Coinage in Ninth-century Northumbria: The Tenth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History 9780860544944, 9781407317984
183 67 266MB
English Pages [422] Year 1987
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Introduction
Northumbria in the ninth century
Ninth-century Northumbrian chronology
Textual archaeology and Northumbrian history subsequent to Bede
Coinage and Northumbrian history: c.790-c.810
Herreth
Phases and groups within the styca coinage of Northumbria
Some thoughts on the hoard evidence for the Northumbrian styca coinage
Metal analysis of the Northumbrian stycas: review and suggestions
Consistency in the alloy of the Northumbrian stycas: evidence from Redwulf's short reign
The Northumbrian royal coinage in the time of AEthelred II and Osberht
Dating the so-called King Hoaud stycas
The personal names on the pre-Viking Northumbrian coinages
Adamson's Hexham plates
Some archaeological reflections on the Cuerdale hoard
CVNNETTI reconsidered
Two curious coins of Alfred
A topographical commentary on the coin finds from ninth-century Northumbria (c.780—c. 870)
Hexham and Cuerdale: two notes on metrology
Epilogue
The Seventh Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History: Sceattas in England and on the Continent
Eighth-century archaeology in the Meuse and Rhine valleys: a context for the sceata finds
Abbreviations
The Symposiasts
Citation preview
Coinage in Ninth-Century · Northumbria T he Tenth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History
edited by
D. M. Metcalf
BAR British Series 180 1987
B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR British Series 180, 1987: 'Coinage in Ninth-Century Northumbria' © The Individual Authors, 1987 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544944 paperback ISBN 9781407317984 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544944 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
CO NTENTS I n t roduc t ion , b y D. M. METCALF No r thumb r i ai nt h en in th c en tu ry , b y D. P . K IRBY N in th cen tu ry No r thumb r ian c h rono logy , b y STE WART LYON , w i th n o t e so nt h eE an r ed p enny b y D. M. METCALF, H . E . PAGAN , a nd VERONICA SMART T ex tua la r chaeo logy a nd Nor thumb r ian h i s to ry s ub sequen t t oB ede , b y DAVID N. DU MVILLE Co inage a nd No r thumb r ian h i s to ry : c .7 90— c . 8 10 , b y JA MES BOOTH
H e r re th , b y D. M. METCALF a nd J . P . NORTHOVER P ha se sa nd g roup sw i th in t he s t yca c o inage o f No r th umb r ia , b yM i s sE . J . E . P IR IE S ome t hough t so nt h eh oa rd e v idence f o rt h e No r th umb r ian s t y ca c o inage , b y H. E . PAGAN Me ta la na ly s i so ft h e No r thumb r ian s t yca s : r ev iew a nd s ugge s t ion s ,b yG . R . G IL MORE C on s i s tency i nt h ea loy o ft h e No r thumb r ian s t yca s : e v idence f r om Redwu lf ss ho r tr e ign , b yG . R . G IL MORE a nd M i s sE . J . E . P IR IE T he No r thumb r ian r oya lc o inage i nt h et ime o f Athe l red I a nd O sbe rh t , b y D. M. METCALF a nd j .P . NORTHOVER D a t ing t h es o -c a l led K ing Hoaud s t yca s , b y D.C. AXE T he p e r sona ln ame so nt h ep re -V ik ing Nor thumb r ian c o inage s , b y Mr s VERONICA SMART Adam son ' sH exham p l a te s , b yM i s sE . J . E . P IR IE S ome a r chaeo log ica lr ef l ec t ion so nt h eC ue rda le h oa rd , b y JA MES GRAHA M-CA MPBELL
CVNNETT Ir e con s ide red , b y IAN STE WART Two c u r iou sc o in so fA lf red , b yC . E . BLUNT At opog raph ica lc o mmen ta ry o nt h ec o in f i nd sf r om n in th c en tu ry No r thumb r ia ( c .7 80— c .870 ) , b y D. M. METCALF H exham a nd Cu e rda le : t wo n o te s o n me t ro logy , b y D. M. METCALF
E p i logue , b y
N ICHOLAS BROOKS
1 1 1
2 7 4 3 5 7 9 1 1 03 1 47 1 59
1 75 1 87 2 35 2 45 2 57 3 29 3 45 3 55 3 6 1 3 83 3 97
T h eS ev en th Oxf o rd S ympo s ium : A dd endum E igh th cen tu ry a r chaeo logy i nt h e Meu se a nd Rh ine v a l ley s : a c on t ex t f o r t h e s c ea t ta f i nd s , b y VOLKER ZEDEL IUS
Abb rev ia t ion s T he S ympo s ia s t s
4 03 4 15 4 17
I n t roduc t ion NI NTH -CENTURY No r thumb r ian su sed t wo k ind so fc o inage t h a tw e re v e ry d if e r en t i n t h e i r o u twa rd a ppea rance , n ame ly t h e s ma l l , d umpy , d eba sed p enn ie s t h a t n um i sma t i s t sh ave s i nce t h ee i gh teen th c en tu ry c a l led s t yca s ,a nd ( r igh ta tt h ee nd o f t h e n in th c en tu ry ) t h e b road , t h in , h eav ie r c o in s o f g ood s i lve r m in ted b y t h e V ik ing s o f Yo rk . T he d if e r ence i ni n t r in s ic v a lue , a nd p re sumab ly i np u rcha s ing p owe r , b e tween t h e V ik ing p enn ie s a nd t h e Ang l ian c o in s t h ey r ep laced w a s , w e may i mag ine , a tl e a s t t e n -o r t we lve -f o ld . Mo re mode s tn eed s w e re n o tn eg lec ted : s i lve r h a lf penn ie s w e re s t ruck f r om n ume rou s d i e s . T he re a r e a l so a f ew c u t h a lf penn i e s . E ven s o , t h e s c ope f o r u s ing c o in s i ns ma l l t r an sac t ion s w i l l h ave b een s e r iou s ly c u r ta i led . T he mone ta ry r e f o rm w a s n o d oub t g u ided b y w ide r c on s ide r a t ion s o ft h e n eed s o fi n te rna t iona l a nd i n te r reg iona l t r ade . I nm ee t ing t os h a re o u ri d ea so nt h ec o inage o fn in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ia i ni t s h i s to r ica lc on tex tw eh ave c ho sen ,t h en ,t ol ook a tp a r t so ft wo c hap te r so f mone ta ry h i s to ry wh ich h ave much i n c o mmon , i n t h e i r s h a r ed r eg iona l b ackg round , b u t wh ich a l so of e r c on t ra s t s t h a t m ay b e i n s t ruc t ive . I fo u r c once rn w e re p u re ly n um i sma t ic ,i twou ld b et i d ie rt ol ook e i the ra tt h e who le o ft h e Ang l ian s e r ie s ,f r om t h er e ign o fE adbe rh tt ot h ef a l lo f Yo rk , o rt h e who le o ft h eV ik ing s e r ie s , r unn ing i n to t h e t e n th c en tu ry . B u t i fo u r p r ima ry o b jec t ive i st o e l uc ida te t h e mone ta ry e v idence , t h e re m ay b e s ome a dvan tage i n as t ra tegy wh ich a low s u s t o make c o mpa r i son s , a nd t ou s e o ne s e r ie s t o s t r ike i d ea s o ft h e o the r . T hu s , s e e ing t h e h eav ie r , g ood s i lve r V ik ing c o in s o u t o ft h e c o rne r o fo u r e ye s hou ld m ake u sa s k mo re i n s i s ten t ly why t h e s t yca s b ecame s od eba sed d u r ing t h e r e ign o fE an red a nd b eyond . No r thumb r ia p re sumab ly s uf e red f r om ap rog re s s ive s ho r t -f a l l o fs i lve r , wh i le a tt h e s ame t ime t h e d emand f o r c o in c on t inued o r e ven g rew . D eba semen t , o ne wou ld h ave t hough t , w a s l i ab le t o b e d amag ing t o c o mme rc ia lc onf idenc ea nd t oo pen t h ed oo rt o ma lp r ac t ice .I tw a sa ne xped ien tt h a t p ruden tk ing s wou ld n o tw i l l ing ly a dop t . How w a si tm anaged ,a nd who b enef i t ted f r om i t ? Wa s i t as l ippe ry s l ope ? T he re w e re p receden t s :t h es c e a t ta c o inage so fs ou the rn E ng land h ad p lunged i n to d eba semen tb eg inn ing i nt h e7 20 s .T he i ri n c rea s ing u n re l iab i l i ty m ay w e l lh ave b een o ne o f t h e f a c to r s t h a t d ec ided E adbe rh t t o i n t roduce h i s own , No r thumb r ian c o inage . T he s c ea t ta s w e re e ven tua l ly s wep t a way a nd r ep laced b y t h e g ood s i lve r p enn ie so fK ing Of f a ,b u t No r thumb r ia w a su nab le t of o l low s u i t . T he d ra in o nt h e r e g ion ' s s i lve r s t ock s c ou ld n o t b e h a l ted , p e rhap s b ecau se o f ap e r s i s ten t t e ndency t owa rd s ar e g iona lb a lance -of -paymen t sd ef i c i t .Y e ta tt h es ame t ime t h ep roduc t ion o fc o in w a sb uoyan t ,a nd i nt h es e cond q ua r te ro ft h en in th c en tu ry t h ec omp lemen t o f moneye r s r o se f r om h a lf ad ozen t o ad ozen o r mo r e . We n ow h ave t h e b enef i t o f ag row ing b ody o fa na ly t ica l i n f o rma t ion o n t h e m e ta l c on t en t s o ft h e c o in s . F rom v e ry e a r ly i nt h e s e quence o fE an red ' s i sue s , t h e s i l ve r w a s a loyed w i th b ra s s . T h i s m a rk s a n i mpo r tan t d epa r tu re . Hwx t r a 2 c 1 a nd C ynewu lf s t ruck z i nc -f r ee c o in sf o rE an red , w i th a bou t4 0% s i lve ra nd 7% t i n , t h a t i s ,s i lve ra loyed w i th b ronze . B u tv e ry s oon a na loy c on ta in ing o n ly 1 5-20 % s i lve r w a s i nu s e , a loyed w i th g ood -qua l i ty b r a s s i n wh ich z i nc made u p 2 o-25 % . A s 1
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d eba semen tp roceeded , t h ec o in sc ame t oc on s i s to f8 o% b ra s s , t h en 9 o-92 % b ra s s , a nd e ven tua l ly i n Athe l red ' sr e ign 9 7o r9 8% b r a s s ,a lway sw i th t h ea dd i t ion o f2o r 3° A t i n . When t h e c o in s w e re n ew , t h ey w e re p re sumab ly o f aq u i te a t t r ac t ive g o lden c o lou r . T he i sue i n t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e n in th c en tu ry o f wha t w e re v i r tua l ly b ra s s c o in s i ss ome th ing e x t reme ly u nu sua l i nt h e n um i sma t ic h i s to ry o f m ed ieva lE u rope ,a nd i tf o rm s av e ry e a r ly a nd i s o la ted c hap te ri nt h ek nown h i s to ry o f med ieva lb ra s st e chno logy . I ts e em sv e ry p robab le t h a tt h ez i nc o r e sw e re m ined i n No r thumb r ia , p e rh ap s i n t h e d i s t r ic t a round A l s ton . T he s ugge s t ion b y a n ine teen th -cen tu ry n um i sma t i s t t h a t t h e b ra s s i n t h e s t yca s w a s o b ta ined b y r em in t ing Roman c o in s f ound b y c hance i nt h e v i c in i ty o fH ad r i an ' s Wa l li sq u i te u n rea l i s t ic , f o r t h en in th -cen tu ry c o in sw e re s t ruck f r om mo re t h an 2 ,000 d i e s , a nd wou ld h ave n eeded s ome th ing i n t h e o rde r o f 20 t onne s o f Roman o r icha lcum c o in s . Me ta la na ly se sc on t r ibu te b o th t ot h eh i s to ry o fm in t ing a nd t ot h eh i s to ry o f t h ec u r rency . A lone , o r —be t te rs t i l l— in c on junc t ion w i th d i e s tud ie s , t h ey c r ea te a n e two rk o fn ew f a c t s ,a low ing u st od a te a nd q uan t if yt h es t age so fd eba semen t ,a nd t hu s t o u nde r s tand t h e d if e r ence s i ni n t r in s ic v a lue wh ich wou ld h ave m ade t h e w i thd rawa l o fo ld c o in s f r om c i rcu la t ion wo r th -wh i le . T he No r thumb r ian e xpe r ience w a s s h a red i ns ou the rn E ng land . A t C an te rbu ry t h e re w a s s e ve re d eba semen t i n t h e s e cond q ua r te r o f t h e n in th c en tu ry , when A rchb i shop C eo lno th ' s c o in s f a l l t oa sl i t t le a s 5% s i lve r c on ten t s . An a t t emp t t o r e s to re t h es i tua t ion i nt h e 8 5o sq u ick ly e nded i nf a i lu re , w i th s i lve rc on ten t sa sl ow a s2 5% b yc .8 62 . Unde rB u rg red a no the ra t temp tt op roduce c o in so fb e t te rq ua l i ty a ga in l a s ted o n ly f o r as ho r tt ime ,a nd b yt h ee a r ly 8 70 st h ec o in sw e re a ga in aq ua r te r f i ne o rl e s s . I ns ou the rn E ng land , t oo , d eba semen tw a sa c compan ied b ya c ce le ra t ing p roduc t ion o fc o in s . T he L ow C oun t r ie sa nd n o r th -e a s te rn F r anc ia s e em l a rge ly t o h ave e s caped d eba semen t ,p e rhap sb ecau se t h ey w e r eb enef i c ia r ie si nt h ei mba lance o fp aymen t s .E ven t h e re ,h oweve r , t h e re w e re mone t a ry p rob lem s , a sr evea led b ya s h a rp d rop a f te r 8 45 i nt h e money c ha rge s p ayab le b y m an s i . T he s t o ry s e em st ob e t h a t Do re s tad s n eezed , a nd p eop le a l r ound t h e No r th S ea c augh t ac o ld . Why t h e s t yca sw e re d eba sed f a l l sw e l lw i th in t h ec a tego ry o fi d io tq ue s t ion s .T he r e a son sa r e n o t t o b e s ough t o n ly w i th in No r thumb r ia , e ven i f No r thumb r ia s uf e r ed mo re s e ve re ly t h an o the r r eg ion s ; a nd t h e c on t inued r e qu i remen t f o r l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f c o in , i n t h e f a ce o fs u ch d i ff i cu l t ie s , i sa l t h e c l ea re r a se v idence . I fw e a s k , ' A s e v idence o f wha t ? ' ,t h ea n swe r sw i l ld epend o n whe the rw es uppo se t h a tc a l l so nt h e moneye r s ' s e rv ice s c ame s imp ly f r om p r iva te i nd iv idua l s , a nd i n p a r t icu la r me rchan t sw i th f o re ign money t oc hange ,o r whe the rt h ek ing w a ss omehow a b le t o p romo te t h e f l ow o fb u l l ion t h rough t h e m in t s , i n o rde r t o d e r ive al a rge r c a sh i n come f r om t h er e i s sue o ft h ec o inage . T he l a t t e ri si mp robab le , a st h e r ea r e o n ly t h ree o cca s ion s i n t h e n in th c en tu ry when d eba semen t c ou ld h ave b rough t s ub s tan t ia l p rof i t s t ot h ek ing f r om r em in t ing , n ame ly t h e momen t when E an red ' s c o in sw e re r educed t oa bou t2 0% s i lve r ,l i kew i se when t h ey w e re r educ ed t oa bou t i o% o r l e s s , a nd t h e a bandonmen t o fs i lve r o n A the l red ' s r e s to ra t ion . T he r ei sat o ta la b sence o f of i c ia ld ocumen ta ry i n f o rma t ion a bou tt h ec o inage o r a bou tt h e wo rk o ft h e moneye r s .I ti sr e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a tm any o ft h ep rac t ice s w e r e s im i la r t o t ho se o fl a te r c en tu r ie s , wh ich a r e b e t te r u nde r s tood . T he l a ck o f d ocumen ta ry i n f o rma t ion a bou t p r ice s i s ,h ow eve r , i r remed iab le . B y c on t ra s t t h e c o in s h ave s u rv ived v e ry p l en t if u l ly . T hey w e re s c a r ce u n t i l t h e n ine teen th c en tu ry , b u t t h en t wo f amou s h oa rd s b rough t many t hou sand s o f s p ec imen s t o l i gh t . A t H exham i n O c tobe r 1 8 32 t h e s e x ton a nd h i s a s s i s tan t , i n 2
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d igg ing a nu nu sua l ly d eep g rave ,c ame u pon ab ronze b ucke tc on ta in ing s ome s e ven o r e i gh t t hou sand s t yca s , a nd a t Cue rda le n ea r P re s ton i n May 1 840 , c l o se t o t h e f o rme rb ank o ft h eR ive rR ibb le , wo rkmen f ound t h ev e s t ige so f al e ad l ined c he s t w i th s ome 7 , 000 c o in s a nd n ea r ly 4 0 k g o fh a ck s i l b e r . T he t r ea su re i n c luded o ve r 3 , 000 V ik ing c o in s o fY o rk , wh ich s hou ld b e e nough t o p rov ide u s w i th s e ve ra l s p ec imen sf r om v i r tu a l ly e ve ry d i et h a tw a se ve ru sed . T he C ue rda le h oa rd r ema in s w i thou t p a ra l le l , e xcep t f o r at i ny h oa rd f r om Dy sa r t i nI r e land , b u t s e ve ra l o the r l a rge h oa rd so fs t yca sh ave s i nce c o me t ol i gh t ,i nY o rk i t s e lf a nd a tB o l ton P e rcy , s o t h a tp o ten t ia l ly o u ri n f o rma t ion a bou tt h el a te rp a r to ft h a ts e r ie si sa l so r ema rkab ly c o mp le te , i nt h e s e n se t h a t t h e re a r e s e ve ra l s p ec imen s i ne x i s tence f r om v i r tua l ly e ve ry d i e . B o th t h e H exham a nd C ue rda le h oa rd s m e t w i th r e spon s ib le r e scue r s . Adam son q u ick ly p ub l i shed wha tw a s ,b yt h en um i sma t ic s t anda rd so ft h ed ay , af u l l a nd e xemp la ry r e co rd o ft h e H exham c o in s , w i th a c cu r a te e ng rav ing s b yJ ame s B a s i re ( t he e ng rave r t ot h e S oc ie ty o f An t iqua r ie s ) o fo ve r 9 00 d if e ren t v a r ie t ie s . E dwa rd H awk in s s im i la r ly w ro te al ong a nd c a ref u l a c coun t o ft h e C ue rda le f i nd , a c compan ied b y t e n p l a te s o fl i ne d raw ing s b y F . W. F a i rho l t . T he h oa rd s w e re i n ev i tab ly d i spe r sed , a nd n um i sma t i s t s e ve r s i nce h ave b een a t temp t ing t o r e a s semb le t h e e v idence —g lean ing whe re Ad am son a nd H awk in s r e aped . I ti s ah a rd t r u th , a nd p e rhap s u npa la tab le , t h a t t h i s w ea l th o f n um i sma t ic i n f o rma t ion h a s n o t y i e lded ama tch ing w ea l th o fi d ea s o r c onc lu s ion s a bou t t h e mone ta ry e conomy o f No r thumb r ia .I fw es e ek t or e la te t h ee v idence o ft h ec o inage t ot h en eed sa nd p u rpo se si ts e rved , w eq u ick ly l e a rn t h a tt h ea n swe r sa r en o tg o ing t o f a l l o u t o ft h e n um i sma t ic d e ta i l j u s t b y s h ak ing i t . We n eed t o a pp roach i t e qu ipped w i th h ypo the se s t o t e s t . Wha t w e re t h e s t yca s u s ed f o r ? Wha t w e r e t h e V ik ing s i lve rp enn ie su s ed f o r ? Wa si tp redom inan t ly f o rl ong -d i s tance t r ade ,o rf o r l o ca l e xchange s , o r f o r t a xa t ion , o r a s as t o re o fw ea l th ? D id mone ta ry e xchange s e n te r i n to t h e i n te rna l e conomy o ft h e g rea t mona s t ic e s ta te s ? Wa s t h e c u r rency c oncen t ra ted w i th in t h et r ad ing c i ty o fY o rk ?I ti sr e a l ly v e ry d if i cu l tt of i nd w ay so f u s ing t h e e v idence t o a n swe r s imp le q ue s t ion s s u ch a st h e se . J ean -Pau l D ev roey i n ar e cen t a r t ic le , ' Ref l ex ion s s u r l ' econom ie d e s p rem ie r s t emp s c a ro l ing ien s ( 7 68877 ) : g rand s d oma ine s e ta c t ion p o l i t ique e n t re S e ine e t Rh in ' , ' h a s s k e tched t h e c ha r ac te r i s t ic s o ft h e n in th -cen tu ry p o l i t ica l e conomy , a s r evea led b y w r i t ten s u rvey s o fv i l l a e , t h ep o lyp t iqu e s . H e p o in t s t ot r ad i t iona l a nd v e ry c on se rva t ive a g r i cu l tu ra l s t ra teg ie s a st h e b ackg round t o i d ea l s o f p eacef u l s t ab i l i ty , r egu la r p roduc t ion , f o re s igh t i n t h e s t o rage o f s u rp lu se s , a nd p o l i t ica l p a te rna l i sm . T he e s ta t e e conomy h ad f ew o u t le t s : r evenue s d e r ived f r om a g r icu l tu r a l s u rp lu se s w e re o f ten n o t a pp l ied t oa ny e conom ic p u rpo se , b u t w e re u s ed u p i na lm sg iv ing , i nt h e b u i ld ing o fc hu rche s , o r i nt h e p u rcha se o fp rec iou s o b jec t s s u ch a sb ook s o rv e s tmen t s . A long s ide t h i s r a the r s t a t ic s u rv iva leconomy , t h e re a r e s i gn s , wh ich w e d o n o t u nde r s tand a ta l c l ea r ly , o f amoney e conomy , wh ich , i nt e n s ion w i th d e mog raph ic t r end s , h e ld o u tt h ep o s s ib i l i t ie so fp rog re s s ive s o c ia l c hange a nd as p i r a l o fe conom ic d eve lopmen t . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e e s ta te e conomy a nd t h e money e conomy i n No r thumb r i a i si fp o s s ib le e ven mo re o b scu re t h an i ti si ns ou the rn E ng land i nt h en in th c en tu ry . T os p eak a bou tt h et wo b e ing ' a long s ide 'e a ch o the rm e re ly a f i rm st h eo bv iou s ,n ame ly t h a tt h ey c ou ld c o e x i s t , a nd l e ave s o pen t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip . T ha t q ue s t ion , i ndeed , c o me s c l o se t o t h e n ub o f o u r e nqu i r ie s . Y o rk m igh t i n p r inc ip le h ave h ad t h e • c ha rac te r o f at r ad ing e mpo r ium wh ich w a s s o c ia l ly v e ry d if e ren t f r om t h e b road 1
I n F ran c ia 1 3 ( 1 985 ) , 4 75-88 .
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a c re so ve r wh ich t h e No r thumb r ian k ing sr u led ,a ni s l and whe re money w a si nd a i ly u s e , i n as e ao fs ub s i s tence a nd b a r te r . S uch av i ew i sc ha l lenged , h oweve r , b ys t ray f i nd s o fc o in s wh ich , i fn o tp a r t icu la r ly p l en t if u l , a r ec e r ta in ly w ide sp read t h rough much o f No r thumb r ia , i n c lud ing t h e s ou the rn u p land so fS co t land , a nd r e g ion st o t h ew e s to ft h eP enn ine s .T h i ss c a t te ro ff i nd s may b et a ken t os ugge s te i the rt h a tt h e c o mme rc i a li nf luence o fY o rk w a s f e l ti ni t sh in te r land , o rp e rhap s me re ly t h a tt h e mone ta ry s y s tem wh ich Y o rk d om ina ted s p i l led o ve r i n to t h e h in te r land . We c an p re s st h i sc onc lu s ion al i t t le h a rde rb yp o in t ing o u tt h a tt h e re a r e as u rp r i s ing n umbe r o ff i nd s o ff o re ign , p a r t icu la r ly C a ro l ing ian , c o in s a mong t h e s t ray l o s se s a nd t h e h oa rd m a te r ia l . T he se a r e c o in s t h a t m anaged t o e s cape t h e n e t o f c o mpu l so ry r em in t ing , wh ich c e r ta in ly a pp l ied . T hey c o me n o to n ly f r om Y o rk i t s e lf , i ns ome a bundance , b u ta l so f r om t h eh in te r land . F ind s o fs t yca si nt h eh in te r land m igh tb e j udged t ob e t os ome e x ten t amb iguou sf o rt h e p u rpo se so ft h i s a rgumen t ( n ame ly whe the r Y o rk ' s c o mme rc ia l i nf luence w a s f e l t o r whe the r m e re ly i t s mone ta ry s y s tem s p i l led o ve r )b ecau se s t yca sc ou ld b ec on s t rued i nt e rm so ft a xa t ion .B u tf i nd s o fC a ro l ing ian c o in s , m in ted mo s t ly i nt h el owe r Rh ine land s , a r eu n l ike ly t or e f l ec t a ny th ing b u t c o mme rc ia l c on tac t s . T he i r e v idence s hou ld t hu s b e p a r t icu la r ly p rec iou s t o t h e mone ta ry h i s to r ian . Ou ra pp roache st ot h ec o in e v idence c an b es e en a sf a l l ing i n to t wo c a tego r i e s . We c an a s k ,q u i te d i rec t ly ,h ow t h ec o in sw e re u s ed ,o rw ec an a s kh ow t h ey w e re m ade , a si nd i rec t e v idence o fn eed o r i n ten t ion . I nt h e v i r tua l a b sence o fd ocumen t s o u r k now ledge o fh ow c o in s w e r e u s ed c o me s e xc lu s ive ly f r om f i nd s , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn so f wh ich a r eo u ro n ly d i rec te v idence f o rt h ea r ea o ve r wh ich t h ec u r rency c i rcu la ted . F o rt h i sp a r t icu la rp u rpo se as t r ay f i nd , o f as i ng le c o in a c c iden t a l ly l o s t , m ay b ej u s ta sv a luab le a s al a rge h oa rd , o re ven mo re s o . Of t h eV ik ing c o inage ss o r i ch ly r ep re sen ted i nt h e C ue rda le h oa rd , t h e r e i so the rw i se , f r om No r thumb r ia , o ne c o in f ound i nY o rk ( Ske lde rga te ) i n1 879 , o ne e xcava t ion c o in p ub l i shed f r om Yo rk ,a nA lvva ldu sf r om Y o rk ( s a id t ob ef r om Wa lmga te ,b u ti ti sn o tc e r t a in t h a ti t i sf r om t h eh oa rd ) ,a nd a no the rA lvva ld u sf r om No r th F e r r iby . Whe re wou ld w eb e w i thou t C ue rda le ? A l though a h oa rd c an b e c oun ted a t b e s t a s o ne f i nd f o r a d i s t r ibu t ion m ap , h oa rd sd o o f e ri nva luab le d i rec te v idence o ft h e a ge s t ruc tu re o f t h e c u r rency , a nd o f t h e d eg ree t o wh ich d if e r en t i sue s b ecame m ing led i n c i rcu la t ion .T he s t yca h oa rd ss e em o nt h e who le t ob ef r ee f r om l ong r un so fc o in sa l f r om t h es ame d i e ,a nd o ne c ou ld d ev i se s t a t i s t ica lw ay so fa s se s s ing t h ec l u s te r ing o f d i e -dup l ica te s ,a s am ea su re o ft h ei n ten s i ty w i th wh ich t h ec u r r ency w a su s ed ,o rt h e f r equency o ft r an sac t ion s . B u t t h eh oa rd so the rt h an H exham a r e a l f r om t h ev e ry e nd o ft h es t yca p e r iod ,a nd t h e i re v idence f o rt h es t a te o ft h ec u r rency c an i lum ina te o n ly t ho se c l o s ing y ea r s . Ou ro the r c a tego ry i sh ow t h e c o in sw e r e m ade — the h i s to ry o fm in t ing , r a the r t h an t h e h i s to ry o ft h e c u r rency . T h i s i s at op ic o f wh ich i ts hou ld i np r inc ip le b e p o s s ib le t o g ive as t ra igh tf o rwa rd , i ff a c t laden , a c coun t . I n p rac t ice t h e c o r rec t m a r sha l l ing o f t h e f a c t s p re sen t s u s w i th u nw ie ldy a nd p e rp lex ing p rob lem s o f i n te rp re ta t ion , wh i le h o ld ing o u tt h eh ope o fu nexpec ted i n s igh t s .T he re a r ev a r iou s s p ec ia l i s t l i ne s o fa pp roach t o t h e h i s to ry o fm in t ing , i n c lud ing t h e s t udy o ft h e moneye r s ' n ame s , a nd t h e m ea su remen t o f t h e a loy o f t h e c o in s . D i e s tud ie s , h oweve r , h o ld a c o mmand ing p o s i t ion , b ecau s e when t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e c o inage i si nd i spu te , i ti su sua l ly t h e c a se t h a t d i e l ink s a r e t r ump s . I ti saf am i l ia ri d ea t h a tm ed ieva lr u le r sw e re n o tn e ce s sa r i ly c on s ide ra te o fp opu la r r equ i remen t s f o r c o inage , a nd i tf o l low s t h a t c hange s i nt h e wo rk o ft h e m in t s a r e
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n o tn ece s sa r i ly s e n s i t ive i nd ica to r so fc hanged mone ta ry c i rcum s tance s .T hey s hou ld b e i n te rp re ted w i th c au t ion . Neve r the le s s , w e h ave t o r e cogn ize t h a t v e ry l i t t le p rog re s s c an b e m ade u n t i l t h e c o in s h ave b een c o r rec t ly a t t r ibu ted a nd d a ted . T he s t yca s e r ie s w a s w i th in l i v ing memo ry a h appy h un t ing -g round f o r n um i sma t i s t so fs omewha tn a r row v i s ion a nd l im i ted s c ho la r ly e xpe r ience e age rt o a t t r ibu te c o in s i nt h e i r c o l lec t ion s t on ew k ing s , o r t o m ake d rama t ic d i scove r ie s . T he c o l lec to r s o ff i f ty t o ah und red y ea r s a go c an n ow b e s e en t oh ave m ade l i t t le i mpac t o n t h e s ub jec t , a nd t h e i r c on t r ibu t ion s w e re s ome t ime s o fn ega t ive v a lue . S ome b i za r re i d ea sw e re w a shed u po nt h ew i lde rs ho re so f emu la t ion . Ac o in f r om t h e H exham h oa rd , f o r e xamp le , ( c oncea led a sy ou w i l l r e ca l l i nt h e m idd le o ft h e n in th c en tu ry ) w a s c hee rf u l ly a t t r ibu ted t o Athe lba ld , who b ecame a r chb i shop s ome f i f ty y ea r s l a te r . J ona than Ra sh le igh c onv inced h im se lf t h a t s t yca s r e ad ing E the l red a nd E th i l red b e longed t o d if e ren t k ing s , a nd w en t o n , ' The re a r e af ew n ame so f moneye r s wh ich a ppea ro nc o in so fb o th E the l red a nd E th i l red ,s u ch a se . g . " Leof thegn" , "Monne" , a nd " Fo rd red" , a nd i tmay b eu rged a ga in s t my a rgumen t , t h a tt h i sf a c tp o in t st oa na b sence o fa ny f i xed r u le o fs p e l l ing t h en ame ,e ven b yt h e s ame moneye r . B u t Id eny t h a t t h ey a r e t h e s ame moneye r s ...I ti sm an if e s t , f o r e xamp le , t h a t t h e re mu s t h ave b een t wo , o r t h ree , L eof thegn s ' . T he re i sa l t h e d if e rence i nt h e wo r ld b e tween t h i sw i ld a nd i mp lau s ib le a s se r t ion u n suppo r ted b ya s h red o fe v idence , a nd t h e c au t iou sh ypo the se s i nM i s sP i ne ' s d i scu s s ion p ape r t h a t d i e l ink ing s e em st oi nd ica te t h a tt h e re w e re s e ve ra ld if e ren tr ega l wo rk shop s , t h a t t h e s p e l l ing s AED ILRED , EDELRED , ED ILRED , a nd s o o n a r e ab a s i s f o r c l a s s if y ing t h ec o inage ,a nd t h a tt h ei r regu l a rc o in so fc l a s se sRI ,R I ,a nd R I ' a re e a ch m ade u p o f an umbe ro ft i gh t -kn i tb a l l s o fc o in s , c l o se ly d i e l inked , w i th o ne b a l lk no t ted t oa no the rb yn o mo re t h an o ne o rt wo c ro s s l ink s ' .T he s h ee rq uan t i ty o fo rgan ized i n f o rma t ion w i th wh ich a ny t h eo r ie s mu s tc onf o rm i sn ow f o rm idab le . T he c au t iou sc o mmon s e n se a nd c l ea r -headedne s so ft h eg ene ra lh i s to r ian a r ea sh a rd o fa t ta inmen ta se ve r ,p e rhap sh a rde r . T hey a r es t i l ln eeded t oa r r ive a t av i ew o ft h e a dm in i s t ra t ive a nd p rac t ica l a r r angemen t s o f wh ich t h e d i e l ink s a r e t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . We n eed t or emembe rt h a t Athe l red ' sf i r s tr e ign i su n l ike ly t oh ave b een mo re t h an a bou tf ou ry ea r sl ong , a nd t h a tt h en umbe ro fd i e su s ed w a s p robab ly f ewe rt h an u nde rE an red .B u ti ft h ec o in sd oi nf a c td emon s t ra te e l abo ra te a dm in i s t ra t ive a r rangemen t s , t h en t h ey may w e l l e ven tua l ly t h row u nexpec ted l i gh t o n No r thumb r ian h i s tory , j u s t a s t h e d i e -cu t t ing c en t re s o f t h e p e r iod 9 731066 b r ing v a lu ab le n ew e v idence t o t h e s t udy o f p rov inc ia l c en t re s a nd r eg iona l i sm i ns ou the rn E ng land i nt h a t p e r iod . I ta l s e em s af a r c ry f r om t h e i n te l lec tua l ly r a the r i s o la ted a n t iqua r ian i sm o ft h e n ine teen th c en tu ry . H i s to r ian s a nd o the r s s hou ld u nde r s tand h ow d eep ly p oo r j udgemen t i n t h e p a s t h a s s c a r red t h e B r i t i sh n um i sma t ic s ou l . We s t i l l f e e l emba r ra s sed a bou t i t ,a nd n eed t o t e l l t h e r e s t o ft h e wo r ld t h a t w e a r e r e f o rmed c ha rac te r s . I n 1 9 56 , S t ewa r tL yon ' sp ape r , ' A r e app ra i sa lo ft h es c ea t ta a nd s t yca c o inage so f No r thumb r ia ' w a s p ub l i shed , a nd o ne s aw t h a t aP r ince Me r l in h ad a ppea red t o c onf ound m e re c on ju r e r s . H i s p ape r i ss t i l l t h e f ounda t ion d ocumen t o f s t yca r e sea rch , at e s t imony t o t h e s upe r io r m e r i t s o fb read th a nd t ho roughne s s , a nd o f c ou r se t ot h e u nan swe r ab le f o rce o fa rgumen t s p rope r ly b a sed o n d i e s tud ie s . T h i s w a s f o l lowed i n 1 96 1 b y aj o in t p ape r b y S t ewa r t L yon a nd I a n S t ewa r t , ' The No r thumb r ian V ik ing c o in si nt h eC ue rda le h oa rd ' .T h i sp ape rw a sc o mp rehen s ive ,
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d ef in i t ive , ac l a s s ic o f t e chn ica l n um i sma t ic r e sea r ch , b a sed o n d i e l inkage , d i e e s t ima t ion , a nd s u rv iva l r a te s a pp l ied t o a n e x t reme ly p uzz l ing s e t o fc o in type s , f r om ad ecade a bou t wh ich t h e h i s to r ica l s ou rce s t e l l u s l i t t le . T he n um i sma t ic r e su l t s , wh ich h ave r i gh t ly b een s e en a sc onc lu s ive , a r e r e la ted t o t h e h i s to r ica l p rob lem sw i th ,o nt h e who le ,a b s tem iou sp rec i s ion .T h i sd oe sn o t mean t h a tt h e r ei s n o th ing l e f tf o ru st od i scu s s .A lf red Smy th i n1 975 g ave u sa nh i s to r ian ' sr e spon se i n h i s c hap te r , ' E a r ly k ing s a nd t h e c o inage o fD an i sh Y o rk ' , s o lv ing t h e c onund rum b y t h e a c cep tance o f a n o the rw i se a lmo s t u nknown K ing Km i t r who w a s t h e s u cce s so r o fK ing S igf r id ,— and b y e qua t ing t h e A d a l b r ig t o ft h e No r se s a g a s w i th Athe lwo ld , t h ea t he l ing o ft h eA ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e . Smy th w i l lh ea rn o th ing o f G u thf r i th , a nd r ebuke sn um i sma t i s t s who a s sume t h a t t h ey a r ee n t i t led t of o r ce a n e qua t ion b e tween t h ec o in sa nd t h ef i r s t' h i s to r ica l ' c on tempo ra ry k ing who c o me s t o h and , wha teve r h i s n ame , whe the r CNVT w i th Gu thf r i th , o r CNVT w i th S i gf r id . A l te rna t ive i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e C ue rda le h oa rd i nvo lve s h if t ing i t s p o s tu la ted t e rm inu sp o s tq u em b yo n ly ay ea ro rt wo -902 o r9 0 3 ,9 05 o r9 06 . Wha ti s b eyond d i spu te i st h a t w i th in av e ry f ew y ea r s al a rge v o lume o fc o inage o fg ood s i lve rw a ss udden ly i n i t ia ted , whe re b ef o re t h e re h ad b een n om in t ing . I ti sc l ea rt h a t a bou t7 00 t o7 50 r eve r se d i e sw e re u s ed ,a nd ,i fo ne c an a c cep ta na ve rage o u tpu tp e r d i e o f i o ,000 , t h e ref o re s ome 9 t o i o t onne s o fc o in age s i lve r w e re t oh and . T he e qu iva len t o fa bou t £ 30 ,000 may b e c o mpa red w i th t h e D anege ld s o f wh ich t h e Anna l s o fS a in t B e r t in s p eak i nt h e 8 5o s a nd 8 6o s— sum s o ft h e o rde r o f£ 5 ,000 . Wh a tt h en um i sma t i s t c an u s ef u l ly a dd i st h a tt h eC ue rda le h oa rd a ppea r st or e f l ec t t wo p ha se s o fm in t o u tpu t , a n e a r l ie r o ne d u r ing wh ich ao ne to-one r ev e r se to o bve r se d i e r a t io s e em s t oh ave b een t h e n o rm , a nd al a te r p ha se d u r ing wh ich i t s e em s t oh ave b een a sh igh a st h ree t oo ne o r e ven p o s s ib ly f ou r t oo ne , e v id en t ly r ef l ec t ing a n i n c rea sed t empo o f p roduc t ion , a s t h e n umbe r s o f d i e s a r e v e ry u neven ly d i s t r ibu ted b e tween t h et wo p ha se s .H a lf penn ie sa r e af e a tu re o ft h ee a r l ie r p ha se .P e rhap st h e re w a s al a rge a c ce s s ion o fb u l l ion p a r t -way t h rough t h es e r ie s ,a nd o ne wonde r s whe the rt h ee xpu l s ion o ft h eV ik ing sf r om Dub l in b rough tn ew f a ce s t o Y o rk . I ft h e d epo s i t ion o ft h e h oa rd p o s t -da t e s t h e e xpu l s ion , i n c iden ta l ly , i t b ecome s mo re d if i cu l t t o a rgue t h a t t h e money w a s i nt r an s i t i ne i the r d i re c t ion . Much m ay h inge , t h e ref o re , o n t h e s h if t ing o fd a t e sb y o n ly ay ea r o rt wo , b u tt h e c o mme rc ia l a nd s o c ia l c hange s i n Y o rk i t s e lf w e re p re sumab ly c on s id e rab le wha teve rt h e i re xac td a te . T hey m ay n o th ave b een a ss udden a st h eV ik ing c o inage c on s ide red i ni s o la t ion wou ld i mp ly ,f o rt h e re m ay h ave b een s i gn if ican ta moun t so f s ou the rn E ng l i sh a nd C a ro l ing ian money i n Yo rk i nt h e8 70 sa nd 8o s . When w et r y t o a s se s s t h e h i s tor ica l c on tex t o ft h e b eg inn ing s o fV ik ing c o inage i nY o rk — the s ma l l b eg inn ing s , i f Cue rda le i st o b e b e l ieved —we s hou ld t a ke c a re t o d ep r ive o u r se lve s o ft h e b enef i t o fh ind s igh t , a nd s hou ld s e e Yo rk a sl y ing a tt h e n o r the rn l im i t o f t h e r ap id ly e xpand ing A lf red i an a nd s ou the rn D ane law c u r rency . T he C he s te r m in t a tt h i s momen t w a s a l ready i n t h e f l ood o fe xpan s ion . A lf red h ad s u cceeded i n t h e p o l i t ica l ly d if i cu l t e n te rp r i se o f s weep ing a way t h e d eba sed c u r rency o ft h e e a r ly 8 70 s , a nd h ad r ep laced i tw i th n ew a nd h eav ie r c o in s o ft h e h ighe s tp u r i ty o fs i lve r ,w e igh ing a bou t 1 . 5g .T he C ue rda le c o inage sa t Yo rk s hou ld b e s e en i ng ene ra l t e rm s a sf o l low ing s u i t , w i th g rouped l e gend s i nA lf r ed i an s t y le ( +E B I A I CEC I V I ) , b u t o n t h e l owe r ( Dane law ) s t anda rd o fc .1 . 35g . T he e a r l ie s t m in t ing o fb road s i lve rp enn ie s a tY o rk , a l be i t o n a n e x t reme ly s m a l ls c a le , m ay h ave b een t h e i m i ta t ion s o ft h e E a s t A ng l ian ' S t E dmund Memo r ia l ' c o inage r e ad ing ER IA ICE C IV ( B MC 6 5o— i ) . A s p ec imen wh ich m ay w e l l b e av e ry b lunde red v e r s ion o ft h e s ame w a s f ound a tY o rk , i nt h e Wa lmga te h oa rd , ( SCBI 6
I NTROD UCT IO N
Y o rk s 9 83 ) a l ong w i th a n A lvva ldu s . B o th wou ld s e em t ob e s t ray s u rv ivo r s i nt h e h oa rd ,f r om t h ep h a se b ef o re t h em a in b lock o f` Cue rda le 'i sue s .A lvva ldu ss e em st o s t and n ea rt h eb eg inn ing so ft h en ew c o inage ( a l though t h ec r i t ica le v idence o f ad i e l i nk t ot i ea ny o ft h ef i ve k nown s p ec imen si n to t h em a in s e r ie si sl a ck ing ) ,a nd i tm ay b e t hough t t h a t ac o inage wh ich a s se r t s t h a t t h e L o rd G od i sk ing , i sm ak ing a n i mp l i ed s t a temen t t h a t n o -one e l se i sk ing . Mo s t o ft h e C ue rda le v a r ie t ie s b ea r ak ing ' s n ame i nt h e n o rma l w ay , b u t t h e p rom inence g iven t o t h e l e gend E BRA ICE C IV ITAS ( s ome th ing wh ich i sn o t b or rowed f r om t h e A lf red ian mode l s ) s hou ld m ake u s p onde r o n t h e b a lance o f p o l i t ica l p owe r b e tween t h e c i ty o f Yo rk a nd t h e No r thumb r ian r u le r s . We m ay s u spec tt h a tt h ec i t izen s ( l i ke t ho se o fL ondon i nt h ee l even th a nd t we lf th c en tu r ie s ) p e rce ived t h e i r c o mmon i n te re s t s a sb e ing d i s t inc t , a nd b ound u p w i th t h e c i ty ' s ma r i t ime t r ade .I nu nce r ta in t ime st h e i rp o l i t ica li n s t inc t wou ld p re sumab ly b et ol a y c l a im t oa s much l i be r ty a st h ey c ou ld . T he l e gend so ft h ec o in s may t os ome e x ten t r ef l ec tt h e se s e n t imen t s . I na ny c a se t h ec o mme rc ia lc on tex to ft h e Cue rda le c o in si s t h a t t h ey w e re t h e c u r rency o f ac i ty t h a t l i ved b y i t s t r ad ing c on tac t s . C on t rove r sy h a sb l own u p o na no the rt op ic ,n ame ly whe the rt h es t yca sw e re a l m in ted a tY o rk . T he c o in sd on o tn ame t h e i rm in t -p lace , b u ti th a sh i the r to s e emed s e lf -ev iden tt h a tt h eg rea tb u lk o ft h em w e re l i ke ly t oh ave b een p roduced a t Yo rk . Aga in , t h e A lf red i an s t ra tegy o f moneye r si ne ve ry t own l a yi nt h e f u tu r e , a nd t h e c on tempo ra ry s ou the rn p a t te rn w a s t oh ave o ne m in t -p lace i ne a ch k ingdom . I fi t c ou ld b ed emon s t r a ted t h a tt h e re w a s mo re t h an o ne No r thumb r ian m in t -p lace ,w e s hou ld b ep re sen ted w i th t h eo ppo r tun i ty o fa na ly s ing ,f r om t h en ume r ica le v idence o fh oa rd s , h ow c o in se mana t ing f r om d if e ren tc en t re s m ing led i nc i rcu la t ion . T h i s wou ld b e p o ten t ia l ly av e ry i n f o rma t ive a pp roach t ot h e q ue s t ion h ow c o in s w e re u s ed . I fi tc ou ld b e c o mb ined w i th a n a na ly s i s o fa ge s t ruc tu re i tm igh t s e rve t o d emon s t ra te , wha t i sa t p re sen t u nknown , t h e g ene ra l v e loc i ty o f mone ta ry c i rcu la t ion i n No r thumb r ia . One ' si n s t inc t wou ld b et ol ook f o rd if e rence sb e tween t h ec i ty o fY o rk i t s e lf , t h eE a s tR id ing a nd t h eV a le o f Yo rk , B e rn ic ia , t h es ou the rn d i s t r ic t s o f D e i r a , a nd t h e t r an s -Penn ine t e r r i to r ie s . T he E a s t R id ing i s a n a r chaeo log ica l ly r i ch a r ea ,c on sp icuou si nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion -map so fa r tef ac t so f many p e r iod s . B u t i ft h e re w e re a no the r m in t o ne wou ld b e l ook ing f o r i t Is uppo se i n B e rn ic ia , mo re f o r p o l i t ica l t h an f o r c o mme rc i a l r e a son s . L yon i n 1 9 56 d i v ided E an red ' s moneye r s i n to G roup s Aa nd B a nd p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e r e la t ive ly much h ighe rr ep re sen ta t ion o fG roup A c o in sa tH exham t h an i nh oa rd sf r om Y o rk mu s t b ee i the rb ecau se t h ey c on ta ined mo re s i lve ra nd w e r em e l ted d own d u r ing t h el a te r s t age so ft h ec o inage ,o rb ecau se t h ey w e re s t ruck a t am in to the rt h an Yo rk .H ea l so p o in ted o u t t h a t t h ree o f t h e G roup A moneye r s wo rked a l so f o r A rchb i shop E anba ld .I n1 967 i nh i sp r e s iden t ia la dd re s st ot h eB r i t i sh Num i sma t ic S oc ie ty h es a id ( o f Hugh P agan , who w a s t h en wo rk ing o n t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e n in th c en tu ry ) , ' I h ope h ew i l ln o tc l o se h i sm ind t ot h ep o s s ib i l i ty o f mo re t h an o ne m in th av ing b een i no pe r a t ion a tt h et ime , f o rt h i s m igh te xp la in t h er a r i ty o ft h ec o in so fE an red a nd / E the l r ed b yc e r ta in mon eye r s , n o tab ly C u thhea rd , T idw ine a nd T idwu lf , who d o n o t f i t i n to t h e g ene r a l p a t te rn o f d i e l ink ing , a nd t h e l a ck o fa ny s u ch l i nk ing b e tween O sbe rh t ' s moneye r Win ibe rh t a nd t h e o the r moneye r s o ft h a t r e ign ' . I n 1 968 Iw a sa b le ,w i th Mr sJ u l ia Me r r ick a nd M i s sL yne t te H amb l in ,t oa na ly se t h ree s p ec imen sb y C u thhea rd a nd T idwu lf f o r/ E the l red f r om L yon ' sc o l lec t ion , a nd t o s how t h a t t h e i rh igh s i lve rc on ten t s m a rked t h em o u ta sb e ing v e ry much e a r l ie ri n d a te . Hugh P agan a rgued i nd e ta i l i n 1 969 t h a t t h ey a r e i nf a c t c o in s o f ad if e ren t
7
INTROD UCT IO N
K ing ' E the l red . I ti sa c co rd ing ly n o t s u rp r i s ing t h a t t h ey d o n o t d i e l ink i n to " E the l red I ' s i sue s , a nd h i s to r ian s s hou ld u nde r s tand t h a t a se v idence f o r as e cond m in t t h ey a r e ac a na rd . We a l so a na ly sed ag ood n umbe r o fc o in s o fE an red , a nd G o rdon G i lmo re a nd Ih ave a na ly sed a no the rl a rge b a tch s i nce ,a nd h ave s hown t h a t G roup A c o in s a r e i ndeed o f much b e t te r s i lve r t h an G roup B c o in s , w i th l i t t le o ve r lap b e tween t h e t wo g roup s . On ly E an red ' s c o in b y T idw ine , BMC 2 30 , r ema in s p rob lema t ic . P agan i n 1 974 w a s c on ten t t ol e ave t h e d oo r a j a r , when h e w ro te i nt h eH exham v o lume e d i ted b yD av id K i rby , ' The re i sc e r ta in ly ad rama t ic d if e rence b e tween t h e 1 5 i :16 i r a t io f o rc o in so fE an red o fS e r ie s Aa nd S e r ie s Bi n H exham a nd t h e 5 : 207 r a t io t h a t o b ta ined f o r t h e s am e c l a s se s o fc o in i nt h e 1 967 B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd a nd t h a td if e r en c en e ed n o tb es o l e ly d u et ot h eB o l t on P e r cy h o a rd ' s l a t e r d a t e o fd e po s i t ' [ my i t a l ic s ] . T h i s w a s a n o pen -m inded , n o t t o s a y ag ene rou s v e rd ic t , f o r P agan h ad made ad i e s tudy o fs ome 1 , 250 o fE an red ' s c o in s i n 1 967 wh ich r evea led i n t e r a l i a t h a t t h e G roup A moneye r s o r ig ina l ly u s ed a round 5 00 r eve r se d i e s whe rea s t h e G roup B moneye r s u s ed a r ound 3 50 . A ny s ugge s t ion t h a t w e s hou ld r emove t h e l a rge r p a r t o fE an red ' s c o inage t o am in t o the r t h an Y o rk s e em s v e ry u n rea l i s t ic . Un le s s s ome p o s i t ive e v idenc e c o me s t o l i gh t i ti s ad ead d uck . T he s t a t i s t ic sa l so s how t h a ti nG roup A ar eve r se to -obve r se d i er a t io c l o se t o o ne in -one w a st h en o rm , whe rea si nG roup B i tw a se i the rt wo to -one o rt h ree too ne .T h i sp robab ly i mp l ie st h a tG roup B s hou ld b ec o mp re s sed i n to as ho r tp e r iod i n t h e c l o s ing y ea r s o fE an red ' s r e ign , a nd s e en a s ar e co inage . M i s s P i ne ' s r e -open ing o f t h e t wo -m in t h ypo the s i s i n 1 982 , w i thou t n ew e v idence ,s e ek st ok eep a l ive wha tc an b eo n ly ag l imme ro fh ope .I d ea l ly ,o fc ou r se , w e wou ld a l l i ke t o b e a rgu ing t h e c a se f r om f i gu re s b a sed o n s e ve r a l h oa rd s c oncea led d u r ing E an red ' s r e ign , i nv a r iou sp a r t s o f No r thumb r ia . A la s , n o h oa rd s f r om E an red ' sr e ign a r ek nown .I ft h ei d ea o f as e cond , mo re n o r the r ly m in tw e re t o s t and u p , i twou ld It h ink h ave t o wo rk f o rt h eB ambu rgh e v idence , whe re , s of a r , o n ly f ou r c o in s o u t o f6 7 a r e o fE an red , a nd a l f ou r a r e o fG roup B . One wou ld b e much l e s su nhappy w i th t h et h eo ry t h a ts ome o ra lo ft h eH exham i r regu la r s— tha ti s , at i ny p ropo r t ion o ft h eh oa rd , o f ten c o mb in ing t wo moneye r s ' n ame s— a re f r om as e cond m in t . H e re a se ve rywh e re e l se , h oweve r , o ne mu s tb ow t o t h e e v idence o fd i e l inkage . I n 1 969 Hugh P agan d ropped a l a rge s t one i n to t h e p oo l w i th h i s p ape r , ' No r thumb r ian n um i sma t ic c h rono logy i nt h en in th c en tu ry ' . T h i ss ough tt o move t h e t r ad i t iona l c h rono logy f o rwa rd b y s ome t we lve o r f ou r teen y ea r s , a nd t hu s t o b r ing t h es t yca c o inage t oa ne nd i n8 67 r a the rt h an t h ee a r ly 8 5o s . T he i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e t r ad i t iona l c h rono logy w e re e i the r t h a t O sbe rh t s oon c e a sed t o e xe rc i se e f ec t ive p o l i t ica lc on t ro lo ve r ak ingdom t h a tw a si n ac h ron ic s t a te o fc i v i lw a r , o r t h a t c onf idence i nt h e s i lve r le s s c o inage s o d ec l ined t h a t i tb ecame i mpo s s ib le t o i sue a ny mo re . T he n ew c h rono logy a low st h ev o lume o fO sbe rh t ' sc o inage t ob e r e la ted t o amuch s ho r te rr e ign ,i tm ake sb e t te rs e n se o ft h e T a lno t ry h oa rd , wh ich i s d a ted b y c o in s o fB u rg r ed , a nd i tc o me s c l o se rt os o lv ing t h e p rob lem o ft h e s i lve r p enny o fE an red wh ich w a s f ound i nt h e T rewh idd le h oa rd , f r om C o rnwa l l . T he h oa rd s f r om Yo rk c an mo re e a s i ly b e s e en a sd a t ing f r om 8 66-7 . Many o the r a d ju s tmen t s b ecome p o s s ib le , i n c lud ing ar eda t ing o fE an red ' s i sue s . T he t a sk o f r ef in ing o n t h e n ew c h rono logy d epend s o n h i s to r ica l r a the r t h an n um i sma t ic a rgumen t s , a nd al a rge mea su re o fa g reemen t s e em s n ow t ob e w i th in o u r g ra sp . T he re a r e s t i l l , p e rhap s , n um i sma t ic c on t r ibu t ion s t o b e m ade , i n t h e f u l le r i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e ' b lunde red o rd e r iva t ive ' c o in s . T he v e ry l a rge n umbe ro fd i e s 8
I NTRODUCT ION
i nt h i sc a tego ry i sn ew ly a ppa ren tf r om t h e 1 967 B o l ton P e r cy h oa rd ,a nd t h e i ra loy h a sb een s t ud ied i nr e la t ion t ot h a to fO sbe rh t ' sr e f o rmed c o in s ,s ome o f wh ich w e re , f o rt h ef i r s tt ime ,o f ap u re ,h igh t in b ronze ,w i th n oz i nc i nt h e i rc o mpo s i t ion .I nt h e b lunde red s e r ie s , e v en mo re t h an e l sewhe re , d i e l ink s a r e u nan swe rab le , a nd t h e re a r eo the rs ho t si nt h en um i sma t i s t s 'l o cke r ,i np a r t icu la rt h es t udy o fd i e ad ju s tmen t . L yon ' s 1 9 56 p ape r m ade i tc l ea r t h a t t h e d e r iva t ive c o in s w e re d i e l inked i n to Athe l red ' s s e cond r e ign i sue s a nd t oc o in s o fO sbe rh t a nd A r chb i shop Wu l fhe re , a nd t h a t t h e c ha in o fd i e l ink s i sv e ry e x ten s ive . Mod if ica t ion o fd i e s d u r ing t h e i r p e r iod i nu s ea low st h es e quence st ob ed e te rm ined , a nd t e nd s t os how t h a t p a r t a t l e a s to ft h es e r ie sp o s t -da te sO sbe rh t ' sc o inage . T he g ene ra lh i s to r ica li n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ed e r iva t ive c o in sr ema in sv e ry f a rf r om c l ea r .I td epend s , Is uppo se ,o n whe the r w et h ink t h a t mo s to ft h em w e re made i n Yo rk ,a nd i n wha tp o l i t ica lc i rcum s tance s . T he s h a rp c on t ra s tb e tween t h e moneye r s ' c o in s , wh ich a r eu sua l ly a c comp l i shed i n t h e i rd e s ign , w e l ls t ru ck u po nn ea tf l an s , a nd d i e ad ju s ted , a nd t h ed e r iva t ive c o in s wh ich a r e i l i te ra te , c l um sy , o f ten d ef i c ien t i n w e igh t , o f ten me ta l lu rg ica l ly d i s t inc t ive — and y e t d i e l inked i n to t h e r egu la r s e r ie s— i s m a in ly a n a e s the t ic c on t ra s t wh ich m igh tn o ti ni t s e lf i mp ly a ny l o s so fp o l i t ica lc on t ro l . B u tt h el a ck o f a c coun tab i l i ty , when d i e l inkage s how s t h a t t h e s o ca l led moneye r s ' n ame s o n t h e d e r iva t ive c o in sa r em ean ing le s s— tha ts u re ly s how s al o s so fp o l i t ica lc on t ro l . When , o nt h en ew c h rono logy , d id i to ccu r ? I ft h ed emand f o rc o in w a ss oi n s i s ten tt h a ti t c ou ld b e s a t i sf i ed w i th s u ch m ake sh if t , n o -que s t ion s -a sked s ub s t i tu te s f o r t h e r e a l t h ing , a nd i ft h es ub s t i tu te sw e re p roduced o n ag r ea ts c a le ( l i ke t r ade smen ' st oken s i nt h es e ven teen th c en tu ry ,p e rhap s ? ) wha td oe st h a tt e l lu sa bou tt h eu se so fc o inage i nt h ec l o s ing y ea r so ft h e Ang l ian k ingdom ?I ti sp robab ly h e r e t ica lt oa s k whe the r t h ei sue o fs t yca sm ay n o th ave c on t inued a t Yo rk a f te r8 67 .T h i sm igh ta c coun tf o r t h e e v iden t l o s s o f c on t ro l o ve r t h e i r m in t ing , b u t i t wou ld h ave a wkwa rd c on sequence s i nr equ i r ing l a te r d a te s f o r mo s t o ft h e Y o rk h oa rd s . (We n eed n o t d oub tt h a ts t yca sc on t inued i nu s ef o rs ome t ime a f te r 8 67 , e ven i ft h e i ri su ec e a sed : t h e T a lno t ry h oa rd i sp o s t -867 , f o re xamp le ; a nd v a r iou sg rave -f ind sa r ea l so l i ke ly t o b e V ik ing r a the r t h an Ang l ian . ) T he re i s al o t o f wo rk s t i l l t o b e t a ck led i n c r ea t ing ad e t a i led p i c tu re o ft h e m in t ing o f t h e i r regu la r c o in s a nd i n t h en m ak ing , i n t e rm s o f t h a t p i c tu re , a n ume r ica l a na ly s i s o fv a r iou s h oa rd s a nd s i t e -f ind s . I ns of a r a st h e i r regu la r c o in s w e re o fr e cen t i sue a tt h e d a te s when t h ey w e r e h oa rded , t h e p a t te rn s t h ey r evea l s hou ld b e r e a sonab ly c l ea r , b ecau se t h e c o in s h ad n o t h ad v e ry l ong t ob e b ecome m ing led i nc i rcu la t ion .T he p o ten t ia lo ft h eB ambu rgh f i nd s , among wh ich t h e re i sa f a r h ighe r p ropo r t ion o fi r regu la r c o in s t h an a t Wh i tby o r S anc ton , i st a n ta l iz ing . B u t wha tw i l l eme rge f r om t h i sn um i sma t ic r e sea rch i sa tp re sen tc o mp le te ly h idden f r om o u r v i ew . F ina l ly , t h e re a r e s t i l lc l a r if i ca t ion s t ob e m ade i nt h es e r ie s o f moneye r s ' c o in s i n t h e n ame s o f K ing " E lfwa ld a nd ' E the l red I ,i n t h e l a te e i gh th o r e a r ly n in th c en tu r ie s . Wi th t h em , w e l e ave b eh ind t h e h o t -hou se a tmo sphe re g ene ra ted b y a n a bno rma l ly h igh s u rv iva l r a te ,a nd h ave t om ake wha tw ec an o u to f ame re h andf u l o fs u rv iv ing c o in s . B u ts t a t i s t ica le s t ima t ion o ft h en umbe r so fd i e ss ugge s t st h a tt h e s c a le o ft h ec u r rency w a sa l ready l a rge , a nd t h es t ray f i nd ss how t h a ti tw a s a l ready w ide sp read i n i t s u s e . P e rhap s a no the r h oa rd i ss t i l l h idden u nde r s e ven f e e t o f c hu rchya rd mou ld o ri ns ome r i ve r ' sb ank , wh ich w i l lo ne d ay b ea sr i ch as ou rce o f i n f o rma t ion a bou tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h en in th c en tu ry a sH exham a nd Cue rda le a r e a bou ti t sm idd le a nd e nd . More p robab ly , t h ea dvance si no u ru nde r s tand ing i nt h e 9
I NTRODUCT IO N
n ex td ecade o rs ow i l ld e r ive f r om s i ng le f i nd sa nd f r om c a ref u l ly r e co rded c on tex t s i na r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s . D . M . M .
1 0
No r thumbr ia i nt h e n in th c en tu ry D .P.K I RBY
y ea r s a go S t ewa r t L yon c o mmen ted t h a t ' F o r t h e s t udy o f t h e n in th -cen tu ry No r thumbr ian c o inage t h e re i sa n emba r ra s s ing w ea l th o fn um i s ma t ic ma te r ia l b u t ad ea r th o fd ocumen ta ry e v idence a ga in s t wh i ch t o a pp ra i se el I n t h i s p e r iod , i nt h e wo rd s o fS i r F rank S t en ton , No r thumb r ia ' l i e s a lmo s t o u t s ide r e co rded h i s to ry ' ,2 a nd P . H . S awye r h a s c on t ra s ted t h e ' d ocumen ta ry p ove r ty ' o fn in th - a nd t e n th -cen tu ry No r thumb r i a w i th t h e ' r i ch l i t e ra ry r ema in s o ft h e a ge o fB ede ' ,3 t h i s c on t r a s t b e ing a ti t s mo s t a cu te f o r t h e p e r iod o ft h e n in th c en tu ry . T he f i ne s e r ie s o f e i gh th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian L a t in a nna l s p re se rved i np a r t i nt h e e a r ly t we lf th -cen tu ry H i s t o r ia R egum 4 a nd i np a r t i n t h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e D ,5t e rm ina te s i n8 0 1 w i th o n ly ab r i ef c on t inua t ion t o8 06 i nC h r on i c l e D .6F rom t h i s p o in to nwa rd sf o rt h e p e r iod t ot h ec ap tu re o f Yo rk b y t h e V ik ing s i n8 66 o n ly t h e mo s t s p a r se o fh i s to r ica l i n f o rma t ion i sp re se rved i n , f o r e xamp le , S ymeon o f Du rham ' s e a r ly t we lf th cen tu ry H i s t o r ia Dun e lm en s i s E c c l e s ia e7 o r i n t h e e a r ly t h i r teen th -cen tu ry F l o r e s H i s t o r ia rum o f Roge r o f Wendove r .8 T he r e su l tan t d if icu l t ie s a r e f u r the r c o mpounded b y d i sag reemen t s b e tween S ymeon a nd Roge r o n t h e d e ta i l s o f No r thumb r ian r oya l c h rono logy . Moreove r , S ymeon o f Du rham ' s s ho r t a c coun t o ft h e a r chb i shop s o f Yo rk 9 a pa r t , t h e a b sence o f i n f o rma t ion c once rn ing t h e me t ropo l i tan c en t re o f t h e No r th umb r ian Chu rch c r ea te s a n h i s to r ica l v acuum i n t h e v e ry h ea r t o f t h e TWENTY
1 S . L yon , ' H i s tor ica l p rob lem s o f Ang loS axon c o inage ( 1 ) ' , BN J 3 6 ( 1 967 ) , 2 15-2 1 ( p .217 ) . F . M . S t en ton , A ng l o -Saxon E ng l and ( 3 rd e d . , Oxf o rd , 1 97 1 ) , 2 43 . P . H . S awye r , ' S ome s ou rce s f o r t h e h i s tory o f V ik ing No r thumb r ia ' , V ik ing A g e Y o rk a nd t h e N o r th , e d . R . A . H a l l ( CBA Re sea rch Repo r tn o .27 : 1 978 ) ,3 -7 ( p .3 ) . S ym eon i s Mona ch i Op e r a Omn ia ( h encef or th c i ted a s S ) , e d . T . A rno ld , I ( Ro l l s s e r ie s : L ondon , 1 885 ) , 3 0 f . F or a t r an s la t ion s e e C hu r ch H i s t o r ian s o fE ng land I ( p t .2 ) , t r an s . J . S t even son ( London , 1 855 ) . A n A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e f r om B r i t i sh Mu s eum C o t t on MS . , T i b e r iu s B . i v , e d . E . C la s sen a nd F .E .H arme r ( Manche s te r , 1 926 ) . F or t r an s la t ion s o ft h i s m a te r ia l , s e e EHD I , n o s .1 a nd 3 , a nd f o r d i scu s s ion s e e a l so P . Hun te r B la i r , ' Some o b se rva t ion s o n t he "H i s t o r ia R egum" a t t r ibu ted t o S ymeon o f Du r h am ' , C e l t a nd S axon : S tud i e s i nt h e E a r ly B r i t i sh B o rd e r , e d . N . K . Chadw ick ( Camb r idge , 1 963 ) , 6 3118 ( pp .86-99 ) ( r epr in ted A ng lo 2
3
4
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S axon N o r thumb r ia , e d . M . L ap idge a nd P . Hun te r B la i r ( London , 1 984 ) , 6 3118 ) ; M . L ap idge , ` By rh tf e r th a nd t h e e a r ly s e c t ion s o f t h e "H i s t o r ia R egum" , ASE 1 0 ( 1 982 ) , 9 7122 ; a nd C .H a r t ,` By rh tf e r th ' s No r thumbr ian c hroni c le ' , EHR 9 7 ( 1 982 ) , 5 58-82 . S ym eon i s Mona ch i O p e r a Omn ia ( h encef or th c i ted a s S ) , e d . T . A rno ld , I( Ro l l s s e r ie s : L ondon , 1 882 ) , 3i f .F o r at r an s la t ion s e e C hu r ch H i s t o r ian s o fE ng land I I ( p t . 2 ) , a nd f o r d i scu s s i on , B . Meehan , ' Ou t s ide r s , i n s ide r s , a nd p rope r ty i n Du rham a round 100 ' , S tud i e s i nC hu r ch H i s t o ry , e d . D . B ake r , 1 2 ( 1 975 ) , 4 5-58 . F or th c om ing i sS t . C u thb e r t , H i s C u l t a nd C ommun i ty t o AD 1 200 , e d . D . Ro l la son , G . B onne r a nd C . S t anc l if f e (Woodbr idge , 1 988 ) . R og e r d e Wend ove r C h r on i c a s i v e F lo r e s H i s t o r ia rum , e d . H . 0 . Coxe , I( London , 1 84 1 ) , a nd f o r at r an s la t ion o ft h i s ma te r ia l s e e EHD I , n o .4 . S I , 2 22-8 . F o r at r an s la t ion s e e C hu r ch H i s t o r ian so fE ng land I ( p t .2 ) .
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No r thumb r ian r e a lm . E ven t h e a c coun t i n t h e No r thumb r ian s ou rce s o f t h e c ap tu re o f Yo rk b y t h e V ik ing s i n8 66 a nd t h e s ub sequen t s i ege o ft h e c i ty b y t h e No r thumb r ian s i n 8 67 1°i sl a rge ly d ependen t o n t h e A lf red ian v e r s ion o fe ven t s i nt h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e A" a se xpanded b y A s se r i nh i s L if e o fA lf r ed .1 2 T h i s A lf red ian a c coun t s how s t h a t i n f o rma t ion c once rn ing t he No r thumb r i an k i ng d om w a s r e ach ing We s sex b u t i t w a s c e r ta in ly c o mp i led w i th t h e p r ima ry d idac t ic p u rpo se o f w a rn ing a ga in s t t h e d ange r s o f c i v i l w a r , whe th e r i n No r thumb r ia o r e l sewhe re . A s s u ch i t may s h ed mo re l i gh t o n t h e A lf r ed ian d read o fc i v i l w a r i n We s sex i nt h e 8 90 s t h an o n t h e No r thumb r ian s i tu a t ion o f t h e m id -860 s ." B y s t re s s ing t h e d i sco rd b e tween t h e Nor thumb r ian l e ade r s , A l le a nd O sbe rh t , a nd r epo r t ing t h a t b o th ' k ing s ' w e r e s l a in , t he We s t S axon a c coun t c o mmun ica te s t h e i mp re s s ion t h a t No r thumbr i a w a s t o rn b y as t rugg le b e tween t wo k ing s r i gh t u p t o t h e e ve o ft h e b a t t le f o r Y o rk . T he I r i sh a nna l s , h oweve r , r e co rd s imp ly t h a t ' t he d a rk f o r e igne r s won ab a t t le o ve r t h e n o r the rn S axon s a t Yo rk , i n wh ich f e l l A l le , k ing o ft h e n o r the rn S axon s ' .1 4 I n8 67 , t h e ref o r e , s of a r a st h e I r i sh a nna l i s t w a s c once rned , t h e Nor thumb r ian s h ad o ne k ing , n o t t wo . F o r D r A lf red Smy th , t h e I r i sh a nna l s ' s t re s s t h e r o le o fK ing A l le a ss o le r u le r o f t h e No r thumbr ian s ' .1 5 I t i sp o s s ib le , mo reove r , t ot a ke t oo p e s s im i s t ic av i ew o ft h eh i s to r ica l e v idence f o r No r thumb r ia i nt h e n in th c en tu ry . S tuden t s o f Ang lo-Saxon h i s to ry h ave t o c o me t o t e rm s w i th s l ende r e v idence f o r o the r a r ea s i n t h i s p e r iod . Ou r k now ledge o fE a s t Ang l ian h i s to ry i nt h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e n in th c en tu ry i sl a rge ly d ependen t o n n um i sma t ic e v idence a nd f o rE a s t Ang l ia a c ro s s much o ft h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e e i gh th c en tu ry e ven n um i sma t ic e v id ence w a s u n t i l r e cen t ly l a ck ing . • The s i tua t ion , s of a r a sn in th cen tu ry No r thumb r ia i sc once rned , t h e ref o r e , c ou ld b e wo r se . I n t h e f i r s t p l ace , as e t o f wha t may b e t e n th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian a nna l s i n o r ig in ( t hough i n t h e i r e x tan t f o rm o fe l even th cen tu ry d a te ) r e ache s b ack i n to t h e n in th c en tu ry a nd e x tend s f r om 8 88 t o9 57 .1 6 S econd ly , i ti sr e a l ly q u i te r ema rkab le t h a t Roge r o f Wendove r i nt h e e a r ly t h i r teen th c en tu ry s hou ld s t i l l h ave h ad a c ce s s t o p rev iou s ly u n tapped e v idence f o r No r thumb r i a i n t h e n in th c en tu ry , i n c lud ing d e ta i l s o f ak ing , Redwu lf , who s e i zed p owe r o n ly t o p e r i sh w i th in t h e y ea r i n ab a t t le w i th p agan s .1 7 T h i s e p i sode i s o th e rw i se u n reco rded b u t Redwu lf ' s e x i s tence i sc o r robo r a ted b y c o in s s t ruck i nh i s n ame a c ro s s ap e r iod o f p robab ly n o mo re t h an s i x mon th s ." T hough t h e w ay s i n wh ich h i s to r ica l i n f o rma t ion a bou t No r thumb r ia a t t h i s t ime w a s p re se rved r ema in t o b e i d en t if i ed , t h e re c an b e n o d oub t t h a t i n h i s r e f e rence t o K ing 1 3 C f . D . P . K i rby , ` A s se r ' s L if e o f A lf red ' , S tud ia C e l t i ca 6( 1 971 ) , 1 2-35 ( pp .29-30 ) . 1 4 T h e A nna l s o f U l s t e r , e d . S . Mac A i r t a nd G . Mac N ioca i l l , P a r t I( Dub l in I n s t i tu te f o r Advanced S tud ie s , 1 983 ) , 3 22-3 ( s . a . 8 67 ) . 1 5 A . P . Smy th , S c and inav ian K ing s i n t h e B r i t i sh I s l e s8 50-880 ( Oxf ord , 1 977 ) , 1 87 . 1 6 SI ,9 1-5 : P . Hun te rB la i r , a r t . c i t . , 1 04-6 . 1 7 F l o r e sH i s t o r ia rum I ,2 82-3 . 1 8 C. S . S .L yon , ' A r e appra i sa l o ft h e s c ea t ta a nd s t yca c o inage o f Nor thumb r i a ' , BN J 2 8 ( 1 957 ) , 2 27-43 ( p .233 ) .
SI ,5 4-5 : I ,7 4-5 . T h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e 3 : MS A , e d .J . M . B a te ly ( Cambr idge , 1 986 ) , s . a . 8 67 . 1 2 A s s e r ' s L if e o f K ing A lf r ed , e d . W. H . S t even son ( r ep r in ted Oxf o rd , 1 959 ) , 2 2-3 . F o r at r an s la t ion s e e M . L ap idge a nd S . K eyne s , A lf r ed t h e G r ea t , A s s e r ' s L if e o fK ing A lf r ed a nd O th e r C on t empo r a ry S ou r c e s ( Pengu in C la s s ic s , 1 983 ) . T he a c coun t i n SI , 1 05-6 i sd e r ived f r om t h e C h r on i c on e x C h r on i c i s , e d . B . T horpe ( Eng l i sh H i s to r ica l S oc ie ty , 1 848 I ,8 0 ) , wh ich i si n t u rn d e r ived f r om A s se r ( c f . P . Hun te r B la i r , a r t . c i t . , 1 07 f ) . 1 0
1 1
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NORTHU MBR IA IN THE N INTH CE NTURY
Redwu lf a nd h i s s ho r t r e ign Roge r w a s d r aw ing o n g enu ine n in th -cen tu ry ma te r ia l . I np a r t icu la r , t h e h i s to r ian o f No r thumbr ia i nt h e n in th c en tu ry b enef i t s f r om t h e r ange o fm a te r ia l s wh i ch emana te f r om t he c ommun i ty o fS t Cu thbe r t , e s tab l i shed a t Du rham i n 9 95 a f te r o ve r ah und red y ea r s a t Che s te r le -S t r ee t . S ymeon ' s H i s t o r ia D un e lm en s i sE c c l e s ia e u s ed e a r l ie r s ou rce s , s ome o f wh ich s t i l l s u rv ive . T he H i s t o r i a d e S an c t o C u thb e r t ° i n i t s p re sen t f o rm i s a m id e l even th -cen tu ry r e co rd ," d e sc r ibed b y P . H . S awye r , who empha s i se s a t e n th -cen tu ry n uc leu s , a sa n ' impo r tan t i fn eg lec ted s ou rce ' , 2°a nd t h e Du rham c h ron ic le , wh ich S i rE dmund C ra s te rr e con s t ruc ted , w a s c o mp le ted b e tween 1 072 a nd 1 083 .2 1 B o th t h e se wo rk s w e re u s ed b y S ymeon o f Du rham a nd t oge the r t h ey c on t r ibu te s i gn if i can t ly t o t h e m a te r ia l s wh ich i lu s t ra te t h e h i s to ry o f t h e c o mmun i ty o f S t C u thbe r t i n t h e p re - a nd p o s t -V ik ing p e r iod s . Much o f t h e i r c on ten t c once rn s t h e l a nded e ndowmen t s o ft h e c hu rch a nd t h e H i s t o r ia d eS an c t o C u thb e r t o , f o r e xamp le , h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s' r a the r a n a nc ien t e s ta te r o l l t h an a h i s to ry ' .2 T h i s mean s t h a t i td oe s n o t t e l l u s a s much a bou t t h e p o l i t ica l h i s to ry o f No r thumbr ia a sm igh t h ave b een w i shed b u t i td oe s s h ed v a luab le l i gh t o n t h e h i s to ry o f t h e e s ta te s o f a n e c c le s ia s t ica l c o mmun i ty i n t h e f a r n o r th o f t h e Ang lo -Saxon r e a lm a nd n o t l e a s t o n t h e f o r tune s o fs ome o ft h e se e s ta te s i n t h e a f te rma th o ft he V ik ing c ap tu re o f Yo rk . No r the rn B r i ta in a s a who le i n t h e n in th c en tu ry w a s ac hang ing wo r ld . S cand inav ian s e t t lem en t h ad b een o ccu r r ing i n t h e n o r the rn a nd w e s te rn i s l e s s i nce c . 850 .2 3 T he P i c t i sh k ingdom w a s o ve r th rown when t h e D a l r iad ic C ené l L oa i rn a t tacked t h e n o r the rn P i c t s2 4 a nd t h e C e l ia nGab rä in , u nde r t h e l e ade r sh ip o f C inaedh ( Kenne th ) , s on o f A lp in , p e rhap s i n a l i ance , i th a s b een s ugge s ted , w i th V ik ing s ,2 5 a t tacked t h e s ou the rn ,2 6 a nd n ew S co t t i sh p r inc ipa l i t e s eme rged n o r th o ft h e F or th b y 8 48 . L a te r S co t t i sh t r ad i t ion m a in ta ined t h a t t h e l a s t k ing s o ft h e P i c t s w e r e g iven m i l i ta ry a s s i s tance b y t h e No r thumb r ian s , t hough t on o a va i 1 ,2 7 a nd C inaedh i ss a id t oh ave i nvaded No r thumb r ia a s many
1 984 ) ; a nd n ow B . E . C rawf ord , S c o t land i nt h e E a r ly M idd l e A g e s . 2 : S c and inav ian S c o t land ( Le ice s te r , 1 987 ) , 1 08 . D . P . K i rby , ' Moray p r ior t o c . 1100 ' , A n H i s t o r i ca l A t la s o fS c o t land c . 400— c .1600 , e d . P . McNe i l l a nd R . N icho l son ( S t And rew s , 1 975 ) , 2 01 ; M . M i l le r , ' The l a s t c en tu ry o f P i c t i sh s ucce s s ion ' , S co t t i sh S tud i e s 2 3 ( 1 979 ) , 3 9-67 ( p .62 , n . 14 ) ; A . P . Smy th , Wa r l o rd s a nd H o ly Men : S c o t land A .D . 8 01000 ( London , 1 984 ) , 2 20 . A . P . Smy th , Wa r l o rd s a nd H o ly Men , 1 90-2 . M . 0 . Ande r son , ` Da l r iada a nd t h e c r ea t ion o ft h ek ingdom o ft he S co t s ' , I r e l and i n E a r ly Med i eva l E u rop e , e d . D . Wh i te lock e ta l . ( Camb r idge , 1 982 ) , 1 06-32 . J ohn o f F o rdun ' s C h r on i c l e o f t h e S c o t t i sh N a t ion , H i s tor ian s o f S co t land I , e d . W. F . S kene ( Ed inbu rgh , 1 86 1 ) , 1 47 , 1 57 , a nd H i s t o r ian s o f S co t land I V , t r an s . F .J . H . S kene ( Ed inbu rgh , 1 872 ) , 1 38 ,147 .
SI ,1 96-2 14 , b u t s e e a l so t h e e d i t ion i n S imeon o f Du rham , e d . J . Hodg son H inde ( Su r tee s S oc ie ty 5 1 : 1 868 ) , 1 38-52 . P .H . S awye r , ' S ou r c e s ' ,4 . E . C ra s te r , ' The Red B ook o f Du rham ' , EHR 4 0 ( 1 925 ) , 5 04-32 . SI ,x xv . F o r ah and l i s t o f e a r ly Nor th umbr ian mona s t ic e ndowmen t s , s e e C . H a r t , T h e E a r ly C ha r t e r s o fN o r th e rn E ng land a nd t h e N o r th M id land s ( Le ice s te r , 1 975 ) , 1 3 1f f . F . T . Wa inwr igh t , ' The S cand inav ian s e t t lemen t ' , T h e N o r the rn I s l e s , e d . F .T . Wa in w r igh t( Ed inbu rgh , 1 962 ) , 17-62 ( c f . A . C r aw f o rd , ' V ik ing c o lon iza t ion i nt h e Nor the rn a nd We s te rn I s le s o f S co t land ' , P r o c . o f t h e E i gh th V ik ing C ong r e s s : A rhu s , 1 977 , e d . H . B ekke r N ie l sen e ta l . ( Oden se , 1 98 1 ) ,2 59-69 ) ; W. H . F . N ico la i sen , ' The V ik ing s e t t lemen to fS co t land : t h e e v idence o fp l ace -name s ' , T he V ik ing s , e d . R . T . F a r re l l ( London , 1 982 ) , 9 5115 ; T h e N o r th e rn a nd We s t e rn I s l e s i nt h e V ik ing Wo r ld , e d . A . F en ton a nd H . P ä l s son ( Ed inbu rgh , 1 9
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a ss i x t ime s , b u rn ing Dunba r a nd Me l ro se .2 8 I nt h e l a te r n in th c en tu ry , aS co t t i sh a t tack o n L ind i sf a rne i sa leged t o h ave b rough t t h e D an i sh k ing o f Y o rk , G u th red , n o r th t o i nf l ic t d ef ea t u pon t h em ,2 9 b u t G i r ic , k ing o f t h e S co t s ( 8 78-89 ) , w a s r emembe red a s h av ing s ub jec ted t h e .No r thumb r ian s t o h i s a u tho r i ty 3°a nd B e rn ic ia , c e r ta in ly , c an b e s e en a sv e ry much w i th in a S co t t i sh s phe re o fi nf luence b y t h e e a r ly t e n th .3 1 S imu l t aneou s ly , S co t t i sh i nf luence w a s b e ing e x tended i n to S t r a thc lyde . B y 9 45 when E dmund , k ing o f We s sex , c eded S t r a thc lyde o r Cumbr ia t o Ma lco lm , k ing o f t h e S co t s , o n c ond i t ion t h a t Ma lco lm b ecame h i s h e lpe r b y l a nd a nd s e a ,3 2 t h i s B r i t i sh t e r r i to ry w a s c l ea r ly f a l l ing u nde r S co t t i sh c on t ro l , b u t t h e re i ss ome e v idence t h a t f r om much e a r l ie r , f r om c . 900 i fn o t f r om c . 899 , S t r a thc lyde w a s as ub -k ingdom o ft h e S co t s w i th S co t t i sh p r ince se s tab l i shed a sk ing so ve rt h eB r i ton s .3 S ub s tan t ia l a l te ra t ion s o f t h e p o l i t ica l m ap w e r e t a k ing p l ace i n t h e n in th c en tu ry , t h e ref o re , b eyond t h e f r on t ie r s o f No r thumb r ia . Wha t o f No r thumb r ia i t s e l f ? H i s to r ian s h ave g ene ra l ly n o t b een i mp re s sed . R . H . Hodgk in s aw No r thumb r ia i nt he n in th c en tu ry a s' t he mo s t b ackwa rd p a r t o fE ng land ' ,3 4 a nd f o r A lf red Smy th , ' Bo th t h e n a t ive Ang l ian k ing sh ip a nd t h e C hu rch w e re i n a v e ry d egene ra te s t a te i nt h e l a s t y ea r s o f No r thumb r ian i ndependence ' .3 5 P e rhap s t h e s u re s t i nd ica to r o f ac r i s i s o f s ome s i gn if icance i n No r thumb r i a i s t h e a bandonmen t o f as i lve r c o inage a tt h e e nd o ft h e e i gh th c en tu ry a nd i t se ven tua l r ep lacemen t b y wha t D r R . H . M . Do l ley c a l led ' w re tched ' s t yca s3 6 i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e n in th . I n Do l ley ' s o p in ion , when t h e V ik ing s t ook Yo rk ' t hey o ve r th rew a k ingdom t h a t h ad l ong b een b ank rup t , e conom ica l ly i fn o t s p i r i tua l ly a sw e l l ' .3 7 O n t h e o the r h and , i t wou ld b e p o s s ib le t o e xagge r a te t h e d i sa r ray o ft h e No r thumb r i an k ingdom a tt h i s t ime . T he b e s t l a nd w a s p robab ly a l ready q u i te i n ten s ive ly s e t t led a nd f a rmed .3 8 T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o ft h e p o l len r e co rd r evea l s t h e c oun t ry s ide a round Y o rk , f o r e xamp le , a s' e x ten s ive ly d ef o re s ted a nd l a rge ly a g r icu l tu ra l , am ix tu re o fa r ab le a nd p a s tu re land ' ,3 9 a nd i f n o t y e t t h e empo r ium i tw a s t ob ecome i nt h e l a te O ld E ng l i sh p e r iod , Y o rk w a s a l ready eme rg ing a s ac o mme rc ia l c en t re . 4°T he r e w a s ' ac ompe ten t s c u lp tu ra l M . 0 . Ande r son , K ing s a nd K ing sh ip i n E a r ly S co t l and ( Ed inbu rgh , 1 973 ) , 2 50 . 29 SI ,2 13-4 . 3 ° M . 0 . Ande r son , K ing s a nd K ing sh ip , 2 67 , 2 74 ,288 ,290 ( s ee a l so 2 83 , n . 107 ) . 3 1 A . P . Smy th , Wa r l o rd s a nd H o ly Men , 1 98 , 2 32 . 3 2 A ng lo -Saxon C h r on i c l e A , s . a . 9 45 ; A nna l e s C amb r ia e , e d . E . P h i l l imo re . Y C ymm r od o r 9 ( 1 888 ) , 1 69 . On S t ra thc lyde a nd Cumbr ia , s e e D . P . K i rby , ' S t ra thc lyde a nd Cumb r ia : A s u rvey o f h i s tor ica l d eve lopmen t t o 1 092 ' , T r an s . o ft h e C umb e r land a nd We s tmo r l and A n t i q ua r ian a nd A r cha eo log i c a l S o c i e ty 6 2 ( 1 962 ) , 7 7-94 , b u t a l so P . A . Wi l son , ' On t h e u s e o f •t h e t e rm s " S t ra thc lyde" a nd " Cumb r ia" , / o c . c i t . 6 6 ( 1 966 ) , 5 7-92 . 3 3 A . P . Smy th , Wa r l o rd s a nd H o ly Men , 2 15f f . 34 R . H . Hodgk in , A H i s to ry o f t h e A ng l o 28
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S axon s( 3 rd e d . , Oxf ord , 1 952 ) , I ,4 05 . A . P . Smy th , S c and inav ian Y o rk a nd Dub l in : T h e H i s t o ry a nd A r cha eo l ogy o f Two R e l a t ed V ik ing K ingd om s I( Dub l in , 1 965 ) , 5 4 . 3 6 R . H . M . Do l ley , ' The p o s t -Brunanbu rh V ik ing c o inage o f York ' , N o rd i sk N um . A r s sk r . ( 1 957-8 ) , 1 3-85 ( p .38 ) . 37 R . H . M . Do l ley , a r t . c i t . , 1 6 . 3 8 P . H . S awye r , F r om R oman B r i t a in t o N o rman E ng l and ( London , 1 978 ) , 1 32-67 ( pp . 1 6 1-2 ) . 3 9 H . K enwa rd e ta l . , ' The e nv i ronmen t o f Ang lo -Scand inav ian Yo rk ' , V ik ing A g e Y o rk a nd t h eN o r th , 5 8-70 ( p .6 1 ) . 4° A . MacG regor , ' I ndu s t ry a nd c o mme rce i n Ang lo -Scand inav ian Yo rk ' , V ik ing A g e Y o rk a nd t h eN o r th , 3 5-57 ( p .37 ) ; c f . t h ec ommen t s o f I .J an s son i n Med i eva l A r cha eo l ogy 2 4 ( 1 980 ) , 2 75 . 3 5
NORTHU MBR IA I N THE N INTH CENTURY
t r ad i t ion ' i n t h e c i ty 4 1 a nd t h e c a thed ra l s c hoo l o ft h e c hu rch o fS tP e te r , Yo rk , t hough o n t h e p e r iphe ry o f C a ro l ing ian E u rope , r ema ined i n t ouch w i th c on t inen ta l c en t re s o f l e a rn ing .4 2 N o r thumb r i an e c c le s ia s t ica l o rgan iza t ion w a s r a t iona l ized o n t h e f ou r b i shop r ic s o f Yo rk , L ind i sf a rne , H exham , a nd Wh i tho rn , Yo rk p o s se s s ing m e t ropo l i tan a u tho r i ty s i nce 7 35 o ve r t h e n o r the rn p rov ince o f t h e E ng l i sh Chu r ch ,4 3 a nd t h e g rea te r No r thumb r ian mona s te r ie s o ft h e a ge o f B ede c on t inued t of l ou r i sh . I ft h e l i ve ly mona s t ic c e l l o fJ E the lwu lf , a u tho r o fD e A bba t i bu s , w a s n o t u n typ ica l o f No r thumb r ian h ou se s , mona s t ic i sm n o r th o ft h e Humbe r r e ta ined c on s ide rab le v i ta l i ty , a t l e a s t i n t h e e a r ly p a r t o f t h e n in th c en tu ry .4 T hough t h e re a ppea r s t o h ave b een n o ma jo r t r ad i t ion o fm anu sc r ip t p roduc t ion i nn in th cen tu ry No r thumb r ia , v e ry f ew manu sc r ip t s w e r e p roduced a nywhe r e i n E ng land i n t h e n in th c en tu ry o u t s ide t h e c ou r t c i rc le o f K ing A lf red :4 5 mo reove r , t h e L i b e r V i t a e o f t h e c o mmun i ty o f S t Cu thbe r t o n L ind i sf a rne , d a t ing i ni t s e a r l ie s t s e c t ion t o c . 840 ,4 6 af r agmen t c on ta in ing p a r t o f t h e e i gh th c hap te r o ft h e B ook o fD an ie l a nd w r i t ten i n ah and s im i la r t o t h a t o f t h e L i b e r V i t a e , '" a nd aNo r thumb r ian l i tu rg ica l a nd c ompu t i s t ica l t e x t d a t ing t o 8 67-92 4 8 s hou ld w a rn a ga in s t t h e i d ea t h a t n o th ing w a s p roduced o r t h a t No r thumb r ia w a s i s o la ted f r om C a ro l ing ian a r t i s t ic i nf luence s . T he No r th umb r ian mona s te r ie s w e re p r ima r i ly r e spon s ib le f o r t h e Ang l ian s c u lp tu re wh ich i ss o d i s t inc t ive a f e a tu re o f t h e c u l tu ra l l i f e o f t h e k ingdom ,4 9 a nd t h e p e r iod d own t oc . 865-75 c on t inued t ob e c ha rac te r ized i n No r thumb r ian c ro s s s c u lp tu re b y wha t h ave b een d e sc r ibed a s ' sw if t a nd l i ve ly d eve lopmen t s ' . 5° Mo reove r ,
J . L ang , ' Con t inu i ty a nd i nnova t ion i n Ang lo-Scand inav ian s c u lp tu re ' , A ng l o -Saxon a nd V ik ing A g e S cu lp tu r e a nd I t s C on t ex t : P ap e r s f r om t h e C o l l ingwood S ympo s ium o n I n su l a r S cu lp tu r ef r om 8 00 t o1 066 , e d .J .L ang ( BAR 4 9 : 1 978 ) , 1 45-72 ( p .146 ) . A s e v idenced b y t h e l e t te r o f L upu s , a bbo t o fF e r ne re s , t o E a ld s ige , a bbo t o f Yo rk , i n 8 52 : C oun c i l s a nd E c c l e s ia s t i ca l D o cumen t s R e la t ing t oG r ea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land , e d . A . W. H adden a nd W. S tubb s , I ( Oxf o rd , 1 87 1 ) , 6 35-6 ( t ran s . EHD I ,n o .2 16 ) . N . B rook s , T he E a r ly H i s t o ry o ft h e C hu r ch o fC an t e r bu ry ( L e ice s te r , 1 984 ) , 8 3 . i E th e lwu lf D e A bba t i bu s , e d . A . C ampbe l l ( Oxf o rd , 1 967 ) : c f . D . R . How le t t , ' The p ro v enance , d a te a nd s t ruc tu re o f D e A bba t ibu s ' , A r cha eo l og ia A e l iana 3( 1 975 ) , 1 2 1-30 . H . Gneu s s , ' K ing A lf red a nd t h e h i s to ry o f Ang lo -Saxon l i bra r ie s ' , Mod e s o f I n t e rp r e t a t ion i nO ld E ng l i sh L i t e r a tu r e : E s say s i nH onou r o fS t an l ey B . G r e enf i e ld , e d . P .R . B rown , G . R . G amp ton a nd F .C . Rob in son ( To ron to , 1 987 ) , 2 9-49 . Iam g ra tef u l t o P rof e s so r Gneu s s f o r a low ing me t os e e ac opy o ft h i s p ape rp r io r t o p ub l ica t ion . A . H . T homp son , L i b e r V i ta e E c c l e s ia e D un e lmen s i s ( Su r tee s S oc ie ty 1 36 : 1 923 ) : c f . C a ta l ogu e o f A n c i en t Manu s c r ip t s i n t h e B r i t i sh 41
42
43
44
45
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Mu s eum I ( London , 1 884 ) , 8 1-4 . R . McK i t ter ick ,J .S t even s , S .T yacke a nd J . Wha l ley , C a ta logue o f t h e P epy s L i b r a ry a t Magd a l en e C o l l eg e , C amb r id g e , i v : Mu s i c , Map s a nd C a l l ig r aphy (Woodb r idge , 1 987 ) . I am g ra tef u l t o P rof e s so r Gneu s s who c a l led t h i s manu sc r ip t ( MS . C amb r idge , Magda lene Co l l e ge P epy s 2 98 1(4 ) ) t o my a t ten t ion a nd t o D r McK i t te r ick who p rov ided me w i th d e ta i l s i n a dvance o fp ub l ica t ion . N . R . K e r , C a ta l ogue o f Manu s c r ip t s C on t a in ing A ng l o -Saxon ( Oxf ord , 1 957 ) , n o . 3 19 ; F . Worma ld , E ng l i sh K a l end a r s b e f o r e A .D . 100 ( Hen ry B rad shaw S oc ie ty 7 2 : 1 934 ) , 1 13 ; c f . P . H . S awye r , ' Some s ou rce s f o r t h e h i s tory o fV ik ing No r thumbr ia ' , 5 -6 , a nd J . Mor r i sh , ' K ing A lf red ' s l e t te r a s as ou rce o n l e a rn ing i n E ng land i nt h e n in th c en tu ry ' , S tud i e s i nE a r l i e r O ld E ng l i sh P r o s e , e d . P . E . S za rmach ( New Yo rk , 1 986 ) , 8 7107 ( p .99 ) . R . N . B a i ley , V ik ing A g e S cu lp tu r e i n N o r th e rn E ng l and ( London , 1 980 ) , 7 6 ,8 1f f . R . C ramp , ' The Ang l ian t r ad i t ion i n t he n in th c en tu ry ' , A ng l o -Saxon a nd V ik ing A g e S cu lp tu r e a nd i t s C on t ex t , 1 -32 ( p .9 ) . S ee , f o r s p ec if i c d e ta i l s i n i nd iv idua l c a se s , t h e B r i t i sh A cademy C o rpu s o fA ng lo -Saxon S t on e S cu lp tu r e i nE ng land I ,i ,C oun ty Du rham a nd N o r thumb e r l a nd , e d . R . C ramp ( Oxf o rd , 1 984 ) . 47
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D . P . K IRBY
mona s t ic p a t ronage o f t h e s c u lp tu re c r ea ted , a s ac on sequence o f an e two rk o f mona s t ic c on tac t s , ' ac e r ta in p an -No r thumb r ian u n i ty ' o f s t y le a nd d eco r a t ion , wh ich , i th a sb een s ugge s ted ' p re sumab ly r ef l ec t s t h ep o l i t ica l u n i ty o ft h en o r th a t t h i s t ime ' .5 1 B y c on t ra s t , t h e p ro l if e ra t ion o f l o c a l s t y le s i n t h e t e n th c en tu ry s e em s t o r ep re sen t ac u l tu ra l f r agmen ta t ion wh ich m i r ro r s t h e p o l i t ica l d i s membe rmen t o ft h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom a f te r t h e f a l l o fY o rk ,5 2 t h e mo re c on se rva t ive B e rn ic ian a r ea c on t ra s t ing w i th t h e n ew S cand inav i an a r t wo r ld o f D e i ra .5 3 T he i mp re s s ion t h a t No r thumb r ia i nt h e n in th c en tu ry w a s i nd i sa r ray d e r ive s e s sen t ia l ly f r om t h e f r agmen ta ry p o l i t ica l r e co rd , o n t h e o ne h and , a nd t h e c o l lap se o ft h ek ingdom i nt h ef a ce o fV ik ing a t tack , o n t h eo the r . Ac ruc ia l a s pec t o ft h e f r agmen ta ry p o l i t ica l r e co rd i sc h rono log ica l . H e re , t h e c on t r ibu t ion o fH . E . P agan t o t h e s t udy o f No r thumb r ian h i s to ry i n t h e n in th c en tu ry 5 4 h a s b een o f f undamen ta l i mpo r tance . P agan a rgued t h a t t h e c h ronol ogy o fn in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian s c ea t ta s a nd s t yca si nt h ep e r iod d own t ot h e c ap tu re o f Yo rk i n8 66-7 i sq u i te a tv a r iance w i th t h e c h rono logy o ft h e w r i t ten s ou rce s a nd p ropo sed t h e s ub s t i tu t ion f o r t h e t r ad i t iona l c h rono logy o f an ew a nd e n t i re ly d if e ren t t ime sca le . F o r e xamp le , h e a rgued t h a t t h e p r e -V ik ing No r thumb r ian c o inage e nded ( a pa r t f r om i m i ta t ive i sue s ) c . 865 , s o t h a t K ing O sbe rh t , who may h ave m in ted c o in s f o rn o mo r e t h an t wo o r t h ree y ea r s , c ou ld o n ly h ave s u cceeded a s k ing o n t h e a s sa s s ina t ion o f h i s p redece s so r , / E th e l red , c . 862 , r a the r t h an m any y ea r s b ef ore t h i s ( c . 848 /9 ) a st h e w r i t ten s ou rce s i nd ica te ; s o t h a t t h e y ea r s i mmed ia te ly p reced ing t h e c ap tu re o f Y o rk w e re y e a r s o f e x t reme p o l i t ica l c r i s i s i n t h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom . T o wha t e x ten t P agan ' s r ev i sed c h rono logy c an b e s u s ta ined i sp a r t o ft h e c once rn o ft h i s s ympo s ium a nd w i l l b e t h e s ub jec t o fs ub sequen t ,p ape r s . Wi thou t p r e judg ing t h e o u tcome , i tw i l l b e u s ef u l a t t h i s s t age t o r ev iew t h e l i t e ra ry e v idence t o e s tab l i sh a ny p o s s ib le d eg ree o f i n exac t i tude . T he m a t te r i sa l so p a r t icu l a r ly r e levan t t o t h e s t udy o f No r thumb r ian p o l i t ica lh i s to ry . D i sc repanc ie s i nt h e l i t e ra ry s ou rce s mean t h a t an umbe r o fr e con s t ruc t ion s o f n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r i an r oya l c h rono logy , d i sp lay ing m ino r v a r ia t ion s , c an b e p ropo sed , b u t t h e b road o u t l ine s o f r e ce ived No r thumb r ian c h rono log ica l t r ad i t ion b y t h e e a r ly t we lf th c en tu ry a r e c l ea r . K ing A l le w a s r ega rded a si nh i s f i f th y ea r o n 1 Novembe r , 8 66 ,5 a nd t h i s m ay e xp la in why h i s p redece s so r , O sbe rh t , i sg iven ar e ign o ft h i r teen y ea r s i n No r thumb r ian r egna l t r ad i t ion 5 6 b u t e i gh teen i n t h e F l o r e s H i s t o r ia rum ,5 7 Wendove r o r h i s s ou rce p r e sumab ly i n c lud ing A l le ' s f i ve y ea r s i nO sbe rh t ' s r egna l l e ng th a nd n o t r ega rd ing O sbe rh t ' s r e ign a si n te r rup ted b y A l le . E igh teen y ea r s f r om 8 67 , t h e y ea r i n wh ich O sbe rh t R . N . B a i ley , ' The c hrono logy o fV ik ing Age s cu lp ture i n Nor thumbr ia ' , Ang lo -Saxon a nd V ik ing A g e S cu lp tu r e a nd i t s C on t ex t , 1 732 03 ( p .175 ) . R . N . B a i ley , V ik ing A g e S cu lp tu r e i n No r the rn E ng land , 8 4 . C o rpu s I , i , C oun ty Durham a nd No r th u mbe r land , 4 ,2 9 . H . E . P agan , ' Nor thu mbr ian n um i s ma t ic c hrono logy i n t he n in th c en tury ' , BN J 3 8 5 1
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( 1 969 ) , 1 15 . F or ar e cen t d i scu s s ion o fP agan ' s v i ew s , s e e P . G r ie r son a nd M . B lackburn , Med i eva l E u ropean C o inag e I ,T he E a r ly Midd l e A g e s ( Cambr idge , 1 986 ) , 3 0 1-3 . SI ,5 4 ; c f . h i s r e ign o f f our y ear s i n t he t we lf th-cen tury a nna l s o f L ind i sf arne : M GH , S S 1 9 , e d . G . H . P e rz ( Hanove r , 1 866 ) , 5 06 . SI ,3 77 , 3 91 . F l o r e sH i s to r ia rum I ,2 84 . 55
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a nd A l le p e r i shed , i nd ica te s 8 49 f o r O sbe rh t ' s a c ce s s ion . O sbe rh t ' s p redece s so r , " E the l r ed , i sg iven ar e ign o fn ine y ea r s i n No r thumb r ian r egna l t r ad i t ion ,5 8 a nd , t hough Wendove r o n ly a low s h im s e ven ,5 9 h e p l ace s h i s a c ce s s ion i n8 40 a nd h i s d ea th i n8 48 . S ymeon r ega rded 8 45 a s Athe l red ' s f i f th y ea r 6°a nd a l so , t h e ref o re , i na l p robab i l i ty , w i l l h ave r e ckoned 8 40 a st h e y ea r o fh i s a c ce s s ion . Athe l red ' s f a the r a nd p redece s so r , E an red , e n joy s al ong r e ign i nt h e r e co rd , v a r iou s ly g iven a s t h i r ty th ree y e a r s6 1 o r t h i r ty two .6 2 T he c h rono log ica l f r amework o f Wendove r ' s a nna l s o n ly a low s f o r ar e ign o ft h i r ty y ea r s ,6 3 w h ich s e em s t ob e a s a be r r an t a s Roge r ' s a r rangemen t o f Athe l red ' s r e ign . I f E an red s u cceeded t h i r ty two y ea r s b ef o re 8 40 , h e wou ld h ave b ecome k ing i n8 08 . I n t h i s c a se , t h e f i gu r e o ft h i r ty two o r t h i r ty th ree y ea r s wou ld h ave t o emb r ace as e cond r e ign o f h i s p redece s so r , t h e No r thumb r ian k ing , E a rdwu lf , i n t h e s ame w ay a s O sbe rh t ' s e i gh teen y ea r s i n t h e F l o r e s H i s t o r i a rum emb raced " E l le ' s a leged f i ve -yea r r e ign . T h i s i s b ecau se , a l though E a rdwu lf w a s e xpe l led f r om h i s k ingdom i n 8 06 ,6 4 h e w a s r e s to red i n 8 08 t h rough t h e g ood o f f ice s o f Cha r lemagne a nd t h e p ope ,6 5 a nd i t mu s t b e a s sumed t h a t h e r e igned f o r al i t t le wh i le a f te r h i s r e s to ra t ion . I tm igh t b e c on jec tu red t h a t E a rdwu lf r e igned f o r a no the r t wo y ea r s a nd E an red o n ly f o r t h e t h i r ty wh ich Wendove r ' s a nna l i s t ic f r amewo rk a low s . B u t t h e re i sa no the r p o s s ib le s o lu t ion . T he re w a s av a r ian t t r ad i t ion a bou t t h e c h rono logy o fO sbe rh t ' s o ve r th row b y / E l ie wh ich c ou ld b e i mpo r tan t . A cco rd ing t ot h e H i s t o r ia d eS an c t o C u thb e r t o , O sbe rh t l o s t h i s l i f e a nd k ingdom w i th in t h e s p ace o fo ne y ea r f r om h i s s e izu re o f c e r ta in e s ta te s o ft h e c hu rch o f L ind i sf a rne :6 i n o the r wo rd s , O sbe rh t w a s d epo sed o n ly mon th s b ef o re h e w a s s l a in , i . e . i n8 66 p robab ly . I ft h i s w e re s o , O sbe rh t , o ve r th rown i n 8 66 , w i l l h ave b e come k ing i n 8 53 . Athe l red w i l l h ave s u cceeded i n 8 44 a nd E an red ' s r e ign w i l l h ave b egun i n8 11 o r 8 12 , d epend ing o n whe the r h e r e igned t h i r ty two o r t h i r ty th ree y ea r s . T h i s l e ave s ap e rf ec t ly a dequa te p e r iod o ft ime f o r t h e s e cond r e ign o fE a rdwu lf . P e rhap s i tw a s af a i lu re t o i n teg ra te i n to t h e r e co rd a s e cond r e ign o f t h ree o r f ou r y ea r s f o r E a rdwu lf wh ich o cca s ioned s ub sequen t Nor thumb r ian h i s to r ian s s o much d if icu l ty , l e av ing ap e r iod o ft ime i n t h e 8 60 s wh ich c ou ld o n ly b e a c coun ted f o r o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t A l le r e igned f ou r o r f i ve y ea r s o r O sbe rh te i gh teen . T he r e su l t ing r egna l c h rono logy i s a sf o l low s : E a rdwu lf ss e cond r e ign ( 8 08-8 11 / 12 ) , E an red ( 8 11 / 12-844 ) , ' E the l red ( 8 44-853 ) , O sbe rh t ( 8 53-866 ) , A l le ( 8 66-7 ) . T he re wou ld b e am ino r v a r ia t ion i f Athe l red w e re t hough t o f a s r u l ing o n ly s e ven o r e i gh t y ea r s b u t t h e re i sn o o bv iou s r e a son t op ref e r Roge r o f Wendove r o n t h i s p o in t . T he d a te o f Redwu lf , k ing o f No r thumb r i a , o f c ou r se , w i l l b e a f ec ted b y t h i s r ev i sed c h rono logy : Wendove r p l ace s R edwu lf s u su rpa t ion , h i s e xpu l s ion o f Athe l red a nd s ub s e quen tb a t t le a ga in s t p agan s i n8 44 ,6 7 a nd i ndeed i nt h a ty ea r ac on t inen ta l s ou rce r e cord s t h a t t h e No r thmen w e re v i c to r iou si n at h r ee -day b a t t le i nt h e t e r r i to ry o f
58 59
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SI ,3 77 , 3 91 . F lo r e sH i s to r ia rum I ,2 8 1 . S I , 5 3 . S I , 5 2 : I ,3 9 1 . SI ,3 77 : F lo r e s H i s to r ia rum I ,2 71 . F lo r e sH i s to r ia rum I ,2 71 , 2 81 . Ang lo -Saxon C h r on i c l eD , s . a . 8 06 .
Anna l e s R egn i F ran co rum , e d . F . Kurze , S c r ip to r e s R egum G e rman i ca rum i n U sum S cho l a r um e x Monumen t i s G e rman iae H i s tor i c i s ( Hanove r , 1 895 ) , 1 26 . SI ,2 0 1 . 65
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F lo r e sH i s to r ia rum I ,2 82-3 .
D . P . K IRBY
t h e Ang lo-Saxon s ,6 8 b u t i f Athe l red o n ly s u cce eded i n 8 44 , h i s e xpu l s ion b y Redwu lf c anno th ave t a ken p l ace u n t i lc . 848 . T he r ei sn o r e co rd o f ab a t t le a ga in s t V ik ing s i n t h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e f o r 8 48 b u t n e i the r i st h e c onf l ic t o f 8 44 r e co rded i n t h e C h r on i c l e . I t i s d if icu l t t o s e e h ow No r thumb r ian r egna l c h rono logy c an b e a d ju s ted f u r the r o n t h e l i t e ra ry e v iden ce a va i lab le . Ar e ign o f t h i r teen y ea r s f o r O sbe rh t s e em s t o b e d eep ly i mbedded i n t h e r e co rd . Whe the r t h e l i t e ra ry e v idence n eed s t ob e a bandoned a l toge the r i fi td oe s n o t a c co rd w i th n um i sma t ic e v idence i sf o rt h i ss ympo s ium t oc on s ide r . T he p o l i t ica l r e co rd , f r agmen ta ry t hough i ti s ,b ea r s w i tne s s t o t h e d epo s i t ion o ft h ree k ing s —Ea rdwu lf , Athe l red , a nd O sbe rh t— and t h e a s sa s s ina t ion o fo ne , ! E the l red a ga in . T h ree d epo s i t ion s a nd o ne a s sa s s ina t ion a c ro s s s i x ty y ea r s ( 8 05-66 ) c o mpa re f a vou rab ly w i th t h e f i ve d epo s i t ion s a nd t h ree r oya l a s sa s s in a t ion s o ft h e s i x ty y ea r s i nt h e e i gh th c en tu ry i n No r thumb r ia f r om 7 36 t o7 96 . I t i sc e r ta in ly p o s s ib le t h a t E an red ' s l ong r e ign c on s t i tu ted aw a te r shed b e tween t wo p ha se s o f No r thumb r ian h i s to ry . Mo reove r , t h e d e sc r ip t ion o f A l le b y t h e A lf r ed ian c h ron ic le r a s o f n on roya l l i neage ,6 9 n o d oub t mean t t o i mp ly a n u l t ima te a nd t o ta l d egene racy o f No r thumb r ian r oya l ty , i sb e s t s e en a s ad ev ice b y t h e c h ron ic le r t o h e igh ten t h e d idac t ic c on ten t o fh i s a c coun t . I n t h e H i s t o r i a d e S an c t o C u thb e r t o A l le i s d e sc r ibed a s O sbe rh t ' s b ro the r , 7° a nd t h e r e i s n o s ugge s t ion t h a t h e w a s an on roya l u p s ta r t . T h e We s t S axon r ep re sen ta t ion o f A l le m ay b e c o mpa red w i th t h e d e sc r ip t ion i nt h e C h r on i c l e o fC eo lwu lf I ,k ing o f Me r c ia , a s ' af oo l i sh k ing ' s t h egn ' ," whe rea s d ocumen ta ry e v idenc e r evea l s C eo lwu lf r e ign ing i n Me r c ia w i th e ve ry a ppea rance o fl e g i t imacy .7 2 C e r ta in ly , h oweve r , t h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom c o l lap sed i n t h e f a ce o ft h e V ik ing a t tack o f 8 66 . Doe s t h i s s ugge s t as i gn if i can t d eg ree o f m i l i ta ry a nd p o l i t ica l w eakne s s ? P rof e s so r N icho la s B rook s h a s s t re s sed t h a t t h e c on s i s ten t e v idence f r om c on tempo ra ry s ou rce s f r om w id e ly s e pa ra ted p a r t s o f E u rope i s t h a t V ik ing a rm ie s ' r ema ined i n t h e f i e ld f o r l ong c ampa ign s o f ten o ve r s e ve ra l y ea r s , c o mp r i sed b e tween f i f ty a nd 2 50 s h ip s , a nd t h a tf l ee t s o f1 00-200 s h ip s w e re b y n o m ean s r a re ' .7 3 T he a rmy wh ich a r r ived i nE a s t Ang l ia i n 8 65 i sd e sc r ibed b y t h e C h r on i c l e a s' al a rge h ea then a rmy ' , t h a t wh ich a r r ived i n 8 7 1 a s' al a rge s umme r f o rce ' , a nd t h a t wh ich a r r ived i n 8 92 a s ' t he l a rge a rmy ' . T h e l a rge h ea then a rmy o f8 65 w a s p a r t icu la r ly s i gn if i can t b ecau se i to ve rwhe lmed i nq u i te r ap id s u cce s s ion n o t o n ly No r thumb r ia b u t a l so t h e k ingdom s o fE a s t A ng l ia a nd Me rc ia d u r ing t h e y ea r s 8 65-873 /4 , a nd t h rea tened We s sex i n8 7 1 . T he f a c t t h a t A lf red n eve r a ga in a f te r 8 7 1 e ncoun te red t h e u nd iv ided g r ea t a rmy o f8 65 w a s u ndoub ted ly af a c to r i nh i s s u rv iva l .7 4 P rof e s so r B rook s c onc lude s t h a t i tw a s t h e A nna l e s d e S a in t -B e r t in , e d . F . G ra t , J . V ie l l ia rd a nd S .C lemence t ( Pa r i s , 1 964 ) , 4 8 . A ng l o -Saxon C h ron i c l eA ,s . a . 8 67 . SI ,2 02 . 7 1 A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l eA , s . a . 8 74 . C a r tu l a r ium S axon i cum , e d . W. d e G ray B i rch , I( London , 1 885 ) , n o .540 ; t r an s . EHD I , n o .95 . T he v a l id i ty o f C eo lwu lf s g ran t s w a s a ccep ted b y / E the l red a nd l E the lf l aed o f Me rc ia : C a r tu la r ium S axon i cum I ,n o .607 ( P . H . S awye r , A ng l o -Saxon C ha r t e r s : A n A nno t a t ed 68
69 70
72
1 8
L i s t a nd B i b l iog raphy ( Roya l H i s to r ica l S oc ie ty Gu ide s a nd H andbook s 8 , 1 968 ) , n o .36 1 ) , a nd c f . M . G e l l ing , T h e E a r ly C ha r t e r s o ft h e T hame s V a l l ey ( L e ice s te r , 1 979 ) , n o .267 . N . B rook s , ' Eng land i n t h e n in th c en tu ry : t h e c ruc ib le o fd ef ea t ' , TR HS 2 9 ( 1 979 ) , 1 -20 ( pp .6f f ) ; c f . P . Worma ld , ' V ik ing s t ud ie s : whence a nd wh i the r ? ' , T h e V ik ing s , e d . R . T . F a r re l l , 1 28-53 ( pp .134-7 ) . D . P . K i rby , T h e Mak ing o fE a r ly E ng l and ( London , 1 967 ) , 8 0 . 73
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l a rge s i ze o ft h i s g rea th ea then a rmy wh ich ' made p o s s ib le t h e c onque s ta nd i n i t ia l s e t t lemen t o f t h ree E ng l i sh k ingdom s ' .7 5 T he a nna l f o r 8 76 i n t h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e A s t a te s t h a t t h e D an i sh l e ade r , H ä lf dan , s h a red o u t t he l a nd o f t h e No r thumb r ian s a nd t h a t t h e D ane s i n t h e a rmy p roceeded t o p lough a nd t o s uppo r t t h em se lve s ,7 6 o r , a s Roge r o f Wendove r p u t s i ti n wha t may b e av a r ian t o ft h i s a nna l , ` Hä lf dan o ccup ied Nor thumb r ia a nd d iv ided i t among h im se lf a nd h i s t h egn s a nd h ad i tc u l t iva ted b y h i s a rmy ' .7 T he se p a s sage s s ugge s t t h a t t he p r inc ipa l a gen t o fS cand inav ian c o lon iza t ion w a s t h e a rmy .7 8 I ft h i s i ss o , a nd i f , a ss e em s l i ke ly , ' p o l i t ic a l c on t ro l w a s f o l lowed b y e conom ic t a keove r o fe s ta te s '7 9 b y t ho se who r ema ined i n E ng land , t h e i mpac t o f t h e l a rge h ea then a rmy w i l l h ave b een c on s ide rab le a nd i mmed ia te . T he m i l i ta ry c o l lap se o f Nor thumb r ia i n 8 66-7 , t h e ref o re , n eed n o t m ean t h a t No r thumb r ia w a s s i gn if i can t ly mo re v u lne rab le m i l i ta r i ly o r l e s s s t ab le p o l i t ica l ly t h an a ny o f t h e o the r E ng l i sh k ingdom s i n t h e m id -n in th c en tu ry . A s S awye r o b se rved , w e s hou ld n o t b e m i s led ' i n to t h ink ing t h a t No r thumb r ian s o c ie ty w a s u n s tab le o r t h a t t h e k ingdom w a s o n t h ev e rge o fc o l lap se ' . 8° Unde r t h e V ik ing i mpac t , h oweve r , t h e k ingdom f r ac tu red . F o r P a t r ick Wo rma ld t h e e f ec t s o ft h e V ik ing a t tack w e re ' v e ry s e r iou s i ndeed ; a ss e r iou s , l o ca l ly , a s t ho se o f t h e Ang lo -Saxon i nva s ion s ' ," a nd i ti st h e No r thumb r ian s ou rce s wh i ch i lu s t r a te many o ft he i r e f ec t s . T he V ik ing s a r e t hough t t o h ave s e cu red t h em se lve s i np o s se s s ion o f Yo rk , p e rhap s e s tab l i sh ing ah eadqua r te r s b y t h e s ou th ea s t g a tehou se o ft h e Roman f o r t re s s ,8 2 a nd a s sumed d i rec t c on t ro l o f D e i ra , a ppo in t ing ap uppe t r u le r , E cgbe rh t , b eyond t h e T yne , who r e igned f o r f i ve o r s i x y ea r s .8 3 I n 8 72 , wh i le t he D an i sh a rmy w a s c ampa ign ing i ns ou the rn E ng land , t h e Nor thumb r ian s e xpe l led K ing E cgbe rh t a nd Wu l fhe re , a r chb i shop o f Yo rk , b o th o f whom t ook r e f uge w i th B u rg red , k ing o f Me rc i a ,8 4 a nd a c e r ta in R ic s ige b ecame k ing i n8 73 f o r t h ree y ea r s ,8 5 c l ea r ly i no ppo s i t ion t o t h e D ane s . I tw a s a ga in s t R i c s ige t h a t t h e D an i sh l e ade r , H ä lf dan , l e d h i s a rmy a c ro s s
N . B rook s , ' Eng land i n t he n in th c ent u ry ' , 1 . Ang lo -Saxon C h ron i c l eA , s . a . 8 76 . F lo r e s H i s to r ia rum I ,3 27 . P . H . S awyer , ' Conque s t a nd c o lon iza t ion : S cand inav ian s i n t h e Dane law a nd Normandy ' , 1 28 , d raw s a t t e n t ion t ot h i s p a s sage . C f . N . L und , ' The s e t t ler s : where d o we g e t t he m f r om —and d o w e n eed t he m ? ' , P ro c . o ft h e E ng l i sh V ik ing C ong r e s s , 1 47-71 . C f . P . H . S awyer , ' Ang lo-Saxon s e t t lemen t : t he d ocu men tary e v idence ' , A ng lo -Saxon S e t t l emen t a nd L and s cape , e d . T . Row ley ( BA R 6 , 1 974 ) , 1 0919 ; P . H . S awyer , ' Some s ource s f o r t he h i s tory o f V ik ing Nor thumbr ia ' , V ik ing A g e Y o rk a nd t h e N o r th , 7 ; a nd ' Conque s t a nd c o lon iza t ion : S cand inav ian s i nt he Dane law a nd Normandy ' , P r o c . o ft h e E igh th V ik ing C ong r e s s 1 23-31 ( pp .125-6 ) ; G . F .J en sen , ' S cand inav ian s e t t le men t i n E ng land : t he p l ace-na me e v ide nce ' , No rdbo e r i Dane lag en , e d . H . B ekker 7 5
76 77
78
N ie l sen a nd H . F .N ie l sen ( Oden se , 1 982 ) , 9 -31 ( p .31 ) . C . D . Mor r i s , ' The V ik ing s i n t he B r i t i sh I s le s : s o me a spec t s o f t he ir s e t t lemen t a nd e cono my ' , T he V ik ing s , e d . R . T . F ar re l l , 7 0-94 ( p .86 ) . P . H . S awyer , R oman B r i ta in t o N o rman E ng land ( London , 1 978 ) , 1 07 . P . Worma ld , ' V ik ing s t ud ie s : whence a nd wh i ther ? ' , 1 39 . An I nven to ry o ft h e H i s to r i ca l Monumen t s o f t h e C i ty o f Y o rk I : T he D ef en c e s ( RCH M , 1 972 ) , 8 ; R . A . Ha l l , ' The t opography o f Ang lo-Scand inav ian York ' , V ik ing A g e Y o rk a nd t h e No r th , 3 1-7 . 83 SI ,5 5 , 2 25 : I , 1 06 , 3 77 , 3 91 . SI ,5 5-6 , 2 25 : I , 10 ; F lo r e s H i s to r ia rum I , 79
80
8 1
82
84
3 23-4 . S I , 5 6 , 2 25 : H i s to r ia rum I ,3 25 . 85
1 9
I , 10 , 3 77 , 3 97 ;
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t h e T yne i n 8 75 , b ef o re r avag ing a c ro s s n o r th B r i t a in .8 6 I n t h e f o l low ing y ea r , 8 76 , H ä lf dan s e t t led h i s a rmy i n No r thumb r ia b u t w i thou t n ece s sa r i ly h av ing s e cu red c on t ro l o f B e rn ic ia . I ndeed , t h e e v idence o f p l ace -name s a nd o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fV ik ing s c u lp tu re s ugge s t s t h a t t h e who le ,a r e a n o r th o f t h e T ee s r ema ined c u l tu ra l ly d i s t inc t f r om S cand inav ian D e i ra t h roughou t t h e V ik ing p e r iod .8 7 R ic s ige d i ed i n 8 76 b u t w a s s u cceeded b y E cgbe rh t I , n o t k nown t o h ave b een aD an i sh p uppe t , who r e igned c e r ta in ly f o r t wo y ea r s a nd p o s s ib ly f o r t we lve .8 T ha t t h e D ane s o f Yo rk e xe rc i sed l i t t l e i nf luence b eyond t h e T yne i s c onf i rmed p e rhap s b y t h e a b sence o fa ny r e co rd o fg ran t s o fl a nd i nvo lv ing D ane s n o r th o ft h e T yne i n t h e e s ta te r e co rd s o ft h e c o mmun i ty o f S t Cu thbe r t . T he D an i sh k ing o f Yo rk , Gu th red , w a s i n ap o s i t ion t og r an t l a nd a sf a r n o r th a st h e T yne t o t h e c ommun i ty o f S t Cu thbe r t ,8 9 b u t b eyond t h e T yne i nd ependen t p r ince s r u led a nd i n t h e e a r ly t e n th c en tu ry R agna ld made E a ld red a nd Uh t red , s on s o fE adwu lf o f B ambu rgh , h i s p r ima ry t a rge t o f a t tack . 9° T he c onnec t ion b e tween t h e se l o rd s o r r e eve s o fB ambu rgh a nd t h e l a te n in th -cen tu ry k ing s o f B e rn ic ia i su nknown , b u t E adwu lf , who d i ed i n 9 13 ,9 1 w a s r emembe red a s h av ing b een ' d ea r t oA lf red '9 2 a nd i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t h e w a s t h e p o l i t ica l h e i r o f E cgbe rh t I . P o l i t ica l d i smembe rmen t , t h e ref o re , w a s ac on sequence o ft h e V ik ing c ap tu re o f Yo rk w i th t h e D ane s s e cu re ly e s tab l i shed i nD e i r a t hough w i th n o c on t inu ing i nf luence n o r th o f t h e T yne . S imu l taneou s ly , mona s t ic l i f e a nd e c c le s ia s t ica l o rgan iza t ion w a s d i s rup ted . Many o ft h e g r ea te r mona s t ic h ou se s o f No r thumb r ia — Wea rmou th a nd J a r row , Wh i tby , C o ld ingham — s imp ly v an i sh f r om t h e r e co rd s a nd p robab ly c e a sed t o e x i s t a s mona s t ic i n s t i tu t ion s i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e l a te n in th c en tu ry . T he C hu rch i nD e i ra mu s t h ave b een i mmed ia te ly a f ec ted b y t h e f l i gh t o f Wu l fhe re , a r chb i shop o f Yo rk , f r om Yo rk t o Add ingham i n Wha rf eda le i n 8 66 , f r om whence h e w a s e xpe l led i n 8 72 w i th E cgbe rh t I , r e tu rn ing i n8 73 t o Y o rk .9 3 Wu l fhe re ' s l ong a r ch iep i scopa t e , h oweve r , p robab ly c onf e r red c on t inu i ty o f d i rec t ion o n t h e C hu rch i n D e i ra a c ro s s t h e se t r oub led y ea r s . H e d i ed e i the r i n 8 92 i nh i s t h i r ty -n in th y ea r a sa r chb i shop 9 4 o r i n9 00 i n h i s f o r ty seven th :9 5 e i the r w ay , h e b ecame a r chb i shop i n 8 54 , wh ich i st h e d a te g iven i nt h e H i s t o r ia R egum .9 6 T he h i s to ry o ft h e c hu rch o fY o rk i ss oo b scu re i n t h e n in th c en tu ry t h a t e ven t h e d a te s o f Wu l fh e re ' s i mmed ia te p redece s sor s a r e u nc lea r , t hough Wigmund , who d i ed i nh i s s i x teen th y ea r ,9 7 m u s t h ave b ecome A ng lo -Sax on C h r on i c l e A s . a . 8 75 ; SI ,5 6 , 2 02-3 ; F l o r e sH i s t o r ia rum I ,3 27 . R . N . B a i ley , V ik ing A g e S cu lp tu r e i n N o r the rn E ng land , 2 9 , 3 4 , 7 3 , 9 1 ; c f . C o rpu s I ,i , 2 9 . SI ,2 25 : I , 11 , 3 77 , 3 9 1 ; F l o r e s H i s t o r i a r um I ,3 27 . T he H i s t o r ia R egum i mp l ie s t h a t E cgbe rh t Iw a s s t i l l a l ive i n8 83 ( S I , 14 ) , s o p e rhap s ii sa ne r ro rf o rx i i . SI ,6 8-7 1 , 2 03 : I , 14-5 . S ee a l so C . D . Mo r r i s , ' Nor thumbr ia a nd t h e V ik ing s e t t le men t : t he e v idence f o r l a nd -ho ld ing ' , A r cha eo l o g ia A e l iana 5 ( 1 977 ) , 8 1103 ; a nd ' V ik ing a nd n a t ive i nn or the rn E ng land : ac a se s tudy ' , P r o c . o ft h eE igh th V ik ing C ong r e s s , 2 23-44 . 86
87
88
89
2 0
9°
SI ,2 09 . S ee A . P . Smy th , S c and inav ian Y o rk a nd D ub l in I ,6 0f f . T h e C h ron i c l e o fi E th e lw ea rd , e d . A . C ampb e l l ( Ed inbu rgh a nd L ondon , 1 962 ) , 5 3 . SI ,2 09 . S I , 2 25 , a c co rd ing t o wh ich s ou rce ( Ep i s to l a d e A r ch i ep i s c op i s E bo ra c i ) Wu l fhe re r e ma ined s e ven y ea r s a t Add ingham , wh ich wou ld i nd ica te 8 65-72 , b u t p robab ly t he s o lu t ion i st h a t Wu l fhe re w a s a way f r om Yo rk f o rs e ven y ea r s , 8 66-73 . 94 S I , 19 . 95 S I , 2 25 . 96 S I ,7 1 , 1 0 1 . SI ,2 24 . 9 1
92 93
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a r chb i shop c . 838 , a nd Wigmund ' sp redece s so r , Wu lf s ige , w a s c e r ta in ly a r chb i shop c . 835 , t hough when h e s u cceeded E anba ld I i s u nknown .9 8 T he re a ppea r , h oweve r , t o b e n o i r r egu la r i t ie s o r b reak s i n t h e a r ch iep i scopa l s u cce s s ion . T he l e t te r o f E cg red , b i shop o f L ind i sf a rne , t o A rchb i shop Wu lf s ige s how s t h e a r chb i shop a c t ive ly c o mba t t ing h e re t ica l n o t ion s ,9 a nd t h a t o fL upu s , a bbo t o f F e r ne re s , t o A rchb i shop Wigmund , p e rhap s c . 851 , s ome th ing o f t h e c hu rch o f Yo rk ' s c on tac t sw i th t h ew ide r C a ro l ing ian wo r ld . 1° Wi th Wu l fhe re ' s r e tu rn t o Yo rk i n 8 73 , t h e C hu rch i n D e i ra r e sumed i t s t r ad i t iona l a dm in i s t r a t ive p a t te rn . T he Chu rch i n B e rn ic i a w a s t h rown i n to f a r g rea te r c onf u s ion f o r f a r l onge r b y t h e D an i sh a t tack a nd h e re t h e t r ad i t iona l a dm in i s t ra t ive p a t te rn w a s t o ta l ly d i s rup ted . T he l a s t k nown b i shop o fH exham , T idf r i th , d i ed o n h i s w ay t o Rome c . 82 1 . A f te r h i s d ea th t h e d ioce se i ss a id t o h ave b een a dm in i s te red b y t h e b i shop s o fL ind i sf a rne , 1°1 b u t , c e r ta in ly , a c ro s s t h e n in th c en tu ry , t h e s e e o fH exham ' d i sappea red f o r g ood ' . 1°2 S o t oo , i nt h e w e s t , d id Wh i tho rn ." 3 T he c o mmun i ty o f S t Cu thbe r t , f l ee ing b ef o re t h e a t tack o f H ä lf dan i n 8 75 , i ss a id t o h ave c on temp la ted c ro s s ing t o I r e land a nd w a s a to ne t ime i nt h e v i c in i ty o f Wh i tho rn , 1°4 a nd i t may b e t h a t t h e l e ade r s o ft h e c hu rch o f Wh i tho rn h ad a l ready d epa r ted f o r I r e land b y t h i s d a te . T he f l i gh t o f s u ch c o mmun i t ie s i n t h e f a ce o f V ik ing a t tack mu s t h ave b een a c r i t ica l b low t o o rgan ized Chu rch l i f e . S ymeon o f Du rham p re se rve s ad e ta i led a c coun t , b a sed o n e a r l ie r t r ad i t ion , o ft h e d epa r tu re o ft h e c o mmun i ty f r om L ind i sf a rne , w i th t h e b ody o f S t Cu thbe r t a nd t h e t r ea su re s ( i nc lud ing manu sc r ip t s ) o f t h e c hu rch , u nde r t h e d i rec t ion o fB i shop E a rdwu lf a nd Abbo t E a ld red , t o w ande r , p e rhap s f r om p l ace t op l ace whe re t h e c ommun i ty p o s se s sed e s ta te s , f o r ap e r iod o fs e ven ( o r n ine ) 1°5 y ea r s a c ro s s n o r th B r i ta in .' " Wh i le S ymeon ' s a c coun t n o d oub t i lu s t ra te s o ne o f t h e f e a tu re s o f t h e p e r iod , t h e d i sp lacemen t o f r e l ig iou s c o mmun i t ie s , a nd S ymeon w a s f o l low ing o lde r n a r r a t ive s , 1°7 t h e d e ta i l s o f h i s s t o ry may n o t b e who l ly h i s tor ica l . T he b ody o fS t Cu thbe r t , w i th t h a t o fK ing C eo lwu lf , h ad b een t r an s la ted t o No rham o n t h e Tweed b y B i shop E cg red ( 8 30-46 ) , 1°8 a nd t h e c l a im t h a t t h e b ody w a s t a ken f r om L ind i sf a rne i n8 75 c ou ld b e ' due t o t h e i mpo r tance o ft h e i s l and i n t h e l i f e o fC u thbe r t , r e inf o rced b y t h e n a tu ra l d e s i re o n t h e p a r t o fl a te r membe r s o f t h e c o mmun i ty t o m in im i se t h e
b i shop o f Wh i tho rn , c on sec ra ted i n7 9 1 , s e e K . S i sam , ` Cynewu lf a nd h i s p oe t ry ' , P BA 1 8 ( 1 932 ) , 3 03-3 1 ( p .326 ) . 1 04 SI ,6 3-8 ( p .67 ) , 2 07 . 1 05 SI ,9 2 . 1 06 S I , 5 6f f . C f . D . W. Ro l la son , ' The Wande r ing s o fS t Cu thbe r t ' , C u thb e r t , S a in ta nd P a t ron , e d . D . W. Ro l la son ( Du rham , 1 987 ) , 4 5-59 ( p .50 ) . 1 07 SI ,2 07 . 1 08 SI ,2 0 1 . S ymeon i gno red t h i s t r an s la t ion o f S t Cu thbe r t : S I , 5 2 . T he n in th-cen tu ry s e c t ion o f t h e L i s t o f S a in t s ' R e s t ing -P la c e s i n E ng land l o ca te s Cu thbe r t ' sb ody a t No rham : D . Ro l la son , ' L i s t s o f s a in t s ' r e s t ing -p lace s i n Ang lo -Saxon E ng land ' , ASE 7 ( 1 978 ) , 6 1-93 ( pp .63-4 ,84 ) .
R . K ay , 'Wu lf s ig e a nd n in th-cen tu ry Nor thumb r ian c h rono logy ' , N o r th e rn H i s t o ry 1 9 ( 1 983 ) , 8 14 . C oun c i l s a nd E c c l e s i a s t i c a l D o cum en t s I , 6 15f f . ( t ran s . EHD I ,n o .2 14 ) ; c f . D . Wh i te lock , ' B i shop E g red , P eh t red a nd N ia l l ' , I r e l and i n E a r ly Med i eva lE u r op e , 4 7-68 . 1 00 C oun c i l s a nd E c c l e s i a s t i c a l D o cumen t s I , 98
99
6 34-5 ( t ran s . EHD I ,n o .2 15 ) . 1 01 P r io ry o fH exham , e d . J . Ra ine , I( Su r tee s S oc ie ty 4 4 ,1864 ) , 4 4-5 ( c f . H . E . C ra s te r , ' The Red B ook o f Du rham ' , 5 24 ) ; H . S . O f f le r , ' A n o te o n t h e l a s t med ieva l b i shop o fH exham ' , A r cha eo log ia A e l iana 4 0 ( 1 962 ) , 1 63-9 . 1 02 P . Wo rma ld , ' V ik ing s t ud ie s : whence a nd wh i the r ? ' , 1 39 . 1 03 On a p o s s ib le s u cce s sor t o B adwu lf ,
2 1
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i mpo r tance o f Norham ' . 1°9 No r w a s t h e c onne c t ion w i th Norham l o s t . I n t h e e a r ly t e n th c en tu ry , T i l red , a bbo t o fH eve r sham i n We s tmo r land g ave l a nd t ot h e c o mmun i ty o fS t Cu thbe r t , s ot h a th e m igh tb ecome ab ro the ri nt he c ommun i ty , a nd l a nd a t No rham , s o t h a t h e m igh t b e a bbo t t h e r e :" . °a nd i n 9 15 h e b ecame b i shop o fS tC u thbe r ta t Che s te r le -S t ree t . '" T he c o mmun i ty o fS t Cu thbe r t e ven tua l ly c ame t o t h e mona s te ry o fC rayke , n ea r Yo rk , a n e ven t d a ted t o 8 83 i n al a te t we lf th -cen tu ry i n te rpo la t ion i n t h e H i s t o r i a R egum ," 2 a nd , a c co rd ing t ot h e l a te r t r ad i t ion o ft h e c hu rch o f Du rham , t ook t h el e ad ing p a r ti nr a i s ing t ot h ek ing sh ip o ft h e D ane s a t Yo rk Gu th red , s on o f H a r thacnu t , a leged ly b ef o re t h i s a s l ave a t Wh i t t ingham , whe re t h e c o mmun i ty o fS t Cu thbe r tp o s se s sed e s ta te s ; t h e c o mmun i ty t h en e s tab l i shed i t s e lf a tC he s te r le -S t ree t a nd r e ce ived f r om K ing G u th r ed a n e x ten s ive e ndowmen t o f l a nd b e tween t h e r i ve r s Wea r a nd T yne ." 3 C . D . Mo r r i sh a s s ugge s ted t h a t wha t G u th red g ave w e re o r ig ina l ly e s ta te s b e long ing t ot h e mona s te ry o f Wea rmou th a nd J a r row wh ich h ad n ow c e a sed t o f unc t ion a s amona s t ic c o mmun i ty . 114 I t c e r ta in ly l ook s a si ft h e a c ce s s ion o f Gu th red w a s a n e ven t o fs ome c on s ide r ab le s i gn if i cance f o r t h e r e s tora t ion o f mor e o rde r ed c ond i t ion s i nn or the rn E ng land , a nd t h a t t h e c o mmun i ty o fS tC u thbe r t w a s a mong t ho se who d id w e l l u nde r t h e n ew r eg ime . T he empha s i s i n t h e n or the rn t r ad i t ion a bou t t h e se e ven t s o n t h e v i s iona ry , h oweve r , t h e t o ta l e xc lu s ion f r om t h e a c coun t o fG u th red ' sa c ce s s ion o f a ny r o le o ft h e Yo rk c l e rgy , t h e a b sence o fa n e xp lana t ion a st o why aD an i sh s l ave f r om B e rn ic ia s hou ld h ave b een r a i sed a sk ing o f Yo rk , a nd t h e t r ad i t iona l c ha rac te r o f t h e s t o ry make i t d if i cu l t t o a s ce r ta in wha t w a s r e a l ly t a k ing p l ace ." 5 T he h i s to ry o f t h e k ingdom o f Y o rk i mmed ia te ly p reced ing t h e se e ven t si sa l so u nc lea r . T he c o mmun i ty o fS tC u thbe r t i ss a id t oh ave r e tu rned i n to e a s te rn No r thumbr ia o n t h e d ea th o f H ä lf dan ," 6 wh ich , b y i mp l ica t ion , t ook p l ace a tt h e e nd o fs e ven ( o r n ine ) y ea r s , t h a t i sc . 882 ( o r c . 884 ) , b u t , i fH ä lf dan i s t o b e i d en t if i ed w i th t h e A lbann o f I r i sh a nna l s ," 7 h e p e r i shed a t S t rangf o rd L ough i n 8 77 '1 8 a nd t h e r e w a s a n i n te rva l o f f i ve t o s e ven y ea r s f r om 8 77 t o c . 882 /4 when t h e h i s to ry o fV ik ing Yo rk i su nknown . I ti sq u i te p o s s ib l e t h a t t h e c o mmun i ty o fS t C u thbe r t h ad e s tab l i shed i t s e lf a tC he s te r le -S t ree t e a r l ie r t h an c . 882 /4 , f o r B i shop E a rdwu lf , who d i ed i n8 99 , i ss a id t oh ave d i ed n ine teen y ea r s a f te r t h e f ound ing o f Che s te r le -S t ree t . 19 T he se d e ta i l s s ugge s t 8 80 a st h e y ea r t h e c o mmun i ty s e t t led t h e re , t hough i fE a rdwu lf d i ed i nh i s n ine teen th y ea r t h e 1 09 P . H . S awye r , ' Sou rce s f o r t h e h i s tory o f V ik ing No r thumbr ia ' , 5 . 1 10 SI ,2 08 ( c f . EHD I ,n o .6 ) . 1 11 S I , 7 4 . T he i d en t if ica t ion o f Abbo t T i l red w i th B i shop T i l red i sn o t made i n t h e s ou rce sb u ts e em sp robab le . 1 12 SI , 14 . D . N . Dumv i l le p o in ted o u t i n d i scu s s ion t h e l a te c ha rac te r o f t h e a nna l f o r 8 83 . 1 13 S I , 6 8f f . , 2 03 ; E . C ra s te r , ' The Red B ook o f Du rham ' , 5 24 . 1 14 C. D . Mor r i s , ' No r thumbr ia a nd t h e V ik ing s e t t lemen t : t he e v idence f o r l a nd h o ld ing ' , 9 2 . 1 15 A . Mawe r , ' The S cand inav ian k ingdom
o f Nor thumb r ia ' , S aga B ook o f t h e V ik ing S o c i e ty 7( 1 9 1112 ) , 3 8-64 ( pp .44-8 ) . S I ,6 8 ,203 . 1 17 A nna l so fU l s t e rI ,3 32-3 ( s . a . 8 76 ) . 1 18 A . P . Smy th , ;S c and inav ian K ing s i n t h e B r i t i sh I s l e s 8 50-880 ( Oxf ord , 1 977 ) , a rgue s t h a t H ä lf dan a nd A lbann w e re i d en t ica l , wh ich R . McTu rk ,` Ragna r rL o8brök i nt h eI r i sh a nna l s ? ' , P r o c . o f t h e S even th V ik ing C ong r e s s : Dub l in 1 973 , e d . B . A lmqv i s ta nd D . G reene ( Dunda lk , 1 976 ) , 9 3123 , i sp repa red t o a c cep t a sp o s s ib le b u t n o t c e r ta in ( p .12 1 ) ; c f . D . Ö Co r rä in , ' H igh -k ing s , V ik ing s a nd o the r k ing s ' , I r i sh H i s t o r i c a lS t ud i e s2 1 ( 1 979 ) , 2 83-323 ( pp .320-2 ) . " SI ,7 2 .
2 2
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d a te o f t h e f ound ing o f t h e n ew b i shop r ic c ou ld h ave b een 8 8 1 . T h i s wou ld r educe t h e p e r iod d u r ing wh ich t h e c o mmun i ty w ande red a c ro s sn o r th B r i ta in . I t wou ld a l so b r ing t h e c o mmun i ty t o C he s te r le -S t ree t b ef o re t h e a c ce s s ion o f Gu th red , i ft h a t e ven t c on t inue s t o b e p l aced i n 8 83 . I tc ou ld b e , h oweve r , t h a t Gu th red w a s e s tab l i shed a sk ing o fY o rk b ef o re 8 83 . G u th red i sg iven ar e ign o f f ou r teen y ea r s i n t h e No r thumb r ian r egna l l i s t s ,1 2 °a nd h i s d ea th i sp l aced i n 8 94 . 12 1 A Gu thf r i th , k ing o f t h e No r thumb r ian s , d i ed i n Augu s t 8 95 .1 2 2 I ti s u sua l ly t hough t t h a t Gu th red a nd Gu thf r i th w e re o ne a nd t h e s ame , i n wh ich c a se Gu th red /Gu thf r i th w i l lh ave r e igned 8 8 1-95 . I ft h ey w e re n o t i d en t i ca l , h oweve r , a nd t h e re i sn o r e a son t oa s sume t h a t t h ey w e re , Gu th red w i l l h ave r e igned f r om 8 80-94 . I n t h i s c a se , h i s e l eva t ion t o t h e k ing sh ip c ou ld s t i l l h ave p receded , a si t d oe s i n Du rham t r ad i t ion , t h e r e se t t l ing o f t h e c ommun i ty o f S t C u thbe r t a t Che s te r le -S t ree t . E ven s o , t h e y ea r s f r om 8 77 t o 8 80 w i l l r ema in ab l ank i n t h e h i s to ry o fV ik ing Y o rk . Gu th red ' s a c ce s s ion c ou ld o n ly b e p u shed n ea re r 8 77 b y a bandon ing 8 94 a s t h e y ea r o f h i s d ea th . No t t h a t t h i s i sn ece s sa ry . H ä lf dan ' s d epa r tu r e f o r I r e land m ay h ave l e f t t h e No r thumb r ian D ane s t empo ra r i ly l e ade r le s s . T he a t ten t ion o fp a r t a tl e a s t o ft h e o r ig ina l g rea t h ea then a rmy w a s f o cu s sed o n We s sex i n 8 78-9 a nd i tw a s n o t u n t i l 8 80 t h a t D an i sh f o rce s s e t t led d own t o c u l t iva t e t h e l a nd i n E a s t Ang l ia . P e rhap s , s im i la r ly , i tw a s o n ly c . 880 t h a t an ew p o l i t ica l o rde r c ry s ta l l i zed i n No r thumb r ia . S cand inav i an g enea log ica l t r ad i t ion r ega rded G u th red ' s f a the r , H a r thacnu t , a st h e g rand son o fK ing A l le ' s d augh te r , B l ae ja .1 2 3 I ft h i s t r ad i t ion r e ca l l s ag enu ine r e la t ion sh ip o fs ome k ind , Gu th red c ou ld h ave b een ac o mp rom i se c ho i ce i nt h e n o r th , ad e scendan t o ft h e o ld No r thumb r ian l i ne who h ad b een b rough t u p i n Ang l ian t e r r i to ry a nd who se e x i s tence a nd whe r eabou t s m igh t b e k nown t o B e rn ic ian c hu rchmen . T he e l ec t ion o f Gu th red , p o s s ib ly a n Ang lo -Dan i sh p r ince , t h e ref o re , b y D ane s a nd E ng l i sh a tO sw i e sd un e , when t h e who le a rmy s wo re p eace a nd f i de l i ty o ve r t h e b ody o fS t Cu thbe r t ,1 2 4 m ay r ep re sen t a n a t temp t t oc r ea te an ew No r thumb r ian k ing sh ip t o wh i ch b o th p eop le s c ou ld r e spond . No t t h a t t h e No r thumb r ian D ane s w e re r ende red p a s s ive . T hey c on t inued t o s uppo r t o the r D an i sh a rm ie s i nt h e i r a t t ack s o n E ng l i sh t e r r i to r ie s a nd a l ied w i th t h e k ing o f Gwynedd a ga in s t A lf red .1 2 5 E ven s o , a f te r S i gef e r th , aV ik ing p i ra te f r om No r thumb r i a , h ad r avaged t h e E ng l i sh c oa s t i n 8 93 , t h e We s t S axon e a ldo rman , Athe lno th , w en t t o Yo rk a nd c ampa igned a ga in s t h im ,1 2 6 p re sum a b ly w i thou t h ind rance f r om K ing Gu th red . A cco rd ing t o t h e No r thumb r i an s ou rce s , o n t h e d ea th o f G u th red , t h e No r thumbr ian s e s tab l i shed p eace w i th A lf r ed who h ad t h e d i spo sa l o ft h e e n t i re No r thumb r ian k ingdom ,1 2 7 b u t t h i s i s mo re l i ke ly t o h ave b een t h e s i tua t ion o n t h e d ea th a nd b u r ia l i n t h e c a thed ra l c hu rch o f Yo rk o fK ing Gu thf r i th i n8 95 1 2 8 ( un le s s Gu th red a nd Gu thf r i th w e re t h e s ame p e r son ) . T h i s e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t t h e No r thumb r ian D ane s r e ached a 1 20
SI ,3 77 , 3 91 .
T ran s . o f t h e A r ch i t e c tu ra l a nd A r chaeo log i ca l S o c i e ty o f Du rham a nd N o r thumbe r land 1 ( 1 965 ) , 3 35-46 ; a nd ` A s ser ' s L if e o f A lf red ' , S tud ia C e l t i ca 6 ( 1 97 1) , 1 2-35 . 1 26 C h ron i c l e o fi E the lw ea rd , 5 01 . 1 27 SI ,7 1 : I , 19 .
I ,7 1 : I ,9 2 . 1 22 C h ron i c l e o ff e the lw ea rd , 5 1 . 1 23 A . Mawe r , a r t . c i t . , 4 8 ; c f . A . P . Smy th , S cand inav ian K ing s i nt h eB r i t i sh I s l e s , 1 3 . 1 24 S I ,6 9 , 2 03 . 1 21
S
1 25 On t he se e ven t s , s e e D . P . K irby , ' Nor thumbr ia i nt he r e ign o fA lf red t he G rea t ' ,
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C h ron i c l e o fy E the lw ea rd , 5 1 .
D . P . K IRBY
n ew u nde r s tand ing w i th t h e C hu rch w i th in No r thumb r ia , o n t h e o ne h and , a nd e n te red i n to an ew r e la t ion sh ip w i th A lf red a nd t h e We s t S axon s , o n t h e o the r . C o in s i n i m i ta t ion o f K ing A lf red ' s w e re c i rcu la ted i n t h e D ane law i n t h e l a te 80 s a nd 8 90 s , i n c lud ing o ne wh ich h a s t h e n ame GVNDEF , p o s s ib ly G u thf r i th , o n t h e o bve r se a nd wh ich s e em s t o h ave b een s t ruck i n t h e t e r r i tory o ft h e F ive B o rough s i nt h e e a s t m id land s .1 2 9 Mo reove r , when G u thf r i th d i ed , h e a ppea r s t o h ave b een s u cceeded a t Yo rk b y ak ing , S i gf r id , p e rhap s b u t n o t c e r t a in ly t h e S i gef e r th o f8 93 , who w a s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e f i r s t D an i sh c o inage a tY o rk — ` the c o inage o f ah igh ly c i v i l i sed a nd l a rge ly C h r i s t i an ized s o c ie ty ' .' 3°S i gf r id ' s l a te r c o in s s how h im s h a r ing r oya l p owe r c . 897 w i th a no the r k ing , C nu t , who s ub sequen t ly i sued c o in s o n h i s own a nd i s p re sumed t o h ave s u cceeded S i gf r id .1 3 1 T he c o in s o fS i gf r id a nd Cnu t w e re m in ted a t Yo rk b ea r ing C h r i s t ian L a t in i n sc r ip t ion s a nd t h e C h r i s t ian s ymbo l o f t h e c ro s s , a nd f r om c . 905 f o r a p e r iod o fp e rhap s f ou r teen y e a r s ac o inage i nt h e n ame o fS tP e te r r ep la ced t h e se r oya l i sue s .' 3 2 Wh a t t h i s s e quence s e em s t os how i st h e i n c rea s ing i mpo r t ance o f t h e p a r t p l ayed b y t h e c l e rgy o f Yo rk m in s te r i nt h e No r thumb r ian m in t a tt h e e nd o f t h e n in th c en tu ry a nd t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e t e n th . A s A lf red Smy th c o mmen t s , ' i t l ooked f o r a wh i le a si ft h e n ew Ang lo -Dan i sh r e a lm wou ld b e l i t t le d if e ren tf r om i t sp re -V ik ing c oun te rpa r t ' . 133 F ina l ly , t h e a c cep tance a sk ing i n Yo rk o f Athe lwo ld , n ephew o fA lf r ed a nd We s t S axon r oya l r i va l t o A lf red ' s s on a nd s u cce s sor , E dwa rd , i n We s sex , i n 8 99-900 m ay s e em t op re suppo se ar ema rkab le i d en t if i ca t ion o fc o mmon i n te re s t s when aWe s t S axon p r ince a nd t h e No r thumbr ian D ane s c ou ld make c o mmon c au se : b u t i n w e s t E u rope g ene ra l ly d i scon ten ted o r d i sadvan taged p r ince s w e re p repa red t o a ly w i th t h e V ik ing s t o f u r the r t h e i r own i n te re s t s , a nd e a r l i e r i n E ng land C eo lwu lf I a nd E cgbe rh t Im ay h ave b een i n as im i la r p o s i t ion — d i scon ten ted a t he l ing s who c ou ld a dvance t h em se lve s t h rough a n a l i anc e w i th t h e D ane s . T he a s cendancy i n Yo rk o f Athe lwo ld , p e rhap s t h e A lva ldu s who a ppea r s o n af ew No r thumb r ian c o in s o fc . 900 , m ay b e c onnec ted w i th ag rea t d i s tu rbance among t h e No r thumb r ian s i n 9 00 t o wh ich Athe lwea rd r e f e r s .' 3 4 C e r ta in ly t h e o u tcome h e re f o r t h e No r thumbr ian s w a s d i sa s t rou s . E dwa rd ' s f o rce s n o t o n ly s l ew Athe lwo ld i n9 03 , t h ey w en t o n t o i nvade t h e t e r r i to ry o f t h e No r thumbr ian D ane s i n 9 09 a nd t o i nf l ic t ac ru sh ing d ef ea t o n t h e No r thumb r ian a rmy a t Wedne sf i e ld i n 9 10 . T h i s e xpo sed Nor thumb r ia t o e xp lo i ta t ion b y n ew V ik ing a rm ie s s omewha t l e s s i n c l ined t o s e ek t h e s ame
1 29
G r ie r son
a nd
B lackbu rn ,
Med i eva l
E u r op ean C o inag eI ,3 18-9 . R . H . M . Do l ley , ' The V ik ing c o inage o f Yo rk ' , 3 8 . C. S . S . L yon a nd B . H . I .H . S t ewa r t , ' The Nor thumb r ian V ik ing c o in s i nt h e Cue r d a le h oard ' , A ng l o -Saxon C o in s : S t ud i e s P r e s e n t ed t oF . M . S t en t on , e d . R . H . M . Do l ley ( London , 1 96 1 ) , 9 612 1 ; c f . I .S t ewa r t , ' The 1 30
1 31
e a r ly V ik ing m in t o f Yo rk ' , S eaby ' s C o in a nd Med a l B u l l e t in ( 1 967 ) , 4 54-6 1 . F o r ap o s s ib le i d en t if i ca t ion o f Cnu t w i th a Knü t r o f l a te r s a ga l i t e ra tu re , s e e A . P . Smy th , S cand inav ian
Y o rk a nd Dub l in I ,4 7f f . M . Do l ley , ' The Ang lo-Dan i sh a nd Ang lo-Nor se c o inage s o f York ' , V ik ing A g e Y o rk a nd t h e N o r th , 2 6-3 1 ( pp .26-7 ) : s e e a l so n ow G r ier son a nd B lackbu rn , Med i eva l E u r op e a n C o inag eI ,3 22-3 . A . P . Smy th , Wa r l o rd s a nd H o ly Men , 1 96 . C h r on i c l e o f / E th e lw ea rd , 5 01 : s e e A . P . Smy th , S c and inav ian Y o rk a nd Dub l in I ,4 8f f . On t h e i d en t i ty o f A lva ldu s , s e e G r ie r son a nd B lackbu rn , Med i eva lE u r op ean C o inag e I ,3 2 1 . 1 32
1 33
1 34
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NORTHU MBR IA IN THE N INTH CENTURY
d eg ree o fa c commod a t ion w i th t h e n a t ive c o mmun i t ie s i nt h e n o r th o r w i th t h e We s t S axon d yna s ty i nt h es ou th ." 5
1 35
C f . A . P . Smy th , Wa r l o rd sa nd H o ly Men , j 96-7 .
2 5
N in th -cen tu ry Nor thumbr ian c h rono logy STE WA RT LY O N
1 . TH i s n o te b u i ld s o n i d ea s f o r ar ev i sed c h rono logy f o r t h e n in th -cen tu ry k ing s o f No r thumb r ia a nd a r chb i shop s o f Yo rk c on ta ined i nH . E .P agan ' s a r t ic le ' No r thumb r ian n um i sma t ic c h rono logy i n t h e n in th c en tu ry ' , BN J 3 8 ( 1 969 ) , p p .115 . Mr . P agan p u t f o rwa rd h i s c h rono logy p r ima r i ly o n n um i sma t ic g round s a nd s uppo r ted i tb y p o in t ing t od ef i c ienc ie s i nt h e a c coun t s o ft h i s p e r iod g iven i n s u rv iv ing c h ron ic le s . T he p u rpo se o ft h i s n o te i st o d emon s t ra te t h a t a mechan i s t ic r e so lu t ion o f t h e i n con s i s tenc ie s b e tween t h e v a r iou s s ou rce s c ou ld s a t i sf y i n l a rge m ea su re t h e r ev i s ion s d emanded b y t h e n um i sma t ic e v idence . T ex tua l c r i t ic i sm t o e va lua te s u ch ar e so lu t ion i s ,h oweve r , b eyond t h e s c ope o f t h en o te ( a nd t h e c o mpe tence o fi t sa u tho r ) . 2 . T he m a in s ou rce s f o r m id -n in th c en tu ry No r thumb r ian c h rono logy a r e Roge r o f Wendove r ' s F l o r e s H i s t o r i a rum ,' t h e v a r iou s wo rk s a s soc ia ted w i th S ymeon o f Du rham ,2 a nd t h e A nna l e s L ind i sf a rn en s e s e t Dun e lm en s e s .3 T he c o mp i le r s mu s t h ave h ad a c ce s s t o n o r the rn r e co rd s , n ow l o s t , wh ich l i s ted t h e k ing s o f No r thumb r ia , a r chb i shop s o f Yo rk , a nd b i shop s o f L ind i sf a rne i n t h e d ecade s p reced ing t h e o ve r th row o ft h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom i n8 67 a nd f o r a f ew y ea r s a f te rwa rd s . F o r t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e c en tu ry t h ey c ou ld d r aw o n t h e n o r the rn s ou rce wh ich w a s embod ied i n MSS . D a nd E o f t h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c le ' a nd f o r t h e e nd o ft h e c en tu ry t h ey c ou ld make u s e o fs ome s k e tchy i n f o rma t ion r e co rded b y i z E the lwea rd ,5 b u t o the rw i se , e xcep t f o r t h e c o mpa ra t i v e ly w e l l d ocumen ted c ampa ign o f8 67 , t h ey mu s th ave h ad t of i l l t h e g ap a sb e s t t h ey c ou ld u s ing t h e l o s t n o r the rn l i s t ing s .6 I na dd i t ion Roge r h ad t oi n co rpo ra te s ome d e sc r ip t ive i n f o rma t ion wh ich w a s a ppa ren t ly n o t a va i lab le t o t h e o the r c o mp i le r s . 3 . S ix o f t h e wo rk s a s soc ia ted w i th S ymeon a r e r e levan t . T he re .a r e t wo t r ac t s —D e P r imo S axonum A dv en tu L i b e l lu s ( DPSAL )7 a nd S e r i e s R egum N o r than h ymb r o rum ( SRN ) 8 wh ich q uan t if y , w i th s l igh t v a r ia t ion s , t h e r e ign s o f s e ven n in th -cen tu ry k ing s o f No r thumb r ia e nd ing ad ecade o r s o a f te r t h e f a l l o f Yo rk : Ih ave u sed t he e x t rac t s i n EHD I ,e d . D . Wh i te lock ( 1 955 ) p p .255-8 . S ymeon i s Mona ch i Ope ra , e d . T . A rno ld ( Ro l l s S er ie s , 2v o l s . , 1 882 a nd 1 885 ) ( c i ted b e low a sA rno ld Ia nd I ) . W. L ev i son , ' D ie Anna le s L ind i sf arnen se s e t Dune l men se s , k r i t i sch u n ter such t u nd n eu h erau sgegeben ' , D eu t s che s A r ch iv 2 2 ( 1 961 ) , 4 47-506 a t p p .483-5 . Iam g ra tefu l t o t he l a te 2
3
P rof e s sor Wh i te lock f o r d raw ing my a t ten t ion t ot h i s s ource . S ee EHD Ip p .168-70 . T he C h ron i c l e o f i E the lwea rd , e d . A . C a mpbe l l ( 1 962 ) , a tp p .51-2 . S ee EHD Ip p .118-9 a nd 2 51 . A rno ld I a tp p .376-7 . 8 A rno ld I a tp .39 1 . 4
5
6
7
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S TE WART LYON
h oweve r , n o d a te s a r e a t tached t o t h em . I n D e A r ch i ep i s c op i sE bo r a c i ( DAE )9 t h e e p i scopa te s o f t wo n in th -cen tu ry a r chb i shop s a r e m ea su red o u t o f f ou r m en t i oned , a nd as i ng le d a te i sg iven ( 9 00 ) f o r wh ich S ymeon c ou ld h ave d r awn o n Athe lwea rd . T he e p i scopa te s o f f ou r n in th -cen tu ry b i shop s o f L ind i sf a rne a r e r e co rded i n t h e H i s t o r ia D un e lm en s i s E c c l e s ia e ( HDE ) 1° wh ich a l so r e s ta te s t h e r e ign s o fs e ve ra l o ft h e k ing s a nd p rov ide s s ome c ro s s ref e rence s b e tween t h e t wo s e r ie s t ol i nk t h e i r c h rono logy . One o ft h e se h a s as p ec if i c d a te ( 8 54 ) wh ich , a sw e s h a l l s e e , p rov ide s s ome th ing o f al a ndma rk b u t i sn o t w i thou t i t s d if i cu l t ie s . F ina l ly t h e re a r e t wo a c coun t s i nt h e H i s t o r i a R egum ( HR ) , awo rk t h a t d a te s e a ch a nna l . Unf o r tuna te ly , t h e f i r s t a c coun t ( HR 1 ) a f te r r e co rd ing e ven t s u p t o8 0 1 , i s s i l en t a bou t No r thumb r ian a f a i r s u n t i l 8 54 , when i tr e f e r s t oe p i scopa l c hange s a t Y o rk a nd Du rham c on s i s ten t ly w i th DAE a nd HDE . T he s e cond a c coun t ( HR2 ) s t a r t s i n 8 48 , g iv ing much t h e s ame i n f orma t ion f o r 8 54 b u t a l so s p ec if y ing t h e r e ign ing No r thumb r ian k ing . B o th a c coun t s s ub sequen t ly r e co rd t h e c ampa ign o f 8 67 a nd e ven t s d u r ing t h e f o l low ing d ecade , t oge the r w i th t h e e p i scopa l s u cce s s ion sa t York a nd Du rham a tt h ee nd o ft h ec en tu ry ." Roge r , w r i t ing a c en tu ry l a te r t h an S ymeon , p rov ide s u s w i th a d a ted c h ron ic le i n wh ich h e r e f e r s t o a l t h e n in th cen tu ry No r thumb r ian d ign i ta r ie s m en t ioned i nS ymeon ' s wo rk w i th t h e e xc ep t ion o fo ne b i shop o fL ind i sf a rne . H e a l so a dd s ak ing ( Redwu l f ) n o t r e co rded b y S ymeon , b u t k nown f r om c o in s . On t h e o the r h and t h e l e ng th s o ft h e r e ign s o fk ing s a nd a r chb i shop s d if e r i ns e ve ra l i n s tance s f r om t ho se g iven b y S ymeon , a nd i n t h e c a se o f t h e b i shop s o f L ind i sf a rne Roge ri sc l ea r ly c onf u sed . T he c o mp i le r o f ALD g ive s u s l i t t le mo re t h an a n a nna l i s t ic v e r s ion o f t h e u nda ted SRN , w i th c o r re spond ing i n f o rma t ion f o r t h e b i shop s o f L ind i sf a rne . T he o n ly a r chb i shop men t ioned i sWu l fhe re . 4 . T he n o r the rn r e cen s ion o ft h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e , i ni t s l a s t e n t ry a bou t No r thumb r ia b ef o re t h e d i sa s te r o f8 67 , s t a te s t h a t i n 8 06 E a rdwu lf , k ing o ft h e No r thumb r ian s , w a s d r iven f r om h i sk ingdom ( a nd E anbe rh t , b i shop o fH exham , d i ed ) . T he t wo u nda ted S ymeon t r ac t s t h en r e co rd at wo -yea r r e ign o f ac e r ta in A lfwa ld , a sd oe s ALD ; b o th Roge r a nd ALD d a te h i s a c ce s s ion t o t h e y ea r 8 08 . HDE a dd i t iona l ly s a y s t h a t E a rdwu lf h ad f l ed i nt h e t e n th y ea r o fh i s r e ign a nd Roge r i n f o rm s u s t h a t i tw a s A lfwa ld who h ad p u t h im t o f l i gh t . A l l f i ve d ocumen t s s a y o r i mp ly t h a t A lfwa ld w a s s u cceeded b y E an red , w i th ALD d a t ing t h i s 8 09 a nd Roge r 8 10 . I ta ppe a r s t ob e i n co r rec t , h oweve r . T he A nna l s o f t h e F r ank i sh K ingd om r e co rd u nde r t h e y ea r 8 08 t h a t E a rdwu lf ( who i ss a id b y ALD , i ni t s o n ly g lo s s o n an in th -cen tu ry k ing b ef o re t h e d ebäc le o f8 67 , t oh ave m a r r ied C ha r lemagne ' s d augh te r ) c ame t o t h e e mpe ro r a tN i j megen o n h i s w ay t o Rome . A f te r r e tu rn ing f r om Rome h e w a s e s co r ted b ack t o h i s k ingdom b y e nvoy s o ft h e p ope a nd t h e empe ro r . T he r e tu rn o ft h e se e nvoy s t ot h e c on t inen t
8 02 ( pp .30-68 ) , a nd a no the r f r om 8 49 t o 8 87 , b a sed ma in ly o n A s se r ( pp .69-9 1 ) , w ere i n a l p robab i l i ty w r i t ten b y B y rh tf e r th o f Ram sey e a r ly i n t h e e l even th c en tu ry ( s ee ASE 1 0 , p p .97122 ) . P age s 9 2 a nd 1 0 1-2 1 o fA rno ld I a r ea l so r e levan tf o rt h i sn o te .
A rno ld Ia tp p .224-5 . A rno ld Ia tp p .52-5 . D r . M ichae l L ap idge h a s r e cen t ly s hown t h a t t h e f i r s t f i ve s e c t ion s o ft h e H i s t o r ia R egum , i n c lud ing a l i s t o f e a r ly Nor thumb r ian k ing s ( Arno ld I , p p .1315 ) , ac hron ic le f r om 7 32 t o 9
i o
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i s men t ioned u nde r t h e y ea r 8 09 , wh ich s e em s t o i nd ica te t h a t E a rdwu lf h ad s u cce s sf u l ly e nded A lfwa ld ' s r evo l t .' 2 T he y ea r o f E a rdwu lf s d ea th i s n o t r e co rded , b u t wheneve r i tw a s i td id n o t l e ad t o ac hange o fd yna s ty i f HDE i s c o r rec ti ni t ss t a temen tt h a tE an red w a sE a rdwu lf ss on . 5 . T ak ing a st h e i r s t a r t ing p o in t t h a t E an red s u cceeded A lfwa ld , t h e c h ron ic le r s s p an t h e p e r iod u p t ot h e f a l l o fY o rk i n8 67 b y a s s ign ing t oE an red ar e ign o f3 3 ( HDE , SRN , ALD ) o r 3 2 y ea r s ( DPSAL a nd Roge r ) ; t o h i s s on Athe l r ed 9 ( SR N , DPSAL , ALD ) o r 7y ea r s ( Roge r ) ; t h en a f te r / E the l r ed w a s k i l led ( SRN , HDE , Roge r ) , t o O sbe rh t 1 3 ( SRN , DPSAL , ALD ) o r 1 8 y ea r s ( Roge r ) , a nd , f i na l ly , t o A l le , a f te r O sbe rh t w a s d epo sed ( SR N , DPSAL , HDE , DAE , HR , Roge r ) , ar e ign o f 5( HDE ) o r 4y ea r s ( ALD ) . I n a dd i t ion Roge r i n te rpo la te s a b r ief u su rpa t ion i n t h e m idd le o f Athe l red ' s r e ign b y Redwu lf , whom h e s a y s w a s k i l led b y p agan i a nd ' E the l red t h en r e s to red . Roge r ' s d a te s f o r t h e v a r iou s e ven t s d o n o t a lway s a g ree w i th h i s r egna l l e ng th s , a nd t h e s ame i st r ue o f ALD . Ac o mpa r i son o ft h e i r d a te s w i th t ho se t h a t c an b e d educed f r om DPSAL , SRN , a nd HDE , s t a r t ing f r om t h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e ' s d a te o f8 06 f o r E a rdwu lf s e xpu l s ion , i sa sf o l low s :
R og e r
ALD
8 08 8 10 8 40 8 44 8 48 ( 8 66 )
8 08 8 09 8 4 1 8 50 8 63
A cce s s ion o fA lfwa ld A cce s s ion o fE an red A cce s s ion o f Athe l red U su rpa t ion o f Redwu lf A cce s s ion o fO sbe rh t A cce s s ion o fA l le
DPSAL ( imp l i ed )
SR N ( imp l i ed )
HDE ( imp l i ed )
( 8 06 ) ( 8 08 ) ( 8 40 ) — ( 8 49 ) ( 8 62 )
( 8 06 ) ( 8 08 ) ( 8 4 1 ) — ( 8 50 ) ( 8 63 )
( 8 06 ) ( 8 08 ) ( 8 4 1 ) — ( 8 49 ) ( 8 62 )
Howeve r , i ts e em s c l ea r f r om b o th Roge r a nd t h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e , a nd e ven mo re s o f r om Athe lwea rd , t h a t t h e c i v i l s t r if e l e ad ing t o O sbe rh t ' s d epo s i t ion w a s t a k ing p l ace a tt h e t ime t h e D an i sh a rmy c ro s sed t h e Humbe r , n ame ly i nt h e a u tumn o f8 66 , a nd t h a t t h e i nva s ion c au sed O sbe rh t a nd h i s r i va l A l le t o b e r e conc i led . I ti st h e ref o re u n l ike ly t h a t t h e l a t te r c ou ld a c tua l ly h ave r e igned f o r t h e f ou r o r f i ve y ea r s t h a t t h e s ou rce s o the r t h an Roge r s ugge s t . I f SR N , DPSAL , a nd ALD a r e r i gh t i n l im i t ing O sbe rh t ' s r e ign t o 1 3 y ea r s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty e x i s t s t h a tE an red ' s s u cce s s ion a nd a l s ub sequen t r oya l e ven t s a r e d a ted s e ve ra l y ea r s t oo e a r ly , p re sumab ly b ecau se o ft h e c h ron ic le r s ' l a ck o fk now ledge o ft h er e s to ra t ion o fE a rdwu lf . 6 . T he i r l a ck o f d i rec t i n f o rma t ion a bou t who o ccup ied t h e No r thumb r ian t h rone i nt h e y ea r s f o l low ing 8 08 s e em s t ob e p a ra l le led f o r t h e a r ch iep i scopa l s e e o f Yo rk . I ti sk nown f r om t h e A ng l o -Sax on C h r on i c l e t h a t E anba ld I s u cceeded a no the r a r chb i shop o ft h e s ame n ame i n7 96 , b u t n one o ft h e s ou rce s g ive s e i the r t h e d a te o fh i s d ea th o r t h e d u ra t ion o fh i s e p i scopa te . DAE s imp ly s t a te s t h a t h e • d i ed d u r ing E an red ' s r e ign , a nd t h i s i ss uppo r ted b y t h e n a tu re o f h i s c o inage . I n te re s t ing ly , af o rged c ha r te r o f Wig laf ( S awye r 1 89 ) wou ld h ave h im s t i l l a l ive 1 2
EHD Ip . 3 13 .
2 9
S TE WART LYO N
i n 8 33 . H i s s u cce s so r Wu lf s ige ( o f whom n o c o in s a r e k nown ) a l so d i ed i n E an red ' s r e ign a nd w a s f o l lowed b y Wigmund ( DAE ) ; a c co rd ing t o Roge r t h i s h appened i n8 31 . We a r e g iven t ob e l ieve t h a t Wigmund w a s d ead b y 8 54 , when Wu l fhe re i ss a id t oh ave s u cceeded t ot h e a r chb i shop r ic ( Roge r ) o r , a l te rn a t ive ly , t o h ave r e ce ived t h e p a l l ium ( HR 1 , HR2 ) . T he l a t te r i sn o t i n con s i s ten t w i th ALD ' s d a te o f8 52 f o r Wu l fhe r e ' s o rd ina t ion a sa r chb i shop . Howeve r , DAE s a y s t h a t Wigmund h av ing d i ed i n t h e s i x teen th y ea r o f h i s e p i scopa te ( wh ich o n Roge r ' s d a t ing o f h i s s u cce s s ion wou ld b e 8 47 ) , Wu l fhe re s u cceeded t o t h e a r chb i shop r ic . A f i ve -yea r i n te rva l b e tween Wigmund ' s d ea th a nd Wu l fhe re ' s o rd ina t ion c ou ld s c a rce ly b e a c cep ted w i thou t q ue s t ion . I n a ny c a se t h e re i s e v idence t h a t Wigmund w a s s t i l l a l ive i n 8 50 ; al e t te r t o h im f r om L upu s o f F e r ne re sh a s s u rv ived a nd i su n l ike ly t oh ave b een w r i t ten b ef ore t h a ty e a r ." 7 . T he y ea r 8 54 i so ne o f t h e f ew d a te s i n t h e m idd le o f t h e c en tu ry t h a t i s e xp l ic i t ly men t ioned i n s e ve ra l d ocumen t s , s o i tc anno t b e l i gh t ly r e je c ted . I ti s n o t f ound i n DAE o r ALD , n o r o fc ou r se i n SRN o r DPSAL b u t HDE g i ve s i ta s t h e y ea r o fa ppo in tmen t o fB i shop E a rdwu lf o fL ind i sf a rne a nd d e sc r ibe s i ta st h e f i f th y ea r o f O sbe rh t ' s r e ign . HR 1 a nd HR2 d a te E a rdwu lf sa ppo in tmen t a nd a l so Wu l fhe re ' s r e ce ip t o f t h e p a l l ium t o 8 54 , wh i l s t HR2 a dd s t h a t i tw a s t h e s i x th y ea r s i nce t h e b i r th o fK ing A lf red a nd i nt h e r e ign o fK ing O sbe rh t o ve r t h e No r thumb r ian s . Roge r , h oweve r , s t a te s t h a t i n8 54 b o th Wu l fhe re a nd E a rdwu lf s u cceeded t o t h e i r r e spec t ive s e e s . B u t t h e n um i sma t ic e v idence ( s ee 8 ( e ) b e low ) s ugge s t s t h a t , e ven i ft h e e cc le s ia s t ica l e ven t s a r e c o r rec t ly d a ted , / E the l red may s t i l l h ave b een r e ign ing when Wu l fhe re w a sa ppo in ted t ot h ea r chb i shopr ic o f Yo rk . 8 . S ome a t temp t n eed s t o b e m ade t o r a t ion a l ize t h e i n con s i s tenc ie s i n t h e c h rono logy o f n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ia i n a n e ndeavou r t o o ve rcome t h e p rob lem sp re sen ted b y t h en um i sma t ic e v idence . '4 B r ief ly , t h i se v idence i s : ( a ) A s i lve r p enny i n t h e n ame o f aK ing E an red e x i s t s . I t s d i e s w e r e a ppa ren t ly o fs ou the rn m anuf ac tu re a nd t h e s t y le o fp o r t ra i tu re r e semb le s t h a t o n s ome e a r ly p ence o f Athe lwu lf sl a s t i sue . T he E an red p enny i s mo r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een p roduced a f te r t h an b ef o re 8 50 a nd n o s ou the rn E an red i sk nown t o whom i t c an b e a t t r ibu ted . L ack ing a moneye r ' s n ame ( i t r e ad s DES M ONETA , p re sumab ly f o r ' t ha t p e r son ' s c o in ' , i . e . E an red ' s ) i t may h ave b een p a r t o f ac e remon ia l i sue . I t w a s f ound a t T rewh idd le , n ea r S t . Au s te l l , C o rnwa l l , i n1 774 .1 5 ( b ) A pa r t f r om t h i s s i lve r p enny a nd a g o ld s o l idu s i n t h e n ame o f A rchb i shop Wigmund , t h e s u rv iv ing Nor thumb r ian c o inage i se n t i re ly o f s o ca l led s t yca s s t ruck o n as ma l l modu le . T he s e d o n o t b ea r ap o r t r a i t ; t h e i r EHD Ip p .807-8 . F o r g ene ra l s t ud ie s o f t h e n um i sma t ic e v idence s e e C .S .S . L yon , ' A r e app ra i sa l o ft h e s c ea t ta a nd s t yca c o inage o f Nor thumb r ia ' , BN J 2 8 ( 1 957 ) p p .227-42 , a nd H .E . P agan , ' No r th umb r ian n um i sma t ic c h rono logy i n t h e n in th c en tu ry ' , BN J3 8 ( 1 969 ) p p .115 . 1 5 D .M . Wi l son a nd C .E . B lun t , ' The 1 3
1 4
T rewh idd le h oa rd ' , A r cha eo l og ia 9 8 ( 1 96 1 ) p p . 7 5122 a tp p .11316 , whe re i ti sc onc luded b y C .E . B lun t o n t he b a s i s o fc onven t iona l d a t ing t h a t t h e c o in c anno t b e o f E an red o f No r thumb r ia b u t mu s t h ave b een i sued ' by a h i s to r ica l ly u nknown k ing , who w a s r u l ing , p o s s ib ly i nt h eM id land s , a bou t8 50 ' .
3 0
N INTH-CENTURY CHRO NOLOGY
s i lve r c on ten t , wh i ch g ave t h em a r e cogn izab ly s i lve ry a ppea rance u nde r A rchb i shop E anba ld a nd t h e p a ra l le l r oya l i sue s , p rog re s s ive ly d ec l ined t o a m in ima ll e ve l . ( c ) No c o in s a r e k nown o fA rchb i shop Wu lf s ige . H i s e p i scopa te mu s t h ave b een f a i r ly b r ief , t hough i fm in t ing r i gh t s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r e ce ip t o f t h e p a l l ium ( a bou t wh ich w e h ave n o e v idence —bu t s e e ( e ) b e low ) t h e a b sence o fc o in s m igh t r ef l ec t ad e lay i nt h a t o ccu r rence : t hu s " E the lba ld o n ly r e ce ived h i s i n h i s f ou r th y ea r ( s ee 1 3 b e low ) . Ano the r p o s s ib i l i ty i so f ag ap i n t h e No r thumb r ian c o inage wh ich h appened t o c o inc ide w i th Wu lf s ige ' s e p i s c opacy . I t i s t r ue t h a t o ne o f E anba ld ' s moneye r s s u rv ived t o m in t f o r Wigmund b u t t h i s d oe s n o t o f i t s e lf p rec lude a g ap o f s ome y ea r s b e tween t h em , wha teve ri t sc au se . ( d ) D ie l i nk s i nd i ca te t h a t Wigmund w a s m in t ing a tt h e t ime o f" E the l red I ' s a c ce s s ion b u t i ti sn o t y e t a ppa ren t h ow e a r ly i nh i s c o inage t h a t e ven t t ook p l ace . T he re a r e i sue s o f Wigmund ' s t h a t a ppea r t o b e c on tempo ra ry w i th R . edwu lf sb r ief c o inage . On t h e o the r h and i ti sc l ea r t h a t Wigmund w a s n o t m in t ing d u r ing t h e l a s t y ea r s o f i E the l red ' s r e ign — a p e r iod when t h e r oya l i sue sw e re l a rge ly i nt h eh and s o f as i ng le b u th igh ly p roduc t ive moneye r . ( e ) A rchb i shop Wu l fhe re t ook a sh i s s o le moneye r am an who a l so wo rked f o r ' E the l r ed l a te i n h i s r e ign . One o f t h i s moneye r ' s d i e s w a s v i ca r iou s ly c oup led w i th o bve r se s o f ! E the l red , O sbe rh t , a nd t h e a r chb i shop , s ugge s t ing t h a t Wu l fhe re w a s a l ready m in t ing a tt h e t ime o f Athe l red ' s d ea th . Howeve r , t h e re i sn o c on t inu i ty b e tween Wigmund ' s a nd Wu l fhe re ' s c o inage s o i tm ay w e l l b e t h a t t h e a r ch iep i scopa l i sue s w e re s u spended f o r at ime d u r ing t h e s e cond p a r t o f ! E the l red ' s r e ign , e i the r t owa rd s t h e e nd o f Wigmund ' s e p i scopa te ( i f , f o r e xamp le , h e w a s h e ld t o h ave c ondoned Redwu lf s u su rpa t ion ) o r f o l low ing h i s d ea th ( p e rhap s b ecau se Wu l fhe re h ad n o t y e t h ad h i sa ppo in tmen tc onf i rmed f r om Rome ) . ( f ) A l though mo re e x ten s ive t h an A rchb i shop Wu l fhe re ' s , O sbe rh t ' s c o inage i so n amuch s ma l le r s c a le t h an wou ld b e e xpec ted h ad h e r e igned f o r t h i r teen y ea r s , s t i l ll e s sf o re i gh teen . ( g ) T he re i s as ub s tan t i a l g roup o fd e r iva t ive , b lunde red c o in s wh i ch c o me s l a te i n t h e s e r i e s , p e rhap s m a in ly d u r ing O sbe rh t ' s r e ign t hough i t may h ave b egun e a r l ie r . I tp o in t s t o al o s so fr oya l c on t ro lo ve r m in t ing . ( h ) No c o in s a r e k nown o f K ing E a rdwu lf . T ho se t h a t u s ed t o b e a t t r ibu ted t o h im a r e n owaday s r ega rded a sr e f e r r ing i ns ome c a se s t oE an red ' s moneye r Wu l fhea rd a nd i n o the r s t o ! E the l red I ' s moneye r E a rdwu lf . Howeve r , as ma l l g roup o fc o in s o fr e la t ive ly g ood s i lve r , i nt h en ame o f ak ing " E the l red a nd b ea r ing amoneye r ' sn ame , i sp uzz l ing . A l l t h ei nd ica t ion s a r et h a t i ta n teda te s E an red a nd , s i nce o ne o ft h e moneye r s ( Cu thhea rd ) i sk nown , i na v a r ian t s p e l l ing , f o r aK ing " E lfwa ld i t wou ld s e em n a tu ra l t oa s s ign t h e se c o in s t o t h e p e r iod + 7 90 . T he d if icu l ty i st h a t amoneye r o ft h e s ame n ame i sa l so f ound i n E an red ' s e a r ly c o inage , wh ich h a s l e d t o t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e l E lfwa ld i sJ E lfwa ld I a nd t h e ! E the l r ed a n u nknown k ing who c ame b e tween i E lfwa ld I a nd E an red ." S ee J a me s B oo th , ` S cea t ta s i n No r th umb r ia ' , i n S c ea t t a s i n E ng land a nd o n t h e 1 6
C on t in en t , e d . D . H i l l a nd D .M . Me tca lf ( BAR B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 28 ) ( Oxf o rd , 1 984 ) p p .7 1-97 .
3 1
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9 . I ti sp o s s ib le t o b u i ld a n ew c h rono logy f o r t h e m idd le o f t h e c en tu ry b y m ak ing t h e s imp le a s sump t ion s t h a t Roge r , wh i le w rong i n h i s a b so lu t e d a t ing f o r r e a son s a l ready e xp la ined , h a s p l aced Wu lf s ige ' s d ea th c o r rec t ly i nr e la t ion t o E an red ' s , Redwu lf sa nd Athe l red ' s ; a nd t h a t t h e r egna l l e ng th s g iven b y Roge r a nd s e ve ra l S ymeon s ou rce s f o r E an red , a nd b y DAE f o r -Wigmund , a r e c o r rec t . P u t t ing Y a s t h e t r ue d a te o fE an red ' s a c ce s s ion w e t h en o b ta in t h e f o l low ing a pp rox ima te s c heme :
A cce s s ion o fE anred Dea th o f Wu lf s ige Dea th o fE anred Revo l t o f Redwu lf Dea th o f Wig mund Dea th o f Athe l red
Y Y Y Y Y
+ + + + +
2 3 3 2 3 6 3 9 4 0
Apa r t f r om o pen ing u p t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e a b so lu te v a lue o f Y t h i s d oe s n o v io lence t o t h e d ocumen ta ry s ou rce s f o r e ven t s d a ted p r io r t o 8 54 b u t i tg oe s a l ong w ay t o mee t n um i sma t ic o b jec t ion s t o t h e a c cep ted r e la t ive c h rono logy . Howeve r , i tr ema in s t ob e c on s ide red whe the r s u ch as c heme c ou ld b e r e conc i led w i th t h e a nna l s r e la t ing t o Wu l fhe re , O sbe rh t , a nd A l le a nd whe the r a ny r e a sonab le i n te rp re ta t ion o f Y wou ld e nab le E an r ed ' s d ea th t o b e p l aced l a te e nough t ot a ke c a re o ft h es i lve rp enny . 1 0 . Now i f SRN , DPSAL , a nd ALD a r e r i gh t i na s s ign ing at h i r teen -yea r r e ign t oO sbe rh t b u t HDE a nd ALD a r e m i s taken i nb e l iev ing t h a t A l le r u led f o r f ou r o rf i ve y ea r s— in o the r wo rd s i fw ei n te rp re t t h e a nn a l s f o r8 67 i nt h eA ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e , Athe lwea rd , a nd Roge r a s mean ing t h a t t h e r evo l t i n No r thumbr ia t ook p l ace n o t l ong b ef o re t h e a u tumn o f8 66 , when t h e D an i sh a rmy c ap tu red Yo rk —we c ou ld t r y e qua t ing Y + 5 3 w i th t h ey ea r8 66 . T h i s wou ld p rodu ce t h e f o l low ing s e r ie so fd a te s :
A cce s s ion o fE an red Dea th o f Wu lf s ige Dea th o fE anred Revo l t o f Redwu lf Dea th o f Wig mund Dea th o f Athe l red
8 13 8 36 8 45 8 49 8 52 8 53
Revo l t o f Al le Dea th s o fO sbe rh t a nd Al le
8 66 8 67
1 . S uch a n a r rangemen t wou ld n o t b e a tv a r iance w i th t h e s t a temen t i n HR 1 a nd HR2 t h a t Wu l fhe re r e ce ived t h e p a l l ium i n8 54 . Af u r the r p o in t i ni t sf a vou r i st h a t ad a te a s e a r ly a s 8 3 1 f o r Wu lf s ige ' s d ea th s e em s i n con s i s ten t w i th t h e S ee a l so J . B oo th a nd I .B lowe r s , ' F ind s o f s c ea t ta s a nd s t yca s f r om S anc ton ' , NC 1 43
3 2
( 1 983 ) , p p .139-45 .
N INTH-CENTURY CHRO NOLOGY
b e t te r r eco rded c h rono logy o f t h e b i shop s o f L ind i sf a rne . B i shop E cg red , who h e ld t h e s e e f r om 8 30 ( ALD ) f o r 1 6 y ea r s ( ALD , HDE ) a nd d i ed e i gh t y ea r s b ef o re 8 54 ( HDE ) , w a s t h e a u tho r o f al e t te r t o Wu lf s ige wh ich h a s s u rv ived ;1 7 i f Wu lf s ige d i ed a se a r ly a s8 3 1 t h i s l e t te r wou ld h ave t o b e d a ted t o t h e mon th s f o l low ing E cg red ' s a ppo in tmen t , b u t i t st one i sh a rd ly t h a t o f an ew ly c on sec ra ted b i shop a dd re s s ing h i s s upe r io r a nd i tr e f e r s t o c on s ide rab le p a s t c o r re spondence b e tween t h e t wo m en . Howeve r , t h e a r r angemen t d i sca rd s HDE ' s f i ve -yea r a nd ALD ' s f ou r -yea r r e ign f o r i l le , HDE ' s s t a temen t t h a t t h e e c c le s ia s t ica l e ven t s o f 8 54 t ook p l ace i n t h e f i f th y ea r o f t h e r e ign o f K ing O sbe rh t , a nd Roge r ' s a s se r t ion t h a t Wu l fhe r e r e ce ived t h e a r chb i shopr ic ( a s d i s t inc t f r om t h e p a l l ium ) i n8 54 ; f o r t h i s w e f i nd o u r se lve s a c cep t ing ALD ' s d a te o f8 52 . T he a r r angemen t r e jec t s t h e o p in ion o fs e ve ra l s ou rce s t h a t E an red s u cceeded t ot h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom t wo y ea r s a f te rE a rdwu lf se xpu l s ion b y A lfwa ld , a n o p in ion t h a t s e em s t o b e i n d i rec t c onf l ic t w i th t h e F rank i sh a nna l s . I n s tead , af i ve -yea r g ap i n o u r k now ledge i sc r ea ted , b e tween 8 08 a nd 8 13 , wh ich c ou ld h ave b een f i l led b y E a rdwu lf h im se lf , r e s to red t h rough C ha r lemagne ' s i n te rven t ion . 1 2 . B u t i st h i s e nough ? E an red s t i l l d oe s n o t s u rv ive a sl a te a ss e em s n ece s sa ry t o a s soc ia te t h e u n iqu e s i lve r p enny w i th h im , a nd i fi tw a s n o t h i s , who se w a s i t ? A l so , t h i r teen y ea r s f o r O sbe rh t ' s r e ign s t i l l s e em s t oo l ong h av ing r ega rd t o t h e l im i ted s c a le o f h i s c o inage . I d ea l ly o ne wou ld w i sh , f r om a n um i sma t ic v i ewpo in t , t o r e ta rd t h e who le c h rono logy p r io r t o 8 66 b y s e ve ra l f u r the r y ea r s , w i th t h er oya l d a te ss l igh t ly mo re r e ta rded t h an t h ee c c le s ia s t ica l . 1 3 . We h ave n o t s o f a r d i scu s sed t h e c onf u s ion i n t h e s ou rce s o ve r t h e d a te o f Wu l fhe re ' s d ea th a nd t h e l e ng th o fh i s a r ch iep i scopa te . A cco rd ing t o HR 1 /2 h e d i ed i n8 92 i nt h e3 9 th y ea r ; Roge rs a y si tw a si n8 95 ; ALD , i n8 98 ; a nd DAE , 9 00 i nt h e 4 7 th y ea r . A l l e xcep t ALD , wh ich f a i l s t o men t ion i t ,a g ree t h a t Wu l fhe re w a s s u cceeded b y J E the lba ld . Roge r a nd DAE i mp ly t h a t t h e s u cce s s ion w a s i mmed ia te , b u t HR 1 /2 l e ave a g ap o fe i gh t y ea r s b y g iv ing 9 00 a st h e y ea r o f Athe lba ld ' s c on sec ra t ion . T h i s d a te i ss uppo r ted b y t h e c h ron ic le r Athe lwea rd , who s a y s t h e c on sec r a t ion t ook p l ace i nL ondon . DAE i n f o rm s u s t h a t l E the lba ld d id n o tr e ce ive t h ep a l l ium u n t i l t h ef ou r th y ea ra f te rh er e ce ived t h ep r imacy . 1 4 . T he re a ppea r s t ob e s uppo r t ing e v idence f o r HR ' s d a t ing o f8 92 i nt h e L a t in e n t r ie s i n MSS E a nd F o f t h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e . B u t a r e t h e s ou rce s i ndependen t ? And d id Wu l fhe re h o ld t h e s e e f o r3 8 /9 y ea r s o r4 6 /7 ? Roge r m igh t s e em t ob e i n c l in ing t o t h e l a t te r o p in ion when h e s e pa ra te s t h e a nna l s r e co rd ing t h e d ea th s o f Wu lf s ige a nd Wu lfhe re b y 6 4 y ea r s ; o n t h e o the r h and h e r e co rd s Wu l fhe re ' s s u cce s s ion t o Wigmund i n h i s a nna l f o r 8 54 , wh ich c anno t b e r e conc i led w i th h i so the r d a te s a nd t h es uppo sed a r ch iep i scopa lr e ign s . I fw e a c cep t ALD ' s d a te o f8 52 f o r Wu l fhe re ' s s u cce s s ion a nd HR ' s o f8 54 f o r h i s r e ce ip t o ft h e p a l l ium , t h en ALD ' s d a te o f8 98 f o r h i s d ea th i sc on s i s ten t w i th DAE ' ss t a temen t t h a th e d i ed i nt h e4 7 th y ea r o fh i s e p i scopa te . T h i s i sn o t s ol ong b ef o re t h e c on sec ra t ion o f Athe lba ld i n 9 00 a s t o b e i mp lau s ib le , b u t i sl ong e nough t o e xp la in why t h e t wo e ven t s s e em n o t t o h ave b een l i nked i n t h e
1 7
EHD Ip p .806-7 .
3 3
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s ou rce s d rawn u pon b y l E the lwea rd , ALD , a nd HR . B u t s uppo se Wu l fhe re d id n o t h o ld t h e s e e f o r 4 6 /7 y ea r s , a nd t h a t HR i sr i gh t i n g iv ing 3 8 /9 y e a r s a st h e l e ng th o fh i s e p i scopa te ? T he a u tho r o f HR m igh t h ave a r r ived a t8 92 f o r t h e d a te o f Wu l fhe re ' s d ea th b y a dd ing 3 8 t oa n a s sumed s u cce s s ion i n8 54 . S ome s uppo r t f o r t h i s v i ew i st o b e f ound i n D r . A .P . Smy th ' s o b se rva t ion t h a t HR d a t e s a n umbe r o f e ven t s i n t h e p e r iod i n q ue s t ion s i x y ea r s t oo e a r ly .1 8 I f Wu l fhe re r e ce ived t h e p a l l ium i n 8 60 r a the r t h an 8 54 a nd d i ed i n 8 98 r a the r t h an 8 92 , h e c ou ld w e l l h ave b een a ppo in ted i n 8 59 . D epend ing o n t h e i mmed i acy o f h i s s u cce s s ion t o Wigmund , t h e l a t te r ' s a ppo in tmen t wou ld t h en n eed t ob e d a ted t o +8 43 . 1 5 . T ak ing t h e d ea th o f Wigmund a sY + 3 9 ( s ee p a rag r aph 1 0 ) a nd t h a t o f Wu l fhe re a s 8 98 , w e c an p roduce a l te rna t ive c h rono log ie s b a sed o n e p i scopa l r e ign s o f4 6 a nd 3 9 y ea r s f o r Wu l fhe re — in o the r wo rd s e qua t ing 8 98 w i th Y + 8 5 a nd Y + 7 8 r e spec t ive ly . T he o the rd a te s eme rge a sf o l low s :
A cce s s ion o fE anred Dea th o f Wu lf s ige Dea th o fE anred Revo l t o f Redwu lf Dea th o f Wig mund Dea th o f/ E the l red Revo l to f Al le Dea th so fO sberh t a nd Al le Dea th o f Wu l fhere
C h rono logy ( A )
C h rono l ogy ( B )
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y ( Y ( Y Y
+ + + + + + + +
8 13 8 36 8 45 8 49 8 52 8 53 8 66 8 67 8 98
2 3 3 2 3 6 3 9 4 0 5 3 5 4 8 5
+ + + + + + + +
2 3 3 2 3 6 3 9 4 0 4 6 ) 4 7 ) 7 8
8 20 8 43 8 52 8 56 8 59 8 60 8 66 8 67 8 98
C h rono logy ( A ) i sa n e x ten s ion o ft h e a r r angemen t i np a rag raph 1 0 . C h rono logy ( B ) r ep re sen t s ar e ta rda t ion b y s e ven y ea r s o f a l t h e e ven t s b ef o re 8 66 . M inor v a r ia t ion so fe i the r a r e , o fc ou r se , q u i te p o s s ib le . 1 6 . A c h rono logy s u ch a s ( B ) wou ld a c commoda te t h e E an red p enny , wh i ch m igh t p e rhap s b e i n te rp re ted a s t h e m in t ing , a t as ou the rn m in t , o f s i lve r b equea thed i nh i s w i l l , much a si nt h e n ex t c en tu ry K ing E ad red l e f t g o ld t o b e m in ted i n to mancu se s a nd d i s t r ibu ted . Mo re d if i cu l t i swhe the r ad a te c i rc a 8 56 i s c on s i s ten t w i th Roge r ' s s t a temen t t h a t R edwu lf w a s k i l led i n ab a t t le w i th p ag an i . T he a c cep ted d a te o f 8 44 w a s ay ea r i n wh ich , a c co rd ing t o t h e Anna l s o f S t . B e r t in ' s , ' t he No r thmen a t tacked w i th w a r t h e i s l and o fB r i ta in , e s pec ia l ly i nt h e p a r t wh ich i si nhab i ted b y t h e Ang lo -Saxon s , a nd f i gh t ing f o r t h ree d ay s w e re v i c tor iou s , c o mm i t ted p lunde r , r ap ine , a nd s l augh te r e ve rywhe re , a nd p o s se s sed t h e l a nd a t t h e i r p l ea su re ' .1 9 B u t t h e re i sn o n ece s sa ry a s soc ia t ion b e tween t wo e ven t s , a nd t h e c h ron ic le r a tS t . B e r t in ' s o the rw i se d i sp lay sn o o bv iou s k now ledge o f e ven t s i n E ng land o u t s ide We s sex . Mo re r e levan t , p e rhap s , i s ac ha r te r o f B u rg red , g iven i n 8 55 ' when t h e p agan s w e r e i n t h e p rov ince o f t h e Wrek in -dwe l le r s ' . 2° I ti se v iden t f r om t h i s t h a t s ou the rn c h ron ic le r s w e re n o t A .P . Smy th , S c and inav ian Y o rk a nd D ub l in I( Dub l in , 1 975 ) , a tp p .56-7 n . 22 .
1 9
1 8
20
3 4
EHD Ip . 3 14 n o .23 . EHD Ip . 486 n o .90 .
N INTH-CENTURY CHRONOLOGY
s uf i c ien t ly a wa re o f V ik ing r a id s o n Me rc ia , s t i l l l e s s No r thumb r i a , t o r e co rd t h em f o rp o s te r i ty . 1 7 . Howeve r , u n l ike C h rono logy ( A ) , C h rono logy ( B ) u nh inge s u s f r om t h e d a te o f8 54 s p ec if i ca l ly g iven i nb o th HR 1 a nd HR2 f o r Wu l fhe re ' s r e ce ip t o ft h e p a l l ium . L e s s s e r iou s ly , g iven t h e n um i sma t ic e v idence , i ta l so d e s t roy s t h e r egna l l e ng th o f 1 3 y ea r s a s s igned t o O sbe rh t b y SRN , DPSAL a nd ALD . B u t wha t s e em s f a ta l f o r i ti st h e c i rcum s tan t ia l e v idence o fe p i scopa l l i s t s c on ta ined i nt wo s ou the rn m anu sc r ip t s .2 1 1 7 .1 MS C o t t on V e spa s ian B V I w a s f i r s t c o mp i led , p robab ly i n Me rc ia , b e tween 8 05 a nd 8 14 when E anba ld w a s t h e l a te s t n ame l i s ted a t Yo rk . I tw a s u pda ted b y as e cond s c r ibe a f te r C eo lno th b ecame a r chb i shop o f C an te rbu ry ( 8 33 ) b u t b ef ore t h i s s c r ibe k new o ft h e s u cce s s ion t o Wig thegn a nd H e ref e r th a t Winche s te r ( t hey b o th d i ed i n 8 36 ) . Howeve r , h e d id a dd W u lf s ig ' a t Yo rk , wh ich s ugge s t s t h a t Wu lf s ige mu s t h ave a c ceded i no r b ef o re 8 36 a nd c ou ld e ven h ave d i ed b y t h en , f o r t h e n um i sma t ic e v idence i st h a t h i s r e ign i sl i ke ly t o h ave b een q u i te s ho r t . ( S c r ibe I w a s a ppa ren t ly u nawa re t h a t E cg red h ad s u cceeded H ea thu red a tL ind i sf a rne i n8 30 ( ALD ) s oh i s g ene ra l k now ledge o f No r thumb r ia mu s th ave b een l im i t ed . ) 1 7 .2 T he e p i scopa l l i s t s i n t h e r e la ted MS C o rpu s C h r i s t i C o l l eg e C amb r id g e 1 83 , aWe s t S axon m anu sc r ip t d a ted b e tween 9 34 a nd 9 42 , s e em n o t t oh ave b een u pda ted a f te r t h e e a r ly 8 40 s e xcep t f o r C an te rbu ry a nd t h e We s t S axon s e e s o f Ram sbu ry , S he rbo rne , We l l s , a nd C red i ton . E l sewhe re s ou th o ft h e Humbe r , a l c hange sk nown t oh ave t a ken p l ace b ef o re 8 4 1 a r ei n co rpo r a ted , b u tn one o ft ho se k nown t oh ave o ccu r red a f te r 8 44 ; mo reove r t h e l a te s t Me rc ian k ing i nt h e r egna l l i s t s i sB e rh twu lf . Once a ga in t h e No r thumb r ian s e e s a r e o u t o fd a te , e xcep t f o r t h e a r ch iep i scopa l s e e whe re t h e l i s t e nd s w i th Wigmund . T h i s a ppea r s t o g ive u s af i rm t e rm inu sa n t eq u em o f8 4 1 x8 44 f o r Wigmund ' sa c c e s s ion . B y i t se lf , CCCC 1 83 i sn o t i n con s i s ten t w i th C h rono logy ( B ) , o r s ome th ing c l o se t o i t . Howeve r , t a ken i n c on junc t ion w i th V e spa s ian B V I a nd t h e a ppa ren t b rev i ty o f Wu lf s ige ' s e p i scopa te , i ti s mo re l i ke ly t h a t Wigmund s u cceeded h im i n t h e m idd le o r l a te 8 30 s— in o the r wo rd s a t ad a te b road ly c on s i s ten t w i th Ch rono logy ( A )— than i nt h e 8 40 s . I n te re s t ing ly , E anba ld I m ay w e l l h ave l i ved a sl a te a s8 33 , t h ep u rpo r ted d a te o ft h ef o rged c ha r te rt h a tl i s t sh im . 1 8 . I st h e re s c ope f o r r e conc i l ing C h rono logy ( A ) f o r t h e a r chb i shop s w i th Ch rono logy ( B ) f o r t h e k ing s ? S o f a r w e h ave a s sumed t h a t Roge r , wh i l s t h e d a ted Wu lf s ige ' s d ea th s e ve ra l y ea r s t oo e a r ly , p l aced i tc o r rec t ly i n r e la t ion t o E an red ' s . T he re i sn o c e r ta in ty t h a t t h i s i sc o r rec t , h oweve r . Num i sma t ica l ly i t s e em s t o l e ave t oo s ho r t ag ap b e tween Wigmund ' s d ea th a nd Athe l red ' s u n le s s t h e a r chb i shop w a s d ep r ived o f m in t ing r i gh t s a f te r Redwu lf su su rpa t ion ( s ee 8 (d ) a nd ( e ) a bove ) . I fw e p o s tu la te t h a t Wigmund w a s s u cceeded b y Wu l fhe re i n
R . I . P age , ' Ang lo-Saxon e p i scopa l l i s t s ' , N o t t ingham Med ia eva l S tud i e s 9( 1 965 ) , 7 1-95 , a nd 1 0 ( 1 966 ) , 2 -24 ; s e e a l so Dav id Du mv i l le , ' The Ang l ian c o l lec t ion o f r oya l g enea log ie s
2 1
a nd r egna l l i s t s ' , ASE 5 ( 1 976 ) , p p .23-50 , a nd R . K ay , Wu lf s ige a nd n in th-cen tury Nor thumbr ian c hrono logy ' , No r the rn H i s to ry 1 9 ( 1 983 ) , 8 14 .
3 5
S T EWART L YON 8 54 ( r a the r t h an 8 52 ) a nd t h a t t h i s w a s t h e y ea r f o l low ing Redwu lf su su rpa t ion , w e p roduce a c omp rom i se C h rono logy ( C ) wh ich i s p robab ly a s l a t e a s i s c on s i s ten tw i th h i s to r ica l c r ed ib i l i ty , v i z .
C h r ono l ogy ( C ) A cce s s ion o fE an red D ea th o f Wu lf s ige D ea th o fE an red Revo l to f Redwu lf D ea th o f Wigmund D ea th o f/ E the l red Revo l t o ff E l le D ea th so fO sbe rh ta nd f E l le D ea th o f Wu l fhe re
8 18 8 38 8 50 8 53 8 54 8 58 8 66 8 67 9 00
I n t h e p roce s s w e r e ta rd t h e t r ad i t iona l r oya l c h rono logy b y n ine o r t e n y ea r s , l e av ing O sbe rh t w i th ar e ign o fo n ly e i gh t y ea r s c o mpa red w i th t h e t h i r teen o r e i gh teen g iven h im b yt h e c h ron ic le r s . 1 9 . Ch rono logy ( C ) wou ld j u s t a bou t e nab le u s t o r ega rd t h e E an red s i lve r p enny a s am emo r ia l i sue . A l so , l i ke Ch rono logy ( A ) , i t wou ld o pen u p ag ap o f s e ve ra l y ea r s b e tween E a rdwu lf ' s r e s to ra t ion a nd h i s s on E an r ed ' s a c ce s s ion . Do t h e s i lve ry c o in s o fa n " E the lred h ave a ny r e levance t o t h a t g ap ? I fs o , whe re d o t h e c ompa rab le c o in s o f Alfwa ld f i t i n , g iven t h e a b sence o f a ny c o in s o f E a rdwu l f ? I fn o t , a nd i f t h e l red a nd A lfwa ld a r e t h e l a te -e igh th c en tu ry k ing s o f t ho se n ame s , why d o t h ey s h a re a moneye r w i th E an red a nd why w a s E a rdwu lf sr e ign c o in le s s ?
D ISCUSS ION DRDUMV ILLE ' S c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e d i scu s s ion o f Mr L yon ' s p ape r i sp r in ted , i na f u l le r v e r s ion , a s as e pa r a te p ape r b e low . THE EANRED P ENNY [ P LAT E 1 ]
T he u n ique s i lve rp enny r e ad ing EANRED REX ,i fi ti sa t t r ibu ted t oK ing E an red o f No r thumb r ia , r a i se s a cu te p rob lem s o fi n te rpr e t a t ion wh ich h ave n eve r b een c omp le te ly s a t i sf ac to r i ly s o lved . I ti si n conce ivab le t h a ti tw a si n tended t oc i rcu la te a l ong s ide E an red ' s s t yca s . I tc ou ld ,i np r inc ip le ,b et h eo n ly s u rv iv ing s pec imen o fa na bo r t ive r e f o rm o ft h e c o inage b y wh ich E an red p l anned t ob r ing No r thumb r ia i n to l i ne w i th s ou the rn E ng land . I ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t h a t t h e re w a s ag ap i nt h e m in t ing o fc o inage a tt h e 3 6
N INTH-CENTURY CHRONOLOGY
b eg inn ing o fE an red ' sr e ign , a nd c e r ta in ly h i ss t yca s , when t h e i ri sue b egan , a r ea r e f o rmed c o inage , a st h e i rm e t ro logy ( a nd s i l ve r c on ten t s ) s how . E an red c ou ld , a s a no the r p o s s ib i l i ty , h ave a t temp ted ar e f o rm l a te r i n h i s r e ign ; b u t b y t h en t h e p re s su r eo nt h ea va i lab i l i ty o fb u l l ion s hou ld h ave m ade i to bv iou si na dvance t h a ta g ood s i lve r p enny c o inage w a s l i ke ly t oe ncoun te r p rob lem s . A l te rna t ive ly ,t h ec o in c ou ld p e rhap sh ave b een s t ruck a t am in t wh ich n o rma l ly s t ruck p enn ie s , e . g . aMe rc ian m in t ,i ns ome w ay a s ac ou r te sy t oE an r ed o rf o rh i s b enef i t— a l though i t wou ld , It h ink , b e t h e o n ly k nown e xamp le whe re s u ch a f a c i l i ty w a se x tended , f o r s ome s p ec ia l o cca s ion , t ot h er u le r o fa no the rk ingdom . Aw ay o fe s cap ing f r om t h ea bove d if i cu l t ie s wou ld b et os ugge s tt h a tt h eK ing E an red whom t h e c o in n ame s i sn o t E an r ed o f No r thumb r ia , b u t a n o the rw i se u nknown k ing f r om t h em idd le o ft h en in th -cen tu ry ,r u l ing s ou th o ft h e Humbe r , e . g . as ho r t l ived s u cce s so r t oK ing B e rh twu lf o f Me rc i a . A l lt h ree o ft h es o lu t ion sj u s ts k e tched v e rge o ns p ec ia lp l ead ing ;a nd t h ed e ta i l so f t h e c o in i t s e lf a dd af u r the r p r ick ly c r op o fd if i cu l t ie s . F i r s t ,i t ss t yl i s t ic a f in i t ie ss e em t ob ew i th c o in st h a ta r el a te ri nd a te t h an t h ed ea th o fE an red .D e spe ra te r e spon se st ot h i sh ave b een t ot r yt o move f o rwa rd t h ed a te o f E an red ' sd ea th ( M rP agan ' sp o s i t ion o f1 969 , r e s ta ted b y Mr L yon ) ; o rt oq ue s t ion t h ea u then t ic i ty o ft h ec o in , wh ich h oweve rh a s al ong p ed ig ree ,s ot h a ti tc ou ld o n ly b e aq ue s t ion o fs ub s t i tu t ion b ef o re t h e f i r s t p ho tog raph w a s p ub l i shed . S econd ly , t h e r eve r se i n sc r ip t ion , wh ich h a s a lway s b een r e ad a s T h e s m on e t a , a ga in s e em st ob eq u i te w i thou tp a ra l le l . T h e si sn o tt h en ame o f amoneye r( wh ich i s wha to ne wou ld c e r ta in ly e xpec tt of i nd o nt h er eve r se o f an in th -cen tu ry p enny ) , a nd t h i si st h em a jo ro b s tac le t oa t t r ibu t ing t h ec o in t oa nu nknown s ou the rn k ing : h ad t h e s o lu t ion b een a l ong t h e se l i ne s , o ne wou ld h ave e xpec ted n o t j u s t a moneye r ' sn ame ,b u t ak nown moneye r ' sn ame .I ti sa no b s tac le l i kew i se t os e e ing t h e c o in a st h es o le s u rv ivo ro fa na bo r t ive r e f o rm ;a nd i ti st h ep o s i t ive e ncou ragemen t b eh ind t h ei d ea o f as ma l li sue s t ruck s p ec ia l ly t oc a r ry o u tE an red ' s t e s tamen ta ry d i spo s i t ion s among p e r son s i nt h e s ou th m en t ioned i nh i s w i l l . T h i s l a t te r i d ea , i t mu s tb es a id ,s e em sf a r -f e tched .I fo nt h eo the rh and t h e si sa n Ang lo -Saxon wo rd ,i t s g ene ra ls e n se i nc on tex ti ss t i l lb yn om ean so bv iou s .T he p ed ig ree o ft h ec o in a nd t h e wo rd t h e s a r e d i scu s s ed b e low b y Mr P agan a nd D r Sma r t r e spec t ive ly . Wi thou tb e ing a b l et oo f e ra ny w ay o u to ft h ed if i cu l t ie s wh ich a bound , Ia dd a f ew d e ta i l sa bou tt h ec o in ' ss t y l i s t ic a f in i t ie sa nd i t sd e s ign .T he o bve r se s e em sc l o se s t t o Athe l red ' s Open C ro s s t ype ( m in ted f r om t h ee a r ly 8 50 so nwa rd s ) : t h i s wou ld p o in t t oC an te rbu ry a st h e m in t . T he h a i r s ty le , d i adem , f e a tu re s o ft h e f a ce , a nd d rape ry o ft h eb u s ta r en o th oweve rs oc l o se a st or u le o u tc o inc idence a nd m ake t h e h and o ft h e d i e -cu t te r c e r ta in . T he r e ve r se t ype , ac ro s s w i th c ro s s le t s a nd l e t te r s ( c u r s ive M o r omega )a dded ,i smo re u nu sua l ,b u tc an b em a tched ,q u i te c l o se ly ,o n c o in so fB e rh twu lf a nd , l e s s c l o se ly , o n K en t i sh a nd We s t S axon c o in s ( whe re t h e l e t te rc anno tr e f e rt o Me rc ia ) . Ac o mpa rab le c o in o fB e rh twu lf ( B MG )i ss hown o n P l a te 1 ,whe re i tw i l lb en o t iced t h a tt h ed rape ry o ft h eb u s ti sv e ry d if e ren t ,a nd t h a t t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e c o in i s9 0 ° d if e ren t . One d e ta i l o ft h e c o in wh ich h a sn o t r e ce ived c o mmen t a nd wh ich n eed s t ob e t a ken i n to a c coun t i na ny c o mp le te ly s a t i sf ac to ry e xp lana t ion i st h e l a s t l e t te r o r s ymbo lo ft h er eve r se i n sc r ip t ion .F rom t h ee n la rged d i rec tp ho tog raph ( t he c o in h a s ad a rk p a t ina a nd i sd if i cu l tt or ep roduce e xcep tf r om ac a s t )i tc an j u s tb es e en a sa n 3 7
S T EWART L YON omega w i th at iu lu sj o ined t ot h ec en t ra lb a r ,a si nt h es k e tch b e low . Ih ave n oi d ea h ow t oe xp la in i t . A wo rd b eg inn ing w i th al ong 0 ? -0 the s ?
T he s u rf ace a ppea rance o ft h ec o in i se x t reme ly c onv inc ing ,i t sw e igh ti sa ss t a ted b y Rud ing ( 1 .07ä / 16 .54g r ) ,a nd i t sp ed ig ree i mpe ccab le ,b u t Iwou ld s t i l ll i ke t os e e i ts ubm i t ted t o at ho rough i nve s t iga t ion b y e l ec t ron -m ic ro scopy a nd E P MA . D .M .M .
M R PA GAN : T he e a r l ie s t r e l iab le e v idence f o r t h e c o in s r ep re sen ted i n t h e 1 774 d i scove ry o fn in th -cen tu ry c o in sa nd o rnamen ta lm e ta lwo rk a tT rewh idd le ,n ea rS t Au s te l l , C o rnwa l l , i st h e i n f o rma t ion c on ta ined i n ar un o f f i ve l e ave s f r om a n o tebook k ep tb yP h i l ip R a sh le igh ( 1 739 18 11 ) ,t h eC or n i sh l a ndowne ri n to who se p o s se s s ion f i f ty seven c o in s f r om t h e h oa rd p a s sed s oon a f te r i t s d i scove ry . ' T he p re sence i nt h eh oa rd o f ac o in o f aK ing E an red i se s tab l i shed b ya ne n t ry i na s umma ry l i s to f' Co in sf ound i nT rewh idd le a bou th a lf am i le s ou th o fS tA u s te l l . . i n1 774 ' , wh ich a ppea r so nt h er e c to o ft h et h i rd l e af c once rned . T he e n t ry i si t s e lf n o t who l ly s t r a igh tf o rwa rd , f o r i tr e ad s ` E an red 2 : do : ' , b enea th a n e n t ry r e ad ing ` Ae the l red 2 : do : ' , wh ich i ni t st u rn i sb enea th a ne n t ry r e ad ing ' E the lu lf- 2 : no f a ce 3n ea r ly t h e s ame ' . Ac l o se s t udy o ft h e l i s t a s awho le s ugge s t s h oweve r t h a t t h e f i gu re 2wh ich a ppea r si nt h e se e n t r ie s ,a nd i nn ine o the re n t r ie s ,d oe sn o ti nd ica te t h e n umbe ro fc o in st o wh ich t h ee n t ry r e la te s ,b u tr a the rt h e i rd imen s ion s ,o n as c a l ei n wh ich t h ef i gu r e 1r e la te s t oc o in so fl e s s t h an p enny d imen s ion a nd l a rge rf i gu re s r e la te t oc o in so fi n c rea s ing d imen s ion s . S im i la r ly ,t h e' d o 'i nt h ee n t ry f o rE an red i s i n tended i nt h ec on tex to ft h el i s ta s awho le t oi nd i ca te t h a tt h eo bve r se o ft h ec o in c a r r i ed a' s i de f a ce l ook ing t ot h e r i gh t ' , r a the r t h an ' n o f a ce ' a si t s p o s i t ion t wo b e low t h e A the lwu lf e n t ry m igh t a tf i r s t s ugge s t . T he p re sence i nt h e h oa rd o fo ne , a nd o n ly o ne , c o in o fE an red i sr a the r mo re s t ra igh tf o rwa rd ly e v idenced b yt h ee n t ry ` EANRED .1 'i n ar ough t a bu la t ion o nt h e v e r so o ft h ef ou r th l e af o ft h en o tebook . H e re R a sh le igh i sl i s t ing t h ec o in st h a th e h ad a cqu i red f r om t h eh oa rd a c co rd ing t ot h es p e l l ing o ft h ei sue r s 'n ame so nt h e i r o bve r se sa nd t h ee n t ry f o rE an red c o me sb e tween e n t r i e sf o r ac o in o f Tudov icu s '( a
Ra sh le igh ( 1 74218 13 ) , a nd t h a t t h i s a c coun t s f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o b jec t s o f me ta lwo rk a nd af ew o ft h ec o in sb ypa s sed P h il ip R a sh le igh a nd d evo lved , v i a J ohn Ra sh le igh ' s s on S i r C o lman R a sh l e igh , B a r t . , o n t h e n e ighbou r ing Roge r s f am i ly o fP en ro se .
T he se l e ave s a r e i n ab ound v o lume o f R a sh le igh MSS i n t h e D epa r tmen t o f C o in s a nd Meda l s , B r i t i sh Mu seum ( t he v o lume w a s p re sen ted t o t h e D epa r tmen t b yt h el a te P rof .M i chae l Doley ,M .R . I .A . , F . S .A . ) . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h e h oa rd w a s a c tualy f ound o n l a nd b e long ing t o P h i l ip R a sh le igh ' s y ounge r b ro the r J ohn 1
3 8
N INTH -CENTURY C HRONOLOGY t emp le type d en ie r i n t h e n ame o f a n empe ro r L ou i s ) a nd e n t r ie s f o r c o in s o f A rchb i shop C eo lno th o fC an te rbu ry w i th t h e a r chb i shop ' s n ame s pe l led i nt h ree d if e ren t w ay s . Ne i the ro ft h e se e n t r i e si si ni t se lf s uf i c ien tt od emon s t ra te t h a tt h ec o in o fE an red i nq ue s t ion w a st h ew e l l -known E an red p enny ,b u t av o lume o f Rud ing ' sp ape r si n t h e D epa r tmen t o f Manu sc r ip t s i nt he B r i t i sh L ib ra ry c on ta in s al i s t o fs i x ty seven Ang lo -Saxon c o in sd emon s t rab ly i nP h i l ip Ra sh le igh ' sp o s se s s ion s ome t ime b ef o re t h ed ea th o ft h e Rev .R icha rd S ou thga te o n2 5J an 1 795 . 2T he f i r s tf i f ty -f ive o ft h e se a ppea r a l t o d e r ive f r om T rewh idd le , a nd t h e E an red p enny o ccup ie s f o r ty -f if th p l ace among t h em , t h e e n t ry f o r i tr e ad ing ` E an red . T he s -1 64 [ s c .g ra in s ] ' . I tf i gu re so nce mo re , t h i st ime f u l ly d e sc r ibed , i n al i s to fe i gh ty -f ou rc o in sf r om P h i l ip Ra sh le igh ' sc o l le c t ion d rawn u pb yT ay lo rC ombe s ho r t ly a f te r2 3J u ly 1 802 , t h ed a te a t wh ich h ew ro te P h i l ip Ra sh le igh al e t te ra cknow ledg ing t h e i rr e ce ip to n l o an .3 T he re i sn o s i gn e i the r o n t h e l i s ti n Rud ing ' s p ape r s o r o n T ay lo r C ombe ' s l i s t t h a tP h i l ip Ra sh le igh b yt h en p o s se s sed as t yca o fE an r ed ,a nd t h e re c an b en os e r iou s d oub tt h a tt h eE an red p enny w a st h ec o in o fE an red wh ich h eh ad o b ta ined f r om t h e T rewh idd le h oa rd . T he c o in p a s sed e ven tua l ly w i th t h er e s to fP h i l ip Ra sh le igh ' sc o l lec t ion i n to t h e p o s se s s ion o fh i s g r ea t -nephew J ona than Ra sh le igh ( 1 8201905 ) , ak een c o l lec tor a nd s t uden t o fc o in s , a nd w a s of e red f o r s a le a sl o t 1 5 1 a tt h e s a le o ft h e f am i ly c o l lec t ion b yJ ona than ' s s on E ve lyn Wi l l iam Ra sh le igh a tS o theby ' s 2 1J une 1 909 f o l low ing . I ts ub sequen t ly p a s sed t h rough t h e c o l lec t ion s o f G eo rge J ona than B a scom a nd R icha rd Cy r i lL ocke t t , a nd w a sp u rcha sed f o r t h eB r i t i sh Mu seum a t t h e s a le o ft h e f i r s t p o r t ion o fL ocke t t ' s E ng l i sh c o l lec t ion i n 1 955 . DR S MART : Among s t t h e o the r a noma lou s f e a tu re s o f t h e E an red p enny , t h e r eve r se l e gend DES M ONETA i sn o l e s s p uzz l ing . T he f o rmu la i su n ique t o t h i s c o in a nd i sh a lf i nL a t in a nd h a lf i nt h ev e rnacu la r , m on e t ab e ing t h eL a t in wo rd f o r m in t , money , o rc o in . OE ä e s i n t h e l i t e r a ry (WS ) l a nguage i st h e n om ina t ive s i ngu la r m a scu l ine o f t h e d e mon s t ra t ive p ronoun a nd a d jec t ive ( ä e s m . , ö i o s f . , ö i s n . ) ' t h i s ' . S uch a p a r s ing wou ld s e em i n co r rec t h e re , h oweve r , s i nce m on e t a i sf em in ine i nL a t in a nd i ft h ew r i te rh ad i nh i s m ind t h e OE e qu iva len t , OE m yn e ti sn eu te r . Mon e t a m igh t s t i l l b e c o mpa t ib le w i th a m a scu l ine a d jec t ive i fi tw e re a n a bb rev ia t ion o f m on e t a r iu s` moneye r ' b u t t h et r an s la t ion ' t h i s moneye r ' m ake sp oo rs e n se . I nt h e A ng l ian d i a lec t s ( Me rc ian a nd No r thumb r ian ) ä e s m ay b e af o rm o fö c v s , wh ich i st h e g en i t ive s i ngu la r ma scu l ine a nd n eu te r o ft h e d emon s t ra t ive ( s e m . , s e o f . ,ö c u tn . ) ' t ha t , t h e ' . I fw e t a ke m on e t a t ob e t h e who le wo rd i nt h en om ina t ive c a se t h e r ende r ing wou ld b e ' t he c o in o ft h a t ( man ) ' . T he re a r e f ew p a ra l le l si n OE u s age whe re t h i s d e mon s t ra t ive i na n o b l ique c a se s t and s a l one w i thou t t h e n oun
c once rned , b u ti tg ive s aw e igh t f o rn ea r ly e ve ry c o in . T h i s l i s t b y T ay lo r Combe i sa l so i nt h e D epa r tmen t o fC o in s a nd Meda l s , B r i t i sh Mu seum .
B r i t i sh L ib ra ry , A dd MS 1 8093 f . 112 . T he l i s t c a r r ie s a n a nno ta t ion b y Rud ing ' f rom Mr S ou thga te ' s MSS ' .T he l i s th a si t s l im i ta t ion s , f o r i to n ly v e ry o cca s ionaly g i ve sa ny i nd ica t ion o ft h et ype so ft h ec o in s 2
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wh ich i tq ua l if i e s b u t t h e c l o se s t g iven b y B o swo r th a nd T o l le r ' s A ng l o -Saxon D i c t iona ry a r e : h ea c e s d yd e h r e ow sunga ' h e d id p enance f o r t h a t ( c r ime ) ' a nd h ed . c e s h c ef d e m ed e ' h e r e ce ived ar ewa rd f o r t h a t ( good a c t ion ) ' . E ven h e re , t h e d emon s t ra t ive i mmed ia te ly f o l low so nt h e s e n tence wh e r et h e t h ing t o wh ich i tr e f e r sh a s o ccu r red . On t h i s a na logy , w e s hou ld p e rhap s r e f e r t o t h e o bve r se a nd r e ad t h e r eve r se a si t sc o mp lemen t : ' t he c o in o ft h a t ( k ing ) ' . T he i d e a t h a t ä c e s r e f e r s t ot h e moneye r , e i the r a l one ' t he c o in o f t h a t ( moneye r ) ' o r i n a g reemen t w i th a t r unca ted m on e t a r i i ' o ft h a t moneye r ' i sl e s s a t t r ac t ive o n s t y l i s t ic g round s , b u t a l p o s s ib le i n te rp re ta t ion s n eed t o b e a i red , a nd t h e r eve r se i st r ad i t iona l ly t h e moneye r ' sp l ace .
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DAV ID N . DU MV ILLE
AB OUT f i f teen y ea r s a go I f i r s t e ncoun te red a c l a s s ic p i ece o f a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re wh ich m ade ad eep i mp re s s ion a nd h a sr ema ined i n my m ind e ve rs i nce . I n i tt h e w r i te r d e sc r ibed a v i s i t t o s e e a nc ien t e a r thwo rk s a t Dun rag i t i n Wig town sh i re .1 H e r e po r ted t h a t Mr R a legh Radf o rd , o n o b se rv ing t h e s i t e , p ronounced i tt ob e w i thou t d oub t aB r i t i sh ( Ce l t ic ) f o r t if i ca t ion o ft h e f i f th o r s i x th c en tu ry . Id oub t t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s t oday wou ld b e s o e n thu s ia s t ic a bou t g iv ing d a t ing st o monumen t sm e re ly o nt h eb a s i so fs u ch mo rpho log ica lf e a tu re sa s a r e v i s ib le o n s i t e b ef o re e xcava t ion . I nj u s t t h e s ame w ay t h e h i s to r ian mu s t e xe rc i se s k i l l s o ft e x tua l c r i t ic i sm o n t h e l i t e ra ry a nd d ocumen ta ry s ou rce s wh ich c on s t i tu te s o much o fh i s s t ock in t rade . H e mu s t e xcava te h i s t e x t s , n o t i n t h e s p i r i to f at r ea su re -hun te rs e ek ing l i t t le mo r et h an t h et h r i l lo f wha teve rf i nd sm ay c o me t o h and , b u t i n a s m ea su red a nd s c ien t if i c af a sh ion a s p o s s ib le . I n t h e a c adem ic d i sc ip l ine o fh i s to ry , a si na r chaeo logy , t h et ime f o rt r ea su re -hun t ing h a s n ow p a s sed . I n s p i te o fo cca s iona l l a p se s , m e thod s a nd s t anda rd s o fc r i t ic i sm a r e r i go rou sa nd w e l la dve r t i zed . T he s ou rce s f o r No r thumb r ian h i s to ry i n t h e p e r iod f r om t h e c o mp le t ion a nd ' p ubl i ca t ion ' i n 7 3 1 o f S t B ede ' s H i s t o r ia e c c l e s ia s t i c a g en t i s A ng l o rum t o t h e s e izu re o fY o rk b y S cand inav ian f o rce s i n8 67 f a l l i n to t wo g roup s . On t h e o ne h and t h e re a r e t ho se wh ich a r e o bv iou s ly c on tempo ra ry o r p roceed f r om c on tempo ra ry t e s t imony b y ar e a sonab ly c l ea r ly e s tab l i shed l i ne o ft r an sm i s s ion . On t h e o the r h and t h e re i s am a s s o f n on -con tempo ra ry l i t e ra tu re , l a rge ly t we lf th cen tu ry i n d a te , who se c on s t i tuen t s h ave e i the r n o t b een e xam ined i n d ep th o r , h av ing b een a na ly sed , h ave p roved t o b e a n t iqua r ian e xe rc i se s o fn o v a lue f o r e i gh th - a nd n in th cen tu ry h i s to ry . I n to t h e v e ry l a s t c a tego ry f a l l , f o r e xamp le , t h e t we lf th cen tu ry A nna l e s L ind i sf a rn en s e s e tD un e lm en s e s , s t ud ied i n I am a l so o b l iged t o Ma rk B lackburn a nd S imon K eyne s f o r k ind ly r e ad ing a nd c om men t ing o nt h eg a l ley -p roof s . 1 R . C . Re id , ` Dun rag i t ' , T r an s a c t ion s o ft h e D umf r i e s sh i r e a nd G a l l oway N a tu r a l H i s to ry a nd A n t iqua r ian S o c i e ty , 3 rd S . , 2 9 ( 1 950 / 1 ) 1 55-64 , e s pec ia l ly p p . 1 55-6 .
T h i s p ape r o r ig ina ted i nr ema rk s made a s p a r t o ft h e d i scu s s ion o fS t ewa r t L yon ' s p ape r , p r in ted a bove . I am i ndeb ted t o M ichae l Me tca lf b o th f o r t h e o r ig ina l i nv i ta t ion t o t h e s ympo s ium ( f rom p a r t ic ipa t ing i n wh ich g a the r ing Il e a rned much ) a nd f o rh i s v igo rou s e ncou ragemen t t ow r i te u p t h e se o b se rva t ion s .
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d e ta i lb y Wi lhe lm L ev i son who s howed t h em t ob eo fn oi ndependen tm e r i t .2 I ng ene ra l , i ti st h e d ef i c ienc ie s r a the r t h an t h e s t reng th s o ft h e l i t e r a ry s ou rce s f o r t h i s p e r iod o f No r thumb r ian h i s to ry wh ich a r e t h e mo r e a ppa ren t . E spec i a l ly f o r t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e p e r iod 7 3 1867 , mo s t o fo u r i n f orma t ion i sm ed ia ted t h rough , o r o r ig ina te s i n , t we lf th - o r t h i r teen th -cen tu ry t e x t s . S uch a s i tua t ion n a tu ra l ly c r ea te s c ond i t ion s i n wh ich t h e h i s to r ica l ly m inded i nve s t iga to r m ay c hoo se s p ecu la t ion o r r e so r t t od if e ren t c l a s se s o fe v idence i no rde r t oa t temp t t o c r ea te au s ef u lp i c tu re o ft h ep e r iod i nq ue s t ion . S oi tw a st h a ti n1 969 Hugh P agan , i n ac ha rac te r i s t ica l ly i mp re s s ive a nd s t imu la t ing p ape r ,s ough tt ob ru sh a s ide much o ft h ec h rono logy o ft h e No r thumb r ian n in th c en tu ry p rov ided b yp o s t -Conque s t l i t e ra ry s ou rce s i n f a vou r o f o ne d educed f r om i t s r oya l a nd a r ch iep i scopa l c o inage .3T h i sa pp roach w a sa t temp t ed i nn oh augh ty s p i r i tb u tw i th d u ea t ten t ion t o t h e t e x tua l p reh i s to ry o f c e r ta in p o s t -Conque s t h i s tor ie s a s w e l l a s t o t h e n um i sma t ic e v idence . I fh i sc a se f a i l st oc onv inc e ,i td oe ss o( It h ink )n o tb e cau se o f a ny i n accu rac ie s i n h i s a r gumen t b u t f o r t h e r e a son t h a t h i s e xam ina t ion o ft h e l i t e ra ry s ou rce sd id n o tg on ea r ly f a re nough ; b u t Ia mn o ts u r et h a th ed oe sf a i lt o c onv ince —f o rm e ,h i si n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a t temp tt os o lve t h et r oub le some p rob lem s o f n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian c h rono logy r ema in s t h e mo s t i n te l l igen t a nd p e r sua s ive a r t icu la t ion o ft h ed if i cu l t ie s . I n h i s p ape r , Nin th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian c h rono logy ' ,4 S t ewa r t L yon h a s s ough t b road ly t o s uppo r t P agan ' s c onc lu s ion s b y m an ipu la t ing i n to v a r iou s h ypo the t ica lp a t te rn st h ec h rono log ica le v idence p rov ided b y as ub s tan t i a ln umbe r o f a ppa ren t w i tne s se s t o n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian h i s to ry . T he p r inc ipa l d if i cu l ty wh ich t h e h i s tor ian mu s t f e e l i n f a ce o f t h i s e xe rc i se i st h a t t h e re i s i n suf f i c ien t i nd ica t ion o f d i sc r im ina t ion b e tween t h e s e ve ra l t e x t s p re s sed i n to s e rv ice . I tm ay t h e ref o re b e h e lpf u l t o o f e r ar a p id s u rvey o ft h e t e x tua l e v idence i n q ue s t ion , p o in t ing o u t o u r a r ea s o fi gno rance whe re n ew wo rk i sg rea t ly t o b e . d e s i red , a nd d raw ing a t ten t ion t o t h e b road p ref e r ence s wh ich t h e g ene r a l i ty o f h i s to r ian si sl i ke ly t os h a re when f a ced w i th t h et a sk o fd i sc r im ina t ion b e tween t h e i n f o rma t ion p re sen ted b y t h e s e ve ra l s ou rce s . F o r t h e s a ke o fb rev i ty , Ic onf ine my se lf t ot h es ou rce sm en t ioned b yL yon a nd P agan .5 Ib eg in w i th t h e l a te s t t e x t s u s ed . T he m a s s ive F l o r e s h i s t o r i a rum o f Roge r Wendove r ,w r i t ten f r om ag rea tv a r ie ty o fs ou rce sa tS tA lban sA bbey i nt h ee a r ly t h i r teen th c en tu ry , h a s n o t b een e d i ted s i nce t h e 1 840 s a nd a wa i t s at ho rough mode rn i nve s t iga t ion , f o r wh ich t h e e s sen t ia l p recond i t ion h a s b een m e t b y a n e xam ina t ion o ft h e h i s to r ica l wo rk s o fh i s S tA lban s s u cce s so r , Ma t thew P a r i s .6 E ng l i sh m i s s iona ry s a in t s , med ieva l I r i sh a nd We l sh c h ron ic le s , p apa l d ocumen ta t ion , t h e Yo rk m e t r ica lm a r ty ro logy , a nd t h eH i s t o r ia d e S an c to C u thb e r t o . A l l t h e se , a nd mo re , h ave t h e i r p a r t t o p l ay i n b u i ld ing a p i c tu re o f No r thumbr ian h i s to ry b e tween 7 3 1 a nd 8 67 . R og e r i d e Wend ove r C h r on i c a , s i ve F l o r e s H i s t o r ia rum , e d . H en ry 0 . C oxe ( 5 v o l s , L ondon 1 84 1-4 ) : f o r t h e p re -Conque s t p e r iod s e e v o lume 1 ;e ven s o , t h e who le o ft h e F l o r e s
' D ie " Anna le s L ind i sf a rnen se s e t Dune l m en se s" k r i t i sch u n te r such t u nd n eu h e rau s g egeben ' , D eu t s ch e s A r ch iv f ü r E rf o r s chung d e s M i t t e la l t e r s1 7( 1 96 1 )4 47-506 . H . E . P agan , ' Nor thumbr ian n um i sma t ic c h rono logy i n t h e n in th c en tu ry ' , B r i t i sh Num i sma t i cJ ou rna l3 8( 1 969 ) 1 15 . a bove ,p p .2 7-36 . Many o the r s d o e x i s t : o ne may r e f e r , f o r e xamp le , t o t h e wo rk s o fA lcu in , t h e u i t a e o f 2
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TEXT UAL ARCHAE OL OGY AND N O RTH U MB R IA N H IST O RY
Hugh P agan p e rf o rmed as i gna ls e rv ice b yd emon s t r a t ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween o ne o f Roge r ' s s ou rce s f o r n in th cen tu ry h i s to ry , ' a r eg i s te r o f e ven t s i n No r thumb r i a ' f r om 8 06 t o8 76 wh ich ' a ppa ren t ly r e f e r red o n ly t ot h es u cce s s ion o f k ing s , a r chb i shop s , a nd b i shop s o f L ind i sf a rne ' , a nd a s im i la r t e x t u sed b y t h e a u tho r o ft h e H i s t o r i a D un e lm en s i s e c c l e s i e . 7 Howeve r , t h e i mp l ica t ion i st h a t t h e u l t ima te s ou r ce w a s ac o l lec t ion ( o r c o l lec t ion s ) o f r egna l a nd e p i scopa l l i s t s —p re sumab ly o f t h e s o r t wh ich i sf ound i n t h e u l t ima te ly e i gh th -cen tu ry ' Ang l ian c o l lec t ion ' ( now s u rv iv ing i nn in th -cen tu ry a nd l a t e rc op ie s ) ,b u tu pda ted t o t a ke a c coun t o f n in th-cen tu ry s u cce s s ion s i n No r thumb r ia .8 T he s im i la r i ty b e tween t h et r ea tmen to ft h i s ma te r ia li nt h en amed S tA lban sa nd Du rham s ou r ce s s ugge s t s a l so t h e e x i s tence o fa n i n te rmed ia te s ou rce u s ed i n b o th : t h e d a te a nd q ua l i ty o ft h a t w i tne s s i st he c ruc ia l i sue f o r t h e h i s to r ian s e ek ing t oe va lua te t h e e v iden t ia l v a lue o f t h e e x tan t s ou rce s o f i n f o rma t ion . T he p re sence o f u n ique i n f o rma t ion a bou t R edwu lf s u su rpa t ion , s o e a s i ly a s s im i lab le t o t h e n um i sma t ic t e s t imony , h a s s e emed t o many t o v a l ida te Roge r ' s s ou rce f o r n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian h i s to ry a nd t h e ref o re t op e rm i tu s e , w i thou tf u r the rc once rn , o fh i s a nna l s f o r t h a t p e r iod . T he i n co rpo ra t ion o f as e lec t ion o f t h e se i n Do ro thy Wh i te lock ' s E ng l i sh H i s t o r i c a l D o cum en t s c .5 001042 h a s f u r the r e ncou raged s u ch c a sua l emp loymen t .9 I n t h e t we lf th c en tu ry , a nd p a r t icu la r ly d u r ing i t s f i r s t h a lf , Du rham c a thed ra l p r io ry w a s ah o tbed o fh i s to r iog raph ic a c t iv i ty . A st h et e x t sc r ea ted o rr ev i sed t h en s p i l led o u t f r om Du rham t h ey e ncou raged , o r w e re a s s im i la ted i n to , h i s to r io g raph ic a c t iv i ty e l sewhe re i nt h e No r the rn p rov ince . I ns ome c a se s , w en ow k now t h e Du rham l i t e ra tu re o n ly f r om i t s l a te r No r thern d e r iva t ive s . T he s t anda rd mode rn a c coun to ft h i sp roce s sr ema in st h ei n augu r a ll e c tu re ( 1 958 ) o fP rof e s so rH . S . Of f i e r— in i t sw i t ,e l egance ,c l a r i ty ,a nd l e a rn ing ac l a s s ic o ft h eg en re . 1° Ih ave a l ready m en t ioned , i n p a s s ing , A nna l e s L ind i sf a rn en s e s e t Dun e lm en s e s , a t we lf th cen tu ry Du rham s e r ie s o fr e t ro spec t ive p a scha l a nna l s . P ub l i shed f o r t h e f i r s tt ime o n ly aq ua r te r -cen tu ry a go , t h i sc h ron ic le , s u rv iv ing i nt wo manu sc r ip t s , i s much l e s s w e l l k nown t h an t ho se p ub l i shed i n s u cce s s ive e d i t ion s f r om t h e m id seven teen th c en tu ry t o t h e l a te n ine teen th . Howeve r , t h e q ua l i ty o f i t s t e s t imony , a l n ece s sa r i ly n on con tempora ry , w a s d enounced b y i t s e d i to r , Wi lhe lm L ev i son ." I t s s ou rce s a nd t h e i r emp loymen t mu s t n one the le s s b e w a s n o t p r in ted b y Coxe . F o r c r i t ic i sm s e e V . H . G a lb ra i th , R og e r Wend ov e r a nd Ma t th ew P a r i s ( G la sgow 1 944 ) ; R icha rd V aughan , Ma t th ew P a r i s ( Camb r idge 1 958 ; r ev . i mp . , 1 979 ) . 7 ' No r thumb r ian n um i sma t ic c h rono logy ' , p .4 . 8 F o r s u ch c o l lec t ion s s e e R . I . P age , ' Ang lo-Saxon e p i scopa ll i s t s ' ,N o t t ingham Med i a e va lS tud i e s 9( 1 965 ) 7 1-95 a nd 1 0 ( 1 966 ) 2 -24 ; D . N . Dumv i l le , ' The Ang l ian c o l lec t ion o f r oya lg enea log ie sa nd r egna ll i s t s ' , A ng l o -Saxon E ng land 5( 1 976 )2 3-50 . Ir e tu rn t ot h e se s ou rce s b e low .
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( 2nd e dn . , L ondon 1 979 ) , p p . 2 81-4 ( no .
4 ) . 1 0 Med i eva l H i s t o r ian s o f Du rham ( Du rham 1 958 ) . S ee f u r the rJ .M . T odd & H . S . Of f i e r , ' A med ieva l c h ron ic le f r om S co t land ' , S co t t i sh H i s to r i ca l R ev i ew 3 6 ( 1 957 ) 1 51-9 , a nd H . S . Of f i e r , ` f lexham a nd t h e H i s to r ia R egum ' , T ran sa c t i on s o f t h e A r ch i t e c tu r a l a nd A r cha e o l og i ca l S o c i e ty o f Du rham a nd N o r thumb e r land , N .S . , 2( 1 970 )5 1-62 . 1 S ee n . 2a bove ; Of f le r , Med i eva lH i s t o r ian s , p p . 1 011 a nd 2 1 , n .2 1 , e n te red ap l ea f o r t h e f u r the r c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e i r a nna l s 7 93 , 7 97 , 8 08 ,a nd 8 20 ,i n t e ra l ia .
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c on s ide red when t we lf th -cen tu ry Du rham h i s to r iog raphy r e ce ive s ac omp r e h en s ive r e -eva lua t ion . S ince t h e l a te r t we lf th c en tu ry a n i n c r ea s ing n umbe r o f wo rk s h a s b een a t t r ibu ted t oS ymeon o f Du rham . S ome o ft h e se a t t r ibu t ion sa r et h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o f s i x teen th -cen tu ry o r o the r mode rn w r i te r s , o f ten m ade w i th r ema rkab l e c a sua lne s s . O the r s d e r ive f r om r ub r ic s i n m ed ieva l manu sc r ip t s b u t mu s t , f o r v a r iou s r e a son s , b e v i ewed w i th t h e u tmo s t s u sp ic ion u n t i l ac o mp rehen s ive e xam ina t ion o f t h e t e x t s i n q ue s t ion p rov ide s e v idence a low ing d ef in i t ion o f a u tho r sh ip . On ly o ne t e x t , t h e l e t te r D e a r ch i ep i s c op i s E bo r a c en s ibu s , w r i t ten i n 1 090 x109 o r 130 x 132 t o Hugh , d ean o f Y o rk , i ss e lf ev iden t ly S ymeon ' s wo rk .1 2 A s i gn if i can t w eakne s s , t h e ref o re , o f p ub l i shed wo rk o n t h e t we lf th c en tu ry t e x t s ' i n f o rma t ion a bou t n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian h i s to ry d e r ive s f r om t h ea s sump t ion t h a tt h e me thod sa nd r e sou rce so f as i ng le a u tho r may b es e en i n an umbe ro ft h ec ruc ia lt e x t s . T he mo s t w ide ly u sed , b u t a l so o ne o ft h e mo s t d if icu l t , o ft h e se t e x t s i st h a t k nown a st h eH i s t o r ia r e gum . 13 I t sv e ry c omp lex h i s to ry a s at e x t , s t re tch ing b ack t o t h e l a te t e n th -cen tu ry F en land mona s te ry o f Ram sey , h a s b een t h e s ub jec t o fa n umbe ro fi lum ina t ing p ub l ica t ion s d u r ing t h e l a s t q ua r te r -cen tu ry ." T he who le work ,a sp ub l i shed i nt h ee d i t ion so f1 652 t o1 885 ,w a sp robab ly c r ea ted a t Du rham i no r s oon a f te r 129 , t h e d a te o fi t s l a s t a nna l . Howeve r , t h a t t e x t o fc .130 i sa t p re sen t i r recove rab le i n d e ta i l f o r i ts u rv ive s o n ly i n as e r ie s o f s ub sequen t t we lf th cen tu ry r e cen s ion s wh ich h ave s uf e red c on s ide rab le i n te rf e rence . B road ly s p eak ing , t h e H i s t o r i a r e gum d iv ide s i n to t wo p a r t s : as omewha t e c cen t r i c a nd d i scon t inuou s h i s to ry f r om t h e d ea th o fB ede ( a lbe i t w i th av a r ie ty o fp ref a to ry ma t te r c once rn ing t h e s e ven th a nd e a r l ie r e i gh th c en tu r ie s a nd i n c lud ing a No r thumb r ian k ing l i s t f r om I d a t o C eo lwu l f ) t o t h e m id ten th c en tu ry ,1 5 f o l lowed b y ac on t inuou sa nna l i s t ic h i s to ry f r om AD 8 48 t o 129 . Down t ot h ey e a r 8 87 P a r t One w a sw r i t ten b yB y rh tf e r th o f Ram sey c .AD 1 000 , s ome f u r the ra nna l s f o r 8 88-951 ( wh ich i n co rpo ra te a Che s te r le -S t ree t e l emen t ) b e ing a ppended s ub sequen t ly . P a r t Two d raw s l a rge ly o n t h e C h r on i c a rum c h r on i c a o fJ ohn o f Wo rce s te r , a ppa ren t ly f i r s t p ub l i shed i n 13 1 b u t c i rcu la t ing among i n te re s ted s c ho la r sf o r an umbe r o fy ea r sp r ev iou s ly :' 6 t h et e x tb eg in sw i th t h eb i r th o fK ing c hron ic le ' , E ng l i sh H i s to r i c a l R ev i ew 9 7 ( 1 982 ) 5 58-82 ; M . L ap idge , ' A t e n thcen tu ry me t r ica l c a lenda r f r om R am sey ' , R evue Hn id i c t in e 9 4 ( 1 984 ) 3 26-69 ; M . B re t t , ' J ohn o f Wo rce s te r a nd h i s c on tempo ra r ie s ' , i n T h e Wr i t ing o f H i s t o ry i n t h e M idd l e A g e s . E s say s p r e s en t ed t o R i cha rd W i l l iam S ou th e rn , e dd . R . H . C . D av i s e ta l . ( Oxf ord 1 98 1 ) ,p p . 1 0 1-26 . An ew e d i t ion , T h e H i s t o r i a R egum P a r t 1 , e dd . D . Dumv i l le a nd M . L ap idge ,i sa tp re s sa s v o lume 1 6 o f T h e A ng l o -Saxon C h r on i c l e . A C o l l abo ra t iv eE d i t i on ,g en .e dd .D . Dumv i l le a nd S .K eyne s( 2 3v o l s ,C amb r idge 1 982— ) . On J ohn o f Wo rce s te rs e et h ep ape rb yM . B re t t ( n . 1 4 a bove ) ; an ew e d i t ion o f h i s Ch ron ic le ,b yR .R .D a r l ing ton a nd P . McGu rk ,
S ym eon i s Mona ch i Op e ra Omn ia , e d . T homa s A rno ld ( 2 v o l s , L ondon 1 882 /5 ) , I . 2 22-8 ;s e ea l so t h ei n t roduc t ion t ot h a tv o lume . B e s t , b u t s t i l l p oo r ly , e d i ted b y Hodg son H inde , S ymeon i s Dun e lm en s i s Op e ra e tC o l l e c t a n ea ( Du rham 1 868 ) ; s e e a l so A rno ld , S ym eon i s Mona ch i Op e r a Omn ia ,I . P . Hun te r B la i r , ' Some o b se rva t ion s o n t he H i s t o r ia R egum a t t r ibu ted t o S ymeon o f Du rham ' , i nC e l ta nd S axon . S tud i e s i nt h e E a r ly B r i t i sh B o rd e r , e d . N . K . Chadw ick ( Camb r idge 1 963 ;r ev . i mp . , 1 964 ) ,p p . 6 3118 ;M . L ap idge , ` By rh tf e r th o f Ram sey a nd t h ee a r ly s e c t ion so f t h e H i s t o r ia R egum a t t r ibu ted t o S ymeon o f Durham ' , A ng l o -Saxon E ng land 1 0 ( 1 982 ) 9 7122 ; C . H a r t , ` By rh tf e r th ' s Nor thumbr ian 12
1 3
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A lf red , b u t o n ly i t s l a s t d ecade i n co rpo ra te s as ub s tan t ia l ly o r ig ina l a nd No r the rn e l emen t . I ti st h i sl a t te rp a r t o ft h eH i s t o r ia r e gum , a nd p e rhap sa l so i t sc o mb ina t ion w i th P a r t One , wh ich h a s b een t hough t t ob et h e wo rk o fS ymeon . Howeve r , t h e a t t r ibu t ion o f t h e H i s t o r ia r e gum t o h im d epend s o n t h e t e s t imony o f as i ng le t we lf thcen tu ry mau sc r ip t f r om S aw ley A bbey :1 7 a t t r ibu t ion s o fa u tho r sh ip a r e k nown t o h ave b een r a the r f r ee ly a c co rded t o a nonymou s t ex t s r e ad a nd c op ied t h e re . T he H i s t o r ia Dun e lmen s i s e c c l e s i e ( o r , b e t te r , t h e L i b e l lu s d e e xo rd io a t qu e p r o cu r su . . .D un e lm en s i s e c c l e s i e ) w a s w r i t ten i n t h e f i r s t d ecade o f t h e t we lf th c en tu ry , p e rhap s i n 104 x107 .1 8 I ti s awo rk i n f ou r b ook s , c a r ry ing i t s s t o ry d own t o 1 096 . T he a t t r ibu t ion t o S ymeon o ccu r s p r inc ipa l ly i n a no the r S aw ley m anu sc r ip t , b u t i sf ound a l so i nt wo l a te r manu sc r ip t s : b u t t h ei mp l ica t ion s o ft h i s d i s t r ibu t ion r ema in u nc lea r ." T he t e x t i sp re se rved i ni t s e a r l ie s t a nd a nonymou s f o rm i n ah ypo the t i ca l ly a u tho r ia l manu sc r ip ti n Du rham Un ive r s i ty L ib ra ry . 2° I n te rpo la ted i n to H i s t o r ia D un e lm en s i s e c c l e s i e i n t h e S aw ley manu sc r ip t o n ly , b e tween c a p i tu la a nd t e x t , i sar egna ll i s tf r om I d ao fB e rn ic ia t oH en ry Iwh ich h a s b een p r in ted u nde rt h eh ead ing S e r i e sr e gum N o r thymb r en s ium . 2'T h i si sav e r s ion o f n o tab ly p oo r q ua l i ty when c ompa red w i th o the r , e a r l i e r t ex t s o f t h e No r th umb r ian r egna ll i s t ,i n c lud ing t h a t embedded i nt h eH i s t o r i ar e gum ,P a r t One .I t ss o le a ppa ren t me r i t i st h a t , u n l ike e a r l ie r w i tne s se s , i tc on t inue sb eyond 7 96 . G iven t h e l ow q ua l i ty o f i t s t e x tua l ly t e s tab le s e c t ion , h oweve r , o ne mu s t n o t b e o ve r -en thu s ia s t ic f o ri t si n f o rma t ion a bou tt h en in th a nd t e n th c en tu r ie s . F ina l ly , i nt h i s g roup , w e c o me t ot h eL i b e l lu s d ep r imo S axonum a du en tu , o ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t o ft h a t g en re o fp o s t -Conque s t h i s to r ie s o ft h e ` h ep ta rch ic ' p e r iod o f Ang lo -Saxon E ng l and . T he L i b e l lu s s u rv ive s i n mo re t h an o ne r e cen s ion a nd h a s n eve r b een f u l ly p ub l i shed . I t c onc lude s w i th l i s t s o f t h e a r chb i shop s o f C an te rbu ry , t h ea r chb i shop so f Yo rk , a nd t h eb i shop so f Du rham . Appa ren t ly f i r s t w r i t ten i n t he r e ign o fH en ry I ,i th a s b een f r ee ly q uo ted ; b u t i ts e em s t o b e a s c ho la r ' s r e con s t ruc t ion o f ad i s tan t Ang lo -Saxon p a s t , u s ing i n adequa te ma te r ia l s ; a sw ek now f r om m any e xamp le s , amed ieva l s c ho la r ly h i s to ry i smuch l e s s l i ke ly t oc on ta in r e ad i ly u s ab le i n f o rma t ion t h an i same re c o mp i la t ion .2 b ea r ing a n a t t r ibu t ion h ave b een d i scu s sed b y Of f i e r , Med i eva lH i s to r ian s ,p .2 0 ,n .8 . 20 Du rham , Un ive r s i ty L ib ra ry , MS . Co s in V . i i .6 . 2 1 F f . I .27 , p p . 1 28-30 : p ub l i shed b y A rno ld , S ym eon i s Mona ch i Op e r a Omn ia ,1 .389-93 . 22 T he t e x t w a s l a s t , b u t s t i l l i n comp le te ly , p ub l i shed b y Ar no ld , i b id . , 1 .365-84 , f r om t h e e a r l ie s t k nown r e cen s ion ; f o r a no the r w i tne s s s e e S . R . T . 0 . d 'Ardenne , ' A n eg lec ted manu sc r ip t o f B r i t i sh h i s tory ' , i n E ng l i sh a nd Med i eva l S tud i e sp r e s en t ed t oJ .R . R . T o lk i en o n t h e O c c a s i on o f h i s S ev en t i e th B i r thd ay , e dd . Norman D av i sa nd C .L . Wrenn ( London 1 962 ) , p p . 8 4-93 . G ene ra l ly o n t h i s t e x t s e e Of f l e r , Med i eva l H i s t o r ian s , p p . 112 a nd 2 2 , n n . 2 3-24 .
w il a ppea r i n t h e s e r ie s ' Oxf o rd Med ieva l T ex t s ' . 1 7 C ambr idge , Co rpu s Ch r i s t i Co l lege , MS . 1 39 , o n wh ich s e et h ep ape r sc o l lec ted i nD av id N . Dumv i l le , H i s t o r i e sa nd P s eud o -h i s t o r i e so ft h e I n su la r M idd l e A g e s ( Va r io rum Rep r in t s , L on d on 1 988 ) , a nd D . B ake r , ' S c i s so r s a nd p a s te : Co rpu s Ch r i s t i , C amb r idge , MS 1 39 a ga in ' , S tud i e si nC hu r ch H i s t o ry 1 ( 1 975 )8 3123 . 1 8 S ym eon i s Mona ch i Op e ra Omn ia , e d . A rno ld , 1 . 17135 : o n t h e a u tho r sh ip , p . x x i i i ; o n t h e d a te , p p . x i x a nd 11 , n .a ;c f . O f f le r , Med i eva lH i s to r ian s ,p p .6 -8 . 1 9 C ambr idge , C o rpu s Ch r i s t i Co l lege , MS . 6 6 , a nd Un ive r s i ty L ibra ry F f .I .27 ( 1 160 ) , p robab ly w r i t ten a tS aw ley c .1 200 : H i s t o r ia i n F f .I .27 , p p . 1 22186 . T he o the r manu sc r ip t s
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A l l t h e se t we lf th cen tu ry Du rham ' h i s to r i e s ' r equ i re t o b e r e -ed i ted a nd t ho rough ly s t ud ied b ef o re w e c an h ope t ou nde r s tand h ow t h e i r s t a temen t s a bou t e a r l ie r No r thumb r ian h i s to ry may b e i n te rp re ted a nd u s ed . F o r t h e momen t , h oweve r ,i tmu s tb es a id t h a t ,w i th o ne e xcep t ion ,t h ey f a i lt h eh i s to r ian ' sf i r s tb a s ic t e s t . T hey a r e n on con tempo ra ry s ou rce s who s e i n f o rma t ion h a s n o i d en t if i ed p ed ig ree ( s ) . A s s u ch , t h ey a r e n o t a va i lab le f o r u s e b y s t uden t s o fn in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ia . T he e xcep t ion i sP a r t One o ft h e H i s t o r i a r e gum , mo s t s e c t ion s o f who se r e co rd h ave h ad t h e i r s ou rce s i d en t if i ed a nd e xam ined . T h i s d oe sn o t mean t h a t u s e o ft h e i r i n f o rma t ion w i l l b e u ncomp l i ca ted , b u t i n t e rpre ta t ion o fi t may n ow p roceed b eyond t h e p ha se o fp u re ly i n te rn a l c r i t ic i sm . F o r o u r i mmed i a te p u rpo se s , t h e u nf o r tuna te f a c t i st h a t t h e e a r ly a nna l s o f No r thumb r ian ( a nd p e rhap s Yo rk ) o r ig in c e a se t o b e emp loyed i n i t a f te r AD 8 02 , l e av ing a h a lf cen tu ry ' sh i a tu si nt h et e x t ' sc h rono log ica ls t ruc tu re a nd c u t t ing o fo u rs imp le a nd r e a sonab ly r e l iab le a c ce s st o No r the rn h i s to ry . Two o the r t ype s o f c h ron ic le tex t h ave b een b rough t t o b ea r i n t h e d eba te a bou t n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian c h rono logy . T he f i r s t , a nd p e rhap s l e s s c omp l ica ted , i sF rank i sh , p rov id ing a ppa ren t ly c on tempo ra ry w i tne s s t o B r i t i sh e ven t so f8 08 , 8 09 , 8 13 ( ? ) , 8 39 , 8 44 , 8 50 , 8 55 , 8 56 , 8 58 , 8 60 , 8 6 1 , 8 62 , a nd 8 64 ; b u t f ew o ft h e se e n t r ie sb ea r o n No r thumb r ian h i s to ry . T he wo rk s i nq ue s t ion a r e t h e A nna l e s r e gn i F r an c o rum ( AD 7 4 1-8 13 , r ev i sed a nd c on t inued t o 8 29 ) a nd a n a ppa ren tc on t inua t ion ,t h es o -ca l led ' Anna l so fS a in t -Be r t in ' ( c ove r ing 8 30-882 ) .2 3 F rom t h e E ng l i sh s i de o f t h e Channe l , v a r iou s v e r s ion s a nd r e la t ive s o f t h e Ang lo -Saxon C h ron ic le c on t r ibu te r e levan ti n f o rma t ion . T he a nna l sp rope rt ot h e ' c ommon s t ock 'o ft h e Ch ron ic le , a sw r i t ten ( o rc o mp le ted ) a nd ' pub l i shed 'i n8 92 , a r e o f We s t S axon o r ig in . T he e x ten t o f t h e i r c on t r ibu t ion t o No r thumbr ian h i s to ry , h oweve r , i sr ep re sen ted b y t h e v e ry c on t rove r s ia l a nna l f o r 8 29 , a nd t h en t h es e r ie s o fa nna l sf o r8 67 a nd s ub sequen ty ea r s ( t he se l a t te rf i nd ing t h e i rw ay a l so i n to A s se r ' s b iog r aphy o fK ing A lf red ) wh ich c h ron ic le S cand inav ian a c t iv i ty i n No r thumb r ia . On t h eo the rh and , t h ree e l even th -a nd t we lf th cen tu ry manu sc r ip t s o ft h e Ang lo -Saxon C h ron ic le ( v i z DEF ) a t te s t av e r s ion r ev i sed b ya na u tho rw i th ama rked No r thumb r ian b i a sa nd No r thumb r ian s ou r ce s o fi n f o rma t ion wh ich h e i n te rpo la ted i n to h i s i nhe r i ted Ch ron ic le tex t . T h i s s o ca l led ' No r the rn r e cen s ion ' o ft h e Ch ron ic le i sw r i t ten i nt h e We s t S axon l i t e r a ry d i a lec t : i tp robab ly emana te s f r om Yo rk i n t h e p e r iod a f te r 9 56 when S ou the rn c l e r ic s h e ld t h e No r the rn a r chb i shop r ic .2 4 Am ong i t s s ou rce s w a s av e r s ion , e x tend ing t o AD 8 06 , o f t h e A nna l e s R egn i F ran c o rum i n d e a b A . 7 41 u s qu e a dA . 8 29 q u id i cun tu rA nna l e s L au r i s s en s e s Ma io r e se tE inha rd i , e d . F r ied r ich Ku rze ( Hann o ve r 1 895 ) ; t h e who le t e x t h a s b een t r an s la ted b y B ernha rd Wa l te r S cho lz a nd B . Roge r s , C a r o l ing ian C h r on i c l e s . Roya l F rank i sh Anna l s a nd N i tha rd ' s H i s to r ie s ( Ann A rbo r , M ich igan 1 970 ) . A nna l e sd eS a in t -B e r t in , e dd . F e l ix G ra te t a l . ( Pa r i s 1 964 ) ; at r an s la t ion h a s b een p repa red b y D rJ ane t L . Ne l son . F o r t r an s la ted e xce rp t s f r om t h e se t wo t e x t s , s e e Wh i te lock , E ng l i sh H i s to r i ca l D o cumen t s , p p . 3 4 1-2 ( no . 2 1 ) a nd 3 42-4 ( no .2 3 ) .
24 F or a b r ief i n t roduc to ry s u rvey o f t he p rob lem s p o sed b y t he t e x tua l h i s to ry o f t he Ang lo -Saxon C h ron ic le s e e Wh i te lock , i b id . , p p . 1 09-25 ;o nA s se rs e ef i r s tS imon K eyne sa nd M . L ap idge , A lf r ed t h e G r ea t . A s s e r ' s L if e o f K ing A lf red a nd O th e r C on t empo ra ry S ou r c e s ( Ha rmond swo r th 1 983 ) . On AD 8 92 a nd t he Ch ron ic le s e e P . H . S awye r , T he A g e o f t h e V ik ing s ( 2 nd e dn . , L ondon 1 97 1 ) , c hap te r 2 , a nd D av id N . Dumv i l le , We s s ex a nd E ng land f r om A lf r ed t o E d ga r (Woodb r idge 1 987 ) , c hap te r3 .
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No r the rn ( a nd p e rhap s Y o rk ) a nna l s a l so u nde r ly ing t h e C on t inua t io B a ed a e ( t o 7 66 )2 5 a nd t h eH i s t o r ia r e gum ,P a r t One ( t o8 0 1 ) ;b u ti t sv e r s ion o ft h e se a nna l so f ten d if e r s ma te r i a l ly f r om t h e L a t in t r ad i t ion . Unf o r tuna te ly t h e d e ta i led wo rk o f c o mpa r i son a nd c r i t ic i sm wh ich m igh t e nab le t h e se d i sc repanc ie s t ob e e xp la ined a nd t h ei n f o rma t ion t ob es a t i sf ac to r i ly i n te rp r e ted h a sn o ty e tb een c omp le ted a nd p ub l i shed . L ikew i se w e s t i l l l a ck as uf i c ien t ly d e ta i led a na ly s i s o ft h e Ch ron ic le ' s ' No r the rn r e cen s ion ' a s awho le t oe nab le u st od ef ine t h e p rec i se c i rcum s tance s o f t h et r an sm i s s ion o fi t si n f o rma t ion .2 6 T he C h r on i c on o fE a ldorman Athe lwea rd , w r i t ten i n9 78 x9 88 a nd a ppa ren t ly i ns ou thwe s te rn E ng land , r ep re sen t s i np a r t at r an s la t ion o ft h e c o mmon s t ock o f t h e Ang lo -Saxon C h ron ic le . F rom t h e 8 90 s t h e C h r on i c on s how s a c ce s s t o a n i ndependen t s ou rce o fi n f o rma t ion a bou t No r the rn a f a i r s . T h i s d if i cu l t t e x t w a s e d i ted a nd t r an s la ted b y A l i s ta i r C ampbe l l i n 1 962 , b u t h i s p ionee r ing wo rk i s a l r eady s how ing s e ve r e s i gn s o f w ea r : i tn eed s t o b e r ev i sed o r r ep laced a nd Athe lwea rd ' s wo rk r e a s se s sed .2 7 Two t e x t s wh ich l i eo nt h eb ounda ry b e tween t h el i t e ra ry a nd t h ed ocumen ta ry mu s t b e men t ioned b r ief ly . T he u ndoub ted ly g enu ine l e t te r o fE cg red , b i shop o f ' L ind i sf a rne ' ( ' b i shop o fS t Cu thbe r t ' m igh tb eb e t te r ) , t o Wu lf s ige , a r chb i shop o f Yo rk , c once r n ing h e te rodoxy a nd s a bba ta r ian i sm , i s u nda ted b u t a t l e a s t d emon s t ra te s t h a t t h e se p re la te sw e re a ts ome p o in t c on tempo ra ry i n of i ce ." T he e p i scopa l l i s t s a l ready men t ioned d o n o t , i n Ang lo -Saxon manu sc r ip t s , c a r ry No r thumb r ian i n f o rma t ion b eyond c .8 40 ( wh i le t h ea s soc ia ted r egna ll i s td oe sn o t e x tend b eyond t h e c onc lu s ion , i n 7 96 , o f ' E the l red Athe lwa ld ing ' s s e cond r e ign ) .2 9 I t may b e wo r th t a bu la t ing t h e No r thumb r ian l i s t s ' i n f o rma t ion h e re . 3° B a te ly ,i nt h ee d i t ion men t ioned i nn .1 5a bove , I L lxx ix— lxxxv i i i . F o r r ev iew s o f C ampbe l l ' s e d i t ion ,s e eF .B la t t ,N o t e sa nd Q u e r i e s2 08 [ N .S . , 1 0 ] ( 1 963 ) 3 86-8 ; R . R . D a r l ing ton , H i s to ry , N .S . , 4 8 ( 1 963 )3 54-5 ;E .P .M . D ronke a nd U . D ronke , Mod e rn L anguag e R ev i ew 5 9 ( 1 964 ) 9 4-5 ; G . N . G a rmon sway , Med ium i Evum 3 3 ( 1 964 ) 2 0912 ; F . E . H a rme r , J ou rna l o f E c c l e s ia s t i ca l H i s to ry 1 5 ( 1 964 ) 1 26-7 ; P . H . S awye r , E ng l i sh H i s to r i ca l R ev i ew 7 9 ( 1 964 ) 8 19-20 ; B . W. S cho lz , S p e cu lum 4 0 ( 1 965 ) 3 34-6 . 28 E d i ted b y D . Wh i te lock , ' B i shop E cgred , P eh t red a nd N ia l l ' , i nI r e l and i nE a r ly Med ia eva l E u r op e . S tud i e s i n Memo ry o fK a th l e en Hugh e s , e dd . Do ro thy Wh i te lock e t a l . ( Camb r idge 1 982 ) ,p p .4 7-68 . 29 S ee t he p ape r s c i ted a bove , n . 8 , wh ich c on ta in e d i t ion s o ft h e t e x t s i nB r i t i sh L ib ra ry MSS . Co t ton V e spa s ian B .v i a nd Co t ton T ibe r iu sB .v ,v o l . 1 ,a nd i nC ambr idge , Co rpu s Chr i s t i Co l lege , MSS . 1 40 a nd 1 83 .F o rt ho se i n Roche s te r , C a thed ra l L ib ra ry , MS . A .3 .5 , o ne mu s t c on su l t t he f a c s im i le -ed i t ion : T ex tu s R of f en s i s , v o l . 1 , e d . P . H . S awye r ( Copen h agen 1 957 ) .
25 S ee B ed e ' sE c c l e s ia s t i ca lH i s to ry o ft h eE ng l i sh P eop l e , e dd . a nd t r an s l . B e r t ram Co lg rave a nd R . A . B . Myno r s ( Oxf ord 1 969 ) ,p p . l xv i i— lx ix a nd 5 72-7 : Myno r so np .l x ix a nd Co lg rave o n p . 5 75 , n . 9( c f . Wh i te lock E ng l i sh H i s t o r i c a l D o cum en t s , p . 2 86 , n . 2 ) , a r e i n u nacknow l e dged b u t d i rec t c onf l ic t o n t h e d a te a nd n a tu re o ft he C on t inua t io ; t he re i sn o p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tC on t inua t io B a ed a ei sat e n th -r a the rt h an a n e i gh th -cen tu ry t e x t . 26 T h i s wo rk i sb e ing u nde r taken b y P . A . B ib i re a nd D . N . Dumv i l le f o rv o lume 2o ft h e e d i t ion men t ioned i nn .1 5a bove . 2 7 T he C h r on i c l eo fi E th e lw ea rd ,e d . a nd t r an s ! . A l i s ta i r C ampbe l l ( Ed inbu rgh 1 962 ) . C f . M . Win te rbo t tom , ' The s t y le o f j E the lwea rd ' , Med ium A 'vum 3 6 ( 1 967 ) 1 0918 , a nd M . L ap idge , ' The h ermeneu t ic s t y le i n t e n t h cen tury Ang lo -La t in l i t e r a tu re ' , A ng l o -Saxon E ng l and 4 ( 1 975 ) 6 7111 , a tp p . 9 7-8 . S ee a l so K eyne sa nd L ap idge ,A lf r ed t h eG r ea t ,p p .1 89-9 1 , 3 34-8 . On h i s C hron ic le sou rce s e e f u r the r E . E . B a rke r , ' The Ang lo -Saxon Ch ron ic le u s ed b y f E the lwea rd ' , B u l l e t in o f t h e I n s t i tu t e o f H i s to r i ca lR e s ea r ch 4 0 ( 1 967 ) 7 4-9 1 ; Wh i te lock , E ng l i sh H i s t o r i c a l D o cum en t s , p . 18 ; J ane t M .
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DAVI D N . DU MV ILLE
A f te rt h e o pen ing p i ece o fp ro se , wh ich i sh e r ef a i thf u lt ot h e manu sc r ip t s , my l i s t s g ive t h eb i shop s 'n ame -f o rm si n as t anda rd i zed o r thog raphy .3 1 N om ina e p i s c opo rum g en t i sN o r d anhymb r o rum P r imu sP au l inu s aI u s to a r ch iep i scopo o rd ina tu s . A eöan F ine . i ü i . Co lman . v . T uda . P o s tea i nd ua sp a r roch ia sd iu id i tu r : C edda E boracen s ie cc le s iae o rd ina tu< s> , U i lf r iö H ag s ta lden s iae o rd ina tu s . D epo s i toque U i lf r iöo ar ege E cgf r ido , E o ta p ro e oo rd ina tu se p i scopu sH ag s ta lden s iae . P ro C eddan B o sa E bu ra ic i( Ebo racen s i ) , d efunc to E a tan I ohann sp ro e oo rd ina tu s . P o s tl ongum u e ro e x i l ium U i lf r iö i t erum i ne p i scopa tum H ag s ta lden sem r e cep tu se s t . E ti d em I ohann s ,d ef unc to B o san ,E bu ra ic i( Ebo rac i )s ub s t i tu tu se s t . E bo r a c en s i s e c c l e s ia e
H ag s ta ld en s i s e c c l e s ia e
L ind i sf a rn en s i s i n su l a e
e c c l e s ia eq ua ed i c i tu r C and id aC a sa
Wi lf r iö E cgbe rh t Coena E anba ld [ I ] E anba ld [ I ] / Wu lf s igel / /W igmund / / /
A cca F r ioöobe rh t A lhmund T i lbe rh t . e z Ebe lbe rh t H ea rd red E anbe rh t / T idf e re s /
Aöan F ine Co lman E a ta Cuöbe rh t E adbe rh t E a tf e rö /Eadf r iö Oeöe lwa ld Cyn (e )wu lf Hyg (e )ba ld / Ecgbe rh t / gadmundl
P eh the lm F r ioöowa ld P eh tw ine J Eöe lbe rh t B eadwu lf /Heaöo red / /
I th a sb een s u spec ted t h a ts u ch ac o l lec t ion o fl i s t sw a sa l ready i ne x i s tence i nB ede ' s l i f e t ime .3 2 F rom t h e f ou r m anu sc r ip t s wh ich p re se rve t h e i n f o rma t ion p r e sen ted a bove w e s e ee v idence f o rp e r iod ic ( bu t n o tn ece s s a r i ly s u cce s sf u l ) u pda t ing o ft h e l i s t s i n8 05 x8 14 ,3 a ga in n o t l a te r t h an 8 14 ,3 4 i n8 33 x8 36 ,3 5 a nd i n8 40 x8 45 ,3 6 v a r ian t s f r om CCCC MS . 1 83 . T he f i r s t s c r ibe ' s own a dd i t ion s t o V a r e i n d i ca ted b y / . . ./ ,t h e s e cond s c r ibe ' s a dd i t ion s b y / . . ./ , a nd t h e l a s t l a y e r o f Me rc ian a dd i t ion s ( r ep r e s e n ted b y CCCC 1 83 ,B LC o t ton T ibe r iu sB .v , a nd T ex tu sR of f en s i s )b y/ / . . ./ / . P age , ' Ang lo -Saxon e p i s copa l l i s t s ' , p p . 8 4-5 . T h i s d a te range i sa ch ieved b y e xc lud ing t h e e v idence o ft h e No r thumb r ian l i s t s wh ich w e re e v iden t ly n o t u p t o d a te ( s e e f u r the r b e low , n . 3 7 ) . F o r t h e c a lcu la t ion t h e k ey f i gu re s a r e o n t h e o ne h and A r chb i shop Wu lf r ed ( Can te rbu ry ) who s u cceeded i n8 05 ,
3° T he t e x t si nP age ' se d i t ion ( n . 8a bove ) a r e g i ven d i p loma t ic a l ly . Wha t f o l low s h e r e i s t h e ref o r ea na t temp tt ob r ing t h e i ri n f o rma t ion t oge the r . I ti s wo r th r emembe r ing t h a t w e p o s se s s n o a nc ien t l i s t o ft h e s u cce s s ion t o t h e No r thumb r ian b i shop r ic a t Mayo i n I r e land : o n t h a t c hu rch s e e K a th leen Hughe s , C hu r ch a nd S o c i e ty i nI r e l and A D 4 001200 ( Va r io rum R ep r in t s ,L ondon 1 987 ) ,e s say XV I ,p p .5 1-2 . Whe reve r p o s s ib le If o l low MS . C o t ton V e spa s ian B .v i ( h enc ef o r th V ) , a n e a r ly n i n th c en tu ry Me r c ian m anu sc r ip t , b u t i ti so cca s i ona l ly t oo d amaged t o b e r e ad . F o rm s i n a ng le -b racke t s a r e e menda t ion s a ga in s t m anu s c r ip t au tho r i ty . F o rm s i n r ound b r acke t s a r e
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TE XT U AL ARC HAE OL OGY AN D N O RT H U MB R IA N H IST O RY
a l t h e se p ha se s t a k ing p l ac e i n Me rc ia a nd n o t n ece s sa r i ly s u cceed ing i nb r ing ing t h e No r thumb r ian l i s t s who l ly u pt od a te e a ch t ime . I n8 05 x8 14 t h ey w e re c u r ren t o n ly t o8 00 x8 03 ;3 7 t h ey w e re p robab ly s u cce s sf u l ly u pda ted b y8 14 , a nd p o s s ib ly b u t l e s s c e r t a in ly s o i n 8 33 x8 36 a nd 8 40 x8 45 . S o l i t t le h a s t h e p roce s s b een u nde r s tood , t h a t t he se d a t e s a r e p a r t ly e s tab l i shed h e re f o r t h e f i r s t t ime , a nd i ti s s t range t o h ave t o p o in t o u t t h a t E admund , b i shop o f' L ind i sf a rne ' , p re sumab ly f l ou r i sh ing i n8 33 x8 36 a tt he t ime o ft h e s e cond u pda t ing o ft h e l i s t co l lec t ion i n BL MS . C o t ton V e spa s i an B .v i , i sm i s s ing f r om o u r s t anda rd r e f e rence -book s .3 8 H i s a c ce s s ion c an t h e ref o re b e d a ted 8 03 x8 36 ( bu t a low ing f o r h i s p redece s so r , E cgbe rh t , who h e ld of i c e a f te r Hygba ld ' sd ea th i n8 03 a nd who h ad p robab ly n o t d i ed b ef o re t h e l a s t o ft h e o ld No r thumb r ian a nna l s , f o r 8 06 x8 08 , w a s w r i t ten ) . E admund ' s d ea th c anno t b e d a ted : h e p re sumab ly p receded t h a t E cg red who w a s A rchb i shop Wu lf s ige ' s c or re sponden t (Wu lf s ige h ad b een s u cceeded i n of i ce b y 8 45 a tt h ev e ry l a te s t ) .3 9 T he B i shop H ea thu red who s t and si nE admund ' sp l ace i n t h et we lf th cen tu ry Du rham s ou rce sw a sp re sumab ly t h es ame who w a st h eb i shop o f Wh i tho rn a f te rB i shop B eadwu lf ( who w a ss t i l la l ive i n8 03 ) : h em ay h ave b een t r an s la ted e i the ri nf a c to r ,p e rhap s mo re l i ke ly ,b y af ew s t roke so ft h ep en . 4° o f t ho se who h ad t h ree t ime s b rough t u p t o d a te t h e l i s t s n ow p re sen ted t o u s b y V , h ad u pda ted f r om A D 7 96 t o 8 40 x8 45 t h e c o l lec t i on i nhe r i ted f r om V ' s u l t ima te e xemp la r . I n p r inc ip le ,t h e ref o re ,t h en in th -cen tu ry i n f o rma t i on p re sen ted b y MSS . CCCC 1 83 , C o t ton T ibe r iu s B .v , a nd T ex tu s R of f en s i si si ndepend e n t o f t h a t i n V a nd p a r t ly c onf i rm s ( a nd s upp lemen t s ) i t ; i t s how s t h a t A rchb i shop Wigmund w a s a l ive w i th in 8 40 x8 45 , b u t i t d oe s n o t k now b i shop s o f H exham a f te r E anbe rh t , o fL ind i sf arne a f te r E cgbe rh t , o r o f Wh i tho rn a f te rB eadwu lf . E anbe rh t o f H exham t ook of i ce i n 8 00 ; Hygba ld o fL ind i sf a rne d i ed i n8 03 . T he Yo rk a nd Wh i thorn i n f orma t ion i sc on s i s ten t w i th t h i sd a te range . T he s t anda rd modern l i s t o fA ng lo -Saxon b i shop s h a s r e cen t ly b een w e l l r e v i sed b y S imon K eyne s : s e e H and book o fB r i t i sh C h r ono l o gy , e dd . E . B . F ryde e ta l . ( 3 rd e dn . , L ondon 1 986 ) , p p . 2 09-24 , b u t— a s h e h a s p o in ted o u t ( p .2 09 )— the t a b le st h e re r ema in ' n o mo re t h an a n i n te r im s t a temen t , p end ing t h e s y s tema t ic a na ly s i so fa lt h ea va i lab le e v idence ' . S ee a bove , n . 3 6 , f o r t h e e p i scopa l l i s t s ' e v idence a bou t Wigmund ' s s u cce s s ion t o Wu lf s ige . L upu s o f F e r ne re s w ro te t o A rch b i shop Wigmund i n8 5 1/2 : Wh i te lock , E ng l i sh H i s to r i ca lD o cum en t s ,p p .8 76-7 ( no .2 15 ) . 40 One mu s t n o te a l so t h e d i f f i cu l t ie s c r ea ted b y t h e e r ro r s a nd a ppa ren t h i s tor ica l i gno rance o f V ' s s c r ibe 2 : s e e D . Wh i te lock , ' The p re -V ik ing A ge C hu rch i n E a s t Ang l ia ' , A ng lo -Saxon E ng land 1 ( 1 972 ) 1 -22 , a t p p .
a nd o n t h eo the r A lhhea rd , b i shop o fE lmham , a nd A lhmund , b i shop o f Winche s te r , who se s u cce s sor sw e re i no f ice i n8 14 . T he t h ree a dd i t ion s made b y t h e f i r s t s c r ibe w e re Wig thegn o f Winche s te r ( b i shop 8 05 x8 14-836 ) a nd t h eb i shop so fH exham a nd L ind i sf arne . T h i s i n d ica te s t h a t t h e c o l lec t ion w a s u pda ted a f te r 8 06 ( t he e a r l ie s t d a te f o r t h e a c ce s s ion o f T idf e r th o f H exham ) b u t s t i l l b ef ore o r i n 8 14 . I ts e em s a l so f r om t h i s t h a t A lhmund o f Winche s te r l e f t of i ce b ef o re A lhhea rd o f E lmham . I n a dd i t ion t o k eep ing h i s S ou thumbr ian r e cord s c u r ren t , t h e s c r ibe h ad e v iden t ly m ade s ome f u r the r e nqu i r ie s t o e nab le h im t ob r ing h i s No r thumbr ian l i s t s u p t od a te . T he s e cond s c r ibe a dded t o a l t h e l i s t s e xcep t t ho se f o r Roche s te r ( Beo rnmod : 8 048 42 x8 44 ) , L ind sey ( E adwu lf : 7 96-836 x8 39 ) , a nd H exham ( T idf e r th : 8 06 x8 08? ) , t h e i m p l ica t ion b e ing t h a tt h el a s tb i shop sr e co rded b y s c r ibe 1w e re s t i l li n of i ce . A s w e s e e , t h a t w a s p l a in ly s o a t Roche s te r a nd i n L ind sey : f o r H exham , w eh ave n o a c cep tab le e v idence a st o t h e e nd o f T idf e r th ' s e p i scopa te . F o r d a t ing s c r ibe 2 ' s a c t iv i ty t h e s i gn if i can t f i gu re s a r e C eo lno th , a r chb i shop o f C an te rbu ry , who t ook o ff i ce i n 8 33 , a nd Hunbe rh t , b i shop o f L i chf i e ld , who se s u cce s so rw a si n of i ce i n8 36 . F o rt h ed a te 8 40 x8 45 , s e e Dumv i l le , ' The A ng l ian c o l lec t ion ' , p p . 4 1-2 a nd 4 6 ( t he d a te , 8 37 , g iven t h e re o n p . 4 1 f o r Wigmund ' s a c ce s s ion s hou ld n ow b e a bandoned ) . F o r o u r No r thumb r ian p urpo se st h er e levan tf a c ti st h a t a no the r Me rc ian c omp i le r , q u i te i ndependen t 34
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I tw a s t h ei mp l ica t ion o fP agan ' s d i scu s s ion o ft h e F l o r e s h i s t o r ia rum a nd H i s t o r ia Dun e lm en s i se c c l e s i e t h a t s u ch l i s t sw e re ma in ta ined i nn in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ia . Howeve r , t h i sv i ew mu s tb eq ua l if i ed b y t h ek now ledge t h a t t h eu nan im i ty o ft h e t we lf th -cen tu ry Du rham t e x t si ss ome t ime si ns h a red e r ro ro rd oub tf u ld educ t ion . Con t inu i ty o fa c cu ra te r e co rd i sn o t t h e r ef o r e t ob e a s sumed , a nd a ny i n f o rma t ion w i th s u ch a nu nce r ta in p ed ig ree c anno ts u s ta in v e ry c onf iden tu s e . F ina l ly w e c ome t o t h e t ho rough ly d ocumen ta ry . I ti sn o t k nown h ow t h e f o rge r worked who c r ea ted t h e e x t rao rd ina ry s e r ie s o fm ind -bogg l ing ly u n l ike ly Ang lo -Saxon c ha r te r s f ound i n t h e l a te med ieva l a r ch ive o f C row land Abbey ( L inc s . ) . S t ewa r t L yon h a s c i ted o ne o f t he se , d a ted 8 33 ( S .189 ) , a sb ea r ing a n a t te s ta t ion o fE anba ld I ,a r chb i shop o f Yo rk . 4'T he d a te i sn o ti mpo s s ib le ,i fal i t t le u n l ike ly : Wu lf s ige h ad s u cceeded b y8 33 x8 36 ,o nt h ee v idence o ft h el a te rs t ra tum o f a dd i t ion s t o t h e l i s t s i n C o t ton V e spa s ian B .v i . B u t t h e p o in t i st h a t t h e C row land f o rge r ie sa r e as ou r ce wh ich n o Ang lo -Saxon h i s to r ian wou ld a tp re sen t c a re t ou s ef o ra ny p u rpo se . L yon h a si mp l ied t h a tt h i sp seudo -cha r te ra nd S y lneon o f Du rham ' s D e a r ch i ep i s c op i s E bo r a c en s ibu s a r e mu tua l ly s uppo r t ive , a nd t h a t S ymeon ' s o b se rva t ion t h a t A r chb i shop E anba ld I ' s d ea th ( a nd Wu lf s ige ' s ) o ccu r red i n t h e r e ign o f K ing E an red i s t h e ref o re t o b e c r ed i ted .4 2 S uch s ynch ron i sm s , u n ive r sa l i n t h e t we lf th cen tu ry Du rham ( /Yo rk ? ) ma te r i a l wh ich w eh ave b een s t udy ing , a sa l so i n Roge r Wendove r ' s work , w e re much b e loved o f med ieva l c h ron ic le r s a nd c o mpu t i s t s : o n t h e who le , t h ey a r e as e conda ry , n o t a p r ima ry ,f e a tu re o fh i s to r ica lr e co rd . L yon h a s l a id s ome s t re s s o n t h e d a te 8 54 i n No r thumb r ian h i s to r ica l r e co rd , o b se rv ing t h a t i t' i s e xp l ic i t ly m en t ioned i n s e ve r a l d ocumen t s , s o i tc anno t b e l i gh t ly r e jec ted ' .4 3 T he f i r s t e s sen t ia l p o in t i st h a t i ti sn o t m en t ioned i n a ny d o cum en ta ta l , f o rw eh ave n one s u rv iv ing f r om e a r ly A ng lo -Saxon Nor thumb r ia . T ha t v e ry a b sence s p eak s v o lume s f o r t h e n a tu re o fi n s t i tu t iona l d i scon t inu i ty i n t h e Ang lo -Scand inav ian p e r iod . T he d a te 8 54 i smen t ioned i n an umbe ro ft we lf th a nd t h i r teen th -cen tu ry l i t e r a ry t e x t s . I nd i scu s s ing ah i s to r ica l s ub jec t , w e mu s tn o t l a p se i n to t h e l oo se l a nguage o ft h e a r chaeo log i s t who i su naccu s tomed t ow r i t ten s ou rce s : n o ta l w r i t ten t e x t sa r ed ocumen t s ; d ocumen ta ry a nd l i t e r a ry t ex t sh ave a d if e ren t s t a tu s a nd r equ i re s omewha t d if e r en t h and l ing . T he d a te 8 54 i s men t ioned i nb o th p a r t s o ft h eH i s t o r ia r e gum , i nH i s t o r i aD un e lm en s i se c c l e s i e ( I .5 ) , a nd b y Roge r Wendove r : t h ey a t t r ibu te t o i tt h e a ppo in tmen t o f A rchb i shop Wu l fhe re a nd E a rdwu lf , b i shop o f L ind i sf a rne . H i s t o r ia r e gum , P a r t Two , a nd H i s t o r ia D un e lm en s i s e c c l e s i e b o th e xp l ic i t ly p l ace t ha t y ea r i n t h e r e ign o fK ing O sbe rh t . Unf o r tuna te ly , t h e a nna l i s al a te i n te rpo la t ion i nt h e u n ique manu sc r ip t o fH i s t o r i a r e gum , P a r t One , a nd w a s p robab ly d rawn m ed ia te ly o r i mmed i a te ly t r an s ! . ) , T h e E c c l e s ia s t i ca l H i s t o ry o f O rd e r i c V i ta l i s ( 6v o l s , Oxf o rd 1 969-80 ) , I , i n t roduc t i on ; c f . C . R . H a r t , T h e E a r ly C ha r t e r s o f E a s t e rn E ng l and ( Le ice s te r1 966 ) ,p .1 ,n .2 . 42 S ymeon o f Du rham , D e a r ch i ep i s c op i s E bo ra c en s ibu s , § 2 : s e e S ym eon i s Mona ch i Op e ra Omn ia ,e d .A rno ld ,1 . 224 . 4 3 S ee a bove ,p .3 0 .
1 9-22 . I t i s n o t i mpo s s ib le t h a t , e qua l ly , E admund a nd H eaöo red h ave m i s taken ly b een p u ti ne ach o the r ' sc o lumn . 4 1 S ee a bove , p p . 2 9f . T he c ha r te r i sc a lend a red b y P . H . S awye r , A ng l o -Saxon C ha r t e r s . A n A nno ta t ed L i s t a nd B i b l iog raphy ( London 1 968 ) , p . 19 , n o . 1 89 . On C row land f o rge ry s e e t h e r ema rk s b y Ma r jor ie Ch ibna l l ( e d . a nd
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f r om P a r t Two . B o th t h e r ema in ing t e x t s a r e Du rham s ou rce s o f much t h e s ame p e r iod ,a nd m any s c ho la r sh ave h ypo the s ized as i ng le a u tho rf o rt h em ,t hu sc au s ing t h em t ob et a ken a s as i ng l ew i tne s s ,u nab le t og ive o ne a no the rs uppo r t . A nd u n t i l w e k now wha t k now l edge Roge r h ad o f t we lf th cen tu ry No r thumb r ian h i s to r iog raphy —S tA lban s ,w i th i t sd ependency a tT ynemou th ,w a sw e l lp l aced t o b e i nc on tac t 4 — we c anno t t r ea t h im a si ndependen t . F o r a l p rac t ica l p u rpo se s , t h e ref o re , w e h ave as i ng le t we lf th cen tu ry w i tne s s t ot h i s d a te ' s a s soc i a t ion w i th t h ee ven t sa nd t h e s yn ch ron i sm . T he s t epp ing s tone m e thod sb y wh ich s u ch d a te s a nd s ynch ron i sm s c ou ld b e c on s t ruc ted a r e a l t oo v i s ib le i n t h e H i s t o r ia D un e lm en s i se c c l e s i e . T he n a tu re a nd q ua l i ty o ft h et r an sm i t ted i n f o rma t ion r ema in a ti sue . T he i n s t inc td i sp l ayed b y Hugh P agan i n1 969 —f o rt h en um i sma t i s tt od i spen se w i th t h e a ppa ren t i n f o rma t ion o ft h e w r i t ten s ou rce s f o r much o fn in th cen tu ry No r thumb r ian h i s to ry a nd r e ly o n e v idence d e r ivab le d i rec t ly f r om c o inage 4 5 — mu s t , It h ink , c o mmand t h e a s sen t o ft h e h i s to r ian . Hopef u l m an ipu la t ion o ft h e t we lf th cen tu ry l i t e ra tu re s e rve s l i t t le p u rpo se . T he h i s to r ian c an o f e r o n ly t h e b roade s t d a te s a nd i n comp le te l i s t s f o r n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian s u cce s s ion s . T he n um i sma t i s ts hou ld n o tf e e le mba r ra s sed o ra po loge t i c f o rt r y ing t od ob e t te r b yt h es o le u s eo fh i sp rope rs ou rce -ma te r ia l s . F rom P agan ' s c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e n um i sma t ic e v idence , t wo p rob lem s o f p rocedu re a r e a ppa r en tt ot h i s h i s to r ian , a tl e a s t . A ng lo-Saxon n um i sma t i s t s o f ten c ommen t o n t h e d if i cu l t ie s a ppa ren t i n t r y ing t o r e conc i le o b se rved o r h ypo the s ized n umbe r s o r v o lume s o f c o in i s sue s w i th c h rono log ica l s t ruc tu re s l a rge ly i mpo sed b y l i t e ra ry a nd /o r d ocumen ta ry s ou rce s . I ft h e h i s to r ian s h ave wo rked a c cu ra te ly b u t f l ex ib ly , a l w i l l n o rma l ly c oncede e v iden t ia l p r io r i ty t o t h e i r c h rono log ie s . B u t i n as i tua t ion whe re a h i s to r ica l c h rono logy i sl a rge ly w an t ing , a ny h ope o f p rog re s s w i l l r e s t o n whe the r a g reemen t c an b e r e ached a bou t h ow t o c a l cu la te ' n um i sma t ic t ime ' . Whe re t h e h i s to r ian mu s t f e e l u nea sy w i th P agan ' s a l te rna t ive , n um i sma t ic c h rono logy i si n h i s f a i lu re t o s e t o u t t h e a s sump t ion sa nd c a lcu la t ion sb y wh ich n um i sma t ic t ime i sr e ckoned . One n eed st o k now n o tt h a tt h ec o inage so f/ E the l red I a nd R edwu lf ' c ove red ap e r iod o fe i gh t y ea r s ' ,4 6 f o r t h a t i n f o rma t ion i sd e r ived f r om Roge r Wendove r :4 7 r a the r o ne n eed st ob es hown ah i s to r ica l ly s e cu re m ea su re o fc o mpa r i son a nd am e thod wh ich t h en p rov ide sa na b so lu te ,i fa pp rox ima te ,q uan t if i ca t ion o ft ime a pp rop r ia te t ot h e o b se rved n um i sma t ic f a c t s . S ome i nd ica t ion o f t h e m a rg in s o f e r ro r i n s u ch c a l cu la t ion s wou ld a l so b e w e lcome . Num i sma t i s t s s e em f r equen t ly t om ake s u ch c a lcu la t ion s ;t h eh i s to r ian wou ld l i ke t ob ea b le t op robe t h el og ic u nde r ly ing t h em , t hu s s a t i sf y ing h im se lf t h a t h e i s n o t t h e h ap le s s v i c t im o f an um i sma t ic d e te rm in i sm . T he o the rp rob lem o fp rocedu re c once rn s t h en ow f amou s s i l ve r p enny —f rom On T ynemou th s e e D av id Know le s e ta l . , T h e H ead s o f R e l ig iou s H ou s e s , E ng land a nd Wa l e s 9 4012 16 ( Cambr idge 1 972 ) , p p . 9 6-7 ; f o ri t s med ieva lb ook s s e e N . R . K e r , Med i eva l L i b ra r i e s o f G r ea t B r i t a in ( 2nd e dn . , L ondon 1 964 ) ,p .1 9 1 .
S ee a bove ,n .3 . P agan , ' Nor thumbr ian n um i sma t ic c h ron o logy ' ,p .7 . 4 7 F l o r e s h i s t o r ia rum , s u b a nn i s 8 40 , 8 44 , 8 48 : e d . Coxe ,L 28 1-4 .
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t h e T rewh idd le h oa rd , b u r ied i n Cornwa l l c .8 75 xc .8 95 —bea r ing t h e n ame o fa K ing E an red .4 8 C a ref u l s t udy o f t h i s c o in h a s a lowed t he s e em ing ly s e cu re c onc lu s ion t h a t i ti st o b e c ompa red w i th t h e c o inage i sued b y Athe lwu lf o f We s sex i nt h e 8 50 s a nd B e rh twu lf o f Me rc i ai nt h e 8 40 s .4 9 T he o n ly k nown k ing o f t h e n ame i s t h e r u le r o f No r thumb r i a t o whom o u r t we lf th - a nd t h i r teen th cen tu ry s ou rce s a t t r ibu te al e ng thy r e ign w i th in t he p e r iod 8 06-42 . 5° T h i sk ing i sw e l l r ep re sen ted b y a n a pp ropr i a te c o inage . Ne i the r t h e f o rm n o r t h e s t y le o ft h e E an red s i lve r p enny s e em s t o s u i t a n e qua t ion w i th aNo r thumb r ian k ing o ft h ef i r s th a lf o ft h en in th c en tu ry . F u r the rmo re , G . C . B rooke g ave i ta sh i s o p in ion t h a t ' t he s t y le o f t he c o in s e em s .. .to p rove i tt o b e a n i sue o f t h e C an te rbu ry m in t .5 1 T o mee t t h i s d if i cu l ty , e x t rao rd ina ry h ypo the se s h ave b een a dvanced . I t may n o tb e who l ly u nf a i rt os u spec tt h a ti tp rov ided much o ft h ef u e lp owe r ing P agan ' s r ad ica l r e a s se s smen t o f No r thumb r ian c h rono logy . A l te rna t ive ly w e h ave b een i nv i ted t o a low t h e e x i s tence o f' ah i s to r ica l ly u nknown k ing , who w a s r u l ing , p o s s ib ly i nt h eM id land s ,a bou t8 50 ' .5 2 T he s t a r t ing p o in t f o rf u r the re nqu i ry mu s tb et h eh oa rd i t se lf . T he e a r l ie s t c o in a t t r ibu ted t oi ti so ne o f Of f a o f Me rc ia ( 7 57-96 ) . B u t t h e b u lk o fi t s n um i sma t ic c on ten t s c on s i s t s o fc o in s o ft h e Me rc ian k ing s B e rh twu lf ( 8 4052 ) a nd e s pec ia l ly B u rg red ( 8 52-74 ) , Athe lwu lf o f We s sex ( 8 3958 ) a nd A rchb i shop C eo lno th ( 8 33-70 ) : t oge the rt h e se a c coun t f o rs ome e i gh ty o ft h en ine ty -f ive c o in so f wh ich p rec i se r e co rd s u rv ive s . No o ve r t ly No r thumb r ian c o in sw e re i nt h eh oa rd , who se ma jo rn um i sma t ic c on ten tw a sa pp rox ima te ly 5 2c o in so fK ing B u rg red . I n a t t r ibu t ing t h i s p enny t o a n o the rw i se u nknown r u le r , s c ho la r s h ave t a c i t ly a dm i t ted t h a t o u r k now ledge o fS ou thumb r ian n in th cen tu ry h i s to ry h a s l a cunae o ft h e s o r t t o wh ich t h e No r thumb r ian p rob lem s d i scu s sed h e re h ave a ccu s tomed u s . K ing s o fE a s t Ang l ia i nt h i sp e r iod a r ek nown o n ly f r om n um i sma t ic e v idence . T he h i s to r i an mu s t a dm i t t h a t t h e Me rc ian s u cce s s ion o fB u rg red t oB e rh twu lf i s n o tw e l ld ocumen ted :5 3 i np r inc ip le , a no the rr u le rm igh th ave i n te rvened , b u to ne wou ld h ave e xpec ted h im t o h ave b een r e co rded i n t h e r egna l l i s t p re se rved a t 48 S ee D . M . Wi l son a nd C . E . B lun t , ' The T rewh idd le h oa rd ' , A r cha eo l og ia 9 8 [ 2nd S . , 4 8 ] ( 1 96 1 ) 7 5122 , e spec ia l ly p p . 1 09-20 a nd p l a te XXX I . 49 I b id . , p p . 1316 . Ma rk B lackbu rn h a s k ind ly p o in ted o u t t o me t h a t t he o bve r se i st o b e c ompa red w i th / E the lwu lf sa nd t he r eve r se w i th B e rh twu lf sc o in s . 5 9 H e s u cceeded a f te r p e rhap s t wo ( b r ie f ? ) r e ign s wh ich h ad b egun w i th a d epo s i t ion i n 8 06 x8 08 : f o r t h ed epo s i t ion o fK ing E a rdwu lf s e e Ang lo-Saxon Ch ron ic le s . a . 8 06 DE a nd A nna l e sr e gn iF r an c o rum ,s . a . 8 08 . T he l a te s td a te f o r E an red ' s d ea th i s i mp l ied b y H i s t o r ia Dun e lm en s i s e c c l e s i e , 1 .5 ( e d . A rno ld , 1 . 50-3 ) , v i z AD 8 40 x8 42 , y ea r s c a lcu la ted b y s t epp ing s tone d a t ing . T he H i s t o r ia i mp l ie st h a t h e r e igned f o r t h i r ty th ree y ea r s ; S e r i e s r e gum N o r thymb r en s ium ( i b id . , 1 .39 1 ) s t a te s t h i s d i rec -
t l y , wh i le t he L i b e l lu sd ep r imo S axonum a du en tu g ive st h i r tytwo ( i b id . ,I .3 77 ) . 5 1 E ng l i sh C o in sf r om t h eS ev en th C en tu ry t ot h e P r e s en t D ay ( 3 rd e dn . , L ondon 1 950 ) , p . 4 4 . Mark B lackbu rn s uppor t s t he K en t i sh a s c r ip t i on , b u t h a s s ugge s ted t ha t Roche s te r may p rov ide amore s a t i sf ac tory p o in t o fo r ig in : s e e P . G r ie r son a nd M . B lackbu rn , Med i eva l E u r o p ean C o inag e , I( Cambr idge 1 986 ) , p p . 3 001 . C f . a l so S . K eyne s a nd M . B lackburn , A ng l o S axon C o in s : An E xh i b i t ion ( F i tzw il iam Mu s e um ,C amb r idge 1 985 ) ,p p .7 -8 . 5 2 Wi l son a nd B lun t ,' The T rewh idd le h oa rd ' , p . 16 . 5 3 C f . Ang lo -Saxon Chron ic le , s . aa . 8 51 a nd 8 53 . No g enu ine Me rc ian r oya ld ip loma c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he y ea r s 8 50-854 : s e e S awye r , A ng l o -Saxon C ha r t e r s ,p p . 1 2 1-3 .
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TE XT UAL ARC HAE OL OGY AN D N O RT H U MB R IA N H IST O RY
Wo rce s te ra nd d a tab le 9 07 x9 11 .5 4 O n t h e o the rh and , a no the r ( a nd mo re r e cen t ) r ad ica l s ugge s t ion b y Hugh P agan m igh tb eb rough ti n to p l ay . I n8 5 1 C an te rbu ry w a ss t o rmed b y aS cand inav ian a rmy . No t ing t h a t ' i n t h ei mmed ia te a f te rma th . . . t h e p roduc t ion o fc o inage s e em s ' a lmo s t c omp le te ly t oh ave s t opped a nd t h a t t h e s ma l l s e r ie s o f a r ch i ep i scopa l i sue s c on t inued i n a lmo s t s p lend id i s o la t ion a nd i ndependence , P agan f ound i t' t emp t ing t os e et h ee xp lana t ion a s al o s s o fp o l i t ica l c on t ro li nK en tb yt h e We s t S axon r oya lh ou se ' . S uch ' wou ld c e r ta in ly e xp la in t h e c o mp le te c e s sa t ion o fc o inage f r om Roche s te r ' .5 T h i s i sa n a t t rac t ive h ypo the s i s . I fw e h ave t of i nd s p ac e f o r a n o the rw i se u nknown S ou thumbr ian k ing C . AD 8 50 , t h en a n ' i ndependen t ' K en t i nt h e f ew y ea r s f r om 8 5 1 m igh t p rove t o b e av e ry c onven ien tl o ca t ion . C e r ta in ly t h e re i s ah i a tu si nt h e c ha r te r se r ie s o f We s t S axon r oya l d ip loma s c once rn ing l a nd i nK en t : AD 8 51 , 8 52 , 8 53 , a nd 8 54 a l l a ck s u ch r e co rd s .5 6 S uch al o ca t ion wou ld a l so mee tt h ed emand so f , a nd s ugge s t ion sa r i s ing f r om , t h en um i sma t ic e v idence . Wi thou t as uf i c ien tn umbe ro fp rovenanced c o in s o fE an red t oa low ad i s t r ibu t ion -map t ob ec r ea ted , a l t h i si ss p ecu la t ion . B u ts u ch as o lu t ion m ay s e em mo re e conom ica lt h an t h ec a rv ing o u to fn ew k ingdom sf r om Me rc ian t e r r i to ry o r t h e who le sa le r eo rgan iza t ion o f No r thumb r ian r oya l a nd e p i scopa lc h rono logy . Ap l ea f o rt he a r chaeo logy o ft e x t sh a sb rough tu s al ong w ay f r om o u r s t a r t ing p o in t . L e t u s r e tu rn t h e re . T he mo s t b a s ic l aw s o f h i s to r ica l e v idence a r e v e ry s t ra igh tf o rwa rd . H i s to ry mu s t b e w r i t ten f r om c on tempo ra ry s ou rce s o r w i th t h e a i d o f t e s t imony c a r r ied t o al a te r e r a b y a n i d en t if i ab le a nd a c cep tab le l i ne o f t r an sm i s s ion . Many t e x t s wh ich p re sen t t h em se lve s f o r o u r c on s ide ra t ion a s t e s t imony t o Ang lo -Saxon h i s to ry a r e c r ea t ion s r emo te f r om t h a t a ge . H i s to r ica l w r i t ing may b e e n t e r ta in ing i fa na u tho r c hoo se s t oc u t c o rne r s o ri gno re t h e r u le s o fe v idence when a s se s s ing s u ch wo rk s —bu t i tw i l l n o t b e wo r th t h e p ape r i ti s p r in ted o n . L ondon , B r i t i sh L ibra ry , MS . Co t ton T ibe r iu s A .x i i i , f o 14v , ac opy o fc . AD 1 000 : s e e f u r the r D . N . Dumv i l le , ' K ing sh ip , g enea l og ie s a nd r egna l l i s t s ' , i n E a r ly Med i eva l K ing sh ip , e dd . P . H . S awye r a nd I .N . Wood ( Leed s 1 977 ) , p p . 7 2104 , a t9 9100 ; c f . F rank Me r ry S t en ton , P r epa r a t o ry t o ' Ang lo -Saxon E ng land ' ( Oxf o rd 1 970 ) ,p .3 72 . H . P agan , ' Co inage i n s ou the rn E ng land , 7 96-874 ' , i n A ng l o -Saxon Mon e ta ry H i s t o ry . E s say si n Memo ry o fM i cha e lD o l l ey ,e d . M .A . S .
B l a ckbu rn ( L e i c e s t e r1 986 ) ,p p .4 5-65 ,a t5 7 . C f . S awye r , A ng l o -Saxon C ha r t e r s , p p . 1 45-9 . It a ke S . 3 16 ( i b id . , p . 1 49 ) a sb e long ing t o AD 8 55 ; t h e l a s t p rev iou s K en t i sh c ha r te r o f e ven a pprox ima te p l au s ib i l i ty i sS . 300 , d a ted 8 50 ( i b id . , p . 1 45 ) . One may c ompa re t h i s s i tua t ion w i th t h a t i n Me rc ia ( a bove , n . 5 3 ) . T he re i sa l so a n a b sence o f We s t S axon r oya l d ip loma s f o r AD 8 51 , 8 52 , a nd 8 53 ( i b id . , p . 1 45 ) .
54
56
55
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Co inage a nd No r thumbr ian h i s tory : c . 790c .810 JAMES BOOTH
[ P LATE S2 -3 ]
AT S OME t ime t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e e i gh th c en tu ry t h e s i lve r s o -ca l led ` s cea t ta '
c o inage o f No r thumb r ia u nde rwen t ac hange o f r e ve r se t ype . T he o bve r se c on t inued , a sb ef o re , t o s how a c r o s s s u r rounded b y t h e k ing ' s n ame . B u t t h e ' f an ta s t ic a n ima l ' wh ich h ad a ppea red o n t h e r eve r se s o f No r thumb r ian r ega l c o in s s i nce t h e r e ign o f E adbe rh t ( 7 37-58 ) w a s n ow r e p la ced b y ac ro s s s u r rounded b y t h e n ame o f amoneye r . A s f a r a sh a s b een a s ce r ta ined t h e m e ta l q ua l i ty o ft h e f i r s t c o in s o ft h e n ew t ype , s t ruck i nt h e n ame s o f' E the l red ' a nd i E lfwa ld , r ema ined u nchanged , s o t h e n ew t ypo logy s e em s t o h ave b een o f a dm in i s t ra t ive r a the r t h an e conom ic s i gn if i cance . I n b road t e rm s t h e h i s to r ica l c on tex to ft h e se s i l ve r moneye r ' s -name c o in si sc l ea re nough , t hough t h e re r ema in o ne o r t wo amb igu i t i e s . Hugh P agan h a sn ow a bandoned h i sh ypo the s i s , e vo lved a ta n e a r l ie r s t age o fr e sea rch i n to t h e s e r ie s , t h a t t h e l a rge r g roup , i nt h e n ame o f " E the l red , c ou ld b e long t o a n o the rw i se u n reco rded k ing r e ign ing i n t h e 8 20 s .2
A cknow l edg em en t s . Wi thou t t h e a dv ice a nd t h e u n s t in t ing h e lp o f M i s s E .J .E . P i ne o f L eed s C i ty Mu seum , i n p rov id ing a c ce s s t o h e r e x ten s ive r e co rd s a nd p ho togr aph s o f c o in s i n t h i s s e r ie s , t he c o rpu s o fs p ec imen s wou ld h ave b een e x t reme ly d if icu l t t oc omp i le , a nd wou ld h ave b een v e ry i n comp le te . Iam i ndeb ted t o D r D . M . Me tca lf o ft h e A shmo lean , t o M i s s M . M . A rch iba ld o f t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum , a nd t o Hugh P agan , f o r t h e i r h e lp a nd a dv ice a t v a r iou s s t age s i n w r i t ing . O the r d i rec t a nd i nd i rec t d eb t s a r e m en t ioned i n t h e n o te s . T he u nde r s tand ing o fs os p a r se a nd w ide ly s c a t te red ab ody o f h i s to r ica l e v idence c an o n ly b e , o f n ece s s i ty , ac o-ope ra t ive v en tu re . A ny m i s take s i n t h e p re sen t p ape r , h oweve r , a r e t he r e spons i b i l i ty o ft he a u thor a l one . P e rm i s s ion t o p ub l i sh p a r t icu la r c o in s w a s k ind ly g iven b y t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum , t he A shmo lean Mu seum , t h e Mu seum o f An t iqu i t i e s , Un ive r s i ty o f N ewca s t le -upon-Tyne , t h e T he tf o rd Mu seum , t h e G la sgow Mu seum a nd A r t G a l le ry , K e lv ing rove , t h e Ryeda le F o lk Mu seum , Hu t ton le -Ho le , a nd b y s e ve ra l p r iv a t e c o l lec tor s . T hank s f o r p ho tog raph s a nd
5 7
p ho tocop ie s a r e d ue t o M i s s E . J . E . P i ne ( no s .2-4 , 9 10 , 1 4 , 1 9-20 , 2 4 , 2 7 , 3 2 , 3 6 , 3 8 , 4 1 , 4 3 , 4 9-50 , 5 5 , 6 0 , 6 4-5 ) , t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum ( no s .8 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 718 , 2 1 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 2 9-30 , 3 3 , 3 9-40 , 4 2 , 4 4 , 5 2 , 5 6 , 5 8 , 6 1-2 ) , t h e A shmo lean Mu seum ( no s .12 , 2 8 , 3 1 , 3 4 , 4 5-6 , 5 4 , 5 9 , 6 8 , 7 0 ) , Tony Meech ( no s .1 , 7 a nd 6 3 ) , Hu l l Un ive r s i ty P ho tog raph ic S e rv ice ( no .37 ) , G la s g ow Mu seum a nd A r t G a l le ry , K e lv ing rove ( no .26 ) , D av id Wick s o ft h e No rf o lk A rchaeol og ica l Un i t ( no .57 ) , a nd Mr A . Gun s tone ( no .69 ) . 1 T he c o r rec t i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e c o in s wh ich b e long t o t h i s s i lve r moneye r ' s -name g roup b egan w i th t h e wo rk o fI a n S t ewa r t a nd C . S .S .L yon ( Lyon 1 955-7 ) , p p .228-9 . B ef ore t h i s t ime many b lunde red b ra s s c o in s o f t h e m id -n in th c en tu ry w e r e i n co r rec t ly a t t r ibu ted t o . / E lfwa ld I ,' E the l red I ,E a rdwu lf , a nd 2 1 E lf w a ld I .T h i si st h ec a se f o re xamp le w i th a l t h e c o in s i lu s t ra ted b y H . A . P a r son s i n' The c o in s o f! E the l red Io f Nor thumb r ia ' , BN J 1 0 ( 1 9 13 ) , 1 -8 . 2 P agan , 1 969 , p p .3 a nd 1 3 . B oo th , 1 984 , p p .86-8 .
JA MES BOOTH
T he re n ow s e em s l i t t le d oub t t h a t mo s t , i fn o t a l , o ft h e se c o in s b e long t o t h e s e cond r e ign o f ' E the l red I ( 7 90-6 ) .3 T h ey t hu s p rov ide i mpo r tan t p r ima ry e v idence f o r t h e p e r iod h a lf ac en tu ry a nd mo re a f te r t h e d ea th o fB ede , at ime when t h e n o r the rn k ingdom b eg in s t os l i p f r om t h e h i s to r ian ' s v i ew , e c l ip sed b y t h e p auc i ty o f w r i t ten r e co rd s . I n t h e s ou th Me rc ian h egemony h ad b een e s tab l i shed u nde r Athe lba ld a nd Of f a , a nd o nt h ec on t inen tC ha r le st h eG rea tw a s w e l l e mba rked o n t h e s e r ie s o f c onque s t s wh ich wou ld s ho r t ly l e ad t o h i s c o rona t ion a s' Empe ro r o ft h e Roman s ' . I ti si ndeed i nt h e c ou r t o fC ha r le s t h a t w e f i nd t h e o n ly No r thumb r ian o f t h i s p e r iod who se n ame i sn ow g ene r a l ly r emembe red : A lcu in . T he mo s t s t r ik ing f e a tu re o ft h i s c o inage i st h e e v idence i tg ive s o fa n a b rup t c e s sa t ion ( o r d ra s t ic r educ t ion ) o f m in t ing a t s ome p o in t d u r ing / E the l red I ' s s e cond r e ign . T he c o inage o fr e la t ive ly g ood s i l ve r , wh ich h ad b een i sued f r om t h e7 40 so nwa rd s , i nf l uc tua t ing v o lume b u tp robab ly w i thou t as i gn if i can tb re ak , e i the r f a i led c o mp le te ly a ts ome t ime i n t h e e a r ly 7 90 s , o r w a s r educ ed t o s u ch s ma l l q uan t i t ie s t h a t n o s p ec imen s h ave s u rv ived i n t h e n ame o f A the l r ed ' s s u cce s so r , E a rdwu lf ( 7 96-808 ) . When t h e c o inage a ga in a ppea r s i nv i ew , a f te r a h i a tu s o f mo re t h an ad ecade , i tp re se rve s t h e s ame t ypo logy b u t a im s , a sm e ta l a na ly se s o ft h e c o in s o fE an red ( 8 10-4 1 ) s how , a t as i gn if i can t ly l owe red s i lve r s t anda rd . Ou r k now ledge o fr e la t ive m e ta l q u a l i ty i si mpe rf ec t , a nd t h e e a r l ie r a na ly t ica l r e su l t s a r e n ow c on s ide red t o b e g ene ra l ly u n re l iab le . N eve r the le s s i t s e em s p robab le t h a t A the l red ' s c o in s a imed a t as t anda rd o f6 0 p e r c en t s i l ve r o r mo re , whe rea s E an red ' s e a r l ie s t c o in s b a re ly e xceeded 4 0 p e r c en t s i l ve r . T he s t anda rd d egene ra ted f u r the r d u r ing E an red ' s r e ign , a nd t h e m a jo r i ty o f h i s s u rv iv ing c o in s a r e , l i ke t ho se o fh i s s u cce s so r s , s t ruck i n ab ra s s a loy c on ta in ing o n ly 8 o r 1 0 p e r c en t s i lve r . 4 Num i sma t i s t s h ave l ong b een a c cu s tomed t o c a l l t h e se n ew d eba sed c o in s o ft h en in th c en tu ry ` s tyca s ' , a l though , a si sw e l lk nown , t h i s wo rd h a s , l i ke ` s cea t ta s ' , n o r e a l h i s to r ica l j u s t if i ca t ion , a l t h e c o in s mo s t p robab ly h av ing b een c a l led ' p enn ie s ' b y t h e i r u s e r s . T he d i s t inc t ion o f n omenc la tu re d oe s h oweve r s e rve t o h igh l igh t t h e d rama t ic b reak i n t h e c on t inu i ty o fe conom ic a c t iv i ty wh ich o ccu r red i n No r thumb r ia a tt h i st ime .5 Unf o r tuna te ly t h e o the r , much s ma l le r g roup o fc o in s , s t ruck i nt h e n a me o f A lfwa ld , c anno t b e c onc lu s ive ly a t t r ibu ted , s i nc e i t f i t s i n to t h e h i s to r ica l s e quence w i th e qua l p l au s ib i l i ty a t t wo d if e r en t p o in t s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e t r an s i t ion f r om a n ima l t o moneye r ' s -name r eve r se o ccu r red d u r ing t h e r e ign o f Athe l red ' s p redece s so r , A lfwa ld I( 7 79-88 ) . T he c o in s m ay t hu s b e long t oh im , a nd A the l red ' s c o in s m ay b e ad eve lopmen t f r om t h em . T he d i scove ry o f a s p ec imen i nt h e n ame o fO s red , t h e i n te rven ing k i ng ( 7 88-90 ) wou ld p e rh ap s g o s ome w ay t owa rd s s ub s tan t ia t ing t h i s a t t r ibu t ion . I ti sh oweve r a l so p o s s ib le t h a t
3 F o r d i scu s s ion o f t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t s ome o f t h e c o in s b e long t o Athe l red ' s f i r s t r e ign ( 7 74-9 ) s e eb e low . 4 D . M . Me tca lf , J . M . Me r r ick , a nd L . K . H amb l in , S t ud i e s i n t h e C ompo s i t ion o f E a r ly Med i eva l C o in s , Newca s t le -upon-Tyne , 1 968 , p p .52-4 . G i lmo re a nd Me tca lf , 1 980 , p . 94 . 5 M i s s P i ne ' s u sage , wh ich t e rm s a l
5 8
moneye r ' s -name a nd n amed a r ch iep i scopa l c o in s ` s tyca s ' ( P i ne , 1 986 , p . 67 ) , t hough t ypo l og ica l ly e xac t , h a s t he d i sadvan tage o fg iv ing p rom inence t o t he c hange o f d e s ign .a t t h e e xpen se o f t h e more h i s tor ica l ly i mpor tan t c hange o fm e ta l -qua l i ty . S ee J .B oo th , ' H i s tory v s . n um i sma t ic s : " s cea t ta s a nd s t yca s" , S p ink Num i sma t i cC i r cu l a r9 5 ( 1 987 ) , 6 .
CO I NAGE AND H ISTORY ,
c . 790— c .8 10
i tw a s A lfwa ld I ( 8 0810 ) , who r ev ived t h e c o inage a f te r t h e b r eak i n m in t ing , r a the r t h an h i s s u cce s so r E an red ( 8 10-4 1 ) , a nd t h e se c o in s may t h e ref o re b e long i n s tead a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft he n in th -cen tu ry s e r ie s . Re l iab le me ta l a na ly s i s wh ich s howed t h e f i E lfwa ld c o in s t o b e o f l ow s i lve r c on ten t wou ld b e r e a sonab ly c onc lu s ive p roof o f t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion . B u t i ft h e c o in s p rove t o h ave ah ighe r s i lve r c on ten t , t hey m ay n eve r the le s s s t i l l b e long t o t h i s s e cond A lfwa ld , r ep re sen t ing p e rhap s a n a bo r t ive a t temp t b y h im t o r e s to re t h e c o inage o n t h e s t anda rd o ft h e p rev iou s c en tu ry . Unf or tuna te ly n o s p ec imen o ft h e i sue h a s y e t b een a na ly sed f o r me ta lq ua l i ty . B u t t h e p rob lem o f whe the r t h e A lfwa ld c o in s a r e t ob e a s s igned t ot h e p e r iod b ef o re o r a f te r t he b reak i nm in t ing i s ar e la t ive ly m ino r o ne c o mpa red w i th t h a t o f t h e b reak i n m in t ing i t se lf . Why , i t mu s t b e a s ked , d id t h e c o inage c o l lap se d u r ing t h e r e ign o f/ E the l red I ,a si ta ppa ren t ly d id ? F u r the rmo re , why d o n o c o in s s u rv ive f r om t h e t we lve -yea r r e ign o ft h e d ynam ic a nd e n te rpr i s ing k ing E a rdwu lf ? I t i s i n t h e p o s ing a nd a n swe r ing o f t h e se q ue s t ion s t h a t t h e n um i sma t i s t h a s p e rhap s h i s mo s t s i gn if i can t c on t r ibu t ion t o make t o t h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e h i s to ry o f No r thumb r ia i n t h e l a te e i gh th a nd e a r ly n in th c en tu r ie s . THE DOCU MENTS B ef o re c on s ide r ing t he s u rv iv ing n um i sma t ic ma te r ia l i t w i l l b e u s ef u l t o s umma r ize t h e h i s to ry o f t h e se t wo d ecade s , a s i th a s b een p re se rved i n t h e s u rv iv ing d ocumen t s . Apa r t f r om t h e a nna l s , wh ich g ive t h e d a te s o ft h e k ing s a nd b i shop s , a nd o fo ne o r t wo p ub l ic e ven t s , w e a r e f o r tuna te i nt h e c a se o ft h e 7 90 s i n p o s se s s ing a no the r s ub s tan t ia l s ou rce , i n t h e f o rm o f l e t te r s w r i t ten b y A lcu in f r om t h e c our t o f Cha r le s t h e G rea t , t ot h ree No r thumb r ian k ing s , t o t h e a r chb i shop o fY o rk , t o t h e b i shop o fL ind i sf a rne , a nd t o o the r s . T he se h e lp , a t l e a s t t o s ome e x ten t , i n f l e sh ing o u t e ven t s a nd p e r sonage s a nd s how i n s o me d e ta i l wha t o ne i mpo r tan t No r thumb r ian f e l t a bou t t h em . T hu s a l though w e d o n o t e xac t ly h ave a w ea l th o f d ocumen ta t ion f r om t h i s d ecade , w e h ave s i gn if i can t ly mo r e t han f r om a ny o the r p e r iod i n t h e h i s to ry o f t h e k ingdom b e tween t h ed ea th o fB ede i n7 34 a nd t h eD an i sh c onque s to f8 67 . Ou r i nf o rma t ion a bou t d a te s i n t h e p e r iod c . 790— c .8 10 i sd e r ived s ub s tan t ia l ly f r om a s i ng le s e t o f n o r the rn a nna l s wh ich s e em t o h ave b een i n tended a s a c on t inua t ion o f B ede ' s c h rono log ica l e p i tome .6 T he se d o n o t s u rv ive i n t h e i r o r ig ina l f o rm , b u t o n ly a sc op ied b y l a te r w r i te r s , who s e lec t a nd om i t ma te r ia l a c co rd ing t ot h e i r own p a r t icu la r p reoccupa t ion s . T he H i s t o ry o ft h e K ing s , wh ich s u rv ive s i n al a te t we lf th -cen tu ry manu sc r ip t ,7 s e em s t o p re se rve t h i s o r ig ina l f a i thf u l ly e nough , b u t s udden ly a bandon s i t s n o r the rn s ou rce a f te r t h e a nna l f o r 8 0 1 . MSS D a nd E o ft h e l E lf red ian C h ron ic le a l so p re se rve t h e No r thumbr ian o r ig ina l , w i th s ome s l igh t v a r ia t ion s , a nd t a ke t h e r e co rd u p t o 8 06 . F o r tuna te ly t h e n o r the rn m a te r ia l w a s a dded l a te a nd i st hu s u naf f ec ted b y t h e c opy i s t ' s T he a t t r ibu t ion t o. S imeon o f Du rham , wh ich a ppea r s i n t h e manu sc r ip t , i sq ue s t ion a b le . My r ema rk s i n t h i s s e c t ion a r e l a rge ly i ndeb ted t oP agan , 1 969 .
S ee J . E a r le a nd C . P lumme r , Two o f t h e S axon C h r on i c l e s P a ra l l e l , w i th S upp l em en ta ry E x t r a c t s f r om t h e O th e r s , 1 899 , r e i s sued 1 952 , y o 1 .2 , p . lx ix .
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c onf u s ion b y wh ich mo s t e ven t s b e tween 7 54 a nd 8 45 a r e u sua l ly d a ted t wo o r t h ree y ea r st oo e a r ly .8T he re a r en eve r the le s s t wo o cca s ion s , a sw es h a l l s e e , whe re t h e C h r on i c l e ' s n o r the rn d a te s d o s t i l l n eed t o b e c o r rec ted b y r e f e rence t o t h e H i s t o ry o ft h e K ing s . T he t h i rd s i gn if i can t s ou rc e f o r t h i s p e r iod i st h eF l ow e r so ft h e H i s t o r i e s b y Roge r o f Wendove r , w r i t ten i nt h e e a r ly t h i r teen th c en tu ry , wh ich i n c lude s e n t r ie s f o r 8 08 a nd 8 10 n o t p re sen t i n e i the r o ft h e o the r s ou rce s . T he o the r l e s s d e ta i led E ng l i sh c h ron ic le s wh ich r e f e r t o t h i s p e r iod , n ame ly T h e A nna l so fL ind i sf a rn e a nd Du rham , a nd t wo p i ece s a t t r ibu ted t oS imeon o f Du rham ( T h e S e r i e s o fN o r thumb r ian K ing s a nd T h e H i s t o ry o ft h e C hu r ch o fD u rham ) a dd f ew d e ta i l s a nd s e em t o h ave n o i ndependen t a u tho r i ty . C o r robor a t ion o fe ven t s a nd d a te s i sh oweve r o f f e red b y t h e o cca s iona l r e f e rence t o No r thumb r ia i n i ndependen tF rank i sh s ou rce s . F rom t h e se s u rv iv ing a nna l s af r amework o fd a te s eme rge s , f o r t h e mo s t p a r t a ppa ren t ly s e cu re . I n7 88 ( MSS D a nd E o ft h e C h r on i c l e h ave 7 89 ) t h e ' e xce l len t k ing ' l E lfwa ld Iw a s k i l led a st h e r e su l t o f ac on sp i racy , a nd w a s s u c ceeded b y O s red , h i s n ephew a nd s on o fK ing A lch red ( 7 65-74 ) .9 O s red t hu s b e longed t o t h e l e g i t ima te r oya l f am i ly , t h e h ou se o fI d a . T he l e g i t imacy o fh i s c l a im t o t h e t h rone h oweve r d id h im l i t t le g ood . I n 7 90 , a st h e H i s t o ry o ft h e K ing s r e l a te s , h e w a s o u s ted b y ' E the l red I , a r ep re sen ta t iv e o f t he r i va l r oya l h ou se o f No r thumb r ia , wh ich h ad f i r s t c o me t o t he f o r e u nde r / E the l red ' s f a the r , k ing J E the lwa ld Mo l l ( 7 59-65 ) . O s red , ' d ece ived b y t h e g u i le o fh i s n ob le s ' , w a s t aken p r i sone r a nd f o rc ib ly t on su red , b ef o re f l ee ing i n to e x i le . Unde r t h e a nna l f o r t h i s s ame y ea r , 7 90 , t h e f u tu re k ing E a rdwu lf make s h i s f i r s t a ppea rance . K ing O s red h ad a t temp ted u n succe s sf u l ly t oh ave h im e xecu ted : I n h i s s e cond y ea r , E a ldo rman E a rdwu lf w a s c ap tu red a nd b rough t t o R ipon , a nd o rde r s w e re g iven b y t h e a f o re sa id k ing f o rh im t ob ek iled t h e r eo u t s ide t h e g a te o ft h e mona s te ry . A nd t h eb re th ren c a r r ied h i s b ody t ot h e c hu r ch w i th G r ego r i an c han t s , a nd p l aced i to u t s ide i n at e n t , a nd a f t e rm idn igh th ew a sf ound i nt h ec hu rch , a l ive ." '
' E the l red I ' s s e cond r e ign s how s h im r e so r t ing t o t h e t r ad i t iona l mean s o f mu rde r a nd ma r r iage t o s e cu re h i s p o s i t ion . H e p reven ted i n te rna l t h rea t s b y mu rde r ing r i va l c l a iman t s t o t h e t h rone : f i r s t t he t wo s on s o fi E lfwa ld i n 7 91 , t h en t h ef o rme rk ing O s red o nh i s r e tu rn f r om e x i le i nt h ef o l low ing y ea r . A l so i n 7 92 / E the l red a t temp ted t od ef u se t h e m i l i ta ry t h rea tf r om t h e s ou th b y ma r ry ing i E lf f Ixd , d augh te r o f Of f a , k ing o ft h e Me rc ian s . I tw a sh oweve ri nt h en ex t y e a r , 7 93 , t h a t t h e e ven t o ccu r red f o r wh ich h i s r e ign w i l l a lway s b e mo s t v iv id ly r emembe red . A s MS D o ft h e C h r on i c l er e la te s : I nt h i s y ea rd i re p o r ten t s a ppea red o ve r Nor thumb r ia a nd s o r e ly f r igh tened t h ep eop le . T hey c on s i s ted o fi mmen s e wh i r lw ind s a nd f l a she s o fl i gh tn ing , a nd f i e ry d ragon s w e r e s e en f l y ing
i nq u e s t ion , r a th e r t h an " E th e l r ed , a st h e t r an s l a t ion i n EHD a mb iguou s ly s u gge s t s . S e e S ym eon i s Dun e lm en s i s , O p e r a e t C o l l e c t an e a , v o l . I , S u r te e s S o c i e ty ( 1 868 ) ,p . 30 .
EHD ,n o .1 , p . 162 . S e eE a r l ea nd P lumme r , v o l .2 ,p p .c i i— c iv . H i s t o ry o ft h eK ing s , EHD ,n o .3 ,p . 246 . 1° E HD , n o .3 , p . 246 . T he L a t in w o rd ing o f t h e a nn a l m ak e s i tc l e a r t h a t O s r ed i st h e k i ng 8
9
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i n t h e a i r , a nd al i t t le a f te r t h a t i n t h e s ame y ea r , o n 8J une , t h e r a vage s o fh e a then men m i se rab ly d e s t royed God ' sc hu rch o nL ind i sf a rne , w i th p lunde ra nd s l augh te r ."
I n t h e f o l low ing y ea r t h e mona s te ry a tJ a r row w a s a l so a t tacked . A s w e s h a l l s e e t h e amoun t o fd i s rup t ion a nd d amage c au sed b y t h e se r a id sh a sb een t h e s ub jec t o f s ome d oub t . T he c o in s o f t h e p e r iod may b e s e en a s c ruc ia l e v idence i n t h e a rgumen t . C e r ta in ly A lcu in v i ewed t h e V ik ing a t tack i n t h e mo s t s e r iou s l i gh t a s a man if e s ta t ion o f t h e w ra th o f G od a ga in s t t h e k ingdom . A l e t te r t o K ing / E the l red p o in t s t h e f i nge r , w i th t h e b a re s t s how o f d ef e rence , a tt h e v i ce s a nd e x t ravagance o f t h e a r i s toc r acy a nd t h e c ou r t a st h e c au se o f t h i s d iv ine a nge r . S i nce t h e d ay s o fK ing A lfwa ld , h e s a y s , ` f o rn ica t ion s , a du l te r ie s , a nd i n ce s t h ave p ou red o ve r t h e l a nd , s ot h a t t h e se s i n s h ave b een c omm i t ted w i thou t a ny s h ame a nd e ven a ga in s t h andma id s d ed ica ted t o God . ' A lcu in g oe s o n t o men t ion ' a va r ice , r obbe ry , v io len tj udgemen t s ' , i n ac l ea rw a rn ing t ot h ek ing a nd h i s men . Whoeve r r e ad s h o ly s c r ip tu re s a nd p onde r s a nc ien t h i s to r ie s a nd c on s ide r s t h e f o r tune o ft h e wo r ld w i l l f i nd t h a t f o r s i n s o ft h i s k ind k ing s l o s t k ingdom s a nd p eop le s t h e i r c oun t ry ; a nd wh i le t h e s t rong u n ju s t ly s e i zed t h e g ood s o fo the r s , t h ey j u s t ly l o s t t h e i r own . T he p r ince s ' s uperf lu i ty i sp ove r ty f o r t h e p eop le ... S ome l a bou r u nde r a n e no rm i ty o f c l o the s , o the r s p e r i sh w i th c o ld ; s om e a r e i nund a ted w i th d e l i cac ie s a nd f e a s t ing s l i ke D ive s c l o thed i n p u rp le , a nd L aza ru s d i e s o f h unge r a tt h e g a te . Whe re i sb ro the r ly l ove ? Whe re t h e p i ty wh ich w e a r e a dmon i shed t oh ave f o r t h e w re tched ? T he s a t ie ty o ft h e r i ch i st h e h unge r o f t h ep oo r .
And h e c onc lude s ' Be r u le r s o f t h e p eop le , n o t r obbe r s ; s h ephe rd s , n o t p lunde re r s ' .1 2 F or a l i t s s upe r s t i t ion , i t s h ec t ic g u s to a nd c l u t te red b ib l ica l c i ta t ion s , t h i s l e t te r i s ar he to r ica l t o u r d ef o r c e wh ich s t i l l h a s t h e p owe r t o move t h e r e ade r . F rom t h e h i s to r ian ' s p o in t o fv i ew h oweve r i t s e v idence c once rn ing a c tua le ven t s a nd c ond i t ion si sd if icu l t t oa s se s s . I t may b ef e l t , a sw es h a l l s e e , t h a t t h e c o in e v idence f r om / E the l red ' s r e ign o f f e r s aq ua l if i ca t ion t o t h e p i c tu re o f u n re s ta nd d i scon ten t wh ich A lcu in ' sl u r id mo ra l iz ing s e em st oi mp ly . I n 7 96 ( MSS D a nd E o ft h e C h r on i c l e h ave 7 94 b y m i s take )" ' E the l red w a s k i l led b y h i s own m en , a n a c t o ft r eache ry wh ich s o i n cen sed C ha r le s t h a t i tw a s o n ly A lcu in ' s i n te rce s s ion o n b eha lf o fh i s f e l low No r thumb r ian s ( a s h e t o ld Of f a i n al e t te r ) t h a t s t opped t h e F rank i sh k ing p u t t ing i n to e f f ec t ' wha teve r e v i l h e c ou ld h ave c on t r ived ' a ga in s t t h em . " An e a ldo rman n amed O sba ld s u cceeded t o t h e t h rone , b u t a f te r o n ly 2 7 d ay s h e ' wa s d e se r ted b y t h e who le c o mpany o ft h e r oya l h ou seho ld a nd t h e n ob le s , p u t t of l i gh t a nd b an i shed f r om t h e k ingdom . ' A l e t te r w r i t ten t ot h i s O sba ld b y A lcu in l a te r i n7 96 , a t at ime when h e w a s e x i led among t h eP ic t s , i nd ica te st h a th eb e longed t ot h el e g i t ima te r oya lf am i ly :
EHD ,n o .193 ,p p .776-7 . EHD , n o .3 , p . 248 . S e e P l umme r , v o l .2 ,p . 63 . 1 4 EHD ,n o .198 ,p . 783 .
A ng l o -Sax on C h r on i c l e , EHD , n o . 1 , p . 167 . T he a c coun t o f t h e r a id i n t h e H i s t o ry o ft h e K ing s h a s b e en o v e r l a id w i th l u r id r h e to r ic a l o rn amen t a nd l a ck s t h e g r im i mmed ia cy o ft h e C h ron i c le ' sv e r s ion .
1 2
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C on s ide r h ow much b l ood o f k ing s , p r in ce s , a nd p eop le h a s b een s h ed t h rough y ou o r t h rough y ou r k in sf o lk . A n u nh appy l i n e t h rough wh ich s u ch g rea t e v i l s h ave b ef alen t h e c oun t ry ! F r ee y ou r se lf , Ii mp lo re y ou b yG od ,l e s ty ou rs ou lp e r i sh i ne t e rn i ty .1 5
A lcu in c h ide s O sba ld f o rn o th av ing f o l lowed t h e a dv ice g iven i ne a r l ie rl e t te r s t o e s chew p o l i t ica l p owe r a nd ' s e rve G od a c co rd ing t o y ou r v ow ' . T he s p ecu la t ion s e em s i n ev i tab le t h a t O sba ld h ad b een f o rc ed t o t ake t h e t on su re i n o rde r t o p reven t h im f r om l a y ing c l a im t o t h e t h rone , a nd A lcu in s e em s t o h ave b een r e c ru i ted , p robab ly b y ' E the l red h im se lf , t op e r suade O sba ld t or e conc i le h im se lf t o h i s r e l ig iou s l i f e . O sba ld , i ts e em s , i gno r ing t h i s a dv ice , h ad p lo t ted a ga in s t ' E the l red , o ra tl e a s th ad t a ken a dvan tage o ft h ep lo t t ing o fo the r s . T he k ing who a s cended t h e t h rone u pon O sba ld ' s b an i shmen t w a s t h e E a rdwu lf who h ad e a r l ie r s u rv ived e xecu t ion . I ti sn o t men t ioned t h a t h e w a s r e la ted t oe i the r o ft h e c o mpe t ing r oya l c l an s a nd t h i s p robab ly mean s t h a th e w a s n o t . I ts e em se v iden th oweve r t h a t t h e c om ing t ot h e t h rone o f aman whom G od h ad e a r l ie r m i racu lou s ly p re se rved f r om d ea th w a s a n e ven t wh ich w a s v i ewed a s p rop i t iou s b y many o fh i s s ub jec t s . T he a nna l s p u t e xp l ic i t s t re s s o n t h e r e l ig iou s e l emen t o fh i s c o rona t ion : ` E a rdwu lf ... w a s r e c a l l ed f r om e x i le a nd r a i sed t o t h e c rown o ft h e k ingdom , a nd w a s c on sec ra t ed o n 2 6 May i n Yo rk i nt h e c hu rch o f S tP e te r a tt h e a l ta r o ft h eb l e s sed A po s t le P au l , whe re t h en a t ion f i r s t r e ce ived t h e g r ace o fb ap t i sm . '1 6 A lcu in t ook t h e o ppo r tun i ty t ow r i te t h en ew k ing al e t te r o f s a ge a dv ice , e xho r t ing h im t o ' Con s ide r mo s t i n ten t ly , f o r wha t s i n s y ou r p redece s so r s l o s t l i f e a nd k ingdom , a nd w a tch mo s t c a ref u l ly t h a t y ou d o n o t t h e l i ke ; l e s t as im i la rj udgemen tb ef a l l y ou . ' And h e w en to n t oh ope t h a tE a rdwu lf s e s cape f r om d ea th w a s as i gn t h a t h e h ad b een ' p re se rved f o r b e t te r t ime s a nd r e se rved f o r t h e c o r rec t ion o f y ou r c oun t ry , w i th t he h e lp o f God ' s g race ' .1 7 S ho r t ly a f te rwa rd s t he n ew a r chb i shop o fY o rk , E anba ld I , r e ce ived t h ep a / hum f r om Rome , a nd many No r thumb r ian s m ay w e l lh ave h oped f o r as im i la rp e r iod o fs t ab le g ove rnmen t t o t h a t wh ich t h e k ingdom h ad e xpe r ienced h a lf ac en tu ry b ef o re u nde rK ing E adbe rh ta nd h i sb ro the r , A rchb i shop E cgbe rh t . T he c rowded e ven t s o fE a rdwu lf sr e ign c e r ta in ly s how h im t o h ave b een a c onf iden t , e ne rge t ic r u le r , t hough i tw a s n o t l ong b ef o re h e o f ended t h e c hu rch . A se a r ly a s7 97 A lcu in w a s e xp re s s ing t h ef e a rt h a th i si mmo ra l i ty i nd ivo rc ing h i s w if e a nd r ema r ry ing m igh t i n cu r d iv ine d i sp lea su r e a nd c o s t h im t h e k ingdom ." I n 7 98 a mo re p rac t ica l t h rea t a ro se when t h e mu rde re r s o f' E the l red r a i sed a n a rmy a ga in s t t h e k ing , o n ly t o b e d ef ea ted , a f te r ' many h ad b een k i l led o n b o th s i de s ' .1 9 N eve r the le s s t he c a l l ing o f as ynod i nt h e s ame y ea r , p re s ided o ve rb yt h e a r chb i shop ( t he k ing i sn o t men t ioned ) , s e em s t o i nd i ca te amea su re o fs t ab i l i ty . B u t E a rdwu lf s t r oub le s c on t inued a nd i n 7 99 a n e a ldo rman n amed Mo l l i s r e co rded a sh av ing b een k i l led b y h i s ' u rgen t o rde r ' . 2°I nt h e s ame y ea r , h oweve r , O sba ld d i ed , a nd w a s b u r ied ' i n t h e c hu rch i n t h e c i ty o f Yo rk ' , h av ing a ppa ren t ly b een a lowed t o r e tu rn f r om b an i shmen t a sa n a bbo t , amove wh ich H i s t o ry o ft h eK ing s , EHD , n o .3 , p . 249 . EHD , n o .3 , p . 250 . T h i s may h ave b een a membe r o ft h e s ame f am i ly a s/ E the lwa ld Mo l l a nd / E the l red I .
EHD , n o .200 , p . 785 . H i s t o ry o ft h eK ing s , EHD , n o .3 , p .248 . 1 7 EHD , n o .199 ,p p .784-5 . F . M . S t en ton , A ng lo -Saxon E ng land , Oxf o rd , 3 rd e dn . ( 1 97 1 ) ,p p .94-5 . 1 5
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6 2
CO INAGE AND H ISTORY , c .790— c .810
s ugge s t s c onf idence o n E a rdwu lf sp a r t . B u t o the r c on tende r s f o r t h e t h rone w e re s t i l l p e rce ived a s at h r ea t , a nd i n 8 00 ' c e r t a in f ug i t ive s , i n c lud ing A lhmund , t h e s on , a ss ome s a y , o fK ing A lh red ' , w e re s e i zed a nd k i l led o n E a rdwu lf so rde r s .2 1 E a rdwu lf , i ts e em s , p ro secu ted t h e f am i l ia r p o l icy o fp reemp t ive mu rde r w i th a n e n thu s ia sm a tl e a s t e qua l t o t h a t o fh i s p redece s so r . E a rdwu lf s m a r r iage a l so , t o t h e d augh te r o ft h e e mpe ro r Cha r le s , e xceeded i na mb i t ion t h a t o f/ E the l red , t o t h e d augh te ro f Of f a . Two l e t te r s o fA lcu in o f8 0 1 g ive ag l imp se i n to t h e t one o fc hu rch l i f e a tt h e t ime . A rchb i shop E anba ld h ad i ts e em s of ended t h e k ing a nd h ad a ppea led t o A lcu in f o r s uppo r t . A lcu in ' s r ep ly i s as c a rce ly v e i led r ebuke . ' It h ink t h a t p a r t o f y ou r t r oub le a r i se s f r om y ou r own f a u l t . You p e rhap s r e ce ive t h e k ing ' s e nem ie s o r p ro tec t t h e p o s se s s ion s o fh i s e nem ie s . '2 E anba ld i ts e em s w a s t r y ing t oh edge h i s b e t s i nt h e i n secu r e c l i ma te o ft h e t ime s . I n ac o mpan ion l e t te r t o t wo o fh i s No r thumb r ian p up i l s A lcu in i sf r ee t o s p eak mo re o pen ly , g iv ing i n t h e p roce s s a n i n s igh t i n to t h e s e cu la r a nd p o l i t ica l a c t iv i t ie s o f a wo r ld ly a nd amb i t iou s p re la te mo re t h an ac en tu ry b ef o re t h e B ened ic t ine r e f o rm movemen t e s tab l i shed i t se lf i nE ng land . Ia m a f ra id h e i ss uf e r ing , t o s ome e x ten t f o r h i s l a nded p o s se s s ion s o r f o r h a rbou r ing t h e k ing ' s e nem ie s . L e t h i s own p o s se s s ion s s uf i ce h im ; l e t h im n o t s t r ive a f te r t ho s e o fo the r s , wh ich o f ten r e su l t i np e r i l f o r t h e i r p o s se s so r s . Wh i l e h e m ay t h ink h e i sb enef i t ing af ew , h e i si n ju r ing m any f o r whom h e o ugh t d a i ly t oi n te rced e , a nd h e m ay h a rm t h ef l ock wh i ch h e o ugh tt og ove rn . And wha td oe sh ew an tw i th s u ch an umbe ro ft h egn si nh i sr e t inue ?2 3
I ti ss c a rce ly s u rp r i s ing t h a t l a te r , d u r ing t h e r e ign o fE an red , t h i s p owe rf u l man s hou ld h ave b een a b l e t oc l a im t h e r i gh t t os t r ike c o in s i nh i s own n ame . Wha t i s s u rp r i s ing i st h a t n o c o in s s hou ld a ppa ren t ly h ave b een s t ruck d u r ing t h e r e ign o f E a rdwu lf , e i the rb yk ing o ra r chb i shop . I n 8 0 1 t he f am i l ia r p rob lem o f p lo t t ing ' f ug i t ive s ' b ecame t h e o cca s ion ( o r p e rhap s t h e p re tex t ) f o r E a rdwu lf si nva s ion o fC enwu lf s Me rc ia . A f te r al ong c ampa ign t h e t wo k ing s made p eace , w i thou t m en t ion b e ing made o fa ny s p ec if i c a dvan tage f o r e i the r s i de . A t t h i s p o in t t h e H i s t o ry o ft h e K ing s c e a se s t o u se i t s n o r the rn s ou rce . Roge r o f Wendove r ( s t i l l p re sumab ly u s ing t h e s ame s ou rce a s t h e H i s t o ry o ft h e K ing s ) r e co rd s i n t h e b r ief e s t t e rm s E a rdwu lf s f l i gh t f r om t h e k ingdom a nd t h e a c ce s s ion o fA lfwa ld I u nde rt h e y ea r8 08 , ad a te i ndependen t ly c o r robo ra ted b y t h e F rank i sh A nna l s o f S t B e r t in ' s .2 4 ( MSS D a nd E o f t h e c h ron ic le d a te E a rdwu lf sd epo s i t ion t o 8 06 , p re sumab ly a s ar e su l t o f as im i la r m i s take t ot h a t wh ich h ad l e d t h em t om i sp lace / E the l red I ' s mu rde r , a l so b y t wo y ea r s . ) Roge r o f Wendove r g oe s o n t or e co rd t h e d ea th o fA lfwa ld I i n8 10 a nd t h e s u cce s s ion o fE an red , who i ss a id t o h ave r e igned f o r 3 2 y ea r s . T he se e ven t s a r e a b sen t f r om t h e C h r on i c l e , wh ich i ss i l en t a bou t No r thumb r ia f r om t h i s t ime u n t i l t h e D an i sh i nva s ion o f8 66-7 . A t t h i s p o in t h oweve r a n a dd i t iona l s ou rce of e r si t se lf , wh ich me r i t s c a ref u l a t ten t ion . I nt h eA nna l so ft h eF r ank i sh K ingd om i t i sr e la ted t h a t i n8 08 t h e f ug i t ive E a rdwu lf c ame t o t h e c ou r t o fh i s f a the r in law
2 1
1 0C . C it .
23
22
EHD , n o .207 , p .796 .
24
6 3
EHD , n o .207 , p .797 . S ee EHD , n o .4 , p .255 .
JA MES BOOTH
Cha r le s t h e G r ea t a tN i j megen , o n h i s w ay t o Rome i n s e a rch o fs uppo r t f r om t h e P ope f o r h i s c l a im t ot h e No r thumb r ian t h rone . T he a nna l s c on t inue : ' on h i s r e tu rn f r om Rome h e w a s e s co r ted b y e nvoy s o ft h e Roman p on t if fa nd o ft h e L o rd Empe ro r b ack i n to h i s k ingdom ' .2 5 T he e v idence o f t h e s t r eng th o f t h e i n te rna t iona l , ' Eu ropean ' , d imen s ion i n Ang lo -Saxon a f a i r s g iven b y t h i s a c coun t o fE a rdwu lf sc ho ice o f s t ra tegy i n a s se r t ing h i s r i gh t s , i ss t r ik ing , a nd o f g r ea t h i s to r ica li mpo r tance . S ome c au t ion i sp e rhap s n ece s sa ry , h oweve r , i n u s ing t h i s F rank i sh s ou rce a s e v idence f o r e ven t s w i th in No r thumb r ia . How much o ft h i s a ppa ren t ly s u cce s sf u l e xe r t ion o fp apa l a nd i mpe r ia l a u tho r i ty w a s r e a l i ty , a nd h ow much p ropaganda ? Mode rn c o mmen ta to r s h ave p e rhap s b een t oo r e ady t od educe as e cond r e ign f o r E a rdwu lf f r om t h e se f o re ign a nna l s . S t en ton i s c ha rac te r i s t ica l ly c au t iou s , f o l low ing h i s a c coun t o fE a rdwu lf s r e s to ra t ion w i th t h e h e s i tan t i n f e rence : ' He d i ed i np owe r , i no rb e f o r e 8 10 ' ( my empha s i s ) .J .M . Wa l l ace -Had r i l l f l e she s o u t t h e s t o ry w i th mo re f r eedom , a s se r t ing t h a t E a rdwu lf ' r e tu rned t o h i s t h rone a s t h ef i d e l i s o fa n empe ro r who h ad e xe rc i sed t h e p owe r o fi mp e r i a l i s d e f en s i o ' , a nd t h a t C enwu lf ' a ccep ted t h e r e s to ra t ion a tl e a s t t ot h e e x ten t o fn o t i n te rven ing . Hugh P agan u s e s t h e F rank i sh a c coun t i nh i s r e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e r egna l d a te s o f n in th cen tu ry No r thumb r ia , a c cep t ing t h e C h r on i c l e ' s d ub iou s d a te o f 8 06 f o r / E lfwa ld I ' s a c ce s s ion , a nd s e e ing E a rdwu lf r e ign ing f o r as e cond t im e f r om 8 0810 , a t wh i ch t ime h e w a s s u cceeded b y h i s s on E an red .2 7 T he se l a rge i n f e rence s o f Wa l lace -Had r i l la nd P agan a r eb yn o m ean si n ev i tab le . T he F rank i sh c ou r t h i s to r ian i sp r ima r i ly c once rned t os how t h e w e s te rn empe ro r a nd t h e p ope a c t ing t oge the r i na n i mp re s s ive w ay i n ad i s tan t p rov ince o ft h e o ld Emp i re , a nd when h e r epo r t s t h a t E a rdwu lf w a s ' c onduc ted b ack i n to h i s k ingdom ' h e g ive s t h e i mp re s s ion t h a t t h e No r thumb r ian c hu rch a nd p eop le r e ad i ly b en t t o t h i s e xe r t ion o f p apa l a nd ' impe r ia l ' a u tho r i ty . B u t d id t h ey ? We h ave n o r e a l e v idence t h a t t h ey d id . C e r ta in ly t h e p apa l e nvoy s wou ld h ave c a r r ied g rea t w e igh t w i th t h e No r thumb r ian c l e rgy a nd k ing . B u t t h e q ua r re l s o fb o th Of f a a nd C enwu lf w i th t h e p ope a nd h i s b i shop s s how t h a t h i s a u tho r i ty d id n o t a lway s c a r ry t h e d ay . And i tc an b e c onf iden t ly a s sumed t h a t t h e a u tho r i ty o ft h e w e s te rn ' Empe ro r o ft h e Roman s ' c a r r ied n o w e igh t wha t soeve r i n t h e i n t e rna l a f a i r so f No r thumb r ia , u n suppo r ted b yt h er e a l i s t ic t h rea to fm i l i ta ry a c t ion . T he F rank i sh c h ron ic le r t e l l s u s n o th ing a bou t t h e u l t ima te f a te o fE a rdwu lf . P e rhap s t h e k ing d i ed a lmo s t a to nce , l i ke Swe in o r E admund I r on s ide i n al a te r p e r iod . H e m ay w e l l h ave b een u nea s i ly r e s to red t op owe r w i th t h e s uppo r t o fa f a vou rab le f a c t ion , o n ly t ob e d epo sed a ga in a ss oon a st h e Roman a nd F r ank i sh e nvoy s h ad l e f t . P o s s ib ly h e w a s k i l led i nb a t t le , l e av ing h i s s on E an red t oa c cede t o t h e t h rone a f te r t wo y ea r s o ff u r the r e x i le o r ac i v i l w a r w i th A lfwa ld . T h i s wou ld e xp la in why t h e E ng l i sh a nna l s make n o m en t ion o fh i s p han tom s e cond , 26
EHD , n o .2 1 , p . 313 . T he e n t ry f o r 8 09 c onc lude s t h e a c coun t o f t h i s mo s t i n te re s t ing e p i sode b y r e la t ing h ow o ne o f t h e P ope ' s e nvoy s , ' aS axon b y r a ce ' n amed E a ldwu lf , w a s c ap tu red b y p i ra te s o n h i s r e tu rn j ou rney a nd h ad t o b e r an somed b ef o re h e c ou ld r e tu r n t o Rome . 2 5
6 4
S t en ton , p . 95 . J . M . Wa l lace -Had r i l l , ' Cha r lemagne a nd E ng land ' , K a r l d e r G r o s s e , B and I : P e r sön l i chk e i t u nd G e s ch i ch t e , H e lmu t B eumann ( e d . ) , Dü s se ldo rf ( 1 965 ) , p p .683-98 , a tp .696 . 27 P agan , 1 969 ,p . 11 26
COI NAGE AND H ISTORY ,
c . 790— c .8 10
r e ign . T he E ng l i sh r e co rd may b e s c an ty a tt h i s p o in t , b u t t h e F rank i sh a nna l d oe s n o t g ive u s a ny r e a l s a nc t ion t o d oub t i t s v e r s ion , a si ti sr e co rded b y Roge r o f Wendove r . A pa r t f r om am ino r m i s take i nt h e C h r on i c l e , t h e E ng l i sh r e co rd g ive s ac l ea r s e quence : E a rdwu lf sd epo s i t ion , 8 08 ; A lfwa ld ' s r e ign , 8 0810 ; E an red ' s a c ce s s ion , 8 10 . T he r e a l i ty a nd d u ra t ion o f E a rdwu lf s ' s econd r e ign ' mu s t , i t s e em s , f o re ve rr ema in c on jec tu ra l . THE CO INS T he e v idence o ft h e d ocumen t s s uf e r s f r om c e r ta in l im i t a t ion s . F rom t h e a nna l s w e g a the r ac h rono logy o f p o l i t ica l e ven t s , a nd c an t r ace t h e a l terna t ion o f k ing sh ip b e tween t h e c o mpe t ing r oya l h ou se s , ap a t te rn f am i l ia r i n No r thumb r ia b ef o re a nd a f te r t h i sp e r iod . We c an a l so o b se rve i nE a rdwu lf sr ema rkab le a c t ion s o f8 08 a n a t temp t t oa s se r t o ve r t h e p r im i t ive t e u ton i c p a t te rn o fp e r sona l l oya l ty a nd r i va l r i e s amo re s oph i s t ica ted c oncep t ion o fi n te rna t iona l l aw . I na dd i t ion t h e l e t te r s o fA lcu in p rov ide s ome i n s igh t i n to t h e t e x tu re o f c u r ren t r e l ig iou s a nd mo ra l a t t i tude s . Wha t t he d ocumen t s c anno t p rov ide a r e s u ch o b jec t ive f a c t s a s t h e ' s t anda rd o fl i v ing ' i n No r thumbr ia a tt h e t ime , o r whe the r t h e k ingdom w a s i n af l ou r i sh ing s t a te , o ri nd ec l ine . No r d o t h ey a lway s g ive a n u namb iguou si d ea o f t h e s i gn if i cance o f p a r t icu la r p e r sonage s a nd e ven t s . B o th A lcu in a nd t h e a nna l i s t s w r i te f r om w i th in a c on tex t v e ry d if e ren t f r om o u r own . I ti so f ten d if icu l t o r i mpo s s ib le t o d i sen tang le o b jec t ive f a c t s a nd c ond i t ion s f r om s ub jec t ive i mp re s s ion s . When A lcu in i nve igh s a ga in s t l uxu r iou s l i v ing a nd e xce s s ive c l o th ing a t Athe l red ' s c ou r t w e g a in n o p rec i se i d ea a bou t t h ew ea l th o f t h e k ingdom , o r i t s d i s t r ibu t ion . When b o th t h e a nna l s a nd A lcu in l amen t t h e d eva s ta t ing e f ec t o ft he V ik ing i n cu r s ion s o f7 93-4 i ti sn o t c l ea r whe the r t h ey a r e s p eak ing o f m e re c oa s ta l r a id s , t h e d emo ra l i s ing e f ec t o f wh ich w a s e xagge ra ted b y t h e d e s t ruc t ion o fn a t iona l r e l ig iou s c en t re s , o r r a the r o fs e r iou s i nva s ion s wh ich c au sed w ide sp read d e s t ruc t ion o fl i f e a nd p rope r ty . I ti si n t h e c on s ide ra t ion o fs u ch q ue s t ion s a st h e se t h a t t h e r e la t ive ly o b jec t ive e v idence o f t h ec o in s may h e lp , t os ome mode s te x ten t , i nf i l l ing o u tt h eh i s to r ica lp i c tu re . I tw i l l b e c onven ien t t o d ea l f i r s t w i th t h e c o in s i n t h e n ame o f A lfwa ld ( Append ix 1 ,a nd P 1 .2 ) . T he i sue i sv e ry r a re , n o s p ec imen b e ing p re sen t i n t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum c o l lec t ion n o r i na ny o ft h e SCBI v o lume s s of a r p ub l i shed . T he o bve r se r e ad s F EVAFDV2 ,o r as l igh t v a r ian t o ft h i s , a lway s r ound as e r if f ed c ro s s . T he r eve r se r e ad s CVDhEART , w i th s l igh t v a r ia t ion s , a l so a round ac ro s s . T he s e ven s p ec imen s l o ca ted w e re s t ruck f r om a s many a ss i x o bve r se a nd f i ve r eve r se d i e s , s oi ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t a c cumu la t ing f i nd s w i l l s how t h i s t oh ave b een al a rge r i sue t h an t h e n umbe r a t p re sen t k nown m igh t s ugge s t . No o the r moneye r i sr e co rded i n t h e t ype t hough i ti sn o t i mpo s s ib le t h a t o the r s may y e t c ome t ol i gh t . T he a t t r ibu t ion o ft h e g roup , a sh a s b een s a id , r ema in s s t ubborn ly amb iguou s , a nd t h e re a r e a s y e t n o me ta l a na ly se s wh ich m igh t h e lp . S ome i n conc lu s ive f a c to r s p o in t t owa rd s A lfwa ld I( 7 79-88 ) . T he o bve r se r e ad ing o f t h e c o in s , w i th i t s r un ic A ( A )a nd L ( f ) i si d en t ica l w i th t h a t o n t h e l a rge s t g roup o ft h ek nown ' f an ta s t ic a n ima l ' c o in s o fA lfwa ld I .T he l owe r c a se f o rm o f hi s af e a tu r e s h a red b y t h e l e gend s o fA lfwa ld I ' se a r l ie r a n ima l c o in s a nd o ft h i s g roup , a si sh ype rco r rec t ion o fV t o Vo rA , o r v i c e v e r sa . B o th f e a tu re s a r e r a re o n 6 5
JA MES BOOTH
t h e l a te r c o in s o f t h e l red Ia nd o f E an red . Mo reove r t h e re i st h e n ega t ive c on s ide ra t ion t h a t t h e f i r s t A lfwa ld i sa l re ady k nown t o h ave s t ruck c o in s , whe rea s n o th ing wha t soeve r i sr e co rded o ft h e b r ief t wo -yea r r e ign o f' E lfwa ld I , wh ich s e em sl i ke ly t oh ave b een d i s rup ted b yd i s sen s ion a nd c i v i lw a r . T he f a c t t h a t t h e moneye r ' s n ame , CVDhEART , o c cu r s , i n t h e f o rm CVDHEARD , o n t h e c o inage o f / E the l red I wou ld s e em a l so t o f a vou r l E lfwa ld I ;b u t t h e r e cu r rence o f t h e n ame , i n t h e f o rm CVDHARD , o n c o in s o f ' E lfwa ld I ' s s u cce s so r , E an red , m ake s t h e l a te r a t t r ibu t ion e qua l ly p o s s ib le . A l so f a vou r ing t h e a t t r ibu t ion t o ' E lfwa ld I ( 8 0810 ) i st h e a ppa r en t c onf inemen t o ft h e t ype t o a s i ng le moneye r , wh ich c on t ra s t s , a sw es h a l l s e e , w i th t h ef i ve o r mo re v a r ie t ie so f / E lfwa ld I ' s a n ima l t ype a nd t h e s i x moneye r s o f ' E the l red I ' s c o inage . A s ma l l sca le s i ng le -moneye r i sue l ook s more l i ke ly t o b e af a i led c o inage o ft h e l a te r k ing t h an a n i n te rmed ia te c o inage b e tween t h e a n ima l c o in s o fA lfwa ld I a nd t h e moneye r ' s -name c o in so f/ E the l red I .B u t wh icheve ro ft h et wo I E lfwa ld s t h e se c o in s b e long t o , a l t h ree C u thhea rd s , s t r ik ing u nde r ' E lfwa ld I ,' E the l r ed , a nd E an red ( o r " E the l red I ,' E lfwa ld I , a nd E an red ) c o u ld , a sE l i zabe th P i ne h a s p o in ted o u t , b e t h e s ame m an —who se c a ree r wou ld t hu s s t re tch f r om t h e l a te 7 80 so rt h ee a r ly 7 90 st os ome t ime a f te r8 10 . I ft h e se c o in s w e re i sued b y ' E lfwa ld It h ey mu s t b e long l a te i nh i s r e ign , h i s e a r l ie r c o inage h av ing b een a c on t inua t ion o f t h e ' f an ta s t ic a n ima l ' t ype . T he s u rv iva lr a te o f' E lfwa ld ' sa n ima lc o in sh a sb een l ow , b u tt h ee x tan ts p ec imen sa r e s uf i c ien t t os how as y s tem o fd if e renc ing m a rk s , wh ich h ave l e d t ot h e t e n ta t ive i d en t if i ca t ion o fa tl e a s tf i ve d i s t inc tg roup s .2 8 O ne p o s s ib le i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e se ma rk si st h a tt h ey r ep re sen tt h ep roduc t ion so fi nd iv idua l moneye r s , i n wh ich c a se / E lfwa ld i n i n t roduc ing t h e n ew t ype c an b e s e en a s s imp ly c on t inu ing t h e p rev iou s s y s tem i n aw ay mo r e i nl i ne w i th t h e c on tempo ra ry s ou the rn p rac t i ce . B eonna o fE a s t A ng l ia a nd Of f a o f Me rc ia h ad a l ready b y t h i s t ime a dop ted t h e moneye r ' s -name r eve r se ( t oge the r w i th ab roade rf l an ) i ni m i ta t ion o ft h e r e f o rm p ence o f P ep in I o f F ranc ia . Whe the r t h e moneye r ' s -name t ype w a s i ndeed i n t roduced b y i E lfwa ld Io r r a the r b y h i s s u cce s so r " E the l red I ,t h e c hange o f d e s ign i nd ica te s al e s s i s o la ted p o s i t ion f o r t h e n o r the rn k ingdom t h an t h e r e ten t ion o ft h e s ma l l ` s cea t ta ' modu le m igh t s e em t os ugge s t . T he w e igh t o ft h e n ew p enny w a so fc ou r se a tf i r s tt h es ame a st h a to ft h eo l d ` s cea t ta ' . T u rn ing t o t h e c o in s o f / E the l red ( Append ix 1 , P l s .2-3 ) s ome b road c onc lu s ion s i mmed ia te ly s ugge s t t h em se lve s . I n t h e f i r s t p l ace t h e n umbe r o f moneye r s i sa ppa ren t ly s i x : C eo lba ld , C u thg i l s , C u thhea rd , E anba ld , Hn if u la a nd T idwu lf .2 9 T h i s c o mpa re s w i th t h e f i ve d if e renced g roup s s of a ri d en t if i ed i nt h e a n ima lc o inage o fi E lfwa ld , l e nd ing w e igh tt ot h eh ypo the s i st h a tt h ed if e r enc ing o rnamen t s o n t h e e a r l ie r c o in s m ay i n f a c t r e pre sen t moneye r s . I ta l so t e nd s t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e re w a s as moo th t r an s i t ion b e tween t h e t wo t ype s , i mp ly ing t h a t B oo th , 1 984 , p p .85-7 , a nd f i g .2 . Hugh P agan p rev iou s ly a s s igned ac o in o f t h e moneye r E adw ine t o t h i s i sue , c i t ing a n e xamp le i n Adam son , 1 834 , f r om H exham . ' Ang lo-Saxon c o in s f ound a tH exham ' , i nS a in t W i lf r id a t H exham , D . P . K i rby ( e d . ) , Newca s t le -upon-Tyne ( 1 974 ) , p p .185-90 , a t 28 29
6 6
p p .185-6 . Th i s s p ec imen i sn ow i n t he B r i t i sh Mu seum ( B MC ; E the l red I 2 95 , r eve r se r e ad i ng EADV IN ) a nd i s , l i ke s im i la r e xamp le s i n t h e L ocke t t C o l lec t ion ( l o t 2 90 ) a nd SCBI Copenhagen 1 84 , ab lunde red b ra s s c o in o ft h e m id -n in th c en tu ry .
CO INAGE AND H ISTORY ,
c . 790c .8 10
t h e mone ta ry s y s tem w a s r obu s t e nough a t t h i s t ime t o s u rv ive i n tac t t h e d i s rup t ion o f A lfwa ld ' s mu rde r , t h e b r ief i n te r lude o f O s red ' s ( c o in le s s ? ) r e ign ( 7 88-90 ) a nd t h e s ub sequen t r ega in ing o ft h e k ingdom b y amembe r o ft h e r i va l r oya lh ou se . S econd ly t h en umbe ro fd i e s r ep re sen ted i nt h e l o ca ted c o in s i sh igh , i nd ica t ing al ow r a te o fs u rv iva l . A lmo s t a l t h e c o in s a r e s i ng le f i nd s , a nd t h e o n ly h oa rd r ep re sen ted , H exham , w a s d epo s i ted t oo l ong a f te r t h e c u r rency o ft h e c o in s t o s how a ny c l u s te r s o fd i e -dup l ica t ion . T he f i nd s i tua t ion i st hu s s im i la r t o t h a t o f t h e e a r l ie r a n ima l c o in s , a nd c o mpa r i son s a r e u n l ike ly t o b e m i s lead ing . T he 5 7 o bve r se s a nd 5 6 r eve r se s o ft h i s g roup wh ich w e re i ng ood e nough c ond i t ion t o a low c o mpa r i son , p rove t oh ave b een s t ruck f r om 4 4o bve r se d i e s ( 7 7 .2 % ) a nd 4 5 r eve r se s ( 8 0 .4 % ) . T h i s c ompa re s w i th at o ta l o f9 9 o bve r se d i e s ( 8 7 .6 % ) a nd 9 2 r eve r se s ( 8 1 .5 % ) y i e lded b y 13 c o in s o ft h e r e ign o fE adbe rh t ( bo th r ega l a nd a r ch iep i scopa l ) . T he n umbe r s o f c o in s s u rv iv ing o f E adbe rh t ' s i mmed ia te s u cce s so r s i st oo s ma l l f o r r e l i ab le d educ t ion s t o b e made c once rn ing t h e s i ze o f t h e i r i sue s . Twen ty -one c o in s o f A lch r ed ( r ega l a nd a r ch iep i scopa l ) y i e lded 2 0 o bve r se ( 9 5 .2 % ) a nd 1 8 r eve r se d i e s ( 8 5 .7 % ) , wh i le 1 2 a n ima l c o in s o fA lfwa ld I r evea led 1 2 o bve r se d i e s ( 1 00% ) a nd 1 0 r eve r se s ( 8 3 .3 % ) . Wha t d oe s s e em c e r ta in e nough f r om t h e se c o mpa r i son s , h oweve r , i st h a t t h e s u rv iva l r a te o f Athe l red ' s s e cond r e ign c o in s h a s n o t b een d rama t ica l ly h ighe r t h an t h a t o ft h e e a r l ie r i sue s . And s i nce r e la t ive ly f a r mo re o f t h e se c o in s s u rv ive t h an t ho se o f l E the lwa ld , A lch red , a nd A lfwa ld , i ts e em s v e ry p robab le t h a t / E the l red ' s c o inage w a s much l a rge ri nv o lume t h an a ny s i nce t ha t o fE adbe rh ti nt h e7 40 s a nd 7 50 s . I ts ugge s t s a p ro spe rou s a nd f l ou r i sh ing e conomy i n No r thumb r ia a t t h e t ime , a nd o ne i n wh ich t h e med ium o fc o ined money p l ayed as i gn if i can tp a r t ( t hough p re sumab ly c o ined money w a s a t t h i s s t age o n ly o ne e l emen t i n a n e conomy b a sed t o a n e x ten to n mo re p r im i t ive mechan i sm s ) . T he t h i rd i n i t ia l p o in t i st h a t t h e c o in s o f e a ch moneye r d i sp lay a d i s t inc t i d en t i ty o ft ype , b o th o fr eve r se a nd o fo bve r se . T he r eve r se t ype , wh ich b ea r s w i tne s s t o t h e moneye r ' s i d en t i ty i s—no t s u rp r i s ing ly — ca ref u l ly s t anda rd ized w i th in e ach moneye r ' s p roduc t ion s . T he re i sn o v a r ia t ion i nt h e s p e l l ing o fe a ch moneye r ' s n ame f r om d i e t o d i e , a nd o the r d e s ign e l emen t s a r e s im i la r ly i nva r iab le . C eo lba ld ' s n ame a lway s s u r round s ab o s s w i th in a b eaded c i rc le ; Cu thg i l s ' n ame a lway s a ppea r s i n t wo s e gmen t s o n e ach s i de o f at r iang le s u rmoun ted b y ac ro s s ; Cu thhea rd a lway sh a s ap l a in c ro s s ; T idwu lf ac ro s s w i th in ab eaded c i rc le . On ly E anba ld a nd Hn if u la s how a l te rna t ion b e tween c ro s s a nd b o s s a st he c en t r a l o rnamen t , a nd E anba ld ' s n ame s ome t ime s a ppea r s r e t rog rade . Obve r se t ype s s how g rea te r v a r i a t ion , t hough s i gn if i can t ly e a ch d i s t inc t t ype , w i th o n ly o n e e xcep t ion , i sc onf ined t o ap a r t icu la r moneye r . C eo lba ld i su nu sua l i n t h e v a r ie ty o f h i s o bve r se t ype s , h e a l one emp loy ing o bve r se s w i th c ro s s -and -pe l le t s , c ro s s and -wedge s , b o s s w i th in b eaded s qua re , c ro s s -c ro s s le t a nd R w i th in b eaded c i rc le . On ly o ne o f h i s s u rv iv ing o bve r se t ype s ( v a r . v , b o s s -w i th in -be aded c i r c le ) c o r re spond s e xac t ly w i th a t ype u s ed b y ad if e ren t moneye r ( E anba ld ) . C u thg i l s ' o bve r se a lway s h a s ap l a in c ro s s i nt h e c en t r e , a nd m i sp lace s t h e i n i t ia l c ro s s i n t h e l e gend ( ED + FRED , o r —on o ne d i e— ED 1 + RED ) ; Cu thhea rd ' s o bve r se i ss im i la r ly i nva r iab le , d i s t ingu i shed b y i t s i n c lu s ion o ft h e k ing ' s t i le ( + AED ILRED IZ ) ; a l b u t o ne ( o r t wo ) o fE anba ld ' s 6 7
JA MES BOOTH
o bve r se d i e sh ave ab o s sw i th in ab eaded c i r c le a st h e i rc en t ra lo rnamen t ; Hn if u la ' s t wo k nown o bve r se d i e s b o th s how t h e s ame f o rm ( + ED ILRED r ound p l a in c ro s s ) ; a nd T idwu lf s o bve r se s , t hough s how ing d if e r ence s i n s p e l l ing , a lway s h ave ap l a in c ro s sa st h e i r c en t ra l o rnamen t . I ts e em st hen t h a t t h ep r ac t i sed of i c ia l a t t h e t ime wou ld h ave h ad n o d if i cu l ty wha t soeve r i n r e cogn iz ing e a ch moneye r ' s p roduc t ion s . I ndeed ame re g l anc e a tt h e o bve r se o f ac o in wou ld i n mo s t c a se s h ave b een s uf i c ien t f o r i d en t if i c a t ion . T he s y s tem o f ' p r ivy ma rk s ' f am i l ia r i nl a te med ieva l c o inage — s l igh t m i s spe l l ing s , a dded p e l le t s , m i sp l aced o r r eve r sed l e t te r s , e t c .— seem s t o h ave r e ached q u i te a n a dvanced s t age i n No r thumb r ia e ven a tt h i se a r ly p e r iod . T he c l ea r d i s t inc t ion b e tween o bve r se t ype s i s p e rhap s s i gn if i c an t a l so i n s ugge s t ing t h a t e ach moneye r o r d i e c u t te r ( p re sumab ly t h e s ame p e r son a tt h i s s t age ) , t hough wo rk ing w i th in as t r ic t ly a dm in i s te red s y s tem , w a s i ndependen t i n h i s manne r , a nd p e rhap s a l so i nh i s p l ace , o f wo rk ing . No o bve r se d i e -dup l ica t ion l i nk ing d if e ren t moneye r s— such a si sw ide sp r ead i nt he n in th -cen tu ry s e r ie s— i s y e t e v iden t . I ft h e moneye r s w e re wo rk ing t oge the r i n t h e s ame wo rk shop i t s e em s t h a t t h e i r o bve r se d i e s w e re s t r ic t ly s e pa ra ted f r om e a ch o the r . T h i s p a t te rn i ss im i la rt ot h a t wh ich i se v iden ti nt h ec o inage o fO ff a , whe re t h ep roduc t ion s o f e a ch moneye r ( o r s ma l l g roup o f moneye r s ) a l so s how d i s t inc t ive s t y l i s t i c f e a tu re s w i th l i t t le o r n o s h a r ing o f d i e s . 3° T he d oub l e o bve r se c o in ( no .8 ) p re sen t s a p o s s ib le e xcep t ion t o t h i s s e pa ra t ion o f moneye r s , b u t i t s e v idence i s v e ry i n conc lu s ive . One d i e c e r ta in ly b e long s t o C eo lba ld ' s v a r . v i i i , w i th R i n t h e c en t re . T he o the r ( + AED ILRED r ound a p l a in c ro s s ) i sp re sumab ly a no the r o bve r se r a the r t h an e v idence o f as e ven th moneye r . B u t t hough s im i la r i nt ype t o o bve r se s u sed b y Cu thhea rd , E anba ld , a nd T idwu lf , i td if e r s f r om t h e r e levan t d i e so ft h el a s t t wo i ns p e l l ing , a nd f r om t ho se o fa l t h ree i nl a ck ing t h ei nd ica t ion o f t h e k ing ' s t i le ( R o r g ) . I t s e em s mo s t p robab le t h en t h a t n o mu l ing b e tween moneye r s i si nvo lved h e r e , a nd t h a t t h i s s e cond d i e b e long s a l so t o C eo lba ld , r ep re sen t ing av a r ie ty f r om wh ich n o r egu la rc o in h a ss u rv ived . Whe the r t h e d if e rence s b e tween t h e moneye r s ' p roduc t ion s s hou ld b e t a ken t oi mp ly t h a t t h ey w e re wo rk ing i nd if e ren t c en t re s i si mpo s s ib le t oe s tab l i sh , t h e s c a t te ro ff i nd -p rovenance s s how ing n o g eog raph ica l c oncen t r a t ion o ft h ec o in s o f a ny s i ng le moneye r . I t may b e t h a t a l t h e moneye r s w e re wo rk ing a t Yo rk —pe rhap s a tt h e i r own s e pa r a te e s tab l i shmen t s , r a the r t h an i n ac en t r a l i zed m in t . B u t i t mu s t s e em e qua l ly l i ke ly t h a t c o in s w e re a l so p roduced e l sewhe re , p e rhap s i nB ambu rgh o r H exham . I tc anno t b e a s sumed t h a t No r thumb r ia , w i th i t s v a s t a r ea a nd i t s t wo d i s t inc t p rov ince s , wou ld n ece s sa r i ly a tt h i s t ime h ave c oncen t ra ted m in t ing o n ly i n t h e s ou th . I tw a s o n ly a f te r t h e r e lega t ion o ft h e n o r the rn k ingdom t o ame re r eg ion , f o l low ing t h e s imp l if i ca t ion s b rough t b y t h e V ik ing s a nd b y A lf red ' s s u cce s so r s t h a t t h e s ou the rn c en t re o fY o rk g a ined s u ch o ve rwhe lm ing p re -em inence a s t h e No r thumb r i an c ap i ta l . E qua l ly , t h e s i x moneye r s may n o t a l h ave b een s t r ik ing a tt h e s ame t ime , t hough i nt h e a b sence o fs ub s tan t ia l h oa rd e v idence a ny c h rono log i ca l s e quence o fi sue s w i l l b e v e ry d if i cu l tt oe s tab l i sh .
3°
D .
M .
Me tca lf ,
` Of f a ' s
p ence
s i de red ' , C unob e l in 9( 1 963 ) ,3 7-52 .
6 8
r e con -
CO INAGE AND H ISTORY ,
c . 790— c .8 10
T u rn ing t o mo re s p ec if i c p o in t s w e m ee t w i th a n umbe r o f p o s s ib i l i t ie s a nd h ypo the se st o wh ich n o s a t i sf ac to ry s o lu t ion i sa tp re sen tp o s s ib le . T he c o in so ft h e C u thg i l s g roup , f o r i n s tance , h ave b een a s s igned t o t h e c hu rch b y p rev iou s c o mmen ta tor s ,3 1 p a r t ly b ecau se o f t h e i r d i s t inc t ive r eve r se o rnamen t , wh ich moun t s t h e c u s toma ry c ro s s u pon ab eaded t r iang le . I ne a r l ie r d ay s o fn um i sma t ic s p ecu la t ion L o rd G r an t ley i mag ina t ive ly i d en t if i ed t h i s d e s ign a s r ep re sen t ing ' The s h r ine o f S t C u thbe r t s i deway s ? ' , a nd s aw i n t h e l e gend , [VD [ LS , a p o s s ib le r e f e rence t o t h i s : ' I wou ld s ugge s t f o r t h i s r eve r se S [ epu lch rum ] S [ an ]C [ t ] I CVD [be rh t i ] . '3 2 E ven i fw e r e jec t G ran t ley ' s r e ad ing a s f o rced , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty r ema in s t h a t t h e c o in s a r e a n e c c le s ia s t i ca l i sue , a nd t h a t t h e a noma lou s ly d i spo sed l e t te r s d o n o t r ep re sen t t h en ame o f amoneye r . I ft h i si st h e c a se t h e g roup c o u ld b e long , n o t w i th t h e moneye r ' s n ame c o in s o ft h e 7 90 s , b u t w i th t h e a n ima l type c o in s o fy E the l red ' s f i r s tr e ign ( 7 74-9 ) , t hough t h ef a c tt h a t a s p ec imen o ft h e g roup w a s p re sen t i nt h e H exham h oa rd , d epo s i ted a sl a te a s8 45 , t e l l s a ga in s t t h i s i d ea . T he who le r e l ig iou s i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e c en t ra l mo t if h a s h oweve r s e emed c on s ide rab ly l e s s c e r ta in s i nce t h e l e gend w a s p e r sua s ive ly r e read b y C . S .S .L yon a nd Hugh P agan a st h e n ame o f amoneye r , Cu thg i l s . 3 On t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion i t c ou ld w e l l b e t h a t t h e c en t ra l mo t if i s n o mo re t h an a n o rnamen ta l e l abo r a t ion w i th n o s p ec if i c r e l ig iou s c onno ta t ion , av a r ian t o f t h e • f am i l ia r c ro s s -on s tep sd e s ign o fs om e Me rov ing ian a nd e a r l ie rE ng l i sh c o in s . And e ven i fw e d o r e ad ap a r t icu la r s i gn if i cance i n to t h e c en t ra l d e s ign , w e s t i l l c anno t b e c e r ta in t h a t t h e c o in s a r e a n e c c le s ia s t ica l r a the r t h an ar ega l i sue , s i nce , u n l ike t h ee a r l ie ra nd l a te ra r ch iep i scopa lc o in s , t h ey d on o tb ea ra na r chb i shop ' sn ame . I t r ema in s mo s t l i ke ly t h en t h a t C u thg i l s i sa f te r a l , a s P agan s ugge s ted , o ne o f Athe l r ed ' ss e cond re ign moneye r s . T he c a se o f E anba ld i s mo re amb iguou s , a nd f r om t h e t ime o f G ran t ley , P a r son s , a nd C reeke i th a s f r equen t ly b een a s sumed t h a t t h e c o in s b ea r ing t h i s n ame w e re i sued b y E anba ld I ,a r chb i shop f r om 7 78 t o 7 96 . I fw e a low t h i s p o s s ib i l i ty t h en t h e re mu s t b e a n e ven s t ronge r c a se t h an w i th t h e Cu thg i l s g roup f o r a s s ign ing t h e c o in s t o Athe l red ' s f i r s t r e ign . S uch a n i sue , wh ich wou ld b e p rec i se ly d a tab le t o 7 78-9 , wou ld b e an a tu ra l s u cce s so r t o t h a t o ft h e s ame t ype s t ruck j o in t ly b y A rchb i shop E cgbe rh t a nd K ing s E adbe rh t , y E the lwa ld , a nd A lch red b e tween t h e 7 40 s a nd 7 66 . On ly t h e d i scove ry o f ah oa rd wh ich a s soc ia ted t h e se c o in s w i th ' E the l red ' sa n ima l type c ou ld o f e r p roof o f t h i s h ypo the s i s . O the rw i se i t mu s t s e em j u s t a s l i ke ly t h a t t h e c o in s b e long t o / E the l red ' s s e cond r e ign , d u r ing wh ich E anba ld Iw a s s t i l l a r chb i shop . I t mu s t b e s t re s sed h oweve r t h a t w e c anno t b e a t a l c e r ta in t h a t t h i s man i si n f a c t t h e a r chb i shop . T he c o in s b ea r n o i nd ica t ion o f t h e a r ch iep i scopa l t i le , a s d o t h e e a r l ie r c o in s o f A rchb i shop E cgbe rh t , a nd t ho se s t ruck l a te r i n t h e n ame o f A rchb i shop E anba ld I d u r ing t h e r e ign o f E an red . T h i s i s o f c ou r se n o t c onc lu s ive , s i nce t h e k ing ' s n ame o n t h e o bve r se o ft h e c o in s u sua l ly a l so l a ck s a n i nd ica t ion o f t i le . B u t o n t h e p r e sen t e v idence i t mu s t s e em a v e ry d i s t inc t p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h i s E anba ld i ss imp ly a moneye r o f t h e s ame n ame a s t h e 3 1 L ord G ran t ley , ' S a in t Cu thber t ' s p enn ie s ' , BN J 8 ( 1 911 ) , 4 9-53 . L yon , 1 955-7 , p .229 . P agan , 1 969 , p p .1213 .
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G ran t ley , p .51 . P agan , 1 969 , p . 13 .
JA MES BOOTH
a r chb i shop , i n wh ich c a se t h e c o in s wou ld a lmo s t c e r ta in ly b e long t o. / E the l red ' s s e cond r e ign . Of ' E the l red ' s r ema in ing moneye r s t h e mo s t i n te re s t ing i sC eo lba ld . H i s c o in s h ave s u rv ived i ng rea te rn umbe r s t h an t ho se o ft h e o the r s , a nd s i nce n o s i gn if i can t h oa rd e l emen t d i s to r t s t h e c o rpu s , t h ey w e re p robab ly o r ig ina l ly mo r e n ume rou s i n c i rcu la t ion . T he i r s t y le , a sh a s b een s a id , i ss ome t ime s mo re i mp r e s s ive a nd e l abo ra te t h an t h a t o f t h e o the r moneye r s , a nd wh i le h i s r eve r se d e s ign i s i nva r iab le ( bo s s w i th in b eaded c i rc le ) h i s o bve r se s d iv ide i n to e i gh t p robab le s ubg roup s , t oa l a ppea rance s i n ten t iona l ly d if e renced f r om e a ch o the r , t hough i t i s d if i cu l t t o b e c e r ta in o f t h e s i gn if i cance o f t h e se d e s ign v a r ia t ion s . L ike L eof thegn i nt h e n ex t c en tu ry , C eo lba ld s e em s t oh ave b een f a r mo re p ro l if i c a nd i nven t ive t h an h i s c o l league s , a nd i t p o s s ib le t h a t h e p o s se s sed a s upe r io r s t a tu s —o r p e rhap s h e me re ly h ad al onge r c a re e r . C eo lba ld i sa l so i mpo r t an t i na l a rge r c on tex t , i nt h a t t h e re s e em s ad i s t inc t p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t h e i st h e s ame m an a s t h e C eo lba ld who s t ruck p enn ie s f o r C enwu lf a nd C eo lwu lf Io f Me r c i a i n t h e e a r ly 8 20 s . T he c ro s s -c ro s s le t d e s ign o n h i s v a r . v i i o bve r se s i si d en t ica l , a sP agan h a s p o in ted o u t , w i th t h a t o n s ome Me rc ian p enn ie s b ea r ing t h e s ame moneye r ' s n ame .3 4 T h i s wou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h i s p a r t icu la r ly d ynam ic a nd p rof e s s iona l c r af t sman h ad moved s ou th a ts ome t ime a f te r t h e c o l lap se o ft h e c o inage i nt h e n o r the rn k ingdom . C eo lba ld ' s l a te r , Me rc ian i sue s wou ld t hu s s e em a n a tu ra l d eve lopmen t i nd e s ign f r om h i s mo re r ud imen ta ry s c ea t ta s . S uch amove wou ld b e i mpor tan t b o th i n i nd ica t ing t h e p robab le d eg ree o fe conom ic d i s rup t ion i n t h e n o r th a tt h i s p e r iod , a nd i ns how ing ac onnec t ion b e tween t h e n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn c o inage s . Unf o r tuna te ly t h i s i d en t i ty b e tween t h e No r thumb r ian a nd t h e Me rc ian C eo lba ld w i l lf o r eve rr ema in c on jec tu ra l . A t t h i s p o in t w e mu s t c on s ide r t h e q ue s t ion s o f w e igh t s tanda rd a nd me ta l q ua l i ty . T he a va i lab le w e igh t s s ugge s t s ome i n t r igu ing p o s s ib i l i t ie s , t hough t h e i r s ma l l n umbe r b a re ly c on s t i tu te s as t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can t s amp le . One p o in t i s c e r ta in e nough h oweve r . T aken a s awho le t h i s c o inage i s ,l i ke t h e e a r l i e r a n ima l i sue s , s i gn if i can t ly l i gh te r t h an t h e c o in s o f E an red , i n c lud ing h i s f i r s t ' s i lve r ' i sue s . T he c o in s o f E an r ed f r om t h e H exham h oa rd , a s D r Me tca lf s how s e l sewhe re i nt h i s v o lume , y i e ld an ea t a nd r egu la r h i s tog ram w i th i t sp eak a t1 . 22 g . On ly o ne o f t h e c o in s o f ' E the l red Is o f a r w e ighed ( no . 2 1 , o f C eo lba ld ) r e ache s t h i s l e ve l . Mo reove r ah i s tog r am b a sed o n t h e 4 0 ' E the l red Iw e igh t s ( e xc lud ing t h e f r agmen ta ry n o s . 2 8 , 3 3 , a nd 6 2 ) c ou ld b e t a ken t o s ugge s t t h a t t wo d if e ren t s t anda rd s w e re i n o pe ra t ion d u r ing t h e r e ign , p r e sum ab ly s u cce s s ive ly ( s ee F ig . 1 ) . G iven t h e s ma l lne s s o ft h e s amp le h oweve r , a nd b ea r ing i n m ind t h e d ive r se e f ec t s o fc o r ro s ion a nd c l ean ing , t h i s r ema in s a sy e t o n ly a p o s s ib le h ypo the s i s . Any mo re d e ta i led c onc lu s ion s a r e h igh ly s p ecu la t ive . I ti st emp t ing t o n o te t h e l i gh tne s s o f t h e t h r ee l E lfwa ld /Cu thhea rd c o in s wh ich h ave b een w e ighed ( 0 .69g , 0 . 78g , 0 . 86g ) a nd t o c on t r a s t t h i s w i th t h e 5h eav ie r Athe l red /Cu thhea rd r e ad ing s ( 0 .97g1 .05g ) . T h i s e v idence m igh t b e t a ken a ss uppo r t ing t h e a t t r ibu t i on o ft h e f o rme r g roup t o l E lfwa ld I ,s i nce A lfwa ld I wou ld b e e xpec ted t o
1 0C . C it . S ee a l so C . E . B lun t , C . S .S .L yon a nd B . H . I . H . S t ewa r t , ' The c o inage o f
s ou the rn E ng land ' , BN J 3 2 ( 1 963 ) , 3 3 , p 1 .7 , C 1 .23 a nd C 1 .24 .
34
7 0
CO INAGE AND H ISTORY , C .790— C .810 C o ins
0 . 8
1 . 0
12 g
F iG .1 . We igh t so fc o in s o f' E the l red I
h ave a dop ted ar e la t ive ly h eavy s t anda rd ( a s E an red l a te r d id ) i n h i s a t temp t t o r e -e s tab l i sh t h e c o inage . B u t o ne o ft h e A lfwa ld c o in s i nq ue s t ion i sc r acked a nd c h ipped a nd t h e o the r t wo a r e b ad ly c o r roded , s ot h e i r w e igh t s may w e l l b e q u i te m i s lead ing . S im i la r p rob lem s a pp ly t oo the r s p ec if i c i n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e w e igh t e v idence . A l l f ou r C u thhea rd c o in s wh ich h ave b een w e ighed , b o th o f t h e Hn if u la s , a nd t h re e o ft h e f ou r E anba ld s ( t he e xcep t ion b e ing t h e o n ly s p ec imen o fv a r . i ) f a l li n to a' h eavy ' b and , f r om j u s t u nde r 1 . 0g t oj u s t o ve r 1 . 2g ; whe rea s t h e c o in s o f C eo lba ld , Cu thg i l s a nd T idwu lf g ive aw ide r s p read f r om 0 . 7g o r 0 . 8g u p t oa bou t 1 . 2g . We m igh t c onc lude t h a t t h e f i r s t t h ree moneye r s p roduced a l t h e i r c o in s i na n e a r ly p ha se o ft h e c o inage , wh i le t h e o the r s c on t inued s t r ik ing i n to a s e cond , l i gh te r p ha se . B u t a ga in t h e d a ta a r e t oo f ew a nd u n r e l i ab le t o s uppo r ta ny th ing b u ti n conc lu s ive s p ecu la t ion . I n o rde r t o p l ace t h e me ta l -qua l i ty o f t h e c o in s o f ' E the l red Ii n i t s p rope r c on tex t i tw i l l b e u s ef u l t o r ev iew t h e e n t i re e i gh th cen tu ry s e r ie s o f wh ich t he se c o in s a r e t h e l a s t r ep re sen ta t ive s . Al i s t o ft h e t h ree s e t s o fa na ly t ica l r e su l t s s o f a r a va i lab le f o r t h e s e r ie s i sg iven i nA ppend ix 2 . Unf o r tuna te ly t h e t wo e a r l ie r s e t s o fr e su l t s a r e n ow c on s ide red t o b e g ene ra l ly t oo h igh , a nd when t h ey c on t rad ic t t h e r e su l t s i nt h e l a s t c o lumn t h ey s hou ld p robab ly b e d i s rega rded . E ven i gno r ing t h e e a r l i e r r e su l t s h oweve r i ti sn o t e a sy t o d e tec t ad e ta i led c ohe rence i n t h em . Ma r ion A rch iba ld a rgue s t h a t ' M r C owe l l ' s a na ly se s h ave s hown t h a t E adbe rh t ' s i sue s b eg in a ta bou t 7 0 p e r c en t s i lve r .., b u t t h ey t h e r eaf te r d ec l ined t o a round t h e 5 0 p e r c en t m a rk ' .3 5 A s t h e i r t ypo logy s ugge s t s , C la s se s Aa nd B eme rge i n t h e a na ly se s a se a r l ie r a nd p u re r t h an C , D , E , a nd G , a nd i ti ss a t i sf y ing i n t h i s c on tex t t h a t t he l owe s t o f Mr Cowe l l ' s p rec iou s me ta l r e ad ing s f o r aC la s s Bc o in ( 5 0 .6 % ) i sy i e lded b y ap o s s ib ly i r r egu la r s p ec imen o fa noma lou s s t y le . We c an t h en f e e ls e cu re i nd e t ec t ing t wo p ha se si nE adbe rh t ' sc o inage . T he a na ly t ica l r e su l t s f r om t h e l a te r e i gh th c en tu ry h oweve r a r e t oo f ew a nd t oo d ive r se t o g ive a n u namb iguou s p i c tu re . M i s s A rch iba ld c on t inue s : ' t he c o in s o fA lch red , 7 65-74 , a na ly sed b y Mr C owe l l a r e o n t h eb and o f5 0p e rc en t o rl e s s , a nd n eve r a ch ieved a 7 0 p e r c en t s t anda rd . '3 6 C e r ta in ly n one o f t h e c o in s o f A lch red a na ly sed b y Mr Cowe l l g ive s ar e su l t a pp roach ing 7 0 p e r c en t , b u t t h e 9 a na ly se s ( r ega l a nd a r ch iep i scopa l ) d o s how a n u ncomf o r tab ly w ide s p ec t rum o f M . A rch iba ld , ' The B eonna ' , BN J5 5 ( 1 985 ) , p p .3 1-2 . 35
M.
c o inage
o f
7 1
36
l o c . c i t .
JA MES BOOTH
r e su l t s , f r om 6 2% t o 3 2 .4% . On ly t h ree f a l l b e low 5 0 p e r c en t h oweve r , wh i le t wo r i se a bove 6 0 p e r c en t . I ft h e r e ad ing s a r e t ob e t r u s ted t h ey wou ld s e em t o s ugge s t a n i n i t i a l s t anda rd o f mo re t h an 6 0 p e r c en t . Moneye r s wou ld n o t p u t mo re s i lve r t h an of i c ia l ly r equ i red i n to t h e i r c o in s , t hough t h ey m igh t p u t l e s s i f t h ey t hough t t h ey c ou ld g e t a way w i th i t . T he t wo r e cen t a na ly se s o f a n ima l c o in s o fJ E lfwa ld ( 7 79-88 ) a l so g ave d i sc repan t r e su l t s . One ( 6 6 .7 % ) s e em s t o b e a s p u re a s a l b u t t h e v e ry b e s t o f E adbe rh t ' s c o in s , b u t t h e o the r ( 4 6 .3 % ) i s c on s i s ten t w i th a r educed s t anda rd o f a bou t 5 0 p e r c en t . On t h i s e v idence w e m igh t h ypo the s ize as im i la r d ec l ine w i th in t h e c o inage o fA lfwa ld t o t h a t wh ich o ccu r red d u r ing t h e r e ign o fE adbe rh t . I t may p o s s ib ly b e t h a t t h e p u r e r c o in ( w i th n o o rnamen t si nt h ef i e ld ) c o me s e a r ly i nt h er e ign , a nd t h eb a se r c o in ( w i th t wo o rnamen t s i n t h e f i e ld ) c ome s l a te r . B u t a tt h e p re sen t s t age t h i s h ypo the s i s r ema in su n te s tab le . When w e r e ach t h e moneye r ' s -name c o in s o f ' E the l red Iw e f i nd t h e s ame p a t te rn . One o f t h e t h ree r e cen t r e ad ing s ( 5 9 .8 % ) s e em s t o s ugge s t t h e ma in tenance o f t h e 6 0 p e r c en t of i c ia l s t anda rd ; a no the r ( 5 1 .9 % ) s ugge s t s a r educed s t anda rd s omewha t o ve r 5 0 p e r c en t ; wh i le t h e t h i rd ( 3 5% ) i sa lmo s t a s b a se a st h e wo r s t o ft h e A lch red c o in s . T he ma t te r i sc omp l ica ted b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h eh ighe s t a nd l owe s t o ft h et h ree ' E the l red r e ad ing s a r eb o th y i e lded b y c o in s o f t h e s ame moneye r : Cu thg i l s . P e rhap s o fr e levance h e re i st he f a c t t h a t t h eb a se r o f t h e t wo Cu thg i l s c o in s d if e r s s l igh t ly i no bve r se d e s ign f r om t h e o the r s u rv iv ing e xamp le s o f t h e g roup . I ti sn o t i mpo s s ib le t h a t i tb e long s t o a n i r r egu la r o r i m i ta t ive i sue — even o ne o f l a te r d a te . I t c o me s f r om t h e H exham h oa rd , d epo s i ted f i f ty o r mo re y ea r s a f te r t h e c u r rency o ft h e c o in s . B u t t h e se a r e m e re ly s p ecu l a t ive g ue s se s , a nd o n ly w i th t h e a c cumu l a t ing e v idence o ff u r the r a na ly se s w i l l i tb ecome p o s s ib le t og a in ac l ea r p i c tu re o ft h i s c o inage . T he e v idence s of a r h oweve r , s u ch a si ti s , c e r ta in ly d oe s n o t p o in t t o a ny o ve ra l l d if e rence i nm e ta l q ua l i ty b e tween t h e moneye r ' s -name c o in s o f Athe l red a nd t h e e a r l ie r a n ima l c o in s . I ts e em s t h a t , a f te rt h e i n i t ia l d e c l ine o f me ta lu nde rE adbe rh t , as t anda rd o f o ve r 6 0 p e r c en t s i lve r b ecame t h e r u le . P robab ly t h e s t anda rd w a s r e a s se r ted a t t h e b eg inn ing o f e a ch n ew i sue o r r e ign , o n ly t o s l ip b ack t o 5 0 p e r c en t , o r b e low , a s t ime w en t o n . And t h i s v a r iab le , b u t n eve r the le s s r e la t ive ly s t ab le , s t anda rd w a s ma in ta ined u na l te red t h rough t h e c hange o f t ype i n to t h e moneye r ' s -name i sue so f( A lfwa ld I ?a nd ) I / E the l red I . THE COLLAPSE OF THE CO INAGE A s h a s b een s a id , t h e s i ng le mo s t s t r ik ing f a c t a bou t t h e s u rv iv ing c o in s i st h e c o mp le te a b sence o fa ny s p ec imen s i nt h e n ame o fE a rdwu lf . T h i s f a c t o fc ou r se d oe s n o t i n i t se lf p rove t h a t n one w e re s t ruck . I t mu s t b e r emembe red t h a t t h e c o inage so fs e ve r a l o ft h e e a r l ie rk ing s h ave s u rv ived o n ly i nt i ny n umbe r s , s oo ne s hou ld n o tp e rhap s p re sume t oo much o n t h i s l a ck o fe v idence . Athe lwa ld Mo l l ' s s i x -yea r r e ign ( wh ich c o inc ided w i th t h e c o mp le te c o l lap se o ft h e s c ea t ta c o inage i nt h e s ou th o ft h e c oun t ry ) i sr ep re sen ted b y o ne ( o r t wo ) s u rv iv ing c o in s o n ly , a nd t h e f i ve -yea r f i r s t r e ign o f" E the l red Ib y as im i la rn umbe r .3 7 B u t i t mu s t s t i l l
37
B oo th , 1 984 , p .96 .
7 2
COINAGE AND H ISTORY ,
c . 790— c .8 10
b e c e r ta in e nough t h a t a ny i sue o fE a rdwu lf sr e ign , i ft he re w a s o ne , w i l l h ave b een v e ry s ma l l c ompa r ed w i th t ho se o fh i s p redece s so r s . Twe lve o bve r se a nd 1 0 r eve r se d i e s a r e r ep re sen t ed i n1 2 l o ca ted s p ec imen s o fA lfwa ld I ' sa n ima l t ype ; 6 o bve r se a nd 5r eve r se d i e s i nt h e 7moneye r ' s -name c o in s o f" E lfwa ld , wh ich may b e long t ot h e s ame n ine -yea r r e ign . And , a sw e h ave s e en , a tl e a s t 4 4 o bve r se a nd 4 5 r eve r se d i e s o ccu r i nt h e 6 3 c o in s o f' E the l red I ' s s i x -yea r s e cond r e ign . I n t h e l i gh t o ft h e se c ompa r i son s t h e a b sence o fc o in s f r om E a rdwu lf s r e ign mu s t b e o f r e a ls i gn if i cance . B u t why s hou ld t h e c o inage s udden ly h ave f a i led a tt h i s p a r t icu la r momen t ? E a rdwu lf r e igned f o rt we lve y ea r s . T he e ven t so fh i s r e ign s how h im t oh ave b een a se ne rge t ic ar u le r a sh i s p redece s so r , a nd a st h e d eve lopmen t s o f8 08 s how , h e w a s aman o fw ide p o l i t ica lp e r spec t ive s . H i s r e ign f o l low sa lmo s ti mmed ia te ly o n t h a t o f' E the l red , who s e c o inage w a s e x ten s ive . On t h i s e v idence i ts e em s t h a t i f a ny k ing i nt h i s p e r iod o ugh tt oh ave s t ruck c o in s i ti sE a rdwu lf . T h i s f a c tn eed s t o b e s t re s sed s i nce n um i sma t i s t s h ave b een p e rhap s t oo r e ady i nt h e p a s t t o s e e t he e i gh th -cen tu ry c o inage a s e ndem i ca l ly ' i n te rm i t ten t ' , a nd t o v i ew t h e h i a tu s d u r ing E a rdwu lf s r e ign a s me re ly a n u n rema rkab le e p i sode i n as e r ie s o f d i scon t inu i t ie s . T he i mpo r tance o ft h i s h i a tu s h a s a l so b een f u r the r o b scu red b y t h e a b sence , u n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly , o f me ta l a na ly se s , a n a b sence wh ich f o s te red t h e e r roneou s i mp re s s ion t h a t t h e me ta l q ua l i ty o f l a te -e igh th c en tu ry c o in s h ad a l ready emba rked o n t h e d ra s t ic d eba semen t wh ich o ve r took t h e c o inage i n t h e n in th c en tu ry . T hu s / E the l r ed I ' s c . 50-60 % s i lve r c o in s o f t h e 7 90 s h ave f r equen t ly b een g rouped t oge the r w i th E an red ' s c . 40% s i lve r c o in s o ft h e 8 10 s o r 8 20 s , i n as uppo sed h omogeneou sp ha se o f' b a se s i lve ra nd s i lve r a l loy ' c o in s . I n t h e l i gh t o f t h e a c cumu la t ing e v idence a nd c l o se r s t udy o f t h e c o in s , t h i s v e r s ion mu s t b e a bandoned . I n t h e f i r s t p l ace i t i s n ow c l ea r t h a t t h e e i gh th -cen tu ry s e r ie sw a sn o tn ea r ly a si n te rm i t ten t a sh a s b een t hough t . Wi th t h e r e cen t r e a t t r ibu t ion o fo ne ( p e rhap s t wo ) c o in s t o t h e r e ign o fJ E the lwa ld Mo 1 13 8 i t eme rge s t ha t f r om t h e t ime o fE adbe rh t t o t h a t o f' E the l red Ie ach o ft h e f i ve k ing s who r e igned f o r l onge r t h an t wo y ea r s c e r ta in ly i sued c o in s , a nd i ns o me c a se s t h e se i sue s w e r e u ndoub ted ly v e ry l a rge . T hough f l uc tua t ion s n o d oub t o ccu r red , h und red s o ft hou sand s , i fn o t m i l l ion s , o ft h e se c o in s w e re p robab ly i n c i rcu la t ion a ta ny g iven t ime t h roughou t t h e p e r iod c . 740— c .796 . T he p i c tu re o f t h e e i gh th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian money e conomy wh ich i s eme rg ing i so f a w e l l a dm in i s te red s y s tem , s how ing s i gn s o fs t ra in n ow a nd t h en , b u t n o r ad ica l w eakne s s . I t i s t o t h i s e conom ic c l i ma te t h a t t h e moneye r ' s -name c o in s o f ' E the l r ed Ib e long . A nd i ti sn o t u n t i l a f te r a n a ppa ren t ly c omp le te f a i lu re i nt h e i sue o ft h e c o inage a nd ag ap o fa tl e a s t t we lve y ea r s , t h a t an ew , mo re mode s t c o inage w a s a t temp ted , i n a n e conom ic c l i ma te wh ich r e su l ted i n as e r ie s o f d eba semen t s a nd t h e e f ec t ive d i sappea rance o fs i lve r f r om t h e c o inage a l toge the r . T he e i gh th - a nd n in th -cen tu ry c o inage s s hou ld t h en b e s e en a sq u i te d i s t inc t , a nd s e pa ra ted f r om e a ch o the rb y ad ra s t ic e conom ic c o l lap se . The f l aked s u rf ace o f A lchred /Ecgbe rh t 6 ( Boo th , 1 984 , p 1 .6 ) l e d t h e p re sen t w r i te r ( wo rk ing f r om ap ho tog raph ) t om i s read t h e D o f + ED ILVALD a sa n i nve r ted A , a nd s o t o r e a t tr ibu te t h e c o in t oA lch red . I a n S t ewa r t h a s 3 8
7 3
n ow s hown t he p rev iou s a t tr ibu t ion t o / E the lw a ld t o b e , a lmo s t c e r ta in ly , c or rec t . T h i s make s i tp robab le a l so t h a t t h e c o in i lu s t ra ted i n T h e G en t l eman ' s Magaz in e 1 832 ( Boo th , 1 984 , p .8 1 ) i sac o in o ft h es ame i sue .
JA MES BOOTH
I ng ene ra l t e rm s t h e f a i lu r e o ft h e c o inage i sp e rhap s n o t t o ta l ly u nexpec ted . I t s e em s v e ry l i ke ly t h a t No r thumb r ia w a s i n as t a te o fs l ow i fu nd rama t ic d ec l ine t h roughou t t h e e i gh th c en tu ry . E r ic J ohn h a s p e r sua s ive ly s ugge s ted t h a t t h e r oo t o ft h i s d ec l ine l a y i nt h el a v i sh g ran t ing o ft a x -exemp t ` b ook land ' b ye a r l ie r k ing s t o t h e mona s te r ie s wh ich w e re s p r ing ing u p i na l q ua r te r s .3 9 I n h i s l e t te r o f7 34 t oA rchb i shop E cgbe rh t , B ede w a s a l ready a dvoca t ing ar educ t ion i nt h e n umbe r o f f ounda t ion s a nd f o reca s t ing d i re c on sequ ence s f r om t h e s e lf indu lgence o f many y oung men , who i n s tead o f mak ing r e ady f o r t h e d ef ence o ft h e n a t ion , w e re i d l ing t h e i r t ime a way i n mona s t ic t a x -haven s . T he c oncen t r a t ion o f s o much o ft h e p roduc t ive c apac i ty o ft h e e conomy i nt he h and s o fr e l ig iou s h ou se s p e rpe tua l ly e xemp t f r om s e cu la r t a xe s a nd c i v ic o b l iga t ion s , w a s c l ea r ly d y sf unc t iona l . I n J ohn ' s v i ew Of f a ' s mo re r obu s t s t ance i n r e la t ion t o c hu rch r i gh t sa nd e xemp t ion s ( i nc lud ing t h e a bo l i t ion o fp r iv i lege sp rev iou s ly g r an ted b y t h e ' s ub -k ing s ' who se t e r r i to r ie s h e c onque red ) g ave Me rc ia ad i s t inc t e conom ic a dvan tage o ve ri t sn o r the rn n e ighbou r . Unf or tuna te ly , a l though t h er obu s tp o l icy o f Of f a i sc l ea r e nough f r om t h e e x tan t c ha r te r s o fh i s r e ign , n o s im i la r c ha r te r s f r om No r thumbr ia r ema in i n e x i s tence , s o i ti sd if icu l t t o b e c e r ta in a s t o t h e e xac t e conom ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween c hu r ch a nd s t a te i n t h e n o r th a tt h i s t ime . Neve r the le s s B ede ' s a nx ie t ie s a r e p e rhap s s uf ic ien t i nd ica t ion o ft he s i tua t ion . I ti s i n t h i s c on tex t t h a t w e s hou ld p e rhap s s e e t h e a ppa ren t r educ t ion o f me ta l s t anda rd i nt h e c o inage d u r ing t h e r e ign o fE adbe rh t a nd t h e r epea ted f a i lu r e l a te r i n t h e e i gh th c en tu ry t o ma in ta in t h i s l owe r s t anda rd c on s i s ten t ly . T he u l t ima te c o l lap se o ft h e c o inage i sn o t t h en a n u nexpec ted d eve lopmen t . B u t w e s t i l l h ave n o e xp lana t ion a s t o why i ts hou ld h ave f a i led s o s udden ly a nd u nexpec ted ly when i td id , i mmed ia te ly a f te ra na ppa ren tr ev iva lu nde r Athe l red I . T he c a ta ly s t wh ich t r an sf o rmed t h i s i n s tab i l i ty i n to a c o l lap se s e em s t o h ave b een , a sM ichae l Do l ley o nce s ugge s ted , t h e V ik ing o n s laugh t o f7 93-4 . 4°I ti s d if i cu l t n o t t o i n te rpre t t he c o in e v idence n ow a va i lab le a sd emon s t ra t ing , q u i te d rama t ica l ly , t h a t t h e se r a id s w e re n o t me re i n cu r s ion s o f e s sen t ia l ly s ymbo l ic s i gn if i cance , b u t t h a t t hey d i s rup ted t h e a i l ing No r thumb r ian e conomy q u i te r ad ica l ly . E ven i fc o ined money d id n o t y e t p l ay ac en t ra l p a r t i nt h e e conomy a t t h i s t ime , t h e c omp le te d i sappea rance o f t h i s c o mp lex , c en t r a l ly a dm in i s te red s y s tem a f te r f i f ty y ea r s o fr e la t ive s ucce s s a nd s t ab i l i ty i ss t i l l ad rama t ic h i s to r ica l e ven t , r equ i r ing a d rama t ic e xp lana t ion . S uch a n a rgumen t w i l l p e rhap s n o t s a t i sf y t ho se who w i sh t o m in im ize t h e d e s t ruc t ive e f ec t o ft h e V ik ing s . P e te r S awye r h a s s t e rn ly w a rned : ' I f t h e V ik ing menace i st o b e mea su r ed b y i t s c on sequence si ti si mpo r tan t t h a t o n ly t ho se wh ich c an b e p roved s hou ld b e t a ken i n to a c coun t .'" We c an p rove t h a t t h e r a id s b rough t t h e i sue o fc o inage t o a n e nd . We may i ndeed b e d ea l ing w i th a n e ven t wh ich h a s mo re c o mp lex p rec ip i ta t ing c au se s t h an t h e o ne s t r iden t ly a dve r t i sed b y c on tempo ra ry c l e r ica l o b se rve r s , e age r a s a lway s t o e xagge r a te t h e i mpac t o f t h e h ea then m en . B u t a ga in s t S awye r ' s m in ima l i s t v i ew o fh i s to r ica l e v idence a nd i t sp e rm i t ted u s e s , w e may o ppo se t h e max ima l i sm o fE r ic J ohn : ' I t mu s t b e r emembe red t h a t t h i s i sa E r ic J ohn , O rb i s B r i tann iae , L e ice s te r ( 1 966 ) , p p .21-7 . M . Do l ley , ' The c o in s ' , i n T he A r chaeo l o gy o f Ang lo -Saxon E ng land , D . M . Wi l son
( e d . ) , p p .349-72 , a tp .355 . P . H . S awyer , T he A g e o f t h e V ik ing s , L ondon ( 1 962 ) , p . 142 .
39
4 1
40
7 4
COINAGE AND H ISTORY ,
c . 790— c .8 10
p e r iod i n wh ich v e ry l i t t le e v idence o fa ny th ing a ta l s u rv ive s . We mu s t a lway s b ewa re o f m in im iz ing e v idence me re ly b ecau se i ti se x iguou s . '" I n t h i s c a se , a l though t h e e v idence i si ndeed e x iguou s , i ti sb o th c l ea r a nd c o mpe l l ing : 6 3 o r mo re r e co rded c o in s o f/ E the l red ; n o c o in s o fE a rdwu lf wha t soeve r . I ft h e r e w e r e o the r p rec ip i ta t ing c au se s f o r t h e s udden c o l lap se o ft h e c o inage a tt h i s p o in t t h ey a r e n o l onge r v i s ib le t o u s . T he c onnec t ion o f t h e a dven t o f t h e V ik ing s i n No r thumb r ia w i th t h e c e s sa t ion o f i t s w e l l -e s tab l i shed c o inage i ss u re ly t oo p l au s ib le t ob ed i sm i s sed o u to fh and . I n a ny c a se w e d o n o t i n f a c t n eed t o r e jec t S awye r ' s w ide r s c ep t ic i sm a bou t t h e s i ze a nd d e s t ruc t ivene s s o f t h e V ik ing r a id s i n o rde r t o i mpu te t o t h e se p a r t icu la r a t tack s au n ique ly momen tou s e f ec t . I t mu s t b e r emembe red t h a t t h e se w e re t h e f i r s t s i gn if i c an t r a id s o ft h e i r k ind t o h ave o ccu r red i n E ng land . T hey w e re q u i te u nexpe c ted . A s A lcu in r ema rk s , o ve r t h e 3 50 y ea r s d u r ing wh ich ' we a nd o u r f a the r s h ave i nhab i ted t h i s mo s t l ove ly l a nd ' n o -one h ad e ve r i mag ined ' t ha t s u ch a n i n road f r om t h e s e a c ou ld b e m ade . '4 3 T he d i s rup t ive e f ec t o ft h e se f i r s ta t tack s , r epea ted o ve rs u cce s s ive y ea r s , may h ave b een much g rea te rt h an t h a t o f l a te r r a id s . Mo reove r No r thumb r ian mona s te r ie s w e re p e rhap s p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t i n s t i tu t ion s i n t h e l o ca l a nd n a t iona l e conomy a t t h i s t ime . L ike r e l ig iou s h ou se s e l s ewhe re t h ey wou ld p robab ly h ave b een u sed a s s a f e r epo s i to r ie s f o r s e cu la r w ea l th , s o t h e ma te r ia l p lunde r c a r r ied o f f r om L ind i sf a rne a nd J a r row may h ave b een v e ry c on s ide rab le i ndeed , n o tw i th s tand ing t h e i r d i s tance f r om t h e c o mme rc ia l c en t re o f Yo rk . B u t a l so t h e s k i l l s a nd e xpe r t i se o f monk s w a s av a luab le c o mmod i ty i n i t s e lf a t t h i s t ime , p e rhap s p a r t icu la r ly s oi n No r thumb r i a who se e s tab l i shed p reem inence i ns cho la r sh ip a nd a r t w a s o n ly j u s t b eg inn ing t o f ad e . T he s u rv iv ing L ind i sf a rn e G o sp e l s , C od ex Am ia t inu s , a nd o the r manu sc r ip t s s how h ow g rea t a nd w ide ly r e spec ted t h e a ch ievemen th ad b een . T hough t h e e v idence i sl a ck ing i tc ou ld b e t ha t t h e s upp ly o fl e s s p re s t ig iou s t e x t s o ft h e G o spe l s a nd o fB ened ic t ' s R u l e t ot h e s ou the rn a nd c on t inen ta l mona s te r ie s wh ich w e re s p r ing ing u p t h roughou t t h e c en tu ry , w a s i n i t s e lf a s ou rce — if i n ah aphaza rd a nd u n sy s tema t ic w ay —of t he e cono m ic p ro spe r i ty o ft h e k ingdom a s awho le . When t h e ' p agan s ' a r r ived , a s T h e H i s t o ry o ft h eK ing sr he to r ica l ly l amen t s , t h ey l a id e ve ry th ing w a s te w i th g r ievou s p lunde r ing , t r amp led t h e h o ly p l ace sw i th p olu ted s t ep s , d ug u p t h e a l ta r s , a nd s e ized a l t h e t r ea su re s o ft h e h o ly c hu rch . T hey k i l led s ome o ft h e b ro the r s , t ook s ome a way w i th t h em i nf e t te r s , m any t h ey d rove o u t , n aked a nd l o aded w i th i n su l t s , s ome t h ey d rowned i nt h es e a ."
T he c r af t sman sh ip o f s c r ibe s a nd i lum ina to r s w a s t hu s l o s t , a nd i r rep laceab le l i b ra r ie sw e re p r e sumab ly a l so d e s t royed o rs c a t te red . B u t i ts e em s mo s t l i ke ly t h a t t h e se r a id s d id n o t s t op a t t h e mona s te r ie s t h em se lve s . A s t h e h i s to ry o f t h e s u cceed ing c en tu ry o r s o c onf i rm s , b ef ore A lf red a nd h i s s u cce s so r s h ad b een s t imu la ted t oo rgan ize t h e d ef en s ive s y s tem o f t h e b u rh s , a l t h e A ng lo -Saxon k ingdom s w e re v i r tua l ly d ef ence le s s a ga in s t a s e aborne a t tack f r om e ven a s ma l l n umbe r o f men . A f ew d ozen w a r r io r s 42 43
J ohn , p . 10 .
44
EHD , n o .193 , p .776 .
7 5
EHD , n o .3 , p .247 .
JA MES BOOTH
d e scend ing u nannounced o n t h e No r thumb r i an c oa s t c ou ld h ave p i l laged a tw i l l o ve r a n e x ten s ive a r ea f o r s ome t ime b ef o re t h e l o ca l p eop le o r t h e k ing wou ld h ave b een a b le t or a i se a ny o rgan ized o ppo s i t ion . We m ay t h en i mag ine t h e r a id s o n L ind i sf a rne i n 7 93 a nd o nJ a r row i n 7 94 a s mo re t h an ame re p lunde r ing o f c hu r che s . T hey w e re q u i te p robab ly e x ten s ive p i l lag ing o pe ra t ion s , d i s rup t ing a g r icu l tu re a nd t r ade o ve r aw ide r a r ea . Mo s t i mpo r tan t o fa l , t h e n ew V ik ing t h rea t mu s t h ave c r ea ted a c o mme rc ia l i n secu r i ty o n al a rge r s c a le , s t r ik ing a t e a s t -coa s t s h ipp ing a nd t h e reby r educ ing t h e f l ow o ff o r e ign t r ade a nd f o re ign money i n to Yo rk . And t h e e conom ic d ec l ine wh ich i n ev i t ab ly e n sued i s e v idenced b y t h e s udden a nd s u rp r i s ing t e rm in a t ion o ft h e w e l l e s tab l i shed s i lve r c o inage o ft h e k ingdom , a nd i t s s ub sequen t r ep lacemen t , a f te r al e ng thy p e r iod , b y ac o inage o fi n f e r io r m e ta l q ua l i ty .
APPEND IX 1 L IST OF CO INS CONSULTED B e cau se o ft h e s mal n umbe r o fs u rv iv ing s p ec imen s , t h e o rde r ing , a nd s ome t ime s e ven t h e d ef in i t ion o f d if e ren t v a r ie t ie s w i th in t h e c o in age o f/ E the l red i si n ev i t ab ly a r b i t r a ry , a nd i mp l ie s n o n ece s sa ry c h rono log ica l o r o the r r e la t ion sh ip . D i e l inked c o in s a r e g rouped t oge th e r a nd , i n t h e c a se o ft h e n ume rou s v a r ie t ie s o fC eo lba ld , s imp le r d e s ign s a r e p l aced b ef o re mo re e l abo ra te o ne s . C o in s f r om t h e Wh i tby A bbey e xcava t ion s o ft h e 1 920 s , s k e tch i ly s umma r i zed b yJ .A l lan i n ' The C o in s f r om Wh i tby ' , A r cha e o l og ia 8 9 ( 1 943 ) , 8 5-6 , a r e c i ted w i th t h e i r o r ig ina l i nven to ry n umbe r s . D i e s T he v a r i ab le q ual i ty o fb o th c o in s a nd p ho tog raph s r e nd e r s d i e -compa r i son v e ry d if i cu l t . S ome m i s take sw il i n ev i tab l th ave b een made . x xi nd ica te s d i e s d if e ren t f r om t ho se o fa ny o the r k nown s p ec imen . ?i nd i ca t e s d i e s wh ich c ou ld n o tb ec ompa r ed . P l a t e s T he n umbe r ing o fs p ec imen s o n t h e p l a te s c o r re spond s w i th t h a t i nt h e L i s t . S ca l e a pp rox i ma te ly 3 : 2 . A l l o ft h ec o in s , e xcep tn o s .48 a nd 5 3 , a r ei lu s t r a ted e i the ri nt h ep l a te so rb yl i ne d raw ing si nt h eL i s t .
1 ELF WALD I( 7 79-788 ) o rJ ELF WALD I ( 8 08-8 10 ) Cu thheard O bv . 1 PFEVAFDVe , 1 1 1-EVAFDVe o rP FEVAFDVe r ound c r o s s . R ev . CVDhEART , CVDhEVRT o r CVDhEART r ound c r o s s . D i e i d en t i t i e s
We igh t ( g )
Wh e r e f ound
0 . 86
S anc ton , 1 980
1
P r iva te p o s se s s ion . B oo th a nd B lowe r s 1 983 ,2 4
D ie sa s2
2
S ewe rby H al ,B r id l ing ton
D ie sa s1
3
L eed sC i ty Mu seum . B oo th a nd B lowe r s 1 983 ,2 6
Rev a s4
7 6
T hw ing , P addock H i l l , 1 985 0 . 78
S anc ton , 1 979
CO INAGE AND H ISTORY ,
c .7 90— c .810
4
York A rchaeo log i ca lT ru s t3 2
Rev a s3
5
L o rd G ran t ley , NC ( 1 897 ) p . 138-9 , p l .V I I , 5
x x
6
F orme r ly York sh i re Mu seum . L yon , 1 955-7 , p l .XV I I I7 . Now l o s t
x x
7
P r iva te p o s se s s ion . B oo th a nd B lowe r s 1 983 ,2 5
Yo rk , O ld Coun ty Ho sp i ta l
0 . 69
XX
S anc ton ,b ef ore 1 982
/ ETHELRED I( S econd Re ign 7 90-796 ) C eo lba ld T he r eve r se r e ad s +CEOLBALD o n n o s .914 ; +[ EOLBALD , +[ EOLBAED o r + EOLB7 iLD o n n o s .15-32 . I ne ach c a se t h e n ame s u r round s ab o s s w i th in ab eaded c i rc le . ( No .9 h a sp e l le t s w i th in t h ea ng le so ft h ei n i t ia lc ro s s , a nd o nn o s .25 a nd 2 6t h eb eaded c i rc le i s d oub led . ) V a r . i :O bv . : + AED ILRED r ound p l a in c ro s s . Doub le o bve r se : c omb ined w i th ad i eo fv a r . v i i i . 8
P r iva te p o s se s s ion . B oo th a nd B lowe r s 1 983 ,2 8
0 . 86
XX
S anc ton , b ef ore 1 982
V a r . i :O bv . : + AED ILRED r ound c ro s sw i th in b eaded c i rc le . 9
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 9 14
Obv a s1 0 Rev a s1 0 ?
1 0
Wh i tby , P anne tP a rk Mu seum . P i ne 1 986 , 6 9
Obv a s9 Rev a s9 ?
1 . 19
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s Wh i tby , S pa L adde r , E . Cl if , 1 931
V a r . i : O bv . : A sv a r . ib u tp ele t sa dded i nt he a ng le so ft he c en t ra lc ro s s . 1
1 2
Mu seum o f An t iqu i t ie s , Un ive r s i ty o f Newca s t le Tyne . P i ne 1 986 , 8 4 Oxf o rd ,A shmo lean
Obv a s1 2 ?
Newca s t le -upon Tyne , B lack G a te , 1 977
u pon
Obv a s 1?
0 . 90
V a r . i v : O bv . : + AED ILRED ( on n o .15 + AED ILRED R ) r ound c ro s s a nd w edge s w i th in b eaded c i rc le . 1 3
BMC ( ) E the l red I )2 84
D ie sa s1 4
1 . 08
1 4
York sh i re Mu seum
D ie sa s1 3
0 . 80
1 5
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 2 4
Rev a s 1 617
0 . 70
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s
V a r . v :O bv . : + AED ILRED r ound b o s s w i th in b eaded c i rc le ( no s .16 a nd 1 7 h ave w edge s i n t he a ng le so ft he i n i t ia lc ro s s ) . 1 6
SCBI Mack 3 68 . Adam son 1 836 , 1
Obv a s1 7 1 . 13 Rev a s 1 5 a nd 1 7
7 7
H exham h oa rd , 1 832
JA MES BOOTH
1 7
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 2 2
Obv a s1 6 Rev a s 1 516
0 . 98
Wh i tby A bbey , 1 920 s
1 8
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 2 3
D ie sa s1 9
0 . 83
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s
1 9
P r iva te p o s se s s ion . Boo th a nd B lowe r s 1 983 ,2 9
D ie sa s1 8
0 . 88
S anc ton , 1 979
2 0
York sh i re Mu seum . P i ne 1 986 ,7 8
x x
0 . 91
? Hexham , Abbey Chu rchya rd , 1 932
V a r . v i : O bv . : +• A •ED ILRED o r +• A •ED . I .LR -ED r ound b o s sw i th in b eaded s qua re . 2 1
BMC ( i E the l red I )2 85
x x
2 2
Adam son 1 834 ,E the l red 3 1 ( Th i si sc l ea r ly n o tt he s ame c o in a sn o .21 . I tc ou ld b ea s pec imen o fv a r . v .S ee i l . )
1 . 24
H exham h oard , 1 832
XX
V a r . v i i : O bv . : + AED ILRED r ound c ro s s -c ro s s le to rc ro s sw i th in l i ned s qua re . 2 3
SCBI Mack 3 68a
x x
2 4
J a r row H al , J a r row , Wea r . P ine 1 986 ,8 1
2 5
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 7 48
x x
0 . 80
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s
2 6
G la sgow A r tG ale ry a nd Mu seum , K e lv ingrove , ' 5 5-96 . P i ne 1 986 , 1 08
x x
0 . 79
L uce S and s , Wig town sh i re
T yne
1 . 20
a nd x x
J a r row , Ang lo-Saxon Min s te r
V a r . v i i i : O bv . : + AED ILRED ( s ta r t ing a t 6o ' c lock ) r ound R o r e tw i th in b eaded c i rc le . The Ao nb o th o bv . a nd r ev , i sb a r red a tt he t op , a nd may l a ck t he c ro s s -p iece . 2 7
SCBI Yo rk s . x l2 5 . P i ne 1 986 , 5 1
D ie sa s2 8
0 . 83
2 8
Oxf ord , A shmo lean . Me tca lf e ta l1 968 , 0 85
D ie sa s2 7
0 . 73
2 9
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 7 44
D ie sa s3 0
0 . 78
3 0
BMC ( ) E the l red I )2 83
D ie sa s2 9
1 . 13
3 1
Oxf ord , A shmo lean . Me tca lf e ta l1 968 , 0 85b i s
x x
1 . 15
7 8
York Min s te r , 1 970-7 1
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s
CO INAGE AND H ISTORY , C .
3 2
Yo rk sh i re Mu seum
3 3
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 9 61b
7 90— c .810 York : T anne r Row , G ene ra lA cc iden ts i te
XX
?
0 . 35
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s
Cu thg i l s O bv . : ED + FRED ( on n o .6 ED1+ RED ) r ound c ro s s . R ev . : [VD [ LS i nt wo s e g men t se ach s i de o f ab eaded t r iang le s u rmoun ted b y ac ro s s . 3 4
Oxf o rd ,A shmo lean , e xF i r th , e x G ran t ley
0 . 88
3 5
SCBI Copenhagen 2 73 , e xB ruun 4 4 , e x Ra sh le igh 1 4 1 , e xL o sco mbe 1 046 ,e xR ich
1 . 06
3 6
P r iva te p o s se s s ion . B oo th a nd B lowe r s1 983 ,2 7
0 . 85
3 7
Ryeda le F o lk Mu seum . YAJ 4 1 , 1 966 , 5 66-7
3 8
Yo rk sh i re Mu seum . T h i si su ndoub ted ly t he s ame s pec imen a s Adam son 1 836 , Un c e r ta in 1
S anc ton , 1 982 K i rkbymoor s ide , Al S a in t s ' Chu rchya rd , 1 965
1 . 16
H exham h oa rd , 1 832
Cuthheard O bv . : + AED ILREDR ( w i th ab a r o ve r t he 1 ma l R ) r ound c ro s s . ( On n o .46 t he l e gend i s r e t rograde ) . R ev . : + EVDHEARD r ound c ro s s . 3 9
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 7 42
Obv a s4 0
0 . 97
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s
4 0
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 8 86
Obv a s3 9 Rev a s4 1
1 . 00
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s
4 1
S p ink Auc t ion 3 2 , 1 . 12 .83 , l o t 3 85 Rev a s4 0 ( p a r t )
4 2
BMC ( ) E the l red I )2 93
Obv a s4 3
4 3
York A rchaeo log ica lT ru s t
Obv a s4 2 Rev ?
4 4
B r i t i sh Mu seum ,E 4203 . I nc o l lec t ion b ef o re 1 838 b u t n o ti n BMC
0 . 97
4 5
Oxf o rd , A shmo lean . Me tca lf e ta l . 1 968 ,0 86
0 . 99
4 6
C . S .S .L yon c olec t ion . Me tca lf e ta l . 1 968 ,L y3
1 . 05
7 9
Yo rk : F i she rga te , Ref earn ' sG la s swork s s i te , 1 986
J A MES BOOTH
4 7
Adam son 1 836 , E the l red 1 2 ( S ee x x i l . )
4 8
P r iva te p o s se s s ion . YAJ 4 5 ( 1 973 ) 2 03
?
H exham h oa rd , 1 832 —
S e t t le , A t tem i re C ave , 1 970
E anba ld V a r . i :O bv . : + AED ILRED ( no .51 w i thou ti n i t ia lc ro s s ) r ound b o s sw i th in b eaded c i rc le . R ev . : EAHBALD ( no s .501 r e t rog rade ) r ound c ro s s . 4 9
P r iva te p o s se s s ion
x x
—
B a rmby Moor , 1 986
5 0
S ewe rby H al , B r id l ing ton . P i ne ,B r i t i sh A r chaeo log i ca lR epo r t s , B r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 28 ( 1984 ) , p p .21112 ,p 1 .11 ,2 0
x x
1 . 08
Thw ing , P addock H i l l , 1 983
5 1
SCBI G la sgow 1 78
x x
1 . 09
-
1 . 10
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s
V a r .i :O bv . : AED ILRED r ound b o s sw i th in b eaded c i rc le . R ev . : + EAHBALD r ound c ro s sw i th in b eaded c i rc le . 5 2
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 9 72
x x
5 3
J o seph F a i r le s s ( NC 1 845 , p .36 ) r e cord s ac o in a ppa ren t ly o ft h i s v a r ie ty t oge the r w i th s o me l a te rn in th -cen tu ry p i ece s , f ound ' f o rt he mo s tp ar t ' a tH exham , i nt he ' p rec inc t o f t he c hu rch ' . He s t a te s t h a t i t wa s ' i n sc r ibed E XNBALD w i th ap ele t ted c i rc le , a nd a c ro s s i nt he c en t re . On t he o the r s i de XED ILRED , w i thou t t he c ro s s ' . T he c o in c anno t n ow b el o ca ted .
V a r .i : O bv . : A sv a r . i . R ev . : EAHBALD r e t rog rade r ound b o s sw i th in b eaded c i rc le . 5 4
P r iva te p o s se s s ion . B oo th a nd B lowe r s 1 983 ,3 0
XX
0 . 83
S anc ton ,b ef o re 1 982
V a r . i v : O bv . : ED ILR + EDR r ound c ro s s . R ev . : + EAHBALD r e t rog rade r ound b o s sw i th in b eaded c i rc le . 5 5
J a r row Hal , J a r row , Wea r . P ine 1 986 ,n o .24
Tyne
a nd x x
—
J a r row , Ang lo -Saxon Min s te r , 1 976
1 . 11
H exham h oa rd , 1 832
Hn ifu la V a r . i :O bv . : + ED ILRED r ound c ro s s . R ev . : + HN IFVLA r ound c ro s sw i th in b eaded c i rc le . 5 6
BMC ( y E the l red I )4 29 . Adam son 1 834 , 1 36
D ie sa s5 7
5 7
No rw ich C a s t le Mu seum , No rf o lk . D ie sa s5 6 E a s t A ng l ian A r cha eo l ogy R epo r t No .22 , 1 984 ,6 8
8 0
T he tf o rd , No rf o lk , 1 977
CO INAGE AND H ISTORY , C .
7 90c .8 10
V a r . O bv . : A sv a r . i . R ev . : A sv a r . ib u tb o s si n s tead o fc ro s si nc en t re . 5 8
BMC ( ) E the l red I )4 30
x x
1 . 09
N o t e : Adam son 1 834 , Unce r ta in 2 6 , a nd Adam son 1 836 , E the l red 3 2 ( bo th f r om t h e H exham h oa rd ) c ou ld b e c o in s o ft h i s r e ign a nd moneye r , t hough t hey a r e mo re p robab ly b lunde red c o in so f/ E the l red I ( s ee i l s . ) .
T idwu lf Al r eve r se d i e sr e ad + T IDVVLF o r +T IDVV C Fr ound c ro s sw i th in b eaded c i rc le . V a r . i :O bv . : + AED R IEDR r ound c ro s s . 5 9
C . S .S .L yon c olec t ion . Me tca lf e ta l . 1 968 ,L y4
Obv a s6 0
1 . 06
6 0
Yo rk sh i re Mu seum
Obv a s5 9
1 . 12
? Hexham h oa rd , 1 832
Wh i tby Abbey , 1 920 s
V ar . i :O bv . : + EDLRED RE r ound c ro s s . 6 1
B r i t i sh Mu seum . Wh i tby 1 027
1 . 10
6 2
BMC ( ) E the l red I )5 80
0 . 93
6 3
P r iva te p o s se s s ion . B oo th a nd B lowe r s 1 983 ,3 1
S anc ton , 1 981
6 4
Humbe r s ide A rchaeo log ica l Un i t
B eve r ley , L u rk L ane , 1 980
V ar .
O bv . : + ED3 JD RE r ound c ro s s .
6 5
P anne tP a rk Mu seum , Wh i tby . P i ne 1 986 , 6 8
Obv a s6 6-8 Rev a s6 6
6 6
SCBI G la sgow 2 25
Obv a s 6 5 a nd 0 . 98 6 7-8 Rev a s6 5
6 7
SCBI G la sg ow 2 24
Obv a s 6 5-6 0 . 81 a nd 6 8 Rev a s6 8
6 8
Oxf o rd ,A shmo lean
Obv a s 6 5-7 0 . 81 a nd 6 8 Rev a s6 7
8 1
Wh i tby ?
J A MES BOOTH
6 9
Ac o in o ft h i s v ar ie ty wa s i lu s tra ted b yJ ohn Wh i te i n 1 756 , a l ong w i th o the r ` s cea t ta s ' , i n t wo p la te s ' of Anc ien t a nd S ingu lar Co in s wh ich were l a te ly f ound n ea r a nd i n t he I s le o f Thane t . ' Though v e ry s im i lar t on o .68 , a nd p robab ly f r om t he s ame d i e s , i ts e em s n o t t ob e t he s ame c o in ( s ee i l . )
7 0
C . S .S .L yon c o l lec t ion .
x x
0 .97
Me tca lf e ta l . 1 968 , L y5
APPE ND IX 2 ANALYSES OF E IGHTH-CENTU RY NORTH U MB R IAN CO INS An ima l type c o in s a r e i d en t if i ed b y t h e i r n umber ing i n B oo th , 1 984 ; moneye r ' s -name c o in s b y t h e i rn umbe r ing i n Append ix 1o ft h ep re sen tp ape r . A l l f i gu re s a r e p e rcen tage s o fp rec iou s me ta l . T he s ma l l p e rcen tage o fg o ld ( u sua l ly l e s s t h an 2% ) d e tec tab le i n mo s t c o in s h a s b een a gg rega ted i n to t h e ' s i lve r ' t o ta l , a s sum ing i tt o h ave f ound i t s w ay i n to t hem a sa n i mpu r i ty i n t h e s i lve r b u l l ion u s ed . M : Me tca lf , Me r r ick a nd H amb l in , S t ud i e s i nt h e C ompo s i t i on o fE a r ly Med i eva l C o in s , Newca s t le u pon -Tyne , 1 968 . B : Ana ly se s p erf ormed i n t he D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience s , Un ive r s i ty o fB r adf ord , 1 976-9 ; i nB oo th , 1 984 . C : Ana ly se s p e rf ormed b y M . R . C owe l l , s ome p ub l i shed i nM . M . A rch iba ld , ' The C o inage o f B eonna ' , BN J 5 5 , 1 985 , Append ix 4 ;o the r s t o b e p ub l i shed i n t he f o r thcom ing Me t a l lu rgy a nd Num s ima t i c s 2( r ep roduced w i th p e rm i s s ion ) . A ldf r i th ( 685-704 ) 4
9 3 .3
E ad b e rh t( 738-757 ) A 3 8 3 .5-84 .5 A 5 A 6 A 7 A 9 A 16 A 18
A n ima l T yp e 7 3 6 3 .6
5 8 .5-82 .5
4 7 .2 8 2 .5-85 .5 9 2 .5-93 .5
7 0 .5
D /E
6 2 .5-66 .5 3 7 .5
8 5 .6 ( i nc . 9 . 5% g o ld )
E l E 4 E 6 E 7
9 7 6 7
6 1 8 1
5 .7 5 0 7 0
D2 D5
6 0 6 0
B /A B 1 B 2 B 4 B 11 B 17 B 18 B 19 B 2 1 B 23
C 2 C 4 C 5 C 8
5 9 .1 6 4 .7
4 6 .5-54 .5 7 5 .1 6 0 .6 5 7 .8 6 8 .9 5 0 .6
6 3 4 3 .7 5 0 .8 4 8
F 3
6 1 .8
G 1 G 2 G 10
4 1 .5 5 0 .7 5 0 .9
E ad b e rh t( 738-757 ) w i th E cgbe rh t( 734-766 ) 1 5 3 .2 2 7 0-87 4 7 .3
8 2
C O INAGE A ND H I STORY , C .7 90— c .8 10
1 2 1 3 1 6 2 0 2 1
5 .8 6 3 .6
' E th e l r ed I( f i r s tr e ign , 7 74-779 ) 1
4 6 .6 5 8 .6
" E lfwa ld ( 779-788 )A n ima l T yp e A 2 E l E 2 4 8 .5-52 .5
5 8 .2
6 7-72
A l ch r ed ( 765-774 )A n ima l T yp e 1 4 5 6 7 8
6 2 .0 3 2 .4 5 .8 4 6 .6 5 1 .4 6 1 .7
' E th e l r ed I( s e c ond r e ign 7 90-796 ) 2 2 2 6 6 7-74 2 8 9 1 .75 3 4 3 8 6 . 2 4 4 6 2 .5 4 6 6 7 .75-8 1 .75 5 9 7 7-84 7 0 6 6-72
A l ch r ed ( 765-774 ) w i th E c gb e rh t( 734-766 ) 1 4 9 .1 2 5 3 .1 4 5 1 .7
6 6 .7 4 6 .3
5 1 .9
5 9 .8 3 5 .0
D ISCUSS ION DR M E TCAL F : Mr B oo th h and le s t h e i n t r igu ing m e t ro log ica l e v idence f r om Athe l red ' s s e cond r e ign w i th h i s c u s toma ry s ound j udgemen t , a nd r i gh t ly p o in t s o u t t h a t i tm ay b e m i s lead ing f o r t wo r e a son s , n ame ly t h a t w e h ave ar e cord o f w e igh t f o r o n ly t wo th i rd s o ft h e s p ec imen s , a nd t h a t c h ipped o r c o r roded c o in s m ay n ow b es i gn if i c an t ly l i gh te rt h an when t h ey w e re m ade . T h i ss hou ld m ake u s c au t iou so ft h ei d ea , s ugge s ted b yt h et wo p eak so ft h eh i s tog ram , t h a tt h e re w a sa l i gh te ra nd ah eav ie rw e igh t s tanda rd ,b e long ing r e spec t ive ly t oa ne a r l ie ra nd l a te r p ha se o f Athe l red ' s c o inage , —o r v i c e v e r s a . I ft h i s w e re s o , i ft h e re w e re s u ch a n a dm in i s t ra t ive c hange d u r ing t h e y ea r s 7 90-6 , i t wou ld o f e r a n i mpo r tan t n ew i n s igh t i n to t h e c o in age a nd mone ta ry h i s to ry o ft h e l a te e i gh th c en tu ry . A l so , i t wou ld v e ry p robab ly c l inch t h ea t t r ibu t ion o fA lfwa ld ' sc o in s .B u tt h ee v idence a l s e em s , a s Mr B oo th s a y s , t ob e a mb iguou s : i ti sj u s t n o t c l ea r whe the r w e s hou ld d educe t h a t h eav ie r c o in s w e re f o l lowed b y l i gh te r , o r t h e o the r w ay r ound . T he d if i cu l t ie sa ppea rt ob ee ven g rea te rt h an Mr B oo th w a rn su s ,f o rn o to n ly d o t h ec o in so ft h e mon eye r sC eo lbea ld ,C u thg i l s ,a nd T idwu lf v a ry w ide ly i nw e igh t , s ome t ime sb e tween d i e l inked s p ec imen s ,b u ta l so t h ev a r ie t ie si n to wh ich t h ey h ave n ow b een c l a s s if i ed a r e n o t i n te rna l ly c on s i s ten t i nt h e i r w e igh t s . I si tf o r tu i tou s a nd d ecep t ive t h a t s ome moneye r s s e em t o b e c on t ro l l ing t h e w e igh t s o f t h e i r f l an s much mo re a c cu ra te ly t h an o the r s ? C ou ld mo s t o f t h e v a r ia t ion i n f a c t b e p u t d own t o l o s s o f w e igh t t h rough w ea r , c o r ro s ion , a nd l e ach ing ?T he s p ec imen sw i th H exham h oa rd p rovenance s ,n o s .1 6 ,3 8 ,5 6 ,a nd ( ? )60 w e igh 1 . 13 , 1 . 16 , 1 . 11 , a nd 1 . 12g , a nd w e c an p robab ly a dd n o . 2 1 ( B MC 2 85 ) , 1 . 24g . T he a ve r age w e igh t o ft h e se s p ec imen s f r om ah oa rd w i th at . p .q . h a lf a c en tu ry a f te rt h e i ri sue ,i sw e l la bove t h ea ve rage f o rt h ec o rpu s . T he se a r ec o in si n g ood c ond i t ion , w h ich m ay b e p re sumed t oh ave l o s t v e ry l i t t le o ft h e i r o r ig ina l 8 3
J A MES BOOTH
w e igh t .T hey may h ave s pen t mo s to ft ho se f i f ty y ea r so u to fc i r cu la t ion . T hey g ive u s a n i d ea o f aw e igh t s tanda rd o f , a tb e s t , a r ound 1 . 15g — aga in s t wh ich w e c an a s se s s t h e r e s t o ft h e e v idence . T he Wh i tby e xcava t ion c o in s , f o r e xamp le , r ange q u i te w ide ly i nw e igh t , a ve rag ing a bou t0 . 95g . Doe st h i sd if e rence (of a bou t 1 7p e r c en t ) r ef l ec tl o s so fw e igh tb yw ea r ,o rh a r sh s o i lc ond i t ion s ,o r ag enu ine d if e rence i no r ig ina l w e igh t s o ft h e c o in s ? P e rhap s i t wou ld b e u s ef u l t o c ompa re t h e l a te r s t yca s f r om Wh i tby , s i nce t h ey w e re c e r ta in ly s t ruck o n as i ng le w e igh t s tanda rd , a bou t wh ich e xac ti n f o rma t ion i sa va i l ab le . T h es p ec imen sw e igh ing a r ound 0 . 8t o 0 . 85g , wh ich p roduce t h el owe rp eak o ft h eh i s tog ram , a r e2 5t o3 0p e rc en tl i gh te r t h an t h eh i s tog ram a ve rage . T ha t i s as ub s tan t i a l d if e rence , a nd u n le s s s u ch ac o in l ook s o bv iou s ly worn o r d ef ec t ive , e xpe r ienc e w i th o the r s e r ie s s ugge s t s t h a t i f n ume rou ss p ec imen sa r el i ke t h a t , many o ft h em w e re o r ig ina l ly l i gh te rt h an 1 . 15g . T h i sd oe sn o ta dd u pt oe v idence o ft wo d e l ibe r a te w e igh ts t anda rd s , much l e s st wo p ha se s : o ne m igh t a c coun t f o r t h e f a c t s mo re e conom ica l ly b y s a y ing t h a t s ome moneye r s p roduced r a the r ah igh p ropo r t ion o fs ub s tanda rd c o in s . F u r the r , o ne c anno ta l toge the rr u le o u tt h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a ti nt h ee a r l ie rs t age so fs e t t ing a s ide t h e c o in s h oa rded a tH exham , h eav ie r s p ec imen s w e r e p ref e r red . A f te r a l , t h e t ime s c a le o f! E the l red ' sr e ign ,o fa t mo s ts e ven y ea r s ,d oe sn o ta low l ong f o rH exham t o i n c lude , t h rough n a tu ra l w a s tage , o n ly t h e l a te r , h ypo the t ica l ly h eav ie r , i sue s . S o t h eq ue s t ion d oe ss e em r eg re t tab ly i n conc lu s ive .T he o ne p o in tt h a ti sr e la t ive ly f r ee f r om s e cond t hough t si st h a tt h e moneye r ' s -name c o in so fA lfwa ld a r el i ke ly t ob e e a r ly ,o the rw i se t h e re wou ld p robab ly h ave b een mo re o ft h em i nH exham . A mo re c omp le te s e t o fw e igh t s f o r A lfwa ld m igh t b e ab ig h e lp . We h ave n o e v idence t h a t c o inage h ad c e a sed t oc i r cu l a t ei n No r thumb r i a i nt h e t ime o fE a rdwu lf ; wha t c e a sed d rama t ica l ly w a s m in t ing . T h i s M igh t b e t a ken t o i mp ly t h a t ' f o re ign ' s i lve r ( s ou the rn E ng l i sh o r c on t inen ta l ) , r equ i r ing t o b e r em in ted ,c e a sed t or e ach Yo rk .I ti sn o to bv iou st h a ts po rad ic r a id ss t r ik ing d i rec t ly a c ro s st h e Nor th S ea a tB e rn ic ia wou ld d i s rup tt h ee a s t -coa s ts h ipp ing r ou t et o York , n o r t h a t t h ey wou ld r educe t h e e conomy o ft h e e n t i re k ingdom t o as t and s t i l l . P e rhap s w e s hou ld b e l ook ing f o r ac o l lec t ion o f c au se s f u r the r t o t h e s ou th . Athe l red ' sr e ign c o inc ided c l o se ly w i th t h eb reach i nc omme rc ia lr e la t ion sb e tween Of f a a nd Cha r lemagne . T he r eopen ing o ft h e s ou the r n E ng l i sh p o r t s i n7 96 may h ave d ive r ted s ome me rchan t st o mo r el u c r a t ive r ou te s . Mo r ei mpo r tan t ,p i r acy i n t h e s ou the r n Nor th S ea may h ave d e te r red me r chan t s f r om mak ing t h e l onge r v oyage . P e te r S awye r , i n h i s b ook K ing s a nd V ik ing s , h a s r em inded u s t h a t o u r k now ledge o ft h e e a r ly V ik ing a t tack s i sv e ry d ef ec t ive , a nd t h a t t h e a t tack o n L ind i sf a rne i n 7 93 w a s b y n o mean s a n i s o la ted e ven t . A lcu in ' s i nd igna t ion w a s p e rhap sa rou sed s p ec if i ca l ly b ecau se s u ch ah o ly p l ace h ad b een v io la ted ;a nd h ew a s a s ton i shed t h a t a n a t t ack w i thou t w a rn ing , f r om t h e o pen s e a , w a s p o s s ib le . B u t a l ready b y7 92 Of f aw a so rgan iz ing d ef ence si nK en ta ga in s t' p agan s e amen ' ;a nd b y 8 00 Cha r lem agne h ad h ad t ob u i ld d ef ence sa l ong t h ec oa s t so fF ranc ia a sf a rw e s ta s t h e S e ine . I ft h ee xp lana t ion f o rt h ee nd o fm in t ing w a sa l ong t h e se l i ne s ,w em igh tl ook f o r af a l l ing-of fd ur ing Athe l red ' sr e ign ,w i th t h er a id so f7 93-4 a sa na dd i t iona lf a c to r , a nd o ne p o s s ib le o u t l ine wou ld i n c lude ar e co inage o ft h e e a r l ie r ' a n ima l ' t ype sa t s ome d a te i n Athe l red ' sr e ign , when s e ve ra ln ew moneye r sw e r er e c ru i ted t oa s s i s t Cu thhea rd , a nd a b e t te r w e igh t s tanda rd w a s a imed a t . T he e r ra t ic a loy o f 8 4
CO INAGE AND H ISTORY , C .
7 90— c .8 10
Athe l red ' s c o in s c an h a rd ly d e r ive , i nt h e 7 90 s , f r om r em in t ing o n ly s ou the rn o r c on t inen ta lc o in s ,b u ti tc ou ld p e rhap sd e r ive f r om t a k ing t h ee a r l ie r' a n ima l 'c o in sa t f a ce v a lue . P e rhap s o n ly C eo lbea ld r ema ined a c t ive o nce t h e r e f o rm w a s a c comp l i shed ;a nd a sY o rk f e l tt h ee f ec t so fp i racy ,t he w e igh t so ft h ec o in sq u ick ly b ecame e r ra t ic .T h i si sn o t ap a r t icu la r ly c omp l ica ted s e quence o fe ven t st oe nv i sage , b u tt h ea va i lab le n um i sma t i ce v idence f a l l sf a rs ho r to f wha t wou ld b en ece s sa ry t o p rove i t .T he e i gh tv a r i e t ie so fC eo lbea ld ' sc o in so ugh tt ob e aw ay i n to t h ep rob lem , b u t i ti sn o t o bv iou s wha t o ne c an m ake o ft h em .
8 5
P LATE 2
2
4
1 7
2 3
5
1 9
2 5
27
8 7
7
1 3
1 4
20
2 1
28
29
PLATE 3
8 9
H e r re th
D . M . METCALF a nd J .P . NORTHOVER [ P LAT E S 4 -5 1
HE RER I ED , who w a s aG roup A moneye rf o rK ing E an red ,s t ruck c o in so n wh ich h i s n ame w a ss p e l tH e r r ed .T he re e x i s to the rc o in so n wh ich t h e moneye r ' sn ame i ss p e l t a lmo s t i d en t ica l ly , b u t w i th a n e dh —H e r r e th . I ti su sua l ly a s sumed t h a t t h i s i sa c o r rup t ion o f ` He r red ' , b y h ype rco r rec t ion , s i nce n o o bv iou s r e ad ing c o me s t o m ind f o rr e th .T he r e ad ing HEARED I , wh ich o ccu r so nt h ee a r l ie s to ft h eH e r r e th s e r ie s , m ay s ugge s t h oweve r t h a t ad if e ren t n ame u nde r lay t h e c o rup t ion , v i z . H ea (h )rxd .B et h a ta si tm ay ,t h e re a r eo the r ,a nd mo re c o mpe l l ing r e a son st ol ook s u sp ic iou s ly a tt h ec o in so f` He r re th ' . S ome o ft h em a r eo s ten s ib ly s t ruck f r om t wo r eve r se d i e s . T hey r e ad e i the r H e r r e th /H e r r e th o r H e r r e th lA l fh ea rd ( f o r Wu lf h ea rd ) .The t wo d i e s u s ed t os t r ike ac o in i nt h e m idd le a ge s w e re n o rma l ly q u i te d i f e ren ti ns h ape .T he o bve r se o rl owe rd i ee nded i n as p ike ,s ot h a ti tc ou ld b ed r iven i n to ah eavy b lock o ft imbe r t oh o ld i tf i rm , wh i le t h e r eve r se o r u ppe r d i e w a s s h aped mo re l i ke ac o ld c h i se l ,t ob eh e ld i nt h eh and o rw i th t ong s wh i le t h ef r ee e nd w a s s t ruck w i th ah amme r . I ft h e r e ve r se d i e w a s s p iked , i ti sd if i cu l t t oe nv i sage h ow t wo r eve r se d i e s c ou ld b e u s ed i n c o mb ina t ion , a nd a lmo s t a sd if i cu l t t o i mag ine t wo o bve r se d i e s b e ing u s ed t oge the r , e xcep t a s av e ry m ake sh if t a nd u n sa t i sf ac to ry a r rangemen t . One m igh ta lmo s ta sw e l lt r yt ou s et wo p lug s ,o rt wo s o cke t s , t om ake a n e l ec t r ica l c onnec t ion . Adm i t ted ly ,t h el owe rd i ew a sn o tn ece s sa r i ly s p iked :i tc ou ld h ave af l a tb a se a nd s imp ly s t and l oo se ly o n a n a nv i l . B u t o ne c an s e e t h a t a te ve ry h amme r b low i t wou ld b ounce a bou t a nd t e nd t o s l ide o f . T he t wo d i e s w e re o f ten l o ca ted i nr e f e rence t o e a ch o the r b y ac o l la r , wh ich e n su red t h a tt h et wo f a ce so ft h ec o in c o inc ided o nt h ef l an .I ft h ec o l la rw a ss qua re ,i t wou ld r e su l t i nt h e s o r t o fr e gu la r d i e -ad ju s tmen t wh ich i sf am i l ia r i nt h e A ng loS axon s e r ie s , a nd wh ich w a s n o rma l i n much o ft h e s t yca s e r ie s . One o fe a ch p a i ro ft h eH e r r e th o rH e r r e th lA lf h ea rd d i e sw a so fn ece s s i ty ,t h en ,t h e l owe r d i e , a nd wha teve r i t s s h ape , i tw a s t e chn ica l ly t h e o bve r se , e ven i fb y t h e c on ten t o fi t s d e s ign i tw a s f o rma l ly ar eve r se . An A ng lo-Saxon c o in — any c o in —wh ich i so fe xac t ly t h es ame p a t ter no nb o th s i de s d r aw s a t ten t ion t o i t s e lf a s a n u nna tu ra l a r tef ac t , a mon s t ro s i ty , wh ich c on t ravene s t h e a e s the t ic l aw s o f c o in d e s ign , wha teve r t h e t e chn ica l i t ie s o f i t s manuf ac tu re .T he f i r s ts t ep i ne xp lor ing t h ec i rcum s tance si n wh ich i tw a sm ade a nd i sued i st od e te rm ine i t sd a te .T he d oub le reve r se c o in so fH e r re th ( a nd a l so t ho se o f H e r r e th lA l f h ea rd o r v i c e v e r sa ) a r e k nown a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly f r om t h e H exham h oa rd .T h i sp rovenance c onf i rm st h a tt h ey a r eo fa ne a r l ie rd a te t h an t h et . p .q .o ft h e h oa rd ,t h a ti s ,e a r ly i nA the l red ' ss e cond r e ign ,a nd i sp robab ly s uf i c ien tt os e pa ra te 9 1
D . M. METCALF AND J .P . NORTHOVER
t h em f r om t h el a rge a nd v a r ied s e r ie so fd e r iva t ive o ri m i ta t ive c o in st h a tw a st h en b eg inn ing . B ecau se o ft he i rc a r ef u ls t y le , t h e i ru s eo ft h en ame s o ft wo o fE an red ' s moneye r s ,a nd t h e i rr e la t ive s c a rc i ty o ra b sence i nh oa rd so ft h e8 60 s ,t h ey h ave b een i d en t if ied a sa ne a r l ie rp ha se o f' d e r iva t ive ' c o inage , b eg inn ing i nE an red ' sr e ign o r v e ry s oon a f te r i t . T hey s hou ld n o t , h oweve r , b e c on s ide red i ni s o la t ion . T he re a r e r e l a ted c o in s r e ad ing XEANREd o nt h eo bve r se a nd XHERRED o nt h er eve r se , wh ich a ppea r t os t and a tt h eh ead o ft h el i t t le s e quence o fd i e s , o f wh ich t h eH e r r e th lH e r r e th d i e s f o rm al a te r p a r t . T hey w i l lb e d i scu s sed i nd e ta i lb e low , b u tw e make t h eg ene r a l p o in tn ow , t h a t t h e om i s s ion o ft h e t i le REX ( on ly o cca s iona l ly r educed t oR ) i s h igh ly u nu sua l among E an red ' s c o in s . F o r t h a t r e a son M i s s P i ne h a s i n te rp re ted XEANREd a s amoneye r ,o n as pec imen ( Newc a s t le 18 ) wh ich s he t h e ref o r es e e sa s a no the r' doub le r eve r se 'v a r ie ty ,a nd wh ich s h es ugge s t s may h ave b een s t ruck e a r ly i n Athe l red ' s r e ign ( b ecau se E an r a ed i s amoney e r f o r ' E the l red , b u t n o t f o r K ing E an red ) . We s h a l l g ive r e a son s wh ich i n c l ine u s t o t he v i ew t h a t XEANREd r ep re sen t st h ek ing ' sn ame ,a nd f o ru s ,t h e ref o r e ,t h ec o in r a i se s as omewha td if e ren t p rob lem o fn um i sma t ic i n te rp re ta t ion , a l though mo re o rl e s s t h e s ame p rob lem o f p o l i t ica li n te rp re ta t ion .E an red ' sc o inage i so the rw i se v e ry r egu la ri ni t sl e gend s ,a nd o bv iou s ly u nde rr oya lc on t ro l .T he re i sn oe qu iva l en td u r ing h i sr e ign t ot h ec op iou s ' i r regu la r 's t yca so f Athe l red ' ss e cond r e ign , who se l e gend sa r eo f ten mean ing le s so r mendac iou s .T he re a r eo ne o rt wo o the r ,b u to n ly o ne o rt wo ,a ppa ren t ly e a r ly c o in s t h a t f a l l i n to t h e s ame c a tego ry a st h e ` He r re th ' v a r ie t ie s : d oub le r eve r se s w i th t h e n ame o f Athe lwea rd , a nd d oub le o bve r se s r e ad ing + EANRED REX o n b o th s i de s . T he se w i l l b e e xam ined b e low . B u t o fa l E an red ' s moneye r s , H e r e rxd a nd Wu l fhea rd s e em t ob e t h e o n ly o ne s who se n ame s a r e , s ot os p eak , t a ken i nv a in . ( M i s s P i ne ' s t e n ta t ive r e ad ing o f Newca s t le 16 a s H e r re th / ?Hwx t r a 2d , o n a c o r roded c o in , i su nconf i rmed . We wonde r whe the r t h e c o r rec t r e ad ing c ou ld b e EANRED r e t rog rade . ) We re t h e se v a r iou sc o in s of i c ia l ly s a nc t ioned ,o rw e re t h ey i nt h e n a tu re o fc on tempo ra ry c oun te rf e i t s ? I ft h e l a t te r , wha t w a s t h e p a r t icu la r a t t rac t ion o fH e r re th ' sn ame ?( M igh th e ,p o s s ib ly ,h ave b een k nown t ob ed ecea sed , a nd t h e ref o re n o l onge rl i ab le t ob ec a l led t oa c coun tb y t he k ing f o rs ubs tanda rd c o in s b ea r ing h i s n ame ? ) — We re t h e d oub le reve r se c o in s m in ted i n Yo rk , o r a t s ome o the r m in t p l ace ? I f t h ey o r ig ina ted i n E an red ' s r e ign , wha t w e re t h e c i r cum s tance s i n wh ich p e rf ec t ly c ompe ten t wo rkmen c ou ld p ruden t ly p roduce t h em ? Ou r o n ly w ay o f e xp lo r ing t h e se a nd s im i la r q ue s t ion s i st h rough t h e c o in s t h em se lve s , a nd t h ep a t te r n so ft h e i rr e la t ion sh ip . T h ef i r s ta nd o bv iou sq ue s t ion t o a s ki swha tt h e i rs i lve rc on ten t sw e r e . ( A si th e lp sc on s ide rab ly t of o cu st h eh i s to r i ca l p rob lem , w ew i l ls a ys t ra igh ta way t h a t s ome s p ec imen sc on ta in a s much a s2 6p e r c en t' s i lve r ' ( s i lve rp lu sg o ld p lu sl e ad )a nd t h a tt h i s make si ti no u rv i ew c e r ta in t h a t t h el i t t le s e r ie so r ig ina ted d u r ing av e ry e a r ly p ha se o fE an red ' si sue s .I ta l so s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey a r e i n s ome s e n se r egu la r i sue s r a the r t h an f r adu len t c oun te rf e i t s . ) S econd ly o ne c an a s k whe the r t h e i r p a t te rn o fw e igh t s i s ,s o f a r a sc an b ej udged f r om o n ly af ew s p ec imen s , t h e s ame a st h a t o b se rved among E an red ' s G roup A . T h i rd ly ,o ne w i l lf e e l mo re c onf iden tt h a to ne h a st a ken t h e mea su re o ft he p rob l em when t h ek nown d i e s a nd d i e l ink s h ave b een l i s ted , a nd ( i fp o s s ib le ) t h e s u rv iva l r a te a s se s sed a ga in s t G roup A i ng ene ra l . T he b a s ic c on t r ibu t ion wh ich t h i sp ape rs e ek st o mak ei st op u to nr e co rd a na ly se s 9 2
HERRETH
o f e i gh t c o in s r e ad ing H e r r e th /H e r r e th , H e r r e th /A l f h ea rd , E th i lv e a rd lE th i lv ea rd , o r E an r ed R ex /E an r ed R ex o r ab lunde red v e r s ion o f t he s ame . T he r e su l t s a r e s umma r ized b e low : We igh t ' S i lve r ' Z inc i n b ra s s 1 . XHER RED / ALFHEARD 2 . XHERRED / ALFHEARD r 3i XHER RED /XHERRED 1 4J XHER RED /XHERRED r 5i + ED ILVEARD / + ED ILVEVRD + ED ILVEARD / + ED ILVEVRD 7 . + EANRED REX / + EANRED REX 8 . + ENVEX / + END REX
T in
Go ld : s i lve r
1 . 19 1 . 23 1 . 23 1 . 29 1 . 25 1 . 11
2 6 .2 1 7 .5 2 2 .3 1 7 .4 1 0 .6 6 . 6
2 0 .6 1 7 .9 9 . 6 1 2 .0 1 6 .0 2 1 .4
4 . 6 2 . 6 1 . 7 3 . 1 2 . 4
0 . 16 2 . 02 1 . 39 3 . 52 0 . 56 0 . 64
1 . 06 1 . 36
9 . 7 5 . 6
1 2 .7 1 9 .1
8 . 0 3 . 1
2 . 24 0 . 55
T he e i gh tc o in ss e em f r om t h e i rs i lve rc on ten tn o tt ob e long c l o se ly t oge the r ,a nd i t i so n ly t ho se a s soc i a ted w i th H e r re th t h a ta r ec l ea r ly a se a r ly a st h er e ign o fE an red . T he q ua l i ty o ft he b r a s si nn o s .3 -4 , wh ich a r ed i e -dup l ica te s( a long w i th BMC 8 15 ) , i si n f e r io rt ot ha ti na ny o the rc o in so fE an red w i th wh ich t h ey c ou ld b e c o mpa red ( a l though H e re r a zd ' sc o in sh ave n o ty e tb een a na ly sed ) . Th i sm ay p e rhap sb es e en a s ap o in te r t oH e r re th ' s c o in s h av ing b een p roduced a way f r om t h e ma in c en t re o f m in t ing . No s . 5 -6 a r e d oub le reve r se c o in s o f Athe lwea rd , who w a s a moneye r f o r A rchb i shop Wigmund . C lo se i n spec t ion c onf i rm s t h a t t h e t wo c o in s a r e d i e d up l ica te s . T he i r ' s i lve r ' c on ten t s o f 1 0 .6 a nd 6 . 6% r e spec t ive ly l i e c o mf o r tab ly w i th in t h er ange o fv a lue st h a th a sp rev iou s ly b een f ound f o r Wigmund ' sc o in s .T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey a r e c on tempo ra ry w i th P ha se B o fK ing E an red ' s c o in s , o r ( l e s s p robab ly ) w i th t h e f i r s t r e ign o f/ E the l red . T he c o in r e ad ing E an r ed r e x o n b o th s i de s ( no . 7 )i so f ab ra s s -b ronze m ix tu re , h eav i ly l e aded ( Pb =5 .6 % ) w i th o n ly 4 . 0 % Ag . I td oe sn o t , s of a ra sw ec an s e e , f i t c onv inc ing ly a nywhe re i nt h e of i c ia ls e r ie s ,a nd s hou ld p e rhap sb ec on s ide red t ob e u nof f i c ia la l though t os a y t h a t a bou t s t yca s i sl i ab le t ob e me re ly ac onf e s s ion o f i gno rance , a lway s l i ab le t o b e s hown u p b y ap a t te rn o fd i e l ink s . No .8 ,w i th b ad ly b lunde red l e gend sa t temp t ing E an r ed R ex ,i sp e rhap sr e la ted t o t h e c o in s o f` Teveh ' , wh ich w e re a na ly sed o n ap rev iou s o cca s ion ( NC 1 984 ) a nd f ound t oc on ta in n eg l ig ib le amoun t so fs i lve r , e ven t hough d i e l inked t oa nE an red d i e . T he a loy o fn o . 8wou ld p a s s mu s te r i n t h e l a s t p ha se o fE an red ' s c o inage . T he se a na ly t ica l r e su l t s , a l though t h ey r ep re sen t o n ly a f i r s t a pp roach t o a n i n t r igu ing p rob lem , s ugge s t t h a t H e r re th , whe the r a l one o rw i th Wu l fhea rd , i sa n i s o la ted p henomenon a ta ne a r ly s t age o ft h es t yca s e r ie s . T he f ou rr e levan ta na ly se s a l s how h igh s i lve r c on ten t s . As t y l i s t ic e xam ina t ion o ft h ec o in sr e ad ing H e r r ed a nd H e r r e th r evea l st h a tt he re i s ac l ea rd iv i s ion , among s pec imen sw i th E an red ' sn ame o nt h eo bve r se ,b e tween t h e t wo f o rm s o f moneye r ' s n ame , a nd s ugge s t s t h a t ` He r red ' c on s i s ten t ly u se s t h e f o rmu la E an r ed r e x , whe rea s ` He r r e th ' om i t s t h e r e x . We h ave n o t a s semb led a n e xhau s t ive c o rpu so fs p ec imen s , a nd r e a l i se t h a ti twou ld o n ly t a ke o ne d i e l ink , o r o ne p a i ro fs im i la rd i e s , t ol i nk t h et wo t ype si n to as i ng le s e quence , b u te ven t h en , w e s hou ld c e r ta in ly s t i l l b e c on s ide r ing t wo e s sen t ia l ly s e pa ra te p ha se s . H e r re th ' s 9 3
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c o in sc ha rac te r i s t ica l ly h ave a ni n i t ia lc ro s si nt h ef o rm o fa nX ,a nd t h et wo l e t te r sR a r e p l aced a ta n a wkwa rd a ng le t o e a ch o the r . One s p ec imen w i th ar e t rog r ade o bve r se ( B MC 1 96 = P l .4 ,F )i sf r om ar eve r s ed i ep re t ty c l ea r ly b yt h es ame h and a sn o s . 3 -4 . O the r sw r i te E an r ed w i th ad im inu t ive c u r s ive D n o tu s ed b y ` He r red ' . T he c o in wh ich o n g round so fs t y le l ook s t os t and a tt h eh ead o ft h es e quence i s BMC 1 93 , w i th r e v . , c ro s s i n i nne r c i rc le , a nd t h e moneye r ' s n ame i n t h e f o rm H ea r e th i ( P l . 4 ,A ) . Two o the r r eve r se d i e s a r e u s ed w i th t h e s ame o bve r se , b o th r e ad ing H e r r e th ,o ne w i th an o rma li n i t ia lc ro s sa nd t he o the rw i th t h ec ha rac te r i s t ic X( P l .4 ,B ,C ) .T he n ex to bve r se i sa lmo s t am i r ro ri mage o ft h ef i r s t ,a l though t h e c u r s ive D i sn o ta st i ny . Aga in i ti su s ed w i th t h re er eve r se s( B MC 1 94-6 = P l .4 ,D F ) . Ano the r o bve r se , s im i la r ly r e t rog rade , ( A shm . 1 . 13g , P l . 4 ,G ) p rov id e s ad i e l i nk t ot h e ' doub le reve r se ' c o in s , n o s . 3 -4 a bove ( a nd s how s wh ich r eve r se i st h e r eve r se ! )T h i sd i e l ink ,t oge the rw i th t h e' s i lve r 'c on ten t so ft h ed oub le r eve r se c o in s i n q ue s t ion , mo re o r l e s s r e f u te s M i s s P i ne ' s s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e E an r ed c o in s a r e d oub le -moneye rc o in sd a t ing f r om Athe l red ' sr e ign .T he u se o fr eve r se a nd o bve r se d i e s i n ar a t io o ft h ree t o o ne ( o r mo re ? ) i s ap o in te r t o t h e of i c ia l c ha rac te r o f H e r re th ' s wo rk .A sE an red ' sG roup A moneye r ss e em ,i ng ene ra l ,t oh ave emp loyed ao ne to -one r a t io , i ta l so s ugge s t s t h a t H e r re th w a s o pe ra t ing i ndependen t ly , a nd p e rhap s t h e ref o re e l sewhe re t h an i n t h e ma in c en t re o fm in t ing . T h i s a rgumen t wou ld b e o ve r tu rned , h oweve r , i fi tw e re t o b e s hown t h a t ah ighe r r a t io w a s c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e v e ry e a r l ie s t s t age o ft h e wo rk o fo the r moneye r s , who t h en c hanged t o o ne to -one . T he w e igh t so ft h e se s ame c o in sa l so of e rs ome s ma l l mea su re o fs uppo r tf o rt h e s ame i n te rp re ta t ion . T he w e igh t s tanda rd i s ,a sm igh t b e e xpec ted , n om ina l ly t h e s ame a st h a to fa lo the rs t yca s ,b u ti np rac t ice i ti sh ighe r .T en s p ec imen sh ave amean w e igh t o f 1 . 252g , wh ich may b e c ompa red w i th 1 . 2 18g f o r E an red ' s G roup A moneye r s i nt he H exham h oa rd . I fH e r re th w a so u to ft ouch b ecau se h ew a sb a sed e l sewhe re t h an Yo rk ,i twou ld o fc ou r se make i t much e a s ie r t o u nde r s tand h ow a n i r regu la r f o rm o ft h e r oya l n ame w a s u s ed , a nd h ow i t s om i s s ion a l toge the r c ou ld p a s s mu s te r , i n of i c ia l ly s a nc t ioned i sue s . T he s u rv iva lr a te o ft he E an r ed /H e r r e th a nd H e r r e th /H e r r e th c o in si sh ighe r( on t h e e v idence o f as ma l l s amp le ) t h an f o r t h e G roup A c o inage i ng ene ra l . T h i s o f e r s s ome e ncou ragemen tt ot he v i ew t h a ti ti sp e rhap so ve r repre sen ted i nt h eH exham h oa rd b ecau se i ti sf r om an o r the r ly m in t -p lace . T he c onnex ion b e tween Wu l fhe a rd a nd H e r re th i sn o t a ta l c l ea r . T he d oub le r eve r se c o in sw i th b o th n ame sa r es t y l i s t ica l ly c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h eH e r r e th /H e r r e th c o in s , b u td on o t f i ti n to ama t r ix o fo the rd i e sn am ing Wu l fhea rd . H i s wo rk d oe s n o t o bv iou s ly f a l li n to t wo s e pa ra te p a r t s , l i ke t h a t o f` He r red ' a nd ` He r re th ' . I ti s , h oweve r , c ha rac te r ized b y b lunde red o bve r se d i e s r e ad ing + EANHEDHEX , XEAHREDRE ( P l .4 ,H ,A shm .e xH exham ;s ame d i ea s BMC 1 80 e xH exh am )o r XEAREDR ( P l .4 ; Ia nd J ,f r om t h es ame o bve r se d i e , BMC 1 83 e xH exham ;a nd A shm . ) T he r e ad ing ALFHEARD , w i th o r w i thou t a n i n i t ia l c ro s s , i sf ound o n a m ino r i ty o fd i e s , b u t w e h ave n o t c o me a c ro s s ad i e l ink b e tween t h e se a nd t h e H e r r e th lA l f h ea rd s pec imen s , n o s . 1a nd 2a bove . T he H e r re th d i e s o ft h e t wo c o in s s hou ld p robab ly b e s e en a st h e o bve r se s , a l though i ti sd if i cu l t t o t e l l . T he i n i t ia l c ro s si nt he f o rm o fa n X may , i n c iden ta l ly , b e a ne cho o f , o r e ven b e i n tended t o s ugge s t a t ag l ance , t he X o f REX . On g round s o fs t y le o ne wou ld g ue s s t h a t t h e 9 4
HERRETH
H e r r e th iA l f h e a rd c o in s a r e n o t q u i te s o e a r ly i nt h e s e quence a ss p ec imen s s u ch a s BMC 1 93-4 . On t h eo the rh and n o .1 l a ck sa ny mea su rab le amoun to ft i ni ni t sa loy . T h i si su nu sua l ,a l though t h e re a r ec o in sf o rE an red b yt h e moneye rE adw ine wh ich c on ta in o n ly 0 . 5% t i no rl e s s .T he v a r iab i l i ty ,f r om z e ro t o4 . 6% ,i nt wo v e ry s im i la r c o in si sp e rhap s ap o in t e rt ot h e wo rkman n o th av ing s e t t led i n to as t eady r ou t ine . B u ti na ny c a se ,w ea r ep robab ly t a lk ing a bou t av e ry s ho r ti n te rva lo ft ime b e tween t h e c u t t ing o ft h e d i e s , g iven t h a t n o s . 1 -2 h ave v e ry s im i la r s i lve r c on ten t s t o n o s .3-4 . M i s sP i ne h a ss ugge s ted t h a t ,b ecau se o no the rc o in st h ei n i t ia lc ro s si ss ome t ime s m i s taken ly i n se r ted i nt h e m idd le o ft h e l e gend i n s tead o fa tt h e b eg inn ing , o ne s hou ld n o ti mmed i a te ly r u le o u t t h e r e ad ing H ea rdwu lf . H ea rd - a s af i r s te l emen ti s r e la t ive ly u ncommon ; a nd i ti sp e rhap sj u s t wo r th s a y ing t h a tt h e re s e em st ob en o p o s s ib i l i ty o fa n a t t r ibu t ion t oE a rdwu lf . Wu l fh ea rd mu s t b e t h e c o r rec t r e ad ing o f t h e d i e o n wh ich t h e D i st r an sf e r red t o t h e c en t re o ft h e f l an , a st h e mo t if . An i n te re s t ing c o in f ound a t S egon t ium , n o r th Wa le s , i n t h e s t and ing r u in s o f t h e g ua rd chambe r a t t h e s ou th -we s t g a te , h a s b o th o bve r se a nd r eve r se l e gend s a wkwa rd ly s paced , w i th a g ap l e f t a t wha t i s( c e r ta in ly o n t h e o bve r se a nd p re sumab ly o nt h er eve r se )t h ee nd o ft h el e gend : XEAHRED RE , HEARDVVLF . T h i s c o in f a ce s u s w i th t h e c ho ice o fs ugge s t ing t h a t t wo moneye r s a r e i nvo lved , n ame ly Wu l fhea rd a nd H ea rdwu lf ; o r ( mo re p l au s ib ly ) t h a t t h e d i e cu t te r o ft h e S egon t ium c o in ( wh i ch i s q u i te s i lve ry i n a ppea rance ) w a s c onf u sed o r u n inf o rmed — and t h a t h e w a s t a k ing h i s ' c opy ' f r om ac o in . T os um u p , t h i ss umma ry o ft h ee v idence a t ad e ta i led l e ve lh a s , w eh ope , p l aced H e r re th i nc on tex te ven i ff ew o ft h ec onc lu s ion s a r eh a rd a nd f a s t . T he h igh s i lve r c on ten t so ft h ef i r s tf ou rs p ec imen sa na ly sed a r e ,i no u rj udgemen t ,c ruc ia le v idence . Ou rg ene ra li mp r e s s ion i st h a t a )t h e s i lve r c on ten t s i mp ly t h a t t h e H e r re th ' s e r ie s ' b egan a t av e ry e a r ly s t age i nE an red ' sG roup A i sue s ;b )t h eH e r re th /A lf h ea rd c o in s a r ee qua l ly e a r ly ;c )t h eu s eo fd i e si n at h ree to -one r a t io i sd i s t inc t ive a nd p robab ly i mp l ie sa n of ic ia lr e co inage ;d )i fG roup A w a sl a unched a s ar e co inage ,t h eH e r re th a nd r e la ted i sue s m ay h ave b een i n tended t oi mp l emen t t h e c hange p romp t ly a ta c en t re t oo f a rf r om Y ork f o rp eop le t om ake t h ej ou rney e a s i ly ;e )i fdi sc o r rec ti ti sa ma t te r o fs p ecu la t ion whe re t ha t c en t r e m igh t h ave b een . An o bv iou s g ue s s , w e t h ink , i sC a r l i s le . A t t h e d a te i n q ue s t ion , f i nd s a r e b ecom ing p l en t if u l a t , f o r e xamp le , Wh i tho rn ; a nd i f mone ta ry r equ i remen t s w e s t o ft h e P enn ine s f a i led t o d eve lop much t h e r eaf te r , t h a t wou ld b e u nknown when ad ec i s ion w a s t a ken t o o pen as e cond m in t . We mu s t empha s ize t h a t t h i s s ugge s t ion i sv e ry s p ecu la t ive . T op rove ac a se ,o ne wou ld n eed t h ec l ea re v idence o fl o ca l iza t ion .A st h eH e r re th g roup f o rm so n ly at i ny p ropo r t ion o fE an red ' sG roup A ,n ega t ive e v idence f r om a s i t e wh ich h a s y i e lded o n ly ( ! ) ad ozen c o in s o fG roup A wou ld b e i n conc lu s ive . T hu s , i ft h e p l ace o fo r ig in w a s B ambu rgh , t h e s i t e f i nd s e ven t h e re wou ld b e n ume rou s e nough t oa f f o rd p roof o n ly i ft h e H e r re th s e r ie s w e re w e l l r ep re sen ted among t h em . T he o n ly p rovenance o nr e co rd s of a rf o rt h ed oub le reve r se c o in si s Monkwea rmou th . T he r e r ema in a s pec t s o f H e r r ed IH e r r e th t h a t h ave n o t b een e xp lo red i n t h i s • d i scu s s ion . BMC i n c lude s , f o r e xamp le , f ou r c o in s w i th a H exham p rovenan ce ( B MC 8 13 -8 15 , 8 18 ) i n much r oughe r s t y le t h an t h e s p ec imen s t h a t h ave b een a na ly sed . Ou rf i r s tr e ac t ion st ot h em a r et h a tt h ey q u i te p o s s ib ly e x tend t h eH e r re th s e r ie si n to as e ve re ly b lunde red p h a se , i n wh ich t h ed i s t inc t ion b e tween D a nd e dh 9 5
D . M. METCALF AND J .P . NORTHOVER
w a s l o s t . BMC 8 15 a ppea r s t o b e b y t h e s ame h and a s 1 97 , w i th t h e f olow ing r e ad ing s : 1 97 XEHNREd ( r e t rog rade ) /XHE IIED ( P l . 5 , 0 ) 1 . 084g 8 15 + VH / + HERRD ( P l . 5 ,P ) 1 . 420g BMC 8 1314 a nd 8 18 a r e i ns k e tch ie r s t y le , w i th t h e c en t r a l c ro s se s mo re o r l e s s p ommee i n s tead o fb e ing n ea t ly s e r if f ed . T hey a r e e ven mo re b lunde red 8 13 ( ? ) +3 1 1VREX ( r e t rog rade ) / + HENRED ( P l . 5 , Q ) 1 . 111g 8 14 + 3 1 1 VREX ( r e t rog rade ) / + HERRED ( P l . 5 ,R ) 1 . 200g 8 18 + HrVXREV ( r e t rog rade ) / + HERRE ( P l . 5 ,S ) 1 . 178g
r a .
No s . 8 1314 a r er e la ted b yt h e i ro bve r se , b u t8 14 h a s ac ro s so fp e l le t sa st h ec en t ra l mo t if . C ompa re n o .7 a bove . No . 8 18 h a s ap e l le ti na nnu le ta st h e c en t ra l mo t if o f t h er eve r se . I ft he se c o in sw e re n o tf r om H exham , o ne wou ld b ei n c l ined t ot h row t h em i nw i th t h e l a te b lunde red s e r ie s . I tw i l l b e i n te re s t ing , o ne d ay , t os e e wha t t h e i r me ta l c on ten t s l ook l i ke . We r e tu r n n ow t o t h e t wo c o in s o f Athe lwea rd , t he a r chb i shop ' s moneye r , wh ich a r ef r om t h es ame d i e s . T he i rr eve r se i sl i nked t oa no the ro bve r se ( P l . 5 ,K ) , o n wh ich t h ea r chb i shop ' sn ame a nd t i le a r er e t rog r ade . T h i so bve r se i nt u rn i sa l so u sed w i th ar egu la rr eve r se d i e( P l .5 ,L )t h a ti sf ound i na no the rc o mb ina t ion ( P l .5 , M ) . S o t h e ' doub le reve r se s ' a r e i n t h i s c a se a ncho red v e ry f i rm ly i n to t h e ma in s e r ie s . T hey a r e a su nu sua l among Wigmund ' s c o in s a sH e r re th ' s a r e a mong t h e c o in s o fE ad red . T hey c anno t b e n ea r ly a se a r ly i nd a te . Ancho red t hough t h ey a r e , t h ey s how t e chn i ca l f e a tu re s s omewha t o u t o ft h e o rd ina ry . T he i r o bve r se h a s as of t a nd s o apy l ook t o i t , a st hough i tw a s h igh ly p o l i shed ( a nd wo rn ) —p robab ly b ecau se i tw a s o f ad if e ren t m e ta l f r om t h e u sua l r un o f d i e s . No . 5i n p a r t icu la r ( t he c o in w i th t h e h ighe r s i lve r c on ten t s , b u t d oub t le s s t h e l a te r o ft h e t wo ) s how s t h e d i e s i n ab a t te red s t a te . No . 6i so n a n o t iceab ly s qua re f l an . On t h er eve r se d i e l ink ,t h er a i sed s u rf ace so ft h el e t te r sl ook r u s ty , whe rea st h ef i e ld i ss moo th a nd f l a t( P l .5 ,K ) . On n o .6 ,b yc on t ra s t ,o ne c an s e et he f l ow -bu lge s ( e .g . a round t h ec ro s s ) whe re t h e me ta lo ft h ed i eh a sr i sen u pi n r e ac t ion t o t h e h amme r ing i no ft h e p unche s . T he d i e i sd eep ly c u t . I tl ook s v e ry much a si fwha th a sh appened i st h a tt h e who le d i er u s ted , a nd w a st h en c l eaned u p b yr ubb ing i t sf a ce f l a ta nd c l ean — thu sl owe r ing t h er e l ief a nd ,o fc ou r se ,l e av ing t h e . r u s t i n t h e r e ce s se s wh ich t h e l e t te r s f o rmed o n t h e d i e . I ft h a t r e s t s o n c o r rec t o b se rva t ion ,t h er egu la rd i ec o me sa f t e rr a the rt h an b e f o r et he i r r egu la ro ne .T he re i s , h oweve r , a no the r r eve r se ( P l . 5 ,N ) o n wh ich t h e c ro s s l a ck s o ne a rm , wh i ch i s c l ea r ly t h es ame d i ea sP l .5 ,6 -K .T he q ue s t ion i swhe the ri ti sa ne a r l ie ro rl a te rs t a te . Wa st h el owe rl imb a c c iden ta l ly om i t ted , a nd a dded a sa n a f te r though t , o rd id t h e d i eb ecome c l ogged a t al a te rs t age ?C lo se e xam ina t ion o ft he c o in s how sn ot r ace o f t h e m i s s ing l imb ; a nd s e ve ra l o ft h e l e t te r s a ppea red t ob e t h inne r , a si ft h ey w e re s ub sequen t ly p unched o rg ouged i n mo re d eep ly when t h el imb w a sa dded .I ft h a ti s c o r rec t , t h ef l ow- b u lge sa round t h ec ro s sw i l lh ave b een c au sed d u r ing r e -wo rk ing o ft h ed i e ; a nd t h ed oub le r eve r se sa r es a ndw iched i n to t h em idd le o ft h es e quence .
9 6
H ERRETH TABLE OF ANALYSES T he a na ly se s w e re u nde r taken a sp a r t o ft h e s ame p rog ramme , a nd i n e xac t ly t h e s ame w ay , a st ho se o f / E the l red I a nd O sbe rh tp ub l i shed b e low . F e 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 . 05 0 . 09 0 . 28 0 . 12 0 . 09 0 . 06 0 . 10 0 . 09
C o
N i
t r 0 . 01 0 . 0 1 t r t r t r
0 . 0 1 0 . 03 0 . 03 0 . 10 0 . 0 1 0 . 10 t r
Cu
Z n
5 8 .51 6 3 .82 6 7 .53 7 0 .59 7 4 .63 7 1 .38 7 1 .58 7 3 .70
1 5 .20 1 3 .87 7 . 17 9 . 62 1 4 .20 1 9 .49 1 0 .40 1 7 .37
B i 0 . 0 1 t r t r 0 . 0 1 0 . 03
S b 0 . 13 0 . 09 0 . 04 0 . 58 0 . 05 0 . 06 0 . 07 0 . 10
S n 4 . 63 2 . 63 1 . 66 3 . 09 2 . 43 8 . 04 3 . 09
A g
P b
A u
2 5 .17 1 5 .3 1 2 0 .19 1 4 .20 7 . 10 6 . 29 4 . 0 1 5 . 43
0 . 88 1 . 87 1 . 8 1 2 . 68 3 . 49 0 . 24 5 . 60 0 . 13
0 . 04 0 . 31 0 . 28 0 . 50 0 . 09 0 . 04 0 . 09 0 . 03
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
D ISCUSS ION MI S S PI R IE : L e t me b eg in b y a g ree ing t h a t my a t t r ibu t ion s ( made i n1 980 ) f o r t h e Newca s t le s p ec imen s mu s t n ow b e s ub jec t t or ev i s ion . F u r the r wo rk o n t h e Yo rk c o l lec t ion h a s made i tc l ea r t h a t t h eE an r ed d i e s a s soc ia ted w i th t ho se o fH e r r e th a r e f o r t h e k ing r a the r t h an f o r t h e l a te r moneye r . T he re i s , i n c iden ta l ly , i n t h e B i rm ingham c o l lec t ion , af u r the r e xamp le w i th t h e o bve r se r e ad ing EANRED , r e t rog r ade . Neve r the le s s , t h e r am if i ca t ion s o ft h e c o inage o f wh ich t h e H e r r e th d i e s a r e t h e f o cu s a r e s u ch t h a t o ne c an h a rd ly a c cep t i t s o u tpu t a sn o rma l , a l f r om a n of i c ia l wo rk shop-even am ino r o ne s i t ed a way f r om Yo rk . Mack ( SCBI 2 0 , n o . 3 88 ) g ive s u s ad oub le -obve r se w i th t h e l e gend s EANREDREX /EAHRED ( t he l a t te r ,r e t rog r ade ) .T he f i r s td i ei ss im i la ri ns t y le t o o the r sw i th HERRED r eve r se s ; t h es e cond a ppea r st ob et h a t ( o rs im i la rt ot h a t ) o f Adam son ' s 1 836 E an red 8 3 , E ah r e th lH e r r e th . A pa r t f r om t h e d oub le reve r se s p ec imen sf o rH e r r e th h im se lf , t h e Yo rk c o l lec t ion h a s ad oub le reve r se f o rE adv in i : i nt h es ame c ab ine ti sas p ec imen o n wh ich o ne o ft ho se E adv in id i e si sc o mb ined w i th o ne f o rH e r r e th ( s ee a l so Adam son 1 834 ,E an red Unce r ta in 2 23 ) . Apa r t ,t oo ,f r om t h e H e r r e th lA l f h ea rd s p e c imen s , Mr B lun t ' s c o l lec t ion h a s a n e xamp le o f t h e H e r r e th IDa eg b e r c t c o mb ina t ion . T he l i t t le p u r se -hoa rd f r om B eve r ley , 1 981 ( P i ne , 1 986 , n o . 3 9 ) a f o rd se v idence o f ac o in wh ich , t hough p a r t ly wo rn , s how sl e gend s r e ad ing HERRE [D ] I /HVAETR [ED ] . S uch c o mb ina t ion s o fr eve r se s , a nd t h e r ange o f moneye r s t h ey r ef l ec t , mu s t s u re ly e mana te f r om s omewhe re o the r t h an a n of i c ia l c en t re .
9 7
P LATE 4
1
9 9
P LATE 5
7
1 0 1
P ha se sa nd g roup s w i th in t h es t yca c o inage o f Nor thumbr ia E. J . E.P IR IE
[ PL AT E S6 11 ]
TH ERE i sn o d oub t t h a t t h e m a in c o inage o fn in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ia i sv e ry
d if e ren t f r om t h a t p roduced i nt h e k ingdom s o f Me rc ia , E a s t A ng l ia , K en t , a nd We s sex . T he a dop t ion o fb r a s s a loy s f o r s ome o ft h e n o r the rn money h a s d one mo re t os e t i ta pa r t f r om t h e s i lve r p ence i sued e l sewhe re t h an h a s t h e r e ten t ion o f t h e s ma l l f l an wh ich w a s c o mmon t o a l t h e e a r l ie r s c ea t ta s . DoBey ' h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e c hange f r om s i lve r t o b a se m e ta l o ccu r red b ecau se t h e No r thumb r ian sh ad b ecome p ove r ty s t r icken v i c t im so fV ik ing r a id s . Y e t i tm ay b e ag r ave m i s take t o c o mpa re mone ta ry d eve lopmen t s i n t h e n o r th w i th t h e r e la t ive s oph i s t ica t ion o f wo rk i n t h e s ou th , t o t h e f o rme r ' s d e t r imen t . One wou ld r a the rh ave t h e s t yca c o inage o f No r thumbr ia s e en t ob e a n a tu ra ls u cce s so r t ot h e p rev iou s c o inage si nt h e a r ea a nd i t s e lf s ub jec t , d u r ing t h e c ou r se o fi t sl i f e t ime , t o ac e r ta in a moun to fc hange a nd d eve lopmen t . T he p u rpo se o ft h i s p ape r i st or ev iew t h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e l a te e i gh th - a nd n in th cen tu ry c o inage o f No r thumb r i a a nd t o c on s ide r e v idence t h a t i ni t s l a te r s t age , a tl e a s t , t h e p roduc t ion o fc o in s w a s c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e e x i s tence o f a n umbe r o f d if e r en t d i e cu t t ing wo rk shop s . T he se wo rk ing-p lace s mu s t h ave v a r ied i n s i ze a nd e f i c iency , f r om m a jo r of i c ia l e s tab l i shmen t s ( wh ich m igh t t h em se lve s e ncompa s s t h e wo rk o fs e ve r a l c r af t smen ) t o s ma l le r , mo re i n f o rma l a t e l i e r s o pe ra ted b y a r t i san s mo re c once rned , p e rhap s , w i th t h e q uan t i ty r a the r t h an t h eq ua l i ty o fd i e -cu t t ing wo rk r equ i red f o ru nau tho r i zed i sue so fc o in . T he f i r s t c once rn , i ns t udy ing t h e m a te r ia l , mu s tb e w i th a na ly s i s o ft h e of i c ia l c o inage . I tb ecome s c l ea r t h a t , d u r ing t h e s e cond p ha se , mo s t i fn o t a l o f t h e r egu la r moneye r s mu s t h ave a cqu i red t h e i r d i e s f r om mo re t h an o ne of i c ia l d i e -cu t t ing o rgan i za t ion . T he s i tua t ion wh i ch o b ta ined i nm id -n in th -cen tu ry No r thumbr ia m igh t s e em t o b e a na logou s t o o ne wh ich w i l l b e mo re f am i l i a r t o s t uden t s o f t h e Ang lo -Saxon c o inage a f te r t h e r e f o rm o f c . 973 . Du r ing t h a t l a te r p e r iod , d i e s w e re s upp l ied t o moneye r s i nm any d if e ren t t own s f r om ar e s t r ic ted n umbe r o f d i e -cu t t ing c en t re s , t h e l o ca t ion o f wh ich c an o f ten b e c on jec tu red ( London , Winche s te r , C an te rbu ry , a nd s o o n ) . A moneye r i n a ny p a r t icu la r t own m igh t o b ta in d i e s , f o r e a ch n ew t ype t o b e i sued , f r om mo re t h an o ne c en t re a nd u s e 1 Do l ley ( 1 976 ) ,3 55 .
1 03
E . J . E . P IR IE
t h em mo re o rl e s s c oncu r ren t ly . T he c o in sn am e t h e moneye rf o r whom t h e i rd i e s w e re p repa red , a nd t h e t own whe re h e w a s wo rk ing ; t h e p l ace o fo r ig in o ft h e d i e s , o n t h e o the r h and , h a s t o b e d ec ided b y ac a ref u l s t y l i s t ic a na ly s i s . T he o pe ra t ion o ft h i s s y s tem c an b e d emon s t ra ted c onc lu s ive ly f o r s ou the rn E ng land , e s sen t i a l ly b ecau se e ve ry c o in n ame si t sm in t -p lace . F o r No r thumb r i a , i tm igh t s e em t h a t s ome th ing c o mpa rab le w a s h appen ing b u t t h e s t yca s d o n o t , o fc ou r se , n ame t h e i r p l ace o fo r ig in , a nd t h e re i sn o c l ea r d if e ren t ia t ion o ft ype s . A l l t h a t o ne c an h ope t o a ch ieve b y as t udy o f t h e i r s t y le i s , i n t h eo ry , a n a t t r ibu t ion o f t h e d i e s t o t h e work shop s a t wh i ch t h ey w e re m ade . Wo rk o n s t yca d i e s i s , h oweve r , n o t c o mp le ted w i thou t t r ac ing t h e i r u s e a nd r e -u se i n v a r iou s c o mb ina t ion s ( no rma l ly o f o bve r se w i th r eve r se , e xcep t iona l ly o f o bve r se w i th o bve r se o r r e ve r se w i th r eve r s e ) . I n s tance s o ccu r o f wha t o ne m igh t t e rm h yb r id c o mb ina t ion s , i n wh ich a n o bve r se d i e who se s t y le r e la te s i t t o o ne p a r t icu la r s c hoo l o fp roduc t ion i sp a i red w i th ar eve r se wh ich o r ig ina ted e l sewhe re . T he u s e o f s u ch c o mb ina t ion s o f d i e s s hou ld b e a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e g roup i n wh ich t h e d om inan t d i e , t h e o bve r se , i sn a t ive . I t mu s t b e m ade q u i te c l ea r , a tt h i s p o in t , t h a t t h e d iv i s ion s wh ich w i l l s ho r t ly b e d ef ined a r e b a sed o n t h e u s e o f c e r ta in d i e s , i n c o mb ina t ion o ne w i th a no the r , r a the r t h an o n m e re p roduc t ion o f t h e d i e s t h em se lve s . C e r ta in ly , t h e o bve r se d i e s c once rned , i f a t t r ibu ted c o r r ec t ly i n e a ch c a se , s hou ld b e s e en a s n a t ive t o t h e g roup ; t h e m a jor i ty o fr eve r se s c an a l so b e r e la ted t o t h e p a ren t d i e -cu t t ing s ou rce . Y e t t h e e x i s tence o fh yb r id s , wh ich t h em se lve s p rov ide t h e l i nk s b e tween o ne g roup o f m a te r ia l a nd a no the r , p rec lude s o u r i d en t if y ing t h e g roup s a st ho se o fd i e s o n ly . T he g roup s a r e o f c o in s p roduced w i th t h e u s e o f p a r t icu la r d i e s i n c om b ina t ion . A s t o w h e r e t h e d i e s w e re u s ed , t h a t i sa no the r q ue s t ion . I n t h eo ry , e v idence p e r t inen t t ot h e r e so lu t ion o ft h i s p rob lem c ou ld b e d e r ived f r om a na ly s i s o ft h e c o mpo s i t ion o f s t yca -f ind s , a nd c o mpa r i son o f t h e r ange o f i sue s c o mmon i n e a ch a r e a o fd i scove ry . Un t i l r e cen t y ea r s , h oa rd s h ave b een t h e m a jo r s ou rce o f m a te r ia l f o r s u ch s t udy . Wi th in t h e l a s t t wo d ecade s o r s o , s i t e -f ind s f r om e xcava t ion st h roughou tt h en o r th o fE ng land ( a nd b eyond ) h ave a l ready e x tended t h e g eog r aph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s wh ich s t ead i ly b ecome mo re d e ta i led a s mo re s u ch r e cove r ie sa r er e co rded . D ie l ink ing , wh ich h a s a l ready b een r ema rked i nn o t ing t h e r e -u se o fd i e s , i s p rod ig iou s i nb o th t h e of i c ia l a nd t h e u nof f i c ia l i sue s . On t h a t c oun t , t oo , t h e e a r ly No r thumb r ian c o inage s t and s a pa r t f r om a l o the r s e r ie s . C e r t a in ly , w ide sp r ead d i e l ink ing b e tween t h e of i c ia l s t yc a -moneye r s o f e r s am a rked c on t ra s tw i th t h el a te rs i tua t ion i ns ou the rn E ng land . T ha t s u ch t i e so ccu r red a ta l c ou ld mo s t e a s i ly a nd o bv iou s ly b e e xp la ined b y a c cep t ing t h a t mo s t o ft h e m en wo rked i nt h e s ame p l ace , wh ich s hou ld n o d oub t b e i d en t if i ed a sY o rk . A pa r t f r om t h e r e ga l of i c ia l s , t h e re w e re a l so moneye r s f o r t h e a r chb i shop s a nd t h e re i s d i e l ink e v idence o fo cca s iona l a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e r oya l a nd t h e e p i scopa l • of i ce r s . Ac o inage s op rof u se ly d i e l inked a f o rd sn o o ve r t s i gn t h a t wo rk b y a ny g roup o f moneye r s i ss e pa ra te a nd t h e ref o re p o s s ib ly f r om a no the r p l ace . Wi th s o much e v idence o fh ow t h e d i e s w e re u s ed , t h e q ue s t ion o f whe re t h ey w e re u s ed , a pa r tf r om a tY o rk , m ay a ppea rt ob ei r re levan t . 1 04
PHASES AND GROUPS
T he q ue s t ion o f w h en , w i th in a l ong r e ign , p a r t icu la r d i e s w e re u s ed i sy e t a no the r m a t te r wh ich r e qu i re s i nve s t iga t ion , e ven i fr e so lu t ion i sb e se t w i th d if i cu l ty b y t h e v e ry c o mp lex i ty o fd i e l ink ing . A l though a na ly s i s o ft h e p a t te rn o fl i nk ing mu s t b eg in w i th s t udy ing t h e c o in s o f as i ng le moneye r , t h e c o mp le te p i c tu re may eme rge o n ly when s u ch o u tpu t i sr e la ted t o t h e wo rk o f o the r s . T he re i s aw ea l th o f e v idence wh ich i mp l ie s t h a t m any d i e s w e re i n s e rv ice c oncu r ren t ly : at a ng l ed w eb o f c ro s s l ink s t a ke s r eve r se d i e s f r om o bve r se t o o bve r se ; t h eu s e o fe i gh to r mo re r eve r se s w i th o ne o bve r se o ccu r si nt h e wo rk o f s e ve ra l o f Athe l red I ' s moneye r s . S uch f e a tu re s m ay b e s i gn if i can t i nd e te rm in i ng t h e h i s to ry o fm in t ing a nd s e quence o fi sue . C o r re la t ion o ft h e d i e l ink ing d e ta i lw i th t h e c ho i ce o f mo t if i nt h ed e s ign o ft h e d i e s m ay e nab le o ne t oe xp lo re t h e h ypo the s i s t h a t d if e ren t mo t if s w e re t os ome e x ten t u s ed s u cce s s ive ly . ( The re c ou ld , o f c ou r se , b e n o p o s s ib le a na logy w i th t h e t ype -change s a nd v a l id i ty p e r iod s c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e e l even th -cen tu ry c o inage , f o r t h e s t yca h oa rd s a f o rd n o e v idence o ft h e b r a s s c o in sh av ing b een s y s tema t ica l ly w i thd rawn . ) D ie cha in s m ay b e t oo t a ng led a nd c r o s s l inked t o s e rve e f ec t ive ly i n e s tab l i sh ing t h e c h rono logy o f t h e c o in age , a l though l i nk s b e tween r e ign s c ou ld b e c r i t ica l i n s how ing t h e d i rec t ion so fd eve lopmen t . One mu s ta lway sb ea wa re t h a ts ome d i e s c ou ld h ave h ad p r ima ry u s eo ve ra ne x tended p e r iod o re ven b een p u ti n to s e rv ice a ga in ( f o r s e conda ry u s e ) a f te r ac on s ide rab le p a s sage o f t ime : o ne c anno t c onf iden t ly a s sume t h a t d i e l inked c o in s a r e i ne ve ry c a se c l o se t o e a ch o the r i n d a te . Cha r t ing o f e x ten s ive d i e l inkage i sa n e s sen t ia l p a r t o f d ocumen t ing s t yca s , a nd s upp lemen t s t h e i d en t if i ca t ion a nd i lu s t ra t ion o f m any h und red s o f d i e s wh ich f o rm o ve r t wo t hou sand d i e -comb ina t ion s . T he se a r ei n am a jo r c o l lec t ion o f e a r ly No r thumb r i an c o in s wh ich c an b e c ro s s ref e renced t o m any f u r the r s p ec imen s e l sewhe re . I ti st o b e h oped t h a t s u ch a r e co rd o f t h e m a te r ia l w i l l p rov ide t h e i mpe tu s f o r f u r the r r e sea rch . Many p e r t inen t q ue s t ion s w i l l a r i se a s s y s tema t ic s t udy o fc o r re la t ion s b ecome s p o s s ib le . Wha t a r e t h e s u rv iva l r a te s f o r c o in s f r om p a r t icu la r d i e s ? H ave c o in s f r om t h e r e ve r se d i e s t h a t w e re u s ed i n l a rge c l u s te r s , f o r e x amp le , h ad ah ighe r o r l owe r s u rv iva l r a te t h an t h e a ve rage ; a r e t h ey h eav ie ro rl i gh te r , o fb e t te ro ro fp oo re ra loy t h an o the ri sue s ? Doe s t h e c o mpo s i t ion o f ap a r t i cu l a rh oa rd s how a ny u nu sua lb i a so ru nexpec ted s e lec t iv i ty i nt h er ange o fd i e si n c luded ? A s t y l i s t ic s t udy o f t h e d i e s f o r t h e l a te r s t yca s , t h en , i sd i rec ted t owa rd s g a in ing a n u nde r s t and ing o f wo rk f r om d if e ren t d i e -cu t t ing wo rk shop s , wh i le a s t udy o fd i e l ink s h a s ab ea r ing o n t h e d i e s i nu s e ; d i e l ink s b e tween moneye r s , p a r t icu la r ly , a r er e levan tt ot h eq ue s t ion o f whe re t h ec o in sw e re s t ruck . T he p re sen t s t udy h a si t sr oo t s i nt h e p repa ra t ion f o rp ub l ica t ion o ft h e m a s s ive c o l lec t ion o ft h e se c o in si nt h eY o rk sh i re Mu seum a tY o rk wh ich , b yi t sv e ry s i ze , h a s d emanded i nve s t iga t ion o fa r rangemen t o the rw i se t h an b y c o mp le te d i s t inc t i on o f r ega l f r om e p i scopa l a nd w i th in e a ch t e rm o f r u le r o r a r chb i shop , t h e a l phabe t ica l s e pa ra t ion o f moneye r f r om moneye r . A tb e s t , t h i s f o rm , i n t roduced • b y Adam son i n 1 834 , g i ve s t h e i mp re s s ion t h a t c o in -p roduc t ion w a s l i t t le mo re t h an p r iva te e n te rp r i s e o n t h e p a r t o f an umbe r o f of i c ia l s , e a ch g o ing h i s own w ay . Wi th l i p se rv i ce o n ly t o t h e o ccu r rence o fl i nk s b e tween moneye r s , l i t t le a t ten t ion h a s s o f a r b een p a id t o wha t d i e l ink s m ay h ave m ean t i n p r ac t ice . I t 1 05
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P HA SE SA ND G ROUP S wou ld s u re ly b e f oo l i sh t o w a s te t h e r e sou rce s o f t h e Y o rk c o l lec t ion b y r e g i s t ra t ion i n c onven t iona l f o rma t i ft h ey c ou ld b e u s ed t o i n t roduce a mo re a dequa te a r rangemen t wh ich wou ld r ef l ec t t h e wo rk o f moneye r s i nr e la t ion t o e a ch o the r . I n i t ia l e f o r t s w e re d i rec ted t owa rd s t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f at ypo logy b a sed o n t h e u s e o f mo t if a nd o b se rved b y t h e v a r iou s moneye r si nc once r t . T ha t e xe rc i se l e d t o a n a pp rec ia t ion t h a t t h e re a r e b lock s o fd i e s wh ich , t hough n o t e n t i re ly i ndependen t o f e a ch o the r , w e re i n u s e c oncu r ren t ly r a the r t h an c on secu t ive ly . One c ou ld a l so a pp rec ia te t h a t , s i nce i ti sm ade u p o f m a te r i a l r e cove red i n o r n ea r t h e c i ty , t h e Y o rk c o l lec t ion a nd t h e r ange o f i sue s i t r e p re sen t s wou ld h ave c on s ide rab le e v iden t ia l v a lue when t h e t ime c ame t o d eba te t h e q ue s t ion o f whe the r o r n o t a l t h e d i e s w e re m ade a nd u s ed i n Yo rk a l one . I t mu s t b e u nde r s tood t h a t m any d e ta i l s o f o r thog raphy a nd e p ig raphy , m e t ro logy a nd a c tua ls e quence w i th in t h eb road o u t l ine m en t ioned i nt h i sp re sen t c on tex t mu s t a wa i t d i scu s s ion i n af u l le r c o mmen ta ry wh ich c anno t c onv inc ing ly b ed i vo rced f r om p ub l ica t ion o ft h eY o rk e v idence i np i c to r i a lf o rm . I n t h e i n te r im , t wo s amp le s o ft h e e v idence w i l l p e rhap s c onvey i t s c ha rac te r a nd f l avou r . F ig .1 s how s t h ep a t ter no fd i e l ink ing i nt h e p r inc ipa li sue s f o rK ing Redwu lf . T he l a rge r c i rc le s r ep re sen t o bve r se d i e s , o f wh ich t wen ty e igh t a r e r e co rded ( t he re i so ne i n s tance o f ad i e p robab ly h av ing h ad i t s mo t if a l te red b ef o re r e -u se ) ; wha t c anno t b e d eno ted a tt h i s s c a le i st h e f a c t t h a t s i x d i e s ( f o r F o r th rxd a nd Monne i n C i i i ) h ave r e t rog rade l e gend s . T he s ma l le r c i rc le s a r e r eve r se d i e s wh ich c o me f r om f i f ty -one t o o l s ; m ixed u s e o ft h e se r eve r se sa c coun t s f o rt h e re b e ing s i x ty th ree d i e -comb ina t ion s . T he mo t if s wh ich a ppea ro nt h ed i e s a r e i nd ica ted . T he moneye r s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e wo rk a r e d e s igna ted . T he l i nk s w i th t h e i r wo rk f o r / E the l red a r e s hown b y l i ne sj o in ing t h e o the r r e ign : a tt h e t op , t oe xp re s st i e sw i th A the l red ' sc o in sw i th v a r iou sc r o s s mo t if s ; a tt h eb o t tom , t or e la te t oi sue sw i th o the rd e s ign s . TA BLE 1 .R ev e r s ed i e su s ed b y as e l e c t i on o f' E th e l r ed ' sm on ey e r s ( C a l cu l a t i on sa low f o rt h er e -u s eo fd i e sf r om o t h e rd i v i s i on s ) Moneye r A i
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S econd ly , T ab le 1 s how s t h e n umbe r s o f r eve r se d i e s u s ed b y as e lec t ion o f Athe l red ' s moneye r s , a nd t h e i r d i v i s ion b e tween d if e ren t s t y l i s t ic g roup s wh ich 1 07
E . J . E . P IR IE
r ef lec t d i f f e ren t b a tche s o f d i e -cu t t ing , a nd , p r e sumab ly , t h e wo rk o f s e pa r a te d i e -cu t te r s . T he T ab le s umma r ize st h eu s eo fs ome 5 80 d i e s . T he p u rpo se o ft h e f o l low ing p age s , t h en , i st wo -f o ld . One mu s t a t temp t , o n t h e o ne h and , t od e sc r ibe i nb road o u t l ine t h e c ou r se o ft h e e a r ly s t yca i sue s , a ta t ime f r om wh ich c o mpa ra t ive ly f ew s p ec imen s h ave s u rv ived , a nd t oi d en t if y t he n a tu re o f t ho se em i s s ion s . One mu s t a t temp t , o n t h e o the r h and , t o d i scu s s a t g rea te rl e ng th t h e g rea t ma s s o fs u rv iv ing c o in s s t ruck i nb ra s s a loy s a bou t wh ich o ne ' s p r ima ry c once rn i st op re sen t e l sewhe re t h e r e su l t s o fd i e ana ly s i s a nd o ft he i n c idence o fd i e l ink s . T he f i r s t e xe rc i se may n o t b e e n t i r e ly f r ee o ft hough t s o n i n te rp re ta t ion . T he s e cond s hou ld b ec on s ide red a si d en t if i ca t ion a nd o rd e r ing o fa n umbe r o fd if e ren t e l emen t s wh ich , o nce r e cogn i zed , may l a t e r f o rm as u i tab le b a s i s f o r f u r the r d i scu s s ion . S uch c an b e f o cu s sed e s pec ia l ly o n o rgan iza t ion o ft h e c o inage a nd o ni t se v idence i na na r chaeo log ica la nd a nh i s to r ica lc on tex t . REV IE W OF EARL IER W ORK
S tyca s h ave b een t h e s ub jec t o fa pp ra i sa l s i nce a tl e a s t t h e e nd o ft h e s e ven teen th c en tu ry . I tw a s A rchdeacon N i cho l son o f C a r l i s le who f i r s t a pp l ied t h e n ame s t yca t o t h e s ma l l No r thumb r ian c o in 2 a t t h e t ime when Ra lph T ho re sby o f L eed s w a s wo rk ing o n s p ec imen s f r om t h e R ipon h oa rd r e cove red i n 1 695 . T ho re sby ' s p ub l i shed c o mmen t s3 o n i t em s i n h i s own R ipon p a rce l n o ted t h e d if e ren t c en t ra l o rnamen t s o n s ome , a nd t h e d if e r en t s t y le s o fd i e -cu t t ing wh ich h e t ook t ob e i nd ica t ive o fd if e ren t m in t s . I n May 1 833 , Adam son o f Newca s t le p re sen ted ap ape r t o t h e S oc ie ty o f An t iqua r ie s o fL ondon o n t h e c o in s f ound a t H exham i n Oc tobe r o f t h e p rev iou s y ea r . H i s p ub l ica t ion 4 l i s ted mo s t o f t he v a r ie t ie s wh ich h e h ad b een a b le t oi d en t if y among t h e c o in s wh ich r e ached h im b ef o re d i spe r sa l ; as upp lemen t5 r e co rded f u r the rd e ta i l s . I nb o th c a se s , t h e ma te r i a l w a s a r ranged r e ign b y r e ign f o r E an red , / E the l red I , a nd Redwu lf a nd f o r t h e a r chb i shop sE anba ld a nd Wigmund s e pa ra te ly . Wi th in e ach b lock , t h e c o in s w e re p re sen ted a st h e wo rk o ft h e i nd iv idua l moneye r s , r eg i s te red i n t he a l phabe t ica l s e quence o f t h e i r n ame s . I lu s t r a t ion s i n c luded t ho se f o r an umbe r o fi r regu la r p i ece s who se n on sen se l e gend sd ef i ed a t t r ibu t ion . T he d i scove ry o f f u r the r h oa rd s o ccu r red i n a nd n ea r Yo rk i n 1 83 1 n ea r S t Ma ry ' s Abbey , t h en a tS tL eona rd ' s P l ace i nt h e c i ty i n1 842 , a nd a tB o l ton P e rcy i n1 847 . Un l ike t h e H exham h oa rd , a l t h e se f i nd s i n c luded c o in s o fO sbe rh t a nd A rchb i shop Wu l fhe r e . T he g row ing n umbe r o fr e cove r ie s g ave r i se t o an umbe r o fo the r p ape r s i nt h e N um i sma t i c C h r on i c l e a nd t h e A r cha e o l og i c a lJ ou rna l . F a i r le s s o fH exham 6 n o ted b r ief ly t h e e x ten t o fd i e l ink ing wh ich h eh ad o b se rved w i th in t h es e r ie s . I n 1 957 , L yon p ub l i shed as ho r t p ape r i n wh ich b o th t h e s c ea t ta s a nd s t yca s o f No r thumb r i a w e re r ev iewed . H e i d en t if i ed t h e n eed t o s e pa ra te E an r ed ' s moneye r s who s t ruck s t yca s i n as i lve ry a loy f r om t ho se who se c o in s c on ta ined v e ry l i t t le s i lve r ; o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e r e la t ive n umbe r s o fk nown d i e s , h e a t t r ibu ted t h e f o rme r t ot h ep e r iod 8 30-5 a nd t h el a t te r t oc . 837-40 .7F o rE an red ' s money t o
2
3 4
P ix ie ( 1 982 ) , 8 4 . Du ca tu s ( 1 715 ) , 3 43 . Ada m son ( 1 834 ) , 2 79-310 .
5 I dem ( 1 836 ) , 3 46-8 . F a i r le s s ( 1 845 ) , 3 5 . 7 L yon ( 1 957 ) , 2 33-4 . 6
1 08
PHASES AND GRO UPS
h ave b egun a sl a te a s8 30 , o ne mu s t r e cogn ize ab reak i nc on t inu i ty o fi sue f r om t h e s i lve r c o in s a t t r ibu tab le t o ' E the l red I ,c . 790-6 . T he t wo -yea r r e s t ra in t i n s t r ik ing , b e tween 8 35 a nd 8 37 , c an b e s e en t oc o inc ide w i th t h e t ime o f Wu lf s ige , E anba ld ' s s u cce s so r a sa r chb i shop : n o c o in s a r e k nown f o r Wu lf s ige . L yon n o ted t h a t t h e H exham h oa rd a l one c on ta ined t h e s i lve ry i sue s a s a n a pp rec iab le e l emen t o fi t s c ompo s i t ion . I no rde r t oe s tab l i sh s ome s e quence f o r t h e l a te r i sue s i nc oppe r h e a ga in c on t ra s ted H exham w i th Yo rk , 1 842 a nd B o l ton P e rcy , 1 847 . T he f i r s t o f t h e se h ad a r ema rkab ly s ma l l p ropo r t ion o f i sue s b y E a rdwu lf , r epu ted ly t he mo s t p ro l if i c moneye r f o r / E the l red I . L yon t h e ref o re i d en t if i ed E a rdwu lf a sv i r tua l ly t h e s o le moneye r o f Athe l red ' s s e cond r e ign a nd p l aced t h e d epo s i t ion o f t h e c a ch e a tH exham i n 8 45 a t t h e l a te s t , s ho r t ly a f te r t h e k ing ' s r e s to ra t ion . F u r the r , h e i d en t if i ed t wo s e r ie s o f i r regu la r i sue s : a n e a r ly o ne r ep re sen t ed i n H exham a nd a no the r wh ich i sw e l l r ep re sen ted i nt h e o the r f i nd s a nd i s ,i nt h e ma in , a b sen t f r om H exham .8T he l a te r c o in s w e re c on s ide red t ob e d e r ived f r om t h e o r thodox c o in s o f E a rdwu lf , a nd t o b e v e ry l a te — even a noma lou s i n t h a t , a t temp t ing a s t h ey d id t o r e co rd t h e n ame o f ' E the l red , d i e l ink s c ou ld s how t h e c o in s t ob e long t ot h e t ime o fO sbe rh t . I tw a s c on s ide red t h a t t h e of i c ia l c o inage f o r O sbe rh t h im se lf w a s t oo l im i ted i nq uan t i ty t o h ave o ccup ied mo re t h an as ho r t p e r iod a tt h e b eg inn ing o fh i s r e ign . T he re a ro se t h e d if i cu l ty o f r e la t ing t o t h e r ega l wo rk i sue s f o r Wu l fhe re , who r e ce ived t h e p a / / ium i n8 54 , s i nce t h e a r chb i shop ' s c o in s , i ns t y le , w e re mo re a k in t o Athe l red ' s l a te rc o in st h an t ot ho se o fO sbe rh t . I n 1 969 , P agan p ub l i shed a r e -app ra i sa l o f t h e c onven t iona l c h rono logy a nd p ropo sed t h a t t h e r e ign s o fE an red , ' E the l red I , Redwu lf , a nd O sbe rh t s hou ld e ach b e r e cogn ized a sh av ing b egun a g ood t we lve o r f i f teen y ea r s l a te r t h an h i s to r ian s h ad p rev iou s ly t hough t . Apa r t f r om t hu s a low ing E an red t oh ave b een a l ive , c . 850 , a tt h e t ime t o wh ich B lun t9 h a s a t t r ibu ted t h e p enny i n t h a t n ame f ound a tT rewh idd le , P agan w en t f u r the r . H e p ropo sed a n a dd i t iona l Athe l red l° a sE an red ' si mmed ia te p redece s so rt o whom c ou ld b e a t t r ibu ted s i lve rc o in si sued i n t he n ame o f ' E the l red . H i s a rgumen t f o r t h i s r e s ted o n h i s i d en t if i ca t ion o f 2 E the l red ' s moneye r C eo lbea ld a st h e of i c ia l who wo rked i n Me rc ia f r om c . 796 t o c . 823 : P agan t hough t t h e man e nded h i s c a ree r i n No r thumb r ia b y s t r ik ing t h e re i nt h e m id -820 s . I ti s ap i ty t h a t t oo l i t t le a t ten t ion w a s p a id , b y b o th L yon a nd P agan , t o t h e r e a l i d en t i ty o ft h e moneye r a s s igned b y No r th" t oA lfwa ld Iu nde r t h e n ame o f Cu thbeo rh t . THE BACKGROUND OF THE EARL IEST CO INAGES
F rom t h e s t a r t o f c o inage i n No r thumb r ia — a t l e a s t f r om t h e s i lve r i sue s f o r A ldf r i th , c . 685-705 ," i fn o t f r om t h e g o ld o ft h e s o -ca l led Yo rk t h rym sa s" — the 8 L yon , o p .c i t . , 2 32 , men t ioned c o in s wh ich h ad i n t he p a s t b een a t t r ibu ted t o t h e k ing s / E the l red I ,E a rdwu lf , ` F loaud ' , A lfwa ld I a nd B eonna ; r i gh t ly , h e n o ted t h a t n one o f t h e se h ave b een r e co rded i n t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t h e H exham f i nd . Neve r the le s s , af ew s p ec imen s wh ich c a n b e a t tr ibu ted t o t h e l a te r s e r ie s h ave
b een r e cogn ized i n t h e h oa rd ( s ee t h e H exham p ape r , a bove ) . 9 Wi l son a nd B lun t ( 1 96 1 ) , 1316 . 1 0 P agan ( 1 969 ) , 1 3 . 1 1 Nor th ( 1 963 ) , n o .183 . 1 2 P i ne ( 1 984 ) , 2 0911 . 1 3 G r ie r son ( 1 962 ) , 8 10 .
1 09
E . J . E . P IR IE
c on ten t o ft h e d i e s i sh igh ly i nd iv idua l . Au tho r i ty i nt h eu n i ted k ingdom n or th o f t h e Humbe r mu s t h ave c a te red f o r i t s mone ta ry n eed s w i thou t r e f e rence t o wha t w a s g o ing o n e l sewhe re . T he a cknow ledged a u thor i ty i n t h e m idd le a nd l a te r e i gh th c en tu ry f o r t h e l a te s e r i e s o fs c ea t ta s w a s n o t o n ly t h a t o ft h e k ing b u t o f t h e k ing a nd t h e a r chb i shop o fY o rk , f o r whom t h e re w e re s e ve ra lj o in t i sue s . T h i s d ua l i ty o f c on t ro l c on t inued t o b e o b se rv ed i n t h e n ew s t yca c o inage f o r wh ich t h e moneye r s r e spon s ib le w e re n o l onge r a nonymou s : a t t h i s s t age , h oweve r , t h e a r chb i shop sh ad , f o r t h e mo s t p a r t , t h e i r own of i c ia l s a nd t h e i r own c o in s . Y e t , a l though t h e e p i scopa l c o inage s e em s t o h ave b een s t ruck o n amuch s ma l le r s c a le t h an w e re t h e r ega l i sue s , t h e t wo s t rand s c anno t w e l l b e d ivo rced f r om e a ch o the r f o r , a se ach s t a r ted i ns i lve r , e a ch e nded i n c oppe r . I fw e a r e t o u nde r s tand t h e c o inage a s awho le , w e wou ld d o w e l l t o c on s ide r t h e i sue s o f e a ch a r chb i shop i nc on junc t ion w i th t h ec on tempo r a ry r ega l money . THE EARLY S TYCAS : ATHEL RED I ,I ELF WALD , AND EANRED ( PHASES I A AND
I B )
Among t h e s i lve r c o in s f ound a t S anc ton b e tween 1 979 a nd 1 982 w e re t h ree s p ec imen s" f o r t he k ing A lfwa ld b y amoneye r who se n ame c an b e c l ea r ly r e ad a s C u thhea rd . T he o ppo r tun i ty t o c o r rec t t h e e a r l ie r e r ro r mu s t l e ad t o r e -exam ina t ion o ft h e e a r ly s e quence a nd , i ndeed , t o i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e n a tu re o ft h ec o inage r ep re sen ted b yt h es i lve ry s t yca s . We n ow k now o f Cu thhea rd a s amoneye r s t r ik ing i n s i lve r f o r t h r ee k ing s : ' E the l red , A lfwa ld a nd E an red . H ad h e s t i l l b een k nown o n ly f o r t h e f i r s t a nd l a s t , o ne c ou ld p e rhap s h ave a t temp ted t om ake ac a se f o r t h e s i lve ry a nd c oppe ry c o in s r ep re sen t ing t wo d if e ren t d enom ina t ion s , i n t h e r e ign s o f E an r ed a nd / E the l red I .A s i ti s ,o ne mu s t s e e Cu thhe a rd e nd ing h i s c a ree r e a r ly i nt h e r e ign o fE an red a f te r wo rk ing f o r t h a t k ing ' s p redece s so r s . E an red ' s c o inage , t h e ref o re , n eed n o l onge r b e c on s ide red t o h ave s t a r ted ag ood wh i le a f te r h e c ame t o t h e t h rone : h i s s i lve r i sue s , a tl e a s t , s e em t o h ave b e en s p read o u t o ve r an umbe r o f y ea r s . I f o ne c an a c cep t t h em a s t h e o u tcome o f p roduc ing a n i n te rm i t ten t c o inage , o ne c an l ook b ack t o e a r l ie r r e ign s , n o tj u s t f o r t h e g ene s i s o ft h e n ew c o inage o n wh ich moneye r s w e re t ob e n amed b u t f o r t h e a dop t ion o ft h e p o l icy o fi su ing money a sa nd when of i c ia lp ro jec t sr equ i red f und s . T he n ew s t yca c o inage w a s p re sumab ly i n t roduced d u r ing t h e s e cond r e ign o f / E the l red I , c . 790-6 . Of t h e moneye r s t h en m ee t ing r ega l n eed s —T idwu lf , Hn if u la , C eo lbea ld a nd Cu thhea rd —on ly t h e l a s t wo rked l a te r i n No r thumb r ia . No c o in s a r e k nown f o r l E the l red ' s i mmed ia te s u cce s so r , K ing E a rdwu lf , a nd i ti s t ob e s uppo sed t h a t t h e moneye r s f a ced t h e r e a l i ty o fr edundancy . C eo lbea ld , o ne a s sume s , g o t o n h i s b ike a nd w en t s ou th t o wo rk i n Me rc ia . Cu thhe a rd a l one s t ruck f o r A lfwa ld I , c . 806-8 ; h e wo rked f i na l ly f o r E an red . I nj u s t wha t o rde r E an red ' s o the r moneye r s f o l lowed Cu thhea rd i ss t i l l n o t c l ea r . T he e v idence o f B oo th a nd B lowe r s ( 1 983 ) , n o s .24-6 . B oo th ' s work ( 1 984 ) o n t h e s c ea t ta s o f No r th umb r ia i n c luded c o in s o fr e la t ive ly g ood s i lve r , w i th moneye r s ' n ame s , a st h e l a s t o ft h e s c ea t ta s e r ie s . T hey w e re , h e a rgued , t h e r e su l t s o f e xpe r imen t s w i th a n a l te rna t ive t o t h e u sua l a n ima l r ever se , i n t h e r e ign s o f' E lfwa ld I( o r 1 4
I ) a nd i nt h e s e cond r e ign o f' E the l red I .S i nce B oo th a c cep ted L yon ' s i d en t if i ca t ion o f E anred ' s c o inage h av ing b egun o n ly a sl a te a s 8 30 , h es aw n o c onnec t ion b e tween i sue so ft h e l a te e i gh th c en tu ry a nd o ft h e n in th . Neve r the l e s s , s u ch ac onnec t ion s hou ld b e r e cogn ized , i n t h ec on t inu ing work o f Cu thhea rd .
10
PHASES AND GROUPS
a na ly s i s wh ich h a s i d en t if i ed c o in s o fr e a sonab ly g ood s i lve r" s ugge s t s t h a t t h e o f ic ia l s Hw a 2 t r a 2d a nd Cynewu lf may h ave wo rked s oon a f te r h im . L i t t le o r n o d i e l ink ing b e tween moneye r s h a s b een o b se rved a pa r t f r om a n i s o la ted i n s tance o f Cynewu lf a nd ( ? ) Athe lheah ( ED ILECH )1 6 s h a r ing a n o bve r se . ( The l a t te r moneye r s e em s t ob e k nown o n ly f r om o ne c o in i nt h e Yo rk sh i re Mu seum ; t h e r e la ted c o in o f C ynewu lf i s i n L eed s C i ty Mu seum . ) Wi lheah , E adw ine ( EADV IN I ) , e ven A the lwea rd ( ED ILVARD ) a nd T idw ine ( T IDV IN I ) may h ave c o me n ex t . E adw ine s e em s t o h ave h ad a l onge r s p an o f i sue s t h an t h e o the r s . T idw ine i sk nown" t oh ave u s ed a n o bve r se c u t i nt h e s ame s t y le a so ne f o r H e re rxd who , w i th E adw ine , Dxgbeo rh t ( DAEGBERCT ) a nd Wu l fhea rd , may b ea c coun ted t h el a s tt os t r ike i na na loy c on ta in ing much s i lve r . Co in s wh ich a r e n ow a t t r ibu ted t o Wu l fhea rd a r e s t ruck f r om r eve r se s wh ich a l s e em t ob e a be r r an ti ns ome p a r t icu la r . T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e d i e s om i tt h ei n i t ia l c ro s s , wh ich c au se s c onf u s ion i n i d en t if y ing t h e n ame a s Wu l fhea rd o r a s H ea rdwu lf . D ie s w i th t h e c ro s s r e ad + ALFHEARD wh ich s e em s t o p o in t t o Wu l fhea rd a st h e i nd iv idua l c once rned . One s hou ld r emembe r , h oweve r , t h a t a mo re c o mmon a be r r a t ion ( i n b o th t h e e a r ly a nd t h e l a te r i sue s ) i st h e p l ac ing o f t h e c ro s s w i th in t h e n ame ( c f . P 1 .6 , 3a nd 2 0 ) ; r e cogn i t ion o f HEARD + ALF f o r H ea rdwu lf r ema in s ap o s s ib i l i ty . One m ake s t h i s c o mmen t , n o t t oi mp ly t h a t t wo moneye r s m igh tb ei n vo lved b u tr a the rt os ugge s t t h a t t h eo ne moneye r ' si d en t i ty i su nce r ta in . I ti s wo r th d r aw ing a t ten t ion t o t h i s l i t t le g roup o fc o in s a si t may w e l lh ave b een t h ep ro to type f o rs ome l a te ru nof f i c ia lc opy ing . Du r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e c o inage i n s i lve r , t h e n eed s o ft h e c hu r ch w e re n o t o ve r looked . Among t h e moneye r s wo rk ing i nt h e t ime o f/ E the l red I ,t h e r e w a s Cu thg i l s who se d i s t inc t ive r eve r se mo t if , i d en t if i ed b y L o rd G ran t ley" a s a s h r ine , may b e i nd i ca t ive o f t h e k ing h av ing a u tho r ized money f o r s ome e c c le s ia s t ica l p u rpo s e . B y t h e t ime o fE an red , h i s a r chb i shop E anba ld h ad c o in s i n h i s own n ame b u t wh ich f o r s ome wh i le , a ppa ren t ly , w e re n o t s t ruck b y moneye r s o fh i s own . I t wou ld s e em t h a t E anba ld ' s f i r s t c o in s w e re t h e wo rk o f t h e r ega l moneye r s C ynewu lf , E adw ine , a nd J E the lwea rd b ef o re Athe lwea rd h im se lf a nd E adwu lf wo rked o n ly f o rt h ea r chb i shop . A t s ome p o in t b ef o re t h e l a s t o f t h e e a r ly moneye r s , w i th o ne e xcep t ion , s t opped wo rk ing , s ome th ing s e em s t o h ave h appened wh ich d ep r ived t h em o f t h e i r n o rma l s upp ly o fs i lve r f o r t h e s t yca s . E adw ine , Dxgbeo rh t , Wu l fhea rd a nd H e re r 2 ed , t oge the r w i th E adwu lf a nd Athe lwea rd ( who se d i e s n ow r e ad ED ILVEARD r a the r t h an ED ILVARD ) s t ruck i n s tead i n ac oppe ry a loy f o r wha t mu s th ave p roved t ob e t h el a s tl a p i na n i n te rm i t ten t c o inage . T he a dop t ion o ft he b a se r a loy s e em s t oh ave o pened t h e d oo r t oc on tempo ra ry i m i ta t ion o n a s ma l l s c a le . P i ece s e x i s t wh ich a ppea r t ob e c op ie s i nv e ry b a se me ta l o ft h e wo rk o fe a r ly ' s i lve r ' moneye r s : E an red ' s Cynewu lf" a nd E anba ld ' s E adwu lf ( unpub l i shed ) . D ie s i n t h e n ame o f H e re rxd ( s pe l t HERRED , n o t HERRED ) a r e Me tca lf e ta l . ( 1 968 ) ,3 45 . E d i l e ch may b e a n a be r ran t f o rm o f E d i lhe ch wh ich i sr e co rded i n t h e L i b e r V i ta e ( Swee t , 1 885 , 1 55 ) . D r Sma r t ( p e r sona l c om mun ica t ion ) c o m men t s o n t h e u se o f t he c h b e ing v e ry u n-Eng l i sh . I t m ay t h e ref o re b e 1 5
1 6
i n co r rec t t or e la te t h e f o rm , a si ta ppea r s o n t he c o in , t ot h en ame Athe lheah . 1 7 AY 1 8 /1 ( 1 986 ) ,n o .16 . 1 8 G ran t ley ( 1 9 12 ) , a tp . 3 . 1 9 P i ne ( 1 98 1 ) , n o .325 .
11
E . J . E . P IR IE
c o mb ined w i th a n umbe r o f o the r s i n t h e n am e s o f Hwx t rxd , E adw ine , a nd Wu l fhea rd . T he f i r s t p ha se o f No r thumb r ia ' s s t yca c o in age mu s t t h e ref o re b e s e en t o e ncompa s s t wo s t age s : I a , t h e wo rk i n ab ra s s a loy c on ta in ing v i s ib le amoun t s o f s i lve r ; I b , t h e f i r s t wo rk i n a mo re c oppe ry look ing a loy . T he f i r s t s hou ld b e r e cogn ized a sh av ing l a s ted f r om c . 790 t oc . 830 a nd t h e s e cond f o r t h e s ho r t t ime , c . 830-5 . I ti st h i s p ha se wh ich Do l ley 2°i d en t if i ed a so ne i n wh ich t h e c o inage w a s f i s ca l i n i n ten t . I t s own d eve lopmen t s mu s t b e r e cogn ized a sq u i te s e pa r a te f r om t ho se wh ich o ccu r red ay ea r o r t wo l a te r when m in t ing w a s r e sumed u nd e r t h e a eg i so f an ew t e am o fr ega l moneye r s . Compa ra t ive ly l i t t le m a te r ia l s u rv ive s f r om P h a se Ia nd i th a s b een b eyond t h e s c ope o f t h e c u r ren t wo rk o n t h e Yo rk sh i re c o l lec t ion s t o p re sen t ad e ta i led a na ly s i so fd i e s .2 1 PHASE
I OF THE
CO INAGE ,
UNDER EANRED ,
" ETHELRED
I ,
RED WULF ,
OSBERHT ,
WIG M U ND , AND W ULFHERE
P ha se I o ft h e c o inage i st h a t wh ich s e e s an ew t e am o f moneye r s s t r ik ing i nb ra s s m ixed w i th v e ry l i t t le s i lve r . T he re i sn o e v idence t h a t p e r sonne l f r om P ha se I c on t inued i n of i ce , e xcep t t h a t " E the lwea rd wo rked f o r Wigmund who b ecame a r chb i shop c . 837 a tt h e t ime when t h e d eba sed r e ga l c o inage mu s t h ave s t a r ted t o b ecome b o th mo re i n ten s ive a nd mor e c on s tan t i no u tpu t . F rom t h e l a s t y ea r s o f E an red ' s r e ign t ot h e f i r s t o fO sbe rh t w e h ave s u rv iv ing at r emendou s n umbe r o f s p ec imen s , o fb o th of i c ia l a nd u nau tho r ized o r ig in . I ts hou ld b e p o s s ib le s oon t o p re sen t t h e f i r s t r e su l t s o fa n a na ly s i s o ft h e i r d i e s . Mo s t o ft h e ma te r ia l wh ich h a s f o rmed t h e b a s i s o ft h e s t udy i si nt h e u n r iva l led c o l lec t ion h e ld b y t h e Y o rk sh i re Mu seum , wh ich may f a i r ly b ed e sc r ibed a s as omewha t mo th ea ten r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h e k nown p roduc t ion f r om P ha se I ; s ome p a r t s a r e mo re mo th e a ten t h an o the r s . S c rap s f o r p a tch ing t h e r e cogn izab le h o le s c an b e f ound i nt h e b i t -bag s o f c o l lec t ion se l sewhe re . A t t h i s s t age , i ti si mpe ra t ive t o r e co rd s ome o f t he mu l t i tude o f q u e s t ion s wh ich h ave h ad t ob ea s ked t h roughou tt h e wo rk . I t mu s t s u re ly b e ama t te r o fc o mmon s e n se when d ea l ing w i th al a rge ma s s o f ma te r ia lt oi d en t if yw i th in t h e who le an umbe ro fi nd iv idua lu n i t s a nd t oe xam ine t h ed e ta i lo fe a ch a nd t h er e la t ion sh ip so fo ne t oa no the r . F o r t h e r egu la r c o inage o f P ha se I , w e h ave t h e r ega l i sue s f o r E an red , ' E the l red I , Redwu lf , a nd O sbe rh t t oge the r w i th t h e wo rk f o r t h e a r chb i shop s Wigmund a nd Wu l fhe re . Wi th in e ach o f t h e se s i x u n i t s t h e re h ave b een t h e s ub -d iv i s ion s f o rmed b y t h e wo rk o fi nd iv idua l moneye r s . Y e t when o ne c ome s t o c on s ide r t h e' ma s s ive o u tpu t o fo ne s u ch a s Monne f o r " E the l red , a lmo s t t h e f i r s t q ue s t ion s t o s p r ing u p a r e : h ow c an w e d e t e rm ine when w i th in t h e p e r iod a p a r t icu la r c o in w a s s t ruck ; wh ich c o in s hou ld b e l i s ted f i r s t i n t h e r eg i s te r o f a man ' s wo rk ? I st h e r e a ny r hyme o r r e a son i n t h e u se o f mo t if s wh ich m igh t d e te rm ine t h e p rog re s s ion o f a ny o ne man ' s i sue s ? H a rd o n t h e h ee l s o f t h e se c o me f u r the r q ue s t ion s . I so ne r e a l ly j u s t if ied i n m a in ta in ing t h e s e pa ra t ion o f 2° 2 1
Do l ley ( 1 976 ) ,3 55 . F o r s u ch a n a na ly s i s , s e e J a me s B oo th ' s
p ape r , a bove .
12
PHASES AND GROUPS
moneye r s t ot h e e x ten t wh ich h a s p reva i led f o r s ol ong ? I f mo s t moneye r s u se t h e s ame r ange o f mo t if s , c an o ne e s tab l i sh a t ypo logy o b se rved b y moneye r s wo rk ing i nc once r t ? I fo ne c an i d en t if y t ype s a nd t h e i r v a r ie t ie s , i n wha t o rde r d o t h ey o ccu r ? T he r ange o f s t anda rd mo t if s o n t h e o f ic ia l c o inage i se f ec t ive ly s ma l l ; s i x s e em t o r ep re sen t t wo t r ad i t ion s o f i c onog raphy . T h ree may b e r e cogn ized t o h ave r e l ig iou s c onno ta t ion s . T he re i st h e s imp le s ma l l c ro s s . T he re a r e a l so t h e c ro s sw i th ap e l le ti ne a ch a ng le a nd t h e c ro s sf o rmed o ff i ve p e l le t s : b o th a r e t ob e f ound i no the r a r t i s t i c c on tex t s . T he f i r s t o ccu r s o n amuch l a rge r s c a le i n af r e sco wh ich f o rmed p a r to ft h en in th -cen tu ry r e s to ra t ion o fo ne o ft h ee a r ly c hu rche s o f Rome ; t h i s n ow u nd e r l ie s t h e c hu rch o fS an Ma r t ino a i Mon t i . T he s omewha t e x iguou s r ema in s o f t h e p a in t ing ( c on s ide rab ly l e s s n ow t h an when s e en b y Wi lpe r t 2 )a low o ne t od e te rm ine t h a t t h e c i rc le s l y ing i ne a ch a ng le o ft h e c ro s s e nc lo se t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f av o lume . T he mo t if a s awho le h a s b een s e en t o r ep re sen t t h e C ro s sa nd t h e F ou r G o spe l s ; i ti ss t i l l u s ed w i th s u ch s ymbo l i sm . T he f i ve p e l le t s o n s ome o ft h e c o in s a r e m in ia tu re s o ft h e f i ve b o s se s wh ich o ccu r a l so o n s ome o f t h e s t one c ro s se s s u ch a s t h e C rux G u r ia t2 3 o n t h e I s le o f Man . F in lay 2 4 i d en t if i e s t h em a ss ymbo l s u sed i np l ace o ft h e f i gu re o f Ch r i s t c ruc if i ed . I fn ame s f o r t ype s w e re r equ i red o ne c ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h e se b e c a l led E vang e l i s t i c C r o s s a nd P a s s i on C r o s s r e spec t ive ly . T h ree mo t if s , i n c on t ra s t , s e em t o h ave s e cu la r s i gn if i cance . A pa r t f r om t he s imp le p e l le t , t h e re a r e t h e r o se t te o fp e l le t s a nd t h e p e l le t in -annu le t . Aga in , t h e l a s t t wo a r e t ob e f ound i no the r med i a . T he s hou lde r -b rooch wo rn b y C ha r lemagne o n h i s s t a tue i nG r i son s , Sw i tze r land 2 5 i s i n t he f o rm o f ar o s e t te : t h i s may p e rhap s b e s e en a s ab adge o f r oya l ty . T he p e l le t in annu le t a nd i t s v a r ia t ion —whe re t h e b a s ic mo t if i si t se lf s u r rounded b y p e l le t s —may b e t r aced b ack t o t h e a nc ien t C e l t ic wo r ld a nd c an b e f ound t h e re , t oo , o n c o in s .2 6 T he s e lec t ion o f emb lem s s u ch a s t h e se f o r t h e c o in s b y t h e No r thumb r ian moneye r s w i l l s u re ly h ave b een a c compan ied b y a pp rec ia t ion o f t h e i rs ymbo l i sm a nd p e rhap so ft h e i ra pp rop r ia tene s sf o rp a r t icu la ri sue s . I n t h e u s e o f mo t if s , p a r t icu la r t y p e s may b e i d en t if i ed when b o th o bve r se a nd r eve r se b ea r t h e s ame d ev ice . Av a r i e ty may b e i d en t if i ed when a n o bve r se w i th o ne mo t if i sc omb ined w i th a r eve r se b ea r ing a no the r d e s ign . Recogn i t ion o f t ype s a nd v a r ie t ie s m ay s e em t o b e e a sy a nd i ti ss t ra igh tf o rwa rd e nough t o s o r t t h e ma te r ia l o f ar e ign i n to b lock s c omp r i s ing t h e c o in s o fa l moneye r s wh ich h ave t h e s ame mo t if comb ina t ion s . T o d e te rm ine t h e o rde r i n wh ich t h e i sue s o ccu r red i sy e ta no the rm a t te ra nd o the r q ue s t ion s a r i se , p r ima r i ly t h a t o fh ow t h e e v idence o f d i e l ink ing c on t r ibu te s t o c l a r if i ca t ion o ft h e s e quence . How many d i e l ink s o ccu r i n t h e t ype s , b o th w i th in t h e wo rk o fi nd iv idua l moneye r s a nd b e tween t h a t o ft wo o r mo re ? How many s u ch l i nk s o ccu r i nt h e v a r ie t ie s ? How m any l i nk s c onnec t t h e v a r ie t ie s t o s p ec if i c t ype s ? Wh ich r eve r se s f o rm l i nk s b e tween o ne r e ign a nd t h e n ex t ? Whe re , t oo , m igh t t h e re b e e v idence o fa l te red d i e s , c hanged a tl e a s tb ye menda t ion o f mo t i f ? I nt h e c o inage p roduc ed d u r ing t h e l a s t y ea r s o fE an red ' s r e ign t h e re i sc l ea r ly a v e ry ma rked p reponde r ance o fs p ec imen s who se d i e s b o th b ea r t h e s ma l l c ro s s . 22 23 24
Wi lper t ( 1 917 ) , I ,3 22 . Chadw ick ( 1 963 ) , 3 8 . F in lay ( 1979 ) , 2 25 .
25 26
13
S imon s ( 1 971 ) , 100. S ee A l len ( 1 978 ) , n o s .115 , 18 .
E . J . E . P IR IE
Mo t if s i n t h e r o se t te a nd a nnu le t t r ad i t ion a r e p re sen t b u t a r e c e r ta in ly i n t h e m ino r i ty . Que s t ion s o fs t y le c r eep i n t o h e lp i d en t if y as e quence d epend ing o n s e pa ra t ion o f F i r s t , I n t e rm ed ia t e , a nd L a s t S ma l l C r o s s ( a nd t h e i r v a r ie t ie s ) i n te r spe r sed w i th t h e t ype s wh ich h ave s e cu la r mo t if s , a nd f o l lowed b y a s ho r t l ived i sue o fE vang e l i s t i c C r o s s wh ich m igh t b e t h e f i r s t i n s ta lmen t o f at ype c on t inued a t t h e b eg inn ing o f ' E the l red ' s r e ign . Among t h e s p ec imen s t o b e a loca ted t o L a s t S ma l l C r o s s a r e c o in s o fB ro the r ( B RODR ) who se o bve r se i s a l te red f r om o ne h av ing t h e p e l le t mo t if ; t h e l i nked r e ve r se s i n c lude t ho se w i th t h e n ame r ende red i n r une s , at r a i t s h a red w i th r eve r se s f o r Wih t rxd . T he se l a s t a r e c omb ined w i th a n o bve r se u s ed i nc ommon w i th Monne . Reve r se s f o r b o th Wih t rxd a nd Monne , k nown f i r s tw i th t h e o ne o bve r se f o rE an red , c an b es e en t o b er e -u sed i nt h er e ign o f' E the l red . Hope s o f s e e ing Athe l red ' s c o inage a s i n t roduced w i th a n E vang e l i s t i c C r o s s i sue i nc on t inua t ion o ft h a tw i th wh ich E an red ' s s e emed t oe nd h ave f a l len b yt h e w ay s ide . T he i n te r re ign l i nk s f o rmed b y Wih t r a ed ' s r eve r se s l e ad i n to f u r the r s ma l l c r o s s c omb ina t ion s . Monne ' s d i e s f r om t h e s ame e a r ly g roup a r e u s ed i n c on junc t ion w i th a n o bve r se h av ing ac r o s sp o t en t mo t if ; i ndeed , t h e re i sa no the r i n s tance o fa n e a r ly p e l le t mo t if b e ing a l te red t o f o rm ama tch ing c r o s sp o t en t o n o ne o ft h e r e -u sed r eve r se s . T he n ew mo t if , i nt h i s f o rm , i su s ed b y Monne a l one b u t av a r ia t ion i su s ed b y L eof thegn , o ne o ft h e r e ign ' s n ew moneye r s , who h a s l ong b een n o ted f o r t h e n umbe r o f d if e ren t mo t if s wh ich h e a l one emp loy s . Among t h e q ue s t ion s a r i s ing a t t h i s s t age a r e , i n ev i tab ly : whe re d o t h e se i nd iv idua ld e s ign s , s e ve ra l o f wh ich h ave r e cogn izab l e r e l ig iou s c onno ta t ion s , f i nd t h e i r p l ace i nr e la t ion t ot h e s t anda rd o ne s ; a nd h ow d oe s t h e s o le p i c to r ia l d e s ign o ft h i s p e r iod , L eof thegn ' s ' h ound ' r eve r se ( known f r om o n ly o ne d i e ) r e l a t e t o h i s o the r wo rk ? One may n o t ice a l so t h a t Monne a nd L eof thegn a r e n o t t h e o n ly men who d epa r t f r om t h e n o rm . Wigmund ' s moneye r C oen r a ed s e em s t o emu la te L eof thegn i nr ep re sen t ing , s omewha t c rud e ly , o ne o ft h e s ame r e l ig iou s s ymbo l s . ' E the l red ' s c o in s s t ruck b y Wih t r a zd a nd Monne w i th r eve r se s u sed i nE an red ' s t ime a r e d emon s t r ab ly e a r ly i n t h e r e ign ' s s e quence . T he re i sf u r the r wo rk b y Monne a nd o the r s wh ich l i nk sw i th t h e c o inage o fR edwu lf . I ti swhen o ne l ook s f o r t h e i sue s wh ich f i l l t h e g ap b e tween t h e se e a r ly a nd l a te r c o in s t h a t d if icu l t ie s a r i se . F o r th rxd h a s a n i n te r re ign l i nk f r om E an r ed t o ' E the l red ; t he u s e o f t h e r eve r se f o r ' E the l red f o rm s p a r t o f ' av e ry s ho r t c ha in i nvo lv ing t h e u s e o ft wo o bve r se s b y h im , t h e moneye r E an rxd , Wu lf rxd , a nd Monne ; o ne o f t ho se r eve r se sf o r Monne l i nk sw i th h i s c o in sf o r Redwu lf . F u r the rmo re , Monne h a s f ou r o the r i n te r re ign l i nk s f r om E an red t o' E the l red b e s ide s t ho se t wo wh ich a r e a s soc ia ted w i th wo rk b y Wih t rxd . One o f t h e r e levan t r eve r se s i su s ed w i th f i ve d if e ren t o bve r se s : o ne f o r t h e r e ign o fE an red , o ne f o r' E the l red a nd t h ree f o r Redwu lf . [ S ee A ppend ix Whe re c an o ne f i t i n Monne ' s c r o s sp o t en t i sue s ? T he c on t inu i ty o fd i e l ink ing b e tween t h e t h ree r e ign s , d emon s t rab le i n t h e wo rk o f Monne a l one , t oge the r w i th t h a t i n t h e F o r th rxd—Ean red— Wu lf rxd— Monne c omp lex , l e ave s n o r oom f o r i n se r t ion i nt h e c o inage o f' E the l red o fa ny a dd i t iona l t ype s s uch a s Monne ' s c r o s s p o t en t a nd o the r s b y L eof thegn , Wih t rxd a nd F o r th rxd . I so ne r i gh t i n 14
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a s sum ing t h a t t h e re i so n ly o ne s t ream o fc o inage i n wh ich o ne c ou ld e xpec t t o i d en t if y as i ng le s e quence o f t ype s ? M igh t t h e re n o t b e t wo o r , p o s s ib ly , e ven mo re s e pa ra te b lock s o fc o inage ( e ach w i th i t s own p a t tern o f wo rk ) wh ich w e re i sued c oncu r ren t ly ? T he e v idence o f d i e l ink ing a t l e a s t s e em s t o i nd ica te t h a t t h e re a r e , i n t h e o u tpu t o f P ha se I , t h e p roduc t s o f s e ve r a l d if e ren t r ega l wo rk shop s a nd t h a t c onnec t ion s c an b e f ound b e tween t h e se c en t re s a nd t h e wo rk o ft h e a r chb i shop ' s moneye r s . THE I DENT IF ICAT IO N OF S EPARATE REGAL W ORKS HOPS IN PHASE I
T he re i s ,i nt h e c o inage o f' E the l red , ama rked d i cho tomy o fi sue wh ich may b e i d en t if i ed , q u i te a pa r t f r om t h eu s e o f mo t if , b y t h e s p e l l ing o ft h ek ing ' sn ame . I n mo s t c a se s , t h e m idd le s y l lab le i ss p e l t w i th a n Ia sE d i l r ed , b u t t h e f o rm w i th t h e m idd le s y l lab le h av ing E a si t s v owe l a l so a ppea r s o n ac on s ide rab le n umbe r o f d i e s . I ti st h eE d i l r ed c o in age wh ich i se nc lo sed b e tween t h ei sue s o fE an red ' sr e ign a nd t ho se o f Redwu lf ; i ti st h e E d e l r ed c o inage wh ich , a l though l i nked i n t h e wo rk o f Monne a nd Wih t rxd f r om s ome c o in s o fE an red , s t and s a pa r t . I ts e em s t h a t e a ch g roup s hou ld b e c on s ide red s e pa ra te ly e ven t hough s ome o ft h e k ing ' s moneye r s wo rk i nb o th . A l l a ppea r t o wo rk i nt h e s o -ca l led E d i l r ed g roup , wh ich i sb y f a rt h el a rge r . a ) THE EDILRED GRO UP T he i sue s h e re c omp r i se wo rk o f d if e ren t e x ten t b y B ro the r , Cynemund , E a lhhe re ( ALGHERE ) , E an rxd , E anwu lf , E a rdwu lf , F o r th rxd , L eof thegn , Monne , Od i lo , Wende lbeo rh t , Wih t r a ed , Wu lf r a ed , a nd Wu lf s ige , t oge the r w i th s ome c o in s f o r t h e k ing s t ruck b y Wigmund ' s moneye r , Hun laf . I n t h i s i n s tance , t oo , w e a r e f a ced w i th ama s s o f ma te r i a l d if i cu l t t o h and le a s awho le . I tc ou ld b e o rde red i nt ype s a nd v a r ie t ie s , among wh ich L eof thegn ' s ' h ound ' c o in s wou ld s t and a l one . C o in s l i nk ing t ot h e i sue s o fE an red wou ld b e e a r ly a st ho se l i nk ing t o Redwu lf wou ld b e l a te r a nd t ho se l i nk ing ' t o O sbe rh t , p e rhap s l a te r s t i l l . I t wou ld s t i l lb e d if i cu l t , h oweve r , t od emon s t ra te e f ec t ive ly t h e a s soc ia t ion s wh ich o ccu r b e tween e ach moneye r a nd o ne o r mo re o f h i s c o l league s . T o l e ave t h e E d i l r ed g roup i ni t s e n t i r e ty wou ld b e t oo ve r look f u r the r p ecu l ia r i t ie s o fs pe l l ing a nd o the r e p ig raph ic f e a tu re s wh ich s e em t o i d en t if y s ub -d iv i s ion s w i th in t h e who le . Wi th in t h e e n t i re g roup t h e re a r e a tl e a s t f ou r v a r ia t ion s o ft h e r ende r ing o f Athe l red ' s n ame : ED ILRED , ED IFRED , EDL IRED , a pa r t f r om AED ILRED . E ach f o rm i su s ed b y mo re t h an o ne money e r . E ach may b e t a ken a sa ni nd ica t ion o f ap o s s ib le d iv i s ion o ft h e ma te r ia l . T he f i r s t i n c lude s wo rk b y Monne wh ich d epend s o n f ou r l i nk s f r om t h e p rev iou s r e ign ; i te ncompa s se s t h e who le o f E a rdwu lf s r egu la r o u tpu t . Wi th in t h e d iv i s ion , o ne c an n o te s ome v a r ia t ion i n s t y le . T he s e cond h a s am a jo r p a r t o fF o r th rxd ' s wo rk f o r t h e r e ign a nd i n c lude s t h e r e -u se o fh i s r eve r se wh ich w a s f i r s t c u t i nE an red ' s t ime ; Wende lbeo rh t h a s t h e Lo fh i s own n ame i nve r ted . T he t h i rd d iv i s ion ( Ed l i r ed ) , w i th wo rk b y t h e moneye r s E an red , F o r th rxd ( s hown a s EORDRED ) , Monne , Wu lf rxd a nd Wu lf s ige , h a s t h e o bv iou s p ecu l ia r i ty o fs p e l l ing t h e k ing ' s n ame . P agan 2 7 r e f e r s 27
P agan ( 1973 ) , 2 6 .
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t o Monne h av ing a n o ld E d i l r ed d i e r e -cu t i n t h i s f o rm . T he re i si ndeed o ne i n s tance whe re t h i s c an b e s e en t o h ave h appened , y e t i tc anno t b e s a id t h a t a l t h e se o bve r se sh ave b een s or e f u rb i shed : n o o the r s ( s eve ra lo ft h em a r e r e t rog r ade ) c an b e t r aced b ack t oE d i l r ed o r ig ina l s . One mu s t a c cep t t h a t t h ey w e re f r om t h e f i r s t i n tended t or ep re sen t t h e Ia nd L t r an spo sed f r om t h e i rn o rma l o rde r ; i ft h e re c an b e a ny a rgumen t , i ts hou ld c once rn t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e l e t te r s a r e i nt h e i r r i gh to rde rb u tt h a tt h e Li sr eve r sed . On s ome o fh i sp e r sona l d i e s , Monn eh a st h e f i na l Eo fh i s n ame r eve r sed . T he A ed i l r ed f o rm i su sed p r inc ipa l ly b y E a lhhe re , a nd , t o as ma l l e x ten t , b y E an red a nd L eof thegn . I tc an b e n o t iced t h a t E a lhhe re , who u se s o n h i s r eve r se d i e s t h e r ound L , v i r tua l ly c onf ine s h i s wo rk t o c o in s b ea r ing t h es ma l lc r o s so rt h ee v ang e l i s t i cc r o s s ; t h e re i so ne d i ew i th t h ep a s s i on c r o s s . Once o ne b eg in s t o a pp rec ia te s u ch d iv i s ion s , a nd t h e i r d if e rence i n s i ze , f u r the r q ue s t ion s a r i se . A r e t h ey , d u r ing t h e r e ign , e ach o n ly p a r t o f l onge r d iv i s ion s , b eg inn ing i n t h e t ime o f E an red a nd c on t inu ing t h roughou t t h e d u ra t ion o ft h e c o inage ? S hou ld o ne a bandon t h e p o ten t ia l t ypo logy d ev i s ed f o r t h el a s ty ea r so fE an red ' sr e ign a nd e xam ine t h a t ma te r ia la ga in f o rt h e a n tec eden t s o f e a ch s e c t ion ? I st h e ma te r ia l o f Redwu lf ss ho r t u su rpa t ion a l so c apab le o f s e pa ra t ion ? And t h a t o f O sbe rh t ? How d oe s t h e e p i scopa l c o inage r e la te t o t h e r ega l ? I ti sp o s s ib le t op i ck o u t f r om t h e i sue s o ft h e e a r ly r e ign m any o ft h e c o in s b y F o r th rxd f o r E an red , s t ruck f r om d i e s o fa n i nd iv idua l s t y le , a nd t o s e e t h em a s t h e f o re runne r s o f t ho se who se o bve r se l e gend h a s t h e i nve r ted L . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t oi d en t if y c o in sb y Monne , F o r th rxd , a nd o the r s wh ich h ave t h eo bve r se p ecu l ia r i ty o f E an red ' s i n i t ia l i n t h e r eve r se p o s i t ion , e ven when t h e l e gend i s r e t rog r ade ; t h e se c o in s may b e s e en a st h e a n teceden t s o ft h e E d l i r ed i sue s . T he p redece s so r o f E a lhhe re m ay b e A lda te s who , l i ke E a lhhe re , wo rk s v i r tua l ly i ndependen t ly o ft h e o the r moneye r s a nd , w i th ar ound L i nh i s own n am e , u s e s o n ly t h e s ma l l c r o s s a nd e v ang e l i s t i c c r o s s mo t if s . Among E an red ' s r ema in ing c o in s a r e i sue s f o r Monne , Wu lf rxd , a nd o the r s wh ich , a pa r t f r om Monn e ' s a c tua l d i e l ink s , d emon s t ra te s t y l i s t ic a f in i t ie sw i th t h eE d i l r ed c o inage . Many moneye r s wo rk ing i n t h e E d i l r ed d iv i s ion h ave d i e l ink s d raw ing t h em i n to a s e c t ion o f c o inage f o r Redwu lf wh i ch i s i t s e lf h eav i ly d i e l inked . Wende lbeo rh t a l one u s e s h i s d i s t inc t ive ' i nve r ted L ' r eve r se s f o r t h e u su rpe r w i th o bve r se s s p e l l ing t h e n ame a s REDVVLF r a the r t h an REDVLF . F o r th r a ed a nd Monne , w i th r e t rog rade o bve r se s o n wh ich t h e l e t te r s o f Redwu lf s n ame a r e t h em se lve s r eve r sed , may b e s e en t o c on t inue f r om t h e E d l i r ed d iv i s ion ; Monne ' s r eve r se s a ga in h ave t h e r eve r sed E . E a lhhe re , wo rk ing a l one l i ke Wende lbeo rh t , s t r ike s f o r Redwu lf a nd r e -u se s ar eve r se f r om t h e A ed i l r ed d iv i s ion . I ti sc l e a r t h a t t h e re i s as t rong mea su re o fc on t inu i ty t h rough t h e v a r iou s r e ign s f o r e a ch s t rand o ft h ec o inage . E xam ina t ion o f t h i s g roup iden t i ty c anno t f a i l t o d r aw a t ten t ion t o t h e p o s i t ion w i th in t h e who le o ft h e of ic ia l wo rk o f Athe l red ' s moneye r E a rdwu lf . H e i nva r iab ly u s e s t h e b a s ic E d i l r ed f o rm b u t d oe s h e r e a l ly o n ly s t r ike d u r ing t h e k ing ' s s e cond r e ign a s L yon h a s p o s tu la ted ? I ft h a t i ss o , h i s a s soc ia t ion w i th Wu lf rxd mu s t o ccu r i n t h e l a te r p e r iod . B u t Wu lf rxd , who i sk nown f o r t h e r e ign o fE an red , i so bv iou s ly o n t h e s c ene f a i r ly e a r ly a nd h a s b een t hough t t o h ave e nded h i s c a ree r a s ar ega l moneye r d u r ing " E the l red ' s f i r s t r e ign . H e d oe s 16
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n o t s t r ike f o r Redwu lf a ny mo re t h an E a rdwu lf d oe s . Doe s t h e e v idence a f o rd a ny e xp lana t ion f o r s ome moneye r s f a i l ing t o wo rk f o r t h e u su rpe r ? I s t h e a s soc ia t ion b e tween E a rdwu lf a nd Wu lf r a zd mo re a ppa ren t t h an r e a l ? I s t h e e v idence o f t h e i r s h a r ing , o n mo re t h an o ne o cca s ion , t h e s ame o bve r se s t o b e e xp la ined b y r e cogn iz ing t h a t E a rdwu lf c ou ld h ave b een u s ing , a t al a te s t age , l e f t -ove r d i e s wh ich w e re o r ig ina l ly emp loyed b y Wu lf rxd ? Doe s t h ev e ry p uzz le o ft h i s ma t te r n o t r a i se d oub t s a bou t t h e v a l id i ty o ft h e g ene r a l ly a c cep ted t h eo ry t h a t mo s t moneye r s e nded t h e i r c a ree r s , s udden ly , a tt h e t ime o f Redwu lf ? Cou ld t h e e nd o f wo rk b y s e ve ra l of i c ia l s h ave o ccu r red mo re g radua l ly d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f Athe l red ' ss e cond r e ign ? A s o ne b eg in s t o c on s ide r t h e a r rangemen t o f t h e ma te r ia l w i th in e a ch d iv i s ion , o ne c an a l so n o te r e la t ion sh ip sw i th t h ee p i scopa lc o inage . A l though r e cogn i t ion t h a t t h e re a r e s e ve ra l c oncu r ren t s e c t ion s o fc o inage h a s c u t s ho r t t h e e a r ly a t temp t t o d e te rm ine at ypo logy f o r as i ng le s t ream o fr ega l a nd e p i scopa li sue s , t h eu s e o f mo t if s mu s ts t i l lb et a ken i n to a c coun t . Wi th in t h e f ou r p r inc ipa l d iv i s ion s a l ready o u t l ined , work f o r E an red p o r t ray s , i n t h e m a in , t h e s ma l l c r o s s w i th s ome e xamp le s o f t h e o the r c ro s s f o rm s ; t h e s e cu la r mo t if s a r e c l ea r ly i n as ub s id ia ry p o s i t ion . Wo rk f o r Redwu lf i se s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame ( s ee F ig .1 ) . Wi th in t h e who le o ft h i s c o inage f o r ' E the l red , b o th s t ra in s o f s ymbo l i sm a r e emp loyed w i th a lmo s t e qua l empha s i s ; n eve r the le s s , s ome moneye r s u s e o n ly t h e c ro s s f o rm s wh i le o the r s , i n c lud ing E a rdwu lf , u s e t hem a s w e l l a st h e s e cu la rp e l l e t , r o s e t t e o fp e l l e t s a nd t h ep e l l e t in -annu l e t . May Redwu lf s c o inage b e t a ken a se v idence o ft h e c ro s s mo t if s c on t inu ing t od om ina te u n t i l t h a t t ime , s o t h a t t h e s e cu la r s ymbo l s o n / E the l red ' sc o in s i nd ica te t he a t t r ibu t ion o f t h e se i sue st oh i s s e cond r e ign ? T he s h ee rv o lume o f ma te r ia li ss u ch t h a t o ne f e e l s j u s t if i ed i n a f i rm ing t h a t s u ch a p a t te rn o f i sue c ou ld b e a c cep ted , e ven i fi t i mp l ie s t h a t s ome moneye r s , s u ch a sE an red , F o r th rxd a nd Monne , wo rked o n f o r awh i le a f te rt h eu su rpa t ion w a so ve ra nd ' E the l red w a sr e s to red t op owe r . Wi th in e a ch d iv i s ion , t h e ref o re , o ne c an b eg in t o s o r t t h e ma te r ia l f o r e a ch r e ign , a nd w i th in e a ch r e ign f o re ach moneye r . I ti sh e re , i nt h ed iv i s iona l c on tex t , t h a t o ne i sc on ten t a t t h i s s t age t o s e e a n u nb roken i n s ta lmen t o f a moneye r ' s wo rk . T he f i r s t p rov i so o ne wou ld make i st h a t , f o r e a ch man , h i s c o in s s hou ld b e a r ranged i n as p ec if i c o rde r a c co rd ing t o mo t if , s o t h a t , f o r i n s tance , t ho se w i th t h e e v ang e l i s t i cc r o s so rp a s s i on c r o s s s hou ld f o l low t h es ma l lc r o s s . Aga in , o ne wou ld a rgue i n f a vou r o fd i s t ingu i sh ing moneye r s who se o u tpu t a tt h e t ime i sp ro l if i c f r om t ho se who se wo rk t h e re i so n as ma l le r s c a le a nd r e co rd ing c o in s o f t h e m a jo ro f ic ia l ss e pa r a te ly . T he f i r s t d iv i s ion ' s wo rk f o r E an red i st h a t o f Monne , B ro the r , a nd F o r th r a zd a s ma jo r moneye r s a nd o f ` Gadu te s ' , B ad ig i l s , F u lcno th a nd Od i lo a s m ino r moneye r s . T he s u cceed ing wo rk f o r ' E the l red ( a s E d i l r ed ) i n c lude s t h a t o fs ome n ew men : E an rxd , E a rdwu lf a nd L eof thegn t oge the r w i th Monne a nd Wende l b eo rh t a r e t h e ma jo r of i c ia l s ; E a lhhe re , B ro the r , F o r th r a ed , Wu lf rxd a nd Wih t rxd a r e h e re t h e m ino r o ne s . T he s t anda rd r ange o f mo t if s i sl im i ted t o t h e c ro s s f o rm s b u t t he r ende r ing o f ' E the l red ' sn ame e s tab l i she s t h e a t t r ibu t ion t o t h i s d iv i s ion o fL eof thegn ' s c o in s w i th t h e ' h ound ' r eve r se . Hun laf ss i ng le r eve r se w i th t h e r o s e t t e mo t if may w e l l b e c on s ide red i nt h i s c on tex t , t oo , i ns p i te o ft h e g ene ra l l im i ta t ion o f mo t if s a tt h i s p e r iod i fi ti sa c cep ted t h a t t h e s e cu la r r o se t te 17
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d id h ave r ega l c onno ta t ion s ; t h e moneye r may h ave d e l ibe ra te ly s e lec ted t h i s s ymbo l o n t h e o cca s ion o f h i s wo rk ing e xcep t iona l ly w i th t h e r ega l t e am , i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e moneye r E an rxd . I n t h i s i n s tance , a t t r ibu t ion t o t h e f i r s t r e ign may b es e en t od epend o n t h e s ma l l c ro s s o ft h eo bve r se . A s soc ia t ion s wh ich o ccu r b e tween E an r a zd p a i r ed w i th L eof thegn , Wende lbeä rh t , a nd Wih t r z ed a nd b e tween F o r th rxd p a i red w i th L eof thegn , Monne , a nd Wende lbeo rh t c an b e c l ea r ly s e en i nv a r iou s o the ri n s tance so fs h a red o bve r se s . E a lhhe re c an a l so b es e en wo rk ing i n c on junc t ion w i th B ro the r ; Wu lf rxd s h a re s w i th b o th E a rdwu lf a nd Monne . S omewha t mo re e n igma t ic a r e t h e i n s tance s o fo bve r se s , r egu la r ly u s ed b y B ro the r o n t h e o ne h and a nd b y E a rdwu lf a nd Wu lf rxd o n t h e o the r , wh ich a r e emp loyed a l so i nc o mb ina t ion w i th an umbe ro fi n f e r io rd i e sp u rpo r t ing t ob e f o r o the r moneye r s : L eof thegn a nd t h e e p i scopa l of i c ia l , " E the lwea rd , a r e t wo o f t ho se f o r whom B ro the r ' s o bve r se i sr e -u sed . S uch s ub s tanda rd c o in s s hou ld , o ne s ugge s t s , b er eg i s te red a tt h ee nd o ft h i sp a r to fi z E the l red ' sc o inage . F o r th rxd a nd Monne , w i th Hun laf , a r e t ho se who e s tab l i sh d ef in i te l i nk s o n t o t h e c o inage f o r Redwu lf , whe re t h e i r c o in s a r e c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th wo rk b y B ro the r , E an rxd , a nd an ew of i c ia l , Cu thbeo rh t . U se o ft h e s e cu la r mo t if s a s s ign s s ome wo rk b y E an rxd , L eof thegn , Wu lf ra c c l , a nd Wih t rxd t o i E the l r ed ' s s e cond r e ign a sm ino r moneye r s , a nd b y E a rdwu lf a nd Monne e a ch i n am a jo rc apac i ty . Al i nk f r om Redwu lf b ack t o' E the l red may b e s e en t o o ccu r i n Monne ' s wo rk . A s soc ia t ion s c an b e s e en b e tween Monne a nd Wu lf rxd a nd b e tween Wu lf rxd a nd E a rdwu lf . T he re i sn o d oub t t h a t a t t h i s p o in tE a rdwu lf i sn o tj u s t p ro l if i cb u ti sa l so s y s tema t ic . H i s wo rk c an b ea r ranged a sp r inc ipa l i sue s , w i th r o s e t t e o rp e l l e t in -annu l e t , t oge the r w i th p r ima ry v a r ie t ie s whe re s u ch o bve r se s a r e c omb ined w i th r eve r se s i n t h e c r o s s t r ad i t ion a nd s e conda ry v a r ie t ie s whe re c r o s s o bve r se s a ppea r i nc on junc t ion w i th t h e s o -ca l led s e cu la r r eve r se s . T he re i sa l so a s ma l l b u t t i gh t ly d i e l inked g roup o f c o in s f o r E a rdwu lf , i na no the r s t y le , wh ich s hou ld b e s e pa ra ted f r om t h e r e s t ; i tc anno t b e i d en t if i ed a s who l ly i r regu la r , b u t may w e l lb el a te i n em i s s ion . T he re a r en o r e co rded l i nk sw i th t h ec o inage o fO sbe rh t . T h i s d iv i s ion o ft h e r ega l wo rk i sb y f a r t h e l a rge s ti nP ha se I a nd may p e rhap s b e d eemed t o r ep re sen t t h e p roduc t s o fs e ve ra l wo rk shop s . I t may b e p o s s ib le a t s ome l a te rs t age t oa na ly se f u r the r t h ev a r iou s s t y l i s t ic s t ra in sa nd t oe s tab l i sh s ome s ub -d iv i s ion s . D eve lop ing i np a ra l le l w i th t h i s p r inc ipa l p a r t o ft h e k ing ' s c o inage i s ap o r t ion o f t h e a r chb i shop ' s c o inage . Athe lwea rd i st h e o n ly o ne o fa l t h e moneye r s who s t a r ted h i s c a ree r b ef o re t h e b eg inn ing o fP ha se I ; h e i sl i ke ly t o h ave b een wo rk ing f o r Wigmund d u r ing t h e l a s t y ea r s o fE an red ' s r e ign . T h i s moneye r i nva r iab ly h a s t h e s ma l l c r o s s mo t if o n h i s d i e s b u t h e s p e l l s Wigmund ' s t i le i n t wo w ay s , e i the r a s AREP ( wh ich c on t inue s t h e r ende r ing u sed f o r E anba ld ) o r a sI REP . I ts e em s r e a sonab le t o i d en t if y t h e f o rme r a si nd ica t ive o f Wigmund ' s e a r ly i sue s a nd t o a s s ign t h e r e levan t c o in s t o t h e p e r iod c . 837-4 1 . T he i sue s w i th I REP mu s t s u re ly f o l low a tt h e t ime o f Athe l red ' s f i r s t r e ign . A t t h a t s t age , Hun laf , who a l so s how s t h e t i le a sI REP ( o r I R ) , mu s t b eg in , w i th h i s s ma l lc r o s sc o in s ; h i s r o s e t t ei sue s may b el a te r , i na c co rdance w i th g ene ra lp rac t ice . One mu s t a dm i t t h a t t h e re i sn o o ve r t e v idence o f l E the lwea rd h av ing a ny d i rec t a s soc ia t ion w i th t h i s p a r t o ft h e g roup a nd t h e a t t r ibu t ion i sb a sed p r ima r i ly o n ma tch ing s e n io r i ty w i th ma jo r p roduc t ion . T he s i tua t ion i sd if e ren t i nr e spec t 18
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o f Hun laf who h a sb een s e en t ot i e i nh e re w i th t h e r ega l c o inage . F o r t h e s a ke o f c omp le tene s s , o ne s hou ld r e co rd t h a t t wo s p ec imen s ( one i n t h e Me r sey s ide c o l lec t ion 2 8 a nd t h e o the r i nt h e L yon c o l lec t ion ) p u rpo r t ing t o b e f o r / E the l red i n t h i s g roup a nd s t ruck b y a no the r e p i scopa l moneye r , Athe lhe lm ( EDEL HEL M ) , h ave b o th b een s hown t ob en ine teen th -cen tu ry f o rg e r i e sc a s ti nl e ad a nd b i smu th .2 9 T he re i s n ow n o a u then t ic e v idence o f l E the lhe lm h av ing a ny c onnec t ion w i th t h i ss e c t ion o ft h e wo rk . One c an p e rhap s e n la rge mo re s w if t ly o n t h e e a r ly s c ope o ft h e s ma l le r s e cond a nd t h i rd d iv i s ion s . I n t h e s e cond s e c t ion , f o r E an red ' s r e ign F o r th r a 2d a nd B ro the r p roduce ma jo r wo rk ; t h e re a r e l e s s e r c on t r ibu t ion s b y ` Gadu te s ' , Od i lo , Monne , a nd Wu lf r a 2d . F o r ' E the l red , F o r th rxd a nd t h e moneye r E an rxd a r e p re -em inen t d u r ing h i s f i r s t r e ign ; o n al e s se r s c a le i st h e wo rk o fB ro the r , Cynemund , E a lhhe re , L eof thegn , Monne , Wende lbeo rh t , a nd Wu lf rxd . A s soc ia t ion s c an b e s e en b e tween E an rxd a nd Wende lbeo rh t , F o r th rxd a nd L eof thegn a nd — in a t r ip le l i a i son —be tween F o r th r a 2d , B ro the r , a nd Monne . B o th F o r th r a 2d a nd Wu lf rxd u se f o r n o rma l c o in s o bve r se s wh ich a r e t h en p a i red w i th o the r r eve r se s o fi n f e r io r wo rkman sh ip c u ti nt h en ame so fo the r moneye r s , i n c lud ing L eof thegn ; ad i ew i th Od i lo ' sn ame f o rm s ac ruc ia l l i nk w i th Redwu lf i n t h e t h i rd d iv i s ion . Wende lbeo rh t a l one s t r ike s f o r Redwu lf . T he u s e o fs e cu la r mo t if s i d en t if i e s i sue s made f o r / E the l red b y L eof thegn , Monne , a nd Wu lf rxd a s m ino r moneye r s wh i le F o r th rxd a nd E an rxd a r e a ga in p ro l if i c . T he re a r e t h en t wo f u r the re xamp le s o ft h ree moneye r s s h a r ing o ne o bve r se : i n wo rk b y E an rxd , F o r th rxd , a nd Wu lf r a 2d o n t h e o ne h and a nd b y E an r a 2d , Monne , a nd Wu lf rxd o n t h e o the r . Aga in , t h e re a r e n o r e co rded l i nk s w i th wo rk f o r O sbe rh t . I t mu s t b e s ugge s ted t h a t l E the lhe lm ' s wo rk f o r Wigmund d u r ing i E the l red ' s r e ign s hou ld b e i n c luded i nt h i s d iv i s ion . T he man s t and s a pa r t f r om h i s e p i scopa l c o l league s i n t h a t h e n eve r a c co rd s t he a r chb i shop a ny f o rm o ft i le : h i s o bve r se s r e co rd o n ly t h e n ame . I n t h e r ende r ing o fh i s own n ame , " E the lhe lm i nva r iab ly h a s b o th L s i nve r ted . Mo reove r , w i th h i s r o s e t t ei sue s ( s ma l lc r o s s / r o s e t t ev a r ie t ie s ) ap a ra l le l may b eo b se rved w i th p rac t ic ei n t h e r ega l wo rk : L eof thegn h a s a n i n s tance o f o ne r o s e t t e r eve r se c o mb ined w i th f ou rs ma l lc r o s so bve r se s ; s od oe sJ E the lhe lm . T he re i sn o e v idence o fe p i scopa l c o inage i n t h e t h i rd d iv i s ion . Monne i st h e m a jo r moneye r a tt h e e nd o fE an red ' s r e ign a nd t h e re a r e m ino r c on t r ibu t ion s b y Wu lf rxd , F o r th rxd , F u lcno th , a nd B ad ig i l s , a l o f who se c o in s h ave t h e p ecu l ia r i ty o f t h e r eve r sed E f o r E an red ' s i n i t ia l . F o r Athe l red ' s f i r s t r e ign , F o r th rxd i sp ro l if i c ; Monne , E an rxd , a nd Cynemund wo rk i n am ino r c apac i ty . F o r th rxd s h a re s o bve r se sw i th Monne a nd w i th E an r a ed ; i nt h e l a t te r i n s tance , t h e c o mmon d i e i sa l so u s ed w i th o ne o fi n f e r io r q ua l i ty who se l e gend may a t temp t t h e k ing ' s n ame . B o th F o r th rxd a nd Monne h ave r eve r se s wh ich a r e r e -u sed f o r R edwu lf . C ynemund ' s d i e s a r e a be r ran t a nd , o n t h e o bve r se , h ave as c a t te r o fp e l le t s i n t h e f i e ld ; t h i s q u i rk i ss e en a ga in o n a n o bve r se f o r Redwu lf wh ich , l i ke t ho s e o f ! E the l red wh ich h ave a l r eady b een r ema rked , i s u s ed i n c omb ina t ion w i th r eve r se s o f i n f e r io r q ua l i ty ; i n t h i s i n s tance , o ne o f t h e n ame s i nvo lved i s
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SCBI 2 9 , n o .113 .
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S ee P ine a nd Wa r ren ( 1 983 ) .
PHASES AND GRO UPS
NERRED , wh ich c an o n ly b e a n e cho o f HERRED f r om P ha se I .T he se c o in s c anno t b e a c cep ted a s who l ly r egu la r . T he l i nk t h rough o ne o ft wo Od i lo d i e s t o t h e c ompa rab le i sue s f o r ' E the l r ed i d en t if i e s t h e p o in t a t wh ich a l s uch c o in s , d e r ived f r om a l t h ree d iv i s ion s , mu s t h ave b een s t ruck . I n t h e c ou r se o fr e cen t wo rk o n t h e s e r ie s t h e n o rma l , o f ic ia l c o in s p roduced w i th t h e r e levan t o bve r se s h ave e a rned t h e n i ckname o f' a nce s to r s ' a nd t ho se w i th t h e i n f e r io r r eve r se s h ave b een d ubbed t h e ' d e scendan t s ' . IN WARD-POINT ING LETTERS
I nt h i s t h i rd d iv i s ion , Athe l red ' s c o in s w i th t h e s e cu l a r mo t if sa r ev e ry f ew , s t ruck b yE an r a zd , F o r th rxd , Wu lf r a zd a nd Monne . P agan 3°h a si mp l ied t h a t t h e re w a s a b reak i n t h e s e cond re ign c o inage , b ef o re t h e o ccu r rence o f i sue s wh ich l i nk t h rough t o t h e r e ign o fO sbe rh t . I n t h i s d iv i s ion , i fn owhe re e l se , t he re i ss ome e v idence o fa n i n te rva l i nt h e c ou r se o fp roduc t ion .J udg ing b y t h e u se o f mo t if , mo s t o ft h e c o in s s t ruck b y Wu lf s ige m igh t h ave b e en a s s igned t o Athe l red ' s f i r s t r e ign , e s pec ia l ly a sh e t w ice u s e s o bve r se s u s ed a l so b y F o r th rxd . Y e t t h e r e i s a no the r f a c to r t o b e t a ken i n to a c coun t . T he r eve r s e d i e s w i th t h e moneye r ' s n ame a r e c u t s o t h a t t h e l e t te r s p o in t i nwa rd t o t h e c en t re : t h e n ame , t hough g o ing c l ock -w i se r ound t h e f l an , h a s , i n e f ec t , t o b e r e ad a s t hough i tw e re r e t rog r ade . T h i s f e a tu re o f t h e r eve r se o ccu r s a l so o n t h e c o in s o f Monne a nd E anwu lf ( i n a s soc ia t ion ) o n a l o f wh ich t h e s ma l lc r o s si sd ep ic ted . T he se i sue s a r e c e r ta in ly l a te i n ' E the l red ' s r e ign f o r t h ey f o rm a c onnec t ion w i th t h e s ame moneye r s ' c o inage f o r O sbe rh t . Two s t age s o f p roduc t ion d u r ing t h e s e cond r e ign s hou ld t h e r ef o re b e r e cogn ized h e re , a nd wo rk b y Wu lf s ige , Monne , a nd E anwu lf a t t r ibu ted t ot h es e cond . Monne a nd E anwu lf a r e t h e o n ly t wo o fO sbe rh t ' s f ew moneye r s who wo rk t oge the r d u r ing h i s r e ign . B y t h i s t ime , b o th t h e i r r eve r se s a nd t h e i r o bve r se s a r e c u t w i th t h e i nwa rd -po in t ing l e t te r s : t h ey a r e o fc o mpa ra t ive ly p oo r s t y le w i th s e ve ra l a be r ra t ion s o f s p e l l ing . T he r e la t ive ly n ew p rac t ice i n d i e cu t t ing i s o b se rved a l so f o r a l t h e d i e s u s ed b y O sbe rh t ' s of i c ia l , ' E the lhe lm . I t wou ld s e em t h a t t h e e r s twh i le e p i scopa l moneye r c on t inued t o work i n t h e s e cond d iv i s ion b u t o b ta ined h i s d i e s i nt h e r ega l wo rk shop . H i s wo rk t h e re i s mo re t h an al i t t le c rude . Winebeo rh t ' s c o in s f o r O sbe rh t a l so s how t h e n ew d i rec t ion i n t h e l e t te r ing : i ts e em s t h a t h i s c o in s , o fb e t te r q ua l i ty t h an t h e r e s t , may h ave c ome f r om t h ep r inc ipa lr ega l work shop so ft h ef i r s td iv i s ion . B y t h i s t ime — if n o t e a r l ie r— the e p i scopa l i sue s f o r Wu l fhe re b y h i s s o le moneye r Wu lf rxd may h ave b een s t ruck q u i te i ndependen t ly o ft h e m a in r ega l c en t re . One i sr em inded t h a tt h er e la t ive d a te sf o rO sbe rh ta nd Wu l fhe r es t i l lh ave t o b e d e te rm ined , f o r i ft h e p auc i ty o ft h e r ega l c o inage s ugge s t s t h a t i sue s f o r O sbe rh t c e a sed w i th in t wo o r t h ree y ea r s o fh i s a c ce s s ion ( c . 850 ) , o ne mu s t s t i l l d eba te t h e l i ke l ihood o f Wu l fhe re h av ing b een i n ap o s i t ion t o a u tho r ize c o inage much b ef o re h e r e ce ived t h e p a l l ium i n 8 54 . One wou ld i mag ine t h a t h e wou ld n o t c on t inue t o make i sue s o nce t h e r ega l c o inage h ad c o l lap sed . A t t h e r i sk o f i mp ly ing t h a t t h e a r chb i shop s ' s r e cep t ion o f t h e p a l l ium w a s u ndu ly d e layed ( p e rhap sb ecau se o ft h ep o l i t ica l s i tua t ion i n No r thumb r ia ? ) o ne wou ld g oa sf a ra s t o s ugge s t t h a t Wu l fhe re ' s c o in s s t a r ted i n— if t h ey d o n o t a l b e long t o— the l a s t 3°
P agan ( 1 973 ) , 9 .
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E . J . E . P IR IE
y ea r o r s oo f" E the l r ed ' s r e ign . I ne f ec t , Wu lf rxd w a s wo rk ing f o rt h e a r chb i shop wh i le E a rdwu lf w a s s t i l l wo rk ing f o r " E the l red . T he e v idence o n wh ich t h i s i d ea may b e b a sed i st h e r ema rkab le l a ck o fi nve r s ion i n t h e l e t te r ing o f Wu l fhe re ' s c o in s . I fo ne i sl ook ing f o r p a ra l le l s b e tween t h e r ega l a nd e p i scopa l c o inage t h e r e i s ,o n Wu lf rxd ' s d i e s f o r Wu l fhe re , n o s i gn o ft h e i nwa rd -po in t ing l e gend s wh ich a ppea r o n O sbe rh t ' s c o in s . T he re a r e a be r ra t ion s o fs p e l l ing o n t h e a r chb i shop ' s d i e s : t h e t i le i sr ende red a s ABED : a t t h e mo s t , t h e re a r e t wo i n s tance s o f a t r iangu la r A wh ich o ne c ou ld i d en t if y i n a n i nve r ted p o s i t ion . T he wo rk mu s t h ave a tl e a s t s t a r ted b ef o re t h e re w a s a ny q ue s t ion o fc hang ing t h e a ppea rance o f t h e l e gend s a nd , i n a s much a s s ome o f i tw a s p robab ly c on tempo ra ry w i th O sbe rh t ' s c o inage , t h ea r chb i shop c on se rva t ive ly ma in ta ined t h eo ld f o rm . Du r ing t h e v e ry f ew y ea r s t h a t O sbe rh t ' s c o inage c an h ave l a s ted , t h e r ega l wo rk o ft h e se t h r ee d i v i s ion s w a s q u i te d i s t inc t , w i th d if e r en t moneye r s i ne a ch . I tw a s n o t e n t i re ly s oi nt h e t ime o f' E the l red when s e ve ra l moneye r s wo rked i n mo re t h an o ne o ft h e d iv i s ion s . T he t r an sf e r o f af ew r eve r se s f r om o ne s e c t ion t o a no the r c r ea te s an umbe r o fl i nk s b e tween t h e wo rk shop s— a n umbe r wh ich i s s ma l li nc o mpa r i son w i th t h ee x ten t o fd i e l ink ing w i th in t h ei nd iv idua ld iv i s ion . B u t o ne mu s t n o t i ce t h a t t h e re a r e n o l i nk s a ta l b e tween t h e se t h ree p a r t s , a l ready d e ta i led , a nd t h e c o inage i d en t if i ed b y t h e s p e l l ing o ft h e k ing ' s n ame a s A ed i l r ed . T h i s s ma l l s e c t ion o ft h e r ega l c o inage mu s t b e r ega rded a ss e pa ra te , i n s p i te o ft h e m idd le I .I th a s a l ready b een p ropo sed t h a t E a lhhe re , f o r Athe l red , h e re s u cceeded E an red ' s moneye r A lda te s . T he moneye r s E an rxd a nd L eof thegn a l so c on t r ibu te t o Athe l red ' s c r o s s i sue s . E a lhhe re a l one wo rk s f o r Redwu lf , t hen E an rxd a nd L eof thegn a ppea r a ga in f o r ' E the l red w i th p e l l e ta nd r o s e t t ei sue s . I ti s a tt h i s p o in t t h a t s ome o ft h e o bve r se s , u s ed p r inc ipa l ly b y E an rxd , b u t s h a red w i th L eof thegn , r ende r t h e n ame a s A e i l r ed . T he l i nk s wh ich E an rxd a nd L eof thegn f o rm b e twe en t h i s g roup a nd a no the r a r e w i th t h e c o inage wh ich u se s t h eE d e l r ed v e r s ion f o rt h er oya ln ame . b ) THE EDELRED GROUP T he s e c t ion o f Athe l red ' s of i c ia l c o inage wh ich r ema in s t o b e d i scu s sed i n mo re d e ta i l i st h a t wh ich d oe s n o t u s e t h e l e t te r Ii nt h e k ing ' sn ame . T he r e levan t c o in s f o rm p a r t o f as ma l l b u t d i s t inc t g roup o fi sue s wh ich s t a r t i n t h e l a s t y ea r s o f E an red ' s r e ign . A t t h a t t ime , Monne a nd Wih t rxd , a s soc ia ted i n t h e u s e o f a c o mmon o bve r se d i e , p roduce c o in s who se r eve r se s p rov ide d i rec t l i nk s w i th t h e s ub sequen t i sue s . I ti sh e re t h a t s ome o f Wih t rxd ' s p e r sona l d i e s h ave h i s n ame r ende red i nr une s ; s o , t oo , d o s ome o fB ro the r ' s d i e s f o r E an red . B ro the r i sh e re b r ief ly a s soc i a ted w i th F o r th rxd ; s ome o ft h e i r d i e sh ave t wo f u r the r p ecu l ia r i t ie s : t h e k ing ' s n ame i sr ende red a s EAHRED a nd t h e l e t te r ing , p a r t icu la r ly o n r eve r se s , i sa do rned w i th k nob s . T he l im i ted r ange o f t h e e a r ly ma te r ia l i n t h i s g roup make s i td if i cu l t t o d e te rm ine s ub -d iv i s ion s wh ich may e a ch b e t h e a n teceden t s o fo ne o ft h e s e c t ion s mo re c l ea r ly s e en i n wo rk f o r Athe l red . I nt h i s i n s tance , t h e f ew e xamp le s o ft h e f o rma l s p e l l ing AEDELRED may b e ama lgama ted w i th t h e mo re u sua l EDELRED ; t h e re i s ,h oweve r , an o t i n con s ide rab le b ody o f wo rk o n wh ich t h e n ame a ppea r s a s EDFLRED : s ome t wen ty s ix o bve r se s a r e k nown , u s ed b y B ro the r , E an rxd , F o r th r a zd , Monne , a nd Wih t rxd i n c on junc t ion w i th o ve r 1 2 1
E . J . E . P IR IE
e i gh ty r eve r se s . T h i s p ecu l ia r f o rm mu s t h ave b een c u t d e l ibe ra te ly a nd n o t , a s o ne m igh t a tf i r s ti mag ine , a st h e r e su l t o f ac a re le s s d i e -cu t te r om i t t ing t h el owe s t b a r f r om ac en t r a l Eo n o n ly o ne o r t wo d i e s . One s hou ld , t h e ref o re , s e pa ra te t h e r e levan t c o in s f r om t h e o the r s , e ven a so ne n o te s t h a t Monne ' s e a r ly d i e s a ppea r a ga in o n t h eE d e l r ed wo rk wh i le Wih t rxd ' so ccu rw i th b o th E d e l r ed a nd E th f l r ed . T he s t anda rd r ange o f mo t if s i s ,i ne ach s e c t ion , s upp lemen ted b y o the r s , b o th r e l ig iou s a nd s e cu la r . I ti si nt h e Et hf l r ed s e c t ion t h a t t h e r e a ppea r s mo s t o f ten t h e mo t if made u p o f p e l le t in annu le t s u r rounded b y p e l le t s ; i t i s u s ed a s a t ype -mo t if b y Wih t r a 2d a nd o n v a r ie t ie s b y E an rxd , Monne , a nd F or th rxd . F o r th rxd i st h e m a jo r moneye r i n t h i s b lock . I ti si n t h e [ A ]Ed e l r ed s e c t ion t h a t L eof thegn emp loy s a l t h e s p ec ia l d e s ign s f o r wh i ch h eh a sb een g iven c r ed i t , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e h ound . L eof thegn a nd Monne a r e h e re t h e p r inc ipa l moneye r s : i n ,o ne i n s tance t h ey a r ea s soc ia ted w i th at h i rd m an , Od i lo , who m ake s o n ly ab r ief a ppe a rance . L eof thegn i sa l so a s soc i a ted w i th E an r a 2d a nd i ti sf r om h e re t h a tt h e i rr eve r se sl i nk t ot h eA e [d ] i l r ed wo rk . L eof thegn i sa l so a s soc ia ted w i th Coen r a ed who n o rma l ly wo rk s f o r Wigmund b u t who a l so u s e s o ne o f L eof thegn ' s o bve r se s t o s t r ike f o r ' E the l red . I n t h i s i n s tance , C oen rxd ' s r eve r se l i nk s b ack t o ab lock o f h i s e p i scopa l wo rk . I th a s a l ready b een n o ted t h a t , a l one among Wigmund ' s moneye r s , C oen r a zd u s e s n o t o n ly t h e s t anda rd mo t if s b u t o ne o r t wo o the r s a sw e l l i na n a t temp t t o emu la te L eof thegn . I na t t r ibu t ing a l C oen r a ed ' s e p i scopa l i sue s t ot h i s g roup , a tt h i s s t age o ft h er e sea rch , o ne mu s t make t h ep rov i so t h a ti tm ay s ub sequen t ly b ep o s s ib le t o s e pa ra te s ome wh ich s hou ld b e mo re c o r rec t ly a s s igned e l s ewhe re . T he re a r e n o d i rec t r eve r se l ink s b e tween Athe l red ' s c o inage h e re a nd t h a t f o r Redwu lf , b u t C oen rxd s t r ike s f o r t h e u su rpe r : h i s d i e s s p e l l t h e n ame REDVVLF . Hw a 2 tno th ' s s i ng le o bve r se h a s t h e s ame s p e l l ing a nd i so ft h e s ame s t y le o f d i e -cu t t ing , a s a r e h i s t h ree r eve r se s . A v a r ia t ion o n t h e t h eme o f ' a nce s to r s a nd d e scendan t s '— in t h e b ackground a tt h e t ime o f Redwu lf —may b e s e en i n wo rk wh ich a ppea r s t o emana te f r om Wih t rxd . Ar eve r se i nt h e n ame o f ` E rw inne ' , wh ich h a s a s mo t if ac ro s s c ompo sed e xcep t iona l ly o fe i gh t p e l le t s , i s k nown i nc on junc t ion w i th f ou r o bve r se s : o ne f o r E an red a nd t wo f o r " E the l red h ave b een u s ed h e re n o rma l ly b y Wih t rxd ; af ou r th i sb o r rowed ( p r e sumab ly ) f r om J E the lwea rd ' s wo rk f o r Wigmund . A l though o ne i s p repa red t o r e cogn ize t h e i n c lu s ion o f as ma l l p a r t o f Redwu lf swo rk , t h e t o ta l ma te r ia l f o r / E the l r ed i ss t i l l t oo l im i ted f o r o ne t o b e s u re t h a t t h e wo rk p roduced i nt h i s g roup f o l low s t h e s ame p a t te rn t h a t h a s b een i d en t if i ed f o r t h e E d i l r ed d iv i s ion s . No d i s t inc t ion h a s a sy e t b een made b e tween t he i sue s o f " E the l red ' s f i r s t r e ign a nd t ho s e o f t h e s e cond . One c an n o te , h oweve r , t h a t Monne a l one move s t wo r eve r se d i e s b e tween t h e [ A ]Ed e l r ed a nd E thf l r ed s e c t ion s . H e t r an sf e r s more b e tween t h e E d e l r ed a nd E d i l r ed s e c t ion s ; L eof thegn a nd Wih t r a 2d b o th h ave o ne s u ch move . Wih t r a 2d a l one move s ad i e b e tween E thf l r ed a nd E d i l r ed b u t B ro the r a nd E an r a 2d b o th move b e tween E thf l r ed a nd E d i l r ed ( w i th L i nve r ted ) . I fo ne i st o a t temp t t o c o mp le te t h e r ega l s e quence , i ts e em s p o s s ib le t o d o s o b y a s s ign ing t o t h i s g roup ( a nd p e rhap s , b y w ay o fc ro s s ref e rence , a l so t o t h e A ed i l r ed g roup ) c o in s f o r O sbe rh t b y t h e moneye r Wu lf s ige ( VVLFS IgT ) . T he n ame may b e av a r ia t ion o f VVLFS IC a nd t h e m an t h e s ame a sh e who se c o in s 1 22
P HA SE SA ND G ROUP S f o r' E the l red h ave a l ready b een a s s igned t o al a te s t age i nt h e p r inc ipa l g roup . B u t t h e s i ng le r eve r se d i e o f Wu lf s ige ' s of i c ia l c o in s s t and s a pa r t f r om t h e o the r wo rk f o r O sbe rh t b ec au se i ti sc u t w i thou t i nve r s ion o f t h e l e t te r s . T he o n e r eve r se , mo reove r , i su s ed i nc on junc t ion w i th e i gh t o bve r se s . Of t h e se , o n ly t wo c an b e s e en ( f ro m t h eRa nd t h e T ) t oh ave i nve r ted l e gend s . I nt h i sp a t te rn o f wo rk , o ne mu s t s ugge s t , m ay b e s e en movemen t o ft h e c ommon d i e f r om o ne wo rk shop t o a no the r : f r om o n e whe re t h e d i e cu t te r d id n o t o b se rve t h e u sua l p rac t i ce o ft h e t ime t oo ne whe r et h en ew c u s tom w a sf o l lowed . TA BLE 2 .O bv e r s e s u s ed i ne a ch s e c t i on , t o g e th e r w i th p e r c en t ag e s :f o r t h e s h a r ed d i e sw i th in as e c t i on a nd f o rs e c t i on t o t a l sa sp o r t i on so ft h ew ho l e G r oup
S o l eu s e
S ha r ed u s e
T o ta l
A i A i i B C i C i i Cm T o t a l s
3 2 2 3 1 0 6 1 5 1 1 2 1 89
1 0 = 4= 2= 1 9 = 7= 4= 4 6
o f4 2 ; o f2 7 ; o f1 2 ; o f8 0 ; o f5 8 ; o f1 6 ; 2 35
2 3 .8 % 1 5 .3 % 1 6 .6 % 2 3 .75 % 1 2 .07 % 2 5 .0 %
4 2 2 7 1 2 8 0 5 8 1 6
= = = = = =
1 7 .87 % 1 .48 % 5 . 10 % 3 4 .04 % 2 4 .68 % 6 . 80 %
o f2 35 o f2 35 o f2 35 o f2 35 o f2 35 o f2 35
T he f o rego ing d i scu s s ion o ft h e c on ten t o ft h e of i c ia l c o inage i sued d u r ing P ha se Ih a s b een mo re t h an a l i t t le i nvo lved , b u t d e l ibe ra te ly s o , e ven a tt h e r i sk o f s e em ing t o e cho t h e t e rm ino logy o f s po r t , w i th r epea ted r e f e rence s t o f i r s t , s e cond , a nd t h i rd d iv i s ion s . T he v a r iou s g roup sn eed s imp le l a be l s . I t may n ow b e a pp rec i a ted , h oweve r , t h a t t h e r e i s as e n se o fa n t ic l imax i nt u rn ing t ot h e s ma l le r g roup s a f te r c on s id e r ing t h e d e ta i l o ft h e ma in wo rk . I ti st h e ref o re e a s ie r t oh ave t h e ma te r ia la r ranged t hu s : [ A ]Ede l red—E thf l red A ed i l red—Ae i l red E d i l red ( a l l ) E d i l red E d i l red ( I " ) E d l i red
G roup A G roup B G roup C C i C i i C i i i
A s as amp le o ft h e o ccu r rence o fo bve r se s o ft h e d if e ren t g roup s , a nd o ft h e l i nkage b e tween t h em , T ab le 2 s how s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion f o r 2 35 o bve r se d i e s u s ed b yt h e moneye r s who se r e ve r se d i e sa r e a na ly sed i nT ab le 1a bove . T HE U NO F F IC IAL C O INAGE B e s ide s t h er egu la ri sue s , t h e re a r e t h ei r regu la r sf o r wh ich t h e c o inage a s awho le m ay b e d eemed n o to r iou s . Mo s t s u ch c o in s r ef l ec t t h e of i c ia l wo rk o fG roup C , i n t h a t t h ey e s say t h e n a me E d i l r ed . T he re a r e s o many o f t h e se t h a t i ti s 1 23
o n m a te r ia l i n t h e
E . J . E .
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PHASES AND GROUPS TABLE
3 .P ha s e I : ' E th e l r ed ' s m on ey e r s [MA JOR a nd m ino r ] ,g r oup b yg r oup , w i th s u b -d iv i s i on sf o rt h e i ru s eo fm o t if
[ A ]Ed e l r ed
E t h f i r ed
A ed i l r ed lAe i l r ed
E d i l r ed
E d i l r ed ( r )
E d l i r ed
a l lm o t if s
a l m o t if s
c r o s sm o t if s
c r o s sm o t if s
c r o s sm o t if s
c r o s sm o t if s
L EOFTHEGN
FORTHR AD
EALHERE
EAN R/ED
EAN R/ED
FORTHR AD
M ONNE
B ro the r E an rxd Monne Wih t r a ed
E an rxd L eof thegn
EA RD WULF
FO RTHR AD
L EOFTHEGN
E a lhhe re B ro the r Cynemund L eof thegn Monne Wende lbeo rh t Wu lf rxd
Monne E an rxd Cynemund
B ro the r E an rxd Od i lo Wu lf rxd Wih t rxd Coen rxd ( e p i s . )
M ONNE WENDELBEORHT
E a lhhe re B ro the r F o r th rxd Wu lf rxd Wih t rxd Hun laf ( e p i s . ) o t h e rm o t if s E an rxd L eof thegn
o t h e rm o t if s E an r a zd L eof thegn Wu lf rzd Wih t rxd
o t h e rm o t if s L eof thegn Monne Wu lf rxd
EA RD WULF
FORTHR AD
M ONNE
EAN RiED
o t h e rm o t if s 1 .E ann ed F o r th rzd Wu lf rzd Monne 2 . Wu lf s ige Monne E anwu lf
c onven ien t t o e s tab l i sh f o r t h em a no the r G roup , D . F ewe r i n n umbe r a r e t ho se t h a tr e la te t oG roup A . T o G roup A c an b e a dded s e ve ra l s ma l l c l u s te r s o fd i e l inked c o in s . Among t h ee a r l ie s t may b e t ho se wh ich r e la te t ot h e of i c ia l wo rk o f Monne a nd Wih t rxd f o r E an red : t h e i r c ommon d i e i su sed w i th t wo o the r s who se l e gend s may b e n on sen se . T ha t o n t h e f i r s t may b e r e ad a sT eveh o r a sT even ( c f . t h e a be r ra t ion EAHRED ) ; b o th i ta nd t h e s e cond , AH IXHEF , a r e u sed w i th a no the r o fe qua l i n comp rehen s ib i l i ty . A l so w i th l e gend s i n capab le o fr e cogn i t ion a s Ang lo -Saxon n ame s i sa tl e a s t o ne o the r g roup . A v a r ie ty o fs t y le s i sk nown f o r s uch p i ece s . S l igh t ly l a te r , i s as ho r t c ha in s t a r t ing w i th E thf l red / Monne a nd r unn ing i n to d oub le reve r se s o f Monne , B ro the r , F o r th rxd , a nd n on sen se : t h e s t y le o fl e t te r ing i sk nobby . A l so k nobby a r e t h e l e gend s i n t he c ha in g iv ing u s t h e n ame s p E RNVD (Wernuth?), Wilheah a nd ANTED I : i n t h e f i r s t t wo i n s tance s , t h e n ame s a r e s p e l t w i th t h e i n i t ia l w en r a the r t h an w i th V . Ano the r e a r ly ' s i lve r ' moneye r b e s ide s Wi lheah i se choed i n t h e n ame Hw an r [ 4 1 wh ich i so n ad i e u s ed i n c on junc t ion w i th t h a t r e ad ing HOAVD a nd w i th o the r s : a ga in , t h e l e t te r ing i si nt h ed i s t inc t ive k nobby s t y le . Qu i te d if e ren t i st h e wo rk t ob e a s s igned t oG roup D . Apa r t f r om o ne o r t wo s ma l l a nd s e pa ra te c l u s te r s i n wh ich t h e n ame s Hw a 2 t r a 2d , Wi lheah ( V ILHEAH ) a nd Wu lf r a ed c an b e d i sce rned , b e s ide s Athe l red , t h e re i s t h e ma in c ha in c o mpo sed o fs ome f ou rh und red l i nk ing d i e -comb ina t ion s mo s to f wh ich b ea r t h e k ing ' s n ame ; t h e a r chb i shop ' s n ame d oe s n o t a ppea r a l though t h e i d en t if i ab le moneye r s a r eb o th r ega l a nd e p i scopa l . T h i s me sh o fr ef l ec t ive s may b eh and led i n 1 25
E . J . E . P IR IE
c oncu r ren t i n s ta lmen t s : t h ree m a in o ne s ( Ref l ec t ive s I ,I , a nd I I ) a nd t wo s ub s id ia ry . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e se p r inc ipa l d iv i s ion s a l e cho s ome p a r t o ft h e G roup C c o inage : i tc an b e d e mon s t ra ted t h a t R ef l ec t ive s Il i nk s t o C i a nd Ref l ec t ive s I t oC i i i . R I , I , a nd I I a r e e a ch m ad e u p o f an umbe r o ft i gh t -kn i t b a l l s o fc o in s , c l o se ly d i e l inked , w i th o ne b a l l k no t ted t o a no the r b y n o mo re t h an o ne o r t wo c r o s s l ink s ( s ee F ig .2 ) . On s e ve ra lo cca s ion s , t h eo bve r se s s e em t o h ave b een c u t i n s e t s o f t h ree , t a n ta l iz ing ly s im i la r y e t e a ch w i th i d en t if i ab le d if e rence s . Mo s t o f t h e o bve r se s a r e u s ed i n c on junc t ion w i th s e ve ra l d i e s p u rpo r t ing t o b e f o r av a r ie ty o f moneye r s ; t h e re i sa n e l emen t o f n on sen se r e p r e sen ted b y s ome o f t h e r eve r se s . T he ' o bve r se s ' i n t h e t wo s ub s id ia ry , b ackg round , g roup s a r e a l so u n in te l l ig ib le n on sen se , a l though many o f t h e i r r eve r se sb ea rr e cogn izab le n ame s . D if f e ren t o p in ion s h ave a l ready b een e xp re s sed c once rn ing t h e d a te o f t h e se p i ece sn ow a s s igned t oG roup D . L yon 3 1 s aw t h em a sl a te , e ven a f te rt h ec e s sa t ion o ft h e of i c ia l i sue s i nO sbe rh t ' s r e ign . P agan 3 2 r e ga rded t h em a sh av ing s t a r ted i n t h e l a s t y ea r s o f Athe l red ' s l i f e . I ti sp o s s ib le t o i d en t if y t h e i n cep t ion o ft h e ma in c ha in a t a bou t t h e t ime o f R edwu lf su su rpa t ion , n o t o n ly b ecau se t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e mo t if s a r e i n t h e c r o s s t r ad i t ion b u t b ecau se t h e n a tu re o f t h e i r regu la r wo rk , w i th i t s mu l t ip l ic i ty o f moneye r s d ependen to n t h e s ame o bve r se , e choe s t h a t o ft h e s em i -of f i c ia l ' d e scendan t s ' . T h e c i rcum s tance s wh ich l e d t ot h e b reak i n t h e p a t te rn o f A the l red ' s c o inage , a nd wh ich g ave r i se t o t h e ' d e scendan t s ' c ou ld h ave a l so p rov ided t h e f l a sh -po in t wh ich s t a r ted t h e s p a te o f r ef l ec t ive s . F o r t ho se who f a vou r av e ry l a te d a te f o r t h e i r p roduc t ion t h e re i s p e rhap s al o op -ho le , i nt h e c o inage o f Wu l fhe re ( a nd o ft h e moneye r Wu lf s ige ) , t o s how t h a t t h e o u twa rd -po in t ing l e gend s d id n o t d i sappea r a l toge the r i n t h e t ime o fO sbe rh t . Y e t , s of ew o ft h ei r regu la r sh ave i nwa rd -po in t ing l e t te r ing t h a t t h i s e v idence o fe p ig raphy mu s t s u re ly s uppo r t t h e v i ew t h a t t h e se c o in s w e re b e ing p u t i n to c i rcu la t ion e a r l ie r t h an h i the r to s uppo sed . Mo s t o ft h e f ew l i nk s w i th t h e of i c ia l c o inage o ccu rt owa rd s t h ee nd r a the rt h an a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e i m i ta t ion s . A t t h e s t a r t o f O sbe rh t ' s r e ign t h e d i v id ing l i ne b e tween wha t w a s of i c ia la nd wha ti r regu la rm ay h ave b een v e ry t h in i ndeed . CONCLUS ION
T h i s b r ief p re l im ina ry s u rvey o ft h e v a r iou s e l emen t s i d en t if i ab le w i th in P ha se I o ft h e s t yca c o inage h a s c oncen t ra ted o n o r thog r aph ic a nd e p ig raph ic d if e rence s a sw e l l a so n t h e u s e o f mo t if ( s ee A ppend ix I ) . L i t t le h a s b een s a id o f o the r p hy s ica l a t t r ibu te s o ft h e c o in s , s u ch a sw e igh t a nd m e ta l lu rg ica l a na ly s i s . Du r ing r e cen t wo rk o n t h eY o rk c o l lec t ion , i th a sb een o b se rved t h a t t h ec o in so fG roup s A a nd B s how al a rge r p ropo r t ion o f s p ec imen s w e igh ing o ve r 1 . 30 g r amme s t h an d o t ho se o f G roup C a s a who le , a l though w i th in C i t s e lf t h e t e ndency t owa rd sh eavy w e igh t sm ay b e mo re m a rked i nC i it h an i n ia nd i i . S of a r , a l t oo l i t t le a na ly s i so ft h eb a se ri sue sh a sb een e f ec t ed . One wou ld l i ke t os e ea na ly sed a c on s ide rab le n umbe r o f s p ec imen s b y d if e r en t moneye r s f r om e a ch a nd e ve ry g roup , s ot h a t t h e r ange w i th in e a ch m ay b e d e te rm ined b ef o re i ti sc o mpa red o r c on t r a s ted w i th t h a t o fa no the r . I ft h e r e la t ive ly l a rge b ody o fm a te r ia l a tp r e sen t 3 1
L yon ( 1 957 ) , 2 32 .
3 2
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P agan ( 1973 ) , 1 .
PHASES AND GROUPS
a s s igned t o G roup C i i s c apab le o f f u r the r d iv i s ion , o ne m igh t h ope t h a t me ta l lu rg ica la na ly s i s wou ld t h e re c o mp lemen tt h ea na ly s i so fd i e -de ta i l . C once rn w i th a s se s smen t o f t h e l a te r c o inage i n t h e s t yca s e r ie s h a s c oncen t ra ted a t t h i s s t age o n e xp lo ra t ion o f g roupre la t ion sh ip s wh ich may g ove rn t h e f o rma t i n wh ich s u ch ma te r ia l m ay b e r e co rded . T he ma t te r o f s equence w i th in t h e ma in g roup s n eed s much f u r the r c on s ide ra t ion ; i ti ss t i l l v e ry f a rf r om b e ing e s tab l i shed . One i sa wa re o fo p in ion wh ich c on s ide r st h a tt h e wo rk s o f a r e ncompa s s e s al a rge mea su re o fi n te rp re ta t ion , i t se lf l e ad ing t o a t t r ibu t ion s wh ich s e em t ob eu naccep tab le . Recogn i t ion o fg roup s w i th in t h e c o inage i si t s e lf o n ly p a r t o f as t udy o ft h i s ma te r i a l ; a st he r e su l t o fd i e -ana ly s i s , i ti sn o t a n e nd i ni t se lf b u t o n ly amean s t o f u r the r r e sea rch . Many mo re p e r t inen t q ue s t ion s r e la te t o t op ic s wh ich r equ i re e xp lo ra t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion i nq u i te s e pa ra te w ay s . S ome f a c to r s r e la t ing t o c h rono logy h av e b een t ouched o n , b u t n o t a sy e t t h a t wh ich m ay b e c ruc ia l : t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f Redwu lf sr e ign t o t h a t o f E an red . When , w i th in t h e t o ta l r e ign o f ' E the l red I , d id t h e u su rpa t ion o f Redwu lf o ccu r ? Wa s i tr e a l ly a tt h e h a lf -way p o in t o r w a s i tc l o se r i nt ime t ot h e d ea th o f E an red t h an h a s b een s uppo sed ? D e ta i led d i scu s s ion o f t h e c h rono logy o f t h e r e ign s , f o r wh ich t h e i n te r re ign d i e l ink e v idence o fG roup C may b e c r i t ica l , s hou ld , h oweve r , b e t h e s ub jec t o f as e pa ra te p ape r . S o , t oo , s hou ld b e a ny a t temp t t o i n te rp re t t h e c o inage o f P ha se I wh ich , w i th i t s of i c i a l i sue s , ' d e scendan t s ' a nd i r r egu la r em i s s ion s , may p o s s ib ly i lum ina te t h e c on tempo ra ry p o l i t ica l s c ene . T he r e i sas e n se i n wh ich c on s ide ra t ion o fs u ch ma t te r s a st ime a nd p o l i t ic s mu s t a wa i t r e so lu t ion o f whe re t h e c o inage c ame f r om . L yon h a s s a id t h a t t h e e x ten t o fd i e l ink ing i ss u ch t h a t mo s t i fn o t a l t h e of i c ia l c o inage mu s t h ave b een s t ruck a to ne p l a ce a nd t h a t , Yo rk . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o fo ne o r t wo moneye r s wo rk ing i ndependen t ly e l sewhe re w a s moo ted t e n y ea r s l a te r ;3 a l though moneye r s men t ioned t h en —Cu thhea rd , T idw ine a nd T idwu lf —d id n o t wo rk i n t h e l a te r p e r iod n ow u nde r r ev iew , L yon ' s c i ta t ion o f O sbe rh t ' s of i c ia l Winebeo rh t wo rk ing a pa r t f r om h i s c o l league s a low s h i s s ugge s t ion t o a pp ly t o P ha se I a sw e l l . One i sa wa re t h a ti nr e c i t ing t h e movemen tb y moneye r so fs ome r eve r se d i e s f r om d iv i s ion t o d iv i s ion , f r om g roup t o g roup , t h e i mp re s s ion may h ave b een g iven , i n adve r ten t ly , t h a t t h e wo rk shop s a r e b ound t o h ave b een l o ca ted i nd if e ren t a r ea s . Ag rea t d ea l mo re e v idence wou ld h ave t o b e a dduced b ef o re o ne c ou ld p ropo se t h a t t h ey r ep re sen t an e two rk o f of i c ia l p roduc t ion c en t re s t h roughou t t h e k ingdom a nd t h a t t h ey a r e m i r ro red b y ar a sh o fi l ic i t a t e l i e r s u t te r ing i m i ta t ion s o n ar eg iona l b a s i s . T h i s who le ma t te r i nvo lve s mo re t h an d i scu s s ion o f t h e c o mpo s i t ion o fh oa rd s a nd t h e r ange o f s i t e -f ind s i n t h e l i gh t o fg roup rep re sen t a t ion . I tr equ i re s , a l so , c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e p rob lema t ic q ue s t ion o f t h e p hy s ic a l movemen t o f t h e s e n io r r ega l moneye r s r ound t h e k ingdom a nd t h a t o fe p i scopa l moneye r s o pe ra t ing o u t s ide t h e ma in e c c le s ia s t ica l c en t re a t Yo rk . One i s mo re c once rned a tt h i s s t age w i th t h e r e a l i ty o ft h e g roup s a st h ey h ave b een d ef ined . I t mu s t b e u rged t h a t t h ey b e r e cogn ized a s manageab le i n s ta lmen t s i nt h e a r rangemen t o fs p ec imen s f r om t h e s e cond p ha se o fd eve lopmen t . F u r the r 3 3
L yon ( 1 967 ) , 2 18 .
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E . J . E . P IR IE
c on s ide ra t ion o fd e ta i l w i th in e ach g roup w i l l a lmo s t c er ta in ly l e ad t o r ef ine men t s o fi den t if ica t ion a nd mod if ica t ion o fp re sen ta t ion . Never the le s s , g roup s o f work i n wh ich t he moneyer s a re r e la ted t o e ach o ther s ure ly p rov ide f i r mer g round o n wh ich t o b a se d i scu s s ion o ft he c o inage a nd i t s p rob le m s t han d oe s t he work o fe ach moneyer i ni s o la t ion
Append ix I EA N RED—ED IL RED- RED W ULF S ome d oub th a sb een a nd m ay s t i l lb ee xp re s sed a bou tt h ev a l id i ty o ft h e t h ree r e ign l i nk i nt h e c o inage o f Monne . L yon h im se lf v ouched f o rt h e a u then t ic i ty o ft h er e levan tt h ree c o in s i n h i s c olec t ion ,3 4 b u t h e a r gued t h a t t h e f i r s t w a s s t ruck when t h e o bve r se f o r E an red w a s s o o ld , f l awed , a nd r u s ty t h a t i t s u s e i n c on junc t ion w i th t h a t r e ve r se m ay w el h ave o ccu r red d u r ing t h e c onf u s ion o fR edwu lf s r e ign . One c ou ld d i scoun t t h a t t h eo ry b y p o in t ing t ot h e e x i s tence o fo the r d i e s o n wh ich f l aw s c an b e s e en t od eve lop a nd g row , a nd b y a s se r t ing t h a t s u ch s ma l l d i e s m ay w e l l h ave h ad a n i nhe ren t t e ndency t o f l aw . I ti s , i ndeed , n o t iceab le t h a t o bve r se d i e s b ecame l e s s t h an p e rf ec t d u r ing u s e ; t h ey w e re , i fn ece s sa ry , a va i l ab le t o mo re t h an o n e moneye r . B y c on t r a s t , t h e l a rge n umbe ro fr eve r se d i e s m ay i nd ica te t h ei nd iv idua l ' s c a re i nr e p lac ing w i thou td e l ay t ho se p e r sona li mp lemen t st h a ts howed t h es l i gh te s ts i gn o fd amage . T he E an red o bve r se i sk nown t o h ave b een u s ed w i th f i ve o the r r eve r se s s oi t s wo rn c ond i t ion o nL yon ' sc o in n eed n o ti nd ica te l ong -de lay ed , p o s thumou ss t r ik ing . Y e t , i ft h e c o in ' s a t t r ibu t ion c on t inue s t ob e i nd i spu te , w e m ay h ave t oa dm i t o n ly t h e e v id ence o f t h e r e pea ted u s e o ft h e c o mmon r eve r se l i nk ing Monne ' s o u tpu t f o r / E the l r ed w i th h i s wo rk f o r R edwu lf . I tm igh t t h en s e em t h a t t h e c en t ra l a rgumen t f o r s e pa ra t ion o ft h e E d e l r ed c o in age , b ecau se o f t h e c l o su re o f t h e E d i l r ed m a te r i a l b e tween E an r ed a nd R edwu lf , s hou ld f a l l t ot h e g round . T h i s i sn o t s o . T he m a t te r m ay s t i l l s t and f o r , a pa r t f r om t h e l i nk s n o ted f o r t h e moneye r F o r th rxd , Monne ' s o the r d i e l ink s r ema in s i gn if i can t . T he v e ry E d i l r ed o bve r se who se r e ve r s e l i nk w i th R edwu lf si su e s c an b e a c cep ted i st i ed t ot h e c o inage o fE an r ed b y t h e u s e o fo the r r e ve r s e s . Two o ft h e t h ree d ef in i te E an red /Ed i l r ed c onne c t ion s a r e i nvo lved . I n t h e f i r s t , t h e l i nk i sd i re c t ; w i th t h e s e cond , t h e E d i l r ed d i e i n i t ia l ly r e l a ted t o E an red ' s c o inage b y o ne r eve r se i sr e la ted b y a no the rt ot h eE d i l r ed IRedwu lf c onnec t ion . We r e t h e re n o q ue s t ion a ta l o f as i ng le r eve r se l i nk ing t h e c o inage o ft h ree k ing s , t h e s u rv iv ing e v idence wou ld s t i l lb es t rong e nough t os p e ak f o rc on t inu i ty i ni sue s o f wh ich t h eE d e l r ed d i e sf o rm n op a r t .
Append ix I O RTH OG RAPHY AND CO NVE NT IO N T he re i s am a rked c onf l ic t o f i n te re s t b e tween h i s to r ian s who e xpec t A ng lo -Saxon p e r sona l n ame s t o b e r ende red i n ac onven t iona l m anne r , h oweve r f a r r emoved f r om a c tua l u s age t h e a c cep tab le f o rm m ay b e , a nd t h e n um i sma t i s t who a t t emp t s t o b e s e n s i t ive t o t h e n o rma l a nd i t s v a r ia t ion s i n t h e l e gend s o f as p ec if i c s e r i e s o f c o in s . A t ten t ion t o o r thog raphy i sp a r t icu l a r ly c ruc ia l when t h e s ub jec t o f d i scu s s ion i st h e money o fe a r ly No r thumb r ia f o r , a l one a mong a l A ng lo -Saxon c o inage s , t h es t yca i sue s i n c lude ar ema rkab le a moun t o fu nau tho r ized wo rk . R e spon s ib le c on s ide r a t ion o f t h e o f ic ia l o u tpu t ( a nd i t s d if e ren t p a r t s ) , t oge the r w i th t h a t o f e l emen t s i n t h e i r regu la r 3 4
L yon ( 1 957 ) , p .234 ; P 1 .18 , 2 7-9 .
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P HA SE S A ND G ROUPS i sue s , i sv e ry s e r iou s ly h ampe red when c onven t iona l n ame-f orm s f o r t h e moneye r s a r e r equ i red t op redom ina te . T he ma t te r mu s t b e e xam ined i n as e pa ra te p ape r , f o r o ne h a s g rea t m i sg iv ing s a bou t t h eu ncha l lenged c on t inua t ion o ft h ec u r ren tp rac t ice .
N OTES O N THE PLATES ( A l ls p ec imen sa r es hown o ne a nd ah a lf t ime st h e i ra c tua ls i ze . ) PL ATE 6 PHASE I a . " E th e l r ed I :1 ,C eo lbea ld ; 2 ,T idwu lf ; 3 , Cu thc [ i ] l s ( a be r ran to bv . : s h r ine o n r ev . ) ; 4 , Cu thhea rd . " E lfwa ld I : 5 , Cu thhea rd . E an r ed : 6 , Cu thhea rd ; 7 , Hwx t r a ed ; 8 , Cynewu lf ; 9 , ` Ed i lech ' ( s ame o bv . a s8 ) ; 1 0 , Wi lheah ; 1 , T idw ine ; 1 2 , E adw ine . A bp . E anba ld I : 1 3 , Cynewu lf ; 1 4 ,E adw ine ; 1 5 , l E the lwea rd . PHASE I b . R egu la r : E an r ed : 1 6 , Dxgbeorh t ; 1 7 , H ea rdwu lf [ a be r ran t : H r rdvv lf e ) ; 1 8 , H e re rxd . I r r egu la r : 1 9 , ` He r re th ' ( doub le rev . ) ; 2 0 , E anba ld ( E an + b ad , r e t rog rade ) / E adwu lf . PL ATE 7 PHASE I , G roup A . E an r ed : 2 1 , B ro the r -Eah red /B r od r ; 2 2 , B ro the r -Eanh red ( obv . t h a t o f2 1 w i th a l te red mo t i f ) /B r od r , i n r une s ; 2 3 , E ah red /For th rxd ( s ame o bv . a s 2 2 ) ; 2 4 , Monne ; 2 5 , Monne ; 2 6 , Wih t rxd ( s ame o bv . a s 2 5 : r ev , w i th r une s ) ; 2 7 , Wih t rxd . ' E th e l r ed I ( [A ]Ede l red , E thf l red ) : 2 8 , Monne ( r ev , a l te red f r om 2 4 ) ; 2 9 , Monne ( s ame r ev . a s 2 5 ) ; 3 0 , E an rxd ( s ame o bv . a s 3 5 : s ame r ev . a s 6 1 [ G r .B ] ) ; 3 1 , Wih t rxd ( s ame r ev . a s2 7 ) ; 3 2 , L eof thegn ( s ame r ev . a s6 2 [ G r .B ] ) ; 3 3 , L eof thegn ( A lpha o bv . -no te p o s i t ion o fi n i t ia l c ro s s : s ame r ev . a s3 4 ) ; 3 4 , L eof thegn ( ?Omega o bv . -no te p o s i t ion o fi n i t ia l c r o s s , a l so t h e w i re l ine b orde r ) ; 3 5 , L eof thegn ( s ame o bv . a s3 0 , s ame r ev . a s3 6 ) ; 3 6 , L eof thegn ( a be r ran t o bv . , r e t rograde w i th w i re -l ine b orde r ) ; 3 7 , C oen rxd [ e p i scopa l ] ( s ame o bv . a s3 6 ) ; 3 8 , Wih t r a zd ( a be r ran t r ev . ) ; 3 9 , F o r th rxd . A bp . W igmund : 4 0 , Coen rxd ( s ame r e v . a s3 7 ) ; 4 1 , Coen rxd ( ? c rude Omega o nr ev . ) . PL ATE 8 PHASE IA , c on t inued . ? 'De scendan t ' , t e mp . R edwu lf : 4 2 , ` E rw inne ' ( s ame o bv . a s 3 8 ) . R edwu lf : 4 3 , Hw a z tno th ; 4 4 , C oen rxd . O sbe rh t : 4 5 , Wu lf s ige ; 4 6 , Wu lf s ige ( a be r ran t o bv . : s ame r ev . a s 4 5 -no te w i re l ine b o rde r ) . I r regu lar : 4 7 , E an red /Non sen se ( s ame o bv . a s2 5-6 ) ; 4 8 , Non sen se ( obv . worn ) /Non sen se ( s ame r ev . a s4 7 ) ; 4 9 , Non sen se . 5 0 , E thf l red / Monne ( bo th d i e s r e t rog rade the b eg inn ing o f ac ha in i n c lud ing B ro the r , F o r th rxd a nd n on sen se ) ; 5 1 , We rnu th / [An ] ted i ( r e t rog rade ) ; 5 2 , Hwa z t r [x ]d ( r e t rog r ade ) /Houad . PHASE IB . E an r ed : 5 3 , A lda te s ; 5 4 , ` Gadu te s ' (nadu te s ' ; s ame o bv . a s 5 3 ) ; 5 5 , A lda te s ( s ame o bv . a s5 3-4 ) . ' E the l r ed ( 1 s tr e ign : A ed i l red ) : 5 6 , E a lhhe re ; 5 7 , E a lhhe re ; 5 8 , E an r a 2d ; 5 9 , L eof thegn . R edwu lf : 6 0 , E a lhhe re . ' E the l r ed ( 2 nd r e ign : A e i l red ) : 6 1 , E an rxd ( s ame r ev . a s3 0 [ G r .A ] ) ; 6 2 , L eof thegn ( s ame r ev . a s3 2 [ G r .A ] ) . PL ATE 9 PHASE IC i . a n r ed : 6 3 , F u lcno th ; 6 4 , Monne ; 6 5 , Monne ; 6 6 , Monne ( s ame o bv . a s 6 5 ) . A bp . W igmund : 6 7 , J E the lwea rd ( obv . t i t le a s ARE ) . ' E the l r ed ( 1 s tr e ign : E d i l red ) : 6 8 , Monne ( s ame r ev . a s6 5 ) ; 6 9 , Monne ( s ame r ev . a s6 4 ) ; 7 0 , E an rxd ; 7 1 , Hun laf [ e p i scopa l ] ( s ame o bv . a s7 0 ) ; 7 2 , L eof thegn ( ' hound ' r ev . ) ; 7 3 , E a rdwu lf ; 7 4 , ' De scendan t ' [ ? t emp . Redwu l f ] ( doub le o bv .1s t , t h a t o f7 3 ; 2 nd . A e i l red ) . A bp . W igmund : 7 5 , " E the lwea rd ( t i t le a s I REP ) . R edwu lf : 7 6 , Cu thbeo rh t ; 7 7 , Hun laf [ e p i scopa l ] ( s ame r ev . a s7 1 ) ; 7 8 , Monne . ' E th e l r ed ( 2nd r e ign ) : 7 9 , Monne ( s ame r ev . a s 6 6 ) ; 8 0 , Monne ( s ame r ev . a s 7 8a l so k nown w i th o bv . o f6 5-6 ) ; 8 1 , E a rdwu lf ; 8 2 , Wu lf r a zd ( s ame o bv . a s7 3-4 ) . 1 29
E . J.E .P IR IE A bp . W igmund : 8 3 , Hun laf . O s be rh t : 8 4 , Winebeorh t . A bp . Wu lf h e r e : 8 5 , Wu lf rxd ( b o th d i e sr e t rograde ) . PL ATE 1 0 PHASE ICi i . E an r ed : 8 6 , F or th rxd ; 8 7 , F or th r a ed . ' E th e l r ed ( 1 s t r e ign : E d i l red [f ] ) : 8 8 , E an r a zd ; 8 9 , F or th rxd ; 9 0 , L eof thegn ( s ame o bv . a s8 9 ) ; 9 1 , Wu lf rxd ; 9 2 , ' De scendan t ' [ t emp . Redwu lf ] ( s ame o bv . a s9 1 : Od i lo ) ; 9 3 , ' De scendan t ' [ t emp . Redwu l f ] ( s ame o bv . a s 9 1 : [ F ]o r th rxd , r e t rog rade ) . A bp . W igmund : 9 4 , Athe lhe lm . R edwu lf : 9 5 , Wende l b eorh t . ' E th e l r ed ( 2 nd r e ign ) : 9 6 , F o r th rxd ( s ame r ev . a s8 7 ) . O sbe rh t : 9 7 , y E the [ lhe l ]m . PHASE ICi i . E an r ed : 9 8 , Monne ; 9 9 , F u lcno th ( F o l cnod , r e t rog rade same o bv . a s 9 8 ) . ' E the l r ed ( 1 s t r e ign : E df i red ) : 1 00 , F o r th rxd ( E o rd r ed ) ; 1 01 , Monne ( r ev . r e t rog rade ) . R edwu lf : 1 02 , Monne ( bo th d i e s r e t rog rade ) ; 1 03 , ` Ne r red ' ( r e t rog rade ?unof f i c ia l ) . ' E th e l r ed ( 2 nd r e ign ) : f i r s t p ha se : 1 04 , E an rxd ; s e cond p ha se : 1 05 , Wu lf s ige ( s ame o bv . a s 1 00 ) ; 1 06 , Monne ( bo th l e gend s a n t i-c lockw i se ) ; 1 07 , E anwu lf ( s ame o bv . a s 1 06 ) . O sb e rh t : 1 08 , Monne ( s ame r ev . a s 1 06 ) ; 1 09 , E anwu lf ( s ame o bv . a s 1 08 , s ame r e v . a s 1 07 ) . PL ATE 1 PHASE ID I r regu lar s -mo s t d i e s r e t r og r ad e . Re f lec t ive s I : 10 , E adw ine ; 11 , E adw ine ( s ame r ev . a s 10 ) ; 12 , H e re r a zd ( s ame o bv . a s 11 ) ; 13 , H e re rxd ( s ame r ev . a s 12 ) ; 14 , E a rdwu lf ; 15 , E a rdwu lf ( s ame r ev . a s 14 ) ; 16 , Non sen se . B ackground I : 17 , Non sen se ( s ame ' r ev . ' a s 16 ) ; 18 , Non sen se ( s ame ` o bv . ' a s 17 ) ; 19 , E a rdwu lf ( worn ) ; 1 20 , Non sen se . R I I : 1 2 1 , E a rdwu lf ( r ev , s im i la r t o t h a t o f 19 ) ; 1 22 , E a rdwu lf ( s ame r ev . a s1 21 ) ; 1 23 , E odwu lf [ e p i scopa l ] ( s ame o bv . a s1 22 ) ; 1 24 , Wih t rxd . B I I : 1 25 , ` Roen ' ; 1 26 , Wu lf rxd , 1 27 ` De lo ' ( 1 25-7 a r e f r om s im i la r ` o bv . ' d i e s ) : RI I I ( A the l red O sbe rh t ) : 1 28 , Wu lf rxd ( s ame r ev . a s1 26 ) ; 1 29 , d oub le -obv . ; 1 30 , Monne ; 1 3 1 , Monne ; 1 32 , Monne ( s ame r ev . a s1 3 1 ) ; 1 33 ,'E the lhe lm .
ABB REV IAT I O NS AND B IBL I OG RAPHY Adam son , 1 834 : J . Adam son , ' An a c coun t o f t h e d i scove ry a t H exham , i n t h e c oun ty o f Nor thumbe r land , o f ab ra s s v e s se l c on ta in ing a n umbe r o f Ang loS axon c o in s c aled s t yca s ' , A r cha eo l og ia 2 5 ( 1 834 ) ,2 79-310 a nd 2 3p l a te s . Adam son , 1 836 : I d em , ' F u r the r a c coun t o f t h e Ang lo-Saxon c o in s , c aled s t yca s , r e cen t ly d i scove red a t H exham i n t h e c oun ty o f No r thumbe r land ' , A r cha eo l o g ia 2 6 ( 1 836 ) , 3 46-8 a nd 7p l a te s . A l len , 1 978 : D .F . A l len , A n I n t r odu c t ion t o C e l t i c C o in s [ e d i ted b y J . P .C . K en t ] , 1 978 . AY : A r cha eo l ogy o fY o rk . 1 8 11 : P o s t -Roman C o in s f r om Y o rk E x cava t ion s , 1 97 1-8 1 , E . J .E . P i ne w i th M .M . A rch iba ld a nd R .A . H al , 1 986 . BN J : B r i t i sh Num i sma t i cJ ou rna l . B oo th , 1 984 :J .B oo th , S cea t ta s i n Nor th umbr ia ' , S c ea t ta s i n E ng land a nd o n t h e C on t inen t ; D . H i l l a nd D .M . Me tca lf ,
e d s . ( 1 984 ) , 7 1111 . B oo th a nd B lowe r s , 1 983 :J .B oo th a nd I . B lowe r s , ' F ind s o f s c ea t ta s a nd s t yca s f r om S anc ton ' , Num i sma t i c C h r on i c l e 1 43 ( 1 983 ) , 1 39-45 . Chadw ick , 1 963 : N . Chadw ick , C e l t i c B r i t a in , 1 963 . Doley , 1 976 : M . Doley , ' The c o in s ' , T h e A r cha eo logy o f A ng l o -Saxon E ng l and , D . M . Wi l son , e d . ( 1 976 ) , 3 49-72 . Du ca tu s : R . T ho re sby , Du c a tu s L eod i en s i s , 1 7 15 . F a i r le s s , 1 845 : J . F a i r le s s , ` S tyca s f ound a t Yo rk ' , Num i sma t i c C h r on i c l e 7 ( 1 845 ) , 3 4-36 . F in lay , 1 979 : I .F in lay , C o lumba , 1 979 . G ran t ley , 1 912 : L ord G ran t ley , ' S t Cu th b e r t ' sP enn ie s ' , BN J 8( 1 9 12 ) , 1 -5 . G r ie r son , 1 962 : P . G r ie r son , ' The a u then t i c i ty o f t h e Y o rk t h rym sa s ' , BN J 3 1 ( 1 962 ) , 8 10 . L yon , 1 957 : C .S .S . L yon , ' Ar e -app ra i sa lo f
1 30
P HA SE SA ND G ROUP S t he s c ea t ta a nd s t yca c o inage o f Nor th umb r ia ' , BN J2 8 ( 1 957 ) , 2 27-42 . L yon , 1 967 : I dem , ' H i s tor ica l p rob lem s o f Ang lo-Saxon c o inage ( 1 ) ' , BN J 3 6 ( 1 967 ) , 2 15-24 . Me tca lf e t a l . , 1 968 : D .M . Me tca lf , J .M . Me r r ick a nd L .K . H amb l in , S tud i e s i nt h e C ompo s i t ion 1 968 .
o f E a r ly
Med i eva l
C o in s ,
Nor th , 1 963 : J . J . No r th , E ng l i sh Hamme r ed C o inag e I ,1 963 [ 2 nd e d . , 1 980 ] . P agan , 1 969 : H .E . P agan , ' Nor thumbr ian n um i sma t ic c h rono logy i nt he n in th c en t u ry ' , BN J3 8 ( 1 969 ) , 1 15 . P agan , 1 973 : I d em , ' The B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd o f1 967 ' , BN J4 3 ( 1 973 ) , 1 -44 . P i ne , 1 98 1 : E . J .E . P i ne , ' E a r ly Nor th umbr ian c o in s a ta uc t ion , 1 981 ' , BN J 5 1 ( 1 981 ) , 3 2-51 . P i ne , 1 982 : E adem , ' The R ipon h oa rd , 1 695 : c on tempora ry a nd c u r ren t i n te r e s t ' , BN J5 2 ( 1 982 ) , 8 4103 . P i ne , 1 984 : E adem , ' Some Nor thumbr ian f i nd s o f s c ea t ta s ' , S c ea t ta s i nE ng land a nd
o n t h e C on t in en t , D . H i l l a nd D .M . Me tca lf , e d s . ( 1 984 ) , 2 0713 . P i ne a nd Wa r ren , 1 983 : E . J .E P i ne a nd S .E . Wa r ren , ` B i smu th a l loy f o rger ie s o f e a r ly Nor thumb r ian c o in s ' , P r o c e ed ing s o f t h e 2 2nd S ympo s ium o n A r cha eome t ry [ 198 4 1 983 ,254-60 . SCBI : S y l log eo fC o in s o ft h eB r i t i sh I s l e s : 1 . Un ive r s i ty Colec t ion , Read ing , C .E . B lun t a nd M . Doley ; 2 9 . Me r sey s ide Coun ty Mu seum s , M . Wa rhu r s t . S imon s , 1 971 : G . S imon s , T h e B i r th o f E u r op e , 1 97 1 . Swee t , 1 885 : H . Swee t , T ibe r V i tae ( Nor thumbr ian ) ' , T he O ld e s t E ng l i sh T ex t s ( 1 885 ) , 1 53-66 [ Ea r ly E ngl i sh T ex t S oc ie ty , O r ig ina l S e r ie s : 8 3 ] . Wi lpe r t , 1 9 17 : J . W i lpe r t , D i e R öm i s ch en Mo sa ik en u nd Ma l e r e i en d e r k i r ch l i ch en B au t en v om I V .—X I I I . J ah rhund e r t [ F re i b u rg ] , 1 9 17 . Wi l son a nd B lun t , 1 96 1 : D .M . Wi l son a nd C .E . B lun t , ' The T rewh idd le h oard ' , A r cha eo log ia 9 8 ( 1 96 1 ) , 7 5122 .
D ISCUSS ION DRM E TCAL F : I th a sb een al a bou ro fl ove , a nd al a bou ro fm any y ea r s , t ou nde r take t h es o r to fd i ea na ly s i st h a tM i s sP i ne h a s made o f Athe l red ' sc o in s ,i ndeed o f much mo re t h an t h i s —of t wo c o mp lex p ha se s o f c o inage , t h e f i r s t s t re tch ing f r om E an red ' sG roup B t h rough t ot h er e ign o f Redwu lf ,a nd t h es e cond h e rr agged a rmy o fs a n s cu l o t t e s ,t h ei m i ta t ive sa nd r ef l ec t ive sa nd d e scendan t sa nd s oo n .T h i si sb ack r oom n um i sma t ic s a t i t s mo s t p rof e s s iona l , a nd ( when i ti sa l p ub l i shed ) a n a ch ievemen tt oc rown a na c adem ic c a ree r . When s o many t hou sand so fc o in sh ave s u rv ived , when t he s u rv iva l ra te h a s b een s oh igh t h a t t h e re a r e s e ve ra l s p ec imen s f r om a lmo s te ve ry d i e ,a nd when t h ed i e sa r es oh eav i ly l i nked t oge the ri n to p a t te rn s o fi n t r igu ing c o mp lex i ty , t h e s t yca s e r ie s i so bv iou s ly d e s t ined , a s ar e su l t o fh e r wo rk , t ob ecome af e r t i le f i e ld o fr e sea r ch , whe re a l s o r t s o ft e chn ica l i d ea s c an b e t e s ted ,i n aw ay t h a ti sr a r e ly p o s s ib le i n med ieva ln um i sma t ic s . Ac o mp le te l i s to ft he d i e s , t oge the rw i th t h ec ha r t s wh ich i lu s t ra te t h e i rl i nkage , i st h e' o pen s e same ' t oa c ave rn o fn um i sma t ic w e a l th ;a nd M i s sP i ne i s ,m ake n om i s take ,i np o s se s s ion o ft he m ag ic k ey . I na ny ma t te r o fi n te rp re ta t ion wh ich h inge s u pon n um i sma t ic d e ta i l , h e r r e ady a c ce s s t o a l t h e f a c t s p l ace s h e r i n av e ry s upe r io r p o s i t ion , a s o u r d i scu s s ion s h ave s hown t ime a f te r t ime . Wi th l u ck o ne may b e a b le t o m ake a n e s sen t ia l ly c o r rec tj udgemen tf r om a ni n comp le te r andom s e lec t ion o ft h ef a c t s ,b u t h ow much mo re e x ac t ly , a nd c onf iden t ly , o ne s hou ld b e a b le t o w e igh ma t te r s 1 3 1
E .J . E . P IR IE
when o ne k now s t h a t a l t h e e x i s t ing i n f o rma t ion i st oh and . M i s s P i ne a nd Ib o th w i tne s sed t h a t g o lden a ge o fl a te Ang lo -Saxon n um i sma t ic s wh ich b egan i nt h e e a r ly 1 950 s a nd i n wh ich M ichae l Do l ley w a s al e ad ing f i gu re . As t ream o fa r t ic le s b a sed o n av e ry d e ta i led a cqua in tance w i th t h e c o in s g radua l ly r e s t ruc tu red t h e s ub jec ta nd g rea t ly i n c rea sed i t sh i s to r ica lu s ef u lne s s .I twou ld b ea ne xagge r a t ion t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e s t yca s h o ld a s g rea t ap o ten t i a l , b u t t h e p ro spec t s o f s im i la r ly a r r iv ing a tn ove lg ene ra l iza t ion st h rough r e sea rch b a sed o nt h em inu t iae o ft h ec o in s a r e v e ry t emp t ing . We may b es t and ing i nt h e e n t rance o ft h e c ave rn , b u t w eh ave n o t y e t g o t o u r h and s o n t h e t r ea su re . Wha ti si mp l ied b y a l t h e se c o mp lex p a t te rn s o fd i e l ink si s s t i l l amb iguou s , b ecau se t h e re a r e s ome c ruc ia l q ue s t ion s o fg ene ra l p r inc ip le t h a t mu s t f i r s t b e a n swe red . M i s s P i ne h a s u n t i l r e cen t ly p e rhap s t e nded t oa s sume t oo r e ad i ly t h a tt h ep a t te rn so fd i e -cu t t ing ma tched ,o ra tl e a s tf ound ac l ea rr ef l ec t ion i n t h ep a t te rn o fi sue o ft h ec o in st h a tw e re s t ruck f r om t h ed i e s .I twou ld b er e a sonab le f o r s ome s o r t o f .c o r r e spondence t o e x i s t , i fo n ly t o a c coun t f o r t h e e xcep t iona l c o mp lex i ty o ft h e d i e -cu t t ing a r rangemen t s . B u t whe re t h e q ue s t ion i ss oc ruc ia l , a s sump t ion sa r eh aza rdou s .E xpe r ience i nt h ew e l l s tud ied f i e ld o fl a te Ang lo -Saxon n um i sma t ic s may g u ide u sh e re . We c an i mag ine ,b ya na logy w i th t h es upp ly o fd i e s t o as i ng le m in tf r om d if e ren tr eg iona ld i e -cu t t ing c en t re si nt h el a te Ang lo -Saxon c o inage i n t h e s ou th ( a s i sd emon s t rab le ) , h ow f a r a s t ray o ne c ou ld b e l e d i n d e te rm in ing t h e m in t -p lace o fc o in s s o le ly b y t h e s t y le o ft h e i r d i e s . B ec au se t h e s t yca sd on o tt e l lu s whe re t h ey w e re s t ruck ( e ven i ft h ec o mmon sen se a s sump t ion i s t h a t t h ey w e re v i r tua l ly a l s t ruck i n Yo rk ) , t h e re i sr e a l ly n o w ay a round t h en eed f o r e v idence o f whe re t h e c o in s w e re u sed . Wha t t h i s mean s i np rac t ice i st h a t w e n eed t ob ea b le t oc o mpa re a tl e a s tt h ree o rf ou rl a rge s amp le so fc o in sf r om w ide ly s e pa ra ted r eg ion sw i th in t h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom , i no rde rt os e e whe the ra ny o fM i s sP i ne ' sg roup ss how s i gn so fb e ing l o ca l ized i nt h e i ro ccu r rence , o rd if e ren t f r om e a ch o the r i nt h e i r b ehav iou r . S he h a s , a f te r a l , made t h e q ue s t ion ap o in ted o ne , b y d e sc r ib ing t h e g roup s . I ft h ey a r e n o t l o ca l ized ( a nd mo s t o fu sw i l l n eed p e r suad ing ) , wha ta r et h ey ? Wha ta dm in i s t ra t ive a r rangemen t sd ot h ey r ef l ec t ?T he b a s ic p o in tt h a tn eed st ob eg iven p rom inence i st h a ti nd iv idua l moneye r sd rew t h e i r d i e sf r om mo re t h an o ne g roup . T h i si s ,f r ank ly ,f a ta lt ot h el o ca l iza t ion h ypo the s i s ; o ne wou ld n eed t or e so r t t ot h ew i ld ly i mp lau s ib le t h eory o fp e r ipa te t ic moneye r s v i s i t ing f i xed , b u t s c a t te red , d i e -cu t t ing c en t re s . S o wha t a r e t h e g roup s ? C lea r -headed s t a t i s t ica lc ompa r i son sw i l lb en e eded ,a nd t h en umbe r so ff i nd sw i l l h ave t ob e l a rge e nough f o r t h e ma rg in s o fs t a t i s t i ca lu nce r ta in ty t ob e a c cep tab le . Hoa rd sw i l ls e rve , i fh and led c au t iou s ly . S t ray f i nd sf r om as i t eo rf r om ar e s t r ic ted r eg ion wou ld b e s t a t i s t ica l ly p ref e r ab le , i ft h e re w e re e nough o ft h em . Obv iou s ly w e a r e a l p inn ing o u r h ope s a nd o u r c u r io s i ty o n B ambu rgh , whe re t h e e xcava t ion sh ave y i e lded ar i ch s e r ie so fc o in f i nd s . I ts hou ld b ep o s s ib le o ne d ay t o make s t a t i s t ica l ly u sef u l c o mpa r i son s b e tween t h e B ambu rgh s i t e -f ind s a nd t h e Yo rk h oa rd s ,a nd t h a ts hou ld t e l lu s whe the rm in t ing w a s ,a f te ra l ,d iv ided b e tween d if e ren tc en t re so r whe the ri tw a sa l o rv i r tua l ly a l c oncen t ra ted a tY o rk . I fYo rk w a st h em in t -p lace o fu pwa rd so f8 0o r9 0p e rc en to fs t yca s ,t h ed i e -g roup ing sw i l l p e rhap s p rove t o b e o fo n ly l im i ted i n te re s t f o r mone ta ry h i s to ry . I f , h oweve r , m in t ing w a s d ecen t ra l ized , s ome v e ry e n t ic ing o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r t h e a na ly s i s o f 1 32
P HA SE S A ND G ROUP S mone t a ry c i rcu l a t ion w i l l a r i se . We n eed t o k now f o r s u re , o ne w ay o r a no the r . P e rhap s Imay b e a lowed t o r e f e r b r ief ly t o t h e d iv i s ion o f" E the l red ' s c o in s b e tween h i s f i r s t a nd s e cond r e ign s . One c an i mag ine c i rcum s tance s i n wh ich t h e e v idence o f d i e l inkage m igh t o ve r r ide t h e h oa rd -ev idence , b u t Id o n o t f o r a momen t b e l ieve t h a t s u ch c ou ld p rove t ob e t h e c a se i nt h e y ea r s b ef o re a nd a f te r Redwu lf . T he c on t ra s t b e tween t h e H exham h oa rd a nd t h e l a te r h oa rd s , a nd t h e w i thd r awa l o fa l s i lve r f r om t h e a loy , b y ar e f o rm u nde r taken b y t h e moneye r E a rdwu lf ,t oge the rs e em t o me t ob er ock so l id e v idence a ga in s ta ny s c heme wh ich s e ek s t od iv ide t h e ' f i r s t re ign ' c o in s ( a s h i the r to a t t r ibu ted ) b e tween t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond r e ign so nt h ee v idence o ft ypo logy , d i e l ink s ,o r wha teve r . Iwou ld b ev e ry , v e ry s u rp r i sed i fa ny f u tu re d i scove r ie s w e re t os ub s tan t ia te s u ch a n a r rangemen t . M RBO OTH : My r em a rk s a r e c onf ined t ot h e s uppo sed ' g roup ' o fc o in s wh ich M i s s P i ne c l a s s if i e sa s' The E a r ly S tyca s :' E the l red I ,A lfwa ld ,a nd E an red ( Pha se sI Aa nd I B ) ' . Two c r i t ic i sm sa r i se : o ne ag ene ra l ma t te ro f me thodo logy ,a nd o ne o fs p ec if i c t e rm ino logy . M i s sP i ne of end so no cca s ion a ga in s ta ni mpo r tan t me thodo log i ca lp r inc ip le , i n p re sen t ing p o s s ib i l i t i e s a nd h ypo the se s a s t hough t h ey w e re e s tab l i shed f a c t s , s ome t ime se ven f a i l ing t o men t ion t h ea l te rna t ive s .T he mo s ti mpo r tan te xamp le o f t h i si sh e ra s c r ip t ion o ft h ec o in si nt h en ame o f" E lfwa ld t o" E lfwa ld I , who se d a te s s h eg ive sa sc . 806-8 . S he may p rove t ob ec o r rec ti nh e ra s sump t ion sh e re .B u ta tt h i s s t age o fo u rk now l edge men t ion s hou ld h ave b een made o ft h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e c o in s m ay b e long t oA lfwa ld I( 7 79-88 ) , a nd a l so o ft h e e v idence f r om Roge r o f Wendove ra nd t h eF r ank i sh Anna l s wh ich p o in tt o8 0810 a s mo re p robab le d a te s f o r t h e r e ign o f" E lfw a ld I . E l sewhe re M i s sP i ne a s se r t s : 'We n ow k now o f Cu thhea rd a s amoneye rs t r ik ing i ns i lve r f o r t h ree k ing s ' , a nd t r ace s h i s c a ree r f r om i t s b eg inn ing i n t h e r e ign o f ' E the l red I( 7 90-6 ) ,t h rough t h a to f fE lfwa ld Ia nd i n to t h a to fEan red ( 8 10-4 1 ) .S he s how sn oh e s i ta t ion i na s c r ib ing a l t h ree g roup so fc o in st o as i ng le man . A ga in s h e m ay b ec o r rec t ,b u ts u r e ly i tr ema in sp o s s ib le t h a tt h e CVDhEART o ft h e" E lfwa ld c o in si sn o tt h es ame m an a st h e CVDHEARD who s t ruck c o in sf o r" E the l red , a nd t h a tt h e CVDHARD o fE an red ' sr e ign i sad if e ren tp e r son f r om o ne o rb o th o ft h e o the r s .M i s sP i ne i sr i gh tt ou s et h e Cu thhea rd e v idence i nh e ra t tack o nt h et e nuou s a s sump t ion t h a t ' E an red ' sc o inage . . .s t a r ted ag ood wh i le a f te rh e c ame t ot he t h rone ' . B u ts h e s hou ld m ake c l ea rt h a tt h ef o rce o ft h i se v idence ( a nd i td oe sh ave f o rce ) r e l ie s h eav i ly o n u np roven a s sump t ion s a bou t t h e i d en t i t ie s o ft h e i E lfwa ld a nd Cu thhea rd s o ft h e s e r ie s . T he c o mmen tt h a tC u thhea rd s t r ike s' i ns i l v e r 'f o rt h ree k ing s ,b r ing su p as e cond i sue : t h i s t ime o f i n te rpr e ta t ion a nd t e rm ino logy . M i s s P i ne ' s p e r spec t ive h e re s e em s t o s how i n suf f i c ien t r ega rd t o t h e ( a dm i t ted ly s c an ty ) a na ly t ica l e v idence , wh ich p o in t s t o ac l ea r d if e rence b e tween t h e ' s i lve r ' o f' E the l red Ia nd t h a t o f E an red . Wha t me ta l a n a ly se s t h e re a r e s how as im i la r s p read o fs i lve r v a lue s i n ' E the l red ' s moneye r ' s -n ame c o in s t ot ho se o ft h e a n ima l c o in s o ft h e l a t te r p a r t o f E adbe rh t ' s r e ign ( 7 38-57 ) a nd o ft h e r e ign s o fA lch red ( 7 65-74 ) a nd " E lfwa ld I ( 7 79-88 ) . T hey s ugge s t ap robab le of i c ia l s t anda rd t h rough mo s t o f t h e e i gh th c en tu ry o f mo re t h an 6 0 p e r c en t s i lve r , s l ipp ing o n o cca s ion s t o 5 0 p e r c en t o r b e low . Ana ly se so ft h ec o in so fE an red ,h oweve r ,n ev e rg ive ar e su l th ighe rt h an c . 43 1 33
E .J . E . P IR IE
p e rc en ts i lve r , i mp ly ing a ni n i t ia l , of i c ia ls t anda rd s i gn if i can t ly l owe rt h an t h a to f t h e p rev iou s c en tu ry . T hu s t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e c en tu ry t h e moneye r ' s -name i sue s o f' E the l r ed c ou ld h ave c i rcu la ted f r ee ly a l ong s ide t h e e a r l ie r a n ima l c o in s . B u t e ven E an r ed ' s e a r l ie s t' s i lve r 'c o in so ft h e8 10 so r8 20 s ,a r eu n l ike ly t oh ave i mp re s sed t h e i ru s e r sa s o ft h es ame me ta la st h ec o in so ft wo o r mo re d ecad e se a r l ie r . I ts e em sl i ke ly t h a tt h e g rea te r i n t r in s ic v a lue o f t h e e i gh th cen tu ry c o in s e n su red t h a t t h ey w e r e s oon h oa rded o u to fc i rcu la t ion ,a sh appened r e cen t ly i nt h ec a se o fp re 1947 s i lve rc o in s . T he e i gh th -cen tu ry a nd n in th -cen tu ry s e r ie s s hou ld t hu s b e s e en a ss e pa ra te . T he e a r l ie rs e r ie sa ch ieved amode ra te ly h igh a nd r e la t ive ly s t ab le m e ta l -qua l i ty u n t i lt h e s udden c o l lap se i n t h e 7 90 s ; t h e l a te r s e r ie s b egan o n al owe r m e ta l s t anda rd a nd t h e reaf te r moved i n to ad ra s t ic d ec l ine . Wi th t h e se c on s ide ra t ion s i n v i ew i ts e em s u nf o r tuna te t h a t M i s s P i x ie s hou ld c on t inue t o i n s i s t s o empha t ica l ly o n at e rm ino logy wh ich d i s t ingu i she s ` s tyca s ' f r om ` s cea t ta s ' o n t h e g round s o ft h e i r r eve r se d e s ign . T he d i s t inc t ion i ss e t o u t i n P i ne , 1 984 : ' A l l t h e a u tho r ized " s tyca s" d ep ic t o nt h e i rr eve r se t h en ame o fo ne o r o the ro ft h e of i c ia l sr e spon s ib le t ot h ek ing o rt ot h ea r chb i shop f o rt h e i rc o inage ... T he " s cea t ta s" t h em se lve sh ave t h e d i e w i th t h ek ing ' sn ame c o mb ined e i the rw i th o ne p o r t ray ing ap r anc ing a n ima l o r w i th o ne r e co rd ing t h e a r chb i shop ' s n ame ' ( 6 7-8 ) . I ti st h i s d i s t inc t ion wh ich l e ad s M i s s P i ne t o l i s t c o in s o f ' E the l red I ' s moneye r E anba ld s e pa r a te ly f r om " E the l red ' s o the r c o in s , a l ong w i th t h e e a r l ie r a n ima l type i sue s . E anba ld i sa s sumed ( w i thou t a r gumen t ) t ob e t h e A r chb i shop , a nd s ot h e c o in s b ecome ` s cea t ta s ' r a the r t h an ` s tyca s '— a d i s t inc t ion wh ich wou ld c e r ta in ly h ave b af f led t h e p eop le who made a nd u s ed t h em . Much mo re s i gn if i can t ly , h oweve r , t h ei sue so fl E the l red ' ss e cond r e ign , wh ich h i s to r ica l ly a nd e conom ica l ly b e long a tt h ee nd o ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry s e r ie s , a r eb y t h i s t a xonomy t a cked o n t o t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e b a se r n in th -cen tu ry c o inage o f E an red ,i n as uppo sed ' g roup 'o f' s i lve ra nd e a r ly b r a s sa loy ' c o in s ,o r' e a r ly s t yca s ' . T h i s c an o n ly c onf u se t h e h i s to r ica l p i c tu re . A l though t h e a dop t ion o f t h e moneye r ' s -name r eve r se b y " E lfwa ld I o r / E the l red I c e r ta in ly h ad s ome a dm in i s t ra t ive s i gn if i cance , t h e c o l lap se o ft h e c o inage a nd t h e c hange o f me ta l q ua l i ty w e re u ndoub ted ly c hange s o f f a r g r ea te r h i s to r ica l a nd e conom ic i mpo r tance . T o i mpo se a n a r t if ic ia l mode rn t e rm ino logy u pon t he c o in s , wh ich g ive sp rom inence t ot h ee a r l ie rc hange o fd e s ign a tt h ee xpen se o ft h el a te rc hange o f me ta l q ua l i ty , i st o r i sk r ep lac ing t h e a c tua l p roce s se s o fh i s to ry w i th ap u re ly a b s t r ac t n um i sma t i c s t ruc tu ra l i sm . A s imp le a n swe r t o t h i s who le p rob lem wou ld b e t o a bandon t h e mode rn my s t if i ca to ry j a rgon o f` s cea t ta s ' a nd ` s tyca s ' a l toge the r , a nd t o s p eak o n ly a bou t d if e ren t k ind s o f' e a r ly p enn ie s ' , o r s imp ly ' c o in s ' .
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S ome t hough t s o nt h eh oa rd e v idence f o rt h e Nor thumb r ian s t yca c o inage H.E.P AGAN
I TWA S t h e d i scove ry o f ah oa rd o fn in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian c o in s a tR ipon s ome t ime i nt h e e a r ly s umme r o f1 695 t h a t f i r s t d rew t h e a t ten t ion o fs c ho la r s t o t h e No r thumbr ian s e r ie s a ss u ch . T he h oa rd c on ta ined c o in s s p ann ing t h e r e ign s o f No r thumb r ian k ing s f r om E an red t oO sbe rh t , a nd i tw a s t h e f i r s t o f as e r ie s o f s u ch h oa rd s t h a t h ave c o me t o l i gh t o ve r t h e l a s t t h ree c en tu r ie s . I t s c ompo s i t ion c anno t n ow b e r e con s t ruc ted i ne xac t d e ta i l , b u t E l izabe th P i ne h a s b een a b le t o b r ing t oge the r e v idence t os how t h a t i tr e semb led o the rh oa rd si ne nd ing mo re o r l e s s a tt h e p o in t when t h e No r thumb r ian s t yca c o inage i t se lf e nd s : ' t h a t i st os a y , i t i n c luded a s uf i c i en t s p read o f c o in s i n t h e n ame s o f O sbe rh t a nd o f c on tempo ra ry o r n e a r con tempo ra ry c o in s w i th d e r iva t ive o r b lunde red i n sc r ip t i on st os ugge s tt h a ta l though i tmay n o th ave c on ta ined e ve ry l a s tv a r ie ty o ft h e se l a te i sue s , t h e c o in s t h a t i td id c on ta in w e re af a i r c ro s s sec t ion o ft h em . I fi td id d if e r i n a ny s ub s tan t i a l r e spec t f r om o the r c o mpa ra t ive h oa rd s , i tw a s i n b e ing s omewha t mo re h e av i ly w e igh ted t owa rd s t h e se l a te i sue s , _f o r among s ome 12 r e levan t c o in s i n t h e c o l lec t ion s o fA rchb i shop S ha rp a nd Ra lph T ho re sby o n ly s i x w e r e o fE an red ,2 a nd t h e p reponde rance o fl a te r a nd l e s s i n te l l ig ib le c o in s i ni t w a s s u ch t h a t i tl e f t t h e s c ho la r s i n to who se h and s t h e c o in s c ame i nc on s ide rab le d oub t a st ot h e i r i d en t if i ca t ion . S i r And rew F oun ta ine , w r i t ing ad ecade l a te r a nd r e ly ing a lmo s t e n t i re ly o n c o in s f r om t h e t h e R ipon h oa rd f o r h i s k now ledge o f t h e s e r i e s , w a s n o t i ndeed a b le t o i s o la te t h e s e pa ra te i sue s o f i nd iv idua l No r thumb r ian r u le r s , a nd h ad t o g roup a l u nde r t h e g ene ra l h ead ing o f c o in s s t ruck b y k ing s o r —h i s wo rd — ' sa t rap s ' o f No r thumb r ia .3 I tw a s n o d oub t a l so t h e p reponde rance o fl a te i sue s t h a t c au sed T ho re sby a nd A rchdeacon N ico l son t os p eak o ft h e s t yca c o inage a s ab ra s s c o inage r a the r t h an a s ac oppe r c o inage a s t h ey m igh t h ave , h ad t h e h oa rd c on ta ined mo re o ft h e s upe rf i c ia l ly c oppe r c o in s o ft an r ed a nd o f' E the l red I ' s f i r s t r e ign . 4 One c an t hu s n o t u n rea sonab ly s e e t h e R ipon h oa rd a so ne d epo s i ted a to r n ea r t h e c l o se o ft h e p e r iod d u r ing wh ich t h e
1 E l izabe th J . E . P i x ie , ' The R ipon h oa rd , 1 695 : c on tempo ra ry a nd c u r ren t i n te re s t ' , BN J 5 2 ( 1 982 ) , 8 4103 . P i ne , l o c .c i t . , 8 7 , 9 1 . I ti sn o t n ece s sa r i ly t he c a se t h a t a l t h e se 12 c o in s d e r ived f r om t h eR ipon h oa rd , b u tt h eg rea t ma jo r i ty d oub t l e s sd id . A . F oun ta ine , N um i sma ta A ng l o -Saxon i ca &A ng l o -Dan i ca b r ev i t e r i l u s t r a ta , Oxf o rd , 1 705 , 2
3
p . 182 . N ico l son w r i te s o f ' you r l a te d i scove red b ra s s c o in s ' i n al e t te r t o T ho re sby o f 1Augu s t 1 696 ( P ix ie , o p .c i t . , 8 5 ) , a nd e n t r ie s r e la t ing t o c o in s f r om t h e R ipon h oard i n T hore sby ' s mu seum a c ce s s ion b ook r e f e r t o ' sma l l b ra s s S axon s t yca s ' a nd ' S axon b ra s s c o in s ' ( P i ne , o p .c i t . , n . 13 o np p .98-9 ) . 4
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H . E . PAGA N
No r thumb r ian s u s ed s t yca s a nd a sc on ta in ing ah ighe r p ropo r t ion t h an u sua l o f r e cen t ly s t ruck c o in .5 Mo s t o f t h e h oa rd s t h a t h ave c ome t o l i gh t s i nce h ave l i kew i se e nd ed w i th c o in s o fO sbe rh t , a nd t h e i r e v iden t ia l v a lue i sr a the r c o l lec t ive t h an i nd iv idua l , f o r o u r s t a te o fk now ledge a bou t t h e c o inage i sn o t p rof ound e nough t od raw u s ef u l d i s t inc t ion s b e tween h oa rd s o f s u ch b road ly s im i la r c o mpo s i t ion , a nd o u r k now ledge o ft h e h oa rd s i si na ny c a se p a tchy . T he mo s t s i gn if i can t o ft h e h oa rd s a r e o ne f r om K i rko swa ld , i nC umb r ia , f ound i n 1 808 ;6 o ne f ound o n as i t e n ea r S t Ma ry ' s Abbey , Y o rk , i n1 83 1 ; 7 av e ry l a rge h oa rd f ound i nS tL eona rd ' s P lace , Yo rk , i n 1 842 ;8 a nd t wo l a rge h oa rd s f r om B o l ton P e rcy , o n t h e R iv e r Wha rf e b e tween Yo rk a nd T adca s te r , f ound r e spec t ive ly i n 1 847 a nd 1 967 b u t p e rhap s o r ig ina l ly p a r t so fo ne a nd t h es ame c oncea led s um o f money .9 Of t h e se h oa rd s , w e h ave af u l l p ub l ica t ion o ft h e o n ly r e cen t o ne , t h e 1 967 B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd . V a r iou s l i s t s w e re made o fp a rce l s f r om t h e Yo rk 1 842 h oa rd a nd t h e B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd o f1 847 a tt h e t ime o ft h e i r d i scove ry , a nd a l though t h e se g ive o n ly ag ene ra l i d e a o ft h e h oa rd s ' c on ten t s , o ne o ft h e p a rce l s f r om t h e 1 847 h oa rd t u rned u p i ni t se n t i re ty a t aCh r i s t ie ' s s a le i n Ap r i l 1 98 1 a nd E l izabe th P i ne h a s p ub l i shed t h e 4 69 c o in s i nvo lved ." B eyond t h a t , 3 22 o ft h e o r ig ina l 3 60 c o in s f r om t h eY o rk 1 83 1 h oa rd s u rv ive a tS tonyhu r s ta nd ap a rce l o f3 9c o in s s t i l l r ema in s t oge the r f r om t h e K i rko swa ld h oa rd . We a r e t hu s p o ten t ia l ly n o t t oo b ad ly p l aced i n a s se s s ing t h e r ange o fv a r ie t ie s p re sen t i n e a ch h oa rd . S t a t i s t ica l c o mpa r i son o ft h e h oa rd si smuch mo re d if i cu l t , f o rt h e Ch r i s t ie ' sp a rce lf r om t h e 1 847 B o l ton -P e r cy h oa rd i s ap a rce l s p ec ia l ly p i cked o u t b y ac on tempo ra ry c o l lec to r a nd c on sequen t ly n o t ar andom s e lec t ion f r om t h e h oa rd , a nd s e lec t iv i ty may h ave h ad i t s i mpac t a l so o n t h e s u rv iv ing p a rce l s a t S tonyhu r s t a nd
I n h e r r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e h oa rd M i s s P i ne i d en t if ie s a l b u t o ne o f t h e s t yca s i lu s t r a ted b y F oun ta ine wh ich h ad n o t p rev iou s ly b een i lu s t ra ted i no the r p ub l ica t ion s w i th s pec i men s b e long ing e i the r t o T hore sby o r t o S ha rp . T h i s i sp robab ly n o t a l toge the r c or rec t , f o r F oun ta ine s t a te s t h a t N ico l son s upp l ied h im w i th ` nummo s b aud p auco s , c um e x a e re t u rn e x a rgen to c onf la to s ' f o r i lu s t ra t ion o n h i s p l a te s , a nd a p ropor t ion o f t h e se mu s t h ave b een s t yca s ( Foun ta ine , o p .c i t . , 1 66 ) . I ts e rve s h oweve r r a the r t o c onf i rm t h e g ene ra l p i c tu re o ft h b h oa rd g iven b y M i s s P i ne t h an t oi mpa i r i t , f o r i ti sa n i nd ica t ion t h a t t h e re mu s t h ave b een c l o se c o r re spondence b e tween t h e c o in s f r om t h e h oa rd p o s se s sed b y N ico l son a nd t ho se p o s se s sed b y T ho re sby a nd S ha rp . F o r e v idence t h a t N ico l son ' s s t yca s c ame f r om t he R ipon h oa rd s e e h i s l e t te r t o T ho re sby o f 2 5 Nov . 1 695 , i n whc ih h e t h ank s T ho re sby f o r g iv ing h im ' h a lf a s c o re c o in s o f o u r o ld Nor thumbr ian k ing s ' ( L e t t e r s o fE m in en t Men , A dd r e s s ed t o R a lph T ho r e sby , F .R .S ., 1 832 , v o l . i ,2 20 ) ; h i s l e t te r t o E dwa rd L loyd o f 2 5 J an . 1 696 /7 , i n wh ich h e s t a te s t h a t h e h a s ' as c o re o f 5
t h e l a t te r m e ta l [ s c . b ra s s ] , f ound i n Yo rk sh i re ' ( L e t t e r s . . t oa nd f r om W i l l iam N i c o l s on , D. D., e d .J .N icho l s , 1 809 , v o l . i ,5 4 ) ; a nd ap a s sage i n h i s E ng l i sh H i s t o r i c a lL i b r a ry i n wh ich h er e co rd s t h a t p a rce l s o fc o in s f r om t h e R ipon h oa rd h ad b een d i s t r ibu ted t o v a r iou s i n te re s ted p er son s b y t h e l o ca l l a ndowne r S i r E dwa rd B lacke t t B t . , af a c t wh ich N ico l son wou ld p re sumab ly o n ly h ave b o the red t o r e co rd i fh e h ad b een ( v ia T ho re sby ) t h e u l t ima te g a ine r f r om s u ch b enevo lence . E .J .E . P i ne , ' F ind s o fs c ea t ta s a nd s t yca s o f No r thumb r ia ' , i n M . A . S . B lackbu rn , e d . , A ng l o -Sax on Mon e ta ry H i s to ry , E s say s i n Memo ry o fM i cha e l D o l l ey , 1 986 , p p .67-90 ( f ind n o .96 a tp p .8 1-2 ) . Pin e , l o c .c i t . , 1 986 , f i nd n o .33 a tp . 75 . 8 P i ne , l o c .c i t . , 1 986 , f i nd n o .36 a tp . 76 . 9 P i ne , l o c .c i t . , 1 986 , f i nd s n o s .40 , 4 1 a t p .76 . F o r t h e 1 967 B o l ton P e rcy h oard s e e H . E .P agan , ' The B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd o f1 967 ' , BN J4 3 ( 1 973 ) , 1 -44 . r o E .J .E .P i ne , ' E a r ly No r thumbr ian c o in s a t a uc t ion , 1 98 1 ' , BN J5 1 ( 1 98 1 ) , 3 2-5 1 .
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THOUGHTS ON THE HOARD EV IDENCE FOR THE S TYCA CO INAGE
K i rko swa ld ." No r i si ta sy e t p o s s ib le t od e sc r ibe t h e c on ten t o fe a ch h oa rd i na n u n if o rm m anne r , f o r w eh ave n o t q u i te a r r ived a t ac on sen su s a bou t wh ich o ft h e c o in s i nt h e l a te r p a r t o ft h e s e r ie s a r e o f ic ia l r ega l i sue s a nd wh ich a r e n o t , a nd w e h ave n o t d ev i sed a n e f ec t ive n um i sma t ic s ho r thand w i th wh ich t o d e sc r ibe i m i ta t ive a nd i r regu la r p i ece s . A l l t h e ref o re t h a t o ne c an d o a tt h e momen t i st o t a bu la te t h e r e la t ive p ropo r t ion s o f c o in s o f e a ch b road c a tego ry i n t h e 1 967 B o l ton P e r cy h oa rd , i nt h e C h r i s t ie ' s p a rce l f r om t h e 1 847 B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd , a nd i nt h e S tonyhu r s t c o in s t h a t s u rv ive f r om t h e 1 831 Yo rk h oa rd , a nd s e e h ow t h ef i gu re sl ook .' 2
E anred ' E the lred ( 1 s t r e ign ) Redwu lf " E the lred ( 2nd r e ign ) O sberh t Der iva t ive r ega l Abp E anba ld Abp Wigmund Abp Wu l fhere No t c l a s s if i ed
B o l ton P e r cy 1 967
B o l ton P e r cy 1 847
Y o rk 1 831
(%)
(%)
(%)
1 2 .0 3 3 .7 2 . 1 9 . 2 4 . 2 2 2 .4 0 . 2 1 2 .0 0 . 8 3 . 2
1 3 .4 3 5 .2 1 . 3 6 . 8 3 . 8 2 6 .6
1 0 .7 3 9 .2 2 . 5 7 . 8 2 . 8 2 1 .2
1 0 .2 1 . 1 1 . 6
1 4 .0 2 . 2
I ti sn o t s e n s ib le t o b u i ld t oo much o n i nd iv idua l f i gu re s , o r o n t h e v a r ia t ion s b e tween t h em , b u t t h e p i c tu re t h a t a l t h ree c o lumn s p re sen t i st h a t s ome 6 0% o f t h e c on ten t o ft h e se h oa rd s w a s made u p b y r egu la r r ega l a nd a r ch iep i scopa l c o in s s t ruck i n t h e r e ign o f E an red , t h e f i r s t r e ign o f / E the l red a nd t h e r e ign o f R edwu lf , wh i le t h e b a l ance w a s made u p b y l a te r r ega l a nd a r ch iep i scopa l c o in s i n t h e n ame s o f ! E the l red , O sbe rh t , a nd A rchb i shop Wu l fhe re , a c coun t ing f o r s ome 1 3 o r 1 4% o ft h e t o ta l , a nd b y al a rge g roup o fl a te i sue s w i th d e r iva t ive t ype s a nd i n sc r ip t ion s , a c coun t ing f o r s omewhe re a round af i f th o r aq ua r te r o f t h e t o ta l d epend ing o n t h eh oa rd . T he se f i gu re s l ook r a the r d if e ren t f r om t h e a dm i t ted ly much l e s s r e l iab le f i gu re s t h a t c an b e c a lcu la ted o n t h e s ame b a s i s f o r t h e R ipon h oa rd , whe re o n ly s ome 2 2% o ft h e c o in s b e long ing t o S ha rp a nd T ho re sby w e re o ft h e E an red t o R edwu lf p e r iod a nd t h e r e s t w e re o ft h e l a te r p e r iod o fc o inage . T he mo s t l i ke ly c au se o ft h i si sn o t t h a t t h eR ipon h oa rd w a s d epo s i ted l a te r t h an t h e o the rh oa rd s , 1 1 T he K i rko swa ld p a rce l i s e v iden t ly a r e s idue l e f ta f te r t h er ema inde ro ft h eh oa rd h ad b een d i spe r sed . A s f o r t h e c o in s a tS tonyhu r s t , M i s s P i x ie b e l ieve s t h a t t h e h oa rd c ame t o S t onyhu r s t i ni t se n t i re ty , a nd t h e o n ly p o in t a t i sue i s whe the r t h e c o in s t h a t h ave g one m i s s ing s i nce i n c luded ad i sp ropo r t iona te n um b e ro fc o in so fs c a rce rv a r ie t ie s . T he f i gure s g i ven f o r t h e 1 967 B o l ton 1 2
P e rcy h oa rd a r e t ho se t h a t c an b e e x t rac ted f r om T ab le 1o n p p .3-4 o fP agan , 1 973 , l o c .c i t . T ho se f o r t h e 1 847 h oa rd h ave b een c a lcu la ted f r om t h e d a ta g i ven b y P i x ie , 1 98 1 , l o c .c i t . , w i th s ome a d ju s tmen t t o b r ing h e r a r range m en t o f t h e c o in s i n to l i ne w i th t h a t a dop ted f o r t h e 1 967 h oa rd . T he f i gu re s f o r t h e York h oa rd a r e t a ken w i thou t much a d ju s tmen t f r om t h es umma ry g i ven b yP i ne , 1 986 , l o c .c i t .
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f o r i td oe s n o t s e em t o h ave c on ta ined a ny th ing t h a t i sn o t i n t h e o the r h oa rd s , b u t t h a t , a ss ugge s ted e a r l ie r , i tw a s as um o fr e la t ive ly r e cen t ly s t ruck c o in a nd h ad l e s s o f as a v ing s o r a c cumu la ted t r ea su re e l emen t t h an t h e h oa rd s f r om Yo rk a nd B o l ton P e rcy . T h i s l e ave s f o r d i scu s s ion t h e o ne r ema in ing s ub s tan t ia l h oa rd o fs t yca s , n ame ly t h e H exham h oa rd . On 1 5 O c tobe r 1 832 ah oa rd o fs ome 8 , 000 No r thumb r ian c o in s o ft h e n in th c en tu ry , p re se rved i n ab ronz e b ucke t o ft h e s ame p e r iod , c ame t o l i gh t wh i le a g rave w a s b e ing d ug o u t s ide t h e n o r th t r an sep t o f H exham A bbey . A bou t 5 , 000 o ft h e se w e re s e en b y t h e N ewca s t le s o l ic i tor a nd a n t iqua ry J ohn Adam son , a nd i ti so n h i s p ub l i shed a c coun t o ft h e h oa rd i nA r ch a e o l og ia" t h a t o ne mu s t c h ief ly d epend . Wha t h e s a y s i nt h e t e x t o fh i s a r t ic le i sn o t i nf a c t o f much u s e , b u t t h e p l a te s wh ich i lu s t ra te i tc a r ry a c cu ra te r ep re sen ta t ion so f9 44 o f t h e c o in s f ound a nd t h e se a r e s uf i c ien t ly n ume rou s a nd s e lec ted w i th s u ch a ppa ren t c a re t h a t s c ho la r sh ave f e l t a b le t or e ly o n t h em a se v idence f o rt h e r ange o f c o in s c on ta ined i n t h e h oa rd a s a who le . I tm ay b e t h a t Adam son f a i led t o i lu s t ra te t h e o cca s iona l c o in o f s i gn if i cance f o r t h e h oa rd ' s d a t ing o r f o r t h e c h rono logy o f t h e s t yca s e r ie s , b u t i fo ne w i she s t o a rgue t h a t a ny p a r t icu la r i n te re s t ing v a r ie ty o f c o in w a s p re sen t i n t h e h oa rd a l though n o t i lu s t ra ted b y Adam son , t h ec a se f o rt h i s mu s tb e made o u tp rope r ly ." T he H exham h oa rd i so f c en t ra l i mpo r tance f o r t h e s t yca s e r ie s , f o r i ti st h e o n ly s t yca h oa rd o fa ny s i ze t o h ave b een d epo s i ted i n t h e r e ign o f ak ing o the r t h an O sbe rh t . We c an wo rk o u t t h a t i t s d a te o f d epo s i t w a s s ome t ime i n t h e s e cond r e ign o f; E the l red , f o r i tc on ta ined n o c o in s o fO sbe rh t o r o fA rchb i shop Wu l fhe re o r o f al a te g roup ing o fc o in s i nt h e n ame o f' E the l red b y t h e moneye r s E anwu lf a nd Monne wh ich d i e l ink w i th c o in s o f O sbe rh t ; a nd w e d o i n f a c t k now wha t t h e l a te s t c o in s o f. / E the l red p re sen t i n t h e h oa rd w e re . A dam son ' s p l a te s , a s w e l l a s i lu s t ra t ing n o f ewe r t h an 3 84 c o in s o f t h e ma in p ha se o f Athe l red ' s c o inage , d u r ing wh ich r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r i t s m anuf ac tu r e w a s s h a red b e tween s e ve ra l moneye r s , i lu s t ra te j u s t 1 c o in s b e long ing t o an ew p ha se o f c o inage i n wh ich r e spon s ib i l i ty e s sen t ia l ly r e s ted w i th t h e moneye r E a rdwu lf o n ly . • Is p eak o f an ew p ha se o fc o inage b ecau se o ne c an d emon s t ra te t h a t t h e se 1 c o in s b e long t o an ew p ha se o fc o inage b y a rgumen t s q u i te i ndependen t o ft ho se t e nd ing t o s how t h a t t h ey b e long t o an ew r e ign . T he ma in e v idence t h a t an ew p ha se o ft h e c o inage i si nvo lved i st h ef a c t t h a t whe rea s Adam son ' s p l a te si lu s t ra te af u l l r ange o fc o in s o fa l Athe l red ' s o the r moneye r s ( l eav ing a s ide t h e c o in s o f E anwu lf a nd Monne j u s t r e f e r red t o ) , t h ey i lu s t ra te o n ly ap o r t ion o ft h e k nown v a r ie t ie s o fc o in s s t ruck b y t h i s p a r t icu la r money e r E a rdwu lf , a nd t h a t p o r t ion i s i nn o s e n se ar andom s e lec t ion f r om h i s o u tpu t , f o r i th a s a ti t s c o re c o in s s t ruck f r om aw e l l -def ined g roup ing o fd i e s o fn ea t s t y le , u sua l ly w i th s ma l l , c a ref u l ly e xecu ted l e t te r ing a nd w i th b eaded i nne r c i rc le s . T h i s g roup a c coun t s f o r f i ve o f t h e n ine c o in s o f E a rdwu lf t h a t Adam son i lu s t r a te s ( no s .85-7 , 8 9-90 o n h i s p l a te s ) . H e i lu s t r a te s t wo o the r c o in s wh ich a r e s t ruck f r om as im i la r o bve r se d i e
J . Ada m son , ' An a ccoun t o ft he d i scovery a t Hexha m ... o f ab ra s s v e s se l c on ta in ing a n umber o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c o in s c a l led 1 3
s t yca s ' , A r chaeo log ia 2 5 ( 1 834 ) , 2 79-310 . S ee t he r ema rk s b y t he p re sen t w r i te r , BN J5 2 ( 1 982 ) , 2 53-4 . 14
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b u t a r e f r om c rude ly c u t r eve r se d i e s w i th r e t rog rade l e gend s r e ad ing r e spec t ive ly ` F o rd red ' a nd ` Ae i l red R ' ( no s .124 , 3 14 ) . T he f ou r r ema in ing i lu s t ra ted c o in s o f E a rdwu lf d iv ide i n to t wo o fn o t d i s s im i la r c ha rac te r b u t wh ich h ave p l a in i nne r c i rc le s o n e a ch s i de ( no .84 a nd S upp lemen t n o .22 ) , a nd t wo w i th l e s s c a ref u l ly e xecu ted o bve r se d i e s ( no s .88 , 9 1 ) . T he se l a s t t wo c o in s b e long t o ag roup ing o f d i e s w e l l r ep re sen ted i n a l t h e l a te r h oa rd s , a nd i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e r e a son why Adam son w a s a b le t o i lu s t ra te o n ly t wo d i e s o f t h i s g roup ing w a s t h a t t h e H exham h oa rd w a s d epo s i ted a ta n e a r ly d a te w i th in t h e n ew p ha se o fc o inage when o n ly t h e f i r s t f ew o ft h e se l e s s c a ref u l ly e xecu ted d i e s h ad c o me i n to u s e . J u s t t o u nde r l ine t h i s , t h e 1 967 B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd c on ta ined , a l ong s ide 5 98 ma in -pha se c o in s o f ' E the l red , a s many a s 1 49 c o in s o f E a rdwu lf ; t h e se w e re s t ruck f r om 4 1 o bve r se d i e s o f wh ich o n ly s ome 4o r 5a r e d i e s t h a th ad b een u s ed t os t r ike c o in s p re sen ti nt h eH exham h oa rd . One g round f o r s uppo s ing t h a t a l t h e se c o in s b e long t o an ew p ha se o f i E the l red ' s c o inage i st hu s t h a t whe rea s H exham c on ta in s ac o mp le te r ange o ft h e c o in s o f t h e c o inage ' s m a in p ha se , i t c on ta in s o n ly a c h rono log i ca l ly e a r ly i n s ta lmen to ft ho se c a r ry ing t h en ame o ft h e moneye rE a rdwu lf . I ti sn o t t h e o n ly g round f o r s uppo s ing t h a t t h e se c o in s b e long t o an ew p ha se o fc o inage . F i r s t , t h e g roup ing o fc o in s i se s sen t ia l ly ag roup ing o fc o in s s t ruck b y t h i s o ne moneye r E a rdwu lf o n ly . I ti st r ue t h a t a n o bve r se d i eu s ed b y E a rdwu lf i s f ound , a sa l ready n o t ed , w i th c rude r eve r se d i e s r e ad ing ` F o rd red ' a nd ` Ae i l red R ' , a nd o bve r se d i e s u s ed b y E a rdwu lf a r e a l so f ound w i th ac rude r eve r se d i e r e ad ing ` Od i lo ' a nd o ne o r t wo r eve r se d i e s o fg ood s t y le r e ad ing W u lf red ' ; b u t t h e re a r e o the r i n s tance s o fs t yca d i e -cu t te r s c u t t ing r eve r se d i e s i n t h e n ame s o f moneye r s who w e re n o t i nf a c t wo rk ing a tt h e t ime t h a t t h e d i e s w e re c u t ,1 5 a nd Ia t tach n o i mpo r tance t o t h e ` F o rd red ' , ` Od i lo ' a nd ` Ae i l red R ' r eve r se d i e s , wh ich h ave n o m a tch ing o bve r se d i e s a nd w e re o bv iou s ly i n tended f o r u s e w i th a n o bve r se d i e o r d i e s c u t f o r E a rdwu lf . Wu lf rxd i s al i t t le mo re p uzz l ing , a nd i t may b e t h a t f o r ab r ief momen t h e wo rked a l ong s ide E a rdwu lf .1 6 I ti sh oweve r q u i te c e r ta in t h a t E a rdwu lf i st h e o n ly s ub s tan t ive moneye r i nt h i s g roup ing , a nd t h i s i si n s h a rp c on t ra s t w i th t h e manne r i n wh ich r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r t h e r ega l c o inage c an b e s e en t oh ave b een d iv ided among s ome n ine o r t e n moneye r s o n ly j u s t b ef orehand ; R edwu lf sc o inage h ad b een s t ruck b y a sm any a st e n moneye r s , a nd a s im i la r n umbe r o f i E the l red ' s e a r l ie r moneye r s s e em t o h ave wo rked c oncu r ren t ly . T he o bv iou s d educ t ion i s t h a t t h e s t r ik ing o f t h e se c o in s o f E a rdwu lf c o inc ided w i th a r e f o rm i n t h e manne r i n wh ich t h e s t r ik ing o f t h e c o inage w a s o rgan i zed , a nd t h a t f r om t h i s p o in to nwa rd s w e a r ei n an ew p ha se o f c o inage . T h i s d educ t ion i s s uppo r t ed b y t h e a ppea rance o f t h e E a rdwu lf c o in s t h em se lve s . T he i mpo r tan t i ng red ien t i n t h e i r d e s ign i sn o t t h e i r t ypo logy , f o r 1 5 On a n o cca s ion i n ! E the l red ' s r e ign a d i e -cu t te r c u t more o r l e s s s imu l taneou s ly r e v e r se d i e s i n t h e n ame s o f s e ven d if e ren t moneye r s , o f whom o ne , Coen rxd , w a s n o t a r ega l moneye r a t t h e t ime ( P agan , 1 973 , l o c . c i t . , 7 ) . 1 6 Wu lf rxd ' s c a ree r p re sen t s p rob lem s , f o r
a l though c o in s o f amoneye r Wu lf rxd e x i s t f o r E an red , f o r t h e ma in p ha se o f f E the l red ' s c o inage , f o r i t s E a rdwu lf p ha se ( t he c o in s d i scu s sed h e re ) , a nd f o r A rchb i shop Wu l fhe re , t he re i sn o c on t inu i ty f r om a ny o ft h e se g roup s t ot h en ex t o ne c h rono log ica l ly .
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t h ey c a r ry av a r ie ty o fc en t ra lf e a tu r e s o n o bve r se a nd r eve r se , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t o n e ve ry s i ng le E a rdwu lf c o in i lu s t ra ted b y Adam son — and i ndeed o n t h e m a jo r i ty o fE a rdwu lf sc o in s v i ewed a s awho le — the c en t ra l f e a tu re o n o bve r se o r r eve r se , b e i tc ro s s , p e l le t , o r s t a r , i ss e pa ra ted f r om t h e s u r round ing i n sc r ip t ion b y a n i nne r c i rc le . One m igh t w e l l i mag ine t h a t t h i s w a s s t anda rd p rac t i ce o n s t yc a s g ene ra l ly , b u t o ne h a s t og o b ack t ot h e c o inage s t ruck f o r A rchb i shop E anba ld I i nE an r ed ' s r e ign t o f i nd as e r ie s whe re i nne r c i rc le s o n b o th s i de s o ft h e c o in a r e c u s toma ry , a nd i ts e em s a ppa ren t , c oup l ing t h e u s e o fi nne r c i rc le s o n E a rdwu lf s d i e s w i th t h e v e ry n ea t s t y le o ft ho se d i e s t h a t a r e e a r l ie s t , t h a t t h e o rgan iza t iona l r e f o rm t h a t g ave E a rdwu lf h i s d om inan t r o le a s amoneye rw a sj o ined w i th an ew a pp roach t o t h e w ay i n wh ich t h e d i e s w e re d e s igned . D e s ign s t and a rd s c an b e s e en t o f a l l a way a st h i s p ha se o fc o inage p rog r e s se s , b u t t h a t s hou ld n o t o b scu r e wha td oe s s e em t oh ave b een amomen to fu p l if to nt he d e s ign f r on t .1 7 S o much f o r t h e a rgumen t s f o r t r ea t ing t h e se c o in s a sb e long ing t o as e pa ra te p ha se o f t h e c o inage . When S t ewa r t L yon a nd Iwo rked o n t h e s t yca s e r ie s , r e spec t ive ly i nt h e m id 1 950 s a nd a tt h e e nd o ft h e 1 960 s , w e b o th t ook t h e v i ew t h a t t h e ma in p ha se o f / E the l red ' s c o inage s hou ld b e i d en t if i ed a st h e c o inage o f h i s f i r s t r e ign a nd t h a t o ne s hou ld a t t r ibu te t ot h e s e cond r e ign wha t c an b e c a l led t h e E a rdwu lf p ha se o f c o inage . I ti sn o t h oweve r s t r ic t ly n ece s sa ry t h a t t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive r eo rgan iza t ion t h a t g ave r i se t o t h e E a rdwu lf p ha se s hou ld h ave c o inc ided w i th t h e s t a r t o f/ E the l red ' s s e cond re ign c o inage , a nd i ti st h eo re t ica l ly f e a s ib le t h a t i n s tead o f a t t r ibu t ing t h e who le o f t h e ma in p ha se o f Athe l red ' s c o inage t oh i s f i r s t r e ign , o ne c ou ld a t t r ibu te p a r t o fi tt oh i s f i r s t r e ign a nd p a r t o f i tt o t h e f i r s t y ea r o r t wo o f h i s s e cond r e ign , l e av ing t h e E a rdwu lf p h a se o f c o inage t o o ccupy o n ly t h e l a te r y ea r s o f t h e s e cond r e ign . T o d o t h i s , aw ay wou ld h ave t o b e f ound o f d i s t ingu i sh ing t ho se c o in s o f t h e ma in p ha se o f / E the l red ' s c o inage t h a t p recede t h e c o inage o f Redwu lf f r om t ho se wh ich f o l low i t . One s hou ld n o t d i sm i s s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fb e ing a b le t oa ch ieve t h i s , f o rs ome o f t h e n ume rou s l E the l red—Redwu lf d i e l ink s t h a t e x i s t may t u rn o u t o n c l o se r e xam ina t ion t o b e Redwu lf—iE the l red d i e l ink s , i . e . d i e l ink s whe re a s h a red r eve r se d i e w a s u s ed w i th a Redwu lf o bve r se d i e b ef o re i tw a s u sed w i th a n / E the l red o bve r se d i e . Wha t s p eak s al i t t le a ga in s t t h e p robab i l i ty o fJ E the l red ' s ma in -pha se c o inage f a l l ing i n to s e pa ra te p re - a nd p o s t -Redwu lf p o r t ion s i st h a t Redwu lf smoneye r s i n c lude t wo , Cu thbeo rh t a nd Hw a 2 tno th , who d o n o t c o in f o r / E the l red a ta l , wh i le t h ey e xc lude / E the l red ' s mo s t p ro l if i c ma in p ha se moneye r , L eof thegn . T h i s i sr e ad i ly e xp l icab le i fa l J E the l red ' s ma in -pha se c o in s p recede Redwu lf s ,i n wh ich c a se C u thbeo rh t a nd Hwx tno th m ay b e s e en a sr ep lacemen t s i n Redwu lf s r e ign f o rL eof thegn o r f o r a ny o the r moneye r o f/ E the l red n o l onge r a c t ive a tt h e t ime R edwu lf b ecame k ing , b u ti sn o t s oe a sy t oa c coun t f o ri f Redwu lf sc o inage i s t o b e s a ndw iched b e tween t wo g roup s o f . / E the l red ' s ma in -pha se c o in s . R edwu lf s c o inage i s i ndeed t i gh t ly d i e l inked i n t e rna l ly b y t h e s h a r ing o f o bve r se d i e s b e tween moneye r s a nd t i gh t ly d i e l inked t o J E the l red ' s c o in age b y
Add i t iona l ly , M ichae l Me tca lf a nd P e te r Nor thove r s how e l sewhe re i nt h i s v o lume t h a t a tt h i s s t age i nt h e c o inage t h e re w a s ar e f o rm 1 7
o fi t s a loy : t h e n ew c o in s b y E a rdwu lf m a rk t h e d e l ibe ra te a bandonmen t o fa ny a t temp t t o i n c lude s i lve ri nt h ec o inage m e ta l .
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s h a red r eve r se d i e s , a nd i f t h e re w a s i n f a c t af u r the r p e r iod o f ! E the l red ' s m a in -pha se c o inage a f t e r ! E the l red ' s r e cove ry o fp owe r i ti s al i t t le -p uzz l ing t h a t t h en ew moneye r s Cu thbeo rh ta nd Hwx tno th d o n o t p a r t ic ipa te i ni t ." Wha t c e r ta in ly s e em s u n l ike ly i st h a t t h e m a in -pha se c o inage c an b e d iv ided i n to a f i r s t re ign g roup a nd a s e cond re ign g roup o n t h e b a s i s o f o bve r s e a nd r eve r se t ype . I n t h e i mmed ia te ly p reced ing p e r iod , a t t h e e nd o f t h e r e ign o f E an red , i ti sa ppa ren t t h a t o ne moneye r , B ro the r , u s e s ama jor i ty o fd i e s c a r ry ing p e l le t a nd p e l le t in c i r c le d e s ign s a t t h e s ame t ime a s o the r moneye r s a r e e mp loy ing d i e s w i th c r o s s d e s ign s ; wh i le a no the r E an red moneye r , Monne , mo s t o f who se d i e s c a r ry c r o s s d e s ign s , m ixe s w i th t h em as ub s tan t ia l m ino r i ty o fd i e s c a r ry ing p e l le t in -c i r c le d e s ign s . F rom t h i s p o in t i nE an red ' s r e ign o nwa rd s t h e re i s ac on t inuou s f l ow o f c o inage r i gh t d own t o t h e t ime when t h e c o inage i s r e o rgan ized a nd i t s d e s ign r e though t a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e E a rdwu lf p ha se o f c o inage , a nd t h e re i sn o p o in t a t wh ich o ne c an p rove a ny c on sc iou s a t temp t a t g e t t ing a l t h e moneye r st os t r ike c o in sw i th t h es ame d e s ign . I ti so f c ou r se t h e c a se t h a t mo s t o f Redwu lf sc o in s a r e s t ruck f r om d i e s c a r ry ing s ma l l c ro s se s o rc ro s se s o fp e l le t s , b u t t o my m ind t h i s i sn o mo re t h an a n i n c iden ta l c on sequence o ft h e d i e s h av ing b een c u t b y t h e s ame h and a tr ough ly t h e s ame p o in t i nt ime , a nd t h e re w a s c e r ta in ly n o i n ten t ion t or e s t r ic t Redwu lf s c o inage t o c ro s s d e s ign s , f o r t h e re e x i s t Redwu lf o bve r se d i e s f o r t h e moneye r C oen rxd c a r ry ing t h e d e s ign o f as i ng le p e l le t w i th in a b eaded c i rc le , a nd t h e moneye r Monne u s e s r e ve r se s w i th p e l le td e s ign s i nc on junc t ion w i th c r o s s -de s ign Redwu lf o bve r se s . Ih ave a rgued i nt h e p a s t i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e l a te r c o in s o fE an red t h a t t h e s ma l l v a r ia t ion s i n o bve r se i n sc r ip t ion t h a t o ccu r b e tween d i e s u s ed b y o ne moneye r a nd d i e s u s ed b y ac o l league r ef l ec t aw i sh t o d i s t ingu i sh wh ich d i e s s hou ld b e u s ed b y wh i ch moneye r , a nd t hu s t h a t v a r ia t ion s o ft h i s n a tu re a r e n o t e v idence t h a t p a r t icu l a r d i e s w e re c u t b y d if e ren t d i e -cu t te r s b u t r a the r e v idence t h a t t h ey a l d e r ived f r om a c o mmon s ou rce . ' 9 Wi th Athe l red ' s m a in -pha se c o inage t h e p o s i t ion i s much mo re c o mp lex , a nd t h e d i e s u s ed b y o ne moneye r , L eof thegn , c e r ta in ly i n c lude a p ropo r t ion s upp l ied b y ad i e -cu t te r who a t t h a t t ime w a s c u t t ing d i e s f o r L eof thegn o n ly ; b u t It h ink n o tw i th s tand ing t h a t d u r ing t h e m a in -pha se c o inage much o ft h e d ive r s i ty i no bve r se i n sc r ip t ion a nd t ype t h a t o ccu r s i s , a s u nde r E an red , n o t e v idence t h a t t h e d i e s i nvo lved w e re c u t i n d if e ren t wo rk shop s o r a t d if e ren t p e r iod s o f t ime , b u t e v idence o f as i ng le d i e -cu t t ing work shop v ee r ing b e tween v a r ie ty a nd u n if o rm i ty i n d e s ign a si tc u t g roup s o f d i e s i n r a p id s u cce s s ion f o r d i s t r ibu t ion b e tween u p t o t e n d if e ren t moneye r s . V a r ie ty a nd u n if o rm i ty i nc o in d e s ign a r e i n as e n se , i f Im ay p u t am e tapho r t o mo re p o in ted u s e t h an u sua l , d if e ren t s i de s o f t h e s ame c o in ; f o r , wh i le u n if o rm i ty c an o n ly r e a l ly b e a ch ieved i fo ne d i e cu t t ing wo rk shop i sr e spon s ib le f o r a n e n t i re i sue , s o a l so r e a l ly e f ec t ive v a r ia t ion i n d e s ign i s mo s t r e ad i ly
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a nd t h en d i sappea r b ecau se t h ey w e re a ppo int e e s o f Redwu lf a nd w e r eo u s ted o n Athe l red ' s r e s to ra t ion , b u t i tr ema in s t ob e e s tab l i shed t h a t
o u t s ide p o l i t ica l e ven t s wou ld h ave h ad t h i s s o r t o f e f f ec t o n t he p e r sonne l o f t h e No r thumbr ian m in t . P agan , 1 973 , l o c .c i t . , 6 . 1 9
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f e a s ib le whe re t h e v a ry ing i sb e ing d one b y o ne work shop a nd c a re c an b e t a ken t h a td i e sc u t a to ne t ime a r ed if e ren t ia ted f r om d i e sc u ta ta no the rt ime . T he H exham h oa rd a l so t e l l s u s mo re t h an t h e o the r h oa rd s d o a bou t t h e c o inage t h a t h ad c i rcu la ted i n No r thumbr i a i n t h e r e ign o f E an red . E an red ' s c o inage d iv ide s f a i r ly n ea t ly i n to a n e a r ly s e r i e s s t ruck f r om a n a loy c on ta in ing a r e a sonab ly g ood p ropor t ion o fs i lve r ; a n i n te rmed i a te g roup o fc o in s s t ruck b y a f ew o ft h e s ame moneye r s b u t i n amo re d eba s ed a loy ; a nd al a te s e r ie ss t ru ck i na b r a s s a loy c on ta in ing much l e s s s i lve r b y an ew t e am o f moneye r s . On Adam son ' s p l a te s i lu s t ra t ion s o fc o in s o ft h e e a r ly s e r ie s a nd o ft h e i n t e rmed i a te g roup r e ckoned t oge the r n umbe r 1 56 a ga in s t 1 6 1 i lu s t ra t ion s o fc o in s o ft h e l a te s e r ie s . T he se f i gu re s c on t ra s t v e ry s h a rp ly w i th t h e f i gu re s f r om t h e 1 967 B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd , wh ich c on ta ined j u s t o ne e a r ly a nd f ou r i n te rmed ia te c o in s a ga in s t 2 08 o f t h e l a te s e r ie s . A s w e h ave s e en , t h e B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd s e em s t o h ave c on ta ined mo re o f as a v ing s o r a c cumu la ted e l emen t t h an t h e R ipon h oa rd , a nd i t i sc l ea r f r om i tt h a t b y O sbe rh t ' s r e ign n o me an ingf u l amoun t o fE an red ' s s i lve r c o inage s u rv ived e ven i n ah oa rd w i th as a v ing se l emen t . T h i s d i sappea rance o fE an red ' s s i lve r c o in s h a s h ad t h e e f f ec t o fm ak ing t h em s e em a s ma l le r a nd l e s s s i gn if i can t i ng red ien t i n t h e n in th -cen tu ry c o inage o f No r thumb r ia t h an w a s i nf a c t t h e c a se , a nd i tn ow s e em s t o m e mo re l i ke ly t h an i td id f i f teen y ea r s a go t h a t E an red ' s s i lve r c o inage c ou ld h ave e x tended o ve r a s ub s tan t i a l p e r iod o ft ime . I fi td id , t h e re i s amuch s t ronge r c a se f o r s uppo s ing t h a t t h e s i lve r c o in s s t ruck b y as ma l l n umbe r o f moneye r s f o r ak ing / E the l red a r e c o in s o f t h e l a te e igh th c en tu ry k ing o f t h a t n ame r a the r t h an c o in s o f a h i s to r ica l ly u n reco rded k ing f i l l ing a g ap b e tween E a rdwu lf a nd E an red . 2° A d e ta i led s c ho la r ly s t udy o fE an red ' s c o inage i sn ece s sa ry — I b egan s u ch as t udy i n t h e 1 960 s b u t w a s d i s t rac ted f r om i tb y t h e d i scove ry o ft h e 1 967 B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd — and t h i s i sn o t t h e p l ace t o d i scu s s i ti n d e ta i l , b u t i n t h e c on tex t o ft h e H exham h oa rd o ne m ay l e g i t ima te ly n o te t h e o dd i ty o f t h e f a c t t h a t a l though E an red ' s s i lve r c o inage h ad b een r ep laced b y a more d eba sed c o inage s ome m ea su rab le t ime b ef o re t he e nd o fE an red ' s r e ign , a nd f u r the r t ime h ad e l ap sed b e tween t h e e nd o fE an red ' s r e ign a nd t h e d a te o ft h e h oa rd ' s d epo s i t , E an red ' s s i lve r c o in s w e re s t i l l r e la t ive ly w e l l r ep re sen t ed a mong t h e c o in s f ound a t H exham . One c an i ndu lge i n s p ecu la t ion a bou t B e rn ic i an c o in u s e r s h av ing a p o s i t ive a t tachmen t t o s i lve r c o in , j u s t a s Ma r ia T he re s a t h a le r s h ave l ong b een t h e p r ef e r red c u r rency i n p a r t s o f E a s t A f r ica , b u t t h e p robab i l i ty i sr a the r t h a t B e rn ic ia w a s b ackwa rd e conom ica l ly a nd t h a t t h e c i rcu la t ion o fc o inage i ni tw a s r e a l ly r a the r s l ow , s o t h a t t h e r e l ig iou s c ommun i ty a t H exham m igh t w e l l i n Athe l red ' s s e cond r e ign s t i l l h ave b een k eep ing c o in s i nt h e i r money b ox wh ich h ad d i sappea red f r om c i rcu la t ion f u r the rs ou th .2 1 I ti sh e re whe re may l i e p a r t o ft h e s o lu t ion t o ar ema in ing p rob lem p r e sen ted b y t h e H exham h oa rd . T he 9 44 c o in s i lu s t ra ted o n Adam son ' s p l a te s d iv ide i n to 20 T h i s s ugge s t ion c an b e f ound e . g . i n t h e p re sen t w r i te r ' s c on tr ibu t ion t o D . P . K i rby , e d . , S a in t W i lf r id a tH exham , 1 974 , a tp . 188 . 2 1 F or t h e h in t t h a t t h e H exham b ucke t
s hou ld b e r ega rded a s amoney b ox r a the r t h an a ny th ing mo re s oph i s t ic a ted s e e t h e r ema rk s b y Mr R . N . B a i ley i nK i rby , e d . , o p .c i t . , 1 974 , a t p . 150 .
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THO UGHTS ON THE HOARD EVIDENCE FOR THE S TYCA COINAGE
7 55 c o in so f No r thumb r ian k ing s , 1 39 c o in s o fa r chb i shop s o f Yo rk , a nd 5 0 wh ich i ti se a s ie s t t o d e sc r ibe a s' im i ta t ive ' . S ome o ft h e se f i f ty c o in s c a r ry i n sc r ip t ion s d i rec t ly e cho ing t ho se o n s i lve r c o in s o fE an red b y s u ch moneye r s a s ` He r red ' ( He re r a ed ) , b u t t h e m a jor i ty c a r ry i n sc r ip t ion s wh ich a r e_ mean ing le s s a nd a ppea r i ndeed t ob e d e l ibe ra te ly mean ing le s s . I m i ta t ive c o in s o ft h i s p a r t icu la r n a tu re a r e s c a rce ly f ound i n o th e r h oa rd s , a nd M i s s P i x ie h a s q u i te r i gh t ly r a i sed t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h i s i sb ecau se t h e se p a r t icu la r i m i ta t ion s a r e o fB e rn ic ian o r ig in ; o the r s o f t h i s n a tu re h ave t u rned u p i n t h e e xcava t ion s a tB ambu rgh , a nd t h a t m igh t s e rve a ss uppo r t ing e v idence . I tm ay b e t h a t t h i s i sc o r rec t , a nd Ih ave n o h a rd e v idence t os e t a g a in s t i t .A t t h e s ame t ime t h e se i m i ta t ion s e v iden t ly b e long i n t h e m a in t o E an red ' s r e ign , b o th o n g round s o f f a b r ic a nd b ecau se t h e i r i n sc r ip t ion s , mean ing le s s t hough t h ey a r e , m i r ro r as ho r t k ing ' s n ame s u ch a s E an red r a the r t h an t h es l igh t ly l onge rn ame o f/ E the l red . I fs o , m any w e re a l r eady s ome y e a r s o ld when t h e H exham h oa rd w a s d epo s i ted , a nd t h e i r s u rv iva l i n n umbe r s i nH exham a nd v i r tua l a b sence f r om t h el a te rh oa rd s c an b e a s c r ibed n o t j u s t t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e H exham h oa rd w a s d epo s i ted b ef o re t h e o the r h oa rd s b u t a l so t o t h e s l owe r c i r cu la t ion o f c u r rency i n B e rn ic ia , a nd m ay h ave n o th ing wha teve rt od o w i th whe re t h ey w e re s t ruck . One c o mp l ica t ing f a c to r , a s Iu nde r s tand i t , i st h a t ad i e o r d i e s u s ed i n t h e m anuf ac tu r e o ft h e H exham g roup o fi m i ta t ive c o in s w a s a l so u s ed i n ad i e cha in b e long ing t o aq u i t e d if e ren t p ha se o fi m i t a t ive c o inage s t ruck d u r ing t h e s e cond r e ign o f/ E the l red o r l a te r . 2 We mu s t a wa i t p ub l ica t ion o ft h e d i e l ink i nvo lved , b u t i ts e em s i np r inc ip le n o t i n conce ivab le t h a t i ts t em s f r om t h e r eu se o f ad i e o r d i e st h a th ad l a in i d le f o r an umbe ro fy ea r s . I tw i l l b e a ppa ren t f r om t h e g ene ra l d r if t o f my r ema rk s t h a t Id o n o t t h ink t h a t t h e a r rangemen t o ft h e s t yca c o inage i si ne s sence ama t te ro fd if icu l ty . T he re a r e a r ea s w i th in i tt h a t a r e o f v e ry c on s ide rab le c o mp lex i ty — the l a te i m i ta t ive s e r ie s d a t ing f r om t h e s e cond r e ign o f / E the l red a nd t h e r e ign o f O sbe rh t e s pec ia l ly s o— and t h e d i scove ry o f ah oa rd o fa ny s o r t d epo s i ted d u r ing t h e e a r ly p a r t o fE an red ' s r e ign wou ld c a s t af l ood o fl i gh t o n h ow w e a r e t o a r range h i s s i lve r c o in age . B u t b af f l emen t a bou t t h e o b scu re s t a r ea s o ft h e c o inage s hou ld n o t d i s t rac t u s f r om t h e f a c t t h a t f r om t h e c o mmencemen t o fE an red ' s b r a s s c o inage t o t h e p o in t i n O sbe rh t ' s r e ign whe re t h e c o inage s o f O sbe rh t a nd A rchb i shop Wu l fhe re s t op w e h ave ar e la t ive ly s t ra igh tf o rwa rd s e quence o f of i c ia l r ega l a nd a r ch iep i scopa li sue s . T he a b so lu te c h rono logy o f t h e n in th cen tu ry No r thumb r ian s e r ie s f a l l s o u t s ide t h e b ounda r ie s o ft h e p re sen t p ape r , b u t i ff o r t h e s a ke o fa rgumen t w e a c cep t t h e d iv i s ion o f Athe l red ' s r e ign i n to t wo p e r iod s o f r ough ly f ou r y ea r s e a ch s e pa r a ted b y ab r ief r e ign f o r Redwu lf , a nd a t t r ibu te t h e ma in -pha se c o inage t o t h e f i r s t p e r iod a nd t h e r ema in ing c o in s t o t h e s e cond p e r iod , w e a r e h ypo the s i z ing t h a t av e ry g rea t v o lume o fc o in w a s p roduced w i th in ar e la t ive ly s ho r t p e r iod o f t ime . I n s u ch a s c ena r io i t s e em s p e rf ec t ly u nde r s tandab le , e s pec ia l ly whe re t h e m a in -pha se c o inage i sc once rned , t h a t i n mee t ing p roduc t ion S ee P i ne , 1 98 1 , l o c .c i t . , a tp .4 1 , whe re s h e r e f e r s t o " Yo rk s t y le s p ec imen s —non sen se l e g e nd s ; d i e l inked e xamp le s f r om t h e g roup 22
r ep re sen ted b y t h e se s pec imen s a r e among t h e i r regu la r sk nown f r om t h e H exham h oa rd" .
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H .E .P AGAN r equ i remen t s d i e s w e re c u t a nd d i s t r ibu ted , a nd c o in s s t ruck , i n as p eed ie r a nd l e s s w e l l o rgan ized f a sh ion t h an h ad b een t h e c a se i n E an red ' s r e ign . I n t h e c i rcum s tance s i t wou ld n o t s e em o fe no rmou s c on sequence whe the r o ne g roup o f d i e sw i th in e a ch o ft h e se p e r iod s w a s c u t e a r l ie rt h an ac o mpa rab le g roup , a nd a ny c u r ren tu nce r ta in ty o ns u ch p o in t s s hou ld n o tb eu ndu ly d i s tu rb ing . T he h oa rd e v idence d oe s n o t a tp re sen t a s s i s t u s w i th t h e c o inage o fO sbe rh t , b u t o ne may p rope r ly c onc lude t h i s r ev iew o ft h e m a te r ia l b y s a y ing j u s t al i t t le o n t h a t s ub jec t . When S t ewa r t L yon s t ud ied t h e s t yca s e r ie s i nt h e m id 1 950 s , h e d id n o t d o mo re i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e c o inage o f O sbe rh t t h an t o n o te h ow r e la t ive ly s ma l l t h e c o inage w a s a nd t o a rgue f r om t h e p a t te rn o fe x te rna l a nd i n te rna l d i e l inkage t h a t i t s d u ra t ion mu s t h ave b een s ho r t .2 3 I n t h e m id 1 980 s n o th ing h a s c hanged s o f a r a st h e e v idence f o r t h e c o inage i sc once rned , f o r n o mean ingf u l n ew v a r ie t ie s o fi th ave t u rned u p , a nd t h e n umbe r o fd i e s e mp loyed t os t r ike i tr ema in s s ma l l . Wha ti sh oweve rn ow mo r e a ppa ren t i st h a t t h e c o inage d oe s n o t f o rm o ne s i ng le u n i t , b u t f a l l s i n to f ou r d i s t inc t g roup ing s : c o in s b y t h e moneye r s E anwu lf a nd Monne wh ich c an b e s e en t o b e long t o t h e s t a r t o f O sbe rh t ' s r e ign b ecau se t h ey d i e l ink w i th c o in s o f / E the l red b y t h e s ame moneye r s ; c o in s b y t h e moneye r Athe lhe lm , c o in s b y t h e moneye r Winebeo rh t ; a nd c o in s b y t h e moneye r Wu lf s ix t ' (Wu lf s ige ) . T h i s a low s an umbe r o fc ho ice s a st o h ow c o inage p roduc t ion i n O sbe rh t ' s r e ign w a s o rgan ized . I ti sc l ea r t h a t i n i t ia l ly c o in p roduc t ion w a s s h a red b e tween E anwu lf a nd Monne a nd t h a t t h ey t h en c e a sed p roduc t ion . My own c u r ren t v i ew i st h a t t h e r ema in ing moneye r s t hen o pe ra ted i n s u cce s s ion t o e a ch o the r r a the r t h an a s ac o l lege o f moneye r s s h a r ing p roduc t ion b e tween t h em . I fs o , t h ey p robab ly s u cceeded e a ch o the r q u i te q u ick ly , f o r n one o f t h em p roduced a ny s ub s tan t ia l a moun t o f c o in , b u t t he c o inage m igh t n one t h e l e s s h ave e x tended al i t t le f u r the r i n to O sbe rh t ' s r e ign t h an r e cen t s c ho la r sh ip h a s s ugge s ted , a nd t h a t wou ld make i t mo re p o s s ib le t h a t A rchb i shop Wu l fhe re b ecame a r chb i shop a nd h ad h i s c o inage s t ruck a t ap o in t s ome f i ve y ea r s i n to O sbe rh t ' s r e ign , a s t h e t r ad i t iona l c h rono logy f o r n in th c en tu ry No r thumb r ia r equ i re s . I td oe s n o t s e em t om e t h a t t h ee x tan t c o in s o ft h e a r chb i shop n eed d a te , e i the ro ng round s o fs t y le o ro n t h ee v idence o fd i e l inkage , t ot h e s ame p o in t i nt h e s e r ie s a st h e l a te s t c o in s o f/ E the l red a nd t h e e a r l i e s t c o in s o fO sbe rh t ; a nd w e n eed n o t b e o ve r inf luenced i n t h i s c on tex t b y t h e d i e l ink wh ich L yon p ub l i shed c onnec t ing c o in s o f O sbe rh t a nd A rchb i shop Wu l fhe re w i th a c o in o f / E the l r ed , f o r a l though t h e A the l red c o in i s o f r e la t ive ly a c comp l i shed wo rkman sh ip i td oe s n o t b e long t o a ny r egu la r g roup ing o fc o in s i nl E the l r ed ' sn ame a nd m igh tr e a sonab ly b e c l a s sed w i th t h el a te i m i ta t ive s e r ie s .
D ISCUSS ION MI S S PI R IE : Mr P agan h a s a rgued t h a t t h e t e ndency u nde r Redwu lf f o r t h e c r o s s mo t if t od om ina te i st h er e su l to ft h ed i e cu t t ing h av ing b een t h e wo rk o fo ne h and C. S . S .L yon , ' A r e appra i sa l o ft he s c ea t ta a nd s t yca c o inage o f Nor thu mbr ia ' , BN J 2 8 23
( 1 955-8 ) , 2 27-42 , a t2 34-5 .
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T HOUGHT S O N T HE H OARD E V IDENCE F OR T HE S TYCA C O INAGE d u r ing as ho r tp e r iod .T h i sc an h a rd ly b es o : t h e re a r ei nd ica t ion st h a t mo r et h an o ne d i e -cu t te rw a si nvo lved .I ft h e re h ad b een as i ng le c r af t sman a t wo rk ,o ne wou ld n o t e xpec tt of i nd t h ed if e r ence i ns p e l l ing wh ich g ive st h ek ing ' sn ame a s RED VLF a nd a s REDVVLF ; t h e l a t t e r f o rm i su sed o n ly f o r t h e t o t a l ly i ndependen t moneye r s , Wende lbeo rh t a nd Hw a 2 tno th , a nd f o rC oen rxd o n t h eo cca s ion when h e wo rked a l one . One wou ld n o t f i nd , e i the r , s i x i n s tance s o fr e t rog rade o bve r se s , ( two f o r F o r th rxd a nd f ou r f o r Monne — see ' Pha se s a nd g roup s ' , F ig .1 , C i i i ) . T he re w e re c l ea r ly s e ve ra l h and s a t wo rk o n t h e d i e s . C ro s s mo t if s , i n o ne f o rm o r a no the r , d om ina te t h ec o inage . Of s e ven ty -n ine d i e sr e co rded f o r Redwu lf ' sp r inc ipa li sue s ( 2 8o bve r se sa nd 5 1 r eve r se s ) , o n ly f ou rs how o t h e rd e s ign s : t h ree d i e sh ave ac en t ra l r o se t te o ff ou rp e l le t sa nd o ne h a sn o mo r et h an as i ng le p e l le t .T he r o se t te mo t if sa r e u s ed o n ly b yt ho se moneye r s who n o rma l ly wo rk f o r Wigmund ,n ame ly C oen rxd a nd Hun laf . F o r t h e t ime when h e wo rk s a l one , C oen rxd ' s t wo o bve r se s b ea r t h i s c l u s te ro fp e l le t s ; t h ed i e s 'l e gend su s e REDVVLF a st h es p e l l ing o ft h ek ing ' sn ame , r a the rt h an t h e mo r eu sua l REDVLF . A l though e a ch o bve r se i su s ed w i th ap a i ro f r eve r se s , t h e re i sn o l i nk f r om t h i s wo rk t o a ny o the r . Hun laf , b y c on t r a s t , h a s a r o se t te reve r se wh i ch i sk nown a l so i n c o mb ina t ion w i th a p e l le t -obve r se f o r ' E the l red . T he c i rcum s tance s o fh i s u s ing t h ed i e f o r Redwu lf m ay b ee xcep t iona l , f o rt h er e levan to bve r s ei ss h a red w i th t h ree o the r moneye r s —Cu thbeo rh t ,E an red a nd F o r th rxd . DR .ME TCAL F : S ome b a re s t a t i s t ic sh ave b een p re se rved a bou tt h eK i rko swa ld h oa rd o f1 808 , a nd i ti sp e rhap s wo r th l ook ing a tt h em i nt h el i gh to f Mr P agan ' st a bu la r a na ly s i s . Adam son l i s t s ap a rce l o f5 42 c o in s , a sf o l low s ( w i th p e rcen tage s a dded ) : E an red / E the l red I Redwu lf O sbe rh t E anba ld ( w i th t i t le ) Wigmund Wu l fhe re
9 9 3 50 1 4 1 5 1 5 8 5
1 8 .3 % 6 4 .6 % 2 . 6% 2 . 8% 0 . 2% 1 0 .7 % 0 . 9%
T he i n te re s t ing f i gu r eh e re i st h e 1 8 .3 p e rc en tf o rE an red . A s t h eo the rp e rcen tage f i gu re sc o r r e spond q u i te w e l lw i th t h et a b le ,i ts e em sc l ea rt h a tt h e Athe l red si n c lude t h e d e r iva t ive s , e t c . T he Revd . Wa lke r F ea the r s tonhaugh i n1 892 ( i . e . a bou t t h r ee g ene r a t ion s a f te r t h e d i scove ry ) r epor t ed t h a t t h e h oa rd h ad o r ig ina l ly c on ta ined 8 001 ,000 c o in s , ' much d ecayed ' . H e s poke o f ' my n ame sake ...t o whom Iam i ndeb ted f o r s p ec imen s o f t h e f i nd n ow i n my p o s se s s ion ' . T he T imo thy F e the r s tonhaugh r e f e r red t ow a sa lmo s tc e r ta in ly o ft he b ranch o ft h ef am i ly who w e re l a ndowne r sa t K i rko swa ld a tt h e t ime o ft h e d i scove ry ; a nd o ne may c on jec tu re t h a t t h e h oa rd r ema ined i nt he p o s s e s s ion o ft h e f am i ly , a tl e a s t i np a r t , u n t i l t h e l a te n in teen th c en tu ry . T he q ue s t ion a r i se s whe the r t h e 5 42 c o in s l i s ted b y Adam son w e re a r andom s amp le a sr ega rd s t h e p ropo r t ion s o ft h e d if e ren t k ing s a nd a r chb i shop s . T he re s e em s t o b e n o w ay t o t e s t t h e q ue s t ion , n o r a ny r e a son t o d oub t t h a t t h e f i gu re s a r e a c cep t ab le . T he f u r the rq ue s t ion a r i se s whe the rt h eK i rko swa ld h oa rd w a sp u tt oge the rf r om c o inage a va i lab le i nt h eE den v a l ley , o r whe the ri tw a s at r ave l le r ' sh oa rd . T he re i s 1 57
H . E . PAGAN
n or e a son t op o s tu la te an on loca lo r ig in ( e xcep tt h ed oc t r ina i re b e l ief t h a tc o inage w a s n o t a va i lab le w e s t o ft h e P enn ine s—now c ha l lenged b y t h e r e c en t C a r l i s le , Wh i tho rn , a nd D ac re f i nd s . ) Mo re p o s i t ive ly , t h e h oa rd w a s c onc e a l ed i n a n e a r thenwa re v e s se l , wh ich p e rhap s s ugge s t s al o ca l owne r r a the r t h an s omeone f l ee ing f r om t h ee a s t .T he u nu sua l ly h igh p ropo r t ion o fc o in so fE an red ( 1 8p e rc en t , c f 1 , 1 2 , o r 1 3 p e r c en t a tB o l ton P e rcy a nd Y o rk ) i n v i te s c ompa r i son w i th H exham , a nd l e nd s a dded i n te re s t t o Mr P agan ' s s p ecu la t ion s a bou t s l ugg i sh c i rcu la t ion i nB e rn ic ia , a nd /o r t h e s a v ing s c ha r ac te r o ft h e H exham h oa rd . T he p l ace -name , a l though n o t a t te s ted u n t i l 167 , s how s I r i sh -Sc and inav ian i nf luence . I ts hou ld m ake u s wonde r whe the r ac hu rch o rm in s te rs t ood o nt h es po t a l ready i nA ng l ian t ime s , a nd i fs o whe the r ( i nv i ew o ft h e d ed ica t ion ) i th ad a ny r oya l c onnec t ion s o ro r ig in s . I no the r wo rd s , i st h eK i rko swa ld h oa rd y e ta no the r f i nd f r om t h e v i c in i ty o fa ne c c le s ia s t ica l s i t e ? ( Th eb e s t e v idence i st h a tt h e h oa rd w a sf ound ' n ea rK i rko swa ld ' . )T he f i ne -qua l i ty s i l v e ra nd g a rne tt r ib rach o rnamen t f ound w i th t h e c o in s , p o s s ib ly ab rooch , wh ich w a s a ppa r en t ly o ld when i tw a s c oncea led , a nd wh ich wou ld c e r ta in ly h ave s e rved t o i d en t if y t h e owne r o ft h e t r ea su re , i su n ique i ns h ape a mong E ng l i sh f i nd s . T he re a r e t r ib rach s o n c o in s o f C oenwu lf a nd , o f c ou r se , E adbe rh t o f No r thumb r ia , a nd t h e s ymbo l i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly e c c le s ia s t ica le ven i fi ti st r in i ta r ian . T he c hu rch i t s e lf d oe sn o tf i gu re i n t h e T ay lo r s ' g rea t wo rk . T he re i s af r agmen t o f ac r o s s -head b u i l t i n to o ne w indow s i l l . A pa r t f r om t h i s , t h e re s e em s t o b e n o a r chaeo log ica l e v idence amoun t ing t oa ny th ing .
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TH ERE i sl i t t le n eed t o r em ind a nybody a cqua in ted w i th t h e Nor thumb r ian
s t yca s t h a t a lmo s t e ve ry a s pec t o f t h e i r s t udy i ss ub jec t t o d oub t a nd , i n s ome c a se s , c on t rove r sy . T he i r c h rono logy a nd t h e a c company ing s t anda rd s o ff i nene s s a r e ma t te r s o f d eba te n o t h e lped b y t h e u nce r ta in t ie s i n t h e r egna l d a te s . I th a s l ong b een h oped t h a t c hem ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e s t yca s wou ld h e lp t o r e so lve s ome o ft h e se p rob lem s . A l though a h andf u l o f a na ly se s w e re p ub l i shed i n 1 834 a nd 1 962 ' t h e f i r s t m a jo r s t udy o ft h e c o mpo s i t ion o ft h e s t yca s i nt h e i r own r i gh t w a s u nde r taken b y X r ay f l uo re scenc e a na ly s i s ( XRF ) u s ing t h e ` m i l l ip robe ' i n 1 968 .2 T he n um i sma t ic i n f o rma t ion o b ta ined w a s r e s t r ic ted b y t h e l im i ta t ion s o f t h e t e chn ique wh ich o n ly p rov ided ac oncen t ra t ion r ange f o r t h e m a jo r e l emen t s a nd g ave s c an t i n f o rma t ion o n t h e m ino r e l emen t s . No o the r a na ly t ica l wo rk w a s u nde r taken u n t i l t h e l a te 1 970 s when n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s ( NAA ) o f m inu te d r i l l ing s w a s a pp l ied t o t h e p rob lem .3 D r i l l ing a lowed t h e b u lk o f t h e c o in , r a the rt h an t h es u rf ace , t ob e s amp led a nd mo re a c cu r a te d a ta w e re o b ta ined . I t w a s h oped t h i s m igh t c l ea r u p s ome o f t h e d if i cu l t ie s s u r round ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween c o mpo s i t ion a nd d a te . I n f a c t , t h e n ew d a ta s e rved o n ly t o c onf i rm t h a tt h e re w a s mo r e t ot h e s t yca t h an m ee t s t h ee ye . F o r ty -f ive s t yca s f r om t h e A shmo lean c o l lec t ion w e r e s amp led i n c lud ing f i ve p rev iou s ly e xam ined b y t h e m i l l ip robe a nd o ne c o in s u spec ted o fb e ing amode rn f o rge ry . S a mp le s w e r e c o l lec ted u s ing a h and -he ld mode l m ake r ' s e l ec t r ic d r i l l w i th a0 . 5 mm b i t , a nd h o ld ing t h e s t yca b e tween t h e f i nge r so ft h e o the rh and . I n t h i s f i r s t NAA s t udy t h e c o in s w e re a na ly sed f o r e i gh t e l emen t s : c oppe r , s i lve r , a nd z i nc ( t he ma jo r c o mponen t s o f t h e a loy ) , t i n ( ac o mmon ' a dd i t ion ' ) , g o ld ( wh ich p re sumab ly e n te red t h e a loy w i th t h e s i lve r ) , a r sen ic , a n t imony , a nd 1 J .S .F o rbe s a nd D . B . D a l laday , ' Compo s i t i on o f E ng l i sh s i lve r c o in s 8 701300 ' , BN J 3 0 ( 1 9601) , 8 2-7 ; E . J . H a r r i s , ' Deba semen t o ft h e c o inage ' , S eaby ' s C o in a nd Med a l B u l l e t in 1 962 , 5 -7 . 2 D . M . Me tca lf , J . M . Me r r ick , a nd L . K . H amb l in , S t ud i e s i n t h e C ompo s i t ion o f E a r ly Med i eva lC o in s , Newca s t le -upon-Tyne , 1 968 .
3 G . R . G i lmo re a nd D . M . Me tca lf , ' The a loy o f No r thumbr ian c o inage i n t h e m idn in th c en tury ' , i n Me ta l lu rgy i n Num i sma t i c s 1 ( Ed s . D . M . Me tca lf a nd W. A . Oddy ) , 1 980 , 8 3-98 ;G . R . G i lmore a nd D . M . Me tca lf , ' Cons i tency i n t h e a loy o f t h e Nor thumbr ian s t yca s : e v idence f r om d i e l inked s p ec imen s ' , NC 1 46 ( 1 986 ) , 1 92-8 .
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i nd ium . I n l a te r s t ud ie s f i ve a dd i t iona l t r ace e l emen t s w e re i n c luded i n t h e a na ly s i s . I n p r inc ip le , t h e ma jo r e l emen t c oncen t r a t ion s c an b e e xpec ted t o i nd ica te t h e m e t a l lu rg ica l i n ten t ion s o f t h e moneye r a nd t h e m ino r a nd t r ace e l emen t s m ay p rov ide s ome i nd ica t ion o fs me l t ing t e chno logy o r , l e s s l i ke ly , t h e s ou rce o ft h ec oppe ru s ed . T he s u spec t mode rn f o rge ry w a s f ound t o b e m ade o fs i lve r w i th av e ry l ow p ropo r t ion o f g o ld ( 0 .0 1% ) a nd t h i s , t oge the r w i th t h e c o mp le te a b s en ce o f i mpu r i t ie s s u ch a sa r sen ic a nd a n t imony , c onf i rm ed i ta s amode rn r a the r t h an a n a nc ien t f o rge ry . One o the r c o in w a s a l so i d en t if i ed a s af o rge ry a nd , a l though n o t r e cogn ized a ss u ch a tt h e t ime , i sa lmo s t c e r ta in ly o ne o ft h e n ine t een th cen tu ry b i smu th / lead / t in a loy f o rge r ie s d e sc r ibed b y E l izabe th P i r ie .4T he c o mpo s i t ion o f t h e se f o rge r i e s i ss im i la r t o t h a t o f t h e l ow m e l t ing p o in t f u s ib le a loy s s u ch a s Ro se ' s me ta l a nd N ew ton ' s f u s ib le a loy . T he p a r t i cu la r e xamp le a na ly sed h e re h a s ac o mpo s i t ion v e ry s im i la r t o af u s ib le p lug a loy ( 8p a r t sb i smu th , 8p a r t sl e ad a nd 3 p a r t s t i n ) w i th ame l t ing p o in t o f 1 28 °C . S uch a loy s a l so h ave t h e u s ef u l p rope r ty o f e xpand ing o n c oo l ing wh ich wou ld m ake t h em i d ea l f o r t h e f a b r ica t ion o fc oun te rf e i t s . T he a na ly s i s o f t h e r ema in ing f o r ty th ree t r ue s t yca s c onf i rmed t h e g ene ra l c o mpo s i t ion p a t te rn d educed f r om t h e e a r l ie r a na ly se s : e a r ly s t yca s m ade o f a s i lve r /coppe r a loy w i th a s ub s tan t ia l a dd i t ion o f t i n a nd l a te r c o in s as i lve r c on ta in ing b r a s s w i th ag ene ra l ly l owe r l e ve l o ft i n . T he c hangeove r i na loy t ype o ccu r red a ts ome t ime d u r ing t h e r e ign o fE an red a nd i sg ene r a l ly s uppo s ed t ob e ac on sequence o f as i lve r s ho r tage . T he NAA a n a ly s i s o ft h e f i ve c o in s p r ev iou s ly a na ly sed b y m i l l ip robe d e mon s t ra ted i n accu rac ie s i nt h e XRF r e su l t s a t t r ibu tab le t o s u rf ace c o r ro s ion a nd s howed u p i n adequac ie s i n t h e p rev iou s g o ld a nd t i n v a lue s . Howeve r , i ns p i te o ft h e b e t te r q ua l i ty o ft h e n ew r e su l t s , t h e p i c tu r e w a s n o l e s s c onf u s ing . A l though t h e re may b e s c ope f o ri d en t if y ing as i lve rs t anda rd i n t h e p re -z inc c o inage n o c l ea r s i lve r s t anda rd s w e r e e v iden t i nt h e z i nc -con ta in ing c o inage . S p l i t t ing t h e c o inage i n to g roup s a c co rd ing t o moneye r a l so f a i l s t o r evea l a ny c onv inc ing s t ruc tu re i n t h e d a ta . C ompa r i son o f t h e k ing ' s a nd a r chb i shop ' s i sue s i ss im i la r ly f r u i t le s s . No m a t te r h ow t h e d a ta a r e g rouped t h e mo s t c on s i s ten t f e a tu re o ft h e z i nc -con ta in ing c o inage i st h e z i nc in -b ra s s r a t io o f 1 8-20% . L i t t le o f s i gn if i cance c ou ld b e d educed f r om t h e m ino r a nd t r ace e l emen t r e su l t s . G o ld to s i lve r r a t io s s how n o c l e a r w i th in samp le v a r ia t ion . Ac o r re la t ion b e tween a n t imony a nd a r sen ic c oncen t ra t ion s w a s f ound a nd , moreove r , c o in s m in ted f o r A rchb i shop Wigmund a nd t ho se m in ted b y A lda te s a nd E adw ine f o r K ing E an red f e l l i n d if e r en t r eg ion s a l ong t h i s c o r re la t ion l i ne , e a ch b e ing s u cce s s ive ly l owe r i n i mpu r i ty c oncen t ra t ion . T he g ene ra l v i ew i st h a t a l t h e s t yca s w e re p robab ly m in ted a t Yo rk a nd i ti su n l ike ly t h a t a to ne p o in t i nt ime d if e ren t moneye r s wou ld b e u s ing d if e ren t s ou r ce s o f r aw m a te r ia l s . A s t h e i mpu r i ty l e ve l s i nt h e se m a te r ia l s c ou ld c hange w i th t ime i ti sc once ivab le t h a t t h e d if e rence s i na r sen ic a nd a n t imony l e ve l s o ft h e s e g roup s o fc o in s d o r e p re sen t a
E . J . E . P i ne a nd S . E . Wa r ren , ' B i s mu th a l loy f o rge r ie s o f e a r ly Nor thu mbr ian c o in s ' , 4
P r o c . 2 2nd S ympo s ium o n A r cha eome t ry , B radf o rd , 1 982 , p p .254-6 1 .
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c h rono log ica l d if e rence . Unf o r tuna te ly t h e d if e rence s c ou ld a l so b e ac on s e quence o fo the rf a c to r s s u ch a sc hange si ns me l t ing p rac t ice . We a s sume t h a t b r a s s wou ld h ave b een m ade b y c emen ta t ion i n t h e n in th c en tu ry . B ecau se z i n c h a s s u ch a l ow b o i l ing p o in t ( 9 06 °C ) r e la t ive t o t h e m e l t ing p o in t o f t h e a loy s ( 8 20 °C t o 9 80 °C 5) ,t h e p roduc t ion o f ab ra s s o f c on s i s ten t q ua l i ty mu s t h ave b een d if i cu l t . I t i s p o s s ib le , t h en , t h a t t h e t e chno log ica l d if i cu l t ie s a s soc ia ted w i th m ak ing t h e c o inage o b scu re s t h e r e a l ( a nd p o s s ib ly s imp le ) mone ta ry i n ten t ion . A l te rna t ive ly t h e v a r iab i l i ty o f c o mpo s i t ion m igh t b e d ue t o av e ry c omp l ica ted s c heme o f mone ta ry i n ten t ion wh ich i so b scu red b y o u rs e lec t ion o fi t em sf o ra na ly s i s . I no rde r t od ec ide b e tween t h e t wo p o s s ib i l i t ie s t h e n ex t s t ep w a s t oe x am ine a g roup o f d i e l inked c o in s when , d u r ing t h e s ho r t l i f e t ime o f ad i e , w e m igh t r e a sonab ly e xpec t t h e mone ta ry i n ten t ion t ob e c on s tan t . T h i s s hou ld t h en a low u st oa s se s s t h e a b i l i ty o ft h e moneye r s t oa ch ieve t h i s i n ten t ion . Af u r the rb a tch o f 2 0 c o in s w a s t h e ref o r e s e lec ted c on ta in ing s ome d i e -dup l ica te s o f c o in s a l ready a na ly sed a nd o the r l i nked a nd s im i la r c o in s . T he r e su l t s a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 1a nd w e re , b y a nd l a rge , d i sappo in t ing w i th f ew c a se s whe r e c on s i s ten t s i lve r c o mpo s i t ion s c ou ld b e f ound . I n T ab le 1 ( a nd o the r t a b le s ) t h e c o lumn s ' Bra s s ' a nd ' Bronze ' i nd ica te t h e q ua l i ty o f t h e b ra s s o r b ronze t o wh ich s i lve r m igh t h ave b een a dded t op roduce t h e o b se rved c o mpo s i t ion o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a l t h e c oppe r i n t h e c o in e n te red i t s a loy i n t h a t f o rm . T he s i lve r v a lue s s hou ld , p e rhap s , b e q uo ted a ss i lve r -p lu s -go ld b u t s i nce t h e g o ld c oncen t ra t ion s a r e i n mo s t c a se s l e s s t h an 1 ° / 0 o ft h e s i lve r v a lue s t h e i r i n c lu s ion wou ld n o t m a te r ia l ly a l te rt h e p i c tu re o r c onc lu s ion s d rawn f r om i t . T he t wo c a se s whe re c on s i s tency i n s i lve r w a s f ound w e re s e t 1 , ap a i r o f s im i la r , b u t n o t d i e l inked , c o in s b y Hwx t rxd , a nd s e t 2b y Cynewu lf , l i nked b y t h e i r o bve r se . I n t h e f i r s t c a se t h e o ve ra l l c o mpo s i t ion , i n c lud ing m ino r a nd t r ace e l emen t s , i ss o s im i la r a st o s ugge s t t h a t b o th c o in s c ou ld h ave b een m ade f r om t h e s ame b a tch o fa loy . B o th p a i r s a r e e a r ly c o in s a nd w e s e em t ob e d ea l ing w i th ab ronze w i th s i lve ra dded q u i t e p rec i se ly . T he t h ree c o in s i n s e t 3 , b y E adw ine , a r e s im i la r a nd a ppea r t o s p an t h e c hangeove r f r om b ron ze p lu s s i lve r t ob ra s s p lu s s i lve r . T he a c cep ted e xp lana t ion o ft h e d if e rence s i ns i l ve r b e tween c o in 4 8 , wh ich i sn o t u n l ike t h e s i lve r i ns e t 1 , a nd c o in s 8a nd 4 9 i st h a t t h e c o inage h a s s uf e red d eba semen t . Is h a l l e ven tua l ly s ugge s t t h a t t h i s i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly t h e c a se . E ach o f t h e o the r p a i r s o f c o in s i s d i e l inked a nd n on e s how s a ny g rea t c on s i s tency i n s i lve r c oncen t ra t ion s . C on s ide r ing t h e s ho r t t ime span o ve r wh ich w e wou ld e xpec t t h e c o in s w i th in
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( a l lh ave s ame o bve r se ) 1 6 .5 1 . 9 1 4 .1 3 . 0 1 7 .7 2 . 0
2 2 .2 1 9 .4 2 0 .2 1 6 .8 2 0 .6
6 . Wu l fhere- Wu lf rxd ( S ame o bve r se ) 4 3 0 . 1 1 .7 6 3 0 . 5 9 . 1
5 . 4 8 . 1
1 2 .2 1 .2
7 .` Teveh ' ( dup l ica te s ) 5 9 1 . 2 6 0 0 . 5
3 . 8 2 . 3
2 2 .6 2 2 .6
2 1 .2 2 1 .7
8 . Athe l red-Leof thegn ( e ach g roup i so bve r se l inked ) 3 7 1 2 .6 1 8 .3 2 . 3 2 0 .9 5 4 4 . 6 2 0 .7 1 . 1 2 2 .3 5 5 7 . 8 1 7 .5 4 . 6 2 0 .3 5 6 5 7
8 . 6 5 . 5
2 1 .0 2 0 .1
2 . 4 3 . 6
2 3 .8 2 2 .4
4 0 5 8
5 . 9 4 . 2
2 0 .6 2 1 .4
1 . 3 3 . 2
2 1 .1 2 3 .4
Co in n u mbe r sr e f er t ot h ep ub l i shed r e su l t s ,c o in s1 -43 Ref .3 a ,c o in s4 4-63 Ref . 3 b . ' Bra s s ' i sZ n / (Cu + Zn ) a nd ' Bronze ' i sS n / (Cu + S n ) b o th e xpre s sed a s p e rcen tage s .
1 63
G . R . G IL MORE
t h e se g roup s t oh ave b een m in ted t h i s i ss omewha t s u rp r i s ing . Aga in w e n o te t h e r e la t ive s t ab i l i ty o ft h e q ua l i ty o ft h eb ra s s . S e t 7i s ad up l ica te p a i r o fc o in s o fu nce r t a in a t t r ibu t ion w i th a w e l l -known o bve r se o fE an red . T he c ompo s i t ion i ss o d if e ren t f r om o the r c o in s o fE an red t h a t t h e se c o in s s hou ld b e r ega rded a si r regu la r o r u nof f i c ia l i sue s , p e rhap s o fa l a te rd a te . We w i l l r e tu rn t ot h i sp rob lem l a te r . A f te r much p uzz l ing o ve r t h e r e su l t s , l o ok ing f o r o rde r w i th in d if e ren t g roup s o f c o in s , Id ec ided t o s ubm i t t h e c o mp le te b a tch o f d a ta t o t h e PODS mu l t iva r ia te a na ly s i s p rog r am o n t h e S a lf o rd Un ive r s i ty c ompu te r .6 T h i s a pp roach h a s b een u s ed mo s t s u cce s sf u l ly i n d educ ing s t ruc tu re i n t h e l a rge a moun t o f t r ace -e lemen t d a ta p roduced wh i le p rovenanc ing p o t te ry . A l though t h e s t yca d a ta a r e n o t i d ea l at r ia l d id n o t s e em u n rea sonab le . B a s ic a l ly t h e c o mpu te r s e ek s t o f i nd o rde r i nt h e d a ta b y p lo t t ing t h e nv a r iab le s ( i . e . e l emen t c oncen t ra t ion s i n t h i s c a se n= 8 )i nn -d imen s iona l s p ace a nd l ook ing f o r i t em s wh ich c l u s te r t oge the r w i th in t h a t s p ace . T he a dvan tage s o f s u ch a c o mpu te r p rog ram a r e t h a t i tc an i n c lude a l t h e e l emen t c oncen t ra t ion s i nt h e d a ta a na ly s i s a nd , i n s ome r e spec t s mo re i mpo r tan t ly , i t a low s a n a na ly s i s w i thou t t h e h ind r ance o fp reconcep t ion s . One h ope s t h a t t h ei n c lu s ion o ft h e t r ace -e lemen t s i n t h ed a ta s e t w i l l r evea l s ome f e a tu re o ft h e c o mpo s i t ion wh ich , wh i le n o ti n tended b y t h e moneye r , w i l l s e rve t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween c o in s . T o b e v a l id a l t h e e l emen t s i nt h e d a ta s e t mu s t h ave e qua l s t a t i s t ic a l v a r iance s . L ike a l mu l t iva r ia te a na ly s i s p rog r am s , PODS p rov ide s f a c i l i t ie s t o n o rma l ize a nd t r an sf o rm t h e e l emen t c oncen t ra t ion s t oa ch ieve t h i s . I n i t s s imp le s t f o rm t h e o u tpu t f r om t h e p rog r am i s al i s t o fi t em s wh ich a r e mo s t a l ike . Mo re v i sua l ly a ppea l ing p re sen ta t ion s c an b e p roduced i n v a r iou s m anne r s o f wh ich t h e d end rog ram ( F ig .1 ) i so ne . I n t h i s d i ag ram r e la ted i t em s ( whe re ' r e la ted ' i nd ica te s as t a t i s t ica l r e la t ion sh ip a nd n o t n ece s sa r i ly a r e a l o r n um i sma t ic r e la t ion sh ip ) a r e j o ined b y ah or izon ta l l i ne , t h e h e igh t o f wh ich r ep re sen t s t h e d i s s im i la r i ty o ft h e i t em s . G roup s o fi t em s c an b e s e lec ted b y e ye , s omewha t a rb i t r a r i ly , b y c hoo s ing at h re sho ld l e ve l o fd i s s im i la r i ty ( ' d i s s im i la r i ty ' i s an ume r ica l c onven ience a nd h a s n o a b so lu t e q uan t i ta t ive s i gn if i cance ) . F o r e xamp le , i n t h e d end rog r am s hown a l i ne d r awn a t ad i s s im i la r i ty l e ve l o f 1 . 2 s p l i t s t h e d a ta s e t i n to f i ve g roup s . T he g ene ra l c ha r ac te r i s t ic s o ft h e se g roup s a r e s hown i nT ab le 2 .T he se g roup s d o m ake s ome n um i sma t ic s e n se b u t , a pa r t f r om t h e c o mf o r t ing f a c t t h a t t h e c o mpu te r se lec ted g roup ing i ss im i la r t o t h e g ene ra l p a t te rn d educed manua l ly t h e o n ly c onc lu s ion wh ich c ou ld b e r e ached w a s t h a t t h e c o in s i n t h e l a rge s t g roup ( g roup 4 ) w e r e s t a t i s t ic a l ly i nd i s t ingu i shab le . F u r the r e xam ina t ion o ft h e z i nc -con t a in ing g roup s a l one r evea led a n a n t imony c on ta in ing s ub -g roup o fg roup 2a nd as p l i t o fg roup 4i n to t wo s ub -g roup s w i th d if e ren t mean s i lve r c oncen t ra t ion s . Unf o r tuna te ly t h e r e w a s n o o bv iou s n um i sma t ic s i gn if i cance i n t h e se s ub -g roup s , t h e s ame moneye r s a nd s ome d i e l inked p a i r s b e ing r ep re sen ted i nb o th . Wi th t h e e xcep t ion o fo ne c o in wh ich
G . R . G i lmo re , ' The u se o f ma thema t ica l c l u s te r ing t e chn ique s f o r t he a na ly s i s o f c o in c ompo s i t ion d a ta ' , R evue d 'A r ch&m ie t r i e 2 ,p a r t 5( 1 98 1 ) , 9 7107 .
T he p rog ram u sed w a s PODS ( P rog ram f o r O rd ina t ion s a nd D end rog r am s ) w r i t ten b y R icha rd B ake r a nd i mp lemen ted o n t h e S a lf o rd Un ive r s i ty Compu te r .
1 64
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3 27
S ome a r chaeo log ica lr ef l ec t ion so n t h eC ue rda le h oa rd JA MES G RA HA M-CA MPBELL
1 50 th a nn ive r sa ry o f t h e d i scove ry i n 1 840 o f t h e Cue rda le h oa rd , n ea r P re s ton i n L anca sh i re , w i l l s e e t h e f i r s t f u l l p ub l ica t ion o f i t s s u rv iv ing n on -num i sma t ic o rb u l l ion m a te r ia l , b y wh ich i sm ean t t h ei ngo t sa nd o rnamen t s , a nd t h e i r ' h ack s i lve r ' f r agmen t s . T he c a ta logue a nd d i scu s s ion , s uppo r ted b y a n um i sma t ic o ve rv iew t o b e c on t r ibu ted b y Mr Ch r i s tophe r B lun t , w i l l a l so b e a c compan ied b y ar e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e e ven t s s u r round ing t h e a c tua l d i scove ry , t h e s ub sequen t I nque s t , a nd t h e d i spe r sa l o f t h e t r ea su re t r ove ma te r i a l , b a sed l a rge ly o n u npub l i shed s ou rce s i nt h e Duchy o fL anca s te r Of f i ce . T he v o lume i s t o b e e n t i t led T h e C u e rd a l e H oa rd a nd R e l a t ed V ik ing A g e S i lv e rf r om B r i t a in a nd I r e l and i n t h e B r i t i sh Mu s eum ( Br i t i sh Mu seum P ub l ica t ion s ) , a l though t h e Cue rda le s e c t ion w i l l emb race t h e h o ld ing s o ft h e A shn io lean Mu seum ( f o rme r ly t h e E van s c o l lec t ion ) , t h e L ive rpoo l Mu seum ( f o rme r ly t h e Ne l son c o l lec t ion ) a nd t h e F i tzw i l l iam Mu seum , t h rough t h e i rk ind c o -ope ra t ion , a sw e l l a sm a te r ia l i no the r p ub l ic a nd p r iva te c o l lec t ion s , mo s t n o tab ly t h a t o ft h e A s she ton f am i ly ( now o nl o an t ot h eB r i t i sh Mu seum ) . T he p ape r p re sen ted a t t h e T en th Oxf o rd S ympo s ium o n C o inage a nd Mone ta ry H i s to ry ( 1 987 ) w a s c oup led w i th o ne b y B lun t t o p rovoke d i scu s s ion o n t h e n a tu re a nd v a lue o ft h e C ue rda le h oa rd , o n t h e me thod a nd whe reabou t s o f i t s a s semb ly , a nd o n p o s s ib le r e a son s f o r i t s d epo s i t ion i n c . 905 . I t t hu s c on ta ined much t h a t w a s s p ecu la t ive , wh i l s t t h e d a ta p re sen ted w e re ( a nd r ema in ) i n ap rov i s iona l s t a te , a r i s ing o u t o f t h e wo rk i n p rog re s s t owa rd s t h e ma in p ub l ica t ion . I t i s p r in ted h e re i n p a r t ia l ly r ev i sed f o rm , b u t w i thou t f u l l d ocumen ta t ion , i no rde r t o s t imu la te f u r the r c o mmen t wh ich i ti sh oped may b e s e n t d i rec t ly t o t h e a u tho r . I ti s ,i ne ve ry s e n se , a n i n te r im r epo r t t ob e u s ed w i th c au t ion .' TH E
ON S IZE AND WE IGHT
T he C ue rda le s i lve r a r tef ac t s t o b e c a ta logued w i l l t o ta l j u s t o ve r 1 , 000 i t em s . A l low ing f o r m i s s ing i ngo t s ( f o r e xamp le , t h e whe reabou t s o fo n ly t we lve o ft h e l a rge s t , s o -ca l led ' ma rk ' , i ngo t s a r en ow k nown , whe rea s s i x teen w e re r e co rded a t t h e I nque s t ) , a nd a low ing f o r ' a b s t rac t ion s ' o r ' e scape s ' ( ma te r ia l wh ich , f o r v a r iou s r e a son s a l r eady o u t l ined i np r in t b y B lun t ,2 w a s n eve r s u r rende red t o t h e 1 Ia m mo s t g ra tef u l t o Ch r i s tophe r B lun t f o r h i s h e lp w i th t h e n um i sma t ic a s pec t s o ft h i s p ape r a nd w i th my Cue rda le r e sea rche s i n g ene ra l , a s a l so t o Ma r ion A rch iba ld , Ma rk B lackburn , Hugh P agan , M ichae l Me tca lf , a nd
I a n S t ewa r t f o r f u r the r n um i sma t ic a dv ice a nd a s s i s tance b ef o re , d u r ing , a nd a f te r t h e S ym p o s ium . 2 C . E . B lun t , ' The c ompo s i t ion o f t he Cue rda le h oa rd ' , BN J5 3 ( 1 983 ) , 1 -6 .
3 29
JA MES GRAHA M-CA MPBELL
a u tho r i t ie s ) , ar e a sonab le e s t ima te f o r t h e o r ig ina l t o ta lo fn on -num i sma t ic s i lve ri s a round 1 , 100 p i ece s . ' E scape s ' i n c lude a n u n t raced a rm r ing e xh ib i ted b y t h e Rev . T homa s Hugo i n 1 853 ( F ig .1 ) ;3 o the r p i ece s s u rv ive . F o r i n s tance , t h e A s she ton c o l lec t ion a to ne t ime o r a no the r h a s i n c luded t h i r teen i t em s o f b u l l ion o ve r a nd a bove t h e 1 59 a loca ted b y t h e Duchy , among s t wh ich w e re a ne x t ra f ou r ' ma rk s ' ; s ome , a tl e a s t , o ft h i sa dd i t iona l ma te r ia l c an n ow b e s hown t oh ave b een p u rcha sed a ta uc t ion i n P re s ton . T h i s r ev i sed e s t ima te o fc . 1 ,100 i t em s i ss omewha t l owe r t h an my p r ev iou s ly p ub l i shed t o ta l o f ' ove r 1 , 300% 4 b u t t h i s f i gu r e w a s b a sed o n ap re l im ina ry i n spec t ion o ft h e Duchy ' s d i s t r ibu t ion r e co rd s when i tw a s u nc lea r t om e whe the r v a r iou s e n t r ie s c once rn ing ' S und r ie s ' r e f e r red t o h ack s i lve r o r ( a s h a s b ecome c l ea r f r om mo re d e ta i led s t udy ) t o m i sce l laneou s c o in s . I n c iden ta l ly , t h e Duchy r e cord s r evea l t h a t t h e n umbe r o f of i c ia l r e c ip ien t s o ft h e h oa rd , c h ief ly o fc o in s , amoun ted t o at o ta lo fo ve r 1 70 i n s t i tu t ion sa nd i nd iv idua l s . B lun t a rgued i n h i s S ympo s ium p ape r t h a t t h e n umbe r o f c o in s i n t h e Cue rda le h oa rd i sl i ke ly t o h ave b een b e tween 7 , 250 a nd 7 , 500 . We a r e t hu s l e f t w i th ab e s t t o ta l e s t ima te o fc . 8 ,500 i nd iv idua l i t em s o fs i lve r , f ound t oge the rw i th t h e r ema in s o f al e ad c he s t , o r t h e l e ad l i n ing o f a wooden c he s t ( a s w a s t h e B o s sa l l /F lax ton ( Yo rk s . ) h oa rd d epo s i ted s ome t wen ty y ea r s l a te r ) , a nd f i ve b one p in s —o r s o i ti sb e l ieved , f o r n o m en t ion i sm ade o f t h e l a t te r i t em s ( d i scu s sed f u r the r b e low ) i n a ny o f t h e p roceed ing s c onnec ted w i th t h e I nque s t o r o the r d ocumen ta ry s ou rce s f r om 1 840 / 1 . I th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h e p in s w e re u s ed t o f a s ten c l o th money b ag s , a l though t h i s p rac t ice d oe s n o t a ppea r t o b e o ne p a ra l le led i n o the r V ik ing -Age h oa rd s f r om e i the r S cand inav ia o r B r i ta in a nd I r e land . Any i n f o rma t ion o n t h i s m a t te r r e la t ing t o i n su la r a nd c on t inen ta l m ed ieva lh oa rd s wou ld b ep a r t icu la r ly w e lcome . T he f i gu re s f o r t h e t o ta l w e igh t o f t h e s i lve r p re sen ted a t t h e I nque s t ( a nd s ub sequen t ly f o rwa rded t o t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum f o r s t udy ) s how t h a t t h e h oa rd w e ighed am in imum o f1 05 l b s t r oy , d iv ided i n to a pp rox ima te ly 2 5 l b s o fc o in s a nd 8 0 l b s o fb u l l ion . T he n umbe r o fc o in s i n c luded i nt h i s f i gu re w a s , h oweve r , o n ly s ome 6 , 800 a nd t h e t o ta l w e igh t o f c . 7 ,500 c o in s wou ld h ave b een s omewhe re b e tween 1 0 a nd 1 0 .5 k g . T o t h e c . 30 k g o fr e co rded b u l l ion mu s t b e a dded a n a lowance f o r t h e ' e scape s ' ( a n a dd i t iona l f ou r ' ma rk s ' wou ld r e p re sen t a no the r 1k g ) a nd t hu s w e a r r ive a t am in imum t o ta l o fn o t l e s s t h an 4 0 k g o f s i lve rf o rt h ee n t i re h oa rd . T he C ue rda le h oa rd i st hu s f i ve t ime h eav ie r t h an i t s n ea re s t V ik ing -Age e qu iva len t f r om B r i ta in — the S ka i l l ( O rkney ) h oa rd , d epo s i ted c . 950 , w e igh ing c . 8 k g .5 F rom I r e land t h e re i sn ow k nown t h e r ema rkab le h oa rd o fs i x ty m a s s ive i ngo t s f r om C a r r ick , o n t h ee a s te rn s ho re o fL ough E nne l l , w e igh ing a lmo s t3 2 k g i nt o ta l , b u t t h e se a r e n o t o fS cand inav ian t ype — even i ft h ey a r e mo s t p robab ly 3 T . Hugo , ' On t he f i e ld o f Cue rda le ' ,J .B r i t . A r cha eo l . A s s o c . 8( 1 852-3 ) , 3 30-5 . 4 J . G raham-Campbe l l , ' An Ang lo-Saxon or namen ted s i lve r s t r ip f r om t h e Cue rda le h oa rd ' , Med . A r cha eo l . 1 4 ( 1 970 ) , 1 52-3 , a t1 52 ; a l so J . G raham-Campbe l l , V ik ing A r t ef a c t s : A
S e l e c t C a t a l ogue ( London , 1 980 ) , 8 7 ( no .30 1 ) . 5 J . G raham-Campbe l l , ' Two V ik ing-age s i lve rb rooch f r agmen t sb e l ieved t ob ef r om t h e S ka i l l ( O rkney ) h oa rd ' , P r o c . S o c . A n t iq . S c o t . 14 ( 1 984 ) , 2 89-30 1 , a t2 93-5 , a nd n o te 9 .
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ARC HAEOLOGICAL REFLECT IO NS ON CUERDALE
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FI G .1 . Al o s ta rm r ing f r om t h e Cue rda le h oa rd ( no .3 ) .
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JA MES GRA HA M-CA MPBELL
o fV ik ing -Age d a te . T he L ough E nne l l ( Co . We s tmea th ) h oa rd mo s t s im i la r t o Cue rda le , d epo s i ted c . 9 10 , w e igh sl e s s t h an o ne k i log ram ( Dy sa r tI s l and n o .4 ) .6 T he re i st hu s n o d oub t t h a t Cue rda le i se xcep t iona l i n a n I n su la r c on tex t i n t e rm s o fi t sw e igh t , a sa l so i nt h en umbe r ( a nd v a r ie ty ) o fi t sc on ten t s . T he s ame i s t r ue f o r w e s te rn a nd n o r the rn E u rope , e ven i ft h e l a rge s t k nown e a r ly med ieva l c o in -hoa rd i n t h e w e s t , t h a t d epo s i ted a tF ec amp i n c . 980 , c on ta ined p e rhap s a s many a s9 , 000 c o in s .7 T he l a rge s t k nown h oa rd f r om V ik ing -Age S cand inav ia i s t h a t f ound a t Ä sp inge i n S käne ( d epo s i ted e ven l a te r i n c . 1047 ) .8 T h i s a l so c on ta ined mo r e c o in s t h an Cue rda le —ove r 8 , 400 —bu t i t s t o ta l w e igh t o n ly amoun ted t o s ome 8 . 75 k g . I ti st hu s S ka i l l s i zed r a the r t h an Cue rda le s ized a nd t h e s ame h o ld s t r ue e ven f o r G o t land whe re t h e g rea te s t V ik ing -Age s i lve rh oa rd s d on o ts e em t oh ave e xceeded a bou t 8k gi nw e igh t .9 T he se a r e i mpo r tan t c o mpa r i son s f o r e s tab l i sh ing t h e e xcep t iona l n a tu re o ft h e Cue rda le h oa rd a sr ep re sen t ing mo re t h an i nd iv idua l o r f am i ly w ea l th , c on s i s ten t i ndeed w i th p ay f o r aw a r -band ( a s h a s b een s ugge s ted i n t h e p a s t ) , e ven i fi t s V ik ing -Age v a lue i n t e rm s o f p ound s s t e r l ing d oe s n o t s ound i mmed ia te ly i mp re s s ive . Wi th 7 , 700 s i lve r p enn ie s r ep re sen t ing £30 , t h en t he r e s t o f Cue rda le m igh t h ave amoun ted t o t h e e qu iva len t o f £96 , g iv ing a t o ta l mone ta ry e qu iva len to fs ome £ 125 i nr ound t e rm s . Howeve r , ar ough c a lcu la t ion s ugge s ted a tt h e Oxf o rd S ympo s ium , b a sed o n a1 0 th cen tu ry v a lua t ion o f as h e ep a s wo r th 5 p , w i th a2 0 th cen tu ry e qu iva len t o f £50 , g ive s an o t iona l e qu iva len t v a lue f o r Cue rda le o fa bou t £300 ,000 i n mode rn t e rm s . T he e xcep t iona l n a tu re o f t h e Cue rda le h oa rd r e s t s n o t o n ly o n i t s s i ze a nd w e igh t , b u ta l so o n t h e v a r ie ty ( a nd o f ten t h er a r i ty ) o fi t sn um i sma t ic a nd b u l l ion c on ten t s— a b r ief s u rvey o fa s pec t s o ft h e l a t te r f o l low s , d iv ided i n to i ngo t s a nd o rnamen t s .
INGOTS
T he l a rge s t r e cogn izab le c o mponen t ( o the r t h an a s so r ted r i ng f r agmen t s ) among s t t h e Cue rda le b u l l ion c on s i s t s o f i ngo t s a nd i ngo t f r agmen t s wh ich t oge the r c omp r i se am in imum o f3 50 o u t o ft h e 1 , 000 i t em sa va i lab le f o r s t udy . M i s s S u san K ru se , a s ap o s tg radua te s t uden t a t Un ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon ," h a s e xam ined a t o ta l o fa pp rox ima te ly 1 0 k g o fs u rv iv ing Cue rda le i ngo t s , t o wh ich t h e re n eed s t o b e a dded a tl e a s t a no the r 2k g o fl o s t a nd ' e sc aped ' ma te r ia l ( i nc lud ing e i gh t m i s s ing ' ma rk s ' a ta na ve rage w e igh t o f2 56 g ) . I no the r wo rd s a tl e a s t 1 2 o fa bou t 3 1 k g o fb u l l ion c on s i s t s o fi ngo t s a nd f r agmen t s t h e reof , o ri nr ound f i gu re s t h ey
M . Ryan e t a l . , ' S ix s i lve r f i nd s o f t he V ik ing p e r iod f r om t h e v i c in i ty o f L ough E nne l l , Co . We s tmea th ' , P e r i t i a 3( 1 984 ) , 3 348 1 . F . Duma s -Dubou rg , L e t r i . so r d e F i T amp e t l e m onnayag e e n F ran c e o c c id en ta l e p end an t l a s e c ond em o i t i id u Xe s i è c l e ( Pa r i s , 1 97 1 ) . B . H ä rdh , W ik ing e rz e i t l i ch e D epo tf und e a u s S üd s chwed en : K a ta l og u nd T af e ln ( Ac ta A rchaeo l og ica L unden s ia , S e r ie s i n 4 ° , No .9 ) , 5 2-4 , a t 6
7
8
5 3 . T he h eav ie s t k nown Go t land ic s i lve r h oa rd ( we igh ing 1 0 .369 k g ) w a s n o t d epo s i ted u n t i l c . 1140 , a tB urge , L umme lunda : s e e P .B e rghau s e ta l . , ' Go t land s s t ö r s ta s i lve r ska t t ' , G o t länd sk t A rk iv 4 1 ( 1 969 ) , 7 -60 . Ia m mo s t g ra tef u l f o r t h e a s s i s tance o f S u san K ru se w i th t h i s s e c t ion ; a s pec t s o f h e r i ngo t r e sea rche s a r e f o r thcom ing i n Wo r ld A r cha eo l ogy 2 0 :2 ( 1 988 ) . 9
1 0
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A RCHAEOLOG ICAL R EFLECT IONS ON CUERDALE
FI G .2 . A' mark ' i ngo tf r om Cuerda le .
FI G .3 . S p i ra l r ing f r ag men t s f r o m Cuerda le .
FI G .4 . At w i s ted r od a rmr ing f r o m Cuerda le .
FI G .5 . A' r ibbon b race le t ' f r agmen tf r o m Cue rda le .
F ic s .6-7 . Dan i sh p ro to type a nd H iberno-V ik ing a rm-r ing f r ag men t sf r o m Cue rda le .
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JA MES GRAHA M-CA MPBELL
r ep re sen t p e rhap s 4 0 p e r c en t o ft h e b u l l ion b y w e igh t . L ooked a ta no the r w ay , t h eh oa rd c an b eb roken d own b yw e igh ta sf o l low s : 2 5% c o in sa nd f r agmen t s 2 9% i ngo t sa nd f r agmen t s 4 6% o rnamen t sa nd m i sc . h ack s i lve r Hoa rd s c on ta in ing i ngo t s ( a long s ide h ack s i lve r a nd c o in s ) f r om b o th E ng land a nd Wa le s d i sp lay ama rked ly n o r the rn d i s t r ibu t ion a nd h ave a l b een i n te rp re ted a sS cand inav ian i nc ha r ac te r r a the r t h an n a t ive Ang lo -Saxon o r We l sh . Howeve r , t h e s imp le s t c a s t b a r i ngo t s a r e n o t i n t h em se lve s c u l tu ra l ly o r r eg iona l ly d i agno s t ic , a l though C ue rda le d oe s c on ta in o ne i ngo t f r agmen t u n ique i n a n I n su la r c on tex t : p a r t o f al a rge f l a t t i sh c i rcu la r i ngo t o ft h e s o ca l led ' Gu s sku ch en t ype ' , p re sumab ly i mpo r ted f r om S cand inav ia whe re t h ey b ecome mo r e c o mmon i nl a te rG o t land ic a nd s ou the rn Swed i sh h oa rd s ." K ru se ' s s t udy o ft h e i ngo t m a te r ia l i sn o t y e t c o mp le ted a nd s o c o mmen t h e re i sc onf ined t o p re sen t ing i n a dvance o fh e r own p ub l ica t ion , a nd w i th h e r k ind p e rm i s s ion , s ome o f h e r c onc lu s ion s c once rn ing t h e ' ma rk ' i ngo t s ( F ig .2 ) i n r e la t ion t o Mr sJ enn if e r L ew i s ' s e a r l ie r s t udy o ft h i s c a tego ry ,1 2 b ecau se o ft h e i r w ide ri mp l ica t ion sf o rt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h eh oa rd a s awho le . L ew i s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e a ve rage ' ma rk ' i ngo t w e igh t o f 2 56 g ( d i scoun t ing o ne u nde rwe igh t e xamp le i nt h e Ne l son c o l lec t ion , n ow s hown b y K ru se t ob e o f b a se me ta l ) r ep re sen ted t wo th i rd s o f a n a c coun t p ound o f 3 84 g , g iven t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f 1 60 t o 2 40 p ence . T h i s s h e r e la ted t o t h e C a ro l ing ian a c coun t p ound , c a lcu la ted f r om l a te n in th -cen tu ry c o in s i n t h e n ame o f a n Empe ro r Cha r le s ( Cha r le s t h e B a ld i n We s t F ranc ia , C ha r le s t h e F a t i n L o tha r ing i a )— an a t t r ibu t ion r ega rded a s r e a sonab le g iven t h e F r ank i sh i nf luence o n t h e No r th umb r ian V ik ing c o in i sue s . Howeve r , t h e s t anda rd o ft h e se i sue s w a s l owe r t h an t ho se o f F r ank ia a nd a no the r c o mp l ica t ion i st h a t t h e c on tempo ra ry c o in s o f E dwa rd t h e E lde r wou ld a l so p robab ly h ave p roduced a n a c coun t p ound n o t t h a t d if e ren t f r om 3 84 g . A f u r the r p rob lem i n i n te rp re ta t ion i sp re sen ted b y t h e e x i s tence o fb o th a n a c coun t p ound a nd ac o mme rc i a l ( o r b u l l ion ) p ound . S uf f i ce i tt o s a y , a tp re sen t , t h a t K ru se f e e l s t h a t t h e C ue rda le ' ma rk ' i ngo t s a r e mo re l i ke ly t or e la te t o ac o mme rc ia lp ound , p e rhap s o fe i gh tö re o ft wen ty p ence , t h an t woth i rd s o f t h e C a ro l ing i an a c coun t p ound . I ti si n a ny c a se c l ea r t h a t b o th a u thor i t ie s a r e c onv inced t h a t t h i s u n ique i ngo t s e r ie s w a s n o t m ean t f o r ap u r e ly S cand inav ian e conomy , f o r wh ich i tw a s h eav ie r t h an n ece s sa ry . I ti s mo s t l i ke ly t oh ave o r ig ina ted i na n Ang lo -Saxon o r Ang lo -Scand inav ian m i l ieu . Two o the r i mpo r tan t p o in t s t o n o te a bou t t h e ' ma rk s ' a r e t h a t t h ey a r e a l c o mp le te a nd t h a t s ome among s t t h em h ave n o n i ck ing ( i ndeed t h e re i sl i t t le n i ck ing t o b e o b se rved among s t t h e g roup a s a who le ) . On t h e o the r h and , c o mp le te o rnamen t s f o rm a v e ry s ma l l e l emen t i n t h e h oa rd a nd n i ck ing i s w ide sp read o n t h e b u l l ion . I ti sar e a sonab le p re sump t ion w i th ah ack s i lve rh oa rd s u ch a s Cue rda le t h a t t h e h eav ie s t o b jec t s , when i n tac t , a r e l i ke ly t o h ave b een a mong s t t h e l a te s t i t em s t o h ave b een i n co rpo ra ted . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e ' ma rk ' i ngo t s i ss uppor ted b y t h e g ene ra l t r end i nC ue rda le c o in -peck ing , n o ted
1 1 1 2
E .g . o p .c i t . i nn o te 8 ,T af .5 . J .L ew i s , ' S i lve r i ngo t s f r om t h e C ue rda le
h oa rd i n t wo n o r the rn c o l lec t ion s ' , A r cha eo l .J . 2( 1 982 ) , 4 7-80 .
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L an c s .
ARCHAEOLOG ICAL REFLECT IONS ON CUERDALE
F i G .8 . C a ro l ing ian b e l t -f i t t ing sf r om Cue rda le .
F iG s .911 . H ibe rno-V ik ing a nd I r i sh b rooch f r agmen t s f r om Cue rda le .
F IG .12 . P l a in r od a rm r ing ( o fl o zenge shaped c ro s s sec t ion ) f r om Cue rda le .
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JA MES GRAHA M-CA MPBELL
b y M i s s Ma r ion A rch iba ld , i n wh ich o ve r 9 0 p e r c en t o f t h e C unn e t t i a r e u npecked , a sa r e mo s to ft h ec o in so fE dwa rd t h eE lde r ." I f w e a c cep t t h a t t h e Cue rda le ' ma rk ' i ngo t s c anno t b e t i ed d own t o a No r thumb r ian V ik ing -Age w e igh t sy s tem , t h en t h e i r r eg ion o fo r ig in c anno t y e t b e p rec i se ly e s tab l i shed . Howeve r , t h ey d o n o t r ep re sen t S cand inav i an o r o the r c on t inen ta l i mpo r t s , n o r d o t h ey a ppea r t o b e o fS co t t i sh o r I r i sh o r ig in — ` made i nE ng land ' mu s ts uf i ce f o rn ow ( a long w i th c . 6 ,000 o ft h ec o in s ) . THE ORNA MENTS
I ti sn o t p o s s ib le w i th much o f t h e C ue rda le h ack s i lve r t o s ugge s t r eg iona l a t t r ibu t ion s f o r i t s m anuf ac tu re , b u t t h e p u rpo se o ft h i s p ape r w i l l c oncen t ra te o n t h a t wh ich i sd i agno s t ic . S uch ma te r ia l c an b e c onven ien t ly d iv ided f o r p re sen t p u rpo se s i n to s i x g roup s a nd t h e se a r e p re sen ted h e re mov ing w e s twa rd f r om t h e B a l t ic t ot h eI r i sh S e a . ( i ) B a l t i c . I tw a s d emon s t ra ted b y N icho la s L ow ick t h a t t h e Cue rda le Kuf i c c o in s ( wh i ch may n ow b e n umbe r ed a ta bou t f i f ty ) t r ave l led t ot h e w e s t b y w ay o f t h e B a l t ic ." T he re a r e n ow t wen ty h oa rd s k nown t o h ave c on ta ined Kuf i c c o in s i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land a nd a l t ho se d epo s i ted w i th in ad ecade o f Cue rda le a r e f r om I r e land o r n o r th -we s t E ng land ( Tab le 1 ) ;1 5 t h e e a r l ie s t s u ch f r om n o r th ea s t E ng land i st h a t f r om G o ld sbo rough ( Yo rk s . ) , d epo s i ted c . 920 , b u t i t s Kuf i cm in t sa nd t ho se r ep re sen ted i n Cue rda le a r e mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive . F ragmen t s o f s o ca l led ' P e rm ian ' o r s p i ra l r ing s w i l l h ave j o ined t h e se Kuf i c c o in s a st h ey p a s sed t h rough t h e B a l t ic , a nd s ome f o r ty p i ece s a r e p re sen t i n t h e C ue rda le h oa rd ( F ig .3 )— the i r o n ly f i nd spo t i n E ng land o the r t h an t h e u n ique e a r ly h oa rd f r om C roydon i nt h e s ou th -e a s t .1 6 A l so p re sen t i n Cue rda le a r e af ew f r agmen t s o fa rm r ing s a nd p enannu la r b rooche s o ft ype s p a r a l le led i nt h e B a l t ic ( a s o n G o t land )— some u n ique i n a n I n su la r c on tex t a nd o the r s f ound o n ly i n I r e land . I ti ss ugge s ted t h e ref o re t h a t t h e Kuf i c c o in s a nd B a l t i c ma te r ia l a r r ived i n n o r th -we s t E ng land b y mean s o f aw e s te r ly ( I r i sh S ea ) r ou te r a the r t h an t h rough t h e n o r th ea s t— in i t i a l ly b y w ay o f D enma rk a nd I r e land , b u t a l so p e rhap s o f No rway a nd S co t land . Howeve r , a l though Kuf i c c o in s w e re i mpo r ted i n to No rway d u r ing t h e e a r ly V ik ing Age ," s p i r a l r ing s a r e ar a r i ty t h e re , b e ing p r e sen t i no n ly t wo h oa rd s . I n c on t ra s t , t h e re a r e n ine teen i nd iv idua l f i nd s f r om D enma rk , whe re P e rm ian r i ng s a ppea r t oh ave b een s uf i c ien t ly p opu la r t o h ave b een c op ied .
M . A rch iba ld i n V ik ing A r t ef a c t s , 1 20 , a nd i n B r i t i sh Mu seum ' 9 th -Cen tu ry S ympo s ium ' p ape r ( J anua ry 1 987 ) . N . M . L ow ick , ' The Kuf i c c o in s f r om Cue rda le ' , BN J4 6 ( 1 976 ) , 1 9-28 . A l l c o in -hoard d a te s t h roughou t t h i s p ape ra r ef r om M . B lackburn a nd H . P agan , ' A r ev i sed c heck l i s t o f c o in h oa rd s f r om t h e B r i t i sh I s le s , c . 5001100 ' i nM . A . S .B lackbu r n ( e d . ) , A ng l o -Saxon Mon e ta ry H i s to ry : E s say s i n 1 3
14
1 6
Memo ry o fR . H . M . D o l l ey ( Le ice s te r , 1 986 ) , 2 9 1-313 , whe re r e f e rence s f o r i nd iv idua l h oa rd s may a l so b ef ound . N . P . B rook s a nd J . A . G raham C ampbe l l , ' Ref lec t ion s o n t h e V ik ing -Age s i lve r h oa rd f r om C roydon , S u r rey ' i n A ng l o S axon Mon e ta ry H i s t o ry , 9 1110 , w i th ad i scu s s i on o fs p i ra l r ing so np p .95-6 . K . S kaa re , C o in s a nd C o inag e i n V ik ing A g eN o rway ( O s lo , 1 976 ) ,4 7-53 . 1 6
1 7
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A RCHAEOLOG ICAL R E FLECT ION S O N C UERDALE TA BLE 1 .H oa rd sf r om B r i t a in a nd I r e l and c o n t a in ing K uf i cc o in s( t o t a l : 2 0 )
L o ca t ion
A r ea
D epo s i t ion
C roydon T a lno t r ie Cuerda le D rogheda Hark irk Dy sar t ( no .4 ) Co . L ondonde rry Maghe ra lagan Dean L eggagh Go ld sborough B angor Bo s sal /F lax ton G la snev in Dun more C ave Co . K i lda re S tor r Rock ( Skye ) S ka il ( Orkney ) Co . Mea th Machr ie ( I s lay )
S EE SWS N WE I N WE I I I N WE I NEE NW NEE I I I WS NS I WS
c . 872 c . 875? c . 905 c . 905 c . 910 c . 910 c . 910 c . 910 ? c . 910 c . 915 c . 920 c . 925 c . 925 c . 927 c . 928 c . 935 c . 935 c . 950 c . 970 c . 970
( i ) S c and inav ian . T he s ma l l n umbe r o fs t anda rd S cand inav ian n eck r ing s a nd a rm r ing s o fp l a i ted a nd t w i s ted r od s ( F ig .4 ) , t oge the r w i th amu l t i tude o fs ma l l f r agmen t s , m igh t h ave h ad a ny o r ig in a nd h ave t r ave l led a ny r ou te t o b e come i n co rpo ra ted i nt h e C ue rda le h oa rd . On t h e o the rh and , t h er a re ' r ibbon b race le t s ' o f v e ry t h in s hee t m e ta l w i th d i s t inc t ive s t amped o rnamen t ( F ig .5 ) a r e mo re c o mmon i n I r e land t h an i n B r i ta in ( Tab le 2 ) , a l though o ne s u ch r ep re sen t s t he o n ly s u rv iv ing n on -num i sma t ic i t em f r om t h e k i log ram o fs i lve r t h a t c on s t i tu ted t h e B o s sa l l /F lax ton ( Yo rk s . ) h oa rd , d epo s i ted c . 925 . T he i r o r ig in s h ave y e t t o b e d e te rm ined . T he f ou r H edeby c o in s r ep re sen t t h e mo s t o bv iou s ly D an i sh m a te r ia l i n C ue rda le ," b u t t h e r ei sa l so as i ng le f r agmen t ( F ig .6 ) o ft h e D an i sh a rm r ing t ype r e cogn i sed b y Mr J ohn S heehan a st h e p ro to type f o r t h e w e l l -known H ibe rno V ik ing a rm r ing s e r ie s ( F ig .7 : t ob e men t ioned b e low ) . One c omp le te p ro to type r i ng i sk nown f r om I r e land , s ugge s t ive o f aw e s te rn r ou te i n to E ng land ; s ot oo a r e af ew f r agmen t s o f No rweg ian t r ef o i l -headed p in s f o r wh ich Cue rda le a ga in p rov ide s t h e u n ique B r i t i sh f i nd spo t , wh i l s t af r agmen t m ay a l so n ow b e r e cogn ized i nI r e land , i nt h e Dy sa r tI s l and ( no .4 ) h oa rd ." ( i i ) P i c t i sh . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t t wo o b jec t s m igh t b e t h e wo rk o f P i c t i sh s i lve r sm i th sa nd t hu sb ed e r ived f r om V ik ing a c t iv i ty i nt h en o r th o fB r i t a in ; b o th a r e f r agmen t s . One i sa n i n te r lace o rnamen ted s t r ip w i th d eco ra t ive p a r a l le l s i n S ee M . Do l ley a nd T . T a lv io i n NC 7 1 4 ( 1 974 ) , 1 90-2 ; a nd M . A rch iba ld i n H iku in 11 ( 1 985 ) , 7 9-82 . T he f ou r th c o in i sa dduced b y C h r i s tophe r B lun t f r om Wi l l iam H a rdy ' s m s . 1 8
l i s to ft h ec o in si nt h e Duchy O f f i ce . J . P e te r sen , V ik ing e t id en s ( S tavange r , 1 928 ) , 1 90-2 , f i g .236 . 1 9
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s mykk e r
J A ME S G RAHAM -CAMPBELL TA BLE 2 .H oa rd sf r om B r i t a in a nd I r e l and c o n t a in ing ' r i bbon b r a c e l e t s ' ( f= f r agmen t s ; c= c o mp le te )
L o ca t ion
D epo s i t ion
Cuerda le Dy sar t ( no .4 ) Bo s sal /F lax ton A th lone Hare I s land L i ff ey s ide
c . 905 c . 910 c . 925
t h e S t N in ian ' s I s l e ( She t land ) h oa rd a nd t h e o the r i s au n ique c omb f r agmen t , w i th p o s s ib le p a ra l le l s i n l o s t s i lve r c omb s r e co rded i n t h e B roch o f B u rga r ( Orkney ) h oa rd . 2° ( i v ) A ng l o -Sax on . G iven t h a t t h e re a r e o ve r 1 , 000 Ang lo -Saxon c o in s i n Cue rda le , i ti s s t r ik ing t h a t t h e re a r e o n ly t wo s ma l l p i ece s o f 9 th cen tu ry T rewh idd le s ty le me ta lwo rk f r om t h e h oa rd : o ne i s at i ny f r agmen t o f as t r ip ,2 1 a nd t h e o the r a worn a nd t ho rough ly n i cked s t r apend .2 I ti sp robab l e t h a t a f r agmen ta ry b eaded c i rcu l a r moun t i sa l so o fA ng lo -Saxon wo rkman sh ip ;2 3 i t s c en t rep iece , p robab ly ac o in ( o r i m i ta t ion ) , h a s n o t b een r e cogn i sed i nt h e h oa rd . T he se t h ree i t em s wou ld s e em l i ke ly t oh ave b een i nc i rcu la t ion a sb u l l ion ( V ik ing l oo t ? ) a nd s o c ou ld w e l l h ave b ecome i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e Cue rd a le h oa rd i ndependen t ly o f t h e Ang lo -Saxon c o in s ; t h ey wou ld c e r ta in ly s e em t o h ave n o th ing t od o w i th t h ef r e sh i sue so fE dwa rd t h eE lde r . ( v ) C a r o l ing ian . T he re w e re a l so o ve r 1 , 000 c on t inen ta l ( F rank i sh a nd I t a l ian ) c o in s i n Cue rda le , ma in ly f r om Me l le , L imoge s , a nd L e Man s o fl a te 9 th cen tu ry d a te , r ep re sen t ing l oo t f r om t h e L o i re v a l ley i nt h em id -890 s , w i th a dd i t ion s f r om s l igh t ly l a te r r a id ing ( c . 902 ) i nt h e Rh ine - Maa s d e l ta ; t h e f o rme r h ave b een q u i te h eav i ly p ecked a nd t hu s i nc i rcu la t ion . T he s ame i sc e r ta in ly t r ue o ft h e t h ree o f f ou r p i ece s o fC a ro l ing ian o rnamen ted me ta lwo rk i n t h e h oa rd , c omp r i s ing o ne o r t wo f r agmen t s o f f i l ig ree d eco ra ted e qu a l a rmed b rooche s , w i th a g i l t b e l t -moun t a nd b uck le loop ( F ig .8 )— the f o rme r h a s ab roken s u spen s ion loop a nd w i l l h ave s e en s e rv ice a s ap endan t b ef o re b e ing t r ea ted s imp ly a s al ump o f b u l l ion .2 4 I ti st hu s mo s t u n l ike ly t h a t t h e se f ew p i ece s d e r ive f r om s u ch a n e a r ly 1 0 th -cen tu ry c on t inen ta l r a id a nd t h ey w i l l h ave r e ached n o r th -we s t E ng land a l ong w i th o the r b u l l ion b y a n u nknown r ou te ( wh ich m igh t e ven h ave i n c luded S cand inav ia ) . J . A . G raham -Campbe l l , ' A l o s t P i c t i sh t r ea su re ( a nd t wo V ik ing -age g o ld a rmr ing s ) f r om t h e B roch o fB u rga r , O rkney ' , P r o c . S o c . A n t iq . S c o t . 15 ( 1 985 ) , 2 4 1-6 1 , a t 2 51-2 a nd 2 53 , i lu s . 3a nd 5 . 2 1 O p . c i t . i nn o te 4 . D . M . Wi l son , A ng l o -Saxon O rnamen t a l 2 4 3
Me ta lwo rk , 7 001100 , i n t h e B r i t i sh Mu s eum ( London , 1 964 ) , n o .13 . E .g . i bd . , n o .64 . T he C a ro l ing ian s i lve r f r agmen t s a r e t o b e d i scu s sed b y D r E gon Wa rne r s o f t h e Mu seum f ü r Vo r -u .F rühge sch ich te , F r ankf u r t . 23
24
22
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A RCHAEOLOG ICAL R E FLECT ION S O N C UERDALE ( v i ) H i b e rno -V ik ing a nd I r i sh . I n c on t ra s t t o t h e s ma l l n umbe r o ft h e b i t s a nd p i ece s s o f a r d i scu s sed , t h e m a jo r d i agno s t ic c omponen t o ft h e Cue rda le b u l l ion c on s i s t s o f c o mp le te a nd f r agmen ta ry e xamp le s o fb road b and a rm r ing s ( bo th p l a in a nd d eco ra ted ) o ft h e t ype t h a t Is ugge s ted ad ecade a go w e re b e s t d e sc r ibed a s ` H ibe rno -V ik ing ' ( F ig .7 ) .2 5 H ibe rno -V ik ing a rm r ing s h ave n ow b een t h e s ub jec t o f d e ta i led a na ly s i s b y Mr J ohn S heehan d eve lop ing a nd r ef in ing my p re l im ina ry s ugge s t ion s .2 6 Ap re l im ina ry ( gue s s ) e s t ima te i st h a t s ome 2 5 p e r c en t o ft h eb u l l ion c omp r i se s s u ch H ibe rno -V ik ing a rm r ing ma te r ia l a nd s ome o ft h e r i ng s a r e c o mp le te , i n f r e sh c ond i t ion a nd w i thou t n i ck s , o nce a ga in s ugge s t ing t h a t t h ey a r e among s t t h e mo s t r e cen t a dd i t ion s t o t h e b u l l ion s t ock . I ts hou ld a l so b e p o in ted o u t t h a t t h ey w e re m ade b y h amme r ing o u t s t anda rd c a s t b a ri ngo t s wh ich m igh t i nd ica te as ou rce i nI r e land f o rm any o ft h e se a sw e l l . S heehan h a s i s o la t ed as e cond t ype o f` H ibe rno -V ik ing ' r i ng , c a l led b y h im t h e ' d oub le a rm le t ' o fc ha r ac te r i s t ica l ly o va l sec t ioned r od s . T he re a r e am in imum o f s e ven teen o n r e co rd f r om I r e land , i n c lud ing e xamp le s i nf i ve h oa rd s ( Tab le 3 ) , i n a n o ve r lapp ing d i s t r ibu t ion w i th t h e t r ue H ibe rno -V ik ing t ype ; af ew f r agmen t s h ave n ow b een r e cogn i sed i n Cue rda le , a ga in r ep re sen t ing a u n ique B r i t i sh f i nd spo t . TA BLE 3 .H oa rd sf r om B r i ta in a nd I r e l and c o n t a in ing ' d oub l ea rm l e t s ' ( f= f r agmen t s ; c= c omp le te ; H /V = H ibe rno -V ik ing t ype a l so p re sen t )
L o ca t ion
D epo s i t ion
Cuerda le Dy sar t ( no .4 ) N . W . I n i showen Nr . G a lway Nr . Raphoe L ough Der ravaragh
c . 905 c . 910
H /V H /V H /V H /V
A long s ide t h e a rm r ing m a te r ia l , t h e re a r e t h ree o r f ou r b rooch f r agmen t s t h a t r e p re sen t H ibe rno -V ik ing wo rkman sh ip ( F ig .9 ) , b u t many mo re ( p e rhap s f o r ty i n a l ) b e long t o t h e n a t ive I r i sh t r ad i t ion , c on s i s t ing a l so o f f r agmen t s a nd r ep re sen t ing f o r t h e mo s t p a r t t h e s e quence o fb o s sed ( F ig .10 ) a nd e a r ly b a l l type p ennanu l a r s ( t he l a t te rb e ing t h es o l id ' t h i s t le -b rooch ' v a r ie ty : F ig .11 ) .2 7
J . A . G raham-Campbe l l , ' The V ik ingA ge s i lve r h oa rd s o f I r e land ' , i n B . A lmqv i s t a nd D . G reene ( e d s . ) , P r o c e ed ing s o ft h e S ev en th V ik ing C ong r e s s( Dub l in , 1 976 ) , 3 9-74 , a t5 1-3 . 2 6 Iam mo s t g ra tefu l t o J ohn S heehan f o r p rov id ing me w i th a c opy o f h i s M.A. t h e s i s , ' V ik ing Age s i lve r a rmr ing s f r om I r e land ' ( Un ive r s i ty Co l lege G a lway , 1 985 ) , wh ich h ei s i np roce s so fr ev i s ing f o rp ub l ica t ion . 2 5
J . A . G raham-Campbe l l , ' Bo s sed p enan n u la r b rooche s : ar ev iew o f r e cen t r e search ' , Med . A r cha eo l . 1 9 ( 1 975 ) , 3 3-47 ; a nd ' Some V ik ing -age p enannu la rb rooche sf r om S co t land a nd t he o r ig in s o ft he " th i s t le -brooch" , i n A . O 'Conno r a nd D . V . C la rke ( e d s . ) , F r om t h e S t on e A g e t ot h e ' F o r ty -F iv e ( Ed inbu rgh , 1 983 ) , 3 10-23 . 27
3 39
J A ME S G RAHAM -CAMPBELL F ina l ly , much o f t h e r e s t o f t h e b u l l ion i s made u p o f c o mp le te a nd f r agmen ta ry e xamp le s o f s imp le s i ng le r od a rm r ing s , o f b o th c i r cu la r a nd l o zenge shaped s e c t ion s ( F ig .12 ) ,2 8 a sa r e w e l l -known i n b o th S cand inav ian a nd I n su la r V ik ing -Age c on tex t s . S im i la r u nce r ta in ty mu s t s u r round t h e o r ig in s o f e ven s u ch ad i agno s t ica l ly S cand inav ian type a r tef ac t a st h e i n tac t T ho r ' s h amme r p endan t wh ich m igh t a se a s i ly b e ap roduc t o f aS cand inav ian s e t t lem en t i n t h e w e s t a so ft h e h ome land s .2 9 T h i s— and o the r s u ch p i ece s o fc on s ide rab le i n te re s t i nt h e i r own r i gh t —mu s ta wa i td i scu s s ion i nt h em a in p ub l ica t ion . T he c onc lu s ion i st h e ref o re t h a t n o t l e s s t h an 3 0 p e r c en t o f t h e Cue rda le b u l l ion mu s t h ave o r ig ina ted i n I r e land , a nd p robab ly a l so a c on s ide rab le p ropo r t ion o ft h e 3 5 p e r c en t i ngo t ma te r ia l ( n o t f o rge t t ing , h oweve r , t h a t t h e r un o f' ma rk s ' i s mo re l i ke ly t ob e f r om a n Ang lo -Saxon o r Ang lo -Sc and inav ian s ou rce ) . Much , i fn o t a l , o ft h e r ema in ing 3 5 p e r c en t o fo rnamen t s a nd d e r ived h ack s i lve r may w e l l h ave e n te red n o r the rn E ng land a t t h i s p e r iod b y w ay o f I r e land . S uch ma te r ia l i s( s o f a r a ta ny r a te ) k nown o n ly i n n o r th -e a s t E ng land f r om c on tex t s 1 5-20 y ea r sl a te ri nd a te t h an C ue rda le , t h a ti si nt h e G o ld sbo rough a nd B o s sa l l /F lax ton h oa rd s ( Tab le 4 ) . TA BLE 4 .C o in -d a t ed h a ck s i lv e rh oa rd s( 900-30 )f r om B r i t a in a nd I r e l and
L o ca t ion
C o in s
D epo s i t ion
Cuerda le , L anc s . Hark irk , L anc s . Dy sar t I s land ( no .4 ) , Co . We s tmea th Maghe ra lagan , Co . Down Go ld sborough , York s . Bo s sa l l /F lax ton , York s . B angor , C aer . Dunmore C ave , Co . K i lkenny
A /S ,V ,C ,K ,B A /S ,V ,C ,K A /S ,V ,C ,K K ( +? ) A /S ,V ,K A /S ,V ,K A /S ,V ,K A /S ,V ,K
c . 905 c . 910 c . 910 c . 910 ? c . 920 c . 925 c . 925 c . 928
I ti ss e lf -ev iden t t h a t a st h e r e w a s n o I r i sh , S co t t i sh , o r Manx c o inage a tt h e p e r iod t h i s movemen t o fs i lve r i n to n o r the rn E ng land f r om t h e w e s t c anno t b e r ep re sen ted d i rec t ly i nt h e n um i sma t ic e v idence , a l though i tw a s s ugge s ted a bove t h a t t h e Kuf i c c o in s m igh t r ef l ec t t h i s , a tl e a s t i np a r t . I ft h e Cue rda le h oa rd a sa who le w a s t r ave l l ing w e s twa rd s when d epo s i ted ( s ee b e low ) , h av ing p e rhap sb een a s semb led i n t h e n o r th -ea s t a t Yo rk , a s t h e l a rge p a rce l o f f r e sh ly -m in ted No r thumb r ian V ik ing c o in s m igh t s e em t o i nd ica te , t h en much o f t h e b u l l ion wou ld h ave h ad t o h ave b een o n ar e tu rn j ou rney . T he f a c t i s ,h oweve r , t h a t 7 5 p e r c en t o ft h e Cue rda le h oa rd b y w e igh t c on s i s t s o fb u l l ion r a the r t h an c o in s a nd t h e p rob lem r ema in s , i ft h i s b u l l ion h ad i ndeed r e ached Y o rk , why i th ad n o t b een m in ted when Y o rk w a s s oc l ea r ly o pe ra t ing al a rge sca le mone ta ry e conomy a tt h i sv e ry p e r iod ( c .900 /5 ) . E .g . f i g s . 4 8-9 a nd 5 3-4 i n E . H awk in s , ' An a c coun t o f c o in s a nd t r ea su re f ound i n Cue rda le ' , A r cha eo l .J . 4( 1 847 ) , 11130 , 1 8928
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9 . 29
I b id . , f i g .85 .
ARCHAEOLOG ICAL REFLECT IONS ON CUERDALE THE BONE P INS
T he f i ve b one p in s w e re k ep t t oge the r i n al o ca l f am i ly u n t i l 1 940 w i th a 1 9 th -cen tu ry l a be l a s soc ia t ing t h em w i th t h e Cue rda le h oa rd . E ven i f t h e c on tempo r a ry s ou rce s a r e s i l en t c once rn ing t h i s a t t r ibu t ion , a sn o ted a bove , t h e l i ke l ihood o f t h e i r h av ing d e r ived f r om t h e h oa rd i si n c rea sed b y t h e a ppa r en t n on loca l o r ig in o fs ome a tl e a s to ft h em . Mr B en E dwa rd s h a s s ugge s ted t h a t n o s .1 , 3 , a nd 4 a r e Roman ( F ig .13 ) a nd n o .2 m igh t b e l i kew i se . 3° H e c onc luded t h a t ' nowhe r e t o t h e w e s t o f Yo rk ' wou ld h ave p rov ided as ou rce f o r t h em a nd t hu s , i ft h ey h ad b een u sed t o c l o se
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moneybag s , t h ey p rov ided e v idence t h a t t h e h oa rd w a s h eaded w e s t . T h i s c onc lu s ion n eed n o t o f c ou r se a pp ly t o t h e e n t i re h oa rd , b u t i tw a s o bv iou s ly n ece s sa ry i nt h e l i gh t o ft h i s i mpo r tan t c ommen t t os e ek t h e o p in ion o ft he F ind s Re sea rch s p ec ia l i s t s o ft h e Yo rk A rchaeo log i ca l T ru s t .3 1 Ia m g ra tef u l f o r t h e i r v i ew t h a t n o .3 i s' c e r t a in ly Roman ' a nd n o s .1 , 4 ,a nd 5 a r e ' p robab ly Roman ' , w i th t h e a dd i t iona l i n f o rma t ion t h a t ' Roman p in s a r e c ommon ly f ound a s r e s idua l o b jec t s i n A ng lo -Scand inav ian l e ve l s a t Yo rk — they a r e t e d iou s ly
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d u rab le ' . No .2 i st oo s imp le t o s a y a ny th ing — such t h ing s t u rn u p b o th i n Roman a nd A ng lo -Scand inav ian c on tex t s . ' I ti si n f a c t , f r om my own o b se r v a t ion s , v e ry much l i gh te r i nc o lou r t h an t h e o th e r s a nd m igh t w e l l t h e r ef o re b e a t t r ibu ted ay ounge r a ge ( i . e . f r e sh ly m ade , r a the r t h an a-r e s idua l a r tef ac t , a tt h e t ime o fd epo s i t ion ) . LOCAT ION
T he r e a r e s e ve ra l p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion s t oa c coun t f o r t h e g en e ra l l o ca t ion o ft h e C ue rda le h oa rd n ea r t h e mou th o ft h e R ive r R ibb le ( F ig .14 ) , a t as i t e whe re i t m igh tb e f o rded — a l o ca t ion wh ich , f o r Mr B en E dwa rd s , t h eL anca sh i re C oun ty
Cue rda le i nr e la t ion t ot he S cand inav ian K ingdom so f Yo rk a nd Dub l in .
A rchaeo log i s t q uo ted a bove , ' p re sumab ly i mp l ie s t h a t t h e h oa rd w a s i nt r an s i t a t t h e t ime o fd epo s i t ion ' .3 2 I ndeed , t h e f i r s t p o s s ib i l i ty — tha t t h i s w a s t h e b u r ied t r ea su r e o f al o ca l r e s iden t —wou ld s e em t ob e r u led o u t b o th b y i t s e xcep t iona l s i ze a nd b yi t ss p ec if i cp l ace o fc oncea lmen t , a t ar i ve rc r o s s ing . T he s e cond p o s s ib i l i ty i si ns ome w ay s r e la ted , i nt h a t i tp o s tu la te s t h e h oa rd ' s h av ing b een d epo s i ted n o t f a r f r om t h e p l ace o fi t sf i na l a s semb ly — tha t , i no the r wo rd s , i ti s al o ca l h oa rd i nt h e s e n se t h a t i t s a c cumu la t ion ( a s w e l l a si t s b u r ia l ) w a s c once rned d i rec t ly w i th l o ca l e ven t s , wha t eve r t h e s ou r ce ( s ) o f i t s c om p onen t s . T h i rd ly , t h e h oa rd m ay ( i n i t se n t i re ty ) h ave b e en t r ave l l ing f r om w e s t t oe a s t ; o r f ou r th ly , f r om e a s t t o w e s t ( on t h e Dub l in /York a x i s ) . T he w e s t /ea s t
3 2
Op .cit .
i nn o te 3 0 , a t3 66 .
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ARCHAEOLOG ICAL REFLECT IONS ON CUERDALE
e xp lana t ion h a s b een a rgued b y my se lf i n t h e p a s t a nd f ound f a vou r w i th P rof e s so r M ichae l Do l ley ; i ta ppea red p a r t icu la r ly a t t r ac t ive ( g iven t h e n a tu re o f t h eb u l l ion ) wh i l s tt h ed epo s i t ion d a te w a sb e ing s ugge s ted a s' 9 03 + 2 ' , g iven t h e e xpu l s ion o ft h e No r s e f r om Dub l in i n 9 02 . 3 Howeve r , . In ow f u l ly a c cep t t h e s t reng th o ft h e n um i sma t ic a rgumen t s t h a t s u ch i sh igh ly i mp robab le , a ta ny r a te f o r t h e who le h oa rd . Mr C h r i s tophe r B lun t a rgued a t t h e S ympo s ium f o r t h e e a s t /we s t t h eo ry , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e t r ea su re w a s a c cumu la ted o ve r ar e la t ive ly s ho r tp e r iod a nd f i n a l ly c l o sed i n York . T he f i f th a nd s i x th p o s s ib i l i t ie s a r e t h a t t h e h oa rd w a s t r ave l l ing n o r th / sou th o r s ou th /no r th . A t al o ca l l e ve l , t h e l i ke l ihood i st h a t i tw a s h ead ing n o r th f o r i tw a s c oncea led i n t h e s ou th b ank o f t h e r i ve r p re sumab ly b ef o re c ro s s ing . A s t h e Duchy o fL anca s te r ' s s u rveyo r r epo r ted t o t h e I nque s t , ' t he r e i s ag r ea t e x ten t o f Rock s i nt h e b ed o ft h e R ive r o ppo s i te t o t h e H a l l &l owe r d own g r ea t p a r t o f wh ich a r e g ene ra l ly b a re i n t h e o rd ina ry s t a te o ft h e R ive r ' . I n f a c t t h e Roman c ro s s ing -po in t w a s am i le d own r ive r a t Wa l ton le -Da le , whe re t h e R ibb le w a s s t i l l t i da l a t o rd ina ry t i de s— the t i de o n ly o cca s iona l ly r e ach ing ' n ea r t h e c o mmencemen t o f t h e Rock s & o ppo s i te t o t h e s t ake whe re t h e C o in s w e r e f ound ' , a c co rd ing t o t h e Duchy ' s s u rveyo r a ga in . Howeve r , a W/E o r E /W d i rec t ion ( o r c o mb ina t ion ) a t t rac t s mo re o bv iou s a t ten t ion t h an t h e N /S o r S /N o ne , f o rt h es imp le r e a son t h a t , a sE dwa rd sh a s o b se rved , ' t he f i nd spo ti sp rec i se ly o n t h e o n ly p robab l e r ou te b e tween t h e t wo V ik ing k ingdom s o f e a r ly t e n th -cen tu ry B r i ta in , Y o rk a nd Dub l in ' ( F ig .14 ) .3 4 CONTEXT
T he R ibb le v a l ley l e ad s t o t h e A i re G ap , d iv id ing t h e P enn ine d a le s t o t h e n o r th f r om t h eP enn ine Moo r s t ot h e s ou th , t h rough wh ich o ne p a s se s t od e scend t ot h e V a le o f Yo rk . I ti st h e n a tu r a l c ommun ica t ion r ou te t h rough t h e P enn ine s a nd w a s t he l i ne f o l lowed b y t h e Roman r oad . B u t i n o r a bou t t h e y ea r 9 05 w e s hou ld n o t b e t a lk ing o fi tl i t e ra l ly a s ar ou te b e tween t h e t wo V ik ing k ingdom s o f Yo rk a nd Dub l in , f o r t h e Dub l in No r se w e re t empo ra r i ly d i s lodged i n t h e p e r iod f r om 9 02 t oa bou t 9 17 ; t h e Cue rda le h oa rd c anno t t h e ref o re h ave b een i n t r an s i tb e tween t h et wo . ' V ik ing ' Dub l in w a s , a s i tw e re , i n a beyance a nd t h a t t h e re w a s a ma jo r i n te r rup t ion i ni t s d eve lopmen t i sp e rhap s i nd ica ted b y t h e f a c t t h a t 1 0 th cen tu ry Dub l in f l ou r i shed o n ad if e ren t s i te t o t h a t o ft h e o r ig ina l l o ngpho r t wh ich h ad b een e s tab l i shed i n 8 4 1 . I n f a c t D r P a t r ick Wa l lace i so f t h e r e cen t ly e xp re s sed o p in ion t h a t t h e r e su rgence o r r e c rea t ion o f Dub l in ' may n o t h ave h appened i mmed ia te ly a f te r 9 17 b u t c ou ld h ave f o l lowed t h e 9 27 e xpu l s ion o f t h e I r i sh -No r se f r om Y o rk , a f te r wh i ch t h e re w a s af l u r ry o f V ik ing a c t iv i ty i n I r e land ' .3 5 I ti st h e ref ore t h e e ven t s o f t h e v e ry b eg inn ing o f t h e t e n th c en tu ry wh ich
V ik ing Dub l in ' , i n A ng l o -Saxon H i s t o ry ,2 0 1-2 1 , a t2 03 .
3 3
Op . c i t . i nn o te 2 5 , a t5 4 .
34
Op . c i t . i nn o te 3 0 , a t3 66 .
3 5
P . F . Wa l lace , ' The E ng l i sh p re sence i n
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JA MES GRAHA M-CA MPBELL
mu s t p rov ide u s w i th a n e xp lana t ion f o r t h e p a r t icu la r n a tu re o f t h e C ue rda le h oa rd a nd t h e r e a son s f o r i t s d epo s i t ion . T he re a r e t h ree ma in f a c to r s t o b ea r i n m ind : ( i ) ab ackg round o fI r i sh -No r se d yna s t ic i n te r e s ti n Yo rk /Nor thumb r i a ; ( i ) t h ee xpu l s ion b y t h eI r i sh o ft h e No r se f r om Dub l in i n9 02 ; ( i i )t h e c o mmencemen t o f I r i sh -Nor se s e t t lemen t i n t h e Wi r ra l /Che s t e r a r ea a nd i nt h ea d jo in ing c oa s t land so fL anca sh i re . F o l low ing o n f r om t h e se f a c to r s , t h e r e m igh t b e a dded t h e d e te rm ina t ion t o r e -e s tab l i sh No r se p owe r i n I r e land ( u l t ima te ly s u cce s sf u l ) wh ich m igh t p rov ide t h e c on tex t f o r t h e d epo s i t ion o f t wo h oa rd s i n I r e land , b o th c . 9 10 , w i th s ome o bv iou s s im i la r i t ie s t o Cue rda le ( Tab le 4 ) : t h e l a rge ly u nknown c oa s ta l h oa rd f r om Maghe ra lagan , n ea r Downpa t r ick ,3 6 a nd , mo re c l ea r ly , t h e Dy s a r t I s l and ( no .4 ) h oa rd wh ich i n s o many w ay s r ef l ec t s C ue rda le i n m in ia tu re .3 7 T o u nde r s tand Dy sa r t mo re f u l ly may y e th e lp t oi n te rp re t Cue rda le .
CONCLUS ION
My own h ypo the s i s t o a c coun t f o r t h e n a tu re , l o ca t ion , a nd c on tex t o f t h e Cue rda le h oa rd i st h a t i tw a s l i nked w i th s ome a t temp t t ou s e t h e R ibb l e e s tua ry , i n a n a r ea o f S cand inav ian s e t t lemen t , a s ap owe rba se f r om wh ich t o r e a s se r t No r se c on t ro l a c ro s s t h e I r i sh S ea — i t s c on ten t s r e pr e sen t ing I r i sh -No r se e x i led w ea l th , n ew ly t opped u p w i th c o in s a nd i ngo t s f r om s uppo r te r s i nt h e K ingdom o f Yo rk . A t t h e S ympo s ium , t h i s s ugge s t ion r e c e ived p a r t icu la r s uppo r t f r om Mr N ick H igham who w i l l b e a rgu ing e l sewhe re t h a t t h e R ibb le e s tua ry d id i ndeed f o rm a b a se f o r t h e mo re b e l l ige ren t o f t h e e x i led Dub l in No r se , w i th t h e i r p robab le h eadqua r te r sa tP re s ton . T h i s s ugge s t ion m ay a ta ny r a te s e rve t o p rov ide an ew f o cu s f o r d i scu s s ion , b u t u l t ima te ly o fc ou r se who b u r ied t h e C ue rd a le h oa rd , a nd why , w i l l r ema in a my s te ry . C. S .B r igg s a nd J .A . G raham -Campbe l l , ' A l o s t h oa rd o f V ik ing-age s i lve r f r om Maghe ra lagan , Coun ty Down ' , U l s t e r J . A r cha eo l . 3 9 ( 1 976 ) , 2 0-4 ; a nd C . S . B r igg s , ' The Maghe ra lagan h oa rd : a n a dd i t iona l n o te ' , i b id . 4 1 ( 1 978 ) , 1 02 . 37 Op . c i t . i nn o te 6 ,a t3 39 f f . 3 6
A cknow l ed g em en t : F ig .1 i sr ep roduced f r om J .
3 44
B r i t . A r cha eo l . A s s o c . 8( 1 852-3 ) , p 1 .37 . F ig .13 i s r ep roduced f r om A n t iq .J . 6 4 ( 1 984 ) , 3 66 , w i th p e rm i s s ion o f t h e S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ie s o f L ondon a nd o fB .J .N . E dwa rd s . F ig .14 i sb yJ . L ew i s i n L an c s . A r cha eo l . J . 2 ( 1 982 ) , 7 3 . F ig s .212 a r e f r om E . H awk in s i nA r cha eo l .J .4 ( 1 847 ) .
CVNNETT I r e con s ide red I AN S TE WART
I N1 957 S t ewa r t L yon a nd Ir e ad ap ape r t o t h e Roya l Num i sma t ic S oc ie ty o n t h e C unn e t t i a nd o the r No r thumb r ian c o in s f r om t h e C ue rda le h oa rd , wh ich w a s s ub sequen t ly p ub l i shed ( 1 96 1 ) i n t h e v o lume p re sen ted t o S i r F r ank S t en ton f o r h i s e i gh t ie th b i r thday . ' I ta s ton i she s me t of i nd t h a t t h i r ty y ea r s h ave n ow e l ap sed s i nce w e d id o u r b a s ic wo rk o n t h e s e r ie s a nd , a l though t h e a n a ly s i s a nd t h e m a in c onc lu s ion sh ave g ene ra l ly b een f ound a c cep tab le , i twou ld i ndeed b e s u rp r i s ing i f t h e re w e re n o th ing t o c o r rec t , a d ju s t , o r a dd a f te r s u ch a n i n te rva l . It h e r ef o re t hough t i tm igh t b e o ppo r tune t o t a ke a dvan tage o f t h i s s ympo s ium a nd i t s p ub l ica t ion t or e co rd s ome o ft h e p o in t s t h a t h ave s i nce eme rged wh ich wou ld I t h ink h ave c au sed u s t o e xp re s s m a t te r s d if e ren t ly i fw e h ad b een w r i t ing t h e p ape r t oday . I n t h e f i r s t p l ace , t h e r e i ss ome n ew ma te r ia l , v e ry l i t t le i nf a c t , b u t n o t w i thou t i t s s i gn if i c ance . T hen t h e re a r e t h e i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e Cue rda le No r thumb r ian s e r ie s o fa dvance s i no u r k now ledge a nd u nde r s tand ing o fc e r ta in r e la ted c o inage s . F ina l ly , t h e re a r e c on t r ibu t ion s b y o the r w r i te r s wh ich n eed t o b e t a ken i n to a c coun t . S ince 1 96 1 many mo r e s p ec imen s h ave b een i lu s t ra ted t h rough t h e m ed ium o f t h e S y l l og e , t h e Copenh agen , Y o rk sh i re , a nd Me r sey s ide v o lume s b e ing p a r t icu l a r ly i mpo r tan t . Two n ew h oa rd s h ave c on ta ined e xamp le s o ft h e c o inage . T he No rf o lk h oa rd f r om Mo r ley S t . P e te r2 c on ta ined o ne C unn e t t i a nd t h e I r i sh h oa rd f r om Dy sa r t ( Lough E nne l l ) h ad t wo C unn e t t i c o in s , o ne C nu t c o in o f Yo rk , a nd t wo u n iden t if i ed f r agm en t s o f No r thumb r ian c o inage .3 B y w ay o fs i ng le f i nd s , w e c an a dd o ne o f A lva ld u s f r om No r th F e r r iby , Yo rk sh i re , 4 aM i r ab i l i a F e c i t f r om D e rby ,5t wo C unn e t t i c o in s f r om Yo rk 6 a nd a no the r C unn e t t i f r om S ou thoe i n Hun t ingdon sh i re .7 S o f a r a st h e o r ig in o f t h e c o inage i sc once rned , s ome n ew b u t t o my m ind f a nc if u l s ugge s t ion s w e re p u t f o rwa rd b y t h e l a te Mr . F . ( Mon ty ) B ank s a nd b y Mr . P e te r S eaby . Id o n o t t h ink t h a t t h e a t t r ibu t ion t o Yo rk i sn ow s e r iou s ly
1 NC 1 958 , p roc . , p .4 ; ' The No r thumbr ian V ik ing c o in s i n t h e Cue rda le h oa rd ' , A ng l o S axon C o in s , e d . Do l ley , 1 96 1 , p p .9612 1 . Iam g ra tef u l t o Mr . L yon f o r c o mmen t s o n t h e p re sen t n o te , a nd f o r e xp re s s ing h i s g ene ra l a pp rova l o fi t . SCBI E a s t A ng l ia 2 4 . Ryan , M . , e t a l . , ' S ix s i lve r f i nd s o f t h e V ik ing p e r iod f r om t he v i c in i ty o f L ough E nne l l , Co . We s tmea th ' , P e r i t i a 3( 1 984 ) , 3 348 1 ( p .354 ) . 2
3
B lun t , C . E . , ' No r thumb r ian c o in s i n t h e n ame o f A lwa ldu s ' , BN J 5 5 ( 1 985 ) , 1 92-4 . I n a dd i t ion t ot h ee xamp le so fe a r ly l o s s o ft h - ( o r g ) f r om A e the l - ( o r A ege l) c i ted b y Mr . B lun t , I EELR IC ( Edmund , HT I ; BMS 2 78 ) may b er e levan t . SCBI M id land s 16 . SCBI Yo rk sh i re 2 5 ( Ske lde rga te ) ; a nd P i ne ,E .J .E . ,P o s t -Roman C o in sf r om Y o rk E x c av a t ion s , n o .40 ( Coppe rga te ) . BN J5 , p . 7 1 , n o .63 . 4
5 6
7
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c on te s ted .8 I n 1 96 1 w e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e c o in s i n t h e n ame o f Cnu t w i th t h e i n sc r ip t ion QVENTOV IC I emana ted f r om t h e F r ank i sh p o r t o f Quen tov i c , b u t t h i s may n o t b e r i gh t . M ichae l Do l ley n o t iced t h a t t h e re w e re d i e l ink s i nvo lv ing t h e Cnu t d i e s , s ugge s t ing t h a t , u n l ike t h e c i rcu la r i n sc r ip t ion d i e s i n t h e Y o rk s e r ie s , t h e d i e s w i th t h e Quen tov ic i n sc r ip t ion w e r e t h e u ppe r o r r eve r se d i e s . I n t h e l i gh t o ft h i s , a nd t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Q v en t ov i c i c o in s o f Cnu t a r e o n t h e l owe r E ng l i sh w e igh t s t anda rd , a nd n o t t h e h eav ie r F rench o ne , t h e re a r e g round s f o r t h ink ing t h a t t h ey a r e i n f a c t D ane law i m i ta t ion s , a s r e cen t ly n o ted b y Mr . B lackbu rn .9 T he d a te w e p rev iou s ly a dop ted f o r t h e b u r ia l o ft h e h oa rd w a s c . 903 . Du r ing t h el a s t t e n y ea r s Mr . L yon a nd Ih ave b een d o ing d e ta i led wo rk o n t h e c o in age o f E dwa rd t h e E lde r a nd o n t h e c on tempo r a ry V ik ing c o inage s r e spec t ive ly . F o r t h e p u rpo se s o fc l a s s if i ca t ion o ft h e c o in s o fE dwa rd , Mr . L yon h a s i d en t if i ed t h ree p e r iod s , E a r ly , M idd le , a nd L a te , e a ch d iv ided i n to t wo p ha se s . On t h e g round s t h a t t h e l a te s t E ng l i sh c o in s o f t h e We s t S axon a nd We s t Me rc ian s e r ie s i n t h e h oa rd a r e o ft h e s e cond p ha se o ft h e E a r ly p e r iod , Mr . L yon n ow s ugge s t s t h a t c . 905 m ay b e ab e t te r d a te f o r t h e h oa rd t h an c . 903 . Odd ly e nough , i n t h e f i r s t s e c t ion o ft h e Mo r ley S t . P e te r h oa rd t h e E ng l i sh c o in s r un o n ly t ot h e f i r s t p ha se o ft h eE a r ly p e r iod o fE dwa rd , b u ti na dd i t ion t ot h e o ne C unn e t t i c o in t h e re w e r e s ome v e ry e a r ly e xamp le s o ft h e n ex t Y o rk c o inage wh ich w a s i nt h e n ame o fS t . P e te r . We u sed t o t h ink t h a t t h e u s e o ft h e K a r o l u s monog ram o n s ome o ft h e c o in s o fC nu t a nd i nt h e S t . P e te r s e r ie s c on s t i tu ted al i nk b e tween t h e t wo . In ow b e l ieve t h a t t h e S t . P e te r c o in s w i th t h e monog ram c o me a tt h e v e ry e nd o ft h e s wo rd le s s s e r ie s , c . 9 18 ,j u s t b ef o r e t h e a r r iva l o fR egna ld a tY o rk , who a l so u s ed t h e monog ram o n t wo h i s t h ree t ype s ." ' We d o n o t k now whe the r t h e No r thumb r ian c o inage o ft h e Cue rda le t ype s w a s c o mp le te b y t h e t ime t h e h oa rd w a s p u t t oge the r . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t i t c on t inued f o r al im i ted p e r iod t h e reaf te r . T he o n ly c l ue s w e h ave i nt h i s d i rec t ion a r e t h e c o in s f r om o the r s ou rce s , wh ich a r e r ema rkab ly f ew . B u t i tm ay b e s i gn if i can t t h a t t h e s i ng le C unn e t t i c o in f r om Mo r ley S t . P e te r r e ad s CV I I NET i n s tead o ft h e u sua l CVN NET T I . T h i s b lunde r ing c ou ld s ugge s t l a tene s s , a nd i t i sn o tewo r thy t h a t t h e d i e d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een r ep re sen ted i n t h e Cue rda le h oa rd ( i t i sn o t i n t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum C ue rda le s e r ie s , wh ich w a s c a ref u l ly s e lec ted a c co rd ing t o d i e s , n o r d oe s i ts e em t o b e r e co rded e l sewhe re ) . T he S ou thoe C unn e t t i a l so a ppea r s t o b e f r om n on -Cue rda le d i e s . T he se c o in s c ou ld t hu s p e rhap s b e s u rv ivo r s f r om a l im i ted p o s t -Cue rda le e x ten s ion o f t h e C unn e t t i s e r ie s , i ft h e r e w a s o ne . Ac o mpa rab le c on s ide r a t ion c ou ld a pp ly t o t h e s i ng le M i r ab i l ia F e c i tf i nd f r om t h e e xcava t ion o fS t . A lkmund ' s c hu rch i nD e rby . T he r eve r se d i e i ss l igh t ly b lunde red ( w i th r eve r sed S ) a nd a ga in i tw a s n o t r ep re sen ted i nC ue rda le . T he p e r sona l n ame s o n t h i s No r thumb r ian s e r i e s h ave e xc i ted v igo rou s d eba te f o r ac en tu ry a nd ah a lf s i nce t h e h oa rd w a s d i scove red . T he o ne i d en t if i ca t ion 8 B ank s , F . , T h e P r ob l em o fC u e rd a l e ; S eaby , P . , ' Some Cue rda le q ue r ie s ' , S eaby ' s C o in & Med a lB u l l e t in , 1 967 ,J u ly , Aug . , S ep t . ; d i spu ted b y S t ewa r t , I . , ' The e a r ly V ik ing c o inage a t York ' , i b id . , 1 967 , D ec .
MEC I ,p . 322 . B lun t , C . E . , a nd S t ewar t , B . H . I .H . , ' The c o inage o f Regna ld Io f Yo rk a nd t h e B o s sa l l h oa rd ' , NC 1 983 , 1 46-63 . 9
1°
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wh ich h a s b een u n ive r sa l ly a c cep ted i st h a t o f S i ef r edu s , o r S i ev e r t , o n t h e c o in s w i th t h e S i gef e r th who a t tacked t h e D evon sh i re c oa s t c . 894 a nd w a s d e sc r ibed b y Athe lwea rd a s a' p i ra te f r om t h e l a nd o f t h e No r thumbr ian s ' . H e m ay h ave s u cceeded Gu thf r i th a sk ing o ft h e No r thumbr ian D ane s c . 895 , a nd h i s c o inage c o me s e a r ly i nt h e C ue rda le s e r ie s . I ti sd if icu l t t o r e ca l l t h e se d ay s t h a t u n t i l t h e 1 950 s t h e Cue rda le c o in s i n t h e n ame o f Cnu t w e re g ene ra l ly a s soc ia ted w i th Gu thf r i th o n t h e e n t i re ly u nf ounded a s sump t ion t h a t Cnu t m igh t h ave b een a n a l te rna t ive o r b ap t i sma l n ame f o r t h e h i s to r ica l V ik ing l e ade r o f whom n o c o in s w e re k nown . A l though Mr . L yon a nd Iw e re i nn o d oub t t h a t t h i s a s soc ia t ion w a s u n tenab le , i ff o r n o o the r r e a son b ecau se t h e Cnu t c o in s w e re g ene ra l ly l a te r t h an t ho se o fS i ef red , i ti sn one t h e l e s s s a t i sf ac to ry t o b e a b le t o p o in t n ow t o ac o in f r om t h e r e cen t A shdon f i nd w i th a n i n sc r ip t ion b eg inn ing GVDEF , wh ich a ppea r s t or ep re sen t a n i sue , a l be i t f r om f u r the r s ou th t h an No r thumb r ia , i nt h e n ame o fG u thf r i th ." One o f t h e p rob l em s c on s ide red i n o u r 1 96 1 p ape r w a s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween C nu t a nd S i ef red . T he i r c o inage a ppea r s t o h ave o ve r lapped , a nd t h e e x ten s ive p a t te rn o fd i e l ink ing i n c lude s c o in s r e ad ing CNVT REX o n o ne s i de a nd S IEFREDVS o n t h e o the r . Wi thou t e n thu s ia sm , w e e ven c on s ide red t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t C nu t a nd S i ef red m igh t h ave b een t h e s ame p e r son . T h i s h ypo the s i s , n eve r mo re t h an h igh ly s p ecu la t ive , c an n ow b e d ef in i t ive ly a bandoned i nt h e l i gh t o fn ew e v idence f o r t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fC nu th im se lf . D r . Smy th i2 h a s f ound r e f e rence s i n l a te r No r se l i t e ra tu re t o aD an i sh Knü t r who f ough t b a t t le s n or th o fC leve land a nd n ea r S ca rbo rough c . 900 a nd w a s k i l led a t Dub l in a f ew y ea r s l a te r ; a nd i n t h i s c onnec t ion t h e l a te D r . G eo rg G a l s te r1 3 n o ted t h a t i n 1 085 K nud S vend son d e sc r ibed h im se lf a s Cnu to Qua r tu s wh ich wou ld i mp ly a no the r D an i sh k ing o ft h i s n ame , e a r l ie r t h an C nu t t h e G rea t a nd H a r thacnu t . I ti su n l ike ly t h a t t h e c o in s c omb in ing t h e n ame s o fC nu t a nd S i ef red a r e t h e r e su l t o f a n a c c iden ta l m ix tu re o f d i e s , s i nce o f t h e f ou r S i ef red d i e s i nvo lved o n ly o ne i sk nown w i th t h e a l te rna t ive p a i r ing REX . G iven t h a t i nt he r e s t o f t h e s e r ie s t h e p a i r ing o fi n compa t ib le d i e s w a s c a ref u l ly a vo ided , a nd i n v i ew o ft h en umbe ro fd i e si nvo lved , i ti swo r th c on s ide r a t ion whe the rt h e se c o in s m ay h ave b een i sued j o in t ly b y t h et wo r u le r s . I n wo rk ing d u r ing r e cen t y ea r s o n t h e A ng lo -V ik ing c o inage s o f t h e 9 40 s ( wh ich w i l l b e f u l ly d i s cu s sed i nC o inag e i nT en th -C en tu ry E ng l and" ) , Ih ave b een s t ruck b y t h e i mpo s s ib i l i ty o f a r rang ing t h e c o in s o f Yo rk o f t h e t wo o r t h ree y ea r s u p t ot h e e xpu l s ion o ft h e V ik ing r u le r s b y E dmund i n9 44 w i thou t m ak ing t h e a s sump t ion t h a t c o in s w e re b e ing i sued i n t h e n ame o f t wo o r e ven t h ree k ing s , An laf , Regna ld , a nd S i t r ic , mo re o r l e s s c oncu r ren t ly . K ing sh ip i n t h e V ik ing wo r ld w a s b a sed o n t h e l e ade r sh ip o f p eop le r a the r t h an t h e c on t ro l o f s p ec if ic t e r r i to ry , a nd e ven i na n i mpo r tan t c en t re s u ch a s Yo rk i td oe s n o t s e em t oh ave b een mona rch ic a l . A t t ime s t h e r e s e em s t oh ave b een mo re t h an o ne k ing
1 2
MEC I ,p . 319 . Smy th , A . , S cand inav ian Y o rk a nd Dub l in ,
I( 1 975 ) . G a l s te r , G . , — Cnu t Rex" i s Gorm t he O ld ' s F a ther ' , Num . C i r c . 1 978 , 5 81-2 . 1 3
B lun t ,C .E . ,S tewar t ,B . H . I .H . ,a nd L yon , C . S .S . , i nt he p re s s . S ee c hap te r 3o ft h i s work f o r ar ef erence , wh ich we owe t o Mr . P agan , t o aC unne t t i i n as ma l l f i nd f r om Ang le sey i n t he 1 690 s . 14
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o n t h e s c ene , a nd a to the r t ime s p e rhap s n one a ta l . T he i mp l ica t ion s o ft h i s f o r t h ei n sc r ip t ion so n t h ec o in sw e re n o tf u l ly t a ken i n to a c coun ti no u r 1 96 1 p ape r . L ike o the r w r i te r s b ef o re u s , Mr . L yon a nd Id evo ted c on s ide rab le s p ace t ot h e q ue s t ion o f t h e mean ing o f t h e wo rd C unn e t t i , w i thou t c om ing u p w i th a s a t i sf ac to ry s o lu t ion . We n o ted t h a t t h i s i n sc r ip t ion i so n ly f ound w i th o bve r se s i n t h e n ame o f Cnu t , a nd s ugge s ted t h a t s i nce t h e se c o in s a r e d i e l inked c l o se ly i n to t ype s b ea r ing t h e n ame o f t h e c i ty o fY ork , i tw a s mo s t u n l ike ly t h a t C unn e t t i c ou ld b e t h e n ame o fa no the r m in t . We a l so r e jec ted t h e i d ea t h a t i tc ou ld b e a moneye r ' s n ame , a nd wonde red whe the r i tw a s i ns ome w ay c onnec ted w i th t h e n ame o r t i le o f t h e r u le r . H av ing made n o p rog re s s o n t h a t f r on t a f te r m any y ea r s o fr ef l ec t ion , It h ink i tm igh t b e wo r th c on s ide r ing ( a l though Is ugge s t t h i s w i th s ome h e s i ta t ion ) whe the r t h e wo rd C unn e t t i c ou ld b e t h e n ame o fa no the r V ik ing l e ade r , o ccu r r ing o n t h e o the r s i de o f C nu t ' s c o in s i n t h e w ay t h a t S i ef red ' s h ad s ome t ime s d one . I n o u r 1 96 1 p ape r Mr . L yon a nd Is p ecu la ted whe the r t h e n ame Cnu t c ou ld h ave b een L a t in i zed a s Hundeu s , t h e V ik ing d ux who s a i led d own t h e S e ine i n8 96 a nd w a s b ap t iz ed b y Cha r le s t h e S imp le i nt h e f o l low ing y ea r . Howeve r , o ne o ft h e r e ad ing s o ft h i s l e ade r ' s n ame i sH un ed eu s a nd t h i s o pen s u p a no the r p o s s ib i l i ty . L eav ing o f t h e L a t in t e rm ina t ion a nd t a k ing D a nd E a st h e e qu iva len t o fTa nd I ,wh ich t h ey s of r equen t ly a r e , w e f i nd ar ema rkab le c or re l a t ion b e tween Hunede a nd C unn e t t i ( o r Cune t i , s i nce t h e d up l ica t ion o ft h e c on sonan t c an b e i gno red ) . T he g u t tu ra l s ound r ep re sen ted b y CH w a s s ome t ime s i nt h e D a rk Age s i nd ica ted b y t h e l e t te r Co r t h e l e t te r H , b u t Imu s t l e ave i tt o p h i lo log i s t s t oj udge whe the r Ca nd H c ou ld b e r egarded a s i n te rchangeab le i nt h i s c on tex t . I fs oi twou ld b ep o s s ib le t os e e CV NE TI a nd HV NE DE a sd if e ren t p hone t ic s p e l l ing s o ft h e s ame n ame . Hunedeu s w a sp re sumab ly l e ade r o f t h e b and o f No r semen who , a f te r w in te r ing b y t h e L o i re , h a r r ied p a r t s o f Aqu i ta ine a nd Neu s t r ia i n t h e s p r ing o f 8 98 a nd , a l though i n te rcep ted b y t h e k ing ' s a rmy , m anaged t o g e t t h rough t o t h e i r f l ee t . I ti sc e r ta in ly p o s s ib le t h a t s ub s tan t ia ls um s o fs i lve rf ound t h e i rw ay u p t h e No r th S ea t h rough h i s a gency . A lva ldu s p re sen t s r a the r mo re p rob lem s . We p o in ted o u t t h a t h e i sn o t s t y led R ex o n h i s c o in s , a nd wonde r ed whe the rh e m igh t b e amoneye r . We t hough t h i s c o in s c ame t oo e a r ly i n t h e s e r ie s f o r h im t o b e i d en t if i ed w i th t h e a t he l ing Athe lwa ld , A lf red ' sn ephew , who w a s r e ce ived b yt h e D ane s a t Yo rk a f te rf a i l ing t o o b ta in t h e We s t S axon c r own o n A lf red ' s d e a th i n8 99 . A t t h a t t ime , w e h ad n o t t a ken a c coun t o f amu le c o in w i th i t s o bve r se o ft h e M i r ab i l ia F e c i t t ype a nd i t s r eve r se o f t h e t ype u s ed b y A lva ld u s .1 5 N o t o n ly d oe s t h i s c o in a t tach t h e A lva ldu s c o inage more c l o se ly t o t h e r e s t o ft h e No r thumb r ian s e r ie s , b u t i ta l so c a s t s d oub t o n o u r a rgumen t t h a t t h e A lva ldu s c o in s a r e t oo e a r ly i n d a te t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th Athe lwa ld . Mr . B lun t h a s r e cen t ly a rgued t h a t t h ey s hou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h i s p r ince , a nd b o th Mr . L yon a nd Ia r e i n a g reemen t w i th h im . H e re a ga in t h e a t t r ibu t ion i se a s ie r t o r e conc i le w i th t h e e v idence i fw e a r e n o t c on s t ra ined b y s uppo s ing t h a t t h e V ik ing l e ade r sh ip c ou ld o n ly b e h e ld s i ng ly a nd c on secu t ive ly b y d if e ren t r u le r s . T he s l igh t ly l a te r d a t ing o ft h e Cue rda l e h oa rd 1 5
SCBI Oxf ord 2 00 .
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a l so p rov ide s mo re f l ex ib i l i ty i nt h e r e la t ive c h rono logy o ft h e c o in s . A s soc ia t ing t h e A lva ld u s c o in s w i th Athe lwa ld d oe s n o t , h oweve r , e xp l a in t h e u n re so lved q ue s t ion a bou t t h i s i sue , n ame ly why o n ly o ne c o in i sk nown f r om e a ch o ft h e d i e s i nvo lved , a nd h ow i tc ame a bou t t h a t t wo o ft h e f i ve k nown s p ec imen s a r e f r om n on -Cue rda le s ou rce s . E ven t h e e a r l ie s t o f t h e Cue rda le g roup s i n c lude e x ten s ive d i e d up l ica t ion , a nd n o n on -Cue rda le s p ec imen s a t a l a ppea r t o b e r e co rded o f mo s t o f t h e C ue rda le t ype s ( e xcep t t h e c o mmone s t ) . B u t whe the r t h ey c ome e a r ly , m id -way o r l a te i n t h e Cue rda le s e r ie s , t h e s t a t i s t ic s o f t h e A lva ldu s c o in s a r e c on sp icuou s ly d if e ren t f r om t ho se o fa l t h e o the r t ype s , a nd i n c on sequence d if i cu l tt oe xp la in . F rom t ime t o t ime i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h e No r thumb r ian c o in s i n C ue rda le wh ich c a r ry t h e n ame o fn o p e r sona l r u le r a ta l , b u t s ome c omb ina t ion o fd i e s w i th DNS DS ( 0 ) REX , MIRAB IL IA F EC IT , o r aYo rk m in t s i gna tu re , w e re t ob e s e en a si sued b y t h e c hu rch , o r f o r t h e a r chb i shop . T h i si d ea w a s b a sed p a r t ly o n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a r chb i shop s o fY o rk h ad e n joyed m in t ing r i gh t s u nde r t h e o ld E ng l i sh k ing s o f No r thumb r ia , b u t p a r t ly a l so o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e Y o rk c o inage i n t h e n ame o fS t . P e te r , wh ich f o l lowed s oon a f te r t h e C ue rda le p e r iod , w a s a n e c c le s i a s t ica l i sue . I n my v i ew t h a t i sn o t s o . A f te r t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e t e n th c en tu ry t h e r ei sal a ck o fr e f e rence s t oi nd iv idua l r u le r s a t Yo rk b ef o re R egna ld a nd Iwou ld p r ef e r t o s e e t h e S t . P e te r c o inage a s ak ind o f mun i c ipa l i sue o ft h el e ade r s o ft h eV ik ing c o mmun i ty a t Yo rk , w i thou t a ny mo re r e l ig iou s c onno ta t ion t h an many c on t inen ta l c o inage s o fc i t ie s s u ch a sT ou r s ( S t . Ma r t in ) who se c i v ic i sue s c a r r ied t h e n ame o f t h e l o ca l p a t ron s a in t . Id o n o t t h e ref o re t h ink t h a t t h e S t . P e te r c o inage i si nt h i s s e n se d i r ec t ly r e levan t t ot h e q ue s t ion o f t h e Cue rda le c o in s w i thou t ak ing ' s n ame . T hey a r e c l o se ly d i e l inked t ot h e r e s t o ft h e No r thumb r ian s e r ie s , a nd Is hou ld p ref e r t ol ook f o r o the r e xp lana t ion s f o r t h em . T he l e s s c l ea r -cu t av i ew w e t a ke o ft h e n a tu re o fk ing sh ip a tt h i s t ime , t h e l e s s i t wou ld s e em t o m a t te r i fs ome o ft h e c o in s d id n o t c a r ry ar u le r ' s n ame a t a l . 16 F ina l ly , t h e re a r e o ne o r t wo mo re g ene r a l o b se rva t ion s t om ake . I ne s t ima t ing t h e n umbe r o f d i e s i n vo lved i n t h e No r thumb r ian c o inage f r om C ue rda le a nd mu l t ip ly ing t h i s b y ap o s s ib le f i gu re f o r a ve rage d i e -ou tpu t , w e w e re c on sc iou s o f u s ing at e chn ique wh i ch a ppa ren t ly h ad n o t b een a pp l ied b ef o re t oe s t ima t ion o f t h e s i ze o fa ni sue o fe a r ly m ed ieva l c o inage . I ti sat e chn ique wh ich h a sb een u s ed e x ten s ive ly s i nce , a nd Ia m g l ad t h a t i th a s b een , b u t Id o n o t t h ink i tc an b e e mpha s ized t oo o f ten h ow f r ag i le t h e a s sump t ion s m ay b e o n wh ich t h e c a lcu la t ion s a r e made . A n a ve rage f i gu re f o r d i e -ou tpu t c an c oncea l av e ry w ide r a nge o f a c tua l o u tpu t s , t hu s a f ec t ing t h e l i ke l ihood o f i nd iv idua l d i e s b e ing r e p re sen ted i n as amp le o fs u rv iv ing c o in s . F u r the rmo re , t h e re a r e f ew c a se s s u ch a sC ue rda le whe re w e c an b e s o s u re t h a t t h e c i rcum s tance s o fs u rv iva l o ve r t h e who le o ft h e c o inage c once rned w e re s im i la r , a nd w e c anno t a s sume t h a t s u rv iva l p a t te rn s , t h e p hy s ica l c apac i ty o fd i e s , o r t h e e x ten t t o wh ich t h ey w e re a c tua l ly u s ed , w e re c on s i s ten t f r om o ne p e r iod o r r eg ion t o a no the r . None the le s s , o u r e s t ima te t h a t t h e No r thumb r ian c o inage i nC ue rda le m ay h ave b een m in ted f r om S t ewar t , I . , ' The Ne l son Co l lec t ion a t L iverpoo l a nd s o me York q ue s t ion s ' , BN J 5 2 1 6
( 1 982 ) , p p .247-51 .
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I AN S T EWART b e tween t h ree a nd f ou r t on s o fs i lve r i n to b e tween t wo a nd t h ree m i l l ion c o in s , s t i l l s e em s t o me t ob e au s ef u l a nd p robab ly v a l id i nd ica to r o ft h e s c a le o fi t . We d o n o t k now why t h e c o inage w a s u nde r taken a ta l , b u t wha t made i tp o s s ib le a f te r m any y ea r s w i thou t ar egu la r c o inage a tY o rk mu s t s u re ly h ave b een t h e b oo ty o b ta ined b y V ik ing l e ade r s s u ch a s Hunedeu s . I ts e em s t o me l i ke ly t h a to ne o f t h e p u rpo se s o f t h e c o inage m ay h ave b een t o d i s t r ibu te s h a re s a mong t h e p a r t ic ipan t s i ns u ch e xped i t ion s . How s u ch al a rg e p o r t ion o fi te nded u p a sp a r t o f t h e g rea t t r ea su re h idden n ea r t h e b ank o f t h e R ive r R ibb le w e s h a l l n eve r k now . One c an o n ly i mag ine t h a t t ho se who b rough t i tf ound t h em se lve s u nab le t o c a r ry i ta c ro s s t h e r i ve r , b u t w e re i n s ome n eed o f c on t inu ing t h e i rj ou rney w i thou t d e lay . T he re mu s t h ave b een s e ve ra l o ft h em t ot r ave l w i th s u ch ah eavy a nd v a luab le t r ea su re , a nd i ti s ame lancho ly t hough t t h a t n one o ft h em c an h ave s u rv ived t or epo s se s s i to r e ven t oh ave p a s sed o n wo rd o fi tt oh e i r s o r c om rade s who m igh t h ave d one s o . S uch e no rmou s r i che s wou ld h a rd ly h ave b een a bandoned w i thou t e xcep t iona l e f o r t s a tr e cove ry u n le s s i tb ecame i mpo s s ib le f o r t h e i r owne r s t o r e tu rn t o t h e l o ca t ion , b ecau se i tw a s o ccup ied b y t h e i r e nem ie s , o rb ecau se t h ey a l p e r i shed s oon a f te rt h e t r ea su re h ad b een b u r ied .
D ISCUSS ION DR M E TCAL F : T he o r ig ina l c a lcu la t ion s o ft h e s c a le o ft h e No r thumb r ian V ik ing c o inage ,p ub l i shed a sl ong a go a s1 96 1 ,w e re m ade o nt h eb a s i so fo bve r se d i e s ,a nd a mu l t ip l ie ro f1 0 ,000 a st h ea ve r age o u tpu to f ad i e . I ti swo r th s t udy ing ap a ra l le ls e t o ff i gu re sf o rr eve r se d i e s , f o rt wo r e a son s . F i r s t , t h er eve r se d i ei st h eo ne t h a tw ea r s o u t , whe rea st h el i f eo fa no bve r se d i ei sf a i r ly e l a s t ic .E s t ima te so ft h es c a le o fo the r Ang lo -Saxon i sue ss i nce 1 96 1h ave r egu la r ly b een b a sed o nr eve r se d i e s ,a st h e mo re r e l iab le i nd ica to r , a nd o nt h ec onven t iona l ( a nd p e rhap sc on se rva t ive ) mu l t ip l ie ro f 1 0 ,000 . F o r c o mpa rab i l i ty , t h e ref o re , i tm igh t b e h e lpf u l t o d o t h e s ame f o r No r thumb r ia . S econd ly , c o mpa r ing b o th s e t so ff i gu re sd r aw sa t ten t ion t ot h er a t io i n wh ich d i e sw e re u s ed . F o rt h ee a r l ie rA ng lo-V ik ing v a r ie t ie ss t ruck a tY ork , t h i s w a s c l o se t oo ne to -one , b u t f o r t h el a te r v a r ie t ie si tw a s h ighe r . I ti s , It h ink , c l ea r t h a t t h e re w a s ad i s t inc t c hange i nm in t -p rac t ice a ta n i n te rmed ia te d a t e . Whe re t h e n umbe r s o f o bve r se a nd r eve r se d i e s r e co rded f o r av a r ie ty a r e a pp rox ima te ly e qua l ,a st h ey a r ef o rm any o ft h e( s c a rce )e a r ly v a r ie t ie s ,t h ed i e ra t io w i l l a l so , w i th in t h e l im i t o f a c cu racy s e t b y t h e s amp le s i ze , o bv iou s ly a l so b e a pp rox ima te ly o ne to -one . One h a st os a ya pp rox ima te ly ,b ec au se t h en umbe r sa r e s ma l l . I nv a r ie ty I a , f o re xamp le , 7c o in sw e re e x am ined b yL yon a nd S t ewa r t , a nd f ound t ob e f r om 5o bve r se a nd 5r eve r se d i e s . When t h en umbe r s a r e c on s i s ten t ly c l o se t op a r i ty f o r as u cce s s ion o fv a r ie t ie s ,h oweve r ,t h e re w i l lb e ap re sump t ion t h a t o ne to -one w a s t h e n o rma l p rac t ice o ft h e m in t . Whe re t h e re a r e t w ice a s many r eve r se a so bve r se d i e s r e co rded , i td oe s n o t f o l low , s t a t i s t ica l ly , t h a t t h e r a t io w a s t wo to -one . I ft h e s amp le w e re ar a ndom s amp le , i t wou ld b e v e ry much h ighe r t h an t wo to -one . I ti sf a r f r om r andom , a s S t ewa r ta nd L yon m ade c l ea r . T hey i n c luded i nt h e i rs u rvey t h ec o in si nt h eB r i t i sh Mu seum ,t h e Me r sey s ide C oun ty Mu seum s ,t h eF i tzw i l l iam Mu seum ,t h eA s she ton
3 50
CVNNETT I RECONS IDERED
c ab ine t ( ove r 1 50 s p ec imen s ) , a nd a tl e a s t t h ree o the r c o l lec t ion s . ' A s o u r s t udy p rog r e s sed ' ,t h ey w ro te , ' i tb ecame a ppa ren tt h a tt h eB r i t i sh Mu seum h ad c ho sen i t s s e lec t ion o fc o in s f r om t h e h oa rd w i th g rea t c a re , s o a st o i n c lude e ve ry p o s s ib le v a r ie ty . T h i sh a sm ean tt h a tr e la t ive ly f ew n ew d i e sh ave b een r e co rded f r om o the r c o l lec t ion s , e xcep t i n t h e c a se o f t h e " Cunne t t i" s e r ie s ...We t h e ref o r e h ave c on s ide rab le c onf idence i nt h es u rv iva lr a te so fo bve r se d i e s wh ich a r es hown i nt h e t a b le L e t u s c on s ide r t h e 5 2 s p ec imen s o fv a r ie t ie s I p a nd I s( EC1 /C R—G ) , a mong wh ich 2 5 o bve r se d i e s a nd a bou t 5 0 r eve r se d i e s w e re n o ted . Wha t s o r t o fo r ig ina l t o ta l s o fd i e s d oe s t h i s i mp ly ? E ven i n ar andom s amp le , 2 5 o bve r se s a mong 5 2 s p ec imen s wou ld p o in t t o af a i r ly c o mp le te c ove rage ; b u t 5 0 r eve r se s a mong 5 2 wou ld i mp ly ah uge o r ig ina l t o ta l . T he s amp le i s ,h oweve r , o n ly p a r t ly r a ndom a s r ega rd s r e ve r se d i e s . BMC i n c lude s 2 2 s p ec imen s wh ich w e re n o d oub t c a ref u l ly c ho sen ,b u tt h eo the r3 0p robab ly a pp rox ima te t o ar andom s amp le f r om wha tw a s l e f to ve r . One c ou ld m ake c a lcu la t ion so nt h ea s sump t ion t h a tt h e who le s amp le w a s r andom , a nd t h en e nd b y s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e t r u th l a y s omewhe re i nb e tween t he c onf l ic t ing r e su l t s . Ab e t te r me thod ,a va i lab le s i nce 1 982 ,i st od r aw o nt h eL ive rpoo l S y l l og e , wh i ch i n c lude st h el a rge c o l lec t ion f o rmed b yD rP h i l ip N e l son .H eb ough t C ue rda le m a te r ia la v id ly ,a nd c e r ta in ly d id n o tr e jec td up l ica te s . Whe re BMC h a s2 2 s p ec imen s ,N e l son h ad 2 6 , wh ich a r ef r om 1 5o bve r se a nd 2 3r eve r se d i e s . One may r e a sonab ly a s sume t h a t t h ey , a ta ny r a te , a r e mo re o r l e s s ar andom s amp le . I fo ne a pp l ie s t h e f o rmu la ( made f am i l ia r b y S t ewa r t L yon ) wh ich s t a te s t h a t n on s ing l e ton s s amp l e
o u tpu t o fk nown d i e s t o ta l o u tpu t
t h e r e su l t wou ld b e 1 6 . — 1 5 _ 2 6 c . 25 o bv e r s e d i e s b u t 8 2 6
2 c . 70 r e v e r s e d i e s
T h i si sd i s t inc t ly h ighe rt h an t h en umbe ro fr eve r se d i e sa c tua l ly n o ted b yL yon a nd S t ewa r t a nd s ugge s t s ad i e ra t io a pproach ing t h ree to -one . I fw el ook a tt h ee ven mo re p l en t if u lv a r ie t ie sI ba nd I l e( C1 /CR—G ) , o f wh ich L yon a nd S t ewa r t e xam ined 2 20 s p ec imen s a nd r e co rded 11 o bve r se a nd c . 200 r e ve r se d i e s , t h e Ne l son c o l lec t ion c on ta in s 1 00 s p ec imen s , f r om 6 6 o bve r se a nd 8 8 r e ve r se d i e s . T he re a r e 5 9 o bve r se n on s ing le ton s a nd 2 0 r eve r se n on s ing le ton s , i mp ly ing o r ig ina l t o t a l s ( i ft h e Ne l son s amp le i sr andom ) o f 11 o bve r se d i e s ( by a c o inc idence ,a ga in e xac t ly t h ef i gu re r e ached b yL yon a nd S t ewa r t ) a nd 4 40 r e ve r se d i e s— a r a t io o ff ou r to -one . L yon a nd S t ewa r t ' s t o ta l o f 2 50 o bve r se d i e s f o r t h e No r thumb r ian s e r ie s a s r e p re sen ted i n Cue rda le may b e a c cep ted w i th c on s ide rab le c onf idence . T he i r s ugge s t ion t h a t' t h en umbe ro fr eve r se d i e sm ay b eh a lf a s much a ga in 's e em st ol a ck
3 51
I AN S TE WART
s t a t i s t ica l s uppo r t . A t o ta l o f 7 00 t o 7 50 wou ld b e ab e t te r g ue s s . U s ing t h e c onven t iona l mu l t ip l ie r o f1 0 ,000 , t h i s y i e ld s ac o inage o f7 -7 .5 m i l l ion c o in s , o r n ine t o t e n t onne s o fc o inage s i lve r . S u rv iva l ra te sc a lcu la ted f r om e s t ima ted n umbe r so fo bve r se d i e sa r eo bv iou s ly a f a l se g u ide t ot h e c h rono logy o ft h e s e r ie s , wh ich wou ld s e em t oh ave h ad af a i r ly u n if o rm s u rv iva l ra te f o r e a r ly a nd l a te v a r ie t ie s . An i ndependen ta pp roach t ot h ec h rono logy o ft h ev a r ie i te si ss e em ing ly a f o rded b y t h es t udy o fp eck ing — at op ic wh ich M i s sA rch iba ld h a se xp lo red i n al e c tu re t o t h e Roya l Num i sma t ic S oc ie ty i n May 1 986 . S he s howed c l ea r ly t h a tt h eo l de rc o in s i nt h eC ue rda le h oa rd w e re much mo re h eav i ly p ecked ( t hu sm a tch ing t h ef i nd ing s o fB r i ta Ma lme ri nh e rs t udy o ft h e Swed i sh V ik ing age h oa rd s ) ;b u ts h ee n te r ed t h e c avea t t h a t o ne c ou ld n o t b e s u re , i nt h e c a se o fE a s t A ng l ian , s ou the rn E ng l i sh , o r C a ro l ing ian c o in s , o ft h e r eg ion i n wh ich t h e p eck ing h ad t a ken p l ace . I t i sv e ry u n l ike ly t h a t mo re t h an ah andf u lo ft h e No r thumb r ian c o in si nC ue rda le h ad e ve r b een i nc i rcu la t ion i n az one o u t s ide No r thumb r i a whe re p eck ing w a s p r ac t i sed . I f t h ey a r e p ecked , i ti st o b e p re sumed t h a t t h ey w e re p ecked wh i le i n u s e i n No r thumbr ia . T h i ss ound sa st hough i tm igh tp rov ide i n te re s t ing e v idenc et h a tt h e n ew V ik ing p enn ie sh ad a c tua l ly p a s sed f r om h and t oh and , i nY o rk o re l sewhe re , b ef o re b e ing h oa rded , a nd l o s t a tC ue rda le . A l though t h e re i se v idence wh ich c an b e r e ad a s a' g r ad ien t ' i n t h e d eg ree o f p eck ing a c co rd ing t o a ge , i n t h e C ue rda le h oa rd a s awho le , t h e e v idence f o r a ' g rad ien t ' w i th in t h e No r thumb r ian s e r ie s i sd eba teab le . F rom t h e s amp le o f s p ec imen s i nt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum a nd t h e A shmo lean Mu seum o ne c an s e e as h a rp c on t r a s t i nt h e p ropo r t ion s o fc o in s t h a t a r e p ecked , f r om o ne v a r ie ty t oa no the r . S ome v a r ie t ie s a r e h eav i ly p ecked , o the r s a r e h a rd ly a ta l ; a nd t h e h eav i ly p ecked v a r ie t ie sa r et he o lde rv a r ie t ie s .H a lf o r mo re o ft h es p ec imen sw i th t wo l ine r eve r se s a r e p ecked ( no tab ly MF /DDOR ) , a nd t h i s p ropo r t ion e x tend s t or eve r s e d e s ign B ( c ro s s o n s t ep s— somewha t r e semb l ing a t wo l ine t ype ) . D e s ign s C a nd D a r e o cca s iona l ly p ecked , Gv e ry r a re ly . T h i si s ,n ume r ica l ly ,n o ts o much ag r ad ien ta sa d i scon t inu i ty , a nd a l though i tc an b e i n te rp re ted i nt e rm s o fc h rono logy , a no the r i n te rp re ta t ion i sp ref e r ab le , n ame ly t h a t u s e r s w e r e s u sp ic iou s o ft wo l ine t ype s . Whe the rt h ep eck ing t ook p l ace n or th o ft h e Humbe r ,o re l sewhe re i nt h en o r the rn D ane law , i sb y n o mean s c e r ta in . T he e v idence p rove s , It h ink , t h a t s ome p eop le l ooked c a ref u l ly a tt h e c o in s t h ey w e re o f e red i np aymen t s , a nd t e s ted v a r ie t ie s o f u nf am i l ia ro rs u spec td e s ign . S oa l though n o -one w i l ld oub tt h a tt h er eve r se d e s ign s A -D a r e t h e e a r l ie r p a r t o f t h e No r thumb r ian s e r ie s , p eck ing d oe s n o t a f te r a l p rov ide u namb iguou s e v idence i ns uppo r t o ft h e d e ta i led c h rono logy . T he m a in p o in t i s ,h oweve r , m ade q u i te c onv inc ing ly b y t h e c hangeove r t o a h ighe rd i e r a t io . T he n umbe ro fr eve r se d i e su s ed i nt h ee a r l ie rp ha se wou ld s e em t o h ave b een v e ry r ough ly 1 20 ,a nd i nt h el a te rp ha se ,e qua l ly a pp rox ima te ly ,6 00 .T h i s c ou ld b eb ecau se t h el a te rp ha se w a so f much l onge rd u ra t ion ,b u ti nt h el i gh to ft h e i n c rea sed d i e ra t io t h e c o r rec t i n te rp re ta t ion i sa lmo s t c e r ta in ly t h a t t h e r a te o f p roduc t ion o fc o inage a c ce le ra ted g r ea t ly . As udden a c ce s s ion o fw ea l th i nY o rk i s , f r om t h e n um i sma t ic e v idence , ad i s t inc t p o s s ib i l i ty . Why , i nt h e se c i rcum s tance s , s e ve ra l d if e ren t o bve r se d e s ign s s hou ld h ave b e en u s ed i np a ra l le l w i th e a ch o the r r ema in s p uzz l ing . A l l o ne c an s a y i st h a t t h e p a ra l le l i sm s e em s t o a n teda te t h e
3 52
C VNNE TT I R ECON S IDERED momen t when p roduc t ion a c ce le ra ted ,— and t h a t i t s u rv ived i n t h e n ew c i rcum s tance s . M RLY ON : When Id i dt h ed i e -ana ly s i sf o ro u rp ape ri nA ng l o -Sax on C o in s Iw a s ,o f c ou r se ,n o tt h en t h ink ing o fs t a t i s t ica le s t ima to r s ,a nd s ot h ei n f o rma t ion t h a tI a na nd Ip ub l i shed a bou tn umbe r s o fd i e s w a s n o t a sc o mp le te a si tc ou ld h ave b een . My a na ly s i sc ove red t h eB r i t i sh Mu seum ,N e l son ,A s she ton ,F i tzw i l l iam ,a nd ap a rce lo f c o in sh e ld a tt h a t t ime b yB a ldw in ' s . T he re i sag ood c a se n ow f o re x tend ing i tt o c ove r t h e o the r S CB I v o lume s , n o t t o m en t ion c o mp le t ing i tf o r t h e n amed c o l lec t ion s s of a r a st h e c o mmon t ype s a r e c once rned . D r Me tca lf s ugge s t s t h a t t h e N e l son c o l lec t ion c an b e t r ea ted a s amo re o r l e s s r andom s amp le , b u t It h ink t h i s c ou ld b e ad ange rou s a s sump t ion . H e re , f o r e xamp l e ,i sh ow t h en umbe ro fc o in s ,k nown d i e sa nd s i ng le ton d i e sd eve lop sa so ne a dd sf u r the rc o l lec t ion s ,o ne b yo ne ,t ot h e BM c o l lec t ion f o rt wo g roup so ft h el e s s n ume rou s t ype s , o ne a n o bve r se g roup a nd t h e o the r ar eve r se g roup . H a lf pence h ave b een e xc luded . C o in s
C o l l e c t ion
A .
S ing l e t on d i e s
Obve r se s S , DD R , a nd MF
B r i t i sh Mu s . Ne l son A s she ton F i tzw il iam B a ldw in
6 2 5 1 3 7 7 2 7
T o ta l B .
N ew d i e s
1 84
3 5 3 2 0 0 4 0
2 3 + 312 + 2 -2 0 -2 1 2 ,
Reve r se s o the r t han CR
B r i t i sh Mu s . Ne l son A s she ton F i tzw il iam B a ldw in
6 1 4 5 3 6 5 1 8
T o ta l
1 65
5 5 1 3 6 0 0 7 5
5 0 +11 19 + 610 -5 -5 3 4
N .B . The B a ldw in a na ly s i si nT ab le B i si n comp le te ,b ecau se f o rs o me r e a son t ha t Ic anno tn ow r emembe r Id id n o t r e co rd t h e i r c o in s w i th EC o bve r se s . They m igh t h ave h ad a no the r h a lf d ozen s pec imen s ,b u t Id oub t whe the rt hey wou ld s i gn if i can t ly h ave a l te red t he t o ta ln umbe ro f d i e s . P e rhap s t he n umbe r o fs i ng le ton d i e s wou ld h ave f a l len b y t wo , s ay .
G iven t h a t v i r tua l ly a l o the r c o in s o ft h i s s e r ie s c ame f r om t h e C ue rda le h oa rd a nd t h a tt h eB r i t i sh Mu seum ,a si sa ppa ren tf r om t h e se t a b le s ,c ho se d i ev a r ie t ie sw i th g r ea tc a re ,t h ea dd i t ion o fo the rs y l loge m a te r ia l wou ld b eu n l ike ly t oa dd g rea t ly t o t h et o ta ln umbe ro fd i e s ,b u ti twou ld d oub t le s sr educe t h et o ta lo fs i ng le ton s . T hu s t h e r a t io s o f s i ng le ton s t o s amp le s i ze i n T ab le s A a nd B a r e 7% a nd 2 0% r e spec t ive ly ;w i th t h ei n c lu s ion o f Oxf o rd a nd C openhagen a no the r6 8c o in s wou ld 3 53
I AN S TE WART
b e a dded t oT ab le A a nd 7 0 t oT ab le B ; e ven w i th n o r educ t ion i ns i ng le ton s t h e r a t io s wou ld f a l l t o 5% a nd 1 5% . It h e ref o re s u spec t t h a t t h e a pp l ica t ion o f my f o rmu la t o t h e e nhanced m a te r ia l , a s sum ing e qua l o u tpu t , wou ld r e su l t i n a n e s t ima te o fa bou t4 5f o rt h et o ta lo fS , DDR ,a nd MF o bve r se d i e sa nd 9 0 -95 f o rt h e t o ta l o fr eve r se d i e s o the r t h an CR . A l though t h e t wo g roup s o fm a te r ia l d o n o t p rec i se ly c or re spond ( b ecau se a bou t2 5% o ft h ec o in si nT ab le B h ave EC o bve r se s ) , n eve r the le s si twou ld s e em r e a sonab le t oc onc lude t h a tt h en o rma lr a t io o fr e ve r se t o o bve r se d i e sw a st wo t oo ne . Wi thou td e ta i led a n a ly s i s Iwou ld b er e luc tan tt oa c cep t ah ighe rr a t io f o rt h e mo re c o mmon i sue s ,a nd It h e ref o re t h ink t h a ta ne s t ima te o f 7 00 -750 r eve r se d i e sf o rt h et o ta lc o inage i st oo h i gh i nr e la t ion t oa ne s t ima te o f2 50 o bve r se s . One mu s tn o tf o rge t , o fc ou r se , t h a tt h ec o inage m ay h ave c on t inued f o r at ime a f te rt h eh oa rd w a sa s semb led . T he re i sn o w ay i n wh ich s u ch c on t inua t ion c an b e q uan t if i ed , b u t o ne s u spec t s t h a t i ti ss ma l l i nr e la t ion t o t h e i sue s w e k now .
3 54
Two c u r iou sc o in so fA lf red C .E .B LUNT [ PLATE 23 ]
d if iden t a bou t w r i t ing o n t h e t wo c o in s t h a t f o rm t h e s ub jec t o ft h i s n o te b ecau se Ic an , i no ne c a se , o f e r o n ly av e ry t e n ta t ive s o lu t ion t ot h e p rob lem s i t p re sen t s , a nd i nt h eo the rn one a ta l . My r e a son f o rd o ing s o ,h oweve r , i st ob r ing t on o t ice t wo i n te re s t ing p i ece st h a th ave b een n eg lec ted , i nt h eh ope t h a t ar e ade r o ft h i sn o te m ay b ea b le t oh e lp i nt h e i re xp lana t ion . B o th a r e p enn ie s o fA lf red ' s t wo l ine t ype b ea r ing h i s n ame ; b o th a r e i n t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum , a nd b o th w e re f ound i nt h eC ue rda le h oa rd . T he f i r s ti so f BMC t ype x iv : O bv . +E L FR ED RE l e gend d i v ided i n to f ou rs e gmen t s ;c r o s si nc en t re . R ev . EDELSR . I •I GELDA i nt wo l i ne sw i th as i ng le p e l le tb e tween t h em . BMC 3 09 ,d i rec t ly f r om t h eC ue rda le h oa rd . Wt 1 • 39 g /2 1 .4 g r . ,p ecked ( p l .2 3 ,1 ) T h i si st h eo n ly s p ec imen k nown . T hough l i s ted b y H awk in s i nh i s r e po r t o n t h e C ue rda le h oa rd , ' t h i s i sd one w i thou t c o mmen t . I ti sl e f t t o D an ie l H a igh , p ub l i sh ing i n 1 870 , t o l ook a tt h e p rob lem .H ew r i te s : ' The r eve r se l e gend i sr ema rkab le .T he h yphen o ve rt h eS ,a nd t h e d o t a f te r t h e R , s e em t o b e m a rk s o fa bb rev ia t ion o ft h e n ame a nd t i t le o f E the l s tan . G e ld am ay b et h en ame o f am in t , G e lde s tone i n No rf o lk ,o ri tm ay b ea L a t in ized f o rm o ft h e E ng l i sh wo rd g e ld , " paymen t" ; a si n E d e l s t an i r e g i s g e ld a , " paymen t" o r " t r ibu te o fK ing E the l s tan" ' . C an t h i s , h e e nd s , ' b e ap a r t o ft h e t r ea su re b e s towed u pon h im o n t h e o cca s ion o fh i s b ap t i sm ? '2 S ub sequen tw r i te r s a ppea r t oh ave i gno red t h e c o in . I n t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum C a t a l ogu e t h e r eve r se i s r e corded a sr e ad ing ` Ede l s tan a nd G e lda 'w i thou tc o mmen t ,i mp ly ing t h a tt h ey a r e r e ga rded a st h en ame so ft wo moneye r s . P rof e s so r Wh i te lock , w i th whom Ih ad c o r re spondence a bou tt h i sc o in i n1 957 , w ro te : ' The t r oub le a bou t G e lda , a si ts t r ike s m e , i st h a t i fO ld E ng l i sh , i tc ou ld o n ly b e ag en i t ive p l u ra l , i nt h es e n se o fp aymen t , c o mpen sa t ion . Whe rea si ti st h e n om ina t ive s i ngu la r o ft h e a gen t n oun ' o ne who p ay s ' , ' o ne who wo r sh ip s ' , a nd ( l a te r o n ) a' Gu i ld sman ' . Is hou ld t h ink i t mo re l i ke ly t o b e ap e r sona l n ame , p e rhap s as ho r t f o rm f r om n ame s l i ke G e ldw ine , t h an a wo rd m ean ing c o mpen sa t ion . Id on ' tt h ink aL a t in ized G e ldum o ccu r su n t i l much l a te ri nE ng land &o ne wou ldn ' t e xpec t t oh ave ap lu ra l . I fi tw e re ap e r sona ln ame , c ou ld i tb e a moneye r o n t h e s ame s i de a sE the l s ( tan i ) R (eg i s ) , wh ich s e em s ap robab le r e ad ing s e e ing t h a tt h eo bve r se i so ccup ied b yK ing A lf red ? '3 I AM
1 2
NC 5( 1 843 ) ,1 6 . N C2 1 0( 1 870 ) ,3 3-4 .
3 D . Wh i te lock i n p e r sona l c o r re spond e nce .
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C . E . BL U NT
Ih ave b een f o r tuna te e nough mo re r e cen t ly t o h ave b een i n t ouch w i th P rof e s so r H . R . L oyn , D r S .D . K eyne s , a nd Mr M . B lackbu rn a l o f whom h ave g iven me a dv ice o n s ome o f t h e p rob lem s p o sed b y t h i s p ecu l i a r c o in . T h i s i s r ef l ec ted i n wha t Iam n ow w r i t ing , b u t t h ey mu s tn o tb eh e ld r e spon s ib le f o ra ny o ft h ec onc lu s ion st h a t Ih ave d r awn . T h ree p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion sh ave b een o f e red i nt h ep a s t : 1 T ha tG e ld ai sam in t -name 2 T ha ti ti sap e r sona ln ame o rb y -name 3 T ha ti ti si ns ome w ay i nd ica t ing ap aymen t T o t a ke t h e se p o in t s i nt h a t o rde r . Am in t -nam e o n at wo l ine c o in o fA lf red wou ld , s a ve f o r s ome o ft h e c o in s o fC an te rbu ry , b e s uf i c ien t ly i mprobab le a st o e nab le i tt ob er u led o u t . I na ny c a se G e lde s tone i su n l ike ly t oh ave h ad am in t . I ti s n o t ,a ppa ren t ly , men t ioned i n Dome sday B ook . I tc ou ld b e ap e r sona l n ame s u ch a sG e ldw ine . B y -name s a nd d oub le n ame s a r e o cca s iona l ly f ound o nc o in si nt h e Ang lo -Saxon p e r iod , b u to n ly l a te r . I twou ld b e u n ique i nA lf red ' s t ime ; a nd G e ldw ine i s ar a re n ame . T h i s p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion , p a r t icu la r ly i n v i ew o f P rof e s so r Wh i te lock ' s i n s t inc t t h a t i ti sl i ke ly t o b e a p e r sona ln ame , mu s t mean t h a ti ti so ne t h a ts hou ld c e r ta in ly n o tb ei gno red . T h i s l e ave t h e t h i rd o p t ion a nd i ta ppea r s t h a t t h i s i st h e o ne t h a t h o ld s t h e b e s t p o s s ib i l i ty o fs u cce s s . P rof e s so r Wh i te lock h a s p o in ted o u t t h a tg e ld a i s ag en i t ive p lu r a lo f awo rd mean ing p aymen to ft r ibu te . I ft h ef i r s tp a r to ft h er eve r se l e gend i se xpanded t o E th e l s t an i R eg i s ( a s b o th H a igh a nd Wh i te lock s ugge s t ) c ou ld t h e who le b ei n te rp re ted ' o ft h ep aymen t so fK ing A the l s tan ' ? An a l te rna t ive s ugge s ted t o me b yP rof e s so rL oyn , i st oi n te rp re tg e ld as imp ly a s' one who p ay s ' o na na logy w i th ` g af o lge lda ' o ne who p ay sg af o lo n t r ibu te o rr en t . I ne i the r c a se , who wou ld A the l s tan b e ? T he s t ronge s tp o s s ib i l i ty i sGu th rum , t h eV ik ing r u le r who , a f te rh i s d ef ea t a tt h e b a t t le o fE d ing ton i n 8 78 , w a s b ap t i zed a nd a dop ted t h e n ame o f A the l s tan a t ac e remony a t wh ich A lf red s t ood s pon sor . H e s t ruck c o in s i n h i s own n ame o f A lf red ian t ype , p re sumab ly i n E a s t Ang l ia . T he re i s ad i e l ink b e tween ac o in i nh i sn ame a nd o ne i nt h en ame o fA lf red 4 wh ich mu s t mean t h a t t h ey c ome f r om a m in t t h a t p roduced c o in i n t h e n ame o f b o th k ing s . Gu th rum -A the l s tan d i ed i n8 90 . Mr B lackbu rn , who h a s m ade as pec i a l s t udy o f t h i s t wo l ine i sue i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e r epo r t h e i sm ak ing o n t h e A shdon h oa rd ,h a si d en t if i ed t h eg e ld ac o in a st h ep roduc to fa nE a s t Ang l ian m in t . S o f a r w e g o a l ong w i th H a igh , b u t w e mu s tp a r t c o mpany w i th h im when h e s ugge s t s t h a t t h i s m igh t b e ap aymen t c onnec ted w i th Gu th rum ' s b ap t i sm . T h i s t ook p l ace i n8 78 a nd i tw a s n o t u n t i l s ome y e a r s l a te r , p e rhap s n o t t i l l 86 , t h a t A lf red i n t roduced h i s t wo l ine t ype . We h ave n o r e co rd o f a ny p aymen t b y A the l s tan t oA lf red , b u tw ec ou ld e a s i ly i mag in ec i r cum s tance si n wh ich o ne m igh t b em ade . T h i s t h en i s , Iwou ld t e n ta t ive ly s ugge s t o n t h e e v idence a va i lab le , t h e mo s t a c cep tab le o ft h e t h ree a l te rna t ive e xp lana t ion s t h a t h ave b een o f e red . And i ti s p e rhap s wo r th r emembe r ing , when c on s ide r ing t h e q ue s t ion , t ho se c u r iou s e l eemo syna ry p i ece so fA lf r ed , BMC 1 58-9 . 4
BN J2 7( 1 9524 ) ,5 6-7 .
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T W O CU R I O US COI NS OF ALF RE D
Of t h e s e cond c o in , o f wh ich f ou r s p ec imen s a r e k nown , H awk in s l i s t s t h ree f r om Cue rda le . T he f ou r th a l so c l a im st h i sp rovenance wh ich may w e l lb ec o r rec t . T hey may b ed e sc r ibed a sf o l low s : 1 O bv . + AL FRE DRE l e gend d iv ided i n to t h ree s e gmen t s , c ro s s i n c en t re . R ev , t wo l i ne s o f my s te r iou s w r i t ing , ac ro s s a tt op a nd b o t tom , t h ree c ro s se sb e tween . ( a ) BMC 4 53 d i rec tf r om t h e Cue rda le h oa rd . Wt F 45 g /22 .3 g r . ( b ) F i tzw i l l i am Mu seum , C amb r idge e x Ryan ( 1 952 )7 23 t h e re s a id t o b e f r om Cue rda le b u t n o i n te rven ing c o l lec t ion s men t ioned . Wt 1 . 48 g /22 .9 g r . I l . MEG v o l .1 ,p .6 0 , 1 382 . ( c ) B lun t , e x L ocke t t ( 1 955 ) 4 98 , e x B l i s s ( 1 9 16 ) 8 5 , e x Ra sh le igh ( 1 909 ) 26 ,e xB e rgne ( 1 873 ) 1 65 ,e x Cue rda le . Wt c . 1. 5 2g /23i -g r . ( p l .2 3 ,2 ) T he se t h ree a r ef r om t h es ame d i e s . 2 O bv . +E L + FRE DRE t ype a sl a s tb u td i ed if e r s . R ev ,s im i la rt ot h el a s tb u tt h ed i ed if e r s . ( a ) Me r sey s ide Mu seum SCBI 1 45 ,e x Ne l son ( 1 953 ) ,e xS eaby ( 1 946 ) , e x G ran t ley ( 1 944 ) 1 024 , e x Mu rdoch ( 1 903 ) 9 1 , e x Mon tagu ( 1 895 ) 5 7 1 , e x S hephe rd ( 1 885 ) 7 8 , e x Mu rch i son ( 1 866 ) 2 0 1 , e x Cuf f( 1 854 )4 66 ,e x Cue rda le . Wt 1 14 g / 17 -6 g r . ( p l .2 3 ,3 ) I nt h i sc a se a ga in i ti st h er eve r se t h a tp re sen t sp rob lem s . E ven H a igh i sd ef ea ted . I nh i sp ape rp ub l i shed i n1 870 h ew r i te s : ' The r eve r se l e gend i si nc ha r ac te r s wh ich h ave h i the r to e l uded a l a t temp t s t oe xp la in t h em ' . 5 On ly t wo w r i te r s h ave , a sf a r a s Ih ave b een a b le t ot r ace , a t temp ted a n e xp lana t ion . One i sL o rd G ran t ley who , w r i t ing i n1 9 11 , r e ad t h e l e gend a s A Omega R a nd o n t h e s e cond l i ne S SC . T h i s h e ' d if f iden t ly ' s ugge s t ed m igh t b e e xpanded t o AUR [U M ] S [EPULCHR I ] S [ANCT I ] C [UDBERT I ] a nd h e a dd s ' t ha t t h e se c o in s may h ave b een s t ruck b y t h e e p i scopa l a u tho r i t ie s e i the r a t Yo rk o r Che s te r le -S t ree t ' . H e s uppo r t s t h i s b y r e f e rence t o t h e e nqu i ry u nde r E dwa rd Iwh ich c onf i rmed t h a t t h e b i shop s o f Du rham ' h ad e n joyed a l r oya lp r iv i lege sf r om t h et ime o ft h ec onque s to fE ng land a nd b ef o re ' . 6T h i ss ugge s t ion h a sn o tf ound f a vou r . T he o the rw r i te rw a s ap a r son i nt h en e ighbou rhood o f Cue rda le , t h e Revd D r Wh i take r o fB lackbu rn who r e ad ap ape r t o t h e Num i sma t ic S oc ie ty o nJ an 2 3 , 1 845 , ' i n wh ich h e e ndeavou red t o p rove t h a t t hey [ t he Cunne t t i c o in s ] w e re m in ted b y aS pan i sh J ew ,n amed C o r tena , who se n ame D r Wh i take rc on s ide red t o b e g iven o n t h e o bve r se o ft h e Cunne t t i c o in s. .a nd i nH ebrew c ha rac te r s o n t h e r eve r se o f ap enny o fA lf red ' .7 T he e d i to r s o ft h e Num i sma t i c C h r on i c l e a ppea r t o h ave d ec ided ,n od oub tw i se ly ,n o tt op ub l i sh t h i sp ape r . T he e ng r av ing o f t h e c ha rac te r s o n t h e r eve r se i sw e l l e xecu ted a nd l ook s d e l ibe ra te . T he w e igh t s o ft h ree s p ec imen s a r e n o rm a l ; t h e f ou r th t hough l i gh t i s n o tu naccep tab ly s o . 5 6
C2 1 0( 1 870 ) ,3 4 . BN J8 ,( 1 9 11 ) ,5 2-3 .
N
7
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P r o c . Num . S o c . 1 844-5 ,p .5 .
C .E .B LUNT T he f a c t t h a t t h e re a r e t wo r eve r se d i e s s ugge s t s t h a t t he ' w r i t ing ' i si n t en t iona l a nd t h e ref o re s hou ld b e s u scep t ib le t o i n te rp re t a t ion . B u t If e a r t h a t Ih ave n o e xp lana t ion t o o f e r ; t h e re i se ven d oub t a st o wh ich w ay u p i ts hou ld b e . T he w r i te r wou ld w e lcome s ugge s t ion s .
D ISCUSS ION DRM E TCAL F : No s . 2a nd 3c oup le p e rf ec t ly l i t e ra t eo bve r se sw i th r eve r se si n wh ich i t i smomen ta r i ly t emp t ing t os e ea ne xamp le o fs ome o u t land i sh o ru nknown s c r ip t . One t h ink so ft h ev e ry c u r iou sl e t te r so nc o in so fC ha r lemagne f r om Me l l e , wh ich w r i te METOLO w i th a n ampe r sand s upp lemen ted , a ppa ren t ly ,b yT i ron i an n o te s . T he s h ape o ft h e0o nt h e se c o in si sal i t t le l i ke t h ef i f th l e t te ro nt h e se r eve r se s . B u t a no the rp o s s ib i l i ty i st h a tt h ed i e -cu t te ri ss oi l i te r a te t h a th ei sn o te ven s c hoo led i n t h e b a s ic s h ape s o f t h e l e t te r s o f t h e Roman a l phabe t . One c ou ld i mag ine A [ ] R /S [ ] C . An A i n wh ich t h e l imb s c ro s s , a nd a n R wh ich s h a re s ac u rved membe r( f or t h e ma in d own s t roke )w i th t h ev e ry c u r iou ss e cond l e t te ri st h e wo rk o f av e ry u n le t te red h and i ndeed . P e rhap s i ti s wo r th d i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween i gno rance a nd r ough wo rkman sh ip , —wh ich d on o th ave t og oh and i nh and . T he r ange o fp unche sw i th wh ich t h ed i e sa r es unk i sv e ry l im i ted , much u s eb e ing made o f as imp le c r e secen t shaped p unch . On c o in n o .2 ,o ne s u spec t st h a tt h es ame p unch h a sb een u s ed e i gh to rn ine t ime s .Y e tt h el e t te r Ci sc a ref u l ly s e r i f f ed o nb o th 2a nd 3 , a nd t h ec ro s se sa nd ( p a r t icu la r ly o nn o .3 )t h eg r a ined b o rde ra r eo fq u i te a c cep tab le wo rkman sh ip .T he r e l iance o n ac r e scen t shaped p unch of e r ss ome e ncou r agemen t t or e ad t h ef i r s tl e t te ra sa nA . One c ou ld p o in tt o as omewha ts im i la rc r e scen t -ba r red Ai nl i eu o f ac hev ron -ba r red A o n af ew e r ra t i c S tE dmund Memo r i a l p enn ie s . S im i l a r ly i ft h et h ree c r e scen t so ft h es e cond l e t te rc ou ld b er e in te rp re ted a ss t r a igh t s t roke s , o ne m igh t s e e a n E . T he i n sc r ip t ion a s a who le o ugh t t o r ep r e sen t a moneye r ' sn ame ;b u t wh icheve rw ay r ound o ne l ook sa ti t ,i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t od e tec t t h ea bb rev ia t ion M O . No r c an t h es e cond l i ne b ec on s t rued a sa ny o bv iou ss e cond e l emen to fa n OE n ame .T he e x t reme s im i la r i ty o ft h et wo r eve r se d i e si sa mong o u r b e s t c l ue s . I tc e r ta in ly i mp l ie s v e ry c a ref u l c opy ing — a lmo s t , o ne m igh t s a y , a n a t t temp ta tf a c s im i le ,a nd t h i si ni t se lf i sp e rhap sa na rgumen tt h a tt he d i e cu t te rw a s i l i te ra te : i fh e h ad t hough t h e k new wha t t h e s i gn s s t ood f o r , h e wou ld h ave h ad much l e s sr e a son t or eproduce t h em s oe xac t ly .B u ti ti sd if i cu l tt os a y whe the rb o th d i e s w e re c op ied f r om t h e s ame ( manu sc r ip t ? ) mode l , o r whe the r o ne w a s s imp ly c op ied f r om t h e o the r .
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P LATE 2 3
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At opog raph ica lc o mmen ta ry o nt h ec o in f i nd s f r om n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ia ( c .7 80— c .8 70 )
D . M . METCALF
TO POGRAPH ICAL p a t te rn s a nd d e ta i l s a mong t h e c o in f i nd s f r om n in th cen tu ry No r thumb r ia ' s ugge s t v a r iou s i d ea s a bou t mone ta ry c i rcu la t ion w i th in t h e k ingdom . I ti swo r thwh i le t of o rmu la te t ho se i d ea sa se xp l ic i t ly a sp o s s ib le ,i fo n ly t o a s se s s h ow f a r t h ey a r e b e se t b y t h e p i tf a l l s o fn ega t ive e v idence a nd l a ck o f e v idence . T he l a s t d e cade h a s s e en a n e xp lo s ion o f i n f o rma t ion s ou th o f t h e Humbe ri nr e la t ion t os i ng le f i nd s o fe i gh th a nd n in th -cen tu ry c o in s , i np a r t i cu la r t h e l i t t le e i gh th -cen tu ry s c ea t ta s , wh ich m a tch t h e No r thumb r ian n in th cen tu ry s t yca s i n s i ze . T h i s e xp lo s ion r e su l t s p a r t ly f r om a n i n c r ea sed i n te re s t a mong a r chaeo log i s t s i n' t he e xcava t ion o fm idd le S axon s i t e s , b u t e ven more f r om t h e a c t iv i ty o f m e ta l -de tec tor e n thu s ia s t s a nd — equa l ly i mpo r tan t— the c oope r a t ion a nd g ood w i l lo fd ea le r sa nd mu seum s t af fi ne ncou rag ing t h ep rope rr e co rd ing o f t h e i rf i nd s . Me ta ld e tec to r sh ave b ecome am a jo rm ean so fr e cove ry o fs t r ay l o s se s o fs t yca sw i th in t h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom . T he c o in sa r ei fa ny th ing e ven mo re d if i cu l t t of i nd b y e ye t h an s c ea t ta s , b ecau se t h e i r d eba sed a loy e n su re s t h a t t h ey a r ed u l li nc o lou r . T he n umbe ro fs i t e sf r om wh ich s i ng le f i nd so fs t yca sh ave b een r e co rded r ema in s v e ry much s ma l le r t h an t h e n umbe r o f s i t e s y i e ld ing s c ea t t a s s ou th o ft h e Humbe r , a nd o ne i sl e f t wonde r ing whe the r t h i s s i tua t ion c ou ld b e t r an sf o rmed d r ama t ica l ly i nt h en ex tt e n y ea r s a st h ep i c tu re s ou th o ft h e Humbe r h a sb een c hanged i nt h el a s tt e ny ea r s , o r whe the ri tr ef l ec t s ag enu ine d if e r ence i n t h e c i rcum s tance s o f mone ta ry c i r cu la t ion . C a r l i s le , f o r e xamp le , w a s v i r tua l ly a b l ank o n t h e m ap o fs t yca f i nd su n t i l 1 977 , t h e re b e ing o n ly t wo c o in s , o fE an red a nd o f Athe l red ' sf i r s tr e ign , f ound i n at umu lu s ' n ea rC a r l i s le ' i nS ep tembe r 1 876 a nd d ona ted t oT r in i ty C o l lege C amb r idge i nt h a t s ame y ea r .2 S i nce 1 977 s i ng le S anc ton f i nd s i nP i ne 1 986b om i t s o ne c o in o f E anba ld p ub l i shed b y B oo th a nd B lowe r s , 1 983 , a nd r e f e r red t ob e low .I n f o rma t ion a bou t f i nd s f o r wh ich n o a u tho r i ty i s of e red i nt h e t e x t b e low w i l l b e f ound i n M i s s P i r ie ' s i nven tor ie s . SCBI C amb r id g e2 82 a nd 3 10 = P .G r ie r son a nd M . A . S . B lackburn , Med i eva l E u r op ean C o inag e , v o l . 1 , C ambr idge , 1 986 , n o s .1 202 a nd 1 223 .
A cknow l ed g em en t s . Ia m g r a tef u l t o Ma r t in B idd le ,J ame sB oo th , Ma r i lyn B rown , S t ewa r t L yon ,a nd L i zP i ne , who r e ad a ne a r l ie rd raf to f t h i s a r t ic le a nd k ind ly p o in ted o u t an umbe ro f c o r rec t ion sa nd i mp rovemen t s . T h i s c o mmen ta ry r e l ie s h eav i ly o n t h e i n ven tory i nP i ne , 1 986b a nd o n s upp lemen t a r y m a te r ia l wh ich M i s s P i ne h a s c o l lec ted a nd h a s g ene rou s ly p l aced a t my d i spo sa l p r io r t o p ub l ica t ion . F o r t h e a vo idance o f c onf u s ion , o ne may men t ion t h a t t h e r e sume o f t h e
2
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D . M. METCALF
f i nd s o f s t yca s h ave b een r e cove red f r om f ou r d if e ren t s i t e s i n t h e mode rn c i ty —y ie ld ing 3 ,2 ,4 ,a nd 6c o in sr e spec t ive ly .T h i si smuch w e igh t ie re v iden ce f o r amone ta ry e conomy i nC a r l i s le t h an i f1 5 c o in sh ad b een f ound o no ne s i t e— and , o bv iou s ly , f a r w e igh t ie r t h an i f ah oa rd o f1 5 c o in s h ad b een d i scove red , f o r t h a t wou ld h ave r anked a so ne f i nd , w i th a t tendan t u nce r ta in ty whe the r i th ad b een c oncea led b y at r ave l le r a r r iv ing i n C a r l i s le . T he se f i nd s o ft h e l a s t t e n y ea r s a r e e n t i re ly n ew e v idence f o r mone ta ry h i s to ry , a nd mu s t c au se u st o t h ink c a r ef u l ly n o t o n ly a bou t C a r l i s le i nt h en in th c en tu ry , b u t a bou t o the r f i nd s wh ich w e may n ow w i sh t o r e con s ide r i n t h e l i gh t o f t h e s t y ca s , f o r e xamp le t h e l a t e e igh th c en tu ry B eneven tan g o ld t r em i s s i s f ound ' n e a r C a r l i s le ' , a nd t h e h i the r to i mp robab le seem ing d i scove ry o f au n ique s c ea to fc .7 20-30 a to rn ea rC a r l i s l e .3 C a r l i s le i sn o t t h e o n ly p l ace whe re wha t m igh t h ave b een r e ad a sn ega t ive e v idence h a s s udden ly b ecome , o r i sa bou t t o b ecome , v e ry p o s i t ive . Wh i tho rn , e ven f u r the r t o t h e w e s t , b egan t o y i e ld s t yca s f r om e xcava t ion s i n 1 984 , a nd t h e 1 986 c ampa ign p roduced al a rge c rop . 4 We n ow h ave as c ea t o fE adbe rh t , a nE a s t Ang l ian p enny o fB eonna , a nd 1 5 s t yca s , o f wh ich 1 3 a r e o fE an red . T h i s i sa c h rono log ica l ly mo s t u nu sua l p a t te rn i nc o mpa r i son w i th m a jo r s i te s i nt h e e a s t , whe re t h ec o in so f' E the l red I a nd l a te ra r eh eav i ly p redom inan t ,a nd o ne wonde r s whe the rt h ea va i lab i l i ty o fc o in a t Wh i tho rn dw ind led d rama t ica l ly i nt h ed ecade s i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing t h e d i sappea rance o ft h e s e e . T he Wh i tho rn f i nd sa r ef r om m idden ma te r ia l , wh ich make si tr a the r mo re d if i cu l t t os uppo se t h a tt h ef i nd sa r e a typ ica lf o rt h es i t e . B ambu rgh y i e lded 6 7s t yca sf r om t h es e a son o fe xcava t ion s o f t h ec a s t le i n1 97 1 . I ti so n ly r e cen t ly t h a t as umma ry l i s t ing o ft h em h a sa ppea red , t o s upp lemen tt h eo ne c o in r e co rded i n1 894 t h a tw a sh i the r to o u ro n ly c l ue t ot h eu se o fc o inage a tt h e B e rn ic ian r oya l r e s idence . F u r the r s ub s tan t ia l q uan t i t ie s o fs t yca s f r om t h e e xcava t ion s a t B ambu rgh s i nce 1 97 1 a wa i t t h e n um i sma t i s t ' s e ye . I t s hou ld n eed n o p o in t ing o u t t h a t , p rov ided t h ey c an b e f u l ly p ub l i shed , t h ey w i l l s t and a s a ma jo r s ou rce o f e v idence f o r mone ta ry c i rcu la t ion i n n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ia ,c omp lemen t ing i nc e r ta in r e spec t s wha tt h eh oa rd sc an t e l lu s . F o r ty o r mo re s t yca s h ave b een f ound , o ne b y o ne , o n ap ro l if i c s i t e a bou t h a lf -way b e tween Yo rk a nd Hu l l , a ga in s i nce 1 979 . T hey w e r ep l aced o nr e co rd b y B oo th a nd B lowe r s i n 1 983 , a nd t h e s i t e i d en t if i ed a sS anc ton . T he f i nde r s h ave b een much l e s s t h an c and id , a nd t h e c a ref u l r e scu ing o fs o much i n f o rm a t ion i s s ome th ing o f at r iumph . A no the r b a tch o fc o in s h a s c ome , mo re r e cen t ly , f r om B a rmby Moo r , n o t f a r a way . I tp l an t s s ome s e ed s o fd oub t whe the r t h e e a r l ie r s e r ie so ff i nd s may n o ta l so h ave c o me f r om t h e re , o r whe the r ( a si so fc ou r se q u i te p o s s ib le ) t h e re a r et wo r i ch s i t e sq u i te c l o se t oe a ch o the r . 5I na ny c a se w en ow h ave f r om t h eV a le o fY o rk , f o rt h ef i r s tt ime , as e r ie so fs t ray f i nd sl a rge e nough t og ive ar e l i ab le i mp re s s ion o ft h e p a t te r no fl o s se s , a nd o ft h e mone ta ry c i rcu l a t ion t h a t l a yb eh ind i t . 5 On t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e B a rmby Moo r f i ndspo t , Iam i ndeb ted t o a dv ice f r om Mr D av id F ea the r . F o r t h e f i nd s , s e e M . A . S . B lackburn a nd M . J .B on se r , ' S ing le f i nd s o f A ng lo -Saxon a nd No rman c o in s -3 ' , BN J 5 6 ( 1 986 ) ,f o r thcom ing .
3 D . M . Me tca lf , ' Some f i nd s o f med ieva l c o in sf r om S co t land a nd t h en o r th o fE ng land ' , BN J30 ( 1 9601 ) ,8 0123 ,n o s .8 1-2 . 4 I am i ndeb ted t o Ma r i lyn B rown f o r p re l im ina ry i n f orma t ion a bou t t h e f i nd s f r om t he 1 986 s e a son a t Wh i thorn .
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A TOP OG RAP H ICAL CO M ME NTA RY
H e re a nd t h e re , e xcava t ion s o f m idd l e S axon h ab i ta t ion s i t e s s e em t o b e p roduc ing s t yca s , a tl e a s t i no ne s a nd t wo s , a nd i ti sn ece s sa ry t ou nde r s tand ( w i th t h e b enef i t o f s ou the rn e xpe r ience a t s i t e s l i ke B a rham i n S uf f o lk o r Roy s ton , H e r t s . 6)t h a t t h e t o ta l n umbe r o ff i nd s f r om as i t e may d epend v e ry much o n t h e e f o r tp u ti n to s e a rch ing f o rt h em ,a nd t h a td i spa r i t ie sb e tween o ne s i t ea nd a no the r a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly ar e f lec t ion o fg enu ine d if e rence s i nt h e i n ten s i ty o f mone ta ry a c t iv i ty . One i so n much s a f e r g round i n m ak ing c o mpa r i son s w i th in t h e f i nd s f r om as i ng le s i te , e . g . b e tween n umbe r s o fe a r ly a nd l a te l o s se s , b u t e ven t h e re , t h e re i s as e r iou s d if i cu l ty i n t h a t c o in s w i th al owe r p u rcha s ing p owe r m ay b e e xpec ted t o h ave a much h ighe r l o s s r a te , a nd w e d o n o t k now whe the r d eba semen tw a sa c compan ied b yi nf l a t ion . B ecau se n ume r ica l c o mpa r i son s b e tween s i t e s a r e a lmo s t wo r th le s s a se v id ence , k eene r i n te re s t w i l l a t tach t o f i nd ing r e l iab le c l ue s , i nt h e t opog raph ica l p a t te rn s a nd d e ta i l s , t ot he c ha r ac te ra nd i n ten s i ty o f mone ta ry c i rcu la t ion . I fs t yca st u rn u p i nr emo te a nd u nexpe c ted p l ace s , t h e a rgumen t w i l l b e , ' by h ow much t h e more a r e t hey n o t l i ke ly t oh ave b een i nu s e i nb u sy p l ace s f r om wh ich , b y c hanc e , w e h ave n oi n f o rma t ion ' . One may c i te a se xamp le s Ma lh am Moo r , G a te shead Moor , ' ah augh o ft h e R ive rJ ed ' n ea rJ edbu rgh , o r —mo s t s t r ik ing ly — the e xcava t ion o f t h eh igh moor land f a rm s tead o fR ibb lehead , i n Nor th Yo rk sh i re . H e re , t wo c o in s w e re f ound i nt he w a l l c o re o ft h ee nd w a l lo ft h e f a rmhou se , a no the rl y ing o n a n e nd w a l l k e rb s t one ( t he se t h ree w i th in 1 . 2m o fe a ch o the r ) , a nd af ou r th o n t h e p av ing i mmed ia te ly o u t s ide . T hey p rovoked t ho rough d i scu s s ion among t h e e xcava to r s , who w e re s a t i sf i ed t h a t t h ey w e re n o t ad i s tu rbed h oa rd . T hey may d a te t he b u i ld ing o ft h ef a rmhou se ( po s s ib ly p o s t -867 ) .7 T h i s a rgumen t Q uo m ag i s a pp l ie s t os t ray l o s se s b u t n o t t oh oa rd s , f o r wh i ch a n o u t -of the -way p l ace o fc oncea lmen t may w e l lh ave b een d e l ibe r a te ly c ho sen . S hou ld w en o ta s sume t h a to u rk now ledge o fs t ray l o s se si sl i ke ly t ob es t i l lv e ry i n comp le te , a nd p o s s ib ly m i s lead ing ? And i ft h a t i ss o , o ugh t w e n o t t o p roceed w i th g rea t c au t ion i nd r aw ing c onc lu s ion s f r om t h e f i nd s t h a t a r ek nown t ou s ? I n p a r t icu la r , when w e l ook a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn , w e o ugh t f r equen t ly t o r em ind o u r se lve s t h a te a ch d o t o n t h e map i sn o tn ece s sa r i ly o ft h es ame e v iden t ia l v a lue ;a nd b l ank s p ace sc ou ld b ev e ry m i s lead ing i ndeed . E ven i f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn w e r e f a i r , r epr e sen ta t ive , a nd f r ee f r om p i tf a l l s , i t wou ld s t i l l b e am i s take t o e qua te t h e a b sence o f s t ray f i nd s w i th t h e a b sence o f ac i r cu l a t ing m ed ium . One wou ld b e c o r rec t , i n t ho se v e ry t h eo re t ica l c ond i t ion s , t o d educe t h a t mone ta ry e xchange s w e re much l e s s f r equen t : ar e la t ive d if e rence . B u t t h e r a t io o f l o s se s t o t r an sac t ion s may w e l l h ave b een e x t reme ly s ma l l , a nd t h e r a t io o f c o in s f ound t o c o in s s t i l l i n t h e g round may b e e qua l ly s ma l l . When B ened ic t B i scop w a s s e t t ing of o n a b ook -buy ing s p ree , w i th wha t d id h e f i l l h i s p u r se ?
t h e N o r th , e d . R . A . H a l l , 1 978 , 2 1-6 ; Med i eva l A r cha eo l ogy 1 9 ( 1 975 ) , 2 30 ( a c o in n am ing Od i lo ) . T he l o ca t ion i s SD 7 7 1785 , o n t h e n o r th-ea s t f l ank o fI ng lebo rough .
6 F o r t h e r i ch s e r ie s o ff i nd s f r om Roy s ton , s e e B lackbu rn a nd B on se r , l o c . c i t . 7 A .K ing ,` Gaube rh igh p a s tu re ,R ibb lehead —an i n te r im r epor t ' , i n V ik ing A g e Y o rk a nd
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D . M. METCALF THE F INDS AS EV IDENCE FOR THE S CALE OF THE LOCAL CURRENCY
Wi th t h a t c avea t , t h e ma in o u t l ine s o f ad i s t r ibu t ion map a ppea r t ob e s ome th ing l i ke al a dde r o f wh ich t h e l e g s a r e t h e c oa s ta l p l a in s t o t h e e a s t a nd w e s t o ft h e P enn ine s , a nd t h er ung sa r et h et r an s -Penn ine r ou te s . T hu s , t h e re i sac onc en t ra t ion o ff i nd s ( a nd e s pec ia l ly o fh oa rd s ) i n Yo rk i t se lf , a nd t o al e s se re x ten ti nt h eV a le o f Yo rk ; f i nd s s ugge s t ive o f c oa s t -w i se a c ce s s u p t h e e a s t c oa s t , f r om Wh i tby t o B ambu rgh a nd b eyond ; t ot h ew e s to ft h eP enn ine s , f i nd sf r om av a r ie ty o fc oa s ta l s i t e s i nt h e I r i sh S ea c oa s t land s , f r om Meo l s a nd O t te r spoo l n o r thwa rd s , a sf a r a s Wh i tho rn a nd L uce B ay , a nd b eyond , s h ad ing of i n to g rave -f ind s i n V ik ing b u r i a l si nA r ran a nd Co lon say ; a nd t h en t h e re a r ef i nd s wh ich h in ta tt h er ou te sb y wh ich t r af f ic c ro s sed t h e P enn ine s t o r e ach t h e n ewe r Ang l ian t e r r i to r ie s —by t h e T yne v a l ley t o H exham a nd f r om t h e re , p e rhap s , t owa rd s t h e m in ing a r ea s f r om whe re , a lmo s t c e r ta in ly , t h e z i nc c ame f o r t h e c o inage ,8 a nd s o a c ro s s t o C a r l i s le —o r b y A i reda le t o Ma lham a nd S e t t le , a nd t h ence t o L anc a s te r a nd H ey sh am ,G range -ove r -Sand sa nd C a r tme l . T os e e ap a t te rn r e semb l ing al a dde ri n t h e f i nd s i so f c ou r se o n ly a w ay o f i mpo s ing o rde r o n i s o la ted f r agm en t s o f i n f o rma t ion a sa n a i d t o t h ink ing a bou t t h em . I t mu s t h ave mo re c on tac t w i th r e a l i ty t h an p lough s o r b ea r s i nt h e s ky , b u t i ti sme re ly ac on s t ruc t ion , n o t af a c t . T o s k e tch s uch ag eog raph ica l f r amewo rk a l re ady i mp l ie s , o ne may s a y , q u i te a p o s i t ive a n swe r t ot h e q ue s t ion , h ow w ide sp read t h e c i rcu la t ion o fc o in age w a s i n n in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r i a . B u t , a sw eh ave s e en , e ven t h ef r amewo rk i sb e se tb y c ompa ra t ive u nce r ta in t ie s a nd t h e p rob lem s o f n ega t ive e v idence . Wa s t h e c u r r ency t ot h e w e s to ft h eP enn ine s , a nd i nt h eI r i sh S ea c oa s t land s , t oa ny d eg r ee c ompa rab le w i th t h a t i n t h e p l a in o fY o rk ? S im i la r ly , w a s c o inage u s ed i no the r t h an m ino rq uan t i t ie si nB e rn ic ia n o r th o ft h eT yne — a lway se xc lud ing o ne o rt wo c oa s ta l l o ca l i t ie s , s p ec if i ca l ly B ambu rgh , whe re t h e e xcava t ion s r eve a l ac on c en t r a ted u se ? I n o the r wo rd s , w e re t h e r eg iona l e conom ie s o f S t ra thc lyde , B e rn ic ia , a nd D e i ra r ad ica l ly d if e ren t f r om e a ch o the r —w i th wha teve r p o l i t ica l r epe r cu s s ion s s u ch d if e rence s m igh th ave h ad ?T he se q ue s t ion s , wh ich a r et h es o r t o fq ue s t ion s w e n eed t ob e a s k ing i fw e a r e t om ake t h e s t ep f r om n um i sma t ic s t o mone t a ry h i s to ry , a r e i n e scapab ly q uan t i ta t ive . We c anno t man age w i thou t s p ecu la t ing a bou tc ompa r i son sb e tween t h en umb e r so fc o in si nu se i nd if e ren tp a r t s o f No r thumb r ia . Ou r a t temp t s t o f r ame a n swe r s t o s u ch q ue s t ion s , o r mo re e x ac t ly t o f i nd e v idence wh ich wou ld h ave a b ea r ing o n t h em , c an u s ef u l ly b eg in w i th t h e o b se rva t ion t h a t t h e No r thumb r ian c o inage w a s s t ruck o n al a rge s c a le a nd t h a ti t h a s h ad a v e ry u neven s u rv iva l ra te . F rom t h e r e ign o fA lch red t h rough t o a n i n te rmed ia te d a te i n E an r ed ' s r e ign t h e s u rv iva l ra te • h a s b een e x t r eme ly l ow . S ome th ing o ft h eo rde ro f5 00 d i e sw e r eu s ed , f o re xamp le ,f o rt he ' a n ima l 'c o in so f A lch red , Athe l red , a nd l E lfwa ld , i mp ly ing t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f s ome th ing l i ke 5 m i l l ion c o in s , o f wh ich o n ly t h e me re s t h andf u l a r e k nown t oday : o ne c o in i n
8 E s t ima te s o ft h e t o ta l amoun t o fz i nc u s ed c an b e o b ta ined t h rough e s t ima te s o f t h e
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o r ig ina ln umbe r s o fd i e s , t a ken i nc o mb ina t ion w i th a na ly t ica lr e su l t s .
A TOP O G RAP H I CAL C O M ME NTA R Y
p e rhap s1 50 ,000 h a ss u rv ived .9I nc omp le te c on t ra s tt h ec o in so f/ E the l red I a nd h i s s u cce s sor s h ave h ad a n e xcep t iona l ly h igh s u rv iva l ra te b ecau se s o many l a rge h oa rd s o ft h em w e re c oncea led p robab ly i n t h e f a ce o ft h e V ik ing t h rea t i n t h e 8 60 s . T he s u rv iva l ra te i sp robab ly o ne c o in i na bou t f i ve h und red , o u t o f at o ta l c u r rency wh ich , u n t i l t h et ime o f Redwu lf , m ay h ave b een o f as im i la rs i ze t ot h a t o ft h e l a te r e i gh th c en tu ry ." I n a n swe r t o t h e q ue s t ion , h ow w ide sp read w a s t h e c u r rency , t h en ,w ea r ee n t i t led t o make t h ep re l im ina ry p o in tt h a tt h e re w a s ag rea t d ea lo fc o inage i ne x i s tence , a nd t h a t wh i le much o fi tmay h ave b een c oncen t ra ted i nt h ec of e r so f af ew , i tc hanged h and sf r ee ly e nough t ob ecome q u i te t ho rough ly m ing led i nc i rcu la t ion ,a tl e a s tb yt h em id -n in th c en tu ry . One v e ry u sef u l t e chn ique f o r s t udy ing t h ew ay s i n wh ich c o in moved a bou ti s u nf o r tuna te ly n o t a va i lab le t o u s f o r No r thumb r ia . S ou th o ft h e Humbe r i n t h e p re -V ik ing a ge o ne c an i d en t if y t h e p roduc t s o fs e ve ra l m in t s a nd , b yp lo t t ing t h e d i s tance s t h a t s t ray f i nd sh ad t r ave l led f r om t h e i r m in t o fo r ig in b ef o re t h ey w e re l o s t , o ne c an a t temp t ar eg iona l a na ly s i s o ft h e o ve ra l l m ing l ing o ft h e c u r rency f r om d if e ren t s ou rce s . I n No r thumb r ia i ts e em s t h a t n o s im i la r e xe rc i se w i l l b e p o s s ib le , b ecau se a l o rv i r tua l ly a l t h e c o in s emana ted f r om t h eo ne m in t town o f Yo rk . ( O r , i ft h i s v i ew s hou ld o ne d ay b e s upe r seded , s u re ly t h ey a l emana ted f r om e a s t o f t h e P enn ine s . I n ten s ive d i e l ink ing , wh ich i ss u ch a w e l l -known f e a tu re o ft h e s t yca s e r ie s , p u t s s e ve re o b s tac le si nt h e w ay o fa ny t h eo ry t h a t t h e re w a s mo re t h an o ne i mpo r tan t m in t . ) T hu s , t h e d e ta i led c o mpo s i t ion o f t h e f i nd a s semb lage s f r om w e s t o ft h e P enn ine s i su n l ike ly t o of e r a ny c l ue s t o t h e r e la t ive s c a le o ft h e c u r r enc ie s i nt h e e a s te rn a nd w e s te rn r eg ion s . Of c ou r se , o ne ' s p r io r e xpec ta t ion , b a sed o n aw ide r p e r spec t ive o f B r i t i sh med ieva l mone ta ry h i s to ry , w i l l b e t h a t u n t i l t h e d rama t ic r i se t oi mpo r tance o ft h e m in t o f Che s te r , b eg inn ing v e ry e a r ly i n t h e t e n th c en tu ry ," t h e n o r th -we s t w a s t h e b ack o f b eyond i nt e rm so fc o mme rc ia la nd mone ta ry ma t te r s . THE HU MBER E STUARY AS THE M A IN GATE WAY FOR I NTER-REG IONAL TRADE
B a s ing o u rj udgemen t a ga in o n t h e w ide r p e r spec t ive , w e c an p o in t w i th s ome c onf idence t o t h e m a in r ou te o fe n t ry o ft h e e i gh th cen tu ry mone ta ry e conomy n o r th o ft h e Humbe r :i tw a st h ee s tua ry o ft h e Humbe ri t se lf .T he c on t ra s tb e tween t h e c o in f i nd s f r om No r th F e r r iby a nd f r om Yo rk g ive s ac l ue . No r th F e r r iby i s u nu sua l i n t h a t i t i s as i t e wh ich h a s y i e lded p redom inan t ly p r ima ry - a nd i n te rmed ia te -pha se s c ea t ta s( f rom c .7 00 o nwa rd s ) . ' T he re a r e s ou the rn s c ea t ta s f r om Yo rk , o fi n te rmed ia te a nd s e conda ry d a te , b u t u n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly t h e r e w e re n o t many , whe rea s t h e re w e re n ume rou s f i nd s o f 2
D . M . Me tca lf , ' E s t ima t ion o ft he v o lume o f t h e No r thumb r ian c o inage , c .7 38-88 ' , i n S c ea t ta s i nE ng land a nd o n t h e C on t inen t , e d . D . H i l l a nd D . M . Me tca lf , Oxf ord , 1 984 , p p . 1316 . E s t ima te s c an b e d e r ived f r om t h e c a ta l ogue i nP agan , 1 973 . 1 1 O r p e rhap s e ven t h e l a te n in th c en tu ry . S ee D . M . Me tca lf , ' The mone ta ry h i s to ry o f 9
10
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E ng land i n t h e t e n th c en tu ry v i ewed i n t h e p e r spec t ive o ft h e e l even th c en tu ry ' , i n A ng l o Saxon Mon e ta ry H i s to ry , e d . M . A . S . B lack b urn ,L e ice s te r , 1 986 ,p p . 1 33-57 ,a tp p . 1 421 1 2 E .J .E . P i ne , ' Some No r thumbr ian f i nd s o f s c ea t ta s ' , i n S c ea t ta s i n E ng land a nd o n t h e C on t in en t , e d . D . H i l l a nd D . M . Me tca lf , Oxf ord , 1 984 ,p p .2 0715 ,a tp p .2 08 f .
D . M. METCALF
No r thumb r ian s c ea t ta s , d i s t r ibu ted w ide ly t h rough Yo rk , f r om t h e r e ign o f E adbe rh to rl a te r .1 3 T hu s t h e c on t r a s tb e tween No r th F e r r iby a nd Y ork s ugge s ted t h a t t r ade w a s r e ach ing t h e Humbe r e s tua ry a l ready i n t h e f i r s t q ua r te r o f t h e e i gh th c en tu ry , a nd t h a t mone ta ry e xchange s w e re c onduc ted a t am a rke t a to r n ea r t h e c oa s t ( a s t h ey w e re a t c oa s ta l w i c s i n s ou the rn E ng land ) , b u t t h a t t h e ma rke t -p lace w a s s oon moved u p t h e Ou se t o Yo rk i t se lf —po s s ib ly f i r s t a t F i she rga te — and a l i t t le l a te r r e ce ived a d ec i s ive i mpe tu s t h rough s ome r oya l i n i t ia t ive , w i th wh ich w a sl i nked t h em in t ing o fc o in sl o ca l ly f r om c .7 40 .1 4 R ecen t e xcava t ion s i n F i she rga te h ave b rough t t o l i gh t r ubb i sh p i t s wh ich h ave s o f a r y i e lded f i ve o rs i x ' p o rcup ine ' s c ea t ta s ,1 5 a nd i tl ook sa si ft h es i t ew i l li nd u ec ou r se i mpo se a s s ub s tan t ia l ar e a s se s smen t o f No r thumb r ian mone ta ry h i s to ry a s t h e r e cen t f i nd s f r om C a r l i s le . ' Po rcup ine s ' a r e a rguab ly f r om t h e a r ea o ft h e Rh ine mou th s , a nd i fi tt u rn s o u t t h a t t h ey a r e p l en t if u l among t h e c o in s f r om t h e s i t e b e tween B lue B r idge L ane , t h e R ive r F o s s , a nd F i she rga te , o ne w i l l b e s t rong ly t emp ted t o c onc lude t h a t h e re , r a the r t h an i n S ke lde rga te , l a y t h e v i cu s F r i s onum . T he c l o se d a t ing o ft h e' po rcup ine s ' f r om F i she rga te w i l lh ave t ob ej udged when i t i sk nown e xac t ly wh ich v a r ie t ie s t h ey w e re , b u t i na ny c a se t h ey a lmo s t c e r ta in ly a n teda te E adbe rh t ' s c o inage . I ts e em s t h a t t r ade a nd t h e u s e o fc o inage m ay h ave g a ined af i r s tf oo tho ld a t Yo rk i nt h es ou the rn s u bu r b ium , whe re ma r i t im es h ipp ing wou ld a pp roach t h e c i ty . T h i s of e r s a n a ppa ren t c on t ra s t w i th H amw ic whe re s o f a rt h e re i sn or e a son t ob e l ieve t h a tt h ee a r ly f i nd so rt h eF r i s ian f i nd so fc o in sa r ei n a ny w ay t opog raph ica l ly r e s t r ic ted . T he f i r s t s t i r r ing s o ft h e S co t t i sh med ieva l mone ta ry e conomy , s t imu la ted b y ma r i t ime t r ade w i th E ng land , of e r s u ch i n t r igu ing p a ra l le l s w i th t h e s i tua t ion o f No r thumb r ia f ou rh und red y ea r sp rev iou s ly a st oe xcu se a no the r d ig re s s ion . K ing D av id b egan t o s t r ike an a t iona l c o inage t o t a ke t h e p l ace o fi n com ing E ng l i sh money , a nd a t mo re o r l e s s t h e s ame d a te , i n t h e f ounda t ion c ha r te r wh ich h e g r an ted t o Ho ly rood Abbey , w e s e eh im p rov id ing t h e c anon s w i th , among o the r t h ing s , ac a sh i n come d e r ived f r om t h e r e ce ip t s o ft h e e a s t -coa s t t r ade . I nt h e f i r s t i n s tance h e g ive s t h em i n come i nk ind f r om l a nd s a nd r en t s a nd r i gh t s a nd t ihe s , a nd t h ef r ee t a k ing o ft imbe r , a nd o i l f r om s t randed wha le s , a nd s of o r th ; a nd t h en h e g oe s o n t og ive t h em , a ppa ren t ly , a l so ac a sh i n come : ' f o r ty s h i l l ing s f r om my b u rgh o fE d inbu rgh y ea r ly ; a nd ar en to f ah und r ed s h i l l ing sy ea r ly f o rt h ec l o th ing o ft h e c anon s , f r om my c a in o fP e r th , a nd t h i s f r om t h e f i r s t s h ip s t h a t c o me t o P e r th f o r t h e s a ke o ft r ade ; a nd i fi th appen s t h a t t h ey d o n o t c ome , Ig r an t t ot h e a f o re sa id Chu rch , f r om my s e a t o fE d inbu rgh f o r ty s h i l l ing s , a nd f r om S t i r l ing t wen ty s h i l l ing s ,a nd f r om P e r th f o r ty s h i l l ing s ' . F u r the r , t h ec anon sa r ef r eed f r om
t h e ' Yo rk ' t h rym sa s a nd t h e e a r ly s c ea t ta s o f K ing A ldf r i th o f Nor thumb r ia . Two o f t h e l a t te rw e re among t he Wh i tby f i nd s —wh ich o f c ou r se i n c luded a r ange o f p re -Eadbe rh t ian s c ea t ta s ;b u t Wh i tby i so nt he -coa s t . 1 5 R . K emp , ' P i t y ou r "w ic s" , o r h ow t o e xcava te Ang l ian York ' , I n t e r im 1 /3 ( a u tumn 1 986 ) ,8 16 .
1 3 S .E .R igo ld a nd D . M . Me tca lf , ' Ar ev i sed c heckl i s to fE ng l i sh f i nd so fs c ea t ta s ' , i b id . , p p . 2 45-68 , a t p . 2 67 , l i s t ing 2 3 s i ng le f i nd s , o f wh ich 1 6a r eo fE adbe rh to rl a te r . 1 4 D . M . Me tca lf , ' Mone ta ry c i rcu la t ion i n s ou thern E ng land i nt he f i r s t h a lf o ft h e e i gh th c en tu ry ' , i b id . , p p . 2 7-69 , a tp .6 8 . One s hou ld men t ion t wo p rob lema t ic h a rb inge r s , n ame ly
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t o l l sa nd c u s tom s' on a lt h ing st h a tt h ey b uy a nd s e l l» 6 I nt h ee a r ly mone ta ry h i s to ry o f Nor thumbr i a , i ti st emp t ing t os e es ome s im i la r i ng red ien t s , p a r t icu la r ly t r ade w i th t h e s ou th a st h e f i r s t mo to r o ft h e mone ta ry e conomy , a nd an o tab le c oncen t ra t ion o f mone ta ry e xchange s a t af ew r oya l ly s uppo r ted mona s t ic s i t e s ,i n c lud ing c a thed ra lc ommun i t ie s . C an o ne d oub tt h a tt h e r i ch s e r ie s o fc o in f i nd sf r om Wh i tby , ' t he mau so leum o ft h e D e i ran k ing s ' , a r e i n s ome s e n se t h e r e su l t o f ma r i t ime t r ade w i th s ou th ea s te rn E ng land a nd t h e l owe r Rh ine land s ? ( The re i se ven ap a i r o fd i e l inked s c ea t ta s , o ne f ound i n Wh i tby a nd t h eo the ri nC an te rbu ry .1 7 ) T he v i r tua l a b sence o f' f o re ign ' c o in s i n No r thumb r ia a f te r t h e d ec l ine o ft h e s ou the rn s c ea t ta si nt h em id -e igh th c en tu ry i sn o tt ob et a ken a s as i gn o fi s o la t ion , b u t r a the r a se v idence t h a t f r om t h e t ime o fE adbe rh t o nwa rd s t he c u r rency w a s s t r ic t ly c on t ro l led , a nd t h a t f o re ign money w a s r equ i red t o b e r em in ted . T h i s b ecame t h e n o rma l p r ac t ice s ou th o f t h e Humbe r a t a bou t t h e s ame d a te , a nd make si tq u i te s u rp r i s ing t h a ts t yca s s hou ld o ccu ra ss t ray l o s se si nL inco ln sh i re a nd E a s t Ang l ia . Un t i l t h e l a te 1 970 s h a rd ly a ny s u ch f i nd s f r om s ou th o ft h e Humbe r w e re k nown , a nd i tw a sn o t u n rea sonab le t ot r ea t t h e a u then t ic i ty ( a s f i nd s ) o ft h e f ew t h a t w e re w i th s ome r e se rve . Do l ley c ou ld w r i te i n 1 966 '. .t h ey d o n o t o ve r lap t h e s i lve r h oa rd s . . . T he c u r rency o f t h e s t y c a mu s t h ave b een p u re ly d ome s t ic a nd c onf in ed t ot h ek ingdom o f No r thumb r ia ' . T h i s a s se s smen th a sb een p l aced i nd oub tb y as u rp r i s ing n umbe ro f me ta l -de tec to rf i nd si nt h el a s tt e ny ea r s , t h e a u then t ic i ty o f wh i ch c anno ti ng ene ra lb e d oub ted . T he r e a r e a l so af ew c o in s f r om c on t ro l led e x cava t ion s . A t B randon , t h e o dd s t yca c an h a rd ly b e o the r t h an a n e a r ly l o s s ; a nd i fo ne o f t h e T he tf o rd f i nd s i sf r om a n e l even th -cen tu ry r ubb i sh -p i t , i ti sn eve r the le s s a lmo s t c e r ta in ly t h er edepo s i t ion o f ac o in l o s t i nt h e n in th c en tu ry . T he i n t r in s ic v a lue o f t h e s t yca s w a s l ow i n r e la t ion t o s ou the rn p enn ie s : e ven t he b e s t o fE an red ' s c o in s a r e r a re ly b e t te r t h an 2 0 p e r c en t s i lve r . When t h ey w e re , mo reove r , s od if e ren ti ns i ze a nd t h ickne s sf r om s i lve rp enn ie s , i t i sd if i cu l tt oe nv i sage t h a tt h ey c ou ld g a in mone ta ry a c cep tance when t h e re w a sn o r oya l g ua ran tee t o b ack t h em . Whe the r o r n o t s u ch c o in s w e re i nu se a s money when t h ey w e re l o s t i st h e ref o re ap uzz l ing q ue s t ion , b u t t h ey c e r ta in ly o ccu r a s s t ray l o s se s . Nor a r e t h ey c onf ined t ot h e c oa s ta l p o r t s , a l though o ne n o te s r e cen t me ta l -de tec to r f i nd s f r om t h e h in te r land s o f G r im sby , L owe s tof t , I p sw ich , a nd e ven Ch iche s te r , S u s sex . P e rhap s t h ey w e re w e l l e nough k nown i n L inco ln sh i re a nd E a s t Ang l ia t o b e u s ed a s , f o r e xamp le , f a r th ing s . S tyca s o ccu r , o fc ou r se , i n D e i ra s ou th o f t h e l i ne o f t h e Humbe r , h av ing b een f ound a t s i t e s n ea r P on tef rac t , ' 8 Donca s te r ,a nd S hef f i e ld ,a nd a l so a tC a s t le ton i nt h eP eak D i s t r ic t . I n s p i te o ft he k nown p re sence o fF r i s ian me rchan t s i nY o rk , s t yca s a r e a b sen t f r om t h e p ro l if i c s i t e o f Dombu rg . A t Do re s tad o ne c o in o fE adbe rh t a nd e i the r t wo o r t h ree s t yca s a r e r e co rded : t h e se a r e b y n o mean s i n s ign if i can t among t h e s ma l le r t o ta l o f c o in s f ound t h e re . T he i r e v idence i sr e inf o rced b y af i nd f r om 1 6 G . Dona ld son , S c o t t i sh H i s t o r i c a l D o c u m en t s , 1 970 ,p p .2 0-3 . no te 1 3 1 7 R igo ld a nd Me tca lf , l o c . c i t . ( a bove ) , a tp p . 2 49 ( Can te rbu ry V I I I ) a nd 2 65 (Wh i tby X I I I ) .
1 8 Wen tbr idge . S ee M . A . S .B lackburn a nd M .J .B on se r , ' S ing le f i nd so f Ang lo-Saxon a nd No rman c o in s -2 ' , BN J 5 5 ( 1 985 ) , 5 5-78 , a t 7 2f .( two c o in s ,n o s .6 8a nd 6 9 ) .
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S chouwen , a nd a no the rf r om a sf a rd own t h e Rh ine a s Ma inz . T he Do re s tad s t yca s i n p a r t icu la r , f r om a f o re ign c o mme rc ia l s i t e , a ga in r a i se t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e a c cep tab i l i ty o fd eba sed c o in s o u t s ide t h e i r of i c ia l c i rcu la t ion -a rea . I ta l so make s o ne wonde r whe the r No r thumb r ia m ay n o t h ave e xpo r ted b ra s s t o t h e L ow C oun t r ie s . I ti su n th inkab le t h a tb ra s sw a sp roduced i n No r thumb r ia s o le ly f o ru s e a sc o inage , a nd t h e i ndu s t ry may w e l l h ave h ad al onge r h i s to ry t h an t h e c o in s r evea l . ( One wou ld l i ke t ok now wha t me ta l E dw in ' s p ub l ic d r ink ing c up s w e re m ade o f .1 9 ) I n t h e o the r d i r ec t ion t h e re a r e e i gh t o r n ine s e pa ra te f i nd s o f ' f o re ign ' c o in s wh ich h ad e s caped t h e me l t ing -po t i n No r thumb r ia — an u nexpec ted ly h igh p ropor t ion o ft h ef i nd s , p a r t icu la r ly i nY o rk i t s e lf . S eve ra lo ft h em may h ave b een l o s t a f te r8 67 , when E ng l i sh r oya l c on t ro l o ft h e c u r rency w a sn o l onge re f ec t ive , a nd t h ey m ay e xagge ra te t h ei mp re s s ion t h a tf o re ign c o in sw e re p l en t if u l . Of o n ly o ne o ft h e c o in s c an w e a s se r t t h a t i tw a s v e ry p robab ly ap r e -867 l o s s , a l though s e ve ra lo the r sa l so c ou ld w e l lb e . T he e a r l ie s ti sap re ref o rm c o in o f Cha r lemagne , f ound a tS anc ton , p robab ly f r om aRh ine land s m in t . 2°T he e xcava t ion s a t Yo rk M in s te ri n1 9701 y i e lded aWe s t S axon p enny o fK ing E cgbeo rh t ( 8 02-39 ) , v e ry p robab ly a n e a r ly l o s s , a nd a l so ad en ie r o f Ch a r le s t h e B a ld ( 8 40-77 ) m in ted a t Quen tov ic . F rom e l sewhe re i n Yo rk t h e re a r e ap enny o fJ E the lwu lf ( 8 3958 ) o fa t ype a n teda t ing t h e r e f o rm o fc .8 55 , a nd t h e ref o re a ga in q u i te p robab ly ap re -867 l o s s , ap enny o f Athe lbe rh t ( 8 58-65 ) f r om F i she rga te , a nd p enn ie s o fB u rg red o f Me rc ia f r om A ldwa rk a nd f r om S ke lde rga te . 2'A no bo le o fC ha r le st he B a ld o ft h e P a lace m in t , f r om C oppe rga te , w a s m in ted a f t e r 8 64 , a nd t h e c hance s mu s t b e , t h e ref o re , t h a t i tr e ached Yo rk a f te r 8 67 . T h i s m e re ly t e nd s t os how , h oweve r , ( a s s ome o ft h e o the r f i nd s may a l so s how , i ft h ey a r ei nf a c t p o s t -867 ) t h a t t h el owe r Rh ine land sl i nk s u rv ived t h eV ik ing o ccupa t ion o fY o rk . Of t h e t wo h oa rd s f r om C oney S t ree t , Yo rk i n 1 760 , o ne c on s i s ted o f a bou t ah und red s i lve r c o in s , d e sc r ibed o n ly v e ry v ague ly a sE ng l i sh , b u t among wh ich w e re s a id t ob e af ew C h r i s t iana R e l ig i o ( t emp le type C a ro l ing ian ) d en i e r so fL o tha i re . On t h e g round s t h a t t h ey r e ad LOTHAR IVS REX ( o r HLOTHAR IVS REX ? ) r a the r t h an LOTHAR IVS IMP , t h ey mu s tb e a s sumed t oh ave b een c o in s o fL o tha i re I ( 8 55-69 ) , a nd t h e ref o re c and ida te s f o rl o s s a tt h e t ime o ft h e c ap tu re o f Yo rk o r l a te r . T hey may w e l l b e f r om t h e l owe r Rh ine land s , a nd a r e mo re l i ke ly t o b e f r om t h e b eg inn ing t h an t h e e nd o f L o tha i r e ' s r e ign . T he n ame L o tha i r e w a s o fi n te re s t t ot h e e i gh teen th -cen tu ry a n t iqua ry who n o ted i tb ecau se h et hough tt h ec o in sm igh tb ea t t r ibu ted t o ak ing o fK en t .2 B ede ,I ,x v i , ' a e reo s ' . B oo th a nd B lowe r s , 1 983 , n o .1 . Conve n t iona l ly a t t r ibu ted t o Ma inz , b u ti nH ambu rg e r B e i t räg e z u r Num i sma t ik 1 8 / 19 ( 1 964 /65 ) , 1 3-20 Ia rgued f o r aRh ine -mou th sl o ca t ion , p o s s ib ly Dombu rg . 2 1 E .J .E . P i ne , P o s t -Roman C o in sf r om Y o rk E x c ava t i on s 1 97 1-8 1 ( The A rchaeo logy o f Yo rk ,v o l . 1 8 / 1 ) , 1 986 ,n o s .3 7-9 . 22 D . M . Me tca lf , ' F ind record s o f med ieva l c o in s f r om Gough ' s C amden ' s B r i tann ia ' , NC 6 1 9
20
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1 7 ( 1 957 ) , 1 81-207 , a t p p . 1 99ff . C f . K . F . Mo r r i son a nd H . G run tha l , C a r o l ing ian C o in a g e , New Yo rk , 1 967 , n o . 190 . One s hou ld c on s ide r c a ref u l ly t h e a dvocacy i n M . Do l ley , ' New l i gh t o n t he p re 1760 Coney S t ree t ( Yo rk ) f i nd o f c o in s o f t h e Duu r s tede m in t ' , J aa r boek v o o r Mun t - e n P enn ingkund e 5 2 /53 ( 1 965 /6 ) , 1 -7 , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e who le h oa rd w a s C a ro l ing ian , o n t h e ( p e r sua s ive ) g round s t h a ta ne i gh teen th -cen tu ry a n t iqua ry c ou ld n o t h ave f a i led t o r e cogn ize t he n ame s o f c on -
A TOP OG RAP H ICAL CO M ME NTA RY
A l l t h e se f i nd s f r om Y o rk , o fb o th C a ro l ing ian a nd s ou the rn E ng l i sh s i lve r , a r e o fc ou r se ar ef l ec t ion o ft h e i n ten s i ty o fa r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion t h e re , a nd a r e n o tn ece s sa r i ly g ood e v idence t h a t Yo rk w a sd rama t ica l ly d if e ren tf r om t h er e s to f No r thumb r ia i nt h i s r e spec t . I ti st h e r a t io o f' f o re ign ' c o in s t o s t yca s among t h e s i ng le f i nd sf r om Y o rk t h a t of e r sv a l id e v idence . P e rhap st h e mo s ti n t r igu ing C a ro l ing ian f i nd f r om No r thumb r ia ,j u s tb ecau se i t i sn o t f r om Y o rk , i s ac o in i nt h e n ame o fL o tha i re I( 8 40-55 , b u t p o s s ib ly l a te r ? ) n am ing Do re s tad a si t s m in t . I tw a s f ound i nA t te rm i re C ave , S e t t le — the s ou rce a l so o f as c ea t a nd f i ve s t yca s . T he c ave i sa bou t 2 km e a s t o fS e t t le , h igh a bove R ibb le sda le a nd r emo te f r om a ny s e t t lemen t . Ano the r f o re ign f i nd wh ich i sl i ke ly t o h ave e n te red No r thumb r ia b y w ay o f t h e Humbe re s tua ry i st h ep enny o fB eonna f r om Wh i tho rn .2 3 Af r agmen t o f aXP IST IANA REL IG IO d en i e r i n t h e T a lno t ry h oa rd , f r om n ea r New ton S t ewa r ti nG a l loway , may o nt h eo the rh and h ave t r ave l led f r om t h e C a ro l ing ian Emp i re t o No r thumb r i a v i a S cand inav ia , f o r i tw a s f ound t oge the r w i th f r agmen ta ry d i rham s .2 4 L ebecq , i n h i s t wo -vo lume monog raph Ma r chand s e t n av iga t eu r s f r i s on s d u h au t m oy en a g e , g ene r a l ize s t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l e v idence f o r F r i s ian l i nk s w i th No r thumb r ia s o f a r a s t o s ugge s t t h a t Yo rk sh i re w a s t h e m a in s phe r e o f F r i s ian a c t iv i ty i n E ng land . H e a na ly se s t h e s t o ry o f t h e F r i s ian s t uden t L iudge r who h ad t o f l ee f r om Yo rk i n 7 73 w i th a l t h e F r i s ian me r chan t s , i n o rde r t o e s cape a v ende t ta a f te r ay oung No r thumb r i an o f n ob le f am i ly w a s k i l led i n ab r aw l ; h e men t ion s A lcu in ' s r e f e rence i n c .8 00 t o ' t he b oa t s o f t h e F r i s ian s ' p ly ing b e tween Yo rk sh i re a nd t h e Rh ine mou th s ; a nd h e d raw s a t ten t ion t o A lcu in ' s s e nd ing 1 00 p ound s o f ( ? )t i n ( s t agnum ) t o A rchb i shop E anba ld I ` u t d omun cu l a c l o c c a rum s t agn o t e g a tu r ' . H e r e f e r s a l so t o t h e f i nd s o f C a ro l ing ian c o in s a nd o f T a t ing a nd P ing sdo rf w a re , a nd s um s u p : ' ce s t s u r tou t s u r l e s r i vage s d e l a Humbe r e t d an s l e No r thumbe r land [ s c i l i c e t No r thumb r i a ] q ue , g räce ä l ' a rcheo log ie , o n al ep lu s s ü remen t r e connu l a t r ace d e s F r i son s . . .c ' e s t a vec c e s c on t ree s— ac tue l Yo rk s h i re —que l e s ma rchand s /nav iga teu r s f r i son s d u h au t moyen a ge p a ra i s sen t a vo i r e n t re tenu l e s r appo r t s l e s p lu s c on s tan t s , e n Ang le te r re d u mo ms ; e t q ue t r ouve ra i t d u mem e c oup e xp l iquee l ' ex t rao rd ina i r e r eu s s i te d e s m i s s ion s n o r thumb r ienne s e n F r i se . '2 5 t empo ra ry E ng l i sh k ing s s u ch a s C eo lwu lf , B eornwu lf , L ud ica , Wig laf , o rB e rh twu lf w i th as hou to ft r iumph . H i sa rgumen tr e s t s t os ome e x ten to nh i sp r io ri d en t if i ca t ion o fC a ro l ing ian c and ida te s f o r t h e h oa rd -p rovenance i n t h e E y re a nd B ank s c o l lec t ion s . A s t h e r e co rd i s t o ta l ly s i l en t a bou t t h e a t t r ibu t ion o f t he a leged E ng l i sh c o in s , i t may b e t h a t t h e w r i te r h ad n o t s e t e ye s o n a ny o f t h em a nd I am i n c l ined t o t h ink t h a t , o n b a lance , i ti ss p ecu lat i ve t o d i s rega rd o u r s ou rce s . I fa l t h e h oa rd h ad b een C a ro l ing ian , w e m igh t h ave l ooked
f o r mo re s p ec imen s t o h ave s u rv ived f r om e i gh teen th -cen tu ry c o l lec t ion s . A l so , Do l ley m in im ized t h e s i gn if i cance o f REX v e r su s IMP . 23 I t i s c l o se i n d a te t o t h e d en ie r o f Cha r lemagne f r om S anc ton . B o th c ou ld h ave e n te red Nor thumb r ia a t momen t s when t h e m in t w a s i n ac t ive . 24 SCBI E d inbu rgh 6 95 a nd , f o r t h e s c rappy c ha rac te r o f t he h oa rd , i b id . , p p . x i if . 2 5 S . L ebecq , Ma r chand s e tn av iga t eu r sf r i son s d u h au t m oy en A g e , L i l le , 1 983 , p . 1 09 .
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D . M. METCALF MINSTER S ITES , CHURCHYARD S ITES , AND GRAVE-F INDS
T or e tu rn t ot h ec o mpa r i son w i th t h ec ha r te ro f Ho ly rood A bbey : a sr ega rd sf i nd s i n No r thumb r ia o n mona s t ic a nd o the r c hu rch s i t e s , s u ch ah igh p ropo r t ion o ft h e k nown f i nd spo t sf a l li n to t h e c a tego ry t h a to ne n eed st oc on s ide rc a ref u l ly , a nd i n d e ta i l , wha t t h e s i gn if i cance o f s u ch a p a t te rn m igh t b e . Wh i tho rn ( mona s t ic b u i ld ing s , w e s t o ft h e med ieva l c hu rch ) a nd D ac re ( e xcava t ion s o ft h e mona s t ic s i t e )2 6 a r e t h e mo s t r emo te e xamp le s , a nd t h e r ef o re t h e mo s t c ogen t . T he C o ld ingham f i nd i sa l so g eog raph ica l ly s oi s o la ted t h a ti t sa s soc ia t ion i ns ome s e n se w i th t h e mona s te ry w i l l s e em p robab le , e ven i fi tw a s f ound mo re t h an am i le t o t h e s ou th o fi t s s i t e . H a r t lepoo l ( Chu rch C lo se ) h a s p roduced s c ea t ta s o fE adbe rh t f r om amona s t ic s i t e . F o rt h es t yca s e r ie s , t h e mo s to bv iou sl o ca l i t ie st om en t ion a r e Wh i tby , L ind i sf a rne ,J a r row , Monkwea rmou th , a nd T ynemou th . S ing le f i nd sa r e a leged t o h ave c ome f r om H exham c hu rchya rd , b u t t h e re i so n ly t h e s l ende re s t e v idence t o s uppo r t t h i s a s se r t ion , made a f te r t h e d i scove ry o f t h e l a rge h oa rd t h e re . One m igh t a dd t o t h e l i s t f i nd s f r om t h e Y o rk M in s te r e xcava t ion s , f r om B eve r ley ( m in s te rc o l leg ia te b u i ld ing s ) ,a nd f r om R ipon ( 'S co t s mona s te ry ' ) .R .B .K . S t even son s ugge s ted t h a t P a i s ley a nd J edbu rgh may l i kew i se h ave h ad a n e c c le s ia s t ica l b ackg round , a l though t h e e v idence i st e nuou s .2 7 S hou ld o ne a dd C a r l i s le ? —do t h ec o in sf ound t h e re r ef l ec ti t sl o c a t ion c l o se t ot h e S o lway F i r th , o r t h ep owe ro ft h ec hu rch i nt h ec i ty ? A l though o u r k now ledge o f n in th -cen tu ry m in s te r s i s p robab ly v e ry i n comp le te , s ome c o in f i nd s f r om t h e p rox im i ty o fc hu rche s s e em h a rd ly t o f a l l i n to t h e m in s te r c a tego ry . K i rkbymoo r s ide ( c hu rchya rd ) a nd Wha r r am P r io ry ( c hance la r ea o fc hu r ch ) may b ee xamp le s . T he L anca s te rp a r i sh c hu rch f i nd h in t sa t ab u i ld ing o f mo re s ub s tan t ia l s c a le t h an ad ome s t ic h ab i ta t ion s i t e : ' t o t h e n o r th s i de o ft h en ave , t h e r ema in s o f aw a l l a bou t t h re ef e e tw ide r unn ing n o r th . Af ew f e e tt ot h ee a s to fi taf i r ep lace w a sf ound ,w i th af l ue o rd ra in b e low , r unn ing n o r th a nd s ou th . C lo se t ot h ew a l la bou tt wen ty s t yca sw e re p i cked u p ,a l so ac oppe rc o in o fD ioc le t ian ' .2 8 T he w a l l ,e t c . , m igh to fc ou r se b el a te ri nd a te b ys e ve ra lc en tu r ie s t h an t h e c o in s . T he H exham h oa rd i s as omewh a t u nce r ta in a dd i t ion : i tw a s c oncea led a f te r t h e s e e w a s t r an sf e r red , a nd w a s f ound v e ry c l o se t o wha t w a s , a ppa ren t ly , t h e n o r th -we s t c o rne r o f ap re -No rman n o r th t r an sep t o r l i nk ing s t ruc tu re , b u r ied j u s t b e low t h e t h en g round l e ve l ( bu t s e ven o r e i gh t f e e t d eep i n 1 832 ) .T he f i nd b a rmwa s made wh i le d igg ing ag rave f o r Wi l l iam E r r ing ton . When t h e g rave w a sr e -opened i n1 84 1 f o rt h eb u r ia lo fh i sn ephew ,s ome 5 0 mo re c o in sw e re r e cove red ,u ndoub ted ly f r om t h es ame o r ig ina lc oncea lmen t .2 9 S l igh t ly l a te r h oa rd s o ft h e d eba sed s i lve r o fB u rg red a nd A lf red c on t inue t h e c hu rchya rd t h eme ( e .g . G a inf o rd , c o . Du rham , f r om a n e xcava t ion ' o u t s ide t h e R . H . L eech , ' Excava t ion s a t D ac re , 1 982-4 : a n i n te r im r epo r t ' , T ran s . o f t h e C umbe r l and a nd We s tmo r land A n t iq . a nd A r cha eo l . S o c .8 5 ( 1 985 ) ,8 7-93 . I n SCBI E d inbu rgh ,p .x i i . 28 H i s to r i c S o c i e ty o fL an c s . a nd C h e sh i r e 1 9 14 , 2 7 1 a nd c f .P i ne , 1 986 ,i nv .n o .9 9 . R . N . B a i ley , ' The Ang lo -Saxon me ta l 26
27
29
wo rk f r om H exham ' , i n S a in t W i lf r ed a t H exham , e d . D . P . K i rby , 1 974 , p p . 1 4 1-67 , a t 1 4 1-3 g ive s at horough a ccoun t o f t h e d i s c ove ry a nd t h e s i te , a nd c l a r if i e s t h e 1 84 1 f i nd . I n modern t e rm s , t h e a r ea w a s k nown a s C ampey H i l l , i n r e f e rence t o a mound , s i nce l e ve l led . I tw a s a modern e x ten s ion , a nd n o t p rev iou s ly p a r t ,o ft h ec hu rchya rd .
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A TOPOGRAPH ICAL CO M MENTARY
c hu rch ' ) . 3°T he H ewo r th c hu rchya rd f i nd i sn o tt ob e a dded t ot h e a bove l i s t , a si t i sac a se o fn ine teen th cen tu ry f r aud . C hu rchya rd f i nd s a r en o t n ece s sa r i ly g rave -f ind s . T he l a t te r , o f wh ich t h e r e a r e af ew s uppo sed i n s tanc e s , r a i se p rob lem s i n t h e c on tex t o f Ch r i s t ian b u r ia l . I n s ou the rn E ng land t h e re i saw e l l -documen ted s e r ie so ft e n th -cen tu ry g rave -f ind si n wh ich s um s o f money w e re p l aced b enea th t h es ku l l . T hey c an b e s tb ei n te rp re ted o n t h e c on jec tu re t h a t t h ey a r e b u r ia l s o f D an i sh s e t t le r s , a mong whom p agan r e l ig iou sb e l ief sp e r s i s ted . S im i la r ly i n No r thumb r ia t h e re s hou ld b e ap re sump t ion t h a tg rave -f ind so fs t yca sa r ep o s t -867 d epo s i t su n t i lp roved o the rw i se . Un le s ss u ch c o in sh ave b een me t icu lou s ly e xcava ted , t h e re w i l lo f ten b e ad eg ree o fu nce r ta in ty a st o whe the r t h ey w e r e g enu ine ly g rave -good s , o r me re ly r e s idua l , e . g . f r om t h e b ack -f i l l ing o f ag rave . T he re a r e f i nd s f r om Wha r ram P e rcy , Monkwea rmou th , a nd Wh i tby ( ' s i te t wo ' , ab u r ia l -g round s ou th ea s t o ft h e Abbey ) . A t Rud s ton , a s t yca o fE an red w a s f ound i n ar abb i t sc rape i n as a nd -p i t wh ich h ad p rev iou s ly p roduced A ng lo -Saxon i nhuma t ion s . S eve ra l o ft h e Yo rk , C oppe rga te f i nd s wh i ch w e re l a te r i nd a te t h an ab u rned s u rf ace d a ted a r chaeom agne t ica l ly t o 8 60 + 2 0 a nd t e n ta t ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e e ven t so f8 67 ,i n c lude o ne c o in f r om a bove ab u r ia l . Whe the ro rn o ti tw a sr e s idua l , t h e se f i nd s a ga in r a i se t h e q ue s t ion whe the r s t yca s may n o t h ave c on t inued t ob e u s ed i n Yo rk u n t i lc .8 95 . 3' T he R ipon f i nd s a r e ag ood i lu s t ra t ion o ft h e d if i cu l t ie s o fd i sen tang l ing t h e c a tego r ie s o fm in s te r f i nd s , c hu rchya rd f i nd s , a nd g rave f i nd s . T hey a r e a s soc i a ted mo re o rl e s sc l o se ly w i th A i lcy H i l l , wh ich l i e sa bou t2 00 m e a s to fR ipon M in s te r . I ti s amound s ome 2 5m h igh , a nd i se s sen t i a l ly an a tu ra l f e a tu re , t h e s i de s a nd s umm i t o f wh ich w e re u s ed a s ac eme te ry i nt h e Ang lo -Saxon p e r iod .3 2 ( I t may , h oweve r , h ave b een s ou s ed b ecau se i tw a sb e l ieved t ob ea na nc ien tb u r ia l mound . T he s ame m ay b e t r ue o ft h e t umu lu s f i nd n ea r C a r l i s le , men t ioned a bove . ) T he A i lcy H i l l f i nd o f1 695 , wh ich h a s b een s hown t o c on ta in u pwa rd s o f1 37 s t yca s t e rm ina t ing w i th O sbe rh t ,3 w a s e v iden t ly ah oa rd o fs ome s i ze , a nd may h ave b een c oncea led i nh a l lowed g round f o re x t ra s e cu r i ty . O the rf i nd s f r om t h e c en t re o fR ipon h ave b een d e sc r ibed ( p e rhap s w i th t h e e a r l ie r h oa rd i n m ind ) a sf r om ' n ea rA i lcy H i l l ' o r' i nt h eM in s te rY a rd ' . As ma l lh oa rd w a sd e sc r ibed i n1 846 , a nd t h e re w e re a ppa ren t ly s ome s t ray f i nd sl a te ri nt h en ine teen th c en tu ry t ot h en o r th o fA i lcy H i l l , p o s s ib ly f r om t h es i t eo ft h en in th -cen tu ry ' S co t s Mona s te ry ' . Recen t a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s o fA i lcy H i l l h ave r evea led an umbe r o fb u r ia l s , n o t a l o ft h es ame d a te ,b u tt h ey h ave n o ta dded t ot h en um i sma t ic m a te r ia l . T he l a ck o fp rope r c on tex tua l e v idence f o r tuna te ly d e t rac t s v e ry l i t t le f r om t h e g ene ra l a rgumen t o f ac o r re la t ion b e tween s t yca f i nd s a nd m in s te r s i t e s : i ti s e nough , f o r e xamp le , t h a t c o in s w e re f ound i n t h e c en t re o f R ipon o n s e ve ra l d if e ren to cca s ion s . 30
NC NS 4( 1 864 ) ,2 25 .
1 /4 ( w in ter 1 986 /7 , 2 9-37 ) ; i d . , ` A i lcy H i l l , R ipon ' , B u l l e t in o ft h e CBA C hu r ch e s C omm i t t e e 2 4( 1 986 ) , 1 7-20 . E . J . E . P ine , ' The R ipon h oard , 1 695 ; c on te mporary a nd c ur ren t i n te re s t ' , BN J 5 2 ( 1 982 ) ,8 4103 .
R . A . H a l l , ' Nu m i sma t ic f i nd s f r om 1 6-22 Copperga te . A rchaeo log ica l a spec t s ' , i n P i x ie 1 986a ,p p . 1 61 . R . Ha l la nd M . Whyman , ' R ipon y arn s ... g e t t ing t o t he r oo t o f t he p rob le m ' , I n t e r im 3 1
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3 7 1
D . M. METCALF
T he re i s ad oub le r e a son f o r t h ink ing t h a t t h e ' mona s t ic ' d i s t r ibu t ion t o wh ich t h ef i nd sp o in ti sar e a lo ne , a nd n o t me re ly am i s lead ing e f ec to fp a tchy e v idence . I fw ec o mpa re t h ep a t te rn o fs c ea t ta f i nd ss ou th o ft h e Humbe r , a t at ime when t h e l i s t o f f i nd s w a s much s ho r te r t h an i ti sn ow — say , b y r e f e rence t o C . H . V . S u the r land ' s l i s t o f 1 942 3 4 ( b ef o re me ta l d e tec to r s w e re i n u s e )— the re i sn o c o mpa rab le empha s i s o n e c c le s ia s t ica l s i t e s . I nh i s l i s t , t h e re a r e r e la t ive ly f a r mo re f i nd sf r om t h eo pen c oun t ry s ide . T he f l ow o ff i nd so ft h el a s tt e ny ea r s o rs oi nt h e s ou th h a s m ade t h e c on t r a s t e ven s h a rpe r . A l though i ti sv i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le t o g ue s s a ta l t h e f a c to r s wh ich l i eb eh ind c o in l o s se s , w e c an p e rhap s d i scoun t many o f t h em b y mak ing t h i s c o mpa r i son b e tween n o r th a nd s ou th . S econd ly , a nd e ncou rag ing ly , o ne c an d e tec ts ome s o r to ft r an s i t ion b e tween n o r th a nd s ou th . A s s c ea t ta f i nd s t h in o u t n o r thwa rd s i n to t h e n or th m id land s , t h e re s e em s t o b e a g row ing c oncen t r a t ion o n e c c le s ia s t ica l s i te s , e . g . Rep ton , B r eedon -on the -H i l l , a nd S ou thwe l 1 ,3 5 w h ich a dumb ra te st h e No r thumb r ian p a t te rn . Ano the r wo r th -wh i le c o mpa r i son i sw i th t h e p reva lence o f f i nd s o f Roman c o in s i n No r thumb r ia . On e x ten s ive ly e xcava ted Roman s i t e s , o ne m igh t h ave e xpec ted t oe ncoun te r t h eo cca s iona ln in th -cen tu ry c o in a s as t ray l o s s . T h i s s e em s n o tt oh appen , a nd i tp robab ly amoun t st ou sef u ln ega t ive e v idence f o rB e rn ic ia . I n D e i r at h e re h a sb een mo re r andom p ro spec t ing , a ga in w i th ma in ly n ega t ive r e su l t s a sr ega rd ss t yca s . C an w e , t h en , t a ke t h e f i nd -a s semb lage mo re o rl e s s a ti t sf a ce v a lue , a nd d raw f r om i tt h e c onc lu s ion t h a t i nn in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ia t h e u s e o fc o inage w a s s i gn if i can t ly c oncen t r a ted a t e c c le s ia s t ica l s i t e s ? I st h i s t h e w ay t h a t a money e conomy w a s' s eeded ' a tt h eo u te rl im i t so f ar a the rm a rg ina lc i rcu la t ion -a r ea — l ike t uf t s o f ma r r am -g ra s s a dvanc ing a ga in s t t h e s a nd ? I fs o , wha t s o r t o f as y s tem wou ld b ei mp l ied ? Wou ld c o inage h ave b een u sed m a in ly f o r as p ec ia l ized r ange o f c o mmod i t ie so fi n te re s tt or e l ig iou sc ommun i t ie s , amoney e conomy r e s t r i c ted t oa l ong -d i s tance ' l uxu ry ' t r ade , c oex i s t ing w i th an on -mone t ized e conomy f o r t h e o rd ina ry r u r a l p opu la t ion ? I st h e r e ap a ra l le l w i th t h e c anon s o f Ho ly rood , f r eed f r om t o l l sa nd c u s tom so n a l t h e t h ing s t h a tt h ey b ough ta nd s o ld ? H ave w ea tl a s t f ound ar e a l l if es i tua t ion t o wh ich t h e ' mode l ' t h a ts e e st h ee a r ly m idd le a ge ss unk i n ab a r te r e conomy — so o f ten d ef ended i n t h e t e e th o fn um i sma t ic e v idence — a c tua l ly a pp l ie s ? I ti sd if i cu l t , a sa lway s , t o e nv i sage h ow i n No r thumb r i a s u ch p aymen t s f o r ' l uxu r ie s ' c ou ld b e b a lanced , f o r c a sh h ad t o a c c rue t o t h e mona s t ic c ommun i t ie sb ef o re t h ey c ou ld s p end i t . Cha r i tab le g iv ing b y t h el o ca lp opu la t ion i sp re sumab ly r u led o u t b y t h e mode l . E ven i fw e w e re t o p o s tu la te a n a nnua l i n come b y r oya l d eed a sa t Ho ly rood , a nd t hu s at r an sf e r f r om o ne p a r t o ft h e k ingdom t oa no the r ( ap rac t ice f o r wh ich t h e re i sn os uppo r t ing e v idence )i twou ld s t i l lb en ece s sa ry t os uppo se t h a t t h ek ing w a s a b le t oc o l lec t c a sh t h rough t o l l s a nd t a xe s , i mpo sed o n a' n o rma l ' mone ta ry e conomy s omewhe re w i th in No r th umb r ia . C ou ld w e , a l te rna t ive ly , t h ink o f mona s te r ie s s e rv ing a ss a f e mee t ing -p la ce s o r ma rke t s , whe re o rd ina ry p eop le me t t o t r ade w i th e a ch o the r ? T he p r ac t ice o f 34
3 5
NC 6 2( 1 942 ) ,4 2-70 . Me tca lf , l o c . c i t . ( no te 1 4a bove ) , F ig s . 1 -3
a nd i b id . ,p p .2 45 i f .
3 72
A TOPOG RAPH ICAL CO M MENTARY
h o sp i ta l i ty , a nd t h e l a ck o fa ny o the r s u i tab le p l ace s f o r me rchan t s t o s t ay , may h ave l e d mona s t ic c o mmun i t ie s i n to f u lf i l l ing as o c ia l f unc t ion n o t p a r t icu la r ly o f t h e i r c hoo s ing — in t h e s ame w ay t h a t s o c ia l p re s su re s l a y b eh ind as e cu la r s t y le o f mona s t ic l i f e t h a t B ede d i s l iked . T he m a jo r h ou se s , a nd i n p a r t icu la r t h e c o mmun i ty o fS t . C u thbe r t , h e ld w ide e s ta te s , wh ich mu s th ave g iven r i se t os o me a dm in i s t ra t ive a r rangemen t sf o rt h e i r managemen t . I ft r ade i st h ee xp lana t ion w es hou ld p ref e r , t h en umbe ro fc o in sr e cove red f r om am in s te r s i t e m igh t t h en b e e xpec ted , p i tf a l l s a pa r t , t ob e amea su re mo re o ft h e r eg iona l o r l o ca t iona l i mpo r tance o ft h e m a rke t , t h an o ft h e s i ze o r w ea l th o ft he r e l ig iou s c o mmun i ty . ( Bu t ac onnex ion b e tween t h e se t wo may n o tb ef o r tu i tou s . One r e ca l l s Ro sema ry C ramp ' s d e ta i led e xpo s i t ion o f t h e w ay i n wh ich t he mona s te r ie s ' p re s ide o ve r t h e m a jo r r i ve r mou th s a nd t h e n a tu ra l a ncho rage s a nd h a rbou r s , a nd a l so a l ong t h e l e ng th s o ft h e mo re o pen r i ve r v a l ley s ' .3 6 )Wh i tby i s t h e p r ime e xamp le f o r t h e mone ta ry h i s to r ian , a nd i ti sd eep ly d i sappo in t ing t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l o ppo r tun i ty t og a the rs e cu re i n f o rma t ion o n t h e t opog raphy o f c o in l o s se sw i th in t h es i t ew a ss quande red a nd i ndeed d e s t royed f o re ve r , when t h e c on tex t s o ft h e 1 27 s t yca s f r om t h e e xcava t ion s o ft h e 1 920 s w e re s oi n adequa te ly r e co rded . We o ugh t , f i na l ly , t o make a lowance f o r t h e d eg ree t o wh ich a r chaeo log ica l e f o r th a sb een c oncen t ra ted o nt h e mo re f amou s mona s t ic s i t e s . A ga in , Ro sema ry C ramp ' s s u rvey o f s e t t lemen t3 7 of e r s ar em inde r o f h ow much r ema in s u nexp lo red . F I NDS FRO M RE MOTE P LACES AND F RO M HABITAT ION S ITES
I fa c c iden ta ll o s se sw e r ei np ropo r t ion t ot h en umbe ro ft r an sac t ion s ( a so ne wou ld e xpec tt h em t ob e ) , t h ec oncen t r a t ion o fs t ray f i nd sa tm in s te r ma rke t s m igh t w e l l g i ve af a l se i mp re s s ion o ft h e s p read o f owne r sh ip o fc a sh , a nd p a r t icu la r i n te re s t wou ld a t tach t o e ven v e ry l im i ted e v idence o f f i nd s f r om r emo te p l ace s ( t h i s a r gumen t h a s a l ready b een t ouched o n ) o r f r om s e t t lemen t s i t e s . One r e ca l l s t h e f i nd o fa n e i gh th -cen tu ry s c ea t i nt h eh in te r land o f Wh i tby , o n We s te rda le Moo r , ' r emo te f r om a ny k nown t r ack ' .3 8 I ns ou the rn E ng land m any s c ea t ta f i nd s , i ti sc l ea r , c o me f r om wha t w e re i nt h e e i gh th c en tu ry p loughed f i e ld s o n wh ich d ome s t ic r ubb i sh w a s s p read a s manu re . C o in sa c c iden ta l ly l o s ti n ad ome s t ic s e t t ing w e re c a r ted o u tw i th t h er ubb i sh , t ob e f ound , w e mu s t s uppo se , s ome d i s tance a way . H e re in l i e s t h e d i s t inc t ive a r chaeo log ica l v a lue o ff i nd s b y me ta l -de tec to r e n thu s ia s t s , many o r e ven mo s t o f who se e i gh th cen tu ry f i nd s a r e n o t f r om ' s i te s ' a ta l . T he re i sa sy e t l i t t le o r n o e v idence i nt h i sc a tego ry f r om No r thumb r ia . I na s se s s ing t h ev e ry s ma l ln umbe ro f s t yca sf r om h ab i ta t ion s i t e s , w es hou ld r emembe rt h a ti ns ou the rn E ng land s c ea t ta s a r en o t p l en t if u l o n h ab i ta t ion s i t e s e i the r , b u t t h a t t h i s i sn o t b ecau se c o inage w a s n o ti nu s ei nv i l lage s . R . C ramp , ' Ang lo-Saxon s e t t le men t ' , i n S e t t l emen t i nN o r th B r i ta in 1 000 BC—AD 1 000 .
Oxford , 1 983 ,p p . 2 63-97 ,a tp p .2 78-9 . 37 i b id .
3 6
P ap e r s P r e s en t ed t o G eo rg e J obey , e d . J . C . Chap man a nd H . C . My tam ( B .A .R . 18 ) ,
3 8
3 73
Y o rk s. A r ch J 1 .4 1 ( 1 966 ) ,5 66-7 .
D . M. M ETCALF F I NDS F RO M M OUNDS AND H ILL-TOP S ITES
T he u se o fA i lcy H i l la s ac eme te ry p e rhap sb ecau s ei tw a sb e l ieved t ob ea na nc ien t b u r ia l mound h a s b een men t ioned , a l ong w i th t h e f i nd s f r om a t umu lu s n ea r C a r l i s le . Ap enchan tf o rh i l l top s i te si sf u r the ri lu s t r a ted b y t h es t yca sf r om C a s t le H ead , G range , a nd C a s t le H i l l , C a s t le ton . Two mo re e xamp le s f r om S ou th Yo rk sh i re h ave b een t e n ta t ive ly i n te rpr e ted b y Do lby , i n ac a ref u l s t udy o ft h e i r t opog r aphy , a sb e ing i nt h ec on tex to f ad ef en s ive s y s tem o ve r look ing t h e Don a nd D ea rne v a l ley s , i n t h e b o rde r s b e tween No r thumb r ia a nd Me rc ia . Mo se s S ea t , No r th a nd S ou th An s ton , ( SK 5 425 8 205 ) i s ap rom inen t h i l l top o n L ind r ick C ommon ; a nd P o tR id ing s Wood , whe re t h ree s t yca sw e re f ound s c a t te red o ve ra d i s tance o fa bou t 2 5m , w a s p o s s ib ly t h e s i t e o f ad ef en s ive e nc lo su re wh ich g ave r i se t ot h en ea rby f i e ld -name o fC a s t le H i l l . THE PATTERN OF EARLY LOSSES
B ecau se t h e w ide r g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion -pa t te rn s may b e m i s lead ing , b ecau se t h et o ta ln umbe ro fs i t e st h a th ave y i e lded s t yca si ss t i l ls ma l l , a nd b ecau se t h e re a r e s of ew l o s se s t h a tc an b e a s soc ia ted w i th h ab i ta t ion s i t e s , t he mo s ts e cu re p rocedu r e t of o l low , i na t temp t ing t or e ach c onc lu s ion s a bou t mone ta ry c i rcu la t ion a nd t h e u s e s o fc o inage , wou ld s e em t ob e o ne t h a t r e l ie s , e s sen t ia l ly , o n c o mpa r i son s a nd c on t ra s t sw i th in i nd iv idua ls i t e s . B y t a k ing a c o mb ined v i ew o f a l t h e se w i th in s i te c o mpa r i son s , o ne c an p e rhap s a r r ive a t a n i mp re s s ion o f h ow t h e l o s se s o f e a r ly s t yca s c o mpa re t opog raph ica l ly w i th l o s se s o ft h e l a te r , v e ry d eba sed i sue s . T he me thod i sa tb e s t i mp re s s ion i s t ic , a nd r e l ie s o n h av ing a tl e a s t af ew s i te s , s u ch a s S anc ton , f r om wh ich t h e re a r e ag ood n umbe ro fs i ng le f i nd s , t os e rve a s ay a rd s t ick . ( Th i si sp a r t o f t h e p o ten t ia l o f t h e B ambu rgh f i nd s . ) T he No r thumb r ian c o inage c an b e c onven ien t ly d iv ided i n to s i xp ha se s ,n ame ly I I I I V V
V I
I ncom ing F r i s ian a nd s ou the rn E ng l i sh s c ea t ta s No r thumbr ian ' a n ima l 's c ea t ta s ,c .7 38— c .7 85 Moneye r s '-name s t yca s o fr e la t ive ly g ood s i lve r , o fl E lfwa ld a nd o f/ E the l red I ( a nd A rchb i shop E anba ld ? ) I sue so fE an red ( S e r ie s A moneye r s ) a nd E anba ld mo s t ly c on ta in ing c .2 0% s i lve r a ) D eba sed i sue so ft h eS er ie s A moneye r s ,a nd b ) s im i la r c o in s o fE an red ( S e r ie s B moneye r s ) a nd o f Athe l red ' s f i r s t r e ign , o f Redwu lf ,a nd o fA rchb i shop Wigmund . T he s i lve r le s s c o in s o fZ E the l red ' s s e cond r e ign a nd o fO sbe rh t a nd A rchb i shop Wu l fhe re , a nd t h e i rd er iva t ive s .
T he l a te h oa rd s , wh ich i twou ld b e mo s tn a tu ra lt oa s soc ia te w i th t h ee ven t so ft h e 8 60 s , c on ta in c o in so fp ha se s Va nd V I , b u tv e ry f ew o fp ha se s I o rI V . T he Yo rk ( S t . L eona rd sP l ace ) h oa rd o f1 842 , f o re xamp le ,i n c luded 4 1 c o in so fp ha se sI Ia nd I V o u t o fa bou t3 , 000 l i s ted , t h a ti s ,o n ly ar e s idu a l F 4 p e r c en t . B y c on t ra s t , t h e re w e re t e n t ime s a sm any o fE an red ' s S e r ie s Bc o in s , n ame ly 4 16 . T he d i sappea rance o ft h e S e r ie s Ac o in s i se ven mo re p ronounced i nt h e B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd o f1 967 ( wh ich w a s mo re c o mp le te ly r e co rded ) , w i th o n ly 5s p ec imen s , o r0 . 3 p e r c en t , o f
3 74
A TOPOGRAPH ICAL CO M MENTARY
S e r ie s A , b u t 2 08 s p ec imen s o f S e r ie s B .3 9 S e r ie s A , t h en , h ad e f ec t ive ly d i sappea red f r om t h e c u r rency b y c .8 67 , b u t w e d o n o t k now ( b ecau se t h e e v idence c ou ld o n ly c o me f r om a s e r ie s o f e a r l ie r h oa rd s ) whe the r t h ey w e re s y s tema t ica l ly w i thd r awn o r d i sappea red g r adua l ly . T he H exham h oa rd s t i l l c on ta ined as u rp r i s ing ly w ide r ange o fS e r ie s Ac o in s , a t ad a te when t h e c u r ren t i sue sw e r eo fo n ly c .6% s i lve r , 4°b u ti tc ou ld , p e rhap s ,b e as a v ing sh oa rd t h a th ad b een p u t t oge the r o ve r ap e r iod o ft ime , a nd t h e ref o re n o t e xac t ly t yp ica l o ft h e c u r rency a tt h et im eo fi t st . p .q . T he m a in p o in ti st h a ta ny s t ray f i nd o f ap ha se -V o rp ha se -V I c o in c ou ld , a st h e h oa rd ss how ,h ave b een l o s ta sl a te a st h e8 60 s ,b u tt h a t ap ha se I I Io rI Vc o in i sv e ry u n l ike ly t o h ave b een s u ch al a te l o s s . No t o n ly s hou ld al i s t o fa l t h e f i nd s o f p ha se I I Ia nd I V c o in si n c lude i n f o rma t ion a bou t ap e r iod o n wh ich t h eh oa rd s a r e v i r tua l ly s i l en t , b u t i ts hou ld a l so b e r e a sonab ly f r ee f r om a ny h idden d i s to r t ion s i n t roduced i n to t h el a t e rt opog raph ica lp a t te rn b yt h ef i gh t ing a nd i n secu r i ty o ft h e l a s ty ea r so ft h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom . T he l i s ti ss u rp r i s ing ly l ong ,i fw ei n c lude t h e moneye r s '-name c o in s o fi z E lfwa ld , / E the l red I ,a nd A rchb i shop E anba ld , a s w e l l a sE an r ed ' s S e r ie s A( Tab le 1 ) . T he t o ta l n umbe r o fp rovenanced s p ec imen s a r e : " E lfwa ld ' E the l red I E an red E anba ld
6 2 5 4 1+ 6
T h i s g ra t if y ing ly l a rge b ody o f ma te r ia l w i l l i n c lude l o s se s f r om t h e who le o f p ha se sI Ia nd I Va nd p e rhap sa l so much o fp ha se V ( i fw ea c cep tt h ee v idence o ft h e H exham h oa rd ) ,b u tt h ep ropo r t ion o fe a r l ie rc o in st ot ho se o fE an red , o fa bou t3 0 t o4 0 ( t he d a te o ft h e E anba ld c o in s b e ing amb iguou s ) s how s q u i te c l ea r ly t h a t i t r ef l ec t s a t l e a s t s ome e a r ly l o s se s , f o r t h e p ropo r t ion among t h e H exham i lu s t ra t ion s i s6t o 1 56 ( p lu s 5 9 f o r E anba ld , wh ich s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t mo s t o f h i s c o in s i nH exham w e re c on tempo ra ry w i th E an red ' s , b u t d oe sn o t t e l l u s when h i s i sue s b egan ) . T he m ap o ff i nd s o fp ha se I I I a nd I V c o in s ( F ig . 1 ) may t hu s b e t hough tt op rov ide e v idence a bou t ap e r iod o f No r thumb r ian mone ta ry h i s to ry , a t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e n in th c en tu ry , a bou t wh ich w e o the rw i se k now r ema rkab ly l i t t le . T he m ap o ff i nd s o fp ha se I I c o in s a l r eady s how s aw ide d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h e e a s t ,b u tw i th much l e s si nt h ew e s t . T he re i so ne c o in f r om A t te rm i re C ave , S e t t le , a nd o ne f r om Wh i tho rn . I np ha se sI Ia nd I V , t h e re a r ew e s te r ly f i nd sf r om C a r l i s le ( f rom t wo s e pa ra te s i t e s4 1 ) ,f r om Wh i tho rn , a nd f r om G len luce S and s ( a tl e a s tt wo w e l l a t te s ted f i nd s , o f wh ich o ne i so f' E the l red I ) .B enea th t h e s a nd -dune s , wh ich s t re tch f o r m i le s , t he re l i e s ad a rk , s a ndy h umu s l a ye r r ep re sen t ing ag ra s sy h ea th ; f i nd s o f a l k ind s h ave b een made f o r many d ecade s . T he w ide r l o ca t iona l
P agan , 1 973 . P agan , 1 974 . 4 1 F o r t h e g ene ra l b ackg round s e e P . F . G o s l ing , ` Ca r l i s le — an a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey o f
t h e h i s tor ic t own ' , i nP . A . G . C lack a nd P . F . Go s l ing , A r cha eo l ogy i nt h e N o r th . R epo r t o ft h e N o r th e rn A r cha eo l og i c a l S u rv ey , Du rham , 1 976 , p p . 1 65-85 .
3 9 4 0
3 75
D . M. METCALF
s i gn if i cance o ft h eG len luce B ay s i te i s ,h oweve r ,u nc lea r .4 2 O ne may a dd , f i na l ly a p ha seIV f i nd f r om S egon t ium ( Cae rna rf on ) .4 3
TABLE 1 F ind so fc o in so f" E lfwa ld , ' E the l r ed I , E an r ed ( S e r i e sA ) , a nd E anba ld
" E lfwa ld ' E the l r ed I E an r ed York ( v ar iou ss i te s ) S anc ton B ever ley Th w ing K i rkbymoor s ide Wh i tby R ipon S e t t le Hexham Monkwearmou th J ar row Newca s t le Co ld ingham
2 3
1
2 4
1 1 1 2
8 6
E anba ld
1
1 1 2 2
2
1
1 1
C ar l i s le ( d if f e ren ts i te s ) Wh i thorn L uce S and s Dacre
1( 2 ? )
Win te r ingham K i rm ing ton The tf ord
1
C aernarf on
2 2+ 1( 2 ? )
1
1 1 1
T o ta l
6
c f . Hexham i lu s t ra t ion s
S ee J . Wi l l iam s , ' S ome "med ieva l" o b jec t s f r om L uce B ay S and s i nt h e Mann c o l lec t ion ' , T r an s . D umf . a nd G a l l oway N a t . H i s t . a nd A n t iqua r ian S o c .35 2 ( 1 976-7 ) , 7-87 , a nd E .M . J ope a nd H . M . J ope , ' A h oa rd o f f i f teen th c en tu ry c o in s f r om G len luce s a nd -dune s a nd t h e i r c on tex t ' , Med i eva l A r cha eo logy 3 ( 1 959 ) , 2 59-79 . Of t h e c o in s l i s ted i n M i s s P i ne ' s i nven to ry , t h eG len luce p rovenance o ft h ef ou r i n SCBI G la sg ow , i n c lud ing t wo o fp ha se I , i s s omewha t c on jec tu ra l , a nd Ih ave n o t r e l ied o n t h em h e re , e ven t hough t h e re i sap re sump t ion t h a t t h e Ne i l son c o l lec t ion w a s o fl o ca l o r ig in . T he re i sa dm i rab ly d e ta i led e v idence t h a t o the r 42
3 76
2 5
4 1+
6
6
1 56
5 9
s t yca s w e re w ide ly s c a t te red f i nd s : o ne o f E an red ( Fo r th rxd ) 1 50 m S o f M id T o r r s , a no the ro fE anred ( Monne ) i n1 962 ,200 m SW o f t h e a bove , a nd t wo i n t h e K e lv ing rove Mu seum , o f / E the l red I ( Ceo lbea ld ) a nd / E the l red I ( E a rdwu l f ) h a lf am i le f u r the r SW . S ee T ran s DGNHAAS 3 9 ( 1 9601 ) , 1 59-60 a nd 4 2( 1 964-5 ) , 1 49-50 ) . A r cha eo log ia C amb r en s i s 1 922 , 2 66 ; D . W. Dyke s , A ng l o -Saxon C o in s i n t h e N a t iona l Mu s eum o f Wa l e s , [ 1 976 ] ( =a n e xpanded r e p r in t f r om Amgu eddf a , B u l l e t in o ft h e N a t i ona l Mu s eum o f Wa l e s2 4 ( w in te r 1 976 ) ) , p .2 7 . ( The moneye ri sWu l fhea rd . ) 4 3
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s o l id b l ack s qu a re s ,i nd i ca t es i t e sf r om wh ich e a r ly f i nd sh ave b een r epo r ted ( a sl i s ted i nT ab le 1 ) .
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A l l t h i s a dd s u p t o e v idence o f ad if e ren t c o mp lex ion f r om , f o r e xamp le , t h e G range -ove r -Sand s f i nd s f r om C a s t le H ead a nd Me r lewood C ave , wh ich W . G . C o l l ingwood s ugge s ted w e re l o s t when t h e p eop le o fC a r tme l f l ed f r om V ik ing r a ide r s .4 T he i mp l ica t ion o fh i s r ema rk w a s t h a tt h e Ang l i an sw e re t a k ing r e f uge i nt h eh i l l so ri nc ave s . T he f a c tt h a tt h ey h ad money t ol o se a nd t h a tt h ey b o the red t ot a ke i tw i th t h em i nt h e i rf l i gh t wou ld b es uf i c ien te v idence t h a tc o in age w a si n u s ei nt h e C a r tme l a r ea i nt h e8 60 s , a nd t h a ti sp e rhap sa l t h a tm a t te r s ; b u tb ef o re w e a low o u r se lve s t o p i c tu re t h e w re tched A ng l ian s h udd l ing i n Me r lewood C ave , w es hou ld r emembe rt h es e cond -o rt h i rd -hand n a tu re o ft h ea r chaeo log ica l c on tex t . T he c o in s w e re f ound i n t h e m a te r ia l b l ock ing t h e mou th o ft h e c ave , wh ich a ppea red t o c on s i s t o fs o i l , e t c . , w a shed i n to t h e f i s su re o ft h e c ave f r om h ighe rl e ve l s , wh ich h ad t h en b een b u r rowed i n to b yb adge r sa nd t hu s t h rown t o t h es u rf ace .T he f i nd si n c luded ,m ing led t oge the r ,g re a tq uan t i t ie so fa n ima lb one s , af ew h uman b one s , s e ve r a l f r agmen t s o f r ed a nd b l ack p o t te ry , a ppa ren t ly Roman , ag ood d ea l o fc ha rcoa l , a nd af ew f r agmen t s o fg l a s s .4 5 T h i s a l s ound s l i ke r edepo s i t ion o f m a te r ia l f r om a h ab i ta t ion s i t e . T he re i sn o p o s s ib i l i ty o f p rov ing t h a t t h e c o in s a r e ( a s s e em s l i ke ly ) f r om al i t t le h oa rd . No r c an w e m ake a ny c o mpa r i son s b e tween e a r l ie r ' n o rma l ' o r a c c iden ta l l o s se s , a nd t h i s c oncea l m en tc on jec tu ra l ly f r om t r oub led t ime s . T he s t yca s f r om n ea rby C a s t le H ead ( n .b . n o t C a s t le H i l l , P enwo r tham 4 6 ) ,a r e a l so f r om aj u mb le o fa r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l . T hey c ame f r om a n i s o la ted r ound h i l l ,p o s s ib ly t h es i t eo f ah i l l -f o r t , wh i le t h eh i l lw a sb e ing ' imp roved ' a nd p l an ted a nd ah ou se b u i l t f o rJ ohn Wi lk in son , t h ei r onma s te r . F ive s p ec imen s ' o fd if e ren t k ing s ' w e re l i s ted , o u t o f at o ta l o f9 5 s t yca s a nd 7 5 Roman c o in s . I ft h e t o ta l i s c o r rec t , w e m ay a s sume t h a t ad i s tu rbed h oa rd i si n q ue s t ion , a nd t h a t i t s c oncea lmen tw a sl a te i nt h es t yca s e r ie s ,a nd q u i te p o s s ib ly i nt h e8 60 s (Wha ta r ew e t om ake o ft h e Roman c o in s ? We re t h ey p a r to ft h ep re sumed h oa rd ? C ou ld t h ey h ave b een f ound b y c hance i nt h e n in th c en tu ry , a nd p u t b ack i n to u s e a l ong s ide s t yca s ? P e rhap s a r chaeo log i s t s i n C umb r ia s hou ld b e l ook ing a t ten t ive ly a tt h e c on tex t so ft h e i r Roman c o in f i nd s . ) T he re i sv e ry a dequa te e v idence , t h en , o fp ha se I I I a nd I V lo s se s a ts i t e s w e s t o f t h e P enn ine s , w e l l b ef o re t h e f ounda t ion o f Dub l in i n 8 4 1 ,— though n o t a t G range -ove r -Sand s , whe re t h e c o in s a r e o fp ha se s Va nd V I , a nd h ave r e ce ived a m i sgu ided a s se s smen t . A s a n a c adem ic e xe rc i se , i ti sp e rhap s wo r th dwe l l ing f o r a f ew momen t so nt h ee r ro r so fj udgemen to fe a r l ie rc o mmen ta r ie s . M ichae l Do l ley i n1 963 w ro te , ' F rom w e s to ft h eP enn ine sa nd a r ea s whe re w em ay s u spec tt h a tt h e s t y ca w a sn o tn orma l ly c u r ren t , t h e re i s[ l i s t o ff i nd s ] . T he re i smuch t ob es a id f o r t h es ugge s t ion t h a t t h i s g roup o ff i nd s , t h ree a tl e a s to f wh ich a l so c on ta ined s i l ve r o rnamen t s , m ay r ef l ec t t h e p l igh t o ft ho se f l ee ing f r om t h e D an i sh a s sau l t u pon No r thumb r ia o n ly t o f i nd t h em se lve s c augh t u p i nt h e No rweg ian a t tack s u pon C a s t le H ead f i nd s a r e men t ioned b y w ay o f c ompa r i son i n t he i n te re s t ing a c coun t i n W. T hornbe r , ' The c a s t le h i l l o f P enwo r tham ' , H i s t o r i c S o c . o fL an c s . a nd C h e sh i r e 9( 1 856-7 ) , 6 1-76 .
W. G . Co l l ingwood , ' The Ang le s i n F urne s s a nd C a r tme l ' , T ran s .Cumb . W e s tm . AAS NS 2 4( 1 924 ) ,2 88-94 . 45 H . S . Coope r , ' Bone c ave a t G range ' . P r o c .So c .An t iq .2 1 4( 1 89 1-3 ) ,2 27-30 . 46 H ighe r P enwo r tham i sn ear P re s ton : t h e 44
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Cumb r ia , b u t i ti sj u s t p o s s ib le t h a t t h e s ou the rn g roup may i nd ica te at r ade rou te b e tween Yo rk a nd I r e land , t hough a ga in i t mu s t b e s t re s sed t h a t t h e c oppe r s t y c a w a sn o t at r ade -co in a nd h a sn o tb een f ound i nI r e land . '4 7 T he m a in e r ro rh e re w a s t o a low o ne se lf t o b e d i s t rac ted f r om t h e e a r ly -n in th c en tu ry e v idence b y t he w e l te r o f e v idence f r om t h e t h i rd q ua r te r o f t h e c en tu ry ,— a l though M ichae l Do l ley wou ld s u re ly h ave b een q u ick t os e ize o nt h ei n te re s to ft h en ew f i nd sf r om C a r l i s le , h ad t hey b een a va i lab le a tt h e t ime . One mo re e xamp le , t a ken f r om a d i s t ingu i shed r e cen t h i s to r ica l a na ly s i s o fE ng l i sh No r thumb r ia , w i l l b e e nough . N ick H igham ( 1 986 ) w r i te s , ' A s e r ie s o fh oa rd s c on s i s t ing o f No r thumb r ian s t y c a s w e re d epo s i ted i nt h e p e r iod AD 8 65-70 , a nd t h i s may a l so r ef l ec t l o ca l r e ac t ion t o No r se r a id ing . Howeve r , t h e se h oa rd s c on t ra s t w i th t h e a ppa ren t c o in le s sne s s o f Cumb r ia d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r n in th c en tu ry , a nd may t h e ref o re h ave b een d epo s i ted b yf ug i t ive sf r om t h eD an i sh c onque s te a s to ft h eP enn ine s ( Do l ley 1 966 ) , a nd n eed n o t b e l i nked d i rec t ly t o I r i sh -No r se r a id s ' , a nd o n a no the r p age , ' A t C a r l i s le , i s o la ted c o in f i nd s f r om r e cen t e xcava t ion s i n c lude t h e o n ly s c e a t t a s" s of a r f ound w e s to ft h en o r the rn P enn ine s , a nd may i mp ly ac o in -u s ing c ommun i ty w i th in a nd a round t h e mona s te ry . T h ree c o in h oa rd sw i th v a ry ing c l a im st oa u then t ic i ty h ave b een f ound i nt he C a r tme lp en in su la . . . B o th C a r tme la nd C a r l i s le a r ep ecu l ia rf o r t h e i rk nown e cc le s ia s t i ca l a s soc ia t ion s ' .4 9 I fo ne w e re b e ing c r i t ica l , o ne m igh t a s k f o r t h e e v idence b y wh ich a ny o ft h e ' s e r ie s o fh oa rd s ' o the r t h an K i rko swa ld c an b e s hown t o b e ah oa rd a nd c an b e d a ted s o n a r row ly a s t o 8 65-70 . A s t o c o in le s sne s s , t h i s i sn o d oub t ama t te r o fp e r spec t ive : t h e e a r ly -n in th c en tu ry f i nd s f r om t h ew e s ta r e t h in o nt h e g round , a nd t h ey a r et h inne ro nt h eg round t h an t h e f i nd s o f c o r re spond ing d a te i n t h e e a s t ( a l though t h a t p a r t icu la r n ume r ica l c o mpa r i son i ss omewha t d if i cu l t ) . No d oub t t h e b a lance b e tween a s ub s i s tence e conomy a nd amoney e conomy w a s t i l ted mo re t owa rd s s ub s i s tence i nt h e w e s t . B u t t h e n um i sma t ic e v idence d e se rve s t o b e p rope r ly a na ly sed i ni t s e lf b ef o re a n a t temp t i s made t o p u t i ti n to i t s h i s to r ica l c on tex t . T he g rea te r n umbe r s o fl a te l o s se s i n t h e w e s t a r e v e ry u n l ike ly t o b e a n i ndex o f ad rama t ic i n c rea se i n mone ta ry c i rcu la t ion , a ny mo re t h an t h ey a r ei nt h ee a s t . T he n um i sma t ic e v idence o f f e r s n o w a r ran t t o s p eak o fc o in le s sne s s . On t h e c on t ra ry , t h e r a t io o fc o in s o f / E the l red It ot ho se o fE an red p o in t s t oc o in u s e f r om a n e a r ly d a te a nd t h e r ef o re o ve r ap e r iod o fd ecade s . I ta ppea r st ob eo n av e ry l im i ted s c a le ,b u ti ti sn o t af l a sh i nt h ep an . T he n eed f o rs p ec ia le xp lana t ion sf o rt h ef i nd sf r om t h et h i rd q ua r te ro f t h ec en tu ry a r i se sf r om t h eh ypo the s i so f` c o in le s sne s s ' , a nh ypo the s i s wh ich s hou ld n ow b e s e en a sb e ing a tv a r iance w i th t h en um i sma t ic e v idence , a nd wh ich i na ny c a se s hou ld n o tb eu sed i ns uppo r to fu nc r i t ica lr e ad ing so ft h ef i nd sf r om t h et h i rd q ua r te r o ft h e c en tu ry . R ef ugee s f r om e a s t o ft h e P enn ine s r e a l ly a r e af l i gh t o f f a ncy . I fo ne c oun t s u p t h e t o ta l s o fs i ng le f i nd s f r om e a s t a nd w e s t o ft h e P enn ine s r e spec t ive ly , t h e re i sa ne no rmou sd i spa r i ty — in v e ry much t he s ame w ay a st h e re i s a mong t h e s ou the rn E ng l i sh s c ea t ta f i nd s e a s t a nd w e s t o f al i ne t h rough , s a y , R . H . M . Do l ley , T he H ibe rno -N o r s e C o in s i nt h eB r i t i sh Mu s eum , 1 966 ,p .2 3 . F ro m B lackf r ia r s S t ree t , o r ig ina l ly m i s-
47
48
r epor ted a ss c ea t ta s ,b u ti nf a c ts t yca s . N . H igham , T he No r the rn C oun t i e s t o AD 1 000 , 1 986 ,p .3 22 ,3 03 . 49
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S hef f i e ld a nd C oven t ry . T he t o ta l s may w e l l g ive a n a dequa te ly t r ue i nd ica t ion o f t h e n umbe r s o f t r an sac t ion s , a nd t hu s o f t h e d eg r ee o f mone t iza t ion o f t h e e conomy . I nl i gh t o fo u r c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e f i nd s f r om C a r tme l , w e m ay b e a b le t os e e mo re c l ea r ly h ow t o v i ew t h e P a i s ley h oa rd o f1 782 . Ou r o n ly d e ta i led e v idence f o r i t s c o mpo s i t ion l i e s i n ag i f t o f1 5 s p ec imen s t ot h e S oc ie ty o f An t iqua r ie s o f S co t land i n S ep tembe r 1 782 . T he p re sump t ion t h a t t h e se a r e f r om t h e P a i s ley h oa rd i s al i t t le u nce r ta in , a l though t h e c o inc idence o f d a te i se ncou rag ing . No ma jo rh oa rd i sk nown b e tween R ipon 1 695 a nd P a i s ley 1 782 , b u t w e s hou ld n o te t h a t Hun te r h ad a w e l l cho sen s e lec t ion o f 7 6 s t yca s . I ti sj u s t p o s s ib le t h a t h e a cqu i red t h em f r om t h e P a i s ley h oa rd b ef o re h i s d ea th i n Ma rch 1 783 , a nd o ne i s r e luc tan t t o b e l ieve t h a t a ma jo r h oa rd o the r t h an P a i s ley e s caped a ny r e co rd . Cha r le sC ombe r e f e r st ot h e Hun te r ian s t yca sa t ad a te s oon a f te r Hun te r ' sd ea th . T en mo re s t yca s ' i n g ood p re se rva t ion ' w e re d ona ted t o t h e S oc ie ty i n D ecembe r1 783 b y Mr S e lk i rk S t ewa r t . I ts e em s , t h en , t h a t as t yca h oa rd w a sb e ing d i spe r sed among S co t t i sh c o l lec to r si n1 782-3 , a nd t h e re i sn o o the rk nown h oa rd f r om s oe a r ly ad a te wh ich c ou ld b e t h e s ou rce o ft h e se s pec imen s . T he re i si na ny c a se n o r e a son t o q ue s t ion t h e r e l iab i l i ty o fL ind say ' s r e cord o f af i nd a tP a i s ley . 5° T he t opog raph ica l s i gn if i cance o ft h e f i nd spo t , wh ich l a y o n ly af ew m i le s f r om Dumba r ton a nd w e l l b eyond Ang l ian con t ro l led t e r r i to ry , l i e s p re sumab ly i ni t s p rox im i ty t o t h e F i r th o fC lyde , Dub l in ' s ' b ack d oo r ' i n to n o r the rn B r i ta in . A ma jo r s h if t i n t h e b a lance o fp owe r i n t h e r eg ion o ccu r r ed i n 8 70-2 , when t h e f ou r -mon th s i ege o ft h eB r i t i sh s t rongho ld o fA lC lu i th ( on Dumba r ton Rock ) b y ac oa l i t ion o fV ik ing s f r om Yo rk a nd f r om I r e land a nd S co t land d e s t royed t h e k ingdom o fS t ra thc lyde . T he f l owe r o ft h e n o r the rn B r i t i sh a r i s toc racy w a s c u t d own o r l e d a way i ns l ave ry f r om t h e C lyde t o Dub l in i n2 00 l ong sh ip s .5 1 T he se e ven t s i n t roduced a p e r iod o f h a lf a c en tu ry when S t r a thc lyde ' s s t ra teg ic s i gn if i cance c an b e p e rce ived i nt h eh i s to r ica l r e co rd . F rom t h e d ecade sb ef o re 8 70 t h e re i sv i r tua l ly n o h i s to r ica l e v idence , b u t B r i t i sh i nf luence w a s p re sumab ly s t rong . T he c on tex to ft h eP a i s ley h oa rd d epend sv e ry much , t h e ref o re , o ni t sd a te o fd epo s i t ,b ef o re o ra f te r8 70 , a nd t h i si ss ome th ing wh ich w ea r ei nn op o s i t ion t o d e te rm ine . A tt h er i sk o ff a l l ing i n to t h es ame s o r to fe r ro ra sC o l l ingwood a nd h i s c ommen ta tor s , o ne i st emp ted t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e P a i s ley h oa rd may h ave b een c once a led i n c onnex ion w i th t h e e ven t s o f 8 70-2 . C e r ta in ly , t h e re i sa s y e t n o s uppo r t ing e v idence f o rt h e' n o rma l 'c i rcu la t ion o fs t yca so nC lyde s ide . T he p ha se I I I a nd I V f i nd s f r om B e rn ic ia a r e ma rg ina l ly mo re p l en t if u l t h an t ho se f r om t h e w e s t , b u t o f e r f ewe r p o in t s f o r d i scu s s ion . One c o in , p a r t icu la r ly p rec iou s f o ri t s c on tex t , w a s e xcava ted a tJ a r row , o n t h e u ppe r t e r race . T he re , t h e g r ave lf l oo ro f ah u ty i e lded e v idence f o rg l a s s -wo rk ing i nt h es h ape o f am i l lef io r i r od a nd g l a s s s l ag , a s w e l l a s ab lunde red b u t a ppa ren t ly q u i te e a r ly c o in 5° F o r d e ta i l s o ft he P a i s ley f i nd s e e Me tca lf , l o c . c i t . ( no te 3 a bove ) , n o3 9 ( p . 9 8 ) , a nd c r i t ica l c ommen t s b y R . B . K . S t even son i n SCBI E d inbu rgh , p p . v i i i a nd x x i i . F o r t h e r e a son sh e re s e to u t , It h ink S t even son ' s' wha ti s a tb e s t ap o s s ib i l i ty ' al i t t le t oo s c ep t ica l . On
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Hun te r ' s s t yca s , wh ich s e em t o b e ag ood s e lec t ion o fv ar ie t ie s ,i ng ood c ond i t ion , i . e . t h e p i ck o f al a rger n umbe r , s e e SCBI G l a sgow p p . v i i i—x ia nd t he p re l im ina ry n o te t oP la te 4 . 5 1 S ee A . P . Smy th , Wa r l o rd s a nd H o ly Men , 1 984 , 1 984 ,p p .2 15 f .
A TOP OG RAP H ICAL CO M ME NTA RY
( c .7 20-30? ) n am ing t h e moneye r E adwu lf .5 2 T h i s s e t s t h e c o in u sef u l ly i n a n i ndu s t r ia lc on tex t ( t he re w e re a l so b one c o mb so n t h eg rave ls u rf ace n o tf a ra way ) , w i th in amona s t ic s i t e . T he c hance f i nd f r om t h e c hu rchya rd a tC o ld ingham i so f A rchb i shop E anba ld , a ga in b yE adwu lf ( EODVVLF ) . T h i s w a sn o t , h oweve r , t h e s i t eo ft h er oya l mona s t ic f ounda t ion o fC o lud e sbu rh , wh ich w a so n S t . A bb ' sH ead h igh a bove t h es e a .5 3 A t Monkwea rmou th , t wo o u to ft h es i xe xcava t ion c o in sa r e o fE an red , S e r ie s A . A tJ a r row , i n c lud ing t h e c o in j u s t men t ioned , o ne o u t o ft h e e i gh t i so fp ha se I I , a nd t wo a r e o fp ha se I V . A t Newca s t le , t h e re i so ne p ha se IV c o in o u t o fe i gh t . A t B ambu rgh , o n t h e o the r h and , a mong t h e 6 7 c o in s f r om t h e 1 97 1 e xcava t ion s ,n o to ne i so fp ha se I o rI V , wh ich i sp e rhap ss u rp r i s ing . T he re i s n o c ha r te r e v idence s u ch a s wou ld p rove t h a t / E the l red I a nd E an red w e re f r equen t ly r e s iden ti nt h eB e rn ic ian c en t re , b u ti t so ccupa t ion b ye i the rt h ek ing o r ap owe rf u l l i ege i su n l ike ly t oh ave b een i n te r rup ted . One a wa i t s ar epo r t o n t h e c o in f i nd sf r om l a te rs e a son sw i th i mpa t ience . F rom Wh i tby , wh ich w a s o fc ou r se am a jo r p ha se I a nd p ha se I I s i t e , t h e r e a r e n o f ewe r t h an 2 5 p h a se I I I a nd I V f i nd s , o f wh ich 2 4 a r e f r om t h e A bbey e xcava t ion sa nd o ne i sf r om S pa L adde r . T h i so ne , a nd e l even f r om t h eA bbey , a r e o f/ E the l red I .S even o ft h e e l even a nd a l so t h e o ne f r om S pa L adde r , a r e b y t h e moneye r C eo lbea ld ; i t wou ld h ave b een ac o mf o r t t o k now t h a t t h ey w e r e a l f ound s e pa ra te ly . A t S anc ton , t h e b e s t -pub l i shed s i t e , c o in s o fp ha se s I I a nd I V w e re r e l a t ive ly e ven mo re p l en t if u l15 o u t o f at o ta l o f 4 9 s t yca f i nd s ( t h i s i n c lude sa nE anba ld om i t ted b y o ve r s igh tf r om E l izabe th P i ne ' si nven to ry , a nd a n E an red among t h e B a rmby Moo r f i nd s ) . T he 1 5 i n c luded 3 o f l E lfwa ld , 4o f ‚ E the l red , a nd o ne o fE anba ld / E the l red , a ga in s t 7o fE an red . Wi th 3o fA lfwa ld ' s ' a n ima l ' t ype a l so a mong t h e S anc ton f i nd s , t h i s o f f e r s t h e c l ea re s t e v idence o fa s t eady r a te o fl o s se sf r om t h ec u r rency f r om t h el a te e i gh th c en tu ry o nwa rd s . F rom Yo rk i t se lf , t h e re a r e 9p ha se I I Io rI V f i nd sf r om s i xs i t e s , o u to f at o ta lo f a bou t4 0f i nd s .T he 9i n c lude t wo o fl E lfwa ld a nd o ne o f/ E the l red . T he f i nd sa l ready s p read i n to L inco ln sh i re a nd E a s t Ang l ia i np ha se I V . T h i s i sa bou t a s f a r a sa n i n te rna l a na ly s i s o f t h e l i s t o fe a r ly f i nd s s hou ld b e p re s sed . One m igh t n o t e t h a t a l s i x A lfwa ld s a r e f r om Yo rk o r t h e E a s t R id ing ; b u t a st h ey amoun t t oo n ly a bou t 2 0 p e r c en t o ft h e f i nd s f r om t h a t r eg ion , t h e i r a b sence e l sewhe re , e . g . w e s t o ft h e P enn ine s , c ou ld w e l l b e s t a t i s t ica l ly f o r tu i tou s . On ly a t Wh i tby i st h e t o ta l n umbe r o f f i nd s l a rge e nough f o r t h e a b sence o f l E lfwa ld s t o a t t rac t a t ten t ion , a nd t h e re i so fc ou r se n o l a ck o fc o in s f r om e a r l ie r t h an A lfwa ld ' s r e ign a t Wh i tby . A s r ega rd s t h e d if i cu l t q ue s t ion s o f t h e 5 2 R . C ramp , ' Ang lo -Saxon mona s te r ie s o f t h e n o r th ' , S c o t t i sh A r cha eo l og i ca l F o rum 5 ( 1 973 ) , 1 04-24 , a t1 22 ; Med i eva lA r cha eo l ogy 1 3 ( 1 969 ) , 5 2 . T he c o in i si lu s t ra ted i nP i x ie , 1 986 , p . 8 9 , n o .1 0 , a nd i s a t t r ibu ted b y h e r t o E anba ld I ( 7 96— c .8 30 ) . F o r tuna te ly t h e v ar ie ty i sr e co rded f r om t h eH exham h oa rd ( Adam son 1 836 , p l . 3 6 , 2 6 ) a nd s o c anno t b e long t o t h e l a te d e r iva t ive s e r ie s . E adwu lf i sa n E anba ld moneye r , a nd t h e l i nea r a nnu la r t ype w i th p e l le t a t c en t re , o bv . a nd r ev , i su ncommon
3 8 1
a f te rt h e t ime o fE anred . T he s i lve rc on ten t s o f t h eJ a r row c o in wou ld b e t h e b e s t g u ide t oi t s d a te , wh ich may b e c .7 20-30 . C f . a l so Ada m son , 1 834 ,p l .5 3 , 1 a nd p l .4 2 ,2 15 .T he re i sa c o in r e la ted t ot h eJ a r row f i nd , i . e . p robab ly b y t he s ame h and i n t he A sh mo lean , r ead ing DADE NA , c f Ada m son p l . 3 6 , 2 6 5 3 Iam g ra tef u l t o Ma r i lyn B rown , o f t h e Roya lC omm i s s ion o nt h e Anc ien ta nd H i s to r i c a l Monumen t s o f S co t land , f o r h e r h e lpf u l c ommen t so nt h eS co t t i sh e v idence .
D . M. METCALF
a t t r ibu t ion t o A lfwa ld Io r Ia nd t h e d a t ing o f/ E the l red I ' s c o in s , B oo th h a s p o in ted t ot h ec on t inu i ty o fr un ic l e t te rf o rm so nt h e ' a n ima l ' a nd moneye r ' sn ame t ype s o fC u thhea rd ' s c o in sf o ri z E lfwa ld . T he f a c t s t h a tl E lfwa ld emp loy so n ly o ne moneye r , a ga in s t J E the l red ' s s i x , a nd t h a t t h e f i nd s o fh i s c o in s a r e s o many f ewe r t h an / E the l red ' s c an b e e xp la ined mo s t e a s i ly i f/ E lfwa ld w a s t h e e a r l ie r ; b u t o ne t h en h a s t o a dd t h a t C eo lbea ld ' s n ea t a nd d i s t inc t ive wo rk f o r / E the l red ( 7 90-6 , a f te r O s red w a se x i led ? ) l ook sl i ke s ome s o r t o fn ew b eg inn ing . I fo ne s e a r che s f o r o the rg eog r aph ica lc oncen t r a t ion s among t h ef i nd s , i ti sp rec i se ly C eo lbe a ld ' s c o in s t h a ta r e t h e mo s ti n te re s t ing . T hey s e em t os how an o r the r ly empha s i s : Newc a s t le , J a r row , L uce S and s , a nd 8f r om Wh i tby — compa r ed w i th o ne f r om Yo rk a nd o ne o rt wo f r om S anc ton . Ih ave d rawn a t ten t ion t o ap ha se o f No r thumb r ian mone ta ry h i s to ry —o r r a the r , t wo p ha se s ( f o rt h es i lve rc on ten t so ft h ec o in sa r eq u i te d if e ren tb ef o r ea nd a f te r E adwu lf s r e ign )— runn ing f r om t h e 7 80 s u n t i l l a te i n E an red ' s r e ign , a nd h ave s ugge s ted t h a tt h et opog raphy o ft h ee a r l ie rc o in f i nd sp rov ide s mo r er e l iab le e v idence o ft h en o rma lp a t te rn so f mone ta ry c i rcu la t ion t h an t h ef i nd sf r om t h el a s t d ecade s o f t h e k ingdom . T he h oa rd s a r e h eav i ly c oncen t ra ted i n t ho se c l o s ing y ea r s , d oub t le s s b ecau se o f w ide spr ead i n secu r i ty . S eve ra l o f t h em c o me f r om Y o rk i t s e lf , a nd i fi tw e re n o t f o r t h em , t h e d om inan t p o s i t ion o f Yo rk i n t h e r e co rd o ff i nd s wou ld b e l e s s e v iden t . T he l a rge s i ze o fs e ve r a l o ft h e h oa rd s m ay h in ta tp a t te rn si nt h es o c ia l owne r sh ip o fw ea l th , a nd a l so p e rhap sa tt h e dw ind l ing p u rcha s ing p owe r o ft h e s t yca . I ft h e c o in ' s v a lue f e l l d u r ing Athe l red ' s s e cond r e ign ,o ne wou ld e xpec t as h a rp ly i n c rea sed l o s s r a te . One ' sr e ad ing o ft h ee v idence o nt h a tp o in td epend s ag ood d ea lo nh ow l ong t h ev e ry d eba sed i sue sr ema ined i n u s e , a nd o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e i re ven tua l v a lue a ss c rap b ra s s w a s s uf i c ien t t o p reven t t h e i r b e ing t h rown a way . T he e v idence f r om t h e ma jo r s i t e s o f Wh i tby , B ambu rgh , a nd S anc ton p o in t s t oc on t inu i ty w i th o n ly amode ra te i n c re a se i nt h e l o s s ra te .
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H exham a nd Cue rda le : t wo n o te s o n me t ro logy D .M . METCALF
How much d o s t yca s w e igh ? We re t h ey a l s t ruck t o t h e s ame w e igh t s t anda rd ? We re t he i rf l an s c a ref u l ly c on t ro l led ? D id a l moneye r s work t ot h e s ame s t anda rd a nd w i th t h es ame d eg ree o fc a re ? Do h i s tog ram s r evea l a' t a i l ' o fd ef ec t ive o rs ubs t anda rd f l an s ? I s t h e re a ny e v idence t h a t h eav ie r c o in s w e re c u l led wh i le i n c i rcu la t ion ?T oq ue s t ion ss u ch a st h e se ,n oc a refu la n swe r sh ave e ve rb een a t temp ted . T he B r i t i sh Mu s eum C a t a l ogue j udged t h e ma t te r o fs ol i t t le i n te re s tt h a tn o w e igh t s w e re p r in ted u n le s s t h e s t yca s w e re s i lve ry i n a ppea rance . Mo s tc o l lec t ion sy i e ld ar a ther b umpy , i r regu la rh i s tog ram , a nd t h er e a son i sn o t f a rt os e ek : c o in sc om ing f r om d if e ren th oa rd sa r el i ab le t ob ea pp rec iab ly d if e ren t i nt h e i ra ve rage we igh t . An e xp lora to ry e xam ina t ion o ft wo p a rce l so fc o in si nt h e A shmo lean Mu seum s howed t h a t H exham c o in s mo s t ly f e l l b e tween 1 . 12 a nd 1 . 32g , whe rea st he s ame v a r ie t ie sf r om t h eB a teman c o l lec t ion f e l lb e tween 0 . 96 a nd 1 . 16 —ha rd ly o ve r lapp ing . T he B a teman c o in s a r e f r om t h e f i r s t B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd . I fo ne c a lcu la ted a n a ve rage w e igh tf r om am ix ture o fH exham a nd B o l ton P e rcy c o in s ,t h er e su l t wou ld d epend o nt h ep ropor t ion so fs p ec imen sf r om t h et wo s ou rce s ; a nd c o mpa r i son s o fa ve rage s e . g . f o r d if e ren t r e ign s wou ld b e v i t ia ted u n le s s t h e p ropo r t ion s w e re t h e s ame . E ven more m i s lead ing , h i s tog ram s d rawn f r om am ix tu re o fc o in s wou ld b e t h e w rong s h ape , w i th t h e p eak o r moda l v a lue o b scu red o rd up l ica ted .T he d if e rence i nw e igh tb e tween c o in sf r om t h et wo h oa rd s • c ou ld b e c au sed b y w ea r a nd t e a r d u r ing c i rcu la t ion , b y c u l l ing , b y t h e e f ec t s o f c o r ro s ion a nd l e ach ing d u r ing t h ec en tu r ie s when t h ec o in sl a yb u r ied i nt h es o i l , o r b y mode rn c hem ica l c l ean ing . A l l f ou r may b e f a c to r s , a nd i ti sn e i the rp rac t icab le n o r n ece s sa ry t o t r y t o d i sen tang le t h em . Wha t o ne n eed s t o d o i sd i scoun t t h e d if i cu l t ie s b y c onduc t ing ame t ro log ica l s t udy o ft he s t yca s u s ing c o in s f r om o n ly o ne h oard a t at ime . T he H exham h oa rd i sa n o bv iou s c ho ice , a st h e re a r e t h ree s ub s tan t ia l g roup s o f c o in s e a s i ly a c ce s s ib le , wh ich a r e k nown t o c o me f r om H exham . ( The Newca s t le c o l lec t ion , among o the r s , u ndoub ted ly c on ta in s ag rea t m any c o in sf r om Hexham ,b u tt h e i rp rovenance i st os o me e x ten tc on jec tu ra l . ) T he B r i t i sh Mu seum h a s af i ne r un o fH exham c o in s , a nd t h e A shmo lean h a s as ma l le r s e lec t ion . T he se t wo t oge the rp rov ide av e ry a dequa te s amp le f r om wh ich t os t udy t h e me t ro logy o ft he s t yca s . T he Manche s te rp a rce l l c ou ld a l so h ave b een u s ed , b u t
1 K .F . S ugden a nd M . Warhur s t , ' An u nrecorded p arce l f r om t he H exham h oard ' ,
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NC 1 39 ( 1 979 ) , 2 1217 .
D .M . METCALF
i t wou ld h ave b een d e s i rab le t o r e -we igh t h e c o in s t o t h ree d ec ima l p l ac e s . T he r e su l t ss hou ld p rov ide ab a s i sf o rc o mpa r i son si nt h ef u tu re , i fa ny n ew l a rge h oa rd s a r eb rough tt ol i gh t . Af u tu re h oa rd m ay y i e ld as omewha td if e ren ta ve r age w e igh t , b ecau se o ft h e s o i l c ond i t ion s i n wh ich i tw a s b u r ied , b u t t h e p a rame te r s a nd t h e w i th in samp le v a r ia t ion s ( e .g . b e tween c o in so fo ne r e ign a nd a no the r ) w i l ld e se rve c o mpa r i son . T he m e thod f o l lowed w a s t o c on s t ruc t h i s tog r am s w i th t h e r a the r s ma l l s t ep i n te rva l o f0 . 04g . T h i s i sf e a s ib le i fo ne h a s al a rge n umbe r o fs p ec imen s t o wo rk f r om . I ts hou ld s e rve t o d ef ine t h e s h ape o ft h e h i s tog ram , a nd t h e mod a l v a lue , mo re p r ec i se ly t h an al a rge r s t epin te rva l wou ld , b y d iv id ing t h eb u lk o ft h ec o in s b e tween s i x a nd s e ven s t ep s . T he mo re u sua l i n te rva l o f0 . 1g wou ld b e t oo c oa r se , a nd wou ld o b scu re t h ee v idence . T he n ex ts t age w a st oa d ju s tt h ep o s i t ion ing o ft h e c en t ra l s t ep b yi n spec t ion , s oa st om ax im ize t h ep ropo r t ion o fc o in s f a l l ing i n to i t , o r , whe re s ma l l a d ju s tmen t s m ade l i t t le d if e renc e , s o a st o p roduce a s' n o rma l ' a h i s tog r am a sp o s s ib le . T hu s , whe re t h e c en t ra l s t ep a ppea red t of a l l a t1 . 20 — 1 .24g , o ne wou ld t r yt h ea l te rna t ive so f1 . 19 — 1 .23g a nd 1 . 2 11 .25g , a nd s oo n , a nd c hoo se t h e b e s t . T he p e rcen tage o fc o in s f a l l ing i n to t h e c en t ra l s t ep i s , o fc ou r s e , much s ma l le r w i th a n i n te rva l o f0 . 04g t h an i t wou ld b e w i th 0 . 10g , a nd o ne mu s t n o t a low o ne se lf t o t a ke a way t h e f a l se i mp re s s ion t h a t t h e f l an s o ft h e s t y c a s w e re l oo se ly c on t ro l led i n c o mpa r i son w i th c o inage s f o r wh ich h i s tog ram s h ave b een d rawn d if e ren t ly . T he ma in p o in t i st ob e a b le t oc o mpa re d if e ren t c a tego r ie s o f s t yca s , a nd f o r t h a t p u rpo se t h e u s e o ft h e s ame w id th o fs t ep t h roughou t i s wha t m a t te r s— toge the rw i th t h ep re sen ta t ion o ft h er e su l t si np e rcen t age f o rm ,s ot h a tt h e h i s tog ram sa r ev i sua l ly c ompa rab le ,a le nc lo s ing t h es ame a r ea . Al owe rc en t r a ls t ep mean s l e s s c a ref u l c on t ro l o ft h e w e igh t s o ft h e f l an s . T he work o f E an red ' s G roup A moneye r s i ss ummed u p i n a n e x emp la ry h i s tog r am ( F ig . 1 ) ,b a sed o n9 6s p ec imen s .T he moda lv a lue f a l l sc onv inc ing ly a bou t %
2 0-
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FI G . 1 . E an red , G roup A moneye r s .
h a lf -way t h rough t h e c en t r a ls t ep , a t1 . 22g . T he m ed ian v a lue i s1 . 223g . T he s h ape o ft h e h i s tog ram s ugge s t s t h a t t h e mode m igh t l i e s omewhe re b e tween 1 . 22 a nd 1 . 23g ,b u tt h i si sh ype r accu racy when b a sed o no n ly 9 6s p ec imen s ,e s pec ia l ly a st h ey 3 84
T WO NOTES ON METROLOGY
h ave n o ta lr e ce ived u n if o rm c l ean ing a nd c on se rva t ion .T he d i s t r ibu t ion i sn o rma l , w i th n o s i gn o ft h e c u l l ing o fh eavy f l an s ( e i the r b y t h e m in to ri nc i rcu la t ion ) a nd w i th n os i gn o f a' t a i l 'o fd ef ec t ive s p ec imen s— a l though o ne s hou ld r emembe rt h a t t h es amp le c on s i s t so f as e lec t ion o fg ood ,c l ea rs p ec imen s .I fo ne w e re i n ap o s i t ion t o d r aw ah i s tog ram o fa l t h e G roup A c o in si nt h eH exham h oa rd ( o ri ns ome o the r h oa rd ) , t h e re m igh t o r m igh t n o t b e r a the r mo re o f a' t a i l ' . E an red ' se a r ly c o in sw e re e v iden t ly a l s t ruck t o as i ng le w e igh t s tanda rd , o fj u s t u nde r 1 9 g ra in s . T h i s may b e p re sumed t o d e r ive f r om t h e t r ad i t iona l w e igh t s t anda rd o ft h et h rym sa a nd t h es c ea ti nE ng land ,a tb e s t2 0g ra in s( 1 .296g ) o r al i t t le l e s s . Mo s t o ft h e s e conda ry -pha se s c ea t ta s h ad f a l len w e l l b e low 1 9 g r a in s . One s hou ld u nde r s tand , t h e ref o re , t h a t t h e re w a s at h eo re t ica l s t anda rd , t o wh ich t h e c o inage c ou ld f r om t ime t o t ime b e r e s to r ed . E an red ' s G roup B moneye r s , t a ken a s awho le , g ive as l igh t ly l e s s s a t i sf ac to ry h i s tog r am ( F ig .2 ) . T he c en t ra ls t ep c on ta in so n ly 1 7% i n s tead o f2 2% o ft h ev a lue s , a nd t h ep eak i sc on s ide r ab ly f l a t tened o ni t sl owe rs i de .T he re a ppea r st ob e as e cond
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FI G . 3 . E an red , G roup B moneye r s ( a l te rna t ive p o s i t ion o fc en t ra l s t ep ) .
p eak a ta r ound 1 . 06g .T he moda lv a lue o ft h em a in p eak m igh tb ej udged t ol i ec l o se t o 1 . 24g ( t ha t i s ,v e ry s l i gh t ly h ighe r t h an f o r G roup A ) , b u t t h e m ed ian v a lue i s 1 . 2 1g .I fo ne a t temp t st oc onf i rm t h ep a t te rn b ys h if t ing t h ep o s i t ion o ft h es t ep s ,F ig . 3r e su l t s . T he c en t ra l s t ep i sn ow r educed t o 1 4 / 15 % , a nd i ti sa n o pen q ue s t ion 3 85
D . M. METCALF
whe the r t h e h i s togram a pprox ima te s more c l o se ly t o an orma l d i s t r ibu t ion . T he s e conda ry p eak i sn ow n o more t h an as hou lde r . T he d a ta a r e ,o fc ou r se ,e xac t ly t h e s ame . T he mode , i n te re s t ing ly , wou ld s t i l l b ej udged t o b e c l o se t o 1 . 24g . T he g roup o fn ew moneye r sw e re work ing , a s awho le , r a the rl e s sc a ref u l ly t h an t h e i r p redece s sor s , p e rhap s u nde rt h e p re s sure o f ar e co inage . T he w e igh t s tanda rd w a s n om ina l ly t h e s ame . B ecau se t h e h i s togram a pprox ima te s l e s s p e rf ec t ly t o a n orma l d i s t r ibu t ion , t h e a c cu racy o ft h e f i gure 1 . 24g w i l l c o mmand s l igh t ly l e s s c onf idence t h an t h e1 . 22g f o rG roup A . Ou ra b i l i ty t oj udge t h er e a ld if e rence may t he ref ore b es ub jec tt o ma rg in so fe r ror a dd ing u pt o5 0% o ft h ed if e rence o r mo re . T he b e s t g ue s s w i l l b e t h a t t h e d if e rence i sa round 1 5 mg , o rj u s t o ve r 1% o ft h e we igh t o ft h e s t yca . One p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion m igh t b e t h a t t h i s r ep re sen t s l o s s o f w e igh t b y w ea r d ur ing c i rcu la t ion . Unde r mode rn c ond i t ion s ac o in m igh tl o se a s much a s1 0 mg ay ea r( i r re spec t ive ,i ts e em s ,o ff l an s i ze ) ;2 a nd t h eG roup A c o in sa r e p e rhap so na ve rage f i ve o rt e ny ea r so lde rt h an t ho se o fG roup B . B u tt h eH exham c o in s s how v e ry l i t t le s i gn o fw ea r , a nd i t may b e t h a t t h ey h ad b een h oa rded f o r mo s t o ft h e ir l i f e t ime . T he t op ic o fl o s s o fw e igh t b y w ea r w i l l b e b e t te rl e f t t ob e s t ud ied o n t h e b a s i s o fs ome f u tu re h oa rd . T he re i sa n o bv iou s q ue s t ion t oa s kn ex t , b yl ook ing a tt ho se c o in s wh ich w e igh l e s st h an ,s a y , 1 . 10g i no rde rt os e ei ft h ey s e em i na ny w ay d if e ren tf r om t h es amp le a s awho le . One n o t ice sa na bno rma l ly h igh p ropo r t ion o fb lunde red a nd r e t rograde c o in s . BMC 1 20 a nd 1 26 ,f o re xamp le ,b e long t o av a r ie ty r e ad ing EANHED HEX , EHRRDVVLF o rs im i la r .T he s i xH exham s p ec imen si n BMC h ave amean w e igh t o fo n ly 1 . 13g . T h ree o ft h el i gh t -we igh tc o in so fF o r th r a cd ( B MC 1 52 , 1 57 , 1 60 ) a r e s im i la r ly b lunde red .I ts e em so nf i r s ti n spec t ion ,t h en ,t h a tt h e re may b es ome s o r to f c or re la t ion b e tween b lunde red d i e s a nd s ubs tanda rd f l an s . T he n ex t q ue s t ion i s whe the r s ome o r a l o ft h e l i gh t c o in s a r e c on tempora ry c oun te rf e i t s , o r whe the r t h ey a r ei ns o me s e n se t h e ' t a i l e nd ' o ft h e of ic ia lo u tpu t . At horough s t udy wou ld n eed t ob ec a r r ied o u ta ga in s tt h eb ackground o fc ha r t so fd i e l inkage .A l lt h a tc an b e s a id a tp re sen ti st h a tF ig s . 2a nd 3may c onf l a te v a r ie t ie sw i th amo re r egu la rw e igh t d i s t r ibu t ion t h an a ppea r s , w i th o the r s t h a t t e nd t o b e s ubs tanda rd . Al a rge s amp le o fc o in s f r om Athe l red ' s f i r s t r e ign y i e ld s as a t i sf ac to ry r egu la r h i s tog ram ( F ig . 4 ,b a sed o n 3 03 s p ec imen s ) w i th amoda lv a lue v e ry c l o se t o1 . 22g . T he med ian v a lue i s1 . 2 16g . Aga in , 1 7% o ra t mo s t1 8% o ft h ew e igh t sf a l li n to t h e c en t ra l s t ep . Aga in , i ti st emp t ing t o g o of i n to amore d e ta i led c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e c o in s w e igh ing l e s st h an ,s ay , 1 . 10g ,b u t mo s to ft h ei r regu la r i t ie so ft h ee v idence a r es t i l l , a tt h i ss t age ,s ub jec tt o ma rg in so fr andom v a r ia t ion wh ich make t h em i n conc lu s ive . I fo ne l ook s a tt h e BMC H exham c o in s moneye r b y moneye r , t h e mean a ve rage w e igh t s , w i th t he n umbe r s o fs p ec imen s i np a ren the se s , a r e : B ro the r , 1 . 176g , ( 7 ) , Cynemund , 1 . 181g ( 4 ) , E a lhhe re , 1 . 199g ( 1 1 ) , E an r a ed , 1 . 212g ( 4 7 ) , F or thrxd , 1 . 127g ( 3 6 ) ,L eof thegn , 1 . 2 16g ( 5 9 ) , Monne , 1 . 2 18g ( 5 4 ) , Wende lbeo rh t , 1 . 154g ( 9 ) , Wih t rxd , 1 . 174g ( 1 6 ) , Wu lf r a ed , 1 . 250g ( 1 4 ) . F o r th rxd i sc l ea r ly l owe r t h an t h e o the r s , a nd Wu lf rxd i sc l ea r ly h ighe r , a nd i n g ene ra l t h e d if e rence s r a i se t h e q ue s t ion whe the rt h ef l an sw e re b e ing c u ts e pa ra te ly f o re ach moneye r ,o ra tl e a s tf o r s o me moneye r s . On i n suf f i c ien te v idence , o ne w i l ln eve r the le s sb eg in t os u spec ts o . F o r c o mpa ra t ive d a ta o n l o s s o f w e igh t b y w ea r , s e e D .M . Me tca lf , 'Wha t h a s b een a ch ieved t h rough t h e a pp l ica t ion o fs t a t i s t ic s t o 2
3 86
n um i sma t ic s ? ' , i nS t a t i s t i c s a nd N um i sma t i c s ( = P a c t ,v o l .5 )e d . C . C a rca s sonne a nd T .H acken s , S t ra sbou rg , 1 98 1 , p p . 3 -24 , a tp p . 1 011 .
TWO NOTES ON METROLOGY
Among F or th r z ed ' s c o in s , t h e re a r e s ome wh ich r e ad EO RD RED , s o me t ime s r e t rog rade , a nd t h e se t e nd t ob e v e ry l i gh t i nw e igh t , e . g . BMC 3 87 , 1 . 023g , 3 88 , 0 . 951g ,3 91 ,0 . 614g ,3 92 ,0 . 985g ,3 93 ,0 . 790g ,4 15 ,0 . 968g ,4 16 ,0 . 931g .S tudy a ga in s t
1 . 00
1 . 20
1 40g
FI G . 4 . ' E the l red I , f i r s t r e ign .
t h eb ackg round o fd i e l inkage i sn eeded .T he re may b eo the r ,s ma l le rg roup so fs ubs t anda rd c o in s wh i ch d on o ts how u ps ow e l li nt h ee v idence ,e . g . among t ho se o ft he moneye rE an rxd . I nS ugden a nd Wa rhu r s t ' s l i s t o ft h e H exham c o in s p re se rved a t Manche s te r( s t i l l ,i n1 979 ,c on ta ined i nt h ep ape rw rapp ing si n wh ich t h ey a r r ived i n 1 833 ) , o ne ' se ye i sc augh tb yn o s . 5 2-8 . When t wo c o in s wh ich s h a re a no bve r se d i e w e igh 0 . 99g a nd 0 . 98g , a nd t h e c o r re spond ing BMC c o in s ( 2 96 a nd 2 98 ) we igh 1 . 141g a nd 1 . 086g , o ne ' s i n te re s t i sa rou sed . B u t t h e se a r e q ue s t ion s f o r f u tu re r e sea rch , a nd f o r l a rge n umbe r s o fs p ec imen s . F ro m t h er e ign o f Redwu lf ,n o te nough H exham c o in sa r ea va i lab le t op roduce a g ood h i s tog ram . T he 3 1 wh ich c an b eu s ed g ive a ne r ra t ic r e su l t ( a s3 1 s p ec imen so f
2 0-
1 0-
1 . 0 '0
1 . 10g
FI G . 5 . Redwu lf .
E an red o r! E the l red wou ld ) ,b u tw i th much t h es ame d i spe r s ion a su nde r/ E the l red , a nd w i th as im i la r ( o r s l igh t ly h ighe r ) p ropor t ion i nt h e c en t ra l s t ep ( F ig s . 5a nd 6 , a l te rna t ive v e r s ion s ) . T he mode wou ld b ej udged f r om e i the r d i ag ram t ob e a bou t 1 . 16 o r 1 . 17g . T he med ian v a lue i sa l so 1 . 17g . 3 87
D . M . METCALF
2 0-
1 5-
1 0-
1 .00
1 . 20
1 .40g
FI G . 6 . R edwu lf ( a l te rna t ive v e r s ion ) .
T he f ew c o in so fi E the l red ' ss e cond r e ign , b yE a rdwu lf , h ave amean w e igh t o f 1 . 12g . ( A g roup o f 2 0 a na ly sed e l sewhe re i n t h e v o lume , n o t n ece s sa r i ly f r om H exham , h ave amean we igh t o f1 . 13g . ) A s t h e t wo mean v a lue s a r e c l o se t oe a ch o the r , i t may n o t b e s e r iou s ly m i s lead ing t o work o u t amode a nd med ian f r om a m ixed g roup o f c o in s w i th a pprox ima te ly t h e s ame w e igh t a s t h e f ew f r om H exham .T he moda lv a lue s e em st o work o u ta ta bou t1 . 12 o r1 . 13g — al i t t le l i gh te r t h an u nde r Redwu lf , a nd c e r ta in ly l i gh te r t h an t h e s t anda rd i n ! E the l red ' s f i r s t r e ign .T he r e f orm b y wh ich c o in sc on ta in ing n os i lve rw e re i n t roduced a l so l owe red 3 5-
2 5-
2 0.
1 5-
1 0-
1 1 .1 0 0
1 .20
FI G . 7 . A rchb i shop E anba ld .
3 88
1 .14 0g
TWO NOTE S ON M ETROLOGY
t h ew e igh t s tanda rd s l igh t ly .T he p a t te rn o fg radua ld ec l ine w i l ls e em v e ry f am i l ia r t o n um i sma t i s t s , a nd n o p o l i t ica l s i gn if i cance s hou ld b e r e ad i n to i t . Af u r the r d ec l ine o ccu r red i n t h e ' b lunde red o r d e r iva t ive ' i sue s . T he re w e re n one o f t h e se i n t h e H exham h oa rd , a nd c o mpa r i son s c an t h e ref or e o n ly b e a pp rox ima te . As e lec t ion o f3 1 s p ec imen sa na ly sed e l sewhe re i nt h ev o lume h ave a mean w e igh t o f1 . 02g . We n ow t u rn t ot h e c o in s o ft h e a r chb i shop s ' moneye r s . T ho se o fA rchb i shop E anba ld , o f wh ich t h eH exham s amp le m ay b ep re sumed t ob er ough ly o ft h es ame d a te a sE an red ' sS e r ie sA ,s how a ne xcep t iona l ly h igh p ropo r t ion ( 3 6% ) f a l l ing i n to t h e c en t r a l s t ep , a nd amoda l v a lue o f1 . 24g ( F ig . 7 ,b a sed o n 4 4 s p ec imen s ) . T he h i s tog ram s ugge s t st h a tt h ef l an sf o rE anba ld ' sc o in sw e re p roduced s e pa ra te ly f r om t ho se f o rE an red . T he m ed ian i s1 . 230 / 1 .232g . A pa r t f r om t h e i rh ighe r s t anda rd o f a c cu racy , E anba ld ' s f l an s ma tch t ho se o fE an red v e ry c l o se ly .
2 5-
2 0-
1 5-
1 0
5-
I E l 1 . 0 0
1 . 20
1 . 40g
FI G . 8 . A rchb i shop Wigmund .
2 0-
1 5-
1 0-
110
1 .'2 0
1,40g
FI G . 9 . A r chb i shop Wigmund ( a l te rna t ive v e r s ion ) .
3 89
D . M. METCALF
A rchb i shop Wigmund ' s c o in s c onf o rm a l i t t le l e s s c l o se ly t o an o rma l d i s t r ibu t ion . T he re i ss ome p o s i t ive s k ewne s s , wh ich i sv i s ib le whe r eve rt h es t ep so f t h eh i s tog r am a r ep o s i t ioned .T he moda lv a lue i si na ny c a se b e tween 1 . 18 a nd 1 . 20g , t hu s af ew p e rcen tage p o in t sl owe rt h an f o r' E the l r ed ( F ig . 8 ,w i th 2 6% o fv a lue si n t h e c en t ra l s t ep , o r F ig . 9 ,w i th 2 4% , b o th b a sed o n 7 6 s p ec imen s ) . T he m ed ian i s 1 . 192 / 1 .193g . A sw i th E anba ld ' sc o in s , t h ef l an sa r ep r epa red t o ah ighe rs t anda rd o f a c cu racy t h an t h e ( r ough ly ) c on tempo ra ry i sue so ft h ek ing ' s moneye r s . T h i s mu s t r a i se t h eq ue s t ion whe the rt h ea r chb i shop ' sc o in sw e r ep roduced s e pa ra te ly t h rough t h e v a r iou s s t age s o ft h e i r m anuf ac tu re ,— in o the r wo rd s , whe the rt h e re w e r e t wo s e pa ra te m in t s , a sw a s t h e c a se a tY o rk l a te r i nt h e m idd le a ge s . P e rhap s t h i s i sa n a nach ron i s t ic v i ewpo in t ,a nd o ne o ugh tt ob ec o mpa r ing t h ea c cu racy o ft h ef l an so f i nd iv idua l moneye r s . I ns umma ry , t h es t yca so ft h ef i r s th a lf o ft h en in th c en tu ry r evea l au n if o rm a nd e x t reme ly r egu la rm e t ro logy , t o as t anda rd o f( a tb e s t ) c . 1 .24g . T h i sd ec l ine s al i t t le u nde r Wigmund ( c . 1 .19g ) a nd Redwu lf ( c .1 . 17g ) , b u t t h e i n tended s t anda rd i sn o d oub t t h e s ame . T he a ve r age w e igh t d r if t s f u r the r d ownwa rd s w i th E a rdwu lf ' s r e f o rmed , s i lve r le s sc o in si nl E the l red ' ss e cond r e ign . T he s t anda rd may h ave b een r e -def ined , o ri tm ay h ave b een s t i l ln om ina l ly t h es ame . T he ' im i ta t ive ' s e r i e s f a l l s d ec ided ly l owe r , t o a bou t 1g ramme ( c . 1 .02g ) . I n t h e e a r l ie r s t age s , b ef o re E a rdwu lf ' sr e f o rm , t h e re i sn o s i gn ( on t h e b a s i s o ft h e e v idence o ft h e H exham h oa rd ) o fc u l l ing o ft h eh eav ie rs p ec imen s , a nd n o ' t a i l ' o fs ub s tanda rd s p ec imen s , e xcep tt h a tt h e re a r e af ew c o in sa mong t ho se o fE an red ' sG roup B a nd af ew o the r s o f' E the l red I ,e . g . b yF or th rxd , t h a ta r el i gh te r . I ts e em sd oub tf u l whe th e r al i gh t s t anda rd c an b e a s soc ia ted w i th a ny p a r t icu la r c l a s s o r g roup ing o fc o in s , b u t t h i s m igh t d e se rve f u r the r i nve s t iga t ion .
I When w et u rn t ot h e Ang lo -V ik ing c o inage o fY o rk ,w ea r ef a ced w i th n op rob lem o fb lu r r ing o ft h e m e t ro log ica l e v idence t h rough t h e c omb ina t ion o fc o in s f r om d if e ren th oard s . V i r tua l ly a l t h ek nown s p ec imen s , n ow w ide ly s c a t te r ed t h rough d if e ren tc o l lec t ion s ,d e r ive f r om t h e Cue rda le h oa rd .T he o n ly p rac t ica lp rob lem i s t h a t w e igh t s h ave b een p ub l i shed , a t b e s t , t o t wo d ec ima l p l ace s , a nd t h a t n um i sma t i s t s c anno t b e f u l ly r e l ied u pon t oh ave t e s ted t h e a c cu racy o f ab a lance b ef o re u s ing i t .I fo ne w e igh s ac o in ,w e igh s as e cond c o in , a nd t h en w e igh st h et wo t oge the r , t h e a n swe r s s hou ld b e t h e s ame , b u t s ome t ime s t h ey a r e n o t , b ec au se t h e b a lance h a s n o t b een z e roed e xac t ly , o r f o r s ome o the r r e a son . On a n a dequa te b a lance i ts hou ld , o fc ou r se , b ep e rf ec t ly p o s s ib le t od e te rm ine t h ew e igh to f ac o in c o r r ec t t o t wo d ec ima l p l ace s , a nd t o r epea t t h e r e su l t a tw i l l . I n mak ing u s e o f p ub l i shed w e igh t s Ih ave a s sumed t h a t t h e f i gu r e i n t h e s e cond d ec ima l p l ace i s c o r rec ted , a nd h ave s e tt h es t ep i n te rva l sa te . g . 1 . 305 t o1 . 345g i no rde rt h a tr e su l t s c o r rec tt ot wo d ec ima lp l ace ss hou ld a u toma t ic a l ly f a l lw i th in t h ea pp rop r i a te s t ep .I r ewe ighed t h e A shmo lean ' s h o ld ing s ( SCBI Oxf o rd 10 -224 ) a nd f ound t h a t 2 1 r e su l t s w e re o ne f i gu re t oo h igh i nt h e s e cond d ec ima l p l ace ( u sua l ly r ef l ec t ing a n e r ro r o fo n ly af ew m i l l ig ramme s ) , t wo w e re t oo l ow b y as im i la r a moun t , a nd 7 r e su l t s w e re i ng ro s s e r ro r . T he e f ec t o n t h e r e su l t ing h i s tog r am wou ld n o t h ave b een v e ry s e r iou s , b u t i n an o te s p ec if i ca l ly o n me t ro logy , a n a t temp t t o b e a s a c cu ra te a sp o s s ib le s e em s t ob e i no rde r . T he m a jor p ub l ic h o ld ing so ft h es e r ie sa r ei nt h eB r i t i sh Mu seum ,t h e Me r sey s ide 3 90
T WO N OT E S O N M ETROLOGY
TA BLE 1 .V a r i e t i e s o fN o r thumb r ian V ik ing c o in s , w i th t h e n umb e r s o fs p e c im en s i nt h e m e t r o l og i c a l s amp l e . Rever se d e s ign
Co in s we ighed
C las s I . ( Obv . EBRA ICE C IV ITAS ) a No s t op s i n l e gend , n o p e l le t s i n c ro s s b c d
R ev . C S IEF REDVS REX R ev . R ev . S IEVE RT REX R ev . CNVT REX
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R ev . CNVT REX R ev .
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C las s I I ( Obv . S IEF REDVS ) a P e l le t s i n e ach a ng le o fc ro s s b P e l le t i n 2a ng le s o fc ro s s c d f ,
C la ss I V ( Obv . ALVVALDVS ) a C la ss V ( Obv . DNS DS REX ) a P e l le t i n 2a ng le s o fc ro s s b C C la s s VI ( Obv . MI RAB IL IA F EC IT ) a P e l le t i n 2a ng le s o fc ro s s b c d C las s VI I ( QVENT OV IC I ) ( No t Nor thu mbr ian )
3 9 1
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D . M. METCALF
C oun ty Mu seum s a t L ive rpoo l ( e s sen t i a l ly t h e c o l lec t ion f o rmed b y D r P h i l ip Ne l son ) , t h e A shmo lean Mu seum , a nd t h e Roya l C o l lec t ion , C openhagen , w i th s ma l le r g roup s o fs p ec imen s i nt h e Hun te r ian Mu seum , G la sgow , t h e F i tzw i l l iam Mu seum , C ambr idge , a nd e l sewhe re . T he se r e sou r ce s , p ub l i shed i n BMC a nd t h eSy l l og eo fC o in so ft h eB r i t i sh I s l e s ,h ave b een c omb in ed t oc r ea te al a rge s amp l ef o r p u rpo se s o f me t ro logy . T he c o in s i n t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum , p ub l i shed e xac t ly a h und red y ea r sa go ,w e re c a ref u l ly r ewe ighed b yt h ew r i te ru s ing amode rn b a lan ce . T he Yo rk s e r ie s i sn um i sma t ica l ly c o mp l ica ted . I th a s b een c l a s s if i ed i n to f o r ty v a r ie t ie s ,n ea r ly a lo f wh ich a r eb e l ieved t oh ave b een s t ruck w i th in ap e r iod o fo n ly af ew y ea r s , a nd a tY o rk . S ome o ft h e v a r ie t ie s a r e r epr e sen ted b y h und red s o f s p ec imen s , s ome b y o n ly t h ree o r f ou r . Ou t o f4 0v a r ie t ie s , 3 0e x i s ti nn umbe r s s o s ma l lt h a to ne c ou ld n o tu s ef u l ly d r aw ah i s tog ram f o re a ch v a r ie ty s e pa ra te ly . No r i si tl i ke ly t ha t i t wou ld make s e n se t o d o s o . T he r e c an h a rd ly h ave b e en 4 0 s ub s tan t ive i sue s i no n ly af ew y ea r s , a nd many o ft h e v a r ie t ie s a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een me t ro log ica l ly i d en t ica l o r v e ry s im i la r . T he p r ac t ica l q ue s t ion , t h e r ef o re , i s h ow t og roup t he v a r ie t ie si no rde rt or e cove ri n f o rm a t ion a bou ta ny r e a ld if e rence s t h a t t h e re may h ave b een i nt h e a ve rage w e igh t o ri nt h e a c cu racy w i th wh ich t h e f l an s w e re a d ju s ted . T he v a r ie t ie sa r es umma r ized i nT ab le 1 , wh ich f o l low st h es c heme p ub l i shed b y L yon a nd S t ewa r ti n1 964 a nd u sed s ub sequen t ly i n SCB Ia nd e l sewhe re . T he re a r e s i xo bve r se ' t ype s ' ( u sua l ly ac ro s s ,w i th o rw i thou tp e l le t si nt h ea ng le s ,o cca s iona l ly aC a ro l ing ian monog ram ) d ef ined b yt h e i rs i xd i s t inc t ive l e gend s ( I —V I ) . T he se a r e v a r iou s ly c omb ined w i th s e ven r eve r se d e s ign s ( A—F ) , mo s to f wh ich , a ga in , o ccu r i n c o mb ina t ion v a r iou s ly w i th mo re t h an o ne o u t o f at o ta l o f s e ven d if e ren t l e gend s . T he re i so bv iou s s c ope , t h e ref ore , t o r educe t h e 4 0 ' v a r ie t ie s ' t o amo re manageab le n umbe ro fl a rge rg roup ing s , o nt h eb a s i so fo bve r se l e gend s , o rr eve r se d e s ign s , o r r eve r se l e gend s . We may make as t a r t , emp i r ica l ly , b y c on s t ruc t ing ah i s tog ram f o r t h e mo s t p l en t if u lv a r ie ty , CVNNETT I /CNVT REX ( I ba nd I e ,r e spec t ive ly w i thou ta nd w i th p e l le t s i n t h e a ng le s o ft h e c ro s s ) . A v e ry a dequa te s amp le o f2 98 p enn ie s p roduce s ac onv inc ing ly n o rma l d i s t r ibu t ion , w i th amoda l v a lue o fc . 1 .32g , o r p o s s ib ly as h ade l e s s .T h i si sa bou t 7p e rc en th eav ie rt h an t h eb e t te rs t yca s .T he s ame s t ep i n te rva lo f0 . 04g h a st h e ref o re b een u s ed . C ompa r i son sb e tween t h es t yca sa nd t h e p enn ie s w i l l , o n t h i s b a s i s , b e s l igh t ly u nf avou rab le t owa rd s t h e p enn ie s : t h e l a t te rw i l l s e em t ob es l igh t ly l e s sa c cu ra te ly c on t ro l led , i nr e la t ion t ot h e i ra ve rage w e igh t . T he c en t ra l s t ep i nF ig . 1 0 , d e te rm ined b y t r ia l a nd e r ro r , i sf r om 1 . 305 t o 1 . 344g , a low ing 1 9 .8 % o f t h e v a lue s t o f a l l i n to t h e s t ep . I ft h e c en t r a l s t ep i s p o s i t ioned a t1 . 295 t o 1 . 334g , as l igh t ly h ighe r p ropo r t ion o fv a lue s ( 2 0 .5 % ) f a l l s i n to i t ,b u tt h eg ene ra lf i ti sal i t t le l e s ss a t i sf ac to ry .T h i sa l te rna t ive h a sb een b o rne i n m ind i nj udg ing t h e moda l v a lue . T he med ian i sa l so 1 . 32g . E leven h a lf penn ie sh ave amean w e igh to f0 . 572g ,a nd am ed ian a l so o f0 .57g .T h i s i so n ly 4 3% o ft h ew e igh to ft h ep enny , b u tf r ac t ion sl a te ri nt h e m idd le a ge sw e re o f ten p e rm i t ted t ob em ade w i th l e s st h an t h ea pp rop r ia te i n t r in s ic v a lue ,i no rde rt o c ompen sa te t h em in t -wo rke r sf o rt h ee x t ra t r oub le o fc o in ing t h em . Af o r thcom ing p ape rb yt h ew r i te ra nd D rJ . P . No r thove rw i l ls how t h a tt h eh a lf penn ie sa r eo ft h e s ame f i nene s s a st h e p enn ie s . T he s e cond b lock o f ma te r ia l t oe xam ine i st h e p l en t if u l E B RA ICE C IV ITAS / CNVT REX i sue o ft h e s ame d e s ign a st h ef i r s t , w i th wh ich i ti sc onnec ted b y a n umbe r o fd i e l ink s ( I p a nd I s ,b o th w i th p e l le t s t op s ) . L yon a nd S t ewa r t e nv i sage 3 92
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t h a tt h e se b lock s— and a lo the rt ype sw i th CNVT REX r eve r se so fd e s ign G —we re i n i sue c oncu r ren t ly , b u t t h a t t h e o bve r se d i e s w e r e n o t f r ee ly i n te rchangeab le . T hey a dd t h a t t h e re i s ,h oweve r , e nough d i e l inkage t o i nd ica te as i ng le m in t . T he h i s tog ram ( F ig . 1 ) i sl e s sr egu la rt h an f o rt h e ( l a rge r ) f i r s tb lock o f ma te r ia l . I ti sb a sed o n 8 1 s p ec imen s , wh ich s hou ld h ave b een e nough t o p roduce g rea te r r egu la r i ty . T he re a r e t wo c en t ra l s t ep s o fa lmo s te qua lh e igh t , w i th 2 8 a nd 2 7% o f t h ev a lue sr e spec t ive ly . T h i sr ep re sen t s ah igh s t anda rd o fa c cu racy , b u ta tt h es ame t ime , t h e p i c tu re i sb lu r red . T he med i an i s1 . 337g . T he f ew h a lf penn ie sa r e mo re v a r iab le i nw e igh tt h an t ho se i nt h ef i r s tb lock .T he mean a ve rage ( 5s p ec imen s ) i s0 . 52g . T he n ex t e xp lo ra to ry move w i l l b e t o c o mpa re t h e c o in s w i th r eve r se d e s ign s o the rt h an G .A st h e re a r em any f ewe rs p ec imen s ,r eve r se t ype s A—F h ave i nt h ef i r s t 3 93
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i n s tance b een l umped t oge the rt oo b ta in al a rge s amp le ( Ia -o ,q ,r ,[ t , Ia ,c ,d ;I a c ;I V ;V Ia ) .T he r e su l t ing h i s tog ram ( F ig . 1 2 )i sr a th e rs p r ead a nd u n t idy ,w i th n o mo re t h an 1 5% o ft h e v a lue s i nt h e h ighe s t s t ep , a nd wha t a ppea r s t ob e as e cond p eak a tc . 1 .40g . One ' sf i r s ts u sp ic ion w i l lb et h a tt h es amp le i sm ix ing t oge the rc o in s
1 0-
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o nt wo d if e ren tw e igh t s tanda rd s ,o ne o fa bou t1 . 32g ,a nd t h eo the ra bou t1 . 40g .I t i s ,i na ny c a se ,s i gn if i can t ly d if e ren tf r om F ig s . 1 0a nd 1 , f o rt h es amp le s i ze i s1 88 . T he 1 8 a s soc ia ted h a lf penn ie s s how am ean a nd m ed ian j u s t b e low 0 . 56g . Many o f t h e v a r ie t ie s c o mb ined i n to F ig . 1 2 a r e o f t h e o bve r se t ype w i th EBRA ICE C IV ITAS , wh ich o ccu r s e i the r w i th n o s t op s i nt h e l e gend ( EC l a ) o r w i th g roup so fp e l le t sa ss t op s ( EC l b ) . I ft h i sw e r e as t y l i s t ic d if e rence r ef l ec t ing a c hange i nt h ec ou r se o ft ime ,i ti sp o s s ib le t h a ti tm igh tr ef l ec t ame t ro log ica lc hange .
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FI G . 1 3 . V ik ing s o f Yo rk , EB RA ICE C IV ITAS , v a r ie ty l a ( no s t op s i nl e gend ) .
We m ay l ook n ex t ,t h e ref o re ,s e pa ra te ly a t EC l aa nd EC l b . EC l a ,w i th n os t op s( I a -h ) ,p roduce sa ne ven mo re s t ragg l ing h i s tog r am ,w i th i t sm a in p eak a tc . 1 .40g ,b u t s t i l lw i th o n ly 1 5% o fv a lue si nt h eh ighe s ts t ep ( F ig . 1 3 ) . I ti sn a tu ra lt oa s k whe the r s ome o ft h e v a r ie t ie s i nvo lved a r e o n o ne s t anda rd , a nd s ome o n a no the r . Aq u i te s imp le i n spec t ion o ft h ed a ta i se nough t os how t h a tt h i si sn o ts o :v e ry h igh a nd v e ry l ow v a lue s a r e f ound s i de b y s i de wheneve r t h e re a r e e nough s p ec imen s o f a p a r t icu la r v a r ie ty f o r i t s r ange t o b e c l ea r . EC l b ( Ii s ) ,i ns h a rp c on t r a s t ,r e tu rn su st o an o rma lh i s tog ram w i th ag ood p eak ( 2 4% ) a tc . 1 .32g ( F ig . 1 4 , 1 52 s p ec imen s ) . T he p a t te rn i sd om ina ted , o fc ou r se , b y v a r ie ty I s , wh ich w e h ave a l ready l ooked a ti nF ig . 1 . b u t v a r ie t ie s Ii rs how t h e s ame p a t te rn . 3 94
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FI G . 1 4 . V ik ing s o f Yo rk , EB RA ICE C IV ITAS , v a r ie ty l b ( w i th g roup s o fp ele t s a ss t op s i n l e gend ) .
EC 1c an a l so b es p l i ti n to c o in sw i thou tp e l le t si nt h ea ng le so ft h ec ro s s , o rw i th p e l le t s ( EC l ai + l bi = Ia -d , i p v s . EC l a i+ l b i = Ie -h , q s ) . T he c o in s w i thou tp e l le t sa ga in p roduce as t ragg l ing h i s tog ram ( F ig . 1 5 ,6 9s p ec imen s ) , wh ich s e em s t o r ef l ec t ap o s i t ion o ve r lapp ing t h a t o fF ig . 1 3 . One c an s e e b y i n spec t ion t h a t G roup V I a( MF /DDOR ) p a r take s o ft h e s ame c ha rac te r . 1 5-
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FI G . 1 5 . V ik ing s o f Yo rk , E B RA ICE C IV ITAS , v a r ie t ie s w i thou t p e l le t s i nt h e a ng le s o ft h e c ro s s .
A f ew o f t h e l ow v a lue s wh ich a r e c on t r ibu t ing t o t h i s g ene ra l ly mudd led s i tua t ion a r ef o rc o in so f wh ich o ne o rb o th d i e sa r ei n f e r io ri ns t y le ;b u ti ti se a sy t o f i nd ( e .g . i nt h e Me r sey s id eS y l l og e ) p a i r so fd i e l inked o rd i e -dup l ica te c o in s wh ich a r ew ide ly d i sc repan ti nw e igh t . T he a pp rop r ia te c onc lu s ion t h e ref o re s e em s t ob e t h a tt h e re w a sa ne a r ly p ha se i nt h e Ang lo-V ik ing c o inage when t h ef l an sw e r el e s s c a r ef u l ly c on t ro l led . I fw e a r el e d t ot h ev i ew t h a t F ig s . 1 2 , 1 3 , a nd 1 5 r ep re sen t me re ly ar a the rs l ack a t temp t a t a' n orma l ' p a t te rn , w e s hou ld g o b ack a nd mea su re t h e m ed ian w e igh t . 3 95
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F o rt ype s A—F i ti s1 . 34g ; f o r EC l a( w i th n os t op si nt h el e gend ) i ti s1 . 36g ;a nd f o r EC 1 / i( w i th n op e l le t si nt h ec ro s s )i ti s1 . 33g .T he s ev a lue s ma tch t h eb e t te ra t te s ted v a lue so f1 .32g a nd 1 . 34g ( F ig s . 1 0a nd 1 )s uf i c ien t ly c l o se ly f o ru st oc onc lude t h a t , l i ke t h es t yca s , t h ep enn ie sw e r e a l s t ruck t ot h es ame t h eo re t ica l w e igh t s t andä rd , a nd t h a t wha t w a s a ch ieved i n p rac t ice w a s o r ig in a l ly c . 1 .35g , l a te r d r if t ing t o c . 1 .32g . H a lf penn ie sa ve rage o n ly 0 . 55-0 .57g . T ho se w i th aK a r o lu s monog ram a r e e xac t ly t h e s ame a st h e o the r s . • G roup V I I , t h e c o in s r e ad ing QVENTOV IC I , m a tch t h e Yo rk s t anda rd , w i th a m ed ian v a lue o f1 . 36g f o rt h ep enn ie s ,a nd amean v a lue o f0 . 56 > gf o rt h eh a lf penn ie s .
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N ICHOLAS BROOKS
TH ET en th Oxf o rd S ympo s ium o nC o inage w a s ar i ch ly s t imu la t ing o cca s ion wh ich h a s g iven b i r th t o av o lume o fs em ina l p ape r s ; t oge the r t h ey c on s t i tu te am a jo r a dvance i no u ru nde r s tand ing o fn in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ian c o inage .I tw a sn eve r l i ke ly t h a t i n b r ing ing t oge the r e xpe r t s i n d if e ren t f i e ld s —num i sma t ic s , m e ta l lu rgy , p h i lo logy , a nd h i s to ry —we wou ld i mmed ia te ly s o lve a l t h e a cu te p rob lem so fi n te rp re ta t ion t h a tt h ec o in sp o se . Wha td id e me rge i no u rd i scu s s ion s , h oweve r , w a s ag row ing u nde r s tand ing o ft h en a tu re o ft h ee v idence u pon wh ich d i ve rgen tv i ew sh ave b een b a sed ,a nd t h a tu nde r s tand ing i sr ef l ec ted i nt h ef o rm i n wh ich t h ec on t r ibu t ion sa r eh e re p re sen ted . None the le s ss i nce f ew s c ho la r st oday ,i f a ny , c an c ope w i th a l t h e d if e ren t d i sc ip l ine s i nvo lved , i tm ay b e h e lpf u l f o r a h i s to r ian who i sv e ry much al a yman i n t h e se m a t te r s t o h igh l igh t s ome o ft h e p r inc ipa la dvance sa nd r ema in ing p rob lem st h a th ave e me rged i nt h e se p ape r s . I ti s p o s s ib le t oo t os ugge s t s ome o ft h e d i rec t ion s t h a t f u tu re wo rk m igh t t a ke . F i r s t o fa l w e h ave b ecome v e ry a wa re o ft h e r e la t ive w ea l th ö fn um i sm a t ic i n f o rma t ion . T hank st ot h ed i scove ry o fm a jo rc o in h oa rd s [ Hexham ( 1 832 / 184 1 ) , Y o rk ( 1 842 ) , B o l ton P e rcy ( 1 847 ,1967 ) a nd C ue rda le ( 1 840 ) ]— each o f wh ich c on ta ined s e ve ra l t hou sand s o fc o in s a nd w a s r e la t ive ly w e l l r e co rded s oon a f te r d i scove ry —ou rk now ledge o f No r thumb r ian c o inage f o r mo s to ft h en in th c en tu ry i sf a r more c o mp le te t h an i ti sf o ro the r med ieva li sue s .T h i si st r ue b o th o ft h es t y c a c o inage o ft h e Ang l ian k i ng s a nd ( t hank s t o C ue rda le ) o ft h e n ew s i lve r p enny c o inage i n t roduced i nt h ec l o s ing y ea r so ft h ec en tu ry when aV ik ing s t a te h ad b een e s tab l i shed i nt h e s ma l le r s ou the rn h a lf o ft h e o ld No r thumb r ian k i ngdom . N ew f i nd s ( wh ich b ecome e ve r mo re f r equen t a st h e h obby o fm e ta l d e tec t ing g row s ) m ay i nt ime a dd much t oo u rk now ledge o ft h e r a re c o in s o f/ E the l r ed I ' ss e cond r e ign ( 7 90-6 )a nd o ft h ee a r ly ' s i lve ry 'c o in so fEan r ed ,b u ti ts e em su n l ike ly t h a tn ew s t y c a sw i l ls i gn if i can t ly i n c r ea se t h et o ta lo f2 , 060 d i e -comb ina t ion sa l r eady k nown f o r t h e ' d eba sed ' c o inage s o fE an red , ' E the l red I , R edwu lf , a nd O sbe rh t .1H e r e , t h en ,w eh ave ac o inage wh i ch w ea l ready k now mo re f u l ly t h an a lmo s ta ny o the ri n t h e Ang lo -Saxon s e r ie s . I t sb a s ic d e s ign i n co rpo r a t ing al e gend w i th t h ek ing ' sn ame o nt h eo bve r se a nd t h e moneye r ' s o n t h e r e ve r se h ad , h oweve r , a l ready b een e s tab l i shed i n t h e l a t e e i gh th c en tu ry d u r ing t h er e ign o f ' E lfwa ld I( 7 78x9-788 ) a nd t h es e cond r e ign o f ' E the l red I( 7 90-6 ) .2 A t t h a t t ime t h e c o in s w e re o f s i lve r a nd J ame s B oo th ' s f undamen ta lr e o rde r ing p rov ide sp e r sua s ive n um i sma t ic r e a son sf o ra s soc ia t ing t h e 1
P ine , a bove p . 1 05 .
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B oo th , a bove p p . 5 7 f .
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e nd o ft h e No r thumb r ian s i lve rs c ea t t ac o inage w i th t h eV ik ing a s sau l t so f7 93 a nd 7 94 wh ich w e re a l so r e spon s ib le f o r t h e s a ck ing o fL ind i sf a rne a nd J a r row . T he a b rup te nd ing o ft h e Nor thumbr i an s i lve rc o inage s ot h a tm in t ing c e a sed f o rf i f teen y ea r s o r mo re t h row s aw e lcome l i gh to nt h es e cu l a re f ec t s o fr a id s who se i mpac t u pon t h eg r ea t No r thumb r ian c hu rche si sf am i l ia rf r om A lcu in ' sf u lm ina t ing p ro se . When No r thumb r ian c o inage r e sumed u nde rK ing E an red ,i t ss i lve rc on ten t sh ad b een d r a s t ica l ly r educed . We n ow k now t h a t t h i sc o inage w a sn o t s imp ly d eba sed c oppe r .3 I n s tead i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e e a r ly s t y c a s w e re o fs i lve r m ixed w i th b ronze ( wh ich i st h ea loy o fc oppe ra nd t i n ) : t h en a sE an r ed ' sr e ign p rog re s sed t h eb ronze w a sr e p l aced b yb ra s s ( c oppe rw i th z i nc ) a nd t h ep ropo r t ion o fs i l ve rd ec l ined u n t i l i n t h e r e ign o f / E the l red I t h e No r thumbr ian c o inage w a s e f ec t ive ly a b r a s s c o inage ; f i na l ly i nt h e d e r iva t ive a nd a ppa ren t ly l a te s e r ie s t h e re i s ar e ve r s ion t o b ronze o nce mo re . I n v i ew o ft h e b ib l ica l p receden t s f o r b ra s s o r b ronze b e ing r e ga rded a s ap rec iou s me ta la f te rg o ld o rs i lve r( a ni d ea wh ich r e cu r si nt h ew r i t ing s o fA ldhe lm )4 i ti sc l ea rt h a tw es hou ld h e s i ta te b ef o re w r i t ing o f' w re tched s t y c a s ' . B o th t h e s h iny g o lden a ppea rance o f s t y c a s when n ew a nd t h e t e chn ica l a c comp l i shmen to fc on t ro l l ing t h ez i nc i nt h eb ra s sa loy wh i l s tr educ ing t h es i lve r c on ten t s ugge s t r e spec t f o r t h e No r thumb r ian moneye r s . 5 We s t i l l n eed t ol e a rn mo re , h oweve r , a bou t h ow t h e me ta l lu rgy o f t h e No r thumb r ian d eba s emen t c o mpa re sw i th t h a to fs ou the rn E ng land a nd i ndeed w i th d eba semen t se l sewhe re i n E u rope . Mo r eove r ,u n t i lw ek now h ow much mo re d if i cu l tb ra s sc o in sa r et os t r ike t h an s i lve r , i ti si mpo s s ib le t oa s se s s h ow t h e s c a le o fs t y c a c o inage m ay h ave c o mpa red w i th t h a to fp enn ie se l sewhe re i nE ng land .E ven i n ac o inage a sf u l ly k nown a st h i s , e s t ima t ing h ow m any c o in sm ay h ave b een m in ted o nt h eb a s i so ft h en umbe ro fd i e s i nu s ei sn ece s sa r i ly ah aza rdou sa nd c on t rove r s ia lc a lcu la t ion s i nce w ek now l i t t le o r n o th ing o ft h ec i rcum s tance sg ove rn ing t h em anuf ac tu re ,s upp ly ,o ru s eo ft h ed i e s .6 Whe the rw ea r ej u s t if i ed i ns uppo s ing t h e No r thumb r ian b ra s sc o inage t oh ave b een am a s s ive i sue o fs ome 1 0 t o 2 0 t onne s o f c o in d e s igned t o m ee t much mo re mundane c o mme rc ia l n eed s t h an w a s p o s s ib le w i th t h e p reced ing s i l ve r c o inage r ema in s c on jec tu ra l . An a l te rna t ive v i ew m igh th o ld t h a t t h e p r ima ry f unc t ion o f t h i sc o inage w a st os e rve a na r i s toc ra t ic e l i te a nd m igh tu s e mo re c au t iou sf o rmu la s t or e ach f a r s ma l le r e s t ima te s o ft h e t o ta l c u r rency . Wha t i sc l ea r i st h a t t h e s t y c a c o inage e ven tua l ly c i rcu la ted w ide ly t h rough t h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom .7 B u t w e s te r n E u rope i n t he e i gh th a nd n in th c en tu r ie s ' , I b id . 2 0 ( 1 967 ) , 3 44 -57 ; a nd ' Mone ta ry c i rcu la t ion i ns ou the rn E ng land i nt h ef i r s th a lf o ft he e i gh th c en tury ' i nD . H i l l a nd D .M . Me tca lf ( e dd . ) S c ea t t a s i n E ng l and a nd o n t h e C on t inen t ( BAR , 1 28 , 1 984 ) ,2 7 -69 .F o rt he m in imal i s tv i ew s e eP . G r ie r son , ' Co mme rce i n t h e D a rk Age s ' , TRHS 5 th s e r . , 9( 1 959 ) , 1 23-60 ; M .F . H endy , ' F rom p ubl i c t o p r iva te : t h e w e s te rn b a rba r ian c o inage s a s am i r ro r o f t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o f l a te Roman s t a te s t ruc tu re s ' , E c on . H i s t . R ev . f o r thco m ing . 7 Me tca lf , a bove p p . 3 6 1
G i lmore , a bove p p . 1 59 i f ; Me tca lf a nd No r thove r , a bove p p . 1 87 i f . 4 A ldhe lm , D e V i rg in i ta t e XV , X IX , e d . R . E hwa ld ( M .G .H . , Auc t . An t . , 1 5 , B e r l in , 1 919 ) , 2 44 ,2 48 ;t he re i sac onven ien tt r an s la t ion i n M . L ap idge a nd M . He r ren , A ldhe lm : t h e P r o s e Wo rk s ( 1 975 ) , 7 2 , 7 5 . 5 G i lmore , a bove p p . 1 59 f ; Me tca lf a nd No r thove r , a bove p p .187f f . 6 Me tca lf , a bove p p . 6a nd 3 50-3 . F or s t a temen t s o f t h e max ima l i s t v i ew s e e D .M . Me tca lf , ' How l a rge w a st h e Ang lo S axon c u r rency ? ' ,E c on . H i s t . R ev .2 nd s e r . , 1 8( 1 965 ) ,4 75-82 ;' The p ro spe r i ty o fn o r th 3
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u n le s sa r chaeo log i s t sc an d emon s t ra te t h a tt h i sd i s t inc t ive b ra s sc o inage d id p rov ide a g rea t f i l l ip t o t h e No r thumb r ian e conomy , t h e re w i l l b e t ho se who w i l l p ref e r a m in ima l i s t i n te rp re ta t ion o fi t s f unc t ion a nd s c a le . On p re sen t e v idence t h e g rea t l e ap f o rwa rd i nt r ade a si nu rban l i f ea ppea r sn o tt oc ome u n t i lt h ei n t roduc t ion o fa s i lve rp enny c o inage a tt h ee nd o ft h ec en tu ry b yt h eV ik ing r u le r so ft h ek ingdom o f Yo rk . A cu te p rob lem s r ema in i nt h e f undamen ta l n um i sma t ic wo rk o fa na ly s ing a nd c l a s s if y ing t h es t y c ac o inage . T he d i e l ink sb e tween t h ec o in so fd if e ren t moneye r s a r es on ume rou st h a tt h et r ad i t iona la r rangemen to ft h es t y c ac o inage b yr e ign sa nd p on t if i ca te s a nd b y moneye r s w i th in t ho se c a tego r ie s make s i tv e ry d if i cu l t t o a pp rec ia te t h e e x ten t o f t h e se i n te r re la t ion s , l e t a l one t o c o mp rehend h ow t h e c o inage c an a c tua l ly h ave b een p roduced . 8I ti sn o ty e tc l ea rt h a tc l a s s if i ca t ion s imp ly b yd e ta i l so fd e s ign o ro ft h es p e l l ing o fp e r sona ln ame s of e r sa ny p ro spec to f amo re c ohe ren ti n te rp re ta t ion .T he re wou ld s e em ,h oweve r ,t ob e ag rea tb enef i tf o rf u tu re p ub l ica t ion si fas t anda rd n umbe r ing o ft h ei nd iv idua ld i e sc ou ld b ea ch ieved wh ich w a ss oo rde red a st oa low r oom f o rn ew d i scove r ie s wh i l s tb e ing a r ranged i nt e rm s o fs t y l i s t ic mo t if sa sw e l la sr u le r sa nd moneye r s . T hen i ts hou ld b ecome p o s s ib le t o s e t o u t t h e f u l l c omp l ex i ty o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e c o in s o f p a r t icu la r moneye r s o r p a r t icu la r r e ign s c l ea r ly a nd e conom ica l ly a nd t h ence t o s e ek t o u nde r s tand s ome th ing o ft h e c omp lex i t ie s o ft h e p roduc t ion o ft h es t y c a c u r rency . I ft he c l a s s if i ca t ion o ft h es t y c ac o inage s t i l lp re sen t sp rob lem s ,t h es ympo s ium d id p rov ide s ome g l imme r ing s o f l i gh t i n t h e b a s ic b u t t ho rny p rob lem o f t h e c h rono logy o ft h e r e ign so ft h e n in th -cen tu ry E ng l i sh r u le r s o f No r thumb r ia . I ti s p e rhap s ac u r iou s p a radox t h a t t h e ma jo r a t temp t s t or e a s se s s t h e w r i t ten e v idence s hou ld h ave b een t h e wo rk o fn um i sma t i s t s , Hugh P agan i n1 969 a nd S t ewa r tL yon i n t h i s v o lume , wh i l s t i ti st h e h i s to r ian , D av id Dumv i l le , who h e re a s k s t h e f undamen ta lq ue s t ion sa bou tt h eq ua l i ty o ft h en um i sma t ic e v idence .9An umbe ro f g ene ra lp o in t sn ow s e em l i ke ly t oc o mmand aw ide a ccep tance . S e t t ing a s ide af ew n ugge t s o f i n f o rma t ion t o b e f ound i n c on tempo ra ry s ou rce s f r om o u t s ide No r thumbr ia , t h e a nna l i s t ic r e co rd o f No r thumb r ian p o l i t ic s c ome s t oa n a b rup t e nd i nt h ef i r s td ecade o ft h en in th c en tu ry .T he reaf te rw ed epend u pon i n f o rma t ion f ound i n t we lf th - a nd t h i r teen th cen tu ry a u tho r s who se p r inc ipa l s ou rce o f i n f o rma t ion i sl i ke ly t oh ave b een r egna la nd e p i scopa ll i s t s .T he p o s s ib i l i ty o fe r ro r s a nd om i s s ion s i n t h e t r an sm i s s ion o f t h i s e v idence a nd i n t h e c h rono log i ca l c a lcu la t ion s o r g ue s se s t h a t w e re made f r om i ti sv e ry h igh . F undamen ta l e d i to r ia l s c ho la r sh ip o n e ach o f t h e se wo rk s m ay i n t ime c l a r if y t h e i r a u tho r i ty a nd r e l a t ion sh ip ;b u ti ti su n l ik e ly t or e so lve a l d oub t so rt od e te rm ine a l t h ee r roneou s c a lcu la t ion s . I n t h e mean t ime t h e h i s to r ian mu s t e i the r r i go rou s ly e s chew a ny a t temp tt op ropo se ac h rono logy f o rn in th -cen tu ry No r thumb r ia o r make wha tc an o n ly b e ap rov i s iona la t temp ti nt h e manne rt h a tD av id K i rby d oe sh e re ,b u i ld ing a n e d if i ce t h a t a ppea r s t o h ave s ome i n te rna l v a l id i ty f r om b r ick s o fu nce r ta in a nd u neven q ua l i ty . 1°T he n um i sma t ic e v idence n eed st o make af u l lc on t r ibu t ion t ot h e e d if i ce . No h i s to r ian c ou ld d eny t h a t f undamen ta l d i s to r t ion s w i th c on sequen t k nock -on e f ec t s may h ave o ccu r red i n t h e r e co rd o f No r thumb r ian r e ign s a nd 8
9
P i ne , a bove p p . 1 03 f . Dumv i l le , a bove p p . 4 3f E
1° K i rby ,
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p on t if i ca te s .T he p a r t icu la rr ev i s ion sp ropo sed b yP agan o rb yL yon ,h oweve r ,w i l l o n ly c o mmand a s sen t i ft h ey a r e s e en t ob e n ece s s a ry i nt e rm s o ft h e n um i sma t ic e v idence . I nf a c t , h oweve r , i t wou ld s e em t h a t t h e c o in e v idence c an i nd ica te t h e o rd e r o f t h er e ign so ft ho se k ing s who i sued c o in s ,b u td oe sn o tp rov ide a ny f ounda t ion f o r c onc lu s ion s a bou t t he l e ng th o f t h e i r r e ign s . T he re a r e s uf ic ien t n in th cen tu ry h oa rd st oe s tab l i sh t h ep robab i l i ty o fs ub s tan t ia lg ap si nt h ei sue o f No r thumb r ian c o inage . I np a r t icu la ri ts e em s u n l ike ly t h a t a ny c o in s w e re m in ted i nt h en ame o f E a rdwu lf ( 7 96— c .808 )o ro fa ny o ft h eE ng l i sh o rD an i sh r u le r sb e tween 8 67 a nd 8 95 . Mo reove r , i fw e a low t h a t t h e p r ima ry f unc t ion o ft h e s t y c a c o inage i su nce r ta in , t h en w ec anno tp re sume t h a tt h en eed f o rc o in w a s c on s tan t . No r c an w ep re sume t h a tt h e re w a s as t eady o rs uf i c ien ts upp ly o fb u l l ion . S ho r te rp e r iod sw i th in r e ign s when n oc o in sw e re i sued a nd o the rp e r iod s when p roduc t ion w a sm in ima la r eb o th l i ke ly . T h i s mean s , f o re xamp le , t h a tn os e cu r ea r gumen ta bou tt h er e la t ive l e ng th s o ft h e r e ign s o f' E the l red I a nd O sbe rh t c an b e b a sed u pon t h e n umbe r o ft h e i r moneye r so rt h en umbe ro fd i e sr ep re sen ted i nt h e i re x tan tc o in s ;i ta l so m ean st h a t t h e a b sence o f c o in s i n t h e n ame o f A rchb i shop Wu lf s ige i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly a n a rgumen tt h a th i sp on t if i ca te w a ss ho r t ;i ta l so m ean st h a tw e mu s tb ec au t iou sh ow w eu s ea rgumen t sb a sed o nd i e l inkage . I ft h ec o inage may h ave b een i n te rm i t ten t , t h en i nd iv idua ld i e s may h ave l a in f o rl ong p e r iod si n amoneye r ' sc he s tb ef o r eb e ing u sed o nce mo re . S ome s u ch h ypo the se s may p rove t o b e t h e o n ly m ean s o f e xp la in ing s ome o ft he c omp lex i t ie s o ft h e l i nk s w i th in t h e s t y c a s e r ie s . T he o the r ma in e v idence t h a t h a s l e d n um i sma t i s t s t o b e d i s sa t i sf i ed w i th t h e t r ad i t iona l d a t ing o ft h e n in th cen tu ry k ing s h a s b een t h e u n ique s i lve r p enny o f K ing E an red . T he e xpe r t o p in ion s o ft h e s ympo s ia s t s e s tab l i sh t h e a u then t ic i ty o f t h i sc o in b eyond r e a sonab le d oub t ." B u ti ti sad if i cu l tc o in t oe xp la in whe the rw e r ega rd i ta st h e o n ly s u rv iv ing ' p enny ' o ft h e No r thumb r ian k ing o ft h a t n ame ( i ndeed a st h eo n ly p enny a t t r ibu tab le t oa ny n in th cen tu ry No r thumb r i an r u le r )o r whe the r i tw a s ac o in o f a n o the rw i se u nknown s ou the rn E ng l i sh r u le r . Ou r k now ledge o fp o l i t ica l d eve lopmen t si nt h ee a r ly 8 50 si ss os l igh tt h a tw e c e r ta in ly c anno tr u le o u t as ho r t l ived K ing E an red r u l ing e i the ri nK en t , o ri nE s sex , o rE a s t A ng l ia o r Me rc ia . Wha ti sc l ea r , h oweve r , i st h a tt h el e gend o nt h er eve r se w i th i t s m ix tu re o fO ld E ng l i sh a nd L a t in i su n ique , a nd t h i ss ugge s t st h a tt h ep enny w a si n s ome s e n se as p ec ia l i sue . G iven t h e u nce r ta in t ie s w e c anno t g ue s s wha t s p ec ia l c i cum s tance s may h ave l e d t oi t sp roduc t ion a nd i t wou ld s e em f oo lha rdy t ob a se a ny c h rono log ica l c onc lu s ion s o n n ece s sa r i ly c on jec tu r a l i n te rp re ta t ion s . A p l e a t o k eep o u r o p t ion s o pen i n o u r h i s to r ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e s t y c a c o inage s e em s p a r t icu la r ly a pp rop r ia te s i nce , a sE l izabe th P i ne t e ache s u s , w e a r e o n ly j u s t b eg inn ing t oc o mp rehend i t s c omp l ex i t ie s . T o al a y o b se rve r i t wou ld a l so s e em t h a tw es hou ld k eep a no pen m ind a bou tt h e c i rcum s tance si n wh ich t h i s c o inage c ame t oa n e nd . I n mo re n o rma l t im e s t h e d i e l ink s b e tween t h e s t y c a s o f K ing O sbe rh ta nd t h en ume rou sb lunde red a nd d e r iva t ive c o in s wou ld i nd ica te t h a t t h ey w e re c on tempo ra ry a nd wou ld p o in tt o as i gn if i can tb reakdown i nc on t ro lo f t h ec o inage i nt h el a s ty ea r so ft h e No r thumb r ian k ingdom . B u t t h ec i rcum s tance s " S ee t he c ommen t s o f Me tca lf , P agan a nd Sma r t a bove p p . 3 646 .
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o ft h ec ap tu re o fY o rk b yt h e' g rea ta rmy 'i nt h ea u tumn o f8 66 w e re n o tn o rma la nd d i e s m ay h ave f a l len i n to a l k ind s o fu nau tho r ized h and s t h en . I n t h e S ou th t h e p roduc t ion o fi m i ta t ive a nd b lunde red p enn ie si sc onf iden t ly a t t r ibu ted t o moneye r s wo rk ing i nt h e t e r r i to r ie s u nde r D an i sh c on t ro l i nt h e 8 70 s a nd 8 80 s . C an w e b e c e r ta in t h a t t h eb a rba rou s a nd b lunde red s t y c a s d o n o t b e long t ot h e s ame p e r iod , g i ven t h ee x t reme u nce r ta in t ie so fd a t ing a nd g i ven t h a tt h e i rc i rcu la t ion w a sa lmo s t e n t i re ly s e pa ra te f r om t h a t o ft h e p enn ie s o ft h e s ou the rn k ingdom s ? T he re i sa n a tu r a ld e s i re t oa s soc i a te t h em a in s t y c ah oa rd sw i th t h ee ven t so f8 66 ,b u ti ts hou ld b er e s i s ted .T he ' g r ea ta rmy 'r e tu rned t oY o rk i n8 68-9 a nd c ame t o No r thumbr ia a ga in i n8 72-3 , wh i l s tH a lf dan ' ss e c t ion o fi tc ame t oB e rn ic i ai n8 75 a nd s e t t led t h e s o -ca l led ' k ingdom o fY o rk ' i nt h ef o l low ing y ea r . A ny o ft h e se e ven t sc ou ld h ave p rec ip i ta ted t h e h oa rd ing o fs t y c a s , a si ndeed c ou ld t h e t o r tuou s No r thumb r ian p o l i t ic s o f t h e f o l low ing t wen ty y ea r s . T he o n ly t e rm inu s a n t e q u em f o r t h e No r thumb r ian s t y c a h oa rd s i st h e ref o re t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e n ew s i l ve r p enny c o inage .T he g ap b e tween t h es t y c aa nd t h ep enny c o inage si n No r thumb r ia m ay b e mo re a ppa ren t t h an r e a l .
4 0 1
THE S EVE NTH OXFO RD SY MPOS IU M O N CO I NAGE AND M O NETA RY H ISTO RY
S cea t ta s i n E ng land a nd o n t he Con t inen t T h ep ap e rb y V o lk e rZ ed e l iu s ,p r in t ed b e l ow , w a sr e ad a tt h eS ev en th Oxf o rd S ympo s ium , b u tb ya n o v e r s igh tw h i ch t h ee d i t o r sr e g r e t , w a sn o tp r in t ed i nt h e v o lum eo fp r o c e ed ing so f t h a tm e e t ing . I tw a sh e ld o v e rt ob ei n c lud ed i nt h i sv o lum e( o nn i n th c en tu ry N o r thumb r ia ) , a st h eb e s ta va i l ab l ew ay o fr e pa i r ing t h eo m i s s i on ,a nd i nt h eh op et h a ti tw i l lq u i ck ly c om et o t h e n o t i c e o ft h e r e ad e r s o ft h e e a r l i e r w o rk .
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E igh th -cen tu ry a r chaeo logy i nt h e Meu se a nd Rh ine v a l ley s : ac on tex t f o r t h e s c ea t ta f i nd s
VOLKER Z EDEL IUS [ P LAT E
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DU R ING t h ef i r s th a lf o ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry c o in s s t i l lf ound t h e i r w ay i n to g rave s , a nd g r ave robbe ry s e em sn o tt oh ave b een o u to ff a sh ion a nd — o ne c an s a y— so i t h a s r ema ined u n t i l n ow . T he c eme te r ie s a r e o ne i mpo r tan t a s pec t o f my t h eme . A rchaeo logy t oday i s—no t o n ly i nG e rmany b u t e l sewhe re — an u nme rc if u l r a ce a ga in s ti ndu s t ry a nd mode rn b u i ld ing o pe ra t ion s . I tw a s o n ly t h e d ef ec t i no ne o f f ou r g i an t d redg ing m ach ine s wh ich s a ved a F rank i sh c eme te ry f r om b e ing d e s t royed i nt h e Rhen i sh b rown c oa ld i s t r ic t ,w e s to fC o logne .B e s ide sa r chaeo logy t h e re i s ,a so ne k now s ,a lway st h em a t te ro fc on se rva t ion . And l a s tb u tn o tl e a s ta nd e ven t oday , t h e a r chaeo logy o f t h e v e ry d a rk l a te -me rov ing ian p e r iod a nd t h e b eg inn ing o fC a ro l ing ian t ime si st h ea r chaeo logy o fg rave g ood sa nd s i ng le f i nd s . T he r ef o re i twou ld b e , e ven f o ra n a r chaeo log i s t , n o ts oe a sy t og i ve as a t i sf ac to ry s u rvey o ft h i s p e r iod . One c an h a rd ly d o t h i s w i thou t h av ing al ook f i r s t a tt h e s e ven th c en tu ry . I nt h ef i f t ie s af amou sb u r ia lo f am igh ty F rank i sh n ob leman w a se xcava ted o nt h e c hu rch h i l lo f Mo rken ,w e s to fC o logne ,n o tf a rf r om Dü ren .T he b u r ia ld a te st ot h e y ea r sa r ound 6 00 . S i nce t h en t h ev i l lage o f Mo rken d i sappea red .T he s ome h und red g r ave sr e cen t ly d e tec ted c ou ld h ave b een t h ec eme te ry o ft h ef o ref a the r sa nd s ome p robab ly o ft h ep eop le o ft h em an o f Mo rken .B u tn ot r ace o fa na nc ien ts e t t lemen t t o wh ich b o th b e longed c ou ld b ef ound .T he s i l iquae o ft h eO s t rogo th sa nd a ne a r ly F rank i sh s i lve rc o in m a rk t h eb eg inn ing o ft h en ew ( r ecove red )c eme te ry a l ready i n t h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod ( f i f th c en tu ry ) . B u t t h e re a r e a l so p s eudo impe r ia l t r em i s se s a nd g o ld -p la ted p i ece s f r om t h e y ea r s a r ound 6 00 . F rom L af au r ie a nd o the r s c ho la r s w eh ave l e a rn t s ome th ing a bou t t h e s o ca l led Magnen t iu s t ype , ag roup o ft r em i s se s c l o se ly r e la ted i ns t y le a nd f a b r ic , wh ich o ccu r s i n t h e m idd le Meu se a nd l owe r Rh ine r e g ion . T he s t r ik ing r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e t r em i s se s f r om N amu r , Huy , D inan t , a nd Maa s t r ich t c on t inue s w i th t h ef amou s Made l inu s type f r om Maa s t r ich t . Qu i te e v iden t ly i tt ook t h ep l ace o ft h e f o rme r Magnen t iu s type . Al o ok a tt h e l a te r moneye r s ' t r em i s se s o ft h e Meu se v a l ley s how s t h a t , u n t i l t h e Maa s t r ich t m in t w a s t r an sf e r red t o Do re s tad , t h e Rhen i sh m in t ss e em t oh ave b een c l o sed .T he Made l inu s cu r rency ,f o re xamp le ,c an d e mon s t ra te t h es t eady d ec rea se o fg o ld a se a r ly a st h em idd le o ft h es e ven th c en tu ry . I st h e ` Made l inu s ' r e a l ly t h ef i r s ts i lve rc o in , t h ef i r s td ena r iu s , wh ich w a ss t ruck i n F r i s ia a sP rof . Z adok s Jo sephu sJ i t ta t hough t ,t h ef i r s tp enny , wh ich l e dt ot h en ew 4 05
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s i lve rc u r r ency ? ( Iw i l lc ome b ack t ot h i s q ue s t ion l a te r . ) Wi th t h e mo s ti mpo r tan t a nd r ema rkab le c hange f r om g o ld t os i lve ri nt h es e cond h a lf o ft h es e ven th c en tu ry , p e rhap si nt he s e ven t ie s ,t h et ouch s tone f o rc o in sh ad f a l len i n to d i su se ;i td id n o t , o f c ou r se ,l o se i t sf unc t ion i nt e s t ing t h ef i nene s so fg o ld j ewe l le ry a nd o rnamen t s .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h i s o b jec t mu s t h ave b een much w ide r t h an w a s o nce s ugge s ted . T he re a r e p i ece s i nt h e Ne the r land s , f o ri n s tance i n Dore s tad , i nB e lg ium , F r ance , a nd s ou the rn G e rmany t oo . L ike t h e t ouch s tone s n ea r ly a l t h e s c e a t t a s i n t h e Rh ine land c ome f r om b u r ia l s . T he re e x i s t s n o r e cen t map o f d i s t r ibu t ion o f c eme te r ie si nt h e Meu se a nd Rh ine v a l ley s . T he o ne p r in ted a sF ig . 1i sac o mb ined p lo t t ing o ft h ree s e pa r a te map s , wh ich Roo sen s ,Y pey ,a nd B öhne rp ub l i shed s ome t h i r ty y ea r s a go . I ts how s ar e la t ive ly d en se d i s t r ibu t ion a l ong t h e r i ve r s . T he v a s t ma jo r i ty o ft h e se c eme te r ie s , h oweve r , b e long t ot h e s i x th a nd s e ven th c en tu r ie s . T he re a r ef ewe ro ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry . F rom t h es e cond h a lf o ft h es e ven th c en tu ry t ot h es e cond h a lf o ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry t h ep eop l eh ad n oc ho i ce a st o wh i ch c o in t o p u t a sa n of e r ing -co in ( Cha ron ' s o bo l ) i n to ab u r ia l , o r e ven t h e l e s s e r c ho i ce b e tween ame rov ing ian d ena ra nd as c ea t : t h a ti swha ta ne xcava to rc ou ld e xpec to r h ope t of i nd .T he g ene ra lo p in ion i st h a tt h ec u s tom o fg rave g ood se nded i nt h ef i r s t h a lf o ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry . I ns ou th G e rmany , h oweve r , i te nded s oon a f t e r7 00 ; i n S cand inav ia i tl a s ted u n t i la f te rt h em idd le o ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry .B u tt h e r ea r ei nt h e Rh ine land ,a tl e a s ta ti t se a s te rn b o rde r ,f ew c eme te r ie s wh ich r un u pt oC a ro l ing ian t ime s . One o ft h e se i sB i s l i ch ( a no the ri sWa l sum , n e a r Du i sbu rg ) . T en y ea r sa go t h e re o n t h e r i gh t b ank o ft h e Rh ine o ve r e i gh t h und red a l igned ( r ow ) g r ave s w e re e xcava ted . T he e xcava t ion i sa sy e t u npub l i shed ( a nd w i l l b e e d i ted b y P rof . W. J an s sen , o f Wü rzbu rg ) . N ea r ly 3 0p e r c en t o ft h eb u r ia l s w e re f ound t oh ave b een o pened a nd d i s tu rbed b y F r ank i sh g rave robbe r s . Neve r th e le s s t h e r e w e re r i ch g rave g ood s l e f t . T he c eme te ry s how s S axon i nf luence o n t h e e a s te rn p a r t o ft h e Au s t ra s ian k ingdom . T he l a te s t c o in s , t wo p enn ie s o f L ou i s t h e P iou s o f t h e XP IST IANA REL IG IO t ype , i nd ica te h ow l ong p eop le w e re b u r ied t h e r e w i th g rave g ood s .I ts e em st h a ti tw a sn o to n ly C h r i s t ian d oc t r ine a nd i nf luence wh ich l e d t o ac hange i nb u r ia lc u s tom , b u ta l so ad im in i sh ing w i l l ingne s st og ive u pp rec iou s a nd v a luab le t h ing sa sg rave g ood s . Ra the rt h an p aupe r iza t ion i tw a sp e rhap sa l so a r e spon se t o r obbe ry , o r ac hange i nt h e l aw o fi nhe r i tance . A tB rebe ren a nd Dove ren n o r th o fA achen a nd a t Romme r sk i r chen , s ome m i le s w e s t o f C o logne , e xcava t ion s h ave s hown a d if e ren t p i c tu re : t h e s h ape o f t h e c eme te r ie sd e tec ted u nde rt h er e cen tc hu rche sa nd t h eh o le so f wooden p o s t si nd ica te t h a tt h e re mu s th ave b een e a r ly wooden c hu rche s .T he f a c tt h a tp eop le w e r ei n te r red w i th n o th ing e l se b u t ap en i ten t ia lr obe made i td if icu l tt od a te t h eb u r i a l se xac t ly . T he l i t t le p o t te ry l e d s ome s c ho la r s t os ugge s t t h a tt h ey b e long t ot h e e a r ly e i gh th c en tu ry .B e s ide sB rebe ren , Dove ren ,a nd Romme r sk i rchen e a r ly wooden c hu rche s h ave b een r e cove red a tP a lenbe rg , P i e r , a nd We se l i n t h e Rh ine land , a nd i n t h e Ne the r land s , i ns ou th L imbu rg , a t Af e rden , B uggenum , G e i s te ren , G ennep , a nd G rubbenvo r s t . S oon a f te r t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e e i gh th c en tu ry d igg ing b egan i nX an ten C ad S anc to s ' ) o nt h el owe r Rh ine i na no ld F r ank i sh c eme te ry t os e a rch f o rt h em a r ty r g rave o fS t .V ic to r . No t much l a te r , when i tw a sb e l ieved t oh ave b een f ound , ac e l l a m emo r i a e w a s b u i l t . F rom t h e e xcava t ion s o fP rof s . B ade r a nd B o rge r u nde r S t . V ic to r ' sa tX an ten i ti sc l ea rt h a tt h el a te rF rank sb u r ied t h e i rp eop le w i th in as t one ' s 4 06
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t h row o ft h e f i r s t c e l l a m emo r ia e . A l l t h e s c ea t ta s f ound a tX an ten c ame f r om t h e c a thed ra le xcava t ion a nd mo s t— if n o ta l —wou ld s e em t oh ave b een g rave -obo l s , s i nce t h e re i sn oi nd ica t ion o f as e t t lemen ta tt h i sp rec i se s i t e . Unde rB onn ' s Mün s te r B a s i l ica ac e l l a m emo r i a e w a s a l so d e tec ted f o r t h e s o ca l led m a r ty r s C a s s iu s a nd F l o ren t iu s a nd q u i te c l o se t o i te a r ly C a ro l ing ian c o in s c ame t o l i gh t . T h ree a r e p i e r ced a nd h o led ( a nd p e rhap ss e rved a sj ewe l le ry ) .T he se d en ie r sa r ea l p ub l i shed b yV ö lke r s , e xcep tf o ro ne p i ece , t h eo bo le o fL ou i st h eP iou so ft h e XP IST IANA REL IG IO t ype , e xcava ted s i nce 1 946 . Whe re t h e re w e re c eme te r ie s ,t h e re mu s to fc ou r se h ave b een s e t t lemen t s .B u tt h e f a c tt h a tt h ey a r es od if i cu l tt od e tec t ,e ven w i th a e r ia lp ro spec t ion ,p rove st h a tt h ey o f ten l i e u nde r r e cen t v i l lage s a nd t own s . Obv iou s ly t h e s t r ik ing e xamp le i st h e a nc ien t p l ace a nd m a r i t ime e mpo r ium wh ich w a so ne o ft h eh a rbou r s —be s ide Quen tov ic a nd V i t la —f o rt h ep a s sage f r om t h ec on t inen tt oE ng land ,t oday k nown a s Dombu rg ,o nt h ei s l eo f Wa lche r en . We s t i l l d o n o tk now t h e o ld n ame o ft h i s f amou s s i t e , f r om wh ich w e h ave s om any f i nd s s i nce Roman t ime s . I nt h e Rh ine land t h e re i so ne F rank i sh s e t t lemen tm en t ioned a ga in a nd a ga in i na l a r chaeo log ica l p ub l ica t ion s : t h i s i st h e v i l lage o fG l adbach , s ome m i le s s ou th o f A ndemach i nt h e s o -ca l led N euw iede rB ecken . I tw a s e xcava ted i nt h e t h i r t ie sb y P rof . B öhne r .T he p l an o ft h ee xcava t ion o fG ladbach s how st r ace so ft h re e -bayed h ou se s a nd s t o re -hou se s a nd g rana r ie s . I n s ome o ft h e se h ou se s t h e re w e r e f ound s p ind le -who r l s a nd l oom -we igh t s . T he a r tef ac t s r e cove red , s u ch a sp o t t e ry e t c . , a r e— i ti ss a dt os a y —unpub l i shed u pt on ow . Hou se so ft h i st ype w e re a l so f ound i n H a lde m i nt h el owe r Rh ine land a nd i nC o logne -Po rz , r e cen t ly p ub l i shed b yP rof . J an s sen . Wh i le C o logne i t s e lf h ad b een at empo ra ry r oya lr e s idence , ac ou r to ft h e Au s t ra s ian k ing si nt h e s i x th a nd s e ven th c en tu ry ( S ig ibe r t ) , a sw ek now f r om t h e s p lend id b u r ia l s u nde r t h e l a te r c a thed ra l a nd f r om w r i t ten s ou rce s , n o t r ace o f s e t t lemen to ft h el a te s e ven th o re i gh th c en tu ry c ou ld b ed e tec ted u nde rt h eo l dc i ty c en t re . T ha t d oe s n o t m ean , o fc ou r se , t h a t t h e r e h ad b een n one , s i nce w e h ave c eme te r ie s o fC o logne - Münge r sdo rf , C o logne Junke r sdo rf a nd t h e g rave s o fS t . S eve r in . It h ink t h e F rank s d id n o t o ccupy t h e a bandoned o r h a lf -de se r ted v i l l a e r u s t i c a e( t he se mo s t ly i ndependen te conom ic u n i t s ) ,b u tv i s i ted t h em a nd p lunde red t h em a st h ey d id w i th t h eo ld Roman t own sp r ima r i ly i no rde rt og e tr aw m a te r ia l s s u ch a sb ronze , l e ad , s t one , a nd s oo n . B u tt h ey d i dn o ts e t t le t h e re . T hey w e r e , n o d oub t , t h e f i r s t d igge r s a nd a f te r t h em — and l ong b ef o re t h e a r chaeo log i s t s— c hu rchmen c ame t os e a r ch ( o rp r e tended t od os o ? ) f o rt h eb u r ia lo ft h em a r ty r st o g e tr e l ic s .F rom t h ec eme te r ie sw e mu s ts uppo se t h a tt h e re o nce e x i s ted al o to fs ma l l v i l lage s l i ke G ladbach i n t h e Rh ine - Meu se r eg ion . A s a r e su l t o f t h e i r p a laeodemog raph ic s t ud ie s Mr Dona t a nd Mr U l l r ich s umma r i zed : ' S e t t lemen t a s s i ng le f a rm s o ft wen ty t ot h i r ty i nhab i tan t s a tt h e p re sen t s t age o fr e sea r ch c an b e s ugge s ted . 'S i xo rs e ven o ft h e se h ou se so rh am le t s ,t h a ti si nG e rman 'We i le r ' ,m ade u p av i l lage , o fa bou t 1 25 t o 1 50 p e r son s o r e ven more . I ns p i te o ft h e f ew e a r ly med ieva ls e t t lemen t se xcava ted b y mode rn m e thod sw ec an s a yt h a tt h i st ype — l ike t h eS axon v i l lage o f Wa rendo rf n ea r Mün s te ri n No r th Rh ine - We s tf a l ia —had b een t h e mo s tc o mmon t ype o fr u r a ls e t t lemen to ft h es e ven th u pt ot h ee i gh th c en tu ry , n o t o n ly f o r t h e F rank s b u t a l so f o r t h e A laman s a nd t h e B a juva r s . Now l e t m e t u rn t o t h e O lde r Rh ine /Lek / Meu se reg ion . T he f amou s s i t e a t 4 08
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Do re s tad t h row ss om el i gh to nt h ef i r s th a lf o ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry t oo : h e re Imu s t p i ck my wo rd s c a ref u l ly — sha l l Is a y ' t own ' o r v i cu s o r u s e t h e G e rman p h ra se ` F ernhande l so r t ' ? —we l l , t h e a nc ien t s e t t lemen t l i e s m a in ly u nde r t h e t own , n owaday sn amed Wi jk -b i j-Duu r s tede . T he re a r en o t r ace so ft h es e t t lemen to ft h e Me rov ing ian p e r iod , a l though i tc ou ld n o t h ave b een f a r a way f r om t h e mode rn t own , n o rf r om wha tP rof . v an E s a nd D rV e rwe r s a nd t h e i r s t af fh ave e xcava ted s i nce 1 967 .T he f i r s tv o lume ,E x c ava t i on sa tD o r e s t ad . T h eH a r bou r : H oog s t r aa tI ,w a s p ub l i shed s ome y ea r s a go . F rom t h i s r epo r t w e l e arn t t h a t t h e Do re s tad o ft h e C a ro l ing ian p e r iod w a ss i tua ted o nt h el e f tb ank o ft h eO ld Rh ine r i ve r . F rom t h e e xcava t ion i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h i s v e ry s i t e w a s p a r t o ft h e a nc ien t h a rbou r . L a rge wooden c au seway s w e r e b u i l t f r om t h e b ank t o t h e r i ve r s ide . B u t t h e s t ream , h e r e a si no the r p a r t s o ft h e L ow C oun t r ie s , d i d n o t s t ay i ni t s b ed , b u t w i thd rew e a s twa rd . T he c au seway s n a tu ra l ly f o l lowed i t s movemen t a nd w e re a ga in a nd a ga in r e con s t ruc ted .T he s h if t ing o ft h er i ve rs hou ld n o tb ec on s ide red a sa u n if o rm a nd c on t inuou sp roce s s . On t h e who le t h ea r chaeo log i s ts e e s ac l o se r e la t ion b e tween t h e b ehav iou r o ft h e Rh ine a nd h uman a c t iv i t ie s . T he g round p l an so ft h eh ou se s ,n o ty e tp ub l i shed ,s how s ome t ime sb oa t shaped w a l l s , l i ke t h e h ou se s o f Wa rendo rf , o r l i ke t h e l a te r t ype o fV ik ing f o r t re s s o f T re l lebo rg i nD enm a rk . T oe a ch h ou se b e longed awooden w e l l ; s ome h ad f e nce s . T he d a t ing — and t h i ss hou ld b eo fi n te re s tf o rt h ev e ry b eg inn ing o f Do re s tad — d epend so n C1 4ana ly s i s , d end roch rono logy , a nd h o r izon ta ls t ra t ig raphy . A l so t h e f i nd sa r eh e lpf u l ,o fc ou r se . One wou ld e xpec tt h a tn um i sma t ic e v idence wou ld p l ay a n i mpo r tan t r o le t oo , b u t t h i s s e em s n o t t ob e s o . T he a r chaeo log i s t ss ugge s tt h a t' t he o ccupa t ion b egan s ome t ime b ef o re 7 00 ,a nd a r ound 6 75 ,a nd d id n o tl a s tl ong a f te r AD 7 50 .' I ts e em s , 'o nce w ro te D r Me tca lf ,' a s t hough Do re s tad w a si n c rea s ing i ni mpo r tance j u s t a tt h e p e r iod when Dombu rg w a s d ec l in ing . ' I tw a sa ga in D r Me tca lf , who f i r s tp o in ted o u t , a se a r ly a s1 966 , t h a tt h e re mu s t h ave b een d ozen s i fn o t h und red s o fs c ea t ta s f r om t h e s i t e o f Wi jk -b i j-Duu r s tede . Mo s t ly t h ey f ound t h e i r w ay i n to p r iva te c o l lec t ion s a nd a r e n o l onge r a va i lab le t oday . T he n ew e xcava t ion sb rough to n ly o ne s c ea t ta t ol i gh t , ap i ece i ns u ch p oo r c ond i t ion , t h a t t h e t ype i sn o t c e r ta in . Of g rea ti mpo r tance a r et h et wo C a ro l ing ian c o in h oa rd sf r om Hoog s t raa tI ,b o th f ound i n 1 97 1 a nd p re l im ina r i ly p ub l i shed b y P rof . E nno v an G e lde r . T he f i r s t c on ta in st wen ty -f ive d en ie r s , n ea r ly a l i sued i nt h en ame o fP ep in t h e S ho r t . T he s e cond h oa rd c on s i s t s o f t h i r ty two c o in s , wh ich f a l l i n to t wo s h a rp ly d ef ined g roup s : s e ven teen l i gh t -we igh t c o in s o f C ha r lemagne ' s p re ref orm t ype , d i scon t inued i nc . 783 ,a nd f i f teen h eavy p enn ie so fL ou i st h eP iou s ,w i th p l ace -name o nt h er eve r se . Now i ts e em sc l ea rt h a tn o to n ly c o in so fC ha r lemagne w e re s t ruck a nd i sued a t Do re s tad b u t a l so d en ie r s o f P ep in . T he f i gu re o f ah a lbe rd l ike w eapon ,i n wh ich V an d e rC h i j so nce s aw as h ip ' sh amme ro ra xe ,i sc e r ta in ly n o tt h e F rank i sh b a t t le -axe o r ` F ranc i ska ' , a sw e k now i tf r om f i nd s . B u ti tm igh tb e— ju s tl i ke t h ec r o s so ve rt h e wo rd P IP IN — as i gn a nd s ymbo lo f F rank i sh p owe r a nd r oya l a u tho r i ty a tt h a t v e ry p l ace w i th i t s p o r t , d ockya rd s , m a rke t , a nd f l ou r i sh ing t r an scon t inen ta l t r ade a nd t r af f i c . T he f i nd sa ppea rt oc o me mo s t ly f r om t h es e cond h a lf o ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry .A nd a l though w e k now a sy e t l i t t le — a l ready m en t ioned a bove —no t t o s a y v i r tua l ly n o th ing a bou t s e t t lemen t i n t h e s e ven th c en tu ry , t h e r e s e em s t o b e s ome 4 09
VOLKER ZEDEL IUS
a r chaeo log ica le v idence f o rt h es u rv iva lo fh and ic raf ts i nce Roman t ime sn o to n ly a t Do re s tad b u te l sewhe re a sw e l li nt h e Rh ine r eg ion : t h ep roduc t ion o fp o t t e ry a nd g l a s s , w eapon s , a nd j ewe l le ry w en t o n . I n t h e t h i r t ie s , t h e f amou s moneye r a nd b u s ine s sman Made l inu s i sued h i s w e l l -known t r em i s se s . Abou t 6 50 Do re s tad a nd t h el a nd u p t ot h e Meu se a nd Waa l w e re c onque red b y t h e F r i s ian k ing . F rom t h e v ene rab le B ede w e h ea r t h a t P ep in h ad d r iven o u t t h e i r k ing R edbad f r om F r i s ia c i te r io rb ef o re Wi l l ib ro rd a r r ived i nt h eF r ank i sh k ingdom i n6 90 . Abou tf i ve y ea r s l a te r Redbad w a sd ef ea ted i n ab a t t le n ea r as oc a l led ` c a s te l lum Do re s tad ' . I tc anno t b e s t a ted whe the r o r n o t t h e m in t a t Dore s tad w a s c l o sed a f te r t h e f i r s t F rank i sh o ccupa t ion . T he Made l inu s c u r rency , h oweve r , f o l lowed t h e g ene ra l t r end o fa s t eady d ec rea se i ni t sg o ld c on ten t s . T he re i sn o to n ly t h ee v idence o fc o lou ra nd X r ay a na ly s i sb u ta l so ac hange i ns t y le a nd f a br ic : t h el a te rd i e sw e re c u tw i th ad eep g rooved t e chn ique , s im i la r ly t o t h e o lde s t F r i s ian p o rcup ine s . P rof .Z adok s Jo sephu sJ i t ta t hough tt h a tt h ec o in so f Made l inu sw e re ' s op opu la r t h a t t h ey c on t inued t ob e s t ruck a f te rwa rd s i nh i sn ame ' . ( Th i si sp o s s ib le a nd w e l l k nown f r om o the rt ype s . ) S he b e l ieved f u r the rt h a tt h ey w e re c op ied i n amo re a nd mo re b a rba r ized f o rm . B u t i ti ss t i l l a n o pen q ue s t ion whe the r o r n o t t h e se c rude i m i ta t ion s w e re s t ruck a t Do re s tad o r , a ss h e s ugge s ted , s omewhe re i nF r ie s land . Mr P o l ' s map o f We s te rheem 1 978 s how s t h e w ide d i s t r ibu t ion o f Made l inu s money i ng ene ra l . Ove rt h i r ty p i ece so ccu ra t Dombu rg . It h ink t h e Made l inu sc o in s n eed ad e ta i led s t udy i n wh ich o ne s hou ld d i s t ingu i sh s h a rp ly b e tween t h et r em i s se s ( no t s o many ) , t h e d ena r i i ( on ly af ew r ema in ) a nd t h e b u lk o ft h e mo re o r l e s s b a rba r ized i m i ta t ion s . A l though t h ee x cava to ro f Do re s tad s e em sn o tt ob ef ond o ft h i sp h ra se t h e re i sa k ind o fc on t inu i ty a tt h i s s i t e a tl e a s t s i nce t h e f i r s t q ua r te r o ft h e s e ven th c en tu ry . Among t h e f i nd sr e cove red a t Do re s tad ' s Hoog s t raa t I a rea , p o t te ry t a ke s ( how c ou ld i tb eo the rw i se ? ) t h ef i r s tp l ace . S ome 8 7p e rc en ti so f Rhen i sh p roven ience , f r om B ado rf a tt h e s o -ca l led Vo rgeb i rge b e tween C o logne a nd B onn . G la s s s hou ld a l so b e men t ioned h e re . I ts e em s t h a t i th ad c o me p a r t ly f r om t h e Co logne a r ea . Wood a nd w ine w e re i mpo r ted f r om t h e m idd le Rh ine r eg ion , a round Ma inz , a nd b a sa l t lava q ue rn s f r om Mayen a nd whe t s tone s f r om Rhen i sh s c h i s t w e re s h ipped t o t h e n o r th . We d on o tk now e xac t ly wha tt h eF r i s ian me rchan t sb rough tt ot h es ou th ,s a y ,i n t he m idd le o ft h e e i gh th c en tu ry . T he re w a si ndeed s ome ambe r , b u t If e e lt h a ti tw a sn o te nough f o rt r ade . L a te r s ou rce s ( o ft h e n in th c en tu ry ) s p eak o f af amou s woo l len c o lou red c l o th . I n 7 53 F r i s ian me rchan t sw e re men t ioned a tt h ew e l l -known ma rke to fS t . D en i s a tP a r i s . T he f i r s t d i s t r ibu t ion map o fs c ea t ta s i nt h e Rh ine land m ade b y P rof .J ankuhn s how ac e r ta in c oncen t ra t ion i nt h e Rh ine - Ma in r eg ion . T h i s p o in t s t o ac on s ide rab le t r ad ing a c t iv i ty a nd i sn ow s uppo r ted b y al o t o f r e cen t ly -f ound s c ea t ta sf r om Ma inz .I n1 98 1 n ine s h ip sf r om l a te Roman t ime sw e re f ound a t Ma inz n o tf a rf r om t h e Rh ine . Wi th t h es h ip s al o to fi s o la ted f i nd sc ame t o l i gh t , among t h em f i nd s f r om t h e e a r ly med i eva l p e r iod . I ti ss a id , a nd Iam s u re r i gh t ly ,t h a tt h e re w e re s ome d ozen so fs c ea t ta s ,i np a r t icu la rp o rcup ine sb u ta l so t h e Wodan /mon s te rt ype a nd t h ep lumed b i rd t ype .T he c o in s mo s t ly d i sappea red i n to p r iva te c o l lec t ion s . Ih ave s e en o ne p o rcup ine t h i s s p r ing i n F rankf u r t a t ac o in d ea le r ' s . 4 10
THE MEUSE AND RHINE VALLEYS
Up t on ow i ti sn o tk nown i ft h e re h ad b een ah oa rd , o rs i ng le s c a t te red f i nd s ; a t l e a s ti td oe sn o tl ook a si ft h ey w e re g rave f i nd s . I ti sap i ty t h a tt h e se s c ea t ta s c ou ld n o t b e s t ud ied u n t i l n ow , a nd I f e e l i tp a ra l le l s t h e s i tua t ion w i th t h e g rea t C a ro l ing ian h oa rd f r om Wie sbaden-B ieb r ich i n1 92 1 , wh ich h av ing j u s tb een f i shed f r om t h e Rh ine i mmed ia te ly a f te r t h a t d i sappea red i n to t h e c onc re te o ft h e q uay w a l l . My f i r s t c on tac t w i th s c ea t ta s w a s s ome t e n y ea r s a go a tt h e Mün s te r Mu seum , when P e te rB e rghau sw a ss ok ind a st os how me t h eo ld K lo s te rB a r the h oa rd , more t h an 7 50 p i ece s . Many y ea r sl a te r , wh i l e wo rk ing i nt h e Rh ine land , am an f r om B raun schwe ig i n L owe r S axony who u s ed t os p end h i s h o l iday s o n t h e i s l and o fF öh r o n t h e n or th F r i s ian c oa s t ,a s ked m et oh ave al ook a ts ome d ozen so fs i lve rc o in sh eh ad f ound o n t h e s ho re n ea r t h e s o -ca l led G o t ing K l if f . Is aw t h a t t h e se w e re r e a l ly s c ea t ta s . T he se t wo f i nd s a r e— a s w e h ave r e cen t ly l e a rn t f r om D av id H i l l— the o n ly h oa rd s o fs c ea t ta s f r om We s t G e rmany . B o th t h e o ld B a r the d epo s i t a nd t h e v e ry n ew o ne sf r om t h eG o t ing K l if fn ea r Wyk o n F öh ra r ea sy e tu npub l i shed . F o rt he f i r s t Iam a f r a id w eh ave t ow a i tf u r the r , wh i le t h eo the rw i l lb ep ub l i shed i n ay ea ro r t wo p e rhap s ,b yD rG e r tH a tz i nH ambu rg . S ome c o in sa r ed i e iden t ica l wh i le s ome s h a re o n ly o ne d i e . T he i mp r e s s ion Ig o t a tt h e F raneke r s Mu seum i st h a t t h e re i s ac l o se r e la t ion b e tween t h eB a r the p o rcup ine sa nd t h ee a r l ie s tp o rcup ine si nt h eF r anenke rh oa rd . D rH i l l ,h oweve r , who h ad s e en mo re d if e rence si ns t y le s howed t h a tt h e re a r ed i e l i nk sb e tween t h eB a r the ,G ron ingen ,a nd L u t je S aak sum h oa rd s .T h i sa nd t h ef r e sh c ond i t ion o ft h eF raneke ra nd t h eB a r the p o rcup ine si nd ica te st h a tt h ey h ad n o tb een l ong i n c i rcu la t ion b ef o r e b e ing h idden i n t h e g round . F rom t h i s i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a tt h ey w e re p roduced n o tf a rf r om t h ep l ace whe re t h ey w e re b u r ied . I tl ook sa si ft h ed i scu s s ion ' Eng l i sh o rC on t inen ta l ? 'h a sb een d ec ided i nf a vou ro f F r i s ia . B u t c an o ne e xc lude t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f a n E ng l i sh d i e -cu t te r a t t h e v e ry b eg inn ing o fp o rcup ine p roduc t ion o n t h e C on t inen t , o r a tl e a s t E ng l i sh k now h ow ? D r Me tca lf h a sp o in ted o u t— and s od id o the r s— tha tt h e re i sl i ke ly t oh ave b een mo re t h an o ne m in t o r wo rk shop i nF r i s ia wh ich i sued p o rcup ine s . T he n ea r ly u nc i rcu la ted c ond i t ion a nd t h el a ck o fi m i ta t ion si nd ica te b o th f o rt h e B a r the a nd f o rt h eF raneke rh oa rd t h a t ap l anned a nd w e l l -con s ide red s e lec t ion h ad t a ken p l ace . T ha t make si td if i cu l tn o to n ly t od a te t h ed epo s i t sa s awho le b u ta l so t h e s i ng le t ype s i nt hem se lve s . A sw i th c eme te r ie sw i th e a r ly a nd e v iden t ly l a te g rave sw eh ave h e r e— remembe r t h e S u t ton Hoo p u r se —ve ry o ld a nd v e ry y oung i sue s . T he F raneke rh oa rd c on t a in se ven o ne p i ece o f Me tca lf ' sMaa s t r ich tt ype .I ts em s r a the ra ne a r ly t h an al a te t ype .T he re a r ep i ece so fg ood s t y le a sw e l la si m i ta t ion so f af l a t a nd s t if s t y le . F rom P rof . H a l l ' s I sop robe ' , a n X r ay f l uo re scence a na ly s i s o f t h ea loy , i ti sc l ea rt h a tt h e r ea r ep i ece so fg ood q ua l i ty w i th o ve r8 0p e rc en ts i lve r a nd o the r s w i th o n ly 4 0p e r c en t . I ti sa n o pen q ue s t ion , h oweve r , whe re t h i s t ype w a ss t ruck . Menad ie rs ugge s ted t h a ti tw a si sued i nn o r th -ea s te rn F rance ,p e rhap si n F l ande r s . A l though t h e re m igh t h ave b een o nce aMe rov ing i an mode l i ti s mo re l i ke ly t h a t t h ey c o me f r om F r i s ia . A l so t h el i t t le h oa rd o fe i gh ts i lve rc o in s —nobody k now si fi ti sr e a l ly c omp le te — f r om t h e s o -ca l led Wi t tnau e r Ho rn , al a te Roman a nd e a r ly med ieva l f o r t re s s i n 4 11
VOLKER ZEDELIUS
n o r th Sw i tze r land ,d i scove red i n1 979 ,r a i se s mo re p rob lem st h an i ts o lve s .T he r ea r e t h ree s c ea t ta s o ft h e ' Maa s t r ich t ' t ype , f ou r d en ie r s f r om t h e Made l inu s c u r r ency , c rude i m i ta t ion o ft h eT ype B e lf o r t1 80 1 ,a nd o ne Me rov ing ian d en ie r . T h i sh oa rd , o r p e rhap s p a r t o f ah oa rd , c ame p robab ly v i a t h e Rh ine t on o r th Sw i tze r l and . Wha th a sb een s a id a bou tB a r the a nd F raneke rs e em sa l so t ob et h ec a se w i th t h e Go t ing K l if fh oa rd : ac a ref u l ly s e lec ted a s semb lage . N ea rby t h e re a r e o the r f i nd s wh ich p o in tt o as e t t lemen t .T he re a r ea l so g rave so nF öh rw i th f o re ign — tha t me an s F r i s ian —g rave g ood s .T hu st h e re c an b en od oub tt h a to nt h i si s l and t h e re w a so nce a F r i s ian c o lony . Neve r the le s s t h e h oa rd ( p robab ly ab i t l a te r t h an F raneke r ) l ook s s omewha ts t range i nt h i sa r ea .T he i nd iv idua lc o in sc an s uppo r tt h i s. One i sc u ti n to t wo p i ece s a nd many a r e s c ra tch -ma rked f o r c u t t ing . I nt h e Rh ine land t h e s c ea t ta s c o me — a sj u s t m en t ioned a nd a sP rof . We rne rh a s a l ready w r i t ten —mo s t ly f r om g rave s . Recen t ly t h ree n ew s c ea t t a sw e re f ound : o ne p o rcup ine a tK ref e ld -Ge l lep a nd t wo F r i s ian r un ic t ype sa tt h eF r ank i sh c eme t e ry o f Kuchenhe im a nd a tF l e rzhe im , s ome m i le s w e s t o fB onn . T he v a s t ma jor i ty o f s c ea t ta s f r om t h e Rh ine land a r e , h oweve r , p o r cup ine s . Among t h e se a r e many i m i ta t ion si n c lud ing s ome f r om t h e m ine ra l s p r ing a t Ro i sdo rf , b e tween C o logne a nd B onn , i n wh ich h und red so f Roman c oppe rc o in sw e re t h rown . I ti sc l ea rt h a t o ne d id n o te a s i ly g ive u pv a luab le c o in sa s of e r ing so rg rave -obo l s :t wo o ft h et h ree c o in s —one s c ea t ta h a sb een l o s t— a re v e ry d eba sed a nd may c on ta in o n ly t r ace s o f s i lve r .
KEY TO P LATE 2 4 1 , 2 . 3 , 4 . 5 , 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 .
T he Mad e l inu s t ype , w i th o bv . TR IECTO F IT ( no . 1 )o r DORESTAT F IT ( no . 2 ) . S cea t ta s o fS e r ie s D ( t he ' Con t inen ta l r un ic ' t ype ) . S cea t ta s o fS e r ie s E( t he s o -caled ` p orcup ine s ' ) . S cea t o ft he ' Maa s t r ich t ' o r i n te r lace t ype . S cea t o ft he `Wodan i mon s te r ' t ype . ' P lumed b i rd ' v a r ian t o ft he ' po rcup ine ' t ype . T he s o -ca l led ` F le r s ta l ' o r ' S ta r o fD av id ' t ype .
4 12
P LATE 2 4
1
2
5
7
4 13
ABB REV IAT I O NS
Adam son , 1 834
J . Adam son , ' An a c coun t o f t h e d i scove ry a t H exham , i nt h e c oun ty o f Nor thumbe r land , o fa b ra s sv e s se lc on ta in ing an umbe ro f Ang lo -Saxon c o in s c a l led s t yca s ' , A r cha eo l og ia 2 5 ( 1 834 ) , 2 79-310 a nd 2 3 p l a te s .
Adam son , 1 836
I d em . , ' Fu r the r a c coun t o f t h e Ang lo -Saxon c o in s , c a l led s t yca s , r e cen t ly d i scove red a t H exham i n t h e c oun ty o f No r thumbe r land ' , A r cha eo log ia 2 6 ( 1 836 ) , 3 46-8 a nd 7p l a te s .
ASE
A ng l o -Saxon E ng land .
AY
A r cha eo l ogy o f Y o rk . 1 8 11 : P o s t -Roman c o in sf r om Y o rk E x cava t ion s , 1 97 1-8 1 , E .J .E . P i ne w i th M .M . A rch iba ld a nd R .A . H a l l , 1 986 .
BN J
B r i t i sh Num i sma t i cJ ou rna l .
B oo th , 1 984
` S cea t ta s i n Nor thumb r ia ' , i n S c ea t ta s i nE ng l and a nd o n t h e C on t in en t , e d . D . H i l l a nd D .M . Me tca lf , Oxf o rd , 1 984 , p p .71111 .
B oo th a nd B lowe r s , 1 983
J .B oo th a nd I .B lowe r s , ' F ind s o f s c ea t ta s a nd s t yca s f r om S anc ton ' , Num i sma t i c C h r on i c l e 1 43 ( 1 983 ) , 1 39-45 .
EHD
E ng l i sh H i s t o r i ca l D o cumen t s , Wh i te lock , 1 955
EHR
E ng l i sh H i s t o r i ca l R ev i ew .
G i lmore a nd Me tca lf , 1 980
G .R . G i lmo re a nd D .M . Me tca lf , ' The a l loy o f t h e Nor thumbr ian c o inage i nm id -n in th c en tu ry ' , Me t a l lu rgy i n Num i sma t i c s 1( 1 980 ) , 8 3-98 .
H awk in s , 1 845
E .H awk in s , ' An a c coun t o f c o in s a nd t r ea su re f ound i n Cue rda le ' , NC ( 1 842-3 ) , 1 -48 ,53104 .
L yon , 1 957
C .S .S . L yon , ' A r e app ra i sa l o f t h e s c ea t ta a nd s t yca c o inage o f No r thumbr ia ' BN J2 8 ( 1 955-7 ) , 2 27-42 .
L yon , 1 970
I d em , ' H i s tor ica l p rob lem s o f Ang lo-Saxon c o inage — (4 ) T he V ik ing a ge ' , BN J 3 9 , ( 1 970 ) 1 93-204 .
L yon a nd S t ewa r t , 1 96 1
C .S .S . L yon a nd B .H .I .H . S t ewa r t , ' The Nor thumbr ian V ik ing c o in s i n t h e Cue rda le h oa rd ' ,i nA ng l o -Saxon c o in s ,e d .R .H .M . Do l ley , 1 96 1 , p p . 9 6121 . 4 15
v o l .
1 , e d .
D .
ABBREVIAT IONS
L yon a nd S t ewar t , 1 964
I d em . , ' The c l a s s if i ca t ion o f t h e No r thumbr ian V ik ing c o in s i n t h e Cue rda le h oa rd ' , NCI 4 ( 1 964 ) , 2 8 1-2 .
NC
Num i sma t i c C h r on i c l e .
P agan , 1 969
H .E . P agan , ' No r thumbr ian n um i sma t ic c h rono logy i nt h en in th c en tu ry ' , BN J3 8 ( 1 969 ) , 1 15 .
P agan , 1 973
I d em , ' The B o l ton P e rcy h oa rd o f1 967 ' , BN J4 3 ( 1 973 ) , 1 -44
P agan , 1 974
I d em , ' Ang lo -Saxon c o in sf ound a tH exham ' , i n S a in t W if r id a t H exham , e d . D .P . K i rby , Newca s t le , 1 974 , p p . 1 85-90 .
P i ne , 1 984
E .J .E . P i n ie , ' S ome No r thumb r ian f i nd s o f s c ea t ta s ' ,i nS c ea t t a si nE ng land a nd o nt h eC on t in en t , e d . D . H il a nd D .M . Me tca lf , Oxf o rd ,1984 , p p . 2 0715 .
P i ne , 1 986a
I d em , P o s t -Roman c o in sf r om t h e Y o rk E x c ava t ion s 1 97 1-8 1 ( The A rchaeo logy o f Yo rk , v o l . 1 8 /1 ) , 1 986 .
P i ne , 1 986b
' Fi nd s " cea t ta s" a nd " s tyca s" -o f Nor thumbr ia ' , i nA ng l o -Saxon Mon e t a ry H i s t o ry , E s say s i n Memo ry o f Mi cha e l D o l l ey e d . M .A .S . B lackbu rn , L e ice s te r , 1 986 , p p . 6 7-90 . S ymeon i s Mona ch iO p e r a Omn ia , e d . T . A rno ld , 2 v o l s . 1 882-5 .
TRHS
T r an sa c t ion s o ft h e R oya l H i s t o r i ca l S c o c i e ty
4 16
THE SY MPOS IASTS
DAV ID C . AXE ,E sq . ,P .O .b ox 8 58 ,I ndex , Wa 9 8256 ,U .S .A . MARK B LACKBURN ,E sq . ,F acu l ty o fH i s to ry , We s t Road ,C ambr idge CB3 9 EF C . E . B LUNT , E sq . , F BA , Ram sbu ry H i l l , Ram sbu ry , Ma r lborough Wi l t sh i re SN8 2Q J M .J . BON SER , E sq . , C au seway E nd F ru i t F arm , Wimb i sh , S af f ron Wa lden , E s sex CB10 2XP J AME S Boo m , E sq . , D ep t o fE ng l i sh , Un ive r s i ty o f Hu l l , Co t t ingham Road , Hu l l HU6 7RX P rof e s sor N . P . B ROOK S , S choo l o fH i s tory , Un ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham , PO B ox 3 63 ,B i rm ingham B 15 2 TT D r . D . N . DUMV ILLE , D ep t . o f Ang lo-Saxon , No r se , a nd C e l t ic , 9 We s t Road , C ambr idge CB3 9DP D .B .F EATHER ,E sq . , 1 4 Ou twa rd L ane , Hor sf or th ,L eed sL S18 4 JA D r . GORDON R . G ILMORE , Un ive r s i t ie s Re sea rch Reac tor , R i s ley , Wa r r ing ton , Che sh i re W A3 6 AT D r . J AME S G RAHAM-CAMPBELL , D ep t . o f H i s tory , Un ive r s i ty Co l lege L ondon , Gowe rS t ree t ,L ondon W C1E 6 BT D r . N . J . H IGHAM , D ep t . o f E x t ra - Mura l S tud ie s , Un ive r s i ty o f Manche s te r , Manche s te r M13 9 PL D r . D . P . K IRBY , D ep t . o fH i s to ry , Hugh Owen Bu i ld ing , Un ive r s i ty Co l lege o f Wa le s , Abe ry s twy th , Dyf ed SY23 3DY D r . M . L AP IDGE , D ep t . o f Ang lo-Saxon , No r se , a nd C e l t ic , 9 We s t Road , C ambr idge CB3 9DP C . S .S .L YON ,E sq . , ` Cue rda le ' , Wh i te L ane , Gu i ldf ord , S ur rey GU4 8 PR D r . MEL INDA MAY S , York sh i re Mu seum , Mu seum G a rden s , Yo rk YO1 2D R D r .D .M . METCAL F ,A shmo lean Mu seum , Oxf ord OX 1 2 PH D r .J .P . NORTHOVER , D ep t . o f Me ta l lu rgy a nd S c ience o f Ma te r ia l s , P a rk s Road , Oxf o rd OX 1 3 PH H . E .P AGAN , E sq . , 2 ,T he Wa rd robe , O ld P a lace Y a rd , R ichmond G reen , S u r rey T W9 1 PA M i s sE .J .E .P IR IE ,C i ty Mu seum , Mun ic ipa lB u i ld ing s ,L eed sL S1 3 AA D r . V ERON ICA S MART , C en t re f o r Advanced H i s tor ica l S tud ie s , Un ive r s i ty o fS t And rew s , S tJ ohn ' s Hou se ,6 9S ou th S t ree t , S t And rew s KY 16 9 AL D r .A .P .S mYTH ,D ep t .o fH i s to ry , Un ive r s i ty o fK en t ,C an te rbu ry CT2 7NZ D r . I AN S T EWART ,F BA ,2 ,B a ldw in C re scen t ,L ondon S E5 9 LQ
4 17