Later Medieval Mints: Organization, Administration and Techniques. The Eighth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History 9780860545033, 9781407346663
201 91 155MB
English Pages [244] Year 1988
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
PREFACE
Mint Organisation in late medieval Europe
The Medieval Mint of Cairo: Some aspects of mint organisation and administration
Mint Organization in Italy between the Twelfth and Fourteenth Centuries: a Survey
'The King's Profit': Trends in English Mint and Monetary Policy in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries
Assays and Assaying in the reigns of Henry III and Edward I
Irregularities in the Irish mint accounts 1279-1284
The Mint of Venice in the Thirteenth Century
Les monnaies concurrentes de Henri VI, roi de France et d'Angleterre et de Charles VII
Men and manners in a fifteenth-century mint Mint personnel in Holland
Münzmeister in Deutschland 1400-1500
Later Medieval Mints and Mintmasters in Scandinavia
A Tender for the Scottish Coinage in 1538
INDEX TO THE TEXT
Citation preview
Later Medieval Mints: Organisation, Administration and Techniques The Eighth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History
N.
J.
edited by Mayhew and Peter Spufford
BAR International Series 389 1988
B.A.R.
5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR S389,1988 'Later Medieval Mints :Organisation,Administration and Techniques' © Th e Individual Authors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545033 paperback ISBN 9781407346663 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545033 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
L ater
M edieval
M ints:
O rganisation , T echniques
Administration
a nd
C ONTENTS
3
P reface P eter S pufford
M int O rganisation i n l ate m edieval E urope.
H elen W .
T he M edieval M int o f C airo:
B rown
s ome a spects
7 3 0
o f m int o rganisation a nd a dministration . M int O rganisation i n I taly b etween t he
L ucia T ravaini
t welfth a nd f ourteenth c enturies: P amela N ightingale
' The
K ing 's P rofit':
T rends
3 9
a s urvey .
i n E nglish
6 1
M int a nd M onetary P olicy i n t he E leventh a nd T welfth C enturies. C hristopher E .
C hallis
A ssays a nd A ssaying i n t he r eigns o f
7 6
H enry I II a nd E dward I . N icholas J .
Mayhew
I rregularities
i n t he I rish m int a ccounts
8 7
1 279-84. A lan M .
S tahl
T he M int o f V enice i n t he T hirteenth
9 7
C entury. J ean D uplessy
L es m onnaies c oncurrentes d e H enry V I, r oi d e F rance e t d 'Angleterre, C harles V II.
1 28
e t d e
P i6ce justificative.
E nglish r esum6. Marjoke d e R oos
M en a nd manners
i n a f ifteenth-century
1 47
m int. M int p ersonnel i n H olland . P eter I lisch
Münzmeister i n D eutschland 1 400-1500.
1 59
E nglish r esum6. A ppendix: I ndex o f M intmasters G ermany 1 400-1500. J Orgen S teen J ensen
i n
L ate m edieval M ints a nd M int Masters
i n
2 02
S candinavia. i llustrations A ppendix:
I ndex o f M intmasters a nd
M intworkers J oan E .L .
Murray
i n S candinavia c .1350-c.1536.
A T ender f or t he S cottish C oinage i n 1 538.
2 22
I ndex
2 29
1
P REFACE
I n
r ecent
o rganisation h as
s o
f ar
e dition 1 984
b een
o f
a nd
y ears
a g reat
o f m edieval
t he
e xpressed
C apitolar
a c hapter
i n
d eal
m ints. i n
o f
i nterest
O nly
a v ery
p rint.
F or
d alle Broche b y
t he
f irst
v olume
has
b een
l ittle
V enice
t his
t here
G iorgetta
o f
s hown
o f
has
L ane
t he
b een
B onfiglio
F rederic
i n
i nterest t he
D osio
a nd
i n
R einhold
Mueller's M oney a nd B anking i n M edieval a nd R enaissance V enice, w hich a ppeared i n 1 985, w hilst t wo a rticles b y P eter S pufford a ppeared o n t he N etherlands
i n 1 979 a nd 1 983.
H owever
a v ery
C hristopher
C hallis
g reat h as
c o-operative H istory o f 1 987,
whilst
t o
t he
o f
T he
1 987.
L ane
t he
C atalogue
H istory . I n
r ecent
t o
o f
a c omparative w ork
i n t he
i n
p reparation .
o f
o f
t he
d ue
t he R oyal v olume,
i s
t o
o n
t o
t o
C ollection
i s
c omplementary p lates, t he
i s
r ecords
c omplement
a nd
o f
a nd
F rederic
L ucia
T ravaini
i s
d evelopment
o f m ints
t hroughout
t welfth a nd t hirteenth c enturies.
a i n
t rial
D osio
w rite p ress
t hrough
s tudy
E ngland
t o
g o
M int
w orking
B onfiglio
M eanwhile
o n
i s
a d ocumentary
G iorgetta
I n
c ollaborators
i n t his w ill b e
f irst
S tahl
p roduce
w ork
a nd R einhold Mueller.
w rite
T he
I taly A lan
t he V enetian m int
e xtend
i s
a t eam
i ntroductory m aterial
c o-operative i n
m ore
t he R oyal M int w hich
a multi-volume
a lso p lanned . e xpected
d eal
a ssembled
a ttempting
t o
I taly
I n t he N etherlands Marjoke d e
R oos i s p reparing a v olume o n t he m ints o f t he f ifteenth c entury a nd t heir p ersonnel, t o c omplement a nd e xtend t he w ork o f P eter S pufford , w ho has,
h imself,
t he
i ntention o f p ublishing f urther a rticles
i n t his
f ield . I t
t herefore
s eemed
t o
t he
e ditors
o f
t his
o pportune
i n t he
t hat t hey c ould have t he b enefit o f a c omparative back-
f ield s o
o f
a n
t ogether a s m any a s
g round t o t heir o wn w ork .
p ossible
v olume
m oment t o b ring
t hose c urently w orking
T his m eeting t ook p lace a s
t he E ighth O xford
S ymposium o n C oinage a nd M onetary H istory under t he a uspices H eberden C oin R oom o f t he A shmolean Museum i n S eptember 1 985. A s
w ell
a s
L ucia T ravaini, i nvite a l arge
C hristopher
i n i ts s cope. f rom G ermany,
T he
o riginal
b rief
t o
t he
o f
h is
c ollaborators,
J ean D uplessy c ame o ver a nd J Orgen S teen J ensen
s peakers
t he m ost
c ommon
t he
f eatures
o rganisation
o f
c omparative p inpoint
t he
a nd
l arge
l ater m iddle
m inting
s ome
f rom f rom
whilst H elen B rown d iscussed t he n on-European m int o f E gypt.
t hat m ight b e p ursued .
t he
a nd
t he
A lan S tahl a nd Marjoke d e R oos, t he e ditors t ried t o e nough c ross s ection o f o ther s peakers t o m ake t he
o ccasion t ruly c omparative F rance, P eter I lisch c ame D enmark,
C hallis
o f
a pproach d ates
t he
e stablishments
w orkshops
i n
d ifferent w ell
o f
t he
t he
t hat had e xisted e arlier.
p ay p articular
a ttention
t o
t he
o f
t he
t hemes
d iscover
t he
between
p arts
t his
o f
t he
E urope
d escriptive
m ight
E urope,
numerous,
f elt
t hirteenth
3
a s
s ymposium p arts
m ore W e
o f
t o
f eatures
a s
d ifferent
r eplaced
w as
t hat
m embers i n
s ome
t hese
m ints
W e h oped
w hen ,
o f
d ifferentiating
' factory '
a ges.
s uggested
o bvious
but
b e
a ble
t hese
a s ' the
s maller m ost
t o
l arge m int
i t w ould b e w orthwhile
c entury
i n a nd
t o
l ikely
p eriod f or t he t ransition b etween t he t wo k ing o f B ohemia u sed a T uscan m intmaster,
m odes o f m inting . S ince a c ount o f F landers u sed
a a
L ombard m intmaster, a nd a k ing o f E ngland u sed a P rovençal m intmaster, i n t he t hirteenth c entury, w e s uggested t hat T uscany, L ombardy o r P rovence m ight b e t he a rea i n w hich t o s eek t he o rigins o f t he n ew ' factory ' m ints. A lternatively w e a sked t he m embers o f t he s ymposium t o c onsider w hether t hese T uscans, L ombards a nd P roven9als c ould m erely have b een i ntermediaries w ho w ere i ntroducing i nto o ther p arts w estern E urope a m int o rganisation t hat was e ffectively B yzantine
o f o r
A rab i n o rigin . o ther parts o f
i n o f
g overnment,
W e a lso a sked whether t here w ere a ny d evelopments E urope, whether i n t he e conomy, i n t he s tructure
o r
i n
preconditions ' factory '
t he
f or
s cale
c alling
m inting .
W e
o f i n
m inting
s uggested
d iscover what happened t o
n eeded ,
s outhern t hat
i t
t he e arlier
t hat
w ere
entrepreneurs m ight
a lso
i ndividual
n ecessary
t o
b e
e stablish
i nteresting
' moneyers'
w ith
t o
t heir
i ndividual r ights a nd p rivileges, a fter t he n ew m int-masters had a rrived . W e a sked h ow t heir f ate r elated t o t he c reation o f h ereditary g roups o f s worn m int w orkers w ith c orporate p rivileges. W e a lso s uggested o ther t hemes l ike a nd
t o
t ouch o n :
w ithout,
t he
a nd
a dministration ;
t heir of
was p rovided by t he
o f a vailable o uvriers o f
o utput,
t eam
o f w orkmen ;
t he v arious
t he
a nd
t ypes
m ints
d ie, t he
t he o r
mints,
m ints
t he
and
p ublic g eneral
how
much
e ntrepreneur;
t he n umber
h ow m any o f t hem w ere
c alled o n ,
d aily p er
c osts
o f w orkers,
e xchanges;
o f
t he a nd
d ivision o f l abour b etween t hem ;
e lse
t rue
b oth w ithin
g oldsmithing,
a nd
e quipment
a nd m onnayeurs,
p er
o fficers,
b anking,
a nd h ow much by t he
a nd w hat was
e ither
w ith
b etween
m ints; s tate
t hat m embers o f t he s ymposium m ight
o f m int
l inks
c onnections
administration
a nd h ow o ften ,
c areers
f urnace,
o f m inting,
a nd w hat v alue
p er
h ow much
man was
r ates o r
p er
p aid
l ost
t o
o f m etal
was
i n
t he
p resent,
i nspired by
t he
r efining a nd m inting p rocesses. A fter
t he
d iscussions, v olume. which
c onference
a number
P amela N ightingale t he
o f
t hose
p resented a dditional p apers l ate
m edieval
has
t hat h ave b een i ncluded i n t he
c ontributed a n
s tyle
o f
m int
w as
e ssay
o n
t he
d eveloped
p eriod
i n
a t
E ngland ,
N icholas Mayhew a n e ssay o n t he I rish m int i n t he t hirteenth c entury , a nd J oan Murray o ne o n t he S cottish m int i n t he e arly s ixteenth c entury . D espite
t hese
a dditional
p apers,
t his
v olume
c ertain l acunae. F or e xample, n o c ontributors p eninsula o r f rom E astern E urope w ere a ble t o c ome,
s till
s uffers
f rom
f rom t he I berian a nd t here c ould b e
n o p aper o n t he o rganisation o f t he m int o f B yzantium a s n o d ocumentary e vidence s urvives
f rom w hich s uch a p aper c ould b e w ritten .
T he t ypes o f e ssay P eter
S pufford
a nd
t o b e
L ucia
f ound i n t his v olume
T ravaini
p rovide
S tahl a nd H elen B rown p rovide k ey d escriptions c entral
mints
a t
f ixed
p oints
i n
a re v ery
c omparative
d ifferent.
s tudies.
A lan
o f t he w orking o f g reat
t ime.
Christopher
C hallis
c oncentrated o n o ne p art o f t he m inting p rocess, a ssaying. Marjoke d e R oos, P eter I lisch a nd J Orgen S teen J ensen h ave a g reat d eal t o s ay a bout
t he
m obility
p ersonnel o f
N etherlands
s uch
w ho
m en ,
r an
who
t heir
c ould ,
m ints, a nd
a nd
i ncidentally
s ometimes
d id,
t o G ermany o r f rom G ermany t o S candinavia.
4
m ove
a bout
t he
f rom
t he
I t
d id
not,
t hematically, o ne
t heme,
t heme. h ave
t heir
I t has,
o gical
a nd 1 225. t he
p apers
After
H elen
p oint
c entury.
f or
P amela p aper
c entury.
S pufford 's
d escription
h er
p aper,
F rom
t he
o n a ssaying
i t was
o f
t he m ints o f t he M arjoke d e R oos f or
w hich
O f
o n
t hat
p aper
a lso
i n
E ngland
i s
t o
e ssay,
b etween
1 248
t he
t he
b elongs
c entury i n
m int
w e
1 185
i nfluences may h ave s haped which
c hronological m id-fourteenth
e ssentially
t here a nd
i s
1 279,
i n
t he
p aper
t o
t he
C hristopher a nd
i s
a
t hese
g reat
w e
i t w ould h ave
d iscussion
t hat
t he
N icholas
h ave
a nd
J ensen's
paper
c entury .
J oan Murray 's
G ermany
S candinavian p aper o n
p laced J ean
r espectively, m ints
t he
c ome
o f
o n
t he
p aper,
o n
o f F rance, f irst. o f t he f ifteenth
whilst
J Orgen
i nto
S cottish M int
t his
e specially
e ssays
D uplessy 's
e xtends
a t
l ater m edieval
o f w estern E urope,
c oncentration
r ival Valois a nd P lantagenet k ings a nd P eter I lisch c over t he whole on
volume
o nly
i ntroductory
E gyptian
e xtends
i nfluenced b y t hose
H olland
t he
p rimarily
1 279-84. A lan S tahl's e ssay o n t he V enetian 1 320 c arries t he v olume i nto t he f ourteenth
T here
f ifteenth c entury.
c entury
t he
t hirteenth
s uggested
V enice.
a rrange
c oncerned w ith
g eneral
o f
t hat I slamic
N ightingale's
B yzantine m ints w ere t hat
e xclusively
H ad t here b een a B yzantine
f or
t o
c oncentrated
i n t welfth c entury S icily,
c entury.
C hallis'
a uthors
b een put t ogether i n a n a pproximately c hronol-
P eter
M ayhew 's o n I reland i n m int b etween 1 278 a nd p oint,
n ot
L ucia T ravaini h ints
s tarting
p ossible
s ome
w ere
B rown 's
P alermo m int
t welfth
prove
a lthough
i nstead ,
o rder.
p ut
however,
s ince,
t he
i n 1 538,
S teen
s ixteenth b rings
t he
v olume t o a c onclusion . P eter
I lisch
a nd J Orgen
S teen J ensen
w ith e xtremely u seful a ppendixes. t o
m int-masters
S candinavia.
and mintworkers
A lan S tahl h as
have
e nriched
i n
f ifteenth-century
a dded t o h is
I t was h oped t o p rovide i n
print,
t o
a f ull b ibliography a s
a ssist
f uture
p apers i ndexes
G ermany
and
p aper a n a ppendix o f s ources
f or t he h istory o f t he m int o f V enice, t ogether w ith c hapter h eadings f rom t he C apitulary o f M int M asters.
a lready
t heir
T hey h ave p roduced e xtensive
workers
Unfortunately o nly s ections o f t his m aterialised ,
a l ist
a g uide i n
o f
t o w hat
t his
t he
i s
f ield.
s o t hat t he r esult
i s
r ather unbalanced . I t
was
p atently
n ot
p ossible
t o
f ollow
u p
a ll
t he
o riginal
s uggestions, a s made by t he c onvenors o f t he s ymposium , a nd o utlined a bove, but w e b elieve t hat t he m embers o f t he s ymposium have g one a c onsiderable b elieve
t hat
i nstitutional
way
t o
t his a nd
p rovide
i s
a n
s ocial
a nswers
a rea
h istorians
e conomic a nd p olitical h istorians, t hat t his
t o
which
s ome
i s o f
o f t he
o f
t hese
i mportance m iddle
a s w ell a s
p roblems.
W e
n ot
t o
a ges,
m erely
but
t o numismatists.
a lso
t o
W e k now
i s a f ield i n which a g ood d eal o f s cholarly w ork i s g oing t o
b e undertaken
i n
t he
i mmediate
f uture,
a nd w e
b elieve
t hat
t he
p apers
i n t his v olume p rovide a s ignificant c ontribution t o t hat w ork .
P eter S pufford Queens'
N icholas Mayhew
C ollege
H eberden C oin R oom
C ambridge
O xford
5
M int O rganisation i n l ate m edieval E urope
P eter S pufford ,
C ambridge
F or P hilip G rierson 's F estschrift f our y ears a go I w rote a c ontribution o n m int o rganisation i n t he B urgundian N etherlands i n t he f ifteenth c entury, t ogether w ith a n a ccompanying p aper o n t he g eneral o fficers o f t he B urgupdian M ints,
which P rofessor E nno v an G elder p ublished a t
t he
s ame t ime I n t hese papers I g ave individual mints and
t he
Burgundian
mints
r espectively.
i ndividual m ints had b ecome t he
s ame
t hroughout
c onsequence
o f
P hilip t he e xpectation ,
t he
Whereas
t he
o rganization
o f
t he
f airly s tandardised a nd r emained v ery much
c entury,
t he
c entral
a dministration ,
t he a ccumulation o f m any p rincipalities
i tself
i n t he h ands
a o f
Good w as a ltogether experimental and variable. My t herefore, l ooking a t t he o ther p arts o f E urope f rom a
B urgundian s tandpoint, e lsewhere
a d escription o f t he p ersonnel i nvolved i n t he c entral administration of a ll t he
i n
E urope
was
t hat I w ould e xpect t o f ind i ndividual m ints
o rganised
i n
m ore
o r
l ess
a n
a ccepted
s tandard
f orm , but t hat r elations b etween t he m ints a nd t he g overnment m ight v ary g reatly f rom t ime t o t ime a nd p lace t o p lace. A brief r esumé o f m y
f indings
s tepping
f rom
s tone
t he
t o
f ifteenth
a n
c entury
e xamination
o f
N etherlands
whether
f orms
t hese
a n ecessary
e xpectations
a re
j ustified . F ifteenth C entury N etherlands M ints E ach o f t he m ints was r un a s a s eparate businessman , y ears.
H e
who,
brought
e ntrepreneurial a mongst
t he
c ame
n ear
a s
d id b efore a ny o ne
a s
t o
t he
w ith
s kill
l argest
p lace,
m aster, t o
t ook
h im
t he
' factory '
e ighteenth t he v ery
t he
a lum m ines
m ining p laces
may h ave had
f or a s ingle e mployer, v ery
s mall
a t
s cale
c lustered v ery
a t
c onditions c entury .
T olfa a s
m anagement w orking
o f
I n
t he
a ny
S uch
l ate
o f
o nly
a
t erm
numbers s urpassed
a nd
m ints
m iddle
manufacturing
t erms
w ere
f or
c apital
a p rofit.
a s
m ints
t he A rsenals o f V enice a nd G enoa, o nly by
i t
c omplexes
l argest
i ndustrial e nterprise by a
i ts
n ecessary
o perate
i ndustrial
o n
o f t he
w ere
a ges
a nd
e nterprise
e mployed , i n
s cale
i n by
a nd w ere p robably e qualled i n numbers a nd
t he
s alt w orks
m any w orkers,
but
a t
S alins.
t hey w ere
O ther
n ot w orking
s ince m any m ining e nterprises w ere o perated o n a
b y
' free'
m iners,
c losely t ogether.
T uscan l anaiuoli e mployed a s t ogether, but s cattered a bout
T he
a lthough
numerous
l argest e nterprises
s mall
p its
c onducted by
m any p eople, but t hey w ere n ot w orking t he c ity a nd t he s urrounding c ountryside
i n t heir own homes, with only r elatively modest numbers i n t he w arehouse o r w orkshop o f t he e ntrepreneur h imself. T he w orking c apital r equired was c onsequently e normous. T hose who t ook u p t he m anagement o f s uch m ints w ere t herefore n aturally d rawn f rom a mongst t he r ichest a nd m ost s uccessful m en i n t he c ommercial a nd i ndustrial c ities o f t he N etherlands. Many o f t hem w ere d rawn f rom t he r uling e lites o f t heir c ities w ere
a nd p articipated
s imply
' goldsmiths'
d escribed o r
i n a s
t he
g overnment
' merchants',
' moneychangers'.
7
o f
t hem
o thers
a s
m ore
e chevins.
M ost
s pecifically
a s
T he p rinces p rovided t he physical
' factories'
buildings,
f ixed c apital.
t hemselves.
i ncluding n ot
o nly
T hey p rovided t he
These
d ifferent
w ere
' rooms'
c omplex f or
a ctual
warrens
d ifferent
o f
m inting
o perations, but a lso o fficial h ouses f or m int o fficers, a nd o ccasional s urprising f eatures l ike t he g arden a t t he V alenciennes m int w ith f ruit t rees Much
i n i t, o f
t he
e xpensive,
which h ad s everal n ecessary
d ifferent
e quipment
f or
l ockable
m inting ,
d oors
s ome
o f
t o
i t
which
i n 1 458.
w as
q uite
w as a lso p rovided by t he p rinces.
T he p rinces
a lso
s aw t hat
t here
w as
i n
e ach m int
a c omplement
o f
o fficials t o r epresent t heir i nterests. E ach m int h ad a warden , w ho had t he g eneral o versight o f i t. H e k ept h is o wn c lerk a nd e mployed a c leaner-caretaker t o l ook a fter t he buildings. e nsure
t hat
e ngraver.
t he
c oinage
w as
o f
t he
T here w as a n a ssayer t o
c orrect
A ll t hese w ere s alaried o fficials,
f ineness,
a t l east p rovided
i n p art, b y t he r uler o ut o f h is s eignorage. t hem w ith o fficial h ouses w ithin t he m int.
f rom
s ame
p osts
t he 1 . 1-
m ilieux
t he
a s
s ervice
t he
o f
m asters,
t he
a nd
p rince,
a nd
a
d ie
whose s alaries w ere p aid ,
l ike
T he r uler a lso T hey w ere d rawn
t hem ,
a lso
p articularly
t ook
t hose
o ther
i nvolving
f inance.' S uch m en i nvested a t l east a p art o f t heir w ealth i n l and a nd t he m ost s uccessful o f t hem a cquired s eigneuries a nd w ere e nnobled . I n
a ddition
i nterests
t here
o f
w ere
f requently
t he m erchant
c ontregardes
c ommunities
who
w ere
who
t he
r epresented
p rime
c ustomers
t he o f
t he m ints. T hese m en , w ho w ere t hemselves m erchants, a s w ell a s r eceiving a t iny p ercentage f rom e ach c ustomer, w ere a lso s ometimes p aid a n a nnual f ee b y t he c ity a uthorities. The
skilled
c orporations
o f
workforce
o uvriers
was
a nd
provided
m onnayeurs
by
who,
privileged under
t he
hereditary
l eadership
o f
prövots, p erformed t he l ong s equence o f o perations r equired t o p roduce c oin i n t he l ater m iddle a ges. T here was a c onsiderable d ivision o f l abour i n t hese m ints, 3 which w ere g eared t o c onvert bullion i nto n ew c oin by t hese
t he m illion,
c orporations
s lightly
f rom
whenever e njoyed
p rincipality
t he
m arket
e xtensive t o
r equired
i t.
p rivileges
p rincipality
T he
w hich
w ithin
t he
m embers
o nly
L ow
o f
varied
C ountries.
T he p rincipal p rivileges e njoyed by f ranc-monnayeurs w ere e xemption f rom t axation a nd f rom m ilitary s ervice a nd t he r ight t o b e t ried o nly b efore t heir o wn p rovost a nd t he m aster o f o f murder,
a rson a nd
m onnayeurs
e ngaged
r ape.
i n
t heir m int,
W hen n ot w orking
t rade,
a nd
i t
w as
t hen
i n
t he
t hat
e xcept m ints
t heir
i n c ases
t he
franc-
p rivilege
e xemption f rom t axation , p articularly f rom i mport a nd e xport d ues f rom t olls, was s o v aluable t o t hem . W hen a franc-monnayeur c alled u pon
t o
s erve
i n
t he
m int,
t he
d isadvantages
o f h is
c alling a t o nce b ecame a pparent. H e had i mmediately business i n which h e was e ngaged a nd c ome t o t he m int. c ommercial p rofits
t he p ay
f or
m int w orkers
o f a nd was
h ereditary
t o a bandon a ny C ompared w ith
s eemed v ery
p oor.
I t was
f ixed i n p roportion t o t he a mount m inted , a nd , a part f rom t he uneven p roduction o f t he m ints, wages w ere o ften i rregularly p aid by t he m int m asters. M oneyers w ere t herefore a ctually e mployed i n t he m ints. 4 T he p rince's m int
d ocumentation t hat s urvives a rchives,
a ccounts.
a ccounts'
a t a ll,
a nd F or a s
o f t he
t hese
t he
g enerally
b etter
i s n aturally m ostly m ost
N etherlands
a bundant
t hey
a re
t hey d o n ot d irectly d escribe
8
o ff
a re
n ot
t hat t he
w hen
n ot
f rom
t he
s o-called
s trictly
' mint
t he whole r unning o f
t he
m ints
b y
t he
o nly d eal w ith
m int
m aster,
t hat p art
a ny o utlay o n t he p art t herefore m ake
but
o f t he
r ather
o f t he p rince.
t he m ints
' seignorage
a ccounts'
o rganisation o f m inting which M ost o f
t he
w hich
i nvolved
s urviving d ocuments
l ook l ike d epartments o f s tate,
which f rom t he
d uke's p oint o f v iew t hey w ere, but f rom t he m aster 's p oint o f v iew t hey w ere businesses t o b e m anaged f or p rofit. T he e xpertise o f t he m aster was a s a n e ntrepreneur, a s a n o rganiser o f m en a nd m oney, a s a n i ndustrialist a nd a f inancier. T he
s tate
o verview
p rovided
a p rofit. a ll,
a n
t he
h ereditary
e quipment
T hey m oved
a nd
a t
t he
i n w ith
e nd
o f
c orporation
a nd
k ept
a n a nd t he
o f
o n ,
a nd
s killed w orkforce, b ut i t was l eft t o t he master t o t ake t he r isks t o p rovide t he w orking c apital a nd t he m anagement a bility t o r un a t
w ent
p remises
t he
f igures
what
t he
c ontributed
m ints
o f
t heir
t heir
s taff,
t erms,
t he
m ost
m oved
o n
s hadowy
t o
o ther
business. W ere t hese f eatures o f m inting i n t he B urgundian N etherlands e lsewhere? e quipped
D id
m int
t he
whole
buildings
o f
E urope
p rovided
by
have
t he
c omplex
p rince
o r
a nd
f ound
e xpensively
c ity?
D id
e very
p rince a nd i ndependent c ity r un t he s ame s ort o f d epartment o f s tate t o l ook
a fter
t he
m ints?
Was
t he
manpower
e verywhere
h ereditary c orporation o f p rivileged m oneyers?
W ere
p rovided
a ll
by
t he m ints
a n r un
f or p rofit b y businessmen? An
i mmense
v ariety
o f
p ractice
t urned
o ut
t o
h ave
d ifferent p laces i n E urope. A ll o f i t, h owever, f ell s imilar g eneral f ramework by t he e nd o f t he m iddle a ges.
e xisted
w ithin
i n
a v ery
B uildings B y
t he
b uildings
f ifteenth
p rovided
c entury
a nd
v aried e normously .
n early
e quipped
by
a ll t he
t he
m ints
s tate.
o f
E urope
H owever,
5
w ere
t he
W e m ostly k now a bout t he l argest buildings.
i n
s cale A round
t he T ower o f L ondon , f or e xample, t here was a n e normous c omplex o f buildings d evoted t o m inting . T he t hirteenth c entury m int buildings a t t he
T ower
building
w ere
4 00
f urther
f eet
e xtended
l ong
t o
T he n ew m int built i n P aris
i n
1 300
a ccommodate
by
n o
t he
f ewer
a ddition
t han
t hirty
o f
a n ew
f urnaces.
i n 1 396 w as e ven g rander t han s ome o f t hose
i n t he L ow C ountries. I t had a c hapel a nd a c loister, a nd a c ommunal k itchen a s w ell a s a g arden a nd h ouses f or t he m int o fficers. I t i s n ot
c lear
h ow
s urrounding
e arly
t he
s hops
m int,
but
t he m iddle o f t he m int. f or g old,
w ere e ven
I n 1 296
t he o ther f or s ilver,
l et
a long
o ut, t he
n ot
o nly
p assageway
o n
t he
s treets
r an
t hrough
t hat
t wo s eparately a dministered m ints,
o ne
w ere b eing h oused i n d ifferent p arts o f
t he p revious g roup o f buildings, w hich had b een e rected under S t. L ouis. A s imilar a rrangement o f t wo m ints w ithin t he s ame g roup o f buildings was c argied o ver i nto t he n ew m int a nd l asted i nto t he f ifteenth
c entury.
t hree m ints
r espectively . f or
u se.
m int s ame
1 385
o f
V enice
s ite,
w as
F lorence
i n 1 363
t o
m ore
c omplex
p roducing d ucats,
a f ourth m int was
I n
8
o ne pulled d own
r eplacement, a n
I n
c olonial
m ints,
T he
sp a ring t he
w e
a dded
h ave
c reate
t o
d etails
t he
g rossi
s et
o f
m int
buildings
9
a ctually
w ith
a nd b illon
p roduce
t orneselli
o f
s uccessive
L oggia
f or w hich a r ow o f h ouses was b ought u p.
i mpressive
s till,
d ei 9
s urvives,
t wo
L anzi
a nd
i ts
At K utnä H ora , a lthough
much
a ltered by t he i ntrusion o f s uites o f w hich d warf t he m int m aster's h ouse. l ike
t hat a t
T oulouse had
f actory-like
t he t wo l argest p rovincial c ities u s
o f
s ome
s ilver, r ooms
o f
s trong
w ith
t he
c ontents
r ooms,
c ounters
f or t he K ing o f B ohemia , a F rench p rovincial m int
p remises.
i n F rance.
o f
c lerk 's
f or
r ooms E ven
t he
s eparate
r ooms,
r ooms
d ealing w ith
T oulouse
A p artial
w as
o ne
o f
i nventory t ells
f oundries
f or
g old
c rushing
t he
' ciment ',
f or
c ustomers,
f or
a ccepting
a nd
bullion
a nd making d eliveries, a s w ell a s a c ommunal k itchen , a c orporate c hapel a nd a n o fficial h ouse f or t he master, w ith i ts o wn k itchen , a h all
a nd
a c hamber
o ver
t he
r epairs t o t hese buildings
g ate.
M int
1 0
f rom t ime
t o
a ccounts
t ime.
T he
g ive
t he
r epairs
c osts
t o
o f
t he m it
a t C anterbury i n 1 331 u sed o ver 4 00 c artloads o f building m aterials. " M ints
n eed
n ot,
s urviving m int h ouse w ell w as
a s
h owever,
b e
a t F igeac
a p roper h ospitium ,
i s
o f
t his
s cale.
r eally v ery
a g roup
o f h ouses
a lso o n o ne o ccasion c arried o ut
T he
s mall. i n
I n
d elightful
S c
Wand ,
E dinburgh,
i n a 9 4ph s impler way a t
i n a r oom o ver t he g atehouse o f t he c astle.
a s
m inting S tirling
A longside t he m ints w ith
l arge f ixed p remises, t he l ater m iddle a ges s till s aw s ome t iny m ints s urviving w hich w ere barely l arger t han a j eweller's w orkshop. I a m r eminded t hat i t i s s till p erfectly p ossible f or a s ingle p erson t o m ake
a l iving a s
a p otter,
e ven
t hough
d ivision
o f
l abour
a nd p ottery
f actories have e xisted s ince t he e arly e ighteenth c entury . S uch t iny m ints f requently s urvived i n N ordic E urope a nd e ven G ermany t o t he e nd o f t he m iddle a ges. 14 A s w ell a s t he g reat r oyal f actory m ints a t L ondon a nd C anterbury ,
t iny e cclesiastical m ints
s till s urvived i n l ate
m edieval E ngland . A t B ury S t. E dmunds t he a bbot had o nly o ne d ie a nd o ne m oneyer a t a t ime, a t D urham t he b ishop h ad o nly t hree d ies, a nd a t Y ork t he a rchbishop's m int was i n h is p alace. P hilip G rierson h as d rawn o ur a ttention t o t he p ortable m ints u sed o n m ilitary t hat
r an
e xpeditions,
s ome
o f
t he
i n
l ate
l argest
m edieval m ints
i n
T uscany,
p ortable m int m ore p ortable
r un by S t. L ouis o utside Tunis. m ints s et u p by C harles V II a nd
f ront t o F rance. 16
h is
p ay
a rmies
w hile
t hey
w ere
b y
C hristendom ,
t he
s ame a nd
I 5
c ities t o
t he
T here w ere t hirty o r h is c ommanders a t t he
d riving
t he
E nglish
o ut
o f
E quipment S imilarly t he s cale o f e quipment varied . A t t he l argest, t he m int o f F lorence w as e quipped w ith n o l ess t han s ix l arge balances. I n t he e arly f ourteenth c entury t he but d uring E dward I 's
L ondon m int
r ecoinages
t he s ame t ime t he m int o f P rovence, R 6my had
f orty f t unaces
o f m etal a d ay. n ormal u se. l i d
t he
c apable 1 471
o f handling t wo
t he
S eville
m int
t welve
l ate m edieval m ints
i nventories
t o
i ron
t he
c oncentrate
e ven m ore
1 407
t here w ere
o ne,
w ith
t he o n
n umerous
number
t he
s even c opper w eights
o f
h eavy
w eights
t wo b alances,
o ne
t he
t hat w ent w ith l arge
c opper f rom
f urnaces
s urvive
c andlesticks.
e quipment,
r anging
1 0
A t
t housand p ounds w eight
h ad
F or a number o f d own
f urnaces,
t hirty .
a ttached t o t he r oyal c astle a t S t.
e quipment
i nventories a nd
I n
1 /
r egularly u sed f ive
i ncreased t heir number t o
o ne
o ne
f or
d etailing
1 9
T hese
n umerous
b alances
t hem .
A t
N amur
a nd a s maller
m ark u p
t o
f orty,
i n
i ron a nd
f ive
s tone
w eights,
r unning
f rom
t welve
m arks
u p
t o
a hundred .
T hey
d escribe t he e quipment f or t he f urnaces, b ellows, s ingle a nd d ouble, r akes, p incers, a nd c hisels, a nd baskets f or m easuring a nd c arrying c harcoal. w ith
s ilver o nes
T he m ost n umerous p ieces
g utters, a nd
a nd
t ripods
o r
g old w ere p oured
a nd t hirty-four
bars
f rom
o rdinary
o f e quipment w ere
t he
t o
o n
t he
o nes
s upport
t hem ,
f urnaces.
a t
N amur
T here
i n
1 407,
i ron t ables, t o
which
w ere
t wo
t wenty
t he
l arge
a t
L ondon
i n 1 327, a nd s ixteen a t C anterbury i n t he s ame y ear. T here w ere a lso a n umber o f i ron pails f or a nnealing a nd r ather f ewer c opper o nes f or b lanching, p owder
p estles
f or
e quipment, t he
a nd
r efining
m ortars
g old,
f or
c rushing
besides
t iles
a c ertain
a nd
s alt
amount
o f
a n e ll o f s triped c loth f or t he a ccounting t able,
c ounters,
a c alendar,
and
t ouch-needles
f or
i nto
a
' office' c anvas
d etermining
f or t he
f ineness o f t he g old b rought i nto t he m int. E quipment i nventories, r ecorded.
i s
when F or
a lso t he
t o
b e
f ound
purchase
e xample,
t he
o f
m int
a t
w eights o f s ix F lorentine p ounds p apal f lorins b egan i n 1 322. 20 H owever, S ometimes s hears
n ot
a ll
t he
h and-tools,
and
( maillets)
o f
f requently
t hey w ere
a nd w orkmen
a s
f rom
t he
( marteaux)
t he m oneyers
w ere
m int
j ust
a s
w ell i tems
b ought
when
t he
t wo
a s i s n ew
s triking
o f
a lways p rovided w ith t he m int. t ools
t he
o f
t he
ouvriers
s pecified
a s
o bviously p rovided by
t hemselves,
a s
r eplacement
F lorence
g raving o f
a ccounts
o r
P ont-de-Sorgues
e quipment w as
s uch
hammers
i n
a dditional
a m odern
m int
t he
e ngravers,
and
t he
t he
hammers
e quipment,
but m ore
master
c arpenter
o r
t he m oneyers
o ften
has
h is
o wn
p ersonal t ools. A s
w ell
a s
s uch
f ixed
c apital
a s
buildings
u sed e normous s upplies o f c onsumable m aterials.
a nd
e quipment,
m ints
F uel f or t he f urnaces,
c opper f or a lloy, l ead f or r efining a nd a ssaying s ilver, n itric a cid o r c rusted t artar f rom t he i nside o f w ine barrels f or b lanching i t, b roken r ed
t iles
a nd
s alt
f or
r efining
a nd
a ssaying
g old ,
k eeping r ecords, w ere a ll b ought i n q uantities. c onsumables was n ormally t he c oncern o f t he master, t hat
i n
p laces
s ome l ike
p laces
t he
F lorence,
p rince where
b ore t he
a s hare
m ints
o f
w ere
a nd
p aper
f or
T he c ost o f s uch but t here a re h ints
t heir
c ost,
managed
w hilst
d irectly,
i n t he
p urchase o f s uch m aterials h ad a lways t o b e a ccounted f or. A D epartment o f S tate I h ave f ound m uch l ess uniformity d epartment o f s tate. A s w as p ointed o ut t ook
o n
t he
E nglish
m ints
' encore
d oit
i n i n
t he o rganisation o f t he 1 279 w hen t he T urnemires
h or n
bailler
a l
m estre
ung
g arde' 21 a nd i n m any p laces a warden , o r wardens, f or t hey n eed n ot b e o ne, e xisted . T he d ifferent f unctions o f t he m aster a nd t he w arden i n l ate
t hirteenth
c entury
E r land
a re
c learly
s pelled
' Treatise o n t he N ew M oney '. T hey d id n ot, h owever, w here t he m int was n ot r un a s a business v enture. T he
r ole
e xchanges.
o f
t he
I n E ngland ,
warden
g enerally
i nvolved
a n
out
n eed
o versight
t here w ere o fficial r oyal e xchanges,
1 1
in t o
o f
t he
e xist
o f
t he
which
t he p rincipal w ere, l ike t he m ints, i n L ondon a nd C anterbury. 24 I n o ther p laces t hey w ere i n t he h ands o f p rivate, a lthough l icenced , m oney c hangers. T he w arden h imself m ight n ot b e F rom a l ifetime a n h ereditary t hat t he c entury
o ne.
I n
wardenship a s i t d id
2 5
o ffice.
a ppointment,
a ll
which was
P rovence
a t
t hat e fficient
c ommon,
i t w as
T arascon ,
H enri
a s
a w atchdog .
a s mall
R olland
s tep
t o
s uspected
m ight b e b ecoming h ereditary i n t he f ifteenth a t Avignon , where i t e ven b ecame a s ellable
A ssayers a nd e ngravers w ere e verywhere, a lthough t heir numbers v aried w ith t he s cale o f o perations. I n F lorence t here w ere t o b e t wo o r t hree a ssayers f or g old a s w ell t o
b e
q ualified
g oldsmiths.
d elicate o perations.
T he
a s
o ne o r t wo
A ssaying
p urity
o f
w as
t he
f or s ilver.
o bviously
c oinage
o ne
A ll w ere
o f
d epended
t he
o n
t he
m ost s kill
o f t he a ssayer, o r a ssayers, t o c ontrol a nd c heck t he a lloy o f t he c oin p roduced . T he r ole o f t he a ssayer i n l ate t hirteenth-century E ngland i s
a lso
s pelled
v ariety
o f
o ut
i n
t he
f inenesses
o f
' Treatise bullion
o n
t he
a vailable
a ssaying i t a re r evealed i n C hristopher C hallis' One e ngraver p er m int
s eemed t he n ormal
i n
N ew
M oney '.
a nd
t he
p aper.
T he
c an
s ee
h ow
t he
c omponent p arts.
w ork
b efore t hey r eceived a ny t he puncheons. p uncheons. t russels, l arge
T he
t he L ow C ountries.
a nd n o a s
t he
e ngraver
a s mith
i mpression ,
t o
w as
p repare
b roken t he
a nd a s inker
t o
d oubt w el1.
t here was
a s imilar
a s mith
d own
m ore
i nto
a nd
i mpress
t hem w ith t he
t he p iles
a nd
l abour h appened
t han
o ne
i ts
t russels
t o p repare
f or p reparing
d ivision o f
E lsewhere
2 7
I n
I n E ngland
p iles
e ngraver was h imself o nly c oncerned
I n G enoa t oo
m ints
o f
T here w as
o f
2 6
E ngland o ne e ngraver was e nough f or b oth L ondon a nd C alais. w e
w ide
c omplexity
p erson
i n o ther
c alled
a n
e ngraver was e mployed . I n s ome p laces t he e ngraver n ot o nly h ad t he j ob o f p reparing t he p uncheons, o r e ven t he d ies, but had a lso t o l ook a fter t hem , a nd was r esponsible
f or
s eeing
t hey w ere
t hat
t heir
i ssue
e very
l ocked u p
m orning
a gain
t o
t he
e ach n ight.
m oneyers I n
t he
C anterbury m ints t here w ere s eparate k eepers o f t he d ies, p laces, l ike t hi5heenth-century F rance, t his was a mong
a nd
f or
L ondon
a nd
a nd i n o ther t he w arden 's
r esponsibilities. C ontregardes a re r ather m ore e lusive P rovence i n G arde. T he c ounter,
t han o ther m int o fficers.
I n
1 338 t he C ontregarde w as a lternatively k nown a s t he V ice E nglish e quivalent, t he c omptroller, who k ept t he s econd ,
r oll t o c heck u p o n t he warden 's w as a r oyal o fficer i n o rigin
r ather t han a m erchant o r c ivic o ne.
H is p ost e volved f rom t hat o f t he
c lerk who had t he t ask o f r ecording p urchases o f bullion i n e mpcionis' i n a s et f orm i n t he L ondon m int i n t he 1 290s. 29 I n s ome p laces
t he
c lerical
s taff w ere m uch m ore
t he N etherlands,
w ith a s cribe o r c lerk ,
t he
c ashiers
p aper w ork ,
a t
t he
a ' rotulo
a pparent t han
i n
o r e ven a n otary t o l ook a fter
c ounters
a nd a ccountants
b ehind
t hem .
I n t he m ost c omplex m ints v ery numerous d ifferent b ooks w ere k ept. 1 325 a t t he vast m int a t I glesias i n S ardinia n ear t he s ilver m ines,
I n n o
l ess
i n
t han
e ight
s ets
o f
b ooks
w ere
1 2
k ept.
E ntries
h ad
t o
b e
m ade
e ach o f t hem f or e very c ycle o f o perations. I n o ccur
t he
l argest
e lsewhere.
m int
t here
m ints
t here
I n G enoa
w ere
t wo
w as a k eeper o f
s uch
t he
w ere
p articular
w as
a p esatore
t here
s pecialist
c oals,
a nd a master
s hop where f lorins w ere s ealed u p H owever,
i n e very m int
r eceptionist,
o r
o ften
o r
s ome
u sher,
0
I n
d id
t he
n ot
V enetian
F lorence
t here
l ooked a fter
t he
3 1
s ort
o f c aretaker f igure,
s ometimes o f
t he
e mployed
s tate,
who
by
a
t he
but
t o b e p lace.
i d t o l ook a fter t he e mpty buildings when n o m inting w as t aking I n t he P aris m ip a round 1 420 t here was a c ontre-voleur , a a s w ell.
e mployee
t hat
i n
w arden ,
s ecurity o fficer,
a d irect
,. 3
a nd
g oldsmith w ho
i n p ouches.
t here was
g ate-porter
q uite
' weighers
o ffices
c ontinued
J J
A lan S tahl a nd L ucia T ravaini have a g reat d eal t o s ay I talian e nts a nd h ow t hey w ere o rganized f rom t he g overnmental
a bout p oint
o f v iew . G eneral Oversight I n s o
f ar
t hirteenth f inancial
a s
t here was
c entury
i t
a ny
s eems
d epartment
o f
g eneral
t o
t he
have
o versight
b een
s tate,
t he
o f
t he
e xercised
m ints
b y
e xchequer,
t he
t he
i n
t he
p rincipal
c hambre
d es
c omptes, t he c our d es c omptes, t he maitres r ationaux o r m agistri r ationali. S uch o versight was p rincipally e xercised b y t he r equirement t hat
a ccounts
m ints, T o
b e
r endered
b y
o ne
o r
m ore
o fficers
t his
b oxes,
e nd o ne
e very f or
m int
had
a l ocked
e ach d enomination ,
b ox,
i nto
o r,
which
t he
i ndividual
m ore
bussule,
w ere
o fficers
t hen c arried o ff a t o f
t he
f inancial
f or a p ublic
I n
3 5
a s eries
T hese p yxes,
i ntervals,
c ourt.
o ften
a p re-ordained
t he c oinage w as put i n t he c ourse o f m inting. t he
o f
a nd b y s ome s ort o f a ssay o f a r andom s ample o f t he c oin s truck .
s o
f ar
a s
o f
s ample
o f
b oistes,
o r
a ssay b efore
t here
was
a ny
i ndividual c harged w ith t he g eneral s upervision o f m ore t han o ne m int a t t his s tage, i t w as t he warden i n E ngland , who had t he s upervision o f a ll t he m ints i n t he c ountry. f ourteenth c entury , t o e volve
T he F rench a s eparate
a dministration o f g roups o f m ints.
I n 1 346
m asters was s et u p, f our o f w hom w ere t o w hom w ere t o t our t he p rovincial m ints. t his
n ew
a rrangement
a lso
t he
p attern
m ints
e lsewhere,
c entury .
I n
t here were a ttached
t o f or
a lso
F rance
c opied
M astre
i n a s
o f
t he
i n
t he
o f
t he f or
a s
m ore
c entral
d istant
3 7
a g roup o f g eneral
m iddle
g roup
i n o f
t he
g eneral
I n
i n
1 411 a s H is
l ater
c hanged
t o
' Maitre
v isiteur
g eneral'.
d e I n
l a
m onnaie'.
E ngland
n o
o r
l ater was
C atalonia
a ppointed
e t
masters
m asters
m aitres r ationaux w ho had p reviously o verseen t he m ints ' Conservateur
o f
p ermanently
g eneral
N etherlands.
was
f ifteenth
L anguedoc
P rovence
I t
3 6
s upervision
g eneral m asters
p rovincial
I n
a ges.
g eneral
p rovinces,
o f
c entury
1 398.
1 347
N etherlands
p rovincial
n otion
f ifteenth by
e nd
t he
1 360s
T he
e xisted
t he
o r
i n t he g eneral
r emain i n P aris a nd f our o f W ith a number o f v ariations
a rrangements B urgundian
w ell
e xample.
G eneral
t he
f rom t he
s ome
t o
s imilar
a s
a lso,
D auphin6
l asted
f or
w ere t he f irst, s ystem f or t he
g eneral
o ne
o f
a
t he
a g roup was t itle
was
m astership
d eveloped , p erhaps b ecause t he number o f m ints was s o f ew , but p erhaps b ecause o f t he w ide p owers o f t he warden . I n G enoa t he g eneral o versight
h ad
b een
i n
t he
h ands
o f
1 3
t he
u ffici
m ercanzie,
p erhaps
a n
i ndication t hat
t he
c ommerce
t han
r ather
m ercanzie m onete.
G enoese a s
d elegated
r egarded t heir m int
a m eans
t heir
I n e orence
t he
o f
r aising
a uthority
s imilar
t o
a s p rimarily a n a id t o
r evenue,
a
until
t he
s ub-committee
c ommittee w as
known
u ffici
t he
u ffici
a s
t he
U fficiale
t he m int w ere d ivided i nto
t wo
s ections,
d ella Z ecca.' T he D ivision o f L abour T he w orking p ersonnel
o f
t he o uvriers a nd t he monnayeurs. bullion t o s pecification , whilst o uvriers p assed o n t he b lanks, s ize,
f lattened
r eady
f or
T he f ormer r efined o r a lloyed t he l atter s truck t he c oins.
p repared a lloy
d iscs
o f
m etal
s triking .
T he
t o
o f
t he monnayeurs
e xactly
t he
r egulations
f or
i n t he
r equired t he
t he T he
f orm o f
w eight
S icilian
a nd
m int
i n
1 466 g ive a g reat d eal o f t echnical d etail, w hich i s n ormally l acking , f or t he w hole o f t his a ctivity was t he c oncern o f t he m intmaster r ather t han t he s tate.
T hese
3 9
r egulations m ake
t o p roduce c oins a t a r ate m int
had
t o
b e
o rganised
m arked d ivision o f c onveyor
b elt
o f u p a s
t o
a n
i t v ery c lear
a m illion a m onth,
e fficient
f actory,
t hat,
i n o rder
a l ate m edieval
w ith
a n
e xtremely
l abour a long a v eritable p roduction l ine.
s eems
t o
have
b een
l acking .
T he
S icilian
O nly
t he
r egulations
b egin by d escribing t he w ork o f t he f onditore who p roduced r ough s heets o f m etal o f t he c orrect a lloy. T he B urgundian m int a ccounts r efer t o t he
s meltere
o r
f ondeur
a nd h is
a ssistants.
At
t he
L ondon m int
t hey
w ere c alled m elters. E ven a t t his s tage a number o f d ifferent p rocesses w ere i nvolved . F irst i mpurities h ad t o b e r emoved f rom t he g old a nd s ilver b rought i nto t he m int, w ith t he a id o f s alt a nd c rushed r ed t iles i n t he c ase o f g old , a nd l ead i n t he a lloy had t o b e a dded t o b ring t he m etal d own t o
c ase o f s ilver . T he t he s tandard r equired
f or t he p articular c oin t o b e m inted a nd f inally i t h ad t o b e c ast i nto t hin
s heets.
v igilant m etal
o n
p assed
g igantic d egli
T he
e ye
t o
t he
s hears.
o perai,
a ssayers
t hese
t agliatore who
T hese
t he
w ere
p rocesses. r ough
s upervisor
s upposed
t o
F rom
f onditore
c ut
b lanks
t he o ut
w ere
k eep
r ough
o n
c oining d ies.
p aintings Kutnä t he
f rom
H ora
t he
t he
s pecific
s urviving l ate
c hapel
s hows
d ocument
t his
o f
m oneyers°
i n B ohemia
S icilian
c arried o ut
t he
One
t erm
t he
t he
i n
f lattened
whose
b lanks
m en m ade
t he
t he
i s
c hurch
t he
o f
S t.
t o
w ere
k nown
t hen
u p
p assed
b lanks
a s
s izers.
a s
t o t o
n early I n
4 0
w eighed b lanks w ere passed t o b efore
s triking .
' black '. t his,
I n
known
T his
t he a s
m int
t he
known a s b lanchers. a ccounts s altpetre
o f
t he
f or
r eady t o p ass t o
was
t he
w hilst
t he
a ctual
t he
p reposito
c ircular
a s
t o
c lean
o f H olland
c olorisuer .
S icily
t he
i n
B arbara
s triking.
w ho f rom
t here
p ossible,
I n
4 1
f or
t he
b lanks,
was
o nly
t he
a ffilatori a nd
f or
t his
t he m onnayeurs.
o f
H olland
t he
p urpose.
4 3
1 4
O nly
m int
t hen
t he
r ounded
a nd
f inal p rocess
w hich
r eveal
a t
I n L ondon s uch
a s ingle
L ondon
I n S icily
d egli
w ere
s uch
t he w ere
s till
man w ho
d id
m en w ere
T his w ork was d one w ith d ilute n itric a cid . m int
a t I n
g roup
d ocuments
f lattened ,
i mbianchiatore
r eceiver-general
t he
i mpression
t he
s ame t ime e nsured t hat t hey w ere o f t he c orrect w eight. m en
preposito
r ough b lanks
f lattening b lanks.
l imited
w ork ,
o f
w ith
i s u sed t o c over a ll t he w orkmen who c arried
o ut t he whole r ange o f p rocesses t he
t he
i t
f ifteenth-century wall
o f w orkmen
o perai
s tage
t he L ow C ountries o uvriers
i n
a p air
s heets
f rom
t o
r eheated
a nd t hen hammered t hem t o a s uitable f latness t o r eceive o f t he
p articularly
t he
b lanks
p assed
o f w orkmen who
a
4 2
purchase t he
T he o f
b lanks
W ith s o many f unctions o uvriers
g reatly
t o p erform i t i s hardly s urprising t hat t he
o utnumbered
t he
m onnayeurs.
T hey
had
d one
s o
e ver
s ince t he i ntroduction o f ' factory ' m ints. I n t he l ate t hirteenth c entury t he o uvriers o utnumbered t he m onnayeurs i n L uxemburg a nd N amur b y f our t o o ne. T he numbers t o t ime m inted .
o f m en w orking
a ccording t o A lan S tahl
i n
a m int v aried
t he a mount o f s uggests t hat
e normously
f rom
t ime
bullion t hat was brought t o b e t wo hundred m en w ere r egularly
e mployed i n t he V enetian m int i n t he e arly f ourteenth c entury, 44 a nd J ean Duplessy s uggests t hat s ixty w ere r vularly e mployed i n t he P aris m int
i n
t he
e arly
f ifteenth
i ntroduced t he numbers
c entury.
e mployed w ere
When
4
v ery much
a
n ew
c oinage
g reater.
A t
t he
w as G hent
m int i n 1 434 t here w ere a round t hree hundred p eople a t w ork . A round 1 300 t he S t. R emy m int i n P rovence e mployed 5 4 m oneyers a nd a n unknown n umber o f o uvriers, p erhaps f our t imes a s m any, making a p robable t otal o f o ver 2 50 p eople w orking i n t he m int a ltogether. I t i s n ot c lear i f t his was
f or a r ecoinage o r n ot.
4 6
C orporations o f M oneyers T he
h ereditary
c orporations
s eem t o have b een g eneral
i n t he
o f m int w orkers
i n w estern E urope,
a nd
o f
m oneyers
e xcept S candinavia .
W e know m ost a bout t he o rganisation o f m int w orkers t he Rhöne valley a rea b ecause o f t he s urvival o f t he S erment
d e
l 'Empire.
T he
S erment
p robably c reated i n t he l ate f ourteenth, of t he privileged P roven
,
O range
a nd
o ther
d e
l 'Empire
was
a lso
4 7
a nd m oneyers r egisters o f a f ederation ,
t hirteenth c entury or t he e arly c orporations of Dauphin6, S avoy,
p rincipalities
o n
t he
e ast
bank
o f
t he
R höne.". ° T he m oneyers o f t he L oire v alley a lso, r ather s trangely, s aid t hey b elonged t o t he S erment d e l 'Empire. 49 H owever, I know o f n o e vidence o f t heir e ver b eing i n c ontact w ith t hose o f t he Rhöne valley . S imilar
f ederations
S erment
d e
p rincipalities T oulouse F rance, w orking
o n
u nited
w ere
w as
a n
t Q
a ffiliated .
5 U
I n
1 311
w est
t o
b etween
c reate
t he
t he
A quitaine
t he
E mperor
f irst
t hose
a s eparate
o f
R höne,
who
t he
s o
m oneyers
a nd
t he
a rea.
' of
i mperial
t he
S erment
m oneyers
H enry
b elonged
Under o f
V II,
i mperial m ints
m int w orkers a nd m oneyers t he
e xample,
o f
l 'Empire.
a ll
r egulated t he n ominally w as p erhaps
bank i n
f or
c orporations
c alled i n
t he
S erment
T he
d e
S erment
d e
s omewhat o lder, united t he c orporations o f t hose o n t he F rench r oyal d emesne. I n t he N etherlands
which
t he
t he
w orking
S erment d e
a ttempt
B ourgogne
t he
d ivided
France a nd t he
e lsewhere,
united
t hose
p ossibly i n m ints
m oneyers
e xisted
l 'Espagne
d e t he
h aving o f
t o
t he
S erment
B urgundian r ulers Brabant
o r
N etherlands
d escended
I taly,
r ecognition o f t he
S erment
d e
c ould
b e
i nto
I taly,
by a greement w ith
I taly o f o ur E mpire,
s worn t o u s'. S ocietas
d e
t here
t he T his
o perariorum
e t m onetariorum L ombardie, which had a lready b een i n e xistence f or s ome t ime. I t a ppears i n a G enoese n otarial d ocument o f 1 258. T he S ocietas i ncluded
s ome
c orporations
w ell a s L ombargy, w as a bolished .
f or
t he
o f m int w orkers P isan m oneyers
j i
1 5
a nd m oneyers
i n T uscany
g uild b elonged t o
i t until
a s i t
N o
' serment'
b elonged
t o
was
a s ingle
n eeded g roup,
i n
E ngland
s ince
p rivileged ,
a s
a ll
E nglish
e lsewhere,
w ith
m oneyers e xemption
f rom d irect t axation , f rom c ustoms d ues, f rom purveyance, f rom m ilitary s ervice, f rom jury s ervice, a nd f rom judgement o utside t heir o wn c ourt. T hey b ecame a n i ncorporated
' Company o f M oneyers'
F rom t he R höne valley e vidence w e b e
i nherited e ither
r ights
c ould
g roup;
t hat
o nly
t hrough b e
t he
male
e xercised
e xtra m embers
l earn t hat
l ine
a fter
c ould j oin
i n 1 462.
a n
o r
t he p rofession c ould
t hrough
o fficial
f or
t he
f emale;
r eception
a l ifetime
o nly,
t hat
i nto
a t
t he
a s tiff
f ee, but d id n ot g ain t he h ereditary r ights; t hat a n a pprenticeship w as n ecessary, but t hat i t was v ery b rief , e ventually b eing r educed f rom a y ear t o
t hree m onths,
f ollowed by a p roof o f c ompetence.
t his c onsisted o f t he p reparation o f a nd
f or
m onnayeurs
o f
t he
f ive m arks
s triking
o f
F or o uvriers
o f a ny s ort o f b lanks,
f ifteen
p ounds
o f
b illon ,
t ogether w ith a d emonstration o f t he a bility t o r ender a n a ccount; a lthough m embers
c ould h ave
o ther o ccupations,
a nd o thers w ere c arpenters,
t hey w ere n ot a llowed t o e ngage
b ecause
i nterests
o f
e xemptions
t he
c onflict
by
b eing
o f
p rofessional
i nvolved ,
c arriers
o f
o r
t o
o ther
s haping b lanks.
T hey w ere
i n b anking,
a buse
m en 's
d aughters, w ives, a nd , unless r emarried , w idows o f d id a lso w ork i n t he m ints, l ooking a fter t he t ailleresses,
t hat
i ndeed s ome w ere bakers t heir
t oll
g ood ' s.
T he
m embers c ould f urnaces, o r,
a nd a s
a pparently o nly e xcluded
f rom
t he a ctual s triking o f c oins. 52 T he p rgvöts o f t he m int w orkers m oneyers w ere c hosen by t hemselves, a nd i t w as n ormally t he p rgvöt,
a nd n ot
t he
t he
warden
o r
t he
m aster,
m ints n eeded l abour. justice t he p rgvöt w as i mpose manners a rms,
t hey
w ho
a nd m orals
w ere
s ummoned
t he
m embers
t o
c ome,
w hen
S ince t he m embers w ere e xempt f rom e xternal s upposed t o a rbitrate b etween c ompagnons a nd o n
s upposed
t hem .
t o
M embers
d ress
w ere
d ecently
a t
n ot
s upposed
w ork ,
t hey
t o
b ear
c ould
b e
t hrown o ut o f t he c orporation a nd l ose t heir p rivileges f or t heft o r f or t he s eduction o f t he w ife, s ister o r d aughter o f a nother m ember, a nd t hey c ould b e c orporations
t emporarily
had
c ommon
s uspended
f unds,
l ike
f or k eeping
o ther
s pend o n t heir m embers' m ajor e xpenses, f or d aughters, t he c osts o f s ickness o r m oneyers
g uild ,
t he
Arte
s ickness
a nd
a rranged
t he
t hat a ll
t he
o ther m embers
d el
o f
a c oncubine. which
T he
t hey
c ould
l ike p ilgrimages, o r d owries o f f unerals. T he F lorentine
Monetieri,
f unerals
g uilds,
i ts
f or
e xample,
m embers.
I t
g ave
h elp
a lso
i nsisted
s hould a ttend t he g uild a rranged f uneral
i n o f
a ny m ember a nd t hat t he m int s hould b e s hut o n f uneral d ays. 53 F rom a t l east a s e arly a s 1 219 t he P arisian m oneyers g uild r an a h ospice a nd l eprosarium ,
t he M aladrerie d u R oule,
t heir f amilies, T hese
p rivileges,
particularly a ntagonism o f
t he
t hey d id i n t he
d e
R okesle,
warden
e scaped
w hich w ere
exemptions
t ax c ollectors
a s
1 291,
n ot o nly f or
but f or o thers a s w el1.
p ayment
v irtue o f h is m int
t he o f
o ffice,
t he
t axes,
o fficers
m ints
hundred
o fthe
m ints,
t axpayers,
a nd
marks
e xchanges i n
o ne
w ool
1 6
e xporter,
w ine
f rom
l ay
w hich had b een a ssessed o n t he
h e h ad built u p a s g oldsmith, i n c loth, c orn a nd f ish. 55
a nd
a roused
T hey c ould b e v ery valuable.
E nglish f ive
o wn m embers
e verywhere
a nd t he j ealousy o f o ther
N etherlands. o f
s hared by
f rom
i ts
5 4
G regory 1 279
t o
s ubsidy,
by
f ortune
i mporter
t he just
a nd
t hat
t rader
A lthough
t hese
p rivileges
w ere
g enerally
t hey w ere n ot a lways e ntirely untouched . t he t aille, d espite r oyal p rivileges t o t he e arly y ears o f P hilip V I's reign, u pheld t heir e xemption f rom t axes. 5/ m int m asters
o f
P rovence,
r ather
u pheld
when
I n 1 297 P aris t he c ontrary, 56
a ttacked ,
m oneyers p aid a nd a gain i n
but t hereafter t he P arlement I n 1 339 t he c ount a llowed t he
t han
t he
p rovosts,
t o
p ick
t heir
o wn
w orkmen , a nd t he p rivileges o f t hose n ot e mployed w ere t o b e a llowed t o l apse. A t P isa i n 1 318, a nd i n F lorence by 1 321, t he whole g uilds s eem t o have b een a bolished , a nd t he m ints w ere p ermitted t o e mploy a ny s uitable c itizens.
T hose
t een o n w ere
t o have n o
s pecial p rivileges,
o nly p ay f or t he w ork d one. 58 I n 1 441 C harles V II t old F rench m oneyers who c laimed t o b e o fficials r ather t han c raftsmen ' Monnoyer n 'est p as un o ffice,
mais un m estier,
c omme v errier...'
5 ‚
F arming M ints T he
f arming
o ut
o f
m ints
by
a uction
t o
t he
h ighest
a lmost, but n ot q uite, universal. F arms varied i n f ifteenth-century N etherlands t hey w ere n ormally f or t he o r
f irst e ven
d elivery
f ive
o f
y ears.
c oin , I n
a lthough
o nly f or o ne y ear a t a t ime, m ost f requently f or f our, N ot
q uite
a ll
e ntrepreneurs.
t hey w ere
f ifteenth-century
w as
t hey
f or
w ere
o ne,
t wo
g enerally
but i n f ifteenth-century G ermany t hey w ere
f ive o r s ix y ears.
l ate
s ometimes
F rance
b idder
l ength . I n t he t hree y ears f rom
m edieval
m ints
T he m ajor e xceptions,
6 0
w ere
p erhaps
r un
by
p rofit-seeking
i ronically,
w ere t hose o f
s ome o f t he v ery c ities o f n orth I t2i _y t hat s upplied businessmen t o r un t he m ints
i n o ther p arts o f E urope. '
I nitially t he n ew f actory m ints w ere r un by l ocal businessmen , a s
t he
r aised
c apital
i nvolved g rew b eyond t he
l ocally,
f inanciers
a s
I talians
t he
w ere
t hirteenth
t he s ame t ime managed t o c ut
a ble
r esources t o
c entury
t hat
undercut
p rogressed ,
F lemish businessmen
but
c ould e asily b e
a nd
just
o utbid a s
l ocal
I talians
t o a l arge e xtent
a t o ut
o f c arrying E nglish w ool t o F landers o r F lemish c loth t o F rance a nd t he C hampagne f airs. E urope
i s
T he h old t hat
i llustrated by
e ntrusted t o I talians o f t he F our
L ombards
y ears
F rench
i n 1 300.
I talian f inanciers had o n
way
t he
P hilip s ame
t hat
t he
I t w as
G ino a nd R anieri
e arlier
m ints,
t he
a nd
a t
t he m ints
Kutnä
H ora
o f w as
t aken o n by a c onsortium made u p o ne
I V h ad u sed
y ear
n ew m int
a m ember
o f
t he
F alco o f
D onati
G algani
t he
a s
f rom F lorence. m aster
F rescobaldi
o f
f irm
t he f rom
F lorence was r unning t he m int o f C astel C apuana f or t he k ing o f N aples, a nd a nother m ember o f t he s ame f irm was r unning t he m int a t M erano f or t he b ishop o f T rent a nd t he c ount o f t he T yrol. M embers o f t he s ame f irm w ere r unning t he L ondon m int a s w ell f our y ears l ater. I ndeed until t he e arly f ifteenth c entury t he L ondon m int was f requently f armed t o I talians, a s w ere t he'Proven9a1 m ints, a nd e ven m ints a s f ar a part a s D ublin a nd i4 eslau ( Wroclaw), L übeck a nd T oulouse, S chwäbisch H all a nd E dinburgh. °L W here t he m ajority o f m ints r emained s mall, a s i n S candinavia o r many p arts o f G ermany, t here w4s n o n eed o r o pportunity f or I talian businessmen t o c ome i n a t a ll. 63 T his wave o f I talian businessmen
was
s ucceeded
a t
t he
e nd
o f
t he
m iddle
a ges
by
l ocal
e ntrepreneurs who b y t hen c ould r aise t he c apital t hemselves t o o perate o n t he l argest s cale.
1 7
D irect Management I n
F lorence
i tself,
q uite d ifferent. d ella z ecca,
h owever,
t he
m ethod
o f
I nstead o f m asters a nd w ardens
who
c ombined b oth
f unctions.
m int
m anagement
w as
t here w ere t wo s ignori
T hey w ere
e lected o fficials
w ith a v ery s hort t erm o f o ffice. O ne w as e lected by t he A rte d i C alimala ( the i mport-export m erchants g uild) a nd t he o ther b y t he A rte d el C ambio ( the bankers g uild). T hey s erved f or s ix m onths a nd w ere p aid a s alary f or d oing s o. T hey w ere n ot p ermitted t o h old t he o ffice a gain f or t hree y ears: " I n G enoa a lso t here w ere t wo s upervisors o f t he m int, who a lso s erved f or h alf a y ear a t a t ime. T hey w ere e lected by t he officium mercantium, 4nd c ommittee, t he officium m onetam . 65
l ater
c hosen
I n V enice t he c ity a ppointed m assari s eparate
mint,
m inting g old , c oins
T hese
m assari
o f
r epublics m int
w ere
h olders
v ery
e xcept
r ate,
a s ystem
G iuseppe
t welfth
o f
i t
t en y ears. r un
p revent
t o o versee e ach
e stablishments
until
a nnual t he
a nybody
f or
a nd f or m inting
basis.
g reat
e ngravers.
S ince
c entury
e vidence
I t w as
h as
t o
e ntrenched
i n
t hese
w ere
a ppointed
t he
m ints.
c ollected t hat
i n p arallel
p receded ,
i n
f or
F rom
a bout 1 141
t he
t he
w ith
a s hort s craps
G enoese
a c onsortium
s hort t ime o f
t erm
a t
a ny
e vidence
m int
i n
t he
f armed
t he
n ew
a nd t hat i n 1 149 a nother c onsortium f armed i t
t hat
1 303
f rom
s upposed
r apid
I talian
a nd t o n early a ll
t here
b y
i s
which
n o
e vidence
t ime
t he
a bout h ow
c ity
had
G enoa
i s
s tartlingly
b elong
t o
t he
e arly,
o lder w orld
t he
G enoese
e stablished
s ystem o f d irect management t hrough e lected s oprastanti. g enerally
T he
n orth
g etting
t he m ints
s ystem d eveloped
a ppears
After
a n
w hich
a pplied t o
t he
f arming
F elloni
c entury,
was
t o
i n g eneral.
m int f or f ourteen m onths, m int
sub-
t hey h eld o ffice f or much l onger p eriods.
d ifferent
o ffice
by
o n ,
o n
o ffices
a dministration ,
e lective
f or
s eparate
f or m inting p iccoli,
a ppointed
public
i nsisted
o fficials
T his
a ll
o f
f or a particular s kill
t hat
( mintmasters)
maintained
f or m intive g rossi,
a ny p art o f t he t he
Venice
a s pecial
f or t he c olonies.
r otation c ity
f or
by
f or
t he
T he t welfth
6 7
t he
1 140s
a re
o f h ereditary m inters
r ather t han t he n ew w orld o f m int f armers. P re-Factory M ints R obert L opez has m oney ', c ity
l ocal
a nd
t he
g iven u s
n otables,
o ften
s urrounding
w orkshops o n t heir a ctivities. H e has
a v ivid p icture l andowners,
c ountryside,
o f h is
w ith w ho
' aristocracy
p roperty
r an
b oth
s mall
i n
o f t he
m oney-making
o wn p rivate p remises a s p art o f a m ix o f o ther s uggested t hat f rom t he n inth t o t he e arly t welfth
c entury t hese m oney m aking w orkshops w ere n ormally r egarded a s a p art o f t heir a ctivity a s m oney c hangers, q uoting t he e quation ' trapezetas, i d e st m onetarios'. H e h as s hown u s t hat t hey w ere n ormally u rban p atricians, but c ould b e m embers o f t he r ural m ilitary n obility, a nd w ith c astles a nd vassals o f t heir o wn , a nd h ow t heir h ereditary p roperty, w ith w hich t hey w ere i nvested a nd d id
f ealty.
H e
has
u sed
t he
f amily
e xchange a nd m int i n M ilan f rom t h9 o f e nfeoffed h ereditary m oneyers. "
1 8
o f
9 30s
B enedetto t o
t he
1 020s
e xchanges w ere f or w hich t hey
R ozo, a s
w ho
r an
a n
a k ey e xample
Evidence a rrangement P avia .
f rom
P amela
w hich
r an
o ther
e lsewhere
s ome
o f
t hese
has
m oney
e ngravers
a s
L ouis
I n B ruges
m aking
o f
d ies,
i n 1 265.
but
t he
t o
e voked
i n
° 'T here o r
F itz
t he P lastrarts d id ,
i n
minting
M ilan
f amily
o f
L ondon
f rom
have
d one
O ttos
a nd
D eorman , E dward
i s n o e vidence
c ould w ell
O ates
t hat
t hose
t he
w or hhops
t hey
F itz
s uggests
s imilar
r ecently
f iefs,
t he P aris e ngravers o f d ie ,
o f f our
Europe
r eign t o t hat o f H enry I I.
t hey h eld t heir m ints
o ut by S t.
o f
r emarkably
N ightingale
t he C onfessor 's E nglish
parts
w ere
d id ,
t hat
a s
t he
o r
/ 0
a s
u ntil t hey w ere b ought
7'
t he m int a nd e xchanges w ere l inked a nd w ere
e nfeoffed m inter-changers,
a nd
c ontinued
t o
b e
i n t he hands
s o
f or much
o f
t he t hirteenth c entury. I n 1 229 t he c ountess o f F landers, J ohanna , a llowed o ne o f t he f ief h olders, R oger M onetarius s on o f A rnulph M onetarius, t o s ell s urrender o f h is m int h is h eirs
his a nd
i n p erpetuity.
f ief t o N icholas C alkar, a ccepting e xchange a nd r egranting t hem t o C alkar
t he a nd
I n C ologne a nd i n S trassburg t he m ints w ere
7 2
a lso c ombined w ith e xchanges, a nd w ere a lso s till r egarded a s f iefs i n t he t hirteenth c entury . T he f ief-holders w ere m inisteriales o f t he a rchbishop a nd b ishop r espectively.
I n 1 248 t he h ereditary r ights o f
7 3
s triking d eniers a t L e P uy w ere s till e njoyed by a number o f f eudatarii s eu v assali o f t he b ishop.
7 4
H owever s uch e xamples a re n ot f requently t o b e f ound l ater t han t hirteenth c entury. E nfeoffed m int r ights w ere t hen c oming t o
t he
t heir e nd . S ometimes w e c an c learly s ee t hat t he h olders w ere b ought o ut, a s w ith S t. L ouis a nd t he P lastrart's d ie-engraving f ief . I n o ther c ases
i t i s o nly c lear t hat t he r ights w ere e xtinguished ,
n ot h ow
i t was a chieved , a s i n t he c ase o f L amberto Masneri who s urrendered h is m int r ights t o t he c ommune o f L ucca i n 1 221. T his l ooks l ike t he e nd o f
a nother
m int
f ief,
f or
t he
r ights f amily . / 5
h ereditary m onopoly i n h is T hese m ints w ere t he
f ief-holder
n ine o r
b y
t hat
h e
e ssentially v ery s mall
m embers
o f
h is
o wn
s urrendered
had b een
e nterprises,
f amilia.
t en s uch s mall m oney-making w orkshops
T here
o perated
may
i n L ondon ,
have
l ike
a n
f or b een
t he
f our
i n B ruges. In Winchester t he moneyers' workshops, a lthough s eparate e stablishments w ere c lustered t ogether i n t he H igh S treet c lose t o t he r oyal palace. t hat
i n L ondon , a n
O n
7
d ie-links a s
i nterchange
t he
o ther hand
b etween m inters t hough o f
t he
d ies
a re
w orkshops
w as
n ot
P amela N ightingale r are
o n p ennies
t here
e asily
w ere
i n
p ossible.
has
p ointed
s truck b efore
d ifferent After
p laces
1 158
o ut 1 158
i t
a nd i s
a
d ifferent s tory. I t i s i nteresting t hat when a f actory m int was built i n B ohemia a t Kutng H ora, i t t ook t he f orm o f a g roup o f w orkshops, e ach
r elated
t o
a
t iny
p reviously
e xisting
i ndependent
m int
i n
a
d ifferent B ohemian t own .
T ransition t o F actory M ints T he t ruly
t ransition
t o
e xtraordinary.
t he I t
f actory
m int
c oincided
o f i n
t he t ime
' commercial r evolution o f t he t hirteenth c entury '
1 9
l ater with
m iddle t he
a ges
w as
s o-called
a nd w ith t he e normous
e xpansion i n t he a mount o f m oney t hat n eeded c oining .
7 7
T here i s n o n eed t o r ecapitulate h ere t he s equence o f d iscoveries o f o re f rom F reiberg a nd F riesach i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t welfth c entury t o K utnä H ora a t t he e nd o f t he t i Arteenth t hat m ade s ilver a vailable i n q uite u nprecedented q uantities. 7° I n t he s econd h alf o f t he t welfth c entury t he e arliest o f t hese d iscoveries o f s ilver b rought a bout a n i mmense p roliferation o f t he t hen t raditional t iny w orkshop m ints. I n t he a rea a round F reiberg , f or e xample, b ounded o n t he w est b y t he S aale a nd o n t he e ast b y t he S pree, t here w ere o nly n ine m ints b efore t he d iscovery o f t he F reiberg s ilver . B y 1 197, a fter t hirty y ears o f s ilver m ining t here w ere t wenty-five m ints i n t he s ame a rea , a nd t his n umber h ad r isen t o n o f ewer t han f orty b y t he m id-thirteenth c entury . I n T uscany a nd n orthern I taly t he n ew s ilver m ines a t M ontieri a nd e lsewhere
i n t he C olline M etallifere,
c ombined w ith t he f low o f n ew s ilver f rom t he A lps a nd b eyond , h ad m uch t he s ame e ffect. W hereas t here h ad b een o nly f our m ints n orth o f R ome i n 1 130, b y 1 200 t here w ere t wenty-seven , a nd a m int w as b eing w orked i n R ome i tself a s w ell. E ven i n a reas i n w hich t here w ere n o n ew m ines, b ut t o w hich t he s ilver c ame, n ew m ints w ere o pened a nd o ld o nes r e-opened . I n A rtois, f or e xample, u nder P hilip o f A lsace, c ount f rom 1 168 t o 1 191, t he n umber o f m ints w as i ncreased f rom t hree t o t en . A t t he f irst s tage o f d evelopment i t w as a lso p ossible t o i ncrease t he p roduction o f p ennies b y o pening u p a dditional w orkshops o f t he s ame t ype w ithin t he s ame t own , a s w ell a s i n d ifferent t owns. H owever, a t s ome s tage, i n s ome p laces, t he v olume t o b e p roduced p assed t he c ritical p oint w hich j ustified t he t otal r eorganisation o f m inting i nto f actory m ints w ith a s pecialised w orkforce. T he d ifficulty i s t o p inpoint w hen a nd w here t his h appened . I t i s c lear t hat i t h ad h appened b y t he m id-thirteenth c entury i n s ome c ases. I t i s p ossible t o c hart t his t ransition t o s ome e xtent b y l ooking a t t he e arliest a ppearances o f s ome o f t he f eatures t hat m ark o ut t he f actory m ints o f t he l ater m iddle a ges. A s w ell a s t he m arked i ncrease i n t he v olume o f c oin s truck a nd t he c hange i n d ocumentation f or i t, i t i s w orth l ooking f or t he e arliest m int buildings p rovided b y t he s tate, t he e arliest a ppearance o f p aid w ardens, t he e arliest t rials o f t he p yx , t he e arliest p rivileges f or c orporate g roups o f m oneyers a nd m int w orkers, t he e arliest f arms o f m ints, a nd f rom t he o ther e nd t he l atest m oney m aking a nd c hanging f iefs. T he v ery e xistence o f m int a ccounts a nd m int f arms, l et a lone t he s cale o f a ctivity i ndicated , s uggest t hat t he n ew f actory s ystem w as u nderway . T he e ar l iest s urviving m int a ccounts t hat I k now a re o f 1 220-2, f rom E ngland , b ut I w ould n ot 1 2 2 s urprised i f t here w ere h ot e arlier o nes s till s urviving i n I taly . " T hey s how t hat t he C anterbury m int w as a ble t o s trike o ver e ight m illion p ennies i n t wo y ears a nd t wo m onths. T his w as a t a n a verage r ate o f w ell o ver t hree m illion p ennies a y ear. W e c annot g o b ack e arlier t han t hat , w ith a ny d ocumentary c ertainty , b ut N icholas M ayhew h as r ecently a rgued t hat t he s cale o f o perations a t t he L ondon a nd C anterbury m ints, o f w hich w e h ave d irect e vidence i n t he 1 220s, c an b e t raced b ack t o t he 1 180s. 81 I n o ther w ords t he t wo p rincipal m ints o f E ngland c ould a lready p roduce
f our m illion p ennies
2 0
a y ear b etween t hem
a t t hat d ate. T hese a re s mall q uantities c ompared w ith t he hundred a nd f ifty o r s o m illion p ennies p roduced f or E dward I 's r ecoinage o f 1 279, b ut a re v astly l arger t han a ny a mount e ver p roduced b efore. I n 1 253 A lfonse o f P oitiers l eased t he m int o f P oitou M ontreuil-Bonin t o p rovide f or t he m inting o f e ight m illion d eniers;
a t i n
1 262 h is b rother C harles o f A n jou l eased t he m int o f P rovence t o p rovide t hirty m illion d eniers o ver f ive y ears. T here i s a m int a ccount f rom M ontreuil-Bonin m ade s hortly a fter t he d eath o f A lfonse o f P oitiers i n 1 271 w hich s hows t hat n early t welve a nd a h alf m illion d eniers a nd n early t wo a nd a h alf m illion m ailles ( half-deniers) h ad b een s truck i n e ight m onths. 82 A s w ell a s e vidence t hat c an e ven b e t entatively q uantified I h ave t he i mpression t hat a lmost f rom t he b eginning o f t he g reat e xpansion o f m inting i n E urope i n t he 1 160s, 1 170s a nd 1 180s s ome m ints w ere p roducing c oin o n q uite a d ifferent s cale f rom o thers. T hese w ere m ints t hat o ften e ventually r eplaced t he m inting o f m any s mall w orkshop m ints. L ondon a nd C anterbury a re e vident e xamples o f t his. N early a ll t he o ther E nglish m ints w ere c losed i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t welfth c entury . Ib elieve t hat I c an i dentify a n umber o f o ther s uch m ints i n t he l ate t welfth c entury.
T he m int o f A rras
i s o ne
s uch c andidate
f or
' factory ' s tatus, f irstly u nder ' Simon ' f or A rtois/Flanders a nd t hen , w hen s triking d eniers p arisis f or P hilip A ugustus, f or much o f n orthern F rance a s w ell. T he m int o f P rovins, w hich p rovided m any o f t he d eniers f or e astern F rance i s a nother. T he m int o f T ours f or w estern F rance, t hat o f M elgueil f or t he w hole o f L anguedoc, t hat o f P isa f or T uscany , a nd t hat o f R ome f or c entral I taly, a nd p robably f rom a s e arly a s 1 140, t hose o f P alermo a nd M essina f or R oger , I I's N orman k ingdom o f S icily a re a ll c andidates f or t he s ame s tatus. 83 U p t o t his p eriod t he d ocumentation a vailable a nywhere i n E urope i s v ery s parse, b ut f rom t his p eriod o nwards t he d ocumentation b ecomes e normous. I t w ould b e a u seful e xercise t o c arry o ut a s urvey n ot o nly o f s urviving m int a ccounts f rom t he v arious c ountries o f E urope, but a lso o f m int i ndentures, o aths o f m int o fficials a nd m oneyers, c harters o f p rivilege t o g roups o f m int w orkmen a nd m oneyers, d aybooks o f w ardens r olls o f c ontregardes, i nventories o f m int e quipment, a nd c orrespondence b etween m ints a nd o ther ' government d epartments'. S uch a s urvey w ould b e a nother e xtremely u seful s tepping s tone t o f urther r esearch i nto m int o rganisation i n l ater m edieval E urope. I t i s o bviously a l ong w ay f rom t he t raditional m oney-making w orkshops o f a n e arlier p eriod t o t he v ast, s ophisticated , ' mint f actories' o f t he f ourteenth a nd f ifteenth c enturies, but t he f irst m ajor s teps s eem t o h ave t aken p lace i n a h andful o f p laces i n t he t welfth c entury a t t he v ery b eginning o f t he m onetary a nd c ommercial e xpansion . A lthough i t i s c lear t hat s uch p remises w ere n ormal i n t he f ifteenth c entury, i t i s n ot c lear t o m e y et h ow l ong t hey h ad e xisted . T he e arliest e vidence I c an f ind a nywhere o f a p ermanent m int building p rovided b y t he s tate i s t he p urchase f or m inting o f t he h ospitio o f J udge C onon b y t he c ity o f G enoa i n 1 164. T he c ity h ad h ad m inting r ights f or 2 5 y ears b y t hen .
2 1
I n
E ngland
I know
o f
n o
e arlier
i ndenture o f 1 279, by which E dward t he h ouses o f t he m ints i n L ondon , t heir
t ools,
' in
t heir
p resent
e vidence
I a greed t o C anterbury,
c ondition ',
t han
t he
T urnemire
hand o ver t o T urnemire B ristol a nd Y ork , w ith
i mplying
t hat
t hey
a lready
e xisted a nd w ere n ot b ought o r r ented f or t he o ccasion . I w ould g uess t hat t hey w ere i n f act p rovided f rom 1 180 a t l east, p erhaps f rom 1 158. O n t he o ther hand when A lexander N orman o f L ucca s et o ut f or D ublin i n 1 300 t o r un t he m int t here f or E dward I h e h ad t o t ake t hree f urnaces w ith h im ,
p rovided a t t he k ing 's
e xpense.
t hat what was a lready i n D ublin w as I n
t he
B rabant,
L ow
a nd
p rivileged
t o
i n
C ountries 1 298
1 298
i n
i n
c harters
o f
L uxembourg
F landers
T his
o nly
i nadequate,
p rivileges
a nd
g o
F landers.
a ppeared
t o
i mplies,
h ow9ver,
n ot n on-existant. "
b e
back
t o
H owever, o ne
t hat
1 291
t he
had
i n
g roup
a lready
e xisted f or s everal g enerations, f or f ifty-five p rivileged m en s hared o nly t hirty-five p atronymics. E lsewhere c harters o f p rivilege a lso g o b ack t o t he l ate t hirteenth c entury. I n E ngland t he e arliest g eneral c harter
o f
p rivilege
w as
i n
1 280,
but
t he
E nglish
c orporation
a lso t o have b een i n e xistence f or s everal g enerations. w orkers
a nd
C hilham
f amily,
S t.
m oneyers
A lbans,
f rom
f ive
a round
C higwells,
i mplying
t hat
1 300,
f our
s everal
i ncludes
H erts,
e ight
f our
g enerations
m embers
B onseriants had
s eems
A l ist o f m int
p assed
o f
a nd
t he f our
s ince
t he
o riginal C hil W , C higwell, H ert, B onseriant a nd S t. A lban h ad w orked i n t he m ints. °j I t i s n ot c lear h ow t he t hirteenth c entury m embers o f t he n ew h ereditary c orporations o f m int w orkers a nd m oneyers w ere r elated o r l inked t o t he m en who had r un t he o lder m oney m aking w orkshops, i f, i ndeed t hey w ere l inked a t a ll. H owever t he C hilhams s ound v ery much l ike t he s ort o f m en w ho had e arlier r un s uch w orkshops.
T hey
w ere
a l ong
e stablished
K entish
f amily
w ith
u rban
p roperty i n C anterbury a nd m anors o utside. T his t ime
i s
i mplication
t hat
r einforced b y
r ight t o t rial
t he
t he f act
g roup t hat
had
t he
i n t he warden 's c ourt,
b een
1 280
i n
e xistence
c harter
f or
s ome
i ncorporated
t he
which w ent back t o 1 234 a t l east,
a nd e xemption f rom t allage w hich w ent back t o 1 219 a t l east. c harter e ffectively o nly a dded e xemption f rom j ury s ervice. 86
T he
1 280
I n P rovence C harles o f Anjou a pparently g ave a c harter i n 1 262 t he m int w orkers a nd p rivileges t o s urvive
m oneyers o f S t. R emy , a lthough w ere n ot g ranted u ntil 1 320.
f or
t he e arliest T hey g ranted
f reedom f rom a ll t ailles a nd a ll t olls, a nd t he r ight t o b e t ried t he p rovost o f t he c orporation , r ather t han by t he warden a s E ngland , o r t he m aster e lsewhere. B y m ints
t he
a nd
e nd
o f
many
o f
t he
t hirteenth
t hem
w ere
c entury
b eing
t here
o perated
w ere
by
many
b y i n
m ore
s uch
e ntrepreneurs
f rom
T uscany a nd L ombardy a nd ' a f ew by m en f rom P rovence. I s t hat e vidence t hat t he f ocus f or t echnical c hange i n m int o rganisation l ay i n n orth I taly? c apital
O r
was
m ore
i t
m erely
r eadily
t hat
a nd m ore
m en
f rom
c heaply
t his s cale e ffectively a t t hat p eriod? o f t he much g reater p ossibilities o f
t hese
p laces
a vailable
w ere r un b y
l ocal masters
2 2
had
t ake
t he
o n
w orking
a m int
o f
I s t his t hen o nly a r eflection r aising l arge s ums c heaply a nd
e asily i n n orthern I taly t han e lsewhere? I t t hat t he f irst ' factory ' m ints, i f w e may c all t welfth c entury,
t o
a s
i s p erhaps s ignificant t hem t hat, o f t he l ate
f ar a s wA know ,
a nd t hat
i t was o nly a s t he t hirteenth c entury a dvanced a nd t he s cale o f c apital r equired i ncreased , t hat I talians c ould undercut a nd o utbid l ocal f inanciers. f actor,
I f
t he
t he
s cale
t ransformation
o f o f
c apital m ints
i nvolved
i n
t he
w as
i ndeed
t hirteenth
t he
c entury
k ey
s hould
p erhaps b e c ompared w ith t he t ransformation o f m ining i n c entral E urope i n
t he
l ate
S tromer,
f ifteenth
t ransform
c laims
a nd
w hich
a business a nd
t welfth
e ssentially
a
a nd
b een
numerous
p its,
a whole A re
f ield
c entury
w e
t hree
i n
w ere
a m int
t o
bring
by
f ree
i nto
a rea
W olfgang
a nd
v on
t hen
w itnessing y ears
s ame
a bout
i n
s taked
m ining
e xploited
a n A rras
t he
m iners
c apitalist
hundred
F landers/Artois
a bout
F uggers
o n
o utlined
o f S outh G ermany w as u sed t o
w hich o wn
e quipment.
d ifferent
bringing
has
i n
t heir
t ook
e xpensive
' Simon ' S tromers
d ug
f irm
i n
i n
m ining,
e ach
p henomenon
t hat
a ccumulated c apital
s mall-scale
t heir
c omplex
c entury
i n which t he
w ith
t he
s ame
e arlier?
f inancier
m ines
i n
Was
who
w as
a s
t he
t ransformation
t he
i n
i t
f ifteenth
c entury S lovakia?
N OTES 1 .
P eter i n
S pufford ,
t he
' Mint
f ifteenth
P ollard
a nd
o rganisation
c entury ',
T .R .
V olk
i n
( eds.),
presented t o P hilip G rierson, P eter
S pufford ,
' The
t he N etherlands Penningkunde, 2 .
I n
h er
l xv-lxvi
paper
d etail,
M arjoke
t he
B urgundian
B rooke,
S tudies
C ambridge,
g eneral
i n t he
i n
C .N.L .
o fficers
o f
i n
d e
R oos
N etherlands
S tewart,
N umismatic
1 983, t he
f ifteenth c entury ', ( 1978-1979),
I an p p.
J .G.
M ethod
2 39-61,
a nd
B urgundian m ints
i n
J aarboek v oor H unt-
e n
p p.5-14.
d escribes
t hese
m ilieux
i n
m ore
s ee b elow p p.147-58.
3 .
S ee b elow p .14.
4 .
Marjoke
d e
R oos'
p aper,
b elow
p p.147-58,
a lso
d eals
e xtensively
w ith t he c orporation o f m oneyers o f H olland . 5 . 6 .
B ut s ee b elow p .21-2. C hristiane
L orgues,
' L 'ancien h ötel
d e
l a m onnaie
d e
P aris
e t
s es
p roblemes', R evue N umismatique, 6 th s er., x ( 1968), p p.138-157, a nd i nformation p rivately c ommunicated by D avid S orenson who i s w riting
a d octoral
t hesis
o n
t he
c oinage
o f
F rance
under
C harles
V I. 7 .
F rederic C .
L ane a nd
R einhold
C .
M edieval a nd R enaisgänce V enice, T he m int was T edeschi
t o
t hirteenth l onger
c ould b e t he
P iazetta
c entury,
l arge
a djoining
t ransferred f rom n ear t he
e nough
s hipyard . c arried o ut
r efining
p osition,
a fter
r efining
1 237. t o
E ventually o n t his was
t he
D oge's
1 319
t he
e xtended
n ot
s ite.
a ll S ince
a t
t he t he
w ere
t oo
o bnoxious
put
out
t o
2 3
1 985,
p p.204-5.
t he R ialto a nd t he B y
b e
M oney a nd B anking i n
B altimore,
o pposite
a nd had
p rocesses
Mueller,
i ,
F ondaco
p alace n ew
t he
m int
f umes f or
t he
was
e xpense
m inting
d ei
i n o f
n o a n
o perations
g iven o ff b y s o
s ub-contractors
c entral i n
a
l ess
s alubrious n eighbourhoods. 8 .
A lan
M .
S tahl,
T he
V enetian
T ornesello:
a
m edieval
c oinage, American Numismatic S ociety, Numismatic M onographs, c lxiii, N ew Y ork , 1 985, p p.11-18.
c olonial
N otes
and
9 .
Mario B ernocchi, L e M onete d ella R epubblica D ocumentazione, F lorence, 1 976, p p.3-5.
1 0.
C . D ouais ( ed .), ' Un r egistre d e l a m onnaie d e T oulouse p ieces i nedites ( 1465-1483)', A nnales d u M idi, x i ( 1899), p p.165-8.
1 1.
A lice B eardwood , ' Royal M ints a nd E xchanges', i n J .F . W illard , W .A . M orris a nd W .H . D unham ( eds.), T he E nglish G overnment a t W ork 1 327-1336, Medieval Academy C ambridge, M ass., 1 950, p .38.
of
America
Publications,
1 2.
J oan Murray g ives m ore d etails b elow p p.222-8.
1 3.
T his w as
i n 1 544,
f or
a s emi-regular c oinage
a uthority o f Mary o f G uise,
F iorentina,
lvi,
o f bawbees u nder
t he
a ccording t o J oan Murray.
1 4.
J Orgen S teen J ensen a nd P eter I lisch p p.202-221 a nd 1 59-201.
1 5.
P hilip G rierson , " Coniazione p er d ispetto" n ell'Italia M edievale, Q uaderni T icinesi d i N umismatica e A ntichitä C lassiche, viii ( 1979),
p p.345-58.
1 6.
J ean D uplessy p p.128-146.
1 7.
H enri
R olland ,
s iäcles. 1 956, 1 8.
M .A . d es
M onnaies
H istoire
C omtes
d e
6 conomique
Provence
e t
X IIe
c orporative,
- XVe P aris,
c hapter 1 . L adero Quesada,
' Les
t emps m odernes',
s ame
d es
m onätaire,
t ime
t he
f inances r oyales d e C astille a l a v eille
A nnales E .S.C .,
T oledo
m int had n ine
x xv ( 1970), f urnaces,
p p.776-7.
t he
B urgos
A t t he m int h ad
s even a nd t he C orunna m int had s ix . 1 9.
F or
L ondon
a nd
C anterbury,
1 327,
B eardwood ,
a rt.cit.,
p p.41
a nd
4 3-44. F or F lorence,
1 345,
B ernocchi,
o p.cit.,
i ,
F or F lorence,
1 353,
B ernocchi,
o p.cit.,
i ii,
F or N amur,
1 407,
C .Piot,
p .xli. p p.40-1.
' Ancienne Administration M onetaire
B elgique', R evue Belge d e N umismatique, i ( 1841), F or T oulouse, 1 483, D ouais, a rt.cit., p p.165-8. I h ope t o publish c ourse. 2 0.
t he V alenciennes,
1 460,
d e
l a
p .63.
i nventory myself i n d ue
Marc B ompaire, ' La m onnaie d e P ont-de-Sorgues m oitie d u X IVe s iècle', R evue N umismatique, 6 th
d ans s er.,
l a p remiere x xv ( 1983),
p .151. 2 1.
J ohn C raig, 1 948,
T he M int:
C ambridge,
1 953,
A H istory o f t he L ondon M int from A .D.287 t o p .46.
2 4
2 2.
Attributed by i ts t o 1 279-81,
e ditor
t o W illiam d e
C harles J ohnson
( ed .),
Oresme a nd E nglish M int Documents, p p.77-81.
N icholas
Mayhew ,
T urnemire a nd d ated by h im
T he
D e
L ondon
h owever,
i n
M oneta and
o f
N icholas
E dinburgh,
C hristopher
1 956,
C hallis'
n ew
H istory o f t he M int p roposes a d ate o f 1 286-7. 2 3. 2 4.
S ee b elow ,
D irect M anagement,
p .18.
I n l ate t hirteenth a nd e arly f ourteenth c entury E ngland t he warden o f
t he m ints
f or
a nd
t he m ints,
e xchanges
but
a lso by
was
n ot
t wo
c hangers,
o nly
L ondon a nd o ne f or t hat i n C anterbury. e ach
e xchange,
' Mint
a nd
O fficials
s ometimes
u nder
o ne
I a nd
f or
t he
a m aster
e xchange
H e had t wo c lerks,
a ppointed
E dward
Edwardian M onetary Affairs
c omplemented by
a d eputy.
I I',
( 1279-1344),
i n
Mavis
N .J.
B ritish
i n
o ne f or
Mayhew
Mate, ( ed .),
Archaeological
R eports, x xxvi, O xford , 1 977, p p.32-44. I n L ondon i n t he 1 290s b oth w arden a nd c hanger w ere p aid o ut o f t he s eignorage. J ohnson , o p.cit.,
p p.92-5.
exchange
a t
Yarmouth,
w ith
o wn warders
w ere
York
a nd
a rt.cit.,
s ubsidiary
and
Hull,
c omptrollers
t ables
B oston
o p.cit.,
2 7.
G iovanni
P esce
a ccountable
p p.78-80;
a nd
a nd s ee b elow p p.76-86.
G iuseppe
F elloni,
L e
M onete
G enovesi,
I n P aris by
1 266,
F .
d e
S aulcy,
R eceuil d e D ocuments r elatifs ä
o p.cit.,
P aris,
G enoa,
p p.94-5.
P esce
a nd
F elloni,
l oc.cit.;
B onfiglio D osio, ' Lavoro e L avoratori a ttraverso i i " Capitolar d alle B roche" C racco, M .C. B illanovich a nd A . S tudi i n o nore d i P aolo S ambin, c omplete
r un
based o n b roche" Mueller, 3 1.
i ,
p p.134-6.
J ohnson , F or
G enoa,
p p.265-79.
1 879,
3 0.
t o
- XVe s iäcles,
l 'histoire d es M onnaies frappäes p ar l es r ois d e France,
2 9.
o f and
p p.34 a nd 5 5-8.
M onnaies d es c omtes d e Provence X lle
J ohnson ,
2 8.
t here
1 956.
2 6.
1 975,
1 330s
S andwich,
B eardwood ,
H enri R olland , P aris,
t he
and
t heir
t he e xchequer. 2 5.
I n
D over
d own
o f
G iorgetta
t he
o p.cit.,
various
B ernocchi,
p p.211-33,
o p.cit.,
' i ii,
V enice,
G iorgetta
R igon ( eds.), V iridarium f loridum : P adua, 1 985, p p.255-76, g ives a
B onfiglio
d ella Z ecca d i V enezia
f or
n ella z ecca V eneziana ( XIV-XVI s ec)', i n G .
o fficers
D osio
( 1358-1556),
d iscusses
p p.5-14,
o f
( ed .),
t he I l
P adua,
V enetian
m ints
" Capitolar d alle 1 984.
t heir f unctions
L ane a nd
f urther.
g ives a c omplete r un d own o f t he
o fficers o f t he F lorentine m int. 3 2.
Mate,
a rt.cit.,
p p.32-3,
s hows
h ow
t he
w ages
t he L ondon a nd C anterbury m ints r ose a nd f ell r eigns w ith t he busyness o f t he m ints. 3 3.
P rivate
i nformation f rom D avid S orenson
2 5
o f
t he
h ostiarii
i n
i n E dward I a nd I I's
3 4.
S ee b elow p p.97-127 a nd 3 9-60.
3 5.
T he e arliest d escription i s
i ncluded
i n
t he
o f
s uch
' Treatise
a ' trial
o n
t he
o f
N ew
t he
pyx '
M oney '
i n
o f
e arliest s urviving w rit o rdering s uch a t rial d ates
E ngland
1 279;
t he
f rom 1 282;
a nd
a d etailed m emorandum o n h ow t o c arry o ut t he t rial was e ntered i n t he R ed B ook of t he Exchequer a round 1 300. J ohnson , o p.cit., p p.79-82.
Rulers
w ould b e
s hort
E ngland
a nd
h oped
a nd
t hat
t he
r egular.
P rovence.
i ntervals
T hree
H owever,
i n
m onths
b etween was
p ractice,
s uch
p roposed a ssays
a ssays i n
t ook
b oth p lace
i rregularly a nd o ften a t l ong i ntervals. 3 6.
J . B ailhache, ' Chambre e t C our d es M onnaies ( XIVe, XVe a t XVIe s i6cles). A perçu h istorique', R evue N umismatique, 4 th S er., x xxvii
( 1934),
p p.63-99,
( 1936),pp.157-79, / 4/3, V I. 3 7.
P aris,
1 75-97;
3 27-45,
1 965,pp.129-32,
L es C auses d u D eficit.
C hantal
L ozachmeur,
( Thesis,
x xxviii
P aris,
1 965,
' L 'Organisation M on6taire
i ii,
p p.67-89;
x xxix
L a D omaine d u R oi 1 388-
a nd L es F inances R oyales s ous C harles 1 388-1413,
Maitrise d 'Histoire M gdievale, o p.cit.,
( 1935),
a nd Maurice R ey,
p p.524-31.
C atalane
P aris V II,
1 350-1410'
1 975).
3 8.
B ernocchi,
4 4-8.
3 9.
C armello T raselli, ' La Z ecca ', N ote p er l a s toria d ei b anchi i n S icilia nel XV s ecolo, i , P alermo, 1 959, p p.117-33. C f . t he m odern d escription o f t he o perations c arried o ut i n t he v arious b otteghe ( shops) o f t he V enetian m ints p rovided by L ane a nd Mueller,
4 0.
C raig,
4 1.
Marjoke
o p.cit.,
o p.cit., d e
personeel
p p.233-54.
p .44.
R oos,
S ij O ntbooden
t e C oomen R ekenen.
G roningen ,
1 978,
4 2.
P hilip G rierson ,
4 3.
L ucia
( duplicated),
p .25. Numismatics,
T ravaini's
paper,
L ondon ,
b elow ,
1 975,
p rovides
S ee
A lan
S tahl's
p aper
b elow ,
a nd
p p.106-7.
a g reat
o f t he d ivision o f l abour i n I talian m ints S tahl's i n t he V enetian m ints i n p articular. 4 4.
M unt e n H unt-
i n H olland i n d e v ijftiende e euw
L ane
i n
a nd
d eal
m ore
d etail
g eneral,
a nd
A lan
Mueller,
o p.cit.,
p p.205 a nd 5 31-5. 4 5.
S ee b elow p p.128.
4 6.
B ompaire,
4 7.
Lucia
a rt.cit.,
T ravaini's
p .153.
paper,
b elow ,
p rovides
a g reat
d eal
o f
d etail
a bout t he p rivileged m oneyers o f I taly. 4 8.
T he e arliest s eal has b een d ated s tylistically t o a round 1 300,
but
t he
T he
f irs .t
r ecorded m eeting
S erment was
i nitially
d id
f ocussed
2 6
n ot
t ake
p lace
o n D auphin6,
u ntil
w ith the
1 342. m oneyers
o f
V ienne
a nd Valence
t he S erment
d e
1 ,
turn
who
in
p laying
l ' Empire
heavily
S ee J ean Duplessy b elow p p.128.
5 0.
S pufford , C inzio
V iolante, L a
' Per
l a
R iforma
s toria
d ella
I stituto S torico I taliano,
5 3.
B ernocchi, P .
o p.cit.,
G inori C onti,
R obert
5 6.
Mate, K .
i ii,
C onstitutum
e conomica
Z ecca
l xvi
f ollows
l e
o n
c hapter
G entilhomme's
p .241.
e s ociale 1 318',
d i
P isa
B ulletino
n el
d ell'
p .137.
L opez,
S peculum ,
a rt.cit.,
M ichaelssen
r eprints
m onetariorum
a l arge
c ivitatis
o f
t he
F lorentie,
p art
e d .
1 931.
' An
A ristocracy
x xviii
( 1953),
o f
M oney
i n
t he
e arly
l 'an
1 297 ,
p p.29-30.
p p.34 a nd 3 7. ( ed .),
L e
l ivre
d e
l a
A cta Universitatis G othoburgensis, 5 7.
d el
( 1954),
p p.14-24,
a rtis
F lorence,
S abatino
M iddle Ages', 5 5.
P ierre
t hat
o p.cit.,
I n F rance s ee b elow p p.128.
p re-1314
5 4.
on
' Mint O rganisation i n t he N etherlands',
T recento.
5 2.
A ll
f or t he ü cole d es C hartes o f 1 931.
4 9.
5 1.
r ole.
d erived f rom R olland ,
r elied
unpublished t hesis
a l eading
i s
t aille
l xvii
d e
( 1961),
P aris
p p.428-31.
J ohn B ell H enneman , R oyal T axation i n F ourteenth C entury France: T he D evelopment of W ar F inancing 1 322-1356, P rinceton, 1 971, p p.311-2.
5 8.
V iolante,
art.cit.,
p p.161-2
a nd
B ernocchi,
o p.cit.,
i ii,
1 5. H owever, t he h ereditary p rinciple c rept back i n 1 372. F or t he S ienese a ttack o n m oneyers' p rivileges
p p.14-
F lorence i n i n 1 262 s ee
L ucia T ravaini's p aper b elow . 5 9.
L opez,
o p.cit.,
6 0.
S ee b elow p p.130
6 1.
S ee b elow p p.18
6 2.
R obert
p .43. ( Duplessy) ( this
D avidsohn ,
a nd 1 63
i ntro)
S toria
a nd 5 0
d i
( Ilisch). ( other e xceptions).
F irenze
( Italian
t ranslation),
v i,
F lorence, 1 968, p .600. A loys S chulte, G eschichte d es m ittelalterl ichen H andels u nd V erkehrs z wischen W estdeutschland u nd I talien m it A usschuss v on V enedig , B rucker
( ed .),
L eipzig ,
Two' M emoirs
o f
1 900.
R enaissance
R olland ,
o p.cit.
F lorence,
N ew
G ene Y ork ,
1 967, p p.25-6. I an S tewart, ' Scottish M ints', i n R .A .G. C arson ( ed .),Mints, D ies a nd C urrency E ssays i n M emory o f A lbert B aldwin, L ondon ,
1 971,
p .229.
6 3.
S ee b elow p p.163 a nd 2 02.
6 4.
B ernocchi,
o p.cit.,
i ii,
p p.5-6.
2 7
6 5.
G iovanni 1 975,
6 6.
S ee
P esce
a nd
G iuseppe
F elloni,
L e
M onete
L ane
a nd
G enovesi,
G enoa ,
p .265.
A lan
S tahl's
p aper
b elow ,
a nd
Mueller,
o p.cit.,
p p.211-3. 6 7. 6 8.
P esce a nd F elloni,
l oc.cit.
R obert
S abatino
L opez,
Ages',
S peculum ,
x xviii
' An
A ristocracy
( 1953),
o f
p p.1-43.
t hat t he a mount o f p roperty a ccumulated d irect c onsequence o f t he p rofit t o b e m ints.
H e b elieves
t hat
t he
M oney
i n
t he
M iddle
P rofessor L opez s uggests by t hese m oneyers w as a made f rom r unning t heir
e arly e leventh c entury H onorantie
o f
P avia i ndicate a s eignorage o f o ne s ixth a nd c oncludes t hat, i f s uch a h igh r ate a pplied o ver t he p revious t wo c enturies w hen t he purchasing p ower o f m oney was v ery h igh, g reat
w ealth
c lear
t hat
e njoyed
s ome
p revious
t wo
c enturies. a nd
but i t d oes m ean t hat
i t
r unning
w orkshops
I t
w ould
was
making
e qually,
m en who
t his
f or
t he
I a m
n ot
i nterpretation .
I t hink
f ine, i .e. 5 /6ths. g ood s ilver. H e p roduces n o t hat s eignorage r ates w ere a s l arge a s a s ixth
c orrelation b etween m oneyers m oney
Unfortunately
t hat h e u ses t o t his e ffect, p rinted i n V iolante, n .2, m eans i nstead t hat t he d enarii t o b e s truck
s hould b e 1 0d . o ther e vidence t he
i t w ould a ccount
m oneyers.
t he Honorantie w ill b ear
t hat t he passage art.cit., p .131,
d uring
by
a nd
w ere
i s n ot
i n
m y
T his
d oes
c onsiderable
c lear
t hat
t hat
o pinion
a lready w ealthy
i t was
a ccounted m ore
a nd
n ot
a nd
t he
f or
p robably,
t he
s tatus,
f unction o f
t heir
i mportant who
w ith e xchanges a nd t he a ssociated m ints.
d estroy
w ealth
w ealth.
m ean w ere
t hat
i t
i nvested
S tatus was m ore p robably
a p rerequisite r ather t han a c onsequence o f r unning a m int. 6 9.
P amela
N ightingale,
o rganization c enturies', 7 0.
T he
of
L ondon
g oldsmith
O tto
by
e states
i n E ssex
o r
W illiam
t hought
i ntermarried
O tes
I i n
w as
t he
i n
t hemselves
w ith
t he
c xlii g iven
B y a s
t he
a ristocracy .
c entury
p repared
I was
d eputies,
i n
d escended
t hrough
a nd was t he
b oth
L ondon t he
C raig,
t he
t o
and
o n
p p.34-50.
h ereditary
c entury,
j ob
w ith
o f
l anded ,
t herefore
f or t hem . o ut
o f
d ie
s upporting
t hirteenth c entury t he
p ay
t he
t welfth
F itz
f amily ,
a nd
a rranged
f or
B y t he e nd o f t he t he
s eignorage
f or
t o s upplement t he a ctivities o f t he F itz O ates a nd
f emale
C anterbury.
l ine
t o
o nly e xtinguished w ith t he
1 370s.
( 1982),
T hey
t o c ut t he d ies
E dward
r eflections
e leventh
a k nightly,
p ractising g oldsmiths k eepers o f t he d ies
t he
e leventh
a nd S uffolk .
o f
m oneyers,
m ints
N umismatic C hronicle,
c utting O ates
' Some
English
o p.cit.,
p .17
L ords
T he
F itz
B otetourt
O ates a nd
f ief
L atimer
i mpeachment o f L ord L atimer
a nd J ohnson ,
o p.cit.,
i n
p p.xxxvii
a nd 8 9-90. 7 1. 7 2.
d e S aulcy, J .
o p.cit.,
Marechal,
Brugge,
i ,
B ijdrage
B ruges,
1 955,
p .129. t ot d e p .79.
2 8
g eschiedenis v an h et
b ankwezen
t e
7 3.
W .
J esse,
' Die
Z eitschrift,
d eutschen
l xiii
( 1930)
7 4.
L opez,
a rt.cit.,
p .39.
7 5.
L opez,
a rt.cit.,
p p.42-3.
7 6.
Martin B iddle
( ed .),
Münzer-Hausgenossen ',
N umismatische
p .60.
W inchester i n
t he E arly M iddle Ages,
O xford ,
1 976. 7 7.
P eter
S pufford,
' Le
r ole
d e
c ommerciale d u X IIIe s iècle', Monätaire X IIe
l a
monnaie
i n J ohn D ay
-X IXe S iäcles,
L ille,
dans
( ed .),
1 984,
P eter S pufford , M oney a nd i ts U se i n M edieval 1 987, c hapter 5 , ' New S ilver c .1160 - c .1330'.
7 9.
C hristopher
8 0.
S ome
E .
B lunt
a nd
J ohn
D .
British N umismatic J ournal, i ndication
c an b e
o f
g athered
t he
f rom
m int
t he
B rand ,
x xxix
a ccounts
a rticle
by
m atisk Ärsskrift a ccounts 8 1.
N icholas
( 1981),
p p.24-6,
A .
' Mint
a lready
C ambridge,
O utput
o f
H enry
i n
p rint
6 1-6. a vailable
D ay,
E urope',
i n which h e
' The
q uestion
o f
i n N ordisk N umisu sed
a ll
t he
m int
t hat h e c ould f ind t o e stimate t he a mounts m inted . Mayhew ,
' Frappes
Angleterre d e 1 180 a 1 220' 8 2.
E urope,
( 1970),
J ohn
M onetary C ontraction i n l ate M edieval
r evolution
p p.355-95.
7 8.
I II',
l a
E tudes d 'histoire
d e
m onnaies
i n D ay
( ed .)
e t
hausse
o p.cit.,
d es
p rix
e n
p p.159-77.
D ieudonne, ' Compte d e F abrication d e T ournois p ar P hilippe I II M ontreuil-Bonin ( 1272)', R evue B elge d e N umismatique, l xvi
( 1924),
p p.9-28.
8 3.
S ee L ucia T ravaini's paper b elow .
8 4.
J ohnson ,
8 5.
Mavis Mate,
a rt.cit.,
p p.36-7.
8 6.
Mavis Mate,
a rt.cit.,
p .37.
o p.cit.,
p p.63-4.
2 9
T he M edieval M int o f C airo: S ome a spects o f m int o rganisation a nd a dministration H elen W . T he
p eriod
c overed
by
o n
the
B ibliography,
a -d .
c hief
m int-town
a fter
h is
t heir
t he
c onquest o wn
t his
o f
n ames
t his
t he
w ill
t ime
C airo
s tate,
F atimid
o r i ssuing o f d ies. s eparate
ways,
t he
was
C aliphate
t he
was i n
half-century
l isted
c apital
f ounded A D
i n
t he
c ity
a nd
b y
1 169.
S aladin
T ributary
M esopotamia a nd t he Y emen a lso m inted l ocally
( though
c oppe r .
i s
a ccounts
which
n ot
a s
a r ule
t heir E gyptian o verlord o n t heir c oins. a v ery l ittle
f ocus
c ontemporary
A yyubid
i n S yria,
O xford
p aper
a lmost
D uring
o f
Ayyubid p rinces i n
which
f our
B rown ,
T here
i s n o
R ather,
g old),
a nd
a cknowledged s ilver
a nd
e vidence o f a ny c entralised c utting
t he c apital
numismatically
i n
C airo m inted g old ,
a nd t he p rovinces w ent
s peaking.
C airo
was
t heir
c oncerned
w ith
maintaining t he f ineness p roducing a n a cceptable
o f i ts g old d inars, a nd w ith t he p roblems s ilver c oinage w ith i nadequate s upplies
s ilver.
m ints
T he
p rovincial
m eanwhile,
e specially
t hose
i n
o f o f
S yria ,
w ere p roducing r egular s upplies o f g ood q uality s ilver d irhams. I T he M int B uilding Until
l ate
i n
t he
F atimid
p eriod ,
t he
t he F atimid C aliphate i n E gypt was s till
m int
which
i n F ustat,
c hiefly
t he s ite o f t he e arliest s ettlement o f t he Muslims i n E gypt. 1 122 t he C aliph a l-Amir h ad a m int built i n t he n ew c ity which
was
r esidence
by
t hen
o f t he
r e .garded
I mam
a s
( i.e.
t he
t he
s eat
C aliph
o f
t he
i n h is
s erved
t he o ld c apital,
C aliphate
s piritual
o n
B ut i n A D o f C airo, a nd
r ole).
t he T his
m ove was a ssociated w ith,
a nd p erhaps n ecessitated by t he r eform o f t he
c oinage
t he
- i n
p articular
i mproving
o f
t he
f ineness
o f
t he
g old
c oinage - which h e had i nstituted a nd o n which I bn B a 'ra c omments, i n h is s ection o n t he r efining o f g old a s b eing o f unsurpassable q uality . a l-Maqrizi a lso r eported 3 t hat " the g old c oins s truck t here w ere o f b etter a lloy t han t hose m ade
i n o ther c apital c ities".
T he o pening o f t he n ew m int w as m oving
o f
c apital,
t he
a dministration
presumably
c onvenience.
B ut
t he
g old
F atimids,
w ell a s
f or
a l-Maqrizi a l-Amir',
g ives
n amed
a nd was
p oint
F ifty y ears
o f
i n
t he
l ater,
t o
f rom
t he
o ld
s ecurity
and
administrative
t hat b e
r emained
i ssued
t ill
f rom
t he
t o
t he
t he
n ew
f all
o f
o ld m int
a s
a f ew hundred m ade,
m etres
t his
c hange
a t l east f or a while.
s treet
a nd
h e
f rom
t he
n ew
n ear
t he
m int:
i ntellectual
t he
' the h ouse
a l-Azhar a nd
brought
a n ew
m int
t he
o ne.
W e
i t m ay b e
o f
m osque,
s ocial
a
l ife.
w as
w riting
e arly f ifteenth c enturies.
o ld
t hat
b oth
i nto
d o
buildings
n ot
u se
i n
k now
c ontinued
a
why i n
B ut w e d o know t hat S aladin 's m int building
o f which I bn B a 'ra w rote,
a l-Maqrizi
a bout
a ldar a l-Amiriyya,
r eligious,
C aliphate,
u se,
o ne
i nformation
C aliph
when S aladin c ame t o p ower a nd t he Ayyubid s tate had
F atimid was
s ome t he
c ity 's
building
t he
f ifty y ears
a c ommercial
t he
t ime
a r ather b elated p art o f t he
s tate
of
c ontinued
u s
a fter
r eplaced
w as
r easons
t he
c oins
t hus
t he
t he n ew .
building was f ocal
f or
o f
h is
a nd t he
h istories
I t w as,
3 0
i n
o ne
s till
t he
l ate
i ncidentally,
a t
t he
f ourteenth
i n u se
a nd
where t he p resent-day
m arket
o f
b rass-workers
i s
n ow
a nd
where
t hey
m ay
w ell
have
b een
w orking i n t he t welfth c entury. N ew p remises w ere n eeded a gain when a m ajor r eform o f t he w as
i nstigated
T his t he
t ime
by
i t was
t he
S ultan
o nly
a l-Kamil,
a t emporary
n ephew
m easure,
o f
S aladin ,
s pecifically
i ncreased v olume o f w ork c aused by t he r eform .
c oinage
i n
t o
1 225.
c ope
w ith
I t i s r ecorded t hat
t wo t emporary m ints w ere s et u p/ . o ne i n t he C itadel o f C airo a nd t he o ther o ne, o nce a gain , i n F ustat', which was by n ow e nclosed w ithin t he c ity walls
o f
m int-name,
a ttest t o t his.
C airo.
S ome
s urviving
g old
c oins,
w ith
t he
a ppropriate
5
I I T he O fficials o f t he M int I bn
B a 'ra
d evotes
h is
f inal
c hapter
( no.17)
t o
t he
t itles
a nd
f unctions o f t he o fficials o f t he M int. B efore g iving a n a ccount o f t his i t may b e u seful t o l ook a t t he r elationship o f t he M int w ith t he c entral a dministration o f t he g overnment. The
administration
of
Egypt
was
c losely
s tructured,
with
a
c arefully p lanned c hain o f c ommand f rom t he v ery t op - i .e. f rom t he C aliph ( in F atimid t imes) o r t he S ultan ( in t he A yyubid p eriod) - d own t hrough t he various D iwans ( ministries) a nd s ometimes s ub-divisions o f m inistries, t hrough t he e xecutives, d own t o t he c lerks, s tore-keepers a nd g uards. At t he h ead o f t he
c hain ,
t he
r uler a ppointed t he V izier
c harge o f c ivil a dministration a nd f inances ( and r esponsibility f or t he a rmies a s w ell). T he V izier o fficers o f s tate, h ere w e r eturn t o
a mong whom was t he C hief t he t heme o f t his p aper,
t o b e
i n
s ometimes t o have a ppointed t he h igh
Q adi ( chief j udge), a nd s ince h e i t was who i n
F atimid t imes was n ot o nly t he h ead o f t he j udiciary but a lso t he c hief o verseer o f t he M int. part
of
his
I t
duties
d istribution o f
l argesse
t he C hief Q adi i s o f t he M int). 6
t here B ut
a dministration was
i s n ot
i n
t o b e
p erson t o
c ivil
i n
s ervants
a l-Maqrizi d oes
i n p erson t o w e
s trict:
know f or
s upposed t hat h e p erformed t his
( though
d escribing
s upervise
t hat
t he
annual
s tress
t hat
o pening a nd c losing
a ccountability
i nstance,
t he
i n
t he
t he h igh o fficers
E gyptian
o f S tate
o f
t he r ank o f C hief Q adi w ere r equired t o r eport p ersonally t o t he C aliph e very t wenty d ays. I t m ay t herefore b e s upposed t hat t he t itle o f o verseer o f t he M int was n o m ere f ormality a nd t hat t hrough t he d eputies who p erformed t he a ctual
f unctions
f or h im t he C hief Q adi k ept
i n t ouch w ith t he a ffairs o f t he M int t o a c onsiderable d egree. T he
d uty o f t he
C hief Q adi,
t hen ,
f unction a s t he p roducer o f c oins. h ouse s phere
o f
t he
o f
s tate,
( Nazir)
r equirements
of
t reasure-house; s hould",
o fficial
t he T reasury d epartment
S upervisor
s cornful
a nd ' t he
o f h e
o f t he
a nd
t he s aid ,
t o
t he
S tate;
" on
c oming
m ethods o f t he d epartments o f p rofits
t o
b e
t o
d ecide
a chieved .
o versee
t he
t o
t ake
r elease
o f
s ome
t o
o ffice
s urvey
i n t heir c harge; t hey
3 1
o n
f rom
e xchange.
h olders
i t
i n
i ts
i nto
t he
f or
t he
I t w ould b e
d ecisions
bullion o f
m int
a s a t reasure-
b rought
a l-Mal).
o n m atters
T hen
t o
E xchange,
( Bait
T reasury
c ompetence
was
I ts o ther f unctions,
t he t he
c oinage S tate's
a l-Nabulusi
o f
t his
o ffice:
t he
f undamental
i s
" They w orking
a nd s et t hemselves a t arget
s hould
i nvestigate
t he
d etailed
m ethods t heory.
by which t he " In p ractice",
t argets c ould b e r eached". S o much f or t he h e s ays, " when n ewly-appointed t hey a re d azzled
by t heir n ew r ank a nd p restige. T hey f all i n t oo r eadily w ith t he s uggestions o f t he a ccountants a nd o fficials i n t heir d epartments, e ven a bout c oncerns
o f p rime
d ay w ould n ot b e
l ong
i mportance e nough
f or
but t hey f ritter a way t heir t ime R epresenting
t he
l ike budget p lans, a ll
t he
d uties
t axes,
t hey
o uld
e tc.
T he
p erform ;
i n w orthless a ctivity".
C hief Qadi
i n
h is
r ole
a s
o verseer
o f
t he
M int
was a n o fficial d rawn f rom a p anel o f a pproved " witnesses" w hose f unction was t o a ssist t he Qadi i n h is various f unctions a nd r esponsibilities.
I t
i s
r ecorded
t hat
t he W itness
( al-Shahid)
was
t o
be of upright character, but n o particular qualifications a re s pecified . H is j ob, o n t he C hief Q adi's b ehalf, was t o b e p resent when t he M int was o pened a nd c losed ; t o s upervise t he r efining p rocesi, s et h is s eal o n t he p roduct; a nd t o t ake c harge o f t he s tandards. °
a nd
After t he t ransfer o f p ower f rom t he F atimids t o t he Ayyubids, r esponsib pity f or t he M int passed f rom t he judicial, s emi-religious a uthority was s till
o f t he C hief Q adi t o a r ole f or a W itness
s ome o f t he
d uties
t hat ( see
o f t he F inance M inistry. T here I bn B a 'ra 's a ccount, b elow) but
o f t he Qadi's w itness
s eem t o have b een t ransferred
t o t he Musharif o r S upervisor. ( a)
T he M aster o r D irector T his
- t he
s enior
( Sahib o r Mutawalli)
o fficial
- d oes
n ot
a ppear
a t
t he
h ead
o f
I bn
B a 'ra 's l ist i n c hapter 1 7, t hough h e i s n amed e lsewhere i n t he t ext. I bn B a 'ra s ays, " He must have a g ood t heoretical knowledge o f t he M int's p rocesses b efore h e a ttempts
t o p ractice h is c alling".
r ole s eems t o have b een s upervisory,
T hus h is
a nd h e m ay i ndeed have b elonged t o
t he M inistry o f F inance. ( b)
T he S upervisor
( Musharif)
F irst i n I bn B a 'ra 's d uties a nd
a re
c learly
g old ,
t he
l aid
d ies,
must l ook a fter]
t he
m easures
o f
c apacity,
o f
t he
w e
have
g old
a nd p ut h is c onfirmation
Supervisor
" must
s ubordinates,
a nd i mmediately b elow t he D irector, " He
must
a pparatus,
l ook
t he
a fter
t ools,
t he
a nd
who
t he and
f urnace
s ignature o f
s tamp
s ilver t o
t his,
w ith
encompass
t he
s hould
n ot
( or
s eal),
s tandards,
and
a ll
F rom
t hat".
t he
a dditional
s pecialised
e xceed
h im
i n
a ny
r efined
o ther
t he w eights o f t he s tandard m easures,
weights a ccounts;
l ist, d own ,
h is
s ilver
t hings;
[ he
t he s eals o f t he
t he
r ecord
t he
s tatement
o f
I bn Mammati, s tatement t heir
of
t oo,
t hat
t he
o f
his
knowledge o f
t he
r equired
s kills". ( c)
T he W itness T his
i s
( Shahid)
t he
r epresentative
o f
t he
t he C hief Q adi, but by I bn B a 'ra 's d ay i t was t o o bserve a ll t hat w ent o n . " The M int
h igher t he
a uthority,
W itness must watch o ver a ll w ho w ork a t a s a n e ye-witness t o w hat t hey d o.
3 2
( till
F inance M inistry)
t he H is
l ately
whose
j ob
e xperience
i s
a vailable
t o
t hem
i s r equired f or t he a ccounts,
a nd h is
a cceptance
w hich h e m ust s ign".
I bn M ammati 's a ccount o f t his o fficial's m ust have a g ood g rasp o f e verything
d uties i s h e s ees,
m uch t he s ame: " he a nd m ust w rite a
c orresponding a ccount f or t he r ecord". ( d)
T he E ngraver
( Naqqash)
" It i s n ecessary , i f h e b e n ot t rustworthy , t hat h e b e s tamped ( or b randed) o n h is h and , a s i s t he p resent c ustom . H e m ust n ot w ork o n a nything e xcept
t he
e ngraving
o f
t he
d ie,
s o
t hat
h e
m ay
p erfect h is s kill t o t he b est o f h is a bility a nd [ so t hat] f orgers c annot i mitate h im . T here i s a nother a dvantage i n t his, t hat t he o ther w orkers w ill n ot h ave a ccess
t o a n ew d ie".
T hus t wo a nd a h alf l ines o f t he A rabic t ext i s a ll t hat i s d evoted t o t he e ngraver a nd h is w ork ; a nd h e r emains a s hadowy f igure, w orking a way i n s olitude a nd w e l earn h ere n othing m ore o f h is m ethods, h is t ools o r h is t raining . ( e)
T he F oreman
( Muqaddam)
[ Paraphrased i n p laces] " He i s r esponsible a bove a ll e lse f or l ookip& „ a fter t he s tandards o f g old a nd s ilver i n t hree lv r espects: f irst, b y c hecking t he w eight o f a ll r efined g old [ possibly ' coined g old '] w hich i s b rought t o t he M int, a nd n oting e very d ay what i t l acks i n f ineness [ i.e. a scertaining t he d ifference i n f ineness b etween w hat i s b rought i n a nd t he s tandard r equired f or n ew c oins]; a nd c hecking t he a mount i n s tock t o s afeguard t he e xchange o f t he a uthorized g old [ i.e. n oting what e xtra g old i s r equired t o bring s ubstandard i mported c oins u p t o t he E gyptian s tandard ? ] And h e f ixes i ts d uty f or t he D iwan [ i.e. c alculates t he t ax d ue]. S ometimes t he o wner o f t he g old h as h is o wn s tamp a nd m arks i t o utside t he M int" [ then i n a v ery e lusive p assage I bn B a 'ra d escribes h ow t his c an r esult i n a l oss t o t he T reasury o f i ts d ue t ax]. " Second , h e m ust b e c areful a bout t he s ealing o f t he f urnace w hen i t i s u nattended". T hen f ollows a n a ccount o f ' the a buses t hat c an o ccur i f t he f urnace i s n ot s ealed w ith t he f oreman 's o wn s ea1. 11 I n p articular h e m entions t he s ubstitution b y u nauthorized p eople ( "the o wners o f t he g old") o f g old i nferior t o t hat w hich h as p reviously b een r ecorded . A lso t he r ecords o f t ransactions w ere l iable t o b e f alsified , a nd t he f oreman w as t o g uard a gainst t hat t oo. A ny d iscrepancies t hat c ame t o l ight w ere t o b e m ade g ood b y t he f öreman
3 3
h imself . ( f) T he S triker
( Darrab)
I t i s s omewhat d isappointing t o f ind t hat w hat I bn B a 'ra r ecords o f t he f inal t wo c ategories o f w orkers - t he S trikers a nd t he S melters - i s m ore c oncerned w ith a ccountability a nd r esponsibility t han w ith w hat w ork t hey a ctually p erform . " The d uty o f t he S triker i s t o t ake p recautions t o p rotect t he s ilver i n t wo w ays: h e s hould s afeguard t he s ilver a t t he t ime o f i ts p urification f rom t he b lackness a nd i mpurities; a nd t o q uench t he s ilver w ith s alt a nd v inegar a nd s umac a t t he s tage w hen a ll i ts b rightness i s r evealed" ( i.e. during r efining a nd p olishing). " And w hatever s hortfall t here i s i n t he w eight o f t he s ilver a t t he t ime o f w orking i t, h e m ust m ake i t g ood". I bn B a 'ra a scribes t o t he S triker r esponsibility o nly f or s ilver ( though h e w orked a lso w ith g old a t v arious s tages); f or g old t he r esponsibility l ay w ith t he f oreman ( see a bove). E lsewhere i n t he t ext I bn B a 'ra s peaks o f t he S triker t he m etal, p olishing t he b lanks, a nd f inally s tamping t hem". ( g)
T he S melter
" hammering
( Sabbak)
" The d uty o f t he S melter i s t o a ttend t o t he w eight o f t he c opper b efore i ts e xtraction i n t he c rucible; a nd t o a ttend t o t he s ilver a t t he m oment o f l iquefaction . F or h e i s a ccountable f or w hat c omes f orth . A nd w henever t he d ue s tandard i s n ot r evealed, h e i s h eld r esponsible. H e i s a ccountable f or t he r efined m etal i n i ts m olten s tate, a nd i ts f lawlessness i s h is r esponsibility". I II S alaries, T he s ources, p ossible
T ax a nd P rofits
f igures f or t hese i nterrelated t opics, d rawn f rom v arious a re c onflicting a nd r equire m uch m ore d etailed s tudy t han i s i n t his b rief o utline. T here i s c ertainly n o s ystematic
r ecord o f t he s alaries o f m int-workers, b ut t he p rinciple i s c lear: i n m ost c ases t hey w ere c alculated a s a p roportion o f t he t ax e xacted a t t he M int f rom t he v endors o f m etal. T he v olume o f w ork m ight v ary c onsiderably f rom y ear t o y ear, a nd t he f ixing o f t he r ate o f t ax m ight b e a d justed t o r eflect ' temporary s hortages o f m etal a nd t he n eed t o a ttract m ore s upplies. T he p urveyors o f g old i n i ts v arious f orms ( coined , j ewellery , b ullion , e tc.) w ere f or m uch o f t he p eriod t axed a t a r ate o f 3 3 d inars p er 1 000 d inars. O ther r ates n oted a re 3 0 a nd 3 4.1/4 p er 1 000, a nd i n I bn B a 'ra 's a ccount 5 0 p er 1 000. F rom t he s ums t hus r aised , a p roportion w as s et a side f or f uel 1 2 f or t he r efining a nd m inting p rocesses,
a nd
t he r est w as f or t he s alaries o f t he M int s taff a nd
3 4
a
s um
f or
t he
r elative
D iwan ,
s alary
o r
F inance
s Wes
f or
M inistry.
d ifferent
S ome
r anks
s light
may
b e
i dea
d erived
o f
t he
f rom
a l-
M akhzumi's a ccount " where h e s tates t hat f rom 3 0 d inars o f t ax 4 .11/12 d inars
w ent
d iscretion
t o
o f
t he
t he
S upervisor,
W itness
a nd
m int-workers
a re n ot m entioned
f igure
n ot
( i.e.
c alculated
a nd
1 .2/3
d ependent i n
a s
t his
t o
o n
t he
E ngraver
s atisfactory
a ccount,
a p roportion
but w e
o f
t he
have
t ax
a t
w ork .
t he
O ther
o ne
f ixed
e xacted):
o ne
h alf-dinar p er m onth f or t hose who t ended t he f urnace. F or
t he
s ilver
s ilver was b rought i t
r eached
r ate
o f
e xpenses o f
t he
1 /2
t he
i nto
r equired
d inar
v endor.
p urity.
[ about
c onnected w ith
c hemicals,
a rrangements
a ny
T he
1 5-20 w araq t he
o ther
a l-Makhzumi
" The
M int
1 6
i s
m inting
t ax
t hat
o f
t he
was
e tc.
( ir \ h is
W hen
t hen
c alculated 1 00
i ncluding w ere
t ime
t o
a t
a t
t he
d irhams. f uel,
b e
s upplies
b orne
l east)
A ll
t he
b y
t he
t ax
o n
I 5
b ranches
e xpected t o
d ifferent.
t ested a nd r efined until
p rocess,
r aw m aterials,
r eports
o ne
a nd i t was
s omewhat
d irhams 14 ] p er
s ilver y ielded n o p rofit t o t he D iwan .
M aqrizi,
w ere
t he M int a s ample was
o f
public
r evenue",
s how a g ood p rofit.
w rote
T his
a l-
i t c learly
d id o n i ts g old w orking , e ven i f i t o nly b roke e ven o n i ts s ilver w orking . I n t he e arly y ears o f t he t hirteenth c entury t he r evenue f rom t he
M int
was
a bout
3 ,000
d inars
t ogether
t he p rofit was m ore
Y et l ess
t han t en y ears l ater t h a
m onth,
p er
t han
m onth,
8 0,000
a nd
- o r
i n
3 ,500
1 238
d inars
a nd
1 239
p er m onth.
i ncome had d ropped t o 1 00 d inars p er
a ccording t o a l-Nabulusi.."
T his
f all i n r evenue h e a scribes
a f ailure t o k eep p roper r ecords i n t he M int; t o f or a n i ncreased M int t ax w ithout r egistering T reasury T ax; a nd a f ailure t o d ifferentiate b etween p roffered g old o f d iffering s tandards.
t o
d emands by o fficials t he t ransaction f or
s ufficiently
c arefully
N OTES 1 .
O ther t han t he d inars o f t he y ear A .H. 5 94 ( A .D. 1 198) p roclaiming t hemselves " struck i n M ecca" ( Balog, C oinage, n o. 2 25) which w ere undoubtedly
s truck
i n
C airo,
p robably
i n
c onnection
w ith
t hat
y ear's P ilgrimage. 2 .
S .
d e S acy,
T raitd,
( see B ibliography i nf.,
3 .
S .
d e S acy,
Traitd,
p .61.
4 .
F rom H istoire d es P atriarches d 'Alexandrie, t ranslation o f a l-Maqrizi, 2 , n .2.
B alog , C oinage, n os. 3 83-385, n ame ' Misr' f or t he y ears A .H.
6 .
S .
7 .
a l-Nabulusi,
8 .
a l-Maqrizi,
T raitd, c hap.
p .60-1.
q uoted i n E .
H istoire d 'Egypte,
5 .
d e S acy,
l e)
P aris,
l ists t en d inars b earing 6 23-4 ( A .D. 1 126-7).
p .62-3. I V,
f olio 8 5v-86r,
K itab a l M awasiz,
3 5
I ,
t rans.
p .110,
4 50.
O wen ,
B lochet 's
1 908,
p .70.
t he
p .361-
m int-
9 .
T he s taff o f t he M int w ere a t t his t ime M uslims. S o m uch m ay b e i nferred f rom a l-Magrizi's s tatement t hat b y h is d ay t he M int h ad b ecome m anned p redominantly b y J ews o r t hose p aying o nly l ips ervice t o I slam . a l-Maqrizi, K itab a l-Mawa 'iz, I , p .110.
1 0.
I bn B a 'ra i n f act m entions o nly t wo.
1 1.
I t i s c lear, f rom t his a nd o ther l eft i n t he f urnace o vernight.
1 2.
I t i s c lear f rom s everal t exts t hat t he p rovision o f s ufficient f uel t o f eed t he f urnaces w as a c onstant p reoccupation t o t he m int a uthorities. C harcoal a nd a cacia w ood w ere t he m ost f avoured . T he o btaining o f w ood b y s enior m inistry o fficials g ave e vidence o f i ncompetence a nd d ishonesty . S ee a l-Nabulusi, t rans. O wen , p .72-3.
1 3.
a l-Makhzumi,
1 4 .
T he d irham w araq w as a ' silver ' c oin o f a bout t wo p arts c opper o ne p art s ilver, m ade f or l ocal c irculation .
1 5.
a l-Makhzumi,
1 6.
a l-Maqrizi,
1 7.
a l-Nabulusi,
t rans.
t rans. t rans. t rans.
C ahen ,
C ahen , S .
t hat
m etal
w as
o ften
p .338.
p .338.
d e S acy ,
O wen ,
p assages,
p .75.
3 6
T rait6,
p .59.
t o
S ELECT B IBLIOGRAPHY I .
Contemporary
Egyptian
t ranslations,
( . ‘ 2 )
a l-Makhzumi, Written
i n
writers,
with
European
editions,
e tc. ' Ali b . 1 170,
' Uthman ,
r evised
K itab a l-minhaj f i
by
a uthor
' u m k haraj M isr .
c .1186.
S urvives
a s
a n
unpublished m anuscript i n t he B ritish Museum , a nd u sed a s t he basis f or a rticles by C . C ahen i n Journal o f t he E conomic a nd S ocial H istory o f p p.217-314. w ith a u
t he Orient,
T he
s ection
a nnotations,
V I e/ XII e
by
s iècle
( b)
M iles,
I bn Mammati, A .S.
A tiya,
t he author's a dministration .
()
a l-Nabulusi, e d .
C .
C ahen ,
D .K .
a l-As'ad b .
Written c .1200 a s
p p.139-59
' La l e
a nd
f rappe
M inhaj
K ouymjian ,
d es
was
m onnaies
K itab
S tudies 1 974,
q awanin
1 964,
t ranslated ,
d 'al-Makhzumi'
B eirut,
a l-Khatir,
a nd 2 44-78;
m inting
I conography a nd H istory :
e d .
C airo,
( 1962), c oinage
d 'aprds
E astern Numismatics G eorge C .
C .
o n
e n
E gypte
i n
Near
i n H onor
o f
p p.335-38. a l-dawawin,
e d .
1 943. a t ribute
t o
t he
S ultan a nd f or
t he
successors i n t he d epartments N o t ranslation known .
' Uthman b .
I brahim ,
K itab L uma'
g uidance
of
o f
f inancial
a l-qawanin a l-mudiyya
B ecker a nd C . C ahen i n B ulletin d 'Etudes Orientales,
X VI
( 1958-60). A
s emi-official
r eport
o n
t he
f inancial
d epartments
o f
s tate
written c .1236. a l-Nabulusi, a s enior o fficial who h ad b een d ismissed a s a r esult o f c harges l aid by h is p olitical e nemies, wrote this t reatise t o vindicate himself and s eek his r ei nstatement. N ot a d ispassionate a ccount! T ranslated by C . C ahen , ' Quelques a spects d e l ' administration d gyptienne m ddidvale vus p ar un d e s es
f onctionnaires'
i n
B ulletin d e l a f acult6 d es
L ettres, ( Univ . d e S trasbourg), 2 6e a nnde ( 1948) p p.97-118. M ost o f t he r eferences t o t he M int a re c ontained i n c hapter I V o f t he w ork , which i s s eparately t ranslated by C .A . Owen , ' Scandal i n t he E gyptian T reasury ', i n Journal o f N ear E astern S tudies, X IV , ( 1955), ( d)
p p.70-80.
I bn B a 'ra,
M ansur a l-Dhahabi
a l-Kamili,
K itab k ashf a l-asrar a l-
i lmiyya b i-dar a ldarb a l-Misriyya, e d . A . F ahmi, C airo, 1 966. A f actual a ccount, w ritten c .1230-38, o f t he m ethods o f a ssaying, r efining a nd m inting by o ne w ho had h eld a s enior p osition i n t he C airo m int. e mploy o f
H is n ame t ells u s t hat h e was a g oldsmith,
t he
S ultan a l-Kamil.
" On t he Unveiling o f t he
T he p romise
s ecrets
o f m ethods
i mplicit i n t he
a nd i n t he
i n t he
t itle
E gyptian m int"
i s n ot wholly borne o ut f or m odern r eaders, s ince t he t ext i s nowhere s traightf &rward, and i n places a lmost i mpenetrable. S elected passages a re t ranslated by A . S . E hrenkreutz i n ' Extracts f rom t he T echnical M anual o f t he Ayyubid m int i n C airo' i n Bulletin ( 1953),
o f
t he
p p.423-27;
' Contributions E gypt
i n
t he
t o
S chool a nd t he
M iddle
o f t he
Oriental t ext
knowledge Ages'
H is r eferences a re t o t he i n t he E gyptian L ibrary .
i n t hen
3 7
i s o f
a nd t he
t he
B .S.O .A .S. s till
African
basis f iscal XVI
f or
S tudies,
a dministration ( 1954),
unpublished
X V,
E hrenkreutz's
s ole
o f
p p.502-14. m anuscript
( t )
a l-Maqrizi, v ols,
Ahmad b .
C airo,
a l-Karmali
1 853-4;
i n
' Ali,
K itab a l-mawatiz w al-iitibar
a l-Nuqud
a l-'Arabiyya,
C airo,
1 939.
o n
c oins.
f rom t he f ormer, musulmanes,
T he
l atter,
t ogether
w ith
w ere t ranslated by S .de S acy,
P aris,
1 797.
T his
e d .
T he
t hese i s a l arge-scale w ork o n t he h istory o f E gypt, t reatise
( Khitat)
S hudhur a l-'uqud f i d hikr a l-nuqud,
2
A .
M .
f irst
o f
t he s econd a
r elated
e xtracts
T raitä d es m onnoies
i nvaluable c ompendium was r eprinted
i n m odern t imes i n G . S almon , S ylvestre d e S acy , C airo, 1 905, p p.11-63, b eing B ibliothäque d es Arabisants Franvais, T ome I . a lMaqrizi ( d . 1 442) w as w riting a bout t wo c enturies l ater t han t he f our a uthors whose w orks
a re
a re
h is
i nvaluable,
r emarks
t hat
' he
a nd
o f
had
m ore
l isted
i n a - d .
t reatise
r eliable
o n
B ut h is
c oins
i deas
o n
d e
h istories
S acy
m onetary
j ustly
p rinciples
t han many writers o f o ur t ime'. I I E uropean w orks B ALOG,
P .
T he
C oinage
o f
t he
Ayyubids,
L ondon ,
1 980.
L ists
a nd
d escribes s everal t housand c oins m inted i n E gypt. R ABIE,
T OLL ,
H .
C .
T he
F inancial
S ystem A
o f
d etailed
Egypt
1 972.
a ffairs,
w ith a v ery f ull b ibliography.
' Minting T echnique Orientalia
S uecana,
a ccount
G .
o f
a ccording t o A rabic 1 9-20,
( 1970-71),
s ome p roblems o f t echnical t erms W IET,
AH 5 64-741 / AD 1 169-1341,
L ondon ,
f iscal
a nd
l iterary
m onetary
s ources',
p p.125-37.
i n
T ackles
i n I bn B a 'ra.
' Hötel d e l a M onnaie' i n M ämoires d e d 'Archeologique Orientale d u C aire, v ol.
l 'Institut Francais L II, ( 1930), p p.183-
4 . T he E ncyclopaedia of I slam , n ew Mal, D ar a lDarb, D iwan , e tc.
e dition ,
3 8
L eiden,
1 960-
s .v .
B ayt
a l-
M int O rganization i n I taly b etween t he T welfth a nd F ourteenth C enturies: a S urvey L ucia T ravaini, I talian
m ints
makes
q uite
l imited t o t he t welfth u p
t o
a
t he
R ome
l arge
s ubject
e ven
f ourteenth c entury,
f or
but
a
s urvey
I w ill
t ry
t o
g ive a g eneral v iew o f I talian m int o rganization a t t hat t ime. We
have
d etailed
d irect
s ources
a bout
t he
d ivision o f l abour i n t he m int i n B ologna i n 1 200, m ints
a t
l ater
d ates,
but w e
m ay
a ssume
t hat
o rganization
a g ood
o rganization
e stablished e arlier i n o ther m ints s uch a s P avia a nd M ilan , a nd M essina f rom t he t ime o f t he m onetary r eform o f 1 140. S ince r oyal,
t here
w ere
i mperial,
t he s ituation , c haracterietics
many
f eudal,
m ints
o f
e piscopal)
w ith s ome a nd g iving
d ifferent
I w ill
a nd
a nd i n s everal o ther
c haracter
p resent
w as
o r P alermo
( communal,
a g eneral
v iew
o f
e xamples, t rying t o i dentify t he major a s hort a ccount f or e ach c ategory o f m int
p ersonnel.' F irst,
h owever,
I n eed
t o
s ay
a f ew
w ords
a bout
t he
number
o f
t hese I talian m ints a nd a bout t he s ources I u sed . I talian m ints numerous.
W e
i n
have
t he
s ome
p eriod
t hat
I a m
g ood m onographs
o n
u p-to-date g eneral w orks o n I talian m ints, T he
m ost
c omplete
w orks
a re
s till
c oncerned s ingle
w ith
m ints,
t heir a ctivity,
a g eneral
w ere
but
v ery
w e
l a0 (
a nd s o o n .'
s urvey
o f
1 901
b y
S alvioll 3 , a nd t he C orpus Nummorum I talicorum b y K ing V ittorio E manuele I II, who was p recious .4 I ndeed ,
t ruly
a d edicated
while
I was
s cholar,
t rying
t o
n umber o f I talian m ints
a ctive
r ealized
h imself had
t hat
t he
K ing
a nd
f ind
whose
a way
f rom t he X Ith a lready
t o
t o
w ork
s how
i s
i n
s till
v ery
a g raph
t he
t he X IVth c enturies,
d one
t he
w ork
t hat
I
I w as
g oing t o d o. I n
f act,
C orpus,
t he
o n
t he
K ing
basis
c ompiled
o f
t he
m aterial
a number
o f
c ollected
d iagrams,
t o
d ated
p repare 1 919,
p ublished until n ow . T hese g raphs w ere g enerously d onated t o I talian S tate i n 1 973 by h is s on Umberto t o b e k ept t ogether w ith K ing 's c ollection ,
a nd a re n ow c onserved i n R ome
t he
n ever t he t he
i n t he Museo N azionale
R omano. T he a ctive
g raph
f rom
l imited
t o by
a s
i ndicates
1 919, m ints
w ell
I talians
a ctive i n F rance L evant, f rom t he s hows
F ig.1 t o
I talian
c onsidering, s truck
a t
1 001
a s
i n
( shown t he
a broad :
t he
s teps b y
c oins s o
t hat
g eneral
o f l ine
5 0
2 );
s truck t he
t rend
y ears. t he
i n
o f T he
K ing ,
I talian g raph i n
m ints i s
n ot
f act,
w as
I taly,
a lso
t he
c oins
s hows
a lso
t he
m ints
g raph
( Savoie a nd C omtat V enaissin , l ine 3 ), a nd C rusaders t o t he r ecent c olonies ( line 4 ).
i n t he L ine 1
t he t otal number o f m ints. L imiting m y s urvey
t o
I talian t erritory,
3 9
w e
c an s ee
t hat
t he K ing
F igure
2
Mint organization i n I taly between XIIth and XIVth c enturies:
D tm
ib )"p la
AA o s t4
A
I re c h iv a 54 0 . T
. ,t 1 m er ce IN
A 5t rA 3 a luzz oI r ' t em i t ia
A lg a
V e iden A ße reveo
( )M i lano El esc iJ o ALo s i i
A Ä4
" I b rT ona
IC . ;v id Ai o r iz ia
17
\ l ictA 123 A
A z e s sfu i vi a iw ij A A c remou/ Hay it ou L
XiSc e d pi
1 7l cef _
et a . \ \
) 9 nezia a c io v i
o oE d .e r i A aF tr r ar . . P arm 1 a xte m
l u i
ÄG er a
CO Xto
C omo
N o 2 v ar a
' I w it .n :3 0
a survey
h e na
A B o lo3 na
_ S av o r w s L ucca 0
P C sa A
K av enna
14 m 2 A
a no
F i renze
Vo lik .rr a
, n , Arta2o S ie .„ a
Cort ona
P e r( j 2 L3
M a ssa / I .
3
C a rn e r , „
A sw e . r c
a rv id oi m r ic nt zl l
as c
-
3 \ n ' tz l
A L ic iTue i [ dani° Z 1% , , ard i
5 U 1 rf lon a
41
r e le
r ecorded
o nly
7 m ints
a t
t he
b eginning
o f
t he
X Ith
c entury,
a nd
1 1
m ints i n t he f irst half o f t he X IIth c entury . B ut w e f ind 2 0 m ints i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s ame c entury ( an i ncrease o f m ore t han 8 0%), a nd 4 6 m ints
i n a bout 1 250
T hese
f igures
( an i ncrease o f 1 30%).
s hould b e
a djusted
s lightly
i n
s tudies, but, o ver a ll, t hey a re s till valid . basis, w ith s ome variations, I a lso c ompiled t he f rom t he
1 130
t o
1 400,
a t
n orth
o f
I taly
c ompared
F ig .2.
t he number o f m ints w as
a t
I t
s hows
w ith
t he
t he
h ow n umerous
s outh.
i ts m aximum ,
l ight
o f r ecent
E ssentially o n t hat map o f I talian m ints t he
m ints
N evertheless,
I s uppose
a re
i n
e ven w hen
t hat o ver
t wo-thirds
o f t he t otal o utput c ame f rom o nly o ne-third o f t he m ints. After
c onsidering
b riefly
p eriod w e a re e xamining , s ources u sed . T hey a re a nd
d iscontinuous.
s cattered
i n
t he
number
o f
I talian
m ints
i n
t he
I must g ive a s hort a ccount o f t he d ocumentary numerous a nd r ich, but t hey a re a lso v arious
M ost
o f
t hem w ere
p eriodicals
o r
i n
published b efore
c ollections
o f
1 910,
d ocuments.
a nd
S ome
5
a re g ood
e xceptions a re t he m ore r ecent s tudies o n t he m ints o f P isa by H erlihy a nd V iolante, F lorence by B ernocchi, G enoa by F elloni, a nd V enezia by B uenger R obbert. 6 I
d o
n ot
p retend
t hat
my
s tudy
i s
c omplete:
t he
s ample
o f
d ocuments I i nspected i s a ctually just a s ample, but I t hink t hat i t i s q uite a r epresentative o ne, b ecause i t i s s cattered i n t ime, a nd w ell d istributed
t hroughout
I taly.
I t
c onsists
o f
s everal
m int f armers, s ome i nventories o f e quipment, o aths c hapters o f s tatutes r elated t o t he m int, a nd s o o n .
o f
F or t he p eriod p rior t o t hat under i nvestigation ,
i ndentures m int
o f
o fficers,
w e may n ote t hat
i n t he X Ith c entury i n t he n orth t here w ere o nly a f ew i mportant m ints, namely P avia, number
o f
M ilan ,
V erona,
d ocuments
o rganized
i n
f or
V enezia
t he
privileged
a nd L ucca .
m oneyers
o f
c or4orations,
W e
P avia
which
h ave
a nd
q uite
M ilan
have
been
a g ood
who
w ere
a ccurately
s tudied by L opez a nd V iolante.' I n a nd
t he
t he
i nformation F rederick S icilian m int, t he
o n
t here
P alermo
i s
o rganization
o f
t here
m int
m int
i n
S o,
n ever
t he
s tarted b e
b e
u sed
i n
c onquered n orthern I taly, e ncouraged b y t he
f act
i n t heir t erritories I n t he n orth,
l anguage:
a ctivity u sed
b efore
t he
w hen
t he
c ame f rom
I taly
t race
t he
t he u se
t hat
1 200s i n
o f z ecca
t he k ings
i n t he n orth,
t he
s teps
b y
4 2
t he
I talian
t he
w ord
f or f rom
a nd m oneyers
8
X IIIth which
w hich w e T he
f ind
w ord
c entury, t he
n orth was
f or i nstance C uneo
o f
o f
c hanged
m int
o nwards.
i n t he
m uch
t ime
A pparently,
p ower
s ame
o f S icily a lso
t he o ld t erm m oneta s eems
Amalfi,
have
s ikka.
t he L atin s icla, t he
n ot
r epercussion
f rom t he A rabic
i ts
n orthern t o
l inguistic
S alerno,
d o
when t hey c aptured P alermo.
d ocuments
i nteresting
a
N ormans
f rom t he A rabic'sikka, t o
W e
s outhern m ints
I talian
t he
n amely
P alermo.
b e
s topped
r ulers:
s outhern I talian
w ould
m ay
which c omes
which t hey f ound i n 1 072,
a ll
f ew m ints,
o f
z ecca,
t o N orman
a lso
m int
but
A rabic
w ere
A rabic
t he
I I,
t oday,
I slamic
s outh,
i mportant
w ord
i n
t hen
a nd
i t
z ecca
a pparently
f armed s gme m ints i n 1 307.'
t o l ast l onger i n o fficial
d ocuments
t han
l anguage
i n u nofficial
s eems
t o p revail
w ord had b ecome m int,
where
t he b etter
o ne
T his
t o
t he
n ew w ord
may b e
i dentify
f rom
t he
s poken
t hat
t he
A rabic
a s ign
t he
t echnical
m eaning
o f
a
a s a n e stablishment. T here i s o nly a s mall
h ad
o nes,
s ooner.
a d ifferent
n ame:
l inguistic
i n
t he
i sland i n T uscany,
X IIIth
a nd
X IVth
where t he m int
c enturies,
i n
S iena,
A rezzo a nd s ometimes V olterra, t he m int w as c alled b olgano, which p robably c omes f rom t he w ord b ulga ( Latin : l eather bag); t here m ight b e a lso s ome c onnection w i 0 b olzone o r buglione f urther i nvestigation . T wo
d ocuments
( bullion),
but t his n eeds
l u
o f
V olterra
o f
1 321
a nd
1 323
s how
a m ixed
u se
o f
t erms: t he f armers p romised n ot t o t ake p art i n a liquam m onetam s ive z eccham . T he l anguage i s i n f ormation a nd a pparently t he u se o f d ifferent
t erms
i nvolved ; i s
s o,
called
m ay
b e
d epending
i n B ologna, z echa,
T ornaquincis,
i s
i n
while
t he t he
o n
t he
i ndenture
f armer,
t he
c alled b ulgano v el
but h er
t he m int f armer a nd n ot t o t he m int i tself. s tarting
p oint
o f
my
o f
o f
n ext
t he
1 269,
F lorentine
c onductore m onete:
a re u sed t ogether i n t his d ocument,
T he
p rovenance
f armer 's
p eople
t he
m int
B itto
t he
t hree
d e
t erms
b ulgano i s o nly r elated t o I 1
c onsiderations
i s
t he
y ear
1 140,
when w e s ee, i n t he n orth, t he b eginning o f t he c reation o f n ew m in , l ike G enoa, which o pened i n a bout 1 139, f ollowed by o ther c ities ", a nd ,
i n t he
s outh,
t he
i mportant
m onetary
r eform p romoted by R oger
I I
i n t he K ingdom o f S icily. W e
d o
n ot h ave
numismatic e vidence, o f
t he
m ints
f or
w ritten
s ources
t he
n ew
i nage.
v ery s trongly c entralized . f or
t he
whole
r elating
k ingdom ,
I n
I n
t he
f act,
r eform ,
w hich w ere
P alermo
w ere
t he
o rganization
o nly
a nd M essina, T he
t wo
o n w as
main m ints
which p roduced
m inor m ints
T he
1 4
n ame
o f
t he
m int
i s
w ritten
t here a re a f ew c ases o f hybrid c oins,
o f
S alerno
o n b oth
s ides
c onsequence o f a c onfusion o f d ies, m ints w ere c entrally c ut,
o f
t hese
t hat b ear o n o ne s ide t he
n ame o f P alermo a nd o n t he o ther s ide t he n ame o f M essina:
m ints
but,
f amous S icilian g old t an i w ere s truck i n b oth P alermo a nd a t t he s ame g old a nd w eight s tandards, a nd i n t he s ame
q uantity. c oins;
t his
s outh
t here
c oins f or b oth S icily a nd s outhern I taly . a nd Amalfi had o nly a l ocal i mportance. T he M essina,
t o
w e m ay a ssume a f ew a spects a bout t he o rganization
t his was
a nd i t m ay p rove t hat d ies
a nd t hen d istributed .
t he
f or b oth
1 5
While t he g old w as p roduced by b oth P alermo a nd M essina, t he t wo s pecialized , P alermo f or t he s ilver, a nd M essina f or c opper. 16 T he main c haracteristics o f t he n ew s ilver a nd c opper c oins o f t he
r eform
o f
1 140
a re
t heir
t he
a lignment,
which i s a lways r egular.
O n t hat
t his
c oncave
B yzantine
l egends),
basis,
B yzantine
o ne
s hape
m ay
c raftsmen
o f
a ssume,
w ere
s tyle
t he
a s
c alled
( often
m ajor
P rofessor t o
m ixed
G rierson
o rganize
t he
p roduction a nd t he s triking w ith a r egular d ie a lignment.
4 3
w ith
d enominations,
1 7
d ie
s uggested ,
n ew .
Arabic
a nd
c oncave
T hese n ew
c raftsmen t here,
m ay
w ell
b ecause,
have
i n
b een
o rder
t o
a dded
e nact
t o
t he
s uch
m oneyers
a r eform ,
n ecessary t o i ncrease t he number o f w orkmen . t he w ord z ecca, which s pread n orth l ater, a t
a lready
i t
w ould
w orking
have
b een
And w e may a ssume t hat t his t ime r eferred t o a
m int where A rabic a nd B yzantine e xperience h ad m elted t ogether. Whilst i n t he s outh w e s ee i n t he n orth t he w e n ote
e mperor was
t his c entral o rganization o f t he m ints,
r elinquishing h is
r ights
t he c reation o f many n ew i ndependent m ints,
t ransformation o f i mperial m ints T he
c reation
o f
m any
n ew
o n t he m int,
a nd
e pd t he p rogressive
i nto c ommunal o nes. ' m ints
i n
c ities
w ithin
a s mall
a rea,
n ecessarily l ed q uite s oon t o m onetary l eagues a mong d ifferent c ities, t o h elp t rade a nd e xchange. E ven t hough i t i s d ifficult t o s ay i f t hey w ere
a ctually
s uccessful,
o rganizational
t hese
c ooperation .
m onetary
I n
s ome
a greements
c ases
t here
d id
l ead
w ere
t o
s ome
e xchanges
o f
c raftsmen , a s b etween C remona a nd B rescia i n 1 183, w hen t he c onsuls C remona s ent t o B rescia o ne o f t heir m int m asters a nd o ne w orkman ,
o f t o
ensure
of
t hat
t he
c oins
p roduced
were
t he
s ame
a s
t hose
C remona:...item c onvenit...quod d abunt m agistrum m onetae, q ui s e a stringat s acramento s ibi e t c onsulibus Brixiae f aciendi m onetam s uam , s icut s unt a stricti
i lli,
q ui f aciunt monetam C remonae;
o vrarium s imiliter c onsulipms Brixiae, m onetam hominibus Brixiae. I n
1 254
P iacenza ,
c oins,
i n
c ities,
P avia a nd T ortona,
a greed
e t q uod d abunt u num
d ocebit,
e t
o stendet f acere
1'
s even n orthern
P arma,
q ui
q uantities;
a nd ,
n amely
C remona,
B ergamo,
undertook t o m ake a mong
t he
o ther
t he
B rescia,
s ame
c lauses,
t ype
t hey
o f
a lso
d etermined t he m aximum s alary t o b e g iven t o t heir w orkmen : ..quod n ulla praefatarum c ivitatum , s ive c ommune n ec a liquis m agister m onetae, n ec s uperstans p er s e, m ittat a liquo modo, c ui overeri m onetae, d e grossis,
n ec p er i nterpositam p ersonam d et,
v el
u ltra q uatuor
q uam d e p arvis...item ,
i mperiale 1 R q ualibet v el m inus.
i ngenio q uod d ici,
v el
nec d are per -
e xcogitari possit,
a li-
i mperiales d e q ualibet m archa,
t am
q uod n on d etur m onetariis u ltra u num
m archa d e grossis,
e t d e p arvis
d uos m edianos,
L u
T he p osition a nd c onditions d istinguished
i n
t he
t wo
o f m int w orkmen ,
g roups
o f
o perarii
which w ere
a nd
g enerally
m onetarii,
varied
c onsiderably f rom m int t o m int. R egarding t heir p rivileges,
w e may n ote a g reat d ifference b etween
i mperial a nd r oyal m ints o n o ne s ide, I n t he e arly 1 200s w ere
t he
p rerogative
a nd c ommunal m ints o n t he o ther.
t he p rivileges, o f
i mperial
i mmunities a nd e xemptions,
m ints
l ike
e xtended t o t he m oneyers o f t he k ingdow o f a b o mnibus e xaccionibus e t c ollectis.
L 1
P avia
S icily, I n
1 346
a nd
M ilan ,
t hat w ere
w ho b ecame i mmunes Queen
Johanna
of
N aples c onfirmed t he p rivileges a nd i mmunities c oncessis i am d udum s icl ariis Brundisii
e t M essane n ecnon e t f orma privilegii
p tura
p er
o stensi...
q uondam Fredericum
i n p ublica s cri-
o h m R omanorum
i mperatorem ...
s int i mmunes e t e xempte a b o mnibus d acis e t c ollectis a tque s erviciis q uodque d e n ulla c ausa t am c ivili q uam c riminali c oram a liquo j udice s eu
C urie
n ostre
o ff i ahi
t eneantur
s iclarum n ostrarum
4 4
r espondere
n isi
c oram
m agistris
T he s ame p rivileges w ere d ocument which,
c onfirmed
a fter r epeating
i n 1 401 b y K ing L adislaus
t he p revious
i n a
c harter by K ing R obert
o f
1 326, a dds t he l ist o f t he p ersonnel o f t he m int o f N aples a t t hat m oment: n omina v ero e t c ognomina prefatorum i nfrascriptorum m agistrorum s icle
prefate a c
a ffilatorum o perariorum e t m inistrorum a ctu s ervien-
t ium i n s icla e adem s unt h ec v idelicet ( from
S iena
s ummator , c uneorum ,
and
F lorence),
( the n ames
4 factores
f ollow):
d ictorum
t wo m agistri
magistrorum,
o ne
o ne notarius c redencerius, o ne m agister m onete, t wo i ncisores 1 7 a ffilatores ( trimmers), 1 5 c usores ( for s triking), 2 5
m alleatores,
u brierii e t o perarii a c m inistri d icte s icle.
T ogether w ith
e xemptions
m oneyers had t he p rivilege p rovost a nd t he m asters o f s uch a s,
f rom
a nd
m ilitary
o f b eing j usticiable t he m int, e xcept f or
f or i nstance h omicidii,
I n t he n orth,
t axation
2 3
s ervice,
t he
o nly b efore t heir o wn c ases o f m ajor c rimes
f alse m onete e t f urti.
2 4
t hese p rivileges w ere g radually e roded w ith t he r ise
o f t he c ommunes. I n o ur d ocuments c hange f rom a v ery p rivileged c lass,
i t i s p ossible t o s ee t he s low i nto a c lass o f s imple c raftsmen ,
e ntirely d ependent o n c ommunal o fficers. H eredity f ace t he
o f
t he
s eems
t o
p ressure
have
o f
b een
t he
c ommunal
i ncreased d emand f or w orkmen ,
t o t he 1 202
l east
d ue
t o
i ncreased l evel o f p roduction .
i n P avia,
t utors
o f
h ard t o
e nduring
i nstitutions, t he
S o,
number
f or
p rivilege
e specially
o f n ew m ints,
e xample,
w e
where m oneyers had p rivileges by a ncient
t wo
m inors,
w ho
w ere
r etain t heir r ight
d escendents
t o name
s ee
t hat
t radition ,
o f
m oneyers,
i n
t he
a d eputy
i n
b ecause
m int
had
t o
until
t he o f a nd i n t he
f ight
t he
e nd
o f t heir m inority ( habere f acultatem ...faciendi l aborare a d i psam m onet am i n l iterandi d enariis a liquam personam pro e is). 25 I n a d raft o f c ontract o f t he m int o f R eggio w orkmen ,
m ostly
r enounce
t heir
r espect g ive
t he
a s um
f rom
r ight
o ther o f
t o
g oing
o n
b e
c lauses
c aution
d ocumented i n s everal w ithout
M ilan ,
C remona,
j udged b y
P arma,
a s pecial
( renuntiando
a ppointed
o ther m ints),
m oreover,
a ny
o ther
w orkman
i n
i n 1 233,
P iacenza,
c ourt
privilegio
w hen
s trike,
m oney
E milia,
a nd
i f
t hey
f ori); t he
had
t hey
m int
( as
t hey p romised t o
c alled by
t he
d id
t he t o n ot
had
t o
i t
i s
a ccept,
m aster,
a nd
t he p ossible e xpulsion o f o ne o f t hem ( Promissione q uod pro a liquo o per ario..quem ...vos d omini v elletis r ecipere a d d ictam m onetam ..non d esinemus n ec d imitemus o perari e t l aborare). 26
o perandam
T here w ere d ifferent r ules r elated t o t he m obility o f w orkmen f rom m int t o m int,
f or e xample,
i n
F lorence a nd P isa t he m int was r eserved o nly f or t heir o wn c itizens,
i n
o ther
a nd t o t heir a ccess
mt27n ts
t here
t o t he m ints.
w ere ,w orkmen
f rom
While,
d ifferent
c ities
a nd
c orpor-
a tions. W e
may
e xamine
t he
d ifferent
c ases
o f
S iena
a nd
F lorence,
which
b oth e xercised a v ery s trong c ontrol o n t he m int a nd had v ery s evere r ules f or t heir p ersonnel. I n 1 262, S iena p rohibited a ll m int w orkmen f rom having a ny s ort o f a ssociation :
..statuimus q uod q uicumque f uerit
v el
i n
e st
d esubtus,
l aborator n on
a ppostamentum
v el
m onetator
b ulgano
s enensi,
d esuper
p ossit n ec d ebeat f acere a liquod b reve v el s tatuta d e
f acto
b ulgani v el
4 5
m onetandi...et
e go
e t v el
p otestas...
f aciam
r u ni
e t
c assari
e t a bsolvi
o mnia
o rdinamenta
i psorum
e t
i uramenta. ' T hey
a lso
L ombards,
w ere
who w ere
e t L ombardos,
c ompelled a mong
t o
f rom
p romise
S iena
d ominos
a ccept
f oreign w orkmen ,
q ualified :
t o
a nd
S i f uerint b oni l ook
f or
F lorence:
t he
..et
d enda,
L "
e t l egales...
b est
c raftsmen ,
( the
p articularly
..et p ermittam f oretanos
q ui b ene s ciant l aborare d e m oneta
i n b ulgano c omunis, h ad
t o
t he b est
p odesta)
s tare e t e sse
T he
m int
e specially
t enear
b ulgani e t i n e orum b revi a pponi f aciam:
m asters
e ngravers,
f acere
h abere
i urare
m eliores
e t
u tiliores l aboratores, prout u nquam i nveniri p oterunt v el h aben iS enis v el F lorentie, e t s pecialiter i ntalliatores e t i wmiatores, a d h oc, u t m oneta S enensis p ulcra e t b ene f acta i nveniatur .
J u
B ut a t t he s ame t ime, t he c ommune o f S iena warned a ll i ts c itizens a gainst t aking p art o r w orking i n o ther m ints: q uod p otestas t eneatur c ompellere e t c ompelli f acere o mnes c ives S enenses e t d e i urisdictione S enensi q uod n ullus t eneat n ec p artem h abeat i n a liquo b ulgano T uscie v el s ocietate b ulgani;
e t q uod n on f aciat i bi
l aborari,
v el d e i n e o
a uxilium v el f avorem q uod l aborerium a licuius m onete i bi f iat. F lorence moneyers had
a lso a pplied s trict r egulations, but a t l east i ts a s ort o f a ssociation, t hough i t was not a r eal
c orporation . m int
I t
masters
c hanged
was
c ould
g enerally
o nly
a p rofessional
c hoose e very
t he
s ix
w orkmen
a ssociation
t hey
m onths.
n eeded ,
B esides
t his,
b lacksmith,
s pecial
i ts
o wn
p ermission
e xpense,
S i
a liquis
o riundus,
f rom
t he
p roviding h im ,
p rovost;
e sset
s uch a s t hose o f
o n
t he
o ther
hand ,
i f
a
t he a ssociation w ould h elp h im a t
v ery k indly ,
i n o ther w ords,
m oneterius
b e
i ndividual
C onstitutum a rtis monetariorum c ivitatis t o l eave F lorence t o w ork i n a nother m int
f oreign m oneyer c ame a sking f or h elp, t o g o back h ome:
t he
t o
a nd s o o n .
A ccording t o t his F lorentie, n o m oneyer was w ithout
which h ad
t he
w orkmen w ere r egistered i n various o the3 ; c orporations, t he g oldsmiths,
f rom who
w ith
t he
m oney n ecessary
t hey e xcluded a ll f oreign w orkmen ( ...
e xtraneus,
s eu
e xtra
d istrictum
F lorentie
v eniret...prepositus d ebeat i psum h onorifice r ecipere...et s i
i n
n ecessitate
d ebeat i psum providere i n
t aq a
s eu
d e
t anta
m oneta q uod p ossit c ommode a d p atriam s uam r emeare). -" A lso m onete
t he
s tatutes
o f V olterra,
r ecipiatu s alarium . T he
j
C onstitutum o f T he
t he
1 310,
l aboratores q uod
e t
n ullus
e t o mnium ,
g eneral
F lorentine
i mpression i s
t hey s hould n ot w ork
d ied ;
t hey
c olleagues,
t heir
o rdained
d ontaining a ll
s hould
n ot
p roduced by a c olleague, i ll
c urerii,
f abricatores
a lius
a nd
t o
e xtraneus
r efuse
m inuere
J" '
f ollowed . t hem
t he
1 316,
.nisi c onsensu prepositi
d ocument o f a bout m anners:
o f
i n
o wn
a nd
i nterest,
o n
m oneyers
i s
t he
a nd r egulations
r ules
e ach
f estivals,
o ther,
n or c ommit b lasphemy;
g ive
a lms;
r efusing
but a ny
a cceptance o f n ew m embers.
4 6
i nteresting t o b e
t hat o f a n e xcellent c ode o f g ood
r eligious
o ffend
a v ery
t hey c ut
a lso
o f
n or
n or
when
c riticize
o ne
t he
o f
w ork
t hey s hould h elp p oor o r t ried
p ay,
a nd
t o
t ake
c are
c ontrolling
o f t he
B ut
a ll
pay was s trikes
t his
e xodus t owards s uccess a broad c onsider
t hat
may
b een
have
m oneyers, h ome. 37
t he
w e
s ee
e nough
t o
p rotect
t heir
p rofession .
d ominus
t he
B rindisi
B ittus d icta
o btained
e xample
i s
t o
m int
e t
e ius
f acienda
t o
c all
t o
m ints
t hey
t he d id
f armers
t he
o f whatever
s ocii
i n
1 351
w orkmen
c lause
N aples:
..quod,
d e Brundisio a d
f armers
u bi
o f
m int
t hose
c ontingat
e t
e orum
t he
i f
a t
p ossit
a d
o f
r equiri
l aborem d icte s icle a c
e t non v enirent, q uod c abellotus i dem p ossit e t d ebeat a lios e t monetarios e xpertos i n t alibus q uarumcumque t errarum noticia
which
o perarios
a broad ,
a t
a s
( ...
v oluerint
t he
f rom
have
o rigin ,
h abere
u ndecumque
a broad ,
F lorentine
n ot
a ctually a F lorentine
f rom N aples:
m ove
e t m onetariis
o f
a nd m oneyers
B ulganos
f armed
M oreover,
p rivileges
f armer w as
m oneta
w ho
t hem .
i ndentures
a uthorization
r efused
o perariis
m any
m ercha gs
a ppoint
have
w hen t he
monetarios pro v oluntatem). 38 One m ore
t o
T heir
a bout s ome s tarted a n
f ind t hem a ll o ver I taly. T heir t o t heir s kill. B ut w e m ay a lso
F lorentine
m ay
i n
W e d ue
a ppoint w orkmen
B ologna i n 1 269,
c laimed
m any
d isposed
t hem t o
d ictus
n ot
o ther m ints. was c ertainly
a broad ,
S o, a llows
w as
v ery p oor a nd t bey h ad n o p rivileges; w e a lso know a nd r ebellions. 35 A s a c onsequence o f t his, t here
e vocari
o perarios s int c um
e t c onsientia predictorum d ominorum m agistrorum r acionalium a d
l aborem d icte s icle o rdinare,
privilegiis e g i ndultis i psis Brundusinis
proinde f actis non o bstantibus q uoquomodo. m oneyers
o f
t he
m int
o f
B rindisi,
w ith
T his o lder
s uggests
a nd
m ore
t raditions a nd p rivileges, c ould n ot b e e nticed t o t he k ing had g ranted s pecial p rivileges t o t hose N aples;
t his
s hows
t he
w eakness
m oneyers a nd t he f Armers, r oyal p rivileges.
who
o f
t he
C rown
t hat
t he
e stablished
N aples, e ven when who d id m ove t o
t owards
b oth
t he
r oyal
i n p ractice o btained t he a nnulment o f t he
4 u
T here w ould e xamine n ow t he
b e a l ot m ore s pecializations
t o s ay o n t he s ubject, but I w ill o f t he various c ategories o f m int
w orkmen, which p „ re a ccurately d efined i n many d ocuments f rom t he e arly 1 200s o nwards. 4i T here w e f ind a c lear d escription o f t he d ivision o f l abour
t hrough
a ll
t he
p hases
o f
m int
o perations,
r ich n omenclature, f ar b eyond t he d isti Ntion monetarii t hat w e f ind i n n orthern E urope. '
w ith
b etween
a n
e xtremely
o perarii
a nd
I n R eggio E milia i n 1 233 a n i ndenture m entions t he p resence o f : o perariorum , monetariorum, t aliatorum, s aziatorum, i nblanchi orum , f onditorum,
a finatorum ,
f abricatorum e t a liorum m ercenariorum .'4
F irst we have t he, fonditores, f usores, o r a lligatores, f or s melting. T he s melters f or t he g old i n F lorence w ere c alled a ffinatori 4 4 o r r imettitori. F rom d ocuments o f B ologna f or
t he
p oured
bullion
t he
n ecessarios s uas i psi
m etal; pro
c oinage N apoli:
t hey q uod
i n 1 200 u sed
a nd N aples
s moothed
C uria
i n 1 351 w e know t hat
s tones
t eneatur
e t
o nto
which
d ebeat
f aciendis p arvis d enariis d evehi f acere
a d
t hey
l apides e xpensas
d e Brundusio v el a lio l oco i n q uo r eperiantur e t a ssignari f acere c abelloto pro e xercicio d icte c abelle
4 7
( cabella
here
means
t he
m int,
d ist a iguished f rom s icla,
which m eant m ore p recisely t he h ouse o f
t he m int)."" T hen
w e
h ave
t he
t aliatores,
who
c ut
o peration i n F lorence i n 1 353 t he _ inventory s hears ( paria c esoiarum m agnarum). 46 T hen b lanks; o f
t he
a lso
1 353
o perarii,
o vrieri
c alled m alleatores
r ecords
f or
t heir
o r
l aborantes,
i n N aples.
b lanks; t wo
who
T he
4 7
T capsone,
w ork :
r ough r ecords
f or
p airs
t his
o f
b ig
f lattened
F lorentine
2 hammers
t he
i nventory
( martellus),
1
t assum fractum ( chopping b lock ? ). " T hen ,
t he
a ffilatores,
c orrect w eight, a lso
who
m ade
t he
b lanks
c ircular
a nd
by t rimming t hem a fter having a nnealed t hem ;
c alled amendatores
o r
a ddirizzatores;
P egolotti
s o
o f
t he
t hey w ere
d escribes
t he
d ifferent o perations: g li , uvrieri c he l avorano e d irizzano e r endono i f iedoni f atti e r icotti e r ibianchiti. 49 T he F loren q _ne i nventory o f 1 353 r ecords T he c arefully
f or t his o peration 1 8 p airs o f s cissors.
m etal
S iena o f 1 262 o f
t he
l eft
o ver
c ollected .
m int
a fter
F or
r ecommends
t o
( spazzaturam
t he
t his
t rimming
r eason ,
t he
m int
b ulgani
o f
v el
t he
a c hapter
o fficers
t o
f ornacum).
5'
b lanks
o f
t he
c ontrol I n
5 1
t o
b e
s tatutes
h ad
o f
t he
s weeping
N aples
i n
1 351
t he m int f armer had t he r ight t o a sk a r epayment f rom t he t rimmers w hen t hey wasted s ome m etal: i tem s i c ontingat i nfra d ictum t enpus e xerciis ( sic) s ui a ffilatores d evastare a liquam a rgenti e t e n s q uantitatem i n a ffilando
i n
prejudicium
d icti
t eneantur r esarcire d anpuum d anpnificatus f uerit. 52
c abelloti
i n
q uo
T hen t here w ere t he i mblanchitores, o r
t artar°.
f eccia):
P egolotti
5 3
t artaro s i
d escribes
q uod
a ffilatores
propterea
d ictus
f or b lanching,
i t
é gromma d i b otte c he
a s
w ine
s i f a
d i
At t he e nd w e have t he monetarii, c alled c uniatores o r c usores ( Naples) S ometimes e xample,
w e f or
know t he
t he
w ere t hree t russels i n
p roportion
c arlini f or
v ino,
o ne p ile,
o f
( pari c ungnorum)
t russels
i n N aples
b y
a nd
p iles I i n
c ost:
m ore
w orkmen w ere
f or t here
e t
q uod o mnes
t here w ere a lso:
c hief o f t he f urnace?), ( toppo i n I talian m eans
a ppointed :
t he
n ames
o f
4 8
a ll
t he
1 f errarius, 2 d eputati a d s tump — c hopping b lock?), 2
s taff was n ot e nough,
a re r ecorded , b oth o fficers a nd w orkmen a mong t hem , a m inistrator c arbonum . 58
b esides
2 d uctores m anticorum
t errea a d o pus d icte s icle
t he m int
q uodlibet
5 7
I n t he m int o f N aples u nder K ing R obert o f Anjou ,
but
l a
a d r acionem d e 56to rsellis t ribus pro q ualibet — e t grana x iii. I n P isa i n 1 318 a s et o f
v arious w orkmen m entioned a bove,
o ver 1 3 c arbonerii;
u sed ; 1 278
m emoria
XXXVI,
c onsisted o f o ne p ile a nd t wo t russels:
d eputati a d f aciendum v asa
I talian
5 4
C harles
a nd w e know t heir
p ar i ntelligatur p ila u na e t d uo p untelli.
( for b ellows, o r f aciendum t oppos
( in
e q uando
w ho s truck t he c oins, a lso o r affioratores ( Pisa). 55
q ualibet d ucena p ilarum n ecessarii s unt t orselli
r edacti s unt d ucena u na, p ila v alentes t arenos d ies
s truck
who u sed gromma
d regs
b otte a t enuto m igliore v ino t anto é m igliore t artaro.
i psi
c abellotus
m ore
t han
w ith
t heir
( potters), s o
t hat
a hundred
and
i n 1 326 p eople
s pecialization ;
F rom a c hapter o f p otestas p romised p er m onetam, f aciam
e t
e ar n
t he s tatutes o f S iena i n 1 262 w e know t hat t he t otum m ensem F ebruarii i ncipiam f acere c udi
c udi f aciam i n
i urare d ominos b ulgani
c ippos c udi,
A ll a mount
t ermino a d d uos
s ine a mmissione i llud f acient;
whether t he t erm c ippos r efers g enerally, w orkshops.
t oto m eo
t o
s ome
c ippos;
q uod s i v iderint q uod p ossit i t
i s
a d
d ifficult
t o
t o s ome k ind o f c hopping b lock ,
d ivision o f
t he
m int
i nto
t wo,
o r
e t
p lures o r,
s ay m ore
e ventually m ore,
5 9
t he
c raftsmen m entioned
m inted ,
w ith
s ometimes
a bove
w ere
p aid
a d ifference
i n p roportion
b etween
o perarii,
t o
t he
p aid
b y
t he w eight o f m etal w orked , a nd m onetarii, p aid by t he number o f p ieces s truck . 50 A ll o ther c ategories o f m int p ersonnel had a f ixed s alary. Engravers
were
c uneorum ;
t hey w ere
t hey w ere
a lso
1 286.
k eepers
F lorentine
6 1
i nstance
called v ery o f
t he
W hen t he t ribune,
i ncisores
o fficers
d ies
e ngravers
i n S iena i n 1 262.
R ome i n master,
i ntagliatores,
i mportant
i n
( custodes
w ere
t he
o r
m int
c uneorum)
p articularly
s culptores
a nd a s
s ometimes
i n
r equested
P isa
a broad ,
i n f or
6 2
C ola d i R ienzo,
w anted t o s tart a n ew c oinage
i n
t he m id-fourteenth c entury, h e a sked F lorence f or a m int an a ssayer and an engraver ( zeccherium peritum e t
i nstructum
a ssaggiatorem
c onsuetum
e t
e xpertum
e t
c udis
forme
s cultorem). 63 B ut i t i s q uite s urprising t o s ee t hat i n t he s ame y ears t he F lorentine m int i tself h ad s erious p roblems w ith t he e ngraver: t hough t here s hould h ave b een t wo e ngravers, i n 1 332 t here was o nly o ne i n c harge, a nd h e w as o ld a nd n early b lind , s o t hat t he c oins w ere bad a nd
f ull
o f m istakes.
An
a pprentice
w as
a ppointed
t o
l earn
t he
a rt,
but e ven t en y ears l ater, w hen C ola d i R ienzo made h is r equest, F lorentine m int had o nly o ne e ngraver. 64 A F lorentine was a lso g oldsmith c harged o f d ie e ngraving i n t he m int o f V olterra i n 1 322. W e
have
i mportant
c arlini
i ntroduced
N aples,
o pened
o n
d ata
i n
1 278
t hat
o n by
o ccasion ;
t hat w ere s ent t o h im i n R ome; w ere
n ot
c lear
c ircuitum
i n
u triusque
s culpture d ebent;
a nd
s eu
s o,
t he
t oo
t he
l ictere
i psorum
K
d ies
t he
k arolenses U t
i psos
u niforme
h ead
o f
t he
f or
n ew
c hecked
e tiam
p osite
b esides
n ew d ies,
t he
m int
t he
o f
p roofs
p er
s ecundum
t hat
i stum m odum
r eddantur,
m int
g irum
propter t he
s eu
b revitatem l egibilis
u t
c oins w ere
t o
s o t hat t he h ead o f t he f igures o n o ne t he c oat o f a rms o n t he o ther s ide: i ta
predictis c apitis predicti s cuti jt p edes p edes e iusdem s cuti r espöndeant. 6 t he
t he
i n
i mpressionis n on s unt c lare e t d istincte
f aciatis
A t
o f
Anjou
k ing h imself
r elief:
p artis
b e s truck w ith a ligned d ies ( 0°) s ide c oincided w ith t he t op o f c etero
I o f
6 5
h e d id n ot l ike t hem b ecause t he l etters
l ow
t he k ing o rdered ,
v olumus...ut
p reparation
C harles
t he t he
t here
e arumdem
w ere
e t f ormam
q uod
t he
c udi
c apita
i maginum p unte
m int
d e
i maginum
m asters
a nd
s eu
t he
w ardens. T he
masters,
c abelloti m erchants m ore
c alled
i n N aples, o r bankers
y ears,
o r who
g enerally
m agistri
o r
c onductores f armed
a fter
t he
t he
d omini
i n m int
f or
d eposit
o f
4 9
m onetae,
B ologna,
w ere
a nd
a p eriod
o f
a
s um
l arge
s ometimes
u sually o ne o f
p rivate t o
5 o r
c aution
m oney , o ften w ith t he h elp o f s everal p artners. W e h ave m any e xamples o f c ontracts o r d rafts a nd i t i s d ifficult t o s ummarize t hem : t he i mpression I g et i s t hat t here m ay b e a r eat d ifference a mong t hem i n t he g eneral t erms a nd c onditions. °7 S ome c ontracts s how g reat o pportunities f or t he m aster, e specially w hen h e i s a lso a m oneyl ender o f t he s tate, o r w hen t he s tate i s a k ing o r a b ishop. T reviso i n 1 317 t he f armer w as a d yer, w ho a lso k ept t he e xchange ; a fter a f ire i n t he m int, h e c laimed t hat t he h ouse o f t he m int s hould b e r estored b y t he c ommune, w ith m oney l ent b y h imself , t hus o btaining a n o bvious d ouble i nterest i n t he p rocess. " I n t he m ajor c ommunal m ints t here w as n ot t he s ame o pportunity f or a f armer t o m ake s uch p rofits. m int s trictly , i t m ay n ot h ave
T hus, w hen t he s tate c ontrolled t he b een p rofitable t o f arm . A pparently ,
t his w as s ometimes t he c ase a t B ologna , w here i n 1 289 t he w as v acant, s ince n obody a nswered t o t he p ublic a uction . "
m astership
A c hapter o f t he s tatutes o f P arma o f t he X IIIth c entury o rdered q uod m assarius d ebeat a d p ensionem l ocare d omum m onete, q uando m oneta n on f it, f acta prius p reconiatione i ta u t p lus o fferenti d etur . 71 S ome c ontracts b ear a v ery c onvenient c lause f or t he f armers, a ccording t o which t here w as t o b e a c omplete r epayment i n c ase o f d amage c aused by w ars, r evolutions, r iots o r r obbery : V ercelli 1 255, p ro g uerris e t o ccasionibus; B ologna 1 269, s i c ivitas Bononie esset i n a 7liquo r umore, q uod D eus a vertat(!)...commune d ebeat e i s atisfacere ... 2 T hanks t o t his c lause ( si g uerra g eneralis v el s pecialis n ovitas s eu b riga f ieret i n R egno s eu i ncursur m alandrinorum „,) i n N aples i n 1 351 t he F lorentine f armers c laimed a n e normous s um i n r ggayment, a nd i t w as d ifficult t o f ind a n a greement b etween t he p arties. " A c lause w hich i s o ften r epeated i n c ontracts, i s t he p ossibility f or t he f armer t o r esign i f t he s upply o f b ullion c eased , a nd t his i s i mportant b ecause a ll m ints w orked w ith t he m etal b rought i n b y p rivate p ersons: C uneo 1 307: S i b ona f ide e t a bsque f raude d arent o pus e t o peram a d i nveniendum b ilionum n ec i lium p ossent a liquo m odo i nvenire, e x t unc i n a ntea n on p gisint n ec d ebeant a d o perandam d ictam m onetam c ompelli n ec m olestari. "4 T he f ormula r elating t o bullion s carcity b ecomes n early a r ule f rom a bout 1 300, a nd u sually i t g oes t ogether w ith t wo o ther d ispositions. T he f irst o ne g ives t o t he f armers a nd t heir s taff t he r ight t o t ransfer a ny k ind a nd q uantity o f bullion , s ilver, c oins o r f ragments t o t he m int, a nd g ive f ree a dmittance t o t he m int t o a ll t hose who b rought m etal t o make c oins; t he s econd d isposition , o n t he o ther h and , p rohibited a ny m ovement o f b ullion o utside t he t own : V ercelli 1 255, a liquod a rgentum v el b olzonum n on p ortetur n ec e xtrahatur d e V erc211is a liquo m odo v el i ngenio s ine l icentia v el p arabola p otestatis. 7 ' A v ery i nteresting d efinition o f bullion i s g iven b y P egolotti: b uglione e b olzonaglia v uol d ire o ro e a rgento i n p iastre o i n v erghe o i n v asellamenta r otte d 'argento, o i n m oneta d 'oro o d 'argento n on c orrenti n e' l uoghi; e q uesto s 'intende b uglione s iccome c osa r otta p er d isfare o p er f ondere; e l a b olzonaglia s i ä t anto a d ire c ome
5 0
m onete p iccole n on c orsibole i n q uelli l uoghi o ve s ono p er f ondere o p er d isfare. 76 S o, t he s tatutes o f S iena i n 1 262 o rdered t hat o mnes r ectores a rtium ...non p ortent a liquod a rgentum v q4 c ambium d e f oco, n ec c rudamen n ec t ascas c ambii a d a liud b ulganum ... " B ut e very t own h ad t he s ame r ules, t hus s uggesting a n a ctive c ompetition f or t he bullion s upply . I n
t he
kingdom
o f
Naples
t hese
r ules
w ere
v ery
s trict;
n evertheless i n 1 382 a F lorentine m erchant o btained t he p ermission t o e xport s ex m ilia l ibrarum d e v eteri e t u suali p ecunia g erardinorum s ive m onete p arve q ue o h m e xpendebatur ...queve m odo p rohibita e st e xpendi i n R egno. 7 1 6 T he r ules i n t he k ingdom a re d escribed b y P egolotti: v eramente n ä o ro n ä a riento i n b uglione n e n ulla m oneta c oniata n on u sa t rarre d el r egno s alvo l a m oneta d el r e...e n on s i u sa v endere i n N apoli a ltro c he a lla z ecca d ello r e, e s e a ltra p ersona l o c omperasse f uori d ella z ecca, q uello c otale c he l o c omperasse s arebbe a lla m ercb d el r e e d el m aestro d ella z ecca d i p erdere l 'argento c he c omperato a vessi. 79 I n S iena i n t he e arly f ourteenth c entury t he s carcity o f bullion w as s uch t hat t he c ommune i tself h ad t o p rovide t he m int o fficers w ith e nough m oney f rom t he p ublic t reasury t o b uy t he m etal f or s triking c oins: ..per c agione d el d efetto d e l a p ecunia, < la q uale é b isogno a vere p er c omprare l 'ariento> , d etta m oneta p ienamente b attare n on s ia p otuta i nfino a d o ra; e t p er q uesta c agione e l b olgano q uadagno n on e be i nfino a l p resente t empo, s tatuto e t o rdinato é c he l o c amarlengo e t i iii p roveditori d el C omune d i S iena, o v ero e l c amarlengo e t l i e ssecutori d e l a C abella, s ieno t enuti e t d ebiano p restare a l i s ignori e t c amarlengo d el b olgano, d e l a p ecunia e t a vere d el C omune d i S iena, p er l a d e Ua m oneta b attare, q uella q uantitä d e l a p ecunia, l a q uale b isognerä. " B esides t he m asters, t here g eneral s upervision o f t he m int.
w ere t he w ardens, c harged w ith t he T hey a re c alled u sually s uperstantes,
but a lso guardiani ( Volterra 1 316), l audatores ( Vercelli 1 255), a pprot Wores o r s ententiatores ( Florence), c ustode s eu c ognitore ( Cuneo 1 307). °1 T heir p osition v aries a ccording t o t he d ifferent r elationship b etween t he s tate a nd t he m int m asters. W hen t he m int m asters w ere p rivate f armers, t he w ardens w ere v ery h igh o fficers i n c harge o f t he i nterests o f t he s tate; o n t he o ther h and , i n c ases l ike t he m ints o f F lorence a nd V enice, w here t he m int m asters t hemselves w ere o fficers o f t he s tate, e lected f or a s hort p eriod , t he r ole o f t he w ardens a ppears t o b e l ess i mportant .b i 2 T he e ventuality o f d isagreements b etween m asters a nd w ardens i s t aken i nto c onsideration i n s ome c ontracts, a s i n B ologna i n 1 269: e t s i d icti s uperstantes, q ui e runt s uper d icta m oneta a pprobanda, w ent i n d iscordia c um d icto d omino B itto B ulgano, c onductore m onete ... ° ' A ccording t o t heir d uties i n t he d ifferent m ints, t he m asters o r t he w ardens, o r b oth , h ad t o r ecord i n v arious b ooks a ll t he m int 's o perations, w ith t he h elp o f v arious c lerks.
5 1
S ometimes t he q uantity o f b ooks t hat h ad t o b e k ept i s i mpressive. int m asters h ad t o w rite i n 1 1 b ooks f or I n N aples i n a bout 1 350 t b9 m I n t he A ragonese m int o f I glesias, i n e ach c ycle o f o peration . °" t here w ere 8 b ooks f or e ach c ycle o f S ardinia, i n a bout 1 325, ooks t here w ere t wo s eparate a nd o perations; o f t hese 8 b ditions: o ne b y t he m aster, a nd t he o ther b y t he c ontemporaneous e his p arallel r ecording w as a ctually a f orm o f m utual c lerk , s g t hat t 5 c ontrol. A n i mportant r ole i n t he m int w as h eld b y t he a ssayers, w ho w ere o fficers o ften c hosen f rom a mong s killed g oldsmiths. T hey w ere u sually c alled a ssaggiatori, o r m agistri probe ( Naples 1 383) o r o fficialis a d s aggiaplum 1 324).
s eu
p onderandum
e t s igillandum
f lorenos
a uri
( Florence
° °
S everal k ind o f c lerks, p aid w ith a f ixed s alary . 87
e specially
s cribani,
a re
r ecorded ,
a ll
F inally , Iw ould l ike t o s ay s omething o n t he building o ccupied b y t he m int. T he t opographical p osition o f t he m int-house i n a t own o ften c orresponds t o t he c haracter o f m int i nstitutions. S o, w e m ay n ote t hat i n S iena a nd F lorence t he m int, t hat w as under s trict p ublic c ontrol, w as e xactly i n t he a rea o f t he c ommunal p alace, w I t ilst i n o ther s ituations t he m int h ad t o b e a rranged i n p rivate h ouses. " A w hole r ange o f v arious s ituations c ould b e f ound , i nvestigating t he r ich d ata r elated t o t he buildings, f rom s ecurity s ystems, b ased o n c offins ( scrinea) w ith t wo o r e ven t hree k eys, w ater s upply a nd e quipment ( usually s upplied b y t he s tate), u p t o e veryday n eeds, f rom a prons f or t he w orkmen t o c urtains f or t he w indows. A ll t his i s j ust t he t ip o f a n i ceberg w hich f urther r esearch, t hat I a m g oing t o c ontinue.
d eserves
a l ot
o f
N OTES I w ish t o t hank N icholas M ayhew , f or t he i nvitation t o t his S ymposium w hich l et m e d iscover t his i nteresting a nd q uite n eglected s ubject; D r M ichael M etcalf , f or h is p recious s uggestions a nd h elp; D r S ilvana B albi d e C aro, f or h er c onstant e ncouragement t owards m y r esearch; M essrs S antamaria , f or g enerously p ermitting m e t he u se o f t heir l ibrary . M ore t hanks t o P rofessor C arlo M . C ipolla , f or h is k ind s uggestions a fter h aving r ead t he p roofs o f t his p aper. 1 .
F or t he s tructure o f t his p aper I a m v ery m uch i ndebted t o P eter S pufford , ' Mint o rganization i n t he B urgundian N etherlands i n t he f ifteenth c entury ', i n S tudies i n N umismatic M ethod presented t o P hilip Grierson, e ds. C .N. L. B rooke, B .H.I.H. S tewart, J .G. P ollard , T .R . V olk , C ambridge 1 983, p p.239-59. S ee a lso P . S pufford , ' The g eneral o fficers o f t he B urgundian m ints i n t he N etherlands i n t he f ifteenth c entury ', J aarbock v oor M unt-en P enningkunde, 6 5-66 ( 1978-79), p p.5-14. I a m a lso i ndebted t o N icholas M ayhew , w ho g enerously l et m e r ead h is c hapter o n t he E nglish R oyal M int w hile i n p reparation f or T he H istory o f t he
5 2
M int, 2 .
e d .
C .E.
C hallis,
C ambridge 1 988.
A b rief but valuable l ist o f I talian m ints i s i n U . K lein , 'Mü nzs tätten d er S tauferzeit ( etwa 1 140-1270) i n D eutschland und I talien ',
S chweizerisches N umismatische R undschau,
5 6
( 1977),
p p.
1 71-278; a s tudy o f t he i mperial m ints o f n orthern I taly i s i n A . H averkamp, H errschaftsformen d er Frühstäufer i n R eichsitalien, S tuttgart,
I I v ol.,
1 971,
L a m onetazione c omunale
p p.559-615;
i n I talia,
s ee
a lso F .
[ Archivio
d i
P anvini
S tato
Quaderni d ella S cuola d i P aleografia e A rchivistica, o ld
l ist
i s
m edioevali ( 1916), 3 .
i n e
E .
G necchi,
m oderne',
' Nuovo
R ivista
e lenco
d elle
I taliana
d i
R osati,
d i
V ],
B ologna, 1 963.
z ecche
N umismatica,
XXIX
p p.497-524.
G . S alvioli, ' Moneta ', E nciclopedia G iuridica I taliana, X , p art I II, M ilan 1 901, p p.16-128. S ee a lso C . M . C ipolla, L e a vventure d ella l ira, M ilano 1 958 ( 2nd , B ologna 1 975); U . T ucci, ' Le m onete i n I talia ', f or a r ich m oneta.I. P avia
S toria d 'Italia ( Einaudi), 5 , T urin b ibliography, C .M . C ipolla , S tudi
I m ovimenti
1 948.
G rierson,
F or
d ei
t he
Monnaies
c ambi
c oins
d u
o f
moyen
i n
I talia
t he
d al
p eriod ,
age,
1 973, p p.535-79; d i s toria d ella
s ecolo X III i n
F ribourg
s ocietä d ell'alto M edioevo o ccidentale, C entro I taliano d i S tudi s ull'Alto M edioevo, I I,
a l
g eneral, 1 976.
XV ,
s ee
F or
t echnical n otes o n I talian m ints, F . P anvini R osati, ' La m onetaria a ltomedievale', i n Artigianato e t ecnica
4 .
An
i taliane
P .
s ome
t ecnica n ella
XVIII S ettimana d el S poleto 1 970 ( 1971),
p p.713-44.
T he C orpus Nummorum I talicorum c onsists o f 2 0 v olumes, published b etween 1 910 a nd 1 943; t he c oins o f S icily a re s till unpublished a s w ell
a s
t he
r est o f t he K ing 's c ollection ,
r elating t o
i n t he L evant a nd t he c ollection o f w eights.
F or
c oinage
a s tory
o f
t he
K ing 's c ollection , n ow c onserved i n t he C oin C abinet o f t he Museo Nazionale Romano i n Rome, s ee V . D 'Incerti, ' La raccolta numismatica d el R e', i n R ivista I taliana d i Numismatica, LXXIII ( 1971),
pp.239-62.
S ee
a lso
L .
Travaini,
' La
s toria
d ella
c ollezione d i V ittorio E manuele I II n ei c artellini a utografi p osti s otto o gni m oneta ', i n C ollezione d i V ittorio Emanuele I II d i S avoia-La
z ecca
d i
F errara,
' Carte a utografe d i I II I l
d onate n el
B dN-Monografie,
i n
t he
p ress;
E ad .,
i nteresse numismatico d el R e V ittorio E manuele
1 973
d a Umberto
C orpus Nummorum I talicorum
I I e l a
a l
Museo
N azionale
C ollezione
c he n e
R omano', ä a lla
i n
b ase
( Atti d el I V C olloquio d ell'Accademia I taliana d i S tudi F ilatelici e Numismatici d i R eggio E milia, 1 9 A prile 1 986), i n t he p ress; E ad .,
' King V ictor
E mmanuel
I II
o f I taly:
h is
c ollection a nd h is
numismatic a ctivity t hrough his l etters and notes', ( 10th I nternational Numismatic C ongress, L ondon , S ept. 1 986). F or t he numismatic l ibrary o f t he K ing , d el
B anco
d i
numismatica
S icilia d el
r e
i n
V ittorio
C ircolo Numismatic° N apoletano, 5 .
Many
d ocuments
w ere
n ow k ept by t he F ondazione M ormino
P alermo,
p ublished
s ee
E manuele
R .
V olpes,
I II',
L IX-LX ( 1974-75), i n
t he
i mportant
numismatic s tudies o f t he e ighteenth c entury, D e
m onetis
I taliae
v ariorum i llustrium
5 3
i n
' La
b iblioteca
Bollettino
d el
p p.45-85. c ollections
n amely:
F .
o f
A rgelati,
v irorum d issertationes,
M ilan
1 750-1759
m onete
e
( 6
z ecche
d ocuments
v ols);
G .A .
d 'Italia,
published
i n
Z anetti,
B ologna
t he R ivista
w ill b e m entioned
i n t he
' Per una r accolta
d i
N uova
I taliana
f ollowing n otes.
d ocumenti
r accolta
1 775-1789
r elativi
( 5
d i
S ee a lle
Many
N umismatica a lso E . I ,
( RIN)
Martinori,
m onete',
M emorie d ell'Istituto I taliano d i N umismatica,
d elle
v ols).
i n A tti
1 913,
e
p p.103-24
( for p apal m ints). 6 .
P isa:
D .
T uscany, s ecolo,
H erlihy,
' Pisan
1 150-1250',
i n
c oinage
L e
a nd
z ecche
t he
m inori
h istory
f ino
a l
o f X IV
A tti d el T erzo C onvegno I nternazionale d el C entro I taliano
d i S tudi d i S toria e d 'Arte d i P istoia 1 967 a lso
m onetary t oscane
ANSMN ,
V I,
N ew Y ork
1 954,
( 1974),
p p.143-68);
C .
p p.169-92
V iolante,
( see
' Per
l a
s toria e conomica e s ociale d i P isa n el T recento: l a r iforma d ella z ecca d el 1 318', i n B ullettino d ell'Istituto S torico I taliano, L XVI,
( 1954),
p p.129-205;
R epubblica F iorentina, f iorino 1 300,
e i i
F lorence:
q uattrino.
B ologna
1 982,
M .
B ernocchi,
F lorence 1 974-78
a nd
L a
P .
politica
G inori
L e m onete
( 4 v ols);
C .M .
m onetaria
C onti
( ed .),
d ella
C ipolla ,
a F irenze
C onstitutum
I i n el
a rtis
m onetariorum c ivitatis F lorentiae, F lorence 1 939; G enoa: G . P esce, C . F elloni, L e m onete g enovesi, G enova 1 975; V enezia: L . B uenger R obbert, ' Reorganization o f t he V enetian c oinage by d oge E nrico D andolo', S peculum , 4 9 ( 1974), p p.48-60, a nd E ad ., ' The V enetian m oney
market',
p p.3-94;
G .
1 150
t o
B onfiglio
1 229,
i n
D osio
S tudi
( ed .),
I l
d ella z ecca d i V enezia ( 1358-1556), W insemann F alghera 1 ], w hich i s a
V eneziani, " Capitolar
X III
( 1971),
d alle
Broche"
P adova 1 984 [ Bibliotheca d ocument o f t he g reatest
i nterest f or m int o rganization ; s ee a lso t he i mportant w ork o f A lan S tahl i n t he p resent v olume. I w ould l ike t o m ention h ere a r ecent s tudy o n t he p apal n ineteenth c enturies: S .
m int o f R ome i n t he e ighteenth a nd Balbi d e C aro, L . L ondei, Moneta
P ontificia, R ome 1 984; a lthough i t i s r elated t o a much l ater p eriod , i t i s i mportant a s a r are o pportunity t o c ompare w ritten a nd numismatic e vidence i n a c omplete d ocumentation b oth f or t he a rchive s ources o n t he m int a nd f or t he c oinage t hat was p roduced . 7 .
S ee
R .S.
L opez,
m illennio
d i
' Continuitä
s toria
d elle
m eridionale',
i n S tudi
p p.74-117;
V iolante,
B ari
1 974,
C .
p p.51-87
i n o nore d i L a
( 1st
A .
S olmi,
d i
nel
m edioevo:
m onetieri
G ino L uzzatto,
un
n ell'Europa
I I,
M ilan 1 950,
s ocietä m ilanese nell'etä precomunale, e d .
" Honorantie c ivitatis P apie" d ocument).
e adattamento
a ssociazioni
1 953);
C .
B rühl,
,K öln-Wien 1 983
' L 'amministrazione
C .
V iolante,
D ie
( new e dition o f
f inanziaria
d el
t he
R egno
I talico n ell'alto m edioevo',
i n B ullettino d ella S ocietä P avese d i
S toria P atria,
p p.111-27;
' I
m onetieri
( 1907),
d el
( 1931),
S äcro
pp.295-310;
n ell'Italia XXXIII
XXXI,
U .
barbarica ,
( 1920),
R omano
Monneret I I,
L a
p p.169-232.
A .
I mpero d e
L uschin v on E bengreuth,
i n
I talia ',
Villard,
l egislazione
R ecent
i n
' La
R IN ,
m onetaria ',
s urveys
o n
XXI
monetazione
I talian
i n
R IN ,
e conomic
h istory i n t he p eriod f rom n inth t o t welfth c enturies ( and t o t he n ineteenth c entury) a re i n t he v olume E conomia n aturale, e conomia m onetaria, 6 ],
e ds.,
( Einaudi),
R .
R omano,
T urin
R utenburg,
1 983 J -M .
U .
T ucci,
( see, Martin ,
[ Storia
a mong
T oubert,
V .
T oubert,
L es s tructres d u L atium m ädiäval.
5 4
D .
d 'Italia,
o thers,
e ssays
A bulafia). L e
L atium
S ee
Annali, b y a lso
P . P .
m äridional
e t
l a
S abine
d u
I Xe
a l a
o f
P alermo
f in
d u
X IIe
s iacle,
R ome
e leventh
c entury
a nd
1 973,
I ,
p p. 5 51-624. 8 .
F or
t he
s mall
m int
S icilian
m ints,
i n
t he
i ndependent
o f
t he
c entral
t he
o ther
a uthority
o f
P alermo, s ee N . L owick, ' Un r ipostiglio d i m onete d 'oro i slamiche e n ormanne d a Agrigento', i n B ollettino d i Numismatica ( BdN), 6 -7, 1 986,
p p.145-166.
F or
S alernitan c oinage o f ( 1077-85)', i n P apers
S alerno
a nd
Amalfi:
P .
G rierson ,
' The
G isulf I I ( 1052-1077) a nd R obert G uiscard o f t he British S chool a t R ome, 2 4, 1 956,
p p.37-59; P . G rierson , ' La m onetazione a malfitana n ei s ecoli X I e X II', Atti del Primo Convegno I nternazionale, Amalfi 1 973, ( Salerno, I V);
1 977),
P .
p p.217-43
B alog,
C .
( now
Mancini,
i n
P .
L ater
P etrillo
Medieval S erafin,
Numismatics, L .
T ravaini,
' Nuovi c ontributi s ul c ontenuto a ureo e l a t ipologia d el t an ', A nnali 8 1), 9 .
d ell'Istituto I taliano d i N umismatica
( AIIN),
2 7-28
i n
( 1980-
p p.155-84.
A pparently,
o ne
o f
t he
o ldest
m entions
i s
( ...de d uabus p artibus r edditum M onterii ' Le m onete e l e z ecche d i V olterra, i n R IN ,
XXII
( 1909),
p .266;
P iemonte i nedite o r are, f ind
a lso
a gain
t he
t he
t erm
f or
M ontieri,
C uneo
T urin 1 852,
b olzano
t erm z echa.
( for
I w ish
a ttempt i n s tudying t he
s teps
s ee
n ote
o f t he
V olterra s ee
i n
A .
1 218
L isini,
B erignone e C asole',
D .
p .39.
which
t o
i n
c ece...):
P romis,
Monete
d el
I n V olterra i n 1 316 w e
s ee
b elow),
t hat
t his
but
i s
i n
o nly
1 321
a f irst
d erivation o f t he w ord z ecca
i nto i ts c ommon u se i n I talian l anguage, a nd t hat f urther r esearch w ill b e n eeded t o c heck i ts o rigins a nd h istory . 1 0.
D .
P romis,
n ote. ( L .
Monete
S iena:
Z dekauer
1 262,
( ed .),
M ilan
c omune
d i
1 897, f f.);
C amerarius
o f
z echa
i n
Deputazione p .301,
d i
a nd F .
p p.389-92. N aples,
( G.B. d el
S toria t he
u se
S iena
p .225
p .448).
I ,
S iena
r eceived
P atria
n .1);
' La
p er
l a
Romagna, i n
e
l a
d ella R egia ( 1895),
X I
( 1898),
f ourteenth
c entury
o f
s icla
1 316:
w here w e
X II
i n R IN ,
w ord
V olpe,
b olognese 3 s.,
t he
q uarta
( G.
e M emorie
' La z ecca d i B ologna ', t he
f rom
V olterra
m oneta
i n A tti
d el
1 903,
c ontingente,
S ee a lso B ologna,
S alvioni,
S avigny ',
d ell'anno
c ostituto
b ulgano c ivitatis Aretii 1 964,
p .25
b ulgani
s ee b elow .
1 1.
V olterra:
1 2.
F or
t he
e idem
1 863,
d omum
I l
MCCCIX-MCCCX , bishop
i n
d i
( ed .),
t he
c it.n .9,
Malaguzzi,
F or
n el
T orino
c omune
L isini
p arte
F lorence
1 269
d el
A .
pro
q ue f uerat
i taliana
S iena,
b ulgani...in
1 258:
C ommune
( Lisini 1 909,
t raduzione
c ostituto
Arezzo
m edievale,
b olzano f ind
I l
d i
c onios
v olgarizzato
t he
p ars d e moneta
R epubblica
b ulgani;
p p.153,160;
S iena
p .179,276
T oscana
d ella
d ominos
L isini, m ints
o f
1 909 c it.n .9, n orthern
p .454,461;
I taly,
s ee
B ologna:
P anvini
s ee n .10.
R osati,
c it.
n .2.
F or t he m int o f G enoa w e h ave t wo c ontracts o f m int f armers a lready i n 1 141 a nd 1 149 ( Pesce, F elloni, c it.n .6, p p.265-79). T he y ear
1 140
i s
o nly
a c onventional
c oincidence o f t he e vent o f o f n ew m ints i n t he n orth.
t he
5 5
m oment
r eform
i n
t hat
S icily,
I c hose a nd
t he
f or
t he
g rowth
1 3.
T he
o nly w ritten c ontemporary
c hronicler
F alco
m onetaria
d i
m eridionale
o f
s ource
B enevento:
Ruggero
I I
t ra X e X II
e
r elated
c f
l a
L .
t o
t he
c ircolazione
s ecolo',
r eform i s
T ravaini,
i n R IN ,
' La
m inuta
LXXXIII
t he
r iforma
i n
( 1981),
I talia p p.133-
5 3. 1 4.
L .
T ravaini,
( 1985),
' Two
h oards
p p.177-208;
P .
o f
S icilian
G rierson ,
N orman
A .W .
t an ',
O ddy,
S icilien d u m ilieu d u X Ie s i6cle a 1 278,
i n
NC ,
' Le
t itre
6 5
( 1974),
i n RN ,
d u
1 45 t ani
p p.123-
3 4. 1 5.
L . T ravaini, r ipostiglio d i M ontecassino e l a m onetazione a urea d ei n ormanni i n S icilia ', i n B ollettino d i N umismatica, 6 -7 ( 1986),
1 6.
T he
p p.167-198.
s pecialization
t hat,
where
t he
t he s ilver, T ravaini,
o f
t he
P .
' Le
monete
G rierson ,
' Pegged
h istory o f d ie 1 05,
w ith
m ints
i s
m ay
w ritten ,
a nd M essina o n t he c opper: a rgentee
B ollettino d i Numismatica, 1 7.
t wo
m int-name
6 -7
s ome
d ei
r evision
i n
a lways
o n
S erafin P etrillo,
L .
d i
S icilia',
i n
p p.97-126. d ies:
t heir
6 th s eries,
H .E.
o bserving P alermo
N ormanni
c oin
i n NC ,
a ssumed by i s
s ee P .
( 1986),
V enetian
a djustment ',
b e
t his
I ves
p lace
X II
( and
P .
i n
( 1952),
t he
p p.99-
G rierson),
T he
V enetian g old d ucat a nd i ts i mitations, ANSMN 1 28, N ew Y ork 1 954, p p.33-4. T he p ossibility o f a manual, a nd n ot m echanical, d ie adjustment T ravaini,
i s s uggested, f or t he c arlini of Naples, i n L . r ipostiglio d i O schiri', i n BdN , 1 ( 1983) p .60, a nd
E ad ., r ipostiglio d i M ontecassino', c it. n .15, o n t he m odel o f w hat s till happens i n a ll o ur o ffices, where a c lerk c an s tamp hundreds o f p apers i n t he u pright p osition , b ecause b ears o n t he t op a m ark i ndicating t he u pright s ide! 1 8.
S alvioli,
1 9.
Z anetti, c it. n .5, p p.123-5; f or t he ' The
c it.
o rigins
n .3,
o f
I V, p .411 n .274. T uscan l eague o f
t he
g rosso
2 0.
Z anetti,
2 1.
S ee a d ocument o f 1 278, I nnsbruck , f ineness, s iclis
a nd
X II
o f
F or o ther l eagues, a bout 1 230 s ee P . g old
( 1971-72)
c oinage
( also
i n
i n
S alvioli, G rierson , I taly ',
Later
i n
Medieval
p .423.
1 880,
I ,
i n A cta I mperil I nedita,
p .767;
i t
g ives
a lso
e d .
E .Winkelmann ,
i nformation
o n
t he
t he c ost f or a m ercator q ui f acit l aborari a urum s uum i n
( of
B rindisi' and M essina),
t he w eight
s tandards
u sed,
t he
c ost o f s melting a nd b lanching,
a nd t he p ay o f q uilibet o perarius
pro q uolibet m arclo d enariorum ,
a nd t he p ay o f q uilibet m onetarius
pro q ualibet 2 2.
s tamp
p p.53-66.
Numismaticky S bornik, Numismatics, X ), p .38. I V,
t he
G .
M .
N apoli
M onti, 1 928,
[ gaczia] Z ecche, p .14
d enariorum , m onete e
( this
B ollCircNumNapoletano,
b ook ( 1925)
p p.13-47).
5 6
q uam c udit e t m onetat i n s icla.
l egislazione
i s
c omposed
p p.33-56;
o f
monetaria
a ngioina,
4 a rticles
( 1927)
p p.7-22;
f rom
t he
( 1928)
2 3.
I bid .,
p p.49-51.
s ources A .
o n
F or
t he m ints
S ambon published
o f
edition,
t he
d ivision
o f
o f t he k ingdom i n
a bout
d ivided
i n
l abour
o f
1 920,
S icily
w ithout
c hapters,
s ee a re
t itle,
namely:
b elow . i n
t he
d ate
O ther w ork b y
a nd p lace
Normanni,
Svevi,
Angioini. 2 4.
T hus
i n
C uneo
i n
1 307
( Promis,
c orporations o f m oneyers 2 5.
G . B iscaro, i n R IN , X IX s ulla
c it.
s ee L opez,
n .9,
c it.
p p.37-42).
z ecca
F .
pavese',
Malaguzzi
( 1894), 2 7. 2 8.
t he
' Altri d ue d ocumenti s ulla z ecca pavese ( 1160-1202)', ( 1906), p p.429-36; I d ., ' Un d ocumento d el s ecolo X II i n
RIN,
XVIII
( 1905),
pp.277-83;
C iapessoni, ' Nuovi d ocumenti s ulla z ecca p avese', i n d ella S ocieta P avese d i S toria P atria, 1 907, p p.155-74. 2 6.
F or
n .7.
Valeri,
' La
z ecca
d i
R eggio
E milia ',
P .
B ollettino
i n
R IN ,
V II
p p.490-3.
F or F lorence s ee b elow . Z dekauer,
c it.
n .10,
P isa:
p .155;
V iolante,
t he
c it.
n .6,
p .140.
t erm d esuper e t d esubtus p robably
r efers t o s ome h ierarchic p osition o f t he m int p ersonnel. 2 9.
I bid .,
p .158.
3 0.
I bid .,
p .155.
3 1.
I bid .,
p .161 n .l.
3 2.
G inori C onti,
c it.
3 3.
G inori C onti,
p .19.
3 4.
L isini 1 909,
3 5.
B ernocchi,
3 6.
S ee
c it.
I II,
f or e xample
n .6,
n .9,
p .xi;
B ernocchi,
The
n .6,
I II,
p p.12-38.
p p.446-7.
p .29. t he
l ist
o f
n ames
1 401 w ith t wo T uscan m int f armers, 3 7.
c it.
F lorentine
moneyers
h ereditary s uccession ,
o f m int c it.
o btained
p ersonnel
i n N aples
i n
a bove n .23.
i n
1 372
the
privilege
o f
but a pparently i t was o nly a d emagogic a ct;
B ernocchi,
I II,
p .15.
3 8.
Malaguzzi,
c it.
n .10,
3 9.
M onti,
4 0.
F or t he p rivileges o f t he m oneyers o f B rindisi s ee a bove a nd n .21.
4 1.
A ll
c it.
m int
B ologna
n .22,
p .24.
o perations of
M alaguzzi,
1 209, c it.
p .389-95.
a re
an
n .10,
a ccurately
o ath
o f
p p.384-7;
e quipment o f t he y ear 1 200.
5 7
t he
d escribed
i n
s uperstantes
o n p .382
t here
i s
a of
d ocument t he
o f
mint;
a n i nventory o f
4 2.
S pufford ,
' Mint o rganization ',
4 3.
Malaguzzi Valeri,
4 4.
B ernocchi,
4 5.
M onti, c it. n .22, p .24. B ologna 1 200: t he i nventory r ecords t hat t res l apides a d f aciendas v irgas a rgen t eas w ere i n d omo f iliorum
c it.
S cannabicci p .383).
( Bernocchi, m int
o f
b anchi 1 959,
n .6,
i n
S ee
c it.
I II,
o perabatur F lorence,
moneta
1 353:
T hese
1 3
( Malaguzzi, p aria
s tones
( C.
a re
p art I ,
c it.
l apidum
a lso
T rasselli,
i n S icilia n el XV s ecolo,
d a
n .10, g ittare
m entioned
f or
t he
N ote p er l a s toria d el
Z ecche e monete,
P alermo,
p .121).
4 7.
S ee a bove a nd n .23.
4 8.
B ernocchi,
4 9.
F .
I II,
I II,
B alducci
C ambridge, 5 0.
B ernocchi,
5 1.
Z dekauer,
5 2.
M onti, Gromma, De
p .241.
p .488.
i n 1 460
B ernocchi,
gromma
n .1,
p .12.
p .41).
M essina
4 6.
5 3.
I II,
q ue
a lso
n .26,
c it.
p .41.
p .41.
P egolotti,
Mass., I II, c it.
c it.n . f or
L a
1 936,
Pratica
p p.83,
1 91;
d ella
M ercatura,
e d .
A .Evans,
1 59.
p .41. n .11,
n .22,
p .154. p .23.
i nstance,
( Bernocchi,
l a P irotechnia,
i n
I II,
F lorence
p .40).
V enice
1 558,
i n
1 353:
1 t inellus
T artaro
i n B iringuccio
p .133:
..nel
d a
t enere
Vannuccio,
b ianchimento o ltre
a l t artaro e s ale, p erchb m eglio b ianchischino, v i s i m ette a lq uanto l ume d i r occa... I n N aples i n 1 278, a mong t he e xpenses f or t he nova l ibris d e
d enariorum m oneta f acienda: pondere, q ue s unt d e n umero
l ibre
i n s ingulis c entum c entum L XXV , e st
n ecessarius medius t humbulus d e t artaro e t s exta p ars t humbuli s ale ( Acta I mperii, c it. n .21, p .765). F ecza ( Italian f eccia)
d e i s
m entioned i n t he m int o f M essina i n 1 460 f or t he p roduction o f p iccoli, whilst i n 1 466, f or t he p roduction o f g old r eali, w e f ind t he u se o f a lume a nd a ceto ( vinegar) ( Trasselli, c it. n .42, p p.148-58). 5 4. 5 5.
P egolotti, F or
p .380.
N aples
s ee
a bove.
P isa
( Violante,
c it.
n .6,
p .203):
a ffio-
r atores s ive c uditores. 5 6.
A cta Imperii,
5 7.
V iolante,
c it.
C .
V .
5 8.
P rota,
n apoletana.
p .765. n .6,
p .203.
M orelli, L a
' Documenti
p olitica
BolCircNumNapoletano,
p er
m onetaria
( 1923),
5 8
d i
p p.22-8
l a
s toria
C arlo ( it
i s
I II
d ella d i
numismatica
D urazzo',
a d ocument
o f
i n 1 383
w hich r eports a c harter o f 1 326). 5 9.
Z dekauer,
c it.
6 0.
F or t he p ay o f t he w orkmen o f B rindisi a nd M essina s ee a bove n .21. S ee S pufford ,
n .10,
p .157.
M int o rganization ,
6 1.
V iolante,
6 2.
A bove,
6 3.
C . S erafini, ' L ' autoritä p ontificia n eu e m onete d el S enato R omano ', i n A tti e M emorie d ell'Istituto I taliano d i N umismatica, I ,
c it.
n .6,
p .241.
p .177.
a nd n .30.
1 913,
p .138.
6 4 .
B ernocchi,
I II,
p p.8,25.
6 5.
L isini 1 909,
6 6.
S ambon , ' Angioini', c it. n .23, p p.146-7; T ravaini, ' Ripostiglio d i O schiri', c it. n .17, p .58. M any i nteresting d ocuments o n t he m int a re i n t he v arious v olumes o f t he c ollection I R egistri d ella
c it.
n .9,
p p.293,295,456,460.
C ancelleria A ngioina, ( ricostruiti d a R iccardo F ilangieri c on l a c ollaborazione d egli A rchivisti N apoletani) [ Testi e D ocumenti p ubblicati d all'Accademia P ontaniana ], N apoli - w ith v ery g ood i ndices. 6 7.
F or t he v arious t ypes o f c ontracts s ee S alvioli, c it. n .3, p p.1031 0. I t i s i mpossible t o l ist t hem h ere; a mong t hem s ee: B ologna a nd V olterra , a bove n .10; G enoa , n .12; N aples a nd B rindisi, M onti, c it. n .22; C uneo a nd V ercelli, P romis, c it . n .9, p p.37-50.
6 8.
S ometimes t he m int a nd e xchange w ere k ept i n t he s ame p lace, d id n ot i nvestigate t he s ubject .
6 9.
Q .
7 0.
S alvioni,
7 1.
P . I . 1 351:
7 2.
P romis,
7 3.
M onti,
7 4 .
P romis,
p .39.
7 5.
P romis,
p .50.
7 6.
P egolotti,
7 7.
Z dekauer,
7 8.
P rota ,
P erini,
L e m onete d i T reviso, c it.
n .10,
R overeto,
n .9,
p .49.
M alaguzzi,
p .20.
p .17. c it.
M orelli,
n .10, c it.
p p.64-7.
p p.302-8.
A ff6, L a z ecca e m oneta p armigiana, s icla s ubbastata ( Monti, c it. n .22, c it.
1 904,
but I
p .160. n .58,
p .21.
5 9
c it.
P arma 1 788, p .22).
n .10,
p .392.
p .33.
N aples
7 9.
P egolotti,
8 0.
L isini,
8 1.
D ocuments q uoted a bove.
8 2.
F or
p p.182-3.
c it.
t he
n .10,
w ardens
p p.180 e 3 13.
s ee
t he
s ame
d ocuments
q uoted
f or
V ery i nteresting i s t he o ath o f t he s uperstantes 1 209v , i n Malaguzzi, c it. n .10, p .384. 8 3.
Malaguzzi,
8 4.
M onti,
8 5.
S aggio d i l ona.
c it.
n .32,
1 323-1396,
e d .
G .
0 11a
F onti
e
S ussidi
C orona d e Aragon"
R epetto,
R ome
1 975
d i B arcel[ Ministero
P ubblicazioni d egli A rchivi d i
V III-Archivio
d i
S tato
d i
C agliari],
p p.107-17; s ee a lso C . G iorgioni M ercuriali, ' La z ecca politica monetaria', Appendix t o M . Tangheroni, La d ell'argento. I glesias N apoli 1 985, p p.405-441. 8 6.
P rota ,
8 7.
S iena 1 262:
8 8.
S iena :
o f
p .39.
p er i B eni C ulturali e Ambientali. S tato.
m asters.
B ologna
p .392.
F onti d ell'"Archivo d e l a
A nni
t he o f
M orelli,
c it.
Z dekauer,
d alle
o rigini
a lla
n .58,
p .24;
B ernocchi,
c it.
n .10,
p .155.
s ee L e B iccherne,
f ine
I II,
d el
e l a c ittä
M edioevo,
p p.9-10.
T avole d ipinte d elle m agistrature
s enesi
( secoli X III-XVIII), e d . L . B orgia, E . C arli, M .A . C eppari, N . M orandi, P . S inibaldi, C . Z arrilli, R oma, 1 984, p .4. F irenze: B ernocchi,
I II,
p p.2-5.
6 0
' The K ing 's P rofit ':
T rends
i n E nglish M int a nd M onetary
P olicy i n t he E leventh a nd T welfth C enturies P amela N ightingale, ' I t hat T his
have
s aid
o nce
f or
a ll
a nd
i t i s t he k ing 's p rofit t hat a ssertion i n t he D ialogue o f
i t
O xford
must
b e
understood
t hroughou t
i s s erved i n a ll t hese m atters.' t he Exchequer , was w ritten b etween
1 176 a nd 1 179 when H enry I I's T ealby o r C ross-and-Crosslets c oinage w as s till c urrent. I t i s E nglish m onetary a nd
a c omment which m inting s ystem
e xceptional
r oyal
d egree
o f
c ontrol
c ould have b een f rom t he t enth
which
m ade a bout c entury.
c haracterised
i t,
t he T he
a nd
i ts
e xploitation f or r oyal p rofit, a re t he k ey t o understanding m ost o f t he c hanges which t ook p lace i n m onetary p olicy a nd t he o rganisation o f t he m ints
i n t he e leventh a nd t welfth c enturies. W ere,
which
t hough,
u shered
P rofessor
a s
i n
W .L .
s ome
t he
c ommentators
Tealby
Warren ,
l ie
c oinage
b iographer
c laim , an
t he
r eforms
exception
o f
H enry
I I,
t o
o f
t his
was
1 158 rule?
s ummarising
D erek A llen 's c onclusions when h e w rote t hat t he r eforms o nly d rew a s mall f raction o f t he p rofits f rom c oining a nd e xchanging t o t he r oyal t reasury, a nd t hat i t was n ot until 1 180 t hat s atisfactory r oyal c ontrol was a pplied t o t he c oinage. I t was, h e judged , ' a makeshift, a u seful but c lumsy m easure whi l l s peaks
o f a g overnment n ot a s y et
a ble
t o undertake c entral c ontrol'. The
r eforms,
a ccession ,
a fter
c ontrol o f s ome
of
c ourse,
a l ong
c ame
p eriod
o f
within
c ivil
o f t he p rovincial m ints
h ad c irculated .
T he
m ain
f our
w ar
i n
years
which
H enry's
C rown
a nd i n which baronial
c hange which H enry made
t he r egular i ssues o f n ew t ypes c oinage s ince t he t enth c entury.
o f
t he
i n
1 158
l ost
c oinages
was
t o
e nd
which had c haracterised t he E nglish I n a ddition t here was a p rogressive
r eduction i n t he number o f m ints f rom t hirty i n 1 158 t o e leven i n 1 180. A lso
i n
1 158
t he
o ld
f amilies
o f
p rivileged
m oneyers
w ere
d ismissed ,
a lthough many o f t hem h ad p robably s erved t he m ints f or g enerations. T heir p lace w as t aken b y n ew m en . F inally t here was a n i ncrease i n t he w eight o f t he s terling p enny f rom c . I n v iew ,
1 180,
h owever,
p ointed c learly
f urther t o
t he
k ing i mported f oreign w orkers
1 .39g .
c hanges
w eaknesses
t o c .
w ere o f
1 .46g . 4"
m ade
t he
which,
e arlier
f rom N ormandy whom h e
i n
A llen 's
r eforms.
e mployed t o
T he s trike
t he n ew S hort-Cross c oinage. H e a lso p rovided t he c apital f or a n ew n etwork o f r oyal e xchanges i n t he m int-towns which w ere s upervised b y m en
e mployed
c hanges
was
by
t he
t hat
a s
C rown .
I n
r evenue f rom t he m ints h ad b ecome m ints
a nd
c ompared
o ccasional w ith
t he
A llen 's
a c onsequence t axation
p rofits
o f
m oneyers
t he
1 158
i nsignificant,
o f m oneyers
which
v iew
t he
f or
t he
t hese
C rown 's
b ecause t he f arming o f
b rought m ade
r eason
r eforms i n
b y
a t rivial
e xchanging
i ncome f oreign
s ilver f or E nglish c oin .5 T he r eforms o f 1 180 w ere t herefore i ntended t o o btain f or t he C rown t he p rofits o f e xchanging , a nd ' the m ain i ncome o f t he C rown w as t o b e e xchanging o f m oney , .6
d erived
n ot
f rom
t he
P rofessor W arren n aturally c oncluded f rom s urvey o f t he s ubject,
t hat t he r eforms o f 1 158
6 1
m aking,
t his,
t he
but
f rom
t he
a uthoritative
i llustrated t he C rown 's
w eakness r ather t han a c oinage m anaged f or t he k ing 's p rofit. I t i s m y c ontention , o n t he c ontrary, t hat t hey r eflect t he r ecovery o f t he C rown 's f ull a uthority o ver t he m ints a nd H enry I I's c onception o f h ow t hey c ould b est s erve h is f inancial i nterests i n t he m onetary c ircumstances o f t he t ime. T o u nderstand t his w e m ust s ee t he r eforms o f 1 158 w ithin t he c ontext o f t he C rown 's w hole m int, m onetary a nd f iscal p olicy d uring t he p receding c entury a nd a h alf . F irst, h owever, w e m ust c onsider t he q uestion o f t he C rown 's s upposed w eakness i n 1 158 w hich c ould h ave p revented i t f rom t aking c ontrol o f t he m ints. T his c onclusion s eems t o c onflict d irectly w ith t he f act t hat t he k ing w as a ble t o d ismiss a ll t he o ld m oneyers a nd t o f ine t hem , w ithout a ny a pparent o pposition o r p ublic c omment. 7 S ome o f t hese m en w ere v ery p rominent i n t heir c ommunities. F or e xample, T heoderic, t he s on o f D eorman , w ho b elonged t o a n i mportant f amily o f L ondon m oneyers a nd s truck c oins u p t o 1 158, h ad b een a j usticiar o f L ondon u eer S tephen a nd w as m arried t o a r elation o f t he E arl o f P embroke. ° O nly a k ing c ertain o f h is p ower a nd c onvinced o f h is p rofit w ould h ave t aken t he r isk o f a lienating s uch a m an , a nd o thers l ike h im , w hen t he l oyalty o f L ondoners w as a m atter o f i mportance t o t he C rown . F urthermore, P rofessor Warren 's o wn a ccount o f H enry 's a chievements i n t he f irst f our y ears o f h is r eign c onflicts w ith h is c onclusion t hat h e w as u nable t o r e-assert h is a uthority o ver t he m ints. W e s ee t hat H enry l ost n o t ime i n r estoring t he f ull a uthority o f t he C rown . T he b arons w ere d eprived o f t he c astles t hey h eld b y ' a b old a nd c hallenging m ove' w hich ' struck a t t he h eart o f b aronial c ontrol o f t he p rovinces' .9 T he C rown i nsisted o n t he r estoration o f i ts o wn p roperty , a nd a nyone w ho c ontinued t o e njoy i t d id s o b y r oyal f avour o n p recisely d efined t erms. I n 1 157 H enry w on h is f inal v ictory o ver t he b arons w hen h e d eprived H ugh B igod a nd W illiam o f B lois o f t heir c astles a nd o f t heir c ontrol o f E ast A nglia . ' Henry 's m asterful a ction ', c ommev s P rofessor W arren , ' is i ndicative o f t he d ominance h e h ad a chieved '.." " B y t he f ollowing y ear h e h ad a lso w on b ack f rom t he K ing o f S cotland t he c ounties o f C umberland, W estmorland a nd N orthumberland , a nd a fter a m ilitary w edition t o W ales h e a lso s ecured t he h omage o f t he W elsh p rinces. " I n c omparison w ith t hese a chievements t here c ould b e l ittle d ifficulty i n a sserting h is a uthority o ver t he m ints, a nd h is d ismissal o f t he o ld m oneyers s hows t hat h e w as i n h is w ay .
u nwilling
t o
a llow c ustom ,
s entiment
o r
' rights'
t o
s tand
T he m ost o bvious e xplanation , t herefore, f or t he r eforms o f 1 158 i s t hat t hey r eflect H enry I I's v iew o f h is f inancial i nterests a s h e s aw t hem i n t he c ircumstances o f t hat t ime, w hich m ight n ot h ave b een t he s ame a s t hose o f 1 180, o r t hose o f t he e leventh c entury. W hat H enry I I h ad i nherited , l argely i ntact, i f b attered b y t he c ivil w ar, w as a s ystem o f l ocal m ints a nd a b ody o f m oneyers w hich h ad b een c reated t o s erve a d ifferent m onetary a nd n umber o f l ocal m ints c reated b y E dgar 's
f iscal r eform
s ystem . T he l arge w as o nly j ustified
f inancially b y t he p olicy h e a lso i nitiated o f f requent r ecoinages c oupled w ith t he c omplex m anipulation o f t he w eight o f t he p enny . T here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat i ts p urpose w as t o s erve r oyal p rofit, a nd t hat b y v arying t he w eight o f t he p enny t he m ints w ere b eing u sed
6 2
a s p art o f t he f iscal s ystem . S uch a s ystem d emanded t he c losest c ontrol a nd s upervision , a nd t o a dminister i t a b ody o f r oyal m oneyers h ad b een c reated w ho w ere p aid b y t he C rown a nd w ho c ould m ove a bout f rom m int t o m int a s t hey w ere n eeded . T here i s e vidence t hat s uch a b ody o f p rivileged r oyal m oneyers w as o rganised f rom c entres l ike L ondon a nd W inchester, a nd t hat t hey w ere c ontrolled b y h igh-ranking o fg cials o r m inistri, w ho w ere g ranted r oyal e states f or t heir s ervices. ' I n t he c ourse o f t he e leventh c entury t he m onetary s ystem t hey s erved was m odified by t he Danish and N orman c onquerors. T hey a bandoned t he v arying w eight-standard o f c oinage o f a s table w eight a nd f ineness, i ntegrate t he p ossessions. 13
t he p enny i n f avour o f a w hich m ade i t p ossible t o
E nglish m onetary s ystem w ith t hat o f t heir o versea W hen t his h appened , t he c oinage c eased t o h ave t he s ame
f iscal p urpose, a nd a lmost c ertainly t he C rown 's m ain p rofit w as d erived f rom t he e xaction o f a s tandard m inting f ee f rom e very p ound o f s ilver. T his m ade i t p ossible t o f arm o ut s ome m ints t o l ocal m oneyers o r t owns, b ut p robably m ost o f t he m ints w ere s till r un b y r oyal m oneyers 1 4 T he
c omposition o f
t he
l ate
S axon h oards
a lso
s uggests
t hat
f rom
t he r eign o f E dward t he C onfessor, m ost p robably f rom 1 051, i t w as n o l onger c ompulsory f or a ll c oins t o b e e xchanged f or n ew o nes w hen f resh t ypes w ere i ssued , a nd t herefore c oins o f m ore t han o ne t ype c irculated t ogether. 15 I t s eems l ikely t hat t he k ing r equired t hat h is d ues s hould b e p aid i n c oin o f t he l atest t ype, a s t he D ialogue t ells u s w as t he c ase i n t he t welfth c entury . T he o nly e xceptions t hen w ere t he t hree n orthern c ounties o f C umberland , W estmorland a nd N orthumpprland w hich h ad n o m ints a nd h ad t o g et t heir c oins w here t hey c ould . T he r equirement t hat r oyal d ues s hould b e p aid i n c oin o f t he l atest t ype w as p robably m eant t o p rotect t he C rown f rom r eceiving t hose p ayments w hich w ere c alculated a d n umerum , o r b y t ale, i n w orn c oins o f l ighter w eight, b ut i t a lso h ad t he e ffect o f d rawing m oney t o t he m ints. W hile t his w as t he C rown 's p olicy, i t w as n ecessary t o m aintain a g ood n umber o f l ocal m ints, but i f , a s t he h oards s uggest, i t w as n o l onger o bligatory f or a ll c oins t o b e e xchanged , t hen t hese m ints must h ave b ecome l ess p rofitable. T here w as a s triking r eduction i n t he n umber o f m oneyers a t f our o g the five major mints after 1051, which probably r eflects t his c hange. 1 7 I t i s a lso l ikely t hat t he a bolition o f t he h ergeld a ltered t he m inting p attern s ince t he m uch l arger n umber o f m oneyers a t L ondon b efore 1 051 p robably r eflected t he p ayments t o t he S candinavian m ercenaries w ho w ere s tationed t here. T he r eduction i n t he n umber o f m ints, t hough , b ecomes m ost o bvious i n t he r eign o f H enry I . A t l east s ixty-five m ints a re k nown t o h ave s truck t he C onqueror 's P axs t ype. 18 T hey w ere r educed t o f orty-six b y H enry I 's T ype X IV a nd e ven m ore r emarkably t o n ineteen i n h is s ucceeding T ype X V . 19 I t s eems t herefore t hat b y t he 1 130 's a n i mportant, i f i nvoluntary, c hange h ad t aken p lace i n t he C rown 's m inting p olicy . T here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat i ts c ause, w hich a lso c ontributed t o t he m onetary c rises o f t he r eign , w as a n i ncreasing s hortage o f s ilver. I t i s l ikely t hat t his w as d ue t o t he e xhaustion o f t he s ilver m ines i n t he H arz m ountains, s ince i t a lso b ecomes
6 3
a pparent i n m ost o f t he c oinages o f n orthern E urope a t t his t ime. W e
c an
b e
c onfident
t hat
i t
w as
t his,
c oupled
w ith
t he
2 °
k ing 's
e xpenditure o f E nglish s ilver i n N ormandy , w hich e xplains t he m onetary c risis o f 1 124, w hen t he A nglo-Saxon C hronicle r ecords t hat t he c oinage b ecame s o b ad t hat a p ound w ould n ot b uy t welve p ennyworth o f g oods i n t he m arket. 21 T his w as o bviously a n e xaggerat42n , f or i t i s n ot s upported b y t he c ondition o f t he s urviving c oins, " a lthough i t m ay b e p artly e xplained b y t he h igh p rices o f f oodstuff f ollowing a d isastrous h arvest. 23 T he
k ing
n onetheless
s ought
s capegoats
i n
t he
m oneyers,
o r
m ore
l ikely t heir workmen, and i nflicted on t hem s avage punishment, a lthough , s ays t he C hronicle, ' many h onest m en e aid t hat a g reat . i n justice h ad b een d one i n e xecuting m any o f t hem ' 2 4 T he w ay i n w hich t his w as s tage-managed , w ith t he m aximum p ublicity , c ould h ave b een i ntended m erely a s a w arning t o t heir s uccessors, but i t i s p ossible t hat i t c oncealed a nother m otive. The D ialogue l inks w ith an a gricultural a nd m onetary c risis, l ike t hat o f 1 124, t he k ing 's d ecision t o a ttach t o t he f arms o f t he c ountiRg a n a dditional f ixed p ayment, a d s calem , o f s ixpence i n t he p ound . " T his i s t he f irst i ndication o f t he E xchequer 's l evying a n ew c entral t ax o n p ayments t o t he C rown , a nd i t c ould b e t hat H enry I u sed t he m onetary c risis o f 1 124 t o j ustify i t. T he P ipe R oll o f 1 130, t hough , s hows t hat b y t hat y ear p ayments b y t he s heriffs a d s calem h ad b een r eplaced b y p ayments a d p ensum , b y w eight, a nd i n s ome c ases b y p ayments i n a ssayed o r b lanched s ilver . P ayments f rom i ndividual m anors b y w eight, o r i n b lanched c oin a nd bullion , a re f airly c ommon i n D omesday B ook ,1 a nd a t l east o ne o f t he l atter d ates f rom t he C onfessor's r eign . '6 T here i s n othing t o s uggest, t hough , t hat t he c oin w as a ssayed c entrally , a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he l ocal m ints p erformed t his t ask f or t he s heriff . 27 T he m anors c harged w ith b lanched p ayments a re s cattered t hroughout t he c ounties, a nd t here i s n o e vidence t hat t he s heriff h ad t o m ake b lanched p ayments f or t he f arm o f t he c ounty a s a w hole. T his i s p robably w hat t he a uthor o f t he D ialogue m eant b y h is o bviously w oneous s tatement t hat t here i s n o m ention i n D omesday o f b lanch f arm ."' A ccording
t o
t he
D ialogue
i t
w as
R oger
o f
S alisbury
w ho
a dvis 0
H enry I t o e xtend t he b lanching s ystem t o t he f arms o f t he c ounties, " a nd w e c an s ee f rom t he 1 130 P ipe R oll t hat t he C rown w as d educting a s hilling i n t he p ound f or b lanched p ayments, o r a llowances, t o t he s heriffs o ut o f t he E xchequer. " G rants o f b lanched p ayments s ubjects s eem t o h ave b een a t t he r ate o f o nly s ixpence i n t he p ound ."' T he 1 130 P ipe R oll a lso r eveals, i n R ound 's w ords, ' a t endency t o r educe a ll t he f erms t o ä " blanch" d enomination ; t hat i s t o s ay t hat t he b alance l eft o utstanding i s n ormally g iven i n " blanch" m oney , a nd a ccounted f or a ccordingly i n a s ubsequent y ear '. T he n ormal m ethod o f p aying i n m oney , t hough, w as a d p ensum , w ith o nly t he s heriffs o f L ondon a nd S taffordshire p aying i n t heir s ilver b lanched . 32 T he l ack o f a ny s urviving P ipe R olls b etween 1 130 a nd 1 156 m eans t hat w e h ave l ittle k nowledge o f t he C rown 's f inancial p olicy i n t his p eriod w hich o f c ourse i ncludes t he r eign o f S tephen a nd t he c ivil w ar .
6 4
B ut
i t
i s
c lear
f rom
t he
P ipe
R oll
o f
1 156
t hat
t he
C rown
w as
t hen
u niformly e nforcing t he p ayment o f b lanched m oney i nto t he E xchequer b y t he s heriffs w ith t he e xception o f 1 5e ven c ounties. B y 1 158 t hese e xceptions h ad b een r educed t o f ive, s o t hat i t w as c learly H enry I I's i ntention t o p rotect t he v alue o f h is r evenues fv sm t he s heriffs' f arms b y s ubjecting t hem t o a n a ssay a t t he E xchequer.' 4 T here c an b e n o d oubt, t hough , t hat t he s heriffs c ontinued t o m ake a n a dditional p ayment o f a s hilling i n t he p ound t o s atisfy b lanched p ayments, e ven i f t heir c oin w as o f s terling s tandard , s ince a ny p aymeuts w hich w ere c redited t o t heir a ccount w ere b lanched a t t his r ate. 35 I t a ppears f rom a c harter o f 1 228 t hat t he s heriff c ompensated h imself b y t aking a n e xtra s hilling i n t he p ound f rom t he t axpayers ' for t he b lanching ' 36 H ence w hat h ad b een a t erm u sed o riginally o nly f or a n a ccounting t ransaction c ame t o m ean a lso a n a ssay . T ogether s urcharge a nd t he a ssay a t t he E xchequer t ook t he p lace o f w hat C rown h ad p reviously g ained f rom i ssuing n ew c oin-types n amely , f ees c ollected a t t he m ints f rom t hose t axpayers w ho w ere f orced e xchange t heir o ld c oin f or n ew , a nd a lso a t est o f t he q uality o f c oinage.
t he t he t he t o t he
I n a ddition H enry I I m ade a nother s ignificant c hange i n r aising t he w eight o f t he s terling p enny f rom c . 1 .39 g . t o c .
1 158 b y 1 .46 g .
I h ave
o f
a rgued
e lsewhere
t hat
t his
r eflects
h is
i ntroduction
T roy
w eight-standards i nto E ngland i n p lace o f t he R oman w eight-standards i ntroduced b y C nut. T he c hange i n 1 158 w as t o u nite t he E nglish w eight a nd m onetary s ystem w ith t hat o f h is d ominions 4 1 1 N ormandy , A n jou a nd M aine w hich w ere a lready u sing t he T roy w eight. 3 ' H owever, t he c hange m eant t hat t he E nglish p opulation l ost a s hilling i n t he p ound b y e xchanging t heir o ld p ennies f or t he n ew C ross-and-Crosslets c oinage, q uite a part f rom p aying t he m inting f ees o f a nother s hilling . T his w as a h ardship w hich e ven a k ing a s s trong a s H enry I I c ould n ot i mpose w ithout o ffering a c oncession i n r eturn , p articularly a s h e w as a lso e nforcing t he f urther t ax o f a s hilling i n t he p ound o n p ayments t o t he E xchequer. I n t he l ight o f t hese i mpositions a nd h is s uccess i n r estoring t hrough t hem h is d iminished r evenues f rom t he c oinage t he k ing h ad e very r eason t o r e-assess h is w hole m inting p olicy. H is s ubjects w ould b e m ore w illing t o t olerate t he l oss o f a s hilling i n t he p ound i n e xchanging t heir o ld p ence f or t he n ew c oinage, i f t hey c ould b e s ure t hat i t w ould b e c urrent f or a l ong p eriod a nd w ould s ave t hem m inting f ees i n t he f uture. T he D ialogue c ertainly a ccounted t his i ntroduction o f o ne w eight a nd o ne c oinage t hroughout t he k ing 's d owlnions a s o ne o f H enry I I's ' great d eeds' w hich w on t he h ighest p raise. ' S uch a p olicy , o f c ourse, m eant t he e nding o f t he r egular i ssues o f n ew c oin-types. B ut t he k ing w as p robably a lready d isposed t o t ake t his s tep, b ecause t here w as n o p oint i n m aintaining a b ody o f p rivileged r oyal m oneyers t o s taff a l arge n umber o f m ints i f t he r evenues h e r eceived f rom t hem w ere n egligible i n a p eriod w hen s ilver w as s hort. I n a ny c ase h is g ains f rom b lanched p ayments a t t he E xchequer m ore t han c ompensated h im f or t he l oss h e s uffered i n s eigniorage b y n o l onger c hanging t he t ypes. H e c ould c lose t he u nprofitable m ints, d isband t he p rivileged m oneyers a nd m ake n ew
6 5
a rrangements t o s hare t he p rofits o f t he r emaining m ints. t ime h e c ould h ope t o r econcile h is E nglish s ubjects m onetary s ystem .
A t t he s ame t o h is n ew
T he c losing o f t he u nprofitable m ints h ad t o b e d one i n s tages n ot b ecause t he k ing h ad t o p ersuade a nyone t o g ive t hem u p, b ut b ecause a c omplete r ecoinage a t a d ifferent w eight-standard r equired t he s imultaneous o peration o f a g ood m any m ints a nd e xchanges. O nce t his had b een d one t he r eorganisation c ould be c arried t hrough g radually t o a void t he b ad e ffects o f a ny s udden d isruption o f t he m inting s ystem o n l ocal t rade a nd t he s upply o f m oney . M ore d ifficult t o e lucidate a re t he t erms o n w hich t he n ew m oneyers t ook o ffice i n 1 158. T here i s n o e vidence t hat t he C rown s upplied t hem w ith c apital o r b uildings a s i t d id i n 1 180, a nd i t a ppears f rom t he p ayments r ecorded i n t he P ipe R olls t hat s ome a t l east o f t he n ew m oneyers, o r t heir l ocal c ommunities, p aid f or t heir o ffice. T wo s heriffs, f or e xample, p aid 1 00 m arks i n 1 160-1 f or the m int o r m oneyers o f N orwich a nd 1 00 m arks f or t he m int o f E xeter. I t m ay s eem d ifficult a t f irst s ight t o e xplain w hy l ocal m en s hould b e w illing t o p ay t hese s ums f or m ints i f t he C rown n o l onger f ound i t w orth r unning t hem i tself . W e m ust d istinguish h owever b etween t he m ints which a ttracted f oreign m erchants a nd were l ikely t o b e p rofitable e ven i n a p eriod w hen s ilver w as s carce, a nd t hose w hich a fter t he i nitial r ecoinage s erved l ittle e conomic p urpose. I n t he f irst c lass w e s hould l ist L ondon , C anterbury , p ossibly Y ork , a nd t he e astern m ints o f L incoln , N orwich , I pswich a nd T hetford , w ith E xeter p ossibly s erving t he s outh w est. T he i mportance o f t he e astern m ints i s e mphasised b y t he r ecords o f F lemish g oods w hich w ere c onfiscated i n t he 1 170's. T hese s how t hat F lemish t rade t hen e ncompassed t he c oastal r egion f rom H ampshire t o Y orkshire vAth i ncursions i nto t he c ounties o f N orthampton , N ottingham a nd D erby . ' O f t he e astern m ints i t s eems l ikely f rom t he D omesday e vidence t hat L incoln , I pswich a nd T hetford h ad b een f armed b y l ocal m oneyers b efore 1 158, s ince I pswich 4 1 1 086 p aid £ 20, T hetford £ 40 a nd L incoln £ 75 a nnually f or t heir m ints. 4L B y c ontrast t here a re n o r ecords o f a nnual p ayments o f t his s ize i n t he P ipe R olls. T he s ingle p ayments l ike t he 1 00 m arks p aid f or t he E xeter and N orwich m ints i n 1 160-1 a ppear t o b e t he m oneyers' p urchasing t heir o ffice, n ot a nnual f arms o f t he e xpected p rofits o f t he m ints. A llen t herefore c oncluded t hat a fter 1 158 t he b oroughs n ormally p aid a n a nnual f ixed s um o r f arm t o t he C rown o f 2 0s. a m oneyer. H e d educed t his f rom t he ' defalta m onetariorum ' e ntries i n t he P ipe R olls. T hese r ecord a llowances m ade b y t he E xchequer t o t he s heriff o f 2 0s. f or e ach o f t he m oneyers a t s ix m ints w ho d id n ot s trike c oins i n a p articular y ear . A llen a ssumed t hat t his s um r epresented a c ommutation ' o f t he e stimated a nnual p rofit o f t he d ies t o a t raditional f igure w ich b y 1 158 b ore n o r elation t o t he a ctual p rofits o f t he m ints. 42 H e c oncluded t herefore t hat t hese d erisory s ums, a nd t he s ingle p ayments w hich m oneyers m ade o n t aking u p a nd l aying d own t heir o ffice a nd t heir s poradic t axation w ere t he o nly s ubstanti A i ncome w hich t he C rown r eceived f rom t he m ints b etween 1 158 a nd 1 180.""
6 6
f irst
H e was l ed t o t his c onclusion b ecause, f ollowing W . C . W ells d iscussed t he ' defalta ' e ntries i n d etail, h e a ssumed t hat
w ho a ll
t he m ints h ad l ong b een f armed b y t he b oroughs a nd t hat t he ' defalta ' e ntries i ndicated t hey h ad t he r ight t o t raditional q uotas o f m oneyers a long t he l ines o f £ thelstan 's G reatley d ecrees. 44 B ut i f o ne c ompares t he a nnual p ayment o f £ 75 b y t he L incoln m oneyers i n 1 086 w ith t he £ 6 a y ear w hich a ccording t o A llen t he C rown s tood t o g ain f rom t hem a fter 1 158, t hen t he C rown w as a cquiescing i n a s taggering l oss o f i ncome w hich w ent f ar b eyond w hat c ould b e e xplained b y a s hortage o f s ilver. M oreover, i f i n f act r oyal m oneyers w ere r unning m any o f t he m ints b efore 1 158, i ncluding L ondon a nd C anterbury, a nd i f , a s s eems l ikely , t hey w ere h anding o ver s eigniorage f ees f rom t hese m ints t o t he C rown , w e c annot s uppose t hat t he C rown w as w illing t o c ommute t hose r evenues a s w ell t o t he p ayment o f 2 0s a y ear f rom e ach m oneyer a fter 1 158. T he f act t hat t here a re ' defalta ' e ntries f or o nly s ix t owns, t hat o f t hese i t i s l ikely t hat I pswich, T hetford a nd C olchester,
a nd a nd
p ossibly t he o thers t o po, h ad b een f armed b y t heir b urgesses w hen D omesday w as c ompiled , 46 m ay i ndicate t hat i n 1 158 t he C rown m ade s pecial a rrangements w ith t hese t owns - o r w ith a g roup o f m oneyers i n t hem - t o f arm t heir m ints. B ut t he p ayments o f 2 0s. r ecorded i n t he ' defalta ' e ntries a re f ar m ore l ikely t o r epresent t he p urchase o f d ies t han t he c ommutation o f t hese m ints' p rofits, s ince 2 0s. w as t he s um p aid b y t he m oneyers i n D omesday w hen t hey b ought n ew d ies. 47 F or t he r est o f t he m ints i t i s m ore r ealistic t o d educe t hat a fter 1 158 t he C rown a greed w ith l ocal m oneyers o n a n a rrangement w hich o ne s uspects i t h ad p reviously e n joyed w ith t he r oyal m oneyers - t hat t hey c ollected m inting f ees o f s ixpence i n t he p ound a nd h anded o ver t o t he C rown a f urther s ixpence i n s eigniorage f ees. S uch a s ystem w ould e xplain t he o pportuni aes f or f raud w hich w ere l ater e xploited b y t he C anterbury m oneyers. T he
r eason w hy
t here
i s
n o
r ecord
i n
t he
P ipe
R olls
o f
a ny
s ums
w hich c ould b e i nterpreted a s a nnual f arms o f t he m ints o r a s s eigniorage p aid b y m oneyers t o t he C rown i s t hat t he r evenues o f t he m ints w ere n ot t hen v Irt o f t he s heriffs' f arms w hich w ere a ccounted f or a t t he E xchequer . I nstead t hey s eem t o h ave c ontributed t o t hat s ystem o f l ocal f inance w hich s ustained t he r oyal h ousehold i n i ts j ourneys r ound t he k ingdom . T he r eign o f H enry I I s hows t he i ncreased u se o f t he C hamber a s a n i nstrument o f r oyal f inance, a nd t here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat t he r evenues f rom t he m ints w ere p aid d irectly t o i t, t hereby l eaving u s w ith n o r ecord o f w hat t he C rown 's t otal r eceipts f rom t hem w ere i n t he T ealby p eriod . 50 S imilarly t here i s n othing i n t he P ipe R oll o f 1 130 t o s how u s w hat H enry I 's i ncome w as f rom t he m ints.
m ints
H owever t he d egree o f c hange i ntroduced i n 1 158 i s i llustrated b y t he e vidence
i nto t he r unning o f t he f or L ondon . W hereas i t
s eems t hat b efore 1 158 a ll t he L ondon m oneyers m ay h ave w orked d irectly f or t he C rown a nd h ad t heir o wn s eparate w orkshops, a fterwards t here w as a d ifferent k ind o f o rganisation . T he n ew m oneyers, u nlike t he o ld , w ere s ubject t o t axation , a nd t he s udden i ncrease i n t he n umber o f d ie-links i n L ondon c oins s uggests t hat t he m oneyers m ay h ave b een
6 7
w orking i n a c entral w orkshop. 51 A lso i t i s l ikely t hat i n L ondon t he c ity a uthorities m ay h ave a cquired r esponsibility f or t he r unning o f t he m int. T he P ipe R olls o f 1 157-9 s how t hat t he s heriff p aid £ 12 f or i ts c ommutation , a nd t hen 6 21 2 / m arks f or t he m int. T here i s a lso a l ater r eference t he p ayment b y t he c itizens o f £ 18 6 s. 8 d . f or t he m int 's c hattels. T his c ould m ean t hat t hey p urchased s ome o f t he o ld m oneyers' e quipment. F urthermore o ne o f t he d emands w hich t he c itizen5 l ater m ade t o K ing J ohn w as f or t he r estoration o f t heir o ld m int . 53 T his
i mplies t hat t hey h ad l ost c ontrol o f i t i n 1 180.
B oth t he c hanges o f 1 158 a nd o f 1 180 r emind u s o f t he r esponsibilities w hich s ome t owns m ay h ave m ints a t c ertain p eriods i n t he e leventh a nd t welfth r emember t hat c ollective r esponsibility d oes n ot t hereby a cquired i nalienable r ights o ver t hem . T he
t hat w hen w e t hink a cquired f or t heir c enturies, w e m ust p rove t hat t owns C rown m ade u se o f
c ollective r esponsibility t o t ax o r p unish t owns l ong b efore t hey c ontrolled t heir o wn f arms o r w ere r ecognised a s s emi-autonomous c ommunes. E ven w hen t hey d id a cquire s uch r ecognition , t he k ing c ould a nd d id w ithdraw i t. L ondon h ad b een r ecognisea a s a c ommune f or a b rief p eriod u nder S tephen , p resumably a s t he p rice o f i ts s upport, b ut i t l ost i ts a utonomy l ater i n h is r eign . I n t he H usting , t hough , i t c ontinued t o h ave a c entral, d ecision-making b ody w hich w as r esponsible f or m ost o f t he c ity 's a dministration a nd j ustice. I t i s p ossible t hat b y 1 158 t he c itizens h ad r ecovered c ontrol o f t heir o wn f inances a nd w ere e lecting t heir o wn s heriffs, b ut i t i s m ore l ikely t hat L ondon 's n ew r esponsibility f or i ts m int i n t he T ealby p eriod e xhibits H enry I I's p ragmatic u se o f e xisting c ollective a dministration t o t ake o ver t he r esponsibility , w hich h e n o l onger w anted , t he e conomic c onditions o f 1 158. 54
o f r unning
t he m ints
i n
S imilarly t he ' defalta' e ntries a re m ore l ikely t o r eflect a rrangements i mposed o n t he s ix t owns b y t he C rown f or i ts o wn b enefit r ather t han a ny c laim b y t hem t o a ncient m inting r ights. I n 1 158 t he C rown h ad e very r eason t o t hink t hat t he m ints w ould b ecome l ess, a nd n ot m ore p rofitable, a nd i t t herefore s uited i t w here p ossible t o b ind m oneyers t o p ay f ixed s ums f or t he p rivilege o f s triking c oin e ven i f t here w as l ikely t o b e l ittle d emand f or t heir s ervices. T he T ealby p eriod s hows t hat a t a ll t he m ints t here w as a r eduction i n t he n umber o f m oneyers a t w ork a fter t he r ecoinage, 55 a nd i n t he c ase o f W illiam d e B retegate w e s ee a m an w ho p aid 2 0 m arks i n 1 170-1 t o b e r elieved o f t he c ustody o f t he Y ork m int. 5 ' O ne c an o nly t hink t hat h e w as t rying t o d ivest h imself o f a n u nprofitable b usiness, a nd t hat t he ' defalta ' m oneyers f ound t hemselves i n t he s ame p osition . I t s eems t herefore t hat w hen H enry I I d isbanded t he r oyal m oneyers a nd r educed t he n umber o f m ints, h e h anded o ver t he r esponsibility f or t hose w hich r emained t o'local m oneyers o r, i n s ome c ases, t o l ocal b oroughs. T hose f or w hich t here a re ' defalta ' e ntries i n t he P ipe R olls m ay p ossibly h ave f armed t heir m ints, b ut i t i s l ikely t hat t he r est, i ncluding L ondon a nd C anterbury, s hared t heir m inting f ees w ith t he C rown . T his t hough d id n ot m ean t he e nd o f c entral c ontrol o f t he m ints. T he D ialogue t ells u s t hat, ' The S heriff , f inding t hat h e s uffers o n a ccount o f t he l oss o f i nferior m oney, w hen h e h as t o p ay h is f arm , t akes g ood c are t hat t he m oneyers w ho w ork u nder h im d o n ot e xceed t he e stablished p roportion o f a lloy . A nd i f h e c atches t hem ,
6 8
t hey a re s o p unished a s t o d iscourage t he o thers. , 57 T he P ipe R olls g ive s everal e xamples o f s uch d iscouragement. 58 I n t he l ast a nalysis t herefore i t w as t he e xtension o f t he E xchequer 's c ontrol o ver t he q uality o f t he c oinage t hrough t he u se o f t he c entral a ssay w hich e nabled H enry I I t o g ive u p d irect r esponsibility f or t he r unning o f t he
m ints,
s ince
t hey
h ad n ow
c eased
t o
b e
a n
i mportant
p art
o f
t he
d omestic f iscal s ystem . I f t hen , a s I h ave a rgued , a ll t he c hanges m ade i n 1 158 r eflect t he k ing 's i deas o f h ow h e c ould b est p rofit f rom t he E nglish m ints a nd w ere a chieved f rom a p osition o f s trength a nd n ot o f w eakness, w hy w as i t n ecessary t o m ake f urther c hanges i n 1 180? T he m assive f ines o f 2 ,100 m arks i nflicted o n t he C anterbury m oneyers i n 1 176-7, a nd p aid b y t hem , s uggests p art o f t he a nswer. 59 T hey s eem t o r eflect t he o pportunities o pen t o l ocal f inanciers, w ho h ad i nvested i n t he p rofitable m ints,
t o
f alsify t heir r ecords
a nd s o d eprive
t he C rown o f
i ts s eigniorage. D ishonest m oneyers, t hough, w ere n ot a n ovelty . W hat w as n ew was t he s cale o n w hich t he C rown m ight p ossibly b e d efrauded . I t s eems t hat t he s hortage o f s ilver w hich h ad a fflicted t he m ints t hroughout t he t welfth c entury b egan b y t he l ate 1 170 's t o c ome t o a n e nd . A llen c ould n ot d ate h is s ix c lasses o f t he T ealby t ype w ith a ny c ertainty a part f rom b eing s ure t hat C lass F w as t he l atest. 6U I t i s p ossible, h owever ' t hp _t t he c lass w as s truck o ver a much s horter p eriod t han h e s uggested . 61 A t t wo o f t he e astern m ints, B ury a nd I pswich, t here i s i n t his c lass a r emarkable i ncrease i n t he e stimated n umber o f d ies u sed . A t B ury t he n umb yr ises f rom t hree t o s ixteen , a nd a t I pswich f rom s ix t o f ifty-six . ° `T he i mportance o f F lemish t ra i c le w ith t he e astern c ounties i n t he 1 170 's h as a lready b een m entioned . 63 T he p ort o f I pswich a nd t he n earby f air a t B ury S t E dmunds w ere p oints o f e ntry c onveniently c lose t o F landers a nd t he R hineland , a nd i t i s h ere t hat o ne w ould e xpect t o s ee t he o utput o f t he m ints f irst r eflect a n i ncreased t herefore
f low o f s ilver i nto E ngland f rom t he C ontinent. I t i s l ikely t hat t he f igures f or B ury a nd I pswich r eflect t he
e xpansion
o f
s ilver
p roduction
w hich
f ollowed
t he
d iscovery
o f
n ew
m ines i n S axony a fter 1 168. I ts e xport t o E ngland f or t he p urchase o f w ool e xplains t he g reat v olume o f t he S hort-Cross c oinage a nd t he i nfla aon o f p rices w hich b ecomes e vident i n E ngland f rom a bout 1 180.
.
I n t he f ace o f a p rospective i ncrease i n t he o utput o f t he m ints a nd t herefore i n t he o pportunities f or f raud o n a l arge s cale, t he k ing n eeded t o t ake f urther m easures t o s afeguard h is r ightful s hare o f t he m ints' p rofits. T he m ost i mportant w as t o i nstall t he C rown 's o wn e mployees a s e xchangers, , equipped w ith r oyal c apital a nd b uildings, s o t hat t he a mount o f b ullion f lowing i nto t he m ints c ould n ot b e f alsified t o t he C rown 's l oss. T he r eduction i n t he n umber o f m ints a lso m arks t he c ompletion o f t he d esign , w hich i s a pparent t hroughout t he T ealby t ype, o f p roviding o nly t he n umber s trictly n eeded f or a r ecoinage a nd t o m eet t he r equirements o f o versea t rade. I t w as p robably i ntended o riginally t hat l ocal m en s hould o nly b e r esponsible f or m anufacturing t he c oin a nd t hat t he e xchangers s hould a lways b e r oyal e mployees, but once i t became p ossible t o e stimate more a ccurately t he n ew f low o f s ilver t o t he m ints, a k ing l ike R ichard I
6 9
i n h is
e agerness
t o
a nticipate h is
r evenues
a gain
r esorted
t o
f arming
t he m ints.b 5
w hich
I t was t herefore was r esponsible
t he f or
g reatly i ncreased f low o f f oreign s ilver t he c hanges o f 1 180, a nd n ot t he C rown 's
l ong-delayed s uccess i n w inning b ack c ontrol o f t he m ints. T he s hift i n t he C rown 's i nterest, w hich A llen c laimed f or t he r eforms o f 1 180 f rom t he m aking t o t he e xchanging o f m oney, 1 158
w ith
t he
d isbanding
o f
t he
r oyal
h ad a ctually t aken p lace i n
m oneyers
a nd
t he
u se
o f
t he
c entral a ssay a t t he E xchequer. T here
i s
a lso
n o
e vidence
t hat
t he
C rown
d id
m ore
i n
1 180
t han
s afeguard t he s eigniorage f ees which i t h ad e njoyed a t l east f rom 1 158 f or exchanging both f oreign and d omestic c oin. The c harge f or e xchanging
f oreign
s ilver
c an b e
b e a s hilling i n t he p ound . F landers a nd C ologne a ltered t he E nglish T roy a nd T ower
d emonstrated
i n
t he
T ealby p eriod
t o
T his i s i llustrated by t he way i n which t heir w eight-standards t o match t hose o f p ounds d uring t he T ealby p eriod . T wo
hundred a nd f orty o f t he n ew T ealby p ennies m atched t he
T ower p ound o f
3 50 g ., w hich was t welve p ennyweights l ighter t han t he T roy p ound o f 3 67.5 g . T he E nglish m ints r eceived a T roy p ound o f s ilver b y w eight, a nd i f, when i t was a ssayed , i t p roved t o b e o f s terling f ineness, t hey handed o ver a T ower p ound o f s terling p ence, k eeping t he o ther t welve a s m inting a nd s eigniorage f ees. T his c an b e s hown f rom t he f act t hat by 1 166
F landers had a dopted
w eight-standard
f or
T roy p ound but was F lemings a dopted i t E nglish
m ints
o ne
a s
t he
h alf
t he
valued a t t en s hillings s terling . C learly b ecause t hey w ere a ccustomed t o r eceive f rom
t he t he
i ts
t he
s ilver
hundred
' petit m arc c oinage.
a nd
t wenty
d e
1 0s.
T his
s terling
p ound o f t heir o wn c oin o f s terling f ineness.
s terling '
mark
w eighed
p ence
f or
half
a T roy
6 5
S imilarly by 1 170 C ologne had a dopted a s i ts M agna M arca t he T ower mark o f 2 33 g-.6/ T he r eason why i t a dopted t he T ower a nd n ot t he T roy w eight i llustrates t he p rinciples e lucidated b y D r C hallis e lsewhere i n t his v olume. T he t hirteenth-century m int d ocument which g ives t he values o f d ifferent q ualities o f f oreign s ilver t ells u s t hat C p pgne p ence f ell o nly s ixpence s hort o f t he T roy p ound o f pure s ilver. ' I n o ther w ords a T roy p ound o f C ologne c oins was t welve p ence h igher i n s ilver
c ontent
t han
t he
s ame
w eight
o f
s terling
p ence.
T he
t welve p ence c overed t he E nglish s eigniorage a nd m inting c osts, C ologne
c oins
c ould
s terling.
H ence
a nd m ark .
T his
C hallis
f or
b e
e xchanged
t hey w ere s ystem
t he
h ere
e xchanged b y
i s
c learly
t hirteenth
a nd
t he
a nd t he
o verseas w eight
s ame
f ourteenth
a s
o f
t hat
o n
a
t he
T ower p ound
p ar
d escribed
c enturies,
e xtra
s o t hat
a nd
i t
i s
w ith b y
D r
q uite
p ossible t hat i t was e mployed by t he E nglish m ints a t l east f rom 1 051. I n
s ummary,
F itzNigel, t heme
t he
t herefore,
a uthor
o f
t he
r elated t o
- t hat
t he
W hat
I h ave
t he
a rgued
D ialogue,
i n
t hat
m ints i s
k ing 's f iscal
r eflect
o bvious
which e xplains p rofit. s ystem ,
c hanges
i n
b oth
i n i s
a ll
T his
i s
m eant
t hat
t hat
c hanges
t he
w ay
t he
w ith o ne
t hroughout
t he c hanges
a nd
i ncreasing
c ompany
t here
i n E nglish m inting a nd m onetary p ractice
a nd t welfth c enturies,
t he
o f
k ing
i n
t he
I have
m inting t he
R ichard
c onsistent e leventh d escribed
p olicy
o rganisation
c ollected
c entralisation .
h is
was o f
t axes.
Whereas
t he
l arge number o f m ints a t w ork u nder t he Anglo-Saxon k ings a nd t he l ocal
7 0
m anipulation o f t he w eight-standaxd s eem t o i ndicate a t ax s ystem w hich was
s ubject
t o
l ocal
d irection ,
t his
6 9
w as
r eplaced
by
a much
m ore
c entralised s ystem under t he D anish a nd N orman k ings which was d ictated b y
t he
e xploitation
o f
E nglish
r evenues
f or
t heir
p olitical
a nd
m ilitary i nterests o verseas. What w e i mproved
s ee
i n
c entral
t he
t welfth
c ontrol
o f
c entury
t he
t ax
i s
t he
f urther
s ystem by
t he
r efinement
E xchequer.
a nd T his
c ulminated i n t he c entral a ssay o f t he c oinage p aid i n by t he s heriffs. a c onsequence t he p art which t he m ints had p layed i n t he d omestic f iscal s ystem was a ll but e liminated . A ccordingly t heir numbers c ould
As
b e
r educed
s ubstantially
t o
t he
r elatively
f ew
n eeded
t o
e xchange
f oreign c oin . S imilarly t he e nding o f t he m ints' f iscal f unction m eant t hat t he C rown c ould d isband t he r oyal m oneyers who had s erved a nd s upervised i t. T hereafter t he m ints' m ain f unction , a part f rom t he o ccasional r ecoinage, was t o e xchange f oreign c oin , a f unction w hich by 1 180 was c ontributing i ncreased f unds t o t he E xchequer f rom t he k ing 's t raditional s eigniorage a nd t herefore c alled f or n ew m easures t o p rotect i t. T hese d evelopments i n f iscal a nd m inting p olicy w ere e ncouraged by t he
p rogressive
d iminution
bullion
which
t welfth
c entury.
t he
C rown 's
a ffected E ach
r esponse
v iew o f h ow b est
t o
t he
a nd
t hen
whole
c hange
g reat
o f
I t was
t he
s upply
E urope
t herefore
a nd e conomic
f rom t hem .
i n
n orthern
i n m inting p ractice
n ew p olitical
t o p rofit
i ncrease
e conomy
a ble
i n
o f t he
r eflected
c onditions
a nd
t o
i n
r espond
i ts t his
way b ecause o f i ts unquestioned c ontrol o f t he s upply o f bullion a nd o f t he m ints c ontinued
a nd m oneyers, a n
a nd b ecause
uninterrupted
r eflected n ot o nly
s ince
t radition
t he
o f
t he m onetary w ealth
t enth
managing
o f
c entury t he
E ngland but
t here
c oinage a lso
t he
had
which u nique
p ower o f t he E nglish C rown t o e xploit i t.
N OTES 1 . 2 .
D ialogus d e S caccario, D .F .
A llen ,
e d .
C harles J ohnson 1 950,
C atalogue o f E nglish C oins
Cross-and-Crosslets ( henceforward
( ' Tealby')
r eferred
t o
a s
i n
t he British M useum:
Type
B . M. C.,
p .38.
of
Henry
Cross-and
I I,
T he 1 951
Crosslets),
p .xciii. 3 .
W .L .
Warren,
4 .
A llen , x li;
H enry I I,
B .M .C ., C .S.S.
C oinage',
1 973,
p p.265-6.
C ross-and-Crosslets,
L yon ,
' Some
A nglo-Saxon E ngland,
5 .
A llen B .M .C .,
6 .
L oc.
7 .
I bid.,
p p.lxxxviii,
P roblems
V (1976),
C ross-and C rosslets,
c it. p .lxxxiii.
7 1
i n
c lxxvi,
I nterpreting p .209.
p .xciii.
l xxxii
&
Anglo-Saxon
8 .
P amela N ightingale, Organization C enturies',
of
i n
Numismatic C hronicle,
1 42
Warren ,
Henry I I,
1 0.
I bid.,
p p.60-8.
1 1.
I bid.,
p p.67-70.
1 2.
N ightingale,
1 3.
P amela
1 4.
' The
O ra,
C oinage
Numismatic C hronicle,
S ee
N ightingale,
F reeman
t ypes
i n
C onfessor, 1 5.
' Some L ondon M oneyers',
a nd t he
d ifferent
J .D.A . 1 956,
' The
o f
h oard);
( 1982),
o n
t he
Twelfth
t able 1 & p .38.
p p.40-6.
M ark ,
S ee
a nd
a nd
B .A .R .
t he
t he
Mancus:
M int
i n
t he
B ritish S eries, o f British
D olley & D .M .
p .44
W eight-
P arts
R eign
o f
1 45(i),
C oin
I &
p ossible
by
Anthony
E dward
1 985,
A .D.600-1500,
p p.25-7
( the C hancton
( the Watford h oard).
' The R eform o f t he
A nglo-Saxon C oins,
t he
p p.77-8.
Hoards,
& p .143
M etcalf ,
on
d iscussion
( the S edlescombe h oard);
C oinage under E dgar ',
t he
Moneyers', a lso
( the S hillington h oard)
S ee a lso R .H.M .
and
( 1983-4).
L ondon
I nventory
p p.120-2
t he
1 43-4
m ints.
1 042-66',
p .124
R eflections
E leventh
i n E leventh-Century E ngland ',
' Some
M oneyer
T hompson , e .g .
a nd
t he
p .59.
N ightingale,
S tandards
L ondon M oneyers M ints
9 .
I I,
' Some
English
e d .
R .H.M .
E nglish
D olley ,
1 961,
p p.157-8. 1 6. 1 7.
D ialogus, F reeman ,
p p.9-10. ' The
M oneyer
a nd
t he
M int',
p p.
5 6,
6 3,
7 0-1
& 7 9-80.
F or S candinavian m ercenaries i n L ondon s ee P amela N ightingale, ' The O rigin o f t he C ourt o f Husting a nd D anish I nfluence o n L ondon 's D evelopment i nto a C apital C ity ', R eview , C CCCIV , ( 1987) p p. 5 67-70 & 5 73-8. 1 8.
1 9.
H istorial
G .C. B rooke, C atalogue o f E nglish C oins i n t he British M useum : N orman K ings, 1 916, p p. 9 4-213. D .M .
Walker,
' A
P ossible
M onetary
S eaby 's C oin & Medal B ulletin, 2 0.
E nglish
P amela
N ightingale,
' The
C risis
D CCCII,
E volution
o f
i n
( 1985)
t he
E arly
T he
1 130 's',
p .285.
W eight-Standards
a nd
t he
C reation o f N ew M onetary a nd C ommercial L inks i n N orthern E urope f rom t he T enth C entury t o t he T welfth C entury ', E conomic H istory R eview ,
2 nd S eries, ) (XXVIII,
( 1985)
p .203.
2 1.
A nglo-Saxon C hronicle,
2 2.
D .M . M etcalf & F . S chweizer, ' The M etal C ontents o f t he S ilver P ennies o f W illiam I I a nd H enry I ( 1087-1135)', Archzometry , X III ( 1971),
2 3.
a nno 1 124(E).
p .178.
A nglo-Saxon C hronicle,
a nno 1 124(E).
7 2
2 4.
L oc.cit.
( G.N.
G armonsway 's
a bove f or a s imilar c risis 2 5.
t ranslation ,
1 953).
S ee
a lso N ote
1 9
i n t he 1 130's.
D ialogus, p .41. H enry I 's c harter c onfirming Queen M aud 's g ift t o C hristchurch P riory o f ' xxv l ibras a d s calam ', which l ater i n h is r eign
b ecomes
a lthough
' xxv
under
s calam ':
J .H.
o f L ondon,
l ibras
S tephen
R ound ,
1 899,
2 6.
D omesday B ook,
2 7.
D ialogus,
2 8.
I bid., ' farm '
b lancas',
i t
i s
c onfirms
a gain
' The O rigin o f
d escribed
t he
t he
p rogression ,
a s
E xchequer'
' xxv
l ib.
a d
i n T he C ommune
p p.85-7.
I ,
f .39b.
p .xli.
p .14. O n p .31 R ichard F itzNigel r efers t o t he m eaning o f a s a c ollective n oun , t hat i s, t he s um o f a ll t he f ixed
p ayments. 2 9.
I bid.,
3 0.
R ound ,
p p.42-3. C ommune,
S ociety 1 929,
p .90:
e .g.
P ipe
R oll,
3 1
H enry
I ,
P ipe
R oll
p .122.
3 1.
R ound ,
C ommune,
3 2.
I bid .,
p p.89-91.
3 3.
P ipe
p .87,
R oll,
2 H enry
M iddlesex,
N orfolk ,
W orcestershire,
a nd n ote 2 5 a bove.
I I,
g ives
S uffolk,
n o
b lanched
S urrey ,
N orthamptonshire,
but by 5 H enry I I o nly S ussex,
p ayments
S taffordshire,
Rutland ,
Rutland ,
f or
L ondon
&
H erefordshire,
S hropshire
a nd
N orthumberland ,
S ussex,
C umberland
a nd S hropshire d id n ot p ay b lanch . 1 4.
D ialogus,
p .43.
3 5.
R ound ,
3 6.
C alendar of C harter Rolls,
3 7.
N ightingale,
3 8.
D ialogus,
3 9.
A llen l ists t he R olls i n B .M .C .,
4 0.
P ipe Rolls,
4 1.
Domesday Book ,
I I,
4 2.
A llen ,
B .M .C .,
C ross-and-Crosslets,
4 3.
I bid .,
p .xciii.
4 4.
I bid.,
p p.xiii & l xxix.
C ommune,
p .92;
D ialogus, I ,
p .125.
p .68.
' The E volution o f W eight-Standards',
p p.
2 05-6.
p p.9-10. v arious p ayments f rom t he s heriffs i n C ross-and-Crosslets p p. l xxxii-lxxxv .
1 9-22 Henry I I, f .290v .;
p assim . I ,
7 3
3 36v . p p.
l xxvii-viii.
t he
P ipe
4 5.
N ightingale, a rgued
i n
' Some L ondon M oneyers',
' Domesday
B ook ,
t he
F orgotten M inting R eform ', p p.
8 9-90,
g eld
d e
f or
i nvolving a c hange i n
f uture
..
n o
f or 1 086
t hirteen
i n t he
l onger
but w ith
D e
P rofessor G rierson h as
M oneta
a nd
M onetagium :
British N umismatic Journal,
t hat t he e ntries
moneta
p .44.
G eld
have
t o
d eal T wo
' must
be
i nterpreted
w ith
t he
o f t hese
c onsiders
t he
e vidence
t he
l ate
i n
t hat
N orman
m oneyers
p eriod
m oneyers
i ndividually
t hirteen e ntries,
c ontinued
a nd
t hat
a s
T he k ing w ill t hose
f or I pswich a nd L eicester, d o n ot s upport t his i nterpretation , t wo-thirds o f t he m ints a re n ot r ecorded a t a ll. W hen m ints
A
( 1985),
i n D omesday B ook which s how a
m ints
o rganization o f m inting.
t he b oroughs'.
5 5
t o
m ove
d etailed
a nd o ne
b etween
e ntries
i n
D omesday B ook f or s uch i mportant b oroughs a s C anterbury a nd Y ork make n o m ention o f l ocal c ontrol o f t he m int, i t s eems m ost unlikely
t hat
a ll
o r
even
t he
majority
of
t he
mints
were
c ontrolled a fter t he 1 080's by t he b oroughs. 4 6.
S ee n ote 4 1 a bove.
4 7.
D omesday Book ,
4 8.
S ee n ote 5 9 b elow .
4 9.
J .E.A .
J olliffe,
J ohn '
i n
M aurice O xford ,
1 948,
5 1.
N ightingale,
5 2.
P ipe Rolls,
Mary J ohn ',
5 4.
i n e d .
a nd t he C astle T reasures under K ing
M edieval R .W .
H istory
Hunt,
W .A .
Presented t o
P antin
&
R .W .
Frederick S outhern ,
p .122.
C hapters i n t he Administrative Manchester 1 920, p p.100-15. ' Some L ondon M oneyers', 2 -4 H enry I I,
7 Henry I I, B ateson ,
p .114;
O xford ,
H istory of
p p.46-9.
P ipe R olls,
5 Henry I I,
' A
L ondon
Municipal
A n I ntroduction 1 977,
p p.105-7.
C ollection
XVII
( 1902),
A llen ,
B .M .C .,
5 6.
I bid.,
c lxxi.
5 7.
D ialogus,
5 8.
E .g .,
5 9.
P ipe Roll,
6 0.
A llen ,
o f
2 H enry I I,
2 3 H enry I I,
p p.c1xxxii-iii.
p .4.
p .208.
C ross-and-Crosslets,
7 4
t he
R eign
o f
t o t he H istory o f E nglish M edieval
p .43.
B .M .C .,
P ipe
I a m i ndebted t o M iss R eynolds f or
C ross-and-Crosslets,
P ipe R oll,
p .3;
p .726.
d iscussing s ome o f t hese p oints w ith m e. 5 5.
M edieval
p .18.
E nglish H istorical R eview ,
S usan R eynolds, T owns,
1 79 & 2 52.
' The C hamber,
P owicke,
T .F . T out, E ngland, I ,
5 3.
p p.172,
S tudies
5 0.
R oll,
I ,
p p.
l xv-lxxiv .
6 1.
I bid.,
p p.
l xix-lxx.
T here
i s
n o
prima
f acie
r eason w hy W illiam
F itxErembald s hould c ease t o p roduce c oins f rom h is m int a fter c . 1 173 s imply b ecause h e was i n d ebt t o t he C rown , s o t hat o ne c annot w ith c onfidence d ate C lass F b efore 1 173. 6 2.
D .M .
M etcalf,
' An
d uring
t he
M ints
E stimate
E dwardian M onetary Affairs 1 977, 6 3. 6 4.
p p.
P .D.A . e t
t he
T otal
O utput
( 1279-1344),
o f
C oinage,
e d N .J.
t he
E nglish
1 158-80'
M ayhew ,
i n
B .A .R .
3 6,
P ast
a nd
3 0-31.
S ee a bove,
p .
H arvey,
Present,
o f
" Cross-and-Crosslets"
L XI
hausse
' The
( 1973),
I nflation
3 -30;
N .J.
p rix
en
Angleterre
d 'Histoire Monätaire,
e d .
J .
S pufford ,
d es
E nglish p p.
D ay,
o f
1 180-1220',
M ayhew , d e
L ille
' Frappes
1 180 1 984,
a
d e
m onnaies
1 220',
p p.159-77
Etudes
a nd P eter
' Le r ole d e l a m onnaie d ans l e r evolution c ommerciale d u
X III s iecle',
i bid.,
p p.
7R ichard I ,
3 60-1.
6 5.
P ipe R oll,
6 6.
C . Wyffels, ' Note s ur l es m arcs m onetaires u tilises e n F landre e t e n A rtois a vant 1 300', H andelingen v an h et G enootschap, ' Societä d 'Emulation
t e Brugge,
6 7.
N ightingale,
6 8.
T he D e M oneta
N ightingale, 4 0.
C IV
( 1967),
p p.67-71 & 8 3.
' The E volution o f W eight-Standards', o f N icholas
C harles J ohnson 1 956, 6 9.
p .210.
' The O ra,
Oresme
p .207.
a nd E nglish M int Documents,
e d .
p .50. t he Mark ,
a nd t he Mancus',
P art I I,
p p.239-
I a m g rateful t o Mr Mayhew f or d iscussing s everal p oints i n t his p aper w ith m e. H owever I t ake s ole r esponsibility f or t he v iews e xpressed i n i t.
7 5
A ssays a nd A ssaying i n t he r eigns o f H enry I II a nd E dward I C .E.
C hallis,
L eeds
B efore t he i ntroduction i n t he n ineteenth c entury o f G ay L ussac's m ethod of a nalysis based on t itration, t he s tandard method of d etermining t he f ineness o f s ilver was by f ire a ssay. T his d irect m ethod , i nvolving t he m easurement o f a s ingle q uantity - t he a mount o f s ilver i n a g iven m ass - i nvolved t ime h onoured a nd p erfectly w ell known p rocedures.
A q uantity
p laced i n a c upel o f b one a sh,
o f
s ilver was w eighed ,
a nd f ired
w rapped
i n a f urnace.
O nce
i n
l ead ,
t he m etal
l iquified t he i mpurities d rained a way i nto t he c upel, l eaving b ehind a b ead o f s ilver which w as s ubsequently w eighed . B y d educting t his s econd w eight f rom c ould b e d etermined
t he a nd
i n a bsolute t erms. g enerally e xpressed
S ince i n a s 1 2 o z.
ounces
and
e xampl _e,
f irst t he q uantity o f t he o riginal i mpurity t he o riginal mass a ssigned a d egree o f p urity
p ennyweights
c ontaining 1 8
l ate m edieval E ngland p ure s ilver was f ine, a lloys o f s ilver w ere g iven i n
below
d wt.
o f
t hat
f igure;
c opper,
s terling
b eing d efined a s
s ilver, 1 1
o z.
f or
2 d wt.
f ine. S imple i n t heory t hough f ire a ssaying s hould have b een i t w as i n p ractice a f ar m ore c omplicated a ffair whose a ccuracy w as d ependent o n a number o f i mportant v ariables; t he t emperature o f t he f urnace a nd t he f low o f a ir t hrough i t, t he q uality o f t he c upels, t he a mount o f l ead u sed , a nd t he f ire a ssaying
c oncentration o f base m etals i n t he m elt. was a s much a n a rt a s a s cience a nd f or
e xperts
t he
o ver
c enturies
w ere
a greed
t hat
a ccurate
I n r eality, t his r eason a ssaying
was
d ifficult t o a chieve a nd a ll t oo s eldom t o b e m et w ith. I t i s n ot m erits o f f ire
t he purpose o f t his p aper t o c onsider t he i ntrinsic a ssaying v is a v is t hose o f o ther d irect m ethods o f
a nalysis,
l ess
i ndirect
much
m ethods,
t o
s uch
a ttempt a s
m easure t he i mpurities i n t he b y d ifference. Rather i t i s m eant
by
c alculate
' fineness'
o r
a c omparison
s pectographic
o f
d irect
a nalysis,
m ethods
w hich
w ith
s eeks
t o
m ass a nd e stablish t he purity o f s ilver t o e xamine what l ate m edieval a ssayers
' purity '
a nd
t o
c omment
o n
t heir
a bility
t o
i t d uring t he r eigns o f H enry I II a nd E dward I .
S ince t he publication i n 1 956
o f T he D e M oneta o f N icholas Oresme
a nd E nglish M int Documents, e dited b y r eadily a vailable i n p rint a n umber
C harles J ohnson , t here has b een o f d ocuments which d iscuss i n
g eneral t he whole q uestion o f f ineness a nd p in-point i n p articular what t he s terling s tandard was. C oming a s t hey d o f rom n o l esser s ource t han
t he
s ingle, a nd
R ed
B ook
o f
a uthoritative
c onfuse.
I n
t he
E xchequer
t hese
t ale,
y et
o n
t he
c .1248 ' we
a re
t old
d ocuments
f ace
t hat
o f
' the
i t
o ught
t hey
m oneyers
t o
s imply s hall
t ell
a
b affle a dd
t R
e ach p ound 6 d wts o f c opper a ccording t o t he r ight a nd a ncient c ustom ". a nd s uch a s tatement i s a pparently b orne o ut by t he T he C ourse o f t he Exchequer ,
which had
s tated c learly
i n
t he
p receding
c entury
t hat
' the m oney o f t his r ealm i s n ot l awful i f t he p ound , when t ested , f alls s hort b y m ore t han s ixpence', 3 a nd by a n a ssay c arried o ut i n 1 248 i n t he p resence
o f H enry
I II h imself .
n ew , l ong c ross, m oney ' was t han t he ( standard) p ound ;
O n
t hat
o ccasion
o ne
p ound o f
t he
f ound n ot t o w eigh m ore t han s ix p ence l ess wherefore by t he c ustom o f t he r ealm o f
7 6
E ngland i t h ad b een g ood a nd l awful a nd a pproved b y a ll ' . 4 O n t he o ther h and , o ne p ound o f t he o ld , s hort c ross, m oney w as f ound l acking b y 1 0d . a nd w as t herefore d eclared ' not g ood n or l awful'. T hese s tatements a re c lear, b ut h ow a re t hey t o b e r econciled w ith t he a ssumption t hat s terling a lways w as s terling , 1 1 o z. 2 d wt. f ine, a nd m odern m etallurgical a nalyses w hich h ave s hown t hat b oth s hort a nd l ong c ross c oins w ere i ndeed a t o r s lightly a bove t hat s tandard? 5 O ther, a pparently e qually c onflicting s tatements o ccur i n r espect o f t he c oinage i n 1 279 a nd 1 280. O n t he o ne h and P hilip d e C ambio, a m oneyer, a nd W illiam H arlewyn , o ne o f t he a ssayers, w ere h apged f or p roducing a nd i ssuing c oin w hich c ontained 81 2 / d wt. o f c opper, y et i n t he v ery n ext y ear ' A T reatise o n t he N ew M oney ' s tated t hat e very s tandard p ound o f s terling c ontained ' eighteen a nd a h alf p ennyweights o f c opper ' .7 J ust f or g ood m easure w e f ind t hat G regory d e R okesley , w ho w as w arden o f t he m int i n 1 280 a nd t herefore f ully a ware o f w hat t he s terling s tandard w as, i nformed t he a bbot o f B ury S t E dmunds t hat t he n ew c oin ' must c ontain 1 1 o z. 21 4 d / wt, o f f ine s ilver'; a s tatement w hich h as l ed t o o ne m odern s cholar b elieving t hat E dward I a dded t o h is n ew c oin ' 8.3/4d . o f c opper, s lightly m ore c o uer t han t he a mount f or w hich h e h ad r ecently h anged P hilip d e C ambio'.
°
I n my o pinion t hese d ifficulties which historians a nd n umismatists h ave d etected i n t he m int d ocuments o f 1 248 a nd 1 279/80 a re i n p ractice m ore a pparent t han r eal, f or I b elieve n ot o nly t hat t he d ocuments o f 1 248 a re c onsistent o ne w ith a nother, j ust a s i ndeed a re t hose o f 1 279/80, b ut a lso t hat w hat i s s aid i n r espect o f t he e arlier c oinage i s f ully c onsistent w ith w hat i s s aid o f t he l ater. I n s hort, t here i s one c onsistent a nd entirely c oherent m ethod o f c alculation b ehind a ll t he d ocuments r elating t o t he m int i n t he r eigns o f H enry I II a nd E dward I , a nd t o d emonstrate t his w e n eed a n u nderstanding o f n o m ore t han t wo f airly o bvious a nd w ell k nown p henomena : t he a ssayer 's p ound o f h alf a t roy o unce, a nd t he r eady r eckoner f or buying b ullion c ontained i n ' A T reatise o n t he N ew M oney ', w ritten s ubsequent t o t he i ntroduction o f t he n ew E dwardian c oinage o f 1 280. F irst, t he a ssayer 's p ound . T he f ull t roy p ound c ontains 1 2 o z., e ach o z. 2 0 d wt., a nd e ach d wt. 2 4 g r.; t hus t he f ull p ound c ontains 1 2 o z., o r 2 40 d wt ., o r 5 760 g r. A s e veryone k nows, t he f ineness o f s terling i s e xpressed i n t erms o f t he t wo l arger u nits o f m easurement, o z. a nd d wt., but i t i s c lear t hat f rom t he a ssayer 's p oint o f v iew i t w ould b e b etter t o u se t he t wo s maller u nits; a fter a ll, t he a ccuracy o f h is o verall r esult d epended o n a c omparison o f t he w eight o f m etal g oing i nto t he f ire w ith t he w eight o f m etal w hich c ame o ut, a nd t he s maller h is u nit o f m easurement t he g reater w ould b e h is e xactness. T he c onsequence o f t his ' w as t he d evelopment o f a p ractice w hereby a ssayers u sed n ot a f ull t roy p ound f or t he a ssay but h alf a t roy o unce. Q uite a part f rom t he p ractical a dvantages o f c upelling a s ignificantly r educed a mount o f m etal, t he n ew p rocedure e nabled a ssay r esults t o b e r ead o ff i n t erms o f t he f ull t roy p ound w ith g reat e ase. H alf a t roy o unce c ontains a s m any g rains ( 10 d wt. x 2 4 g r. — 2 40 g r .) a s a f ull t roy p ound d oes p ennyweights ( 12 o z. x 2 0 d wt.), w hich m eans t hat f or every g rain o f d ifference a t t he a ssay t here i s o ne p ennyweight o f d ifference i n t he f ull t roy p ound .
7 7
P recisely
w hen t he
r• •
0 0 a c • . 0 C -"D 0 . . , 4 . . bl) 0 . c ,-, . z z ," . + _ . 4 ,• , . .. E . , . .e y c, i , . z 1. )
1
1
. . c e E2 , 40 . z , 0
4 , o t . . . . 4 0 _ ; • : , '
V " li
. 5• c s. 2=
Q C 4 4 0
V "C i
gz.. ä)
• •
0 1 '
0
1 : 1
.
.t o
N icholas
)
U
c e
THE MINT
t ext
a . ) . • u, 9 . , 4 . ) u . . c e 5 0 c 2 u c; i : ) . c • . ›v . -, < 1 . ,. 0 0 . , cv cr 2• 1 ,( . „ c ra• › gu el.) • 0
= , . 4 ,.74
C 1 J 4 . 4 0 L . 4 , C L ) c L . ) e , c u _ _ . , , . -5 .0 z c 2 › , _ . , , •• •
V "z , ..
7 :
0 c • •
1 "c
' `
•' 4 ,.ä • -
` c i j ( • ,
c u
. _ •
( , 4 , g ' -
.
1 . )
c n
C; : ,
C . )
0.
I 0 • •
. c i •a . ) 4
.ä) . . . ,
>▪.
M S
g -)
; . 1
, .
9 ,
. 4 .
( . 2
-0
)
+ '
a . e ) 7 , 2 4
. Z
b i )
: ":
•
, . a . ) e >
u
b / D
c a
;o u o • „ . , _, . . .
0 s ,
U
-
r
E
. . 4 z g 0
" -C 5
o
C 2
.
z ;
0 . . , : g
0
_f
. ,
. ‘ : z . . e ;
4 • 1 • ) •" ' % T .0 : ) -* •• ., . . . , : ° • • ", •' , ,' .. . , . , . . . , -t g
-I c z i
. „ , ;
_. 1
2
•
• .
•
: : • , ) ' 12
: 7 4
• t i
0
.
.le
-t : 3
§ z ,
• ' ‘ Z ; •" ' Z g . : 7 7, •• • • ) . '
• 1: 3 •
e
> > 5 " 5 " > 5 ,
• • . 1: 3 " t 3 " / Z : 3 •• • > •• • e
.s t ,21tEEc s . 9 .g e 3 3 " t3 0 c 5 -> g
< E z 4
9 4
0r z .
o >
" . -2 .5 e ,8. .c , . : 4 . ,. „ ,„ 1 . 3
z - 0t ic ,2 .ü .a 2K i 5
g : i a .i .
. 2 / : _ N 2 'i i ii u l 8 t o. n tc d ' a> g
w c z . ‘ : ; . . c z ; o
• , . ';
,: i
: •1 .
%
.
.
1 4 0 . )
V '
c z ;
o• • . ., ,z 2, " , : e • .. • . • . ., -c ;
:
:
. S.
( 1 . )
,
;< «1 14
V
14
e )
1 4 V
• . ) :
o • " z i 7 2 1 . 4 V
"
Z
1 4 g . )
• „ , ; >4
1 4 C . )
. c :
. 4 : :. ) . . : • -• >1
1. 4 C . )
•e g •
1 4 )
.
o• 1: 3
• , : . o
• , : o
-z;
, , : ;
. ,e;
• • 1
• t : , c z
-e , o
. 2-... ' .. 5 -. 5 2» 1 4 . V
4
L . , 1 . )
7 8
,e ;
1 4 C 1 . )
1 . 4 C . )
V
I . V
1 . 4 < 1 . )
1 4 V
t z 1
z 1 4 V
. i s o _• . . " lj
• • I •r
1 4 C l . )
-% .
. c : ; .
'g j .. t 2
•. . n
•P . ..,
1 4 C . )
1 . 4 1 . )
•• -1
1 4 4 )
t 2 . 1P 1 P i
1 4 V
5
, . , z
o .
o .j
• 5 . 1 • • I • • n • .. 1 .. . . - •• . ., 1 .4
V
0 . )
•• • • • . , 1.
1 .4
a ssayer's
p ound
c ame
i nto
v ogue
i s
unclear
but
i t
e stablished b y t he t ime o f E dward I 's n ew c oinage o n t he N ew M oney '
h ad t his
was
o bviously
i n 1 280.
w ell
' A T reatise
t o s ay:
N owadays a n a ssay i s made o f t en o unce, w eighed w ith t he g reatest
p ennyweights, t hat i s half a ccuracy. T his i s p laced
a n i n
c upels
t he
by
a rranged
i n
t he
e nough l ead f or t he which i t c ontains.
f ire
f or
p urpose
a nd
i s
purged
a ssay, f rom a ll t he c opper o r o ther m etal T he w eight o f e ach g rain o f t he a ssay i s
p roved b y c orrect c alculation t o b e e quivalent t o a p enny i n e very p ound ,
a nd
c onsequently
q uarter a f arthing; t wenty-fourth p art make
o ne
E ach
g rain ,
o f
F urther o n
s o
t herefore,
i n
f ine',
c ontained
t erms
t he
o f
f ull
T herefore,
b eaxs
t he
a halfpenny
a s
t wenty-four
h alf-ounces
s ame
a nd
s ince t he g rain i s make
p roportion
t o
a
t he
g rains
a p ound .
a p enny
a s
t o a p ound .'
t he
which
s terling
e quals
t wenty-four
s ame
t reatise
i n t erms o f t he a ssayer's p ound , a half
a g rain
a p enny.
p ennyweight,
e ach p enny d oes
half
w hich i s e asily p roved ,
t he
a uthor
1 8s.5 1 2d / .
s ays,
o f
t roy p ound
t he
i .e.,
q uite
s ilver
t his
s terling
s tandard
' nine s terlings, c orrectly,
a nd
1 81 2 / d wt.
r epresented
i s
s et
o ut
f ive g rains a nd w ould m e .r
o f
c opper.
a f ineness
o f
t hat I n
l u
1 1
o z.
11 2 /
d wt. U sing t hese f igures a s a s tarting p oint I have s et o ut i n T able 1 t he s ilver a nd c opper values f or e ach half g rain o f d ifference i n t he a ssayer's p ound b etween 9 d wt.
a nd 1 0 d wt.
o f
t he
s ilver
i n
d wt.
C olumn 2 g ives t roy
l b.:
p ounds,
a nd
g r.
o n
i n s hillings
s ince
t here
i n a t roy
b y d ifference,
l b.,
a ssayer's
a nd p ence
a re
C olumn 1 g ives
t he
t wenty-four
p ound
value half
o f
o f
o f c opper
i n e ach
half
t he
o unces,
c olumn 2 — c olumn 1 x 2 4.
t he a mount
t he f ineness
i .e.
C olumn
t roy l b.
a t roy
s ilver
i n
o z. e ach
a ssayer 's
3 e xpresses,
o f e ach
f ineness;
c olumn 3 a nd c olumn 2 a lways a dd u p t o 2 0s.0d . L et
u s
t urn n ow
w ould b e u seful t he
r eady
t o
t he
s econd
i n e lucidating t he
r eckoner
c ontained
A ccording t o t he e ditor,
t he
o ne
i s
halfpenny
s ilver
p rice
o f i s
c opper r educed ,
p iece
i n
t able t o b e
o f
i nformation
which
t hirteenth-century m int ' A
T reatise
' shows a dded .
s ilver c ontent
F or what
o f a g iven l b.
t he
o f
t o
F or
New
halfpenny
T able
i s
-
Money'.
s ilver b ought a t
e ach
c opper
t he
t hat
1 4d t he
e nding w ith 1 1 o ne halfpenny f or t he s ilver a nd f ourteen p ence o f c opper' . B ut h ere h e m istook h imself .
a h alfpenny
t hat
on
I s aid
d ocuments
a ctually
o f bullion s old
a dded ;
s hows
t o
t he
i s
m int
t hat
a s
r ose,
s o
t he a n
i ncreasing a mount o f a lloy c ould b e a dded t o i t t o b ring i t t o s terling ( the r ight hand c olumn i n t he T able) a nd , c onsequently, s o t he a mount d emanded
f or
c oinage
a t
t he
m int w ould
f all
( the
l eft
hand
c olumn
i n
t he T able). T his i nformation I have t ransferred t o T able 1 i n c olumns 4 a nd 5 . S ince t he a uthor s ays t hat t o s ilver u pon which t he f ull c oinage e nough
c harge t hat
o f 1 41 2d / .
i t b e
i s
l evied
e quivalent
f or bullion b ought a t
t he
t o
' no t he
s terling
a lloy
i s
t 9 )
s tandard '
b e
a dded,
t his
s tandard a nd ,
f or
c harge
c onsequently,
i t
i s
must
b e
a ll
t he
c oinage c harges i n t he r eady r eckoner, f rom 1 4d . d own t o 1 2d / ., must b e f or bullion which i s a bove s terling . T hus t hey o ccur i n T able 1 b elow t he
s terling
l ine
l ine.
B y t he
i n t he T able t he
s ame
f or bullion which w as
s old t o
t o
s ilver
which,
t herefore,
l ogic
I have
g iven
a bove
t he
s terling
i ncreased c oinage c harges which w ould b e d emanded t he m int b elow t he w ould
7 9
have
t o
b e
s terling s tandard a nd a dded
t o
p roduce
t he
TA B L E 1 F ineness o f s ilver/1 o z. d wt. g r.
1 5
2
3
V alue o f « pi lver/lb. 4 J t s . d .
C opper c ontent
S ilver/Copper a dded . , .
C oinage c harge, 1 2 79
d wt./lb.
d wt./lb.
d ./lb.
4
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 L ong C rosd . 9 i n 1 279 9 9
0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5
1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 81
0 O i 1 1 4 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5
2 4 2 31 2 3 2 21 2 2 2 11 2 1 2 01 2 0 1 9/ 1 9
5 1 ' 5 4 1 S ilver 4 a dded t o 3 1 > bring t o 3 2 1 s terling 2 1 1 o z. 1 1 d wt. 1 1 1 0 1 ,
2 0 1 9/ 1 9 1 81 1 8 1 71 1 7 1 61 1 6 1 51 1 5
S terling
5 1
1 8
5 1
1 81
0
1 41
9
N ormal m arket f ineness i n 1 279
P ure s ilve
0 1 ' 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5 5 1 6 . 6 1 C opper 7 a dded t o 7 1 8 > bring t o 8 1 s terling o f 1 1 o z. 1 1 d wt. 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11 1 2 1 21 r 1 3 1 31 1 4
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
6 6 1 7 7 1 8 8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11 1 2 1 21 1 3 1 31 1 4 1 41 1 5 1 51 1 6 1 61 1 7 1 71 1 8 1 81 1 9 1 91
1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9
6 6 1 7 7 1 8 8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5 5 1 6 6 1 7 7 1
1 8 1 71 1 7 1 61 1 6 1 51 1 5 1 41 1 4 1 31 1 3 1 21 1 2 1 11 1 1 1 01 1 0 9 1 9 8 1 8 7 1 7 6 / 6 5 1 5 4 1
9
2 0
1 9
8
4
1 41
0
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
2 01 2 1 2 11 2 2 2 21 2 3 2 31
1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9
3 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1
1 5 1 51 1 6 1 61 1 7 1 71 1 8
0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1
0
' 1 81 -
4
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
1 0
0
8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 ' 1 1 1 11 , 0 2 0
80
1 4 1 31 1 3 1 21 1 2 1 11 1 1 1 01 1 0 9 1 9 8 1 8 7 1 7 6 1 6 5 1 5 4 1 4 3 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1
A dditional c harge o f d . f or e ach 1 d wt . u nder s terling
F ull c harge ,
C harge r educed b y i d. f or e ach 1 d wt . o f s ilver a bove s terling
N o c harge P remium p aid I to m erchant o f i d.for e ach > 1 d wt. o f s ilver a bove 1 1 o z. 1 6 d wt.
,
c orrect f ineness. A f inal t he
l ast
p oint
n ine
c oncerning
l ines,
t he
t he
p art
c onstruction
w hich
f ollows
o f
t he
t hat
T able
f rom
c oncerns
t he
' ready-
r eckoner' i n t he ' Treatise'. When t he t roy l b. c ontains 1 9s. 8 d . s ilver a nd c an t herefore b ear a f ull 1 41 2 / d wt. o f c opper t o b ring i t s terling n o c harge w ill b e m ade. i s e ffectively 1 1 o z.
1 6 d wt.,
F or s ilver a bove
t hat f ineness,
o f t o
which
a p remium i s t o b e p aid t o t he m erchant.
I n a s ection d ealing w ith t he v arious k inds o f s ilver o n t he m arket t he ' Treatise' put i t t his way: T he
f ifth
e xample
i s
L imoges
purest,
wherefore
i n buying
c an
g iven
a ddition
b e
i n
i t t o
s ilver,
which
a n a gio
o f
t he
i s
s aid
f ourpence
w eight;
t o
i n
b ecause
b e
t he
i t
t he
p ound
c an
t ake
e ighteen a nd a h alf p ennyweights o f c opper t o t he p ound a nd b e o f s tandard f ineness; wherefore t he f ourpence a bove t he f ourteen p ence a nd a half s hould b e t he s eller's a dvantage. T o s ee t he t heory o f t he
' Treatise'
1 3
o n bullion purchasing put i nto
p ractical e ffect a nd t he d ay-to-day u se o f t he s liding s cale o f c harges e laborated
i n
T able
1 ,
o ne
n eed
d o
n o
m ore
t han
c onsult
t he
r ecords
w hich s till s urvive f or t he purchase o f s ilver a t t he L ondon a nd C anterbury m ints. A p articularly g ood i llustration i s t he r oll f or t he y ears u pon
1 288-90 which
which
r ecords
t herefore
n o
n ot
o nly
c oinage
s ilver
c harge
b ought
was
made,
a t
2 0s.
but
O d .,
a lso
o ther t ypes o f s ilver w hich a ttracted c harges r anging f rom a s l d .
f or t he b est t o a s much a s 2 s. I n c ompleted f orm T able
O d .
f or t he w orst.
1 s uggests
s everal
a nd
f ourteen l ittle a s
1 4
i mportant
c onclusions.
T o b egin w ith t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he s terling s tandard a imed a t i n E dward I 's n ew c oinage f rom 1 280 c ontained 1 81 2 d / wt. o f c opper; t hat i s w hat t he ' Treatise' i n f act s ays but t he basic a rithmetic o f t he c oinage
c harges
h ave b een
s o.
a nd
a dditions
S econdly,
i t
o f
i s
s ilver/copper
c lear
t hat
d emand
when
t he
t hat
i t
d ocuments
s hould a lready
d iscussed o r o thers s uch a s t he m int a ccounts f or s ilver purchased s peak o f t he m int master b eing c harged w ith s ums i n e xcess o f 1 41 /d 2 ./lb. c oined t his i s n ot b ecause t he s eigniorage has b een c hanged but b ecause t he s ilver b rought t o t he m int w as b elow t he s terling s tandard . F rom t he
' Treatise'
a nd T urnemire's
c oinage c harge o f 1 41 2d / ./lb. c over Turnemire's c osts. 1 8s.
51 2d / .,
s terling,
w hich t he
was
m int
c ontract
i t
was m ade u p o f
i s 9 d .
t hat
t he
s eigniorage
s tandard
a nd 51 2d / .
what
t here
s hould
m aster w ould h ave
t o
have
a dd
b een
s ilver
i n
t o
a
b ring
p ound
o f
i t
t o
c harge m ore. 11 /d 2 . a bove t he
' for t he r emedy o f e ach p ound o f m oney ' a nd t he t hat t he m oney i n question was ' old E nglish m oney ',
u p
I n h is n ormal
' Treatise' p resumably
o f t he l ong c ross variety. 15 T hirdly , T able 1 d emonstrates t hat f ineness o f n ormal market bullion i n 1 279 c ontained 4d . i n c opper was
t hus
1 1 o z.
1 6
t o
I f t he s ilver c ontained i n a p ound f ell b elow
s tandard a nd t herefore h e w as p ermitted t o i ndenture T urnemire w as e xplicitly a llowed 51 2d / ./lb. t ells u s
c lear
d wt.
f ine.
T his
g ives
d efinition
t o
t he
t he a nd
c onclusion
d rawn l ong a go by M r M ayhew t hat i n t he d ocume qs o f t his p eriod ' pure' s ilver d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean 1 00 p er c ent. S terling was a chieved by
a dding
c opper
w ith c opper.
t o
I n 1 279
a m ass 1 1
o f a dding o nly 1 41 2 d / wt.
o z.
which 1 6
was
d wt.
a lready
was
a lloyed
t he n orm ,
t o a chieve s terling a t 1 1 o z.
8 1
t o
h ence
s ome
e xtent
t he n ecessity
11 2 d / wt.
f ine.
TA B L E
1
2
5
4
3
2
F ineness o f s ilver/1 o z.
V alue o f s ilver/lb.
C opper c ontent
S ilver/Copper a dded
C oinage 248 c harge, 1
d wt. g r.
s . d .
d wt./lb.
d wt./lb.
d ./lb.
S hort C ross} i n 1 248
S terling
N ormal m arket f ineness i n 1 248
5
1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8
0 0 1 1 l i 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5
2 4 2 31 2 3 2 21 2 2 2 11 2 1 2 01 2 0 1 91 1 9
5 1 5 4 1 4 3 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1
1 71 1 7 1 61 1 6 1 51 1 5 1 41 1 4 1 31 1 3 1 21
9
5 1
1 8
5 1
1 81
0
1 2
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
6 6 1 7 7 / 8 8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11
1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8
6 6 1 7 7 1 8 8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11
1 8 1 71 1 7 1 61 1 6 1 51 1 5 1 41 1 4 1 31 1 3 1 21
0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5 5 1
1 11 1 1 1 01 1 0 9 1 9 8 1 8 7 1 7 6 1 6
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4
4 1
6
s tandard d ti f t a c od pi pe ron o
s tandard c oinage i c harge
I n v iew o f t his, w hat W arden R okesley m eant by t elling t he a bbot o f B ury S t E dmunds t o p ut 1 1 o z. 21 4 d / wt. o f s ilver i n h is n ew c oins i s p erfectly c lear. R okesley d id n ot s ay , a s h as s o o ften b een i magined , t hat t he a bbot 's c oin s hould c ontain 1 1 o z. 21 4 / d wt. o f s ilver a nd 1 7 3 /4 d wt. o f c opper, but r ather t hat i t s hould c ontain 1 1 o z.2 1 4 d / wt. ' of p ure s ilver, l ike t hat o f w hich s ilver l eaf i s m ade. i s c ommonly c alled s ilver o f G utheron 's L ane ' ( i.e. h ome o f t he L ondon g oldbeaters). 17 I n o ther w ords,
And s uch s ilver G utter L ane, t he t he a bbot w as t o
m elt
i mpure
a g iven w eight,
1 1
o z.
21 4 / d wt .,
o f
a n
a lready
s ilver
i n
o rder t o a chieve t he s terling s tandard S imple a rithmetic s hows t hat t o a chieve a s tandard o f 1 1 o z. 11 / d 2 wt. b y m elting 1 1 o z. 21 4 d / wt . o f a n a lready i mpure 1 91 4 d / wt. f ine.
s ilver,
t he
s ilver m ust
i n
f act
h ave
b een
o nly
1 1
o z.
F inally , t he c oherence o f t he f igures i n T able I d oes, I b elieve, e nable u s t o o ffer a r ational e xplanation o f w hat t he d ocuments s ay c oncerning t he l evel o f s eigniorage i n 1 248 a nd t he a ssay o f t he o ld a nd n ew m oney i n t hat y ear. T he j ury f ound t hat o ne p ound o f t he n ew m oney w eighed n ot m ore t han 6 d . l ess t han t he s tandard p ound a nd w as t hus a cceptable. I f w e a ssume t hat ' acceptable' m eans s terling , t hen i t
f ollows
t hat
t he
s tandard
r eferred
8 2
t o
c ontained
6 d wt.
m ore
o f
s ilver, i .e. 1 8s. 1 11 2d / . i nstead o f 1 8s. 51 2d / . ( Table 2 ). I f t his i s c orrect t he o ld m oney w hich t he j ury f ound t o b e 1 0d . b elow s tandard c an o nly have c ontained 1 8s. 11 2d / . o f s ilver. B ecause o f t his d eficiency, i t w ill b e r ecalled , t he h olders o f t his bullion w ere t o p ay 1 0d . m ore t han t he s tandard c harge o f 6 d ., m aking 1 6d . i n a ll. I f w e s et t his l evel o f c harges a gainst s ilver o f 1 8s. 11 2d / ., w e d o i n f act f ind t hat t he s tandard c harge w ould b e 6 d . f or b ullion 6 d wt. a bove s terling a nd t hat o bviously o nly 6 d wt. o f c opper n eeded t o b e a dded t o t his s tandard t o r educe i t t o s terling . I n s um , t he f igures i n T able 2 a ccommodate a ll t he s tatements i n t he d ocuments c oncerning f ineness, s eigniorage a nd t he a mount o f a lloy a dded: t he c onundrums have d isappeared. I n 1 248 t here was n o c onfusion, n o f raud; s imply s traightforward d ealing w hich t hose w ith a g rasp o f t he a ssayer 's p ound a nd t he a rithmetic w hich w ent w ith i t w ere w ell a ble t o a ppreciate. A s f ar a s I k now , t here i s n o s urviving m edieval v ersion o f t he r eady r eckoner I h ave p resented i n T able 2 , but t hat c ontemporaries i n t he L ong C ross p eriod w ere a ware o f i ts p rinciples a nd u sed j ust s uch a m ethod o f c alculation c an b e s hown b y r eference o nce a gain t o t he r olls which s till s urvive f or purchases o f s ilver a t t he L ondon a nd C anterbury m ints. I n 1 257-58 f or e xample, £ 34,593 o f s ilver w as p urchased a nd a ccounted f or a t 6 d ./lb. S ince t hree-quarters o f t his s um w as b ought a t 6 d , 6 d wt. o f c opper c ould b e a dded i n t he t imeh onoured w ay , b ut f or t he r emainder, w hich f ell s hort o f t he ' standard ' - b eing b ought a t s evenpence, e ightpence a nd s o o n , r ight d own t o a s m uch a s 3 s. O d ./lb. - s ome e lement o f c alculation m ust h ave b een r equired t o d etermine t he c orrect m ix . 1 8 T he n eed f or a t able o f r eference w as i n f act a s e vident t hen a s i t w as t o b e i n t he n ext r eign a nd i t i s t herefore o f s ome i nterest t o n ote t hat w hereas t he r eady r eckoner o f t he E dwardian ' Treatise' w as a t ruly o pen-ended s cale, w hich a llowed t he m int e ither t o p enalize t he m erchant f or t he p oorness o f h is s upply o r r eward h im w ith a n i mproved o ffer a s t he s tandard o f h is s ilver i ncreased , e ven u p t o a bsolute p urity , t hat o f t he L ong C ross p eriod w as n ot. I n t he e arlier p eriod s uppliers w ere s till p enalized f or t he p oorness o f t heir s ilver but a t n o t ime c ould t hey b e c ompensated f or i ts e xcellence a nd t herefore r educe t he s tandard c harge o f 6 d . T he
p ractical
i mplications
o f
t his
a re
o bvious
a nd
i mportant.
A nyone w ho b rought bullion t o t he m int o ver t he ' standard ' p aid h is 6 d . s eigniorage, j ust a s i f i t w ere a t t he ' standard ', but t he m oneyers w ere f ree i n a lloying d own s uch s upply t o k eep h owever m uch s ilver t here w as o ver t he ' standard '. S uch a n a rrangement, o ne m ay g uess, c ould n ot l ong e ndure w ithout m int o fficials g rowing r ich a nd m erchants a nd a n i mpoverished C rown b ecoming i ncreasingly e nvious. A gainst s uch a b ackground t he s etting u p i n 1 260 o f t he r oyal c ommission t o e nquire i nto t he m int, t he r eplacement i n 1 262 o f W illiam o f G loucester a s w arden , a nd t he a ppearance i n t he a ccounts o f h is s uccessors o f a n ew s ource o f r evenue, t he p rofits o f t he m elting h ouse, f all m ore c learly i nto p erspective. 19 T he k ing h imself w ould n ow b enefit f rom s uch bullion a s c ame i nto t he m int a bove t he ' standard '; t he b asis h ad i n f act b een l aid f or t he o fficial w hich b ecame e ffective i n 1 279. T ogether
w ith
t his
i ncrease
d evelopment
8 3
m ust
i n
b e
s eigniorage,
c onsidered
o f
t he
3 d ./lb,
d ecision
w hich w as t aken t o c ut 2 42d . r ather t han t he t raditional 2 40d . f rom e ach l b. o f b ullion , f or o bviously t his t oo i ncreased t he C rown 's p rofits f rom t he c oinage. T o p rofit o n t he s hear i n t his w ay i s, o f c ourse, a m atter o f n o g reat c omplexity : a ll t hat i s r equired i s f or t he bullion t o b e r eceived b y w eight a nd p aid f or b y t ale ( 240 d wt. o f s ilver c omes i n , 2 42d . a re s truck , 2 40d . a re r eturned t o t he m erchant l ess t he m intage c harge, a nd t he C rown k eeps t he e xtra 2 d .). A t f irst s ight t he a ccounts a ppear t o c onfirm t hat t his i s e xactly what h appened , b ecause t hey s peak o f a p rofit a rising f rom r eceiving b y w eight a nd p aying o ut b y n umber. B ut c loser i nspection r eveals t hat t his w as n ot e ntirely t he c ase. I n 1 261, f or e xample, W illiam o f G loucester a ccounted f or £ 23,907 o f b ullion r eceived a t t he L ondon m int, o n w hich t he s eigniorage a t 6 d ./lb. w as £ 597. 0 I f t he s hear w as 2 d . a nd w ent e ntirely t o t he k ing o ne w ould e xpect t he t otal u nder t his h ead t o b e e xactly o ne-third o f t hat f or t he s eigniorage, n amely , £ 199. I nstead , w e f ind o nly £ 4 1 9s. 7 d ., o r 1 195d , w hich m eans i n e ffect t hat t he k ing o nly b enefited a t t he r ate o f 2 d ./lb. o n h is £ 597 o f s eigniorage. T his s eigniorage h ad b een r eceived b y w eight, j ust a s h ad t he £ 23,907 o f bullion p urchased o f w hich i t f ormed p art; s o, j ust a s t he b ullion s upplier w as p aid i n n ew c oin b y w eight a nd t hus g ained a ny p rofit o n t he s hear, s o t he s hear o n t he s eigniorage, a nd o n t hat o nly , w ent t o t he k ing . T he m ain b eneficiary o f t he i ntroduction o f t he l ighter p ennies w as t hus t he s upplier a nd , o n t he f ace o f i t a t l east, t his w ould a ppear t o s uggest t hat t he u nderlying m otive w as t he s timulation o f t he m int 's b ullion s upply . I n d iscussing t he p rofits o f t he s hear w e m ove a way f rom t he m ain f ocus o f t his p aper w hich i s t he c alculation o f f ineness i n t he E nglish m edieval m int a nd t he e lucidation o f t he d ocuments w hich r elate t o i t; y et, i t t oo r einforces t he b asic a ssumption w hich u nderlies t he d iscussion a s a w hole. T he a ssayers a nd m oneyers o f t his p eriod w ere a n a ble l ot, c apable n ot o nly o f a rticulating t he t heory o f t heir c raft w ith a n a dmirable d egree o f s ophistication b ut a lso o f p ractising w hat t hey p reached w ith s ome p recision . I t i s i ncumbent o n u s a ll t o t ake w hat t hey s ay m ost s eriously a nd , i f d oubts a rise b ecause e ither t heir f igures s eemingly d o n ot a dd u p o r t heir s tatements a ppear t o b e c ontradictory , w e o ught t o a dmit m ore r eadily t han w e o ften d o t hat t here i s j ust a c hance t hat i t i s w e, n ot t hey , w ho a re c onfused .
N OTES 1 .
A lthough t he p ractice p ennyweights i s a ttested
o f d efining s terling i n ounces a nd i n t he l ater t hirteenth c entury, i t w as
n ot u ntil 1 356 t hat t his p ractice a ppeared f or t he f irst t ime i n a w ritten m int i ndenture, a nd n ot u ntil t he e arly s eventeenth c entury t hat a ll a mbiguity i n t he d efinition w as f inally r emoved . T he p roblem o f d efinition i s i nherent i n t he f ire a ssay i tself , f or t he a ction o f t he f ire c auses p art o f t he s ilver ( usually r eckoned a t 2 d wt./lb.) t o d rain i nto t he c upel a t t he s ame t ime a s t he i mpurities, t hus e nsuring , a s s ixteenth-century a ssayers p ut i t, t hat p art o f t he s ilver i s ' hid f rom r eport '. T he c onsequence i s t hat f ineness i s u sually d efined i n o ne o f t wo w ays - e ither a s t he p roportion o f t he m etals w hich g o i nto t he f ire, o r a s t he f ine s ilver w hich c omes o ut - a lthough o ccasionally , a s
8 4
i n r espect o f t he t rial p late o f 1 601 f or I rish c oins, a re
I have
previously
d iscussing s ome
t he
d etail
t ouched
K eeling
when
on
d ispute
l ecturing
Numismatic S ociety i n 1 981. ( with M r G P D yer) however,
o f
a ssays
o f
s ought
a s ample Mr
i mportant
t he
on
1 580s
t rial
t o
o f
p lates
d elayed .
extend
e xamining
a gainst T udor
J .S.
a nd
question
when
c onsidered t o
t he
i t
i n
B ritish
P ublication o f t he t rial p late v olume
b y
c entury
with
t his
o f
n ow unavoidably
s terling
s ixteenth
jointly
i s
I have
d efinition t he
b oth u sages
f ound e mployed a t o ne a nd t he s ame t ime.
t he
my t he
and
T his Mr
t he
d ocumentary
r esults
c oins.
F orbes
I n
m eantime,
i nvestigation o btained
f rom
r esearch,
D .B.
o f
e vidence
o f
m odern
c arried
Dalladay,
t he
will
o ut be
published s hortly. T he
D e
M oneta
e dited
by
Moneta);
o f
N icholas
Oresme
a nd
C harles
J ohnson ,
1 956,
p .68
C alendar
o f
T he T udor C oinage, 2 .
D e Moneta,
3 .
D ialogus
d e
De Moneta,
5 .
N .J. a nd
S caccario:
6 .
a nd
P roblem
Monetary
Manchester,
1 978,
1 950,
2 96-8;
C .E.
a s
D e
C hallis,
p p.141-2.
T he
C ourse
o f
t he
Exchequer ,
e dited
by
p .39.
D .R . o f
Affairs
Walker, F ineness
' Crockards i n
( 1279-1344),
Archaeological R eports,
3 6.
Mavis
P olicies
Mate,
( 1972),
1 354-60,
D ocuments,
c ited
p .54.
Mayhew t he
R olls,
M int
( hereafter
p .51.
C harles J ohnson , 4 .
C lose
E nglish
' Monetary
a S ilver e dited
1 977),
p p. i n
by
De M oneta,
p .68.
8 .
De M oneta,
p .87;
9 .
D e M oneta,
p .67.
1 0.
De M oneta,
p .73.
1 1.
D e M oneta,
p .74.
1 2.
D e Moneta,
p .73.
1 3.
De Moneta,
p .69.
1 4.
P RO.
1 5.
De M oneta,
1 6.
Mayhew a nd Walker,
Mate,
p p.60,
S ee a lso p p.57 a nd 8 2.
6 8. p p.
1 32-35.
8 5
N .J.
E ngland ,
p .45.
E 1 01/288/20.
P ollards:
C oinage',
i n
I mitation Edwardian
Mayhew
( British
1 32-35 a nd A ppendix 2 .
p p.40-42.
7 .
a nd
1 272-1307',
BNJ
4 1
1 7.
D e M oneta,
p .87.
1 8.
P RO.
1 9.
C alendar o f P atent R olls, 1 258-66, p p.77, 1 97. A lthough t he e xplanation o f t he m echanism w hereby p rofits o f t he m elting h ouse a rose i s m y o wn , i t i s r ight t o p oint o ut t hat i t w as M r M ayhew w ho f irst d rew a ttention t o t he e mergence o f t his n ew s ource o f i ncome. I a m m ost g rateful t o h im f or a llowing m e a s ight o f h is d raft c hapter f or t he f orthcoming H istory o f t he R oyal M int, i n w hich h e s ets o ut h is c ase.
2 0.
P RO.
E 1 01/288/3.
S ee a lso E 1 01/288/5,
E 3 72/105 m .20.
8 6
6 ,
7 a nd E 1 01/698/40,
4 1.
I rregularities
i n t he I rish m int a ccounts 1 279-1284 N .J.
Thirteenth o pportunity. I n
M ayhew ,
c entury I reland I reland a s i n t he
O xford
s eems t o have been a l and r est o f E urope t his was a t ime
of o f
g eneral e conomic e xpansion , but a dditionally I reland was e njoying a gricultural a dvantages a rising f rom t he Anglo-Norman s ettlement. a ll
a ccounts
w ithout
J ohn 's
i nstances
r ecord
o f
a s
c ruelty
L ord
a nd
o f
I reland ,
s tupidity,
r eign a s K ing o f E ngland was d isastrous. a n etwork o f c astles
a nd t owns,
J ohn 's
m arkets
t hough
was
a s
n ot
t he B y
e ntirely
s uccessful
a s
h is
s ettlement e stablished
a nd f airs,
v illages
a nd m anors
which provided a f ramework o f o rdered and peaceful prosperity. C oinage, c ommunications a nd s tandardised w eights a nd m easures w ere a ll p rovided by c entral g overnment, c ommercial b oom .
w hich d id a ll
i t c ould t o e ncourage t he
T he A nglo-Norman s ettlement b rought,
t oo,
t he
i ntense
c ultivation o f d emesnes, p roducing g rain s urpluses f or t he m arket h ome a nd a broad , a nd ( often m onastic) w ool g rowing f or e xport. 1 s hort t he E nglish a gricultural s ystem w as s uperimposed i n I reland . I rish
nobility,
f or
i ncreasingly I talian , O pportunities
T he p ickings t he
c ivil
g ain ,
t he
s ervice,
m erchant c ommunity
f or
t ransported ,
- f or
whether
and
e mbezzlement r ighteous i ndeed
Justiciary
a nd
p eculation ,
o utrage,
t he
t wo
o f
o r b y
l egitimate
e motions
I reland. t hough
i gnoble a re
t he
a nd
t he Anglo-
g rowing,
and
o r
c orrupt,
whether
t hey
i s
n ecessarily
must
have
b ishop o f W aterford ,
Fulburn's
j ealousy,
n ot
f or
-w ere r ich .
b een e specially p lentiful f or S tephen F ulburn , T reasurer
f ully g rown ,
c rown ,
f or
a t I n
r ivals
w ere
n ot
m otivated
e ntirely
mutually
a nd
a lleged by
c lear,
a nd
e xclusive.
B ut
w hat i s i nteresting f or o ur purposes, i s t hat t heir a ccusations g enerated a n i nquiry a nd a c ertain a mount o f d ocumentary e vidence which t hrows
l ight a mongst o ther
t hings
o n t he c onduct o f t he
I rish m int
a nd
e xchange. T he
i nquiry i nto t he m in ,
c ontext by M r
D ykes
i nvestigation
i nto
t hen e xtant S eptember
i n
1 964,
F ulburn 's
which was was
c onduct.
c overing t he p eriod 1 281.
These
I t
o f m int
t hree
f irst s tudied i n a numismatic
i nstituted a s
o nly
i temised
p art
t he
a ctivity under
a ccounts
survive
o f
t hree
a w ider a ccounts
E dward
t oday
I t o
and
2 1
make
i nteresting r eading . T he f irst was t hat o f R ichard O laf , warden o f t he D ublin e xchange, a nd w as d ated 8 June 1 276 t o 1 May 1 279. 3 I t r eveals v ery
l imited
s ilver
f rom
a ctivity t he
m ines
a bout
o f
T ipperary.
o f
t he
£ 130
T he
Unred ,
t own),
c overing t he p eriod f rom 1 May 1 279 t hat o f H enry d e
D ublin
o utput,
Walter
a ccount was
warden
o f
P onte
i ncluding
s econd
e xchange t o
a nd James
5
£ 3675 was p aid i nto
£ 11
o f
was
t hat
o f
( and
a lso
Mayor
o f
3 0 May 1 280. D onati
D ublin e xchange w ith W alter Unred a nd Humphrey t he d ies a nd f oundry .
a lmost
a ccount
l e
a s
G aunt
t he m int
T he
4
wardens a s
t he
t hird o f
t he
K eepers
a ccordin% t o
o f
t his
a ccount f rom w hich s ome £ 3603 w as p aid o ut t o S tephen F ulburn . B eyond
t hese
t hree
a ccounts,
t here
w ere
t wo
v iews
o f
a ccount
f or
t he Dublin mint made by t he wardens, James Donati 7 and Andrew S persholt. T he f irst c overed t he p eriod 2 9 March 1 281 8 t o 4 June 1 282 a nd w as made s ums
i n E ngland a nd s ent
m entioned
t here,
while
t o
t he
8 7
I reland t o c harge s econd
r an
f rom
F ulburn w ith 4
June
1 282
t he t o
M ichaelmas
1 284.
T he f igures f rom t hese t wo a ccounting p eriods s urvive
i n c onsiderable d etail. I n t he p eriod e nding 4 June 1 282 t he a ccounts s peak o f £ 31433 p ounds t ale s t uck , t hough o nly £ 2168 was s truck i n t he p eriod e nding M ichaelmas
1 284.
2
I t i s m ost i mportant t o n ote t hat a ll t hese
f igures r elate o nly t o
D ublin . T he i nquiry i nto t he M int n otes t hat t he k eepers o f t he Waterford m int w ould n ot c ome t o m ake a v iew d espite numerous w rits m ade
t o
d istrain
t hem .
E ventually
o ne
o f
p robably r esulted i n t he s urviving v iew . o f £ 2682 D ublin , 1°
t he
k eepers
c ame,
w hich
T his v iew r ecords t he r eceipt
w eight o f which, i nter a lia, £ 200 o ld m oney while £ 1435 i n n ew m oney was p aid t o F ulburn . 11
was
T he m int i nquiry t hen r ecords a number o f g eneral a gainst F ulburn . T he r ecoinage c harge had r isen f rom o ne
s ent
t o
a ccusations s hilling i n
t he p ound t o 1 6d - f or w hich F ulburn was n ot r esponsible, but i t s eems t hat F ulburn o nly a llowed t his r ate o n s pecially s elected h eavy p ence. S mall m oney was r eceived a t t he E xchequer a nd i n p ayment o f d ebts o nly by w eight a nd b lanch . 12 Again , t his was p robably r egular e xchange p ractice but F ulburn i ncurred f urther o dium b y h imself paying o ut w ith t his
s mall m oney, When
t he
t hus
n ew
t aking p rofit b oth i n r eceipt a nd i n p ayment.
m oney
was
f inally
B ishop's m oney o r S tephening , but was a lleged n othing was n ow t o N orm?nnni o f f or.14 E ven
o rdered
i t
was
o f t he p rofits b e f ound . '
c alled
S calding ,
o f t his r ecoinage i t Only when A lexander
L ucca c ame was t he m oney p roperly m ade a nd a ccounted t hen t he k eepers o f t he m int - e specially T horosianus
D onati a t Waterford - w ere s aid t o b e u tterly s ubservient t o F ulburn , a nd c omposed t heir a ccounts e ntirely w ithout s upporting e vidence. A lexander's w hen ,
s urfeit D onati G aunt
a ppointment
a ccording o f a s a s
t o
m int
t he
a s
o fficials.
k eepers k eepers
o f o f
t he t he
master
a ccounts, T he a nd
w ith
i n
w as
a ccount
e xchange, d ies
e arly
t here
o f
H enry
Walter
f oundry
1 281
r an
1 281,
but A lexander a pparently j oined t he
o f
when
James
D onati
a lso
b egan
a n ew
a nd
3 0
a t ime
t eam
a nd
o f
1 280
a
J ames
H umphrey
May
l e
t o
2 1
i n t he
s pring
w ith
Andrew
a ccount
S persholt a s j oint Warden . I f t he d ating o f t he f ace value t here w as a n o verlap o f a ccounts a nd s ummer o f 1 281.
P onte
Unred
f rom
a t
s omething
d e
S eptember 1 281,
c ame
a lready
a ccounts i s t aken a t s taff t hroughout t he
1 5
T his d ating o f t he r ecords i s i mportant b ecause a n e xamination o f s eparate F ulburn a ccounts s uggests t hat t he m int a ccounts which a ppear t o r un c onsecutively c over
t he
F ulburn 's m ints
o f
whole
a ccounts D ublin
o r
i ndeed
p eriod
o f
t o
t he
a cknowledge
a nd Watei-f ord .
o verlap,
m ay n ot
r ecoinage. t he
r eceipt T hese
1 6
i n
f act
S urviving o f
s ums
various
a re
On c ertain p oints T reasurer's
a ccounts
i t w ill
b e
c orroborate
s een o ne
t hat
t he
a nother.
s ums
i temised
t ogether w ith s uch c orresponding m int a ccount d etails a s m int T he
c ompletely
t ranscripts f rom
o f t he
o n T able
I
s urvive.
a ccounts
p ayments
a nd o f
t he
£ 1855
a nd £ 350 r eceived b y F ulburn f rom t he m int a ppear i n t he a ppropriate m int a ccounts a s m int p rofits p aid t o t he T reasurer. S imilarly t he s um o f £ 1415 p aid t o F ulburn a lso a ppears i n t he s ole s urviving v iew o f t he Waterford m int, a nd t he s um o f £ 3603 r eceived b y F ulburn c orresponds t o
8 8
" o
Z o
( 4 . 4
1 . 4 4 C . )
r . 4 ▪4
c . )
▪ a ) • .
' 1 : 1 Q . )
4 )
" c )
W
C U
> 4 e c
. 4
E
.
n i C )
U nred c ustod.
M int A ccount
• • O
• , 1
0 4 J J
0
C . )
a ) i i 4 . ) I . J O ( 21
c 0 • r I
E . c 4 . J C U
li •H G
C I D
• , ) . 0
r i ) 4 )
O CJ A
1 4 1
Z 0
"C G
0
M I
c . )
L I-1
O t ) ul G CO
C ) G < . ‘ • f-i • 4 J 4 4 G G
cn C /0 4 1 CI 4 . 2
• z O c o0
r- I 0 C . ) W
G • r-I
N . , ea , e 0 9 I
z -r i
4 )
.G c o
M entions
C . )