The Settlement Patterns in the Jordan Valley in the Mid- to Late Islamic Period 9781841710785, 9781407352176

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Bibliography Abbreviations
Abbreviations used in Pottery Description
Chapter I. INTRODUCTION
Chapter II. AN OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF THE JORDAN VALLEY IN THE MID-LATE ISLAMIC PERIODS
Chapter III. FIELD WORK
Chapter IV.
Chapter V. Conclusions
Bibliography

Citation preview

BAR  S877  2000   KAREEM  

The Settlement Patterns in the Jordan Valley in the Mid- to Late Islamic Period

THE SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE JORDAN VALLEY

Jum’a Mahmoud H. Kareem

BAR International Series 877 B A R

2000

The Settlement Patterns . in the Jordan Valley in the Mid- to Late Islamic Period Jum'a Mahmoud H. Kareem

BAR International Series 877

2000

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 877 The Settlement Patterns in the Jordan Valley in the Mid- to Late Islamic Period © J M H Kareem and the Publisher 2000 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781841710785 paperback ISBN 9781407352176 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841710785 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2000. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

BAR PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

This book is dedicated to

Dr Moawiyah Ibrahim Dr Hans Nissen Dr Hans Gaube Mr Sameer Shama

Contents

Acknowledgment ....................................................................................................

iii

List of Abbreviations ...............................................................................................

iv

Chapter/: Introduction A. Location of the Project Area ...........................................................................

1

B. Field Work ......................................................................................................

1

C. History of Archaeological Research in the Jordan Valley ................................ 2 D. Research Presentation ..................................................................................

3

Chapter/I: An Overview of the History of Settlement in the Jordan Valley in the Mid-Late Islamic Period A. Introduction ....................................................................................................

5

B. Geology and Ecology .....................................................................................

5

C. Geographical Zones of the Joraan Valley .......................................................

6

D. The Historical Picture of Settlement in the Jordan Valley in the Mid-Late Islamic Periods ......................................................................

6

Chapter Ill: Field Work A. The Excavation at Dhra' el-Khan ..................................................................

28

B. The Ayyubid-Ottoman Surveyed Sites ..........................................................

66

Chapter IV: A. The Pottery Assemblage ..............................................................................

81

B. The Metal Objects, Coins and Koh le Sticks ............................................... 279

ChapterV: Conclusions ..................................................................................................

293

Bibliography .........................................................................................................

297

Acknowledgments

This book was made possible through the support and assistance of many people. I am particularly grateful to Prof. Dr. Hans J. Nissen, my supervisor, for his support and advice through the writing of this work. Special thanks go to Prof. Dr. Heinz Gaube, Islamwissenschaft, Universitat Tiibingen, for his guidance in writing the historical chapter. In particular, I would like to thank the authorities of the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) whose financial support enabled me to pursue my doctoral studies at the Freie Universitat Berlin, Germany. Special thanks also go to Prof. Dr. Mo'awiyah Ibrahim, former director of the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology (IAA)-Yarmouk University, and the present director, Dr. Zeidan Kafafi, for their support and encouragement. My gratitude also goes to Mr. Sameer Shama who generously financed the project of Dhra' el-Khan. I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Safwan al-Tal, Director General of the Department of Antiquities, for his approval for the Dhra' el-Khan excavation, and to Mr. M. Hatamleh, Dr. Kh. Tarawneh, Dr. S. al-Sari for their help and comments on the coin section. I owe special thanks to Steven Wood, Lessa McCann and Dr. Mahmoud elNajjar, head of the anthropology section, IAA, for their valuable notes and editing. I am thankful to Mr. M. Bataineh, A. al-Omari, Y Zu'bi, H. Deebaj a and I. Masalmeh, staff members of the IAA for their help in many aspects. My thanks also go to my colleagues S. al-Ma'ani, Z. Zaid, I. Zu'bi and M. Nahar for their encouragement during the writing of this research project. My appreciation goes to I. al-Hadi, M. Jaradat, Kh. Douglas, and I. Sadaqah for their kind assistance in supervising the work on the squares of the excavation ofDhra' el-Khan. To all those, and to my professors, colleagues and my family, I will remain indebted and thankful.

Bibliography Abbreviations AASOR:

Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research

ADAJ:

Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan

BA:

The Biblical Archaeologist

BASOR:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

CAH:

Cambridge Ancient History

EAEHL:

Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land

IEJ:

Israel Exploration Journal

JPOS:

Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society

PEFQ:

Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly

QDAP:

Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine

RV:

Revue Biblique

BHAJ:

Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan

SPF:

Studium Biblicum Franciscanum

VT:

Vitus Testamentum

ZDMG:

Zeitschrift der deutschen morganlandischen Gesellschaft

ZDPV:

Zeitschrift des deutschen Palastina-Vereins

Abbreviations used in Pottery Description F:

Form

E:

Exterior

I:

Interior

C:

Core

W:

Ware

Des:

Description

MT:

Manufacture Technique

Sp:

Sugar Pot

Dia:

Diameter

UD:

Undefined

Small-sized:

less than 112mminclusion size

Medium-size:

1/2-lmm inclusion size

Large-size:

more than 1mm inclusion size iv

Settlement Patterns in

Jordan Valley

Chapter I Introduction

A. Location of the Project Area The Jordan Valley extends the full length ofJordan, from the Yarmouk River in the North to the Gulf of Aqaba in the South (ca. 3 60 kilometers). This archaeological study, however, involves only to that part of the Jordan Valley which lies between the Yarmouk River and the Dead Sea. This book is an archaeological study of the Jordan Valley in the Mid-Late Islamic periods, which include the Mamluk (AH 648-922/AD 1250-1516) and the Ottoman (AH 9221333/AD 1516-1914) periods. Published material from the western side of the Jordan Valley on cultural remains dated to the Mid-Late Islamic periods will be used for comparative study. The western border of the studied area is defined by the Jordan River and the eastern border by the lower edge of the eastern foothills. The length of the area under study between the Yannouk River and the Dead Sea is approximately 105 kilometers. The width of the Jordan Valley in the north, between the Yarmouk River and the Zarqa River, is 3-5 Kilometers, and in the south, between the Zarqa River and the Dead Sea, 10-15 kilometers.

B. Field Work Two methods were used to evaluate the socio-economic situation and settlement patterns and density in the Jordan Valley during these periods: 1.) The material cultural remains which came from those sites was recorded by the Eastern Jordan Valley Project in 1975 and 1976, and suggest that there was a continuous occupation of the above mentioned area date back from the Ayyubid to the Ottoman periods of which twenty six archaeological sites were examined and analyzed; and 2.) Archaeological soundings were conducted at one of these sites in order to obtain stratigraphic materials dated to both the Mamluk and the Ottoman periods. Dhra' el-Khan is the site in which archaeological work was conducted. The site was

discovered for the first time by the Eastern Jordan Valley Survey Project of 1975. The outlines of a large square structure with a central courtyard were recorded. This site was tentatively identified by the surveyors as a caravanserai (khan) from the Mamluk and Ottoman periods (Ibrahim, M. et. al. 1976: 49). According to the surveyors, the artifacts retrieved from the surface of the site included flints, a few sherds that may possibly be from the Ummayad period, and sherds from the Ayyubid/ Mamluk and Ottoman periods (Ibrahim, M. et al. 1976: 49; Yassine, K. 1988: 168). Thus, it is estimated that soundings at this site gave the possibility of: 1.) uncovering material culture remains dated to both the Mamluk and Ottoman periods; and 2.) an obvious view of the trade route which passed through this region in the Mid-Late Islamic periods. Historians have said that this trade route (which most probably was also used as a military road) was used in the 13th -15 th century and passed through Baisan (Khan el-AJ;imar), North Shuneh, and Za];iar and/or J;aibat Isem (al-Qalqashandi XIV/380; Abu 1-Mahasin. ed. Popper XVl/48). It is expected that trade routes had a positive influence on the settlement pattern and its density in both the northern and southern parts of the studied area. Damiyah al-.Tadidahis located in the southern part of the Jordan Valley and on the trade/l_Iajj route which connected the cities in the central and southern parts of Palestine with those in the central and southern parts ofJordan. This site shows material cultural remains dating only to the Ottoman period within the Islamic periods (Yassine, K. et. al. 1988: 191). Thus, it is estimated that soundings at this site will give material cultural remains dated only to the Ottoman period; these remains are until now not easily differentiated by archaeologists from those dated to the Mamluk period. But, after visiting the site by the writer at October 28, 1990, it was found to be thoroughly destroyed and planted. Thus, archaeological work at the site was impossible. In order to clarify the occupation density and/or pattern and the socio-economic development in this region as part of Jordan, this book is written following a historical framework (chapter II).

Jum'a

Kareem

C. History of Archaeological Research in the Jordan Valley

Jisr Sheikh Husein region in the northern part of the Jordan Valley. Soundings were conducted at one of these sites, Tell Qudsiya (Kareem, J. 1987).

The early archaeological surveys in the Jordan Valley 1 as well as the early excavations 2 concentrated on the earlier periods of occupation in this region. They were particularly concentrated with the period from the fourth millennium to the sixth century BC.

Material remains related to the Ottoman period were neglected until the beginning of 1980 's. More recently, many archaeologists and a gonernmental authorities have been interested in studying and documenting these remains. Architectural remains dated to the Ottoman period, found at the villages of Nabi Hilt, Umm Qais, and Shattana, were studied by Gaube, H. (1986: 176-177). Ottoman forts located on the l:[ajj route were studied by Peterson, A.(1986; 1989: 97-119; 1991: 347-360). Other buildings in the city oflrbid which were dated to the Ottoman period were studied by McQuitty, A. and Lenzen, C. (1989: 119-128). Another three studies (McQuitty, A. 1991; Rogan, E. 1991 and Greene, J. 1991) on the Ottoman water mills in Jordan were recently submitted to the Y11International Conference on the History and Archaeology of Jordan. However, the study and/or documentation of the archaeological remains dated to the MidLate Islamic periods in Jordan are at the beginning. A lot of these remains have until now not been seriously studied. Furthermore, hundreds of small rural sites have not been excavated and/or documented. The rapid modern development in Jordan in general, and in the Jordan Valley in particular has threatened these smaller archaeological sites.

Similarly, recent excavations 3 have also concentrated on the early periods. Furthermore, recent archaeological surveyors 4 have also concentrated specifically on the prehistoric periods until (ca. 6th century BC). Islamic sites located on the floor of the Jordan Valley were for the first time identified according to the ceramic analysis by Ibrahim, M., and Sauer, J.; and Yassine, K. (1976). Their dating was based on dynastic dates, as also was practiced by Smith, R. in Pella (1973) and Sauer, J. in J::Iesban(1973). The same methodology was used by Kareem, J. ( 1987) for dating the surveyed archaeological sites in the region of Jisr Sheikh Husein and by Mabry, J. and Palumbo, G. (1988: 275-305) in surveying the region of Wadi el-Yabis. Separating Islamic sites according to the dates of the Islamic dynasties is a notable contribution to the Islamic studies in the whole region. Prior to the development of this procerdure, Islamic material cultural remains were grouped under the inexact Europeanbased term "Medieval". Islamic material cultural remains were found in salvage excavations held in the Jordan Valley, such as at Tell Sahl e~$arabet (Suleiman, E. and Betts, A. 1981) and at Tell Nimrin (Piccirillo, M. 1982). More recently, small rural Islamic sites situated on the floor of the Jordan Valley have been given more attention. Four seasons were carried out at Tell Abu $arbut (De Hass, H. et. al. 1988; LaGro, H. and de Hass 1989/ 1990: 7-21 ), where Mamluk remains were extensively found. Lenzen, C.; Kareem, J. and Thorpe, S. (1987: 313-320) have also identified Islamic, as well as earlier occupied sites in the 1 Albright, W. 1924; Glueck, N. 1935, 195; De Continson 1964; Mellaart, J. 1962 and Mittmann, S. 1970. 2 De Continson at North Shunch, Abu Habil and Tell cs-Sa'idcych 1960; Franken, H. at Tell Deir 'Alfa 1960, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965; Franken, H. and Ibrahim, M. at Tell Deir 'Alla 1977-78; Ibrahim, M. and Van dcr Cooij atTell Deir 'Alla 1979, 1988; Mallon, A. eta!. atTulleiliitGhassul 1934; Koeppel, R. et al. at Tulleiliit Ghassul 1940; Hennessy, J. at Tulleilat Ghassul 1969; Pritchard, J. at Tell es-sa'ideyeh 1964, 1966, 1978, 1980 ; and Mcllaart, J. at Ghrubba 1956. 3 Gustavson-Gaubc at North Shunch 1985, 1986; Wightman, G. at Wadi cl Hammch 1988; Falconer, S. and Magness-Gardiner at Tell cl-1-!-ayyiit and Abu en-Na'aj 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986; Fischer, P. at Tell Abu alKharaz 1991; Dollfus, G. and Kafafi, Z. at Tell Abu l;lamid 1986, 1989; Tubb, J. at Tell es-sa'ideyeh 1985, 1986a, 1986b, 1988, 1991; Yassine, K. at Tell el-Mazar 1983, 1984a, 1984b; Ibrahim, M. and Van der Cooij at Tell Deir 'Alla 1979, 1983, 1984, 1986; Leonard, A. at Katarct csSamra 1979, 1981, 1985, 1986; Mabry, J. at Tell cl-}::landaquq1989; Helms, S. at Tell Umm J::[ammadcsh-Sharqiya 1984c, 1986a, 1986b; Helms, S. at Tiwal esh-Sharqi 1983, 1984a, 1984b; Prag, K. at Tell Iktanu 1985, 1988, 1989, 1990 and Flanagan, J. and Mccreery, D. at Tell Nimrin. 4 Muheisen, M. 1988 at the terraces of the eastern foothills of the Jordan Valley; McNicoll, A. and Edwards, P. at Wadi cl-l:lammch 1984, 1986.

In the Jordan Valley, a documentary study was carried out on the sugar mills at five sites used for processing sugar between the 12th and 15th centuries (Abu Dalu, A. 1991). However, until now, there are many other sugar mill structures in the Jordan Valley which have not been studied. Ethnoarchaeological studies in the Jordan Valley have been carried out more recently. In this manner, three villages, khirbet al-Sakhinah, Tell el-Arba'in and al-1:[arrawiyah, were studied (Mundy, M. et al. 1991). Another study, concerned with the Village of es-Sleikhat, is under study (Shami, S. Personal communication). Such studies offer a better understanding of the settlement history in these sites, the population movements between the cultivated areas and the pasture areas, the transformation of the dwelling patterns, and the main factors behind the establishment of any settlement, e.g., a spring, a shrine, grain stores, and trade roads. Maps based on the Ottoman tax records show the distribution of villages in the sixteenth century for both Palestine and Jordan (Hiitteroth and 'Abdulfattah 1977: 167-169). Sixteen villages, mentioned in these records, were located on the eastern side of the Jordan Valley in the area located between the Yarmouk River and the Dead Sea (Pl. 52). Depending on the analysis ofJacotin's map, drawn for Napoleon's campaign to Palestine in 1779 AD, the map of Western Palestine 1880, and notes of travellers who passed through Palestine and Jordan in the 19ct,century, Amiran ( 1953), Lewis (1963), Hiitteroth (1975), and Hiitteroth and 'Abdulffatah (1977) argued that village settlements decreased in numbers in every region of Palestine and Jordan between the end of the 16th century and the end of the 19th century. According to Hiitteroth and 'Abdulffatah (1977), the Jordan Valley showed the sharpest population density decrease, with 85% of village

Settlement Patterns in

DHRAC

Jordan Valley

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settlement abandoned in the northern part and complete abandonment of the southern part of the Valley. These arguments will be re-evaluated in the light of the archaeological evidence.

D. Research Presentation The history of the Jordan Valley, geology, ecology, and the geographical zones of the Jordan Valley are discussed in chapter IL In addition, the historical picture of settlement in the Jordan Valley within each Islamic dynasty included in this study are analyzed. Historical and geographical data concerned with the settlement sites, trade roads, agricultural products, mineral extracting, major international events, state economic, political, and military policy, and changes in the social classes will be presented. The affects of these elements

on the occupational patterns in the Jordan Valley in particular, and in the whole of Jordan are also discussed. These patterns are related to the larger context of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. Within the analysis of each time period the archaeological data from the Jordan Valley is compared with the range of evidence from Jordan as a whole. Chapter III presents the field work. It consists of two parts: the first presents the excavation data which came from working at the site ofDhra' el-Khan; the second presents the results of studying the material remains dated to the AyyubidOttoman periods. These remains came from 26 archaeological sites recorded by the Eastern Jordan Valley Survey Project 1975 and 1976 (PL 50). Chapter IV presents a comparative study of the material remains recovered from the site ofDhra' el-Khan, as well as those from the surveyed sites. Pottery types from Dhra' el-

Jum'a

Kareem

T_f)_N·SHUNEH

Map1a

Khan are compared to those which were dated to the same periods and came from stratified sites in Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Iran. In this chapter, sixty six figures (1-66) were drawn representing the pottery types discovered during the excavation ofDhrii' el-Khan in 1990. These figures were arranged following the square numbers and the loci sequence within each square. Another 25 figures (67-91) were drawn representing the pottery types which came from the Ayyubid-Ottoman surveyed sites. These figures were arranged following the site numbers identified by the Jordan Valley

Survey Project of 1975 and 1976. Within this chapter, the coins section is included. Chapter Vis an analysis of the results of excavations at Dhrii' el-Khan and the survey material from the 26 Ayyubid-Ottoman rural and/or trade center sites. The economical importance of the Jordan Valley in the Mid-Late Islamic periods is discussed. Moreover, the settlement patterns in the Jordan Valley in the post 12th century and changes in the social classes were also examined.

4

Settlement Patterns in

Jordan Valley

Chapter II

An Overview of the History of the Jordan Valley in the Mid-Late Islamic Periods

A. Introduction In this chapter the formation, ecology, and occupational history of the Jordan Valley (al-Ghor, the Jordan depression) in the Mid-Late Islamic periods is surveyed. The purpose of this overview is to identify the development and changes of settlement in the Jordan Valley within this period. This chapter is arranged chronologically, following the terms used by historians and archaeologists; in order to illustrate the history of the Jordan Valley, this chronology is divided into centuries. The historical data and the archaeological results concerning Jordan in general and the Jordan Valley in particular, throughout the Mid-Late Islamic periods, will be discussed in this chapter.

B. Geology and Ecology The length of the Jordan Valley from Lake Tiberias to the Dead Sea is approximately 105 kilometers (Schattner, I. 1962: 13; 'Abed, A. 1982: 132). The floor of the Jordan Valley varies in breadth from six to twenty kilometers (Smith, A. 1897: 482; Schattner, I. 1962: 13). The elevation of the Jordan Valley is -212.00m. at Lake Tiberias and 392.00m. at the Dead Sea (Bender, F. 1974: 11; this elevation was in 1938). The Jordan Valley rift was formed, according to one hypothesis, as a result of a horizontal tectonic activity in the Miocene (twelve million years ago), the Pliocene (two million years ago), and the Pleistocene (one million years ago) periods (Schattner, I. 1962: 14-21; Linton, D. and Moseley, F. 1970: 2; Bender, F. 1974: 123-24; 'Abed, A. 1982: 81-82). A second hypothesis says that the Jordan Valley was formed from vertical tectonics (Blankenhorn, M. 1896; Bender, F. 1974: 1974: 74-75). As a result of these tectonic activities, the mountains are thought to have been raised and a deep rift created between them. This rift extends from Biqa' in Lebanon to the Dead Sea, and hence to the Red Sea and central Africa (Blanckenhorn, M. 1896: 24-26; Smith, A. 1897: 269; 'Abed,

A. 1985: 81). Geologists claim that the Jordan Valley was covered with water and that the change of climate in the Pleistocene era caused the partial shrinkage of this lake ('Abed, A. 1985: 81). In the Pleistocene period the northern part of the Jordan Valley contained several fresh water lakes and many wadis; the water from these wadis caried sediments to the Valley ('Abed, A. 1985: 81). The floor of the Jordan Valley was formed from these sediments (Bender, F. 1974: 274). Over one million years ago, the Jordan Valley contained several fresh water lakes in the north and salt water lakes in the south ('Abed, A. 1982: 89; Van Zeist, W. 1985: 200). According to Van Zeist, W. ( 1985: 200) the low rainfall and the high temperatures in the south resulted in salt remaining in the upper soil layers, while the lower temperatures and the high rainfall in the north resulted in removal of the salt. The differences in the rainfall and soil salinity between the northern and the southern regions of the Jordan Valley, and their relative geographical location between urban centers, has resulted in the recording of a high number of both rural and urban settlements in the northern part of the Jordan Valley 5 • The climate of the Jordan Valley is described by Shehadeh (1985: 35) as "warm steppe climate". Rainfall in the northern and middle parts of the Jordan Valley reaches 280350mm. (Schattner, I. 1962: 21); further to the south the precipitation decreases to about 100mm. (Schattner, I. 1962: 21-22). Temperature in this region is high in summer and moderate in winter. The average annual temperature in Baqura, located in the northern part of the Jordan Valley, near north Shuneh, is 22° C, but it reaches 23.6° C in Deir 'Alla, located in the middle of the Jordan Valley. The average temperature of July exceeds 30°C in Baqura and average maximum temperature in the same place is 37° C (Shel;adeh, N. 1985: 35). Other information, in particular on wind, humidity, and evaporation in the Jordan Valley, is not available. 5 See the results of the Eastern Jordan Valley Survey Project 1975-76; Ibrahim, M. ct al. 1976: 49-66; Yassinc, K. 1988: 157-207.

Jum'a

Kareem

C. Geographical Zones of the Jordan Valley

1982: 156). The governors of the western and eastern provinces established independent dynasties. A branch of the Umayyad dynasty ruled Spain independently; the Aghlabids (AH 178/AD 795) ruled Tunisia and Algeria; the Tulunids (AH 254-292/ AD 868-905) ruled Egypt and Syria and the Tahirids (AH 265-295/AD 820-872) and the Samanids (AH 261-389/AD 874-999) controlled Iran. The Fatimids (AH 297-567/AD 909-1171) founded an empire in North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Syria, Jordan, and Arabia. The Buyids (AH 334-447 /AD 805-914) captured the capital Baghdad in AH 334/AD 904; the Seljuks took Baghdad in AH447/AD 1055 ('Abadi,A. 1971: 128-140; Brockelmann, C. 1982: 107-108). As a result of this confusion in the Islamic world, the Crusaders and the Mongols were able to launch successful invasions.

The Jordan River flows in the Jordan Valley within a narrow strip of land close to its course. The width of this strip does not exceed 1OOOm.This strip is the flood plain, the Zor in Arabic, and is covered with dense vegetation (Saunders, T. 1881: 155; Aharoni, Y. 1967: 31; Van Zeist, W. 1985: 199). Due to the distribution of ancient archaeological sites dating from between the seventh and third millennia BC, Koucky, F. and Smith, R. (1988: 27-36) argue that there were some lakes which covered this zone within this period. Lake Baisan, which existed in the northern part of the Jordan Valley, could have been one of these lakes. The high water table in the Zor provides suitable conditions for forest vegetation (Van Zeist, W. 1985: 199); and the high percentage of humus, 6% according to Bender, F. ( 1974: 193), suggests that this section of the Jordan Valley was well-suited to the cultivation of a variety of crops. The archaeological data gained from surveying and excavating one site, Tell Qudsiya in the Jisr Sheikh Husein region, demonstrates clearly that this region, which was a part of lake Baisan, was a well-cultivated area during the Islamic periods, especially in the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods (Kareem, J. 1987).

During the Abbasid period, the administration of the Jordan Valley was divided between the provinces of al-Urdunn (=Jordan) and Filastin (Palestine). Ibn Khurdadhabeh (died in AH 250/AD 864) and Ibn al-Faqih (died in AH 292/AD 903) mentioned Tabarya (Tiberias), Baisan, and Fa4il among the Kurah (sub-provinces) ofJund al-Urdunn (=the province of Jordan); the tax paid by this province was 350,000 dinars (Ibn Khurdadhabeh 1967: 78; lbn al-Faqih 1967: 119). alI~takhri (died in AH 340/AD 951) and Ibn l:lauqal (died in AH 368/AD 978) mentioned that the area located between Tiberias and Baisan belonged to the province of al-Urdunn; the area located to the south ofBaisan was part of the province of Filastin (al-Ii;;takhri 1961: 43,45; Ibn l:lauqal 1967: 170,173). al-Muqaddasi (died in AH 375/AD 985) put the towns of Tiberias and Baisan in the province of al-Urdunn, while the town of Ariba (=Jericho) and the southern part of the Dead Sea, were located in the province of Filastin (alMuqaddasi 1967: 156).

The main part of the Jordan Valley, the ghor, is separated from the Zor by a row of dissected hills called Katar in Arabic (Saunders, T. 1881: 154; Aharoni, Y. 1967: 31). Due to the scanty rainfall in the Jordan Valley, the Ghor and the Katar sections were not planted before the l 960s, except the sections watered by wadis and/or springs. However, the eastern side of the Jordan Valley is better watered than the western side because there are more tributaries (Aharoni, Y. 1967: 31; on the wadis located on the western side of the Jordan Valley see Saunders, T. 1881: 155-170). The main tributaries located on the eastern side of the Jordan Valley are the Yarmouk and the Zarqa Rivers. There are secondary tributaries in the following wadis, from north to south: 'Arab, Ziqlap, Jirm, Yabis, Kufrenjeh, Shue'ib and Kufr1n (Pl. 52; Aharoni, Y. 1967: 31-32).

The administration of the Jordan Valley in the 12th century fell within the jurisdiction of the Jordan province (al-Idrisi; died in AH 549/AD 1154; 1984: 366, 3 77; Le Strange 1965: 30, 40). The Jordan Valley prospered during the Abbasid period. al-Ii;;takhriand lbn al-Faqih said that the Jordan Valley had many springs and valleys, and was planted with palm trees (al-I~takhri 1961: 45; Ibn al-Faqih 1967: 56). Ibn l:lauqal (1967: 1/173) described the Jordan Valley by saying "it is a beautiful land, planted with palm trees and flowers".

D. The Historical Picture of Settlement in the Jordan Valley in the Mid-Late Islamic Periods

1. TheAbbasid period (AH 132-656/AD 750-1258)

Al-Muqaddasi (1967: 180) said that fruit trees, sugar-cane, palm trees, and rice were planted in Tiberias; palm trees and rice were planted in Baisan region; indigo, palm trees, bananas, and riban (flowers) were planted inAriba (=Jericho). al-Idrisi said that palm trees and indigo were planted in the southern part of the Jordan Valley (al-Idrisi 1984: 155,356; 1885: 3).

The Umayyads (AH40-132/AD 661-750) were overthrown in a revolution by the Abbasids. The Abbasids moved the Islamic capital from Damascus to Baghdad, founded by the Caliph al-Man~ur in AH 145/AD 762. Theoretically, the Abbasids ruled until AD 1258, when the Mongols sacked Baghdad and killed the last Abbasid Caliph; in reality, however, the Abbasids were powerless from the end of the 9th century (Sha'ban, M. 1976: 137-140; Brockelmann, C.

al-Muqaddasi listed the commercial items that came from Bilad ash-Sham (=greater Syria) in the tenth century AD From the Jordan Valley, indigo came from Aril;ia(Jericho); indigo, dates and deb, a molasses-like substance, from ~ogar (=Ghor a~-$afi) and Baisan; and rice from Baisan (al-Muqaddasi 1967: 180). Minerals were also extracted from the Jordan Valley; e.g., salt in powder from the Dead Sea and sulphur (al-Muqaddasi 1967: 184; Le Strange 1965: 184). 6

Settlement Patterns in

Jordan Valley

excavations at Tell Abu Qa' dan (Tell abu Ghurdan; near Tell Deir 'Alla; Franken, H. andKalsbeek, J. 1975: 107-62; Sauer, J. 1976: 93; Franken, H. 1989: 99-101), Tell Qudsiya (Kareem, J. 1987: 93-123; 1991), and Tell Sahl e~-$arabet (Suleiman, E. and Betts, A. 1981: 233). According to the results of the Eastern Jordan Valley Survey Project 1975-76, the Abbasid period is poorly represented (Ibrahim, M. et. al. 1976: 62; Yassine, K. 1988: 157-206). The percentage of sites occupied in the Abbasid period, as calculated by the writer, is only 7 .14% of the total recorded sites.

As a result of the flourishing agriculture in the Jordan Valley, numerous towns and villages were founded and/or continued to prosper from the 9 thto 11th centuries AD (Yaqut 4/217; alIdrisi: 377; Le Strange 1965: 15). Some of the towns located on the eastern side of the Jordan Valley were Fa]:iil(Tabaqat Fa]:iil=Pella; lbnKhurdadhabeh: 94), 'Ammata (Abu 'Obaida; al-Idrisi 1984: 377,363,357), and $ogar, located to the south of the Dead Sea (al-I~takhr11961: 43, 45; Ibn l:1-auqal1967: 170, 185; al-Muqaddasi 1967: 185; al-Idrisi 1984: 377,355). By using the historical and geographical data from lbn Khurdadhabeh, lbn Qudama, al-Muqaddasi and al-Ya'qubi, Hartmann, R. (1910: 675-676) argues that the main trade road between Damascus and Egypt passed through Fiq, Tiberias, Baisan and Marj Ibn 'Amer in the Abbasid period 6 •

The Fa timid dynasty (AH 296-550/ AD 909-1171) spread its influence throughout Sicily, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Jordan, and Arabia (Brockelmann, C. 1982: 157). Evidence ofF atimid occupation has come from a few Jordanian sites, such as the Amman Citadel (Bennett, C. and Northedge, A. 1977-78: 17273; Northedge, A. 1977-78: 11-12; Bennett, C. 1979a: 15158; 1979b: 161-163), Dhiban (Sauer, J. 1975: 108), Abila (Mare, H. et. al. 1982: 47), Aqaba (Whitcomb, D. 1989b: 182), and Tell Abu Qa'dan in the Jordan Valley (Sauer, J. 1979: 93). Pottery sherds from white/buff ware, dated to the Fatimid period, were found at Beit Ras (Lenzen, C. 1986: 165; Lenzen, C. et al. 1985: 156; Lenzen, C. and Knauf, A. 1987: 35; Lenzen, C. and McQuitty, A. 1989a: 193-195) and at Qam (Tarawneh, F. 1990). According to the results of the Eastern Jordan Valley Project 1975 "most of the sites appear to have been abandoned after the Abbasid period, but a few of them may have been occupied in the Fatimid and following periods" (Ibrahim, M. et. al. 1976: 61 ).

A complex public building, which may have served as a central market and/or a Khan (=Caravanserai), and other material culture remains dated to the Abbasid-Fatimid period, were found in Area XXIX at Pella (McNicoll, A. et. al.1986: 182; Walmsely, A. 1989: 438; 1990). Moreover, excavations at Tell Qudsiya located between Pella and Baisan, resulted in the recording of extensive material culture remains related to the Umayyad and the Abbasid periods (Kareem, J. 1987). The archaeological data, which came from Pella and from Tell Qudsiya, encourages the writer to assume that a local trade branch road, connecting the towns of Pella and Baisan through Tell Qudsiya, was used in the Abbasid period. Further excavations in the Jordan Valley may shed light on this trade road.

However, Fatimid material cultural remains were well represented in the Jisr Sheikh Husein region, as was shown from surveying the region and from soundings at one site, Tell Qudsiya (Kareem, J. 1987: 93-123; 1990: 45).

In the last ten years, archaeological evidence for Abbasid occupation of Jordan has been more fully recognized. Previous knowledge of this period comes from the Amman Citadel (Zayadine, F. 1973: 20-22; Bennett, C. and Northedge, A. 1977-78: 11-12; Bennett, C. 1979a: 151-57: 1979b: 16163; Northedge, A. 1990), Tell Hesban (Sauer, J. 1982: 332), and Dhiban (Sauer, J. 1975: 107-08). Recent excavations at BeitRas(Lenzen,C.et.al.1985: 165;Lenzen,C.1986: 165: Lenzen, C. and Knauf, A. 1987: 25; Lenzen, C. and McQuitty, A. 1989a: 193-195; Lenzen, C. 1990), Aqaba (Whitcomb, D. 1987: 247-267; 1988: 207-25; 1989a: 269-87; 1989b: 179183), Fedein (al-Mafraq; Humbert, J. 1989: 222), Khirbet Faris (Johns, J. and McQuitty, A.: 1989a; 1989b; Johns, J. et. al. 1989; Falkner, R. 1990), and el-Muwaqqar (Najjar, M. 1989: 305-323; Najjar, M. et. al. 1989: 5-13) illustrate the growing awareness of this period. Material cultural remains dated to this period were also found in the excavations of Qam (Tarawneh, F. 1990) and Yasilah (Muhaisen, Z. 1991: 341 ). Sherds dated to the Abbas id period were attested in regional and/or specific site surveys, e.g., Wadi el-' Arab (Hambary Tenison, J. 1984: 385-423), l:1-umayma(Oleson, J. et. al. 1989: 273), el-Risha (Helms, S. 1989: 489-491), and Quwelba (=Abila; Mare, H. et. al. 1982: 66).

2. The Crusaders and the Ayyubid Dynasty A. The Crusaders Political instability at the end of the twelfth century AD in Bilad ash-Sham (=greater Syria) permitted the Crusaders to establish their rule in the coastal parts of Syria, in Palestine, and in parts of Jordan (Smail, R. 1973: 9-38; Brockelmann, C. 1982: 221 ). On July 15, 1099 al-Quds (=Jerusalem) was captured by the Crusaders and a Latin Kingdom was founded (Peake, P. 1958: 61). In AD 1110 the Crusader king, Baldwin, extended his kingdom southward and castles were built in the southern part of Jordan, e.g., Castrum Traphala (a{-Tafila); Caracum (alKarak); Castra Montis Regalis (esh-Shaubak); Celle (Sele'); Vallem de Messa (=Wadi Musa) and Wu'aira (Fedden, R. 1950; Beyer, G. 1953: 76; Muller-Wiener, W. 1966). These fortifications were built: 1.) in order to control the trade route which passed through the southern part of Jordan and connected Egypt and Syria; and 2.) because of the strategic importance of Jordan (Hitti, P. 1957: 595-97; Peake, P. 1958: 61-62; Muller-Wiener, W. 1966: 20-35; Ehrenkreutz, A. 1981: 338; Smail, R. 1973: 103; Johnes, B. 1985: 305). On the southern part of Wadi el-Yarmouk, the Crusaders built another fort called 'Al' al, in order to control the northern

Abbasid material cultural remains were found in the plain of the Jordan Valley. These remains were found in the 6 For further information on the trade, Hajj, and general communication roads used in the Abbasid period, see Taiseer al-Zahwara 1990: a paper submitted to the fifth conference of Bilad ash-Sham.

7

Jum'a

Kareem

part of the Jordan Valley, as well as 'Ajlun region (Ibn alQalannsi 1932: 72; Peake, P. 1958: 62). In AH 580/AD 1184, 'Izz ad-Din Osama, one of Saladin's amirs, built a strong fortification at 'Ajlun called Qal'at ar-Rabac:l, opposite to the new Latin castle ofBelvoir (=Kaukab al-Hawa), between Tiberias and Baisan (al-Qalqashandi IV: 105; Johns, C. 1931: 21-23; Ibn Shaddad 1962: 86; Minnis, D. and Bader, Y. 1988: 225-264). fortifications were also built in Tiberias, Tur (=mount 'fabur) and Baisan in order to control as-Sa wad (the Jordan Valley) 7 and to control the military road which came from Damascus and passed through the northern part of the Jordan Valley (Smail, R. 1973: 100; Prutz, H. 1881: 168-169; Beyer, G. 1953: 67: Ghawanmeh, Y. 1982a: 7). Other Crusader military forts were founded in the southern part of the Jordan Valley and on the foothills. These forts were located in Ari]:ia (Jericho) and in Marescakia (Khirbet el-Masera), located on the way to the city of Nablus in Palestine (Beyer, G. 1953: 67). Bringle, D. (1991: 88) argues that a series of forts, e.g., Qal 'at ad-Damm, were constructed by the Crusaders in the 12th century AD on the pilgrimage route to the Jordan. The purpose of building these forts was to defend the pilgrimage route. As a result of this situation, the Crusader Kingdom in Palestine and the Tugktakin, the Seljukian ruler of Damascus, in the year AH 504/ AD 1111, shared in the revenues from as-Sa wad and Jabal 'Awf (= 'Ajlun region; Ibn al-Qalannsi 1932: 113, 133; Peake, P. 1958: 61; Lenzen, C. and Knauf, A. 1985: 42). At the same time, the Crusader documents, dated to AD 1101, 1103 and 1107 mentioned towns and/or districts located in the northern part of Jordan under their domination, e.g., Terra-Sueta (=as-Sawad); Jadar (=Umm Qais); Arthe (=Hartha); Zahar (=Zahar an-Na~ara); Betaras (=Beit Ras); Avara (=Hawara); Capharsalia (=Sal); Aingene (=' Ayn Jeneh); Seecip (=Sakib ); and Elgor (Beyer, G. 1945: 22-224). The last site name, Elgor, was described by Beyer as "unbekannt" (=unknown); but it seems to the writer that this name is related to that part of the Jordan Valley located between Lake Tiberias and the Dead Sea. Lenzen, C. and Knauf, A. (1987; 43) argue that: In these documents, all of these villages figure as casalia, the smallest fiscal unit within the feudal system of the Latin kingdom. The etymological study conducted by al-Ma'ani (PHD manuscript) of the Jordanian sites located to the north ofWadi el-Mujib, resulted in recording some sites founded in the Crusader period, e.g., Saint Giles (=Singil). This village is located in al-Kura region, which comprised the foothills and the mountain area located between Wadi el-Yabis and Wadi et-Taibeh (Steuernagel, C. 1926: 303). The distribution of the villages and/or the districts appears in the Crusader documents and the results of this etymological study affirm that the Jordan Valley was controlled by the Crusaders at least from the beginning of the 12th century until the time of the building ofQal'at ar-Rabaq in AD 1184. Furthermore, Smail, R. (1973: 103) argues that: 7 Ibn Shaddad (1962: 86) identified as-Sawiid as that part of the Jordan Valley belonged to the region of al-Balqa.

During the twelfth century, before saladin's reconquests, the Franks controlled the country east of the Ghor, the Dead Sea and the Wadi Araba. This terre outre le Jourdan was one of the major fiefs of the Latin kingdom. Before the Crusaders were defeated at f.[iWn in AH 583/ AD 1187 ('Imad ad-Din 1960: 196; Ibn al-Athir IX/177; Ibn Shaddad 1962: 73; Hitti, P. 1970: 676), the Jordan Valley was a battleground for the two main powers in the region, the Crusaders and the Ayyubids (Runcimann, S. 1968: II/243, 351, 376). The Crusaders invaded the Jordan Valley in AH 515/ AD 1120 and destroyed many villages (al-I-_[amawi1981: 75). They also invaded the Jordan Valley in the year AH533/ AD 1138 (Peake, P. 1958: 63). Baisan region was plundered and many of its inhabitants were killed by the Crusaders in the year AH 614/AD 1217 (Ibn al-Athir XIl/321). Baisan region was also plundered by the Ayyubids in the year AH 506/AD 1112 (Ibn al-Qalannsi 1932: 139; Ibn al-Athir XI 496) and in the years AH 578- 79/ AD 1182-82 (Ibn al-Athir II/481, 501; Al-Maqrizi I/81). The Crusader towns located in the region of Nablus were invaded by the way of the southern part of the Jordan Valley by the Ayyubids in the years AH 508/ AD 1184 and AH 586/ AD 1190 (al- Maqrizi I/ 84, 104). Moreover, the Ayyubids encouraged the Bedouin tribes to invade the Latin kingdom by way of the Jordan Valley (al-Maqrizi III/203). The travellers who visited Palestine in the 14th and 15th centuries, e.g., Maundevile, J. ( 1725: 113-115) and lbn Banu~a (1964: 60-62), described the towns of an-Na~erah, Tabaria, and other Palestinian coastal towns as in ruin. Most likely, this situation was not changed during the following two centuries. In the 16th century, the coastal cities were also described by an Ottoman document as destroyed (Heyd, U. 1956: 201-216). As a result of these battles and/or invasions from both the Ayyubids and the Crusaders, it can be assumed that the main towns and villages located in the Jordan Valley were destroyed and/or deserted. Mershen, B. and Knauf, A. (1988: 133) argue that in the Crusader period: The district around Umm Qais had thus become borderland, and the hilltops were in all likelihood used for military as well as pastoral purposes. Abu al-Fida (died in AH 721/AD 1321) described Tiberias, which was the capital of the Jordan province, as "a destroyed city, taken over by Saladin and then dismantled" (Abu alFida 1840: 242); and he described the city of Baisan as "a small town without walls" (Abu al-Fida 1840: 242). Baisan city is also described by the Crusader documents as a small village with few inhabitants, its eastern limit being the Jordan River (Beyer, G. 1945: 242). The city of Ariha (=Jericho) is also described as a small village (Beyer, G. 1924: 174). Moreover, it is said the tropical diseases such as malaria, typhoid, and dysentery flourished in the Jordan Valley during this period (Runcimann, S. 1968: II/6); and many muslim villages in Palestine as well as in the Jordan Valley were deserted because their inhabitants had emigrated (Runcimann,

Settlement Patterns in

S. 1968: 11/4). Under these circumstances, it is believed that the population of the Jordan Valley in the 12th century sharply decreased. This resulted in a decrease in the number of agricultural villages and in parts of the Jordan Valley returning to forest. Wild animals lived in the Jordan Valley in this period. al-1:[amawi, a chronicler writing about the year AH 642/AD 1226, said that "the great king al-Ashraf went to al-ghor for hunting" (al-1:[amawi 1981: 136).

Jordan Valley

AD Frierman, J. (1976: 153-57) analyzed samples of the Crusader ceramics. Harif, A. (1984: 103-109) published a short report on his excavations in a Crusader church located in Tiberias. Preliminary reports on excavations conducted at Crusader castles, such as Belmont castle (Harper, R. and Pringle, D. 1988: 101-119; 1989: 47-63) and La Feve castle (Ketler, B. and Pringle, D. 1985: 164-181) in Palestine, and Wu'eira (Brown, R. 1987: 267-289; 1989d: 625-31) and Shaubak (Brown, R. 1989c: 554-66) in Jordan were recently published. A photographic survey and explorations of the caves in the region of 'Ayn l:[abis in northern Jordan were conducted by Nicolle, D. in 1986 and 1987. It is reported that remains of a small fort, other buildings, and cisterns used by Crusaders as well as by Muslims in ca. 12th century were recognized at the site (Nicolle, D. 1989: 141-49). However, these excavations and/or explorations are not substantial enough to enrich our knowledge on the differences between the Ayyubid, Crusader, and Mamluk material culture remains. And moreover, Brown, R. reported after her excavations at Wu'eira in southern Transjordan, that Hand-made pottery types painted with linear and geometrical motifs were found in phase I, which is dated to the Crusader period, as well as in phase II, which is dated to the Ayyubid period (Brown, R. 1987: 284; 1989d: 629). Material dated to the Crusader period was not reported by Ibrahim, M. Sauer, J. and Yassine, K. (1976: 40-53; Yassine, K. 1988: 187-207); nor by Kareem, J. (1987: 45).

Ashtor, E. (1977; 228) argues that: After the downfall of the Crusader towns the agriculture of the surrounding districts lost their markets and that at the same time the commercial relations with the christian occident declined ...probably crops had to be changed in some districts. Watson, A. (1981: 36) argues that many crops tended to disappear from the conquered regions in Palestine, and that land use was centered on grazing and the cultivation of wheat and barley. However, indigo, dates, and sugar were the main countryside products of al-Karak region during the 12th and 13th centuries (Peake, P. 1958: 64). Sugar-cane was cultivated in the Jordan Valley (Richard, J. 1985: 259) and the Crusaders learned from the natives the process of producing sugar from cane (Runcimann, S. 1969: lll/353). Saewulf(l848: 43-45) visited the Holy Land in AD 1102 and reported about Jericho that it was "a land covered with trees and producing all kinds of palm and other fruits". Runcimann, S. (1968: 11/418)argues that both sides of the Jordan Valley were inhabited by muslim peasants and herdsmen, some of them paying allegiance to Damascus, others to the Latin Kingdom in Jerusalem.

B. The Ayyubids The Ayyubids ruled Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Jordan until AH 648/AD 1250 (on the Ayyubid history see Gibb, H. 1962: 693- 715). The Ayyubid kingdom was divided into several small kingdoms between the sons of Saladin ('Imad ad-din: 327-30; Ibn Shaddad 1962: 72-79; 80-81). In AH 604/AD 1107, the king al-' Adel died and his kingdom was divided again between his sons and brothers. Among the events of the year AH 590/AD 1193, lbn al-Athir (Xll/ll0) reported that "Tiberias, Damascus and al-Ghor remained under the control of al-Af9al b. ~alal;i ad-Din". Later on, he also mentioned that "al-Karak, al-Ghor, Baisan Nablus were under the control of al-Ashraf b. al-Malik al-' Adel" (lbn al-Athir Xll/484). Then, Jordan was under the rule of al-Muadham 'Isa (al-Maqrizi Xl/169; al- Qalqashandi IV/157).

The Crusaders frequently cut off the main trade road connecting Egypt and Damascus, which passed through the northern part of the Jordan Valley (lbn lyas 1975: 1/28); instead, Darb el-Badrya, which passed through the southern part of Palestine into Wadi Mousa in Petra, was used. Besides this road, another branch road, passing through al-Khalil, Ghor a~-~afi, al-Karak and then through Jordan, was also used (Hartmann, R. 1910: 681-683). The changing of the main trade road added another main reason for the economic destruction of the Jordan Valley villages and towns located in its northern part. In the meantime, cities located on the plateau, e.g., al-Karak, Ma'an, Amman, and 'Ajlun, flourished (Ziyadeh, N. 1953: 53). The unstable situation and the changing of the main trade road leads the writer to suggest that most of the Jordan Valley inhabitants in the Crusader period shifted their economic base from agriculture to animal husbandry; by this, they were able to move easily between the Jordan Valley floor and the foothills.

During this period, the Jordan Valley was divided into units and given as fiefs to the amirs (lbn al-Athir Xll/110, 484: alMaqrizi 1/169). lbn Shaddad (died in AD 684/AD 1285) mentioned that the leader 'lzz ad-Din Osama owned 27 villages in the region of 'Ajlun. Among those located in the Jordan Valley was 'Ammata (Ibn Shaddad 1962: 87). adDimashqi (died in AH 670/ AD 1271) said that the district of al-Ghor and other districts were under the rule of Damascus. The Jordan Valley in his days was divided into three parts; the upper part (located between the Yarmouk River and probably Wadi el-Jirm) with the main towns ofFal;iil, al-Qu~air (=north Shuneh ), and Baisan; the middle part (located between wadi el-Jirm and the Dead Sea) with the main towns of 'Ammata (=abu-'Obaida), Damia and Aril_ia(=Jericho); and the lower part (located to the south of the Dead Sea) with the main town of Zo~ar (ad-Dimashqi 1928; 201). It is noted

Material culture remains dated to the Crusader period have not yet been fully identified in the regions of Palestine and Jordan. Moreover, these remains were not differentiated from the material cultural remains dated to the Ayyubid and/or Mamluk periods. Archaeological reports, concerned with the remains dated to the Crusader period in both Palestine and Jordan, are very few. Denys Pringle ( 1985: 171-202) published a short catalogue on a representative selection of the sherds found in Caesarea and used between 1101 and 1265 g

Jum'a

Kareem

also by ad-Dimashqi that the area located to the south of the Dead Sea was under the rule of the kingdom of al-Karak (adDimashqi 1928: 213). al-ldrisi (died in AH 549/AD 1154) listed the towns and the main villages located in the Jordan Valley; these were Tiberias, Baisan, Aril;ia (=Jericho), Zu'ra (=Zagar), 'Ammata (=Abu-'Obaida), andI:Iabis (unidentified village; al-Idrisi 1885: 21). He described Baisan by saying "it is a very small city and it has a lot of palm trees" (al-ldrisi 1885; 41). He described 'Ammata as the main town of the Jordan Valley (al-ldrisi 1885: 10). Yaqut al-f:lamawi (died in AH 622/ AD 1225) passed through Baisan and reported "they said that this region is characterized by its palm trees ...but I did not see any except two palm trees without dates" (Yaqut 1955; 76). Yaqut also mentioned Jericho as one of the Jordan Valley cities. He reported that it has many palm trees; sugarcane and banana trees planted in quantity in the same region (Yaqut 1955: 1/277). Yaqut also mentioned the main villages located on the plain of the Jordan Valley; these are -from north to south-: al-Qu~air (=North Shuneh) where sugar-cane in quantity was planted (Yiiqut 1955: IV/367); 'Ammata (=Abu 'Obaida, located in the middle of the Jordan Valley and where the most excellent arrows were made (Yaqut 1955: IV/153); Beit Rameh (=er-Rama) (Yaqut 1955: 1/777), and Deir al-Khi~yan, located in the Balqa Ghor (unidentified village; Yaqut 1955: ll/657).

important in the Crusader and in the following period, for it is strategic location. Therefore, military installations were built on this plateau "to monitor both the activities on the other side of the Jordan River and any traffic on the road to and from Tiberias" (Mershen, B. and Knauf, A. 1988: 134). Later on, in the 13t1,century, Umm Qais continued to be used to control the trade road to and from Tiberias; the site was also used as a main traffic station, where Dar al-Mukus (=toll station) was founded (Mershen, B. and Knauf, A. 1988: 134). The following factors resulted in the growth oflarge villages, if not towns, on the floor of the Jordan Valley during the end of the 13th and in the 14th centuries: the destruction of the main cities of Tiberias and Baisiin during the AyyubidCrusader battles; the new geographical division of the Jordan Valley in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods; the high degree of security in these periods; the amir's fief system; and the extensive industrial refining of sugar from sugar-cane. The historical and etymological development of a specific site, Umm Qais, which is located on the foothills of the northern part of the Jordan Valley, was recently studied (Mershen, B. and Knauf, A. 1988: 128-145). The authors argue that some of the inhabitants ofUmm Qais, in the 13th and in the 14th centuries, moved their location down to the hot springs, where a new village called Gadar was founded. This movement was related to the change in function and nature of the new settlement. They also argue that this shifting was carried out as a result of "ecological reasons in general and shifts in land-use in particular" (Mershen, B. and Knauf, A. 1988: 133). Moreover, the inhabitants of the foothills moved to the Jordan Valley in this period, mainly in the drought years, where "the cistern system of the village in the foothills could not cope" (Mershen, B. and Knauf, A. 1988: 133). As a result of these circumstances, the Jordan Valley showed a high population density and large towns appeared; among these villages were al-Qu~air (=north Shuneh) 8, 'Ammata (=Abu 'Obaida), and Beit Ramah (=arRama).

From the above historical and archaeological data, it can be concluded that the Abbasid-Fatimid towns located in the Jordan Valley such as Tiberias, Tabaqat Fal;iil, Baisan and Aril;iii sharply declined in the 12th and 13th centuries. At the same time, towns and/or villages, such as 'Ammata, located in the middle part of the Jordan Valley, flourished. The construction ofQal'at ar-Rabaq in AH 580/AD 1184 and the Ayyubid's military fief system offered great protection to the towns and/or villages located in the middle part of the Jordan Valley; whilst the towns of Tiberi as, Baisan, Tabaqat Fal;iil and Aril;ia, which were located on the military road between the Crusaders and the Ayyubids, declined. It can be assumed that Qal'at ar-Rabacfs main function was to protect the military industries in 'Ajlun region. Archaeological and historical data may confirm this assumption. Excavations conducted at the site ofMagharet al-Wardeh, which is located in 'Ajlun region, indicate that the site was mainly used in the Ayyubid period for extracting iron (Coughenour, R. 1976: 76; 1989: 231-32; Gordon, R. et. al. 1986: 232); the best arrows were made in the town of 'Ammata (Yaqut 1955: IV/ 153).

Jordan in general and the Jordan Valley in particular had been influenced in many aspects throughout the 13th and the 14th centuries AD According to the etymological study of the villages of North and South Shuneh, located on the floor of the Jordan Valley 9, it is obvious that these places were mainly used as agricultural storage places in the 13th and 14th centuries AD The location of these two sites on the main trade routes between Damascus and Egypt encouraged the Ayyubids and the Mamluks to found such storage places. These storage places were important in supplying the main administrative centers of Cairo and Damascus with agricultural products such as grain and sugar.

It is accepted that the Roman road from Tiberias via Umm

Qais (Gadara), Beit Ras (Capitolias), Dhar'a (Adrahat) to Basra (Mittmann, S. 1970: 134), was used throughout the Mid-Late Islamic periods for military purposes as well as for trade in peace time. This road was used by the inhabitants of Umm Qais (Mershen, B. and Knauf, A. 1988: 134) and most probably by the inhabitants of the present lrbid region, in the 19th and early 20 th centuries, to reach Tiberias, as well as the coastal cities of Palestine, for local trade (Steuernagel, C. 1926: 134-36). Mershen, B. and Knauf, A. (1988: 134) also argue that the village of Umm Qais took its name most probably in the 13th century AD, as a result of commercial influence. They reported that the plateau ofUmm Qais was

Watson, A. (1981: 44) argues that: 8 It was also called Qu~air al-Ma'ini in honour of a capable man called Mu'in ad-Din Ani'tr, one of Tugktakin amirs; Peake, P. 1958: 64; lbn Wasil: 329. 9 esh-Shuneh means in the Coptic language "der Getreidespeicher" = cereal storage place; Wild, S. 1973: 174; Wesendorf, W. 1977: 335; alQalqashandi XIV/380; lbn Taghribardi 1/2: 288, 11:231, 584, 607).

10

Settlement Patterns in

The new agriculture was based on a shift in the relative proportions of the factors of production-land, labor and capital used in the production of food. However, the planting of Sugar-cane and the processing of sugar demanded a large labor force; for this reason the Ayyubid and the Mamluk amirs introduced a large number of slaves to the Valley (Henninger, J. 1989: 244-46; these people are nowadays called "Ghawarneh". From the point of archaeology, Franken, H. ( 1975) argues that the sugar pots , which were used for processing sugar from the sugar-cane, were most probably made by special craftsmen, who came from North Africa. However, a comparative study of the sugar pots made and/or found in the Jordan Valley with those made in Egypt is until now not available to prove this hypothesis. As a result of the introduction of slaves, many large villages were established on the floor of the Jordan Valley during the Ayyubid and the Mamluk periods. The Eastern Jordan Valley Survey Project 1975-76 recorded many of these villages (Pls. 49 & 50; Ibrahim, M. et. al. 1976: 38; Yassine, K. 1988: 182). Material culture remains dated to the Ayyubid period in Palestine and Jordan have until now not been fully differentiated by the archaeologists from the remains dated to the following period, the Mamluk. Excavations conducted at the site ofRujm el-Kursi by 'Amr, A. ( 1984: 201-210) resulted in the recording of sealed layers dated by coins (Sari, S. and 'Amr, A. 1989: 13-24) to both the Ayyubid and the Mamluk periods. Excavations conducted at al-Wu'aira castle resulted in the recording of a good sequence oflayers dated to both the Crusader and the Ayyubid periods (Brown, R. 1987: 267-289; 1989d: 625-31). However, the published reports on these excavations are until now not sufficient enough to enrich our knowledge on the distinguishing features of the Ayyubid material culture remains. Material cultural remains grouped under the term Ayyubid/Mamluk period were found extensively on the floor of the Jordan Valley (Ibrahim, M. et. al. 1976: 40-53; Yassine, K. 1988: 187-207; Kareem, J. 1987: 47; Mabry, J. and Palumbo, G. 1989: 91-97). Ayyubid/ Mamluk remains were also found in the foothills of the eastern part of the Jordan Valley (Muheisen, M. 1988: 519-20).

3. The Mamluk period (AH 648-922/AD 1250-1517) In AH 649/AD 1250 the Mamluks, the military slaves of the Ayyubids, revolted and took over the Ayyubid Empire. The Mamluks, who ruled for more than two and a half centuries, are distinguished by two separate lines: the Bal}ri (AH 648765/ AD 1250-1382) and the Burji (AH 765-903/AD 13821517). Ethnically the Bal]ri Mamluks were Kipehakes from southern Russia, whereas the Burji were primarily Circassians from the Caucasus (Hitti, P. 1957: 630-31; Brockelmann, C. 1982: 233-36). Sultan Qutuz (AH 648-659/AD 1250-1260), the firstMamluk Sultan, defeated the Mongols, who had invaded and damaged the Islamic countries located to the east of the Jordan River. The Mongols were defeated at the battle of 'Ayn Jalut near Tiberias in AH 658/AD 1260 (Hitti, P. 1957: 651-54; Cohen,

Jordan Valley

C. 1962: 715-35; Runcimann, C. 1969: IIl/211-14). The second Mamluk Sultan, Sultan Beibars (AD 658-676/ AD 1260-1277) occupied al-Karak in AH 661/AD 1263 (alMaqrizi 1/483). In AH 663/AD 1265 he captured Caesarea (Ibn 'Abd al-J;)ahir 1976: 229-31; Ibn Shaddad 1983: 321); in AH 664/AD 1266 he took ~afad from the Crusaders (alMaqrizi 1/545-47; Hitti, P. 1957: 207-08; Runcimann, C. 1967: III/551-52; lbn 'Abd al-J;)ahir 1976: 256-60; lbn Shaddad 1983: 321). Sultan Beibars paid his attention to the importance of the location of Jordan. In order to maintain the gains he had won from the Crusaders and to control the movements of the Mongols, he ordered the repairing of the fortresses of arRabaN Oh- Khan 91 8 10 Final

TopP Ian

~ 20 40 60Cm.

0

..

30

0 0

0

0

Pl. 1

Jurn'a

Kareem

-139.02 m.

Dh. Khan 91 B 10 Loe. 5 W. Section

20

40

EOCm

Pl. 2

which might clarify the periods of occupation in this complex of structures. It was also anticipated that structures would be found in this square, based on the appearance of stones on the surface.

lower course was mostly built ofbasalt stones. White plaster and small stones were used between the big ones. This represented the eastern edge of the exterior main wall of the Khan. (Length: Sm.; width: 65cm.; height: 80cm.). (PL 1 and 3).

Excavating this square provided data relative to three phases ofrebuilding the stone walls of this complex. No coins were found in this square; thus, there is no absolute dating for these phases. However, depending on studying the pottery sherds found on the floors, loci 017 and 020, all of these phases were dated to the Mamluk period. More precisely, and depending on the comparative study between the stone wall, loc. 05, in Square B 10 and the stone wall locus 04 in B9, phase I (the latest period) was built in the reign of Sultan AlNa~ir Muhammad (3rd reign AD 1309-1340).

810/03 Loe. 03 was located in the northern and southern parts of the square, under loc. 01 and over Loci 05 and 06 (Pl. 4 and 5). It consisted of brownish loose soil. A few small stones were 1-15 th centuries were found also found. Sherds dating to the 13t1 in it. (Fig. 1: l; 48: 6; 53: 7-8).

810/04 Loe. 04 was located under the top surface Loe. 01. It represented the interior edge of the main stone wall, loc. 02. Thick white plaster (ca. 5-7 cm.) was found over the stones with tracings ofremoved ones (Pl. 1 and 3). The whole width of this stone wall (loci 02 and 04) is 1.20m.

Phase II was represented in the stone walls loci 0 13 and 0 15. A compact mud surface loc. 017 was associated with these walls. Phase III was represented in one stone wall loc. 021 which is located under the elevation of the stone wall loc. 05 and the plastered stone floor loc. 020.

810/05

Square B10: Loci Description

Loe. 05 was located in the western half of the square, under Loe. 03 and over Loc.020. It consisted of four courses of hewn stones (Pl. 2). It was built of soft limestone in two main sizes; the first (length ca. 80cm., width ca. 27cm., height ca. 22cm.) and the second (length ca. 50cm., width ca. 22cm., height ca. 22cm.). The interior face and the edges of these stones were well-cut and dressed in a comb pattern. Pottery sherds dating to the 13t1,_ 15t1,centuries were found on the stone floor loc. 020, which was associated with the stone wall loc. 05.

810/01 Loe. 01 was top soil, which consisted of loose soil with vegetation and roots. Several big stones appeared on the eastern side, which may be part of a stone wall. Pottery sherds dating to the 13th- I Yh centuries AD (Fig. 53:6) and post-16 th century (Fig. 28: 3) were found in it.

810/02 810/06 Loe. 02 was located under the top surface. It consisted of two courses of big stones (stone measurements ca. 60x40cm.). The upper course consisted ofunhewn limestones, while the

Loe. 06 was located on the western and northern sides of the stone wall loc. 05, under loc. 03 and over loci. 07, 015 and 30

Settlement Patterns in

1;-138-41

m-

rn

'2:-1 3 8-30 3 ;-138. 31

Jordan Valley

•

1

4:_1J8·42 5:-138·49 6 :-13 8- 4 0 7 :-13 8· 4 B 8:-138-64 9 :_, 3 8- 6 8 l 0:-13 B-6 3 11:-13 8-79 12 :-138- 85 13:-139·10

9

0

• 0 0 [)

rn Dh. Khan 91 Loci 2, 3, 4, 5&6 Top Plan

'20 Pl. 3

40

60Cm

Jurn'a

Kareem

Dh. Khan 91 B 10 N. Section

'20

40

60Cm

Pl. 4

[I]

Dh. Khan 91 B 10 S. Section '20 40

60Cm.

Pl. 5

019 (Pl. 3, 4, 5 and 6). It consisted of collapsed stones. All of these stones were worked stones and lay in an east-west direction, which may indicate that they were fallen from the stone wall loc. 05, possibly by the effect of an earthquake. Sherds dating to the 13th-15 th centuries were found (Fig. 41: l; 53: 9-10).

810107 Loe. 07 was located in the south-central portion of the square, under loc. 06 and over loci. 018 and 016 (Pl. 5). It was brownish soil with a few medium-sized stones and a lot of eroded pebbles. No pottery sherds were found in this layer.

contained a lot of plaster fragments and small pebbles. No pottery sherds were found in this locus.

810/09 Loe. 09 was located under the top surface loc. 01 and along the central portion of the square between loci 04 and 05. The stone wall loc. 09 consisted of two courses ofhewn limestones. It was butting both walls loci 04 and 05 (Pl. 1). It was built of stones similar to those used in building the stone wall loc. 05, which may indicate that they were built in the same period. (length 218cm.; width 33cm.; height 45cm.).

810/010 810/08 Loe. 08 was located in the central portion of the square, under loc. 03 and over loc.010. It consisted of whitish loose soil. It

Loe. 010 was located in the central portion of the square, west of the stone wall loc. 05 and south of the stone wall loc. 09 under loc. 08. It consisted of medium-sized stones, fixed

Settlement Patterns in

Jordan Valley

Dh. Khan 91 B 10 W. Section

20

L.O 60Cm.

Pl. 6

together with white plaster and reddish compact clay. Most probably, this was a fill layer used to strengthen the stone walls loci 05 and 09. Sherds dating to the post- l 6t1century were found in it (Fig. 50: 1).

It was constructed of double rows of big sized-unhewn

810/011 Loe. 011 was located under loc. 010. It is a continuity of the upper layer loc.010. It contained sugar pot sherds lined with white plaster which may indicate that these sherds were originally used to strengthen the plaster (Fig. 54: 1-2).

Loe. 016 was located under loc. 014 in the east-southern portion of the square (Pl. 1). It consisted of a compact mud layer mixed with small stones. Iron stick was found over it. Depending on the elevation of this floor, it is likely that this floor was associated with the stone walls loci 0 15 and 0 13 (level: -139.75m.).

810/012

810/017

Loe. 012 was located under loc. 011. It is a continuity of the fill accumulation ofloci 011 and 010 (Pl. 1).

Loe. 017 was located under the floor loc. 016 on the western side of the stone wall loc. 04. This represented a foundation trench of the stone wall loc. 04. It contained pockets of charcoal, small-sized stones and a few pottery sherds dated to the 13th-15 th centuries AD (Fig. 52:1).

limestones. Some of its stones were removed.

1

810/013 Loe. 013 was located under loc. 012, butting the stone walls loci 04 and 0 12. It consisted of one row of basalt stones. White plaster was used between its stones. (length: 1.28m; width: 57cm.; height: 50cm.).

810/016

810/018 Loe. 018 was located under loc. 017. It consisted of compact red soil. It represented the virgin soil (level: -140.15m.).

810/014

810/019

Loe. 014 was located under loc. 03 and over loc. 015 in the southern portion of the square. It consisted ofbrownish loose soil mixed with small stones. Sherds dating to the 13th-14th centuries were found in it (Fig. 28: 2: 54: 3).

Loe. 019 was located under the fallen stones of loc. 06 and over the floor loc. 020, in the western portion of the square (Pl. 6). It consisted of a thick layer of ash (level:-139.53/ 139.76m.). Sherds dating to the 13th- 15t1,centuries were found in it (Fig. 1:2-5).

810/015 810/020 Loe. 015 was located under loc. 014 in the southern portion of the square. This is a stone wall (85cm. exposed length ; 70cm. width and 75cm. height) oriented north/south (Pl. 1).

Loe. 020 was located under the ash layer loc. 019 and over the stone wall loc. 021 (Pl. 6). It consisted of small and

Jurn'a

Kareem

medium-sized stones fixed together with plaster. This floor was associated with the stone wall loc. 05. (level:-139.76m.). Sherds dating to the 13th - 15th centuries were found underneath.

Square B9: Loci Description

810/021

Loe. 01 was top soil, which consisted of loose soil with vegetation roots. The top surface of this square slopes E/W (Pl. 8). A few sherds dating to the-post 16th century were found in it. One copper coin (no. 79) was also found in it.

Loe. 021 was located under the floor Joe. 020, and adjacent to the base of the stone wall Joe. 05. It was constructed of one row of hewn limestones. It is oriented north/south.

89/01

89/02 Square B10: Loci Sequence Chart 01 04 08

03 05

02 06

09 014

I 010

015 I

Loe. 02 was located under loc. 01 and over loc. 03 (Pl. 8). It consisted of brownish-loose soil with patches of whitish fragments of plaster. Small and medium-sized stones were also found in it. Sherds dating to the 13th -15 th century were found (Fig. 52: 2; 41: 3; 49: 1-2; 54: 4). One illegible copper coin (no.13) was found in it.

I 011

I 019

07

012

020

016

013

021

017

I

I I 018 Phase I: loci 05, 09, 02, 04, 019 and 020 Phase II: loci 013, 015 and 017 Phase III: loc. 021 Square B9 Excavation in this square provided data relative to three phases of occupation in the site. These phases were determined according to the differences in the system and elevation of the stone walls which appeared in this square, in addition to the elevation of the plastered floors, loci 09 and 013. Phase I represented the latest period of occupation at the site. It was defined by the stone wall loc. 06, which was built in roughly-cut limestones. Phase II was determined by the stone walls loci 04 and 05, the buttress, loc.07, in addition to the plaster floors loci 09 and O13.Phase Ill was definedby the stone wall lac. 014 which is located under the elevation of the plaster floor, lac. 013. Sherds dating to the 13t1,_ 15th centuries were found on the floor Joe. 013. More precisely, phase II could be dated to the 3rd reign of the Mamluk Sul!an al-Na~ir Muhammed (AD 13101341), where a copper coin (No. 120) carried his name was found in the plaster used to fix the stones of the stone wall loc. 04. Thus, phases I and II were dated to post AD 1341. Phase II in square B9 and Phase I in Bl Owere contemporary due to the same elevation of the floors loci 020 in Bl O and 013 in B9, in addition to the same technique used in cutting the stones of the walls related to this phase.

89/03 Loe. 03 was located under loc. 02 and over loci 010, 05, 07, 06 and 04. It contained a lot of collapsed rubble stones lying in E/W direction (Pl. 11). Loe. 06 in Bl O is similar to this, which may indicate that these stones were fallen by the effect ofan earthquake. Two coins (nos. 25 and 83) were found in it.

89/04 Loe. 04 was located under Joe. 03 (Pl. 7) in the central part of the square. It is a stone wall constructed of hewn limestones dressed in a comb pattern. It was laid in a N/S direction and parallel to stone wall loc. 05 in B 10. Two courses of this wall were uncovered. One coin was found within the plaster which was used between the courses of this wall (coin no. 120). This coin is dated by the name of Sultan al-Na~ir (Possibly al-Na~irMuhammedAD 1310-1341).

89/05 Loe. 05 was located under Joe. 01 in the western edge of the square (Pl. 7). It represented the interior main stone wall of the Khan. Mostly, it is extended under the balk, located between squares B 10 and B9; hence it was decided to remove this balk. This stone wall was constructed in two rows of hewn big-sized limestones. The area located between the edges was filled with unhewn stones fixed with white plaster. Four courses of stones were uncovered (Pl. 10). {length 4.42m.; width ca. l.20m.; height 1.25m.}.

89/06 Loe. 06 was located under Joe. 03 and over loci 011 and 014 (Pl. 9). It is a stone wall, constructed in one row of big-sized hewn limestones. It is butting the stone walls loci 05 and 06. Only one course of this wall is preserved.

89/07 Loe. 07 was located under Joe. 03 and adjacent to the stone wall loc. 05 (Pls. 7 and 11). It is a buttress built of big-sized

Settlement Patterns in

Jordan Valley

1--138.90 m, 2, -138-85 J.-1Ja8J 4 -138-62 5--13 8,10 6--138,69 7--138-76 8-- 139-59 9--139,28 10--138-87 11,-139.62 12--1 38-66 1]._138.97 14--13 8.6 4 15--138,93 16.,138-96

20

...

17--138-67 1

25

e.J3 a.1a

A

1 9--13 8-56

10--136.69 21--138 9-8 2'2.-138-68 23.-138.81

24--1 3B,49 25.-139 06 26-139-09

Dh. Khan 91 B 9

Final Top Plan

9a

40

..

26

60Cm

0(] oe::,f,?,•----

QO w

1

9..

Pl. 7

0

6

0

--==~--:::-1rfloN

Settlement Patterns in

rn

Dh. Khan 91 C 1 Loci 6 & 24 E. Section

20

40

60 Cm.

Pl. 18

Dh. Khan 91

C 1 Loe 24 E. Section

20

40

60CmPl. 19 43

----------141-Glm.

Jordan Valley

Jurn'a

Kareem

· 04

A---------------------------------.----w-141

m.

············-........ .

Dh. Khan 91 C 1 Loe. 6 W. Section 20

40

60Cm.

Pl. 20

-142.72

_142.71

Dh. Khan 91

C 1 Loe. 12 Top Plan

20

N

40

60C m.

Pl. 21

the stone wall lac. 03 (PL 17). It is butting the elongated buttress lac. 06. The stones used in building the edges of this wall were hewn, while the area located between them was filled with unhewn stones and plaster. Two courses of this wall were uncovered. This wall extended through the balk into the nearby sqaure C2. (length l .40m.; width 1.20m. height 0.60m.).

C1/012

Loe. 012 was located under loci 08 and 09 (Pl. 22). It is a stone-plastered floor (PL 21 ). It is associated with the stone wall Joe. 03 and the elongated buttress Joe. 06 (level: 142.72m.). 44

Settlement Patterns in

Jordan Valley

Dh. Khan 91 C 1 N. Section

,-....--, 20

40

60Cm.

Pl. 22

C1/013

117 is dated to Sultan al-Na~ir I:;Iasan(AD 1346-1351) and it was minted in the year AD 1347. Sherds dating to the 13th 15th centuries were found in it (Figs. 3: 8; 42: 1-5; 50: 5; 56: 3).

Loe. 013 was located under loc. 04 and over loci O15 and 016 on the southern side of the stone wall loc. 03 (Pl. 24 ). It consisted of ash layer similar to loci 07 and 08. Sherds dating to the 13th - 15th centuries were found in it (Figs. 17: 4-8; 18: 150).

C1/017 Loe. 017 was located under loc. 016 and over loci O18 and 019 (Pis. 23 and 24). It consisted of a washed layer of whitish color. One illegible copper coin was found in it. Sherds dating to the 13th - 15th centuries were found in it (Figs. 56: 4-5).

C1/014 Loe. 014 was located within loc. 013 and over loc. 015 and close to the southern balk (Pl. 23). It consisted of scattered stones.

C1/018

C1/015

Loe. 018 was located under loci O17 and O19 (Pis. 23 and 17) close to the southern section. It consisted of one row of hewn limestones. This wall was oriented W IE. It was built in the plaster floor loc. 019 which may indicate that it was built in a later period.

Loe. 015 was located under loc. 013 and over loc. 016 (Pis. 23, 24). It consisted ofloose brownish soil mixed with pockets of ash. Five copper coins were found in it. Three coins (Nos. 15, 19 and 44) are illegible. Two coins (Nos. 88 and 108) were dated to the Sultan al-Na~ir Mul]ammed (3'...A

This coin is dated by the name of Sultan al-Man~ur $alah-adDin Muhammad (AH 762-764/AD 1361-1363).

Field divided by two horizontal lines into three segments: Upper segment: illegible.

Coin no. 6

Central segment reads:

C 1. 017. 20; Dia: l.7cm.; Copper.

Lower segment: illegible.

Illegible.

Rev: Border: missed.

Coin no. 7

Field divided by two rigid cables into three horizontal segments: the upper and lower segments are ornamented in wavy lines. Central reads: ~

B-Tr 2. 05. 4.; Dia: l.8cm.; Copper. Illegible.

It is dated by the name of al-Zahir Abu Sa'id Jaqmaq (AH 842-857/AD 1438-1453).

Coin no. 8 Surface collection; Dia: 1.4cm.; Copper.

Coin no. 2

Illegible.

B-Tr 2. 05. 3; Dia: l.2cm.; Copper.

Coin no. 9

Illegible.

Surface collection; Dia: 1.2cm.; Copper.

Coin no. 3

Illegible.

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia. l.6cm.; Copper.

Coin no. 10

Illegible.

Surface collection; Dia: 2cm.; Copper. Illegible.

Coin no. 4

Coin no. 11

B-Tr 2. 05. 9; Dia 2. lcm.; Copper covered with a thin layer of silver.

B-tr 2. 05. 3; Dia: 2.lcm.; Copper.

Obv:

Obv:

Border: missing.

Border: circular line.

Field: illegible.

Field: illegible.

Rev:

Rev:

Border: missing.

Border: circular line.

Field: divided by two horizontal rows of dots into three segments:

Field reads: - • ..u

,J--"

'

This coin was minted in Damascus; date off flan. Upper segment reads: Middle segment reads: Lower segment reads:

3 ·'

[J

Coin no. 12

r:J~l!LLJ~

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia: 1.6cm.; Copper.

4if.]

Illegible.

Coin no. 13 It is dated by the name of Sultan al-$alih lsma'il b. Muhammad (AH 743- 746/ AD 1342-1345). See Balog, P. 1964: 173; coin no. 287).

B 9. 02. 3; Dia: 1.7cm.; Copper. Illegible.

279

Jurn'a

Kareem

Coin no. 14

Coin no. 25

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia: l.8cm.; Copper.

B 9. 03. 11; Dia: l.6cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 15

Coin no. 26

C 1. 015. 18; Dia: l.6cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 3; Dia: l.6cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 16

Coin no. 27

Surface collection; Dia: 1.9cm.; Copper.

C-Tr 3. 06. 5; Dia: l.7cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 17

Coin no. 28

Surface collection; Dia: 1.8cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia: l .4cm.; Copper. Illegible.

Illegible. Coin no. 18

Coin no. 29

Surface collection; Dia: 1.9cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 9; Dia: l.7cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 19

Coin no. 30

C 1. 015. 18; Dia: l.7cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia: l .6cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 20

Coin no. 31

C 1. 016. 19; Dia: l.5cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia: l .6cm.; Copper. Illegible.

Illegible. Coin no. 21

Coin no. 32

C 1. 02. 9; Dia: l.7cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia: l .6cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 22

Coin no. 33

B-Tr 2. 05. 3; Dia: l.7cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: l.7cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 23

Coin no. 34

B-Tr 2. 05. 3; Dia: l.2cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: l.7cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 24

Coin no. 35

C-Tr 2. 07. 9; Dia: l.3cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: l .4cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

280

Settlement Patterns in

Coin no. 36

Coin no. 47

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: 1.6cm.; Copper.

C-Tr 3. 06. 5; Dia: 1.6cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Jordan Valley

Illegible.

Coin no. 37

Coin no. 48

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: 1.4cm.; Copper.

C-Tr 2. 07. 9; Dia: 1.6cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 38

Coin no. 49

B-Tr 2. 05. 3; Dia: 1.6cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: 1.4cm.; Copper. Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 50

Coin no. 39

C 2. 09. 8; Dia: l.7cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 9; Dia: 1.4cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 51

Coin no. 40

B 6. 03. 1; Dia: 1.2cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 9; dia: 1.6cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 52

Coin no. 41

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: 1.6cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: 1.4cm.; Copper.

Illegible.

Illegible.

Coin no. 53

Coin no. 42

B-Tr 2. 05. 9; Dia: 2cm.; Silver.

B-Tr 2. 010. 8; Dia: 1.6cm.; Copper.

Obv:

Illegible.

Border: missing. Coin no. 43

Field reads:

B-Tr 2. 010. 8; Dia: 1.5cm.; Copper.

Rev:

Illegible.

Border: missing. Field reads:

Coin no. 44

C 1. 015. 18; Dia: l.3cm.; Copper.

.'.il...Jl01.hWI

Illegible. J

~..i.JI JW ~Ls.II

Coin no. 45

!.IWI i.r.

Surface collection; Dia: 1.8cm.; Copper.

*'

rJ.JJ 'Af I.T-..i.......,..,.

Illegible.

1.r-.iJI ..,.....

w,

Coin no. 46

This coin is dated by the name of the Sultan al-Salih 'lmadad-Din lsma'il (AH 743-746/AD 1342-1345). s·ee Balog, P. 1964: 170; coin no. 277.

Surface collection; Dia: 1.6cm.; Copper. Illegible. 281

Jurn'a

Kareem

Coin no. 54

Coin no. 57

Surface collection; Dia: 1.4cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: l .5cm.; Copper.

Obv:

Obv:

Border: missing.

Border: linear hexagram, in the center a complete circle.

-~

Clockwise marginal legend:

. J

~ J '-:--' ~

I

I

'

Field: illegible.

I

Central: circle with illegible name.

Rev: Border: missing.

Rev:

Center reads:

Border: missing.

~

This coin is dated by the name of Sul~an al-Man~ar 'Ala-alDin Ali (AH 778-783/AD 1377-1381).

Clockwise marginal legend: illegible. Center: circle, in it reads:

Coin no. 58

This coin was minted in Damascus and carried the name of Sultan aH;alih ~ala~-ad-Din I:Iajji II ( l st reign; AH 783-784/ AD 1381-1382; 2nd reign AH 791-792/AD 1389-1390). See Balog, P. 1964: 243; coin no. 524.

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: l .3cm.; Copper. Obv: Border: missing.

Coin no. 55

Field reads:

B-Tr 2. 05. 8; Dia: 2.5cm.; Copper. Obv: Rev:

Border: missing. Field reads:

!.lL.JI ..:., l.hl.__11

Border: missing. Field: illegible.

_, '-::,;..LIi .>~

c-'L...a.ll

Date and mint are off flan.

[J -) -[0-!...ulCoin no. 59 This coin is dated by the name of Sul~an al-~alih 'Imad-adDin lsma'il (AH 743-746/AD 1342-1345). See Balog. P. 1964: 172; coin no. 283.

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia: 2cm.; Copper. Obv:

Coin no. 56

Border: Circle of dots in which linear circle and circular wavy cable.

B-Tr 2. 05. 9; Dia: 2cm.; Copper.

Center reads:

Obv: Border: circular line, in it linear hexagram; dot in each external angle.

Rev: Border: Circular line. Field divided by two horizontal lines into three segments.

Center reads:

Upper segment reads: Rev:

Middle segment reads:

.r" U I !.11...J I

Border: as on the obverse. Lower segment reads:

Center reads: ~

.

~.)

1J

This coin was issued in Damascus in 743 H./AD 1342, in which the Sul~an al-~alih 'lmad-ad-Din lsma'il (A.H. 743746/AD 1342-1345) was the ruler.

~~

This coin is dated by the name of the Sul~an al-Na~ir Na~irad-DinMuhammad (1'1reign 693-694 H./AD 1293-1294; 2nd reign 698-708 H./AD 1299-1309; 3rd reign 709-741 H./AD 1310-1341). Coin no. 60

B-Tr 2. 05. 9; Dia: l.4cm.; Copper.

Settlement Patterns in

Coin no. 64

Obv: Border: two circular lines of dots. Field reads:

Jordan Valley

B-Tr 2. 05. 7; Dia: 1.7cm.; Copper.

~-½

'-:--' __,,_.;.

Obv:

Rev:

Border: missing.

Border: missing.

Field: illegible.

Field: linear square.

Rev:

This coin was minted in Damascus; date is off flan.

Border: two interwoven lines. Center reads:

Coin no. 61

This coin was issued in Damascus; date is off flan.

B-Tr 1. 012. 14; Dia: 1.6cm.; Copper.

Coin no. 65

Obv: Border: circular line; in it a linear hexagram with a dot in each external angle.

B-Tr 2. 05. 7; Dia: l.6cm.; Copper. Obv:

Center:

Border: missing. Rev:

Field: illegible.

Border: as on the obverse.

Rev:

Center reads:

Border: missing. Field divided by two horizontal lines into three segments.

This coin was issued in the year 41 H.; that means the year 741 H/AD 1341. This type of copper coins was issued in Damascus and related to Sul~an al-Man~ur Sayf-ad-Din Abu Bakr (AH 741-742/AD 1341). See Balog, P. 1964: 164; coin no. 267.

Upper and Lower segments: illegible. Lower segment reads: This coin is dated by the name of Sultan al-~ali4 ~alah-adDin I:Iajji II (1'' reign AH 783-784/AD 1381-1382; 2nd reign AH 791-792/ AD 1389-1390).

Coin no. 62 C-Tr 3. 06. Dia: 2.4cm.; Copper.

Coin no. 66

Obv: Border: missing. Field reads:

B-Tr 2. 05. 3; Dia: 2.lcm.; Copper.

C.) 01.bL...JI

Obv:

Rev:

Border: circular wavy cable.

Border: missing.

Field: illegible.

Field: illegible.

Rev:

This coin is dated by the name of Sultan Na~ir-ad-Dfo Abu al-Sa'adat Faraj (1 st reign AH 801-808/ AD 1399-1405; 2nd reign AH 808-815/AD 1405-1412).

Border: missing. Clockwise marginal legend: ....

0 M O ....

Coin no. 63

Most probably, this coin was issued by the Crusaders and/or imported from Cypriot.

Surface collection; Dia: 2.1 x 2.3cm.; Copper.

Coin no. 67

Obv: oblong cartouche in which reads:

B-Tr 2. 05. 7; Dia: 1.7cm.; Copper. 0

_,....ail.i

Obv:

Rev:

Border: missing.

oblong cartouche in which reads:

Field: illegible. Rev:

This coin is dated by the name of Sul~an al-Ashraf Abu alNa~ir Qan~uh al-Ghuri (AH 906-922?AD 1501-1516).

Border: circular line.

283

Kareem

Field divided by two horizontal lines into three segments:

Rev: Border: missing.

Upper segment reads:

Field reads: Middle segment reads:

!..l.LJI .:,lhLJ I

[_r>UI

!..llJI 0-! ~I

~..ulJ

'-::i..i.JI

Lower segment reads:

cJJJ)U This coin is dated by the name of Sultan al-$alil) $alal)-adDin Hajji 11 (2nd reign AH 791-792/AD 1389-1390). See Balog, P. 1964: 246; coin no. 532.

This coin is dated by the name of Sultan al-$ali4 'lmad-adDin Isma'il (AH 743- 746/ AD 1342-1345). See Balog, P. 1964: 17l;coinno.250.

Coin no. 68

Coin no. 71

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia: l.9cm.; Copper.

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: l.8cm.; Copper.

Obv:

Obv:

Border: missing.

Border: linear hexagram.

Field: linear square, in it reads:

..L..,

Center: illegible. Rev: Border: linear hexagram.

Rev:

Center reads:

Border: missing. Center reads:

!.1W[.:,LhLJ ']

Jy.i~]

This coin was issued in the year 741 H./AD 1341. This type of copper coins was minted in Damascus by Sultan al-Man~ur Sayf-ad-Din Abu Bakr (AH 741-742/ AD 1341). See Balog, P. 1964: 164; coin no. 267.

This coin is dated by the name of Sultan al-Zahir Sayf-adDin Barquq (1s t reign AH 784-791/AD 1382-1389; 2 nd reign AH 792-801/AD 1390-1399).

B-Tr 2. 05. 6; Dia: 2.lcm.; Copper.

Coin no. 69

Obv:

Coin no. 72

Border: circular line, in it linear hexagram. B-Tr 1. 08. 10; dia: l.4cm.; Copper. Center reads: Obv: Rev:

Border: missing.

Border: as on the obverse.

Field: flower ?

Center reads:

Rev:

This coin was issued in the year AH 741 /AD 1341. This type of copper coins was minted in Damascus by Sultan al-Man~ur Sayf-ad-DinAbuBakr(AH 741-742/ AD 1342). See Balog, P. 1964: 164; coin no. 267.

Border: missing. Center: in a circle reads: Clockwise marginal legend: illegible. This coin is dated by the name of Sultan al-$ali4 $alal;i-adDin Hajji II (1st reign AH 783-784/ AD 1381-1382; 2 nd reign AH 791-792/ AD 1389-1390). See Balog, P. 1964: 243; coin no. 524.

Coin no. 73 B-Tr 1. 011. 13; Dia: 1.7cm.; Copper. Obv:

Coin no. 70

Border: missing. Field reads:

B-Tr 1. 012. 14; Dia: l.4cm.; Copper. Obv: Border: missing.

~..L.JI

Field: illegible.

284

Settlement Patterns in

Rev:

Jordan Valley

Center: small circle in which reads:

Border: circular line.

This coin is dated by the name of Sultan al-Man~ur 'Ala-adDin Ali (AH 778-783/AD 1337-1381). See Balog, P. 1964; 234, coin no. 500.

Field: circle in it reads: This coin is dated by the name of Sultan al-Zahir Sayf-adDin Barquq (2nd reign A.H 792-801/AD 1390-1399).

Coin no. 77

Coin no. 74

B-Tr 2. 05. 4; Dia: 2cm.; Silver. Obv:

B-Tr 2. 05. 3; Dia: l.9cm.; Copper.

Border: missing. Obv: Field reads:

Border: circular line.

[·_,,A~~ [ ..JJj )II .JI )' [..JJjJ>-J ~