Problems of Working Women in Karachi, Pakistan [1 ed.] 9781443815017, 9781847189165

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Problems of Working Women in Karachi, Pakistan

Problems of Working Women in Karachi, Pakistan

By

Iffat Hussain

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Problems of Working Women in Karachi, Pakistan, by Iffat Hussain This book first published 2008 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2008 by Iffat Hussain All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-84718-916-4, ISBN (13): 9781847189165

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures............................................................................................. vi List of Tables............................................................................................. vii Acknowledgements .................................................................................. viii Chapter One................................................................................................. 1 Introduction Chapter Two ................................................................................................ 9 Pakistan Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 25 Socio-Economic Characteristics Chapter Four.............................................................................................. 33 Working Conditions Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 77 Attitudes Toward Working Women Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 115 Conclusion and Discussion Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 161 Advice to Working Women Appendix.................................................................................................. 179 Bibliography............................................................................................ 181 Index ........................................................................................................ 185

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Salary Levels of the Three Categories ....................................... 2 Figure 1.2 The Percentage of Respondents in Each of the Three Categories .............................................................................................. 3 Figure 1.3 Household Work and Employed Women................................... 4 Figure 2.1 Traditional Roles in the Household.......................................... 16 Figure 2.2 Gender Inequality in Labour Force Participation ..................... 20 Figure 3.1 Education Level of Category One Women .............................. 26 Figure 3.2 Education Level of Category Two Women.............................. 26 Figure 3.3 Education Level of Category Three Women............................ 26 Figure 3.4 Category One Salaries.............................................................. 27 Figure 3.5 Category Two Salaries ............................................................. 27 Figure 3.6 Category Three Salaries ........................................................... 28 Figure 3.7 Marital Status Statistics............................................................ 29 Figure 3.8 Heads of Households in Category One .................................... 30 Figure 3.9 Heads of Households in Category Two.................................... 30 Figure 3.10 Heads of Household in Category Three ................................. 31 Figure 3.11 Size of Families across the Three Categories......................... 32 Figure 4.1 Reasons for Working................................................................ 36 Figure 4.2 Facilities and Amenities Provided by Companies.................... 39 Figure 4.3 What Women Think about Veiling and Seclusion ................... 54 Figure 5.1 Attitudes of Families towards Their Female Family Members .............................................................................................. 80 Figure 5.2 Attitudes of Relatives towards Working Women..................... 83 Figure 5.3 Attitude of Neighbours towards Working Women................... 85

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Female Employment in Services (as Percentage of Female Labour Force), 1995–2003................................................................... 17 Table 2.2 Magnitude of Gender Inequality Index for Pakistan.................. 18 Table 2.3 Gender Inequalities in Literacy and Economic Activity in a Sample of Countries (1995–2005) ................................................ 19 Table 2.4 Literacy and Enrolment in School ............................................. 22 Table 2.5 The Percentage Distribution of Employed Persons 10 Years of Age and above by Major Occupation Groups, Area and Sex in Pakistan, 2005–2006........................................................................ 23 Table 2.6 Labour Force Participation Rate in Pakistan (percentages) ....... 24 Table 4.1 Experiences of Sexual Harassment............................................ 68

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The women of Pakistan have always experienced disadvantage relative to men of the same class. Social, cultural and religious factors have reduced the number of women entering the job market. Throughout the history of Pakistan, Muslim women have suffered a great deal of unnecessary restrictions due to the misconceptions of Islam. Women are brought up to believe they should stay within the four walls of their homes and avoid any contact with men they are not related to. These misconceptions are still prevalent in the society, and women, particularly working women, face lots of problems. This is not just the subject of discreet debate; these days it is a topic arousing impassioned argument and ideological fervor. Nor is the controversy limited just to the Muslim population: everyone has an opinion. Much has changed in the last decade, but even in urban areas, when a woman travels to work, she must still be ready for stares and rude remarks from strangers. The influx of women entering the job market has brought about a certain level of change in public attitudes and promoted acceptance of women’s professional potential. Many employers prefer women for certain jobs, since they are thought of as and expected to be obedient and docile. Still, most people simply assume that working women do not possess good characters. For years, women in rural areas of Pakistan who have chosen to work have been the subject of books and papers supporting and explaining their problems, but no work has been done in support of working women in urban Pakistan. Most popular books for women in Pakistan are on topics such as marriage, veiling and seclusion, the status of women in Islam and in society, and rural women working on farms. Implicit in such books are explanations of the rights and roles of women within Muslim society, but thus far there has been little exploration of the problems faced by working women in cities. The book begins with a short history of Pakistan in relation to working women, from the time of Pakistan’s establishment as a country to the commencement of Martial Law. Data on employment and gender inequality in Pakistan is compared with that of several other countries, and different tables are provided listing information about the employed population (male and female) of Karachi in different occupational groups.

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The traditions, cultural values, and status of women in Pakistan are also explained. The women interviewed were divided into three categories, representing the three predominant socio-economic groups of employed women: these socio-economic characteristics are age, educational level, salary, marital status, status of the head of the household, number of family members, etc. These are all explained separately for each category. This book explains why the women of Pakistan have taken up paid work and professions, and how they select a job. Then it discusses the major problems for each category: the first and the most common problem is sexual harassment in this traditional society, including abusive/meaningful remarks, offers for lunch or dinner dates, unnecessary physical contact and lustful ogling/stares. The attitude of the society towards working women is also explained: family members, relatives, neighbours and co-workers all had opinions on the subject, offered either first-hand in interviews or reported by women who discussed their experiences. Veiling and seclusion are also issues dominating the experience of many women, as is marriage, because it is something usually decided by the parents of both parties rather than the couple themselves. Confident, self-possessed young women are rarely liked by a suitor’s parents, so the very thing that gives women a sense of self-esteem and empowerment many times becomes a threat to an aspect of life still vitally important in most women’s lives. They have to work against both discrimination and their own feelings of guilt and conflicting needs. Other problems include work-related travel and transportation, and appropriate dress. The Problems of Working Women in Karachi explains the situations and stresses endured by working women in cities. The women offered their comments and histories during face-to-face interviews, giving insights into their lives. These collected narratives create a picture of the current status of working women of Pakistan and the turmoil they go through as they fight to break the traditional rules imposed on them. Women in numerous different jobs and from different socio-economic backgrounds illuminate all the various challenges affecting their experiences of working life: it is not hard to see how a Pakistani woman who reads books on the status of women in society or in Islam can end up feeling guilty working in a job where she cannot wear a veil or maintain seclusion. The Problems of Working Women in Karachi will, I hope, make them feel that they are not alone in this challenge. With this book I wish to restore balance to the debate and to debunk some of the wilder ideas about working women in Pakistan. My intention

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Acknowledgements

is to inject some much- needed reasonability into this overheated topic and put in a few good words for tolerance and respect for an individual’s choice. These women have long needed a champion to stand up for their views. I would like to express my special thanks to those who helped to bring about this publication. To all my family members, especially my brother Intesar Hussain, who teaches Engineering and Mathematics at Orange Coast College in California, for his guidance and encouragement in writing this book. I would also like to thank Klaas Wybo van der Hoek, Board of Directors at Stenden University. To all the working women who shared their experiences with me, and to all my friends and colleagues who introduced me to those women whose voices needed to be discovered. I would also like to thank my editor Ashley Mason for her professional support, and my publishers who produced this book. I am also grateful to the UN, Lauren Russell at Palgrave Macmillan, and Professor Kalida Ghaus, Managing Director of The Social Policy & Development Centre in Pakistan, for their permission to reproduce copyright material. Feedback and suggestions from readers are welcome. You can send your comments and suggestions to [email protected].

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

The women of Pakistan have always experienced disadvantages relative to men of the same class. Social and cultural factors have historically kept most women from entering the job market. But with the recent changes in society caused by increased economic pressures, expansion of educational facilities and increased access to learning, more and more women are entering the job market at all levels. Karachi society is a varied mix of social classes and walks of life, and women can be found working in a broad assortment of professions. There are highly qualified women working in white-collar management, administrative, and creative and academic positions; women of the middle class have entered the ranks of retail and restaurant workers, as well as other responsible positions. And then there are women of lower class working at the lowest level, fighting for survival. In this study I assess the major problems these working women face as they aim to break traditional rules and restrictions on their employment and how they deal with such problems. Through a series of interviews, women explained how they handle their problems, how they are being accepted by the society, how they stand up to society’s restrictions, and the effects of paid employment on their lives. The women interviewed have been divided into three categories based on salary levels. In the interest of the respondents, some names have been changed or withheld. Category one consists of domestic workers. Category two includes telephone operators, secretaries, receptionists, technologists, clerical workers, office assistants, schoolteachers, client services, sales, lab technicians, broadcasters, and counter staff (for banks, ticket agents, post offices, etc.). Category three includes doctors, managers, coordinators, chemists, senior technologists, lecturers, journalists, technical writers, editors, supervisors, consultants, computer programmers, lawyers, dentists, and student counselors.

Chapter One

2

Category 1

•R s2000 (•$ 34)

Category 2

Rs 2100 to 12000 ($35 to 200)

Category 3

Rs 12100+ ($201+)

Figure 1.1 Salary Levels of the Three Categories

Methods and Surveys I chose Karachi for my study of the problems faced by employed women for several reasons. First of all, it is well populated and the most developed city in Pakistan. Also, the number of female workers in the Karachi job market has increased tremendously over the last 50 years, since the establishment of Pakistan in 1947. Another reason for the selection of East Karachi is that it is a cosmopolitan and metropolitan city where one can find women of different races, cultures, socio-economic status, geographical origins, education and occupations. Because there are women of different status and different occupations, I was therefore able to identify sufficient numbers of employed women in different occupations who were later categorized into the three grades (domestic workers, clerical and management/supervisory level). I interviewed women who were working full time as well as part time, at different levels of jobs in various organizations. Most of the respondents had been employed for a considerable period of time, more than half for over seven years. Most of the respondents were young working women; about 75 percent were aged 35 years and younger (the mean was found to be 30 years). Married women comprised 41.7 percent of the respondents; 54.6 percent were unmarried and only 4.2 percent reported being separated/divorced/widowed. All the married women had children. I interviewed 240 women and took 50 case studies. Most of the questions I asked were open-ended. I was able to obtain completed questionnaires from all except 8.3 percent of the women, who left some of the questions unanswered. Women in categories one and two returned the incomplete questionnaires. Category three women, as compared to those of one and two, had the highest response rate.

Introduction

3

The women in the sample were divided into three categories by their occupations and salary. Twenty-five percent of all the women interviewed belonged to category one, which were all domestic workers who earned less than 2,000 rupees ($28.03 USD) per month. Women working in clerical/sales and related positions made up 37.5 percent, earning between 2,100–12,000 rupees ($29.43–168.18 USD) per month. Finally, 37.5 percent were those at the upper levels of hierarchy with salaries more than 12,100 rupees ($169.58 USD) per month. There were sufficient numbers to take a random sample from all three categories. Through my interviews I also studied the socio-demographic variables of the interviewees, the cultural roles and values accepted by them, the working conditions provided by their employers and by their families, and attitudes of families and communities towards their work.

Occupation

Category one

Domestic Workers 25%

Category two

Sales/clerical 37.5 %

Category three

Managerial/ Executive 37.5 %

Figure 1.2 The Percentage of Respondents in Each of the Three Categories

Respondents were divided into three major categories by their occupations because of the extreme variations in socio-economic status among them: arranging the respondents according to these categories reduced this variation. The socio-demographic variables are age, qualification, salary, marital status, status of the head of the household and number of family members. The variation in these variables is related to their occupations: 25 percent of the respondents were domestic workers, 37.5 percent were sales/clerical, and 37.5 percent were managerial and executive. Data regarding fathers’ educational and occupational levels suggests that those who had attained higher levels of education and/or worked in well-paid occupations tended to have more career-oriented and innovative daughters. The history of women’s employment tells us that the very first jobs for educated women were teaching or nursing, jobs which were considered

Chapter One

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as the extension of the household duties and where the contact with the males was minimal. These are still referred to as traditional jobs. Things are beginning to change: there is now a social and cultural expectation for young women to achieve a certain level of education, even for their chances in the marriage market. Now women have begun working at nontraditional jobs as well: many respondents in categories two and three worked in jobs considered only a few years ago to be exclusively male employment (particularly in category three). Domestic workers (category one), clerical/sales workers (category two) and managerial/executive workers (category three), all have different cultural values and family set-ups. Karachi’s multiethnic composition allowed me to gather a respondent pool from many different classes, races, life experiences and different cultures, all living in the same society. These cultural differences between communities effected women’s participation in different ways.

Category One

Category Two

Category Three

Primary Role: Household Work

Figure 1.3 Household Work and Employed Women

Culturally, household work (in her own home) is considered a woman’s primary role. Due to the increase of economic pressures on families in the past few decades, the traditional restrictions on women have lessened and large numbers of women have taken on paid employment; but domestic work remains a woman’s principal duty. Seventy-five percent of the women included in the sample reported that they are physically tired out by managing both their work at home and at their place of employment. The largest percentage of working women across Pakistan have concentrated on occupations such as health workers, educational professionals and clerical workers. They have entered into professions that are less attractive to men because of poor working conditions, lower pay, lack of control, monotony, and lack of opportunity for advancement. Women feel discriminated against in terms of their salaries and promotions. A very strong factor negatively influencing the participation of women in the work force is the practise of seclusion:

Introduction

5

traditionally seclusion means wearing an over-garment that covers the whole body, including the head and face. Working women are assumed to be at risk of sexual activity outside marriage, whether voluntary or otherwise, because they spend part of the day outside the home. To protect these women in the workplace is the responsibility of every corporate employer: therefore the social construction of the workplace is an important element for young women, and it is usually portrayed as a protective environment. For the purposes of this study, data concerning working conditions has been derived from information provided by respondents relating to employee facilities and their likes and dislikes in their work and whether such conditions stimulate them positively at their work or the reverse. Domestic workers reported the poorest and least stimulating working conditions—their work was monotonous and repetitive, with the fewest amenities. Most of the women in category three reported good working conditions with comfortable, airconditioned rooms, and found their jobs interesting and challenging, giving them the chance to use their abilities. Women’s work experience is related to the socio-economic status of their families. Women from families with little or no education usually take domestic work or very low-level jobs. Women from moderately educated and/or religious backgrounds are often found working in traditional jobs, and women from well-educated and socially advanced families have the opportunity to pursue non-traditional jobs and careers, where they compete with males. Parents’ encouragement plays a very important role for girls pursuing male-dominated occupations. It was found that parental support was one of the strongest predictors of young women’s career aspirations and motivations: those who were careeroriented girls faced less pressure from their parents to marry early and have children. Different variables reflect respondents’ attitudes and their opinions and perceptions towards their jobs, as well as towards traditional roles and values. The attitudes of neighbours, relatives, and their families are all relevant to these women and play a vital part in their lives. Families who adhere strongly to tradition are particularly influenced by the opinions of their relatives and acquaintances: this causes women to take precautions, which in turn increases stress and tension. The attitudes of men and other women towards the respondents at their workplaces are also predicted by different variables, which indicate the social conditions and aptitude of the respondent. Personal grooming and personality development are also factors.

6

Chapter One

The Women of Category One Female migrants to come to Karachi from rural areas such as interior Sind and Baluchistan, and take domestic work to survive. They are unskilled, poor, uneducated and know very little Urdu (the official language of Pakistan); instead they speak with a mixture of Urdu and the language of their native village. Because of their cultural and/or religious backgrounds, domestic work is thought appropriate for these women because they come in contact only with the mistresses of the houses. They usually work in the morning hours when the male members of the household (are supposedly) at their jobs. These women are permitted to work as domestic servants because it is an extension of a woman’s typical role in a household; they prefer it because it does not require any specialized skill. Their work includes different activities such as washing dishes, laundry, cleaning, sweeping, mopping, or cooking in different houses. It is a very low-paid job, but they can choose their own hours and locations. The average pay is 100–200 rupees ($1.40–2.81 USD) per activity, per month: it varies from location to location, and in expensive residential areas they charge more. Groups of women from the same community will often try to find work in houses close to each other so that they can travel to and from work together and take short walks between shifts. The women of category one live in small houses, grouped together in small communities. Their furnishings are old and rustic, often given to them by their employers or picked up from the streets. Several generations of a family may live together, including children, grandparents, siblings and sometimes distant relatives. The men are usually unemployed, addicted to drugs, or just lazy, and their laziness is socially accepted. They work as labourers on a contract basis or street vendors. The women also work due to the uncertainty of their spouses’ income, which may be caused by sickness, old age or the institutional irregularity of working as a day labourer. Salima, who works in four different houses, says: I work in different houses and by the end of the day I get very tired, because at home I also have to take care of the kids and house work. My husband does not help me in anything.

Khatoon, a 40-year-old married domestic worker, said: My husband doesn’t work. I have six children to take care of and my husband just eats, sleeps and gives us orders. He doesn’t care about

Introduction

7

anything. He is free from all worries. It is not only my husband—all the men in our community are like this. Very few of them go to work. By commanding at home they feel superior.

Category Two The women of this category can be separated in to two sub-categories. There are families who allow and/or encourage their sisters and daughters to attain sufficient education to qualify for respectable jobs like teachers, nurses or clerical positions—but these families cling to the traditions and culture of the society at the same time, not wanting their women to work in any job considered degrading. Other families give their women sufficient education to enter any kind of job, whether it be sales, marketing, counter staff, receptionists, factory workers, etc.—these are not very traditional families. Due to increased economic pressures, the concept of seclusion has been reduced to a great extent. The women of this category are educated, but due to financial pressures they leave school early and enter the job market: even so, they are usually not careeroriented. Their families are also not well-educated, and their fathers and husbands are not in highly-paid jobs. Since they are not from wellestablished families, most cannot afford to keep a full-time domestic worker to help with household work, although some do employ part-time help. Women whose families can’t afford to pay a domestic worker must also take care of the housework, which is considered her primary occupation. Domestic work is traditionally considered unrespectable for men, so it is very rare for one of them to help. These families cannot afford to buy cars, so the women travel in buses unless their employers provide a transport service. Taxis are too expensive for them, and travelling in buses in Karachi is a tough job in itself. Most of these middle-class women become teachers, where most of their contact is with children and a gender-segregated environment is easily maintained. This job is considered respectable for girls because the need to interact with men is kept to a minimum. Khalida, a 39-year-old government schoolteacher, said: I teach in a girl’s school because my husband’s salary is not sufficient for us. In my parents’ family girls are not allowed to work. But I am glad they gave me opportunity to get some education, so at least now I can teach in a school. And now after marriage, I belong to a family where I was given permission to teach, but only in a girls-only school. I do this job for the sake of my kids, so that I can give them a better standard of living.

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Chapter One

Category Three The women of category three are career-oriented. They come from well-educated families, live in expensive areas of the city, and their husbands and fathers earn high salaries. These women do not need to work to augment the family income—they work for the sake of a career and for self-fulfillment. (Women of the wealthiest class, whose husbands or fathers are involved in big businesses, do not enter the job market and are not included in this study.) Category three women live in fairly large houses and have all the basic necessities of life, as well as certain luxuries. They are permitted the opportunity to get a good education, and since their families can afford to keep domestic workers they are not expected to shoulder the family’s entire burden of house work. They are subject to fewer traditional restrictions and like to compete with men, work side by side with them. Twenty-five-year old Samina works as an assistant marketing manager. She has recently completed an MBA from a private college: I am working to utilise my education and get some experience. This is my first job after graduation. My working life is totally different from my life as a student—people in my office take notice of everything I do and report it. I cannot be as carefree as I used to be when I as a student; I have to be very careful. But here I am learning a lot of new and different things. I think this is what life is.

CHAPTER TWO PAKISTAN

Pakistan and Culture Pakistan is located in South Asia. It shares borders with Afghanistan and Iran to the west, India to the east and People’s Republic of China in the far northeast. It has a thousand kilometre coastline along the Arabian Sea in the south. Politically the country has undergone several revolutions and transitions since its creation in 1947. It has endured several periods of military rule. Geographically and administratively the country is divided into four provinces: Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan and the NWFP (North-West Frontier Province). Each province has its own native language, but the official language is Urdu. Outside the province boundaries in the North West corner of Pakistan, there are the northern regions of Azad (“Free”) Kashmir and other tribal areas (FATA). The Punjabi people belong to the province of Punjab, which is home to some of the world’s oldest civilizations. The Punjabi people comprise the largest national group of modern Pakistan. The Sindhi are natives of Sind (Sindh) in Pakistan. Sind province is located in the southern part of Pakistan. The people are Muslim, but diverge from orthodox Islam by worshipping Muslim saints. They have a strong cultural heritage: their folk literature and poetry dates back to the fourteenth century. Sindhi women are still very traditional and they like to wear very colourful traditional clothes; the men wear Shalwar Kameez (the national dress), and turbans or traditional Sindhi caps on their heads. In cities, those who have attained some education and are financially prosperous tend to dress in the contemporary, fashionable styles popular in places such as Karachi; but those who are poor, usually found living in squatter settlements, wear their traditional clothes. The literacy level remains low among Sindhis, but it is improving. The Baluchis are the people from the province of Baluchistan. They are originally an Iranian people who settled in the south-west of what is now modern Pakistan. Pushtuns, or Pathans are from the NWFP province:

10

Chapter Two

they have a strong identity as warriors, and while they are a very hospitable people they also place high value on blood feuds and defending the honour of the women of their tribes. They strictly maintain the practise of secluding their women. At present Pakistan’s population is some 169,300,000 citizens.1 Its land area is 796,095 square kilometres (excluding disputed territories)2 or 803,940 square kilometres (including Pakistan-administered disputed territories, Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas).3 It is the sixth most populous country in the world, and the second most populous Muslim country.4 The Islamic Republic of Pakistan came into existence in 1947, when what was then all India was divided into two (the Partition), thereby creating a separate homeland for South Asian Muslims on the subcontinent. Many Muslim women actively participated in this freedom struggle and worked side by side with men, creating new opportunities for themselves as well as for other women. They explored and participated in new fields of education and work, thus inspiring new hopes and ideas to women of the newly-formed Pakistan. These hopes and ideas created a new consciousness and awareness among people, and more rights were given to women in the inclusion of the family law ordinance in Pakistan’s Constitution in 1973. Article 27 of the Fundamental Rights stated that “there should be no discrimination on the basis of race, religion, caste or sex for appointment in the services of Pakistan.”5 This gave positive encouragement to women to enter and participate in different fields of education and work. In 1977 when martial law was imposed in Pakistan, the country’s women, Muslim and otherwise, faced complete social regression. The chief martial law administrator General Zia-ul-Haq announced that Islam would be imposed in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, stressing the segregation for women. In the name of Islam new laws and policies were designed and the constitutional family law ordinance was suspended. The extremist Muslim clerics, who were themselves ignorant of Islamic laws which condemn discrimination against women, brainwashed people to 1

“Population Mid-2007,” Population Reference Bureau http://www.prb.org /Datafinder/Topic/Bar.aspx?sort=v&order=d&variable=1 (accessed July 9, 2008). 2 Government of Pakistan, “Basic Facts,” The Information Gateway to Pakistan, http://www.infopak.gov.pk/BasicFacts.aspx (accessed July 9, 2008). 3 “Pakistan,” CIA World Fact Book, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/print/pk.html. 4 “Population Mid-2007,” Population Reference Bureau. 5 Pakistan Constitution, Article 27

Pakistan

11

think that modesty for women means they should be veiled from head to foot in public or better yet, stay home. In order to practise this (anti-) Islamic law, barriers were instituted to discourage and prevent women’s education, employment and professional careers, even their taking part in activities outside their homes (particularly those activities which involved competing with men). In order to limit their freedom of movement they were encouraged only in activities inside their homes, or anything which required submission and docility. Such policies and conditions degraded and threatened not only the human rights of women in Pakistan but their very lives—particularly employed women. Women were mostly assigned subordinate roles in the civil, political and managerial hierarchies. In 1988, when the martial law period ended, the anti-Islamic ways preached by the extremist Muslim clerics during Martial Law remained; few people changed their minds. However, as democracy took hold, so did gradual changes which encouraged women to enter new fields of education as well as professional careers. Today there are an increasing number of women in traditional as well as non-traditional services and professions. Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan (and one of the largest cities in the world), with a population of 11.5 million and a land area of 3,527 square kilometers. The population is predominantly Muslim (96.49 percent); there are also Christians (2.35 percent), Hindus (0.83 percent), and others (Qadiani, Parsi, Jews, Buddhist—0.03 percent). Karachi is the financial capital of Pakistan, providing a large portion of Pakistan’s GDP, and generating about 65 percent of its national revenue, which provides a Gross Metropolitan Product (GMP) of $263 billion USD and a GMP per capita of $21,917 USD (rivaling Western European and American cities).6 Karachi is a center of industry, finance and trade. Most of Pakistan’s industrial activities take place there, and it is a popular locale for the head offices of public and private banks. It is also the home of the offices of many foreign multinational corporations and the largest stock exchange of Pakistan (the Karachi Stock Exchange). Karachi’s location on the shore of the Arabian Sea makes it an ideal shipping port and billions of tons of cargo come through its harbour every year. It has the largest international airport in Pakistan and is the chief terminal point for Pakistan’s railway transportation system. It has a higher number of universities and colleges and a higher literacy rate than any other city in Pakistan. Students come from all over the country to pursue their higher education in Karachi. Most 6

“Economy and Development,” Official Web Portal of the City District Government of Karachi, http://125.209.91.254/cdgk/Home/AboutKarachi/ Economy/tabid/271/Default.aspx (accessed July 9, 2008).

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Chapter Two

of the higher institutes in Karachi are considered the premier educational institutions of Pakistan and have competitive admission processes. Karachi is a new and modern city compared to other cities of Pakistan. Its people love glamour and keep themselves up-to-date in terms of fashion, trade, and social activities. They are considered more westernized by the people of other cities of Pakistan, and in many aspects they are very different. They enjoy the city’s nightlife, often staying up late at night and waking late the next morning. The main road in Karachi called Shahrah-e-Faisal is busy 24 hours a day; the only time the traffic slows is between four and five in the morning, but even then the road is never without traffic. The attractions of this city are its colourful market places, bazaars and its beaches. The shops and marketplaces are lavishly decorated and remain open till late night; restaurants and street vendors remain open long after midnight. People who come from other cities of Pakistan find it difficult to adjust to Karachi’s environment. The culture of Karachi is a blend of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Western influences: the culture, intensely and uniquely diverse, is unmatched in the country. People have very liberal attitudes and do not appreciate over-emotional and conservative views. Most of the people live in medium-sized houses or apartments rather than in large open houses as in other cities of Pakistan; the very wealthy prefer to live in large houses like those found in the Defence Housing Authority of Karachi. The feudal living style does not exist in Karachi. Since Karachi is located on the coast, the humidity level remains high throughout the year. The summers, which last from March until August, are hot, with temperatures ranging from approximately 33 to 42 C° (91 to 107 F°). The rainy season or monsoon rains appear for only a couple of days. The winters, lasting from November to March, are very mild: it is the most temperate time of year, with mild days and lovely sunshine, but nights may be cold. The city is multiethnic, and the dominant ethnic group in Karachi are the people who migrated to Pakistan from different parts of the subcontinent after the Partition of India. The government of Pakistan allotted properties left by the departing Hindus and Sikhs to the incoming refugees who settled in Karachi. Other large groups include Sindhis, Baluchis, Punjabis and Pashtuns. A large number of Afghan refugees have also settled here since the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Many people come to Karachi from rural areas in search of riches and job opportunities, lured by the promise of the wealth they believe it has. These people have developed into the vast squatter population in Karachi.

Pakistan

13

One hundred and fifty years ago Karachi was a small community of fishermen, numbering some 15,000 people; now it is the most important city of Pakistan, with a population of more than ten million. Because Karachi is the location of Pakistan’s largest port and large-scale manufacturing, it is now dominant in terms of economic and social indicators. Pakistani family life is based on the traditional roles and values of family members. The husband is the breadwinner, major decision maker and head of the family. The wife’s role is to bring up children, take care of the household and to provide emotional nurturance to her husband. If any family member fails to behave properly as demanded by the tradition, that person brings disharmony and shame to the family. For Pakistani women, their domestic, parental, and conjugal roles have the highest priority, whereas the occupational and community roles are secondary. A married woman’s primary role is to maintain her marriage: she is held responsible for its quality, whether it is considered successful. And as a wife and mother she is expected to be selfless, ever-nurturing and indefatigable. A Pakistani woman is usually perceived as existing as a member of a kin group rather than as an individual: a typical Pakistani woman grows up in a sheltered environment, with most decisions affecting her life made for her by others. She learns moral and social codes of behavior early in life. The birth of a girl child is greeted with less enthusiasm than that which welcomes a male: they are less valued and cared for than male children, and receive less education, health care and food because parents traditionally do not expect financial support from their daughters later in life as they expect it from sons. Girls are usually viewed as a burden because of the associated difficulties in maintaining the honor of the family: the girls’ virginity must be safeguarded, and dowry must be provided. Early childhood socialization, reinforced by parents, religion and community teaches a girl to emphasize home and family and to defer her career pursuits to the career priorities of her husband. People are too sex-starved to view women as simple human beings: this forces women to learn to submit to the demands of society. After certain age, usually during or after high school, fathers become responsible for their sons, whereas mothers are responsible for their daughters’ upbringing and training. Mothers teach their daughters household chores and have high expectations from them in terms of domestic responsibilities and child care. Older daughters are given the responsibilities of raising their younger brothers and sisters as if they are their own sons and daughters, and if money is scarce then the son and the daughter are also sent to work outside the home to provide additional

14

Chapter Two

income as well as taking care of their younger siblings. A married woman faces the same responsibilities, earning money if required and taking care of her children. Boys’ and men’s responsibilities take place outside the home. Parents of low financial status make good use of their children, both sons and daughters’ work and labour, if they are not traditional. More traditional families, however, do not allow their daughters to work even if the financial conditions are precarious. Families are portrayed as groups of close relatives (parents, children, and sons- and daughters-in-law) who are obligated to work and support each other, with the men obviously dominating. Children are expected to help provide for the family and participate in the family’s social as well as financial progress. Parents enforce these practises to secure their stable financial future, and because their children’s marriages depend so heavily on their financial status. A woman has no control over her property—in fact she is the property of her husband and his family. If a woman tries to leave her husband for any reason, he can forcefully reclaim her, as if she were a slave. Women may not sue alone in the court: claims for divorce, religious factors or complicated legal procedures may be allowed on certain grounds, but women risk losing their homes, children and property. Pakistani women reflect the contrasts and diversities prevailing in the country at all levels. Millions of poor, illiterate women workers are exploited, earning low wages for heavy burdens of work. In most cases they are also bound by traditional family roles and structures. There are well-educated housewives who have social status and economic security; there are dynamic, creative and articulate women who are broadening their horizons, working in high-level jobs and professions. But all these women are subject to the same degrading and discriminatory laws, customs and prejudices against women prevailing in the country. Due to the “male breadwinner” ideology, women are persistently undervalued as wage earners, their abilities to conduct themselves in a professional capacity and make decisions for themselves regularly under-appreciated. The ability to earn income has helped some women increase their independence and maintain self esteem, but if her family’s economic condition requires her to work, then she has to work “double days,” performing multiple roles. Pakistani women rarely leave their home towns on their own to look for employment: they usually move as a part of their fathers’, brothers’, or husbands’ families. The opportunities for women to attend school have increased, and as a result women have gained higher standards in self esteem, personal goals and ideals, but most of the women must still bury their expectations, sacrificing the opportunity to be the individuals they

Pakistan

15

had set out to be, especially after marriage. Despite—or perhaps because of—this it must be remembered that there are women who have escaped this pattern: there are women executives who have built their success upon rigid determination. They have overcome their difficulties and made their lives success stories. They fought against the roles and relationships and responses that put them at risk. The position Pakistani women have achieved was not granted to them voluntarily or out of any kindness. Pakistani women struggled hard for the rights to education and freedom of work and earning. They went through painful experiences, sacrificing many natural rights. They have come a long way, but they have not yet won: they still have a long way to go and must continue to struggle in order to achieve the status they deserve.

Gender Inequality There are great misconceptions about Islam and its laws. These misconceptions are pervasive not only in the non-Muslim world, but in the Muslim societies as well; such misconceptions are powerful and influence millions of lives. The origin of the bulk of these misconceptions is the heavy influence different cultures have had on Muslim society over time—many elements of such influence were adopted and preached as Islamic laws or as religious sanctions by Muslim clerics, and religion has been exploited by the dominant class in their own favour. Another reason is that Muslims were never interested in following the laws in their true sense; they were not willing to adopt new ways of life, sticking instead to social habits left over from Middle Eastern and South Asian cultures before the advent of Islam. Because of these misconceptions the Muslim women of Pakistan have suffered a great deal of unnecessary restriction. Most are required to stay within the confines of their homes and forbidden to come in contact with any male outside their family. Because of the conditions imposed on women, the preferred occupations were those of a school or college teachers and female doctors, because in these occupations segregation of the sexes can be easily maintained. These occupations are also preferred because women could get medical and educational services from women. The idea that both men and women need the satisfaction of achievement in the outside world does not hold for women in this society. Well-paid jobs that offer good prospects of promotion are reserved for men; women are granted jobs and professions which are less attractive to men because of the few benefits attached to them. This discrimination against women is justified on the grounds of perceived lower productivity, lack of physical strength, inability to easily take business trips, high absenteeism and turn-

16

Chapter Two

over. More women these days are now pursuing careers in certain maledominated fields such as engineering, business and law, but their level of pay still lags behind that of men of the same status. Throughout most of Pakistan’s history, women have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men. Motherhood and marriage are regarded as the most important aspects of a woman’s life. They are considered intellectually inferior to men and a major source of temptation and evil. They are thought of as naturally weaker than men, unable to do work which requires physical and intellectual effort and development, so they are left to do domestic chores which result from the stereotype that “a woman’s place is in the home.” Maternity—the natural biological role—is regarded as their major social role. The cultural and social pressures for women to become wives and mothers prevent many talented women from pursuing careers. They learn from their childhood that cooking, cleaning and caring for children is the behavior expected of them when they grow up. When they marry, their husbands virtually own them (and their children) as they do their material possessions. Legally they are defenceless to some extent to object to his decisions: culturally (and financially) they are completely dependent on their husbands.

Traditional Roles

Husband

Earn Money

Wife

Look after Home and Kids.

Figure 2.1 Traditional Roles in the Household

Traditional gender roles dictate that a wife’s job is to look after the home and family, and a husband’s job is to earn the money. Women are expected to submit, men are expected to dominate. Because of this practise, the differentiation between genders in access to social and economic opportunities is obvious.7 7

Female employment in industry, agriculture or services as defined according to the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC) system (revisions 2 and

Pakistan

17

Table 2.1 Female Employment in Services (as Percentage of Female Labour Force), 1995–2003.8 HDI Rank 52 67 70 78 90 99 84 100 101 104 107 102 121 126 128 136 140 153 148 158

Country Mexico Russian Federation Brazil Thailand Philippines Sri Lanka Turkey Maldives Jamaica Algeria Indonesia Egypt South Africa Morocco India Pakistan Bangladesh Yemen Kenya Nigeria

percentage 76 71 71 41 64 25 33 39 86 49 40 55 79 25 .. 20 23 9 75 87

Bangladesh stands third last in the Female Labour Force Participation with 23 percent of females employed in services. Pakistan is the second last with 20 percent of females employed, and Yemen is last with only 9 percent of females employed in services. Results in Table 2.2 below show the magnitude of the gender inequality: it is well pronounced in the labour force participation rate. It declined during late 1970s, which shows that the gender inequality decreased during these years, and women were given more chances to enter 3). Industry refers to mining and quarrying, manufacturing, construction and public utilities (gas, water and electricity). Agriculture refers to activities in agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing. Services refer to wholesale and retail trade; restaurants and hotels; transport, storage and communications; finance, insurance, real estate and business services; and community, social and personal services. United Nation Development Program, Human Development Report, 2007-2008. Reprinted by permission from the publisher. 8 Reprinted by permission from the publisher.

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18

Table 2.2 Magnitude of Gender Inequality Index for Pakistan9 Year 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Education Attainment index 148.82 149.06 146.35 146.05 145.95 144.24 145.16 143.26 141.04 138.52 141.52 140.88 140.33 139.12 138.30 136.87 136.81 137.59 137.86 138.42 136.22 131.02 129.65 129.50 127.10 125.06 126.86 125.64 114.44 113.70 113.58 113.22 112.30

Labour force participation 196.67 198.13 197.88 194.03 189.87 186.14 182.63 181.94 181.29 182.25 183.87 185.58 187.31 185.14 177.84 181.67 179.63 177.45 173.63 170.29 172.11 171.51 176.20 176.02 171.20 171.12 171.04 170.98 168.94 169.60 169.41 166.03 165.92

Composite Gender Inequality Index 148.60 149.13 148.11 146.69 145.25 143.44 142.59 141.70 140.73 140.19 141.71 142.05 142.47 141.34 138.63 139.42 138.70 138.24 137.03 136.13 135.99 134.05 135.31 135.25 132.60 131.89 132.46 132.04 127.61 127.59 127.48 126.23 125.89

the job market. But during the period of Martial Law instituted in 1980, the trend reverted to earlier conditions and all the progress made with 9

Source: SPDC estimates 2007–2008. Reprinted by the permission of the publisher.

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19

respect to women’s equality and participation in the work force during the 1970s was lost. During the first half of the 1980s, the policies for female segregation were fully enforced, and we can see the difference in the table. Since then there has been recovery and improvement. In Table 2.3, data shows substantial gender inequality in countries such as Egypt, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Morocco and Sudan. In the ratio of labour force participation rate, the inequality between the genders is most pronounced in Egypt, Morocco, Sudan and Pakistan. Egypt stands first, Sudan and Morocco stands second and Pakistan is third in female economic activity, compared to the percent of male rate. Pakistan, Nepal and Morocco show the greatest difference in literacy rates. Table 2.3 Gender Inequalities in Literacy and Economic Activity in a Sample of Countries (1995–2005)10 Country

Algeria Bangladesh Brazil Egypt Ethiopia India Indonesia Iran Kenya South Korea Mexico Morocco Nepal Nigeria Pakistan The Philippines South Africa Sri Lanka Sudan Thailand Turkey 10

Adult Literacy Rate: Percentage aged 15 and older, 1995-2005 Female Male 60.1 79.6 40.8 53.9 88.8 88.4 59.4 83.0 22.8 50.0 47.8 73.4 86.8 94.0 76.8 88.0 70.2 77.7 --90.2 93.2 39.6 65.7 34.9 62.7 60.1 78.2 35.4 64.1 93.6 91.6 89.9 84.1 89 92.3 51.8 71.1 90.5 94.9 79.6 95.3

Female Economic Activity as Percentage of male rate, 2005 45 61 71 27 79 42 60 52 78 68 50 33 64 53 39 66 58 67 33 81 36

UNDP Tables (2007–2008). Reprinted by the permission of the publisher.

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20

Gender Inequality in Labour Force Participation

Egypt

Sudan, Morocco

First

Second

Pakistan

Third

Figure 2.2 Gender Inequality in Labour Force Participation

Changing Society In the urban areas of Pakistan, women’s contribution to family economy and the job market has increased a great deal in the last 50 years. The tradition of secluding women and confining them to traditional jobs, thereby keeping male contact to a minimum, has also changed (to an extent). This is more prominent in the upper- and middle-class families in Karachi. The pressure to conform to traditional female behavior, including submission to household interests as dutiful wives and daughters, has also changed. Women can choose from a broad range of occupations such as laboratory assistants, clerks, sales and marketing professionals, journalists, lawyers, IT analysts, engineers, broadcasters, scientists, sailors, police officers, army, navy and air force personnel, nuclear scientists, etc., although the numbers in some of these categories are still small. Women are often found working as waitresses and chefs at newly decorated and fully modernized fast food outlets. In many modern department stores women are working as salespersons. Until recently such sales and marketing jobs were considered exclusively male jobs, and no women dared apply. Large numbers of women are found working in small and large factories; they are also employed in pharmaceutical and electronic industries. As the ratio of educated girls has increased, these young women have entered into white collar jobs competing with men and working side by side with them. There are entrepreneurs, architects, administrators, bankers, beauticians, fashion designers. Women are into sports like cricket, hockey, badminton, and table tennis. There are models, TV producers, singers, directors. Women are preferred for secretarial work and are often paid better salaries than men in that particular field. The medical profession is very popular with women: female doctors come from the upper- and middle-classes, health workers and nurses from the lower class. A large number of girls in schools and colleges dream of

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21

becoming doctors. Teaching is still popular among the middle class, even though badly paid. In recent years there has also been a substantial increase of women working in the legal field: they have positions as magistrates, civil and family court judges, rent controllers and session judges. Factories and shops are opening up new careers and widening horizons for women. The jobs which were unacceptable for women ten years ago are now popular with them: retail, for example, was once considered a very degrading job for girls, but now a large number of women work as salespeople in local as well as in multicultural outlets, restaurants, shops, etc. Society has accepted it and women no longer feel embarrassed. Women are even working as door-to-door salespersons. All these changes show the positive trend in women’s employment equality. There are, however, other factors which compel women to enter the job market in Karachi, and which give them opportunities to choose from a vast range of occupations. The people of Karachi are very competitive. They want to increase their social standing and improve their standards of living. Due to continuous inflation in the costs of living, particularly in urban areas of Pakistan, one man’s earnings is insufficient to maintain a family at a desirable standard of living. Because of the increase in the economic pressure on families, there is an increased pressure on women to take up paid work, which is in turn breaking down traditional restrictions. Women want to achieve economic independence and free themselves from unnecessarily traditional restrictions. They want to work not simply to survive but for their careers and self-fulfillment. With all the achievements in women’s education, they have begun to understand the value of being independent, and their changing attitudes are now expressing a preference to combine career and family roles in their adult lives. This gives them confidence, a sense of financial independence, and increases their status and value within the family.

Adult Literacy in Women and Girls Ages 15 and above Pakistan’s female adult literacy rate, defined as the percentage of girls and women ages 15 and above who can, with understanding, both read and write a short simple statement related to their everyday life is 48.7 percent.11

11 “Pakistan: The Human Development Index—Going Beyond Income.” Human Development Reports, United Nations Development Programme, http://hdrstats

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In Table 2.4, the highest female adult literacy rate across the board is in Thailand in 1990, which was 92.4 percent; in 2005 the Philippines had the highest literacy rate for females. In Pakistan the female adult literacy rate was 35.4 percent in 1990—by 2008 it had increased to 55.2 percent, a significantly positive trend.12 Table 2.4 Literacy and Enrolment in School13 (Percent ages 15 and above) 14

HDI rank 53 63 73 84 93 94 99 103 110 119 127 135 136 138 139 141 151 154 158 170 171 174 177

Mexico Brazil Thailand Philippines Sri Lanka Turkey Iran, Islamic Rep. of Algeria Indonesia Egypt India Pakistan Nepal Ghana Bangladesh Sudan Yemen Kenya Nigeria Ethiopia Central African Republic Mali Niger

1990

2003-2005

87.3 82.0 92.4 91.7 88.7 77.9 63.2 52.9 79.5 47.1 49.3 35.4 30.4 58.5 34.2 45.8 32.7 70.8 48.7 28.6 33.2 18.8 11.4

90.2 88.8 90.5 93.6 89.1 79.6 76.8 79.6 86.8 59.4 47.8 48.7 34.9 40.8 40.8 51.4 49.0 70.2 60.1 22.8 48.6 19.0 14.4

.undp.org/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_PAK.html. Reprinted by the permission of the publisher. 12 “Pakistan: The Human Development Index—Going Beyond Income.” Reprinted by the permission of the publisher. 13 Ibid. 14 Human development index (HDI) value = The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of age-specific mortality rates at the time of birth were to stay the same throughout the child’s life.

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23

Table 2.5 The Percentage Distribution of Employed Persons 10 Years of Age and above by Major Occupation Groups, Area and Sex in Pakistan, 2005–200615 Rural Major Occupation Groups. Total Legislators, Senior Officials and Managers. Professionals Technicians and Associate Professionals Clerks Service Workers and Shop Market Sales Workers. Skilled Agricultural and Fishery Workers. Craft and Related Trades Workers. Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers. Elementary (unskilled) occupations

Urban

Both Sexes 69.19 5.32

Male 53.26 5.1

Female 15.94 0.22

Both sexes 30.81 6.66

Male 27.27 6.48

Female 3.54 0.18

0.62

0.57

0.05

1.05

0.87

0.18

2.51

1.83

0.67

2.58

1.74

0.85

0.43 2.47

0.42 2.42

0.01 0.05

1.0 2.9

0.95 2.78

0.05 0.12

33.62

23.45

10.17

1.7

1.34

0.36

7.68

6.06

1.62

8.08

6.85

1.23

2.32

2.29

0.03

1.84

1.81

0.02

14.23

11.11

3.12

5.01

4.45

0.55

Table 2.5 shows that in the rural areas of Pakistan the preferred occupations are skilled agricultural and fishery workers (33.62 percent), 15 “Pakistan: The Human Development Index—Going Beyond Income.” Reprinted by the permission of the publisher.

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whereas in urban areas the preferred occupation is craft and related traders and workers (8.08 percent). The percentage of males and females working as craft and related traders and workers is also highest, with 6.85 percent for males and 1.23 percent for females. The second and third most preferred occupations for women in urban areas are Technicians and Associate Professional, and Elementary (unskilled) occupations, respectively. (For the details of Occupation Groups, see the Appendix to the book on page 179). Table 2.6 Labour Force Participation Rate in Pakistan (percentages)16 Year 1975 1979 1985 1991 1995 2000 2002 2004

Male 69.6 70.3 71.1 66.6 64.3 65.0 66.9 67.1

Female 3.5 5.3 4.1 8.6 7.0 8.8 10.0 9.4

Total 38.8 39.6 39.3 39.0 37.0 38.1 39.9 39.2

The female labour force participation rate has increased over the years, with the exception in the year 1985, when martial law was imposed and various barriers were placed on female employment. See Table 2.2 (page 18) for further information.

16

Source: Pakistan Labour Force Survey, FBS, GoP (various issues) 2005.

CHAPTER THREE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Age There is a large variation in the socio-economic characteristics in all three categories of employed women. They were all between 16 and 60 years of age, and it was found that age did not influence the entry of women into the job market. The highest percentage age group across all three categories was 30 years. In the sample, category one, the domestic workers, demonstrated the broadest variation in age, from the youngest group (16 to 24 years old) to 40+. Domestic workers, not needing specialized skills to enter the job market, begin working early in life, between five and 16 years of age. The age groups are represented almost equally in category two, with a slightly greater number from the 30-year-olds; in category three the greatest number of employed women are between 30 and 40 years old. The women of categories two and three entered the job market between 16 to 24 years of age. Those who started the job at 16 to 21 years of age had completed high school or pre-graduation levels, whereas those from the same categories who started later, at 22 to 24 years of age, were usually graduates and post-graduates.

Education Level All domestic workers (category one) are either illiterate or have attained only primary education. In category two, 20.8 percent of women had graduated either high school or college and a further 16.7 percent were postgraduates. As seen in figure 3.2 below, these women work in national (8.3 percent), multinational (12.5 percent), government (4.16 percent) and local (12.5 percent) companies. The greater number belongs to either multinational or local companies. In category three, 12.5 percent of the women were graduates or had achieved high school level education, and 25 percent were postgraduates. These women work either in national (29.12 percent) or multinational (8.3

26

Chapter Three

percent) companies. It is obvious from the data that a large number of these women work in national companies. Category 1

Total 25%

25 % Illiterate/Primary Education

Figure 3.1 Education Level of Category One Women

Category 2

Total 37.5% 20.8% High School/Graduates 16.7% Postgraduates Types of Company They Work for 8.3% National 12.5% Multinational 4.16% Government 12.5% Local

Figure 3.2 Education Level of Category Two Women

Category 3

Total 37.5% 12.5% High School/Graduates 25% Postgraduates Types of Company They Work for 29.12% National 8.3% Multinational

Figure 3.3. Education Level of Category Three Women

Large numbers of female graduates are still found in “respectable” occupations—a large number of women were found in medical/biology related fields and as teachers, and in occupations where there are more females than males. This may be due to available choices or family pressures. And since the ratio of women in education has increased markedly in Karachi, younger women have entered into a variety of

Socio-Economic Characteristics

27

occupations. Their number is increased even in those occupations which were once dominated solely by males. All the women of category one earned wages of fewer than 2000 rupees ($28.00 USD) per month: 16.6 percent are not satisfied with their earnings while 8.3 percent find the money sufficient. All of the money goes to household expenses; none of them has any left over to spend on themselves or save. Category 1

Total 25% Salary •Rs2000 (•$ 34) Are they satisfied with their salaries? 8.3% Satisfied 16.6% Not Satisfied How they spend their salaries 25% all in household expenses.

Figure 3.4 Category One Salaries

Category 2

Total 37.5 % Salary Rs 2100 to 12000 ($35 to 200) Are They Satisfied with Their Salaries? 12.5% Satisfied 25% Not Satisfied. How They Spend Their Salaries 25% All in Household Expenses. 8.3% Part in Household, Part is Saved 4.16% Save All

Figure 3.5 Category Two Salaries

The women of category two earn between 2,100 and 12,000 rupees ($29.41 and 168.06 USD) a month. Only 12.5 percent are satisfied with their salary; 25 percent are not. Twenty-five percent of them have to spend

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their salaries on household expenses; 8.3 percent are able to save some part of the money, while 4.16 percent save all of their salaries. In category three, women earn salaries above 13,000 rupees ($182.07 USD) a month. As in category two, 12.5 percent are satisfied with this salary and 25 percent are not. None of these women needed to spend their money on their household; 33.3 percent of them saved some part of their earnings and spent part either on their household or on themselves, and 4.17 percent spent all their money on themselves. Some of the respondents said that the money spent “on themselves” was actually used to buy gifts for friends, family etc. Despite the financial freedom that many of these women enjoy, it is clear from the above figure that 66.6 percent of the women are not satisfied with their salaries; 50 percent of them had to spend all their money on household expenses. Category 3

Total 37.5% Salary Rs 12100+ ($ 201+) Are They Satisfied with Their Salaries? 12.5% Satisfied. 25% Not Satisfied. How They Spend Their Salaries 33.3% Part in Household, Part is Saved 4.17% Spend All on Themselves

Figure 3.6 Category Three Salaries

Marital Status In category one, 20.8 percent of the women were married; 4.16 percent were single. Most of these women married at an early age, and most described their husbands as lazy, addicted to drugs or unemployed, therefore these women have to sustain the family financially. They have large numbers of dependents—siblings, parents and in-laws as well as their own children—which increases the economic pressure these women are already under; therefore there is a much higher percentage of married women in this category than in the other two.

Socio-Economic Characteristics

29

Category 1

Category 2

Category 3

Total 25%

Total 37.5%

Total 37.5%

20.8% Married 4.16% Single

8.3% Married 25% Single 4.16% Divorced/ Separated/ Widowed

12.5% Married 25% Single

Figure 3.7 Marital Status Statistics

In category two there are more single women (25 percent) as compared to married (8.3 percent). Only 4.16 percent were divorced, separated or widowed. Divorce and separation are considered shameful in this society and is therefore under-reported in all three categories. The participation rate of married women in the job market in category two is very small compared to single women, although they are under the same degree of economic pressure: this is because young women often leave school early to enter the job market, and in many cases where their wages constitute a large part of the family’s income, their marriages are delayed to take advantage of their contribution for as long as possible. In category three, 12.5 percent of the respondents were married and 25 percent single. The reason for the large percentage of single women in the category three job market is that with the extended education available to these women, more of them enter the job market and delay their marriages because they either cannot find the right match or they continue their careers for their own sake.

Status of the Head of the Household Throughout the history of Islamic culture, the head of household has always been a man—grandfathers, fathers, brothers and sons. These men make the decisions for their families, concerning both private matters and the family’s relationship with the outside world. Figures 3.8, 3.9 and 3.10 below summarize the data given by respondents concerning the heads of their households.

30 Category 1

Chapter Three Total 25% Currently employed (Husband/Father) 25% No Designation (Husband/Father) 25% Daily Wage Labour Monthly salary (Husband/Father) 25% Nothing Educational level (Husband/Father) 25% Illiterate/Primary

Figure 3.8 Heads of Households in Category One

Category 2

Total 37.5% Currently Employed (Husband/Father) 8.33% Yes 16.67% No/Retired 12.5% Expired Designation (Husband/Father) 8.33% Clerical/Sales Level 29.17% Not Applicable Monthly Salary (Husband/Father) 4.16% Rs 2000 8.33% Rs 2100-12000 12.5% Nothing 12.5% Not Applicable Educational Level (Husband/Father) 4.16% Illiterate/Primary 12.5% Graduates 8.3% Postgraduates 12.5% Not Applicable

Figure 3.9 Heads of Households in Category Two

Socio-Economic Characteristics

31

As seen in Figure 3.8 above, none of the heads of the household in category one were employed at the time of the interviews, mainly because the principal job market for these men is short-contract day labour. Some women gave the reasons for their menfolk’s unemployment as disability, illness and drug addiction: others were too old to work, and in a few cases simply unwilling to. These men did not earn anything, and were either illiterate or educated only to a primary level. Out of the 37.5 percent of respondents that made up category two, only 8.33 percent were from families where the head of household was employed. The heads of household worked in the same occupations as the women of their families, and earned wages or salaries of 2,000 to 12,000 rupees per month. Pensioners and part-time or day workers made up 4.16 percent of the heads of household; they brought in less than 2,000 rupees per month. A further 12.5 percent earned nothing, relying entirely on the women of their family. In this category the level of education of the heads of household varied: 4.16 percent were illiterate, 12.5 percent had graduated either high school or college, and 8.3 percent were postgraduates. Category 3

Total 37.5% Currently Employed (Husband/Father) 12.5% Yes 8.33% Unemployed/Retired 16.67% Expired Designation (Husband/Father) 12.5% Executive/Manager 24.96% Not Applicable Monthly Salary (Husband/Father) 12.5% Rs 12100+ 24.96% Not Applicable Educational Level (Husband/Father) 12.5% Postgraduates 24.96% Not Applicable

Figure 3.10 Heads of Household in Category Three

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32

In category three, only 12.5 percent (out of 37.5 percent) of the heads of household were employed. They were all educated at a postgraduate level, worked in the same occupations as the women of their families and drew salaries of more than 13,000 rupees per month.

Number of Family Members The total number of family members included children, parents, siblings and other relatives who lived in the same household. It did not include guests or persons living in the family home temporarily. As we see in figure 3.11, in category one the maximum number of family members was 15, and most of the families had eight members. Similarly, the maximum number of family members in category two was nine, and in category three was ten; the mean number of family members for both categories two and three was six. Category 1

Maximum Number of Family Members: 15

Category 2

Maximum Number of Family Members: 9

Mode: 8

Category 3

Maximum Number of Family Members: 10

Mode: 6

Figure 3.11 Size of Families across the Three Categories

Mode: 6

CHAPTER FOUR WORKING CONDITIONS Selecting a Job The selection of a job is a matter for the whole family, particularly in the case of women, as for most people the income goes at least in part to support the household. A woman’s parents or husband decides what kind of job she should accept, taking their circumstances and attitudes towards women into consideration. For the women of category one (domestic workers), most of them take domestic work because in these jobs they come in contact only with the housemistress, and therefore can maintain seclusion. This is considered respectable both for the women workers and their families. These women are usually uneducated and unskilled; even if respectability was not a guiding factor, they would have few choices otherwise. Many women, when asked why they chose to take domestic work, answered that their lack of education forced their hands; a few had minor skills such as embroidery, but domestic work was the only thing that paid enough to live on—some of the women relied entirely on their own salaries to support their families, as their husbands were too old or prevented from working because of illness or addiction problems. Razia, a 24-year-old married woman, lives in a combined family setup. She complains that: I work in four different houses. I have one small child. There are three men and two other women of our family living in the house, but our men do not work, and the three of us [women] have to earn and take care of the men as well. We are uneducated and have no other choice than to take domestic work. Our men allow us to do only this kind of work because we come in contact only with ladies of the houses in which we work.

The women of category two are not career-oriented. Thirty-three percent of these women said their current job was their own choice, but most are governed by their families’ choice, as the women of category one are. In most cases these women work because of increased economic pressure on their families, whether from the departure or loss of a father or

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other family member or a particularly expensive event (such as the wedding of a daughter). These families are more likely to be under stress for financial or other reasons, and sometimes their daughters work simply for the sake of getting out of the house every day; they don’t have higher or professional education and the jobs they do are often temporary. Many tell themselves they are doing it for the experience, when in truth is they are doing it just to pass the time. These women enter wage-earning occupations as a result of changes in circumstance. They did not set out to invade occupations which were monopolised by men, but now there are several occupations dominated by women, such as school teachers, secretaries, nurses, receptionists, telemarketers, and others. These working-class women are compelled to earn their living in the interval between their studies and marriage. They usually don’t take these jobs for the sake of a career: the work is a necessity, not an honourable alternative to marriage or a means of selfexpression. They do not seek promotions or ask for pay increases on the understanding that the work is just temporary. They do not enjoy the glamour of the job if there is any or try to find it if there is not: they bide their time until marriage, home and children offer themselves as an alternative, so the work can be sacrificed without any regret. Most of these women are not choosy about which job they take: they accept whatever suitable jobs are available, without considering salary and benefit packages. They are just satisfied with whatever salary they get. Jobs in this category have expanded gender boundaries, and women have a wider choice than they did even a decade ago. They have the courage to accept this new situation and adjust themselves to it, despite the traditionalists who believe that women’s physical weakness and delicate sensibilities must be protected from the rude buffeting of the world, that female purity and chastity are vulnerable enough to be endangered by harsh reality, and it is the job of men to protect them and keep their womenfolk in comfort. Many category two women explained that they did not consider any of the personal aspects of the job, just took the first one available. Some had gotten their jobs through seeing an ad in a newspaper and applying; they accepted simply because they were offered a position. Distance is usually the first aspect considered when a young woman looks for a job. Parents are reluctant to allow their daughters to seek work which entails living away from home. Girls accept this: most prefer to work close to their homes, at least in the same city, avoiding the tension and hassle of travelling, and will compromise on salary and benefits rather than move to another city or place of work. Parents prefer their daughters

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to live within the family circle, where they can take care of them and protect them; some parents will keep their young sons close as well if there is a choice, but separations are usually accepted because they want to get their sons jobs with good prospects for the future—a prospect not considered necessary for girls. Once married, young women usually move to their husband’s family home and leave their jobs, so the women generally seek employment within a distance that can be conveniently reached from their own homes. However, if a woman’s husband gets a job in another city, she and their children would probably move with him. One primary school teacher reported that her “parents let [her] do this job because the school is just few yards away. The salary is not good, but it is near the house, which is the best thing.” Samia, a 24-year-old single woman who earns 2,500 rupees per month ($29.41 USD) says: I work as an x-ray technician in a clinic near to my house. The salary is not good, but I took it because it is near to my house, and my parents think it’s safe for me.

In category three, 77 percent of the respondents said that their current job was their own decision; the others said they had taken an opportunity available to them or that the selection was made for them by their families. Their jobs were offered to them on the basis of their qualifications or their work experience. There are many elements in Pakistan’s social background that have favoured the success of women. The battle has been fought by women as well as men when they favoured their daughters or wives to compete with men. The objective of the battle remains the same: recognition by society that women are members of the society and they have the right to choose the paths and patterns of their own lives. One respondent commented: The idea of a family where men are the breadwinners and women are the homemakers is still the ideal, if only we learn to respect each others’ roles. The reason women have entered the job market is because we want respect for what they can do, for what they can earn if they choose to. Women and women’s work have always been secondary. Society would have us believe that household work and caring for our families is less respectable than earning money: if society had more real respect for women’s roles in the home, we wouldn’t need to go out and earn money in order to be recognized.

Thirty-nine-year-old Jamila Khan, who works as a lecturer in a women’s college, said:

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I was selected for this position because I was well qualified and had the confidence. My mother also worked as a lecturer, so it was like a family profession.

A 36-year-old journalist said: This job is my own choice. I had relevant qualifications and now I have about ten years’ experience in this field. I enjoy my work as much as I did when I started, because there is always something new to learn or discover. I am not satisfied with the salary, but I will continue this work. 18

Category 1

16

Category 2

14

Category 3

12 Ratio of women

10 8 6 4 2 0 A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

Reason

Key: a: Husband’s disability/old age/drugs/ /gambling. b: Absence of man in a family. c: Presence of large number of dependents. d: To increase the income for household expenses. e: To provide better quality education to children. f: Acquiring money for their dowry. g: For getting experience/career. h: To get a sense of financial security.

Figure 4.1 Reasons for Working

i: Feeling of being useful and valued for the income. j: To escape from the family worries. k: To avoid feeling of loneliness l: For getting out of house and feeling independent. m: Avoid being burden on family. n: Utilization of education and training. o: Just to pass time/ for fun and will leave after marriage.

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In this graph we can see that the highest number of category one women (domestic workers) worked because they had large families dependent on their income. Other reasons given were the husband’s disability/old age/drugs/gambling, or absence (abandoned or widowed women). Some worked to augment the household income and were valued according to the size of their income. For women of category two, most women worked to escape from the family worries. They also worked to gain experience, to utilise their education and training, to increase the household income, or just to pass the time: they intend to leave as soon as they are married. A woman of about 52 years who has grown-up children, now working in the administration department of a travel agency, tells how important this work is to her: My children are all grown up and are busy with their own lives. I used to work before my marriage, and then I was housewife for about twenty years. But now that my children are grown up, I have nothing to do at home; I became very bored, so I decided to take a job. I like this work: it has a great office environment, good team spirit, and I have wonderful colleagues. My job has taken me out of my boredom and depression. If I didn’t have it, I don’t know what I would do.

A 32-year-old single woman working as a data editor in a market research company says that she finds her work boring, but she sticks with it because it keeps her away from her home. She says if she doesn’t work, problems at home upset her mind. My work is monotonous and under-stimulating, but I like my colleagues and the office environment. Most of all, I can’t stay home because my parents are so worried about my marriage that they can’t help being angry at me. They take out their frustration on me, especially my mum. The more she sees me around, the more she thinks about my marriage and then gets upset. So I feel better and relaxed here in my office.

In category three, most of the women work for the sake of experience and to build a career. Other reasons frequently given were to maintain financial security, to feel useful and valued for their income, to escape from the family worries and to utilise their education and training. In addition to the main reasons as described in the chart on page 36, some women—mainly from categories two and three—gave more unusual answers for why they worked. Some said they wanted to have a fixed routine: if they didn’t work they would stay up late at night and consequently wake up late in the morning, and then the day is wasted; they

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use work as a means of time management (and in some cases to deal with psychological pressure). If they don’t work they felt they became lazy, apathetic and depressed. Some women found that work widened their social circle of professional people: they had the chance to talk to more target-oriented people rather than wasting time gossiping with their neighbours. It broadened their social horizons and provided the opportunity to spend time with people other than family, friends, relatives and neighbours. It also gave them social status and identity: they garnered respect from their community because of the money they earned. Work helps these women develop and enhance their personalities, which is also beneficial to society and the nation itself. The more members of a family work, the more the family prospers; the more people work, the more quickly the country prospers. It would be wrong if half the population just sat home and did nothing. Life is wasted for these women if they remain confined to their homes. The attitude of a working woman’s family also changes in a positive way towards one another. They understand and realize each others’ problems and learn to compromise with less difficulty. Employment is the best way to make use of these women’s time: by working they make a positive, active contribution to society and learn about other aspects of life. Most married and divorced women work for economic reasons or because they believe that their function in the family is to bring stability; they do not work because they like it. Many single women, on the other hand, work for ambition or for the sheer love of the job: category three women often work for their careers and have ambitions. Category two women enjoy the work, financial independence and freedom they get from work. The graph below shows the facilities and perquisites provided by employers in all three categories. The highest number of domestic workers gets free meals during their lunch time. Category two women get company’s transport and maternity leave. The other facilities are insurance, gratuity/pension, and medical facilities. The highest numbers of category three women get maternity leave. Other facilities are gratuity/pension, medical facilities and insurance. Some of them get allowance for children. All working women worry about child care facilities. Domestic workers take their children with them if their mistresses allow it, which is rare; the mistresses often complain that if their workers bring their children with them, they don’t concentrate on work and the children, especially the infants, make the place dirtier. Domestic workers have to

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make their own arrangements for their infants, like taking them to their relatives. 6

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

5

4 Ratio of Women

3

2

1

0 A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

Facilities

a: Child care. b: Transport. c: Meals during lunch. d: Medical facilities. e: Insurance.

f: Gratuity/pension. g: Allowance facility for children. h: Maternity leave. i: No facility.

Figure 4.2 Facilities and Amenities Provided by Companies

For the women of categories two and three, the problem remains the same. There are very few companies or organizations that provide day care centers: lack of child care is one of the most common reasons that women leave their jobs after having their first child. They may get maternity leave, but if there is no one at home to take care of the child and no day care, it becomes impossible for them to continue their jobs. Another concern of working women is the gender wage gap. They work the same hours as men for lower wages and salaries, and worry about their pay not keeping up with the rising costs. They receive no allowances for their children and feel that this is an injustice, a means for men to keep women subjugated in terms of work and salary. Consequently, many women would prefer to stay home rather than to compete with men. Other primary concerns for working women are discrimination and a safe work environment. Category three women face discrimination for promotions, and many complain that there should be effective laws to

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challenge discrimination and unfair treatment in the workplace—these injustices are their primary concern with respect to their jobs. The majority of category two women were concerned about safe working environments: most of these women worked out of necessity, and often face harassment or outright abuse if they have no father, husband or other male family member to make a complaint on their behalf, especially if the harasser is their boss; there are no laws against this mistreatment. Every organization or company has its own rules to handle such incidents. Ninety percent of category two women strongly feel that there should be proper and effective laws to challenge such behavior. If women had recourse to justice and a defense against scandal and slurs on their names, more would feel at liberty to enter the job market.

Effect of Dress, Jewelry and Cosmetics All domestic workers wear jewelry, not as a fashion but as part of their tradition and culture: even the poorest of them wears heavy jewelry. The most common items worn by these women are pendants, nose-rings, heavy ear ornaments, finger rings, necklaces, bracelets and anklets: they start wearing jewelry at an early age as part their cultural custom. Their dresses are usually heavily and colorfully embroidered with geometrical designs. Bright dresses and jewelry are worn even at work, but cosmetics are not used. All domestic workers are Sindhi. Sindhi dress heavily ornamented with charming and unique embroidery, usually featuring mirror work on the front part of the dress. It is very costly when made with proper cloth and embroidery, but there are less expensive varieties available, done with colorful threads. These women usually do their own embroidery; they also sew their own clothes if they happen to own a sewing machine. Otherwise they ask their neighbours or friends, who charge a small amount of money for the dress and its embroidery. Domestic workers are conscious of the inferior quality of their clothing and admire the dresses of their mistresses and their daughters. An 18-year-old domestic worker said: I like the way my mistress and her daughters dress. They wear silk and fine-textured cotton dresses, mostly Shalwar Kameez (the national dress). If I wore such clothing the people in my community would make fun of me, and anyway my parents do not permit me to wear it. I must wear the traditional style of dress.

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Another young domestic worker gave an insight into the social importance of clothing: From the way we dress in our traditional style, it is obvious that we are domestic workers, so people always treat us as servants, with less respect. We do not have the privileges of those who wear the national dress, and because of our clothing we cannot find any other job except as a domestic worker.

Their informal language and manners and their garments are the most visible factors that show their poverty and therefore set them apart from the rest of society: they are tied to their traditional dress and the manners they adopted back in their villages. However, domestic workers have fewer complaints about clothing than they do about other aspects of their situation: the matter seemed trivial compared to the hard work and lack of proper food and water that plague their lives. One woman remarked: All the money I earn is used to buy food for my family; if someone gets sick, we have to take money for medicine out of our money for food. I am never left with money to buy my own clothes. If I get a good mistress, she will sometimes give me cloth to make dresses. I usually use patches of different cloths if my dress is torn.

These domestic workers work long hours, taking care of their own homes as well as their mistresses’ houses, and it is these working-class people who are the most deprived of decent clothing to wear. Their dresses are embroidered but they are also usually old and worn, patched with scraps of different coloured cloth. Their wages are insufficient to buy new clothes, and this lack is a crucial factor holding them back from the opportunities extended to the better-dressed members of society. The women of categories two and three prefer to wear the national dress or a sari. The national dress is Shalwar Kameez with a dupatta. Shalwar and Kameez are two separate components, but always worn together, so the costume is always referred to in the singular, not like the Western “t-shirt and trousers.” Shalwar are trousers, traditionally made very baggy at the top of the leg, pleated at the waist and narrow at the ankles. The modern style is for narrow trousers instead of baggy; these are preferred by girls and young women. The Kameez is a long tunic, which may be loose or close-fitting. The side seams are left open below the waist-line, which gives the wearer freedom of movement, and the tunic may be long-sleeved or sleeveless. The dupatta, which completes the ensemble, is a large scarf made of very light material, which comes in

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various sizes. It is worn in place of a chaddar, which is a large thick piece of cloth worn over the tunic to cover the upper portion of the body and the head. The dupatta is usually made of cotton, and considered a delicate symbol of femininity. Younger women and girls wear it not to cover their head or in lieu of a chaddar, but just as a stylish accessory over the shoulders or around the neck. The idea associated with outfits like saris, Shalwar Kameez and dupattas is that they symbolize the balance of femininity, modesty and non-violent attitude. The weather in Karachi is mostly very warm, so it makes sense to wear such clothing. These outfits are usually made of light material, mostly light cotton specially made for hot summer days. The outfits come in all varieties, from very cheap to very expensive and from plain to embroidered. They are easy to make, and therefore it is easy to economise and sew one’s clothes at home. They can also be bought ready-made in stores, and tailors charge less money to make Shalwar Kameez than any other type of clothing, including men’s clothes. In this society a woman’s clothes are always noticed. Whether she is working in an office, walking down the street, shopping or just running an errand, she must carefully consider what she wears and how she appears. If her dress is in any way improper or if she wears any dress considered modern (any dress that is not Shalwar Kameez), she becomes the center of attention to all the people around her. Their stares and remarks can become difficult to handle. Certain aspects of dress also depend on the tradition of a geographical area. In rural and some suburban areas, women are usually seen wearing large dupattas made of thick cotton material to disguise the contours of their bodies, whereas in well-developed urban areas, fashionable trousers and jeans have made their way in. Long hair is appreciated and considered a symbol of femininity, but many working women prefer to have their hair cut short in a fashionable style. They wear a dupatta not as a veil but a delicate symbol of femininity. In spite of all these changes, women still have to be very careful about what they wear at their workplace, because their dress creates an impression on their colleagues. For example, if a woman has only a few dresses to wear at her workplace, she will be thought of as poor, lacking sufficient money to buy herself new clothes, and therefore economically dependent on this job. As a result her promotion and pay rise will be at stake. Shehla, who works as a secretary, said: I want to wear good dresses but since I travel by public transport, I have to be very careful, so that I don’t look different than the others. When there

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are important meetings I have to dress nicely, and this gives me confidence, it happens only once or twice in a month.

Other women remarked that their colleagues often noticed and commented on their clothing, and that they considered the reactions of the men in the office, particularly their seniors, when they chose what to wear. It is very important that a woman not wear the same dress repeatedly in the workplace, because it is noticed and lowers the value of the wearer, except in such cases where all employees wear uniforms. The fact that dress represents a woman’s financial status can be crucial. If a woman continues to wear the same dresses and veil over and over again indicates that she does not have money to buy new clothes, that she is desperate to keep her position under any circumstances; therefore employers will withhold pay rises and promotions, no matter how good her work is, because they know she will not leave the source of income. On the other hand, women who present themselves as financially secure or wealthy by wearing expensive dresses and gold jewelry (necklaces, rings, bangles and earrings) are more highly valued at their workplace. They get more respect and may be hired at a better salary as well. It is believed that these women are more confident, have had a better education and are more worldly, can speak better English and therefore will have no problem communicating with co-workers, clients and customers as required. Tahira, who works as counter staff for an airline ticket seller, said: I have to wear new and good clothing. It increases one’s value. In my job I have to deal with the public, and therefore it is very important that I should be well dressed.

The counter staff in a fast food chain has fixed uniforms that they must wear while on duty. These uniforms are provided by the company. When they were asked about clothing, there were conflicting answers. Two of the contradictory responses were: It gives a professional look and a feeling of belonging to the company. Above all I don’t have to spend time and money on making new dresses and deciding everyday what to wear. Uniforms include trousers or skirts, top and shoes. But we still have a choice to make whatever hair style we want. Jewelry and make-up are also optional. I like to wear light jewelry and light make-up. I feel comfortable in this uniform.

Whereas another respondent was less satisfied with the clothing:

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Chapter Four I have been working here for one year, and now I am kind of tired wearing the same dress every day. I know it gives a professional look and attitude but I like to wear different dresses everyday, change my style, and wear new colors, jewelry and new styles of shoes. It gives a fresh look and a positive attitude. It makes you feel refreshed when you choose what to wear depending on the mood or weather. Wearing the same dress makes you dull.

One school teacher said that because of her job, she had to keep her wardrobe varied and in good condition. Most of the women interviewed credited themselves with wearing decent clothes, and so were asked to explain what they thought was decent. Some of the most common answers were that they wore traditional clothing kept simple (without ornate embroidery) and avoided wild or bright colours, and that the clothing was kept clean and in good condition (not wrinkled or patched). One woman replied that “obviously, you cannot wear in the office what you wear in clubs, sports or in exercise sessions.” Another respondent said “since there are no dress codes in any office, I guess we should wear what suits us considering our culture and society.” Other typical responses were: By decent dress I mean your clothes should not reveal your stomach, back or chest. It looks very indecent and embarrassing when someone wears this type of dress in the office. I wear anything that suits me. I wear trousers, jeans, shirts, t-shirts, national dress…anything that I feel like wearing. Sometimes I wear highheeled shoes, boots or open-toed shoes. All is decent as long as it suits you. When people in the office start making comments on your dress, and these are not good comments, it means you need to change your style.

Most working women in categories two and three wear light jewelry such as earrings, ring or necklaces. They prefer their hair short or knotted into a bun. Cosmetics are used very sparingly, except for lipstick—nearly every working woman uses lipstick. Dr. Seema, who works in a hospital, thinks that it is important to reflect her personality through proper dress and jewelry: “It makes you feel young, fresh and charming and it increases patients’ trust in you.” In certain cases, traditional, cultural or unique dresses become identities: for example, a 56-year-old librarian said

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I wear saris and my co-workers admire them, and always have something positive to say about them. I like being appreciated for my style and the saris I wear.

Another lady who is a doctor, about 50 years of age, said: I dress in such a way so that people will not call me fashionable. Because people accept me to care for them, if they think I concentrate more on the fashion of my clothes, jewelry and such, they might lose trust in me and think that I am not serious in my profession. But I do keep my clothing current and looking new.

A woman working as a manager in a large department store explained how lucky she has been in having good knowledge about her clothing and posture: I was lucky because when I joined here as a supervisor, my manager was a foreign lady. She taught me everything, from how to stand and how to talk to customers to the type of dresses, jewelry and make-up to wear. I used to wear loose dresses and stand with arms folded when talking with clients. She taught me how the proper dress and posture can give a confident look and make a good impression. She even taught me how to carry my handbag, and to choose shoes to go with a dress. She taught me a lot and I feel lucky I had her as my manager.

There are no dress codes for women at their workplaces. If a woman’s appearance is dictated by religious or cultural beliefs, it is accepted without criticism in the beginning and in areas where she will not have to deal with customers or the public. It also depends on whether an organization is more formal or open concerning dress codes. Newcomers usually rely on their own cultural sensitivity and often get embarrassed hints from more experienced colleagues if they stray from the acceptable. Some women explained their experiences. A 25-year-old IT professional said: When I joined, I sometimes used to wear brightly colored, heavily embroidery silk dresses. I brought them with me from the village I grew up in, although we migrated to Karachi when I was very young. After a while one of my colleagues told me that people in the office made jokes and funny comments about it. So now I don’t wear these dresses; instead I wear simple Shalwar Kameez made of cotton.

Another woman working as counter staff said:

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Chapter Four I used to wear a black head scarf as a religious binding, but my supervisor told me that it looks awkward at the counter, since no one else is wearing one. I also noticed that girls who dress in a more western style attracted more customers and therefore earned more commission. So now I changed my style and don’t wear the scarf to work.

Pakistani women are always conscious about their clothes. They dress according to the rituals, customs and traditions they were raised with. In Karachi they may wear traditional or heavily embroidered dresses to festivals and parties, but in the workplace they like to wear the national dress or western dress, which is usually trousers and shirts. Western-style skirts and tight blouses are avoided. People think the trousers and shirts are non-Islamic, but have become popular anyway. I like to wear jeans and shirts. I feel comfortable in it because I don’t have to wear a dupatta with it—it is a big headache to take care of the dupatta. But it looks nice with the national dress.

Dresses express individuality. People in offices take notice of their coworkers’ clothing and comment on it, particularly women’s dresses. The comments and responses are from women to women or men to women (a woman would not comment on a man’s clothing). The environment of the firm or industry plays a major role: Westernized dress is preferred and appreciated whereas cultural and religious styles of dress are less acceptable. Women who are considered modern and wear more westernized dresses usually have a better chance of getting promoted—but they are also considered easily available for dates. Women who are culturally or religiously dressed have fewer chances to get good salaries; sometimes they have a harder time getting a job in the first place. They are thought of as less active, less intelligent and socially not “in.” Their coworkers hesitate to communicate with them because they know the women prefer not to when it can be avoided. And yet they are thought of as good and decent ladies, unlike the prevailing opinion of women who wear modern clothes and get ahead in companies—these attitudes are conflicting, almost schizophrenic in nature. One senior woman said: Our society gets confused when they talk about women. They can’t decide what to say when they see a lady with fashionable clothes or a lady dressed in a religious way. Women are still treated like a species from outer space. Everyone must comment and say something good or bad. No matter what women wear, they will be talked about and will get unwanted attention.

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The Concept of Veiling and Seclusion of Women One of the major misconceptions about Islam is the practise of veiling (wearing a black over-garment to cover the face or the whole body) and seclusion of women. History tells us that these were pre-Islamic practises which were later re-introduced as Islamic law. When the Prophet introduced equality for women in all fields of life, men found they were losing their monopoly and created chaos, and later pressured women to stick to the same concept of veiling and seclusion. These practises, despite being forbidden by the Prophet, are still kept today. People have been convinced over the centuries by Muslim preachers until these concepts were accepted as Islamic law. They propagate the powerless and vulnerable position of women, and are one of the reasons for low participation rate of women in the job market (other than traditional jobs). This concept has changed a great deal, particularly for educated people and due to increased economic pressures on families, but there is still a long way to go. In urban areas the practises are associated with social prestige and are a means to get control over women’s environment under the pretext of protection. Veiling and seclusion are considered an honor and dignity for women. They are warned that if they want to be pious and win a place in heaven they should never reveal their bodies or allow themselves to be physically attractive to strangers, and only seclusion can protect them from demoralization. There are different concepts for maintaining seclusion. Some wear an over-garment which covers them from head to toe, some wear scarves to cover their heads, and some interpret it as a state of mind rather than avoiding any physical contact with men. When a woman enters the job market she has to choose either to veil herself or to get and keep a job: those women who wear veils do not get good jobs. Some women who give up practicing seclusion in order to work regret it: they feel guilty and that they will go to hell for committing a sin. In order to follow the principles of modest dressing, Muslim women wear a variety of headdresses. These are referred to as veils. There are garments which cover their hair, ears and neck, but do not cover the face; this is usually used by young women and girls. Then there are veils that cover most of the face except for a small hole for the eyes. The overgarment (burka or burqa) covers the entire body, covering the face completely except for a net over the eyes to see. The main purpose of veiling is to isolate women and prevent men from seeing them. It takes two forms, physical segregation of the sexes or

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requiring women to cover and conceal their bodies. Muslim fundamentalists misinterpret Koran verses and use them as laws, and in this way manage to brainwash people. According to these fundamentalists, God does not want to see women outside their homes, as they are created to stay home for the purpose of keeping house and bearing children: it is a sin for them to go out of their homes. So women subject to these laws must be very modest and careful not to commit any sin. Fundamentalists maintain that veiling is designed to protect the dignity of women, and they must cover themselves from strangers outside the family members. They must cover their face, head and wear an over-garment when they to go outside their homes. But many Muslim apologists argue that head- and face-covering for Muslim women is not mandated by the Koran, and the Koran does not suggest that women should be veiled or kept apart from the world of men. They insist that women have the right to decide what is appropriate for them, and the Koran clearly advocates the full participation of women in society and in the religious practises prescribed for men. They also argue that Islam liberated women more than 1400 years ago. Of respondents in category one, 83.3 percent still believe in the concept of veiling but they work due to economic pressures; 16.7 percent of them believe the concept to be wrong. An elderly domestic worker says that she covers her face when there are male members present in her mistresses’ houses: “If there are men in the house, then I cover my face in their presence, or do my work in the kitchen very quietly.” Similarly, a young domestic worker about 18 years old says: I wear a big chaddar when the male members of the houses are present. It covers my head and half of my body. It gets difficult to work but I have no choice. My mistresses say that it is very rude if I don’t wear it when males are at home. I also feel bad if I don’t wear it.

Some other remarks of domestic workers are: To cover the head and face is very important for women. This is from God. He has ordered women to do this. Our men also tell us to stay home mostly and cover our heads and faces. This is for our respect. My mistress’s daughters never wear chaddar. They sometimes wear men’s clothes like trousers and shirts. It is a serious sin for women to wear men’s clothes but because they are rich their men don’t criticize them. Our men would never allow this. Of course God will be angry if we wore such clothing.

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In category two, 22.2 percent of the women believe that veiling is a misconception of Islam, but 77.7 percent of the respondents are convinced that it is important to wear a veil and maintain seclusion—again, they work because of economic pressure and circumstances. Conditions are such that they can’t maintain both their jobs and their religious practises. Lubna, 22 years old, explains her feelings: I feel guilty that I am doing something wrong by not maintaining seclusion and working without veiling myself, because it not allowed at my job place. Once I veiled myself and covered my head and face but I was told to take it off by a supervisor. Usually those girls who veil themselves are not welcome in the workplace. In order to get good jobs, it is important that one should show oneself as a modern and bold woman.

A 43-year-old woman working in a chemical laboratory says: Allah recommends that we should wear a veil when we are among strangers, and this elevates women’s honor and respect. I don’t wear any type of veil because it is not permitted at my work. My manager and supervisor do not permit it. Since I work in a chemical laboratory they say it is dangerous, because we have to work with chemicals and fire. I feel guilty for not wearing it because there are so many boys and men as well who work in this lab. I know I am committing a sin, but Allah knows that I have no choice. I have to do this job and I need the money. I hope he will forgive.

Another woman, 27 years old and working in computer sales, said: I feel very bad for not veiling and maintaining seclusion. It is our religious duty. But I show my face in public, at workplace which is very un-Islamic. I am working not because I need the money, but to keep myself busy and to use my education. I know I am doing wrong. I should stay home. But at home it is very boring. My colleagues also tell me to continue until I get married. I feel guilty for not maintaining seclusion or veiling myself. It is not accepted in the office so I can’t wear it.

Deeba, a very religious-minded person, said: I want to stay at home in seclusion, but I must work and therefore I veil myself completely. I wear a black over-garment and cover my whole face. I feel more secure in this. No one can stare at me or make bad remarks about me. Although people in the office respect me, I am never given a promotion, while those women who wear modern and stylish dresses are promoted even though they hear lots of bad comments everyday.

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Many women who observe any type of veiling do not do so out of choice—their family members make the decision for them. An internet marketing professional who wears a chaddar said: My mum wears a burqa, but I wear only a chaddar. It is a family rule, not anyone’s choice. I was in grade seven, about fourteen years old, when I started to wear it. If I do not wear it I will not be allowed to go out of the house. I would not like to go without it, because I am used to it now. I never questioned it. I know it is religious duty, so my parents and brothers insist that I must wear it for the family’s honor.

The majority of the women who wear the veil do not do so by their individual decision; they wear it because their families, particularly their menfolk, insist on it. They believe it is important for a woman’s own respect as well as the family’s honor and respect. In conservative families girls start wearing veils at a very young age, on the basis of the religious traditions and customs of the family. It is a precondition to allow them to go out of the house. Most women do not question the necessity of veiling and why it is imposed. They believe that it is for their respect and honor, and do it to please their husbands, fathers and other male authority figures; by doing this they show their religious attitude and behavior. These women are more family-oriented and submissive to men and therefore unfit for an authoritative position in the workplace. Whereas women feel liberated enough to wear Westernized clothes are more career-oriented, more materialistic and more physically fit. They are also good communicators and show more interest in their work. Women who veil themselves are thought to be less confident. A woman about 29 years of age who works in the telesales department of a national company and wears a veil said: There are girls who always come to the office wearing beautiful clothes in the latest fashions. They also wear make-up and matched jewelry. They think too highly of themselves and ignore me like I am nobody. There are three of us girls who wear chaddars in the office. They treat us as if we are lower-class, backward and conservative. But we know we are doing the right thing. They talk with male colleagues like they are friends, which is forbidden by our religion. We keep our distance and we always talk with men in a formal way. Some of those girls even go out on dates. I guess their parents don’t care and allow them to do what they want, that’s why they do it. But the most discouraging thing is they get promoted and we are not even short-listed for any promotion. I think they get promotions

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because they are outgoing, active and over-confident, and use their good looks.

Veiling tends to make women less confident and unfit to fight for anything in life. These women are usually not promoted because of their lack of flexibility to adjust to the environment, and their narrow ideas on life. They find it difficult to understand and assimilate their surroundings and other people’s attitudes. They strongly believe that they are right in every sense, and yet they often have an inferiority complex. They can’t adjust to a more open environment. Some of the employers refuse to hire women who wear veils: I gave interviews at several places with my head scarf, but I did not get a job. Then once I had my hair dyed and styled, bought a dress of the latest fashion and got myself up like a mod girl, I was immediately hired and now I am working as a team leader for this call center.

In category three, 33.3 percent of the respondents believed that veiling and seclusion is important for women along with their jobs. In order to maintain both, the solutions given by these respondents were that women should be reserved with men and should stay within the limits of modesty, which is of course very difficult in a job. The remaining 66.6 responded that veiling and seclusion is not a Muslim concept and that women should not be required to practise them. Sajida, who works as a student counselor in an educational institution, explains how the concept of veiling has confused society: On one side we, by which I mean people of this society, want to follow Western style, and on the other hand we want women to veil themselves. We are all confused and don’t know what to follow and what to like and dislike. So in this of society we cannot say anything about right and wrong. But I personally believe there is no such thing in Islam; it is something men have dictated. If a woman goes to her job well dressed, men mostly misunderstand her and try to take advantage, and on the other hand those same women who do not wear veils and dress fashionably are preferred for jobs. It is all because of this wrong concept in Islam.

There is lot of confusion for both men and women on the subject of veiling and seclusion of women: people are uncertain whether they are social customs or religious obligations. According to Muslim fundamentalists and preachers, the veil is a compulsory religious duty for women and to show their faces in public or to strangers is un-Islamic. More liberated people argue that veiling has nothing to do with religion

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but is a pre-Islamic practise introduced long ago for various reasons— everything from protecting the face from wind-borne desert sand to protecting the modesty of wealthy women. There are also a number of different definitions of veiling and seclusions. Some women say the veil should cover the whole body, face, and head with an over-garment, and that to leave the house is to break seclusion; some women take the veil to mean just a large scarf over their heads and shoulders, while still others cover only their heads. There are also women who think that clothing and dress have nothing to do with it, that modesty is a matter of body language and conscience. Some completely reject the idea of veiling. There are large numbers of women who are still confused about veiling and seclusion, and try to practise it in their own ways. Out of all women from the three categories, 64.8 percent said veiling and seclusion are mandatory; only 35.2 percent said it is not necessary, but just a bluff to subjugate women and control their lives. A 23-year-old woman who works for a multinational company described the helplessness of a co-worker who observes seclusion in her own way: I think to wear a veil and work with men are two different things. I have one colleague who wears a big chaddar. She sits in the corner most of the time and does her work. She doesn’t like to socialize with others, maybe because she is very timid and helpless. If we ask her to sit with us for lunch or tea, she does, but she sits there so quietly, as if she is alone. She is just a few years older than me, I guess, but she does not enjoy the jokes that we do and has no fun in life. I feel sorry for her.

A doctor who works in a private hospital says: Everyone in my family says veiling is important, and I think so too. But I can’t help it. I am a doctor—if I veil myself how can I check my patients? Some of my colleagues wear headscarves. I know it is good to wear them but it looks very unprofessional. Doctors should be bold and tough. People want their women to adopt this profession and it is very respectable too, so I think nobody would make bad comments about them if they do not wear a headscarf. Anyway it is their personal business. But I myself think that veiling is necessary but very difficult to maintain when women have to work and deal with the outside world.

A marketing professional in a small national company argues: An element of Muslim dress for women is to cover their heads, faces and to wear an over-garment. I understand that it is mandatory for women, but

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if I wear such clothes I wouldn’t be able to do my job. My job requires a lot of public contact and obviously if I go with my face covered to talk to people and give presentations, they won’t trust me. They will think I have come to give them a religious sermon. God may be preparing hell for me for not wearing a veil, but I also have to survive in this world and I have no choice. When I start to think about religious beliefs life becomes so dull and confusing.

There are women who speak against the practise of seclusion and veiling: Whatever the meaning or origin of the veil or headscarf, it is fine as long as it is a woman’s own choice, but it usually is not because it is imposed on them at a very young age. I consider myself lucky that I was not born in a family who has these conservative or illogical ideas. I was never told to do it, not during my time at college and university, and now even when I am doing this job. My parents made me a good human being, not a person who is oppressed and has an inferiority complex. I do my work confidently and my superiors are happy with my work. It is wrong to force rules on an individual for something personal like clothing for the benefit of others. I don’t understand why men are so free, and women have to avoid even their gaze. Men are ordered by Islamic law to lower their gaze around women, so why is there so much fuss about women’s dress and veiling? Why not ask men to lower their gazes and not look at women who are strangers? Men will also be judged by God for what they did in this life—it is not only women who will be asked what they did in this world.

The issue of veiling and seclusion needs to be re-examined and reinterpreted. Muslim women need to learn more about Koranic teachings and moral guidance to show them that they can be modest and virtuous without the help of veils and seclusion. They do not have to cover their heads and faces or wear a burqa—they can be respected for their intelligence, education and achievements. Veiling and seclusion as defined by Islamic society requires a carefully considered look at the multilayered complexity of these women’s lives and their relationship to the outside world. The pattern of segregation between men and women has also resulted in creation of new opportunities for women. People want their daughters to be doctors and nurses because they would want their daughters to visit female doctors. Women also themselves prefer female doctors and female nurses. Colleges and schools exclusively for women also have women teachers and other female staff; men are not welcomed. Similarly, in the “First Women’s Bank,” all the staff are women and only women open

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accounts with the bank. There are also certain factories which recruit only women (albeit for lower wages). .

100 80 60

Wrong Concept

40

Important

20 0

Category1 Category2 Category3

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

It is important for women (percentage) 83.3 77.7 33.3

It is wrong concept of Islam (percentage) 16.6 22.2 66.6

Figure 4.3 What Women Think about Veiling and Seclusion

Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment is a major problem in underdeveloped countries like Pakistan. Women of all social classes face some kind of sexual harassment nearly every day, which may be physical or verbal abuse. The everyday incidents of rude and vulgar remarks, following girls to their workplaces and homes are ignored or dismissed—they are accepted as part of a girl’s life when she leaves her house. If she inadvertently smiles or makes eye contact with a passerby, this can be taken as provocative and inviting. In this society men have a monopoly on economic, religious and social power. They are in executive and decision-making positions, therefore women nearly always work for men, not for other women. These men strongly believe that women are their property. If a woman is victimized, she usually suffers it silently and does not to make a big fuss about it; to do so jeopardizes her position in her family and workplace. It is very common for women to pretend as if nothing has happened, unless they have a supportive family or spouse. In this way they maintain their dignity and jobs, while the aggressors go free. Women are very easy

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targets for scandalous talk, especially young single women. This is one of the reasons that women are restricted to certain labour sectors where dependency on males is minimal. Women should make their lives easier for themselves. They must shed their tolerant mentality when it comes to harassment and stop telling themselves that such behavior is inevitable and unavoidable. They need to show strong resistance when it happens the first time, because if they let it happen and suffer silently, the offender will think that she consents. If someone behaves in a manner that makes them uncomfortable, they should immediately protest loudly to let others know about it. By doing this they will help not only themselves but those around them—the offender will think twice before he assaults or harasses another woman. Women must be sure and confident that they have the right to be treated with dignity and not discriminated against. Sexual harassment is not limited to women of a certain class or mode of employment—it is as much a problem for women working in well appointed corporate offices as it is for factory workers. These women may be working as secretaries, lawyers, executives or in any other profession. Their complaints vary, and the harassment may be physical or verbal such as unwanted pushing and touching, constant sexual demands, sexual comments, jokes or conversation containing sexual remarks and sexual language. It can also be staring in a sexually suggestive manner, making offensive remarks about one’s body parts, clothes or looks, touching in an inappropriate manner, intentionally brushing against another’s body, making sexual gestures or displaying sexual posters or pictures. This conduct on the part of management, officials, co-workers and even visiting vendors or guests, constitutes an unreasonable interference with an employee’s work performance and creates an intimidating, hostile and offensive work environment. The offender is usually confident that fear and embarrassment will keep the victim from making a public complaint. If the offenders are supervisors or top management, the victim may not make a complaint for fear of losing a promotion, benefits, or even the job itself. Women who resist their supervisors’ demands for sexual favours often find themselves burdened with an especially heavy workload and face hostility, severe and negative work evaluations and unjust disapproval, which eventually results in many such women leaving their jobs. Women from affluent economic backgrounds are less likely to be subjected to this sort of harassment, but they are not always free from it. Society plays an important role in encouraging or preventing the sexual harassment of women. In this patriarchal society men are thought to be masculine if they have intimidated women, and sexual harassment

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exacerbates women’s feelings of intimidation. Gender stereotypes and socialization enable men to aggressively pursue sexual encounters with women, while women are encouraged to be nice and avoid challenging males. Working women have taken on roles which formerly belonged to male domains and they are thriving despite the atmosphere of threat and terror. Sexual harassment at work is an extension of the discriminatory and exploitative violence women endure in everyday life. It is an expression of male power over women to sustain authority and patriarchal relations. The fear of sexual harassment constantly reminds women of their vulnerability and subjugated status in society. The violence against women is borne out of the patriarchal values operating in society, and this forces women to conform to gender roles. Sexual harassment is present in all organizations, although often hidden. In many workplaces it is still not viewed as a problem even though it touches the lives of so many women working in category two and category three jobs in Pakistan. Domestic workers rarely mention it, out of fear. It is a very degrading experience for women. Male supervisors and bosses ask for sexual favours in return for job security and promotions. They perceive that women who leave their homes for work are “loose women,” and therefore sexually available. For this reason, women who are economically dependent on jobs are more victimized. Every woman interviewed who worked in a category two job reported having faced sexual harassment in some form. The women of category three reported a lower incidence of harassment, but they deal with it too. Abida, a 40-year-old single woman who works in a senior position as a finance manager, speaks about her experience: I am very reserved with men and keep them in at a distance because I know they think that working women are not respectable, that they are “loose” and sexually available. They think that they can treat women in any way they want, but when they can’t they get jealous and start backbiting. They try to make big issues and scandals out of small things, because they sense themselves to be losers. This type of situation creates a lot of tension and stress.

None of the domestic workers complained about sexual abuse at their workplace or when they commuted to their jobs. They are too ashamed and embarrassed to speak because to do so jeopardizes their reputation in the community. Some of them were even scared at the mention of the topic and bluntly refused to say if anything ever happened.

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A few of the domestic workers did relate stories of other women in their position they knew of who had suffered such attacks. They described several incidents of rape, vulgar remarks and sexual abuse committed by male employers against the women domestic workers of their community (the information below is from third party reports): A young girl was forced to have sex by a boy where she worked. He flattered her that he wanted to marry her. After this both of them started to have sex frequently. But when the girl’s mistress, who happened to be the boy’s mother found out about this, she kicked the girl out. And boy refused to marry her saying there is big difference in the status of both families, and he wants to marry one of his peers. A mother of two small children was raped by her male employer while his wife (her mistress) was gone to another city for few days. After that she was scared to go there again—she wouldn’t even go back to get her wages. A 16-year-old girl was nearly forced to have sex with her male employer. First he seduced her and flattered her, then all of a sudden he held her and started to kiss her body and forced her to go into a bedroom, but she managed to run away and escape. A woman told me that once where she was working, a man of the house would always keep an eye on her and whenever he got her alone, he would say or do something embarrassing to her. She kept on ignoring and rejecting his invitations to go somewhere else. Then once he did get a chance and he held her tight and took her in a room and tried to have sex with her. She tried hard to escape. She described him as a very ugly fat man. Luckily some of the kids came into the kitchen and shouted her name, asking her to come. The room was next to kitchen, so he got frightened and had no choice but to let her go. One girl, one of my relatives, was raped by a man in her employer’s family, but her own family were so scared they did not tell anybody about the incident, not even to report it to the police. They did not want to lose the respect of their relatives and community. So they kept quiet and the girl suffered in silence.

The young girls who become victims of sexual abuse by male members of the household they work for don’t complain because it is their reputations, not their employers’ who are ruined. If they become pregnant and complain to the mistress, they are severely reprimanded, often beaten and thrown out of the house. Their mistresses take no responsibility in

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these situations. They blame the domestic workers for behaving like prostitutes and trying to trap their husbands. Very few cases of violence and abuse against domestic workers make it to court. These matters are settled outside the scope of the legal system. Financial agreements are the most common means of settling such matters between employers and domestic workers, allowing the charges against the perpetrator to be dropped. Employers are often in a strong position, whereas domestic workers have no option but to accept the offer made. Such practises results in lack of access to justice for victims and impunity for perpetrators. I have divided the sexual harassment into four major categories: abusive/meaningful remarks; invitations to lunches/dinners, etc.; unnecessary physical contact; and lustful ogling/stares. I will address each of these categories in turn.

Abusive/Meaningful Remarks Only 20 percent of the domestic workers reported having experienced sexual harassment in the form of some meaningful remarks. The reason for this small percentage is because they work under their mistresses’ supervision, and many of them, particularly young single girls, were scared and hesitant to admit any kind of sexual harassment; they are insecure and fear losing respect. There are a few women, however, who gather the courage to speak out. One such woman is Taj Bibi, a brave 45year-old married domestic worker: I have too much work to do. There are seven rooms on the ground floor and seven on the first floor, and I have to clean the whole house, so sometimes I bring my 14-year-old daughter with me to help. There is an old ugly guy in the house who bothers me a lot. He tells me off now and then, uses bad language, abusive words, commands and orders too much. I reply to him but it only makes him more abusive. But if my daughter is with me, his attitude is totally different with her. He becomes nice and friendly and tries to flirt with her. She is too young to understand his cunning, so I have to tell him off.

Every woman from category two said that she had endured vulgar remarks from men in her employer’s household. Seventy percent of them stayed quiet and ignored them; only 30 percent said that they felt angry and frustrated and answered back. Nasreen, a 21-year-old receptionist, describes how men in her office cause difficulties for her:

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I know men pass remarks indirectly. They won’t look at you but will say something embarrassing or meaningful. With managers I have no choice but to stay quiet and try to pretend as if nothing happened, but with juniors I really answer reply back. All men seem to enjoy this attitude. I am looking for a better job—as soon as I can find one, I will leave this place.

Other women had similar experiences: Once I went for an interview for a job. After a few questions I was asked to show how I walk. I was surprised and hesitated. I asked the reason. There were two guys who interviewed me. I was told that it is an indication of how confident you are. I tried to defend myself, saying that the interview is not meant to be a cat walk or a TV commercial and walked to the door; they called me back and one of the guys said “thank you for the walk, you have a nice body from the back as well.” I just rushed out of the room, slamming the door behind me. Our instructor is dating one of the girls here. He favours her in everything, gives her good reviews, writes reports for her, gives her long breaks, even sometimes allows her to skip team meetings, if she feels like it. And during theory he says loving words to her in front of everyone, even sometimes makes sexy gestures. It is so irritating and embarrassing. But both of them don’t seem to care. We still have two more weeks with this instructor before we go back to our work. There is an old guy in his late fifties. He always tries to brush pass me and makes sexual comments when there is no one around. People in my office know about this person’s attitude and try to stop him from saying or doing such things, but he is good at finding his chances. I just wonder that such people don’t have any respect for others or for themselves. Would they like it if their daughters were treated this way? But I guess they don’t have the sense to think.

Of respondents in category three, 88.8 percent said they had been victims of inappropriate remarks: half stayed quiet and ignored it, while half answered back. Some women said they stayed quiet because they didn’t want to communicate with anyone who displayed such bad manners; some said they ignored them at first, then spoke up; others dealt with the situation with a stern look. Saima, a 35-year-old woman working as a coordinator, mentioned her own experience: The first time I applied for a job and was called for an interview I was about 21 years old. The interviewer was the managing director of the

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Other respondents offered stories of such experiences: I was promoted to a managing position just five months back. People in the office, particularly those guys who were expecting to get promoted, got so jealous that they started to spread rumours. They said that the only reason I got promoted was because I was dating the regional manager. Some of them commented that it was not a wise decision to make a woman manager. I talked to the regional manager about it, and he shifted some more responsibilities to me and made a clear point that if such conversation continued, serious action would be taken. I feel better and can now do my work more efficiently. Once a new girl was appointed. She was young, beautiful and very naïve. It was her first job in IT after graduation. She left the job within two weeks, because every day she would open her computer and find sexual remarks or pictures. She told me about it, but she was too scared to tell the top management and would not allow me to speak for her. She quietly left the job. I still can’t figure it out who did that to her and why. If somebody had done that to me I would have told him off and made him quit the job. I guess she will learn and someday would become stronger. During a short meeting with the staff, one of my managers made some sexual comments. I don’t know what the men thought, but none of us women liked it. A supervisor listened to our complaint and told him not use such language in the office: he said he was sorry and that he would not do it again. But at another meeting two days later he said he was sorry that he used such words, he repeated the words and added jokingly that he shouldn’t have said them in front of ladies. I saw all the staff members smiling. I believe such attitudes are all about respect. If there are co-workers who don’t respect you, they won’t hesitate to harass you in any manner whatsoever. There are a few guys who always make sexual remarks to women and make a joke and fun out of it. Sometimes they would even talk and tell sexual jokes in front of women. Such people are not taught to be civilized human beings. They are jerks. Sometimes they make remarks with dual meanings, like once a guy said I love women and to shoot. Someone asked what did he mean by “shoot.” He said he loves to shoot with guns and go hunting in the jungle shooting animals and then he laughed.

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Offers for Lunch or Dinner Dates None of the respondents in category one were offered lunch/dinner dates. Of category two, 76.6 percent of the women had been asked out by their male superiors. Out of these, 12.2 percent declined the offer politely; 22.2 percent bluntly refused. Eleven percent resigned because they were unable to handle the situation and had no choice, while 31.2 percent accepted the offer. Shehnaz, a 45-year-old divorcee who works as telephone operator complained that she is frequently offered lunch/dinner dates: Because I am a telephone operator, everybody thinks it is easy to contact me and calls me up to ask me to go out with them for lunch/dinner. They think it’s my job to chat with everybody on the phone. I don’t like it but I have to be patient with these people.

Other stories offered were: My old boss, who was over 70, offered to take me for lunch and gave me gold earrings, which I refused to take. He already had three wives, and now he wanted to propose to me. He was an ugly, rich and ill-mannered guy. When I refused to go out with him, he became frustrated and refused to pay me my salary. I am a receptionist, and my family is very poor. My experience is very bad. It is not only the boss who takes advantage of me; other senior staff do too. If I refuse them they threaten to throw me out. My salary is never raised and my bonuses are never given unless I go out with them for dates. I used to get my lunch at the office cafeteria. Every time I went for lunch, a guy would just come and sit in front of me while he ate. Every time I looked at him, he would not miss a chance to wink at me. It happened for a week. We did not talk. I just kept ignoring him. I stopped going to the cafeteria and had my lunch at my desk instead; the same guy brought his lunch from home and sat next to my desk with a co-worker. Every time he offered his lunch to the co-worker he said “let’s share” and looked at me. I got so fed up that I had to tell one of my friend, a male co-worker, about him. I don’t know what he said to him, but that guy stopped bothering me and then started to avoid me. There are women in my office who wear tight skirts or jeans to impress the senior staff members. They wear revealing dresses and male management and other senior staff get attracted to them. They do it to get more benefits and promotions, and it works. In a true sense, hard work is not a credit to

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In category three, 77.8 percent of the respondents were offered lunch/dinner dates: 55.5 percent were able to handle it tactfully and politely refused, while 11 percent refused and resigned, and 11.1 percent accepted the offer. The pressure on women to accept such offers can damage their lives irreparably: a sales executive named Kehkashan told how she had been denied a promotion until she went out with her supervisor, but when she finally gave in her fiancé broke off their engagement. Zahida, a 32-year-old marketing manager, explains: Men always try to misuse girls. Those who let themselves be misused and degrade themselves in their own eyes are promoted and get benefits, while those who do not flirt in return have a tough time. They are never promoted no matter how hard they work.

Abida, a 40-year-old single senior staff member criticizes male attitude: By taking girls out, men feel proud and boast to their friends. They feel that this act has increased their value. They have no respect for women. These men need to learn the etiquette of a healthy society and to think like men, not like animals. My immediate boss constantly sent me love letters and asked for dates. I did not mind in the beginning: in fact I thought he was serious about me. But when I inquired about him, I found that he was married with two small kids. I talked to one of my friends, a co-worker, about it. She advised me to ask him politely why he was pursuing me if he was married. So I did. He said he was looking for a girlfriend. He did not seem to care what he did. I was very angry to hear that but I stayed calm. I told him not to send such letters again and also told him that I was engaged, so he would stop expecting anything from me. He had done the same thing to my friend who advised me to talk to him.

A 36-year-old single journalist told her story: The person who asked me to go out with him is more than 60 years old. Whenever he sees any young girl, he always offers her a lunch or dinner date. I wear an over-garment, which is a black cloak, and cover my face with a black veil. Only my eyes are visible. Despite this attire he didn’t hesitate.

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Unnecessary Physical Contact None of the respondents from category one reported having to face such a situation during their working hours. Of the women of category two, 79.7 percent of the respondents said that men had forced physical contact on them; out of these, 35.2 percent said that they stayed silent and tried to ignore it, but they were scared. However, in this case many women reacted: 32.5 percent shouted back at the men and 12 percent complained to senior staff. An 18-year-old computer operator describes her problem: There is a guy in my office who always places his seat near to mine, and whenever he gets the chance he tries to lean on me. I push him back, but he is such a jerk. He doesn’t stop. I am fed up with his attitude, and I don’t know what to do.

Sobia describes her experience with her previous employer: I just remember my last day in my previous job. Our project just ended and a new project was on its way, but since I had another good opportunity I decided to leave. I had good relationships with almost everyone I worked with, becoming good friends with most people, although I avoided a few. On the last day I was given a small farewell with a cake and lunch. When I was cutting the cake, an ugly guy in his late forties I have always avoided held my hand as if helping me cut the cake, in front of everyone. I was embarrassed and out of shock could do nothing. He just stood near me while everyone helped with the cake. Then just one guy looked at both of us and said “although you two never invited us to your engagement party and Sobia is too shy to announce it, when do you plan to get married?” I was too shocked to speak for some time. Then I gathered myself and shouted that I was not engaged to him. My last day was ruined because of that ugly jerk who pretended to everyone that we were engaged and I was too shy to admit it. Everyone spent the day talking about it and I hated the guy so much that I started to cry.

An assistant administrator said: I’ve left jobs twice because of sexual harassment. In the first job, one of my superiors forcefully tried to hug and kiss me. He would always give me extra work so I had to stay late. I tried to handle the situation by ignoring it but in the end I was so tired of protecting myself from him that I resigned and joined another company. There my supervisor always asked for sexual favours in exchange for good reports. I refused to give him such favours and he constantly discredited my work, whereas he favoured other women.

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Chapter Four I knew in the end I would have to quit that job so I started to look for another without delay. I have been working in this job [the third] for a year. Things are far better and nothing of the sort has happened so far.

In category three, 88.8 percent of the respondents complained of such conditions, of which 33.3 percent said that they ignored them, 33.3 percent shouted back, and 22.2 percent said that they reported the incidents in a cold and professional manner. Women are very easy targets for scandalous talk and in some cases such situations can even ruin their lives, so many suffer this humiliation silently, but they are beginning to realize that sometimes it is important to talk about it. And now women do discuss these events with others whom they confide in and trust. They no longer want to stay silent and suffer and are learning to deal with it. From the replies above, we can see that some women do take action against it. Dr. Nighat, 28 years old, explains her attitude: I become cold and professional and make it clear with body language that it is wrong. If they don’t stop I report directly to higher authorities. I believe it is always better to stay with the people of your own status, particularly men.

Aliya, a 38-year-old woman now working as a manager, told her story about her previous workplace: There was a guy in his late 40s who kissed me when I entered his room to collect some files. I was startled at this attitude. I couldn’t tell this to anybody because I didn’t wanted to become a target for any scandalous talk.

Deliberate touching of hands and standing too close is a common practise by men. Several similar incidents were related by most women: of men standing in their way and laughing when they try to get by; of their hands being grabbed when they try to give or take a file; men standing intimidatingly close. One woman said: I am very reserved and stern especially at my workplace so that no one would dare do anything, but this attitude of mine makes my life very boring.

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Lustful Ogling/Staring It is a very common habit of illiterate and less educated males in this society to stare at women; women are trained to ignore the stares and behave sternly and coldly. No women from category one complained of lustful ogling or stares at their workplaces. In category two, 80 percent of the respondents complained of such stares. Of these, 50 percent deal with such incidents during their travel to their workplaces and 30 percent face it at their workplaces. Sixty percent of the respondents said that they ignore such stares, but it makes them feel very insecure and uneasy. Twenty percent stared back with stern cold looks, and 20 percent of the respondents, who wore veils or burqas, reported no such problems. One 32-year-old woman said: I cover my whole face, wear a black cloak and black gloves to cover my hands. I feel secure and protected in this dress, even though I feel very hot; but I think being hot is better than to be an object of attention to ill-bred, repulsive males.

A young sales assistant said: If smart-looking young men stare I don’t mind, because they look at you with respect; but if old low-class men stare I get irritated, because their stares are humiliating.

Almost all the women complained of being under much closer scrutiny at all stages in their careers than their male colleagues. They gave different reasons for this: for example, a 20-year-old woman working in an insurance company said: I have to deal with all kinds of people. They come to get information. The male staff in my office around me always listen to my conversations with clients. It is very irritating but I think they do it for my protection, because sometimes clients can be rude and bad-mannered.

A 26-year-old receptionist said: My male colleagues don’t let me talk to guys, especially if they are young and good looking. They get jealous. They make eye contact with those guys and make them go away. They keep tabs on me. They are all old and married guys and it is very frustrating. I will leave this job as soon as I get new one.

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A laboratory assistant said: The boys’ and men’s jobs are always secure, but we always have to do better than the boys to prove that we are capable of doing this work. Our work is observed in greater detail.

Other remarks were: Women always have to do a job better than any man, because the management watches women much more closely and carefully than they watch any man. Women have to prove that they can do it. Men are thought competent unless they prove themselves unacceptable, but women are always considered slow and backward unless they constantly strive for perfection. When someone does anything to offend me, my reaction is to retaliate. Most of the time I reply in a flippant and blunt way. Because of this attitude people in my office think me a rude woman with bad attitude. I don’t care what anybody thinks about me. I face sick and psycho men who gaze at me rudely and stick their tongues out at me all the way to my office and then in the office and then on my way back home. They are everywhere, at the bus stop, in the bus, on the roads, everywhere. So I have to be strong and I can’t help behaving this way. This is how I survive.

In category three, 75.8 percent of the respondents complained of such stares. Out of this, 53.6 percent faced it outside the workplace and 22.2 percent dealt with it in the office: 45.6 percent said they ignore such stares while 30.2 percent said they stare back with a cold stern look. A senior technologist explained mens’ attitudes: Young boys are mostly honest, but old men stare to tease you. I also stare back to show them that we are not fools. Sometimes they are dangerous. They also stare back with a threatening look.

A collage lecturer explains: Just a few weeks back, I was giving a lecture to my class. The door of the classroom was open. While lecturing as I looked out through the door, I saw a guy staring blankly at me—well not at me, but at my body. He continued to look even after I noticed him. He saw no problem with his behavior. I asked one of the students to close the door. When the door was closed he casually walked away.

One woman said:

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Women have to be better in everything they do and in every way—at the job and personally. If a woman is unable to get the desired results, it is said “oh…she is a woman.” and if a guy is unable to bring the desired results the comments like “bad luck…try again….bad chances” etc. It will not be interpreted as his personal fault.

One important comment on the scrutiny of women by the stereotypical man was: A woman’s private life is under more scrutiny—who her friends are, how she treats others, how she dresses, whether she is engaged, married or single, what are her other activities beside work, her family’s financial status, and so on. One never stops hearing about what women did and did not do. It is their favourite topic to discuss in their leisure time. Whether she is beautiful, how she looks and so forth. Sometimes we get blamed for lots of things just for being a woman: like she is friendly therefore she is flirty and makes men do her shopping, etc. People like to put it down to being a woman.

The sexual harassment of female workers is always ignored, denied and even implicitly supported, with women themselves being blamed for it. According to several descriptions, sexual harassment is not an innocent flirtation nor is it an expression of attraction: rather it is a workplace stressor that causes a threat to women’s psychology and physical integrity and security. It also has adverse health effects. Most women in Pakistan do not report sexual harassment because they fear that they will be blamed, humiliated and not believed. This reduces job satisfaction and increases turn over. Women in this society are so used to sexual harassment that they take sexual gestures, remarks and invitations as trivial and routine. They face it so often that they are left with no choice but to deny its existence and ignore this offensive behavior: this is the most common way women deal with sexual harassment. As soon as they step out of the house they are already prepared to ignore such behavior. If they won’t learn to ignore it, they are faced with fighting against such people all day. Some remarks given by women are: Sexual harassment is so common that it is like a routine to us. A girl standing at the bus stop is stared at in a sexual manner; if she is in the bus or walking she hears sexual remarks; if she is in a car, she will be given sexual gestures; if she is dressed nicely, she will get invitations as well as sexual remarks and gestures; if she is in the office, she gets offers for dates and dinners, and if she is looking for a promotion she will have to go on a date with her boss to get it. In short, wherever you find women you will

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observe sexual harassment in one form or other, because in this society women are not considered human beings but sexual objects for men. One of my cousins who had come from abroad for a vacation told me that I should confront sexual harassment and really tell off the harassers. I thought about it for a while and replied that if I did that, I would be fighting all day with the harassers and there will be no end to it. Table 4.1 Experiences of Sexual Harassment Category 1

Category2

Category3

Vulgar Remarks Ignore and Stay Silent Reply Back Offer for lunch/dinner dates

20 % 20% -

100% 70% 30% 76.6%

88.8% 44.4% 44.4% 77.8%

Refuse Politely Resigned Accepted Bluntly Refused Unnecessary Physical Contact Ignore Shout Back Complain and Report Lustful Stares

-

Ignore Give stern look

-

12.2 22.2 31.2 11 79.7 35.2 32.5 12 80 30—at workplace 50—on the road 60 20

55.5 11 11.2 88.8 33.3 33.3 22.2 75.8 22.2—at workplace 53.6—on the road 45.6 30.2

The remarks given above are correct. There are harassers everywhere and when one woman stands up to it there is no end to the abuse she will face. But women have to start at some point: they need to be bold and courageous if they really want to end this attitude and live the peaceful lives they are after all entitled to. If they just continue to ignore it, the harassment will continue. At the very least women should not ignore what really irritates them. They need to do the unexpected and hold the harassers accountable for their actions. They should stop pretending as if nothing has happened and let people know what the harasser did. This will start to undermine the

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harassment. Women should make direct and blunt statements—speaking out will change people’s attitudes towards this issue, and provide information as to what is to be done in such cases. This will let the harasser know that his behavior was offensive. In conditions where women are asked to go places or answer sexual questions and do things that make them uncomfortable, women should never hesitate to speak out, and never worry about offending or hurting the harasser’s ego: they must take care of themselves first. Being quiet about such situations allows them to continue. All women should support their harassed colleagues, and should never disbelieve a woman when she shares her experience of harassment. Sexual harassment is unwelcome behavior and the matter should not be trivialized. If a colleague shares her story she will definitely need a lot of encouragement and support, because it is not easy to speak about it. Accompany the person to the appropriate authorities, push for a redress mechanism or sexual harassment policy if it is not present. The women who have been subject to harassment in any form should never think that it is their fault, or that they have to tolerate it due to reasons like social pressure, fear of losing their reputation, etc. They should make it clear to the person that such behavior is not acceptable, but being unable to speak about it does not constitute consent to harassment. All the same, it is always beneficial to talk to the personnel manager or to someone in authority with confidence. Most of the time such cases are handled successfully when a complaint has been made with an authoritative person. If the behavior continues, a formal complaint should be made, which may lead to initiation of disciplinary procedures. Women should know about the sexual harassment policies in their workplace and the consequences of any action taken, so if they are attacked or assaulted they know how and where to get help immediately. Women working at all levels should demand anti-harassment policies and a zero-tolerance attitude toward offenders from their employers. All employees should be informed of and agree to such policies by means of memos, forms, or as a clause in the employment contract. Any such policy should clearly define sexual harassment and explain the penalties for infringement. It should clearly state that a person found guilty of harassment following an investigation will be subject to immediate disciplinary action. There should be strict rules regarding harassment by third parties such as customers, clients, professional guests, etc. A designated contact person or counselor should be available for support and all sexual harassment complaints should be confidential.

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Setting up an anti-sexual harassment policy can lay a strong foundation for a harassment-free workplace; however, effective training programs for all staff members are also essential. Men and women will recognize sexual harassment, and women will know and understand that they do not need to suffer negative consequences in order to make a complaint of sexual harassment. Sexual harassment training will address perceptions and understanding of sexual harassment and its impact on individuals as well as the office environment. It will also address the policies and complaint procedures. Providing training will not immediately eliminate sexual harassment in the workplace but it is always better to be pro-active, and over time education may eradicate this unpleasant feature of Pakistani society. It will also show that policies and procedures implemented for sexual harassment will be enforced seriously. It is the responsibility of the company and its top management to provide a safe working environment free from sexual harassment and discrimination for the women they employ: sexual harassment has a devastating effect on the health, confidence and morale of women which in turn affects their performance. It produces anxiety and stress that leads to illness and inefficiency, and causes many women to seek jobs elsewhere or to give up work altogether. Employers must realize that the absence of complaints does not mean the absence of sexual harassment: women remain silent because they believe that nothing will be done about it and it will be trivialized. They also fear being subjected to ridicule and gossip, losing dignity in the eyes of others, and worst of all reprisals. Employers are responsible for fostering and encouraging confidence in their female employees, and must encourage them to report any incident of sexual harassment.

Violence Domestic workers made many comments about their experiences which exceed harassment and are instead incidents of straightforward violence. Domestic workers endure severe restrictions on their freedom of movement. They are confined to their employers’ houses and not allowed to go out or leave the house for any reason. This is one of the reasons that women are preferred for such work and their families allow it: they work inside the house under the supervision of their mistresses. They are not permitted by their families to make detours to markets after they have finished work. This causes additional oppression for domestic workers.

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When the women migrate from their village and become domestic workers, they must learn the city lifestyle, and with each job they must learn the tasks they are expected to perform. Everything is new to them, even mopping and dusting. Few people can avoid making mistakes when they are learning something new: these women are punished for each mistake by their employers, often mentally but sometimes with physical abuse as well. The most common punishments are inadequate food, withheld wages and disrespect. Their rights are violated, and because of their poverty they have no recourse to justice. Employers are never punished. Middle- and upper-class households are always in need of domestic workers, but they fail to give these people respect and treat them as little more than slaves. The workers are abused verbally, physically and sometimes sexually by male members of the employers’ families. Some of the stories recorded make one wonder how such people who consider themselves respectable upper- and middle- class citizens can have such sadistic and criminal tendencies. A 39-year-old woman dressed in traditional clothes told how she endures offensive treatment and exhausting work days. She has been working as domestic worker for nearly 30 years. I started working when I was about nine years old. This was when my parents left the village and settled here in Karachi. We needed money. My other two elder sisters also took domestic work and my brother worked as a labourer. Before my marriage the work was not so tough; I had time to relax at home because my sisters and mother shared the housework and we all earned money as well. But after my marriage it has been tough. I have five kids: I worked even when I was pregnant. I have worked in so many houses and I have had bad experiences with some of my mistresses. Some of them were so bad, they hit me if I made a mistake, some of them pushed me out of their house and dismissed me, some had such loud voices and shouted at me like harpies, and most of them deducted money if I could not go to work for a day or two. Work became exhausting and tormenting with kids and all the house responsibilities. Now I work only in three houses: I selected the nicest people I could find. My husband also earns daily wages so I can be more choosy.

Full time domestic workers work unreasonably long hours. A few of them get a day off a week, but most of them work seven days. The hours and breaks are also at the discretion of the employer. There is no compensation for overtime or extra tasks: this is a violation of domestic workers’ rights to healthy working conditions and fair wages. A worker should have the right to work a maximum of 48 hours over six days per week; any work in excess of that ought to entitle them to overtime. In

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practise, however, most domestic workers are obliged to work overtime and extra duties in order to keep their jobs. Most full time domestic workers have a tougher time than those who take shorter shifts at different houses, but they too are sometimes beaten by their employers. Full time domestic workers had many complaints aside from enduring beatings, such as being locked in a room without food or being burned with an iron. There were other stories as well: I remember a very bad slap from my Baji [mistress] when I broke a very expensive and special set of plates. She used to take out this set only when there were guests. All twelve plates just slipped from my hands and they broke. She also deducted half of my salary for six months. I knew it was my mistake but I was too tired from washing up after the guests were gone. I was busy as anything for the whole day with guests and there was so much work to do. I quietly cried all night and I was so disheartened and depressed.

When there is any dispute between the domestic worker and their employers, domestic workers have no one in an official capacity to ask for help. They seek assistance from family members, their relatives or their neighbours. After working for two months in a house, my mistress paid me only half of my salary. She said that I had taken lots of leave and my work was not satisfactory. So my mum talked to my mistress about it and requested her to pay the remaining amount, and told her how much we need the money. She paid a little more but not the full amount that I deserved. I still work in her house. If I leave this house I will be left with only three houses, so once I get a new one, I’ll leave her, because she docks my wages every month.

Domestic workers are continually at the mercy of their mistresses. Their mistresses can torture them, charge them with theft or can be violent, but domestic workers have no say in this. They have no one to go to and complain. If they go to the police, they are treated unsympathetically because of their lack of wealth and power. A 15-year-old domestic worker said that she works full-time in a house, twelve hours a day from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. She works without pay because she was charged with the theft of gold bangles. She denied the allegation, but her wages are being docked and will continue to be so until the cost of the gold bangles is recovered. She said: I receive no pay because of the charges imposed on me for the theft of gold bangles. I’ll have to work like this, with no pay, for one more year or

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maybe more. It has been about seven months since I received pay from them.

In such cases domestic workers have no way to prove if they are innocent; they lack access to any agency that could help them in solving such matters. They endure a kind of bonded labour which exploits them as slaves. They are physically prevented from leaving the job until they have paid the “debt” of the stolen item. There are also cases of domestic workers being badly physically tortured and battered. A few such cases are related here: My daughter, about 14 years old, used to work full time in a house. She worked there for only one month and ran away, because she was badly hit with a stick by one of the family members she worked for. They say that her work is not up to standard and that she doesn’t want to learn.

From one 50-year-old woman: I am old, but my mistress is young and strong. If she doesn’t like my work, she throws things at me and tells me to do it again. Just last week I was cleaning up and sorting things in her cupboard. She thought I was taking too long and also thought that it was not clean. She shouted at me, and pushed me, and threw back all the stuff from the cupboard and ordered me to do it all over again. She is a woman of bad temper and attitude.

A 23-year-old who works full time said: If my mistress is angry at me, she tells her husband and other family members: they make fun of me, say rude things to me and even sometimes slap me. They also don’t give me food to eat. I have to stay hungry and listen to their bad remarks and orders.

Two other complaints were: If any members of the family for whom I work see me eating anything, even leftover food, they snatch it from me, especially the mistress. She says if they allow me to eat like this I will start eating their food as well and will not concentrate on my work. To work full time in a house is tough work. I have worked as a full time domestic worker in three different houses: I used to work from morning till night. The pay was better than working part time in different houses, but the work was also too much. And there were other problems.

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Chapter Four The first time I worked full time was when I was about 14 years old. My mistress was always angry and always shouted at me. In addition to the basic work like washing, cleaning and cooking, I was also working for all ten members of the house. I used to work like a machine, completing one task after the other, from early in the morning till nine at night. After working there for eight months, I was exhausted and could work no more with them, so I left. Then after a few months I found another full time job. That was even worse. The mistress always punished me if I made any mistakes. She sometimes even hit me with her sandal or stick. She also used to take my food away if she was angry. She used bad and abusive language. The rest of the family were also of the same temperament. Finally she hit me so hard with a stick that I was left with no choice but to leave the job. At that time we were in desperate need of money. After a few weeks one of my neighbours introduced me to another family who were looking for a full time domestic worker. They hired me. That mistress deducted money from my wages every month, and one of the men of the house would always try to seduce me, and it scared me; when he tried to hug and kiss me I immediately left the job. Now I only work part-time in different houses. I think it is very wrong for girls to work full-time in other people’s houses, because then she is at their mercy. Parents should not send their daughters to do it.

Most domestic workers are not given time off during religious festivals or special occasions. They are required to work because guests and relatives are expected or invited to their employers’ house and there is lot of work to do. They have to serve the family and guests with special food. Full-time workers in particular are not given time off; part-time domestic workers are sometimes able to take leave unless their employer is strict and threatens to dismiss them. It is very oppressive for domestic workers that they are denied all public holidays in addition to long working hours and no regular breaks during work. If they are not given public holidays, they should be compensated for the work and number of hours they worked during these days. As it is, they have to do favours for their employers to keep them happy, since their salary and job is in their hands. The food given to domestic workers is either left over or stale food that no one else would eat. When a domestic worker complains of being ill, the employer might give them a painkiller if they happen to have any so that the worker can continue with her tasks; otherwise the worker is ignored. If they are very sick and painkillers would not work, they are sent home and the employer takes no responsibility for their medical treatment. Not all employers torture their domestic workers, but most of them treat

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them disrespectfully. They often humiliate them and use bad language and tone. Domestic workers have to work even if they are sick and need complete rest. If they take leave, their salary is deducted and if they don’t they can’t work properly and are told off by their employer: Last week I was very sick, so I took two days off. At the end of the month all three of my employers deducted my salary. They thought I was lying, that I had gone back to my village to visit my relatives. I work full time in a house. Once when I was sick I asked my employer to give me time off. Instead she gave me medicine and told me to rest for a while. But there was so much to finish before my mistress would let me go. So after a little rest and taking the medicine I started to work again. Then by the end of the day I was burning with fever and was very sick. I felt dizzy and nauseated. When my mistress noticed that I could not take it anymore, she let me go. I walked very slowly because I felt very weak. Next day I did not go to work. The doctor told me to be admitted to the hospital, but we could not afford it, nor did my mistress help me financially. I work in four different houses and I am not happy in any of them. They don’t respect me and don’t care if I am tired, they all just want their work to be done perfectly and in the early morning hours. I can’t be in four houses at one time: every house takes me between one and one and a half hours, so obviously when I go to my last house, the mistress always complains that I choose to go there last. But if I go late in other three houses, those mistresses would shout at me.

CHAPTER FIVE ATTITUDES TOWARD WORKING WOMEN

Pakistani society is undergoing a change in its traditions and other activities, but the rate and direction of change differ greatly from one locale to the next, particularly in Karachi. The main reason for this is that the society is tightly structured, and a person’s role, duties, attitudes, and obligations are rigidly defined. Because Karachi consists of people of all classes and different ethnic backgrounds, a person’s ability to adapt to changes in society varies greatly from family to family and area to area. As I have mentioned before, the conditions for women in this society have changed tremendously in the past 50 years. Women’s contribution to the nation’s economy and that of their own families has increased greatly. This change in socio-economic norms is due to the increased enrollment rates at female educational institutions and the increased needs of household incomes due to economic pressure. The household responsibilities that were once considered the primary role for women are no longer the main issue, but it is still a dominant factor that needs to change. Women’s entrance into the job market is perceived differently by different people: the opinions and comments of relatives, acquaintances and neighbours play an important and strategic role in the lives of working women. They are in most cases a woman’s moral guardians (whether through mutual choice or social habit), and are perpetual commentators on the lives of others. Attitudes toward working women can be divided into three main parts. 1) How do family members feel about women’s jobs? 2) Comments and attitudes of relatives towards working women and how these attitudes and comments influence working women. 3) Comments and attitudes of neighbours and acquaintances towards working women and how this attitudes and comments influence these working women.

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Comments by Family Members The earnings of domestic workers are essential for their families, but rarely do family members offer their women emotional support. Only 33.3 percent of the respondents replied that their families supported and encouraged them; 16.6 percent were against the women working despite their poverty, and 50 percent said their families were still adapting, that some relatives did and some did not. One woman said: No-one in my family likes it but we need the money. My husband doesn’t work. He also snatches money from me for his own needs, to gamble and buy alcohol.

Thirty-year-old Zarina, who takes care of her sick mother, her kids and husband, says: My husband used to bring home wages from his work as a day labourer, but now he cannot find work. My mother is sick. I have to take care of her day and night. I wake up early in the morning and prepare breakfast for my husband and kids. In addition to working at other people’s houses as a domestic worker, I have a double burden of work at home too. My husband doesn’t help with the housework at all. I have to cook, clean the house, do the washing up and also buy stuff from the market. My whole day is extremely arduous.

Category two women had the least support from family members as compared to women of categories one and three. Only 22.2 percent of the respondents said that they get support and encouragement from their families. Since most of the families in this category cannot afford to keep a full-time domestic worker, the women of the family are expected to do the housework—33.3 percent of category two women said they did all the housework as well as their daily jobs. Families in this category are slow to adopt social changes; most still consider a woman responsible for the quality of her marriage, and that household responsibilities should be an unmarried woman’s primary concern. Twenty-seven-year-old Farzana works as counter staff in a restaurant. She complains that her parents are very strict and do not let her do overtime, and are never satisfied with the amount of household work she does: My parents want me to do all the housework too. I am not excused from any task. It gets very difficult to manage both, and if I complain of being

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tired they tell me to leave my job. If I come late from work, they get mad at me. It is my brothers who are in favour of my job.

Another girl said: My mum and dad want me leave the job after I get married, they are always telling me that society is so obsessed with the idea of work and money, individual achievements, careers and success that we have lost sight of the bigger picture, which is our family life. The best thing one can do is to spend happy hours with the family. But we have become so preoccupied with ourselves that we do not realize where we are heading, towards a life of stress, strain and tension.

There are women who believe that it is beneficial for the family if women have careers. According to them, women who are less educated and have less experience of the outside world cannot be good wives and mothers, because they themselves feel insecure and therefore are not dependable. They over-protect their children and in turn seek protection and security from them when they are grown ups. These women may spend a lot more time with children than working women but it is not necessarily quality time: a family needs to spend quality time with each other. A 42-year-old school teacher said: I quit working soon after marriage because my in-laws always commented that I didn’t take care of my husband; I went back to work after almost ten years. I took care of my kids so they can be happy, secure and successful, but I realized I was giving them an overly-sheltered life style. Now I am working again, I see that they have developed an ability to be independent and make their own choices. My husband and I spend quality time with our kids and take interest in their lives: I think this life style is more beneficial for all of us. My in-laws still say that I am spoiling my kids and that I don’t take care of my husband, that I work because I want to be away from home. They always make comments about it.

In category three, only 11.1 percent of the respondents complained that they also have to do household work and it gets very difficult to manage both that and their work. The percentage is exceedingly high for family support: 66.6 percent said that their family is proud of them and encourages them, and this support gives them more confidence. In some cases the women gave up social activities and shopping in order to spend more time with their families, so that they avoided being criticised for working.

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Yesmeen, a 32-year-old single woman, explained her habits: When I am at home, I don’t socialize with friends unless it is extremely important. I don’t make long phone calls and don’t go out much so that my family will not complain. I have to take some precautions. Since I spend all day at my office I try not to interfere much in family discussions, so that I won’t say anything irrelevant.

The women of category three showed more commitment to their work, always making a conscious effort not to let their work interfere with their family lives. They drew a line between work and family commitments: too much involvement in work may result in neglecting family obligations, and this in turn may have a negative influence on their work. They understand this and value their time at work, so they make the best use of their time that they can. One woman commented: My husband is proud of me. He wants me to work. I am also helping the family financially. I am not used to being confined at home: I have always worked, even before marriage. My husband says “You are a brave lady, keep up the good work.” This gives me a lot of encouragement.

Key: 1. They are supportive 2. Some family members are in favour, some are not 3. All family members are against it.

4. They insist that the working woman do all housework too. 5. It the woman’s own choice and her family doesn’t object. 6. The family is proud, appreciative and supportive.

Figure 5.1 Attitudes of Families towards Their Female Family Members

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Comments by Relatives The women of category one are immigrants from interior Sind. People from this part of Pakistan are poor and illiterate. Because of the lack of education and skills, domestic work is appropriate for them. The men of such families do not get proper jobs here and therefore women have to work, which is considered inappropriate by the people back in their village. They do not understand why women must work. One of the domestic workers explains: Our relatives back in the village criticise us a lot. They don’t like it when girls work, and they don’t understand why we have to. Our men can’t find jobs here so we have to earn money for our survival.

These women also think it is wrong to work, but they have no choice, as explained by one domestic worker: I understand that it is wrong to work in other people’s houses. I am told by my relatives that I should stay home and should do only housework and take care of the kids. I have two small kids. I don’t have enough money to feed them. My husband doesn’t work. He beats me every day.

But there are also large numbers of families in which all women have to work. They live in communities and understand each others’ problems, so instead of criticizing they encourage and help each other. As we can see in figure 5.1, 50 percent of the women said that their relatives are supportive and uncritical, while 50 percent said that their relatives made comments and criticised them about their jobs. The criticism is chiefly aimed at unmarried girls who go out to work. Zohra, a shy and timid 18-year-old who works in three houses, said: I am young and unmarried therefore our relatives criticize us. They say that a young unmarried girl should not go out to earn money, it is considered unrespectable and embarrassing for them.

In category two, 22.2 percent of the respondents said that their relatives do not care about their jobs and do not interfere. Those with critical families made up 44.4 percent, far more than those who get support and appreciation from their relatives: those who reprove them share the common concept that working women are not decent, not virtuous. Some of this criticism is born of jealousy.

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Twenty-eight-year old Sonia describes the criticism of her relatives, which is due to their jealousy: My relatives say that I make my old parents do all the work at home while I enjoy myself outside, and that I work to show off and to escape household responsibilities—even though their own daughters are also working.

Other comments were: I will leave the job after my marriage, which is expected to be in two months’ time. My aunt tells me that she had to leave her job because she could not take care of her kids. When she worked her son didn’t go to school, just played loud music or played outside with neighbour kids. She also had a small daughter: her mother-in-law took care of her daughter, but the little girl needed her mother. When she left the job, the family income was lower, but she and her husband felt strongly that they were doing the right thing even though they had money problems. I also think she did the right thing. If women continue to work after having kids, they spoil their kids because then there is no one to keep an eye on them. My uncle always says that the world would be a happier and healthier place if women would do their jobs well at home and use their husband’s wages economically rather than running after luxuries and status competing with men. Women are physically weak therefore their role is in the home. One of my aunts says that children feel neglected if both parents work. Just think how children would feel when they come from school and do not have a mother to welcome them…it would not be fair to them. They are our future; we need to take care of them.

In category three, the highest percentage of women are those whose relatives are impressed with their designation and jobs. They get comments like “lucky, brave, dynamic, bold, keep it up,” etc. These women are not criticized, but it was mentioned by some women that although their relatives are impressed, they still tend to think that working girls are very independent and untrustworthy, and that they are not humble. These women get appreciation and support more than category one and category two women, with 33.3 percent reporting supportive families. Erum, a 32-year-old-woman working for a multinational company tells how impressed her relatives are:

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Because I work for a good company and get a very good salary and benefits, my relatives are so impressed. Sometimes my cousins give me their resume to help them get jobs too. They think it is easy for me to get them a job. But I know it is very difficult—I have to work hard to maintain my job. They don’t know this.

A school teacher explained her situation:

Percentage

My relatives say that I am selfish, materialistic and an uncaring mother, and that I am ruining my children’s futures and our family life. I am not a good cook, nor can I keep my house very clean: but I think my children are just like everyone’s children. They are happy, well-fed and secure, spend plenty of time at their studies and also play with their friends. I see no difference. My husband sometimes complains that I don’t take care of him: I know I can’t because sometimes I am very tired so I sometimes I don’t do things for him. People also say that I am not a good wife, but I think my husband understands that I can get tired too. I am glad that he does not complain.

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2

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Attitude Key: 1. They do not care 2. Critical of women working 3. Appreciative and supportive

4. Impressed 5. Proud

Figure 5.2 Attitudes of Relatives towards Working Women

Comments by Neighbours The women of category one live in squatter settlements. It is easy to keep track of what other people in the area do, and many people spend a

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great deal of their time commenting on the lives of others: 33.3 percent of these women said that their neighbours comment on their jobs and do not like it. They are accused of going out just for the sake of wandering around, and being unrespectable. One of the domestic workers said: My neighbours are very nosy. They always nose about in other people’s affairs and talk nonsense. So we try not to keep much contact with them. I mind my own business.

On the other hand, 50 percent of the respondents said that their neighbours do not care about their jobs, which is relatively high as compared to the responses to this question in categories two and three. The reason is that many women from the same areas and communities all work as domestic servants, so many families face the same challenges. In category two, 44.4 percent of the respondents said that their neighbours do not care about their jobs—this remark was made most often by married women and those in traditional jobs. Of the other respondents, 22.2 percent were bold enough to ignore comments and criticism from their neighbours and to avoid contact with them, and 22.2 percent faced comments from their neighbours about their jobs, due either to traditional thinking or jealously, as Khalida said: My neighbours are very jealous. They talk nonsense such as: “She is working because she wants to show off,” “she wants to be independent and bold,” “she goes out just to have fun,” “she wants to stay away from her house and family responsibilities.” But I don’t care. I have to do my job and will continue, and make them more jealous.

One woman interviewed was a divorced working mother with two kids was accused of being a bad mother, neglecting her kids in order to go out with other men. It depresses her to think that society and people refuse to give her space and don’t realize how hard it is for her to make both ends meet if she does not work. She says that no one blames her husband, who left his two kids and married another woman, whereas everyone blames her: I work full time and live in a small apartment. My husband left me some five years back. I have two sons, one 15 years old and another 12. They both go to school. I have a good job because I have a degree in IT, and I earn a good salary. My eldest son is a polite, outgoing young man. He helps me with all kinds of household work. We have breakfast together every morning and supper as well. I have no choice but to go out and work for our living: the state will not give me anything. My children are my

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family and I believe they are more mature than any other kids of their age, and they are learning to take on more responsibilities. They both understand the need for me to work. People who have so much free time and have nothing to do will always talk about other people’s lives, but I don’t care who says what. I need my job so I will continue with it, and my sons will help me in my household work. This is how my life will continue until my eldest son gets a degree and can start helping me earn money.

Of category three women, 44.4 percent get appreciation and support from their neighbours, a relatively higher percentage as compared to the other categories, but 11.1 percent said that they did get comments from their neighbours. Naheed, who works as a dentist, explains: My neighbours always try to find something so that they can make a fuss and try to degrade me, especially if I get dropped at home by my colleague. I usually go by bus. Once one of my neighbours followed me to my office. I know people are always suspicious about girls, particularly if they are working.

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10 0 1

2

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Attitude Key: 1. They do not care 2. They are critical of working women 3. Women didn’t care what neighbours said

4. Neighbours were appreciative 5. Neighbours were impressed

Figure 5.3 Attitude of Neighbours towards Working Women

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Another woman, S. Khan, was told she was selfish by one of her neighbours: One of the women in my neighbourhood always makes comments to me indirectly. She says “society is proud of those women who sacrificed for their families and children, and held them together by love and care. But now girls these days lack piousness and sacredness. They have become selfish and just think about themselves.” I never know how to answer her; she confuses me.

One woman shared this story: One of my neighbours always comes to my home and insists that I should not work. She explains that women who work outside their homes jeopardise the happiness of their families. Women are made to stay home, take care of their family and should only care for their [family’s] happiness. This is their god-given duty. Why do they want to go against nature?

Marriage Pakistan is a patriarchal society in which women are treated as chattel, “given” or “acquired” through marriages, and they spend their lives serving their husbands, in-laws and their kids. For this reason women must get married because they cannot have a respectable life without a man’s protection. Before marriage it is their fathers and brothers; after marriage it is their husbands. So in order to have a respectable and secure life she must get married at a young age: in this society women usually marry between the ages of 16 and 25. These ages are considered the most appropriate for marriage. In most cases marriages are arranged by parents, which is considered more honorable and noble than those arranged by the couple themselves. After marriage, girls move in with their husbands’ families and adopt their ways. For married women the primary responsibility is housework and child care, which is why they get subordinate positions in the labour market. A wife is expected to give full support and understanding to her husband and to his career and profession. As a result a working woman is physically and mentally abused by the competing demands of her multiple roles as a mother, wife, housekeeper and worker. If she is lucky enough to have a well-paid job, she can hire a domestic servant for housework, and this can lessen some of her burden. The mothers of young children who enter job market due to economic

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necessity cannot provide high quality care for their children, which increases their guilt and strain. Marriage is considered a necessity in this culture. An unmarried person is seen as lonely and insecure, particularly women, but when a woman enters the job market it often delays her marriage. Upper-class women postpone their marriages to allow them to get more education and thus increase their opportunities for employment and career, whereas in the middle class, the marriages of daughters are postponed if their income is needed in the house. Working women have different attitudes about gender roles and therefore usually marry later than their grandmothers and greatgrandmothers did. This is particularly true for women in category three: those who value roles that provide viable alternatives to the role of wife, tend to delay their marriages. This change in women’s role is also brought about by the changes in society. These changes allow women to devote less of their lives to raising their children and gives them enough time for other pursuits. Women who have careers, financial stability and are from the middle class marry later than those from the lower class or from the higher upper-class background. The ideas that influence women about their marriage are economic factors, parental influences, a rise in feminism and educational pursuits. All this has undergone significant cultural change. Economic factors influence women greatly in choosing when to marry. Those who are less economically dependent on their husbands do not just look for a job: they establish a career. Their careers take relative precedence over marriage, while their peers who are less career-oriented opt for marriage and look forward to raising a family. There is a higher percentage of women in category three who want to be “an authority in their field rather than raise a family,” than women in categories one and two. It is also believed that as the participation of women in the labour market has increased it has had a critical, irreversible impact on the family. Men’s economic status has also deteriorated due to economic instability in the country. Women have to some extent rebelled against marriage since they entered the work force: many are no longer economically dependent on men. The feminist emphasis upon educational and vocational achievements for women encourages women to shift from traditional roles, which are mainly organised around children, marriage and home. The idea that women can be more than wives and mothers inspires almost all women, but many do not act on such inspiration. The women who struggle to be

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more than housewives have a strong desire to be valued for their own ambitions, intelligence, and independence—qualities traditionally attributed only to men. Parents have a great influence on women’s ideas and perceptions of marriage. The women who marry late in life usually have stricter parents than those who marry early; also those parents who value careers for women have daughters who marry late in life. They do not stress careers over marriage but value careers in their own right. They also put less pressure on their daughters to marry. Women who pursued higher educational goals had parents (particularly fathers) who had achieved advanced degrees and worked in intellectual occupations. Such parents support and exert positive influence on their daughters’ educational and career plans. Working mothers also tend to influence their daughters in that direction. Women who are very attached to their parents also marry late. Women are participating in rapidly growing numbers in professions previously dominated by males, and both education and experience levels of the female labour force have begun to increase at a faster rate than they are for the male labour force. It has been demonstrated that there is a positive relationship between educational attainment and timing of marriage for women, particularly for those who do not give preference to a career over marriage. When women enter the work force, they put an additional burden on themselves and alter their gender role, whereas men keep doing what they have always done. They do not participate in household activities: therefore it is not just the work burden that increases stress on women, but it is also the increased inequality that makes women dissatisfied. When I asked whether work was a hindrance or an advantage to marriage, every woman interviewed in category one said it was a hindrance. Even the working married women themselves do not want their sons to marry working women. Khatoon, a 49-year-old domestic worker, said: I would not like to have a daughter-in-law who works. Unmarried girls should not go to work, they should stay home. They should only work after they are married and then only if their husbands and in-laws allow it. Otherwise they should stay home and take care of the housework.

Of the remaining women, 66.6 percent of respondents in both category two and category three said that work is a hindrance to marriage. By entering the job market, women gain confidence, financial security and a sense of independence; these qualities are considered negative behaviour

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for girls when they are being considered as a wife (by prospective in-laws, not simply a prospective husband). Society imposes a feminine ideal of loyalty, dependence, innocence and self-sacrifice. Her honor and respect must affiliate with the honour and respect of her husband and in-laws. Bilqees, a 38-year-old unmarried woman working as a manager discusses her own experience: It is good that girls utilise their education and gain experience of working life. But as for marriage, boys prefer working girls but parents— particularly mothers—don’t, because they think working girls are not virtuous and too independent, which can create problems in future because it can get difficult to control these girls and keep them under their authority. People calculate the age of the girl. Obviously if she has a masters in any subject, she cannot be less than 24 or 25 years old; then another couple of years are added to her age if she has been working for a while. This creates a fairly big problem for educated working girls.

When a girl’s marriage is delayed and she has completed the required study, parents do prefer to send their daughters to work for the income they can bring. This has several advantages, as girls do not have to sit idly at home and worry about marriage and feel sorry for themselves, and when they do get married the extra money is useful. Most marriages are arranged by parents, particularly mothers. It is believed that love should not be a catalyst for marriage, but something that develops afterward. Marriages are generally arranged between couples of the same socio-economic class and the same caste or region. Parents initiate and give first preference to suitors who will assure their daughters’ economic security and protection, for as soon as they find a reasonable match for their daughters, the young women are forced to leave their jobs and prepare for a life of caring for their husbands, children, and in-laws. The sooner they bear a child the better, as motherhood strengthens her position in the marriage and in the household. It is considered the woman’s responsibility to maintain her marriage. A single girl working as a secretary who is about to get married said: I will leave my job as soon as the date of my marriage is arranged. My fiancé wants me to leave the job and take care of our home after we are married. I am happy to do this for him: I want to be a good wife and daughter-in-law. My parents will not like it if they hear anything bad about me from my in-laws. They brought me up to be able to adjust to any environment, so I am not worried how my in-laws will treat me; I will

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Because marriages are usually arranged by mothers, the mothers of sons look for a girl who is submissive and lacks confidence, so they can treat them in whatever way they like. Marriages are not just a union of two people: they are unions of families. The woman moves in with her husband’s family and it is her duty to adjust herself to the new environment. She is expected to serve as a maid, cook, hostess, peacemaker, disciplinarian, and accountant, but she does not have any decision making power at home. Decisions are made either by her husband or his parents: her place is to care for her children. One woman said: I wanted to continue my job after my marriage, because life was very difficult for me. Everyone in the husband’s family treats me as if I am their servant. So I asked my husband to allow me to continue my work. I was lucky, because he said yes. But my mother-in-law doesn’t like it, she wants me to stay home. She thinks I work just to enjoy myself and have some freedom.

When a mother selects a girl for her son, she chooses someone who is submissive and accepts her position in the society as an inferior. This allows her husband and his family to keep her a perpetual psychological minor, under their power. One story illustrated this: Before my marriage, I was always dreaming of getting married and thought that life would be wonderful and so much easier. [I thought that] my inlaws and husband would help me in everything. But since I married my work load has doubled: it has been two years now and I don’t have any kids yet. It is becoming a serious issue now. My husband wants kids, and so do my in-laws. So I am worried what will happen if I don't have any kids. I am also under a lot of pressure and tension because of his workload in the office and at home. But I am glad I have my own money, I don’t have to beg anyone for the money.

Mothers usually prefer younger women for their sons because they believe that they need greater companionship, compatibility and communication from their spouses, that they expect more traditional relationships in which the husband is dominant, and they have not matured and developed a sense of self-worth: therefore they depend on their husband to fulfill these needs. Whereas women who are older than 25 have been exposed to more of life’s experiences and therefore will expect a more equal relationship with their husbands. They have stronger, better-

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developed senses of self-worth and broader horizons for their lives. Mothers think that working girls will have less warmth and sincerity for their family, including their children, husband and his relatives, and that they are less obedient. Those working women who are married and living in a combined or joint family with their in-laws complained about their mothers-in-law being manipulative and dominating, saying that they played games to make their daughters-in-law’s lives even harder. They make their sons feel that their wives are too preoccupied with their jobs and that they neglect their children, husbands and household responsibilities. Mothers-in-law play a twisted game of power to show that they own their sons, and do their best to make sure that his wife never supplants her. Some of the working women even complained that their mothers-in-law kept track of their money, watching how much they earned each month, how much they spent and what they saved (and what they saved for). Many women complained that their mothers-in-law acted like spies, and when they felt neglected they fussed about the unorganized domestic work and blamed it on their jobs. There were many complaints of such behaviour: My mother-in-law always complains that a woman’s responsibility is at home, and they should only concentrate on their children, husband, family and household work. She justifies it by explaining that she herself never thought of going out and now her all kids are good and in better positions in their careers. She says that if I continue to work my kids will be depressed and spoiled. But I can’t leave my work. I and my husband have planned to move to a separate home, so I guess I have to work. Everyday when I get home from my job, my mother-in-law is ready for a fight. She picks on anything she can to start a fight. If I am late from work, she says I am going out with other men; if I get a phone call, she is sure that it is from a boy friend. If I dress well and put on some make-up, she is accuses me of having a date. Once she almost convinced him to divorce me. I am stuck: if I leave my job, I will have to stay with her all hours of the day, but if I don’t she will continue to make problems for me. My in-laws—my mother-in-law, sister-in-law and others—are very nice to me when they need money, but if I refuse they always say nasty things about me behind my back. I am sick of my mother-in-law’s judgment, her micro-managing us and her irritating opinions. My husband thinks I am a bad person, because I won’t let her have her way, and I protest and complain. I feel so much better here in the office than at home. She has full control of my both kids as well.

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The respondents who said that it not an obstacle were mostly working traditional jobs or in a profession such as medicine; this increased their demand. Those who prefer to marry working women are usually attracted by their income and other benefits offered by the company. They expect both added income and a good housekeeper, as described by Yasmeen: Usually people marry working girls for their salaries, so after marriage they have double the workload: they have to take care of the household responsibilities as well as their job. Husbands never help in housework; in our society it is shameful for both husband and wife if the husband helps with the housework, which I think is wrong.

Men and women are inherently dependent on one another. Women need men for financial stability and men need women for emotional stability and for a sense of a home life. Home life is a major concern for both women and men: they respect one another for the role they play in each others’ lives. They live in a society in which they each give and take in order to survive. Society has done two things to men and women which makes married life difficult for both. It tells men what they are supposed to desire or expect in a women, and it tells women the way they are supposed to become desirable. Women are pressured to adopt certain ways, and in most cases they are not happy after marriage. Marriage is composed of two individuals and both of them have the right to happiness, but women are expected to sacrifice their happiness for another’s. The divorce rate has increased because more women are refusing to sacrifice their lives and happiness for others, without getting any credit or understanding for it. Working women are less dependent on men: some people regret this and cling to the good old days when women were under more control and kept to the place society had dictated for them in marriage and the community. But now women are changing: they are learning to hold their own in what has until now been a man’s world.

Salary and Promotion Men are always at an economic advantage over women. Whether it is for higher education, training, professional occupations or in setting up

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businesses, men are always given first preference. Even when it comes to salaries and benefit packages there is a large difference. Women are considered less efficient than men, so they are always offered lower wages and salaries. It has also been observed that women are given fewer responsibilities than men working at the same level: this is because of cultural and religious sensibilities. Women may not be asked to stay late hours, and not given work which requires travel or physical strength. Women realise this and therefore they compromise on lower salaries. Domestic workers are also exploited in terms of wages. There are no fixed wages, and every employer determines their own work, tasks and salaries. If that is acceptable to the worker or if she badly needs the job, she accepts. The average amount earned by a domestic worker is 1500 rupees per month ($25.60 USD). This amount is just enough for an uppermiddle-class woman to buy one ready-made dress: whereas the domestic worker must manage to buy food (sometimes for their whole family), pay rent and bills and manage other necessities on the same amount of money for an entire month. Male domestic workers are paid higher wages than the women on the assumption that they are the breadwinners, whereas the truth is that in most cases, women are the breadwinners as well as the homemakers. One domestic worker interviewed said: I spend all my money on my children and other household necessities. I eat the food my mistress gives me and wear her old clothes that she gives me. I don’t spend a single penny on myself.

Unskilled workers, like domestic workers, are illiterate and have to work extremely hard in order to make ends meet. One woman said: I work in three different houses, but the money I get is hardly enough for our food. I have three kids. My husband is also illiterate, and works as a labourer on daily wages, and often does not get work. He is also lazy. But I work hard to make ends meet. Still, I never get money to buy something extra or extra food for my kids.

The unskilled workers have to work longer hours and in tough conditions. They must work hard and be obedient to their masters because they can easily be replaced. Women are paid lower wages because they are considered less efficient than men, but this can only be calculated if a man and a woman are compared doing the same job for the same employer. This direct competition is found only in a few sections of the labour market: there are certain kinds of work which are exclusively for women. Work is sectioned

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and divided among men and women according to the view of society along traditional gender biases. Nobody would be prepared to see men taking care of the babies or the ill with equal dexterity and skill. A nurse said: I had one year’s training. I chose this because I thought it was easy for girls to learn these skills and it was a cheap course. There were around 100 more girls who trained with me, and no boys of course….maybe they are not allowed, I don’t know. But I am not happy with my salary. The person who is supposed to be junior to me gets almost the same salary. I don’t understand why—maybe because he is an older guy.

One married woman said: Men do little things at home and claim that they are helping with domestic chores. My husband cleans a room once in a year and tells his friends that he is a very liberal man, and always doing his share of work at home. And above all he has no idea how much time and work is required to do all the household work. He thinks it is that easy.

There are occupations where women are given preference, but the wages are still lower. Such jobs do not need professional training; it is thought women are naturally born with such skills. Since less investment is made in their trainings, they are paid lower wages. The jobs for men require advanced skills, training and knowledge. This training costs money, so the men are considered entitled to high salaries. Their jobs carry more responsibility because they bring in the capital for the firms they work for. Women, whether they are in direct competition with men or have a traditional job, earn much less than men do. An angry woman said: I work eight hours and have an hour-long bus journey home. Then I do all the housework as well. While I do the cleaning, washing and cooking, my husband plays computer games or watches TV. Even on weekends I am always catching up on housework rather than spending time with my family and kids. Do you think it is fair of our society to treat women like this? Above all, we still do not get the salaries that we should. Everyone just wants to take advantage of us and pay back nothing.

Another woman working as a computer operator said: Obviously those who are more into computers get higher salaries. I was working as a receptionist, then I learned about computers, and now I am working for a better salary as a computer operator. As a receptionist you don’t have to do anything: I would just sit and chat. But now there is

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always a lot of work. I got a pay rise when I became a computer operator, but still I am not satisfied with the salary; I do much more work than I am paid fairly for.

Gender and training are the guiding determiners of pay. Men earn more than women; skilled workers earn far more than unskilled, and are treated well because their occupation and work are essential and unique. Because of the cost of training, there are fewer of them, and therefore difficult to replace. Salaries depend on the type and level of skill. The higher the skill of a worker, the more indispensable he (or she) is to an employer. But as with any situation of supply and demand, when the number of skilled workers increases, the salary level decreases. One woman related her story: I work in a team of web designers. In the beginning, about eight years back, people paid us well, but now there are so many web designers the industry standard wages have gone down. We have to compromise on lower salaries because there are always other people in the queue waiting with an application or a lower bid for vacant positions and freelance projects.

It is believed that women, because of their dual roles, are not reliable and dedicated to their work; therefore they are considered less suited for positions of responsibility. Since there are very few companies which offer part-time jobs, and those that do pay less, no one is willing to take a parttime position if they can help it. A part-time worker said: I joined part-time as a telemarketer, for four hours a day. But I am never able to leave after four hours: I always have to stay longer and work, without pay. I never get over-time.

A full time worker said: I wanted to do a part-time job but nothing is available. I was offered a parttime job in sales, but this required travelling from company to company: I tried but it was too tough. I think to work full-time in an office-based job is better.

A school teacher tells how much time she spends with kids: At school a teacher has to take care of her class, and then at home I have to take care of my own kids and my home. My husband helps our kids with their school work or sometimes takes them outside for a walk or for an ice cream, but the rest of the work is all my duty.

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The amount of time fathers spend with their kids is far less than their mothers spend with them. If men are found doing more household chores or taking care of the kids, it is assumed that they are losing their traditional identity as a breadwinner. By not helping in the house they “protect” their masculinity, and therefore an immense weight is placed on women’s shoulders. The younger women were particularly bitter that boys and men are easily promoted and progress so much faster than women. In our interviews and when we are first hired we are told that we will be treated the same as the men in terms of compensation and promotions. But we are stuck at one place; they forget that they can’t treat an intelligent and shrewd woman like this and think she will not notice. When you ask for promotion or for a pay rise, you are no longer a “sweet lady.” In my previous job, I would work late hours to get the work done. I was like everybody’s little friend, and everybody would come to me and get a little help. But when I realised that I should ask for a rise, I saw a tremendous withdrawal: it was like I had committed a crime by asking for a rise. I felt that everybody expected me to stay in the same level with the same salary for the rest of my life. I was not given a rise, so I resigned and was hired here at a higher salary.

Emotions, politics and favouritism are very important factors in the job as well as during the hiring process. Every woman complains about this. A 36-year-old marketing professional said: I work so hard, and get lots of good clients for the company, but there are other colleagues who are always given more appreciation and preference. They are less qualified, but they joined this company through some resourceful connections and references. I was hired on merit. I always work hard, but they can work, enjoy themselves and relax and still get more credit for their work. It is very, very unfair.

To get a job, particularly a well-paid one, one must almost always have connections. It is commonly understood that if one does not have any resourceful connections, he/she can forget a good career. They will get a job but it will always be beneath their education and abilities. Conversely, a person may be less qualified or less suited for a particular position, but with good connections they obtain a good position with a high salary and many benefits. And above all their jobs are secure. People without references or connections will have to compromise on lower-grade jobs

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and lower wages and wait until they get good experience; then they can demand a good position and salary. It is commonly presumed that men have more financial responsibilities and greater need, therefore they get paid more than women. Men’s earnings intended to cover not only their personal needs but also their wives’ and children’s expenses. Wives have a right to demand the money from their husbands, which can be for domestic use, children’s needs or for her personal needs. A husband is expected to fulfill these obligations whenever possible. Women’s earnings, on the other hand, are expected to cover only their own needs, and perhaps some of the household expenses; husbands have no right to their money. The reality is very different: most women end up spending most of their money on their households, and are forced to work because of economic pressures. The exceptions are those that are pursuing a career or working for personal growth or to pass the time until they get married; these women are often from economically secure families. In that case their families might not need the extra income, or their husbands and children do not rely on their money. In that case they spend money on their personal needs. In such cases, again, it is considered that they do not need higher wages or wages equivalent to men because they are earning only for their own needs. One woman opposed this view: Men always have advantages over women. Even when it comes to salaries, they get paid more for the same work than we do. If we complain we are told that they are earning for their families. It is not fair. We also earn for our families, not for our pocket money. It is even more difficult for us, because we do all the housework as well. At home, the men just relax and watch TV. They have manipulated everything to their advantage.

There is little basis in reality for the popular belief that men need more money because they are also responsible for their wives and children. Most working women are earning to contribute to the family income, whether they are single or married, and not all men have family obligations. Women may be working because their husbands cannot, which may be due to several reasons such as illness, unemployment, desertion or death. These women need money to support their children. If they are single, they are expected to help rear younger brothers and sisters. and if they remain spinsters they are responsible for caring for their parents with their earnings. So they are very rarely free of all claims on their income. The difference between men’s and women’s income is that the men are universally recognised and accepted in society as breadwinners for their families, whereas women are not. Women’s

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household work is taken for granted; the dependence of men and their power to earn on the efficiency of those who cook their meals, look after their homes, mend their clothes, etc., is not acknowledged. If a man is not married, he usually has a female relative or a mistress take care of his household for him; whereas if a woman is working she just has double the burden. Men have their wives to take care of their homes, so they can use their full potential at their job to gain promotions and good salaries and stay in their bosses’ good books. Differences in wages are also accounted for by differences in the demands of jobs and number of employees available. Most of the jobs available to women are not in great demand because there are so many suitable candidates: for instance, school teachers are mostly women. Middle-class families prefer this occupation for their daughters. Large prestigious schools may pay better salaries to their teachers in order to keep high standards, and hire more qualified teachers. But small schools pay lower wages. In spite of the low pay the parents still prefer this job for their daughters because the schools may be nearer to their homes, the work day is shorter because schools close at about one in the afternoon, and the job is considered respectable by society. One rarely sees a man working in such schools, because of the very low wages. Occupations like doctors require advanced education and training but are not well paid, because the profession is over-crowded. The highest percentage of working women is in health professions. None of the three categories was happy with their wages or salaries. Those in category two said that since they were not qualified enough therefore they do not get the good salaries; category three women complained that they are qualified and spent a great deal of time and money to become so, but they still do not get the salaries they deserve. Category one women are not satisfied with their wages at all. They complain, but they find it difficult to justify their dissatisfaction because they believe it is a man’s job to earn money rather than theirs. Society dictates that an ideal woman is weak, obedient, docile and less clever than a man. But not all women are the same, nor do they all want to follow this rule. They are not made to one pattern any more than men are. Some women are stronger than some men, some are more clever and some are more determined and courageous. So there is no natural rule that determines that all men are cleverer, stronger and braver than all women. There are any number of jobs which women are more capable of doing efficiently than men. A project coordinator for a small company says:

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I get half the salary that other project coordinators at my level do. The person who was working in my position before me got twice what I get, because he was a man. I learned of this after I had joined and accepted the salary. I was told that I will get a pay rise after three months, but there has been no increment in my salary, and I do exactly the same work that the previous project coordinator was doing. If a woman does a job thought of as more suitable for men, and if she does it more efficiently than a man, it gets the management in trouble, so they compensate by paying the woman a lower salary. To avoid such situations, restrictions are imposed on women’s labour. She is given fewer responsibilities than a man, so that they can “prove” women are weak and less efficient, and that they ought to be “taken care of” instead of being independent. Women accept this, as they have the other responsibilities of their home and kids. But in my case I am not given fewer responsibilities. I feel very much discouraged with my salary. I have already sent a note stating that I should get the salary I deserve, but I have not received any response yet, and it has been two months now.

Gender is a major factor in deciding salaries. Almost every woman complained that she got a lower salary than the men working at the same level. Women work the same hours as men and have the same responsibilities but they are given preference only when they agree to work for less money and fewer benefits. Employers justify this by saying that there is a greater chance that women will not be permanent employees, and responsibilities like travelling and direct interaction with the public cannot be trusted to women. Also, women hesitate to take work that requires dinners and meetings. So when a woman is hired at the same level as a man but at a lower salary, she is also given less responsibility. Because domestic work is a woman’s duty, their paid work is more often interrupted. They need days off more often due to domestic crises and maternity leave. They may also leave work after marriage. They usually cannot fully concentrate on work because of their responsibilities at home, and they cannot stay late or travel very often. They are sometimes physically weak, so they might get tired and exhausted more often than men. All these reasons lead to lower wages and fewer benefits for women. Firms are concerned for their own capital and profits, so if they hire women, they hire them at lower wages. In category three, there are women who are very keen on the idea that men should share household responsibilities: if a woman works for financial reasons then it is necessary she should get full help in household responsibilities. The work should be shared equally. Even if women are working just for the sake of a career (which they are entitled to) they should not be responsible for full household responsibilities. The work

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should always be shared equally. A 40-year-old married woman working full time said: I work, raise our kids, run our home, try to have a social life with all our relatives, and try to keep my relationship with my husband. It is too exhausting and too hard. If my husband would only realise this, life would be much easier. I also work in the office and get a lower salary than I deserve. I work so hard to do well; if my boss and supervisor would only understand this, my life would also be much easier.

A woman doctor said: My husband works in a hospital and runs his own clinic as well. I also work in a hospital and take care of our home. My husband does not help in my household work, but I am glad that he appreciates me for running things smoothly in the house. My house is always clean, food is always ready and I help the children with their school projects, their shopping, …anything they need.

The modern educated approach of men is to appreciate their wives for doing housework, while they themselves dedicate very little effort to bringing up their children or to household chores. The only difference is that they appreciate their partners’ contribution to the upkeep of the home and care of the family. The traditional roles remain strong. A married woman with three kids said: I work the same number of hours as my husband does, but he gets more money than me because he is more educated and has a higher position; but when we are both at home in the evenings, he is tired and wants everything done for him, and I am not supposed to be tired or complain about work. My in-laws and my husband expect me to help with the housework after I come from my office. I take care of my kids, but my husband prefers to stay out with his friends.

Because it is women’s work to take care of the kids and the household, men do very little to help their partners when they return home from work. They spend less time with their kids. Even if both husband and wife work the equal hours, women spend more time with their kids. Although family structures are changing, traditional family values remain the same. Women may receive help from their parents and in-laws but their husbands help very little with domestic chores. As the education rate is rising for both men and women, there are increasingly positive views of women’s right to

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work, but when they return home from work they must resume the role of mother and homemaker. Another woman said: I work nine to five and run a home. I have two teenage sons. It is exhausting to work and run a house at the same time, but I do it. My husband has wonderful ideas all the time but they are just for me to put into practise; due to his hectic schedule, he is always too tired to help out around the house. I know one thing for sure, men are never able to do more than one thing at a time, whereas women have always been multi-taskers. Isn’t it amazing?

Women who have made inroads in professions are consummate multitaskers but still unappreciated. Since they have made their way into the professions which were once male domains, they have become an integral part of the work force. The vital contribution of women in the workplace and at home is still not recognised. Other women commented on the situation: Healthy working conditions are where there is justice. First of all there should be equal pay for equal work by both men and women, and working hours should be reasonably limited. Working conditions should be safe and enjoyable without discriminating against women. I work in a family-owned importing business. I have the advantage of choosing my own timetable and working my own deadlines, but I feel that I cannot utilise my time and energies the way I want to. And sometimes I feel that I am being taken for granted and I am not really needed here. It may be that I am only given something to do because I insist on working. I get de-motivated when I have these feelings, but at least I am contributing something rather than just sitting at home and getting bored. Women are soft-hearted, so they are always taken advantage of. They are controlled by their parents and afterwards by their husbands. Even in the workplace, they are usually made to do extra work which is taken for granted, not rewarded in terms of money or promotions.

In all companies and organizations the culture is shaped by men, and therefore women are at a disadvantage unless they adopt men’s style of managing things. A 58-year-old woman working at a senior level in a service-based company said: In order to achieve success one needs to do things slightly differently, and by this I mean women need to adopt men’s style because the culture of the

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On the Way to Their Jobs (Transportation) Lack of appropriate transportation is one of the many constraints faced by working women. Traffic safety is a serious problem: the quality of vehicles, drivers, traffic, and the road environment is such that traffic safety and discipline is difficult to maintain—there is no administrative order. Areas of road traffic management such as road traffic control, adjudication of traffic offences, road users’ knowledge and skills and attitudes and road traffic engineering are all very weak and need careful reconsideration and revision. All domestic workers—i.e. women of category one—walk to their workplaces, so they choose houses near their own neighbourhood. Women from the same communities walk together in small groups: 83.3 percent of these women said that they don’t feel secure walking alone in the streets. Because their men are no help to them, they rely on each other. Unmarried girls are usually accompanied by their mothers. The main reason for this insecurity is the men on the streets who leer at them and follow them if they are alone (see Chapter Four). A domestic servant said: “I don’t let my daughter go alone. I accompany her or send her with other girls.” Of categories two and three, 45.2 and 69.5 percent women respectively either have transport provided by their employer or have their own means of transport, either their own car or a relative who will give them a lift. Nazeera, who travels in her own car, says: It is like a battle to drive in such aggressive traffic. No one cares about the lanes or speed. Everyone is always in a hurry and wants to overtake you. In the beginning I was very scared, but now I am used to it.

Jabeen, a 24-year-old working in a call centre, gets picked up and dropped off every day in a company shuttle, says: I get picked up and dropped off by my employer’s transport service, but the problem is I am first to be picked up and last to be dropped. There are eleven other people who are picked up after me and dropped off before me. By the time I get home, I feel very tired. But I still think it is safe and secure and I save fare money as well.

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As for other modes of transport, 54.8 percent of category two respondents and 30.5 percent category three respondents either used public transport or walked if their workplace was close enough. Public transport included buses, taxis and rickshaws (a three-wheeled vehicle transport for two passengers, without doors). Usually women avoid taking taxis unless there is an emergency, because it is expensive and taxi drivers always try to charge extra, and they say that taxi drivers are not trustworthy. Tabinda, 46 years old, says: taxi and rickshaw drivers always charge more money. And it is very difficult to bargain with them, they are such rude and illiterate people. I can’t afford to pay this much everyday.

Rickshaws are considered more appropriate when travelling alone, because they are open and passengers do not feel fully dependent on the driver, as with a taxi. It is cheaper than a taxi but a rickshaw cannot cover long distances. They are unpleasant to ride in because they are jerky and pollute the air by throwing heavy black smoke all the way. The only other option is to take the bus. Buses in Karachi are overloaded and over-crowded; they are beautifully decorated but one must be an acrobat to ride one. Every bus has a small compartment intended for ladies only, but it is usually invaded by males; passengers are primarily working- and lower-class men, because the fares are more affordable for daily travel. These buses race against the winds at uncontrolled speeds. Many bus and truck drivers are intoxicated and exceed the speed limits. The bus drivers take on too many passengers so as to earn more money: passengers are jam packed and when there is no more space even to put another foot in the bus while standing on the pavement, men climb up and sit on the roof. They cannot afford to miss the bus and wait another 15 or 20 minutes for the next—that one will be full as well. Women are jam-packed in their small compartment. If it is full, they patiently wait for the next bus. Karachi has a severe traffic problem: the congestion results in wasted time due to traffic and makes driving considerably more dangerous. Many women complained of this. One response was: I leave my office at about 5 p.m. My home is about 30 minutes’ drive from my office, but due to the constant traffic jam on the main road, it takes me more than an hour. I wonder if it is ever going to change. A few flyovers have been built, but it still has not solved the problem.

One of the women had a suggestion for ending the traffic jam:

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Chapter Five It is unpleasant to get stuck in traffic and listen to everyone’s car horns. It gives me a bad headache. I think there should be more flyovers. People should learn to follow the lane system, and should not compete to overtake others. Everyone on the road acts as if they are the only ones who have to drive.

Women who travel by bus commented on the overcrowding, bad driving, and the men who invade the women’s compartment. A couple of other complaints were: Buses are always overcrowded. There are mostly lower working-class women, who smell so bad. Sometimes it is unbearable. Men enter the ladies compartment and take their seats. Sometimes drivers and conductors of buses misbehave too. It is very frustrating.

New metro buses have been introduced in the last few years. They are more comfortable, with proper seats and more room, but their condition has also now deteriorated due to lack of maintenance. Waiting at the bus stop is another battle for women: men with cars or bikes will often pester women waiting at the bus stop to accept free rides. People walking on the road will stare at any woman waiting for a bus as though she is going on a date. Shahzadi, who doesn’t like to travel by bus, says: I avoid travelling in the mini-buses. I take the new metro buses. They are good, but it is difficult to get a place in it. I have to wait for hours at the bus stop.

A woman who works at an office in the center of the city, an area called Saddar, complains about the pollution and congestion. Saddar area is known for heavy air pollution, traffic congestion, noise pollution and is heavily populated. She travels in bus and complains that the dirty black smoke of buses and the congestion has given her a bad cough. She said: Saddar is the most congested traffic junction, and I must say the most polluted. It is the junction for a large number of buses, which throw heavy black smoke and pollute the air so badly one doesn’t want to breathe it in. Though the traffic is dense, people still drive at high speeds which makes it very unsafe. Private bus drivers park their buses right on the busy roads, blocking the traffic and adding to the chaos. Traffic wardens turn a blind eye to this problem.

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Some other comments were: My friend and I usually leave the office together, so that we wait together at the bus stop. My friend covers her face with a veil, but I wear a chaddar over my head and shoulders. We do this so that people won’t stare at us, but they still do. The area from where we get the bus is very busy. It is easy to get the bus from here, but the area itself is very congested, polluted and dirty. You never see any well-behaved people. They like to stare, make comments to us or even sometimes bump into us with their shoulders as they pass by. We have asked our company to arrange some transport for us but so far nothing has happened. Standing in a place like this is like fighting a battle. But most of the time the bus comes quickly and we don’t have to wait for long. I hate to travel in buses. They jam-pack the passengers as if we were animals. It gets difficult to see outside the bus and if the bus conductor does not shout the names of every stop, one can easily miss their stop.

The major problems of travelling to work via bus or on foot given by the women of categories two and three were as follows: x x x x x x

Rowdy and unpleasant bus drivers and conductors. Lustful stares of the male passengers. Men entering the ladies’ compartment and causing frequent pushing and shoving. The ladies’ compartment is too small and has very few seats. Men follow the women to their workplaces. Passengers make insulting remarks.

Some of the suggestions made by these women were that more flyovers should be constructed, especially where traffic is heavily congested, and these flyovers should be connected to several junctions so that the speed of the vehicles could be increased and less time wasted on the roads. The roads should be widened and commercial activities like vendors near the road, selling food and other products, should be banned—these commercial activities cause crowds which exacerbate the traffic, particularly on narrow roads. Separate lanes should be dedicated to buses only: all traffic that includes cars, buses, rickshaws, jeeps, trucks and motorbikes are mixed up and this leads to congestion and chaos. Most of the bus drivers compete with each other in order to lead and therefore drive fast and are very rough on the road. Dedicating a lane to buses will bring some traffic discipline and will also bring down the accident rates.

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Women demand better transport facilities, particularly those who belong to the lower income groups. Because the number of women participating in economic activities has increased, transport facilities for women should also be increased. They have the right to travel in safety and without harassment. Not only do men invade women’s compartments, bus drivers play loud music, sometimes vulgar songs. Women endure the bad and illiterate language of the conductors and drivers of public transport, particularly buses. More public transport should be available and it should be ensured that men do not use the seats reserved for ladies. The severe breakdown in discipline on the roads has lead to unsafe conditions and damage to the road infrastructure. This lack of discipline should be rectified through strong control actions, and the effectiveness of the traffic control functions must be improved. The level of professionalism and the image of the traffic control officers should be enhanced, which will improve the level of acceptance of the profession by the public. This will also improve the degree of co-operation between civilians and traffic wardens, who should be well equipped with knowledge of the law and how to administer it effectively. An efficient and well-coordinated road traffic management system in the city should be implemented: this should include improving road safety and enhancing traffic discipline. Priority should be given to traffic management and environment to enhance and improve the traffic quality.

Women’s Comments about their Colleagues: Category 2 The women of categories two and three shared very similar stories about their male and female colleagues, although category two women complained more about office gossip. One woman working in a senior reception position talked about the office politics: I don’t get involved in office politics. I keep to myself much of the time. The more friendly you become with others, the more opportunities you give others to stab you in the back. No wonder I am still a receptionist and never promoted. I had some problems lately. There were people who wanted me dismissed from my job—they wanted a younger woman for this position so they could flirt with her. But luckily I was able to handle it.

Some women said their co-workers relished gossiping and spreading rumours about others, that they enjoyed it more than their work. Such people are found in almost every office: they get control by spreading rumours. They make stories interesting so that others in the office will come and listen to them and add a few words to their stories.

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Some of the comments given about such colleagues are: There is a group of three people in my office, one guy and two girls who are always so interested to know about every girl and boy in the office, like who is dating whom, whether they have a boy- or girlfriend, whether they go around with someone. And when they find out something, they tell other people in the office. They even talk about the senior managers. I just wonder how they find out so much about other people’s personal lives, where they get the time for such investigations. One of my colleagues who sits next to me…well, we are like good friends who love to gossip. She likes to know what others are doing. As soon as she finds out new information, she goes around the office talking about it, and it makes her happy and excited to pass on the information. She always knows things like what salaries and benefits other companies offer their employees, what vacancies are available, which senior managers may be planning to cut jobs, who is getting what salary package and which benefits, why some of the employees are working hard, etc…Well it is good to have such information but sometimes it is irritating, and I wonder why she can’t concentrate on her own work and leave others alone. She also talks about other people’s love lives and home lives as well. There are always some people around who talk about others and then they back bite. I always try to keep my distance from such people. They create problems. Some people are so good at spreading rumours that people can’t help listening to them. They destroy other people’s reputations with tact and skill so that nobody realises it. By doing this they feel important and superior. I think [gossip] is a very common problem in many places. There are always people around who find things to talk about and then enjoy discussing and talking about them.

Employees who like to spread rumours about others are very common in offices, but there are those who get upset when they discover they are being talked about, no matter how much gossip they propagate themselves. This behaviour among colleagues is very upsetting for everyone in the office. They have negative attitudes towards work, and feel important when their stories begin to circulate around and others have strong reactions to it. This is their powerful weapon of controlling the environment, even if it is only temporary. Other comments offered were:

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Chapter Five One of my colleagues always complains about this job. She talks about growth and advancement, and she feels it is a dead-end career job. I think all call centre jobs are like this, but when I listen to her I lose my enthusiasm for work. I also feel that something should be changed, but every time I have to convince myself that I need this job for money; maybe she doesn’t. But I don’t know how to stop her talking like this. She doesn’t listen and part of me feels that she is right. But I have my problems, so cannot let myself be convinced of what she says. There are only three of us [women] in this office, and I think we should help each other. But one of the ladies, Mrs. Khalida, never helps in anything: if I ask her to do anything she answers bluntly that it is not her job. The guys are so much better. They are always ready to help, and they don’t ask why. They even help me if I am stuck in my work, like if I am stuck writing a daily report, or taking an inventory. They never joke or make fun. All my colleagues are very nice. We are all good friends, except for one lady. She is about 52 years old, and she is never happy with anything. She is always complaining. If we are all happy about our bonus or commission, she will always say something negative. Nothing makes her happy. Obviously we try to stay away from her, but she complains about this too.

Some respondents gave other comments about such people, who find everything negative. These comments were more from those working in category two jobs; the unhappy women who make such comments were mostly in their late forties, and had family problems like living with difficult in-laws, had been abandoned by their husbands or were widows, or were over-burdened with work aside from what they do in the office. Such women become deeply pessimistic and are not happy with anything. As one woman said: One of my colleagues needs a drastic change to be happy, or to win a big jackpot in the lottery. Only that can make her happy.

Most of the women complained that their male colleagues did not take things seriously. They don’t meet deadlines and don’t give priority to their work. This was most detrimental to team work. One woman working in an advertising agency said: Our work is always team work, and we have to meet the deadlines. But there are some men who are so irresponsible that we had to ask them again and again to get their part of the work done, so we can continue. They

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don’t seem to give priority to their work. These colleagues are a problem for us. But they don’t understand.

One lab technician also complained that boys are always given preference for promotions, which further explains their irresponsible behaviour: The boys are so uncommitted to their work because they are easily granted leave, they can come late, they do less work than most of the girls in the lab, and my manager doesn’t seem to mind. He says girls should me more responsible if they want to keep their jobs. Our supervisors also keep a strict eye on us. Once when I complained about this, I was told that they expect boys to become management rather than the girls, who were thought better at and would stay in lab work. This is company policy. I was mad to hear this—it is not fair at all. Why can’t girls be promoted? This is ridiculous.

Another response was: All my managers are very nice people and they treat me well, except for one who is a problem for everyone in the office. He finds fault with everybody’s work and tries to make things harder. Even during the meetings, if we all agree to one thing, he will differ and find something negative in our decision. For instance, if we all agree to spend a certain amount of money in one event, he would suggest some other event which he will argue is more beneficial and important for the company. Obviously we have to listen to him as well; he is part of the team and a senior manager as well. He loves to waste time.

Category Three Category three women also complained about the unprofessional attitudes and back-biting of their colleagues when it comes to competition. They said that women in more junior positions (category two) become very emotional when they are told to do things in a more professional way, and sometimes even start to cry to get attention. Because most of them work for only a short period of time, they do not learn to be professional. One of the senior executives felt very irritated about the crying of girls when they are told off. She said: When these girls do not get their way they start to cry. This is a very negative behavior. They do it to get the attention and pity of their colleagues. I strongly believe that if women have come out to work side by side with men, then they must learn to be strong and bold. They should leave their emotional attitudes at home: the office is not the place to get

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sympathy and do work in your own way. Every company has their rules and policies, and they are paying to get the work done. …I don’t like crybabies in the office. They make me feel that I am a very harsh and heartless person. They will learn.

When women enter the competition they experience resentment from colleagues; they endure jealousy or lack of co-operation. This is more common in traditionally male-dominated fields such as engineering. One woman explained: I am an engineer and work with male engineers in a multinational corporation. I have never asked for a promotion because it is commonly believed in this organization that it is the men’s right to get promoted. Some women who tried for promotions now feel frustrated, knowing that it will never happen. I use a more feminine attitude to get my work done, and let them be the heroes. I know some women just can’t bring themselves to do this, and they don’t get what they want either.

Another woman said: I am a very hard worker, and very target-oriented. I set the goals and work hard to achieve them. I get appreciation from my supervisors, but I have a lot of problems with my other co-workers. They get jealous, cause me trouble, discourage me, ridicule me and sometimes even lie about me to my boss. This is very irritating and discouraging if the boss tells me off. But I still don’t give up, because I know it is out of jealousy and of course my boss is not supposed to think that I am right all the time. He has to listen to others sometimes.

Jealousy is a very common problem in the workplace, and creates a very unhealthy atmosphere. As one healthcare worker said: I left my previous job because I could not take this back-biting stuff any more. I was tired of justifying my acts and position. Some people exaggerated to an unbelievable and intolerable extent.

A female manager said: It is an all-male society, and breaking into this men’s world is not an easy task. They have their own language, they understand each other’s unspoken words. Whenever I make any suggestion in a meeting I feel that everyone is just enjoying my talk, not taking it seriously. Sometimes I get confused whether I have said anything irrelevant. But I know some of them

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just show this attitude on purpose, they can’t accept a woman in their meetings.

Rukhsana, a 43-year-old woman in category three said: Oh well…difficult co-workers exist everywhere. Like here, almost everybody is backbiting and trying to undermine each other’s professional contribution. It is not healthy competition. They should learn to be productive and adopt a positive attitude.

Difficult co-workers exist everywhere, but it depends how one handles them, and this depends on one’s self-confidence, professional attitude, courage and experience. It is particularly difficult to deal with these people if they are attacking you directly and try to diminish your professional standing. They compete for power and privilege, and will criticise, fail to keep commitments, don’t listen to others or give orders with authority that they don’t have. Women complained about these people and feel that they give them a difficult time. It is even worse when they are close friends or must interact with them constantly as part of a team. They cannot be avoided, and therefore these women have a tough time. One woman said: There is lot of office gossip. Sometimes it is interesting and delicious and sometimes very boring. Gossip is usually about who dates whom, which boss is attracted to whom, who is wearing what and why, who is trying to be attractive, who is trying to be over-smart, who refused the boss bluntly, etc. I feel uncomfortable because I don’t want to be known as a gossip, but I do listen because sometimes such information is necessary and useful. But sincerely I feel it is a waste of energy. It is better to use energy in some productive work rather than to talk about other people’s personal lives.

Another response was: My colleagues are very nice people but one thing I don’t like about them is that all of them keep making their private calls from my cubicle. In the beginning I did not mind, but now it bothers me, because some of them even leave trash on my table and have long conversations. It disturbs my work as well as their. Now I tell them that it disturbs me: some of them care but a few don’t seem to care at all. Sometimes I feel that I should shout at them, but that would be too rude. After all we are all working together. I have to find a proper solution for this.

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Women’s Comments about their Bosses: Category Two Most of the category two women talked about favouritism and the bossy attitudes of their senior staff members. A common problem women faced with their managers or bosses was favouritism: even their poor work was given recognition. Such bosses were blamed for favouring attractive women who would go out on dates with them or men who would help them get dates and good alcoholic drinks (Pakistan is a Muslim country and alcohol is forbidden). For the favoured employees, work is not the criteria. One woman said: My boss plays favourites. He favours the people he likes, and I don’t understand the criteria of his likes and dislikes about people: quality of work is not the criteria. The most difficult part is when they try to lord over you; if you are not polite and nice to them as though they were bosses too, they cause problems…well, if not like the bosses, then like they are at least relatives of the bosses.

Most of the women said that they have nice bosses, managers and senior staff. They did not want to complain, but a few braver women made blunt remarks, describing their superiors as bullies and control freaks. They complained of supervisors who never gave them positive feedback, took credit for their work, postponed and missed appointments, and excessive pickiness. One woman explained her experience: My bank branch manager always keeps an eye on me. He thinks that I talk too much with customers, and tells me to minimize the time I spend serving them. But it is not possible, they won’t go until they are satisfied: I have to answer their questions. Still, my manager’s staring disturbs me. Half of my concentration is always on him and sometimes I feel so shaky and nervous. He has a very stern gaze, and sometimes he stares right in my eyes. It confuses me.

Women’s Comments about their Bosses: Category Three Some of the frustrated women in category three complained that their bosses take all the credit for their work and never praised them for their accomplishments, but instead they found faults and laid blame wherever they could They provided few rewards or recognition for an employee’s good performance. Supervisors are often under-qualified for their position, and in order to hide their weaknesses they play up negative events more and don’t let go of employees’ mistakes. They don’t give suggestions for

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improvements, and most of all they are dishonest and lack integrity. One senior woman said: I feel that girls and women are brow-beaten by the competitive atmosphere of the top management. I have worked with men who are so petty and obsessive over details, and sometimes even get personal. They just do this to embarrass and bully women.

Another woman said: You can’t say that women are all alike so they should be treated alike. There are women who are modest and less extroverted, whereas others are more outgoing and ambitious. The same goes for men. So why are different rules applied for men?

Those bosses who fail to communicate in a productive way are disliked by many women. They are thought of as people who have no goals, expectations or timelines. They are usually unable to make decisions and change their minds frequently, leaving employees offbalance. They change expectations and deadlines, frequently which tends to de-motivate employees, who in turn lose interest in their work. Staff working under such bosses lose their targets and goals and become idle. A physiotherapist with an infant child considers herself lucky, saying: I work in a small clinic, set up by a husband and wife. There are two other employees. I have been working there as a physiotherapist for the last seven years. I consider myself lucky because after my marriage and when I had my baby they were desperate for me to go back. I felt valued, cared for and wanted. When I rejoined they let me bring my baby to work, where I hired a nanny who takes care of him in a resting room. I feel very grateful and very loyal to them. I feel lucky working for such nice people—these types of bosses are very hard to find.

Women usually disliked lady bosses who spoke in loud, rude voices. They don’t listen to others but just deliver commands in a harsh tone. These bosses are very strict and are quick to blame employees when something goes wrong, and will not let go of it. They do not give time to staff to respond to accusations; they like to intimidate and bully their staff. This makes them feel superior and authoritative. They don’t seem to mind if other employees bully other staff; they ignore selected people and discriminate as well. Two women shared their views:

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Chapter Five I like my work, but my boss’s attitude makes me unhappy. And I fail to understand how to handle or deal with him. His attitude de-motivates me. He provides too much direction, which make me feel insecure and uncertain about my own job. He doesn’t give me space to work my way—I have to wait for his decision even in small matters.

Another woman described her boss, who was an older woman in her late 50s managing a team of twelve people. She said: My boss takes out her frustration on us. She has a very tyrannical and dictatorial attitude. She wants everything her way and never listens to any excuse or reason. And she wants the things done right on time: not after and not before the time she appoints. What I hate most about her is when she orders us around—she balls one hand into a fist and points a finger at us. Her behaviour badly affects my work.

The same boss’s behaviour was criticised by other women on the team as well. They complained about the same thing: her angry and hostile attitude. One of them said that she trembles when her boss lectures on something. These women are losing confidence, interest and motivation for their work, but together they are a good team. Six of them said that they want to leave just because of their boss’s behaviour, even though they are happy working together in the team: if they were offered another suitable position, they would go. The only thing that has prevented them so far is the workload in their present position, which leaves them no time to look for a new place. Some women deal with bosses who refuse to appreciate their employees. Some of their remarks were: My immediate supervisor never gives me good reviews on my work. Whenever I share an idea for an advertisement, he seems to feel threatened by it as though I am trying to take his place. The other managers appreciate my work but he does not. He finds fault with my work all the time. One of my supervisors thinks that he is a genius and that I could never be like him because I am a woman. He finds mistakes in my work to show that his standards are very high. And when he does find any fault he feels so proud and happy and tells me not to worry, because women make mistakes all the time: he thinks they can never be as perfect and as intelligent as men. I hate him when he says this; when I tell my other colleagues they also dislike it. I just can’t understand why some men think they are so intelligent and perfect, when they are really just silly.

CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

Men’s Comments about Working Women: Domestic Workers Men were also interviewed to give their opinions and their points of views about working women. Many of those who were related or married to domestic workers felt that the work was the most suitable employment for women. Domestic workers are often oppressed by their men and this exploitation continues to prevail. The men interviewed often made remarks like “I am man and men are the lord of women. Women must obey their lords” and “women are very weak. They can only do housework. Domestic work is a good job for them.” Another man said that he allowed the women in his family to take jobs as domestic workers, but he did not allow them to go shopping, as it was indecent to see a woman out like that. Some men did not allow their womenfolk to work, complaining that it was sinful or that they had too many responsibilities at home. Other men explained further: My mother, my sister and my wife work. They all do domestic work. I am the man of the house. I take care of them. It doesn’t matter whether I work or not. I let my wife do work on condition that she will not let the children suffer. My eldest daughter also works with her. Men are not obliged to work; we are the authority given by God. Women are naturally inferior to men. In the city it is ok if they work as domestic workers, but back in our village it is thought very shameful for women to work. There is no need to spend any money on girls’ education, they have to do the household work and not go to factories and work.

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Chapter Six First women should not be allowed to go out of the house, as it is God’s command; if they have to work then it should be something related to household work. So domestic work is the best option. Women should be under complete control. If they are domestic workers, it is important to keep a check on them that they don’t roam about. It is an insult to men if they do that.

The families in this category emphasized that the place of women is in the home, regardless of whether she has a man to support her or not. She is not encouraged to do any work which is considered unwomanly, and domestic work is thought the best choice for them: it is badly paid but it does not require any specialized skill or qualification (education for women was also disdained). Working as domestic servants means they leave their homes and go directly to their mistresses’ houses, where they are back within doors and doing domestic chores. This is considered an appropriate way of earning money, as they are still doing the work for which they were born—taking care of a household. Some men said it was only because of the expense of city life and that other women in the neighbourhood worked that they allowed their womenfolk to do so. Two men elaborated: I tell my wife that her work is domestic work and she should stay within the limits. She should not interfere in men’s business. I have the right to go where I please, stay out late nights and do whatever I like. She should do her work, stay home, take care of children and my parents, cook, eat, and drink, whatever she likes to do at home. And because we need more money at home, she works as a domestic worker in some houses. Domestic work is good for women. This is the only suitable work for them: they don’t have minds so this is a good opportunity for them to earn money when needed. I don’t like my wife to work outside our home, but because money is required at home so I allow her. We don’t tell people back in our village that women work in other people’s house to earn money. It is a disgrace for us. But people here, who have settled in the city, understand that women must work.

Men of Categories Two and Three Men shared differing points of view when asked about working women. Managers, CEOs, human resource personnel, and male colleagues were interviewed. They were asked why or why not they would hire women for certain posts. There were outright anti-feminists who believed

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that working outside the home and earning money is not a woman’s job, so they should be discouraged from doing it. And there were more liberal minded men who felt that women do not get a fair deal—these men were ready to help women however they can, by giving them good opportunities, promotions and recognising the quality of their work. The older men believed that “a woman’s place is in the home.” They felt that when a woman leaves her home to work, she degrades herself, becoming the victim of the lust and malice of men and allowing herself to be talked about behind her back (which can be good or bad). Most of all, religious teaching does not allow for women to earn their livings; they are brought up to depend on fathers and husbands for support, and it is the responsibility of men to take care of their wives and daughters. The younger men interviewed tended to be more liberal and open minded about working women. They did not believe the matter had anything to do with religion: they saw nothing shameful or wrong in women working any more than in men doing so; they felt women had the right to earn their living if they wanted to. Some of these men did, however, feel that a woman should only work with the permission of her husband or father, and that they should put their marriages before their careers. Since it is the overall view of society, men and women were often united in this opinion. There are plenty of characteristics considered healthy and admirable in men but are frowned upon in a woman. An angry man may shout or order his juniors around; a male boss may just sit in his office and relax; men may flirt now and then, and so forth. But such characteristics are not acceptable in women: if a woman shouts, she is ruthless, if she orders others around she is harsh, if she relaxes in her office she is lazy, and if she flirts, she has a bad character. Some of the younger men commented: The forceful women in the company have gone far. They lose their femininity just to show they are powerful. I think women should stay women, and not compete with men. When women have power they make it hard on others—more nagging, more orders. Men tend to see the overall picture, whereas women tend to see only small issues and might make a mountain out of a mole hill. Women have a tendency to be more meticulous and scrupulous about details. This characteristic of women is an advantage in some fields but not all.

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Chapter Six There is a high-powered woman in my office. She always talks very loudly, in the meetings and everywhere. It is very irritating—it is like she is always trying to overcome her own weaknesses. There is another lady who is usually a part of the meetings: she just sits there and writes down notes and has nothing to comment. These attitudes are not acceptable in meetings: they should be more in the work world, rather than act as they would at home. Women are not very good at being powerful, but maybe with time and tradition they will learn to be authoritative. Some of them don’t even have the ability to lead other women. They can become very irritable at times, maybe because they have two jobs—household and this work, and both together can be physically tiring. Whereas men go home to a lovely atmosphere, a home-cooked meal, and everything arranged. They just go and relax.

Some men think that women should not underplay their femininity when they have some authority in the office, as it might give them a better chance of being accepted in the masculine world in which they have to operate. One man said: Men like working with women provided they are feminine and not masculine. Women who try to be masculine tread on men’s vanities. They don’t think about how to handle men; rather they concentrate on being equal to them and getting their rights, which they call equal rights. I think the future for women lies in learning how to be feminine and find their way as what they are, not imitating men. After all work is a man’s world and no matter what women are at, they are still dependent on men for promotions.

Sometimes there are situations where women of considerable ability gain authoritative positions, but they are so self-conscious and uncomfortable that they prefer the lower rank. Their egos, rather than their abilities, are not up to the challenge of authority and responsibility. One CEO said: There are girls who might have done very well in college and university and graduated with top grades, but to work and to move up the corporate ladder is totally different. They need to know that they deserve to get higher levels and positions, be more authoritative, and above all they must learn to love the heights. The majority of girls are comfortable working under someone else’s authority; so if we try to move them up and they don’t co-operate with us, we can do nothing for them.

Women do have abilities but they lack the confidence to use their full potential. A few male supervisors explained that women, particularly

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young ones, were often uncomfortable in managerial or other responsible roles. They were self-conscious and unable to speak with authority. Walking confidently through the office was hard for them; their body language showed discomfort and sometimes even isolation. Their subordinates could not confide in them fully, but had to tread carefully and be polite and kind. These girls could not lead, and felt insecure. They need to learn to carry themselves in a way that reflects their ability to command respect and their inner potential. They need to learn to be more relaxed, confident leaders and show more self-assurance, rather than being influenced by whoever is nice to them. Men also complained that women could not make the sacrifices required by being in a position of authority. A senior manager (a man) compares the prospects for men and women when hiring. When I recruit a person, I look for two qualities—management potential and scientific ability. Most of the men have the drive and initiative to potentially be future top men, but most of the women lack this quality. They work well in labs, thus showing their scientific ability and stability, so I pick girls for certain jobs. Whereas I pick guys for production work and for their management skills.

Some of the stereotypical responses from men were: Women lack authoritativeness and managerial skills and ability. Therefore they can’t be taken seriously in professional life. There is work which requires authority and responsibility. And when leadership of this work is handed over to someone, the work must get done. Women are afraid to move forward: they lack persistence and competitive attitude, so men don’t take them seriously. Work life is very demanding. It is very difficult to combine work and family. All the ladies in this office leave at 5:00 p.m. and go home; none of them are ready to stay late to complete tasks. There are guys who stay as late as 10:00 p.m. and get the work done. They would never give excuses or count the time to go home. They are more committed to their work, and prepared to make sacrifices in terms of time and effort. This improves their career prospects. Whereas we do not get such commitment from women; they don’t give 100 percent effort and therefore don’t get 100 percent rewards either in money or in job prospects.

One man explained his view of why women are not promoted:

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Chapter Six Women come to me and complain that they have done the same amount of work and are more qualified, so why are they not promoted? I will not promote women above a certain level, because first of all I don’t trust them to stay, and second I don’t think they could set the standards. I would rather promote a man who may be less qualified but could set the standards and is more likely to stay.

A young man working for a human resources department said: Women do themselves a great deal of harm. They compromise on lower salaries, less benefits, and when it comes to family and job, they are ready to sacrifice their jobs. They have made a very awkward and difficult situation for themselves. Companies can’t trust them in responsible positions, even if they are qualified.

A young man in a senior position in an advertising agency had a devastating opinion of women’s performances and prospects. He said: To be in a managerial position a person should have entrepreneurial qualities, which women lack. They may be good in shops, sales or telemarketing—they are very nice but they are mostly timid. They need help and support to carry out big tasks. We need people who are all very motivated individuals.

A CEO with many years of experience in his field said: I always prefer my secretary to be a woman. Men usually want a lady secretary because it helps them feel complete: she is like an office wife. If she is wise enough to understand him, they make a good working team. She does his office housework for him and she is well down in the hierarchy.

Other men shared similar opinions: Women usually don’t stick to a job for long, but they are obedient and care about others, therefore they make very good secretaries. Because they don’t stay with a job for a long time, it is not possible to give them much responsibility, so secretarial jobs suit them very well. We don’t promote women because we know they are not going to stay. They have family ties whether they are married or single. They don’t show the commitment required for promotion.

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Men believe that women don’t devote themselves whole-heartedly to their work because they have family commitments. So they cannot be prepared to sacrifice the time necessary for top positions, or in positions of responsibility and decision making. Women don’t sink themselves into the jobs, and this shows a lack of keenness. We can’t call them in for emergencies on their days off. Even if we do they won’t come, because they have family obligations. And I think it is not fair to call them on their days off. If my wife got a call from her office one of her days off, I don’t think I would like it either. She is supposed to take care of the house as well—it is one of her important duties. Single women are fine for certain positions but we have to compromise in terms of time if we hire a married woman. They are often late in the mornings, usually go shopping during their lunch hour and come back late; sometimes they don’t come back if their child or husband is ill and do not show dedication to their jobs.

Some men explained that they had difficulty dealing with women: Girls are very emotional. You can’t be very angry with them, nor can you give them much responsibility. If a guy does something wrong, I would tell him straight away but if a girl makes a mistake I have to be very careful and be polite with her. Once my few angry sentences made one of the female telemarketers cry. It was very embarrassing to be asked why she cried in the office. It is tough to work with girls and women—but they are also more obedient than men.

Most of the senior men who had good experiences working with women said that the ability of women to organize or manage groups decreases as the size of the group or unit grows. They can manage small groups, but don’t have the ability to organize large units. The women worry more about what is going on at a personal level to some extent. These managers felt that the major factor discouraging women from even considering the possibility of moving up the ladder beyond a certain level is the extraordinary versatility which companies expect from the top management. It is a very common belief among men that men are more selfmotivated than the women. Women wait for the company to help them and don’t exercise any initiative. With this attitude they remain far behind men at the same level who have the same experience and qualifications; they are even outstripped by men with less qualifications and experience, and

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are overlooked because initiative is a desirable quality in management as well as in senior management. But sometimes when women do show initiative or make an effort to obtain a promotion or equal treatment, they are branded trouble makers. This is a part of the game, as professional jealousies will always arise when one takes a step to compete. It does not mean that women should give up the struggle; men call each other such names as well. Women should not expect any favours. Women lack the drive and the necessary aggression to take on responsibilities and move forward. Most of the women appeared to be dedicated to service occupations such as health care, teaching, etc., and this work is very important to them. They are so involved that they do not wish to have more responsibility or a promotion which might take them away from the aspect of the work that they love. These women think that men are impelled to seek promotions for financial reasons and believe that it is their right to move up the corporate ladder. They accept the positions they are in and are satisfied. A few men made comments about women’s modesty and lack of ambition: Women don’t have ambition and confidence. They lack the qualities which men have. For instance, men will offer a plausible guess even if they don’t know the answer. They are better at covering up their weaknesses and inadequacies than women, and rarely admit it if they are in the wrong. They are quick to grab the salient points and have the ability to sift through them. Women give up very easily, and admit their weaknesses. Women tend to complain and whine about their work. They take things too personally. Sometimes they make a flap when something goes wrong. It is very irritating.

Women still have to fight to be accepted in certain positions; but their problem is they want other people to work for them. A man in a managerial position shared his opinion: Women who are well down in the hierarchy are submissive and modest. They sit and wait for things to happen for them rather than taking steps to move forward, whereas women who are further up in the hierarchy are very authoritarian. This tends to produce extremes in women. They find it difficult to be relaxed; they are more anxious and more rigid.

Younger people have a more positive attitude towards working women. They see no harm if women work outside their homes; many of them even appreciate and encourage them. They did not show any negative feelings for working women, whereas about 54 percent of the older men disagreed

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with women working outside their homes—especially if they have kids, particularly pre-school children. According to these older men, women’s duty is at home: if they have performed it well they have done their job and they do not need to take another job unless they find themselves in extreme situations like the death or disability of a husband and they have no other male relative to support them financially. In that case they felt it was acceptable to work because the women had no other means to support themselves and their families. But if they have some support they should not let their children suffer by going out to work. They also disapproved of women working with male colleagues: they said to do so was not a woman’s place, that women were weak and vulnerable, whereas men are harsh and tough and do not respect women who compete with them. Women should let men have the power in the outside world and they should enjoy the power they have in their homes. One older man said: The women who work due to economic reasons or to pass the time are fine. But those who enter this field to have a career and compete with men with the notion of being their equals simply make their lives unhappy. They have a much more important role to play, one destined by nature: they have to raise families and no man can do this. They should not run after money and materialistic possessions. The women who work make their kids and their family suffer; they don’t like to have many children. I really believe they are making a mistake and ruin not only their own lives but the lives of those around them.

More comments were: Women have been tricked to think that men and women are equal in all senses of the world. This is not true. Women have an important role in being a mother: men can never fulfill this role, so instead they have to take economic responsibility for their wives and kids. Women don’t realize how important they are; instead they run after money and materialistic authority. They already have authority—it is the men who have to work hard to get authority. If women are running after such things they are jeopardizing their natural authority. There are single and married women working in the factory. Married women are more active and responsible because they have a family dependent on their wages, whereas single women are less active. Most of them are just waiting to get married and will leave the job as soon as they are. It is good to hire women in this factory because they work on lower wages than men. They are easy to handle, but they need leave more often than men because of domestic responsibilities. Since we have more than 50 staff in this factory, it does not matter if one or two are on leave for a day

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Chapter Six or two—it does not hurt our work. I prefer to hire women for this work because they are economical and work extra hours when there is more work, to earn extra income without complaints.

A young man, 26 years old, working as a sales coordinator in a middlelevel company said: I think it is very essential to have women in the office; they bring it charm, especially when they wear bright and colorful dresses and look beautiful. They cheer up the place. I like to chat with girls in my office. If I chat with guys, we only talk about work. But we have only a few females in the office. One is the receptionist, one a telephone operator and three are in telesales, while there are more than 20 guys. I am just joking. But competition is tough for guys.

Women are successful in a limited number of fields. A man remarked that women themselves are to blame for this: Women and their families are to blame for the fact that they tend to stay in one area. Men always think ahead: if they feel frustrated at one place for any reason, they take a risk and move. I worked in marketing department in a pharmaceutical company but when I realized that I was going to be stuck in one place, I quit and joined an insurance company. Now I am earning more and moving up the ladder. Women don’t take such risks. They need to be bold and strong and learn to gamble in work.

Conclusions (Part One): Daily Challenges Part one: Category one. Category one is the most underprivileged class: they are poor, lack access to education and are therefore unskilled. They lead a life of physical hardship. Their income is all their families have to survive on, and their men are almost no help to them. They have little choice other than to be domestic workers: they are unskilled and their culture does not allow them to do any work which involves any contact with men. Because they come into contact only with the house mistresses during their working hours (except on holidays or when an elderly male relative is in the house), only about five percent of these women have been victims of sexual harassment (this figure does not involve any form of sexual harassment outside the workplace). This figure is very low as compared to women of categories two and three, and this five percent did not mention having to deal with offers for dates or inappropriate staring or physical contact. The main reasons for this (aside from not reporting incidents out

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of fear or shame) were the class difference between employer and employee and that men were out of the house working themselves when these women came to clean. These women faced more criticism from their family members compared to those of categories two and three, even though their income is required at home. Fifty percent of the respondents said their families were in favour of their working, while 50 percent did so because the need for extra income outweighed their disapproval; 16.6 percent said that they worked despite being explicitly told or asked not to. Most of the families of these women have relatives back in the villages they came from, who do not understand the necessity of their jobs and object to these women working on the basis that it is an unrespectable thing to do. Thirty-three point three percent also faced criticism from their neighbours, which was again the highest percentage among the three categories. Even though so many of the women in their community are also domestic workers, they cannot help commenting about each other because they live in a very closed society—therefore they like to interfere in each other’s lives. Every woman agreed that working is a hindrance to the marriage of a young girl: even women who worked and knew the necessity of it did not want their daughters-in-law to work. These women marry at early age for cultural and financial reasons; therefore most of the working women are married. Young women rarely work before marriage because it deters suitors. Veiling and seclusion are an important element in these women’s lives—83.3 percent believe all women should practise it, because it is part of their religion. These women believe that it is shameful for any woman, themselves included, to go out to work without veiling themselves; they maintain seclusion as far as possible, but they are working because of financial pressures. Travel and transportation was also an obstacle for these women, even compared to the hardships encountered by those of categories two and three: 83.3 percent of category one women, again the highest percentage among the three, feel unsafe on their way to their jobs. Lack of education and lack of support from their families resulted in lack of confidence. These women walk in small groups to support each other, and usually choose houses close to their own homes so they will not have to go far. Part 2: Category Two. Most of the women in category two have completed high school or college, and in most cases were from families whose head of the household either drew insufficient salary or did not work at all.

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Because these women belong to the middle class, such families tend to follow the cultural and religious traditions they think necessary to be respectable in a society. Because of this, 77 percent of these women work in jobs their families approve of, and only 33 percent selected jobs on their own. These women have to be careful in choosing what they wear to work. They do go by the same rules as category one women, who wear heavy jewelry and embroidered clothes: they must wear clothing considered simple and decent by society. Some workplaces and professions encourage modern and attractive clothing, whereas others will favour subdued colours and conservative styles. If a woman must travel by bus or on foot, she must take extra care not become a center of attention. Sexual harassment in the workplace is also a serious problem: 68.5 percent of the women interviewed in category two reported incidents. All of them said they had received vulgar remarks and had been stared at, compared to only 30 percent of women in categories one and three. Because of such remarks and stares these women feel very insecure and uneasy at their workplaces. Lunch or dinner dates were offered to 76.6 percent of the women, and these dates were often used as criteria in determining whether or not a woman would receive a promotion. Those who refused had a tough time moving forward in their job and were denied promotions; those who accepted lost the respect of their colleagues and other people in the office. Unwanted physical contact was another serious problem in the office, with 79.7 percent of women reporting incidents. These women also faced resistance from their family members over their jobs, but the figure is low as compared to category one: only 11.1 percent said their families were absolutely against them working. Few women, however, enjoyed full support from their families: 22.2 percent said only some of their family and relatives supported them, and 33.3 percent came from families who could not or would not employ a domestic worker to help with the household chores, so the additional burden of caring for the home made life very difficult for those who work. So most of these women (like all of the women in category one), carry the double burden of a job and caring for their household. Men do not help in domestic work because traditionally it is considered shameful for a family. These women also had to deal with the reactions of their community: 44.4 percent faced criticism from their relatives and 33.3 percent reported negative comments from their neighbours. They were often called “loose women” and faced more condemnation because they usually come from middle- or lower middle-class areas. These women do not work for careers: if they are not married, they usually leave their jobs after

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marriage. Work is considered a hindrance to marriage: 66.6 percent believed that unless a young woman works in a traditional job (such as a nurse or teacher) it becomes an obstacle because it brings them into contact with men and gives them a sense of independence. Veiling and seclusion were important issues to the women of category two—77.7 percent said they believed it was important for women and felt guilty for not doing it. Also, 54.8 percent said that the lack of a veil made them even more insecure when they traveled to work, particularly if they had to go by bus. These women represent a paradox of Pakistani society and face the worst elements of tradition and prejudice. They are encouraged to get a good education and discouraged from putting it to any use; they are treated as inferior, over-emotional and even stupid by their employers and colleagues; they are expected to perform extra duties without extra pay, and are often sexually objectified and taken advantage of by the men they work with. They are expected to be obedient at the workplace as well as at home, and because they come from weak economic and social positions, they are willing to work at lower wages. They seek to improve their families’ status and themselves as women, but they are bound and trapped by old traditions. Part three: Category three women. Twenty-five percent out of 37.5 percent of category three women are graduates. They work in high-level jobs that bring in more than 13,000 rupees ($ 182.96 USD) per month; 12.5 percent of them come from families whose head of household also earns more than 13,000 rupees per month. They have excellent educations, often to the post graduate level; 22.2 percent work in companies their families approve of or found for them, whereas 77.7 percent chose their jobs for themselves. This figure is the highest for this factor compared to women of categories one and two. These women, like those of category two, have to be careful in their choice of clothing for the workplace: their dresses are usually judged and commented upon by their co-workers. So they wear dresses which are considered simple and decent by society, and, as with the women of category two, if they travel by bus or walk they have to be extra careful not to attract attention. A higher percentage of women faced sexual harassment than those from categories one and two: 77.8 percent received offers for lunch or dinner dates, and 88.8 percent said they had to deal with unnecessary physical contact. Vulgar remarks were another problem, as they were for the other categories of women: 88 percent reported hearing them.

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Category three women complained of male jealousy and arrogance; it hurt the pride of their male colleagues to see a woman promoted, and these men created problems for them to try to ruin their reputation. The men sought to shake the confidence of these women and frequently blew small issues out of proportion. The women also complain that men were given preference for promotion, no matter how hard they worked, while they themselves were given extra workloads and received no credit for it. Category three women differed from the other two categories in that they rarely faced criticism or resistance from their family members about their working; in fact, 66.6 percent said their families and relatives supported them in their endeavours. The only criticism they reported came from their neighbours, and this percentage (11.1 percent) was again the lowest as compared to categories one and two: they explained that even in their class it is a very common opinion that working women are very independent, and independence is still thought a bad trait for a woman to possess. As in the case of category two women, 66.6 percent of category three women interviewed believed that a job is a hindrance to single women seeking to be married, firstly because people think that working women are not virtuous and secondly because of the preconception that the more educated a girl is, the older she is. A third reason given is that it becomes difficult to find a proper match: a man who is equally educated and earns more than the woman (because if the husband earns less than his wife, they usually develop inferiority complexes, which creates problems later in life). Since these women are career-oriented, they want to find a person who will not put an end to their careers after marriage—many women are forced to give up their jobs because husbands, children and households are considered their primary responsibilities. Only 33.3 percent of these women thought that veiling and seclusion were important for women; 66.6 percent said that it was an erroneous concept propagated by men, and that if more women took a stand the tradition would be eradicated. As for travel, 30.5 percent of these women get to work by bus or on foot, and they too feel insecure during their journeys: on buses and on foot they come in contact with lower-class and illiterate people, whose behavior and attitude is irritating and annoying; sometimes they follow the women to their workplace.

Conclusions (Part Two): Working towards Equality A domestic worker performs household services for individuals or families in their private homes. The worker may be a full time employee

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who either lives with the family or spends the entire day at the house from the early morning until night, or she may work part-time and visit several different houses in a day for shifts lasting several hours. The real number of domestic workers in Karachi households is not known, because there are no official statistics. There are certain reasons that domestic workers are not accorded much attention; first and foremost there is a bias against household work. If a member of the family performs this work herself, it is not considered productive and is not measured in statistics; therefore, as the reasoning goes, why would it then become productive to pay someone else to do it? The second reason is there are as yet no means to gauge or measure how much work is done, either in hours or difficulty of the tasks performed. For a housewife it is a full-time job, but for a hired domestic worker, the work varies to a great extent and it would be very complicated to establish a system for collecting formal data. Most domestic workers are migrants form rural areas: they are poor and uneducated, frequently treated as stereotypes rather than individuals, and their work is not considered real employment. They work alone and do not have a union or a central workplace—this is another obstacle to compiling statistics, as they are an occupational sector without a voice. Not being recognised as proper workers allows employers to exploit and discriminate against them. There are no rules and regulations set for their work; employers believe that they are doing these workers a favour by providing them employment and other benefits like food, clothing and shelter, but these commodities are rarely of good quality—the clothing is used and worn, and the food is stale or going bad. The workers are hampered by their lack of education and their cultural and religious traditions which require them to work under the supervision of women and avoid men; they have no other options for earning money and no recourse to justice in the case of wrongdoing. Employers forget that these domestic workers provide those services and perform those tasks which they consider too tedious and unpleasant to do themselves; they are so used depending on them that if for whatever reason the domestic worker is on leave or not available, there will be no end to their complaining, and they have no time left to attend to their personal interests because they must do the work themselves. Employers have to realise that their domestic workers are human beings too, capable of making mistakes just like anyone else. They are uneducated and from less developed areas, so they cannot be expected to think like those who have the advantages of education and financial independence; they are heavily burdened with responsibilities and they

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live their lives in misery. They should not be treated as slaves—their current servitude is tantamount to an extension of slavery practised by people with economic power. Domestic workers should be protected from abuses and practises similar to slavery such as bonded due to debt and working without salary, excessive working hours, unreasonable confinement and isolation, physical violence, sexual harassment and abuse, economic exploitation, injustice and any other form of mistreatment. These issues should be handled and tackled by proper laws and unions. Domestic workers perform menial tasks and have no career prospects. They are considered as uncivilised, low-grade people and are treated as second-class citizens. Their lower status is due to their lack of access to education, their poor economic conditions and the type of work they do, which is seen as less important than any other work and is therefore badly paid and rarely recognised. There are no unions, organisations or associations to look after the rights of domestic workers, which permits much of the exploitation they endure. These domestic workers work on their own and in most cases must take what they can get in terms of working hours, wages and benefits; if they are mistreated or denied their rights they have no one to complain to. They share their experiences with each other but can do nothing about it. They have no choice but to accept their fate and learn to live with it. There are international laws concerning labour rights for all workers, guaranteeing the reasonable holidays, medical leave, casual leave, the right to rest breaks and wages that reflect the difficulty of work, the right to adequate standards of living and working hours kept to reasonable limits. And yet domestic workers are denied all these rights: whatever concessions they get are due to the good will of their employers. Employers should be obliged to provide safety and mental and physical health protection while the domestic workers are on their premises: as things are, the workers are usually viewed with suspicion when they are sick and need a day off—consequently many say nothing and continue working. Employers do not help financially with medicines or hospital fees. Some sympathetic employers will supply minor medicines such as painkillers (i.e. ibuprofen or aspirin) if they happen to have any. The mentality of the domestic worker needs to change if they are going to stand up for their human rights. They need proper employment contracts which include pension schemes, health insurance, guaranteed wages and other benefits and rights. For girls and young women, there should be unions to guarantee their continued education to the secondary

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level, and minimal legal protection should include improving the welfare of domestic workers along the following terms: x x x x x x x x

clearly defined working hours and rest periods; duration of probationary period (during which certain benefits are not in effect); adequate compensation for overtime; annual leave, public holidays, sick leave and maternity leave; minimum wage per task or per hour; standard termination of employment (notice period, grounds for termination); one day off per week; No discrimination—the labour standards of domestic workers should be equal to that of other workers.

For domestic workers there are no written contracts, there is only an oral agreement about the type of tasks to be performed and wages to be paid. No agreement is made as to the number of holidays or number of hours to be worked, and there are many cases where the oral agreement is disregarded. Even though the domestic workers are subject to underpayment as compared to other work to begin with, there are employers who do not hesitate to deduct even more from their wages whenever they see fit. All Pakistani working women must strive higher, as they have a long way to go before they break the glass ceiling. Pakistani working women need to become stronger and should never be intimidated by going further and moving up in their work. They should not be too comfortable with where they are. It is up to each woman to fight anyone seeking to prevent them achieving their true potential: they must take control of their futures. Society is full of critics who try to bring others down to their level, so they can feel good about themselves—the only way to break these barriers is to never give up, no matter how many critics get in the way. It is tough: a barrier may not be broken the first time but it will weaken with each effort made to overcome it. Sooner or later it will break; one just has to keep hammering at it over and over again. Women need to be very strong to break these barriers, and the struggle itself will make them strong and give them the courage to keep going. Pakistani working women need to focus on their goals and dreams. There will always be obstacles, but if they keep in mind where they are headed, they will get there once they stop fixating on the obstacles and just concentrate on their goals. They must have complete faith in themselves.

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Critics will say hurtful things, but women need to keep on hammering on the barriers to break them, and not give up until they achieve real equality. The condition of women will never improve if left unaddressed: it will only get worse. Women must grab the root causes that have put them in such a difficult situation and work to change it. If they take the time to understand exactly what is happening, they will realize that they are not alone. They should communicate with each other, to understand what each woman faces, and make a collective decision not to live with such degradation. They obviously can’t change society in days or weeks, but they can make small changes in their personal lives. One option may be to discuss their situation with their families and employers, so they may get help with household responsibilities (which would give them more time to themselves) or concessions from their employers like day care centers and paid leave. Society can accept small changes; enough small changes can change a way of life. These women are creating a better world for the next generation of women. There are women who constantly complain of over work at home and at their workplace. If they are in this vein and do nothing about it, they will only earn the title of whiners and nothing will change. Solutions, not attention, must be their goal. Since women are constantly living in difficult and conflicting situations, and have as yet not been very successful in dealing with these problems, they sometimes lose objectivity and emotional control. For this reason working women are often labeled “difficult” people, which has made the situation even worse, especially at the workplace. Because of this label, women are sometimes thought of as “high maintenance” employees and lose jobs to men, who are thought to be more professional, co-operative and low maintenance employees. It is one more thing women must work to free themselves of. If women want to win secure and profitable positions in the labour market, they must always be ready for new challenges. They need to step out of their comfort zones, face their fears and work through them. They should understand and realise that if they are to improve their lot, they cannot continue to deal with the known, the comfortable and the usual; they must be motivated to take on new situations, new places, new people and new capabilities. Working women have another challenge: to raise kids and manage the responsibilities of the household. Both these challenges of house and work require focus and dedication. Women need to be very ambitious and willing to explore new, uncharted territory. It is not an easy task: it will be difficult, but they need to decide that they really want it and just do it. They should be willing to take risks, fail and recover. They should be

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willing to talk to different people and make use of different resources, and continually challenge themselves. It is very important that they desire to win and firmly believe that they have the ability to achieve their goals: it is their desire and ambition that will determine whether they are successful or not. Working women who are married, have kids and are ambitious are happy and feel fulfilled. They have asked for changes and seen them made. They balance work, family and their homes: this is a constant challenge and often stressful, but they do not give up. Some working mothers are even able to find time for themselves as well. These ambitious working mothers who call themselves fulfilled have supportive families, bosses and colleagues. They also have the advantages of good benefits, satisfactory salaries, full-time reliable nannies or relatives to take care of the kids. They also have full-time servants to take care of or help with household responsibilities, which they pay from their own earnings. A doctor with three kids pursing her career as a pediatrician said: I am a good and better mother because I work. I value and appreciate the time that I spend with my kids. I am also a good pediatrician because motherhood has taught me to care for other people’s children in a more meaningful way.

The working women who really want to get to the top in their careers, must learn to make greater efforts in their jobs. They must stop refusing travel opportunities and promotions, because these are opportunities for greater responsibility. They are always ready to take responsibility at home but when it comes to their jobs, they are reluctant to accept it, fearing it may result in the neglect of their families, disrespect from their male superiors, inability or loss of self-esteem, and at heart many are not ready to take what they still feel is a man’s place. Society clearly tells women that the top positions are for men and women should be subordinate. Women have accepted this idea for far too long: their fears and lack of confidence do allow them to be in the top positions. They think less of their own capabilities than their male counterparts, and therefore they aim low from the very beginning. They seek help from their men in work such as outdoor activities, to preserve their image as weak, sensitive and vulnerable beings. Male executives take advantage of this stereotype to hold women down, and women let them do it out of fear; they avoid building good working relationships for the sake of their reputations, and to avoid jealousy and sexual harassment. Consequently they have no one to take their part in any dispute, and toxic bosses use their weak positions to manipulate them.

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Women should make more careful choices about employment joining female-friendly companies where women do not have to bury their personalities. They should avoid male-dominated organisations where women have to blend in in order to be accepted. If women enter jobs with bolder assumptions, they will realise they are an asset to any employer. They need to keep their standards high, and that in turn could be more self-fulfilling. They cannot go on making concessions for themselves and for others, otherwise nothing will ever change. They should make clear career plans, something they rarely do because they think it will cut them off from other opportunities and their familial responsibilities. Women with no plans never make it to the top of their career or job, because they don’t know exactly what they are working for. They must cease being dependent and use the skills and abilities they too often allow to degenerate through disuse. The women who are career-oriented and determined to achieve victory have to devote all their energies and determination to the effort. They have to keep their eyes persistently fixed on showing the world that women can work as efficiently as any man, and achieve the same (or better) quality of results. Such women have made a place for those who are not career-oriented but work for other reasons. These women are given space to enjoy ordinary feminine activities at the same time. They enjoy these liberties but do not fight for higher posts or positions as the careeroriented women of category three do. Women need to know the feeling of having the power. Power encourages the ability to do things and to achieve goals; those with power have the liberty to make decisions and choices. Power can change the world and the whole game. If a woman learns to have power she could do things for herself as well as for others without stress. Men understand this and do everything they can to get power, and with this they make their choices and decisions for themselves and for others if required to. With power, they dominate the game: women have allowed them to because they have never experienced and enjoyed it, they don’t understand the real meaning of it. They have sought only to be accepted and fit in, to build and keep virtuous reputations. Those who fight to get power are accused of not being decent; women have been brainwashed for too long into thinking that fighting for their own power will make them misfits in society. Unless women learn to take the game into their own hands, their destiny will never change. Women sacrifice a great deal when they start to work due to economic pressures or for any other unavoidable reason. They begin their day early in the morning in order to finish their morning chores such as preparing

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breakfast for their family, or getting their kids ready for school. Their work ends late at night because after coming home from their jobs they still have domestic responsibilities to take care of. These overburdened women sometimes blame their frustration on employees, customers or coworkers because most of the time they have unpleasant personal lives and are losing their struggle to sublimate their unhappiness in being more giving and dutiful. And in other cases they become harsh and lose their femininity. They know that all their efforts are under-appreciated or simply dismissed. They have given up their lives for the family, balancing their work and family responsibilities but hardly anyone cares—it is all taken for granted. Women deserve positive feedback when they’ve earned it, in their home life as well as in their job. Society should realise the sacrifices these women make just to make both ends meet. They are not super-human beings but ordinary people who have taken on extra responsibilities and over-burdened themselves for the betterment of themselves, their families, and their country. They should be appreciated for their contributions and hard work; they deserve the recognition that will help them stay positive and encourage more women to enter the work force. So many women who are forced to work for economic reasons become distressed and disappointed due to their heavy workloads; eventually they develop negative, cranky and irritable personas. They find fault with everything, and criticise constantly. Their self-esteem drains away and they believe they have been unable to manage either sphere of responsibility properly. Some even feel guilty that they could not give enough time to their kids, worrying that their kids are not getting the love and care they deserve. If anything happens to a child, the mother is blamed. If a child’s education suffers, the mother is blamed. If a husband feels he does not get enough attention, his wife is to blame. If household chores like cooking and cleaning are not done properly, the women of the house are blamed, and if a woman does not achieve the targets set by her employers, of course they are to blame for this as well, no matter what other factors may be involved in any individual situation. Women are very easy targets for blame—they are easily overwhelmed trying to get everything done and not neglecting any of their responsibilities. When they are blamed for something they accept it without argument. No one is capable of doing everything right all the time, but neither is it likely that when anything goes wrong it is always the fault of whichever woman is involved. Most women leave their jobs or careers soon after marriage or during their first pregnancy; there are those who avail themselves of maternity

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leave and day care centers if such concessions and facilities are available, but in most cases they give up their jobs. There are women who want to resume working after their parenting duties are over. Those who want to work due to money problems will take any job offered and hence have little difficulty in re-joining the work force, even if they have been at home for several years; but those who have worked to build a career usually have to start over from the bottom. The exception to this is female executives, who earn high salaries and after taking an extended leave usually re-enter with even higher salaries. Most women in the middle of their careers have to resume their working lives in entry-level positions, despite the fact that few who opt out do so out of choice. One may either work 60 to 70 hours per week or not at all; there is no middle ground. Because women play such an important part in the labour force there should be more female-friendly companies or family-friendly companies. Everyone knows that there is life outside work: family, children, and personal interests. Companies could provide their employees day care centers near the office, and offer flexible working hours so women can work part time, particularly after marriage and having kids, and later resume their full-time status. The companies could assign projects that can be worked on at home to mothers, which would contribute to their flexibility. In this way the talents and abilities of women could be utilised and companies could cut back on expenses at the same time. In spite of the active participation of women in the work force, they have not yet reached their desired aspirations. They are still clustered in specific fields and very limited in certain professions which are restricted to men, because of the combination of social, cultural and religious taboos and their own lack of self-confidence and reluctance to assert themselves. In order to overcome these taboos it is recommended that men’s education should be enhanced, so that they learn to accept women as equals entitled to equal rights and benefits. Because men are still the dominant class, they have the potential to act as the catalyst of women’s progress. Working women’s ability to perform and advance in their jobs and careers is hindered because they are also required to act as traditional wives and mothers, who must show more concern for their families than for any personal interests. Men are not expected to spare time for their families or help in household chores. It is little wonder that women, having to choose between work and family because they do have the super-human ability to fully care for both, feel dissatisfied and torn. They get little assistance or cooperation in family responsibilities and work, particularly with high-status jobs. Men get full emotional support from their wives and

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families to maintain their high-status jobs and earn more than women; it is illogical to expect the same jobs to be done with the quality and dedication by a woman with no emotional support from her family and no one to help her with the housework, that a man is after all not expected to do. When women try to work these things out and don’t succeed to the same level as men, it makes no sense to conclude that there is something wrong with the women: there is something wrong with society, with the attitude built by society towards women. It is a common belief that women with family responsibilities are liable to be late or absent, which may be due to domestic crises such as a child or husband fallen ill, etc. As a result their efficiency level at work falls below the standard level of the firm which in turn leads to salary deductions, fewer benefits and being passed over for promotions. Employers assume that half of a woman’s mind will always be preoccupied with her domestic responsibilities, so she cannot be trusted for very responsible positions at work and furthermore it is unfair to burden them. The usual presumption is that it is beneficial on both sides if women are given less responsible jobs at lower salaries. Working women have tasted the sweets of independence and being free from the strict scrutiny of parents and family; they have enjoyed the freedom of spending their own earned money. They have widened their intellectual and social horizons, they don’t feel hesitant to talk face-to-face or even compete with men and they no longer feel that the world outside their homes is entirely evil. They have experienced the satisfaction of choosing their own friends from the large number of people they come across; they are no longer confined to the limits of their neighbours and immediate community. They have learned how to gain control of their own lives to some extent, which gives them confidence. They have come to understand that outside paid work is not unwomanly or wrong. Parents also do not oppose their daughters as they did before; some even encourage their daughters to earn their own living. The sense of financial insecurities due to the increase in unemployment, heavy taxation, and the depression in industries has made it difficult for parents to provide adequately for their daughters; they are glad if their daughters can bring in extra money in the months and years leading up to their marriages; many are beginning to see training for their daughters as a valuable investment. In managerial and other advanced positions, certain personal qualities and experience are required. A person should be able to continue working without leaves of absence for a long period of time and be prepared to stay with the same firm for the long haul. This is required because the success and good will of the company depends on its major decisions and contacts

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with the firms with which it is closely concerned. These are responsible positions and high turnover may endanger a company’s prosperity. Because it is believed (and in most cases is true) that women leave jobs after their marriages, promoting or hiring women for higher posts is considered risky, so women are usually offered posts where a leave of absence or frequent turnover will not affect the company. This is another reason that the employment for women remains narrow and badly paid; they are also considered to lack the personal qualities and experience required for such positions. Women feel oppressed at their workplaces and men feel themselves at an advantage position. It is a boost to their egos to believe that they are superior to women, and they demand respect and dignity. They also have the benefit of not being expected to help their wives with the housework or raising children, which allows them far more personal time. What they have not realized is that the advantages of subordinating women are only short-term. They fail to think in the long term. There are a number of consequences for men that come of oppressing women in the workplace: for instance, men are faced with the threat of being replaced in their jobs with women who can do the same work to the same standard for less pay: this keeps wages lower for all workers. The bosses use women’s oppression to divide and rule all their employees, which prevents the employees from uniting to fight for better conditions and more benefits. There is also the fact that because women earn less, families who need the income of their wives, daughters, sisters and mothers are deprived of much needed money. Men must understand that by their treatment of women, they lose much more than they gain. In order to work towards final victory, women must join together and fight against all forms of oppression, and to build a better tomorrow men must unite with women and fight for better conditions in the workplace, rather than allowing the rich to continue hoarding the advantage. Working-class women must fight for equal pay for equal work, job security, access to professions traditionally denied to them, companysponsored child care and reasonable maternity leave, safe working environments free of verbal and physical abuse, an end to all types of violence against women, the ability to re-enter the work force after a leave of absence without starting from the bottom again, and the right to expect help from their husbands in running their household and raising their children. The removal of legal barriers is absolutely essential to give equal opportunities to women, but its acceptance by society is also important: for

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example, sales jobs may be open to women and companies may be willing to hire them, but unless society accepts that such a job is equally respectable for women, they are still in essence barred from such employment. Similarly, universities may admit women students, but parents may not be willing to spend money on their daughters’ education. Most professions require a university education or at the least professional training; parents are willing to invest their capital on their sons with the expectation that they will in turn become breadwinners after their fathers, but daughters who are only expected to marry and be cared for by their husbands are not considered worth the effort, no matter what their natural gifts or aptitudes. A large number of parents are willing to sacrifice to get their sons into occupations that carry high social prestige but will only allow their daughters to take short university courses or subjects that would allow them to take employment that are considered below their social standing. Daughters are pressured at home to choose the courses of study that will prepare them for an established profession such as teaching or nursing that offers regular employment at a standardized rate of pay. Women workers’ rights should include: x x x x x

equal wage and remuneration limitation on working hours leave rights to join unions specific needs to women o maternity leave o day care centers o regulation of child labour o arrangement for termination of employment o safe and protected work environment

Discussion Working women, particularly married women with children not living with in-laws, carry a heavy burden of responsibilities. They have to divide their time between their work, their household and family. They have to be good employees, good wives, good mothers and good daughters. They feel over-worked, whereas single women do not complain of this—in fact they enjoy their work. The women in category three strongly agreed that women can be professionally successful. They can be feminine if allowed by society (some women have to be very reserved and strict with those around them in order to establish themselves in their workplace or to avoid

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attracting unwanted attention) and can have happy marriages. The women in category two with children felt over-worked with the responsibilities they carry, whereas single women of this category look forward to getting married and leaving their jobs because of the difficulty of carrying the responsibilities of both work and family. They agree to work only if there is economic need. The domestic workers of category one were overworked regardless of whether they were married mothers or still single: they were all responsible for household work and they helped raise siblings if they did not yet have children of their own. Domestic work is taken only by the poor or uneducated rural migrants and non-locals, because it is considered denigrating employment and is very poorly paid. Locals very rarely take such work unless they are in desperate financial straits, because they believe they will lose their reputation. Local women will look for factory work or a job as a cleaning lady for a company office, but they will not work as a domestic in someone’s house unless they get very good pay. Uneducated migrants cannot demand higher wages because they always have to be trained for a new job; those who have more experience and have learned the customs and habits of city people, may sometimes demand a little more money than their inexperienced counterparts. Domestic workers are expected to be humble and obedient, and age makes no difference in terms of salaries and work. Young girls are quick to learn and adapt, whereas older women tend to be more responsible and mature. Educational backgrounds make no difference. In a huge city like Karachi, domestic workers are in great demand—they are a part of the city lifestyle, whether the mistresses work or not. They are easily available and cheap. Their wages are low: 100 percent of domestic workers interviewed complained about their low wages, and felt helpless about it. In order to augment their income they work in two or more houses. They complain that their wages are reduced if they take time off, but mistresses believe that it is important to withhold wages, otherwise the workers would need time off every other day. Some women interviewed who employed domestic workers said that if they continued to pay the full wage when someone took a leave of absence, they would start taking time off frequently. Domestic workers responded that they were often exhausted and often ended up doing tasks which were not a part of their initial arrangement with their mistresses; a number are also forced to take time off for illness, exacerbated by fatigue and bad food. Domestics working for urban families face a few typical issues: working hours are long, pay is low, and hard work and sacrifice are rarely rewarded by appropriate financial remuneration or respect. There is no

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means of training and when they first begin work everything is alien to them. They don’t have modern housing in the villages they come from— there is little furniture, nor do they have wooden or linoleum floors to clean up, and any domestic electronic equipment is out of the question. They don’t have real housing in the city either; many of them live together in shanty towns made of discarded building and packaging material and cast-offs. When they start work in a home, they don’t understand how to perform the work; if they look for guidance their mistresses often get irritated teaching them. Using the household appliances is even more difficult, but they must master them if they are full time workers, otherwise they are not allowed to use them in case they damage them. Gradually they learn to understand their mistresses’ living style and the type of work they expect. For full day workers there are no regular fixed hours: they can be asked to work at any time, and they are unaware of their basic rights. If their holidays are turned down or if they are threatened with dismissal they are unaware they have any choice but to obey their mistresses. Their jobs, wages and any other benefits they happen to receive fully depend on their mistresses, so they work hard to keep them happy. These workers are labourers for other families in other homes; they are not homemakers who work for their own families or housekeepers who work in institutions like hospitals or schools. Domestic workers are isolated in their workplaces and they are always considered inferior to their employer’s family. In the past domestic work was done by slaves or bonded servants; it can be done by men but women are always preferred and most commonly employed because they can be paid less, and, as they are under the direction of the mistress of a house, women are thought more appropriate. Besides which domestic work is considered women’s work. In general the domestic workers are expected to perform the following kinds of work: cleaning, washing clothes and dishes, dusting, mopping, etc. They can also be hired for the care of infants, children, the elderly and invalids who require constant nursing. Their work may also caring for pregnant women, assisting during childbirth, and post-natal care. Full day workers are taught to use electrical appliances, iron and mend clothing as necessary, do the daily shopping, prepare meals, and may even take care of the family pet(s). If the domestic workers are hired for a whole day their services become more demanding and complicated, although they do earn more than those who attend to several houses in a day. Their wages depend on the type of work and number of tasks performed, as well as individual ability.

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Domestic worker are subordinate to their employers. The social gulf between employer and employee is vast, and they are considered inferior to their mistresses. They endure difficult conditions because of their position in society, and do not enjoy the rights claimed by other citizens. They understand that their work is considered unproductive, not recognised as worthy of the social esteem other employments and professions are granted; the fact that they have little choice in taking up such work is not acknowledged. Their work is neither attractive nor absorbing, and as soon as they begin bearing children their days are so occupied they have little time or energy to spare for outside work; but trying to run a household on what little their husbands earn is very difficult. Even though looking after young children, cooking, cleaning, washing—usually with inadequate equipment—their own houses are a full time job to start with. But those willing (or desperate) to earn something extra look for work as domestic servants. Some are taught the use of domestic appliances, but certain chores like mopping and cleaning carpets are still done by kneeling on the floor. One woman explained: The house in which I work has about six large rooms, and a big verandah. In three rooms there are carpets. I do the floor and carpet cleaning: kneeling on the floor has given me bad back pain and pain in my knees too. I also inhale lots of dust which makes me cough and irritates the skin on my hands.

Domestic workers usually live in houses made either of mud or improperly cemented bricks, they are not properly cemented. Conditions are unhygienic: lack of education contributes to improper food handling procedures, and often consumption of contaminated food and water. Illness is endemic. The women of category one are household helpers: wealthy families commonly employ two or three women at a time, whereas middle-class families can only manage to hire one part-time woman at a time. These women start work at a very young age: migrant families long established in cities send their daughters to look for work by the time they are ten or twelve years old. These girls either work full time in one house, or help their mothers with their work at different houses. Many of the girls and women interviewed wanted to continue their schooling, but could not due to the bad financial conditions of their families, who cannot afford the tuition fees and other related costs: they need all the money they can get to help run the house. Most of the girls

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who had dropped out from school left at the age of ten (grade three or four). They were expected to help their parents in earning money. A 17year-old girl said: I wanted to study like all the other children, but my parents said that they don’t have the money for my tuition fees, books and uniform. They told me that I should start learning to work, and should go with my mum to help her. Since then I have done this work. It has been almost seven years now.

Two others said: Everybody says that girls don’t need education, they should be taught household work. My parents agreed. I was told to leave school when I was in grade four. Since then I have been working as a domestic worker, and earning money. Money was needed in the house, so I was glad to start working, but I also regretted leaving school. I make a small amount of money which is hardly enough for me and my kids. But when my husband needs it he snatches it from me. He often takes it for his gambling. If he wins he gives me some money, but if he loses, he takes it out on me. He beats me and says that it is all my fault.

In nearly every case, women domestic workers do not report or speak out against the incidents of sexual abuse and violence committed against them. The factors that prohibit women domestic workers from reporting such incidents to the police or disclosing such incidents are cultural, economic and educational. These women are ashamed to disclose their experiences to the police because it is a taboo to speak openly about sex, particularly for women; those who do are considered shameless by others, and to have brought disgrace to their families. Therefore families and individuals remain silent, leaving the victim to suffer the repercussions (and possibly further incidents) in silence. If the domestic worker is unmarried, she is in even more trouble: she might not be able to get married, because sexual relations before marriage are unacceptable, which is why women are expected to remain confined in the private sphere as much as possible in order to refrain from such acts. In this context domestic workers feel too intimidated to disclose such intimate incidents to the police or anyone else. Domestic workers also fear losing their jobs, and may find it difficult to find a new one if they speak out, as it may discredit the worker in the eyes of her current or any future employer. She may never find another job. Due to lack of education and knowledge, these women are not well informed about their human, civil and legal rights. They do not know that

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domestic violence and sexual abuse are crimes, and the perpetrators can be punished. They do not know how to access relevant sexual and reproductive health services and how to prevent unwanted pregnancies. This lack of knowledge and information leaves category one women at risk of violence, sexual abuse, unwanted pregnancies and other health problems. The situation has to change. Under this patriarchal society, women are treated as weak inferiors. Traditionally they live as wives, mothers and daughters, raised to obey their fathers, brothers and husbands. They get their identities after they marry, as a “Mrs.,” not as individuals: becoming a wife makes her respectable. Thus a young woman’s primary goal in life is to be married, and she is very reluctant to do anything that might endanger that goal. After marriage it is her duty to maintain that marriage and raise a family, devoting her life to her husband and children. For this reason many women leave their jobs in order to continue with their basic duties; if they continue with their jobs, the endeavor is little appreciated unless her income is a necessary boost to the family finances or particularly good (which is rare—as mentioned before, women are paid less than men as a rule). When a woman marries she moves to her husband’s family home rather than a new home for themselves only, so unless she gets along very well with her in-laws, life is difficult. She must work to adapt to her inlaws’ demands, and is expected to make herself agreeable to them rather than the other way around. This is another reason most women leave work after marriage; a lot of energy (and time) goes into learning the ways of the family a woman marries into, and making a good impression on them; if she fails she will be labeled a bad daughter-in-law and a bad wife. Women’s lives have thus far been lived in the private, domestic sphere of life. They have accepted this because they shared their culture’s views and agreed that home making, childbearing and -rearing, preparing and preserving food and making clothes are essential human tasks which they must take care of. They have taken these things as their basic human duty and have not sought any extraordinary social or cultural accomplishments. They have been taught to make their daily household activities their first priority, no matter how repetitive they are or how little recognition or reward they receive. Pakistani society believes that women are born innately inferior to men in physical strength, mental ability and emotional stability, and so life tasks and roles are divided accordingly. Women are considered no more biologically capable of learning mathematics than they are of lifting heavy machinery, so jobs requiring such skills—mathematical aptitude and

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considerable physical strength—are not given to them. There are many other such prejudices. But society is changing rapidly, with more people from different backgrounds and different ethnic groups moving to the country and being absorbed into the social fabric every day; they bring new and different ideas, especially about women and women’s ability to learn and work. There are those who agree that a woman’s place is in the home, but there are many voices insisting on granting women the liberty to work as they choose. Some proclaim their allegiance to old ideas but behave in new ways, understanding the value and importance of women’s work even if they won’t acknowledge it. There are still, of course, those women who believe that their major role is that of a mother and a wife, but they spend a large part of their day at their job places. And there are those who insist that they are modern and more liberated but do not understand the full meaning of these words. Like so many other over-worked women, they do double time taking care of their households and their jobs outside the home. The women entering into the labour market will begin with added vigour, since they have experienced and realised the advantages of working outside their homes. They have tasted the delights of independence, freedom and working amongst companions of their own age and the other sex. They do not want to surrender their freedom. There will be far fewer stay-at-home girls because parents can’t afford to keep their daughters idle: they too have begun to realise the importance of professional qualifications, which can be insurance against any economic mishap, even after their daughters are married. The number of women students has increased greatly in higher education, along with an increase in the number of educational institutions for women. The scholastic achievement of girls is also higher in undergraduate and graduate studies, particularly in specific subjects like medicine. A large number women work outside their homes, mostly in well defined working conditions and environments. Women are working in professions and jobs once only available to men, becoming doctors, scientists, lawyers, judges and engineers. The teaching profession has been traditionally a woman’s job at the elementary level, but now there are also women professors teaching in colleges and universities. A great majority of women are still employed in clerical positions such as secretaries, bookkeepers and typists, but there are also a few women now working in decision-making positions; there are female operators and inspectors in the factories as well as shift workers; and they still work in sales and service jobs such as waitresses, hospital attendants, beauticians and hair dressers, but now some of them are to be found giving the orders, not simply

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obeying them. While these numbers are present and growing slowly, they still face discrimination on the basis of presumed inability or unwillingness to commit. Consciously or unconsciously, the pervading view is that women, children and the entire natural world exist to serve men and their purposes. So women accept their roles in society because they think it is God’s will administered by men. They consider themselves lucky and blessed if their family is healthy and their husbands are happy, and they believe themselves not made to go after money or other recognition as men do. They do not think of themselves as separate individuals, capable of earning success and happiness on their own merit. They strive for selflessness and sacrifice their lives for the betterment of their husbands and children, but even then they do not seek appreciation for it nor are they often granted any. There are women who raise their voices, work against the social structure and express their discontent, but they are still mostly lonely voices. They go unheard. Those women who have made their way up have done it by sacrificing and compromising. They have been supported by their husbands and families for the sake of the money they earned, or because of a general belief in education and independence regardless of gender. Only very rarely has a woman had the benefit of an entire family that wishes to break traditional rules because they believe in moving forward rather than sticking with an old way of life. When a married woman with infants or children wants to work not due to financial reasons but for her own reasons, they are told that it will ruin their health, it will increase stress and tension, her responsibilities will be doubled and they will damage both their children and their marriages. So even before they begin or resume working after marriage, the idea is already in their minds, and they believe if something along those lines does happen they have only themselves to blame. What is not recognised is that there are women who have managed to carry on without any guilt: they run their houses smoothly and work nine to five jobs. Two such women commented: Society wants women to have super-human abilities, but it is not possible, nor should women try to be super-women. But I do have a high appetite for work and therefore I have a smoothly running family and a fulfilling career, and I did not had to choose one or the other. I have a very cooperative husband and a full time nanny at home who helps me take care of my four kids and household work. After marriage I left the job but I rejoined after my second child was three; then I had to take two maternity leaves. Coming back to work after maternity leave is very daunting, but I

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am lucky, I did it twice. Sometimes there are difficult days when I never wanted to get out of bed, but again I found myself working and keeping up my work life and my home. Trust me, no one can be super human and things are never easy. My mum always told me that the key to life is to have a good and happy family, earn money and have good experiences and be successful. Now I am married and have two kids, one- and three-year-old daughters, and I work as an actress in TV shows and as a model as well. Most of the time I spend mornings at home. My husband has his own business so his work hours are also flexible. But sometimes I have to do late night shows and my husband doesn’t like this, so it causes some tension between us. I wonder how I can keep everything running smoothly, two kids, my work and my home. We have a full time servant but still there is always lot to do, and for the sake of my job I have stay looking fresh and scintillating. I also have to keep my body and my wardrobe in good condition. My looks are the most important thing for my job. If my husband keeps criticising my late hours and other activities, I don’t know, maybe I will have to choose one of them—my husband or my job.

This culture has created a reward system for one gender at the expense of the other. It does not view each sex’s role as equal and equally important: it has devised different roles for both sexes and then categorised their roles as inferior and superior, thus categorising each sex along the same lines. In this way the “superior” gender can subjugate the inferior one to their wills and wants. All women, whether at the top of the social hierarchy or at its foot, feel that it is a man’s world. Those at the bottom admit and accept it, choosing to work in docile, submissive roles under the supervision of men. They are also more dependent on their male colleagues, whereas those women who have really achieved something have come to terms with this man’s world: the main difficulty they faced was how to get a good foothold in the men’s world, and they have done it. Once they prove their ability, they are treated as something special. For most women the difficulty seems to be getting above a certain level. Men spend a great deal of their time away from home, visiting friends, going to parties, sometimes at drinking parties where their wives and daughters are not allowed. Women, on the other hand, have limited freedom outside the home: they can attend weddings, funerals, religious festivals and can visit their female friends or neighbours for brief periods of time. Women from upper- and middle-class families hire domestic workers to assist with the household work. Together they discharge the woman’s responsibilities of caring for the house, husbands, children,

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parents, and in-laws. They manage all these tasks while being treated as second-class citizens with little respect or freedom. Society enforces this system of male and female roles in the family, and has always placed more value on paid employment than on parenting (particularly with respect to men). Parenting is imposed on women, and yet is offered little real value by society. If society truly valued family, parenting and childrearing, fathers would also participate in these activities, at least to some extent if not fully; the reality is that men are considered devalued if they participate in menial activities related to family. They are scorned if they want to stay home with their kids. Every day we hear stories of men and women as successful doctors and engineers, but we rarely hear of successful parents, fathers or mothers, because being successful parents carries so little value in society; it is not something that can be measured by income or material gain. This shows the materialism so prevalent in Pakistan’s society: money is valued above family, and a successful woman doctor is prized above a successful mother, even with the entrenched gender bias. Women have the right to be valued for themselves just as anyone else does. It is believed that young children benefit more from the presence of their mothers than the presence of their fathers. This means men are of little importance in rearing children and family, aside from their role as breadwinners providing financial support. Society has taken away the right of men to be emotional and nurturing. Men are expected to be strong, and it is thought that such emotional activities would make them weak. This is unjust to men, as they can be nurturing fathers and may want to stay home with their kids and actively participate in household or family activities which give them a sense of belonging. Men could be up to the task if they were given the chance. Despite all the efforts to keep women at home, more and more have joined the labour market, most of them taking poorly paid jobs and working for less than men in the same positions. Even though the number of women in the labour force is growing, they are still struggling with difficult working conditions and responsibilities, narrow employment opportunities, and the fact that the right to work still seems meaningless and incidental for women. Their presence and progress exacts a high price. Even if they do well in their jobs, they risk losing their places for spurious reasons due to their bosses’ prejudices. Women are also under-represented and under-employed; but the rising rate of female labour force indicates that the maxim “a woman’s place is in the home” will not remain true for long—too many of those who have broken down the stereotypes will not go back to them. The women who have taken work at lower wages and

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worse conditions than men have not done so out of ignorance or oversight, but as a first step, to lay down roots; men would not work under such conditions, and women are beginning to stand up for the same rights. Bad working conditions, fear of redundancy, low wages, tough competition, and threats of extra hours of work have not daunted women in their determination to stay in the labour market. Women are not very often considered for jobs which involve travelling, particularly if the job requires visiting remote areas of the city where security for women is most important, or trips lasting several days to other cities or countries. Parents and families do not encourage their daughters or wives to pursue such jobs and it is unusual for a woman to pursue such a position. If a company or firm does hire a woman for such a job, her personal security is their responsibility. They avoid sending a woman alone; a man must accompany her as her guard. There are a few women in such jobs, but not many. These women complain that people, particularly men, in remote areas do not accept women working and have no respect for them: they think that any woman who comes from so far away to stay a few days in their area must be of loose morals at best, and prostitutes at worst. The local women, on the other hand, are hardly seen outside. Due to a lack of education and other social factors, robberies and kidnappings of women are very common, so when women are sent to such areas arrangements must be made with local councilor(s) for residence, meals, transportation, security, etc. There are many different points of views, but these views are not the result of merely individual thoughts; they are the result of individuals’ backgrounds and the pressures imposed by society, culture, and religion. There are women—mostly from category three—who broke with their cultural traditions. They were supported by their families, particularly fathers, and encouraged to move forward and interpret life in their own way. This required great courage to win over neighbours, colleagues and others in their communities, but they have obviously succeeded to some extent, since we can see the changes in society and in individuals. Similarly, there are domestic workers who want their daughters to be educated so they will have more options than they do themselves; again, this is a form of rebellion against society, as it is not a usual thing for families in their communities. Domestic workers did not indicate any sense of loyalty to their employers or attachment to their work; they took what they could find and moved on whenever they found a better offer in terms of working environment, benefits and salary. They consider themselves more or less slaves, working hard in the hopes that if their employers are satisfied with

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their work they will pass on a few extra benefits like time off, food and clothes. All the women said that they would be happy to shift to a place with a good, kind mistress and good working environment, benefits and salary. The work is the same, so they don’t have to learn any new skills. Twenty-eight percent of the women in category two showed a sense of attachment to their workplace. These women said that they had worked in the same place for a long time, they were on good terms with their colleagues and felt that their work was important to their employers. The other 72 percent, however, had no such commitment to their work; they said they would leave when they wanted to, and they were not looking for such work for the long term. These women were not working for careers, but to augment their families’ incomes or for personal reasons like they want to pass the time until their marriages, or avoid feeling lonely, etc. Eighty-seven percent of the women of category three felt attached to their work. It gave them a sense of satisfaction to consider themselves significant contributors to the firms they work for. They felt there is something special about the job they do. They do not work merely for salary and benefits, nor do they look for a good environment; it is the work itself which makes them feel happy and satisfied. They feel like they are achieving their goals and doing something worthy, contributing to the organisation and working together with a team gives them a sense of commitment to work. Women are under more pressure and stress at their workplaces, where men dominate and make the decisions and females submit and accept. They are expected to be more tolerant and disciplined. They are under more scrutiny and are always talked about behind their backs; in addition to work stressors such as meeting deadlines, heavy workloads, the behaviour expected from them and interference in their personal lives and domestic responsibilities also weighs on them. The most common work stressors women complained of were greater workloads, lower salaries and fewer benefits; they often get jobs because their employers know that they can pay them less, then find that the demand of the work exceeds their capabilities and resources, so they watch the rewards for achievement go to others. A school teacher who teaches fifth and sixth grades said: I take seven classes everyday with one short break of fifteen minutes, and there are always more than 25 kids in each class. In addition to this I also have to check their homework diaries everyday and frequently meet parents who come to ask about their sons’ and daughters’ achievements. They are always complaining and asking me to give more time to their kids. The principal often calls meetings on a Saturday which is our day off.

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The work is too much: if I compare my salary to everything I do, it is too little. I asked for a rise, but I don’t think it is possible. I am exhausted but I continue with it because my three kids study here for free. The fees for schools are so high I can’t afford to send them to another school.

This is a very common practise in schools. Teachers are always given extra workloads, and their salaries remain low. There are also women who are very sensitive to their environment. They were brought up in sheltered, protected environments, and taught to be cautious and sensitive to people around them. They perceive things at work in their own way. A 23-year-old working as counter staff said: My supervisors are very strict, they don’t let us sit. They want us to stand as long as we are behind the counter. Sometimes they speak so strictly that I feel like crying, but I manage to hold back my tears.

These women must learn that personal feelings and values are of little relevance in the workplace: work has to be done, deadlines have to be met, and rules have to be followed, so they must adapt. It has nothing to do with someone’s personal feelings or emotions. Bosses and supervisors can be demanding sometimes, as they are also under pressure. These women take minor things personally and seriously, so it takes them more time to learn the rules of the workplace. Parents should teach their daughters to be bold and strong and should allow them to get more acquainted with the outside world, so they can learn to adapt and adjust in a smoother way. Past experiences play an important role. Women from more traditional, conservative families are more diffident and emotionally weak. They submit easily, like to live under an authoritative person, are unable to make their own decisions and tend to stay at the lowest level in their jobs. Women from less traditional families are more confident, have learned to make decisions for themselves, compete with men without trepidation and fight to move up the corporate ladder. Those women who work merely out of necessity (financial reasons, widowhood, divorce) and still have kids to care for as well as full responsibility for household chores, were exhausted and had lost the motivation to work. They were over-burdened with work, and complained of headaches, backaches and fatigue. A 45-year-old telephone operator, who has three kids and is divorced said: I live in an apartment with my mother. She is old, not much help, but I can leave my kids with her. I buy groceries, cook, clean the house, take care of kids, take care of my mum, and have a full time job. I have no choice—I wish someone would come and help. My husband married another woman

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One of the domestic workers, who has a handicapped husband and five daughters, said: My husband can’t walk, he just crawls. He can’t work but he helps me at home. My eldest daughter is about twelve years old and now she also helps me. She goes with me to help me work at my mistresses’ houses. I work in five different houses and then when I come home. I take care of my kids. I manage to do all the work, but my problem is I can’t eat much. I get a bad pain in my stomach when I eat, so I take very small meals. This is making me very weak and exhausted.

The women under such conditions as those mentioned above were depressed, had feelings of self-pity and lacked self-confidence. They were very pessimistic about their lives and had lost hope of achieving any positive result from their hard work. Some of them showed severe frustration and spoke harshly, while others spoke in very low voices and quiet tones. They complained that no matter how hard they try they are not given credit for their work, but are instead reported as having low performance levels, destroying most of their chances for promotion and advancement. The other reasons given by these women as job stressors were fewer benefits, low salaries, heavier workloads due to fewer staff, uncomfortable working conditions, lack of proper equipment, lack of control over the work process, and monotony. When women take work outside their homes, they double their responsibilities and workloads. They need to learn the right balance between work and family responsibilities in order to avoid stress; the freedom to take some time off without fear of losing their jobs might also diminish their stress levels. A balance between work and family life cannot be achieved by any individual alone. The family/work system requires a significant reconfiguration. Suggestions given by women included equal division of parental responsibilities, men learning to help with domestic work, day care centers, maternity leave, five working days per week rather than six, and more ready-made goods available at reasonable prices. These things would give women more control over their own lives. The main reason for women’s lack of success thus far is that the working women are still in the minority and are concentrated into a narrow range of professions. Few women are recruited by employers and they

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don’t tend to stay many years in their jobs. Few women apply and even fewer are selected. It is a common belief that “nice” girls would not thrive in the competitive, cut-throat atmosphere of certain jobs. There are occupations considered respectable for women, and they have less trouble getting such jobs, which means as more women enter these areas, they make it more attractive to other women. This causes an imbalance of men and women in occupations, and devalues certain professions—if many women are hired for an occupation over men, it is assumed the work is easy and will not pay enough to support a family. Many professionals are attracted instead to competitive jobs that are a challenge to obtain and a challenge to advance in. Another important reason for women’s lack of success is the traditional attitude that certain jobs are not women’s work and because they have never done the job they can never learn to. Women have proved that they can do well in recently developed professions, that they can come to terms with male domination and face confrontation. Women have made their mark on male-dominated fields, but their numbers are as yet so small that they are not acknowledged by society. This contributes to women’s lack of success in the corporate world. Another reason may be found in women themselves, according to one man who works as a manager: Women can’t go up beyond a certain level because they don’t think right. They don’t think in terms of their careers. Men consciously foster things which do them good in their careers. Women ought to do the same. They really ought to learn to market themselves.

Women rarely consider a job in terms of a career, which can have an adverse effect in their interviews. They must learn to avoid representing themselves either as weak or overcompensating for not being masculine: not enough women are aware that it is possible to be both strong and competent and feminine. One man commented: They should not look like pretty dolls, because nobody would take them seriously. They mustn’t look masculine either. They have got to pull themselves up.

Women do not show the potential equal to that of men. They are shy and diffident, reluctant to display their talents as men do. Many women are only equipped to handle information-giving jobs because they lack men’s authority. They are not brought up to feel that they have authority, and

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they are unprepared to take responsibilities because they have been much too sheltered and don’t know what the outside world is all about. Women in male-dominated fields find themselves in a hostile atmosphere where they find it very difficult to demonstrate their capabilities, so some women do not perform as well as they might otherwise have done. Some women admit that they would not have obtained their jobs or achieved as much as they have without the help of certain key men in their lives, who offered them real support, helped them plan strategies and gave them advice on how to get on in a man’s world. Another reason that women still do not get the positions they should is that once they find a niche for themselves they stay there, reluctant to compete in other areas where they are not sure of themselves. As more and more women enter the labour market, the range of activities has also increased. First there were a large number of school teachers and nurses, with few women as doctors and very few in supervisory positions. But with time the job scope increased. Though teaching, nursing and secretarial positions are still very popular with women, new occupations are also represented now, such as professional engineers, architects, analysts, researchers, scientists and political and industrial officials. The number of doctors and health care workers has also increased manifold. Women working in female-dominated professions are accepted by society, but when women enter traditionally male jobs, the biggest problem they face is changing men’s attitudes. Such companies see women’s needs and desires on the job as secondary, and so they are not taken seriously. They deny women positions of influence and power and exclude them from the decision-making process. It is important that more attention be paid, both by company managements to women and by women to their jobs. Women need to be encouraged from a very early age, while they are still in school, to regard themselves as capable of doing whatever jobs that interest them, even if it is not a traditionally female profession. They must learn to “think big” and show initiative without encouragement and without aggression. Family plays a very important role and can help girls become less shy and diffident about themselves and their potential. Society and religion have done great harm and have made things difficult for women, but if firms give women more opportunities and space to use their full potential in congenial environments, women will perform very well and give very good results, even in jobs they may not have done well in before. Most of the women interviewed, particularly those in category three, felt that their potential was not being fully exploited. They complained that employers

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were willing to take risks on men who may leave them for a better prospect, but were unwilling to hire women for the same reason, despite many female candidates having proved they could work successfully with more responsibility. Women are deliberately kept below a certain level, with the justifications that they might leave, they can’t be trusted with jobs which require travelling, they have family responsibilities and therefore can’t fully concentrate on work, are more often absent, etc. Organizations feel that it is a waste of time, effort and money to develop women because they will leave. Women leaving jobs leads to the biggest problem; many women leave after marriage and nearly all leave after bearing their first child. There are breaks in every woman’s employment history; it would be unrealistic to assume that men and women have the same life patterns. To encourage women in jobs or make full use of their potentials, some systematic allowance for their special problems and needs must be made. Women cannot keep their jobs if they take long maternity leave: they should take the shortest possible time away, as positions cannot be kept vacant for very long because it costs employers money. Maternity leave should be negotiated and arranged at the time a woman is appointed to a position, not when she happens to get pregnant. One senior woman suggested that “women should have ‘breeding years’ and their jobs should be held for them and their income maintained.” Another said It is a woman’s right to have children and to maintain the job which has she has devoted effort and loyalty to. Organizations should have day-care centers and policies for maternity leave.

Stereotypes held about women working are usually based on experience with women at much lower levels, where less commitment is required. Highly qualified women are judged on the same basis as any other worker, which is irrational; women who have made such an effort to qualify for a career are hardly likely to simply stop using their talents. They are likely to continue working for most of their lives; they also have lower absenteeism and turnover rates. Women who happen to work for smaller organizations have more responsible positions: they get a chance to use their potential, and the quality of their work is recognized. The more intimate atmosphere of small organizations often allows women to relax a little more than those who work for conglomerates; women who work for large organizations tend to have less responsible jobs and stay further down in the hierarchy. It is for lack of effort: large organizations should create opportunities for women to be accepted in the formal structure of a highly organized company.

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Women in Karachi are now present in almost all professions, but rather than thriving they are just hanging on. There is a big difference between what they need to thrive in their professional lives and what they want in their personal and family lives: they need support and encouragement from their community and from society to perform at their best. Like anyone else they need a good team around them to get the best results at work. To most women, whether they are career-oriented not, family life is very important to them. They are reluctant to spend extra hours at work at the expense of the time they have with their families. It is difficult to keep one’s professional life and private or emotional sphere separate; if a woman is worried over any sort of family problem, such as a sick child or marital problem, it could affect her job performance. Similarly, if women are not fulfilled at work and have nothing good to say at the end of the day, it affects her attitude toward her family and her household responsibilities. Women need love, support and encouragement; they need to be fulfilled in order to get something out of each half of their lives. They are responsible for two valuable aspects of this life: raising a family so the human species may continue to survive and working at productive employment for the betterment of our world. They need support from society, not accusations of irresponsibility and ineptitude. They deserve recognition for their effort and work. Women have already achieved great success in the workplace, but too many of them reach the pinnacle of their careers only to have to make a choice between continuing or abandoning their job for marriage and family. Any choice they make results in a fundamental dissonance, because something must always be sacrificed: if she strives to keep both her job and her family, then her personal time evaporates. When women enter the work force they follow a man’s life pattern by leaving the homemaking lifestyle behind, but in their professional lives they are still outsiders. They have to mould themselves to a new lifestyle and accept its values. All the workplaces in Karachi are built around men’s needs and requirements: they are the bosses, the decision makers, and the control at their workplaces. Their wives are home-makers so they are free of domestic responsibility and free to work long hours and to travel to other cities for days and weeks. They have more opportunities to contribute to their companies and therefore get more recognition, rewards and advancements than women working at the same level. These women do not have anyone to take care of their homes for them, and are so prevented from emulating men in this respect.

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Some women entered the work force hoping for or expecting a rapid rise through the ranks. They were excited about their jobs and tantalized by the rising power and salaries they expected to achieve; but in a short time they realized that entering this man’s world was not so easy, and felt totally under the control of men who expected them to be submissive, docile and obedient employees, prepared to do anything their bosses asked of them. They soon they found themselves moving from job to job working under different bosses. Eventually all the moving around, managing new bosses and colleagues and their growing families leaves these women stressed out and frustrated with sometimes irrational claims on their time and emotional energy. Those who are unmarried long to get married so they can give up the jobs that were once so important to them, and so society wins: the women who fail to find adequate working conditions are eventually pushed back into the traditional female role of docile homemakers. Earning money brings autonomy, freedom and independence; women are not encouraged to desire such things. Women who want autonomy, their own money and independence without sacrificing the human need for family and children become subject to stress and depression, eventually burning out in a very short time, unable to overcome tradition and culture in the pursuit of identity and self-respect. Working mothers who struggle hard to balance work and home often feel guilty of neglecting their family and their primary duties as homemakers: society regards women who fail or ignore their domestic duties for their own personal fulfillment as selfish. Women are expected to get satisfaction from the happiness of their children rather than from jobs or independence, but how well-adjusted and happy can children be who spend their formative years with frustrated, emotionally stunted women? Research shows that working and earning money gives a person a selfesteem and intellectual satisfaction, and the women who work and spend a certain amount of time away from home give their children greater benefits than stay-at-home mothers. These children profit intellectually from exposure to many people, and have opportunities to form close bonds with relatives and family members other than their mothers. And yet working women are still burdened with guilt when they try to meet unrealistic goals balancing family and work: society is quick to point a finger at working women for being selfish and money-grubbing. No-one thinks to solve this puzzle, and address the confusion these women go through. Men, so accustomed to their own freedom, are unlikely to sacrifice any portion of that freedom to take on a part of women’s responsibilities if it is left up to them: they hold to their argument that women are responsible for their homes and domestic work and should be

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available whenever they are required. Wives act as personal assistants as well as emotional props and household servants, and are in all respects expected to do as they’re told rather than acting on their own initiative or interfering in their husband’s professional or private lives. Women are too often valued on the basis of how well they conform to these expectations, by society, by the government, and by their own families and communities. Religious leaders are even stronger promoters of the stereotype. Women are alone in this battle, and are making a place for future women in this male-dominated society. There are women who changed their careers or jobs after marriage. Before marriage they worked for good companies in good positions, but after having kids they had to change to jobs which provided them parttime or more flexible hours. Some felt that they have been pushed to give up their jobs, either by their employers or their own families, while some said it was their own decision because they could not leave their kids alone or with nannies. They realised that the housework and domestic responsibilities after marriage are a full time job in themselves and too important to neglect if they want to maintain their marriages. They accepted that to provide for their families is a husband’s work, not theirs. Most of the women chose to teach, which gives more flexible hours—most schools start at 8:00 in the morning and end at about 12:30 or 1:00 in the afternoon. Women who had children and were short of money were particularly attracted to teaching because they can in most cases enroll their own children for free. One woman said: I was working as an assistant manager before I married and I kept my job after my marriage, but when I became pregnant I had to leave it. When I had my baby I had to take bed rest for five weeks due to complications. When I was well I decided to rejoin the company; since there are no daycare centers available I had my mother-in-law take care of my baby. But when I went back to work, I was not offered the same position and responsibilities, nor was I offered any part time…I decided not to take my old job but looked for a new one for almost six months. In the end I decided to join this call center: I work here only four hours a day. It is not what I was looking for. I am MBA and I don’t like this job, it doesn’t have any future for me, but…I will continue, because we need money.

An administrator said: I was working as an administrator in a multinational company but after marriage I quit my job. My husband gave me permission to work in school only. I had no choice but to compromise, so I joined as an administrator in a school; at least I am still working. The working hours are less and I am

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home by one in the afternoon. But I don’t have the cosmopolitan work environment and clever and highly-educated colleagues I used to enjoy working with.

There are women who chose their husbands and families over work, and left their well-paid jobs and benefits behind: I worked in the same bank as my husband…this is where we met. But after I married and had my kids I transferred to the credit department where I work part-time. My salary used to be comparable with my husband’s, and I used to stay late hours at meetings and enjoyed travelling: it was my lifestyle choice. I quit that because I want to be the kind of mother who is available for her children, husband and family. I had realized that staying in the same department and position would not give me the flexibility to be that kind of mother. My current job has no prospects whatsoever, but it is ideal for my circumstances. I have time with my children in the mornings or in the evenings, and on weekends I am exhausted, but I am there for my husband as well. I feel lucky to have my husband who is so cooperative and loving. He also helps me in my domestic responsibilities and supports me when I have trouble at work. He is on good terms with the senior management.

In the majority of companies women are not promoted above the mid-level or mid-management positions. When we talk about secretaries or receptionists we immediately associate these positions with women, whereas when we talk about CEOs, presidents, and other executives, we assume immediately that there must be men in these positions. Women need to be alert and find out why this is—why are certain jobs doled out to women and others reserved for men? It all starts with your first job. One woman with a college degree who works as a secretary said: I have a master’s in geography, but I was offered this job as a secretary and told that I don’t have any practical experience in geography, and there were no internships available.

Another woman in the same surprising situation said: I have a master’s in health science. I work for a big NGO and I thought I would get good experience working with this organization. When I applied I was offered this position with the promise that I would be promoted to something better. Now it has been almost a year, and I am still a receptionist. Every time I ask for a better position, they ask me to wait until they find a new receptionist. People are shocked when they find that I have

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Women who enter such positions which are so far below their educational level accept the jobs thinking that they are only temporary, and soon they will be moving up the hierarchy, but it never happens. If they look for a new job with a different company, they are often offered the same kinds of positions, because managers think that as they have accepted such a job once they will do so again, perhaps with a slightly higher salary. In most cases they accept. So women need to be alert when they enter the work force and careful in choosing their first job: women who want to gain experience and move up the corporate ladder should never take a job below their qualifications.

CHAPTER SEVEN ADVICE TO WORKING WOMEN

Comments and Advice from Senior Working Women Some older women in their 50s and early 60s who had worked for much of their adult lives shared stories of their experiences and had advice for younger women who were still establishing themselves. Some of the comments and solutions to certain problems discussed are mentioned below. There is one thing I want to ask. If a mother’s presence at home is so important and beneficial for healthy children and a healthy nation, how is that all these mothers sitting at home all day taking care of the family and kids has not produced thousands of healthy, intelligent and well-adjusted children with no behavioral problems? There are hundreds and thousands of women who do not work but commit themselves (or are forced) to household work, but still we are so far behind in terms of national health compared to other nations whose women are working and on an equal footing with men. Are we doing the right thing or do we need to change some gender roles? The women of today who will be the mothers of tomorrow should learn that the idea of a stay-at-home mother is what really jeopardises family life, because it leaves children with no strong female role model. Children should learn that family means everyone shares tasks and responsibilities, not that the women perform any and all menial tasks without any credit or reward. They have the right to careers, or at the very least to earn their own money. They are entitled to maternity leave and assistance for household work. These are their basic rights. They can have all of them if they choose to. They should understand that they are not born just to rear children and take care of other members of the family—they were not born simply to serve men, who are accustomed to empowering themselves in all aspects of life. Working mothers act as a role model for their daughters and sons as well: they do not smother their children with emotion, but teach them instead to be independent, to make their own decisions and to share family responsibilities. They learn that the traditional roles imposed on men as

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responsibility to take care of them and their children. Women are just fighting the battle alone in the wrong way. It is sad. Women are busy empowering themselves in this male-dominated world. No matter how hard they try, they won’t achieve equality with men. Their place is at home. Only if they work hard and have a happy, comfortable home, will they have a good position in society. You women are just fooling yourselves competing with men. They won’t let you get what you want—in the end they will make you come back home and do household work and take care of your husbands and children. I don’t see what use this entire struggle is. You are wasting your time. Children need love and attention in their early years and if parents, especially the mother who gave birth to the child, cannot provide him/her with proper love and attention, it is not a good indicator for the child’s development. If we want our children to be stable, time should be spent on their emotional and mental development, and this is the role of mothers. Men stay mostly outside their homes because they support their families financially. Because it is a woman’s duty, mothers should teach their daughters how important their role is in society. Women should stop fighting for equality, as this would destroy the important roles of both men and women. They must learn to respect this.

Advice Men and women in positions of seniority and influence in their work offered a lot of advice to women entering the job market and making their way into the world of men. The main recommendation was to be very good at the job and to work hard: though it is also true for men, women must be even better because they are working against so many obstacles to their jobs and success. They must show confidence and ability, and cannot afford to be shy or tentative. They should not be discouraged if their talent and excellence do not appear to be immediately recognised: they need to keep working and keep fighting. Another very common piece of advice was that women should not accept a lower position if they are qualified for a better one in hopes of working up the ladder from there. Gaining promotions in this way is very difficult, and wastes their education as well as their time. One lady advised that after completing education and training, it is better to take a responsible job in a small company first and then look for a similar position with a larger company. Concerning salaries, it was advised that women should never feel that they ought to be paid any less than men doing equivalent work, and should keep a watch on their market value.

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Some of the older men and women interviewed believed that women should not compete in predominantly masculine fields, but they should work in professions where women are easily accepted and can relax, such as doctors, nurses, salespeople, etc., and should make themselves indispensable. There were, however, conflicting opinions: others saw no reason why women should not compete with men on equal terms. Young women in particular felt this way. It was also pointed out that too many women with the same specialization would lead to certain professions becoming predominantly female enclaves. Many of the respondents advised women not to present themselves as weak and dependent on men for everything, nor should they behave aggressively to compensate for not being masculine. They should be themselves, because different people do jobs in different ways. Managers also need to understand and recognise this point. Women need the confidence to recognize that their way of working is perfectly right as long as they get good results. Another piece of advice offered by some women is that working women should not take things personally. Since they have entered the work field, they should be ready to move forward: problems do occur, but they should not waste their time and energies on petty issues. Some of the executive women had suggestions for those who might be facing problems with bad bosses or managers: they said that women should focus on their needs at the workplace as related to their work and ask bosses directly for feedback and support in reaching those goals, or ask a mentor among the other managers who might have helpful tips. Talk about your problem with your peers and share your experiences of difficult bosses: someone else might have a story along the same lines, and together you might come up with a solution. But if you feel that your boss’s attitude will not change and you cannot do anything about it, then you are left with only one option: start looking for a new job quietly in your free time. Since women are already under more pressure, taking on extra burdens that may increase stress is not a good choice. If a boss’s attitude is in some way increasing the pressure, it is best to look for a better option.

Case Study One A woman working as a doctor with three kids and a husband who is less educated and earns less than her, was working more than twelve hours a day. She never had time for herself. Early in the morning she had to drop her kids at their schools, and then go to her part-time job in a hospital. When she finished at work, she had to come home, clean the house, go to pick up her kids from school, cook dinner, help the kids with their school

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homework, get them ready for bed and spend time with her husband. Because her family was having financial problems with money, she also worked on the weekends. After some time she also started working part time in a private clinic near her home. She was taking on too much and did not realize her limitations. After a few months she was under so much stress that it caused not only emotional anguish but physical problems. She became sicker than ever before: she started to cough badly, experienced rashes and frequent pains in different parts of the body. She had black circles around her eyes, lost her good skin and high energy. She needed sleeping pills. Eventually she was ordered bed rest, and lost both her jobs. Now she works only one job and has relatives to help her with the housework and in taking care of the children.

Advice This explains that working women simply cannot exceed their limitations in terms of work and responsibilities any more than anyone else can. There is no such thing as a super human being. They must learn to say no and get help whenever necessary; in no way should doing so be allowed to lower their position in society or in the eyes of their families. They have to be honest with themselves and others: if they are asked a favour they know they do not have the time or energy to complete, the best thing is to say no and explain their feelings and situation. It does no one any good if the favour does not get done. Working women must have some time of their own, in which they may socialize, take up a hobby or do whatever pleases them. Exercising, meditating, and/or relaxing for 20 minutes a day are all effective means of handling stress. They must adopt a positive attitude and not feel as though they are being selfish. A healthy working woman will raise a healthy family and will create a healthy environment around them. Having time for one’s own interests is good for mental and emotional health. Working women realise that no-one can be a super woman or perfect, and that they do not need to work like crazy in order maintain their respect and dignity. Every individual has the right to be respected for their feelings, emotions and intelligence. Most working women who are stressed out don’t even know the exact cause of their stress, and are thus unable to correct it; in the end they lose their jobs as well as their health.

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Case Study Two A call center agent has mostly female colleagues. There are five men in the office: two managers, one tea boy and two men who do field work. The male call center team works a different shift, mostly at night. The agent has around 25 female colleagues working with her, and faces tough competition. She has to watch every little thing she does. If she makes a mistake, she knows the others gossip about it behind her back, perhaps even calling her stupid. Some of them even tell her to her face that she is a fool. She feels very uncomfortable at her work and she is increasingly unable to cope with the frustration of it.

Advice Every person is an individual and anyone can make a mistake: gossiping and laughing about it is a very unprofessional attitude. No one can succeed without making mistakes—the way to success is to grow and learn and correct mistakes. Gossiping is for people who are not good at their assigned work, and want to hide their own mistakes.

Case Study Three An assistant manager said that she feels stifled at her job. She works in an office where there are eight people, and she is the only woman. She is officially an assistant manager but most of her work is just drafting and typing letters and taking phone calls. She is assigned day-to-day tasks, and doesn’t have a target to achieve or participate in teamwork. She is called the office secretary: in the beginning it was just a joke but the name has stuck; everyone calls her that. She does not know how to get out of this rut—she is well educated, talented and capable of doing great things but instead she performs daily menial tasks, and has become self-conscious and meek. She said she is scared of being called bad names and talked about behind her back if she tries to tackle some of the tasks and projects her male colleagues do.

Advice Most working women in Pakistan work or have worked in such situations. If she is given day-to-day tasks which are not part of her job description, she should protest: she must gather the courage to talk to her boss or supervisor and ask why she is doing the work of a secretary when

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she was appointed as an assistant manager. She must be honest about how she feels doing these tasks: her male counterparts would not hesitate to speak up. If she continues working on daily tasks that are not her job, her colleagues will continue to call her the office secretary. She is well educated, talented and capable of doing great things, and she has the right to use her potential. She should ask her boss to give her projects she can work on: she need not be passive in her career just because she works in a male-dominated office. Letting a career happen on somebody else’s terms to someone else’s advantage is unacceptable for a woman: women must master their own destiny, no matter where they work. They need to focus on their strengths and their position. This woman said she was scared of trying to handle her tasks like a man and failing, being called bad names. Women should never have to think that they must handle tasks and projects like men: they should handle them in their own ways. It is only natural that women would handle situations and tasks differently than men, so why change nature? Be sure of your position and use your knowledge and resources to get the job done. Use your natural way of handling situations and be practical; know what needs to be done and do it to the best of your ability. If your colleagues or anyone else calls you names, don’t lose your focus, just work towards your goals and targets. People who call others names or talk behind their back do so because they are jealous or intimidated: it is their problem, not yours. They can’t be changed or controlled. The only solution is to be assertive and maintain self-control. Working women cannot afford to be trapped by selfconsciousness, meekness or a lack of confidence: they must always keep a positive image of themselves and stay focused, building an identity as well as a career. Working in a sphere dominated by men is tough but not impossible.

Case Study Four I work in a large office with a lot of other people. I have my own cubicle where I sit and work. I work hard because I am determined to grow in my career. Every day I hear stories and praise of other people’s accomplishments in the office, but I feel very uncomfortable letting people in the office know what I have done, and how well my boss treats me for doing good work. As a woman I was brought up not to brag. It will be like showing off if I go talk about my good achievements, but this attitude doesn’t support me in my career growth....I feel diffident and meek, because I can’t stand out.

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Advice The women of Pakistan are brought up to be docile, diffident and down-to-earth. To show off, to be confident, bold and talkative is considered negative for women. They are taught to be humble. Women must overcome this fear of standing up for themselves: they must learn to be proud of their accomplishments and let them shine. To take pride in one’s accomplishments fosters a very positive attitude and feedback. Those women who withdraw into themselves in the office need to be more visible, to exchange greetings without getting pulled into gossip, to get feedback on projects, to participate fully in teamwork and never lose integrity. Dress professionally and be a good team player. It is not easy to change but in order to be successful women will have to leave their comfort zones and explore the great, beautiful and exciting world. This is the way to success.

Case Study Five A woman working in a laboratory said that she has a bachelors in science, whereas they require a masters in science for this position. She has good experience in the field, so even though she had only a B.Sc. degree she was hired for the position. Most of her co-workers are men; there is only one other woman, who has an M.Sc. She said that the men treat her and her fellow female co-worker as if they were hired just to add some glitter to the workplace: they are not treated in a professional manner, and because of this they are losing confidence and lagging behind in work. They both feel inadequate and insecure, and think that in a year’s time, their male colleagues will be well ahead of them.

Advice This is one of the ways men exploit women in the job market. They may give them good reviews for their work, but would never promote them. Women are often hired not for their potential but to “add glamour” for men in the job, motivating them to work hard for their promotions. They don’t take women’s work seriously, nor do they expect them to work hard. Women are led to believe they are slow and that by hiring them the men are doing them a favour. Such women should stop doubting themselves: if they are hired they should do their very best, and refuse to allow others to think they are better just because they are not women. If they get good reviews, they should ask for promotions rather than letting

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their managers play games with them. Everyone has ups and downs; leaving one job is not the end of the world. There are any number of satisfying jobs and reputable companies where dignity and respect are the standard. Women need to keep a very positive attitude in order to accomplish what they want, and should not be afraid of making mistakes.

Case Study Six Mehnaz, a 38-year-old woman working in an advertising agency, says that she has a very tough competition. Some of her colleagues are very passive aggressive, and one of her female superiors often loses her temper with her. Mehnaz knows her work is better than others’, but this woman always finds fault with her. She says that still she tries to maintain a positive attitude and manner with all her co-workers, mindful of the adage “keep your friends close and your enemies closer.” If anyone bad-mouths her, she tries to solve the problem by being nice to them—sometimes it works but in most cases it has no effect. She feels out of place in her own office: she tries to be nice and no-one else seems to care.

Advice Women are taught from an early age that to keep their good reputations, they must be nice and sweet with everyone. Sacrifice and docility doesn’t work well in professional life: it may be fine when dealing with family members, but outside the home (particularly at the office) such an attitude is seen as a lack of confidence. Being nice, and complimenting others is a good attitude for a woman to have as long as people do not take advantage of her for it, and if it is not done out of diffidence. It may be a great way to deal with conflict in the office, and to battle rudeness with kindness can be effective sometimes; but the problem is that people expect women to behave in this way and they are immune to female kindness. Working women should realize that if they behave in this way, it will take them nowhere but back into their shell—which is in the home, because this behavior is taken for granted. It is always necessary to be blunt about a problem. If someone bad-mouths them or their work, they have the right to react reasonably: they don’t have to be nice with someone who not nice with them. It is a battle they have to fight. Being nice will not change anything and they will never find their way up. They must learn to stand up for themselves.

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Case Studies: Category One Khanum is about 30 years old. She works in five different houses. She has five kids: three daughters and two sons. Her eldest child is her 11year-old daughter, who also helps her with her work. Khanum, her husband, her five kids and her mother- and father-in-law all live in a oneroom house. Her in-laws are old and need care themselves: it is Khanum’s duty to take care of them as a good daughter-in-law. They have electricity and gas, but no water, which has to be carried in every day. Her husband is a drug addict and does not help. She complains: My husband is a drug addict. He doesn’t care about anybody. He only wants money so he can buy drugs for himself. He snatches money from me. He used to work as a day labourer. Conditions were better then; now life has become too tough. When my husband comes home, he starts beating me and my kids. He wants my daughter to earn more money, but she is too young to be left alone in other people’s houses to work. What if they treat her badly? So I take her with me and she helps me with my work. The money I earn is not enough for us. We get only one meal a day, and sometimes there is nothing. I can’t send my kids to school. They just roam about in the streets. My mother- and father-in-law are no help, they are too old to help in anything. When my husband beats me, they tell him off and try to stop him, but he doesn’t listen. I work in five different houses, and take care of my own house. I do the cleaning, sweeping, mopping, washing dishes, laundry and anything else they ask. I work from morning till night, but the money I earn is very little as compared to the work I do. But I have no choice. I cannot read or write, so this is the only work I can do to earn money for my kids. One of my mistresses gives me leftover food, which I give to my kids. Sometimes they don’t treat me good. They give me extra work and don’t even pay me for it. They don’t care if I am tired or have problems at home. They deduct money if I take a day off. One of my mistresses is so strict that she always criticizes my work, and when I have completed my tasks she always has some more work ready for me. Sometimes she gives me bundles of clothes to iron, sometimes she makes me help her preparing meals. If I say that I am getting late for my other work or I need to be at home, she doesn’t care and often makes fun of this. She says that [servants] are always saying such things and I don’t have anything to do at home because she gives me food, I just have to go home and eat it, no cooking to do…nothing. Well, yes she does give me all the leftover food but there is always so much to do at home too. She doesn’t understand that. Sometimes I feel that I should take few days off, but I can’t afford to do that because my wages would be docked. In spite of all the hard work I do at my mistresses’ homes and at my own, no one ever thinks to say any words of appreciation to me. One of

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my mistresses says that my work is not up to her standards and I don’t do my work in a clean way. Inside my heart I tell her that I can’t go on cleaning her house for the tiny amount of money she pays. I asked her to raise my salary but she won’t. I am tired and exhausted but I have no choice but to carry on my life in this way.

Tajee is 24 years old. She has two small kids, and is pregnant again. She works in three different houses as a domestic worker. She lives in a small house made of brick and mud with six in-laws: altogether there are ten people living in a two-room house. The roof of the house is also used to sleep on. Her husband is about 50 years old and works as a street vendor. She has a primary school education, and she doesn’t like to work as a domestic worker. She complains: I don’t like sweeping, mopping and washing up in other people’s house. The work is just temporary: they can kick you out anytime and we can’t even complain. Our mistresses are the authority. Sometimes they treat us very badly. One of my mistresses is very nice. She listens to my stories about my home, about the fights we have, and how my in-laws and husband treat me. She tells me to fight back but she doesn’t understand our culture. Women of our village would never even think of this, and if anyone did she would be told off by all her relatives and forced to compromise. My mistress is a good lady, she feels sorry for me, but of course she can’t do anything about it. She even sometimes gives me medicines if I have headache or stomach ache. On special occasions she gives me extra money too. It is very embarrassing to work in other people’s house like a slave, and the work is boring and frustrating. I can read and write. I will definitely go for another job if I ever have the chance. I am doing this work only because of the pressure. We are very poor and we need money: if I don’t bring money home, my in-laws beat me. My husband is out all day. He comes back late in the evenings, sometimes at night. He doesn’t care what happens at home... sometimes when his aunt or mother say things about me, he beats me. I am pregnant but no one cares. I am my husband’s third wife. He was already married twice and left them: he doesn’t even care about the kids. I have to leave my kids at home when I go out for work, with no one to take care of them. When I come back I do all the house work. My in-laws make me do lot of work and they threaten me to throw me out of the house like they did with my husband’s previous wives. It scares me, because my parents will not keep me and I will have no place to go. I am a slave at my work and in the house. I am expected to work like a tireless machine. My whole day is so tightly scheduled that I don’t get the chance to talk to other women of my community. There are a lot of women who sit together and chat. But I can’t, also because I am not permitted by my in-laws. They keep a strict eye on me. They tell my

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Chapter Seven husband if I do anything they don’t like. My husband also doesn’t like me to go to see other women in my neighbourhood. Some of the women neighbours feel sorry for me and some of make fun of me, particularly those who are not married. They will soon understand everything when they will get married too and go to live with their in-laws.

Case Studies: Category Two Rubab is a 43-year-old married woman, teaching at primary and secondary level in a school. She has five kids. Her eldest daughter is about 20 and she is married. Her eldest son is 18 years old, and has recently begun a part-time job in an insurance company, where he works on commission basis. He goes to college in the morning hours. Her other three kids go to school. Her husband works as a clerk. She works as a teacher because she is not allowed to do any other work. She says: Teaching is the only job I was permitted to do by my parents and then by my husband. I belong to a family who are very strict and cultured. They think that women should not go out, but should stay home to take care of their kids and husbands. Society is made so that men have all the advantages, whereas women have to sacrifice. Women have to sacrifice their careers, they make sacrifices for their family, for their kids and for their husbands. Most of women’s lifetimes revolve around their kids. They are forced to find fulfillment in raising them. When I was young I saw my mum trapped in the house, her entire life taken up by kids, her husband and relatives. I feel that at least I am living a life better than hers was. She always looked depressed. I wonder if I will also be depressed later in life, because sometimes now I feel tired and depressed too. My parents wanted me to learn skills like embroidery, sewing and knitting to earn money. But I think I got lucky to get a job in a school and that my parents and then my husband have permitted me to do it. I understand that my primary duty is my family and domestic role: this is what I have been told all my life, since my childhood. But because I have seen some of the outside world too, I mean the world outside my home, I feel it is not harmful if women also work and earn money: this is also a part of raising a family. I work and earn because more money is required at home. If my husband can help me in my housework there is no harm—it is his family too. But I never ask him to help, because I know he will feel bad and degraded. Society and traditions have distributed these roles, and has put it into men’s minds that helping women in the house is degrading. My husband’s salary is not sufficient, so I have to do this job. I get exhausted teaching and taking care of kids in school and then taking care of my own kids and my house. My kids are grown up now, so the work is not as much as it used to be when they were all small…I wake up early so I

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can prepare breakfast for everyone. My daughter helps me but she is only 12 years old, but she has to learn this anyway. My school is not very far away. I take public transport, and it takes me about 15 to 20 minutes to get there. To travel in the buses is a big problem. People who travel in the buses are usually uneducated and lower class. Mostly there are men in the buses, and sometimes they enter the ladies’ compartment as well. They don’t respect women and are very ill-behaved. It is not very secure to travel by bus, but I have no choice; we don’t have the money to buy a car or to travel in taxis. The school where I work is not very good. There are about 30 to 40 kids in each class and it gets very difficult to manage them. Teachers have to be very strict. Children make you tired and exhausted. But when I come back home at about one o’clock in the afternoon, I can’t tell anybody that I have a headache or I am exhausted—I must start preparing lunch. I have to do all the housework myself. By night time I am so tired that I want to drop on my bed and sleep, but most of the time this is not possible because I have to be a good wife to my husband. My husband is a nice man, he is not demanding. He cannot help me in my housework because he usually comes home late from his work, but he does buy all the groceries and sometimes does shopping for me. Well in short, there are different problems at home and different at school. I am tired and exhausted solving both. Sometimes I wish I could leave my job and just stay home. But now it is not possible because my husband’s salary is not enough, so I must carry on.

Farwa is 26 years old and works as an assistant chemist in a laboratory. She has a B.Sc. She is the eldest in the family, and has one brother and three sisters. Her mother is a housewife and her father works as an administrator in a small firm. Her younger sister is also working as a receptionist. They are both working to augment the family income. Farwa is engaged and looking forward to get married soon. She says: My in-laws don’t want me to work, so after marriage I’ll have to leave this job and stay home. It doesn’t sound very good, but it is important to get married. I will be a very good housewife and mother. I will also be very nice to my in-laws. It is very important because it is a matter of honour for my parents and their family. After all it is my duty. Every girl has to decide whether to continue with her job or to get married. I think the best decision is to get married because this is what our society dictates we should do: life is very tough for those girls who don’t get married. I personally feel that girls should leave their jobs after they get married and should concentrate more on family life, because they have to move to their husbands’ homes and live with their in-laws. It is very difficult to adjust to a new family and new rules and regulations. So to avoid the stress of additional work, it is better to quit. The attitudes of

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Chapter Seven people towards working women is not good: they think that working women have loose characters and they become bossy, and go out with boys and do nothing but have fun. I am not like that at all. I am very docile and sacrificing. When I go home in the evenings I help my mother with the housework, and even if I am tired I never complain. I also help my mum prepare breakfast. We don’t have any domestic servants, we can’t afford it. We don’t buy expensive clothes or luxuries. My mum saves money for my and my sister’s dowries. My salary is not so good, nor do I have many benefits, but I like this job because I get picked and dropped home by company transport and I have Saturday off. In my previous job I did not get transportation and I worked six days a week. Travelling in public transport is very frustrating. The ladies’ compartment in buses is very small and gets very crowded. All the men on buses are lower class and they misbehave; sometimes even conductors and bus drivers misbehave too. In my current job I don’t have a transport problem but my supervisor is a very strict and rude person. He insults us and shouts at the girls, but not at the boys. One thing that I and all the other girls hate is that boys are promoted so easily and so early and we are never promoted, no matter how hard we work. This attitude is very discouraging. The life is very demanding if you enter the work force; in reality it is all male-dominated. They don’t fully accept women: they want us to get married so we will leave our jobs, and they use our getting married and leaving as an excuse not to promote us while we work. I think if they gave us good benefits and pay rises, more women would probably want to come back to work after marriage. But men want all the good positions and all the benefits for themselves. It is something they don’t have to speak about, but it is understood amongst them. Men help men to get rises and promotions.

Case Studies: Category Three Beena is 42 years old. She works in a hospital as a gynecologist. She has an MBBS (a bachelors degree in medicine), and trained as a gynecologist. She is married and has three kids. Two of her kids go to school and her eldest son goes to college. Her husband is also a doctor. He works in another hospital and also has his own clinic for private practise. She complains that: It makes no difference if a husband is well educated and has an executive job: the level of thinking in matters of housework is the same as that of an uneducated man. They never help with housework or with raising kids, but they still credit themselves with being open and broadminded. It is the same with my husband. He is too busy with the hospital and his clinic to help, and in his spare time he visits friends or reads or watches TV. I have to take care of the house. I pick up and drop off my kids at their schools, I

Advice to Working Women do all the shopping, and I help my kids with their homework. No matter how tired I get, I have to do all the work. I have no choice. We have a domestic worker, but she works in a very unhygienic way, so I can’t trust her in everything. She does the cleaning and washing, but there are still lots of things to be taken care of. If I complain, my husband tells me to leave the job. I am a doctor, I studied and worked too hard to give up just like that. It is my career. Soon my children will be grown up and will have their own lives, so I should have what I want in my life. I enjoy my job and I like my colleagues. I remember my first day on the job: I wore a light pink-and-red dress and black shoes with high heels, and carried a pink handbag. I also put on light make up. My heart was light with excited anticipation. This was my first job after completing my studies. I strongly believed that with my education and hard work I could make my dream of having a great career, a family and a respectable place in the community come true. The environment seemed so pleasing and exciting. My colleagues helped me in many things: they were all very cooperative and friendly. I was greeted with delight and welcomed. We all work like good friends and…I get the feeling of being independent. I spend my money in whatever way I want. I am growing professionally and it feels great. I get a lot of respect. The major problem is managing both house and work. Now I wonder whether my dream really has come true: I have the level of education, experience and job attainment I wanted, I am the mother of three children, but I work so hard to retain my dream that I am losing any pleasure in it. I wish someone could help make my life easier…I cannot get rid of domestic responsibilities, nor will I quit my job for which I have worked so hard all my life. My husband’s work is my responsibility, to keep up socially with relatives and friends is my responsibility. Is there any way I can share my responsibilities or hand them over to someone? All this is more a nightmare for me now than a sweet dream. In addition to this, women are always paid less than men in the same jobs. Now I have a good position but still my salary is lower that that of my male colleagues. Women have a double burden of work and get paid less. I think it is very unfair. Some of my friends suggested that I should reduce my working hours in the hospital or take a part-time job, or that I should leave my job until the kids are grown up and can take responsibility for themselves. This seems reasonable since my husband earns a good salary to take care of us, but I am not working just for money: I am working because it is my career. If I leave or take part-time hours I will fall behind from my other colleagues, and then when I will rejoin I will be working with new junior staff. Maybe if I take any of these options I might be in an advantageous position, because other women tell me that I am doing myself an injustice. Maybe I need to talk to my husband and hand him some of my responsibilities as well. After all it is our family. But I know what his answer will be. He will tell me that for me family is first and my job is

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Chapter Seven second, and for him his job is first because of his responsibility to provide for the family financially. I think that maybe he is right, and feel selfish and guilty that at times I have to neglect my family because of my job.

Nadia works as a marketing manager in a large multinational pharmaceutical company. She is 46 years old and she is divorced. She lives with her parents and her brother’s family. She has no kids. She has an M.Sc. and a diploma in marketing from abroad. She likes her work but also faces some problems. She says: The company I work for gives me the strength to be tough and independent. I live with my parents and I am perfectly capable of handling my own finances, shopping, travel, wardrobe and everything else. My parents have given me choices and freedom. I stand on my own feet: I am not dependent on anyone. I want to be respected for what I am. I cannot go on pretending that I am a weak woman—I know my rights. The majority of working women are aware of their rights, but they do not think of using them, so I cannot. My workplace is dominated by men like most others. I can’t change it even though I work at a senior level; I have to mask my femininity and keep my tone of voice firm. I have learned to be alert and tough. There are men who do not like to be subordinate to women, and sometimes they don’t take me seriously. I have to be very strict with them, because of the male culture. They help each other get the best jobs and exclude women from promotions and influence. Women should mobilize and ask for policy changes in order to get their rights: they should use their education to attain good positions. It is their right. Women who are better educated than men should be given preference, but unfortunately this is not the case. If women are preferred it is because they are hired at lower salary levels. Their hard work to achieve education despite problems and restrictions inside and outside the house is not valued. In spite of all the obstacles, the participation of women in the labour force has increased substantially. Several professions are now dominated by women, and they are represented in almost in every profession. Their numbers may be smaller but they have made their way into fields which were previously dominated by men. I graduated from university in the late 1980s, and then there were far fewer women working than we see today, particularly in the discipline I studied (business management). There were only two girls besides me. But now we see almost 30 to 40 percent of women in this field. Two decades ago, women made a small fraction of university graduates, but now they actually surpass men in their share of bachelor’s and master’s degrees. This shows the amazing progress made by women. But differences still remain in areas of study: women are still concentrated in certain fields like education, social sciences and health-related fields, whereas men are more in business, engineering, math and computer sciences.

Advice to Working Women By doing this job I feel confident and that I am growing. It is fulfilling and I stay busy, but most of the time I have to work long hours. Actually women are always taken advantage of. They work longer and get paid less. When a woman is promoted, male employees get very jealous. I work hard for my company, and as a result my parents and other family members get neglected. I don’t have time to socialize. My brothers and sisters always complain that I am always too busy in my office, and have no time for them. I feel bad about it, but I can’t help it. For professional working women, balancing work and family is always difficult, and as the competition is rising, it is only becoming more so… But I have to get my office work done, even though sometimes I feel too tired to join them. I know I should spend time with my family and that it releases stress, but I can’t help it. I don’t know if other professional women are able to keep this balance of work and family: if they can, they are really amazing. I have made good progress in my work but still I believe there is more to be done. Sometimes I think that if I remarry I might return to a more traditional lifestyle, and that it might be more satisfying: but I know for sure that it will be more stressful and even isolating. One of my male cousins says that women have a choice, they can stay home if they don’t want to work, but men have to work at any cost, they can’t stay home. I tell him that men could also stay home and look after their kids if they wanted to but they allow society to make them feel embarrassed. We too often follow culture and society and forget what we really want and what will make us happy.

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APPENDIX PAKISTAN STANDARD CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS FOR THE 1998 POPULATION CENSUS

Major Group 1: Legislators, Senior Officials and Managers x x x

Legislators and Senior Officials Corporate Managers General Managers

Major Group 2: Professionals x x x x

Physical, Mathematical and Engineering Science Professionals Life Science and Health Professionals Teaching Professionals Other Professionals

Major Group 3: Technicians and Associate Professionals x x x x

Physical and Engineering Science Associate Professionals Life Science and Health Associate Professionals Teaching Associate Professionals Other Associate Professionals

Major Group 4: Clerks x x

Office Clerks Custom Services Clerks

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Major Group 5: Service Workers and Shop and Market Sales Workers x x

Personal and Protective Services Workers Models, Salespersons and Demonstrators

Major Group 6: Skilled Agricultural and Fishery Workers x x

Market-oriented Skilled Agricultural and Fishery Workers Subsistence Agricultural and Fishery Workers

Major Group 7: Craft and Related Trades Worker x x x x

Extraction and Building Trades Workers Metal, Machinery and Related Trades Workers Precision, Handicraft, Printing and Related Trades Workers Other Craft and Related Trades Workers

Major Group 8: Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers x x x

Stationary-plant and Related Operators Machine Operators and Assemblers Drivers and mobile-plant Operators

Major Group 9: Elementary Occupations x x x

Sales and Services Elementary Occupations Agricultural, Fishery and Related Labourers Labourers in Mining, Construction, Manufacturing and Transport

Major Group 10: Workers not Classified by Occupation x

Workers not Classified by Occupations

Source: 1998 District Census Report of Karachi East (May 2000) Census Publication number. 96

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Afshar, Haleh, and Bina Agarwal, eds. Women, Poverty and Ideology in Asia: Contradictory Pressures, Uneasy Resolutions. London: Macmillan, 1989. Ahmed, Rukhsana. We Sinful Women. London: The Women’s Press, 1981. Akbar S. Ahmed. Pieces of Green, the Sociology of Change in Pakistan 1964-1974. Karachi: The Royal Book Co.,1988. Applebaum, Herbert A. The Concept of Work. Ancient, Medieval and Modern. New York: SUNY Press, 1992. Apter, Terri. Working Women Don’t Have Wives: Professional Success in the 1990s. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1993. Borcelle, Germaine. Jobs for Women: A Plea for Equality of Opportunity, Technical Education, Vocational Training and Employment. Paris: UNESCO, 1985. Crowley, Katherine, and Kathi Elster. Working with You is Killing Me: Freeing Yourself from Emotional Traps at Work. New York: Warner Business Books, 2006. Denmark, Florence L., and Michele A. Paludi, eds. Psychology of Women: A Handbook of Issues and Theories. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993. Desjarlais, Robert, Leon Eisenberg, Byron Good and Arthur Kleinman (eds). World Mental Health, Problems and Priorities in Low-Income Countries. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Dohrenwend, Barbara Snell, and Bruce P Dohrenwend. Stressful Life Events: Their Nature and Effect. New York: Wiley, 1974. Ellingsæter, Anne Lise. Gender, Work and Social Change. Beyond Dualistic Thinking. ISF Report 14. Oslo: Institute for Social Research, 1995. Fogarty, Michael, A. J. Allen, Isobel Allen and Patricia Walters. Women in Top Jobs. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971. Folbre, Nancy, Barbara Bergmann, Bina Agarwal and Maria Floro, eds. Women’s Work in the World Economy. New York: NYU Press, 1993. Government of Pakistan. District Census Report of Karachi East. Census Publication No. 96. Karachi: Population Census Organization, Statistics Division, Government of Pakistan, 2000.

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Selected Bibliography

Griffiths, Sian, ed. Beyond the Glass Ceiling: Forty Women Whose Ideas Shape the Modern World. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1996. Hafiz, Sabeeha. The Metropolitan Women in Pakistan. Karachi: The Royal Book Co., 1981. Heffernan, Margaret. The Naked Truth: A Modern Women’s Manifesto on Business and What Really Matters. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2004. Klein, Heinz Gunther, and Renate Nestvogel. Women in Pakistan. Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1992 Khuhro, Hamida, and Anwer Mooraj. Karachi, Megacity of Our Times. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Lari, Yasmeen. The Dual City: Karachi During the Raj. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Lerner, Jacqueline V. Working Women and their Families. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1993. Malik, Hafiz , ed. The Encyclopedia of Pakistan. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Matlin, Margaret W. The Psychology of Women. Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth, 1993. McIntosh, Marjorie Keniston. Working Women in English Society 1300– 1620. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2005. McKenna, Elizabeth Perle. When Work Doesn’t Work Anymore: Women, Work and Identity. New York: Delta, 1998. Mehboob-ul-Haq. Human Development in South Asia. Islamabad: Mehboob-ul-Haq Center, 1998. Milani, Farzaneh. Veils and Words: The Emerging Voices of Iranian Women Writers. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1992. Momsen, Janet Henshall. Women and Development in the Third World. London: Routledge, 1991. Mumtaz, Khawar, and Farida Shaheed. Women of Pakistan: Two Steps Forward, One Step Backward. London: Zed Books, 1987. Ostergaard, Lise. Gender and Development: A Practical Guide. London: Routledge, 1992. Patel, Rashida. Socio-Economic Political Status and Women and Law in Pakistan. Karachi: Faiza Publishers, 1991. Peters, Joan K. When Mothers Work: Loving Our Children Without Sacrificing Our Selves. Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1997. Shah, Nasra M. Pakistani Women: A Socioeconomic and Demographic Profile. Islamabad: Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, 1986.

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Sochen, June. Herstory: A Record of the American Woman’s Past. Palo Alto, California: 1982. Social Policy and Development Centre. Social Development in Pakistan, Annual Review 1999. Karachi: SPDC, 1999. U.S. Department of State. Pakistan Human Rights Practices, 1994. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 1995. Also available at http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/democracy/1994_hrp_report/94hrp_repo rt_sasia/Pakistan.html.

INDEX Abuse Physical 54-58, 68, 70-74, 81, 86, 130, 138, 143-44, 170-71 Psychological 70-75, 86 Sexual 54-58, 63, 71, 74, 130, 142-44 Verbal 54-55, 58, 73, 75, 105, 138, 174 Afghanistan 9, 12 Soviet invasion of 12 Algeria 17, 19, 22 Baluchistan 6, 9 Baluchis 9, 12 Bangladesh 17, 19, 22 Children 2, 5, 6, 7, 13-14, 16, 28, 32-39, 48, 57, 62, 71, 78-79, 81-87, 89-91, 93-97, 99-100, 113, 115-16, 121, 123, 128, 133, 135-44, 146-47, 155-59, 161-63, 165, 170, 172-73, 17577 Childbearing 16, 89, 141-42, 144 Childrearing 13-14, 38, 79, 87, 90-91, 100, 133, 138, 141, 144, 148, 161-63 Maternity leave 38-39, 99, 113, 131, 135-36, 138-139, 146, 152, 155, 162 Class 1, 4, 7-8, 15, 20-21, 34, 41, 50, 54-55, 65, 71, 77, 87, 89, 93, 98, 103-104, 124-26, 128, 130, 136, 138, 142, 147-48, 173-74 See also Socio-economic status Clothing – see Dress. Discrimination 4, 10, 14-15, 39-40, 55-56, 65, 70, 101, 113, 129, 131, 146 Divorce 2, 14, 29, 38, 61, 84, 91-92, 151, 176

Dress 9, 40-53, 55, 61, 65, 67, 71, 91, 93, 98, 124, 126-27, 129, 168, 174-75 Individual items of clothing: Burka (Burqa) 47, 50, 53, 65 Chaddar 42, 48, 50, 52, 105 Dupatta 41-42, 46 Sari 42, 45 Shalwar Kameez 9, 40-42, 45 Jewelry 40, 43-45, 50, 61, 126 Veiling 11, 42-43, 47-54, 62, 65, 105, 125, 127-28 Western-style clothing 41-42, 44, 46, 50-51, 61 Health issues 5-6, 13, 31, 33, 41, 56, 67, 70, 74-75, 79, 88, 110, 13031, 133, 140, 142, 144, 146, 150, 152, 157, 161, 164-165, 173, 177 India 9-10, 12, 17, 19, 22 Karachi 1-2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 11-13, 20-21, 26, 42, 45-46, 71, 77, 103, 129, 140, 156 Languages 6, 9, 41 Marriage 4-5, 7, 13-16, 28-29, 3435, 37, 71, 78-80, 82, 86-92, 99, 113, 117, 125-28, 133, 135-36, 140, 143-44, 146, 156-59, 173174 Migrant workers 6, 12, 81, 129, 140, 142 Pakistan, The Islamic Republic of 6, 9-24, 35, 46, 54, 67, 70, 77, 81, 86, 112, 127, 131, 144, 148, 166, 168 Azad Kashmir 9-10 Climate 12, 42 Family law ordinance 10

186 FATA 9 GDP 11 Geography 9-10 Martial law 10-11, 18, 24 NWFP (North-West Frontier Province) 9 Population 10 Punjab 9, 12 Pushtun (Pathans) 12 Religion Islam 9-11, 15, 29, 46-49, 5154, 112 Practise concerning clothing – see Dress, Veiling Hindus 11, 12 Minority religions 11 Sind 6, 9, 12, 40, 81 Transportation 7, 11, 38, 42, 102-03, 105-06, 125, 149, 173-74 Buses 7, 66-67, 85, 94, 103-06, 126-28, 173-74 Cars 67, 102, 104-05, 162 Rickshaws 103, 105 Taxis 7, 103, 173 Walking 6, 42, 67, 102-05, 125-128 Travel (long distance, work-related) 15, 34, 93, 95, 99, 133, 149, 155-56, 159, 176 Women Attitudes towards working women 3, 5, 21, 33, 46, 51, 60, 66, 69, 77, 80-86, 109, 112, 115-124, 126, 128, 154, 173 of families 5, 77, 80-83, 126, 128 of men 5, 77, 115-124 of neighbours 5, 77, 83-86, 128 Choosing their own employment 20-21, 34, 145 Cosmetics, Working women’s use of 40, 44

Index Education 1-2, 4-5, 7-8, 10-11, 13, 15, 18, 21, 25-26, 29, 33-34, 37, 43, 49, 53, 77, 81, 87-89, 92, 96, 100, 115-16, 124-25, 127, 12930, 139-40, 143, 145-46, 149, 160, 163, 171, 17576 Literacy 14, 19, 21-22, 25, 31, 81, 93 Professions of 1, 3-4, 7, 11, 15, 20-21, 24, 26, 34, 53, 94, 98 Rights 10-11, 15-16, 48, 55, 71, 97, 100, 106, 117, 130, 136, 138-39, 141-43, 14849, 161, 165, 167, 176 Seclusion 4-5, 7, 20, 33, 47, 49, 51-54, 125, 127-28 Sexual harassment 40, 54-70, 74, 106, 124, 126-27, 130, 133 Socio-economic status 2-3, 5, 25-32, 77, 89 Traditional roles 4-5, 7, 11, 1314, 16, 20-21, 34-35, 47, 56, 87, 90, 92, 94, 100, 126-27, 136, 144-45, 14748, 157, 161-62 Wages 1-4, 6, 8, 14, 16, 20, 2729, 31-32, 34-35, 39, 4243, 46, 54, 71-73, 83, 9299, 101, 120, 123-124, 127, 130-31, 133, 136-41, 148-53, 157, 159-60, 163, 170-71, 174-76 vs. that of men 4, 16, 20, 39, 54, 93-99, 101, 120, 123-124, 127, 137-138, 148-50, 153, 159, 163, 174-76 Working hours 2, 6, 39, 41, 63, 71-72, 74-75, 93-95, 99101, 124, 129-31, 136, 139-41, 147, 149, 156, 158, 164, 175, 177