Newgrange, Co. Meath, Ireland: The Late Neolithic/Beaker Period Settlement 9780860542438, 9781407334219

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Title Page
Table of Contents
Editor's Foreward
Part I: The Excavation
Abstract
Introduction
Excavation
The Problem of the Great Stone Circle
The Eastern Area
The Central Area
The Western Area
The Far Western Area
The North Cutting
Finds
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Appendix I
Part II: The Ceramic Assemblage
Abstract
Methods of Investigation
Provenance
Pottery Types
Catalogue of Newgrange Pottery Types
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Part III: The Flint Work
Abstract
Introduction
Methods of Investigation
Summary of Categories
On-Site Provenance
Material
The Flint Assemblage
Category 1. Cores and Core Waste
Category 2. Unutlised Waste Flakes
Category 3. Utilised Waste Flakes
Category 4. Finished Implements
Category 5. Miscellaneous Flints
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Bibliography

Citation preview

Newgrange, Co. Meath, Ireland The Late Neolithic/Beaker Period Settlement Michael J. O'Kelly, Rose M. Cleary and Daragh Lehane edited by Claire O'Kelly

BAR International Series 190 1983

·B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A .R. Hands, B.Sc. , M.A., D .Phil. D .R • Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S 190, 198}: 'Newgrange, Co. Meath, Ireland: The Late Neolithic/Beaker Period Settlement' ©The Individual Authors, 1983

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542438 paperback ISBN 9781407334219 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542438 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

N EWGRANGE, C O. M EATH ,

I RELAND

T HE L ATE N EOLITHIC/BEAKER P ERIOD S ETTLEMENT

b y M ichael J . O 'Kelly, R ose M . C leary a nd D aragh L ehane

E ditor C laire O 'Kelly A rdnalee, B lackrock, C ork,

ii i

I reland

C ONTENTS

E ditor 's f oreword

i x

P ART I : T HE E XCAVATION M . J . O 'Kelly

A bstract I ntroduction E xcavation T he p roblem o f t he G reat S tone C ircle T he E astern A rea -occupation c entred o n h earth n o. 1 -inhumed b urial -the m ultiple a rc o f p its -Site Z T he C entral A rea -the b ank o f b oulder c lay T he W estern A rea T he F ar W estern A rea T he N orth C utting T he F inds C onclusions A cknow ledgements A ppendices I R eport o n t he s keleton i n s quare 3 4B b y D r J . P . F raher a nd r eport o n t he m andible a nd i ts d entition b y D r V . R . O 'Sullivan I I I dentification o f s eeds b y D r W . A . C aspari

1 2

5 9 1 0

2 3 2 9 3 5 3 9 4 1 5 2 5 4

5 5 5 7

P ART I I: T HE C ERAMIC A SSEMBLAGE R . M . C leary

A bstract M ethods o f I nvestigation P rovenance P ottery t ypes T able o f N ewgrange p ottery t ypes C atalogue o f p ottery t ypes 1 . A 00 2 . B ell B eaker 3 . w /mR 4 . N /mR ordoned B eaker 6 . R usticated W are 5 . C 7 . U ndecorated b owls 8 . F lat-based b ucket s haped p ottery 9 . R illed a nd l ug-ornamented w are 1 0. W hipped-cord i mpressed w are eaker1. B 1 2. T hick c oarse d omestic p ottery i nfluenced w are 1 4. G rooved w are 1 5 . C oarse 1 3. B owl f orms d omestic p ottery M iscellaneous e lements C onclusions A cknowledgements i v

5 8 5 9

6 0 6 2

6 4 6 6

1 02 10 1 17 1

P ART I II: T HE F LINT W ORK D aragh L ehane

A bstract I ntroduction M ethods o f I nvestigation S ummary o f C ategories O n-Site P rovenance M aterial T he F lint A ssemblage C ategory 1 : C ores a nd c ore w aste C ategory 2 : U nutilised w aste f lakes C ategory 3 : U tilised w aste f lakes C ategory 4 : F inished i mplements 1 . s crapers 2 . b utt-thinned f orms 3 . p etit t ranchet d erivatives 4 . m icrolithic f orms 5 . a rrowheads 6 . b orers a nd s purred i mplements lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch 8 . d entic7 . b u lated b lades a nd f lakes 9 . f abricators 1 0. r ough-outs a nd f ragments C ategory 5 : M iscellaneous C onclusions A cknowledgements

B IBLIOGRAPHY

18 1 18 19 1 20 1 20 1 21 1 22 1 22 1 24 1 26 1 29

1 66

1 66

1 67

1 68

I LLUSTRATIONS

T he f inds i llustrated i n P art I , F igs 1 6-22, a nd a ll t he f lint a rtefacts i n P art I ll, w ere d rawn o n-site a t N ewgrange b y d raughtsp ersons e ngaged f or t hat p urpose d uring t he e xcavations. T he p ottery s herds i n P art I I w ere d rawn s pecifically b y R . M . C leary f or h er 1 980 M A t hesis. T he g rouping o f f lint a rtefacts i n F igs 5 27 2 w as d one b y M s A . M acCarthy a nd M s M . O 'Hare.

P art I

P lates 1 P rofessor M . J . O 'Kelly 2 T he g reat s tone c ircle 3 C entral a rea s howing l arge p its 4 E astern a rea. H earth n o. 1 5 A erial v iew s howing m ultiple a rc o f p its a nd c utting 2 7W 6 C entral a rea s howing G C-2 a nd h earth n o. 5 7 W estern a rea s howing h earth n o. 1 2 8 W estern a rea s howing h earth n o. 1 3 9 W estern a rea s howing p arallel t renches 1 0 F ar W estern a rea s howing G C7 a nd h earth n o. 1 6 1 F ar W estern a rea s howing e astern l ine o f g reat 1 p its 1 2 N orth c utting. S ection o f s lip o n e astern s ide

8 1 1 1 4 1 9 2 5 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 6 3 7 4 0

F igures 1 2 3

P lan o f N ewgrange P lan o f e xcavated a reas C entral a rea: p rofile K 96 t hrough G C-1

( projected) 4 a & b P lan o f E astern a rea 5 E astern a rea: p rofile K 81 t hrough G C-8 6 E astern a rea: s keleton 7 P rofiles o f p its i n m ultiple a rc 8 P lan o f C entral a rea 9 C entral a rea: p rofile K 6 t hrough G C3 1 0 P lan o f W estern a rea 1 W estern a rea: p rofile K 10 t hrough G CS 1 1 2 P lan o f F ar W estern a rea 1 3 F ar W estern a rea: p rofile K 14 t hrough G C7 1 4 F ar W estern a rea: p rofile o f p its i n c utting 2 7W 1 5 N orth c utting: p rofile e ast s ide 1 6 S tone a xes a nd c hips 1 7 S tone a xes a nd c hips 1 8 M iscellaneous o bjects 1 9 F lint o bjects 2 0 S tone o bjects 2 1 B one o bjects 2 B one o bjects 2 v i

3 4 7 1 2 & 1 3 1 7 1 7 2 0 2 2 2 7 2 8 3 3 3 4 3 8 3 8 3 9 4 2 4 3 4 5 4 7 4 9 5 0 5 1

P art I I

2 3 T ype 1 A ll-over-ornamented w are 2 4 T ype 1 A ll-over-ornamented w are; T ype 2 B ell B eaker 2 5 T ype 2 B ell B eaker; T ype 3 W essex/Middle R hine B eaker orth B ritish/Middle 2 6 T ype 2 B ell B eaker; T ype 4 N R hine B eaker 2 7 T ype 3 W essex/Middle R hine B eaker 2 8 T ype 4 N orth B ritish/Middle R hine B eaker 2 9 T ype 5 C ordoned B eaker 3 0 T ype 6 R usticated w are 3 1 T ype 6 R usticated w are 3 2 T ype 6 R usticated w are; T ype 7 U ndecorated b owls 3 T ype 7 U ndecorated b owls 3 4 T ype 7 U ndecorated b owls. T ype 8 F lat-based b ucket s haped w are 3 5 T ype 8 F lat-based b ucket s haped w are 3 6 T ype 9 R illed a nd l ug-ornamented w are 3 7 T ype 9 R illed a nd l ug-ornamented w are. T ype 1 0 W hipped-cord i mpressed w are 3 8 T ype 1 B eaker-influenced w are ( decorated) 3 9 T ype 1 1 B eaker-influenced w are ( decorated) 4 0 T ype 1 B eaker-influenced w are ( undecorated) 4 1 T ype 1 1 B eaker-influenced w are ( undecorated) 4 2 T ype 1 1 B eaker-influenced w are ( undecorated) 4 3 T ype 1 2 T hick c oarse d omestic p ottery 4 4 T ype 1 2 T hick c oarse d omestic p ottery 4 5 T ype 1 3 B owl f orms 4 6 T ype 1 5 C oarse d omestic p ottery 4 7 T ype 1 5 C oarse d omestic p ottery 4 8 T ype 1 5 C oarse d omestic p ottery 4 9 T ype 1 5 C oarse d omestic p ottery 5 0 T ype 1 5 C oarse d omestic p ottery. M iscellaneous e lements 5 1 T ype 1 4 G rooved w are. M iscellaneous e lements

6 8 7 0 7 2

7 3 7 5 7 7 9 8 1 8 2

8 3

8 5 8 6 8 7 8 9 9 0 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 8 9 9

1 01 1 03 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07 1 09

P art I II 5 2

E nd s crapers, l ong E nd s crapers. s hort 5 4 S ide a nd s ide-and-end s crapers 5 5 O val s crapers 5 6 T humbnail a nd d isc s crapers 5 7 E nd s crapers o n b roken f lakes 5 8 E nd-and-side s crapers o n b roken f lakes. H ollow s crapers -winged 5 9 H ollow s crapers - f lake a nd b lade. B utt-thinned f orms -Bann f lake 6 0 B utt-thinned f orms - B ann f lakes

5 3

v ii

1 34 1 35 1 36 1 37 1 38 1 39 1 40 1 41

1 43

6 1 B utt-thinned f orms -pointed a nd r ounded -backed f orms 6 2 P etit t ranchet d erivatives 6 3 P etit t ranchet d erivatives 6 4 M icrolithic f orms; A rrowheads 6 5 B orers a nd s purred i mplements 6 6 S purred i mplements. C ore. A xe f ragment 6 7 B lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch -blunted b ack k nives; s mall s teep ]y r etouched k nives 6 8 B lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch -finely r etouched f lake k nives 6 9 B lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch -finely r etouched b lade k nives 7 0 D enticulated b lades a nd f lakes; f abricators 7 1 F ragments o f d iscoidal p olished k nives 7 2 R ough-out o f d iscoidal p olished k nife

1 45 1 48 1 49 1 51 1 54 1 55 1 57 1 58 1 59 1 61 1 63 1 64

T ables F requency a nalysis o f c ores I F requency a nalysis o f u nutilised w aste b lades I II F requency a nalysis o f u nutilised w aste f lakes I I V C lass a nd f requencies o f r andom s ample r elating t o u nutilised w aste m aterial V F requency a nalysis o f s errated m aterial V I F requency a nalysis o f b lunted m aterial V II C lass a nd f requencies o f r andom s ample o f s errated m aterial V III C lass a nd f requency o f r andom s ample o f b lunted m aterial I X F unctional a nalysis o f r andom s amples o f u tilised w aste X F requency a nalysis o f i mplement t ypes X I F requency a nalysis o f f ragment t ypes X II F requency a nalysis o f r ough-outs X III F requency a nalysis o f s craper c lass X IV F requency a nalysis o f b utt-thinned f orms X V F requency a nalysis o f p etit t ranchet d erivatives X VI F requency a nalysis o f a rrowheads X VII F requency a nalysis o f b orers a nd s purred i mplements X VIII F requency a nalysis o f b lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch X IX F requency a nalysis o f d enticulated b lades a nd f lakes

v iii

1 23 1 25 1 25 1 26 1 27 1 28 1 28 1 28 1 29 1 30 1 30 1 31 1 33 1 44 1 50 1 52 1 53 1 60 1 62

E DITOR 'S F OREWORD

T he r eport o n w hich t his p resent w ork i s b ased w as c ompleted i n J uly 1 982 a nd p resented t o t he O ffice o f P ublic W orks i n D ublin i n a ccordance w ith t he r equirements g overning e xcavations f unded b y t he S tate. T he i ntention w as t hat a s s oon a s m y h usband, P rofessor M . J . O 'Kelly , h ad r etired f rom U niversity C ollege C ork a t t he e nd o f J anuary 1 983, t he w ork w ould b e e dited f or p ublication, e xpandi ng s ome s ections a nd a bridging o thers. H is u nexpected d eath o n 1 4 O ctober 1 982 l aid t he o nus o f t his w ork o n m e, a nd w hile t he t ask w as a p ainful o ne, i t w as n ot u nduly d ifficult. W e h ad b een w orking t ogether a t N ewgrange o ver t he p revious t wenty y ears a nd I w as f ully c onversant b oth w ith t he m aterial i tself a nd w ith t he p roblems i nvolved i n m aking i t a ccess ible t o aw ider r eadership. I n t his w ork I r eceived u nstinting h elp f rom f ormer s tudents o f m y h usband: A ddie M acCarthy a nd M oyra O 'Hare, a lso f rom E ve a nd A nn O 'Kelly. Is hould a lso l ike t o t hank M r P ehr H asselrot, o f K olmärden, S weden, f or h is v ery e vocative p hotograph o f m y h usband ( Plate 1 ). S o t hat t he l ast w ord o n N ewgrange w ill n ot b e m ine b ut t hat o f t he m an w ho, o ver t he y ears, h as p ersonified N ewgrange f or a g reat m any p eople, I s hould l ike t o c onclude w ith s omething h e w rote o n t he o ccasion o f a s eminar o n t he N ewgrange e xcavations o rganised b y t he s tudents o f a rchaeology o f U niversity C ollege C ork i n t he s pring o f 1 982. T he s eminar w as c onducted b y t he v arious s peciali sts w ho h ad b een i nvolved w ith N ewgrange i n o ne c apacity o r a nother a nd e ach s ummarised h is o r h er r esearches i n a b ooklet w hich w as d istributed t o t he p articipants. M y h usband's w as t he l ast e ntry a nd s adly, a nd, i n t he e vent, p rophetically, t he t itle c hosen b y h im w as

' Epilogue'.

I t i s r eproduced h ere. C laire O 'Kelly 2 5 J une 1 983

i x

E PILOGUE P rofessor M . J . O 'Kelly

N ewgrange l ike t he P hoenix h as r isen f rom i ts a shes a nd i t n ow s tands i n s omething l ike t he g lory i t h ad w hen f irst b uilt 5 000 y ears a go . T hat t his i s s o i s d ue t o t he d evoted w ork o f m any m any s tudents f rom I reland , f rom B ritain, f rom C ontinental E urope a nd f rom A merica w ho t ook p art i n t he 1 4 y ears o f e xcavation a nd i n t he f ive y ears o f r estoration . T hose o f y ou w ho h ave a ddressed t his s eminar, a uthorities i n av ariety o f d isciplines, I t hink o f a s a dvanced s tudents a nd e ven I , i n m y o ld a ge, a m s till a s tudent, I h ope . T he w ork a t N ewgrange w as i nitiated b y a s tudent o f t his D epartment o f A rchaeology, M r P addy H artnett, w ho p ersuaded m e t o b ecome i nvolved w ith t hat g reat m onument . I t i s r emarkable t hat t he p resent d ay s tudents o f t he D epartment, m any o f w hom w ere n ot b orn o r w ere o nly b abies i n a rms i n 1 962 w hen t he e xcavation b egan, s hould b e s o f ired b y t he s pirits o f N ewgrange t hat t hey h ave o rganised t his s eminar a nd w orked s o h ard t o m ake i t a s uccess . T hey h ave p aid t ribute t o t he s pirits w ho l ive o n i n t hat g reat h ouse f or t he d ead , t o t he b uilders o f t he g reat h ouse, t o y ou t he e xperts w ho h ave s poken h ere a nd t o m e . It hank t hem o n b ehalf o f t he s pirits, t he b uilders, y ou t he e xperts a nd m yself a nd I d o s o w ith t he u tmost s incerity . A s l ong a s t here a re s tudents o f t his c alibre i n U niversity C ollege C ork, M other E ire's f uture i s s afe . 1 2 F ebruary 1 982

( General p erspective o n t he N ewgrange e xcavations. U CC A rchae ogicat S ociety p ublication , 1 982 , 1 4 .

x i

P ART I

T HE E XCAVATION b y M . J . O 'KELLY

A BSTRACT

E xcavation o f c . t wo-fifths o f t he p eriphery o f N ewgrange, m ainly o n t he s outhern s ide, r evealed t hat a fter t he p assage g rave h ad f allen i nto d ecay, p eople o f t he L ate N eolithic/ B eaker p eriod s ettled a nd l ived o n a nd b eyond t he m aterial t hat h ad c ollapsed f rom t he c airn e dge. S everal l iving f loors, e ach w ith a s tone-set h earth, w ere u ncovered. T hese f loors w ere m arked b y t he p resence o f p its, p ostholes, p otsherds, f lint i mplements a nd d ebitage a s w ell a s a nimal b one f ood-waste, b ut n o s pecific h ouse p lan w as r ecoverable. Ab ronze a xe a nd s tone t ools t hat a ppeared t o b e t hose o f am etal w orker w ere a lso f ound. Am ultiple a rc o f g reat p its l ay b etween N ewgrange a nd t he s atellite p assage g rave, S ite Z . S ix r adiocarbon d ates i ndicate t hat t hese f eatures a nd f inds b elong t o at ime c ent ring o n 2 000 b c. T he p assage g rave h ad b een b uilt a t 2 500 b c. I n P art I t he e xcavation a nd t he d etails r evealed b y i t a re d escribed. I n P art I I R . M . C leary h as p resented a d etailed s tudy o f t he p ottery a ssemblage. T his h as s hown t hat l ocal c lays w ere u sed t hroughout a nd t hat t he t echniques o f m anufacture o f t he v essels, i ncluding t he c lassic B eaker w ares, w ere t hose t hat h ad b een u sed f or l ong d uring t he N eolithic p eriod i n I reland. I n P art I II D . L ehane h as g iven t he r esults o f ad etailed s tudy o f t he f lint i mplements a nd d ebitage. A q ualitative a pproach w as e mployed a nd t he t otal a ssemblage o f o ver umanly m odified f lints w as e xamined s o a s t o 1,000 h o btain a d irect c ount o r p ercentage f or e ach d ifferent t ype. T he s tudy s howed t hat t he N eolithic f lint w orking t radition c ontinued i nto t he E arly M etal A ge. S ince t hese t wo s tudies s how a n u nbroken t echnologica l c ontinuity, t here i s n o h ard e vidence f rom t he s ite w hich c ould s upport a n a rgument f or t he a dvent o f an ew p eople, t he s oc alled B eaker f olk. W e a gree w ith t hose o thers w ho n ow t hink i n t erms o f t he s pread o f a B eaker c ult p ackage r ather t han o f a n i nvasion o f I reland b y B eaker P eople.

1

T he a nimal b one f ood-waste h as b een s tudied i n t he U nivers ity o f A msterdam a nd i t h as b een s hown t hat t he p redominant m eat s ources o f t he p eople w ere c attle a nd p igs. T he b ones o f s heep/goat, h orse, d og a nd w olf w ere p resent b ut t here w as v ery l ittle e vidence o f r ed -d eer. M uch o ther i nformation w as f orthc oming s uch a s a nimal s ize, a ge a t s laughter, b utchering t echn iques, e tc. C harred g rain f ound i n ap it c ontaining c harcoal a nd B eaker w are w as e xamined b y D r W . A . C aspari o f t he B iolog isch-Archaeologisch I nstituut o f t he U niversity o f G roningen a nd n aked b arley a nd a g rain o f e mmer w heat w ere i dentified. A r adiocarbon d ate o f 1 935 3 5 b c ( GrN-6342) w as o btained f or t he a ssociated c harcoal ( sample n o. 3 ) . C ereal c ultivation w as t herefore t aking p lace a t N ewgrange a t t his t ime. T he s keleton f rom t he g rave i n g rid s quare 3 4h i n t he E astern a rea h as b een e xamined b y P rofessor J . P . F raher a nd t he m andible a nd i ts d entition b y D r V . R . O 'Sullivan, b oth o f t he D epartment o f A natomy, U niversity C ollege C ork. T he b urial w as p robably t hat o f am ale w ho m ay h ave b een 3 0-40 y ears o ld a t d eath.

I NTRODUCTION T he t umulus o f N ewgrange i n t he B oyne v alley i n C ounty M eath i s m ade u p o f l oose w ater-rolled s tones w ith s ome a dmixture o f t urves ( Fig. 1 ). T he b ase i s s urrounded b y ak erb o f 9 7 c ontiguous s tones l aid o n t heir l ong e dges. N one i s m issing. T he d iameter o f t he m ound a verages 8 2m a nd t he h eight 1 1m. T he t op i s f lat. W hen c ons tructed c . 2 500 b c, t he s ides o f t he m ound r ose n early v ertically a bove t he k erb a nd w ere r evetted b y ab uilt w all. I n t he s outhern p art o r e ntrance la rea o f t he m ound, w hite q uartz a nd r ounded g rey g ranite b oulders w ere u sed a nd e lsewhere, s elected b oulders o f t he n ormal c airn m aterial w ere e mployed. W ithin t he c airn i s a l arge p assage g rave o f c ruciform s hape b uilt o f o rthostats, m any o f t hem b earing c arved o rnament, a s d o a lso s ome o f t he k erbstones. A t a d istance o f b etween 7 a nd 1 7m f rom t he k erb t here i s a n i ncomplete c ircle o f 1 2 s tanding s tones, w idely a nd i rregularly s paced. I t i s n ot k nown i f t he s o-called c ircle w as e ver c omplete o r i ndeed i f i t w as e ver i ntended a s a s tone c ircle. I n t he a reas e xcavated, a ll a ttempts a t f inding u nequivocal e vidence o f s ockets o f p resumed m issing o rthostats f ailed. A t b est, a f ew q uestionable o nes w ere l ocated. I t m ay b e t hat t he 1 2 s tones i n s itu a re n o m ore t han a n e xercise o n t he p art o f t he p assage g rave b uilders a t d isposing o f s labs w hich h ad b een b rought o n s ite a nd w hich p roved t oo b ig a nd/or u nwieldy f or u se i n t he m egalith. N one o f t hem i s c arved. A t t he s tart o f t he e xcavation w e n umbered t he s tones o f t he g reat c ircle o n t he a ssumption t hat t he r emains o f o ther s tanding s tones o r t heir s ockets m ight b e f ound. T he o rthostat o pposite t he t omb e ntrance w as c alled G C1; t hose w est o f i t G C3, 5 , 7a nd 9 a nd 1 . R . M . C leary's r esearches h ave s hown t hat t he s o-called g ranite b oulders' a re i n f act o f d oleritic/gabbroic c omposition b ut t o a void c onfusion i t i s p roposed t o r etain t he t erm ' granite' i n n ont echnical c ontexts.

2

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Fig. 1

General plan of the Newgrange monument

3

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E X C A V T E D

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4

t hose t o t he e ast o f G C1 w ere c alled G C-1, 2, 8 a nd 10 ( Fig. 1 ). T he l atter, t hough o utside t he e xcavation a rea p roper, w as p rone a nd w e r e-erected i t i n 1 973 h aving f irst l ocated a nd e xcavated i ts s ocket. T his s tone h ad b een i nvestigated t wice p reviously : i n 1 928 b y R . A . S . M acalister a nd i n 1 954 b y S . P . 0R iordäin a nd M . 0h Eochaidhe. T he c onclusions r eached a s a r esult o f t he 1 954 i nvestigation w ere t he s ame a s o urs. I n 0R iordäin 's w ords ( 1956, 4 ): ' The s tone w as e rected c lear o f t he e dge o f t he c airn a nd.. . it f ell b efore a ny c ollapse t ook p lace b ecause n one o f t he c airn m aterial l ay u nderneath i t'. T he n umbering o f t he k erbstones c ommences w ith t he s tone d irectly o utside t he p assage m outh, K 1, t he w ell k nown e ntrance s tone, a nd i t p roceeds i n aw esterly o r c lockwise d irection f rom t here a round t he e ntire m ound a s f ar a s t he l ast k erbstone, K 97, i mmediately t o r ight o f t he e ntrance s tone. W hen t he c airn f ell i nto d ecay t he s tones f orming i ts s ides s lid d own i n a s eries o f l ayers o ver t he k erb, c overing i t c ompletely a nd t his m aterial s pread o ut a round i t a s f ar a s t he g reat s tone c ircle i n p laces. T he d omestic s ettlement w ith w hich t his p aper i s c oncerned b ecame e stablished o n a nd o utside t he e dges o f t he l ayers o f p rimary s lip. T he e xcavations c ommenced i n 1 962 a nd c ontinued e very s ummer f or a 2 -4 m onth s eason u ntil a nd i ncluding 1 975 . T hree s maller p assage g raves, S ites K , La nd Z , a djacent t o t he m ain m ound w ere a lso e xcavated d uring t his t ime, a s w as S ite C , o ne o f t wo s tanding s tones s outh o f N ewgrange. S ince t he p resent p aper i s t he f inal o ne o n t he N ewgrange e xcavations i t m ight b e w ell t o m ention t he r eports w hich h ave a lready a ppeared i n c onnection w ith t he w ork. T he S ite C r eport w as p ublished i n 1 965 ( Shee a nd E vans 1 965). T he a nimal b one f ood-waste h as b een s tudied b y D r L . H . v an W ijngaarden-Bakker o f t he P re-and P rotohistoric I nstitute, U nivers ity o f A msterdam, a nd t he f irst p art o f h er r eport a ppeared i n 1 974 ( van W ijngaarden-Bakker 1 974). T he s econd p art w ill s hortly b e s ubmitted f or p ublication. I n 1 977 R . A . G . C arson o f t he B ritish M useum a nd C laire O 'Kelly p ublished a p aper d ealing w ith t he R oman c oins a nd o bjects o f I ron A ge a nd R omano-British t ype, d ating f rom t he f irst t o t he f ourth c entury A D, f ound a t N ewgrange ( Carson a nd O 'Kelly 1 977). I n 1 978 t he e xcavation r eport o n t he t hree p assage g raves, S ites K , La nd Z , a ppeared ( O 'Kelly , L ynch a nd O 'Kelly 1 978). I n 1 982 t he r eport o n t he p rimary p hase o f a ctivity a t N ewgrange, t he b uilding o f t he c airn a nd p assage g rave, w as p ublis hed ( O'Kelly 1 982) a nd t his p resent r eport d ealing w ith t he d omes tic a ctivity w hich t ook p lace a round t he e dge o f t he m ound a bout 5 00 y ears l ater c ompletes t he w hole.

E XCAVATION T he e xcavated a rea l ies o n t he s outh s ide o f t he m ound, e xtending f rom k erbstones 8 0/81 i n t he e ast t o 2 0/21 i n t he w est, 3 7 k erbs tones i n a ll, w ith a c ircumferential l ength o f c . 1 10m ( Fig. 2 ). I t e xtended r adially f rom t he k erb f or a n a verage d istance o f a bout 2m. I t w as o riginally i ntended t hat t he a reas e xcavated t o e ast 2 a nd w est o f t he t omb e ntrance s hould b e t he s ame i n e xtent b ut i t w as f ound n ecessary t o i ncrease t he E astern a rea c onsiderably o wing

5

t o t he d iscovery o f t he d estroyed p assage g rave, S ite Z . S imilarly i n t he C entral a rea t he e xcavation h ad t o b e e xtended o utside g reat c ircle s tones n os 1 , 1 a nd 2 i n o rder t o f ollow u p e vidence o f d omestic a ctivity. T his s ector i s r eferred t o a s t he E -W e xtens ion. T he s ystems a nd m ethods e mployed d uring t he e xcavations a re d escribed i n d etail i n O 'Kelly 1 982, 6 5-7, a nd a re m erely o utlined h ere. E xcavations c ommenced i n 1 962 t o t he e ast o f t he t omb e ntrance b etween K 92 a nd K 96 a nd c omprised a n a rea m easuring 1 6m a long t he k erb a nd 2m r adially f rom t he k erb. T he q uadrant m ethod w as 2 e mployed, 4 m s quares i ncluding l m-wide b aulks. T he f ollowing s eason w e m oved w estwards i n f ront o f a nd b eyond t he t omb e ntrance f rom K 97 t o K 6 a nd a s eries o f c uttings, n os. 1 8-22, w ere s et o ut; t hey w ere 3 m w ide, s eparated b y l m-wide b aulks a nd 2 3-4m i n l ength. C utt ing 2 3 w as w edge-shaped i n p lan o wing t o t he c urvature o f t he k erb. I n s ubsequent s easons t hree l arger c uttings, n os 2 4 , 2 5 a nd 2 6, w ere o pened u p f arther w est. T hese w ere f rom 9 t o um w ide a t t he k erb a nd a gain w ere o f n ecessity w edge-shaped i n p lan. T hey w ere d ivided f rom o ne a nother b y h igh p arallel-sided c uttings w hich p rovided p rofiles o f e ast a nd w est s ides i n e ach c ase ( Fig. 2 ). A f urther s maller w edge-shaped c utting, n o. 2 7W , w as f ound n ecessary a t t he w estern l imit o f t he e xcavation. I n 1 969 w e r ecommenced e xcavation t o t he e ast o f w here w e h ad b egun i n 1 962, t hat i s, f rom K 91 t o K 80/81. W e t reated t his l arge a rea a s a u nit a nd s tripped i t o f t urf l eaving n o d ividing b aulks. I nstead, a g rid o f 5 m s quares w as l aid d own a nd t his g ave c omplete c ontrol o ver t he r ecording o f f eatures a nd f inds. O n t he n orth s ide o f t he m ound a c utting w as m ade o utside k erbstones 5 1, 5 2 a nd 5 3 . I t w as 6 m w ide w ith e xtensions t o e ast a nd w est i mmediately o utside t he k erb a nd i t e xtended r adially f or a d istance o f 2 0m . T he s tratification o f t he s lip a nd i ts r elationship t o t he p rimary m onument i s i mportant f or a n u nderstanding o f t he l ater d omestic s ettlement. T wenty-five p rofiles r unning f rom t he k erb o utward w ere r ecorded i n t he e xcavated a rea a long t he s outhern p art o f t he m ound a nd a nother o ne w as r ecorded i n t he N orth c utting. A part f rom m inor d ifferences t he s ame p attern o f a lternating s udden s lide a nd s low r oll-down o f c airn m aterial w as n oted t hroughout. F ig. 3 r epresents a p rofile r unning t hrough K 96 w hich w as r ecorded i n t he f irst s eason a nd t his s tratification w as t o b e r epeated e xcept f or m inor d ifferences, i n a ll s ubsequent p rofiles. T he b ottom l ayer o f s lip -the f irst t o f all -was a c lean o ne o f q uartz w ith g ranite b oulders m ixed t hrough i t, s ome o f w hich h ad c ompletely d isintegrated. T he q uartz a nd g ranite l ay o n a s ubsoil s urface, o ne f rom w hich t he t urf h ad b een s tripped. T he l ayer w as a bout 5 0cm t hick i mmediately o utside t he k erb a nd i t t ailed o ff t o n othing a t a d istance o f 4 -7m f rom i t. A s ubstantial l ayer o f l oose c lean s tones i n am atrix o f s oil l ay u pon t he q uartz a nd s pread b eyond i t. T his w as r eferred t o a s t he e arth/stone l ayer a nd i t p etered o ut b etween 1 a nd 1 5m f rom t he k erb. T he s quatting o r d omestic a ctivity w as f ound a t t he o uter e dge o f t he q uartz/ g ranite l ayer a nd c ontinued o n t hrough t he e arth/stone o ne a nd b eyond i ts l imits. A c onsiderable l ayer o f l oose c lean s tones s ucceeded t he e arth/stone o ne, f ollowed b y a n e arthy s tratum a nd t hen a s econd c lean s tone c ollapse. T urf d eveloped o n t op o f t his a nd i n t ime t he s urface o f t he s lip m erged w ith t he s urface o f t he

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c ollapsed m ound. I n t he N orth c utting t here w ere s ome i mportant d ifferences. T he b ottom l ayer o f c ollapse w as n ot o f q uartz b ut o f s elected b oulders a nd i t r ested o n t he s loping s urface o f l ayers o f r edeposited t urves, t he o uter e dge o f w hich w as 4 .5m d istant f rom t he. k erb. T he l ayers i ncreased i n n umber a s t hey a pproached t he k erb w here t here w as a t hickness o f 6 5cm . T he k erbstones h ad b een s et i n s ockets d ug t hrough t he r edeposited t urves. W e c oncluded t hat w e h ad c ome u pon t he o uter e dge o f ac onsolidated t urf m ound w hich p re-dated t he c airn a nd r an i n b eneath i t ( O 'Kelly 1 982 , 7 12 ). U nder t he t urf m ound t he o ld t urf a nd h umus l ayer w as v isible a nd c ould a lso b e s een i n t he p art o f t he c utting n ot c overed b y

i t. T he e xcavations e stablished t hat a ll t he m aterial w hich l ay a nd a g ood p art o f w hich s till l ies - o utside t he k erb b elongs p roperly t o t he s ides o f a s teep-sided c airn ( O 'Kelly 1 982, 7 2-3). I n t he 1 870s a t rench w as d ug t hrough t he c ollapse a ll r ound t he m ound s o a s t o r eveal t he k erb. S ome o f t he s poil w as t hrown t o t he i nside, t hat i s, o n t o t he m ound, b ut m ost o f i t w as t hrown t o t he o utside, p roducing a b ank-and-ditch e ffect. T his t rench w as m any t imes r enewed a nd a w all w as b uilt o n t op o f t he k erb ( not t o b e c onfused w ith t he p rimary r evetment w all o f q uartz a nd b oulders) i n a n e ndeavour t o k eep s tones f rom s liding d own i nto t he t rench o nce m ore. I t i s n ot p roposed t o d escribe t he v arious p arts o f t he e xcavation i n t he o rder i n w hich t hey w ere i nvestigated. T hey w ill b e d ealt w ith a s f ollows: t he E astern a rea w hich l ay o utside K 819 1: t he C entral a rea f rom K 92 t o K 6; t he W estern a rea f rom K 7-13; t he F ar W estern a rea f rom K 14-21; a nd t he N orth c utting f rom K 51-53. S ince t he g reat s tone c ircle r uns t hrough a ll t he e xcavated a reas, w ith t he e xception o f t he N orth c utting, i t i s p erhaps b est t o d iscuss t his f eature f irst.

T he P roblem o f t he G reat S tone C ircle ( Plate 2 ) T his p roblem , a nd i t i s i ndubitably o ne, h as b een d iscussed i n d etail i n O 'Kelly 1 982, 7 9 -8 4 . O wing t o t he p ersistence o f c ertain e ntrenched i deas d eriving f rom p re-excavation d ays, t he m ore o bvio us a spects o f t he p roblem w ill b e s ummarised. O ne o f t hese i s t he a ssumption t hat t he c ircle w as o riginally c omplete a nd c onsisted o f 3 5 a nd 3 8 o rthostats; t he o ther i s t hat t he s o-called b etween c ircle i s l ater t han t he t umulus a nd p ossibly o f B ronze A ge d ate. A s a lready m entioned i n t he I ntroduction, t here i s a s y et n o p roof t hat a s tone c ircle p roper w as e ver i n e xistence. T he s ame n umber o f s tones i s p resent t oday a s i n 1 699 w hen t he N ewgrange m onument w as f irst b rought t o p ublic n otice, t hat i s, 1 2 i n a ll. T he a ssumption t hat t he s o-called c ircle w as o riginally c omplete h as, t herefore, n o b asis i n a ntiquarian h istory. T he f allen s tone, G C-10, o n t he e ast s ide o f t he m ound w as a lso p rone i n 1 699 a nd i n 954 s howed t hat i t f act, t he Ö R iordäinA l h Eochaidhe e xcavation o f 1 m ust h ave t oppled a t a n e arly s tage, b efore t he m aterial w hich h ad c ollapsed f rom t he c airn h ad r eached i t s ince n o c airn m aterial l ay b eneath t he s tone. O nly f ive o f t he s tones a re n ow o f i mpressive

9

h eight, t hat i s, m ore t han 2 m. T hese a re t he f our o pposite t he t omb e ntrance a nd G C-10, n ow r e-erected. T he o thers a re l ess i mpressive a nd t he t ops o f s ome a re o bviously b roken o ff. O ne d oes n ot k now w hen o r w hy t his w as d one. N o o rthostats a re v isible i n t he n orthe rn t hird o f t he c ircle ( Fig. 1 ). I f t he c ircle h ad b een a r egularly s paced o ne, f our s tones w ould b e m issing f rom t he E astern a rea. T he o nly l ikely s ocket t o b e l ocated w as t hat o f G C-6 i n g rid s q. 3 1/32d w here a p it w as f ound i n t he e stimated p osition ( Fig. 4 b). H owever, s ince i t w as a lso o n t he l ine o f t he m ultiple a rc o f p its i t m ust r emain i n q uestion. T he s ame a pplies t o t he p ossible s ocket o f G C-3 i n t he C entral a rea ( Fig. 8 ) . W e f ound a p it a bout 9 m e ast o f t he e xisting o rthostat, G C-2, a nd s ince t his o ccurred i n o ur f irst s eason 's e xcavation w e f elt r easonably c ertain o f i ts i dentity. T he p it w as 2 m i n d iameter a t t he m outh a nd 1 m d eep , w ith s mall b oulders l ike p acking s tones i n t he l ower p art o f t he f ill ( O'Kelly 1 982, F ig. 1 1c). T here w ere s everal o ther l arge p its n earby, c lose t o t he e astern l imit o f t he a rea. I n s ubsequent s easons o ur e xcavation m oved w estwards a nd i t w as n ot u ntil 1 969, w hen w e r esumed w ork t o t he e ast o f t he C entral a rea, t hat w e f ound t here w as a n e xtensive s pread o f l arge p its w hich c ould b e l inked t o t hose f ound i n 1 962; i n o ther w ords, w e h ad d iscovered t he m ultiple a rc o f p its w hich r uns a cross t he w hole o f t he E astern a rea a nd i nto t he C entral o ne. W e s peculated t hat t wo o f t he l arge p its i n t he C entral a rea, o ne o f t hem t he s upposed s ocket o f G C-3 a nd t he o ther i n t he N W c orner o f s q. 2 , m ight b e t he e nd o nes o f t his p art o f t he a rc b ut t here c an o f c ourse b e n o c ertainty a bout t he m atter ( Plate 3 ). T he s olution, i f a ny, c an o nly l ie i n f uture e xcavation. U nfortunately, t he c ontinuation o f t he o ther e nd o f t he a rc ( the e astern e nd) l ies o utside t he N ewgrange e nclosure. T he r emaining m issing s tone i n t he C entral a rea, G C2, a nd t hose i n t he W estern a nd F ar W estern a reas a re f ully d ealt w ith i n O 'Kelly 1 982.

T he E astern A rea ( Figs 4 a & b ) T here a re t hree p rincipal f eatures: a n a rea o f i ntensive o ccupation n ear t he n orthern b oundary c entred o n h earth n o. 1 ; am ultiple a rc o f g reat p its w hich r uns N E-SW a cross t he e ntire a rea; a nd t he s ate llite p assage g rave, S ite Z . Ab roken l ine o n t he p lan s hows t he o uter e dge o f t he q uartz/granite l ayer a nd a nother o ne s hows t he o uter l imit o f t he c airn s lip a s aw hole a nd t hus t he r elationship o f t he v arious f eatures t o o ne a nother c an b e s een. T he q uartz h ad a lready f allen b efore t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker s ettlement b ecame e stablished a nd f or t he m ost p art, t he f eatures o f t he s ettlement l ie o n t he s ubsoil s urface b eyond t he e dge o f t he q uartz. T he t urf s tripping w hich w as r esponsible f or t he s ubsoil s urface w as o ne o f t he p uzzling f eatures o f t he e xcavation t hroughout t he w hole o f t he s outhern p art ( O'Kelly 1 982, 1 27-8). A s ectional p rofile ( Fig. . 5 ) d rawn f rom K 81 t hrough G C-8 s hows t hat t he a mount o f q uartz a nd g ranite l ying o utside k erbstone 8 1 i s c omparatively s mall a nd t ails o ff q uickly i n a s parse s catter t owards G C-8. T he s mall a mount o f t he m aterial h ere i s d ue t o t he f act t hat t he o riginal q uartz r evement w as v irtually a t a n e nd; 1 0

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f rom t his p oint o nwards a round t he n orthern p art o f t he c airn t he o rig inal r evetment w as b uilt o f o rdinary b oulders s elected f rom t he c airn m aterial i tself . T he d omestic s ettlement c ontinued t o e xist w hile t he c ollapsed r evetment w as b eing s lowly c overed b y t he s ucceeding s low r oll-down o f t he c airn e dge. T he f irst o f t he t wo s udden a nd m ajor s lides o f m aterial c overed m uch o f t he s ettlement a rea a nd i n d ue c ourse m ost o f i t w as s ealed i n b y a g rowth o f t urf b efore t he s econd m ajor s lide t ook p lace. I t w ill b e s een t oo f rom t he p rofile t hat G C-8 w as a lready p resent b efore t he s quatting b egan a round i ts b ase. S imilar e vidence w as f ound d uring t he i nvestigation o f G C-10 ( alr eady m entioned). 0R iordäin f ound w hat h e j udged t o b e o ccupation o f at emporary n ature i n t he f orm o f p ostholes, c harcoal a nd f lint w hich s topped a t t he s ocket o f t he t hen f al len o rthostat a nd w as n ot f ound i n i ts f ill ( 0 R iordäin a nd 0 h Eochaidhe 1 956 , 5 6 ; O 'Kelly 1 982, 7 5). O ccupation c entred o n h earth n o. 1 ( Plate 4 ) I n g rid s q. 3 3d t here w as a r ectangular s tone-set h earth, 1 m b y 1 .2m , w hich c ontained n o c harcoal o r a sh b ut t he s oil w ithin t he s tone s etting w as o xidised t o ab right r ed c olour a nd s everal o f t he s tones w ere s everely h eat c racked. T he a bsence o f c harcoal a nd a sh s uggests t hat t he h earth d id n ot l ie w ithin a h ouse s o t hat w hen i t w as n o l onger i n u se, t he w ind w as a ble t o b low t he l ight m aterial a way . A s w ill b e s een b elow, t his s eems t o h ave h appened a t s everal o ther h earth s ites r ight t hrough t he w hole o f t he s ettlement a rea. T he h earth , h owe ver, s eems t o h ave b een t he f ocus o f a ctivity h ere. I n t he r eport o n t he p ottery i n P art I I t his a rea i s r eferred t o a s c oncentration n o. 5 a nd t he t ypes o f p ottery f ound t here a re d escribed. T here w as a s izeable a mount o f f lint i n t he s ame a rea. W est o f t he h earth a nd c urving a round t o t he n orth o f i t w as a n a rc o f s ix p ostholes, f ive o f t hem a veraging 2 0cm i n d iameter a nd v arying i n d epth f rom 1 0 t o 1 5cm . T he s ixth h ole a t t he n orth e nd o f t he a rc w as l arger a t 5 0cm i n d iameter b ut o nly 1 5cm d eep . T he p osts m ay h ave s upported a w attle o r o ther t ype o f s creen w hich w ould h ave g iven s ome s helter w hile t he h earth w as i n u se. I n a ny e vent, i t c an h ave b een n o m ore t han a f limsy s tructure. A djacent t o t he s outh-west c orner o f t he h earth w as a n o val p it, 6 5 b y 4 0cm a t t he m outh a nd 2 5cm d eep . T his w as f illed w ith c harcoal i nterm ixed w ith p otsherds a nd a t hin f lat s tone s lab w as l aid o n t op. T he p otsherds w ere o f c lassic a ll-over-ornamented B eaker w are a nd t he c harcoal p rovided t he N ewgrange n o. 3 r adiocarbon d ate ( already m entioned, p . 2 ) . T he c harred s eeds i ntermixed w ith t he c harcoal a re d ealt w ith i n A ppendix I I. A bout t he s ame d istance t o t he n orth-west o f t he h earth w as a nother o val p it, 5 0 b y 3 5cm a t t he m outh a nd 2 0cm d eep . T his a lso c ontained c harcoal i ntermixed w ith p otsherds. T hese a re o f t he u ndecorated b owl t ype, t hin a nd w ell o xidised, w hich a re o ften f ound i n a ssociation w ith B eaker w are. T he c harcoal h as g iven t he N ewgrange n o. 4 r adiocarbon d ate: 0 b c ( GrN -6 343). A l ittle t o t he n orth o f t he l ast p it w as 2 040 1 4 a nother o val o ne, 7 5 b y 3 0cm a t t he m outh a nd 4 0cm d eep, w hich c ont ained a l ittle c harcoal b ut n o p ottery. S outh o f t he h earth w as a s catter o f 1 p ostholes w hich f ormed n o o bvious a rrangement a nd v aried v ery m uch i n d iameter a nd d epth. R unning s outh-east f rom t wo o f t hem w as a s hort s hallow t rench f or 1 5

w hich n o o bvious i nterpretation c an b e o ffered. A t 2 .5m s outh o f t he s catter o f p ostholes w as a s hort c urved t rench, 3 0cm i n a verage d epth. T he e astern e nd c ontained m uch c harcoal i ntermixed w ith m ore t han 1 00 v ar ied p otsherds w hich w ere r epresentative o f a ll t he d ifferent t ypes o f w are i n t he N ewgrange c eramic a ssemblage. A s w ell a s t he c lassic a ll-over-ornamented B eaker a nd t he a ll-overc ord B eaker t here w ere s herds o f u ndecorated b owl, c oarse f latb ased d omestic w are a nd e ven a f ew f ragments o f w hat a ppears t o b e F ood v essel. T he c harcoal h as g iven t he N ewgrange n o. 5 r adiocarbon d ate w hich i s 2 100 ± 4 0 b c ( GrN-6344). T here i s n o o bvious e xplana tion f or t he t rench. 2 O ther s ignificant f inds f rom t his a rea a re h alf o f a p erfor ated h eavy s tone h ammer p robably m ade f rom o ne o f t he g ranite b oulders f allen f rom t he r evetment w all; a s mall q uartzite h ammer/ h one; a c hisel s haped s tone o bject a nd a b urnishing s tone. T o t he e ast o f t he h earth a b ronze a xe w as f ound. I t h ad b een c ast i n a n o pen m ould f rom a n a lloy c ontaining 1 3 p er c ent t in a nd 8 7 p er c ent c opper. N earby, w ithin a n a rrangement o f n arrow s hallow t renches, t here w ere t wo b oulders o f i gneous r ock f irmly s et a nd c lose t oget her. T he u pper s urface o f t he l arger o ne w as a lmost p olished a nd i t a ppeared t o u s t hat i t c ould h ave b een u sed a s a s eat, w hile t he u pper s urface o f t he s maller o ne w as d eeply p itted a nd a braded a nd c ould h ave b een a n a nvil. T he t wo b oulders r emain i n s itu ( square 3 4c) c overed w ith s oil w hich i s n ow g rassed o ver. T he b ronze a xe a nd t he v arious s tone o bjects h ave b een p ublished i n d etail ( O 'Kelly a nd S hell 1 979) a nd t herefore n eed n ot b e d escribed f urt her h ere. T he s tone o bjects, t he s eat a nd t he a nvil h ave b een t reated a s p art o f t he e quipment o f am etal w orker a nd, o wing t o t heir a ssociation w ith a n o ccupation h orizon r adiocarbon-dated t o 2 000 b c, m ay b e t aken a s a p ointer t o t he v ery e arly b eginning o f m etallurgy i n I reland. A s w ill b e s hown b elow , t he c onsiderable b ody o f p ottery a nd f lint t ools a nd d ebitage f rom t his a rea b elongs t o a c omplex o f L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period m aterial. I nhumed b urial ( Fig. 6 ) T he w hole a rea o utside t he g reat c irc le o f s tanding s tones h ad b een t illed i n t he r idge-and-furrow m anner u sing t imber p ebble-studded p loughs ( O'Kelly 1 976) a nd a s a r esult o f t his a n e xtended b urial l ying i n g rid s quare 3 4b t o t he e ast o f t he a nvil s tone w as p artly d amaged, p articularly i n t he f acial p art o f t he s kull. T he b ody h ad b een p laced o n i ts b ack i n ap it, t he b ottom o f w hich w as d ug d own i nto t he b oulder c lay. T here w as n o s tone p rotection. P loughing h ad r emoved t he u pper p arts o f t he s ides o f t he p it s o t hat i t w as n ot p ossible t o d etermine f rom w hat h orizon t he g rave h ad o riginally b een d ug. N o o bjects h ad b een p laced w ith t he b ody a nd t herefore t here w as n o a rchaeological e vidence t o s ay w hether t he b urial b elonged t o t he L ate N eolithic/ B eaker p eriod o r t o a l ater t ime ( see A ppendix I f or a natomical r ep ort). T he m ultiple a rc o f g reat p its ( Plate 5 ; F igs 4 a & b ). T his i s t he m ost i nteresting i f b affling f eature o f t he E astern a rea. T he p its e merged s lowly a s t he e xcavation p roceeded a nd i t w as n ot u ntil m any o f t hem h ad b een f ound a nd e mptied t hat i t b ecame c lear t hat 2 .

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t hey h ad b een o riginally d ug t o a s omewhat r ough b ut n evertheless o rganised p attern w hich i n t he m ain c onsisted o f t hree c oncentric a rcs. A s c an b e s een o n t he p lan ( Fig. 4 ), t he m ultiple a rc l ies b etween t he k erbs o f t he m ain N ewgrange m ound a nd S ite Z , t he s maller ' satellite' p assage g rave, b ut i s n ot c oncentric w ith e ither. M uch o f t he a rc w as c overed b y t he t ail o f t he s lip f rom t he c airn, b ut i n i ts n orth-eastern p art i t l ay q uite o utside t he s lip a nd w as i n t he a rea t hat h ad b een t illed d uring t he r idgea nd-furrow p eriod o f c ultivation. T he p loughing h ad d one n o d amage t o t he t ops o f t he p its. I n t he E astern a rea a bout 6 p its w ere d eemed t o b elong t o t he m ultiple a rc a nd t here w ere a p ossible 1 0 o thers i n t he C entral a rea. T here w ere a lso s ome l arge p its a t t he s outhern p art o f t he C entral a rea i n t he E -W e xtension b ut s ince t his h ad b een e xcavated i n t he e arly y ears, w e w ere n ot t hen a ware t hat s uch a p attern m ight b e p resent a nd c onsequently i t c ould h ave g one u ndetected. M any o f t he p its i n t he E astern a rea w ere n ear e nough t o t he k erb t o b e c overed b y t he t ail o f t he s lip f rom t he c airn a nd b y t he h orizon c ontaining B eaker m aterial b ut t hey w ere n ot d etected u ntil t his h ad b een c leared a way. T hey w ere u p t o 1 m t o 1 .5m i n d epth ( Fig. 7 ). T he f illings c ontained f lint, a nimal b ones, c harc oal a nd p otsherds, a ll o f w hich a ppeared t o h ave b een t hrown i n a s r ubbish. A r ectangular B eaker h earth o verlay o ne o f t he p its ( hearth n o. 2 , g rid s q. 3 1e) a nd i t s eemed r easonable a t f irst t o a ssume t hat t hey p redated t he B eaker s ettlement. H owever, a s t he e xcavation s pread e astwards a nd t he s catter o f p its c ontinued , w e f ound t hat t hey s wept i n ag reat a rc f rom s outh-west t o n orth-east a cross t he w hole o f t he E astern a rea a nd p resumably b eyond t he l imits o f t he e xcavated p ortion. T he n umber o f p its c ontaining f lint a nd a nimal b one f ood-waste o utnumbered t hose c ontaining s herds o f p ottery b ut t he l atter, t ogether w ith t he c harcoal s amp les f or r adiocarbon d etermination, s howed t hat t he m ultiple a rc w as c learly a L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period f eature. T he p its w ere b etween t hree a nd f our r ows d eep . T he n orthe astern e nd o f t he a rc l ay q uite o utside t he c airn s lip a nd w as i n t he a rea w hich h ad s ubsequently b een s ubjected t o t illage. I f o ne s upposes t hat t he a rc c ontinues a t b oth e nds e ventually t o f orm a c ircle, i t i s p ossible t o e stimate a d iameter o f 7 6m f or t he i nner r ow a nd 8 2m f or t he o uter. T he p its w ere d ifficult t o f ind o n t he e xpanse o f l ight b rown b oulder c lay f or t heir f illings w ere o nly v ery s lightly d arker i n c olour t han t he u ndisturbed s urroundings. F inding t hem b y c olour d istinctions w as b est d one d uring t he m orning o f a b right d ay f ollowing a n ight o f r ain. T he g eneral b oulder c lay s urface d ried o ut q uickly i n t he s un t o i ts l ight b rown c olour w hile t he f illing, r emaining w et m uch l onger, a ppeared t o t he e ye a s s lightly d arker p atches. W hen t hese w ere f elt w ith a d igging k nife, t heir s oftness a s c ompared w ith t heir s urroundings w as o bvious a nd t he m ouths o f t he p its c ould b e o utlined b efore r emoval o f t he f ill b egan. V arious m ethods o f e xcavation w ere u sed i n t he e mptying p rocess s o a s t o d etermine i f s ome o rganised m ethod h ad b een f ollowed d uring t he o riginal b ackfilling. V ertical s ections o f t he f illings s howed t hat t he p its h ad n ot b een h oles f or g reat t imbers. I ndeed i t w as c lear t hat a fter a p it h ad b een d ug i t w as b ackfilled q uickly , s ome c harcoal, a f ew a nimal b ones, a f ew f lints a nd s herds o f p ottery

1 8

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1 9

HI E A R T H N o . 2 O V E R L Y N G P I T

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b eing s ometimes t hrown i n w ith t he s oil. G ood c harcoal s amples f rom t hree o f t he p its h ave b een r adioc arbon d ated. N o. 9 f rom s q . 2 9f: 2 035 ± 5 5 b c ( UB2392); n o. 1 0 f rom s q . 3 1c: 2 035 4 5 b c ( UB2393); a nd n o. 1 f rom t he s ame s quare: 1 925 ± 9 0 b c ( UB2394). T he p its c ontained s herds o f u ndecorated B eaker-associated b owls a nd r usticated B eaker w are. T he C -14 d ates a re i n c lose a greement w ith t he G roningen d ates, n os 3 , 4a nd 5 . T he c entre p oint o f e ach p it i s n ow m arked b y ac oncrete p ost, t he t op p rotruding a bout 5 0cm a bove t he g rass. L oose s tones w ere p iled a round t he p osts i n t he p its a nd p lastic s heeting l aid o n t hem t o p revent s oil f rom s ilting i n a nd a l ayer o f e arth o ver a ll e nabled g rass s eed t o b e s own. T he w hole o f t he E astern a rea s aw m uch a ctivity d uring t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period o ccupation a part f rom t he d igging o f t he m ultiple a rc. A s a lready m entioned , o ne p it i n t he o uter r cl e h ad a r ectangular s tone-set h earth p laced o ver i t a fter t he p it h ad b een b ackfilled. T his h earth ( no. 2 ) m easured l m b y 6 5cm . I t c ontained n o c harcoal o r a sh b ut t he s tones o f t he s etting w ere s everely h eat c racked a nd t he s oil w as o xidised t o ab right r ed c olour. T he a bsence o f c harcoal a nd a sh s uggests t hat t he h earth w as a n o pen a ir o ne -the l ight c ontents m ust h ave b een b lown a way w hen t he h earth w as n o l onger i n u se. T here w as n o e vidence i n t he f orm o f a djacent p its o r p ostholes t hat t he h earth h ad h ad e ven a f limsy w indbreak a round i t. T wo o ther h earths ( nos 3 a nd 4 ) w ithout s tone s ettings l ie b eside p its a t t he s outh-western e nd o f t he m ultiple a rc b ut t hese b elong p roperly t o t he C entral a rea ( Fig. 8 ). B etween t he o utermost r ow o f t he a rc o f p its a nd t he N ewgrange k erbstones 8 9, 9 0 a nd 9 1, a l arge s hallow d epression h ad b een s cooped o ut o f t he b oulder c lay . I ts m aximum d imensions w ere 6 .3m b y 4 m i th a n a verage d epth o f a bout 2 0cm . W ithin i t w ere t hree s hallow p its, t he f illing o f w hich w as a d ark s oil f lecked w ith c harcoal. I t c ontained a s catter o f f lint d ebitage a nd s ome a nimal b ones. J ust b eyond t he s outhern e nd o f t he d epression t here w as a s catter o f f lint a rtefacts, s ome o f w hich w ere m ixed t hrough t he e xtreme e dge o f t he q uartz l ayer o f s pill. P erhaps i t h ad b een a s quatting a rea i n t he l ee o f t he c airn . B etween t he m ultiple a rc a nd t he k erb o f S ite Z w as a nother g roup o f 1 6 p its v ery s imilar i n e very r espect t o t hose o f t he a rc. T hey v aried f rom 8 0cm t o 1 .5m i n d iameter a nd i n d epth f rom 2 5cm t o 8 5cm, t he m ajority b eing a t t he l arger e nd o f t he v ariation . T hey w ere a rranged r ather i n t he m anner o f al oop t o t he e ast o f t he m ultip le a rc. T hey h ad b een q uickly b ackfilled a nd c ontained s ome c harcoal f ragments, a f ew a nimal b ones, s ome f lint d ebitage a nd o ne p it o nly , i n s q . 2 8d, c ontained p ottery w hich c onsisted o f b oth d ecorated a nd u ndecorated w are s imilar t o t hat f ound i n t he m ultip le a rc. O ne c an o nly s peculate a s t o w hether o r n ot t hey a re i n s ome w ay c onnected w ith i t. S atellite p assage g rave, S ite Z A t t he t ime t hat t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period s ettlement b egan, S ite Z w as a lready i n e xistence a nd i ndeed m ust h ave b een b eginning t o d ecay, e specially a t t he e dge o f i ts t urf m ound a nd a long i ts k erb. I n t he c ourse o f i ts e xcavation m uch d ebris, d ropped o n a nd a round i t b y t he p eople o f t he s ettlement, w as f ound. T his h as b een p ublished i n d etail 2 1

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T here a re a n umber o f f eatures w hich p re-date t he L ate N eolithic/ B eaker s ettlement a nd s ince t hey h ave b een d ealt w ith e lsewhere 5-7 ), t hey a re e xcluded f rom t his r eport. T he f ea( O'Kelly 1 982, 7 t ures a re t he o val s tone s etting a nd t he h ut, b oth n ear t he t omb e ntrance; t he g reat o val p it a t t he s outh-western c orner o f t he a rea; a nd g reat c ircle s tones G C3, 1 , 1 a nd 2. T he a pproximate e dge o f t he l ayer o f q uartz/granite, a s w ell a s t he a pproximate f inal e dge o f t he c airn s lip, a re s hown o n t he p lan ( Fig. 8 ) . T his a rea w as t he f irst p art o f t he s ite t o b e e xcavated a nd w e w ere m uch s truck b y t he f act t hat w hen w e h ad e xcavated b elow t he l ayer o f q uartz w e f ound, n ot a n o ld t urf h orizon b ut a s ubsoil s urface f rom w hich t he t urf w as a bsent w hen t he q uartz f ell o n i t. I t w as v ery n oticeable t hat f or a d istance o f 3t o 4 m o utside t he k erb t here w ere n o f inds f rom t his s urface a part f rom a v ery f ew c onnect ed w ith t he o val s tone s etting e ast o f t he t omb e ntrance a nd t he h ut w est o f i t, b oth p rimary f eatures. T he v ast b ulk o f t he f inds c ame f rom t he t ail o f t he q uartz a nd w ere m ixed t hrough t he e arth/ s tone l ayer a bove i t a nd a t t imes e xtended b eyond i t. T hey c ons isted o f p ottery, f lint, f lint d ebitage, s ome b one a nd s tone a rtef acts, a nd a nimal b ones, a nd t hey b elonged t o t he L ate N eolithic/ B eaker-period s quatting. A t t he e astern e dge o f t he a rea t he c ontinuation o f t he m ultiple a rc o f p its c an b e s een a nd, a s a lready m entioned, o ne c ould r eadily v isualise t hat t he t wo l arge p its, o ne o n t he i nner a rc a nd t he o ther o n t he o uter, m ark t he e nd o f t he r ow. T his i s, o f c ourse, m ere g uesswork ( Plate 3 ). T he p rincipal f eature i n t he C entral a rea i s t he f oundation t rench o f w hat m ay h ave b een a r ectangular s tructure o pposite k erbstones 9 2-5. A s f ound, t he t rench w as r oughly L -shaped i n p lan, o ne a rm o f t he L r unning f rom G C-1 t owards t he k erb, t he o ther r unning e astward a nd e vidently c ontinuing i nto t he E astern a rea. T he w idth o f t he t rench i n t he C entral a rea v aried f rom 1 .5m t o 2 .3m a nd t he d epth f rom 3 0 t o 5 0cm. T he n orthern a rm n arrowed m arkedly a nd b ecame m uch s hallower a t t he e nd n earest t he k erb a nd t his i s p robably d ue t o t he f act t hat i n t his p art i t w as b eing d ug i n t he l ayer o f c airn s lip w hich i n i ts l ower p art w as c omposed o f m uch s tone i n am atrix o f s oil a nd h igher u p, e ntirely o f l oose s tones. I n t his, o ur f irst s eason o f e xcavation, w e d id n ot d etect i t a t t he h igher l evel o f t he s tratification i n t he v ery s tony m aterial t hat w e w ere d ealing w ith. P erhaps, t herefore, t he r ect angular s tructure s hould b e e nvisaged a s s tanding p artly o n t he s lope o f t he c airn s lip a nd p artly o n t he s ubsoil s urface f rom w hich t he t urf a nd h umus h ad e ar lier b een s tripped. T here w as a c onsiderable c oncentration o f p ottery, i ncluding f ragments o f p olyp od v essels, n ear a nd i n t he n orthern p art o f t his a rm o f t he t rench ( referred t o i n P art I I a s p ottery c oncentration n o. 3 ). I t w ill b e n oticed t hat t he t rench r uns t o e ach s ide o f G C-2, i ndicating t hat t his o rthostat w as i n p osition w hen t he t rench w as d ug a nd i ndeed t hat t he o rthostat m ust h ave b een i ncorporated i nto 2 3

t he w all o f t he s tructure. I n t he r un o f t he t rench b etween G C-1 a nd G C-2, t he f ill o f t he t rench c ontained a l ine o f t ightly p acked s mall b oulders -cairn s tones -which s eem t o h ave b een u sed a s a p acking f or t he b ase o f t he w all o f t he s tructure ( Plate 6 ). T his k ind o f p acking w ould s uggest t hat t he w all w as o f c losely p laced p osts o r e ven p lanks s tanding o n e nd, a s w as t he c ase i n t he h ouse a t B allynagilly ( ApSimon 1 969). I f t here h ad b een s uch a w all, n o d irect e vidence o f i t c ould b e f ound i n t he f illing o r b ottom o f t he t rench. I n t he r un o f t he t rench e astward f rom G C-2, n o s tone p acking w as f ound t hough t here w ere f our p ostholes n ear t he G C-2 e nd. I n t he a rea e nclosed b y t he t rench t here w as a r ectangular s tone-set h earth ( no. 5 ) c ontaining s ome a sh a nd c harcoal a s w ell a s a nimal b ones a nd t he s oil u nderneath w as h eavily o xidised ( Plate 6 ). A ll a round w ere n umerous p its o f v ery v arying s izes a nd d epths w hich f ormed n o r ecognisable p attern. T heir d ark f illings c ont ained f lint a rtefacts, f lint d ebitage, a nimal b ones a nd a g ood d eal o f p ottery ( pottery c oncentration n o. 4 ). O ver t he a rea i n g eneral t here w as e vidence o f m uch a ctivity . T o t he s outh o f t he L -shaped t rench, i n t he E -W e xtension, t here w as a g reat s catter o f p ostholes w hich d id n ot f orm a r ecogn isable p attern t hough i n t he n orthern p art a nd e xtending i nto c uttings 1 7 a nd 1 8, w e d etected a r ow o f p ostholes f orming a r ough c ircle ( Fig. 8 ). T he p ostholes i n t he E -W e xtension a veraged f rom 2 0 t o 3 0cm i n d iameter a nd w ere f rom 2 5 t o 4 0cm i n d epth. I n a ddition, a t l east 1 7 p its w ere p resent w hich v aried i n d iameter f rom 4 0 t o 8 5cm a nd i n d epth f rom 4 0cm t o 1 m. W hen t he m ultiple a rc o f p its w as l ater d iscovered w e w ondered i f t hese w ere n ot a c ontinuation o f i t. T he a rea a s aw hole s outh o f t he g reat s tone c ircle w as m uch d isturbed b y t he r idge-and-furrow c ultivation w hich r an a s f ar a s, b ut n ot i nto, t he g reat c ircle. B efore t his c ultiv ation t ook p lace, t wo a pproximately p arallel d itches h ad b een d ug i n M edieval t imes a nd t hese a lso h ad c aused d isturbance. T hey w ere f ound a ll t he w ay a long t he f ront o f N ewgrange a nd e vidently c ont inued i n t he a rea b eyond t he e dge o f o ur e xcavation a t i ts w estern m argin ( Plate 9 ). J ust s outh o f t he o val s tone s etting t o t he e ast o f t he t omb e ntrance t here w as a n a rea c ontaining a t hree-period h earth ( no. 6 ) a s s hown b y t he r econstruction o f w hat a ppears t o h ave b een a U -shaped s etting o f s tones. A l ittle t o t he w est o f t his w as y et a nother b urnt a rea w hich h ad n o s tone s etting ( no. 7 ). I n t he v icin ity o f t hese h earths t here w as a c oncentration o f p otsherds, f lint a rtefacts, f lint d ebitage a nd a nimal b ones. P ottery c oncentration n o. 2 w as c entred o n h earth n o. 7 . A ll o f t his s uggests a n i ntens ively u sed l iving f loor b ut t here w as n o i ndication o f a ny f orm o f h ut o r h ouse. P erhaps t he b road s hallow t rench i mmediately t o t he s outh o f t he h earths h ad c ontained s ome k ind o f w indbreak, b ut i f s o, t here w as n o d irect e vidence o f i t. S outh o f t he t rench w as a r ectangular s tone-set h earth ( no. 8 ) w ith a l arge p it a nd s ome s ma l ler o nes n earby. T he p it c ontained p ottery o f v arious d ifferent t ypes. T his w as t he c ase a lso w ith t he c oncentrations o f p ottery a lready n oted. T hey w ere n ever c onfined t o o ne t ype o f w are b ut c lassic B eaker, B eaker-associated w ares, c oarse d omestic w ares, f lat-based b ucket s haped p ots, a nd s o o n, w ere u sually m ixed t ogether. I n t he a bove i nstance t here w as 24

P late 6

C entral a rea, l ooking s outh t owards G C-2. F oundation t rench t o l eft a nd r ight o f b ase o f o rthostat. H earth n o. 5 i n f oreg round P hoto: M J O 'Keliy

2 5

a gain n o r eal e vidence o f ah ut o r h ouse o utline. W est o f G C1 w as y et a nother r ectangular s tone-set h earth ( no. 9 ) w ith v irtually n o a ssociated h abitation d ebris. N ear t he w estern e nd o f t he a rea, a nother r ectangular s tone-set h earth ( no. 1 0) h ad b een s et u p o n t op o f t he b ack-filled g reat o val p it ( Fig. 9 ), a f eature w hich, a s a lready m entioned, p re-dated t he s etting u p o f G C3 ( O 'Kelly 1 982, 8 1-2). V ery l ittle h abitation d ebris w as a ssociated w ith t his h earth. B efore t he o val h ut w est o f t he t omb e ntrance c ame t o l ight, a c onsiderable d epth o f h abitation r efuse c ontaining p ottery ( pottery c oncentration n o. 1 ), f lint a nd a nimal b one w as f ound m ixed t hrough a nd b eneath t he e arth/stone l ayer. I t l ay i n a h ollow w hich .c ont inued b elow t he q uartz/granite l ayer a nd i t w as o nly w hen t he h ollow w as c leared t hat t he h ut f oundation w ith i ts t rench a nd p ostholes w as f ound ( O 'Kelly 1 982, 7 6-7). I ts f loor h ad b een c ut d own i nto t he b oulder c lay t o a d epth o f 1 5 t o 2 0cm a nd w hen i n d ue c ourse i t b ecame c overed b y t he s lip, a h ollow p ersisted i n t he e arth/stone l ayer. T his h ollow w as u sed a s ah abitation a rea b y t he p eople o f t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker p eriod a nd a s a r esult, t here w as a c onsiderable c oncentration o f h abitation r efuse a s w ell a s a sh a nd c harcoal. W estwards o f t he h ut w as y et a nother c oncent ration o f h abitation d ebris. T he b ank o f b oulder c lay ( the y ellow c lay b ank) ( Figs 8 , 1 0 & 1 2) T he l atter w as t he n ame b y w hich i t b ecame k nown w hen i t w as f irst d iscovered a s i ts c olour w as i n s harp c ontrast w ith t hat o f t he e arth/stone l ayer. I t f irst c ame t o l ight a lmost o pposite t he t omb e ntrance -slightly t o t he w est o f i t -as a l ow n arrow r idge o f s toneless l ight y ellow b oulder c lay m ore o r l ess p arallel w ith t he k erb ( Fig. 8 ) . A s i t w as u ncovered w estward, i t g radually b ecame w ider a nd h igher s o t hat a t t he w estern e dge o f t he C entral a rea i t w as 6 .2m w ide a t t he b ase a nd 7 0cm i n m aximum h eight ( Fig. 9 ). A s w ill b e s een, i t c ontinued u nbroken t hroughout t he W estern a nd F ar W estern a reas, v arying a l ittle i n w idth a nd h eight a nd r an o n b eyond t he l imit o f o ur e xcavation o n t he w est. H ere i n t he C entral a rea i t c an b e s een t hat i t o verlies t he s outhern e dge o f t he p rimary h ut. A lso b eneath i t i s a c ircular p it w ith a t rench e xtension, a s w ell a s t he n orthern e dge o f t he g reat o val p it. I ts r elationship t o t he s ettlement b ecame c learer i n t he W estern a reas. W e w ere n ot a ble t o d iscover t he s ource o f t he m aterial f or t he b ank. T he c onsiderable a mount o f f ine b oulder c lay w hich i t c ontained m ust h ave b een d ug u p o r s craped o ut f rom s omewhere b ut t here w as n o d itch o r g reat p it w ithin t he e xcavated a reas w hich c ould h ave p rovided i t. A s a lready m entioned, t he p arallel d itches f ound i nside t he s outhern e dge o f t he e xcavation w ere d ug i n M edieval t imes, p robably a fter t he l and o f t he d istrict c ame i nto t he p ossession o f t he C istercians o f M ellifont A bbey i n t he 1 3th c entury, t he t ime w hen t he n ame o f t he p lace b egan t o c hange f rom t he a ncient B rü n a B öinne t o N ewgrange, i .e. t he n ew g range o r f arm ( C. O 'Kelly 1 978, 7 4-6). T he s ectional p rofiles o f t he b ank s howed t hat i t w as n ot b uilt o f t ransported t urves b ut o f l oose s oil. T his c onsolidated i n t ime a nd s pread s omewhat, s o t hat i t m ay o riginally h ave b een a l ittle h igher a long t he s pine a nd a l ittle n arrower a t t he b ase. T he p rofiles a lso s howed c learly t hat t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period

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s ettlement h ad b een e stablished b efore t he b ank o f b oulder c lay w as b uilt. M eanwhile, t he d eterioration o f t he e dge o f t he c airn c ont inued a nd t he s pace b etween t he b ank a nd t he k erb b ecame f illed w ith t he e arth/stone c airn s lip, f ollowed i n t urn b y t he f irst o f t he r apid s tone s lides. B y t his t ime, a nd p erhaps b ecause o f t he s udden s tone s lide, t he p eople o f t he s ettlement h ad m oved a way f rom t he c airn e dge. W e c an s uggest n o c onvincing r eason f or t he b uilding o f t he b ank i n t he f irst i nstance a nd i t m ust b e h oped t hat f uture e xcavation o n t he w est s ide o f N ewgrange w ill p rovide a nswers t o t he v arious q uestions w hich t he b ank p oses. I t i s q uite c ertain t hat i t d id n ot e xist i n t he e xcavated a rea e ast o f t he e ntrance o r i n t he c utting o n t he n orth s ide o f t he c airn . I n 1 954 e lectric l ight w as i nstalled i n t he t omb a nd t his n ecessitated t he d igging o f at rench i n w hich t o l ay t he c able. I t w as l ed i n f rom t he w est a nd r an m ore o r l ess p arallel w ith t he k erb u ntil i t r eached a p oint o pposite K 2. I t t hen s wung n orthw ards t owards t he k erb ( Fig. 8 ) . T he w ork w as u ndertaken u nder t he a rchaeological s upervision o f P . J . H artnett a nd h e h as r eported o n 1 954 , 1 8 1-2). L ater a b ranch w as l ed s outhwards i t ( Hartnett t owards t he T ourist O ffice. D uring o ur e xcavation w e u ncovered t hese t renches o nce m ore.

T he W estern A rea ( Plates 7 & 8 ; F igs 1 0 & 1 1) A s e lsewhere, t he q uartz/granite r evetment h ad c ollapsed b efore t he s ettlement b egan a nd i n p laces s ome s catter o f q uartz l ay u nder t he b ank o f b oulder c lay . S quatting t ook p lace a t t he e dge o f t he q uartz l ayer b efore t he b ank w as b uilt a nd l iving f loors c ontaining h earths n os 1 1 t o 1 5 , a s w ell a s r ubbish p its a nd s ome p ostholes, w ere f ound b eneath i t, t hough o nce a gain , n o c onvincing h ouse p lan w as r ecovered. A s e lsewhere o n t he s ite, t he s quatting f loors p rod uced a c onsiderable a mount o f p ottery : r usticated w are, N eolithicd erived b owl f orms a nd B eaker-associated c oarse w are. A mong t he f lint a rtefacts w ere t anged-and-barbed a rrowheads a nd t here w ere l arge a mounts o f a nimal b ones. T he a ctivity o f t he s ettlers c ont inued a fter t he b oulder c lay b ank w as b uilt a nd a fter t he e arth/ s tone l ayer h ad m ounded u p a gainst i t o n t he i nner s ide a nd r olled o ver t he t op a nd d own t he o uter s lope. A ll t he f eatures n ow t o b e d escribed u nderlie a nd t herefore p re-date t he b uilding o f t he b ank. I t s eems a lmost a s i f t he b uilders s et o ut d eliberately t o c over t he f eatures t hough i t i s u seless t o s peculate a s t o w hy t his m ight h ave b een d one. A t t he e astern e dge o f t he a rea ( Fig. 1 0), t wo r ectangular s tone-set h earths ( nos 1 a nd 1 2) h ave b etween t hem a n umber o f p its a nd p ostholes w hich w ere a t t he c entre o f a n a rea o f h abitat ion d ebris ( Plate 7 ). W est o f t hem a h orseshoe-shaped s tone-set h earth ( no. 1 3) f orms t he c entre o f a s catter o f p ostholes, a ll s urrounded b y a s hallow t rench, C -shaped i n p lan ( Plate 8 ) . P erh aps i t h eld a w indbreak o r o ther l ight s tructure s et u p a s s helter f or a l iving a rea. T here w as l ittle e vidence t o s how t hat h earths 1 4 a nd 1 5 f arther t o t he w est h ad e ver b een s urrounded b y a ny k ind o f s tructure.

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H earth n o. 1 6 a t t he e astern e dge o f t he a rea ( Fig. 1 2) h ad a n umber o f p ostholes a nd p its i n i ts v icinity a nd p erhaps i t w as a n o pen a ir h earth f or a s helter s ituated i n t he l arge s hallow o val h ollow b eside i t ( Plate 1 0). T his h ollow c ontained d arker s oil t han t hat o f i ts s urroundings a nd t here w ere a nimal b ones, f lint a nd s everal d ifferent t ypes o f p ottery i n t he d ark f ill. H earth n o. 1 7 j ust u nder t he n orthern e dge o f t he b ank o f b oulder c lay s howed l ittle e vidence o f ad irectly a ssociated s tructure. A part f rom t he b oulder c lay b ank, t he m ost i nteresting f eature u ncovered i n t his a rea c onsisted o f t wo p arallel l ines o f g reat p ostholes w hich l ay a lmost r adially t o t he k erb. T he e astern r ow i s i n c utting 2 6 ( Plate 1 1) a nd t he w estern o ne i n c utting 2 7W ( Plate 5 ). T hey a re a pproximately 1 0.5m a part f rom c entre t o c entre. T hey d o n ot r un a s f ar a s t he k erb b ut t he o nes n earest i t w ere c overed b y t he b oulder c lay b ank. A t t his e nd a s hallow t rench r an f rom t he e astern l ine t owards t he w estern o ne b ut d id n ot q uite c onnect w ith i t. I t c ontained f ive s mall p ostholes. A s imilar t rench w as f ound r unning f rom t he s outhern e nd o f t he e astern l ine t owards t he w estern o ne. I n t his c ase a lso i t w as n ot j oined. T here w ere n o p ostholes. F ig. 1 4 g ives a s ection t hrough t he 9 p its o f t he w estern r ow , d rawn o n l ine A -B ( see p lan, F ig. 1 2). P it 1 i s n earest t he k erb a nd t he o ld g round l evel a t p oint X a t t he b ase o f K 20 i s a lso s hown s o t hat t he r elationship o f t he l ine o f p its t o i t c an b e s een. T here w as c lear e vidence t hat t he s paces b etween s ix o f t he h oles i n t he w estern l ine h ad b een f illed w ith w attle-work a nd t his p art o f t he s tructure h ad b een d estroyed i n ag reat c onflagration w hich w as s o f ierce t hat t he s oil a ll a round w as o xidised b right r ed a nd i n p laces t o ad epth o f 5 0cm . T o h ave a ffected t he s oil t o t his o rder o f d epth m ust m ean t hat t he b urning w as v ery f ierce a nd o f l ong d uration . A nimal b ones t hat l ay s cattered i n t he a rea w ere s everely c alcined, a s w ere f lint o bjects a nd f lint d ebitage. T here w as l ittle p ottery f rom t his a rea. T his m ay h ave b een a l arge t hatch-roofed s tructure m easuring a pproximately 9 x 1 0m i nternally . W hen i t w as b urning i t w ould s eem t o h ave f allen o ver w estward, t he b urning r oof b eing t he c ause o f t he v ery h eavy o xidisation o f t he ould h ave b een s oil i n t his a rea. T he g reat c ircle s tone, n o. 9 w w ithin t he b uilding, i f s uch i t w as. G C9 i s ag reat b oulder o f d ark r ed v olcanic a sh o f v ery h ard q uality b ut n evertheless, t here a re a reas o f i ts s urface w hich a re f riable a s i f t hey h ad b een a ffected b y ag reat e xternal h eat. T his m ay h ave b een t he h eat o f t he b urning ' building '. T he c onflagration h ad t aken p lace b efore t he y ellow c lay b ank h ad b een p ut i n p lace. T o t he n orth o f t he e astern l ine o f g reat p ostholes a re a n umber o f s maller o nes w hich a t f irst g lance a ppear t o c ontinue t he e astern l ine, b ut t hey a re m ore p lausibly c onnected w ith t he s catter o f s hallow p its a nd s mall p ostholes w hich l ie a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he ' building '. T his

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s catter o f h oles a lso u nderlies t he y ellow c lay b ank. T hey d o n ot c onform t o a r ecognisable p attern. T o t he w est o f t he w estern l ine o f g reat p ostholes a re t wo c losely-set p arallel l ines o f l esser o nes. T hree o f t hese w hich l ie n earest t he k erb a lso u nderlie t he y ellow c lay b ank a nd t herefore m ay b e c ontemporary w ith, a nd e ven p art o f, t he ' building ', b ut i t w as n ot p ossible t o e stablish t his o ne w ay o r t he o ther. I n t he s outh-west c orner o f t he e xcavated a rea, s hallow t renches o f M edieval d ate h ad c ut a cross t he s outhw estern c orner o f t he ' building', r emoving h alf o f t he l ast p osth ole o f t he w estern l ine a nd t wo o f t he h oles i n t he l ines o f l esser o nes.

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I n 1 966 a c utting w as m ade o n t he n orth s ide o f t he c airn, d iam etrically o pposite t he t omb e ntrance. T his e nabled u s t o c ompare t he m echanics o f t he c airn s lip o n t his s ide w ith t hose f ound o n t he s outh s ide i n p revious s easons. A part f rom t he f act t hat n o q uartz o r g ranite w as p resent, t he s equence o f s trata w as s ubstant ially t he s ame ( Fig. 1 5). T he L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period s quatt ing w as p resent a lso, c ommencing a bout 6 m f rom t he k erb. O ver 3 0 f lint a rtefacts w ere f ound a nd t hese a re d ealt w ith i n P art II. I T he o nly p ottery f inds c onsisted o f a f ew s herds o f C arrowkeel w are w hich a re a ssociated w ith p assage g raves. T he s ettlement a ctivity w as s light i n t his a rea i n c omparison w ith e lsewhere i n t he e xcav ated a reas.

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F INDS A ll f inds f rom N ewgrange h ave b een d eposited i n t he N ational M useum o f I reland i n D ublin . A ll f inds c onnected w ith t he m ain N ewgrange m onument h ave t he p refix E 56 i n t he M useum R egister. T he p recise f ind-spot o f e ach o bject i s r ecorded i n t he N ewgrange c ard-index ( at p resent i n t he D epartment o f A rchaeology , U niversity C ollege, C ork). S tone A xes ( Figs 1 6 & 1 7) S even a xes o r f ragments t hereof h ave b een f ound i n t he s ettlement a rea a s aw hole a nd i n a ll i nstances t hey c learly b elong t o t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period h orizon. F ive h ave c ome f rom t he E aste rn a rea, o ne f rom t he C entral a rea a nd o ne f rom t he W estern a rea.

E astern a rea E 56 :975 F ragment f rom n ear t he c entre o f t he b ody o f aw ellf inished i mplement m ade f rom g rey-black c hert. T he c ross-section i s D -shaped w hich s uggests t hat t his m ay h ave b een a n a dze r ather t han a n a xe. A fter i t h ad b roken, o ne e dge w as c hipped t o c onvert t he f ragment i nto a c oarse s craper. T his w orking e dge i s a braded f rom u se. M ax . d imension 4 cm . F ound n ear E 56 :974. E 56:982 A pprox . H alf o f aw ell-made i mplement o f b lack c hert f rom w hich t he b utt-end h ad s heared o ff. T he l ower p art a nd t he s harp c utting e dge a re v ery w ell p reserved a nd r etain h ighly f inis hed s urfaces. T he c ross-section i s a symmetrical -aleost D -shaped -suggesting a n a dze r ather t han a n a xe. F ound o n O GL b etween t wo o f t he p its o f t he m ultiple a rc. M ax . d imension 6 .5cm. E 56:974 C hip f rom t he c utting e dge o f w hat m ust h ave b een a v ery w ell-finished a nd h ighly p olished i mplement o f b lack c hert. I n t he s urviving p iece t he c utting e dge i s f inely p roduced a nd r emains v ery s harp . T he v ery f ine s triae o f t he f inal p olishing a re v isible. M ax . Lo f f ragment 4 .32cm . F ound i n d omestic r efuse n ear h earth n o.l. E 56 :984 S lightly d amaged a xe m ade f rom a v ery l ight s oft m udstone -so l ight a nd s oft a s t o r ender t he i mplement u seless f or a ny p ractical p urpose. L arge f lake-scars o n b oth f aces a re d ue t o d amage s uffered a fter c ompletion o f t he i mplement. C utting e dge a nd b utt-end c hipped a nd a braded. M ax . L 1.5cm ; Wa t c utting e dge 5 .2cm ; m ax . T o f b ody 2 .5cm . F ound i n u pper f ill o f o ne o f t he g reat p its o f t he m ultiple a rc. E 56 :985 F ragment o f i mplement m ade f rom a t hin f lake o f d ark g reen d iorite. T wo-thirds o f t he b ody, i ncluding t he c utting e dge, a re w ell p reserved -the b utt-end h as s heared o ff. T he c rosss ection a bove t he c utting e dge i s D -shaped a nd t he t hin n arrow c utting e dge s uggests t hat t he o bject m ay h ave b een u sed a s a

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c hisel r ather t han a n a xe. M uch o f t he r oughing-out f laking h ad .8cm ; W j ust a bove n ot b een r emoved i n t he f inal p olishing. M ax . L 6 c utting e dge 3 .8cm ; m ax . T 1 .5cm . F ound o n O GL b etween t wo p its i n t he m ultiple a rc.

C entral a rea E 56 :576 T his i s a n u nfinished a xe o f T ievebulliagh p orcellan ite o f s peckled g rey c olour. T he w hole o f t he b ody h as r eceived i ts f inal p olishing b ut t he m aking o f t he c utting e dge h ad o nly b een s tarted. T he g rinding d own o f t he t wo f aces h ad b een b egun a nd m ore w ork h ad b een d one o n o ne f ace t han t he o ther, b ut c omplet ion o f t he c utting e dge w as a l ong w ay o ff w hen t he a rtificer l aid t he a xe a side. T he c ross-section i s v irtually c ircular a nd v aries f rom 3 .5 t o 4 cm i n d iameter. M ax . L 1 4 .8cm . F ound o n s urface o f ( 4 . q uartz/granite s lip n ear i ts o uter e dge s outh o f 1

F ar W estern a rea E 56 :1721 C hip f rom f ace o f T ievebulliagh p orcellanite a xe o f s peckled g rey c olour. T he s urface w as h ighly p olished. M ax . d imension 4 cm . F ound w ith m uch a nimal b one i n p it d ug t hrough t he b oulder c lay b ank t o t he N o f G C9.

S tone B ead/Pendants ( Fig.

1 8 )

T hree o bjects o f t his t ype h ave c ome f rom t he b ase o f t he e arth/stone l ayer o r j ust o n t he s urface o f t he q uartz/granit t ,. T wo, E 56:541 a nd 5 42, a re m ade f rom p ieces o f v ery s oft l ight c arboniferous s andstone; t he t hird, E 56 :564a, f rom a f ine g rained g rey s andstone o r s late.

C entral a rea E 56 :541 T his i s an atural p ebble o f f lat o val s ection . B ec ause t he s tone i s s o s oft i t h as s uffered m any s cratches a nd g rooves, b ut d espite t his i t d isplays a reas t hat h ave b een d eliber ately r ubbed s mooth, b oth o n t he f aces a nd e dges. T he p erfora tion , w hich i s n ot q uite c entral, h as b een m ade f rom b oth s ides b y a r eaming p rocess a nd i s h our-glass i n s ection. D iameter o f d isc 6 .5cm ; T2 .5cm ; d iameter o f p erforation a t c entre 6 mm ; a t e nds v aries f rom 1 .6 t o 2 cm. E 56:542 S imilar t o t he l ast b ut s maller i n d iameter. O ne e dge o f d isc s hows c lear e vidence o f r ubbing d own t o s hape. D iamet er 5 cm ; T 2 .5cm ; p erforation c ylindrical a nd d rilled f rom b oth s ides. W estern a rea E 56:564a

V ery

w ell-made o bject i n w hich

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E 56:541 1

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E 56:968

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S tone o bjects: p erforated b eads/pendants, p oints, l amp(?), l ignite b racelet f ragment

4 5

b een s haped a nd r ubbed s mooth o r a lmost p olished. D iameter 4 cm ; T 1 .6cm . C entral c ylindrical p erforation d rilled f rom b oth s ides. A fter d rilling, e nds o f p erforation w idened b y r eaming. M in . d iamet er 4 mm ; d iameter a t e nds 7 t o l Omm .

M iscellaneous o bjects ( Fig .

1 8)

E astern a rea E 56:968 S tone p oint, w ell m ade f rom s hort l ength o f s hale, g round o n a ll s urfaces t o p roduce a s harp p oint. L 3 .2cm; m ax . W a nd T 8 a nd 5 mm r espectively . F ound o n O GL n ear h earth n o. 1 . E 56 :986 N atural p ebble o f v ery s oft l ight c arboniferous s ands tone o f f lat o val s ection . O ne f ace q uite u nworked; t he o ther h as a d eliberately-made c ircular c oncavity w hich d isplays t he s triat ions o f t he f inal s moothing. M ost o f t he l ip a round t he c oncavity h as s palled o ff , b ut t he r emaining p art h as a v ery d ark b rown o r a lmost b lack s tain o f c arbonaceous m atter . T his s uggests u se a s a l amp b ut t he c oncavity i s c ompletely c lean. D iameter o f d isc 7 .3cm ; T 1 .7cm ; d iameter o f c oncavity 3 .8cm ; d epth a t c entre 1 .5cm . F ound o n O GL n ear a nvil s tone i n g rid s q. 3 3c. E 56 :971 F ragment o f w hat m ay h ave b een a w ell-made b racelet o f d ark b rown l ignite. O ne e nd o f t he p iece i s r oughly f ractured b ut t he o ther e nd i s c arefully c ut t o f orm a s ort o f t enon a s i f f or f ixing o r j oining t he p iece t o s omething e lse. T he c rosss ection i s D -shaped a nd t he o uter a nd i nner s urfaces a re w ell p olished t hough t he i nner s urface s hows s ome r esidual t ool m arks. T he l aminations o f t he m aterial a re c learly m arked a nd h ave b egun t o s eparate. M ax . Lm easured a long t he o uter c urve 8 cm ; W3 .5cm ; T 1 .4cm . T he i nternal d iameter c an b e r econstructed a t 5 .4cm a nd t hus i f i t w as a b racelet, i t w as o f v ery s mall s ize. F ound a t t he b ase o f t he e arth/stone l ayer t o t he S W o f h earth n o. 1 .

C entral a rea ( Fig.

1 9)

E 56:248 T his o bject i s ac hopper o r k nife m ade o n a l arge f lake o f h igh q uality b lack c hert w hich m ust h ave b een s truck f rom a l arge n odule. I ts m aximum d imension m easured f rom t ip t o t ip o f t he c urved c utting e dge i s 9 .6cm ; t he w idth f rom t he c entre o f t he c utting e dge t o t he b utt i s 6 .1cm w hile t he m aximum t hickness n ear t he b utt i s 1 .3cm . T he f lake w as s truck f rom a p repared p latform, p art o f w hich s urvives o n t he e nd o f t he b utt a nd t he b ulb o f p ercussion s hows a t ypical b ulbar s car , t he r ipple m arks b eing c learly s een . T he c utting e dge w as f irst p roduced b y s triking o ff al ong t ransverse f lake f ollowed b y af ine p ressure-flaked r etouch. A h ollow s craper h as b een w orked i nto o ne e nd o f t he f lake i n a p osition j ust a bove t he m ain c utting e dge. T he o bject c an b e h eld v ery c omfortably b etween t he t humb a nd t he f irst a nd s econd f ingers o f t he r ight h and a nd, h eld t hus, b ecomes a k nife o r c hopper o r a n i deal i mplement f or s kinning a n a nimal. I t w as f ound 1 0m s outh o f K 3 i n t he b ase o f t he e arth/stone l ayer.

4 6

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4 7

E 56:712 c onsists o f t he c entral p art o f af ine j avelin h ead w hich m ay h ave m easured 1 2cm f rom b ase t o p oint. T he p oint a nd b ase a re b roken o ff a nd t he a ctual l ength o f t he s urviving p art i s 5 cm. I t w ould a ppear t o b elong t o A . E . P . C ollins's d eveloped t ype 13-15). C ( 1981, T his i s ' an e longated l ozenge f orm w ith t he s houlders m uch n earer t he b asal e nd t han t he p oint .. t he l onger e dges a re f requently c oncave a nd t he s hort e dges b etween t he s hould ers a nd t he b ase f requently, b ut n ot i nvariably , c onvex '. T his d escription s eems t o f it t he N ewgrange e xample q uite w ell. L arge a reas o f t he c entral p arts o f t he f aces a re h ighly p olished a nd t he f inal f laking o f t he e dges w as d one s ubsequent t o t he p olishing ; t his a gain i s ' the n ormal t echnique f or f inishing t he e volved ' Form C ' ( Collins o p .cit .). M aximum w idth a t s houlders m ust h ave b een . 5 .4cm ( present m ax . W 5 cm). M ax . t hickness o f s urviving f ragment 1 cm . F ound 6 m d ue s outh o f G C1, 4 0cm b elow g rass l evel a nd a t t he e dge o f t he l ate N eolithic/Beaker-period o ccupation.

W estern a rea ( Fig. 2 0) E 56:953 N atural p ebble o f f ine-grained h ard s hale, d ark g rey i n c olour. F lat o val s ection. A ll s urfaces s how t he s triae o f g rinding a nd f inal p olishing. O ne f ace h as a c entral c ircular c oncavity , w hile i n t he o ther t he c oncavity h as a n o val o utline. C ircular c oncavity 3 cm d iameter, 5 mm d eep. O val c oncavity 3 x 1 .5cm ; d epth 5 mm . T he s urfaces o f t he c oncavities a re p olished v ery s mooth a s i f t hey h ad b een u sed i n g rinding o r i n m ixing s ome f ine m aterial. N o t race o f t he m aterial s urvives. F ound 2 0m s outh o f K 18 w here t he s tratification i s s hallow . I t i s n ot c ertain t herefore t hat t he o bject b elongs u nquestionably t o t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period s tratum . E 56:543 T his a ppears t o h ave b een a n atural p ebble o f v ery h ard q uartzite w hich h as b een b rought t o a r oughly c ylindr ical s hape b y m uch r ubbing o n a ll s urfaces. E ach e nd-face o f t he c ylind er h as a p air o f s mall s hallow h ollows w hich a ppear t o h ave b een m ade b y p icking. T hey w ould f acilitate h olding t he o bject i f i t w ere u sed a s a r ubber. D iameter 7 .2cm ; a xis l ength 5 .3cm . F ound a t b ottom o f e arth/stone l ayer a nd j ust a bove q uartz/granite l ayer.

B one o bjects ( Figs 2 1 a nd 2 2) E astern a rea E 56 :696 S lightly t apering c ylinder o f b one. O ne e nd f lat, t he o ther f ractured. T here a re t wo p erforations a t r ight a ngles t o e ach o ther -one s econdary t o t he o ther. Ab one p eg l ies i n w hat s eems t o h ave b een t he s econdary r epair-hole. T his m ay h ave b een a f errule a s t he f ractured e nd i s h ollow a s i f i t h ad h eld s omething l ike a t ang. L 3 cm ; d iameter o f f lat e nd 1 .6cm , a t f ractured e nd 1 .5cm ; d iameter o f p erforations 7 mm . F ound a t b ase o f e arth/stone l ayer j ust w est o f h earth n o. 1 . E 56:1702

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F ig. 2 1

E 56: 5 17c

E 56:527

E 56:528

- 0 ° E 56: 5 17a

E 56:718

5 cm

B one o bjects: m iscellaneous

5 0

g z z . ' D

E 56: 522 0

F ig.

2 2

[ 56: 529 4 cm

B one o bjects: m iscellaneous

s erved. T ool m arks o f p rimary s haping s till v isible e ven t hough t he e ntire s urface h as b een v ery h ighly p olished. T he l ong a nd v ery s harply p ointed e nd i s w ell p reserved. L6 .5cm; a verage d iameter 7 mm. F ound i n u pper f ill o f l arge d eep p it a t c entre o f e ast s ide o f g rid s q. 2 8d.

C entral a rea E 56:517, 5 18, 5 21, 5 27, 5 28, 7 18. F ragments p ins o f v arious s izes. A ll o riginally w ell m ade s hed. A ll h ave b een b urnt a nd h ave s hattered F ound i n t he s ame h abitation s oil a s t he p olypod b ase o f e arth/stone l ayer o f s lip.

o f s everal b one a nd h ighly p olii n t he p rocess. b owl ( p. 2 3) a t

E 56:522 ' Apple s coop ' m ade f rom a nimal l ong-bone. M ost o f w orking e nd b roken a way b ut k nife c uts a nd o ther t ool m arks a re c lear. T otal L 7 cm. F ound o n O GL u nder e arth/stone s lip. E 56:529 W orking e nd o f b one ' chisel'. H ighly p olished f rom s ome r ubbing u se. O verall L 5 cm. F rom f ill o f p it i n O GL a djacent t o f ind-spot o f b one p ins d escribed a bove.

F lint A ll t he f lint a rtefacts a re l isted a nd d escribed i n a c ard i ndex ( at p resent i n t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity C ollege C ork), a s a re t he f inished d rawings o f t he f lint o bjects. O nly a p roportion o f t hese a re i llustrated i n P art I II b elow .

C ONCLUSIONS W e h ave s uggested e lsewhere ( O'Kelly 1 982, 1 45) t hat a fter t he b uilding o f p assage g raves h ad b een b rought t o i ts p eak i n t he B oyne v alley, t here w as a n e conomic c ollapse d ue t o a n umber o f f actors. O ne c ould p erhaps e nvisage d eterioration o f t he c limate, s oil e xhaustion b ecause o f o ver-intensive c ultivation o f w heat a nd b arley, o ver-grazing b y p astoral f locks a nd h erds a nd s o o n. A nother f actor w hich m ight h ave h ad p articular r elevance f or N ewgrange w as t he d e-turfing o f g reat a reas t o p rovide m aterial f or b urial m ounds. T he b uilding o f t hese m ade e xtravagant u se o f m ant ime a nd e ffort a s w ell a s m aterial a nd t he d e-turfing c ould h ave L ed t o t he d estruction o f s oil f ertility. I n t he ' Bend o f t he nyne w e c an s ee a g reat a gricultural c ivilisation i n d ecline n , f 1r -r t he z enith o f i ts d evelopment h ad b een p assed. T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat t he a rca w as d epopulated -life m ust h ave g one o n, b ut a t a l ower s tandard o f l iving a nd t his i s w hat w e a re s eeing i n t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period s ettlement w hich b ecame e stablished o n t he p eriphery o f t he N ewgrange c airn w hen i t h ad f allen i nto a s tate o f s erious d ecay. H ere a re p eople d rawn f rom a mong t he d escendants o f t he N eolithic b uilders o f N ewgrange s ome 5 00 y ears

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b efore, n ow l iving s imply b ut s till r easonably w ell. I dentificat ion o f p ollen a nd o f c arbonised s eeds s hows t hat t he c ultivation o f w heat a nd b arley w as s till c ontinuing, t hough t he g reater e mphas is n ow s eems t o h ave b een o n p astoralism. C attle a nd p igs w ere a s taple f ood r esource a nd s heep/goat, h orse, d og a nd a v ery s mall n umber o f w ild s pecies w ere a lso u tilised. I t i s c lear f rom w hat h as b een s aid e arlier a bout t he f actual d etails u ncovered b y t he e xcavation t hat t here w ere a s eries o f l iving f loors, e ach m arked b y ah earth o r h earths a nd a f ew p its a nd p ostholes, s trung a long t he p eriphery o f N ewgrange. E xcept f or t wo e xamples, t heir h uts o r s helters w ere o f s uch a n ature t hat t hey l eft n o r ecognisable i mprint o n t he g round. T he t wo e xcept ions, o ne i n t he C entral a rea a nd t he o ther i n t he F ar W estern a rea, s eem t o h ave c onsisted o f r ectangular b uildings o f w ood w ith t hatched r oofs, a nd i n o ne c ase, o f w attle w alls. T his l atter b uilding a t t he w estern e nd o f t he e xcavation a ppears t o h ave b een d estroyed b y f ire. R ose C leary 's s tudy o f t he p ottery c omplex s hows t hat a ll o f t he p ottery t ypes, i ncluding t he B eaker w are, w ere l ocally m ade a nd f rom l ocal m aterials. T he t echniques o f m anufacture u sed t hrougho ut w ere f or t he m ost p art t hose t hat h ad b een s tandard p ractice f or a l ong t ime i n t he I rish N eolithic. F rom D aragh L ehane's s tudy o f t he f lint a rtefacts a nd d ebitage i t h as e merged t hat t here w as a c ontinuum i n i mplement t ypes a nd i n f lint-working t echnology f rom t he e arlier p art o f t he N eolithic p eriod t hrough i nto t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker p eriod. T here i s v irtually n o e vidence i n t he f lint w ork o f t he a rrival o f n ew p eople i n t he B oyne v alley d uring t his t ime. B ecause t hey h ave s een n o i ndications o f ab reak i n c ontinuity i n t he t wo m aterials s tudied, b oth w riters a gree w ith t he n ow w idely h eld v iew t hat a ' Beaker p eople' a s s uch d id n ot c ome t o I reland. I t i s n ot n ecessary f or m e t o d iscuss t he m atter f urther; i t i s s ufficient t o s ay t hat I a gree w ith t heir f indings.

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A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS E xigencies o f s pace u nfortunately p revent m e f rom r epeating h ere t he a cknowledgements t o c olleagues, s tudents a nd o ther h elpers w hich I m ade i n N ewgrange, a rchaeology, a rt a nd l egend ( 1982). T o t he b est o f m y k nowledge, v irtually t he s ame b ody o f a ssistants a nd a dvisers w as i nvolved i n t he w ork d etailed i n t his p resent a nd f inal r eport a nd o nce a gain I p roffer m y s incerest t hanks. I a m a lso m ost g rateful t o L eo S wan f or h is s plendid a erial p hotographs o f t he e xcavation. S ince t he O ffice o f P ublic W orks i n D ublin w as ( in t he b est s ense) t he ' godfather ' o f t he w hole N ewgrange o peration, Is hould l ike t o r ecord s eparately m y t hanks f or t he m uch v alued h elp I h ave r eceived i n r egard t o N ewgrange a nd m any o ther m atters o ver t he c onsiderable n umber o f y ears o f o ur ( as I t hink) v ery f ruitful a cquaintance.

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A ppendix I

R EPORT O N N EWGRANGE S KELETON I N 3 4B b y P rofessor J . P . F raher,

D epartment o f A natomy,

U niversity C ollege, C ork

T he m aterial c onsists o f f ragments o f t he f ollowing b ones: r ight a nd l eft f emur; r ight p atella; r ight a nd l eft t ibia; r ight a nd l eft f ibula; r ight c alcaneus; r ight a nd l eft c lavicle; r ight a nd l eft h umerus; r ight a nd l eft r adius; l eft u lna; l eft s capula; h and a nd f oot b ones ( fragments o f 3m etacarpal b ones, o f a p roximal p halanx, f ragments f rom o ther p halanges); l eft t rapexium; p ortions o f m ost v ertebrae; s everal f ragments o f r ight a nd l eft r ibs; o ne l arge s pecimen c onsisting o f d orsal p arts o f t he a rches o f an umber o f t horacic v ertebrae, a n umber o f r ibs, a nd a p ortion o f t he r ight s capula, a ll f used i nto a s ingle m ass; 3 s pecimens o f p elvis, o ne b eing c ontinuous w ith t he l ower p art o f t he l umbar v ertebral c oJ umn; p art o f t he s kull. T he g eneral f orm o f t he b ones s uggests t hat t hey a re d erived f rom a n i ndividual o f m oderate h eight. T heir p roportions a nd m uscu lar m arkings s uggest t hat t hey c ome f rom a m oderately w ell b uilt p erson. T his i s i n a greement w ith t he e stimate b y J . S . R . H ood o f a h eight o f 1 66.7cms. A ll b ones a re v ery f ragile a nd f riable. S mall p arts o f s everal a rticular s urfaces f rom b oth l imb a nd v erteb ral c olumn b ones a re p resent. N one s how a ny e vidence o f p athology s uch a s a rthritis.

S pecific C omments T ibia T he r ight a nd l eft t ibiae w ere r epresented, e ach b y a f ragment o f t he s haft m easuring 3 0 c ms i n l ength. B oth b ones w ere u nusual i n t hat t he s haft w as e lliptical r ather t han t riangular o n c rosss ection. T his w as s lightly m ore m arked o n t he r ight t han o n t he l eft s ide. A f ragment c onsisting o f t he u pper p art o f t he l eft t ibia a nd c arrying a p ortion o f t he k nee j oint a rticular s urface c ould b e j oined t o t he u pper e nd o f t he m ain f ragment o f t he s haft. T his a llowed t he o rientation o f t he t ibial s haft o n t he a rticulated s keleton t o b e d etermined. F rom t his i t w as c lear t hat t he a nterom edial ( subcutaneous) s urface o f t he b one w as n ormally o rientated. T he u nusual c ross-sectional s hape w as d ue t o t he f act t hat t he a nterolateral a nd p osterior s urfaces w ere r epresented b y a s ingle, c urved, p osterolatera ] s urface; t he i nterosseous b order, i nstead o f f orming t he p osterolateral b order o f t he s haft, w as r epresented

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o nly a s a l ow r idge m idway a long t he p osterolateral s urface. T he a nterior s ubcutaneous b order ( shin) i s t hick a nd r ounded, r ather t han s harp a nd a ngular a s i s u sually t he c ase.

F emur S everal f ragments o f b oth r ight a nd l eft f emora w ere p resent. I n e ach b one, h owever, t here w as a s hallow l ongitudinal r idge, 8 cm n t he l ateral a spect o f t he s haft b elow t he l esser t rochanl ong , o t er. T his l ay l ateral t o t he r eg ion f or t he a ttachment o f t he g luteus m aximus, a long t he l ine o f a ttachment o f t he v astus l ateralis m uscle.

P elvis a nd l ower v ertebral c olumn T hree s pecimens f rom t his r egion w ere p resent. I n t wo o f t hem , t he g reater s ciatic n otch w as p resent a nd h ad a n a ngle o f a pproximately 4 5° , s uggesting t hat t he s ex w as m ale.

S kull T he s kull w as v ery s everely d amaged. O nly t he v ault c ould b e e xamined. I t c onsisted o f p arts o f t he f ollowing b ones: l eft p ariet al, l eft t emporal, r ight p arietal, o ccipital. An umber o f s utural b ones w ere p resent i n t he l ambdoid s uture b etween t he p arietal a nd o ccipital b one. T hese w ere l arger a nd m ore n umerous o n t he r ight s ide t han o n t he l eft. D ue t o d amage, t he t wo p arietal b ones w ere o verriding o ne a nother, a llowing e xamination o f t he f ree e dge o f o ne o f t hem a t t he s agittal s uture. T he a ppearance o f t his s uggests t hat t he d eeper p arts o f t he b ones m ay h ave b egun t o f use w ith o ne a nother , s uggesting a n a ge o f b etween 2 5 a nd 3 0 y ears. H owever, t his m ust b e a n a pproximation, a s t he f usion p rocess i s v ariable i n b oth t ime o f o nset a nd r ate. T he c ontents o f t he c ranium c ould n ot b e v isualised b ecause i t w as f illed w ith f oreign m aterial. I t i s p ossible t hat p art o f t he f acial s keleton m ay b e e mbedded i n t his m aterial.

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R EPORT O N T HE M ANDIBLE A ND I TS D ENTITION F ROM

S KELETON I N 3 4B A T N EWGRANGE b y D r V . R . O 'Sullivan,

D epartment o f A natomy,

U niversity C ollege, C ork

T he m andible h as v ery p rominent m uscular p rocesses w ith a r elat ively p oorly d eveloped c hin. T he f ollowing t eeth a re p resent : 1117 . A ttrition i s e vident o n 8 76543 1 3 4567g , w ith s ockets f or 7 t he r emaining l ower t eeth a nd t he i ndications a re t hat t he s ubject p ossessed a c omplete d entition u ntil a t o r n ear t he t ime o f d eath. C omparison o f m olar a ttrition s uggests a n a ge o f 3 0-40 y ears. C hronic p eriodontitis w as p resent, w ith s evere b one l oss a nteriorly a nd s light i nvolvement o n t he l ingual s ide o f t he f urcation a reas i n t he m olar t eeth. R adiological e xamination s hows h owever t hat t he i nterdental s eptae a re w ell p reserved i n t he p remolar a nd m olar r egions. A s light t orus m andibularis i s p resent b ilaterally. T here i s n o c aries. I t i s o f i nterest t o c ompare t he o cclusal w ear o n t hese t eeth w ith t hat s hown o n L he t eeth f ound w ithin t he p assage g rave i ts elf. F or t his, I a m a ssuming t hat a ll t he m olar t eeth e rupted a t o r a round t he n ormal a ge a t w hich t hese t eeth e rupt i n m odern m an. O n t his b asis t he w ear p atterns a re q uite d ifferent. T he t wo s ubjects f ound i n t he p assage g rave s how a s ignificantly g reater a nd m ore r apid d egree o f w ear t han t he p resent s ubject, s uggesting t hat t heir d iet w as p robably f ar m ore a brasive i n n ature ( O 'Kelly 1 982, 2 12-13).

A ppendix I I

I DENTIFICATION O F S EEDS b y D r W . A . C aspari,

B iolog isch-Archaeologisch I nstituut

U niversity o f G roningen

I n t he E astern a rea a p it n ear t he s outh c orner o f a r ectangular s tone-set h earth ( no.1) c ontained c harcoal i ntermixed w ith B eaker w are s herds. A s mall n umber o f c harred s eeds w ere h and-picked o ut o f t he c harcoal. T hese w ere e xamined a nd i dentified. P resent w ere e ight g rains o f H ordeum v ulgare n udum ( naked b arley) a nd o ne g rain o f T riticum d icoccum ( emmer w heat). O ther g rains w ere u nidentif iable. T he c harcoal h as g iven a r adiocarbon d ate o f 1 935 3 5 b c ( GrN-6342).

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P ART I I

T HE C ERAMIC A SSEMBLAGE b y R ose M . C leary

A BSTRACT

T he b ase m aterial u nder s tudy c onsists o f f ragments o f a lmost 2 00 v essels w hich b elong t o t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker p eriod a t N ewgrange. T he c eramic r emains c onsist o f d iverse e lements w hich w ere f ound t ogether o n s ite a nd c omprised o ne a ssemblage. T his w as t he p roduct o f o ne c ommunity . T he r esults o f t he s tudy s uggest t hat t he p ottery w as l ocally m ade, t hat l ocal r aw m aterials w ere u sed a nd t hat t he t echnology o f t he p otters w as e ssentially t he s ame a s f or N eolithic c eramics i n g eneral i n I reland. D uring t he s tudy, v arious s cientific t echniques w ere u sed t o a nalyse t he l ocal r aw m aterial a nd t he f inished p ro— d uct. S ome o f t hese t echniques a re n ew t o a rchaeological r e— s earch a nd d etails w ill b e p ublished i n d ue c ourse ( Cleary, i n p reparation). T he a ims o f t he r esearch w ere t o a nswer f ive b asic q uestions: 1 2

3 4 5

I s t here a d ifference i n m anufacturing t echniques b etween t he d ifferent c eramic e lements a t N ewgrange? I s t here a c ontinuity b etween N eolithic a nd B eaker m aterial a t N ewgrange? D oes t he r aw m aterial s uggest l ocal f abrication? W ere t he r aw m aterials c hosen s pecifically t o s uit t he e ventual u se o f t he c eramic? W here a re t he p arallels f or t he a ssemblage?

A d etailed a nalysis o f c eramic p arallels f or t he N ewgrange p ottery w as n ot p ossible a t t his t ime a nd o nly p ublished e xca— v ation r eports w ere c onsulted. T his q uestion i s t he s ubject o f c ontinuing r esearch b y t he p resent a uthor.

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M ETHODS O F I NVESTIGATION A s a lready d etailed i n P art I , e vidence o f ad omestic s ettlement w as f ound a long t he e dge o f t he p rimary c ollapse f rom t he c airn a nd e xtending b eyond i t, t o b e s ealed b y f urther l ayers o f s lip i n d ue c ourse. T he s maller p assage—grave, S ite Z ( p. 2 1), w hich i s a dja— c ent t o t he m ain t umulus, p roduced s imilar e vidence o f L ate N eolithic/Beaker a ctivity a nd t he p resent s tudy e ncompasses t he p ottery f rom t he t wo a reas ( Fig. 2 ). T he r ange o f p ottery i ncludes c lassical B eaker; p ottery w hich i s B eaker i n s ome c haracteristics; a nd a n a ssociated r ange o f d omestic w ares. I t i s o ften d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween d omestic B eaker ( the s o—called C oarse w are) a nd c lassical B eaker p ottery a nd s o i t i s b est t o c onsider t he a ssemblage a s o ne c ultural c omplex r ather t han a s t wo d istinct c ultural e lements. T he t otal n umber o f s herds i s o ver 3 ,600. M aking u se o f s et c riteria, t hese w ere d ivided i nto 7 0 g roups o n t he b asis o f f actors s uch a s d ecorative t echniques, t exture, s urface f inish, c olour, h ardness, t emper, t hickness, p orosity, f racture p attern a nd p roven— a nce o f s herd o n t he e xcavation s ite. N ot a ll t he a bove c riteria a re o f e qual v alue o r u sefulness; f or e xample, c olour c an v ary b etween d ifferent p arts o f t he s ame v essel; h ardness c an b e a ffect— e d b y t he s oil c onditions o f t he s ite; t he s ame d ecorative m otif c an a ppear o n d ifferent g roups; t emper v aries n ot o nly f rom g roup t o g roup b ut a lso w ithin a p articular g roup; a nd p rovenance o f s herd h as o nly l imited u sefulness, m ainly w hen b order—line c ases a re i n q uestion. T he c riteria c ould n ot b e r ig idly a dhered t o a nd i n s ome c ases w hat S hepard ( 1968 , 9 7-100) h as c alled ' pottery s ense' h as h ad t o b e c alled i nto p lay . W hen t he p ottery h ad b een g rouped w ith t he a id o f ah and l ens ( x10), s amples w ere s electively c hosen f or a nalysis. T he t est s herds w ere t ypical o f t heir o wn g roup a nd w ere a nalysed a s r egards c lay c omposition, t empering a nd f iring c onditions. T o f acilitate e asy r ecognition d uring t his p rocess, t he 7 0 g roups w ere d esignated b y c onsecutive a rabic n umerals. S ubdivisions w ithin t he g roups w ere, w here n ecessary, i dentified b y l ower c ase l etters ( a, b , c , e tc) a nd t his r esulted i n a t otal o f 1 14 d ivi— s ions i n a ll. O ne p articular g roup, n o. 6 6 , n ecessitated a n u nusual a mount o f s ubdivision, b ased m ainly o n t hickness, b ut t he n ormal n umber o f s ubdivisions f or a ny o ne o f t he o ther m ain g roups w as o ne o r t wo. T hese m ithods o f i dentification o f g roups a re u sed t hrough— o ut t his p aper. N umerous t echnical p rocesses w ere e mployed d uring t he a nalysis o f t he c eramics ( Cleary, 1 980). H ere i t s uffices t o l ist t he v ari— o us m ethods o f i nvestigation: 1 P olished b riquette s ections. T hese i ndicated t he c oarse— n ess/fineness o f a p aste, t he f iring p attern o r d egree o f o xidisation a nd t he p ore s tructure a nd p orosity o f a v essel, f actors w hich c an d etermine t he f unction o f a p ot. 1 A m uch a bridged v ersion o f a n u npublished t hesis e ntitled ' The L ate N eolithic/Beaker p eriod c eramic a ssemblage f rom N ewgrange, C o. M eath: a s tudy ', p resented b y t he p resent a uthor t o t he N ational U niversity o f I reland i n 1 980 f or t he M A d egree.

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2

3 4 5 6 7 8

S pectrographic a nalysis. X -ray d iffraction. T hermal e xpansion m easurement. P etro]ogical e xamination. D ifferential t hermal a nalysis. M icroprobe a nalysis. X -ray f lorescence s can.

S oil s amples o f n on-calciferous c lays f rom t he B oyne v alley w ere a nalysed f or t race e lements t o d etermine i f t hese m atched t h2 t race e lement c omposition o f t he N ewgrange c eramic a ssemblage. T he p etrology o f t he t ype o f r ock u tilised i n t he b uilding o f N ewgrange w as a lready k nown a nd t his i nformation w as u sed t o a ssess w hether o r n ot t he t emper f or t he p ottery c ould h ave c ome f rom w ithin t he e nvirons o f t he N ewgrange s ettlement. O n t he b asis o f p olished s ection a nd p etrological s tudy , t he t otal p ottery a ssemblage w as d ivided i nto f ive c lay t emper g roups: G roup 1 An aturally s andy t extured p aste. T he a ggregate i s s and d erived - v ein q uartz o r q uartzite. G roup 2 A gain, t his i s a s andy t extured p aste o ften c oarser t han G roup 1 . T he a ggregate i s a n i gneous r ock w hich t ends t owards g abbroic/doleritic c omposition. T he a ggregate i s o ften l arge a nd a lways f reshly b roken w ith s harp a ngular e dges. G roup 3 T he c lay i n t his g roup i s f ine p articled, s imilar t o s ome e xamples f rom G roup 1 . T he a ggregate i s b oth s and d erived a nd/or i gneous. G roup 4 riv p aste i s v ery f ine p articled. T he t empering a gent i s m ainly c hamotte ( grog) b ut q uartzite i s a dded i n s ome e xamples a s a s econdary a ggregate. G roup 5 T he p aste i s f ine p articled.

T he a ggregate i s d olomite.

P ROVENANCE T he p ottery a ssemblage a t N ewgrange o ccurs i n f ive m ain c oncentrand i s a lso r andomly s cattered t hroughout t he e xcavated t ions l a a rea.' E ach c oncentration c ontained s everal d ifferent t ypes o f p ottery a nd t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest m utual e xclusiveness o n t he p art o f a ny t ype o r t ypes. T hus, c lassical B eaker, B eakeri nfluenced c eramics, u ndecorated B eaker, C oarse w are, G rooved w are a nd L ate-Neolithic-influenced d omestic w ares o ccur t ogether o n t he s ite. N o r ecognisable B eaker h ut o r h ouse s ite w as f ound b ut t here 2 Ia m i ndebted t o M r T . F inch o f A n F oras T a Wntais w ho t he e xact t est s oil l ocations.

c hose

3 C leary 1 980, ( unpublished). D istribution p lans 1 -3. A vailable f or c onsultation i n t he D epartment o f A rchaeology a nd i n t he B oole L ibrary, U niversity C ollege C ork.

6 0

w as e xtensive e vidence o f s quatting a nd h abitation i n t he f orm o f h earths, p its a nd p ostholes, d omestic a nimal b ones a nd n umerous f lint a rtefacts. A s a lready d etailed i n P art I , t he p rimary l ayer o f s lip o uts ide t he s outhern p art o f h e N ewgrange c a irn c onsisted o f a m ixt ure o f q uartz a nd g ranite b oulders a nd a bove t his a nd e xtending b eyond i t w as o ne o f e arth/stone ( Fig. 3 ). T he p ottery c ame f rom t he q uartz/granite l ayer a nd f rom t he e arth/stone o ne a nd w as s ealed b y l ater c ollapses o f m ater ial f rom t he c a irn. I n a ddition, i n t he C entra l a nd W estern a reas, a f eature k nown a s t he b oulder c lay b ank, a b ank o f a lmost s toneless b oulder c lay , r an w estward f rom t he a rea o pposite t he t omb e ntrance a s f ar a s t he l imits o f t he e xcavation. T his w as c ontemporary w ith t he B eaker s ettlement a nd p ottery w as r ecovered f rom u nder i t a nd f rom l ayers r unning u p o ver i t. T he f ive m ain c oncentrations o f p ottery w ere: C oncentration N o. 1 T his o ccurred i n a nd a bout a h ollow i n t he C entral a rea ( Fig. 8 ) o n t op o f ah ut f oundation w hich w as a p rimary f eature ( O 'Kelly 1 982, 7 6-7). C lassical B eaker , B eakeri nfluenced w are a nd u ndecorated B eaker o ccurred h ere, a s i n t he o ther f our c oncentrations a lso, b ut i n a ddition, B eaker b owls w ere f ound i n t his c oncentration. C oncentration N o . 2 T his i s a lmost o pposite t he t omb e ntrance i n t he C entral a rea a nd i s c oncentrated i n a nd a bout h earth n o. 7 . T he a dditional c eramic e lements h ere w ere G rooved w are a nd d omestic o r c oarse B eaker. T his i s i n t he C entral a rea e ast o f t he t omb C oncentration N o. 3 e ntrance a nd i s ar elatively l arge a ssemblage a ssociated w ith a f oundation t rench ( p . 2 3). T he t rench n arrows t owards t he n orthe ast a s i t a pproaches t he o uter e dge o f t he p rimary q uartz/granite s lip. T he p ottery w as f ound i n t he t rench a nd i n ag eneral s catter t o t he n orth-east o f i t. T he a dditional p ottery e lement h ere c onsisted o f G rooved w are. C oncentration N o . 4 T his i s a lso i n t he C entral a rea, t o t he e ast o f t he p revious o ne a nd i s c entred o n h earth n o. 5 . D omestic o r c oarse B eaker w as f ound h ere i n a ddition t o t he t ypes c ommon t o a ll c oncentrations. T his i s i n t he n orthern p art o f t he E astern C oncentration N o. 5 a rea, c lose t o t he b oundary l ine o f t he e xcavation a nd i s u nconn ected w ith a ny d iscernible s tructural f eature. I t i s b y f ar t he l argest c oncentration. A dditional p ottery e lements p resent a re d omestic o r c oarse B eaker a nd F ood v essel. T he p ottery w as m ore r andomly d istributed i n t he o ther p arts o f t he e xcavated a reas. U nder t he b oulder c lay b ank t here w ere h earth s ites a nd r usticated w are w as a ssociated w ith s ome o f t hem . T his c an b e c onsidered a s b elonging t o t he n ormal B eaker a ssemblage. 4

S ee P art I , f ootnote 1 , p .

2 .

6 1

S ome B eaker p ottery o ccurred u nder t he b ank a nd t hough n ot d irectly a ssociated w ith t he c oarse p ottery, t here i s n o d oubt t hat i t b elonged t o t he s ame h orizon. Am inor c oncentration o f c oarse p ottery w as f ound i n t he F ar W estern a rea i n c utting 2 7W , c entred o n h earth n o. 1 6. T his s uggests a c ontinuity b etween L ate N eolithic a nd B eaker-period o ccupation s ince b oth p ottery t ypes w ere s ealed b y t he b ank o f b oulder c lay. T he o ther f inds o f B eaker w ere e ither c entred o n h earth s ites o r o ccurred i n s eemingly f eatureless a reas. P repared p aste, o r c lay t hat h ad b een t empered b ut n ot m oulded i nto s hape a nd w hich w as a ccidentally f ired, w as f ound m ainly i n t he a rea o utside t he g reat s tone c ircle i n t he E -W e xtension ( Fig. 8 ). T his m ay h ave b een u sed a s ap ottery w orking a rea. P repared p aste w as a lso f ound i n a ssociation w ith C oncentrations n os. 1 -4 a nd u nder t he b ank i n c utting 2 6 i n t he F ar W estern a rea ( Fig. 1 2). T here i s n o e vidence o f a k iln b ut m ost o f t he p ottery w as p robably f ired i n a n o pen f ire. O ne m ay y et b e u ncovered i n t he u nexcavated a reas t o t he n orth a nd e ast o f N ewgrange. T he s iting o f ak iln w ould p robably h ave b een a way f rom t he p revailing w inds o n t he l ee-side o f t he m ound, t hus p reventing f luctuating t emperatures d uring f iring. T he p resence o f p repared p aste i ndic ates o n-site f abrication o f p ottery. T he S ite Z p ottery w as n ot p lotted o n t he d istribution m aps ( Cleary 1 980) s ince t he a rea h ad b een s o g reatly d isturbed d uring t he t otal d estruction o f t he p assage g rave. T he p lotting o f t he f ind s pots w ould n ot, a s a c onsequence, h ave b een e ither r eliable o r i nformative. I t i s, h owever, s imilar t o t he m ain a ssemblage a nd i t i s a ssumed t hat i t i s r oughly c ontemporary w ith i t. A n umber o f p ottery t ypes a re d irectly a ssociated w ith r adioc arbon-dated s amples. T hese c ome f rom p its i n t he E astern a rea ( Fig. 4 ). T he r ange o f C 14 d ates i s f rom 1 925 9 0 b c t o 2 100 ± 4 0 b c, t hat i s, c entring o n 2 000 b c. T he s amples a re a ssociated w ith c lassical B eaker, B eaker-influenced w are, u ndecorated B eaker, d omes tic B eaker, G rooved w are a nd c oarse p ottery. T he o n-site a ssociation o f d ifferent p ottery t ypes a nd t he s eries o f C 14 d ates c entring o n 2 000 b c s uggest t hat t he c eramic a ssemblage o f t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker p eriod a t N ewgrange i s t he p roduct o f o ne c ultural g roup, r ather t han o f s eparate e thnic e lem ents. T hough c lassical B eaker f orms a re o bvious, c ontinuity w ith t he L ate N eolithic e lement a nd t he i nfluence o f c lassical B eaker m otifs a nd t echniques a re a lso a pparent.

P OTTERY T YPES T he i nvestigation o f t he N ewgrange c eramic a ssemblage r esulted, a s w e h ave s een, i n ab reakdown i nto 7 0 g roups d etermined a ccording t o s pecific c riteria s uch a s d ecorative t echniques, t exture, c olour, e tc. A r ecord w as m ade o f e ach g roup a ccording t o t he p hysical p roperties a lready o utlined. I n a ddition, a n a ttempt w as m ade t o e stimate t he f iring c onditions o f t he s herd g roups, i .e. w hether t hey h ad b een f ired i n a n o xidising o r i n a r educing a tmosphere, e tc. T he s hape o f b ody, r im a nd b ase w as n oted a s w ere s urface c onditions, i .e. w hether w orn o r i ntact a nd s o o n. A ny i ndication o f f unction w as n oted; c arbonaceous m atter o n a s urface s uggested a

6 2

c ooking p ot, e tc. F inally , t he m inimum n umber o f v essels r epresent ed, b ased o n t he e xistence o f r im a nd/or b ase s herds, w as e stim ated. T aken a s aw hole, t he a ssemblage c onsisted o f c lassical B eaker, B eaker-associated c eramics a nd c oarse p ottery, b ut i n a n e ndeavour t o r efine t he s ystem f urther a nd t o f ind c omparanda f or t he v arious d isparate e lements, a n a ttempt h as b een m ade t o s lot t he c lassical B eaker e lements p resent a t N ewgrange i nto D . L . C larke's c lassific ation o f B eaker p ottery ( 1970). W hile r ecognising t hat m any o ther c lassification s chemes a re i n e xistence, n otably t hat o f L anting a nd v an d er W aals ( 1973), C larke's h as b een c hosen a s t he m ain f ramework f or t he N ewgrange B eaker a ssemblage, c hiefly b ecause o f i ts w ide d issemination i n t hese i slands t hough, w here r elevant, t hat o f L anting a nd v an d er W aals h as a lso b een u tilised. C larke's c lassification i s b ased m ainly o n p rofile, s tyles o f o rnamentation a nd m otifs. S ince t here a re f ew p rofiles i n t he N ewgrange a ssemb lage t hat c ould b e r econstructed t he a ssignment o f g roups o f p ott ery t o h is c lassification h as n ecessarily b een b ased m ainly o n o rnamentation a nd m otifs. T his i s b y n o m eans s atisfactory b ut i t w as f elt, n evertheless, t hat a f ramework s uch a s t hat c onstructed b y C larke s hould b e m ade u se o f f or t he p urpose o f t he p resent s tudy i n s o f ar a s w as p ossible. F rom o n-site a ssociation, i t i s a pparent t hat t he s eemingly d iscrete e lements o f C larke's c lassification a re m ixed t ogether i n t he c oncentrations o f p ottery a t N ewgrange. T herefore, h is c atal ogue i s b est s een a s o ne o f i nterconnected s tyles a nd v ariations. I t i s b etter t o c onsider t he N ewgrange a ssemblage a s o ne c omplex , s panning a t l east 2 00 y ears, r ather t han o ne r esulting f rom t hree o r f our m igrations i nto t he B oyne v alley . U ndoubtedly, t here w as c ontact w ith a nd s timuli f rom S cotland a nd o ther p arts o f I reland. F or i nstance, P eacock ( 1969) h as s uggested t hat t he t rading n etwork f or p ottery i n t he M iddle N eolithic i n C ornwall e xtended o ver a d istance o f 2 00 m iles. A nother e lement t o c onsider i n t he N ewgrange a ssemblage i s t he p ottery w hich h as L ate N eolithic a ffiliations a nd s imilarities. T his c an b e c onsidered t o b e t he r ough d omestic w are u sed i n c onj unction w ith t he B eaker c eramic r ange a nd c an b e s een a s a c ontinu ation o f t he N eolithic p ottery t radition i n I reland. S ome o f t he c oarse p ottery p resent a t N ewgrange h as G rooved w are c onnections. G rooved w are i s c ommon o n B eaker s ites i n B ritain a nd F ood v essels a ppear t o o we m ore t o G rooved w are t han t o B eaker i nf luence, e .g. B owl F ood v essels. I f t his i s t he c ase, i t i s s ign ificant t hat G rooved w are i s p resent a t t he B oyne v alley s ite. I t a lso o ccurs a t o ther I rish B eaker s ites, e .g. L ough G ur , C o. L imerick a nd D alkey I sland, C o. D ublin. T he s ections o f t he C larke B eaker c lassification w hich a re r elevant t o t he N ewgrange p ottery a re cw hat H . C ase ( 1977) h as r eferred t o a s t he E arly a nd M iddle p hases .

5 A bbreviations: A OC A ll-over-cord; A 00 A ll-over-ornament; B W B arbed W ire; E B ell B eaker; E A ng E ast A nglian; NiD P rimary N orthern B ritish/Dutch; N , D eveloped N orthern B ritish; A /MR N orthe rn B ritish/Middle R hine " ; N /NR N orth B ritish/North R hine; W /MR W essex/Middle R hine. 6 3

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T he E arly p hase c onsists o f A OC a nd E , a nd t he M iddle p hase, c . 2 000 b c, c ontains p ottery t ypes E , W /MR, N /MR, N /NR, B W , EA ng, N11 ) a nd N2 . T he l ast f our g roups a re n ot p resent a t N ewgrange. I ndeed t i w ould b e b etter t o c onsider t hem a s r egional s tyles a nd l ocal v ariations o f an ew c eramic e lement i ntroduced i nto L ate N eolithic c ommunities. T hus, w hile t he A 00 o f t he D utch B eaker c lassification a nd C larke's E t ype r epresent p an-European e lem ents, t he r emainder a re r egional v ariations. T he B W a nd E A ng B eakers a re r egional s tyles i n t he s outhern p art o f B ritain a nd t he NiD a nd N2 B eakers c an b e c onsidered a s S cottish e ast c oast r egiona l g roups. T he r emainder -W /MR, N /MR a nd N /NR -are p resent t o s ome d egree a t N ewgrange. A gain t hese a re b est c onsidered a s s tyles o f p ottery w hich d eveloped f rom a n i nitial B eaker c ultural s timulus a nd c ontinued t hrough c ontact w ithin t he I rish/Scottish/Middle R hine a rea. T he b oundary l ines b etween t he r egional s tyles s hould r emain f luid r ather t han b ecome r igid d ivisions a nd t he N ewgrange p ottery i s b est c onsidered a s b elonging t o t he I rish/Scottish/ M iddle a nd L ower R hine c ultural p rovince, r ather t han t o d iscrete c eramic e lements. W hile a ny o ne o f t hese a reas w ill n ot n ecess arily m irror a nother a rea, g eneral t rends a nd s tyles o f d ecoration a re a pparent.

C ATALOGUE O F N EWGRANGE P OTTERY T YPES T he f ollowing p ottery t ypes a re p resent i n t he N ewgrange a ssemblage ( based o n C larke w ith m odifications b y L anting a nd v an d er W aals): 1 A 00 ( this i ncludes C larke's A OC) 2 E 3 W /MR 4 N /MR 5 C ord oned B eaker 6 R usticated w are ( Pot B eakers) 7 U ndecorated b owls 8 F lat-based b ucket s haped p ottery 9 R illed a nd l ug o rnamented p ottery 1 0 W hipped-cord i mpressed p ottery B eaker-influenced 1 p ottery. T ypes 5 -8 a bove a re w ares t ypically a ssociated w ith c lassical B eaker f orms i n h abitation s ites. T ype 9 i s u nusual a nd m ay h ave G rooved w are r elationships. T ype 1 0 m ay h ave N eolithic c onnections. M odderman ( 1955) s uggests t hat t his d ecorative e lement c ontinues t hroughout t he B eaker p hase o f c ultural d evelopment. T ype 1 i s a f ine w ell-made w are w ith s ome e lements o f c lassical B eaker d ecorat ive t echniques a nd m otifs. I n a ddition, t he f ollowing w ares a re p resent: 1 2 T hick c oarse f lat-based d omestic p ottery 1 3 B owl f orms 1 4 G rooved w are 1 5 C oarse d omestic p ottery ( Beaker-associated L ate N eolithic). T ypes 1 2 a nd 1 3 a re d omestic p ottery w ith N eolithic a ffinities. T ype 1 5 i s t ypical o f p ottery f rom B eaker h abitation s ites a nd i llustrates t he c ontinuing c eramic t radition t o w hich a n i ntrusive e lement -the c lassic B eaker f orm -was a dded.

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6 6

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G roup 1 ; o nly o ne v essel r epresented.

G roup 1 ( Fig. 2 3) S herd E 56:197. D ecorated w ith d ouble s trand t wisted c ord i mpressions d eeply s unk i nto t he v essel w all. T exture g ritty, c olour u niform r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 5 /8); n ot f ully o xidised d uring f iring; m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ). P robably m ade b y p inching u p i nto s hape; s lightly c arinated; w all t hickness 8 mm m ax. T he c lay u sed i s an aturally s andy t extured p aste w ith en a ggregate u ltimately s and d erived q uartz o r q uartzite. ( b) A ll-over-comb r epresented: 4

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G roup 2 ( Fig. 2 3) C omb i mpressions e ither i n i rregularly s paced b ands, E 56:152, o r i n c onverging l ines, E 56:200. T eeth c . l mm s quare a nd c losely s paced. N ote c ordons, e .g. E 56:204 a nd 1 52. T exture v aries f rom s oapy t o s lightly g ritty; s urface f inish v aries f rom b urnished t o s moothing w ith t he f ingertips; c olour v aries f rom r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 5 /8) t o r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 7 .5 Y R 7 /6); n ot f ully o xidised; m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ) . F racture p attern o f E 56:155 s uggests c oil c onstruction b ut t he r emaining s herds w ere p inched u p; e xtant b ody s herds s uggest a f lat b ase w ith p rotruding f oot, e .g. E 56:198(2), a nd a c ordoned S -profile b ody, E 56:155 ; r im r ounded a nd s lightly o utturned, E 56:152. E stimated d iameters 1 6+cm ; t hickness o f w all 6 -9mm; b ase 1 1mm; r im 5 -6mm. G roup 3 ( Fig. 2 3) C omb i mpressions i rregularly s paced, t eeth c . 1 mm s quare. T exture s mooth; c olour l ight r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 6 /8); m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ). R im f orms r ounded a nd f eat ureless; e stimated d iameters 1 4cm. G lobular p rofile s uggested b y E 56:938. T hickness o f w all 5 -8mm , r im 4 -5mm. C lay u sed i s a n aturally s andy t extured p aste w ith a ggregate u ltimately s and d erived -quartz o r q uartzite. G roup 4 ( Fig. 2 3) O ne s herd o nly, E 56:919. C omb t ooth i mpress ions r ectangular a nd c . 3 mm l ong w ith 2 mm i ntervals b etween t he t eeth. T exture s lightly g ritty; c olour u niform y ellow ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 7 /6); n ot f ully o xidised; m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); w all t hickness 7 mm m ax. ( c) A ll-over-grooving r epresented: 9 .

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o f

v essels

6 I t w ill b e n oticed t hat p ottery s herds b earing t he s ame R egister n umber w ill b e f ound i n s everal d ifferent g roups, e .g. E 56:939 o ccurs i n g roups 6 , 1 , 1 2 a nd 1 4. T his i s u navoidable s ince t he s herds w ere n umbered i mmediately t hey w ere e xcavated a nd s herds f ound t ogether w ere g iven t he s ame R egister n umber. C onsequently t here a re c ases w here 1 00, o r e ven m ore, s herds b ear t he s ame R egister n umber w hile v arying i n t ype a nd/or g roup. S herds f rom t he m ain N ewgrange m onument a re p refixed b y E 56 a nd t hose f rom S ite Zb y E 126.

6 7

G ROUP

1

G ROUP

G ROUP 4 .

1 56:919

3

E 56:630

G ROUP

L 56:938

2

,5 6:198(1) i

E 56:152

LJL: GUU

L 56:204

h 56:155 G ROUP 8

G R OUP

E 56:1504

L 56:198(2)

E 56:157

L 56:187

G ROUP

5

t I

G ROUP

3

E 56:610

E 56:610 E 56:1514(2) G ROUP

6

i _ . 56:939(2)

L . 56:939(1)

E 56:165

1 56:627(1)

L 6:939(3)

E 56:627(2) G R8UP

. L 2 .6:1507

F 56:941(1)

F ig.

2 3

T ype

1 ,

A 00:

G roups

g

1 -6,

8 , 9

6 8

0 C

3

A MW _7 1

:941(2) L 56

L )6:2u4

Fig. 2 3) G rooving f aint; t exture s mooth a nd s oapy; G roup 5 ( c lay f ully o xidised; h ard ( Moh's s cale 4 ); p inched u p i nto s hape. C lay u sed i s n aturally s andy t extured w ith a n a ggregate u ltimately s and d erived, i .e. q uartz o r q uartzite. G roup 6 ( Fig. 2 3) G rooved l ines s harply i ncised a nd s paced a t i ntervals v arying f rom 3 -5mm a part. E 56:627(2) c ombines e xtern al g rooving w ith d eep i nternal t wisted c ord i mpressions. T ext ure c orky w ith s ome t races o f b urnishing t hough t he r emainder o f t he g roup w as s moothed w ith t he f ingertips a s a s urface f inish. R ims r ounded a nd f eatureless. C lay a s i n G roup 5 . G roup 7 ( F ig. 2 4) S herd E 56:195 s uggests t hat s ome p ottery h ad z ones o f g rooved o rnament i nterspersed w ith b lank z ones. I n E 56:1505/941 t he g rooving a lso o ccurs o n t he i nner t ip o f t he r im . T exture, f ormation t echnique a nd r im f orm a s i n G roup 6 t hough i n G roup 7 r ims a re o utturned. C lay i s f ine p articled a nd p etrological e xamination s howed t he t emper t o c onsist o f c hamotte w ith s ome s econdary o r m inor i nclusions o f q uartzite. G roup 3 ( Fig. 2 3) G rooving l ightly i ncised, e .g. E 56:610. T ext ure a nd t ype o f c lay a s i n G roup 5 . G roup 8 ( Fig. 2 3) C lose-set g rooving c . 2 mm g ritty; f ully o xidised. C lay a s i n G roup 5 .

a part.

T exture

G roup 9 ( Fig. 2 3) L ightly i ncised g rooves s paced a t i ntervals o f 3 -6mm a nd 1 mm w ide. T exture, r im f orm a nd c lay a s i n G roup

6 . G roup 1 0 ( Fig. 2 4) G rooves s paced f rom 3 -9mm a part. T exture a nd r im f orm s imilar t o G roup 6 . C lay f ine p articled w ith a n a ggregate o f d olomite. G roup 4 ( Fig . 2 3) G rooving l ightly T exture g ritty; c lay a s i n G roup 5 .

i ncised,

e .g. E 56:1514(2).

T he c olour v ariations i n t he a bove w ares a re w ide a nd v ary f rom b lotchy r ed-grey ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 5 /8 -2.5 Y R 3 /1) t o y ellowish b rown ( 10 Y R 5 /4) a nd y ellow ( 10 Y R 7 /6 ). H ardness v aries f rom s oft ( Moh 's s cale 1 ) i n G roup 8 t o h ard i n G roup 5 ( Moh 's s cale 4 ). V essel f ormation t echniques s uggest t he p ottery w as p inched u p i nto s hape. M ost o f t he s herds a re t oo t hin f or r ough d omestic u se a nd t heir f unction w as p robably a s c ontainers.

T ype 2

B ell B eaker ( Figs 2 4-6)

C ertain s herds f rom G roups 1 ( including a r econstructed p ot ), 4 a nd 1 2 f all w ithin t his t ype. S ome s herds f rom G roups 5 a nd 6 m ay a lso b e B ell B eaker b ut s ince t he s herds c annot b e r econstructed i nto a p rofile, i t i s d ifficult t o b e c ertain. T he m otifs, h owever, f it i nto t he B ell B eaker r ange ( Clarke 1 970). T he i nternal c ord i mpressions t hat o ccur o n G roups 6 a nd 1 a re t hought b y C larke t o

6 9

G ROUP

7

E 56:1505(2)

E 56:1505 041

E 56:195 E 56:197

G ROUP 1 0

" . 56 157 .

E 56:1505

E 56:154

L 56:193

E 56:200(1)

E 56:198

E 56:200(2) 0

C

= 11

3cr n

C 1

G ROUP 6

. ü

E 56:939(4 L 56:587(1)

. p 56:164(1)

A E 56:587(2)

E 56:942

1 E 56:1546 E 56.186 G ROUP 1 2

s o s o e r, e i r, d

e s-

e re,

1 1 L 56:1503 & 9 39

F ig.

2 4

T ypes 1 & 2 , A 00: G roups

E 56:1505(1)

6 , 7 , 1 0.

7 0

E 56:1505(2)

E : G roups

6 , 1 2

b e o f u ltimate R henish o rigin b ut t his f eature i s c ommon i n L ate N eolithic p ottery f rom s ites i n I reland a nd S cotland. M inimum n umber o f v essels r epresented: 1 0. G roup 1 1 ( Figs 2 5-6) T he r econstructed B eaker o f t his g roup h as a z onal s tyle o f d ecoration e xecuted w ith b one i mpressions a nd i ncised j abs. T he z one b eneath t he n eck i s w idest a t 4 cm a nd c onsists o f t hree h orizontal r ows o f c omb i mpressed d ecorat ion f ram ing a z one f illed w ith s hort j abs. T he l ower r ow o f c omb i mpressions i s a lso f ringed w ith s hort j abs. T he m iddle z one o ccurs n ear t he b elly c arination a nd c onsists o f t hree r ows o f c omb i mpressed d ecoration w ith a j abbed f ringe m otif a bove a nd b elow . T he l owest z one i s a d ouble r ow o f c omb i mpressed d ecoration. T he o ther s herds o f G roup 1 1 b elong t o a d ifferent v essel f rom t hat s hown o n t he r econstruction b ut t he f abric i s t he s ame. T he m otifs a re l adder p attern, e .g. s herd E 56:939(5). T hese a ppear t o o ccur i n z ones, t he i ntervening z ones m ay b e b lank, e .g. E 56:939(5), o r f illed w ith j abbed i mpressions, e .g. E56:939(4). F ringed c omb i mpressed d ecoration o ccurs o n E 56:588. E 56:629 h as c omb i mpressions a lone. T he r im s herds, e .g. E 56:939(1) a nd 1 503, h ave a d ouble r ow o f j abs o n t he i nternal b evel. T exture s mooth a nd s oapy a nd m ay h ave h ad a s lip c oating; s hape s lightly c arinated w ith a n o utturned r ound ed r im f orm ; p ointed r im f orms a lso p resent, e .g. E 56:939(1); r econstructed v essel h as r im d iameter o f 2 0cm. G roup 1 2 ( Fig. 2 4) T riangular i mpressions e xecuted w ith a p oint o ccur i n r ows c . 3 mm a part. T opmost p art o f t his m otif i s c omp arable t o c ardium s hell. T exture s lightly g ritty; c olour u nif orm l ight r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 6 /8 ); m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); n eck s hort a nd p ots a ppear t o b e g lobular; r im s hapes e ither r ounded a nd f eatureless o r o utturned; d iameter c alcul ated a t 1 6+cm G roup 4 ( Fig. 2 6) E 56:628 i s o bvious B ell B eaker w ith r ows o f i ncised d ecoration a nd z ones o f X -motif. T exture g ritty ; E 56:628 h as s light b evel o n o utside o f r im; d olomite i nclusions i n t he p aste o f s ome s herds. G roup 5 ( Fig. 2 6) E 56:163(1) a nd ( 2) h ave a c arelessly e xecuted l adder p attern. T exture s mooth a nd s oapy; f ully o xidised; E 56:163(2) s uggests c oil c onstruction. G roup 6 ( Fig. 2 4) C ontains a n umber o f s herds w ith B ell B eaker m otifs. E 56:186 h as z oned d ecoration, t he z one b eing f illed w ith a r ow o f l ong j abs a t a 4 5° a ngle t o t he h orizontal g roov ing. E 56:942 i s s imilar i n t he m otif d esign w hile E 56:1546 h as f aint t races o f a l adder p attern. T exture c orky. I n a ll t he a bove g roups, c olour v ariations a re w ide a nd r ange f rom r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 7 .5 Y R 6 /6) t o l ight r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 7 /6). A ll t he p ottery, e xcept G roup 5 m entioned a bove, w as p artia lly o xidised d uring f iring a nd a ll w as m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ). I n t he m ain, t he p ottery w as p inched u p i nto s hape. N o v essel

7 1

G ROUP 1

' " k e , ' e e ,ge t

G ROUP 1 5

E 56 198 0

F ig.

2 5

T ypes 2 &

3cm

3 , E : G roup 1 1. W /MR: G roup 1 5

7 2

G ROUP 1

E f :6 : 939(l)

E 56:939(2)

1 , 56:939(4)

E 56:939(3)

1 2 , 56:1503

i eWINUMU i l N e t . m A g er

E 56:629

E 56:588 G ROUP 5

;

L 56:634

L 56:163(2)

G ROUP 4

i . 2 56 : 628

. 1 2 36:628

1 7 ,56:1514(1) 0 I : = I I I I I I IE

3cm =

G ROUP

1 6

L 126:84

F ig.

2 6

, T ypes 2 & 4

E : G roups 4 , 5 , 1.

7 3

N /MR:

G roup 1 6

o ther t han t he o ne i n G roup 1 1 ( Fig. 2 5) c ould b e r econstructed. P aste s andy t extured w ith q uartz o r q uartzite t emper.

T ype 3 W essex/Middle R hine ( Figs 2 5,

2 7)

G roups 1 3 ( Site Z ), 1 4 a nd 1 5; m inimum n umber o f v essels r epresen. G roup 1 7b ( Fig. 2 8) m ay b e W /MR-type p ottery a lso b ut o n t ed: 8 t he b asis o f p rofile a nd d ecoration i t f its m ore c omfortably i nto C larke's N /MR t ype. W hile t he m etopic m otif s uggests t hat i t b el ongs t o t he W /MR t radition, t he b oundary l ine b etween i t a nd N /MR s hould r emain f luid a nd u ndoubtedly t hese t wo s tyles a re i nterconn ected. G roup 1 3 ( Site Z ) ( Fig. 2 7) I ncised d ecoration, m otifs o ccurr ing i n z ones ( E126:94[4]) a nd i n a ll-over-decorated s tyle, e .g. E 126:94(9). E 126:94(4), ( 6 ) a nd ( 11) h ave a c ross-hatching m otif f illing a z one d elimited b y 1o r 2 i ncised h orizontal l ines. E 126:94(1) h as 2 p arallel h orizontal c losely-set l ines b elow w hich a re 3 d iagonal l ines t hat m ay b e p art o f a f ringe m otif. E 126:94(5) h as h yphenated h orizontal g rooving, w hile E 126 :94(7) h as c omb s tamp i mpressions. A d ouble r ow o f t hese d elineates a z one f illed w ith a h erring-bone m otif. T exture s mooth a nd s oapy , s urface s lip c oated; r ounded f eatureless r im p rofiles; s lightly f ooted f lat b ase, e .g. E 126:94(10); a c urved p rofile s uggested b y E 126:94(12). T oo f ragmentary t o d etermine t echnique o f m anufacture. G roup 1 4 ( Fig. 2 7) Z onal a nd m etopic s tyle o f d ecoration; u se o f i ncised l ines. M otifs i nclude i ncised l ines b ordering z ones a nd o ccurring i n p airs; f illed z ones o f c ross-hatching, h erring-bone, a nd s corings a long t he r im t op, e .g. E 56:1506. T he l atter i s n ot t ypical o f W /MR w are. C larke a ssigns p ottery w ith r im-top d ecoration t o h is N /NR t ype a t t he e arliest. H owever, t here i s n o d ifference b etween E 56:1506 a nd t he s herds i n t he r emainder o f G roup 1 4 a nd t he r im-top d ecoration m ay b e a l ocal v ariant. T he m etopic d ecoration c onsists o f a lternate h orizontal h erring-bone-filled z ones d ivided b y 3i ncised l ines. T he t ext ure i s s mooth a nd s oapy a nd t he s urface i s s lip-coated; t here i s a f racture p attern o f c oil b uilding; r im a ngular a nd o utt urned, d iameters v arying b etween 2 4 a nd 2 6cm; n o b ase s herds s urvive; b ody p rofile m ay h ave b een g lobular. G roup 1 5 ( Fig. 2 5) T he p olypod v essels ( Fig. 2 5) b elong t o t his g roup. C larke a ttributes p olypods t o W /MR a nd c onsiders t he p olypod a s o ne t ype o f p ottery w hich w as d irectly i mported i nto t he S cottish B eaker c omplexes f rom t he M iddle R hine a rea. N o d ecoration; t exture g ritty; c olour u niform b rownish y ellow ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 6 /6-6/8); b ody p inched u p i nto s hape a nd t he f our l egs a dded s eparately; r im d iameter c . 2 0cm . T he p ottery o f t he a bove g roups v aries f rom t he u niform r ed ( Muns ell 2 .5 Y R 6 /8) a nd t he r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 5 Y R 6 /8) o f G roup 1 4 t o t he b lotchy l ight r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 6 /8) a nd b rown ( Munsell

7 4

G ROUP 1 4

l e , 2 ' 56:1505(1)

£ 56:939 J .)

E 56:939(4) E 56:166

L 50 :1 505(2)

E 56:943(2)

E 56:939(3)

E 56:959

E 56:953

G ROUP 1 3

L 126:94(1)

L 126:94(2)

L 5g .120:94(6)

E 126:94(5)

L 126:94(3) E 126 : 94(4)

1

E 126:94(10)

1 1

/1

L 126:94 ( 7)

£ 126:94

( 8 )

E 120:94(9,

L 126:94 3 " , ( 11) ' E 126:9 (1:)

F ig.

2 7

T ype 3 , W /MR:

G roups 1 3,

1 4

7 5

1 0 Y R 5 /3) o f G roup 1 3. A ll t he p ottery i s p artially o xidised a nd e xhibits b lack c ore s ections. M edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); w all t hicknesses f rom 6 -16mm , t he l argest b eing t he p olypod v essels. P aste i s n aturally s andy t extured w ith a n a ggregate o f m aterial u ltimately s and d erived, i .e. q uartz o r q uartzite.

T ype 4 N orth B ritish/Middle R hine ( Figs 2 6 a nd 2 8) G roups 1 6 ( Site Z ), r epresented : 8 .

1 7a a nd b ,

1 8 a nd 1 9 ; m inimum n umber o f v essels

G roup 1 6 ( Site Z ) ( Fig. 2 6) D ecoration z onal i n s tyle w ith c omb i mpressions. T exture s lightly g ritty ; f ully o xidised; v ery f ine-particled p aste w ith a t empering a gent t hat i s c hiefly c hamotte t hough t here i s a s econdary a ggregate o f q uartzite. G roup 1 7a ( Fig. 2 8) R econstruction p ossible. Z onal s tyle. M oti fs a re c omb i mpressions w ith a n i ncised f ringe; z ones v ary i n w idth f rom 1 0-13mm ; t eeth o f c omb a re s quare-ended a nd c . l mm a s ide. T exture s mooth a nd s oapy, s lip c oating a pplied; n ot f ully o xidised, s howing b lack c ores; s lightly c arinated S -profile; r im d iameter o f 1 0cm a nd b ase d iameter o f 6 cm ; h eight 1 1cm w hen r econstructed; v ery f ine p aste, t empering a gent o f i gneous c omp osition b ut w as n ot p ositively i dentified. G roup 1 7b ( Fig. 2 8) D ecoration z onal a nd f ormed b y i mpressions f rom a 3 -toothed c omb; z ones a t i rregular i ntervals a nd f illed w ith v ertical c omb s tamp i mpressions. T exture s mooth a nd s oap y , s lip c oating a pplied ; c olour u niform , v ery p ale y ellow ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 7 /4); f ully o xidised; h as f racture p attern o f c oil-constructed v essel; p aste a s i n G roup 1 7a. G roup 1 8 ( Fig. 2 8) D ecoration z onal b ut c arried o ut b y m eans o f i ncised l ines; f ringe m otif o ccurs; E 56 :615 s uggests a ll-overd ecoration o f s hort o blique s corings. T exture a nd s urface f inish a s i n 1 7a a nd 1 7b; n ot f ully o xidised, b lack c ores p resent; v essel s hort-necked a s i n E 56:1505 t hough E 56:613 s ugg ests al onger n eck; p aste n aturally s andy t extured w ith a s and d erived a ggregate o f q uartz o r q uartzite. G roup 1 9 ( Fig. 2 8) T he i mpressed d ecoration w as e xecuted e ither w ith a c omb o r ap oint ( perhaps a f ingernail). E 56:642 h as c omb i mpressed l ines d elimiting a h erring-bone-infilled z one; E 56:156 h as a n i mpressed h erring-bone m otif i mmediately b elow t he r im . T exture s mooth a nd s oapy, s urface f inish o f s lip c oating w as a pplied a s i n G roups 1 7a a nd b a nd G roup 1 8; n ot f ully o xidised, b lack c ores a pparent; f lat-topped r im ; b ase f lat; p aste n aturally s andy t extured w ith s and d erived a ggreg ate o f q uartz o r q uartzite. F ringe m otif c ommon i n p ottery o f t he a bove g roups. T ends t o b e s mooth a nd s oapy i n t exture; c olour i s m ainly r ed ( except f or G roup 1 7b), w ith h ues v arying f rom r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 7 .5 Y R 6 /6) t o l ight r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 7 /4). A ll t he p ottery i s m edium h ard

7 6

G ROUP

G ROUP 1 9

1 7a

E 56:156

E 56:642

% m om e L if f

l e i ,42 1

E 56:1508

E 56:629 :6 19;942- ;1502;1508 1 2 : 56 , G ROUP 1 7 b

A e E 56:944(1)

1 E 56:944

E 56:944(2) L 56:944(3)

E 56:944(5)

( 4)

E 56:944(6) 0 L 1 11 1 1.1E 1 1 1

G ROUP

3cr n

1 B

' e Z e k%Z . b ej4 4 ,, 1 1. 24,7 1 7 0 37

r fi/1

2 , 56:613

: r 56:939(1)

F ig.

2 8

T ype

"

E 56:1505

: 939(2)

: 939(3)

E 56:615

4 , N/MR: Groups 1 7a & b , 1 8, 1 9

7

I E 56:943

E 56:203

( Moh 's s cale 3 ) a nd w as m ade a s ar ule b y p inching u p i nto s hape ( Group 1 7b e xcepted). R im s hapes v ary f rom r ounded t o f lat; m ost a re s lightly o utturned; b ases a re f lat; w alls v ary i n t hickness f rom 3 -6mm.

T ype 5 C ordoned B eaker ( Fig.

2 9)

G roups 2 0, 2 1a, 2 2 a nd 2 3; a lso t wo u ngrouped s herds, E 56:594 a nd 1 500 ( Fig. 2 9). M inimum n umber o f v essels r epresented: 1 5. T he t ype i n q uestion i s t he u ndecorated C ordoned B eaker ( though f aint t races o f d ecoration h ave b een d etected i n G roup 2 2). C ordons f requently o ccur o n c lassical B eaker f orms, e .g. o n a ll-over-cord, a ll-over-comb a nd N /MR. T he c ordons i n G roup 2 ( all-over-comb) h ave a lready b een n oted ( p.69). T he p lain c ordoned v essels m ay h ave b een d omestic w ares a nd i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he c ordon a cts a s a s topping e lement f or a c over. I n t his t ype t he c ordons a re, a s a r ule, p inched u p, t hough o ne s herd, E 56:1501, G roup 2 3, h as a n a pplied c ordon ( Fig. 2 9). G roup 2 0 ( Fig. 2 9) T exture s mooth a nd s oapy; n ot f ully o xidis ed; m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); S -profile s uggested b y s herd E 56:199(1); r im f lat a nd f eatureless; p aste s andy t extured w ith a ggregate o f q uartz o r q uartzite. G roup 2 1a ( Fig. 2 9) T exture s lightly g ritty; t he b ase s herds a re v irtually u noxidised. M edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); r ims f lat a nd f eatureless; o ne r im d iameter i s c alculable a t 1 6cm , i .e. E 56:929 a nd 9 39; p aste a s i n G roup 2 0. G roup 2 2 ( Fig. 2 9) F aint d ecorative t races; g rooving o ccurs o n r im s herd E 56:937 a nd w all s herd 1 507(1); i ncised m otif o n E 56:1507(3) m ay b e a p endant t riangle. T exture s lightly g ritty ; t wo p redominant c olours, y ellowish b rown ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 5 /4) a nd r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 5 Y R 6 /8); n ot f ully o xidised; w are s oft ( Moh 's s cale 1 ); p ottery c oil b uilt, e .g. E 56:1502(2); v essels s traight w alled ( ?); r ims i nturned w ith i nternal g roove; b ase f lat; s herd E 56:1502(3) m ay i ndicate a s light p rot ruding f oot; p aste s andy t extured w ith a n a ggregate w hich i s i gneous. G roup 2 3 ( Fig. 2 9) S herd E 56:1501 h as a n a pplied c ordon. T ext ure s lightly g ritty; n ot f ully o xidised; m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ). S ince t his g roup r epresents a m iscellany o f r im a nd b ase s herds r ather t han a h omogeneous g roup, i t w as n ot t ested f or a ggregate o r p aste c omposition. T he p aste a ppears, o n m acroscopic e xamination, t o b e f ine p articled. C olour v aries i n t he C ordoned B eaker g roups. A part f rom G roup 2 2 ( above), t he r emainder a re e ither l ight y ellowish b rown ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 6/4 ) l ight r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 6 /8) o r r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 5 /8). T he h ardness a lso v aries, a s s een a bove. T he v essels w ere e ither p inched u p i nto s hape o r m odelled b y t urning o n ab ase, o r c oil b uilt a s i n G roup 2 2. W all t hickness v aries f rom 2 -9mm.

7 8

G R OUP 2 1 a

1E 56:929

&9 39

L 56:939(1)

E 56:198

E 56:939(2)

G ROUP 2

E 56:937

E 56:1544

E 56:1507

E 56:1507 ( 2)

( 3)

( 3) E 56:1502 ( 2)

‚ U S £ 56:942

U NGROUPED

E 56:1506

E 56:594

3 cm

E 56:1503 ( 2)

£ 56:1503 ( 1)

E 56:200

S HERDS

E 56:1501

E 56:1500 E 56:199(1)

2 9

E 56:1505

G ROUP 2 3

G ROUP 2 0

F ig.

E 56:1507 ( 4)

E 56:1502

E 56:1502 ( 1)

E 56:1544

IW

E 56:1507 ( 1)

, C ordoned B eaker: T ype 5 U ngrouped s herds

G roups 2 0,

7 9

2 1a,

2 2,

2 3.

E 56:1505

T ype 6 R usticated w are ( Figs.

3 0-3)

G roups 2 4, 2 5b a nd 2 6; m inimum n umber o f v essels r epresented: 1 0. R usticated w are o ccurs o n t he e arliest B eaker d omestic s ites, i n a ssociation w ith A 00, b ut a lso c ontinues t hroughout t he s eq uence. I t i s a lso f ound o n G rooved w are s ites. I t m ay b e a m ixture o f n ative t raditions a nd i ntrusive e lements, t he f abric v arying f rom f ine B eaker-like w are t o c oarse d omestic p ottery. T he m aterial f rom N ewgrange i s, i n g eneral, w ell m ade a nd B eaker-like. T he d ecoration c an b e e ither p lastic w ith r ows o f p aired f ingernail p inched-up i mpressions o r c an c onsist o f s parse f ingernail i mpress ions. T he f irst f orm o f d ecoration i s c ommon o n D utch a nd G erman d omestic B eaker s ites a nd a lso o ccurs o n P eterborough w are. F ingern ail i mpressions o f t he n on-plastic t ype a lso o ccur o n L ate N eolit hic p ottery. T he p lastic d ecoration o n G roup 2 4 i s u nusual i n t he I rish p ottery s equence ( Chitty 1 933; A pSimon 1 975). T he s parse f ingernail i mpressed p ottery, h owever, d oes o ccur o n s ome I rish s ites. G roup 2 4 ( Fig. 3 0) M inimum n umber o f v essels: 2 . T he p lastic d ecoration i s e xecuted b y u sing t he t humb a nd f orefinger a nd i s m ost o ften i n r ows c . 1 cm a part t hough d ensity v aries a nd t he o rnament c an o ccur h aphazardly, e .g. s herd E 56:937(2). D ecorat ion a lso o ccurs o n t he r im, E 56:928(1). T exture t ends t o b e c oarse a nd g ritty; c olour b lotchy a nd v aries b etween d ark g rey ( Munsell 5Y 3 /1) a nd b rown ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 5 /3); m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); c oil c onstruction i s a pparent s ince a n umber o f s herds, e .g. E 56:937(2), h ave a ' false r im ' e ffect; b ody p robably b ucket s haped; r ims i nturned a nd a re e ither c lub r ims E 56:928(1), o r o f i nverted L -shape ( E56:934); c alculated r im d iameter i s 3 0+cm ; w all t hickness v aries f rom 8 -11mm; p aste s andy t extured, l arge p rotruding q uartz t emper b eing o bvious t o t he e ye. C arbonaceous m atter a dhering t o t he s urface o f t he p ottery s eems t o i ndicate t hat t he f unction w as a s a c ooki ng v essel. G roup 2 5b ( Fig. 3 0) T he s parse f ingernail-impressed o rnament o ccurs o n am inimum o f 7v essels. D ecoration i s l ightly i ncised a nd r andomly s paced. T exture s mooth a nd s oapy; c olour v aries f rom b rownish y ellow ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 6 /6 6/8) t o v ery d ark ) ; o nly g rey ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 3 /1); m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 s herd E 56:1505(2) s uggests c oil c onstruction, t he r est a re a pparently p inched-up i nto s hape a s i n G roup 2 4; n o r im s herds s urvive; c arbonaceous m atter i s a pparent o n t he e xternal s urf ace a nd s uggests a c ooking f unction f or t he p ottery. G roup 2 6a-d ( Figs 3 1-32) T his g roup h as b een d ivided i nto f our d ifferent g rades a ccording t o d ecoration, c olour a nd t hickness. D ecorative m otifs i n 2 6a-d c onsist o f f ingernail i mpressions l ightly m ade. G rooving o ccurs o n G roup 2 6a, e .g. E 56:939(1) a nd ( 2). C omb i mpressions a re o bvious o n G roup 2 6b ( E56:608), w hile G roup 2 6c ( same r egister n umber) h as t wo c hevron i mpressions w hich h ave b een m ade w ith a p oint. T exture i n a ll g rades i s s mooth a nd s oapy; c olour v aries f rom t he u niform r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 5 Y R 6 /6 6/8) o f G roup 2 6a, b a nd c , t o y ellow i n

8 0

G ROUP

2 4

E 56:934

E )6:q28(1) '

E 56:937(1)

E 56:928 E 56:928(2) 1 , 56:937(2)

E 56:588

E 56:926

E 56:937(3)

G ROUP

2 5b

E 56:1505(1)

E 56:1503

8

i 56: 1 5u1

F ig.

3 0

T ype

E 56:1505(2)

E 56:1507

6 , Rusticated ware: Groups 2 4, 2 5b

8 1

G ROUP

L 36:1505(1)

2 6a

E 56:1503(1)

E 56:1505(2)

L 56:1503(2)

I

E 56:939(1)

E 56:939(2)

E 56:939(3)

E 56:188

E 56:159

0

E 56:1505 & 1503

3 cm

G ROUP 2 6 b

E 56:624

L ao: 6 38

L 56:1505 L 56:022

F ig.

3 1

T ype

6 , Rusticated ware: Groups 2 6a & b .

8 2

E 56:180

G ROUP

E b6:1503

E 56:939

2 6c

i 56: 1 5J5(1 )

E 56:1505(3) E 56:608 0

L .

3 cm

G ROUP

2 6d

E 56:1503(2)

E 56:1503(1)

G ROUP

2 7

E 56:617(1) E 56:617(2)

E 56:197

E 56:632 E 56:1)7

F ig.

3 2

T ypes 6 & 7 , R usticated w are: U ndecorated b owls: G roup 2 7

G roups 2 6c & d .

G roup 2 6d ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 7 /6); a ll w ell f ired b ut h ave t he b lack c ore o f p ottery t hat h as n ot b een f ully o xidised; m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); c onstructed i n t he m ain b y p inching u p. R im f orms v ary f rom r ounded a nd f eatureless, e .g. E 56:1503(2), G roup 2 6a, t o i nternal ' b evel o n E 56:939(3) i n t he s ame g roup ; E 56:1503, G roup 2 6c, h as a s lightly o utturned f lat-topped r im, a r im d iameter o f 1 4+cm b eing c alculated f or t his p ot; b ase d iameter c alculable f or G roup 2 6b a t 1 4cm m aximum; w all t hickn ess v aries f rom 8 -16mm .

T ype 7 U ndecorated b owls

( Figs 3 2-4)

G roups 2 0, 2 1b, 2 5a, 2 7, 2 8 a nd 2 9; m inimum n umber o f v essels r epr esented: 7 . T hese a re p art o f aB eaker d omestic a ssemblage. T he v essel f orm c an r esemble t he B eaker t ype p revalent o n t he s ite, t hus, u ndecorated v essels c an h ave B ell B eaker f orms. U ndecorated b owls c an b e s hallow o r s quat. T he o mphalos b ase t hat o ccurs i n G roup 2 5a c an o ccur a s a c lassical B eaker f eature. T exture v aries f rom s mooth a nd s oapy , G roups 2 0, 2 5a, 2 8 a nd 2 9, t o s lightly g ritty, G roup 2 1b, t o c orky , G roup 2 7; s urface f ini shes a re m ainly b y s moothing w ith t he f ingertips b ut b oth 2 8 a nd 2 9 a re s lip c oated, w hile G roup 2 5a h as b een b urnished; c olour v aries f rom r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 5 /6 -5/8) t o v ery d ark g rey ( Muns ell 7 .5 Y R 3 /0); G roup 2 8 f ully o xidised b ut t he r emainder h ave t he b lack c ores o f p ottery n ot f ully o xidised; m edium h ard t o h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 -4). T he p ottery w as m ade b y p inching u p i nto s hape; t he h oles i n t he v essel w all o f G roup 2 5a w ere d rilled a fter f iri ng; v essel s hapes f airly s tandard w ith a g lobular s quat b ody a nd f lat b ase. T he b ase o f G roup 2 5a i s o mphaloid. B ase d iameters f or t his g roup a nd f or G roup 2 7 a re 1 1cm a nd 5 .5cm r espectively. R ims a re i nturned, r ounded a nd g enerally f eatureless, t hough E 56:1504 , G roup 2 5a h as a g roove a long t he o utside w ith a t ear-shaped d epress ion c rossing i t. R im d iameters f or G roups 2 9 a nd 2 5a a re c alcul able a t 1 8cm a nd 1 9cm r espectively a nd t heir r espective h eights a re 8 .5+cm a nd 1 0.8cm . V essel w all t hin, v arying f rom 5 -8mm. P aste c omposition v aries w ithin t his t ype o f p ottery c lassification. G roups 2 1b, 2 5a a nd 2 8 h ave a s andy t extured p aste w ith i gneous r ock a ggregate. G roups 2 0 a nd 2 7 h ave t he s ame t ype o f p aste, b ut t he a ggregate i s q uartz o r q uartzite. G roup 2 9 i s m ade f rom a f inep articled c lay w ith c hamotte a s t he m ain a ggregate a nd q uartz a dded a s a s econdary t empering a gent.

T ype 8

F lat-based b ucket s haped p ottery ( Figs 3 4-5)

G roups 3 0a-d, 3 1, 3 2, 3 3 a nd 3 4b; m inimum n umber o f v essels r epres ented: 1 5. T his t ype o f p ottery o ccurs o n m any s ites. I t i s s imilar t o L ough G ur C lass I I w are b ut a t N ewgrange t he f abric i s m ore l ike B eaker p ottery. G roup 3 3 m ay b e av ery l arge b ucket s haped v essel. T he f abric i s s imilar t o t hat o f t he s parse f ingernail i mpressed p ottery. G roup 3 1 i s a n e xception, b eing v ery t hin a nd f ragile. T here i s n o d ecoration.

8 4

G ROUP

2 5a

E 56:1504

L 56:1504 G RMU

0 C

IZ I M I

2 9

3cm = 1

L 56:200

F ig.

3

T ype 7 ,

U ndecorated b owls:

8 5

G roups 2 5a,

2 9

G ROUP 2 8

G ROUP

2 0

E5 6:157

0

E5 6:598(2)

3 cm

G ROUP

2 1b

E5 6:198

E 56:625 G ROUP

3 1

f l

E5 6:193(2)

E5 6:188

E5 6:607

E 56:193(1)

( E 56:213 G ROUP

EJ 6:616

F ig.

3 4

E5 6:152

3 4 b

E5 6:625

T ypes 7 & 8 , U ndecorated b owls: G roups 2 0, 2 1b, F lat-based b ucket s haped w are: G roups 3 1, 3 4b

8 6

2 8.

G ROUP

3 0a

G ROUP

3 0b

E56:595 E56:589

E56: 163

G ROUP

3 0d

E56: 158 G ROUP 3 0c E56:202(1)

E56:19 8(1)

E56:639 E56:939

E56: 198(2)

E56: 155

G ROUP

3 2

E56: 210

E56: 202(2)

E56: 157

0

G ROUP

3 cm

3

E56:1509

E56:939

E56: 1509

Fig.

3 5

Type

8 ,

Flat—based bucket

shaped ware:

8 7

Groups

30

a—d,

32,

3

T exture i s g enerally g ritty ; G roups 3 0b a nd c a re s mooth w hile 3 4b i s c orky t extured; n o a pparent s urface f inish b ut G roup 3 4b m ay h ave b een s lip c oated; c olour v aries f rom r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 7 .5 Y R 6 /6 -6/8), t o r ed ( Munsell 5 Y R 7 /8), t o l ight r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 6 /8); a ll e xcept 3 1 -a nd 3 2 h ave t he b lack c ores o f p ottery n ot f ully o xidised; a ll e xcept G roup 3 1 a re m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); 3 1 t ends t o b e s oft ( Moh 's s cale 2 ). M ost o f t he p ottery w as c oil b uilt o r p inched u p i nto s hape, e .g. G roup 3 1. O nly r im s herds o f G roups 3 1 a nd 3 3 s urvive. E 56:193(1), G roup 3 1, i s i nt urned, w hile E 56:188 i s r ounded a nd f eatureless w ith a c oncave i nternal b evel. G roup 3 3 h as r ounded f eatureless r ims ( E56:1509) o r h as a n e xternal b evel ( E56:939). R im d iameter c alculated f or G roup 3 1 i s 1 6+cm . B ase s herds a re f lat i n G roup 3 0d; E 56:939 h as ap ronounced p rotruding f oot. B ase d iameters f or G roups 3 2, 3 3 a nd 3 4b a re 1 0cm , 1 8cm a nd 1 6cm r espectively . W all t hickness v aries f rom 2 .5mm f or G roup 3 1 t o 1 0mm f or G roup 3 4b. T he p aste f or G roups 3 0a-c, 3 3 a nd 3 4h i s s andy t extured. A ggregate f or G roups 3 4b a nd 3 0c i s q uartz o r q uartzite w hile f or G roups 3 0a, 3 1 a nd 3 3 i t i s o f i gneous c omposition. G roup 3 0d h as a f ine t extured p aste w ith a n i gneous r ock t empering a gent t hat i s s lightly d ifferent f rom t hat o f G roups 3 0a a nd c . I t c ontains t he m ineral p igeonite.

T ype 9

R illed a nd l ug-ornamented p ottery ( Figs 3 6-7)

G roups 3 5a ( Site Z ), 2 5e a nd 3 6; m inimum n umber o f v essels r epres ented : 9 . R illed d ecoration i s u nusual o n p ottery f rom B eaker s ites b ut l ugs a re c ommon o n L ate N eolithic w are. G roup 3 5a ( Site Z ) ( Figs 3 6-7) D eeply i ncised g rooves i nside r im ; t hese o ccur i n t wos ( E126:98), o r f ours ( E126:97 -recons tructed); g rooves c . 3 mm w ide a nd s paced a t 3 mm i ntervals ( Fig . 3 6). T he r ills a re f lat-bottomed a nd t he r idges b etween a re s harply u pstanding. E 56:1529 ( Fig . 3 7) i s c omparable b ut h as o nly o ne r ill. L ightly i ncised g rooves o ccur o n E 126:95 (1) a nd ( 2); t hey a re c . l mm a nd o ccur i nside t he r im; a r ow o f b utton l ugs o ccurs o n t he o utside c . 2 8mm b elow t he r im a nd a re h emispherical i n s hape a nd 4 -6mm i n d iameter ( Fig. 3 7). A n e stimate o f b etween 1 0-12 l ugs a round t he v essel ( O 'Kelly e t a l 1 978 , 3 13) i s b ased o n t he p robability o f t he l ugs o ccurring a t 5 cm i ntervals. Ab utton l ug, f rom t he b ase o f w hich a d ouble i ncised g roove r uns, o ccurs o n E 126 :102 ( Fig. 3 7). T exture s mooth a nd b urnished a nd t he r esultant c olour i s a b lotchy g rey ; i nner s urface s uggests v essels w ere p inched u p ; r im f orms v ary f rom f lat t opped, r ounded a nd f eatureless, t o s light i nternal b evel; d iameter c alculated a t 1 9cm ; b ase d iamet er a t 1 2cm a nd h eight a t 1cm . F orm s imilar t o u ndecorated b owl t ype o f p ottery o f G roup 2 5a ( Fig. 3 3). P aste s andy t ext ured w ith a q uartz o r q uartzite a ggregate. G roup 3 6 ( Fig. 3 6) O n t he i nside o f r im a re l ightly i ncised g rooves o r r ills w hich a re r oughly p arallel a nd 2 .5mm w ide; m otif e xecuted b y a s quare-ended w ooden o r b one p oint, p robably w hile t he v essel w as b eing t urned o n aw ooden b ase.

8

G ROUP

.

3 6

= , . . . . . . .‘ ". „ -— . . .ZZ . . . . . -1 *

. . ..e..e .. .., , ,

ee l ' s

E 56

1 63 ;600

60 1 ;6 05 , 6 1 3 -4 , 6 18 ,6 20 1 ,9 39

3 cm

G ROUP

( L . 7 " .. . . .77, . ,4 : • : :. ," :, . . , . . . ,, ' 1 2 . . 7 37, 1 1

3 5a

, , , T . Neem e n te ,e ve

\

,

EU6 S8

F ig.

3 6

T ype 9 , R i f led a nd l ug-ornamented w are: G roups 3 5a , 3 6

8 9

G ROUP 3 5a

I I

E 126:95(2) L 126:95(1)

E 56:1529

G ROUP

r 56: 1 554(1)

2 5e

E 56:1554(2)

L pt i:1513(2)

e

E 56:201

E 56:1513(3)

I

4 t ;7 4

;m;

E 56:1503

L 56:1513(5)

L 56: 1 513(4)

E J6:1501

G ROUP

3 7

3Cf

£ : 56:1539

F ig.

3 7

T ypes

9& 1 0, R illed a nd l ug-ornamented w are: G roups 3 5a , 2 5e. G roup 3 7

W hipped-cord i mpressed w are:

9 0

T exture s mooth a nd b urnished b ut t here i s n ot a h igh g loss; c olour v aries f rom r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 5 /6 - 4 /8) t o r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 5 Y R 6 /6 6/8); t urned o n ab ase w hile b eing m odelled; s hape c omparable t o s ome B ell B eaker f orms. R im o utturned, d iameter c alculated a t 2 1cm ; b ody g lobular a nd s quat w ith f lat b ase, 1 1.5cm d iameter; h eight 1 4.3cm. P aste i s f ine p articled w ith a c hamotte a ggregate. G roup 2 5e ( Fig. 3 7) R illing i nside r im , e .g. E 56:1554(1); g rooves p arallel; s ingle s trand t wisted c ord i mpressions o ccur o n E 56:1513(5). T exture a nd b urnishing a s i n G roup 3 6; c olour d ark g rey ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 3 /1) t o l ight b rown ( Munsell 7 .5 Y R 6 /4 ) ; t urned o n ab ase w hile b eing m odelled i nto s hape; f lat b ody, f eatureless r im, b ody w as p robably b ucket s haped a nd f lat-based. B ase d iameter 1 2cm; p aste a s i n G roup 3 5 . A ll t he p ottery h as a s mooth t exture a nd i s m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); s herds w ell f ired b ut n ot f ully o xidised; r im a nd b ody s hapes v ariable; w all t hickness f rom 4 -8mm .

T ype 1 0 W hipped-cord i mpressed p ottery ( thread-worm s tamp)

( Fig.

3 7)

G roup 3 7 M inimum n umber o f v essels r epresented: 1 . T his f orm o f d ecoration i s c ommon o n L ate N eolithic p ottery, b ut a lso o ccurs o n c lassical B eaker f orms ( Modderman 1 955). T he d ecoration o ccurs i n r ows a nd t he g rooves a re c . 2 mm w ide. T he l ower p ortion o f t he s herd a ppears t o h ave i ncised c losely s paced g rooves r unning a t a4 50 a ngle t o t he r ows o f w hipped c ord. T he v essel w as p robably d ecorated o ver t he w hole s urface w ith r ows o f w hipped c ord i nterspersed w ith f illed z ones. T he t exture i s s lightl y g ritty a nd t he p ottery i s m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ), w ell f ired a nd o xidised o n t he o uter s urface o nly. T he e xterior s urface i s r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 5 /8). T he p aste i s c oarse w ith i gneous r ock a ggregate.

T ype 1 1

B eaker-influenced p ottery ( Figs 3 8-42 )

T his i ncludes b oth d ecorated a nd u ndecorated w ares. T he p ottery i s t he s ame a s B eaker i n f abric a nd i s w ell m ade. T he s tyle o f d ecora tion i s d ifferent f rom c lassical B eaker f orms t hough t he t echn iques a re t he s ame -that i s, c omb a nd t wisted c ord i mpressions a nd g rooving. U ndoubtedly t hese a re B eaker m otifs a nd t echiques c arried o ver i nto t he n on-classical f orms o f p ottery. T hese m otifs m ay s tem f rom t he e arlier B eaker t ype, A 00. T he s herds a re t hin a nd w ell m ade. I t i s n ot p ossible t o r econstruct p rofiles b ecause t he p ottery i s t oo f ragmentary. D ecorated: G roups 2 0, 3 8 , 3 9 ( Site Z ); 4 0, 4 1a, c a nd e , 4 2a, b a nd c a nd u ngrouped s herds ( Figs 3 8-9 ). M inimum n umber o f v essels r epresented: 2 7. T he i nternal t wisted c ord i mpressions, e .g. G roup 4 1a, E 56:639, a re a c ommon m otif i n I reland, S cotland a nd t he R hineland ( Clarke

9 1

G ROUP

4 1a G ROUP

E 5u:639

: 939(1)

: 629

Oe

10

1 505

E 56:1503

E 56:163

E 56:942

1 503 E 56:198(1)

E 56:200

E 56:943

£ 56:938(1)

7 , 72 -

I E 56:198(2)

E 56:629

E 56:1553

E 56:938(2)

1 0

: 939(2)

G ROUP

1 95

E 56:1502

E 56:1506

4 1c

G ROUP 3 ß

E 56:939(1) E 56:1505 ( 1) E 56:939(1 )

E 56: 1 506(1)

E 56: 1 506

E 56:15J3 : 1506

E 56:939(2)

0 E J () . :938

L 56:939(2)

F ig.

3 8

T ype 1 1,

3 )

t rn

E5 6:939(3)

E 56:939(4) L 56:1500

: 91 ;

L 56:939(5)

E 5-6 :1505(2)

B eaker—influenced w are: G roups 3 8, 4 1a,

9 2

c& e

G ROUP

6 0

ho p ! G ROUP

G ROUP

4 2 b

G ROUP

E 56:200

2 0 G ROUP

E 56:171

E 126:85 0

E 56:200

3 9 G ROUP

6 2a

I

E 56:603

U HGROUPED

E 56:939

S HERDS

3 cm

E 56:942(2) E 56:1559

E 56:1552

I P L 56:1532 L )6:1517

10

E 56:597

E 56:566 E 56:1500 E 56:939(2)

,e k

E 56:939(1)

b 126:87

F ig.

3 9

E 56:942(3)

E 56:942(1)

I

L 56:157

4 2c

E 56:1542

G

e79

E 56:939

E 56:1556

D

E 56:939(3)

E 56:939

T ype 1 1, B eaker-influenced w are: U ngrouped s herds

9 3

G roups 2 0,

3 9 , 4 0, 4 2a-c.

G ROUP

G ROUP

4 6

E . 56:195(1)

E 56:195(2)

5 3

E 56:939 ( 1)

E 56:1503

E 56:1508(1)

1 7.- 1

)

5 6: 1 95 ( 4)

E 56:195(3)

I I

. E56:939 ( 2)

1

(7 7773

L 56:194

E 56:196

1 1 E 56:1506

E 56:941

E 56:1508(2)

G ROUP 5 5 G ROUP

5 6

1 1

L 56:642(1)

L 56:197

E 56:154(1)

E 56:198

E 56:199

E 56:200 ( 1)

L 56:642(3)

E 56:642(2) G ROUP

E 56:154(2)

E 56:200 ( 2)

5 2 G ROUP 5 4

I

E 56: 9 41

E 56:634

L 56:608

0

G ROUP

5 7

2 ; 56:939

E 56:1544

L 56:625

F ig.

4 0

T ype 1 1,

B eaker-influenced w are:

9 4

G roups 4 6,

5 2-7

3 C

G ROUP

4 1b

G ROUP

l E D

L 56:1505

E56: 1 505(1)

4 1d

E 56:939(1)

( 2)

L 56:1544

I/

i

ll

L 56:1503 L .56:

E 56 : 939 ( 3)

, . . ) 6: 9 39

1 505

\

( 3) G ROUP

E 56:1507

E 56:1507

( 1)

( 2)

5 0

1

Ir

L 56:590

E 56:484(1)

( 3

G ROUP 5 1

E 56:484(2)

E 56:1507(2)

E 56:1507 ( 1

G ROUP

4 9

Di

g am

1 6:93 ' ;

G ROUP

c z

2 5d

E 56:200 G ROUP 2 5d

. : 61518(1)

3 cm

L 56:1516(2) E 56:1528(2) EJ 6:1502 ,

L 56:1501 F ig.

4 1

T ype

1, 1

B eaker-influenced w are:

9 5

G roups 2 5d,

4 1b & d ,

4 9-51

G ROUP

4 3

L 126:92(1) E 126:92(3)

E 126:92(2) G ROUP

4

L 126:93(1) E 126:93(2)

G ROUP

4 7

E 126:93(4)

E 126:93(3)

G ROUP 4 8

E 126:100(2) E 126:100(1)

E 126:86

G ROUP

2 3b

0

3cm

G ROUP 2 0

E 56:19 6 E 56:624 E 50:214

E 56:1503(1)

E 56:199(2)

G ROUP

E 56:1503(2)

E 56:624 4 5 b

E 56:1503(3) I / E 56:)12(2)

E 56:912(1)

L 56:1528

E 56:1564

E 56:912(3)

F ig.

4 2

T ype

1 1,

B eaker-influenced w are:

4 7 , 4 8 9 6

G roups 2 0,

2 8b,

4 3 , 4 4 , 4 5b ,

1 970). T hey a lso o ccur o n L ate N eolithic p ottery . T he c omb i mpress ed p ottery h as a m otif c ommon t o b oth L ate N eolithic a nd B eaker p ottery o n t he C ontinent b ut i n I reland t he e arliest c omb i mpress ions a ppear t o b e p urely B eaker. T he s tyle o f t he B eaker-influenc ed w ares f rom N ewgrange c an a lso b e z onal, e .g. G roup 4 1c, E 56 :1506. T exture v aries f rom g ritty , G roups 3 8 a nd 4 0; t o s mooth, G roups 4 1a, c a nd e . G roup 4 1 i s s lip c oated. C olour i s m ainly r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 7 .5 Y R 6 /6 ). G roups 4 2b a nd c a re p ale b rown ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 6 /8). T he p ottery i s g enerally m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ) b ut G roups 3 8 a nd 4 0 t end t o b e s oft ( Moh 's s cale 2 ). R ims a re e ither i nturned o r o utturned, a nd f lat o r r ounded. G roup 4 2c h as a f lat T -head r im p rofile. T he p ottery i s i n t he m ain f lat-based. G roup 4 1e m ay b e b owl s haped. T he v essel w alls a re t hin a nd r ange f rom b etween 4 a nd 1 0mm i n t hickness. P aste c omposit ion v aries f rom s andy t extured, e .g. G roups 3 8, 4 0, 4 1e a nd 4 2a, t o v ery f ine, G roups 4 1a a nd c , a nd 4 2b a nd c . T he a ggregate f or 3 8 i s i gneous r ock, w hile 4 0, 4 1e a nd 4 2a a re s and-derived q uartz o r q uartzite. G roup 4 1a h as c hamotte t emper a nd 4 2b a nd c h ave d olomite. T he a ggregate o f 4 1c h as n ot b een i dentified s atisf actorily . U ndecorated: G roups 4 3 , 4 4 , 4 7 a nd 4 8 ( all S ite Z ); 2 0, 2 5d, 2 8b, 4 1b a nd d , 4 5b a nd 4 6 , 4 9-57 a nd u ngrouped s herds ( Figs 3 9-42). M inimum n umber o f u ndecorated v essels r epresented: 2 6. T he u ndecorated p ottery t hat h as b een B eaker-influenced a s r egards q uality v aries a g reat d eal i n s hape a nd c olour. T exture i s e ither s lightly g ritty o r s mooth; c olour m ainly r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 5Y R 6 /8 7/8) a nd l ight r ed ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 6 /8); t he s hapes a re f lat-based w ith s ome p rotruding-foot v essels, i .e. G roups 4 3 a nd 4 4 , S ite Z ( Fig. 4 2).. G roup 4 7 , S ite Z ( Fig. 4 2) m ay h ave b een s houldered. G roup 4 1b ( Fig. 4 1) h as a b oss, o r c ordon. T he w all t hickness i s a lways l ess t han 1 0mm . T he p astes v ary , b eing m ainly s andy t extured w ith e ither i gneo us r ock o r s and d erived a ggregate. O nly G roups 4 1b, 5 2 a nd 5 3 h ave a f ine-particled p aste w ith c hamotte t emper.

T ype 1 2

3-4 ) T hick c oarse d omestic p ottery ( Figs 4

G roups 5 8 , 5 9 ( Site Z ), 6 0, 6 1a , ba nd c ; m inimum n umber o f v essels r epresented: 1 1. C onsists o f am iscellany o f w ares w hich d iffer i n f abric a nd p robably s erved a s d omestic p ottery . D ecoration v aries f rom j abs t o f ingernail i mpressions, a s i n G roup 6 1c, a nd g rooves, a s i n G roup 6 1b a nd G roup 5 9 ( Site Z ), t he g rooves b eing o n t he i nside i n t he l atter . T exture i s s mooth a nd b urnished i n G roups 5 8, 6 0 , 6 1b a nd 5 9 ( Site Z ); g ritty i n G roups 6 1b a nd c ; c olour v aries f rom y ellowish r ed ( Munsell 5 Y R 5 /6 - 5 /8) t o g rey ( Munsell 5 Y R 3 /1) R 6 /6 6/8); m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale t o s trong b rown ( Munsell 5 Y 3 ). T he p ottery i s t hick b ut g enerally u nder 1 5mm ; f lat-based a nd b ucket s haped. R im f orms w here e xtant v ary a nd m ay b e r ounded a nd f eatureless; o utturned a nd p ointed; i nturned a nd a ngular, i .e. 6 1c; i nturned a nd L -shaped o r w ith a n i nternal b evel, G roup 5 9 ( Site Z ). D iameters c alculable f or t he l atter g roup a t 2 0cm a nd 3 4cm ; b ase d iameter c alculable f or G roup 6 0 a t am aximum o f 2 4cm -the v essel

9 7

G ROUP 5 8

E 56:921

E 56:1506

E 56:198

E 56:1507

G ROUP

6 0

E 56:151

E 56:173

E 56:1512 G ROUP 5 9 0

3cm

E 126:95

F ig.

4 3

T ype 1 2,

T hick c oarse d omestic p ottery: G roups 5 8-60

9 8

G ROUP 6 10

E 56:641(1)

E 56:641(2)

G ROUP

6 1b

E 56:1505 e t af l e_ x E 56:198 E 56:154 G ROUP

E 56:195

0

6 1 c

3c m

E 56:204 E 56:204(2)

E 56:204(5)

E 56:1503

F ig.

4 4

T ype 1 2,

E 56:204(1)

E 56:204(4)

( 3)

E 56:204(6) E 56:195

E 56:1502

T hick c oarse d omestic p ottery : G roups 6 1a—c

9 9

s hape m ay b e t hat o f a f lat p latter. P aste c omposition i s g enera lly s andy t extured w ith e ither s and d erived o r i gneous r ock t emp er. G roup 6 1b h as c hamotte t emper w ith i gneous r ock a s a s econda ry a ggregate. T ype 1 3

B owl f orms ( Fig. 4 5)

G roups 3 5b a nd 6 2 ( both S ite Z ); 6 3, 6 4 a nd 6 5 ; m inimum n umber o f v essels r epresented: 6 . T his t ype c onsists o f a m iscellany o f w ares. A ll a re m ore s imilar t o N eolithic t han t o B eaker p ottery . T hree g roups a re d ecorated: G roup 6 3 h as 3 r ows o f s tabbed p its ngle t o t he r im a nd 3 -6mm a part. T wo p its b ccur s et a t a4 5° a i nside t he r im . G roups 6 2 a nd 6 4 h ave h aphazard s corings a nd i ncised g rooves. T extures v ary . G roups 3 5b a nd 6 2 ( both S ite Z ) a nd 6 3 a re 4 a nd 6 5 a re s mooth, b urnishing b eing c oarse a nd g ritty , G roups 6 o bvious o n s ome s herds o f t he l atter g roup ; c olour v ariations a re .5 Y R 6 /6) i n G roups 6 2 ( Site Z ) a nd f rom r eddish y ellow ( Munsell 7 n G roup 6 5 a nd l ight r ed ( Munsell 6 3; w eak r ed ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 6/4 ) i 2 .5 Y R 6 /6 6/8) i n G roup 3 5b ( Site Z ). S ome w ares c an b e s oft ( Moh 's s cale 1 -2), e .g. G roups 6 3 a nd 6 4 ; t he r emainder a re m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ). R im d iameters c alculable f or G roups 6 3 a nd 3 5b ( Site Z ) a t 2 0cm a nd 2 4cm r espectively ; p ottery t hick i n t he m ain. P aste c omposition s andy t extured w ith q uartz o r q uartzite a ggregate i n G roups 6 3, 6 4 a nd 6 5 , a nd i gneous a ggregate i n G roups 3 5b a nd 6 2.

T ype 1 4

G rooved w are ( Rinyo-Clacton)

( Fig . 5 1)

G roup 4 5a . M inimum n umber o f v essels r epresented: 2 . T he d ecorative t echnique i s i nternal g rooving w hich i s u nusual f or G rooved w are s ince i t n ormally o ccurs e xternally. E 56:599(3) h as 3 p arallel g rooves e xecuted w ith a p oint o f w ood, b one o r f lint; g rooves a re c . 3 mm w ide a nd b egin 1 1mm b elow t he r im. arallel g rooves m odelled w ith t he f ingertips a nd E 56 :1526 h as 3 p t he i ndividual i mpressions o f t he f ingernails a re v isible. C olour R 5 /8) t o g rey ( Munsell 7 Y R v aries f rom y ellowish r ed ( Munsell 5 Y 6 /1). T he p rotruding t emper r esults i n ar ough s urface; p ottery m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); v essels p robably c oil c onstructed w ith f eatureless i nturned r ims, e .g. E 56 :599(3); r im s herd E 56:1526 i s f lat-topped; r im d iameters c alculated a t 1 8-20cm . P aste c omposition s andy w ith i gneous r ock t emper.

T ype 1 5

C oarse d omestic p ottery ( Beaker-associated)

( Figs 4 6-50)

T his t ype o f p ottery c onsists m ainly o f G roup 6, t hough G roup 6 7 ( Site Z ) c an a lso b e i ncluded; m inimum n umber o f v essels r epresent ed: 3 1. I t i s a ll o f t he s ame f abric a nd c an b e c onsidered a s b eing o f o ne f unctional t ype -domestic w are. I t c an b e d ivided i nto f our s tyles, t hree o f t hem d ecorated: ( a) b ird- or s mall m ammal-bone i mpressed ( b) g rooved w are ( c) l ugged a nd c ordoned w are ( d) u ndecorated.

1 00

G ROUP

6 3

E 56:936(2)

•

E 56:936(1)

G ROUP 6 5

E 56:936(3)

E 56:587

E 56:590

G ROUP

6 4

E 56:910(2)

E 56:910(4) E 56:910(3)

G ROUP

3 5b

E 126:95(2) E 126:95(1)

G ROUP 6 2

E 126:81

F ig.

4 5

T ype 1 3, B owl f orms:

G roups 3 5b,

1 01

6 2-5

( a) b ird/mammal-bone i mpressed G roups 6 6a, b , ca nd 6 7 ( Site Z ) ( Figs 4 6-7). D ecorative m otifs i nclude j abs o r p its. G rooving o ccurs o n G roup 6 6a w here t he s coring i s h aphazard a nd b etween 1 .5 a nd 4 mm a part. A r idge-groove o ccurs o n G roup 6 6b. G roup 6 6c h as o ne s herd, E 56 :170(1), w ith a f aint t wisted c ord i mpression. T exture c oarse a nd g ritty ; c olour v aries f rom y ellowish r ed ( Munsell 7 .5 Y R 6 /6 -7/4) t o d ark g rey ( Munsell 5 Y R 3 /1); o ften c oil b uilt w ith f lat o r r ounded f eatureless r ims. G roup 6 6c h as a f lat r im w ith e xternal g roove, i .e. E 56:170(6); r im d iameters c alc ulable f or G roups 6 6a a nd b a t 1 6cm a nd 2 6cm r espectively ; b ases w here e xtant a re f lat; w all t hickness c an b e u p t o 2 0mm . P aste s andy t extured w ith a n i gneous r ock a ggregate. ( b) g rooved w are 7 G roups 6 6c , d , ea nd f . ( Figs 4 7-8). T his w are m ust b e r elated t o t he G rooved w are o ften f ound o n B ritish B eaker s ites. G roup 6 6d ( Fig. 4 7) h as h orizontal g rooves, l ightly i ncised a nd r andomly s cored a cross t he s urface, b eginning l lmm b elow t he r im . T he w idth o f t he g rooves v aries f rom 1 .5 t o 6 mm . G roup 6 6e ( Fig. 4 7) h as l ightly i ncised h orizontal s corings, i rregularly s paced a nd t hey m ay h ave c overed a ll t he s urface. E 56:170(10) h as t wisted c ord i mpressions. G roup 6 6c ( Fig. 4 8) h as 2 -strand t wisted c ord i mpressions o n t he r im , i ncised h orizontal s corings a nd j abs o r p its e xecuted w ith a b one. G roup 6 6f ( Fig. 4 8) h as r im d ecora tion c onsisting o f 3r ows o f r oughly p arallel g rooved l ines a long t he t op. T hese a re c . 2 .5mm a part. T he w alls a re d ecorated w ith c ross-hatched s corings t hat a re i rregularly s paced a nd 1 .5mm w ide. T he f abric a nd c olour v ariations a re s imilar t o b ird/mammalb one i mpressed w ares ( above). R im s hape o f G roup 6 6d h as a n i ntern al b evel. T he c alculated d iameter i s 1 4+cm . T he r ims o f G roup 6 6e a re e ither f lat o r g rooved a long t he t op o f t he r im . D iameter 6c h as f lat, r ounded, i nturned a nd i s c alculated a t 3 2-34cm . G roup 6 o utturned r ims. T he r im f orms o f G roup 6 6f a re f lat-topped w ith a p ointed o utward p rotrusion. T he d iameter i s 2 4+cm. ( c) l ugged a nd c ordoned v essels G roups 6 6g a nd h ( Figs 4 8-9 ). T he f abric a nd c olour r ange i s t he s ame a s t he t ypes d escribed re b eaded a nd i nturned o r h ave a n a bove. R im f orms f or G roup 6g a i nternal b evel. T he b ase d iameter i s c alculated a t 2 0+cm w hich re s uggests a r im d iameter o f 1 5+cm . R im s hapes o f G roup 6g a i nturned a nd a ngular w ith i d iameter o f 2 0cm . T he c ordons a re p erforated. ( d) u ndecorated w are G roup . , 61 , j , k , 1a nd m ( Figs 4 9-50). T he f abric a nd c olour v ariations a re s imilar t o G roup 6 6a-h d escribed as a n u nusual r im w ith a bove. R ims h ave i nternal b evels. G roup 6m h ac oncave i nternal b evel, i .e. s herd E 56:927(2). M iscellaneous E lements ( Figs 5 0-51) An umber o f s herds a re g rouped u nder t his h eading. T hey c onsist o f F ood v essel, B eaker , N eolithic-derived p ottery a nd p ottery w ith

7 A l ower c ase l etter ' g ' i s e mployed h ere b ecause t he g rooved 6 i s n ot t he s ame a s t he G rooved w are o f t he B ritish w are o f G roup 6 N eolithic. 1 02

G ROUP 6 6a

E 56:932(1)

E 56:932(4)

E 56:932(3)

E 56:932(6)

E 56:932(5)

G ROUP 6 &b

E 56:935(2)

E 56:935(3)

E 56:935(1)

E 56:170(2)

E 56:170(1) 0

3cm

G ROUP

1 11 1

E 56:939

E 56:931

E 5 6 :

1 70

E 56:170(1)

( 3) E 56:170(5)

E 56:170(4)

F ig.

4 6

6c

T ype 1 5 , C oarse d omestic p ottery: G roups

1 03

E 56:170(2)

E 56:170(6)

6a-c

G ROUP

1 . 126:82(1)

5 7

E 126:82(4)

E 126:82(2) G ROUP

6 6d

E 56:1524(2)

E 56:936

E 56:936 £ 56:1524(1)

E 56:1505 G ROUP

6 6e

E 56:170(4) E 56:170(1)

E 56:170(3) £ 56:170(2)

E 56:170(10) E 56:170(6) £ 56:170(5)

L 56:170(11) L 56:170(12) E 56:170(7) F ig.

4 7

T ype 1 5,

C oarse d omestic p ottery: G roups 6 6d & e ,

1 04

6 7

G ROUP

E 56:170(1)

E 56:170(5)

6c

E 56:170(3)

E 56:170(2)

E 56:151

E 56:170(6)

E 56:170 ( 4)

E 56:170(7)

G ROUP 6 f

E 56:641(2) E 56:151

•

E 56:641(1)

( h 3 )

1 10

E 56:170

G ROUP

E 56:641(3)

6 h

E 56:1502(2)

E 56:934

E . 56: 1 502(1) 0

F ig. 4 8

3 cm

E 56:1502(3)

T ype 1 5, C oarse d omestic p ottery : G roups

1 05

E 56:1506

6c , f&h

G ROUP

6 6g

n e w /

IS

E 56:597(1)

0

E 56:597(3)

3 cm

E 56:597(4)

E 56:597(5) E 56:597(2) G ROUP

6i

E 56:940(2)

E 56:940(4) E 56:940(3)

E 56:940(1)

G ROUP

E 56 :172(1)

6j 6

G ROUP 5 6k

: 172(2) E 56:599(1)

: 172(3)

E 56:599(3)

: 172(5)

4 9

3 cm

: 172(4)

1 . F ig.

0

E 56:599(2)

: 172(6 >

T ype 1 5 , C oarse d omestic p ottery : G roups 6g , i, j & k 1 06

G ROUP 6 1 G ROUP

6 6m

E 56:927(1)

E 56:597(1)

E 56:597(2) G ROUP 2 5c

E 56:643(1)

E 56:643(2) E 56:643(3)

E 56:643(5) E 56:1556 G ROUP

3 4a

E 56:163

E 56:1552

F ig.

5 0

T ype 1 5, C oarse d omestic p ottery :

E 56:166(2)

G roups 6 61 & m .

M iscellaneous: ( c) N eolithic—derived, G roup 3 4a, ( d) I nternally d ecorated, G roup 2 5c

1 07

i nternal t wisted c ord o rnament.

8 a nd 6 9 ( Pig. 5 1); m inimum n umber o f ( a) F ood v essel: G roups 6 v essels r epresented: 4 . F ood v essel i s f ound o n s ome b eaker d omest ic s ites i n I reland, e :g. D alkey I sland, C o. D ublin ( Liversage 1 968). G roup 6 8 D ecorative t echniques i nclude t wisted c ord i mpress ions a nd i ncised l ines. E 56 :1500 h as a t riple r ow o f d ouble s trand t wisted c ord i mpressions o n t he v essel b ody. L ightly i ncised l ines f orm a h erring-bone p attern i mmediately b eneath t his. E 56 :1507(2) h as a l ightly i ncised h erring-bone m l atif. T exture i s s mooth a nd t he p ottery i s m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); n o r im o r b ase s herds s urvive; p aste s andy t extured w ith i gneous r ock a ggregate. G roup 6 9 D ecorative t echniques a nd m otifs a re c omparable t o F ood v essel. E 56:1507(1) h as t wisted c ord i mpressions b oth e xternally a nd i nternally. Ad ouble r ow o f d ouble s trand t wis ted c ord r uns h orizontally b elow t he r im. P erpendicular t o t his a re r ows o f r oughly e xecuted t wisted c ord i mpressions. E 56:579(1) i s d ecorated w ith r ows o f i ncised l ines o n t he o utside a nd i nside o f t he v essel a nd a long t he t op o f t he r im . E 56 :579(2) h as a f inely i ncised h erring-bone m otif b ordered b y a n i ncised l ine. T he p ottery i s w ell m ade w ith a s lightly g ritty t exture b ut t ends t o b e s oft ( Moh 's s cale 2 ); c olour u niform g reyish b rown ( Munsell 2 .5 Y R 5 /2); r im s hapes v ary a nd a re r ounded, E 56:579(1), o r h ave a n i nternal b evel, E 56:1507(1). P aste c omposition i s s andy t extured w ith i gneous r ock a ggregate. ( b) B eaker : G roup 7 0 ( Site Z ) ( Fig. 5 1). O ne v essel o nly . A n u nusual B eaker f orm f or I reland i s t he s trap h andle o f G roup 7 0 ( Site Z ). T he h andle i s l ight y ellowish b rown ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 6/4 ) ; m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ) a nd g ritty i n t exture.

4a ( Fig. 5 0); m inimum n umber ( c) N eolithic-derived p ottery : G roup 3 . o f v essels r epresented: 3 R im s herd E 56:166(1) h as j abs a long i ts e xternal b evel m ade w ith a b ird-or s mall m ammal-bone. S parse f ingernail i mpressions o n t he a bove s herd a nd o n E 56:166(2) m ay b e a ccidental. T exture s mooth, p ottery l ightly b urnished ; c olour v aries f rom r ed ( Munsell /8) t o r eddish y e12 , D w ( Munsell 7 .5 Y R 6 /6 -6/8); m edium 2 .5 Y R 5 h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ). N eolithic a ffinities a re o bvious i n t he c lub r ims. R ims v ary f rom o uttun ied a nd a ngular, E 56:1560, t o i nturned a nd c lub h eaded. C alculated r im d iameter f or d ecorated s herd E 56 :166(1) i s 2 0cm. Ag lobular v essel w ith a s playing b ody i s s uggested b y t his s herd, w hile E 56:163 i ndicates a w aisted v essel. P aste c omposition s andy t extured w ith q uartz o r q uartzite t emper. ( d) I nternally d ecorated p ottery: G roup 2 5c ( Fig. 5 0). M inimum n umber o f v essels r epresented: 2 . I nternally d ecorated p ottery w ith a t wisted c ord m otif h as a lready b een n oted f or G roups 6 , 1, 2 5e, 3 7 , 4 1a, 4 2 ( above). T he d ecorative t echniques f or G roup 2 5c a re t wisted c ord a nd f ingernail i mpressions. T he t wisted c ord i s 1 08

G ROUP

4 50

E 56:599

( 3)

E 56:599(1) E 56:599(1) G ROUP

6 9

E 56:579(1)

. n 56:1507(1)

G ROUP

E 56:579(2)

6 8 G ROUP 7 0

S E 56:1500

E 126:96

E 56:1507(2) 0

F ig.

5 1

T ype 1 4,

G rooved w are:

G roup 4 5a.

G roups 6 8-9 ( b) B eaker, G roup 7 0

1 09

3cm

M iscellaneous:

( a) F ood v essel,

d ouble s trand a nd o ccurs b oth i nside a nd o utside t he r ims, E 56:643(1) a nd ( 3), a nd o n t he w all s herds, E 56 :1556. F ingernail i mpressions o ccur o n E 56:643(2). T exture g ritty ; c olour a u niform d ark g rey ( Munsell 1 0 Y R 3 /1); f abric i s B eaker-like a nd t he f orm m ay b e af lat-based b owl; p ottery m edium h ard ( Moh 's s cale 3 ); r ims v ertical a nd p ointed i n s ection; p aste s andy t extured w ith i gneous r ock a ggregate.

C ONCLUSIONS I n t he i ntroductory p art o f t his p aper, f ive q uestions w ere a sked. A n a ttempt i s n ow m ade t o a nswer t hese, d rawing o n t he i nformation g ained f rom t he v arious i nvestigative a nalyses. 1

W hat m anufacturing t echniques w ere e mployed?

T hree t echniques w ere u sed : p inching u p i nto s hape, c oil c onstruct ion a nd t urning o n ab ase. A ll t hree w ere e mployed a t N ewgrange, n ot o nly i n t he c lassical B eaker t ypes, i .e. T ypes 1 -5 , b ut a lso i n -8 , t hough a b ias i n t he a ssociated B eaker w ares, i .e. T ypes 6 f avour o f p inching u p a nd t urning o n ab ase c ould b e d etected i n t he c lassical B eaker t ypes. T he c oarser p ottery t ended t o b e c oil b uilt, e .g. T ype 1 5 . C oil c onstruction w as t he c ommonest t echnique a nd t his m ay b e b ecause i t w as t he s implest n on-wheel c eramic t echnique. I t a ppears t hat t he n ative p otters, w hile p repared t o a ccept n ew s hapes a nd d ecorative m otifs, c ontinued t o u se m anufact uring t echniques a lready f amiliar t o t hem , t he m ethod e mployed p robably d epending t o ag reat e xtent o n t he e ventual s ize o f t he v essel. F iring c onditions w ere e lucidated b y p olished b riquette s ect ions, p etrological a nalyses, t hermal e xpansion r esults a nd X -ray d iffraction d ata. T he b riquette s ections s howed t hat t here w as l ittle d ifference b etween t he e ventual c ross-section o f c lassical B eaker a nd t hat o f t he o ther c eramic g roups. N early a ll h ad t he b lack c ores o f p ottery t hat h ad n ot f ully o xidised. T he p etrologic al r esults s howed t hat t he t emperature h ad n ot r eached a s uffic ient l evel t o a lter t he m ineral p hases o r t o f use t he a ggregate a nd c lay m atrix . T hermal e xpansion d ata i ndicated t hat p ottery w ith a b lack c ore w as r apidly f ired a t ah igh t emperature. I n c ases w here t he d egree o f o xidisation s uggested s lower f iring, t his w as p robably d ue t o t he p osition o f t he s herd i n t he p articular v essel, e .g. w hether r im , b ody o r b ase. T he X -ray d iffraction d ata s ugg ested t hat t he c hoice o f a ggregate r educed t he r efractoriness o f t he c lay . 2 W as t here c ontinuity o r o therwise b etween t he N eolithic a nd t he B eaker e lements i n t he a ssemblage? T he d etermining f actors h ere, a part f rom m ethods o f m anufacture w hich h ave b een d ealt w ith a bove, w ere t he c hoice o f c lay a nd a ggregate, t he d ecorative t echniques a nd m otifs, t he s hapes, a nd t he a ssociation o f p ottery t ypes. I n r egard t o c hoice o f c lay a nd a ggregate, B eaker a nd a ssociated c eramics b elong c hiefly t o C lay

10 1

ut a n umber o f n on-Beaker t ypes a lso b elong T emper G roups 1 a nd 4 b t o t hese g roups, e .g. G roup 5 8 i s ac oarse d omestic p ot b elonging t o C lay T emper G roup I . F urthermore, w hile f ine p aste i s u sed i n B eaker a nd B eaker-associated w ares a nd c oarse p aste i s g enerally u sed i n t he r emainder , f ine p aste i s n ot e xclusive t o B eaker . T he p aste o f G roup 6 61 i s s o f ine t hat i t s uggests t hat t he c lay w as l evigated. T he c hoice o f a ggregate s hows s ome c ontinuity w ith N eolithic t radition. T he i gneous r ock a ggregate o f g abbroic o r d oleritic c omposition o f t he 8 N eolithic r ound b ottomed s houldered b owls a nd o f C arrowkeel w are c ontinued t o b e u sed i n t he c oarse p ottery o f t he l ater c eramic a ssemblage a t N ewgrange a nd i s a lso f ound i n t he G rooved w are, i .e. T ype 1 4, a nd i n t he c oarse d owestic p ottery , i .e. T ype 1 5 . T he B eaker-influenced c eramics ( Type 1 1) c ontain s ome i gneous r ock t emper, a s w ell a s s and d erived t emper, i .e. q uartz/quartzite. S imilarly , c hamotte a ggregate, w hich i s c ons idered t o b e aB eaker c haracteristic, i s u sed f or t he c oarser m aterial. S and d erived a ggregate ( quartz/quartzite) i s a lso u sed i n B eaker w ares, e .g. T ype I . T he c ontinued u se, t herefore, o f i gneous r ock t emper a nd a lso o f s and d erived t emper i n a p urely N eolithic c ontext a nd a gain i n aL ate N eolithic/Beaker a ssemblage s uggests u nderlying c ontinuity . T he m ost l ikely e xplanation i s t hat t he u se t o w hich t he v essels w ere t o b e p ut w as t he d etermining f actor i n t he c hoice o f a ggregate. T he c hoice o f a ggregate m ust a lso b e l inked t o f iring c onditions, i .e. r apid f iring a nd r educt ion o f c lay r efractoriness, a nd t o t he r eady a vailability o f a ggregate t ypes a t N ewgrange. T he m otifs u sed o n t he c lassical B eaker f orms a t N ewgrange h ave a w idespread d istribution i n I reland, B ritain, G ermany a nd t he N etherlands. T he d ecorative t echniques u sed a re i ncised, i mpress ed o r s tamped m otifs. T his i ncludes g rooving, c omb a nd t wistedc ord i mpressions. E ncrusted d ecorative t echniques a re c onfined t o l ugs o f G roup 3 5 . O nly G roup 2 4 o f T ype 6 h as p lastic d ecoration. C omb i mpressions, h owever , a re a n ew f eature o f p ottery d ecoration i n t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker p eriod a nd m ay s uggest a n i ntrusive e lement. E xact p arallels f or m otif c ombinations a re i nfrequent a nd t his s uggests t he l ocal a doption o f a s tyle o r i dea r ather t han s lavish c opying o f a n a lien c eramic o r i ts a ctual i mportation . I t r epresents t he r egionalisation o f an ew c ult o f w hich t he p ottery i s ap hysical m anifestation. T he d ifferences i n s hape b etween B eaker f orms a nd t hose o f t he N eolithic a re o bvious. T he i ntroduction o f t he f lat b ase i s n ot c onfined t o B eaker c eramics, h owever. I t w as a lready p resent i n L ate N eolithic I rish m aterial, i .e. K ilhoyle, R ockbarton a nd L ough G ur C lass I I w ares. W hile s ome N ewgrange B eaker h as t ypical p rof iles, s ome f orms a ppear a typical. T his s uggests l ocal i nfluence w hich m anifested i tself i n e xamples s uch a s t he W /MR p ottery o f G roup 1 4 w hich h as a f ingernail i mpressed o utturned r im . W hile m otif, s hape a nd d ecorative t echniques i ndicate a n ew c eramic e lem ent, t his c eramic a ppears t o h ave b een l ocally m ade b y n ative c raftsmen. L ikewise, t he a ssociation o f p ottery t ypes a t N ewgrange 8 S herds o f r ound b ottomed s houldered b owl w ere f ound i n t he p re-passage g rave p hase o f S ite L ( O 'Kelly e t a l 1 978 , 33) a nd a f ew s herds o f C arrowkeel w are w ere f ound i n S ite Z a nd i n t he N orth c utting a t N ewgrange. 1 11

s uggests a b asic c ontinuity o f c eramic t radition . F rom o n-site a ssociation , i t i s a pparent t hat t he m aterial s hould b e c onsidered a s o ne c eramic a ssemblage a nd n ot a s s o m any d isparate e lements. I n p eripheral a reas s uch a s E astern E urope, I reland a nd S cotland , i t i s b ecoming i ncreasingly c lear t hat l ocal b ehavioural f actors l ed t o o r i nfluenced n ew a rtefact c ombinations. T hus, B eakers a re n ew e lements i n l ocal n ative N eolithic c ultures. W hile B eaker p ottery i s n ew i n f orm a nd d ecorative m otifs, t he u nderlying N eolithic t raditions i n c eramic m anufacture a re f ound i n i t.

3

D oes t he r aw m aterial s uggest l ocal f abrication?

T his q uestion i s c losely c onnected w ith t hat o f c ontinuity, d iscuss ed a bove. O bviously t he u se o f s imilar m aterials a nd t echniques f or t he t otal a ssemblage i ndicates t hat t he s ame g roup o f p otters w as i nvolved a nd i f t he B eaker p ottery h ad n ot b een m ade i n t he a rea, t he a pparent c onclusion w ould b e t hat i t w as i mported. P ottery t rade i s a ttested b y m odern e thnographic p arallels i n n oni ndustrialised s ocieties, e .g. S outh A merica. T he s pread o f m etal o bjects i n t he f inal N eolithic/Beaker p eriod s uggests a t rade n etwork. F rom t he t echnical a nalysis o f t he a ssemblage, i t a ppears t hat t he p ottery w as m ade i n t he a rea. P olished b riquette s ections s how t hat t he p aste c ontains r ounde d q uartz p articles t hat a re f luvially d erived o r a re f rom a g lac ial d rift. T he B oyne v alley i s c overed b y t his d rift a nd t he r iver t erraces w ould h ave p rovided a mple s ources o f f luvially d erived s ilt. S ome o f t he c oarser d omestic w ares, e .g. T ype 1 5, h ave a v ery f ine p aste, w ith l arge a mounts o f , a nd l arge-particle-sized, a ggreg ate. I n t hese c ases, i t i s o bvious t hat t he p otter d id n ot l evig ate t he c lay . O therwise s uch a n a mount o f l arge-sized a ggregate w ould n ot h ave b een i ncluded t o m ake t he c eramic c oarse. T he c lay w as p robably n aturally l evigated o n t he r iver f lood p lain. T he p resence o f o rganic m aterial i n t he o riginal p aste w as d etected f rom t he p ore s tructure. T his o rganic m aterial m ay h ave b een d eliberately a dded t o f acilitate f iring b ut t his s eems u nlikel y s ince i t w as n ot p resent i n g reat a mounts. O rganic m aterial w ill o ccur n aturally o n r iver b anks a nd m ay b e a n a ccidental i nclus ion i n a p aste. I t o ccurs i n B eaker G roup 2 a nd i n B eakeri nfluenced c eramics -Group 4 4 -a s w ell a s i n G roup 6 1b. T his s ugg ests t hat s ome o f t he r aw m aterial, t he c lay , w as t aken f rom a r iver b ank s ilt. S pectrographic a nalysis o f t he t race e lement c ontent o f t he c lays s uggests t hat a t l east f ive s eparate s ources w ere u sed f or t he t otal a ssemblage. T hese m ay n ot h ave b een w idely s eparated g eographically s ince t race e lements v ary f rom f ield t o f ield. H owever, t he u nderlying m aterial m ay i nfluence t he o verall r esult. T he B oyne v alley h as a g lacial d rift c over a nd t he u nderlying b lack s hale h as l ittle i nfluence. N ot m uch d ifference c ould b e d etected b etween t he c lassical B eaker f orms a nd t he r emaining a ssemblage i n r espect o f t race e lements. I n g eneral, t he B eaker p ottery a nd t he B eaker-influenced g roups h ave a h igher z inc c ontent t han t he c oars er w ares, e .g. T ype 1 5 , a nd t his a ppears t o b e r elated t o f iring a nd s ubsequent u se ( Cleary 1 980). H owever , i t c an i ndicate a s epara te c lay s ource. T he p resence o f z inc i n t he B oyne v alley i s n ot

12 1

s urprising s ince t he N avan z inc d eposits l ie i n t he c atchment a rea o f t he f lood p lain o f t he B oyne. T hus, h igh v alues f or z inc, c opp er, n ickel, c obalt, a nd c hromium a re w ithin t he e xpected r ange o f B oyne v alley c lay t race e lement c ontents. P etrological a nalysis o f t he t emper i ndicates t hat t he o r igin i s l ocal. T he u ltimate o rigin o f t he i gneous r ock i s n orthern; h owever, m ost o f t he m ain s ources o f a ggregate w ere p resent o n t he s ite i tself, a t l east s ince t he b u ilding o f t he p assage g rave, i .e. g reywacke f or t he s tructural s tones, a nd q uartz a nd g lacially o r f luvially r olled b oulders o f d olerite a nd g abbro. D olomite a nd q uartzite a re a lso f ound i n a nd a round t he B oyne v alley . T he X -ray d iffraction a nd p etrological a nalyses s uggest t hree d ifferent i gneous r ock t ypes. T he d ifferences a re i n t he m ineralogi cal c omposition. T hus g abbro, d olerite, g abbro-with-pigeonite a nd a n a s y et u nidentified i gneous r ock ( that o f G roup 4 1c) a re u sed a s a ggregate. T he u ltimate s ource a ppears t o b e t he N ewry-Carlingford r ing-dyke c omplex . V ein q uartz i s f ound i n a ssociation w ith t hese i gneous r ocks. S ome o f t he s herd m aterial f rom N ewgrange h ad b een b roken i nto m inute f ragments a nd t his s uggests t hat t hey w ere i ntended f or u se a s c hamotte. T he p resence o f p repared a nd a ccid entally f ired u nshaped c lay i ndicates t hat p ottery w as m ade o n s ite o r a djacent t hereto, t hough n o r ecognisable k iln s tructure e xists w ithin t he e xcavated a rea. T he m ajority o f s herds a ppear t o h ave b een f ired r apidly i n a n o pen f ire. K ilns b uilt a bove g round a nd u sing d ung a s a f uel m ay h ave b een u sed o n t he u nexcavated l eeward s ide o f N ewgrange. T he a nimal b one r emains o f t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker p eriod s uggest t he a vailability o f a mple s upplies o f s uitable a nimal d ung f or f iring. T his w hen d ried, b urns q uickly a nd w ill r apidly f ire a c eramic. R aw m aterial s tudies, t herefore, s uggest o n-site f abrication a t N ewgrange. T here i s a p ossibility t hat t he m ore e xotic e lements, s uch a s t he p olypod b owls, w ere i mported. T hey h ave a q uartz t emper t hat i s an atural i nclusion i n t he p aste. T he t race e lement p attern i s s imilar t o t hat o f o ther p ottery g roups, e .g. G roup 6 6 , b ut i s u ndiagnostic a nd c ontains n o e xceptionally h igh t race e lem ent v alues. F or t hese r easons t he p ossibility m ust r emain t hat t he e xotic e lements c ould b e i mports, b ut o n t he o ther h and, s ince t he r emaining B eaker p ottery g roups a re s imilar t o t he t otal a ssemb lage, i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he p olypods w ere n ot m ade a t N ewg range. C larke ( 1974) s uggests t hat o nly t he f ine w are o f a n a ssemblage w as i mported b ut t he c lay t emper c omposition o f f ine w are a t N ewgrange i ndicates l ocal m anufacture. E xternal i nfluences a nd i ndividual i nnovations m ay c ause a lterations o f o ne o r m ore p arameters. T he a doption o f B eaker s hapes a nd m otifs u ndoubtedly i nfluenced o ther l ocal p roducts b ut t he c eramic r ecord d oes n ot i ndicate a s udden c hange t hat m ight b e t he r esult o f a n i nflow o f p ottery a nd/or p otters. P eacock ( 1970) s uggests t hat a c hange i n p aste p reparation i ndicates a d rastic c hange i n t radition, e .g. B eakers u sing c hamotte. W hile t his i s f requently u sed i n B ritish B eakers, i t i s n ot s o f or t he N ewgrange m aterial. T his m ay b e b ecause o f t he r eady a vailability o f t emper t hat h ad b een t ried a nd t ested b y t he n ative p otter w ho w as s low t o c hange h is m anufacturi ng t echnique. I ndeed, i t h as b een s uggested b y H odges ( 1966) t hat t he r eason c hamotte i s c ommon i n B eakers i n H olland i s b ecause o f t he a bsence o f s uitable s tone : i n t he D utch l oess r egions. T he i dea 13 1

m ay h ave b een c arried d irectly t o s outhern B ritain w ithout m uch c hange. H owever, a r emoter a rea l ike I reland o r S cotland m ay h ave c ontinued t o u se t he a ccepted o r u sual t empering a gents. T rade i n p ottery i n t he M iddle N eolithic i n t he s outh o f B ritain m ay a lso i ndicate t he a bsence o f s uitable s tone t emper a nd t he c onsequent r eady a cceptance o f c hamotte a s at echnological i nnovation .

4

W ere t he r aw m aterials c hosen s pecifically t o s uit t he e ventual u se o f t he c eramic?

T his a ppears t o h ave b een t he c ase. A v essel t empered w ith c rushed d olomite i s n ot s uitable f or c ontinuous r eheating a nd t herefore n ot s uitable f or c ooking. T he u se o f d olomite i n t he N ewgrange a ssemb lage i s l imited a nd o ccurs o nly i n G roups 1 0 a nd 4 2. T he c lays u sed a re n on-calciferous. H ad t hey b een c alciferous, i t w ould h ave b een d etected b y t he e mission s pectrograph . T he a bsence o f ah igh p roportion o f c alcium i s c onducive t o p roducing a g ood q uality v essel. C alcium w ill n ot r emain s table a t t emperatures a bove 9 00 ° C a nd w ill r eact t o s ubsequent r eheating. T he c hoice o f g abbro a nd d olerite a s t he m ain t empering a gent i n m uch o f t he N ewgrange p ottery a ssemblage i ndicates t hat t hese i gneous r ocks s erved t wo f unctions. T his t ype o f r ock c ontains i llitic m aterial a nd f eldspars, a s s een i n t he X -ray d iffraction d ata, a nd t hese p romote f usion a nd f acilitate f iring. T he s harp a ngular b reaks o f t he c rushed r ock m ay a lso a id f iring s ince t he c lay m atrix s hould p ack i nto t hese i nterstices. T he a ddition o f t he i gneous r ock t emper d oes, h owever, o pen u p c lose t extured p astes a nd t he c hoice o f t his a ggregate a ppears t o b e c onnected w ith f unction, t hat i s, t he u se o f p orous p ottery f or c ooking o r a s e vaporating c ontainers. D eliberate a ddition o f o rganic m aterial h as t he s ame e ffect, e .g. G roup 3 7 . V ariations i n t he g rain s ize a nd a mount o f a ggregate d etermine t he e ventual t exture a nd p ermeability o f av essel. F rom t he a nalys is o f p article s ize a nd p orosity i t i s c lear t hat s ome p ottery i s m ore s uitable f or s ome u ses t han o ther t ypes. T he a ddition o f l arge-particle-sized, a nd l arge a mounts o f , a ggregate c an m ake a v essel v ery p orous a nd s uitable f or r esisting t hermal s hock , t hat i s, f or u se i n c ooking. I t c an a lso m ake i t s uitable f or u se a s a n e vaporating c ontainer b ecause s ome e vaporation c an t ake p lace t hrough t he w alls a nd t hus k eep a l iquid c ool. M any o f t he B eaker g roups a re o pen t extured a nd p orous. I f av essel i s h ighly d ecor ated, h owever , i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat i ts f unction w as t hat o f a c ontainer r ather t han t hat o f a c ooking p ot. T he a ll-over-cord G roup I , t he a ll-over-comb G roup 2 , t he a ll-over-groove G roup 1 0, B ell B eaker G roup 4 , N /MR G roups 1 7a a nd b , a nd C ordoned B eaker G roups 2 0, 2 2 a nd 2 3 c ome u nder t his h eading, w hile t he r emaining c lassical a nd c ordoned B eaker f orms a re c lose t extured a nd n onp orous a nd t heir f unction m ay h ave b een a s c ontainers f or d ry g oods. T he a ssociated b owls f rom B eaker c ontexts a re u sually o f f ine w are a nd w ell m ade. T his a lone w ould s uggest t hat t hey w ere n ot d estined f or u se a s c ooking p ots. G roup 2 9 i s n on-porous a nd w ould n ot r esist t hermal s hock o r a llow e vaporation t hrough i nterlocking p ores. T he o ther b owl f orms a re p orous a s ar esult o f t he l arge

1 14

p article s ize a nd a mount o f t emper. T heir d elicate f orms a nd t hin w alls s uggest u se a s e vaporating c ontainers. T he B eaker-influenced c eramic g roups a re a m ixture o f p ottery t hat c ould s erve e ither a s e vaporating c ontainers o r a s c ooking v essels. T hey a re m ainly " thin a nd n ot r obust w hich m ay s uggest t heir u se a s c ontainers. G roups 2 8b, 4 0, 4 1a-c, 4 4 , 4 5a , 4 6 , 5 1 a nd 5 2 a re p orous a nd m ay h ave b een u sed a s c ontainers w hich a llowed 8 , 3 9 , 4 3 , e vaporation t hrough t he w alls o f t he v essels. G roups 3 4 7-50 , 5 a nd 5 6 a re s uitable f or c ooking p urposes a nd w ill r esist t hermal s hock. T he r emaining B eaker-influenced c eramic g roups a re c ompact a nd c lose t extured a nd p robably s erved a s c ontainers f or 3 , 5 4 a nd 5 7 . d ry g oods, e .g. G roups 4 1d a nd e , 5 T he r illed p ottery t hat h as G rooved w are c onnections i s i n g eneral s uitable f or c ooking; s ooty a ccretions a re s till p resent, f or e xample, i n s ome o f t he r ills o f G roup 3 5 . O n t he o ther h and, t he r u led p ottery w ith a B ell B eaker b owl f orm , e .g. G roup 3 6, i s c ompact a nd a lmost p ore f ree, s uggesting u se a s ad ry g oods c ontain er. T he r usticated p ottery , G roup 2 4 , i s p orous a nd w ould r esist t hermal s hock. S ooty a ccretions o n t he o utside i ndicate i ts f unct ion. V essels m ade f rom t his t ype o f p ottery a re k nown i n H olland a s ' Pot B eakers' w hen f ound i n d omestic c ontexts. T he r emainder o f t he r usticated w are, G roup 2 6a-c, i s n ot s uitable f or c ooking t hough t he r elatively l ow f iring h as r esulted i n n on-fusion o f t he c lay m atrix a nd a ggregate. T he f iring m ay h ave b een k ept d elibera tely l ow s o a s t o p roduce a d ish s uitable a s a n e vaporating c ont ainer. T he u ndecorated b owls f rom B eaker c ontexts a re u sually f ine w are a nd w ell m ade ( Type 7 ). T his a lone s uggests t hey w ere n ot e mployed a s c ooking w are. G roup 2 9 i s n on-porous a nd w ould n ot r esist t hermal s hock. T he o ther b owl f orms a re p orous a s ar esult o f t he l arge p article s ize a nd a mount o f t emper. T heir d elicate f orms a nd t hin w alls s uggest t hat t heir f unction m ay h ave b een a s c ontainers t hat a llowed e vaporation. T he l arger b ucket s haped v essels ( Type 8 ) h ave l arge a mounts o f, a nd l arge-particle-sized, a ggregate. T hus G roups 3 0a-c a nd 3 c ould h ave b een u sed t o k eep l iquids c ool o r p laced o ver f ires f or c ooking. G roups 3 1 a nd 3 2 a re s maller a nd m ay h ave b een s imple c ontainers. T he s ame m ixture o f f unctions i s e vident i n t he a ssociated t hick c oarser w are, i .e. T ypes 1 2 a nd 1 5 , a nd i n t he N eolithicd erived b owls, T ype 1 3, m ost o f i t b eing s uitable e ither f or c ooki ng p ots o r f or e vaporating c ontainers. O f T ype 1 2, o nly G roup 5 8 i s n on-porous a nd m ay h ave b een u sed a s a d ry g oods c ontainer . 6 6g , ha nd 1 . T he T his i s a lso t he c ase w ith T ype 1 5, G roups p resence o f c ordons i n 6 6g a nd h ( above) w ould s uggest u se a s c ooki ng v essels w ere i t n ot t hat t he t exture i s t oo c lose a nd c ompact f or c ontinued e xposure t o h eat a nd m ight c rack a s a r esult o f t hermal s hock. T he p urpose o f t he c ordons m ay h ave b een t o h ang t he v essel u p f or t he s afe k eeping o f s ome s pecial c ontents o r f or a p urpose a s y et u nknown. T he G rooved w are, i .e. T ype 1 4 , G roup 4 5 , i s s uitable f or c ooking p urposes t hough t he i nternal g rooves m ay s s uggest t hat a l id w as u sed a nd t hus t he v essel m ay h ave s erved a

ac ontainer . 1 15

T he m iscellaneous g roups o f p ottery h ave d iverse f unctions. T he F ood v essels, G roups 6 8 a nd 6 9, a re s uitable a s e vaporating d ishes, t heir d ecorated s urfaces s uggesting t hat t hey w ere n ot u sed f or c ook ing p urposes. T he r emaining t ypes a re e ither e vaporating c ontainers o r c ooking p ots; e .g. G roups 2 5b a nd 7 0, w hile G roup 3 4a c ould h ave b een a d ry g oods c ontliner. O ne i nteresting f eature o f t he a ssemblage i s t hat n one o f t he s herds h as g rain i mpressions. T his s eems s trange, e specially a s t he p ollen a nd s eed a nalyses h ave s hown t hat c ereals w ere b cing g rown a nd u sed a t t he t ime ( O 'Kelly 1 982, 2 19-23).

5

W here a re t he p arallels f or t he a ssemblage?

O bviously o ther L ate N eolithic/Beaker s ettlement s ites i n I reland w ill h ave s ome s imilarities w ith N ewgrange s ince t hey s tem f rom t he s ame b ackground. G eographical s eparation w ill l ead t o i nnovations a nd l ocal p eculiarities. T he p arallels w ith S cotland a nd t he R hineland i n B eaker t ypes s hould b e r egarded m ore a s t he p roduct o f o ne c ulture z one r ather t han a s r esulting f rom t he s pread o f p eop le, b e t hey w arriors, h erdsmen o r p otters o r f rom t he s pread o f p ottery a lone. L anting & v an d er W aals ( 1973) h ave i ndicated t hat p recise p arallels f or C larke's c lassification g roups a re n ot f ound o n t he C ontinent e xcept f or t he E a nd t he A 00 t ypes. T hey s uggest c ontinual c ontact b etween s outhern B ritain a nd H olland r ather t han c onsecutive w aves o f i nvading B eaker p eoples. S imilarly, t he n ort hern r egion , t hat i s, I reland ( northern h alf o f t he c ountry), S cotland a nd t he N orth a nd M iddle R hineland, c ould b e c onsidered a s ar elated b ut s eparate c ulture z one i n w hich a p revailing t ype, o r r egional s tyles, o f p ottery a re f ound. T he S cottish s ites h ave a s imilar N eolithic c ontinuity s uch a s h as b een f ound a t N ewgrange a nd a ppear t o h ave a n o verlying n ew c ultural e lement. C onseq uently , m any o f t he c eramic a ssemblages f or L ate N eolithic/Beaker d omestic s ites w ill h ave b een i nfluenced b y l ocal b ehavioural f actors, t hat i s, c ontinuing N eolithic t raditions. T he s outh o f B ritain m ay h ave b een i n t he c entre o f B eaker c eramic a nd c ulture d evelopment; t herefore, t he a rtefact a ssociations, i ncluding t he c eramics, w ill b e d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he n orth o f B ritain o r I reland, t hough s ome e lements w ill b e c ommon t o b oth c ulture z ones. T he a reas a re n ot d ivided b y d istinct l ines b ut m ust b e s een i n a g eneral w ay a s r egions. I t s hould a lso b e r emembered t hat B eaker p ottery i n t he s outh o f B ritain i n t he m ain c omes f rom f unerary r ather t han d omestic c ontexts. T he p resence o f B eaker p ottery a t N ewgrange i s am anifestation o f ac ulture c hange. P otters a re c onservative a nd t raditions c ont inue i n a s table f ashion, b ut a n ew d emand i s ap rime i nnovator o f c hange. T he p otters a t N ewgrange c ontinued t o m ake t he e veryday d omestic w ares t hat e volved t hroughout t he N eolithic a nd t o u se t ried a nd t ested r aw m aterials a nd t he s ame t echnology a s b efore, b ut t hey a lso p roduced n ew s tyles w hich i nvolved t he a doption o f n ew m otifs a nd f orms. I t i s l ikely t hat t he d emand f or t hese n ew v essels w as o nly o ne e lement i n ac ulture c hange t hat h ad a lready d eveloped b y 2 000 b c.

1 6

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I w ish t o e xpress m y g ratitude t o t he f ollowing w hose g uidance a nd a ssistance m ade t his w ork p ossible: P rofessor M . J . O 'Kelly w ho s upervised m y w ork a nd w as u c onstant s ource o f a dvice, a ssistance a nd e ncouragement; D r K illian H alpin a nd t he s taff o f t he M ineral S ection o f t he I nstitute f or I ndustrial R esearch a nd S tandards, D ublin, w ho m ade e very f acility a vailable a nd w hose p atience a nd h elp w ere e ver f orthcoming; D r G ary F leming a nd M r P . J . P an e, A n F oras T alüntais, J ohnstown C astle, C o. W exford, f or p roviding m e w ith f acilities f or s pectrographic a nalysis -Mr P . J . P arle r ead t he s pectrographic p lates; M r C olin B urton, I nstitute f or I ndustr ial R esearch a nd S tandards a nd P rofessor P . H . B rOck, G eology D epartment, U niversity C ollege C ork, f or a id w ith t he p etrological a nalysis; M r C hris M cDonnel, G eological S urvey ; M r B ill A dams, G eol ogy D epartment, T rinity C ollege D ublin; a nd t he s taff o f t he G eol ogy L aboratory, U niversity C ollege D ublin , w ho p repared t hin s ections.

17 1

P ART I II

T HE F LINT W ORK b y D aragh L ehane

A BSTRACT

T he L ate N eolithic/Beaker h orizon a t N ewgrange p roduced o ver 1,000 h umanly m odified f lints a nd t hey w ere e xamined t o o btain ad irect c ount f or e ach a rtefact t ype. A ll s truck f lakes, w ith t he e xception o f t hose u nder 1 0mm i n s ize, w ere i ncluded i n t he v arious a nalyses o f t he m aterial, e ach o bject b eing a ssigned t o ad efined t ype d epending o n i ts v arious a ttributes. T he r aw m aterial u sed a t N ewgrange w as a n odular f lint o f f air q uality a nd t he t echnology w as t o al arge e xtent c ondit ioned b y t his. L arge n odules w ere r are a nd s o t he g eneral s ize o f t he f inished i mplements a nd d ebitage w as s mall. T he p ercentage o f f inished i mplements t o b y-products o r d ebitage i s 8 .6% w hich i ndicates t hat t he f lint i mplements w ere p roduced a nd u sed o n t he s ite. T his i s f urther d emonstrated b y t he f act t hat a l arge p roportion o f i rregular w orkshop w aste w as r ecorde d, i .e. u nused a nd a bandoned n odules a nd u nused p rimary , s econdary a nd t ertiary f lakes w hich s hows t hat t he i nitial c ore p reparation a nd s election w ere u ndertaken o n t he s ite. T he f inished i mplements a nd t he d ebitage w ere s eparately r ecorded a ccording t o p rovenance a nd t his s howed t hat b oth o ccurred i n r elatively t he s ame a reas a nd t hat t here w as n o v ery m arked c oncentration i n s pecific a reas w hich m ight h ave i ndicated s pecialised k napping o r u tilisation c entres. O ne o f t he i nteresting a spects o f t he s tudy w as t he e vide nce o f ap ossible s urvival o f M esolithic f lint w orking t radit ions. T his w as s een w hen t he i ndustrial t echniques e mployed a t N ewgrange w ere e xamined a nd f ound s imilar t o t hose u sed o n L ater M esolithic s ites. An umber o f B ann f lakes, r egarded a s c ulturally d iagnostic o f t he L ater M esolithic, o ccur.

I NTRODUCTION T he n ature o f a ny l ithic a ssemblage d epends o n t he q uality a n p roperties o f t he s ource m aterial s ince t his i mposes v arying l imit a tions o n t he t ypes o f t ools t hat c an b e m ade, o n t he m anufacturin p rocesses t hat c an b e u sed a nd o n t he m ethods o f u tilisation. T h (

1 8

q uality o f t he r aw m aterial u sed i n t he f lint w ork a t N ewgrange i ndicates t hat i t w as p robably c ollected f rom t he g lacial d rift i n t he n eighbourhood . S uch a s ource m eant t hat i t w as i n t he f orm o f s mall n odules o f n ot v ery h igh q uality a nd t his f act i s r eflected i n t he i ndustry . A ny s tudy o f al ithic a ssemblage m ust t ake i nto a ccount t he h uman f actor. Ag iven a ssemblage m ust b e r elated t o t he p eople a nd c ulture t o w hich i t b elongs i n o rder t o t race a ffinities a nd i nflue nces. S ince t he f lint i ndustry b eing c onsidered h ere c omes f rom a L ate N eolithic/Beaker-period h orizon, t he r econsideration o f t he B eaker p henomenon ( Shennon 1 974; C larke 1 974 ; B urgess a nd S hennon 1 976) i s i mportant w hen o ne c onsiders p re-and p ost-Beaker l ithic a ssemblages a nd t heir i nterrelationships. T ools a re t he b asic e quipment u pon w hich s urvival d epends a nd w ithin t he l imits o f a s tone t echnology a re l ikely t o m irror a daptations a nd c hanges. T he f lint a ssemblage f rom t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker h orizon a t N ewg range w as c ompared w ith c ontemporary a ssemblages t o s ee i f a ny i ntrusive i deas h ad l ed t o c hange a nd i f a ny e ssential c haracterist ics u nite t his g roup o f a ssemblages a s aw hole. T he N ewgrange a ssemblage w as a lso c ompared w ith e arlier o nes t o s ee i f a ny d iff erences w ere n oticeable o r w hether a c ontinuing n ative t radition w as a pparent. C omparisons s uch a s t his, h owever, l ead t o d iffic ulties w ith t erminology a nd c hronology , t he c onventional t hree-age s ystem b eing n o l onger s ufficient, h ut t he d ifficulty o f d ispensing w ith i t r emains ( Burgess 1 969, 3 ). T he p roblems a re p articularly a cute w hen o ne i s d ealing w ith t he L ate N eolithic p eriod a nd t he E arly B ronze A ge. H ere t he t erms h ave o nly t he m ost g eneral c hron ological s ignificance a nd t heir l imits a re i ll-defined s ince t here i s e vidence o f a c onsiderable o verlap . I t h as o ften b een s uggested t hat t here i s e vidence f or a s urviv al o f ar ange o f M esolithic i mplements f or a c onsiderable p eriod a fter t he s tart o f t he I rish N eolithic, c . 2 500 b c o r e arlier . T he m icial, e nvironmental a nd e conomic e vidence s uggests t o s ome d egree i hat t his w as p ossible. T he c hronology o f t he p eriod i ndicates a n o verlap b etween t he L ater M esolithic a nd t he E arly N eolithic w hen o pportunities f or a cculturation a nd a ssimilation w ould h ave b een a vailable. U p t o t he p resent, d efinite e vidence o f as urvival o f f lint w orking t radition h as y et t o b e f ound. A t N ewgrange, h owe ver, t here a re h ints t hat s uch m ay e xist a nd t he m aterial, a nd e specially t he t echniques o f m anufacture, w ere c arefully a nalysed w ith t his i n m ind.

M ETHODS O F I NVESTIGATION I n o rder t o d escribe a dequately t he c ontents o f a n a ssemblage w here a ll s truck f lakes, e xcepting t hose u nder 1 0mm i n s ize, w ere i nclude d, a q ualitative a pproach w as a dopted. E ach a rtefact w as a ssigned t o ad efined t ype w hich w as d escribed i n t erms o f a ttributes, e .g. m aterial, c olour, c ortication, p atination, c ondition, l ength , w idth t hickness, t ype a nd l ocation o f r etouch a nd s igns o f m anufacture a nd u tilisation. T he a ssemblage w as t hen d escribed b y t he c ount o r p ercentage o f e ach t ype f ound i n i t a nd t he r esults p resented

19 1

g raphically .

1

O nly a s ample o f t he m aterial o bjects w hich h ad b een u sed o n a ny s ite w ill b e r ecovered d uring e xcavation s ince n ot a ll w ill h ave b een d iscarded o r p reserved i n t hat p articular l ocation. D ue t o t his b ias i n r ecovery O ne i s a nalysing a n a ssemblage w hich h as a lready b een u nconsciously s ampled. T his w as t aken i nto a ccount w hen a ll t he f lint a rtefacts r ecovered f rom t he L ate N eolithic/ B eaker h orizon a t N ewgrange w ere e xamined a nd c lasssified a nd i t w as o nly w hen s pecific r esearch q uestions a rose t hat a r andom s ampling t echnique w as u sed a nd i t w as a pplied o nly t o s amples d rawn t o c onform t o r igorous m athematical t heory b ased o n a r andom n umbers t able. T he f lint i ndustry a t N ewgrange c onsists o f 1,692 h umanly 1 m odified p ieces w hich a re r epresented b y t he f ollowing c ategories: c ores, u nutilised w aste, u tilised w aste, i mplements a nd m iscellane ous e lements. E ach o f t he f ive c ategories h as b een d ivided i nto s ub-groups a nd w here n ecessary, t he s ub-groups w ere a gain d ivided. T he n umber o f e xamples i n e ach c ategory a nd i n i ts s ubdivisions i s g iven a nd f requency a nalysis t ables a re s imilarly p rovided. R andom s ample f requency t ables a re g iven f or C ategories 2 a nd 3 .

S UMMARY O F C ATEGORIES 1

C ores a nd c ore b y-products 1 25 c ores 1 8; w aste 1 07

2

,188 U nutilised w aste 8 b lades 1 225; f lakes 6 963

3

U tilised w aste 1 926 s errated 1 594 ; b lunted 3 32

4

F inished i mplements 8 11 s crapers 4 38; b utt-thinned f orms 3 0; p etit t ranchet d erivatives ; a rrowheads 6 ; b orers 1 1; b lades a nd 2; m icrolithic f orms 8 2 f lakes w ith e dge r etouch 3 6; d enticulated b lades 5 ; f abricat ors 1 ; r ough-outs 4 3; f ragments 2 11.

5

M iscellaneous f lints 6 42

O N-SITE P ROVENANCE I n t he c eramic a ssemblage ( Part I I) f ive c oncentrations w ere n oted ( p. 6 1) w ith r andom d istribution t hroughout t he r emainder o f t he 1 T he c omplete c atalogue o f t he N ewgrange f lint w ork i s a vailable i n t he D epartment o f A rchaeology a nd i n t he B oole L ibrary, U nivers ity C ollege C ork, i n t he f orm o f a c omputer p rintout. I t f orms p art o f a n u npublished t hesis b y t he p resent a uthor e ntitled ' An a nalysis o f t he f lint w ork f rom t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker p eriod a t N ewgrange, C o. M eath ', p resented t o t he N ational U niversity o f I reland i n 1 980 f or t he d egree o f M A. T he p resent s tudy i s a n a bridged v ersion o f t he t hesis. 1 20

e xcavated a reas. W hile n o s imilar c oncentrations c ould b e d iscerned i n t he f lint a ssemblage, g ood q uantities o f f lint w ere a ssociated w ith p ottery c oncentrations n os 1 , 2a nd 3 i n t he C entral a rea ( Fig. 8 ) a nd w ith n o. 5 i n t he E astern a rea ( Fig. 4 ) i n g rid s qs 3 2c a nd d , 3 3c a nd d a nd i n 3 4d. T he l atter w as t he o nly s ubstant ial f lint c oncentration i n t he w hole o f t he E astern a rea a part f rom a v ery m inor o ne a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he m ultiple a rc o f p its ( grid s qs 2 8f, 2 9f a nd 2 9g). T he C entral a rea w as a g ood d eal m ore p rolific i n f lint f inds t hough , a part f rom t he q uantities a ssociated w ith t he t hree p ottery c oncentrations, t hey w ere f airly e venly d ispersed, e specially w hen c ompared w ith t he r elative s carci ty o f f lint f inds i n t he E astern a rea. Ag ood m any f lint a rtef acts w ere f ound i n t he f ill o f t he L -shaped f oundation t rench i n t he C entral a rea a nd n earby , a nd t here w ere a n umber o f f inds a lso t o t he s outh o f i t i n t he E -W e xtension, a n a rea m arked b y p its a nd p ostholes. A l arge a mount o f f lint w as r ecovered f rom t he t wo W estern a reas, p articularly f rom C uttings 2 4 a nd 2 6. I t c ame m ainly f rom t he e arth/stone l ayer b eneath a nd r unning u p o ver t he y ellow c lay b ank ( the b oulder c lay b ank) b ut i n C utting 2 6 a s catter o f a bout 5 0 p ieces o f f lint w as f ound i n t he q uartz/granite l ayer ( p . 3 4 ) af ew m etres f rom t he k erb. I n t he s ame a rea t here w as a c oncentration o f a nimal b ones. I n t he N orth c utting ( Fig. 1 5) a t otal o f 3 6 p ieces o f f lint w as r ecorded i n a n a rea c ommencing a bout 6 m o utside t he k erb a nd e xtending n orthwards f or a f urther 1 0m o r t hereabouts, t hat i s, f rom t he t ail o f t he l ayer o f b oulders ( the c ollapsed o riginal r evetment) a s f ar a s, a nd e ven s lightly b eyond, t he o utermost l imit o f t he e arth/stone l ayer. T he n atural s lope o f t he h illock o n w hich t he c airn s tands i s s teep o n t his n orthern s ide a nd t he c ollapsed m aterial f rom t he c airn c onsequently s pread f arther a nd t ailed o ff m ore t hinly t han o n t he s outhern s ide. S ome o f t he f inds w ere i n t he t opsoil. T wenty-three o f t he f lints w ere s crapers, e .g. E 56:824 , 8 20 a nd 79 ( Figs 5 5 , 5 7 a nd 5 9 r espectively). T hey w ere o f v aried t ype a nd s ome w ere m ade o n w aste f lakes. T here w as a f ine t anged-andb arbed a rrowhead, E 56 :781 ( Fig. 6 4) a nd s ix p etit t ranchet d erivat ives, e .g. E 56:782 a nd 8 46 ( Fig. 6 2). T here w ere a lso t hree f ragm ents w hich c ould c ome w ithin t he d efinition o f t he B ann f lake b ut w hich h ad b een u sed a s s crapers i n t heir b roken c ondition, e .g. E 56:793 ( Fig. 6 0). T here w ere t wo m icrolithic f orms.

M ATERIAL T he b ulk o f t he r aw m aterial a ppears t o h ave o riginated a s p ebbles, p resumably c ollected f rom e xposures i n t he g lacial d rift i n t he n eighbourhood o r f rom t he e ast c oast b eaches. N o t race o f m ined f lint w as f ound. T he c ortex i s w ell w orn a nd s mooth. T wo b asic v arieties o f f lint a ppear t o h ave b een u sed, g rey a nd b rown, w ith t he g rey a ccounting f or 6 1.2% o f t he a ssemblage a nd t he b rown f or 1 2.8% . A f urther 2 6% a re w hite o r p atinated. I n t he m ajority o f c ases t his t ended t o o bscure t he c haracter o f t he m aterial. P atina tion w hich a lters b lack o r d ark c oloured f lints t o c ream o r p orcel ain w hite i s t he m ost c haracteristic c hange w hich f lint u ndergoes t hrough n atural a gencies. Ad esire t o u nderstand t he n ature o f t he 1 21

c hange a nd t he f actors t o w hich i t m ay b e d ue h as i nterested m any s cholars -J udd ( 1887), C urwen ( 1940), S chmalz ( 1960) a nd O akley ( 1972) -and i t h as b een f ound t hat t he d egree o f p atination c annot t ell t he a ge o f a n a rtefact o r, a s C urwen s uggested, g ive c lues t o t he h istory o f t he f lint i mplement a nd t he p ossible c hanges o f e nvironment w hich i t m ay h ave u ndergone s ince i t w as o riginally s truck. I ndeed a ny c onclusions u sing p atinas s hould b e a voided i n o ur p resent s tate o f k nowledge a nd t herefore t he n umber o f p atina ted w aste f lakes f rom N ewgrange h as s imply b een n oted a nd c an b e r eferred t o i f r esearch o n p atination y ields r esults i n t he f uture.

T HE F LINT A SSEMBLAGE c ategory l abel 1 2

3 4 5

c ores a nd c ore w aste u nutilised w aste u tilised w aste i mplements m iscellaneous

a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency

1 25 8 ,188 1 ,926 8 11 6 42 ,692 1

C ATEGORY 1 .

1 .1% 7 0 .0% 1 6 .5% 6 .9% 5 .5% 1 00 .0%

C ORES A ND C ORE W ASTE

C ores 1 8; c ore w aste 1 07 -these a re n odules w hich h ad b een t ested a s c ores b y t he r emoval o f an umber o f t rimming f lakes a nd r ejected ragments b ecause o f t he p oor q uality o f t he m aterial. T here a re 9 f nused n odules. a nd 7 u C ores T hese w ere e xamined f ollowing t he s ystem s et J . G . D . C lark ( 1960). C lass A :

o ne p latform

C lass B :

t wo p latforms ( 1) p arallel p latforms. ( 2) p latforms a t o blique a ngles. ( 3) p latforms a t r ight a ngles.

C lass C :

t hree o r m ore p latforms.

C lass D :

k eeled -struck f rom t wo d irections.

C lass E :

k eeled, b ut w ith o ne o r m ore p latforms.

o ut

b y

( 1) f lakes r emoved a ll-round. ( 2) f lakes r emoved p art o f t he w ay r ound.

1 22

T able I c lass l abel

F requency a nalysis o f c ores a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency

c lass A1

6

3 .3%

c lass A2

9

5 0.1%

c lass B1

2

1.1%

c lass B2 c lass B3 c lass C

1

5 . 5%

c lass D c lass E T otal

1 8

1 00 .0%

A s s een f rom T able I , t he m ajority o f t he c ores f rom N ewgrange a re s ingle-platformed, w ith f lakes r emoved p art o f t he w ay r ound ( class A ,). T he c ores, s tarting a s n odules, h ad t wo l arge f lakes k nocked o rf a s p reparation . T he f irst w as d esigned t o r emove t he c ortex f rom o ne f ace. T he s econd r emoved t he e nd o f t he n odule a nd c reated a s mooth s urface w hich a cted a s t he s triking p latform f rom w hich u sable f lakes c ould b e s truck o ff b y h ard h ammer d irect p ercussion. T his t echnique i s w ell d emonstrated b y t he c ore w aste w hich i n m any c ases s hows n odules w hich h ad r eceived t he t wo p repar atory b lows a nd w ere d iscarded w hen t he p oor q uality o f t he f lint b ecame a pparent. T he s econd m ost p opular c ore t ype i n t his a ssemb lage i s a gain s ingle-platformed b ut w ith f lakes r emoved a ll-round, ( class A1 ) . I n t his c ase t he c ortex w as t aken o ff , n ot b y t he r emoval o f a s ingle f lake, b ut b y s triking o ff a s eries o f f lakes a nd t he s triking p latform w as p repared b y t he r emoval o f l arge n umbers o f s mall f lakes, p robably u sing a p unch i nstead o f a h ammerstone. T he r atio o f c omplete a nd b roken c ores t o w aste f lakes i s 1 :282 a nd a lthough t his was c ertainly n ot t he e ntire t otal s truck f rom t hese c ores, a l arge d isparity e xists a nd m any c ores m ust h ave b een w orked r ight d own. T o s ome e xtent t his c ould h ave b een c onditioned b y t he s ource m aterial -nodular f lint f rom t he g lacial d rift i n t he v icinity o r f rom t he e ast c oast b eaches. L arge g ood q uality n odules w ould h ave b een r are a nd p resumably w hen t hese w ere f ound t hey w ere s ystematically f laked d own t o a s mall s ize. T he m ajority o f t he c ores f ound d uring t he e xcavation w ere n ot o f t he b est q uality f lint. H owever, c ore E 56:280 ( Fig. 6 ) i s g ood f lint a nd b y v irtue o f t his i s t he s mallest c ore r ecorded, h aving t he f ollowi ng d imensions: l ength ( L) 3 .6cm , w idth ( W ) 1 .5cm a nd t hickness ( T) 1 .4cm. F our ( or 2 2.2% o f a ll c ores) w ere s ubsequently r etouched a s c ore s crapers, a f urther i ndication o f i ntense e xploitation o f t he

1 23

a vailable r esources. 1 980, u npublished).

( For d imensional a nalysis o f c ores s ee L ehane

C ATEGORY 2 .

U NUTILISED W ASTE F LAKES

8 ,188 u nutilised w aste f lakes w ere r ecorded a nd a ll s truck f lakes a re i ncluded i n t he f ollowing a nalysis ( excluding c hips a nd s palls u nder 1 0mm l ong). Ab asic d ivision w as m ade b etween b lades a nd o ther f lakes u sing B ordes's ( 1972,27) d efinition o f ab lade a s a f lake w ith a n L /W r atio o f 2 :1 i nstead o f t he l ess p ractical t atio o f 5 :2. T he m aterial w as d ivided i nto p rimary ( wholly c ortical), s econdary ( partially c ortical) a nd t ertiary ( non-cortical) ( Bradley 1 970, 3 46). I t w as n oted t hat a n umber o f p ieces s howed s igns o f e dge d amage w hich w as n ot r elated t o u se: e dge d amage A = c hance c hipping o f t he e dge; e dge d amage B = f lint f ractured i n s uch a w ay a s t o p roduce a s harp r agged e dge. F requency a nalysis s howed t hat 1 5% o f t he t otal a re b lade-like w hile 8 5% a re f lakes. I t h as b een s uggested ( Smith 1 965, 8 9) t hat t here w as a t endency i n L ater N eolithic t imes t owards b road s quat s maller f lakes w ith W e qual t o o r e xceeding L . I n o rder t o t est t his t heory a r andom s ample o f 1 00 u nutilised w aste f lakes w as s elected f rom t he a ssemblage a nd m easured f or L , W a nd L /W r atio a ccording t o a s ystem p reviously u sed b y S mith ( 1965), W ainwright a nd L ongworth ( 1971) a nd a gain b y W ainwright ( 1972). T he s ize o f t he s ample w as o nly o ne-tenth o f t hose s 21ected b y t he a bove a utho rs f rom c omparable B ritish a ssemblages s uch a s B roome H eath, W indmill H ill, D urrington W alls a nd W est K ennet A venue b ut i t w as d rawn t o c onform t o r igorous m athematical t heory a nd t he s tatistic al s election w as d one o n t he b asis o f a r andom n umbers t able w here t he e ntire p opulation a nd t he c lass f requencies w ere t aken i nto a ccount ( Table I V). A ll t he m aterial r ecovered a t N ewgrange w as m easured f or l ength w hen i t w as i nitially e xamined a nd w hen t he r esults o btained f rom t he w aste m aterial w ere c ompared w ith t hose f rom t he r andom s ample, t he o verall t rends w ere s imilar a nd o nly s light n umerical d iscrepa ncies i n f requency c ounts w ere o bserved. A d imensional a nalysis o f t he r andom s ample ( Lehane 1 980) s howed t hat t he p referred l ength o f u nutilised w aste f lakes f rom N ewgrange w as b etween 2 a nd 2 .9cm a nd r epresents 5 2% o f t he t otal. F urthermore, 9 5% a re l ess t han 4 cm l ong. T he r andom s ample s howed t hat t he p referred w idth o f u nutilised w aste f lakes w as b etween 1 a nd 1 .9cm a nd r epresents 6 7% o f t he t otal w ith 9 6% u nder 3 cm. A lthough t he w aste m aterial f rom N ewgrange h as a v ery l ow p roportion o f b lades a nd t ends t o b e s quat, t his a ppears t o b e n ot s o m uch a c ultural o r c hronological i ndicator a s t he r esult o f t he n odular t ype o f t he r aw m aterial a vailable.

2

F igures a re n ot a vailable f or I rish s ites. 1 24

T able I I

c lass l abel c lass 1 p rimary

F requency a nalysis o f u nutilised w aste b lades

a bsolute f requency•

r elative f requency o f w hole b lades

r elative f requency o f w aste b lades a nd f lakes

7 1

5 .8%

0 .9%

c lass 2 s econdary

3 28

2 6.8%

4 .0%

c lass 3 t ertiary

6 23

5 0.9%

7 .6%

3 2

2 .5%

0 .4%

1 71

1 4.0%

2 .1%

1 225

1 00.0%

1 5 .0%

c lass 4 e dge-damaged A c lass 5 e dge-damaged B T otal

T able I II

c lass l abel c lass 6 p rimary

F requency a nalysis o f u nutilised w aste f lakes

a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency o f w aste f lakes

r elative f requency o f w aste b lades a nd f lakes

4 80

6 .9%

5 .9%

2 060

2 9.6%

2 5 .2%

3 704

5 3.2%

4 5.2%

c lass 9 e dge-damaged A

3 27

4 .7%

4 .0%

c lass 1 0 e dge-damaged B

3 92

5 .6%

4 .8%

6 963

1 00.0%

7 5 .0%

c lass 7 s econdary c lass 8 t ertiary

T otal

1 25

T able I V

c lass l abel

C lass a nd f requency o f r andom s ample r elating t o u nutilised w aste m aterial a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency

c lass 1

4

4 .0%

c lass 2

6

6 .0%

c lass 3

3

3 .0%

c lass 4

1

1 .0%

c lass 5

3

3 .0%

c lass 6

3

3 .0%

c lass 7

2 3

2 3 .0%

c lass 8

5 3

5 3.0%

c lass 9

3

3 .0%

c lass 1 0

1

1 .0%

T otal

. C ATEGORY 3

1 00

1 00.0%

U TILISED W ASTE F LAKES

1 ,926 w aste f lakes s howing s igns o f u tilisation w ere f ound a t N ewgrange. T hese h ave b een t entatively d ivided i nto s errated a nd b lunted f orms a fter S mith ( 1965 ,91) a nd B radley ( 1970,348). S err ated f lakes h ave m inute d enticulations a long o ne o r b oth e dges a nd b lunted f lakes a re s imilar e xcept t hat t he d enticulations a re m ore e ven a nd r egular. T he f requencies o f b oth c lasses a re s et o ut i n T ables V a nd V I a nd i ndicate a c lear p reference f or f lake t ypes c hosen f or r e-use. T wo r andom s amples o f 5 0 p ieces e ach w ere s elected f rom b oth c lasses a nd m easured f or L , Wa nd L /W r atio a ccording t o t he s ystem u sed p revious1y . A gain, s tatistical m ethods w ere u sed t o e nsure t hat b oth c lass a nd f requency w ere r epresented ( see L ehane 1 980, T ables V II a nd V III, f or d imensional a nalyses o f t he t wo c lasses o f u tilised w aste). T here a re n o a pparent d ifferences b etween t he d imensions o f t he s errated a nd b lunted m aterial a nd t hey b oth a gree w ith t he r esults o btained f rom t he u nutilised w aste. T he p referred l ength o f t he s errated f lakes w as b etween 2 a nd 2 .9cm a nd i s r epresented b y 4 6% o f t he t otal. T he s ame i s t rue o f t he b lunted f lakes e xcept t hat t hese r epresent 4 4% o f t he t otal a nd b oth a gree w ith t he u nutilised w aste w hich i s r epresented b y 5 2% i n t hat l ength b racket. H owever, 1 2% o f b lunted f lakes a nd 6 % o f s errated f lakes a re i n e xcess o f 5 cm l ong w hich c orresponds t o an egligible n umber i n t his r ange i n t he u nutilised m aterial. T herefore, t here i s n o d ifference i n l ength b etween s errated a nd b lunted e xamples a nd a lthough a s mall 1 26

d ifference c an b e s een b etween t hese a nd t he u nutilised w aste, w e f ind t hat o nly 2 0% o f s errated f lakes a nd 1 8% o f b lunted f lakes a re o f b lade-like p roportions w hich c orresponds w ell w ith t he 1 9% r ecorded f rom t he u nutilised w aste. T his i s f urther d emonstrated b y t he w idth d imension w hich i n a ll c ases s hows t he p referred w idth t o l ie b etween 1 a nd 1 .9cm . T he s errated e xamples h ave t he s ame b road s quat o utline a s t he b lunted o nes a nd b oth a gree w ith t he u nutilised w aste. T his p erhaps i s a f urther i ndication t hat s ize a nd s hape o f t he a ssemblage a re d ependant o n t he r aw m aterial a nd a re n ot a c ultural a nd c hronological i ndicator.

F unction I t i s o bvious f rom t he l arge n umbers i n w hich s errated a nd b lunted f lakes o ccur a nd f rom t he w ear w hich i s a pparent o n t heir e dges t hat t hey m ust h ave b een e mployed o n al arge s cale a t N ewgrange. I n a n a ttempt t o d etermine t his f unction, t he r andom s amples u sed f or t he d imensional a nalysis o f u tilised w aste ( Lehane 1 980) w ere e xamined u nder a n umber o f h eadings ( Table I X b elow).

T able V

c lass l abel c lass 1 s errated b lades ( primary) c lass 2 s errated b lades ( secondary) c lass 3 s errated b lades ( tertiary) c lass 4 s errated f lakes ( primary) c lass 5 s errated f lakes ( secondary) c lass 6 s errated f lakes ( tertiary) T otal

F requency a nalysis o f s errated m aterial

a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency o f s errated c lass

r elative f requency o f a ll u tilised w aste

1 5

0 .9%

0 .8%

1 07

6 .7%

5 .6%

2 21

1 3.9%

1.5%

4 6

2 .9%

2 .4%

3 74

2 3 .5%

1 9 .4%

8 31

5 2 .1%

4 3 .1%

1 594

1 00.0%

8 2.8%

1 27

T able V I

c lass l abel c lass 7 b lunted b lades ( secondary) c lass 8 b lunted b lades ( tertiary) c lass 9 b lunted f lakes ( secondary) c lass 1 0 b lunted f lakes ( tertiary) T otal T able V II

c lass l abel

F requency a nalysis o f b lunted m aterial

a bsolute f requency -

r elative f requency o f blunted c lass

r elative f requency o f a ll u tilised w aste

2 9

9 .0%

1 .5%

5 3

1 6.0%

2 .8%

1 00

3 0.0%

5 .2%

1 50

4 5 .0%

7 .8%

32 3

1 00.0%

1 7.3%

C lass a nd f requency o f r andom s ample o f s errated m aterial a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency

c lass 2

4

8 .0%

c lass 3

3

6 .0%

c lass 4

3

6 .0%

c lass 5

1 3

2 6.0%

c lass 6

2 7

5 4.0%

5 0

1 00.0%

T otal T able V III

c lass l abel

C lass a nd f requency o f r andom s ample o f b lunted m aterial a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency

c lass 7

7

1 4 .0%

c lass 8

3

6 .0%

c lass 9

1 6

3 2.0%

c lass 1 0

2 4

4 8.0%

5 0

1 00.0%

T otal

1 28

T able I X

F unctional a nalysis o f r andom s amples o f u tilised w aste S errated r andom s ample

B lunted r andom s ample

a bsolute f requency

a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency

r elative f requency

b roken ( clean t ransverse b reak)

2 2

4 4 .0%

2 4

4 8.0%

u nbroken

2 8

5 6.0%

2 6

5 2.0%

n o g loss

3 5

7 0.0%

2 1

4 2.0%

6 .0%

1

2 2.0%

g loss

3

p atinated

1 2

2 4.0%

1 8

3 6.0%

s errations c onfined t o o ne e dge

3 3

7 0.0%

3 3

7 0.0%

s errations o n b oth e dges

1 5

3 0.0%

1 5

3 0.0%

A t N ewgrange 4 4% o f s errated f lakes a nd 4 8% o f b lunted f lakes a re b roken ; i n o ver 7 0% o f t he t otal f rom b oth g roups t he s errations a re c onfined t o o ne e dge o nly a nd g loss w as d etected o n o nly 6 % o f s errated e xamples a nd o n 2 2% o f t he b lunted o nes. I t w ould a ppear t hat t he s errated a nd b lunted f lakes w ere e mployed i n t he m ost f requent t echnical a ctivity , c utting, a nd s ince t here w ere g reat n umbers o f u nworked f lakes t o c hoose f rom , t hese h ad b een d iscarded b efore t he e ffects o f r epeated u se b ecame v isible.

C ATEGORY 4 .

F INISHED I MPLEMENTS

T he n umber o f i mplements i n t he t otal a ssemblage i s 8 11. T hey h ave b een s eparated i nto t ypes a nd t heir f requencies r ecorded ( Table X ). F ragments W here f ragments o f i mplements r elating t o s pecific t ypes a re r ecorded, t hey a re g iven a s f requencies o f t he t otal n umber o f f ragments i n t he a ssemblage a nd n ot o f t he t ype t o w hich t hey b elong, s ince i n c ertain c ases t he e xact c lassification i s i n d oubt a nd c ould i nvalidate t he o verall f requency c ount f or e ach s pecific t ype. T he s ame r ule a pplies t o t he r ough-outs. T able X I s hows t he t ypes o f f ragments a nd r ecords t heir f requencies a nd T able X II d oes t he s ame f or r ough-outs.

1 29

T able X

F requency a nalysis o f i mplement t ypes a bsolute f requency

t ype l abel 1

s crapers

2

r elative f requency

4 38

5 4.0%

b utt-thinned f orms

3 0

3 .7%

3

p etit t ranchet d erivatives

2 2

2 .8%

4

m icrolithic f orms

8

1 .0%

5

a rrowheads

6

0 .7%

6

b orers

1 1

1 .4%

7

b lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch

3 6

4 .4%

8

d enticulated b lades

5

0 .6%

9

f abricators

1

0 .1%

1 0

r ough-outs

1 1

f ragments

4 3

T otal T able X I

t ype l abel

2 11

2 6.0%

8 11

1 00.0%

F requency a nalysis o f f ragment t ypes

a bsolute f requency

b lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch

5 .3%

5 9

r elative f requency o f a ll f ragments

r elative f requency o f t otal a rtefact a ssemblage

2 8 .0%

7 .3%

a rrowheads

3

1 .4%

0 .4%

b utt-thinned f orms

4

1 .9%

0 .5%

p iano-convex k nife

3

1 .4%

0 .4%

5 8.3%

1 5.2%

s crapers

1 23

f abricators

2

0 .9%

0 .2%

a xes

6

2 .8%

0 .7%

d iscoidal p olished k nives

2

0 .9%

1 .1%

m iscellaneous

9

4 .4%

0 .2%

1 00.0%

2 6.0%

T otal

2 11

1 30

T able X II

F requency a nalysis o f r ough-outs

a bsolute _ relative f requency f requency o f a ll r ough-outs

t ype l abel

r elative f requency o f t otal a rtefact a ssemblage

d iscoidal p olished k nives

7

1 6 .3%

0 .9%

a xes

3

7 .0%

0 .4%

2 3.3%

1 .2%

p etit t ranchet d erivatives

1 0

l eaf-shaped a rrowheads

5

1.6%

0 .6%

t riangular a rrowheads

4

9 .3%

0 .5%

h ollow-based a rrowheads

1

2 .3%

0 .1%

1 3

3 0.2%

1 .6%

4 3

1 00 .0%

5 .3%

m icrolithic f orms T otal I mplements -Type 1

S crapers T hese a re t he m ost c om i nn i mplement t ype a nd c omprise 5 4% o f t he t otal i mplement c omplement. T his f igure d oes n ot i nc lude t he s crapers o n c ores n oted a bove. T he m ajority o f t hese i mplements w ere r oughly s ymmetrical a nd t herefore a s imple s hapec lassification a s d efined b y C lark ( 1960), W ainwright ( 1972) a nd B radley ( 1970) w as c onsidered a ppropriate, w ith a d efinition o f t he c riteria u sed t o d istinguish e ach c lass. C lass A E nd s craper ( Figs 5 2 a nd 5 3). S econdary r etiuch a cross t he a xis a t t he d istal ed. ( 1) l ong: L m ore t han 1 / 2 t imes W ( 2) s hort: L l ess t han 1 / 2 t imes W . C lass B S ide s craper ( Fig. 5 4). S econdary r etouch l east o ne s ide o f t he m ain a xis ( 1) l ong ( 2) s hort. C lass C S ide-and-end s craper a long o ne s ide o f t he m ain ( 1 ) l ong ( 2) s hort.

a long

a t

( Fig. 5 4). S econdary r etouch a xis a nd a cross t he m ain a xis

C lass D O val s craper ( Fig. 5 5). R oughly o val i n s hape ( 1) r ounded b ulbar e nd; r etouched a round t he w hole p erimeter ( 2) f lat b ulbar e nd; r etouched o n a ll s ides e xcept t he b ulbar e nd. C lass E w ith a

T humbnail ( Fig. 5 6). S econdary r etouch o n a ll s ides f lat b ulbar e nd w hich i s e ither r etouched o r l ightly 1 31

g round t o p rovide a c omfortable g rip. C lass F D isc s craper ( Fig. 5 6). R oughly c ircular i n s hape a nd r etouched a round t he w hole p erimeter. C lass G O n b roken f lakes ( Figs 5 7 a nd 5 8). A s izeable p rop ortion o f t he s crapers ( 19.4%) w as m ade f rom b roken f lakes, i .e. b ulbar e nd s napped o ff ( 1) e nd ( 2) e nd-and-side I t i s r arely p ossible t o b e s ure w hether t he k napper h ad u sed a f lake f rom w hich t he b ulbar e nd h ad p reviously b een d etached o r w hether i t w as o ne b roken i n u se. T herefore, c lass G w as n ot i ncluded i n t he m etrical a nalysis a nd t he d imensions w ere r ecorded s eparately ( Lehane 1 980). C lass H H ollow s craper ( Figs 5 8 a nd 5 9). 1 3.2% o f h ollow s crapers a re a symmetrical a nd a ppear t o b e o n w aste f lakes; t hese a lso w ere n ot c onsidered i n t he m etrical a nalysis a nd t he d imensions w ere r ecorded s eparately ( Lehane 1 980). ( 1) W inged T he c utting e dge i s d eeply s unk t o f orm a s emicircular h ollow a nd i s a lways o pposite t he b ulb o f p ercuss ion. O ne w ing c an b e s lightly l onger t han t he o ther o r t he w ings c an b e o f e qual l ength. ( 2) B lade T he h ollow t ends t o b e s hallow a nd o ccurs o n t he e longated s ide o f ab lade, i .e. L /B r atio o f 2 :1. ( 3) F lake S ame a s a bove e xcept o ccurring a s a f lake. A s imple m etrical a nalysis o f t he s crapers ( excluding G a nd H ) s howed t hat t he p referred l ength w as 3 -3 .9cm ( 36 .3% o f a ll s crap ers) a nd t he p referred w idth 2 -2.9cm ( 55.6% o f a ll s crapers). T he p referred t hickness w as 0 .7-1cm ( 44 4% o f a ll s crapers) ( Lehane 1 980) : S crapers a re w ell k nown f rom I rish N eolithic s ites: S andhills ( Collins 1 952), T ownleyhall ( Eogan 1 963), G oodlands ( Case 1 973), a nd f rom E arly B ronze A ge s ites: K nowth ( Eogan 1 976), M onknewtown ( Sweetman 1 976). U nfortunately t hey h ave n ot u ndergone a m etrical a nalysis a nd t herefore c annot b e u sed h ere f or c omparative p urp oses. T aking i nto a ccount v ariations i n d imensions s hown b y s crapers f rom s ome c ontemporary s ites i n B ritain a nd t he e vidence f or d iff erences a ccording t o d istance f rom t he s ource, p erhaps v ariation i n s ize i s n ot a c ulturally d iagnostic f eature, b ut c ould p ossibly b e r elated t o t he q uality o f t he r aw m aterial a vailable.

F unction O ne o f t he c haracteristics o f t he i ndustry a t N ewgrange i s t he h igh p roportion o f s crapers t o o ther i mplements, s omething w hich i s a lso a f eature o f s ome N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s ites. T he r atio o f s crapers t o o ther c omplete i mplements a t N ewgrange i s 4 :1 a nd c ompares w ith 3 :1 f rom W indmill H ill ( primary l evels), 4 :1 f rom B roome H eath, 3 :1 f rom H urst F en, 1 .5 :1 f rom W est K ennet A venue a nd 2 .3:1 f rom B elle T out. T heir u se w as e vidently a n i mportant o ne a nd t hey a ppear t o e njoy a w ider d istribution b oth i n t ime a nd

1 32

T able X III

c lass l abel

F requency a nalysis o f s craper c lass

a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency o f a ll s crapers

e nd s crapers ( long)

5 8

1 3.2%

e nd s crapers ( short) T otal

9 0

2 0.5%

1 48

3 3.7%

s ide s crapers ( long)

r elative f requency o f t otal a rtefact a ssemblage 7 .2%

1 .2%

0 .6%

1 .8%

1 .0%

3 .0%

1 .6%

0 .7%

0 .4%

2 8

6 .4%

3 .5%

3 1

7 .1%

3 .9%

2 3

5 .3%

2 .8%

1 8

4 .1%

2 .2%

4 1

9 .4%

5 .0%

2 6

5 .9%

3 .2%

t humbnail s crapers 3 6 T otal U 2

8 .2%

4 .4% 77 67

3 1

7 .1%

3 . 8%

5 4

1 2.3%

6 .7%

8 5

1 9.4%

1 0 .5%

2 .1% 1 .4% 9 .8% 1 3.3%

1 . 1% 0 .7% 5 .3% 7 .1%

1 00.0%

5 4 .0%

s ide s crapers ( short) T otal s ide-and-end s crapers ( long) s ide-and-end s crapers ( short) T otal o val r ounded s crapers o val f lat s crapers T otal d isc s crapers ( long)

o n b rokenflakes ( end) o n b roken f lakes ( side-and-end) T otal h ollow w inged h ollow b lade h ollow f lake T otal T OTAL

5

1 3 3

9 4 3

6

4 38

1 33

E 56:857

E 56:858

E 56:874

[ 56:1198

E 56:1164

E bb: 1 163 s cale

F ig.

5 2

E nd s crapers — c lass A1 l ong

1 34

1 :1

[ 56:1 28

[ 56: 310

E 56:796

[ 56:804

E 56:898 s cale F ig.

5 3

E nd s crapers -class A2 : s hort 1 35

1 :1

[ 56:72 E 56: 26

[ 56:50 E 56: 22

E 56:751a

s cale

F ig.

5 4

S ide s crapers -class B .

1 :1

S ide-and-end s crapers -class C

1 36

[ 56: 624

[ 56:34

E bb:42 s cale

F ig.

5 5

O val s crapers -class D :

1 :1

r ounded b ulbar e nd;

1 37

f lat b ulbar e nd

E 56:102

[ 56: 730

E 56: 55

E 56: 705

[ 56:11 6 1a

[ 56:805

[ 56:884 s cale F ig.

5 6

1 :1

T humbnail s crapers — c lass E .

1 38

D isc s crapers — c lass F

E 56:1161

E 56:820

E 56: 250

E 56:15 s cale F ig.

5 7

1:1

E nd s crapers o n b roken f lakes - c lass ( 71

1 39

[ 56:49

E 56:1184

E 56:1390

[ 56:1099

F ig.

E 56:1003 s cale 1 :1 5 8 S ide-and-end s crapers o n b roken f lakes -class G2 H ollow s crapers - c lass H1 : w inged 1 40

E 56: 779

E 56:850

[ 56:1 292

s cale

F ig.

5 9

1 :1

H ollow s crapers -class H2 a nd H ,: B utt-thinned f orms -Bann f lake J

1 41

f lake a nd b lade

s pace t han a ny o ther f lint t ype. A t N ewgrange t he m ajority o f s crapers a re o n t he e nds o f s hort f lakes a nd l ess o ften o n l ong f lakes. O val, t humbnail a nd s ide-and-end s crapers a re r epresented b ut a re n umerically i nsignificant w hile s ide a nd d isc s crapers a re r are. T he p recise f unction o f t hese s crapers i s u ncertain . H owever, a nalytical s tudy o f t he u se o f s crapers i n t he U SSR h as s hown t hat t hey b ear e vidence o f t heir e mployment i n d ressing s kin ( Semenov 1 964). T here, s crapers w ith w ide a nd r elatively s harp c onvex w orking e dges o n t he s ides o f b lades w ere p robably u sed i n t he p rimary d ressing, w hile e nd s crapers w ith a s emicircular o r c urved w orking p art a nd a m ore b lunted e dge w ere u sed i n c urrying, : that i s, i n r endering t he s kin s oft a nd p liable. S tudy o f t he f aunal r emains f rom t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker s ettlement a t N ewgrange p rovides e vidence f or t he p resence o f c attle, s heep/goat a nd p ig, a nd c attle b ones c onstitute 5 6.5% o f t he t otal a mount o f a nimal r emains ( van W ijngaarden-Bakker 1 974). I n I reland, h ollow s crapers o ccur i n b oth o ccupation a nd b urial s ites o f d ifferent c ultural a ffinities ( Eogan 1 963). T hey w ere f ound i n g reat n umbers i n t he s andhill s ettlements ( Collins 1 952), i n i sland h abitation s ites, e .g. I sland M acHugh, C o. T yrone ( Davies 1 950), i n t he L ate N eolit hic h abitation s ite a t L yles H ill, C o. A ntrim ( Evans 1 953) a nd a mong t he g rave g oods o f c ourt t ombs ( de V alera 1 960). T his a pp ears t o b e a t v ariance w ith t he e vidence f rom t he B ritish N eolit hic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s ites. T here a re n o r ecorded e xamples f rom t he E arly N eolithic s ites a t W indmill H ill, H urst F en o r B roome H eath, w hile t he L ate N eolithic s ite a t D urrington W alls p roduced o ne e xample a nd t he B eaker s ettlement a t B elle T out h ad o nly o ne p ossible e xample. P erhaps i n I reland t hese s pecialised s crapers r epresent a n a ddition t o t he b asic t ool k it. I f t his i s s o, h ollow s crapers c ould h ave d eveloped o ut o f s ome f lint t ype o f t he l ocal M esolithic. W hile i t i s c lear t hat t he h ollow s craper w as a p opular a nd u seful t ool, i t i s d ifficult t o a ccount f or t he p resence o f s o m any o f t hem o r t o s uggest w hat t heir f unction w as. T he m ost w idespread m ark o n f lint t ools i s t he r ubbing o r p olishing w hich c auses g loss a nd t his h as b een n oticed o n t he c utting e dges o f h ollow s crapers ( Eogan 1 963, 4 5). T he w inged h ollow s crapers f rom t he N ewgrange a ssemblage w ere e xam ined f or t races o f g loss s ince t hey h ad t he m ost d istinct c utting e dges a nd t his w as f ound t o b e p resent o n a n umber o f e xamples. N o u seful c onclusions c ould b e d rawn a s t o t he n ature o f t he m aterial w hich c aused t he g loss a nd t hus t o t he e xact f unction o f t he h ollow s craper .

I mplements -Type 2 B utt-thinned f orms T hese c omprise a r ange o f i mplements w hich h ave an umber o f f eatures i n c ommon. F irstly , t hey h ave s mooth s triking p latforms a nd r elatively l arge b ulbs o f p ercussion w hich w ould s uggest t hat t hey w ere s truck f rom s ingle-platformed c ores b y u nc ontrolled h ard h ammer p ercussion. S econdly , t hey h ave b een t hinn ed a t t he b utt o n t he p roximal f ace i n o rder t o r educe t he t hickn ess o r e lse t o p rovide a g rip f or h afting . T here i s n o g ood e xample o f t he l atter. T he d eliberate a ttempts t o t hin t he b utt m ust h ave h ad a m eaning e ven t hough i n o ur p resent s tate o f k now1 42

E 56: 56

[ 56:4E 30

[ 56:405

[ 56: 793

[ 56:695

F ig.

6 0

s cale 1 :1 B utt-thinned f orms -Bann f lakes 1 43

[ 56:1 274

l edge w e c annot i dentify i t. I n t he N ational M useum o f I reland t here i s aB ann f lake w hich , w hen f ound, h ad i ts b utt d eliberately w rapped i n m oss. I t m ust b e s aid, h owever , t hat t here i s s ome d oubt a s t o w hether o r n ot t his i s o riginal. T his t ype o f i mplement c an b e s ubdivided i nto t hree c lasses i ncorporating s ome o f t hose u sed b y W oodman i n t he M ount S andel r eport ( Woodman 1 978): B ann f lakes; p ointed a nd r ounded f lakes; a nd b acked f orms.

T able X IV

F requency a nalysis o f b utt-thinned f orms

c lass l abel

a bsolute f requency

B ann f lakes

1 7

r elative f requency o f c lass

r elative f requency o f t otal a rtefact a ssemblage

5 6.7%

2 .1%

p ointed a nd r ounded f lakes

8

2 6 .7%

1 .0%

b acked f orms

5

1 6 .7%

0 .6%

1 00.0%

3 .7%

T otal

3 0

A n umber o f d ifficulties w ere e ncountered w ith t he i mplements c lassified a s B ann f lakes, m ainly a s ar esult o f t he t erminology . T he t erms l eaf-shaped f lake a nd B ann f lake h ave b een u sed i ndiscrim inately , b oth i n r elation t o t hose s pecific l eaf-shaped i mplements d iagnostic o f aM esolithic i ndustry a nd t hose w hich, a s p ointed o ut b y M itchell ( 1971, 2 80) a nd W oodman ( 1978, 7 0), a re o ften n othing m ore t han p art o f t he n ormal r ange o f b lades a nd f lakes w hen h ard h ammer d irect p ercussion w as u sed. T o d istinguish b etween t he t wo i t i s n ecessary t o a dopt a s trict t erminology. H ere, f ollowing W oodman ( 1978, 8 2), t he B ann f lake i s d efined a s a l eaf-shaped f lake w hich h as b een r etouched a fter b eing s truck o ff , a nd t he n ature o f t he r etouch i s d efined a s at rimming o n t he p roximal l ateral e dges, p referably f or 2 cm . I t i s o nly w hen i mplements a dh ere t o t he a bove c riteria t hat t hey c an b e r egarded a s M esolithic t ype-fossils. L eaf-shaped f lakes, o n t he o ther h and, h ave n ot b een r etouched a fter b eing s truck o ff a nd a s s uch, c annot a utomatically b e r egarded a s t ypological i ndicators o f aL ater M esolithic. B ann f lakes c an b e d ivided i nto l eaf-shaped, t hat i s, t ending t o b e p ointed a nd m ore t han 3 .2cm w ide; a nd l aminar, w hich t end t o b e e longated a nd a re l ess t han 3 .2cm w ide. T here a re 4 e xamples o f t he f irst a nd 1 3 o f t he s econd a t N ewgrange. T wo e xamples o f t he p ointed o r l eaf-shaped f orm o f B ann f lake d isplay w orking o n t he p roximal l ateral e dges, E 56:480 ( Fig. 6 0) a nd E 56 :1292 ( Fig. 5 9), xamples o f b utt t rimming. I n a ll w hile t he l aminar t ype h as 6 e c ases t his r etouch w as s o r andom a s t o s uggest t hat i t w as l ittle m ore t han a r ounding o ff o f t he e dges. T his m eans t hat o ut o f 2 2 e xamples ( including f ragments), 8 d isplay t he e lement r equired t o c lassify t hem a s B ann f lakes a s d efined a bove. T he r est c an b est

1 44

E 56:1 21

E 56:1203

E 56:1039 E 56: 321

E 56:1158 s cale F ig.

6 1

1 :1

B utt-thinned f orms -pointed a nd r ounded; b acked f orms 1 45

b e s een a s u nfinished e xamples, e specially s ince E 56 :405 ( Fig. 6 0) h as b een t rimmed o n o ne s ide o nly .

o ne

e xample,

F unction B ann f lakes h ave l ong b een a ssociated w ith t he v alley o f t he r iver B ann i n t he n orth o f I reland a nd t herefore t here h as b een a t endenc y t o a ssociate t hese i mplements d irectly w ith f ishing, a s f ishing s pears. H owever, n o d efinite e vidence o f a B ann f lake w hich w as h afted a s af ish s pear h as b een f ound. F urthermore, a s p ointed o ut b y W oodman ( 1978, 9 4), t here a re d ifficulties i nvolved i n h afting t hese i mplements a nd i t i s h ard t o f ind p arallels, p rehistoric o r m odern, f or t heir u se a s s pears. H e c oncluded a fter a nalysing t he e dge-wear d amage t hat t hey w ere g eneral a ll-purpose c utting, s awing a nd w hittling t ools. T he e xamples f rom N ewgrange w ere e xamined f or b utt t hickness a nd e dge d amage. T his r evealed t hat d espite b utt t rimming t hey r emained r emarkably t hick f or h afting p urposes a nd s ince t he s econd ary r etouch i n t his a rea w as e xtremely l ight i t c ould m erely h ave b een i ntended t o r ound o ff t he e dges, p erhaps p roviding a c omforta ble f inger g rip. A nalysis o f t he u tilisation d amage a t r elatively l ow m agnifications ( up t o 6 0x) s howed t hat e dge w ear v aried f rom e xtensive n otching a nd n ibbling, w hich i ndicated h eavy d uty w ork, t o s light s errations i ndicative o f l ighter w ork. A t l ow m agnificat ions i t i s o ften d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween e dge d amage r esulting f rom u se a nd d amage c aused b y o ther f actors. T he i ndicat ions s uggest t hat t hese i mplements w ere u sed f or a v ariety o f t asks, t he e xact n ature o f w hich i s a s y et u nknown. P ointed a nd r ounded f orms ( Fig. 6 1) o ccur o n f lakes a nd b lades. T hese a re t rimmed n ormally w ith s light r etouch ( although a n umber o f e xamples d isplay s teep r etouch) e ither t o a v ery d istinctive p oint o r t o am ore r ounded o ne. I n t he l atter c ase, t he m ain e mphasis o f t he i mplement i s o n t he e dge n ear t he t ip, r ather t han o n t he t ip i tself, a s w ould b e t he c ase w ith t he f ormer . An umber o f e xamples h ave r andom b utt t rimming. B acked f orms ( Fig. 6 1) a re f lakes o r b lades w ith s teep r etouch f or m ore t han h alf o f t he t otal l ength o f o ne o f t he l ateral e dges o f t he i mplement. T he w ear t races o n t he e dges o f t he p ointed a nd r ounded f orms a nd o n t he b acked f orms i ndicate t hat t hey w ere h eavily u sed. T he b acked e xamples r esemble b lunted-back k nives, o ne s ide b eing r etouched t o p rovide a b lunt e dge a nd t he e dge o f u se w as t he p rimary f lake e dge w hich i s n otched a nd b roken. T he p ointed a nd r ounded f orms p robably s erved t he s ame f unction a s t he b orers. T he p oint t ends t o b e s tronger a nd t hicker a nd c ould h ave b een u sed t o p erforate a h eavy m aterial s uch a s l eather.

I mplements -Type 3 P etit t ranchet d erivatives T he p etit t ranchet o r t ransverse a rrowh ead i s a s ymmetrical a rrowhead m ade o n ab lade s egment; t he m ore a dvanced d erivative f orm i s a n e longated a symmetrical i mplement o n af lake. I n t erms o f c hronology, t he t rue p etit t ranchet a rrowhead i s f ound i n t he L ater M esolithic i ndustries i n B ritain, b ut a part

1 46

f rom a mbiguous s ingle s pecimens o f t he d erivative f orms i n E arlier N eolithic c ontexts, a ssociations a re o therwise w ith G rooved w are a nd o ther L ate N eolithic c eramics. I n I reland, p etit t ranchet d eriv atives a re p resent i n T ownleyhall I I, C o. L outh : 2 730 ± 1 50 b c; B M-170 a nd a t G oodlands; C o. A ntrim : 2 625 ± 1 35 b e; U B320E , b ut l ocal M esolithic o r E arlier N eolithic p rototypes a re u nknown ( Smith 1 974 , 1 20). S ince t here d oes n ot a ppear t o b e c omparable C ontinent al m aterial n or e vidence t o s uggest t hat t his a rtefact w as i ntrod uced b y t he ' Beaker p eople', o r t hat i t h ad e volved i n t he t hird m illennium b e b efore i t b ecame a t ype a rtefact i n t he L ate N eolit hic, i ts h istory a nd d evelopment m ust r emain o bscure. I n v iew o f t he u ncertainty c oncerning t he t ypology a nd t he l ack o f c hronologic al e vidence, t he d evelopment o f t his a rtefact t ype f rom t he M esol ithic p etit t ranchet o r t ransverse a rrowhead i s b y n o m eans c ert ain. H owever, s ince 1 934 , w orkers w ith N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge a ssemblages h ave a dhered t o C lark 's t ypology , a nd f or c omparat ive p urposes t he N ewgrange e xamples a re d ealt w ith i n t he s ame w ay . T he b asic m orphological f eature o f t his t ype o f i mplement i s a s harp p rimary f lake e dge a t a n a ngle t o a n e dge b lunted b y s econda ry r etouch ( Figs 6 2 a nd 6 3). T he e xamples f rom « N ewgrange f all i nto t hree c lasses ( following t he C lark t ypology -Clark 1 934). c lass E T he m ain f eature i s a s light c oncavity o n o ne e dge w hich h as t he e ffect o f m aking t he f orm a symmetrical. T his d evelopment i s c learly d emonstrated w ithin t he c lass, e .g. E 56:846 ( Fig. 6 2) a nd E 56:118 ( Fig . 6 3) w hich a re a lmost s traight o n t he e dge i n q uestion, w hereas i n E 56:258 a nd 3 27 ( both F ig. 6 2) t he c oncavity i s m ore p ronounced. c lass F T his d iffers o nly s lightly f rom c lass E , t he c oncavity b eing m ore a ccentuated. c lass I T he c oncavity h as b ecome s o m odified t hat a t ang h as d eveloped o n t hat e nd. T his c lass d iffers f rom c lasses G a nd H i n t hat t he s harp p rimary f lake e dge i s s horter t han t he b lunte d o ne. P etit t ranchet d erivatives a re t he f ourth m ost c ommon i mplement t ype a t N ewgrange, c omprising 2 .8% o f t he t otal f lint a rtefact a ssemblage. T he o nly v ariants a re c lasses E , Fa nd I a nd t hese a re s tylistically r egarded a s b eing f airly a dvanced i n C lark 's t ypol ogical s cheme.

F unction T he t raditional e xplanation o f t he f unction o f p etit t ranchet d erivatives w as t hat t hey w ere h afted w ith t he c utting e dge d ispos ed o bliquely t o f orm a s ingle-barbed h arpoon. H owever , a n a ltern ative e xplanation i s a lso p ossible. T hese i mplements m ay n ot h ave b een h afted b ut h eld i n t he h and a nd u sed a s k nives. T he p rovision o f t wo e dges b lunted b y s econdary r etouch o ffers a v ery c omfortab le g rip t o t he i ndex f inger a nd t humb. S ince t he v ast m ajority o f

1 47

E 56:327

E 56: 258

E 56:351 E 56: 764

E 56:782

E 56:846 s cale

F ig. 6 2

1 :1

P etit t ranchet d erivatives

1 48

E 56: 714

c [ 1 7 7 7 7 7 7 -, . _

E 56:819

E 56:118

E 56:906

s cale

F ig.

6 3

P etit t ranchet d erivatives

1 49

1 :1

T able X V -Frequency a nalysis o f p etit t ranchet d erivatives

c lass l abel c lass E

a bsolute f requency 1 2

r elative f requency o f c lass

r elative f requency o f t otal a rtefact a ssemblage

5 4.5%

1 .5%

c lass F

3

1 3.6%

0 .4%

c lass I

7

3 1.8%

0 .9%

1 00.0%

2 .8%

T otal

2 2

e xamples a re p atinated t hey c ould n ot b e u sed f or p urposes o f m icrowear a nalysis. T he r emaining u npatinated p ieces w ere e xamined i n t he B aden-Powell R esearch L aboratory a t O xford b ut i n a ll c ases t he e dges h ad b een d amaged a nd b roken a nd t he f unctional e dges p roper w ere m issing. T hus, n o p olish o r g loss o r p referential d irection o f s triations c ould b e a nalysed a nd a s ar esult n o u seful c onclusions r egarding e xact f unction c ould b e d rawn. T here a re m any f lint a ssemblages w hich y ield t his a rtefact t ype a nd c areful m icrowear s tudies c ould p rovide i nformation a s t o t heir f unction .

I mplements -Type 4 M icrolithic f orms T he r ecording o f an umber o f m icrolithic f orms i n t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker l evels a t N ewgrange i s o f g reat i nter est w hen c onsidering t he q uestion o f aM esolithic s urvival. I n I reland t here a re r ecorded e xamples f rom S ite A , L ough G ur, C o. L imerick, w here s ome s mall p oints, p ossibly i ntended a s t ips f or d arts, w ere f ound a nd f rom S ite C w hich y ielded a t anged c hert p oint ( 0 R iordäin 1 954 , 3 80). T hese f inds, d ue t o t heir s parse n umbers, a re u sually r egarded a s t he r elics o f ap revious o ccupat ion a nd a re n ot c onsidered i ndicators o f as urvival o f M esolithic f lint w orking t raditions. H owever, a t N ewgrange t here a re 8 u nfin ished m icrolithic f orms a nd 1 3 b ladelets o r r ough-outs ( pp. 1 30-1) c onstituting 2 .6% o f t he t otal f lint a rtefact a ssemblage. T hey w ere p robably m anufactured f rom v ery s mall b lade n uclei b y ap unch a nd h ammer t echnique a nd p ressure f laking w as u sed f or t he s econda ry w orking. M icroliths p roper c an b e s ubdivided i nto m icro-awls a nd r ods. S even o f t he N ewgrange e xamples a re s imilar i n f orm t o m icro-awls a nd a re i n a ll c ases, e xcept E 56 :1282 ( Fig . 6 4), o n b lades. T he m aximum l ength o f t hese e xamples i s 2 .6cm w hich c ontrasts w ith t he M ount S andel e xamples w hich v ary f rom b etween 3 a nd 5 cm . I n a ll c ases t he b utt e nd i s m issing, s napped o ff b y ac lean b reak a nd a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat t his r epresents a d eliberate f eature o f t he a rtefact, i t i s m ore l ikely t hat i t r esulted f rom u se a nd p erhaps i n t heir o riginal f orm t hey w ere l onger. T he 7 e xamples i n t his c lass d isplay a n umber o f v ariations: E 56:1137 ( Fig. 6 4) a nd E 56 :2954 a nd E 56:1300 ( not i llustrated) h ave s teep r etouch e xtendi ng d own b oth l ateral e dges a nd a re t rimmed t o av ery s harp p oint 1 50

[ 56: 5 9b

[ 56:1137 [ 56:1008

e f ig N A IN IP .

[ 56:1250

E 56:1282

E 56:89

E 56: 230

[ 56:675 E 56:781

E 56:980 F ig.

6 4

E 56:1025 s cale

M icrolithic f orms. A rrowheads 1 51

1 :1

w hich d oes n ot s how a ny s igns o f i ntense d amage, a s d o t he M ount S andel e xamples. E 56:1282 ( Fig. 6 4) a nd E 56 :2956 a nd E 56:1256 ( not i llustrated) h ave s teep r etouch e xtending o nly p art o f t he w ay d own b oth l ateral e dges a nd a re t rimmed t o av ery s light p oint; E 56 :1008 ( Fig. 6 4) i s l ightly r etöuched o n o ne s ide o nly a nd s haped i nto a t hick s trong p oint, w hich d isplays s evere a brasion . T his w as p robably a n u nfinished n eedle p oint w hich w as u sed a s a n a wl. T here i s o nly o ne e xample w hich r esembles t he r od c lass, E 56 :59b ( Fig . 6 4) w hich w as h eavily t rimmed d own o ne s ide a nd g ave a s traight b ladelet a s lightly c urved o utline. M ost o f t he r ods r ecorded a t M ount S andel h ave a m aximum w idth o f l ess t han 0 .4cm w ith a s maller g roup b eing u p t o 1 cm . T he w idth o f t he N ewg i •ange e xample i s 0 .7cm a nd t herefore c learly b elongs t o t his g roup.

I mplements -Type 5 A rrowheads A t otal o f s ix f inished a rrowheads w as f ound i n t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker h orizon a t N ewgrange a nd t hey c an b e s epara ted i nto b arbed-and-tanged, t riangular, h ollow-based a nd l eafs haped ( Fig. 6 4).

T able X VI

c lass l abel

a bsolute f requency

F requency a nalysis o f a rrowheads

r elative f requency o f c lass

r elative f requency o f t otal a rtefact a ssemblage

b arbed-andt anged

3

5 0.0% '

0 .4%

t riangular

1

1 6.7%

0 .1%

h ollow-based

1

1 6.7%

0 .1%

l eaf-shaped

1 _

1 6.7%

0 .1%

T otal

6

1 00 .0%

0 .7%

T he t hree b arbed-and-tanged e xamples a re w ell m ade a nd h ave p ress ure f laking o ver b oth f aces w ith b road w ell f inished b arbs a nd t angs o f e qual l ength. E 56:1025 h as a m ore d eveloped t ang a nd E 56:781 a s horter t ang w hich, h owever, a ppears t o b e b roken . T he s ingle e xample o f at riangular a rrowhead ( E56 :89) i s o f c hert a nd h as s cale f laking c overing a ll t he u pper s urface b ut o nly t he p oint a nd e dges o f t he u nder s urface. T he o nly h ollow-based e xample, E 56 :980, h as p ressure f laking c onfined t o t he e dges, t ip a nd s light c oncavity o n t he d istal e nd. T he l eaf-shaped e xample, E 56 :230, b elongs t o C lark 's c lass A . I t i s b ifacially r etouched w ith s hallow f laking o ver a ll t he u pper s urface w ith t wo f lake s cars r unning p arallel t o t he c entre f rom t he t wo l ong e dges b ut i s o nly p artially r etouched o n t he u nder s urface. L eaf-shaped a rrowheads a re t he m ost c ommon a rrowhead t ype

1 52

r ecorded o n E arly N eolithic s ites a nd a ppear t o b e a n E arly N eolit hic t ype-fossil w hich c ontinued i n t he t ool k it u ntil t he E arly B ronze A ge. T riangular a nd h ollow-based a rrowheads a ppear n ot t o b e w ell r epresented i n N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge f lint a ssemb lages. B arbed-and-tanged -arrowheads a re u sually t aken a s d istinct ive B eaker-type a rtefacts b ut t his i s n ot n ecessarily t he c ase i n I reland w here t hey a ppear t o b e af eature o f t he L ate N eolithic a lso.

I mplements -Type 6 B orers a nd s purred i mplements A f lint i mplement w ith a s harp t ip , i ts b ody b roadening t oward t he b ase, i s s uitable f or p iercing h oles i n m aterials s uch a s s kins w hich c an t hen b e s ewn t ogether b y p assing a p liable s inew t hrough t he h oles. I f t hese i mplements a re p rovided w ith a t hicker, b lunter t ip t hey c an p erforate d enser m aterials s uch a s b one a nd w ood. P erforating i mplements h ave b een f ound o n P alaeolithic s ites a nd t heir c ontinuance a s a n e lement i n t he t ool k it o f p rehistoric m an i s d emonstrated b y t heir r ecovery o n M esolithic, N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s ites. T he t erms b orer a nd s purred i mplement u nfortunately a re u nsatisfactory a nd h ave b een u sed i nterchangeably w ith t he t erms p erforator , a wl a nd p iercer w ithout a ny c lear* d istinctions a nd t herefore u ntil u nivers ally a greed t erms a re f ound t hey w ill h ave t o s uffice ( Figs 6 5 a nd 6). T able X VII

c lass l abel

F requency a nalysis o f b orers a nd s purred i mplements

a bsolute f requency

r elative f requency o f t his c lass

r elative f requency o f t otal a rtefact a ssemblage

b orers

6

5 4 .5%

0 .7%

s purred i mplements

5

4 5 .5%

0 .6%

1 00 .0%

1 .3%

T otal

1

T he s ix b orers a re m ade o n b lades p ointed b y s teep s econdary r etouch e xtending d own b oth l ateral e dges e xcept i n t he c ase o f E 56 :1656 ( not i llustrated) w here t his i s f ound o n o ne s ide o nly . T his g ives t he e dge a b lunted s urface, p robably i ntended a s a f inger g rip . I n E 56 :1299, E 56 :434 ( Fig. 6 5) a nd E 56:1135 ( Fig. 6 5) t he t ip i s s trong a nd t hick a nd h as b een p repared b y f laking f rom a t l east t wo a lternate d irections. T he f acets o f t his w orking a rea a re w ell w orn a nd s mooth, p ossibly d ue t o c ircular m ovement, a nd t hese e xamples w ere p robably r otating a wls. T he r emaining e xamp les, E 56 :1290 ( Fig. 6 5), E 56:1660 a nd E 56:1650, h ave l ess w ell d ef ined n arrow a nd s harp t ips c haracterised b y f laking f rom o ne d irection o nly. T hese w ere p robably u sed f or p iercing s ome c ompara tively s oft s ubstance a nd g loss f rom u se w as d etected o n t wo e xamples.

1 53

E 56:1135

E 56:434

E 56:1 290

[ 56:149 E 56:1608

[ 56:1430

s cale

F ig.

6 5

1 :1

B orers a nd s purred i mplements

1 54

[ 56: 5

[ 56:280

E 56:218

s cale

F ig.

6 6

S purred i mplement.

C ore.

1 :1

A xe f ragment

1 55

T here a re f ive e xamples o f t he s purred t ype. T hey a re o n s hort s quat f lakes a nd a re c haracterised b y t he p ossession o f a s hort p rojection o r s pur, w hich w as t he w orking p art o f t he t ool. I n e xamples E 56:1430, E 56:149 a nd E 56:1608 ( all F ig. 6 5 ), t his s pur i s d efined b y t wo n otches w id i n E 56:5 ( Fig . 6 6 ) a nd E 56:1372 i s d efined b y o ne n otch.

I mplements -Type 7 B lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch T his t ype c omprises a v aried 5 i mplements, e xcluding t he u nretouched e xamples a ssortment o f 3 ( serrated a nd b lunted b lades a nd f lakes) w hich w ere m ost p robably u sed f or t he s ame p urpose. O n t ypological g rounds t hey c an b e d ivided i nto f our m ain s ub-groups o f w hich t he m ost n umerous a re f inely r etouched b lade k nives. A . B lunted-back k nives ( Fig. 6 7). T hese u sually c onsist o f l arger f lakes, o ften o f r ough b lade p roportions a nd h ave o ne e dge p urposely b lunted b y f lat b old r etouch a nd t he e dge o f u tilisation i s t he p rimary f lake s urface. T hey v ary i n l ength f rom 5 .8 t o 3 .8cm. B . S mall s teeply r etouched k nives ( Fig. 6 7). T his g roup i s d istinguished b y b eing s maller t han A , v arying i n l ength f rom 3 .2 t o 2 .6cm a nd i n t he m ajority o f c ases h as a f ine s teep e dge r etouch. T his c ould a rguably h ave b een f or f acilitating h afti ng r ather t han f or a ccentuating a c utting e dge o r p roviding a b lunted a rea f or g ripping t he i mplement. P erhaps t hese e xa mples w ere f itted i n ah andle t o g ive t he u ser g reater r each a nd m anoeuvrability .

8). T hese h ave a n L /B C . F inely r etouched f lake k nives ( Fig . 6 r atio o f l ess t han 2 :1 a nd a re c haracterised b y h aving l ight r etouch e xtending d own e ither o ne o r b oth e dges, a nd s ometimes a cross t he d istal e nd. T his t ends t o g ive t hem a f lat b ase. E 56 :464 a nd E 56 :864 h ave s econdary r etouch o n b oth e dges, w hile E 56 :437 a nd E 56:734 w ere w orked o n b oth e dges a nd t he d istal e nd s uggesting e ither s econdary u se a s a s craper o r m ore p robab ly t he p rovision o f a c omfortable t humb r est. E 56 :1023 a nd E 56:1380 ( not i llustrated) h ave s econdary r etouch o n o ne s ide a nd o n t he d istal e nd a nd E 56:361 a lone w as w orked o n o ne e dge. T his g roup i s f urther c haracterised b y h aving t he g reatest w idth a t t he d istal e nd; e xamples w hich w ere n ot r etouched o n t his e nd r etain s ome c ortex . T hese t wo a daptations w ere o bv iously d esigned t o p rovide a w ide a nd c omfortable f inger g rip f or t he u ser. 9 ). T hese e xamples D . F inely r etouched b lade k nives ( Fig. 6 a re o n b lades w hich h ave a n L /B r atio g reater t han 2 :1 a nd h ave l ight r etouch e xtending d own o ne, o r m ore o ften , b oth l ateral e dges. E 56 :1119 a nd 1 272 ( not i llustrated) a re w orked o n o ne e dge, w hile t he r emaining e xamples a re w orked o n b oth e dges a nd t end t o b e p ointed. I n t he c ase o f E 56 :1087, t he t ip w ould a ppear t o s how s econdary u se a s ab orer. 1 56

[ 56: 900

[ 56: 851

F 56: 849

[ 56:858 [ 56:101 2

[ 56:896

[ 56:65 s cale

F ig.

6 7

1 :1

B lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch: A . B lunted-back k nives; B . S mall s teeply r etouched k nives 1 57

c c rE EIT E C r-

[ 5E 3:734 E.5 6: 4 64

E 56:361

[ 56:864

[ 56:1023 s cale F ig.

6 8

1 :1

[ 56:437

B lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch : C . F inely r etouched f lake k nives

1 5 8

E 56:1119

[ 56:834

[ 56:703

E 56:1087 s cale

F ig.

6 9

1 :1

B lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch : b lade k nives

1 59

D . F inely r etouched

F unction T hese a re t ools w hich w ere m oved a long t he a xis o f t he w orking a rea, i .e. l ongitudinally, a nd w ere m aintained m ost f requently i n a n early v ertical p lane. A s s uch, t hey a re c utting i mplements a nd s ince t he m ost e ffective c utting e dge i s t he n atural f lake e dge, t his s hould d isplay u tilisation d amage e venly d istributed a long t he w hole l ength o f t he b lade. Ar andom s ample o f t his g roup w as a nalysed a t l ow m agnifications ( up t o 6 0x ) f or e dge d amage. I n t he c ase o f Aa nd B , t he e dges d isplayed v ery s light s errations w hich s uggest l ight w ork, a nd t he e dge d amage o n Ca nd D c onsisted o f m ore s evere n otching a nd c hipping, i ndicating h eavier w ork. H owe ver, d amage t o t he e dge c an b e c aused b y av ariety o f a ctions n ot r elating t o f unction a nd i t i s o ften i mpossible t o d istinguish b etween s pontaneous r etouch a nd u tilisation d amage. G loss f rom u se w as r ecorded o n f our e xamples b ut u nfortunately i t w as a gain i mposs ible t o d etermine t he n ature o f t he m aterial w hich c aused i t . I t i s m ost p robable t hat t hese c utting i mplements w ere u sed t o s kin, d ismember a nd p arcel c arcasses. I n t he c ase o f t he b lunted k nife, e xperiments h ave s hown ( Bordaz 1 971, 5 7) t hat b y a pplying p ressure w ith t he i ndex f inger o n t he b lunted e dge, a n a nimal c an b e s kinned a lmost a s r apidly a s w ith a s teel k nife.

T able X VIII

c lass l abel

F requency a nalysis o f b lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch

a bsolute f requency

b lunted-back k nives s mall s teeply r etouched k nives

8

T otal

r elative f requency o f a ll i mplements

2 2 .9%

1 .0%

2 7.8%

1 .2%

1 9 .4%

0 .9%

1 1

3 0.6%

1 .4%

3 6

1 00 .0%

4 .5%

1 0

7

f lake k nives b lade k nives

r elative f requency o f t his c lass

I mplements -Type 8 D enticulated b lades a nd f lakes I mplements i n t his g roup a r c haracterised b y m arked i ndented o r i rregularly n otched e dges a n a ll f ive e xamples a re r oughly m ade a nd s how s igns o f s evere d amag t o t heir e dges o f u tilisation. T his w ould s uggest t hat t hey h i b een u sed a s s aws o n v ery h ard m aterial l ike b one, o r i n o th ( c ases, u sed a s h ollow s crapers s ince s light i rregular c oncaviti ( a ppear o n o ne e dge. E 56 :215 a nd E 56:1382 a re m ade o n b lades w hi : E 56 :216 i s o n a f lake ( Fig. 7 0).

1 60

E 56: 215

[ 56:1382

[ 56:359

[ 56: 21 6

s cale F ig.

7 0

1 :1

[ 56:659

D enticulated b lades a nd f lakes. F abricator a nd f ragments 1 61

T able X IX

c lass l abel

F requency a nalysis o f d enticulated b lades a nd f lakes

a bsolute f requency

-r elative

f requency o f t his c lass

r elative f requency o f t otal n umber o f i mplements

d enticulated b lades

3

6 0 .0%

0 .4%

d enticulated f lakes

2 -

4 0.0%

0 .2%

5

1 00 .0%

0 .6%

T otal

I mplements -Type 9 F abricators ( Fig. 7 0) O ne c omplete f abricator a nd t wo f ragments w ere f ound a t N ewgrange a nd t hese c omprise 0 .3% o f t he t otal f lint a rtefact a ssemblage. A ll t hree e xamples h ave h ad t he e ntire p rima ry f lake s urface r emoved b y s econdary r etouch. W hile t he c omplete e xample, E 56:359, d isplays s evere a brasion o n t he d istal e nd a nd s lighter w ear o n b oth l ateral e dges, o ne o f t he f ragments, E 56 :659, h as t he m ost s evere a brasion o n o ne e dge; t he r emaining f ragment, E 56:1436 ( not i llustrated), h as o nly s light w ear o n a ll e dges. W hen t hese p ieces w ere a nalysed f or w idth d imensions, E 56:359 a nd E 56:659 h ad a W o f 1 .5cm w hile E 56 :1436 w as a f latter s pecimen w ith aW o f l cm .

I mplements -Types 1 0 a nd 1 R ough-outs a nd f ragments A s a lready m entioned ( p. 1 29), t he r elat ive f requency n umbers g iven f or r ough-outs a nd f ragments a re e xpressed a s p ercentages o f t he t otal n umber o f f ragments i n t he a ssemblage a nd n ot o f t he t ypes t o w hich t hey b elong s ince i n s ome c ases t he e xact c lassification i s i n d oubt ( Tables X I a nd X II). T here a re 1 23 f ragments o f s crapers w hich c annot b e a ssigned t o a ny s pecific c lass; t here a re f our f ragments o f b utt-thinned f orms, t hree o f a rrowheads a nd t wo o f f abricators. T here a re 5 9 f ragments o f b lades a nd f lakes w ith e dge r etouch, s ix o f w hich d isplay t he v ariety o f r etouch s een o n t he s mall s teeply r etouched k nives. T he r emaining 5 3 e xamples c ould b e f ragments o f b lunted-back k nives t hough s ome c ould b e f ragments o f p etit t ranchet d erivatives s ince i n m any c ases a ll t hat r emains i s ap ortion o f o ne e dge b lunted b y s econdary r etouch, t he s econd e dge d isplaying t he s harp p rimary f lake s urface. T here a re n o o ther d istinguishing f eatures. I t w as d ecided t o g roup t hem t ogether a s f ragments o f e dge-retouched b lades a nd f lakes. T hree f ragments o f p lano-convex k nives w ere r ecorded ( not i llus trated) a nd t hey d isplay s ome o f t he b asic c haracteristics o f t his a rtefact t ype a s o utlined b y C lark ( 1932). T he b est e xample, E 56:1333, h as a r ounded e nd w ith s cale o r p ressure f laking o n b oth e dges o f t he u pper s urface. T he o ther t wo e xamples h ave m ore p ointed e nds a nd a re r etouched o n o ne e dge o nly . I n a ll e xamples

1 62

E 56:439

E 56:1285 s cale

F ig.

7 1

1 :1

F ragments o f d iscoidal p olished k nives

1 63

s cale

F ig.

7 2

R ough-out o f d iscoidal k nife

1 64

1 :1

t he u ndersurface r etains t he o riginal f lake f ace a nd t he c entral a rea o f t he u pper s urface r etains i ts p rimary f lake c haracter . I n t he c ase o f E 56:1333, i t r etains s ome c ortex . I n f iner e xamples t he w hole o f t he u pper s urface s hould d isplay r egular a nd s hallow s cale f laking, a c haracteristic f eature w hich h as b een a ttributed t o t he B eaker t radition. I t a ppears, h owever, t hat a n umber o f f orms o f t he p lano-convex k nife e xisted s imultaneously a nd t he f iner f orm m erely r epresents t he b est e xample o f t his c lass a nd n eed n ot b e a ttributed t o a ny n ew i nfluence. T he s ite y ielded n o c omplete e xample o f a d iscoidal p olished k nife. S ix f ragments o f t he s ame p iece, E 56:439, a nd a nother f ragm ent o f ad ifferent p iece, E 56:1285 ( both F ig. 7 1), w ere f ound . , a nd u sing t hese t ogether i t i s p ossible t o d iscern m any o f t he f eatures o f t his a rtefact t ype ( Tables X I a nd X II). I t w as m ost p robably f laked o n t he d orsal e nd t o r emove b oth t he b ulb o f p ercussion a nd t he s triking p latforms a nd f lakes w ere t hen r emoved f rom b oth f aces t o p roduce t he r elatively c ircular o utline a nd s harp t hin e dges w hich w ere e ither r etained a s a s mooth o utline, a s o n E 56 :439, o r r etouched t o f orm a b lunted e dge, E 56:1285 . T he s urface o f t he i mplement w as p olished, p resumably t o r emove t he s harp i ntersect ions o f f lake s cars. T he s ite y ielded s even r ough-outs, t wo o f w hich w ere i ntended a s d iscoidal p olished k nives, E 56:228 ( Fig. 7 2) a nd E 56 :583 ( not i llustrated). T hese h ave f lakes r emoved f rom b oth f aces t o f orm t he o utline o f t he i mplement, t he e dges a re r etouched a nd t he b eginning o f s urface p olish i s d iscernible. T he o ther f ive e xamples, a lt hough t hey h ave a n umber o f f lakes r emoved f rom b oth f aces a nd a t l east o ne e dge h as b een r etouched, l ack a ny a ttempt e ither t o s hape t he i mplement o r t o e rase t he f lake s cars b y p olishing. T herefore, t hese c ould e ither b e r ough-outs i n , t he v ery e arly s tages f or t his a rtefact t ype, o r c ould e qually b e r egarded a s f lat c ores. A ll t he r ough-outs r ecorded w ere s lightly g round i n s ome a reas w hich w ould s uggest t hat w hen t hey w ere d iscarded a s p otential d iscoidal k nives t hey w ere h eavily u sed i n s ome a ctivity . T his t ype o f i mplement w ould a ppear t o h ave b een c ommon t o b oth L ate N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge t raditions o f f lint w orking. F our f ragments o f g round f lint a xes w ere f ound o n t he s ite a nd n one o f t hem w as o f ah igh q uality . A lthough t hey w ere g round , t he f lake s cars w ere n ot o bliterated a nd o ne f ragment s till r etained s ome c ortex . A s ubstantial p art o f o ne a xe, E 56 :218, s howed t hat i t h ad a n o val s ection a nd a t apered b utt e nd ( Fig. 6). T he r emaini ng f ragments w ere t oo s mall a nd b adly d amaged f or a ny f eatures t o b e n oted. F ragments o f t he b utt e nd o f t wo u nground f lint a xes w ere a lso f ound w hich h ad f lattened o val s ections a nd r ounded e nds. B oth w ere b attered a nd g round o n o ne e dge w hich s uggests t hat t hey w ere h eavily u sed, p erhaps a s h ammerstones. T here w ere a lso t hree r ough-outs w hich h ad f lakes r emoved f rom a t l east o ne f ace. T hey w ere r oughly r etouched o n t he b utt e nd a nd w ere p robably u sed i n m uch t he s ame w ay a s c ore s crapers. T he p oor q uality o f t he p ieces f ound w ould s uggest a h ome-produced a rtefact. D espite t he g reat i mportance o f t he a xe t o p rehistoric m an i n c onstruction a nd c leara nce w ork , t hese t ools d o n ot a ppear i n a ny g reat n umbers o n N eolit hic a nd E arly B ronze A ge s ites a s aw hole ( Whittle 1 977). S ee a lso P art I , F igs 1 6 & 1 7.

1 65

C ATEGORY 5 .

M ISCELLANEOUS F LINTS

T hese c onsist o f 6 42 p ieces o f f lint w hich w ere p robably i ntended a s t ools b ut w hich w ere a bandoned w ith t he m inimum o f r etouch e ither d ue t o t he b ad q uality o f t he m aterial o r t o b reakage. T hey a re c haracterised b y t he r emoval o f an umber o f s mall f lakes w hich d oes l ittle t o a lter t he s hape o f t he p ieces o r t o f ashion w orking a reas. N one c an b e r ecognised e ither a s p re-forms o r a s f ragments o f s pecific i mplements; 6 8 e xamples a re o f b lade-like p roportions, 74 a re u ndistinguished s mall f lakes. w hile t he r emaining 5

C ONCLUSIONS I f w e c ompare t he r ange o f i mplement t ypes i n t he N ewgrange f lint a ssemblage w ith t hat s een i n L ate N eolithic i ndustries, t he m ost n oticeable a spect i s t heir g eneral s imilarity , a part f rom a f ew e xceptions. T he e arliest N eolithic t radition i s c learly r epresent ed b y t he s errated f lakes a nd b y t he l eaf-shaped a rrowhead , a nd i mplements c ommon t o b oth N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge t raditions a re a lso p resent, e .g. b orers, d iscoidal k nives a nd f abricators. T he a ppearance o f i ntrusive a rtefact t ypes s uch a s t he p etit t ranchet d erivative a nd t he p iano-convex k nife i n t he L ate N eolithic i s n ot n ecessarily d ue t o B eaker i nfluence a lthough t heir o rigins a re s till o bscure. B arbed-and-tanged a rrowheads, u sually s een a s d ist inctive B eaker t ypes, h ave b een r ecorded i n an umber o f G rooved w are c ontexts i n d irect a ssociation w ith o ther f lint a rtefacts a nd p ottery ( Wainwright a nd L ongworth 1 971,173). I t c an t herefore b e s aid t hat t he f lint i ndustry f rom t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker h orizon a t N ewgrange s hows n o d iverse n ew t raits a nd i n f act c onveys a m arked i mpression o f h omogeneity w ith a lready e xisting i ndustries. T hese i n t urn h ad d eveloped f rom t he e arlier f lint a ssemblage o f t he t hird m illennium , a part f rom s ome n ew a rtefact f orms. I t i s a pparent t hat f lint w orking w as a v ery c onservative i ndustry t hroughout t he w hole o f t he N eolithic a nd t he E arly B ronze A ge w ith i ndustrial t echniques r emaining t he s ame. I nnovations t ook t he f orm o f an umber o f n ew a rtefact t ypes o nly . T he ' few e xceptions' m entioned a bove c onstitute p art o f t he e vidence f or a s urvival o f M esolithic f lint w orking t raditions i n t he a ssemblage a t N ewgrange. O ver 5 0% o f t he c ores a re s inglep latformed w ith f lakes r emoved o nly p art o f t he w ay r ound a nd t his, t ogether w ith a p redominance o f f lakes w ith l arge s mooth s tr iking p latforms, s uggests t hat h ard h ammer d irect p ercussion w as t he t echnique u sed. A f urther 3 .3% o f t he N ewgrange c ores w ere a lso s ingle-platformed b ut h ere t he f lakes w ere r emoved a ll t he w ay r ound a nd f lakes w ith f aceted s triking p latforms w ere p roduced, m ost p robably b y i ndirect p ercussion . T hus o ver 8 0% o f a ll c ores w ere s ingle-platformed a nd o ver 5 0% w ere f laked i n t he s imple M esolithic t radition a nd t his w ould s eem t o i ndicate a m easure o f s urvival o f aM esolithic f lint w orking t echnique. B ann f lakes a re t ype-fossils o f t he L ater M esolithic a nd t he ir o ccurrence i n t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker h orizon a t N ewgrange i s i nteresting. T hese d istinctive M esolithic i mplements w ere i n u se u ntil 3 000 b c i f t he e vidence f rom a s ite a t T oomebridge, C o. A ntrim , c an b e a ccepted. H ere a c ollector f ound a c oncentration o f

1 66

B ann f lakes i n t he v icinity o f b oth S andhills a nd C arrowkeel w are, t ogether w ith s everal j avelin h eads a nd t wo p olished s tone a xes. T he N eolithic m aterial w as i n s itu, b ut w hether t he M esolithic e lements w ere p art o f t he a ssemblage o r h ad b een w ashed i n, c annot b e s tated f or c ertain ( Woodman 1 978, 3 35-6). T herefore, a t t he p resent t ime, t he B ann f lakes f rom t he L ate N eolithic/Beaker h oriz on a t N ewgrange a re a mong t he l atest d ated e xamples o f t his a rtef act t ype. T he t echnique o f m icrolith m anufacture i s a r elatively s imple o ne a nd a s s uch i s n ot s o d ependent o n t he s urvival o f t he m ethod f rom e arlier t imes. H owever, i n v iew o f t he e vidence p rovided b y t he i ndustrial t echniques a nd t he B ann f lakes, t he p resence o f a f ew m icrolithic f orms a t N ewgrange t ends t o s upport t his v iew , i f a nything. I t m ust b e s aid h owever t hat t he N ewgrange e xamples a re n ot p articularly d iagnostic o f M esolithic f orms a nd E 56:1137 a nd 1 250 ( Fig. 6 4) i n p articular a re w ell k nown i n l ater a ssemblages a nd d o n ot o ccur i n t he M esolithic. P rofessor W oodman p refers t o c all t hese ' pygmy f lints' r ather t han u se t he t erm ' microlith '.

A CKNOWLEDGF IENTS I s hould l ike t o e xpress m y g ratitude t o t he f ollowing w ho h ave h elped m e i n t he c ourse o f t his s tudy : P rofessor M . J . O 'Kelly w ho f irst s uggested u ndertaking t he s tudy a nd w hose a dvice a nd a ssista nce h elped m e i n e very w ay; M s M argaret C ole, D epartment o f S tatis tics, U niversity C ollege C ork, f or h er a ssistance o n m any s tatis tical a spects o f t he w ork. I s hould a lso l ike t o t hank P rofessor P eter W oodman, t hen o f t he U lster M useum , B elfast; D r D erek R oe, B aden-Powell R esearch L aboratory, O xford; a nd D r R ichard B radley , D epartment o f A rchaeol ogy, R eading U niversity , f or t heir a dvice o n v arious a spects o f t he w ork.

1 67

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A bbreviations A nt. J . J CHAS

A ntiquaries J ournal J ournal o f t he C ork H istorical a nd A rchaeological S ociety J ournal o f t he R oyal S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f I reland P roceedings o f t he B elfast N atural H istory a nd P hilosophical S ociety P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety P roceedings o f t he R oyal I rish A cademy U lster J ournal o f A rchaeology

J RSAI P BNHPS P PS P RIA U JA

A PSIMON, A . M .

1 969

A n e arly N eolithic h ouse i n C o. T yrone. J RSAI

9 9 , 1 65 -8 . A PSIMON, A . M . 1 975

B allynagilly a nd t he b eginning a nd e nd o f t he

cculturation a nd c ontinuity i n A tlanI rish N eolithic. I n A t ic E urope, 4 th A tlantic C olloquium, G hent, e dited S . J . d e L aet, G hent, 1 5-30. T oots o f t he o ld a nd n ew S tone A ge. L ondon . B ORDAZ, J . 1 971 T he O ld S tone A ge. L ondon. B ORDES, F . 1 972 B RADLEY, R . 1 970 T he e xcavation o f a B eaker s ettlement a t B elleT out, E ast S ussex , E ngland. P PS 3 6 , 3 12 -7 9 . B URGESS, C . B . 1 969 C hronology a nd t erminology i n t he B ritish 9 , 2 2-9. B ronze A ge. A nt . J . 4 B URGESS, C . B . a nd S HENNON S . J . 1 976 T he B eaker p henomenon: s ome a nd e conomy i n t he t hird a nd s uggestions. I n S ettlement s econd m illennia BC , B AR 3 3 , e dited C . B urgess & R . M iket, O xford, 3 09-31. C ARSON, R . A . G . a nd O 'KELLY, C . 1 977 A c atalogue o f t he R oman 7C , 3 5 -5 5 . c oins f rom N ewgrange, C o. M eath. P RIA 7 C ASE , H . J . 1 973 A r itual s ite i n n orth-east I reland. I n M egalit hic g raves a nd r itual, 3 rd A tlantic C olloquium , M oesgärd, e dited G . D aniel & P . K jaerum, C openhagen, 1 739 6. C ASE , H . J .

1 977 T he B eaker c ulture i n B ritain a nd I reland. I n B eakers i n B ritain a nd E urope, B AR s upplementary s eries

2 6, e dited R . M ercer, O xford, 7 1-101. 1 933 A B eaker-like v essel f rom B ushmills, C o. C HITTY, L . F . A ntrim. A nt . J . 1 3, 2 59-66. C LARK, J . G . D . 1 932 T he d ate o f t he p lano-convex f lint k nives i n , 1 59-62. E ngland a nd W ales. A nt . J . 7 . 1 934 D erivative f orms o f t he p etit t ranchet C LARK, J . G . D d erivative i n B ritain. A rchaeological J ournal 9 1, 3 2 -5 8. C LARK, J . G . D . 1 960 E xcavations a t t he N eolithic s ite a t H urst F en, M ildenhall, S uffolk. P PS 2 6, 2 02-45. C LARKE , D . L . 1 970 B eaker p ottery i n G reat B ritain a nd I reland , 1 & 2 ,

C ambridge.

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2 74-83. M ODDERMAN , P . J . R . 1 955 L ate B eaker w are d ecorated w ith i mpress ions m ade b y t hread-wound s tamp. R ijksdienst v oor h et O udheidkundig B odemonderzoek 6 , 3 2-43. O AKLEY, K . P . 1 972 M an t he t oolmaker. B ritish M useum, L ondon. O 'KELLY, C . 1 978 I llustrated G uide t o N ewgrange a nd t he o ther B oyne m onuments. C ork.

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O 'KELLY, M . J . 1 976 P lough p ebbles f rom t he B oyne v alley. I n F olk a nd F arm , e ssays i n h onour o f A . T . L ucas, e dited C . 0D ana chair, D ublin, 1 65-76. O 'KELLY, M . J . 1 982 N ewgrange, a rchaeology, a rt a nd l egend . L ondon a nd N ew Y ork ( 1983). O 'KELLY, M . J ., L YNCH, F . a nd O 'KELLY, C . 1 978 T hree p assage g raves a t N ewgrange, C o. M eath. P RIA 7 8C, 2 49-352. O 'KELLY, M . J . a nd S HELL , C . A . 1 979 S tone o bjects a nd a b ronze a xe f rom N ewgrange, C o. M eath. I n T he o rigins o f m etall urgy i n A tlantic E urope, 5 th A tlantic C olloquium, D ublin, e dited M . R yan, D ublin, 1 27-44. 0R IORDAIN , S . P . 1 954 L ough G ur E xcavations: N eolithic a nd B ronze 6C , 2 97 -4 59 . A ge h ouses o n K nockadoon. P RIA 5 0R IORDAIN, S . P . a nd 0 h EOCHAIDHE, M . 1 956 T rial e xcavation a t 6 , 5 2-61. N ewgrange. J RSAI 8 P EACOCK, D . P . S . 1 969 N eolithic p ottery p roduction i n C ornwall. A ntiquity 4 3 , 1 45 -9 . D . P . S . 1 970 S cientific a nalysis o f a ncient c eramics: a r eview . W orld A rchaeology I , n o. 3 , 3 75 -8 9 S CHMALZ, R . F . 1 960 F lint a nd t he p atination o f f lint a rtefacts. PS 2 6 , 4 4 -9 . P S EMENOV, S . A . 1 964 P rehistoric t echnology. L ondon . S HEE , E . A . a nd E VANS, D . M . 1 965 A s tanding s tone i n t he t ownl and o f N ewgrange, C o. M eath. J CBAS 7 0, 1 24-30. 1 974 B ell B eakers a nd t heir c ontext i n C entral S HENNON, S . J . E urope. I n G lockenbecher S ymposion, O berried, e dited J . W . L anting & J . D . v an d er W aals, H aarlem , H olland, 2 31-40. 1 977 T he a ppearance o f t he B ell B eaker i n C entral S HENNON, S . J . E urope. I n B eakers i n B ritain a nd E urope, B AR s upplem entary s eries 2 6, e dited R . M ercer, O xford, 5 1-70. S HEPARD, A . 1 968 C eramics f or t he a rchaeologist. C arnegie I nstit ute o f W ashington, P ublication 6 09. S MITH, I . F . 1 965 W indmill H ill a nd A vebury: E xcavations b y A lexander K eiller, 1 925-39. O xford. S MITH, I . F . 1 974 T he N eolithic. I n B ritish P rehistory: a n ew o utline, e dited C . R enfrew, L ondon, 1 00-36. S WEETMAN, P . D . 1 976 A n e arthen e nclosure a t M onknewtown, S lane, C o. M eath. P RIA 7 6C, 2 5-72. 1 974 T he a nimal r emains f rom t he V AN W IJNGAARDEN-BAKKER, L . H . B eaker s ettlement a t N ewgrange, C o. M eath : f irst r eport. P EACOCK,

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B AR B ritish s erie f