavia d uring t he f irst B ronze A ge p eriod .

3 6

Another e xample c ould b e t he l oop-ended n eck r ings

T he

m ore

a dvantageous

p osition

o f

( fig .XII).

t he s outhern z one i n t his

s ystem d ue t o i ts g eographical l ocation i s r eflected i n a g reater c oncentration o f m etalwork h ere ( 73% o f t he t otal a mount f rom p eriod 1 ; f ig.V ; t able.IIIa). T his z one a ppears t o have a cted a lso a s m iddleman i n p assing o n a mber f rom t he s outh-eastern B altic c oast s outhwards ( fig .IVb), w hich was l argely c onsumed w ithin t he e nvironment o f t he Unetice c ulture i tself ( Machnik 1 978,p.108; C oles a nd H arding 1 979,p.31,46-47,66). T his i s c orroborated b y t he f act t hat t he p attern o f t he g reatest c oncentration o f m etal f inds, w hich s eemingly m arks t he e xchange r outes, b reaks o ff a t t he m iddle O dra r iver i n t he d irection o f t he a rea e ast o f t he W isla 's m outh ( fig .V), i .e. r ich a mber-bearing t erritory . T he a ccumulation o f b ronze a long t his r oute i s s o o utstanding, t hat a ccounting f or i t o nly by t he h igher a gricultural p otential o f s ome o f t he a reas o n i ts w ay, w hich i ncidentally i s t he c ase,

d oes n ot s eem s ufficient.

A s h as b een s aid i n c hapter I V , i t i s m ostly t he a gricultural p otential t hat t ogether w ith t he p opulation s ize a ccounts f or t he d istribution o f m etal d uring t his p eriod ( in 6 1%). I t i s o nly t he r emainder t hat m ight b e e xplained b y " t he c ourse o f t he e xchange r outes o r a ny o ther f actors. A s i t happens, t his r emainder i s h ighest o f a ll t he p eriods which w e h ave a ccepted a s e xplained m ore o r l ess a dequately by t he i ndependent v ariables ( cf p .31) a nd i t a mounts t o 3 9%. O n t he o ther hand , t here i s av ery d efinite a nd c lear-cut c onfiguration o f e xchange r outes i n p eriod 1 e merging f rom o ur s tudies, w hich s eems t o c omplement v ery w ell t he r esults o f t he p receding q uantitative a nalysis. I n t hose c ircumstances, i t i s l egitimate t o a dopt t his a gent a s a n e xplanatory f actor o f a t l east a p art o f t he r emaining 3 9% o f t he variation i n m etal d istribution s till u nexplained . Unfortunately , i t i s i mpossible t o q uantify t he d egree t o w hich t his f actor i s e ffective. O ne c an c onclude, t hat t he g reater c oncentration o f m etal i n t he s outhern z one i s l argely a ssociated w ith i ts g reater a gricultural p otential. S ince t he c orrelation b etween t he b est s oils a rea ( class 1 ) a nd t he t otal a mount o f m etal i n a r egion i s f airly h igh i t s eems justified t o s uggest t hat t he e xchange o f t he s urplus f or m etal must h ave b een o f p rimary i mportance i n a nd p erpetuating t he e xchange n etwork . T he m ediation i n

( table.IVa), a gricultural e stablishing t he e xchange

b etween d ifferent a reas a ppears t o h ave w eighed l ess.

O n t he w hole,

t he d istribution

o f

m etalwork

d uring

t he f irst

p eriod s eems t o h ave r esulted f rom t he c ombination o f v arious f actors, a ll o f which c reated a c ertainly m ore a dvantageous s ituation f or t he one. s outhern .z

T his

i s

r eflected

b y

t he

a mount

o f b ronze d eposited

h ere.

A t i n E urope,

t he c lose o f t he f irst B ronze A ge p eriod , a s

a

r esult o f w hich m any o f t he

3 7

c hanges

o ccurred

c ultures f lourishing i n

t he c entral p art o f t he c ontinent v anished . T his p rocess w as p articularly n oticeable i n t he m iddle D anube b asin . C ultures t hat e xisted t here i n t he E arly B ronze A ge a ppear t o have b een a ssociated w ith s edentary a griculturalists who a cquired a h igh l evel o f d evelopment. A t t he b eginning o f t he s econd B ronze A ge p eriod , n ew c ultural t raits a re f ound i n t he a rea , which t ogether i ndicate t he a ppearance o f t he n ew , s o-called T umulus c ulture, n amed a fter t he p redominant g rave f orm . T his t ransition , w hich t horoughly a ffected m ost d omains o f c ulture, w as, i n a ll p robability , a ccompanied b y s ome v iolent e vents a s e videnced b y t he d amage o r a bandonment o f s ettlements i nhabited f or a l ong t ime b eforehand . N umerous s ettlements a nd t ells a ppear t o h ave b een b urnt d own a bandoned f or g ood ( Gedl 1 980,p.97-99).

a nd

m ore o ften t han n ot,

T his unrest d id n ot a ffect t o t he s ame e xtent t he a reas i n t he e astern p art o f t he t erritory s urrounded b y t he A rc o f t he C arpathians. H ere, o ne o bserves m ore o r l ess c ontinuous d evelopment o f t he E arly B ronze Age c ultures, p articularly i n t he T ransylvania a rea . D uring p eriod 2 , t he i ntensity o f t he e xploitation o f t he m etal s ources s ituated h ere w as g radually i ncreasing . F rom p eriod B ronze C t he s oc alled P iliny c ulture e xhibiting a c ertain a ffinity t o t he C arpathian T umulus c ulture, i s f ound i n t his a rea ( table.I). I n i ts e nvironment a n ew , v ery i mportant m etal p roduction C entre d eveloped , w hich t ook o ver t he r ole o f a m etal s upplier o f C entral E urope a fter t he d ecline o f t he c entre a ssociated w ith t he Unetice c ulture i n t he O re M ountains ( Gedl 1 980,p.118-19). I ts p roducts w ere w idely e xported t o t he n orth , a nd i t w ould h ave s eemed t hat t he b ulk o f b ronze o bjects a ttributed t o t he P rzedluzycka c ulture i n w estern P oland c ame f rom t here. O ne c ould m ention h ere t he c haracteristic H ungarian battle-axes, a nd t he B ohemian p ins o r b racelets ( fig .XIII).

s pear-heads,

D uring t his p eriod , b etween B ronze C a nd D ( table.I), t he l ongd istance t rade r oute l inking t he s outh-east w ith t he n orth-west, a long w hich r eady p roducts a s w ell a s r aw m aterials u sed t o f low i n l arge q uantities, c hanged i ts c ourse. I t c ould h ave b een r elated t o t he f orementioned p rocesses. T he o ld r oute f rom t he O re M ountains d irectly n orthwards, n ow r an f rom t he a rea s ituated e ast o f t he T isza r iver t o t he u pper O dra , a nd t hen a long t he r iver t o t he n orth . H owever, t his r oute w as o f much g reater i mportance t o t he r egion u nder s tudy t han t o t he n orth o f E urope ( cf K ristiansen 1 981,p.249). T he l atter d epended o n t he r oute a long t he W eser r iver , w hich s upplied s outhern S candinavia w ith o bjects c oming f rom t he s outh-German T umulus c ulture. T he r ole o f m iddleman i n t his e xchange s ystem s eems t o h ave b een t aken b y S chleswig-Holstein , w hich i n a ll p robability c ontrolled b ronze d istribution t o t he n orth . T he m ediation b etween S outh-West E urope a nd S chleswig-Holstein , i n t urn , w as a p rerogative o f L uneburg , a ll o f w hich b elonged t o t he W eser r iver s ystem .

t he

I n t he c ontext o f t his n ew c onfiguration o f m etal s uppliers a nd e xchange r outes, t he d istribution o f b ronze i n w estern P oland

a ppears l ogical i n t erms o f e conomy .

T he o verall d rop i n t he l onger

d istance

t o

q uantity

o f

m etal

t he s upplier a rea ( fig .I),

3 8

r esulted

a nd t he f act

f rom t he t hat

n o

a dvantage c ould have b een t aken f rom b etween t he s outh-east a nd S candinavia , o peration .

t he m ediation i n t he e xchange a s a n a lternative r oute w as i n

T he r educed m etal s upplies s eem t o h ave b een l argely a bsorbed b y t he s outhern z one, w ith o nly n egligible a mounts b eing t ransported f urther n orth ( fig .VI). I t i s a s ign o f t he d iminished r ole o f t he O dra a s a p art o f t he l ong-distance e xchange n etwork , a nd i ts r ather l ocal i mportance.On t he o ther h and , i t c ould h ave b een t he r eason w hy P omorze m aintained i ts l inks w ith t he d ifferent e xchange s ystem . T he l atter i s e videnced b y t he d istribution o f t he B ohemian p ins w ith a s hield-like h ead ( fig .XIII), w hich s eems t o m ark t he r oute a long w hich c ertain i tems f rom t he s outh f lowed t o S candinavia v ia t he O dra 's m outh , p ossibly w ithout a ny m ediation o f t he s outhern z one. T he f low o f a mber f rom t he

s outh-east

B altic

c oast s outhwards

v ia t he s outhern z one s eems t o h ave c ontinued d uring t he p eriod i n q uestion ( fig .IVa), a s q uantities o f B altic a mber a re f ound i n C entral E urope ( cf C oles a nd H arding 1 979,p.66). T he m etal d istribution p attern r amifies t owards t he l ower W isla , n evertheless i t i s n ot a s o utstanding a s i n t he p revious p eriod ( fig .VI). T hus, t he a mber e xchange c ould h ave b een a f actor a mplifying t he d ifference i n t he a mount o f m etal d eposited i n t he t wo z ones i n f avour o f t he s outh, but i ts i mpact s eems t o h ave b een l ess i mportant i n t his p eriod t han b efore. I n g eneral, t he c ourse o f e xchange r outes b ears l ess e xplanatory p ower i n t his p eriod . D uring t he s econd B ronze A ge p eriod i t i s f irst a nd f oremost t he s oil t ype c onfiguration a nd t he d emographic t rends t hat a ccount f or t he d istribution o f m etal. I t a ppears t hat p reference f or i nhabiting t he b est s oils a reas h ad w eakened i n r elation t o p eriod 1 . O n t he o ther h and , t he o utstanding q uantities o f b ronze a re a ssociated w ith a n umber o f s oils, i ncluding t he g ood a nd m ediocre o nes. T his m ay i mply a g rowing i mportance o f s tock h erding ,which w ould f it i n w ith t he c urrent o pinion o f s ome P olish a rcheologists ( cf p .26-27). H owever, t he s till h igh c orrelation b etween t he a gricultural p otential a nd t he l argest c oncentrations o f m etal s uggests t hat b oth t he a gricultural a nd h erding s urplus w ere e xchanged f or m etal. S uch a n e xchange s eems t o h ave b een t he p redominant m echanism w hereby b ronze w as a cquired i n t his p eriod . M ediation i n t he e xchange, a nd a dvantages t hat c ould h ave b een g ained f rom i t, a ppear t o h ave c ontributed r ather l ittle t o t he s tock o f m etal. C onsequently , t he i nhabitants o f v ery p oor a reas ( both a griculturally a nd p astorally), w ere i n a w orse p osition d ue t o t he s carcity o f e xchangeable g oods, a nd b y t he s ame t oken , h ad s maller q uantities o f t he v aluable c ommodity . A ll t hese f acts a ccount s atisfactorily f or t he

g reat d ifference

i n t he m etal q uantity d eposited i n t he n orthern a nd t he s outhern z ones ( in t he l atter t here i s 8 4% o f t he t otal a mount). T he b ronze s upplies a ppear t o h ave b een p roportional t o t he l ocal p hysiogeographical f eatures w hich d irectly a ffected t he p urchasing p ower. O ther f actors, s uch a s a n

a dvantageous g eographical p osition ,

i nfluenced i t t o a m uch

l esser e xtent, o wing t o t he a lterations i n t he e xchange n etwork . T hus, t he s outhern z one w ith n aturally m uch b etter e conomic c onditions r eceived a n o verwhelming m ajority o f t he t otal q uantity o f b ronze i n w estern

P oland .

S imilarly ,

i n t he n orthern z one,

3 9

i t

i s

o nly

t he

a rea a t t he O dra 's m outh , a nd , e ven m ore o utstandingly , t he P yrzycko-Stargardzka P lain , i .e. t he a reas w ith t he m ost f ertile s oils, w here t here i s a r elatively c onsiderable a mount o f b ronze. T he r emainder o f P omorze i s p ractically d evoid o f a ny m etal a t a ll. W ithout i mplying a ny c ausal r elationship, i t i s w orth m entioning t hat t he p opulation o f t he n orthern z one s eems t o h ave f allen r emarkably i n r elation t o t he p revious p eriod ( fig .XXIII). T his c oincides w ith t he p oor e conomic p otential o f t his r egion b oth a griculturally , p astorally , a nd i n t erms o f e xchange m ediation o pportunities. T he l ast s eems t o h ave u ndergone a r ecess i n t his p art o f E urope d uring t he s econd B ronze A ge p eriod . 8 T he i ndependent v ariables a ccount f or 8% o f t he v ariation i n t he b ronze d istribution i n t his p eriod , w hich i s t he h ighest p roportion o f a ll t he p eriods. I t i s c onsistent w ith t he d ecline o f t he e xchange n etworks w hich u sed t o p ut w estern P oland i n a p osition o f m iddleman m ediating b etween o ther p arts o f E urope. T his p roves y et a gain t he c ohesion b etween t he q uantitative a nalysis a nd t he e xamination o f t he e xchange n etworks o perative a t t hat t ime, w hich w ere i ndependent o f e ach o ther. While t he f ormer h as l eft o nly 1 2% r esidual v ariance i n t he • t he l atter s hows t hat t he b ronze d istribution u nexplained , c onfiguration o f t he e xchange n etwork d id n ot a ffect t he a rea i n q uestion v ery much.

T he n ew T umulus c ulture, w hich s pread o ver a l arge p art o f t he c ontinent, p roved a r elatively s hort-lived p henomenon ( table.I). I n t he c ourse o f t ime, t he n ew c ulture t raits a ppear t o h ave b een i nfiltrated b y t he r eviving o lder t raditions f rom t he E arly B ronze A ge, w ith r egard t o t he p roduction a nd d ecoration o f p ottery , burial r ites e tc.; t hese c hanges a re p articularly p rominent i n t he e astern p rovince o f t he c ulture r ange. T hese p rocesses s eem t o h ave i ntensified a t t he e nd o f t he s econd p eriod , a nd a s a r esult t he e volution o f t he n ew m odel o f c ulture, t he s o-called U rnfield c ulture, t ook p lace ( cf G edl 1 980,p.113-117). T he t ransition , w hich f inished e arlier i n t he e astern p art o f t he a rea w ith t he T umulus c ulture a lso r eached w estern P oland .

T he e mergence a nd t he d issemination o f t he U rnfield c ulture i n E urope, w hich s tarted i n t he p eriod B ronze C -D ( table.I), m arked t he b eginning o f g reat c hanges i n m aterial, s piritual, a nd s ocial c ulture o f t he E uropean p eoples. T he p eriod o f u nrest, a pparently a ssociated w ith t he t ransition t o t he T umulus t ype c ulture, w as f ollowed b y s tabilization . T he s imultaneous i ntensification o f t he e xchange w ent h and i n h and w ith t he d evelopment o f m etal p roduction c entres. O n t he t erritory o f T ransylvania , w hich i s o f p articular i nterest t o u s d ue t o i ts m etal d eposits, t he c ultures o f t he E arly B ronze A ge t radition ( i.e. t he O tomani, t he W ietenberg , t he T ei, t he V erbicioara , a nd t he M onteoru c ultures) g ave w ay t o t he n ew , s o-called , N uoa c ulture ( table.I). T he P iliny c ulture s urvived f or a s hort t ime, a nd e ventually t hey b oth d eveloped t here f rom

w ere t he

s uperseded b y t he G aya c ulture, p eriod H allstatt A l ( cf

4 0

w hich G edl

1 980,p.167-73;table.I). T he l atter w as a ssociated w ith a n a ctive m etal p roduction c entre which s upplied b ronze o n a l arge s cale t o C entral E urope p ractically t ill t he e nd o f t he B ronze Age. T hus, a s f ar a s S outh-Central E urope i s c oncerned , t he s ituation i n m etal e xchange d uring t he t hird B ronze A ge p eriod s hould b e v ery s imilar t o t hat o f t he p receding p eriod . O ne m ight e xpect t herefore, t hat m etal d istribution a lso i n t he s outhern z one o f w estern P oland w ould b ear s ome r esemblance t o t hat i n p eriod 2 . I ndeed , t his i s t he c ase.

T he t otal a mount o f b ronze i n t he s outhern z one r emained m ore o r l ess u nchanged . T he s light d rop o f 9 % m ay b e a ccounted f or b y t he p opulation g rowth , c oncurrent w ith t he c olonization o f t he l ess a griculturally d ecrease

o f t he

a ttractive

a reas.

a vailable

T his

must

s urplus w hich

h ave

c ould

r esulted

h ave

i n

p ossibly

t he b een

e xchanged f or m etal, a s t he i ntensification o f p roduction w as r ather d ifficult. F urthermore, a r eturn t o a n a griculture b ased e conomy s eems t o h ave t aken p lace. I n t hese c ircumstances, t he e asily o btained l arge s urplus o f h erding s tock w as n o l onge i a vailable e ither. S lightly

g reater

c oncentration

o f

m etal a long t he u pper O dra

w ith a b igger p EC :ch b y t he B ystrzyca 's m outh , s hows t hat i t w as s ti : ,1 t he a reas w ith t he b est s o ns t hat r eceived t he l argest q uantities o f b ronze ( fig .VII).0n t he o ther hand , t his t ogether w ith t he f act t hat t he m ajority o 2 i mports a re o f s outhern o rigin ,provide e vidence d ocumenting t he u se o f t he o ld r oute a long t he O dra . N evertheless, t he m ore e ven d istribution o f b ronze o ver t he whole z one s eems t o i ndicate

.

t he s till d imint 7hing r ole o f t he u pper O dra a s a l ong-distane e xchange r oute. S uch a c onclusion i s f urther s upported b y t he d istribution Q f m etal h oards a nd i solated f inds i n e ast-southern a nd c entral P oland ( fig .XVI). I t s eems t o i ndicate t he i nflux o f m etal f rom t he s outh t hrough t he D ukielska , L upkowska , a nd U zocka P asses, a nd i ts t ransportation a long t he W isia, t he S an , a nd t he W isloka r ivers, n orthwards t o K ujawy a nd W ielkopolska ( fig .III). T his r oute p robably s upplied m etal a lso . t o t he a rea b etween t he m iddle W arta a nd t he N otec r ivers, where t here i s a r elatively c onsiderable c oncentration o f i t ( fig .V II) A ll i n a ll, m etal s eems t o h ave f lowed t o t he s outhern z one f rom s everal d irections, w hich r esulted i n t he a ppearance o f s everal n odal p oints w hose a dvantageous g eographical l ocation a llowed t he c ontrol o f t he e xchange,

a nd h ence

T he f urther d ecline i n

t he i mportance o f t he O dra r oute f or t he

l ong-distance e xchange c oincided P omorze. I ts p articipation i n t he b egan i n

a n i ncipient f orm i n

p rofit.

t he

w ith t he g reater i ndependence o f a lternative e xchange s ystems, w hich E arly

B ronze

A ge,

n ow g ained i n

s ignificance . T his f act b rought a bout a r apid i ncrease i n t he m etal s upply i n t he n orth ( by 2 15%), w hich c ontrasts w ith t he s tagnation i n t he s outhern z one. I n t he t hird B ronze A ge p eriod , t he a mount o f b ronze y 1% i n r elation t o t he f irst p eriod , 1 i n t he n orthern z one i s h ighe -:b l et a lone t he s econd , d espite t he f act t hat t he t otal q uantity o f

b ronze i n t he whole r egion i s s till l ower ( table.IIIa-c;fig .XXII). O n t he o ther hand , m etal d eposits c oncentrate a round t he O dra 's m outh t o a n e xtent unknown b efore ( fig .VII). T his d evelopments

s ituation b ecomes u nderstandable i n N orth-Western E urope.

K .Kristiansen

has

i f

o ne

c onsiders

p ut f orward a p lausible p roposition b ased o n

t he s tudy o f t he d istribution o f i mports, t o t he e ffect t hat i n p eriod 3 , a r egular e xchange n etwork a long t he E lbe-Odra r ivers s ystems d eveloped , w hich s upplied S candinavia w ith m etal f rom t he s outh . T he i mportance o f t his s ystem w as g radually i ncreasing ,t o t he p oint w hen i t b roke t he m onopoly o f L uneburg a nd S chleswig-Holstein ( Kristiansen 1 981,p.249). N eedless t o s ay , M ecklemburg a nd t he a rea a round t he O dra 's m outh b enefitted f rom t he s tatus q uo i n t heir r ole a s m iddleman . F urthermore, i t s eems l egitimate t o a ssert i ntensification o f t he e xchange b etween t he s outh-eastern B altic c oast a nd N orth-Western E urope v ia P omorze. I n t he l atter a rea o ne c omes a cross S candinavian s pear-heads, a rmlets f rom M ecklemburg ,and k nives f rom s outhern G ermany , w hich t ogether w ith t he d istribution o f t he battle-axes o f N ortycken t ype c orroborate s uch a p roposition f ig .XIX). T his s ituation a ccounts f or t he r elatively l arge q uantities o f m etal i n t he c oastal b elt ( fig .VII). I n o ther w ords, t he n orthern z one b enefited f rom i ts a dvantageous g eographical l ocation w ithin t he t ransformed l ong-distance e xchange n etwork , d espite i ts p oor a gricultural p otential. O n t he w hole, t he e xplanatory p ower o f t he a gricultural p otential a nd t he p opulation t rends i s r ather p oor i n t his p eriod ( only 4 5%). T herefore t he o ther f actors s uch a s

d istribution o f m etal has t o b e a ccounted f or b y f or i nstance t he c ourse o f t he e xchange r outes.

M etal s upplies s eem t o h ave b een a cquired l argely a s a p rofit f rom t he t ransit e xchange v ia t he n orthern z one. I n t he s outhern z one, o n t he o ther h and , w hich s eems t o h ave b een s upplied f rom d ifferent s ources, i t m ust h ave b een t he a gricultural s urplus t hat w as e xchanged f or m etal. H ence, t here s eem t o h ave o perated d ifferent m echanisms w hereby

m etal was a cquired

i n

t he

n orth

a nd

i n

t he

s outh .

T his s ituation u nfortunately , c annot b e s o p recisely d iagnosed b y t he q uantitative a nalysis o f t he d ata . T he m ost p rominent f eature o f t he p eriod i n q uestion w as t he l arge c oncentration o f m etal i n t he n orthern z one d ue t o i ts f ortunate p osition w ithin t he e xisting e xchange n etwork .This f act h as b een i ndicated v ery c learly b y t he q uantitative a nalysis. H owever, t he a nalysis h as b een c arried o ut f or t he e ntire a rea u nder s tudy ( i.e. b oth z ones), a s t he s eparate t reatement o f t he n orth a nd t he s outh w as i mpossible ( there w ere t oo f ew c ategories i n t he f ormer). H ence, t he r esults f or t he s outhern z one w ere a dversely a ffected b y t he s tatus q uo i n t he n orth . T his w as e lucidated b y t he s tudy o f t he c onfiguration o f t he e xchange r outes a nd t he c hanges i n t he a djacent p arts o f E urope. F or t his r eason , a v ery c areful i nterpretation a nd c onsultation o f o ther s ources w ere n ecessary .

T he o verall c onclusion i s t hat t he s outh s till r elied o n i ts

a gricultural p otential

a s

o pposed

r ole o f m iddleman .

4 2

t o t he n orth m ostly e ngaged i n t he

T he

s quared m ultiple c orrelation c oefficient

f or

t his

p eriod

i llustrates t his s ituation i n w hich t he t wo o pposite t rends c ancel e ach o ther o ut, a s i t w ere. I n o ther w ords, t he m ultiple c orrelation c oefficient f or t he s outhern z one w hich w ould h ave b een h igher h ad t he a nalysis b een c arried o ut s eparately f or b oth z ones, i s c ounterbalanced by t he l ow c oefficient f or t he n orth . T he e ffect i s t hat t he e xplained p roportion o f t he v ariation i n t he e ntire a rea , i s m arginally l ess t han a t o b e u sed a s a n e xplanatory f actor o n i s s omewhat t oo h igh t o b e n eglected , o r

b ronze d istribution i n t he h alf. T his m akes i t i nadequate i ts o wn ; o n t he o ther h and , i t e xcluded f rom t he a ccount. A ll

i n a ll, a dditional a gents had t o b e i nvoked a nd t he r esults i nterpreted t hrough r eference t o e xternal s ources, o r e lse o ne w as b ound t o a rrive a t m isleading c onclusions.

D uring t he f ourth B ronze A ge p eriod, t he s ituation i n t he m iddle D anube b asin r esembled t hat o f t he p revious p eriod . I t w as s till t he Hungarian-Transylvanian m etal p roduction c entre t hat h ad t he l ead i n C entral E urope. I n N orth E urope, t here w as a c onsiderable i ncrease i n t he n umber o f s outhern p roducts w hich w ere i mported , i n a ll p robability , f rom p resent-day H ungary a nd t he a d jacent a reas. K .Kristiansen a sserts t hat i n t his p eriod S candinavia e stablished n ew l inks w ith S outh-East E urope v ia t he Odra r iver, w hich b ecame a p art o f t he n etwork e xtending b eyond t he C arpathians i n t he s outh-easterly d irection . T he i ntensification o f t he c ontacts b etween t hese a reas w as c oncurrent w ith a c onsiderable g rowth i n m etal p roduction i n t he H ungarian-Transylvanian c entre ( cf K ristiansen 1 981,p.259,259). A s f ar a s t he s outh-east B altic c oast i s c oncerned , o ne o bserves a r emarkable d ecrease i n m etal q uantity d eposited h ere d uring t he p eriod i n q uestion ( Dabrowski 1 968,p.228,230), w hich s eems t o h ave g one hand i n hand w ith t he l ess i ntensive a mber t rade c haracteristic o f t he L ate B ronze A ge i n g eneral

( cf G imbutas 1 965,p.437).

T he d istribution o f m etal i n w estern P oland d uring r epresented b y t he m ap

z one,

A g reat a nd i ts

( fig .VIII)

i ncrease i n c onsiderable

( table.IIId ;fig .VIII,XXII),

p eriod 4

a s

f its w ell i nto t his p icture.

m etal q uantity d eposited i n t he s outhern c oncentration a t t he n odal p oints

i ndicate t he r evival o f t he o ld r oute a long

t he O dra r iver a s a p art o f t he l ong-distance e xchange n etwork l inking N orth a nd S outh E urope. T he m outh o f t he O dra s till c onstituted t he l anding p oint f or t he g rowing o verseas c ontacts w ith S candinavia . T he r emainder o f P omorze, h owever, l ost i ts s hare o f m etal l argely o n a ccount o f t he d ecline i n t he e xchange b etween N orth-East a nd N orth-West E urope. T he a gricultural p otential o f a r egion a nd t he p opulation t rends

e xplain t o a l arge e xtent

w hich

was t he c ase i n t he f irst t wo

( class

1

a nd

2 ),

r eceived ,

p eriods.

i n g eneral,

4 3

t he d istribution o f m etal T he

b est

s oils

a reas

t he l argest a mounts o f b ronze.

O n t he o ther h and , t he e xchange r outes a lso i mpinged o n t he m etal d istribution p attern , p articularly i n t he n orthern z one, a nd c an b e i ncluded i n t he a ccount. T he s outhern z one s eems t o h ave m ediated i n p assing o n s ome p roducts f urther t o t he n orthern z one ( fig .XIV-the s words), b ut c ertain c ommodities, f or i nstance t he H ungarian f ibulae, s eem t o h ave b een e ntirely a bsorbed b y i t ( fig .XIV). T his f act, a s w ell a s t he t endency f or u sing t he a lternative r oute v ia t he U zocka a nd t he D ukielska P asses ( fig .III) t o s upply s outh-eastern P oland , r ather t han t he a reas f urther n orth ( fig .XIV ,XVII) a ccount f or t he r eturn t o t he s ituation f rom t he E arly B ronze A ge. T he s outhern z one r egained i ts a dvantageous p osition a s m iddleman , w hich i s e videnced b y t he c oncentration o f m etal a long t he e xchange r outes ( fig .VIII). N evertheless, t he a gricultural p otential a nd t he p opulation t rends s eem t o h ave i nfluenced t he d istribution o f b ronze t o a m uch g reater e xtent t han t he c onfiguration o f t he e xchange r outes. T he r elative i mportance o f t hese t wo s ets o f a gents i s w ell i llustrated b y t he s quare o f m ultiple c orrelation c oefficient. T he f ormer a ccounts f or 6 9% a nd t he l atter m ay e xplain n ot m ore t han 3 1% w hich i s i n a greement w ith t he c onclusion d rawn f rom t he s tudy o f t he e xchange r outes. O n t he w hole, a ll t hese f actors c reated b etter o pportunities f or t he s outhern z one a nd t hat i s w hy 7 3% o f a ll m etal f rom t he w hole r egion w as d eposited i n t he s outh .

T he f inal p eriod o f t he B ronze A ge i n a c ompletely n ew p icture o f m etal d istribution .

b asin ,

w estern

P oland b rought

T he s outhern z one, s till c losely c onnected t o t he m iddle D anube r eceived s lightly m ore m etal t han i n p eriod 4 ( table

IIe,fig .XXII), a nd i t i s f airly e venly d istributed a long t he O dra I r iver . T his c ould h ave b een a n o utcome o f t he g rowing p opularity o f b ronze a nd i ts g enerally m ore c ommon u se i n t he L ate B ronze A ge. A part f rom t he s outh-east s upplies, t his z one r eceived a c ertain a mount o f i mports f rom t he s outh-west, w here t he l ocal m etal p roduction c entre a chieved i ts c limax ( e.g . t he Auvernier s words, o r k nives f rom t he e astern A lps).

a ntennae a nd t he T he n ew p henomenon

i s t he c onsiderable i nflux o f o bjects o f n orthern i .e. P omeranian a nd N ordic o rigin . I n S lask , t here a re a f ew a rtefacts f rom t here ( e.g . t he d aggers w ith a k idney-like h ilt); w hereas W ielkopolska , a nd i ts n orthern p art i n p articular,

h ave a

p rofusion

o f N ordic

i mports.

T his

s eems t o b e t he i ndication o f t he r eversed r elationship b etween t he s outhern a nd t he n orthern z ones, i n w hich t he l ead n ow b elonged t o t he l atter. A s w as t he

c ase

p reviously

i n

t he

s outhern

z one,

t he a reas

w ith t he g reatest a gricultural p otential h ave t he l argest q uantities o f m etal, t hese h owever, d istribution o f b ronze d ifferent

f actors;

a re l ower t han b efore. N evertheless, t he i n t he w hole r egion i s a ccounted f or b y

t he c ontribution o f t he d ifferences

4 4

i n a gricu ltural

p otential a nd t he p opulation t rends t o t his e xplanation i s p ractically n egligible. O n t he s cale o f t he e ntire r egion ( as o pposed t o t he s outhern z one o nly) t he l argest q uantities o f b ronze a re a ssociated w ith p oor a reas. T his s hows t hat t he a gricultural c onditions o f a r egion m attered v ery l ittle w ith r egard t o i ts m etal s hare. T his i s m ostly d ue t o t he s tatus q uo i n t he n orth . D uring t his p eriod , t here i s a n u nprecedented a ccumulation o f m etal i n P omorze a nd i t i s e xplained e ntirely b y t he t ransformation o f t he e xchange r outes a s a r esult o f t he n ew s ituation i n N orth E urope. I n t he L ate B rrnze A ge, t he N ordic c ulture s pread t o p resent d ay s outhern S weden a nd t he B altic i slands o ff i ts e astern c oast ( cf K ristiansen 1 982,fig .15.12). T he e xpansion i mpinged o n t he i mportance o f t he a rea a round t he O dra 's m outh , w hich p layed t he r ole o f m iddleman i n t he e xchange b ctween t he s outh a nd t he n orth . T his w as a lready n oticeable i n p eriods 3 E r sd 4 . H owever, t he f urther e ast t he n eed f or m etal s upplies a rose, t he m ore a dvantageous t he p osition o f t he n orthern z one b ecame. A s i o h appened , i t w as i n t he f ifth p eriod , t hat t he d emand f or b ronze i n e astern S candinavia i ncreased ( cf K ristiansen 1 982,fig .15.12). ependent f or i ts m etal s upplies T hus,North-West E urule b ecame . d o n t he a rea i n q uestion o winE , t o t he t r n sformation o f t he e xchange n etwork . T he g rowing d emand f or m etal i n S candinavia c oincided w ith t he r ise o f i ts s upplies f rom W astern E urope. T he o verwhelming m ajority o f i mports f ound i n S candinavia c ame f rom t his a rea . T he m iddle E lbe w as s till e mployed f or t he t ransportation w ithin t his e xchange n etwork , but n ow

t he

r oute a long t he u pper O dra r iver w as b ecoming m ore

a nd

m ore

p rominent.In t his s ituation , M eeklemburg a nd P omorze w ere i n a p osition t o g ain c ontrol o ver t he m etal s upplies t o s outhern S candinavia ( cf K ristiansen 1 981,p.250). T his i n t urn , r esulted i n t he p rosperity o f P omorze

which

i s

e videnced b y t he e normous a mount o f m etal d eposited

t here. T he q uantity o f m etal, which c onstitutes 3 1% o f t he t otal o f t he w hole o f t he B ronze Age i n w estern P oland ( table.IIia-e), c orroborates t he p roposed a ccount. M oreover, t he p oor a gricultural p otential o f t he n orthern z one, a nd t he l ack o f c orrelation b etween t he l atter a nd m etal c oncentrations, l eave n o d oubt, t hat i t i s t he f avourable g eographical p osition o f P omorze a t t he n ode o f t he e xchange n etwork , r ather t han a nything e lse, t hat a ccounts f or i ts w ealth i n t his p eriod . d istribution variables

T he o ver

t otal p roportion o f t he v ariation i n t he m etal t he e ntire r egion e xplained b y t he i ndependent

i s o nly 3 3%,

w hich i s t he l owest o f a ll p eriods.

A s r egards t he s outhern z one,

a t

t he

c lose

o f t he B ronze A ge

a nd t he b eginning o f t he I ron A ge, t he g rowing i mportance o f t he i ron t echnology put a n e nd t o t he d evelopment o f b ronze p roduction c entres i n E astern E urope. T his h ad a n i mpact o n t he s upplies o f b ronze t o t his r egion ,

which b ecame i nvolved i n t he c ircle o f t he H allstatt c ulture.

4 5

T o s um u p, Iw ould l ike t o e mphasize t he d ifference b etween t he s outhern a nd t he n orthern z ones w ith r egard t o t he p ace o f d evelopments a nd t he m echanisms w hereby m etal s upplies w ere a cquired . I n t he s outh , o ne o bserves a c ertain r egularity a nd s tability i n b ronze a cquisition a nd d eposition . A s t he e xchange w as a nimated b y , a nd l argely d epended o n t he i nternal f actors i .e. t he a vailability o f t he a gricultural s urplus, t he d ifferences i n t he q uantity o f m etal d eposited d uring t he i ndividual p eriods a re n ot s o g reat a nd , o n t he o ther h and , e xhibit a s omewhat r egular p attern ( fig .XXII). I n t he p eriods w hen t he a dvantage c ould h ave b een g ained n ot o nly f rom t he h igh a gricultural p otential b ut a lso f rom t he f avourable g eographical l ocation w ithin t he l ong-distance e xchange n etwork ( i.e. p eriods 1 a nd 4 ), t he q uantity o f m etal w as l arge. I t w as a s i f t he a mount o f b ronze c onsisted o f t wo c omponents: a s table b ase p roportion d ue t o t he a gricultural p otential p lus t he " off-set" q uantity g ained t hrough t he e xchange m ediation . W hen t he c ourse o f t he e xchange r outes p roved l ess f avourable ( i.e. p eriods 2 a nd 3 ), t he t otal a mount o f m etal d iminished ,as i f l evelling d own t o t he b asic s table s upplies s ecured b y t he a gricultural s urplus. I n t he f ifth p eriod , t he g rowth s eems t o h ave b een l inked w ith t he g enerally i ncreasing p opularity o f m etal d uring t he L ate B ronze Age. T he s light d ifferences b etween t he i ndividual p eriods w ithin t he b asic s hare a ssociated w ith t he a gricultural p roduction c ould h ave b een c aused b y t he c hanging r atio o f t he p roducing a nd n on-producing s ectors o f s ociety , t he t echnology a vailable, m ethods o f t illage d eployed , c limatic f luctuations e tc. O n t he w hole h owever, m etal s upplies t ended t o o scillate a round a c ertain v alue, a nd t he a mplitutde o f c hanges w as m uch s maller t han i n t he n orth ( fig .XXII). T he p roportion b y w hich t he t otal m etal q uantity i n t he s outhern z one d iffered f rom p eriod t o p eriod n ever e xceeded 3 3%. T his i s a m uch " smoother" t ransition t han i n t he n orth , o r t he e ntire r egion f or t hat m atter ( table V I). T he n orthern z one , o n t he o ther h and , w as m ore d ependent o n e xternal f actors, s uch a s t he c ourse o f t he e xchange r outes, d ue t o i ts p oor a gricultural p otential. I n t hose c ircumstances, i ts p osition w as m ore

o pportunistic,

w hich

i s

r eflected

i n

t he

c hronological

d istribution o f m etal. I n p eriods 1 a nd 3 , w hen t he c onfiguration o f t he e xchange n etwork w as f avourable, t he a mount o f b ronze w as h igh . W hen t he r outes t ook a w orse c ourse i n p eriods 2 a nd 4 , i t d ecreased . T his t endency r eached t he z enith i n t he f ifth p eriod , w hen t he p roliferation o f m etal b rought a bout b y t he t ransformation o f t he e xchange r outes s eems a lmost m iraculous.

z one

I n o ther w ords, t he a mount o f m etal d eposited i n t he n orthern s wung l ike a p endulum f rom o ne e xtreme t o t he o ther, a nd t he

p eriod o f e ach s wing w as d etermined b y

t he c ourse o f t he l ong-distance

e xchange n etwork i n E urope ( fig .XXII). T he p roportion b y w hich t he t otal q uantity o f b ronze a ccumulated i n t he n orthern z one c hanged f rom o ne p eriod t o a nother

( table.VI)

w as

4 6

n ever

l ess

t han 3 0% a nd i n t he

e xtreme c ase 6 94%.

T he a ctual s equence o f t he r ise

a nd

f all was a lso

m ore c hangeable. T he s ame d irection t rend was n ever r epeated i n s uccession ; i t k ept a lternating s inusoidally f rom p eriod t o p eriod .

S uch t o v erify b etween t he w as c arried

a p icture e merges f rom t he p receding d iscussion . I n o rder i ts v alidity a nd a scertain i ndependently t he d ifferences n orthern a nd s outhern z ones, p rincipal c omponents a nalysis o ut s eparately f or t he d ata f rom e ither a rea .

T he v ariables t aken i nto a ccount w ere t he q uantities o f m etal i n t he f orm o f o rnaments, t ools, a nd w eapons; t he t otal a mount; a s w ell a s t he n umber o f c emeteries. T he m easurements o n t hese v ariables e xpressed i n t he w eight-scores(cf p .8-9), w ere t aken o ver t he c hronological c ross-section f or e ach z one. I n o ther w ords, t here w ere t wo s ets o f m easurements o n t he f ive v ariables m entioned a bove, o ne f or t he n orth a nd o ne f or t he s outh . T he m easurements w ithin t he s ets w ere d ivided i nto c ategories o n c hronological g rounds; t his i s t o s ay , m easurements o n a rtefacts a ttributed t o t he s ame p eriod w ere i ncluded i n t he s ame c ategory . H ence, e ach s et c omprised f ive c ategories c orresponding t o t he i ndividual B ronze A ge p eriods; o r t o p ut i t d ifferently , e ach o f t he B ronze A ge p eriods i n t he s outh a nd t he n orth s eparately , w as d escribed b y a s et o f m easurements o n t he f ive v ariables. A s h as b een s aid i n c hapter I II.B.iii, p rincipal c omponents a nalysis a ims a t e xtracting f rom a n umber o f v ariables d escribing c ertain e ntities o nly t hose w hich c ontribute m ost t o t he d ifferences b etween t he i ndividual e ntities. S ince t he v ariables a re n ormally c orrelated w ith e ach o ther t o a v arying d egree, t he a bove o bjective c an b e a chieved b y f orming g roups o f v ariables ( i.e. p rincipal c omponents) i n s uch a way t hat t he c orrelation b etween v ariables w ithin e ach g roup i s m aximum , a nd t hat b etween i ndividual g roups m imnimum . A s a r esuit, t he n umber o f variables t o c onsider i s r educed a nd , b y t he s ame t oken , t he a nalysis s implified . T he c omponent l oadings m easure t he c orrelation b etween t he g iven c omponent a nd t he i ndividual variables. T he p roportion

o f t he t otal v ariance i n a ll v ariables e xplained b y a g iven

p rincipal c omponent p ercentage o f t race.

( i.e.

a

g roup

o f

v ariables)

i s m easured b y i ts

I n o ur e xample, c hanges i n t he f ive v ariables c haracterizing t he n orthern a nd s outhern z ones ( i.e. t he e ntities i nvestigated) w ere c onsidered o ver a ll f ive p eriods o f t he B ronze A ge, a nd p rincipal c omponents a nalysis w as u sed t o d etermine w hich o f t hese v ariables f ollowed a s imilar p attern o f c hanges ( i.e. c ovaried) i n a c hronological c ross-section ( i.e.

T he d ifferent

r esults

f or

t he

c onstitute a p rincipal c omponent).

n orthern

a nd

t he

s outhern

z ones

a re

( table.VIIa-b).

A s r egards t he n orth, a ccounts f or o ver 8 1% v ariables ( table.VIIa).

o nly o ne

c omponent

w as e xtracted ,

a nd i t

o f t he t otal v ariance p resent i n a ll t he N aturally, t he l oadings a re a lso v ery h igh

4 7

( only t he n umber o f c emeteries s omewhat l ower), which m eans t hat a s ingle c omponent c an r eplace w ith a g reat d egree o f a ccuracy a ll t he variables c onsidered i n t he a nalysis. T here i s n o n eed t o d eal w ith t hem i ndividually . I n t he s outh , o n t he o ther h and , t wo p rincipal c omponents r esulted f rom t he a nalysis ( table.VIIb). T he f irst a ccounts f or 5 7% a nd t he s econd f or 3 7% o f t he t otal v ariance, t his g ives t he c umulative p ercentage o f t race o f 9 4%, w hich i s v ery h igh . T he

l oadings o n t he f irst c omponent a re

v ery

h igh

f or

t hree

v ariables, n amely t he m etal q uantity i n t he f orm o f t ools a nd w eapons, a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries. T he r emaining t wo i .e. t he t otal b ronze q uantity ,

a nd t hat i n t he f orm o f o rnaments,

h ave v ery h igh l oadings o n

t he s econd c omponent . H ence, t here a re t wo s ets o f v ariables o f which v aried i n a d ifferent w ay t hroughout t he B ronze A ge. N ow i t i s n ecessary t o a ssign c ertain

m eaning

,e ither

t o t he e xtracted

c omponents, w hich i s s elf-evident i n v iew o f w hat h as b een s aid i n t he p revious s ection o f t his c hapter.

T he

o pportunistic

c haracter

o f

t he

m etal

a cqusition i n t he

n orthern z one, w hich w as c onditioned p redominantly b y a s ingle s et o f e xternal a gents, i s r eflected i n t he r esult o f t he p rincipal c omponent a nalysis. M etal, i n w hatever f orm , w as s ubject t o t he s ame f luctuations a s t here w as n o e conomic r egulatory m echanism w hich w ould h ave e nsured t hat t he b ronze s upplies d id n ot f all b elow a c ertain l evel. I t w as v ery much d ependent o n t he c onfiguration o f t he l ong-distance e xchange n etwork . S urely e nough , t he l oading f or t he n umber o f c emeteries i s l ower t han a ny o ther . I t i mplies, t hat a lthough t he p opulation s ize w as, i n a s ense, a f unction o f t he e conomic p rosperity o f t he r egion , i t was c onditioned b y i t o nly t o t he q uantity o f b ronze r eceived .

T he d ependence

a l imited d egree,

s ituation i n t he s outhern o n e xternal f actors h ad a m uch

c ertainly l ess t han

z one w as d ifferent . T he m ore l imited i mpact o n t he

m etal s upplies t o t his a rea , w hich w ere a ttracted a lso b y t he l ocal a gricultural c onditions. T his d ual n ature o f t he b ronze a cquisition m echanism w as r eflected i n t he f luctuations o f m etal q uantity i n t he r egion . I t h as b een d escribed a bove a s c onsisting o f t wo c omponents, n amely t he b ase q uantity a ssociated w ith t he l ocal a gricultural/herding p otential, a nd t he " off s et" g ained a s a r esult o f t he m ore e rratic t rade m ediation . T he p rincipal c omponent a nalysis s hows e xactly t his. T he f irst c omponent r epresents, i n m y v iew , t he b ase q uantity o f m etal. N ot b y a ccident, i t i s c omprised o f t ools a nd w eapons w hich h ad u tilitarian v alue, a nd w hich w ere c orrelated w ith t he p opulation s ize. I t i s a s i f a c ertain p roportion o f t he p opulation h ad t o b e s upplied w ith t hese o bjects t o e nsure c orrect f unctioning o f s ociety . T he s econd f actor, c onsisting o f t he t otal a mount o f m etal a nd t he o rnaments ( N .B. t he f ormer w as c omprised t he " off-set" q uantity

m ostly o f a ssociated

n etworks.

4 8

t he l atter), a ppears t o r epresent w ith t he l ong-distance e xchange

O n t he w hole, t he p rincipal c omponents a nalysis s trongly s upports t he c onclusions d rawn f rom t he e conomic i nterpretation w hich h ave b een p resented a bove.

4 9

V I.

M ETKJDOLOG UAL F RAMEWORK F OR S OCIAL I NTERPRETATION

I deology ,

i ts v ehicles,

a nd r ole i n t he s ocial s tructure

Ih ope t hat i n t he p receding c hapter I h ave s ucceeded i n d emonstrating t he c orrelation b etween t he f luctuation o f m etal q uantities i n t ime a nd s pace i n w estern P oland , a nd t he c hanges t hat w ere t aking p lace i n o ther p arts o f E urope d uring t he B ronze A ge. T his a ccount d oes n ot a spire t o b e a n e conomic e xplanation o f m etal d istribution p atterns i n t he a rea i n q uestion . S uch a n a rgument w ould h ave t o b e b ased o n m uch m ore c omplete e vidence c oncerning s ubsistence e conomy , s ettlement d evelopment, a nd b etter d ocumented d emographic t rends, a nd s uch a t ask s urpasses t he s cope o f t his w ork . M y c ontention h owever,

i s t hat a pproaching

t he

i ssue

i n t erms

o nly o f e conomic p rocesses s ensu l argo, b oth l ocal a nd t hose o perating o n a l arger s cale, i s t antamount t o p resenting a v ery l imited a nd o ne-sided p icture. Undeniably , s uch a m odel o f b ronze q uantity f luctuation has i ts i ntrinsic l ogic; s urplus o f m etal i s c hannelled t o r egions d evoid o f t heir o wn s ources, w hereby i t i s c onverted i nto, f or i nstance, a gricultural/herding s urplus, a nd v ice v ersa . H owever , i t d oes n ot t ake l ong t o r ealize t hat i t i s a r eductionist a pproach w hich o perates o nly o n t he l evel o f d irectional a nd q uantitative c hanges o f m etal f low . I t i mplies w ith t he c ompelling l ogic o f o ur p resent-day e xperience t hat b ronze, o nce d iscovered , w ould h ave b een d esired b ecause o f i ts p otential f or e conomic a ctivities. C onsequently , i t w ould b e t otally p ointless t o a ddress a q uestion a s t o w hy c ertain a reas r equired l arge a mounts o f m etal a t t hat p articular t ime. N eedless t o s ay , t his q uestion s hould b e c onsidered , b ut a n a ttempt t o r elate t he i ssue t o s ubsistence/demography f ramework i s i n t he b est c ase i nadequate, i n t he w orst, c ompletely m isleading . A ny s uch e ndeavour i s d oomed t o f ailure b ecause o f t he m ethodological i ncompatibility b etween t he l evel o f a nalysis a nd i ts o bjective. I n o rder t o i nvestigate t he p roblem , o ne n eeds a n ew c onceptual f ramework w hich h as b een p rovided b y t he " social a rchaeology". S imilarly , t he e conomic a pproach i s b ound t o f ail

i n a nswering t he q uestion a s t o w hy

t he n etwork o f m etal e xchange r outes k ept c hanging i n t he c ourse o f t he B ronze A ge. T he s ocial s tance c an p ut f orward a v ery p lausible p roposition o n t his s core a s w ell,

a s

w e

s hall

s ee l ater .

B efore w e i ntroduce t he m ain i deas t he s ocial f ramework i s c omprised o f ,let u s t ry a nd d emonstrate t hat t he p urely e conomic a pproach i n t he s ense d escribed a bove i s u nacceptable f or t his c ase s tudy . I t

has b een s tated t hat i n t he

i nitial p hase

o f

t he

E uropean

B ronze A ge t here w as a c ontinuous c ultural d evelopment i n p ractically a ll d omains o f l ife, a nd t he d ivision N eolithic/Bronze A ge i s, t o a

5 0

large extent, an arbitrary one (cf p. 33ff) . The di.ssemination of bronze had no decisive impact on the life of prehistoric collllllUilities for a long time. On the other hand, metal was known and sporadical�y used throughout the Neolithic in the area under study, as well as elsewhere (fig.X;cf Wislanski 1970a). Hence, the mere knowledge of metal in this part of Europe, did not bring about an immediate deployment of an exchange mechanism geared to the acquisition of the valuable commodity in larger quantities. Admittedly, the supply during the Eneolithic was much lower than in the succeeding period; nevertheless, it still does not explain entirely the suprisingly scarce quantity of metal and its rather slowly growing dissemination at the close of the Stone Age. Some scholars would account for it by the unavailability of the sufficient agricultural surplus during the Neo- and Eneolithic which was essential for fostering the exchange (cf Childe 1956); in my view however, the real explanation should be looked for in the realm of the social rather than the economic. Later on, at the beginning of the Bronze Age, there was a rapid increase in metal quantity relative to the preceding period, but it does not seem to be only the practical value of bronze for subsistence activities that triggered it off. This is implied by the evidence in hand. In western Poland (data from other parts of Europe have not been analyzed quantitatively to support such a conclusion) , it is the ornaments that constitute the majority of all metal items. Their contribution to the total quantity of bronze (by the weight-scores) in the area fluctuates from 63% in the Early Bronze Age, to 47% in the Late Bronze Age, and does not fall below this value in any of the periods (table.IIIa-e). Thus, the majority of bronze was frozen in the objects of no utilitarian value. This is contrasted by the very low proportion of tools which is a mere 22% for the first period, and never exceeded 24% (period 3) of the total quantity of metal. In the light of this, a model that accounts for the growing popularity of bronze as primarily associated with its potential for the economy , loses its plausibility. In order to take the argument still further the data from the first period were analysed quantitatively. For this purpose, the frequency of metal in concentric zones 100. km wide and centred on the Moravian Gate was measured, and the "fall-off" trends investigated (cf fig.XL). It has been said that during the first period of the Bronze Age the overwhelming majority of metal artefacts found in western Poland (nearly all in fact) show southern i.e Central European provenance (i.e. Bohemia, Hungary, Moravia, .Slovakia, Austria;cf p.24-25,36-37). This means that they must have passed through the Moravian Gate (or its neighbourhood) on their way through the Sudety mountains. Hence, the Gate can be considered as a "secondary source" of metal for the area in question, and by the same token, the o·rigin of a frame of reference for the "fall-off" trends study. In the remainder of the Bronze Age transported from several sources (cf. 51

metal seems to have been p.24ff,36ff), hence one is

p recluded f rom c arrying o ut a s imilar a nalysis f or t he o ther p eriods. N evertheless, t he b eginning o f t he B ronze A ge i s t he m ost i mportant ( in t he l ight o f w hat has b een s aid i n t his c hapter s o f ar) a nd s ufficient t o o ur e nds; o n t he o ther hand , t he e ssence o f o ur c onclusions c an b e e xtrapolated t o l ater p hases o f t he e poch . L et u s e xamine t he " fall-off" o f t he t otal q uatity o f m etal d uring p eriod 1 ( fig .XXV). T he r esults a re s omewhat s urprising i n t hat t he c urve d oes n ot c onform t o w hat c ould b e e xpected i f m etal h ad h ad m ostly a n e conomic s ignificance. I n s uch a s ituation , t he a cquisition o f m etal must b e c ost-effective. T his m eans t hat t he e conomic i mprovement ( e.g . i n t erms o f t he " gross p roduct") b rought a bout b y t he i ntroduction o f m etal m ust h ave o utweighed i ts " price". I t i s o bvious t hat t he l onger d istance t he c ommodity h ad t o t ravel t o i ts c onsumer, t he h igher " price" h ad t o b e p aid f or i t. A ssuming a n e qual p urchasing p ower,the c onsumer c loser t o t he s upplying s ource s hould h ave b een a ble t o a cquire l arger q uantities o f g oods t han t he m ore d istant o ne. T o p ut i t d ifferently , t he q uantity o f m etal i n a n a rea s hould r emain i n a n i nverse p roportion t o i ts d istance f rom t he s ource.

O ur

d ata s how t hat

t his d oes n ot h old t rue f or w estern P oland . T he l argest s hare o f t he t otal m etal a mount w as d eposited i n z one 4 ( i.e. 3 00-400 k m a way f rom t he M oravian G ate), n amely 3 2%. O therwise, t he d istribution s hows a m ore o r l ess u niform " fall-off" i n b oth d irections a way f rom t he m aximum . M ost c ertainly , t he a gricultural p otential o f z ones 2 a nd 3 i s e qual t o ( if n ot g reater t han) t hat o f z one 4 ( cf c hapter I I), h ence t he purchasing p ower p arity b etween t he z ones c an b e a ssumed . T he p ossibility o f m etal b eing s upplied f rom t wo d irections, n orth a nd s outh o n t he s ame s cale, ( which i s s o s trongly i mplied b y t he s hape o f t he h istogram a pproaching a n aarly n ormal d istribution), i s a bsolutely r uled o ut; y et z one 1h as o nly 5 %, z one 2 -17%, a nd z one 3 -26% o f t he t otal. O ther c ategories o f m etal, n amely o rnaments, t ools, w eapons,hoards, s imilar p attern f urnishings).

a nd o f

i solated f inds ( fig .XXV-XXXI) c onform d istribution ( with t he e xception o f

t o a g rave

F urthermore, t he p roportions o f t ools, o rnaments, a nd w eapons i n i ndividual z ones c onfirm " t 1-„ e a nomaly" ( cf f ig .XXXIX). I n z ones 3 a nd 4 , w here b ronze c ould b e e xpected t o b e m ore v aluable, t he s tructure o f m etal c onsumption i s m ore " wasteful" t han i n z ones 1 a nd 2 ; t he r atios b etween o rnaments a nd t ools q uantities i .e. e ffectively t he i ndex o f t he r elationship b etween t he n on-utilitarian a nd t he e conomically i mportant f orms o f m etal,is h igher i n t he f ormer ( 3.9 a nd 3 .7 r espectively)

t han i n t he l atter

( 1.1 a nd 2 .6 r espectively).

F inally, c orrelations b etween v arious f orms o f m etal ( i.e. o rnaments, t ools, w eapons, h oards, g raves, i solated f inds, a nd t he t otal), a nd t he n umber o f c emeteries i n e ach z one w ere i nvestigated . T he c orrelation c oefficients b etween t he p airs o f v ariables a re m oderate o r l ow ( cf t able.Va), o n a verage a round 0 .40. T his m eans t hat t he r esults r evealed b y t he f oregoing a nalysis a re n ot s imply t he o utcome o f t he s ettlement p attern i n e ach z one ( i.e. p opulation d ensity), p rocess

but a

( i.e.

m anifestation

o f s ome o ther,

m ore o r l ess

i ndependent

o nly s lightly c orrelated w ith t he p opulation s ize).

5 2

I n o ther w ords, t he d istribution o f m etal a s a f unction o f t he d rstance f rom c f ie s ource, d oes n ot f ollow t he p opulation d istrr oution p attern . I f i c was t he " uneconomical" d ispersion

c ase, w ould

t he u nusual, o r s hould w e s ay b e m ore l ogical a s v iewed w ithin t he

e conomic f ramework . T his i s b ecause i n t he a bsence o f,or a v ery s parse, p opulation s ituated i n t he v icinity o f t he s ource, t he s upply h as t o r each t he a reas w here t here a re c onsumers, oth te h r -u amination o f te h Unetice d istant. B

e ven t hough t hey a re cl u ture s ites . m ap ( cf

S arnowska 1 969, m hp.2,3), a nd t he c orrelation c oefficients i ndicate t hat t he s tatus q uo i n w estern P oland d uring t he f irst B ronze A ge p eriod d eparted f ro r s uch a p icture.

O n

t his

e vidence,

o ne c an c onclude t hat a ttributing m etal w ith

p rimarily u tilitarian v alue a nd i nvestigating i ts w estern P oland o nly i n t erms o f e conomy i s i nadequate. H ence, t he q uestion p osed a t c annot b e a ssumed t o h ave i ts " obvious"

d istribution

i n

t he b eginning o f t his c hapter a nswer i mplicit i n t he e conomic

a pproach a nd i t h as t o b e a ddressed f rom a d ifferent p erspective. W ithout a ny a priori p ropositions, l et u s l ook a t t he e vidence i n h and i n o rder t o f ind s ome c lues a s t o t he d irection i n w hich t he c omplementary a nalysis s hould p roceed . O ne o f t he s triking f eatures

o f o ur b ody o f d ata i s t he c ontext

i n w hich l ots o f a rtefacts a re f ound , n amely o ne a ssociated w ith r itual b ehaviour. A q uantity o f m etal i s f ound i n g raves w hereby i t i s a ssigned a n ew m eaning . I pso f acto , i t b ecomes a c omponent o f s piritual o r s ocial, r ather t han material c ulture, t o u se t he c lassic d istinction , t hough l ater o n w e s hall s ee t hat t he f ormer d ichotomy l oses i ts s iEnificance. T here i s a lso a n umber o f h oards a ssociated w ith t he Unetice c ulture i n w stern P oland ( and i n t he l ater p eriods t oo) w hich l eave n o d oubt a s t o t heir r itual c haracter. T he m ost n otable e xamples a re: t he h oard f rom P ilszcz w oj.Cpole ( Sarnowska 1 969,table.IV ,p.165-168), w hich c onsisted o f 1 7 n ecklaces a nd 3 b racelets p laced 0 .5m u nderground , o n a t hick l ayer o f a shes f rom burnt b ones, a nd s urrounded b y a c ircle o f 2 0 a xes s tuck i n t he g round w ith t heir e dges; a nother f rom W roclaw-Pilozyce s everal n ecklaces

( Sarnowska 1 969,table.IV ,p.243-45), w here a gain w ere e ncircled by 1 3 a xes a rranged i n t he s ame w ay ;

o r t hat f rom D amianowice w oj.Wrcclaw i n w hich c n ecklaces w ere c overed by o nly g raves but h oards t oo c ontained

( Sarnowska 1 969,table.IV ,p.254), a s tone c onstruction . H ence, n ot m etal o bjects w hich d efinitely

b elonged t o t he n on-economic. I t has b een s tated a rtefacts w ere o rnaments,

a bove t hat t he v ast m ajority o f b ronze a nd o ne's a ttention w as d rawn t o t he

o pposition b etween t he e conomically u tilitarian a nd n on-utilitarian m etal. T his c an b e e xpressed m ore a dequately i n t erms o f t he d istinction b etween t he p roductive f unction a nd t he a rticulation o f m eaning .This i s t o s ay t hat l arge p roportions o f m etal ( i.e. o rnaments) w ere n ot j ust p assive c omponents o f c ulture o f n o p ractical v alue, b ut t hat t hey w ere a ctively i nvolved i n c ommunication o f m eaning . T hus t he a rgument i s s hifted y et a gain t o t he d omain o f t he n on-economic.

5 3

I n o rder t o a void m isunderstandings, i t must b e s tated t hat b y n o m eans d o I a im a t d enying m etal i ts p otential f or e conomic a ctivities d uring t he B ronze Age a ltogether. M y c ontention i s t hat i t i s e asy t o o veremphasize i t, t o t he d etriment o f o ur k nowledge o f t he p eriod . T his c ertainly h olds t rue f or o ur c ase s tudy i n w estern P oland a s h as b een d emonstrated a bove.

H aving s aid a ll t his, m y o bjective i s t o a pproach t he d istribution o f m etal i n t he a rea b etween t he O dra a nd t he W isla i n t erms o f s ocial o rganization . S uch a s tance s eems t o a fford a n ew i nsight i nto t he i ssue a part f rom t hat p rovided b y t he e conomic f actors. N eedless t o s ay , a t ruly c omplete a rgument, o r t he i ntegrated e xplanation , s hould t ake b oth i nto a ccount a s f ully a s p ossible. T he p roposition c oncerning c ertain a spects o f s ocial o rganization o f t he c ommunities i n q uestion t hat I w ould l ike t o p ut f orward , i s n ot w hat o ne m ight c all a s ocial r econstruction s ensu s tricto. I t i s r ather a n a rgument l egitimized b y t he f act t hat i t d oes n ot c ontradict t he e xisting e vidence ( known t o m e, o f c ourse), a nd , o n t he o ther h and , d oes n ot a ppear t o o verstate t he c ase o n t he b asis o f i t . O ne m ay p erceive i t a s a n a ttempt a t a m odel t esting u sing a n ew b ody o f d ata f rom t he p art o f E urope, f or w hich t his s ort o f a nalysis h as n ot b een c arried o ut t o d ate ( as f ar a s I k now). T he c oncepts e mployed h ere f orm t he m ethodological f ramework o f t he s ocial a rchaeology , a nd h ave b een d emonstrated e ffective f or o ther p arts o f E urope ( cf e .g . K ristiansen 1 978,1981; S .J.Shennan 1 982a ,b). N ow , w e s hall i ntroduce t hese c oncepts. T hey c oncern s ocial o rganization a nd t he r ole i deology p lays i n i t.

After G iddens

( 1979)

t he c omplex

I d efine i deology a s: o f

i deas t ogether w ith t he m aterial a nd

n on-material m eans w hereby t hey a re a rticulated , e mployed b y s ocial e lite i n o rder t o s ecure r eproduction r ather t han t ransformation o f t he r elations o f d omination , d espite t he c onflict o f i nterests o f

t he

e lite

a nd

t he

r ank

a nd f ile o f

s ociety .

A s

G iddens

p oints

o ut,

t he

" universal

i nterest o f d ominant

g roups i s t hat o f m aintaining t he e xisting o rder o f d omination , s ince s uch a n o rder i pso f acto i nvolves a n a symmetrical d istribution o f r esources

t hat

c an

b e

d rawn

u pon

t o

s atisfy

w ants"

( Giddens

1 979,p.189-190). I deology i s r egarded h ere a s a n a ctive c omponent o f s ocial f ormation i n i ts o wn r ight, t hat i nterplays w ith t he e conomic a nd p olitical s tatus q uo, a nd i s n ot m erely t heir o utcome. I deology m oulds a nd , a t t he s ame t ime, i s a rticulated t hrough s ocial r elations. O r i n o ther w ords,

i t i s

a

p art

a nd

n ot

5 4

m erely

a

r eflection

o f

t hose

r elations. A s A lthusser p uts i t " t here i s n o p ractice e xcept b y a nd i n i deology " ( Althusser 1 971,p.159). I deology c onceals t here a re t hree m ain w ays

a nd m isrepresents r eal s ocial r elations a nd i n w hich i t c an b e d one:

a .)

t he d enial, o r m ystification o f s ocial d ifferentiation a nd t he c onflict o f i nterests;

b .)

p resentation u niversal;

c .)

n aturalization o f s tatus q uo, i .e. " inhibiting r ecognition o f t he m utable h istorical c haracter o f

o f

t he

s ectional

i nterests

h uman s ociety ,...in w hich s ocial r elations t o have f ixed a nd i mmutable c haracter l aws."(Giddens 1 979,p.195ff).

c .)

F irst l et u s l ook a bove). I n

t his

c ase,

m ore

c losely

o f

a s

a ppear n atural

a t t he t hird p ossibility ( i.e.

t he s uccess o f i deology

h inges

o n

i ts

c lose

a ssociation w ith t he s acred o r t he t raditional, e xternal t o i t, w hich m akes r eality a ppear " God-given". I n t hese c ircumstances, a ny a ttempt t o c hange s ocial o rder i s t antamount t o a v iolation o f " nature" a nd " God 's l aw". T here a re a lways a n umber o f p eople w ho c onform a nd a ccept i deology o ut o f n ecessity r ather t han c onviction , a s a p recondition o f t heir f ull m embership o f s ociety . N evertheless, t he m ajority h ave t o p articipate i n i deology a nd t ake i t f or g ranted . O therwise, t he s ocial o rder w ill b e i nevitably t ransformed , u nless i t i s s upported b y b rutal m ilitary f orce f rom w ithin o r, e ven m ore e ffectively , f rom w ithout. I n t he w ords o f A lthusser " there i s n o i deology e xcept b y t he s ubjects ' a nd f or t he s ubjects"

( Althusser 1 971,p.159).

H owever, w ith r egard t o t he t raditional s ocieties i n q uestion , i t i s r itual a nd m aterial c ulture t hat c onstitute a v ehicle f or i deology. T ogether t hey m isrepresent s ocial o rder a nd t his " misrepresentation r esults f rom f ocussing t oo n arrowly o n f acts w hich a re d irectly o bservable a nd f rom e xtracting t hese a ppearances f rom t he s urrounding c onditions w hich a lone g ive t hem t heir c orrect m eaning ... C ut o ff f rom t he p rocesses o ut o f w hich t hey e merge a nd t heir o wn p otential f or c hange a nd d evelopment t he a pparent f eatures o f e vents l ose t heir h istorical s pecificity a nd t ake t he g uise o f n atural p henomena ." ( Oilman 1 976,p.228). I n s uch s ocieties, t here a re n o m eans s uch a s e ducational s ystem , c entralized c ommunication n etwork , a dministrative i nstitutions, o r r epressive p olice a nd a rmy a pparatus, w hich w ould f oster t he s tatus q uo. T herefore, t he o nly w ay t o p romote t he

s tability

o f

s ocial

f ormation

a nd

r eproduction o f t he r elations o f d omination ,

t o

s ecure

i s t hrough

t he

l ong-term

t he r epetition

o f s ocial a ctions w hich p rovide a p lausibility s tructure l egitimizing s ocial d ifferentiation i .e. t hrough p ractising r ituals.

5 5

S uch r ituals a re i mbued w ith s ymbolic m eaning r ooted i n t he i deology o f t he r uling e lite. I n t he e vent, t he a ssymetrical s ocial r elations s tructuring human a ctivities i mpress u pon i ts f orm , w hich i n t urn m oulds t he c onsciousness o f s ocial a ctors d uring a nd a fter t he a ct , t hus p erpetuating t he s tructure o f i nequality . A s B loch s uggests ( 1977), r itual b ehaviour s upported b y s ong , d ance, a nd m aterial c ulture, b rings a bout t he a nnihilation o f t he t ime d imension a nd t he f usion o f o ne's p ersonal i dentity w ith t he m acrocosm . T he p osition o f e ach i ndividual w ithin t he u niverse a ppears c learly d efined a nd h uman e xistence h as a p urpose o nly i nsofar a s i t i s r ecognized t o b e i ts p art.The s ocial s tatus q uo b ecomes i nextricably e mbedded i n t he n atural w orld a nd a s s uch , i t has t o b e c onformed t o r ather t han a ltered . T he s trong r eligious c omponent s ets i t a lso i n t he c ontext o f t he s upernatural a nd d istorts h uman p erception o f t he e mpirical f acts t hrough i mposing o n i t a s elf-limiting m echanism . T he o ccasion c an b e r einforced , a lthough n ot n ecessarily , b y t he i nduction o f a t rance o r a m ass-hysteria , a nd i t p enetrates d eeply i nto t he h uman p syche c reating t here d efinite c onscious o r s ubconscious c onstructs. T he r itual b oth e mploys a nd p roduces m aterial s ymbols w hich c onstitute a n e xternal r ecord o f a n i nternal e xperience. H ence, t heir m ere p resence i n s ocial l ife a ctivates t he i mpressions o f t he e vent a nd g enerates, t o a c ertain e xtent o f c ourse, a d esired r esponse d uring t he i nterval b etween t he r ituals. A s a r esult a ny a ttempt a t r eforming o r

r ebelling

a gainst

t he

s ocial o rder a mounts t o a " defiance o f n ature" ‚ but a lso t he r itual f orm i tself w hich p erpetuates i t, b ecomes f ixed a nd i mmutable. T he c ourse o f n ature i .e. t he s easonal s equence, t he l ife-death c ycle e tc., i s r itualized t hrough b eing e mbraced b y t he i deology , o n t he o ther h and , t he s ocial s tructure i s n aturalized t hrough b eing r elated t o t he n atural p henomena . T here a re n umerous e vents w hich c an b e a ssociated w ith a r itual b ehaviour, a nd a mong t he m ost s usceptible a re m ortuary p ractices. N aturally , a n o ccasion o f d eath p rovides a p latform o n w hich t he p ast o f t he t ribal a ncestry m eets t he f uture o f t he c ommunal r eality , b oth b eing e xperienced i n t he p resent. O n t he o ther h and , t he d istinction b etween t his w orld a nd t he o ther w orld i s t emporarily s omewhat l ifted . T he e ffect o f t he f ormer i s t hat t he i dentity o f t he t ribe i s r eiterated a nd t he s ocial s tatus q uo c onfirmed . T he l atter a dds t o t he i mpetus o f t he w hole e vent b y i nvoking v ery s trong a rchetypal a ssociations.

I n t he l ight o f

a ll

t hat

h as

b een s aid ,

i t w ould b e n aive t o

a ssume t hat m ortuary p ractices c an b e e mployed a s av ehicle o f i deology o nly i n a o ne-directional f ashion i .e. t o r eflect a symmetrical s ocial r elations. T hey d efinitely d o f ulfil t his r ole a s h as b een d emonstrated b y 1 973;S.E.Shennan

a n umber o f s cholars ( e.g . B inford 1 972; R enfrew 1 975). N evertheless, t hey c an a lso m isrepresent ( i.e.

i nvert) t he s ocial o rder a s t he r ecent r esearch s hows ( e.g . S hanks a nd T illey 1 982; H odder 1 982) . I t w ill b e s uggested t hat i n t he c ase o f w estern P oland b oth s ituations o ccurred d uring t he B ronze A ge. W e s hall r eturn t o i t l ater i n m ore d etail.

5 6

A t e lis a tege w e h ave t o a sk o urselves w hat i s t he s ignificance o f t his f l :amerork f or a rchaeology, a nd h ow o ne c an b ridge t he g ap b etween s ocial t heory a nd t he m aterial r emains o f p ast c ommunities ? T he a nswer s hould b e s elf-evident b y n ow . S tudy o f t he m anifestation o f m ortuary p ractices, i .e. burials, c an s hed l ight o n s ocial o rganization . T his c an b e d one i n s everal w ays; o ne i s t hrough t he i nvestigation o f t he o steological r emains ( e.g . S hanks a nd T illey 1 982); a nother b y e xamination o f t he f urnishing p resent i n g raves; f inally o ne c an u se n egative e vidence, i .e. l ack o f a ny g rave g oods, i n w hich c ase h owever, a n u ltimate c onfirmation o f a p roposition h as t o c ome f rom s ome o ther d omain ( e.g . h oards; s ettlement l ayout; e tc). a pproaches w ill b e a dopted .

d istribution a nd s ize I n o ur a rgument t he

o f m etal l ast t wo

A s

B efore w e l ook a t t he e vidence f rom t he a rea u nder s tudy w ithin t he s ocial f ramework j ust p resented , i t s eems n ecessary t o s pell o ut a n umber o f a ssumptions underlying i t, s ome o f w hich w ere p resent i mplicitly i n t he f oregoing s ection . T hese a ssumptions a re p ivotal t o t he e ntire s ocial i nterpretation , a nd u nless t hey a re a ccepted , t he a rgument l oses i ts m ethodological j ustification . T hese a ssumptions a re:

a .)

d istribution o f p ower i n t o t he d istribution a nd ( predepositional);

s ociety w as s omehow r elated c onsumption o f m etal

b .)

d eposition o f m etal i n g raves a nd h oards r eflects d istribution i n s ociety ( depositional);

c .)

m aterial t hat s urvives i s r epresentative o f t he d epositional p atterns o f t he p ast ( postdepositional);

d .)

t he e vidence a cquired b y a rchaeologists c onstitutes a r epresentative s ample o f w hat h as s urvived ( retrieval);

e .)

t he p ublications t hat h ave p rovided t he b asis f or t his w ork p resent a n a ccurate p icture o f t he m aterial c urrently a vailable ( research);

I t c an b e s een t hat t he a ssumptions

c .),

d .),

a nd e .)

i ts

a re v ery

i mportant b oth f or t he e conomic i nterpretation i n c hapter V , a nd f or t he s ocial i ntrepretation t o f ollow ( chapter V I).The r eason w hy I r efrained f rom m aking t hem e xplicit e arlier a re t wofold . F irst, t he f ormer d iscussion w as m ore i n l ine w ith w hat o ne m ay c all t he " traditional" a nd c ommonly a ccepted a pproach, n ecessarily b ased o n i mplicit a ssumptions o f t his k ind . S econdly , I b elieve t hat t he s ignificance o f t hese a ssumptions i s f ar g reater f or t he l atter i nterpretation ,

b ecause o f i ts v ery n ature,

t han f or t he f ormer.

H ence,

f or t he s ake o f c larity , i t s eems a ppropriate t o d iscuss t hem h ere. F or t he s ame r eason , a ssumptions a .) a nd b .) a re r ecapitulated h ere, i n t he

5 7

c ontext o f t he r emaining t hree.

L et u s n ow e xamine t hem o ne b y o ne.

a d a .) I t h as b een p lausibly a rgued e lswhere t hat t he c ontrol a nd c onsumption o f p restige g oods m ay b e c rucial t o t he m aintenance o f s ocial e lites. T he r esult i s t hat r eproduction r ather t han t ransformation o f t he s ocial o rder t akes p lace, d espite c onflicts o f i nterests e xisting w ithin s ociety ( Frankenstein a nd R owlands 1 978; F riedman 1 975; K ristiansen 1 978; R andsborg 1 974; R owlands 1 980; S .J.Shennan 1 982a ; c f t he f oregoing d iscussion i n t his c hapter) I t has b een s uggested ,

t hat

i n t he E arly B ronze A ge i n v arious

p arts o f E urope ( e.g . K ristiansen 1 978,1982; R andsborg 1 974;-for S candinavia ; S .J.Shennan 1 982a ;1982b-for W est a nd C entral E urope), a c hiefdom t ype s ociety e volved . I ts s alient f eature w as p ermanent r anking , b y w hich o ne m eans t hat n ot a ll m embers o f t he s ociety h aving s ufficient t alent t o o ccupy p ositions o f v alued s tatus c ould a chieve t hem d ue t o t he l imited n umber o f s uch p ositions b eing a vailable ( cf S ervice 1 962; F ried 1 967). I n t his s ituation , t he s ocial r ank w as l inked t o ,a nd a t t he s ame t ime l egitimized b y , t he r itual c onsumption o f p restige o bjects. T his t ook t he g uise o f a k een c ompetition , a nd s uccess u ltimately d epended o n o ne b eing a ble t o a cquire l arge q uantities o f t he d esired c ommodity . B y d efinition , p restige i tems c ould n ot b e e asily a vailable t o a ll m embers o f s ociety, o therwise t heir u nique c haracter w ould n ot b e m aintained . H ence m ost n aturally , g oods t hat h ad t o b e i mported f rom d istant a reas, a nd a cquired a t a h igh e xchange p rice, c ame t o b e c onsidered a s t he p restige i tems. T his c reated a s ituation i n w hich a n e stablishment o f a lliances a nd p artnerships t hrough w hich p restige o bjects c ould b e o btained b ecame c rucial t o u pholding o ne's r ank . I n t he c ourse o f t ime, t he p restige i tems g ained t heir i ntrinsic v alue a nd c ame t o c onstitute t he m eans w hereby s ocial s tatus w as n ot o nly a rticulated a nd l egitimized , b ut c ould h ave a ctually b een w on . T his, i n t urn , i ncreased t he c ompetitive c haracter r ivalry i n a ctive a lliance s eeking . T he

a ctual

p hysical

o f

s ocial o rganization a nd

s ubstance o f p restige i tems

d iffered

i n

t ime a nd s pace. F or i nstance,in t he L ate C opper A ge I beria, i t w as i vory a nd o strich s hell i mported f rom N orth A frica ( Gilman a nd H arrison , 1 977); i n t he L ate N eolithic D enmark , i n E arly B ronze A ge W est E urope ( in p articular W essex) a nd i n t he s outh-central G reece, i t w as a mber ( Shennan 1 982b); A ge C entral a nd

W est

E urope,

i t

w as

M iddle B ronze A ge i n t he E arlier I ron

M editerranean c oral

( Champion ,

1 982), t o m ention o nly a f ew ; a nd m ost p rominently , i n l arge p arts o f B ronze A ge E urope, i t w as b ronze ( e.g K ristiansen 1 978;1981; R andsborg 1 974;

S .J.Shennan 1 982a). M etal f ulfilled

i deally

t he

r ole

o f

a

p restige

g ood .

I ts

d eposits a ppear o nly i n l imited a reas o f E urope ( cf p .6), a nd i ts a cquisition a nd w orking r equires h igh s kills. H ence, i t w as o nly t oo e asy f or a r elatively s mall n umber o f i ndividuals t o c ontrol m etal p roduction a nd s upply . C onsequently , i t w as c hannelled t o v arious a reas t hrough a n etwork o f e xchange r outes f ostered b y i nter-elite a lliances. B oth o ur p resent k nowledge o f t he c haracter o f t he B ronze A ge a nd t he a ctual d ata a vailable f rom t his p eriod ,

5 8

c orroborate v ery

s trongly s uch

a p roposition . m etal f ound i n t he

e xpression

One c ould m ention h ere f or i nstance l arge a mounts o f t he, s o c alled , " princely g raves", w hich c an b e s een a s o f

s ocial

c ategorization ,as

w ell

a s

t he

c learly

d ocumented e xchange n etworks s panning huge a nd d istant a reas o f E urope, a long w hich m etal f low t ook p lace ( cf c hapter.V). A lthough i t i s i mpossible t o p rove t his m odel c orrect b eyond a ny d oubt, t he c ase s tudies s upporting i t , r ender i t v ery p lausible ( e.g . K ristiansen 1 978,1981; R andsborg 1 974; S .J.Shennan 1 982a).

I t has a lso b een s uggested t hat i deology l egitimizing h ierarchization i mmutable o rder w as

i n s uch c hiefdom s ocieties, t hrough p resenting i t a s a n

i n f orce.

a d b .) T his i ssue i s c losely c onnected t o a .), a nd h as a lso b een d iscussed e lsewhere t o t he e ffect t hat i t i s r easonable t o m ake s uch a n a ssumption ( the a bove r eferences). Analysis o f t he g rave

g oods

d eposited

w ith

t he

d eceased c an

p rovide a v aluable i nsight i nto a spects o f s ocial o rganization a nd r ecently a l ot o f a ttention h as b een f ocussed o n t his i ssue i n a rchaeological l iterature. M ost s cholars v iew t he p resence o f o utstanding g rave f urnishing i n a p articular w ay , n amely a s t he o utcome o f t he c onsumption o f p restige i tems b y t he p riviliged m embers o f s ociety a s a p art o f t heir i deological s ystem .

a d c .) T his p oint i s m ore a q uestion o f t heoretical r easoning t han e mpirical p roof . T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he m aterial w hich has s urvived c onstitutes o nly a f raction o f a ll t hat h as b een d eposited i n t he p ast. I n o ther w ords, a l arge p roportion o f t he o bjects d eposited i n g raves a nd h oards h ave b een i rreversibly d estroyed . N evertheless, t here i s e very r eason t o b elieve t hat w hat h as s urvived r eflects t he q uantitative r elationships ( proportions) p resent i n t he o riginal m aterial. S ince t his w ork h inges p rimarily o n t he r elative q uantities a nd p roportions r ather t han t he a bsolute a mounts o f m etal, t he a ssumption s eems a bsolutely l egitimate. O n t he o ther h and , t here i s n o e vidence t hat t he d estructive f actors a ffected d eposits f rom i ndividual p eriods d ifferentially . W ith r egard t o h oards, t here a re n o o bvious r easons w hy h oards f rom o ne r egion o r p eriod s hould b e m ore a menable t o d estruction t han t hose f rom a nother. A s t o t he g raves, h owever, o ne c ould a nticipate t hat i nhumation burials u nder b arrows, o r f lat o nes w ith s tone c onstructions, h ad g reater c hance o f s urvival t han f lat c remation g raves, e ven t hose c ontaining u rns. Y et, t he a ctual e vidence c ontradicts s uch e xpectations. T he n umber o f c emeteries k nown f rom t he• E arly B ronze A ge, w hen t he f ormer b urial r ite s eems t o h ave p revailed , i s s everal t imes s maller t han t hat k nown f rom t he L ate B ronze Age, w hen c remation g raves w ere p redominant ( table.IIIa-e; f ig .XXIII).

a d

d .)

T he

i ntensity

o f

t he

r esearch

c arried

o ut

i n

i ndividual r egions o f t he a rea u nder s tudy h as b een f airly u niform . T he b eginning o f f ield w ork c an b e t raced b ack t o t he 1 9th . c entury , w hen

5 9

a ntiquarians f rom various w alks o f l ife a cquired t he f irst d ata f rom t he B ronze Age b etween t he O dra a nd t he W isla r ivers. S ince t hen , n o s ignificant p reference has b een g iven t o t he s tudy o f a ny p articular p rovince. H owever, t he a mount o f d ata a ttributed t o e ach o f t he s uccessive a rchaeological c ultures t o b e f ound i n t he r egion , d iffers f rom p eriod t o p eriod . T he m ost s atisfactory i s t he b ody o f d ata f or t he L uzycka c ulture f rom t he L ate B ronze A ge p eriod ( Gedl 1 975b). T he s ituation w ith r egard t o t he Unetice c ulture i s a lmost a s g ood ( Sarnowska 1 969). T he g reatest o bjections m ight b e r aised a gainst t he e vidence f or t he P rzedluzycka c ulture f rom t he s econd p eriod ( Gedl 1 975a). T he i ncompletness o r p aucity o f d ata h owever, h olds t rue m ainly f or s ettlements, w hich a re c ompletely u nknown f rom p eriod 2 , a nd v ery s carce i n p eriod 1 . A s f ar a s m etalwork i s c oncerned , t he a vailable b ody o f d ata s eems t o p rovide a s ound b asis f or a n i nterpretation . T here a re, f or i nstance, 1 3 h oards, a lmost 1 00 c emeteries, a nd s everal h undred i solated f inds; a ltogether o ver 5 00 i tems a ssociated w ith t he P rzedluzycka c ulture ( Gedl 1 975a ; 1 975b). I n a ny c ase, I w ould t end t o a ttribute t he d ifferences i n t he a mount o f d ata t o f actors b elonging t o t he d epositional a nd p ostdepositional t heories r ather t han d .), s uch a s g reater m obility o f t he p eoples o f t he E arly B ronze L ate B ronze A ge

f rom

a d e .) s everal

( Gedl 1 975a ,

A ge

a nd

s edentary way o f l ife i n t he

1 975b).

T he i nformation u sed i n t his w ork h as b een d erived p ublications w hich s eem t o p resent i n t he m ost

s atisfactory m anner t he a vailable b ody o f m etal d ata f rom t he B ronze A ge i n w estern P oland . T he o nly d oubt I h ave c oncerns t heir t heoretically f easible o ut-dating . A s a j ustification f or n eglecting s uch a p ossibility , I p oint t o t he f act t hat t he d ata e mployed h ere a re t he o utcome o f a n a lmost c entury-long s earch , a nd i t i s m ost u nlikely , t hat i t c ould h ave r adically c hanged d uring t he l ast f ew y ears. S econdly ,

a s f ar a s

I

k now ,

t he p icture p resented i n t he p ublications

i n q uestion i s a ccurate. T he d ata f or t he f irst B ronze A ge p eriod h ave b een d erived f rom S arnowska 's w ork ( 1969), i n w hich t he G robsko-Smiardowska a nd t he I wienska c ultures a re r egarded a s c ultural g roups o f t he Unetice c ulture a nd i ncluded i n i t, w hereby t he w hole a rea o f i nterest i s c overed . E vidence f or t he s econd B ronze A ge p eriod i s b ased o n G edl's m onograph o n t he P rzedluzycka c ulture ( Gedl 1 975a), a nd s upplemented b y J .Kostrzewski's p aper ( 1927) w ith r egard t o P omorze. T he i nformation c oncerning

g rave f urnishings f rom t he r emaining

t hree B ronze A ge p eriods i n t he w hole a rea u nder s tudy c omes f rom t he w orks l isted i n t he b ibliography t o M alinowski's c atalogue ( 1961), m ainly p eriodicals. S ince t he t otal n umber o f v olumes c onsulted i s i n e xcess o f 3 00, t hey a re n ot e numerated h ere, b eing a vailable i n t he c atalogue. H oards a nd i solated

f inds

a ttributed t o t he L uzycka c ulture i n

6 0

t he L ate B ronze Age i n P omorze have b een s tudied f rom J .Kostrzewski's m onograph ( 1958) a nd t he w orks by D abrowski ( 1968), Kunkel ( 1931), S prockhoff ( 1956),

a nd

n umerous

i ssues

o f

t he p eriodical " Materialy

P omorza Z achodniego". A part

f rom

t he f orementioned ,

a dditional d ata f or

P omorze

various p eriods h ave b een d erived f rom K ersten ( 1958), S turms H achmann ( 1957), T hrane ( 1975), a nd J .Kostrzewski ( 1966).

i n

( 1936),

I nformation c oncerning m etal i solated f inds a nd h oards i n W ielkopolska i n t he L ate B ronze A ge i s b ased o n w orks b y S zafranski ( 1955), K urnatowski ( 1965). T he d ata f or S lask a t t he s ame t ime h ave G ediga ( 1967) a nd G edl ( 1961,1962).

L uzycka

Additional m aterial r egarding t he f inds o f c ulture i n t he e ntire r egion u nder s tudy ,

b een

p ublished

b y

w eapons f rom t he h as b een e xtracted

f rom F ogel's w ork ( 1979).

A ll i n a ll

,t he

b ody

o f

d ata e mployed i n t his w ork d oes s eem

t o b e a n a dequate s ource f or a nalysis.

6 1

v II.

S OCIAL I NTERPRETATION

I n

t he e conomic i nterpretation

i n c hapter V ,

i t w as s hown t hat

d uring t he B ronze A ge f air a mounts o f m etal w ere t ransported t o t he t erritory o f p resent d ay w estern P oland f rom o ther p arts o f E urope. I t s hould b e s tated c learly , t hat t he q uantity o f b ronze k nown f rom P oland i s n othing l ike t hat f rom C zechoslovakia , H ungary , o r R umania . T his a pplies m ainly t o t he o verall q uantity o f m etal. A s r egards i ndividual h oards o r g raves, a f urther q ualification i s n ecessary . A dmittedly P olish f inds d o n ot m atch t he m ost s pectacular h oards o r g raves f rom t he f orementioned a reas, but t hese, a fter a ll, a re e xceptional o n t he s cale o f t he c ontinent. T he l argest P olish h oards w eigh u p t o c irca 1 4 k g ( e.g . t he h oard f rom G logow ; S arnowska 1 969, t able.IV ,p.340-43), which m ay n ot s eem v ery i mpressive a s c ompared t o c irca 1 300 k g o f t hat f rom U ioara i n R umania ( Coles a nd H arding 1 979,p.409), but o bjectively s peaking , i t d oes c onstitute a n o utstanding a ccumulation o f m etal. M oreover, o ne h as t o r emember t hat c opper d eposits f ound i n w estern P oland d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een e xploited i n t he B ronze A ge. T herefore, a ll m etal o bjects f ound t here m ust h ave b een e ither i mported o r p roduced l ocally f rom t he i mported r aw m aterials. I n v iew o f t his, i n o rder t o m ake a r easonable e stimate o f t he r elative v alue o f b ronze i n t his p art o f E urope, o ne h as t o a llow f or t he t ransportation e nergy i nput a ffecting i t s ignificantly . I t c an b e s et i n t he c ontext o f e xchange e quivalents b y m eans o f a n a nalogy f rom G reece i n

8 th c entury

B .C., a s p ortrayed i n H omer's I liad ( book XXII, v erse 7 25; 1 983). A ccording t o h is a ccount, t he p rice o f a s lave-girl f ully-trained i n d omestic w ork w as 4 o xen , w hereas a c opper t hree-legged c auldron w as w orth 1 2 o xen . W ithout t aking i t t oo l iterally , o ne c an g et a b etter i dea a bout t he v alue o f 1 4 k g o f b ronze i n t he a rea d evoid o f i ts o wn m etal s ources.

I n t his c hapter w e a re c oncerned w ith t he d istinctive f eatures o f t he E uropean B ronze A ge r eferred t o i n t he p receding s ections, n amely t he i ncreasing s cope f or w ealth a ccumulation a nd , r esulting f rom i t g rowth , o f s ocial d ifferentiation ( cf p .32ff). O f c ourse, a w ider u se o f m etal d id n ot c onstitute t he c ausal f actor o f t he e mergence o f s ocial e lites i n N orth a nd C entral E urope. T hey c ame t o e xistence i n t he i ncipient f orm a lready i n t he N eolithic ( cf e .g . R andsborg 1 975; S hanks a nd T illey 1 982; S herratt 1 982), n evertheless t he i ntroduction

o f b ronze a mplified t he d ifferentiation .

T he d etailed d iscussion o f t he a ctual m echanism w hereby t he e galitarian c ommunities i n t emperate E urope w ere t ransformed i nto s ocially d ifferentiated o nes a t t he b reak o f t he S tone a nd B ronze A ges d oes n ot f all w ithin t he s cope o f t his w ork . I t i s h owever w orth m entioning t hat t he p rocess o f t he g rowth o f s ocial c omplexity c an b e c onvincingly a scribed t o t he a gricultural i ntensification ( Gilman

6 2

1 981), which t ook p lace a s e arly a s t he N eolithic. T he i nvention a nd u se o f t he p lough w ould h ave b rought a bout a s hift i n t he t echniques o f s oil t illage. A s a r esult, a s ubstantial i nvestment o f l abour h ad t o b e e xpended o n t he p reparation o f l and f or p loughing , b efore a ny y ield c ould have b een o btained . T his c apital-intensive s ubsistence t echnology p roved b eneficial f or t he e merging e lites, i n t hat i t s eriously d iminished t he r ole o f s egmentation a s t he m eans o f c ontrolling t heir a mbitions. T he r ank a nd f ile o f s ociety w ere p recluded f rom a bandoning a n u ndesired l eader w ho t ried t o p erpetuate, o r e ven e scalate h is s ocial s tatus, unless t hey w ere p repared t o r elinquish t he m eans o f p roduction ( i.e. t he f ields) t hey h ad c reated t hrough a g reat l abour i nput. N eedless t o s ay , i n t he l ong r un , t he p osition o f t he e lites w as s tabilized . T here i s e vidence s upporting G ilman 's m odel f rom t he P olish N eolithic. O ne c ould m ention h ere t he c lay m odel o f o xen h eads m ounted o n ah andle o f t he v essel f ound i n K reznica J ara p ow .Lublin , a ssociated w ith t he F unnel B eaker c ulture ( Hensel 1 969, f ig .39); o r a s imilar c opper m odel o f y oked o xen f rom B ytyn p ow .Szamotuly , a ttributed t o t he s ame c ulture ( Hensel 1 969, f ig .38). T here i s a lso a mple e vidence c orroborating t he c onclusion o f t he e xistence o f s ocial h ierarchization d uring t he N eolithic. P resence o f g ranary p its o n n umerous N eolithic s ites ( e.g . W islanski 1 970a) s eems t o i ndicate t he p roduction o f a c ertain a gricultural s urplus, w hich c ould h ave b een u sed f or c reating t he h igher s ocial s tatus. A rchaeologically i t c an b e t raceable, f or i nstance, i n t he f orm o f burial. S uch o utstanding burials u nder b arrows w ith s tone c onstructions, s howing s ome a ffinity w ith t he m egalithic t ombs o f W est E urope, a re k nown f rom t he F unnel B eaker c ulture p rimarily i n t he K u jawy r egion ( Kowalczyk 1 970). I ncidentally , u nder s ome b arrows a ssociated w ith t his c ulture, t he p loughing m arks h ave b een d iscovered . T his c ould b e a n i ndication t hat t he e mergence o f s ocial d ifferentiation was c orrelated t o t he a doption o f i ntensive p lough a griculture a s s uggested b y G ilman 's m odel. A f urther f actor f ostering a n u nequal

w ealth d istribution c ould

h ave b een t he e stablishment o f t he l ong-distance e xchange n etwork , a long which t he banded-flint f rom K rzemionki O patowskie s pread o ver a l arge p art o f E urope. A s i t h appens, i t i s i n t he g raves b elonging t o t he c ultures a ssociated w ith t hose f lint m ines ( i.e. t he F unnel B eaker a nd t he G lobular A mphorae c ultures), t hat o ne f inds a mber o bjects, w hich by a ll s tandards c an b e

r egarded a s p restige i tems c ommunicating

s ocial c ategorization ( Wislanski 1 970b).

I n

s hort,

t he

a dvent

o f

s ocial

d ifferentiation

m ust

h ave

p receded t he d issemination o f m etal i n t he a rea o f p resent d ay P oland , a nd t he p rocess w hich b rought i t a bout b egins t o l end i tself t o t he r esearch o f a rchaeologists. M etal

must

h ave

a lso

b een

s poradically

e mployed

i n

t he

i ncipient r ole a s a s ign o f s ocial p osition a t t he s ame t ime, but i ts u se s eems t o h ave b een l imited b y t he n ecessity f or i mporting i t o ver a l ong d istance, a nd p ossibly a l ack o f t he s ufficient s urplus f or t he e xchange. O n t he w hole, t he c urrently a vailable e vidence d oes n ot

6 3

s uggest t he e mergence o f a dvanced s ocial d ifferentiation u ntil t he 1 9th c entury B .C.. T he d ata f rom t his p eriod i s i ndicative, i n m y o pinion , o f t he g rowth o f s ocial i nequality w ithin t he l ocal c ommunities t o t he p oint a t which i t had t o b e l egitimized i f t he s ocial o rder w as t o b e p reserved . O r, t o p ut i t d ifferently , t he a rchaeological m aterial s eems t o b e t he r emnant o f a n e laborate i deological s ystem whose c reation c an b e e xplained b y t he n ecessity t o l egitimize a dvanced s ocial d ifferentiation . T hese s ocial d evelopments c ould h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he a doption o f h erding a s t he p revalent s ubsistence e conomy a t t he c lose o f t he N eolithic ( the C orded W are c ulture), w hich p otentially c ould h ave p rovided a much g reater s urplus t han a griculture ( cf M achnik 1 970). O riginally , t he l ive s tock m ay h ave b een t he c atalyst p articipating i n t he p rocess o f s ocial c hange. L ater, d uring t he B ronze A ge, i t s eems t o h ave b een e mployed a s a c omponent o f t he c omplex s ystem d esigned t o f oster t he s ocial o rder. T his c an b e i nferred f rom t he m aterial f ound i n B iskupin w oj. B ydgoszcz, w here a c orral b elonging t o t he f irst B ronze Age p eriod h as b een d iscovered . An o blong s tockyard 9 0m l ong , e nclosed b y a d itch a nd a b ank , i s e stimated t o h ave b een a ble t o h old 5 00-800 c attle ( Rauhut 1 954 ,p.252-59). I t i s o nly o ne o f m any s uch p ens w hich must h ave b een i n u se a t t hat t ime a nd w hich d ocuments t he s ize a nd p roduced a t t hat t ime.

i mportance

o f t he s urplus o f h erding a nimals

I t s hould b e m entioned i n t his c ontext t hat s ome o f t he o utstanding burials, namely t he b arrows f rom S zczepankowice a nd L eki M ale ( cf b elow) a nd o thers, a part f rom p ottery a nd b ronze o bjects, c ontained

b ones

o f d omesticated c attle

(S arnowska 1 969,

p .117).

T his

a ssociation b etween t he burials o f i ndividuals o f a n a pparent e xceptional s ocial s tanding ( perhaps c hiefs - c f b elow) w ith h erding a nimals m ay b e s een a s i ndicative o f t he i mportance o f t he c attle s urplus

i n s ustaining t he s ocial o rder.

I n t his s ituation , t he c hanges t hat o ccurred i n C entral E urope o n t he o ther s ide o f t he S udety M ountains, f rom w hich t he e mergence o f t he i deology based o n t he c onsumption o f t he p restige i tems r esulted , must h ave p roved u seful f or t he c ommunities i n s outh-western P oland a t t heir s tage o f s ocial d evelopment. A t t he b eginning , c ontacts b etween t hem a nd t heir n eighbours s eem t o h ave p romoted a n i nflux o f v arious i tems o f m aterial c ulture, w ith o nly a n egligible i mport o f b ronze. I n t he c ourse o f t ime h owever, a nd w ith t he a pparent i ncrease o f s ocial d ifferentiation p ossibly a mplified b y t he m onopolistic c ontrol o f t he m etal e xchange b y s ome i ndividuals o r g roups, t he i deology a lready o perative i n S lovakia , a nd l ater i n B ohemia a nd t he E lbe Saale a rea ( et S .J.Shennan 1 982a) s eems t o h ave b een a dopted b y t he e stablished e lites i n t he s outhern z one o f w estern P oland .

f airly

w ell

B y w ay o f a s ummary o ne c an s ay t hat t he b arter o f b ronze, t he i ntensification o f c ontacts w ith t he s outh e vident f rom t he g rowing a mount o f i mports, a nd t he d iffusion o f i deas, m ust h ave c oincided w ith t he p ace o f t he i nternal d evelopment i n w estern P oland , a nd t hat i s w hy t hey w ere

s o

e asily

a dopted .

T hey i n t urn ,

h ierarchizat i on .

6 4

s peeded u p t he p rocess o f

T he o verwhelming m ajority o f b ronze P oland i n t he l ate f irst B ronze Age p eriod ,

o bjects k nown f rom w estern a re a ssociated w ith t he s o-

c alled c lassic p hase o f t he Unetice c ulture. A t t hat t ime, t he l argely u niform s ingle i nhumation burials i n f lat g raves, g ave w ay t o a g reater d ifferentiation ( Sarnowska 1 969,p.28-29). T he m ost o utstanding b arrows, p robably c ontaining b urials o f s ome l ocal c hiefs, h ave b een f ound i n S zczepankowice w oj. W roclaw , a nd i n L eki M ale w oj.Poznan . I n S zczepankowice, t here w as o ne l arge b arrow 2 5m i n d iameter a nd 5 m i n h eight, built o f 8 00 s labs ( including 3 2 q uerns) a nd c overed w ith s oil. I t c ontained a s keleton o f a m an d eposited i n a t imber c hamber w ithout a ny g rave g oods, w hich m ust h ave b een r obbed i n a ntiquity ( Sarnowska 1 969,p.115ff). J udging f rom t he a nalogies f rom L eubingen a nd H elmsdorf i n T huringia ( cf C oles a nd H arding 1 979,p.40ff ,p1.3) a s w ell a s f rom L eki M ale, i t m ust h ave b een r ichly f urnished w ith m etal o bjects. I n t he m ound , t here w ere t wo a dditional burials o f a w oman a nd a c hild , b oth c ontemporary w ith t he c entral m ale burial. I n L eki M ale, t here w as a c luster o f 1 4 b arrows, a pproximately o f t he s ame s ize a s t hose i n S zczepankowice ( the l argest 4 5m i n d iameter). O ne o f t he f our t hat h ave b een e xcavated c ontained 4 s keletons. T he c entral m ale b urial w as l ocated i n a d omed c hamber b uilt o f o ak t imber a nd s tones, a nd i t was r ichly f urnished . O ne o f t he s ide burials, a ll o f w hich h ad c onstructions o f c lay a nd s tones, h ad a lso g rave g oods. T he o bjects d eposited i n t he c entral burial i ncluded p ottery , a mber, a nd , a mong o ther b ronze a nd g old i tems, a halberd w hich c an b e i nterpreted a s t he i nsignia o f a uthority o f a l ocal c hief . S uch a c onclusion i s s upported b y t he f act t hat t here a re 1 8 m ore e xamples o f s uch halberds k nown f rom t his p eriod , o ne o f w hich w as f ound a lso i n a g rave i n K otla p ow .Glogow ( Sarnowska 1 969,p.344-45). T his s uggests t hat o ne i s n ot d ealing h ere w ith a n i solated i ncident, b ut w ith a d istinct w ay o f c ommunicating s ocial r ank b y m eans o f a d efinite o bject c onveying s ymbolic m eaning .

I t i s w orth g iving m ore a ttention a t t his p oint t o t he h alberds w hich p resent i n t hemselves a n e xtremely i nteresting a rtefact . I n

a ppearance,

t hey r esemble

a

b lade

o f

a

d agger

a ttached

p erpendicularly w ith i ts w ider e dge t o a l ong h andle ( cf f ig .XL). T he b lade i s m ade o f b ronze, t he h andle o f t imber w ith m etal f errules; b ut f our o f t he k nown f inds h ave m etal h andles a pproximately 7 5cm l ong ( including t hat f rom t he b arrow i n L eki M ale). I t i s v ery s ignificant t hat o bjects o f s imilar f orm a re r eported f rom p resent d ay H ungary,Austria ,Switzerland , S candinavia , a nd e ven G reece, a t m ore o r l ess t he s ame t ime ( Sarnowska 1 969,p.89). I n m y o pinion , t hey m ay e vidence t he e xistence o f a l ong-distance n etwork o f a lliances i nvolving l ocal c hiefs w ho e n joyed a s imilar s tatus i n t heir r espective s ocieties, a nd w ho m ade u se o f t he l egitimizing i deology i n o rder t o e nsure t he s ecurity o f t heir p osition . O ne

c an

c ertainly

r ule

o ut

t he

p ossibility

c onvergence

o f m aterial c ulture r esulting i n

h alberds

s o m any d ifferent t erritories

i n

6 5

t he

o f

e mergence

f ormal o f

s uch

i ndependently o f e ach o ther.

O n t he o ther hand , a s f ar a s w estern P oland i s c oncerned , t hey are t oo numerous ( 18) a nd t heir s pread i s t oo w ide, m ostly i n t he n orthern z one ( fig .XL),

t o a ssume t hat t hey s trayed t o

t he

a rea

i n q uestion b efore

r eaching t heir p roper d estination . B esides, t here i s a p ossibility t hat t hey w ere p roduced l ocally a s a n i mitation o f s ome f oreign o riginal w hich c onveyed a n u nderstandable m essage. I t w ill b e i nstructive i n t his c ontext t o a spects o f t he B ell B eaker c ulture.

l ook

a t

c ertain

I t has b een a rgued , t hat t he e vidence o f t he B ell B eaker p hase r ight a t t he b eginning o f t he B ronze A ge, i mplies t he e xistence o f c ontacts b etween v arious t erritories w ithin t he a lmost e ntire a rea o f C entral a nd W est E urope, o n t he s cale p aralleled l ater o nly b y t he U rnfield c ultures. T his t ime i s s een a s a p eriod o f f ar r eaching c ulture c hanges t hrough d iffusion a nd a doption , i ncluding t hat o f r itual a nd i deology . I n d ifferent r egions t he p oint o f d eparture a t t he t ime i n q uestion , t hey w ould h ave c onverged

w as d ifferent , b ut t o t he s ame s tage,

n amely t he i deology l egitimizing t he a symmetric r elations o f s ocial o rder t hrough t he c onsumption o f p restige g oods i .e. b ronze o bjects. A n a doption o f s uch i deology i s s upposed t o h ave d istanced t he e lite f rom t he c ommunity i n t hat t heir s ocial s tanding r elied o n t he c onsumption o f p restige i tems w hich w ere a cquired t hrough t heir o wn e ffort, a nd n ot t hrough a d irect s upport o f t he r ank a nd f ile o f s ociety ( S.J.Shennan 1 982a). B y t he s ame t oken , t he d ependence o f t he l eaders w as s hifted f rom t he i ntra-communal t o t he i nter-elite l evel. N ow , t heir s ocial p osition was c onditioned b y t heir a bility t o s ecure a c onstant m etal s upply which p rovided t hem w ith a v ery s trong m otivation f or a n a ctive a lliance s eeking . T hus, e xtensive a lliance n etworks e merged , w hich w ere v ery e xpansive i n t heir c haracter, a nd w hich t ended t o i nvolve i n t he p artnership n ew t erritories. I w ould l ike t o s uggest t hat w estern P oland w as i ncorporated i n t he w eb o f a lliances l inking S candinavia w ith C entral E urope d uring t he B ronze Age. T his i s c ertainly e videnced b y t he burials f rom t hat t ime, a nd s eems t o b e c orroborated b y t he h alberds f rom t he Unetice c ulture.

W e s hall r ecall

h ere

t he

c onclusion w e h ave a rrived a t o n t he

basis o f t he e conomic i nterpretation i n c hapter V ( cf p .45ff). I t h as b een s aid t hat t he e rratic " off-set" q uantity o f m etal s upplied t o t he s outhern z one c onsisted m ostly o f o rnaments, i .e. p restige i tems s ensu s tricto, a nd i t w as a ssociated w ith t he c onfiguration o f t he l ong-distance e xchange n etworks. A t p resent, w e c an r ephrase i t w ithin t he s ocial f ramework . T he e rratic c haracter o f t he s upplies w as d ue t o t heir b eing s ecured b y t he p articipation i n t he i ntra-elite a lliances w hich w ere v ery c ompetitive a nd e ssentialy b ased o n r ivalry . I n t hese c ircumstances, t he e xchange r outes, d irectly r eflecting t hese a lliances a nd p artnerships, w ere b ound t o c hange t heir c ourse s everal t imes o ver t he huge t ime s pan o f t he B ronze A ge. A t t he p resent s tage, w e c an a lso s hed m ore l ight o n t he a pparently " anomalous" d istribution o f b ronze o ver t he z ones c entred o n t he M oravian G ate,

t hat w e d iscussed i n c hapter V I

6 6

( cf p .51ff).

T he l argest p roportion o f t he t otal q uantity o f m etal f rom p eriod I was d eposited i n z one 4 ( 300-400 k m) a nd t he s econd l argest i n z one 3 ( 200-300km) ( fig .XXXI), a nd t hese c oincide w ith a f air n umber o f h alberds f ound i n z one 4 ( i.e. f ive), a nd t he l argest q uantity o f a ll z ones ( i.e. s even) i n z one 3 . A nother s triking f eature i s t he f act, t hat a lthough i n a ll p robability t he h alberds, o r a t l east m etal f or t heir p roduction , c ame f rom t he s outh , t he a rtefacts a re m ostly e ncountered i n t he n orthern W ielkopolska ( fig .XL ). I t m ay s urvival/recovery

w ell b e p rocess,

z one

a nd

i n

t he

t he o utcome i n w hich c ase

n orthern

o f o ne

t he n eed

p art

o f

d ifferential n ot a ttempt

d iscerning t he s ignificance o f t he d istribution p attern . H owever , t here i s n o a pparent r eason w hy t he s urvival o f m etal h alberds i n t he t wo z ones s hould h ave b een r egulated b y d ifferent p rocesses, w hich w ould h ave p reserved t hem i n t he n orth a nd d estroyed i n t he s outh . I n f act , s uch a p ossibility s eems r ather i mprobable. O n t he o ther h and , t he r ecovery r ate i s f irst a nd f oremost a f unction o f t he i ntensity o f r esearch c arried o ut a nd , i ndirectly , o f t he n umber o f a rtefacts i n c irculation/deposited w ithin a g iven a rea . T he f ormer h as r emained o n t he s ame l evel t hroughout w estern P oland ( cf c hapter V I.d .- p.59-60).As f ar a s t he l atter a gent i s c oncerned , w e i gnore h ere t he p redepositional, d epositional a nd p ostdepositional t heories s ince t here i s n o e vidence s uggesting t hat t hey d iffered i n t he t wo r egions. I n o ther w ords, w e a ssume t hat b ecause a ll o ther f actors s eem t o have b een e qual, t he r ecovery r ate i n t his p articular c ase h as b een p roportional t o t he n umber o f a rtefacts r eaching t he g iven z one d uring t he B ronze A ge. T hus, i f t he a bove a ssumptions a re c orrect, t he a gents a ffecting t he r ecovery r ate w ere c onstant t hroughout t he a rea . T his i mplies t hat t he r etrieval must h ave b een g overned b y a r andom p rocess, w hich w ould have p roduced s imilar r esults i n b oth z ones, h ad t he d ensity o f d eposited a rtefacts b een m ore o r l ess u niform . S ince t his i s n ot t he c ase, o ne c oncludes t hat t he p resence o f t he h alberds i n t he n orth m ust have r esulted f rom a d irectional i nflux o f t hese a rtefacts i nto t he n orthern z one, b ypassing t he s outh . I n t he l ight o f t his d iscussion , i t s eems l egitimate a nd w orthwhile t o t ry t o i nterpret t he d istribution p attern o f t he h alberds i n w estern P oland . I n d oing s o, w e d raw u pon a ssumptons c .) t o e .) d iscussed i n c hapter V I ( cf p .57ff), t o j ustify s uch a s tep. T he

c onclusion

" surprising",

i n

t hat

t erms

e merges

o f e conomy ,

f rom

o ur

e vidence

z onal d istribution o f

i s t hat t he b ronze

i s

p erfectly u nderstandable o n t he l evel o f s ocial o rganization a pparently o perative a t t hat t ime i n w estern P oland . T hat i s t o s ay , m etal f low w as s ubject n ot o nly t o t he e conomic f actors but a lso t o t hose a ssociated w ith t he i deological s ystem r egulating t he f unctioning o f t he c ommunities i n q uestion . B ronze s eems t o h ave b een c hannelled p rimarily t o t he t erritories w hich p articipated i n t he n etwork o f t he a lliances,

a nd

" legitimizing"

w here i deology.

i t

w as

r equired

I n t his c ase,

t he

a s

a

v ehicle

t he n orthern z one a nd t he c oincides w ith t he l argest

n orthern p art o f q uantity o f b ronze,

p articipation o f t his z one i n

a n

t he i n

W ielkopolska, w hich w ould s uggest t he

a lliance n etwork o f c hiefs.

6 7

f or

p resence o f t he h alberds

I n t hose

c ircumstances, t he d istance f rom t he " secondary s upplying l ess i mpact o n t he d istribution pattern .

s ource"

h ad

I n t he f ollowing p eriod o f t he E arly B ronze Age, a s h as a lready b een m entioned , t he o ld c ulture was r eplaced b y t he n ew T umulus t ype c ulture, whose e mergence i n a l arge p art o f E urope s eems t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith s ome v iolent e vents. A lthough s ome a rchaeologists w ould p robably

q uestion t he s tance w hich v iews t he

s trata

o f

burnt

E arly

B ronze Age s ettlements a s a n e vidence o f v iolence, I w ould b e i nclined t o s ubscribe t o t he i nterpretation p ut f orward by G edl ( 1980,p.99) t o t his e ffect. T he s ame s ort o f c hanges t ook p lace i n t he a rea u nder s tudy , t hough h ere t here i s n o s ign o f h avoc having o ccurred . One

m ight

s uggest t hat t he

o f s ocial e lites p rove

v ery

t hrough

e ffective.

d ifferentiation t ime,

m ight

n ot

p hase

f ollowing

i deology l egitimizing t he e xistence

c onsumption

A

which s eems

o f

r elatively

p restige g oods d id n ot

r apid

i ncrease

i n

s ocial

t o h ave a dvanced e normously d uring a s hort

have a cquired a f irm s tructure o f p lausibility w ithin

t he s everal d ecades a t c lassic

t he

o f

t he

t he

g eneration ,

f ostered by t he s tructure b roke

c lose o f t he f irst p eriod ( i.e.

Unetice t he

c ulture).

P ossibly

i mmutable c haracter o f

d uring t he

a lready

t he

i n

s ocial

t he

o rder,

i deology, must h ave b een c hallenged . T he o ld s ocial d own , o wing t o t he c ontradictions a nd c lashes o f

i nterests e mbedded i n i t.

T he r eshuffle

i n s ociety d id

n ot

h owever p ut a n e nd t o t he o ld

i deology . T he n ew g enerations s eem t o h ave a dopted t he p rinciple o f t he n aturalizing i deological s ystem t o a n e ven g reater e xtent. N ow , t he c onsumption o f

bronze

i n

t he f orm o f g rave g oods,

t otal a mount o f m etal known f rom t his p eriod , t he t otal number o f c emeteries o ne o bserves a r eduction i n i ncrease

( table.IIIb;

r eached 3 4% o f t he

w ith a s light d ecrease i n

f ig .XXIII).

I n t his p eriod ,

t he s ize o f t he o utstanding b arrows a nd a n

i n t heir m etal f urnishing.

T here

i s

a lso

a

g rowth

i n

t he

number o f p articularly r ich burials. T his t he v ehicle t he

f orm ,

i nstance,

s eems t o i ndicate a r ising i mportance o f b ronze o bjects a s f or c ommunicating s ocial c ategorization , a t t he e xpense o f s ize,

t he

Male-barrow

a nd

t he

c onstruction

o f

t he

barrow

i tself .

r ichest known barrow f rom t he Unetice c ulture number

1 ),

w eight-scores w orth o f

w as

2 5m

f urnishing

i n

d iameter,

( Sarnowska

t he r ichest k nown barrow f rom p eriod 2 ( i.e.

a nd

F or

( i.e.

L eki

h ad

1 50

i t

1 969,p.181-91);

whereas

M arcinkowice-barrow n umber

2 ), was 1 0m i n d iameter, a nd c ontained g rave g oods o f a n e quivalent t o 2 60 w eight-scores ( Cedl 1 975a,p.161). F urthermore, i n t he P rzedluzycka's c ulture g raves, u nlike a ll o ther c ultures o f t he B ronze Age, p ottery i s hardly p resent a t a ll. T his i mplies t hat i t was t he e xclusive p rerogative o f m etal t o s ignify s ocial s tatus. T he o verall 4 2% d ecrease c oncomitant r elation

w ith

t he

i n m etal

o f

t o t he p revious p eriod .

l imited u tilitarian 8 4%

r ise

o f t he t otal

value,

a mount

o f

i .e.

q uantity

i n

t he

2 9% o f t hat d eposited i n O n

t he

o ther

h and ,

o bjects

o rnaments a nd w eapons,

b ronze,

6 8

a s

c ompared t o

r egion w as g raves, o f

i n a

c onstitute n ow

7 8%

i n t he

f irst

p eriod ( table.IIIa ,b;

f ig .XXIV).

Iw ould s ee t his e vidence a s i ndicative o f a

s ituation i n which

m etal d id n ot p resent i n i tself a m eans o f w ealth a ccumulation ( cf 7 5% d rop i n m etal q uantity d eposited i n h oards; f ig .XXIV; t able.IIIa ,b), but w as l argely u sed f or t he l egitimation o f t he s ocial o rder t hrough d isplay a nd c onsumption . T his s uggestion m atches t he o pinion o f t he m ajority o f a rchaeologists w ho t ake t he v iew t hat d uring t he s econd B ronze A ge p eriod , w estern P oland w as i nhabited b y v ery m obile s tock b reeders ( cf G ediga 1 978). T he f acts q uoted i n s upport o f i t a re t he l ack o f l ong-term p ermanent ( as o pposed t o s easonal) s ettlements, a nd t he s carcity o f p ottery(the l atter i s n ormally a ssociated w ith a s edentary w ay u nderstandable

o f l iving). I f t his w hy t he a ccumulation

i ndeed w as t he c ase, i t i s o f w ealth d id n ot u se h eavy a nd

a wkward-to-carry-around b ronze a s i ts v ehicle, a nd m etal d eposited i n h oards, m ost n aturally u sed a s d ecreased m arkedly .

w hy t he a mount o f " deposit s tores",

O n t he w hole, t he i deology s eeking t o l egitimize s ocial d ifferentiation t hrough t he c onsumption o f p restige i tems ( i.e. b ronze), s eems t o h ave b een s till i n f orce d uring t he s econd B ronze A ge p eriod . I t i s i nteresting t hat a t t hat t ime, t he g eneral n etwork o f a lliances b etween t he c hiefs a ppears t o h ave c hanged i n r elation t o p eriod 1 . A rchaeologically , i t m anifests i tself t hrough t he c hange i n t he c ourse o f t he e xchange r outes.

T he t hird B ronze

A ge p eriod w itnessed a gain a r adical c hange o f

c ulture o ver a l arge t erritory o f E urope. I w ould s ee i t a s a s ign o f s imilar p rocesses t o t hose o ccurring a t t he b reak o f t he f irst a nd t he s econd p eriods. I n t he l ong r un , t he i deology a ttempting t o n aturalize h ierarchical s ocial o rder f ailed , a nd t he c onflicts i nherent i n i t c ame t o t he s urface. A t t he e nd o f p eriod 1 , t his p rocess s eems t o h ave t aken t he c ourse o f v iolence a nd p roceeded f rom t he r ank a nd f ile o f s ociety . A t t he c lose o f t he s econd p eriod , t he r eplacement o f i deology a ppears t o h ave b een i nspired b y s ocial e lites t hemselves. T he t ransition f rom t he

T umulus

t o

t he U rnfield c ultures

w as

n ot c ontemporaneous i n a ll p arts o f E urope. I t f inished e arliest i n t he e astern p art o f t he T umulus c ulture, i .e. i n t he a rea w here m etal d eposits w ere e xploited , a nd f rom w here t he r ichest g raves a nd h oards a re k nown .

T he t erritory o f E ast-Central E urope w as a pparently a lso t he

f irst

h ave

t o

p robability ,

a dopted

t he

" naturalizing"

i deology

a nd ,

i n

a ll

i t was t here t hat s ocial d ifferentiation r eached i ts p eak .

D uring t he 1 2th c entury B .C. h owever, t he r ichly f urnished i nhumation b urials u nder a b arrow w ere g radually s uperseded b y a c remation r ite. P ottery b ecame m ore a nd m ore c ommon a mong t he g rave g oods a t t he e xpense o f b ronze o bjects. S lowly , b arrows a nd t he s tone c onstructions a lso d isappeared ( cf G edl 1 980,p.113). o f h uge c emeteries

w hich

w ere

t o

b e

T his p eriod m arked t he b eginning u sed

c ontinually f or t he n ext

s everal c enturies, p roviding t he e vidence o f t he s tability o f l ife c oming a fter t he r epetitive u nrest o f t he E arly B ronze A ge.

6 9

I n t he p eriod B ronze D h owever, w ealthy burials u nder barrows o f h eights u p t o s everal t ens o f m eters a re s till k nown f rom S lovakia a nd t he a djacent a rea o f p resent d ay Hungary , f rom t he s o-called C aka g roup o f t he m iddle D anube U rnfield c ulture. T hey w ere f urnished w ith n umerous b ronze o bjects i ncluding e ven c uirasses. T he s ame h olds t rue, t hough t o a l esser d egree, w ith r egard t o s outhern M oravia ( e.g . V elatice; c f G edl 1 980,p.168). T hese burials b ear w itness t o t he a dvanced h ierarchisation e xisting d uring t he p eriod i n q uestion . T heir s urvival t o t his l ate d ate c an b e i nterpreted e ither a s a d esperate a ttempt a imed a t r eviving a nd p erpetuating t he o ld i deology w hich w as p roving l ess a nd l ess e fficacious; o r a lternatively , i t c ould h ave b een a m anoeuvre s taged b y t he e lite, a nd n ecessitated b y t he s ituation i n w hich i deology w as t o b e c hanged i n o rder t o p acify t he g rowing s ocial t ension a nd c onflicts, a voiding t he r eshuffle o f t he e lite. I n t his w ay , t he c ontinuity o f t radition c ould b e d emonstrated a nd a c ontrolled m etamorphosis i nduced .

W hat i s

A t t he p resent s tage, i t i s d ifficult t o c larify t his i ssue. i mportant h owever, i s t he f act t hat l ater i n t he p eriod B ronze

D , t hese r ich " princely" g raves k nown t hroughout t he E arly B ronze A ge, d isappeared a ltogether. I ndeed , s igns o f a ny s ocial d ifferentiation c an n o l onger b e t raced i n t he burial r ite ( cf G edl 1 980,p.169). S ome s cholars t ake t he v iew s uggested b y P aulik ( 1963), w ho a ttributes t he d isappearance o f t he s ymptoms o f s ocial d ifferentiation t o t he a ctual d ecrease i n h ierarchisation o f t he c ommunities. I t i s c laimed t o h ave r esulted f rom t he m igration i n t he p eriod B ronze D o f t he m ost a ctive a nd d ynamic m embers o f t he l ocal p opulation o f t he C aka g roup t o t he s outh, t owards n orthern I taly a nd t he B alkans. M y c ontention i s t hat a rchaeological e vidence w as c aused

t he c hange t raceable i n t he b y t he t ransition t o a n ew i deology

d enying t he e xistence o f s ocial h ierarchisation , r ather t han t he r eal d ecrease i n s ocial i nequality . T he l atter r emains a t v ariance w ith t he p resence o f r ich b ronze h oards a nd o ther i ndicators o f d ifferentiation w hich w ill b e d iscussed l ater.

T he c hanges i n w estern P oland t ook a s imilar p ath. A t t he b eginning o f t he t hird p eriod , t here a re s igns o f t he i nhumation b urials u nder b arrows b eing g radually r eplaced b y c remation f lat g raves w ith p oor u niform m etal f urnishing w hich f irst a ppeared i n S lask . I t w as i n t his r egion t hat t he c oncentration o f m etal m anifesting a dvanced s ocial i nequality w as a t i ts h ighest i n t he p revious p eriods. I n t he c ourse o f t ime, t his r ite s pread o ver t he e ntire a rea u nder s tudy, a nd i t s urvived t here u ntil t he e nd o f t he B ronze A ge. E xamination P oland d uring t he o f t he q uantity o f

o f t he f luctuations

i n b ronze d eposition i n w estern

L ate B ronze A ge ( fig .XXII), s hows a c onstant g rowth m etal i n t he r egion , a t a v arying r ate, f rom t he

s econd t o t he f ifth p eriod . T here w as a c ontinuous i ncrease i n t he a mount o f m etal f rom h oards a nd i solated f inds, a nd a d ecrease i n t hat f rom g raves ( fig .XXIV). T his t rend w as c oncomitant w ith t he g rowing n umber o f c emeteries

( fig .XXIII).

I n o ther w ords,

7 0

l ess a nd l ess b ronze

w as d eposited i n burials, m etal a vailable. A t t he s ame t ime,

d espite t he o verall r ise

i n

t he s mall a mount o f m etal t hat

t he q uantity o f

d id

f ind

i ts

w ay t o t he g raves, w as e venly d istributed a mong t hem . G enerally , t here a re n o burials t hat w ould s tand o ut w ith r egard t o t heir f urnishing w ith m etal o bjects. O n t he o ther h and , o ne c omes a cross v ery r ich h oards a nd n umerous i solated f inds o f b ronze a rtefacts, w hich s eem t o i ndicate t he e xistence o f f airly a dvanced s ocial d ifferentiation . T hese t rends c omply w ith t he o bservation m ade b y C hilde ( 1944,p.42-79), o n t he m aterial f rom t he B ronze A ge i n a d ifferent a rea . A ccording t o i t , t he i ncrease o f w ealth a nd t he g rowth o f h ierarchisation r esulting f rom i t , a ppear t o b e i nversely p roportional t o t he a mount o f m etal f urnishing f ound i n b urials. T he r eal c ausal r elationship b ehind t hese t wo f actors m ay w ell b e e mbedded i n t he i deological s ystem u nderlying t he f unctioning o f s ociety w hich p roduced t he a rchaeological r ecord . T here

c an

b e n o d oubt t hat t he d ifferentiation o f

t he

B ronze

A ge s ociety p rogressed w ith t ime, a nd r eached i ts h eighest d uring t he L ate B ronze A ge. I t w as a t t hat t ime t hat t he i ncredibly l arge h oards w ere d eposited i n T ransylvania ; t he m ost i mpressive a re t hose f rom A iud w eighing 7 60kg , a nd U ioara o f 1 300kg ( Coles a nd H arding 1 979,p.409). H ierarchisation i s a lso e vident f rom t he v arying s izes o f h ouses i n B uchau , Wurttemberg ( Coles a nd H arding 1 979,p.356). T here i s s imilar e vidence f rom t he a rea under s tudy . O ne c ould m ention f or i nstance, t he l Erge c oncentration o f t he s pectacular b ronze h oards d uring t he f ifth p eriod i n P omorze. A nother e xample o f f inds i mplying t he e xistence o f h ierarchisation i s t he huge h ouse f rom K siazek w oj. W albrzych ( in t he s outhern z one), d ated f rom t he t hird p eriod . B uilt o f l ogs w ith a m assive s pan-roof , i t m easured 7 m b y 3 0m , a nd w as d ivided i nto 5 l arge a nd s everal s mall r ooms. T wo b ronze p ins a pparently u sed a s t he " corner s tone" w ere a lso f ound ( Dabrowski a nd R ajewski ( eds.) 1 979,p.233, f ig .133). T he c onstruction d etails a nd t he s ize o f t his building i mply i ts s pecial c haracter, p erhaps a s a r esidence o f a c hief . A t t he s ame t ime, t he o verwhelming m ajority o f b ronze o bjects f ound i n t he a rea , c onsist o f o rnaments a nd , t o a l esser e xtent, w eapons ( table.IIIc-e). T his m eans t hat m etal c ontinued i n i ts r ole a s a v aluable p restige g ood , n evetheless i ts c onsumption/display t ook a d ifferent g uise,

n amely h oarding .

I n v iew o f a ll t his, I w ould l ike t o s uggest t hat d uring t he L ate B ronze A ge i n w estern P oland , t he i deology s eeking t o l egitimize s ocial r elations o f d omination b y t heir n aturalization t hrough t he c onsumption o f p restige i tems i n t he f orm o f g rave g oods, w as a bandoned . T he n ew i deology w hich s uperseded i t s eems t o h ave d enied a ny d ifferences b etween i ndividuals, a t l east a fter d eath . M etal c onsumption/display s till p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he i ntra-elite c ontacts, a nd a s t he m eans o f w ealth a ccumulation , b ut o nly t o a s mall e xtent a s a s ign o f o ne's s ocial s tanding w ithin t he l ocal g roup. S ocial d ifferentiation s eems t o h ave b een d enied t hrough g iving i dentical

burials t o a ll m embers o f t he c ommunity ,

p osition w hile a live.

r egardless o f t heir

T here a re o ther f acts c orroborating s uch a p roposition , f rom t he d istribution o f m etal i n g raves.

a part

F irst o f a ll, t he r apid a pparently t ook p lace

i ncrease i n t he n umber o f c emeteries ( table.IIIa-e; f ig .XXIII), c annot b e a ccounted f or m erely b y t he p opulation g rowth d uring t he L ate B ronze A ge. I t s eems t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he c onsiderable d ecrease o f t he e xclusiveness o f t he s ocial g roups, a s s uggested b y D abrowski ( 1973). S tatistical a nalysis o f o steological r emains f rom t he L uzycka c ulture s hows t hat t he p ercentage o f c hildren r eceiving a b urial a ccording t o t he s ame r ite a s a dults i ncreased s ignificantly i n r elation n ot o nly t o t he S tone A ge, but a lso t o t he E arly B ronze A ge. O n t he o ther h and , t he r atio o f m ale t o f emale g raves c hanged i n f avour o f t he l atter; t his i mplies t hat t he s ocial p osition o f w omen i mproved , a nd a w oman b egan t o b e t reated o n a p ar w ith a m an

w hich

( Gladykowska-Rzeczycka 1 973). T his e vidence s eems t o s uggest t hat n ot o nly t he d ifferences a ssociated w ith w ealth, but a lso w ith a ge o r s ex , w hich p otentially c ould h ave i mpinged o n a n i ndividual's s ocial s tanding , w ere l argely d isregarded o r m isrepresented i n t he b urial r ite. A ll m embers o f s ociety a ppear t o h ave b een p resented a s e qual t hrough b eing buried a ccording t o t he s ame r ite, i n l arge c emeteries c ontaining o ften u p t o s everal hundred g raves. Undeniably s uch a p ractice e mphasizes t he i ntegrity o f a c ommunity a nd m ust h ave s poken c onvincingly t o t he p articipants o f t he m ortuary r itual. T his a ccount c an b e c omplemented b y a n e thnographic a nalogy . T he n ature o f t his p iece o f e vidence w ill i nevitably b e d ifferent f rom a ll t hat h as c atalyst

b een

h elping

p resented

s o

f ar.

H owever,

i t

i s m eant t o b e a

t he c omprehension o f t he d iscussion ,

r ather t han o ne

o f t he p illars o n w hich t he a rgument r ests.

t he

T he i ntroduction o f c remation m ight h ave b een a ssociated w ith a rchetypal b eliefs i n t he p urifying p roperties o f f ire, w hich

r enders p eople e qual t hrough r educing t hem t o a shes. I n t his a ct, t he e lement c ommon t o a ll m ankind i .e. " the s oul"- the q uintessence o f m en 's e quality , i s l iberated . N otably , a shes w ere buried i n a p it, o ften i n av essel, w hich c ould h ave e pitomized t he f emale b ody . T his i n t urn , m ight h ave s ignified f urther e quality t hrough t he r eturn t o t he w omb o f M other-earth ( Neuman 1 955). S imilar b eliefs c ould h ave i nspired p eople o f t he Unetice c ulture i n B ohemia, w ho u sed t o b ury s ome c hildren i n l arge g ranary v essels T his

a nalogy

w ould

b e

( Gedl 1 980,p.54). p ointless

i f p resented

o n

i ts

o wn ;

h owever i n t he c ontext o f w hat h as b een s aid b efore, i t s eems t o a dd a n ew d imension t o t he a rgument, r ather t han o verstating t he c ase. A ll t hese f actors c ontributed t o t he p lausibility o f t he n ew i deology w hich a ppears t o h ave b een b ased n ot o nly o n t he t radition , but a lso h ad s ome a ppeal t o t he a rchetypes o f t he human p syche. O n t he o ther h and , t he n atural d esire o f humans f or s ocial e quality , w hich s eems a lso a lmost a rchetypal, w as s atisfied , a t l east o n t he l evel o f t he i deology . I n t his s ituation , i ts a ttractiveness t o t he E uropean s ocial e lites, w hose p osition a ppears t o h ave b een e ndangered a gain a t t he t urn o f t he s econd a nd t he t hird p eriods, i s o nly t oo o bvious. I ts

7 2

e fficacy , o n t he o ther h and , i s e vident f rom t he uninterrupted c ultural a nd e conomic d evelopment o f s ociety i n w estern P oland , w hich d espite t he e xistence o f c onflicts o f i nterests b etween c ommunity a nd e lite, l asted f or o ver half a m illenium ( table.I, c olumn .8).

I n o rder t o p resent a m ore c omplete p icture o f t he s ituation i n t he L ate B ronze A ge i n w estern P oland , i t i s n ecessary t o m ention t hat f rom t he b reak o f t he f ourth a nd t he f ifth p eriods, i n s ome p arts o f P oland , c remation g raves w ith r icher f urnishing t han o thers, r e-emerged s poradically e xactly i n t he s ame a reas t hat, g enerally l ater o n , f ortified s ettlements m ade t heir a ppearance. S trange a s i t m ay b e, t hose s ettlements w ere v ery n umerous i n t he s outhern z one, a nd v ery r are i n P omorze ( fig .XX). F urthermore, i t i s P omorze t hat s eems t o h ave h ad t he m ost a dvanced h ierarchization i n p eriod 5 , j udging f rom t he a mounts o f b ronze f ound t here. T he l ogical c onclusion w ould b e t hat i t s hould h ave b een P omorze, w here t he n ew e lement s upporting t he i deology w ith f orce s hould h ave b een n ecessary . T his a pparent p aradox b ecomes u nderstandable h owever, i f o ne c onsiders t he d emographic t rends i n t he s outhern a nd t he n orthern z ones, b etween t he f ourth a nd t he f ifth p eriods ( fig .XXIII). I n t he s outh , t here s eems t o have b een a c ontinuous a nd f ast p opulation g rowth , w hereas t he n orth a ppears t o h ave e xperienced a c ertain s tabilization , o r e ven a s light d rop i n p opulation . S uch a s ituation e ntailed c olonization o f p oor s oils a reas, a nd p ossibly o verpopulation o f t hose w ith t he b est s oils, i n t he s outhern z one. T his, t ogether w ith t he d eterioration o f c limatic c onditions ( Bukowski 1 979), a nd a c ertain d ecline i n t he l ong-distance e xchange, c ould h ave r esulted i n t he i ncrease o f s ocial f rictions. T he n atural r eaction o f t he e lite w as t o c ounteract t hese t endencies b y t he m odification o f t he i deology . W hen t his f ailed , t he r eproduction o f s ocial o rder h ad t o b e s ecured a nd g uarded b y t he f ortified s ettlements,

w hich

s upported t he

a ltered i deology . T here i s a k nown c emetery i n G orszewice w oj.Poznan f rom p eriod H allstatt C , w hich c omprises s everal d ozen o f v ery r ich g raves. I t c an b e r egarded a s a s ign " naturalizing" i deology i n t he s outhern z one.

o f

t he

r evival

o f

t he

L ater, i n H allstatt D , m any o f t he f ortified s ettlements w ere b urnt d own a nd n ever r ebuilt a gain . T he c urrent o pinion o f a rchaeologists a ccounts f or i t i n t erms o f a n e xternal a gent i .e. a S cythian i nvasion ( Gedl 1 975b,p.40-45). W ithout c hallenging t his p roposition , Iw ould l ike t o s uggest t hat s uch a n a pproach m ight b e o versimplistic, a nd t hat o ne s hould t ake i nto c onsideration t he i nternal d evelopments t oo. T heir c ontribution t o t he r esultant u nrest c ould h ave b een m ore s ignificant t han i t i s c urrently b elieved . T his w ould h ave b een a r eiteration o f t he s ituation f rom t he E arly B ronze Age. S ocial e lites h ad t o p ay t he p rice o f h aving a dopted a n i nadequate

i deology ,

w hich

s eems

l onger t han a c ouple o f c enturies.

7 3

t o h ave n ever b een

o perative

f or

V III.

C ONCLUSIONS

T he o bjective o f t his w ork w as p rimarily m ethodological. T hat i s t o s ay, o ne s et o ut t o t est c ertain t heoretical c oncepts u sed c urrently b y " social a rchaeology" o n t he d ata f rom a p art o f E urope w hich has n ot b een c overed b y t his t ype o f s tudy . A s a r esult, a t wo-tiered m odel o f t he B ronze A ge i n w estern P oland w as p roduced , w hich t akes a ccount o f e conomic a nd s ocial a spects o f t he e poch , a nd c onforms c ontext.

w ell

t o

t he

p icture

o f t he p eriod i n

a

l arger

E uropean

Ih ope t hat i t s hows t hat s uch e ndeavours a re n ot o nly w elcome a nd p ossible, but s imply n ecessary , i f o ur k nowledge o f t he E uropean B ronze A ge i s t o p rogress t owards a n i ntegrated , m ore c omplete p icture.

A t

p resent,

t here

a re p atches o n t he m ap o f E urope,

f or w hich

s ome r esearch o n p aleosociological i ssues h as b een d one. T he u rgent n ecessity f or a rchaeologists i s t o e xtend s uch s tudies t o o ther p arts o f t he c ontinent, i n o rder t o p rovide a n a dequate f rame f or t he d iscussion .

A s h as o rganization i s

b een p ointed o ut, n ot a s elf-contained ,

b ear a ny r elevance t o e conomic

i ssues,

o f

r eference

k nowledge c oncerning s ocial h ermetic d omain w hich d oes n ot f or

i nstance.

T he

a pproach ,

a ccording t o w hich i t i s f easible t o s tudy s uccessfully t he e conomic, w ithout r elating i t t o t he s ocial , h as b een e ffectively d isproved . I t h as b een d emonstrated i n n umerous w orks ( e.g .Kristiansen 1 981), t hat a ll t he c omponents o f s ocio-economic s ystems a re i nteracting w ith o ne a nother t o s uch a n e xtent, t hat o ften i t i s n either p ossible n or d esirable t o d efine i n a c lear-cut f ashion t he b order l ines b etween t he s ocial, t he r eligious, a nd t he e conomic. T he o nly s atisfactory s tance i s t o s tudy t he s ocial t otality w ithout s plitting i t i nto s eparate s ubsystems. I f a ny o f t he s ubsystems i s e xcluded f rom t he a nalysis, t he r esulting m odel i s d oomed t o b e o ne-sided , a nd i pso f acto i nadequate. I h ope t hat t his w ork c orroborates s uch a s tance.

A rchaeological s ocial r econstructions s till t end t o b e t reated w ith much s uspicion . C riticisms f ocus o n t he f act t hat t he v ast m ajority o f p ropositions c an b e n either p roved n or, i f m oderate, d isproved . W hile o ne s hould n ot c herish t he i rrational h ope o f d iscovering s ome " philosopher's s tone" w hich w ill s olve t he p roblem i n a m iraculous w ay , t here s eems t o b e g reat s cope f or i mprovement. T his w ill r equire t hat s ocial r econstruction w ill c oncern n ot o nly a n i solated c ommunity ,

b ut

w ill b e p laced o n t he l evel o f t he c ontinent.

O n s uch a s cale, t here i s l ess r oom f or e xercising o ne's i magination a nd i ndulging i n c onjectures. E ither a m odel f its t he d ata , o r i t d oes n ot. N eedless t o s ay , i t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o p ut f orward a p roposition c ompatible w ith av ery l arge b ody o f d ata . A s i n a j igsaw , t he m ore p ieces i n h and , t he m ore l imited t he n umber o f p ossibilities b ecomes. E ventually , t he c hoice i s s o f ew m odels t hat f it t he a ctual d ata .

7 4

n arrow

t hat t here c an b e r eally

I n

my w ork I e ndeavoured t o d emonstrate t hat

t he

d istribution

o f m etalwork i n w estern P oland d uring t he B ronze Age c an o ffer n ew i nsights i nto t he i nternal d ynamics o f t he l ocal s ociety, w hen v iewed a gainst t he E uropean b ackground . T he s tudy o f t he P olish d ata i n s uch a w ide f ramework , s eems t o a ctivate t he n ew l evels o f i nformation p resent i n i t, which o therwise w ould r emain l atent.

Another a spect o f t his w ork w hich I w ould l ike

t o

h ighlight i s

t he a pplication o f a w hole r ange o f d ifferent q uantitative m ethods w ith , s o i t s eems t o m e, a d egree o f s uccess. I h ope t hat i t h as b een d emonstrated y et a gain , h ow p owerful a t ool p rove t o a rchaeologists, a nd t hat t hey a re p otentially p enetrate a l arger d omain q ualitative a pproach . T his d oes n ot m ean , o f

q uantitative m ethods c an f ar m ore e fficient a nd c an t han t he " traditional" c ourse, t hat t he s cope f or

q ualitative a rchaeological a nalysis i s i n a ny w ay l imited b y t hem . t he c ontrary , i t i s c omplemented a nd r einforced .

I f

I

h ave

s ucceeded i n s howing

q uantitative a pproach t o t he b eing e xhausted ,

d istribution

t hat o f

t he

a nd t hat i ts s cope i ncreases i f t he

o n d ifferent l evels, e xploring t hen I have a chieved m y o bjective.

p otential

m etalwork

i s

o f

O n

t he

f ar f rom

a nalysis p roceeds

d ifferent a spects o f s ocial s ystems,

7 5

B IBLIOGRAPHY A lthusser,L .(1971)

' Ideology a nd i deological s tate a pparatuses'

L .Althusser L enin a nd P hilosophy a nd O ther E ssays, Antoniewicz,W .(1957) ' Problem r ozkladu w spolnoty p ierwotnej p olskich ' i n W .Antoniewicz ( ed .) P ierwsza S esja A rcheologiczna I HKM-PAN 1 955, W arszawa-Wroclaw . B inford ,L .(1972)

' Mortuary p ractices:

i n

L ondon .

n a z iemiach

t heir s tudy a nd t heir p otential'

i n L .Binford ( ed .) An A rchaeological P erspective, L ondon . B loch,M .(1977) ' The p ast a nd t he p resent i n t he p ast' i n M an 1 2: 2 78-92. B roholm ,H .C.(1943)

D anmarks B ronzealder,vol 1 &2,

C openhagen .

B ukowski,Z.(1979) ' Srodowisko n aturalne i j ego z miany ' i n J .Dabrowski & Z .Rajewski(eds.) P rahistoria Z iem P olskich : o d s rodkowej e poki b razu d o s rodkowego o kresu l atenskiego. W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow-Gdansk .

t om I V ,

C hampion ,S.(1982) ' Exchange a nd R anking : t he C ase o f C oral' i n C .Renfrew & S .J.Shennan ( eds.) R anking . R esource a nd E xchange: A spects o f t he A rchaeology o f E arly E uropean S ociety , C ambridge. C hilde,V .G.(1944)

S cotland b efore t he S cots,

C hilde,V .G.(1956) P iecing T ogether t he F ast: A rchaeological D ata, L ondon .

L ondon . T he I nterpretation o f

C oles,J.M .& H arding ,A .F .(1979) T he B ronze A ge i n E urope,

L ondon .

D abrowski,J.(1968) Z abytki m etalowe e poki b razu m iedzy d olna W isla a N iemnem , W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow . D abrowski,J.(1973)

' Z p roblematyki s tosunkow s polecznych l udnosci

k ultury l uzyckiej',

A rcheologia P olski X VIII:

D abrowski,J.& R ajewski,Z .(eds.)(1979) s rodkowej t om I V ,

3 37-53.

P rahistoria Z iem P olskich;

o d

e poki b razu d o s rodkowego o kresu l atenskiego,

W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow-Gdansk .

F ogel,J.(1979) S tudia n ad u zbrojeniem l udnosci k ultury l uzyckiej d orzeczu O dry i W isly , W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow .

w

F rankenstein ,S.& R owlands,M .J.(1978) ' The i nternal s tructure a nd r egional c ontext o f e arly I ron A ge s ociety i n s outh-western G ermany ', B ulletin o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology o f t he University o f L ondon X V : 7 3-112. F ried ,M .(1967)

T he E volution o f P olitical S ociety ,

N ew Y ork .

F riedman ,M .(1975) ' Tribes,states, a nd t ransformations' i n M .Bloch(ed .) M arxist A nalyses a nd S ocial A nthropology , L ondon .

7 6

P rahistoria Z iem P olskich : w czesna e poka b razu . t om I II, W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow-

G ardawski,A .& K owalczyk ,J.(eds.)(1978) G dansk . G ediga ,B.(1963)

' Cmentarzyska k ultury l uzyckiej w b adaniach s tosunkow

s polecznych ', A rcheologia P olski V III:

7 -43.

G ediga ,B.(1967) P lemiona k ultury l uzyckiej n a S lasku S rodkowym , W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow . G ediga ,B.(1978) ' Starszy o kres e poki b razu n a z achodnich z iemiach p olskich : w z asiegu k ultury p rzedluzyckiej' i n A .Gardawski & J .Kowalczyk ( eds.) P rahistoria Z iem P olskich : w czesna e poka b razu t om I II, W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow-Gdansk . G edl,M .(1961) Uwagi o g ospodarce i s trukturze s polecznej l udnosci k ultury l uzyckiej w p oludniowej P olsce, K rakow . G edl,M .(1962) K ultura l uzycka n a G ornym S lasku , K rakow . G edl,M .(1975a) K ultura p rzedluzycka , G edl,M .(1975b) K ultura l uzycka , G edl,M .(1980)

W roclaw-Warszawa-

K rakow .

K rakow .

E poka b razu I .w czesna e poka z elaza w E uropie, K rakow

G iddens,A .(1979)

C entral P roblems

i n S ocial T heory ,

L ondon .

G ilman ,A .& H arrison ,G .(1977) ' The T rade i n t he S econd a nd T hird M illenium B .C. b etween t he M aghreb a nd I beria ' i n V .Markotic(ed .)Ancient E uropean T rade i n t he M editerranean : 90-104. G ilman ,A .(1981)

' The D evelopment o f S ocial S tratification i n B ronze

A ge E urope G imbutas,M .(1965)

'i n C urrent A nthropology v ol 2 2,

n o 1 .

B ronze A ge C ultures i n C entral a nd E astern E urope,

H ague. G ladykowska-Rzeczycka ,J.(1973)

' Paleodemografia w P olsce d o V w n .e.

A rcheologia P olski X VIII:168-95. G odelier,M .(1977)

P erspectives

i n M arxist A nthropology,

H achmann ,R .(1957)

6 B eiheft z um A tlas d er U rgeschichte,

C ambridge. H amburg .

H awkes,C.(1954) ' Archaeological T heory a nd M ethod : S ome S uggestions f rom t he O ld W orld ', A merican A nthropologist L VI:155-68. H ensel,W .(1969)

Z iemie P olskie w P radziejach ,

7 7

W arszawa .

H odder,I.(1982)

' The I dentification

i n P rehistory :

a nd I nterpretation o f R anking

a c ontextual p erspective'

i n C .Renfrew &

S .J.Shennan ( eds.) R anking.Resource a nd E xchange: A spects o f t he A rchaeology o f E arly E uropean S ociety , C ambridge. H omer(1983)

T he I liad ,

K ersten ,K .(1958)

B ungay ,

S uffolk .

D ie F unde d er a lteren B ronzezeit i n P ommern ,Hamburg .

K ondracki,J.& O strowski,J.(1978) ' Regiony F izycznogeograficzne, M apa 4 1' i n N arodowy A tlas P olski, W roclaw-WarszawaK rakow . K ostrzewski,B.(1949) ' Znaczenie O dry w p radzejach ', A rcheologiczny V III:258-65.

P rzeglad

K ostrzewski,J.(1927) ' Kultura p rzedluzycka n a P omorzu S zczecinskim ', S lavia O ccidentalis V I:279-86. K ostrzewski,J.(1949)

P radzieje P olski,

P oznan .

K ostrzewski,J.(1958) K ultura l uzycka n a P omorzu ,

P oznan .

K ostrzewski,J.(1964) ' Skarby i l uzne z naleziska m etalowe o d n eolitu d o w czesnego o kresu z elaza z g ornego i s rodkowego d orzecza W isly i g ornego d orzecza W arty ', X V : 5 -133. K ostrzewski,J.(1966)

P rzeglad A rcheologiczny

P radzieje P omorza , W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow .

K owalczyk ,J.(1970) ' The F unnel B eaker C ulture' i n T .Wislanski T he N eolithic i n P oland , W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow .

( ed .)

K ristiansen ,K .(1978) ' The c onsumption o f w ealth i n b ronze a ge D enmark . A s tudy i n t he d ynamics o f e conomic p rocesses i n t ribal s ocieties ' i n K .Kristiansen & C .Paludan-Muller ( eds.) S tudies i n S candinavian P rehistory a nd E arly H istory , C openhagen . K ristiansen ,K .(1981) ' Economic M odels f or B ronze A ge i n S candinavia towards a n I ntegrated A pproach ' i n A .Sheridan & G .Bailey ( eds.) 9 6:

E conomic A rchaeology ,

BA R ,

I nternational S eries

2 39-72.

K ristiansen ,K .(1982) ' The F ormation o f T ribal S ystems i n L ater E uropean P rehistory : N orthern E urope, 4 000-500 B .C.' i n C .Renfrew ( ed .) T heory a nd E xplanation i n A rchaeology , N ew Y ork . K unke1,0.(1931)

P ommersche U rgeschichte i n B ildern ,

S zczecin .

K urnatowski,S.(1965) ' Materialy d o s rodkowego o kresu e poki b razu w W ielkopolsce', P rzeglad A rcheologiczny X VII:122-201. M achnik ,J.(1970) ' The C orded W are C ulture' i n T .Wislanski ( ed .) T he N eolithic i n P oland , W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow .

7 8

M achnik ,J.(1978)

' Wczesny o kres e poki b razu '

i n A .Gardawski &

J .Kowalczyk ( eds.) P rahistoria Z iem P olskich : w czesna e poka b razu. t om I II', W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow-Gdansk . M alinowski,T.(1961) K atalog c mentarzysk l udnosci k ultury l uzyckiej w P olsce. t om I & I I, W arszawa . M ontelius,0 .(1885) ' Om t idsbestamning mom b ronsalderen m ed s arskild h ansyn t ill S kandinavien ', K ongl. V itterhets H istorie o ch Antiquitets A kademiens H andlingar 3 0, S tockholm . N euman ,E.(1955) T he G reat M other-an a nalysis o f t he a rchetype, L ondon . 0 11man ,B.(1976) A lienation ,

C ambridge.

O rton ,C.(1980) M athematics i n A rchaeolo u ,

L ondon .

P aulik ,J.(1963) ' K p roblematike c akanskiej k ultury v K arpatskie K otlinie', S lovenska A rcheologi& X:269-338. R andsborg ,K .(1974) ' Social s tratification i n e arly b ronze a ge D enmark : a s tudy i n t he r egulation o f c ultural s ystems', P rahistorische Z eitschrift XLIX :38-61. R andsborg ,K .(1975) ' Social d imensions o f e arly n eolithic D enmark ', P roceedings o f P rehistoric S ociety XLI:105-118. R auhut,L .(1954) ' Sprawozdanie z b adan w ykopaliskowych n a w czesnobrazowym s tanowisku w B iskupinie p ow .Znin ', W iadomosci A rcheologiczne X X : 252-59. R enfrew ,C.(1973) ' Monuments, m obilization a nd s ocial o rganization i n n eolithic W essex ' i n C .Renfrew ( ed .) T he E xplanation o f C ulture C hange,London . R owlands,M .J.(1980) ' Kinship, A lliance a nd E xchange i n t he E uropean B ronze A ge' i n J .Barret & R .Bradley ( eds.) S ettlement a nd S ociety ,

B A R ,

B ritish S eries 8 3.

S arnowska ,W .(1969) K ultura u nietycka w P olsce, K rakow . S ervice,E.R .(1962)

W roclaw-Warszawa-

P rimitive S ocial O rganisation ,

N ew Y ork .

S hanks,M .& T illey ,C.(1982) ' Ideology , s ymbolic p ower a nd r itual c ommunication : r einterpretation o f N eolithic m ortuary p ractices' i n I .Hodder ( ed .) S ymbolic a nd S tructural A rchaeology , S hennan ,S.E.(1975)

C ambridge.

' The s ocial o rganization a t B ranc',Antiquity 3 9:

2 79-87

7 9

S hennan ,S.J.(1982a) ' Ideology , c hange a nd t he E uropean E arly B ronze Age' i n I .Hodder ( ed .) S ymbolic a nd S tructural A rchaeology , C ambridge. S hennan ,S.J.(1982b) ' Exchange a nd r anking : t he r ole o f a mber i n e arlier b ronze a ge E urope' i n C .Renfrew & S .J.Shennan ( eds.) . Rs e ource a . _A spects o f te h A rchaeology R anking nd Ec x hange . o f E arly E uropean S ociety , C ambridge. S herrat,A .(1982) ' Mobile r esources. S ettlement a nd e xchange i n e arly a gricultural E urope' i n C .Renfrew & S .J.Shennan ( eds.) R anking . R esource a nd E xchange; A spects o f t he A rchaeology o f E arly E uropean S ociety , C ambridge. S prockhoff ,E .(1956) J ungbronzezeitliche H ortfunde d er S udzone d es N ordischen K reises ( Periode V ). B ond I u nd I I, M ainz. S trzemski,M .(1954) ' Gleby w ojewodztwa k ieleckiego', P rzeglad g eograficzny X XVI: 1 78-85. S turms,E.(1936)

D ie a ltere B ronzezeit i n O stbalticum ,

B erlin .

S zafranski,W .(1955) S karby b razowe z e poki w spolnoty p ierwotnej ( IV i V o kres e poki b razu) w W ielkopolsce, W roclawW arszawa . T hrane,H .(1975)

E uropaeiske f orbIndelser,

C openhagen .

W islanski,T.(1970a)(ed)The N eolithic i n P oland ,Wroclaw-WarszawaK rakow . W islanski,T .(1970b) ' The G lobular A mphora C ulture' i n T .Wislanski ( ed .) T he N eolithic i n P oland ', W roclaw-Warszawa-Krakow . W itek ,T.& K oter,M .(1975) M apa g lebowo-rolnicza P olski,

8 0

W arszawa .

•••

• ••• •

« M . •

•

_ 1 1 \

‘ • •

• • ••

1 .

— b ounda ry o f t he a rea u nde r s t udy b ounda ry b e tween n or the rn & s ou the rn z ones

10 0k m

0 1 3 I l

M I

ME

M I M I

MI

F i g . I I Wes te rn P o land : r i ve rs a nd r e g ions i nt he a rea u nde r s t udy .

M • I••• •

• •••

1 .. I M. M

• • •

A i d >• f i ll i jk

• • . 4 " ' „

4 )

1 i III !

• • :eh • 4

•

1 1 i i il i l i d it

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

I I I I I I I I I I I

d • .7 ,. . . . . . f?A , ,

' P. •

•

•

•

•

I I II I I P2 1 1 1 1 i 1 17 1 1 1;1 ti

1 9

se

—

. . V

e

•4

•

i f

.

‘

ee :,. .

1 111 P IIIII

411

' I

li

\

IP

'

0 • Zw w0

I t . 4\

C Z

Il I

I

i n

1 1

1d i 1 1 : 1 . 1 i 4

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1, . 111 i e l : j il. N 3 l ij ii l dt . Il

1 l i gi li t

,

W _ I

3 0 ( 1

> < I —

Z w

• • •

U i ) 0

( a f t e r G i m b u t a s 1 9 6 5 ) .

,

i . , .

T e n t a t i v e a m b e r r o u t e s f r o m 1 6 0 B . C . t o

\

L

VV W V V V . W " W'W'V W V VVVVW VVVWV V V W W V V VVV V V W V V V WVV W V W W V ✓ VVW W W V W V , WWW W N /VW W WVV V VVWV

I .

W W VV W W W W V W W VV W W V IVW WWV I W WV WV . OV W W VVV W W VVWW WW W W W W W I /N . W WWWVWV W W W VV W V V \ PVVW W VW W WW W V W V, IV W V V VW

• • , .

1 000 9 00 8 00 6 00

V W NI " V .V . WW ,W • v v

v

5 00 4 00 3 00 2 00 1 00 5 0 5 0

10 0k m Ma l

1 1 1 1 1 1

NM

OM

I l ia

F i g .V D is t r ibu t ion o f me ta l i n p e r iod 1 ; t he U ne t ice c u l tu re .

1 000 9 00 8 00 6 00 5 00 4 00 3 00 2 00 1 00 5 0 5 0

F i g .V I D is t r ibu t ion o f me ta l i n p e r iod 2 ; t he P rzed luzycka c u l tu re .

..

W V

V V

M

V

V V

V V

V

V

V V

V .

V

V

.

V

.

V

V

V

V

W

V V

V V

W

W V

yv y y V

V

V V

V

, V

V V

V V

V

V

V V

V V

V

V

.

V

V V

V

V V

V

j N iv"44

V V V V V. V V V : I

. . . . . . „ , .3, . . . . . , . . . . . v . . . . . . . . , „ . . . . V

V.

1 000 9 00 8 00 6 00 5 00 4 00 3 00 2 00 1 00 5 0 5 0

F i g .V I I D is t r ibu t ion o f me ta l i n p e r iod 3 ; t he L uzycka c u l tu re .

N

• •

1 000 9 00 8 00 6 00 5 00 4 00 3 00 2 00 1 00 5 0 5 0

0 1 00k m cmc=m iz a iwzm inzam N 1 1 1 1 1 •1 1 11. 1 1 M IM I M I M I I I M I I M,

F i g .VI I I D is t r ibu t ion o f me ta l i n p e r iod 4 ; t he L uzycka c u l tu re .

4 %3 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10

\

. • 0 * -!c i t i t zant ir••X '\" ; 2 4111 i3DD;

I >, e 24i ,ef 4 9 ,04

m e n3

t : ti .

V V

V

V W

✓ W

e r . e 7a 2 .

•. ,-

V W

W ✓

; sS z • -

V

✓

V

• ` .

e ‘X xx

V W

V V

W V

V V

W V

V V

V V

W V

W

W W

V W V W

V

V V

V W V W

V

V

V

V W

V

V

V W

V W

V V

V

W

V

V V

V V

W V

V

V V

V V

W V

W

W W

V W

W Y

V

W V

V W

W V

V V

W V

V V

V W

V W

V W

✓ V W ✓ V

.

V

V V

V

W

•

V ✓

W

V V

V

V

V V

V V

V

V

W V

✓

V

V

V

V V

V W

V

V

V

V W

W

W

W W

W W

V

V V

V

W

V

V W

W

W

V

V

V W

.

V W

W V

V

V W

.

V W

W V

W W

V

W W

V

V

W

V

V V

V V

V ✓ V W W ✓ ✓

V V

✓ ✓

V ✓

1 000

2 N I N I 900 t e ." 4 .800

V

V

V

W

V

✓

V

V

I I

V

V

V

V

W

V

V

W

V

V V •

V

V

V V

V W

V ✓

W

V V

V W

V V

W

W

V V

V W

V

W

W V

W

V

V

W V

V W

W

W

W

Y

W

V

W V

V

V

V

▪

V V

V W

W

W

W W

V

V

V V

V W

V V

W V

V V

W

✓

•

V W

W V

V

W

V

W

V

V V

V

V

V W

V

V

6 00 % O NO . % •ip• ipe

5 00 4 00 3 00 2 00 1 00 5 0 5 0

1 00k m

F i g . IX D is t r ibu t ion o f me ta l i n p e r iod 5 ; t he L uzycka c u l tu re .

B . K o s t r z e w s k i

(

0 0 0 C.

00 )

0

0

0 00

0 '

0

0

00 0

0

0 0 0

0 r • . 00 0 0 000 ( 0 , 0 c 0 ,o ,p 0 / f ` > 0 C C 0 0 0°0 , C\r - 0 00 0 0 0 0 t s 0 0 0 S7 K ' '

z

o 0

0

0

, ,

2

--- - -,

-. . . -

-

.-. .

. " '

T

I 1 I

ICI

an acm

I

I

=ce

r ece." ""

e i r a r ixa t 2c 3 ga=

0

' . . .

5 Z d I

( a f t e r B . K o s t r z e w

�

./

I

)

. I

\ I

I

I I

(

\

I I

'I

I

(

I

I

I

a. E '­

(/)

t::: 0

)

\

·.::: Q)

....0

' I

I

I

I

t\i "'C 0

'--

)

a. _E m c­ ro ""1" ·ro ,'-

0)

0> ·­ c .:::t:. :::J

(/)

0

� �

I Q) 3: .... C

(I) 0 0

·..::: �• :::J ..c co '­ ·.::: � � Q) (/) ·-

-

.... o ro

■ ■ ■ ■

■

••

X .Q> LL

.

■

0

0 0

� "O 0

-�

Q) a.

'

I

I

I (/

I

I

0..., 0

0

0

0

)-

/

r

.J

0

/

■

,J

..,;

L . 0

C V L r ) C V V ' ri O D

a ) o C r ) r 4.

01

in .

v i

C V ) e l

ri

,

U1

L c ) ( Y ) C O

Cr )

Cr )

C D t r ) C V C N

L r ) c o C A r 1

o 1 4 1 4 r 1

o a ) 0 C V

u >

N

N C V

10 1,›

) a a )

c e t e l

L o

L i ) o

in

1 3 0

, 1 C V C V

3 0 5 .

m e n t s

,

o r n a -

A m o u n t o f M e t a l b y W e i g h t S c o r e s i n t h e F o r m o f :

N

L O V : ,

r f

1 r -

C O C V

c o . 4 . c r

c o r C V

N

C 7 1 V D

r 1 0 0

c a )

al rq • w co

N r4 V

1 1

• L o

t e

g r a v e s

A m o u n t o f M e t a l b y W e i g h t S c o r e s D e p o s i t e d i n :

2

g 1

C D

( v ) Ul L r )

0 OD C r )

C \ I

a

OD

CO

2 4

r_ f

' SD:

c o

C r )

, .

i n C V r 4

CO

,

. r n . a )

r r 4 C V

a C r )

CD

a

r I Nr 0 et r N r 1 -

N

C V P. ) i i

i n r I -

L U

r ) t s, t a ) C V ri . z r

,

8

"4

e s ‘ D

C r )

4 1 V ' . C ) ) r r ‘ C ) N 1 1

o 0 C V

0

0 c r

0 ) I

L I ) 0 1 , 1

0

c o 0 r C V

v a C Y ) L I " ) r 1

c o C V o D L I " )

N

1 -1 ,

M

.

0 1

, QD

L29

) • el

.

7 5 ]

Z s =

5 1 9

0

W

3 4 0 7

l e

r i

5 6 7

3

1

.

e . V ' L . 0

0

0

V J C ) C V

1 1 a o

4 1,'

C V N rt N

co

e r•

c h N

C V O D L I )

C O r 4 r 4

V > L O o D C V

0 V D L O r 4

N N I n 1 i

N,

4 0 7 6

2 7 6

2 9 6 0

co I z " 0 I r -I

e i c v u : . r I

0

s e

v • I

i s )

(N

, 1

c r c 0 o 1 1

v . p . c n o C O

co cv c o L . r ) V D C N C V c 1 I

C 0 • . _ 0 .

c l a s 1 b e s t

) C D C C

C V C O

G

0

00 C V

c p

r o

. , .1

•

C

0

i i d o u c

t p v I

7 3 I i F . c.

z

0

C V

( N i c i

5 4 0 6 4

W

e P

T• 4 N

‘ • 0 0

a t

N

0

c o c o

L . C ) L n c o

r I

0

o o • z r r I -

,

W

0 N

.0

•

•

CO 0

0 0 ( N

,

o ' L o N , 1 -

e '

N

e ' e o z : t . -i r

I

C

D

C

D

0 C° C\ I . ' , -1 e

0

C V C T % c o C O

I l k

(\ I

C )

r I c r

r i

0 C V c n C V

0 C V a C V

z • r O D C V

0

4 6 3 2 8

""

% D c n

V D

N 0 ' ) % . 1 " c n

N

I

0

0 r e ) r I

0 1 N r n

T r i 7 5

u : d i

_ i 2

T , 0 I 3 C I )

T o t a l

4

,

_ „ , .

e l s

2 9 3 1 2 ,

N

I . °

¼0

C r ) 0 C V

r e E n t i A r e a

V D i n

• z r .

C s i

0

6 5 2

,

° c -1

N . 44

r 1 9 8 4

i .°

L . 0 . , z r

' 4

'I

S o i l T y p e s i n ( k m

A r e a o f D i f e r e n t

c l a s 2 g o d

c l a s 3 m e d i o c r e

' , V C V

¼0

1 3 2 4

,

C V C O C Y )

. 4. ` e , e, ( N 1

3 4 5 6

L D s o c r)

4 8 0

L C > c r C r )

4 8 9 6

d a s 4 p o r

21

•

e . .

s r c s c i

c o e f i c i e n t s :

e v C ) 7 . — . Q ) c 3

;s

2

i1

I I

I

Table

o.22s

IVb.

·

1� i� l�m� m�IiI

.:::: F:: :;lf :;::t�;: : 0 034 l. ......•.:•:•···•:•·•:•fb:-:•:•:•i

I:';: : �:�:

noof cemeteries

0.3n

I

0.4441 0.188

-0.211 I 0.531

I

R = 0.881

2

0.067 0.584

Correlation coefficients: the Przedluzycka culture - period 2.

Squared Multiple Correlation Coefficient

I

i�i ■ I -0.283 tj

class 2 class 3 class 4 total no of good mediocr � poor amount cemesoils soils soils of meta! teries

0.392�fiii

::T.7;�:!

1

class 1 best soils

Fourth-Order Partial Correlation Coefficient

0.408 0.815 1-0.019 0.855 •-0.075 -0.125 0.486

f!il

total class 3 class 4 mediocr, poor amount soils soils of metal

I 0.636 I 0.702 1-0.061

·

O 060 0 275

- ·

0.516

rumber ot 0.639 _ bemetenes

I

class 2 good soils

0.684 ,:;:::::::::,:

lill11

total amount 0.813 of metal

class 4 poor soi Is

:;rs�e

c

d�

class 1 best soils

Zero-Order Correlation Coefficient

c l a s 1 b e s t o i l s s

c l a 2 s g d o o i l s s

L r 3 c l a 4 c l a s s m e d i c p r o r o o i l s s o i l s

I

C o r e l a t i o n C o e f i c e n t

Z e r o O r d e r

. . . . . . . .

o t a l t a m o u n t o f m e t a l n o f o c m e t r i e s e

0 . 2 1 3 0 . 3 6 1 0 . 2 5 4 0 . 6 4 1 1

c l a 1 s b e s t , s o i l s

F o u r t h O r d e r P a r t i a l C o r e l a t i o n C o e f i c i e n t c l a 3 s m e d i o c r ( o i l s s

c l a 4 s p r o o i l s s o t a l t a m o u n t o f m e t a l a )c o

a )202

c e i

" L 3 0 0

a

, . 2 tg= c u.80 z ' 9 2 z . . 3 o

C I . 2 0 > , N = — J

d >

•

c J c e

‘ t 2 C

c n

ä . "

C O 9

;

y e t

c s J

9 c n

C J

C D

Z 0 -" .

m c n

9

C Y)

O D

C D a

: = g

0 C D

c o e f i c i e n t s :

M u l t i p l e C o r e l a t i o n C o e f i c e n t

e

o g d s o i l s s c l a 3 e m d i o c r e s o i l s

c l a s 2

c l a s 2 g o d s o i l s S o i l s

c l a s 3 m e d i 0 C r E

c J

c o

. . r .

d

c i a

e C O

0 0

. , . 4

0 N . C V )

c i '

t

c i

C M C V )

?

c i 4 -

: 7

i c

i

94

c e 0 0

o 4 c ?

c n c a l

t o r •

c »

d

c . : i

C • 1

c o

o

l i -

C O C D

c : i

9 c ?

2 c o

6 0

i n o d ;

0 C \ J

d

0 ' ) 1 0

R . = 0 . 3 4 -

Ci i

2

. . . . . . . . , . . :

c l a 4 s p r o o i l s s

et)

. . . . . . . . . .

C).

• -

S q u a r e d M u l t i p l e C o r e l a t i o n C o e f i c e n t

c l a s 1 b e s t s o i l s

, 0)

. . . . . . . .

n o o f c e m e t e r i e s

C i

0 . 5 8 1 0 . 4 9 8 0 . 7 1 4 0 . 0 3 5 0 . 1 6 9 i n a i n 0 . 3 4 0 . 3 7 8 0 . 6 2 6 0 . 1 5 0 . 0 7 1 R e i l a i

t o a l a m o u n t o f m e t a l

C Y ) C r )

c e m e t r i e s

c l a s 4 p o r s o i l s

'

o f m e t a l

c l a s 3 m e d i o c r e s o i l s

o a l t a m o u n t o f m e t a l

, ,

n u m b e r o f

c l a s 2 g o d s o i l s

F o u r t h O r d e r P a r t i a l C o r e l a t i o n C o e f i c e n t

1 .-

t o a l a m o u n t

c l a s 1 b e s t s o i l s

C o r e l a t i o n C o e f i c e n t

Z e r o O r d e r o n o f e c m e e t r i e s

. . . . . . . . , . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -

- --. . . ' .

; t 7

e 1 -

r

c : i Q Z $

— J

. . «

e c e c i .

C M

o rnamen ts

t oo ls

w eapons

t o ta l

h oa rds ,

i s o la ted g raves f i n d s . .

j .

0 .999

0 .997

0 . 985

0 .999

0 .997

0 .999

0 . 884

j .

0 .37 1

0 .566

0 . 034

0 .376

0 .379

0 .024

0 . 680

T ab le

V a .

,

T he U ne t ice c u l tu re -p e r iod1 :

i . ) z e ro -o rde r c or re la t ion c oe f f ic ien t b e tween v a r ious f o rms o f me ta l measu red b y t he w e igh t -sco res a nd b y i n d iv idua l i t ems ( " quan ta " ) ; i . ) z e ro -o rde r c or re la t ion c oe f f ic ien t b e tween v a r ious f o rms o f me ta l measu red b y t he w e igh t -sco res a nd t he n umbe r o f c eme te r ies i n ar e g ion . o rnamen ts 0 . 985

T ab le

t oo ls

w eapons

0 .995

0 .969

V b .

t o ta l 0 .993

i s o l a t e f i n d s d h oa rds . _ 0 .987

g raves

0 .997

0 . 974

T he P rzed luzycka c u l tu re -p e r iod 2 : z e ro -o rde r c or re la t ion c oef f ic ien t b e tween v a r ious f o rms o f me ta l measu red b y t he w e igh t -sco res a nd b y i n d iv idua l i t ems ( " quan ta " ) .

p e r iod t r ans i t ion 1-

,

-> 2

2- ->3

4 T ab le

,

3 3%

d own

6 5%

d own

4 2%

d own

9%

u p

2 15%

u p

2 8%

d own

3 0%

u p

6%

u p

6 94%

u p

3 1%

-0-5 _

u p

1 7%

V I .

e n t i re a rea

d own

.

- ->4 3-

n o r the rn z one

s ou the rn z one

_

u p 1 98%

C hanges i nt he t o ta l a moun tof me ta l r e la t ive t ot he p reced ing p e r iod .

C \ 1 11 1 1 1 M 1 1

C O r n

1 . 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Co

0

o r n a m e n t s

C I )

8 o r n a m e n t s

C o r e l a t i o n

8

Table

-0.619

0.676

Vllb.

number of �emeteries

total

tools

total

0.936

component loadings

percentage of trace

0.396

0.875

0.970

0.323

I

-0.194

0.938

0.952 I -0.021

0.811

-0.476

56.71 36.8

number first second first $8COnd of cemeteries I componentt component p>mponent 1component

0.139 �

0.326 •�j

- -, '.f:I:_:

weapons

Matrix

Principal components analysis in chronological cross-section for the southern zone.

0.678

0.579

0.640

-0.07411

weapons I -0.452

tools

ornaments-

ornaments I

Correlation

93.5

cumulative percentage of trace