Social and Religious Organization in Bronze Age Denmark: An Analysis of Ritual Hoard Finds 9780860541516, 9781407326665

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PREFACE
NOTE ON SPELLING
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO BACKGROUND
CHAPTER THREE DEFINITION OF RITUAL AND NON-RITUAL HOARDS
CHAPTER FOUR CHIEFDOMS -- ETHNOGRAPHIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL
CHAPTER FIVE WEALTH DISTRIBUTION IN BRONZE AGE DENMARK
CHAPTER SIX SUMPTUARY GOODS IN BRONZE AGE DENMARK
CHAPTER SEVEN POPULATION DENSITY, SOCIAL CENTERS, AND REGIONAL DIFFERENTIATION
CHAPTER EIGHT RELIGION AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
CHAPTER NINE SUMMATION
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN APPENDIX I, II, AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX I. CATALOGUE
APPENDIX II. OTHER HOARDS
APPENDIX III. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ETHNOGRAPHIC SAMPLE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Plates

Citation preview

Social and Religious Organization in Bronze Age Denmark

An Analysis of Ritual Hoard Finds

Janet E. Levy

BAR International Series I 2 4 1982

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122 Banbury

Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, i3.Sc., --M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S124: "Social and Religious Organization in Bf'lonze Age Denmark" © Janet E. Levy, 1981 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541516 paperback ISBN 9781407326665 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541516 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

P age L ist o f F igures L ist o f P la tes No te o n S pe l l ing A cknow ledgements P reface Chapter One:

I ntroduct ion G oa ls Data Base

Chapter Two :

Background Cu lture-H istor ica l Background R ev iew o f L i terature o n Bronze Age Hoards

Chapter Three:

D ef ini t ion o f R i tua l a nd Non-R i tua l Hoards

Chapter F our:

Ch iefdoms--Ethnograph ic a nd Archaeo log ica l The Character o f Ch iefdoms Archaeo log ica l Ev idence o f Ch iefdoms Ch iefdoms i n Bronze Age Denmark S acr if ices a nd Rank ing

Chapter F ive:

W ea l th D istr ibut ion i n Bronze • Age Denmark

Chapter S ix

S umptuary Goods i n Bronze Age Denmark S umptuary Ru les i n G enera l S umptuary Goods i n P er iod V Changes i n Sumptuary Goods Dur ing t he Bronze Age I mportant S ocia l Character ist ics Ch iefs a nd S umptuary Goods

Chapter S even:

1 7

5 1 5 3 5 4 5 6 5 9

6 9 7 1 7 4 8 1 8 3

8 5 8 6 9 1

R e l ig ion a nd S oc ia l Organ iza t ion Theoret ica l F ramework S ymbo l ic Mo t ifs I n terre la t ionsh ips o f R e l ig ious a nd S oc ia l Organ iza t ion

Chapter N ine:

7 1 2

P opu lat ion D ens i ty, S oc ia l C enters , a nd R eg iona l D ifferent ia t ion P opu la t ion Dens i ty R eg iona l T rends a nd C enters R eg iona l Borders

Chapter E ight:

1 2

S ummat ion

1 03 1 04 1 08 1 13

P age

Abbrev iations Append ix

I :

Append ix

I :

1 20 Cata logue o f Hoards, P er iods I-VI O ther Hoards Undatable S ick le Hoards P er iod I Hoards Non-c losed o r Unre l iab le Hoards

Append ix I I: References

1 21

B ib l iography o f E thnograph ic S ources

1 55 1 56 1 57 1 59 1 63

L IST OF F IGURES

F igure

P age

1 -1

S outh S cand inav ian Cu lture Area

2 -1

Rad iocarbon Da tes o f Bronze Age S ites i n Denmark a nd S outhern Sweden

3

9 -10

3 -1

Character ist ics o f R itua l a nd Non-R itua l Hoards

2 6-42

3 -2

Descr iption o f C lasses o f Hoards

2 5

3 -3

Geograph ic D istr ibut ion o f Hoards, P er iod I

4 5

3 -4

Geograph ic D istr ibution o f Hoards, P er iod I I

4 6

3 -5

Geograph ic D istr ibution o f Hoards, P er iod I V

4 7

3 -6

Geograph ic D istr ibut ionof Hoards, P er iod V

4 8

3 -7

Geograph ic D istr ibution o f Hoards, P er iod V I

4 9

5 -1

D istr ibut ion o f We ights o f R itua l Hoards

6 0

5 -2

Mode l L orenz Curve

6 3

5 -3

L orenz Curves o f P ersona l R itua l Hoard We ights

6 4

5 -4

G in i Ra tios f or R i tua l Hoards

6 5

5 -5

G in i Rat ios f or A l l Hoards

6 5

6 -1

F ema le Sumptuary S ets f rom P er iod V

7 2

6 -2

Geograph ic D istr ibut ion o f Dema le Sumptuary S ets f rom P er iod V

7 3

6 -3

Sumptuary S e Types, P er iods I-VI

6 -4

Tota l S umptuary Types by P er iod

7 9

7 -1

Geograph ic D istr ibut ion o f Shaf tho le Axes a nd Sword Hoards, P er iod I

9 4

7 -2

Geograph ic D istr ibut ion o f Horse Gear, P er iod V

9 6

7 -3

Geograph ic D istr ibut ion o f Be lt a nd R ing Garn iture, P er iod V

9 8

S ummary o f Mu lti-functiona l Centers

9 0

7 -4 1 0-1

Map o f Dan ish Count ies

7 5- 7 7

1 19

L IST OF PLATES

P late

P age

1

P er iod V " offer ing w e l l" ( hoard n o.

2

P art o f P er iod I V n on-r itua l h oard ( no.

3 a 3 b

P art o f ar i tua l h oard o f ma le e qu ipment ( no. Non-r i tua l h oard o f work a xes ( no. 3 2)

3 4)

4

Typica l o b jects f rom P er iod I r i tua l h oards: a nd b e ltp late

n eck c o l lars

5

1 73 8 1)

1 75

P er iod I s word h oard ( no.

7

P er iod I V n eckr ings ,

8

Typica l P er iod V h oard ( no. h ang ing v esse l

1 77 1 77 1 79

Typica l o b jects f rom E ar ly Bronze Age r i tua l h oards: b ox a nd t utu l i

6

9

2 14)

b e l t

2 7)

a rmr ings ,

1 81 1 83

f ibu la , , t u tu lus

1 85

2 40) c onta in ing b e ltp late a nd 1 87

Typica l P er iod V h oard c onta ining b e ltp late, h ang ing v esse l, n eckr ing , a rmr ings, f ibu la , s ick le ( no . 2 73 )

1 89

1 0a 1 0b

P er iod V n eckr ings ( hoard n o. P er iod I V g o ld c ups

1 91 1 91

1 1

P er iod V I n eckr ings ( hoard n o.

1 2

P art o f P er iod V I h oard ( no. n eckr ings

2 99) i nc lud ing sword,

P art o f P er iod V I h oard ( no. v essel a nd b e ltp lates

2 99) i nclud ing h ang ing

1 3 1 4

2 94) 3 29)

1 93 1 95 1 97

Above, o ne o f a p a ir o f i mported b ronze buckets ( hoard n o. 1 44); b e low, b ronze c ups ( hoard n o. 9 4)

1 99

1 5

One o f a p a ir o f c eremon ia l a xes ( hoard n o.

2 01

1 6

Above, o ne o f a p a ir o f c eremonia l h e lmets ( hoard n o. 9 6); b e low, o ne o f ap a ir o f s h ie lds ( hoard n o. 2 17)

2 03

1 7

P art o f P er iod V h oard ( no.

2 05

1 8

Above, L a te Bronze Age r azors w i th mytho log ica l motifs; b e low, a r ockcarv ing w i th p oss ible mytho log ica l mot ifs

2 07

F igur ines f rom P er iod V hoard ( no. p oss ib le mytho log ica l motifs

2 09

1 9

2 71)

1 76) c onta in ing h orsegear

2 90) r epresent ing

2 0

P er iod I T rundho lm s un c art ( hoard n o.

2 2a)

2 1

L a te Bronze Age h oard ( no. 1 78) r epresent ing p oss ib le mytho log ica l mot ifs

2 11 2 13

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Numerous p eop le a nd i nst i tut ions h e lped m e i n 1 975 dur ing t he p repara t ion o f t he Ph.D. d issertat ion o n wh ich t h is v o lume i s b ased, a nd i n 1 981 o n a s hort r eturn . t r ip t o D enmark. I am g ra tefu l f or f inancia l s upport f rom The Graduate S choo l o f Arts a nd S ciences o f Wash ington Univers i ty, S t. L ou is, t he Danmark Amer ika F ondet, Copenhagen, t he F ounda t ion o f t he Un ivers i ty o f North Caro l ina a t Char lo tte, t he O ff ice o f I nternat iona l S tud ies a t t he Un ivers i ty o f Nor th Caro l ina-Char lotte, a nd t he S ta te o f North Caro l ina . I n D enmark, I h ave e n joyed t he a dv ice, a ss istance, a nd h osp i ta l i ty o f many p eop le. A t t he Na t iona l Museum, Copenhagen, I wou ld l i ke t o t hank: Mogens Orsnes, E l isabeth Munksgaard, J c hrgen J ensen, Dav id L iversage, Kaz im ierz S a lew icz, P ou l-Otto N ie lsen, G i tte l i c h sy, H e lga S chütze, K irsten L indhart a nd t he o ther s taff o f t he museum. A t t he Aa lborg H istor ica l Museum, a nd t he s taff o f t he museum.

Ia m g ra tefu l t o Oscar Marseen

A t t he V iborg S t if ts Museum, I a m g ratefu l t o Mette I versen a nd t he s taff o f t he museum. A t t he P reh is tor ic Museum, Moesgaard ( Aarhus), I a m g ra tefu l t o J ens P ou lsen f or a ccess t o a n E ar ly Bronze Age h oard o n wh ich h e was w ork ing i n 1 975 , t o J ytte Raebi ld a nd o ther m embers o f t he museum s taff . A t t he Fyns S t if ts Museum, I am g ra tefu l t o Henr ik Thrane, Torben J espersen, a nd t he s taff o f t he museum. I wou ld a lso l i ke t o t hank J . L . Ostergaard Chr istensen a nd E lsa Asmussen o f t he Museum f or Ho lbaek, B j c hrn S türup o f t he Randers Ku lturh is tor isk Museum, Hans Neumann o f t he Haders lev Amts Museum, a nd P er Lysdah l o f t he Vendysse l H istor iske Museum f or t he ir h e lpfu l a nswers t o my l etters a nd c a l ls a bout mater ia l i n t he ir museums. I am g ra tefu l t o Kr is tian Kr ist iansen, p resent ly o f t he M in istry o f Env ironment, f or h is a dv ice a nd h osp i ta l i ty a nd f or t he u se o f h is unpub l ished n otes o n L ate Bronze Age h oards t o wh ich h e g enerous ly g ave me a ccess, a s w e l l a s f or s t imu lat ing c onversa t ion a nd c orresponde nce. Ia lso e n joyed t he h osp i ta l i ty a nd r esources o f t he I nst i tute o f P reh istory o f t he Un ivers ity o f Copenhagen a nd f or t h is am g ratefu l t o Dr. C . J . Becker a nd t o t he numerous s tudents I met a t t he I ns t i tu te. I owe a s pec ia l d ebt o f t hanks t o Anders F ischer a nd E l isabeth P edersen. It hank Dr. B erta S t jernqu is t o f Lund Un ivers i ty 's H istor ica l Museum f or h er h ospi ta l i ty a nd a dv ice dur ing my b r ief v is it t o Sweden, a nd I am g ra tefu l t o L ars L arsson o f t he museum f or p ersona l ly s how ing m e t he un ique F ogdarp h oard wh ich h e h as d escr ibed i n pub l icat ion. Ig ratefu l ly a cknow ledge t he a ss istance o f Dr. K lays Randsborg who f i rst s uggested t he t op ic o f t h is v o lume a nd a dv ised a nd h e lped m e t hroughout t he w r i t ing o f t he o r ig ina l d issertat ion.

I n t he Un i ted S ta tes, I a m g ra tefu l t o Mary Ma l lory, Pub l ic S erv ices L ibrar ian o f t he Tozzer L ibrary o f Harvard Un ivers i ty ( in 1 975-77) a nd t o t he s taff o f t he l i brary. Ia lso t hank D iane H irata f or i ntroduct ion t o t he Harvard HRAF f i les. Ia cknow ledge t he a dv ice a nd a ss istance o f my d issertat ion c omm i ttee: Dav id L . Browman, Robert L . Canf ie ld , S tephen Mo lnar, a l l o f t he D ep artment o f Anthropo logy, Wash ing ton Un ivers i ty; Hugh Cut ler o f t he M issour i Botan ica l Garden; S arant is S ymeonog lou o f t he Department o f Art a nd Archaeo logy, Wash ing ton Un ivers i ty; Caro le Crum ley, n ow o f t he Depar tment o f Anthropo logy, Un ivers i ty o f Nor th Caro l ina-Chape l H i l l. Io ffer my d eepes t t hanks t o my P h.D. a dv isor a nd f r iend , P rofessor P atty J o Watson, D epartment o f Anthropo logy, Wash ing ton Un ivers i ty. Th is r ev is ion o f my d issertat ion h as b enef i ted, a s w e l l, f rom c omm ents o n l a ter p apers by R ichard A . Watson, D epartment o f P h i losophy, Washington Un ivers i ty ; J ona than R eyman, Depar tment o f S oc io logy/ Anthropo logy, I l l ino is S tate Un ivers i ty; a nd t he a nonymous r ev iewer o f t he J ourna l o f F ie ld Archaeo logy. I am i mmense ly g ratefu l t o Mrs. Dor is Carter o f t he Department o f S oc io logy a nd Anthropo logy, Un ivers i ty o f North Caro l ina-Char lotte , who t yped t he manuscr ipt. The f igures were p repared by t he Cartog raphy L aboratory o f t he D epartment o f G eography a nd E arth S c ience, Un ivers i ty o f North Caro l ina-Char lo tte. The photograph ic p lates a re pub l ished by p erm iss ion o f t he Dan ish Nat iona l Museum, Copenhagen.

J anet E . L evy -D epartment o f S oc io logy-Anthropo logy Un ivers i ty o f North Caro l ina-Char lotte Char lo tte, ' North Caro l ina 2 8223 August,

1 981

PREFACE

Th is v o lume i s ar ev is ion o f my P h.D. d isserta t ion, o r ig ina l ly p rep ared o ver 1 975-1977. The o r ig ina l r esearch w as c onducted i n D enmark , ma in ly a t t he Nat iona l Museum i n Copenhagen. My g oa ls a t t ha t t ime w ere t o s tudy t he s o-ca l led " hoard f inds" o f t he Dan ish Bronze Age a nd a na lyze t hem f or i nformat ion a bou t t he c ontemporary s ocia l o rgani za t ion. A ma jor i nterest — in k eep ing, n o d oubt, w ith p opu lar t heoret ica l i ssues o r t ne t ime i n Amer ican a rchaeo logy--was t he p oss ibi l i ty o f d el i neat ing a nd e xp la in ing s ocia l c hange d ur ing t he Bronze Age i n D enmark. I n p repar ing t h is r ev is ion, d ur ing 1 980-1981, I h ave f ound t ha t my i deas a bout t he h oards a nd t he ir i nterpreta t ions h ave c hanged —I h ope, ma tured —to a c erta in d egree. One ma jor c asua lty o f t h is r ev is ion i s t he f ocus o n s ocia l c hange, wh ich h as b een r educed. A l though I am c onf ident t ha t r a ther i mportant s oc ia l c hanges d id o ccur o ver t he a pp rox ima te ly 1 000 y ears o f t he Bronze Age i n Denmark, I am n o l onger a t a l l c onf ident t ha t t here e x is t s uff ic ient a nd a ppropr iate a rchaeo log ica l d ata t o s tudy t hese c hanges i n d eta i l ( but s ee Kr ist iansen 1 981 f or i nvest iga t ions o f i nterna l c hange dur ing t he Bronze Age). Ic ont inue t o i nd icate s ome p oss ib le d irect ions o f s oc ia l c hange r ef lected i n t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta. One a spect o f t he s tudy wh ich h as n ot c hanged i s a s trong emphas is o n d ef in it ions a nd j ust if ica t ions o f t hem. These a re o f ten s omewha t t ed ious bu t, I t h ink, i mpor tant, e specia l ly i n t hat p reh is tor ic r i tua l a nd r e l ig ion a re ma jor t op ics o f i nterest. A g reat d ea l o f unexp la ined a nd unsupported s uppos i t ion h as b een p r inted a bou t p reh istor ic r e l ig ion. I t i s d iff icu lt t o t a lk a bou t b ecause o f i t s l arge ly i deo log ica l n a ture wh ich c ontrasts w i th t he t ota l ly ma ter ia l d a ta w e a re l ef t w i th. If ee l t hat e stab l ishment o f d ef in i t ions i s a n e ssent ia l s tep i n a na lys is o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta p erta in ing t o p reh is tor ic s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd r e l ig ion —in f act , a ny a spect o f p reh istor ic c u lture.

NOTE ON S PELL ING

Throughout t h is v o lume, I h ave u sed " aa" f or t he Dan ish l e tter "g . l " a nd " ae" f or t he Dan ish l e tter "f l".

CHAPTER ONE I NTRODUCTION

Goa ls My f i rst g oa l i n t h is s tudy i s t o e xam ine t he s ocia l o rgan izat ion o f Bronze Age Denmark, p art icu lar ly a s i t i s r ef lected i n t he s o-ca l led " hoard f inds." These h oards a re o f ten i nterpreted a s r ema ins o f r i tua l a ct iv it ies; t herefore, t he i nterre lat ionships b etween s ocia l a nd r e l ig ious o rgan ization w i l l b e a nother f ocus o f a ttent ion. Because Bronze Age Denmark s eems t o b e o rgan ized a s ar anked, n on-state s ociety, a t h ird p o int o f i nterest i s t he g enera l n ature o f t hese k inds o f s ociet ies. F ina l ly, I i nc lude d iscuss ion o f s ome o f t he p rob lems i n h and l ing t hese a rchaeo log ica l d ata a nd e xamining t hese s ocia l s ystems t hrough a rchaeo log ica l d ata. A g reat d ea l o f r esearch o n t he Danish Bronze Age h as b een s tud ies o f t ypo logy a nd c hrono logy o f meta l o b jects. Th is i s p robably due, i n p art, t o t he r e lat ive l ack o f s ett lement d ata a nd t o t he f ind c ircums tances o f most o f t he a rt ifacts. A l arge p roportion o f t he Bronze Age materia l i n t he Nationa l Museum was f ound o r e xcavated by untra ined n on-profess iona ls, much o f i t b efore Wor ld War I . O f ten, c ontextua l d ata a re l ack ing o r i ncomp lete a nd a l l t hat i s l ef t a re t he l east d estructa b le a nd most n ot iceab le o f t he mater ia l o b jects, t hose o f b ronze a nd g o ld. Yet, i t i s j ust t h is s i tuat ion wh ich c an a lso i nspire a n i nterest i n t he c ontemporary s ocia l o rganizat ion —because Bronze Age Denmark s eems i mmense ly w ea lthy. L arge numbers o f i ntr icate ly manufactured b ronze a nd g o ld o b jects d at ing t o t he Bronze Age h ave b een f ound i n Denmark. These a rtifacts r epresent e xotic r esources, f or s outhern S cand inav ia c omp lete ly l acks c opper, t in, a nd g o ld, a l l o f which h ad t o b e p rocured f rom c ons iderab le d istance. Th is meta l lurg ica l w ea lth i s a l l t he more a stound ing b ecause Denmark s eems t o l ack a ny o bv ious r esources t o u se a s t rade o r p ayment f or meta l. Amber i s a lways mentioned a s t he o bv ious g ood t o b e t raded f or meta l; i t d oes n ot s eem t o me t o b e ac omp lete e xp lanat ion o f t he ava i lab le meta l wea lth i n Bronze Age Denmark. Whi le s ome b ronze was u sed i n s ubs istence t echno logy —in manufact ur ing a xes a nd s ick les —most b ronze a nd a l l t he g o ld was u sed i n t he f orm o f weapons, o rnaments , a nd o ther non-uti l itar ian o b jects s uch a s l urs ( overs ized t rumpetl ike i nstruments), o rnamenta l h orse t rapp ings, a nd b ronze v esse ls. By " non-ut i l i tar ian," I d o not mean u se less; r ather t hese o b jects were not i mmed iate ly r elevant t o d a i ly s ubs istence a ctiv it ies. I n B inford 's ( 1962) t erms, t hese meta l r esources were ma in ly u sed i n t he s oc io-technic s phere, med iat ing r e lat ions b etween i nd iv idua ls a nd g roups, r ather t han i n t he t echnomic s phere, d irect ly med iat ing r e lat ions b etween p eop le a nd t he e nv ironment. Thus, t hese a rt ifacts i nspi Ir n e a d n di t n io tn er ,e as t su in bs th an et i c a o ln p te rm op po or r t a i r oy n s o o fc t i a h le o b rr go anz iz ea t a i n on d .g o ld a rt ifacts was u sed i n r itua l a ctiv i ties i n a way which p ermanent ly r emoved i t

1

f rom u se a nd c ircu lat ion. Bronze a rt ifacts w ere p laced i n g raves a s g rave g oods , o r i n h oards a s s ome k ind o f r i tua l o ffer ing ( see c hapter 3 ). S uch a n i nvestment o f w ea l th i n r i tua l a ct iv i ty must b e r e lated t o s oc ia l a nd e conom ic o rgan izat ions i n ac omp lex way. The i nterre lat ionsh ips o f t hese s ubsys tems o f s ocia l l i fe —soc ia l, e conom ic, a nd r i tua l— a s r ef lected i n E ar ly Bronze Age g rave g oods h ave b een p rev ious ly a na lyzed ( Randsborg 1 974, 1 973-4). I am bu i ld ing o n t h is f undamenta l work a nd w i l l a na lyze t hese s ame i nterre lat ionsh ips u s ing t he h oard d ata. Th is i s i mportant b ecause g rave g oods a re l im i ted a nd r e lat ive ly h omogeneous dur ing t he L ate Bronze Age, a nd , t herefore, a re a r e lat ive ly p oor s ource o f i nformat ion a bout t he l a ter phase o f t he B ronze Age. The h oard f inds a re more numerous a nd r ich i n t he L ate Bronze Age a nd p rov ide a s ource o f d ata c omp lementary t o t he E ar ly Bronze Age bur ia ls. A lthough E ar ly Bronze Age h oards a re d iscussed , t here i s ac lear emphas is i n t h is v o lume o n t he L ate Bronze Age mater ia l. L ike many Bronze Age s oc iet ies o f t emperate Europe ( P iggott 1 965 : 1 18, 1 26, 1 40), Bronze Age D enmark h as b een i dent if ied a s ac h iefdom. Randsborg ( 1974) f ound s ome c onf irmat ion o f t h is p roposed i dent if icat ion i n t he E ar ly Bronze Age g rave mater ia l. Is uggest f ur ther c onf i rmat ion i n t he f o l low ing c hapters. However, i t h as b ecome c lear t o me t hat a g reat r ange o f p oss ib le s oc ia l o rgan iza t ions i s i nc luded u nder t he t erm " ch iefdom." S ome o f t h is d ivers i ty i s a lso d iscussed h ere, a long w i th s ome o f t he p rob lems o f i dent ify ing a nd s tudy ing p reh is tor ic c h iefdoms t hrough t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . A c ommon t hread i n much o f t he e thnograph ic l i terature a bout c h iefdoms i s t he c entra l r o le o f r e l ig ious a ct iv i ty i n t he work ings o f t he s oc ia l s ys tem. Th is c omp lex i nteract ion o f s oc ia l a nd r e l ig ious o rgani zat ion s eems v ery i mportant i n t hese s ociet ies wh ich i nc lude r ank ing a nd i nequa l i ty i n t he ir s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion, but l ack t he c entra l ized i nst i tu t ions o f c oerc ion f ound i n s tateleve l s ociet ies. W i th s o much o f Bronze Age Denmark 's w ea l th i nves ted i n n on-ut i l i tar ian, a pparent ly r e l ig ious a ct iv i t ies , t h is c omp lex i nteract ion o f r e l ig ious a nd s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion s eems p art icu lar ly wor thy o f s tudy. An i mmense a mount o f human e nergy-in a ctua l ly p rocur ing meta l f rom a d istance, i n manu factur ing a nd d is tr ibut ing t he a rt ifacts, i n p roducing t he r esources e xchanged f or meta l, i n bu i ld ing t he bur ia l mounds i n wh ich a rt ifacts a re bur ied , e tc. —went i nto t he b ronze a nd g o ld a r t ifacts d at ing f rom t he Bronze Age. As s uch, t hey must h ave h ad a c entra l p lace i n t he work ings o f t he s oc iety; i t i s u sefu l t o l ook a t t hem, n ot o n ly f or t he s ty l ist ic a nd t echno log ica l i nforma t ion t hey p rov ide, but f or t he s ocia l i nformat ion t hey e ncompass. Data Base The r esearch a rea i s t he p resent n at ion o f D enmark, e xcept ing t he Ba lt ic i s land o f Bornho lm. Dur ing t he Bronze Age, Denmark was p ar t o f ar e lat ive ly h omogeneous S outh S cand inav ian c u lture a rea i nc lud ing s outhern Sweden, s outhern Norway, S ch lesw ig-Ho lste in, a nd n orthern G ermany. The l im itat ion o f t he r esearch a rea t o Denmark i s b as ica l ly a rbi trary, a l though Denmark i s t he c enter o f t h is c u lture a rea a t t h is p er iod. However, a l ong h istory o f s ys tema t ic i nterest i n a nt iqu i t ies h as l ef t Denmark w i th a n e xce l lent a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f t he Bronze Age, o ne t hat i s n ow l arge ly c entra l ized i n t he Na t iona l Museum i n Copenhagen. Th is , i n c ombinat ion w i th D enmark 's g eograph ic c entra l i ty, makes i t a n e xce l lent r esearch f ocus ( see F ig. 1 -1). The t ime s pan o f t he Bronze Age i n D enmark i s r ough ly 1 800-500 B .C . Th is s pan i s t rad i tiona l ly d iv ided i nto s ix p er iods, t he f i rst t hree 2

F IGURE 1 -1 South S candanav ian Cu lture A rea ( hatched a rea ) [ a f ter T hrane 1 975 :

3

1 5 ]

c ompris ing t he E ar ly Bronze Age a nd t he l ast t hree c ompr is ing t he L ate Bronze Age. P er iod I , C . 1 800-1450 B .C., i s n ot i nc luded i n t he r esearch b ecause i t i s s omething o f a t rans it iona l p eriod f rom t he Neol i th ic a nd b ecause i ts a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i s s parse c ompared t o t he l a ter p eriods. The c hrono logy i s p resented i n more d eta i l b e low ( p. 7 f .). There a re t hree ma jor c lasses o f a rchaeo log ica l d ata f or t he Dan ish Bronze Age: g raves, s ett lements, h oards. The s ett lement d ata a re r e lative ly s parse a nd, a s y et, i nfrequent ly publ ished. Hoards a re c o ll ect ions o f b ronze a nd g o ld a rtifacts ( go ld o nes b eing much more r are t han b ronze) f ound o uts ide o f g raves o r s ett lements. They a re f requent ly f ound i n b ogs, s ometimes i n d ry s o i l, a nd o ccas iona l ly a s a s econdary d epos i t i n a bur ia l mound , unassociated w ith a ny bur ia l r ema ins. Rare ly, a l l t he o b jects o f a hoard w i l l b e f ound i ns ide a p ottery v esse l o r wrapped i n t he r emnants o f c loth o r l ea ther. A lthough most o f t he h oards l ack t h is k ina o t s ett ing, i t i s c lear t hat t hey a re s ets o f o b jects d epos ited a t o ne t ime ( i t i s ,in f act, p oss ible t hat more h oards were d epos ited i n p ots o r wrappings, but t heir f ortu itous d isc overy a nd n onprofess iona l e xcavat ion h ave c aused t hese d a ta t o b e l ost). The h oards h ave b een v ar ious ly i nterpreted a s r e l ig ious o ffer ings, merchants ' wea lth, s crap meta l c o l lect ions, a nd p ersona l b e long ings h idden away i n t ime o f d anger. They a lmost c erta in ly r epresent a v ar iety o f human a ct iv ities, but a l arge p roport ion s eem t o b e t he r ema ins o f r itua l a ctiv i ty. Ih ave c ata logued 3 42 h oards, d at ing f rom p eriods I-VI, w i th r e liab ly r ecorded c ontexts. There a lso e x ist a bout a d ozen f inds o f l urs ( Broho lm e t a l. 1 949) a nd a bout a d ozen f inds o f g o ld c ups ( Broho lm 4 :230f.), wh ich r esemb le t he c ata logued h oards i n t heir d epos ition. There f urther e x ist a bout 8 h oards f rom P eriod I a nd 4 4 f inds wh ich h ave b een i dent if ied a s h oards i n v ar ious pub l icat ions but a re n ot i nc luded h ere b ecause o f s evere p rob lems w i th t he e xist ing i nformat ion a bout t hem ( e.g., t hey d o not s eem t o b e c losed f inds o r t hey a re not d atable t o a ny o ne p er iod w i th in t he Bronze Age, e tc.; s ee Append ix ) . A l arge number o f s ing le f inds a re a lso known f rom t he Bronze Age. These p robably r epresent a v ar iety o f phenomena i nc lud ing l ost i t ems, r ema ins o f d estroyed g raves, r ema ins o f d estroyed h oards, a nd purposef u l ly h idden o r d epos i ted o bjects. However, t he d epos it ion c ontext o f a ny o ne o f t hese s ing ly-found o b jects i s s o d iff icu lt t o d etermine, t hey a re not i nc luded. Is hou ld n ote, however, t hat s ome o f t hese s ing le f inds may we l l b e r ema ins o f s imi lar a ctiv i ties a s t hose wh ich r esu lted i n t he r itua l h oards ( Jensen 1 972). One b as ic a ssumpt ion a bout t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata i s t hat I a ccept t he known s amp le o f h oards a s r epresentat ive o f t he s ize, c ontent, a nd g eograph ic d istr ibution o f t he t ota l o nce d epos ited. Th is a ssumpt ion i s p rov is iona l ly c onf irmed by t he d rop i n t he number o f h oards d isc overed s ince 1 930 d espi te modern d eep p low ing, i ntens ive p eat c utting dur ing Wor ld War I, a nd t he u se o f mechan ica l e xcavat ion f or r oads a nd c onstruct ion s ince t hen. I f a l arge number o f Bronze Age h oards h ad r ema ined und iscovered by 1 930, t h is a ct iv i ty wou ld p robab ly h ave l ed t o t heir d iscovery. The r e l iabi l ity o f t he known s ample o f h oards h as b een f urther i nvest igated a nd c onf irmed by r ecent ly publ ished r esearch ( Kr ist iansen 1 976),

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A s econd ma jor s ource o f d ata f or t his s tudy i s t he e thnograph ic l i terature (w i th in wh ich I e ncompass t hat u sua l ly l abe led " ethnoh istor ic"). E thnograph ic i nformat ion h as b een e xp l ici t ly u sed i n t wo ma jor a spects o f t he r esearch. F irst, e thnograph ic a nd e thnohistor ic i nformat ion a re u sed t o e stab l ish d ef in ing c r i ter ia f or t he r itua l h oards. S econd, e thnog raph ic i nformat ion i s a ma jor s ource o f understand ing a nd mode ls o f c hiefdoml ike s ociet ies a nd t he i nterrelat ionsh ip o f s ocia l a nd r e l ig ious o rganizat ion w ith in t hose s ocieties. I n t his s tudy, r e l ig ion i s v iewed p rimar i ly a s ak ind o f b ehav ior r ather t han a s a s et o f i deas ( a lthough i deo logy i s d iscussed i n Chapter 8 ). As s uch, p atterned r e l ig ious b ehav ior, l ike a ny o ther, l eaves p atterned mater ia l r ema ins wh ich c an b e a na lyzed by a n a rchaeo log ist. Further, r e l ig ious a ct iv i ty i s , o f n ecess i ty, r e lated t o o ther k inds o f b ehav ior; t hus, i t s r ema ins p rov ide i nformat ion a bout s ocia l a nd e conom ic a ct iv i ties a s w e l l a s r itua l o nes. Th is f ramework owes much t o t he wr itings o n r e l ig ion, b oth p reh istor ic a nd e thnograph ic, o f Rappaport ( 1971), F lannery a nd Marcus ( F lannery 1 976; F lannery a nd Marcus 1 976; Marcus 1 978), L inares ( 1977), a nd Turner ( 1965, 1 969). Id o n ot mean t o s uggest t hat t he p attern ing o f r i tua l r ema ins w i l l b e o bv ious o r s imple t o r ecover o r e asy t o a na lyze, but t hat a r ea l p otent ia l f or s uch a na lys is d oes e x ist.

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CHAPTER TWO BACKGROUND

Cu lture-h istor ica l Background Th is s ect ion p rov ides, f or t hose unfami l iar w ith t he c u lture a rea, ab rief c u lture-h istor ica l o ut l ine o f t he Dan ish Bronze Age. A r ecent, e xce l lent s ummary i n Eng l ish c an b e f ound i n The Bronze Age i n Europe ( Co les a nd Hard ing, 1 979 :277-344; 4 91-532). Most o f t he Danish l andscape i s o ne o f g ent ly r o l l ing h i l ls, c reated by mora ine d epos i ts f rom t he l ast g laciat ion, a nd a bundant l akes; t he s o i ls a re c layey a nd f ert i le. However, western a nd s outhern J ut land were not g laciated dur ing t he l ast i ce a dvance; t he l andscape h ere i s a f lat s andy p la in wh ich was c overed w i th h eath unti l t he m id-19th c entury. J ut land i s c r iss-crossed by many g enera l ly e ast-west t rendi ng s treaz ns . ,none o f wh ich i s p art icu lar ly l arge. The w es t c oast o f J ut land a nd parts o f t he c oasts o f n orthern J ut land a nd o f t he i s lands ( Zea land, Funen, a nd s urround ing s ma l ler i s lands) a re c overed w ith s and dunes. The most d istinct ive f eature o f t he l andscape i s a d iss ected c oast l ine w ith numerous f jords a nd i s lands; no p ar t o f Denmark i s more t han 5 0 k i lometres f rom t he s ea. Co les a nd Hard ing emphas ize t he i mportance o f mar i time waters i n both s ubs istence a nd c ommun icat ion ( ibid.:277). Copper o bjects a re known a s e ar ly a s t he Ear ly Neo l i th ic ( 4th m i ll enn ium B .C.) i n Denmark a nd b ecome r e lat ive ly f requent i n t he L ate Neo l ith ic ( end o f 3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C .). I t a ppears t hat meta l a rt ifacts w ere s low ly a bsorbed i nto t he e xisting e conomy w ithout e ffect ing a d rastic c hange a t a ny p o int. I t i s a n o pen quest ion e xact ly when t o d raw t he l i ne between a S tone Age a nd a Bronze Age. The t rans i t ion i s smooth a nd c erta in f l int t oo ls c ont inue t o b e u sed i n t he Ear ly Bronze Age ( Lomborg 1 968), There i s n o e v idence f or t he i ntroduct ion o f a f oreign p opu lation i nto Denmark a t t his t ime, but c ontacts o f s ome k ind w i th c entra l a nd e astern Europe a nd w i th t he Br it ish I s les a re a pparent ly i mportant. I t i s f rom t hese a reas, p art icu lar ly t he f ormer, t hat t he t echn iques a nd r esources o f b ronze meta l lurgy r eached Denmark ( Hach mann 1 957; Butler 1 963). The Danish Bronze Age was d iv ided i nto e ar ly a nd l a te phases by Worsaae i n 1 859 based o n t he c hange i n bur ia l c ustom f rom i nhumat ion t o c remat ion. The c hrono log ica l s ystem i n u se t oday i s b ased o n Monte l ius ' s ubd iv is ion o f t he Ear ly a nd L ate Bronze Ages i nto a t ota l o f s ix p er iods, e ach w ith i ts d ist inctive a rt ifacts ( Monte l ius 1 917). Monte l ius d ated t he p er iods a s f o l lows: E ar ly Bronze Age:

P eriod I P er iod I P er iod II

1 800-1550 B .C. 1 550-1300 B . 0 . 1 300-1100 B .C.

L ate Bronze Age:

P er iod I V P er iod V P er iod V I

1 100-950 B .C. 9 50-750 B .C. 7 50-600 B .C.

7

Recent a ttempts t o put a bso lute d ates t o t he S cand inav ian p er iods r est o n c orre lat ions o f t h is c hrono logy t o t he Centra l European c hrono logy, which i tself i s a ss igned a bso lute d ates t hrough c orre lat ions w ith Bronze Age a nd Ear ly I ron Age I ta ly, Greece, a nd eventua l ly, w ith o ther l i terate Med i terranean c u ltures. Therefore, most a bso lute d ates f or t he S cand inav ian c hrono logy r est o n ac orre lat ion o f a t l east t hree t ypo log ica l s er ies —Scand inav ian, c entra l European, Med i terranean —and o n t he a pp l icat ion o f d ates f rom t he l ast t o t he f irst. Rad iocarbon d ates f rom t he p er iod a re r e lat ive ly f ew, a nd a rchaeo log ica l d ata f rom s trat if i ed c ontexts a re a lso r e lat ive ly r are. S evera l r ecent wr iters h ave • d iscussed t he Bronze Age c hrono logy i n s outhern S cand inav ia i n d eta i l ( Randsborg 1 972; Thrane 1 975; v on Brunn 1 968; Baudou 1 960; Co les a nd Hard ing 1 979). The Bronze Age i n Denmark f a l ls i n t he t ime r ange o f 1 800-500 B . C. P er iod I i s a bout 3 00 y ears l ong a nd t rans i t iona l i n n ature; f inds o f meta l a re r e lat ive ly f ew ( a lthough s ome i nd iv idua l f inds a re s ubstant ia l i n quanti ty o f o b jects). P er iod I, t he f lorescent p er iod o f t he E ar ly Bronze Age, b eg ins i n t he r ange 1 500-1400 B .C. a nd l asts p erhaps 2 00 y ears. P er iod V , t he f lorescent p er iod o f t he L ate Bronze Age, f a l ls i n t he 9 00-700 B .C. r ange. Randsborg , i n s evera l publ icat ions ( Randsborg 1 968, 1 972), makes t he i mportant p o int t hat t he t ypo log ica l ly-def ined p er iods may l ast f or d ifferent l engths o f t ime i n d ifferent p arts o f Denmark; t hus, we s hou ld n ot e xpect t hat t he a bso lute d ates put t o t he Monte l ian p eriod izat ion b e t he s ame everywhere i n Denmark. The d eta i ls o f t he a bso lute c hrono logy r ema in t o b e c lar if ied. F igure 2 -1 p resents a l l publ ished r ad iocarbon d ates, o f wh ich I was aware i n 1 975 , f or t he Bronze Age i n Denmark a nd s outhern Sweden. Unfor tunate ly t hey a re r e lat ive ly f ew a nd n ot v ery c ons istent. The d ates a re based o n t he h a lfl ife o f 5 570 y ears a nd o n 1 950 a s " present". Two c a l ibrat ions a re p rov ided, t he S uess b r ist le-cone p ine c a l ibrat ion ( Renfrew 1 973) a nd McKerre l l 's c a l ibrat ion b ased o n c ross-t ies t o Egypt ian a nd Mesopotam ian h istor ic d ates ( McKerrel l 1 972). Th is c urve i s c ons idered by s ome t o p rov ide a more a ccurate c a l ibrat ion f or t he 2 nd m i l lennium d ates t han t he Suess c urve. Co les a nd Hard ing ( 1979 : 3 22-324) p rov ide a l i st o f Bronze Age r ad iocarbon d ates f or S cand inav ia, t he L ow Countr ies, a nd Northern Germany. They i nc lude a number o f d ates o n Dan ish mater ia l s uch a s wooden whee ls a nd a rd wh ich c annot b e a ss igned t o a Monte l ian p er iod. S ubs istence i n Denmark dur ing t he Bronze Age was based o n p low — o r r ather, a rd —agr icu lture, known f rom r epresentat ions o f p lows i n r ock c arv ings, r ema ins o f p low f urrows b eneath g rave mounds ( Glob 1 951), a nd r ema ins o f a wooden a rd, r ad iocarbon-dated t o 1 490 ± 1 00 B .C. ( Co les a nd Hard ing 1 979 :324). Naked bar ley was t he c ommonest c u ltivar; hu l led b ar ley, e inkorn, emmer, a nd c lub wheat w ere c ommon; s pe lt was r are a nd p eas, b eans, a nd m i l let were known ( Iversen 1 973 : 9 8). Domesticated a n ima ls i nc luded c ow a s t he c ommonest s pec ies, p ig, s heep, g oat, d og, a nd h orse ( Mü l ler 1 919). W i ld a nima l r ema ins a re qu i te r are ( ibid.). F ish bones a nd s he l lf ish r ema ins a re c ommon f rom s ome s ett lement d epos its ( Thrane 1 971). Domestic t oo ls a re n ot w el l known, due t o t he sma l l number o f s ett lement e xcavat ions, e specia l ly o f t he E ar ly Bronze Age. However, f l int a nd g round s tone i mplements a re used t hroughout t he Bronze Age; s crapers, c oarse knives, a nd d aggers o f f l int, s haftho le a xes, a nd p ound ing a nd g r ind ing s tones o f s of ter r ock a re c ommon ( Mu l ler 1 919 :49-50, 6 6-7, 8 4-5; Baudou 1 960:47f .; Thrane 1 971 :159). Bronze 8

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s ick les h ave b een s ecure ly d a ted t o t he Bronze Age; s tone o nes may a lso h ave b een u sed. Bronze a xes o f v ar ious t ypes , a l though n ot f ound i n s ett lements, s how h eavy w ear a long t he ir e dges a nd w ere c lear ly i mportant t oo ls. E ar ly Bronze Age p ottery i s n ot w e l l known. L ate Bronze Age p o ttery c an b e d iv ided i nto a t h in-wa l led , f iner ware, o rnamented w i th f lut ing , e ngraved l i nes, a nd f inger i mpress ions, a nd a t h ick-wa l led c oarser ware w i th a r oughened e xter ior. Many o f t he s ame t ypes a ppear i n b o th g rave a nd s ett lement s i tes ( Jensen 1 967 :106f .; Baudou 1 960: 9 5f .). Doub le c on ica l, S -prof i led, a nd t err ine-shaped j ars, a nd c ar in a ted c ups a re c ommon f orms. •The f ew known e xamples f rom E ar ly B ronze Age g raves a re undecora ted a nd s evera l h ave t wo o ppos ing h and les ( Broho lm 2 :131). P roduct ion o f woven c loth ing i s a ttested t o by t he numerous f inds o f c lo th ing f rom E ar ly Bronze Age o ak c off in g raves, a nd by a f ew b og f inds f rom t he L ate Bronze Age. W oo l len c loth i s p redom inant ( Broho lm 2 :69); f abr ic made o f n ett le i s a lso known ( Broho lm 4 :27-8). An u pr ight l oom was p robab ly u sed a nd v ar ious b ra id ing t echn iques a re e v idenced ( Broho lm a nd Ha Id 1 940). A ctua l r ema ins o f l ooms, s uch a s l oom w e ights o r p ostho les w ith in h ouses, a re l ack ing. A f a ir ly a dvanced wood w ork ing t echno logy i s d emonstrated by r ock c arv ings o f c har io ts o r c arts a nd o f b oa ts. The f ina l ma jor i ndus try w as b ronzework ing. A lthough c opper a nd t in a re n o t a va i lab le i n D enmark, m eta l c ast ing was a h ome i ndustry. To j udge f rom i mported o b jects f ound i n D enmark, c entra l Europe was t he ma in s ource o f r aw m eta l t hroughout t he Bronze Age. I t i s u nc lear whether t he m eta l r es ources w ere i mported i nto Denmark a s manufactured o b jects t o b e r em e lted , a s r aw b ronze, a s c opper a nd t in s eparate ly, o r i n s ome c omb inat ion o f t hese f orms. Cas t ing — in o ne-p iece a nd t wo-piece mo lds a nd i n t he l ost wax p rocess —was u sed t o p roduce b ronze o b jects. P oss ib ly, af ew o b jects p roduced by f org ing w ere manufactured i n D enmark ( Larsson 1 973-74 :2 34), a lthough c ast ing was t he p r imary mode o f p rod uct ion. Ev idence o f meta lwork ing--fragments o f mo lds a nd c ruc ib les, d rops o f s me lted meta l —are f ound i n s evera l s ett lement s i tes (W i l ler 1 919 :42, 6 6 , 7 7 ; Thrane 1 971 : 1 58-9). Mo lds w ere made b oth o f s tone a nd c lay. The c ommon meta l p roducts a re t oo ls , s uch a s s ick les a nd a xes , w eapons , s uch a s s words a nd s pearheads, a nd o rnaments, s uch a s a rmr ings , n eckr ings, t wo-piece f ibu lae, v ar ious b e lt o rnaments, p ins, r azors, a nd t weezers ( see P lates 3 -13). Much o f t he o rnament o n t he b ronzes w as p robab ly c reated w i th f ine punches ( Broho lm 2 :1 81). Very f ew meta l a rt ifacts a re f ound i n s ett lement s i tes, but t he w ear marks o n t he l arge number o f a rt ifacts f ound i n g raves a nd h oards d emonstrate t hat t hey w ere u sed r egu lar ly. As h as b een m ent ioned, Bronze Age s ett lement s i tes a re p oor ly known i n Denmark, d espi te a r ecent f lurry o f i nterest. The h abi ta t ion s i tes a re t oo f ew t o s upport a ny d eta i led hypotheses a bout d istr ibu t ion o f s ett lement a cross t he l andscape. J ensen h as emphas ized , h owever, t hat t here i s n o s upport ing e v idence f or o ne t rad i t iona l p icture o f Bronze Age s oc iety d epend ing l arge ly o n n omad ic h erd ing r ather t han s edentary f arm ing ( 1967 :95), a lthough a n ima l h usbandry may h ave b een i mpor tant i n s ome a reas ( Kr ist iansen 1 980). I n r ecent e xcavat ions, a t l east t wo h ouse t ypes h ave b een d iscovered: l ong, r ectangu lar, p os t-bu i lt h ouses , a nd r ounded t urf-wa l l h ouses ( Becker 1 968, 1 972; L omborg 1 973). Daub f ragments f rom t hese a nd o lder e xcava t ions p rov ide f urther c onstruct ion 1 1

e v idence. V i l lages o f s evera l c ontemporary h ouses a re known, but i t i s i mposs ible t o s ay whether v i l lages were t he s o le o r d om inant t ype o f s ett lement. Substant ia l r esearch i nto t he Bronze Age s ett lement p atterns o f s outhern Sweden a re s ummar ised w ith b ibl iography i n Co les a nd Hard ing (1 979 :2 83-284 ; 4 94-497) ; t hese r esearches s uggest E ar ly Bronze Age s ett lement o n l ight a nd f ert i le s o i ls w ith s ome L ate Bronze Age e xpans ion i nto a reas o f p oorer s o i l ( ibid.:484). The most w ide-spread a nd t horough ly i nvest igated monuments o f t he Bronze Age a re g rave mounds. S ing le, e xtended i nhumat ion i n a wooden c off in o f s ome k ind i s a lmost t he s o le bur ia l s ty le o f P er iods I a nd I ( Broho lm 2 :54f., 1 54f.). "The g raves were c overed by a r ound, t urf-bu i lt mound which may b e s urrounded by a s upport ing s tone c irc le. Grave g oods o f s tone, meta l, a nd wood were c ommon ly p laced w i th t he d ead, who were a pparent ly bur ied f u l ly c lothed. The mounds a re c aref u l ly bu i lt o f r ectangu lar t urves; i t h as b een e st imated t hat 1 -1.5 h ectares o f l and wou ld b e d enuded o f t urf t o bui ld t he a verage Bronze Age bur ia l mound ( Randsborg 1 974 :3 9). S econdary g raves may b e p laced i n p rev ious ly bu i lt mounds; t his c ustom b ecomes v ery c ommon i n t he L ate Bronze Age. I n P er iod I I, c remation i s a n i mportant a l ternat ive bur ia l c ustom. Cremat ions o f t his p er iod a re o f ten f ound i n f u l l-s ized c off ins ( Broho lm 3 :1 36f .). By P er iod I V, a nd f or t he r est o f t he Bronze Age, c remat ion i s t he s o le bur ia l c ustom; s ma l l c ists a nd p ottery u rns a re t he u sua l c onta iners f or t he c leaned b ones ( Broho lm 4 :10f.). The number a nd s ize o f g rave g oods d ecrease s tead i ly t hrough t he L ate Bronze Age. Unt i l P er iod V I, t hese o b jects r are ly s how s igns o f h av ing b een p laced o n t he c remat ion pyre; t hey mus t h ave b een p laced i n t he g rave l ater. L ate Bronze Age c remat ions a re f requent ly p laced i n t he upper l eve ls o f Ear ly Bronze Age a nd s ome Neo l i thic bur ia l mounds. S ome bur ia l mounds, h owever, w ere c onstructed s pecif ica l ly f or L ate Bronze Age c remations. Meta l wea lth, wh ich was l arge ly p laced i n bur ia ls d ur ing t he E ar ly Bronze Age, was r ed irected i nto h oards i n t he L ate Bronze Age. These w i l l b e d iscussed i n d eta i l i n f o l low ing c hapters. • Ske leta l mater ia l f rom t he Bronze Age g raves i s v ery s parse, p art ly due t o p reservat ion c ond i tions i n Ear ly Bronze Age mounds, a nd t here i s n o way o f r econstruct ing t he a ge d istr ibut ion o f t he mound p opu lat ion. The d istr ibut ion o f g rave mounds, h owever, d oes p rov ide a g enera l i nd ication o f t he d istr ibut ion o f p opu lat ion t hroughout t he Bronze Age. Centra l J ut land a nd t he n orthern c oasts o f Z ea land a re p opu lat ion c enters. I n P er iods t he n orthwest J ut land a rea was p art icu lar ly d ensely s ett led, a nd i n t he L ate Bronze Age, s outh c entra l J ut land a ppears t o b e ap opu lat ion c enter ( Broho lm 4 :293, 2 95 , 2 97). I n s ummary, Dan ish s oc iety dur ing t he Bronze Age was a f a ir ly d ensely s ett led, a gr icu ltura l o ne. Meta l lurg ica l, woodwork ing, a nd w eaving t echno log ies were we l l-deve loped. Contact was ma inta ined w ith s evera l a reas o f c entra l Europe. Bur ia l mounds w ere t he most v is ib ly s tr iking r i tua l f eature. The r est o f t h is r eport c ompr ises a n e xaminat ion o f a nother i mportant r itua l f eature, t he h oard f inds, a nd a d eta i led e xaminat ion o f Bronze Age s oc ia l o rgan ization. R ev iew o f L itera ture o n Bronze Age Hoards O f t he t hree p rimary s ources o f a rchaeo log ica l i nformation a bout t he Dan ish Bronze Age, t he t erms " grave" a nd " sett lement" d escr ibe r e lative ly unambiguous s ets o f mater ia l f inds. The t erm " hoard", h owever

1 2

h as b een a pp l ied i n d iverse c ontexts a nd h as b een u sed i nterchangea b ly w i th s evera l o ther t erms wh ich a re n o t a lways e xp l ic i t ly r e la ted t o o ne a no ther. The Bronze Age h oards c ons ist o f t wo o r more o b jects made o f b ronze o r, more r are ly, g o ld a nd u sua l ly c omp lete a t t he t ime o f d ep os i t ion. I n af ew c ases , amber i s f ound i n t he h oards. S evera l h oards were d epos i ted i n p ottery v esse ls. Hoards a re f ound i n b ogs, o n d ry f i e lds, i n t he e dge o f bur ia l mounds unassoc iated w i th a ny g rave ma ter ia l. Too ls, w eapons, a nd o rnaments a re t he most c ommon a rt ifact t ypes i n h oards. These o b jects h ave n orma l ly b een u sed b ef ore d epos i t ion; t hey l ook l i ke p ersona l p ossess ions u sed i n e veryday l i fe. Another g roup o f h oards c onta ins s uch e xo t ic i t ems a s h e lmets, s h ie lds, b eaten b ronze o r g o ld v esse ls, a nd l urs. Wh i le t hese o b jects m ay s how s igns o f wear, t he ir r ar i ty i nd icates a u se p attern s omewhat d ifferent f rom t he h oards o f p ersona l i t ems. Cer ta in o f t hese a rt ifacts a re n ot r ea l ly f unct iona l; t he s h ie lds a re t oo t h in t o b e u sed a s s uch, a nd t he h e lmets t oo t op-heavy. Contextua l i nformat ion a bout t he h oards i s o f ten v ery s k impy. They w ere most o f ten f ound i n t he c ourse o f a gr icu ltura l o r bu i ld ing w ork a nd o n ly e xcept iona l ly w ere e xam ined i n s i tu by a n a rchaeo log ist. Howe ver, t he a rch ives i n t he Nat iona l Museum i n Copenhagen a nd i n t he o ther museums i n D enmark r ecord t he o bserva t ions o f t he f inders, where a va i lab le, a nd a ny l ater p rofess iona l i nvest igat ions o f t he s i tes. Append ix I c onta ins a b r ief d escr ipt ion o f a l l t he h oards wh ich c an b e r e l iably p inned t o af ind p lace a nd wh ich c an b e c ons idered c losed f inds, d epos i ted a t a s ing le t ime. I n t heory, a h oard c ons ists o f o b jects d epos i ted purposefu l ly. Thus, c erta in s ing le-found o b jects a re p robab ly a lso " hoards" a l though i t i s much more d iff icu lt t o c onf irm t h is t han w i th s ets o f more t han o ne o b ject. Many s ing le f inds p robab ly r epresent o b jects l ost i n t he c ourse o f d a i ly l i fe; o thers may b e t he r ema ins o f g raves t ha t a re n o l onger r ecogn izab le b ecause t he ir s tructure a nd o ther c ontents h ave b een d estroyed by a gr icu ltura l work, r oad bu i ld ing , e tc. S ome s ing le f inds, h owever, t hrough t he e v idence o f t he ir c ontext ( found i n a s tream b ed, f or e xamp le) a nd/or t he ir s ize a nd v a lue ( a b ronze s h ie ld , f or e xamp le) w ere p robab ly purposefu l d epos i t ions. However, b ecause o f t he d iff ic u lt ies o f i nterpret ing s ing le f inds, t hey a re n ot i nc luded i n t he a na lyses p resented h ere. Hoards a nd s ing le f inds a re c ommon r ema ins o f many p reh istor ic p er iods i n Denmark. There a re s hared c haracter ist ics among t he p reh istor ic h oard f inds f rom t he Neo l i th ic t hrough t he I ron Age —for e xamp le, at endency t o make d epos i t ions i n w et l ocat ions —a lthough t he c ontents o f e ach p er iod a re v ery d ifferent. Th is d ivers i ty o f c ontent, b o th b etween a nd w i th in p er iods, h as l ed t o c ons iderab le d iscuss ion o f t he m ean ing o f t he h oards a nd t he i nterpreta t ion o f t he b ehav ior t hey r ef l ect. Because o f t h is d ivers i ty o f o p in ion, s evera l o ther t erms h ave b een u sed t hroughout t he l i tera ture i n c on junct ion w ith, a s s ubsets o f , a nd a s s ubs t i tu tes f or t he Dan ish t erm " depotfund" o r h oards. The f irst s ystemat ic d iscuss ion o f h oard f inds a ppeared i n 1 865 when J . J . A Worsaae s uggested t hat t he l arge I ron Age b og d epos i ts ( found unre lated t o g raves o r h abi ta t ion s i tes) o f w eapons, o rnaments, a nd t oo ls m ight r epresent r ema ins o f ar e l ig ious r i tua l. Worsaae b ased h is i nterpretat ion p art ly o n Caesar 's a ccount o f t he c ontemporary Gau li sh c ustom o f making r e l ig ious o ffer ings o f war b ooty ( Worsaae 1 865 : 5 7), a nd p art ly o n a rchaeo log ica l e v idence: t he p resence o f a n ima l 1 3

b ones, s ugges t ing s acr if ic ia l m ea ls, a nd t he purposefu l d estruct ion o f many o b jects by burn ing a nd b end ing ( ibid.). I n af ootno te ( ibid.: 5 9), Worsaae s uggested t ha t t h is r e l ig ious i nterpretat ion m ight b e a pp l icab le t o a w ider r ange o f f inds, i nc lud ing s ome f rom t he Bronze Age. The f o l low ing y ear , Worsaae e xpanded o n t h is b r ief s uggest ion a nd o u t l ined t he e v idence f or a r e l ig ious i nterpretat ion o f Bronze Age h oards, p art icu lar ly t hose f ound i n b ogs. I n t h is a rt ic le w e h ave a s umma t ion o f most o f t he a rguments l a ter a dvanced a bout h oard f inds ( Worsaae 1 866). H is e v idence i nc ludes : 1 ) Ana logy. L i terary s ources f rom t he g reat a nc ient c iv i l iza t ions a nd t hose d escr ibing modern p r im i t ive s oc iet ies d emonstrate t ha t ma ter ia l g oods w ere o f ten o ffered t o g ods a nd t hese g ods w ere o f ten w orsh ipped i n t he f orms o f l akes, r ivers , g roves, o r b ig s tones ( Worsaae 1 866 :322 , 3 24). Many Dan ish Bronze Age h oards w ere f ound i n s treams, b ogs, by r oots o f t rees, o r by b ig s tones. 2 ) Assoc ia t ion w i th c erta in a spects o f bur ia l c ustom. S ome h oard f inds w ere a pparent ly wrapped i n c loth o r b ark a s w ere b od ies i n s ome o f t he Bronze Age bur ia ls i n wh ich o rgan ic mater ia ls h ave s urv ived ( see Broho lm 2 :80-83). O ther f inds c onta in o b jects b roken o r burned , a ga in c haracter ist ic o f c ontemporary g rave f inds ( Worsaae 1 866: 3 16). Worsaae s ugges ts t hat t hese c haracter ist ics g ave t he h oard f inds a r i tua l n ature r e la ted t o t ha t o f g raves ( ibid. : 319). 3 ) Unsu i tabi l i ty f or p ract ica l u se. Many h oards s how s igns o f purposef u l d es truct ion o f t he ir c ontents. Th is c haracter ist ic l i nks t hem n ot o n ly t o s ome g rave f inds but a lso t he I ron Age b og h oards wh ich t hems e lves s eem t o r ef lect a r e l ig ious c ustom ( ibid.:314, 3 17). Worsaae s uggests t hat t h is purposefu l d estruct ion r emoved t he o b jects f rom p rof ane u se ( ibid. : 323); i n t he t erm ino logy o f New Wor ld a rchaeo logy, t hese o b jects w ere " ki l led." O ther h oard o b jects a re unsu i tab le f or p ract ica l u se due t o t he f rag i l i ty o f t he ir c onstruct ion; e labora te a xes o f t h in b ronze c ast o ver a c lay c ore a re a p r ime e xamp le ( ibid.:319). • 4 ) P atterning o f c ontent o f t he f inds. I n r esponse t o t he s uggest ion t hat h oard a nd/or b og f inds a re a cc identa l ly l ost o b jects, Worssae emphas izes t he ir r epeated p attern ing : l urs f ound o n ly i n p a irs o r mu lt ip les o f p a irs, a nd o n ly i n b ogs ( ibid.:314); n eckr ings f ound r epea te d ly i n p a irs ( ibid. : 315). C erta in o b jects a re f ound p redom inan t ly i n g raves; o thers, s uch a s g o ld c ups a nd h ang ing v esse ls, a re f ound a lmost e xc lus ive ly i n h oards a nd o f ten i n s tereotyped c ombina t ions ( ibid. : 320-21). Th is s uggested t o Worsaae t hat t hese o b jects w ere n ot r andom l osses, but r epresent a d is tinct p atterned phenomenon. Worsaae p o ints o ut t hat s ome h oard f inds a re v ery l ike ly l os t o b jects o r h idden t reasures a nd h e i s s ens i t ive t o t he f act t hat " re l ig ion" h ad b een a c overa l l e xp lanat ion f or a ny unknown i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ec ord. Neverthe less, t he e v idence s eems t o h im t o g ive s trong s upport f or a r e l ig ious i nterpretat ion; h e f ee ls t hat t he h oards a re t he r ema ins o f r e l ig ious o ffer ings t o g ods ( ibid. : 322). I n t he n ext 1 15 y ears, t he quest ion o f l ost o b jects o r h idden t reas ures v s. v ot ive o ffer ings a ppears a ga in a nd a ga in i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l i terature. The e v idence o f c ontext, e thnograph ic a na logy, r i tua l h and l ing , a ssociat ion w i th bur ia l c us tom, a nd o f p atterned d epos i t ion a re w eighed r epeated ly. S ummar ies o f t he d ebates a bout S cand inav ian h oard f inds c an b e f ound i n t he wr i t ings o f Berta S t jernqu ist ( 19626 3, 1 970) a nd Urgen J ensen ( 1972). S t jernquist emphas izes t erm ino logy 1 4

a nd i nterpretat ions o f I ron Age h oard f inds wh i le J ensen emphas izes Bronze Age mater ia l a nd i nc ludes d iscuss ion o f s ing le f inds a s w e l l. W i th a f ew e xcept ions ( e.g., P etersen 1 890), i t i s w ide ly a ccepted t ha t a t l east p art o f t he S cand inav ian h oard mater ia l r epresents t he r ema ins o f r i tua l o ffer ings o f s ome k ind . Th is i s i n c ontrast t o i nterp retat ions o f Bronze Age h oards f rom c entra l a nd western Europe wh ich a re o f ten i nterpreted i n ac ommerc ia l l ight ( Ch i lde 1 930; Br iard 1 965 ; v on Brunn 1 968 :231-2), a l though a r e l ig ious i nterpreta t ion i s n ot r u led o ut e nt ire ly ( Burgess 1 974:209; v on Brunn 1 968:237). The i mportant c r i ter ia f or d ef in ing s ome o r a l l o f t he Dan ish h oards a s r e l ig ious i n n ature may i nc lude d epos i t ion i n w et p laces , p resence o f s pec ia l c u lt i t ems , p a ir ing o f o b jects , purposefu l b reakage. There i s l i tt le a greement o n wh ich c r i ter ia a re most i mportant, n or i s t here a n a ttempt t o c a tegor ize a l l t he h oards. Rather, s evera l moda l e xamp les a re u sua l ly d escr ibed t o p rov ide a g enera l s ense o f t he c haracter ist ics o f d ifferent k inds o f h oards. Many a uthors s ugges t t hat t he d ivers i ty o f c ontent, t he a ccidenta l n ature o f d iscovery o f most h oards, a nd t heir r a ther un informat ive c ontext make a ny d ef in i t ive s tatements i mposs ib le ( e.g . Br e i sndsted 2 :60, 1 10, 1 68 ; O rsnes 1 958 :17-18 ; J ensen 1 972: 1 46-8). Exp l ic i t d ef in i t ions o f r i tua l a nd n on-r i tua l h oards h ave g enera l ly b een unnecessary b ecause t heir s oc io log ica l i nterpretat ions h ave n ot b een a ma jor f ocus o f r esearch. Most o f ten, o ne o r af ew h oards a re a na lyzed f or t he ir s ty l ist ic a nd c hrono log ica l a ff in i ties ( Orsnes 1 958; J ensen 1 969; L arsson 1 973-74 ; Neergaard 1 890-1903). Wh i le t he r easons f or d epos i t ion o f t he h oard may w e l l b e d iscussed, t he ma in emphas is i s o n t he t ime-space s ign if icance o f i nd iv idua l f inds; b roader s oc ia l o rgan izat iona l ques t ions a re d e-emphas ized. A lternat ive ly, r el i g ious b e l ief b eh ind h oard d epos i tion i s d iscussed ( Ingstad 1 961; J ensen 1 972; Mü l ler 1 886; L avrsen 1 958). I n t h is c ase, o n ly a f ew c lear e xamp les w i l l s uff ice t o e stab l ish t he p resence o f c erta in r e l ig ious t hemes , s uch a s wa ter s p ir i ts. S ome r ecent e xcept ions t o t hese s tr ict urbs a re Randsborg 's ( 1974 :58-60) a nd Kr ist iansen 's ( 1974 , 1 980, 1 981) w orks a nd Coomb 's d iscuss ion o f t he s ocia l o rgan izat ion r ef lected i n L a te Bronze Age w eapon h oards i n Br i ta in ( 1975). I n t he n ext c hapter, a s ystemat ic d iv is ion o f t he Bronze Age h oards i nto g roups r ef lect ing d ifferent c auses o f d epos i t ion i s p resented. The s pecif ic g oa l i s t o d ef ine a s c omp lete ly a s p oss ible t he s et o f f inds t hat r ef lects s im i lar r i tua l a ct iv i t ies a nd t he s ocia l o rganizat ions r e lated t o t hem.

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CHAPTER THREE DEFINITION OF R ITUAL AND NON-RITUAL HOARDS

O f a l l t he h oards d iscussäd i n t he e ar l ier l i terature, o ne h as a lways b een a ccepted a s ar i tua l d epos i t: The Budsene f ind ( Append ix I , # 214) i s aP er iod V h oard c ons ist ing o f t wo h ang ing v esse ls,one b e lt o rnament, a nd t hree s p ira l a rmr ings. ( P late 1 .) The b e lt o rnament a nd r ings w ere f ound i ns ide t he l arger v esse l wh ich was c overed by t he s ma l ler v esse l. The a rt ifacts w ere f ound a t t he b o ttom o f ah o ll owed a lder t runk wh ich was s unk i nto a wa ter-bear ing s tratum a bou t o ne meter b e low t he g round s urface. The t runk was p acked a round by h and-s ized s tones a nd s eems t o h ave b een a p r im i t ive w e l l. S urr ound ing t he a rt ifacts w ere b ones o f d omest ic p ig , h orse, c ow, s heep, a nd d og ( Nordmann 1 920 ; ab r ief d escr ipt ion i n Eng l ish i s g iven i n G lob 1 971b:288). Another h oard p rov ides a c lear c ontrast a nd r epresents a g enera l ly a ccepted n on-r i tua l d epos i t: The S ageby f ind ( Append ix I , # 88), f rom P er iod I V, c ons is ts o f a pprox ima te ly 3 5 f ragments o f f i f teen o r t wenty i ncomp lete o b jects , f ive l umps o f b ronze, o ne c omp lete c e lt, t wo s ick les, a b ronze r ing, a nd a p in. These w ere f ound o n a d ry f i e ld , a pparent ly n ear t he s urface ( the f ind was made i n 1 879 b efore t he a dvent o f d eep p low ing i n Denmark). ( P late 2 .) Why a re t hese t wo h oards e as i ly r ecogn izab le a s r esu lts o f t wo d iff erent k inds o f a ct iv i t ies? E stab l ish ing t he d ist inct ion b etween t hese t wo k inds o f h oards i s a n e ssent ia l p reface t o e xam in ing t he c ontempora ry s oc ia l a nd r e l ig ious o rganizat ion, but s ystema t iz ing a nd mak ing e xp l ici t t he d ifferences b etween t hese h oards i s v ery t r icky. I must a gree w i th most p ast p rofess iona l o p in ion t hat a l arge p roportion o f t he h oards h ave a r e l ig ious b ackground. I t i s d iff icu lt t o p inpo int t he b ases o f t h is i mp l ic i t j udgement, but among t hem a re t he s tereotyped, c arefu l a rrangement o f many h oards, t he c ommon o ccurrence o f p a ir ing i n t he h oards, a nd c ommon d epos i t ion i n w et p laces wh ich l inks t he h oards t o r e l ig ious t rad i t ions e xtend ing i nto h istor ic t imes. Neverthel ess, n ot a l l o f t he h oards a ppear t o b e r e l ig ious i n n a ture a nd a n e xp l ici t c ategor izat ion i s n ecessary b ecause n ot a l l h oards make s uch c lear i mpress ions a s t he t wo d escr ibed a bove. An a rchaeo log ica l d ef in i t ion o f r i tua l r ema ins c anno t b e a s w e l lr ounded o r a s w e l l-conf irmed a s a n e thonograph ic o ne b ecause much o f o ur understand ing o f r i tua l b ehav ior i s l i nked t o i deo logy a nd o n ly f ogg i ly r ef lected i n ma ter ia l o b jects. Th is i s u nfortuna te, but i nev i ta b le, when p reh istor ic p er iods a re under c ons idera t ion. Id o n o t p retend t o h ave e s tab l ished a bos lute " proofs" o f t he r i tua l n ature o f c erta in h oards. However, i n t he a bsence o f a ny wr i tten e v idence, I b e l ieve t ha t e thnograph ic a na logy, c arefu l ly u sed, i s t he b est s ource o f e xp l ici t c r i ter ia f or d ef in ing r i tua l f inds. A lthough t hese d ef in i t ion s a re n ot c omp lete ly s a t isfactory, i t i s i mportant t o a ttempt t hem i n o rder t o p roceed w i th o ther a na lyses.

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To t urn t o s pecif ic e thnograph ic d ata f i rst, t wo k inds o f e thnog raph ic a na logy a re c ommon ly d ist ingu ished : d irect-h istor ica l a na log ies f rom l iv ing s ociet ies wh ich a re d emonstrab le h istor ic d escendants o f t he a rchaeo log ica l c u lture under c ons idera tion; a nd g enera l-comparative a na log ies f rom l iv ing s ocieties wh ich a re f ound i n e nv ironmenta l s ettings a nd w i th s ubs istence t echno log ies s imi lar t o t he a rchaeo log ica l c u lture under c ons iderat ion ( Sti les 1 977). S evera l a uthors h ave c r i t ic ized overr el iance o n e thnograph ic a na logy, s uggesting a l ternat ive ly t hat e thnog raph ic mater ia l i s t oo v ar iab le t o p rov ide u sab le mode ls f or a rchaeo lo s ists ( A l len a nd R ichardson 1 971 ; U cko 1 969), o r t hat e thnograph ic d ata a re i nsuff icient ly v ariab le t o p rov ide u sab le mode ls f or a rchaeol os ists ( Freeman 1 968). Gou ld ( 1980) h as f urther c r it icized t he u se o f e thnograph ic a na logy, but I f ee l h is c r it icisms a re c onfused a nd unhe lpf u l. I t s eems t o me, h owever, w e c annot e scape u s ing e thnograph ic a na logy i n a rchaeo log ica l a na lys is, e specia l ly when e xaming s oc io log ica l a nd i deo log ica l a spects o f p reh istor ic c u l tures. Where n o wr itten r ecord o r s poken t estimony e x ists, e thnograph ic a na logy i s a ma jor, n ecessary s ource o f i l lum ination o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord. Two b road a reas o f e nqu iry h ave b een pursued r ecent ly i n t his g enera l a rea o f s tudy, n ow o f ten s ubsumed under t he t erm " ethnoa rchaeo logy" : ( 1) i ntens ive i nvestigat ion o f al iv ing s ocia l g roup by a n a rchaeo log ist w ith s pecif ic questions a bout t he i nterre lat ionsh ips o f mater ia l r ema ins a nd s ocia l r e lat ions. (Dav id 1 973; Gou ld 1 973); ( 2) s earch f or un iversa ls among s uch i nterrelat ionships t hrough c ompar ison o f many e thnograph ica l ly known g roups ( Naro l l 1 962; B inford 1 971). The f irst r esearch s trategy h as b een pursued ma in ly i n a reas where h istor ic c ont inu ity c an b e d emonstrated b etween a rchaeo log ica l a nd e thnograph ic c ases ( e.g. Watson 1 978). Th is t ype o f a na logy i s l arge ly i nappl icable i n many c ases, i nc lud ing i ndustr ia l ized, Chr ist ian Denmark, a l though s ome e thnohistor ic s ources e x ist f rom t he p er iod o f e ar ly h ist oric Denmark. Therefore, I h ave t urned p r imar i ly t o g enera l-comparat ive a na log ies t o d eve lop c r i ter ia f or d ef ining Bronze Age r i tua l d epos i ts. Ih ave c o l lected d ata o n o ffer ings a nd s acr if ices, a nd o n d epos i t ion o f g rave g oods. These a re, both, k inds o f r i tua l d epos its, a lthough d ata o n o ffer ings a re more d irectly r e levant t o my p roblem. A lthough e thnograph ic l i terature i s r ich i n i nformat ion a bout r e l ig ious s acr if ice, i t i s p oor i n t he k inds o f d ata a rchaeo log ists n eed. The mot ivation b ehind s acr if ices, t he o rgan iza t ion o f k in g roups t o make s acr if ices, t he b e l iefs a bout s pir i ts r eceiv ing s acr if ices a re a l l d iscussed i n d eta i l. The r easons f or t he c ho ice o f a nd v ar ia tion i n s acr if icia l o b jects a re o f ten i gnored. I f v ar iations i n o ffer ings i s ment ioned, i t i s i nfrequent ly l inked i n a n e xp l ici t way t o o ther a spects o f t he r i tua l s uch a s t he s tatus o r number o f p articipants, t he t ype o f g roup t ak ing p art, t he l ocation o f t he r i te, e tc. Neverthe less, e thnograph ic a ccounts o f t he f o l lowing s ociet ies h ave y ie lded s ome s ystemat ic i nformat ion a bout t he mater ia l a spects o f o fferi ngs: As ia :

Chukchee Khasis Ko ls

Oceania : Bagobo Ba l i Hawa i i

Africa :

Ashant i Bambara Bemba Chagga

N . Amer ica:

De laware P apago Zun i

F ang I bo I l a K ikuyu

S . America :

Aymara I nca Mapuche

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O cean ia : I ban Ma leku la Maor i Marquesans T ikop ia

A fr ica :

Nuer Nyakyusa Ta l lens i

The b ib l iograph ic s ources c onsu l ted f or e ach s ociety a re l i s ted i n Append ix I I. Many o f t hese s oc iet ies d o n o t l ive i n a n e nv ironmenta l s ett ing c omparab le t o t hat o f Bronze Age D enmark a nd/or d o n ot p ract i ce t he s ame s ubs istence t echn iques ( a lthough t he ma jor i ty a re n oni ndustr ia l a gr icu ltura l ists). S ystemat ic i nforma t ion i s s o s l ight, h owever ( except, p erhaps, f or s ub-Saharan A fr ica), t ha t Ii nc lude a l l u sefu l a na log ies. Th is s amp le was o r ig ina l ly c u l led f rom t he Human R e lat ions Area F i les, w i th t he e xp l ici t i ntent o f d er iv ing a s amp le w i th b road g eog raph ic c overage. No s ociety, i nc lud ing t hese, i s p r is t ine, un inf luenced by o uts ide g roups. However, I h ave n o t u sed e thnograph ic a ccounts o f g roups wh ich w ere h eav i ly d isrupted by c ontact w i th s ta televe l s ociet ies a rmed w i th f i rearms a nd e p idem ic d isease. Th is k ind o f c ontact i s much more d is locat ing t han t hat e x is t ing i n t he a bor ig ina l s i tuat ion, e ven when t hat s i tuat ion may h ave i nc luded c onques t o r a bsorption o f o ne s oc iety i nto a no ther. The r e l iabi l i ty o f e thnograph ic i nforma t ion a bout t hese s ociet ies i s d iverse a nd t he s e lect ion d oes n ot c ons t i tute a r andom s amp le i n t he s ta t is t ica l s ense o f t he word. Neverthe less, t here a re c ommon c haract er is t ics t o b e f ound i n t he o ffer ing r i tes o f many o f t hese s ociet ies wh ich s ugges t c r i ter ia f or d ef in ing p reh istor ic r i tua l d epos i ts. These c r i ter ia a re: I .

S pecia l l im i ted l oca t ion f or r i tua l d epos i ts a . b .

I .

S pecia l l im i ted c ho ice o f o b jects f or r i tua l d epos i ts a . b . c .

I I.

s pecia l ly p rotected , o r f orb idden t o s egments o f t he p opu lat ion away f rom o rd inary l iv ing s pace

s pec if ic s pecies, c o lors, s ex, e tc. o f s acr if ic ia l a n ima l a nd f ood p art icu lar ly w e l l-formed a n ima ls o r p ieces o f v egetab le f ood c erta in k inds o f p ersona l v a luab les

Associat ion w i th f ood a . b . c .

r i tua l mea ls r i tua l s laughter ing r i tua l l i bat ions

I V. R equ ired a rrangement o f s acr if icia l o b jects L et me e labora te o n t hese p o ints. The e thnograph ic i nformat ion a bout t he l ocat ions o f o ffer ings s hows t hat a lmos t a l l t hese g roups make r i tua l o ffer ings b o th i n t he h ome a nd i n s eparate, s acred p laces , away f rom o rd inary l iv ing s pace. The a rchaeo log ica l e v idence s ugges ts t ha t o ffer ings w ere n ot made i ns ide h omes o r v i l lages i n t he Dan ish Bronze Age, s o Iw i l l c oncentrate o n t he c ommuna l o ffer ing p laces away f rom o rd inary l iv ing s pace. There i s e v idence t ha t c ommuna l s acred p laces h ave r estr icted a ccess i n n ine A fr ican e xamp les, t hree f rom O cean ia, o ne e ach f rom North a nd S outh Amer ica.

1 9

The e v idence f rom f i f teen o f t he e thnograph ic e xamp les s hows t hat s pec if ic k inds o f a n ima ls o r o b jects a re r equ ired by r i tua l p rescr ipt ion f or o ffer ings. The r i tua l may d emand a s pecif ic, s tereotyped c o lor o f a n ima ls o r o b jects ( Lepchas, T ikop ia , Z un i , P apago , Aymara , I nca , Mapuche, Ta l lens i , Nyakyusa, Chagga, I bo), o r a s pec if ic s ex o f a n ima l ( Khas is, Ma leku la, Nuer , I l a , Chagga, I bo). S evera l o f t hese s oc ie t ies a dd t he r equ irement t hat c er ta in o ffer ing o b jects b e c omp lete a nd/ o r p art icu lar ly f ine e xamp les o f t he ir k ind ( Chagga, Bambara , I bo, Ma leku la, T ikopia, Ko ls, I nca). The r equ irement o f u s ing o n ly l im i ted k inds o f p ersona l b e long ings i n g rave g ood o ffer ings i s f ound a mong t he Ta l lens i , K ikuyu, Ashant i , Ha, F ang , Bambara, Marquesans, I ban, Ko ls. Is uspect t hat s tr ictures o n t he k ind a nd c ond i t ion o f o ffer ings g oods a re f ound i n most s oc iet ies, but e xp l ic i t e thnograph ic i nforma t ion i s o f ten l ack ing. Ih ave n ot f ound a ny e xp l ic i t s ta tement t ha t v ar ia t ion i n o ffer ing g oods i s r andom, a l though I s uppose t h is m ight b e t rue s omewhere. There i s l ess e v idence f or a r equ ired a rrangement o f s acr if icia l o b jects ( c lear e v idence f rom Z un i , Ba l i , Mapuche, L epchas; l ess c lear e v idence f rom Ashant i , T ikop ia, I ban). Aga in, t h is i s p oss ib ly a w ides pread c haracter ist ic wh ich h as n o t b een s ys temat ica l ly d escr ibed. F ina l ly, t he e thnograph ic i nforma t ion s hows t hat v ir tua l ly a l l t he s oc iet ies i n my s amp le emphas ize r i tua l s laughter ing , mea ls, a nd l i bat ions i n t heir s acr if ic ia l r i tua ls. The P apago a nd Z un i , who d o n ot e mphas ize s laughter ing o r l i ba t ions, u se c ons iderab le quant i t ies o f c orn mea l a nd c ooked f ood i n t heir o ffer ings. R i tua l o b jects a re v a lued ma in ly f or t heir s ymbo l ic, r ather t han t he ir mater ia l o r f unct iona l n a ture; a s F irth s ays, r i tua ls i nvo lve a c ode ( F irth 1 970:199). Th is g enera l i nterpretat ion o f r i tua l s uggests t hat s tereotyp ing o f o b jects, a rrangement, a nd l oca t ion o f r i tua l a ct iv i ty i s i nev i tab le a nd a ppropr iate. I t i s t he n ecessary s tereotyping o f s ymb o ls wh ich makes r i tua l c ommun icat ion c lear t o b o th t he s uperna tura l a nd n atura l w or ld ( Rappapor t 1 971 :62). And , i n f act, s tereotyp ing o f ac ode i s j ust what i s f ound i n t he e thnograph ic ma ter ia l d escr ibed a bove; t he c r i ter ia i nduced f rom t hese e xamp les d escr ibe t he r equ irements f or s tereotyp ing l ocat ions a nd o b jects i nvo lved. A d ef in i t ion o f ar i tua l o ffer ing o r d epos i t, t hen, i s ad epos i t, made i n as tereotyped way, o f s ymbo l ica l ly v a luab le o b jects ( wh ich may a lso b e mater ia l ly v a luab le, but t h is i s i nc identa l t o t he d ef in i t ion), w i th t he c onscious purpose o f c ommun ica t ing w i th —pet i t ion ing , b less ing , t hanking , p rop i t iat ing —the s uperna tura l wor ld. Wh i le d e l ineat ing t he c onsc ious purposes o f Bronze Age p ersons i s n o t my i ntent ion, t he r est o f t he d ef in i tion i s p art icu lar ly a daptab le t o a n a rchaeo log ica l p rob lem. F irth was s peak ing o f e thnograph ic s tudy, but h is words a re a pp l icab le t o a rchaeo log ists: " To t he e xterna l a na lys is, wh i le r i tua l i s a matter o f o bserva t ions, b e l ief i s a matter o f i nference." ( F ir th 1 970:14). The p atterned b ehav ior o f a n o ffer ing s hou ld l eave s ome p a tterned mater ia l r ema ins. R ecent ly, a number o f a rchaeo log is ts h ave b een w ork ing o n t he s ame p rem ise ( F lannery 1 976). S een f rom t h is p erspect ive, r i tua is n o t o n ly e xpress i deas a bout s oc iety, but a lso i nd icate a spects o f t he a ctua l o rgan iza t ion a nd f unct ion ing o f s oc ia l g roups. Th is i s t he a na lyt ica l a pproach o f t he Br i t ish s oc ia l a nthrop o log ists ( w i th emphas is o n c orporate g roups) a nd i s a pp l icab le t o a rchaeo log ica l p rob lems. These r ema ins may r ef lect a p attern o f b e l ief — R iv iere d escr ibes a c ase where t he c omp lementary d istr ibut ion o f h a ir

2 0

tubes and blow guns in one area of tropical South America does reflect the distribution of certain mythic ideas (Riviere 1969)-but such an analysis is very problematic where there are no written data about belief systems. The criteria given above are generalities based on ethnographic data and shown to be congruent with the nature of ritual in general. Operational criteria, meant specifically to define the remains of patterned ritual behavior in Bronze Age Denmark, may be derived from the theo­ retical criteria and from two additional sources of information: sparse, but usable, direct-historical analogies and certain patterns within those hoards, such as the Budsene ·find, which are most obviously of a ritual nature. - Two sources of direct-historical analogies are Tacitus' account, circa A. D. 100, of customs of German tribes of northern Europe (1970; Mattingly trans.) and Danish written records about holy wells and springs from the medieval period through the 19th Century (Schmidt 1926). One of the most famous passages in Tacitus is a description of a holy lake, the very center of Germanic ritual (chap. 40). Holy lakes and groves of the Germans were forbidden to a large part of the pop­ ulation and separate from ordinary living space (chaps. 7, 30). From historic times, approximately 600 holy springs and wells are known in Denmark (Schmidt 1926: 158). These are distributed fairly evenly over the whole country and were places of frequent offerings as well as other religious practices (ibid.: 53f.). Tacitus also describes specific requirements for the personal objects used in burials. Only a man's weapons are burned on the funeral pyre; his clothing and other per­ sonal belongings are not included in this type of ritual deposit ( Tacitus: chap. 27). Another ritual requirement was the use of pure white and untouched horses, kept in sacred groves, for ritual activities ( Tacitus: chap. 10). This historic information is congruent with the ethnographic information on such points as stereotyping of objects, and location of offerings in special areas which may have restricted access. Both these sets of information contribute to operational criteria for defining offer­ ings in prehistoric Denmark: I . Special location a. deposition in a wet place: bog, well, spring, stream. (How­ ever, I must add that a Danish Bronze Age specialist, Klavs Randsborg (pers. communication 1980) is not particularly happy with this criterion. He points out that many Viking period coin hoards-presumably burials of secular wealth­ are found in bogs) b. deposition at considerable depth ( ½ meter or more) or covered by a large stone; either tends to prevent observation c. deposition in a grave mound (unassociated with a burial); also limits access through ritual sanctions d. deposition in a grove; this applied to finds from places with names which refer to grove or forest, specifically "skov" ("forest") or "lund" ("grove"). Although these areas may not be wooded at present, the place names probably refer to an ancient, possibly prehistoric, condition. Moreover, the emphasis on forest in the name may reflect an ancient importance of that particular wood. Clearly, this criterion is not so reliable as a find place in an actual bog.

21

I.

S pec ia l o b jects a .

b .

c .

p redom inance o f o rnaments a nd w eapons; t hese c an i dent ify a n i nd iv idua l, a c erta in s oc ia l p os i t ion, a nd/or p ersona l i ty a nd , t herefore, h ave a s pecia l s ymbo l ic v a lue ( Kuper 1 973). The e thnograph ic mater ia l s ugges ts t ha t c er ta in p ersona l b el ong ings a re more a ppropr ia te t han o thers f or o ffer ings; among t he Bronze Age ma ter ia l , i t ems s uch a s r azors, t weezers , a nd buttons s eem n o t t o b e long t o t he s tereotyped o ffer ing o b jects p resence o f o b jects w i th a pparent c osmo log ica l r eferents, s uch a s a xes, h orse g ear, h orned h e lmets, o r v esse ls ( see Chapter . 8) p redominance o f c omp lete o r n ear c omp lete o b jects whose s ymbo l ic v a lue i s t hus i ntact

I I. Assoc ia t ion w i th f ood a . b .

c .

p resence o f a n ima l r ema ins p resence o f p ottery wh ich may h ave h e ld f ood ( i .e. a p o ttery v esse l t ha t a ctua l ly c onta ined t he b ronze a rt ifacts, a s i s c ommon i n t he mater ia l, wou ld n ot f u lf i l l t h is c r i ter ion) p resence o f s ick les

Exam inat ion o f t he Budsene f ind a nd o ther o f t he h oards wh ich s tr ik ing ly f u lf i l l t he a bove c r i ter ia ( such a s h oard # 23 , Append ix I ) s uggests o per at iona l t erms f or t he c r i ter ion o f s pecia l a rrangement: I V. Arrangement i n a s pecif ied o rder a . b .

av esse l h o ld ing o ther o b jects o r an eckr ing e nc irc l ing o ther o b jects s words, s pearpo ints, o r a xes l i ned up p ara l le l , w i th e dges o r o r p o ints f acing i n o ne d irect ion.

Non-r i tua l d epos i ts, i nc lud ing h idden p ersona l v a luab les, s crap meta l h oards, a nd t raders ' g oods, c an b e d ef ined o pera t iona l ly by c r i ter ia ' c ontrast ing t o t hose a bove: I .S pecia l l ocat ion e . f .

d epos i t ion i n d ry g round , mar l, o r g rave l w i th n o e v idence o f g reat d epth d epos i t ion b es ide a s tone wh ich, t hus, marks d epos i t ion p lace, but d oes n o t b lock a ccess t o t he o b jects

I . S pec ia l o b jects d .

e . f . g .

p resence o f ab roader r ange o f a rt ifact t ypes , i nc lud ing t he s ma l l o b jects ment ioned a bove, t oo ls, a s w e l l a s o rnaments ments a nd w eapons p redom inance o f t oo ls c ons iderab le p re-depos i t ion f ragmentat ion p resence o f r aw r esources o f meta l o r amber a nd/or d ebr is f rom t he c ast ing p rocess

I I. No a ssocia t ion w i th f ood r ema ins P o int Ic s hou ld b e c lar if ied. A p r ior i , s ymbo l ic v a lue d oes n ot d epend o n t he c omp leteness o r n ear c omp leteness o f t he o b ject i nvo lved. S o, a s p l inter o f t he True Cross c arr ies , a t l eas t a s much s ymbo l ic v a lue

2 2

as the Cross itself. Nevertheless, for this case, the criterion of com­ pleteness as a sign of ritual character is appropriate. First, from a philosophical point of view, the sacrifice or offering in ethnographically-known societies is often conceived of as a gift to some superior power (Firth 1965: 186). These powers are often con­ ceived in anthropomorphic terms; often, they are the dead ancestors transformed into supernaturals. In such a situation, one would want the gift to be complete and worthy of its recipient. The fragment of the Cross, the treasured bit of mud from Mecca, or the ritually power­ ful fragments of hair and nails are not offered by the participants in a ritual, but acquired or manipulated by them; therefore, intactness is less relevant than in an offering rite. So-called "killed" pots in burials or caches probably are offerings and are not actually intact. However, such pots are still basically complete. One can see the shape and ornamentation; it is a specific pot, not just a sign for "pot" in general. Where I have labeled a hoard "fragmented'' in the Danish material, the fragmentation is much greater than a hole for "killing"; the objects are in many pieces and generally not reconstructable. From an empirical point of view, the hoards with heavy fragmenta­ tion seem to be set apart from the other hoards in additional ways. (1) Hoards with fragments tend to contain many more types of objects than any one of the non-fragmented hoards. Thus, the stereotyping of symbolic communication would be obscured. ( 2) The fragmented hoards contain casting debris more often than non-fragmented hoards (of 34 cases of hoards containing casting debris, 25 contain heavy frag­ mentation). ( 3) The fragmented hoards tend to have -a bro-ader chrono­ logical range than other hoards, suggesting their gradual accumulation over time (but not gradual deposition). Most of the intact hoards, including those with the clearest ritual character, contain objects that appear to hav.e been accumulated within a relatively short time and used together (among the exceptions are hoards #260 and #318, Appendix I, both of which contain objects from a fairly wide time span, but are classified as ritual hoards). These three points suggest that heavy fragmentation is a charac­ teristic of hoards of scrap material deposited for secular reasons. In another case, fragmentation might be a useful criterion for destruction of objects during ritual activity; this point of view was suggested by 19th century Danish writers on Iron Age ritual deposits (Worsaae 1865). After an overview of the B�onze Age material, however, I believe that intactness is a better criterion for ritua� activity than fragmentation. The choice of ornaments and weapons tcr1ter1on lla) as more "sym­ bolic�' and "ritualized" is also a pragmatic choice based on the nature of the Danish material. Any object, of course, may be a sacred symbol. The ethnographic material does not provide much comparative data to aid in deciding this point; in the case of ethnographically-known sacrifices, animals rather than inanimate objects are commonly sacrificed. Grave goods are often a limited choice from among the whole range of personal belongings, but tools may be included among the appropriate items. As Kuper points out, however, ornaments ro-id weapons are more likely to be imbued with symbolic value because of their close association with important social differences ( 1973). I would suggest that when a tool does become an important ritual symbol, it is no longer used for ordinary activities and no longer classified as an ordinary tool. For example, the ritual adzes among the Tikopia looked much like adz.es used daily, but were used only in certain ritual activities 23

( Firth 1 967). I f f ound i n a n a rchaeo log ica l c ontext, t hese a dzes wöu ld b e r ecogn izable b ecause t hey a re l arger t han a verage a nd a re marked by wear p atterns d ifferent f rom t hose o f o rd inary a dzes. Axes a re a p articu lar p roblem i n t he Dan ish mater ia l b ecause t here i s e v idence t hat t hey were a ssociated w i th r i tua l a ct iv i ty i n s evera l p er iods o f p reh istory: f ood a nd a xe bog o ffer ings i n t he Neo l i th ic ( Becker 1 947), a xes bur ied b es ide h ouseho ld h earths i n t he I ron Age ( descr ibed i n Eng lish i n G lob 1 971a:82), a nd t he r ich mytho logy s urr ound ing Thor a nd h is h ammer. Therefore, i n t he Bronze Age materia l, a xes must b e c ons idered a s pecia l s ubgroup o f t oo ls. Too ls, i nc lud ing s ome a xe f inds, a re u sua l ly s eparated f rom o rnaments a nd w eapons by f ind c ombinations a nd/or c ontexts: ( 1) Hoards w ith o rnaments/weapons u sua l ly d o n ot c onta in t oo ls ( s ick les a re t he ma jor e xcept ion); ( 2) Hoards w ith h eavy f ragmentation a nd c asting d ebr is u sua l ly d o c onta in t oo ls; ( 3) Hoards w i th t oo ls p redom inat ing a re u sua l ly f ound i n d ry c ontexts ( of 2 1 h oards w ith t oo ls p redom inat ing , 1 4 a re f ound i n d ry c ontexts); ( 4) Too ls a re f ound s ing ly more o f ten t han o rnaments a nd weapons ( a lthough w eapons, e specia l ly s words, a re f ound s ing ly more f requent ly t han o rnaments). S ing le-found o b jects a re more l i ke ly t han h oards t o b e l ost o r d iscarded o b jects, w i thout r i tua l s ymbo l ism. Hoards c onta ining h eavy f ragmentat ion, c ast ing d ebr is, a nd/or f ound i n i n d ry c ontexts a re a lso more l i ke ly t o b e s ecu lar d epos i ts t han h oards w ith c ontrasting c haracter ist ics. However, a xe h oards, b ecause o f t heir a ssociat ion w ith l ongl ived r i tua l t rad i t ions a nd c erta in mythol og ica l mot ifs, a re more l i ke ly t o b e r i tua l i n n ature t han o ther t oo ls. The f orm o f t he a xes ( for e xamp le, d ecorated o r not) a nd t heir c ontext must b e c ons idered c arefu l ly b efore a ss ign ing t hem t o ac ategory. The p resence o r a bsence o f t oo ls d oes n ot i mmed iate ly d ef ine a h oard a s r i tua l o r n on-r i tua l, a ny more t han d oes t he s ing le p resence o r a bsence o f a ny o ther c r i ter ion. My g oa l i s t o u se a l l p oss ible i nf ormat ion t o d e l ineate g roups o f h oards i n ac ons istent way. L ike t he c r i terion o f c omp leteness, t he p redominance o f p ersona l ized o rnaments a nd weapons s eems t o b e a p laus ible a nd u sefu l c r iter ion o f r itua l a ct iv i ty f or t h is mater ia l. To r ev iew: R itua l h oards a re c haracter ized by o ne o r more o f t he f o l low ing :

Non-r i tua l h oards a re c haracter ized by o ne o r more o f t he f o l low ing :

Context:

Wet a rea Great d epth Under a s tone Grove Grave mound

Context:

Dry l and Sha l low d epth Bes ide a s tone

Content:

Ornament / weapon I ntact o b jects Cosmo log ica l r eferent

Content:

Too ls F ragmentat ion Raw ma ter ia l

Association w i th f ood: An ima l r ema ins P ottery S ick les

No a ssociat ion w ith f ood

Arrangement: I ns ide v esse l Encirc led by r ing P ara l le l o b jects

No s pec ia l a rrangement

2 4

I n F igure 3 -1, a l l t he r e l iable h oards a re s cored o n t he a bove o per at iona l c r iter ia a nd g rouped i nto r e lat ive ly h omogeneous c ategor ies. F igure 3 -1 d oes n ot i nc lude l urs o r g o ld v esse ls, but d oes i nclude s uch r are h oards a s s h ie lds, b eaten b ronze v esse ls, a nd h e lmets. The l urs a nd g o ld v esse ls w i l l b e b rought i n a s s upp lementary e v idence i n l a ter c hapters. The l urs a re a lmost c erta in ly r itua l d epos its a nd t he g o ld c ups p robably s o. Certa in o f t he c ategor ies a re i so lated a s d ef in ing r i tua l d epos i ts. Except f or a f ew h oards, o f wh ich t he Budsene w e l l i s t he most s tr ik ing, n one s at isf ies a l l t he c r iter ia o f e i ther r i tua l o r n on-r itua l d epos its. These f ew may b e c ons idered a s i dea l mode ls t o wh ich t he o thers c onf orm i n g reater o r l esser d egree. This o perationa l d ef in i tion e stabl ishes, t herefore, s ometh ing l i ke a " po lythet ic g roup" i n Dav id C larke 's t erms. E ach r i tua l a ttr ibute i s s hared by many o f t he h oards a nd e ach r i tua l h oard i s c haracter ized by c erta in o f t he d ef ining a ttr ibutes, but a l l r i tua l r i tua l h oards d o n ot p ossess t he s ame a ttr ibutes ( see C larke 1 968:37). I n t he p resent c ase, uncerta inty i nev i tably a r ises due t o t he s ma l l number o f a ttr ibutes a nd t he i ncomp lete i nformat ion a bout many h oards. The ma jor c lasses o f h oards a re d escr ibed i n F igure 3 -2. F igure 3 -2

Descr ipt ion o f C lasses o f Hoards

C lass

P oss ible a ttributes

Descr iption

A-1

I a, b ,

c omp lete, p ersona l ized o b jects o r c osmo logy-re lated o b jects, i n w et c ontexts

A-2

I b, c , d ,

B-1

I e,

B-2

I a, c , d ,

Id

d iverse o b jects i n w et c ontexts, g roves, o r g rave mounds

B-2a

I a, c , d ,

l ie, f , g

d iverse o b jects, i nc lud ing f ragments a nd r aw mater ia l, i n wet c ontexts, g roves, o r g rave mounds

f , Id, e , f , g

d iverse o b jects, f ragments, r aw mat er ia l i n d ry c ontexts

I e,

Ia, b , c

ha, b , c

Ia, b , c

c omp lete, p ersona l ized o b jects o r c osmo logy-re lated o b jects i n g rave mounds, g roves, o r a t g reat d epth o bjects a s a bove i n d ry c ontexts

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